.'ii-i'iv^'sV-.r.-- '-i/sa3N' o ■ 5 .^<> ^sir. %. ^ '^/xt:; M^^ ^o ■^■iiz^-i^'^' 'BRh?-'^ ■CRS/7-^. a: ■7, % -.<='^^, " '" ■• M* < (J '*-i/sa3^^'^^ * *^;\ ^o .0 <f^ o o<^" ^O usasr-' .>i^' A. to «. JOHNSON'S UNIVERSAL CYCLOREDl A: _^ V.2, ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS, PLANS, AND E N G R AV I NGS. P ' EDITORS-IN-CHIEF ^ f, KKEDKKICK A. P. BAKNARI), S.T.D., LL.D., L.II.D., M.N.A.S., IMtl-LSinKNT OK CtH.UMBlA COLI.KOK, NKW YOKK ; ARNOLD aUYOT, Pii. D., LL.D., M. N. A.S., PR0PI':88OR OF (iK0LO(*Y AND PHYSICAL (iKOURAPHY, COLLKiiK OF NKW JKR?iF.Y. scip:xtific axd. popular T R E A S U R Y OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. Martin B. Andek-son, .V. M., LL.D., l*re:^iil(;nt of the Uiiivi-rsity of Kocln'ster, N. Y. ; John (J. Baknard, A.M., LL.D., M. N. A.S., Col. r. S. KiiiiitiL-irs, Hvt. Major-lien. U. S. A.; liiAs. F.CiiAXDi.KU, I'll. D., M.D., LL.D., M.N.A.S., l*rof. .\iial. Cln-m., School of Miiii-.s, (.'olutuljia College; .'Varon L. CiiAi'iN, A. AL, .S. T. D., l*ri'si(lfii( of Iti'luit College, WIscun»in ; llENRV Drislkr, a. M., LL.D., .Fiiy Vroff.s.sor of (freek, rolunibia Collcgt*; Thkodore W. Dwkiht, A.M., LL.D., Profosor of Miiiiicijml l,a\v, Columbia College; (ALKB (i. FOK.SIIKY, .\..\L, ('. K., Kormerly Prof, of Miith.an<l Civ. Lnj;. in .letrerson Coll., Mi»s. ; OcTAVius B. Kkothinoham, .V.M., l*tt.stor Third niiitariiin Siteiety. X. Y. City ; Theodore Gii.r,, A.M., M.D., Pu. D., .M. X. A.S., l^te Senior As-sistaiit Librarian of the Library of Congress; Asa (iRAY, M. D., LL.D., M.N.A.S., l-'inher Professor of Natural History, Uarvard I'niversity ; Horace Greeley, LL.D., Founder of the New York Tribune; Sa.muel S. Halheman, A.M., LL.D., M.N.A.S., Prof, of Cotii|»arative Philology in the Ciiiv. of Peuii. ; William T. Hauhi.s, A.M., LL.D., I'kl. of The .louriial of Speculative Phil., SI, Louis, Mo.; .Joseph Henry, LL.D., M. N..\.S., .Seerelary of Sniithsoniau Institution; ASSOCIATE EDITORS. RttswELL D. Hitchcock, A. M., S.T. D., LL.D., Washburn Prof, of Ch. Hist,, I'nion Theo. Sem„ N, Y.; Charles P. Kraitii, A.M., S.T. D., LL.D., Viee-Provo>t of the University of Penii.; John Le Conte, A. AL, MAX, President of the Cnivcrsity of California; OEOHtiE P. Maush, LL.D., M.X.A.S., Knvoy Kxtr, and Minis, Plriiipo, of I',.S, at Itonie, Italy ; Jims .s. Xewrerry, M.D., LL.D., M. N. A.S., Prof, of (ieology and Pala;ont4)logy, Coluuibia College ; Foxhall a. Parker, IT. S. N., Su|)t, of l:, S, Naval Academv, .\unapolis, Md. : WiLLARi) Parker, A.M., M. D., LL.D., Professor of .Surgery, Ciduuiliia College, Med. Ih-pt.; Philip Schapf, Ph.D., S.TD., LL.D., Baldwin Prof, of Saerrd Lit., Liriiou Tlieo. .Sein,, N. Y.; Julius H. Seelye, A.M., .S.T. D., LL.D., President of Amherst College. Mass,; William .Staunton, .S. T. D., Founder and First Kect, of St. Peter's Ch., Brooklyn, NY ; Ale.xander H. Stephens, A.M., LL.D., Of (ieorgia, Meniber 4:!d Congress, U. S, A. ; Abel Stevens, A.M., LL.D., Formerly Mitor of The Methodist, New York ; Thomas O. Summers, .S.T. D., LJ/.D., Professor of Syst. Tbeoi,, Vaiirlerbilt Univ., Term. ; William P. Trowhriimie, '.\. AL, ALN. .\..s., Prol. nf lOugineeriiig, Columbia College ; Theodore D. Woolsey, .S.T. D., LL.D., K.\-President of Yale College, Conn. ASSISTANT EDITORS. Porter C. Iti.iss, A..V(., Lincs P. I!uim kkit, .\.M., M.D., Clarence Cook, Clemens Petersen, .\. >L, John N. P(i\ii ;i:iiv, LL.D., Henry Wurt/, .V. M., Pii. I). WITH NI'MIIKorfS CONTRIHUTIt)NS FROM WRITICKS OF DISTINlil'lSHFI) FMINFNCF IS KVFUY llFPART.MKNT OF I.KirKH-S AMI SCIKNCF IN THE UNITFl) STATI'iS AND IN EUKOPK, Comiiletc ill ]four l}oliimco (itiglit jinits). iiicluiliiig ^|i|)i;nilix. VOL. II.— I'AKT II. HKRMANDAI) T^ICMKNS. (TK-STIMllMAI.S AT THE KNI> UK LA.SI VOLUME.) A. ,1. N E \V V () 1 1 K : J (> liN SOISJ & CO 11 GREAI JONES STREET, NEAR BROADWAY. M IH(c l,.\XX I, Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year One Thousand Eight Hundred and Seventy-seven, BY A. J. JOHNSON, IN the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. ELECTROTYrED BY PRINTED BY Westcott a Thomson, John A. Gray, 18 Jacob Street, Pliiladelphia. New York. engravings principally by Reduan * Kenny, New York. paper manl'factubed by bound by Seymour Paper Co., James Somerville, New York. New York. HERMANDAD— HERMENEUTICS. 897 Iler'mandad (Sp., '* brotherhooj"), a general name fnr tlic kagiK'S entered into by the Spanish cities in the Middle Ageti for the preservation of public order and the dffence of private property. The niosf celebrated (called Santa Ilcrmandud. or lloly Broiherhuod) was jirobably or- ganized in Ariigun in the thirteenth century; was ostab- Ii?hed in Castile in 12S2. Another, of thirty-tivo towns in Castile and Leon, was organized in I29i>. Kindred socie- ties throughout Spain soon followed. Their laws were co- dified in liSj, and published in i:«27. In 1188 the Holy IJrothcrhood was reorganized, and in M9fi it was extended over a great part of Spain. In 1 I'JS. Ferdinand and Isa- bella roduied it from its high office of conservator of the peace and defender of popular rights against the feudal nobility, and it became an organized police force. In K'»2ii-2I the Heriuandad of Valencia rose in insurrection ag»in8t the government. The name has come down to the present century simply as that of a police force. Her'inaiin [Lat. Arminhts], a (rerman chieftain of the Cherusci, a con of Sigimer, was b. IS ». r.; entered the Roman service, and became an equestrian. In 9 A. v., when Gennany was groaning under the oppression of Varus. Hermann iimhuscatled the Unmans in the Teutu- burger Forest, and almost all the Romans, Varus included, lost their lives. He fought Germauicus ( 14-IC a. d.), with disadvantage; defeated Marhodacus, king of tho Suevi, 17 ; was put to death by bis own relations 19 A. D., on the ground that he was aiming at absi>lute power. Hermann, pust-v., cap. of Gasconade co., Mo., 81 miles from St. Louis, on the Missouri Pacific R. R. and the Missouri River, It has a savings bunk, a high school, 1! newspapers (English and German), 4 hotels, a plauiug- mill, and a large number of stores and public places. It is noted for wine-growing, its annual production being 11)0,000 gallons. Pop. 1336, exclusively German. ClIAS. EBEKIIAIinT, PLB. " ZeIUNG t"ND ADVERTISER." Hermann (.Toiiann Gottprikd JAKon), b. at Leipsic \'iv. '2!i, 1772; studied law, languages, and philosophy at !.fip'*ic and .lena. and was appointed pro/rHnnr ffoquentiir MI ISfliJ at the I'niversity of Leipsic, which position ho filled to his death. Dec. 31. 1S48. He exercised great in- fluence on metrical science by his /)c metrin (jrtrcorum et liomnnornm purtnrum (1790) and Hnndhnch der Mctrxk (179.S), etc. : and on granminr by his !>»• cmnnltiudaratione frrirctr- tframmntirfr { ISitl ), and a number of minor essays. Also as a text critic ho ac(|uired a groat name: he edited ^schylus, Euripides, Aristojthancs. Ition ami Moschus, and others. His lectures were very attractive by thoir liveli- ness and clearness, and very instructive by their fulness of knowledge; but his standpoint as a philologist, consid- ering the classical languages as the only key to the under- standing of the classical spirit, involved him in disagree- able contests with lliickh, 0. Miillcr, and Crt^'uzcr. Ilcrmann (Karl Friedkicii), b. at Frankfort Aug. 4, IS04: studied at Heidelberg an'! Leipsic; travelled in ls25 in Italy, and vam appointed professor in philology at Marburg in 18.'*2, whence he removed in 1S40 to Gtittin- gen. V. Jan. 8, ISjC. He combined in a happy manner the linguiatical clement of classical scholarship with the antiquarian, historical, and philosophical, and his Lehr- hurh drr ffr\rchii*chr)i Altfrthnmer (1841) and (ietirhichtf uiid Si/«tem drr phitituiHchru Philonophie (18;>9), as well as his Cidtttff/rMrhirhtc dvr fJricchcn und Homer (1857), arc much appreciated. Iler'mnnstadt, town of Hungary, in the province of Transylvania, on the Zibin. It Is a beautifully situated iind well-built town, the scat of the governor of the prov- ince and of a (Jreek archbishop, metropolitan of Transyl- vania. Pop. 18,588. Ilcrmnph>odi8m,orllermaph'roditism [named from the fabled HKRMAiMlRoniTrs (which scei], the union of the eharactcrislic organs of each sex in one individual. This union of the male organs (])roducingsperm-celN) and female (producing germ-cells) in one and the same organ- ism i.H the normal condition in the great majority of jdants und in many of the lower animals. Though the higher f"rm« of rudintey. niolhisk", and Arlhropoda all have the sexes quite distinct, except in abnormal instiinccs, many of the inferior types of each are always hermaphro- dites. Such, for instance, arc the common snail and the earth-worm. No insect hermaphrodites (unless the Turdi- gradesare insects) arc known, except in abnormal instances. Sicbold found hennaphrodites among honey-bees, but ho records that the workers threw them out of the cells, and that they speedily p'rished. It has been euggcHted that this hermaphrodistn in bees may exist normally in some slight ilcgroe, and tliat it may give rise to the partheno- genesis of male bees, for it is well known that queen bees will produce male offspring without coitus with the male. Vol.. TL— :.7 Hermaphrodism has not been observed with certainly in vertebrates, except perhaps in eels and fishes of the family Serranidw. It has been stated with considerable force that the homologies existing between the male and female organs prevent any possibility of hermaphrodism in the higher vertebrates: but there is no apparent reason why of hihit- eral or double organs one side should not assume the male and the other the female development. Thus, there might, it would appear, be one ovary an*! one testis — n condition analogous to what is often seen in the lower animals. In what are known as monstrosities by fusion, or the blendinf^ of two germs, by which have been produced such abnor- malities as the presence of three legs upon one foetus, wo seem to see that true hermaphrodism is not a priori im- possible, even in human beings. Many of the lowest forms of hermaphrodite ]>1ants and animals are self-fertilizing ; that is. reproduction takes place without the sexual union of two individuals. Rut in very many plants which have both kinds of reproduc- tive organs in one flower, fertilizatif»n is accomplished by means of insects, which carry the pollen of one flower to the pistil of another, nature having ])revented self-fertiliza- tion by wonderfully ingenious yet often very simple means. Many bisexual animals, like the snail, conjugate for mu- tual fertilization. Spurious hermajihrodisrn, in which ; the characteristic organs of one sex assume, from incom- plete or abnormal development, something of the appear- ance of those of the opposite sex. has been often observed. Under this head must be jdaced most or all of the recorded instances of hermaphrodism in the human sjieoies. The true hermaphrodism is double sex ; s[>urious hermaphro- dism is donht/uf sex. Chaulks \V. Grkene. Hermaphrodite Brig* Sec Brigawtine. Hermaphrodi'tus was a son of Hermes and Aphro- dite, and inherited the beauty of both of his parents. Once, when ho was bathing in the well of Salmacis, near Haliearnassus, in Caria, Asia Minor, the nymph of the well fell in love with him, and prayed to the gods tliat slie might remain united with him for ever; and when he as cended from the bath he w.is changed so that he was neither man nor woman, but both. The idea of this myth is of Asiatic, the mylh itself of Roman, origin. In il.s later period Greek sculpture often represented llcrmajdiro- ditus, the upper part of the body female, the nether male, Iler'mas, the author of a oncc-cclcbrated hook, 7*/"- Shcphtrd,-mas by Irena?u3. Clemens Alexaudrinus, and Kn- sobius considered identical with the Hermas mentioned by Pt. Paul in his Epistle to the Romans (xvi. 14). while others have j)l;iced him a little later, and made him a lirother of Pius I., bishop of Rome in the middle of the second cen- tury. The Shcpkrrd is divided into three parts — the IVsioJi*, Prvvepts, and Sinti(itudr». It is in the form of a dialogue, and consists of a blending of fantastic poetry and naive morals, a character which explains how th«,' book at once could be the Pi/ijrim'e Proi/rcnn of the old t"hur«'h and yet be called childish by 8t. Jerome an<i TertuIIian. It was originally written in Greek (6 ttoim'?*'). but exists now only in translations. The Greek text found in a monas tery on Mount Athos, and ])ublisheil in 1867, is generally considered a translation of the Latin translation. An English translation of Pantor Ifermiv was published in I'Minburgh in isr>7 in the Antr.-Xiceuc Chrintinn Library. IIcrmeneu'ticB [from the Greek verb ipyLrivevtt.v, to '• interpret," and that from the name of /imncH, the son of Zeus and Maia, the messenger and interpreter of the gods] is the science and art of interpretation, or of ascertaining the meaning of an author from his language. It is closely allied to grammar, logic, and rhetoric, and presupposes thorn. Its aim is to reduce interpretation to fixed laws and principles, and to the precision of an exact science, so far as the elastic nature of thought und language will permit. The business of fj-position has often been confounded with imposition, whereby all sorts of arbitrary subjective fancies are introduced into (ho text of which the writer never dreamed. The work of interpretation requires intellectual and moral qualifications, natural and acquired — viz. a full knowledge of tlic author's original language, historical situation, mental status, and range of iileas, and an appre- ciating sympulhy with his spirit und aim. liihlicnl //' im(iirntic9 IB general hcrmcnonties applied to the iSacreil Scriptures. It has been most cultivated on ac- count of the vast importance and general interest of these hooks. Its first germs may bo traced to Iho .lews and to Philo of Alexandria, who reduced the allegorical method of interpretation to a system, which through Origen (d. 2,')4 ) passed into the Christian Church. Origen of Alexandria distinguished a threefold sense of the Scriptures, corre- sponding to the tripartite nature of man (a somatic or literal, a psychic or moral, and a pneumatic or mystical sense). The grammatical school, on the other hand, which 898 HERMES— HERMIPPUS. was best roprcscnfcd among the Fathers by Chrysostom anil Jerome (tlioiigh by no meiins consistently), adhered to the natural and literal sense as the only one which the writer hud in view. Assuming the last jirinciple to be correct, there are still three legitimate kinds of interpre- tation, which, however, must harmonize with each other, and together give the one full meaning of the text : (1) The philolofjical (also called litvrnl or tjrammutifn-hiiittirical) exegesis is concerned with the body or letter of the text, with verbal, critical, and antiquarian questions. It brings out the meaning of words and ])hra.-ies according to the general rule? of grammar, the particular idiom and vocabu- lary of the author, his age, nation, and country, and clears up all references to contemporaneous history and antiqui- ties. It deals with the literary and human aspects of the Scripture, with the earthly form into which its divino con- tents are cast. It is the basis of all sound exegesis. It has been successfully cultivated during the present century in Germany and England by Wiuer, Do Wctte, Lucke, Bleek, Meyer. Ewald. Dillmann,' Alford. Ellicott, Lightfoot. (2) The Iheolor/irdl (or tlorlriiHil and fthiinl interpretation) deals with the divine thoughts and spiritual truths of the Bible, and explains them in connection with its general tcat'hing and according to the analogy of faith ; but it ought ni>t to be fettered by dogmatic prejudice or made subservient to sectarian interest, as was ilono in the scholastic periods of theology (hiring the Middle .Ages and the seventeenth century, when the Bible was used simply as a repository of proof-texts for certain tenets of orthodoxy and against heretical opinions. Among the most distinguished the- ological expounders are Augustine, Luther, Calvin, 01s- hauscn, Tholuck. Ilodge. {?>] Prarticul and homilellral exegesis applies the text to the wants of tho human heart, and draws from it lessons of wisdom and comfort for tho battle of life. It belongs properly to tho pulpit and to popular works. Of this character arc tho exegetical homi- lies of Origen, Chrysostom, Augustine, and other Fathers, and the commentaries of Matthew Henry, Burkitt, Dod- dridge, Starke. Literature. — ErNESTI. Principlrs of Biblical Interpreta- tion (1861, Latin; Engl, transl. by Terrot, ISl.",); Wilki., Jfcrmcneutik ilea ]V. T. (1844, 2 vols.); LrTZ, Billitche JTermeneutik (1861); Cellerier, Manuel d'Hermeneulique (1352); F.1IUB.V1KN, Tlermencutical Manual (l.'iiO); MrN- SCazv., Manual of Billiral Interpretation (ISC')); ImmeR, Hcrmcncutik des -V. T. (1870). PniLip .^cHAFr. HeTRies. See MERcunr. Her'mes (Georg), a German theologian who under the inUucnce of the *' new philusojdiy " endeavored to carry out tho doctrines of unity and identity into forming a common basis for Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. B. in Dreicrwald, Westphalia, Apr. 22, 1775, he d. at Bonn May 26, is:'il. Ilaving studied theology at Miinster, where he be- came in lS07protcssor, he was subsequently teaeherof Cath- olic theology at Bonn. '' Ho had found," says Binder, " tho futility of the attacks of Kant and Fichte on Christianity, and tlie truth of Uoman Catholicism." He, however, busied himself for many years in trying to base the principles of the latter on those of the former, setting forth his views in tho Einleiluntj in die ('hrint-l.-alhoUaelie Thevtotjie (" Intro- duction to tlie Catholic Christian Theology"). His work was not in any respect heretical, but confined itself to negativing the arguments of those who declared the in- stability of the Catholic dogma. He founded a school or doctrine termed Ilcrmcsiairisra, and his followers, tho Her- mesianer, occupied many important positions as preachers and te.ichers in (tcrmany. He maintained that tho prin- ciple of pure reaton, which, as Kant teaches, is innate in every soul, enabling it to decide on all principal truths, should he applied to religion; or rather that the Church should teach its doctrines on this basis. But this principle was disapproved of at Rome, .and a papal letter was directed against it (Sept. 16. 1835) by I'opo Gregory, beginning with the words Dnm aeerhi»»imun. During the life of Hermes his school had great influence anci made many con- verts. Binder attributes the delay in proeeecling against it to tho usual system of formalities followed at Rome in such cases. The fundamental principle of the Ilermesian doctrine is, that human reason can grasp the truth, and that religion, being true, is or may be based on this "nat- ural sense." Hut the Church holds a directly different doctrine, and tloes not look up tc) philosophy or science to authorize her doctrines, as the Roman Catechism declares "the mysteries which are contained in God's holy Church arc to be understood only by faith, and not by reason." Hermes did in fact quite unconsciously seek to put the Catholic Church on that Protestant foundation of independ- ent reason which from l.utlier to DiiUinger has been so strongly characteristic of the Teutonic mind. .Among the principal works referring to Hermcsianism are the follow- ing: IJinweifiunrfen auf den Grundehurakter den Herme- ftisehen Si/stems, by J. B. Bai.tzer (1802, 8vo) ; Uliitter sur Orientirung in Sftihen den Heriuetiianisnius (18M8), by F. X. Bii'NDE and J. .1. Uosenbaum ; Aeta Jiontana, by J. W. J. BiiArN and P. J. Ki.vENicH (documents relating to tho condemnation, by the pope, of ti. Hermea (1808, 8vo); Aeta Jlennetiana, hy A, J. El.VENICH : ynr/e Aintotatioiieiff by LAN(i (1809); Apidtti/ic de» llennenianinmuit, by J. B. LlITTERBECK (1805): Veber (i/anlien, by J. J. RoSE.NDAUM (1808, 8vo); Vhrisl-kalhulitehe VoijmaliJc, by G. Hermes; Der Hermeaianiamua und Joh. Pcrrone ( Breslau, 1844). Chari.es G. Leland. Hermesi'annx, b. at Colophon, lived in the times of Philip and Alexander the Great, and d. before the destruc- tion of his native city by Lysimachus in 002 n. c. Ho wrote an elegiac poem in three books to his mistress Leon- tium, of which a largo part of the third book has been quoted by Athena'us. and thus como down to us. It has been separately published by J. Bailey (London, 1809), to- gether with a critical epistle by 0. Burges. Ilerinesianism, the religious philosophy taught by Gi-.ouG Heumes (which see). Her'mes Trisincgis'tus (" thrioe-grcat Ilcrmes," or Mercury), or Thoth, an Egyptian god, regarded as in- ventor of all science and learning; e. 3. speech, writing, religion, geometry, architecture, and the arts. Every Egyp- tian boftk relating to religion or science was inscribed with his name, as if inspired by him; and according to Jambli- chus there were of these 36,000. The name " thrice-great " is supposed to refer to the god's triple manifestation as philosopher, priest, and king. Certain dialogues on mys- tical theology, etill extant, and which were very popular during tho fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, were subse- quently regarded as forgeries. They had been transmitted from an early ago in a rude Greek form. More recent re- search has indi^eated that the Greek, by its very defects, possesses the ch.araeter of a translation. The writer pro- fessed a belief in their authenticity, as Champollion the Younger had done. More recently a French Egyptologist, M. Pierrat of the Louvre, in the Metnnijea d' AreKoloijie (!to, Paris, 1S70, p. 112), has jiointcd out tliat many of the very peculiar phrases and ideas contained in tho Hermetic books arc to be found in tho papyri and inscriptions. Tho works or fragments bearing tho name of Hermes Trisnic- gistus are as follows: (1) Pawander^o/ the Xalureof T/tin<fit andofthe Vreationufthc World; (2) Of Dirinc Wisdnmand Poicer; (0) Asclepius; (1) The Aphoriama of Hermes; (5) On the Kertdutions of Xativities. Fragments of five other works are preserved by John Stoba;us. The most recent text, Greek with tho Latin versions, is tb.e Ilermetia Trismeyiati Pcem- andcr,hy Gustavus Parthey (Berlin, Kicoli, 1854). Among all the mysticism of tho Pamander, etc., there is much that is grand and beautiful. Tho first editors of Hermes Tris- megistus erred in attributing tho works to Jloses himself, or in giving to thcin a fabulous anticjuity, while the later critics were as much in tho wrong ia boldly declaring tb.at they were Nco-Platonio or Christian forgeries of tlio third century A. D. Chari.es G. Lelasd. Hermet'ic Writings [from Hermea (Mercury), with whom the Greeks identified tho Egyptian 7'/io(/i, tho god of literature and learning], a name in its widest sense desig- nating the whole body of Egyptian literature ; but tho name is especially given to a mass of works in Greek and Latin, fragments of which have como down to our time, and which profess to have been inspired by Hermes Tkismegistits (which see). They treat of astrology, ontology, and other subjects, and are of no value. There were also a number of works written in the Middle Ages by alcheuiisls, and in later times perhaps by the Ilosicrucians, which profess to have been written by Hermes Trismcgistus. The Zabi.ans of tho East have writings in Greek which they ascribe to j Hermes. I Hermi'as was a eunuch and slave in tho household of Euhulus, tvrant of Atarneus and .Assus, in Mysia, Asia Minor: but he gained his master's confidence, was made free, travelled to Athens, where he heard Plato's lectures in eompanv with Aristotle, and succeeded Eubulus on the i throne of Atarneus in :!47. Aristotle spent several years at his court, but had lo flee when Artaxcrxes, king of Per- sia, sent an army to reduce all the petty tyrants in Asia Minor. Ilermias was captured and sent to the Persian court, where he was put to death, but Aristotle raised a statue at Delphi in honor of him, and married his relative Pythias. Ilermip'pns lived in the middle of the third century n. I'., and wrote a work containing the biographies of the Greek philosophers, historians, and poets. The work itself is lost, but it is frequently quoted by subsequent writers, j and s.'cms to have enjoyed a great reputation in antiquity. HERMIT— HERNIA. 899 The fragments which arc found in other authors have been collfctcd and edited by Lozyuski (Uoiin, lsy2). ller'mit [Ur. iprjtiinji ; Lilt. errmt(ti,a "dweller in soli- tude "]. a jiurjson who retires from human .«ociety and dwells alone ; a title given ei<pecially to reltgioup reclusoii, and par- ticularly to those who do not live in eomniou with others. •So aUo the Augustinian monks, though living in monas- teries, are called hermits, being aecustomcd to ^pcnd a part of their time in solitude. There are many other monastic congregations cfilled hermits, notably certain lay members of the third order of ?^t. Francis, who, being married before taking their vows, cannot be received in full into the order. Her'mitage, post-v., county-seat of Hickory co., Mo., 80 miles S. W. of Jeflerson City. Hermit Crab. Sec Ciiab. llormuduc'tyl ("Mercury's finger"), th© name of a bulbous rout sometimes used in medicine. It appears that some hermodactyls arc produced from /n'« titberoga, and others from Cnlchicnm variet/ntum, Euroneau and Asiatic plants. The ancients used hermodaetyla for gout, but in modern times they are considered nearly or quito inert. Uermog'enes [*Epmoy«Vii?] lived in the time of the em- peror M. Ant<minu?, son of ('alippus, and b. at Tarsus in Cilicia. He was noted for the early development of his oratorical powers, so that at the age of fifteen he attracted the attention of the emperor, who listened to his extempore discourses with great pleasure. When seventeen he became a public teacher of rhetoric, and at eighteen or twenty he com- posed his rhotorical works, which Suidas speaks of as mo«t worthy of admiration, and which were for several centuries the established books of instruction. At the ago of twenty- five he lost his intellectual power and sank into imbecility. Five of his works, forming a Textrq pjjTopnei) ('* System of Rhetoric"), have come down to our time: ( 1 ) On general issues; (2| On invention; (3) On the forms of oratory; (J) On the method of acquiring skill in S|)eaking; (j) Prepara- tory exercises lTrp13yvtJ.vdtrfi.aLTa). This last work was abridged by Aphthoniu^ (a. d. ;il j|. and was thus in time superseded. They are found in the lihctorfa Orteci of Walz (Stuttgart. 18.'J2-:i«) and of Spengel (Loipsic, lS6."J-5fi, .3 vols.). The Prof/ifiHiiaMmata were first published in Orcek by Hecren (rtHttingen, 1791), with Hceren's and his own notes by Veesenmeyer (Nuremberg, 1S12). (Seo .MUlleu's and DoXAXMOs'a Greek Literature, vol. ill. p. 150.) H. DmsLEn. Her'niODf post-tp. of Penobscot co., Me., on the Maine Central K. K., II miles W. of Bangor. It has manufactures of cooperage. Pop, 14S9. Ilermon, tp. and post-v. of St. Lawrence co., N. Y. It has iron ore and other minerals, and contains 3 churches. Pop. of V. 67."i; of tp. 1792. Hermonf Mount, is the highest elevation of the whole Syrian system of mountains. It is formed by a spur from Anti-Lebanon, which, separating tho valley of Ctcle-Syria from that of the Jordan, unites to the W. with tho range of Lehanon. Orcat Hermon, or Mount Hermon proper, is abuul 10,000 feet high. Its top is generally covered with snow, and is visible from Tyre and Damascus. Its sides are clad with white poplars. The Psalms speak of the *' dew of Hermon," and modern travellers say that during tho night their tents become as wet with dew as by a rainstorm. Hermop'olis .Mag'na, an aneicnt city of Egypt, was ! situated on the left bank of tho Nile, near tho boundary i between Tpper and Middle Egyjit. on tho site nowoocupiell by the village of Oshmoonegu or Kshmoon. At tho time of the Ptolemies it was a rich and magnificent rity, promi- nent among whose buildings was tho temple of Thr)th or Tauth, the ibis-headcd god, the inventor of (In- pen and letters, identified with the (Jreck Jlermes. But it was en- tirely destroyed by tho Mohammedans, who carried away ita monuments for building purposes, and left nothing be- hind but largo mounds of ruins and rubbish. Ilcrmosi'llo, town of Mexico, in tho state of Sonora, stands on the river Sonora, at tho entrance of an exceed- ingly fertile valley which produces wheat, wine, and all kinds of fruit in abundance, and carries on a very lively tra.Ie. I»op. It.OOO. Ilcrnan'do, county of Florida, bounded on tho W. by the Uulf fpf Me.xico. Area, 1? 00 squaro miles. Tho soil is undulating and generally very fertile. Jt has extensive hard-wood forests. Rico is tho largest crop, but tho soil is adapted lo all tho products of tho Southern States. Cap Brookvillc. Pop. 2ft38. ^ Hernando, post-r., cap. of Do Soto co.. Miss., on the Mis3i«?ippi and Tennessee 11. R., 22 miles 8. of Memphis, has a weekly newspaper, a female ooIIckp, a male seminary, •1 churches, a very fine court-house, and 22 commercial houses. Pop. 7?>0. W, S. Si,Ai>t;. Kn. *' I'la-^s." Hern'don ( William Lewis), b. at Freilcricksburg. Va.. Oct. 2a, lMl;i; entered the U. S. navy when fifteen years old; was engaged in the Mexican war, and employed in tho National Observatory, Washington, I). C, for three years. He crossed the Andes from Lima eastward, and with Lieut. Lardncr Gibbon conducted the exploration { lSaI-J2) of the Amazon Valley. The publii^hed report of this expedition was in 2 vols. {I8j,3-54), the first by Hern- don, tho second by Gibbon. Herndon was in command ol tho steamer Central America when she was lost (Sept. 12. 1SJ7) in a storm on the voyage from tho Isthmus of Panama to New York. There were on board *omc 580 per- sons, of whom 427 were lost, but the women and children were all saved. Herndon went down with the ship, stand- ing on the bridge in full uniform. Hor'nia. [Lat.], the protrusion of a viscus from the cavity to which it normally belongs ; but the term is generally used to exjiress the protrusion of an abdominal viscus, as when wo speak of other forms of hernia we express it thus : her nia cerebri, hernia corucjc, etc. The predisposing eaus<- of hernia is a weakness of some portion of the abdominal w.alls, and there are certain parts which are naturally weaker than others, as the inguinal, umbilical, and femoral regions. This weakness very often exists congenitally, and may be increased or produced by injury, disease, or }»reg- naney. Among the exciting causes may be mentioneil vio- lent muscular exertion, jumping, straining from lifting heavy weights or at stool, playing on wind instruments, etc. The usual contents of a hernial sac is a portion of the small intestine, or the omentum, but we may find ])ortion>' of any of the viscera in it, especially when tho abdominal walls are congenitally weak. The sac is formed of perito neum, which is covered by the integument and subjacent fascia?. Hernia is generally divided in two ways: 1st, according to its situation, as inguinal, femoral, umbilical, phrenic. etc.; 2d, according to the condition of the protruded vis- cus, as reducible, irreducible, anci strangulated. Reducible hernia is that variety in which the contents of the sac may be returned into its normal cavity without recourse to a surgical operation. It sometimes disappears spontaneously when the patient t^ceks the recumbent j)osition, but more often needs a greater or less amount of pre.^surt? to bo made in the pri>per direction. The symptoms of it are — the ap pearanco of a soft and compressible swelling at some por- tion of the abdominal wall, which increases when the pa- tient stands up and diminishes when lie lies down ; by jilaeing the hand upon the tumor and directing the patient to cough a distinct impulse is imparteil. The treatment usually adopted consists of the reduction of tho contents, and the application of a suitable truss to prevent the re~ protrusion. If the patient is young, this method will efi"eet a radical cure in time, but in the adult recourse must be liaci to an operation to effect this. Irreducible hernia differs from reducible in that the pro- truded viscus cannot be returned into its normal cavity. Tho general causes of it are adhesions between the sac and its contents, the growth of membranous bands across the sac, or enlargement of the contents. It is much more trou- blesome than the preceding variety : in the first place, it is much more inconvenient, and is always exposed to the danger of strangulation; the patient suffers from indiges- tion, constipation, colic, flatulence, ami dragging pains in the loins. The treatment of this variety must be generally palliative, and consists of the patient's avoiilanee of all violent exercise; regulation of the bowels, which shoulti never be allowed to become confined ; and the wearing of a truss to support an<i protect the tumor. *' Hernia is said to be stranguhiteil when it is constricted in such a way that the contents of the protruded bowel cannot bo propelled onward, an«l the return of its venous blooil is impeded." There is always more or less inflam- mation, caused by tho constriction. Tho causes of this condition are sudden enlargement of tho contenis of the sac by fiuees or gas. or congestion ur s\velling of the neck of the sac. The symptoms arc — pain, fialulenee, a desire to go to stool, constipation, nausea, and vomiting, the vomited matter after a time becoming storcoraceous. The tumor is hard, and cannot be replaced in the abduniinal cavity, and there is very little impulse transmitted to the hand when the patient coughs. I'he pain in the tumor continues to increase, and extends over the whole of tho abdomen : tho countenance assumes an anxious expression; the pulse becomes small and wiry, and the f-kin cold and clammy. Should the pain c'-ase, ami I he tumor feel doughy anil crepitate when handled, we may be sure that the intes- tine has mortified; when this happens, there is very little hope for the patient; in fact, the only chance for recovery now is by an artificial anus. The object of treatment is to r*'turn the intestine into its cavity. When this cannot bo aecomplished by manipulation, or manipulat imi coinhincd 900 HERO— HERODOTUS. with warm baths and the administration of ether — the pa- tient having first been niaccd in such a position that all the parts in the neighborhood "f the trouble shall be com- pletely relaxed — recourse must immediately be had to an operation. This consists of enlarging the constricted portion, so as to allow of the return of the gut, and consists of cutting down to the sac, and then either opening it and divi'iin" the stricture, dividing the stricture without open- ing the sac, or by merely incising the neck of the sao. Edward J. Berminouam. Hero. See Heroic Age, Ile'ro, or He'ron, an ingenious mechanical philoso- ]'her. pupil of Ctesibius. who li\cd about 286-222 b. c. famous I'lr an acquaintance with the prin- ciples of pneumatics and hydrau- lics quite in advance of his age. lie wrote a nuniVter of books and invented a variety of machines, twoof which, the moli pile (sec ^0- i.ii'ILk) and the fountain which bears his name, are still among the familiar forms of illustrative apparatus in the physical lecture- roum. Hero's fountain is shown in tho annexed figure, in which it is seen that tho elastic force of a ennfined body of air, increased by hydraulic pressure and react- ing upon the surface of water in a closed reservoir, produces a jet which may rise ( theoretically) above that surface to a height equal to the effective height of the pressing column. F. A. P. Barnard. Hero, a priestess of tho tem- ple of Aphrodite at Sestos, on the coast of Thrace, was loved by Le- andcr, n native of Abydos, on the opposite shore of the Hellespont. Guided by the light of tho torch which Hero planted on the cliffs of Sestos, Leander used to swim across the sea to meet her, but one night the storm ])ut out the tnroh, and when next morning Hero discovered the corpse of her lover floating on tho waves, she Hero's fountain, threw herself into the sea. There is a Greek epic poem by MusLieus, a ballad by Schiller, and a drama by Grillparzer on this subject, and it has been painted over and over again by the disciples of the school of David. Her'od the Geieat, king of the Jews, was b. in 62 d. c. at Ascalon in Judaja, and was of Idumean descent. When in 47 B. c. his father, Antipatcr, was made procurator of Judyea by Julius Caesar, he himself received the govern- ment of Galilee, to which was afterwards added that of Samaria and ('tele-Syria. Ho was expcllc<l for a short time by Antigonus, the nephew of Hyrcanus II. and tho representative of tho Asmoncan dynasty, but in Rome, whither he fled, he succeeded in gaining the favor of An- tony ; not only were his claims recognized by the senate, but the title of king of Judiea was conferred on him (40 It. i\). He established himself by force in Jerusalem, and by unlioard-of cruelty he maintained his jiowor. Ail mem- bers of the old dynat'ty, even his own wife. Marianine, the daughter of Hyrcanus II., and the three children ho had by her, were executed. And the older he grew the more suspicious and atrocious he became. The slaughter of tho infants at Bethlehem, of which we are told in .Matthew ii. 1*1, was 80 common and insignificant an afTair that Jose- plius does not mention it. A few days before ho died ho had his son. Antipatcr, strangled. But, altliough cruel, hi^ government was vigorous and brilliant. He was highly esteemed by Augustus. There was peace in Judaea; eoni- merco and irulustry prospered; literature and art flour- ished. His buildings were especially magniftcent ; he -founded Ca;?arca, rebuilt Samaria under the namo of Se- baste, and adorned Jerusalem with numerous splendid structures. The Jews, however, found iu his government a leaning towards Home, which humiliated them, and a general tendency towards Roman civilization, which they hated; ami tho latter part of his life was much troubled by conspiracies and riots. He was ton times married, and died between Mar. 13 and Apr. f), a few weeks after the birth of Christ, of a horrible disease, the same as killed Sulla and Philip II. of Spain. — His son, Hkrod Antipas, by hi' wife Malthaoe, a Samaritan, was by his will appointed f' 'rarch of Galilee and Pera*a. He divorced his first wife, and marrieil Hcrodias, the wife of his half-brother Philip, and when John the Baptist remonstrated against this incestuous connection, he had him put to death. During a visit to Jerusalem for the purpose of celebrating tho passover, t'hrist appeared beiore liini, sent by Piiato as a former resident of his tctrarchate. In 42 A. d. he made a journey to Rome in order to obtain the royal dig- nity, but, through the intrigues of Herod Agrippa, ho was exiled by Caligula, and d. in Lyons. — Hi:uon AcjniiM'A I., son of Aristobulus, brother to Hcrodias, and grandson of Herod tho Great, was educated in Rome, and received from Caligula the tetrarehate of Judiea with the title of king, and after the banishment of Herod Antipas, Clau- dius gave him all the old provinces of Judu>a. He was mucli liked by the Jews, especially for his vigorous meas- ures against Christians; he liad the apostle St. James the (Jroater beheaded and St. Peter thrown into prison. He d. early (44 A. n.). — Hkrod AiiuriTA II., a son of the pre- ceding, was. like his father, educated in Rome, and resided there, at tho court of Claudius, at the death of Agripj»a I. He did not inherit his father's dominions, however ; they were made a Roman province, and Herod Agrippa II. ob- tained at first (.")(J A. n.) only the small kingdom of Chal- ois. Abilene and Trachonitis wcro subsequently added. In 60 A. I)., when he went down to Cajsarea to compliment Festus, the Roman governor, the apostle St. Paul a]>peared before him. In the Jewish war he sided against his coun- trymen, anil after the destruction of Jerusalem (70 A. d.) he resided in Rome, where he d. in lOU a. n. Rkviscd by R. D. HiTriicocK. Hero'des At'ticus, one of the most celebrated Greek orators, w.as b. at Maratlion in 104 A. d., and d. at Athens in 180. M. Antoninus was one of his pupils, and during his reign he held public oflices. He was immensely wealthy. His father left an annuity to each Athenian citizen. Still more remarkable was his eloquence. He was called tho " tongue of Greece," and his speeches were compared to silver streams running in golden beds. Unfortunately, tho only one of his works which has come down to us (Ilepc IIoAiTeia?, edited by Bekker in his Onitorea Attici, 1824) is niiseral)le, amaze of affected sophistry. Hcro'dians, a Jewish party in the time of Christ, first mentioned in Mark iii. 6. They were partisans of tho Herod family, whose tyranny they preferred to that of the Romans. They appear to have been mostly Sadducees. Herodia'nus was a Greek by birth, but lived for a long time in Rome, and wrote in the Greek language a work in eight books on the history of Rome from the death of M. Aurelius (180 a. n.) to tlic accession of Gordianus III, (238 A. !>.), narrating events, as ho informs us, which had occurred in his own lifetime. Tho work, which is still ex- tant, is interesting, and is considered truthful and impar- tial in the main; the best editions of it arc by Irmisch (5 vols., Leipsic, 1789-1805), bv Weber (1816), and by Bekker (1826 and ISoo), Herod'otus, a Greek historian, often called tho "father of history," was b. at Halicarnassus, a Doric col- ony in Caria, Asia Minor, in 484 B. c. Thus his life falls within the happiest and most glorious period of the history of tho Greek nation. Like a spring flood the Persian power came rolling on, swelling through centuries by the absorption of Media, Bal)yIon, Egypt, Asia Minor, Thracia, and Macedonia; and now it burst upon Greece. But its force was broken in the battles of Marathon {Sept. 12, 490), Thermopyhe (July 6, 4S0). Salamis (Oct. 5, 4S0), Platwa and Mycalo (Sept. 23, 470). Harmless it retired, and tho Greek nationality arose. Within a few generations somo of the noblest and loftiest instruments of civilization were either invented — such as philosophy, history, tragedy, and comedy — or brought to greater perfection, such as public ed- ucation, republican government, architecture, and sculpture. Herodotus became tlio inventor of the art of history. Ho belonged to a wealthy and influential family ; among his rel- atives was tho celebrated epic poet Panyasis. Under the reign of Lygdamis, Panyasis was killed, and Herodotus and his family expelled from Halicarnassus. Ho went to Sa- mos, where ho lived several years, and where he learnt tbo Ionian dialect, in which ho wrote his book. Ho returned once more to Halicarnassus, and took part in the expulsion of tho tyrant, • but ho soon again left his native city, and entered on tho long and extensive travels which formed tho necessary preparation for his great work. Ho wandered through the whole of Greece, studying the history of each jjlace on the spot by making liimself acquainted with its monuments and its traditions. Thus ho acquired a most intimate acquaintance with the whole route which tho Per- sian armies had taken; with Marathon, Therniopylao, Salamis, Platoea and Mycale, where tho great battles wero fought; with Athens and other cities which formed tho political, commercial, and intellectual centres of tho Greek nation; with Delphi and Dodona, the sacred and awe-in- HEROIC AGE— HERPES. 901 ppiring scats of the oracles : aod in all the principal parts o( his narrative he simply relates what he has seen himself or heard from eyewitnesses. No less intimate and compre- hensive was his acquaintance with Egypt. He had visited Memphis and lleliopolis, and crossed the whole country from the Iklta to Kle|»hantinu, and from the Libyan desert to the Ued Sea, Modern travellers are still surprised at the accuracy of his observations and the correctness of his descriptions. In Asia xMinor ho knew from personal uc- quaiDtancc every place he mentions, and in Asia proper ho travelled as far as Colchis to the N. and lJaU\ Ion to the S, The latter part of his life he spent in Thurii. a Greek col- ony in .Southern Italy, established in 441 B. v., near the ruins of Sybaris. From his residence in this city ho is often called the rAuriuH by the ancients, and here ho probably wrote, or at least liiiished. his book. It is also probable that be died here, about WS B. 0. At what time and place he actually wrote his history is a much-disputed point. Luciansaysat Haiiiarnassus, Suidas in Samus, and Pliny at Thurii, which indicates three ditfcrent ipojhs of hishf^-. Lucian furthermore says that he read it or recited it to tho people assembled at the Olympian games, and adds that Thucydides was present and burst into tears from enthusi- asm. According to l*Iut:irch, he also read it at the Pau- atbeneea at Athens (415 b. c), and was rewarded by a grant of ten talents from tho public treasury; and Dion Chrysostonius mentions that he read it to the Corinthians. However dubious and even contradictory these statements arc, (he general impression of all is, that llerodotus wrought for many years on his book, beginning it at Ilalicarnaasus and finishing it at Thurii : and tho character of tho book iteelf, its style and method of eomnosilion. seem to con- firm this impres-iion. It narrates the history of tho war between the (Sreeks and the Persians, but every new clc- meot which is introduced into the composition is explained to tho reader in its whole signification by long digressions, tracing it back to its origin, and following up its develop- ment to the moment it enters tho narrative; and thus the book actually gives the history of tho world. It must not bo understood, however, that the narration of tho (ireek-Per- sian war was a mere framework to wliich the history of tho world is hung by the somewhat clumsy artifice of digres- sions. Ily no means; although iu tho details Herodotus is a minute and circumstantial chronicler, in tho composition of tho whole he is a great artist. His digressions aro nu- merous, and, on account of their great elaboration, they may appear distracting at a first perusal, and burdensome ovon at a second; but in the final impression of (Iu total work they simply act as a substructure on which stands the tempie itself, the narrative of the Greek-Persian war. They give this narrative its pathos; they explain what this war was — namely, a war between two worlds, Europe and Asia; a war bet^teen two principles, barbarism and civili- zation ; a war on whose fortune the dcstinv of mankind de- pended. This total view, which made Tli;nydides burst into tears when it dawned upon him, and which the world has accepted as an undoubted truth, is the great merit of the book of Herodotus. But it is not (he o'lly one. .Mod- ern scholars, especially certain modern Iviglish historians, blame Herodotus for his credulity and prt>pi-nr<ity for tho won lerful ; an I it cannot be denied that in eotnparis^m with (he tone and character of modern history the wonder- ful plays a very conspicuous part in his book. The blanio is unjust, however — as unjust as if any one would compare Walt's first steam-engine with the latest produced and most improved, and then blame Watt for weakness in mechanical eonecption and awkwardness in mechanical construction. Herodotus wrote in an age whose eonsciousnes.H, ^till half mythological, perceived the wonderful as the natural, and would have cinaidercd many of the ideas of modern history a< impiety, or even insanity. Instead, therefore, of blam- ing him for credulity and propensity for the wonderful, it would be more just to praise him for tho soberness of his | observation and tho soiin<lness of his criticism ; for in these i (wo points he truly denotes an advaufo in (he human intel- lect. Ho is called "' the father of history " because he was the first who really succeeded in reaching tho fact in its con'*ntenation of cause and effect. The best editions are that of Wc'seling {Amsterdam. 17lV'., folio); that of .Schweighiiuser (.'^trasburir, lHOr>, (\ vols.: rcprinteii Lon- don. |M|S-'J(. withnn Herodotean lexicon; tlreek and Kng- li^h separately, by Cary, Oxford. 184;i); that of (iaisford (Oxford. IS'JI, 4 vols.; :Jd ed. US-Ill), of W'. Dindorf ( Paris, lH44,in I>ii«>t's Hihl, r/rffcn). of .1. ('. K. liahr (Leipsie. |h:;0 -'Mt, 4 vols. : !id ed. 180ft-6l ), of Stein (in WKumiANN's ^•f^^ Urtinn, Berlin. I'd ed., .^ vols., lHtjM-7 » 1. <'f Abicht (in Tit B- nku'h I'ullrrtian, '.i vols., Lcipsic, ISfi;i). and of Blakeslcy (in /tihiiuthrra ('ittmn'citf 2 vols., Cambridge, IH.'i-l). His liimtin\f has been translated into English by Itev. (I. Uaw- Iin«on (London, 1M.'»S). Ci.i:iikns Pktkhskn. Uero'ic Age, the more than half-mythical age of Gre- cian history preceding the true historic period. In it the heroes, who were often of half-divine descent — great war- riors, kings, navigators — are tho central figures. *' In these myths," says Ernst Curtius, "tho people recalls to its mind, in their full life, those times when the monotonous existence of the old Pelasgians was interrupted, and new forms of worship, new openings for popular activity, new ways of life, continuing ever after with abundance of great fruits, were called into existence. These founders are figures like those of living men, but greater, nobler, nearer the immor- tals. They are no empty creations of the fancy, but in them tlic real deeds of the early times arc illustrated and endowed with life. The talcs of the heroes contain a certain docu- mentary truth." Iu later times the heroic age furnished abundant material for dramatic and epic poetry, and the heroic character afforded many uuble examples of fortitude, piety, purity, and justice which the Greek people tot) gene- rally failed to imitate. Hcro'ic Metre, in English verse, is the unrhynicd iambic pentameter, known as blank verse. In tireck iind Latin poetry it is the common hexameter verse, in which the iliud and the ^Encid arc written, ticrraan and Italian heroic verse is of the same metre as the English. The French heroic is an iambic hexameter. The name is given because these metres are deemed appropriate to lofty themes. Uerold (Lons Joseph FERUixANn), b. in Paris .Ian. 2S. ITl'l : d. near Paris Jan. 18. 1S."3; studied with Cheru- bini. and wifli distinction at the Conservatoire, and finally in Italy. His first pieces, which were comic and very suc- cessful in their day. arc now obsolete. Zumpu and the /V^ aux C/rrcft. his greatest operas, still hold the stage in Europe, but aro unknown here, except by fragments. Hereon, a general name for a part of tho birds of the family Ardeida^, wading birds found in all parts of the globe. In the same family are the egrets and the bitterns. Among the herons of the V. S. are the Dcmicgrctta ludorf- ciaua, or Louisiana heron of the South ; the (larzcfta rnii- didiesima, or snowy heron ; the Hcrodi(in cfjrrttay or white heron ; the Ardett hcrodioft, or great blue heron, a splendid bird, but dangerous when wounded, as it aims severe blows of its long bill at the eyes of its captor; the great white heron, Andubonia Occident alis ; the night herons (A^rfj'- ordra and Nyctkerodtas) : the green heron, Buton'drH virtHcrtiK, and many others. The common European heron (Ardcti ciurreii) was uneiently esteemed for the table, and hunted by falconry or shot with the long-bow. It was at times forbidden to any but kings and great uobles to kill it, and when taken by falconry it was customary to let the heron's wounds be dressed, and then set it free. Heron- plumes, once highly prized, are still worn upon the helmets of some corps of lintish cavalry. Heropli'ilus ['Hpo<f.iAo?], b. at Chalccdon, in Bithynia. about ,300 B. c; studied medicine under Praxagoras : re- moved to Alexandria in Egypt, and was there one of the founders of the famous medical school of that city; was a distinguished surgeon, and the most celebrated anutcmiisf and zoJitomist of antiq^uity. It is also stated (with proba- ble truth) that he practised vivisection upon human beings, probably condemned criminals. Tertullian says he dis- sected no less than GOO living persons. It is to lie remem- bered that the ancients regarded the dissection of the flead body as something almost impious, while they bud ciun- paratively few scruples with regard to inflicting pain upon tho living. His fame is coumiemorated by the tnrcular JleriiphUi (the name of the place where the superior longi- tudinal sinuses of the dura vuttfir yni\ the lateral sinuses). He was one of the fathers of what is called heroic practice, in which excessive doses of powerful drugs were used ; an<l ho did much to introduce the useless compounding of many drugs in one prescription — a custom which lasted till tlie present century. Of his writings only fragments remain. Hcros'tratuSf an Epbesian, who in li^jC n. r. set fire to the temple of Hiana at Ephesus, ouo of the most uiagnifi- eent buildings of antiquity, and destroyed it, simply in order to make his name immortal ; ho succeeded, though the Ephe- sians passed a decree that ho should never bo named. Hrr'pes [from the Gr. epiru, to "creep *'], a name np- plied to several skin diseases, charactcri/.ed by (ho develop- ment of a series of vesicles or clusters of vesirles, which generally run a definite, self-limited course. By far the most important of these diseases is Ucrpcn zoaffr, zoun, or " shingles," as it is called. This may surround ono thigh or one arm with a band of vesicles, or more frequently it starts from the backbone and follows an intercostal space half round the body. More rarely it goes half round tho nerk or half oeross the face. There is usually sfinie neu- ralgic pain, and sometimes considerable fever. The lUseaso must d<'|>end upon some abnormality In the nervous actictn, as it frequently maps out upon the .surface the part of tho integument supplied by some one branch of a nerve. Tho ;i02 HERPETOLOGY. vulgar have a great dread of " the shingles," and believe that when it so extends as to completely girdle the patient he will die. But, in the tirst place, it almost never does go more than halfway around the body, and. what is more, there would bo uo danger if it .should, for the disease is a seiriimitcd or cvelical one, and the patient is sure to get well if let alone." Other forms of so-called herpes, such as H. cininatiin, aro caused by parasitic vegetation, and should be treated with applications of sulphurous acid and water or other parasiticide agents. Reviseh bv Wii.i.ARU P.inKEii. Herpctol'ogy [from the Greek tpirerd^, a "creeping thin"," and k6yoi, a " treatise"] is that branch of zoology which is dedicated to the natural history of Reptiles and Ami'Hidia.ns. Referring to those articles for information respecting the characters of the several groups, our rcm.arks here will be contincd to the indication of the growth of our knowledge and the best sources of information respecting them. Little positive information existed among ancient or medi.'cval naturalists respecting the forms in question. In Aristotle arc found isolated anatomical details respecting some species, but he did not recognize the group as a whole, combining the footed forms with mammals as oviparous quadrupeds, and isolating from them the serpents, with which he oven, at least provisionally, combined some eels (Book ii. eh. 10, and Hook ix. eh. 2J, jJ 4) ; he nevertheless appreciated the resemblance between the serpents and saurians (£.."/.■ ii. eh. 12, ? 10), and once defines the former as land animals ( Honk i. eh. G jj 2). Pliny, with less exaet information, mixes much fable. No mediaeval writer is worthy of mention. Gesner (1554), Aldrovandi (1640), and Jonsfon (lfi5:i)need only to he referred teas compilers. Ray (169:i) published the first attempt at a systematic ar- rangement, in which, although nominally confounding the repUlian quadrupeds with the mammalian quadrupeds, he recognized the serpents as related, and combined them in an unnamed group, distinguished by having a heart with a single ventricle. Linnajus (1735-OS) first introduced an essential reformation, definitely combining the oviparous quadrupeds (tortoises, lizards, etc.) and serpents in a single class, which he called Amphibia, and placed between the birds and reptiles. Ho distinguished this class by the (1 ) naked or soaly body, (2) acuminate teeth, and (3) absence of rayed fins ; and, subsequently and erroneously, by the unilocular ancl uniauricular heart. lie distributed its members into two orders: (1) Serpentes, without feet, and (2) Reptilia, with feet. Later, he made the class more heterogeneous by tho addition to it of the branehiostegous fishcs,1)eing misled by the erroneous observations of Dr. Garden of South Carolina. He failed to notice any dis- , tinction between the true amphibians and reptiles, and even confounded tho salamandroids and crocodilians with the typical saurians in one genus under tho name Lacerta. His several combinations and divisions into forms without feet and with feet showed also an utter want of apprecia- tion of the value of morphological characters in this group, limelin (17SS), in his edition of the Si/stemn .V(i(iir.T, re- moved from the class tho branehiostegous fishes, and re- stricted it to the limits originally recognized by Linnaeus. In the last edition of the f!i/i>lema J^'aturx published by Linnirus, SI."! species were recognized, distributed among the following groups: (1) Tcttmlo, 15; liana, 17; l)rai-n, 2 ; Lacrla, 47 (not 49) ; (2) Crolaliu, 5 ; Bud, 10 ; Coliibfr, 97; Aiit/uii, 16; Amphinhrciia, 2; and Cs!c!lia, 2. In tho edition of the Si/Mlema A'afiirip published by Gmclin, ,165 species were reeognizeif, apportioned to the groups as fol- lows : (1) Tnlitdo, :i3 : ICniia.'M; J)r,i<-u.2; larcrla, 77 ; (2) Croialiis, b : llaa, 10; Caiuber. 170; .liiyiii'», 26 : Am- phiilinna, 5; Carilia, 2: many of the additional species arc spurious. Klein meanwhile (1755) published a Trn- lamen H'-rpctolmiiir, distinguished by a singular ignorance of zoological science, as will bo readily understood when it is known that he ranked with the serpents the ordinary earth-worms, the tape-worms, and tho leeches. Laurenti in ITI'iS made a decided advance in herpetology. He rec- ognized a class " Reptilia:" in it he ineludeil all the rep- tiles but the tortoises (which he did not mention) and am- phibians. These he divided into three orders: ( I ) Halienlia, including the frogs, toads, etc.; (2) (iradientia, including the salamandroids and saurians : and (.3) .Scrpentia, in- cluding the serpents, as well as serpentiform saurians and pscudophidian amphibians. He recognized four genera of .Salientia, 13 of eiradientia, and 15 of Scrpentia. Lac<''- pJde in 1788 and 1790 divided tho same animals into four '•classes:" (I) oviparous qundrupe.ls which have tails; (2) thoso which have none; {?,) reptiles with two feet only, which may bo either in front or behind; and (4) serpents, or footless forms. lirongniart in 1799 made another decided advance: he characterized the class better than any of his predecessors, and apportioned its representatives among four orders: (1) rhelonians, including the tortoises; (2) Saurians, com- prising the lizards and crocodiles ; (:'.) Ophidians, compris- ing the serpents; and (4) Datrachians— /. e. the present class of amphibians, less tho Ca;cilians. He was doubtful respecting the svstematic relations of tho Ctccilians, but placed them provisionally with the Ophidians. The great advance in his work is evinced in his recognition of the orders, and more especially in the segregation of tho forms combined under the name of Batraehians. This classifica- tion came into quite general vogue, and particularly among French writers, Daudin (1802-03), Cuvier (1 SI 7-29), and Dumeril and Bibron, among others, having made it the basis of their respective works. Merrem in 1800 and 1820 published editions of a system of amphibians in which he recognized two classes: (1) PnoLiDOTA. equivalent to reptiles proper, and (2) Batra- cniA, or amphibians. Among the Pholidota, three orders wore recognized — Testudinata, Loricata p'. e. crocodiles), and Squamata (i.e. saurians and serpents). Among the Batrachia, also, three orders were established: (1) Apoda (i'. e. Pscudophidians), (2) Salientia, and (3) Gradientia. Do Blaiuville in 1816 recognized two classes among the amphibians of Linnasus: (1) the "Reptiles" or " Squa- miferes ornithoidcs," scaly; and (2) "Amphibicns" or " Nudipelliferes," naked. The reptiles were divided into three orders: (1) Cheloniens, (2) Einydo-Sauriens or Cro- codiliens, and (3) Saurophiens or Bipeniens. including two suborders: (A) "Sauricns" and (B) " Ophidiens." The amphibians were distributed among four orders: (I) the "Batraeiens" (Salientia), (2) " Pseudo-Saunens " ((;ra- dientia), (3) " Sub-Ichthyens " (Proteus and Sirens), and (4) '• Pseudophvdiens" ( Ca-eilidao). Merrem and De Blainville. in the appreciation of the mutual relations of the several forms and of the subordina- tion in the values of characters, thus advanced far ahead of their predecessors ; they were also the first to definitely include tho Apoda or pscudophidians among the amphi- bians or batraehians. The first edition of Merrem's work not beino' available, and no satisfactory account being pub- lished, it'is uncertain how far Merrem or Dc Blainville an- ticipatcil or borrowed from each other. Thus had the yciicral si/slan of herpetology assumed nearly all the characteristics which now mark it. Tho successive stages of its improvement were manifested in the isolation of the four-footed forms from mammals, and the recognition of their aflinity with the serpents; the recognition of the batraehians as a natural group, and the consequent depreciation of the importance of the members as exponents of afiiuity ; the eventual separation as a class of the batraehians or amphibians from the reptiles ; and at length the perception of the value of anatomical characters and tho comparative unimportance of external resemblances in the estimation of the nflinities of the various types. With this recognition came the separation of the crocodilians as an order distinct from the saurians. The tendency thus marked became more and more decided as time advanced. The details of the system were gradually improved by scientific zoologists, with the aid of anatomic.il investiga- tions , and among the most notable in this work may be mentioned Johannes Miiller. Stannius. Owen, Cope, and Huxley. A remarkable discovery was made also by GUn- ther (1S67) in the dissection of a curious New Zealand lizard-like rejitile (.S/j/ieiiodoii j.uiie(n<iim), which strongly illustrated the insufliciency of external characters as evi- dence of the relations of these forms. That animal very closelv resembles in its external appearance the agamoid lizard's, and indeed had been referred without suspicion to that fainilv till examined by tiunther. A detailed study of its anatomy, however, indicated that it was in nowise related to theAgamidie or other tyi)ical lizards, but that it was reallv the representative of a peculiar order of rep- tiles, for which the name Rhynchoeephalia was proposed. It has also been demonstrated by Prof. Cope and others that to this same order belonged species which had lived in the older ages of our globe, and as far back as the De- vonian period. . While these improvements in the system of the living reptiles were being effected, nala.'ontological investigations were rapidly bringing to light many remarkable types of the past world, which, on being subjected to the careful in- vestigations of osteologists, were found to have remarkable relations with tho living members of the class. The gigan- tic Bwinimiug reptiles of the Triassic seas were first eon- founded together in a peculiar order by geologists under the name Enaliosaurians, but subsequent observations indi- cated that thev should be separated into two widely distinct orders, and several others were from time to lime consti- tuted for the reception of various species. The compara- tive examinations of the living uud extinct forms naturally reflected mutual light upon each other. The hcrpetologi- IIEEPETOX TEXTACULATUS— HERRING. 903 cal system is thus now tolerably undorstood. Much, how- ever, yet remains to bo done, especially by the palicontolo- gists and embryulogigts, before we shall be ronversaut with the exact mutual relations of the several orders. Nothing certainly can bo as yet predicated as to the di-greo of gen- eralization of the known forms; and the sequence in the list of orders (as well as the combination of orders in Pcro- spondvlia) which is here appended must be considered en- tirely as a provisional arrangement, subject to great modi- fication"* hereafter. While the general system was thus being perfected, nu- merous sjtecial investigators wore engaged in the discovery and cluridiitiouof new species. Tho old genera were gradu- ally ninru and more definitely restricted and subdivided. Many of the newly-discovered species were also recognized as representatives of new genera, ancl the list begun to in- creiisein numbers and importance. Families were introduced as intermediate terms between the genera and higher groups, and, at first very comprehensive, were subsequently re- stricted in their limits; and in order to indicate their value at once, naturalists generally began to adopt for each the uniform patronymic termination -m/.t following the name of the typical genus of the including group. The natural- ists that have described the most species within the last half century have been Dum^ril and liibron of Paris, Gray and (Jiintlier of Loudon, Peters of lierlin, and L'ope of Philadelphia. The orders now generally adopted for the inclusion of all these various members of the classes iu question, recent and fossil, are as follows : Class Amphibia or Batrathia. Order Labyrinthodontia (extinct forms). " Pseudophidia (worm-like forms). " (.iradientia (salamanders, etc.). " tSalieutia (frogs, toads, etc.). Class Rei-tilia. Sub-claag Euchirota, Suprr-ordcr Perospotidf/Ita, Order Crocodilia or Loricata (crocodiles). '* Anomodontia (extinct). " Dinosauria (extinct). " Ornithosauria (extinct flying reptiles). " Rhynchocephalia. " Saviropterygia (extinct swimming reptiles). " Pythonomorpha (extinct sn:ikc-Uko lizards). '* .Sauria (lizards, etc.). " Ophidia (snakes, etc. Super-order Pieurospoudi/lia. Order Cholonia or Testudinata (tortoises). Sub-cla8» Ptcrochirota. Order Ichthyoptcrygia (extinct whale-liko reptiles). The anatomical investigations which have been prose- cuted rendered it more and more evident that the ani])bib- ians and reptiles, notwithstanding their external resem- blances, have very little true nflinity with each other, and th:»t, indeed, their closest relations in some respects are with other types: thus, (1) the amphibians arc so closely connected with the fishes by means of tho Labyrinthodonts in one class nnd the Dipnoans ( Lriiidnsircn, etc.) in tho other that by many {<•. tf. Huxley) they are combined in one peculiar group under the name lehthyopslcla : while, on the other hiind, the reptiles and liirds agree so thoroughly, and when the extinet forms nro recallerl dilfer in so few eharaeters, that they are also united in a special group des- ignated the Sauropsida. It only remains to add references to the principal au- thorities which the student can most advantageously use. The voIunieM and articles published have been very numerous, but only the following need be specially named : ErpHtthtyic ijfnfratc, on histoiri' nutut'ellc comp/fte dm lleptifra, by DrMKRii, nnd BlliRox (Paris, 1S:j|-55, 9 vols.); Thr Cntaffufiu- of' Shirld lirptiUn, by r)r. J. E. (Jrav: (Part I.,' Testudinata, London. 1h:»5 : Supplement, IS70; Appendix, IS72; Part 11., Kmydosaurians. Rhynehocephalin, and Aniphisba-nians, London,! 872, -Ito) ; Cittnloifue o/'tfic Sft'rt'mr„» f.f Stinhn in tfir i'nlhHinu i,f' thr Itritinh .\fn,f'„m,hy Dr. J. K. (iuAV ( London, isi'.l. I'Jnio) ; Cntaloijne of Co/iiftrinfi Simkca in the I'uf/ectioit nf' thr firitiih Mimruw, by Dr. Aliiktit GrNTiiKn (London." 18JS, 12mo); Aroi- oijrtiphtf <if»^r fit f drs Ophidieui, by Messrs. Jan and Son- PKi.i,! (Paris, ISnO-72, 8vo and 4to): (\itafn;/ur'^ of tfir Sprrimrmuf Lizards iuthe Cnffrrtifm 4>f fhr Hyiiinh Mmtrnm. by Dr. J. K. Cnw (London, LSI.'., iL'mo) ; Cat,do(jue n/ Mr liutrarhin SitHrntinin thr Colhrtinu of thf liritinh Mn- tenm, by Dr. Ai.nKRT GUsthkr (London. ISaS, 8vo) ; /^- viaion dcr Salamandridcn-Gattungen uehat Ucuchrcibung einitjerueuen oder icenif/er hekannten Arter dieser Eamilicn, by A. Stuauch (Mem. Acad. Sc. St. P6tersbourg, v. xvi., No. 4, LS70, 4to), and Anatomische Abhandbtufjcn tiber die I*crrnnihranchi(itcn und JJerutremen, by Dr. ,]. G. FisoniiR (Hamburg. 1SG4, 4toj. The principal recent anthorilie,- un the American reptiles and batrachiansare Hui.urook (A'oW/i Atnerican Herpetolofjy, or a Jjescriptiun of the Jicptiffn In- habiting the U. S., Philadelphia, lS;Jti-4;i, 5 vols. 4to): BairI) and GiRARn {Catalogue of N'trth American Rtptiles in the Mnnviim of the Sinithsonian Inntitutitni, Part I., Ser- pents, Washington, 1853, Svo, etc.) ; Agassiz {CuntributionH to the \atttral History of the Vniftd States of America, first monograph, North American Testudinata, Boston, 1857): and Coi'K (in numerous memoirs in \ho Prorced- iiiffs and Trauittrtiona of the Aeadciiii/ of .Wttnral Scieucea of Philadelphia, etc.). The most recent guide to the rep- tiles of Europe is Br. E. Schkkukr's lierpetologia Eu- ropaa, Etne syatcinatiache Jiearbettung der Amphibi' n n)id liepti/ien, tcelchc binher in Europa auft/vfuiidtit sind (Braun- schweig, 1874). Theodore Gill. Hcr'peton tentacula'tus, a serpent brought from tropical countries, and chiefly noteworthy for the siugular a])pendages which arc attached to its muzzle. These are covered with scales, and are of no known use to the serpent. Hei-'rick, post-tp. of Bradford co., Pa. Pop. 1009. Ilerrick, tp. of Susquehanna co.. Pa, Pop. 950. Herrick (.Tohx Kusskll), S. T. D., b. at Milton, Vt., May 12, 1822; graduated at the University of Vermont 1847 ; studied at Andover two years, and graduated at Au- burn Theological Seminary 1SJ2 ; from 1851 to 18G7 was over a Congregational Presbyterian church, Malone, X. Y. ; professor of systematic theology in Bangor, Me., 18G7 to 1S7;{; became pastor at South Iladlcy, Mass., in 1874; received the degree of D. I), from Union College in 18G7; same year S. T. D. from his alma mater. Author of Posi- tirifim in Boston Lectures (1870), also of various articles, philosophical and theological, in reviews. Herrick (Joshua), b. at Beverly, Mass., in 1792; re- moved to Maine, where ho became a sheritV; was deputy collector of the port ofKennebunk, Me.. 1S29-41, 1847-49, and ]:>jO-J4; member of Congress ISl-^— IJ; amlinlSJG register of probate for York co. D. at Alfred, Me., Aug. 30, 1874. Herrick (Robert), b. in London Aug. ^0, 1591; was educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and took hi.} master's degree 1517 ; took orders and became vicar of Dean Prior's, Devon, 1G29; and d, there in Oct., 1G74. Ho is one of tho best of English lyric poets and song-writers, bis chief fault being tho indelicacy which too oitcn disfigures tho erotic poems in which liis genius is best displayed. His pastoral relations were suspended for a time during tho civil war, but were resumed at tho restoration of Charles 11, His chief j>ul>lication was tho Hcapcridca (1047-48). Herrick (Stephtn Solon), M. D., b. at West Randolph, \l.. Dee. H, iSoljj graduated at Dartmouth 1S54 ; was an instructor in Kentucky and Jlississippi 1854-59 j took his medical degree at tho University of Louisiana 1801 ; assist- ant surgeon in Confederato army and navy 1802-05; visit- ing surgeon Charity Hospital. New Orleans, 1S05-0'J; man- aging editor AVki Orlcana Medical ami Snrrfirtil Jonninl 18GG-G7 ; i)rofessorof chemistry in tho New Orleans School of Medicine 18G9-70. His cs;;ay on (^iiZ/i/Hf (1S09) won the prize of tho American Medical Association. Author of various professional papers. Her'ring (Clupea), a genus of fishes vrhich furnish a large supply of food to mankind. There are several spe- •Tho " eRtnloffUi'*" enumerated arn really de«ioriptlvo mono- grnphn of all the known s|M'eieH, wheiher In tho Mui^cuni or not. 1 lie lien in v. oies, tho chief of which are the C hartntjn$ of Northern Europe and America, and the C. mirabHii* of the Pacific coast of the U. S. The celebrated white-bait is the young of tho common herring. The herring fisheries of Aujer- ioa arc prosecuted chiefly along the New Kngland coasts^ and especially in British American waters. In Kuropo the great herring fisheries are those of Great Itrilain, Ireland, Scandinavia, the Netherlands, and the north of France. Herrings at tolerably regular periods visit ex- tensive lines of coast, and were formerly believed to mi- grate periodically from the Arctic seas, but this belief is not now generally held by scientific observers. They are 904 HERRNHUT— UERSCHEL. generally caught in gill-nets or scoop-nets. The annual catch of herrings must amount to many hundreds of rail- lions. So important was the Dutch fishery in former days that it was said that Amsterdam was built on herring- bones. A large part of the su-callcd herring caught in the U. S. arc alewives. which are in no wise inferior to the real herring, which they much resemble. Herrings are smoked and dried, pickled, or eaten fresh. The most important herring of our Pacific coast apiiears to be the ('. miriihili', which in size, appearance, and hub- its resembles the common herring, but has fewer vertebra; and a ray less in the anal fin. It is not as large as the C. harcnijus, but is said to bo equal in flavor. It can be t.ikeo in very largo quantities, and its fishery will soon heciiue an object of national importance. The "herring" of the great lakes is Coregomu clupei/ormia, a. sort of white-fish. Heirn'hut, town of Germany, in tho kingdom of Sax- ony, was founded in 1722 liy a colony of .Moravian IJreih- ren, who were driven from their homes by the Jesuits, but were received and establi.^hed here by Count Zinzendorf. The town has only 1000 inhabitants, but it enjoys a com- paratively great reputation, partly because it has become the assembling-place or metropolis of the United Brethbkx (which see), partly because the life led in this town com- mands respect for its simplicity, honesty, purity, and vigor. The colored paper and the linen fabrics manuf^iotnrcd here are very celebrated, and known under the name of Hcrrn- huler Papier and JJcrniliiiltr Lcinwand. Her'ron (Fn.txcis J.vv), b. at Pittsburg, Pa., Feb. 17, 1S:'.7; graduated at the Western University of Pennsyl- vania 1Sj3: entered the U. S. army -Apr., ISOl. .as captain 1st Iowa Vols., and engaged in the battles of Dug .-springs, Ozark, and Wilson's freck ; promoted to be lieutenant- colonel 9th Iowa Vols., .and in command of the regiment through campaigns in Missouri, Arkansas, and Indian Territory ; engaged in the battle of Pea Ridge, where ho was severely wounded. Appointed brigadier-general of volun- teers Julv, 18C2, and in command of Army of the Frontier at battles of Prairie Grove and Van Buren : for conduct at former promoted to be major-general of volunteers Nov. 19, 1S62. In command of the left wing of investing forces at Vicksburg, and of the army and navy expedition that ciptured Yazoo City: subsequently of 13th army corps on Te.'jas coast till assigned to comm.and the northern division of Louisiana. In May, 1SC5, negotiated, and in June re- ceived, the formal surrender of the Tr.ans-Mississippi army and all Confederate forces W. of the Mississippi. Ap- pointed one of the commissioners to negotiate treaties with Indian tribes July, ISGo. Resigned commission as majior- general and Indian commissioner Aug., 1865. W.as U. S. marshal district of Louisiana 1867-09, and secretary of state of Louisiana 1870-72. G. C. Sulmoxs. Her'scliel (C.uuiline Licretia), b. at Hanover Mar. 16, 17.iU. f^he was appointed assistant astronomer to George III. of England in 1781, with a moderate salary. She attended her brother. Sir William, in all his night- watches, which generally lasted till morning; wrote from his dictation, as ho swept the heavens with his telescope, his observations; noted the clocks: reduced and arrauged his journals; prepared the zone cataliigues for his sweeps, and performed fur hiin all the laborious mathematical cal- culations necessary for the reduction of his observations. She discovered independently eight comets, besides numer- ous nebula- and clusters of stars. At the death of her brother in 1S22 she returned to her native city, where sho spent the remainder of her life with her only remaining brother, honored and beloved by all. She was elected member of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1S32, and d. at Hanover Jan. % IS-tS. Mils. S. 1!. Heurick. Ilerschel (Sir Joun Frederick Wii.lum), B.vrt., b. at Shuigh, near Windsor, England, Mar. 7, 17112. He was educated at home under the guidance of his parents and his aunt. Associated always with mature minds, breathing the very atmosphere of science, the boy spent his singular childhood in the silent house where the star-watchers slept. Ho went direct from his homo to Eton, and from there to Si. John's College, Cambridge, where ho graduated in l.SIS ns senior wrangler and Smith prizeman. In the same year he read before the Royal Society a mathemat- ical paper, and was elected, at the age of twenty-one, a r-llow. In ls:n, WiUiam IV. bestowed u]ion him the Hanoverian Guelphic order, and five years later, at the coronation of Victoria, ho was created baronet. Several gold medals were awarded to him by the Royal Society and the Astronomical Society of London, and he was made D. C. L. by the University of Oxford. He was succi ssively elected reotor of Marischal College, Aberdeen, president of the .\stronomieal Society, ;ind finally permanent master of the mint, which last position his enfeebled health forced him to resign in 1855. He was honorary or corresponding member to the academies of Brussels, St. Pctersburg,Vieuna, Giittiugen, Turin, Bologna, Naples, Copenhagen, Stock- holm, and others, besides being chevalier of the Prussian order of Merit. In 1829 he married Margaret Brodie, daughter of Rev. Dr. Alex. Stewart, by whom he had nine daughters and three sons. He d. at ColUngwood Apr. 13, 1871. From 1813 to 1822 he devoted himself to mathe- matics, chemistry, and optics, as his memoirs testify. He then began his astronomical work in earnest. In 1825 he began, in connection with Sir James South, a scries of very important observations. Though his especial tastes lay in the direction of physics, his filial devotion deter- mined his lifework. He passed in review the nebula; dis- covered and catalogued by his father : while engaged in this work ho catalogued between 3000 and 1000 double stars. In order to perfect the work begun by his father, ho went, at his own expense, in 1833, to the Cape of Good Hope. That the results might be accurately comparable, bo used the same instrument used by his father. He spent four years at the Cape observing, and five years more re- ducing and arranging his observations, which appeared in 1847 under the title ilfMli/ts of Aalrunomical Obterinlioiu .lade duriiij llic ycura IS^SS at the Cape of Good Hope, bciiKj the cvmpUlioH of a Telescopic Siineii of the ichole vitlblc heaicns, commenced in 1825. This included seven treatises upon— 1, nebulto i 2, double stars; 3, apparent 6i:c of stars; 4. distribution of stars and constitution of Milky Way ; 5, llallcy's comet, etc. ; 6, satellites of Saturn ; 7, solar spots. While in South Africa he inaugurated a valuable system of simultaneous meteorological observa- tions, and instituted a fine public-school system. He pre- pared two elaborate and exhaustive treatises upon '• Light " and '■ Sound," for the Enei/clopn^dia MetropoUtana ( 1 S30-31 ), and wrote for Lardner a treatise upon the study of natural ])hilosophy, which gave a strong and immediate impulse to the study of natural science in England; also a treatise upon astronomy, which was afterwards expanded into his Uuttinca of Aa'tronomy. In all, Sir John added to the 2500 nebula; discovered by his father, 2208 of his own discovery, the whole number known being 5200. He performed a great service to photography by the discovery of a process for making the impressions permanent. Not the smallest part of his work was that of popularizing without falsifying science. These discoveries, together with those recorded in 131 papers contributed to various scientific societies, compose the results of fifty-eight years of labor, included between the day of his graduation and the day of hisdeath. The entire labor of this enormous work was performed by himself, except that which was purely mechanical in the use of his instruments. Mrs. S. B. Hebrick. Herschel (Sir Willi.\m) was b. in Hanover Nov. 15, 1738. Besides music, to which he was educated profcs- sionallv, he received instruclion in French and metaphys- ics in his early years. At the age of fourteen, being forced to earn his own'brcad. he became a member of a Hanover- ian band; in this eap;ieity he came to England in 1759, where the story of his life for some years is a record of bitter privation silently and heroically endured. lie be- came successively master of a military band, organist at Halifax, and organist at the Octagon chapel at Bath. In spite of innumerable professional duties, he pursued his abstract studies with ardor, sometimes going to them after fourteen hours of professional labor. Ho learned Latin, Italian, and sometbing of Greek, with no aid but that of a grammar and dictionary, and mastered alone an obscure mathematical treatise upon music. The harmony of sound soon led, bv the way of optics, to a study of the '• harmony of the spheres." A" small Gregorian telescope fell into his hands, and waked into passionate life the longing which determined his future career. Finding the most ordinary telescope bevond his means, he determined to construct one. The fa"ct that he made and polished 200 metal spec- ula before ho succeeded to his own satisfaction reveals the secret of his successful life. In 1781 he discovered, by the aid of one of his own telescopes, anew planet, called by him Georgium Sidus. by his contemporaries Herschel. but now known under the name of Uranus. This brought him under the notice of George III., who bestowed upon him the position of special astronomer to the king, a pension of 300 guineas a Tear, and a residence at Slough, near Windsor Castle. Ho married, in 178S. Mary, daughter of .\lr. Adee Baldwin, a widow, by whom he had one eon, .lohn F. W. Herschel. He was made member of the Lon- don Roval Society, of the Academy of Sciences, Paris, and president of the Royal Astronomical Society, Lon- don. The Hanoverian Guelphic order was bestowed upon him by the regent, and the title of LL.D. by the Uni- versity of Oxford, besides other distinctions. In his eighty-fourth year, on Aug. 23. 1S22. Sir William Herschel died without "a pang. His disposition was marked by IIERSEY-HERWARTH VON BITTEN FELD. 905 sweetness and benevolence; his character by directness and siinplicilv, bv untiring paliincc and induniilable energy : and hisiuind by breadth of view and extreme caution. II is work i? eompreliended. in great part, in memoirs prci-enle.l before the Koyal Society of Lonilou. which " constitute.' savs Arago. "one of the principal riches of the celebrated coilectioirknown under the title of mi'Mi/jliicut Trunmi- liunt." The front-view telescope suggested by Jacques La- maire was perfected by llersehcl ; the mcclianieal contri- vances by means of which ho mounted and adjusted his fortv-foot telescope, with its speculum neighing a ton, showed him to bo possessed of high mechanical genius. lie so improved the construction of telescopes as to bo able to use magnifying powers of (iOOO times in a reflecting tel- escope seven feet long. Though wo cannot give even the titles of the papers contributed by him to the I'hilviophtcal Trnntdciioiit, wo shall take a hasty survey of those discov- eries—recorded in them from 17!<0to 1S22— which arc per- manent acquisitions to science. In optics he discovered the dark heat-rays of the .solar spectrum, anil made many ex- perirnenls upon radiant heat, upon Newton's rings, and upon the illuminating power of the various prismatic rays. In his researches upon the solar system he made many re- markable observations upon the physical constitution of the sun; he discovered the planet (ranus and his si.\ sat- ellites, as well as two satellites of Saturn, lie :idded much to the subject of the form, time of rotation, and eompara- tivc ningniludcs of the asteroids and planets. lie discov- ered that the moon possessed no atmosphere, and made many valuable observations upon comets. But the real work of the ller.schels, father and son, lay beyond the lim- its of our system in the sidereal depths. Sir William made many and accurate observations upon variable and binary stars; in his investigations upon sidereal parallax, though he failed to find it, he made the astounding iliseovery tliat the sun, with all its attendant planets, is rushing on through space toward a point situated in the constellation Hercules. By means of a twenty-foot telescope he made a survev of the whole of the northern heavens, cataloguing and placing the stars as they came within the telescopic field. To the known nibula-. 500 in number, he added 2500 of his own iliseovery. and under his trained eye and poivcrful telescopes numbers of what had been considered nebula) resolved themselves into clusters and systems of self-luminous suns. He is well denominated by his biog- rapher "one of the greatest astronomers that ever lived in any age or country." -Miis. S. B. IIkuhick. Iler'sey, post-v. and tp., cap. of Osceola co., Mich., near the junction of the Flint ami Pero Marquette and tho Grand Rapids and Indiana K. Us., and at tho confluence of the Ilersey and Muskegon rivers. It has a court-house. a jail, 2 churches, a graded scliool, a prinlingofllce and weekly newspaper, 4 hotels, several stores and shops, a wagon-factory, ii largo saw and shingle mills, a planing- mill, a grist-mill, and an express oflicc. It is in the midst of a fine agrieullural and lumber district. Pop. of tp. 286. ,1. K. IlAmr.ifiL-, Eb. "Osci:ola Oltli.vh." Ilcrs'feld, town of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia, on tho I'ulda, has iinjiortant raaiiufacturcs. Pop. fi-lljl. HertTord, town of Kngland, the capital of Hertford- shire, on the river I,ea. It has several educational insti- tutb.ns. l'.,p. 710.1. Hertford, lounly of North Carolina, bounded on the K. by the navigable Chowan River and on tlm N. by Virginia. The surface is generally level. Corn is the principal agri- cultural product. Cap. Winton. Pop. 9273. Ilerlford, post -v., county-scat of Perquimans co., N. C, on the navigable Perquimans Kivcr, 12 miles from its mouth. Pop. IHB; of tp. 1188, Hcrt'fordHhire,or Herts, county of England, bound- ed by the counties of Ksse,\. Middlesex, Buckingham, and Bedford. It contains .'i'.tl. I 11 acres of fertile and well-cul- livaled hind, consisting of chalk overlaid with gravel and loaiiK and presenting a pleasantly unclulating surface. The products of its meadows and orchards are brought to the London market. Malt is a very important product. Cap. llerHurd. Pop. 7:i,'J«l. ilrri/, (IlKxniK), h. at Copenhagen Aug. 2.'i, 17fl8, and d. there Fob. 2fl, 1870. With the excepti»m of a tour (hroiigli (lermany, France, and Italy in 18:{.'i-:i 1, ho spent his whole life in his native city in a quiet way. anrl devot- ing liimself exclusively to literary work : in IH.M) the Uigs- dag gave liim a jiension. But several cif his works caused a great commotion, especially his rtn-liraf Epixttt h fiftm J''trti- dine ( I H.lfl), whose satire and criticism made people furious. though at the same time they could not help neing charmed by the wit, elegance, and freshness of the style. lie bus written other satirical, lyric, and epical poems, and also some novels; but his talent was eminently drauiatio. He used to write a new drama every winter, and many of them have become verv dear to his countrymen, such as his tragedy Sicnd Ijiirimja Hum (1837 ), his character comedies Sp^nLmen (IS.'itl) and El 0/cr (1863), his romantic come- dies -Viiioii (1848) and Ucii Vtii/tli (1854); some of them have been performed in all the principal theatres of (icr- many, France, and England, such as A'..ii;/ Ilrnen Duller (lS4i")l, twice translated into English, and not seldom per- f.iriaed in America, and Sc/ici^U Jliiseaii (1851). His gen- eral character us an author shows a perfect training — he never failed in what he undertook to do; and a perfect ve- racity — not one adjective in all his volumes was ever al- lowed to tell a lie. Ci.emkss Pktersen. Iler'uli, a (iermanic race who first appear in history in the third century A. I), on the shores of the Euxinc. They were conquered by the Ostrogoths under Ilermanric, and bands of lleruli appear after this in all parts of Eu- rojie. They swelled the train of Attila, and arc later found among the enemies of the lluiis. In the valley of tho Theiss, on the lower Danube, and in lllyria they founded governments, and were everywhere among the bravest and most barbarous and unruly of the liermanic jieoples. Odoa- cer was called king of the lleruli, but was not of this race. After the fall of the Western empire (470 A. D.) the lleruli be- came one of the dominant races, but the subject Lombards rose and almost annihilated them about 512 A. i). From that time they were important only as soldiers in the ser- vice of the more powerful tribes. Horvfc (Eooiaud), b. in 1835 ot St. Denis (Rf-union Island) ; entered, after brilliant studies in colleges, tho famous Paris Normal School, where he had as fellow-mates Prf'vost-Paradol, About, Sarcey, Weiss, Tainc, all tho pleiad of modern French polemists and writers. Hcrv6 contributed to many Paris journals, and with Weiss founded in 186U the Junnial (b: Paris, of which he is the present editor, and which supports the cause of a liberiil constitu- tional monarchy, modelled after the British constitution, llerv*; is the author of One I'mje of Ciitilcm/uiraneoua Hia- U.ry and of a llletonj of the Liberal Ideas in England. Felix Aitaicxe. IIrrv6 (assumed name of Fi.orimosd Rongcr), b. at lloudain. near Arras. .lunc 30, 1825, was at first dramatic artist and manager of small theatres. He took afterwards to composing opf-ras boufl'cs, like L'CEil Cnrf, Let Tnrce, rllilprrir. Le Petit Fumt. FEI.IX AtlCAIGNE. Her'vey (.Tames), b. at Ilardingslone, Northampton- shire, Eng., Feb. 20, 1713; studied (1731-38) at Lincoln College, Oxf<ird. where, from his acquaintance with John Wesley and from Zimmerman's writings, he received strong religious impressions. He took orders in the English Church and held various rectorships, notably that of Wes- lon-Favel, where he d. Dec. 25, 1758. Author of Midila- liont and Contcmplutit.nH (1740 and 1747). which became exceedingly popular, notwithstanding its turgid and ex- travagant "style, which founil many admirers, attracted iiarlly by the devout spirit of the author; of Thrmn and Acjiasia (3 vols., 1755), consisting of dialogues upon rclig kiHS topics— a work which called forth replies from Robert Sandcman and John Wesley; and other works, among them posthumous Letters to John ll'e/i?<.y, which, it is be- lieved, sufi'ered much from tho reckless interpolations of llervey's editors. Ho was a man of learning, but not of intellectual )^owcr. Ilor'wnrth von Bit'tcnfold (KAni,EnERnAnD),b.at (irosswerther, Prussian Saxony. Sept. 4. 17th'i; entered tho military service in 1811. He took part in tho campaign against France in 1814, and look two hostile pieces at tho Bt"ormingof Montmartre. In I.-; 17 ho reccivcil tliecoiumand of the Islrcgiment of the guard, in 1850 of the lOlh brigade of infantry, in 1854 of the confederate fortress of Mentz, in 1800 of tho 7lh armv corps. In 1863 he became a general of infantry, and commanded in 1804 the Prussian troops against DiMimark niuler Prince Frederick Charles, who was eoinmander-in-chiif of the allied Austrian-Prussian force. Juno 2'J ho took tho island of Alsen. After the peace of Vienna ho was appointed chief commander in the duchies (jf the Elbe, ami in 1805 he received the command of the 8tb army c.irpy. In 1800 he was commander-in-chief of the armv of the Elbe, gained victories in the encounter at Iliincrwnsser and Miinchengr'dti! (Juno 26 and 28), and played a very conspicuous part in the battle of Kiinigs- griil/. by crossing tho Biestrit/. anil attacking tho villages of Prolilus and Prune. The Austrian left wing rested 00 these two points, and by storming and taking them ho completely destroyed this wing of the enemy. In 1870, in the war against France, bo was appointed governor-general .01 tho Ubine and of all the western provinces, which diOi- .■ull and responsilde)iosilion lost agreat deal of itsimport- aiH'c, as the war was carried on in tho enemy's country. On Apr. 8, 1871. llerwarlh retired from netivi' servioo as field-mBrsbal-gcnoral. Ai;oi:sT Niemann. 906 HERZBERG— HESIOD. Hcrz'bcrg (Ewald Fiiiedricii), b. at Lottin, in Pomc- rauia, Sept. 2, 172j; studied law at the University of llalle, and entered in 17-17 tho service of the Prussian ministry of foreign affairs, llo wrntc in 17^6 tho famous Mt'muire raUottnSf founded on papers stolen from tho ar- chives of Dresden, and intended to defend tho invasion of Saxony by Frederick II.; he also wrote a memoir in defence of tho first partition of Pohind in 1772 j and the peace of llubcrtsburg in 170."?, as well as the formation of the su-called "Fiirstenbund " in 1785 against Austria, wa? his work. Frederick II. appreciated him very much, and made him first minister of state, but after his death llorz- bcrg's influence soon decreased, thou<;h Frederick William 11. made him a count and president of tho Academy of Si--ieneo of Berlin. Tho convention of Keichenbaeii in 1700 proved a failure, and Hcrzberg retired. In 17'.KI, when the second division of Poland and tho unfortunate war against Franco had brought Prussia into a critical jiosition, he offered his services once more, but tho offer was not ac- cepted, and the old ni:»n felt this disappointment so keenly that ho fell sick and d. shortly after, May 25, 1795. Herzcgovi'na, province of Bosnia, in European Tur- key, bounded ^V. by Dalmatia and S. by the Gulf of Cat- taro and by Montenegro. Area, G420 square miles. It is peopled largely by Slavic races : is occupied by tho ridges and valleys of tho Binaric Alps; produces much grain, to- bacco, and honey. Two-thirds of its people aro of tho (ircek faith, and of tho remainder one-third aro Roman Catholics, the rest Mohammedans. Tho name is corrupted from llerzog (** duko'"), because at the time of the Moslem conquest it had for sonio years been governccl by a line of independent dukes. Cap. Mostar. Pop. 2U0,000. B[er'zea(ALEXANDKK), b. at Moscow Mar. 25.1812. In lS3ir ho was imprisoned for a short time, and banished to Viatka. near Siberia, on account of tho radical ideas ho entertained without concealing them. Having been par- doned in ISui*, he was appointed clerk in one of the gov- ernment offices at St. Petersburg, but his ideas had not changed, nor his desire for making them known, and con- sequently in lSt2 ho was ordered to reside in Novgorod. At the death of his father in 1S47 ho inherited a large for- tune, and he now sought permission to go abroad. It was granted, and, steadily watched by the llussiau police, he travelled for several years in Italy and Franco. In 1S52 he settled in London; in 1865 he removed to tieneva; ho d. in Paris Jan. 21, 1S70. His most important literary un- dertaking was no doubt tho Kolokol ("Tho Bell"), a Rus- sian periodical, issued through many years, first in London and then in Geneva, and very extensively read in Russia. But besides some novels and sketches of a lighter descrip- tion, though generally very interesting — as. for instance, Who»e is the Fnult f Doctor Krupow {hoi\\ in 1847), 7?e('j/- lecttont of mtj Traveh (1854), etc. — ho wrote a great num- ber of political and polemical works, as, for instance, Ruh- gia and the lirro/ufion (;i vols., 1800), liitssia and the Old World (18(JI), Memoh-rs de V Impiratrtce Catheviney Merits par elle-meme, with an introduction (1859), liiloe i Doiinii (3 vols., 1864), etc., which exercised great influence on Rus- sian civilization. He was the channel through which the ideas of Western Europe flowed into Russia, but this chan- nel was provided with a filter; gome im|iracticable ideas ^ may have slipped through, but much unclean matter was , stopped. Of the revolutionists of Europe, Herzea is con- sidered one of tho noblest and one of the most powerful. Her'zog ( Hans), b. at Aarau in I8U0 ; devoted himself to technical studies, anrl took charge of the factory of his father. Ho was very fond of studying military science, especially artillery; served as a volunteer in tho M'iir- tcmberg artillery; visited the Sardinian camps, and was often present as a spectator at the German manoeuvres, i After serving for many years in the militia, ho was ap- , pointed inspector of tho confederate artillery. As tho ! Franco-German war of 1870-71 made it necessary for Switzerland to take some military measures in order to protect her frontiers, Herzog was ap])ointed commander-in- chief of the army in July, 1870. With tho corps of ;{7,000 men which Switzerland raised he formed a line of observa- tion, beginning in the valleys of tlie Jura, at iJelsborg and Pruntat, increasing in strength along tho lianks of the Birr, Ergolz, and Rhine, continued over Sehaffhausen into the canton of Zurich, and ending on tho Aar at Brugg. As the war drew away from the Rhine in August, the greater part of this army was disbanded. Herz<tg resigned, but gave a report of the army organization which showed that the fighting capacity of the Swiss army was a mere illu- pion. He was persuaded, however, to assume the command once more when Bouvhaki's army approached, and noeupied the frontier with HO.OOO men. In this position ho mediated the passing of tho French army, dofoated at Belfort, across the Swiss frontier. ArorsT Nikma.vs. He'siod ['Ha^oSo?], next to Homer tho oldest of the Gre- cian poets whoso works aro known to us, and founder of the epic-didactic school of poetry at tho foot of Mt. Helicon in Bceotia, as Homer was tho representative of the epic Ionian school of Asia Minor. The two schools had little in common except the epic form and dialect, for while Ho- mer sang tho exploits of heroes and sought to inspire admiration for adventurous enterprises, Hesiod inculcates tho duty of labor and frugality, and treats of tho daily round of domestic life. Frotn these characteristics Cleom- cues claimed the former as the bard of tho Spartan war- riors, while Hosiod was termed by him tho poet of tho Helots. Of the period when he flourished and tho circum- stances of his life wo know little. What little is known is derived from his own writings; for while Homer, in whom there is greater objectivity than in any other poet, has left in his productions no personal allusions, Hesiod has intro- duced in many passages incidental accounts of his life and. family relations. But in neither poet is any indication given of tho jicriod in which ho lived. Nor is there any external testimony worthy of coufidoncc. Herodotus (ii. 53) says that Hesiod and Homer lived 400 years before his time, and not more, which wouhl givo their date about 840 B. c. Most writers make tho two contemporary, while some place Hesiod before, others 100 years later than. Homer. (The various statements aro collected in Clinton's /'««/*' Ildlenicif vol. i. pp. 359-.'i61.) Gottling coincides in the opinion of Herodotus, while Grote, from tho internal evi- dence of style and sentiment, places him shortly after 700 B. c. Hesiod was of ^^olian parentage, b. at Ascra in Bceotia. His father had been a resident of Cyme, a toxvn of ^olis in Asia Minor, but had removed to Ascra, where he possessed and cultivated a farm, which he left at his death to his t\vo sons, Hesiod and Perscs. After the divis- ion, Perses, tho younger brother, who seems to have been fond of lawsuits and the harassing business of the agora, managed by bribing the judges t<> defraud his brother of a portion of his inheritance. Hesiod thereupon in disgust left his native Ascra and removed to Orchomenus, where he spent tho rest of his life. Ho further intimates that he was cugage<l iu farming pursuitis. and the precepts which arc embodied iu his Worku mid Dai/s appear to be the re- sult of a practical acquaintance with agriculture. The way iu which ho was led to attempt poetic composition is related in tho opening of tho Thcof/uu^, The Muses, who frequented Mt. Helicon, on one occasion met Hosiod as ho was pastur- ing his flocks at tho foot of tho mouutaiu. They thereupon bestowed on him the gift of poetry, and consecrated him to their service by presenting hira a laurel branch. Tho only other incident in his life is his visit to Chalcis in Euboca, to take part in a j)oetical contest at the funeral celebration iu honor of King Araphidamas, in which he gained a tripod as the prize, which he dedicated to tho Muses. From this arose tno story of a poetical contest between Homer and Hesiod, which gave rise to a production ('Ayu>»' 'Ofj.j)pov koX 'Ho-idfiou), still extant, and often printed with the wi-rks of Hesiod. His death was said to have been brought about through the false suspicions of two youths of Locris. His bones were subsequently removed, by command of tho ora- cle, to Orchomenus, where a tomb was erected to his mem- ory, and he was honored as a hero. The works ascribed to Hesiod aro numerous, but some of these are not his own productions, but belong to the school of which he was the founder: (1) 'Epyo Koi 'H^epat ("Works and Hays"), a poem treating of the duties of the farmer and the best method of conducting the ojieratious of agriculture, also inculcating justice, maintaining the dignity of honest labor, laying down rules for the regulation of life and the rearing of children (the •' Works '*) ; followed by a calendar of tho days of tho month on which it is advantageous or otherwise to undertake any labor (the "Hays"). This jioem is the only one accepted by the Boaotians about Mt. Helicon as genuine, though regarded as somewhat interpolated. (2) The Theoi/ont/ (ecoyoi'ta), which treats of the genealogy of the gods, being in great measure a mere enumeration of names, but containing some episodes of considerable beauty. From the battle of the Titans and the gods in this Milton borrowed in his battle of the angels. Herodotus recog- nizes the genuineness of this jioem when he says that Hesiod and Homer formed a thcogony for the Greeks and gave names to tho gods. In its present form it has under- gone many variations and been largely interpolated. The ancients regarded as a sort of continuation of the Theogony tho poem called 'Hotat, sometimes oulleil 'Hoiai fi.tydk<x.% or KaraXoyoi. ywaiKuiv, an aceuunt of the women who had been loved by the gods, and who had become mothers of tho great heroes and demigods from whom tho princely houses of (ireeco were derived. Tho name is said to be formed from the expression used in introducing each character, ^ o'ii\. The work is now lost, (^i) The Shield of Ifercnlea {'AffirU 'HpojtKiovt) is tho title of a poem made up apparently HKSPELER— IIESYCHirS. 907 from other works of Ilesiod ; a part of it at least is believed to have belougcd to the 'Hoiat, and only a portion is devoted to (be description of the .shield, and this is an imitation of Homcr'a shield of Achilk-.". The titles of other poems as- cribed to He>;iod arc — AiytMio«. Mf\aniToSia, 'EfirK^<ri? cVl Ttpaaty, and Xctpofi'oc virod^Kai. The best editions of Ilesiod are by Th. Gaisford in i\>ntfe Miutirrs (irnvi, vol. i. ; by Gbttlins (Gotba, 1S43, 2d ed.)j by Van Lennep (Amster- dam, 18i:i-47, 3 vols.): by F. A. Paley (London, ISfil). Chapman ha^ translated the ir<**-i*« nnri D'li/it into English under the title ll><iii>'VH ftroiyim and B>n>h of Vat/M, and Elton has given the entire poems. (Sec Mi'ller's Nint. Greek Lit., vol. i. p. 77 : Murk's //*«/. Gntk Lit. ; Grote's Hi»t, of Greece, vol. i.; Creuzeu u. Hermann, Brt'e/e iiber Homer und Heniod (Heidelberg:, 1S17): (Irir.Nl.\rT, I)c la T/i/n,/oui>- d'lhiiode (Paris, 1835) ; Bahr, in p€ndyn Jical- Enryklnp.) H. DkISLER. Iles'peler, a v. of Waterloo tp. and cc. Out., Canada, on the (ircat ^^*estern Railway, 59 miles from Toronto, has manufactures of worsted, woollen, cotton, and other goods. Pop. of sub-district, 797. lles'pcr, post-tp. of Winneshiek co., Ta. Pop. 10-11. llcspor'idesy three or four, or even seven in number, were the daughters of Atlas an<l He.'^peris. To their guar- dianship were entrusted the golden a])plo,-< which (iea gave Hera as a bridal present, and which Henicles stole and brought to Eurystheus. Not only their number, but also their descent and the place of their garden, is variously given in the Grecian mythology. Hesper'omys,a genus of Murida?, including the white- footed or deer-mouse of the Xorthern States, and some thirteen other species of North American mice. Hes'se [Gcr. ffrttnen; Lat. Ilt-MtiHt], a mountainous ter- ritttry in the western part of Central Germany, situated between the Ncckar, Hliine. Main, Labn, and Fulila. It was inhabited by the tribe of the t^atti at tlie time of Ger- manicus, but the Catti became lost as an individual tribe among the Franks, and when these emigrated to Belgium and France, the Hessian territory became nearly depopu- lated. Meanwhile, the Saxons pushed into the country from Thuringia, and for a period Ilessia was united with the Thiiringian principality; but at the death of Henry Ka.spo in 1217 a succession- war broke i»ut bctwecu his nephew, Henry of Misuia, and his niece. iSophia, married to Henry, duke of Urabant, which ended in V2G'.i in a sepa- ration of the two countries. Sophia obtained Hessia. and her son, Ludwig the Child, was acknowledged as landgrave, took up his residence at CasscI, and founded the Hessian dynasty. One of his descendants, Philip the Magnani- mous, divideil his land at his death in l,'it)7 between his four sons. William IV., Ludwig IV., Philip II.. and George I. But Lmhvig IV. .lied in KlOt and Philip II. in lOS.*?, without children, and thus only two branches uf the family were continued — that of Hesse-Cassel, descending from William IV., and that of Hcssc-Darmstadt, descending from (Jleorge I. The elder branch, that of Hes-iie-CasscI, ceased to reign Aug. 17, I SCO, when its dominions were in- corporated with Prussia; but it rcigncil long enough to acquire quite a conspicuous place in history, for no family was ever meaner, more treacherous, or more infamous ; and as if to intensify the character of their history, most of it? members possessed a peculiar art of mixing tlicir stu- fddity and their crimes with the ridiculous. Frederick It., nndgravc from 17C0 to 17S5, hired to England 22,000 of his subjects to light against the Americans (1776-81), and was paid therefor 21,276,778 thalers. He iiad sixteen pal- aces, some of them large enough to contain sixteen land- graves, yet he left a mysterious treasure, which his son in the days of troublo deposited with the Frankfort Jew, Roth»<ehild. This son, William I., made first a bargain with Napoleon, and rose- acc<(rdingly in dignity from land- grave to eleclor in KSU:{ ; but unable to predict whether France or Prussia would carry the day, and having pre- pared himself for siding with Prussia if that shoubl prove the way to pr<»fit, lie was disoovcreil by Napoleon and ex- pelled sb<»rtly after the battle of Jena (Nov. 1, ISO(!) ; his dominions were iner>r])orated with the kingdom of West- phalia. After Napoleon's fall bo returned to his electorate (Nov. 21, 1813), with many golden ])romises to his subjects of constitution, representative government, etc., all of which he broke as soon as be discovered that constitution and representative government had something to do with the linaoces. His intrigues, however, in Vienna to be cre- ated king by the congress. like the electors of Saxony and Bavaria, and the indignation of the other kings on account of this impertinent demand, form a very entertaining epi- Bodc. lie d. Feb. 27. 1821. Under his son and suceessor, William II.. the discord between monarch and subjects be- came dangerous, and when in ls;;0 a revolution actually broke out, bo followed his father's example: ho promised everything on one day, and broke his promises the next. Still worse was Frederick William I., who succeeded his father Nov. 20, 1847. When the revolution of 1S48 came, nothing was too dear to him: censorship of the press, re- ligious restrictions, arbitrary judicatory authority, irre- sponsible financial measures, etc., — he gave up all. and granted an excellent constitution, but in l.Sy2 foreign soldiers sat in courts-martial and condemned Hessian civil officers because they had declined to act against the constitution on which they had made oatli. From 18."U to ISlJl the pojiulation of the Hessian electorate decreased more than 6 ]>er cent., and it was a great benefit, not only to Hesse, but to Germany and to civilization in general, when in 18Gf), the elector happening to side with Austria, Count Bismarck had him carried as prisoner to Stettin and bis domini«)ns incorporatetl with Prussia. The younger branch, that of Hesse-Darmstadt, is still reigning. One of its members. Ludwig I., joined the con- federation of the Rhine and obtained from Napoleon large accessions of territory and the title of grand duke. Ho followed Napoleon faithfully until after the battle of I,(i|)- sic. when be was fortunate enough to join the allies ju^. in time to be accepted. After 1814 he promised, like all the German princes, to give a constitution, but he re- deemed his word conscientiously, and the country was in a prosperous condition when he d., Apr. G, 18.30. His grandson, Ludwig III., who succeeded to the throne June l(i, 184S, concluded a special military convention with Prussia in 1SG7. according to which the army of Hesse be- came a part of the army of the North German confedera- tion, and as such it took part in the Franco-Prussian war in 1870. Clemens Petersen. Hes'se-I>arin'sladt, German grand duchy, consists of two large and eighteen small scjiarate districts, situated j partly between Prussia, Bavaria, ami Baden, partly within the Prussian frontier. Area, 29G4 square miles. Pop. 802.894; namely, i)S.'-),.'i99 Protestants, 2;J8.080 Roman Catholies, and 2^>,'^7•^ Jews. The country is mountainous or hilly, covered by Vogelsberg, Odcnwald, and spurs of Taunus and AVesterwalil, but the soil is very productive and well cultivated. Wheat, wine, fruit, and tobacco are ! raised; some iron, salt, and brown coal is mined; linen ' and woollen fabrics, leather and .straw goods, arc mauu- I factured; the carriages from Oft'enbaeh are celebrated. The j annual revenue amounts to $4,500,000: the expenditures to $4,250,000 ; the public debt to $5,J00,000. Cup. Darm- * stadt. ' Iles'se-Nas'san, province of Prussia, formed in ISGG I of the electorate of Hesse-Cassel, the duchy of Nassau, the I landgraviate of Hcssc-Homburg, and the free city of Frank- fort, is situated between Hesse-Darmstadt, Bavaria, und the provinces of Saxony, Hanover, Rhenish Prussia, and Wcsti)halia. Area, G02"l square miles. Pop. 1.400,370. The surface is mountainous, occupied by the Spessart, I Rhiin, Westerwald. and Taunus, but the soil is very fertile I and well cultivated. Agriculture, cattle-raising, and manu- I facturo of cloth, iron, jewelry, and jiottery are the chief I occupations. Much and excellent wine is produced. Min- I eral springs are numerous, ancl the watering-places of Ems, I Wieabadcn, Schlangenbad, and others are celebrated. I lles'.sian-Fly [so called because it was believed to have been brought from Germany by the Hessian troops during ! the Revolution], the Cvridonnfia destructm-, a dipterous in- I sect which is very destructive to wheat in parts of the U. S. In spring and autumn the larvip crawl in between tlie stalk I and the sheath of a leaf, and remain near the ground, head [ downward, sucking the juice. In five or six weeks they I enter a semi-pupa or '* flaxseeil slate," from which they go into the pupa, and then become ]>crfect insects. They are destroyed in great numlurs by insect parasites, and burn- ' iug the stubble in the autumn will destroy a great projior- I tion of their larvio. I Ilcs'ychasts [Gr. ^trvxairrot', "quictists"], n body of mystics in the Greek Church, chiefly monks of Mt. Alhos, who professed that by retirement and conteinphition they I could come to behold the divine glory (called the *' Taboritio , light," because it was regarded as the same as that which shone at Christ's transfiguration on iMt. Tabor). They be- lieved that the best position they could assume for behold- ing this light was to sit an<I gaze unon the navel. They flourished in the fourteenth century, but the leaven of their doctrine is not yet extinct in the East. Barlaam was their great opponent. Upsych'ius [*H(ri;x*o«]- ^ grammarian of Alexandria, under whose name a valuable Greek lexicon has come down to us. Nothing is known of his life, and bis date is so un- certain that oritics vary in regard to it from .'iOO a. i>. to the tenth century. Tlie former is more generally accepted, and the forms and references whieh imply a later date are be- lieved to be interpolations. The work is bused on the ear- 908 HESYCHIUS-HEUSSER. lier lexicon of Diof^cnianus, and is valiiat>)o as containing explanations of words and forms and literary and archtuo- logical information derived in part from writers now lost. The explanations of words from the Scriptures and from Christian writers arc tho additions of later hands. The best editions are by Alberfi and Ruhnken ( Leydeu, I74G-76, 2 vols., fol.). and by M. Schmidt (5 vols. 4(o. Jena. 1SJ8-61); the (ifu»»a'- Sucra separately by Ernesti (Leipsic, 1785). (Sec Kanke, De Lex. Ileajfck. vera orit/ine, ete.. Quedlin- burf;. 18;!I.) II. Dkislf.k. Ilesychius^ of Miletus, a philosopher and historian, surnanu-d 'IWovtrrpto^ (tlie Latin i((uKtrit<), lived in the sixth century a. r>. under the emperor Justinian. He wrote a synoptical history {'laropiKhv uif ci* avvu>ii(.i Ko<Jti.iKTi^ (OTopta;) of the world, in six parts, from Belus. king of Assyriii. to the deatli of Anastnsius I. Of the sixth part a portion, relating to the origin of Constantinople, still remains. Ho was also the author of a work treating of persons distin- guished for their learning ( I If pi rutv ev naiStiif St.aXafj.\J/dvToiv ao>i)oiv). arranged under the letters of the alpliabct, proba- bly' extracted from the work of Diogenes Laertius. Best edition of both treatises by OrelU (Leipsic, 1S20). H. DnisLKn. Heteroccr'cal [Gr. tVfpo?, " another," and KipKo^, *' tail "], a nnnic applied to the tails of those species of fish whicli have the vertebral column extended into the upper lobe, which is the larger of the two. A symmetrical fish-tail is called homocarcal. The terms were introduced by Agassiz. The cartilaginous fishes and many extinct species have hetorocercal tails, and fishes with homocercal tails have, while imperfectly developed, tails of heteroeereal character. This fact was formerly held to indicate a rela- tively low rank for fishes with heteroeereal tails ; but this opinion is not generally accepted. Hctcropy'gia [from erepo?, "abnormal." and irvyri, '' anal region "J, a group of fishes represented by a single family ( AniblyopsiduM. belonging to tho order Tcleocephali and tho sub-order llaplomi, and especially distinguished by the abnormal position of the vent under the opercular region, and consequently far in advance of the pectoral fins (and hence the name). The fishes are subfusiform in outline, with minute scales on tho body, but none on tho head, with the dorsal and anal fins opposite to each other, and with the ventral fins very small and abdominal or en- tirely wanting. The margin of the upper jaw is formed wholly by the intermaxillaries. The intestinal canal has two turns ; the stomach is well defined and ciecal ; and py- loric appendages are present. The species are viviparous. To this family belong four species, which have been re- ferred to three distinct genera: (1) AmblyoI'SIS (which s"p). including the celebrated large blind fish of the Mam- moth and sonif other caves of Kentucky and Indiana {Ani- bhlfpHiH i^pdrciin). in which there are no functional eyes and ventral fins are present; (U) 7]v/i/i/iVAr/i_y«, represented by a small species ( Ti/ph({rh(fit/n subterrauens), which is also found in the Mammoth Cave, as well as in some other sub- terranean streams in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama, which is also destitute of eyes, but has no central fins; and (M) i'liiibxjaMtvr, containing two species ( T. ronnttim, A g.. dis- covered in rice-ditches in Carolina, and C. A^jassizii, l*utnam, found in subterranean streams in Tennessee), both having eyes and being destitute of ventral fins. Amb/f/opnis and Ti/plilirhilif/s have each a single pyloric apjiendage on each side, and the ovary is at each side of the stomach, and the head has tactile ridges; while ('holm/antcr has two pyloric appendages on each side, and the ovary is ])laced behind the stomach, and the head is without ridges. The species of AmhlifofiHi's sometimes reaches nearly five inches in length; those of TifphUchthifH and Choli>f/nstrr, less than two. The afiiiiities of these fishes have been generally su])- posed to be with the killy-fishcs or minnows {Cyprinodon- tidae), but their relation to those forms is not chtso, although there is some resemblance in general appearance. Much speculation has been spent upon the question of the origin of the blind fishes, but it is sufficient to state that they arc very closely related to perfectly seeing fishes (Choloiffifitcr) found in the streams of the same region, and that at the same time there are other differences between the two forms than those of sight ; therefore we cannot at- tribute the parentage of the blind fi?hcs directly to the eyed ones. Inasmuch, however, as we know by experiment and the occurrence in entire groups of animals of tho tond- eney towards atrophy of parts tliat are disused, it is toler- ablv curtain that the want of sight could be readily eflfcctcd by confinement to dark caves, and we sliould doubtless search for the original progenitors of the blinil fishes in formerly existing oycd ones. (Sec Pi;tnam (J. W.) in Au- nitiif Report of the Pcnhotly Academy of Science for 1871, and in American Naturalist for Jan., 1S72.) TlIKODOIlE CtlLI,. Heteroso'mata [from crepoc, " unequal," and <Twp.o, **boily "]. a sub-order of teleocephalous fishes, peculiar among the vertebrates in the asymmetry of the body, to which the name alludes. The animal is very much com- pressed, with dorsal and abdominal edges trenchant, and generally it rests on the sandy or muddy bottoms of the water flat on one side, and hence the inferior is white, while the side which is kept uppermost is dark ; the ventral fins are jugular or thoracic; the dorsal and anal fins very elougated ; the scapular arch is destitute of a mesocoracoid bone. They are most nearly related to the cod-fishes and allied tribes. In the early embryonic stage these fishes are symmetrical, but they very soon assume that dissimilarity of the sides which is characteristic of the mature condition. Their development has been studied by Malm, Steenstrup, Thompson, Traquair, Sehrodte, etc. Steeustrup ( 1804) con- tended that the combination (tf the eyes on one side was effected by a transfer of the upper one from the blind side through the tissues below tho .arch formed by the frontal bono of its own side to the opposite one. But a more con- secutive study of the development and anatomy of the va- rious forms seems to establish the fact that this transfer is rather effected by a rotation of tho eye and contiguous parts from the one side to the other. The rotation of the eye has been explained on the principle of its tendency, while the fish is yet young and symmetrical, but prone to lie on one side, to turn towards the light ; this tendency, con- firmed and established by slow degrees, finally culminated in the habit now universal. The least generalized of this type is the Rrinhnrdtus hippofjlossoidrH, a kind of halibut found in the Arctic seas and as far S. as the Banks of Newfoundland. The sub-order embraces two families (Plei'RONEOTID^ and SoLEiDiE) and numerous species. Tni:oDOKE Gill. Heth, tp. of Harrison co., Ind. Pop. 1615. Iletman. See Atamax. Hct'zel (PiERnE .Iiles), b. at Cbartres in 1814, began as the partner of Paulin, the celebrated publisher of the works of the greatest modern French writers. In 1848, Hetzel exercised a great influence in favor of the republican movement, and occupied several offices in the capacity of an under-secretary in two ministries, and finally as general secretary of the executive power. During the empire Hetzol busied himself exclusively with publishing the books of Victor Hugo, Georges Sand. etc.. and he wrote also, under the pseudonym of "Stahl," some highly moral hooks, like The Familiar Morale A Student's Travels. Xcw antl Safe Ad- veuturea of Tom Thumb, The Esprit of Women and Women of Exprit, etc. Felix Aicaigne. Hcug'Hn, von fTHEonOR). Baron, b. at Hirschlanden, Wiirtemberg. Mar. 26, 1824: travelled in the East 1850-52 j became Austrian consul at Khartoom. and explored Abys- sinia and the White Nile Valley 18.">2-54; travelled along the Gulf of Aden and the shores of the Red Sea 185G-58; from 1860 to 1865 was again engaged in African explor- ations; made a journey in the region of Spitsbergen and Nova Zembl.a 1870-71. Author of Rrisen in Nordoatafrikn ( 1 857), Ornithologic Nordo8tnfri1ca>i { 1 860 ). Sifntemat. Uebersicht der Siiuffethiere Sordafri kaft {\SG7), Heine narh Abeaginien, etc. (1868), Reiee in das Gchiet dee wcissen Sil (1869), etc. D. Nov. 5, 1876. Heus'ser (Mrs. Meta), tho best female song-writer in the (icrman language, and a woman of rare genius sanc- tified by deep piety, b. Apr. 6, 17U7, the fourth daughter of Pastor Diet helm Schwcizer, in the mountain- village of Hirzel, canton Zurich, Switzerland, within S miles of Mount Kigi, where she resided till her death Jan. 2, 1S7G. She married Dr. Heusscr, an eminent physician, and be- came the mother of a large family, bur her household duties did not prevent her from singing "like the bird on the tree," giving utterance to her love of nature and nature's God, and the jcys and sorrows of her heart. She never dreamed that her lays would ever be given to the world, but her friends thought differently, and after many vain efforts they obtained her consent to publish anonymously some of them in Knapp's Chrivtoterpr (1S^4). They were most favorably received, and passed into many collections and German hymn-books of Kurope and America. In 18.S7, Albert Knapp edited a volume of her poems (under the title Licdtr einer Verborfjenen), which was followed by another volume (Tjcipsic. 1867) under her real name, which at last became generally known. A selection from both volumes has recently been translated into English by Miss Jane Borthwick {translator of ffymn» from the Laud if Luther), under the title Alpinr LyricH ( Edinburgh and Lon- don, 1875). Koch, in his lliatttry of German Church /*i>elry (3d ed.), well characterizes her jioems in these words: "From contemplation of the glorious .Alpine world, and tho atmosphere of spiritual freedom which she daily and hourly breathes out of tho Sacred Scriptures, have sprung HEUSTIS— HEXACIIOKD. 909 the tender yet deeply reflective poems whioh have made i Mcta lleusser the most eminent and nolile among all the female poets of our whole Evausclieal Chunh. Her lavs flow freely from the fresh fountain of a heart in conslaut, holy communion with (iod." Phii.ii- Siiiaff. Heus'lis (.Iabez Wiggixs). M. D., b. in 17S6 in St. John, .V. B. It is believed he graduated in the College of I'hysieians and Surgeons of New York City ; made a cruise in a man-of-war as surgeon's mate, and on his return was appoinlc.l surgeon in tJcn. Jackson's army, and served tbrouohout the Southern campaigns. Dr. lleustis was a ready writer, and from 181C to the time of his decease, which occurred from blood-poison contracted by a puncture made while operating, ho wrote on the topography and dis- eases of Louisiana, etc., and contributed largely to the Amrricun Juiiriiiil of Mediral Scienrit. In ISlii ho re- moved from Cahawha (where in 18L'.i ho was selected to welcoino La Fayette) to Mobile, but was at the Talladega Springs when he d., 1.S41. Few in the South were more active in the profession than he, or more deserving. ■^ Paul F. Eve. Hcvcs, town of Hungary, carries on a considerable trailu in wine, wheat, tobacco, flax, and hemp, raised in its vicinity. Pop. 5700. Ilcwes (.losEPn), a signer of the Declaration of Inde- pendence, b. of Quaker stock at Kingston, X. J., in ITIiO ; was educated at Princeton, and went into business, first in Philadelphia, and then at Edenton, N. V. ; wasa member of tbetieneral Congress from North Carolina 1774-7", and again in 1779. In Congress ho took a prominent jiart in the pcrformauco of public business. U. at Philadelphia Nov. 10, 177'J. IIcw'it(AtGnsTixnFnASCis), ft Roman Catholic (Paul- ist) priest, a son of N. Ilcwit, b. at Fairfield, Conn., in 1820; graduated at Amherst in 1S:!'J; studied theology at East Windsor, Conn., and became a:i Episcopalian minis- ter. In 1840, while residing in North Carolina, he be- came a Roman Catholic; was ordained in 1847; joined the Paulists in 1848, and afterwards was appointed pro- fessor of philosophy, tlicology, and Holy Scripture in the Paulist seminary, New York. Author of /Vo///cra» o/ (/le jtjr, Light and Darkness, and of several translations, and of many articles in periodicals. Hewit (HKXnv Sti-aiit), M. D., b. at Fairfield, Conn., Dec. 2i, 1825; studied at Yale College; was a ]>upil of Drs. Van Duren and Mott ; graduated 1847 at New York University ; wasan nssisiant surgeon (1847-52) in the U. S. army, serving in .Mexico and on the Pacific coast; prac- tised three years in California; became a Roman Catholic 1855; returned to New York ; served 18G1-C5 as a surgeon of volunteers on the 8lafl"s of Gens. Grant, Scolield. etc.: was eminent for charitable labors. Son of Rev. Nathaniel Ex. L IstTctrachord. 2d. 3d. a D. in New York Hewit and grandson of James Hillhouse. Aug. Ill, 187;!. Hewit (NATnASiEL). D. D., b. at New London, Conn., Aug. 28, 1788: graduated at Yale in 1808; taught for some years, and in 1811 was licensed to preach; studieil theology at .\udover ; held Presbyterian and Congre- gational pastorates at Plattsburg. N. Y'., 1815-17, and at Fairfield, Conn., 1818-27; engaged in the temperance re- form lS27-.'!0 ; held pastorates at liridgport. Conn., 18:iO- 62, receiving an assistant in the latter year. He was one of the founders of the East \Vind."or (now Ilartfonl) Theol- ogical .Seminary, and an able and eloquent defender of the Old School theology. D. Feb. 3, 18G7. Hew'itt (Abram Steve.vs), A. M., b. at Haverstraw, N. Y., July ai, 1822 ; graduated at Columbia College 1842 ; studied law, but engaged in the manufacture of iron ; was commissioner to the French Exposition of 1807; was elected in 1874 to the 44th Congress (1875-77) from the Tenth dis- trict of Now Y'ork ; has been secretary of the Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art. New York Cily, from its organization to the present time (1875); and is widely known as an expert in questions relating to the iron manufacture. Author of the official Report on the Iron and Sttcl iif the I'nivcreal Expusitl'JU of 1867. Ilew'ston (Geouge), A. M., M. D., b. at Philadelphia Sept. 11, 1820; graduated A. M.at the Central High School, Philadelphia. 1815; M. D. at the Philadelphia College of Medicine 1850; received the same degree in ISliO from the University of Pennsylvania; was professor of anatomy in the first-named medical college, and afterwards became professor of the theory and practice in the University of California, a position which he still holds (1875); was supervisor of San Francisco 1873-75 ; president of the Odd Fellows' Library of San Francisco, etc., and member of various scientific societies. Hex'achord, in music, a series of six notes in direct succession, forming a portion of a scale. The extension of the musical scale and its division into hexachords are attributed to tiuido, a monk of the eleventh century. Under the system of tho ancient Greeks, which continued for ages to influence all music, both ecclesiastical and secular, the scale was divided into telmchurdg, or portions of four notes each. As the (ircek scale comprised only about fifteen notes, or two octaves, these tctraehords could not appar- ently exceed four and a fraction in number; but the Greeks, by an ingenious use of some extraneous elements, obtained no less than five. According to our modern reckoning — taking B in the bass, as the Greeks did. and following their mode of division — the four tctraehords would uot fill the double octave, and a fifth tetrachord added would reach beyond it, as at a, b in Ex. 1 : But under the Greek system the five tctraehords were ob- tained— 1st, by adding an initial note A, which note was called the Protlambunomeiioii; 2d, by using lJ|j in the third Ex. 2. IstTct. 2d. 3d^_ tetrachord, and then commencing the fourth tetrachord by a descent to liO, thus : 4th. 5th. It is evident that tho fourth and fifth of the.se tctraehords are merely repetitions in tho octave of the first and second, but, as Dr. Burney rcinarUs, "the several sounds of which they are composed have in the Greek music different d( - nominations." anil also were no doubt <lifl'erent in their treatment and effect. Guido's system, imjierrect and un- satisfactory as it is, was nevertheless an advance towards tho modern and only rational system of the division of the gcale — viz. into successive *>"('ii*r«. It is coinTiiunly sup f loscd also that Guido invented Ihe mode of writing his liexachorda and other music on lines and spaces. This however, is an opinion for which the evidence is weak Ex. 3. iBt. Natural. 2d. Mollf. For manv ages after him tho stave consisted of only four lines, with their spaces, and in Ihe Chureh of Home and elsewhere the same system of notation is extensively used for Gregorian music at the present day. The hexachords of Guido were three in number, and were based on C, F, and G, tho first being called the nalnral: the second, the molle, or soft ; and the third, the durum, or hard. T<i each of these were assigned Ihe syllables «(, re. mi. fa, »../, la ; and in the F hexachord liy/'i( was substituted for B natural. These hexachords may be' thus expressed, and their range extends to an octavo and a Ibinl -viz. C C — E, etc. 3d. Durum. T ~ r-r It is known, however, that in Guide's time more notes than these were in use, he himself having invented the gamut, which began on tho lower line of our modern bass stave. Taking, therefore, gamut G as tho first of an ascending Ex.4. 1st. 'id. 3d. 4it series of notes, and E of tho last example as its Icrmina- tiiin, we have a succession of twenty-two notes (including B flat), which admits of easy arrangement in the form of seven hexachords, thus : 6th. Clh. 7th. ^^^PP^ 910 HEXAMETER— HIBERNATION. The system of hexachords is of no practical use in mod- ern nuisie, being superseded by the simple and natural division of the scale on the normal type of the series of notes furuiing the octave. William Stauxtox. Hcxam'eter fGr. cfa^irrpo?, "of six metres," «'f, "six," ^e>po^, " measure "j, in Greek and Latin prosody, is the name of the heroic verse of Homer, A'irg:il, Ovid, and others. Ancient rhythm is based chiefly on the distribution of long and short syllables, while the less delicate ear of the mod- erns is satisfied with the alternate presence or absence of accent. Taking a succession of Virgil's lines (bk. 1, I. 8-10)— MuVa ml' I 111 cays' | in mSm'ft I r3, qvo ] nu'mTnS | lie'so, | qvTd'vC- il6' | I5ns, r5g ] T'liS dc' ] u™, tot J vOrvgrC | cfi'sus j InsTg' I (le* i>U \ tS'tS vir | u", tftt 5d | ra^ ISb j G'r.'S, and representing them in English, syllable for syllable and accent for accent, M i\sa relate [ those trea I suns c6nsura || matSd, | ckiiscs of | torture, | whoiicc the 6b j diiratc 1 queen of hon |! or'd (.'ods |] drivioK u hi-ro I Biipd I ryor in his | virtue, un [j d€r such iiii | pdsiiig mis || I'drtune, { we find that the feet are composed of dactyls (~ " ") and spondees (~ ~), with the accents entirely absent or present at any point — in some cases (as mii'sa m!''-) two being present in a single dactyl. Looking farther, wo find that any foot from the first to the fourth may bo dactylic or spondaic at pleasure; the fifth in nearly every ease is a dactyl, and the sixth a spondee. This recurrence of final daciflus-spondee would not be sufficient to enable the lis- tener to seize the metre ; he is therefore aided by an initial accent on each of these feet (see Adonic Verse) ; and, as if this were not enough, Virgil in many cases separates them from the four feet with mixed accents, by making the fifth foot accentless, or what we may terra nmiraf, because it has nrithrr the irregular accent of the earlier feet nor the regular accent of t he close. The following is a longer speci- men (bk. 1, I. 23-33): Remembering thi^i, Saturnia, thinking o'er various conflicts waged at Troy's stronghold for Argos, dear to remembrance : nor no-w Itad grievous causes resentful escaped from Ikt angry soul. Paris, whose verdict rankles sorely ber bosom, a 8tij;nia on slighted form, and also storn Ganyme-de, a nation despising cordially for evils uneqiiall'd, Blie (these urging) scatters far far from Latyttm the Trojans over wide 6cean — those relics 16ft by ruthless Achilles and Grecian heroes. Many years they wander'd in sailing around tliro' nuurroue waters, F5te aUurini; them onward. F<jundiiig such a nation, required these arduous labors. To an ear trained to the strong accent of German and Eng- lish verse the rhythm of such lines is not readily appreci- ated, and accordingly efforts have been made to prove that the .Encid must be commenced with " Arma virumqvc canu'," instead of cau'o ; for, according to Prisoian. no Latin words have a final accent. Richard Koe{Prinriplpii of Jiht/thm, 1823) goes so far as to say of the ancients that " there is reason to believe that their perceptions of quan- tity were confused and imperfect " — where the imperfection is his own. The misnamed hexameters of Southey, Coleridge, and other moderns are mere h?xametroids, or accentual hexa]i- odies in mixed rhythm, and without dactyls and spondees, as shown in two of Prof. Longfellow's linos, in which "ruddy" is supposed to be a spondee, and "then through those" an equivalent dactyl: FIllTug ft I nn of ] 16ve and the I riSdd.V I faces of ) children. . . . Thentlirouyh Ihost.- realms (if shade, in muUiplied reverberatious, the second line of which has quantitive matter enough for seven feet, and other lines would pass for distichs of Iliu- toalh't, as — I>onii I burg is | not for \ gotten. 1 nor Ileaii I S^jour, | nor Port | lloyal. | These spurious hexameters belong to what Guest {Englhh Rhijthmn, i. p. 177) mentions as "these slovenly verses the * tumbling* metre. ... the impudent license of the tumbling metre." Such forms tend to the perversion of Latin scan- sion, and to the destru'-tion of just ideas of tho nature of feet. They have neither tho rhythm of Latin nor of Eng- lish verse, but, on the contrary, they constitute an offensive system which is tolerated only because it is supposed to be classic. S. S, Haldkmax, Hcx'apla [Gr. "the sixfold"], a celebrated edition of the Septuagint text of the Old Testament, the original He- \ brew, the llebrew in Greek letters, the (ireek versions of i Aquila, Symmachus, and Thcodotion. Besides these, there I were columns containing parts of three other Greek vcr- \ sions, whose authors are not known. Origen was the author , of this great work, which he originally prepared as ate- i trapla, giving four columns only. The liexapla had also | marginal notes, and marks indicating variations, retrench- i ments, and additions in the texts. The Uexapla is not , extant except in fragments, of which the most complete I edition is that of the Benedictine Montfaucon (2 vols, folio, | Paris, 1714), I Ucyst-op-den-berg, town of Belgium, in the prov- ince of Antwerp, has some cloth-factories and corn-mills. Pop. 6670. Uey^uard (Thomas, Jr.) was b. in St. Luke's parish, S. C, in 174(j, and was the son of a wealthy planter, Col. Daniel Ileyward. The son studied law in Loudon, and was early and prominently connected with the Uevtdutionarv movement in North Carolina. He was (I77.")-7S) one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, and was afterwards a judge in his native State, holding also a mili- tary command. He was (1780-81) a prisoner in the bauds of the British. D. in Mar., 1809. Hey'wood, town of England, in the county of Lan- caster, on the Roach, has large iron-foundries and extensive mauufactures of cotton fabrics. Pop., with surroundings, l»,-i54. Heywood (Charles), U. S. M. C, entered the marine corps as second lieutenant Apr. T), 1858; became first lieu- tenant early in 1861, and captain in November of that year; served on board the Cumberland in her encounter with the Merrimack, Mar. 8, 18G2, and in the flagship Hartford at the great battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864 ; and is very highly spoken of in the despatches of bis com- manding officers. Received the brevets of major and lieu- tenant-colonel for ''gallant and meritorious conduct." FoxHALL A. Parker. Hey'worth, post-v. of Randolph tp., McLean co., 111., on the Illinois Central K. R., 12 miles S. of Bloomington. Pop. 300. Hczeki'ah ("The Lord hath strengthened"), thir- teenth monarch of Judah. son and successor of Ahaz. He reigned twenty-nine years (726-697 b. c). He was a ile- vout man, a severe enemy of idolatry, and the restorer of the ancient worship. He warred successfully against the Phil- istines, and refused to pay the established tribute to Tig- lath- Pileser, king of Assyria, in consequence of which Jerusalem was besieged, and Hczekiah was forced to pur- chase peace by a heavy mulct in silver and gold and by the loss of parts of his dominions. It is probable that Senna- cherib, the Assyrian general, next marched into Egypt to punish the Ethiopians and Egyptians. Hezekiah's allies, that he was repelled by Tirhakah, and that the miraculous destruction of 185.000 Assyrians took place in a second invasion, after the failure of the Egyptian campaign. Hczekiah was soon after visited with a severe sickness, from which he was miraculously healed. The remaining years of his reign were peaceful and prosperous. D, 697 B.C. UiacoomeS) an Indian minister of Martha's Vineyard, 1). about 1610: converted under the preaching of Thomas Mayhcw; learned to read, and began himself to preach in 1653 to his people, among whom he labored with much success and with great faithfulness. In 1670 he was or- dained by Eliot and Cotton as pastor of the Indian church of Martha's Vineyard, organized in that year. He is be- lieved to have been the first Indian convert in New Eng- land. D. about 1690. Hiawas'sce^ post-v., county-seat of Towns co., Ga., 85 miles N. of Athens. Hiawa'tha, post-v., cap. of Brown co., Kan., 42 miles "W. of St. Joseph, on the St. Joseph and Denver City R. R. It has 4 churches, 1 bank, 1 newspaper, a steam flouring- mill, 2 grain elevators. 2 hotels, several schools, and tho usual number of stores. It is situated in a fine agricultural rcgtOD, with excellent water-power. Pop. about 800. A. N. RuLEV, Ed. " Dispatch." Ilib'bard (Billy), b. at Norwich, Conn., Feb. 24, 1771 : jniued the New York Methodist conference 1798, and laburtd with great success in New York and New England. D. Aug. 17, 1844. His memoirs have been published. Hibbard (Freebors Garretson), D. D., b. at New Rochelle. N. Y.. Feb. 18, 1811; entered tho Methodist Episcopal ministry; labored 1830-60 chiefly in the State of New York; was editor of the Northern Chrietinn Advo- cate, Auburn, N. Y., 1860-64; resumed active labor, and became presiding elder of the Geneva district. Author of Jinptinm (1S41), Geaqraphy and Hiftory of Palestine (1845), a work on The Pva'tms (1852), The Reliyion nf Childhood (1864): edited the SermonJi (1869) and the Works (2 vols., 1S72) of Bishop Hamline. Iliberna'tion [from tho Lat. hibcmug, "pertaining to winter"], a condition into which certain mammals (bats, rodents, Insectivores, bears, etc.) and many inferior ani- mals, both vertebrate and invertebrate, pass in cold weather, the temperature of the blood being lowered nearly to that of the air, and many of the vital functions entering a state of abeyance. The power of the will over the mus- cles is quite suspended, and respiration is nearly abolished, while the muscular irritability in the case of the higher HIBERNIA-HICKORY TAVERN. 911 hibcTDiiting ftoimols is rcmarkaljly increased. Meanwhile ; a vt-rv grt-at loss of weight occurs from the sluw .Ustruction | of the slorc of fat which the animal lias laid up in Ihc au- tuinu It is evident that animals feeding on insecis and succulent vcgetal.lcs couM never survive a northern winter but f.r the state of hihernali.m which Misp.n.ls the need of foo<l. .Accordingly, while northern bats ami some bears hibernate, those of tropical regions do not do so. Somewhat analogous to hibernation is the long slumber which many reptiles, mollusks, and other inferior organ- isms undergo in the dry season in very ho. countries. 1 He animal becomes more or less completely desiccated, and from the loss of moisture the functions of life are sus- iiended This suspension also serves to preserve animal life in very untoward conditions. Cuvier slates that the leurecs ( liscctivorcs ) of .Madagascar remain torpid through the hot season, but this slateinent has been denied. llibcr'niu, Ib.-r'nia, Iver'iiia, and ler'iie are the names under which Ireland is mentioned by the ancient writers— by Aristotle, Diodorus Sioulus, btrabo, 1 ompo- nius Mela,' Pliny, and Ptolemy. Ilibrrnia. post-v. of Jlorris co., N. J. Ilibis'ciis [(ir. ;3c<r«o!]. a large genus of malvaccous trees, shrubs, aud herbs, often with largo and showy flowers. The herbaceous species are numerous in the L. .s., and arc known as rose-mallows. .Among the eultivate.l species are the OiMUo (which see), the //. c«»M«im«., or Deccanec hemp of India, a useful fibre-plant, and //. Surnicu., the ornamental, slirubbv altha-a of gardeners. Other species, mostly tropical, arc cnllivated for their fruit or seeds or the beauty of their (lowers. One of the most interesting species is'//,/..V... tili..cr„«. a very large but not tall tree, Browing in Florida, the East and West Indies. an<l the South Sea lalan.ls. Its wood is light, tough, and very use- ful ; its bark yields material for malting and cordage, and thc'sarac bark is used as food in the Pacific Islands. Hib'Icr, ip. of Edgefield co., .S. C. Pop. 1C07. Uic'coiIKh, or Ilic'cup [Lat. ,;,iyull,i-]. a clonic spasm of Ihc diaphragm and of the glottis accompanied bv a sharp sound, produced by the rush of air into the larynx from without. It may attend an over-distension of 'the stomach with food, and sometimes accompanies in- toxication. In young children it often is the lorcrunncr of intestinal .list'urbanccs. When persistent, it is, in some diseases, such as low fevers, peritonitis, and gangrene, a rather grave symptom. Lumps of ice frequently swallowed or small doses .d anlispasmodic medicines will usually re- lieve obstinate hiccough. Hick'man, counlv of Kentucky, hounded on the W. by the Mississippi KiVcr. Area, 21U sciuare miles. It is level and fertile, produciiu; tobacco and corn as the ehiel staples. It is traversed by the Mobile and Ohio R. K. Lap. Clinton. Pop. H4o:i. Hickman, county of W. Central Tennessee. Area, 3j0 •nuare miles. It is a hilly and fertile region, having good w'ater-power and .leposi.s "of iron ore. Catlle corn t..bacco, and wool arc staple products. Cap. Ceutrcville. 1 op. a^JO. Iliokinan, Ip. of Seott co., Ark. Pop. 1310. Hickman, city, cap. of Fulton co., Ky., on the Mis- sissippi River, at tiic terminus of the Nashville Chattanooga and SI. I.ouis U. K. It has 2 academies, (1 churches, a city library, a steam rurnituro and wagon fai-tory, and scvera steam' llouring-mills. The Masons, Odd lellows, and Good Templars have nourishing lodges here. It has 1 weekly newspaper. Pop. 1120, composed largely of Germans. ' ' Gi;o. Wauiies, El). "CoiuiKU. II ick'mnn's,po8t-lp. of Tuscaloosa CO., Ala. Pop. S02. II icU'ok 1 1, u UKNS Pkkskis), D. I>., M..I)., b. at Bethel, Conn Dec. '.".1, 17UH; grailualed at I'nion College 1K20; or- dained and scllled as pastor ..f the Congregational church at Kent Conn.. 1M2I; removed, and again installeil pastor at Litcli'fiild, Conn., 1S2'.); became professor of theology in Western Keservc College l.s:;n, and in the Auburn Iheo- logical Seminary IHM; was again transferred t.. nion College as vice-president and jirofessor of menial and moral philosophy 1S62, where for eight years he was asso- ciated with l>r. Nott in the government and discipline ol the college, and where for the eight years succeeding lie had sole charge thereof, being ollicially inilucleil into (lie presidency only at Dr. NotCs death, l^tCl'.. A( (he age of s,-ven( V, in fulfilment of a purpose long cherisherl, he retired from ail public and official s(a(i.>n, and removed (o Amherst, Mass.. whire he has since resided, dcvodng his time (o philosophical studios. Ilcsides occasional sertnons and ad- Ilrcsscs. ho has been a frctiiicnl contributor to such i.eriod- ical publications as the Chri.ium Siir-jalar, IhhUinhrca Sarr'i, /lihllr.il I!-p„i,!ti,ni. /'r^ihi/leriim Quurlcrl;/. e(c. on various theological aud philosophical themes. His more extended published works are— ft'Kionn? Pti/rhnto;,;/ (1848), S,,'ltm o/- Murni Scifuce (lS6:i). Empinci.t I'Yl-'Hy {\a:,\). lWal;r nil./ Crralion (1872), Humauily Immortal (1^721, and Lnriii- „/ Ilcamn (1875). l)r llickok has from the first held firmly the necessary distinctions in the intellectual functions of the sense, the understanding, and the reason, and the peculiarity ot his philosophy is seen in his clear idea and diseriminadve use of the reason. The sense perceives single phenomena: the understanding puts these together in judgments according to the relations given in experience, while the reason at- tains an insight of these faculties of perception and judg- ment, which beholds in the phenomenal relations of expe- rience the necessary prerequisites, without which such an ordered experience "could not have occurred. This know- ledge of the necessary conditions for experience reaches (o the distinguishable forces underlying all physics, and (he life-power— a combination of force ami feeling- underlying (he organic world: and nalure thus becomes known in Ks inirinsio connecdons, and not alone in its apparent collo- cations and sequences. The reason also has an insight ot its own being and activity, involving a conscious scKhood and personal agency, and putting the human in a sphere of freedom and responsibility to which the mere animal never attains. In this same insight also is allained the ultimate standard of the beautiful, the (rue, and the good and the whole rational region of art, philosophy, and morals lies open to man. but into which (he brute con- sciousness never comes. The finite reason also knows tho Absolute Reason as its own necessary s.nircc and original, and (herein finds open the transcendent (hemes of doc(nnal theology and practical pie(y. In Dr. Hiekok s separate works t"hesc first principles are applied particularly to psy- chology, physics, asthctics, ethics, and divinity— (be same philosophy fuling unchanged in them all— but are madirely knd completely developed only with the teachings of his latest publication. •'• »• S'-'"'^'^- Hick'ory, (ho common name of trees of the genus Cania (order Juglaudaceic). erroneously called walnut trees in New England. The hickory (rees arc North Ameri- can Besides the PiccAS TiiEi; (which see), there arc four species ( (.'. nlba, microcurpn. tnmrnlom, and suhnlii) known as shcllbark or shagbark hickories, having excellent tim- ber and nuts generally edible, the bark of the trees be- coming very r.mgh. The pignut or bitter hickories {C. porchn,, amnru, myri^llcrformi-. and „7,m(of.) I'ave more generally a smooth bark, inedible nuts, and ralher interior wood "Hickory timber is excellent for handsjiikcs, nxc- hclves, spokes. "barrel-hoops, and the like. It is prized as fuel but will not stand tho weather. The oil of the nuts is recommended for oiling clocks and delicate niachmery. The nuts are marketed in considerable quanddcs. there are numerous variedes of the hickories, so that the botany of the genus is rather obscure. Hickory, county in S. W. Central Missouri. Area, 414 sq. m. It is UDcvcn, but fertile, iiroducing tobacco, corn, wool, and live-stock. Cap. Ilerinitagc. Pop. ll4o;.. Hickory, tp. of Carroll co.. Ark. Pop. COO. Hickory, tp. of Cass co.. 111. Pop. 513. Hickory, tp. of Coles co., 111. Pop. 1402. Hickory, tp. of Schuyler co., 111. Pop. 557. Hickory, post-v., county-scat of Ncw(on co.. Miss., on (he Vicksburg and Meridian R. R., HO miles E. of Vicks- burg.- Pop. 155. Hickory, a v. of Catawba co., N. C, on tho Western (N C ) It II It has 3 schools, 3 churches, 1 coaoh-factory, 1 saddle and' harness faclorv, 3 hotels, I tobacco-factory, flour and saw mills, lanyard, and I weekly newsi>iiper. ^_ W. E. AvEitv AND.1. T. Ml unii,... Ens." Pii:nM(iXT Pkess. Hickory, tp. of forest co., Pa. Pop. 513. Hickory, tp. of Lawrcnoo co.. Pa. Pop. 915. Hickory, (p. of Mercer co.. Pa. I( embraces Sharon. Sharpsville, and o(her villages. Pop. 7700. Hick'ory Flat, posl-tp. of Chambers co., Ala. P. 1400. Hick'ory (irovc, (p. of Jasper co., la. Pop. 402. Hickory «;rove, tp. of Scott co., la. Pop. 1298. Hickory (irove, (p. of Warren co.. Mo. Pop. 1703. Hickory Crovc, (p. of tirant co.. Wis. Pop. 907. Hick'ory Hill, (p- of Wayne co., 111. Pop. 878. Hick'ory iWoun'tain, (p. of Chatham co., N. C. IVqi. 1100. lIick'oryPlains,post-tp.of Prairie CO.. Ark. P. 1030. I Hick'ory Toiiil, (p. of Macon CO., III. Pop. 1130. Hick'ory llidgc, post-tp. of Monroe co.. Ark. P. 778. 1 Hick'ory Tav'crn, p. -tp. of Catnwbaco.,N.C. P.150I. 'J12 HICKS— HIERARCHY. Hicks (Elias). an eminent minister of the Soeietv of Friends, b. at UemiistcaJ, L. I., Alar. 19, 17-18; at" the age of seventeen .years was placed as an apprentice to a carpenter, and became master of tliat trade; subscnuenlly followed Ihe business of building houses. In the morn ad- vanced period of his life he engaged in agriculture. When about twenty-seven years of age, he began, to use his own words. " to have openings leading to the ministry," and H-as "deeply engaged for the right administration of dis- cipline and order in the Church, and that all might be kept sweet and ele;in, consistent with the nature and purity of the holy profession which Friends made before the world." In 17S1 and subsequently he vi.sited the meetings and fam- ilies of Friends e.-itcnsively through the country, working at his trade iu the intervals passed at home, whereby he obtained means to pay his own exjjen.ses, declining to have them borne by the society, which made ]irovision for its travelling ministers iu necessity, lie held it to bo no less a religious duty to work than to preach when called, of which his journal bears frequent record, as follows : '• Spent two days in my salt-meadows assisting my men in securing the hay. On my return visited a poor widow with the sur- plus of our provisions. . . . Closely engaged in temporal busi- ness, but did not forget uiy .accountability to my great Lord and Master. I see no time when it would bo right to in- dulge in idleness. . . . Occupied in collecting relief for the poor in the city of New York (1814). Labored bard in my harvest-field; and although sixty-six years of age, found I could wield the scythe nearly as in the days of my youth." Sueh was the high esteem in which ho was held by all classes of people in his neighborhood that he was frequently chosen as an umpire to settle differences. Very early iii life he denounced slavery as a crime, and preached per- sistently against it. As early as 1811 he published a val- uable essay on the subject, and exerted constant personal inlluencc to induce persons who held slaves to set them free. But this fell short of the measure of justice in his view, and he obtain^ for many of the emancipated wages for their time in addition. He was a bold and fearless preacher, both in deed and word. His religious visitations were not confined to members of his own society, but ex- tended to distant sections of country where few such re- sided. His meetings were crowded by people of every sect and opinion. Ho was an impressive speaker, with "direct and clear enunciation, of commanding presence, and pro- foundly serious deportment in his public appearance. The following sentence from his journal is charaeteristio of his career as a minister and servant of God. '• Spent Second and Third days in preparing my business for setting out on my journey. As I trust and believe a dispensation of the gospel is committed to me, woe is unto me if I preach not the gospel !" Ho was the subject of much misrepresen- tation in his religious opinions by bigots and by many dis- senters from the original doctrines of Friends. The name Hicksito was given as a reproach to that part of the old Society of Friends with which ho continued in fellowship, but was never recognized by iter him, his true relation being well described in the memorial of the immediate meeting to which he was attached : " He felt himself called upon, under the inlluence of the love of the gospel, to ad- monish his brethren to rally to tho ancient standard, the light of truth manifested in the heart, and to follow no man any farther than he should be found a follower of Christ." A journal of his religious travels was published (l,S.'i2), Obgerrutinm on Sl<iri:n/ (ISIl), and Itnrtiinal Ephth (IS2-4). There have been published since his death a volume of his sermons and one of his letters. (See Qi AKEBS.) J. s. Gibbons. Uicks (TnoMAs), a descendant of Elias Hicks, b. in Newtown, Bucks co., Pa., Oct. 18, 1823 ; came to New York tostudyart in 1838; exhibited a picture, The Death of Abel, in 1811 ; wentto Italy in 18(5, to Paris in 18-18, wlierc ho studied under Couture; returned and made New York his residence. iMr. llieUs has painted composition pictures, out-door and in-door scenes, and landscapes, but his rejiu- tation rests on his portraits, of which ho has painted a great number, many of distinguished men ; among them, Dr. Kane in tho cabin of his vessel, Dr. Cogswell in his library, Edwin Booth as lago. He is cultivated in his jirofessio'n, laborious, genial, and greatly beloved bv his friends. Elect- ed to Nat. Acad, of Design in 1851. O.B. FnoTnixcnAM. IlieliS (TnoMA.s Hollvdav), b. in Dorchester co., lid., Sept. 2, I7U8 ; was elected to several important offices, and in ISllI became a member of the Alarvland constitutional convention ; was governor of Maryland 1S5S-62, standing firmly for the Union in tliose trying days; U. S. Senator lS(i3-(;5. D. at Washington Feb. 13, 18"6d. HicksTord, post-v., county-seat of Greenville co., Va., fi2 miles S. of liiehmond, on the I'ctersburg and Weldon I!. H., at the junction of tho Gaston branch, and on the Meherrin River. Pop. 116 ; of tp. 2.'!67. Hicks'ville, post-v. of Queens co., N. Y., in Oyster Bay tp.. on the Long Island H. K.. 25 miles from New- York, at the junction of the Port Jefferson branch, has 1 weekly newspaper. Hicks'ville, post-tp. of Defiance co., 0. Pop. 1287. Ili'oo, tp. of Fayette co., Ala. Pop. 286. Uiro, tj). of Halifa.x eo., Va. Pop. 3570. Hidal'go, county in S. W. of Texas. Area, 32no square miles. It is bounded on tho S. by the navigable Kio Grande. Most of the soil is light, and the climnlc is very dry. The county is adajited to pasturage. Cattle anil wool are the staple products. Salt is produced from the salt-lake Sal del Rey. Cap. Eilinburgh. Pop. 2387. Hid'dcn, in musie, a term applied to certain errors in counterpoint which are not obvious, direct, and open vio- lations of rule, but more or less concealed, implied, or cov- ered up. These errors are chiefly indirect or implied con- secutive fiftlis and octaves. The rule, e. ,/., that two iier- fect fifths must not immediately fullow in the same parts in equal motion, is direvtly violated when we write as at n or b in Ex. 1 : Ex. 1. a But in Ex. 2, though tho notes at o, «, do not actually ex- presa fifths, yet the effect on the ear is nearly as offensive as if the fifths were direct, because it is impossible to move from the first note of tho upper part to the second, or from tho third note of the lower part to the fourth, without past- ing thronijh or orcr the interval of a fifth, and thus creating an impression like that at J, 4 ; Ex. 2. o o b U I. . . Such fifths are therefore said to be " hidden " or implied, and should be avoided, either by placing the partp in con- trary motion, or by a change of tho harmony. That sim- ilar remarks will apply to hidden orlares will be evident without an example. William Staintox. Hides, in commerce, the skins of large animals, sueh as domestic cattle, horses, and the bufialoes of the Old World. They np]ioar in commerce either dried, salted, or in tho undried and natural state. Hides are used chietiv in the manufacture of leather, and the fragments and waste go to the glue-maker. The hair is also saved for plasterers' use. and is used to some extent in ujiholstcry. (See also Leather.) JJomeatic hides are those sold in the green state, and manufactured into leather in the country where produced. The hides of general commerce are the product of South America. South Africa, Australia. India, Califor- nia, Russia, etc. The iddes of sheep, goats, deer, etc. are known iu commerce as "skins." Hicrap'olis, the birthplace of Epietelus, was situated in Phrygia, Asia Minor, between the rivers Lycus and Me- ander, and was celebrated for its warm mineral springs. Among its ruins, which are a mile and a half in circum- ference, is one of the most complete and best preserved Greek theatres. The place is mentioned by St. Paul in his Epistle to the C(dossians (iv. 13). Its present name is I'nmbonk KnlcKiil (the "cotton castle"), which is probably derived from the singular appearance which the deposit of the springs has given to the jdace. It is totally deserted. Ilierap'oiis (/. .. "sacred city"), or Bainby'ce, a once splendid but now utterly ruined city of Cyrrliesliea, in Syria, five days' journey from Antioch, on the road to Seleucia and Babylon. It stood on a rocky barren plain, and derived its prosperity from the caravan trade. Its palmy days were under tho Seleucida?. Extensive ruins mark its site. Ili'orurchy [Gr. itpot, '•sacred," and opxi, "rule"] or Ilieroc'racy, the power, post, dignity, or ofiico of a hieiarchet, a steward or president of saered rites, one su- premo in holy things, a high priest, a hierarch ; especially in ecclesiastical Greek, the episeop.ateor patriarchate. The word is unknown to thoelassictireek and to the Septuagint and New Testament. In the work of the sixth century, of a Neo-Plalonic cast, attributed to Dioxysirs tho Are- OPAGITE ( which see), the angelic orders are the prototypes of tho ecclesiastical hierarchy. He enumerates three orders of angels, with three hierarchies in each— seraphim, cher umbim, thrones; dominations, powers, principalities; vir- tues, archangels, angels. (Sec Mnnrni, Diet. Hlntoriquc.) Milton adopts in Paraiiise Lnut every one of these titles, though he does not use them all in any one place or in the order given. The word hirrareinj came to be applied to HIERARCHY. 913 the orders uf clergy ID the Christian Church — the ecclesi- aslicul hiemrchv. It is sometimes transferred to other jiihcrcs of government, as the pulitieal, military, social hierarchy — the hierarchy of the court of t'onstautinoplo. It is, however, most cotnmoDly applied to the orders of clcr^v in the Christian Church, the ecclesiastical hierarchy, or to the Ijoily of priests in the various systems, in which they arc rei^arded as divinely instituted administrators of holy things. It is also applied to the rule which they exercised as at onco priests and civil magistrates — the Egyptian, the Hindoo, the Hebrew hierarchy. Amou;! the Hebrews the administration was hereditary. It was a lineal hierarchy, and its headship was in the high priest. In the Christian Church the hierarchy is the gov- ernment of the Church by the clergy. It took its historical shape as the congregations increased in number and came into closer conjunction. The government of the Church is conceded to have originally been, at least relatively. ]iopu- lar in part (democratic hierarchy), and to have changed more and more into a spiritual aristocracy (aristocratic hierarchy). The lino of historical advance is generally supposed by I'rotestant writers to have been from a gov- ernment of perfect co-ordination among the presbyter- bishops of a congregation to tlie congregational and paro- chial episcopate, then to the diocesan episcopate. From this arose tho metropolitan system, in which a governmental superiority was exercised by the bishops of the chief cities of tho provinces. Then came the system of patriarchates, under which the bishops of tho great sees of Home, Con- stantinople, .\ntiocli, Alexandria, and Jerusalem were rec- ognized as patriarchs of the metropolitan. Civil events destroyed the prominence claimed for the last three. The tcndelicy to unilicatiun remained fixed at tho patriarchate in tho Eastern Church, but advanced in the Western Church till it culminated in the papacy. ,\mong the earlier rep- resentatives of this tendency was Leo I. (440-461). In the ninth century this papal hierarchy was greatly strength- ened by tho P'sKfOo-IsinoiiiAX Di:(itt;TALS (wliicli sec). They systcmatiied and professcil to give historical vouchers for the tendency of the era, which made the pope a spiritual monarch, regent and lord of Western Christendom, to whoso rule neither princes nor councils were able to put any well- determined limits. This great hierarchy, preserving tho unity o( its purpose and plan amid tlic confusions of the time, supplementing by moral power the feeblenesses of civil rule, preserved order when social life without such a bond might have been reduced to chaos. Something gov- ernmcnlally equivalent to the papacy was a necessity of tho MidJlc AgL-8. From theelevcnth century to the thirteenth it had a political supremacy which was not successfully challenged. This it owed especially to several popes of distinguished ability and force of character. Gregory VII. (1073-8j) is more readily recalled by his earlier name, llildcbrand, which made Hildebramlism tho synonym of that hierarchical .system of which ho was so great a master. Clear in vision, iron in will, cautious and bold, he did much to snbordinate tho civil authority to tho ec- clesiastical. Ho made the papacy a universal theocracy of all Christian slates, with tho |iopo as Christ's vicar, by whom kings reigneil : people and princes were simply, in different degrees, the virtual subjects of tho pope. Inno- cent III. (1 l9S-l21li), in many respects the greatest of tlic popes, whoso history is tho history of his era, finished tho work of llildcbrand and brought the hierarchy to tho sum- mit of its glory and (lower. IVililical independence and unlimited spiritual authority were the objcols of his strug- gle. He brought to it the greatest qualities of llildcbrand, with others of the highest order, and the mightiest powers of Christendom bowe I before him. Boniface VIII. (12'J4- I.to;!), nut inferior in intellectual force to liis predecessors, but destitute of their nobler qualities, urgcil to tho ox- tremest point their principles of domination over the tem- poral power. As in him the loftiest assertion of the hierar- chical claims to power over tlie state came to a crisis, so with his reigu began that great reuelionary movement of the fourteeiUh century by which that power was narrowed in various ways. His great opponent was I'hilip (IV.) tho Fair of Franco (120S-l:tl4). The pone interfered as um- pire in tho war between France and England, and in favor of tho latter. The pope sent a legale; the king threw hitu into prison ; the pope jironounced the king a heretic ; the king called tho pope a fool ; the jmpe issued a bull ; tho king burned it: a council excoinmiinicated the king, ami tho agi-nts <if the king seized the pope on his throne and held him captive. The Itciman people said of him, " He crept in like a fox. ho lorded it like a lion, and died like a dog." Ilul harsh judgment diil not cease with his death. He has been ** dmnned to everlasting fame " by Dante, who assigns him a place in hell, as a Siinoiiist. between Nicholas III. and Clement V. The French king eame forth victori- oua in this oonllict. ClemcDt V. (I^UJ-77) was tho more Vol. II.— 58 tool of the French policy, and formally transferred tho curia to Avignon, where it remained during the" Babylonian exile" (131)6-77). Tho French party elected John XXII. (1316-44). In the contest between Louis of Bavaria and Frederick of Austria for the imperial crown, John took sides against Louis. Louis was chosen by the electors: appealed to a general council against the pope ; was excom- municated (1324) ; was crowned at Home (1327) ; procured the temporary deposition of John, and the nomination, though not the permanent estaldishmcnt, of Xicludas \". as a eoiinter-popc. The residence of the popes in France, the great schism (1378-142'J), with one pope at Rome, an- other at Avignon, for a time three popt s (1409), tho great reformatory councils of Pisa (14(i'.>), of Constance (1414- IS), of Bale (14.31-43), and the character and conduct of John XXIlI.and other popes, greatly weakened the papacy. Though it seemed to come forth triumphant from the strug- gle, it had received deep wounds. The Church was yearn- ing for reformation. Many symptoms of reaction from tho llildcbrand type were manifest, and at length the great struggle of the sixteenth century began. The influence of the Reformation on the hierarchical claims was very marked. The part of European Christen- dom which sympathized with that movement entirely re- jected all these claims. All the Uefonntrs, and none more radically than Luther, declared in tho most uncomproinis- ing manner against the whole hierarchical system. But even tho states which adhered to the Roman Catholic Church found their power increased by the new tendencies of the minds of men. Vast changes took place in )iolitical relations, and the powers claimed for the pope were more and more restricted. Various concordats marked the defi- nition and limitation of the hierarchical power. The pro- gress of events has made the civil and hierarchical powers more completely independent of each other. Civil consti- tutions, the regulation of police and finance, show the in- fluence of tho modifications of tho polity of the Church. (See Polity, Ecci.ksiastic.vl. For the latest history of tho hierarchy sec Pirs IX.) The divinloiia of hierarchical power made in the theology of the Roman Calholic Church may bo stated thus: I. The authority which belongs to the Church is connected eilher with her agency as the distributer of divine grace and blessings, especially of the sacraments, or with iho preservation and control of the Church's life. In accord- ance with this, the power correspondent with the authority is divided either into three parts, pntcstng ordiiiiH, rii(i;/i»- lerii, andjiiri'»(/i'r(ioiii» (so Walter, llinschius), or into two, tho paliHtiia oriliniH (tho power derived from ordination, and embracing the ^io/cs/dswicif/rstertj', or teaching function) and the putcotut jurisdiclloiitii, or ruling authority. The second classification is that of St. Thomas Aquinas ( llmin'ri; iv. 97). and of the majority of theologians, and accords with the Catechism of the Council of Trent (ii. 7. 7). (Seo RlclITKU, Lchrhiich li. K. II L. Kirchenrecht bcaib. v. Voir, Sieb. Auflage, 1.S74, J 91.) II. Tho potcaiiiit nrdinh respects the spiritual good.s, es- pecially tho sacraments, which those in holy orders are to distribute to believers. It rests in its fulness on the bishop.s, from whom, by ordination, it passes over to the priests in qiuiniiuitire rrstrirtiojt. The sacrifice of tho mass, which is tho su|iremc point of this power, appertains to both bishops and priests, and in virtue specially of this fact the bishops anil priests constitute one prieslly order — oiilo. In apostolic times the deacons were aids to the bishops and ]iriests, and at a later period, for the same end, there were appointed snbdeacons, acolyths, exorcists, lectors, and ves- tiarii, all of whom receive the necessary gifts for their of- fices by ordination. Hence the organs of the Church in the sphere' of ordo. the sphere of the power conferred by holy orders on bishops, priests, and ministers. Under this last name arc grouped all the clergy but those of the first order, which embraces tho bishops and priests. This is called tho hierarchy of (holy) orders— /nVidrr/n'a ordiiiia. III. Tho ;)</«•«("» Jill iWiV/ioiii'«, or governmental power, is divinely committed to tho bishops and the pope. Be- tween tho diocesan bishop and the pope exist by human right tho gradations of archbishops, primates, exarchs, or patriarchs. The priest, with no pnitKl'in jurindUtiiiitin, ex- ercises Iho piiimlnn ordiiiia in his parish: the bishop with tho/K.ti«M» jiiriadiclioiiit rules the clergy of his diocese; the metrojiolitan has as his suffragans the bishops of his province; the (irimato ordinarily has under him several metropolitans or archbishops; llio palriarchis the superior of the metro]iolilnns ; and tlio pope, patriarch of patriarchs, primate of primates, metropolitan of metropolitans, bishop of bishops, priest of priests, and servant of the servants of (iod. is earthly head of the whole Church on earth. This is the hierarriiitt JiiriHilicliiiitia. (Sec l)KrounK, JJiction. rf. (•„/(, r.i(/..i/i./ii.-, IS.VJ.) Tho hierarchy of orders is of divine institution; the hie- 914 HIERO— HIEROGLYPHICS. rarchy of jurifdiction is of rcolesiastical institution. The former may exist without the latter, but the latter exists by virtue of the former. In the hierarchy of order respect is had to the sacramental "character" impressed in ordina- tion; in the hierarchy of jurisdiction respect is had to de- gree. As rejjards the hierarchy of orders, the diocesan bishop and the primate are on the same level ; the parish priest is iho same as the vicar-general, and is the superior of tlio cardinals when they arc deacons. It is in the hie- rarchy of jurisdiction the gradations exist which have been enumerated. There is also in some cast-s a simple luniorary hierarchy. (See Paspal, Orif/, ct Raison tic In Jjitm-f/ie Catholiqr.Cf art. " Ilicrarchic.") The theory on which the papal hierarchy rests is that the one catholic Church of Christ on earth is a divine mon- archy, under one catholic iiead. the pope, who is the oecumenical pastor of all the churches. The prehite? under him govern particular churches, participating in the solicitude, but not possessing the plenary power, which be- longs to the ])opc alone. To the spiritual rule, supremo in the pope and subordinate in the prelates, the wlndo laity, fiom the humblest to the most exalted, owe obedience. In the great body of the older Koman Catholic divines who have been distinguished as defenders of the Iiiernrchy the names of those now most frequently quoted are Bellar- min and Pcta^ius. (For the literature of recent date on the questions of the hierarchy, see Papal iNFALi.imi.iTY.) In the Koman Catholic si/Htcm the hierarchy is usually treated of under ()r<l<i, the sacrament of holy orders. Ordo is defined as ( 1 ) the ecclesiastical hierarchy, or estate of the ministers of the Church; and (2) the act by which they arc constituted a part of that estate — ordination. (See Baim.v, Tfifnf. dnrjm. ct mornf. (Lugduno, 1S22), v. 340; Peuronc, Pra-lcct. Thcnlng. (Paris, lsii2), ii.439.) "It is an article of faith that there exists in the Church a plu- rality of orders, constituting the sacred hierarchy — to wit, the ejdscopate, the presbyterate, and the diaconate." (Boivii:u, fitHtit, Theolog.) "If any man shall say that there is not in the Catholic Church a hierarchy insti- tuted by divine ordination, which consists of bishops, pres- byters, and ministers, let hiin be anathema." (Can. C, ,Scss. 2.'i, Council of Trent.) Under the *" ministry " is embraced certainly the deacons. How many more, or whether any more, are included, is left an open question, {/iourirr. iv. 9(>.) The theology of the fifth and sixth centuries, in which the j>riestly office was greatly exalted, is sometimes styled the hierarchical theology. (See Gelasius, Lf.oI.) Offences against the hierarchical go\ernment are called sacrilege of the hierarchy. The ccfcsti'nl hierarchy of Cellot is the rule of the Trinity, of Christ, the Virgin, and the angels in heaven. (Tncvorx, Dictionn. Unirersef, 1740.) In Protestant thcologj' the term hierarchy is sometimes used in a generic sense to designate the sacred and divine rule of the Church established by Christ. The body of Prot- estant divines hold that Christ instituted no hierarchy in the ecclesiastical sense, but condemned it ; that he endowed his Church with no civil power; and that the functirms of its teachers and ofBcers are purely moral and spiritual. From these views many of the writers of the Church of England dissent, rejecting the papal supremacy and what is involved in it, but holding in .substantials the rest of the hierarchical views of the Church of Rome. (See Bltnt, Diet, iif Doctrin. and /fhtor. Thrufarfi/, arts. " Hierarchy," ** Jurisdiction.") The Lutheran Reformers (at Augsburg, Ib'M)) rejected the whole theory of the hierarchy. Itetain- ing the twofold division of the pntentuH ordiuis and poteHtm jiin'udictiout's, they defined the former as covering only the ministry of the word and sacraments — the latter as involv- ing no more th.an the cognizance of doctrine, the office of the keys, absrdution and excommunication ; and that both powers are by divine right conferred on one and the same body of ministers, all of whom are equal. ( Antjub. Con/esn., Abus. vii.) In the otTieial reply of the Roman Catholic ' divines (the ('o»jHf<ifif, Puntijira) they assert over against this that " the bishops not only have "the power of (he min- ; istry of the word of (rod, but also the power of regimen j and coercitive correction." (Given in full in FnANKi:. Lih. \ Si/iiibn/., App. OS; Hase, do. Pmlrfjnm., 84.) On this the ' Apalofji/ (xiv. irj) says: "We are satisfied with the old di- vision of power into the pnfritat itrdim'it and the poUktnii Jun'sdi'riionin." It defines both in substance as defined in the Confession. The Reformers at the same time expressed their desire to retain the canonical polity and the grades ex- isting in the Church, even though they rested on human authority, prnviiled the bishops would cease their cruelty to the evangelical churches. In Protestant theology the name hiemrrht/ is nlso ap- plied to the divinely instituted government in the three great institutions, the Family, the Church, and the State. The literature of the sultjeet. direct and indirect, is very large. The dogmatic and polemic work.s of a general kind I largely take it up. Those on the Church and the associ- I ated topics more particularly discuss it. The great names connected with special discussions of the monarchy. ])riest- hood, power of order and jurisdiction, the papal jKiwcr and infalliljility, are — Sander (IJTl), Palalin ( 17U4 ), Kocaberti (11 vols, folio, IO'Jd-U'J). Pineda (IJNS), Maimburg (168o), I Ballerini(I77t)). Veith (1781), Fischer (ISliJ), Pincl (1829), Rothenseo (ISilO-.'JS). Elleudorf (1841), Himioben (1840), ! Vestermaycr {lSf»7-70}. on the Roman Catholic side. On I the Protestant side may bo mentioned the names of Chamicr ' (lOlll), Brochraand (Ui2.S), Salmasius (1008), Calixtua I (1G.J0). Hase (1871). To these are to be added the special I historical works on the constitution of the Church, the i hierarchy, and the papacy, and works on church polity. fSoo Polity, Ecclesiastical, the articles on the different forms of church government. Concukgationalism. Kpis(X)- I'AL Sy.STI;M, ISDKE'ENnKNTY, PaI'ACY, PkESUVTKHIANISM J articles on the ecclesiastical orders. Bishop, Klper, Phes- BYTEK, Priest, Deacon. Acolyte: ecclesiastical dignities, Pope, Exakcii, Aitcnuisnnp, Cardisal, Archdeacon, Pri- mate, Metropolitan, I*ATRiARrii ; divisions of ecclesias- tical territory, Diocese, Parish, Phovixcb; rites connected with the clerical office, Installation, Investitcre. Oian- NATION.) C. P. KrAUTH. Hi'ero ['Ifpwt-]. tyrannus of Syracuse, in Sicily; was victor at Olynipia 488 b. c. {Miilfer); suececded (ielon, his brother, in 478; conquered Naxos and Catana in Sicily; defeated the great fleet of the Etruscans 474, and in the same year won a victory at the I*ythian games. He was a generous patron of art and letters. In 472 and 408 he won his second and third victories in the Olympic games. Pin- dar celebrated these victories in his odes. D. in 411" B. c. Hiero, king of Syracuse, was a natural son of one Hierocles, b. before ?A)C) b. c. ; served with distinction under Pyrrhus; became general of the Syraeusans; sent a supply of corn to Rome 272; routed the Mamcrtines at the river Longanus, and was declared king in 270 b. c. ; waged a disadvantageous war with Rome 264-20.3 B. c, after which ho was a most faithful ally of that power. He was a popu- lar ruler, and his reign as a whole was one of splendor and prosperity. There are many coins, inscriptions, and other existing remains of Iliero's time. D. 21G B. C. Hicr'ocles, a grammarian, so called by way of distinc- ti<fn from the pliilosojihcr and others of the name, wrote a guidebook (^ui'ckSjjmos), containing an account of the 64 provinces of the Eastern Roman empire, and of the 9:i5 towns situated in them. Its date is probably about the beginning of the sixth century a. d. It was inserted by "Wesseling in his Vet. Jiotn. Itiiierartn (.Amsterdam, 1735); also edited by Bckkcr at the end of his Coitstaiitiniis Por- j^lt'jr., in the Buzuntlne IHstorinus (Bonn, 1840). Hierocles [*l(po»eA^«]. a New Platonist, lived in the middle of the fifth century, and taught philosophy at Alex- andria. Very little is known of his life. He wrote a com- mentary on the golden verses of Pythagoras, which is useful for iho understanding of the Pythagorean doctrines ; also a work in seven books on Providence, Fate, and Freewill, of which Photius has preserved a few fragments; and a third treating of morals, no longer extant. To this Hiero- cles is sometimes ascribed a collection of Fdcctiic, entitled 'AoT-eta, but it belongs to a later writer. The best edition of the Cinnmentury is by Alullach (Berlin, 180.*}); of the FdcrfiiF, by Sehier (Leipsic, 1768J and bv Eberhard (Ber- lin. 18G9). * U. Drisler. Hieroglyph'ics [Gr. UpoyAi-tjocd?, from 'up6^, *' sacred," and -yAu^^ij, '"carving"]. All writing began with pictorial representation. As only a small ])art of the words in any language can be directly represented by pictures, the first step to a system that allowed of theexpression of all words whatever was taken when the picture which represented any given word was allowed to rrprcscnt any other word having a difTercut meaning and proximately the same sound. This may be illustrated by supposing the picture of a gate to be made to stand also for yit, or for the first two letters tjti, or for the consonant y. If. while (he trans- fer is made of the signilicalion of the character from the entire word to the single letter, the character itself is worn down into a conventional form, and a single character is adopted out of all those that might represent a letter, then the passage has become complete from the system of the Eictorial hieroglyphic to that of the alphabet. All alnha- ets have arisen in this way, but not all hieroglyphics have reached the luirely alphabetic stage. The hieroglyphics of Egypt are the only ones that con- tain a literature of any value, and the term is generally applied to the Egyptian system from which it first had its name. There are scanty traces of the original picture- writing in the Assyrian and Chinese: the inscriptiony from Hamath. as yet unread, are hieroglyphieal. and the more civilized natives of aboriginal America bad their systems HIEROGLYPHICS. 915 of hieroglyphics, though exceedingly rude and undeveloped. It w«s a false notion of the (irceks that of the three kinds of writing used liy the Ej;ypli:itis, two — for that reason called hicroglyphio and hieratic — were cniplovcd only for sacred, while the third, the demotic, was employed for sec- ular purposes. No such distinction is discoverable on the more ancient Egyptian monuments, but we retain the old names founded on misapprehension. The hieroglyphics consist of full pictures carved on stone and brilliantly colored according to conventional rules or the fashion of tho dynasty in which they were prepared. The characters themselves suggested to both the ancients and the moderns that they were the symbols of ideas rather than the signs of sounds. The number of these signs being a thousand or more, gave color to the idea that they were exclusively diagraphical. (J reek authors even gave the meaning of a few signs. This misapprehension of the force of the cha- racters continued till the beginning of the present century. In 179'J the famous Kosetta Stone was dug up by one of Napoleon's officers belonging to his e.\pcdition into Egypt. It contained inscriptions, partly mutilated, in hieroglyph- ics, in demotics, and in Greek. The name of Ptolemy oc- curred in the Greek, and in the corresponding portion of the hieroglyphic there were a number of characters encloiicd in a ring, which it was conjectured might be the sign of a proper name. Do Pacy first announced the phonetic character of these proper names, and ChampoUion and Thomas Young simultaneously caught tho secret of the characters, and announced the combination of phonetic with ideographic elements. Fortunjitcly, there was found at the Isle of I'hilic a little obelisk with an inscription both in Greek and in hieroglyphics, containing the names of a Ptol- emy and of his sister Cleopatra. A ring containing the same characters as those on the Uosetta Stono was conolu- sivelv proved thus to be the uame of Ptolemy, while an- other ring could contain nothing other than the name of Cleopatra. Very fortunately, these two names contain tho letters /', T, and /- in common, and.thcsc were soon fi.xed, and the others followed. The monuments of the Roman epoch contained a largo number of names in rings, and these were speedily unlocked with this key, and fouud to embrace a full scries of the Roman emperors, with the title emperor {auro«(><iToip ) added. The names of the old Egyp- tian kings followed, some of them familiar, as Psamnieti- chus and Ramses. Tho process thus outlined was sufficient to give tho value of all tho more common hieroglyphic signs. The next step was to read and translate the por- tions not marked as proper names. For this recourse was had to the Coptic, which was known to be the imin<;diato descendant of the old Egyptian. Cliampollion first applied himself to short sepulchral ninnurncnts on which the proper names were connected by words that evidently ex- pres.^ed relationships. These terms be found to agree with the Coptic, and by various stages the discovery was per- fected by liim and by his associates in the study. The history need not be pursued farther. At present a hiero- glyphic inscription may be read nearly as fluently as one in tho classical languages, and apparatus for study is abundant in texts, and especially in the magnificent dic- tionary of .M. Brugsch, publisheil in ISfiT-OS. Tho Egyptian hieroglyphical characters are either ideo- graphic, syllabic, alphabetic, or determinative. All writing originated in ideographs — pictures of objects to be sug- gested by them to the reader. The Egyptians very early f Hissed through the pure ideographic stage into the .syl- abic, and eveii the alphabetic, but the idea of the alpha- bet, depending wholly on ultimate vocal analysis, never dominated in their (Writing, as it did in the IMwenicinn. Even in our own writing wo employ some purely ideographic signs. like f. plus, and §, section, although they are not. like the original ideograjdis, pictorial. A vast number of objects could be directly drawn, as, for example, portions of the body, the hea<l, car, eyes, eyebrows, lips, nose, mouth, arm, hand, either open or shut, leg, foot; also numerous actious, as writing, building, and walking: also such ob- jects external from man as sun, moon, star, the lotus-flow- er, the linn, water (represented by a line of waves), etc. A combination of single figures might express an appropri- ate idea. Thus, if a waved line t:!^" exprcsseil water, an ellipse enclosing tho waved line ^^3 would represent a cistern. If a circle reprcsenletl the sun, a half circle with rays streaming upward jjM^ would represent sunrise, and a circle half sunk below a imc rOn sunset. \ ean<ijiy ^ — ^ represented the heavens, and a star utidcrneath the canopy P^ suggested night; while a circle in the same position •■^T* represented midday; and the same ennopy with some- thing like tunnels rtinning through it vw v represented rain. Of these pictorial objects there 1 I 1 I are about 400. Their range is considerable, but abstract i<leaa and connecting words, most verbs, and all inflected forms can- not bo expressed by more pictures. A comiilotc sentence is impossible by this system, reached. Its limitationa are soon Moon. \ sail. 4 ^ ^ Man. Woman. Child. 1^^^ Goose, fj-t Road. n 1 1 oil so. j Throne. 1 Obelisk. *f A prisoner \ To strike. The next step was that of allowing the figure not merely to represent the idea and its name, but the souiwis by which that word is expressed. Thus, the tiguro bcooaits entirely tho representation of a sound, and no longer of an object. Thi? may be illustrated by the jdcturc of an altar, which might al^o stand for the word ultcr. But the Egyptians regarded the consonants as the substantial parts of a word, and, disregarding tho vowels, the same figure might stand for latrv, letter, Itttfr, or ultra. Thus, the owl, rnulak, might also stand for vufich, king; the hyaena, httitr, for Iiotv, an hour; the serpent, hoji, for fiepi, a cave, and the obelisk, nmei'tif for the god Aunni. Pincc the Egyptian car did not distinguish the surd (sharp) from the sonant (flat) conso- nants, the range was somewhat further extended. Tims, tho finger, pronounced tcp, would represent any other word whose consonants were tp, th, dp, or db; as, for example, tatpe, a magazine, and tha, ten thousand. The next stage was to allow any character to stand for only the iirst one or two sounds in the word which it pri- marily represented, generally for tho first consonant and vowel, but in the case of a few characters, called by lirugsch fundamental, for the first sound only. A single letter or gyllablo may often be represented by a number of different signs. Thus, A might be represented by an arm, an eagle, or a reed; T, by a serpent or a hemisphere. The sense often guided the selection of the character. Thus, in writing the Greek word for emperor {avToicpdrtup) the eagle, symbol of the Roman power, would be selected to represent a. Of the syllabic characters there were 400 or iOO. The accom- panying table includes the common alphabetic characters : FiQ. 2. 1°' S J-, C IP Cbanictcrs In Characters rarely used. IN 11^ Cb&ractcrs In commoD use. 1 Chftractcrs rnrcly used. A W " ^ D -=*• A TS -li >1 I II ^^ -i^lv M %.- )T Cor on \ ' S N ■ 5 KW F * — ■ 9 I UorL b B w ^ w S n U P m ^r^- .'ill ™ j[i[ 8. K Q ^ — Kll e 1.0- o III! \ f T • r ^ L-::. H la 1 The Egyptians paid regard to vowels only as they were needed to avoid ambiguity in writing. Where there might be iloubt which of two words was li> bo read, or in the case of words having nn initial vowel, or of monosyllables with a final vowel, and especially of foreign proper names, it biiamc necessary to express the vowels. These were not put in theirphice between their consonants, but either after CM- under the consonants which formed the word. Thus the three fundamental characters given in the order ii. /'. ". are to be pronounced mi;), not iipn. The scribes often found it necessary to employ certain signs, not as characters to be 916 IIIEROMAX— HIGilGATi:. pronounced, but as suggc-^tions to the reader bow to read other ambiguous signs. Thu?, a figure like a hill — pro- nounceil tovc, and meaning much — indicated that the cha- racters i)rccediug it were to be read not as single letters, but in their larger content, a^^ full syllables with two or more consonant?. Sometimes the character was repeated for the same purpose. AVheu the characters hacl settled into their almost completely phonetic use, a word spelled out was often followed by its pictorial representation. Thus, \verc it de- sired to write mtkhi, ft crocodile, instead of simply giving a picture of the crocodile, which might signify either aukhi 01- skf the word might bo spelled out by its consonants: first an », expressed by a sii>hon and pronounced arppe; tlien /:, expressed by the breast, klhp. To show that these two characters are not to be ]ironounccd syllabically. »>jpn hip, as they may be, but consouiintally, su/.-/ii, the figure of the crocodile, tti/chi, is appended. This system of deter- minatives had considerable extension, of which the follow- ing arc examples: Fig. 3. Names of foreigu countries. Karnes of places in Egypt. ^ Names of animals. ^fc^ Evil or hurtful actions. C )\ Encloses royal names. ^^^^ Articles of clothing. Names of enemies. Objects in wood. o YYY Articles of metal. Disaster, storm, confu- sion. The direction of the hieroglyphic writing was unfixed. On the same monument it was in one place read vertically and in another horizontally. The common way was from right to left, as in Hebrew. In the older temples the characters were raised ; but after the fifth dynasty they were generally cut in intaglio, often very deep, as in the temple at Zepe, where Bruce found them six inches deep. The portions cut out were sometimes filled with white lime, or often with mastic or richly colored enamel. The hieratic writing was an abbreviation of the hiero- glyphic. Mo«;r. of the jiapyrus is inscribed in this cha- racter. In the seventh century D. c. a still more abridged style, called demotic, came into use, in which no trace can be recognized of the original pictures, although there is in it the same mixture of both the phouetij and the ideographic characters. AVillia-M II. AVauo. Blioromax. Sec YAnMUK. Uierun'ymites [from St. Jerome, or ^(V)-o»v»i»s], properly the hermits of St. Jerome, were originally Fran- ciscan Tertiaries of the Strict Observance. In 1373 the new order was accredited by Pope Gregory XI., and received an Augustinian rule. P. F. Pecha and one Vasco were its founilers. Charles V. entered the order upon his abdica- tion. This order, once very rich and extensive, is now small and feeble. — Another small congregation called Hie- ronyinitcs was founded at Pisa by one of the Gambacorti about Ki'JO. It still exists. Hier'ophant [Gr. Ifpof^aj-n??]. the mystagoguc, prophet or priest of Demeter who had charge of the Eleusinian Mysteries, and initiated new members into those mysteries. Ho must be a descendant of the hero Eumolpus. unmarried, and unblemished in character and in body. He preserved and expounded the unwritten lavv. Hies'ter {.Tosmi), b. of parentage of remote Silcsian origin in Hern tp., Berks co.. Pa., Nov. IS, 17o2; became ft merchant of Heading in 1771; raised, equipped, and eomniiindcil a company in the Revolutionary army : was woun-Ied at the battle of Long Island, and imprisoned a year in the Jersey hulk; wounded again at Germantown ; a member of the constitutional conventions of I7S7 and 17SII ; was a member of Congress 1797-1805 and KSI j-21 ; governor of Pennsylvania 1821-23. D. at Heading, Pa., June 10, \y.V>, llii;'£;ins, Ip. of Perry co.. Ark. Pop. 292. HiU'J;ins, tp. of McDowell co.. N. C. Pop. 401. Ilig'j^inson (Francis), b. in England in 15S8; grad- uated at St. .lohn's College, Cambridge, and became ft par- ish clergyman of Leicester, but was deprived for noncon- formity, and in 1029 became teacher of the congregation at Salem. Mass., where he d. Aug. 6, Ki.'JO. Ho wrote jVeio Eii'iIiuuVh IHnntatiom (1030). Hi^ginson (Francis J.). U. S. N., b. July 10. 1840, in ^Iiissachusetls : graduated at (he Naval Aeiidemy in ISCl; beenmc a lieutenant in 1S02, a lieutenant-commander in ISfifi; served on board the Cayuga, as aide to Capt. liailey, in the great victory of New Orleans, and was wounded in the very gallant boat-expedition from the Colorado Sept. 14, 1S61, which succeeded in destroying the Confederate privateer Judah, moored to, a wharf at the Pensacola navy- yard. FOXHALL A. PaRKKR. lIig:ginson (Sir Jamks Macaulav), K. C. B., b. in ISO.'j; in 1824 he joined tlie Bengal army, and served dur- ing the Bhurtpore camjiaign and ass:iult of that fortress in 1 S20 ; was appointed to the stafl' of the army in 1S2S. and filled the positions of aide-de-canij) to Lord William Ben- tinck. governor-general of India; military secretary to the governor of Agra: private secretary to the governor-gen- eral of Canada, and in 18.19 accompanied Lord Metealle to Jamaica as secretary to the governor ; following that states- man to Canada, he was made civil secretary and superin- tendent of Indian aff'airs. From 1846 to 1S5() he was gov- ernor ftnd commander-in-chief of the Leeward Islunds, when he was transferred to the governorship of Mauritius (lS.")t)-r>7) ; created companion of the Bath in 1861, a knight-coraraauder 1856 j retired from active service in 1857. Higginson (John), a son of Francis Higginson, b. at Claybrookc, Leicestershire. England, Aug. 0, 1010; came to Salem with his father; became a teacher of Hartford; was a short-hand writer to the Massachusetts synod of 1037 ; chaplain of Saybrook ; assistant minister of Guilford, Conn., 1G41-59: minister of Salem, Mass.. 1000-1708. He was a popular preacher, and left some valued writings. D. Dec. 9, 1708. Higginson (Thomas WrNxwoRTii), b. Dec. 22, 1823, in Cambridge, Mass.; graduated at Harvard College 1S41 ; received the degree of A.M. 1809; studied divinity at Cambridge; was ordained at Xewburyport, Mass. (First Religious Society), in 1847, the year he left the Divinity School : was Free-soil candidate for Congress in 1S50 ; went to Worcester, Mass., in 1852 as minister of the Free church ; resigned in 1S5S, and left the ministry. !Mr. Higginson had taken a leading part in the anti-slavery conflict that preceded the civil war; had visited Kansas in 1850; was acquainted with John Brown, and was active in sustaining the Free-State men in the West. On Sept. 25, 1802, he was made captain in the 5lst Massachusetts Vols. ; on Nov. 10 accepted the colonelcy of 1st South Carolina Vols., colored ; was wounded Aug., 1S03, and mustered out Oct., 1804. He has since lived in Newport. R. I., devoting himself to literature and the work of social reform ; is :i vice-president of the Free Religious Association, a leader in the cause of woman sufi"rage, and an earnest friend of the higher edu- cation of the youth of both sexes in public schools and colleges. His efforts to introduce modern ideas and men into the management of Harvard College, and to have its facilities extended to women, have been assiduous. Mr. Higginson is the author of several volumes of collected essays : Out-door Papers ( 1S03), Anui/ Life in a Black Rciji- ment (1870), and ^l//(i»r("c EniifVfs (1871): wrote a novel, Malbon^, nn Oldpnrt Ji.,mfnice (XSG'^). Oldport Dm/e (1874); a history, Yunnij Folks' Ilintorij nf the V. S. (1S75); besides various pamphlets and magazine articles, memoirs of Lydia Maria Child and Margaret Fuller Ossoli in Eminent Women of the A(je (1808), and a memoir of T. W. Harris, prefixed to his Entomological Coryexpuudenec (1809). He also edited (in connection with S. Longfellow) a book of poems, Tha- Ifittn ( 1853), a translation of Epietctus ( IS05), Harvard }fe- morial Iiin;/raphir» (2 Vols., ISOO), Child- /'ictnrrs from Dickens (1808), firjV/' liioijraphia of European Statesmen (1875). Is also well known as a lyceum lecturer. He visited Europe in 1872. 0. B. Frotiiinuiiam. Hig'ginsport, post-v. in Lewis tp.. Brown co., 0. It is on the Ohio, 40 miles above Cincinnati. Pop. 530. Hig'ginsvillej post-v. of Verona tp., Oneida co., N. Y. Pop. 219. High, in music, a term indicating acutcness of sound, generally by way of comparison or contrast with other and graver sounds. Thus, of two sounds, notes, or parts, one is said to be higher than the other because it is more acute, though both notes may chance to be in the graver portion of the scale. In a general and indefinite way alt musical sounds are said to bo either high, low, or of a middle gra<le. Hence, the use of the terms ascendintj and descend- ing whon wc change from the graver part of the scale to the more acute, and rice versH. William Staitnton. High Bridge, i»ost-v. of Hunterdon co., N. J., on the New Jersey Central R. R., 54 miles W. of New Vork. Here are extensive iron-works and a remarkable railroad bri'lgc. High For'est, tp. and post-v. of Olmsted co., Minn., 15 miles S. of Rochester. Pop. of v. 249 ; of tp. 1243. High'gntc, post-tp. of Franklin co., Vt., on Missisquoi Bay ( Lake Champlain). and on the Canada lino. It is also on the Central Vermont R. R. (northern division), 13 miles N. of St. .Albans. It is a jilace of summer resort, has 4 churches, 4 hotels, and manufactures of castings, scythes. HIGH LAKE— HIGHWAY. 917 and leather. It has sulphurou:^ mineral springs, which are very useful in eertaiu flkiu diseases. Pop. 2JG0. IIi;;h LaKe, tp. of EniDictt co., la. Pop. 1S2. Iliuh'hiiid, county iu the S. S. W. of Ohio. Area, 460 equnre mile?. It lies between the Scioto and Little Miami valley?, and is well cultivated and fertile. Cuttle, grain, and wool are stajdcs. The manufactures include carriages, flour, harnesses, etc. It is traversed by the Marietta and Cincinnati R. K. Cap. Hillsborough. Top. 29,133. Highland, county of Virginia, bounded on the W. and N. by West Virginia. Area, 400 gquaro miles. It is very mountainous. Live-stock, grain, and wool are staple pro- ducts. Cap. Monterey. Pop. -ilJl. llishland, tp. of Shelby co., Ala. Pop. 657. Ilii^hlaiid, tp. of Grundy co., III. Pop. 980. Highland, post-v. of Madison co.. 111., 30 miles E. of St. Louis, on the St. Louis Vandivlia and Terro Haute R.Rs. It contains 2 public schools, 4 churches, 1 Catholic uni- versity, 2 large flouring-mills, 1 foundry, 1 bank, I woollen- mill, and 1 newspaper. Pop., composed of Swiss and Gcr- m-inn, 17.'>7. Ad. F. Bandkliek. Hi:;hland, tp. of Franklin co., Ind. Pop. 179G. Ilighlund, tp. of Greene co., Ind. Pop. 1321. Highland, tp. of Vermilion co., Ind. Pop. 2294. Highland, pust-tp. of Clayton co., la. Pop. S34. Highland, tp. of Guthrie co., la. Pop. 229. Highland, tp. of Tama co., la. Pop. o03. Highland, tp. of Union co., la. Pop. 247. Highland, tp. of Wapello co., la. Pop. 959. Highland, t]>. of Washington co., la. Pop. 753. Highland, tp. of Winneshiek co., la. Pop. 922. Highland, post-v. of Iowa tp., Doniphan co.. Kan., is the ^eat uf Highland University (Presbyterian) for both 8exe.4, and has a coal-mine. It is nenr the Atchison and Nebraska U. R., and 25 miles N. by W. of Atchison. P. 2K2. Highland, tp. and post-v. of Oakland co., Mich., on the Flint and Pcre Mar<|uctte K. R., 2S miles S. of Flint. Pnp. I -J II. Highland, tp. of Osceola co., Mich. Pop. 5S. Highland, tp. of Wabashaw co., Minn. Pop. 716. Highland, a v. of Salioe co., Ncb-i 17 miles S. W. of Line-tin. Highland, a v. of Lincoln co., Ner. Pop. 21. Highland, tp. of Sullivan co., N. V., on the Delaware River. It confains many small lakes. Hero was fought the battle of the Minisink. July 22, 1779, between the Indiana in the British service, under Brant, and the Amerii'nn militia. Pop. 958. Highland, post-v. of Ulstcrco., >r. Y., opposite Pough- keepsic, with which it is connected half hourly by ferry. It contains a seminary for both sexes, 3 churches. 7 flour- ing-milU, 1 foundry, a felloe-factory, 1 weekly newspaper. It h:is 3 daily linos of steamers to New York. The in- lubilants are largely engaged in the grape-culture. Pop. about "00. W. F. Hkndrick, En. *' Joirnal." Highland, tp. of Defiance co., 0. Pop. 946. Highland, tp. of Muskingum co., 0. Pop. 784. Highland, tp. of Adams co., Pa. Pop. 121. Highland, tp. of Chester co.. Pa. Pop. 958. Highland, tji. of Clarion co., Pa. Pop. 024. Highland, tp. of Elk co., Pa. Pop. 98. Highland, tp. of Greenville co., S. C. Pop. 1261. Highland (called also Ft-ankUn), post-v. of Iowa co., AVis.. 12 miles S. by W. of Avoca. P.ofv.482; oftp.30Ifi. HighManderf*, properly the Oaclsor Celtic inhabitants of the Highlantis of Scotland. In the British army the term ile^ignate^ the eight regiments of foot-soldiers who wear the old Highland costume, cacli with its own distinc- tive tartan. These are the 42d, 71st, 72d, 74th, "Sth. 79th, fl2d, and 93d regiments. The 91st (Argylcshire regiment) is also sometimes reckoned with the Highlanders. There are several Highland volunteer regiments. Highland FuIIn, pust-v. of Curnwall tp., Grange co., N. v., on ibo llud.-on, 2 miles below West Point; has hotels antl I churches, and is a pliiec of summer re.iorl. Highland Park, post-v. of Dcerfield tp.. Lake co., III., on L iko Michigan ami on the Chicago and North- west erit U. K. (Milwaukee division), 22 miles N. of Chicago. Iligli'lands, of the Huilson. are the broken hilts which stretch tnmi S. W. to N. E. through Kocklaud, Oninge, Putnam, and llutehcss cos., N. V.. being the N. E. con- tinuation of the Blue lUdge, and extending farther N. E. in the Taconic and Green Mountains of Western Now Eng- land. The passage of the Hudson through the Highlands is marked by very fine scenery, and it is remarkable as almost the only instance in the U. S. of a navignble river- passage through a great mountain-range. The Highlands are mainly composed of azoic rocks, with rugged and steep sides and a somewhat scanty soil. The highest peaks do not reach higher than 17U0 feel above tide. High Market, tp. of Lewis co., N. V. It has 3 cheese- factories. Pop. lOJl. High Places. In the Old Testament frequent men- tion is made of high places, where the people unlawfully went to worship strange gods. The custom of erecting shrines upon hilltops is a very ancient and widespread one, and seems to have ari^^cn from the belief that the tops of hills were nearer the abode of Deity. In spite of the strong denunciations of the practice in the Jewish law, the custom became a prevalent one, and such men as Samuel, David, and Elijah conformed to it, but in later times a reform oc- curred, and the more devout kings of Judah actively de- stroyed the high jdaces. High Point, tp. and post-v. of Decatur co., la., 13 miles S. of Woodburn. Pop. 79G. High Point, post-tp. of Guilford co., N. C. Pop. 1027. High Prairie, tp. of Leavenworth co., Kan. P. 1300. High Priest, in the hierarchy of the Hebrews, the princii)al religions dignitary of the nation. By the Mosaic law the office was held for life, and was hereditary in the line of Elcazar, son of Aaron, the first high priest. But in the New Testament times the office had ceased to be hereditary, and was held at the will of the civil ruler. Some of these officers in those times were men of low Mrth. One of the most brilliant periods of this pontificate wns that of the Asmona^an princes (Maccabees), some of whom joined regal to priestly authority. High Shoals, tp. of lluthcrford co., N. C. Pop. 904, Higll'spire, post-v. of Lower Swatara tp., Dauphin CO., Pa., on the Pennsylvania R. R., and on the N. E. bank of the Susquehanna, 6 miles below Ilarrisburg. Pop. 012. High'towers, tp. of Caswell co., N. C. Pop. 1502. Hights'town, post-b. of Mercer co.. N. J.. 11 miles N. E. of Trenton, on tlie .\mboy division of the Pennsylvania R. R. It is an incorporated borough, containing 3 educa- tional institutes, 6 churches, 2 foundries, 2 hotels, chain, plough, and door factories. 1 newspaper, and 2 national banks. Pop. of borough, 1347. Tiios. B. Api'i.kget, Ed. "Gazette." High Was'sie, tp. of Pulaski co., Va. Pop. 1S07. Iligh'way, a road or way over which the public at large have a free right of passage. The term, in popular usage, is commonly restricted to ways upon land, as car- riage- or foot-roads or turnpikes, but it is employed in law as a generic designation, including not only ways of this kind, but also watercourses which arc, in a similar manner, open to public convenience, as, for instance, natural streams. Ferries are also sometimes coinpreheuded within the same category. Highways upon land are created cither by ex- press dedication of the owner, by prescription, or iu jmr- suancc of legislative authority. Dedication occurs when the owner of the property appropriates it to the public use as a common passage-way, and there is a sufficient acccj>t- ance of the privilege on the part of the |)ublie, evidenced cither by jjositive acknowledgment und assent or by constantly enjoying the advantage oiTcred. A right is obtaine«i by prescription by a continuous, undisturbed use of the land as a common way for a particular period of time established by law, usually twenty years. The validity of a claim originating iu this manner is sus- tained by the fiction of a presumed grant or dedication by the owner on account of his long acquiescence in the vio- lation of liis proprietary rights. (See PiiKsntii'Tiox.) But much the most common mode of establishing public ways is by the exercise of the governmental prerogative (jf tak- ing private properly for public uses. Laws have been en- acted, both in Englainl and iu the several States of the Union, regulating tin- nuthods Ipy which new nmds may be laid out as occasion may require. The authority in this country is usually delegated to towns or bodies of commis- sioners, who, in conjunction with a jury, determine unou the necessity of a road, its direction, and extent. Iho commissioners may also have power to direct its construc- tion and make all necessary repairs. As this is an inter- ference with the rights of private owners untlcr the luw of Eminkst Domain (which see), adequate compensation must be made for the loss which they sustain in conseijuencc. Tlii-* power must never bo capriciously or arbitrarily exer- cised, but only to satisfy a public necessity. Hiirhways by water, in the case of natural streams, exist independently of the granting of any privilege by dedication or of any 918 HIKA— HILDEBEKT OF TOURS. legiiilative interposition — by force of the natural right whioh every citizen possesses of free passage along all watercourses not of artificiiil construction. The estahlishmont of a highway docs not necessarily give Iho public a right of owiicrshij) in the soil over which the privilege of passage is exercised. It is a general rule, applying both tu highways upon land and to watercourses above the point where the tide ebbs and flows, that the property in the soil is VL-sted in the adjoining owners. If a single individual own the land upon b«tth .sides of a road or stream, he has in general also the exclusive title to the entire highway as far as the limits of his estate extend; but if the proprietors upon the opposite sides be different persons, the right of each extends to the middle of the highway. The right of the public in such a case consti- tutes merely an easement, and though this is so far restric- tive upon the owner's management and control of his prop- erty that he can do nothing to deprive the public of their privilege of free passage or to incommode them, yet it must be enjoyed simply as a right to travel over the land, and an obligation rests also upon the public not to inter- fere with the owner's interests further than the appropriate use of the way demands. If there arc trees or grass grow- ing along the line of a road, the ailjoiniug owner has an ex- clusive right to them, as against all but the public, and can maintain an action against any one who attempts to carry them away. In like manner, he may obtain redress for injuries occasioned by encroachments upon the soil, or un- lawful excavations, or any violation of his rights as owner which is not strictly incidental to the public privilege. If there arc mines beneath the surface of the highway, ho may continue to work them, ])rovided he does not deprive the public of the right of way or impair their exercise of it. Under similar limitations ho may construct water- pipes or drains, excavate cellars, etc. below the surface. But the public right of easement, especially in villages and cities, somctimrs includes ])articular privileges not directly incidental to the right of transit, but so important and essential for the common welfare of communities that they are deemed to be included within the interest which the public acquires by establishing the highway. For instance, the soil nuiy bo opened for the construction of sewers or gas- or water-pipes for the convenience of neighboring residents. But acts of this nature can only be done by virtue of public authority, and if any individual or com- ''bination ui' individuals attempt to lay gas- or watcr-]>ipcs without obtaining special powers for that purpose, they commit an actionable offence fur which the owner may seek redress. But nothing additional to such privileges as these is embraced within the easement which the public ac- quires: and if the legislature authorizes the use of the soil for other purposes, this is a new exercise of the right of eminent domain, for which further compensation must be made. Thus, it has been held that the construction of a stcam-raiIro;id is not a legitimate exercise of the easement, and that for such a use of the highway additional compen- sation must be made to the adjoining proprietors. Grants of property bounded upon a highway carry with them the same interest in the soil of the road as the grantor pre- viously possessed, even though there be no distinct state- ment to that cficct. Such a presumed conve3-anco can only be prevented by the use of precise expressions in the deed of transfer, limiting the l)oundary to the edge of the way. The statute law may, as it sometimes docs, jirovidc that the entire interest in the land over which the highway passes shall vest in the public. This is the case with the modern streets in the city of Now York. The public right of transit must bo entirely unrestricted. If obstructifms he placed in the way impeding free travel, they will constitute public nuisances, and will affonl ground for an indictment or for a private action by any person especially discommoded. They may also bo abated or re- moved by any one, so far as may bo necessary to ])ermit him to continue on his way. Moreover, in order that the privilege of passage may be enjoyed with as little incon- venience as possible, it is the duty of every traveller to observe proper care to avoid collisions and accident. To promote this desirable end, it has been made the rule in Englancl that vehicles in passing each other must keep to the left. In the U. S. the regulation is exactly the reverse — that they must keep to the right. The obligation of this requirement ceases when one tif the vehicles is confined to a specific line of travel, as a horse-car, and in such a case the other carriage may turn to either side. In England the repair of highways is n duty obligatory upon the in- habitants of the parishes, and they may be indicted if they suffer defects to continue after knowledge of their exist- ence. In the t^ S. the liability is created by statute. In New England the duty is imposed upon the towns, and a statutory right of action is given against thcui if any in- jury bo sustained by u traveller in consequence of their neglect. In other States the obligation devolves, as a general rule, upon municipal corporations, such as cities and villages, while towns, which are usually considered quasi cor])<»ratious, are sometimes made liable, as in New Eugland, or the roads within their limits are placed under the charge of specially-appointed commissioners, who may be subjected to an action if they fail to make repairs after they arc provided with the means to obtain the requisite funds. If a person brings an action for an injury sustained through a defect in the highway against the body bound to make repairs, he must show that they had knowledge of the existence of the alleged <U'fect, or a reasonable op- portunity and means of obtaining such knowledge. If the defect or obstruction be caused by a resident adjacent to the highway, and the city or town be compelled to respond in damages to a person injured in consequence, a suit for indemnification may be instituted by the city, etc. in its turn against the party primarily responsible by reason of his uuauthorizeil act or culpable negligence. George Chask. Kevised uv T. W. Dwiciit. Mi'ka^ post-v. of Manitowoc co., Wis., on Lake Mich- igan, 12 miles N. of Sheboygan. lii'^kOf post-tp. of Lincoln co., Nev., 215 miles S. of Elko. Pop. 64; of tp. 110. Hillary. Four persons of this name are prominent in church history : I. HiLAnv of Arles, Saist, was b. at Aries, in S. Gaul, about 401 A.n. ; was persuaded by Hono- ratus, afterwards (42fi-420) bisliop of his native place, to enter the monastery of Lerins ; in 429, on the death of Ilonoratus, was chosen his successor in the see of Aries, and d. there May 5, 449. Zealous in discipline and strong of will, he had a bitter controversy with Pope Leo the Great, which, however, was amicably settled at last. He was learned, eloquent, and charitable to the poor. Ilis sermons, it Is said, were sometimes very long (four hours), so that his hearers were driven into the novelty of sitting. His Li/e v/ llonoratim is in the Acta Sauctorum, Jan. 16. — II. Hilary of Poitiers, Saint, "the Atbanasius of the West," of distinguished but heathen parentage, was b. at Poitiers in Central Gaul. near the end of thclhird cinlury; became a Christian in mature life after prolonged and careful investigation ; was chosen bishop of Poitiers about 350 ; in .Ojj was banished to Phrygia, because he would not sanction the condemnation of Atbanasius ; returned to Poitiers in 3G0, and d. there Jan. 13, 308. He was one of tho ablest meu of his century — clear-headed, incisive, reso- lute, learned, and eloquent. The leading characteristic of his career was tho sharp and steady war he waged agiiinst Arianism. The earliest edition of his works was by Eras- mus (Bale, 1j23) ; the best is Ihe Benedictine, by Constant (Paris, 1G03; republishcil, with additions, by Maffei, Ve- rona, 17.00). (Sec Reiskens's lliiarius von J'oitierHf 18fi4.) — III. HiLARV the Pope, was h. (date unknown) in Sar- dinia; while deacon at Uomc, under Pope Leo the Great, was sent as legate to the *' Kobber Council" at Ephcsus (449 A. D.); succeeded Leo in the papal chair in 461, being consecrated Nov. 12, two day.s after the death of Loo; and d. at Romo Feb. 21, 40S, He was zealous for the faith and strict in discipline. A synod which met in Rome Nov. 12, 4Go, passed five canons, inspired by him, endorsing the canons of Nice, and forbidding, amongst other things, the ordination of men twice married or marrying widows, and forbidding bishops to nominate their successors. (See Acta Sanctorum, Vch. 21.) — IV. lIii.AUV THE Beacon. A Roman deacon of this name was sent by Pope Liberius (362-306 a. D.) to a council (attended by 300 bishops) which met at Milan in 366. He appears afterwards to have joined tho schism of Lucifer (who d. 371), bishop of Cagliari (Lat. Cnfan't) in Sardinia. He has generally been ideutilicd with tho unknown author (.-VMituosiASTEit) of the com- mentary on the Paulino Epistles, wrongly ascribed to Ambrose of Milan ; who also wrote the Qimntiouot Veferh ft Xovi 7\Hta„icutt, wrongly ascribed to Augustine. But this identification is now questioned. Tho commentary on St. Paul's Epistles contains passages which have im- portant bearings on questions of church polity. R. I). HiTCIKOCK. Hil'burn, tp. of Madison co., Ark. Pop. 424. Ilildlnirirliairscn, town of Germany, in Suxc-Mein- ingen, was once the capital of Saxe-Ilildliurghauscn. It is on the river Wcrra and the Eisenach-Coburg Railway ; has a gymnasium, a teachers' school, and institutions for deaf- mutes and fur the insane, besides manufactures of consid- erable importance. Po]k 6148, Hil'deliert of Tours, the most celebrated Latin poet of his time. b. at Lavardin. in the Vermandois, in 1067. and educated in tho monastery of Chigny. In 10'.17 ho was ap- poinlefl bishop of Mans, and in 1126 arehbisliop of Tours, where he d. Dec. 18, 1134. His dogmatical essays have in- H'.LDEBRAND— HILL. 919 Icrost on account of thoir eyatemntio form. A collected edition uf liis works was published in 1708 by Beaogcndro. Ilildcbrand. Sec Gukoory (VII.). IlirUcshuim, town of (icrmauy, in Hanover, on the Inucrste. It contains several line oiJ uionumeuts, as, for iualiiucc, the cathedral, built in lUlO, nilh ics famous l.roiizB galea and j;la9s-|iaintings; tho church of St. Oodo- hard, built in 113J; and the church of St. Michael, built in 1022. It has a lively trade in corn, lineu, and yarn. It is a Roman Catholic bishop's see. Pop. 20,.s01. Uil'Ureth (UioiiaroU tho son of Ucv. Uosca Hildrcth (17K2-1 <:;.■>), b. at Dcerlicld. Mass., Juno 2L'. ISO", and graduated at Harvard in U'20; was admitted to the bar at Boston: in 1S32 became editor of tho Boston A:lua ; re- sided lS3-t-3J in Florida, where ho wrote Arch:/ iloore (l.Su7), an anti-slavery tale, republished in 1SJ2 as Tlic While Slarc. Ho tr.inslated Dnuiout's version of Bcntham's Tlirorf of Lc'ilslaiiiiit (IS 10, 2 vols.), and published Hi-iloii/ n/Itantt (U«r), a L!/e o/ ir. //. Uirrlmn (1S30), whom ho vigorously supported for tho Presidency, and Dcapotimn inAMtrka ('l8jl),nn auti-slavcry work. lie resided (1S40- 43) in Dcmerara, where ho edited two free-labor journals. Ho published a Thrunj of MoraU (ISU) and a Thmrii nf Pullllvt (1S03), but his great work is a ]Ihti>nj of the U. S. (0 vols., 1849-Jl)), written in a style pure but without adornment. Tho author's standpoint is an'.i-Jcifcrsonian. Ho also produced Jap'in «» it U'tin imil h (IT-jJ) and .ifro- cxmit Jml'/cA (IfiJO), prepared from Lord Cr.mpbeirs Hres. Ho was for several years on the editorir.l stnl' of tho Xcv/ York Tribmic. and bcenmo V. S. consul at Trieste in ISGl. D. nt Florence, Italy, July 11, ISCJ. Hildrcth (^^.uiiki. Prhscott), .M. P., b. at MctUucn, M, , . 1,1. .'•.;i, 17S:i; studied nicdicino with Dr. Kittrid;;o 1 ', . ', r; removed from New liampshiro to I!elpr6, 0., iu 1 .'., .uid to Marietta, 0., in l''«S. Ho was a valued contributor to periodicals, and prepared various scicutiiio and genealo„'ieal papers, etc. llo wrote a J/i-ilori/ nf the Diti-imrt ,Hid Clim>ile of Smilh-casltrn O/no (1"37), //.sfory of /IrllerHle in West Virginia (1S.".7), Pioiicfrll'-istur:! ( 1 S4S), /,irf» of Eiirli/ Seillrre of Ohio (lSi2), .".nd other works. Ilia valuable library and scientific coUcetions ho gave to Marietta College. D. July 24, 1SC3. Ilil'gard (Euobne \Va!.di:>hr), Ph. D., b. in Zwei- bruckcn, Khenish Bavaria, Jan. a, ISol : emigrated with his father to Bellville, 111.. ls:;i-30; in 1S4',I returned to Europe, and studied at tho .\eadcmy of Mines, Freiberg, Germany ; also at tho universities of ZUrieh and Heidel- berg, graduating at Heidelberg in 1863; in lS3j returned to the V. S., and became assistant State geologist of Mis- sissippi; in 1SJ7 was in charge of the laboratory at the .Smiihsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. ; in ISjS was appointed State geologist of .Mississippi. Since 1S71 ho has held that ofliec in connection with the ehiiir of agri- cultural chemistry in the State University at Oxford, Miss. In 1''73 bo look a similar position in tho University of Miilii-an. and in l'<74 wa ' elected professor of agriculture in the University of California, wliiih jiosition ho still oceu- pics ( I.S7 J). Author of a report on the geology and agricul- ture of iMiasissippi, and various papers on chemical and geological subjects, chiefly on the geology of Limisiana and of the .Mississippi delta, in the Am. Jour, of Science; is a member of the National .\caderay of Sciences. Ililgard (Jrurs Erasmus), h. ,Tan. 7, 1S25, in Zwci- briieken, (Jerinany; emigrated in 18;i.i to Illinois with his father, from whom he reecived a classical education : studied civil engineering in Philailel|diia; in 184.5cutcrcd the Coast Sirvcy service, which has been the principal sphere of his la'iors, and to the success of which he has largely contrib- uted. His writings on geodetic methods, tides, and terres- trial magnetism arc published in tho Coast Survey reports and in various scientilie journals. In 1S02 he took charge of the Coast .Purvey olhee, and of the const ruction of stand- ard weiglits and measures, a position whieb be still retains ; in lH(i3 ho was named a mc-mber of tho National .\cademy of Sciences; in 1S72 look an active part in the interna- tional metric commission which met at Paris, and was chosen a member of its perinaiient eoniinittee. He at the same time conducted a iletennimition by telegriiph of tho longitude between .\meriea and Europe, including that be- tween the observatories of Greenwii-h and Paris. Was eleirti'd president of tho Am. Assoc, fur tho Adv. of Sci. in isri. lIilanrd(TiiKonoBECnAni.i".s),.M.P.,b. inZwcibriicken, Oermaiiv. Feb. 2S, 182S: came to the li. S. in lis:ij, and aflerwiirds iMimpletcd his edueation al the (terinan universi lies; settleil as u physician in Si. Li>uis, and devoted inneh time to the mieniscopic atudy of zymotic fungi and the circuita of generation of the lower forms of life. His pii]MTs on then and kindred subjects — aueh us frcah-water ulgo), tho spawn of mosses, natural orders of Ihe vegetable king- dom, phyllolaxy, and tho genetic explanation of its uu- racricftl law, the numerical low of the vertebrate system, contributions to the physiology of sight, and other essays — are published in the Tntntoctioni* of the St. Louis .\eade- my of Science and in those of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. 1). Mar. 6, 1875, of pneu- monia, aged forty-seven. Ililgard (Tiieodor ERAS«t:s), b. in Nassau, Germany, July 7, 17'JO ; educated at Heidelberg and Paris; counsel- lor at law at Treves during the empire, ami after the resto- ration of Ihe Khenish provinces to Germany judge of the court of appeals at Zweibriickcn. While hobling this po- sition he published a series of reports on the working of the French system of jurisprudence and tho Code Na- poleon, which remained operative in those German prov- inces, contributing largely to the preservation and exten- sion of that system. He was during live years member of the provincial .assembly, maintainiug the right of local self- government, but, dispirited by the reaction toivards abso- lutism under the influence of Austria, he emigrated in 1835 to Iho U. S. with a family of nine children, whose educa- tion he personally directed at his newhome in Illinois. He afterwards returned to Germany, and settled in Heidelberg, where he d. Feb. 14, 1873. Author of publications on im- portant social questions, such as pauperism, the dcalh- pcnally, woman's rights, and the war-power. He also published metrical translations into the German language of Ovid, Homer, and Moore, an original poem entitled The Iluitdrcd Dniji, and many minor poems. Hill, county of N. Central Texas. Area, 950 square miles. It is half prairio and half timber land. The soil is fertile. Tho chief products are cattle, maize, aud eot- toa. Tho Braios forms part of tho western boundary. Cap. Hillsborough. Pop. 7453. Hill, post-tp. of Merrimack CO., N. U., on tho Northern R. U., 25 miles N. W. of Coiioaid. It has manufacturca of furniture, carriages, etc. Pop. G20. Hill, tp. of Montgomery co., N. 0. Pop. 477. Hill (.Vmbrosf. Powell), b. in Culpcper co., Va., 152^ ; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy July 1, 1S17, aud appointed in tho army brevet second lieutenant of artillery, receiving his full commission tho following month, aud pro- moted to be first lieutenant Sept., 1851. Repairing at onco to the seat of war in Mexico, ho was in time lo participate at Huamantla aud .Vtlixco; subsequently serving in gar- rison and on frontier duty, aud in the field in Florida against tho hostile Semin'olcs, until 1855, when ho was placed on duty in tho Coast Survey ofiice at Washington, where he remained until Oct., 18110, from which Latter data he was on leave of absence to .Mar., 18l'il, when ho resigned his commission to follow the fortunes of his native State. On the secession of Virginia he was appointed colonel 13th Virginia Vols., and despatched to Harper's Ferry, rejoining tho army at aud engaged in the first battle of Bull Run. Promoted to be brigadier-general, he was dislinguished at the battle of Williamsburg, and advanced to be major- general. In the succeeding operations on the Peninsula he bore a prominent part, and gained a lirillianl reputation as a division couuuandcr. In .\ug., 1S«2, his divisiou was added to Jackson's force in Nortlierii Virginia, arriving in time lo reniler important aid in tho defeat of Gen. Banks at Cedar .Mountain (Aug., 1SG2), and in Iho succeeding battles of Bull Run and Chantilly. In the following month ho received the surrender of Harper's Ferry, and luirryiiig forward arrived with his coMiinaiul at .Vnlielain at the crit- ical moment when he was most needed. .Vt Fredericksburg his division formed the right "t Jackson's command, which cneounlered Iho vigorous assault of Union troops under .Meade, and which was finally repulsed ; al Chaneellorsville, still with Jackson, he participated in the lamous Hank movement which broke tho F'edcral lines, and on the dcalh of Jackson assumed command of the corps, himself being wounded soon tbereuflcr. F'or gallantry on this occasion he was ])iomoied to bo liontenanl-gcneral and placed in command of one of the three corps composing the Army of Northern Virginia. In the campaign of 18114-1)5 he was I indefatigable in his exertions, eominainling with great ability at all Ihe bloody conflicts from the WiMcriuss lo tho final assault of the Confederate lines beforo Petersburg, Apr. 2, 18115, where he displayed the grcatcsl bravery, meeting his death by a rifle-shoi while engaged in recon- noitering at the nioinent it was decided that Richmond could no longer be held. G. C. Sim.moxs. Hill (IlENJAMis Harvev), b. in Jasper co., Ga., Sept. I I. IS23, of Irish descent on the lather's side, and of Eng- lish on the mother's side; graduated at the Stale Univer- sity with higli honor in IMI: sliiiliel law, an.l entered the profession at La Grange, Ga., in Aug., 1845, in which 920 HILL. he has since attained great eminence; in ISol was elected a member of the legislature from Troup county a;^ a Union man; in ISjj was defeated forC"ougre!>s by the Hon. Uiraui Warner (in this race ho was supjiurted by the American or "Know-Nothing" party, as it was then called, though he did not advocate the ritual or secrcsy of the organization, and disavowed membership with it); in 1800 was elector at large on the Fillmore or American party ticket, and by his canvass of the State this year made much reputation as an orator and a popular speaker; in 1S57 was run with- out success by the same party as their candidate for the office of governor; in ISJ'J was returned to the State sen- ate as a linion man ; was elected a trustee of tbo State University in 1855; in ISfiO was run as an elector for the State at large on the Bell-Kverctt ticket ; was a member of the seccs.^ion convoution of Jan., ISOl; was an earnest advocate of the Union until the convention passed a reso- lution delaring that the State ought to secede; ho then voted for the ordinance, and cast his fortunes with those of all other citizens of the State, earnestly resisting coer- cion as the only means of avoiding the calamity of subju- gation. He was elected to the provisional Confederate Congress that met at Montgomery, Ala., on Feb. 4, 18G1 ; at the fall session of the State legislature the same year he was elected to the Confederate Senate, in which body Iio served until the end of the war. lie was arrested at his home, La Grange, (la., in May, 18Gj, and confined in Fort La Fayette, Xew York, until July following, when ho was released on parole. In 1SG7 he presided over the conven- tion heUl at Maeon, Ga., for the purpose of reorganizing the Denioeratie party ; in this and the next year ( 1868) ap- peared his celebrated jVoCcj? on the Situation, embodying arguments of great power against the reconstruction policy of Congress ; on July 4, 186H, was delivered in Atlanta his famous "Bush-Arbor" speech; in the fall of 1870 ho issued an Addrrns to t'le People of Georgia, which brought upon him severe censure from many quarters previously friendly to him; he, however, is understood to maintain that it was but a step in advance toward that position afterwards taken by other distinguished leaders of the Democratic party throughout the Union, known as the " New Departure," and the jtoliey of which culminated in the nominations made and the platform adopted by the national convention of the Democratic party in 1872 at Baltimore. Mr. Ilill therefore supported the "Greeley movement" with all the zeal and eloquence he could com- mand. On this line of policy he c:>mpeted in Jan., lS7"i, for a scat iu the U. S. Senate which was to become vacant in thi^ March following by the expiration of the term of lion. Joshua llill. There were two other candidates for the same office. One of these was Gen. John B. Gordon, who, though he had supported Mr. Greeley as the nominee of his party, disapproved of the principles set forth in the "New Departure" platform. The other was Alexander H. Stephens, who had bcr-n utterly opposed to the election of Mr. Greeley, as well as to any departure from the fun- damental principles of Jofforsonian Democracy. In this tri:in;;nlar contest Gen. Gordon bore off the palm. Mr. Hill's .-poech pending the canvass on this occasion, in vin- dication of his course, and in urging the Democracy of Georgia to stand by the policy adopted at Baltimore in 1872, was one of the ablest of his life. He is still (Mar., 1875) in the full vigor of body and intellect, and hisfriends look forward with confident expectation to his acquiring much higher honors and distinction in the future than any yet attained in his past career. A. II. Stcpiii:ns. Hill (Daniel Harvey), b. in South Carolina in 1S2T ; graduated from the U. S. Military Academy, and was ap- pointed brevet second lieutenant of artillery July 1, 1812; tran.^ferrrd to the infantry in ls.17, with rank of first lieu- tenant. Callril to active duty in the field in the war with Mexico, he served with distinction from Monterey to the final capture of the city of Mexico, winning the brevet of captain for gallantry at Contreras and Churubnsco, and that of major for Chapultcpec ; in addition to which he was presented by his native State with a sword of honor. In Feb., 18111, he resigned his commission, and acccptecl the chair of mathematics in AVashington College, Va., which he filled until 1S54; that of mathematics and engineering in Davidson College, N. C, 1851-50, whrn he assumed super- intendoncy of the North Carolina Military Institute at Charlotte. On the outbreak of the civil war ho at once offered his services in support of the cause of the Confed- eracy, and as colonel 1st North Carolina Yoh. was engaged at the liffair of Big Bethel, Va., June, iSCd. Speedily pro- m'jted to bo mnjor-general, he comman<led a division dur- ing the Seven Days' fight on tho Virginia Peninsula, re- maining in command of tho James on the dnparturo of tho main army of Gen. L**e for Northern Virginia, but rojoin- ing it in soason to partieipate in the hattlos of South Hloun- tain and Antietam, where he led his division, as subsequently at Fredericksburg. Detached for a period during 1SG3 on duty iu North Carolina, he was in September at the battle of Chickamauga, Ga., an<l in 18G4 at Bermuda Hundred, Va. At the timoof the capitulation of the armies his divis- ion was among the command of Gen. Johnston, who sur- . rendered at Durham Station. At the close of the war he returned to Charlotte, N. C. and published The fiefdand the Farm. Among his works published prior to 18G1 are Ele- mcntH of Air/(hra. Considcrfittuno/ the Strniou ox the Mount, The CruriJixioH of Christ. G. C. SlMStoss. Hill (IsAAr), b. at Cambridge, Mass., Apr. G, 1788; was ajjprenticed in youth to a printer at Amherst, N, H. In 18UU he became editor of the New Hampshire I'atrioty which was long one of the ablest Jeffer?onian or Demo- cratic journals in the country. In 1824 he was second comptroller of tho V . S. treasury ; U. S. Senator 18:10-30 ; governor of New Hampshire 18.30-31), and afterwards was ij. S. sub-treasurer at Boston. He again edited, with his sons, the Patriot (1840-47), and for fifteen years he pub- lished The Parmer's Monthly Vinitor. D. Mar. 22, 1851. Hill {John Henhy), D.D., LL.D., b. Sept. 1 1 , 179 1, in New York City ; graduated at Columbia College ; became a min- ister of the Protestant Episcoj)al Church; has now (1875) been a missionary at Athens, Greece, for forty-five years, and for thirty years chaplain to the British legation in Greece. Hill (Joshua), h. in Abhevillc district, S. C, in 1812; removed to Georgia early in life; studied law, and was ad- mitted to the bar; was a member of Congress from Georgia from 1857 to 18G1, when he resigned his seat after the con- vention of his State passed the ordinance of secession in Jan. of that year, though he was strongly opposed to that measure. During the war he took no part on either side, except that he allowed his friends to run him for govrrnor of the State in 18G3. After the war he was a member of tho constitutional convention called in pur.>;uancc of the proclamation of Pres. Johnson, and which met in Nov., ISGj. He took a prominent and leading part in the pro- ceedings of that body, and was n candidate for the office of U. S. Senator before the legislature of ISGfi. Upon his failure of election on that occasion, he left the State and took np his residence in Washington City. In 18C8, after another constitution was formed and another legislature was elected under the reconstruction acts of Congress, he was chosen U. S. Senator for the terra which expired upon Mar. 4. 1873. A. II. Stkphi:ns. Hill (Rowland), an eccentric divine, b. at Hawkstone, England, Aug. 13, 1744; was educated at Eton and St, John's, Cambridge; became a Calvinistic Methodist ; took orders in the Church of England, though six bishojis refused his ordination on account of his Mclhodistic opinions; be- came an itinerant, and in 1773 became rector of King,-*ton, Somerset; minister of the Surrey chapel, London, 1782- 1833 ; and was remarkable for wit, eloquence, and success as a preacher. D. in London Apr. 11, 1833. He was a son of Sir Richard Hill. Bart. — Ilis brother, Sin Rhfiaud (1733-1808), was also an active and successful Calvinistic Methodist preacher. Hill (Rowi.ANn),ViscorsT,nephewofthe great preacher, b. at Frees, Shropshire, Aug. 11. 1772; entered the army in 1700 ; served with the greatest distinction in most of tho battles against Napoleon in which the British participated from Toulon to Waterloo : was raised to the peerage in 1814 ; took the chief command in 1828, and became a vis- count in 1842. D. near Shrewsbury Dec. 10, 1842. Hill was called the "right arm of W.ellington," and was tho mostpifpular general in the British army. Hill (Sir Rowland). K. C. R., D. C. L., F. R. S., b. at Kidderminster in Oct., 1796 ; entered the British civil ser- vice in I'^.'l.'t, and in 1837 brought forward in a pam|dilet a plan for uniform penny postage, which was a«loptfd in 1840; was ehictly employed in postal and railway nflfairs, and was the recipient of abumlant honors and pensions, the result of his labors for postal reform. D. Aug. 27, 1879. Hill (TnoHAs), D. D., ]*L.D., Unitarian minister and : mathematician, b. at New Brunswick, N. J., Jan. 7, 1818. His parents were poor, but the I)oy's thirst for knowledge overcame all difficulties; he entered Harvard Cullt-ge in the clas.-^ of 1S43: gave two years to the study of theology; was settled in Waltham, Mass., 184.'); was nnide president of Antioch College is:)l»; of Harvard College 18G2; resigned in ISGS on account of ill-health; retired to Waltham; ac- companied Agassi?, on the expedition to South America ; acceptetl on his return a call to Portland, Jle., where ho still preaches (I S7ri). His mathematical genius showed itselt early, and distinguished him in college. As a mathe- matician he miKht have reached eminence bail he not pre- ferred tho otli<'e of a Christian minister to any sfirntific position. Mr. Hill is a man of remarkable intellectual HILLA— HILLSBORO". 921 power, aad of sin^^ular simplicity and devoutness of heart, and hi:j iimbiliun is to make science tributary to faith, lie bna published a vuluuic of pueiim (Cambridge, 184.3), an elcmentiiry treatise on arithmetic (1840), (Jeometry and Faith i I MO and 1874). a treatise on curves (1860), /'I'rW LesKoiit in Geonictn/ (iSio), Librrnl Education (1856), The True Ordrr itf Studies, JemiH the Interpreter <>/ iVntnre ( 18511), Thf: ytttuntl SoHrre9 uf Theoloijtf (1876), being tivo articles reprinted from the fiiblintheca Sacra. Mr. Hill's distinction is as a mathematician; his special distinction is as a dis- coverer in the laws of curves. 0. li. I'ltoTinsGHAM. IIiria,or Ilil'lah, town of Asiatic Turkey, in the pro v- incc of liui^diifl. un the Kuphrates, which liero is 4J0 foct broad and erossi-d by a floating bridge. It has nianufuc- toriesof silk.", tanneries, dyeing establishments, and largo bazaars. It is built on the ruins of liabylon. Pop. fiUUU. Hil'lard (Gkorgb Stillman), LL.D., b. at Machias, Me., riepr. 22, 1808, and graduated at Harvard in 1S28. He tauijht for a time in the Uound Hill .^^chool, Northamp- ton, and was admitted to the bar in ISIl.'l at Bustoa In 1833 he became one of the e liturs of the Cltriatmn Ile^iit' r (Unitarian), and was afterwards eonnected editorially with the Jiirint and the Boston Courier. He took a high position at the bar. and ]>nblislied Six Muuthn in Itnhf (1863), Life of G. a. Mrf'h/l.tn / lJ*U t), /'>-f{tirnf DutifH of the Edurated Vlnnnt-n, nnd educational works, etc. I). Jan. 21, 1879. Ilil'lcar, tp. of Knox co., 0. Pop. 931. lliric'ly TilK GiiEATorTHU Kldeee {IfaznlenoT ffaam- i-c;i), b, at Babylon about 75 B. c, or, as others say, 110 B. c; became one of the most illustrious of Jewish rabbis. eminent alike for wisdom, holiness, and learning; went about .'iti B. c. to Jerusalem, and worked witli his hand^ for his living, at the same period attending the lectures of the principal officL-rs of the Sanhedrim, of which, about 30 B. c, ho became president, retaining that exalted position till his death, in A. n. He became the founder of the *' school of Hillel," which numberecl thousands of ailhercnts, while Shamniai, vice-presid'-'nt of the S.vnhedrim, was at the heal of the rival ''school of Sharamai." The two schools disputed mainly about questions of the law and discipline in sacred things ; Hillel's, which was the more liberal party, tiujilly becoming the dominant one. — Hili.el THE YouN«i:n, a descendant of the foregoing, became pres- ident of the Sanhedrim and head of tho school of Tiberias, as some say in 268 a. d., dying in 320; or, as others say, was chosen president 330 a. p., and d. before 400. Dis- tinguished as the great reformer of tho Jewish calendar. Iliirffrove, post-v. of AVashington tp., Darko co., 0. l'..|,. 117. Uitriionse (Jamks), LI-.D., b. at Montvillo, Conn., Oct. '21, 17jl: gnvluatcj at Yale in 1773. His fathor, Willi;im. who (1. in 1316, was a member of tho Continental Con^ri.'ss 17S:i-Sfi, ancl forty years a jud^e in Connecticut. Dr. Ilillhouso was a lawyer, Sirrvcil against Tryon in tho Kevuhition, was a mcrai»cr of Congr<'SS 17'Jl-i)l, l^. S. .Sen- ator from Connecticut 1791-ISlO, and held many offices of trust and honor. D. at New Haven Dec. 29, lS.i2. Ilillhonse (.Iamks .\bii\ihm), a poet, son of .lames Hillli M1SI-. b. at N'ew Haven, Conn., Sept. 26, I'.S'.I, nnd pradiiatcd at Vale in IHOS ; l)ccamo a merchant in New York, and in 1822 marrietl and retired from bu.siness. Hi.s principal poemn were T/ir Jtiitymritt (1812), Pt-rcf/'s Mum^iie (I.S20), nnd Ilii'l id (l.S2i). His collected works in 2 vols, appeared in 1.s:i'J. D. at New Haven Jan. 4, 1811. Iliriinrd, post-v. of Norwich tp., Franklin co., 0., on the Columbus ('hicago and Indianapolis Central U.K., 9 m\U■^ N. \\ . of Columbus. Pop. 2S2. Ililliard (11i'>!hy WAsniNiiToy), b. in Cumberland oo., N. C., .\ug. 8, ISIIS; graduated at the South (Jarolina Col- lego in C«)Iumbia in 1826 ; soon after ho moved to Athens, Ga., where in 1829 ho was admiltod lo the bar; in ISIil was elected to a profiissorship in tho AliLliannl University at Tuscaloosa, which position he lilleil with distinction for three years; then resigning, ho resumeil the jtractiee of law at .Montgomery in that .State, which ho pursued with nr'b>r nnd distinguished sucess. lie was a member of tho Har- ris!. urg Whig Convention in Islu, and zeiilnusly suppoiteil the ninnination of Harrison, though Mr. Clay was the man of his choice f()r tht^ Presidency at that lime. He was a member of tho .State legislature in ls;i8, and was a Presi- dential elector on tho Whig ticket in 1810. In 1812 he was appointed by Pros. Tyler minister lo Ilolgium. and afterwards was a member of Congress from Alabama from I8I.'» t<i I8.'(I, when he declined being again a candidate. He was a warm supporter of the Compromise measures of 18.ift. In IS.'ifi he was a eanditlnle on tho Fillmore electoral ticket of .Mabama. and also on the IJell-Kverett ticket in 1800. Ho opposed secession in 1861 with all his might, bnt after tho convention of Alabama pussed their ordi- nance of secession ho espoused the cause of hia State with firmness and flecision. He acceptetl from Pros, Davis tho appointment of commissioner to Tennessee, and met with signal success in the objects of his mission. Ho also accept- ed the commission of brigadier-general in the provisional army of tho Confederate States. After the war he returned to (ieorgia. when he resumed tho practice of law, first at Augusta, and then at .Mlanta. where ho now (Mar., 1875) resides. Mr. Hilliard has through life evinced quite as much fondness for letters as for legal or political distinc- tion ; has been a preacher of tho Methodist Episcopal Church, .South. A volume of his speeches was published in 18o5, and since the war he has contributed to the litera- ture of the country a work entitled lie rone, a Siorif of Plebeians and Patriciaufi. U. S. Minister to Brazil 1877. A. H. Steciik.vs. Iliriiardsvillc, post-tp., Henry co., Ala. Pop. 1867. Hills (Ai.rKF.ii KiMB.ii.i.), M. D., b. Oct. 2.'), IS 10, at Hudson, N. II. : studied in the Massachusetts Jledieal Col- lege and tho llabnetuann College. Philadelphia; took his medical degree 1870; professor of materia mcdica in New York Medical College and Hospital for Women since 1871 ; surgeon to New Y'ork Ophthalmic Hospital. Author of professional jiapers. HiHs (Uight Kcv. GEonGE), D. D., Protestant Episco- pal bishop of lirilish Columbia, b. in England in 1817, a son of Kear-admiral Hilts, was educated at Durham Uni- versity ; received several Church preferments, and in 1859 was consecrated lord bishop of British Columbia, having his see-housc at New Westminster. UiHs (Gi:onGn Mono.VN). D. D., b. in Auburn, N. Y., Oct. 10, 1S2J; at the age of fourteen removed with his pa- rents to New York; graduated with honors at Trinity Col- lege, Hartford, Conn., 1847 ; was ordained deacon by Bishop r>c Lancey, and took charge of Grace church, Lyons, N. Y. 'i'lio next year he was advanced to the priesthood by tho Fimo prelate, nnd in IS.'i.l was calleil to Trinity church, Watcrtown, N. Y. This he resigned in 1857 to accept the rectorship of St. Paul's church, Syracuse. In 1862 he was elected a trustee of the General Theological Seminary in New Y'ork, and wns placed by that corporation on the committee for tho examination of students. In 1865 ho ivas selected as one of fotir clergymen to represent tho division of Western New York in the General ('onvention. In 1867, in addition to the care of his parish, he inaugu- rated a very successful mission among the tbiondaga In- dians. At the organization of the diocese of Central New Y'ork in Nov., 18(t8, he was chosen ]>resident of its stand- ing committee. On Aug. .'1, 1870, he was called to the rec- torship of St. Jlary's church, Burlington, N. .!., and entered upon its duties Sept. 4. On the 2.8th of the same month ho was appointed an examining chaplain of the diocese of New Jersey, and on the 21th of Nov. following lecturer on honi- ileties and )iastoral theology in the divinity department of Burlington College. On July IH, 1871, be received the hon- orary degree of doctor of divinity from his ahna mater. In 1873 he was chosen a fellow of Trinity College, and in 1874 was elected sub-dean of the house of convocation of that body. In Sept.. 1874, he was a))poin(cd dean of tho convocation of Burlington, having previously served as treasurer and secretary of the same. Among his publica- tions those most known are Tlic U7»c Mnalcr-Jhtlldei; a sermon e<unmeniorativc of Bishop Dc Lancey; A Step bvlwccn Vk and Ihiilh ; A Mt,lh,-r in Iar<i<l : The Urcnrd of the Pant an Jncmlirc for the Fnlnrc ; an llittitrirat Sketch af St. Paul'a Chnri-h. Syranise ; nnd llistorieul Heeorda of the Church in Hurlimjlon, N. J. IliHs'boro', tp. of Lawrence co., Aln. Pop. 1863. llillshoro', tp. of Shelby co., Aln. Pop. 522. IIillsb<>ro', postv. and Ip., cap. of Montgomery co., III., 60 miles N. K. of St. Louis, on tho Indianapolis nnd St. Louis U. R. It is tho centre of a good agricultural district; has 8 churches, 2 banks, and 2 weekly news- papers. Pop. ol tp. .'Un. K. J. C. ,\t r.x.\Nni:n, Ei>. " Hii.i.snoiio' Pk-Mociht." HiHsboro', a v. of Henry co., Ind. Pop. 95. IlilKltoro', post-v. of Louisa co., la. Pop. 46. IIill>lior<i', post-v. of Fleming oo., Ky., 9 miles S. S. E. ..1 Kl.iningsburg. Pop. 1464. llillshoro', post-v. and cap. of Orange co., N. C. 40 miles W. of Baleigh, on the North Carolina K. B. The country in the vicinity is hilly and broken, climate -alubri- iMis. It contains 6 ohurehcs. 2 acuilemies. 1 newspaper, and 4 tobocoo-fnctories. Pop. of v. 809; of tp. ;!62l. J. D. Camehox, E[). " Hii.i.sBono' BKionnnB." IlilUhoro', post-v., cap. of Highland ,o., O.. 60 miles E. of Cin.'innali, on tho .Marietta anil Cincinnati It. U. It ban 2 fumalu institutes, 4 ohuroUus, 1 banks, 2 uewapapora. 922 HILLSBORO'— HIMAl-AYA. scale and agricultural works. planing-miUs, flouring-mills, 3 hotels. Pop. 281S. J. C. .'~pbi.m;eh, Eu. " (iAZETiE." Ilillsboro', tp. of Marion co.. S. C. Pop. 131S. liillsboro', post-v., cap. of Hill CO., Tex., pleasantly situated in a picturesque and well-watered valley. It has a good academy, 1 flour and grist mill, and 1 weekly news- paper. Pop. 313. L. J. Stirgis, En. "nii.i. Co. Expositor. Ilillsboro', post-v. of Loudoun co., Va. Pop. 2-16. Hillsboro', post-tp. of Vernon co., Wis. Pop. DSa. llills'borough, port of entry of Albert co., N. B., on Pelitcodiau River, has a good harbor, and exports large quantities of gvpsum and gas-coal (alberlite) to the U. S. It has several handsome public buildings. Pop. about aUO; of eub-district, 2995. Hillsborough, county of Florida, bounded on the ^V. by the liulf of Mo.xieo. Land area, 1S30 square miles. It includes Tampa ]!av. a broad inlet, which furnishes a splendid harbor for vessels of nineteen feet draught. The county is generally level, partly sandy, partly rich marl hammoek-land. and partly marsh. Cotton is the staple crop. Cap. Tampa. Pop. 3216. Hillsborough, county of New Hampshire, bordering on .Massachusetts. Area," 9G0 square mile.^. The surfaeo is hilly. It principally lies on the W. side of the Merri- mack Kivcr. The soil'is mainly fertile. Cattle, wool, and grain arc staple products. The cities of Manchester and Nashua, with many smaller towns, are extensively cngage<l in manufacturing. Lumber, cotton, woollen, wooden and metallic goods, furniture, cooperage, harness, and many other wares are manufactured. The county is traversed by several railroads. Caps. Amherst, Manchester, and Nashua. Pop. 64,238. Hillsborough, post-v. of Scott co., Miss., 6 miles N. of Forest. Hillsborough, post-v., cap. of Jefferson co., Mo., 40 miles S. of .St. Louis. It has a good school, 2 chnrchoo, 3 hotels, 1 newspaper, and the usual meahanieal shops. Principal occupations, farming, mining, and fruit-growing. Pop. about lUO. R. W. McMlllin, Ed. " DESiocit.tT." Hillsborough, post-v. and tp. of Hillsborough co., N. H.. situated in the Contoocook Valley. It has a bank, a weekly newspaper, a hotel. 10 stores, 2 large woollen-mills, and bedstead and shovel-handle shops. Pop. of tp. loOJ. Wm. M. SAnr.i-.ST, Piiof. " Hillsboro' Messengi!R." Hillsborough, tp. of .Somerset co., N. J., embracing several villages. Pop. 3443. Hillsborough, post-v., cap. of Washington co.. Or., 17 miles W. of Portland, and on the Oregun Central II. R. Hillsborough River, in Volusia co., Fla., is a salt- water higoon continuous with Halifax River, and extend- ing 30 miles S. of Mosquito Inlet. It abounds in fish and oysters, is separated from the sea by a stri]) of land from half a mile to o miles wide. It is shallow, though navi- gable for small boats, but its navigation is obstructed by mangroves, coral, sand, etc. Its W. bank is a range of oyster-shells. From its head to Indian River a short and shallow canal has been dug. This eliauucl was once called Mosquito Soutli Lagoon, and (with Halifax River) it is still known as Jlosquito River. It averages a mile in width. — .\nother Ilillsboro' River flows into Tampa Bay, and a third into the Atlantic, directly at Ilillsb.u-ough Inlet. Hills'dale, county in the S. W. of Colorado, formed in 1S74. Area, 1400 square miles. It contains important gold ujines. Cap. San .Juan. Hillsdale, county of Michigan, bordering on Ohio and Indiana. Area, o70 square miles. It is undulating, fer- tile, and well timbered. It has quarries of good sandstone. Grain, cattle, and wool arc staple products. Lumber, car- riages, etc. are manufactured. It is traversed by the Michigan Southern and the Detroit Hillsdale and Indiana U. Itsf f'a)i. Hillsdale. Pop. 31,084. Hillsdale, eity and tp., cap. of Hillsdale CO., Mich., on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern and the Detroit Hillsdale and Indiana U. Rs., 06 miles W. of Toledo and 177 K. of Chicago. It is the seat of Hillsdale College, and has churches, several schools. 3 weekly newspapers, 2 na- tional banks, 3 hotels, a chair factory, 2 steam flour-mills, and 2 foundries and raaehineshops. Pop. of city, 3518; of tp. 562. H. B. RowLsov, Ed. "STAsnAiiD." Hillsdale, tp. of Winona co., Minn. Pop. 417. Hillsdale, tp. and post-v. of Columbia co., N. Y., on the New York and Harlem R. R., UU miles N. of Now York. Pop. 2083. Hillsdale College was founded as Michigan Central College at Spring Arlior, .Mich., iu consequence of a vote (1844) of the Michigan yearly meeting of the Freewill Baptist denomination. The college was chartered in 1S45 bv the legislature, rechartcred and removed to HiUsdalo, Mich., in ISJo. It now has departments for the classical course, for theology, science, music, and art, besides two preparatory departments. A portion of the principal col- lege building was burned in 1874, and a new building has been since erected. Both sexes arc educated in this insti- tution, in which there are 7 professors and 14 other instruc- tors, the greater number of students thus far being in the preparatory depart meuls. The college has a capital of more than $200,000. Hill's Grove, post-tp. of Sullivan co.. Pa. Pop. 249. Hills'ville, post-v. of Carroll co., Va., situated on the Blue Kidge, 13 miles E. of New River. It has 1 news- paper, 1 church, 2 hotels, and 4 stores. Pop. 208. CiiAs. C. Harrvmas, Ed. "News." Hill Top, tp. of Charles co., Md. It constitutes a peninsula iu the river Potomac. Pop. 4040. Uiirtown, tp. of Rucks co.. Pa. Pop. 28C9. Hill'vcr (.Ji Niisl.b. in Wilkes co., Ca., Apr. 23,180"; graduated at the .State University in 1828; studied law while in the university, and w.as admitted to the bar imme- diately after his graduation. In 1S34 was elected by the legislature solicitor-general of the western judicial circuit of°his State; was elevated to the bench in 1S41, where he served several years ; and was a member of Congress from Georgia from 1851 to 1855 ; in 18,'i7 was appointed solicitor of the II. S. treasury, which position he held until Georgia passed her ordinance of secession in 1861. He then re- signed and returned home, and resumed the practice of law, to which (Mar., 1875) he is still devoted. A. H. STEPnE:ts. Hill'yer (William Silliman), b. at Henderson, Ky., Apr. 2, 1831 ; graduated in 1S47 at Anderson College, Ind., with honors, and became a brilliant and successful lawyer and politician of New Alljany, Ind. In 1855 he removed to St. Louis, where he was a warm friend of U. S. Grant, afterwards President of the U. S. In 1 801 he served for a time as a private iu a volunteer organization under F. P. Blair, Jr.. and then removed to New York, where he com- menced the practice of law. In 1803 he served on Gen. Grunt's staff with the rank of brigadier-general, but after the Vicksburg campaign resigned on account of ill-health, and returned to New York. D. at Washington, D. C, July 12, 1874. Hi'lo, an important seaport of Hawaii, and the second town in size in the Sandwich Islands. It has a spacious and commodious harbor. Pop. 4220. Hil'son's, tp. of Henry co., Ala. Pop. 774. Hirton, tp. of Iowa co., la. Pop. 503. Hilton Head, post-v. and tp. of Beaufort co., S. C. It is on Hilton Head Island, and has on the N. the Port Royal entrance, which constitutes a noble harbor. It was fortified by the Confederates, and taken by the U. S. naval forces Nov. 7, 1861. Pop. 3073. Hil'versnm, town of the Netherlands, in North Hol- land, is beautifully situated, and has manufactures of oar- pets and horse-cloths. I'op. 0294. Himala'ya ("the abode of snow"), the highest and most majestic system of mountains on our globe, forms the boundary between the high table-land of Thibet on the N. and the low, alluvial plain of Hindostan, around the Gan- ges and Brahmapootra, on the S., and stretches in a curved line, 1500 miles long, and at somepoints 350 miles broad, from Ilindoo-Koosh to Assam, from Ion. 73<= to Ion. 98° E. To the S., towards the plain of the (Janges. Himalaya stands almost perpendicular, from 4000 to 5000 feet high, like a wall, from which the mighty rivers formed by the melting of the snow burst forth with tremendous violence, splitting the granite masses and forming long, winding, but narrow ehas'ins. To the N. the uKuintains slope more gently towards the plateau of Thibet. The Himalaya consists of several ranges, with a direction parallel to each other, and enclosing fertTic and well-cultivated valleys, some of which are among the most beautiful places on earth ; as, for instance, the val- leys of Cashmere, Nepaul, and Bootan. The central range is the highest, averaging from 10,000 to 20,000 feet, and forty- five p'eaks are known t ) rise above 23.000 feet. Mount Everest, the highest mountain on our globe, is, according to Col. Waugh. 29.002 feet high : Kanebinjiuga, 28.150 ; Dha- walagiri, 25.820; Nanda IJcvi, 25,749: and Shumalari, 23,929. The lino of perpetual snow descends to 10,200 feet on' the southern side of the range, but only to 17,400 feet on the northern — a singularity which probably can be ex- plained from the peculiarly dry atmosphere of the plateau of Thibet. Glaciers abound, and at some places they are known to descend from the regions of perpetual snow to I about 12,000 feet. At an elevation of 2000 feet the heat HIMERA— HINDS. 923 varies from lUO'' to 37°; at 7000 feet, from 80° to 26° ; at 12,000 leot. the thermometer falls during the nights of Sep- tember l>elow zero. But wheat can be gniwn at un elevation of l.'t.OOU feet, and up to the height of JOdiJ feel the vegeta- tion still rcluins a tropical character ; the tca-phmt ha--' been introduced, ami can ho cultivateil on the soulht-rn side up to a height of .)OU0 feet, but it succeeds best at an elevation of 201IU to 3000 feet. The pusses of the Himahxya aro few and extremely difficult. Ibi-Gamin, leading into (tuhrwal. is the highest known pu3S, 20,4o7 feet : the highest pass used for traffic is Parany, IS. 600 feet above the sea. With respect to their geological structure, the Himalaya Moun- tains consist of granite and gneiss, whicli form the loftiest peaks, and against which strata of the Silurian poriod rest. Mines of gold, copper, iron, and load exist, but aro not worked with energy, and seem not to be of importance. The Qoraof the Himalaya is peculiarly rich and interesting. Hi'mern, an ancient city of Sicily, situated on the northern coast, was founded in the seventh century before Christ by a colony from Zancle, and was destroyed in 408 B. c by the Carthaginians under Hannibal. The first time the Carthaginians invaded Sicily (in 4S0)thcy were utterly defeated, and their commander. Hamilcar, fell in the battle at Himera. The second time they wore victorious, and Hannibal, the grandson of Hamilcar, after taking Himera, put a part of the inhabitants to death and razed the city to the ground. Hime'rius, a celebrated Greek sophist of the fourth century after Christ (probably from 315 to 3S6), b. at Prusa in Bithynia; studied at Athene; travelled, and settled finally at Athens as a teacher of rhetoric. For some iimo ho lived in Antioch at the court of the emperor Julian, who fully appreciated him. Of his orations, twenty-four have come d'»wn to us complete, and have been edited by Wernsdorf ((Jiittingcn, 1700). We have fragments of eleven others, and extracts by Photius of thirty-six. His stylo is, as that of his time, oliscnre, overladen with figurative ex- pressions, and affected, but he enjoyed a great reputation in his lime, .-\mong his disciples was (iregory Nazianzen. Ho was, liko Lib^nius, a pagan, but he speaks with modera- tion, and soraclimcs even with kindness, of the Christians. UimircOf or Hamilcnr, is a name of common oc- curronco in the history of Carthage. Pliny mentions one ilimilco, a Carthaginian, who mado a voyage of discov- ery along the western coast of Kuro]ie at tho same time that Hanno explored the western coast of Africa; but Himilco's voyage is stated to have been stopped by tho absence of wind and by the sea being loaded with seaweed. — Both in the first aud third Punic wars there were noted Carthaginian generals of this name, but tho most famous was that Himilco, tho son of Hanno, who in 406 b. o. commanded the Carthaginian expedition against Sicily, together with Hannibal, the son of Gisco. Tho expedi- tion was very successful, and the whole western part of the island was oonquered. In 397, however, Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, renewed the war. Himilco again commanded the Carthaginian force, and was very successful in tho beginning, but while he besieged tho city of Syracuse a pestilence broke out iu his camp. In tliis emergency Dionysius attacked and defeated him, and Himilco now made an infamous capitulation, paying 300 talents in orcler to be permitted to depiiit unmolested with all his native Carthaginians, while he left his allies and the mer- cenary troops to the nicrey of I)ionysius, Having returned to Carthage, the popular odium which ho incurred pressed so heavily un him that he eoiiimitted suicide. Ilimynrit'ic Lan'guii;;p, a Soniitie language for- merly spiiken in Soulh-western Arabia by the Himyaritca (or llnmcriles), a people of whose history coniparutively little is known. A modern llimyaritic kingdom was de- stroyed 62.i A. n. by tho Ethiopians, who coni]ielled tho pooplc to abandon Christianity. Uimyaritic inscriptions of great but uneertaln age have long been known to exist, but have not been dceipliered until a quite recent date. Tho modern Kkhili Arabic is regarded as a rcprescutativo of the old Himyaritic. llinck'ley, town of England, in tho county of lieicestcr. It ha« a fine (iothic church and some manufactures of hosiery. Pop. C902 ; with surroundings, 8082. Hinckley, post-tp, of Pino co., Minn. Pop. 205. lliiu'klcy, post-tp. of Medina co., 0. Pop. 972. lliiicks (KnwAUD). D. I>., b. at Cork, Ireland, Aug., 1792: studied under his father, Hebrew professor at Bel- fast ; graduated with hrtnorn lsV2 ut Trinity College, Dub- lin, ancl receivc'l a fellowship : took Anglican orders, and became rcetor of Ardtrca, and in iS'Jt) rector of Kilty Icagh, Ireland, where he d. l>ee. 3, I.SfWJ. Though living in a re- mote country parish, and pussessed of but small memis, bo became one of the fir-t iind ubleril restorurs of tho lost I knowledge of the meaning of tho Assyrian inscriptions. ! Ho discovered the key to the Asifyrian numeral sy.'^tem, and his papers On AiJitfrian Verbv (1 855-50) contain the I first successful attempts at ao Assyrian grammar. Among his writings are valued papers on Egyptian MSS.j and some polemical and other works. Ililicks fSir Fkascis). K. C. M. 0.. C. B., b. at Cork, Ireland, iu 1S05. a son of the Rev. Hr. Hincks, a learned Presbyterian divine uf Belfast, and brother of Kev. Edward Hincks (17y2-lS(t(>). the Assyrian archaeologist. Sir Francis \ became a merchant, and in ls;J2 settled at Toronto, Canada, where ho became a prominent editor and politician : finance I nnui:;;ter of Upper Canada 1S12-13 and lSlS-j4: prime minister in 1S51; governor of the Windward Islands 1S53- 62, of British Guiana 1862-69 ; finance minister of Canada 180l>-73. Ho was knighted in 1869. Hind, the female of the red deer or Stat, (which see) of Europe. Iliud (.Tons Ilrssi:LL). b. at Nottingham. England, May 12, 1823, the son of a manufacturer of laces ; became inter- ested in astronomy in childhood; became an assistant to a civil engineer, and went in 1840 to Limdon ; found employ- ment in Greenwich Observatory, and in 1843 was for three months employed in Ireland upon the task of exactly de- termining the longitude of Valentia; entered Mr. Bishop's observatory, Regent's Park, 1814. Here he discovered (1847-54) ten new asteroids, and made many other even more important observations: became foreign secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society 1847 : corresponding mem- ber of the French Institute 1850; is superintendent of the Xautk'(d Almanac, which under his direction has attained unsurpassed excellence both for astronomical and nautical purposes. Among his works are 7'fic Solur Stfstcm (1840), Jlfuslratcii London Antronomy (1S53), Etementa of Alyebra (1855), and treatises on comets. Ilin'dersin, von (Gistav EDUAnD),b. July 18,1804, at ^Veinigerode. Prussian Saxony; entered the artillery nsa volunteer in 1820; distinguished himself by his quick apprehension, indefatigable ajiplication, and eminent busi- ness capacity, and was attached to the staff as first lieu- tenant iu 1841. In 1846 he became major, and wa? ap- pointed director of the topogra])hical department. In the campaign of 1849 against the insurgents of Baden he had the misfortune to be taken prisoner while reconnoitring from a belfry, but was liberated after the capitulation of Rastadt. In 1854 he received the comumud of the 2d brigade of artillery, in 1S58 that of the 3d, and in 1864 the position of inspector-general. Shortly before the assault on tho lUippcl intrenchments in Sleswick, during the war against I>enmark. he was called to the head-quarters of Prince Frederick Charles and ajipointed leader of the artil- lery* attack; after tho victory he was ennobled and received the title of a general of infantry. In the war against France (1870-71) ho followed the royal head-(juarters as com- mander of tho artillery, and took a very active part in tho siege of Paris. D. at Berlin June 25, 1872. of heart dis- ease, lie did much for the improvement of the Prussian artillery, and introduced the breech-loading gun. But ho was nevertheless not popular; ho was vehement and haughty. A, Nn:MANN. Ilind'lcy, town of England, in the county of Lancaster, lias extensive cotton manufactures and large coal-mines in its vicinity. Pop. with surroundings, 23,706. Ilin'doo-Koosh',lliiidu-Kiish,or Indian Can- casus, a mounlain-rangc in Central Asia, extending from Ion. 6S° to Ion. 75° E., anil forming tho boundary between Afghanistan and Toorkestan. At its eastern extremity it is connected with the Himalaya, w hi(di it resembles in many of its features, I bough it is lower and destitute of forests. Its highest point is Hiiuloo-Koh, 20,(100 feet high. Ilindostan. See India, by R. C. Caldwkll. Hinds, county of W. Central Mississippi. Area, 930 .'^fjuarc miles. Il;i surface is jileasantly diversified and well timbered, and its soil very fertile. Corn and cotton are sta- ple crops. The county is crossed by the Vieksburg aud Meridian and the New Orleans Jackson and Great Northern R. Rs. Cap. Jackson. Pop. 30,488. Jlsnds (Sami i:i,). H-D., born in Barbadoes 1793; grad- ualcd iu 1815 iit (Queen's College, Oxford; became vice- president of Albion Hall, Oxford, and i)rinoii)al of Cod- rington College, Barbadoes; was vicar of Yardley. Hants, 1834—13; prebendary and rector of Castlenock, l>ublin, 1843; chaplain to Archbishop Whately; chaplain to the Ir.rd lieutenant of Ireland 1816-48; dean of Carlisle 1848; bishop of Norwich 1849-57, when ho resigned. I^- Feb. 7, j 1872. Author of a Hi»t'»rtf ../ Chriatinnihj (1S29 ««».), a I treatise on logic. Sunm-ta ami Sfirretl /*n&ni.t. The Three Ttrnplen (// r/if One Triir O'oti C'ttntnmttHl (lS3ttJ, Innpira- I tioti and Authority of Scripture (1831), Scripture and the 5124 HINDU PHILOSOPHY— HINDU RELIGION. Authorized Vemion (185."?), etc. His Iflatort/ of Ckristian- ity, ori.i^iually |)ublishe(l \u (he Encychpadiu Metropolitana, has ijono throu;;h maiiy editions. Hindu Philosophy, The primitive religion of the HiiiiJu hraiich of the Aryan race seems to have been mon- otheistic, but as it is exhibited iu the hymns of the Vcdas it is a puro naturc-wor-^hip, its praises and its offerings being devoted to the various phenomena of nature and their deified jiersonifications. Such a religion was suited only to a people in a primitive state. As the Hindu race advanced in kiiowlecige, men began to *' look through na- ture u|i to nature's (Jod,"' and to seek '' if haply they might feel after Him and find JUm." This was an inquiry pecu- liarly suited to the 8ul)tle and analytical llinilu intellect, and it resulted in the formation of six distinct schools of philosophy. AH the six systems are supposed to start from the Vcdae, and arc all recognized as orthodox. But the simple Vedic hymns afforded but scant material for metaphysical investigation, and were soon left far behind. The philosophical dogmas liavo only a very slight basis in the Veda?, and rest almost exclusively upon the deductions of pure reasoning. The nature of the Supremo Being, the origin of the nniverso, the mysteries of life, intelligence, and future existence, are the great subjects to which philos- ophy addresses its speculations. Though widely differing in their developments, all tlie schools recognize one funda- mental maxim, <x uiliHo nihil fit — "from nothing comes nithing." All also have one final object, the attainment of niitkti, or deliverance, the emancipation of the soul from future birth and existence, and its absorption into the Su- premo Soul of the nuiverse. The names of tho six schools, or darsanas, are Ni/4ya, Vuiicuhika, Snnkhya, Yofja, Pt'irra M't.ituu'iu, and Vttarn Mlnidi}fid or Vcddnfa. But certain points of resemblance bring the six into association in three pairs, called Nydyaj Siii>h/a, and Vcdiiuta. I. (I) Xijnjn, founded by tho sa^o Gautama. Thoword ^U'^ll"' means *' propriety or fitness," and vras adopted be- cause the author's primary object was to find the proper victhod of arriving at truth and of arranging tho arguments. It is hence called tho *• logical school." Tho founder held the Bcniatiouti to be the source of all knowledge, and set him=olf to inquire into their nature and functions. So his s-^bool is also known as tho '* sensational." (2) VaiscshU'ft. — This was founded by Kanilda, and is called tho "atomic schottl." Its method is gcneially the same as that of the Nij^ti/fty though it is not so precise and comprehensive. It pushes tho sensation theory farther into an investigation of the objects of sense, but its distinctive doctrine is tho existence of a transient world composed of aggregations of eternal atoms. Both divisions recognizo a Supreme Being. To tlie M'ostorn AVorld tho Nydya is especially interesting, as the only logical system which is not distinctly traceable to the teachings of Aristotle. II. (1) Siinkhffa, with which is classed the Torfay the former being atheistical, the latter thcistical. ThoSankhya was founded by tho sago Kapila, and received its name S'lnkhya ('* numeral ") from its discriminative tendencies. The first principle it asserts is the necessity of true and perfect knowledge. It defines tho nature of evidence, and the principles of which a knowledge is attainable. First among the latter is nature, *' the universal material cause." Matter it declares to be eternal, and so far it may be con- sid -red materialistic, bnt it recognizes also an intellectual power with affections, sentiments, nnd faculties. It admits the existence of separate souls, and admits that "intellect is exercised in tho evolution of matter, or, in other words, in the work of creation, but it denies tho existence of any Supreme Being, either material or spiritual, by whoso voli- tion the universe was ]froduced." Tho dortrines of this school are set forth in Wm Sunhhya Kurihu, translated with a gloss and commentary by f'olcbrooko and }I. H. Wilson. (2) Yof/a, found(Ml by Patanjali, and sometimes callodaftcr him /Yitioijaln. This pursues tho samo method and holds most of the doctrines of the Suiil-h}/a, but it a^t^erts not only the existence of separate individual souls, but of one all-pervading Spirit, unaffected by the influences to which other souls are subicct, the Supreme Ruler, God. Tho followers of tho Sankhya devote tlicmsclves to contempla- tion nnd to abstruse reasonings ujion tho nature of mind and matter. Tho Yoga insists upon the necessity of devo- tion, and prescribes the exercises and disciplinoto ho prac- tised. The disciple? of both these schools are called Yoffin (or Joffis), but the Sankhya yoffi sits in calm meditation, while the yoi/i of the Yoga school practices all kinds of austerities and bodily torments ns acts of devotion. III. Vcddnta. — Th is i neludes the /'(in-rt-.l/f Hi*? )M/5, found- ed by .Taimini, and the f^f/ar«-.Uf m^/ijsrt, attributed to VviSsa. Tho I*Cirvn, or prior MimAnH/i, started with the express ob- ject of aiding the interpretation of the Vedas. and its most distinctive dogma is the eternity of the M'ord, meaning tho Vedas. The Uttnray or later MimdnsA, is the more import- ant, and it is to this that tho term Veduittn especially ap- plies. This professes to be founded on tho Vedas, and cites texts as authorities, but its conclusions are worked out by jture reason. It leaches that "God is the omnis- cient and omnipotent cause of the existence, continuance, and dissolution of the universe. Creation is an act of His icill ; JIc is both the cftieieut and the material cause of tho world," and in the end all things are resolved into Him. The time when these systems of philosnphy sprang up is, as is usual in all matters of Hindu ehronulngv, very un- certain. The Vtluva- MlmuuHu, or Ve<lanta, is generally admitted to be the latest, and is supposed to have been es- pecially directed against the teachings of tho Buddhist?. This would bring it within three or four centuries B. c. Tho other schools are to all appearance older, but reasons have been urged for jdacing them all after the rise of Buddhism. If this be the correct view, the date of the Ved^nta must be brought down later. This is a question of some interest, for the later tho rise of these schools the greater \^ the pos- sibility of their having been evoked by the teachings of tho Greek philosophers. Mr. Colebrooke, the highest au- thority on the subject, expresses his decided opinion that " the Hindus were the teachers, not the learners." The principal authorities arc Coleukooke's essays in the Trftnstntiuns of the lioi/al Asifiiic Societ}/, subsequently pub- lished separately iu 2 vols. ; JJinloffucs on f/iiidn PhiloHophi/, by the Rev. K. M. Baser.iea {Calcutta, ISfiO); Refutation of Hindu Philonophi/, by PuxniT Nehemiaii Kilkatth Sastri, translated by Dr. Hall (Calcutta, 1802); Ballan- tvne's Esuai/a (various). John Dowses*. Hindu Religion. The origin of the Hindu religion is veileil in the mists of a remote antiquity. AVhen the old Aryans crossed the Indus in their emigration from Irdn or Central Asia, they carried with them certain hymns which were probably even then committed to writing. These hymns were afterwards increased iu number, for there are allusions in some hymns to the new land in which their authors had settled. The language in which the hymns are composed is the oldest known form of Sanscrit, and centuries probably passed before these scattered comjmsi- tions were collected and arranged in the books called J tdav. The date of these compositions is a matter of very great uncertainty, and the best opinions are based upon deduc- tive reasoning from uncertain premises. The date which has received perhaps the greatest approval is 1400 b. c. The hymns have a strong mythic character about them. They are addressed to the elements and powers of nature personified — to fire, to the wind, to the firmament, the moon, and other objects. Those addressed to the dawn are jteculiarly interesting from their mythical significance. No one of tho divinities has any recognized superiority over the others, but tho differences in the numbers of the hymns addressed to the individual deities show that they were held in various degrees of dread and reverence. There are glimpses in some of the hymns of a high and syiiritual con- ception of tho Deity, or direct mystical allusions to one superior Being, from whom all the rest emanate: and texts are found which speak more or less explicitly of " One Su- preme Spirit, the Lord of the universe, whose work is the universe." But the general character of the hymns does not rise above earthly objects. Protection from the ele- ments, from sickness, nnd from enemies, aspirations for the favors of nature, for increase of children and of cattle, are their main topics. Various rites and ceremonies are provided for and enforced, and very frequent reference is made to tho fermented juice of the snmd plant [Aurlepiaa acida), a beverage in high favor amcmg mortals, and there- fore presented as an acceptable offering to the superior powers. In course of time the scattered hymns were col- lected and arranged in books by a snge who is known as Vydsa " tho compiler." The Vedas as they are now known, and have been known for ages, are four in number, named Ilifj, Yojur, SYniia, and Arhart-fi. The Hi*/ is the most im- portant and original. Tho second and ihirri Vedas consist principally of hymns from the 7^i"«7 adapted to special pur- poses. Those of the Yajur are intended for sacrificial, those of tho-V(/Hi« for choral uses. The Atharva, or fourth Veda, is of later date, and its contents are more original nnrl diverse than those of the second and third. Tlie hvmns of tho Vcdas recognize a priestly claims and a regal c!ass, which are evidently the beginnings of the lir&hmnn nnd Kehiitriffa castes of later days. The great body of the people was called rii, a word which was afterwards ex- panded into ]'fiixi/a, and used as the name of the third or mercantile and agricultural easte. The fourth or servile caste, called Sudra, seems to have had no recognized exist- ence in thoi^e <lays. Tn tho later portion of the ffi>/. and in tho more nmdern Athanui vda. there are references to a future state, and an abode of bliss is promised after death to tho victorious. HINDU RELIGION. 925 The difference between the religion of the Vcdns and moilcrn Hiudiiisin is very wide — so wide indeed that the two religions have little or nothing in oununon beyond (ho Vedio texts itud formulas which still remain in use. "The great feature of difference," says 11. 11. Wilson, "is the total absence of the divinities, both nomi'mi and miinina, who have for ages engaged, and. to a great degree, en- grossed, the adoration of the Hindus. We have no indica- tions of a Triad, the creative, preserving, and destroying power; Brahind does not appear as a deity, and Vishnu, although named, has nothing in common with the Vishnu of the Huranas ; no allusion occurs to his untu'ira or incar- nations. As a divinity Siva is not named : nor is his type, the ;'y,ii«;.im, evcrarlvertcd to. Durgaand her triumphs, and Kill, • whom the blood of man delights a thousand years,' have no place whatever in the hymns of tho Vcdas." The doctrine of transmi;;ration seems to bo entirely unnoticed in the Vedic hymns ; and the rite of tn(i, tho burning of widows with the corpses of their husbands, although known to lircck writers ;)0U years before Christ, and said to bo a Vedic institution, proves upon examination to have no belter authority than a ini.* |uoted verse. Some portion of tho ceremonial of the Vcdas still survives in tho domes- tic observances of the Brihmans and in their obsequial offerings. It is incumbent on ever}' householder to mako offerings of cakr-s and other viands to liis own ancestors, and to the collective Piiri,i or Patres of tho human race. Kvery br/ikmaii also, on approaching maturity and being invested with the sacred thread, is taught the celebrated verse called the (ii'iyairi ; *• Let us meditate on the adorable light of the .•>un (or Divine Ruler): may it guide our in- tellects !" This may be the only verse of tho Veda he may ever learn, but this be must repeat in all his devotions. The hymns collo-tively. tho whole metrical part of tho Veda, is called M^inlra, and is thus distinguished from an- other part written in prose and called Brdhmana. There are several works bearing this title. They arc of later date, but they are held to be part and parcel of the Vcdn, and of equal authority with the Mnntra. Tho Br/ihrnnnm have been compared to the Talmud, and though "gleams of beautiful thought occasionally break out" in them, their contcnt.<t are in gener.al wearisome. They enter into long details about ceremonies, and of the origin an<I meaning of various rites, and they illustrate them with curious legends, both human and divine. Tho four castes arc distinctly named in the ///viAnian'M, and one of them indicates, rather than lays down, the doctrine of transmigration. Next in order come the writings called Aranyahaa and l/jiniii'thad: These arc works of a far higher character, and give clear evidence of a vigorous intellectual life in- teresting itself in questions about lifo and eternity. They are the beginnings of Hindu philosophy, and cast aside matters of riles and ceremony to deal with abstract ques- tions and make " guesses at truth." Second only to the Veda in importance is the Code of Menu, which is also a pro-Christian procluetion. This shows a considerable advanje in tho development of tho Hindu system. A future state of reward and punishment is clearly recognized, and the doctrine of transmigration is distinctly enunciated. No one of the three great gods of niiMlern times was known to the Tet/a, but Menu recognizes Brahmi, the Creator. But BrahmS is not the One Supremo Being, the Soul of tho universe, hut merely tho creative energy ; and after the world which he has produced has endured for long ages, the iJivine energy is withdrawn and llrahmd himself returns to the Supremo essence from which he emanated. It is remarkable that no mention is made by Menu of the burning of widows; and as he prescribes tho kind of life that widows were to lead, tho inference to bo drawn is, that tho practice was unknown to him. Yet, as wo have seen above, tho custom was well known to Greek authors ^lOU years b. c. But the most remarkable feature in .Menu is tho full development of tho caste system. Not only are the four great castes recognized, but the "mixed castes" also have come into being through the intercourse of couples belonging to different ca-^tes. .Most stringent rules are laid down for the separation and guidanco of all the castes, tho chief and leading object throughout being the elevation of the /Ir/thitmn and the degradation of tho others. The br^ihnmn, according to ^lenu, is the chief of all created beings; kings are inferior to him, and must show him respect ; his pers((n and property are guarded by the severest laws in this wrjrM. and by denunciations of tremendous punishments iit the next. But the hi-Ahinnn'i life was not to be one of luxury and ease: all his days were to be spent in study, devotion, and austerity, in acquiring and imparting a knowledge of the holy books, in perform- ing the duties and ceremonies they enjoin, and in so mor- tifying tho flesh that it might eeasc to care for the things of this world, and rise nearer and nearer to assimilation and unity with tho Great Soul uf tho universe. Tho brdli- man*a life was divided into four portions or stages. The first portion ho was to spend as a /tnitmntrh^ri, or stutlent, in strict service and obedience to his religious superior un- til his investiture with the sacred cord about the age of sLx- teen. Next he was to marry and become {2} a (ii-ihnntha, or householder and head of a family. During this stage ho was to be diligent in studying and teaching tho Veda, to officiate at sacrifiecs, to receive alms and bestow alms. But the grand object of marriage was to obtain male off- spring, and so ]>rovido for tho obsequial offerings to him- self after ileath, an<l to his ancestors and the general pro- genitors of mankind. These duties accomplished, he \vas to proceed to the next stage, {?,) tho V&iHiprantha, or dweller in tho woods, whoso duty it was to divest himself of all fleshly luxuries and comforts, to despise all trials of heat and cold, wet and dry, to live upon the coarsest fare, and to mortify tho body in every way as a clog and burden to the soul. Lastly, ho was to become (-1) the Satmi/fiHi, or mendicant, when, freed from all earthly attachments and religious observances, his only duty was to abstract his mind from material objects, and to strive after that perfect equanimity, that complete indiffcrcnco to everything mun- dane, which is tho nearest approach in this world to the all-pervading Spirit which rules it. Such was tho high ideal of the lifo of a brahman — an ideal which few sought to realize, even in the days when tho ordinance was young, and of wliich tho mero name and shadow only now remain. In tho days of the i'/ifniiahadi tho duty of studying and teaching tho Veda had been shared by tho second oaste, but now it was restricted exclusively to the brahmaus; tho law was either derived directly or deduced from tho same writings, so tho braliman was tho judge and the exponent of the jaw. Government and ailroinistration were to be in accordance wiih tho law, so tho brdhmau was tho king's counsellor nntl guide, the chief director and administrator in all political transactions. Fighting was tho more ospc- ci.al duty of tho knhnlriyn, but, as will bo presently soon, the brahman took a prominent part even in this. Tho Co.lo declares that "tho world and all that arc in it arc his;" tho world was made for tho brahman ; it was for him to rule and guide it. Others might act as instruments, but ho was tho director and controller. Tho Kihatrif/d, or military class, were charged with tho duties of government and war. They were entitled to honor and obedience, but were far inferior to the brdhman. Tho sacerdotal class required tlio protection of tho ruler and warrior ; tho soldier ncedcil the advice and guidanco of the sage ami lawyer. The two classes wire mutually dependent on each olhcr, but tho ono contributed nuntal and spiritual influence, tho other physical power, and tho former asserted and maintained its ascendency. Tho business of tho \'<n\i/<i, or third class, was to carry on trade and agriculture, to ]ierform sacrifices through tho brdhiuans, and to bestow alms. The Sudnt was the fourth or servile caste, and its whole duty was service of the others, especially the brdhman. Ingenuity almost exhausted itself in the cfl"ort to describe the utter vileness of the stSdra, a being so base that a brdhman could not receive a gift from him, and even in the extremity of hunger could ai'ecpt nothing more than a little dry grain, lint the degradation of the sfldra was only religious. Though ho was to serve, he was not a slave; he could choose his own master, and was entitled lo pay- ment. He could accumulate wealth and acquire properly, and he often Ijccamc rich and soniclimcs rose lo power. Tho "mixed castes" are fully recognized by Menu: their social status is declared, as well as the course of lifo to which their degraded birth had called them. In the present day it is asserted by the hrdhmans — and with much apparent reason — that they alone of the four castes remain unchanged and unmixed. The iHJ/iuli claim to bo the representatives of the kshatriyas, and there arc olhcr castes who assert themselves lo bo the desccntlonts of tho vaisyas and slidras, but il is difficult for them to prove tho purity i>f their descent. The brlihmans themselves have broken up into divisions nntl subdivisions without eml, and tho higher classes hold the lower divisions in the utmost scorn. The mixed castes have naturally greatly increased, and the general temlency is to still lurlheeiunltiply thciu by all kinds of arlilieial and arbitrary distinctions. "The two great poems lii'muhftitid and Mttfii'ihliArtitu are supposed lo have been written a little before the Christian era. They depict the heroic age, and those deified heroes come upon the stieno who oeenjiy so prominent a jiosition in modern Hinduism. The linm/ii/rttia celebrates the ex- ploits of the hero Kdma in effiicling the conquest of the S. of India and Ceylon. He was a brdhman, ami in the poem ap]>cars as a more mortal lu-ro, but he has since been raised to (ho dignity of an incarnation of Vishnu. The ,l/u/i<S- hhnrata records the wars between two rivjil families for the I suvoroignty uf a stato whoso capital stood near tho site of 926 HINDU KELIGION. modern Delhi. In this war, Krishna, the most celebrated of the incarnatiuns of Visiimi, took a leading part. Like Kama, ho was br^ihinnn, Kut even in the poem he has many of the attributes of divinity, and is more of a j^od than a mortal. He it is who is represented as recitiiij^ the /ifta- ffavad-tj'ita, the"l)ivino Sung," a pliilosophieal poem of great elevation of (hoii;;iit anil beauty of language. From the epii; poems to the Purtinns is a wide interval, full of important ohangcs. There arc many works? bearing this name, but the recognized pitrdnim are eighteen in num- ber, and nro supposed to have been written between the eighth and fourteenth centuries of ourera. In these works the Hindu religion receives its full development. Brahmd the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Siva the Destroyer (or rather Regenerator) are acknowledgnl as the three great divinities constituting the Triad. The lirst of the i'uranas is tho Jirahniti-puriina ; the others arc devoted, some to the exaltation of Vishnu in one or other of his many forms, and some to the honor of Siva and his em- blem, tho Uiufom. It is doubtful if DrahniA was ever an olijcct of worship, for even the Br!»hmii-purdna does no more than indicate a local worship of him at one place near Ajmfr. Vislnm the Preserver was then, as now, the most popular deity, under cue or other of his nvatnrs or incar- nation?. The avatiirs were ten : (1) -Va/sya, the Fish, tho object of which was to recover the Vedas, which had been lost in a general deluge. (2) A'llrania, the Tortoise. This is connected with one of the wildest legends of Hindu mythology. The deluge had destroyed thirteen precious things, among which was the timn'ta or water of immor- tality ; Vishnu converted himself into a tortoise, and sus- tained the mountain Mandara on his back while the gods churned the ocean with it till they recovered tho lost treas- ures. {'^) Vfinth'i, the IJoar. (4) yarttsinhtt, the Man- Hon. (o) Vdmuiiif, tho dwarf named Bali. (6, 7, 8) The three llamas — Parasu-riima, Kama or Rdma-chandra. and Bala-rima. (H) Buddha. (10) Kalki, tho White Horse, which will appear hereafter to destroy the world and re- store purity. For Bala-raraa some substitute Krishna, but Krishna has attained to such honor that ho is held to be Vishnu himself, not simply an incarnation. A foreshad- owing of one <if these incarnations appears in the Veda. The sun is represented mythically as taking three steps — his rising, culmination, and setting. Bali tho dwarf is represented as having begged three steps of land from a tyrant, and then to have strode over the whole world. Vishnu in his abstract form receives littlo or no adoration. R5,ma an'l Krishna, the deified hemes, are tho great ob- jects of worship. Both were mortals, and are represented as dying, one by suicide, the other by accident. Rlma, the hero of^ the JUtnt/i^^iii<i, is the especial deity of tho men- dicant sects. His name is used as a salutation and bene- diction by all classes, and the constant repetition of it is a religious exercise of great merit. Krishna, tho hero of the Mnhdijhftnita, enjoys unbounded popularity, particularly as Gopdbi, the youthful cowherd. He wns of royal race, but wa? hidden among tho cowherds from a tyrant who sought his life. His gambols with the niilkinaids and the frolics of his childhood and youth are related in the Bful- gnvntn puriiiia and in the modern Pi'cm-s6;/ai: They are the delight of all classes, especially of females and the young. In biter life he performed many wonderful ex- ploits, and after taking a leading part in the war of tho Mahiibhurata he retired to Dwdraka, his capital, in Guze- rat, where he was killed by an arrow shot at him by mis- take. The name Krishna signifies *' black," and tho god is represented as a youth of very dark enmplexion. Thn ceremonies and rejoicings at the great spring festival, tho liolij are principally in honor of Krislina. Vishnu is "the thousand-named," and tho repeating of these names is a very meritorious work. Prominent among these forms — for each name carries with it some special significance — is that of Ja'jnn-uAth. '* tho lord of the world," in whicli form he is worshipped at the great car- festival in Cuftack. Siva, the Destroyer and Regenerator, has also a vast number of votaries, but fewer than Vishnu. His appear- ance and attributes are of a very gloomy character. He is represented* aa sitting absorbed in thought — naked, smeared with funereal ashes, with mntted hair, and a neck- lace of human skulls and bones. He bns three eyes, and the fire from them conpuraes those who interrupt his devo- tions. But the especial form under which he is worshipped is the Ihi'fum, or phallus, the male organ of reproduction, which symbolizes his office nf regenerator. There is noth- ing oflenflive in the way this is represented, nor anything obscene in the ideas attached to it. A ]dain column of stone, a cone of elay, or even a natural oblong stone, is its representative. This, in the eyes of the w<>rshi)iper, is yiuiply Siva, its symbolical ]>urport being altogc-iher un- known or unheeded. At tho time of the Mohammedan conquest of India in the eleventh century there were twelve celebrated lingnms at ditfercnt places, and it was one of these that Mahmfid destroyed at SomnAth. One of the names of Siva is t^onitt-ifUh, "lord of the moon," and ho is represented as bearing the crescent on his forehead. It is in honor of Siva, but especially of his consort, Devi, that bloody sacrifices are ottered and tortures inflicted. Saraswatf, the wife of Brahma, is the goddess of learning and the arts, and the inventress of the Sanscrit language. She receives more honor than her lord. Lakshml, the wife of Vishnu, is the goddess of prosperity and fortune. Both of these deities receive adoration on particular occasions, and the latter is very frequently invoked, but they are not the objects of any regular worship. It is far different with the consort of Siva, who is known under a great variety of names — Devi, Diirga, KAIf, Parvatf, Bhavauf, etc. — and is the recipient of a fierce fanatical adoration. This god- dess is represented in a variety of ways, all more or less terrible and disgusting. In the mildest form she is a hand- some woman riding on a tiger in a fierce and menacing atti- tude. In another and more common one she is K&li, "the black," with a black skin, a hideous and terrible counte- nance, dripping with blood, wreathed with snakes, and adorned with human skulls. The worship of this deity is very widely spread, especially in Bengal, and it is from her that Calcutta obtained its name. The worship of Devi owes itg diffusion, perhaps its rise, to a class of writings called Tantrna. These are works of a comparatively late date, but their origin is very obscure and their authors are un- known. They arc ascribed to Siva, and are generally in tho form of dialogues between him and his consort. " They are very numerous, and some are of considerable volume. They have been but little examined by European scholars, but sufficient has been ascertained to warrant tho accusa- tion that they are authorities for all that is most abom- inable in the present state of the Hindu religion. Tho great feature of tho religion taught by the Tantras is tho worship of Salctf — divine power personified as a female, and individualized, not only in tho goddesses of mythology, but in every woman; to whom, therefore, in her own person, religious worship may be, and is occasionally, addressed. Tho chief objects of adoration arc, however, the manifoM forms of tho bride of Siva. Even in its least exceptional division tho Sakt£ worship comprehends tho performance of magical ceremonies, and rites intended to obtain super- human powers and a command over tho spirits of heaven, earth, and hell. Tho popular division is, however, called by the Hindus tho Ujt-haud faith. It is to this that tho bloody sacrifices offered to KAU must bo imputed, and that nil the barbarities and indecencies perpetrated at the an- nual worship of Dtirga and the swinging festival arc to bo ascribed. There arc other atrocities which do not meet tho public eye.'* (//. H. M'iUoii.) The religion of tho Hindus is thus principally directed to tho worsUijj of three leading divinities, Vishnu, Siva, and Devf — each of whom has many names and forms. Each form or nianifcstTition has .'^ome peculiar attribute, somo special kind of worship, but the general features are main- tained throughout. The worship of Vishnu is cheerful and sensuous; of Siva, sombre and severe; of Devf, terrible and disgusting. But besides these great divinities there aro many others of less dignity and power, who have their special attributes and sjdieres of action. They are not the objects of any regular worship, but they are invoked and ndorati<m is offered to them when it is desired to propitiate them and secure a favorable exercise of their powers. There is Indra. the god of the firmament and heaven : Siirya, the sun; Soma, the moon; Varunii, the waters; Piivana, the wind: Agni, fire; Kuvera, wealth : Kdrtikeya. war; Kfmia, love ; Yama, the god of tlie infernal regions and judge of the dead : (Janesa or (Janapati, the god of wisdom and the remover of obstacles. He is represented as a short fat man with an elephant's head. His image is frequently found at tho entrance of temples, and ho is invoked at the begin- ning of important works and ceremonies. The total num- ber of gods i- said to be 3:50,000,000. Two very remarkable features in the Hindu religion are the great powers and virtues ascribed to sacrifice and faith. Sacrifice and austere penanee, pcrseveringly and rigidly performed, make even the gods subservient to the wishes of the devotee, and that quite irrespective of the object in vie\v. The merit is in tho performance, not in the spirit of the observance, and tho most impious and worthless are represented as gaining (heir ends by sacrifice and severe bo<niy torture. Tho virtue of faith was a leading prin- ciple in the /ihofjiivKl-^/UA ascribed to Krishna. Trust in the chosen deity, constant repetition of his name, the bear- ing of his seetarial marks — in short, the outward show of religion upheld by a fanatical faith— is of more avail than sacrifice and piety. Morality and innocence maybe incul- cated, but the saving principle is belief. HINDUS— HIPPOCAMPID^. 927 The worshippers of Vishnu and Piva are broken up into tn infinite varielT of sects anil divisions, and thev have also a great miuibor of niuniistic and mendicant orders in- tent uiion the maintenance of their respective phases ot belief Manv iusiances are recorded of rival devotees com- iuK in coullict at some of the great places of pilgrimage, and of hundreds and thousands being kille.l. There arc among the Hindus men of superior intelligence who phil- osophlcallv see through all these varieties ,.f divinity the One Supreme licing. to whom alone worship is due. There have bicn others who, innucnccd by that feeling of mys- ticism so prevalent in the East, have treated all the forms of religion as mere symbols. Such were the founders of some of what may be called Iho dissenting sects, who deny the merit of religious ceremonies, and strive to seek above an<l beyond them the One Oreat licing. .Mich was the sect established by the weaver Kabir at the beginning of ho fifteenth centurv ; such also was that of the Mkhs, lounded bv \Yiiiak at the end of that same century. Many a pure thought aud luftv idea is to be found in the verses of t icse andolhcrsuch independent thinkers— for it is to be noledthat all of them u\pross their thoughts in verse— but there is a strong disposition in all such sects, as time wears on, to undulv exalt their ouru or founder, and to adore him as a saint. ■'""=•■ I>0«S0!'- Hindus. Sec IxniA, by R. C. Caldwei-l. Uiucsburg, post-tp. of Chittenden co., Vt, 12 miles S. li.of liurlington, has an academy, I churches, and manu- factures of castings, woollen goods, cooperage, carriages, leather, boxes, yarn, etc. Pop. 1573. Hinesvillc, posl-v., cap. of Liberty co., Ga., 35 miles W of Savannah. It contains the usual county-scat build- ings a high school, a flouring-mill, 1 weekly newspaper, and a sulphur spring of marked medicinal properties. Priuciiial occupation, farming and stock-raising. S. D. BllADWKLl,. Ei>. "Uazbtte. Hinge, the pivot on which a door or shutter, or some- times a wind.w, turns in opening or shutting. Hinges nro also u-ed in fastening on one side of the covers of trunlts, boxes, and the like. In ancient Egypt, Syria, etc. hinges were usually pivots, one below resting in a socket in the doorsill, and another above in the lintel. Such are still seen in the East. .\ simple strip of leather is another early and rude form. From Ibis the transition to metallic hinges was an easy one. In me.lia^val times, and again at the present davi the custom has prevailed of employing elabo- rately designed and highly ornamented hinges. A strap- hin'C is one which is screwed to one side of a d wr. 1 he mor'o common sort, called b,M by the builders, screws into the edge of the door. Hinc'ham, post-v. of Plymouth co., Mass., 14 miles 6. E. of Boston, on the Old Colony U. R. It has both rail and stcmuboat communication with Boston. It contains an academy,!) churches, 2 banks, afire insurance comjiany, 2 hotels, 1 newspaper, a public library, an agricultur.al society, and manufactures of wooden ware, cordage, bag- gin' 'furniture, iron castings, worsted upholstery, fancy knit goods, etc. Pop. 1122. G.-okgk Lin-cols. Uink'ley, Ip. of Washington co.. Me., on Grand Lake. Pop. r.i. Ilin'man (Clabk Tins), D. D., b. at Kortwright, N Y , .\ug. .1, ISiy, graduated at the Wesleyan University in 18:!9* was connected wilh the Metbo.list Seminary, New- bury, Vt., 18.TJ-I0; j.rincipal of .Mbion Seminary, Mich., 181B-5.1- founder of Norlh-wostorn University, Kvanston, ■ III., and its first president is:,:!-,>l. 1). at Troy, N. Y.,Oct. 21, ISJi. Ho was an able orator and scholar, and a labor- ious and successful instructor. Ilinmiin (.loiix), LL.D., b. in Fairfield co.. Conn., in IKO;!; was admitted to tho bar at Now Haven, and after- wards practised law at Waterbury, Conn. ; was appointed a justice of Iho superior court 1842; of tho State supremo court ISifl; its chief-justice ISGl. 1). at Cheshire, Conn., Feb. 21, 1870. Ilin'mansvillc, post-v. of Schrocppel tp., Oswego cc, N. v., on Oswego River. Pop. 151. Ilin'ny, or Jcn'nct [(ir. lypot, yiwot, a "mule"], a hybrid between the horse and the she-nss. a very different animal from tho mule, which is bred between the ass and the marc. Tho hinny neighs like a horse, the mule brays like the ass. Tho mules ears, tail, and general aspect are asinine. Tho hinny more nearly resembles tho horse; is of slighter build, and of strength inferior to that of tho mule. It is bred to some eileiil in Spain anrl Bnrbary. It was once called jumml. and w:i« nl.nirdly believed to be the fruit of a ero!<« between llie bull and the mare. Ilinojo'Hn del Dii'que, town of Spain, in the province of Cordova. It has somo mauufacturea of linens tnd wool- lens. Pop. 8637. Hins'dale, post-tp. of Berkshire co.. Mans., 8 miles E. S. E. of Pittslield. It is a mountainous town, aud has somo manufactures. Pop. IfiSto. Hinsdale, post-v. of Cheshire co., X. II.. on tho Ash- uelot R R. It has a fine water-power, aud contains large woollen-mills. :'. churches. 2 newspapers, manufactories of mowing-machines, lumber, etc. Pop. 1342. IIenbv E. Huxter, Ed. " Staii-Spasoleb Baxxeii. Hinsdale, tp. and p.ist-y. of Cattaraugus co.. X. Y., on the Erie and the Buffalo New York and Philadelphia R Rs., fill miles S. E. of Buffalo. It has some manufac- tures. " Pop. of v. 321; of tp. 1401. Hinsdale (BrnKE Aarox), A. M., b. at Wadsworth, Medina eo., O., Mar. 31, 1837 ; was educated at the Elect- ive Institute, now Hiram College; received in 1871 the dcreo of A. M. from Bethany College, W. Va., and from Wriliams College, Mass. ; entered the ministry of the Chris- tian Church (called also Disciples, Campbellitcs, etc.) in 1801 ; was pastor in Solon. 0., 1SC4-06 ; in Cleveland IsfiO- G8; assistant editor of the rhr!,t!.ui SlaiiJanl iXM-M; iirofessor of history and English literature in Hiiam Col- lege 1SG9-70: became its president 1870, and performs the duties of professor of philosophy, history, and biblical lit- erature; is also assistint editor of the Chrhtian Q,mrle<l>j, Cincinnati. Author of Ucnmneue»n awl Aiith^niicign/lht Go^mla (IS'3), The Evolntivu o/ (A<: Tlieolnfjical and Vnc- trhml Sn'tcm, „f the Ancient Chnrch (in preparation), and has contributed much to periodical literature. Hin'ton, tp. of Mecosta co., Mich. Pop. 390. Ilinton, post-v.. cap. of Summers co., W. Va., on tho Chesapeake and Ohio R. R.. at the confluence of the (.reen- brier and New rivers. It has a large sash and door fac- tory 1 new.spaper, the rouud-housc and machine-shops ol the C and 0. R. R., 4 hotels, and the usual stores. Pop. about 500. C. L. Tiiosirsux, Ed. " Moixtaix Herald. Hinton (Joux HowabdI, M. A., b. at Oxford, England, Mar 24, 1791; was educated at Edinburgh I nivcrsily ; became a Baptist minister, and held various pastorates, nrineipallv in London: attained distinction as a preacher. 'Author of a Ilhton/ of the U. S., Mc,n„i,: o/ 11 . AnM Tlie»lo<,!/. Element, of Natural Hintoyy, etc. U. at Bristol Dee. 17, 1873. Hio'go, or Fiogo, seaport of Japan, on the island of Niiion 20 miles \S. of Osaka, to which a railway extends. It has a very large trade in tea, and its harbor is the best in Iho empire. Pop. 20,000. Hip, the fruit of the rosebush. Hips arc used in phar- macy as a material for making "confection of hips" (eon- fcetio rosic canln.r), the /fo«n c«iii.i<i, or dog rose, and R. ponu/era of Europe, furnishing the most ot the fruit. The seeds are taken out, and the hips beaten in a niorlar with white sugar— 2 pounds of sugar to 1 of hips. This makes a pleasant sourish confection. The more fleshy and juicy sorts of hips are in some places preserved or dried, and in winter arc boiled in pottage, after taking out tho seeds and bristly subslancc wilhiu them. Hip-joint, Diseases of. See Cdxalcia. Ilipparcliu-i, generally considered the founder of the eeiencc of asirunomy, lived in ihe middle of the second centurv n r. ; b. at Niciea, in Bithynia. Of his life noth- ing is known, and of his writings only the least important, A Commentar;/ on Aratn,, has been left to us. But from the Snntarh of Ptolemy we know that by his great dis- coveries, and more especially by his method, he actualy laid the foundation of the .science of astronomy. (More de- tailed information will be found iu Ihe article on Ptolemy.) See Horse, Fossil, by Prof. 0. C. Hippa'rion. n'ipnean (Celestix), b. at Niort. Deux-Sftvres, May n Iso' ■ made his first studies in his native city, and filled different positions as a teacher and professor at 1 oi- tiers, NapolC.on-Vendee, Strasburg, Paris, and Caen. The most prominent of his writings arc- W..to.'c delAMa;/. de Salnl-£i;enne de Caen, V>GG-lTnO (185:.), Le, ^cr>-«.,,. „„rmand,andU,epiremc>iMe(\m)Mi'ta>rednOourrrnc- met de la Xannandic (9 vols., I8C3-7.3) D,el,„una,rede la langue /■V,.i,cai,e o.l IJouzlrine el Tr,i2,hnc ,iMe (187u). Hin'pias, a contemporary of Protagoras and Socrates, b at Klis, and lived mostly at Athens. Of his life nothing h' known, and of his writings n<me have come ij"'^'' •" ".'- but his cbaracler has been very vividly drawn by 1 la o in Ihe I wo dialogues which bear his name. He seems to have been a man of great gifts and comprehensive knowledge, but arrogant, vain, and superficial. Hippocam'pidir [from •lirni.aMiroc. a proper nainc], a family of fishes of the onler Lopliobranebii. disliiiguished by the iircheiisilily of the tail and Ihe wanl .1 a caudal fin, eimbined with a tubular snout, narrow gill-opcnings, a 928 HIPPOCAMPUS-HIPPOLYTUS. single soft dorsal, belonginj; partly to the abdominal and partly to the caudal portioo. and the absence ot ventral tins To this group belong five genera — Gastroloctun, SoUm,m,athM, Phyn,,pl<rnix. Acentronnra. and i/i/jp"- cnmu.'s. The most characteristic and familiar form is the little sea-horse, Jfijipur-nrnpim. remarkiible for the resem- blance of its head aud neck to those of a horse, and the windin" downward and inward of its caudal portion, or tail. TlIEODOItE tllLL. half Hippocnm'pus [in Greek mythology, a sea-monster ,lf horse and half fish], a singular genus of Lophobrau- chiate marine fishes of the family llippocampidai. ihcy The Sea-Horse. have ganoid scales, and swim generally in a vertical pos- ture. The males carry the spawn in pouches upon the tail until the fry are hatched. The tail is prehensile, the caudal and ventral fin absent. All the species are small. H. Hitdsoiiiut is found along our Atlantic coast. From the peculiar shape of the head it is called the sea-horse. The cut shows the H. brcciroslrin, a common European species. Hippoc'rates ['lir^oKpaTrn]. the father of medicine and the most distinguished of Greek physicians, was b. in Cos in -IfiO n. c. (according to Soranus), and was the son ol lleraclidcs, oncofthe Asclepiada>, and Phajnarete.awoman who belonged to the Heraeleidie. }Iipi)Ocrates studied medicine with his father and with Herodicus of Selym- bria; learned rhetoric of Gorgias the Leontine ; prac- tised his profession chiefly at Cos, and rendered its medical school, already very famous, by far more illustrious than it had ever 'before been. He travcllel much among the Grecian towns, and d. at Larissa B. c. SoT. (Clinton.) Little more than the above facts is known regarding his life, but ancient writers relate of him many fabulous tales. His sons, Thessalus and Dr.^co, and Polybus, his son-in- law, perpetuated his fame, and probably wrote some of the works which bear his name. Those now e.xtant are more than si.\ty in number (some of them very short), but by far the larger part are either spurious or incorrectly as- cribed to Hippocrates. Part or all of (he Aphnriams, parts of the Epidemics, parts of the PnxjmislicH, the Re-jimen in Aciiic Viaeriacs, the treatise on U'oiiiif/i "/ the Hmrl, and that Oil Air. tt'uter. ri/i,/ PlnccB, are considered genuine works of Hippocrates: and (according to Littre) the trea- tises On Ancient Metlicinc, on Jointt, On fi-aclurca, on The I'Kciif the Lever (in reducing luxations), on imr, on Ulcers, on Jlirmi.rrhuids, on the Sacred Disease, on Fistula, and the De Medici Offieina, are possil.ly genuine. As a practitioner, it would be unfair to judge of Hippocrates' merits by any modern standard. His pathological notions were founded mainly on natural analogies and n priori reasoning; they consequently have no scientific value, but are memor,able as the direct source of the humoral pathology so long dom- inant in the schools. He also taught the doctrines of d crises, treated disease chiefly by attcn every other mode of instruction I will impart a knowledge of this art to my own sons, to those of my teachers, aud to disciples bound by a stipulation and oalh according to the law of medicine, but to no others. I will follow that sys- tem of regimen which, according to my best judgment, I consider best for my patients, and abstain from whatever is injurious. I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such counsel. Furlhcrniorc, 1 will not give to a woman an instrument to procure abortion. With purity and holiness will I pass my life and practice my art. I will not cut a person who is suD'ering with stone, but will leave this to be done by those who arc prac- titioners of such work. Into whatever houses I enter I will go for the advantage of the sick, and will abst.ain from every voluntary act of mischief and eorrujition, and, fur- ther, from the seduction of females or males, bond or free. Whatever in connection with my professional practice, or not in connection with it. I may see or hear, I will not di- vulge, holding that all such things should be kept secret. While I continue to keep this oalh inviolate, may it bo granted me to enjoy life and the practice of my art, re- spected always by all men ; but should I break through and violate this oath, may the reverse be my lot." This oath is not now administered to practitioners, though something equivalent to it was used in the iMiddle Ages, and especi- ally in the school of Salerno; but every honorable and right-minded physician governs his private and profes- sional life bv its noble principles. It is the oldest and one of the best of the codes of medical ethics, there being but one simpler and better code, the Golden Kulc of doing as one would be done by. Hippocrc'ne [Gr. Ir^n^o?, «pii>i, " horse-spring "]• " fa- mous fountain upon the side of Mt. Helicon, in Bceotia, was believed by the ancients to be a favorite haunt of the Muses and a source of poetic inspiration. It was fabled to have been produced by a stroke of the foot of Pegasus. It is still a fine spring. Hip'podrome [Gr. i^iroSpono?, a "horse-race"], the name anciently given in Greece and Constantinople to the ground where chariot and other horse-races took place. Of these races, those in chariots were the most popular. In these races many competitors for the prize entered the race, which was consequently attended with much danger to the drivers— a danger much increased by the limited siie of the hijipodromc and the consequent necessity of frequent turning of goals. The hippodrome at Olympia was long the most famous, but in later times that at Constantinople acquired great renown, and the whole Byzantine popu- lace was divided in their social and political relations by factions which took their origin in the hippodrome. Hippol'ytus, according to the Grecian mythology, was a son of Theseus. His stcpmolhcr, Pliiedra, fell in love with him. and accused him to his father in order (o revenge herself for his coldness. Theseus theu cursed his son, aud asked ^Egcus to destroy him, but after the death of llippo- lytus the kiug learned the innocence of his son and fell into great grief; Pha-dra killed herself. According to the Roman mythology, Hippolytus was restored to life by yEsculapius. and placed in a grove at Aricia by Diana, where he received divine worship under the name of Virbius. Hippolytus, S.tiST, bishop and martyr. There is still some uncertainty about the dates and Ihe events of his life, but he was probably b. after the middle of the second cen- tury, and in Italy, though he travelled in the East, and was also a disciple of Irena'us of Gaul. Le Jloync ( IGS'5) makes him bishop of Portus Romani, the modern .trfrn in Arabia. But his diocese was certainly in the neighborhood of Itomc, and probably at Portus Uomanus, l.i miles from * .. ■ ..1. ..Til.^. T:i,n» T„ O'i^ iinilor erases, coctions, an tion to regimen, and earnestly advocated the expectant _ ^ ^ treatment in many acute diseases. He was a careful ob- j the city, at the northern mouth of the Tiber. In 2:io, under server aud excellent deseriber of symptoms, and (as his i „^^ emperor Maximinus, he was banished, along with the genuine writings show) was a man of the noblest mental , {{„„,„„ lijshop Pontianu and moral qualities. Among the most valued works upon the Hippocratic writings are the commentaries of Galen. The best editions of the entire works are by 0. G. KUhn | (:i vols., Leipsio, 1825-27). aud by Littr6, with French | translation (Paris, 1839-61, 10 vols.). i Hippocrat'ic Oath, a solemn engagement entered into in ancieut limes by young men about commencing the practice of medicine, and especially by the Asclcpiada-. The formula itself has been ascribed to Hippocrates, and is certainly very ancient. It was as follows: " I swear by Apollo the' physician, by /F<seulapius, by Hygicia, Panacea, and all the gods and goddesses, that, according to my ability and judgment, I will keep this oalh and stipula- tion ; to reckon him who tenches me this art equally dear to me with my parents : to share my substance with him, and relieve his necessities if required ; to look upon his offspring upon the same footing as my own bnjthers, and to leach them this art, if liny shall wish to learn it. with- out fee or stipulation ; aud that by precept, lecture, and ^^,^^_ ^ _ , to Sardinia, and is supposed to have siilTered'niartyrdom the year following, but whether in Sardinia or after returning to Italy cannot be deter- mined. His statue in a silling posture, with a list of his writings inscribed upon the baik of the chair, was dug up in I5»l near the basilica of San Lorenzo in Rome. By much the most important of his writings is the J'hiloso- plimnena, a Refntution a/ Alt Heresies, in 10 books. Unlll recently only I'ho first book was known to be extant, and this was ascribed toOrigen. The second, the third, and the eommencement of the fourth book arc still wanting. The rest were discovered at .Mount Alhos in 1S42 by Minoides Mynas, a learned Greek sent by .M. \illeinain, minister of. public instruction under Louis Philippe, to make re.-^earches in the Greek monasteries. l>liilos„pl,nmena was first pub- lished at Oxford by Miller in l.'^.>2, as a work of Origcn. But the best edition is that of Duneker and Schneidewin (ISj'J). This treatise is one of great value historically, philosophically, theologically, and critically. The works of Hippolytus have been edited by Fahricius (1710-18), HIPPOXAX— HIRAM. 929 Oalland (1766). and Lagardo (1S58). (See also mono- grapba by Buuscn (1852; 2a cd. 1854); Cruico (lS5.i), who also edited the Fhitosophnmcmi in ISiiU; DolUnger (ISj;!), Wordsworth (1S53J, and V'olkmnr (ISJJ).) K. D. Hitchcock. llippo'naXf a Greek satirical poet of the si-xth century u. c, ol whom ahout 100 lines are still extiiut. Uo was bani'slied irom his native city, Ephesus, ou account of his satires, and lived afierwards at Clatomcmc. always fight- ing against everybody, lie is the inventor of the choli- ainbic verse, in which a spoudeoor trochee is placed in the last foot, instead of an iambus, thus giving to the rhythm a peculiar jarring movement which is well adapted for satire. The fra;:mcnts collected and edited by F. G. Wclcker (Giittin^^cn, 1S17, 4to). Hippopli'agy [Gr. Iv-no^, "horse." and ^aydv, "to eat"], the eating of horseflesh. From the earliest times the Northern races of Europe ate the flesh of the horse, and, in consequence of religious associations, sacrificed it to their god.->. Owing to tliis, early ('hristian mission- aries made the abstinence from horsellesh a test of re- ligion. In the eighth century the popes anathematized it, and Gregory lit. declared iinnutndnm cut ct exccrahilt — "it is foul and vile." In the Xjall saga a converted Ice- lander, taunting an enemy, tells him that he has but lately eaten liorseflesh. In time it was popularly believed that horseflesh was unhealthy. The French were the first to doubt this, and in the retreat from Moscow, Larrcy killed his horses to make broth for the sick. According to experi- ments and reports made by IJaron Guerrier do Duraost, horseflesh contains one-seventh more nutriment than its equivalent weight of beef, and, taking the average horso with the average ox, the former yields 110 to tho 104 of the hitter. In IS42, Dr. Pcrner of Munich began to combat the preju<Iice against horseflesh, and in ISlo tho sale of it was legalized in Uavaria. At the same time hippophagic eoeiotlefi were formed in Paris .and Berlin. Messrs. Le- blanc of tho Academy of Medicine and M. dc Quatrefages were zealous in dissipating the prejudice against this food. Since |Sj5 horse-butcheries have been established through- out Germany. In Paris the first were opened in 1805 in the quarters of St. Marceaux and Popincourt. But it was not until the privations of tho siege of 1S70-71 bad taught nil Pitris by experience the real excellence of horseflesh tbat it became popular. In IS07 the total consumption of boraea, asses, and mules during tho first quarter of tho year was 535 head: in the corresponding period in 1872 it "rose to 1144. During the present year (1874) the quarterly returns from the nhnttolrii-rhcvnlines show that 1555 horses, mules, anri donkeys were slaughtered in August, Septem- ber, and October, yielding GUO.OOO pounds of meat. A like increase was reported from the provinces. A fat horse, in- jured but not diseased, sells for $50 or $60 at tho abattoir, whereas he would not have brought a tenth part of that sum in the old days. The average price is from $25 to $1-0, Horseflesh has a pleasant taste, and expert cooks in Paris excel in dressing it so as to make it resemblo venison. Tho meat is dark in color, but, taking it of relative ages and feed- ing, it is better than beef under tho samo conditions. It is statecl that during tho Stone Ago tho hare was not eaten, as its bones arc not found among tho remains of food of those day?, and even in tho timoof Charlemagne tho Franks rejected it, as do the Russians at present. Tho Jews and other Orientals avoid pork, tho Hindoos consider it impi- ous to touch beef, and in England tho gypsies are tho only people who will eat tho hedgehog, an animal which the writer has found by expericnco equals any m^-nt in quality and any game in flavor. It is to l)0 regretted that tho prejudice against horseflesh has existed with those kindred superstitious to the loss of humanity. C. G. Lelanu. Ilippopotam'idnc [from Imro?, a " horse," and woTa^M, "river"*], a family i»f artiodactyl ungulates belonging to the group Omnivora, and distinguished by tho massive body, phalangigraile feet, and well-develoj^ed external toes, round snout and nostrils open upward ami sidcwise, over- hanging upper lips, and inguinal mamniic. Tlio molars have nearly straight or irregular sinuous longiluflinal and transverse valleys dividing four tubercles, of which tho ex- ternal two are convex oxtrorsely, and tho inner two convex introrsely ; tho canines are very largo an<l furrowed along their posterior surfaces. This family includes two recent genera, which are so different as to have been difi'crentiated as distinct sub-families — Uippupuidmnn, including a largo Bpceirs, and (Vnrropnin, established for a smaller species found in fjiberi.a. IlippopntnmuH has the skull depressed between tho orbits, tho frontal sinus obsolete, and tho orbits prominent above the level of tho forehead and closed behind ; ('h<rn>pn{i has the skull convex be! wei-n the orbits, the frontal sinus well developed, and the orliil-< dt'pressed below the level <tf tho forihea<I and iiieoinpli-h- behind. Only two Vol. H.— 5'J living species aro known, both of which are confined to Africa; one {//ippopotamus ampkibiua) is the animal well known to menagerie visitors, and is found in most of the African rivers; the other (67(«to/)*m Libertcnaiii) is a very small species confined to Liberia. In previous geological epochs the family was, however, widely extended, and re- mains have been found in England and other parts of Europe, as well as in India. The nearest relations of these animals arc the hogs (Suidic) ; they have no aflinity to the rhinocerotids or to the tapirs. Tiikobork Gill, Ilippopot'amtiS [Gr. tTTnoiroTa^of. "river-horse"], a genus of artiodactyl and omnivorous ungulate nmmmals (pachyderms), of which only one living sjiecics is known. Tho Ilippopijtnmus tuiiphibhis inhabits most of the rivers and lakes of Africa from the Nile tothc Capcof Good Hope, and occasionally is known to visit the salt water. The largest males sometimes arc fourteen or fifteen feet long. It is usu- ally inofl"ensivo and quiet, but has been reported as occasion- ally attacking beasts, and even men. with unaccountable fury. It is an unwieldy beast, living chiefly upon soft water- plants, but quite often visiting cultivated lields, which it devastates. It is hunted for its flesh, which somewhat re- sembles pork, and for its skin, which is tanned and makes leather somelinies an inch thick, now used as a material for bufling-whecls and heavy bells, and for other mechanical purposes. Its teeth also furnish a very considerable amount of the best ivory, used in making philosophical instru- ments, etc. Hip'po Rc'gius, the royal city of tho Numidian kings, was a Tyrian colony on the W, side of the Gulf of Bona. It became under the Romans a splendid city, and was famed as the eco of St. Augustine, who d. there Aug. 28, 4.'J0. It was captured by the Vandals, after a siege of fourteen months, in Aug., 431. About the middle of tho seventh century it was destroyed by the Arabs, and its materials woro used in building Bona, tho present Algc- rino city, 2 miles N. of the ancient site. — lIiiTO Zau'itus, or DiAR'niiVTrs, now iiizcrta, was a Tyrian, and afterwards a Roman colony, near the extreme N. point of Afriea. on the sea, at the entrance to a lagoon called Hippnuids Pahif. flippothcrium [Gr. tjrjro?, a "horse," and t^piW, a "beast"]. See IIousi:, Fossil, by Prop. 0. C. Marsh. Hippll'ric Acid(IIC9ll8X03). This acid exists in tho urine of herbivorous animals, and in small. quantity in that of man. Ilippuric acid is readily converted into benzoic acid, the change often taking place in the animal organism. "When horses are kept in the stable or lightly worked (he urine contains hippuric acid; when they are put to hard work it contains benzoic acid. Cows' urino contains about 1.3 per cent, of hippuric acid; that of oxen sometimes as much as 2.1 to 2.7 per cent. ; of horses, 0.38 ; the quantity varies with the food and other conditions. Benzoic acid taken into the alimentary canal appears as hi])puric acid in tho urine ; the same is true of quinic acid. Hippuric acid is readily separated from cows' urine in an impure form by the additi()n of an excess of hydrochloric acid. When purified and rccrystallizcd, it forms colorless, transparent crystals. Its taste is bitter; it reddens blue litmus, dis- solves in fiOO parts of water at .12° F., is readily soluble in boiling water and in alcohol. Like uric acid, it dissolves readily in water containing ordinary jdiosphate (»f sodium, in such quantity as to change tho reaction from alkaline to acid. Liebig attributes to this fact the acid reaction of fresh urine. Ilippuric acid is converted by a ferment in tho i)reseneo of an alkali, and by boiling with strong acids, into benzoic acid and glycocinc : Hippuric add. GIvcoelne. Dcaiolc acid. lICgllgNOj -f IIjO - CallsNO-. ^- HCiIUOi. (Sco WattHH Dirt, and StipplciurMf.) C. F. CiiANPLEn. Ilippuri'tcs [onco considered a fossil I/ippitn'ny the plant called mare's tail], an interesting genus of extinct conehiferous niollusks, of which tho shells of some sixteen species aro foun*! fossil in ihc lti/}piiritr Ihumtonr and other European Lower Cretaceous strata. There have been many theories and nineh dispute as U> the origin of these shells, but they aro now generally referred to an extinct order (Uudista) of conchifera. Ili'rnm^ post-tp. of Oxford co.. Me., on the Portland and Ogdencburf'^ 11. R., 35 miles W. by N. of Portland. It has maiuifaiturcs of furniture, lumber, eouperago, etc. Pop. ir;o:'.. Iliram, tp. and post-v. of Portage co., 0., 4 miles N. W. of Ciarrettsville, a station on the Atlantic and lireat Western U. 11. It is the scat of Hiram College. Pop. 12.j4. Hiram [called also HinoH and Hiram; JXvh. Cfdmm, *' high-born," tho HiaoMrs of Mi-reunder], a king of Tyro. contemporaneous with David and S(donu)n.and th<' ally of both. He sent n. supply of cedar-timber, with ^liillrd erafts- men, to assist David in consiructing his pataee, and in 930 HIRE— HIRPINI. Solomon's reign supplied timber, treasure, and men for the buiWing of the temple at Jerusalem (Ufi'J B. c.)- He was likewise a great builder at Tyre, and is said to have reigned thirlj-four years; was son and successor of Abibal. Hire, Iji. of McDonough co., III. Pop. 1186. Uir'ing. This term has a variety of applications in law as well as in common usage, and may refer to the cn- gajenient of servants or to the leasing of real property, as well as to the hire of things or professional services. But in its more specific legal signification it denotes a species of bailment by which the use of a chattel is contr.actcd for, or labor or services affecting it are stipulaled to be given for a compensation, express or implied. In this sense alone will the subject of hiring be hero considered. Ref- erence ni.-iy be made for its other applications to the titles Mastkr axd Servant, Lkasr, Acknt, while the hire of vessels will be considered under .Siiippixg and Ciiarter- Partv. Hiring as a form of bailment is of three varie- ties, whose names are expressed in Latin phrases: (1) Lo- cntio rei, the hiring of a thing for temporary use; (2) Locntio operia faciendi, the hiring of work and services or care and attention to be bestowed upon articles delivered by tho hirer to the person whose labor is engaged; (:!) Locntio opcritt mercinm vehendarnmy the hire of tho trans- portation of goods from one place to another. (The third species is examined under the title Carrier, Com.«on, and need not therefore be reconsidered. The other two will be discussed separately.) (1) Lucatio rei. — The hire of things constitutes a con- tract for the mutual benefit of both parties, since tho owner receives a compensation, while the hirer becomes entitled to the use of the property : and the latter is accordingly bound to ordinary care and diligence, and is liable only for ordinary neglect. He must conduct himself with such prudence, forethought, and dis-jretion as a man of ordinary sagacity and reasonable soundness of judgment would ex- hibit in similar circumstances. The degree of care requi- site will vary with the nature of the property with which he is entrusted. If it be delicate and fragile, or of great value, or subject to deterioration unless attended to and preserved with unusual watchfulness, greater care will bo necessary than if it be of such a character that injury or loss is not to be presumed probable unless there be exces- sive imprudence. If a watch or a valuable horse wero hired, greater precaution would need to be taken for its security than would be required if the article were of in- significant value. But if injury is occasioned by some ac- cident which a reasonable foresight could not have anti- cipated, or by theft or violence against which proper measures of protection had been taken, the hirer is not responsible, but the owner must bear the loss. The hirer becomes invested with a special property in the goods for tho prriod during which his right of temporary use is to continue, and for any interference with his possession or injury to the property by third persons he has a right of actiun to recover damages for tho loss sustained. If tho hiring be for a definite time, as is usually tho case, any at- tempt even by the owner to retake the property or to pre- vent its intended use will give tho hirer a claim for redress. This rule is, however, subject to the qualification that if the hirer makes any unwarrantable misuse of the property tlie owner has a right to retake it, if he can do so peaceably, or to bring an action for its immediate recovery. The articles hired must only be used for the purposes contem- plated by the contract, and the hirer's exclusive interest IS defined and limited precisely by the stipulations agreed upon. They must be used also in the manner ordinarily apprujiriate, and must be surrendered when tho time of the hiring has expired. Tho obligations of tho owner of the property, other than those already stated, have not yet been definitely settled at common law. There have been some decisions holding that ho impliedly warrants the property to b« fit for the purposes for which it is hired, without reference to his knowledge of its unfitness. It is quite clear that he would be liable if he knew of its unfit- ness, and did not disclose tho defect, and injury was sus- tained by the hirer in consequence ; so that, for instance, if he let a horse which he knew to be dangerous, without in- forming the hirer, and injury occurred through the ani- mal's viciousness, ho would be responsible. The contract of hiring may bo terminated by the expiration of tho lime for which the c<mtract was made, or the completion of the intended purpose, when the property reverts to tho owner, who has a claim for whatever compensation was agreed upon, or. if no definite arrangement ha<l been made, to whatever sum might be deemed reasonable ander the circumstances. (2) Locntio opfriit /nrifndi, — The same principles in reference to the degree of care to be required of the bailee apply to contracts for labor and services to be bestowed upou the thing bailed as in the hiring of chattels. Ordi- nary care is required, and the measure of obligation is es- timated by the value and nature of the articles delivered. But the obligations of the workman depend also, in large measure, upou the nature of his occupation. lie is held responsible for tlie exercise of such a degree of skill and careful workmanship in fulfilling the task imposed upon him as is requisite in the ordinary labors of his trade or profession. In accepting an engagement to perform a par- ticular kind of work he impliedly represents himself as coniiieteut fur such an undertaking, and may be made to rcsiJond in damages for injuries sustained through any ex- hibition of uuskilfulness or incapacity. If, however, his incomijctence were known to the person engaging his ser- vices, tho hirer must suffer the consequence without remedy. If any instructions be given to the workman as to the man- ner in which his labor is to bo performed, they must be ad- hered to strictly. If there be a material deviation from them, he can reco\tr nothing for his services, unless the deviation be attributable to some unavoidable cause or be acquiesced in by his employer. The employer's assent need not be indicated by any express agreement, but may be presumed from his conduct, il he has knowledge of the de- viation from the terms of the contract before its execution is completed, and makes no objection. If the bailee only completes a portion of the desired work, ho can claim a proportionate compensation if the benefit of what was ac- tually performed was received in its incomplete state by tho assent of the employer: but if the employer insist on full performance or decline to make compensation on ac- count of some substantial imperfection in the workmanship or some injury which the goods have sustained, the work- man is not only entitled to no reward, but may even be held liable for the original value of the goods. The acceptance of tho goods by the employer is not of itself sufiicient to constitute an assent to a deviation from the contract, since an owner has a right to the possession of his goods. If the property is destroyed by some unexpected casualty, with- out any fault on the part of the workman, or is carried away by robbers notwithstanding the use of reasonable precautionary measures for security, since the absolute ownership remains continually in the employer, he must sustain the loss. If any labor has been expended upon it before the disaster occurs, the workman is, according to the general rule of tho common law, entitled to a proper recom- pense for services actually rendered, unless the entire ful- filment of his engagement had been made a condition pre- cedent to payment. Under the French law and the Code of Louisiana the employer in such a case loses the value of his materials and the employe the value of bis labor. But that the loss of the property in such instances may fall upon the employer, it is necessary that the contract be strictly in the nature of bailment; and interesting ques- tions "sometinus arise as lo whether a delivery of articles to a workman and an engagement of bis services constitutes this relation. If cloth be given to a tailor or gold lo a jewel- ler, and the identical piece of cloth is lo be returned in the form of a suit, or the same gold to be made into an article of ornauunt. it is a ease of bailment, even though addi- tions be made to the original article delivered in the course of its alteration. But if the workman has liberty to ex- pend his labor upon other materials of the same kind as those delivered, being under no further obligation than to return articles similar to those which would be made if tho employers goods were used, this is not generally considered as constituting a bailment, but only a species of barter or sale. The em[)loyer makes use of his goods to purchase others of the same nature in an altered form. The work- man, therefore, owns the goods until his labor is complete and the finished product acee]ited; and if they are de- stroyed before that time the loss is his alone, and the em- ployer has still a claim for the delivery of the article or- dered. A similar question arises when grain is deposited in a warehouse or elevator with the understanding that a similar amount of the same quality may bo returned in- stead of the very same grain delivered. The courts have generally adjudged an agreement of this kind to be a sale, and not "a bailment, so as to make the bailee responsible in ease of accidental loss. In all cases where a person is to furnish materials himself, and expend labor upon them, the contract is evidently not one of bailment, but rather one of s.ale, so that the" employ^ is subject to all the obliga- tions of a vendor. I The law concerning warehousemen, wh:irfingcrs, and inn- keepers is also included under the head of Locntio nperit faciencli, since such persons ilevotc care and attention lo I the objects entrusted lo them, but fbeir liabilities will bo considered under these several names respectively. I (iFoRfiE CntsE. KKVispn BV T. W. IiwicnT. 1 Hirpini, an ancient jieople of Italy of Samnito race, 1 inhabiliUL' the central group of the .\pennincs between Lu- lIlliSClIBKRG— HISTOLOGY. 931 cania, Apulia, and Campania, and deriving their name | from liirput, the Sumnite nnnio of a wolf. Tliov were siib- juRiitcd by tho Kouiaus (iirobably togi'tlier with llie oilier .Sainnili; trilics) bc-furc L'fiS u. c, at which time the Roman e.iloiiy of Bcntvenluiu, whiih formed the strategical key I lo their couiilry, was established. Iniuicdialely after the battle of Oannie (2Hi B. o.) they declared in favor of Han- | nibiil, but when he (in 209 B. c.) was driven towards the southern )iart of Italy, they bou;;ht peaco on good terms from the Romans bv betraying the Carthaginian garrisons in their citie?. In the Soiial war (ilU B. r.) Iliey were among the first who took up arms against Rome, but they were soon reduced by Sulla. an<l after the end of the war their name as an independent nation is not mentioned. Ilirsoh'bcrg, handsome town of Prussia, iu the prov- inie of Silesia, on the Uober. It has considerable linen manu- factures, and one Lutheran and three Catholic churches. Pop. 11.773. Hirst (Hkskv B.), b. in Philadelphia .\ug. S.'!, ISl.'!, was admitted to the bar in 184.'., having previously to some extent been occupied in mercantile pursuits. lie published several volumes of poems which had a wide ]iopularity — The (\,mxn<i i,f ihc Mtimmolli. cic. (1846), Eiulijmion (1S48), and Th€ Pcnnucc „/ Ituluud (ISI'J). D. Mar. 30, 1S74. Hir'tius (.Ati.is) belonged to a plebeian family, but played a conspicuous part in Roman politics on account of his personal friendship and intimate political connection with CiEsar. He served him in (Jaul as legate, and was often employed as negotiator. He lived mostly in Koine, on his Tusciilan estates, in the neighborhood of tlie villa of Cicero, with whom he was on friendly terms and held frcriuent social intercourse. He was clioscn consul for the year 4'! B. r,, and entered on his official duties .Jan. I. Of the horrible convulsions into which the assassination of Ca'sar threw the Roman republic. Ilirtius was by no means the master, hut his moderation and freedom from personal ambition e.tercised a beneficial influence; and when he fell at the head of the army which was sent against Antony, then besieging .Mutina, the people mourned him. He was a man of refined tastes and literary aceomplishments, and the eighth book of Cxsars Cumnirniariei is generally sup- posed to have been written cither by him or by Oppius. Ilivpnnia, the Latin name of Spain (which see). IIi^•pa■liola. See Havti, by Mki.vil Bi.oxcotiiiT. llistiic'a, one of the oldest and most important towns of Enbica, became subject to Athens during the Persian wars, but revolted in 44.) n. c. As a ])unishuient the Athe- nians removed all the inhabitants, ri|)laced them with Attic colonists, and changed Iho name of the placo to 0;v'i(». Ilistin-'usi, tyrant of .Miletus, won the attachment and gratitude of Darius by guarding faithfully the bridge of boats over which the Persian army crossed the Danube on its expedition into Scythia in .oil! B. c. — a service by which ho saved the army and the life of the Persian king. His adventurous and ambitious character, however, could not help exciting suspicion, and ho was detained at the Persian court for thirteen years. At last he succeeded in raising his Oreek countrymen in Ionia in rebellion .against Persia, but Darius had still so much confidence in him as to send him down to quench it. The rebellion itself failed utterly, and the treachery of Histia'us was discovered by .\rta- phernes, the Persian satrap of Sardis. Ho now fled from place to place, stirring the different (ireck colonies iu Asia rlinor into premature insurrections ; but at last he was cap- tured ami put to ileath by .Artaphernes, who scut his head to the Persian king. Darius, however, mourned deeply, buried Iho head with honors, and blamed Artaphcrnes for having acted hastily. Ilistol'ogy [Cir. icTTos, "web," and Aoyot, "discourse"] is the branch of anatomy which treats of thu minute etrue- tnre of the tissues of which living beings arc composed. It is subdivided into Hiimiiu luHlnhiijy, which treats of the tis- sues of man : (%tmparatirr hiHtfiliit/t/, which treats of the tissues i>r the lower animals ; and Vei/elrthfr hixtoioifff, which treats of the tissues of plants. Fjach of these subdivisions may be again divided into Xumnil and I'lillinlmjirol his- tology — the first referring to thc> healthy tissues, the sec- ond investigating the changes they undergo in disease. Histology may bo said lo date ba-k only lo the appear- ance of the Annlomic Gfnhiih of Bichat in ISOI, lor al- though many interesting observations had previously been made by Malpighi (lfi2K-',ll), I,eeuwenhoek ( In;i2-I72:i ). Swamm'erdam (ll!;!7-80), Rnysoh ( ir.:!8-l 7:!1 ), Meberkilhn (1711-0^1, Hewsnn (17.10-74), and others, yet Hichat was the first who treated Ihc Buhjeet in a comprehensive way. clasxil'ving according to Iheir structure, so far as it was then understood, all the tissues of the human bn.ly. and giving a gi-neral view of Iheir relations, both in health and disease. His work gave a great impulse to the study of t^ the tissues, but the imperfect condition of the compound microscope at that time was a serious obstacle to progress, and it was not until tho opticians succeeded in devising eflicient methods of correcting the spherical and chromatic aberrations of that instrument that histidogy made any important advance beyond tho position in which Bichat left it. Tho next epoch in the developmeift of histology is marked bv the appearance of the works of Schwann ( l.s;iS-39), who endeavored to show that the observations of Schleiden in vegetable histology were substantially true for animals also ; that all tissues are formed by the transformation of nucle- ated cells : and that these arise dc novo under favorable eir- cumstauces in a formless nutritive fluid or blastema. This theory was extended tf) pathological anatomy by .Johannes Miiller, and continued to be almost universally accepted until the appearance of the cellular pathology of Virchow (1858), which was sjicedily followed by tjio very gene- ral acceptance of his doctrine, that cells can only arise out of pre-existing cells, and that in both normal and path- ological growth tho cells of the growing part multiply by division, and thus give birth to all the elements ultimately produced. This doctrine sccincil to be permanently estab- lished on a sure foundation, when the discovery of the wanilering cells in living connective tissue by Von Reck- linghausen (ISCi), and the demonstration by Cohnluini (1SC7) that these movable elements are in fact white blood- corpuscles which have migrated from the blood-vessels, compelled a modification of opinion, and showed that the actual details of the growth and nutrition of the tissues are much more complex than had been previously supposed. Since the time of Schwann the nundjer of histological in- vestigators of reputation has multiplied so greatly that it would occupy more space than can here be given even to enumerate them. The names of a few of the more promi- nent will appear in the list of .works appended. In the present article a sketch of some of the more important and best-established elementary facts with regard to human histology is all that can be attempted, and greater )iromi- nenee will he given to the normal than to the pathological branch of tho subject. The reader who desires more de- tailed information is referred to the special treatises and essays. Elrmnilan/ Crils. — The tissues are composed of element- ary cells and their derivatives. According to the long- receivcil views of Schwann, elementary cells aro hollow vesicles composed of an external membrane or cell-wall, which encloses, besides fluid or solid contents of various characters, a smaller vesicle, the nucleus, in which again is contained a still smaller body, the nucleolus. It has, however, been shown that many kinds of cells have no dis- tinct walls, and in ninny others Ihc existence of a wall is in the highest degree problematical; Max Sehultze accord- ingly defines the cell simply as a little mass of protoplasm containing a nucleus, and Briicke and Strieker, going a step farther, are disposed to regard the nucleus itself as unessential. Protoplasm, thus brought into prominence in our con- ceptions of the ultimate structure of living organisms, is an albuminoid body, which under the microscope either appears to lie rpiite honiogeneous or presents a more or less granular aspect. It may be fluid, semi-solid, or soliil. and probably varies considerably in its composition in diflVrent situations and under different circumstances. .\ll its forms, however, possess certain special jiropcrlies in common, of which the most inii>ortant are the capability of manifesting spontaneous inovements : of taking uji nulritive materials from tlic surrounding media and transforming them into its own substance, orof growing: and of reproducing its kind by detaching portions which are capable of iudependent exist- ence and growth. The elementary cells of the human tis- sues usually contain a nucleus. This is an oval or rounded body generally between .Omi2" and .OOOli"* in long iliam- eler, composed of a material that certainly difl'ers from tho protoplasm of the body of the cell in ofl'ering greater resist- ance to the artiiin of iicirls and alkalies, and in behaving somewhat differently with various reagents, but the precise composition of which has not been determined. The nu- cleoli arc even less constant and more imperfectly known than the nuclei. The spontaneous movements in the pro- toplasm of the elementary cells are most constant and ncile- wortbv while the cells are young. These inovements, during which the nucleus remnins quite passive, occur in |>art as changes in the form of the cells, in part in consequence of these changes iu Iheir form ; the cells change place, or wan- der, among the surrounding elements in ft manner which. • In this nrllele dimensions will he given In deeunals of an ineb. IndleatluK the inch by the sli;n ". It must be onderstomi that llie ficures given arc onlv olTered as nppr.iximiilions to the nrrrnijr size of the several elements, and that the individual ele- ments vary greatly In dimensions. 932 HISTOLOGY. OD account of its similarity to the movements of the amoeba, has been called amoeboid. When, at a later period in the history of certain cell!?, they acquire a eell-wall or outer membrane, they become lixcd, and are no longer capable of amicboid movements. The various transformations which cells undergo in build- ing up the several tissues will be indicated in connection with e;u'h. Here, howA'er, a word must bo i-a'ui as to the mode in which the reproduction of cells takes ]>Iaec. Cells usually multiply by division. In so doiuj;, the nucleus first elongates, then becomes constricted in the middle, and finally separates into two parts, which recede from each other ; fission of the protoplasm of the body of the cell sub- sequently occurs. Besides this mode, endogenous cell- multiplication, and multiplication by gemmation or bud- ding, lire admitted by many liistologii-'ts. The first is, in most instances, if not always, merely tlie result of the con- tinued multi])lieatinn by division of a protojilasniic mass contained witliin a membrane or capsule; the second has been observeil chiefly in the case of certain low vegetable forms; ns, for example, the ycast-fnngus. As already mentioned, it was taught by Schwann th:it cells might also arise spontaneously in a formless fluid of suitable eompo- eition. This supposition was brought into disrepute by Virrhnw, who held that cells could only arise from pre- existing cells — omin't ccllnln r ccffnfd. Of late, however, numerous investigations have been publishetl which appear to favor the doctrine of the spontaneous generation of the lower organisms under suitable conditions ; ami if this view should be established, it may turn out that the theory of Schwann has been too hastily condemned. Coimecthe TlnHtie. — The designation connective tissue {Biiirt-ijewcbe of the (Jerman histologists) is bestowed upon the widely diffused tissue which unites together the organs and their several parts, and includes not merely the cap- sules, sheaths, fascia, tendons, and ligaments, but also the more delicate tissue which forms the supporting framework of the special elements of the complex organs. Connective tissue consists of special fixed cells, the connective-tissue corpuscles, united together by an intercellular substance or Fig. 1. (k>nnectivc tissue, matrix. In the latter a series of minute passages are chan- nelled, and through these granular cells, identical in struc- ture and appearance with the white corpuscles of the blood, wander freely. The fixed cells are usually either spindle- formed or stellate, and are provided with nu elliptical tran.-iparont nueleus, immediately around which the proto- plasm of the cell is usually more granular than elsewhere. They vary greatly in dimensions in diiTeront situations, the nucleus averaging about .000 l" in long diameter, anrl the ceils being from twice to five or six times as large. From the extremities of the spindle-formed cells and all parts of the stellate ones proceed branching processes, which vary considerably in number and length. In the living tis?uc slow changes in the form of these processes may be eliserved, hut so far as can be ascGrtaine<l these do not leail to any change in the position of the cells. The wandering cells are much less nucnorous under normal con- ililions than the fixed, but in inflammation increase in num- ber often to an enormous extent. They are derived from the blond, and cscupe into the channels of the connective tissue through stiunata in the walls of the small blood-ves- selo. A part of ihem, both in health and in inflammation, find thoir way from the channels of the matrix into the lymphatic capillaries. That others remain in the tissue and become fixed corpuscles is a plausible suggestion not yet positively established. The matrix varies greatly in characters and arrangement in different situations, and by these variations determines the external characteristics of the several varieties of con- nective tissue. The diversity consists not merely in the conformation, but also in the chemical composition of the matrix, as is shown by the fact th;it certain forms of con- nective tissue yield gelatiue on boiling, while others do not. To the former belongs the so-called fibrillar connective tissue, which is the dominant form in ?nau and the verte- brates, at least in the adult state. The latter includes the delicate connective tissue in the interior of the kidneys, the liver, and the lymphatic glands, that in the brain and spinal cord {the neuroglia of VirehowJ, and the succulent trans- lucent tissue of the umbilical cord, which has been called mucous tissue because acetic acid produces in it, a precipi- tate of mucin in threads and flocculi, which dissolve in an excess of the acid. In the form of fibrillar connective tissue, which occurs in the ligaments and tendons, the matrix appears, when ex- aniint'd in indifferent fluids (aqueous humor, amniotic fluid, or bbxid-seruni), to be composed of indistinctly tibrillated bundles .(UtOj" to J)(II" or more in diameter, lying parallel to each other, and anastomosing at comparatively long in- tervals. Long narrow anastomosing channels are thus left between them, in which, on the margins of the bundles, lie the spindlrformcd fixed cells. Wlien examined in water or neutral saline solution the fibrillar nppeanincc is much more distinct, and after maceration in lime-water or baryta- water the bundles are easily split into their component fibrils, .t)(l004" or less in tliameter. which cannot be satis- factorily done in the fresh state, so (bat indeed some have gone so far as to pronounce the fibiilla an altogether arti- ficial product. On treatment with dilute acids the bundles swell up and hour-glass contractions appear at intervals. These have beon ascribed by some to spiral clastic fibres wound around the bundles. Others have supposed each bundle to be enveloped in a delicate sheath, which is par- tially ruptured by the swelling produced by acids, the re- maining portions producing the constrictions. The latter view has received considerable support from the recent in- vestigations of Boll, who has arrived at the conclusion that the cells of connective tissue are in fact thin scale-like plates which form an endothelial lining to the channels be- tween the bundles, and ascribes the appearance of the cells, as usually seen, to imperfect methods of investigation. In the fascia, the skin, the subcutaneous, submucous, and subserous membranes, the periosteum, and the perichon- drium, the fibrillar bundles do not run parallel, but cross each other in diverse directions and iiio-culate at various angles, so as to leave irregular spaces of \arioi;s sizes, which freely communicate with each other. Kxccpt in this more areolar arrangement the matrix in tliese situations differs little from that of the tendons and ligaments. When fibrillar connective tissue is boiled or treated with dilute acids, the fibrillin disappear, and certain sharply de- fined, more or less spiral, fibres come into view, which are known as clastic fihrcs. These vary from .00006" or less to .0004". or even more, in thickness; they branch fre- quently, and in some situations form intricate networks. Characteristic coarse networks of this sort exist in the skin, more delicate ones in the serous and mucous membranes. In the elastic coats of the arteries, the yellow ligaments of the vertebral column, and the liganientum nuch:v, tliey are very coarse, and form the most conspicuous tissue-element. The varieties of connective tissue which occur in the kid- neys, the lymphatic glands, etc. will Vie described in con- nection with the organs in whicli fhey exist ; a word must, however, be said here with regard to the mucous tissue of the umbilical cord. This, in early I'letal life, consists of a transparent, apparently structureless matrix, in which arc embedded delicate stellate cells with branching, freely in- osculating processes. Interspersed throughout the matrix a certain number of wandering corpuscles are found. At a biter period fibrillar bundles begin to appear on the matrix. The interest which attaches to this tissue is due in part to the fact that it resembles the embrycmic condition of tht fibrillar connective tissue, in part to its resemblance to cer- tain pathological new formations. Connectivr tissue serves as the substratum for the ramification of the blood-vessels, Ivmphaties, and nerves of all parts of the body. It stands indeed in special relations to the lymphatics, the channels and spaces of its matrix being the ultimate lymphatic pas- sages. Development of Connective Tintine. — At an early period of the history of the embryo conneetive tissue consists of round formative cells in close juxtaposition. Between these the matrix gradually makes its ap)»e:irance, pushing the cells farther and farther apart. .'Simultaneously the cells change their shape, becoming gradually spindle-formed or stellate. In the tendons and ligaments the matrix is more or less distinctly fibrillar from its first appearapce. in most other sitimtions it is at first homogeneous, resembling that of the mucous tissue described above, and only subse- quently HL-quircs a fibrillar eluira'-tt-r. Considerable diver- HISTOLOGY. 933 sit.v of opinion still exists as to the interpretation of theae ph'tnoinena. Some hold still to the view of Schwann, that the formative cells themselves elongate and split up into the bundles of fibrils; eomc. like lieule, suppose the peri- pheral portions of the protoplasms of the cells (germinal matter) to be gradually transformed into matrix (formed material), so that this is created by the continual growth of the cells, the peripheral portions of which undergo con- tinual transformation. This view is substantially that adopted by Kollet as the most probable. Finally, it is held by others that the matrix is independently formed between the cells by the transformation of the nutritive blood-plasma. That the elastic fibres originate by the transformation of a portion of the formative cells was long held us certain. Doubts as to the accuracy of this view have, however, been expressed, and Uollet advocates the opinion that they originate by a direct deposit from the plasma in the form of fibres. The evidence on which this opinion rests is, however, far from conclusive. Adipose Tianuf, — In many parts of the body the areolar connective tissue encloses in its meshes groups of cells con- taining fat. These cells arc round or oval, Bometinies polygonal, as from mutual pressure, and .001" to .005" in diameter. The presence of the fat conceals their nuclei, but after its extraction by aljsolute alcohol, and the stain- ing of the tissue by carmine, a nucleus can generally bo observed in each, attached to the interior of the cell-wall, which here appears as an undoubted membrane. The groups of fat-cells contained in individual areolie of the connective tissue are designated fat-lobules. Kich is sup- plied with blood by one or more arterial twigs, whence proceed numerous capillaries so arranged that each of the larger cells at least is surrounded by its own capillary loops. In their embryological condition the fat-cells are at fust i nucleated masses of protoplasm, like other formative cells. The fa! makes its appearance in the substance of the pro- toplasm in small dro])S, and there finally coalesces into a single largo one, occupying the central portion of the cell. As the fat-drops grow still larger, the protoplasm becomes more scanty, until only a thin membrane remains, with the nucleus embedded in it. In certain forms of dropsy and some other diseases the adipose cells lose their fat, which is replaced by serum. A similar disappearance of the fat has been observed in animals deprived of food, the fat promptly reappearing when food is again supplied. Ctiruffi'je. — Cartilage, like connective tissue, consists of cells imbcilded in an intercellular substance or matrix ; the latter may be homogeneous or fibrous, and accordingly two varieties of cartilage are recognized — hyaline cartilage and fibro-eartilage. Hyaline cartilage forms the cartilages of the ribs, the ensiform cartilage, the articular cartilages of the bones, the cartilages covering the opposed surfaces of the symphyses, the nasal cartilages, all tlie cartilages of the larynx except the epiglottis and the cartilages of Wrisburg, and the cartilaginous rings of the trachen and bronchial tubes. In this variety of cartilage the cells (cartilage cor- puscles), when single, are usually oval, on an average from .OOOD" to .001" in long diameter, and consist of a delicate granular protoplasm containing one or two large oval nuclei. They lio iu cavities (cartilage cavities) hollowed Cartilage. out in tho eoli<! matrix. Sometimes the cavities are of larger size, an<l contain two or more cells, and then the ad- jacent sides of thf'se are flatteneil. Sf»metimes groups f)f two, four, or more cells, with their adjacent sides flattened, lie quite near together, hut are separated by a narrow layer of matrix. In living or perfectly fresh cartilage tho cells exactly fill tho cavities in which thoy lie, but on tho addition of water, or even of indifferent fluids, as aqueous . humor or blood-serum, the cells shrivel and separate from the parietes of the cartilage cavities, so that they appear to be surrounded by a clear transparent space ; or they may shrivel irregularly, remaining attached ut points to [ho parietes of the cavity, so as to present a stellate appearance. At the same time the matrix becomes more or less ilistinctly granular. These changes occur also shortly after dciith without the addition of reagents. The matrix when fresh is homogeneous and quite transparent, no traces of tho ex- istence of layers or cell-territories being observable even with the highest powers. After the action of certain re- agents, however, such us dilute chromic acid, or after digest- ing for some time iu acidulated water at a temperature of about 100° F., the matrix may be split up into concentric layers surrounding the cell-groups and individual cells. If cartilage bo boiled in water for some time, the matrix is entirely dissolved, the solution containing the substance known as chondrin. Where cartilage is continuous with connective tissue there is no abrupt boundary between the two, but tho one passes by a gradual transition into the other. As we pro- ceed from the cartilage to the connective tissue, the matrix ijceomes first indistinctly, then distinctly fibrillated, and is continuous with the connective-tissue matrix, while tho cells arc more and more elongated until they present tlie character of connective-tissue corpuscles. In the inter- articular cartilages little masses of hyaline cartilage arc imbedded in fibrillatecl connective tissue. This has some- times been considered a variety of fibro-cartilage, but is simply a mixture of cartilage with connective tissue. !• ibro-cartilnffr {Hcticulur Carlilcyc, Yf:lloic Cartifftffc), — The cells of fibro-cartilage arc quite like those of hy- aline cartilage, but the matrix consists chiefly of a plexus of anastomosing fibres resembling elastic fibres. lielween these, however, a homogeneous substance similar to the matrix of reticular cartilage no doubt exists, since tlicso cartilages yield a small proportion of chondrin on boilii.g. This homogeneous substance, in certain situations, is most abundant immediately around the cells, where it is visible under the microscope as a clear or slightly gianular area in which no fibres are discerned. When fibro-eartilagc is anatomically continuous with connective tissue, the fibres of the matrix are continuous with tho yellow elastic fibres. Fibro-cartilage, us above described, forms the cartilages of the ear and of the Eustachian tube, the epiglottis, tho cartilages of Wrisburg, and a part of the intervertebral cartilages. Neither hyaline nor fibro-cartilage contains cither blood-vessels, lymphatics, or nerves. Uevflopment of Cni-tiUnje. — In early embryonic life car- tilage is composed of simple formative cells in immediate juxtaposition. These enlarge, and arc transformed into cartilage-cells, and meanwhile the matrix gradually makes its appearance between them, at first as a thin layer sur- rounding each cell. In this condition the cells can rcailily be isolated with the capsule of matrix about them; after a time, however, the capsules surrounding atljacent cells be- come fused together, and can no longer be isolated except by the aid of reagents. As in the case of connective tissue, several interpretations of these facts have been ofl"ered. The view of lieule, that the matrix is formed by the transforma- tion of the peripheral portions of tho protoplasm of the growing cells, is substantially accepted by many excellent histologists — among others, by Max Schull/.e ; while on tho other hand, the view that it is produced independently by the direct transformation of the nutritive plasma is not without supporters. During the jn-oeess of growth the car- tilage cells multiply by division. Cells containing two nu- clei are frequently observed, as well as groups of two or more cells lying together in a single capsule, as if just divided. Direct observation of the process of division is, however, no easy mutter. Tho division of tho cells is immediately followed by the formation of a thin layer of matrix between the two resulting cells, and this will gener- ally be found to exist when two or more cells appear to lie together in tin? same capsule, if the cells be eausrd to shrink as deseril'cd above. This thin partition-wall of matrix groiiuuHy increases in thickness, pushing the new- formed cells farther and farther apart. Tho fibres of tho matrix of reticular cartilage are developed in tho sumo way as the eloslic fibres. With advancing age a deposit of iime-salls takes place in the matrix of certain cartiliii;fs, as in those of the larynx and of the ribs. A similar chaitgo takes place in ossifying curtilages and in certain morbid conditions. It is known as the ealoification of earliliige. Ifnnr, like eurtiluge, consists of cells imbedded in a matrix. In thin seetifins of <lried bono tho position of tho cells is marked by the presence of small stellate cavities about .OOOS" iu average length, and rather lens than half as broad — the bone-laounie, from which rudinlo delicate canals, .00006" in diameter, the canaliouli. The cannliouli 984 HISTOLOGY. of adjacent lacunae anastomose freely. Examined by trans- mitted lij^ht, the lacuna' and canuliculi appear dark, the matrix traiit-parent ; \>y redectcd liglit the finmcr appear \?hito and opaque, the latter transUiceut. These appear- ances depend upon the tact that in dried bono the lacunar and ennallculi are hollow and contain air, as may be de- monstrated by first tlowing turpentine upun a thin section while under microscopical observation, antl tlien permitting it to dry. In recent bone, and especially in growing bune, the laeun.r are tilled with a mass of jinitoplasm containing a nucleus, which sends processes into the canaliculi. 'XUe&e Bone (loni^itiiiliuul ». masses of protoplasm are the proper bone-cells. Osseous tissue is very vascular, and the capillaries lie in the com- pact substance of the long bones in a series of longitudinal anastomosing channels — the canals of Havers — which are continuous with the larger canals containing the nutritive arteries, with the areolar spaces of the spongy extremities of the bones, and with the marrow cavities. In transverse sections of the compact shafts of tlie long bones, thcreibre, the canals of Havers appear as rounded or oval openings, disposed at tolerably regular intervals, with the lacuna; ar- ranged regularly around them in coaccntrio rows. In lon- FiG. 4. Bone (,ir;ut-v' r-i- . treated with acid. gitudinal sections the canals appear as a network with elongated interspaces, in which the laeunie lie in rows par- allel to the canals. In the extremities of the long bones and in the spongy boncK thin sections display an areolar structure, and the bone-lacuna.* are always arranged more or less evidently in rows parallel to the margins of the are- olar spaces. If bone be treated with dilute acids the earthy matter of the matrix is dissolved, and a material resembling car- tilage is left behind, which, however, does not yield chon- drin on boiling, but gelatine. When transverse sections arc made through the shalt of a long bone, after the re- moval of the eartliy matter by aciils the matrix no longer appears homogeneous, but is disposed in a number of thin concentric layers {Ilavcrsiau lunufta) around eaeh Haver- sian canal. Tlie spaces between the systems of lamella) thus formed are occupied by inttrmcdiatr lamcUfc, which run parallel to each other without any definite relation to the course of the adjoining Haversian lamella; : and, lastly, just beneath the jicriosteum is a series of pcriphcntl la- mc//.T, the course of which is 2>arallel to the surface of the bone. The medullary cavities of the long bones arc filled with a delicate, very vascular connective tissue, rich in fat-cells — the marrow. The areola; of the spongy extremities of the lung bones and of the spongy bones also contain a del- icate vascular connective tissue, in which, however, there are few fat-cells; instead, it abounds in round granular cells and masses of protoplasm containing many nuclei, the myeloplaxis of Kobin. Wandering cells arc abundant in this tissue, less numerous in the marrow, in which, how- ever, they accumulate in certain pathological conditions. Derelopvifut of Bone, — In early fwtal life the skeleton is entirely cartilaginous, and bone first makes its ajipearance by a transformation of the cartilaginous skeleton, com- mencing at certain definite centres or points of ossification. There are usually several such centres to each bone, which are separated by earlilage until the growth of the bone is complete. The cartilaginous septa thus left, of which those between the epiphyses and shafts of the long bones may be taken as types, maintain their dimensions by a continual growth, while their margins are constantly being trans- formed into bone. Lesidcs this development of bone in cartilage, it is also developed in connective tissue. This is the ease with the thin cranial bones, in which a primor- dial cartilaginous stage docs not exist. A similar forma- tion of bone out of connective tissue takes place beneath the j)eriosteuni of all growing bones. It is by this jiroccss, for example, that the long hones increase in thickness, while their increase in length takes place by the growth and ossification of the cartilages between the shaft and epiphyses. The earlier hist()!ogists supposed that the for- mation of bone out of cartilage occurred by a ilcjiosit of earthy salts in the matrix of the cartilage, transforming it into bone-matrix, while the cartilage-cells were metamor- phosed into bone-cclls. Subserjuent observations have shown, however, that the process is by no means so simple. The first formation of bone in the facial cartilaginous skel- eton is preceded by an ingrowth of blood-vessels, sur- rounded by a delicate layer of cells (foetal marrow), into the substance of the cartilage, which is absorbed to permit the entrance of the new tissue. Shortly after a deposit of earthy salts takes place in the matrix of the cartilage at the point of ossification. Detailed observations as to the earliest development of true bony tissue are yet wanting, but it seems probable that from (he first, as certainly al- ways occurs afterwards, the bone is farmed by the transfor- mation of the peripheral portions of the fo;>tal marrow. When, after the process is fairly under way, thin sections are cut, including the developing bone on one side and the foetal cartilage on the other, the following conditions are observed: In the portion of the cartilage immediately ad- joining (he already formed bone the cells are disposed in closely packed rows perpendicular to the surface of ad- vancing ossification. In these rows the cells which are more distant from the bone are flattened and have flattened nuclei; those nearer to it progressively more oval or I rounded, with rounded nuclei. A deposit of lime-salts in the matrix between these rows extends in the fttrm of fino trabecular some little distance beyond the already formed bone. The cartilage-cells nearest lo the ossifying territory are always unusually large and clear, and immediately next to them groups of small granular eelis. surrounding one or more capillary loops, lie in the most external areola* of the already formed bone. These groups of granular cells arc the terminal buds of the fa'tal marrow. No transition forms between them and the adjacent row of large clear cartilage-cells have been observed, and it therefore seems improbable that these become converted into the granular cells by any process of tlivision. It has been suggested by Ilcnke that the granular cells are formed from migrated white corpuscles, hut it is more generally believed that from the first the ftetal marrow intrudes into the cartilage along with the blood-vessels by continued eell-multipUcation. Both views lack the support f)f actual observation. It is more positively established that the ])eripheral granular cells become hone-eclls. These peripheral cells are known as osteoblasts, and form a distinct layer (the osteoblastic HISTOLOGY. 935 layer ) un the surface of the terminal buds of foetal marrow. The dclaiU of the transformation have not been fully made out; 8ome holding that all the osteoblasts become stellate yiUi; cartilatro. lionc-.-.-.i^. ■i.».-,ii xiiioh the bone-malrix accumulates as the transformation proceeds, while others suppose that a large proportion of them are transformed into bone-malrix, and that this transformation, being limited in a certain number to their peripheral portions only, leaves the stellate bone-cells. It will be understood from the above that the cartilage of the fa-tal skeleton is to be regarded as merely a temporary formation, and that the multiplication of its cells in rows, and the deposit of liuic-salts in the matrix between them, are preliminary steps to its complete disap- pearance before the growing? bone-tissue. The formation of bono beneath the periosteum takes place in a manner essentially similar to what has just been sketched. A layer of ostcobiasis is developed between the connective tissue of the periosteum and the part of the bono which has al- ready been formed, and these are transformed into bone in the same way as the osteoblasts of the foetal marrow. Miitculiir Titt'ic. — There are two varieties of muscular tissue, the non-striated and the striated. The uuu-slrinlcd muscles are composed of spindlc-fornied contractile fibre- cells with elongated or rod-like nuclei. These occur in the muscular coats of the intestinal canal, the middle coat of the arteries and veins, the posterior part of the walls ol the trachea aud bronchial tubes, the ciliary muscle and the iris, the skin (where Ihey constitute especially the crectorcs pili muscles), the lymphatic glands and spleen, the walls of the gall-bladder and biliary ducts, the ureters and uri- nary bladder, the uterus and Fallopian tubes, etc. etc. The fibre-cells are composed of a contractile substance, which is either homogeneous or faintly striated longitudinally; in this, besides the nucleus, a number of strongly refrac- tive granules are imbedded, a pyramidal group of them generally appearing at each extremity of the nucleus. I'^omelimes the extremities of the fibre-cells are divided into t\vo or more branches. In length these cells for the most part range between .0010" and .OOS"; their average breailtb is about .0001", and their nuclei range from .0006" to .001" in long diameter. They are united into larger or smaller fasciculi by a delicate eonneotivc tissue consist- ing of a homogeneous matrix, with scattered stellate, anastomo.xing cells. On a transverse section through these fasciculi the divided fibre-cells present irregular polygonal outlines. Tho fasciculi are united by septa of ordinary fibrillar conueelivo tissue. The arteries and veins supply- ing tho miiseiiiar tissue lie in these septa; tho capillaries enter the muscular fasciculi and are distributed between the fibro-cells. The relation of the inuseular fibre-eells to tho nerves will bo described in connection with the nerves. The tlrinlid miitctf consist of cylindrical or somowhal fusiform fibres, .0004" to .002.')" in diameter, which in short muscles extend from one insertion of the muscle to the other; in long ones, seldom exceed an inch and a half in length. These are marked transversely by close parallel lines, lliu well-known transverse striie. Each fibre is invested by a delicate structureless sheath, the sarcolemmn, beneath which, aud on tho exterior of the muscular substanco proper, oval nuclei, the so-called muscle-corpuscles, are scattered at irregular intervals. With proper management the muscular fibres may bo split longitudinally into a bundle of minute fibrils, or trans- versely into a series of narrow disks, lience, as was first taught by Bowman, each fibre is composed of a great num- ber of quadrangular particles, the sarcous elements. Colin- heim, by the investigation of thin sections of frozen mus- cles especially, has shown that these sarcous elements are separated from each other by a transparent intervening substance. Briicke has pointed out that the sarcous ele- ments polarize light, while the intervening substance does not. lie found their doubly refractive power to be uniaxial and positive, and by a study of their behavior when exam- ined with polarized light during contraction, arrived at the conclusion that each consists of a group of smaller doubly refractive bodies (disdiaclasts) capable of changing ]iosi- tion with reference to each other during contraction, and thus modifying tho form of the sarcous elements. To this view Strieker appears to incline, though he expresses him- self with a certain reserve. Various other views of tho structure of muscular fibres have been offered, with regard to which the render must consult the special treatises. The muscular fibres are bound together into fasciculi by a del- icate connective tissue resembling that which unites the fibre-cells of organic muscles. The fasciculi arc united by septa of ordinary fibrillar connective tissue, in which tho nutritive blood-vessels lie. The latter give off a system of capillaries which form a network between the individual muscular fibres. The termination of the nerves in striated muscular fibres will be described hereafter. All the volun- tary muscles of tho body, aud certain of the involuntary ones also, among which the most notable is the heart, con- sist of striated muscular fibres. In the heart the muscular fibres offer several marked peculiarities. They branch and anastomose with each other, forming thus a ccmtinuous net- work, and they are divided by highly refractive transverse lines into segments .002" to .003" in length, each of which has a single nucleus in its centre, so that they have been described as chains of luusclc-cells. Besides this, they fre- quently contain numerous fat-molecules, even when apjia- rently quito healthy. In their transverse striation, and most of tho details of their minute structure, however, they resemble tho other striated muscles. Kervea and lYerve-cenlrcs. — The nervous system consists of a scries of branching cords, the nerves, which originate in the brain, spinal marrow, and ganglia, ami are distrib- uted to tho tissues, where, for the most part, they end in certain special terminal I'iG. 0. organs. The ncrvcH con- sist cither of single nerve- fibres or of fasciculi of fibres united together by vascular ciuinectivc tissue. In most of the cerebro- spinal nerves, with tho exception of their central and peripheral termina- tions, the nerve-fibres con- sist of a central ])ortion, tho axis -cylinder, sur- rounded by a medullary .slieiilh, the white matter of Schwann, and this again covered by a deli- cate investing membrane, the slltnlh of Schwann. .Such fibres arc ilesignated niedullaled nerve- fibres. The sheath of Schwann is U 1(11 lllllIIIII "' tfi^tisparent strm;turo- 1 I IJl illl/lliil less membrane, like the Barcolemma of the nuis- eular fibres. Tho medul- lary sheath is a peculiar, highly refractive, oily substance eontaining pro- togon, which, when tho fibres are torn across, exudes from their cx- treniiiics as tho so- called myelin drops. Tho axis-cylinder consists of a bundle of extremely minute ftbrils'unitcd by a delicate granular material. Medul- latod norve-fibrcs range for tho most part from .0002" i7 Medullatcd ncrve-fibrcs. 93(5 HISTOLOGY. to .OflOS" in diameter: when perfectly fresh they appear smooth and round, with hero and there an oval nucleus, but in a short time the medullary sheath undergoes a kind of coagulation, changing it into a granular semi-transparent mas?, which ."brinks away from the peripheral sheath in some places, and encroaches upon the axis-cylinder in others, so as to present very irregular contours. Mcdul- lated ncrvc-fibrcs i>ranch frequently, especially towards their peripheral terminations, the axis-cylinder dividing into two or more portions, each of which is invested with a mcdull:iry Inyer, and a sheath of Schwann continuous with those of the primitive fibre. The secomlary nerve- fibres thus produced arc individually smaller than the one from which they spring, but in the aggregate the thickness of the branches is usually greater than that of the original fibre. Still farther towards the periphery both the sheath of Schwann and the medullary sheath disappear, the latter sometimes before the former, and the axis-cylinder which alone remains then divides and subdivide-s until it is broken up into its primitive fibrils, which are extremely minute, .00002" or less in diameter, and often present a delicate beaded appearance. Another variety of nen-e-fibres is found in tlr.' branches of the great sympathetic nerve, which, on account of the absence of the medullary sheath, have been called non-meduUated fibres (also Remak's fibres). These correspond in size for the most part to the medium and smaller mcdulhited fibres, and when fresh are smooth or somewhat granular, often marked by faint longitudinal Fig. 7. Remak's nerve-fibres. striations. They consist of a peripheral sheath, identical with that of the medullated nerve-fibres, enveloping a bundle of primitive nerve-fibres united by a finely granular interfibrillar substance. Such non-medullated fibres exist also in the olfactory nerves, and in the white matter of the brain and spina! cord fibres are encountered which arc quite similar, except that they do not possess the peripheral sheath of Schwann. The medullated nerve-fibres of the brain and spinal cord are also destitute of the sheath of Schwann, to Fig. 8. Myelin coagulated nerve-fibres. the absence of which from both kinds of fibres, together with the delicacy of the conncctivo tissue in which they arc imbedded, the softness of tho white matter of the nerve-centres is duo. From the foregoing it will be understood that the primi- tive nerve-fibrils are the characteristic elements of all nerve- fibres, and that the various appearances of nerve-fibres in diverse situations depend upun whether the fibrils occur singly or in fasciculi, and are or are not invested with me- dullary and pcriplieral sheaths. Max Schultzc has pro- posed, on the basis of these circumstances, the following classification of ncrve-fibres : I. Non-medullatcd fibres : 1, primitive fibrils; 2, fasciculi of primitive fibrils; 3, these last, with a sheath of Schwann. II. Medullated fibres : I, primitivo^fibrils with medullary sheath ; 2, fasciculi of primitive fibrils with medullary sheath j 3, these last, with a sheath of Schwann. The ycrve-ccntres. — The brain and spinal marrow con- sist, as is well known, of two varieties of nerve-tissue, the white and the gray. The characteristic elements of the former are medullated and non-medullated nerve-fibres, neither of which jjossess the sheath of Schwann ; in the latter, besides similar fibres, nerve-cells are encountered, whicli arc also the characteristic element of the several ganglia. The nerve-cells are rounded, oval, or stellate bodies .0002" to .COS" in diameter, consisting of a granular protoplasm, with a round or oval nucleus which usually contains a nucleolus. Fach cell gives off" one or more pro- toplasmic processes twice to six times as long as the diam- eter of the cell or layer. According to the number of these the cells are called unipolar, bipolar, or multipolar. The l.'irge multipolar nerve-cells in the anterior horns of tho gray matter of the spinal cord are particularly available Fig. 9. Nerve-cell. for study. In each of these cells all the processes but one branch "frequently, until finally the ramifications escape observation. The exceptional process, as first demonstrated by Deitcrs, pursues its course without branching, and be- comes ultimately the axis-cylinder of the medullated nerve- fibre. Like the axis-cylinder, this process consists of deli- cate fibrils united by a granular interfibrillar material. The fibrils can be traced into the substance of the nerve-cell. In- deed, recent investigations have shown that all the proto- plasmic processes of the ncrve-cclls contain similar fibrils which interlace in the substance of the cell, and many of which can be traced through it from one process to another. Cells essentially similar to these, though smaller, arc found in the gray substance of the cerebrum and cerebellum. IJe- sides these, there are, in the gray subst.ince of the brain especially, an immense number of small cells in which no peripheral process has been demonstrated, all their ]>ro- cesses branching until they become fine fibrils, or having a fine fibrillar character from the very first. The desti- nation of these fibrils is still a matter of uncertainty. The nerve-cells and nerve-fibres of tho brain and si)inal cord arc imbedded in a delicate connective tissue, the ncu- HISTOLOGY. 937 roglia of Virchow. This consists of branching and anas- tomosing connective-tissue cells and delicate elastic fibres imbedded in a finely granular matrix. The sympathetic ganglia are traversed by medulluted and nou-mcdullated fibres, and contain numerous nerve-cells, which, like those of the spinal cord, give origin to fibres, all being united to- gether by ordinary fibrillated couneclivc tissue. Some of the nerve-cells arc multipolar, like those of the spinal cord, but it is impossible to follow their processes for any dis- tance on account of the density of the connective tissue in which they lie. Others arc unipolar, and in this case the single )iroccss, like the peripheral process of the cells of the spinal cord, is continuous with the axis-cylinder of a nerve- fibre. Bcale has described a form of cell in the sympathetic ganglia of the frog which gives off two processes, one of which winds spirally around the other. The I'eriphcrul Termiitaliiin:< nf ihc .Vines. — The periph- Fio. 10. v,v— - Ttriiini.tii'iu v>i mrve in voluntary i.i...-^!v. eral terminations of the nerves in the organs of special sense, in the cornea, skin, and other situa- Yiq, \\. tioni", will bo described in connection with these several parts. Here, there- fore, we shall sketch only the termina- tion of the nerves in muscle and in the Pacinian bodies. In the ca5e of the voluntary muscles, medulla ted nerve- fibres terminate in peculiar organs sit- uated iinmc'iiiitely beneath the sar- colcnima. At the point where the nerve- fibre joins the muscular fibre the sheath of Schwann becomes continuous with the sarcolerama, while the medullary sheath ends abruptly, and the axis-cyl- inder, penetrating beneath the sarco- Icmnia, expands into a delicate, trans- parent, more or less branched terminal plate, which is separated from the stri- ated substance of the muscular fibre by a little elliptical granular mass in which several nuclei arc imbedded. Every striated muscular fibre has at least one of these nerve-tcrminatious ; the longer fibres receive several of them. In the ease of the non-striated muscles the nerve-fibres first lose their medullary sheaths, then branch, and finally split up into their ultimate fibrils, which form a plexus between the fibre-cells of the muscle. From Organic muscle, this plexus a series of short delicate branches is given ofTf one or more of which enter the substanco of the Fig. 12. however, these knobs give off filaments which pasa through the substance of the nucleus and fibre-cells to join the iutermuseuiiir plexus again. The Pacinian bodies are peculiar terminations of the sensor^' nerves, whirh in man arc found in the subcutaneous connective tissue of the sides of the fingers and toes, in the intermuscular space?, and in the vicinity of joints. They are elliptical bodies .Ul" to .1" iu long diameter, which consist of numerous Fio. 13. N' Mc-iirmlnatlon in orfjanlc muscle, nucleus of each fibre-cell, and apj)arcntly terminate there in a minute knob or granule. According to J. Arnold, Pacinian body. concentric layers of delicate connective tissue, forming a laminated capsule with a narrow elongated central cavity. A single medullatcd nerve-fibre enters one extremity of the capsule. Its external and medullary sheaths disappear shortly after its entrance, while the axis-cylinder penetrates the central cavity, and having extended nearly its whole length, forms a terminal knob, or breaks up into a knob- like brush of terminal fibrils. The lilood consists of a colorless liquid, the liquor san- guinis or blood-plasma, in which float two kinds of cellular elements, the red and white cor]>usclcs. When the blood coagulates, fibrin in a more or less distinctly fibrillated con- dition separates from the jilasma, entangling the corpuscles in its meshes. The remaining fiuid portion, or serum, con- sists of albumen and certain salts dissolved in water, Tho red blood-corjmncUs in man arc flattened biconcave disks the average diameter of which is usually stated at v,^^ of an inch, Wclcker makes them rather larger, .00774 of a milliniL'tre, or .OOO^J" very nearly, the usual variations be- ing between .0004 and .OOSG of a millimr-trc. Their number has been estimated by Vierordt at 5.000,000 to a cubic mil- limetre. They consist of a homogeneous elastic substance, are destitute of a nucleus, and, according to most modern histologists, are not invested with a special membrane or cell-wall. In the majority of mammals the l>lood-corpuscles are similar in form to those of man, but differ somewhat in size. On this diversity in size alone the attempts to iden- tify human blood by the microscope for legal purposes arc based. It should be remembered, however, that the cor- puscles of certain animals, particularly tho monkey and the Fio. 14. TTumnn rod blood -corpuscles, dog, BO closely approximate tho dimensions of those of human blood that it is quite impossible to discriminate 938 HISTOLOGY. Fig. 15. them by the microscope even in fresh blood ; and as after soalting out a blood-stain the original size of the blood-cor- puscle is not always exactly re|)roduccd, it becomes dif5- cult todi-stinguish human blood under such conditions from the blood of a considerable number of animals the corpuscles of which appro.\imatc those of r... .:; man in size. It is also to be noted that the dimensions as- siguLMl to the corpuscles of man and mammals by various au- thors dilTer considerably. In the camel and llama the corpus- cles are elliptical, but possess no nuclei. In bird,", reptiles, and lishcs the corpuscles are el- liptical flat disks possessed of an oval nucleus, which, when the edge of the corpuscle is turned towards the eye, is seen to pro- ject on each side above the sur- taee of the disk. The following are the mean dimensions of the corpuscles of a few animals, as given by Welcker, in decimals of a millimetre : Fio. 17. Red blood-corpuscles : Reptile. Elliptical Corpn8clc8f long diameters. Llama 0080 Pigeon 0147 Frog 0223 Triton 0293 Proteus 05S2 Sturgeon 0134 The ichiie hlood-corpmchs, as seen circulating in the living blood-vessels, are spherical granular bodies, most of which in man have rather greater diameter than the red (on the average nearly .0004"). Each is a little mass of proto- plasm whieh contains one or more nuclei, \yhen a drop of human blood is watched Circular Corpuscles, Man OOi'7 Bog oor;i Cat 0005 Rabbit 0069 Sheep OOoO Moschus Javanicus 0025 with the microscopo while the temperature is kept at about 100° F. and evaporation is pre- vented (by means of the hot stage and moist chamber), it will be ob- served that the majority of the white corpuscles assume the most diverse forms, and creep across the field of view with a motion resembling that of the amteba. Similar amoeboid motions are observed in transparent corpuscles which have ra Fig. 16. Amoeboid movement of white blood-corpuscles. living tissues in white blood- rated from the vessels. Two boundaries of which are best displayed by the imbibition or injection of dilute solutions of nitrate of silver and sub- sequent exposure to light. The nuclei may afterwards bo demon- strated by carmine staining. These cells range usually from .001" to .004" in length; the nuclei on an average arc about .0006" long. The walls of the true capillaries appear to consist merely of this single layer of cells, which are irregular in outline, and vary considerably in form in the capillaries of differ- ent organs. As the capillaries pass into tiie small arteries the endo- thelial cells become fusifttrm ; in the small veins they are irregularly polygonal. In the line of junction between these cells small irregular openings, the so-called stomata, are mapped out by the action of silver, especially in the smaller veins. As they ],roceed from the capillaries towards the heart both veins and arteries acquire an in- vestment of connective ti.'^sue, in which a layer of circular muscular fibre-cells soon makes its ajipear- ance. After this three distinct coats can be distinguished in both arteries and veins, consisting of the epithelial lining, reposing upon a thin layer of connective tissue, ricli in elastic fitjrcs, many of which run longitudinally; a middle or muscular coat, consisting of mus- cular fibre-cells disposed circularly and united together by connective tissue abounding in elastic fibre; adventitia'; a', nucleus "■"' "■' external coat, or ndvcn- of tunica adveniiiia; 6, titia, composed of fibrillatcd con- musde nucleus; c. elas- nectivc tissue. The coats of the cell ',u:,;^"b?i„xt,^u^: jr' T --■''--•^'v'''""" ";- form cells. those of arteries of the same size, and contain less elastic tissue. On the other hand, the thick middle coat of the larger arteries Small artery; a, tunica Fio. 18. varieties of these amoeboid corpuscles may bo distin- guished — one coarsely, the other finely granular ; tliere is besides a third variety of white corpuscles, which are very delicately granular, smaller than the red corpuscles, and e.viiibit no amoeboid motions. LastI}', the blood con- tains considerable numbers of still more minute protoplas- mic particles destitute of nuclei. The wliite corpuscles in all vcrtebrated animals are essentially similar to those of man, but the amoeboid motions in those of the cold-blooded animals take place at a lower temperature. Their differ- ences in dimensions in the various classes of animals arc much lessthau in the case of the red corpuscles. The white corpuscles are much less numerous than the red. Welcker estimates the proportion at 1 to 335, but it varies with a^-o and sex, and indeed in different individuals and in the same individuals at different limes. The blood of the splenic and hepatic veins contains a much larger proportion of white corpuscles than that of the splenic ai^ory and portal vein. Verelopmcnt </ the Blood. — The earliest red corpuscles are derived immediately from the primitive cells of the em- bryo, and even in man and the mammals are nucleated. The non-nucleated red corpuscles make their appearance later, and entirely replace the nucleated ones before birth. They appear to originate by the transformation of wliite corpuscles, and the subsequent supply is kept up in the same manner as has been shown in the case of the frog by Von Recklinghausen and Gulubew. The white corpuscles themselves originate in the lymphatic glands and the spleen in a mode which as yet is undetermined, probably by the mulliplication by division of the cells of the parenchyma. Lastly, attention has been directed to the marrow of the bones as a situation in which the transformation of white corpuscles into reel is particularly active. The lilood-renfirh. — The heart and blood-vessels, includ- ing the capillaries, are lined throughout by an endothelium consisting of a single layer of flattened nucleated cells, the -■%!,:> a Lymphatics: central tendon diapbracm of rabbit : n. lymph capillaries ; r. con- nective tissue Willi serous canals; il, flask-shaped dilatations. is distinguished by the great quantity of elastic tissue which it contains. Longitudinal mus- cular fibre-cells oc- cur in the adven- I titia of some of the larger arteries and veins. The coats of the veins within the cranium, in the bones, and in the maternal portion of the placenta eon- tain no muscular fibres. The larger arteries and veins are nourished by a system of vessels, the vasft vasorum, which ramify in the external coat and sentl capillary branches to the muscular layers beneath. Nerves enter the middle coat of both larger and smaller vessels (with the excep- ti(tn of the true ca- pillaries), and ter- minate in the mus- cular fibre-cells in the manner ol- rcady described. The lijviphaticn, like the blood-ves- sels, are lined by a single layer of flat- tened endothelial cells, the bounda- ries of which are best displayed by the action of silver, while their nuclei HISTOLOGY. 939 can I<c (lein*nistrated by tho nsc of carmine. In tho smaller Ivinj^liaticH and in tho lymphatic capillaries those cells are distinguished by the sinuous character of their margtus and by tho large size and great number of the stouiata betwcfu them. The larger lympliatics possess a middle muscular and an external cunneciive-tissuo coat, resembling the corresponding tunics of tlie veins. The stomata of the lymphatic network communicate with the By«tem of spaces already described a.s everywhere existing in the connective tissue. These torm a system of canals (plasmatic canals, serous canals), which vary in size and form in various parts of the body, and which, as Von Hocklinghausen has shown, arc best demonstrated by tho action of silver, which blackens the intervening matrix, leaving the plasmatic canals uncolored. The plasmatic canals comnumicate also with the blond-vessels by the sto- mata of the latter, and thus form the passages through which the white corpuscles move when they migralo from the vessels. The hfmphatic tjfandn arc interposed in the course of the lymphatics. When these, on their way from the peripheral portions of the body, arrive at a ghmd (vasa aH'crentia). thoy ramify on its surface and enter its substance frnni the periphery. The i)ranchcs leatling friKn the gland towards the larger lymphatics trunks (vasa etfcrentia) escape from the hilus. The lymphatic glands arc invested by a capsule of connective tissue, and consist essentially of a delicate reticulum of branching connective-tissue cells, the meshes (»f whicli are tilled with small granular cells resembling the white corpuscles of the blood. When thin sections of glands, hardened in alcohol, are pencilled with a brush, a portion of these elements are detaclied, and the more tiriuly attached cells which remain in situ appear as cord-like masses (follicular ct)rds). which furm a plexus in tlic cen- tral medullary portion of the gland, while in the cortical portion thoy expand into rounded orclub-shaped dilatations. Fig. 19. St.. V Lymphatic gland: a, follirmar >-\\A^ . /-, rr;iiM-(ii)a-;.', lymph-path. If the pencilling be continued, the lymphoid cells are de- tache<l irom these follicular cords also, and it is then seen tliat tho meshes of the reticulum are smaller in them Ihan in the intervening portions of the glaiirl. The coiinectivc- tiifsue capsule gives off to tho interior of the gland a series of trabecuUo which form an areolar network, interlacing with tho plexus formed by the follicular cords in such a way that in sections the trabeculaa appear to oecupy tho centres of the spaees between the cords, with whi<-h they are connected by the coarse reticulum above described. This coarse reticulum between the trabeeuhe anrl the fiillieiilar cords constitutes the lynipb-path. the easily de- tached lymphoid elements of wbieh are eoiislaiitly carried away by tho current of tho lymphatic circulation, and as constanily renewed: it communicates directly with the vasa afferenlia at the periphery of tho organ, nnd with the vasa efl'erentia at the hilti". ('onnecled with the lym- phatic plexuses of the mucms membrane of the nlimentnry canal espeeially are eertiiin glandular borlies, the /i/tnphnti'r /itlticfct, the parenchyma of which is very similar in its structure to that r)f the follicular cords just described, and which, for this reason, and on account of (heir relations lo the l\mphatic vessels, are to be regarded as minute lym- phatic glands. Tho solitary glanila and glands of Peyer in the intestines, tho closed follicles of the tonsils, pharynx and back of the tongue, are of this nature. The Ijfinph is the colorless, slightly opalescent fluid con- tained in the lymphatics. Its morphological elements, the lymph-corpuseles, arc in all respects identical with the white corpuscles of the blood, which in fact are continuallv recruited by the lymph-corpuscles entering the subclavian veins through the thoracic duct nnd the lymphatic duel of the right side, while on the other hand, white blood-cor- pnsclcs which have migrated from the blood-vessels into the serous canals of the connective tissue continually enter the lymphatic capillaries and became lymph-corpuscles. The lymph which leaves the lymphatic glands by the vasa efFerentia is so much richer in corpuscles than that which enters them as to leave no doubt tliat these glands are ono important seat of the formation of the lymph-corpuscles. They probably originate by tho multiplicatiftu by division of the cells of the parenchyma, but the details of the |iro- cess have hitherto escaped observation. A sintilar forma- tion of white corpuscles takes place in the spleen, and probably also in the lymph- follicles and the marrow of tho bones. The sfrnufi niemhrnnes consist of a thin layer of connect- ive tissue coated on the side next the serous cavity by a single hxycr of endothelial colls. These are flattened polyhedral, nucleated elements, generally with sinuous margins, which are best displayed by the action of silver. It is then seen, also, that numerous ^;harply defined, round- ed, or irregular spaces, the so-called stomata, exist between the margins of tho cells. Tho membrane on which this endothelium reposes consists of a network of interlacing bundles of fibrillar connective tissue with stellate fixed cor- puscles and elastic elements. It contains, besides blood- vessels and nerves, a rich plexus of lym}dnitic capillaries, which appear to communicate freely with the serous cavi- ties by means of tho stomata. In consequence of this ar- rangement, milk or colored fluids, such as carmine solution, introduced during Hie into serous cavities — as, for example, the peritoneum or the pleural sacs — are speedily taken up by the lymphatics, a natural injection of whicli may thus be effected. Tho lymphatic cajiillarits may also bo demon- strated by soaking the membrane in nitrate of silver and exposing it to the light. The connective-tii^sue matrix is thus blackened, while tho blood-vcs;;eIh and lymphatics ap- pear as light-colored channels lined by their characteristic endothelium. From the abundance of these lymphatics, and the readiness with which they take up fluids introduced into the serous cavities, the latter luu e been of late re- garded by some as belonging to the lym])hatic system. T/ie Splci.u. — The spleen is investerl externally by the peritoneum, immediately beneath which is a firm connec- tive-tissue capsule. From the inner surface of the capsule numerous processes (traltecnbe ) proceed into ihe substiuico of the organ, uniting with each other to form a network, the areolar intersiiaces, which arc filled with the splenic pulp, liolh the capsule and the trabeeuhu contain a con- sidcralde number of muscular fibre-cells and elastic ele- ments. Where they adjoin the veins the trabeculio become continuous with the adventitia of these vessels, which thus acquire unusual firmness and are preventiil Uu\\\ colla]>s- ing. The splenic pulp consists of lymphoid elements re- sembling those of the lymphatic glands, like which, when examined fresh, they exhibit ama'-boid movements. These elements are united by a faintly granular, tenacious iiiler- cellular substance. In the mass thus formed, according to Frey, an anastomosing .system of passages, lined by an endothelium consisting of a single layer of spin<iIe-formed cells, is hollowed out. These passages communicate with both the arteries and veins, an-l serve for the transmission of blood. In consequence of their existence tho splenic pulp may be considered as itself disposed in a network, in the meshes of which lie tho trabeeuljp, the blood-vessels, and tho passages just described. The splenic artery after entering the organ, breaks up into smaller and smaller branches, which sotui become characterized by the large numbers of lymphoid elemenls in their adventitia, and also by the presence of peculiar oval structures, the Malpighinn bodies. These are from .01" to .01" In diameter, and are readily rccctgni/.ed by the naked eye <)n aecount of their whilisii eidor. Tliey consist <d" cells resembKiig those uf tho splenic pulp, behl together, like them, by an iutereel- lular material, which, towards their peripheries, acquires a resemblance to ordinary connective tissue, without, how- ever, forming a complete capsule; the jiareneliyma of the iMalpighian bodies being thus continuous with the >pIenio pulp. Tho arteries nnd veins of the spleen are united by a rieli }dexus of capillaries, which ramify in the substance (»f Ihe splenic pulp, and form a wcll-develo|»ed network on the periplieries of the iMalpighian bodies, into the interior c»f which they also jienetrate, though with wi<ler meohcs. Besides, according to Frey, as already mentioned, both 940 histol(x;y. arteries and veins open into tbe parenchymatous passages described above. Tiiis view is, however, not universally accepted, some histolugists lujUling tliiit the s^plenic arterits communicate with the veins by capillaries iu the ordinary way only. Further investigations are needed to reconcile these conflicting views. The nerves of the spleen are de- rived from the sympathetic system, and primarily accom- pany the arleric;*. They terminate in the muscular fibre- cells of the middle coats of the bluod-vcssols. and iu pecu- liar ellipsoid organs described hy W. MUlicr, which are well developed in carnivorous animals, but only rudiment- ary iu man. The lymphatics of the splteu form a close plexus in the capsule of the organ, whence numerous branches are given olf into its interior; tliere a second plexus is formed, the larger branches of which for the most part accompany the arteries. The Skin und irn Apptiiflu'/cs. — The skin consists of a superficial epithelial layer, the epidermis, and a deeper layer, the coiium ur true skin. The corium is from .02" to .1" thick, and is composed of dense connective tissue, many of the fixed corpuseics of which arc stellate, especially in its more superficial portions, where also tiiey are smaller and more numerous. The fibrillatcd matrix of this con- nective tissue is so disposed as to form a dense network with small intercommunicating meshes, which are largest in the deeper parts of the corium, and there contain groups of fat-cells, btill deeper, the network becomes continuous with the loose connective tissue of tbe subcutaneous fat. Interlacing with this connective-tissue network is a second network of eoarse and fine elastic elements. On its ex- terior surface the corium presents great numbers of little elevations, tbe papilla}. These are merely rounded projec- tions over tbe greater portion of the body, but in some situations, especially in the palmar surface of tbe bands and fingers, become conical elongated processes .004" in length or longer. They are divided into vascular and ner- vous, the first containing capillary loops, the second the terminations of nerves. The blood-vessels of the corium form in its deeper portion a close plexus, whence numerous branches are given off towards the surface. These form, in tbe most superficial portion of the corium, a second still closer plexus, from which the capillary loojis of the ])apilla) arc derived. There arc also two plexuses of lymphatics, a superficial and a deep — the first situated just beneath the superficial plexus of blood-vessels, the second just beneath the deep vascular plexus. The lymphatic capillaries of these plexuses communicate with the communicating areo- lar interspaces of the connective tissue of the skin, which here, as elsewhere, are to be regarded as lymphatic pas- sages. The nerves of tbe skin are composed of mcdullatcd nerve-fibres, part of which terminate In the peculiar cor- jmscles of Meissner and Pacini, while others lose their medullatcd sheath, and, after breaking up into bundles of fibrils, form a plexus in the superficial portion of tbe corium. Innumerable single fibrils, given off from this plexus, pene- trate the epidermis, and terminate with bulbous extremi- ties in its deeper layers. The corpuscles of Meissner (tac- Fjg. 20. i Tactile corpusoh's: a, vascular papilla ; fc, nerve-papilla; c, blood- vessel ; rf, medullatcd nerve-fibre ; e. tactile corpuscle ; /, trans- verse section of mcdullatcd nerve-fibre. tile corpuscles) aro contained in the nervous papillie, and are most numerous in the pnlmar surface of the hand and ! fingers. They are oval bodies about as long as the pa}>illa} Fig. 21. ir.'.'l: in which they are contained, but rather narrower, composed of a modified connective tissue with transversely disposed nuclei, and marked superficially with transverse lines. Each is penetrated at its inferior extremity by one or more medullated nerve-fibres which run towards tiio opposite ex- tremity, cither straight or in a spiral manner, and termi- nate there in a mode which is not yet fully madu out. The epidermis varies in thickness from .002" to .15", and is composed of numerous strata of ejitthelial cells, the deeper ones being soft and rounded, while the more super- ficial are flattened and horny ; it is hence divided into a mucous and a horny layer. Tlie cells of the mucous layer arc nucleated masses of granular protoplasms. Those of them which are immediately in contact with the corium are elongated or culun^nar, and about .0004" in average length. Next above these the cells have about the same diameter, but are rounded or polygonal from mutual pres- sure, and succeeding strata increase in size towards the surface of the mucous layer, becoming more and more flat- tened, (ill the uppermost cells have a transverse diameter of .001" or more, with less than half the thickness. Tbe nuclei of the cells of tbe mucous layer vary with the size of the cells from .OlUll" to .0004". Tbe horny layer con- sists of strata of cells flattened into mere polygonal scales .001" to .0015" or more in diameter, and extremely thin. In most of them no nucleus can be made out. The most superficial cells of this layer are constantly being thrown <irt, while the superficial cells of the mucous layer con- tinually undergo the horny transformation, and thus re- place the loss. T<» maintain this process a constant de- velopment of new elements goes on in the deeper parts of tbe mucous layer. This is generally believed to take place by the mul- tiplication of the epi- thelial elements of the deepest strata. Rceent- ly, however, it has been shown that wandering corpuscles migrate from the corium into the mu- cous layer, where they can ahvays be found in thin sections between the epithelial cells. It has hence been suggest- ed that the new ele- ments arise, in part at least, by the fixation and transformation of these migrated cells. The dark color of the skin in certain races is due to the deposit of pigment - granules in the cells of the lower part of the mucous layer. The hnirs vary con- .••iderHliiy in thickness in difierent situations. 'J'he long soft hairs of the head, bcord, etc. usually range between .UOIJ'' aud^ .004" in ihiekncss; the short stiff hairs of the eyc- lashis, eyebrows, no9- irils. :ind auditory mea- ri:s, from .0025" to iMUi" ; and the downy liuirs of the general -urface of the body from .0005" to .001''. The proper substance of nil these varieties of hairs can be broken up, by thenetiou of sulphu- m- ric acid, into flat elon- Ilair from beard: o. orifice of hair- gated fibre-cells .002" foltiole; b, neck of follicle; r, dila- - ..verntre Icnt^th taliou of follicle;./, outer follicular '" . 'V ^'P^® „ , !^" "* sheath; ^ inner follicular sheath; tach hair is coated ex- /, outer root-sheath; g, inner root- ternally by a cuticle ^heath; A, cortical s\ibstance of hair ; composed of a single k, medullary substance of hair; /, javerof flattened scales, root of hair; «i. adipose eels; v „hich overlap each oth- erector pih ; t, sebaceous frlanu; o, i , papilla; of skin; s, mucous layer; er like the shingles on a //^horny layer projecting into hair- roof; internally, in the siic. coarser hairs at least, isa central medulla composed of granular polygonal cells .0000" to .0008" in diameter. The color of the hair is due to pig- HISTOLOGY. 941 mcDt-graouIcs deposited both in the medulla and the proper hair-subsr:inc*e. Kaeh hair grows from u vasculur papilla, \7hieh projects into the bultom ot' the Iiair-folliclu. Iiiirac- diately upou the surface of this papilla is a siuRlc layer of columnar cells similar to those of the deepest layer of the opiilerrais. To thcso succeed several strata of poly- gonal o.ies. and Ihcsc. according; to their position, pass by transition into the elements of the huir-cutit!e, hair-sub- stance, and medulla. The growth of the hair is effected by the multiplication of the cells in the immediate vicinity of the pnpilln. The hair-foUiclcs are from .08" to .25" long, and extend deep into the corium — in the ease of the larger hairs, f|uite through it. The connective tissue of the corium inline liately ailj<iining them is so condensed as to form an external sheath, the fibres of which run parallel to the hair. The portion of this sheath nearest to the follicle is more homogeneous, and contains nuiseular ril>re-cells disposed longitudinally; it is known as (he internal sheath of the follicles: its very innermost part, being quite transparent. is called the vitreous membrane. Both the mucous and horny layers of the cpidorniis are continued into the sheath, which they line as far as the papilla: the lirst lies next to the vitreous nieuibrane. and is called the external root- sheath ; the second is thinner, and is designated the internal root-sheath. From near the orifice of the follicle to the papilla the internal root-shcath is adherent to the outer- mo.-Jt layer of celU on the surface of the root of the hair, which is termed the sheath of Huxley. The hair-papilhe are vascular processes of connective tissue which project into the bottoms of the follicles ; they arc conical in shape, with constricted necks. Two small arteries enter each papilla; these usually unite to form a single trunk, which breaks up into a capillary network from which two emerg- ent veins proceed. A small artery an<l vein also ramify in the substance of the external sheath of the follicle. Nerves have been traced as far as the neck of the papilla, but their mode of termination remains unknown. The erector mn^rtes o/ the hair are narrow bands of mus- cular fibre-cells .0018" to .0011" in thickness, which arise in the upper part of the eoriurn ancl run obliquely inward to be inserted into the internal sheath of the hair-follicles just beloir the sebaceous glands. Each hair-follicle enters the skin oliliquely, forming an acute angle with the surface, and as the muscle lies in the corresponding obtuse angle, its contraction erects the hairs. One or more ncbaceuuH tjUnuh open into each hair-follicle just below the level of the general surface of the corium. Kach of these glands consists of from two to twenty some- what oval sacculi .OOJ" to .01 1" in long diameter, com- posed of a transparent nucleated membrane, filled with nucleated gland-cells, resembling the cells of the mucous layer of the epidermis. The cells nearest the walls of the sacculi often contain no oil ; in the more central cells oil is usually present in drops of various sizes imbedded in the e«^ll-8ubstance. The size of the sebaceous glands is (luitc independent of the sixc of the hairs with which they arc connected, and sometimes, though rarely, they open direct- ly upon the surface of the skin without being connected with any hair. The Hirrttt-ylunda arc simple tubular glands, each con- sisting of a delicate nucleated shcalh, lined by a single layer of columnar nucleated cells, which leave in the cen- tre a narrow cylindrical passage. The diameter of the (iiuc averages about .0t»26" ; its tlcepcst extremity forms a coil or glomerulus .008" to .010" in diameter, which Is surrounded by a plexus of blood-vessels, and lies in the lower part of the corium or in the subjacent adipose tis- sue. From this coil the tube pursues a nearly straight path to the surface of the corium, where both the sheath and the columnar cells terminate, and the central passage becomes continuous with a spiral canal hollowed out be- tween the cells of the epidermis, whi'-h oiiens on the ex- ternal surface of the horny layer. The hairs, sebaceous glands, and sweat-glands are developed from the mucous layer of the epidermis, papillary outgrowths of which in- vade the corium and undergo the requisite trnnsforniations. .'>imiiltanenusly, the adjacent layers of (he corium are inet- aniorphosed into the external sheaths of the hair-follicles and glands. The tmiU arc to be regarded as special modificationa of the epidermis, and consist, like it, of a mneous and a horny layer, llie latter being the true nail. In the fold of skiii from which the root of the nail grows the corium is ele- vated into papilla? projecting forward, which in the true bed of the nail are replaced by a scries of panilhl longitu- dinal ridges or laminio .002" to .OOK" high. These papilhe and ridges are abnndanlly supplied with blood-vessels, and nuineroiis medullated nerve-fibres exist in the subjacent connective tissue, which lose iheir medullary sheath on entering the corium, ancl break up into fine branches, the ultimate termination of which is not fully known. An ac- I tive development of cells takes place in the mucous layer ! at the root of the nails: and as a similar development oe- I curs, though less actively, in the mucous layer of the iiail- , bed, the nails are at once pushed forward and increased in thickness towards their free margins. The horny layer, or Dail-substancc, is composed of irregular polygonal cells in- timately united together, but which can be isolated bv re- agents, as, for example, by maecration in solution of potash. The Vitfcutiie Ortfaiis. — The month is lined by a mucous mcmbrauo which is directly continuous with the skin, and like it consists of a vascular layer of connective tissue be- set with papilla? and a many-layered epithelium, the super- ficial cells of which are llattencd scales, the deeper ones polygonal, and those next the connective-tissue layer co- lumnar. The connective-tissue layer, howe\er. is much thin- ner than the corium ; in the epithelium u horny layer can- not lie diseri^ninated as in the epidermis, and the large superficial epithelial scales, .0016" to .OO.'l" in long diam- eter, contain oval nuclei .00u;j" to .000-1" long. The papillie of the mucous membrane vary in size and shape in diU'erent parts of the oral cavity ; they arc particularly conspicuous on the upper surface of the tongue, where three varieties are discriminated — viz. the filiform, fungiform, and circum- vallatc. The filiform papilla* are pretty uniformly distrib- uted over all portions of this surface. They arc conical elevations of the mucous membrane, the apices of which terminate in a number of secondary papilhe. the whole be- ing covered with a tlitck layer of epithelium, which, at the apices, breaks up into a number of slender (irocesscs. each composed of epilheliul cells adhering together. The fungi- form papilla: arc situated at the anterior part of the tongue, chiefly on its tip and edges. They are club shaped projec- tions of the mucous membrane with narrow necks, beset upon the surface witli small secondary papilhe. and smoothly covered over with epithelium. The cireumvallate pnpilUc arc arranged in the form of a V at the root of the tongue. They are flattened elevations, somewhat constricted at their bases, beset, like the fungiform, with smalt secondary pa- pillae, and surrounded by a circular elevation of the mucous membrane, from which they are separated by a narrow de- pression. All these varieties of papilla^ are jn-ovided with both blood-vessels and nerves. Connected with the nerves are special organs of taste, the so-called gustatory bulbs, which are situated chiefly ou tlie sides of the eircunivullate papilla:, but also exist, though less plentifully, on the fungi- form papilla?. They have the form of round-bellied flasks about .OOIJ" long, and rather more than half as broad, which occupy cavities in the epithelium, resting below on the con- nective-tissue layer of the niueitus nirmbrane. They are composed of flattened, spiudU-- shaped nucleated cells, which enclose a number of m<tre <Ielieate Ihrcatl-like ones, and are connected inferiorly with a plexus of non- medullated nerve - fibrils. This plexus originates by the splitting up of (he axis-ovlinders of the terminal mednUated fibres of the gus tatory nerve in the substance of the papilla'. The central cells of these bulbs arc belic\ cd to bo the true gustatory cells, while the others are regarded as epilheliul in their nature, and arc ^■o arranged as to leave at tin" apex of the biilb a <rircular opening about .0001 t" in iliaiiieler. the gus- tatory pore, through which sapid sr)liitions gain acci-ss to the gustatory cells. The oral cavity Is provided with a considerable number of small mucous glands .03" to .10" in diameter, similar in structure (o Ihe salivary glands, and <lesigua(ed, aeenrding to tliclr situation, labial, buccal. ]>al- atine, and lingual glands. The gn/iriirif iffmith are racemose glands, the ducts of which are lined with a cylindrical epiihilium and branch in a Irec-IIke manner, terminating finally in sacculi or al- veoli .flOiri" lo.liu:'." in diameter, anrl linedwith polygonal seereting cells .0001" to .0007" in diameter. The whole is united into a mass by a delicate conncctivo tlssre in which numerous blood-vessels and nerves ramify. On the surface of the alveoli and smaller ducts this conncctivo tissue is 942 HISTOLOGY. condensed into n delicate membrana propria, while in tfao larger ducts it forms a cumparatively thick wall. The se- cretins: cells are granuhir nucleated masses of protoplasm, which line tiie alveoli, and so nearly fill them as to leave a comparatively small central cavity. Tlie uerves of the sal- ivary glands consist of both medutlated nud pale fibres. According to Pfliiger, a portion of the former penetrate tlie alveoli, and are continuous with the protoplasm of the se- creting cells, while others terminate in small multipolar cells, some of the processes of wliich are also continuous with the secreting cells. A number of small ganglia, each consisting of a group of round or oval nerve-cells, occur in the course of the nerves. The oral fluid consists of the secretion of the salivary glands mixed with that of the small racemose glands above described. It always contains large numbers of flattened epithelial cells, derived from the surface of the oral mucous membrane, together with small round granular cells resembling the white corpuscles of the blood after they have been somewhat swollen by immersion in :i fluid of the density of the saliva. The latter are known as the salivary corpus:;Ies, and have been regarded as undeveloped secreting cella cast olT by the salivary glands: they are, ho^vever, more probably migrated white corpuscles which escape into the cavity of tho mouth either directly through the oral mucous membrane, or indirectly by way of the salivary glands. Tho tonsils .ire two glandular masses, each consisting of from ten to twenty sacculated depressions of the mucocs membrane, in the walls of which are numerous oval lym- phatic follicles .008" to .02" in diameter. The parenchyma of these follicles consist of a fine reticulum of connective tissue, the meshes of which are stuffed with lymphoid ele- ments. The sacculi with their follicles arc united together by a connective tissue rich in blood-vessels and lympliatics. At the root of the tongue there are a number of small fol- licular glands similar in structure to the tonsils, but sim- pler, each consisting of a single saccular depression of the mucous membrane, in the walls of which are a number of closed follicles resembling those of the tonsils. Bottchcr has recently denied that these glands are of constant oc- cnrrcnce, and regards them as ]>athological formations. The oral mucous membrane is well supplied with lymphat- ics, which are especially abundant on the surface of the tongue and about the tonsils. I'/ie 7'ccth. — Tho dentine which constitutes the principal portion of the substance of the teeth consists of a calcareous matrix containing great numbers of delicate dentinal ca- nals .00005" to . 00015" in diameter, which branch and auasto- mose as they radiate from the pulp-cavity towards the periphery of the dentine. The crown of the teeth is covered with a harder matt-rial, the enamel, made up of hexagonal prismatic enamel - fi- bres .00012" to. 000 IS" in diameter, arrangecl perpendicularly to tho surface, or nearly so. The roots of the teeth are covered with a thin layer of true bone, the crusta petrosum or ce- mentum. The tooth- pulp occupies the cen- tral cavity of each tooth, and is a delicato mass of connective tis- sue containing both blood - vessels and nerves. Its external layer consists of large nucleated cells, the o'lontoblasts, provided with long branching processes which line tho dentinal canals. The investigations of Uoll rendt-r it probable that the delicnte ter- minal fibrils of the nerves of the pulp ac- Canine tooth: Transverse section of company these pro- ro*'t: 1. cenient; t>, interglobular cesses into the dm- substance; .% dentimU lubules.' tinal cannls. In the development of tho teeth a longitu- dinal furrow in the mucous membrane of the gum is first formed, into which papillary outgrowths from the mucous Fig. 23. membrane sprout, and ultimately become the pulps of the several teeth. The enamel originates by the trau>forma- tion of ]>ortion8 of the epithelium of the primary dental groove, while the peripheral cells of the pulp send out branches and are transtormed into odontoblasts, between the processes of which the calcareous matrix of tho dentine is deposited. Tho pharynx is lined by a mucous membrane resembling that of the mouth, except in the portions adjoining the posterior nares and the orifices of the Eustachian tubes, where the pavement epithelium is replaced by one com- posed of ciliated columnar cells like those of vhc nasal mu- cous membrane. The mucous membrane is well supplied with vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, and contains a con- siderable number of racemose glands resembling those of the oral cavity, as also numerous closed follicles, arranged around sacculi like those at the root of the tongue or in the tonsils. A laminated pavement epithelium, like that of the pha- rynx, also lines tho irnnphaijue as far as the cardiac orifice of the stouiach, where it terminates with a dentatcd border, and is replaced by the columnar epithelium of the stomach. This epithelium reposes upon a vascular layer of delicate connective tissue, tho proper mucous membrane, which is separated from the more loosely meshed submucous con- nective tissue by a thin stratum of muscular fibre-cells, the muscle of tho mucous membrane, which commences with a few scattered fibre-cells in the upper part of the oesophagus, and becomes a continuous layer farther down. A few small racemose glands He in the submucosa and open by minute ducts on the mucous surface. The external muscular coat of the oesophagus consists of an internal circular and ex- ternal longitudinal layer; in its upper fourth these are composed chiefly of striated muscular fibres, liut contain also numerous bundles of muscular fibre-cells : in the ne.xt fourth the latter elements preilomiuate ; and in the lower half the muscular coat is wholly composed of them. Ex- ternally tho muscular coat is invested by a sheath of fibril- lated connective tissue. The walls of the stomach consist of a mucous membrane, a layer of submucous connective tissue, a muscular coat, and the peritoneum. The epithelium of the mucous mem- brane consists of a single layer of nuclcateil columnar cells .OOOS" in average length, among which occur certain pecu- liar cup-shaped elements, the so-called goblet-cells. Be- neath the epithelium the mucous membrane is composed of a tissue designated adenoid by His, consisting of a deli- cate reticulum of branching cells, the meshes of which are filled with lymphoid elements, as in the lymphatic glands and follicles. In this adenoid tissue innumerable tubular glands, .015" to .00" long and .002" to .003" broad, are ar- ranged perpendicularly to the mucous surface, and ]daced so closely side by side as to occupy more space than the in- tervening adenoid tissue. In the vicinity of the cardiac and pyloric orifices of the stomach these glands are lined throughout by a columnar epithelium similar to that of the surface of the mucous membrane. In the rest of the stom- ach this epithelium only lines the upper portion of the glands, the rest being filled with spheroidal granular ele- ments, the so-called pepsin-cells. At the two extremities of the stomach some of the glands are divided at their fun- dus into two or more branches. The mucous membrane is separated from the submucosa by a stratum of muscular fibre-cells, on an average about .002" thick, the muscle of the mucous membrane, or muscle of Briicke. consisting of an internal circular and external muscular layer. The sub- mucosa is a layer of rather loose connective tissue, which unites the muscle of the mucous membrane to the external muscular coat. The latter is .02" to .08" thick, and consists most internally of a series ofoblique fasciculi, next of a circu- lar layer, and still more externally of a longitudinal layer, all composed of muscular fibre-cells. Lastly, the peritoneum, which has tho structure of serous membranes generally, is united to the external muscular coat by a thin layer of sub- peritoneal connective tissue. Tho blood-vessels of the stomach ramify in the submucosa. and there form a net- work whence numerous small branches proceed to the mu- cous membrane, where they form a close capillary plexus around the tubular glands. The external muscular coat and the peritoneum are partly sup()lied by branches given off by the vessels as they pass through them, partly by branches derived from the submucous plexus. The nerves of the stomach form in the submucosa a plexus in which numerous small ganglia are found. A second plexus, also with numerous ganglia, exists between the circular and longitudinal layers of the external muscular coat. The ultimate relations of the nerves to the mucous membrane are yet uncertain. The lymphatics form three networks — one in the mui-ous membrane between tho tubular glands, the second in (he submucosa. the third to the peritoneum. The description of the coats of the stomach just given HISTOLOGY. 943 Fig. 24. S\ Pi'T' d applies, with certain modificBtions, to both small and largo inttniiitct. The lining epithelium is similar throughout, as is the structure of the mucous membrane, e.\eept that the tubular glands, which in the intestines arc called the glands or crypts of Lieberkiihn, are shorter, .Ul" to .02" long, do not branch, and arc lined throughout by coluninar epithe- lium. What has been said of the muscle of the mucous membrani-, the submucosa, the external muscular coat, the peritoneum, and the general distribution of blood-vessels, lymphatics, and nerves of the stomach, will apply witli but litllo alteration to the intestinal canal. The more important points of dilTcrencc arc as follows: In the mmdl iMnUnc the mueuus membrane, besides being thrown, on its upper portion especially, into numerous transverse folds, the val- vnhc connivcntcs, presents a great number of conical ele- vations .niis" to .04" long, the so-called villi. These con- sist of the adeniiid tissue of the mucous membr.ane, and are coated e.\turnally by its cylindri- cal epithelium. Haeli contains a central lymph-sinus, which ter- minates either by a blind e.strem- ity or in a loop, and which is tho eouimcnecment of tho lacteals. Between this and the periphery of the villus lie the blood-vessels, consisting of one or more minute arteries which break up into a capillary network, the blood from which is collected by a small vein. Each villus also contains a num- ber of longitudinally arranged muscular librccclls, which arc continuous below with the mus- cle of the mucous membrane. Tho crypts of I/icberkiihn open on tho surface of the mucous mem- brane between the villi, and are 80 arranged that the deeper por- tions of those adjoining opposite sides of the bases of the villi ap- pear as close together as the others. Lying partly in the mu- cous membrane, partly in the upper portion of the submucosa of the small intestine, there arc Intestinal villus: a, cylin- anumberoflyn,ph-n>mcles,..)l/,;' ;;['S!y^'^K^™'i;^'^ to .08" in long diameter, which involuntary musclo-cclls; cither occur singly (tho solitary d, central chyle radicle, follicles), or arc aggregated to- gether in groups consisting of twenty or more follicles placed side by side (the patches of I'cyer). These follicles arc somewhat flask-shaped, their .apices penetrating into the mucous membrane almost or quite to the epithelium, while their rounded b:ises lie in the sulmnicos.a. Their parenchyma resembles the adenoid tissue of the mucous membrane, with which it is continuous, except that the meshes of (he retic- ulum in which the lymphoid elements lie arc rather finer. Thev are surrounded by a vascular plexus which sends capillary brauehes into their parenchyma, and arc partially cnvelop'e.l inferiorly by rallier wide lymph sinuses. Im- mediately above each follicle thn villi are absent. On tho snrfiiic of the patches of I'cyer, however, villi are found on the mucous membrane between tho individual follicles. The solitary follicles are found in all parts of tho small intestine; the patches of Peyer, on the other hand, occur chiefly in its lower portion, and especially in the ileum. In ihe upper part of tho small intestine the sub- mucosa contains a number of small racemose glands about .04" in average diameter, the glands of lirunner, llie ducts of which perforate the mucous membrane anil open into the intestiuiil ciinal. The muscular coal of tho small iuleslinc is fniMi .lli:i" to .02" thick, and consists of an internal cir- cular and external longitudinal layer; some oblique fasci- culi exist also, chiefly in the duodenum. The lymphatics form a network on the mucous membrane which surrounds the crypts of l.ieberklihn. and are continuous with the cen- tral lymph-sinnses of the villi and the coarser ]ilexus in tho subiiiueosa. The peritoneum has its own plexus of lym- phatics, as in the stomach. On account of the milky ap- pearance of their contents during the digestion of fatly matters, the lymphatics of tho intestinal mucous membrane and the mesenteric lymphatic trunks with which they coni- municnte arc known as lacteals. As in the stomach, there are in both small and large intestines two nenous plexuses proviiled with numerous ganglia: tho first, situated in tho submucosa, is known as Ihe plexus of Meissner ; the second, between the circular and limgitudinal layers of tho mus- cular coal, is the plexus of Auerbach. In the \,irijc intflini- there are no villi ; in other respects its mucous membrane closely resembles that of the small intestine, except that it is rather thiekrr. the crypts of LiebciUiihn somewhat loii'^-cr. and tho muscle of the mucous membrane a little better de- veloped. Solitary follicles rather larger than those of the small intestine, but otherwise resembling them, and having similar relations to the lymphatics, occur at intervals. Tho external longitudinal layer of the muscular coat is much thinner than the circular, except in three longitudinal bands, in which the two layers are of equal thickness, to- gether measuring about .025". The Liccr. Two sets of blood-vessels enter tho liver and ramify in it side by side— branches of the hepatic artery and o'r the jiortal vein. The blood from these is carried bv a common system of capillaries into the radicles of the hepatic vein. The hepatic artery and portal vein are ac- companied in their ramifications by the branches of the biliary duct, and the three are united together by a deli- cate connective tissue, the sheath or capsule of (Jlisson, in which lie also the nerves and the deep lymphatics of the organ. By the final ramifications of the hepatic artery and portal vein the parenchyma of the liver is mapped out into irregular polygonal lobiilcs or acini, .02.')" to .OS" in diam- ctertwhicli, however, in the human liver arc not invested with a connective-tissue capsule, as they are in the liver of the pig and some other animals. The ramifications of the hepatic vein lie in a direction perpendicular to the cour.se of the oilier vessels, so that their ultimate radicles occupy the centres of Ihe acini, and hence are called intra- lobular veins: while the radicles of the portal veins lying between the lobules arc called interlobular veins. A capil- lary network with comparatively small meshes lies in the substance of the acini, and conveys the blood from Ihe in- terlobular to the intralobular vessels. The parenchyma of the liver consists of granular polygon:il cells .11005" to .001" in diameter, containing one or two rounded or oval miclei .0002" to .0(iO:i" in diameter, and frequently one or more oil-drops. Between these cells, which occupy the meshes of the capillary plexus of the acini, there riimilics a plexus of extremely fine capillary bile-ducts .011001" to .00008" in diameter,"which do not, however, possess any er walls, but arc bounded by the hepatic cells them- selves. These lie between Ihe ailjoining faces of the he- patic cells even more frequently than at their angles, and are arranged in such a manner that every hepatic cell is related, by at least one of its sides, to a eiipillary bile-duct, and that the latter are always separated from the capillary blood-vessels by the thickness of an hepatic cell. The ca- Fio. 2.5. Liver Iver of rabbit : 1, part of a lobule— a, vena hcpiUicn ; /., portal iwiir; c, bile-duels; d, capilluries of portal vein • r, blk-capil- laries. 2. n, portal blood-eapitlaries ; h. bile-capillaries. . , <r, b!U -capillaries; i-, hepatic cells; c, bile-ducts; d, capillary blood-vessel, pillary bile-ducls open into the finest interlobular bile- ducts, which are passages cluinnellcd in the ennneclive tissue accompanying the interlobular vessels, and lined by a single layer of polygcmni cells. The larger duels are lined bv a columnar epithelium, and have a wall ol con ■ nectiyo'tissuo which becomes thicker as the tubes increase in diiimetcr. In this wall numerous racemose mucous glands are imbe.lded, the excretory canals of which open into the bile-ducts. Tho liver is coated externally by a very thin capsule of connective tissue, and this again is covered, over the greater part of the surface of Ihe organ, by the peritoneum. In the peritoneum and Ihe subjacent connective tissue lies an abun.laiil plexus of superficuil lymphatics. The deep lymphatics, which penetiato the substance of tho organ, lie in the capsule of (ilisson, as has already been menlioned. The nerves of the liver are coni- posed "chiefly of non-medullated, with a few medullatcd, fibres. They enter the liver with the portal vein, and for tho most part accompany its branches. They have not been traced into the sub'staneo of the acini, and their re- lations to the hepatic cells remain undetennincil. The <,nll.l,liid,l,r is lined throughout by a single layer of colu'iNiiar epitbclial cells, sujiportcd upon a membrane 944 HISTOLOGY. of conDCctivc tissue, in which there are numerous dccus- satory fasciculi of muscular fibre-cells. Externally, it is in part coated by the peritoneum, in part comes into im- mediate contact with the hepatic tissue. The paticrean agrees in its structure with tho salivary glands so closely that no separate description of it need be given. The lifftpirntorif Orf/ans. — The cartilages of the larynx arc all of the hyaline variety, except the e]iigIottis and the cartilages of Wrisberg and Sanctoriui, wiiich arc com- posed of fibro-eartilage. The musoles are of the striated variety. The interior of the larynx is lined by a mucous membrane connected with the cartilages, ligaments, and muscles by a layer of submucous connective tissue. The epithelium of the mucous membrane on the anterior sur- face of the epiglottis resembles that of the oral cavity, but at its borders the superficial layers of cells become fewer and fewer, the cells of the deep columnar layer longer and longer, and a transition is tluis effected on the posterior surface of the epiglottis into the ciliated epithelium which lines the larynx, and is continued through the trachea into the bronchial tubes. The cili-ited epithelium consists of a layer of columnar cells .001" to .OUIG" long, attached to the mucous membrane by narrow elongated prolongations, while on their free margins they are provided with a num- ber of thread-like processes about .00015" long (the cilia), which during life keep up a constant waving motion. Be- tween the attached extremities of tho ciliated cells are nu- merous smaller round and oval cells. The true vocal cords are ligaments composed chiefly of yellow cla-ti tissue, which lie in fui'i- of the mucous mem- brane, on the surface of which the ciliated epithelium is replaced witli a layer of pave- ment cells. A number of small racemose Fig. 2r. Kpillji'lium of bronchial tubes. glands are found in the submucous connective tissue of the larynx, and open by their ducts upon the free surface of its mucous membrane. Similar glands occur abun- dantly in the trachea, which is lined by a mucous mem- brane in all respects resembling that of the larynx. The rings of the traeliea are composed of hyaline cartilage, and arc united together by a mixture of conneeiive tissue and elastic fibres. Posteriorly, the rings are incomplete, the spaces thus left being occupied by a layer of transverse muscular fibre-cells. The Lnufja. — On entering the lungs the bronchial tubes branch in an arborescent manner, and finally terminate, when about .01" in diameter, in groups of infundibula, or funnel-shaped terminal expansions, each consisting of a number of polygonal cavities, the air-vessels or alveoli, which open into the central passage of the infundibulum. The infundibula of each group arc connected with the small bronchial tube to which they belong by tliin walled pas- sages, the alveolar canals, which differ from the finest bron- chial tubes chiefly in the character of their epithelium, and in having their walls beset by air-vesicles which open into them. Down to about .04" in diameter the bronchial tubes consist of four layers — an external fibrous coat in which are imbedded a scries of incomplete rings and plates of hya- line cartilage: a thin layer of muscular fibre-cells; an in- ternal fibrous coat rich in elastic fibres; and lastly, an epi- thelium similar to that of the trachea. Scattered groups of fat-cells lie in the outer portion of the external fibrous coat; in its inner portion there are a number of racemose mucous glands, the ducts of which open into the lumen of the tube. In bronchial tubes of less than .04" in diameter the external fibrous coat becomes thinner and thinner; the plates of cartilage and the mucous glands become more and more scanty, and finally disappear, and the muscular layer is gradually reduced to a few scattered fasciculi: tho elastic inner fibrous coat is, ho^yever, prolonged upon the finest bronchial tubes, and is continuous with the clastic walls of the alveoli. The ciliated epithelium also contin- ues in the smallest bronchial tubes, but its cells become shorter and shorter, and finally, at tho transition from the bronchial tubes to the alveolar canals, lose their cilia and acquire the characters of the epithelial lining of the alve- oli. The bronchial tubes are nourished by branches of the bronchial artery which supply the mucous membrane with a close capillary plexus. Their walls also contain numerous nerves and lymphatics. The air-vesicles, when undistendcd, measure from .000" to .01" in diameter, but can be blown up to twice these dimensions, or even more. Their walls are composed of a transparent connective tis.-ue in which cha- racteristically arching elastic fibres arc plentifully imbedded, and in which the capillaries derived from the pulmonary arteries form a close j)lexus with rounded or oval meshes. They are lined at birth by a layer of flat granular, nucle- ated hexagonal epithelial cells, which form a continuous lining for both the air-vesicles and the alveolar passages. In the adult only a part of the cells retain these characters, the rest being transformed into thin structureless plates. This epithelium, the existence of which has been a matter of dispute until quite recently, is best demonstrated by tho silver method. The Fig 27 Epithelium ot" air- 1 lung. ailjacent elastic walls of air-vesicles belong- ing to the same in- tuo'libulum coalesce to form a single sep- V-^Z-v tum. Tlie walls of _W J idjacent vesicles be- '"^ ' I uiging to different infundibula are for [- the most part scpa- lated by a small quantity of intersti- tial connective tissue, riie whole lung is made up of the bron- chia and infundibula described, with blood- vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, united together by connective tissue. The nerves for the most part accompany the bronchial tubes ami blood-vessels, and are largely distributed to their mus- fular fibre-cells. The lymphatics commence as anastomos- ing lacunte in the walls of the air-vesicles, whence proceed lymphatic capillaries, which unite to form trunks accom- jianying the bronchial tubes and the larger blood-vessels. I'hcrc is, besides, an abundant superficial lymphatic net- work which lies just beneath the pleura. Vriuanj Organs. — The kidnry consists essentially of a threat number of secreting tubes lined by epithelium, tbo tubuii uriniferi. These, with the blood-vessels, nerves, and Fig. 2S. Diagram of course of uriniferous lubes in human kidney: p, papillary portion ; g, boundary portion of medulla; r, cortex; I., capsule of glomerulus; II., convoluted tubes; in., descend- ing limb of Hi'nie's looped tube ; A. loop; IV.. ascending limb; v., intercalated portion; k, summit of collecting tube; vi., VH., VIII., collecting tubes; ix.. papillary duct. lymphatics of the organ, are united together by a charac- teristio connective tissue composed of a nearly homogene- ous matri.x with stellate cells. The tubuii uriniferi com- HISTOLOGY. 945 mcoco ID tho cortical portion of the organ as globular ex- ]iansioiis, the eujisules ot* Kownmn, wliicb ciiibra,ec peculiar lufrs of capillaries, the glomeruli of iMiilpigbi. These, which aro usuiilly from .006" to .OOS" in diumetcr, consist of a number of capillary looj'S united together by conneo- live tissue. Tho capsules of Bowman^ which embrace them, aro lined by a layer of large pavement epithelial colls, best demonstrated by tho action of silver, and arc eontinuous by constricted necks with the urinifcrous tubes. Kaeh urinifcrous tube, whicli at first is about .0011" in aver- ago diameter, pursues for a short distance a very tortuous fourso : it then rather suddenly diminishes in size to half its original diameter, or less, and runs in nearly a straight lino into the base of the nearest pyramid, in which, at a variable depth, it turns back upon itself, forming a narrow loop (the loop of Ilcnic), and returns to the cortical portion, where, after a time, it again becomes wide and tortuous, then ag.ain cons'ricled, and finally unites with one or uioro tubuli which have pursued a similar course to form a straight collecting tube. This collecting tube runs towards the pyramid, receiving at first a few additional tubuli. after which it pursues a separate c(turso into the base of tho pyramid, where adjacent collecting tubes coalesce in pairs; BO that the number of passages which finally open at tho apex of each pyramid is very much smaller than tho orig- inal number of tubuli. When sections of the kidney arc examined by the naked eye, a number of striaj {medullary rays) aro seen proceeding from tho bases of the pyramids almost to the surface of the cortical portion. These consist in part of bundles of the straight collecting tubes, in part of tho straight narrow portions of tubuli, returning after having formed tho loops of Henlc. Tho glomeruli and tho convoluted part of the tubuli lie in the parenchyma between these medullary rays. The walls of tho tnl>uU uriniferi consist of a transparent nucleated membrane lined by a single layer of epithelial cells. Theso consist, in tho first tortuous portion of the tubuli, of a granular proto- plasm, without distinct cell-walis, and contain single, sjdier- ical, sharply-dotined nuclei. In tho narrow part of tho tubuli, forming the loop of llenle, the epithelium appears as an attenuated layer of protoplasm, with swellings con- taining nuclei at intervals. On tho other side of tho loop tho cells assume more of a columnar character, and being inclined to the axis of the tubuH, present an imbricated ar- rangement. When the tube again becomes tortuous thocpi- thelium again assumes the character it possessed in the first tortuous portion, and finally, tho collecting tubes aro lined by a single layer of well-defined columnar epithelial cells. Tho renal arteries divide in the pelvis of tho fcidnei/ into a number of branches, which, on reaching tho bases of tho pyramids, ramify between theso and the cortical portion of tho organ, and send into the latter a series of Btroight twigs, tho arteria) intcrlobulares. These give off a number of short side-branches, each of which supports a glomerulus on its extremity. The efferent vein of each glomerulus, after leaving it, speedily breaks up into a capillary plexus continuous with that formed by adjacent effer- ent veins, and which sur- rounds tho convoluted portions of tho tubuli uri- niferi. The venous rndi- cles which collect tho blood from this plexus open into tho veins which accompany tho inter- lobular arteries. In tho medullary portion of tho kidneys tho capillary network which surrounds the urinifcrous tubules is derived from a series of etraight vessels, tho so- called artcria; rectie, Fig. 29. Transverse section through a renal ]>yramid: a, collecting tube; 0, tlfsetMidinp »rrn <if looped tubt;; c, rccurrc-nt ami ; d, blood-vessel; e, connective tissue. which in part arise from the arterial branches ramifying between tho cortical substance and the bases of the pyra- mids ; in part aro not arteries at all, but tlic unusually prolonged efferent veins of tho glomeruli adjacent to the bases of the pyramids. A superlicial plexus of lymphatics is situated in the fibrous capsules fd' the kirlncys. Tlie deep lymphatics accompany the larger blood-vcs-sels ; their ulti- mate relations to the parenchyma of the organ arc not yet known. Tho same remark applies to the nerves of tho kid- neys, which altK) accompany the vessels. A number of small ganglia occur in connection with these nerves. The urftt^m and nrinnrtf hlnddrr are lined by an epithe- lium consisting of several layers of cells. Tho most super- ficial are polygonal and somewhat flattened; to theso suc- ceed a layer of elongated cells, the upper pxtremities of whieh are rather broad, while tho hiwer portionH are pro- longed into narrow processes, between which is a tnird V..T,. 11.- r.n layer of oval cells. This epithelium rests on a layer of rather dense connective tissue, beneath which is the mus- cular coat composed of muscular tibre-cells. Kxtcruatly to this is a second layer of couneclivo tissue. The fundus of the bladder is, besides, coated by the peritoneum. O'viicrtttivc OryiiHu. — The space assigned to this article jiermils only a brief sketch of tho most characteristic organ of each sex. The tcntivte consists essentially of a number of secreting tubes lined by epithelium, the tubuli scminifcri. Tho organ is enclosed in a dense capsule of connective tissue, the tunica albugiuca. from the inner surface of which a number of jiepta; proceed, dividing the gland into pear- shaped lobules lUO to 260 in number, each containing ono to three convoluted tubuli semitifcri. These unite in the corpus Ilighmori, and form a network whence proceed twelve to tourtcen canals, the convolutions of which consti- tute the epididymis. In the epididymis these canals unite and form finally a single excretory duct, the vas deferens. Tho tubuli scminifcri in the lobules arc .008" in average diameter, aiwl consist of a mcmbrana propria, lined by secretory cells. The mcmbrana propria iscomi)Osedof homo- geneous connective tissue with numerous nuclei imbedded. On its inner surface is a layer of nucleated cells with branch- ing, anastomosing protoplasmic processes. To these suc- ceed several layers of rounded cells with one or several nuclei, which, in fresh preparations, exhibit amoi-boid move- ments, Theso arc tho so-called seminal cells, and it is in their interior that the spermatozoa are developed. The testicles arc abundantly supplied with blood-vessels, l^'m- phatics, and nerves. The lymphatics originate in wide pas- sages between tho tubuli scminifcri, lined by a character- istic epithelium, which forms a })artial coating for the tubuli, and which is best demonstrated by the action of silver. The terminal branches of the nerves, according to Letzerich, can be traced through the mcmbrana propria of the tubuli, and terminate between it and the firs^t row of cells. The spermatozoa, which aro tho cliaracteristic elements of tho seminal fluid, arc. in tho human sulijcct, about .0010" in average length, and have the form of thread-like filaments, enlarged at ono extremity into an oval head .0U0I6" to .0002" long. Tho ovary consists of a stroma of vascular connective tissue in which are imbedded numerous cyst-like forma- tions of various sizes, tho Graafian follicles, containing the ova in various stages of development. The portion of the ovary which projects into the peritoneal cavity is not covered by tho peritoneum, but by a layer of columnar cells, tho so-called germ-epithelium. All the (Jraafian fol- licles, and tho ova which they contain, are develojied from ingrowing buds of this epithelium, which invade the eon- ncctivc-tissuo stroma as gland-like tubules. A portion of tho epithelial cells of these tubules arc transformed into ova, while tho remainder retain their epithelial cliaracter. Tho ova aro subsequently is<dated by the ingrowing of tho connective-tissue stroma between the epithelial cells. Thin sections of the adult ovary show great numbers of the most unripo ova immediately beneath the surface of tho organ. Flo. 30. .-:n#^^^^.?P^'^^^. They appear as oval, nucleated cells, surrounded by an epithelium-liUo layer. Deeper in tho organ ova aro en- countered in a more advanced stage of development, sur- rounded by an ej^theJial layer of several rows of cells. l-'inally, fluid aciMiniuIatea between thcFo cells, and the fol- licles then rapidly increase in size. The total number of 946 HISTOLOGY. Graafian follicles, in till stages of development, contained in a young ovary has been variously cstimateil from 36,000 to 400,000. The fully-formed Graafian follicles are from .02" to .2j" in diameter. They consist of a tunica propria of connective tissue, which is merely a condensation of the ovarian stroma, lined hy several strata of nucleateil opithe- lium-likc cells — the epithelium of the follicle or the niotn- brana granulosa — and filled with a transparent albumiii' u- fluid. The elements of the epithelium of the follicles ;nr accumulated at some one point into a little mass — the dis- cus proligerus — in which the ovum is imbedded. \Vhere a ping-lo follicle contains two or more ova, as occasionally happens in man, and very generally in Mammalia, there is a proligerous disk for each. The human ovum, when fully developed, is a round or slightly oval vesicle. OOS" to .01" in diameter. Its invest- ing membrane exhibits distinct double contours, and is known as the zona pcllucida : this encloses a granular pro- toplasm, the vitcllus or yelk, in which is imbedded a dis- tinct round nucleus .0016" in average diameter (the germ- inal vesicle), and this again presents a round prominent nucleolus — the germinal spot. The ovum of man and mammals differs from the eggs of birds and reptiles in that in these an ovum similar to that of the Mammalia is sur- rounded by a quantity of secondary yelk, as well as by .id- ditional layers acquired during its passage througli the ovi- ducts. As fluid continues to accumulate in the cavity of the ripe Graafian follicle, it approaches more and more to the surface of the ovary, until finally it ruptures and permits the ovum to escape. This is followed by hiemorrhagefrom the vascular walls of the follicle, which is speedily filled with coagulated blood; numbers of white corpuscles soon migrate into the clot, and a retrograde metamorphosis of its constituents takes place, by which it acquires a yellow color, and is then known as the corpns lutoum. Subse- quently, connective tissue is developed in the substance of the corpus lutoum, which becomes smaller and smaller until finally a mere cicatrix remains. Organti uj Special Sense. — A brief account of the special nerve-terminations in the organs of touch and taste has al- ready been given. We recognize as the essential organs of smell certain nerve-terminations in the nasal mucous membrane. This mucous membrane is coated for the most part by a ciliated epithelium, closely resembling that of the respiratory organs ; but in the proper olfactory region, which is limited to tiie uppermost part of the nasal cavities, extending downward three-quarters of an inch to an inch from the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, the cilia disap- pear, and a columnar epithelium remains, between the cells of which the proper olfactory cells appear in considerable numbers. These are oval, nucleated cells, the two ex- tremities of which are prolonged as delieate filaments. One of these runs between the columnar cells of the epithelium to the surface, where it terminates in a free extremity, which gives off in most animals several fine, cilia-like projections ; the other runs towards the connective-tissue layer of the mucous membrane, where it is believed^ though not demon- strated, to be continuous with the terminal fibrils of the non-medullated fibres of the olfactory nerve. According to Max Schultze, the ciliar projections of the superficial extremities of the olfactory cells do not occur in man. In the case of the eye our space permits only brief de- scriptions of the cornea, the crystalline lens, and the retina. The conien substance proper is composed of connective tissue with stellate cells and a homogeneous matrix. It is coated anteriorly with a laminated pavement epithelium, which consists of a stratum of columnar cells, several lay- ers of rounded or polygonal cells, and several layers of flattened colls; posteriorly it is coated by the membrane of Dcsccmet, which is a single layer of flattened cells. The stellate cells of the proper substance of the cornea arc des- ignated corneal corpuscles. They are granular, flattened cells about .001" in long diameter, containing rounded, oval, or irregular nuclei .0004" to .0006" or more long. Each gives otf a variable number of protoplasmic processes which anastomose with those of the adjacent cells. Besides these fixed cells, a certain number of wandering corpuscles arc always present, and from the motions of these, as ob- served in recent cornea\ the existence of a series of pas- sages or channels in the matrix may be inferred. The cor- neal corpuscles are not visible in ])erfcctly fresh cornea^ but become so after the lapse of a short time. They may be displayed in an admirable manner by immersing the cornea in a solution of chloride of gold, and subsequently exposing it to light. The protoplasm of the cells and the nuclei aro thus stained different shades of purple by the reduction of the g<dd, while the matrix remains uncolored or only slightly tinged. When the cornea is soaked in a solution of nitrate of silver and exposed to sunlight, the matrix is stained br*»wn. and a series of light-colored, stel- late, anastomosing figures luako their appearance, which agree in distribution with the corneal corpuscles, but are rather larger, and have thicker, more varicose processes. These represent the serous canals of the matrix, in which Fig, 31. the corneal corpuscles lie, as may be shown by the subse- quent action of chloride of gold or of carmine. The cor- nea is richly sujipHed with nerves, best demonstrated by the action of gold, which gives them a dark purple color. Twenty or thirty medullated nerve-fibres enter at its mar- gin, and soon lose their medullary sheaths, while the axis- cylinders break up into fasciculi composed of a number of ultimate fibrils, with oval nuclei scattered along their course. These fasciculi branch and anastomose, forming a rich plexus in the corneal substance, and finally break up into ultimate ner\'c-fibrils. the extremities of which penetrate between the epithelial cells on the anterior face of the cornea, and terminate by giving off laterally, among the most superficial flattened cells of the epithelium, a number of fine terminal branches, which, having divided once or several times, terminate in somewhat swollen ex- tremities. The vn/stfilliue Icus consists of an extremely thin anterior and a thick posterior layer. The first is composed of a single stratum of flattened, polygonal, nucleated cells, which towards the margins of the lens become more and more elongated, and finally, at its equator, pass by gradual Fir,. 32. Retina. transitions into the fibres of which the thick posterior layer is composed. The fibres of the lens arc flattened, six-sided dements .0002" to .0004" iu breath, and rather less than HISTOLOGY. 947 half as thick, and unite to form curved lamclhc which cover each other coneeatrically, somewhat like the coats of an onioD. In these lamella; a stellate raphe, radiating from the axis of the lens, is observed both anteriorly and postO: riorty, which marks the eommencciiient and termination of the individual fibres. In the deeper strata of the human lens this raphC* presents but three rays; more superficially their number increases to ns many as ninu anteriorly and ten or more posteriorly. In these rays the opposite ex- tremities of the indiviilual fibres come into immediate jux- taposition, and are not separated by a homogeneous trans- parent substance, as was formerly believed. The lens is developed from an ingrowjng bud of the epidermis of the embryo, and its fibres are to be regarded as greatly elon- gated epithelial cells. It is enclo-ed in a transparent, ap- parently structureless capsule. The retina is composed of the special terminal elements of the optic nerve, united to- gether by delicate connective tissue, the whole forming a layer .008" thick in its posterior portion, and less than half as thick anteriorly. Its intricate structure has been the object of many investigations, of which those of Max Schultze arc mu?t noteworthy. According to this investi- gator, the following layers of elements may be discrimin- ated : (1) Most internally the membrana limitans interna, a delicate layer of connective tissue which immediately 1 adjoins the vitreous humor. (2) The optic fibre-layer, I composed of non-mcdullated nerve-fibres of various sizes, continuous with the medullated fibres of the optic nerve. {•i) The ganglion cell-layer, in which are imbedded numer- ous nucleated, fur the most part multipolar, nerve-cells ,0006" to .0012" in diameter. (4) The internal molecular layer, consisting of an admixture of extremely fine nerve- fibrils and delicate connective tissue. (6) Tiio internal granular layer, composed of two kinds of elements, the first and most numerous resembling small bipolar nerve-cells with relatively large nuclei and scanty granular proto- plasm; the second are oval, nuclear bodies, belonging to the supporting connective tissue, (fi) The external mole- cular layer or intergranule layer, which is similar in its structure to the internal molecular layer, but much thinner. (7) The external granular layer, in which are numerous oval nucleated bodies, situated in the lower portion of the rod and cone fibres, and scattered oval nuclei belonging to the supporting connective tissue. (8) The mcmbrana lim- itans externa, an extremely thin layer formed byacondcn- sation of thfe supporting connective tissue. (0) The layer of rods and cones. This consists of two kinds of fibres. Each cone-fibre appears to commenco on the surface of the external molecular layer as a conical enlargement, speedily tapering to a fine smooth or varicose fibre, which runs in a radial direction through the external granular layer, and just before it reaches the membrana limituns externa pre- sents a fusiform enlarirement in which an oval nucleus is imbedded; it then penotratis the limiting membrane and forms the cone, a ftask-likc body which terminates in a coni<:al point. The rod-fibres also can he traced only as far as the external molecular layer. In the external gran- ule-layer they earh present one or several oval nucleated enlargements, after which, penetrating the limiting mem- brane, they form the rods, which arc cylindrical bodies .002" in average length and .0001" or less in thickness, and consist of an inner and outer portion, of which the latter is more highly refractive than the former. The cones are rather more than half as long as the rods, and their bases three to four times as thick. As a rule, three or four rods intervene between each pair of cones. (10) The last layer enumerated b^' Max Schultze is the pigment-layer. It ia usually known as the pigment epithelium of the choroid, and consists of hexagonal elements containing the brown- ish-black pigment in the form of granules. The deUcacy of the retina and the intricacy of its structure are such that the connections of the nervous elements in its several layers with each other have not fully been made out; but it is known that the non-mcdullated fibres of the optic fibre- layer arc continuous with the cells of the ganglion cell- layer, and it may be conjectured with probability that the fine fibrils in which the processes of these terminate are continuous through the remaining layer with the bases of the rod and cone fibres. In connection with the rar, space permits only a brief mention of the on/ftit of Cnrti. which appears to be t<» the sense of hearing what the retina is to the sense of .sight. The spiral canal of the cochlea is nearly divided in two by a thin plate of bone, the lamina spiralis. From the edge of this lamina two membranes proeeeil to the walls of the cochlear canal, which is thus divided into three passages — the scala vestibuli, the central canal of the cochlea, and the scala tympani. The membrane which divides the scala vestibuli from the central canal of the cochlea is extremely delicate, and is known as the membrane of Keissner. That which divides the central canal from the scala tympani is known as the membrana lamina spiralis, and is much thicker, consisting on the side of the scala tympani of the membrana basilaris, on the side of the central canal of the membrana tectoria, and between the two of the organ of Corti. The most remarkable elements id this complex Vertical section ibr i. i f f*i»rii : A B, homogeneous layer of membrana basilaris; n. pedestal of inner pillar; r, pedestal of pillar; d, bnirs ot inmr liair-cell; r,e,e, outer bair-cells; /, bundle of nervcfl; g, epithelium of sulcus spiralis interniis; h, nerve-fibril to hair-cell; i, lamina reticularis. structure are the rods or pillars of Corti, which arc elastic elements of a somewhat sigraoiil form .002" lo .00:>" in length, arranged in a double row in such a way that while one extremity of the roda in each row rests upon the mem- brana basilaris, the opposite extremities articulate so as to form a scries of arches — the arches of Corti — enclosing a triangular space between the rods and the membrana basi- laris, which extends the whole length of the lamina spiralis. The rods on the side of the arch next the bony lamina Bpirfilis are spoken of as the inner rods, the opposite ones as the outer rods; they arc so arranged that three inner rods correspond to every pair of outer ones. Their total number has been estimatc<l nt about .')2n0 inner and ^600 outer rods. According to I'ritehard, they progressively in- crease in length from the base of the cochlea to its apex, the differences being more marked in the outer than in the inner rods. The arches of Corti support on each side a complex arrangement of cells, of which the most conspicuous are the hair-cells. One row of these is supported by the inner rotls, and three rows by the outer ones. They are elongated, somewhat conical, nucleated cells, provided at their upper extremities with a brush of strong cilia-like hairs. The cochlear nerve, a.i it passes up the modiolus or central pillar of the cochlea, gives off branches which run in canals in the bony lamina spiralis to the inimediatn vicinity of the organ of Corti, where the fibres break up into their ultimate fibrillar, and terminate in these hair- cells. Besides the termination of the cochlear nerve in the organ of Corti, special tc-rminntions of the fibres of the auditory nerve in peculiar fusiform cells, with thrcad-liko extremities, exist in the membranous labyrinth. The foregoing outline, which is necessarily extremely meagre, will, however, it is honed, servo to give the reader accurate elementary ideas witli regard to normal human histology. It now remains to offer a few remarks on patho- logical histology. 948 HISTOLOGY. Pathological Histology. — Tn this domain we have to study, ou the one hand, the chan^^cs which take place in the normal histological elements ol the tissues; on the other hand, the development of new pathological elements which cither occur diffused among the normal ones in the form of infiltrations, or aro localized as morbid growths. Among the morbid changes in the normal elements we may enu- merate — cfotuh/ swelliitif, which takes place especially in the early stages of inflammation, and in which the elements increase in size and become more granular than normal; /<ttti/ ilrifeticrntion, which may arise independently or occur as a sequel to cloudy swelling, and in which a portion of the substance of the affected elements is transformed into molecular fat or into minute fat-drops ; mucoid dcf/cncra- tioii, in which a portion of their substance is transformed into a material possessing the reactions of mucin ; and col- loid df;/cticrtttioH, in which a portion of their substance is transformed into globules of a peculiar gelatinous charac- ter. To the foregoing changes may be added those which result from the infiltration uf the tissue-elements with va- rious substances derived from the blood especially: cal- careous infUtrattuti, in which lime-salts are deposited in minute molecules: pitjment infiltration^ in which pigment- granules are deposited ; fnttif iii/i/fnttion. which closely re- sembles fatty degeneration in its appearances; and the so- called nmi/loid infiltration, in which the affected elements are infiltrated with a peculiar transparent albuminoid sub- stance, characterized by acquiring a mahogany-red color on treatment with iodine. Tliis latter change has also been designated as lardaceous or waxy degeneration. Any of these degenerations and infiltrations may occur also in pathological new formations, as well as in tho normal tissues. The production of the pathological new formations is fre- quently initiated by those nutritive and circulatory dis- turbances which are embraced under the designation ?»- fiammntiou. When this process takes place in a vascular tissue a notable dilatation of the small arteries and veins occurs, which is usually jireceded by their temi)orary con- traction, and is followed by a diminution in the speed of the blood-stream, and an accumulation of white blood-cor- puscles in the peripheral portion of the stream in tho small veins. Soon after, as demonstrated by Cohnheim, the white corpuscles begin to migrate in considerable numbers, es- caping not only from the small veins, but also from the true capillaries. In the inflammation of non-vascular parts a similar migration takes place from the nearest blood-ves- sels — in the case of the inflamed cornea, for example, from the blood-vessels of the sclerotic and conjunctiva. A por- tion, at least, of tho cellular elements of the characteristic products of inflammation, pus and lymi)h, arc simply these migrated corpuscles. Wht-ther all of them have the same origin is still a matter of discussion. It was formerly be- lieved that in inflammation the elements of the tissues, es- pecially as indicated by Virchow, the connective-tissue cor- puscles, multiplied by division, and thus gave rise to the pus and lymith cells as their progeny. The analogies of vegetable growth, and much that had been observed of the growth of animal tissue, favored this view. Unfortunately, however, tho swarm of white corpuscles migrate so early in inflammation that the proper tissue-elements are speedily concealed by them, and it is difficult to trace with precision the changes they undergo. Strieker and Xorris, however, have clescribed appearances in tho inflametl cornea which would seem to indicate that the wan<b'ring corpuscles may originate by the division Of the fixed cells, as well as by migration from tho blood-vessels. Whether by thus divid- ing and producing new elements, or V>y falling into a con- dition of fatty degeneration and perishing, the proper tis- sue-elements of the inflamed part i»"y disappear, and be replaced by an accumulation of pus, forming an nhacesH ; or when the affected tissue is superficially situated, the loss of substance may manifest itself as an idccr. In other cases the inflammation terminates in remolution, ihc migrated corpuscles finding their way back into the torrent of the cir- culation through the lymphatics; or the inflammatory products may anjnmze into new tissue. This at flrst re- sembles embryonic connective tissue, and is subsequently transformed into fully-developed connective tissue by a process in all respects similar to that which occurs in nor- mal development, and which is accompanied by an out- growth of blood-vessels, lymphatics, and sometimes of nerves, from the adjacent parts into the new tissue. Other new formations may occur under favorable circumstances; as, for example, epithelium may be developed out of the lymph-cells on the surface of healing wounds and ulcers; bone may be produced, as in the repair of fractures ; in in- flammatory processes involving the periosteum, etc. etc. By these various transformations of tho inflammatory products, on the one hand, the repair of wounds and other losses of substance is effected, and on the other hand, the adhesions, indurations, and thickenings which result from in- flammation are produced. Moreover, degenerative changes may involve the new-formed tissue at any stage of its de- velopment. Fatty degeneration is especially lrc<|uent. It is prone to set in before the new elements have lost their original lymphoid character, and often goes so far as to convert the new formation into a cheesy mass of granular detritus, in which shrunken and deformed nuclei aro all that remain of the original cell-forms. Besides the pathological new formations which result from the inflammatory process, manifold new formations occur without previous inflammation, appearing sometimes as more or less extensive infiltrations, at other limes as isolated masses or tumors. With regard to these also it is unde- cided how far the new elements originate by the trans- formation of migrated white c<»rpuscles, or how far they may arise by the multiplication by divi3i(m of the normal elements of tho affected parts. The more important of thcso new formations are the following. New Furmationa resembling Comiccttve Tissue in some Stages of its Pevelopment. — These may occur as a more or less widely disseminated increase or hyperplasia of the connective tissue of the part affected — as, for example, in certain chronic diseases of the liver and kidneys, in tho peculiar thickening of the skin and subcutaneous tissue I known as elephantiasis, etc. — or they may manifest thcm- j selves as tumors. The group of tumors which resemble in I their structure the embryonic stages of connective tissue is I designated sarcoma, and several varieties are discriminated, according to tho stage of development the cells have at- tained, their arrangement, ami the characteristics of tho matrix in which they are imbedded. According as llic cells arc round or elongated, a round-celled sarcoma and a spindle-celled sarcoma may be discriminated, and each of these again may be divided into a small-celled and a large- celled variety. The matrix may be homogeneous or more or less distinctly fibrillateil, giving rise to considerable variations in tho consistency and appearances of tho growth, AVhen the matrix consists of a mucin-yielding material, tho tumor is discriminated from sarcoma under the designation mtfxoma. Certain tumors of the brain and nervous system, which resemble in their structure the neu- roglia or connective tissue of the nerve-centres, are also separated from sarcoma under the designation glioma. Sometimes spindle-celis, like those of spiudle-ccUcd sar- coma, are so arranged as to form an areolar sfrueture, tho meshes or alveoli of which are filled with cells resembling those of round-celled sarcoma. The structure thus pro- duced is so analogous to certain forms of cancer that it has been called carcinomatous sarcoma. The cells of such growths arc sometimes the seat of an abundant deposit of black pigment, constituting one of the varieties of mela- notic cancer. A similar pigment deposit also takes place sometimes in spindle-celled sarcoma. Tumors which re- semble fully-developed connective tissue are known as fibroid tumors or fibroma. They are characterized by tho abundant and distinctly fibrillated matrix in which Ihtir oval or spindle-formed cells are imbedded. All the tumors of the connective-tissue group are more or less abundantly supplied with blood-vessels. In certain eases these aro so numerous and so large as to constitute the most promi- nent feature of the new formation. Such growths are em- braced under the term angioma. Xar formations of adipose tissue may occur cither as a general hyperplasia of the fat of certain organs or of the whole body, as in obesity, or as the form of tumor known as lipoma, which is quite similar in its structure to normal adipose tissue. Sometimes a development of groups of fat- cells takes place in the substance of a sarcoma, constituting the variety known as lipomatous sarcoma. New formations of cartilat/e. occurring in tho form of tumors, are designated enchoudroma. They most gener- ally resemble hyaline cartilage in their minute structure, but present considerable diversities in the size and form of the cells and in the characters of the matrix. Portions of the matrix are frequently calcified : other portions aro often found to have undergone mucoid softening. Com- binations in the same tumor of enchondroma with sarcoma or with new-formed bone as osteoid-chondroma also occur. Ncic fnrmnlioiis tf bone are observed in the formation of outgrowths from existing bones, as osteophytes or e.roitoses, which, when they acquire considerable size, are spoken of as bony tumors — osteoma ; besides which, a partial ossifi- cation of sarcomatous and enchondromatous tumors, or even of cancerous gro^vths, may take place, and must bo distinguished from calcification due to a mere deposit of lime-salts. New formationg of muscular fibres Eometimes occur, con- stituting the form of tumor known as nn/oma. Tumors composed chiefly of striated mtiscular fibres are rare, but have been observed in the walls of the ventricles of tho HISTOLOGY. 949 heart. Those composed of muscular fibre-cells are more coinmoD ; they are sometimes found in connection with tho muscular coat of the alimeatary canal, and still more fre- quently in the uterus. XfW /iiniKitioiig of uevve-Jihres and nrrrc-rclh also OCCUr in a rare lorni of tumor situated in the course <»f the nerves, and designated nenroma. The same term has been applied to sarcomatous tumors and various other growths situated on the nerves, but should bo reserved for tho group just indicated. At'ir formntinnn of gfandtitititie have been presumed to exist, constituting a variety of tumor known as affeuomn, which is observed in the female breast, the salivary glands, etc. These tumors consist of gland-duets an<l hibulcs, re- sembling those of tho gland affected, but pushed apart by an intervening tissue which presents the characters of sar- coma. It has not been demonstrated, however, that the glandular tissue in these growths is actually of new forma- tion, and it appears on tho whole more probable that these growths are simply sarcomata entangling a portion of tho structure of the gland in which they arc seated. Besides the foregoing new formations, tho histological elements of which closely resemble those of the normal tissue, there are certain growths in which tho resemblance is much less striking. These aro vtirci'nomn or cancer and tuftcrcfe. In fully-developed cancers the older portions of tho growth consist of a stroma or framework which resem- bles more or less developed connective tissue in its structure, and which, being arranged in an areolar manner, has its interspaces or alveoli filled with cells of a more or less de- cidedly epithelial character. In the marginal or more re- eently formed portions of the growth a network of elon- gated cylindri(!al cell-masses are observed, which arc con- tinuous with the cell-masses of the older portions of the growth, and which evidently lie in the lymphatic passages of tho part. The connective tissue between the terminal extremities of tho cancer ciffiu<if:r/t is infiltrated with a swarm of small elements resembling migrated white cor- puscles, and a similar swarm infiltrates tho connective- tissue stroma of all parts of the growth. In cancers of the skin, and those mucous membranes which arc clad with a pavement epithelium, tho elements of tho cell-masses and cancer cylinders present a striking likeness to the cells of the ilceper layers of the normal ej)itheliuni, a row of co- lumnar cells I)eing situated next to the connectivc-tissuo stroma, and tho remaining cells, which are oval or polyg- onal in outline, becoming more and more flattened in pro- portion as they are more removed from the columnar layer. Tho most distant cells even undergo a horny transformation, like that which occurs in the superfieial layers of the epi- dermis, and accumulate in the midst of the older cell-masses as peculiar concentric bodies, the so-called pearly globules, or tflulicH epi Growths presenting these charac- ters are designated epithfJiomn or epithelial cancer. Ii certain cancers commencing in the mucous membrane of the stomach and other situations, in which the surface is clad with a columnar or cylindrical epithelium, the cells of tho alveoli and of tho cancer cylinders present similar characters, constituting a variety of epithelial cancer known as cfffinthomHy or cylindrical epithelial cancer. In most other cancers — as, for example, in those commencing in tho mammary gland — the resemblance of tho cells of the can- cer cylin'lers to epithelium is not so striking. They have comparaf ively small oval nuclei, an<l are surrounded by a scanty protoplasm without any distinguishable cell-wall. In tho older portions of the growth, however, the cells aro larger, with larger nueici and irregular polygonal outlines. so that they approxinmlo to the epithelial type. Such cells wcro formerly called r(tnrpr-rrJh, and supjuiscd to be spe- cific. When in cancers of this character the connective- tissue stroma is firm and abuiulant, making tho tumors dense and hard, they are ricsigtiatcd ttrin-fniH: when the cell-masses of thn alveoli are relatively the most abundant, tho connective-tissue stroma being scanty and often imper- fectly developed, they arc known as mcdudary cnnrrr. All the forms of cancer are characterized by tho tendency of the prinmry growth to bo suceeerlcd by multiple growths of the neighboring lymphatic glands and in the internal organs, and by their ]tronencss to undergo various degen- erative changes. Fatty degeneration, which is one of the most freijuent of these latter, speedily goes on to c(miplelc cheesy metamorphosis and destructioTi of tissue, resulting in the cancerous ulcer. Colloid degeneration also occurs, though less frequently, sometimes filling tho alveoli with glue-like masses, and constituting what is known as colloid rnnrrr. Tuhrrcfc occurs primarily as minute nodules, tho so- called gray granulations, situated most frequently in tho adventitia of the minute arteries, 'fhey consist of lym- phoid elements, smaller or larger cells, with sti-'uigty re- iVactive nuclei, and Mimctinn-s still lar^'cr cell-like plates with several nuclei, all united together by a finely fibrillated matrix. These growths are especially prone to undergo the cheesy metamorphosis, and arc also prone to be asso- ciated with inflammatory processes in which the products of the inflammatiou also undergo the same change. This cheesy metamorphosis was formerly regarded us so cha- racteristic of tubercle that intlammatury products which had undergone it were generally spoken of as tubercular, without reference to their association with the gray gran- ulations. Especially was this the case in the chronic in- flammations of the lym])hatic glands and of the smaller bronchial tubes and lung alveoli. In the latter instance, when the cheesy metamorphosis of the inflamnmtory pro- duct involves also the entangled lung-tissue, giving rise to the production of cavities, the disease has been very gen- erally confounded with tubercular phthisis; from which, however, most modern histologists would separate it. (Tho reader, desir<ms of further iDformation, must bo referred to the special treatises.) liibfingrnpfn/. — P. Stri(d(cr, TTaiidhnch drr LrJirc von den Grwrhtn dtt Afcnsrhoi iiitd dvr Thicre. (Leipzig, 1870-72), translated (London, 1870-7'J), New York, 1872, is espe- cially commendable for the thorough study of Iiistology. The following works may bo used in connection with it: IL Frey, IJondhnrh drr fflstt,fi>f/i€ tnid Uifiturhrviic den AffUMrfirn (2te Aufl., Leipzig, 1807); J. Ilenle, Hnndhnch der HyHtematiHchcn Auritomit: den Mriisehm (Braunschweig, 1856-71); A. Kollikcr, Ilandlufh dcr Ciewrbflcfire (Leip- zig, 1867); also, by the same, MouKtil of Human Micro- j sropt'c Anatoitnf (London, ISfiO). The following works are especially devoted to the methods of research : Vi. Klein, section on histology in JIandhouk f>>r the Physio{<i<jiciU Laboratory, edited by J. Burdon-Sanderson (London, 187.'i); H. Frey, Dun Mihroskop iind die MikrosKopittcIie Tcclniik (4te Aufl., Leipzig, 1871); also the same, trans- lated by George R. Cutter (New York, 1872); Lionel S. Beale, Hmv to Wor/c with the Microscope (-Jth ed., London, 1868; also American ed., Philadelphia. 1870); AVilliam B. Carpenter, The Microscope and itH Itcrclntious (Ith ed., London, 1868); Charles Robin. Traits du Microscope [Vavis, 1871). Those who desire to trace the progress of histology from the commencement of the century may consult with advantage the following works: X. Bitdiat, Auafomie 04- ncrale (Paris, 1801); F. Ilildelirandt, Unndbnch der Anat- omic dcs Menschen (-Itc Aufl. bcsorgt von E. IL Weber, ' Braunschweig, 1880-32); Th. Schwann, Microscopical Jtc- scarchcn into the Accordance in the Structure and Growth of Auiwah and Pfantf^, and M. J. Sclileiden, Cojitributions to Phi/to-ffcncnin (j)rintcrl for the Sydenham Society, Lon- don, 1847) ; J. Berres, Ana tonne der Mi/cronhopinchcn Gchi/dc dcs mennchfichen Korpern (Vienna, 1830-42) ; A. Donn<^'. Court! dc Microicopie, with atlas (Paris, 1844); C. J. M. Tjangenbeck, Mtkron/iOpisch-anatomischc Abbil- duntjen (Gilttingen, 1846-50); L. Mandl. Afuitf)mic Micro- Kcopique (Paris, 1838-57); F. Leydig. Lihrhuch der IHs- tolofjie den Menschen und der Thicre (Frankfurt-am-^Iain, 1857) ; J. <icrlach, ffandburh dcr nl/iftnieinen und sjncicl- len Gftrebcfchrc dtn mem^chltchen h'Hrpcru (2te Aufl. Vien- na, I860); J. Quain and William Sharpey, Ihnuan Anatnmi/ (London, 184.^^7; 6th ed. London, 18.')V)); A. H. Unssall, Microscopic Anatomy of the Human liody (London, 1846- 40); J. Quekett, Lectures on /fisinfnf/y^hmnhm, 1852); also by the same, Cata/nrfue of the /lintohr/ieaf. Serid in the Royal Colleije of Surfjrf,uH of England (London, 1850); R. 15. Todil and W. Bowman, The Physioloffical Anatomy and Physiolofjy of Man (2d ed. liOndon. 1856); also new edition of the same by L. S. Beafe ( London. ]8riC.). Among tho works on pathological histology the following may bo mentioned: J. IMiiller, Vbcr dm fcinern Itan und die J'or- nicn der Kranhhaftcn GeHchienhte ( Berlin, 1838) ; F. Gucns- burg, Die pathofof/fHche Geirebc/chrc (Leipzig, 1845-48); J. Vogel. IconcR Histolotfin- Pfttholotjiie I Lcipsic, 1845-48); Carl Wedl, Pudimoits of Patho/o;,iral lliHtohufy, translated for the Sydenham Society (Lumlon, 1855); II. Lebert, Traits d'anatomic patholmjique, gfn^rnle et sp/'cinlcs {Va- ris, 1857-61); II. Virchow, J)i*f Ce/fufar Patholne/ie (Ber- lin, 1858), translated by Frank Chance (Philadelphia, 1863); also by the same, hie KrauKliaftm firtehu U/xft (Berlin, 1863-67) — a work which still reuuiins unfm ished, but which is especially rich in tho bibliography of tho subject ; Lionel S. Beale, The Microsropc in its Ap- plication to Prnrticnl Mcdiciur (3d od. London, lS(i7); also Amer. reprint (Philadelphia, 1867); T. Billroth, Die a/lfpmeinr chirurfjischc Pathofotjic und Therapie (2lc Aufl. Berlin, ls66); nUo translation of the 4th cd, by 0. E, Ilaekley (New York. 1871); E. Rindflcisch, Lrhrbnvh der patholofjiHchtn Grtcrhrlchrr (4te Aufl. Leipzig, I87;[); also translation of the 2d ed. for tho New .*^ydenham Society London, 1872-73); also American translation t Phila<lelphia, A. Thicrfeldcr. Atlan drr Pathol o-jixrh^n I/ititofofjie 1S7 (Leipzig, 1872-73), unfinished. J. J. WudOWAun. 950 HISTORY. Ilis'tory [Or. i<rTopia, from io-Topew, to "learn by in- quiry," to '■ examine ''), etyniologically, denotes ascertain- ment by inqitin/, hence tlu' process of investigation ; hence, further, an acuouut of the circumstances thus asccrtaineil. In its most ordinary sense it is restricted to a narrative of transactions in the order of time, with or without critical and pi'.ilosophical commentary. As such alone we propose to consider it. Wc shail commence with a hriuf account of the progress of historical narrative from its primitive ori- gin to our own times j we shall next enumerate the recent modifications which are more and more transforming it from a simple record to a complex department of study; and shall conclude with a few words of advice on the method of obtaining a competent acquaintance with it. In its origin, history, considered us a method of record- ing events, is indistinguishable from oral tradition, which seldom preserves the memory of any but the most remark- able occurrences beyond three or four generations. A con- siderable advance was made when traditions assumed the form of ballads, easily remembered and repeated, but no really authentic record could exist ])rcvious to the inven- tion of writing. The first application of this art was to monumental purposes, and along with the invocation of deities, chronicles of the actions of kings began to figure npon Egyptian temples. The invention of papyrus as a writing-material was a further step in advance, and from this period (possibly about .'iUOO n. c.) the Egyptians may be said to have possessed an historical literature. The practice of recording events in writing spread in due time to the Hebrews, the Pha^niciaus, the Chaldieans, and the Assyrians, but the pursuit of" history as a branch of literary art, and tho study of it as a department of intellectual cul- ture, were reserved for the Greeks. About the middle of the fifth century b. c, Herodotus of Halicarnassus composed the first work fully answering to our present idea of his- tory, presenting the results of his own inquiries into a scries of previous transactions in a thoroughly artistic form. As more narrative the work of Herodotus has never been surpassed to this day, and, notwithstanding his occasional credulity, he is fully impressed with the principle that the historian's first duty is to ascertain and record tiie truth. A considerable step in advance was taken by the next great historian, Thucydidcs, who, not content with relating the actions of men, endeavors to penetrate into their mo- tives, and to investigate not merely the accompanying in- cidents, but the determining causes of changes in human affairs. As Herodotus is the first great narrator, so is Thucydides tho first great philosophical hisEorian ; and almost all good history since their time has been written on the model afforded by one or the other. Some new ele- ments were added to tho conception of Thucydides by tho next distinguished philosophical historian, Polybius, who, living in the age when all other states were succumbing to the power of Rome, was enabled to investigate the causes of national greatness and decay on a much larger scale than his predecessor. Xcnophon's Anabusis and Cicsar's Com- meittitn'rs arc perfect examples of pure narrative unaccom- 1>anicd by reflection. Of the two great Koman historians, jivy, like Herodotus, aims principally at narrative, but aims at another purpose alien to the simplicity of his model — the glorification of his own people, whose prose epic, in fact, he has written. He also follows the example of Thucydides in interspersing his own reflections, fre- quently in the form of speeches placed in the mouths of his- torical personages; his work may be considered as the finest ancient example of the eclectic or composite style. Tacitus imitates Thucydides, but with tho addition of an element distinctively his own — an intense uKtral purpose. Escaped from an era of tyranny, the subject of his history, he aims at painting it in the blackest colors to prevent any subsequent relapse into it. He has thus become the typi- cal representative of an important department of history. Afany valuable historians flourished during the decline of tho Koman empire, but wc meet with none of special mark before Eusebius (a. d. 330), tho first great ecclesiastical historian, and Procopius (a. d. 5.00), neither philosophical nor eloquent, but the model of tho dry, impartial, business- like historian. During the Middle Ages history was entirely eclipsed, except among the Saracens. Ignorance, superstition, the slow circulation of intelligence, the barbarism of language, and tho total loss of the critical spirit conspired to reduce iiistorians for several centuries to mere annalists. Tho intellectual revival of the twelfth century produced a marked improvement, but History was not rejtlaced upon her old footing until the resurrection of classical literature iiad brought good models to light, and the invention of printing rendered them generally accessible. Two great Italian historians, JIacchiavelli and (iuicciardini, kindred spirits to Thucytlides and Tacitus, traced, the former the mediicval, the latter the contemporary* history of his coun- try, with a mastery that fixed the standard of historical composition for the language. Their example, though not their style, was emulated by I>e Thou, the French, and Davila, the Italian, historian of the wars of religion in France; by J^luriana. the historian of Spain, and Strada, the elegant but inaccurate narrator of the revolt of the Low Countries ; Raleigh, the first Englishman to attempt a history of tho world, and Clarendon, whose account of the Uebellion is perhaps the best example of a partisan history. These remain the only eminent English historians until Hume, the magic of whose style and the symmetry of whose narrative atones in some degree for his negligence and prejudice. Robertson gave the first example of a high-class English historian devoting himself to the transactions of foreign nations. His knowledge of the world ensured him a full measure of success as a political historian, thoutjh his Hiaturif of America has been superseded by Prescott, and his IJistori/ of Charles I', is marreil by his ignorance of German. A far greater name is that of his contempo- rary. Gibbon, whose Decline and Fall f>f the Jioman Empire is perhaps tho greatest historical work ever ]truduced — tho most signal example of diligence in the accumulation and of mastery in the control of enormous materials. Gibbon's judgment is almost infallible, and his historical portraits arc as accurate as they are brilliant. His principal defect is his insensibility to the sj)iritual side of man's nature. Since the eighteenth century history has claimed more and more the attention of superior minds, and we must be content with a bare enumeration of some of the principal works. Early English history has been treated by Freeman, that of the Tudor dynasty by Fronde, the Commonwealth by Guizot, the Revolution by the dazzling but too rhetorical Macaulay, Scottish history by Tytler and Burton. France boasts a constellation of the brightest historical names, including Michelet, her general historian ; Thierry, the in- vestigator of her early history; Thiers, the least scrupu- lous, but the most genuinely national of all her writers; Guizot, Barante, Lamartine, Louis Blanc, Henri Martin, etc. The subordinate historical branch of memoir-writing has also flourished more among the French than among any other nation. In virtue of its subject, Mr. Carlyle's French JUvolutifn may be included among French histories. This extraordinary work, a poem rather than a narrative, is the only modern book that has added an entirely new type to history. Some of the most valuable contributions to Italian his- tory have been made by foreigners, Sismondi, Roscoc, Grc- gorovius, but Italy also boasts her Botta, Cantil, and Col- letta. Germany has ])roduced a national historian in Jor hannes Miiller, and the greatest of merely political histo- rians in Ranke ; her mediaeval history is recounted by Von Raumer. Schlosser's general history of the eighteenth century, Schiller's Thirty Yem-g \Var, and Heeren's Hia- tortf of Commerce are additional instances of first-class (jerman histories; the number of the simply meritorious is legion. The American Motley ha^ immortalized himself as the historian of the revolt of the Netherlands. The history of Bohemia has been classically written by Pa- lacky, of Russia by Karamsin, of S^veden by (»eijer, and of Portugal by Hercolano. The story of the (ireek war of independence has been told by Tricoupi. Bancroft is as yet the standard historian of the T. S., though it is un- likely that he will remain so. The best histories of the Spanish conquest of South America are by Prescott and Arthur Helps. \'ery great ability has been displayed in technical military histories, of which we can only mention that of the Peninsular war by Gen. W. F. P. Napier. The reconstruction of philology and archaeology has di- rected attention to classical history, which, with thcexcep- tion of the era comprehended in Gibbon's work, ma^' be said to have been completely rewritten during the present century. Niebuhr, though sometimes unduly skeptical, effectually disentangled the legendary from the authentic portions of early Roman history. The history of the Re- public has been written on a grand scale by .Alummsen, and the interval between him and Gibbon has been ably bridged by Dean Merivale. Grote has ])roduccd what will long re- main the standard history of the Greek republics, although its animation is by no means equal to its erudition and sa- gacity. The history of tho Christian Church has been ad- mirably told by Milraan. Dunckcr's History of the Aryan Have gives a brilliant and comprehensive view of the early historical period of this section of mankind. The history {as yet so obscure) of Egypt is told by IJrugsoh, and that of Assyria by Rawlinson. India has found eminent his- torians in Mill and Orme, and its ancient annals have been critically investigated by Lassen and his coadjutors. Tlie rise of Mohammedanism has employed the pens of Muir, Sprenger. and others. Nor ought we to omit the native Oriental historians, among whom may particularly be named Mirkhoud, the historian of Persi.a. HISTORY. 951 Finally, an important class of history, much cultivatej in moJcrn times, may be described as cullHteral or auxil- iary to history ]>roper. Its ofrico is to treat of tlie origin ami progrc53 oi" human purcuits or iuMitiitinns, such as comiufTce or law. whith involves a chrouuluf^ical arrange- ment, though the mention of persons orevents is only^ub- sitliary to the main design, llallam's Constitutional Ilia- tortf is an example. The spirit of modern times has modified the study of history in four principal ways : (1) By the resort, as amain source of information, to archives, including statutes, char- ters, public documents of all kinds, diplomatic and even private correspondence. (2) By the endeavor to recon- struct the private as well as the public life of nations, in- volving an intimate knowledge of the minutiae of their daily existence. f;i) l!y the application of tho mythical theory to fabulous, sometimes even to extraordinary, nar- ratives, (4) Ity the attempt to frame a philosophy of his- tory — I. <•. to discover tho general laws on which particular events depend. Ai'chivew, StHtutcHf etc. — It was long before it was recog- nized that tho history of every civilized people was in some sort written in its pubUc institutions, and that the essential principles underlying groat struggles were di--^- playcd in such manifestoes as tho Solemn League and Cov- enant or the Declaration of Independence. Such were comparatively rare in antiquity, during which period tho value of documentary evidence as an aid to history was very imperfectly recognized. Nor was it sufficiently at- tended to among tho raodcrns until tho obscurity and im- perfection of the annalists of the Mi'ldle Ages led histor- ians to resort to the contemporary archives as a supple- mentary source of information. It was soon discovered (hat laws and charters not only filled up tlio outlines of historians, but corrected their errors: and it is now uni- versally admitteil that an authentic history of any period must be based upon doeumentary testimony where such is pracnrable. Tho principle is of course liable to exceptions fr»m the occasional deliberate falsification of such testi- mony, the preambles of laws frequently stating considera- tions notoriously at variance with truth, and letters ex- pressing the wishes and designs, rather tlian tho convic- tions, of tho writer. It is uevertlieless certain that this gclf-delincation presents, on tho whole, both a truer ami livelier picture of an age than any formal narrative ; and no history would now bo considered adequate where every possible U90 liad not been made of documentary materials. The researches of palajographical scholars, and the disclo- sure of state archives long jealously secluded, havo im- mensely increased tho resources of this nature at tho dis- p(»«al of historical SL*holars. Tho valuable histories of Hanke arc based almost entirely upon the examination of coutidential state papers. Much has been dono and is iloing in England by tho official publication of abstracts of tlie eorresp<indencc preserved in the Record Office. Jlittnrif in itn Hvffttloii to Private Life. — It was natural that in its infancy the attention of history should be prin- cipally fixed upon great public events and picturesque oc- currences. " To rescue from oblivion tho memory of former incidents, and to render a just tributeof renown to the many great and wonderful actions both of (Irceks and barbarians, Herodotus of Haliearnassns produces this historical essay." The same prineiple actuated all ancient historians, and their references to the "tatc of nmnners or the social condition of (he people are in general merely incidental. Tho conviction I hat the intrigues of cabinets and tho shocks of armies arc only important in so far as they affect tho general well- being originated with the humane philosophy of the eigh- teenth century. It has now thorouglily leavened every branch of historical research, and has ]>owerfully contrib- uted to give birth to a philosophy *d" history. Kxternal in- cidents, so far from being considered as the sole objects of historical inquiry, are now chiefly valued for the light they afford to tho primal causes on which tho march of history depends, and, unless in the case of profensedly military or political histories, no historian is satisfied unless he can evhibit tho moral and sorial condition of a nation at a given period with the same vividness as that with which ho would detail a jMiblic occurrence or depiet a political character. Macaulay's view nf the social state of Kngland at tho Revolution, and Mill's picture of the condition of India at (ho British conquest, are famous examples. This expansion of (he pcopo of history hns necessarily introduced the most imjiortant modifications into historical composition, and greatly extended tho ran geof accomplishments requisite for Iho liistorian. Thr .\ft/tfiirnf Thrnrt(. — Tn tho earliest ages of historieni authorship stories uf the supernatural, even if referrinj; tn contemporaries, were accepted as intrinsieatly eroflible, and all tho early history of nations was enveloped in a cloud of legend. The existence of a critical spirit, however, soon makes itself manifest, but the legendary element was scru- tinized on no satisfactory prineiple. According to the theory of Euhemcrus, improbable stories were regarded as distor- tions of actual pros;iic occurrences; thus, when Hercules is said to have slain the Lerna'an hydra, it is to be understood that he drained the Lerntean marsh. Another theory, preva- lent in the Middle .Vges. and of which Bryant is the most characteristic modern representative, regards all legendary fables as perversions of a really veracious archetype; thus, Hercules is to be identified with Samson. Both these views are now exploded, and legends regarded either as "the natural effusions of the unlettered, imaginative, and believ- ing man" {(irotf), or as anthropomorphic representations of natural phenomena, whose original signification had been forgotten. {Cox, Ma.r Miillcr. etc.) Whether their origin be referred to nature or imagination, they aro cquolly re- garded as poetry, only available in small measure and with the utmost caution for the ascertainment of authentic his- tory. Tho first ap])lication of this prineiide on a largo scale was made by Xiebuhr in his Koman history, and the result has been to clear our histories of iuuumcrable popular legends, and to free ancient history in particular from for- midable chronological ditlicultics. besides destroying one great source of error in the construction of theories to ac- count for what never took place. The study of folk-lore has also discredited many occurrences not intrinsically in- credible ; tho story of Tell and the nppic, for instance, loses its claims to credence as soon as it is shown to be an ordi- nary incident in popular mythology. It can scarcely be disputed, on the other hand, that the interpretation of tra- dition has frequently afforded pretexts for the most extrav- agant theories, such as the resolution of the heroes of the Ilinfl, liamai/aiia, and other epics into mere celestial and atmospheric phenomena. It might be safe to admit, as a general principle, that where go<ls alone arc introduced in a legend the deification of Nature may be suspected, but that there is room for the supposition of actual event where mortals are also concerned. PhiloKophy of Ilintonj. — The idea of a philosophy of history could not arise until after the conception of a universal history had been formed; and this was scarcely possible until after the rculization of a universal empire. Tho Roman empire, however, was hardly established ere it began to decline, and tho accompanying decadence of in- tclieetual power prevented any attempt at a general phi- losophy of history until the days of iSt. Augustine, who was led to undertake it by the necessity of exonerating his religion, to whose prevalence tho downfall of the empire ■was naturally attributed by its adversaries, from respon- sibility for tiio political disasters of the time. From this jiointof view his V'- Ciritatc JJci is a masterly performance, but its inadequacy to afford a theory of the course of his- torical development may be inferred from its regarding tho whole course of occurrences merely in their relation to tho (.'hrislian Chureh. and its consequent restriction to the records of the Old and New Testaments, and of the heathen nations affected by the promulgation of Christianity. Its limitations, however, were unnoticed by the incurious spirit of the Middle Ages; and no progress towards historical philosophy was discernible until (in 1607) Jean Bodin enunciated the proposition that the course of events is con- trolled by definite laws admitting of investigation by the human intellect. The next great writer who took up the subject was Bossuet, but his Dincouracon Univcrmil llixtory, often cited as the foundation of the science, is little more than an improved repul)lication of Augustine. The true founder of historical philosophy was tho Italian Vico, I whose NciQ Science (172;'») first ottemptcd that scientific I explanation (d* the course of events whoso possibility bad t been asserted by Bodin. The author, who had reflected [)rofoundly on tho phenomcua attending revolutions in luman history, deduces from Uiein thejirinciples which regu- i late tho origin and development of society. The germ of his ■ political speculations exists in a memorable passage in Plato's Ilejuth/ir, but what with Plato is mere assertion is I with Vieo oorroborated by a command over the vast mass i of experience which had accumulated since Plato's nge. I His great problem is to reconcile the existence of a divine I plan of history with tho frecilom of human agency, in which be has perhaps been as successful as any of his suc- cessors. The idea of a deduction of all human events from I first principles being oneo admitted, various attempts tn I ascertain these principles began to be made, leading to 1 the establishment of rival hist'uical cehools. The great ' maxim, that the grand determining causes of history are general laws which even the most distinguished individuals obey while they seem to control, was placed in the clearest lislii by Montesquieu (l7-t'0- The chief merit of his con- temporary, Voltaire, is not the application of liny prineiide, hut the fearless an"i indepenrlent spirit whicli elenred his- tory of everything intrinsieally insignificant or dependent 952 HIT— HITCHCOCK. upon mere traditional sanction. With all his brilliancy of detail, his general view of history is discouraging and ig- noble. Condorcet ( 17U3) arrived at the opposite couclusiou, and first laid it down distinctly that the operation of the laws recognized by Vico leads detinitely and inevitably to the elevation of humanity as a whole. This generalization woulil now hardly be disputed by any philosophical writer, but great differences still e.xistas to what tendencies should be allowed to rank as laws, and as to the best method of expressing and classifying them. The grandest attempt ever made to sum up all historical principles under a single formula is, so far, that of Hegel (18;{7). Hegel conceives the development of history to represent the progress of the principle of the universe itself from a condition of chaos to one of self-consciousness. Every important stage in history is identified with some ruling idea which it has been its mission to express and exhaust, that humanity may proceed to develop the next. Fricdrich von Schlcgel, on the contrary, explains hi.story as the striving back of mankind to a lost condition of original blessedness. It is the great merit of Herder (1791) to have pointed out the vast influence of external nature on mankind, and of St. Simon (18i:j) to have shown the connection of history with the physical sciences. St. Simon, borrowing jierhaps a hint from Turgot, also enunciated the principle of two neces- sary stages of human thought — the theological and the physical — subsequently expanded by Couite into hi? famous doctrine of the three stages — the theological, the metaphys- ical, and the positive. The significance of this pregnant suggestion is evinced by the debate which it has excited; but itcertainly cannot be allowed to rank as a demonstrated Jaw so long as all three of these hypothctically successive stages continue to coexist in all civilized nations. Michelet and Pierre Leroux have contributed valuable principles to historical science by inristing on the fundamental unity of all peoples in spite of national distinctions, and De Toc- queville by his recognition of the fact that real progress inevitably tends to democracy. Bonald, on the contrary, has revived the theocratic conception of Augustine. To Bunsen we are indebted for the proof of the degree to which history ha:^ inscribed itself upon language; to Buckle, for a demonstration of the paramount importance of intellectual progress as an instrument of national de- velopment. Mr. Lecky has exhibited in a most striking manner the sudden and, as it almost appears, spontaneous disappearance of accredited beliefs, whose hold upon men's minds has long been imperceptibly loosening. The prin- cipal danger of such speculations is their tendency to subordinate individual action altogether to general laws, and to overlook the diversities of human character as agen- cies in shaping the destinies of nations. The American and French Revolutions were no doubt equally inevitable, but in the present state of our knowledge no satisfactory reason can be given why one might not as well as the other have brought forth a Washington. Russia owes her pres- ent position to Peter, Prussia to Frederick, but no rule can be deduced from historical science to show that either of these sovereigns must necessarily have been a man of genius. Mr. Carlyle, on the other hand, greatly exagger- ates the hero's independence of circumstances. An ex- cellent account of the chief writers on the philosophy of histor}', by Prof. Flint of St. Andrew's, is now iu course of publication. The Study of Hisf'in/. — As there is no study more de- lightful than that of history, so is there none more vitally necessary to the citizen of a free state. The constitution of a democratic republic especially, assuming as an indis- pensable condition of its working that every citizen shall take an intelligent interest in public atfairs, imposes the study of history us a duty incumbent upon all. It is im- possible to form a correct judgment of present circum- stances without the means of comparison with the past supplied by a knowledge of history. The stuilent must bear in mind, however, that all such knowledge is not equally useful. The annals of great military monarchies supply comparatively little that the citizen of a free state can turn to account, and some of the most attractive chap- ters of human history — that of Egypt, for instance — are chiefly im|>ortant to the cultivators of special studies. The American citizen should especially familiarize himself with the history of free states, his own country before all others; then the great and free country from which it sprang, and from whose institutions its own are derived ; then the pro- totypes of freedom in ancient Greece and Rome. If possi- ble, ho should also familiarize himself with the slow devel- opment of Roman institutions into the feudalism of the Middle Ages, and the continuous transformation undergone by the latter. To state the conclusions which he might probably deduce from such an inquiry would involve tres- pass on the grouni of contemporary politics; nor need we do more than allude to the splendid examples of excellence with which history abounds, and their obvious tendency to encourage a high standard of public and private virtue. The host method of study is that which commences with an outline or skeleton of the subject, serviceable even if the student proceeds no further, but capable of being filled up indefinitely. Commencing with simple and condensed nar- ratives, such as the excellent series now appearing under the editorship of Mr. Freeman, let the student proceed to comprehensive histories likeGrotc's or <iibbon*s, tilling up, as it were, the interstices of his knowledge by a resort to memoirs and detached narratives of particular transac- tions, and crowning his labors by the endeavor to compre- hend and apply some system of the philosophy of history. Such general conspectuses of a subject as Voltaire's £,*«««» sur lea Mtenrs will save him much toilsome research; but with these, even more than with regular historical narra- tives, he will need to boon his guard against the idiosyn- crasies of his author, no matter of what school. In con- clusion, we may confidently affirm that the more progress he is able to make towards recognizing all history as one great whole pervaded by an absolute unity of plan, the more reason will he have to congratulate himself on genuine progress in his historical studies. R. G.\itSETT. Hit [anc. /»], town of Asiatic Turkey, on the W. bank of the Euphrates, about 90 miles AV. N. W. of Bagdad, still noted for the fountains of naphtha and bitumen existing in its neighborhood. This bitumen was used in the build- ing of Babylon, and was carried to Egypt by Thothmes III. of the eighteenth dynasty, some 151)0 or IHOO b. c. The modern town is mean and dirty, and has a popula- tion of about IMIOO. Hitch'cockf county in the S. W. of Nebraska, bounded S. by Kansas. It is traversed by the Republican River, and affords good pasturage. Area, 720 square miles. Cap. Culbertson. Hitchcock (Charles Henry). A. M., Ph. D., b. at Am- herst, Mass., Aug. 23, lS;i6 ; graduated at Amherst College, Mass.; has been instructor in geology in that institution and at Lafayette College, as also professor of geology at Dartmouth College, N. H., 1S69; assistant geologist of Vermont 1S57-6I; State geologist of Maine 1SC1-C2, and of New Hampshire 1S68. He has written largely upon geology, and in 1870-71 established the meteorological observatory upon Mount AVashington, N. H., which has since been adopted by the signal service of the U. S. army. Hitchcock (Edward), D. D.. LL.D., b. in Dcerficid, Franklin co., JIass., May 24, 1793. His father, Deacon Justin Hitchcock, was a hatter in moderate circumstances. His mother, Mrs. Mercy (Hoyt) Hiichcock, was a woman of active mind and marked character. Interrujited in his preparation for Harvard College by sickness and weakness of the eyes, he educated himself while following the plough. From 1S15 to 18IS he was principal of Dcerfield .\cademy, assisted by Miss Orra White, the lady who afterwards be- came his wife, who rendered him invaluable aid in illus- trating his scientific works, and to whom he dedicated his Itttiffion of Geolot/t/. His first piiblication was The Douiifill of liomtpartc, a dramatic poem of 500 lines ; this appeared in ISl j. From' that date till 1S18. while prin- cipal of the academy, he furnished the calculations for the Pitrmer'ti Almanac and frequent corrections to the Xautical Afiiiaurtc. From 1821 to 1825 he was pastor of the Con- gregational church in Conway, and meanwhile found ex- ercise, health, and recreation in makingageological survey of Western Massachusetts. From 1825 to 1844 he was pro- fessor of chemistry and natural history in Amherst College. In lS;tU he was appointed State geologist of Massnehiisetts, having suggested the survey which he was appointed to make. In IS.'iO he was commissioned to do the same work in the first district of New York, hut resigned the oilice on accountof his health. From 1844 to 1854 ho was president of Amherst College and professor of natural theology and geology, and the college never had a more inspiring lec- turer nor a more popular and progressive president. lie accepted the presidency when it was sinking under the weight of poverty and debt : and having secured for it lib- eral endowments, doubled the number of students in ten years, and greatly increased itsliterary and scientific advan- tages, ho resigned that office, and, retaining the ])rofe8Sor- shiji, devoted the remainder of his life to his favorite science of geology, but always in its connection with religion. He was an eloquent preacher and the faithful pastor of the college church. Religion was the inspiration of his writ- ings and his life. Ho was a prolific writer. He left a record of tbo titles and dates of 24 volumes, 35 pamphlets (in- cluding sermons). 94 papers in the journals, and HO news- jjaper articles — some 80U0 pages in all — on a great variety of subjects, but chiefly on his favorite themes of science and religion. His earliest publications in geology and natural history were Geologtj of the Conuecticut Valley HITCHCOCK. 953 (1823) and Cnlaloyiie of J'lantt luilliitt Tire'ili/ Milts of Amherst (1S21); new cd., revised by Prof. Tuckorman 1874). In IS.iU he nublislicd JJi/nprp'in Forenlulli-d ntid He- titled, and about inc same time sevcriil other productions on temporaneo. In ls:;2 appeared Firai Hi /mil on the Economic fjcu/oifi/ of Matsncliusctts. and in ls;{.» the full report on the Keoio;jy, zoolot;y, and botany of the State, which have given Massachusetts the honor of bcini; the first in Europe or America to provide at public expense for the survey of an entire Stale. The final report on the ge- ology of jiassachusetis was made in 1K41 in 2 vols, quarto of S.'il pages, with jj plates. Further worlis on geology arc /■'o««i7 Fooltlepi in the U. S. (1848), Outlines of the Geoloi/i/ of the O'tobe, and of the U. S. in J'lirticnliir (1833), lllutlratious of Surface Gcolof/i/, published by the Smith- sonian In.«litulion (1856), and He/mrt to the O'oiernment of Massachusetts on the Jchuolo;/;/ of Ac to Euffland (1858); also reports on {\ifi Geoloffy of Vermont (1857-59), and Final Heport (in part by his son. Prof. C. II. Ilitohcoclt) iu ISCl (pp. 'JS8. 38 plates, and 3fi5 wood-cutsl. The Ele- vu-ntnrif (jeolni/t/, which first appeared in ISll), has gone through many editions in America and England, and has been widely used as a textbook in schools and colleges. The Jielitfion of (ieulot/t/ and its Connected Sciences (1851) and lieiitjious Truths lUnstroled from Science (1S57), to- gether with uunuTous kindred articles in the lilhllcal He- positori/, the Ililjliniheca Sacra, and other journals, were the works to which he gave the most thought and study. Among the nui.-I popular of his books have been Jlislon/ of a jiouloi/icat 1 emperance Convention in Central Africa (1850), A 'Wreiith for the Tomb (1 839), and IhUijioiis Lec- tures on the Peculiar Phenomena of the Four Seasnns (1850), which illustrate his playful fancy, creative imagination, and strong moral, philanthropic, and religious nature. Several of Dr. ililchcoek's works have been reprinted in England, and Ihey have been favorably noliceil by the leading journals and scientific men of bolli countries. (SeeA'.^mei-. «<■.'., .tlii. 422-448 ; lii. 10.3-107 ; Ivi. 435-451 ; -liiic)-. yoicr. o/ Sci., i. 100; .\.\ii. 1; xli. 232; Land. Con<j. Mar/., 1842, etc. ; and testimonies by l>r. .1. Pyc Smith, Dr. Mantell, Dr. liueklaiid. and the elder Prof. .Silliman.) In turn he furnished introductions to American editions of Dennis Croflon's Genesis and Geolof/i/, mid to the l*luralilif of Worlds, a new edition of the latter being published iu 1875. Prcs. Hitchcock was one of the originators and founders of Mount Ilolyokc Seminary and of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. And in connection with tlicsc wo may incnlion his Memoir of Mart/ Ljjon and his Heport to the Massachusetts Lcijislature on the Affrieulturnl Schools of Europe, which he visited and examined by appointment of the government in 1850. He was for many yeiirs a mem- ber of the Massachusetts board of agriculture, and was invited to become its secretary. He was a favorite of tlie farmers and the common people, who had very generally made his acquaintance in his geological explorations. The last book which he puldished was the Hemiuisccnces of Am- herst Cotle</c (lS(',:i), in which he interweaves with history and autobiography many valuable suggestions touching college education. His most uiii(juc and enduring monu- ment is tho Hitchcock Ichnological Museum of Amherst College, crcafcd by his genius, science, and industry, and containing a (roinplete collection, comprising every known variety of those fossil footmarks from tho Connecticut \'al- ley which he was the first scientifically to examine, classify, and interpret. Dr. Hitchcock was among tho first and foremost of the pioneers of American geology. Tho .Ameri- can (ieological Society owes its existence to his suggestion, and he was its first president. He left his mark especially in the inauguration of new enterprises and institutions, and in the origination of new doctrines anc! arguments in geology and inilural theology. He d. Fi^b. 27, isfil,and tho jiiiun and tiiassivo granite obelisk which murks tho place of his burial is fitly inscribed with those favorite words of his; "The cross in nature, ami nature in the cross," which were the principal theme of his writings and the keynote of his character and life. W. H. Tvlku. Ilitrlicock (Ei)HARn), A. M., M. D., b. at Amherst, Mass.. May 23, I82S; graduated at Amherst College 1S49, and at Harvard Medical School lS.'i2: has since been an instructor in the Williston Seminar}', Easthampton, Mass., and in 1801 was ap|)ointed professor of hygiene and physi- cal education in Amherst College. Hitchcock (Ethan Ai.i.kn), b. at Vergennes, Vt., May IS, 179S: graduated from the I'.S. Military Academy, and entered tin- army as third lieutenant of artillery .July, IS 1 7. Till 1S29, exeeitt for three years as assistant instructor of infantry tactics at West Point, ho served on garrison luul recruiting duty, at'tcr which he became commandant of ca'lets at the .Military Academy. At tho outbreak of tho Florida war, ho volunteered his services, and became acting inspector-general in Gaines's campaign of 1836. From Florida he returned with Gen. Gaines to the West- ern department, from which ho was transferred to recruit- ing service, and subsequently to Indian duty, where his honest administration of affairs as disbursing agent was of great value in protecting tho Indians against swindlers. Promoted to be major Sth Infantry in ISo.'i, ho was placed on garrison duty from 1839 until called to Washington in 1S41, and placed in charge of the Indian bureau. Leaving Washington in 1842, he joined his regiment in Florida, from which (in 1842-43) ho removed Paseofii's band of hostile Indians. In the Mexican war he was inspector- general of Gen. Scott's army, and for his services in battle received the brevets of colonel and brigadier-gen- eral. After the Mexican war he made an extended tour in Europe and the East, and on his return was placed on duty in Washington. In 1851, then colonel of the 2d Infantry, ho was ordered to San Francisco, (,'al.,and eominuuded tho military division of the Pacific till 1854. where his services were most valuable. In consequence of (lersonal differ- ences with the secretary of war he resigneil Oct. IS, 1855, and made his home at St. Louis, where he devoted himself to literature ami the peculiar pbilosophical investigations which had for many years occupied bis thoughts. On tho outbreak of the civil war he offered his services to the U. S. government. Though not acce|ited at the time, in Feb., 1862, his merits were recognized by his ajipointment as major-general of volunteers, which, though once declined on "account of tailing health, he was induced to retain, and was placed on duty in the war depiirlnicnt, and to which duties were added in November those of comniissioncr for exchange of prisoners of war and commissary-general of prisoners. These duties he discharged ably and acceptably, and was retained in service till Oct., 1807. Among tho pub- lished works of this accomplished officer and student of tho "problem of life" are — The Doctrines of Sircdcuhor,/ and Spinoza Identified (l&iO), Hemarks upon Alchemy and the Alchemists (1857), Swedenlwrij a Hermetic I'hilosopher (185S). C/ii-i'»( the Spirit, hcinij an attempt to State the I'rim- ilirc View of Christianity (1ii6\), Ueniarks on the Sonnets of Shakspcare, and Colin Clout Explained (,lii(ia). Xulcs on the Vita Nuova of Dante (1S6B). D. at Sparta, Ga., Aug. 5, 1870. «• C. SiMMOSS. Hitchcock (Hesry Lawrence), D. D., b. at liurton, 0., Oct. 31, 1813; son of Chicf-.Iusticc Peter Hitchcock (17S0-IS53) of Ohio; graduated at Yale 1832; studied di- vinity in Lane Seminary : held Presbyterian pastorates in Morgan, 0., 1837-40, in Columbus 1840-55; president of Western Reserve College 1855-71, a position which he filled with great ability and usefulness. D. at Hudson, 0., July 0, 1873. Hitchcock ( Peter), LL.D., b. at Cheshire, Conn., Oct. 19, 1780 ; graduated at Yalo 1801 ; was admitted to tho bar 1804 : removed to Ohio 1800; was chosen to the Ohio gen- eral assembly ISIO; State senator 1812-10; iu Congress 1817-19; was afterwards for twenty-seven years a justice of tho supreme court of the State, and a part of that time chief-justice. D. at Painesvillc, 0., May 11, 1853. Hitchcock (KoswELL Dwiciir), D. D., LL.D., was b. in East Machias, Me., Aug. 15, 1817 ; joined the sophomore class in Amherst College in 1833; graduated in 1830; was principal of an academy in .laifrey, N. II., 1836-37; pur- sued biblical an<l other studies under private tuition 1837- 38; entered Andover Theological Seminary in 1838; was assistant teacher in Phillips Academy, Andover, for one term; was tutor at Amherst 1839-42; and in 1809 was elected one of tho trustees of the college. From 1812 to 1844 he wasaresident licentiate at Andover; then preached for a year in Waterville, Me.; and was ordaineil and in- stalled over the First Congregational church iu Exeter, N. II., Nov. 19, 1845. One year (1847-18) was spent in (icrinany nt the universities of Halle and lierlin. In 1852 he resigned his pastorate to accept the Collins professorship of natural and revealed religion in Uowdoin College ; and in 1855 ho was chosen Washburn professor of church his- tory in lininn Theological Seminary, N. V., which position ho still (1875) holds. In 1806 he visited Italy and Greece, and in 1869-70 Egypt. Sinai, and Palestine. In 1871 he was made president of the American Palestine Exploration Society. Iluring the civil war he took a decided stand on tho side of the general government. He received the de- gree of I>. D. from Howiioin College in 18,'i5, and of LL.D. from Williams College in 1873. From 1863 to 1870 he was one of tho assistant editors of tho yl/iioi'rnii Throlfij/icat /Irriew, for which, as jircviously for the I'rrilii/lcrian (Quarterly, he has written many articles, mostly relating to church history, llesides publishing numerous orati<m», ad- dresses, and sermons, ho has also edited tho /.(/>, Charac- ter, and Writimjs of Edward Hobiuson (1864) ; A Complete 954 HITCHCOCK— HOARE. \nahjsiH of thi: Ifilile (1869), and has edited (with Drs. 5ddy nndSchiitT) Ih/mns rind .S'oii(/« u/ J'rniac (1S74) and A Eddv - , „ - - Hifmiia (mil .V..ii;/» /«)■ /Social and Nitbhalk Ifoi's/iip (1S75), Hitchcock (Samim:i. A.), a prominent citizen of Brim- field, M:i?s.. li. about 17S4; acquired great wealth, and was I distinguished as the founder of the llitcheock Free Ilijih School, Brimlicld. and as a liberal benefactor of Amherst College, Mass., Tabor College, la., Illinois College, Ando- vcr Theological Seminary, and of various churches and charities. These gifts e".\cecded ?fi,in,U0O in aggregate value. D. at Brimliclil Nov. 24, 1S73. Hit'cliin, town of England, in Hertfordshire, on the Ivel, has breweries, manufactures of straw-plaiting, and a trade in corn, malt, and Hour. Pop., with surroundings, 27,6,)7. Hitopade'sa [Sans., " good instruction "], a celebrated eolkclion of fables of a didactic character and quite an- cient origin, existing in the Sanscrit language. It is an abbreviation of the old J'anchiitnntni. The text of the Hilupadcsa was published by Von Schlegel and Lassen (Bonn, 1829), a German translation by M. MUIlcr (Lcipsic, 1S44), and an English translation by Wilkins and .Jones (17S7). In substance, the Hilopadcm is nearly identical with the reputed fables of Pilpay, and obviously came from the same source. Ilit'teren. an island on the W. coast of Norway, be- longing to the stift of Trondhjem, and important for its fisheries. It is 30 miles long by 10 miles broad, and has about 3700 inhabitants. Hit'tites [Heb. Chitii, "descendants of Heth "], a Ca- naanitish nation whose original seat was Hebron. They were a commercial race, are frequently mentioned on the Egvptian monuments, as well as in the Bible, and seem to bo noticed in the cuneiform inscriptions. After the eon- quest of Palestine it is almost certain that they established a Uingdom in the Orontes valley. Numbers of them re- mained with the Jews even as late as the time of Ezra and Nehemiah. The Egyptian records contain the names of several of the llittite kings. Hit'tic, tp. of Tazewell co., 111. Pop. 940. Hit'torff (J.vcorES Ig.vace), b. at Cologne Aug. 20, 179:i; studied in Paris; travelled through England, Ger- many, and Italy, where he spent two years in archieologi- cal studies in .Sicily; and d. in Paris JIar. 25, 1867. The most prominent of his works as a practical architect are — the Cirque de rimpcratriee. Hotel dc Louvre, and different embellishments of the Place de la Concorde and Bois de Boulogne. The most remarkable of his writings are — Archilcrliirr nnliqitc dc In Sicih and Aii-hiti^fturc iimdcrne, de la Sicilc, but especially his ArcliiUctiu-e Piih/clirame chez lea (irecs. showing the connection, with the Greeks, between painting, architecture, and sculpture. Hit'zig (FEUniNAND), b. June 2.'!, 1807, at Ilaningen, Baden ; studied after 1824 at the universities of Heidel- berg, Halle, and Gilltingen, and was in ls:i:i appointed pro- fessor at (ho University of Zurich, whence in ISfil he re- moved to that of Heidelberg. In Halle he heard Gcsonius, and from that time he concentrated his studies principally on the e.xegesis of the Old Testament: and by his freedom from dogmatic prejudices, by his comprehensive learning and acuteness, he contributed much to the true understand- ing especially of the Prophets and Psalms, on which he published large cxegetioal works. He also wrote Die Erfindnnii dm Alpluibrlii (1840), Urijesrliiclilc tind Mi/lhiilo- i/ic dcr I'liilhliicr (1S45), etc., and Oachichlc dea Volkea 'hrncl. D. in 1875. Ilivnna, an island in the Pacific Ocean, belonging to the .Maniiicsas. It is the most fertile and most densely peopled of the whole group, but its inhabitants, numbering about (i.'iOO, are described as the wildest and most inacces- sible to European civilization of all the Polynesian tribes. All efforts of missionaries. Catholic and Protestant, have go far been in vain. Ili'vites [Heb. Chilli, "midlanders" or "villagers"]. a Canaanitish race conquered by the Hebrews. A part of them, the Oibeonites and their neighbors, became Jewish proselytes, but the great mass of them, living in the region of Tyre, seem to have been unconqm-red ; but Solomon m:idc them tributaries, and even menial subjects. They were a peaceful commercial race, of whom little is known. HiAvas'scc, tp. of Clay co., N. C. Pop. 418. llix'toiif post-tp. of Jackson co.. Wis. Pop. 899. Iload'ley (Bksjamin), b. at Westerham, Kent, Nov. 14, l()7(i; was edui^ated at (^lare Hall, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in U197 ; took holy orders 1700; became rector of St. I*cler-le-poor 1702 ; rector of .'^treatham 1710; was distinguished by his advocacy of liow Church views in a famous controversy ("the convocation controversy") with Atterbury and others, Burnet and Wake being on Hoadley's side. In 1715 he was made bishop of Bangor, and in 1717 a sermon preached before the king on the words, •• My kingdom is not of this world," led to the famous Ban- goriau controversy, in which he was assailed by the non- jurors and the High Church party, headed by William Law, Archde;icon Warren, and Canon Suapc. This controversy led to the prorogation of the convocations and the almost complete extinction of their powers. In 1721 he was trans- lated to the see of Hereford, to Salisbury 172:'., and to Win- chester 17;U. 1). at Chelsea Apr. 17, 17GI. Among his works are—Lcllera on Miracles (1702). Jieaionahlenem of Ciinformilii (1703), Itrief Ue/enrc of £ptt(i>pal Ordinnlion (1707), .-1 J'rescnntitm uijainsl the Pi-incipht of Auu-jiiiors (171(5), Nnliire and End of the Lord's Siipp'-.r (1735).— His two sons. Bexjamin and Johx, also distinguished them- selves. The former was b. in London Feb. 10, 1706; stud- ied at Cambridge; took his degree as doctor of medicine in 1729 ; settled in London ; was appointed physician to the royal household in 174G; and d. at Chelsea Aug. 10, 1757. Ho wrote in 1747 the comedy The SiiHpiriunt Hun- hand, assisted Hogarth in his Aniilijiit of llcanii/, and pub- lished in 1750 Uhnervittions on a Seriei of Kleclric.al Exper- iments. — The younger brother, John, was b. in London Oct. 8, 1711; studied first law, and then theology: took orders, and became chaplain to the prince of Wales; d. Mar^l7, 1770. He wrote several comedies — The Contrant (1731) and Lores Reremje ( 1737)— several oratorios and pastor- ales, and edited his father's works. Hoaglin, tp. of Van Wert co., 0. Pop. 622. Iloang-IIai. See Yellow Sea. Hoailg-IIo ("yellow river"), one of the principal rivers of China, rises In Thibet, flows first in a north-east- ern direction into Mongolia, then in a scjuthern and south- eastern direction through China proper, and enters into the Yellow Sea in hit. 34" N. Its course is winding and tortuous; its current rapid and turbulent, and when it reaches the lowland it becomes almost unm;inageable, and is scarcely navigable. The immense amount of yellow clay which it "carries along with it, and from which it has re- ceived its name, is deposited partly at its mouth, partly along its bed. Thus, not only the level of its waters, but even the level of its bed, is higher than the surrounding hand, which must be protected against its inundations by immense levees. It costs the Chinese government yearly 87,000,000 to keep these levees in good repair, and an ex- tensive system of canals has been devised and constructed in order to lead p.arts of its waters into other river-beds, and prevent the devastations with which it threatens one of the most fertile provinces of the empire. Its principal affluent is Hoei-Ho ; among the large cities along its shores are Lan-Choo and Kai-Fung. In 1853 the Hoang-Ho broke from its old course, and began pouring its waters into the Yellow Sea by a mouth some hundreds of miles N. of its former one. Hoar (EnnxEZEU RorKWoon), LL.D., b. at Concord, Mass.. Feb. 21, ISIG, a son of Samuel Hoar (1778-1S56). He graduated at Harvard in 1835, and was admitted to the bar "in 1S40; was 1849-55 a judge in the court of common pleas : a judge of the supreme judicial court 1859-69 ; U. S. attornev-general 18(;U-7»; joint high commissioner on the Washington treaty of 1S71 ; member of Congress from Mas- sachusetts 1873-75. Hoar (CiEonuE Frisbie), a son of Hon. Samuel Hoar, b. at Concord. Mass., Aug. 29, 1826: graduated at Harvard in 1846; was admitted to the bar in 1819. and settled at Worcester, Mass. He was elected to the 41st Congress, and re-elected to the 42<1, 43d, and 41th. In 1877 was elected to the U. S. Senate from Massachusetts. Hoar (Samuel), LL.D., b. in Lincoln, Mass., May 18, 177S ; graduated at Harvard, 1802 ; was a teacher in Vir- ginia two years ; was admitted to the bar in 1805, and at- tained great eminence as a lawyer; was in 1820 a member of the State constitutional convention: a State senator 1825 and 1833: a State councillor 1815-40; and a member of Congress 1835-:;". In 1844 he was sent by the legisla- ture of Massachusetts to South Carolina to test the con- stitutionality of certain acts authorizing the imprisonment of free negroes from outside the Stale, and on Dee. 5 of that year he was forcibly expelled from Charleston, the State'legislaturo on the same day authorizing the governor to expel him. D. at Concord. .Mass.. Nov. 2, 1856. Ho was an active member of many charitable and religious organizations. Hoare (Sir Ruhard Colt), b. at Stourhead. England, Dec. tl. 1758; d. May 19. 183S. He inherited a large for- tune from his talher, and made extensive scientific travels on the Continent and in his native country, of which he published richly illustrated accounts: A Classical Tour HOABB— HOBBES. 955 tlirouijh /laly and .Sicili/ (181S) and Anciml Hitlurg of South Witlihire (8 vols.'folio, ISlO-l'J aud 1S22-52, edited by the aid uf other antiquanaDs). Hoare (Wh.i.iam), b. near Ipswich in 1707: d. at Bath in 17U2. lie was the first Englisli painter »hu \»ent to Rome to finish his education, and lie was onf of the orig- inal members of the Royal Academy. The best known of his paintings arc his portraits of Pitt, Ureuville, Lord Chesterfield, etc. — His son, I'uinck, was b. at Rath in 17J4, and d. at Rrightun in lSo4. After studying at the Uoyal Academy and in Rome, he succeeded Boswcll in 17'J'J as foreign secretary to the Academy, and was a very prolific dramatic writer, especially in the department of comic opera. Ho'atziDf the Opinthnnimus crislDtus, a South Ameri- can bird resembling somewhat the peacock in appearance. It exhibits a number of peculiarities in structure, and is the type of a group of (Jallinaceous birds of equal value with the Alccteromorphu' (PhasianiJie), Ptcrocloniorpliaj, and Tumicimorpha.'. It has a largo crop and a small giz- rard, is gregarious, and frequents marshes, where it feeds upon the leaves of -Irum arborctcciit. Its flesh has an in- tolerably rank taste. Ho'bart, tp. and post-v. of Lake co., Ind., on the Pitts- burg Kort Wavne and Chicago R. R., 33 miles S. E. of Chicago. Pop'. 1037. Hobart, post-v. of Stamford tp., Delaware co., N. Y., on the Delaware River, 4 miles below Stamford ; has a na- tional bank. Hobart (IlAnnisov C), b. at Ashburnham, Mass.; graduated at Dartmouth College 1S42; removed to Wis- consin in 1S46. and settled at Sheboygan ; was a member of the Territorial legislature and of the first State senate ; Speaker of the assembly ISjO; aceompanie<l the 4th Wis- consin Vols, to tho seat of war as captain ; subsequently appointed lieutenant-colonel and colonel of his regiment; was captured and confined in I.ibby Prison, Richmond, and one of tho party who escaped by means of tho famous tunnel in 18C4. In 1SC5 ho was Democratic nominee for governor of Wisconsin. 0. C. Siumons. Hobart (Jonx IIf.xrv), S. T. D., an American bishop, b. in Philadelphia Sept. 14. 177J ; graduated with honors at Princeton in 1793; was tutor there KUii-yS: ordained deacon of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 17"j;-, a priest in ISOl; became assistant bishop of Xew York in ISU, and bishop in ISIB. In 1799 he was made rector of Christ church, New Brunswick, N. J.; in ISOO, for a short time rector of St. Oeorge's, Hempstead, L. I., and in tho same year assistant minister of Trinity church. New York, of which in 1S12 ho became assistant rector, and in ISIO rec- tor. In 1S21 ho became professor of pastoral theology and pulpit eloquence in tho General Theological Seminary, New York, of which ho was one of the founders. Among bis \vrilings arc (Companion for the Altar (1S04), Apolotft/ for Aponlolir Oril.r (1807), 2 vols, of sermons (1824). (Sco Memoir by Wii.i.iAM Bkhiiias, IJ. D., published with his posthumous works (3 vols., 1H.13) ; Tlic Eorln Ycart of Iti-h,p Hobart f 1 834) and T/ie ProfonioHul Yearn of Ilithnp Hobart. by J. McViCKAB (1836). D. at Auburn, N. Y., Sept. 10, 1830. Hobart (.lonx Si.oss), LL.D., b. at Fairfield, Conn., in 173S; graduated at Yale in 17J7: was in tho Xew York Congress, and in Kfiii was appointed a member of a com- mittee to prepare a State constitution: became in 1777 a justice of the district court of Xew York, and afterwards was on the bench of tho Slate supreme court; U. S. Sena- tor in 179S; resigned in the same year, and became jus- tice of tho U. S. district court for New York. D. Feb. 4, ISUJ. Hobart Town, or Ilobarton, capital of Van Die- men's Land, on the navigable Derwent, which at its en- trance into .Storm Bay forms an excellent harbor, safe and accessible to the largest vessels. Hobart Town was ft>unded in 1801. It is beautifully situated at tho foot of Welling- ton Mountain, and well built with straight and broad rtrccts and many handsome buildings, among which thero a"e several Hpisco|)alian, llonian Catholic, ancl Presby- fjrian churches and a Jewish synagogue, and fine gov- ernment house, 4 banks, 3 public libraries. Has good public schools, gas anil water works, etc. It is connected with Mellunirno by steamers, and carries on quite a lively trade. It has an Anglican and a Roman Catholio bishop. Pop. 19,1192. Hob'bcma, nrHobbima (MixnF.nnorT), a celebrated Dutch landscape-painter. Of his personal life nothing is known, but the circumstance that the figures in his land- scapes are painted by Bi-rghem, Van der Velile. Lingelbaeh. and I. van T^oo shows that he lived in the latter part of tho seventeenth century, and by some be is believed to have been a disciple of Ruysdaol. Hi- painted mo^tly for- ests and ruins, and his pictures are found in all tho largo galleries. Uobbes (Thomas), one of the most distinguished think- ers of the period of English emancipation from scholasti- cism, b. Apr. 5, IciSS. at Malmesbury, in Wiltshire. His father was a country clergyman. After a thorough jircpa- ration, he was sent to tJxtord before his sixteenth year, and there studied .\ristotle and scholastic philosophy for five years, acquiring certain nominalistic principles which marked all his subsequent thinking, although be early assumed a hostile attitude towards scholasticism. Ho became tutor to the future earl of Devonshire, and in 1010 travelled with his charge through France, Italy, and Savoy. On his return, and on subsequent visits to the Continent, he met the foremost thinkers of the time, and became moro or less intimate with Lord Bacon, Ben Jonson, Lord Ed- ward Herbert of Chcrbury, Descartes, tiassendi, Ualileo; later in life with Selden, Cowley, and Dr. Harvey. In 102S he translated and published Thucydides, with the ex- press purpose of showing his countrymen a warning ex- ample of tho "fatal consequences of intestine troubles." Just at this time the foundations of civil order were shaken by tho struggle between the House of Stuart aud the sup- porters of individual liberty and the rights of conscience. Of an unusually timid disposition (congenital, arisiug from premature birth at the fright occasioned by the ap- proach of the Spanish Armada), Holibes felt very keenly the lack of security which the state should atford, and this subject (the state) "occupied his chief thoughts for tho rest of his life. Retiring to Paris with tho royalists in 1010, ho published a small edition of his Elcmciila J'liilotophiia tie Che in 1042, tho work being reprinted, much enlarged, in 1G17 at Amsterdam by the famous Elzevirs. In 1CJ7 ho became mathematical instructor to Charles, prince of Wales, a relation which was broken in alarm upon tho publication of his views on political, moral, and theological subjects in tho treatises (I) Treatise on Human Xaliirc in IGJO, (2) Dc Corpore Politico (London, IGjO), and (3) his collected views in tho Leviathan, or the Matter, Power, and Form of a Commonwealth, KcclcniaHtleal and Ciril, in IGJl. lie escaped persecution by fleeing secretly from Paris and taking refugo in England, where Cromwell's ab- solute power in 1GJ3 furnished a government much in nc- cordanco with Ilobbcs' doctrines. He published a remark- able Lctlerupon Liberty and Kcccseiti/in lGo4,and tho first and second divisions of his great work, Philosophieal itudi- ments, in IGjJ-oS; tho first division treating of Body, tho second division of Unman Katnrc, the third of the State. His Lcriathnn and I>e Cue were censured in Parliament in IGGG, and very many works were written to refute them, tho most able of these being Cudworth's Jntclteetual ,'?yslem. After tho Restoration, Hobbes received a pension of £100 from Charles II.. his former pupil. In lfi7J he published a translation of Homer's Jliail and Odyssey, lie wrote his autobiography in Latin vcr.sc. and his liehemolh, a dialogue on tho civil wars between 1G40 and IfiCO, was finished in tho year of his death, which occurred in Dec, 1G7U, at the scat of tho earl of Devonshire, his constant friend and supporter. The literary stylo of Hobbes is pronounced admirable, being always clear and never tedious. His system of phi- losophy was a materialistic scaffolding built for the purpose of suiijiorting and complementing his philosophy of tho state, which is his only valuable contribution to human thought, besides certain negative or skeptical principles afterwards elaborated by Locke and Hume. He held sen- sation to bo the basis of all knowledge; matter to be tho only reality ; philosophy to be the knowledge of efl'eets in their causes and of causes in their efl'eets ; scientific method, consequently, to bo twofold (ii) inductive or analytical, and (/.) deductive or synthetical. In his Prima I'hilutophia he defines the ideas of space, time, thing, cause, etc. some- what after the manner of the Schoolmen. But the subject of philosophy is the two kinds of bodies, natural and arti- ficial, the latter including human organizations, of which tho slate is tho highest example. He held mind to bo material ; thought to bo a process of adding and subtract- ing representations produced by |ihysical iiii|ires8ions ; language to be the most essential inslrumenlality to human life, rendering possible tho existence of civil society and tho state and the development of science and reason itself; ideas of good and evil to have their origin in the sensations of pleasure and pain; tho human will to be under thecon- trol of circumstances and necessity. The state of nature is not tho ideal slate of man, but a state of war on tho part of each against all — brlfnm omnium in omnm — and its result a condition of complete misery. .Self-interest im- pels man to combine wilh bis fellows and insliliite govern- ment, a " leviathan power" wbieh adjusts and subordinates individual selfishness and produees the maximum of hap- piness. Outside the state are found constant war, fear, 9r)(} HOBBS— HODGE. poverty, filth, ignorance, and wretchedness; within the state dwell peace, security, riches, science, and happiness. Coercion is essential, and absolute monarchy is the must perfect form of f;overnuicnt. Individual conviction should not be considered. The state is the (irand iMan which makes possible the rational development of the indi\'idual man, like a mortal god subduing his caprice and passion, and compelling obedience to law, developing the ideas of justice, virtue, and religion, creating |)roperty and own- ership, nurture and education, llobbcs was so uiucli im- pressed with the importance of the authority of the state that he could not appreciate the necessity of mediation by which the individual will shall be adjusted an<l reconciled to the universal will (of the state) through the principle of popular representation. Complete U'«)7.«. cd. by Moles- worth, IG vols, (a vols. Lat., 11 vols. Eng.), Loudon, IS'iil- 4i. Wm. T. Hariiis. Ilobbs, tp. of Jefi'erson CO., Neb. Pop. 378. Ilob'by, name given in Great Britain to certain small falcons, especially to the Hi/pntriorrhis suhliiitco, a bird about one foot in length and of very elegant shape. It was once much employed in hawking. Ilob'house ( Joiix Cam), Lorb Broi'chton', h. June 27, ITSO; graduated at Cambridge in 180S ; entered the cab- inet of Earl tlrey as secretary of war in \S?>\ ; was made secretary of state for Ireland in lS.'i:i, and president of the board of control from IS.^o to 1841 and from ISM to 1802 ; was created a baron in 1851, and d. Juno 3, ISIiO. His Jintninf tlirom/h Alhniiia and other Pi-nvinCfH of Tnrhtij villi Lnrci llf/roii (1812). lUmtratiDnn of the Fourth Canto of Cliililc llarold (1818), and Itulii (1859), attracted much attention. Ilo'bokcil, city of Iludson co., N. J., on the W. side of the Hudson River, directly opposite New York City, and N. of and adjoining Jersey City ; incorporated in 1855. Four lines of European steamers start from this point, and the jNIorris and Esse.x and the Delaware Lackawanna and Western R. Ks. have their eastern termini here, and con- nect the city with all the great railroad systems S. and W. of New York City. Various lines of street-cars also con- nect it with .Tersey City and the villages in the northern part of the county. Its trade in coal is extensive, it being one of the principal d^pOts from which New York City and its shipping are supplied. It has 3 good public schools, several academies, 12 churches, 3 weekly newspapers, the St. Mary's Hospital, 2 savings and 1 national bank, several foundries, and a large lead-pencil factory. Prominent among its academics is tlie Stevens Institute of Technology, which has very extensive, expensive, and complete appa- ratus and arrangements for teaching the natural sciences and their applications to the arts and industries. The Franklin Lyceum Association has a library of over 2(100 volumes. Its jirincijial industries are connected with the European steamers and the coal-docks. Pop. 20,297. DoNALo Maxs, Ed. "Hidson County Democrat." llob'son's Choice. It is related in the Spectator (oO'.l ) that Tobias Hotjson, university carrier at Cambridge and the subject of two jioems by Milton, was the first per- son in England who kejit a hackney-stable. He always politely asked his customers to take their choice of his forty horses, but no matter which horse was chosen, Hob- son always managed to put off tlie traveller with the horse which stood nearest the door. Hence " Hobson's choice" signifies a nominal choice with no real alternative. Hoche (Lazark), b. June 25, 176S, at Montrcuil, the son of a poor workman, who could give him no education. In 1784 he enlisted in the army ; in 1791 he fought as ser- gcjint in the regiment of Gardes Franyaises with the rab- ble before the door of JLirie.\ntoinolte; in 1792 he became lieutenant In the regiment of Rouerguo; and ii. 179.'! he distinguished himself in the siege of ThionviUc and in tlie battle of Neerwindcn. Having been imprisoned on sonic suspicion, he sent a jilan of a campaign to the Committee of l*ublic Safety, and he was immediately liberated, made a brigadier-general, ami sent to serve in the army of Hou- ehard. He soon received an independent command, and in 1793 he defeated the .\ustrians at Weissenburg. and com- pelled them to withdraw from Alsace. In 1795 he foiled the invasion of the royalists and the English, attempted from the peninsula of Quiberon. In 179tj he pacified the Vend6e, while his expedition to Ireland failed, as stormy weather scattered his ships. In Apr., 1797, he again eom- nnindcd against the .-Vustrians, and defeated them in three battles; ho was at Wetzlar when the armistice of Lisbon ended the war. In the fall of that year he was suddenly taken ill. and d. Sept. IS. twenty-nine years old; a post- mortem examination showed that he had been poisoned. Hochela'^&9 county of Quebec, Canada, includes the eastern part of the island of Montreal in the river St. Lawrence. It territorially includes the city of Montreal, which, however, does not belong to it. Cap. Hochclaga. Pop. 25,1140. tlocbelaga, the eounty-seat of Ilochelaga CO., Que- bec, Cunada, is a beautiful suburb of Montreal, with which it is connected by a street railway. Its convent of the Holy Name is the largest nunnery in the province. Pop. of sub-district, IDtil. Hoch'heim, town of Prussia, in the province of IIcsso- Nassau, is situated on the Main, and is celebrated for its excellent wine. Pop. 2536. noch'kirch, v. of Saxony. 7 miles S. E. of Bautzen. Heri! Frederick the (Jreat was completely defeated by the Austrians under Daun, Oct. 14, 1758, llochst) town of Prussia, in the province of Hesso- Nassau,at the influx of the Nidda into the .Main, is noted for the battles fought here — June 20, 1(122, in which Tilly defeated Duke Christian of Brunswick, and Oct. 11. I79.>, in which the Austrians defeated the French under Jourdan. Pop. 3013. Iloch'stildt, town of Bavaria, on the Danube, is fa- mous for the battle fought here Aug. 13. 1704, in which the Austrians and English under Prince Eugjne and Marl- borough utterly defeated the French and Bavarians. The battle is by the English named after Blenheim (or Blind- hcim). a small village near HochslUdt, at which one of the most decisive episodes of the battle took place. Hock, a popular name in Great Britain for all Rhenish wines. It originally designated the wines of Hochheim, in the Main Valley. Of the Hochheim vineyards, the small Dcchancrei and Stein plantations, the property of the (jer- mnn emperor, have the best reputation. Still and spark- ling hocks are produced. (See RiiBNtsH Wines.) Hock'ing, or Hockhocking, a river of Ohio, rises in Fairfield co.. Hows S. E. through Hocking CO., and joins the Ohio in .Vthens co., after a course of 80 miles. For nearly 70 miles it is navigable for boats; the Hocking Ca- nal connects with the Ohio Canal. Hocking, county of S. E. Central Ohio. Area, about 390 square liiiles. It is hilly and fertile, and has mines of coal and iron. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are sta|)lo products. It is intersected by the Hocking Valley R. R. and the Hocking River and Canal. Cap. Logan. P. 17,925. Hocking, tp. of Fairfield co., 0. Pop. 2005. Hock Tide, or Hoke Days, the Monday and Tues- day occurring two weeks after Easter, a former English festival in memory of Ethelred's great victory over the Danes in 1002. Tolls were taken at the town-gates and money was collected throughout the parish for the priest. Traces of the old customs existed in some places in the eighteenth century. Hodcida', or El Hndaidah, seaport of Arabia, on the Red Sea, in lat. 11^ 40' N., about 2 miles N. W. of Jloeha. is of some importance for the transfer of jiilgrims from India and for the exportation of coffee. , Hodg'don, |iost-tp. of Aroostook co.. Me., on the New Brunswick line, miles S. of Iloulton. It has 3 churches, and manufactures of furniture and lumber. Pop. 989. Hodge (ARciiinAi.n Alexaxoer), D. D., son of Dr. Charles Hodge, noticed below, was b. in Princeton, N. .1., July 18, 1823; graduated at the ('(dlege of New Jersey in 1841; was tutor 1844—10; graduated at Princeton Theo- logical Seminary in 1847; went the same -year as a mis- sionary to .Vllahabail, India; returned in 1850 on account of the impaired health of his wife ; was settled as a pastor in Lower West Nottingham, .Md., 1851-55; at Fredericks- burg, Va., l855-(il ; and at Wilkesliarre, Pa., 18l)l-fi2. In 181)4 he was elected by the General Assembly of the Pres- byteri.au Church to the chair of diilactic, historical, and polemic theology in the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa. In connection with the professorship, ho became in 18fiG pastor of tho North Presbyterian church of the same city. In 1862 he received the degree of D. D. from the College of New Jersey. He has published Out- linen of Theoloi/!/ (1860), The Atonrmcnl {]>ia7), Comnieut- ari/ oil the Coiifcniiion of Faith (1869). Ho wrote for this work the admirable article on Calvinism. . R. D. Hitchcock. Hodge (Ciiari.es), D. D., LL.D.. of Scotch-Irish do- scent, was b. in Philadelphia, Pa., Dec. 2.S 1797. His father. Dr. Hugh Hodge, a physician of large practice and great promise, d. early. In 1812 ho entered the sophomore class in the College of New Jersey, and graduated with tho highest honors in 1815. From 1816 to 1819 he was a stu- dent in the Theological Seminary at Princeton, in the same class with Bisho|)S McUvaine and Johns. In 1820 ho ac- cepted tho ap|iointment of assistant teacher of the original languages of Scripture in the seminary, and in 1822 was HODGE— HOEFER. 957 elected l>y tho Ocncrnl Assomblv professor of Oriental nnd biblical literature. In 182S he returned to liis chnir, alter an absence of some Ibree years spent in study at the uni- versities of Paris, Halle, and lierlin. In 1810 he was transferred to Ibe chair of exegetical and didactic theology, to which, in 1S02, polemic theology was added. Dr. Archi- bald Alexander, the incumbent of that prof.s.-orship, bav- in- d in ISJl. He was moderator of the General Assem- bly (Old School) at Philadelphia in ISKi, and in 1858 one of a committee to revise the Unnk o/ Olsiiplnic The cel- ebration at Princeton, Apr. 21, lS72,of the seini-centennml anniversary "f his professorship was a memorable occasion, the first of" its kind in American history. The patriarch of our theological professors, he is still (1S7..) in active service. His contributions to sacred literature have been of the most scholarly and solid character. In 1S2j ho founded the Jl,b!,\<,l Repertory, the scope of which was enlar-ed and Princeton Jieview added to us title in ISi'J. In \ST> it was united with the PrcHhjtiruin Qutirlerhj and American Theot,„iic,d Rerie,e,x\ve organ of the New School branch. Till then, for nearly forty years, ho had been not only editor-in-chief of the Prineeinn Perlnr, but also chief contributor, more than one-fifth of all that was written for it coming from his pen. He has also published A t-.m- menlnrn on the F.pixlh to the Aomn.n ( IMo ; .abridged 18:ill; rewritten and enlarged 1860), Connlilntiontil History t,f the Pretbi/leridn Church in the V. S. (2 vols., 1810-41), The W'nii of Life (1842), commentary on Ephc.^innii(K^f>), Fir.l Corinthian, (1857), Second (V„n.Mm»« ( ISGO), Hhat i, Daneini^mr (1874). But the great work of h.s life is S«,lemalic Theoloq,, (3 vols., 1871-721. which is regarded as one of the ablest expositions of Calvinism ever made. (See Index Volume of the llib. Rep. and Princ. Her. from 1SS5 to y.W.f ( 1 87 1 ) and Semi-Cenlennia! Commemoration of the Pro- /e,.or,hip of CharlcH Hodge, D. U., LL.n.. Serf. U. 1873 (1S72).) D. .June 19, 1878. K- B. Hitchcock. IIocl:;e (Hcfiii Lkxox), M. D., LL.D., b. in Philadel- phia June 27, 1790, brother of Prof. Charles Ilodgo and son of Dr. Hugh Ilodgc, an eminent practitioner ; gradu- ated at Princeton with honors 1814; took tlie medical de- gree in 1S17 at the University of Pennsylvania; professor of obstetrics in that institution 1S35-0:1, when he became emeritus professor. Author of a !<;ittem of Ohsietrto and a work on DiteancD Peculiar to iroMcii, both standard treatises of the first authority ; wrote much and ably for the professional journals, and had a wide fame as a prao- tition.r and instructor. D. at Philadelphia Feb. 23, 1873. HodRC (H. Lksox), M. A., M. D., b. .luly 30, 1836, in Philii.lclphia, Pa.; studied at the University of Pennsyl- vania, and received the degrees of li. A. lH5o, M. A. 1S,->S, and AI. D. 1S58: was resident physician in the Pennsyl- vania Hospital 1858-fiU. In ISUl was appointed demon- strator of surgery and chief of the surgical dispensary of the U'nivcrsity of Penn.sylvania, and in 1870 was made demonstrator of analoiuv. During llio war was one of the surgeons attached to the U. S. Satterlee Hospital, belonged to the Pennsylvania reserve corps of surgeons, and was pension examining surgeon to the U. S. Sanitary Commis- sion ; was present with the army in McClellan's campaign before Uiehmond. in the tietlysburg campaign, and at Fred- oricksburg in (irant's advance on Uiehmond ; has been at- tending surgeon to the Children's Hospital since I8(il, and attending surgeon to the Presbyterian Hospital since its opening in 1872. He has written and pnldishcd a number of articles in medical journals in connection with original investigations on the sulijectsof metallic sutures, treatment of fractures of the thigh by an improved apjiaratus, drain- age of wounds by a solid metal probe insti-ad of Chas- saignac's soft-rubber tube, deformities after liip disease, tracheotomy in eases of pseudo-membranous croup, ovari- otomy, and' a new form of trochar for the evacuation of ovarian and oilier fluids, excision of the hip-joint, etc. IloUgc'mnn, county of the W. of Kansas, in tho valley of the Arkansas. Area, UOO square miles. It is well adapted to gra/.ing. Iloirgenvillc, post-v., county-scat of La Rue oo., Ivy. pop. 4114. Iloil'ces (.IamesI, h. at Qneenborough, Kent. England. IKIil; was assistant engineer of the railway tunnels and clifi'-works near Dover 183!I-I4 ; was employed upon tho eonslruclion of Lowestoft harb.ir 1S41-48; eonslructing on"ineer of the (Irand Trunk Railway. Canada. IS59 »■,,.; and published in 1800 o folio account of tho Victoria Bridge at .Monlrial. Ilotlgcs (Wii.i.iAM).b. in London about 174-1; painted landscapes and theatrical decorations; accompanied, in 1772, Cook on his South Sea voyage, and furnished the illiistrntions to his account; went in 1784 to India on tho invitation of Warren Hastings. Published in 1792 Traveh til India, with plates, and d. liar. 0. 1797. Ilodg'kinson (Eatos), b. at Andcrton, Cheshire, Feb. 26, 1789; evinced early a decided talent for tho study of mechanics : made a series of experiments concerning tho strength of iron when applied as eoUiuins, for an account of which he received ihe gold medal of the lioyal Society; made the calculations entering into the construction of tho Britannia bridge, which were rewarded with a medal at Paris in 1855; was appointed a memlier in 1S47 of the royal commission on the application of iron in railway buildings ; and communicated a number of valuable en- gineering papers to the Trau«iicii„ni> of the British Asso- ciation. D. at Broughton, near Manchester, June 18, 1861. Ilodp'son (Jons E.),b. in London in 1811 ; made many studies ill Venice and the East; and was in 1873 elected an associate of the Royal Academy. Of his pictures, The Rcorrjanizaliun of the Army of .Morocco and The ,Snake- Charmcr arc the most widely known. Hodsson (William Ballaxtyxk), a political econo- mist, b. at Edinburgh in IS15; studied at the university of his native city ; was princinal of the Liverpool Institute from 1839 to 1847, and of the Chorlton High School in Mani'hester from 1847 to 1851; traveled through France, Italy, lleriiiaiiv, and Switzerland; resided from 1803 to 1870 in London, where ho acted as examiner in )iolitical economy at the University of London ; and was in 1S71 appointed professor in political and cominereial economy and mercantile law at the University of Edinlnirgh.^ His principal writings are — Lecture on KdncoH'iu ( 1837 ), Cl(ti«i- cal /ii«()-ii<7i'oii(i853). The Conditions of Health and Wealth educaliouallii considered (1860), E-eam/eraled EHtinmtcsof Reading anil Writinfi aa Means of Education (1807), II hat is Capital ? (1868), True Scope of Economic Science (1870), Competition (1870), and Turyot, his Life, Times, and Opin- ions (1870). Ho'dograph [iSit, " path," and y^dif^v, to "write" or "describe"]. If from any fixed point lines be drawn at every instant representing in magnitude and direction the velocity of a point describing any path in any manner, the cxiremiliej of these lines form a curve which is called the hodoiiraph. The invention of this construction is due to Sir W. R. Hamilton, and the most beautiful of tlie many remnrkable theorems to which it leads is this: The hodo- yraph for the motion of a planet or comet is always a circle, lehatcrer he the form and dimensions of the orbit. Since the radius-vector ol' the hodogiaph represents the velocity at each instant, it is evident that an elementary are represents the acceleration, and thus a finite arc represents the whole acceleration of the moving point during the corresponding time; and it is evident also that the tangent to the hodo- gra|)h is parallel to the direction of the acceleration of the moving point in the corresponding position of its orbit. (J'/iom«oit and Tail.) The intensity of heat and light emanating from a point, or from a uniformly radiating spherical surface, diminishes with increasing distance ac- cording to the same law as gravitation, llcncc the amount of heat and light which a planet receives from the sun dur- ing any interval is proportional to the whole acceleration din-ing that interval— i'. e. to the corresponding arc of the holograph. From this it is easy to see, for example, that if a comet move in a parabola, the amount of heat it re- ceives from the sun in any interval is proportional to tho angle through which its direction of motion turns during that interval. There is a corresponding theorem for a planet moving in an ellipse, but somewhat more compli- cated, {[bid.) Ilodom'ctor [Gr. JSdt, a "road," and ^^rpov, "mea- sure'], a more correct form of tho word OBoMKrEii (which see). Hoe, an instrument of farm-husbandry of various forms. The best known is a plate of steel attached to a handle at Bomewhat less than a right angle, and used for cutting and drawing the earth. The shulllehoe is drawn and thrust backward and forward for the purpose of cutting oil weeds. Various forms of horse-hoe are used for cultiva- ting those crops which arc jdanted in rows and drills. Hoc (RiciiAnn March), an inventor, b. in New York Sept. 12. 1812, Ihe son of Robert Hoc (1784-1833), an in- genious English mechanician who became a maniifaclurer of printing-presses in New Voik. li. .M. Hoc liecamenfter his father's death a partner in the business, to which was addeil the umnufacturc of saws, in which Mr. Hoc intro- duced important improvements. In lSII,Mr. Hoe, with his brothers, Uohert Hoe and Peter Smith Hoe, assumecl the whole business, the former partners retiring. In 1816 he brought out " Hoe's lightning press," extensively cm- ployed for ncwspa]icr-work. It has been since much im- proved. He has also made many less celebrated inventions. HooTcT (JoiiANN CiiiiisTUN Fkimuna Nil), b. Apr. 21, 181 1, at Dii.scbnitj, iu the princijiality of Scliwary.burg-Ru- 958 HOEI^HIN— HOFFMAN. dolstadt, aod educated at the gymnasium of Kudolstadt. la 18;iU lie started, lor the sake of his health, on a rather adventurous journey : went from Urcmen to Lille, where he enlisted in the foreign legion as a soldier, and from LiHe to Marseille?, wlience lie was sent to Xavarino, the station of his regiment : returned in 1831 to France anci, taught for- eign languages at the Colleges of Lyons, St. Ktienne. and Jlnanne; co-operated with Cousin in translating Kant's KritiK- der reinen Vcrnuuft in 1834, and removed to Paris, where he began to study natural science and medicine, while he made his living hy writing and translating for ilitTerent periodicals. In IS40 he received the degree of doctor, and in 1848 he was naturalized as a French citizen. The most prominent of his writings arc — l/iittnire de la Vhiinie (IS42), the first complete history of the science of chemistry; Dtctionmtire d*- Pfiysit/ite ct de (^himic (1S46), J)c ^ft'dt^>:ill€ pratitfuc (1847), De /iotaiiique {ISitO}^ D'Aijri- culture et d' Hortivtdtnrc (1855), IHstoircs du Caf6, dtt Cho- cofat, dc la Pomtne de Terre, dn Lotim, du Poivriery etc. (1850-51), TftHfoire du Mnroc (1848); besides a great num- ber of articles in the ISiograpkie GC-iiCratc, of which he is editor-in "chief. Hoci-Shiii, or Hui-Shen, a Booddhist monk from China, who. according to his own narrative, regularly en- tered on the Chinese Year-Books, returned a. n. 4U9 from a long journey to the East, where, as he declared, ho had visited a country which, according to the distances as he gave them, would be California or Mexico. He de- scribes a plant as being very common there which he calls fu8an<i, and from which he named the country. From its fruit, "like a red pear," and the description of the cloth and paper made from its fibres, this appears to have been the maguay or Agave Americana^ so cliaracteristic of the country. ** No iron." he says, "is found in this land, but copper, gold, and silver are not prized, and do not serve as a medium of exchange in the market." In this and all other particulars the narrative of Iloei-Shin applies ac- curately to what is known in part of Mexico and in part of Peru. The monk declares that he found Booddhistic institutions which had been introduced fifty years before him by five beggar-priests from Kipin (Beloochistan). The writer in a work on this subject {Fn-sanfj, or the Dis- covery of America bij Chinese Jiooddhist Priests in the ' Fifth Ccntunj, London) explains the coincidence of certain details in the narrative with what is known of Peru by the probability that Peruvian customs derived from Mexico descended to the South subsequent to the fifth century. The account of Fusang w.as first introduced to Europe by a learned Sinologist, De (iuignes, who in 17G1 published an admirable memoir on the subject in the Memoiren dc VAca- dimie des /nmcri/jtioiis et Pctlea-Lettrcs (vol. xxviii.). In 1S41, Prof. Karl Neumann translated Iloei-Shin's narrative again more accurately from the original, adding to it copious comments of his own. This work, translated by the writer into English, with the aid and under the super- intendence of Prof. Neumann, appeared in the New York Knickerbocker Magazine in 1S50. Be Guigncs' memoir was attacked by Klaprolh in his Annalca des Empereura du Japan in a spirit very little to his credit: but Klaproth was in turn refuted in a series of articles distinguished for their moderate tone, but replete with sagacious criticism and sound scholarship, by M. Gustavo d'Eichthal {Revue Archiologique, Paris, 18r>2-f>.3). (See also L'Amvrique sous Ic nam de pays du Pu-Sang, ait ctlc (tv cannue en Af^ic dts Ic ciHquieme sierlc dc notre era, dans lrn f/randcs annalcs de la Chine, Paris, by M. Tauavky ; also, by the same writer, L' Amt'ritfue souH Ic nam dc Pu-Saug — \ourfillc8 eprcures que la pat/s dc Fu-Sang est V AmSriquc (quoted by Andrae and Geiger, 1804. Biblinthrca Sinilogicu).) Julius lleinrich von Klaproth renewed his attack from the .1«jtrt/(« d'F. du Japan in 1831 in a work entitled Rcchcrchcs snr It pays dc Fou-sang mentionnS dans Ics Hvres chinnis et pria mat apr^s pour une partie de VAmiriqnCy in Xouvelles Annales des I'oi/agrs, t. 21, deuxii-mc .SV/'jc, 1851 ; also K. F. Neumann, Ontanien nnd West-Antcrika, Zcllichrift fur allgemcinc Erd- knndcf Apr., 1864, and an artielo by Jos6 Perez in the Revue oricntalc ct Am^riruinc, No. 46, p. 189, 195. A few minor articles on the subject were also published in the NatcH and Qutrics for China and Japan, 1667-70, and the VhincHc Recorder for 1870. A summary of all that has ap- peared on the subject, with the most perfectly revised ver- sion of the original Chinese narrative of Iloei-Shiu yet made, including an article by Col. Barclay Kennon, late of the North Pacific U. S. surveying expedition, on the feasi- bility of a passage from China to California, may be found in the work Fu-nang already cited. C. G. Leland. Hoc'ven, van der (Jan), h. Feb. 9, 1801, at Rotter- dam ; stuilie<I medicine at Leyden ; practised 1826 at Rot- terdam ; became professor of zoology at Leyden in 1S35; and d. there Mar. 10, 1868. Ho wrote a Handbook of Zoology (1833). which was translated into German and English, and liijdragen tot de natuur lijke Geachiedenia van den Xegerstam (1842). Hof, town of Bavaria, in Upper Franconia. on theSaalo. It iias extensive manufactures of cotton, woollen, linen, leather, and colors. Pop. 16,010. Ho'i'er (Andreas), b. at St. Leonard, in the Tyrol, Nor. 22, 1767 : became a vintner and horse-merchant; took com- mand of a party of riflemen serving against the French 1706 ; took a prominent part (1803-09) in the public affairs of the Tyrol; led in the uprising of the people against the French and Bavarians 1SU9; gained the important battles of Sterzing and Innspruck : defeated Lefebvre and drove him out of the province, and was declared ruler of the Tyrol. Soon after, Austria having been reduced to submis- sion by Napoleon, Hofer became unable to sustain himself. Betrayed for money by one of his most trusted followers, he was taken prisoner and shot by order of Napoleon at Mantua Feb. 20, 1810. liofl^man (Charles Fexxo), A. M.,b. in New York in ISOG, and educated at Columbia College. In 1817 he met with an accident which required the amputation of a log. When twenty-one years of ago he was admitted to the bar, and was afterwards editorially connected with the New Y'ork American, the Knirkerbucker Magaziuc, the New York J/iVror, etc. He published -4 M'intcr in the irc«( (1835), Wild Scenes in the Forest and Prairie (1837), Greyslaer, a novel (1840), The Vigil vf Faith and Other Poema (1842), The Echo, poems (1844), Love's Calendar (1S4S), and an edition of his poetical works, edited by E. F. Hoffman, ap- peared in 1874. He was in 184G-47 editor of the literary World, and soon after was attacked by a mental disease, in consequence of which he has since lived in retirement. Ho is a brother of Ogden Hoffman. Hoffman (David), LL.D. Oxon.. J. U. D. Gottincen, b. in Baltimore Dec. 25, 1784; was professor of law in the University of Maryland 1817-36 ; after which he practised law in Philadelphia, though passing some years in Europe, from which he returned in 1853. He jiublished ^1 Course of Legal Study (1836), Legal Outlines, Miscellaneous Thoughts, etc., by Anthony Grumbler (1837), Viator (1841), Legal Hints (1846), Chronicles from the Originals of Cnrtaphiluaf the Wandering Jew. D. in New Y'ork Nov. 11, 1854. Hoffman (John Thompsox). LL.D., b. at Sing-Sing, N. Y., Jan. 10, 1828; graduated in 1846 at Union College; was admitted to the bar in 1849 ; became in 1860, and again in 1863, recorder of New York City ; was Democratic mayor of New York 1866-09; governor of the SUte 1869-73. Hofiman (MrRRAvl. b. in New Y'ork Sept. 29, 1791; graduated in 1809 at Columbia College; was admitted to the bar. and was (1839—13) assistant vice-chancellor, and (1853-61) judge of the superior court of New York. Ho has published Office and Duties of' Masters in Chancery [WU), Practice in the Court o/ CAniiccn/ (1840-43, 3 vols.), Treatise on the Corporation of Xcw York, Vice-Chancery Reports (1839-40), On the Law of the Protestant Episcopal Church (1850), Ecclesiastical Law in Xew York (1868), The Ritual Law of the Church (1872). D. May 7, 1873. Hoffman (Ocden). a son of Judge Josiah Ogden Hoff- man, b. in New York in 1799, and graduated at Columbia College in 1812; served three years as a midshipman in the war with (treat Britain; was admitted to tbe bar of Orange co., N. Y.; removed to New York City in 1826; became a partner of Hugh JIaxwell, and held various im- portant ottices ; was a member of Congress 1837-41, and was again elected in 184S. In 1854 he was chosen attorney- general of New Y'ork. D. May 1, 1S56. He was a most able and eloquent jury-lawyer, and a prominent Whig leader. Hoffman (William), b. in the city of New York Dec. 2, 1SU7 ; graduated from the U. S. Military Academy, and entered the army as brevet second lieutenant of infantry, rising through successive grades to be colonel, 1S62; he early saw much active service in the Black Hawk and Florida wars against the Sac and Seminole Indians, being thus engaged and on frontier duty till 1S46; in the war with Mexico ho participated in the siege of Vera Cruz and the various battles up to and including the final assault and capture of the city of Mexico, receiving the brevets of major and lieutenant-colonel for gallant conduct. Subse- quently he commanded various expeditions, being on duty in Texas at the outbreak of the civil war in 1861, where he was made a prisoner of war; exchanged Aug., 1862. Ap- pointed commissary-general of prisoners in 1862, ho super- vised and controlled all captured and paroled prisoners until thocIo«eof the war (brevetted brigadier-general and major- general), when ho assumed command of his regiment. At his own request he was in 1870 retired from active service. G. C. SlUMO.NS. HOFFMANN— HOGAN. 959 HolTinann (Kiinst Tiieodob Wiliiklm), a German novelist o( great lalciit, but of somewhat unsound cliarnc- rer, b. at Konigsbcrg in 1770. lie stuilieil law, and held for some years various judieial offices in I'osen and War- saw. In isilJ he was upiioinlcd councillor of the court of judicature in lierlin, in which city he d. iu 1S:.'2. Ilia life was full of troubles and very unhappy. lUs father, who deserted him, was a man of bad temper, and his uncle, who educated him. >vasa man of pedantic character. Hchim.'^eir, who had his father's temper, was Iriiincd to take his uncle's habits, and the result was an unnaturaliiess and unsound- ness of mind which he never outgrew. In his early man- hood ho was thrown out of his position by Napoleon's in- vasion, and for several years he was compelled to earn an uncertain livelihood by giving lessons in music and drawing, two arts of which he was a perfect master ; he composed several operas. When ho was once more re- instated in his judicial office ho evinced an irritability of mind and had contracted habits which made him unfit for society. He retired from the drawing-room to the tavern, where his sparkling wit and brilliant imagination soon gathered a circle of revellers around him. and where the last of his fine gifts were as rapidly destroyed. His first book, Plmntasie-tluchc in CiIIuI'k Mtiiiier (1S14), is a col- lection of essays or papers chiefly on music, and iu spite of a somewhat wilful singularity, both in slylo and ideiis, they belong to the finest and most charining efforts of tier- man genius. His next great work, Elexicrc ilea 'I'cii/eh (1816), is still more brilliant and powerful, though it is wild, weird, and eccentric. His last effort was Lcbcim amichlen (/<■« A'<.(er-.Wurr (1S2I-22); but although this book by many is considered his chief work, it is really only the ruin of his mind. Its humor is forced, its pathos is bombast, its irony is despair, and its passion is hardly anything more th;m gesticulation. Among his minor nov- els there arc many which may be considered as master- pieces, such as Mchler .If.iifi'n, Fraiilfin .fciirftry, Dii'jc wid Oii<ji:rrm,-, etc. : and for the student of (Jerman genius and character his writings in general are of the greatest importance. t'l.KME.NS PeTEUSES. IIotTmann (Friedricii), JI. !>.. F. K. S., b. at Halle, Germany, Feb. I'J. lOliO; graduate.l .M. I), at Jena lOSl; practised medicine with great renown at Minden and Ilal- borstadt; became physician to the king of Prussia 170S; was professor of medicine at Halle lGy.i-17-12. D. at Hallo Nov. 12, 1742. Hoffmann is memorable as one of the first to introduce the modern or scientific spirit into the Galenic or regular meilical system of his time. His special medical theories, however, were of only temporary value, and have been long forgotten. His greatest work was Si/alcma Mcdi- ciii/c Katinnalia (U vols.. 1718-40). Others were Mcdichm Cunaullatoria (12 vols., 1721-:;9) and other works, includ- ing 5 vols, of posthumous OpuacuUi. His name is perpetu- ated by " HolTmann's anodyne" (SptriUit Ktherin cumpus- ilw), a preparation devised by him. HofTmann (.Iean Jacques), b. at Bile in 1835. He studied in his native city, where he later on became profes- sor in Greek and history, and where he d. May 10, 170fi. His principal works arc— i«iVoii UuircriMle Hialnn'co- (lr;;liai>lnr,i.Ch,ulloloriirr,-f'ortico-Phi!ijlo;liilim (1007) and JIUlurM I'ltpiirHiii (I0S7), besides a great number of I'ocm- alix and iJiitKrrlitliiiiiea. IlalTmann (Wiliielm), D. D., b. at Kornthal ISOR; sluilicd at Tubingen : president of the mission-house at Bille for twelve years; chaplain to the king of Prussia, nnd general superintendent of IJrandeuburg ; d. at Berlin Aug. 2S, 1S73. An able s.diolar anrl eloquent preacher. Wrote against Strauss in defence of the gospel history, several volumes of sermons, and on the mission of Prussia and Germany. Iloifmann von Fallorslpbcn (Air.rsT HEisnini). b. Apr. 2, IT'.IH. at Fallersleben. in Hanover: studied at Giittingen ami Bonn ; became libriirian in l.s2:i, and pro- fessor of German language and literature in l»:iU at the University of Brcsinu, but was dismissed in 1812 on ac- count of his Vnpiililitchi- Lirilrr, and banished from Prus- sia. For several years he led a wandering life, but settled in lS4i in Mecklenburg; was rehabilitate.! in Pru.ssia in 1S4S and received a pension; edited 1854-07 the ll'iciimr Jiilirhiich, and became in 1800 librarian at tho castle of Corney. The most prominent of his linguistic and histor- ical writings are— //...« /;.7./,-.ic (18:10-02), Fiimhjruhen fur Oftihiclilr JJri,lH,-hrr Spniihr mid ii/cradir (ISIiO-.l"), J?c- arhir-hlc dm IhiiUchi-n Kirrhetdkdit hit a«f Luther (18:!2), Die Ijeul-rhrn (leielUchtiftilieder drt 16 nnd 17 Jahrhundcrl (1800). Of his poems, besides tho above mentioned, f'li- poliliiche Lieder (1811). AUrmiimiinehe. hicdcr (1843), Sul- dnteuli.d.r (1851), h'Inderliedrr (1845), etc. IIoirinailllN .VnOllyllC iSpirilua irlheria rnmpnailuii), a valuable anndyin- mixture of eomniou ether, cthylic alco- hol, and the heavy oil of wino. It overcomes spasm, pain, ami nausea. It is very expensive, and consequently much that is sold under this name is a oouiparativcly worthless mixture. It was named from its inventor, FriedricL HofT- mann (1000-1742). Iloiriiiannscgs: (Joiian CEXTnnitis), Coi-nt, b. in Dresden .May 2:i, 1706. and d. there Dec. 1.3, 1849. Ho studied at Leipsic and Gottingcn, and spent four years in Portugal exploring the flora of that country. From 1809 to 1833 he pui)lished in Berlin liis magnificent Flore l\>r~ tuijniae in Latin and French, containing descriptions of sev- eral hundred new plants. He also wrote Yofjuije en Furtu- <jal (1805). Ilofhof, or El Ilofhof, town of .\rabia, in thcLahsa oasis, near lal. 25° 20' oG" N., Ion. 49° 40' 50" E., about 4 miles S. of Mebarraz. It is somewhatdecayed. Pop. 24,000. Ilofland (Bahdaka), b. in 1770 at Sliefiield. Eng.. tho daughter of Robert Wreaks, a inanutneturer ; married in 1790 Jlr. Hoole, who d. in 1798, and in 1808 Mr. Holland, an artist; produced about 70 novels and moral tales; and d. Nov. 9, 1844. The besl^known of her compositions are The C/erffymau'a Widow and Tlic Son of tt Gcniua. Ilo'llcr (Karl AnoLpn Konstaxtin), b. at Meminin- gen, Bavaria ; studied at Munich and Giittingen ; visited Italy; became professor of history at Munich iu IS 10. but was removed in 1847 on account of his Ctmcordnt nnd Con- stiluliiiiiaeid der Kiitliidiken in lliii/crn, and accepted in 1851 a chair of history at Prague. The most prominent of his writings are — Die Deutaehcn PUpatc (1839), Frlinkiach Sin- dim (1853), Die Geachichlaachreiber der huaaitiaehen Be- Ke'jnnij (I85C-05). Ilurmann (Arr.csT Wit.iiei.m), Ph. D., F. R. S., h. at Giesseu. (iermany, Apr. 8, 1818 : studied philology and law, and was trained as a chemist by Liebig ; was afterwards pro- fessor of chemistry at Bonn, and then director of the Col- lege of Chemistry ,'London. In 1864 he became a chemical pr'ofessor at Berlin. He has made important discoveries in chemistry, and is author of Einlcitnmj in die Modcnie Cliemie (1865) and other works. Ilorwyl, a V. of the canton of Berne, Switzerland. 6 miles N. of Berne, and near Schiinbuhl station on the Cen- tral Railway to Bale. It is noted as the site of the educa- tional estabiishmeuts founded and for many years conducted by Fellenberg, and for some years after his death by his sons. Hog [a word of Cymric origin], the domestic swine,* the remote offspring of tho wild swine (Sns sem/a; see Boar). Its flesh, rejected as unclean liy Jews, Moham- medans, and ancient Egyptians, and untouched by Hin- doos and strict Booddhists, is a very important article of food among most civilized and many barbarous nations. This arises from the fact that the swine is easily kept and fattened, and aflords an easy nnd profitable means of eon- verting bulky and lr)W-priced farm-products into a portalile and s;ilable cominodity. Tho flesh is not tho only valuable product. The skin makes a leatlier valued by the saddler; tho bristles make the best brushes ; tho fat supplies lani, lard oil, glycerine, soap, and star candles. There are many breeds of domestic swine, which difter greatly among them- selves in size, fattening qualities, and profitableness in rais- ing. Among these we may specify the Neapolitan stock ; the large and coarse Berkshire swine; the deliealo and easily fattened Chinese varieties, crosses of which with tho old European stocks have led to great improvements in swine, new breeds having been developed having more hard- iness and greater size than Chinese pigs and far more valu- able fattening qualities than the old breeds of Europe. Tho Sussex and Bedford breeds are among the stocks thus im- proved. The Chester whites, a breed which originated in Penn.sylvania, and the Magie slock from Ohio, are among the Ai'nerican breeds ; but some breeders deny that either stock has characters suflicicntly marked and permanent to warrant f.u- it a distinct name as a breed. When neg- lected and bred in tho woods. a;ul fattened upon nuts and acorns, the swine lends strongly to revert to the wild type. Pigs for market should be fed when young upon a rela- tively small auiount of grain, mixed with fruits, boiled vegeiables. clover, grass, and weeds; ami when older they should bo fed almost exclusively with grain, (i round (and especially cooked) Indian corn, buckwheat, and barley are oxeellent fattening materials. (For other sjieeics of the hog family, Suidas seo Bauvroi-.ssa, Boscii-vakk, Peccarv, Waut-hoc;, etc.) Ilo'gan, tp. of Dearborn co., Ind. Pop. 949. • In many parts of Ensland. and in most recent EnElish farm- ing and niarltet literature, the word hot) denotes a yoiini; sheep, a laoili in bis second year. Domestic swine arc there almost uni- versally called pigs. 960 HOGAN— HOHENSTAUFEN. Hogan (John), b. at Tallow, Watorford, in 1800; stud- \Q<\ nt Rome; aud d. at Dublin Mar. U7, 1858. Most of his works are religions aud monumental; his Drunken Fann became widely known. Ho;;nrth (GEoriGK).b. about 1797 in Scotland: became n wrirtT to the t^i<:jnot at Eilinlmrgh : was many years dramatic and musical critic for the London Moru'nKj C/iroii- icle; in 1S46 became associated with Charles Dickens, his son-in-law, in conducting the Daily Ncwh. Author of Mutficftl Ilistort/, fiiinjraphif and Cn'ticinm (2 vols., 1836), Menioifs of the Mnaical Drama (IS.'IS), rcvise<l un<l repub- lished its MrmoiKH of the Opera (2 vols., I851J, both works of pcrinant-nt value. D. Feb. 12, 1870. Hogarth (William), a celebrated English artist, forc- mo6t in his line of subjects; b. in Loudon 1G97 or 1G9S, date uncertain: d. Oct. 2fi, 17ti4. llis father, a school- master, apprenticed him in 1712 to a silversmith as an en- graver of armorial bc:irings on plate. A few years later ho was engaged in engraving tor booksellers. Ilis first profession was that of portrait-painter, where ho exhibited great facility in catching likenesses and originality in grouping figures: but his talent leading hiui in other directions, he soon struck the vein that made hini famous. The genius for delineating scenes in real life, which early showed itself in grotesque forms, as in the Sniffle at Hujh- ynfeiina otlier ludicrous sketches, burst forth in full splendor in the remarkable series of plates entitled the I/<irlot's Prog- ress, soon fuUowed by the Hake's Pror/rcss and Mttrn'ofjc d la Mode, all done between 1734 and 1714. The rude prints that he engraved and published from these paintings had an immense sale. The paintings were the wonder of the town. Sir James Thoruhiil forgave the genius who had stolen his daughter. Hogarth's industry was indefatigable, aud iiis achievements too numerous to be mentioned here even by name. His works are legion. No phase or aspect of life escaped him. Seven prints in illustration of Apu- leius's (/o/</e;t ,A«s, twelve prints for Hndlbras : The Sltepij Congregation, The Distrcsxed Poet, The Enraged Musieian, Strotlinff Actresses in a Darn, Garrirk as itichard III., The Stageeoach, The March to Pinchfei/ ; four prints of The Election, Paul before Felix, Moses and Pharaoh's Daughter, The Good Samaritan — display the breadth and variety of his work. The Analgsis of lieauti/, a volume published in 1753, contained much keen observation and abountled in clever hints, but has not materially added to his fame. The public galleries of London hold many of Hogarth's great pictures, the best of which arc accessible to everybody in prints from the artist's own plates. A list of the most important of these may be found in Spooner's Dictionari/ and Alrs. Clements' Handbook. Tiic estimate of Hogarth's geuius and artistic ability has been steadily on the rise since the beginning of the present century, owing in large measure, probably, to tlie persuasive Essay of Charles Lamb. The judgment of him as a coarse and vulgar caricaturist has been superseded by the enthusiastic and almost unqualilied praise of later generations, which see in him one of the most eminent masters and powerful moral teachers in the wiiole realm of art. (For the life of Hogarth see the Eni-yelopo:dia Ilritanmea ; Irel.Wd's HognrtJt Illitflrnted : Nichols's AVs/n/, including anecdotes; Dlaekicood's Magazine, Aug., 18GU; Foreign Qnarterli/, Jan., 183(). The best editions of his Works are I5ovdell's folio, London, 1700; Nichols and Steevens's 4to, ISOS- 17; 12mo, London, 1S74.) 0. 13. Fkothingiiam. Hog'buck, tp. of Transylvania co., N. C. Pop. 243. Hog^ (James), "the Ettrick Shepherd," b. in Ettriek pnrish, Selkirkshire, Scotland. Jan. 25, 1772; followed his ancestral occupation of shepherd, and several times at- tempted, with poor success, to gain a living as a farmer on his own account. His school education was very slight, but he was a great reader, and when twenty-four years old began to compose songs, some of which attracted much attention and gave him a local fame. In 1801 he published Scottish Pastorals, Poems aud Songs, followed by 7'hc Monn- tain Hard (1803); became in 1810 editor of The Spy, a journal in Edinburgh. Here ho was the associate of Scott, Wilson, and the other Tory men of letters, and a frequent contributor to lilarku-oml. His figure in the Xoctcs Ant- brosiaurr did not please him. but it added to his fame. In 1817 the duke of Ituccleugh settled him upon the farm of Altrive. where his tinlucky business ventures brought him many troubles; but here he lived for the greater part of his remaining years, engaged mainly in literary work, varied by field-sports, of which he was very fond ; and here he d. Nov. 21, 1835, Hia best work. The Qncens Wake (1813), was followed by a largo number of volumes of prose and verse of very unequal merit, his best poems and simplest tales evincing a rare gcntus. Ho^g Island, tp. of Kusscll co., Ala. Pop. 885. IIog-Gum, or I'Um Uog^ a variety of Bassora gum. used in preparing paper for the marbling process. The hog-gum of the West Indies, used in medicine and for pav- ing boats, is furnished by various trees of the genera Clniia and Moronobea, and perhaps by Rhus Mttopium aud liti- tcigia halsamif'era. Hog Island, an island off the coast of Northampton CO., Va., extending from Great to Little Matchepungo Inlet. It has a lighthouse in lat. 37** 23' IG" N., Ion. 75° 41' 35" W. Hog Isle, off the coast of Hancock co., Me. Pop. C. Hog Plum, the fruit of Spoudins Ivten, tubcrosa, pur- purea, and Mombin of Brazil and the West Indies, so called because hogs are fed upon the abundant and rather agreeable fruits. The fruit of .S'. Pirrea of Senegal and Abyssiniayields an intoxicating drink. That of *S'. dulcia or Ponpartia, in the Society Islands, is very delicious. Several of the above and other species have medicinal qualities. They belong to the order Anacardiacese. Hog-Rat, a name given to certain large rodents of the rat tiiniily. and genus Capromys, mostly arboreal and na- tives of Cuba. They are sometimes employed as food. Some of the species are reported as having somewhat pre- hensile tails. The hair is coarse, but not spiny. Hogs'head [derivation uncertain], in wine-measure one half a pipe, or fi3 wine-gallons. In beer-measure a hogshead contains 54 beer-gallons. The first kind con- tains b2h imperial gallons, nearly ; the second about 55 imperial gallons. Any large cask is in popular language called a hogshead. A hogshead of tobacco weighs from 750 to 12tJ0 pounds, varying in the different States. Hohenlin'dcn, a v. of Bavaria, in Upper Bavaria. Hero the French under Moreau completely defeated the Austrians Dec. 3, ISOO. Hoh'cniohe, a princely family of Germany, sprung from Francouia. where the castle of HoUoch was the family seat; since the twelfih century the possessors of this castle have called themselves lords of Holloch. They acquired much landed property, became counts, and branched off into various lines. In 177(j the counts of Ilohenlohe were created princes of the empire. At present the family comprises two principal lines — Hohenlohe-Neuenstein and Hohenlohe-Waldenburg, of which the former is subdivided into the lines of Hohenlohc-Langcnburg and Hobenlohe- Oehringcn. the tatter into those of Hohenlohc-Bartenstein and Huhenlohc-Schillingsfiirst ; these lines consist further- more of many branches. The following members of the family are known to history: (1) Fkiedricii Lrnwic, prince of Hohenlohc-Ingelfingen, Prussian general, b. 174r>; d. 1818. He is famous for the infamous capitulation at Preuzlau, Oct. 28, 180G, where, having received the com- mand of the Prussian army after the duke of Brunswick, who was wounded in the battle of Jena, he made 17,000 men lay down their arms. (2) Lrnwir. Ai.ovsii's, prince of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg Bartenstcin. b. 1705: d. 1829. He distinguished himself in the French, Dutch, and Aus- trian services as an able officer, and became marshal and peer of France; he always fou^lit against Napoleon. (3) ALEXANDEn Leopold Franz EMMERirn, prince of Ilohen- lohe- Waldenburg-Schillingsfiirst, b. 1794: d. 1849. He was educated by the Jesuits, became a priest, wrote mysti- cal books, attracted great swarms of believing patients, and had a great fame as a healer of the sick by mirac- ulous power, and d. bishop of Sardiea in partibus. (4) Chi.odwig, prince of Hohenlohc-Waldenburg-Schillings- fiirst, ambassador of the (ierman emperor to France, was b. j\Iar. 31, 1819, He entered the Bavarian service, pur- sued a national policy, worked with success for a good un- derstanding between Prussia and Bavaria, and became president of the Bavarian ministry in ISGG. He has done much for the unity of Germany, especially as vice-president of the German Zoll-Parliamen't of 18G8 and 1809. But the anti-union party in Bavaria became so hostile that ho re- signed his office a short time before the Franco-Gorman war broke out. In 1874 the German emperor appointed him ambassador to the French government. A. Nieman.n'. Hoh'enstaufpn was the name of a princely family in (.ermany which arose in the middle of the eleventh cen- tury, bore the imperial crown from 1138 to 1254, and died out in tlie latter part of the thirteenth century. The foun- der of the family was Friederich von Biiren, who in the middle of the eleventh century moved his residence from Biiren, a place in the valley, on the bank of the Danube, in the present kingdom of Wiirtemberg. to the ca<itle of Hohenstaufen, situated on the brow of the hill. With the change of residence changed also the name of the family. Fricdrich von Biiren's son, Frieprich von Staifes or HonEMSTAt'FEN, followed Henry IV. as his true knight, and distinguished himself so much by valor and military talents^ especially in the battle of Merseburg (1080), that HOHENSTEIN— HOLBACH, \(iX. 961 the king mixlo him duko ofSuabin, gave him his daughter Agnes in luarringc, and appointed hira regent in Germany during his abscnee in Italy. By this rnpiil rise the family of Uohen^taufen (also called by tho Italians Ghihvllinea, from another of their possessions, the castle of Weiblin- gen) could not help coming into collision with the power- ful family of the Welfs or Ouelphs, which in Germany held the duke'Iom of Bavaria, besides large possessions in Italy. Friedrich had to defend his dukedom by armed force, but was compelled by his enemies to renounce parts of it. On bis dcatn in IIUJ ho left two sons, of whom the eldest. Friedrich H., was confirmed as duke of Suabia by Henry V., and tho younger created duke of Franconia in 1112. Both the brothers adhered with great fidelity to the emperor, and when, in 11116, the Franconian dynasty died out with Henry V.. the family of llohenstaufen inherited a large part of the emperor's private fortune, whiuh greatly increased its wealth and power. Friedrich II. even at- tempted to obtain (he imperial dignity, but failed. Lothair the iSttxon, an enemy of him and his family, was chosen emperor, and at one time the Hohenstaufens were pressed so hard that they had to sue for peace at the diet of MUhl- hausen in WVj. Nevertheless, on the di'ath of Lothair in 1133, Friedrich II. 's brother, Conrad, duko of Franconia, succeeded in beingelected emperor, um! the family now held the dignity for more than a century in the persons of Conrad III., li;j^62; Frederick I. Barbnrossa, 1152-90; Henry VI., 1190-97; Philip, 1197-1203; Frederick 11.. ]2I2-:)0"; Conrad IV., 1250~J2. The general charactor of these men, whose biographies will be found in other places in this book, was vigor and energy, tending towards despotism, but generally allied with mugnanimity aud many brilliimt qualities. The most pr<>minent feature of their reign wa^ their perpetual contest with the Guelphs and the popes, during which, however, the poetry and art of German chiv- alry reached their highest perfection. In 1252, Conrad IV. left Germany for Italy, in onler to consolidate his power in his inherited countries in .Southern Italy, but in I2o4 he was poisoned. His half-brother, Manfred, endeavored to sus- tain the authority of the family, but was killed in the battle at Bencvento in 1266, and when (126S) Conradin, tho son of Conrad IV., tried once more to come into possession of Naples, he was defeated at Tagliacazzo and beheaded. Tho male line of the family of llohenstaufen died out with him, and its possessions in (Jermany wore divided between Ba- varia, Baden, an<l Wiirlemberg. A branch of tho family, descending from Manfred's daughter, Constance, who mar- ried Peter III., king of Aragon, ascended fourteen years later tho throne of .Sicily. Hoh'enstoin, town of 8axony, 12 miles N, E. of Zwickau. It luis extensive manufactures of woollens and linen. Pop. 5400. Uohenzol'lern, a small territory of Germany, en- tirely enclosed by Wiirtemberg and Baden, but belunging to Prussia. Its area is 45;i square miles; it is mountain- ous, but fertile, watered by the Neckar and the Danube. Pop. 65,56S, mostly Roman Catholics. Until 1H49 it formed two independent principalities, Ilechingcn and Sigmarin- gcn, which represent the elder lino of tho house of Hohen- zollcrn, while the younger lino is represented by the reign- ing dynasty of Pru^^sia. In 1849 the king of Prussia bought the sovereignty of tho country by paying tho two princes an annual pension. Ilohcnzollern^ a princely family of Germany, which now occupies the imperial throne in the person of the etn- peror Wilholm. Tlio history of tho family begins in tho eighth century, at which time its ancestors possessed tho castle of Hohenzollern. Thassilo, count of Ztdlern, was tho oldest member of the family known to history; ho d. about tho year SOO, and left four sons, of whom tho eldest, Tharcho. propagated the family and d. in 806. His son Rudolf rendered good .service in the war between the Ger- man king. Henry I,, and tho Huns and Wends. A descend- ant of hi-, Rvirlolf II., acquired much Ian<led property by tho important services he rendered in the baltlu of Tubin- gen between tho count palatine, Hugo of Tubingen, and the Guelphs. On his death (1210) the family branclicd off into two lines, of which the cMer kept tho paternal p«».-4- scssions in Suabia, and conlintierl up to our days under tho name of llohonzrdlerii, while tho younger line, called the Ciinradino, settled in Franconia, founded tho house of tho burgraves of Nuromborg. and formed the dynasty of Brandenburg and Prussia. Count Kunrad I. of Zoliern, tho younger son 'if Rudolph 1 1., married Maria, tho daiigli- I tor and heiress of Count biebold of Vuhburg, and canio I thereby into tho jjossession of tho burgravate of Nurom- I berg, which belonged to Vohburg. The Suabian lino sepa- ! rated in 1576 into two branches — Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hoh» nzoilern-Sigmaringen. The former was raised to ! tho prinrolv rank Mar. 2X, lll2;i. bv the enijieror Ferdinand Vur. II.— 61 II., but tho title of prince was bestowed only on tho chief and the first-born; the other members of the family were counts. The emperor Leopold I. gave the title of prince to all members in 1692, In the same year a covenant of inheritance was concluded between the two branches of tho family, of which tho younger one had now assumed tho name of Brandenburg. Hermann Friedrich Otto, sover- eign prince of Hohonzollern-Hcchingen, joined in 1806 the Rhenish confederation, but as the prince could not master the revolution of 1849, ho concluded a treaty with Prussia. by which he transferred his sovereignty to tho Prussian crown, Apr. 8, 1850. The branch of Hohenzollern-Sigma- ringeu obtained tho princely dignity in 16.18, joined tho Rhenish confederation in 1806. became allied to tho impe- rial house of Napoleon by the umrriage of Prince Carl with the daughter of Murat, king of Naples, and ceded its sov- ereignty to Prussia in consequence of the revolution of 1849. The male line of the branch of Hohenzollern-Hech- ingen is now extinct; the princes of llohenzoUcrn-.Sigma- ringen take rank as younger sons of the house of Prussia; one of them is sovereign prince of Roumania. The younger line, the Franconian. generally named after its cliief po: - session, the burgravate of Nuremberg, obtained tlie princely dignity in 127."i from the emperor Rudolf. Friedrich VI., burgravo of Nuremberg, bought the margravate of Bran- denburg from the emperor 8igismund for 250,000 gulden, aud was created elector of Brandenburg in the sann- year. In 1605, the elector Joachim Friedrich obtaine<l the re- gency in the duchy of Prussia, and his successor, Joliann Sigismund. secured for his family tho possession of that country. Georg Wilhelm added the title of duke of Prus- sia to his other titles, and his successor, Frederick ^Villian), the"tJreat Elector," gave the country political intluence. acquire<l new provinces, and left at his death (Apr. 29, 1688) a state with 1,500.000 inhabitants. His son, Fred- erick III., attained the royal dignity, and was crowned Jan. 18. 1701. in Konigsberg as Frederick I., king of Prus- sia. He was followed by the thrifty Frederick William I.; then Frederick II., "the Great," who left his state with 6,000,000 inhabitants: then Frederick William II.; then Frederick William III., who was defeated by Napoleon, but regained his country ; then his son, Frederick William IV.; and then his younger son, William, who assumed tho dignity of emperor of Germany Jan. IS, 1871. ArOUST NlEMAN.V. Hoho'kns, tp. and post-v. of Bergen co., N. J., on tho Erie R. K., 2:i miles N, by W. of Jersey City. Pop. 26;{2. Ho'kah, tp. and post-v. of Houston co., Minn., on the Southern Minnesota R. R., 6 miles W. of La Crosse, Wis. Pop. of V. 525: of tp. 1038. Hokcndau'qtia, post-v. of Lehigh co., Pa., on the Lehigh River and the Lehigh Valley R. R., 4 miles N. of Allentown. Hoke's Bluff, tp. of Etowah co., Ala. Pop. 1049. Uol'bach, von (Pai i. Henri Tuvrv), Baiion, b. at Heidelsheim, in the Palatinate, in 172.'l. He went at an early ago to Paris, where ho married and spent his whole life. D. Jan. 21, 17S9. His father had left him a lar;;o fortune, and in his rich and elegant hou>e he gathered, with the greatest hospitality, a large circle of literary men. At his dinner-parties, which took plocc twice a week, Helvfi- tius, D'Alembert, Diderot, Rayual, Grimm, ButTon. Rous- seau, Marmontcl, and others met, learned to know each otlior, and discussed their ideas witli the utmost freedom. The baron himself was a man both of knowledge and talent, and a very prolific author. His first works, Le Vhrisiinniame (Uvoile (Amsterdam, 1767), Esprit tin (Jleryf (Loudon, 1767), and iVc I'xntptntnrc aarrrtiotalc (.Amster- dam, 1767). made an attack on Christianity more open, direct, and vciicmcnt, than any to which it hitherto had been exposed. Tho Christian doctrines arc declared to bo an incoherent mass of fiction, the Christian morals to bo inferior to most other moral .''ystems, and the influence of Christianity to have been very detrimental to the develoj)- nient of the human race in every social, polilical, and moral respect. In a second series of writings, Le itifn- ttine dv ill nature (Loudon, 1770], Lc ban sea*, on idfen 71 fit urclirt oppuafcn unx iit/cK guruatitrrllca ( Amsterdam, 1772), and L*7 KjfHt^mc Morittl (Amsterdam, 177;!), he gives the positive, systematic development of those materialistic and atheislic viewswhich in tho first scries are given under form of criticism only. All these writings contain hardly anything new or original. IVHolbach repeated the ideas of Voltaire and |)'.Mrnibert. of Diderot an<l Uelv(''tius: ho only pushed thrni farther. Indeed, he pushed ttic ideas of tho Kncyclopa>di8t8 so far that tho Encyclopirdisls them- selves would not acknowledge them. His stylo is dry or sentimental, affected or trivial. But his intluence is said to have been very great. He reached layers of society to which philoHopby never before had ponetratetl, and his 962 HOLBEIN-HOLDEN. cjnicnl ideas are often recognizable during the first years of the Revolution. Personally, he was a good and kind- hearted man, without pretensions. He wrote his books under diRerent pseudonyms, and for a long time even his most intimate friends knew nothing of bis author- ..hip. Holbein (Hans), called the YoiT.NOEn, b. at Augsburg, Bavaria, in 14Ut, or perhaps even a few years earlier, re- ceived his first instruction from his father, a painter of some note. The days of his youth were spent in Bale, and ns early as 1512 his brilliant talent had attracted great attention, and he received large or<lcrs both for private houses and public buildings. Erasmus admired his work, and witli a letter of introduction from him to Sir Thomas More he went to England in 1626. After living three years in ^lore's house, ho was introduced to the king, and Henry VIII. was so charmed by his pictures that he made him court-painter and heaped both honors and money on him. L>. in London in 15 i;i, of the plague. In accuracy of draw- ing, in truth and riehness of coloring. Holbein surpassed all contemporary painters in Germany, and stivnds, indeed, among the greatest painters of the world. His portraits especially arc execllenf. and he produced a great number, which are scattered among all the larger European galle- ries. He painted a portrait of Erasmus which the latter preterrcd to the one engraved by Diirer. One of his finest pictures is the portrait of his friend and patron. Boniface Amerbach, to whom we owe the collection of Holbein's drawings and paintings now at Bale. While in England, Holbein painted or drew not only the king, but his queens, Jane Seymour and Anne of Cleves, Prince Edward, and nearly every distinguished nobleman and noble woman of his court, besides distinguished commoners. These pic- tures and drawings are a splendid possession alike for art and for history'. Holbein worked for the engravers, but to what extent is not precisely known. Two important series. The Jjfiuce *>/' Death (see Dancc of Dkath) and Pictures from the Old Te&tameul, are ascribed to Holbein. One of the most famous pictures by Holbein is the Madonna of the Meyer Fnmilijy in the gallery of Dresden. This is now, however, believed to be a copy, probably by Holbein's own band, of the original in the palace of the dukes of Darm- stadt. Many of Holljcin's best pictures have been en- graved, and nearly all his finest drawings photographed, the last chiefly by Braun. (See /fans Ifo/bein der jilngere, von lllrieh Hegner (Berlin, 1S27). a well-executed, useful work, which only needs revision to take its place among the standarfi books on the suijject ; Holbein und seine Zeit, by Alfred Woltmann (Leipsic, 1867,2 vols, and appendix; 2d ed. 1 vol., 1874), a book absolutely necessary to the stu- dent for its facts, but ill-arranged, and, critically, little to be depended on; the second ed. is full of contradictions of the first; Life and Works of Holbein, by H. N. Wornam (1 vol., London, 1867), almost useless from its want of ar- rangement, its slipshod style, and its want of the critical spirit.) Ci>ABENcE Cook. Hol'berg (Ludvio). b. Nov. fi, 1684. in Bergen, Nor- way : studied at the University of Copenhagen; travelled in Holland, France, and Northern Italy, and stayer! for one and a half years at the University of Oxford : w;»s in 1718 appointed professor at the University of Copenhagen ; accumulated great wealth, which he bequeathed to an edu- cational institution, the Academy of Soro ; was created a baron in 1747, and d., unmarried. Jan. 27, 1754. His sound practical ideas, and clear, solid reasoning, sustained by lenrning and seasoned by humor, made his works on his- tory, Kcrlrsiasticnl Histnnf, Hintorif nf Dcrnnnrfr, Jcicish //iftortf, Liies of Great M^n and Wnmcn^ and on philoso- phy. Kftintles and Moral Meditations, a, most influential ele- ment in the Danish civilization. (For his comical writings see Danish LANouAfiE and LixEUATruE.) Uol'brook, a beautiful post-v. and tp. of Norfolk co., Mass., on tlie Old Colony K. R., 14 miles S. of Boston. It has a large manufacture of boots and shoes, a free library, a town-hall, a fire department, and good public schools. It was incorporated in 1872, before which time it was called East llANnoLpn. Ilolbrook (ALFHEn), b. at Derby, Conn., in 1816, son of Josiah Holbrook, a prominent and philanthropic edu- cator and inventor. The son was for a time pupil of Elixur Wright in the academy at Groton, JIass. Though pos- sessed of remarkable inventive talents and of a decided taste for civil engineering, he devoted himself to the work of instruction; founded a large and successful institution, chiefly fur the training of teachers, at Lebanon, 0. Author of a vulume of Lf:etnrtH on the subject of education. Ilolbrook (John E.), M. D., b. in Beaufort. S. C, Deo. 31, 171)6; d. in Norfolk, Mass., Sept. 8, 1S71. He was carried North when an infant ; graduated in 1815 at Brown University, and tnuk tlie degree in medicine at the Uni- I versity of Pennsylvania, After visiting the hospitals of Europe, be commenced the practice of his profession in Charleston, S. C, and upon the organization of the Medi- cal College of South Carolina was assigned to the chair of anatomy, which he occupied for more than thirty years. Dr. Ilolbrook would never attend an obstetrical case nor perform a surgical operation, yet as a lectufcr on anatomy he was seldom equalled. Ho possessed a peculiar talent for description, and a minute comprehension of compara- tive anatomy. His reputation rests especially upon his investigations as a naturalist. In 1842 be published his great work on herpetology, and this, with the unfinished one on the fishes of South Carolina, gave him high dis- tinctiou. His friend, the late Prof. Agassiz. said before the Natural History Societj' of Boston, " I well remember the impression made in Europe, more than five and thirty years ago, by his work on the North American reptiles. Before then, the supercilious English question, so effect- ually answered since, 'Who reads an American book?' might have been repeated in another form, * Who ever taw an American scientific work ? ' In that branch of investi- gation Europe bad at that time nothing to compare with it." Author of Amerieau Herpetoloffif (5 vols., 1842), and of unfinished works on Southern Ichth>/oloffy and the hh- tht/olotfi/ tif South Carolina. PAUL F. EvE. Ilol'comb, tp. of Dunklin CO., Mo. Pop. 608. HoTconibe (A>fASA), A. M., b. at Southwick, Mass., June 18, 1787, a farmer's son; when nineteen years old made surveyors' compasses, and at twenty began to com- pile almanacs, several of which he published. AVhen twenty- seven he began to teach engineering, astronomy, and sur- veying; adopted the profession of civil engineer 1826; be- gan to make telescopes in 1828, and had, it is believed, no competition from any other maker in the U. S. until 1842. He was a member of both branches of the State legislature, and was the recipient of several medals and other distinc- tions. The honorary degree of A. M. was conferred upon him by AVilliaras College. Holcombe ( Jamks P.), b. in Lynchburg. Va., in 1820 ; was educated at Yale College and the University of Vir- ginia, where he was for some years a law -professor. Au- thor of Lending Cases upon Commercial Law (1S47), Dtijcsi of Decisions of the U. S. Supreme Court (1848), Merchants Book of Reference (1848), Literature in Letters (1868). Holcombe (William Frederic), M. D., b. at Sterling, Mass., Apr. 2, 1827: graduated at the Albany Medical College in 1850, and studied several years in Europe; be- came professor of ophtlialmic an<l aural surgery in the New York Medical College, surgeon to the New York 0|ihthalmic Hospital, and secretary and librarian of the New York Genealogical and Biographical Society. Holcombe (William IL), M. D., b. at Lynchburg, Va., in 1S25: was educated at Washington College, Va., and studied medicine in tlie University of Pennsylvania; has practised his profession in Lynchburg, Cincinnati, and New Orleans. In 1852 he became a homo-opathist. He has published //otf / became a Ifomceopath (1867), Scientijic Basis of IJumwopathy (1855), Yellow Fever (1856), Poems (1860),' Oh/- Children in fftaren (1868), The Sexes (1860), besides numerous brochures and contributions to homoe- opathic and Swedenborgian periodical literature, Ilorcroft (Thomas), b. in London Dec. 10, 1745, a shoemaker's son ; served for a time as a stable-groom at Newmarket; became an actor, and then an author: was arrested for high treason in 1794, being a member of the Society for Constitutional Information, but was released without trial. D. Mar. 2.1, 1800. Author of .30 plays, be- sides novels, poems, translations, etc.. some of which are of an irreligious tendency. His noteworthy works arc The Road to Ruin, a comedy (1792), still popular; The life of Trenek (1788). from tlie (Jerman ; JJrmiann and Dorothea (1801), translated from the (Jerman of (Joethe ; Menioirt bj himself, finished by Hazlitt (.3 vols., 1816). Hold, a compartment or scries of compartments in a ship, below the lowermost deck. The hold extends fore and aft the whole length of the ship. In it are stored por- tions of the cargo, the ship's stores, ballast, etc. Hold, a musical character /tv. placed over a note, sig- nifying a pause, or the holding of the note longer than its proper time. The hold may also be placed over a rest or a double-bar, or as an indication of the end of a canon or other piece. Hold'brook's, tp. of Cabarrus co., N. C. Pop. 1115, Ilorden, post-tp. of Penobscot co., Me., 6 miles S. G. of Bangor. Pop. 758. Holden, post-tp. of Worcester co., Mass., 52 miles from Boston, on the Boston Barre and Gardner R. R. It is a good farming town, with abundant water-power, manufac- UOLDEN-HOLLAND. 963 turcs of woollen, cotton, and other goods, 3 churches, and numerous small villages. I'op. 2062. Ilolden, po.stti). of tioodhuc co., Minn. Pop. 1199. Ilulden, pust-v. of Johnson co.. Mo.. 50 miles S. E. of Kansas City, on the Missouri Pacific and the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. Rs. It has I churches, 2 b.inks, 1 newspaper, 4 dry -good slores, 2 hardware and ujjricultural implement store's, 2 boot and shoe stores, :! jewelry stores, 2 hotels, 1 mill, etc. Uolden is situated in a line farming section ; limber, coal, and liuilding-slonc are plenty. Pop. lire. ti. N. RkiiAitus, Ei). " Entkiumiise." IldUleii, tp. of New Hanover co., N. C. Pop. 2056. IIoUU-ii, tp. of Wayne co., N. C. Pop. 751. Ilolden (Oi.ivfr), the composer of tho psalm-tune CniHiitUiii and other excellent pieces ; was a carpenter, and afterwards a nuisic-teneher and tho keeper of a musical bookstore; d. at Charlestown, Mass.. in IMil. Published .■liii<TiV<in /^<(r»ioii_v(17y3), the WoriciUr Cotlcclion(\l'i'), and other tune-books, and was ono of the pioneers of American psalmody. lloi'derness, post tp. of Grafton co., N. H., .36 mile's N. of Concord. It has manufactures of lumber, bo.ves, etc. Pop. va.t. Hol'dich (Joseph), D. D., b. Apr. 20, 180J, at Thorncy, Cambridi;eshire, Eng. : came in 181S to tho U. S. ; en- tered the Methodist miui.«try in 1822; was stationed in Philadelphia. New York, and other cities; received tho degree of A. M. from Princeton in 1828 ; that of D. U. from La (irangc College I81:S ; was 1835-31) assistant prulVssor, and 1830-49 professor, of mor.al science and belles lettres in the Wcsleyan University, Middletown, Conn.; becanio in 1849 corresponding secretary of the American Biblo ,<oeietv. Author of Life of WHImr J-'hk (1S42), of A. II. Hiiril (1839), Iliblc Hiatory (1833), and other works. Hold'ing-note, in nmsieal compositions of two or more parts, a note sustained or prolonged in one of the parts while the others arc in motion. In fugues, and in adagio, andante, and legato movements, holding-notes are of constant occurrence, and give unity, compactness, and a binding effect to the general texture of the harmony. Ilolcd, tp. of .Somerset co., Me. Pop. 1. Ilolins'hed (Rwn vei. or Rm.imi), M. A., an English chronicler who d. between l.)7S and 1JS2. He took tho master's degree, probably at Cambridge, and was perba|.3 a clergyman. Almost nothing is known of his life, but his fame is perpetuated by the Vhrimidcn of Erii/laiul, &ulln}i<l, and Ireland (2 vols, folio, 1577), but ho was not the solo author, for Harrison, Stow, Fleming, Stanihur.st, Thin, Hooker, and others prepared largo portions. There is no doubt th.xt .'hakspcare found abumlant material for his historical plays in the pages of Holiushcd. Ilol'kar, the name of a family of Mahratta chieftains who have pl.iycd a conspicuous part in the history of India during the two last centuries, and often proved tlienisehes furniidable enemies of the Hritish empire in Hindustan. .Mulhar Rao Holkar was the founder of the family. Ho was born in 1693, received in 1730 the wes'ern part of MaUvah, with Indorc for its caiiital, and d. 1705. liut the most rcuiarkable member of llie family was Jcswunt Rao Holkar, a natural son of Tokbagi Holkar. who reigned from IsOl to lull. Although he was defeated at Indorc (Oct. II, 18(11) by Dowlat Rao Sindia, his reputation for valor and energy was so great that a part of tho victorious army went over to his side, and next year (Oct. 25, 1802) ho en- tirely routed Sindia at Poena Sindia took refuge with the Rrilish, and now a, war began between Holkar and the Brilisli, which was carried on with various success to Dec. 21, Isu.i, when peace was concluded and Holkar compelled to give up some maritime distri<*ts, and bind himself to lake no Europeans into his service. He d. insane, and was succeeded by his son, Mulhar Rao Holkar, who reigned from 1811 to 1833. Ho began war against the liritish in IS 1 7, but was defeated, ami under the peace of Jan. 6, 1818, an English residency was estalilished at Indorc. The pre- sent ruler of Indorc, Mulkerji Rao Holkar. who came into power in 1852 and remained true to the English in 1857, is nol otihe Hdlkar family, though ho bears the name; with Kumili Rao Holkar the family die<l out in 1852. Iloriiind. See N^.TH^lll,A^r^s. iloHiind, \orlli and South, two prnvineea of the Netherlands, adjacent and very similar in all natural and social relations. The grounil is very low, anil must be protected against inundations of the North Sea and the ZuyderZee by artificial dams and dykes. It is everywhere intersecled by rivers, the Rhine, YsscI, Lek, Maas, and Mervede, and canals. Hut the soil is very fertile, and mar- vellously well euUivaled. The rearing of eatlle and the production of butter and cheese are tile main pursuit' "f tho inhabitants, but many other kinds of industry are car- ried on with success. North Holland has an area of 95.i square miles, with 002,539 inhabitants; the area of South Holland is 1162 square miles, with 710,753 inhaoitanls. The jirincipal towns of North Holland arc .\mstcrdam. Haarlem, aiol .VlUniaar ; of South Holland, The Hag'?e, Ley- den. R<ilterdam, and (Jouda. (Sec NouTH Holland Ca.val and North Sea Canal of Holland.) IIoMand, post-tp. of Shelby co.. III. Pop. 1352. Holland, post-tp. of Hampden co., Mass., 70 miles W. S. W. of Boston, on the Connecticut line. Pop. 344. Holland, post-v. of Ottawa co., Mich., on the Chicago and .Michigan Lake Shore R. R. It cont:tins I college, 1 public school, several churches, 5 papers, 2 tanneries, 1 savings bank, .'< hotels, 3 drug-stores, and I iron-ore smelt- ing furnace, with the usual number of shops, etc. The town was settled by Hollanders, who form throe-fourths of the present population. Pop. of v. 23111; of tp. 2353. Wm. Benjasiinse, Prn. " He Hoi.i.ANDEit." Holland, tp. and post-v. of Erie co., N. Y., on the Buflalo New York and Philadelphia R. R., 20 miles S. E. of Hnlfalo. The township has 4 churches. 3 cheese-factories, and manufactories of lumber, leather, etc. Pop. 1451. Holland, post-tp. of Orleans co., Vt., on the Canada line, 5'.l miles N. E. of Montpclicr. It has manufactures of lunilier and sliiiigles. Pop. 881. Holland, post-tp. of Brown co., Wis. Pop. 1279. Holland, tp. of La Crosse co.. Wis. Pop. 819. Holland, Ip. of Sheboygan co.. Wis. Pop. 2704. Holland ^llENUv^ Bakt., M. D., D. C. L., F. R. S., b. at Knulsl'ord, Cheshire, England, Oct. 27, 1788 ; grad- uated M. D. at Edinburgh 1811 ; was for many years a physician in ordinary to Queen Victoria, and one of the most popular men, professionally and socially, in London. He several times visited the U. S., and travelled extensively in Europe and Asia. His second wife, a daughter of Syd- ney Smith, and a writer of ability, d. Nov. 2, 1800. Sir Henry was the author of several books on various subjects ; tho most impnrtant are Mcdicid Nitirn mid JicJIeriimia and Uecol/ccliMia .;/' I'usl life (1871). D. Oct. 28, 1873. Holland (Henrv Rich Aim Vassal I- Holland ). Lonn, b. in Wiltshire Nov. 21,1773; succeeded in 1774 to tho peerage as the third Lord Holland of the Fox family, but his patronymic was ch;inged from Fox to \'assall in 1797, the latter being the family name of his wife, the divorced Lady Websler, by whom he had had a son, the late (ien. Charles R. Fox, b. before the divorce. Holland was a man of line manners and most amiable character. His uncle, Charles James Fox, trained him up to liberal iiolitieal prin- ciples, and he was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford; ho was (1800) made a commissioner and pleni- potentiary fur settling disputes with tho U. S. ; was lord privy seal 1800-07; chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster 1830-iO. I), at Kensington Oct. 22, 1840. Lord Holland v.as a most brilliant debater and parliamentary tactician, the steady friend of every jtolitical reform, and h:id a largo personal following of strongly attached social ancl {uilitical friends. He did much to develop a taste for Spanish liter- ature. Author of life and WritinijK af Ln/tc dc Vrija Carpio (1800), Three f'amediea from the Hjiamih (1807), Foreign Ileminiareneea (1850), Memoir) of the Whtij Parly (1852), and other works. Holland (Josiah GrLBEnr), M. I)., b. at Belchertown, Mass., July 24, 1819; graduated at Berkshire Medical Col- lege, Pittsficid, and practised medicine Ihreo years; was for a short time an editor in Springfield, Mass., and (or one I year superinlendent of schools Vieksburg, Miss. He was (1849-00) editorially connected with the Springfield llepiib- j ^Viin, and in 1870 became editor of Serihner't ilonthli/. New York. His works, some of them published under the name of " Timothy Tilcomb," are a llinlori/ of W'eKiern Jlf.i»«(icAi(»r«» (1855), The Hay Path, a, novel (1S57), f.ef- tera to the Yomni (1858), Hitler Sweet, a poem (1858), (jold Foil ( 1859), ;l/i'«« nUbcrl'a Career, a novel (1800), I.eaaoiia in life (1801), Letlera lo the Joneaea (1803), /'lain Talk on Familiar Siihjrcia (|.'<65), Life of Lincoln (1800), Kallirina. a poem (1807). The Marble I'rophcey (1872), Arlhnr llonui- caalle (1873), (larnercd Sheacea, pocins (1873), The Mialreaa of the Manar (1874). Holland (Sir Nathaniel r)ANSE),h. in Lond<m in 1734; studied in Rome, and painted porlrails and landscapes; but ha\ing married a wealthy hidy and become a bar<uiet and member of Parliamenl, ho gave up art. 1>. at Win- chester in 1811. Holland ( Philemon), b. at Chelmsford in 1551 ; studied at Cambri'lge; became master of the free school of Coven- try I and d. Feb. 9, 1030. He gave the first English Irans- latiun of Livy, Suetonius, Ainmiaous Marcellinus, Pliny, :iim1 I'llltareh's Moralia, 96-t HOLLAND LSLAND— HOLLYHOCK. Hol'land Isrand, tp. of Dorchester co., Md., consist- ing of Bloodworth Island, Holland Island, etc. Pop. 141. Hol'land Pa'tent, post-v. of Trenton tp., Oneida co., N. v.. on the Utica and Black River U. R., 12 miles N. from I'tica. It has 6 churches. Pop. 320. IIoTlansburg, a v. of Harrison tp., Darke co., 0. Pop. T.VX Horiar (WENZEL),b. at Prague in 1G07; attracted the attention of the earl of Arundel, ambassador to the German emperor, and followed him in IG.'ifi to England: became implicated during the' time of the Commonwealth in polit- ical affairs, and was imprisone<! for a short time ; joined then the earl of Arundel at Anfrwerjt in 1645. and returned with him in 1H52 to England, where he d. Mar. 28, 1677. His most celebrated engraving is that of Holbein's Dance <>/ Deuth. HoTlcnback, tp. of Luzerne co., Pa. It has beds of nnthraeitc coal. Pop. 1303. Ilol'lengsworth, tp. of Montgomery CO., N. C. P. 695. Ilol'ley, post-v. of Orleans co., N. Y. It has 4 churches, 1 weekly newspaper, 1 bank. 1 hotel, 1 furnace, foundry and machine-shop, 2 lumber and coal van!?. Pop. about 1000. C. Marsh, Pub. *' Sta.vdard." Holley (Alexander Lyman), C, E., b. July 20, 1S32, at Lakeville, a part of Salisbury tp., Conn.; graduated at Rrown University 1S53, and was technically educated at the Corliss Steam-Engine Works. From lS5fi to 1861 he edited and contributed to various engineering newspapers, and ])ublished his liriihra}/ Economy, and, in connection with the late Zerah Colburn, a Report on Emopean Jiail- waya. In 1864 he published his Treatise on Ordnance and Armor. In 1865 he introduced the Bessemer process into America, and built the first steelworks at Troy. N. Y. He afterwards built Bessemer steelworks and rolling-mills at Harrisburg. Troy, Chicago, Joliet, and Pittsburg, and is now consulting engineer to a number of iron and steel works. Holley (Horape), LL.D., b. at Salisbury, Conn., Feb, 13, 1781; graduated at Vale 1803; studied law. and then divinity ; was pastor of the Hollis street church, Boston, 1809-18; became a Unitarian; president of Transylvania University, Ky., 1818-27 ; went to Xew Orleans to take charge of a seminary, but fell sick and d. on the passage thence to New York July 31, 1827. HolMidaysbur^, post-b., cap. of Blair co.. Pa., 7 miles frnm Altoona. on a branch of the Pennsylvania R. R. It has 2 rolling-mills. 2 nail-factories, 2 furnaces, and 3 foun- dries, a large an<l flourishing female seminary. 2 news- papers, 7 churches, a fine court-house and jail, and a na- tional bank. Its industries are principally manufacturing. Pop. 2'.I52. David Over, Ed. " Rkgister." Hol'lins CGeorge N.), b. at Baltimore. Md., Sept. 20, 1799 ; appointed midshipman U. S. navy in 1*^14. and was with Com. Decatur on the frigate President when she was captured by the British, and held as prisoner at Bermuda during the remainder of the war; subsequently served with Decatur in the war with Algiers, and at its close com- manded an East India merchant ship. In 1825 was com- missioned lieutenant U. S. navy, rising to be captain 1855. In 1854 he commanded the Cyane, and gained considerable notoriety by the bombardment and destruction of the town of (Jreytown (San Juan de Nicaragua). In 1861 he re- signed from the U. S. navy, but his resignation was not accepted, though he effected his escape, and, joining the Southern cause, was appointed commodore in the Con- federate navy. On the morning of Oct. 12, 1861, before dawn, with the ram Manassas, three lire-rafts, and five armed steamers, he surprised the U.S. squadron blockading the mouths of the Mississippi, causing mueh confusion, but in reality effecting scarcely any damage, although he sent exaggerated despatches announcing a great victory, and was made naval commandant at New Orleans. He was, however, superseded before the decisive attack of Admiral I'arragut in 1862. D. Jan. 18, 1878. G. C. Simmons. Ilol'lis, tp. and v. of Peoria co.. Til., on the Illinois River. 8 miles below Peoria, at the junction of the Peoria Pckin and Jacksonville and the Toledo Peoria aud Warsaw R. Rs. Pop. of tp. 980. Hollis, post-tp. of York co.. Me., on the Portland and Rochester R. R., 18 miles S. W. of Portland, has 3 churches, and manufactures of woollens and lumber. Pop. 1541. IlolliS) tp. and post-v. of Hillsborough eo., N, H., 7 miles from Nashua and 3 miles from the Worcester and Nashua R. R. It has a liigh school, 1 church, a town-hall, and a library containing 1800 volumes. Large quantities of lumber and some 70,000 casks arc annually manufac- tured. Principal occupation, farming. Pop. of tp.. 1079. S. II. Kkkler. Hollis (Thomas), a successful merchant of London, b. in England in 1659. In 1721 he founded the Hollis pro- fessorship of divinity in Harvard College, and in 1727 founded a professorship of mathematics and natural phil- osophy : he also presented books for the library, and con- sidcralile sums of money. Several others of the Hollis family were benefactors of the college. A Life of Tfiomns HoIUh was publislicd by T. B. Hollis (17S0i. Thomas Hol- lis, Sr., was a Baptist, though a member of an Independent church, and was distinguished for his charities both to Bap- tist and ludependent churches. D. Feb., 1731. HoTlistcr, post-v., cap. of San Benito eo., Cab, 94 miles S. of San Francisco. It contains 1 seminary, a graded public school, 5 church organizations, 3 public halls, and 2 telegraph and 1 express office. It derives its trade from agriculture, stock-raising, and quicksilver-mining. There are 2 weekly newspapers, about 30 business-houses, 1 steam flouring-mill, 1 brewery, 2 lumber-yards, and 4 hotels and stables. The principal tobacco plantations of Califor- nia are near the town, and the quicksilver and coal devel- opments are rich and promising in the mountain-ranges. Pop. about 2000. F. W. Blake, Ed. " Advanxe." Horiiston, post-tp. of Middlesex co., Mass., 26 miles S. W. of Boston, on the Milfurd branch cf t)ie Boston and Albany R. R. It has important agricultural interests, manufactures of boots, shoes, nails, pumps, wrenches, etc., 1 national and 1 savings bank, 4 churches, a high school, and a free library. Pop. 3073. Hol'loman, tp. of Darlington co., S. C. Pop. 1590, Hol'low, tp. of Bladen co., N. C. Pop. 1243. Horioway (Thomas), b. in London in 1748, and d. at Coltishall, near Norwich, in 1827. He engraved the illus- trations to the English translation of Lavater's Fhysiinj- nomy, but his most celebrated work is his engravings of the cartoons of Raphael. Hol'loway's, tp. of Person co., N. C. Pop, 1279. Hol'low Creek, post-tp., Lexington co,,S. C. P. 1315. Horiow Pop'lar, tp. of Yancey co., N. C. Pop. 382. Hol'low Square, tp. of Hale co., Ala. Pop. 3360. Horiowville, or Smoky Hollow, post-v. of Cla- verack tp., Columbia co., N. Y. It has manufactures of woollens, candles, lumber, etc. HoI'low-AVare includes cast and wrought iron domes- tic utensils. The casting of the best kinds of hollow- ware is followed by turning and annealing, and sometimes by enam- elling, tinning, or japanning. Excellent wrought-iron ware is now produced by jtressing, there being no joints left in the work. {See Hardwark, by L. P. Brockett, A. M., M. D.) Hol'ly, the name of various shrubs and small trees, chiefly of the genus J/ex and order Aquiioliaceac. They arc mostly evergreens, with rich green leaves and red ber- ries. The typical species is /. Aqui/oh'um, the European holly, whose leaves are so highly prized for Christmas dec- oration. Its bark yields bird-lime, and has medicinal pow- ers. The finest American species is the /. opaca, a small tree, used also in Christmas decoration, but its appearance is far inferior to that of the former species. The wood of both the above species is very hard and white, and is used by turners, inlayers, and carvers. /. Coattue and other species yield the'*yaupon tea" of the CaroUnas and the "black drink" of the Creek Indians. Paraguay tea (see Mate) is produced hy certain South American hollies. The U. S. nave some twelve or fourteen species of Jfex, mostly unimportant shrubs, some with deciduous leaves, be- sides one, the mountain holly, Xemopanthes Canadensis, of another genus closely allied. The sca-hoIIy or sea-hulm of Europe is the Erywjium maritiutum. Holly, tp. of Van Buren co., Ark. Pop. 153. Holly, tp. and post-v. of Oakland co., Mich., at the crossing of the Flint and Pere Marquette and the Detroit and Milwaukee R. Rs., 52 miles from Detroit. It has fine schools and churches, a high-school building which cost SfjO.OOO, 7 hotels, manufactures of flour, castings, furniture, and other goods, and a large trade. Ice is extensively shipped from this vicinity, which is one of the most fertile and attractive in the State. A State insane asylum is to bo opened in the vicinity. The village has 2 national hanks, a weekly newspaper, railroad machine-shops, etc. Pop. 1421); of tp. 2437. Henuy Je.nkins, Kd. "Register." Holly, tp. of Xew Hanover co., N. C. Pop. 1016. Holly, tp. of Webster co., W. Va. Pop. 612. Holly Grove, tp. of Gates co., N. C. Pop. 1213. Hol'lyhock, tlio name of cert.iin biennial plants of the genus Ail/lira {A. rosea, Jxcifolin, Chinrnsis), tall Old-World herbs, much cultivated in gardens for their flowers, of which there are many varieties, single and double. The nOLLY NECK-HOLM ESBURO. 9(i5 culture of these plants for forage purposes has been pro- posed. Tho stalks abouud in a libro which may be utilized as papcr-?tock. Holly \rck, tp. of Nan?cmond co., Va. Pap. 3275. Holly Springs, pof't-tp. of Dallas eo.. Ark. Pop. 63C. Holly Springs, po8t-v., cap. of Marshall co.. Miss., on the Ml.s»i!<!tippi Central H. U., -13 miles S. K. from Mem- phis, Tenn. It has 1 foundry, I hub and spoke factory, 3 wagon-factories, 3 potteries, 1 marble manufactory, 1 sav- ings bank, 2 newspapers, 2 holds, 6 schools. 7 churches, and 42 stores. It ships annually 23,000 bales of cotton. Pop. 240*'.. ('ai.iioox <t Holland, Eds. *' Ueporter." lloriywood, tp. of Carver co., Minn. Pop. 534, Ilol'inau City, a v. of Paris tp., Oneida co., N. Y. I'o|,. 70. Holman (James), " the blind traveller," b. in England Kill: entered the royal navy I71>S; commissioDcd a lieu- tenant 1807; invalidefl ISll); became blind 1812; was ap- pointed a naval kui;;ht of Windsor, ami in 1819 began to make his journeys, which extendecl to all parts of the world. He published some seven volumes of travels, and his books had at one lime considerable currency. D. in London July 21*. 1857. Holman (Josepii Grorge), b. at London 1764; was educated at Queen's College, Oxford ; appeared as Uomeo at Covent Garden 1784, and soon became a rival of Kemble on the British stage : eanic to the U. S. ; was for some time manager of a theatre in Charleston. S. ('. ; was very suc- ces.-fuj for some years in the V. S. D. at Kockaway, L. I., of yellow fever, Aug. 24, 1817. Author of several comic operas and comedies. Holm'boe (CiiuisTOpnBn Andreas), b. at Vang, Nor- way, in 17'Jfl; studied Oriental languages in Christiania and Paris, and became in 1822 professor at the University of Christiania. The most prominent of liis writings are — J)f ftrinrti ve moiietiin'tt .Ynrretfiit (1841 ). Siiiinhn't unt/ Old- unrnk (1H4('»). Dct Oldnomke Verbnm (I'^"*^). ''''' norttke Sproffn roHtfiitfiiftte Ofdf'orrnnd, $ammcnfiffitrt mcd Sauthrit ( 18.^2), Nornk Off Kettitik (1854). As a member of various commissions he has exercised a great and beneficial infiu- ence on edueational affairs in Norway. Holm'delf tp. and post-v. of Monmouth co., N. J., 6 miles 8. of Karitan Bay. Pop. 1415. Holmes, county of Florida, bounded on tho N. by Alabama. Area, about ■V.)0 square miles. Much of its sur- face is covered with heavy pine timber. It is traversed by the navigable Choctawbatchio River. Rico and cotton are the chief crops. Cup. Cerro (iordo. Pop. 1572. Holmes, county in N. W. ('entral Mississippi. Area, 940 square miles. It is traversed by the navigable Yazoo Uiver and tlie Mississippi Central R. R. Its surface is diversified, its soil productive. Cotton and corn arc staple crops. Cap. Le.\iugton. Pop. 19,370. Holmes, county of N. E. Central Ohio. Area, 420 pqunre miles. Its surface is rolling, the soil ]iroiliictive. Cattle, grain, wool, and il<iur arc staples. Coal has been found. It is traversed by tho Cleveland Mt. Vernon and Delaware R. U. Cap. Millcrsburg. Pop. 18,177. Holmes, Ip. of Mackinac co., Mich., bounded on the S. by Lake Huron. Pop. 938, Holmes, tp. of Crawford eo., 0. Pop. 1572. HolmeH (Ariel), I). I)., LL.D., h. at Woodstock, Conn., I>e(r. 24, I7*J3; graduated at Yale in 1783. and was a tutor there 178fi-87; held Congregational pastorates at Midwiiy, Ua., 1785-91, and at Cumbridge, Mass.. 1792-1832. lie married a daughter of President Stiles, and after her death a daughter of IL.n. Oliver Wendell. Hi^ published Aumih of Aiuf-rim, a work of permanent value (2 vols., 1805, en- larged ed. IH29); Life *>/ I'r'iiflrut Stilri (17'Jli); papers on Stephen I^lnnenius; on the Mohegan Indians ; biograiihy of John Lothrop, antl many others in tho MunttnclinnffiH i/Ih- tnrirnl CfdUrtionn. lie received the degree of I>. I), from IMinburgh Universitv. I>. June 4, 1837. IIu was tho father of Dr. Oliver Wcn<K'll Holmes. Holmes (David), hod of t'ol. Joseph Holmes of Fred- erick CO., Vo. ; was in Congress 1797-1809; governor of Mississippi Territory 1809-17; governor of the Slate of Mississippi lsi7-I9*and 1825-27; U. S. Senator 1820-25. D. near Winchester Aug. 20, 1832. Holmes (CAnniKL). b. in Sampson co., N. C. in 1769; was edueaterl iit Hiirvard Collei;e ; became a lawyer; State flcnator 1827; governor of North Carolina 1821-24; in Congress 1825-29; also general of militia, besides holding other public positions of huuor. D. in Sampson oo., N. C, Sept. 2fi, 1829. Holmes (flEoncr FnEDKRirK), b. in British Quiana in 1820; edueated in England at Durham University. AVhen eighteen years old ho came io tho U. S., and was a teacher in Virginia, Georgia, and South Carolina, and in 1842 was admittcil to the b:ir of South Carolina by the legislature, although not naturalized. He was for a time assistant editor of the Southern QtiurUrhf Jicvt'cw, and in 1845 ac- cepted a professorship in Richmond College, Va. In I84f> he \vas chosen president of the University of Mississippi; in 1847 professor of history, political economy, and inter- national law in William and Mary College, and in 1857 professor of history and literature in the University of Vir- ginia. He is the author of a series of school-books for tho Southern States. Holmes (Isaac EnwAnn), b. at Charleston, S. C, Apr. 0, I79(); graduated with honors at Yale 1815; became a lawyer of his native town 1818; was one of the founders of the South Cartdina Association and a leader of the ex- treme Stales' Rights party; was an able and distinguished member of Congress 1839-50; resided in California 1850- til ; strove to avert the civil war in l8iJl. D. at Charleston Feb. 24, lSt)7. Author of the Jiecreattonti of Oeon/e Tell- tale, and, with R. J. Turnbull, of Carolincngia (1826), a political work. Holmes (Joii.v^, b. at Windsor, Vt., in 1799. While preparing for the Methodist ministry he became a Roman Catholic; afterwards studied in the Montreal Seminary; was a professor in Nicolet College; became a priest imd home missionary. In 1828 ho was appointed a professor, and afterwards principal, of the Quebec Seminary, and in 1830-37 was government commissioner to Europe and tho U, S. to examine the normal schools. After 18;')8 ho retired from public life. D. at Lorette, Quebec, in 1852. He pub- lished Minntrl ahr/iji' de t/^'of/rupkie and Cou/^rtiices de Notre Duinc de QnfMcc (1850). Holmes (John), b. at Kingston, Mass., Mar.. 1773; graduated at Brown University 1790; removed in 1799 to what is now Maine, and became .t j)rosperous lawyer of the town of Alfred ; was very prominent in the convention which drew up the constitution of Alaine 1820; was in Congress 1817-20 ; U. R. Senator 1820-27 and 1829-33 ; in the legislature 1829 and lS;;a-38; U. S. district attorney 1841-43 ; was distinguished for wit and elotjuence. Author of The Stntcsmniiy or Principles of Lrt/i'slntion and L<iw (1840), etc. D. at Portland, Me., July 7, 1843. Holmes (Mary J.), b. in Brookficld, Mass. Her maiden name was Hawes, and she is a niece of the late Joel Hawes, D. D. She was married to J\Ir. Daniel Holmes, a Lawyer, then of Richmond, Ontario eo., N. Y., and has since tiien resided in \'ersaillcs, Ky., and at IJroekport, N. Y. Sho has written a large number of very popular novels, mostly of an unambitious or domestic character, and of excellent moral tendency. Holmes (Oliveu Wendell), M. D., a son of Dr. Abiel Holmes, b. at Cambridge, Mass., Aug. 29, 1SU9 ; graduated at Harvard in 1829: studied law for a time, and afterwards medicine, receiving his doctor's degree in 1830, after sev- eral years' attendance in tlie Eurojtcan hospitals. In 1838 he beeame proffssor of anatomy and physiology in Dart- mouth, and in 1847 was called to tho same cliair in tho Massachusetts Medical School, Boston. He is distinguished as an accurate anatomist, a skilful mieroscopist and auscul- tator, and a successful amateur photographer, but bis widest fame is as a poet, wit, and man of letters. The first col- lected edition of his poems appeared in IS.'iG. His Phi Beta Kappa poems, Poetry (1836), Terpsichore (1843), Vrttuia (184(1), and Antrtrn (1850), gave bim fresh laurels; and his Autocrat of the Iirr<tf,'fant Tnhlc, I*rof.HKor at the Itrcok/(int Tithlc,arni /*i>cf(itfhr lircnkfuHt '/'.f/^/*-, all originally publish- ed in the Atlantic Mnuthlt/, were a series of brilliant prose papers, with oceasioiuil poems, nearly all in bis ha(tpiest vein of mingled humor, pathos, healthy sentiment, and jiractical wisdom. His after-rjinner poems and other shurt lyrics are among tho best of their kind in the language. He has written also various medical addresses, papers, and pamphlets: CitrmitHtnul dniutcr-rurrentt in iyfediral Srieuce ( 1801 ), IJlKif Vrnnrr, a ronmnco ( 1801 ), .S'oin/s in Muni/ h'cifn (1864), SoHndiutjn from the Atlantic (1804), The O'liardiau yl»7e;( 1808), and Mechanimn in Thotujhtund Mornhi 1870 |. Holmes (Thkocimi is HtNTEu), h. in North Carolina in 18115; gr:iduiit.-il ut the V. S. Military Academy 1829; first lieutenant 7th Inlantry 1835; captain 1838; brevet major for conduct at Monterey 1840; major 8th Infantry 1855 ; resigned in 1801 ; commanded a Confederate brigadr in reserve at Manassns, :ind afterwards bebl command al Acquia ; with tho rank of lieutermnt-general be held i IS02- 01) a eommand in Arkansas; attacked Helena July '.*<, IH03, and was repelled with heavy loss. D. Mar. 31, 1804. He poHsossed a largo amount of property in his native State. Holmes'biir^, a v. of Philadelphia co.. Pa., now with- in tho limits of Philadelphia, on the Pennsylvania R. R. 966 HOLMES CITY— HOLTON. it contaios good public aud private schools, 6 churches^ public halls, a library, 1 newspaper, shovel and print works, 1 steam saw and planing mill, n grist-mill, 2 hotels. Principal oceup;ition, ugriciilturo and mechanical pursuits. Pop. about 1 JUO. W. F. KsoTT, Eu. " IjAZETTk." Holmes City, post-tp. of Douglas co., Minu. P. 452. Holmes'ville, ])ost-v. of Prairie tp., Holmes co.. 0., on tlie CIfVLl:\nd Mt. Vernon and Delaware K. H., miles N. of Millersburg. Pop. 299. Holm Oak, or Holly Oak (Qttcrcua IleXf the ilex ot Roman authors), a beautiful evergreen oak tree of Southern Europe and Northern Africa, prized for its beauty, as well as for the great excelleaco and durability of its timber. Holoceph'ali [from oAos, "entire," and«ef*)aA^. " head"], an order of selachians distinguished by the confluence of the hyomandibular bone with the cranium ; the coalescence of the maxillary and palatine elements with the skull ; the development of a rudimentary operculum ; aud the exist- ence of a single external gill-openiugon each side behind the head. To this order belongs a single existing family (Chi- meriida}), represented by three living genera and numerous extinct forms. In all the living forms the body is elongated, and terminates in a slender fin. Theodore Gill. Holofer'nes, See Judith. Holopho'tal. Sec Lighthouse Illubiination, by Prof. J. Hrnry, LL.D. Holoptych'ius [Ttr. 5Ao?. "all," and n-Tvx>}. " wrinkle," alluding to the appearance of the scale], an extinct genus of lepidoganoid fishes with imbricated bony scales. There arc numerous species found in Devonian aud Carboniferous strata in both hemispheres. There are, however, marked differences between the Carboniferous and the Devonian species. Some of these fishes were of great size. Holos'tomi [from oAos,"complete,'' and arofia, "mouth"], a group, and probably sub-order, of eels, but distinguished as an order by Prof. Cope, who has attributed to it the fol- lowing characters: "Epiclavicle suspended to fourth ver- tebra, post-temporal wanting. Parietals in contact. Mouth bouuded by the premaxillaries, which are in contact medi- ally, and bounded behind by maxillary. Symplectic pres- ent ; vertebra} unaltered ; no pectoral fin. Third superior pharyngeal not smaller than fourth." In addition to these characters, the pectoral fins are absent, and the vertical fins quite rudimentary and reduced to mere folds of the integument: the anus is situated very far backward; the gill-openings are confluent in a single outlet under or near the throat; and the ovaries have oviducts. This group has been formed for the reception of two families of eel-like fishes confined to the tropical regions — viz. {!) Symbran- chidie, represented in both the East Indies and America, and (2) Amphipuoidie, confined to Bengal. Theo. Gill. Holothu'rians [from Holothnrm, one of the genera; Gr. o.Vos. '• whole," aud 0vpiov, a '' mouth," an "opening"], or Holothiiroi'tlea, an order of echinodermatous radi- ates, including the highest in rank of radiate animals, hav- ing a long, eyliudroid. somewhat worm-like body, with no calcareous shell, and with a row of appendages around the inouth. Instead of a shell, there is a leathery rind, capa- ble of much expansion and contraction, in which there are calcareous particles. There arc several families, some of which have locomotive suckers. The trepang or becke de vter {ffolothnria cdnlis) and sea-cucumber (Pentacta /ron- dosa) of the North Atlantic are typical species. The indi- viiluals are bisexual. Some of the tropical kinds aro very beautifully colored. HoTstcin, a former duchy which belonged to Den- mark, whoso king, us duke of Ilolstcin, was a member of the (jcrnmn eonfoderation. but which in ISCO was annexed to Prussia, and now, together with Sleswick, forms a part of the North German confederation. It is situated between the Ualtio and the German Ocean, and between the Elbe and the Eider, which separate it respectively from Hanover and Slcswick. Its western part is marshy, and so luw that it must bo protected from inundation by dykes, but it is very fertile and presents excellent grazing-grounds ; the central part is heathy and sandy ; the eastern part fine soil fitted for agriculture. The rearing of cattle and the produc tion of butter and cheese, together with agriculture, arc the main branches of industry. Area, .32.'J0 square miles. Pop. 592,182. Principal cities, Kiel and Altona. It now consti- tutes a portion of Sleswick-Holstcln, a province of Prussia. Holste'nius (Litas), b. at Hamburg in 1.006: studied at Leyden; travelled in Italy aud Erance ; was converted to Catholicism ; became librarian to the cardinal Barberini, and afterwards at the Vatican: and d. at Home in 1661. He wrote a great number of diH^rrtntinnes aud cpiatleSf whieli have been published since his death. Ilol'ston River rises in Smyth co., Va., by two heads. the N. and S. forks, which unite at Holston boatyard, near Kiugsport, Tenn., and flows S. W. 200 miles to Kingston, Tenn., where it joins the Clinch and forms the Tennessee Kiver. It is navigable for light-draft boats throughout, aud for large steamers to Knoxville for nine months in the year. It is a beautiful stream, with no dangerous rapids. It is proposed to extend navigation by artificial means for some distance up its forks. Its affluents, the French Broad, the Little Tennessee, and the Watauga, are navigable to some extent. Holt, county in the N. W. of Missouri, separated by the Missouri River, its S. W. boundary, from Kansas and Nebraska. Area, -170 square miles. Its surface is varied. Cattle, grain, wool, and lumber are the staple products. The county is traversed by the Council BluSs and St. Jo- seph 11. R. Cap. Oregon. Pop. 11,652. Holty county of Nebraska, bounded N. by Dakota. Area, 2515 square miles. Its N. border is washed by Keya P.aya and Niobrara rivers. It is also traversed by the Elkhorn and other streams, and contains choice farming aud grazing lands. Holt, post-tp. of Taylor co., la. Pop. 356. Holt, tp. of Fillmore co., Minn. Pop. 784. Holt (Col. John Saunders), b. in Mobile. Ala., in 1S26, and comes of an old family of Bedford co., Va. ; was edu- cated in New Orleans and at Centre College, Danville, Ky. ; is a lawyer of Woodville, Miss. ; served both in the Mexi- can and the civil wars; and has written three successful tales of Southern life — Tht- Life of Abmhrtm Page, Eaq,, What I Know about Ben Evclcs, and The Qnitie8. Holt (Sir John), b. at Thame. Oxfordshire, England, 1042: studied law and became a prominent advocate: in 16S5 he was appointed recorder of London, administering the responsible duties of his office with much ability until the following year, when, by opposing a court measure, he became unpopular and was removed. Subsequently he held the office of sergeant-at-law. In the Convention Parliament which proclaimed William and Mary as king and queen he disj)layed such ability as to attract the notice of William (prince of Orange), who upon his accession to the throne (I68'J) apjiointed Holt lord chief-justice of the king's bench. Subsequently the king offered him the office of the great seal, but this he declined, and remained chief-justice until his death, which occurred at London in 1709. He was celebrated for his unbending firmness, strict integrity, and justice. As a jurist he was also very highly regarded. Holt (Joseph), b. in Brcckcnridgeco., Ky., Jan. 6.1807; educated at St. Joseph's College, Bardstown,and at Centre College, Danville; in IS2S he entered upon the practice of law at Elizabethtown, Ky., removing to Louisville in 18.'i2, and the following year was attorney for Jefferson circuit. In 18;i5 he removed to Port (jlibson, Miss., where he prac- tised his profession with great success until IS42, when he returned to Louisville. In 1S57, Pres. Buchanan appointed him commissioner of patents, and in 1859 to a seat in his cabinet as postmaster-general. Upon the resignation of John B. Floyd (Dec, 1S60), which Buchanan q.uietly ac- cepted. Gen. Holt was appointed to succeed him as secretary of war, and during the eventful months which preceded as well as on the occasion of the inauguration of Pres. Lincoln, he actively co-operated with the general-in-ehief in main- taining order and suppressing threatened traitorous out- bursts at tho capital. He subsequently made a report de- tailing the facts of the intended seizure of the capital. His next service was as a member of the commission appointed to investigate the military claims against the department of the West. In Sept., 1862, Pres. Lincoln selected him as judgc-advocate-general of tho army, with the rank of colo- nel, which he accepted, and upon the establishment of the bureau of military justice in June. 1861, was retained at its head with the same title, but with the increased rank of brigadier-general. In this capacity he has borne a con- sjiicuous part in the various imjiortant courts-martial, courls of inquiry, and military commissions — notably that before' which were arraigned tho assassins of Pres. Lincoln, lle- tired Nov.. 1S75. G. C. Simmons. Tlol'ton, city, cap. of Jackson co., Kan., on the Kansas Central (narrow gauge) R. R., 50 miles AV. of Lravenworth. It has 2 banks, 5 churches, a high school, 2 hotels, a steam flouring-mill, and 1 weekly newspaper. It is in an excel- lent fruit and stock region, has good timber, building- stone, and fine streams. Poji. 426. F. A. Root, Ed. " Express and News." Holton (Sami-fl), h. at Danvers, Mass.. June 9, 1738; was a physician of hi? native town : a prominent colonial legislator and an ardent patriot, holding important public offices in his province: assisted in forming the Ci>nft'deration 1777 : was in Congress 177S-S:i, 17S4-S7.and 179."i-95 : judge of probate 1796-1815; twenty-sci'en years a State councillor. HOLTY— HOLY GHOST. 967 and was for a time a justice oftho common picas; was also eminent as a practitioner. D. Jan. 2, 1S16. lIuTty (Lri>wiG llKiSRif h CiiuisTOPii),b. at Maricnsec, near llauuver, Dee. 21, 174S; ijtudicU tlieolugy at (iottiu- gcn, hut was of a very delicate constitution, and d. at Han- over iSept. 1, 1776. After his death his lyrical pocnis were published by Voss and Stulberg in I7S.!, and attrnctcd much attention on account of the sweet, elegiac feeling which pervades them and the dclicato harmony of their form. Holtz'endorfT, von (Franz), b. at Victmannsdorf, PruB!?iu. Oct. 14, 1S29; studied at Berlin, Heidelberg, and Bonn, and became in I^Cl professor of jurisprudence at tiic University of Berlin. He wrote FntuzuHinvhe licclits- ZHntiinde (ISJU), Die Dtporfation «/s Slru/mittrl (1859), J/rm irifichc (ic/iini/nisM-Ht/itttm ( I8i>9), Pn'iicipieu drr Podiik (l-SfiK), Eiirifktopatlic dtr lievhtmrisnenacha/t (1870), Hnnd- buch des DtHtechen Stra/rechts (1874). Iloltzcndorff i Karl FiiiEDKRicn>. b. at Berlin Aug. 17. 1764; entered the milititry service in I77S under his father, who was an eminent general of artillery ; became lieutenant in 1781; distinguished himself in Poland in 1794 ; was wounded at Halle in ISOfl; took part in the de- fence of liiintzic in 1S07; and commanded the artillery of the army uf Biilow in 1814, and of that of Bliiober in 1815. 1>. at Berlin Sept. 29, 1828. Iloltz'mann (At>oi,f), b. at Carlsrubc May 2, 1810; studied theology at Berlin, Old German at MUnich, San- scrit at Paris, and was in 1852 appointed professor of Ger- man language and literature at (he University of Heidel- berg. His most prominent writings are — U'her dcu Um- !utit (1S4;1). Ceher dm Ablaut (1S44). Indf^rhc Snffen ( IS4;t-45), Cfltf-n tind Gtnnanen (1855), Nicbcluiif/ciilied (1855), Kfi'ifr (IS59). Huly Aniance^ a compact entered into at Paris Sept. 26, 1S15. by the sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prus- sia, joineil by most of the other European powers, and published Feb. 2, ISlfi. It forever excluded all members of the Bonaparte family from any throne in Europe, ex- pressed the intention of the contracting powers to live to- gether in Christian harmony, and exhorted the people to faithful daily fulfilment of Uhristian duties. Thus they concealed the chain they had welded with which to re- slriiin the progress <»f liberal ideas in Europe. Holy Coat of Treves, a garment preserved in the cathedral of Treves, in Germany, which was declared by Pope Leo X. in 1514 to be the veritable seamless garment worn by Jesus Christ at his crucifixion, and for which the soldiers cast lots. This coat, it is alleged, was left at Treves by the empress Helena in the fourth century. No less than nine other holy coats have been exhibited, and in 18il'., Pope (Jregory XVI. pronounced that of Argenteuil in France to be the true one. The one at Treves was lost for a season, and rediscovered in 119t>. It has been from time to time exhibited, when hundreds of thousands of pilgrims flock to sue it, as in 1844. Among the eonsie- quences of this last exhibition was the secession of .)ohann K'lugc and his nunterous followers from the Church. Holy Communiou. Soo Eucharist, by F. A. P. Baun Aun. Holy Communion, Sisters of the, a society of Indie- of the Protestant Episcopal Church, founded in Xew York in jsi;, hy Iho Kcv. |)r. \V. A. iMnblenlierg. They are not bound by vows, and do not wear a strictly uniform habit. They are devoted to the caro of the sick in hos- jfitals and to other charitable labors. Holy Cross, Congregation of the, an associa- tion of regular clerks, founded by the ;\bl)6 Morcau in 1XIJ4. Their present rule was apjiroved in ls.")(i, in which ye;ir the lirntherhood of St. .losrph was merged into this eonpregalion. They were introduced into the I'. S. in 1S42, and have now numerous estalilishments here. There is a eongregation of Canons Regular of the Holy Cross (anciently called Crutebed Friars in England ), fouiiiliMl by Theodore de Celles 1211. They have a cdlege jil Water- town. Wis., iind are numerous in continental Europe ; called also Croisiers and Cross-bearers. Holy Cross, Sisterhood of the, founded 1S34 by th- Abb^ Morcau, at Alans, Belgium. Their rule was ap- proved in 1857. There are two orders of " Daughters of the Cross " and one of " Sisters of the Cross," independent of the above. Holy <;host, or Holy Spirit [Heb. fiuah Elohim and linnh Jthovnh ; (Jr. nvtvua ayioi). the Spirit of (Jod, of Christ, of the Lord, etc., is the third Person of the Trin- ity, whose cxistcnee, character, and offices arc revenlcd in the Bible. Sax. i/fmMt, Ger. yn'W, Dan. tind, Heb. rufih, Greek nvrvfAa. ].»t . Mftiiitim, Eng. >ry»iViV, all origiuaMv mean "wind," then "breath," then "life," then the self-con- scious, intelligent, self-determined, thinking substance of God, angels, and man. The term vytiina iyioi'. "Holy Ghost," in Scripture and Christian theology, docs not des- ignate the 8j)iritual substance common to the three Persons of the Godhead, but the third Person or Hypostasis existing in the unity of that substance. We propose here a con- densed statement (I.) of the scriptural and Church doctrine as to his personality, divinity, procession, andofticcs; (II.) of the history of opinion on the subject^ (HI-) its litera- ture. 1. SCRIPTrRAL AND CuuilCn DOCTRINE OF THK Hoi.Y GnosT. 1. Ifis Pcmonalilr/. — The attributes of personality are intelligence, will, individual subsistence; and in Scrip- ture all of tlieso arc predicated of the Spirit, (1) He uses the pronoun ** I," and the Father and Son use the pro- nouns "ho" anil "him," when speaking of him (Acts xiii. 2 ; John xv. 20 and xvi. 1.1. 14) ; '• AVhen be (e^rci-o?) shall come ... ho shall glorify me." {2} His functions all im- ply distinct personal subsistence: he "speaks," "searches," " selects," " reveals," " reproves," " testifies," " leads," "comforts," "distributes to every man as ho wills," "knows the deep tliinj^s of God," "is grieved." etc. (Acts xiii. 2 ; I Cor. ii. 10, II and xii. 11 ; 1 Tim. iv. 1). {?,) All Christians profess personal allegiance to the H0I3' Spirit precisely as to Father and Son. They arc baptized fi<; to ovofjia^'iutn the utniitj of the Fatlier, and of the Son, and f'f the Holy (I'hfiHt (Matt, xxviii. liJ). If the two former are Persons, the latter must be. Hence he is our Sanctifier and Comforter. (4) Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, and the possibility of " resisting," " grieving," and " doing despite to " him, imply his personalitv f^Iatt. xii. ;jl, .■i2; Mark iii. 28, 29 ; Luke Xii. 10; AcfsVii. ol; Heb. x. 2U ; Eph. iv. 30). (5) This has been from the beginning the common faith of all historical churches. (Sec Niccne and Athiumsian Creeds ; Thivtif-ninc Articlrs of Church of Eng- land ; Artirlcn of Methodist EjjihcojhiI Church ; WcMtmin- 8ter Conf. of faith, cli. 2, § 3 ; Aut/aOnrf/ Coufctssiou, art. 1.) 2. HtH Diriniii/. — ( I ) Ho is called by the exclusive names of God. AVhat Jehovah says in the Old Testament tho New Testament writers ascribe to the Holy Ghost. (Cf. Isa. vi. 9 with Acts xxviii. 25, and Jer. xxxi. .'U-IU with Heb. X. 15; see Acts v. 3, 4.) (2) Divine attributes are predicated of bim : (o) omnipresence ( Pa. cxxxix. 7; I Cor. xii. 13); (6) omniscience (1 Cor. ii. 10, 11); (c) omnipo- tence (Luke i. 35 ; Rom. viii. 11). (3) Divine works are ascribed to him: (o) creation (tien. i. 2; Job xxvi. 13; Ps. civ. 30); (6) inspiration (Heb. iii. 7; 2 Pet. i. 21); (c) miracles (1 Cor. xii. 9-11 ) ; (rf) spiritual regeneration (John iii. fi ; Tit. iii. 5). (4) Divine worsliip is to be paid to him (Mutt, xxviii. 19; 2 Cor. xiii. 1 I ; Matt. xii. 31, 32). 3. The Pi-occHfiifin of the Ilnlif iVAokMs a technical phrase, originating in John xv. 20 ("the Spirit of truth which procecdeth from the Father"), and used by theologians to express the essential relations of the Holy Ghost to tho other Persons of the Trinity. The teachings of Scripture and of the whole Church, Roman and Protestant, involve the follo^ving points: (1) There is but one God, and ho is indivisilde. Therefore there is but one indivisible sub- stance which is (jod. (2) This one whole substance sub- sists eternally as three cq^ual Persons, the entire substance subsisting as each Person concurrently. (3) The Scriptures reveal (so far forth) the nature and relations of each Per- son by their names and relative actions. The Father is al- ways first, the Son second, and the Spirit third. The terms Father and S(ui express an eternal reciprocal relation. Tho Father eternally begets the Son. The Spirit is the infinite personal " Breath " of God, as the Son is his infinite per- sonal "Word." He is the "."Spirit of God" and "from God " (((f Toi) ©coD, 1 Cor. ii. 12), and the "Spirit of tho Father," " who procecdeth from the Father" (6 irapi tow TToTpo? fKffopcyeTot, John XV. 20). Ho is abso tho Spirit "of the Son " and "of Christ" (Uom. viii. 9; Gal. iv. (J). Ho is sent by and acts for the Father; so lie is sent by and acts for the Son (John xvi. 7-11). {4 ) Hence, the Athaiiasian Creed concludes (^§ 20-22), the "Father was made from none, nor created, nor begotten. Tho Son is from tho Father alone, neither made nor created, but begotten. The Holy Ghost is from the Father and tin- Son, neither niaiie nor ercated nor begotten, but proceeding." This the Church proposes not as an cxplanatiim. but simply as a statement of scriptural data. (See Pkockssion.) The Gknkhation of (he Son is an eternal constitutional (non-voli(irtnal) act of the Father, whereby ho communi- cates his whole divine essence Ut (he Hypostasis of the Son. whereby the Son is tho "express inuigo of the Father's Person " and " tho brightness of his glory," The Piukks- sioN or Spiuation of the Holy (ihost is a like eternal act 'if the Father and of the Son. wh(>rel>y they nnnniunieato llirir whole common substiiijc^' to the llypostiisis of tho Holy Ghost, whereby ho becomes their consubstautial por- 908 HOLY GHOST, ORDERS OF THE-HOLY LEAGUE. sonal Breath. As these acts are eternal, they are neither past nor future, but present, without beginning or enJing. 4. //,■« Offices in A'..(iue.— The " Siiirit " or personal " Urealh " is the Executive of the Uodhcad, as the " Son or "Word" is the Kevcaler. The .Spirit of God moved upon the face of Chaos and developed Cosmos (Gen. i. 2). Henceforth he is ahvavs represented as the author of order and beauty in the natural as of holiness in the moral world. He carnished the astronomical heavens (.Job .\xvi. 13). He is the organizer and source of life to all provinces of vege- table and animal nature (.lob xxxiii. 4; I's. civ. 29, aO ; Isa xxxii. 14, 15), and of enlightenment to human intelli- gence in all arts and sciences (Job xxxii. 8 and xxxv. 11; Ex. xxxi. 2-4). . , , . ,. 5. ///» 0/fices in /fcrfcm;)(i'mi.— Christ promised his dis- ciples on the eve of his crucifixion that he would send them the Spirit of truth as another Comforter, 7rop(i«*»)T0!, Piuk- vUte. Adruiatiit (I'atron, Counsel, Champion, Helper, etc. ; also applied to Christ himself, 1 John ii. 1). -Mthough he had been the divine agent effecting the salvation ot men ever since Adam, it is said this Paraclete was not given until after the ascension and glorification of Christ (John vii. .-ill and Acts ii. 32, 33) ; that is, he is now given with a universality, fulness, power, and clearness of manifestation infinitelv surpassing that of the past. The present is the dispensiition of the Spirit in contrast with the preceding preparatory dispensation of the Law. (1) The Spirit fa'^hioned the bo.ly of Christ in the womb of the \ irgin, enriched and supported his human suul, and co-operated with him in all the offices he performed in his estate of humiliation (Luke i. 3.-. : Isa. xi. 1, 2 : John i. 32 and iii. 34. (2) He inspired the writers of both the Old and the New Testaments as to thoughts and words (Mic. iii. S; 1 Cor ii. 10-13). (3) He teaches those who are spiritually minded the meaning of Scripture (1 Cor. ii. 14, 15) and applies to all the redemption purchased by Christ (John xvi. 13, 14). Hence he is called the "Spirit of grace" (Ileb X. 29\ " of wisdom and understanding" (Isa. xi. 2), "of truth "(John xvi. 13), "of adoption" (Rom. viii. 15), "of propheev" (Rev. xix. 10), "of promise" (Eph. i. l.i), and -of glorv" (Pet. iv. 14). He regenerates, sanctifies, and preserves' the souls and raises the dead bodies of the saints (John iii. 6: Rom. xv. 16 and viii. 11). Ho is to the Church and to the individual Christian the immanent source of life— TO i^jtonowy, the Ll/e-Olver. (4) He is the bond of life and the organizing principle of the historic Church on earth (1 Cor. xii. 13), and Church teachers and rulers are properly only the organs of the Holy Ghost 'fi ISUimhtmy aqaiml the Hohj Gho>t (Matt. xii. 31, 32; Mark iii. 2y, 30 : Ileb. vi. 4-fi and x. 20, 27 ; 1 John v. 16). —This appears to be an intelligent, deliberate, and malig- nant " speaking against," and rejection of, the Spirit of grace bv one who has been under his special induenee. It is never pardoned, because of its peculiar guilt, aud because it is a definite and final rejection of Christ's salvation. (See SciIVFF, .SVu aijniiiHt the Iloty Ghoul (1S41).) II. HisTOHY OF OiM.Nio.-J.- 1. The State of Opinion iii the Enrhi Churrh, iiud the Definition of the Unii-ermil Chnreh Doctrine hi/ the Conncil of Constantinople, A. D. 381.— Tho Christian Church from the beginning expressed its faith in the terms of the (so-called) Apostles' Creed, which acknow- ledges a Trinity of divine Persons. Nevertheless, the pre- valent conceptions were very vague and variable (see testimony of GiiKGOnv Xazia.vzf.s, Oral. SI, De Spiritu snncio, c'ap. 5), the majority regarding the Spirit as more decidedly subordinate to the Son than the Son to the Father. The complete statement of the final lailh of the Church was introduced into the Nicene Creed by the Council of Constantinople (A. n. 381) in these words: " And 1 believe in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, tho Giver of Life who proceedcth from the Father and the Son [this Phrase, •' fiHoqne," was added by (he Council of Toledo (A n 589), and was accepted bv the Latins and all Prot- estants, and rejected bv the Greeksl, who with the Father and Son is to be worshipped and glorified, who spake by the prophets." For tho most detailed of the universally received definitions seethe Athanasian Creed (cir. A. i). 4j0). These Creeds, either in form or substance, have been adopted bv all historical churches. 2. I/rre'iirol VIcirt. — Some of the Gnostics considered the Holv Ghost and Christ two celestial yfo.u, generated to restore tho disturbed harmony of the Pleroma. The ^lo.'iansand other ancient deniers of the divinity of Christ re.'arded the phrase Holv Ghost as another name for the siiv'lc person of God. The Sabellians held that it desig- nates one mode of divine operation aud the phase of divine revelation peculiar to the present dispensation. The Arians and Semi-Arians regarded the Holy Ghost as the first and gre called MncedonianH, Pneumatomachi, and Tropici. All modern Arians and Socinians interpret the phrase Holy Ghost as a designation of the energy of God manifested in action. De Wetle says the Spirit is fiod operative in na- ture ; Schleiermacher says he is God operative in tho Church. III. Literature. — Nicene and Athanasian Creeds; Hase's Collection of Lnthcrun and NiemeVER's Collection of Calrinistie Confessions; HAGENDACn's Hist, if Doctrines; Shedd's Hist of Christ. Doctrines; JiEAXPEn'sand Schaff's Histories of the Christian Church; Watson's 7'/ico. insti- tutes; Hefele's Bistort/ of Councils; Owen's Discourse eoncernin;/ the Holi/ S/iirit; JrLllS ClI. HaBe's Mission of the Comforter; H.AnvEv's Hist, of the Three Creeds; The Paraclete, anon.: PeaksoS On the Creed; American Quar- terli/ Church Recieic. Apr., 181).'!, Art. 5. A. A. HoDGE. Holy (ihost, Orders of the (Roman Catholic). (1) An order, at first consisting of hospital knights of St. Au- gustine, was founded in 1178 by Guido of .Montpellier, and in part removed to Rome in 1204, receiving the hospital of Sassia. Here they became in part canons regular, aud after many vicissitudes the knightly branch of the order ceased in 1700 to exist, but the canons regular are not yet extinct. In 1254 the Hospitallers of the Holy Ghost, a secular branch of the above, were organized, containing both brethren and sisters. The latter, called White Sisters, arc still numerous and active in benevolent works. With them became connected another sisterhood of the Holy Ghost, established in 1212. (2) Another congregation of canons of the Holy Ghost was confirmed in 1588. (3) A society of missionary priests of the Holy Ghost was found- ed in 1700, and is still active. Hol'yhead, seaport town of North Wales, on an island of the same name as the town, forming the western part of An<'lesea co., and connected with the main portion of Anglesea by a huge causeway and a bridge. The island is mainlv a barren rock, but the town contains numerous fine buildings. It is a parlianieutaiy borough. Pop. IS. Holyhead is most notable for the breakwater by which harbor accommodation is provided for the packet service between England and Ireland, and at the same lime an important harbor of refuge is constituted. The successful bridging for military purposes of the Menai Straits by Stephenson's tubular" bridge decided a mooted question as to the terminus of the great railway route between London and Dublin and choice of site for harbor in favor of Holy- head. The breakwater, commenced in 1S47, was planned by the late J. M. Rendei. On his death. Mr. John Hawk- shaw became the superintending engineer, under whom the work was finally completed in 1873. As originally planned, it was one mile in length, forming, in conjunction with islands, an almost close harbor of 2B7 acres. A subsequent extension of 2500 feel has added an area of 400 acres of "sheltered roadstead." It consists of 7,000,000 tons of stones thrown in " a picrre perdue," surmounted by a ver- tical wall starting from low-water line near the inner edge and rising 3Si feet above low water, three- fourths of its height being masked aud protected by a long fore-shore of "rip-rap." Behind this wall, and 12 feet lower than its top, is a terrace or quay 40 feet wide. The average depth of water being 40 feet and tidal rise 18 feet, tho stone mound has necessarily great dimensions, averaging 225 feet width at low water and (in 50 feet depth) 400 feet at base. Theenormous quantities of stone (quartz rook from the neighboring Holyhead Mountain) required gave rise to some of the largest and most interesting quarrying opera- tions ever undertaken. Shafts or " headings " of large di- mensions were run into the rock, in which charges amount- ing sometimes to the enormous amount of ten tons of pow- der were exploded. The breakwater cost £1,500,000. (See article Breakwateii. and Enijinccrlmj, Sept. 26, 1873.) Holy Innocents. See Ciiii.iiermas. Holy Islimd, or Lindisfarne, an island (a penin- sula at low tide) off the E. coast of England, in the county of Durham ; lat. 55° 40' N., Ion. 1° 47' W. : 3 nautical miles N. of the Fame Islands proper. Lindislarnc in fl.ia became a bishop's see, and was tlie cjiiscopal seat of St. Culhbert. In 900 tho sec was transferred to Durham. Holy Island is a favorite bathing-place, and its old castle and ruined abbey arc interesting objects. Holy League, a name applied to several alliances of ' European princes for war or defence, j 1 ) That of 151 1, be- tween the pope. Julius II.. Spain, and Venice, to expel tho French from Italy. It lasted till the Truce of Orthes (1513). (2) That of Nuremberg (1538), between Charles V. and the Catholic princes of Germany against the League of Schmalkald. (3) That of 1571. of the pope, Venice, and Spain against the Turks. (4) The great league ot the Guises, the French Parliament, tho monks. Spain, and tho .lest creature of Christ, of superangclic but not divine i uui:.e^, i..» '■■;;•—■ V 7i' "-k^ ~'7s.« I iAr-i\- Tut- ) perfection After the Council of Nice these parties were | pope against the Huguenots (1..6). (See Leag. t, T.lt.) HOLY MAID OF KKNT-IIOME. 909 (5) That of 1(509 b<>twecn tho popo and the Catholic states of Suahia and Bavaria. {6} That of lOSi, Polaud, Ger- many, and Venice, ));j;uintit the Turks. lluly Maid of Kent, an epileptic maid-servant of an inu at Aldington, Kent, who in 1625 acquired a great rojiutation for sanctity and prophetic gifts. lU-r name was Klizaheth Burton. She became a nun of St. Sepulchre's, Canterbury, and her pretensions were favored by Arch- bishop Warham and Bishop Fisher. Presuming to do- iiouuco the judgments of Heaven against King Henry VIII. in ease of his persistence in his suit for divorce from Catharine of Spain, she with five priests, her alleged ac- compIi<^'e.4, was attainted of high treason and beheaded^ Apr. 21. 15:M. Holy Names of Jesiis and Mary, Sisters of tlie, a lluruan Catholic sistcrho<»d. first establi-shcd at Longucuil, near Montreal, in 1SI3, by Mmes. Durochcr, Dufresne, and Ceri". Their special work is the instruction of young ladies. Ilol'yoake (Gkokgk J.mob), b. at IJirmin;;hani. Eng- land, Apr. I'.i, 1817; became a teacher of malln-uiatics at the mechanics' institute of that city, and edited fur many years The JiennoHcrf an organ of political and religious radicalism. Intellectually a positivist, nnd morally a utilitarian, he believes that there i;? a material state of the wurld in which it is impo^jsiblo for man to be depraved and pour ; and to produce this state is the aim of his reforms. He published in 1874, in LoodoD, a Hintory of Co-operation (2 vuls.). Hol'yoke, city of Hampden co., Ma?s., on the Con- necticut River U. H., and the terminus of the Holyoko and Westfield K. K. It has 9 churches. 2 national banks, 2 savings banks, 'A hotels, a public library, 1 semi-weekly and 1 weekly newspaper, 28 schools and 18U0 pupils, and a granite city-hall costing above $370,000. It has an im- mense water-piiwer, and contains 17 paper-mills, 8 cotton- mi I U, -i woollen -mills, 1 wire- mil I, 1 grist -in ill, 1 recd- faetory, i lumber manufactory, atul W planing-mills. New waterworks have just been completed at a cost of $250,000. It has a free bridge across the Connecticut River, couuect- ing it with South Hadley. Pop. 10,7.'i3. \V. S. LoOMis, Ki). "Transchipt." Ilolyoke (Eowaud Ait«i:stis). M. 1)., LL.l)., a cen- tenarian and eminent physician an<l purgeon of Salem, Mass., was a son of the Kev. Edward Ilolyoke (IfiHil-UfiO), who was president of Harvard Cullege. Dr. Ilolyoke was b. at Miirbleheiid, Mass.. Aug. 1, 172S, and gra(iuated at Harvard in 1740. In 1740 he began his practice at Salem, where he remained nctively engaged in his profession seventy-nine years. He was temperate in his habits, ate much fruit, walked habitually in his professional business, and took groat care to have abundant sleep. D. at Salem, Mar. '.\\, 1829. aged one hundred years and eight mouths, retaining his faculties in a good degree to the last. (See his .l/'MioiV, 1S20.) Ilolyoke, .Mounts a steep, narrow ridge of greenstone trap in Hampshire co., Mass., separating the towns of Hiidley and Amherst on the N. from South Hadley and (Jranby on the S. It is 7 miles long, and terminates in Belcherlown on the E. Its W. extremity is separated from Mount Tom by a cleft through which the Connecticut Iliver tlows. The name is uppropriatidy limited to the W. extremity, where there is a hotel upon the summit, which is reached by a railway whose cars are drawn up by a stationary engine. The highest point is 1120 feet above the sea. Mount Ilolyoke is well timbered, and some parts formerly abounded in rattlesnakes, which are, however, be- coming very rare. Holy Hood. See TniK Cross. Holy S<'|iiil(*lire« the tomb in whii-h our Lord lay. It was hewn out of a rock in a garden in the place of the crucilLxion. just outside the walls of Jerusalem. In the opinion of many, the flpot has not yet been identilietl, and never will be. The traditional site, fixed upon early in the fourth century, is a cave unrii-rncalb the pile ol buildings known as the Chureb of tite Holy Sepulchre. The edifice, begun by Coiistaiitine in 1120 aiul rlt>dicatod in ■!•!.'>, was de- stroyed by tin? PerstiuiH under Cbosroi-n in 014; rel»uilt after about sixteen years; destroyed again by Khalif Hakim, the Kalimile, in tOIO; again rebuilt in i04S; en- larged and improved by the crusaders (after lO'JU) ; suffered severely from lire in IHOH; imd in ISltl, after extensive re- pairs, was eonsecrnte<l anew. In I'ergusson's opinion, the arehit(!cture <jt" tin- edifi(H« is " wholly of an age subsequent to that of the Crusatli-s, an<l without a Iraeo ul the 8tylu of ('onstanline." It eonhiitis chapels for (jtreeks. Latins, and Armenians, with smalbr apartments for CoptR, JneobileH, an<l Maronites. Tlo* pretendeil miracle of the Holy Kire 'Ui Easter Eve each year \-* one ol the gieatrst siMiiidals in his- tory. The identity of this traditional site, first disputed by Korto, the German bookseller, in 173S, has been ably ar- gued for by Williams ( HtAy Citif, 1845), and ably argued against by Robinson {Biblical HeHearchen, 1841 ; Liter ll.- aearchcH, IS5ti; /Ublint/ieca Surra, 1S40). Fergusson (An- cient Topojraphi/ uf JfrnHaff'iit, 1847") identifies the cave underneath the mosque of Omar with the holy sepulchre. Fisher How (1S7I) looks for it on the N. side of the city, just outside of the Damascus gate. Barclay {Citi/ nf the (jrcat K'iiif/, 1858) and others lor.k for it on the E. siilo of the city, just outside of St. Stephen's gate, either N. of it or S. of it. R. I). IIlTCIiOOCK. Holy Sepulchre, Orders of the. (1) Canons Hixi'i.Ait AM) Caxonkssks OF ( Augustiniau), founded at Jerusalem in lOUU or 1114, spread throughout Europe. The canons ceased to exist in tne seventeenth century, but there are still some nuns who live in seclusion and instruct children. (2) KsiriHTs of tiii; Holy St:i'ri.riiRF, perhaps founded by Alexander III., and still foun<l in small num- bers. They are now appointc<l liy tlie pope as guardian father, and by the patriarch of Jerusalem. An order of this name existed in England from 1174 to the seventeenth century. The Franciscans once had the sole right to c()n- fer this rank. At present the Latin patriarch of Jerusalem is grand master. Holy Spirit Plant, or Dove Plant, the Pcrinteria alata, an orchidaceous plant of Central America, having white symmetrical fictral envelopes, and the stamens and pistil united into a column which curiously resembles a bird with expanded wings. It is venerated in its native regions as the symbol of the Holy Dove, the form in which the Divine Spirit descended at the baptism of our Lord. The plant is not uncommon in cultivation. Holy Water, in the Greek, Roman Catholic, and the various Oriental churches, water which has been consecrated by a priest and is used in religious ceremonies. Its use in churches is very ancient, and it is by many believed to bo derived from a custom of the ancient Hebrews. In the Church of Rome it is composed of pure spring-water in which a little consecrated salt has been cast. The (ireeks use pure water, and the faithful drink a portion of it at Epijihany and Christmas. Holy Week, the last seven days of Lent, the week before Easter, popularly known in continental Eurojie as Still Wec/c — often called FnnHinn Week, but that name is also given to the week preceding it. It contains I*alm Sunday, Spy Wednesday, Maundy or Holy Thursday, Goorl Friday, and Holy Saturday. It is a penitential season, in commemoration of our Lord's jiassion and death. Ho'lywell, town of Flintshire, North Wales. It re- ceived its name from tiio well of St. Winifred, which is said to be the most copious spring in England. In its vicinity are found the richest coal, lead, and copper mines in the country, and besides its manufactures of cotton and flannel Holywell has many establishments for lead an*! copper smelting. It is a rapidly growing town. Pop. bWib ; with surroundings, 1 1.0'J2. Homalop^sidie [fromo^iaAo?. "flat," and oi/fi^.^faco"], a family of colubroid serpents with regular large plates on the head; plates on the al)domen uniserial, and behind bi- serial ; and distinguished by the extension forward of the postorbital bones over the superciliary region, and the de- velopment of hypapophyses to the vertebrie as far back- ward as the anal region. This family, diflorentiated espe- cially by the last-nicntioned character, comprises a numoor of genera, among which are the North American ones Tntpi- doiiottia, ThamuophiH, Niniu, Storcria, etc., HaltUa, etc. TnKoi>oui-: Gill. Homalopter'idte [from 'onaK6<:, 'Mlat,'* and irrtpdi-, "fin"], a laiuily (d" eventognathous teleooephalous fishes, characlerized by the horizontal trend of the pectoral and ventral fins, the abserue of an air-liludder, and the develop- ment of the pharyngeal teeth to the number of from ten to sixteen in a single series on each branch. The family in- cludes two genera peculiar to the fresh waters of the East, Indies, one of which { /fonmtufit' ra) has six barbels, and the other {/'nilorhj/nchuM) has o'liie. The relations of the latter genus, however, are still uneertaiu. and require con- firmafion liy anatomical investigations. Tmfuoori; (in.L. Hom'hiirg, or lIoinliiirR-vor-der-Holie, town of (/cnlral (ieruuiny, capital of (be former landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg. It is famous fur its mineral springs and elegant bathing establishments, wiiioh. before the closing of the gambling-saloons, attracted more than 10,000 visitors annually, i'op. H020. Homo, tp. of Nemaha eo., Knn. Pop. 710. Home, tp. of M(uitoalm co.. Mich. Pop. 17.'I. Home, post-tp. of Rrown oo., Minn. Pop. 770. Home (David Dunolah), b. near Edinburgh, Scotland, 970 IIOMl':-nOMER. Mar. 20, 1833 ; came in childhood to the U. S., and became distinguished as a :ipirituulistic medium, marvellous phe- nomena having, it is nsserted, attended him from infancy. Ho has resided mainly in Europe since \Sbt>; became a Honian Catholic in 1S6('); has been twice married, both his wives being Uussiiin ladies of high birth ; became secretary of the Spiritual Athenaeum, London, in 1S60; is author of three volumes of an autobiographical character. Home (Sir EvKitAnn), b. at (irecnlaw Castle, Berwick- sliire, ;?eotland. May fi, ]7j6 ; studied medicine under John Hunter; jtractised in London 17'Jl); was appointed surgeon to the court and professor of anatomy; created a baronet in 1813; and d. at Chelsea Aug. .'!!, is;i2. His most promi- nent work is his Lecturen on Comparative Anatomy (6 vols., I814-2S). Home (Henry). See Kames, Henry Home. Home, or Uume (John), b. at Ancrum, Ro.\burghshirc, Scotland, in 1722; studied theology at the University of Edinburgh; fought on the Hanoverian side in the rebel- lion of 1746; was appointed minister at Athclstaneford in 1740. In KTiG his tragedy of Dumjlas was produced at Edinburgh with great success, but the circumstance that it was written hy a clergyman caused such a scandal that Home resigned his office in 1757. George III. gave him a pension and a sinecure office, and he continued to write tragedies — Alouzo, Alfred, Af/itt'leia. etc. He also wrote a Hintory of the Jitbellion vf 2745, but his Dnutjlns and the story connected with it have alone survived. D. in Edin- burgh Sept. 5, ISOS. Ho'melyn, Spotted Ray, or Sand Ray, the Raia miraletus, a fish common in European seas. It is an abundant food-fish. Ho'mer, post-v., county-seat of Banks co., Ga,, 30 miles X. of Athens. Pop. 120. Homer, citv of Champaign co.. 111., on the Toledo Wabash and AVestern R. K.. 20 miles S. W. of Danville, 273 miles S. W. of Toledo, 0., and S9 miles E. of Springfield. It has 1 savings bank. 1 newspaper, 3 churches, 1 hotel, and 1 large flouring-mill. It is situated in a rich agricul- tural district, ada]tted to raising grain and fruit, %vhich are annually shipped from this point in large quantities. 1*. 707. J. H.\itPER & Sons, Pubs. " Press." Homer, tp. of Will co., 111. Pop. 1279. Homer, tp. of Benton co., la. Pop. 567. Homer, tp. of Buchanan co., la. Pop. 5S1. Homer, post-v., cap. of Claiborne parish. La., 50 miles from Shreveport. It has 2 institutions of learning, 3 churches, a large court-house, 2 newspapers, stores, shops, etc. Principal business, cotton-buying and merchandising. Pop. SO. D. B. Hayes, Ed. "Advocate." Homer, post-v. and tp. of Calhoun co., Mich, on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern and the Michigan Central R. Rs. It has an academy, 3 churches, large flour- ing-mills, a savings bank, 1 newspaper, 2 hotels, and a furnace. Pop. of v. 685; of tp. 1575. W. A. Lane, Ed. " Index." Homer, tp. of Midland co., Mich. Pop. 247. Homer, tp. and post-v. of Winona co., Mina. Pop. of v. 91 : of tp. 837. Homer, tp. and post-v. of Cortland co., N. Y., 27 miles S. of Syracuse, on the Syracuse Binghamton and New York R. R. Area, about 49 square miles. It contains an academy and graded school, 5 churches, a banking-house, 2 foundries, 4 tlry-goods stores, 3 llouriug-mills, 3 carriage and 1 firkin factory, an axe-factory. 1 newspaper, and 4 hotels, with a variety of smaller stores. Poj). of v. 2008; of tp. 3813. Jos. R. Dixo.N, Ed. '' Rkitblican." Homer, post-v. of Burlington tp., Licking co., 0., 3 miles W. from Utica. Pop. 226. Homer, tp. of Medina co., 0. Pop. 886. Homer, tp. of Morgan co., 0. Pop. 1690. Homer, tp. of Potter co.. Pa. Pop. 160. Homer, post-v., county-seat of Angelina co., Tex., 90 miles from Marshall. Pop. 216. Homer, the greatest of epic poets, and the earliest and most eminent author in the literature of Greece. He lived at so early a period that no certain record of its date has come down to us, and lii;^ birthplace is equally a matter of doubt. Herodotus places his birth about S50 years before Christ, and Aristotle makes him contemporary with the Ionian migration, about 140 years after the Trojan war. That it was many years after that war may be inferred from the frequent reference made by the poet to the superior size and strength of the warriors engaged in the siege of Troy, as a generation whieh had long before passed awny. It is proverbially said that seven cities contended for the honor of being Homer's birthplace, but. according to Suidas, the list might be nearly doubled. Two difl'erent traditions mentioned by tireek authors make him lo have been born on the banks of the Meles, a little river, the windings of which are seen from the highlands overlooking Smyrna. It is inferred from the style and language of his pctcms that, at all events, he was born in some part of Asia Minor. One of the traditions concerning him is that he was blind, which is not iniproimlile when we consider that blindness is generally accompanied with great tenacity of verbal memory — a quality essential to the minstrel who like Homer sang his poems to the sound of the harp. The tradition that in his later years he opened a school in the island of Chios might have had no other foundation than this, that after his time there existed in that island a fraternity called Homcrir/B; or Sons of Homer, who pre- served among them his poems, and were, like him, min- strels by profession. The fame of Homer rests upon his two great poems, the Iliad and Odi/s»ey. Others have been ascribed to him — several hymns to the gods, for example — but though some of these were regarded by the ancients as genuine, they are now rejected as the productions of a later age. Tho common consent of the civilized world has placed his Iliad and Odyeseif at an unapproachable height of poetic excel- lence. All the qualities which make the great poet aro there — sublimity, tire, pathos, grace, knowledge of tho human heart, the power of vividly representing action to the eye of the mind, and sweetness and majesty of num- bers. The modern reader is sometimes oppressed or fatigued with the passages describing minutely and at length the bloody havoc which marked the path of Homer's warriors on tho battlefield ; but in that age, when all greatness consisted in military prowess, (he Greek audiences may bo supposed to have listened to them with enlhusiasm. For the long speeches, also, made by the heroes of the Iliad when about to engage in combat, there must have been a reason which satisfied the listening crowd ; for in that age, as there was no room for affectation, we may be sure there was no occasion for tediousness. The verses of Homer were addressed to the genera! mind ; they were such as deeply to move from the highest to the lowest class a rude yet by nature a reflecting and highly endowed race of men. Thus far in this article Homer has been sj)oken of as a single author, to whom the composition of both these jiocms has been truly ascribed. But about the time of the Chris- tian era there were in iJreece certain critics called Separa- tists, who maintained that the Iliad and the Odtf^aey were the work of different poets. The difference, however, be- tween the style and treatment of the subject in the two poems is not greater than is observed between the Parudiae Lost and Paradise lieijaiued of Millon, and Longinus ac- counts for it with sufiicient probability by supposing the Iliad to be the work of Homer's youth, and the Odi/iney that of his declining years. But the personality of Homer as the author of these j)oems has been made in modern times the subject of a formidable attack. In 1795, F. A. Wolf, a German scholar of great learning and ingenuity, brought forward the theory that the Homeric poems were composed in portions, while the art of writing was little practised, by the ditTerent minstrels who sang them in the public as>:cm- blies, and afterward, when the art of writing became more general, collected and put together in the form and order which they now present. It was impossible, he urged, for one poet to compose and retain in memory works of such great length; but this is simply begging the question, for examples of recollection as remarkable as this are even now to be met with. A more plausible argument was founded on the discrepancies and inconsistencies in the narrative, whieh a careful analysis showed to be not infrequent. If these cannot be explained in any other way, the theory of Wolf must be accepted. But there is this explanation. About the year 560 before Christ, Pisistratus. the tyrant of Athens, eauseil the difler- ent hooks of the Homeric poems to be collected and ar- ranged in their proper order. In arranging the dispersed manuscripts chasms might occur, or ]»ortions might seem to want a proper connection. Here was both the oppor- tunity and the temptation to interpolate, and the interpo- lation might be made without sufficient regard to the con- text. All manuscripts, especially of works so often trans- cribed as the Homeric poems in ancient times, are in dan- ger of interpolation : ami if we admit this, it is quite un- necessary to refer the different jiortions of the Iliad and OdffHHf}/ to different authors. Besides, the universal con- sent of antiquity in favor of the personality of Homer ought to count for something; and still more forcible is the eon- sideration that the theory of Wolf would oblige us to sup- pose, what is hard to believe, that tJreeoc could in any ago produce a fraternity of men all of whom could write like Ilomcr. IIOMKK— II<)Mi:STEAD LEGISLATIOK IN THE UNITED STATES. 971 Notwithi^tanding the praiso which has Jiccn bt-stowed upon the ItUtd for the perfection of its plot, there are those who sec in it only part of the nurrativo of the siege of Troy, without any proper conclusion or catn.strophe. In his invocation the poet only promises to speak of the wrath of Achilles, and the calamities which it brou;;ht upon the (ireeks as a consequence of the quarrel between him and Af^amemnon. But he gives us much more than this. Ho relates the quarrel, the withdrawal of Achilles from the army, and the bloody successes of the Trojans while ho in- dul;;t'S his anger. liut in the nineteenth hook Achilles and Agamemnon arc reconciled, and then begin the disasters of the Trojans. Their soldiery is slaughtered, their cham- pions arc slain — Glaucus. Sarpedon, and finally Hector — and all Troy is in despair. The narrative breaks oiT at the most interesting moment of the siege. To those who take this view of the poem it seems not improbable that Pisis- tratus, or those whom he employed to collect and edit the books forming the lU'td, might have failed to recover the concluding part of the original poem. The editions of Homer are almost innumerable. His commentaturs have found an ample storehouse from which to obtain their notes in the work of Eustathius, bishop of Thessalonica. The translations of the Homeric poems into all the languages of civilized Europe have been numerous, and are still multiplying. William Cullen Bhvant. Homer (Winslow). See AppEsnix. IIo'mcrvine,post-v., county-seat of Clinch eo., Ga., on the Athintic and (Julf U. R., 122 miles S. W. of Savannah. Homes (iU:.M{Y Art;isTis).l,Ii.D., b. at Boston, Mass., Mar. I(t, l>12 : graduated at Amherst in \>^\\\ ; was ordained in 1833 at Paris as a missionary of the K'jH»r. /if'/orwt'e tc Turkey; served as a missionary of the American Board at Constantinople IS.'lG-.'jO; was assistant dragoman in the American legation to Ihf Porte 1850-5.1; became in 1854 librarian of the .Slate Library, Albany-, N. Y. Home'stcad, post-v. of Iowa cc, la., on the Chicago Rock Inland and Pacific R. R., 20 miles \V. of Iowa City. Homestead, post-tp. of Benzie eo.. Mu-.h. IV.p. IG.'J. Homestead Lef^islation in the Ignited States. It is hardly necessary to remind the reader that in a large proportion of the States the Knglish common law forms the oasis of the body of the laws by which they arc respect- ively governed. Among the dogmas of the common law which were adopted hero with few or no limitations were those by which the relations of husband and wife were regulated in respect to the effect of marriage upon the property of the wife. It was a practical disfranchisement on her part, clothing the husband with the rit^ht of posses- sion and enjoyment of her real estate, and of property in her personality, and merging her individuality of action or control over whatever she possessed at marriage in that of her husband. Another principle borrowed. In part at least, from the laws of Englan*!. was from the first arlopted in the colonial and provincial governments in this country ; anrl that was the right of creditors to seize upon ami appropriate the goods and estates of their debtors in satisfaction of their debts. ,\or was there, in this respect, any distinction made between what a debtor had inherited or acquired by his own industry, and what had come to him from his wife by virtue of his marital rights. As a natural consequence, it not unfrequently occurred that wives found themselves stripped of all their possessions by the folly or misconduct of their husbands, and reduced to penury without any fault of their own, and rendereil powerless to do anything to re- trieve their fortunes by the incapacity which the law itself had ini])Osed upon them. That such a state of things should have been tolerated by intelligent men and wcunen for one or two hundred years serves to illustrate how strong an influence the laws of a people exert over their ideas of legal and moral duty ; and the change in the character of these laws which has been made chi«'fly within the last fifty years is to be nscribcd to (be progressive spirit of liberal legislation which has dis- tinguished the century in which we live. In no way has it been nifire marked than in its tendency to restore to women a just and equal share in the management ()f property ; and where, if married, they could not with propriety be en- trusted with the control of a husliand's business, they shouhl not be subjected to become passive sufferers, to- gether with their children, with no chance of relief, if by misfortune or otherwise his means <d' affordinj thom a com- fortable support were cut off, by placing beyond his control, nn<l that of his creditors, a nu)dieuin of property to servo the immeiliate and pressing wants of his family. This has been extensively carried out by provisions for securing, to some extent, the enjoymiuit of a home and shelter for the family under the name of a hniiinitrati, wliieh was to be held exempt from the ordinary incidents of ownerships the right of frco alienation by its owner, and a liability to bo seized upon and sold for the payment of his debts. It is proposed in the present article to examine the laws of the different States upon this subject of homestead ex- emption, which in some form have been incorporated into the Iegislati<in of at least thirty-two of them, and in at least fifteen of them the principio aimed at by these laws has been more or less fully declared in their conetitutions of government.* In pursuing this inquiry it is oflen not a little difficult to oscerlain the jirecisc limits within which the several States have confined the application of the principle which per- vades these laws, since no aid is to be foun<i in construing their statutes upon the subject by a reference to the rules of the common law. Nor can the legislation of one State throw light upon that of another, since the pcdicy indicated by the one diflcrs essentially irom that of another. Thus, in some of these all that seems to be aimed at is to exempt the smallest pittance which can serve to relieve iminediato distress for a brief period, while in others the purpose is to secure to every one who can command the means a com- fortable competence, although it be at the expense of his less fortunate creditors. In Arkansas, fur example. $5000 in real and $20011 in personal estate arc exempted from levy : and in Georgia $2000 in real estate and $1000 in personal chattels. And this, as calculated by a writer in the IK Am. /^«?r /icff. 149, if shared by every family in the latter State to the amount of $2000, would exceed the total value of the lands within its limits by some $100,000,000. So radical a change in what had been deemed the com- mon-law rights of creditors of the States naturally led Ihem to question the validity of these laws in the light of the Constitution of the U. S., which forbids State legislatures to enact laws which shall impair the obligation of contracts, the ground being that so far as existing contracts at the time of the passage of the law were concerned, it look from the creditor what ho had previously had, his claim upon the debtor's pr(»perty as a means of satisfying his debt. In Wisconsin if was contended that it was an unconstitutional act to declare a deed of a husband invalid unless executed also by his wife, but this objection was not sustained by the court. The homestead laws of South Carolina were declared constitutional. So were those of North Carolina, althougli in the latter they expressly extended the exemp- tion to debts contracted before the adoption of her consti- tution, which contains the provision. A like doctrine was held in Alabama, Louisiana, (ieorgia, and Mississippi. But in Nevada a statute declaring any mortgage or abandon- ment of a homestead for securing a debt of the owner in- valid was declared unconstitutional. In Virginia a law exempting homesteads fr<»m debts contracted before the passage of the act was held to be in violation of the Consti- tution of the U. S. ; and a like decision in respect to tlio laxvs of Georgia, so far as they extended the exemption to cases of judgments recovered before the statute was parsed, was recently adoptc<l by the Supremo Court of the U. S. In several of the States questions of this kind arc obviated by limiting the exemption to debts which are contracted after the right of h(unestead in the debtor has attached to the estate, while in others it does not extend to debts contracted before the passage of the act. And it may be mentioned, in passing, that in applying these statutes of faomestearj exemption, diflercnt courts ailopt dilTerent rules as to the degree of strictness with which they should be construed. Being in derogation of conimon-law rights, some of these courts restrict them to the precise language of the act ; while others, regarding them as remedial in their character, have had reference to what they regarded as the spirit and intent of the law in ascertaining the meaning to bcuttnched to such language. One purpose seems, obviously, to bo aimed at by these laxvs, however construed; and that is, to secure to every man who has a family, and has provided a home for thcin, the enjoyment of this home free from any right or power in his creditors to deprive him thereof by seizing upon tho same for the purpose of sati.vfying their debts. And tho propriety of these local hiws is so far recognizetl in legis- lating by t.'ongrcpsfor the whole Union that the U. S. bank- rupt law exempts from its effect such property as, in tho place of domicil of the bankrupt, is by law exemjited from levy and sale under execution ; and this provision has hem held to bo constitutional by the Supreme Court of tho U. S. In carrying out this principle of securing for the family what the head of it hos provided as a home, the statutes of the various States differ essentially in tho limits which •The State* in which there are no laws upon llie<*ubjcct are ronncetieul, Deliinure. Orriron. Khode Island, ami West Vir- cinla. Those In who<*c const i tut lon>* pnivlsj-uKi forsucli laws arc rnndc nre Alabama. Arkansas, Calirornia. Florl'la, (Icortflii, In- fliiinn, KansiiK. MIcldKan, Mlnnes(»(a. Nevada, North Curolina. South Carolina, Toxas, Virginia, and Wisconsin. 972 HOMESTEAD LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. they presoribo to the power of the owner to convey it away or abandon it, or at his pleasure deprive his family of what the law intendcil to (.'uard for them. In some of the States it is left to the owner to decide to what extent this protec- tion shall l«e enjoyed. In a large proportion of these, how- ever, the wife is so farelothed with power over the home- stead estate that it is not competent lor the husl)and to convey, mortgage, or abandon the same for any purpose or effect aifceting her, unless she voluntarily joins in the act. Another singular diversity in the laws of the different States upon tliis subject is observable in the different kinds of interests or estates which they create or assume to exist in the house and land which are held by virtue of this right of homestead. In some, this interest is regarded as a Tife estate; in others it descends to children ; in some it is of the nature of jin estate in the husband, and afterward in his willow and children, with a reversion in himself which may be reached by creditors; in others the entire homestead is put out of the reach of creditors in any form 80 long as the exemption continues. But they seem to agree in this, that the exemption of a homestead, as such, continues no longer than there is a wife or widow, and children under the age of twenty-one years, to enjoy it, or if no wile or widow, there arc children under ago residing upon the premises. liut what becomes of the estate when there is neither wife, widow, nor minor children alive to share it, seems to he left to be settled by its analogy to the common law applicable to reversionary interests in land. If, now, we pass from these general considerations of homestead laws as a system to their respective provisions in more spei'ific detail,' it may be remarked that with very few exeeptiiins the exemption does not extend to taxes or indebtedness for the purchase-money of the estate; and in a majority of cases, it is believed, this is also true of me- chanics' liens upon the same. And it may be further stated that in many, if not most, of the States the exemp- tion continues no longer than the homestead is occupied as a residence by the family of the owner, and when aban- doned by thein it at once becomes subject to be levied upon by his creditors. In treating of the subject more at length, it will be neces- sary to consider — (1) what amounts of real estate, in value or otherwise, are exempted as homesteads by the statutes of the several States. (2) How far a homestead right, when ascertained, avails in favor of a debtor or his wife and children, and how far the agency of such wife is re- quisite in releasing, abandoning, or aliening the same. In Alabama the exemption is of 80 acres of land, with a dwelling-house, if without a city, town, or village ; if within it, a lot and dwelling-house, not exceeding $2000. In Ar- kansas, Florida, Kansas, Louisiana, Nebraska, and Mis- souri, IGO acres of land, with buildings, are exempt if sit- uate outside of a city, town, or village, except that in Louisiana, when taken with certain enumerated articles of personal properly, the total shall not exceed $2000 in value, and in Missouri the land must not exceed $1500 in value. But if the homestead be taken in a city, town, or village, the limit in .Arkansas is that the house and lot must not exceed $oOOO; in Florida it is half an acre ; in Kansas it is one acre ; in Missouri, if it he in a city of 40,(100 in- habitants, it is limited to 18 square rods, not exceeding $:!000 in value, and in one of a less number of inhiibitants it may extend to :tO square rods, not exceeding $1500 in value ; and in Nebraska a homestead in a city, town, etc. is limited to two lots, or a single lot not exceeding 20 acres. The exemption in California extends to a lot of land and dwelling-house, not exceeding $5000 in value; the law is the same in Nevada. The amount in value of homestead exemption io (ieorgia is $2000 ; in Virginia it is to the same amount. :ind may be taken by a debtor in either real or personal estate. " In Illinois, Kentucky. New .Jersey, New York, North (Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee the ex- emption to each debtor is of lands and buildings not ex- ceeding $1000 in value. In Indiana it may be in value $:iOO, real or personal as the debtor may elect. In Mary- land it is but $100, with the same right of election in the debtor. In Iowa the debtor may claim one or more lots, not exceeding half an acre in a city or town, with a house thereon, or 10 acres of land outside of a town or city, not exceeding in value $500, together with a shop or building owned by him and used by him in his business, not exceed- ing in value $:iOO. The exemption in Maine is of land and a dwelling thereon, not exceeding in value $500; and the same is the law of New ilauipshire, Ohio, and Vermont, while in Pennsylvania it is limited to $:iO0 in value, and in Massachusetts to $800. In Michigan 40 acres of agricul- tural land and a dwelling-house are exempted, or, what is equal, to a lot in a eity or town with a dwelling-house, not exceeding in value $1500, It may not, however, include two tenements, although together they do not exceed that sum in v.alue. In Minnesota the exemption is of a city lot and dwelling-house, or 80 acres of land with a dwelling- house outside of a city, irrespective of the value of the same. In Mississippi it covers 2+0 acres of land and a dwelling-house if outside of a city or town, irrespective of their value, or if in » city a pnqier homestead, together with personal property enough to uutke a total of $-4000 in value. In Texas 200 acres of agricultural land are exempt without regard to value, or instead of it a city homestead of the value of $2000: while in Wisconsin the exemption is of 40 acres of agricultural land, or a quarter of an acre within a city or village, with the houses thereon, without respect to the value of the same. In treating of the topics embraced in the second part of this inquirv, it may be proper to remark that there are va- rious modes of setting apart a debtor's ho;nostead from bis other estate, the laws of some of the States requiring it to be done by a formal declaration of the debtor and a record- ing of the same; those of other States providing for set- ting it out bv the officer holding an execution against the doirtor which he is about to levy upon his estate, upon his claiming the same. So provision is made in most of the States tbr determining by appraisement any questions as to the value of the part claimed as homestead if creditors arc dissatisfied upon the point, and for moreover disposing of the entire homestead if it is so connected with other parts of the debtor's estate that it cannot be severed there- from, and paying to the debtor the value of what had been exempted in money, to he invested in a new homestead. But the forms bvwhich these purposes are to be accom- plished are so varied that it would occupy too much space to attempt to give them in detail. In most cases, it may be added, where the debtor has not set apart a homestead durin>' his life, it is done bv the ordinary or judge of pro- bate in favor of his widow and childreu upon her applica- tion ; and in several of the St.ates, if the debtor neglects or declines to claim or have set apart a homestead, his wife may interpose and cause it to be done in his lifetime. In sotne of the Stales, as will appear, the widow takes both dower and homestead out of her husband's estate ; in others she can claim but one. In some of the States ownership on the part of the debtor of the homestead claimed is re- quired ; in others a lease or a right of pos.-^cssion by con- tract is sufficient. In some the exemption applies to estates held in severalty alone ; in others it includes estates held in common. The exemption in most of the States is from "forced sale," which in some of them means any sale under and by virtue of a legal process, including the fore- closure of a "mortgage by a sale of the premises. Taking up the several States in their order, the exemp- tion in Alabama is to one who owns the estate and is the head of a family, and at his death it is continued to his children during'their minority, and if he have no ehildrcn it comes to his widow. Nor can a husband mortgage or convey the homestead unless the wife join in such convey- ance. But it is not required that it should be occupied by the one in whose favor the exemption is claimed in order to hold it. ,11 In Arkansas it is to every householder, whether male or female, who is the head of a family, and extends to lands held in common. After the debtor's death the exemption continues in favor of the widow and children of the owner so long as they continue to occupy the homestead. In California the exemption is in favor of " heads of fam- ilies," but not to unmarried persons, unless they have the charge of minor children of brothers and the like. And if the debtor's wife dies without children, he may no longer ohiim it. If he dies leaving a wi.low, she becomes entitled to it for the benefit of herself and children ; and this is set out to her bv the judge of probate if it had not been done during the life of the husband. This selection may be made bv the owner or his wife, by a de.laratum in writing which is to be recorded; and when so selected the husband and wife become joint tenants of it. A homestead may be claimed of lands held by pos.session only or held m common. The husband has charge and exercises protection of the homestead, but he cannot convey it without the con- sent of the wife if he have one. Upon the death of the husband or wife the estate vests absolutely in the survivor, exempt from anv debt contracted before that event. If the debtor dies leaving a widow and children, one-half ot the estate goes to her. and one-halt to the children. So essen- tial is the joining of the wile with her luislmiid in a deed in giving it validity, that it would not otherwise operate even as an estoppel against him. Ill Florida the exemption is in favor of the head ot a family, and when he or she dies it descends to the issue of the oivner. if anv. and if there be no child, but the owner leaves a widow, it goes to her, unless he .lisposes of it by will, which ho may do. If there is neither widow nor children, the estate may be sold for the payment of debts. HOMESTEAD LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 973 The homesteail law of Georgia is in some respects pecu- liar. The exemption is in favor of heads of families and of trustees and {guardians of minor children, excluding bachelors living alone. If the estate of the debtor exceeds in value the amount of the exemption, he must, in order to secure it, set it »>ut, or if he fails to do so his wife or her next friend may have it done for him. Nor can a husband defeat his wife's homestead right by conveying it or re- moving from it unless he acquire a new one. Such exemp- tion does not extend t» judgnienis recovered in actions of tort. If a wirlow have no children, she cannot claim a homestca<i. The homestead does not affect her claim to dower, whirh must be iirst set out, and then the homestead, if any, after deilucting the dower; and this the minor chil- dren take, subject to the claim of dower, but free from the claims of Ihc father's creditors, and hold it in connection with the widow till she is married or dies. If, however, the estate of the father is solvent, the children take the estate independent of any homestead right, subject only to tho dower of Ihc widow. A homestead can only be con- veyed by the joint deed of the husband and wife, done with the approbation of the onlinary. But if tho debtor is declared a bankrupt before his homestead is set out, it so far divests him of his estate that be cannot afterwards avail himself of the exemption. The provision in Illinois is made for householders with families, and does not extend, as in some of the .States, to houses standing upon another's land. Tho benefit of it enures to the widow of a debtor during her life, and to her children until they are of the ageof twenty-one years if they occupy the premises. The husband, however," is tho only one who can assert this right, but in so doing ho acts, in some sense, as a trustee for his wife and children. No con- veyance or mortgage of it can bo valid unless it be by deed signed by the wife, in which the right of homestead is ex- pressly released, and the same is acknowledged by her. If the husband abamlon tho premises, his deed will have tho effect to create a lien upon the estate for whatever may be its value beyond that of the homestead right. And if both husband and wife abandon the estate, their deed will effec- tually convey it, although not executed so as to expressly release it. If, however, he ceases to occupy the estate, but leaves it in possession of his wife and children, it has not this effect, and otherwise his homestead is thereby lost, as it is if ho ceases to have a family. And a widow cannot defeat the rights of her minor children after the husband's death by abandoning possession of the homestead. Tho statute of exemption extends to judgments in actions r.r deliciit, as well as ex cniiiriiclii. It matters not whether tho debtor owns his land in fee, for life, or for years, or simply holds it under a contract for a dceil. But tho exemption does not attach until the same is in his actual occujiation. This homestead right is not an estate; it is distinct from dower, and does not merge in it, and the widow may have both. If a wife is divorced for his fault, she may claim a homestead right in the premises if she continues to occupy them. Treating an exemption of a homestead docs not affect any debts contracted before that lakes effect. If a husband convey the estate, but the wife do not join in the deed, (ho grantee cannot disturb the occupant in the i enjoyment of ihc estate so long as tho homestead right \ continues; but such purchaser, or a creditor who shall levy [ upon the same, may claim tho premi.ses when the houic- stcad right ceases. And in such case, if the widr^w of Iho debtor abandon the premises after his dcalh. the husliand's deed lakes full effect and cuts off the rights of the children, but her surrender would not give present effect to a salo under a levy of an execution. In Indiana the bumeslead exemption is in favor of " a resident househobler," which may include a wife if she owns the land and is her.«elf a debtor. If the debtor ne- glects to make claim of this right when his land is levied on, ho thereby waives it. Tho owner cannot convey or mortgage the homestead without his wife joining in the dec I and acknowledging it; but though she do not join in a mortgage, if it be nuido by him it would not be com- petent for him to set up a homestead right to avoid it. At her husband's death Iho widow becomes entitled to tho en- joyment of Iho homeslead estate independent of any pro- visi<pn made for her by her husban.l by way of devise. The subject of homestead has led to considerable legisla- tion in Iowa, and to somewhat numerous decisions of her courts. It exists there in favor of "a familv," which in- cludes a widow or widower, though without children. It is inciilent to oceupaticm, and Ihc right does not allaeh until an occupation begins, nor even then so as to affect a ilebt conlracled prior to that lime if that were the only property the debtor then had. It is broad enough to cover a shop or other building connected with the homeslead in whieli Iho deblor carries on his business. The ileblor may select the homesteail, and have tho same recorded, and if" he fail to do this, it may be done by his wife. A debtor may make his homestead liable for a debt if when ho conlracis it he agrees that it shall not bo exempt ns to such debt. And a judgment may attach as a lien upon tho homeslead when it shall cease to be hcM as such, but a conveyance in the mean time would defeat il. liut a mortgage or conveyance made by the husband alone would bo void. On the death of either husband or wife the property goes to Ihc survivor, and descends to tho issue of whichovcr of these was Ihc owner, unless he or she may have devised the same. Tho right of a widow, as such, vests in her at marriage if her husband tiien owns the estate, and by virtue of it she may occupy tho estate during her life, whether she marries again or not, and at her death the estate goes to the heirs of tho owner. If the estate belongs to tho wife, and ho survives her, ho takes it as her successor, although they have no children, and the owner may devise the estate sub- ject to the homeslead right. The husband has such a con- trol over the subject of the homestead right that he mav, at his election, change his residence, and if he abandon the estate or gains a new homestead, the original home- stead right is lost. Such would be the effect if the widow abandons the estate; and if she sells Iho homestead, Iho husband's heirs may come in and divide it among them- selves; she cannot claim both homestead and dower, and if she claims dower, she waives the homestead. In Kansas the exemption is in favor of the familv of the owner as a residence, ami it will be held exempt from tho time he acquires his title if he begins to occupy it within a reasonable time thereafter. If it is levied on, the debtor or his wife may make claim for the homestead of the officer. A juiigmcnt forms no lien upon the debt- or's homestead, either in respect to his present or ]>ros- peetivo interest therein. The husband and wife have to join to convey the estate, and their joint deed would take effect as against any deed or mortgage mado either by tho husband or wife alone. In Kentucky the law exempts a homestead in favor of a hniia j'ulc housekeeper, whetlicr it be of one sex or tho other. It is set out by the officer having an execution against tho debtor if he claims the same. After his or her death it goes to the survivor with bis or her children, to oc- cupy until Iho youngest child is of age. Nor will any alian- donment of it by a parent affect the rights of the children. Accepting n, homestead by a widow does not affect her riijht to dower, except that tho value of the homestead is taken into account in setting off the dower. The estate may bo sold subject to the homestead right, but no mortgage, waiver, or release of tho homestead, as such, lias any va- lidity, unless it be executed by the husband and wife and rccordetl. The l:iw of homestead in Louisiana is very brief. It se- cures it to such as own hniia firlc residences, and have fam- ilies or jiersons dependent upon lliem. And if a wife die, leaving an estate ami a busiiand and children, he cannot claim homestead out of the estate as against her creditors. In Maine tho exemption is in favor of a householder in actual possession, who shall file ill tho registry of deeds a (lescription of what he claims as a homestead. Jiut it does not extend to debts contracted before such claim and de- scription is filed in the register's office. ,\fter the owner's death his widow may occupy the premises during her widow- hood, and her children during their minority ; and during this time it is exempt from the debts of the deceased; but no longer. In iMassachusetts householders having families and actu- ally occupying promises may claim homesteads out of tho same, but it only takes effect when Ihoy shall have begun to occupy the same, and does not afl'ect any liens or mort- gages thereon llien existing. To iiiako an effectual claim of such exemption there must be a declaration to that effect in the deed conveying the premises, or it must be made by the owner, and a recor*! of the same tluly entered. Tho reversionary right of the debtor after the expiratiiui of tho homestcinl right is subject to his ilebis, but a levy uptui the homestead interest is void, even if done by the cons*nit of the wife. Tho exemption is ns much in his favor as hers. And if he c<uivey tho land, even with covenants of war- ranty, it would not estop him from claiming a homestead right out of it ihen existing in favor of his wife and ehil- tlren. A mortgage or conveynnee by a husband, however, will carry the reversion after the right of homestead has been satisfied, although his wife docs not join in the ileed ; and in order to ci>nvey Iho homestead right there must be words in Iho deed expressly cunyiiig that right by name, and the husband and wife must join in the same. The right iloes not attach to lands held in common, nor does n declaration of homestead become of any avail lill tho owner has a house thereon which ho oeeiipies. .At the owner's death his witiow, if he have one. bus a right to eoiitiiiite to oei'tqiy the homestead, nor can he do auylhing by his will 974 HOMESTEAD LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. which can curtail this right. The homestead, like her dower, is set out to her in the same manner, and she is entitlcfi to both. This right of hers continues durinj:; her widowhood, and to any minor child who occupies the same until twenty-one years of age: and it is the subject of sale liy her and tlie guardians of the minor cliildren. Tliis home:^tcad right is regarded as an estate of freehold, first in the husband, afterwards in the widow and children until the youngest is of ago. And the interest of the minor children after her death may be sold by their guardian by license of court : but neither the widow nor children can convey their respective interests, exce])t with the consent of the other. If a husband dies leaving only adult heirs, she may claim the homestead as well as her dower, althougii there arc no debt? to be satisfied. No abandonment of a homestead after the right has once attached can effect a claim to the same until a new one shall have been gained. In Michigan, while tiic exemption is in favor of the owner and occupant of an estate, no formal declaration of homestead is required until some creditor is about to levy upon bis land, and then it may be done orally. It may bo claimed in a merely equitable as well as a legal estate. And if it be the estate of the wife, and is occupied by both, it may have the properties of a homestead. If the owner be married, he cannot waive or defeat the homestead right, and a mortgage or conveyance of the premises in order to bo good must be signed by the wife; a deed by the husband alone would not be suflieirnt, though made by her consent orally expressed. After his death his widow is entitled to the rents and profits of the estate, which she takes in con- nection with his minor children, but to that end they must be in occupation of the premises. In Minnesota the exemption is in favor of a debtor, his widow, and minor children, but continues only so long as the premises are owned and occupied as such. It does not require any formal declaration of claim of homestead be- yond the notice which the debtor may give to the officer when levying upon the same. The owner cannot convey it if he ha^e a wife unless she joins with him in the con- veyance, unless it be in mortgage to secure the purchase- money or a lien for work on the premises. It may be lost liv abandoning the premises, and the husband may forfeit it by conveying the premises to his wife to defraud his creditors. A judgment against the debtor becomes a Hen on the land, and may be enforced by levy as soon as it ceases to be occupied as a homestead, though the owner may convey it or temporarily abandon it without subject- ing it to a creditor's process. After the owner's death his widow is entitled to it so long as she remains unmarried and continues to occupy it ; and the children are also en- titled to the premises until twenty-one years of age, if they occupy them. The laws of Mississippi secure homesteads to heads of families without any formal act on (he part of the debtor, who to avail himself of it must be in occupation of the premises. The husband selects the homestead, and may change it at his pleasure. But merely leaving it, while his wife and children continue to occupy it, is not held to be an abandonment. He may sell one homestead for the pur- pose <»f reinvesting the proceeds in a new one, and have a year in which to do it ; so he may sell it or any part of it free from any judgment lien. After the debtor's death his widow and children take it hy descent, ancl after her death the children hold it by descent until they arc twenty-one years of age. liut this docs not interfere with her right of dower in the jtrcmises. During his life the wife has no vested right in the jtremises; so with the children. The estate is impressed with the character of homestead only while and po long as the debtor is in occupation of it, ex- cept that if the widow is not in a condition to carry on the estate, she may let it to a tenant to occupy in her stead. Every householder and head of a family in Missouri may claim a homestead, and this right extends to household estates. If a creditor levies upon his debtor's estate, the latter may claim his homestead, and hold it exempt from all debts and liabilities. At the debtor's death the estate goes to his widow, and to his children until they are of age, and if not set out in his lifetime, the same is set out to her by the judge of probate. She may then have her dower set out in the same estate, unless the homestead covers one- third of its value; if it does, she cannot claim that and dower also. There is little detail in the law of homestead in Ne- braska. It is limited to owners, occupants, and residents as heads of families, and descends to heirs at law or goes to devisees. It is exetnpt from sale so long as it is owned by the debtor. If a creditor levies upon the land, the debtor gives notice to the officer of what he claims as his home- stead. The debtor by joining with his wife may mortgage the homestead. The exemption does not extend to the liabilities of an attornev for mou'-vs collected bv him. The common provision in favor of heads of families who occupy the premises in which a homestead is claimed is adopted in New Hampshire, and the part so claimed may be selected when an officer levies an cxccuticui u(>on the debtor's estate. It still would be liable for debts contracted before the homestead is set out. It can only be waived or released hy a deed of husband and wife, if she be alive, or if dead and there are minor children, by assent of the judge of probate. If a levy is made upon the estate, the husband or his wife or her next friend may claim the home- stead, and the officer is tliereupon required to st-t it off by metes and bounds. If no sueh claim is made, the creditor who causes the levy to be inacle, takes tlir estate in common with the homestead right, and the same may then be set out by process of partition. If such partition cannot bo made, and the homestead is sold with the rest of the estate, the amount of the exemption is to be paid into a savings bank, to be drawn out u])on the joint order of the husband and wife, if she is living; otherwi;-e. of the husband and the guardian of the children. A husViand can convey the estate subject to the homestead right in the wife and chil- dren, and bis covenants would est^p him. But the husband and wife might, nevertheless, recover the land thus con- veyed during her lifetime, and alter his death she and her children might recover it. But tbe wife and children could not recover the land during the life of the husband. If the husband convoys his estate without his wife's joining in the deed before a homestead has been set out, she may have the homestead set out in the same even during his lifetime. The estate of homestead is a conditional life estate. When it is set out it is wholly exempt from levy, and this extends to the reversionary interest there is after the homestead right is determined. If the wife survive, and the husband dies seised of the estate, the judge of probate sets out her homestead in the same, in the same manner as dower is set out. Otherwise, she may have partition against the grantee of the estate, and have her homestead set out to her. Her right, however, is inchoate until the homestead has been set out to her in one of the forms above men- tioned. This right is that of possession of the estate dur- ing life, and a right in the children during their minority. Ncir can the husband change or affect this by any dispo- sition of it in his last will and testament, so long as the widow or minor children continue to occupy the premises. Leasing homestead land is not an abandonment of tbe right, but upon acquiring a new homestead the prior one is lost. In Nevada a homestead is selected by a husband and wife, or either of them, or any one who is the bead of a family, and is d(»ne by a declaration in writing, which is recorded. Upon the death of cither husband or wife the homestead is set apart for the survivor and their children ; and if the tenant of the homestead liiive a wife, they together hold the same as joint tenants. He cannot convey, mortgage, or lease the premises without the concurrence of his wife, if he have one, unless she is insane. In that case it may be done by order of court, and the proceeds invested for her benefit. If, because the homestead is not separable from the rest of the debtor's estate, it is levied upon and sold, the money is deposited with the court, and can only be drawn by the order of the husband and wife. Nor can there be an abandonment of a homestead otherwise than by a written declaration signed, acknowledged, and recorded by both husband ami wife, if there be one. The exemption in New .Jersey is in favor of a householder of what is occupied by him as a residence. It may be claimed either by the deed conveying the estate, or by a written declaration of the owner of such estate, duly re- corded. When thus ascertained, it cannot be conveyed or leased for a longer term than one year, unless the wife, if there be one, joins in such deed or lease, and tlie i^ame is conveyed for its full value, and the proceeds thereof are invested in a new homestead. New York, by its law, exempts a homestead in favor of a householder for the purposes of a residence, and the dedication of premises to that purpose must be contained in the deed conveying the same to the claimant, or by a written notice and deelaration on his part that it is to be held as such ; and this must bo recorded. The exemption docs not extend to claims for torts. It is for the benefit of the debtor's widow ami children till the youngest is of age, if they continue to occupy the same. But the debtor may release the homestead by any of the ordinary modes of conveyance: but though he is the owner of the estate to most purposes, it remains exempt from his debts until his death, and then for the benefit of his widow and family of minor children if they shall continue to occupy the same. A judgment is, nevertheless, so far a lien upon the debtor's estate that as soon as the homestead interest is determined it may be levied upon the land. A temporary cessation to occupy the premises docs not defeat the right of homestead therein. HOMESTEAD LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. ho A homestead exemption in North Carolina is in favor of an owner ami occupant of an estate and his widow, if he leaves one, :in<l continues during coverture, and afterwards during her wi(lowh<»od and the minority of her children, if she have any. If she have no children, the widow takes it in her own rif^ht. But actual residence nnd occupancy arc indispensahlo conditions to the cluim of a homestead ezenipFion. It is a determinable fee, hut there is an in- terest in the owner answering to a reversion, though it is not the subject of levy for his debts. If when the husband dies he leaves no debt?, no homestead can be set out, be- cau?c the object of such exemption is to protect it from creditors. Homestead does not interfere with the widow's right of dower. The exemption docs not extend to claims for torts done. Xo conveyance of a homestead can be of any validity if the owner has a wife unless she join with her hu;<band in the deed and its acknowledgment. If the homestead is not set out to the husband during his life, the widow, or his children under twenty-one year?, may have it set out to her or them. .\ud among the kind« of interests in which it may be claimed are included equities of re- demption of mortgaged estates. The right of homestead in Ohio extends to leasehold estates ancl buildings standing upon another's land. If a creditor levies upon the laud of his debtor, he may apply to the officer holding the execution and have his homestead set off by appraisers. If this is not done during the life of the debtor, his widow may have it done in her favor after bis fleecase. It thus enures to her benefit, or, if she bo deail. to her minor children residing on the premises. A temporary leaeing or removing from the estate does not work a forfeiture of the right ; nor can a mortgage of a bomostead be valid or effectual unless the wife join in it, 80 as to affect her right or that of the family. Before a homestead exemption can attach to any pre- mises in Pennsylvania the owner must have elected to hold the some as his homestead. And if when a levy is made upon a debtor's estate bo neglects to make claim for such exemption, it is tieemed an entire waiver of it on his part. He may also render the same liable to levy if, when he con- tracts a debt, he expressly agrees as to that debt to waive the right of homestcrnl. After the death of the deI>tor his widow takes it for herself and cbilclrcn : and if she have none, she takes it absulutely to herself, and can convey it as her o\vn by her own deed. But if she do not claim her homestead within a reasonable time after her husband's death, she will be held to have waived it. The bankrupt law doe? not reach a debtor's homestead estate. The exemption in South Carolina is in favor of the head of a family; and if a creditor is about to levy upon the estate of such a person who claims his homestead of the officer, the latter sets it off to him. But if he neglects then to claim his homestead, he is taken to have waived it. If it is not done in the life of the debtor, it will bo set off to his widow by commissioners. When thus setoff it reverts to the widow and the debtor's minor children until her death or marriage and until the youngest child is of age. If the husband and wife both die leaving ehihlren, whether minors or not, they will hold the premises exempt from debts, just as their parents held. But there still is a reversion after the homestead estate is determined, which is the subject of sale or devise by the owner. But sale of an intestate's estate by order of the judge of probate does not cut off the widow's right of homestead. No waiver of the right of homestead by the head of a family will have the effect of defeating the same. As in most of the States already mentioned, the exemp- tion in Tennessee is in favor of the head of a family. The mode of claiming it is by a writing signed, scalc<l, and re- cordf(I, and the same is set out by appraisers. It cannot then be conveyed or mortgaged except by a joint deed of husband and wife, if he have one. But if he cease to occupy it, it becomes liable to he levied on by his creditors. At bis death it goes to bis widow during life or till she in mar- ried, when it goes to bis minor children. She cannot claim flower a? well as homestead if the value of the latter is as much as $1000. If her homestead is not of that value, she may have enough out of the estate in the form of dower to make it equal to that sum. The exemption in Texas is to "a family," and by the '•forced sale ' to which this applies, is meant any process of court or manner prescribed by law. If the owner have a wife, he cannot convey the estate except by her consent expressed by joining in and aeknowlerlging a deed of the premises. But if he sell the land, and then he ami his wife abandon the estate, (bo pale becomes valid. So if he sell his homestead and then acquire a new one, the salo becomes valid ; and if he gain a new one, his former one becomes liable for his debts. If ho contracts to sell hi.i homestead, the cotirt will not enforce the conveyance so long as his wife continues to ocnpy the |>.-(-niise^ ; but if she a!)andon them the contract may be enforced. And if the debtor abandons the homestead, it becomes liable for his debts. By abandonment is meant the leaving the estate with an intent not to return to claim the exemption. If the debtor have no wife, though he may have children, the homestead may be conveyed by him or be levied upon for his debts. And whether children can lake a homestead after their father's death depends upon bis leaving a widow to take it in his stead. Even then, if she hail left her husband in his lifetime without good cause, and had remained separate till his death, her right would be lost. If, on the contrary, the husband remove from the homestead, and thus abandons her and his children, she would be remitted to her right of homestead, and may resume possession thereof. And a married woman i? competent to appear and litigate her rights in court. Homestead may be claimed in lands held in common. A sale of the homestead by the husband alone, if the wife do not join with him in making the conveyance, is a nullity; but if he convey it fraudulently to keep it from his creditor.*:, and he then abandons possession, it be- comes liable to levy by his creditors. If the owner die leaving a widow and children, the children cannot have partition thereof so lung as she lives; and if the court grant her a divorce with the custody of the children, she may claim the homestead to her own use. In Vermont the exemption is in favor of a housekeeper who is the actual occupant of the same himself. It is sub- ject to any of the owner's debts which he owed at the time of acquiring the homestead. If he acquire a new home- stead, it defeats the prior one. The husband cannot im- pair his wife's right to the homestead by conveying it unless she joins in the conveyance. But the purchaser under such a deed may hold the premises during the coverture. The right of the wife is to enjoy the premises after the hus- band's death, but this right docs not vest any title in her ; it is only a kind of lien in her favor upon her liusbaud's estate. She may enforce this after bis death if he shall have conveyed it in his lifetime without her joining in the deed. It is to be set out to him by the judge of jirobate, and passes at once to the widow and cliiblren in the way of descent. It is, however, to be held by them as one en- tire thing, so that those who arc not in possession can claim no rents out of the property. It is independent of her right of dower, and belongs to her in fee, and at her death goes to her heirs. It may, moreover, bo set out to lirr in the same lands wliieh have already been assigned to her as her dower ; and where both are claimed, the value of the home- stead is to be deducted from that of the dower; and if tho homestead is equal to one-third of tlie estate, she can claim no dower. If she gives a deed of her homestead estate, she does not thereby affect her right of dower. A homestead may be set out in an equitable as well as a legal estate, and in incumbered as well as unincumbered premises. If tho husband conveys the homestead in the lifetime of his wife, it would not have the effect tu disturb the occujiancy of the household and family so long as they continue to retain such actual occupancy. It is a housekeeper and head of a family who may claim a homestead in Virginia, and the exemption may cover real or personal estate, at the election of tho debtor. It is claimed either by inserting a clause to that effect in tbo deerl conveying the estate to the debtor, or by a declaration of tho owner describing what he claims, which is done by a dee<l duly recorded. It may be claimed in a legal or nn equitable estate, and it may be claimed and selected at the time of a levy made upon it. The debtor when contract- ing a debt may waive the exemption as to that specific debt, and thereby render the estate liable for the same. After the death of the owner, if the homestead has not been set out, it may be done so at the request of the widow or tho children of the deeea.'^cd, and she will be entitled to liis homestead during her widowhood, in connection with tho children, until the youngest shall have arrived at majority. And tho same would be tho effect if she were divorced from her husband; she would take it as if he were dead. A married or unmarried nmn may claim a homestead ex- emption in Wisconsin if ho has a family dependent upon him ; but it doe^ not include estates held in common, though it would cover a house standing upon anotlier's land. The debtor selects his homestead, and notifies the offieer when making a levy upon his estate, who sets it out by metis and bounds. In order to convey it the wife must join with the debtor in a deed which she must acknowledge. Nor woubi a voluntary conveyance of a homestead by husband and wife render the same liable to be levied on for his debi^. although ma<le for the purpose of defrauding his creditors. A temporary leasing or absence from the estate does not affect the owner's right of homestead in the siime. Upon tho death of tbo owner the luimestead descends to tho widow during her widowhctod, and to her children until they are of age. A wite does not lose h'-r right in the 976 HOMICIDE. homestead by abandoning it if she is driven from it by her husband; nor would a husband and wife be taken to have abandoned a homestead by taking in a son to occupy it with Ihem and carry un the estate. If the wife is insane the court may order the estate to be sold, and direct how the proceeds shall be invested. And if when the debtor dies the estate be under a mortgage or other lien, and the same is sold for more than enough to pay this charge, the judge may order enough of such surplus to be invested in a homestead for the fiunily, and may. to that end, order ?jOll to bo thus invested in a new homestead. (For a ref- erence to the provisions of the laws of the U. S. concern- ing the right* of individual settlers to acquire public lands in the character of " heads of families." sen Land Laws op Tin; U. J>. ; also Trrhitoiuks.) Emoky Washuurs. Hoin'icide [Lat. homicitHnm, from homn, "a man/* and cft'i/w, to "kill "]. the killing of one human being by another. The word homicide is the most comprehensive designation employed in law to denote the causing of a person's death by human agency, and has reference to every mode by which such an act may be committed, whether it be innocent or criminal. There is no resulting implication, therefore, from the mere use of this generic appellation, that the act to which it is applied constitutes a leg.al otfence or is attended \vith any legal responsibility. Homicide, at common law, is divided into three classes — justifiable, excusable, and felonious. In the ancient his- tory of English jurisprudence there was an essential dis- tinction between justifiable homicide and that termed ex- cusable, since the former was regarded as involving no imputation of guilt whatever, while the latter did partake, in some slight degree, of criminality. As a consequence of this distinction, acts of justitiable homicide received no punishment, while those which were deemed excusable merely were attended by a forfeiture of the offender's goods. But at a very early period the imposition of this or any penalty for acts which were either attributable to pure accident or were done in necessary self-defence was felt to be a sentence of unjust severity, and the person charged with the offence escapee! the consequences by being held entitled to a writ of pardon and restitution as | a matter of course and right, or the judges, in order to re- i licve him of the expense of suing out the writ, would per- ' niit or direct a verdict of acquittal. Any practical diver- ' sity between the two kinds of homicide therefore became \ virtually obsolete, since both were adjudged equally unde- j serving of punishment. The old names, however, were I retained, and a difference was still asserted to exist between | them, because excusable homicide did involve some trivial \ element of hcinousness, though too slight to merit any i legal penalty. But the distinction, if maintained at all. ' is too vague and shadowy to bo of any importance, and i all kinds of homicide not felonious are better termed de- j fensible or innocent. As, however, the old designations arc still employed in English law and in some of the American States, they will be retained for the sake of con- I venicnco in this article. Felonious homicide is the killing j of a human creature without justification or excuse, and is divided into manslaughter and murder. These two sub- jects will be examined under their respective titles, so that acts of a defensible nature will alone bo considered here. (See Mi'RDKR, Manslaightkr.) I. Jiititiftdb/e Hfjmiride. — This is of rorious kinds. (1) AVhcre the proper officer executes a criminal in strict con- formity with his sentence. Such an act is not only not wrongful, but is obligatory upon the officer as a legal duty. It is, however, necessary that the officer should follow tho sentence precisely, otherwise the act may amount to murder. (2) Where an officer of justice (or other person acting in his aid), in the proper performance of a legal act which ho is required to perform, kills a person who resists or pre- vents him from executing it. An officer who has authority to arrest and ini]>rison may repel foroc by force in the at- tempted discharge of his duty, even to the extent of killing his assailant if he cannot otherwise take tho person whom he intends to arrest into custody, or it is necessary for self- protection. So. if a person charged with a fehmy escapes after arrest or flees to avoid an arrest, the officer is justi- fied in killing him if it be impossible to effect his capture. It is a further rule that a private individual may justify a homicide necessarily committed in preventing the escape of one who has actually committed a felony. There will be no such justification, however, if tho alleged crime bo merely a misdemeanor. (See Crimk. Fki.ony.) Jailers may prevent the escape of prisoners by killing them if it be necessary. But in all such cases killing must only be re- sorted to as tho last alternative, without which the per- formance of the officer's duty cannot be accomplished. (3) AVhere tho prevention of a forcible and atrocious crime renrlers the homicide necessary. Whenever any offence of a felonious nature is attempted, such as murder, robbery, burglary, arson, rape, etc., either the person whoso life or property is endangered, or any one who has knowledge of the intended crime, may use every effort to prevent its commission, and causing the death of the offender is justi- fiable if the imminent danger cannot otherwise be averted. Nor is it essential to his justification to show that the crime would actually have been perpetrated if the act of homi- cide had not been performed. For a person under such circumstances is warranted in acting upon a natural and reasonable presumption, and if there be sufficient indica- tions of a felonious design and of an immediate purpose to carry it into execution, he may conclude tliat there is actual premeditation, and use the same means for his protection as would, if such were really the case, be allowable. There- fore, if an empty pistol be {>ointed at any one who believes, and has reason to believe, it to be loaded, and a threat is made to fire it immediately, the person who supposes his life to be in danger may kill his assailant with impunity. But if he knew the weapon to be unloaded, he would not bo justified jn such an action. Under no circumstances can the homicide be committed if the crime can be averted by less severe precautions, or unless the necessity continue to the time when the felon is killed. Hence, if the killing occur after a seizure of tho wrongdoer has been effected and he has been properly secured, it will be murder. (4) Killing of the enemy during time of war in the actual prosecution of hostilities is, of course, justifiable on the ground of military necessity. II. Ejccnsable Houncidc. — This is of two kinds: (1) By misadventure, or accident. This is, however, innocent only when the person committing the homicide is engaged in a lawful act, without any intention of inflicting injury upon another, and without any failure to use proper precautions to prevent danger. If the act is unlawful, the homicide will bo felonious. If the head of a hatchet which a per- son is using, and which ho has reason to believe is firmly fastened, flies off and kills a Vjystander, or if a wagoner drives over and kills a person lying on the road upon a dark night, the homicide is accidental and excusable. The degree of care and prudence to be exorcised is variable under different conditions. The use of poisons or danger- ous weapons would require much greater precaution than the employment of articles not in themselves liable to oc- casion injury, as, for instance, the common utensils in every-day use. Tho lawful act which results in a person's death may be the administering of reasonable and moderate correction by a parent or school-teacher or other person occupying a position of similar authority. But the homi- cide is only innocent in such a case when the bounds of a proper restraint upon tho severity of the punishment are not exceeded. In like manner, if several persons should engage amicably in athletic sports, and by some unfor- tunate mischance one of them should be killed, be who occasioned the death would be innocent. (2) Homicide in self-defence, or in protection of one's property or his wife, child, parent, or servant. But under this head arc not in- cluded cases of defence against felonious crimes, which have been already considered, but only against any other modes of attack or injury which may bo attempted, as in cases of common assault or trespass, where there is no in- tention to commit a felony. The distinction is of con- siderable importance, on account of the difference in the nature of the legal obligation which is imposed upon tho person against whom an offence is perpetrated to seek to avoid the commission of homicide. AVhen an attack is made with intent to kill, or any other felony is attempted, tho person whose life or property is emlangered is under no duty to seek to avoid the threatened injury by availing himself of every practicable means of escape, but he may stand his ground, use every possible means of defence, and kill the wrongdoer if a reasonable and necessary precaution requires such an act. But when the attempted injury is not felonious, homicide cannot be committed in defence unless all available measures arc first adopted to escape from or avert the danger. Therefore, if a simple assault be committed, though the persim assailed may protect himself by blows, he must, as the old phrase expresses it, *' retreat to tho wall," or forbear as long as is consistent with safety before he ventures to kill his assailant. In tho defrnce of property retreat is not necessary in order that the homicide may be justified, since that would be a yield- ing of the property without attempting protection ; but tho wrongdoer must first be requested to leave a house or to refrain from interfering with goods before preventive measures can be adopted, and even then the trespasser cannot be killed unless he persists so strenuously in effect- ing his purpose that such a course is rendered necessary. Only a reasonable degree of force can be used against an intruder if that will prove sufficient. A felony is so hein- ous an ofiVnce that the laws regard the destruction of life no disproportionate penalty if the wrongful act be per- HOMILETICS— HOMINID^. 977 listed in ; but offences of any less degree ought not to en- tail so fcurful a punishmenc unless they cun, by no practi- cable lucuus, be uthenTise averted. In the I*, t*. crimes are generally defined by :«tatute, and the |)rinci|iles relating to homicide have therefore received various mudificatious. Very essential alterations, however, have rarely been made. The di.«tinctiou between justifiable and excusable homicide has ia some States been discarded, but the same classes of offences which were formerly included under these respective designations have usually* to tho same extent, been declared innocent. Gkohgk Chase. Revised by T. W. Dwight. Homilet'icSy following the etymology of the term (oMtAia: t'ce IliniiLY). denotes the science and tho art of preaching. It is that part of practical theology which re- lates to the composition and delivery of sermons. It is the technical synonym of ■' sacred rhetoric." The latter term denotes the application of rhetorical canons to reliijioua discourse. There are not two kinds of rhetoric, as there are not two kinds of logic. Ilomiletics relate in the appli- cation of the universal laws of conviction and persuasion to the utterances of the pulpit. These laws have their origin in the constitution of our intellectual and moral nature. Hoiniletics, therefore, are not supposed to treat ol the philosophy of rhetoric in general; but, presuppos- ing some knowledge of this, it undertakes to show the method in which rhetoric may successfully be employed in tho restricted province of the Christian jtrcacher. As preaching is admitted to be a divine apj)ointment, as it is acknowledged to be the chief human instrumentality by which revealed truth is to bo lodged in the convictions of men. no subject deserves more careful study than sacred rhetoric. Ilomiletics naturally recognize two general divisions — (1) The Matter. (2) The Manser of preach- ing. Ancient writers on rhetoric, particularly Qulntilian and Cicero, make much of I'nvcith'on. Tho material of the preacher is to be found in tho word of God. This is what defines his office in distinction not only from the secular orator, the advocate at the bar, but from even the ethical lecturer. His official occupation is to interpret, proclaim. and enforce the contents of revelation. It belongs there- fore to the department of saere<l rhetoric to teach tho best method of evolving tho truths contained in the sacred vol- ume for popular impression. It aims to elucidate tho dif- ferent kinds of preaching, such as expository, textual, and topical, giving the history and examples of each, and the rules by which each should be conducted. The chief ob- ject of hoiniletics relates to the manner of ])reiiching, in- cluding in this general term the structure of the discourse and its enunciation. Truth depends for its power very much on the mode of its presentation. Tho order of thoughts may bo so confused tliat the thoughts themselves l(tse half their force. Arguments and motives depend as much upon their disposition as their intrinsic weight. Sa- cred rhetoric looks to the urnni'fvmetit of material in ser- mon!), the statement of propositions, tho different kinds of proof by which they arc sustained, such as those drawn from the authority of the Scriptures, the reason, conscious- ncH, experience, the conscience, and processes of reasoning, especially those exemplified by Christ and his apostles. The methods of producing persuasion, as well as convic- tion, of exciting emotion, moving the affections, all found- C'\ in the laws of our nature, belong also to tho province of homiiotics. Style, language, elocution, management of the voice, tho carriage of tho person, manner, gesticula- tion, different modes of preparing for tho pulpit, different modes of delivery, with or without the manuscript, memo- riter or extemporaneitus, all these and many other [)articu- lars, arc included in this general designation of homilctical instruction. Treatises on hoiniletics are numerous in all languages, ancient and modern. Augustine in bis /Joc- triiia ('hriHlianti treated the sultjcct systematically. Tho German, French, and English tongues aro rich in this species of literature. That would be a largo catalogue which should include only the names of authors on tho art of preaching who are distinguished and renowned, such as Hossuet. Kt'nehm. Maury, Claude, Schott. Keinhard, There- min, Campbell, and Vinct, The V. S. have given many very valuable contributions to this department of author- ship. All religious denominations appear to vie with each other in the attention given to the art i»f preaehing. Ail tho theological seminaries of this country give great promi- nence to homiletics in tho curriculum of ministerial educa- tion. All treatises on sacred rhetoric, ancient and modern, regard self-eonviction as tho secret of all persuasive and earnest speech. Personal experience, deepened and vivi- fied by the Spirit of (Jod, is universally regarded as tho prime force in sacred oratory, without which everything else is of little avail. " I believe, therefore do I speak ;" "Out of the abundance of tho heart thi' mouth ^poaketh." William Adams. Vor,. n. r>2 Uom'ily [Gr. oMiAi'a: Fr. Aow^/tc], a simple religious discourse. The distinction between the Ao/HtV^and the ner- inon, as made by writers on sacred rhetoric, is, that the former is less elaborate, with less of method and disposi- tion after rhetorical rules than the latter. A technical sense attaches to the word in history which is not strictly observed in ordinary usage. The Fnnch observe nice dis- tinctions between homilies, conferences, discourses, and ser- mons. IJy •' homilies," in modern English use, we should understand that description of sermons which has more of exposition than rhetorical system. So many are the forms of pastoral instruction in tho present day, so frequent tho occasions when ministers address the people, on the Sab- bath, during the week, in churches, in leeture-rooms, in Bible classes, and Sabbath schools, that the old distinction between the homily and the sermon is nearly obliterated. Historically, homilies were designed to supply the defi- ciencies of an ignorant clergy and an ignorant people. When philosopliical and rhetorical method had greatly vitiated ])ulpil discourse, making it scholastic, subtle, and cold, the homily was intended to provide a simpler mode of conveying religious instruction. In the Roman Chundi at that period, when few of the clergy were capable of mak- ing discourses for themselves, collections cjf homilies, con- sisting of compilations from the Fathers, were authorized for their use. {See NeandkHjCA. JIht. iii. 174. concerning the llomiliarittm of Charlemagne.) Similar collections were prepared, at the Reformation, in the English Church by Cranmcr and Jewell. Their use in the Church was au- thorized (see MJth Article) as a means of religious instruc- tion at a time of imperfect education. The language of the Article enjoining their use requires them to be "read in churches by the ministers, diligently and distinctly, that they may be nndtrHUmdvd by the people." The first volume of the HninUitH was published in the reign of Ed- ward VI.; tho second volume was published in the reign of Elizabeth. The substance of these English Ilomilitu is generally accepted as good and wholesome doctrine, but very considerable differences of opinion (sco Jh'shop Ihir- tft) have long existed as to the aiit/i<irit^ attached to their contents as parts of the constitution of the Anglican Church. William Adams. Homin'iilfv [from homo, -iuia, " man," and the patrony- mic termination -idti], a family established for the recep- tion of man, in contradistinct' ^n to the other families of Primates. In contrast with those other families, man is distinguished (1) by his haltitually erect form (excejit in infancy), tho foro limbs being withdrawn completely from the locoint)tivc series and transferred to tho 'ij/hafic ,- (2) the foot has tho inner toe produced and develop "d as a "great toe," and this is in the same jdancwith the others; (.'J) the hair is scant, except upon the top ot the head, but it varies in extent of development on other parts of tlie body accord- ing to the race as well as to the indiviihial ; (4) the teeth form an uninterrupted series in each jaw (there being no diastcmata, or intcrruj)tions, for the reception of enlarged canines in tho opposite jaws); and (6) they are in number 'A'2, of which each side of each jaw has two incisors (I. 2), one canine (C. 1 ), two prcnudars ( P. AI. 2), which succeed two deciduous molars, and tlirec permanent and later de- veloped inohirs (M. :i); furthermore, {*>) a bony external auditory meatus is developed, and at the bottom of this is a membranum tympani; (7) the uo&c has its median sep- tum thin and narrow, and the nostrils are correspondingly approximated. In the first four mentioned characters man contrasts with all the other members of his sub-order, but in tho last three mentioned (5-7) he agrees with the ajies nn<l monkeys of the Old Wurld. in contratlistinction witli the monkeys of the New World. In his organization gen- erally man agrees closely witli the higher apes (Simiidnc), and this similarity extends to the brain as well as to the other parts of the organization. The brain differs chiefiy in size and the development of the gyri and sulci of the cerebrum. Tho extent of agreement is expressed by the association of man with the monkeys of the Old AVorld in one group, opposed to the monkeys of the New World, and the coniliination of all those in a nnijor group (sub-order Anthropoidea), contrasted with tho lemurs (Lemuridie). Tarsiidio and aye-aye ( Daubcntoniidie or Chiromyidiu), which are combined in a corresponding sub-order (sub- order Prosimiii' ). Such are the characters which distinguish man as a member of the animal kingdom, and which have induced naturalists to iidnpt the classification thus sketched ; but it is to be remembered that in this case no attention is given to psychological characters, fir to those other endow- ments which distinguish man so trenchantly from all ih<> other members of the animal kingdom, to which in his purely pliysiologieul nature he belongs. These important eharaeters moro fitly belong to another (jrovince, and will be treated under the tillo Man, by PitoF. M. B. Anokkso.n, LL.D. TnLODoKi; Gill. 978 HOMCEOPATHY. IIora<Eop'athy [Gr. o^oto<, "like," and tta9tiv, "to be affected"], a methoil or pjstem of medical treatment based upon the ]iecnliar iprineiplothat the therapeutic or curative propcrlics of drugs and other medicinal agents are repre- sented by their morbific effects upon the healthy. Hence the name, in contradistinction to allopathy {dissimilar suf- fcriuij), by which term the homwopathists designate the ordinary methods of practice. This system was first pro- pounded by Dr. Samuel Hahnem.vnn (which see) about the end of "the last century, and although greeted at first with little favor from the medical profession generally, has gradually gained in popular estimation, and obtained ae- eeptancc'with considerable numbers of reputable physicians, not only in (jermany, where it originated, but in most other countries of the Old and New World. It is not claimed that Hahnemann was the first to observe or pro- mulgate the therapeutic principles upon which his system is founded. Indications of its recognition as a rule of occa- sional though rare applicability in the treatment of the sick are found in the medical literature of the past ; and even the Greek equivalent of the fundamental maxim, si'mi'/m similibiis ciiraiiliir. has heen discovered in writings attrib- uted to Hippocrates, liut it is admitted that Hahnemann was the first to adopt it as a general law in the practice of medicine. The alleged discovery of the real importance of this sup- posed relation between the disease-exciting and the disease- curing powers of drugs, and the gradual development of the homceopathic system, are briefly, but perhaps suffi- ciently, described in the article on Hahnemann, to which the reader is referred. The following propositions, it is be- lieved, comprise the essential points of tho homoeopathic doctrine, as held and taught by the best and most recent authorities of the school : ( I ) That the cure of disease is most easily and completely effected by medicines that are them- selves capable of producing in a healthy person morbid conditions analogous to those of tho disease ; and the more exact the similarity, the greater probability of a favorable result. (2) Consequently, the most certain way of ascer- taining the therapeutic value of medicinal agents is by re- peated and carefully conducted trials of them, singly, upon persons in ordinary health. (:'.) That in order to secure the best results medicines should not be administered to the sick in combination, but singly and in tho simplest prep- arations. (4) That remedies prescribed according to the homa>opathic method may be, and in fact generally require to be, administered in smaller and more attenuated doses than are necessary to produce their characteristic effects upon the healthy. The practical application of these rules to the treatment of diseases necessitates the individualiza- tion of each jiarticular case. To bo strictly homoeopathic a medicine should correspond not only to the general patho- logical state, but also to the peculiar symptoms of the pa- tient. In order to furnish remedies for the great variety of pos- sible morhid conditions, the work of " proving " drugs — as the administration of them to persons in health for the pur- pose of observing their effects is technically called — which was begun by Hahnemann, has been diligently followed up by his disciples ever since. The homceopathic materia mediea consists of the collected and collated results of the " prov- incs " of a large number of drugs, many of which, however, require further verification. These experiments are con- ducted partly by individuals and partly by numerous asso- ciations formed for the purpose. Honueopathists condemn the commixture of several medicines in one prescription. When two or more remedies are required, they are usually given in alternation, and at considerable intervals. They have always avoided, as unnecessary and injurious, tho use of bloodletiing, drastic purgatives, mercurial salivation, blis- ters, and indeed all the so-called "heroic" expedients so generally relied on a generation since. Particular atten- tion is paid, however, to diet, exercise, bodily habits, and all other sanitary and hygienic helps. Upon the question of the proper ilosr, homoeopathic prac- titioners arc, as yet, by no means agreed among themselves. While all assent to the general statement contained in the fourth of the above propositions, the extent to which the dilution or attenuation of medicines may be advantageously carried is still a moot ])oint, in regard to which the sehnul is somewhat divided in opinion and ]iractioe. liut although there are representatives of cither extreme who profess to use exclusively in their practice "high" or "low" dilu- tions respectively, it is probable that the greater number of |)hyBician3 consider the question of the dose quite sub- ordinate in importance to the choice of the remedy, and that further experience is necessary to eettlo the range of greatest efficiency for each drug. Before the publication of Hahnemann's Mnlrria Mediea Pura (1811 scq.) the practical application of the new law of euro Wis necessarily limited to prescribing the very few drugs of whose effects upon the healthy organism some scanty particulars were known. Such facts were too few and uncertain to answer the requirements of the art: con- sequently, the systematic proving of even the best known remedies was a necessity. The above-named work (in (1 vols.), containing the ascertained pathogenetic effects of some fiO drugs, was the first fruit of this necessity. As now the means of testing the truth of the homoeopathic principle became accessible, the doctrine, and the ])ractice based upon it, began to sjiread more rajiidly, and soon ob- tained the support of a number of well-known medical men of Germany. Its progress, however, was much impeded by the state laws, which restricted the right of ])reparing and dispensing medicines to the apothecaries, who, being natu- rally opposed to a practice ealcubitcd to interfere materially with their ancient franchise, did not hesitate to in\oke tho aid of the law to harass its adherents. Gradually, how- ever, these and other restrictive laws affecting the medical profession were relaxed in favor of the new scdiool. Tho court-physicians in several German states were among the early disciples of Hahnemann, and were doubtless instru- mental in promoting a more liberal policy. Hahnemann himself was appointed physician and state councillor to tho duke of Anhalt-Cocthen. Dr. Kau, physician to tho duke of Hessc-Di'.rmstadt, Dr. Muhlenbein, physician to the duke of Brunswick, Dr. Grieslich, surgeon to the grand duke of Baden, and several others who held similar official and in- timate relations to the ruling powers, were retained in their positions, notwithst.andiug their adoption of homoeopathy. From Germany the new medical doctrine extended itself to other parts of the Continent, so that belbre IS40 hointcopa- thy had its professional reiirescntalivcs and its lay i)atron3 in nearly every considerable town in Europe. Homoeopa- thy was introduced into England about 182S by Dr. Quin, physician to the king of Belgium. Not hmg after Scotland and Ireland were also invaded by pioneers of the same school. In all these countries the system has made con- siderable progress. The earliest practitioner of homoeopathy in the tJ. S. was Dr. Hans B. Gram, an American by birth, though by pa- rentage and education a Dane, who after many years' ab- sence returned in 1S25 and estahlished himself in New York. His tirst attempts to attract the attenticm of the profession to the scientitic claims of the system of which he was the pioneer were unsuccessful, but before his death, in 1840, it had made decided progress in the metropolis, and gained a foothold in Philadelphia, Boston, and other cities. In 1844 was formed a national association of jihy- sicians under the name of the .\nicrican Institute of lIomcE- opathy, with about on members. This society now has a membership of over 1000. The whole number of avowed hointeopathic physicians in the U. S. is variously estimated at from HOOO to 5000. State and county societies have been established by law in most of tho States. In New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, St. Louis, and Boston are fully-equipped medical colleges, in which the therapeutics of the new school are taught in connection with the usual branches of merlical instruction. Hospitals, infirmaries, and dispensaries have been founded in many cities and large towns for the benefit of the sick poor who desire homoeopathic treatment. At Xliddletown, N. Y., a homoeopathic insane asylum has been erected by the State, and is in successful operation. The literature of the new school is already remarkable for its extent, comprising expository, controversial, jour- nalistic, and practical publications in almost every depart- ment of medical .science. The works of Hahnemann ulono form a considerable collection, while some of his disciples have also been prolific writers. The Oi<jamm has ajipeared in numerous editions and in various languages. A collec- tion of Hahnemann's Ltsur Wriiiiigs, edited by Dr. Dudgeon of London, has also attained a large circulation. As early as IS22 was founded at J-eipsic the first period- ical of this school, the Anliir fur die H<imrvi,]Hilliische Heilkiinsi. which eimtinued lor many years the leading ex- ponent of the system in Germany. In 18;!D i\\a liihlio- lliiqiic /lomiTupulhiqiie \sas commenced at Geneva. Switzer- land. In 1834 the publication of the Arcliifm de In Mfde- cine HnmtTnpnthiii>ic was begun in Paris. About the same time The A,nericcn Jnnrnnl i,f Ilomicupnthia, by Drs. J. F. Gray and A. Gerald Hull, appeared in New York— tho pioneer of the homoeopathic periodical literature of this country. The British Journal of H,„na-opail,i/ (London) was fo'unded in 184.1. The following are the principal publications of this class in the V. S. in l.STo: Aorih Amer- ii-nu Journal nf llnmcropnili;/, quarterly. New York : I'. S. Medical /iMT«'(r.7«(iir, bi-monthly, Chicago; Aiiierlenn Ob- terver, monthly! Detroit : Hahnemannian. m<.nthly. Phila- delphia; Am. Journal of Mai. .l/ci/.. monthly, Philadelphia; Seir Km/land Medical Ij'azelle, monthly, Boston; Medical <rai/.S'i(.-7iVii^/frjuorfii-, monthly, Cleveland. H.D. Paine. IIOMOGENK(USM<S— HOMOLOGY. 979 Uomoge'neoasness, or Homogene'ity [Gr. omov, " suiue," auil ytvov, " kind '*]. An algebraical expression is called homofjeiieitiis vihcix all its terms are of like " degree " - — i. e. products of the same number of literal factors. Were tlicso the symbols of abstract numbers onfy^ the term would bo nearly destitute of important signification. IJut the i»ri"i(ri'«/(; of humotjeutinttncsii applies to ecjuations expressive of relations between pynibols for physical magnitudes (as well as abstract numbers), and these physical magnitudes of various kinds, incommensurable with each other, are only made commensurable and suscep- tible of mathematical relations by simulation to abstract number-: through the agency of, for eaeh, some arbitrary unit. Thus, we measure timt by d(itfn or hours; linear ex- tension by mi7«* or ftrt, etc., or mttret, etc. — units, so-called, of wholly arbitrary selection — while those of one kind {c g. the hour) are wholly incommcDsuniblc with those of another kind (c. *j. the mttrc), except that each is a unit and repre- sented by the abstract number one. An equation express- ing a relation between physical magnitudes should be true whatever be the arbitrary unit taken for each ; and, indeed, failure to bear this te-t is a conclusive evidence of error. But a change of arbitrary unit will evidently cause a change in the numerical value by which each particular magnitude is expressed. Thus, if /.y, /, I', t, t', etc. sym- bolize, respectively, _/orcf», /cH'yrAj?, and times, and n, n',u"f etc. abstntct numbers, and we diminish the unit for each in the ratio of -, , etc., these physical magnitudes will theu « n' be expressed by »/, n/*, n' I, n' V, etc., and the relation ex- pressed by /' {j\f . . . I, I' . . . t,t% etc.) = 0, should become, truthfully, F(nf, n'f . . . n' I, a' V , . . «" t, n" t' . . .) = 0, in which F denotes any function of the magnitudes. Literal homnycncvunucsv in general secures the existence of this condition; unless, indeed, there be unit symbols which involve in themselves the repetition of an inferior unit in different senses (e. «/. a unit of «ur/<tcc and oi vol- ume involve in themselves the repetition of the linear unit iicti and three titnes, repeatedly, in different <lircrtiorin), in which case their symbols will by the change suj)poscd above involve the numbers n, h', etc. in higher powers. Thus, a unit of surface « would become u' '^a, etc., and its symbol is to bo ranked as iV«c// of that degree to which it involves the inferior unit. The principle nf ketmotjeneouaneas demands that, what- ever bo the character of the unit symbols, the relation ex- pressed by the above equations, if true for one form, shall be true for the other, whatever be the value of the arbi- trary numbers ii, ;i', etc. Important « prii^ri conclusions may sometimes be de<luced. Thus, if a force f is to be expressed in terms of hut one other force/ and symbols of other kinds of physical magnitudes, it is required by the above principle that the expression shall bo of tlie form _/* = A/, in which A*" contains onbj symbols of the other kinds of magnitudes which do not vary with the unit of foruc, and/ enters as a factor of the first degree. J. G. liAIlNARD. Homol'ogy [Gr. oMoXoyia, "agreement"], in philosoph- ical anatomy, the csaeutial structural correspondence of different parts of the same organism, or of different or- ganisms. Thuf. the arm of a man. the fore leg of an ox, the wing of a bird, ainl the pectoral (in of a fish are homol- ogous parts. Su, in the same animal, the foot is the liomo- logue of the hand, because it is formed on the same typo. Homology^ a term expressing a principle in the chem- istry of organic compounds of high importance and sig- nificance, first introduced by the illustrious (Jerhardt.* A series of homologues, or /lonto/'H/oic* sericn, mnstilutes what, in a ehis-iification of carbon compounds, niighl lie culled a family or genus, of which the individual compounds aro the species. Such a classification is a nntnral one. A homologous scries is formed by additions to an clo- menlary molecule or group of such — which constitutes a nucleus or /iow»«/'>_»/cHiV radical — of successive equivalents of a certain molecular group of hydrogen anil carbon atoms represented by IPC. This group, \VK\ we may, for convenience, call the homolotjnt. Whether such a com- pouiul is capable of existing in an isolated form is un- known- Methylene, or melhene, whicli has nut been yet obtained, would have this empirical formula, but it is not probable that the homologcn II^C is itself methylene. *The dl-'eovery of the principle af hnmnhm/ Is generally given to (ierbanlt. who developed nmi estahlish«'<f it ; but I>r. .1. Scliiel of St. I^Hiis t\rst aiiiiiMinced in the Annnien (.luly, \Hi2i the ar- raMiiemeril oforKanie compounds in what he called " iironressive series," correspoiidiriK to series of homologues, (See l)r. Schiel's nx^Iauiatiun in the Atn. Jour, of Srime*; July, ISf.l.l The prin- ciple of honiriloKV was also extended to n»IncrnIoj;y by T. Sterry Hunt in the Am. Jour, nf Science, Sept., lRr>4, ten years before Tschcrniak. to whom it has been attributed. (See Sii.i- t-Ait-s. t iii:mi>ikv and Classifuation ov.) . ,«.223S28 E w^».3Or-0Dp2 --;-y 1 fl.. ^ «* i i-^ C3 e + ta II ^ & r e. o q. a a g a i^jiiiiir o et V « « ^ a&J^tS; S ^ i a ^3 6 u <a : : c o : 1 ItHl c 3 llllllllll H os^5£S£S£t)D O S'C f n 1 a V S =» w 6 "O, -_,_---, « ss, : + jj t) = -J o C"~'- o p 3 V ^cc^i^,?^^^ < O mmii oLtC^6 5!i& T -A t1 ? a ?s a r JZt Z z t z z z 2^ 6 + o o g c 1 « o 5 « o ot:-^ JZ z j^ ^ ."^s « tl rt 9 S=rli?iffs a aa=aaaaa=a t!.U^wOs,i/tO o w £•5 w a « -^ ■^ : :o •: : ■ ■« 1 P + 9 : oijs i 2 oz Z Z Z V n 'E.*- V — " o .. ,.i,£:;:r2£8a 5 = = = = = := = = = =! 1 a L.Z.tLtt.ttti-j ° _• •** + s 1 g t H 11 & 1 1 s "sr s + 2 a 3 < b i t c c ' 4J 111 r a 0) 1 H 5Su;ft.c?3'a,xC/.Q .-; M CO -f" tfi IS i~ cc oi d M d i 3 g s ia %. O ° ?, 1 •c •s. c i ^ o X s a i 3 " 1 b 980 HOMOTAXIS— HONDURAS. In the extended tabic of examples of homologous series herewith presented the formuUc wo have designated '* ho- raologcnic" convey simply the theory which must be di- rectly deduced from the facts of homology. It will ha ob- served that the first four scries given are strictly ;j"''t/^V in every way, the series found in each horizoutal line being what HofuKinn has called '* isologous " series, or those based upon the same number of carbcm equivalent:?. These series may bo believe<l to have the same molecular deriva- tion, in the sense of being compounds of the same elcnieut- ary molecule, with different other elements and molecular groups. Like the latter, the members of the:^o series of is')U)gue3 arc altogether without chemical or physical rc- spinblanccs and relations among each other. On the con- trary, the homologues in each of the vertical columns have strong chemical similarities and analogies one with an- other, and frequently occur in ndinixture in products of both natural and artifiirial chemical processes, being then often difficult to isolate individually. They present a reg- ular aud perfect gradation, or progression in degree, of ]ihysical relations and iiroperties, from top to bottom of the column, in correspondence with the increasing number of ll'^C groups combined in the molecule. Thus, the vol- atility constantly decreases, and the degree of fusion con- stantl}' increases, from the top to the bottom of each series. The most remarkable fact of this kind about homologues was discovered by Kopp — namely, that generally each suc- cessive addition of H'^C corresponds to a definite increase of atomic ruhime of 22 units; which argues that if the homologen is susceptible of isolation, it will be found to possess this specific atomic volume. In the last two series of homologues given in the table it will be seen that there is nut the complete parallelism and iaoloijij with the first four that is presented by the latter between each other. Homologous series are not therefore all parallel for the same number of homologen groups. The admission of the theory of homology seems to compel the admission of the existence in each series of homologues of a fundamental or basal moleeule, -or group of such ; which we have called here the radicul of the series. The "organic radicals" of the earlier organic chemists were but a series of homologues based upon one atom of hvdrogen as their homologenic radical. Thus, H + IVC=\VC (mothyle), H + 2H2C = H^C^ (ethyle), and so on. Ammonia, NIP, constitutes also the radical of the beautiful series of homologues discovered by Adolphc Wurtz, the compound ammoniaSf or — Monamine*. NH»-f n(H2C). Methylaraine C H2 NHS Ethylamine CSfi*, NH3 rrupylaniine CHl\ NH3 Butylamine C*li». NH3 Amylamine ("SH'o.NHs Hexylamine C6H»2, Nlla Heptvlamine CH"*. NIP Oclylamine „ C»Hi6, NH» Nonylamine „ COH", NH3 Very many other such nuclear radicals appear to exist, containing multij)Ie atoms or molecular groups of carbon, and of carbon and oxygen, such as it is difficult, on our ordinarily accepted views, to believe to be capable of ex- isting. The following table illustrates two series of highly iuijiurtant substances, with their constitution and structure on the houiologic theory; and this table will serve also to show how this theory enables us to predict the existence anil composition of compounds yet unknown. Thus, it may be deduced from the first column that coal-gas may be expected to bo found to contain two gaseous compounds as yet unknown, C*H'^ and C'^ll*. The aromatic aldehydes also, of which the benzoic, toluic, and cumic aldehydes are known, are based upon a homologenic radical C*0 (possibly (:\ CO). Geoerlc Names. Coal -Tar. or "Aromatic " HydrocarboQa. "Aromatio" Aeldj. Homologenic Radicals. c». C«0«;or C», C0«). Iloiiuilogenic Kt;riiiul;c. C»+n(H«C). C«0» + n(H«C). Series (Unknown!.. ..(■< W lUnlcnownl....r' 114 Benzone <« I[« Toluene C H« Xylene ('» H"i (Unknown) C* W Oa (Unknown) (?> n< 0« Benzoic acid C H« oa Toluic " .....C»H«0! C'umene C* Hi= Cymene C"'»IIi< lumic ■' CioHiJtH Cymic " C"H»oa Laurene C"Hi« The monatomic phenols, inchnling common />/ieno/, cvcuol^ xylenol, thymol, etc., constitute a scries of the radical CO. The ajjparent existence, in combination at least, of such curious molecular grou])S will serve to suggest the import- ance of the further pursuit of the somewhat neglected study of homology. Hknhv '\Vi:rtz. Ilomotax'is [(Jr. 6mos. "same," and Toft?, "arrange- ment"], a word iiitrotluced into use by Prof. Huxley to ex- press an idea in geology remotely analogous to that ex- pressed by homology in zoology. H had been tacitly as- sumed in geological reasoning that a stratum or a forma- tion was throughout its horizontal extent of couteuipor- aneous origin. The imposfsibiUty of this had long been apprehended by the more philosophic geologists, as Ed- ward Forbes, De la Beche, aud others, and Prof. Huxley finally gave clear expression to the contradiction by ap- plying the term homotaxis to signify similnrity nf position in a scries of rocks, apart from auy question as to contem- poraneity or sequence of origin of the parts of the series. (See HuxLEV, Anniv. Addr. to the Geol. Soc. for 1862; Quart. Journ. of Geol. Soc, vol. xviii., and EnsayB and lie- views, Eng. ed., ISTI, p. 202.) Homs, or Hums, the Einena of Strabo and Pliny, town of Syria, in the valley of the Orontes, 1 mile E. of the river and about GO miles N. E. of Baalbek. It was the birthplace of the Roman emperors Elagabalus (218-222 land his cousin, Alexander Severus (222-2;;a), and was noted for its splendid temple of the Sun, in which these youths were sharing between them the office of high priest when (in 218) the former was chosen Augustus and the latter was made Ca?sar. The modern town is well built, of black ba- .salt, with which also most of the streets are paved. It is surrounded by a wall of no great strength, but which suf- fices to keep off the prowling Bedouin. Nothing ancient is now found there except some ruins and (ireek inscrip- tions. It is a place of considerable trade, and has a popu- lation of about 21».O00, including 7000 Greek Christians and some 200 Jacobites. R. D. Hitchcock. Ho'lian ('* southof the river"), province of China proper, comprising the lowland S. of Hoang-Ho, between lat. ?>'2° and 3"^ X., and between Ion. 110° and 110° E. Area, 05.114 square miles. Pop. 23,037,171. Cap. Kai-Fung. Hon'da, town of Colombia, in the department of Cun- dinamarca, on the Magdalena. Its climate, though hot, is not unhealthy. It is the natural depot of the commercial produce of the very fertile province. But its streets are unfit for carriages and trucks; goods must be transported to the warehouses by carriers, and consequently its com- merce is steadily decreasing. It had formerly 10,000 in- habitants. Uondt, the name of a celebrated family of Flemish en- gravers. The founder of the family, Jossk Hoxdt. b. at Wackene, in Flanders, in 1J4I>. and d. in London Feb. It), 1611 ; spent a large part of his life in England, where ho sought refuge from the religious persecutions of the Span- iards. He was celebrated as an engraver of maps. — Of his sons, He.vrv he Hondt, the Ei-Dek. b. at tihent in 1573, and d. at the Hague in IGIO; Henry i>e Hondt, the YotNCEn, b. in London about 1581, and d. at .\msterdam about 1050; and William HoNnr, b. at the Hague in 1601, and d. at Dantzic. A series of portraits by Henry do Hondt the Elder of 144 artists, mostly Flemish, and of Melanchthon. Bugenhagen, Wycliffe, Savonarola. Calvin, and Knox, are widely known ; so are those by Henry de Hondt the Younger of Queen Eliziibeth and William of Orange, and a view of the Hague.— Abraham Ho.m>t, b. at Rotterdam in 1C3S, and d. in London in lt'91, also be- longed to the family. He acquired a great name as a painter of animals. Ilondu'ras, a republic of Central America, is situated between lat. 13<* 10' and 16° 5' N.. and bounded by the Caribbean Sea, Nicaragua, the Bay of Fonseca, San Sal- vador, and Guatenmla. .\rea, about 50,000 square miles. The Caribbean coast is low and marshy E. of Ion. 85°, lined with extensive salt-water lagoons, such as Laguna do Cartago and Laguna de Cartine; W. of Ion. 85° it is higher, often rocky, and lined with islands, among which are the Bay Islands, belonging to the juri.-'diction ofJamnicn. The following rivers are found here : Segovia, also called Coco, Oro, or Wanks, about 350 miles long, but navigable only for canoes on account of rapids, forms the boundary be- tween Honduras and Nicaragua ; the Patuca, navigable for small steamers, receives the Guayape, famous for its rich gold-washings; the Ulua, with U feet of water on the bar traversing its mouth, and navigable for steamers and small craft up to its junction with the Santiago, 70 miles from its mouth. The principal ports along this coast are Omoa, Trujillo, and Puerto Cortes, formerly Puerto Cabullos — all commodious and safe. The P.acific coast, along the Bay of Fonseca, is also low, even inundated at spring tides, but HONDURAS, BRITISH— HONEY-EATERS. 981 it presents several fine harbors, among which is Amnpala. The Cholutoca, which flows into the liay of Fonscca, is navigable for light craft for a considerable distiiDce from its mouth. The interior is high, but niueh diverjilied by niountain-riiugcs, plateaus, terraces, and valliys. The Sierra .Madre enters the country from the W., and separates at .Merendon into two branches, of which one runs eastward under the name of Espiritu Santo and Urita, and ends in the Oniua Mnunlains ; and the other runs S. and S. E., forming the Selaque Mountains, whose highest peak rises IO,UUO feet; the I'uca, .Santa Barbara, Sulaco. and Chili mountains. The climate is hot, along the coasts very unhealthy, and everywhere very capricious, .\pril, May, and June are the liottesi, November, December, and Janu- ary the coolest, months. The rainy season is generally ushered in with violent hurricanes and thunderstorms. The soil is exceedingly fertile. The valleys and lowlands are covereil with an exuberant tropical vegetation, and on tlie plateaus all the finest fruits and plants of the temperate lone succeed. The sugar-cane is indigenous ; excellent to- bacco is produced ; coll'ee, cotton, and cochineal succeed well, but arc very little cultivated. Immense forests cover the mountains, "and yield excellent timber, fine cabinet woods, especially nuiliogany, gums, drugs, and dycstulfs. The wealtli of the country, however, cousists in its mines. Gold, silver, copper, coal, and excellent nnirble are found in numy localities and in great quantities, but very few mines are worked. Xonc of the rich resources are duly utilized, and the reasons arc the total lack of roads, the unsettled stale of society, the want of sufficient ca])ital, and the comparatively small amount of energy which the in- habitants dis]ilay. The principal occupation is caltle- raising, and even this is done in a sluggish and careless wav. The number of inhabitants is about lull, 0011, of whom about lK0,O0Oare Indians, 200,1100 mesti/.oes, 6000 negroes, and the rest whites of Spanish descent. The religion is Uomnn Catlmlie, but there is very little public education. The government is republican: the executive power is veslcd in a president elected for four years; the legislative, Id a senate and a chamber of deputies. The finances arc in great disorder. The foreign debt amounted in 1S72 to about $.',0.1100.000— loans which were raised for tlic con- struction of an interoceanic railway. The value of the annual exportation of bullion, indigo, cattle, timber, hides, tobacco, etc. is estimated at $l,2:iU,000. Cotton and silk fabrics are imported from England ; cutlery and machinery from the U. S. Cap. Comayaguo, with 18,000 inhabitants. Honduras, Dritish. Sec Bai.izk. Ilundiirns, Hay of, a large inlet of the Caribbean Sea, belwecn Vucalan, (iualeniala, and Honduras. It receives many slreains, among which lieli/.e and Muntagua are the largest, and contains many islands. Hone, a name given to a stone of fine grain used for giving a fine edge to steel blades. Hones arc usually of much finer grain than ordinary whetstones and grindstones. They are made of several kinds of stone, often of Palio- ozoic age. Various greenstones, siliceoargillaeeims slates, etc. arc used. One of the very best hone-stones now used is the novaculitc of Arkansas, of Carboniferous age. There are also excellent oil-stones from Turkey, Austria, Siberia, England, Wales, and Scotland. For many purposes the Turkey stone is considered the best. Hone (Wii.i.iAiil, b. at liarth in I77I). His first at- tempts in the literary field were unsuccessful, but in 1SI7 hi' made a great hit by bis painjihlets, illustrated by llcorgc Cruiksbank. One of them, a parody on the lluuk <>/" Crnn- nioii I'mt/rr, brought him before the courts. Ho was ac- tiniltfd. however, and a public subscripticm was made for bini, lie became a preacher to a congregation of dissenters, and d. at T<iltenliain Nov. li, 1,S)2, in slraitencil eireum- slanccs. The most prominent of his writings arc — The Jiitri/.lJi,,, lluak. The 'l\Mc litmk. The )'t..c lliml.; The I'oHiiviU llon»r Ihitt Jiick Hiiill, and A Slitp at Sli'/i ( l.SIO). llo'nea Path, post-tp. of Anderson eo., S. ('., on the tlreenvillc and Columbia H. K., 3.i miles from Greenville. Pop. I'.l2ii. Iloneoye', pos(-v. of Richmond tp., Ontario eo., N. Y., at the outlet of Honcoyo Lake, 8) miles from Livonia, on the Erie K. K. Honcoye Falls, post-v. of Monroe eo., N". Y., 1(1 miles S. of Kdihister, on the New York Central and Hudson U. U. It contains a anion school, G ehurches, a bank, a printing-ofiice. 1 newspaper and news-rouin, a eireuliiliiig library, 2 flouring-mills, 1 plaster-mill, 1 sash and blind, a stave and heading shop, a woollen, pump, and nxe-hantlle factory, 2 wagon-shops, fimndry and machine-shops, 2 cooper shops, 1 Masonic lodge, stores, etc. The surround- ing country is well adapted for agriculture. I'op.U2l. S. F. JoKV, El). " Hosi'.oVK Fai.i.s Fiikk I'liicss." Honeoyc Lake, in the tps. of Richmond and Cana- dice, Ontario eo., N. V., discharges its waters by the Hone- oyc outlet into Genesee River. The lake is 5 miles long, I mile in breadth, and surrounded by high hills. Hones'dale, |iost-b.. cap. of Wayne co.. Pa., ICO miles N. v.. of llarrisburg, on the Delaware and Hudsnn Canal. Delaware and Hudson and the Honcsdale branch of the Erie R. Us., was incorporated as a borough I8.*J1 ; made the county seat 18-12. It contains a lino graded school, 9 churches, finely shaded streets, gas and water works, 2 banks, 2 weekly newspapers, a public library, handsome public grounds, manufactories of glass, axes, and edge tools, woollen goods, pottery, leather, boots and shoes, lum- ber, eanal-boats, and steam-engines. The "Stourbridge Lion," the first locomotive made in America, made its trial- trip from this place in 1828. Large quantities of coal are shipped during the summer by the canal, and more than 500,000 tons are stored on the docks through the winter, awaiting shiimicnt in the spring. Pop. 2fio4. Thomas J. Ham, Ed. " Wav.ve Co. Hehai.!)." Ilon'ey, the saccharine material collected from fiowers by several kinds of insects for the food of themselves and progeny, especially by the honey-bee (A/jis mcllijiia). In bee-honey there have been reported as present four kinds of sugar — common cane-sugar, or sucrose; glucose (dex- trose), or fruit-sugar; locvulosc, or iincrtcd sugar (which turns the plane of polarization to the left, or inverts the action of glucose) ; the fourth being a sugar stated by Soubeiran to be hevo-rotatory to a degree three times as great as Uevuloso, but which is little known. There are other substances present, among them an acid ferment, which gradually changes the cnne-sngar into a mixture of dextrose and lievulosc, so that the clear, liniiiid fresh honey from the comb often becomes granular and opaque, from the crystallizing out of the less soluble glucose. Wasp- honey (of J'oli/hiu o/)Hi/). mil's) gives large crystals of ordinary sucrose, and jlexiean ant-honey yielded to C. M. VVetherill an uncrystallizablc sugar of composition C'-H™0'*. Honey varies in aroma and flavor with the flow- ers from which it has been collected; clover honey, buck- wheat honey, and wild honey being readily distinguishable in this respect ; and some eases are on record of poisonous qualities derived from the like source. Honey is said to bo now much adulterated witll glycerine, and even imitated, as a whole, by combining the latter product with other ma- terials, and Uavoring with appropriate essential oils. H. WruTZ. Honey-Ant, See Ant. Houeybrook, post-v. and tp. of Chester co.. Pa. It has a iiatiuiKil lumlv. Pop. 1UJ7. Honey"Buzznrd,anaine given in Fiugland to /'tniia apifonm, a chiclly insectivorous bird of the falcon family, dift'ering from other birds of the family in its food, and in having the space between its eyes and bill completely leath- ered. I\-niln criatnttiH, the crested honey-buzzard, is an Asiatic bird. Bees, wasps, and honey arc sought by them. Honeycomb, t]i. of Marshall co., Ala. Pop. 247. Honey-coinb Moth, or Uee Moth (On/ln-in rrre- ciim and ir. tilrr<irin), are small lei^idopterous insects of the Pyralidu', or snout-moth family. The larva> spin silken galleries in beehives, running lietween the layers of honey- comb, upon which the young insects feed. The moth lays her eggs at evening, while tlie bees are at rest. It appears thai neither molh nor larva' are ever stung by the bees. The moth is a most fi>rnii<lable enemy to tlie bees. Quite a number of kinds of moth-traps are employed, and some arc very useful in destroying these pests. Honey Creek, tp. of Adams co.. III. Pop. 1495. Honey Creek, tp. of Crawford co.. III. Pop. 1808, Honey Creek, post-v. of Fall Creek tp., Henry co., Ind. I'.ip. 100. Honey Creek, tp. of Howard co., Ind. Pop. 732. Honey Creek, tp. of Vigo co., Ind. Pop. 1519. Honey Creek, tp. of While co., Ind. Pop. fill. Honey Creek, tp. of Delaware eo., la. Pop. 1088. Honey Creek, tp. of Iowa co., la. Pop. 1081. Honey Creek, tp. of Sauk co., Wis. Pop. 1180. Honey <'nt, tp. of Macon co., Ala. Pop. 1708. Iloneyeiltt's, tp. of Sampson co., N. C. Pop. I2S:!. Iloni-y-dew, a sweet substance of uncertain origin found on Niaiiy kinds of plants and frees. Honey-Kilters, a largo Australasian family of pas- serine birds, akin in habits, food, and other eharaeterislics to the humming-birds of the New World, though of larger size. They are also closely connected witli the sun birds ( Proineropidie), the hiiiuiuing-birds of the Old- World tropical lauds. Tlic honey-eaters are mostly very beuuti- 982 HONEY GROVE— HONORS OF WAR. ful. A few are good soni;s(prs. The name honey-eaters is given to some of the sun-birds, and even to other birds which arc, or are believed to be, fond of honey. Honey Grove, post-v. of Fannin co., Tex., 18 miles from Bon ham. Poj). .'{S2. Honey-Guide, :i name given to certain birds of the genus Jtidicator and of the cuckoo family, found in Africft, Borneo, and India, and named fn.m their curious instinct which prompts them to guide the hunter to a hive of wild bees — a feat which it often, but by no means infallibly, ac- complishes. Honey Locust, the GUdiuchia triacanthos. a large and well-known leguminous tree of the U. S. It takes its name from its long pods filled when ripe with a sweet sub- stance. The tree has stout, often triple thorns, and is used as a hedge-plant. The wood is coarser tbau that of the common locust {Ilobinia Peeudacacia), but is not much inferior to it. {See Gleditsciiia.) Hon'eysuckle, the popular name of many shrubs, erect or twining, of the genera Ltmirera, DierviUa, etc., and of the order Caprifoliacere. Many of them are common in cultivation, being prized for the fragrance and beauty of their flowers. The U. S. have several species, a few of which are seen in cultivation. Most of the finest ones are from Northern Asia or Europe. They have been much im- proved by cultivation. Many other plants, azaleas, aqui- legias, etc., arc locally known as honeysuckles. Honflenr, town of France, in the department of Cal- vados, on the left bank of the Seine, 7 miles S. E. of Havre. It is busily engaged in fisheries, and carries on a lively trade in eggs and fruits with England. Pop. 0o63. Hong, a Chinese word meaning a "row" or "series," was first applied to the European warehouses in the Chinese ports, then to whole blocks of such houses, and at last to the entire factory. Hong*Kiang ("red river"), or Si-Kiang (" west river "'), a large navigable stream of Southern China, enters the China Sea through several mouths, of which that at which Canton is situated is generally called Choo-Kiang (*' pearl river"). Hong-Kong ("red harbor"), an island off the south- eastern coast of China, at the mouth of the Canton River. 75 miles S. E. of Canton. This ij^land, whose area is 29 square miles, was ceded to Great Britain in 1842, and to- gether with a small strip of the opposite mainland, the peninsula of Kooloon. which was ceded in ISGl, and from which it is separated by a narrow strait, it forms a most flourishing colony. The island itself is rocky and bare, not able to grow so much as would feed its inhabitants one day, but on its northern side it presents a fine harbor, deep and safe, and here is built the city of Victoria, in lat. 22° 16' N., Ion. 114° 8' E., which in a few years has become a place of the greatest commercial importance. Steamers froln Bombay, Calcutta, San Francisco, Canton, JIacao, and Singapore go and come daily, and thousands of sail- ing-vessels, especially Chinese junks, throng the harbor. In 1 St>9 the total tonnage of vessels entering was 2,52 J, 498 ; in 1S72 it amounted to .'5.777,670. The jjrincipal articles of importation are cotton goods, opium, and ships* sup- plies, whose value is estimated at £4, 0(H). 000. The prin- cipal article of exportation is tea, estimated at £2,000,000. The transfer of passengers also forms an important item in the business of the place. The city stretches for about 3 miles along the bay, from the foot of the hills to the edge of the water, and contains several fine thoroughfares, with large and elegant houses of brick ami stone, and surrounded with beautiful gardens belonging to the merchants, and with a number of stately public buildings — the cathedral, the governor's house, the bishop's palace, tlic exchange, the jail, the hospital, etc. Beautiful public gardens have been laid out, and good free schools for the lower Chinese pop- ulation established. A strong police force, consisting of Indian Sepoj's, is kept, but in spite of the generous expen- diture of the colony, its revenues bring annually a surplus. Pop. in 1S72. 121.985, of whom 4931 were Europeans, 1490 Indians, and il5,.'>()4 Chinese, of whom about 13,000 live on boats in the harbor. Hon'itou, town of England, Devonshire, on the left bank of the Utter. The celebrated lioniton lace received its name from this place, though at present it is manufac- tured in many other places. Pup. .1470, Honolu'lu, capital of the Hawaiian Islands and the residence of tlu' king, is situated on the southern side of the island of Oahu, in lat. 21° IS' N.. Ion. 157° 55' W. Its harbor is formed by a deep and spacious basin in the coral reef which surrouncls the island. It is safe at all sea- sons, and lined with substantial and commodious wharves. In 1872 it was visited by 47 whalers and 138 merchant vessels, of which 22 were Hawaiian and SO .\merican. The steamers from San Francisco to Melbourne touch rcgulariy at Honolulu. The city itself is situ.ated among beautiful tropical surroundings, and enjoys an equable and healthy climate, the heat ranging between 60° and 87° F. Among its public buildings the most remarkable are the king's palace, the parliament-house, the Konmn Catholic cathe- dral, the treasury, the post-office, etc. It has 1 Anglican and 2 American churches, 2 hospitals, and a number of good schools. It has a theatre, 5 printing establishments, a bank, billiard-rooms, fine stores, etc., and its trade is quite con- siderable. The value of its importations amounted in 1872 to SI, 583, 683, and of its exportations to $1,345,585. Pop. 14,852. Hono'ria (.Trsr.v Grata), a daughter of Constantius III. and Galla Placidia, and a sister to Valentinian III., b. at C<)nstantinopIe in 418 a. d., lived after the death of Honorius in 424 and the usurpation of Joannes in Rome, at the court of Valentinian III. By a secret mission she invited Attila, king of the Huns, to come to Italy and marry her, and sent him her ring; but Attila ti)ok no no- tice of the invitation. Having beci>mc pregnant by her steward, Eugenius. she was sent to Constantinople, but re- turned to Rome after the death of Theodosius II. in 450. She now again invited Attila. and this time he saw fit to accept the invitation. He claimed her as his betrothed bride, together with her part of the empire; antl as his claims were disregarded by Valentinian III., he invaded Gaul. AVhat became of Honoria is nut known. Gibbon says that she was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, but he does not state his authority. Honorius, Roman emperor from 395 to 423, b. at Con- stantinople Sept. 9, 384. and d. at Ravenna Aug. 27, 423. At the death of Theodosius the Great (395) the Roman empire was divided between his two sons. Arcadius and Honorius. Honorius received the western part — Italy. Af- rica, Spain, Gaul, Brittany, and Illyrta — with Ravenna for his residence ; and as he was only eleven years old, ho was placed under the guardianshiji of Stilicho. Stilicho was a vigorous and successful ruler, but when he was treacherous- ly killed at Ravenna (408) the barbarian tribes poured in over the frontiers and rebellion arose in all the provinces. Brittany was entirely given up; Gaul was overrun by Gothic and German invaders; Africa made itself inde- pendent under Heraclian ; and Italy was thrice plundered, and Rome besieged and taken by Alaric. The weak and indolent emperor could do nothing, and when one of his generals succeeded in defending the empire, he became suspicious and had him killed. After Stilicho followed Con- stantius. During the reign of Honorius a general perae- cution was raised against paganism. Hono'rius I., Pope, a Campanian, became pope in 625, and d. in 638. Special interest has arisen in this pope since the promulgation of the doctrine of papal infallibility from the fact that the letters of Honorius are conceived to teach, ex catfiedrdy the Monothelite heresy, so called, for which heresy he was anathematized by the third Council General -ftf Constantinople, and afterwards was officially pronounced a heretic by Leo II. — IIoNOitlfs II.. .AxTlPoPE, bishop of Parma, was elected in 1061, and depo.-^ed in 1064. D. in 1072. — HoNoiiirs II.. Pope, was chosen in 1124, and d. Feb. 14, 1130.— Hosonirs III. (rencio .Vrtir//)). a Ro- man, succeeded Innocent III. in 1216. andafter adisturbcd pontificate d. Mar. 18, 1227. — HuNoitii s IV. {Gincomo iSa- velli) became cardinal-deacon in 1261, became pope in 1285, andd. Apr. .3, 1287. Hon'ors of War, stipulated terms granted to a van- quished enemy, by which he is permitteil to march out of a town, from a camp or line of jntrenchments. with all the insignia of military etiquette. In another sense they sig- nify the comjdiment paid to distinguished personages, military, etc., when they appear before any armed body of men, or such as arc given to the remains of a deceased officer. The circumstances attending the latter vary in different countries, while respecting the former almost everything depends upon the general granting the capitu- lation. In some cases the troops of a besieged garrison are permitted to march out with drums beating, colors fly- j ing, etc.; in others, they are required to lay down their I arms at a named spot, and then depart; wliile in still other ! cases they arc required to march baek to their works, after having been permitted to march out either silently or with I drums beating, and pile their arms in front of their works. I In our own late civil war at the first surrender (Apr. 14, 1861). that of Fort Sumter. Gen. Anderson, cummamling, was allowed to march out of the fort with colors flying and drums beating, bringing away company and private prop- erty, and paying a salute of fifty guns to his flag. At tho surrender of the army of Northern Virginia (Apr. 9, 1865) the terms required the officers to give their individual pa- roles not to take up arms against the U. S. until properly nONTHElM, VON— HOOD. 983 exchanged, and each company or regimental commander I to sign 11 like p:irolo for the uu-u of his eoiunmnd ; the arms, arlilk-rv, ami ]iuhlie [iro]itTty to bo |)ackcd and st;u.-kcd, and "turned over to officers appointed to receive them ; oflieer.", however, were permitted to retain their side- arms, private horses, and baggage. Upon eoinpliance with these terms each officer and man was allowed to return to his home, not to be disturbed by the U. S. authorities "so long as he observed his parole and the laws in force where he "may resiilc." The surrender of the army of Gen. Johnston was received .\pr. 20, ISGo, on the same basis. Hon'theiin, von (Joiian Nicolais), b. at Treves Jan. 27, 170! ; studied jurisprudence at Louvain and Ley- den ; became ecclesiastical eounscllor to the consistory of Treves in 172S, professor of civil law in 17:!2, and sulfragan of the see of Treves in 1748. In 17S8 he resigned his of- fices and retired to llontquentin, where he d. .Sept. 2, 1790. .\uthor of Hiiloiin TrrrirniHiH [A vols., 1750) anil De Sliitu AVe/i/r/iT (17(>:i), the latter attacking the Koman Catholic Church, for which he was persecuted, ami lie retracted in 177."'; but his ideas had taken root. (Sec Fkuhonianisii.) Ilonved, the Hungarian militia. The name was first used in 1S4.S, when in order to combat the .Austrian su- premacy the Ilungarian Diet called out about 200,000 men, who were interspersed among the regular soldiers. This militia was called //o)ie.''/«.';/. .Afterwards, when after the defeat of 18G6 the .Austrio-llungarian government in- creased the army according to the principle of universal military duly, and likewise established an Hungarian mili- tia, the name was retained from regard to the national feel- ing of Hungary. It was determined by the law of Dec. 5, Isti.H, that the hoiiv/''il should aid the regular army in times of war. It should mit be employed, however, oulside the country, unless with the consent of the Ilungarian Diet. It should be composed of men who had served their time in the reserve of volunteers, and of men who had made no military service on aeeounf of (he fulness of the cadres. Al present (1S75) the honved, thus organized, consists of 20(1.707 men — namely 00 men of the Hungarian crown- guard; 124 battalions of infantry, comprising 187,812 men; 40 squadrons of cavalry, comprising 14,:i;-{8 men: and 44U7 arliUerisls. The officers who drill and command this army arc taken from the regular army. A. Niemann. Hoo'bly, town of British India, in the presidency of Bombay, is iioorly built, but carries on an important trade in cotton. Pop. about 15,000. Hood, county of N. Central Tc.\as. Area, 014 square miles. It is traversed by the Brazos River. It is finely diversified, fertile, well watered and timbered, has a good climate, abuuilimt water-power, and excellent building- stone. Live-stock, corn, ctitton, and wool arc staple pro- ducts. Cap. Granbury. Pop. 2585. Ilood, the name of two noted English admirals, sons of a rector of Bath. The elder brother, ,Sami:k[„ b. Bee. 12, 1724, became admiral in 1780, Irish baron in 1782, Knglish viscount in 1700, ancl d. Jan. 27, 1810. Ho fought with great valor against the French during the North American war of independence, and again in the war of 17'j:i. when he commanded in the iMediterianean, took Tou- lon, which, however, he had to give up again, and e.\pelled the French from Corsica. — The younger brother, Ai.KX- AShKR, b. in 1727, became admiral in 1782, Irish baron in 1704, British peer in 1700, viscount in 18(10, and il. .May I!, 1814. Ill' commanded under Lord Howe at Gibraltar and in the Channel in 1701, and gained in 1705 a victory over a French fleet off L'Orieiit, which he attacked, though ho was inferior in numlier to the enemy. Hood (John- Bkii), b. at Owingsville, Bath CO., Ky., June20, 18:tl : graduaterl from (he I'.S. Military Academy, and appointed brevet second lieutenant of inl'ttutry July, lS5:i : transferred to the cavalry as second lieutenant 1S5,% and promotetl to he first lieutenant 1858. Lieut. Iloorl was actively engagerl on frontier duty until |8(jl, when he en- tered (he Confcderiife army, serving in every position from first lieutenant to that <if eonmiander-in-chief ol" an army with (he rank of lieutenant-general, serving ihroughout the \*irginiii Peninsular campaign, at the second biitlle of Bull Run, at Antietam.at Gettysburg, iiinl at Chiekiunaiiga, where he suft'ered the loss of a leg: iu \^i\\ he succeed<-d Gen. .lohnst'm in eommanil tif the army resisling (ien.Shermiin's invasion of Georgia ; met the I'nion forces in battle at Frank- lin Nov. :'.0, 1804, and at Nashville Dec. 15-10. shortly after which ho was relieved by Gen. Richard Taylor. After the war ho aettlcd in New Orleans. G. C. Simmons. Hood ( Roiiiv). the hero of a great number of the most popular among the old l''nglish ballads, was an outlaw and a robber who lived in the beginning of the fourteenth cen- tury in the (leplhs of .Sherwood Forest, Noltinghamshirc, and Barnsdalo Forest, Yorkshire, with a company of sim- ilar fellows — some say 100 — and among them Little John and Friar Tuck, not to forget the Maid Marian. Although a robber by profession, he had some gallant and magnani- mous qualities, which won for him not only the admiration, but even the aflfection, of the lower classes. He was the best archer in the world, bis arrow never missing the aim. He was brave; a fight with four knights and a victory over two was a small matter with him. He was not cruel ; ho never killed people when it was not necessary. He w:i3 rather jovial and good-hearte.l, and what he took from tho rich he often gave to the poor. Nevertheless, if he had been nothing but a simple robber, he would never have attained that romantic glory which attached very early to his name. It is probable, therefore, that he was driven into this kind of life by some political circumstances which naturally made him the knight of the lower classes; and Mr. Hunter finds it likely that he was one of those yeomen who under Edward II. joined the rebellion of the earl of Lancaster, but failed and were ruined. According to tra- dition, he was bled to death by a nun and buried in Kirk- lees Park, Yorkshire. lie is first mentioned in the Vininn iif Picra Vhiiiijhmnn, written between l.'i55 ami 1.105, and next in the Si'ili'-hrfiitirim, written between i:i77 and i:i84. In 1495, Wynkyn de Worde jmblished a long poem under tho title Li'/tic (IcKlc (if llobyn Hood, which seems to be a combiuaticin of several ballads. In tho sixteenth century rustic sports and masqucra.lings were colobraled in many places under the name of" Robin Hood games." In 1705, Ritson published a collection of all the ballads and his- torical anecdotes referring to Robin Hood; which collec- tion was considerably enlarged in 1S47 by J. M. Gutch. At one time most modern critics agreed in considering Robin Hood ns a mythical creation, representative of tho general relation between the Anglo-Saxon jiopulation and the Norman-French b.aions in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, but without any in<livirlual and concrete histor- ical foundation. A German mythologist, Adalbert Kulin, even went so far as to identify the poor robber with the old pagan god Wo.lcn { Ho„rJ— \Vm„i— \V.„hn). But in 1852, Rev. Joseph Hunter publisheil in London a learned and ingenious )>amphlet on the suliject, and although many of the details of his researches are nothing more than hints and suggestions, yet the whole goes far to establish an historical basis for the tradition. Hood (Thomas), b. in London May 2.1, 1790. His father, who was a bookseller, d. in 1811, up to which time the son had received but a very unprofitable preparatory education; in 1812, however, his mother placed him at a day school, where, under the care of a good teacher, ho made rapid progress, and gained his first lee for literary labor in revising a new edition of P<nd ft Virtfhtie, From school he entered a counting-house, but his heuKh failing, he was sent to Dundee, where he continued his reading and contributed various pieces to the local publications. Returning to Lon. Ion in I wo years with im|.ro\ed health, he entered the service of his uncle to learn the art of en- graving, in which he acquired sumo skill, which was of value to him in his subsequent career. In 1821 the Aon. rf.oi Marjiuinc fell into the hands of some friends, and Hood became subeditor. In this position he formed tho acquaintance of all the leading literary men of the time, and with Charles Lamb an intimacy sjirang up which lasted during the hitter's Hie. In this society his own powers developed, and his first separate publication, Oi/,» und Addirmieii. soon appeared, being, however, the joint work of himself and J. H. Reynolds. Wliimn und Oddilkn appeared in 1820, followed by .Witimial Talta (1827), I'kn uf the Midtiimmn- /■'« I'ciC", /A c" and Lciindcr, Li/iiih the (Jeiil<iui;iiud Olhir Piiema. In 1829 the ComiV -liiiiioJ was issued, and continued nino years. For a year he edited The (Urn. in which appeared his poem entitled /i'i/y,,ic Arnm'a Drciim. In 18.11 he occupied Lake House, near Wanstcad, where he wrote his novel TiiIikh /IidL In 18:!S //oo./'« Ouii was started, a monthly publication consisting chiefly of extracts from the t'omk- Annual series, with new contributions. His health still being delicate, ho went to the Condnenl. where ho remained for several years, and from Belgium published his f'/i the Hhim:, constructed, as he says in the preface, on the groundwork of llninjthmj Clinker. On his return to Ungland he became editor of tho New ihinthli) Mmjuzine, from which he retired in 184:). In 1844 IltKid'a Maijuzinc Was started, for which he fur- nisheil most of the best work until near his death. A short time before his death, while on a bed of sickness which ho never left alive, ho contributed to Pmich those t.iuehing verses which have rcuilered his name immorliil -" The Song of a Shirt," " Bridge of Sighs," and " The Lay ot a ' Laborer." A short time before his death a government pension of £100 waa secured to him by .Sir Robert Peel, and euntinueil to his widow after his death, which occurred . in London May 3, 1845. 984 HOOD-HOOKER. Hood (Thomas), son of the above, b. at Wan stead, Essex, Jan. \[>, 18;i5 : educated at Oxford : his first literary work, Pen and Pencil Pictitrcit, appeared in lS5-t-66, followed by numerous books for juveniles ; ho was also the author of several bright novels and a number of successful farces and humorous ])ocms. In ISOo he was appointed editor of Fun, a comic periodical and the most successful rival to Punch; was a good designer, and illustrated bis father's comic verses, " Precocious Peggy," etc. 1>. in Loudon Nov. 20, is: I. Ilootred Seal, the Cystophora crietata, a seal of the ^t'lirtli Atlantic coasts, is about eight feet long, and is cha- rai-terizi'(l by a cartilaginous inflated hood or erest, which in the adult male is of considerable size. It may be a res- ervoir of air for the service of the animal when diving. It is a formidable biter, hut is hunted for its fur and oil. When surpri.-ed by the hunter it sheds copious tears. Hoof, the horny shell which covers the foot, or the sep- arate digits of the foot, of certain herbivorous (or mostly herbivorous) mammals. It is the homologue of finger and toe nails of the claws of other vertebrates. It is, histo- logically, composed of the agglutinated and dried cell-walls of epithelium, with a small proportion of intercellular sub- stance and of cell-contents. Chemically, it consists chiefly of an albuminoid substance, of uncertain composition, pro- visionally called keratin. The hoofs of beef-cattle are ex- tensively used in making buttons, combs, and ornamental articles. Horse-hoofs are used in making prussiate of pot- ash and in case-hardening iron. Hoogh'ly, town of British India, tho capital of tho district of llooglily, in the presidency of Bengal, on tho left hank of the Ilooghly. It has a college in which both English and Asiatic literature is taught, and which was founded by a native. Pop. 12,000. Hooghly River is the westernmost outlet of the Gan- ges, formed in lat. 23° 2 J' N. and Ion. 8S° 22' E. by the con- tinence of tho Bhagrutti and the Jelliughy, two branches of the Ganges, and considered as the proper mouth of this river. It is about 200 miles long, 10 miles broad at its en- trance into the Bay of Bengal, and although its mouth and shores are encumbered by mud-shoals, it is navigable for the largest vessels, its draught being 1" feet up to Calcutta. During tho S. W. monsoon the Bore (which see) appears here, and generally the tide is felt 17 miles above Calcutta. Its waters are considered holy by the natives. Hoogstraten, von (Samuel), b. at Dort in 1627 ; be- longed to a family of painters: received instruction from Rembrandt: travelled in Germany, Italy, au'l England; and d. in his native city in lt>78. He painted history, ))ortraits, flowers, and animals, but became most celebrated as a painter of still life. Hook (TiiKonoRE Edward), b. in London Sept. 22, 17*JS ; at Harrow he appears to have been careless and in- attentive to his jiroper studies; he was, however, extremely precocious, and displayed at a very early age remarkable aptitude in making verses and arranging them to music. In 1S05 his first farce was produced. The So/ifirr'a Pctnrn, a comic opera in two acts, which met with great success, and was speedily followed by numerous farces and melo- dramas. But it was his own life at this time which at- tracted pulilic attention toward him. His pnictical jokes were of the boldest kind, while his l>rilliant conversational powers, his remarkable talent f<»r jiunning an<l improvisa- tion, his convivial disposition, soon made him a favorite in aristocratic society and gained him the friendship of the prince regent, who in 1812 secured for him the apjtoint- ment of accountant-general and treasurer of .Mauritius. In IHIS irregularities were discovered in his accounts, and ho was returned to England in arrest, but no gnmnds for a criminal charge existing, he was soon liberated. In IS20 he assumed the editorship of the new journal, Jn/m Hufl, which at once reached, and for some time maintained, a large circulation. Tho board of audit declared him in lH2;t a debtor to the Crown in the sum of £12,000, and he was again arrested, and eunlincii for nearly two years. Although no portion of the missing funds was ever traced to Hook, ami it was believed the guilty jiarties were among his sub- ordinates, the government never abated its claim, and at tho death of Hook the small sum realized from tho sale of his ertciMs was claimed by the Crown. In IS24 the first scries of Sni/int/n niuf /ioiuffn appeared, followed by tho second in 1S25. and third in 1S2S: Mtiswrfl was puldished in 18:10; The Ptireon's Ihtufjhtrr in 183.3, etc. ; in lS:ifi he became editor of tho Xm-' Mouthfif Mntpizine; in sixteen years he published some ,1S vohimes. Hook retained his position in society to the last, liut his high living, habit of gambling, and forced mental labor overtaxed his powers, and he d. deeply in debt at Fulhara Aug. 24, I.S41. Hook (Waltf.r FAityriiAK), D. D., F. U. S., dean of Chichester, b. in 1798, and educated at Winchester and Oxford; was appointed in 1S27 chaplain in ordinary to the king; was long incumbent of Leeds, where he accomplisheil much in the erection of churches, school-houses, chapels, parsonages, etc. His Chnrrfi Dlrt'umarif, Ecctesintttirfil liiinji-ftphy, Livrn of the Arrhbishopn of Canterbitri/, and his numerous published sermons, jiamjiblets on education, etc., are all valuable. D. at London. Eng.. Oct, 21, 1875. Hookc (NATiiANiKi,),b. in Ireland about IfiUO; lost his fortune in the .South Sea Bubble ; was engaged by tho duchess of Marlborough in arranging her memoirs; and d. July 19, 17li:i. He was a friend of Pope, and wrote The Ronmn Hhtnri/ from thf- Puiftfinrf of R<niie to the Jiui'n of the Commonwealth (4 vols., 17j7-71), which was much read in its time. Hooke (RoBEnT), b. at Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, July 18, IGoj. He was intended for tho Church, but his instincts drew him to tho study of mathematics, astronomy, and mechanics. In 1(>(U ho became professor of geometry at Grcsham College, London ; in 1GG6 was appointed city surveyor, on account of a |ilan ho presented for tho rebuild- ing of London after the Great Fire, though the plan wa3 not followeil ; in 1077 was made secretary of tlic Royal So- ciety. B. in London Mar, .3, 1703. While a young man tho art of flying was the subject of his invent ivo sprcuh'-- tions; he afterwards aeeuscd Huygcns of having stolen hi3 invention of regulating the balance of a watch by a spiral spring, and laid claim to the first discovery of the princi- ple of gravitation against A'ewton. The most prominent of his writings are Mtcrographia (1666) and Zccfi ones Cui- lerianw (1078-79). Hook'er, tp. of Laclede co.. Mo. Pop. 1114. Hooker (Edward), U. S, N.,b. Dec. 25, 1822, at Farm- ington. Conn., entered the navy as an acting master July 19, 1801 ; was promoted to acting volunteer lieutenant " fur gallantry in action " in 18(12, and became an acting volun- teer lieutenant-commander in 1S05: was commissioned as a lieutenant-commander in the navy in ISOS: served in the North Atlantic squadron during 1801 and 1SG2, aud commanded a division of vessels in tho Potomac flotilla fur the remainder of the civil war: was severely wounded in a boat expedition (Oct. 5, 1801), and behaved with dis- tinguished bravery; is mentioned in the olficial rejiorts of Rear-admiral Lee and Commanders Murray, Parker, and Renshaw as a '* brave, cool, and able officer." Lieut. -com- mander Hooker is descended from Rev. Thomjis Hooker, who landed at Plymouth, I^Iass., in 1635, and afterward led the colony which settled at Hartford. Conn, Many of the name took an active part in the early Indian wars, and Col. Noadiah Hooker, the grandfather of Lieut. -commander Hooker, was an ofiicer of some distinction in the army of the Revolution. FoxHALL A. Parkkr. Hooker {Josn rn). b. at Hadley, Mass., Nov. 13, 1814 ; graduated at West Point, and entered the army as second lieutenant of artillery .luly 1, 1837; after a campaign in Florida against the Seminoles. he ser\ed on frontier uml garrison duty till* 18)0. and 1840-48 in the war with Mexico on the staff of Gens. Persifer Smith, Hamer. and Butler: in 1847 appointed .assistant adjutant-general, serving as such in Pillow's division : brevetted captain, major, and lieutenant-colonel for gallantry at Monterey, the National Bridge, and Chapultejiec. In Feb., 1853. he resigned from the army, and engaged in farming in t^alifornia. where for two years previous he had served; also engaged as super- intendent of military roads in Oregon. On the outbreak of the civil war (1801) he tendered his services to tho gov- ernment, and was appointed (May 17. 18('>1 ) brigadier-gen- eral of vohmteers, serving in tho defences of Washington and on the lower Potomac until Mar., 18G2. when he was assigned to the command of a division of the 3d corps, Army of the Potomac; in tho Virginia Peninsular campaign, 1802, was engaged in the siege of Vorktown. April-May; battle of M''illjamsburg. May ."), where his division bore tho brunt of the battle nearly all day : at Fair Oaks (second day). Frazier's Farm, an<l Malvern Hill. Hooker was now promoted to be major-general of volunteers, to date from the battle of Williamsluirg. continuing in command uf a division and engagetl at the battle of Manassas. Aug. 20-30, and Chant illy. Sept. 1 ; appointed to command the 1st cor])? .Sept, G, 1S02, he disjdayed great bravery at South Moun- tain and Aniietara. being severely wounded at the latter battle, nnd disaided until November, when he returned to the field, having in the mean time (Sept. 20) been ap- pointed brigadier-general in tho regular army, and on Burnside's succession to the commnnd of the Army of the Potomac was assigned to commaml the centre grand division (3d and hX\\ corps) in the new organization of that army, and held this command at the battle of Fred- ericksburg. I)e?. 13, 18G2. In Jan., 1803. Hooker suc- ceeded Burnsido in command of the Army of the Poto- HOOKER— HOOPER'S ISLAND. 985 mac, and in May following fought the battle of ChanccIIors- villc. where, though outnumbering the enemy, he decidcrl after two days' lighting to return to the X. bank of the Kappahannock. At the time of the invasion of Pennsyl- vania by tlie Confederate army the Armv of the Potomac, following, had reached the vicinity of Frederi(-k. Mil., when, owing to the refusal of *ien. llalleck to jilare the troops at Harper's Ferry at the dispui>al of Hooker, tlie latter re- quested to he (June 27), and was, relieved from command of the army the next morning. For the t^kill and energy by which he tirj-t covered \V'ashington and liitltimore from the meditated blow of the advancing enemy (ien. Hooker received the thanks of Congress. In Sept., 186:i, he was assigned to the comuoand of the 2nth army corps (Array of the Cumberlnnd"!, and was distingnishe*! at the capture of Lookout Mountain, battle of Missionary Ridge (Nov. 24-25 1, pur^iuit of the ( onfedcrate army, and the action of Ringgold, (Ja.. Nov. 27. 186.1. In the invasion of Geor- gia by the army of Gen. Sherman, Hooker led his corps in the alraoiit constant fighting up to and ineluding the siege of Atlanta, until July ZO, lSfi4, when on a question of com- mand he was relieve*! at his own request. He subsequently commanded the northern department, the department of the P^nst, and that of the T*akes ; brovetted major-general U. S. A. for gallantry at Chattanooga, and Oet., 18GS, re- tired upon full rank of major-general. G. 0. Simmons. Hooker (JosEi-n Dai.ton). M. D.. P. C. L., LL.D., C. II.. F. R. S., a son of Sir W. J. Hnokor. b. in 1S17,: went in IS'VJ as botanist to the Erebus Antarctic expedition ; was 1817-51 engaged in an expedition to the Himalayas; became in 185o assistant director, and in ISfiS director, of the Kew Gardens ; explored in 1S7I Morocco and the Great Atlas Mountains; is a member of many learned societies. Author of Flora Auturrticn (184^4—17), Crjiptmjnmin Ant- (irrttra (IS (7), Rhododentfronti of the Sthkiin-flnnnlnya (18(9-51), f/orrt o/" JV.ir Zealand (1852-54), Himalnyan Jonrnnli (1854), S'd-kim-THmalajjan Plants (1855), pLrn Taitmaiilra (1S55). The Stiulcnt'ti Flora (1870), with G. Bentham, (ifucra /'AiM/ficKHf (publishing in 1875), and other valuable works and many scientific papers. Hooker (RicfiAitn), b. near Exeter about 1554; studied at Oxfonl, and took orders in 1581. Shortly after ho mar- ried rather unhappily, and held ecclesiastical offices in Drayton- Hcauchaiup, Temple, Boscombe and Bishops- bourne, where he d. Nov. 2. ICOO. His colleague in Temple was Travcrs, one of the most zealous Puritans in the times of Elizabeth, and between him and Hooker a sharp con- troversy arose, which occasioned the famous work of the latter, the Lair» of ErrlcHiantiral Pulit//. The four first books were published in 1594; the fifth followed in 151<7; the remaining three were posthumous. The work Is a de- fence of the Church of England and Church establishments in general, and its learning and style arc generally praised, even by sucli as hold opposite views. Hooker (Thomas), b. at Markfield. Leicestershire, Eng- land, in l.'>Sl'i; studied theology at Cambridge; preached in London, but left England in Ifi.'tO, persecuted f(»r non- conformity. After preaching in Delft and Rotterdam, ho came to America in IC^J.'J, and settled at Newtown (now Cam- bridge), Mass., whence in IG^G he removed witli lUO others to the present Hartford. Conn. He and Stone were the first ministers at the church here, and his influence was very large. D. here July 7, 1047. His principal work is A Siirvfi/ of thr SniUfiip. if Church DinripHnr, written in connection with John Cotton. Some of his sermons were published in England. A selection of his works and a memoir of his life were published by the Rev, E. W. Hooker (Boston. ISIO). Hooker (Sir Wii.mam Jackson), D. C. L.. F. R. S., b. at Norwich. Eng., in 1785; became in youth a zeahms botanist; travelled abroad in his favorite pursuit 180()-I4; became regius jtrofessor of botany at Glasgow 1S2U ; cflited i\\v liotaniral Minrellantf (I82S-:{:j); t\\c Luudon Journal of //o/fiMr/( IS.'U-ril ) ; was knighted 18UG: became director of Kcw tiardcns 1841 ; d. at Keiv Aug. 12, IH05. Author of 7'nur in /rrlaml (1SI1|, /{n'tinh ./iiitf/rrmainit/r (18I(J), ^fnfr^,ln^fia /tn'taiiiiira (with Taylor. 18IS), Flora Scotira (182U, Exotic Flora {:i V(ds., lSl.':!-27), /roucM /'iViVk/ji (with Grevillc, l820-:i7), Ivouri, Flniitarunt (10 vols., 18:jf»-54), Flora Jiorcali. Americana (1829-10). /tritinh Flora (18.10), Of^nrra of Fernn (lS:t8-12), .V/*fcic» Filicum (1846-53), and many other botanical works. Hooker ( WoHTiiiNr.TON), A. M., M. D.. b. at Pprlng- fiobl, Ma*s., Mar. :t. iSOr, ; graduated at Yale in ls25; re- ceived his medical doirree at Harvard in 1S2U: practised at Norwich and Now Haven, Conn., ami was professor of the theory and pra-'tice of medicine in Yule College 1S52- 07. He was the author of a series of scientific books for the young, and of a number of professjoniil works which gave him a wide reputation as a physician an*! scholar. D. at New Haven. Conn., Nov. fi, iSrt". Hook'crtoii, tp. and post-v. of Greene cc, N. C, 82 miles S. E. of Raleigh, on Moccasin River. Pop. of v. ICu: of tp. 12S0. Hooks and Kyes, for fastening garments upon the person, have been worn for ages. Some forms of tlie Mo- man fh II In- or clasps arc essentially the same as our modern hooks and eyes, which are at present made with great rapidity entirely by machinery. Hook'sett) post-tp. of Merrimack co., N. H., on Mer- rimack River an<l on the Boston Nashua and Concord R. U., at the junction of the Suncook Valley R. R., 8 miles below Concord. It has manufactures of brick, lumber, and cam- brics. Pop. iu:;o, Hook^Squidf a name given to certain ccphalopods of the genera Om/rhoituthis and Enoplotntthis, mostly, as far as known, of small size, but much dreaded for their long hooked tentacles and suckers and their voracious habits. There are nearly twenty known species, mostly found in warm seas only. 0. Uanksii ranges through must seas, warm and cold. Hooks'town, post-b. of Grceno tp., Beaver co., Pa. Pop. 259. Hoop'er (Jonx), b. in Somersetshire about 1495 ; studied theology at Oxford, but having a<loptcd the views of the German Reformers, he was compelled to leave Ox- ford, and went to Switzerland. On the accession of Edward VI. in 1547, he returned to England, preached with great success in London, and was in 1550 appointed bishop of Gloucester. In the beginning of the reign of Mary, in 155o, he was imprisoned, and as bo refused to retract, he was con- demned as a heretic and burned at the stake at Gloucester, Feb. 9, 1555. He wrote several works, among which was Twch-e Lcctnrrg on the forced (1581) ; also several interest ing letters from him have been discovered, and published by Rev. C. Nevinson (Cambridge, 1852). Hooper (.Johnson J.) was b. and br*^d in North Caro- lina, but early became alawycrandan able Wliig journalist of Alabama. He was (lS49-fi.'J) solicitor of the ninth Ala- bama circuit, and in 18Ct secretary of the Provisional Con- gress of the Confecleratc States. Ilis principal works :ire M'idoio JiuijltyH Iliiibaud (18jl) and the Advfjitfttrcn of Simon Siitjtfs, the last an exceedingly popular book. Mr. Hooper was a man of convivial habit.*, and late in life be- came a Roman Catholic. D. in 18(5.3. Hooper (Lccv), b. at Newburyport, Mass.. Feb. 4, 181(5; removed at fifteen, with her father, to Brooklyn, N. Y., where she wrote poems for the Long Island Star. I). Aug. 1, 1841. Among her works were Scenes from Heal Lift: (1840), Domentie Ilnppiuesit, a prize essay (1840), Ladfa Book of Flo went ( 1845). Her }VitrkM, with a memoir bv J')hu Keese, appeared in 1S42, and Complete Poetical Works in IS48. Hooper (Sami'Kl), M. A., b. at Marblehead, IMass., Feb. '^. 18(1S. His father was engaged in the Eurnpean and West Inilia tracle. and the son as his agent visited Kussia, Spain, and the W'est Imlics. In 18^1;^ he beeame a partner in the mercantile house of Bryant, Sturgis & Co., of Bos- ton, who traded largely on the Pacific coast and in China, sending their vessels to California for hides, to the N. W. coast for furs, and to China for teas and silks. About 1842 he became a mcnilier (»f the firm of William Appleton & Co.. who were also engaged in the China trade. Mr. Hooper also was largely interested in the iron business, and devoted much attention to questions of finance and currency. In 1851 he was chosen a member of the Massa- chusetts house of representatives, where he served three years, when he declined a re-election ; in 1857 he was chosen a member of the State senotc. In ISCl he was elected to Congress to fill a vacancy, and was re-elected at each successive biennial eleeti4ni, ancl was a member of t Congress at the time of his death, at Washington. Feb. l;;, 1875. He served on the committees of ways and means. '•( banking an<l currency, and of the war debts of the loyal States, and to bis elftirts was in no small degree iluc (he success of the national loan of Ajir., 18(51. and of the na- tional banking system. He wrote two pamphlets on the ■ currency question, which are notable for broad and com- prcbensh'c views. Ho was the founder of the School nf Mines in Howard Cniversity. from which in 1800 he re- j ceivcd the degree of master of arts. I Hooper (Wilmam), a signer of the Declaration of In- ' depi'ii'lenee, b. at Bost(ut, Mass.. .Tune 17, I74L*; graduated at Harvurd in 1700; studied law umler James Otis; re- moved in 17(57 to North Carolina, where he held many im- ' portant public positions, serving in the old Congress 1774— I 77. D. at Hillsborough. X. C., Oct., 1790. lloopfr's Crt'ck, tp. of Henderson co., N. C. P. 755. Hooper's Islaiitl, tp. of Dorchester co., Md., consist- 986 HOOPESTON— HOP-CULTURE. ing chiefly of a long narrow peninsula between Hong Kiver and Chesapeake Bay. Pop. 700. Uoope'ston, post-v. of Vermilion co.. III., 104 miles S. of Chi(^a;;o. on the Cliicago UanviDe and Vincennes and the Lafayette IJioomington and ^lississippi U. Ry, It ha^j a seminary, several churclies, abanlv, 1 newspaper, elevators, public halls, 4 hotels, stores, etc. Principal occupation, merchandising and trafficking in grain. Pop. about 1200. SEAvtY &, AVai.i.aoi:, Ens. ** Ciiuonicle." Hooping Cough. Sec Whoopinc Cough. Iloop'oe (so named from its note), the Upupa epopa, a slender-billed bird of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and of the family Upupidie. It feeds on insects, and is the subject of many popular superstitions, being regarded as ominous of evil. It is in reality a very harmless and even useful bird. It is (juite small, but very elegant in appearance. Other sjx'cics are described, none of them American. lloorn, town of the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland, on the Zuyder-Zce. Its fortifications have been transformed into promenades, and now it has import- ance only as a trading and manufacturing place. It has considerable shipbuilding and a naval college. Pop. 95 on. Hoo'sac River rises in Lanesboro', Berkshire co., Mass., flows N. and N. W., traverses the S. W. angle of Vermont and Rensselaer and AVashington cos., N. Y., affording abundant water-jtowcr, which is extensively utilized. It is called IlooHirf: in New York. Hoosac Tunnel. The Iloosac Tunnel is in the north- western nart of the State of Massachusetts, and is contained within the limits of the towns of Florida and Adams in Berk- shire CO. It is on the railroad route from Boston, Mass., via. Greenfield, to Troy, N. Y. The distance from Boston to the E. portal is i;J7 miles, and thence to Troy 54 miles. That part of the route in Massachusetts, W. of (irecnfield, which embraces the Hoosac Tunnel, is called the Troy and Greenfield R. R. Experimental work was first commenced in 1851, but no actual tunnelling until ISjC. In 1862 the State took possession, and has since prosecuted the work. The tunnel is a little more than 4j^ miles long, and is made large enough for the passage of two lines of railway trains. It reaches through the Hoosac Mountain, which is the sum- mit-range that extends southward into Massachusetts from the (Trecn Mountains of Vermont. The greater part of the rock penetrated is a micaceous seliist, exhibiting, however, widely variant conditions and characteristics in ditTerent portions of the length. A working-shaft 1028 feet deep, which has been sunk near the centre of its length, will bo the only one kept open for the purpose of aiding in the ventilation of the tunnel. The work of excavating sinco 18G6 has been greatly expedited by the application of ma- chine-drills. These have been driven by pneumatic power, and in this, and also in availing of the force of percussion in drilling, they resemble those which were employed in the Mont Cenis Tunnel, and are believed to be of superior advantage and efficiency. Near the E. end constructions were made to utilize the flow of the Deerfield River for driving the compressors. At the other points of supply compression of air hiis been obtained entirely by steam- power. The cost of the tunnel and 'Ad miles of adjoining railroad, including the accumulatinn of interest, has been about $i;i.OOO,000. Tlic tniinvl has b.-cn opened for limited use, and trains pass through it d;iily, but the work of arch- ing the portions in which the roof requires support is still in progress (May, 1875). Bknmamin D. Frost. Hoo'sick, post-tp. of Rcnsselaercn., N.Y. It is traversed by thr Hoosick River, and is on the Troy and Boston and Troy and Bennington 11. Rs., 30 miles from Troy. The township has extensive water-power and several manufac- turing villages. Lime and 8latc are procured here. The so-called battle of Bennington (Aug. 10, 1777) was fought in this town. Pop. 5728. Hoosick Falls, post-v. of Rensselaer co., N. Y., 26 miles N. N. E. of Troy, on the Troy and Boston R. U. It contains a graded school, d churches, a large mowing- machine factory employing 800 hands, malleable iron-works, 1 newspaper, a steam saw-mill, and other manufactories, and 2 hoti-ls, stores, etc. Pop. about 4000. J. II. LivisGSTox, Ed. '• Ri:nssei.akk Co. Standard." Hoo'sier Prai'rie, tp. of Clay co., III. Pop. 1179. Hop Bottom, poHt-v. of Sustiuchanna co.. Pa., on the Dclawiiro Lackawanna and Western R. R., 27 miles N. by \V. of Serantnn. Hop-culture. Hops (which see) grow wild in most parts of the Northern U. S. and Europe. There is but one botani- cal species — namely, /fniiiuhix Luputut — but this is broken into varieties by cultivation. The plant belongs to the net- tle family (Urticaceae). and like the hemp is dia'cious. It is a climbing vine with harsh foliage and rough stems, twining with the sun — that is, from left to right. In its wild state it clambers up the stems of shrubs and copse- wood, and reaches high up among the limbs of lofty trees. The root is perennial, but the siems die in winter. Planta- tions of hops are not profitable S. of lat. 40. The soil of a hop-yard should be made deep and rich ; good corn or wheat ground will serve. It should be dry at all seasons, deeply and thoroughly worke<l, and subsoiling is a great advantage. It should be on sunny and elevated ground, where it may have the influenec of the sun and air, and be exposed neither to high winds nor to early frosts. The confined atmosphere of valleys or close prox- imity to woods induces disease and favors parasitic insects. Though there are several varieties of hops, possessing di- versities of flavor and appearance, the market seems to favor no particular kind as such. Hence, growers select varieties which in their own localities enjoy a reputation as yielding most or suffering least from rust and insects. The best known varieties are the "'grape hop," which has largo clusters, easily picked, the *' English cluster," a free- fruiting, golden-yellow variety, with reddish stems, and tho"Pompey hop," a rank grower, having medium-sized clusters of long green, quadrangular fruit, of very marked appearance, but said to be liable to rust and mildew. Hops are cultivated in hills set 7^ to 8 feet apart. The roots do not fill the ground until the end of the seoond or third year. The fir^t year, therefore, any crop may be raised to fill tl»e soil which will not interfere with the culti- vation. The land being manured and ploughed in autumn, and left rough, is ploughed again in the spring, and marked off — best by furrows 8 feet apart each way. Stakes arc set at the intersection of the lines to mark the hills. Cuttings (•'sets") are obtained from some established and healthy yard. They are the shoots which come from the crown of the plant, and are removed at the annual pruning, cut in lengths containing two joints or four eyes, and sold by the bushel. They should be fresh, and maybe kept in the cel- lar or in the ground until wanted. Two to four bushels are required to plant an acre. Three or four sets are jdaced equally distant near the centre of the hill, just below the surface, thv^ir tops inclining together. As soon as con- venient poles G or 8 feet high, like common bean-poles, are set. If the soil is rich, the sets vigorous, and planted early, a fair crop may be gathered the first year. In all hop-yards there must be some male hops, in order that the blossoms may become fruitful. The number required is about one hill in GQ or 80. The male sets are therefore kept separate, and every seventh or eighth hill each way is set with male hops and distinctly marked. The ground is cultivated the first year in connection with the accom- panying crop, and kept free from weeds, e-pecially from grass. At the close of the season one or two forkfuls of coarse manure are thrown upon each hill, not only as a fer- tilizer, but to protect the i)lants through the winter. Au- tumn is the best time to cut jioles for setting the next spring. These may be 10 to 25 feet in length, and of some ilurable timber. In hop-growing regions young trees fit for poles have long since been exhausted, and poles are brought great distances at heavy cost. This has given rise to certain jiatented systems of training whicli .arc more or less in vogue. One of the simplest is to set light sawed poles to stand about 8 feet high, one to each hill, and con- nect them at their tops by tarred hempen twine. The vines are trained upon these cords, except those of the male hills, which run upon lofty poles, that their pollen may bo scat- tered. The picking is much simpler and easier than pick- ing from poles, and numerous advantages arc claimed, such as freedom from disease and insects. The system has ob- vious and important merits. In the spring of the second and subsequent years the earth is drawn away from the hills, the plants exposed, the crowns cut back to the new sprouts, taking usually an inch or two from the crowns. Tlu- poles, which arc prefenibly 18 feet long, are pointed, and holes being made with an appropriately shaped eri>wbar. two and sometimes more are set to each hill. 15 to IS inches apart and bending or inclining slightly away from each otlicr. yet not so as to come near to the poles of other hills. The largest and strong- est poles are set in the direction of the highest winds and around the outside. Ordinary corn-cultivators are gener- ally used for hoeing hops, the ground being thoroughly ploughed at least once early in each year. .As soon as the vines arc two feet long they must be trained to the poles, selecting two strong ones for each pole, ancl cutting the rest away. The vines are tied to the poles with bast-mat- ting, old yarn, or cheap strings, and should be looked to fre(iuently until all cling well to the jiolcs, it being neces- sary for some vines to use a light ladder or steps. Hop- vines are very brittle in the morniug or evening, but may bo handled when the sun is hot. They must always be wound about the poles with thecoursu of the sun. Tillage in the hop- HOP-DEVOURING INSECTS— HOPEWELL. 987 yard continues until they bloom, and then, on account of 6omc prejudice, it is discontinued usually uutil tins is past and the hops are set. It is best to cultivate or stir tho ground as often as the weeds start, and enough to keep it open and porous. Hops arc usually ripe enough to pick by tho last week in August, and ihc harvest continues several weeks. Tho hop is known to be ripo when the seeds are hard and pur- ple or beginning to get purple. Men take tho poles down, first cutting the vines for smuo fcot above the ground and loosening them from the pnles. which arc then laid upon supports over the boxes or " bins." into which women and girls pick the hops, taking care not to let leaves and stems full in. If the picking comnicnees too early, tho vines bleed, and not unlVequentU' are thus destroyed or receive great injury. Tho *' horizontal " hop-yards, or those upon cords, offer thus a great advantage, for tho strings aro loosened at tho poles, and tho vines, thus lowered within easy reach, allow «<f the hops being picked into large bas- kets. Tho '* bins " before uientioncj usually hold 7 to 10 bushels. When full they aro emptied into immense bags, and taken upon wagons to tho kiln, where they are dried immediately after picking, for they spoil easily if they lie in heaps. The kiln is a building ordinarily of wood, containing usually four rooms — a lofty stove-room, a low dryiug-loft immediately above tho stove-room, a store-room on a lower level than the drying-loft, and a press-room beneath it. The kilns arc built to corrcsp<md with the size of the yard, or two or more arc used, and they aro of various plans. There arc several patent kilns or patented methods of drying. The floor of the dryiug-loft is of slats covered with a hempen carpet, tightly spun, but loosely woven to allow the air to pass freely. The hops arc sprciid upon this carpet to the depih of 12 to 14 inches, and stirred when they become nearly dry. After from 12 to 22 hours' drying they arc generally cured, and are shoved and swept off into the store-room. In one of these patent kilns the carpet rolls back and forth, thus carrying the dried hops and depositing them on the floor of the store-room. In another the carpet is on a frame which tilts when over the store- room floor. Hops are dry enough when they crumble two- thirds to pieces in the hand, and when the steins do not fee! moist or cool when pressed by the lips. After the first heat, and subsequently, flowers of sulphur are burned in the stove-room. The fumes passing through the h<»ps serve to liberate the moisture rapi'lly, and in case the hops aro rusty the effect is very niarke'l. but much more suljdiur is need- ed. For fair hops one pound to one and a half is sulphur enough, but for rusty hops several pounds arc required. It is important to get h»)ps<lry enough, and they should bo stirred once during the drying, but not until all percepti- ble steam has passed off. Should a charge get too dry, a pan of coals is set in the store-room, the ventilators are closed, and salt thrown upon them. Tins gives out moisture, which toughens the overdried hops. The firo must go down and the hops cool off considcral)ly before tliey are removed to iho store-room, and the newly-dried hops cannot be mingled with the others until the next day ; and the best way is to leave them on the cooling floor, shoving them back as space is neede.l, keeping two or three charges spread over the floor all the time, and putting the oldest daily into the bins. After ten days or »o, and within six weeks, the hops should he baled, tho press being in the room below the cooling floor. The usual size of the hop bale is 20 or 24 inches, by 4 feet or there- abouts ; screw-presses are generally employed. The press is lined with cloth made for tho purpose called '* Dundee sacking," and this is sewed tight after the pressing and before the pressure is relieved. Hops arc mnrketetl through commission merchants, and are consumed by the brewers almost exclusively. Hops arc raised in tho U. S. not only in sufficient quan- lilios for home consumption, but for export. The produc- tion has vastly increased within a few veiirs. it having been in IH'jft about .'i. 500.000 pounds: in ISCII, 11.000.000; and in iHTtl. according to the last census, 25,45ri,t>tl9. Over 22,01(0.(100 were produced within the Slates of New York f 17,JJS,000) and Wisconsin (4.0:50.000). The principal hop- produc'ng States named in rirder of prrKluction arc as fol- lows; New York, Wisconsin. .Michigan, California, Ver- mont. Maine. Minnesota, Iowa, and Illinois. (Sec IIoPS, by PitoK. Hknuv Wt ktz, A. M.) M. C. Wki.d. ]lop"dcvourinf; Insects are quite numerous in spe- cies, and in simie sensons and plaees are extremely destruc- tive. Among the more important kinds ari' firnptn intrr- roifntiouin, (r\ C'arifrntrum, d. rammot and Thechi /tiimu/i', all hop-butterflies ; /frpia/un hitnnifi, a Kuropean moth : //i/- pnift hiiiinih', a very destructive hop-uKith. common in the V. S. ; Aiiit/ii/rrpfitiliiK iiitrrrn/itiiii, a froth-fly; /Ittftim mn- rinua, a flea-beetle ; Aphit hnmuli, a plant-louse, and other?. Tho hest methods for treating them are hand-picking, tho use of whale-oil soap, frequent shaking of the vines, etc. Generous culture may enable vines to thrive in spite of in- sect ravages. IIopc, tp. of La Pallo co.. IH. Pop. 14;J7. Hope, post-v. of Haw Creek tp., Bartholomew co., Ind. Pop. Tfij. Uope^ post-tp. of Knox CO., Me., 14 miles N. N. AV. of Rockland. It has manufactures of sash, doors, furniture, etc. Pop. 907. Hope, Ip. of Barry co., Mich. Pop. 1143. Hope, tp. and post-v. of Warren co., N.J. Pop. 1j42. Hope, tp. of Hamilton co., N. Y. It has manufactures of lumber and leather. Pop. OiiS. Hope, tp. of Williamsburg CO., S. C. Pop. 1591. Hope (Alexander James Bere.sforo), LL.I)., son of the author of Anastaaiuty b. 1S20 ; educated at Harrow and Cambridge, graduating at Trinity 1S41 ; memberof Parlia- ment for Miiidstone lS41-i2, and again in I8J7; elected for Stoke-upon-Trent IStjJ, and in 18GS for the University of Cambridge, which he now (lS7o) represents ; was presi- dent of the Koyal Institute of British Architects 18f.5-67. Ho has taken an active part in the Church movement and in artistic architectural questions, being strongly on tho Gothic side. In 1S44 he purchased tho ancient buildings of St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury, which he restored and endowed as a college for missionary clergy. Author of LtAtcrs on Church MatttrSf by I). C. L. ; The Em/lish Cathedral of the Nineteenth Centiin/, and numerous pamph- lets, etc, lu 1SJ4, by royal license, he assumed the name of Beresford, the name of his mother, who married a second husband, the viscount Beresford. Hope (Admiral Sir James), G. C. B., b. at Edinburgh in I80S : educated at the Royal Naval College; entered the British navy as midshipman 1S22; became captain 1838; served near Buenos Ayres IS44— 1.>; in the Baltic 18o4-i>G ; in tho East Indian and Chinese waters 1859-GO; was distinguished in the ojierations that led to the taking of Peking; transferred to duty in the West Indies 186:i ; became a G. C. B. 1805, a full admiral 1870; is deputy lieutenant for Linlithgowshire, and also first and principal naval aide-de-camp to the queen. Hope (Thomas), b. in London in 1774: made extensive travels througli Europe, Asia, and Africa, and attracted considerable attention in ISOJ by his book on Homrhidd Furniture and Inter mil Decoration. Less influence had The CoHtumen of the AncicntH (1809), Designs of Modern CoHtttmen (1812), and Architecture of Theatres; while his romance, AuastnHins, or the Memoirs of a Modern Greek (1819). made quite a sensation. D. in London Feb. :i, 18.11. After his death an essay by him On the Origin and Pros- pects if Man was published. Hope (Thomas Chari.es), b. in Edinburgh July 21, 17*10 ; became professor of chemistry at the University of Glasgow in 1787, and in 1799 at the University of Edin- burgh. D.Juno 13, 1S44. Hope & I'o., a firm of bankers at Amsterdam, luunded before 170U by a Scotchman named Henry Hope. By marriages and business alliances the house has had in- timate connection with the Barings, and by blood and marriage the house is uiso connected with several noble and aristoeratie fumilies of Great Britain. Hopo'dale, tp. and post-v. of Tazewell eo , UK, on tho j Chicago and Alton R. 11., 25 miles W. by S. of Bloomington. I Pop. lUOfi. Ilopedale, a beautiful post-v. of Milford tp., Worcester ' CO.. Mass.. the seat of the Hopedale Community. Ilopedalo, post-v. of Cadiz tp., Harrison co., 0., 8 miles \. E. of Cadiz. Pop. 369. Hope'field, tp. of Crittenden co., Ark. Pop. I:t7. Hope Val'ley, p"»sl v. of Richmond tp., Washington CO.. R. I., bus important manufactures. nop<?'\V<'H, tp. of .Marshall co., 111. Pop. 75:i. Ilopewrll, tp. <jf Cumberland co., N. .1. Pop. 1857. HopeweH, ip.und post-v. of Mercer co., N. J., on tho Mercer and Somerset brauch R. R. Pop. 4276, Ilopi'wrll* post-tp. of Ontario co., N. Y.,on tho North- ern Ci ninil 11. K., () miles S. E. of Cunandaigua. P. 1863. Hopr\vi>H, tp. of Licking co., 0. Pop. 1009. H4>l>i*u'<'H^ tp. of .Mercer co., 0. Pop. 894. HopewrlU tp- and post-v. of Muskingum co., (^. Pnp. of V. 7.'>; of tp. 1703. IlopewrH, tp. of Perry co., 0. Pop. 1260. Ht>pr\vi'H, tp- of Seneca CO., 0. Pop. 1370. lioprwc'M, tp. of Beaver co., Pa. Pop. lOlJ. 988 HOPEWELL— HOPKINS. Hopewell, tp. of Bedford cc, Pa., on the Huntingdon and liroad Top R. K. Tbe post-borough of lI«|icwoll on the same railroad, is in the adjoining tp. of Broad lop. Hopewell tp. contains ironworks. Pop. HITS. Hopewell, a l>. of I'hester co., Pa. Pop. 2CS. _ Hopewell, tp. of C'umlicrland Co., Pa. Pop. S"". Hopewell, tp. of Huntingdon en.. Pa., on the Hun- tin;;doii and Uroad Top R. U. It has iron-works. P. 412. Hopewell, tp. of \Va,-hington co., Pa. Pop. 804. Hopewell, tp. of York co., Pa. It contains the vil- lage of .^tewartstown. Pop. 3830. Ilopewell, tp. of Anderson co., S. C. Pop. 1206. Hopewell, tp. of Orangeburg co., S. C. Pop. 29.1. Hopewell Cape, post-v., the cap. of .\Ibert co., N. 13., on Shepodv liav and the junction of tlie Meniramcook and Pctitcodiac rivers, 21 miles S. W. of Dorchester. It has some shipbuilding. Pop. about 500. Hop'kins, counlv of W. Kentucky. Area, about 400 square miles. It is fertile, having a hilly surface, with plenty of coal and iron ore. Live-stock, tobacco, and corn are staple products. It is traversed by the Evansville Henderson and Nashville and other railroads. Cap. Madi- aonvillc. Pop. 13,S2r. Hopkins, county in the N. K. of Texas. Area, 4S0 square miles. It is fertile and well timbered. Live-stock, grain, cotton, and wool are staple products. Cap.Sulphur Springs. Pop. 10,0jl. Hopkins, tp. of Whitcsides co., 111. Pop. 1436. Hopkins, post-tp. of Allegan co., Mich., on the .Mich- igan .Southern R. R., 8 miles N. E. of Allegan. Pop. 1271. Hopkins, post-v. of Nodaway co.. Mo., is the S. ter- minus of the Crestou branch of the Burlington and Missouri River R. R., and the N. terminus of the Maryville branch of the Kansas City St. Joseph and Council Blufl's R. R. It is near the Iowa line. Hopkins (Anrnrn F.), b. in Virginia about 1790, was well educated; removed in early life to Al.abama, and be- came a prominent Whig politician ; a lawyer of Huntsville, Tuscaloosa, and Mobile successively; was long in public life, and for many years a judge of the supreme court of the State, and afterwards president of the Mobile and Ohio R. R. D. in 1S66. Hopkins (EDWAnn), b. at Shrewsbury, England, in IGOO; was a successful merchant of London: removed to Boston. .Mass., in 1037 : was seven times governor of Con- necticut between 1040 and Ifijl, and assisted in forming the union of the colonies of New England 1043. He after- wards returned to England, became a member of Parlia- ment, and held important offices under the Commonwealth. D. ill London Mar., 1GJ7, bequeathing a portion of his estate to the support of schools in Hartford, New Haven, Hadlev, and Cambridge in New Englan.l. The town of Hopkinton, Mass., was named for bim, having been pur- chased in 1700 of the "praying Indians" with moneys of bis which fell to Harvard College. Hopkins (Eskk), b. at Scituate, R. I., in 171S; was commissioned by (lov. Cooke as brigadier-general at the beginning of the war of independence. In 177.i be was ap- pointed commander-in-ebief of the navy by the Continental Congress, and addressed oQicially by Washington as ad- miral. In the beginning he was very successful in his undertakings, but afterwards he failed to fulfil the expeot- atioiis of the government, ami. having neglected to appear at Philadelphia when summoned, he was dismissed from the service in 1777. He retired to North Providence, where he resided till his death, Feb. 20, 1S02, taking part very ac- tively in the politics of the State. Hopkins (.Ions HEsav), D. C. L., LL.D., b. in Dub- lin, Ireland. .Ian. 30. 1792; came in ISOO with his parents to .America; received a gooil education, and assisted Alex- ander Wilson in preparing the illustrations of four volumes of his ()niitlial<><iij ; and afterwards was an iron manufac- turer in Western Pennsylvania. He failed in business in 1817; was admitted tolhc bar at Pittsburg in IslS: in 1^2l became rector of Trinity church, Pittsburg (Protest- ant Episcopal), of whose church edifice he was the arehi- tcct. In 1S31 ho became assistant minister of Trinity church, Boston, Mass., and professor of systematic divinity in a theological seminary in Massachusetts. In 1832 he was consecrated the first bishop of Vermont, became rector of St. Paul's, Burlington, and afterwards devoted much time to the establishment of the Vermont Episcopal Insti- tute. He took a strung stand for the High-Cliureh move- ment, and was an active member of the Pan-.\nglican Synod. D. at Rock Point. Vt., .Tan. 9. ISOS. Among his works are many brochures, sermons, etc.. besides Chrit- liniiily Vindiratcd (1833), Primitive Creed Examined (1834), The Primitive Church (1835), Eamy on Uvthic Ar- chitecture (1S36), The Church of Home in her Primitive Pu- rily (1837), Vindication of Slavery (1803), etc. etc. Hopkins (.Iohn Hknkv), A. B., A. M., S. T. D., b. Oct. 28. 1820, at Pittsburg. Pa. ; graduated in 1839 at the Uni- versity of Burlington, Vt.: appointed rector of St. .John's chuicii, Essex, N. Y., in 1869, and uf Trinity church. Platts- bur". N. Y.. in 1872; ordained priest in 1872; elected trustee of the (.iencral Theological Seminary, N. Y.. in 1871, and member of the board of missions in 1874. Besides minor works, he wrote Decline and fall of the Loir Church Party (1874), founded and edited 7'Ai- Church Journal ( I85.')-GS), The Canticle, Noted (ISGO), Life of ]li"hoi, llopkiut of Vermont (1872), and Works of the Iler. Milo Muhan, V. D. (1872-75). Hopkins (.Tonxs), b. in Anne Arundel co., Md., May 19. 1795, was carefully educated, became a wholesale gro- cer, retired with an "ample fortune in 1S47, and became president of the Merchants' Bank and a director of the Baltimore and Ohio R. 11. He was never married, and was a member of the Society of Friends. In 1873 he founded the Hopkins free hospital, Baltimore, at a cost of some $4,000.0110 ; an orphanage for colored youth, a convales- cent hospital, and the Johns Hopkins University at Clif- ton, near Baltimore, with 400 acres of land and an endow- ment of $3,000,000. poor and deserving youth from Mary- land and Virginia to receive free scholarships. These ben- efactions exceeded $8,000,000 in aggregate value. D. at Baltimore Dec. 24, 1873. Hopkins (Lemi-el), b. at Waterbury, Conn., June 19, 1750; graduated at Y.ale College; practised medicine at Litchfield, and removed to Hartford in 1784, where he d. Apr. 14, 1801. With Trumbull, Barlow, and othcr.s, styled tbe " Hartford wits." he put forth the Anarchiad, advoca- ting an efficient federal constitution. He wrote several satfres and other poems, among which arc The Political GrcenhouK. The Guillotine, The Hypocrites Hope, and an elegy on a Victim of a Cancer Quach. Author of a favorite version of Ps;ilin cxxxii. » Hopkins (M.irk), M. D., D. D., LL.D., b. at Stock- brid"-c, Mass., Feb. 4, 1802, and graduated at \\ illiams College in 1824: and M. D. in 1828; was professor of moiar philosophy and rhetoric in Williams College 1830- 36; president of the college 1836-72; then resumed the former position: in 1857 ho was also president of the A. B. C. F. M., an office whose duties he still discharges. Has published Eridcuces of Christianity (1840; new ed. 1861). Law of Love, and Lore as a i<iir(lS09l, An Outline Study of Man (1873), and many occasional addresses, etc. Hopkins (Samiei.), D. D., b. at Waterbury, Conn., Sept. 17. 1721; graduated at Yale in 1711 ; studied Iheol- ocy with Jonathan Edwards. In 1743 he was ordained over a church at Housatonio, now (ireat Barriugton. Mass. ; in 1770-76 minister of a church at Newport. R. I., and again in 1779. In consequence of his labors against slavery tho State of Rhode Island freed all her slaves born after Mar., 17^4. He published several works, the most noted ot which is Si/stcm of Doctrines (1793), and his views have had a wide inHueiiee. His complete works were published in 1805, with a Life by Dr. Stephen West, and in 1852, with a Memoir by E. A. Park. He is the hero of Mrs. Stowc's novel, Thi Ministers Wooing. D. at Newport Dec. 20. 1803. Hopkins (Stephen), LL.D.. a signer of the Declara- tion of Independence, b. at Scituate, R. I., Mar. 7, 1707; was bred a farmer: removed in 1731 to Providence, where he was a land-surveyor and merchant; Speaker of tho Rhode Island Assemblv 1732-41 ; became ehierjuslice of the common pleas 1739; chief-justice of the superior court 1751-51 ; ten times governor of Rhode Island between 17.i4 and 170S ; a niomher of the Continental Congress 1774-78. Author of Itiyhts of the Colonics Examined (1705) and other writings, and l.mg the chancellor of Brown University, then Rhode Island College. D. at Providence July 19, 1785. Hopkins (Wh.i.iam), .M. A., LL.D., F. R. S., b. in 1793. With little early education, and after an unsuccess- ful attempt in business, he entered at the mature age of thirty at St. Peter's College, Cambridge, where he graduated as seventh wrangler, and, taking private pupils, became tho most celebrated mathematical teacher of his day. Many of tbe most eminent mathematicians now living were trained by him. From Prof. Sedgwick he imbibed a strong interest in geology, and his published works consist chiefly of the application of the methods of mathematical analysis to the elucidation of problems of physical geology, such, chiefly, as the effects of clevatory forces from below in producing faults and fissures in the rocks, on the forma- tion of crevasses in glaciers, on the geological theories of clevaliim and earthquakes, on the causes which may have produced changes in the earth's superficial temperature, IIOPKIXS-HOPS. 989 and on the conductivity of rocks and some other substances for heat. But his iinni'e is most widely known through his uuijtcrly mathematical investigation {I'liil. 7V.in»., ls:('J- 40-^2) of the effects which internal fluidity sliould have upon the " precession of the ei[uinoxes. " and the much- quoted result which ho arrived at, that the solid ciii«( of the earth must have a thickness of til linil SUO or 1000 miles. The erroneousness of this conclusion, and the ana- lytical source of it, is pointed out in the Smilliuoiiliiii Con- I'ributionn !<• KuoirUdijr. vol. .\ix. Mr. Hopkins was pres- ident of the British .Association 18J3, and of the (ieological Society 18jl and lSa2. \). Oct. Hi, 18(56. U. Fisher. Hopkins (Wh.i.iam Fkn.s), A. M.. LL.D., b. in Con- necticut 18IIJ: graduated from the I'. S. Military .Academy, but retained as professor of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology till I8:!i; resigned I8:!I3, and engaged in business, i He subsequently held various professorships, and in ISoO was appointed professor of natural and experimental philos- ophy at the U. S. Naval Academy, which he retained until aiipoiuted U.S. consul at Jamaica, W. I., where he d. .Inly l'; 1859. tj- ' '■ SiMMoxs. ilop'kinson (Fnixcis), a signer of the Declaralion of Independence, b. in Philadelphia in 1737, and was a grand- sou of the bishop of Worcester, Eng. He gra.lualed at Princeton in 171!:!; in 17fi5 was admitted to the bar. Ho held a profitable publiu office in New Jersey, whieb be was deprived of for his republican jirinciples. He was a mem- ber of Congress from New Jersey 1770-77, and a resident of Bordentowli. His witty and satirical writings during and after the Revolution had much influence in political aBairs. He wasanadmiraltvjudgein Pennsylvania 1 779-8'.!; U. f^. district jud-c for Pennsylvania 1790-91. D. in Philadel- phia May 9, 1791. His humorous and patriotic pocticiil and other pieces— T"/..- Tr,„l,j, The llmlr. ,./ ih,- Kr<j«, Ode to Science, Eamij on Whll'^rK^himj, and many olliers---cn- joyed an immense popularity, and were really meritorious. Tliree volumes of his ll'.,/7.«' were published in 1792. Ho had consideralile artistic and musical talent. Ilonkiuson (Joskpii), M,.I)., a son of Francis Hop- kinson, b. in Philadelphia Nov. 12, 1770; gra.lualed at the University of Pennsylvania in 178(5. He became one of the ablest lawvers of his time, residing mostly in Philadel- phia. He is chiefly remembered as the author of " Hail '■.dumbia." Ho was (181(5-20) a prominent member of Congress, and in 1828 was appointed U. .S. district judge for the eastern district of Pennsylvania. D. Jan. 15, 1842, at Philadelphia. Hop'kinsvillc,citv,cap.of Christian CO., Ky., 71 miles N. W. of Nashville, Tenn., on the St. Louis and Soulli- easlern 11. K.. situated in the most fertile section of Western Kentucky. It contains an academy and 2 seminaries, 8 churches', 2 banks, 2 carriage-factories, 2 weekly newspa- pers, a planing-mill, a plough-factory, 2 largo nulls, a pub- lic library, a city-ball, and a Stale insane asylum. To- bacco is the principal staple. Coal and iron are found in the vicinilT. Pop. »13(5. Sam. M. (iAiN-Ks, En. " KESTrcKV Ni-;w Eiia. Hop'kinton, post-v. of Delaware co., la., I miles from Sand Spring, a station « on the Dubuque South-western U. K. Mas on the Co Ilopkilitnn, post-lii. of Middlesex eo. II.ipkint..n an.l Milford K. U., 30 miles W. S. W. of Boston. It has 4 churches, 1 national and 1 savings bank, a good public-school system, and extensive manufactures of boots and shoes. Pop. 4)19. Ilopkinton, |)osl-lp. of Merrimack co., N. H., on the ^„nluoeo.,k Uiver K. U., 7 miles S. W. of Concord. It contains the village of CoSToonioK (which see), and has 7 churches and important manufactures. Pop. 1814. Ilopkinton, tp. and post-v. of St. Lawrence co., N. Y. It has 3 churches, and manufactures of starch, lumber, cooperage, etc. The township is very extensive, compris- ing large forests and numerous lakes. Pop. of v. 2U0 ; of tp. 1907. Ilopkinton, tp. and po»t-v. of Washington co., K. I., 3i miles S. W. of Providence. The township has good water-power and several inanufacturing villages, where cot- ton goods, machinery, etc. are made. Ilopkinton has a national bank. Po|i. 2082. Hoplegnatli'idic [from oitA^, "nail," and yviim, "jaw"], a family of acnnlhoptcrous fislies, with the body compressed and covered by ctenoid scales: the lateral lino continuous; the spinous division of the dorsal tin longer than the soft ; the ventrals thoracic, with one spine ami live soft rays; and the intermaxillary and maxillary bones pro- vided with a trenehaiit edge, with whieb the teeth, when developed, arc continuous, and form then a serrated mar- gin, somewhat as in the Searidie. The pharyngeal bones arc separate. This family is limited, so tar as n.iw known, to 1 single genus (//■■/.'■•i/ii"'"'". Uiehardsoi, 1, which has, however, received several generic names, and is represented by species in the Eastern .-Vsiatic and Australasian seas. TiiEonuni: tJii.i,. Hoplophor'idic [oirAo^opos, "armor-bearer"], an extinct family of lorieatc eilentate mammals, most nearly related to the existing pichiegos (Clilamydophoridic) and arma- dillos (Dasyjiodida;), but also related to the extinct me- gatheriids. They were of largo siie, and some of them attained gigantic dimensions. (1) The carapace, instead of being articulated, as in the armadillos, formed an inarticu- lateif shell resembling in shape the carapace of the turtle; (2) a breast-shield or plastron was also developed ; {'^^ the teeth were uniform in number, there having been in all the species five molars on each side of each jaw; and (4) llieso characters were co-ordinated with numerous more or less decided modifications of the skeleton. This family (which has also been nameil (ilyploilontida;) was coiujiosed of a number of species which existed in South America, and, especially in the later Tertiary epoch, in the Argentine Republic and Brazil. In external appearance they bore eonsidei-iible resemblance to gigantic tortoises, and some of them attained a length of fifteen feet or even more. The various forms exhibited two decided modifications in the structure of the members : ( I ) Some had four digits be- fore as well .as behind, those corresponding to the thumb and great toe of man being wanting, as in the group com- prisiu" the genera fUpl:,i,h'<rm (Lund) and Piui'.rthna (Burnreister): while (2) others had fmr digits before and five behind, those corresponding to the thumb and great toe being present, and the missing digit of the fore foot being the outer of the other species, or, in other words, cor- responding to the little finger of man. This group includes one genus with two well-marked sub-genera ((J/i/ptnilon, Owen, and Scl:!Hl„j,h'urnm, Nodot). The Ho|ilopbonda have been the objects of special study on the part of emi- nent naturalists. (See the 1st an<l 2d v. .Is. of the Awilcs del Mniro PiMUii ill- riiii'iiiiH Airen.) Tni:oiioui; (iii.i,. Hop'per (IsiM- Tatesi), a benevolent Hicksite Quaker, b. at Deptford, N. J., Deo. 3, 1771; became a tailor in Philadelphia, and afterwards a successful merchant and bookseller of New York; was a (iroininent abolitionist, and devoted a large i)art of his lifetime to works of benevo- lence. D. in New York May 7, 1SJ2. (See his Life, by L. M. Cnii.n, 1S.'.3.) Hop'pin (,\irfirsTi-s), b. at Providence, R. I., July 13, 1828; graduated at Brown University 1848; became a lawyer; studied art in F.urope, and became distinguished as one of the first of American artists in his special depart- ment, that of the illustration of bocdis. His female figures and scenes from society are often full of spirit.— llis brother, Thomas F. Hoi'ims (b. 1810). a pupil of Paul Delarouhe, is also distinguished as an artist. Iloppin (Rev. James .Mason), D. D., b. in Providence, R. I., Jan. 17, 1820: graduated at Yule in ISIO; studied law at Harvard, and afterward theology at Andover and in (Jcrmany umler Neander; became (lastor of a church in Salem, Mass., Mar. 27, 1850, and was ai.pointed professor of homilcties in the theological department of Yale College in 18(11. He received the degree .d' D. D. from Knox Col- lege, III., in 1S70. He has published A'ofe« o/ o ThmliiiiuiU St'iiiUnt (IS54). Old Emiliiiid, 111 Art, Scnini/, idiil /'.'"/</c ( 1 8B7), riir. Ulliii' iind Wurk n/llir Clirislkin Miniflri/ ( 1 809), li/'c of' Andriw Hull FiioU-. Ilinr-Admirnl l'. S. A'. ( 1874) : has contributed many articles to Iho Ulhlinllnin .SVio.i and the Xew Enijlandcr. K. D- HlTlHCOCK. Hops rOer. //../>/V" ,■ Fr. himlinn : hot. IlnmnlnK Injm- I,,,], a di.eei.ms plant. The pistillate flowers are clustered in short axillary catkins; the two-Howered leafy bracts are imbricated, and" in fruit form a kind of membranaceous strobile. The fruiting calvx is sprinkled with yellow res- inous grains(lupuline). The nervine, aromatic, bitter tonic, and other supposed virlurs of the hops, as imparted to beer etc., reside chiefly in this yellow powder, though t be scalcsof the strobiles also possess most of them, to a tar less extent. The constituents of commercial hops, which consist ol tho dried strobiles, are a highly aromatic essential oil. residing almost entirely in the yellow powder; a resinous substance, a bitter crystalline principle, tannic acid (monntannie, Wagner), gum, cellulose, extractive matter soluble in water, nuercilrin, and, according to some, a waxy matter. * .. 1 _ .II...1 I i:.... l'..r>t,iu 111 n 11111 Tho yellow powder, called lupuline, forms in a pure state about , 10 per cent, of the wh.de— a pr.ip.irtion overstated (up to IS percent.) by some authorities. This, according to Pcr.soiiiio, is of th.' nature of a glan.l, which secretes a resin. Iho name was given to it by Dr. A. W. Ives of New York, who first anulvzed it. an.l wlios name and analytical results are strangely luis.iuote.l in the textbooks. Thus. »../(•« nii-tiimurii. ■apparently f.dl.iwing E. Kopp, makes him .U.bi.KHr ')>-■., a Frenchman, and gives \\i figures very incorrectly. 990 HOP TREE— HOREHOUND. Anali/ses of he Yellow Granule!, Lupuline. Wlm- mcr. Cheviilller and Payen. Waitiicr. Dr. Ives. AUatlao hops, C. Nijnc. 0.12 3.01 2.91 0.63 8.99 4.92 1.2B 78.16 "8.3tol2.5 •52.5 30.00 1.00 4.17 38.:« 8.33 0.50 Hiiier subsiance Ki-siu 15.90 Wax 3"ito5.7 AstriiiK- constitueut.. Ollulose 302 48..33 6.40 11.10 I4..50 2.1 Exiractive matter Water Soluble salts 100.00 100.00 100.00 Dr. Itcs's figures are misquoted in European works of liigh autliority (under tlie name of Yve.s) as 11 percent, of bitter. .'16 of resin, 12 of wax, 5 of tannic acid, 10 of extrac- tive, and 26 of "residue insoluble in water" [ciIIhIok ?), footing up just lUO, loilhuHi ani/ mitcr. The discrepancies among tlie ditferent figures given, however, detract almost wholly from their value. Another authority slates that the whole hop contains two per cent, of volatile oil. ( Wiillf's Di\Hm,aiy, art. " Lupulin.") Wimmer gives an analysis of the scales of the strobiles, apart from the yellow granules, in which he found no volatile oil, 5.83 of gum, 64 of cellu- lose, and 12.22 of extractive matter. The hop-crop is one which exhausts the soil rapidly. The ashes of the strobiles contain from 20 to 2a ]icr cent, of pot- ash (anhydrous), 15 to 20 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and 10 to 2.3 per cent, of silica. The potash is estimated to be equivalent to an exhaustion from an acre of from 20 to 2:> pounds of hydrate of potash annually. Enwntial Oil nf Hupf, obtained usually bv distilling the cones with water; but Prof. C. A. Seeley, of New York, claims, with much reason, that this method alters its con- stitution and greatly injures its natural arouia. Indeed, Personne found the malodorous substance, valerianic acid, in the products of distillation of lupuline with water. Soeley has within a few years introduced and patented a new and ingenious mode of procuring this oil. sufficiently economi- cal to be used for the preparation of a commercial oil of hops to be used for flavoring beer, for which purpose it is said to be now coming largely into use. This consists in dissolving out the essential oil by means of verv light pe- troleum naphtha, or "gasoline," and then distilling off the latter, which is as volatile as ether, and requires a tem- perature so low as not to alter the essential oil. The oil of hops obtained by the first method has an odor like thyme, and contains, according to W.agner, a terpcne, T'OII'S, and a conipounil, C«1I'»0, near to valeric acid, l'SHi"0=, and coiivertiblc into the latter by oxidation. Hence, hops ac- quire by age a valerianic odor. Personne considered this essential oil as analogous to oil of valerian, the terpcne in which is bonieene. No dextro-rotatory camphor, however, like borneol (Borneo camphor) has been obtained from oil of hops- II. Wlhtz. Hop Troc (Piclm trifollntn), also called Shrubby Trefoil, an American shrubof the rue family, found from Pennsylvania southward and westward. When kept trim- med to a single stem it attains a height of 30 or 40 feet. The leaves are trifoliate, with leaflets ovate, pointed, and downy when young. The flowers, borne in cvmes at the ends of the new shoots, are greenish, small, aiid not con- spicuous ; they arc polygamous — staminate, pistillate, and perfect ones being found on the same plant. The fruit is two-celled and two-sccdcd. having a broad wing, and re- sembles that of the elm, whence its generic name ( Ur. irreAca, "elm"). The flowers and bruised leaves have an unpleas- ant odor. The fruit is intensely bitter, and is destitute of the aromatic ])rinciple of the true hop, for which, however, it is often substituted in tlic nianufaeture of beer. An in- fusion of the leaves anil young shoots is used as a remedy for worms. It is a neat ornamental shrub, not liable to the attacks of insects, and from the compound character of its leaves coutrastj well with other trees and shrubs. It is a late plant, the branches remaining bare in spring long after other shrubs arc clothed with foliage, but later in the season its large clusters of winged fruit give it an attractive ap- pearance. Hor, a mountain of Arabia Petrwa, forming a part of the range of .Seir or Edom, upon which Aaron died. The summit which is generally conceded to bo the Mt. Hor of this incident still bears the name of Mt. Aaron (Arab. Jebcl HarCiii), and, rising to the height of 4SIIII feet above the sea, is the most conspicuous summit of the range. The mountain has a double top, and is surmounted by an edi- fice, of later date than the Crus.ades, which is called Aaron's tomb. There is another Mt. Hor. mentioned in Num. xxxiv. 7, S as one of the marks of the N. boundary of the land which the Israelites were to conquer. The word llor means simply "mountain," and in this instance probably designates the entire Lebanon range. Hor'ace (Qtintis Houaths Flaccus), b. Dee. 8,65 B. c. at Venusia, in Apulia. His father, a freedman, was a collector of money for tax-gatherers and bankers, and owned a little farm, which he sold in order to give his son a liberal education. Alter finishing his studies in Rome, Horace went in 47 n. f. to Athens to study philosophy and rhetoric, but the murder of Ca'sarand the civil war which ensued made him a soldier, and he fought as a tribuncun- dcr lirutus in the battle of Philijipi (42 ii. c). After the defeat ho fled to Rome, and his ollencc was forgiven or for- gotten. AVilh the rest of his patrimony he bought a posi- tion as a registrator in the office of the pr;elor, but he soon gave it up in order to devote himself entirely to literary pursuits. His first productions were satires, or, as he calls them himself, «<rj»(oif», on account of the colloquial tone in which they are written. These he read to his friends, and thus by degrees he was admitted to the literary circles of Rome. He made the acquaintance of Varius and Virgil, who introduced him to M;ccenas, who again introduced him to Augustus ; and Maecenas appreciated his talent and his friendship so much that ho gave him a fine country- seat near Tivoli, in the Sabine Mountains, and also a com- petency. After the satires (35 b. c.) followed the epodes or iambi (30 b. c), then the odes or ciirmina (23 b. {_-.), and at last the epistles (10 B. c), the second book of which contains the long epistle Ad I'luoHca, generally known under the title of Ars i'ociiia. I). Nov. 27, 8 b. c, and was buried at the Esquiline Gate, beside Mieeenas. With the great social and political movements of their time the poems of Horace have no connection, but they possess an- other (and to us a sliU greater) charm: they tell in a thousand different ways, and always in an intimate and pleasant manner, of private life. But for Horace we should have a very imperfect and meagre iilea of refined and edu- cated life in pagan Rome, its tastes and vanities, its con- vivialities and extravagances, its forms and implements. This, however, was not the secret of his wonderful success. That which through eighteen centuries has made him the most-read poet of antiquity was his representativeness. Ho had exactly genius enough, and not too much, to ex- press the instincts, moods, and methods of average hu- manity. His imagination is not very great; he visits no man's mind with strange visions ; but that which he has is precise and gr.aceful. Nor is his feeling very warm either; ho stirs no man's heart with excitement, bulthat which he has is sound and pleasant. His principal faculty is his power of reflection. His intellect, always clear, never deep, always striking, never strong, makes him complete master of himself — a decent and humorous cynic, a prudent and elegant epicurean, always polite, seldom noble, always cor- dial, seldom kind. And this genius, so well adapted to be the representative of average humanity, was equally well trained to fill its task. His verses have no music, perhaps with the exception of a few drinking-songs. But they have all a piquant, catching movement. His form has no simplicity or naturalness, and it lacks almost entirely plasticity. But the artificiality is so elaborate, so easy and elegant, that the mind of average humanity is impressed by this manner of expressing ideas and sentiments as would be their body by a garment of velvet, satin, and lace. Since the beginning of this century, however — that is, since the predominance of the romantic school — the verses of Horace have lost some of their poetical charm; their historical in- terest they will, of course, never lose. Of recent editions we mention those of Anthon (New York, 1830). Orclli (Zurich. 1850), Lincoln (Boston, 1851), Rittcr (Leipsic, 1850), Didot (Paris, 1855), and Wickham (London, 1873). Cl.KJIE.NS PETEIlSli.N. Horae. See Horns. Horanyi (Frasci.s Jcseph Alexis), b. at Buda, Hun- gary, Feb. 15. 1736; d. at Pcsth, Sept. 11, 180'J. Author of Mnnoria //nngarorum et Proi-incialinttl ecriptit et/itie tiotoniin (1775-77) and Auva .\fcinoria (1792) ; edited Johnn- nin liflliUmii flintiirirti trtniHlhutiirn (1782) and the Chron- icon Humjarivttm of Simon of Keza (1782). Iloraporion, or Ilorus Apollo, the name of the author of a small (ireek essay entitled rtinoi/ti/pliira. which is the only work on the interpretation of the Egyjitian hieroglyphics which has come down to us from antiquity. The book is believed to belong to the fourth century A. n. ; of the author nothing is known. Ho'rcb, according to some, a lower part or elevation of Mt. Sinai : others consider it to be a general name for the whole range of which Mt. Sinai was one of the principal summits. The name itself in Hebrew means "desert." Horf'hoiiiid, the name of several labiate herbs of tem- perate climates. Marrnbiuiti vnftjiirf, the common or white horchound, is naturalized in the Eastern l'. .S., but is a HORGEN— HORN. 991 native of Europe and Western America. It is on excel- lent tonic remcdv, very useful in coughs aiul colds, and is penonilly t.ik.n in syrup or candy. The fitid horchound (llallnta iii<ji-u)is also a naturalized plant from Kurope. It resembles the lornier in appearance, taste, and properties. The water horchound ( /-^<<//^><» fi.reyw.K.) grows in burope and America. It is considered a good tonic. I.>)cuj,m ) <r- ,ji„un, (hugle-wort) nearly resembles it, and is sometimes used on aoount of its expectorant properties. Hor'een, or Hor'chen, town of Swil/crland, in the cant..ii of Ziirich, on the Lake of Ziirich. has some maiiii- factures of silk, cotton good-s and chen.icals. Pop. o.,ll. Ilor'icon, post-tp. of Warren co.. N. Y. It abounds in lakes and mountains, has 4 churches, and manulaetures of leather and other goods. Pop. IJOO. Horicon, post-v. of Dodge co. (Hubbard tp.). Wis, on the Chicago Milwaukee and 8t. Paul R. 11., Similes iV. W. of Milwaukee, at the junction of the Hipon branch, and on Koek Kivcr at the outlet of Horicon Lake. It has manulaetures and c.\tcnsive water-power. Horicon I-ake. See George, Lake. Horicon Lalif, in Do.lgo and Fond du Lao cos.. Wis., is 15 miles long, and 5 miles across. Its waters flow into Koek River, an.l liualiv fall into the Mississippi. It '9 a'hal- loK, grassy basin, sometimes called the V, innebago Marsh. Ho'rites, the aboriginal inhabitants of Mt. Peir before the (^inaanites comiueied Palestine. Their name is de- rived from llori, the grandsonof Seir (lien, xxxvi. J2), and refers to their habit of dwelling in caves, of which there still are many e.^tant in the clifl's of Edom. Ilori'zon [h^H^,; the "bounding" (circle)], the line formed bv the apparent contact of the sky and earth, lb is, or more exactly, the circle upon the heavens bounding he plane which is tangent to tho earth at the point where the observer stan.ls. is the sr,„il,le horizon. The ni(i.oK<( horizon is a circle on the celestial sphere bounding a plane narallel to the sensilde horizon, which plane divides into two equal parts both the terrestrial and the celestial spheres. Except the moon, all the heavenly bodies may bo practi- cally considered as always situated either above or below each of the horizons alike. Ilormis'clas, Pope, a native of Frosinone, became pope in ill, and d. Aug. 0, 023. Eighty of his letters are extant. Horn, a hard projection, diminishing from its hi'se to ! a point, on the heads of many animals, especially the cloven-footed ([uadrupeds. It is generally curved or spiral, but that of the cow, bull, or ox, being most familiar, ha,s become a familiar descriptive term for all similarly formi-d projections—;, g. the horns of the moon. 1 he word in its ori.-in is of very great antiquity, since it is found in both Aryan and SemiVic tongues. In Sanscrit iv,r,..., it is true pi.'"nifles an car, but the Latin corn,,, (.rc.'k Avro, and k"r/:nef, (iothie h<nin,, Persian /.vinir. (•Mrui.ii)et I, ana the Irish and Cymric r„ni, all in.lieato an Indian origin, while the Hebrew h<rn, the ChalduMin giiruu. and the Arabic 7-.n,, w"-"'"' »''"" "'"'■ '' '•"" "^""^'^ been known to the soulbern branch of civilized liumanity. The word is conjecture! by speculative philologists to be allied to a large family of terms, such as the originals of rro,r„, corn, et. \s a very prominent symbol in ancient literature the horn signified strength, power, or dignity ( Jer. xlyiii. ; 1 Sam ii.), and with the (ireeks abniidaucc or lertility. as was set forth in the cornucopia, or horn of plenty. 1 he conn.'ction "f horns with sexual attributes appears to have b.eu partly .lue to their association with the liull and the ir.,it and their extraordinary increase in size in the ox, who'in all countries was regarded as llie type of one whoso privileges are usurped bv the bull. In all animals bearing them ■' the formation of the horns has been long known to be nioch inlluenced by the en,idili..n of ll>« «[!!';"» «' generalion : in the deer they acpiire their full bulk and c.implete form just before the season of rutting. 1 be most dignified of the deities, whether Semitic or Aryan, were repre-cnied as horned, and f<.r a diflcrent reason all those which were most closely connected with rcproduotivo nalure — as, for instance, the rural gods. Horn, per »<■, is of f.uir kinds. That of the rhinoceros "consists of a uniform, compact, or glutinate mass of ej.i- dermal fibres, the slighlly concave base of which is attached to the dermo-perioste of a slightly elevated or rug.ms tract of bone." The second type is that of most ruminants, in which the growth extends from the frontal bones, am the dermo periosteum develops a sheath of horny fibres, the horn bein" hollow The bone is termed the r„rr : it has usually j a ru"ou< or grooved exterior. In llovida- and Ovida! the frontal sinuses exiend therein; in Anielopida- the core is solid The growth each year is marked by a circular groove near the root, from which the age may be determined, be giralTe ithird tvpe. Owen) has a pair of small, short, eyhn- droid. unbrancho.l horns, which consist of bone covered by hairy skin, terminated by a tuft of coarser hair. The bones ore liot processes of the skull, but ore joined, like epiphyses, by svncliondrosis to both frontal and parietal bones, tho base crossing the coronal suture. The young are born wilh such horns, and are the sole horned mammals that enter tho world wilh such weapons. In deer (fourth type) the horns consist wholly of bo,,.; which grows from Ibe Ironlal ; the ))eriosteum and" finely haired integuments called ■■ vel- vet" coextendiug therewith during the period of growlh ; at the end of which the rormalive envelope loses its vascu- larity, dries, and is stripped olT. leaving the bone as a hard, insensible weapon. Alter some months these horns lose all vascular connection with the skull, and ore shed ; alter which the growth of a new pair commences. The reindeer is one of the very few Cervidic in which antlers arc devel- oped by the female. Thus, deer are tho only ungulates that annually shedlheir horns; the prong-buck is the only known hollo'w-horned ruminant that annually sheds tho extra-vascular part of the horn, called the sheath. The horns of un<'ulates may bo summarized as consisting cither of horn only, as in' the rhinoceros; of bone only, as in tho C'ervnn of deer genus ; of horn and bone, as illustrated by tho bovine or ox genus; and of skin and bone, as in the giraffe. From these facts it has been observed that in the j English language we have in horn only one w..rd to ex- I pre°s two quite different substances-the branched bony 1 horns of the stag genus, and the laminated horns of he genus Ho, (ox). In French the antlcred kind are called boh, or forest, from their branches, while the other kind, as of tho ox, antelope, and goat, is called roruc In olden times horns were extensively used, especially amon^the Xortbern races, for drinking-cups, and in Saxon an.l Norman sculptures it is the common goblet. Mnuuroclnre o/ //orH.— The peculiar texture of horn, its toughness and agreeable natural colors, have always caused it to be a favorite material for many works, though ut late years the increasing cheapness of glass, gutta percho, and metal wares has caused a great disuse of it. At one time there was held annually in England a fair at which every object for sale was made of horn, and until withm a lew years a large class of Scottish gypsies maintained them- selves entirely by making and selling horn spoons. As true horn consists, chemically, of albumen (keratin) and a little iihosphate of lime, it is readily softened in boiling water or by heat; sometimes the process is aided by the addition of" quicklime. It is usual to prepare the horns ol oxen and sheep by steeping them for several weeks in cold water, which has the effect of separating the cored bony part from the cover of true horn. The latter is then heated, first for half an hour in boiling water, and then over hre. In this condition it may be cut or moulded with great ease. To make sheets for lanterns or combs, the horn is slit length- ways at (Tie side, heated and pressed out, cilher betwecu plates or by machines, of which several have been invented for the puniosc. Care must, h.iwcvcr, be exercised as o the application of both heat and pressure, since, owing to its peculiarly laminated structure and the strue abounding thrlu..h it--as may be specially observed in that of the rhinoceros-horn has a tendency to split. It receives dyes of different kinds, and is made to closely resemble tortoi e- shcll, but this process also is apt to render it fragile. Its softness may. however, be restored by 8tce|,ing it in glj- cerinc and ^atcr; and if it be then treated with nitnc and pyroligneous acids, tannin, potash, sulphate of '■•■o. » >d water, it assumes a peculiar slrcnglh and great ola tici y. As sheets or other pieces of horn may bo incorporated to- gether, there is little waste in the manufacture. Of la o years there has been an extensive manufacture in I..md. n of so-called Abyssinian drinking-cups, made of segments of i"rii slraightened and with a bottom, colored in imita- tion of the beauliful gray an.l black cups brought rom tho plunder of Magdala. The born of the rhinoceros has been treaty esteemed in all ages in 'he East, partly from a l.c- L( timt it neutralized poison in '''l"•;'^'"'^V'"■■'■:, ■;';;::,:: rich natural colornnd great beauty. It is oUim clabo.atcly carved by the Kgvptians and Chinese, and the writer has ee" one"rrom Cant'on which, owing to its --l-'-'^J" ;_• cost soil". He has in his possession one presented to lii.n by a"weallliv Copt which was highly esteemed, owing to its delicate „nii-transparency, and has seen another whoh was supposed to be almost unique in Ibis respect. Some Tears ago parasol-hondles of rhin...'eios horn became la>li- fonablc in' Paris, and to this day they '."^;, '•••\"^';'""'>";,'^ Stated in horn. The Romans made oll-fiasks both ot ox an.l rhin.i.-eios horn, an.l tnoii an epigram lii '^l;"t;" " mavbc inferrc.l that they too sometimes imltatc.l the latter material with the former. The epigram is in rclercnce to a lantern, anil might serve as its inscription : ■■Thounb by a boll 1 b.-n' ..f late was borne You'd say I "m "'' "oe rhinoceros horn. 992 HORX— HOKNELLSVILLE. Those cups require occasional oiling, or they will *' chip " or crack. In the East this is a favorite material for the hilts of weapon?), preference l)eing given to that which conies fmni Sumatra. It is worked, like ivory, entirely with the chisel and without heat. Deer or buck horn is used Jii ;l11 countries for kuife-handlcs. As it is simply hone, and of coarse cellular structure within, it is seldom or never made up except in such a manner as to j>rescrve iti part, at least, its agreeahly colored and peculiar rugged structure. In Germany thousands of artisans are devoted to making from deer-horn ornaments which vary from carvings of almost microscopic delicacy to large articles of furniture. Im- mense numbers of deer-horns (of the Ajrh marulata) are annually brought to Germany for such work, even England recjuiring about 250,000. The h()rnsof the Eastern buffalo and of the American bison arc in great demand; the latter, frnm its color and fine hard grain, being especially prized for the handles of dental instruments. The interior of ox- horns is used to make *' bone-earth :" the refuse of .all kinds is applied to the manufacture of jirussiate of j)otash and aninioniacal salts ; while fragments of ox and hutTalo horn, powdered, are of value as manure. C. ii. Leland. Horiiy a wind instrument of music, usually of brasp, much used in the orchestra. The French horn is usually coiietl in such a way as to become portable, and its key may be modified by the insertion or withdrawal of suitable pieces. The sax-horn is a modification of the older in- atruracnt. Various other wind instruments are called from their shape " horns," and in ancient times the horns of ani- mals were employed as trumpets, but they probably served only as the means of calling. Horn (Gi'STAF Caulsson). b. at Orbyhue, Sweden. Oct. 23, \S'J2 ; studied at Rostock, Jena, and Tubingen ; received his military training in Holland under Prince Maurice of Orange ; and entered the Swedish army in 1024. Gustavus Ad'ilphus called him his right arm. and after the battle of Liitzen he made a brilliant campaign in the Khenish Pal- atinate, but was taken prisoner in the battle of Niirdlingen in 1034. and kept for seven years in the fortresses of In- goKlstadt and Burghausen. Having been exchanged in 1641, he returned to Sweden ; commanded in 1644 in Scania against the Danes; was made a count and field-marshal in 16ol ; and d. at Skara May 16, 1057. Horn, or Hoorne (Phii.ippk), Count of, b. in 1522, a son of De Montmorency-Xivelle, a Flemish nobleman. AVIien his mother, having become a widow, married Count Horn, Philippe was adopted by his stepfather and assumed his name. He distinguished himself both in the battles of Sr.-Quentin and Gravelines and in the councils of Philip II. and Margaret, viceregent of the Netherlands. Ho was a g<iod Catholic, but he was tolerant. He was loyal to the Spanis^h crown, but he would not deliver up the rights of his native country without resistance. Thus, when Alva ar- rived in the Netherlands, he was seized, together with Eg- mont, at Hrussels in 1507, a case was made out against him. and he was beheaded June 5, 1568. Horn'beam, a name given to various trees. The horn- beam of Europe is the Curphiua Utfuliiiifa. handsome forest tree which has very tough, white wood, highly prized by turners and joiners. It is also excellent fire-wood, and makes good charcoal. In the I'. S. the T'ar- pinus Aincri'yiHO IS called hornbeam, Icvcr-wood, iron-wood, and blue beach. It is very hard, tough, and close-grained. The hop-hornbeam, called also lever- wood or iron-wood, is a slender tree, tho Ostriftt Viiffiuicn, with wood of the same qualities as those possessetl by that of the former tree. Both grow extensively throughout the U, S. All the above be- long to the order Cupuliferie. Horn-bilU See Blcekos. Horn'blentlCy a term used in min- eralogy, sometimes as synonymous with amphibolc, sometimes to designate only the dark-colored varieties of that very va- riable mineral. In the former sense horn- blende is a mineral crystallizing in tho monoclinic sysU'm, but occurringalso im- perfectly crystalli/ed.ormassive. fibrous, and granular. Its hardness varies from 5 to 6, and its specific gravity from 2.9 to .S.4. In composition it varies much, being, however, essen- tially a silicate of magnesia and oxide of iron, with gen- erally lime, and with or without alumina, manganese-oxide, or soda. It is one of the more iinpcjrtant rock-forming minerals, occurring especially in granitic ami metamorphic rocks, and volcanic rocks o( deep-seated origin. It pre::«ent3 a great variety of forms and great differences in color; black and dark-green varieties arc especially known as hornblt'iuic; lighter green as artin'diu-; white varieties as trcmolitt-, and fibrous forms as Anthui'Hyllite, Asbkstos, and Amianthis (which see). Edward C. II. Day. Ilorn'blower (Joseph Coirten), LL.D..asonof Judge Josiah HnrnMower of New Jersey ( 172H-lS0*l). b. at Belle- viiic, N. J., May 0, 1777; was admitted to the bar in ISOIt; was chief-justice of the New Jersey supreme court ls;i2- 46 ; a prominent member of the constitutional convention of ISJ4: and a man of practical benevolence. D. at Newark Juno II, 1S04. Horn'book, a written or printed tablet of parchment or paper, covered with a thin transparent layer of horn, j and framed in wood, containing the aljphabet in Homan or black letter, with some other simple lessons, often fol- lowed by the Lord's Prayer. Hornbooks appear to have been chiefly English. Their use originated before the in- vention of printing, and continued till about the middle of the last century. There are but few existing specimens known. Horn^by, post-tp. of Steuben co., N. Y. It has several manufactories. Pop. 1202. Home (George), b. at Otham, Kent, England, Nov. 1, 17;^0: took orders in 175H: became chaplain to the king in 1771, dean of Canterbury in 17^1, bishop of Norwich Id 1790 ; and d. at Bath Jan. 17, 17U2. His principal work ia his Connnentfirt/ oi) the PhuIihh (1776J; he also published several volumes of sermons, Litter tit Dr. Prtentiei/. Let- tere on Iiijiiich'ti/, and a letter to Adam Smith on David Hume. Horne (Ricninn Henry), b. in ISO.'l in London ; studied in the college at Sandhurst, and became a midshipman in the Mexican navy ; was in Australia lSo2-70, where he held several local magistracies. Author of several trag- edies, and a number of poems and miscelUincous works, among which are a Life of SapoJcitn (2 vols., \S\\),Orinu, an Epic (1843; of which three editions were sold at one farthing a copy), Ausiralinn Facta and Fitjurca (1859). Horne (Thomas Hartwell), D. D., b. in London Oct. 20, 1780; studied at Christ's Hospital 1789-95, and read law; was suli-librarian of the Surrey Institution 1809-23; took orders in the Church of England 1819; was senior assistant librarian in the British Museum 1824— 60 ; became rector of St. Edmund's and St. Nicholas's 1833: was made a prebendary of St. Paul's 1841; d. in London June 27, ls62. In early life he was a Methodist. His princijial work is the Introilttclion to the Critical Studi/ of the ^'cri/>/jo-^«(lSI8, latest edition, London. 1856,4 vols.); also author of a Brief View of thr AeccHsitt/ of Revefation (1800). Lakes of Lancashire, Wcatmorcland, and Cnniber- iand (1810), Deiam lief'nttd (1819), Romanittm Contrary to the /iihie {1^27), Manual far the Aj^irted (1832), Protestant McmoriaHlSZb), Manual of JUblical IHblioyraphif (1839), and Mariolatry ( 184U). (See Reminiscences of T. H. Ilorntf by his daughter, S. A. Cheyne, London, 1802.) Horned Toad ( Phrynosoma), a genus of true lizards, of which ten or eleven species are found in Texas, Mexico, Douglass's Phrynosoma. California. Utah, etc. They are not toads at all. They are rather sluggish, especially in captivity. They do not leap, but crawl like other lizards. P. Douglasiii, lilain- villii, and coruntum arc the best-known species. Hor'nellsvilley post-v. of Steuben co., N. Y., 68 miles S. of Uoehester, on the Eric R. K. It has good schools, 5 churches, extensive railway-shops, a mowing-machine fac- tory, large boot and shoe, furniture, machine, and other factories, planing-mills, 3 weekly and 1 tri-weekly news- IIOKNEK— IIORXEK'S METHOD OF SOLVING HIGHER EQUATIONS. 993 bank, eto. paper, and a hnndsomo opera-house, I national Pop. of V. 4bb'2; of tp. 5837. 11. H. GuKENUow, Ed. '* Evkmsg Tridune." Hor'ner (FitANiis), b. at Edinburgh Auf;. 12, 177S; studied hiw at Ihc university of his native city ; removed to London in ISOii, and entered Parliament in ISOtJ. llo soon acquired a conspicuous position in the House of Com- mons by his business capacity, his insight into political economy, and the nobleness of his character; but, having injured his health by excessive labor, ho was obliged to tra***!, and d. nt Pisa Feb. 8, 1817. A monument was creotod to him in Westminster Abbey, and his Mcmoii-a and Correspondence were edited by his brother (Loudon, ISlo). Horner (William Edmonds), M. D., b. at Warrcnton, Va., June 3, 17113; graduate<l at the University of Penn- sylvania 1S14 ; served in the navy as a medical officer l'<13-15; became a distinguished practitioner of Philudcl- phia; was prosector and demonstrator of anatomy in the Ihiiversity of Pennsylvania ; became adjunct professor of anatomy in the same 1819; full professor 1831 ; announced the discovery of the so-called Horner's muscle 1824; found- ed St. Jo*ei>irs Hospital 1S17. D. in Philadelphia Mar. 12, 1853. Published a treatise on I\i(h'il<><jicnl Auatomif (1820), Prnrtintf Aiintnnn/, Spmiaf Aiuftomi/ <i}i(f ffistnhxji/ (2 vols., 1851), f. S. VltiMrrtor, and an Aimt'imtral Atlas. Horner's Method ofDetached Coefficients. The method of detached coefficients simplifies the processes of algebraic multiplication and division when the coefficients in the expressions to be operated upon are chiefly numerical. It consists in omitting the letters (or at least the letter ac- cording to the powers of which the ex press ions arc arranged), and using the coefficients only of the successive powers. Before employing the method the expressions must bo pre- pared so that the exponent of the letter according to which each expression is arranged must increase l>y one in each term toward the right from to the highest given, or de- crease in like manner, from the highest given to 0. To illustrate the method in multiplication: Let it bo required to multiply 5j* + 2x'^ — x + I by bjr^-~2x -f 1. In the multiplicand the term containing .r* is wanting, and in the multiplier the term containing j:^; these must be sup- plied, so that the expressions, when properly prepared, will read 5x* + O.x^ + 2x2 _ x + 1 ^nd 5x3 ^ q^j.2 _ 2x + 1. The operation is performed as follows : 5 + 0+ 2 — 1 + 1 5 + 0— 2 + 1 25+0 + 10 — 0+5 — 10—0—4 + 2 — 2 ± 5 + 0+2—1 + 1 25 + 0+ 0+0 + 1+4 — 3 + 1 Since the expressions to be multiplied are arranged ac- cording to the descending powers of x, the ])roduct will bo so arranged, the highest power being that obtained by multiplying x* by x^, or x'. The complete product will then bo 25x7 + (l.a-« + 0.x5 + 0.x* + x^ + Ix^- 3x + 1, q^, omitting the insignificant terms, 25x*^ + x^ + 4x2 — Zx ^ ]. To illustrate the method in division: Let it be required to divide x' - 2x* — 3x3 _x — \ by x^— 2x — 1. Supplying the wanting terms in both the dividend and divisor, the expressions will read x"' + O.x** f O.x^— 2x* — 3x3 + 0.x"'' — X — 1 and x3 + 0.x' — 2x — 1, and the operation will read as follows : 1 +0 + 0—2 — 3 + 0—1 — 1 |1 +0-2 — 1 1^.0-2-1 |l +0+2-1 + 1 2 — 1—3+0 2+0—4—2 — 1 +1+2 — 1 — 1—0+2 + 1 1+0 — 2—1 1+0—2—1 As there ore four terms in the divisor, four terms of the dividend are first dealt with. To the first remainder (2—1) (he next term of the dividend ( + 3) is annexed; and pince the divisor of four terms is not contained in 2—1—3, is written in the quotient, and the next term of the dividend (+UJ is brought down: the rest of the operation needs no explanation. The power of x in the first term of the quotient will be that obtained by dividing x' by x3 or x* ; and the complete quotient will bo x* + O.x** + 2x' - X + 1 , or X* I- 2x2 .. j. — ] . The process of division by detached coefficients is the inverse of that of multiplication by detache<l coefficients. To exhibit this, let it be required to multiply 3x^— x + 2 by x^ — 2x + 3, and then divide the product by x' — 2a: -J- 3 : 3 — 1+2 1—2 + 3 8—1+2 — fi + 2 —4 + 9_ —3 + 6 3 — 7 + 13 — 7+6 Vol. U.—r,:, The first term of the product is obtained by multiplying the first term of the multiplicand by the first term of the multiplier; hence, the first term of the quotient in division must bo obtained by dividing the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor: the second term of the product is obtained by adding together the product of the second term of the multiplicand by the first term of Ihc multiplier, and the product of the first term of the multi- plicand by the second term of the multiplier; hence, the second term of the quotient must l)c the result obtained by subtracting from the second term of the dividend the pro- duct of the first term of the quotient by the second term of the divisor: the third term of the product is the sum of the three products obtained by multiplying the third term of the multiplicand liy the first term of the multiplier, the scconcl term of the multiplicand liy the second term of the multiplier, and the first term of the multiplicand by the third term of the multiplier; hence, the third term of the quotient must be the result obtained by subtracting, in succession, from the third term of the dividend the product of the second term of the divisor by the second term of the quotient, and the product (pf the third term of the divisor by the first term of the quotient; and so on. If, now, tho terms of tho divisor, with the exccjition of the first, have their signs changed, the successive subtractions may be changed into additions, and the operation may be performed thus (the example being to divide 3x* — 7x3 _)_ l3^^_7j;-^ (j by x2-2x + 3): 3—7 + 13 — 7+6 + 6— 2 + 4 — 9+3 — 6 ■|{iil '3—1+ 2,+ + the quotient being Zx^ — x + 2. The method of proceed- ing will bo apparent from what has gone before. Tho method of division here exhibited was discovered, a little more than fifty years ago, by W. G. Horner of Bath. Eng., and is known as Horner's synthetic division or method of division by detached coefiicients. It is of importance in the solution of higher equations. It has heretofore been stated that Horner's method of division by detached coefficients is applicable only wlien the coefficient of tho first term of the divisor is one. Mi'. E. D. Hearn of England has recently shown that this is not really the case, though when that coefficient is not one, tho process has to be modified. The reason for the modi- fication and the character of it will be apparent from an example. Let it bo required to divide 12x*"l'J2 by 4x3 _|_ <ij.i _j, Kjj. _j. 32. Using the coefiicients alone, and supplying the terms wanting in the dividend, the ordinary process would be as follows : 12+ 0+ 0+ — 192 14 + 8 + 16 + 32 12 +■ 24 + 48 +9K I3H6 — 24--4S — 9G— 192 — 24 — 4 S— 9i>— 192 Since tho quotient of x* by x3 is x, the quotient will bo 3x — fi. It will be oViservcd that in this quotient the first term is obtained, as before, V)y dividing the first term of tho dividend by the first term of the divisor; the sc(!ond term is not, however, the remainder left after subtracting from the secoml term of tho dividend the jjroduct of the first term of the quotient by the second term of the divisor, but, instead, that remainder divided hy the first term of the di- visor; and a similar remark will ap|)ly to tho remaining terms of the quotient, if such there be. The operation, con- ducted after Horner's method, would bo as follows: 4 '12 i- + + 0—192 — 16 — 32 — 21 + 48 — 48 + 96 96 + 192 — 24 3 — f " Pnltie quotient tine," cnch tfrm In which \ i» to be- divided bj tho Umt term gf t tlic divisur. True quoliciit line Enw. David Hearn. Reviskdby J. H. Van Amrinoi;. Horner's Method of Solving IIi{;hcr Fqnii- tions. rntil lI<inMT.in ISI'J. eommunieated to the Kuviil Society his method of solving algebraic ecpiations of all degrees, no direct and reliable method of finding the roots of equations beyond tlio fourth degree was known; by his method the process is comparatively simple. It consists, in principle, in transforming the equations by one or more figures of the root at a time, nntl in a direct and relia)>ln method of discovering those figures : whilst the operation itself is performed by means ol detaelted eoefficients. Tho explanation will be most facilitated by first enunciating tho rule, and then elucidating the several steps or sections of tho rule whilst working an example, liuU 1. To Find It Punidvc Hoot. — Having found tho number and situation of tho roots, transform the given equation into another whose roots shall be less than thifse of the given equation hy the initial figure of tho root ; thou 994 HORNET— HORR. divide the absolute term of the reduced equation by the penultimate cociticient to find the next figure of the root, with which trausfonn the recluced equation as before, :inj repL-at the proems until the desired accuracy is attained. linlr J. fo Finil ti .\<'/<itive Root. — Change the signs of the alternate terms of the given equation, and proceed as for a positive root. Extiiupb\ — Find the roots in the equation 2a^ 4- .'i«''^ — ■1(( — 10 — 0, where, as there are two permanences and one variation of sign, there will, if all the roots arc real, be, according to Harriot's rule of signs, two negative roots and one positive root. The true number and situation of the roots may be found by Stuhm's Method (which see). By this method the following expressions arc obtained: F = 2«3 + ;Ja- — 4a — 10 Fy = tiu- -I- (i« — 4 /S = 11a + 23 If, now, there be substituted in F, Fj, etc., for a, the values 0, 1, 2 in succession, the following changes of sign will occur : /•' F^, F., Ft If (I = the sifjns + — ...2 var. (I ^ 1 " •' h + —....2 var. 1 Hence there is a root a^2 " " + 4- -i- — ...Ivar.J between 1 and 2. Wo will now make a~X and a ~ 2 respectively, and trans- form the functions by the synthetic division, thus: /■= 4-2 + 3-4—10(0 = 1 F=+2+ 3— 4 — 10 (a = 2 + 2 + 5 + 1 + 4 + 14 +20 + 7+10+10 + 4 + 22 + 11+32 + 4 + 2+15+32 + 10 + 5 + 1- 9 + 2+7 + 7+8 + 2 +2+9+8—9 -Fi= + 0+ 6— 4 (o = + 6+12 + 12+8 + 6 + 6+18 + 8 F.= +ll+28 (a=l + 11 + 11 + 39 ^3 = - -Fl- = +6+ 6— < (o = + 12+36 + 18 + 32 + 12 = 2 + 6 + 30+32 F2 = + 11+28(0=2 + 22 + 11+50 /•» = - . a= =2=F= 2n3+i3a2 F,= na2+3Ua /<=lla +50 +32a + 10 . a=l=F = 2a3+ 9a2+8a— 9 Fi= 6o2 f iSa +8 .• Fo==na +39 One variation is lost between 1 and 2, indicating that one root has been passed over. Taking the transformed func- tions just found (by making a = l and a = 2), and treat- ing them in the same manner, we could ascertain whether the root is between 1.1 and 1.2, or between 1.2 and 1.3, and so on. In the given equation it is between 1.6 and 1.7. Again, we might take this third series of functions and treat them again, which would show us that it is between 1.02 and l.li.i, and so on to any degree of accuracy ; but it is usually sufficient, when tlirec or four decimal ]>laces in the root have been found, to continue the operation in the same manner as contracted division, as much time and labor is thereby saved. For the given equation the work- ing will stand thus : + 1 + 3 — 4 — 10 (1.6248190836 2 6 1 8 1 — 9a 2 7 8.472 7 8a — .528 b 2 6.12 .424256 9A 14.12 — .103744 c 1.2 6.84 86069248 10.2 20.36 b — 17074752 D 1.2 2V28 17262700 11.4 21.2128 — 411992 E 1.2 2536 zi.wss 12.6 U 21.4661c — liHilO 1 F 04 50912 1911.'HU 12.64 ii.anm' — ISO.-) 4 .10944 1726 1268 21.5GS20 6 D 1019 5 — 79 4 65 12.7;; c 21.5784.1 1 —14 008 1019 5 13 12.728 21.588614 B — 1 8 12.736 21.0887 6 a 1 2 1|2.7|44D,E,F 21..188I8 P 2I..58I8 21.5|8 21 15 2|1 |2 Now, if we analyze this working, we shall observe that the given equation was lirst depressed in order to eliminate the first figure of the root; that this depressed equation was further depressed to ciimitiate the second figure of the root — that is, the first figure of the decimal portion — and so on, until the desired approach to accuracy was attained. In this case the root is correct to five places of decimals, and approximately so to ten places of decimals. The SMALL c'Ai'iT.VLS show the succcssivc depressions from the given equation so far as the coefficients are concerned, thus : Given equation F == 2a^ +3a2 — ia — 10 A rt =: 1 Ji = 2aS +9a2 +8a —9 B a = O.G F=2a3 +12.fi«2 +20.9Grt — 0.528 c = 0.02 F^ 2rt» +12.72«2 *^2I.^GG4rt — 0.1liS74|4 D a = 0.004 F = 2(1^ +12.744a2 + 2 1 ..'".GS2.")Ga —0.0176714 E a = 0.0008 F= 2a3 +12.74|-la2 +21.5G8G|4a —0.00041 1 1 and so on. It should be mentioned, with regard to the application of Sturm's theorem, that it (akes no notice of the duplication of a root; theretoro, wlien the etjuation has equal roots, we shall have a divisor which exactly measures a dividend, so that the process will terminate without a remainder which is independent of the unknown quantity. In this ease wo can divide the several functions by the common measure, and use the depressed functions to determine the distinct roots, or we can employ the original functions, merely re- membering that two of the roots are equal. (For an ex- planation of Horner's "new method of solving numerical equations of ail orders by continuous approximation," see Philoiophiriil Traiisaclinns of the Rotjid Sort'rfi/ oj' Ijoudonf for the year 1819, part ii.) Enw. Davhj TIeaien. Revised by J. II. Van A.mhince. Hor'net, a name applied to several large stinging in- sects of the wasp family. The most common in the U. S. is the Vcupa mdculdtaf which builds a great nest of brown paper, and hangs it from the branches of a tree. Its paper is made from the fibre of wood. Its sting is very severe. The hornet is omnivorous, devouring fruits, honey, and in- sects of many kinds. Some of the foreign species build nests of paper, and some of clay. Some make only tho cells of paper, housing the cells in a hollow tree. This is the case with Vcspa <:rabro, the commonest European hor- net, now naturalized to some extent in the U. S, Horn^pipe, a musical instrument formerly common in Wales, consisting of a wooden pipe, with holes at graduated intervals, and a horn at each end. A lively tune and sev- eral popular dances have been composed for this instru- ment, and known l>y its name. The tune is in compound triple time, with nine crotchets in a bar — six down and three up. Horn's Creek, tp. of Edgefield co., S. C. Pop. 1915. Horoden'ka, town of Austro-IIungary, in llic prov- ince of Galicia, near the Dniester, carries on an active gen- eral trade. Tup. S4jl. Hororogfy [Or. wpa, "hour," and Aoyo?, "treatise"], tho science of the divisions and measurements of time, or, in a narrower sense, the description of the construction of clocks, watches, snn-dials, and other devices for measuring time. Calendars, zodiacs, cycles, and the larger measurements of time are not usually treated of as forming the subject of any part of the science of horology. (Sec Clocks, by Linus r. BuocKETT, A. M., M. D, ; and Watches.) Hor'oscope [Or. dpa, "hour," and o-KOTrcif, to "ob- serve"], a diagram of the position of the heavenly bodies, especially of the planets and the twelve imaginary signs of the zodiac, at the time of a person's birth, from which was derived an augury of his career and fortunes. The most important Ihingwas the sign of the zodiac which rose at the moment of (he child's birth. Arbitrary significations were given to the difi"ercnt heavenly bodies according as they appeared singly or in conjunction, or as they were in opposition. As a rule, one born under Jupiter would bo powerful ; one under Mars, warlike ; one under Venus, suc- cessful in love; one under the Pleiades, exposed to storms at sea, etc. Horoscopes were also calculated upon tho same general principles to foretell the issue of any import- ant undertaking. Ilorr (Asa). M. D., b. at Worthington. Franklin co., 0., Sept. 2, 1S17; took his medical degree at Cleveland in lS-16 in the medical department of AVestern Kcserve College; has practised medicine since 1S47 at Dubuque, la.; erected a private astronomical observatory 1S04. and was the first to determine accurately the longitude of Dubuque; has given much attention to botany and the other natural sciences, and to the perfecting of a system of phonographic shorthand. Author of many professional and scientific papers; with J. M. Bigelow published a catalogue of the plants of Frank- lin CO., 0. ; is a member of many learned societies ; and has been president of the Iowa Institute of Science and Arts HOKROCKS— HOKSE. 995 since ISGS, of which society he was (ISCS) ono of the founders. Hor'rocks, or Ilorrox (Jereuiah), b. at Toxteth, LaDL-aiihirc, Englan<l, about 1015; studied as a sizar In Em- manuel College. Cambridge: took holy orders and became curate of Hoolc, where in ICIJU he made an observation of the transit of Venus (Nov. 24). William Crabtrce was ap- prised by Horrocks of the calculations which led him to expect this transit (which not even Kepler had predicted), and accordingly Crabtree and Ilorrocks both made obser- vations (the first on record) of the transit of Vouus. The tran.^it occurred on a Sunday, and Ilorrocks fell compelled to attend divine service, and thus lost a part of the obser- vation. D. at Hoolo Jan. .'i, 1041. Author of Vcmm in Snfiri'ifn Observationutn i^celeitium Catnlnffttn (1G72), Nttvx Thcurix Ltinari* txplicatnr, of published Letters to Crab- tree in Latin, and of a few other posthumous papers. It is possible that he was the iDvcDtor of tho micromotor, but the point is uncertain. Hor'ry, the easternmost county of iSouth Carolina, hav- ing North Carolina on the N. E. and tho Atlantic OcL-an on the S. E. A part of its surface is marshy, and a part is sandy, with pine forests. Rico and pork are tho staple products. Area, about 1000 square miles. Cap. Conway- borough. Pop. 10,721. Horry (Pcteh), a distinguished South Carolinian in tho Revolutionary war cf 1770, was a brigadier-general under the partisan command of tho celebrated Gen. Francis JMn- rion. Gen. Horry was distinguished not only for his prow- ess in arms, but for his achievements with the pen. Tho life of Marion prepared by him and Weems, puljlishcd in 1S24 by Carey &, Lea of IMiiladelphia, has gone through many editions, and will hold a permanent place in Amer- ican Iit< rature. A. II. STEt'iinNs. Horsn. Sec IlnxGisr. Horse {Eqttun cnballtta of Linnfous), a well-known domestic animal, non-ruminating and simple-hoofed, be- longing to the soliped family of Cuvicr's order Pachyder- mata (thick-skinned) ; but, according to the modern classi- ticatiiin. the genus £t/nim belongs to tho family Equiilie, sub-order Perissodactyla (odd-toed), order Ungulata (hoof- ed), class Mammalia. The horse, with the ass, zebra, quagga, and a few other similar animals, constitutes a natural fatnily of hoofed quadrupeds, the forms now living being closely related to each other, and widely separated from all other existing mammals. Tho horse ditfers from the other species of this family in having the tail covered with long hairs from the base, instead of tufted at the end, and in the presence of horny callosities on tho inner side of tho hind legs below the " hock," as well as on tho foro legs above tho " knee," where they are also found in the other species. Tho pattern of coloration in tho horso is, moreover, not striped, but in most respects he closely re- sembles the other living representatives of the family. Nearly all these animals may breed together, producing hybrids, which are. however, usually sterile, as in tho case of the well-known muic, the ofispring of an ass by a marc, or tho hinny, the product of a stallion by a female ass. The principal characteristics of the Equidic. as exempli- fied by the horse, are the follo\ving : There are in the adult 3 incisors or cutting teeth, I canine, and 6 molars or grind- ing teeth on each siile, above and below— 40 teeth in all. The canines, however, arc usually wanting in mares. An additional small tooth is occasionally found in advance of the upper molar series. This tooth, when present, is the smallest of all (ho teeth, and, as it has neither ])redeccssor nor successor, its naturo is in doubt. The grinding teeth are long, and have thick, square crowns. They aro deeply implanted in the jaw, and without true fangs or roots, ex- cept in old age. These teeth arc composed of interblendcd enamel, dentine, and cement, and when their summits arc worn down by mastication a peculiar and compli<'atod pat- tern is presented, especially by the upper tetth. Tho enamel, being much harder than the dentine or cement, takes in the section the form of an irregular, elevated ridge surrounding tho tooth ; outside this ridge is cement, and within dentine. There are also in (he upper teeth two cresccntic "lakes" of cement surrounded by a ridge of eimmel, which often presents, especially in fomo fossil species, very complicated foldings. The canines arc snmll when present. The incisors are arranged close together in a curve at tho end of the jaw. They differ from those of ruminants by their greater length and curvature, and from those of all other mammals by the fold of enamel, which penetrates tho crown like the inverted finger of a glove. When tho tooth begins to ho worn this fold becomes a ring of enamel, enclosing a cavity filled by cement and particles of food, and is calU-tl (he " mark." In " aged " horses tho incisors aro worn down below (ho extent of (he fold, and the "mark" disappears. This occurs in the lower mid- incisors at the sixth year, and in tho next and outer pairs in the seventh and eighth years respectively. The "mark" remains somewhat longer in the upper teeth. The skull is much elongated, chiefly in consequence of tho great size of the face as compared with tho hinder or true cranial por- tion. It is wide between the orbits, which arc small, and closed behind by a bridge of bone, as in ruminants. The prcmaxillaries project beyond the nasals. The condyle of tho lower jaw is much elevated above its alveolar border. Tho cervical vertebra* have their contra elongated, strongly convex in front and concave behind. The iif/amcntum uHcfur is a strong band of elastic tissue for the support of tho head, extending from the spines of the anterior dorsal verlobrsB to tho occiput. In the dorsal region the vertebrae become gradually less convex anteriorly. The neural spines increase in length to tho fourth or fifth. The dorso-luinbar vertcbrie number 24, and there arc IS or 11) pairs of ribs. There aro 5 sacral and about 17 caudal vertebric. The clavicle is absent, as in all ungulates. The scapula, or shoulder-blade, is long and narrow, the low spine has no acromion, and tho coracoid process is small. The humerus is short and strong, and the articulation with the radius and ulna is a very perfect hinge-joint. The two bones of tho fore arm are co-ossificd. Tho shaft of tho ulna is obso- lete, and the distal end small, so that the articulation for tho carpus or wrist, commonly called the "knee," is furnished almost entirely by tlio radius. The carpus is composed of seven bones in two rows--the first row of the usual four bones, tho second of three bones — the trapezium being obsolete, or sometimes represented by a small ossicle. The trapezoid and unciform are small, and tlic magnum large. Three meta- carpals only arc present, corresponding with those of the index, midille, and fourth or "ring finger "of tho human hand. Of those, the middle, articulating with the magnum, is much t!io largest, supports the foot, and is called tho cannon-bone. The other two metacarpals arc small, and placed somewhat behind the middle one. They taj)er rai)idly to a point, and, except in rare abnormal cases, support no digits. They aro called splint-bones, and by their displacement givo rise to the disease known os " splint." The cannon-bone is nearly symmetrical on tho opposite sides, and at its lower end, at the lotlock-joint, articulates with the first phalanx, called the" great pastern- bone." Tho second phalanx is the " little pastcrn-bone," and the crescent-shaited ungual phalanx, supporting the hoof, is tho "coffin-bone." The transversely elongated sesamoid bone in the tendon of thcjlcxot- pcr/urann, at the articulation of the two latter bones, is tho " navicular " of veterinarians. The pelvic bones arc elongated, and their long axis, on tho length of which depends the proportional size of (ho "([uarter," forms an acute angle with the back-bone. The femur is short, stout, and included in the common integu- ment of the body. Tlie third trochanter, as usual in odd- toed ungulates, is well developed for tho insertion of the j/lutciia tuiixinuts muscle, and there is a characteristic fossa on the under surface of the bono above tho external con- dyle. The fibula is rudimentary. In the ankle, or "hock," joint, the astragalus is deeply and obliquely grooved. It has a flat distal face, not borne upon any distinct neck, and articulates almost entirely with the navicular, jiresenting only a small face to tho cuboid. The internal and middle cuneiform bones are small and united, and support the inner splint-bone. The ectocunciform is largo, and with tho cuboid supports tho cannon-bono, or metatarsal of the middle toe. Tho outer splint-bono is also supported by tho cuboid. Below this point tho structuro is tjiinilar to that described in tho fore foot. It will thus be seen that throughout the whole extent of bolh tho hind and foro limbs, except in the proximal portions of the carpus and 996 HORSE, FOSSIL. other, and are usually confounded under the name of Ara- bians. They are beautifully fnrraed. have fine legs and feet and small bony heads, and are usually small, not over 15 hands high. The Flanders horse is a large, heavy, ooarse- Ic'ed, slow horse, and the Tartar horse, which has been ca"rned into Russia and Hungary, is a small, bony, rough horse, with a large head and great endurance. From vari- ous mixtures of these three types the modern horses arc descended. The Barb blood spread into .Spain and It.aly, and there met that of the other two races. The favorite horses of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries seem to have been various crosses of the liarh and the Pl.anders horses. It is difficult to say what the original English horse was, but he is spoken of in the highest terms by Markham iu lOOit, who puts the brced.s iu the following order of merit: English, Neapolitan, Corsican, Turk, Barb, Spanish, Po- li.sh, German, Hungarian, Flanders, etc. The English horse of that time was probably a cross between the Fl.^n- ders and the Hungarian, and being early used for racing and hunting purposes, he was swift and enduring. At least as early as 1000 it was discovered that the cross of the Barbary horse upon English mares was the best for pro- ducing speed and bottom, and in the reign of James I. Markham's Arabian and Place's White Turk were imported. Charles II. imported what were known as the Royal mares from Tangiers. The Darley Arabian was brought in during the reign'of Queen Anne, and from this date (about 1705) there were numerous importations, and by crossing them with the native horses the foundation of the great family of thoroughbreds was laid. These horses now undoubtedly sur- pass all others for size, strength, bottom, beauty, and swift- ness combined. The proper definition of a thoroughbred at the present time is a horse whose progenitors for five generations back are to be found iu the Slud Bnnk, which is a record of horses bred for racing purposes since about 1700, the complete pedigrees commencing about 1750. The first importations of thoroughbred horses into America were about 1725-30, and the Sind Book of the American alon/the inner border of the sole, are called branch is kept up on this side ot the water. This ebass ot tarsus, development is principally confined to a single me- dian series of bones, and thus, with the single solid hoof, is formed the highest type of a purely locomotive organ for progression over solid, even ground, and no mean wea])on of defence. The skin of the horse is thick, firmly adherent, especially along the back, and well provided with sweat-glands. The lips are very delicate tactile organs, and capalile of much motion. They are set with long whiskers or bristles, the bases of which arc lodged in the subculaneous muscular tissue, and are furnished with sensory nerves. Respiration is performed through the nostrils. The stomach is simple ; the ca-cum very large, fully twice the size of the stomach. The alimentary canal is about eight times as long as the body. There is no gall-bladder. The principal peculiari- ties of the muscular system are, as might be expected, in the muscles of the limbs. The serralim mnrjniiK and the lei'alor nui/idi scnpulm with the slenio-ncnpulnris form a great sling, by which the weight of the body is transmitted to the anterior extremities. Tho power of abduction and adduction not being needed in a purely cursorial animal, tho deltoid is much reduced. On tho other hand, the pro- and re-traetors and the flexors and extensors are well developed. Tho pronators and supinators are wanting, the limb being fixed in a constant state of pronation. In the hind leg the femoral muscles are the same as in man, but enormously developed. The tlhinUa aniii/ua and poxli- 01(8 and the pcroneus loiirpis and brecis are wanting. The flexor hallncis and tho flexor Iniir/m dlijitornm are united into a single perfor.ating tendon fur the distal phalanx. In this tendon is developed the sesamoid bone, known as the "navicular," The epidermis covering the terminal pha- lanx is developed into the hoof, a horny cylindrical or somewhat conical case, separable by maceration into the wall, tho sole, and the frog. The wall is that part of the hoof that is seen when it rests upon the ground, and its anterior portion is called the toe. The heels are formed by the inflexion of its posterior extremities, and these extremi ties, passing along the inn the bars. The sole is a thick horny plate occupying the inferior surface of the hoof, and the frog is a pyramidal mass of horn lodged between the two posterior re-entering angles of the wall. The hoof of the ass and mule is nar- rower than that of the horse, the wall higher and thicker, the sole more concave, and the horn harder. The period of gestation in the horse is eleven months. It often lives thirty years or more, but is usually service- able fur less than half that time. lis perception is quick, its memory retentive, and it is capable of much afl'ection. It is surpassed in docility by no animal except the dog, and perhaps the elephant. Its flesh is often used for food. The original habitat of the horse is unknown. It is found wild in Centr.al and Western Asia, and upon the plains of both North and South America. In the liltter country, especially upon tho pampas of Brazil and Buenos Ayrcs,'it is abundant and lives in large herds. All these animals arc, however, known to bo desccndeil from domestic horses brought from Europe by the Spaniards, The horse has been domesticated from a very early period, probably first in Central Asia or Northern Africa. Its remains are very rare in the Stone Age, but a few bones have been found in tho Swiss lake-villages, enough to indicate its presence. In the Bronze Period, however, its bones be- come more numerous. Upon Egyptian monuments it is not represented earlier than the eighteenth dynasty, but the horse appears to have been abundant in Egypt after that time. It is first mentioned in the Bible after the children of Israel went into Egypt, no reference being made to the horse in the full account of the pastoral lives of tho early patriarchs. The most celebrated races of the honso are those of Ariibia, Turkey, and Barbary, and from these, by a thorough and judicious system of breeding, has sprung tho English race-horse, an anim.al that now so far surpasses the origi- nals from which it has sprung that almost no benefit has been derived from imported blood for the last three-quarters of a century. A single mile ia IJ minutes is considered fast running time for a racehorse. The height of a raee- liorse is about 15.1 hands, or 5 feet 2 inches. A horse under l:i hands high is called a pony, and some Welsh and Scotch breeds of ponies are very celebrated for their endurance. A Shetland pony IU hands high has carried a rider 41 miles in .3 hours and 45 minutes. In America more atten- tion has been paid to the rearing and training of trotting- borses, and the constant improvement is shown by the fact that nearly every year the fastest time previously recorded is surpassed. At present the best time for a single mile is 2 minutes 14 seconds, and was made by Goldsmith Maid in 1874 at Mystic Park, Boston. The horses of the N. part of Africa, from Barbary (hence called Barbs), from Arabia, and from Turkey rescmhlccaoh horses is bred and used primarily for racing purposes, but the cross improves horses for all purposes, as is clearly shown by the superior quality of the average horse of Vir- ginia and New Jersey, into which States the taste for racing introduced the thoroughbred horse at an early period. Owing to three and four mile races and heat-races having been kept up in America while short races and single dashes have been in vogue in England for some years, the average Americvn thoroughbred is probably a stouter and stronger horse than his English cousin. It can hardly be said that there are any distinct families of horses in America, al- though those of different localities present some peculiari- ties." The average horse of the New England States and of Canada is small, hardy, good-tempered, a good traveller, and very enduring. The Morgan horse of Vermont is one of the best types. Lancaster eo.. Pa., possesses a breed ot horses, now" somewhat scarce, called Conestogas— large, well-made, slow draught-horses. In Virginia, Kentucky, and the South generallv the thoroughbred and his connec- tions predominate, anil in Texas, California, and Mexico we find the mustang— a small horse, evidently descended from the Spanish horses introduced by the early conquerors of that region. Horse, Fossil. Tho existing species of the horse fam- ily are so closely related to each other as not to be dis- tinguished gcnerically by any characters derived from the skeleton, but a large number of extinct genera have lett their remains in Quaternary and Tertiary strata of various parts of the world, and especially of North America. At the time of the discovery of this continent by Europcans.no species of horse or ass existed in either North or South America, but since the introduction of these animals the climate and conditions of life have proved so favorable that laro-c herds of wild horses arc now common on tho pamjias and prairies of both continents, the descendants of those that have escaped from domestication. This comiilcio absence of indigenous species is the more remarkable in view of the fact that not less than twelve species of i'lyiiru have been described from Quaternary deposits, and more than thirty other related forms from the Tertiary of Amer- ica. Kome'of these are readily distinguished from the living species by the greater complexity in the foldings of tho enamel as they appear upon the worn surface of the molars. In the Pliocene Tertiary, tho horse was represented by several extinct genera, the best known being Ilippnnoii (or Htppoiherimn), in which the body was supported, as m EquuH. on the cxtremitv of the mid.lle toe of each foot, which was also provided at the fetlock-joint wilh an ad- ditional pair of small toes, not reaching the ground, and resembling the dew-claws of cattle. In the upper niolar teeth there is in Hippnrion. on the anterior portion of the inner side, an isolated ellipse of enamel enclosing dentine, IIURSK-CIIESTNUT— HORSE-FLY. 9!)7 ttod DOt joiDcd with the main body of the tooth by an isth- mus of dentine, as iu E(/uh», at least until the teeth arc nearly wurn uut. The species arc small, a^ llie nuinc implies, liippnrSnn bein;; a diminutive from the (jruik hippoa, a "horse." Protuhippus and Pliohippun of the Pliocene arc genera nearly related to llipparion and IC'piuH. Auchippuv, also from the Pliocene, resembled in its teeth Auchitlurt'tim of the Miocene, a genus now considered as typical of a family distinct from that of the horse. In Aitehitkcritim the shaft of the ulna is complete, modt-ratcly developed, and more or less jieparatc from the radius. The fibula is ankyloscd with the tibia. Tlie orbit is not closed behind, aftd there is a deep ant-orbital fossa. The molars have short crowns devoid of eement. and arc inserted by distinct fangs. There are three digits in each foot, the middle being much the largest, but all appear to have reached the ground. Mt'ithippng, a\so from the Miocene, was closely related to Anrhithei-inm. In this g<'nus the radius and ulna are free or only loosely united. The tibia and fibula are co-ossi- fied at the distal end. There were three digits in each foot, all of which reached the ground, and they are more nearly equal in size than in Auchithcrium. Another closely related Miocene genus, Mtnohtppnn, had, besides the three toes of the fore foot, ii splinl-bonc representing the outer toe, or little finger of the human hand. The Miocene species were not larger than a sheep. The Eocene representatives of the group were still smaller, the largest hardly exceeding a fox in size. Tlicy belong to the genus Orohxppua, which has tour functional digits in the fore foot, and no ant- orbital fossa. The orbit is open behind. The dentition is very similar to that of Ancfiifherinniy but the first u])per premolar is larger, and the succeeding ones smaller than in that genus. The diastema, or"])lace for the bit," is distinct. The canines arc large, and near the incisors. The crowns of the molars are short and destitute of cement. The skeleton is decidedly equine in its general features. The raclius and ulna are distinct, the latter larger than in An- cfiitfirrium. The carpal bones are eight in number, and resemble those of the tapir, hut the trapezium is propor- tionally much smaller. All the digits of the fore loot, ex- cept the first are well developed. The third is the largest, and its resemblance to that of the horse is clearly marked. The terminal phalanx, or coflin-bonc, has a shallow median groove in front, as iu many species of this group from the Later Tertiary. The fourth digit exceeds the second in size, and the fifth or outer toe is much the smallest of all, ancl has its metacarpal bone consideriihly curved outward. There are but three digits in the hind foot. The tibia and lihula arc distinct. All the above genera except Anchitfipnum are found in the Tertiary and Quaternary of this continent, and Auchi- therium is represented by the closely-allied genus McHnhip- pH9. This large number of equine mammals and their regular dislrilmtion in geological time afford a good oppor- tunity to ascertain the probal)lc lineal descent of (he modern hor.sc. The American representative of the latter is Equm frateniut, a species almost, if not entirely, identical with Kfjtnia cahniiiiM, to which the recent horse belongs, Iluxicy has traced the later genealogy of the horse through Kuro- poan extinct forms, but the Mine in America was a more direct one and the record is more comphte. Taking, then, as extremes of the series, Orohippnn atji/iN, from the Eocene, and EipiHK /rntcmuH, from the Quaternary, the natural line of descent, as indicated by over thirty intermediate forms, would seem to bo through the following genera: OiohippHH o{ the Eocene. MitJiipjiUM and Mcti<>fn'p{»m of the Miocene, Anrhippnt, IUpparitniy and PliohippuH of the Pliocene, and Kf/uuti, Quaternary and Recent, The most marked changes undergone by these successive genera arc the following : \nt, increase in size, from OrohippiiM, as large as a fox, to the morlern horse ; 2t\, increase in speed through concentration of the limb-bones ; .'!tl. elongation of the head and neck and modification of the skull. The increase of A, Orohijmux (Eocene); H, Mr^nhippuK (Miorene); C, Jfipparion (I'llocene); D, />/»»« (Quaternary and lleccnt). speed was a direct result of a gradual and striking modifi- cation of the limbs. Thcso were slowly concentrated by the reduction of their lateral elements and enlargement of the axial one, until the force exerted by each limb came to act directly through its axis in the line of motion. Tliis conccntrutiun is well shown in the fore limb. There \vas, 1st, a change in the scapula and humerus, especially in the latter, which facilitated motion in one plane only; 2d, nn expansion of the radius and reduction of the ulna, until the former alone remained entire and effective; .'Jd, a shttrt- cuing of all the carpal bones and enlargement of the me- dian ones, ensuring a firm wrist; 4th, an increase in size of the third digit at the expense of those on each side, until the former alone supported the limb. The latter change is clearly seen in the above diagram, which represents the fore feet of four typical genera in the equine series, taken in succession from each of the geological periods in which this group of mammals is known to have lived. The ancient brohippiifi had all four digits of the fore feet well developed. In Mrm>hipj)HH, of the next period, the filth t(»e is only rep- resented by a rudiment, and the limb is supported by the second, third, and fourth, the middle one being the largest. Ilippnrion of the Later Tertiary still has three digits, but the third is much stouter, and the outer toes have ceased to be of use, as they do not touch the ground. In E*/vufi, the last of the series, the lateral hoofs are gone, and the digits themselves are represented only Ijy the rudimentary splint-bones. The middle or third digit supports the limb, and its size has increased cjcordingly. The correspond- ing changes in the posterior limb of these genera arc very similar, but not so striking, as the oldest type { Orohi/tpns) had but three toes behind. An earlier ancestor of the group, perhaps in the lowest Eocene, probably had four toes on this i'oot and five in front. .Such a predecessor is as clearly indicated by the feet of Orohippua, as the latter is by its Miocene relative. A still older ancestor, possilily in the Cretaceous, doubtless had five toes on cacli toot, the typical number in mammals. This reduction in the num- ber of toes may perhaps have been duo to elevation of the region inhabited, which gradually led the animals to live on higher ground, instead of the soft lowlands where a many-toed loot would he most useful. The gradual elongation of the head and neck may be said to have already begun in OrohippuH, if we compare that form with other most nearly allied mammals. The dias- tema, or ** place for the bit," was well dcAcloptd in holh jaws even then, but increased materially in succeeding genera. The number of the teeth remained the same until the Pliocene, when the front lower premolar was lost, and subsequently the corresponding up])er tooth ceased to be functionally developed. The next upper premolar, which iu OrohlppiiH was the smallest of the six jiosterior teeth, rapidly increased in size, and finally became in the horse the largest of the scrier. The grinding teeth had at first very short crowns, without cement, and were inserted by distinct roots. In Pliocene species the molars became longer, and were more or less coaled with cement. The modern horse has extremely long grinders, without true roots, and covered with a thick external layer of cement. The large canines of OrufiippuH become gradually reduced in the later genera, and Ihc characteristic "mark" ujton tlic incisors is found only in (ho later forms. The bridge of bone bounding the orbit behind first appears in the Plio- cene genera. It is an interesting fact lliat Ihc peculiarly equine features acquirctl by OmhijipuH are rctaineil per- sistently throughout the entire series of succeeding forms. Such, c. f/., is tin; form of the anterior part of the lower jaw, and also the characteristic astragalus, with its nar- row, oblique superior ridges^ and its small articular facet for the cuboid. Such is, in brief, a general outline oV the more marked changes that sccin to have produced in America the highly specialized modern Ei/nnx from its diminutive, four- toed predecessor, the Eocene OrnhijipnH, The line of dc^eent appears to have been direct, and the remains now known supply every important intermediate form. Consitlering the remarkable development of the group throughout the entire Tertiary [leriod.and its cxisten(re even later, it seems very strange that none of the species should have survi\ed. and that we are indebted for our present horse to the did World. 0. G. Maksm. Ilorso'-Chcstnut. See .Saimndace*. Horse ("reek, tp. of Marengo co., Ala. Pop. Ki;i7. Il<»rse (reek, (p. of Kudc co., Mo. Pop. 51)7. Horse Creek, post-tp. of Ashe co,, N. C, Pop. 8i;t. Horse Distemper, a species of catarrh. As tlie dis- ease is contagious, an animal having it should he kepi apart from the others, and after a tliorough purge should be fed on light bran mashes and kept warm until recovery. Horsc-Fly, The females of many dipterous insects of the family Tabanidie are called horse-flics, from the I great annoyance their bito causes the horse. Among the 998 HORSE GUARDS— HOKSE-RACING. most common are Tabanua lineola, the green-headed fly, which in hot weather has been known to worry horses and cattle to death. The bite is severe, and even venomous, always drawing blood, Tnhanug ntrnliia and ciMcdn, the orange-belted fly, are also common. Their larva; are very destructive of snails and of other larvse. The horso-fly of Great Britain is Hlppnboscii equinn. (See FoREST-ri.v.) Horse Guards. (See Gu.irds.) The term was used to denote the head-quarters of the British army, White- hall, London, in consequence of the building being guarded by a squadron of horse guards, and of the striking appear- ance of the mounted sentinels on duty at the entrance. The head-quarters were changed in 1871 to the War Office, I'all Mall ; ]iapors emanating therefrom are still headed '•Horse (iuards," " W.ar Office, I'all Mall," being added. Ilorse'hcad, t.p. of Johnson eo.. Ark. Pop. 995. Ilorschcads, post-v. and tp. of Chemung co., N. Y., ou the Northern Central and the Utica Ithaca and Elmira E. Rs., has 6 churches, 2 weekly newspapers, 2 grist-mills, a tannery, a sash .and blind factory, a steam saw-mill, a woollen-mill, and the second largest brickyard in the U.S. Pop. of v. 1410; of tp. 2901. T. J. Taylou, Eu. '• HonsEHEADS JounxAL." Hor.'^e Isl'and, an island in Lake Ontario, in Hounds- field tp., .Icft'orson CO., N. Y., li miles from Sackett's Har- bor. It has a lighthouse. Area, 27 acres. Horse-Mackerel, a name given in Great Britain to the ScAU (which see), but applied in the U. S. to Thymms Hcvundo-dnianlin, called also albicore and American tunny. It is often ten or twelve feet long, is very destructive to fish and fishermen's nets, and is caught chiefly for its abundant oil, although its flesh is pronounced excellent by good judges. It is best killed by the harpoon. Horse'manship. It seems quite proper to suppose, taking into consideration the ancient myths relating to the Centaurs and to Pegasus, that the horse was used by man from the earliest periods for the purposes of war and the chase. This was unquestionably true in India and in Persia. The earliest regular treatise on horsemanship with which we are acquainted is by Xenophon, and from that it ap- pears that the horsemen of his time were accustomed to feed, clean, and ride their horses much as we do. The sad- dle was not, however, known to them, and their bit seems to have been of the simplest possible form. The animal was ridden either barebacked or with a cloth or skin secured by a band. There were no stirrups, and the rider mounted by vaulting on, or by stepping from a projection upon the shaft of the lance. The saddle came into use iu the fourth cen- tury, and the stirrup was no doubt invented soon after. Erom that time, and through the , Middle Ages, the more civilized nations used most elaborate horse-trappings, and the art of riding was no doubt considerably advanced as the equipments were improved. As a recognized art, re- quiring long and difficult training, it seems to have had its origin at Naples, whence its professors spread over Europe. Spain took it up next to Italy, then France, and lastly England. The tournaments which were in fashion from tho^cloventh to the sixteenth century, and the Crusades, brought the art into special prominence ; the carousals, which succeeded the tournaments, kept up the interest, and during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries equi- tation held the first place in the education of a gentleman. The riding-school was Iho fashionable lounge or club of young men of rank, and some superb buildings were erected in various places dedicated to this use alone. The interior court of the Louvre was used as the place of instruction of King Louis XIII. by his riding-master. Pluvinel. The saddle in the time of the Crusades was made principally of wood, very deep, and so formed that the rider sat upon his fork perfectly straiglit up and down, as if standing. Tho armor of man and horse was heavy, and a stout horse was required to carry its weight. About 1509 the equip- ments were somewhat modified to suit the purposes of civil life, but the position of the rider remained nearly the same until the time of I)e la Guerinierc, whose folio vol- ume, with beautiful plates drawn by Ch. Parrocel, ap- peared in 173:1, when the saddle assumed more nearly the modern form, and tho seat of the rider was changed by bending the knee and sitting down more in the saddle, mueh in the manner of the ]iresent European military seat. Tho Eastern nations Imvo from tho earliest times used a deep saddle, but with a very short stirrup, rising in their stirrups to use the javelin or lance. In the early part of the eighteenth century the saddle by successive changes approached nearly to tho present English saddle, and the Engli.sh riders adopted the short stirrup which is now cha°racteristic of their school of riding, most other nations retaining tho military seat. The heavy curb bit of the Middle Ages was retained until quite a late period, and the equipments and mode of riding of the Mexican and South American of the present day are almost exactly those of the beginning of the eighteenth century. Among the con- tinental European nations riding as a civil accomplishment has declined, but in England it still holds its place in the foremost rank among the amusements and accomplish- ments of a gentleman. Faieimas Rogeks. Horse Pasture, post-tp. of Henry co., Va. P. 2302. Horse-Power. See Dynamic Units, by Proi?. W. P. TnowBitiDCK, A. M. Horse-Uacing. Though horse-racing has probably been coeval with the possession of the hor.so by man, it seems likely that tho Pcrsi.ans were the first to elevate the sport to a great institution. Horses with them were iden- tified with the sun or with the fiery chariot driven once a day over the heavens. From the Persians the Greeks perhaps derived the sacred races which were held at the Olympian, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean games. These races were all conducted with clumsily-built chariots, without springs, excecdinglv difficult to drive, the course involving as much danger as skill. Great as was the difficulty of driving, it was'much increased by the horses being all the time near the spectators, who crowded close to the twenty short turns of the ground, and maddened thr animals by their cries, " while artifice was employed for the express purpose of frightening the horses when they approached the statue of tho'genius''Taraxippus." The charm of Greek races, apart from the interest in the victor, consisted in the excitement of seeing the chariots strike and shatter each other, tho horses trampling on and killing the fallen drivers, and the overturns, in which the whole population of refined Athens delighted. The Roman races were much like the Greek, but with this difference, that tho Romans cm|iloyed their slaves as charioteers, instead of driving themselves. In tiine, the Romans, however, introduced mounted races, and with tho exception that the riders were often expected to perform circus tricks and acrobatic feats, they were in many respects strikingly like the modern. The horses were entered thirty days in advance, and were trained, the jockeys wearing four colors— green, red, white, and sea-color (rtiic(n), to which Domitian added yellow and purple. There were prizes given, but as betting was not practised, it would appear that races among the Romans were a far more creditable institution than those known at the present day. The Romans did not use saddles (which, according to Beck- mann, were invented in the fourth century), but they and the Persians had thick saddlecloths. The jockeys were called 8f)i«o/-e«, the trainers n;iilntnres. Caligula once gave 2000 sesterces to the jockey Eutychus. An old French song describes a horse-race run m the sixth century, the winner receiving for a prize the hand of a Breton princess. From the twelfth to the fourteenth century there appears in feudal grants mention of sums awarded at annual and regularly established races, " but it is not until the reign of Louis XV. that the history of horse-racing in France" seriously considered, begins." There is good ground for believing that in England the ancient Britons, decidedly addicted to horsemanship, had races, and that the Mithraic courses established by the Romans were continued by the Saxons. It is certain that the latter had mounted races, since "running horses" were among the presents sent by Hugh Capet to Athelstan when suing for his sister Ethels- nitha. This king took great pains to imnrove the breed of the British horse bv importations from the Continent, par- ticularly from Siiaiii, by which means a breed was produced, says Bl'ainc. that flourished from the time of the Crusades un'til tho days of the Tudors— a period which has been called "the era of the great horse." In the romance of /?^,/» of Soulhamplon we arc told that at AV lutsuntide tho knights . . "A conrs let them make on a daye, Steeds and palfraye 10 assaye Whicli horse that best may run." Fitzstephen informs us that in the time of Henry II. there was a great deal of racing on the ground where Smithfield Market now stands. In the time of Henry VIII. turfed courses were laid out and prizes allotted. The chict ol these was a silver bell, whence perhaps comes the phrase " to bear away tho bell." Modern English horse-racing began strictly with James I., who was very fond of it. In his reign public and regular runnings were held in Yorkshire and Surrey. At- tention was now paid to feeding and training horses and instructing jockeys. Eastern horses were imported during this rci<'n, but none of them proved to be of any value. Duringlbe civil war and the Protectorate racing declined, but with the Restoration there was a grand revival of all fiehl-sports, and especially of this. Charles II. was an entliusiastic admirer of the turf, even entering his horses in his own name. He established races at Datchct Mead, that he might more conveniently enjoy his favorite sport. Ho was also regular in his attendance at Newmarket, now HORSE-RACING. 999 boasting every accommodation for the training of horses, with an excellent race-course, which, as the system pro- gressed, was apiiortioned into distances corresponding with the several a;es and sujipiiscd powers of the horses. By tliis arraiigonunt. as well as bv a judicious appropriation of the weights to be carried, according to similar circum- stances, a scale of equality was kept up highly to the credit of the turf regulations. Indeed, much of the arrangement and most of the rules and regulations since in force were formed about this time and under the auspices of this prince. William III. encouraged the turf, and George, consort of Queen Anne, greatly aided it in every way. During his reign Curwcn liaybad and the Darley Arabian were imported. Charles II. introduced the silver prize cup, value 1«0 guineas. " George I.." says '• Nimrod," '■ was no racer, hut he discontinued silver plates as prizes, and instituted the king's plates, being 100 guineas in cash." Durin"- the reign of (ieorgo II. the Godolphin Arabian ap- peared", the foun.ler of the best English •' blooded" horses. George III. gave the lurf some encouragement. His brother, the duke of ('urabcrlanil,was passionately addicted to racing. From his stud came the famous horses Herod and Marak, who sired the famous Eclipse, born in the fourth year of George IV. O'lCelley, the great turfman of these tunes, owned Eclipse, and w'as the breeder of Vohinleer and Dun- gaiinon by Eclipse, who became the sire of HiO winning horses. The earl of Grosvenor is also held in honor as one of the great racing magnates of this reigu. He raised the two famous mares Meteor and Violante. and lost his entire f..rtune in the end. though he won £200,0110 by betting. •• Honesty," savs lilaine, •' which ensures riches in most other pursuits, is almost certain to occasion loss in racing.' The king, George IV., bred Iho famous horses Whiskey, Manfrcdrand Maria. This monarch, according to lilaine, was very shrewd in lurf-niatters, and " surrounded himself with men deeply versed in the ' mysteries' of racing. Tho turf abounded iii rascals, and the prince found it necessary to m<et the luanicuvns of such men by proper caution, liy the exercise of this jiroper caution, he at last, in tho alTair of the notorious Escape against Grey Dionied, " suc- ceeded in getting the accusation of foul play affixed to his name." His brother, the duke of York, was, however, a heavy loser, being less suspicious. Cowper had long be- fore said of England, " We Justly boast At le.Lst superior jockcysliip. and claim The honors of llie turf as all our own." rnforlunately, the dishonors of the turf must also bo claimed, and it was during the reign of George IV. that the turf became as noted for villainy as for sport. In tho language of " Xiinrod," ■' A set of masked, unprincipled mis- creanls''are now usurping the place of genllenien of integ- rity. No honorable man can be successful for any length of time against such a horde of determined depredators as have lately been seen on our race-courses." Among tho celebrated' jockeys employed by George IV. were Samuel Chipiiey, who became rich ; .'^oulli, Goodson, Robinson, and Nelson.' Earl Fitzwilliam, "a princely conductor of his stud," bred the eminent racers Orville and Mulatto. Tho earl of Derby raised Sir Peter Teazle, a descendant of the Godolphin Arabian, as of Blank, Snap, and Reguliis. Ho prorluced more winners than any English horse known ; 10,000 guineas were refused for him. Tho lale duke of Dorset was a first-class jockey, an.l, like the duke of Graf- ton, was a great winner. It is remarkable that severnl racing authorities lay great stress on the fact that this no- bleman was not a cheat, and always "ran to win." ( For a fuller account of the great patrons of the turf from this timiMo the year lf<:'.'i the reader may consult tho article "The Turf" in the Quurtir/,/ JUricm, No. US.) There are about 120 provincial r.ace-mcetings in England, Scotland, and Wales, and some of these are held twice in the year. Those of Newmarket, Epsom. Ascot, Vork, Doncaaler, and Goodwood stand first in all respects. The nnn.ual Derby (Epsom) ia the greal London holiday, where :i.')0,'000 people often assemble. Tho Gooilwood is called the " ladies' race," because it is specially visited by ladies, many of the highest rank, in splendid toilette. The better class of visitors sit and lunch in Ibeir carriages, while a stream of female gypsies, clamorous to lell fortunes or beg, itinerant musieiaiis and peddlers, go from one to the other, anil the background is filled in with booths for eating, ex- hibitions, eocoanut " sliys." "Aunt ,«allies," and similar ruilc games, usuallv managed by gypsy men. It is said that the telcgrnpliic deiiartment of the English post-offico takes severnl hundred thousniul pounds annually from turf- men, and that this "chief national pastime," which re- ceives, in fact, nothing from the statr, or which against £1000 received pays out £HOO0 excise-duty, "demands for its support an expenditure equal to the revenue of such email kingdoms as Portugal or Denmark." This is perhaps the true reason why race-betting is not reformed out of ex- istence, or rather why it exists as an anomaly and a national reproach. It is not long since a poor man was sent to prison for simply looking on at a game of pitch-penny in London, while the belting on tho races fills columns not only in "sporting papers," but is recorded more or less in every daily journal. The usual pretext, that racing keeps up the quality, strain, and value of horses, is a weak apol- ogy; for, though it is true that that refined and highly ar- tificial animal, the thoroughbred, executes the greatest feats of running, it is as useless to the world at large, save for bclliii'j oil, as the giraffes or lions in the zoological gar- dens. Horses partly of this stock arc found, however, to excel for almost "every purpose. There is a great de- sire on tho part of the "English government to abolish betting, but as the entire system of racing depends on gambling, and as it involves such an immense amount of capital, and is, moreover, so near and dear to at least one-half the aristocracy, no violent reforms in it can at present take place. M'uch has, however, been done, and the Betting Act of the present year and other action show that there is a settled determination to do away with the greatest scandal which at present disgraces any Christian country, excepting, perhaps, bull-fighting in Spain. The most experienced writers on the turt admit that if the best horse the world ever saw were to be run at present " he would have no more chance to win than if ho had but the use of three of his legs," if he were heavily backed to lose. It is impossible to make the poor under- stand that thev arc justly punished for trivial gambling, when the journals with which they are most familiar repre- sent the " plunging," or desperate betting-feats, of this and that lord as his crowning glory. Slm>!c-chris:iit;—?o called either from the slccp-lnU rid- ing which it involves, or from a steeple in the distance having been originallv the goal— consists of headlong rid- ing over a ground abounding in ditches, hedges, gullies, and all kinds of impediments. It is of Irish origin, and no longer enjoys its former popularity in England. Ifiirdh- racing was ori'ginally invented by George IV. on Brighton Downs. Hurdles arc like segments of light fences or icK- llcH of coarse basketwork. In a course of one or two miles three or more hurdles may be placed to be leaped over. Great efforts have been made in France to render racing national, but it has always existed as a distinct imitation of an English institution. During all the reign of Louis XV. it was, as Larousse admits, the Fraii<:uiii AnylomaiirH (or French who affected the English) who were fond of horses. Extr.avagant belting became fashionable, and races were abolished bv the Kcvolution. Napoleon re- established them, and in 1833 a jockey-club was lounded by Count Max Caecia, Do Cambis, Count Demidofi, JI. Lahtte, and others. There are now in France sixty race-grounds, the principal of whi.-.h are at the Bois do Boulogne and Chantilly. As the French only admit native-bred horses to their races, it seems hardly fair that they should send runners of English extraction to compete at English races, and then rejoice, as they do, over an occasional victory. When it is considered that these horses arc generally trained and perfected in France by English grooms and jockeys, the ground for exulting over such triumphs as "French" is seriously diminislied. Admiral Rous, tho head of the turf in England, has recently endeavored, but in vain, to induce the French to abolish this restriction. Much deiiends in racing on the skill of the jockey— so much, in fact, that a very good rider is sometimes almost able to win with any horse entered. Great eflorts have been made in America to perfect tho race-horse or thoroughbred of Anglo-Arab origin, but tho number is as yet far iiiferinr to that of English horses, though, as the annals of our turf indicate, there are many such among us perfectly qualified to compete at any Eng- lish course. When it is considered, however, llrtil llie best English writers on the subject are of the upiiiion that the race-horse is among animals what a dandy is uiioing men, it may be something more than pn.blematieal whether Amer- icans" should not remain contented with trotting, in wliieli they are unrivalled, save perhiii.s by the Russians, and which has tho advantage of developing practically useful animals. The trotting-horses of America have long been remark- able. At first the breed appeared to be merely tht result of n'ccidenl. but breeders now reeogiiizc the fact that Iho best have a strong dash of thoroughbred blood. A large number of the most successful among llicin are traced back to Messenger (imported about 17Sa-!IO). Trotling-timo has grailually been reduced from a mile in X minutes, which used to be eonsidircd very good, to a mile in 2ni. 148., which time was made in 1S71 by Goldsmith .Maid. I'p to the end of that year, ilfi horses arc recorded as having trotted in public in 2m. .'iOs. or less, tho ten fastest having done it in less than 2m. I9s. Some of the lighter Norman 1000 HORSE-RADISH— HORSLEY. or Porcheron horses of Franco have shown trotting action, and there is a family of horses in Russia, called '*Orlofl' trotters." that has produced some onlj second to those of the U. S. Owinj? to the great difference hetween the speed of trolting-horses. it is necessary to divide them into classes, sueh as those which have not " beaten '2.'MK 2.25, or 2.20," as the ease may be; and very strict rules are made by the Xutidiial Association regarding clianges of name or any action which may cloud the idt;utity of horses which trot for public money. Racing proper, as distinguished from trotting, has always been a favorite sport in the Southern States, and has lately been revived at the North with grrat success, as the summer meetings at Jerome Park, N. Y., Long Branch, and Saratoga show. Only thorough- breds are fit for racing, and a part-bred horse would have no chance whatever to win. There is no classification, as in trotting, as all good race-horses can run within a few seconds of the best speed. There is a classification, how- ever, as to age, the youngi-st horses carrying (he least weight in cases where horses of different ages are engaged in the same races. Regular tables of weights are estab- lished ; as, for instance, .'i-year olds, 90 pounds; 4-year olds, 108 pounds; 5-year. 11-4 pounds; fi-year, IIS pounds; mnres being weighted about 3 pounds less than horses. The best racing time made in the U. S. is that made by Grey Planet in 1874 — oue mile in Im. 42ls. Until within a few years Im. -Us. was the best, but that has now been beaten by several horses. The best four-mile time for many years was that of Lexington in 1855 in 7m. ID^s. : it wa*s beaten in 1S74 by Fellowcraft in 7m. I'J^s. There is no official time taken at English races, nnd therefore no means of comparing their time with ours. No cimfidcuce is placed by horsemen in the story that Flying Childers ran a mile in a minute. English courses are usually straight or nearly so, and over the turf. The regular American course is one mile, made np of two semicircles, each a quarter of a mile long, joined by two straight quarters, and is kept in order by harrowing and scraping, as turf becomes too hard in the dry summer for horses to run over. C. O. Lela.nd. Horsc'-Radish (Xftsturtium Armoracin)^ a perennial herb of the order Crucifcras, whose large white roots fur- nish a well-known pungent condiment lor the table. The roots yield a volatile oil which contains sulphur. The plant is European, and half naturalized in the U. S. Horse- radish leaves and roots are iised in medicine as local stim- ulants. They have also antiscorbutic jiroperties. The young leaves are boiled as potherbs, and are very delicate and pleasant. Horse-radish Tree, the Moriufjn ptert/f/nnperma, a tree of the order Leguminosa>, so-called from the acrid quality of its leaves. Its trunk yields a gum like that of the acacias, and the leaf has medicinal qualities : but its seeds, with those of M. aptera. are important as furnishing the commercial oil of ben. These trees grow in the East and West Indies, Arabia, Africa, and Southern Europe. The expressed oil is of admirable keeping qualities, and is used for oiling walelu-s and as a basis for perfumes. The oil is mostly prepared in Europe. Hor'sens, town of Denmark, in the province of Jutland, on the Ilorsens Fjord. It is an old town, but neatly built, thriving, and carrying on a lively trade. Pop. 10,501. Horseshoe Crab. Sec King Crab. Horseshoeing. Sec FAnniEav, by M. C. Wi:rr, Pn. B. Ilorse'tail, Shave-grass, or Scouring; Rush ('^eiius iC'inimlnm). There are eleven species of tliis plant, the twu principal of which are denominated the great and littL; horsetail, and belong to the cryptogamous or flower- less scries. They have stems and branches, but neither leaves nor flowers. The stems are rush-like, hollow, and jointed, arising from running root-stocks, and terminated by the fru^jtilication in the form of a cone or spike, com- posed of shield-shaped stalked scales, with t^pore-eases underneath. The great horsetail [E. Telmntein) has stems as thick as a man's finger, the sheaths enlarging upward ; is very rare, and only found on the shores of the ujiper great lakes and north-westward. It is from the fact that it contains so large a quantity of silex, and is consequently much used for polishing, that it derives its name of" scour- ing rush." The little, common, or field horsetail, as it is variously called, is indigenous to Illinois and New Jersey, but Is found on almost every continent. an<l in every coun- try from .Africa to the Arctic zone, and is chiefly distin- guished by its alleged poisonous influence on cattle which partake of it, though no tangible proof of its toxic effects has, as yet, been brought to light. One thing is certain — that the plant, when dried, is perfeotly innocuous, from the fact that it has frequently been largely mixed, in that condition, with the hay nnd other food given to horses and other animals. The other species are £. ;>rrt(cij«c, found in Michigan, Wisconsin, and other northern districts; E. di/fv'tticum, growing in wet, shady places in northern locali- ties; E. put list re, prolific iu Wisconsin, Niagara Kiver, and other moist localities; E. UmuHnm, rather common in marshes and shallow water; E. liiviipitnm, indigenous to dry, clayish soils, and found in Illinois and southward; E. hi/einalc, used for scouring purposes generally, growing on wet banks, and common in northward districts; E. van'e- (/(itaiii, very rare, and found on j^hores and river-banks, such as in New Hampshire and Niagara, to Wisconsin northward; E. aviipnidcfi, a species peculiar to wooded hillsides from New England to Pennsylvania. Michigan, and northward. Finally, the nppn»priately-named E. rohnntnuiy from three to six feet in height, and growing along the river-banks from Ohio to IIIin<)is and southward, is one of the most respectable members of the horsetail family, Ilors'ford (Eben Norton), M, D.. a chemist, h. at Geneseo, N. Y., in 1818 ; became principal of the Albany Female Academy; studied chemistry in (icrmany under Baron Liebig ; was Kumford professor in Harvard Univer- sity 1S47-G;J, and one of the founders of the Lawrence Scientific School. He is the author of many scientific jKipers, and has given much attention to improved methods of making bread. — His wife, Mauv (GAitniSER), (1S24-56), was the author of a volume of poems (1S55) and of con- tributions to periodical literature. Hors'ham, jmrliamcntary borough of England, in Sussex, on the Adar. It has a fine old church and several good educational institutions. Pop. 7S31. Horsham, tp. of Montgomery co., Pa. Pop. 1.182. Hors'ley (Charles EnwARn), son of William, h. at Brompton, near London, Dec. 16, 1824. Ilis general edu- cation was conducted at the Kensington grammar school, and for a time his parents tried to check his evident love for music, but a favorable opinion of Mcndelssolin, who visited London in 1S.'52, decided the question, and after some years of preliminary study under his father, Dr. Crotch, and other eminent English musicians, young Horsley was placed with the celebrated Moritz Haupt- mann, then residing with Spohr at Cassel. Here for three years (1838-41) he had the advantage of thorough theo- retical instruction from llanptmann and the intimacy and advice of Spohr. Before returning home. Horsley passed several months with Mendelssohn in Leipsic, where the great pleasure and usefulness of this part of his education resulted in a lifelong friendship. Horsley returned to Lon- don in 1842, where he remained until IStll, when, owing to ill-health, he wont to Australia, residing for some years in Melbourne, Victoria, where it may truly be said he created the true taste for music which now exists. In 1S7I he re- turned to England, and in 1872 proceeded to New York, where as organist of St. John's chapel, Trinity parish, ho pursued an active course of professional success. His prin- cipal works are three oratorios, />f(ri'(/(lS49), Joticph ( 1852), r;i(/eo»(ISOO) : cantatas. CV,m»«(1854), Euterpe {\9.'{)), liri- dal Cautfttn (1S70), besides a large number of symphonies, songs, glees, etc. As a composer. Horsley ranked on an equality with the best men of his time in originality and learning. D. Feb. 27, 1876. Horsley ( Jmis Cai.ixott), K. A., eldest son of William, an excellent painter nf the modern English school, b. in London Jan. 29, 18IG. His great and early love for draw- ing was observed and fostered by the celebrated painter (Horsley's great-uncle), Sir A. W. Callcott, K. A., and at I the age of fourteen the young student entered the drawing academy of Mr. Sorsse, one of the best trainers of juvenile artists, and subsequently was elected a stu<lcnt of the Royal Academy of Arts. Here he gainetl all the best prizes for drawing, etc.. nnd on the competition for cartoons for the new Houses of Parliament he received a premium of £.S00 and two commissions for large frescoes in the same build- ing. Since that time his career has had an uninterrupted ; success. His works, too numerous to mention, command I universal attention and very large prices. I^Ir. Horsley became a Koyal Academician in 1805. One of his latest 1 and most admired paintings is a large altarpieeo for the chapel of St. Thomas's Hospital in London, a commission ordered by the will of Sir AV. Tite, the celebrated English architect. Mr. Horsley resides in Loudon, where he is greatly respected and honored. Horsley (SAMri;i,), b. in 1733 at St. Martin's-in-the- Fields. London, stmlietl at the University of Cambridge; was appointed rector of Newington in 1759, bishop of St. David's in 1788, of Rochester in 1793, nnd of St. Asaph in 1802: and d. at Brighton Oct. 4, 1S06. He gave new editions of Apollonius Pergaeus (1770) and Newton (1779- Sit) ; translated Hosea ; published Crittenl OiHffniHttimis on tkr Riijhtrfntth Ch'iptcr uf Innitih ; and wrttte essays on mathematics and the prosody of the (ireek and Latin Ian- IIORSLEY— HORVATH. 1001 gua^c!*. But his controversy with Dr. Priestley conccruing the divinity of Christ, which lusted for several years, at- tracted most attention. His theological works ircro col- lected in G vols, in 1SJ5, and published in Loudon. Ilorsley (William), h. at AVhitchavcn, in Cumberland, Eii;;hind, Nov. 1 J, 1774. Shortly after his birth the parents removed to London, and at a very early age the boy devel- oped great talents for musical composition. His father's means wore inadequate to afford Ills sou a i-omjilcte artistic education, but the youth possessed suffieientscU'-rcliance to prc-^ent himself to the distinguished cumpo.ser, l)r. J.W. Call- cott, who, perceiving his talent?, took the lad under his pro- tection, m;ide him his assistant at the orphan asylum, and finally gave him his daughter in marriage, Jan. 12, 1S1.'J. Mr. HorjiU-y proved himself worthy of such confidence, and almost surpassed his father-in-law in the excelleuec of his works and the correctness, learning, and effect of his com- positions. For learning, his six Huoks of Cauous arc nn- rivallcd by any similar specimens since Sebastian liach ; as a glee-writer, " By Celia's Arbor," " See the Chariot at Hand," " Blow. Wind, thou Balmy Air," and many others testify in undying beauty to the greatness of this master of the English school of music. Mr. Horsley took the de- gree of Mus. Bae. Oxon. early in the present century ; was organist of the female orphan asylum tor fifty years, also of the Charter-house and Belgrave chapels. His house at Kensington was tho favorite resort of Alenilelssohn, Spohr, Thalberg, and all the great musicians of hi? day. His eldest daughter marrietl 1. K. Brunei, the distinguished engineer. His long life was one of great purity, industry, and benevolence. D. June, 1S69. Hor'ta^ the largest town of Fayal. one of tho Azorc Islands, itself sometimes incorrectly called I'ayaL It has a good trade. Pop. Sj4y. Ilor'tcn, town of Norway, on the Gulf of Christiania, the station of the Norwegian fleet, has an arsenal and good shipbuilding yards. Pop. about 5Q00. Hortense' (ErfiEMi: ni: Bi:AirnARNAis), b. in Paris 17H.!; d. ls.'i7; was daughter of the French general Alex- andre <Ie Bcauharnais and of Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie, who became the wile of Napoleon I. In 1802 she married Louis Bonaparte, atterwards king of Holland, and brother of Napoleon \. She ga\o him three sons, tho youngest being afterwards Napoleon III., b. in 1808. After the fall of the First Empire, Queen Hortense resided usually in her chilteau of Areueuberg, Switzerland. She wrote light poetry and is the author of one song — *' Partant pour la Syrie," which under tho Third Empire was a kind of national air for the Bonapartists. She is buried by tho side of the empress Josephine at Hueil. a suburb of Paris, near the chiLteau of Malmaison. Fklix Aucaigne. Ilortcn'sius (Qhintis), son of L. Hortensius, a pnctor of upright character. The son was b. Ill n. c. : made a 8pec'.-h in the forum when nineteen years old which gained the applause of the ablest men of the republic, and at onco gave him rank with the ablest advocates of his time; served ('Jl-90 B. r.) in tho Social war, in which he became a mili- tary tribune; defended the youthful Pompey (Sfi B.C.), who was accused of the embezzlement of public booty ; at- tached himself to the side of Sulla and the aristocrats, and was the ablest advocate at Home until Cicero arose to dis- tinction ; was qu:esl(ir B.C. 81 : ledilo in 7 J : pnctor ur- banus 72; unsuccessfully defended Verres against Cicero 70; was consul C.) n. r. ; and aller this was a prominent opponent of Pompey and a zealous defender of Milo in tho qourr<l with Clod ins. Cicero was never a very hearty friend of HortcnsiiL'^. whom he seems to have suspectcil un- justly of evil designs. The moral character of Hortensius was not altogether admirable. He was unscrupulous as to tlie means by wlii<di liis successes were attained, and his | private life was exceedingly luxurious, if not immoral ; but his nature was kindly and generous, and ho had many friends and tew enemies. Ilor'ticiiltiirc [Lat. Aor/t(», a "garden," and cnlturo, ** attendance," "care '*], tlio management of the garden, tlio cultivation of a smaller area of land than a farm or lield. Horticulture may bo divideil into FLOHrruLTimK (which Hcr), ur the ciilii\atiori of flowers for profit, use, or orna- ment, and kitchen atid market gardening: or the produc- tion of vegetables too perishable to form part (d'lho staple crops of agriculture, and hence either raise<l in small quan- tities for (lie supply of a single family, or else grown as tho product of a special branch of farming near largo titwns, where there is a ready market an<l where manures are to bo had in al>undance. Lasdscai'K-Gaudksixo and Fruit- CrLTi'RK (which sec), and the care of botanic gardens, form no part of general horticulture (except in tho ease of sniall fruit'* and dwurtVd trees). Market -gardening is ecparated from agriculture by no dofiuitu line. What Is called trnck-farmiiuj in tho U. S. is market-gardening upon a large scale, and is a department of agriculture. For market-gardening the first essentials are abundant ferti- lizers (intelligently applied) and an unfailing supply of well-directed labor. The work of market-gardening is not heavy, but it is wearisome and incessant. Almost any soil can bo made to grow vegetables, but a very light soil will usually afford but smiiU profits, if any; and a very heavy soil requires thorough an<l expensive underdraining, and even then is harder to work and docs not afford so early crops as some others. A gootl exposure to the sun and pro- tection from heavy winds by hills, forests, or screens of trees arc very desirable. It is ordinarily best for the market-gardener to raise a succession of products, the spin- ach, asparagus, and rhubarb of early spring and tho growths of early summer, etc. following each other in such a way that there is something to sell throughout the season. Frequently, two crops ni.ay bo raised from tiie same ground in a single year. Many early crops arc greatly forwarded by the proper use of hot-beds and cold-frames. In the ap- plicati()n of fertilizers regard should be had to tho chem- ical constitution of the j)lant to be raised; and tho samo consideration ought to govern tho rotation of crops. Suc- cess in market-gardening depends largely upon tact and skill in buying and selling,and upon buying and selling at the right time. Two days may niako a difference of 50 per cent, in the prices of early products ; henco tho need of promptness and energy. The bulk of a crop is often sold at a smnll margin above cost; hence tho need of economy and prudence. Two other most important things arc tho use of tho best seeds of tho best varieties, and fair dealing with nmrketnien and jobbers, for of two market-gardcnors one may sell his goods at a fair price even when the mar- ket is dull, while the other cannot sell his at any price, be- cause the latter docs not supply products of unifr)rm qual- ity; his berries do not "grow bigger downward through the box." This principle holds good in every department of trade, but in no business is it so important as in the one we arc considering. (See Hl:nI)Kiison, Uardcniiuj for Profit and Practical Horticulture; QuiNN, Moncif in the Garden,) Horticulture has thriven from the earliest ages and in every country that has had any claim to be called civilized. In Japan. China, India, Persia, Home, Egypt, Palestine, Assyria, ChahUua, from tho earliest times, great attention was pai<l to gardens. At the very first man was put ** into the garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it." Most elab- orate and interesting representations of gardens exist on the monuments of Egypt and Assyria. The (JId Testament Scriptures abound in references to gardens, and in the lit- erature of the East gardens are still a favorite theme. Tho 6'«/iW«ji (" llosc-tJarden ") and the /iotff«/i (*' Fruit-Gar- den ") of Saadi arc names wliich illustrate the Oriental fondness for gardens. The hanging gardens of Babylon and the floating gardens of Caslimero and Mexico may bo noticed. Hallowed associations surround the forever mem- orable garden of (icthscmane. The gardens of Alcinous and those of the Hespcridcs are a part of the traditions of tho heroic age. The (ireeks, says Plutarch, sometimes planted violets and roses among the onions and leeks. Of the Ro- man gardens we have full accounts. Floriculture, kitchen- gardening, landscape-gardening, antl topiary work were carried by them to a high perfection. They had hot-houses and conservatories also. In Charlemagne's time, when gardening was one of the lost arts, the imperial edict com- manded every man who could do so to have a garden, and the very jjlants to l>e grown were named. Among others, honse-leek was to beset upon every roof; and it is believed that the geographical range of several herbs was greatly wi<lened by the decree. Tho Saracens brought the love of horticulture into Spain, France, and Sicily ; ami in later times every monastery hail its well-kept garth. Italy and the Low Cotintries especially excelled in gardening. Tlio Dutch di'lighted in straight lines, clean eullure, and topiary work. The Italian taste was mttre natural. In still later times the S<'0(ch have excelled as gardeners, and at present they take the tirst jilaco in this department of industry. ClIAItLKS W. UrkKNE. Ilor'ton, Ip. of Elk co.. Pa. Pop. (::il. Ilorto'iiin, tp. of Outagamie co., Wis. Pop. 1080. llo'nis [lir. 'npo?; Egyptian, //rtr, tho "day"], the name of Kcveial Egyptian gods, of which the principal was the son of Osiris and Isis. He was the sun-god, and is often confounded with Harpoerates, who was culled the Younger Horus; also with Ilaroeris, tho hawk-beaded gnd, calleil tho Elder Horns. He is also confoundeil with the god Ila and with the (Jrcek Ajiollo, whence Edfou was called ApuUinopuIis Magna, since it was a great seat of tho worship of Horns. Ilorvfilh' (.Mihaly), b. Oct. .10, 1809, at Szentcs, Hun- gary; studied theology .ut tho Seminary of Waizon 1825; 1002 HOSACK— HOSPITAL. took orders in 1S30 ; and was in 1S44 appointed professor in Vienna of tlic Hungarian language and literature. Durin" the Hungarian revolution in 1S18 he was made bisiiop" of Csanid and minister of public edueation and worship After the revolution he lived alternately in France Italy, and Switzerland until intili, when he was permitted to return to Hungary. His principal work is a general lli.tm'j"/ Ilmuju,-,, (4 vols., 1S42-4G), but he has also treated of several periods of Hungarian history sep- arate! v. Ilos'ack (D.ivin), M. D., LL.D., F. R. S., b. in New York Aug. :!1, nr,9; graduated at New Jersey College in 17sa, and in ITUl received his medical degree at Phila- delphia; studied in Europe until 17U4; became ^«- ™J> professor of botany in Columbia College; was (liJi- 1807) professor of materia mcdica ; professor of materia racdica and midwifery in the College of Physicians and Surgeons 1S07-11 ; after which he held other professorships there until 182G. After this he was until KSoO connected with Rutgers Medical College. He was one of the fast mineralogists and botanists of his time, founded the first botanic garden in .America, and was the author of several medical treatises which long had a standard value. He also wrote a Life of Dr. Hugh Williamson (1S20) and one of DeWitt Clinton (ISi'J). U. Deo. 23, lS:io. Ilosan'na, a Hebrew term of blessing, congratulation, or well-wishing, adopted into use by the Christian Church. The name is also given to one of the subdivisions ol musi- cal masses, " Holy, holv, holy. Lord God of Sabaoth ; hea- ven and earth are full of thy glory. Uosauna in the highest." Hose'a [ Heb. Hothen, " deliverance"], the Ose'e ['Otnie, ■0,Ten] of the LXX.. Vulgate, and New Testament, the first in order of arrangement, but apparently third in order of time, of the twelve minor prophets. His prophetic ac- tivity covers a period of about 60 years— say from 784 to 7'>4 B c He belonged to the northern kingdom of Israel, and set himself against the idolatrous apostasy which had seemed almost essential in order to political ludepcnd- enoe In style he is the obscurest of all the Hebrew prophets. In the Rom.an martyrology he is commemo- rated with Haggai on the 4th of July. R. D. Hitchcock. Hoshe'a (another form of Hoscn), the last king of Is- rael was a son of Elah ; conspired against his predecessor, Pek'ah, .and put him to death 737 B.C.; became established on the throne after eight years of war. His reign was much disturbed bv civil commotions and by the invasions of the Assyrians." He very ]>robably perished at the de- struction of Samaria (720 B. c). His name occurs on As- syrian monuments. Ho'siery [from hose, " stockings "], in a large sense, in- cludes knit goods of all kinds. Stockings were originally made of cloth and woven goods. The ancient Greeks cm- ployed stockings of felt. The Romans, we are told, used no stockings until after Hadrian's time. The Anglo-Saxons used them, and so did the people of mediaeval Europe. Trunk-hose were a combination of stockings and breeches. The art of knittiug is reputed to be a Scottish invention of the sixteenth ecnturv, and St. Fiacre, a Scoto-Irish saint, was made patron of a French stocking-weavers' guild in 1527. It is almost certain, however, that the art of knit- tin"' is older than this. Hosiery is now largely manufac- tured in the U. S. bv machinery. Some of the most im- portant improvements in knitting-machines are of Ameri- can origin. Ho'sius [Gr.'Offiot, "holy"], b. about 257 A. i)., per- haps in Spain or perhaps in Egypt; became bishop of Cor- dova about 29G: took part in the Council of Iliberi (about 300 A. 0.1 ; was persecuted under Diocletian and Maximian; was highlv honored for integrity and faithfulness; was sent by Constantino the Great to Alexandria to conciliate the contending parties of Alexander the bishop and of Arius; was present at the Council of Nice (325 a. i).). and was, according to some writers, its president; induced Constantino to ratifv the Nicenc Creed 325: was at the Council of Sardica 317, and perhaps its president; was directed by Constantius in 355 to write against Alhanasius, but refused; was compelled by the emperor to attend the HosKiNS, an Oxonian, an author, and a prebendary of Here- ford, was a contemporary of the foregoing, and is stated to have been his brother. Ilos'incr (llAnniKT G.),b. atWatertown, Mass., Oct. 9, 1S30. Her mother d. when she was young, and her father, anxious for the health nf his only child, insisted upon out- door exercise and athletic sports. She became expert in rowing, riding, and skating: had the spirit of adventure; traveled alone in the West as far as the Falls of St. An- thony: visited the Dakota Indians, and on her return was distinguished by originality of min.l and independoneo of manner. She took anatomical lessons in St. Louis, and both worked in clay and chiselled marble at home. In 1852 she went to Rome with her father and Miss Charlotte Cushman ; was received into Gibson's studio; studied hard un^lcr him, and s"on won her way to public favor. Her statue of /'lie/,-, sent to Roston in 1S50. made her reputa- tion in her own country; it was frequently copied. Her Bf<itr!cc Ccnci and Xcvuhin, both full-length statues, the latter of colossal size, were more ambitious works, hut of less originality. She exhibited at the I'aris Exposition in 18G7 a statue called The Sleepmj F'um. The legislature of Missouri honored Miss Ilosmer with a commission to make a statue of Thomas H. Benton. With the exception of a. brief visit to her native country, the artist has remained in Rome since her first visit. 0. li. Fiiotiiix<:iiam. Ilosmcr (William llExny CvvLKn). A. M., b. at Avon, N. Y., May 25, 1814; was educated at Genesee College; became a lawyer of Avon and a master in chancery: re- moved in 1854 to New York, and became a custom-house officer. Author of The FM „f T.rmnHch (1830). )-,„i.,m- dhm (1844). r/if Monlhn, llhd-iXolrt. Lryniih nj //i,.- Aelic- ca„. I„<li<«, 7'i-,../i'(i'...i«">i<i.S''"'r/«(1850),etc.; Complete I'oct- ical Worhi, (2 vols., 1S53). D. at Avon, N. Y., May 23, l.S,7. Hos'pice [Fr. for " hospital"], the name given to the houses maintained bv ecclesiastics for the relief of travel- lers passing over the Alps in stormy weather. That of the Great St. Bernard, founded in 962 and inhabited by Augus- tinian monks, is the most celebrated. Others arc kept up at the principal passes of the Alps. The name is also applied to other charitable institutions, such as the former asvlum upon the Abendberg, Switzerland, lor the treatment of'eretius, and various establishments for those suffering with ment.al disease. Hospin'ian (RiDOLPn). b. at Altdorf Nov. 7, 1547; studied at Marburg and Heidelberg; held different posi- tions in the Reformed Church of his native country, and d. at Zurich Mar. 11, 1626. The most prominent of his works are— /)e .l/<yiiiu'/ii» (1588), Ih: Fctlie Chriatlaiiorum (1593), De Festia JuJliorum el El!iiiirorum (1592\ C'oiicor- dia Ditcora (1609), which occasioned much controversy with the (Jerman Lutherans ; and Hitlnria Snerumenturia (1598-1602). A collected edition of 'his works was pub- lished in 7 vols. fol. at Geneva in 1681. Hos'pital [from the Latin Aos/ji'faKs, " pertaining to guests or strangers;" Fr. Iwpiial ; Gcr. A'lnii^ii/inin, Laz- areth; It. oapedalr:]. Hospitals for the sick poor appear to have been established in India, through the inllueneo of Booddhist priests, about 220 ii. c. They are, however, more especially characteristic of Christianity, and were recognized institutions in the fourth century. (For account of the first hospitals, properly so eallcd. consult H. Haser, DisHcrtxtin de emu ayrolonim ptibliea a Chrialiauis Oriuuda, Grvphiswald, 1856.) . ... Hospitals, as now existing, are institutions intended pri- marily for the care of the sick and wounded ; secondarily, to furnish means of instruction to students of medicine, to serve as monuments or memorials of their founders, or as a means of support or excuse for the existence of a society, charitable organization, or medical school. The general principles of hospital location, arrangement, and eonstrue- tion. with reference to the requirements of the sick and to facility of administration, may be considered as fairly es- tablished; but while, theoretically, these requirements out- weigh all others, it will usually be found in piaetico that for any^proposed hospital there will be somelhing in the site, limit of cost, or purpose of the builder which will require a modification of what may be termed the standard plan ; and that in inanv eases the so-called secondary objects will be Council of Siriuium, and afte'r wearisome persecution the \ really, though not perhaps avowedly, of primary import- aged llosius felt eiinipelled to submit in part to the impe rial will, and to take the communion with Arians, but he would not condemn Athanasius. In 357 he was permitted to return to Cordova, where he d. in 358 a. d. Uos'kins, or Iloskyns (Jon.v), b. in Herefordshire; was educated at Oxford ; became a fellow of New College, scrgcant-at-law, and a justice itinerant in Wales ; was the instructor of Ben Jonson. Author of the An of Memoii/, of a Greek lexicon, unlinishcd, of legal writings, and ol Latin and English epigrams. D. 1638.— Another John ancc. Hospitals may be designed to receive patients of both sexes and all ages, or may be more or less si>eeial- ized, as for women, for the insane, for contagious dis- eases, etc. In some respects the simplest form of hospital is that intended for ailult males only, as in the military and naval service ; and it is now believed that in these, in which the secondary objects above referred to need not be ruiisid- ercd, the buildings should be temporary in character— that is, not intended to last more than ten or twelve years. HOSPITAL. 1003 Such hu.-ipitals are found, by experience, to be more favor- able to tbc recovery of the sick and wounded, because of the less prevalence of erysipelas, ho.<pituI gangrene, and other seplica^Ditc diseases, than the much mure urnanicntal, pretentious, and cui^tly structures which are usually desired by societies, municipalities, or private donors. In a linan- ctal point of view, the temporary hospitals arc the most economical, fur, as has been elsewhere shown,* if the money required to construct a stone or elaborately orna- mented brick hospital were divided into two equal parts, one-hiilf being used to put up frame buildings ol the same capacity, and the other half being invested at C per cent., the income from the latter sum would suffice to furnish a new hoiipital every twelve years for succeeding generations. Tho true principles of hospital eonslruction, as first es- tablished by a commission of tho French Academy of Sci- ence? in 177S, and subsequently elaborated as to details by Nightingale, (Jalton, Oppcrt, and others, may bo briefly stated as follows : The important part of the hospital is the ward, which should be separated from the administra- tive part of the institution, and should be arranged in pavilions, preferably of one story, and never more than two, in height. These pavilion wards should be about 25 feet wide. If feet high, and of sufficient length to allow not less than 100 square feet per bed. In warm climates the height should be 15 feet and the floor-space per bed 120 square feel. Not more than 32 beds should bo placed in each ward. The windows should bo opposite each other, and reach from within three feet of the floor to one foot from thec^■iling: tlicy should t)ccupy one-third of tho wall- space, have a nearly E. and W. exposure, and in cold cli- mates should be double sashed or of plate-glass. The floors and other woodwork should be of hard pine or oak. with impervious joints, waxed, oiled, or permeated with parat- fine, an<l polished. It is usually stated that the wall-s should be made as smooth and non-absorptive as jiossiblc by tho use of parian cement, paraffine, silicates, oil-paint, etc. It has been even proposed to make them of glass. The advantage of this is doubtful. An ordinary plastered wall absorbs gases and organic compounds to a very considera- ble extent, and they arc then oxidized au<l reduced to more stable compounds, much as sewage is atfected in a running stream, and the ilcpuralivc and quasi-respiratory powers of such walls should not bo overlooked. iMaking them im- permeable is somewhat like varnishing an atiimal's skin, and there is no satisfactory evidence as to its good efl"ccts. For a permanent hospital it might be best to construct tho walls with the ordinary hard finish — to have, as suggested by Dr. George Derby, one ward always ernjity and ojien to the outer air — each ward being tlius emptied and fresh- ened in succession — and to have the old plaster torn out and tho walls fresh plastered once iu five or six years. The great object is to have the ward supplied with plenty of light and fresh air, and to kee]) it at a proper tempera- ture. The minimum amount of fresh air to be furnished is 3000 cubic feet of air per hour per m:in, and under some circumstances it may bo desirable to double this amount. The modes of cfTectiug this will bo discussed in the article Vkntii.atiox. The ventilation of each ward, water-closet, bath-n»om, and kitchen should be entirely inde|icndent of all other rooms, halls, or parts of tho building. The kittheii and laundry should be either iu a separate building, or in the upper story of tho adtninistrativc building; they should never be put beneath tho wards or ofliees. The va- rious offices required for tho administrative department arc necessarily much alike, whether the institution be largo or Fio. 1. pH h [71 ^sl L^U L J "L 1- J I 1 V _r FlQ. 2. Regulation plan for a IT. S. post Imspital of 2-t beds. A, attcnd- anl.H* I'liotu ; It, lialli-rufini ; C.cl()'trts; P, dinnensary ; K, earth or water closets; H, hall; K, kilehon ; M, mes»-rooni ; N, nurse; V, pantry; S, stores; St, steward; V, verandah; W. ward ; I W, isolation ward. * rironlar No. 4, War Deparltnent. Surpeon-Gcneral's Ofliee, Washington, 1870 ; Report tm Barrackt and UotpitaU, pp. xxli., xxiii. z El !>'■- i G 1^:3 [^ Qr rn s I»3P^I3I1 PI AT ? u 0.H r'-bn Plan of the Ilicks Hospital, near Baltimore, Md. A, adniinistraliou buildings; M, messordinint;-rooin; K. kitchen and laundry; At, attendants' quarters; L, linen anii ilotliin;;; Qr, quartermaster's quarters; S, stores; <J, Kuard-bouse ami quarters; W, wards; C'h W M, chief wardmaster's quarters; N, nurses' quarters; D II. dead-house; W .S, workshop; C W, ward for contagious diseases. N. B. The light portion (N B) not built. Fig. 3. .<r <? M iS.1" iSn. 1 =■5 S I* \l w D B B © t '. w \ , 1 \1 w 1 \.M J \c: w ; w /[ hi n L / rrg-i J J ] J ] ^1 w ; N 1 w ; -.v 1 w : '^j w 1 1 w 1 w ; w w 1 I w < — ttf , G A 1 1 .j^^ns^ //°C w ] i 3 } i w tl ' w : w / ' Vtf ; W / 1 w : w / 1 w ■A' s/.l Oh 1 / 1 MS 1 La 1 < 1 Com . ! K 1 ka 1 _y II ' .MSV = «0| / ^ ■■ i_y W -J Pa . ; w I l-^v-n / W CTT- w id w 1 /so _ n 51 s Ground-plan of U. S. Army General Hospital, West Phila- driphia, Pa.. 18f.2. A, adminlHrntlon building; O, «»fflcors' quarters; W, wards; K, kitchens; K I) K. exlia-<Iiet kitchen ; La.laundry; Ms, mess- room ; M St, medical store-room; Com, connnissary store- room; ('. corridor; Bd, band; Sm, smoking-room; H, builiT and boiler-room: K, ent^iueer's gong, tire-pump, elr,; W (', water-elosets; /. laboratory; L. lecture-room and lihrary; S, sentry; Ga,nate; G, guard; G B. guard-barnicks ; r, Il.miaid- houHe; P, printing-otfiee; G nmi ]>, clrrks' and driii,'u'i>l^' mess-room; T, tanks; St, stables and sheds; F S, i\m; stall"; Pa, parade. A'o/'.— Capacity beds: rain. 2GC2; max. 3124. This includes guard-barracks, 132. The wiirds are each 21 feet wide, in feet high at the wall, and 19 feet at the nenk. The ward-iinislerV and .*^isiers' rooms in front, and the bath-rootns and water-closets in the rear, take 20 feel from each ward. The wards are ventilated at the ridge. Tho central or administrniion building, the store-houses, extra- 1004 HOSPITALLERS-HOT-AIR ENGINE. diet kilchen, and smnkins building are "f> »7° ^'°™^ '''f,';,; The secon.l ilorv ofllie firsl n;inied lurnisiies < uai er> for t i. officers lat or ti.e slore-roonis und extra-diet ^.tcl.eu lor the S'lters of ri'arity, clerks, druggists, and l.osp.tal attendanls, small; hence for small hospitals, such as those for maitary posts in the U. S. army, which usually contain Irom I- to 24 beds, the ward becomes a comparatively small part ot the buildinj;- (l''iS- !•) , -i j f„. When a lar-e number of patients arc to be provided lor, the pavilions mav be arranged to radiate from a common centre, or from H-shaped corridors, or m ccliclm, m a tri- angle. These plans are illustrated by Figs. 2, 3, 4 : Fio. 4. Plan of Lincoln Hospital, Washineton D. C. A, administration buildinc; W, wards; L, laundry ;D,dimnB- rooin; K, principal kitchen; W M, chief wardmasters quar- ters; SC Sisters of Charity's quarters; E, *f »'"-''"?l"L'.*g' store-room- WO, water-closets; C, cliapel ; bt, staljle, t>, euard-house ; D U. dead-house ; Su, surgeons' quarters ; L, cor- ?kb,r (covered); R, reservoir; CS, cow-stable; CA, colored attendants. ittcndants. , it » • The three large hospitals above figured were all Ameri- can arniv hospitals in use during the late war. Many other ways of' arranging the pavilions can be easily devised to suit locality, direction of prevailing winds, etc. Besides the care of the sick, it is necessary in many hos- pitals to provide for the supervision and restraint of the vicious. A considerable portion of the applicants for hos- pital relief in our large cities are suffering from the effects of lust and drink, and if opportunity bo allowed will per- petuate or ac-'ravate their maladies by repeating the origi- nal cause, 'fhe proper restraint of patients without giving the building a gloomy and prison-like aspect is best secured by placing the hospital in such a location that access to meins of dissipation shall be as difRcult as possible. On this account a small island is a very desirable locality, and especially so in seaport towns and for marine hospitals. Floating temporary hospitals also have many advan ages at such points. Whatever be th.. plan of the hospital, the most important thing is that it shall be under the constant hygienic supervision and management of a competent man who should be a physician. A hospital under non-profes- sional superintendence, or which is to rely on the occasional advice of its attending physicians, who have other interes s, will almost surely deteriorate, and the temporary barrack- plan is specially" useful in such cases, as making the evil results less permanent and costly. „ . , (For details on this subject consult Oi-PF.nr, Ho>p<loh. Infirnmno, and D;«p,n,„rU« (London, 1SG7), m which .3 giVen, pp. xiii.-xvi., a good bibliography; llfssov. i/r.-/c ,„r Ir. U.'.p;i,u,x (Paris, 1S62): Nir.iiTiNOAT.F;, A.."-« "" //„,,„■«-/. (T.ondon, 1808. lid ed.) : Essb, 2)^ Krankcn- hiiu-rr (2d cd., Berlin, 1S6S) ; Bemocet (A.), Eli'd' nur In cniinlnirllon den ambulnncci trmporaire: nous /■>rme rfe Jl,tr<u„i<-mcnl» fuh'C r/'ioi cinni snr hn hupttniixciiili pcr- „„u,r,'lH (Paris, 1871): il'porl of the Ho,,al Cov,m,»io>, {Si;TiiEiii.ANn and Gai.ton) appnlnled for ^"'P™';'"' 'f CmlitUm of lIoHpitnh nml «.„■,■«,/■« (London, 1863) ; liAi.- Tf.N. Rnyrl Dr.criptii-,' of ,hc llrrl.crt Ho.p,tal {London 1 S(SM ; tiALTON, An Addrcm on ihc (irncn,/ I'nncpleKwIm-h uhonld be Ohui-n-i-d in llie Contlruction of IlnipilnlH (\jon- don ISO!)); Smith (Stepiies), Prmciph, of llo.pitnl Con- ,ln,rlio» (New York, 186r.) ; R<-po^< """■"■"•f T ,'"" p.V,,/,, Circular 4, Surgeon- Genenil's Office (Washington, |g-Q> JOII.S S. Bll.LlNOS, M. i). Ilos'pitallers, a name given to the members of various fraternities and sisterhoods of the Roman Catholic Church who join to the vows of perpetual poverty, chastity, and obedience, another which binds them to serve the poor and sick in hospitals. Some knightly orders also took the mo- nastic and hospital vows-such as the Knights o St. John of Jerusalem, Knights of the Holy Sepulchre, and the Teu- tonic Knights ; but in the case of the tirst-mentioned order, at least, i? appears that the ho.piu.l. they founded were rather in the nature of honlds or public inns. There have been twelve or more monastic congregations whose mem- bers were popularly called Hospitallers but the erm more generally Jenotes the Knights ol St. John of Jerusalem. (See St. Jons of jEursALEM, KNuaiTS of.) Ilos'liodar rSlavie], a former title of the governors ofW Ulachbi and Moldivia under the Turks. The term si..nilies •■ master." The same officers were also called wSiwodes or wojewods-,'. c. dukes or leaders. Ihe cza of Russia is popularly called Inmoodur or ,jo,pod.,, forms of "hospodar;'' and equivalent titles were employed by Polish kings and Lithuanian princes in former days. Host [Lat. ho„l„. " victim," "sacrifice"], in the Roman Catholic Church, the consecrated ^^^'^'^"'['^ ''/ZSord licved by that Church to be the veritable body "f •'"= l-'™ Je us Christ. As such, it is elevated by tlie priest at the mass for the adoration of the people. It is a "rcular w.a cr or cake of unleayened bread, having yarious emblematic figures, made of the finest wheaten flour It is borne upon a°plate called the paten, broken by the priest over the chalice, and distributed to the laity. Hos'tagcs arc persons placed under the control of the govenimcnfo? a strte as pl'edges of the faithful fulfilment of a treaty. The same custom has taken place when a cap- tured vessel is allowed to go on its way upon what is called a ransom contract, and also in other stipulations be ween p.arties at war. The practice is going out of use in the 'Kr^-nientioned case. tL last instance known to the writer of this article having been the detention of two B itish noblemen on parole at Paris after the peace of A.x-la- Clr pelle in 1748, who were, in fact, to remain in this con- dition until Cape Breton should be restored t^o Fran^c^^^^ Ho'strup (Jens CnniSTiAN), b. in 1819 : studied theol- n.rv at the Un versity of Copenhagen, and took orders in ?? 4 While vet a young .nan he became the fi.vor.te ol the Danish people on account of hisconicdies-f^K"'"'"-.'''. E^EL„ir \J, Fodrcisen, Me„er o,j Urhn.j, etc.--whieh give a fresh original, and exquisitely humorous picture ot fl e D^uiish middle classes. After taking orders he ceased to wVite for the theatre. " Life has become too grave an affair to me ; I have forgotten to laugh. Hot-air En'gine, a prime mover in which the motive- power is derived TroMi the expansion of atmospheric air by IZi Numerous invcnti.ms' of this kind have been pro- Succl, of which the earliest to excite intcres was hat of the Rev. Dr. Stirling, now ..f tialston, Ayrshire, in i^cot- and patented in 181C; though earlier air engines were co^s'.rS^d by Sir eieo;ge Ca^ley and "'hers which seem to bave ^^^^^^ix:z ::^t^'^y^^ provement on btlUings cngini ».>.."„(, > Lothcr, Mr. James Stirling ; and this "-s pa cn.ed ,n s - and a^ain, with further improvements, in 1840. Among ;^ore rfecnt inventions of this class which have been more ^r less successful may be mentioned those of Lriesson. Wil- e^ Rope and Slmws all of this country, and those of Lau- beriu an 1 Belon of France. At the Vienna l^NP-J"'"" «[ IS- 1 there was exhibited, by Friedrich Siemens "f B"I'°. ind^r the name of a ...lorunoU.r, a working -'".l o a hot- .' . .,„ ,.„;,,. ,, novel plan : more remarkable how- ::;;;^iU ng^nuit^Z: J promise of utmty It would be impossible within the limits of an article like the present to gWe a detailed description of these various forms of to gi^t II '^'^'„. __, ,^ Vi„...:„„ c.w.h nort (Millars, are re- ne'lanisn, Those who desire such particulars, arc r - ?e.rred to the lUport on th.- Morhinr^i <•'"'. .'"•"'"■^-f '''^ l"Ltr-ial .1.-,., etc. in the Paris Exposition of 80,, by the pre cm writer. In what follows, it is proposed to give ^ly^'t'^l^dr characteristic Uffercnees, and <» -' '- -;;'^- general principles relating to this mode of gcneiating mo " Anfonns of the hot-air engine have certain advantages in common, and all arc subject to certain <1'^-';"'''^K«^ whSarc i .separable from the system. It is an advantage hat iK-v require no boiler, and are exempt from the dan- ge hfeh arise from that source. Coubl a_ir be emplo ed a a pressure equal to that of steam, it would be an in, port- aL^rdva. ta-e to be free from the great weight which .he use o the l»iler necessitates, and -^-f^<^"''';^-^^l''' bulk As yet, however, this condition has not been real- i,.d, and bene; the dimensions of the 'forking par s of air- onginos are necessarily so much more considerable th.m HOT-AIR ENGINE. 1005 those of steam-engines of corresponding power, as to ren- Jtr llic g:iin in lliis direction, if there is any, unimportant. It is, howcvir. :m advnntugo that air-engines are cheaper of construc;lii)n lh:in those driven by steam, and that their uianageinent is easier, and requires less constant watchful- ness. It has generally been claimed for thiin that they economize fuel. Theory might seem to justify Ibis claim, but in practice it has not been generally sustained. The disadvantages of air-engines consist in the ditficulty of heating and cooling tho air employed, with the rapidity necessary to secure the best performance ; and in tho fact that the supply of the cylinder consumes more than half the power developed. To this it may be added, that, while the efhciency of the machine depends upon the ditierenco between the ma.xinium and minimum tcmperatuics, there are certain practical limits which neither of thcso temper- atures can transcend. Air-engines may bo arranged in two classes, of which the first embraces those which draw their supplies directly from the atmosphere, and discharge them into the atmo- sphere again after they have produced their effect ; and tho second, those which employ continually the same air, which is alternately heated and cooled but is not allowed to es- cape. Stirling's first engine belonged to the first of these classes; his later forms, to the second. To tho first also belong Ericsson's, Wilcox's. Roper's, Shaw's and lielou's;" to the second, hauberau's. The second class have the ailvan- tage that they admit the use of high pressures; but this is attended with the disadvantage that they require refrigerat- ing appliances, which, with the first, are whidly unnecessary. In each of these classes a subordinate classification may be made, according as the air is heated in the cylinder in which it Dcrforms its work, or in a separate chamber. The jdan of the Ericsson engine is the first of these. That of Koper's, Shaw's and lielou's, the second. In Laubcrau's, which docs not discharge the air, the heat is applied in one cylinder, and the work is done in another. In this class of engines the arrangements admit of a variety of modifica- tions. The heater and the refrigerator, for example, may be both independent of the working cylinder, and of each other: presenting an analogy to the boiler and condenser of the steam-engine ; or the refrigerator only m.iy bo sep- arate; or finally, as in the engine of Lauberau, the heating and refrigeration may take place at the opposite extrem- ities of the same vessel, the air being driven from one end to the other alternately by means of a plunger. It is true of these, as of all engines operated by heat, that there is a theoretic limit to the economy of which they are capable — that is to say, whatever be the amount of heat received from the source, a fraction only of this can under any circumstances be converted into mechanical force : and theory enables us to state definitely the maximum value which this fraction can have. This maximum depends on the extreme temperatures at the command of the engineer. Suppose the highest of these temperatures, as referred to the absolute zero (a point 2".'!° C. below the freezing-point of water) to be represented by T, and the lowest, referred to the same zero, by T'; then if Q be the entire quantity of heat imparted to the air, steam, or vapor operating any thermodynamic engine; and U, the portion of that quan- tity capable of being converted into useful effect, it is true in all cased that U T - T' Q" T ■ This principle wo take at present for granted. For tho demonstration of its truth see T/fcrmofti/numim. It follows that, in proportion as the interval between T and T' is in- creased, the machine will work with correspondingly greater economy. This interval can bo increased by increasing T, or by diminishing T', or by doing both at once. It is im- practicable, however, to employ a refrigerator having a temperature below that of the weather. We must therefore take for a mean lower limit about 17° C, or t')2.i>° K., a tem- perature which, referred to tho absolute zero, is equal to 21H»° ('. On tho other hand, a practical upper limit is im- posed by the consideration that a red heat is reached for solids at about 650° C, which is 923° C. above the absolute zero. This limit coulil not be safely approached ; but sup- posing it to be actually attained, the economical cocfhoient would be 121- 2««^ 0.684, 923 or a little more than two-thirds of tho heat taken up by the air. Probably no hot-air engine has yet been actually employed in which tho temperature has been carrii-d much alxive 3110° ('. ^Vith a maximum temperature of 307° C. — .'iH{)° C. above the absolute zero, the economical coelEoioDt would bo 680-290 „,„ — 0.50, 5S0 ' which would show a utilization of one-half the heat taken up. The first Ericsson engine was designed to work at u maximum temperature of about 460° F. = 232° C = 506° above the absolute zero. The limit of economy realizable by it, had it been successful, and provided tho air eould have been made to pass through the complete cycle of changes of temperature and pressure embraced in the theory, would b&vo been 505-290 „ .„„ — TX: = 0.426. 50o But in point of fact, no hot-airenginefulfils, or can fulfil completely, the theoretic conditions. In order to do so it would be necessary that the air should leave the working cylinder at the minimum temperature: that is to say, at a temperature as low as that of the supply : or else that, by some contrivance, the excess of heat which it retains should be transferred to the supply on its way to the working cylin- der. As tho first of these conditions — that is to say, tho expansion of the air, in working, sufficiently to reduce the temperature to the minimum — is practically unrealizable, it is the second which inventors have in many instances sought to secure. In order to accomplish this, the emer- gent air has, in some eases, been made to jiass through successive sheets of wire gauze, or between thin sheets of metal, or has been in some other manner brought into con- tact with metallic surfaces of large extent in proportion to the weight of the mass, in order that the excess of heat being transferred to these might be afterwards taken up by the cold air of the supply as it enters. The first of the ex- l)cdients here mentioned was employed by Ericsson, and the second in the successive inventions of Stirling. In Shaw's engine, the hot air escapes through a cluster of thin tubes, while the cold air circulates between them. The term " regenerator" was applied by Ericsson to this contrivance, as applied to his original engine, and this term has come into general use. 'The regenerator is applicable to any form of engine, but it is not employed in all. The theoretic advantage is considerable, but in practice is not fully real- ized : and it is attended with the disadvantage of sensibly increasing the amiiunt of the )iassive resistances of the machine. In fact, in order that the regenerator, suppose it for instance to be a succession of wire gauze sheets, should entirely absorb the excess of heat of the escajiing air, the number of sheets should be very considerable. It is easily seen tluit if this number were quite unlimited, there would be somewhere a point at which the air wouM have no longer any heat to impart ; its temperature being sensibly reduced to that of the metal. From this jioiiit backward to the cylinder from which it was discharged, the successive sheets of wire gauze would rise in temper- ature, and the last one would have sensibly the same temperature as that with which the air emerged. Tho number of sheets which would be required effectually to absorb the heat would depend for a given excess of temper- ature upon the closeness of the meshes, and in any ease must be considerable. The obstruction which every such contrivance necessarily presents to tho free passage of tho air, creates a resistance which makes its presence objection- able, and which may go far to neutralize the advantage which it is designed to secure. By diminishing the number of the sheets and the closeness of the meshes, the resistance is reduced, but the absorption of the heat is proportionally less complete. Practically, where the regenerator continues to bo used, a middle course is taken ; the economy is not wholly realized, and the obstruction to circulatiun is not very serious. This is the case in the engine of Shaw, in which the regenerator consists, as above remarked, of a series of tubes. It is to be considered, however, that tho loss of heat suffered in operating engines driven by heated air or steam is by no means limited to the fraction, largo as it is, of the heat which, after being actually imparted to tho medium, is unavailable for work. If this were true, the cost of working such engines would fall to a very small proportion of what it actually is. It is unfortunately the case that by far the largest source of loss is to be found in the escape of a great part of the heat which the comlnis- tiblo develops, in other ways than in raising the lenijuT- ature of the elastic medium which does tho work. And the improvement of all these engines, so far aa economy is concerned, is to bo sought in such forms of furnace and such modes of applying heat as may reduce what is now the sheer waste cd the chimneys or of the radiating surfaces, rather than in tho endeavor to push to extremes the tem- peratures employed in the working cylin<Ier. It is to be observed that the difficulty of guarding against los.sea by conduction and radiation is enormously iucrea.sid when excessive tempi'ratures are employed : and al.-o that such temperatures decompose lubricants, destroy packing, and, by the large expansion which they give to metals, loosen joints, and impair the strength of tho whole struc- ture. Since the l;irgt.^t luuMi lor economy is evidi ntly in 1006 HOT-AIR ENGINE. the direction of preventing the useless waste at pres- ent occurring, the effort should be to keep the maxi- mum temperature as low, and not to push it as high, as pussiljle. In passing to particular forra:^ of hot-air engine, a few words only can be given to each. Ericftsou's Eiufhic. — This engine is more generally known in this country than any other of its class. In its present furni it differs essentially from that which it had when con- structed on a largo scale, about the year ISoJ, to be em- ployed as the motive-power of a sea-going vessel; or, more properly, the present one is a different machine. In the original model a working cylinder was placed imme- diately over the fire of the furnace, and a cylinder of supply of about two-thirds the capacity was placed immediately over that. The engine was single-acting, the working cylinders were quite open, and the working pistous were of great bulk and formed of non-conducting substances, being designed to fill the cylinders when at the point of the lowest deiire^sion, so as to prevent their cooling by contact with the air of the atmosphere. The bottom of each cylinder was arched, forming a dome for a furnace, and the piston received at its lower surface a corresponding figure. The pistons of the supply cylinder and working cylinder were liimly connected, and had therefore an equal length of stroke. At the descent of the piston, the supply cylinder was filled by aspiration from the atmosphere; and in the ascent, the charge, after undergoing compression, was driven into a reservoir, from which it passed subsequently into the working cylinder. The upward stroke being com- jdeted, the heated air escaped through a regenerator formed of wire gauze, depositing there its excess of heat; and the new charge from the reservoir, passing to the working cylinder through the same regenerator, re-absorbed this heat, and thus entered the heating-chamber already at an elevated temperature. This engine performed very well in practice, so far as its performance was merely a question of mechanics. But it failed practically, because the heating arrangements were inadequate to the demand made upon them. Mr. Ericsson did not expect to be dependent on his furnaces for the supply of more than a moderate fraction of the heat which each successive charge of air was to re- ceive. He supposed that the regenerators would serve to transfer so large a quantity from each charge to the next, that it would be necessary to provide for little more than the always inevitable loss by mere radiation ; but this an- ticipation was not realized. Superadded to this, however, there was a further cause of failure, arising from the diffi- culty of heating air at all by means of a furnace. Radiant heat produces scarcely any impression upon air. The in- ventors of all the air engines which have been to any degree successful have recognized the necessity of applying their heat as much as possible by conduction and actual contact. Mr. Ericsson himself is no exception, as his more recent and successful invention shows. This machine 'possesses a special interest, from the fact that it was the first of its class to secure for itself a recognized place in the indus- trial world as a valuable aid to productive power. The engine at present known as the Ericsson is far less simple to appearance than the one above described. It has a horizontal cylinder within which at one end, and occupy- ing about two-fifths of its length, is the furnace, also cyl- indrical, between whieli and the surrounding cylinder is an annular space. AVithin the cylinder there are two pistons, the inner, or that nearest the furnace, acting as a supply ]iiston. and the other as the driving piston. The rods of the supply piston pass through the driving piston. When, by the action of the mechanism, the distance between the two pistons is increased, the supply is received by inspiration through valves opening inward in the driving piston. When this distance is diminished, the charge is driven by compres- sion thrju:^h valves in the supply j)iston opening towards the furnac. Hut these valves open on the outside of a sheet-iron cylindrical bell, carried by the supply piston, which enters into the annular space above mentioned be- tween the furnace wall and the externa! cylinder, and there- fore the air in passing them is obliged to pass down outside this bell to the extremity of the annular space, and to re- turn inside the bell, in a thin annular sheet in close eon- tact with the furnace wall. The working power is derived from the heat thus imparted. Tliis}iower is effective through not quite half the rev(dution. Through the remainder it is zero, or the resistances predominate. Hence, a heavy fly- wheel is necessary. As to the economy of this engine, tests were made by Mr. Tresca, sub-director of the Cotmervntoire dcB Arta ct Metiers, of Paris, in 1801, upon a specimen engine of two- I horse-power, in which the consumption of coal amounted to 4^^ kilogrammes (about pounds) per horse power per hour — two or three times that of a, g<jod steam-engine. The mean maximum temperature of the heated air did not exceed 270°, and the expansion of volume was hardly 60 percent. { 1^5). S/iitw's Eti</itic. — Of this the jirincipal parts are a furnace, cylindrical in form, of boiler iron, lined with refractory brick; two single-acting cylinders working alternately; and a regenerator, which consists of a chamber filled with tubes similar to those of a tubular boiler, through which the exhaust air escapes. The air is heated in the furnace immediately in contact with the fuel, of which it at the same time supports the combustion. This furnace is accord- ingly closed air-tight, fuel being supplied when necessary by means of a box or receiver on the toj*. between which and the interior of the furnace, ciuuiiiunication can be opened; the box itself being, in the mean time, tightly closed. From the furnace, the air, along with the gaseous ])rodacts of combustion, is admitted beneath the pistons of the working cylinders alternately; and after it has performed its function, it is discharged through the tubes of the regenerator into the chimney. The upper ])ortions of the working cylinders are employed to furnish the sup- j)ly of cold air from the atmosphere. For this purpose each piston is provided with a trunk considerably smaller in di- ameter than the cylinder; and the annular space between the trunk and the cylinder, being closed in at the top, forms an air pump. As the piston descends, the air of the atmo- •sphcre enters this annular space through valves opening inward ; and on its ascent this air is forced into the regen- erator, where it becomes partially heated by contact with the lubes through which the dilated air is escaping, and thence passes into the furnace. The brick lining of the furnace is double, with a space between the walls ; and thi.^^ space the cntcriug air from the regenerator is obliged to traverse before it reaches the fire. Its temperature, which is already somewhat raised by compression and by contact with the tubes of the regenerator, becomes still more ele- vated in its passage through this space ; and the additional heat which is wanted to bring up the pressure to the point required, is supplied by the fuel. In this engine, the diffi- culty which impeded the success of most earlier inventions of the kind, viz., that of adequately heating the air, is in- geniously overcome. The heat developed by combustion is necessarily taken up by the air which supports the com- bustion, and by the gaseous products at the same time gen- erated. Hence it has been found practicable to maintain a pressure under the pistons averaging about an atmo- sphere. But it must be observed that such ,a pressure can only be secured by carrying the temperature to a point destructive of lubricants and packing, and liable to cause leaks by unequal expansion. Roper's Eifjinc. — This is very compact and well adapted to small industrial operations. The furnace is a cast-iron cylinder lined with fire-brick. Immediately over the fur- nace, and formed in the same casting, is the working cyl- inder, smaller in diameter than the furnace, and open above. The piston rod is kept vertical by means of a guide; and two connecting rods, one on each side of the proper piston- rod, operate balance levers united at their opposite ends by a cross-bar, to the middle of which is attached the con- necting rod which turns the crank of the main shaft. The balance levers are pivoted in supports secured to the work- ing cylinder itself, and they carry, also, a pair of rods which operate the piston of the supply cylinder. The sup- ply cylinder is immediately under the working shaft, and is as conveniently near the furnace as practicable, stand- ing upon the same base with it. The furnace is air-tight, and the air supply is forced into it beneath the grate, pass- ing through the fuel, and so upward into the working cyl- inder. Provision is made to divide the air current so as to allow a part, at pleasure, to enter the furnace above the fuel, for the purpose of regulating the rapidity of com- bustion, and the temperature of the charge. No provision is made for introducing the fuel while the engine is in operation. Occasiimal interruptions will therefore occur in order to replenish the fire. In starting the machine it is necessary to turn the fly-wheel for a few revolutions by hand. And it is also necessary that the fire shall be well lighted before the door of the ash-pit is closed. Wifcnr's Eiiffinc. — A hot-air engine under this name was exhibited at the International Exposition of London in 1862. The distinctive peculiarity of this consists in the employment of two working cylinders through which the air successively passes. The furnace is in the lower portion of one of these cylinders, and the supply pump is in th.- upper chamber of the same cylinder. The engine is furthtr provided with a regenerator of thin metal plates. The air. after being compressed in the supply pump, passes through the regenerator, taking up the heat left there by (he last charge of escaping air, and thence into the .second working cylinder. In this it produces a partial effect, due to the heat already absorbed, and then enters the first or prin- cipal working cylinder, where it receives the heat of the HOT-AIR ENGINE. 1007 furnace. The ndvantago of admittiog the supply air to the cylinder which c-uutains the furnace is very consider- able, as it tciid^ to prevent that cylinder from being over- heated, ivhilc it utilizes the heat which would otherwise bo injurious. Liiubentu'ii Eiujiue, — In this a certain volume of air is enclosed in a cylinder of metal, in which there is also a large moving plunger, which, by occupying alternaloly one end and the other of the cylinder, displaces the air and drives it in the opposite direction. The upper purliun of the cyl- inder is surrounded b^' a jacket, between which and the cylinder itself there is a constant circulation of cold water. As the plunger itself is but slightly less in diameter than the interior of the cylinder, the air during the transfer is reduced to a thin cylindrical stratum, and is brought into close contact \vith the cold walls. The eftVct of the engine depends as much upon the efficiency of this cooling process as upon the subsequent heating, and therefore it is desir- able that the water of refrigeration should be as cold as jiossiblc. Hut as this water must nt'oessarily be drawn from natural sources, it is obvious that the engine will bo more efficient in winter than in summer. The lower por> Fig. 1. Laubcrau's engine, small model. tion of the cylinder is occupied by a furnace resembling the furnace of the Kricsstm engine ; viz. a cylinder smaller than the air cylinder, with an annular space between the walls of the two. The plunger also, like that of the Erics- son engine, is provided with a bell-shapcd continuation, which enters the annular space around the furnace. Fig. 1, above, shows a section of one of these engines of ^mall model, in which K is the furnacc-rooni ; but here the heat is applied by means of a powerful gas-lamp, X. The flame, reverberating, passes down the narrow annular space X' X'.nnd the products of combustion are conducted otf at Y. D is the plunger with its attached bell. For lightness it is partially hollow. F is the space filled by the refrig- erating water. A A on the left is the working cylinder, and II the working piston. A communicating tube shown in dotted lines admits the heated air to the space in A A be- neath the piston when the plunger rises, and allows it to return to G (i when the plunger descends. The plunger of course receives its motion from the working piston. As the engine is but single-acting, a fly-wheel is necessary. Provision must bo made by a force-pump to maintain the flow of the refrigerating water. If the conlincd air employed is under more than tlie almospheric pressure, there must also be some contrivance to make good the gracUial waste by leaka<;e through the packings. If no superior pressure is employecl, a small shifting vatvo on the cold sido will sunice fur this purpose. The main advantage, however, of using a confined body (•f air in these engines, rather than to draw Ihc successive charges directly from the atmosphere, is that we may thus obtain a higher pressure, anrl consequently a greater power within the same bulk. But this advantage brings with it the attendant necessity of employing refrigerators, which with the other class of engines are wholly unnecessary. In the larger forms of Lauberau cntrines, the cylinders arc horizontal. A test made by Air. Trcsca of the perform- ance of one of these, having a horse-power of about four- fifths, showed a consumption of •Ij'Y^th kilogrammes (about 10 pounds) of coal per horse-power per hour; while the refrigeration reijuired THU kilolitres (IfSO gallons) of wat<.T per hour also. It cannot, therefore, be called an econom- ical source of power; but for many uses in which but a small power is required, it may be practically such. BcIoh'x Enffinc. — The only hot-air engine which has as yet been employed on a large scale as the motive power of an important industry, is that patented by Uelou, in France, in 1800. This was introduced, ten or twelve years ago, into a largo paper manufactory at Cusset; and as the e.\- periments made with it there seem to have been econom- ically successful, while little is known of it in this country, it deserves a more particular description than wo have given of tho others. Belou's engine in some respects re- FiG. 2. Kolou's hot-air engine — pian. sembles Shaw's, but diff'ers from it in employing but ono cylinder, which is double-acting, and in having an inde- pendent supply-pumj) and no regenerator. The cylinder, however, is surrounded by a jacket, between which and the cylinder itself the air circulates in passing from the supply- FiG. 3. Ik-luu's bot-air engine — elevation and partial section. 1008 HOT-BED— HOTEL. pump to the furnace. The engine is represented in Figs. 2 and 3. The first is a general plan; and tho second, a vertical section passing through tho axis of the cylinder and of tlio supj)ly-pnnip. Tho furnace is at A, and tho hopper for fuel at li. D is tho cylinder and F tho suj)ply-puuip. The air, in passing from F to tho furnace, is driven through tho ppacc (I hetwccn tho ■working cylinder and its envelop- ingjacket. A portion of Iho air,largeror smaller as occa- sion may require, may be made to pass into tho furuaeo over (l»c fuel, and not through it. By this means tho in- tensity of the heat may bo varied, and tho working ]>res- suro increased or diminished. M is tho main shaft, N tho fly-wheel, and Q Q' connecting rods wliich exphiin tiicm- sclvos. Tho fly-wheel on the large cngineatCusset weighs about fifteen tons. The fuel introduced into B is spread over the grate by a mechanical contrivance operated by the arbor D', connected with an eccentric on tho main shaft. Two Cclou engines have been tested by Mr. Trcsca; one of about four horse power, and the other (which is the en- gine at Cusset) of nearly thirty. In tho smaller, tho con- sumption of coal per liorse power per hour amounted to 2/jj'^ kilogrammes (nearly pounds) ; in the larger, only ir^^^ kilograuinics (three pounds). The working cylinder of this la'ter had a capacity of about eighty cubic feet; that of the sup])ly cylinder was about half as great. In this case the amount of force developed, as measured by tho in- dications of the manometer, was equal to one hundred and twenty-horse power, but of this the supply absorbed eighty- horse power, or two-tliirds of tho whole; and more than ten-horse power was estimated to be necessary to overcome the passive resistances. Less than thirty-horse power, therefore, or one-quarter of the whole, was actually utilized. It is of course upon the horse power actually utilized, and not upon the aggregate energy developed, that the loregoing statement of consumption is founded. The performance is therefore about equal to that of an economical steam engine. It is to be observed, however, that the heat was carried to a height which could not but tend to deteriorate rapidly the parts of the engine exposed to it; and especially the interior of the working cylinder. In order to |)rotect this surface, it was constantly lubricated with a solution of soap in \vater. of which about five gallons were consumed per hour. There was also a large final loss; the escaping air in the chimney having a temperature of not less than 250° C. = 4oO°"f. above that of the atmosphere. Mr. Tres- ca computes that fully seven-eighths of the heat produced by the furnace was expended unproductively. Notwith- standing these drawbacks the practical result actually ob- tained is eminently encouraging to those who hope to see steam-power advantageously replaced by something safer and more universally available. To the class of hot-air engines belongs properly the so- called inflammable gas engine known as Braytou's Ready Motor. For an account of this, see G.vs Esginf,. F. A. P. BAnNARD. Hot'"bed,a frame for forcing the early growth of plants in cold regions. Its top is a glazed sash, sloping towards tho y. The glass permits the sun's rays to enter and heat the air, and at the same time prevents the escape of the warm air. The heat of the sun is reinforced by that of fermenting animal and vegetable matter — horse dung, wool- waste, leaves, chopped straw, and the like — which fill a trench beneath the soil of the hot-bed. These are very necessary to prevent freezingat night and in cloudy weather. When the sun shines brightly it is often necessary to admit some cold air, or partly to cover the hot-bed with mats, otherwise the sun's heat may blast the plants. In very cold weather bast matting is spread over the glass to keep from freezing. Hot-beds are very essential in market- gardening in the Northern States. Ilotcli'kiss {Vki.ona R.). D- D.. b. at Spafford, N. Y., June I'l. IS16 ; educated at Madison University, N. Y. ; pas- tor of Baptist churches in Poultnoy, Vt., ISIl'J-l'J: Rotfhes- ter, N. Y., ISI2-lfi: Fall River, Mass., 1846-19: nutfalo. N. v., 1811t-ot and 18f).'>-7:t; was professor of biblical lit- erature in Rochester Theological Seminary 1854 to ISfiJ. He is now (1876) pastor of the Washington street Baptist church in Buffalo, X. Y. He is an accomplished theologian and scholar. Hot Creek, post4p. of Nye co., Nov. Pop. 40. Hold' [Old Knf*. hostel ; Fr. /((I///, radical. A (Jf*-, " land- lord " or '* guest." derived by some from the Latin kofipea, by others from Aosftw, "guest " or '* enemy ;'* Middle Lat. Ao«/f//orm], an inn or house for the accommodation of trav- ellers, at present ajiplied in Kngland and America to the larger or better class of such establishments. In Franco the word is used not only in this sense, but also means, as it did exclusively once, any largo or magnificent residence, synonymous with chiitcau and palace. Tho present English word hotel is rather of French than Eng- lish origin. From the earliest ages, among the Jews and other Semitic people, the house of entertainment for trav- ellers was, like the caravanserai or khan of the present day, simply a lodging, the occupants of which provided their own food. People of rank or respectability were en- tertained by tho local governor or by their friends, to whom they took in some cases letters of introduction. For those of a lower or poorer class there ar()se at an early period, in addition to tho caravanserai, a tavern, at which food and drink were sold, but which appears to have been invariably also of so bad a char.acter in otlier respects that in Hebrew there was but one word (HyU) for landlady and courtesan. Recent investigation makes it probable that the inn or khan at Bethlehem where Christ was born was the habita- tion of Chimham (Jer. xli. 18), which had been an inn for more than 600 years, and was p'-rhnps originally a dwell- ing given by David to Chimham (2 Sam. xix. I'S). "In these khans," says Olivier, '* the stables join the chambers, and are better lighted. During the winter-time tlie former are often preferred by travellers for night-lodging; and when, as is often the case, they are of solid masonry or oven real eaves, they are favorite summer retreats." Tho Egyptians had lodging-taverns, but among the earlier (Jreeks of rank travellers were entertained only by private individuals. This was systematized by giving tickets (trvfi^oKa, truacra- houpjtnh'tcitis)^ on presenting which the guest was received: and these tesserre were handed down from father to son. (Full details of classic inns arc given by Michell ; also in Pollux.) The Romans, with their system of roads and posting, developed post-houses or inns, which under the Caesars were not inferior to those of the Mi'ldle Ages. The emperors were accustomed to give to ambassa- dors and others, as a great privilege, letters which not only entitled the bearer to horses and lodging, but also com- manded the postmaster to furnish bread, wine, beer, pigs, poultry, sheep, fish, fruit, wax, and many other things in abundance properly and promptly. Polybiu? states that in his time inns abounded on the rna<ls. and that provisions were so cheap that people were charged for all they ate in a day only the fourth of an obolus. or three-fifths of a cent per head. All the inns of the cities, whether good or bad, were morally infamous. Whether it was a caupoun, ta- bcnta, (livcrsvi-ium, (jrtnrn, or pnjnna (cook-shop), the Ro- man tavern was invariably a brothel — none the less because its female inmates \verc by law exempted from classification with ordinary prostitutes. It appears from Plautus, Mar- tial, Apuleius, and others that tavern-keepers were sup- posed to murder their guests, and even to feed others on their bodies — a story which passes current at the present day in Spain, Italy, and Cuba. The Greek taverns, ac- cording to Aristophanes, Lucian, Aristotle, and Athcna^us, had signs; and the Romans often used the bush and jug- handle [anna) to indicate the sale of wine. Other signs were the Mice and Weasels, the Fighting Men, the Cock, anri the Old Shepherd. In later times inns had the Cross for Christian customers, while heathens were attracted by the sun or the moon. The inns of the Middle Ages long resembled the Roman, and are invariably described as a pl.ice of vile debauchery, where every device was used to induee guests to gamble, to waste their money on wantons, or where Ihcy were robbed outright. The evil character of onlinary inns caused the establishment of houses of entertainment for men belong- ing to different callings or nations. Thus, in Venice tlie Germans established the Alhcrt/o dci Ti-Hftt-hi, at which Germans only were accommodated, and in all towns there were guild-taverns for the travelling members of their re- spective crafts. So early, however, as the thirteenth cen- tury public inns began to improve, especially on the grand route from Venice rid Augsburg and Ghent, and in the fourteenth century taverns nppear to have become more and more " the general lounge even of the industrious." There are many hotels in Europe ben ring the name of " The Cross of Malta," the origin of wliich was as follows : Before the Crusades hospitality had greatly declined throughout Europe. The Templars, as well as the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, having been impressed in the East by tho Arab /»»(///.■«, or inns for poor travellers, established similar ones near their " comitianderies." llenee, the Knights of St. John derived the name of llonpitalfrrK. Many of these, as in Bavaria. Provence, and (""astile. were really palaces, in which the young knights also lived. Tho Crnix <fr Mftlta is familiar to all who have travelled on the Continent. The modern hotel dates from the peace which followed tho downfall of Napoleon I, The annual streams of tour- ists caused the establishment of a better class of accommo- dation, and competition rapiflly made luxury commoner and cheaper. To furnish a hotel in Switzerland or Ger- many properly, according to Guyer {Das Ilutchccscn dtr HOTELS IX AMERICA— UOT SPRINGS. 1009 Geyeiiicnrt, Zurich, 1874), cost?, admittiog that tbo hotel is to contain 31)0 boarders — Furniture 1M.700 francs. Bel.'" and carpt'la. 92,120 " Mii.n -IV-'^O " Srvicx'—fr.sUvor, metal, glass, and porcelain 6;Mttt " KitcUen utcusib ■■ S.OOO " SGo./m Trancs, or about $72, 70S. But until railroads were rf;tab)isbed botel-kueperi? on the i/ranile route — i'. e. from London to Naples rid the Rhine — were generally amrnablo to the charge of petty deception, as is indeed »tilt too much the case in France and Italy. But the imnicnpo business which grew on the route Hoon induced la wiser policy. It was found more profitable to cstablij^h fixed rates for every- thing — room?, tahfc d'hOtc, and service. Thirty years ago it was usual to bargain for rooms, the -host often asking three times as much as he intended to take. The extraordinary increase of hotels of late years, cspc- ciaJIy in summer resorts, has been such as to render pros- perous many districts which at ono time seemed destined to endless poverty ; and it ser ms at present as if in another gcneratiou these public palaces will bo in sight of one an- other all over the mountaiu-eountry of Europe. Thirty years ago the wretchedness of Switzerland was painful ; at present real poverty seems hardly known there to any ono who can remember the old time ; and this chan^ic is due in a great measure to the railroads, and with them the nume- rous anfl excellent hotels and peminnit which annually at- tract so many visitors. Ciiakles G. Leland. Hotels in America. The hotel, in its strictest sense as a pubtir-hnHHe, has reached its highest development in the V. S., and particularly in our larger cities. This is no American boast, but the united testimony of unprejudiced travellers. The .\merican hotels are not perfect — very far from it — but they excel all European hostelries in several particulars. They are on a much larger scale; the ele- vator, an American invention, and rendered necessary by the great height to which the buildings arc carried, is now conneeted with all first-class hotels. The charges at these hotels of the first class are high, but when the service ren- dered is considered they cannot be regarded as exorbitant. It is certain that the expenses of the great hotels are so heavy that even with their rooms generally filled, and often crowded, the actual profit is very moderate, and in a dull season they not unfrequently become bankrupts. The largest hotels are not, as might have been supposed, in New York, though some there are very large, but in some of the largest of the Western cities. Chicago, St. Louis, aii*l San Francisco taking the lead in this particular. Of the new I'alace Hotel at the latter cily wo are told that it is to cover an area of 06,260 feet, to be six stories in height, and to afford com- fortable accommoilution for 1200 guests. It is to have a large open court in the centre with flower-gardens an'l fountains, and is to cost, including the hind. ?2, 600,01)0. Ono or two of the Chicago hotels, and one at least of the St. Louis, have larger accommodations for guests than this, though possilily not a larger area. The summer hotels at Saratoga, Long Branch, and Newport are still larger, but they are open merely fur three or four months. A very elaborate and exhaustive article recently (Dec, 1874) pub- lished in the New York Tribune gives very full statistics in regard to fifteen of the leading hotelsof New York City (less IhanonC'SCventb of the whole number, though, perhaps, from their size ami accommodations, receiving one-fourth of the guests). These hotels were the Albemarle, Ashland, Bre- voort, Fifth Avenue, (Jilscy, Grand Central, (irand Union, Hoffman, iMetropolitan, New York, St. Nicholas, Sturtc- vant, I'nion Square, Winchester, and Windsor. Together, they had 1002 rooms — five of them having less than l.'iO rooms each. They could accommo'late comfortably GO.'JO guests, an<I upon an emergency, 7*1 10. Their daily average through the year was 3925; they employed 29^16 servants, of whom \t.'>i) were females, 1179 males, and ha<i .'J90 coaches and carriages in attendance. The beef they con- Bumed required the slaughter of 20,000 beeves every year, and other meals almost as large a number of .iheep, calves, and swine; 6on,0UO pounds of fish and I.. .000. 000 oysters were also served up upon their tables ; 6,01)0,000 eggs and 1,.'>00,000 pounds of poultry and game; 10.000 barrels of flour, 20,000 barrels of potatoes, and a vast amount of green nnd root vegetables : 150.000 pounds of colTee, 3.'),000 pounds of tea. and "00,000 poun<ls of sugar. I,.'i00,000 quarts of milk, 17'*, 000 quarts of cream, more than l.M^OOO pounds of butter, nltout 120,000 pounds of dried fruits, and nearly TkI.OoO gallons nf canned fruits, jellies, etc. Of gas 60. 000. 000 feet were required for illumination, worth, at the current price in New York. $106.000 ; 'J6,000 tons of coal, 12,000 tons of ice, and. for various uses, 1,260.001) pounds of soap, were among the other articles required. Tbo washing of table-linen, bed linen, towels, etc. amounted Vol. II.— r.( to about 19,000,000 pieces a year. This was aside from tho personal clothing of guests washed in the laundries. Tho waste of these establishments is enormous. That from tho tables is of two kinds--the broken meats, etc., much of which, though good and wholesome, cannot be served up a second time, and is given to tho charitable institutions which have the feeding of the poor, or in some instances disposed of to low eating-houses, etc.: the other kind, coming under the general denominations of swill and gar- bage, is nearly an absolute waste, nnd amounts in these fifteen hotels to 11,000,000 pounrls annually, or 55,000 tons. The wear and tear of hotel furniture is estimated at 20 per cent, per annum, requiring refurnishing on an average onco in five years. The receipts of these fifteen hotels average about $40,000 per day, or $11,000,000 per year, but the amount of net profit is not so large as it should bo for such avast expenditure. These figures represent, as we havo said, but 15 of the 108 hotels of New York City, and their expenditures and receipts do not differ materially from those of a like number of hotels of the first-class in tho other large cities, especially those of the West. The hotels of the second and third class fix their tariff of charges con- siderably lower, and, really, giving less service and lux- uries in proportion to their prices than the first-class ho- tels, are generally more profitable. Some of these are well managed, and with less liisplay are quite as comfortable and home-like as the high-priced houses. The usual charge per diem at the hotels of the first-class is from $4.60 to ^6 per capita, but this includes no extras, such as wine, cigars, fire in the room, etc. etc. Hotels of the second and third classes, when not on " tho European plan "' — ('. e. affording lodging only — charge from $2.50 to S.'i.50, and somewhat less than the others for extras. The management and keeping of hotels, as conducted in this country, involves larger aggregate receipts and ex- jienditures than any one branch of manufacture. Both re- ceipts and expenditures are counted by hundreds of mil- lions of dollars, and employ in various ways a vast number of people. L. P. Brockett. Hotel, tp. of Surry co., N. C. Pop. 709. Ilo'tho (HKiNRiri! GiTSTAv), b. in Berlin May 22, 1802; studied at the university of his native city, and became professor of sesthetics at the same in LSIjO. He also held different positions at the art-galleries of Berlin, and d. there Dec. 25, 1873. He was a disciple of Hegel, and his books — Gefichirhtc tier I)etttsvhen nnd Xirder/iiudhchcn Mitlarci (1843), Die Malrrsrhule van EifrkH (1859), etc., as well as his criticisms in the Morrjciifdatt and his lectures — bore very strikiug marks of the ideas and of the terminology of his master. But he deserves great praise for the manner in which he edited Hegel's VorbttHnrfcn Uber ^-Esthetik [Z vols., 1835-38), chiefly from notes taken by his hearers. Hot-house. See Green-hoise. Hot Ilou^e, tp. of Cherokee co., N. C. Pop. 645. Hot'man (Francois), b. at Paris Aug. 23, 1524, and began to lecture on Roman law at the university in 154G; but having embraced the Reformed religion, he was com- i)clled to leave his native city in 1647. and retired to Lyons, ''rom this moment, and up to his death at Bale, Feb. 12, 1590, his life was wandering and adventurous, though gen- erally brilliant, and his participation in the political in- trigues of his time xvas very active, though not very hon- orable. By his lectures on law at Lyons. Genera, Stras- burg, Valence, Bourges, and Paris, and especially by his work, Frnuco-tiiilliii (I573J, ho made a revolution in tho political and social views of his time, and many of his writings are still read with great interest; as, for instance, Commeiitnrii iu A'.V F. Cii'crotiia Oratioues {\o5i) arid Com- mcntftriuM in fV. lualitutinuum Lthron (15(30). Hot Sprinf7, county of S. W. Central Arkansas. Area, 650 square miles. It is mountainous, well timbered, and abounds in mineral wealth. Iron ores, novaculite (Arkan- sas hone-stone), salt, and a great variety of other valuable minerals are obtained. Corn, pork, nnd tobacco are staple products. Cap. Roekport. Pop. in 1870, 5877. Hot Spring IiUliC,a beautiful lake 3 miles N. of Salt Lake City, Ut., fed by the hot springs near by. It is 3 miles long and over 1 mile broad. Its surface partly freezes over in winter. Hot Springs, post-v., cap. of Garland co.. Ark.. 55 miles S. W. of Little Rock. It has about sixty thermal springs, much visited by invalids and others. The town has a weekly newspaper, and several hotels and ehutehes. The springs aro very copious, and some of them discharge waters of tho temperature of 150° F. Pop. of v. 1270 ; of tp. 1004. Hot Sprinf^A, tp. of Napa co., Cal. Pop. 2120. Hot Springs, posl-v. of Bath co., Va., 35 miles N. E. of Wliito Sulphur Springs. It coutaina several thermal 1010 HOTTENTOTS— HOUGHTON. saline springs (of a temperature of lOC-lOB" F.), whose waters are useful in a wide range of diseases. Hot'tentots, the native race of Cape Colony, South Africa. Their present territory extends northward from Capo Colony to Orange River, and eastward from the At- lantic to the boundaries of Cafi'raria. There are in this vast territory some well-wooded regions and tracts of good pasture-land, but generally it is an arid desert, miserable is the race which inhabits it. The Hottentots look like a mixture of the Mongolian and the negro race. They are tall, meagre, with high check-bones, sallow complexion, and oblique eyes, but they have thick lips, flat nose, and ■woolly hair growing in tufts. When the Dutch first settled at the Capo of Good Hope, in the middle of the seventeenth century, the Hottentots were quite numerous. They lived as herdsmen and hunters, and evinced some skill" in rearing cattle and catching game ; but their huts were miserable, they were nearly naked, their religious and moral ideas very few and weak, and their customs and habits often extremely savage. In contact with the Dutch they sunk still lower— that is to say, they sunk below the possibility of life. They sold their herds for rum, and died from starvation ; their "number decreased at a fearful rate. Under the English government they arc much better off. Some of the tribes have become good and steady workmen, and show receptibility of civilization, though others — as, for instance, the Bushmen — have proved entirely uufit for civilized life. The Bushmen are very small of stature, ugly above description, and disgustingly degraded. They are widely scattered through sill the English colonies in South- ern Africa, but their number is rapidly decreasing. The language of the Hottentots has several marked dialects, all remarkable for the presence of clicking sounds. (See Bleek, Comparative Grammar of the S. A/rJcau Lanrjuarjes, 1862-69.) Curious anatomical peculiarities, such as the steatopyga, or prominent nates of the women, have been observed in the Hottentot race, but are not universal. The present number of Hottentots and Bushmen does not ex- ceed 150,000. (See Fritsch, Drel Jahre in SUda/rika, 1869; Die Eingebornen Siida/rikas, 1872.) Hottentot's Bread, a kind of yam ( TcMuiUnaria ele- phaiitii.'n. order Dioscoreacea;) growing in South Africa. It is a beautiful vine, growing from the back of the large, rough, tortoise-like tuberous rhizoma, which grows half un- covered. The rhizoma affords starchy food. Hot'tinger, the name of a family of Swiss scholars, the most prominent of whom were — Johann Heisrich, b. at Zii- rich Mar. 10. 1020 ; studied at Groningcn and Leyden ; be- came professor in church history and Oriental languages at Ziirich and Heidelberg; and was drowned near the former city June 5, 1607. By his writings, Grammalica Qnatuor Li'iiguarwn flchraicv, Chaldeir, %)v'aca-, ef 4r«iic.T (1659), and Eiifmuhr/tenm Orienlalc (1G61), etc., ho contributed very much to a better understanding and a more general study of the Semitic languages. — Johaxn .Tatob, a son of the preceding, b. at Zurich in 1652, and d. Dec. 18, 1735, as professor of theology at the university of his native city. He wrote llchcliache KirchnrjeachichteXi vols., 1708-29), a work still appreciated. — .Jon.vs\.lACOD. grandson of the pre- ceding, b. at Zurich in 1750, and d. there Feb. 4, 1SI9. He was professor in Latin and tireek, and took part very ac- tively in the great literary movement in German Switzer- land under the leader.^hip of Bodmer. — JoHAN':) Jacob, a nephew of the preceding, b. at Zurich in 1783, and d. there in 1859: wrote Ucschlchie der Schweizerischen Kirchen- trenmwj {lS2a-27). Uottonia. See FEATUEn-roir,. Hou'brachen (Arnold), b. at Dort Mar. 28, 1660, and d. in Amsterdam Oct. 14, 1719. Of great value are his biogranhiea of Dutch painters, Grootc srhmiburgh der neder- landsehc koimttchilderH en sckitdrcsien (1718). Houdiii'(RoBERTl,b. atBlois in 1805; was apprenticed to a watchmaker at I'aris ; studied mechanics, and won a medal for his toys and automata at the Paris exhibition of 1841. In 1845 ho opened in the Palais Royal a series of soirfies fantastiques, which he continued for ten years. In 1855 he retired to Blois with a large fortune. But in 1S56 ho went to Algeria on the invitation of the French govern- ment, and entered into a competition in making miracles with the marabouts or priests. His success was complete, and he contributed much to the breaking down of the bad influence of these impostors on their superstitious country- men. After his return he published his Life (1857) and his Cnufidenrr^ (1859). D. at Blois in 1871. Houdon' I Jeas Axtoine), b. in Versailles Mar. 20, 1741; d. in Paris July 15, 1828. He spent ten years in Rome as the king's pensioner, he having won the first prize at the Royal .\eademy for sculpture, and there exe- cuted the statuc'of St. Bruno in the S. Maria degli Angeli ; afterwards, in Paris, made statues of Voltaire. Cicero, Tour- ville, and busts of Napoleon, Josephine, Ney, Rousseau, Diderot, D'.Ucmbert, Barthclfimy. Mirabeau, Franklin, Turgot. and other eminent men of the time ; came to the XJ. S. with Franklin in 17S5. and modelled the statue of Washington in the capitol at Richmond. Va. While mak- ing studies for the statue he was the guest of Wai-hington at Mt. Vernon. The models of the human frame, without the covering of skin, executed for the .Academy, exhibit his knowledge of anatomv. His finished statue." and busts are highly valued as portraits. 0. B. FROTni.xGii VM. Hough (Fraxkli.v B.), A. M., M. D., b. at Martinsville, N. v.. July 20, 1822 ; graduated at Union College in 1843, and at Cleveland Medical College in 1849 ; practised his profession 1848-52 at Somerville, N. V. He has since been engaged in literary and scientific pursuits, and resides at Lowvillc. N. V. Has published a Catahrjiie o/ Plants of Leiois Co., N. Y. (1847), Hitlonj of St. Lawrence and Frank- lin Cos., N. Y. (1853), of Jefl'erson eo. (1854), of Lewis co. (1860). Meteorological Ohierrationa, 182C-50 (1854), New York CivilList (1861), Gazetteer nf Nexe York (1872), and many other works, principally historical. Hough (Jons Stocktox), M. D., b. at Yardlcyville, Bucks CO., Pa., Dec. 5, 1845 ; was educated at Trenton, N. J., Fort Edward and Poughkeepsie, N. Y., and the Polytechnic College of Pennsylvania; took his medical degree 1808 at the University of Pcnn.syivania. Author of numerous papers upon q"ueftions in biology, social science, pathology, etc. ; was resident physician of the Philadelphia Hospital 1868-69, etc. Hough'ton, county of the N. peninsula of Michigan, bordering on Lake Superior. Its winter climate is severe. It has abundance of valuable ores of eojiper, iron, and silver, which are extensively wrought. Keweenaw Bay and other iulets of Lake Superior break its outline, and abound in excellent fish. The working of copper-mines is the principal industry. The surface is broken. Cap. Houghton. Pop. 13,879. Houghton, post-v., cap. of Houghton co., Mich., on Lake Portage, an arm of Lake Superior, is the centre of the great copper-producing district, 15.000 tons being an- nually shipped from this port; contains 3 churches, a national bank, a newspaper and binding establishment, 2 hotels, machine-shops, stores, etc. Principal business, min- ing. Pop. about 17U0. J. R. Devereaux, Prop. " Portage Lake Mini.ng Gazette." Houghton, tp. of Keweenaw co., Mich. Pop. 1325. Houghton (Doi-GLAss), M. D., b. at Troy, N. Y., Sept. 21, 1809; graduated in 1829 at the Rensselaer Institute at Troy, in which he was in 1S:!0 appointed assistant professor. Ho made a valuable report of the botany of the I'ppcr Mississippi region, to which he was sent with an expedi- tion. He became a practising physician in Detroit, Mich. ; State geologist in 1837; mayor of Detroit in 1842; a pro- fessor in the Slate University; and a member of many learned societies. While on a government survey ho was drowned in Lake Superior, near Eagle River, Oct. 13,1845. Houghton (George Frederick), b. at Guilford, Vt., May 31, 1820 ; graduiitcd at the University of Vermont in 1839; became a lawyer in 1841 ; secretary of state of Ver- mont 1848-49; State attorney for Franklin co. 1852-53; founded the Vermont Transcripllf^ii, and became connected with the Ctiureh Journal (N. Y.) soon after. D. at St. Alban's. Vt., Sept. 22, 1870. Houghton (Hexry Clark), M. D., b. at Roxbury (Boston), Mass., Jan. 22, 1837; educated at Bridgcwatcr Normal School: became an instructor; served two and a half years in the late Christian Commission ; graduated M. D. from New York University 1867 ; resident physician to Five Points House of Industry 1867-69 ; surgeon to New York Ophthalmic Hospital since 1868; professor of physi- oloi'v in New York Homoeopathic College 1868-70; pro- fcss'or of phvsiology in New York College for Women since 1869 : member .and officer of various professional societies. Author of Lectures on the Diseases nf the Ear, etc. Houghton (Richard Moscktos Milncs). Barox, D. C. L., F. R. S., b. June 19, 1809 ; was educated at Cam- bridge, and was long an independent and moderately con- servative member of the House of Commons ; widely known as a poet and an elegant critic. In 1803 he was raised to the pcerace. He has published several volumes of poetry and travels; The Heal Union of England and Ireland (1845), Lil'e of Keats (1848), and other works. Houghton (Rotall),!). at Guilford, Vt., Feb. 12, 1798, and in J833 removed to New York, where he was (183o- 51 ) a prominent banker and broker, distinguished for honor and probity. After leaving business he became a citizen of St. Augustine, Fla., where he d. Mar. 22, 1873. Houghton (William), b. at Norwich in 1807; grad- IIOL'LTUN— IIOUSSA. 1011 uatcd at Highbury College, LondoD, in 1832: became min- iater of tlio Coiigregatioual church !it Wiiiil.^or in IS^JIi, of the Congrc;;atioD:iI society at KciiKingtou iu 1S44, uml was elected iu ISJJ chuiriuau of the Congregational Union of England and Wales. He wrote The Ecctciiaiticnl HUtory of Efigf'iml (4 vols., 1870) and Country U'uUff of a Xatu- ratitt ictth hi$ Children (1869). flourtODf po8t-v., cap. of Aroostook co., Mc., 120 miles N. K. of Bangor, on ibo New Brunswick and Canada TX. R. It is the rendezvous for the lumbermen of that region. Has a savings bank, 2 weekly newspapers, 7 churches, atores and shops. Pop. 2850. W. S. GiLM.vN, Ed. "Aroostook Pioneeh." Iloiil'towny tp, of Marion co., W. Va. Pop. 33, llou'ma^ post-v„ cnpital of Tcrrc Ronnc parish. La., 70 miles S. \V. of New Orleans, with whieh it is connected bv Morgan's R. U. It has several public and private pchoots, a convent and an academy, 4 churches, and 2 weekly newspapers. I'op. .'i'Ki, K. \V. Cu.NDON, Eu. " Tkuke Bonne Repcbmcan." Hou-Xan% or Ilu-Xan^ province of China, situated between Lit. '2i>° and 30° N., an.l between Ion. 109° and 114° E.. comprises an area of 74,32.') sriuaro miles, with 18,Cj2.j07 inhabitants. The surface is elevated, in many places mountainous, but the country is very little known. The northern part is very fertile, and produces largo quau- tities of cotton. Metals are said to abound, but mines are not worki d. Cap. Chaog-Sha. Hound [Ger. Hand, a "dog"], a term properly ro- strijtej to those dogs which luint by foIlowiDg the track of the game by scent. This delinition includes the blood- hound, staghound, foxhound, beagle, harrier, and a few others, but docs not include the greyhound. Most hounds arc muscular, strong, sagacious animals, with large j>cudu- lous oars. The more important varieties are described umlcr their aphabetical heads. Uoqnd^'fish, a name given to some of the larger dog- fishes (whit_'h are themselves small f^peeies of sharks), such as the Mnn(rlu.t Lrviiiy or smooth bound-tish of European 8eas, two or three feet long, represented in America At- lantic waters by M. canU, a rather larger fish. These fishes have flat grinding teeth, adapted well to their food, which consists of crustaceans and mollusks. Houns'field, tp. of JcfTerson eo., N. Y., on Lake On- tario. It includes Sackett's Hakbor (which see) and several islands. Pop. 2630. Houns'low, town of Middlesex, Eng., 10 miles W. of London, cuusistiug mainly of a single street. Pop. 929-4, Hour [Lat. horn], the twenty-fourth part of a day, or of the interval between two consecutive meridian ])assages of the mean sun ( mean solar day ), true sun (apparent solar day), or of a fi\e<i star (sidereal day). As mean solar time is the legally recognized time according to which the affairs of business are regulated, anrl is the time kept by ordinary clo.'ks and watches, the word hour, in its usual acceptance, is understoorl to signify a mean solar hour. As the mean solar merjilian ]ta!fsage commonly divides the interval be- tween sunrise and sunset unequally, clocks are sometimes, and for certain purposes, constructed to give apparent time. Such clocks arc called equation clocks (see Eqcation op Time), and are designed to mark exactly twelve when the true sun is on the meridian. Astroiiomieal clocks (so called), or the clocks of astronoraieal observatories, are regulated to sidereal time for convenience in reconiing right ascensions (which are measured in such time), or to facili- tate the Hndin:? of celestial objects whose right ascenjiions are known. (See Time.) F. A. P. Barnakd. Honr'«f;IasH, a contrivance much used, before the in- vention and iutroduclion into general use of clocks and watches, for the measurement of time. It consists of a hollow glass vessel blown into a form externally resem- bling the figure 8, or presenting the appearance of two spberico-conoidal bulbs united at their vertit;es. In the bluwing, the coutraetion in (be mirbllr 1:4 rtuch as almost to close communication between the bulbs. This passage is then smunlhly drilled out. by passing the drill througli the aperture left in the base in blowing; and a quantity of fine j and dry sand is then introduced, suflic^ient to oecupy an hour in running tlirough this pa.^^suge from one V)ulb to the other wh<-n the instrument is held in a vertical position. During the adjustment the external aperture is temporarily closed by a cork. After the adjustment this aperture shoultl bo sealed in siieh a manner as effectually to exclude moist- ure. The whole should then be protected by a surround- ing frame. The hour-glass is by no means a very exact instrument. .\ pereeptilile difference will not unfrequenlly be observed between the times of running out, aceording as one or the other of the bulbs is uppermost. Tempera- ture also affects its performance ; and in case of the absorp- tion of moisture by the sand, in consequence of imperfect sealing, its irregularities are much increased. Half-hour glasses, minute-glasses, half-minute glasses, etc. are con- structed on the same principle. The hour-glass is now rarely used, more accurate and convenient timekeepers having superseded it; but the half-minute glass is still employed at sea to time the running of the log-line. F. A. P. RinsAnn. Hour'is (pi,), ((*. e. the "black-eyed"), the nymjihs of Paradise, whoso society, according to the Koran, is to be one of the great felicities of the Mobammedan believer after death. These beings are of pure musk, and arc en- dowed with perjictual youth, health, and beauty. Hours* The [Cr.'llpat : Lat. U'^m]. in Greek mythol- ogy, the goddesses of nature and the seasons of theycar; in later times the personifications of justice and good order. Their number nnd mythus are variously given. At Athens there were two — Thallo (Spring) and Carpo (Autumn). Ilesiod makes them three — Eunomia. Dice, and Irene. In art they arc blooming nj-mphs, laden with fruits and flowers. Housatoti'iCy post-v. of Great Barrington tp., Berk- shire CO., JIass., on the Ilousatonic K. II., 21 miles S. of Pittsficid. It has manufactures of bank-note paper, etc. HousatOllic River rises by several head-streams in Berkshire co., Mass., tlows S., and traverses the State of Connecticut, falling into Long Island Sound iu lat. 41° 9' iV N., Ion. 73° 0' 53" \V. For 14 miles it is a tidal stream. Its valley abounds in wild and beautiful scenery, aud it affords water-p<»wer for numerous manufactories. IIousc'-Fly, the Musm d<»mrHi!ra of Europe and prob- ably of the U. 8. (though it is not quite certain that the house-flies of the two eontinents are identical in species), a very common household pest, brcetling as a maggot in heaps of filth, upon which it feeds. It is regarded as a preventer of disease because it acts as a scavenger, and thus defers and distributes over much space and time the fermentation and destruction of organic substances. Flies arc especially abundant late in summer and early in autumn. They are generally most numerous near stables and ill-kept dairies, and their presence anywhere in numbers may be regarded as indicating possible danger to health from putrefying organic matter. Against the annoyance of flies, cleanli- ness i.s the best preventive. House'hold SuTfrage, Under the English law, the right to vote in boroughs for members of Parliament is granted to male persons of full age who during twelve months preceiling the last day of July in any year, as well as on that day, have been necupiers. either as owners or tenants, of any dwelling-house within the borough, and have been rated, and have paid tlie rates, in a speeilie<l way for the relief of the poor iu respect to the premises. The phrase "dwelling-house " is defined by the act to mean any part of a house oecupied as a separate dwelling, aud sepa- rately rated f(tr the relief of the poor. The right of suf- frage is also extended to lodgers occupying the same lodg- ings for a similar period to that jireseribed for oecupants of dwelling-houses, such lodgings being of the clear yearly value, if let unfurnished, of £10 a year antl upwards. (See for the details of the subject .'10 and 31 Vict. c. 102, a. n. 1^07.) Rules of a similar nature in respect to the right of voting as a burgess of a borough at municipal elections aro found in 32 nnd 33 Vict. eh. 53. a. i). 18G9. T. W. Dwiunr. Household Troops. Sec Giards. Ilouse'-I.eek (Srnipcrvlvunt tcctorum), an herb of the order Crassulaeeje, a native of Europe, often cultivated in the V. S. It takes its trivial name from the fuel that it is often set ujion the roofs of cottages, where it grows well, propagating abnn<lantly by ofi'scts on short and thick run- ners, rarely flowering. As a remedy for bee-stings, slight burns, and the like the bruised leaves are very efficacious. Tiie plant was once so highly esteenu-d as a cure for disease that t'liarlemiigno by edict compelled his subjects to keep it in their houses an<l plant it on their roofs. The name house-leek is p<q>ularly applied to several other crussulace- ouH iilanls. House'mnid'8 Knee (so called because it is said, though with little reas(u), to be most common among house- maiils, who scrub stairs nnd flours upon their knees), an acute or chronic dropsical effusion into the bursa before tlie knee-pan. It is easily diagnosticated, and docs not eom- nuinicalc with the knee-joint proper. Acute cases may bu cured by rest and the application of iodine, mercurials, and tight bandages ; chronic one?, by compression with suitable splints, or even by evacuation and injection of iodine solu- tion int<i the sac. House's Creek, tp. of Wake eo., N. C. Pop. 2098. Hous'saf or Haus'saf is the name of a largo tcrritorj 1012 HOUSSAYE— HOVEN, of Central Africa, extending between lat. 12° and 13° N., and between Ion. 5° and 10° E., and consisting partly of tracts of low laud inundated by the Niger and its affluents during the rainy season, partly of ranges of rocky lulls en- closing elevated table-land. The inhabitants have in some places formed imlependcnt states, in others they have been subjugated by neighboring tribes, cspeeially the Fellatahs, and thus the name llaussa signifies a race and a language, rather than a jioliticat unit. Houssaye'(Aus£NE),b. at Bruyeres.in the department of Aisnc, Mar, 28, ISlo, of a wealthy father, who had made his fortune in the milling business. About 18;J5 young lloussayc presented himself in the Paris fashionable and literary circles, and was so fortunate as to become the friend of Jules Janin, Theophile Gaulhicr, Jules Sandcau, then the princes of criticism and light literature. Thanks to them, Arsuno Houssaye soon attracted public attention to bis first books, and afterwards conquered a well-earned celebrity. In 1841) ho became director of the Theatre Fran^aisc. and under the empire was appointed inspector- general of the museums. Author of the periodical letters on Paris life being published by the New York Tribune (lS7o). Among his works arc — Philonophi^s et Com^di- cnnen, Len jilles iV Err, Sons la Beijetire ct bohh la Terreitr, lilanchc it Maryuen'tr, Nos r/ramiea damcfi, Ifhtory of the Foriif-firftt FanteiiH of the French Acadenn/, ICing Voltaire^ Ifistnri/ of French Art, etc. — Henri, his son, b. Feb. 24, 1848, is just beginning to make his mark in the literary world of France, through the publication of his History of Aprlh-H, Hintory of AlcibindcH, etc. Felix ArCAIGXE. Ilous'toil) county of Central Georgia, bounded on the E. by the Oemulgee River. Area, 650 square miles. It is level, and has a fertile, calcareous, and well-cultivated soil. Cotton, pork, and corn are staple products. It is traversed by the South-western and other railroads. Cap. Perry. Pop. 20,400. Houston, the south-easternmost county of Minnesota, having Iowa on the S. and the Mississippi River on the E. Area. 570 square miles. It is well timbered and fertile, and grain is its chief staple. Cap. Caledonia. P. 14,936, Houston^ county of N". W. Central Tennessee. Area, about ^fiO square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Tennessee River, and is traversed by the Memphis Clar!;s- viile and Louisville R. R. It is diversified and fertile. Cap. Erin. It was constituted since the census of 1870. Houston,county of the E. of Texas. Area, 1090 square miles. It is well timbered and watered, and generally rolling and fertile. Coal and iron are found. The Inter- national and Great Northern R. R. traverses the county, which has the navigable Neches and Trinity rivers respec- tively on its E. and W. borders. Cotton, corn, and live- stock are largely produced. Cap. Crockett. Pop. S147. Houston, post-v., county-seat of Winston co., Ala., 55 miles N. \V. of Elyton. Pop. of tp. 498. Houston, tp. of Adams co., 111. Pop. 1239. Houston, tp. and post-v. of Houston co., Minn., on tlie Southern Minnesota R. R., 19 miles from La Crosse. Pop. 1075. Houston, post-v., cap. of Chickasaw co.. Miss., about 42 miles N. W. of Columbus. It has 2 academies. 2 churches, a newspaper, 2 hotels, stores, etc.; contains the usual public buildings. Pop. 400. Frank Burkitt, En. "Ciirkasaw Messenger." Houston, post-v., cap. of Texas co., Mo., about 75 miles S.of JeiVersou City, situated in a mineral region ; has large forests of pine and saw-mills in the neighborhood, an acaiiemy, the county court-house, 3 hotels, 2 newspapers, stores, shops, etc. It is 35 miles from the St. Louis Salem and Little Rock R. R. Pop. about 200. Iii:N. C. Lowell, En. "Texas Co. Pioneer." Houston, post-v. of Shelby eo., 0., on the Cleveland Columbus CiuL-iunati and Indiana]>oiis R. R. Pop. 5(>. Houston, city, cap. of Harris co., Tex., in lat. 29° 30', Ion. 94° 50', at the head of navigation on Buffalo Bayou, 60 miles N. W. of Galveston. It is the railroad centre of Texas. The city is situated on both siilc.-* the bayou, on gently undulating land, and has steamhnat c(<mmunication with <ialvostim daily. It contains nuincnius schools, 2 academics for white and colored scholars respectively, 13 churches, 2 national, 5 private, and 1 savings bank, 2 home insurance companies, the Masonic temple of the Grand Lodge of Texas, in which the annual meetings arc held, a eily-hall and market-house unsurpassed in the South. It has cotton, car, soap, and Portland cement factories, whilo its manufactories of wngons, carriages, ploughs, and other agricultural implements are a source oj" large revenue; a large ftouring-mill, 2 steam, 3 hand fire-f-ngincs, and 1 hook and ladder cumpan}*. The annual State fair is held hero on the fair-grounds, A horse railway from the general depots through the principal streets to the fair-grounds is in suc- cessful operation. There are 4 large hotels, 3 daily and 5 weekly newspapers, and its importance as a railroad and manufacturing centre is rapidly being developed. Pop. 9.5S2. E. \V. Tavlor. Houston (David C), b. in New York ; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy 1.856, and assigned to the corps of engineers with the rank of brevet second lieutenant; but retained at the Academy as assistant professor of natural and experimental philosophy until Sept., 1857, when ho WHS plat-ed on construction duty at Hampton Roads, and subsequently at Sandy Hook. In the civil war he was en- gaged at iJlackburn's Ford and Bull Run as engineer of Tyler's division ; assistant engineer on defences of Wash- ington ; chief engineer 1st army corps, department of the Rappahannock : of 3d army corps at Cedar Mountain and second battle of Bull Run; of 1st army corps at South Mountain and Antietam ; of department of the Gulf at the siege of Port Hudson, Red River campaign, etc. ; brevet captain, major, lieutenant-colonel, and ctdouel for gallantry and meritorious conduct. Since the close of the war he has had charge of the defences of Narragansett Bay, R. I., and is at present in charge of extensive river and harbor imj)ruvemcnts in the North-west. G. C. Simmons. Houston (George P.), U. S. M. C. ; entered the marine corps as a second lieutenant Oct. 23, ISCO; became a first lieutenant in 1861; was brevettcd major for "gallant and meritorious services" in the battle of Mobile Bay Aug. 5, 1S04, where he commanded a divisiou of the Brooklyn's guns, which Capt. Alden, in his official report, says he fought "nobly and well." Foxhai.l A. Parker. Houston {George Smith), b. in Williamson co., Tenn., Jan. 17, 1811; removed in youth to Limestone co., Ala. ; was admitted to the bar in 1831 ; was chosen district solici- tor in 1837; was in Congress 1841— 49 and 1851-01, taking a prominent position : chosen in 1S65 to U. S. Senate, but did not take his seat. In 1874 was elected governor of Alabama, and in 1S78 was chosen U. S. Senator. D. Dec. 31, 1879. Houston (Gen. Sam), b. in Rockbridge co., Va., Mar. 2, 1793. Left an orphan early in life by his father's death, be went with his mother in destitute circumslances to Tennessee, then the verge of civilization. Here he re- ceived a scanty education, and spent most of his youth- ful years among the Cherokee Indians. During a portion of tins period he served as clerk to one of the traders, and also taught a rustic school. In 1813 he enlisted as a pri- vate in the U. S. army, and served under Gen. Jackson in his famous campaign against the Creek Indians. He had so distinguished himself on several occasions that at the conclusion of the war he had risen to the rank of lieuten- ant, but on the return of peace he resigned his com- mission in the army, and took up the study of law at Nashville. His political career now commenced. After holding several minor otlices he was sent to Congress from Tennessee in 1S23. and continued a member of the House until 1827, when he was elected governor of the State. In 1829, he resigned this office before the expiration of his term ; went to Arkansas and took up his abode among the Cherokccs. He not long after became the agent of this tribe to represent their interests at Wushington. On a tirst visit to Texas, just before the election of delegates to the convention called there to form a constitution preparatory to the admission of Texns into the Mexican union, he was unanimously chosen a delegate to that body. The consti- tution so formed was rejected by the Mexican authorities, and Texas was denied admission as a state into that union. Santa Anna, the president of the Mexican confederated re- public, demanded of the Texans a surrender of their arms. Resistance to this demand was <letermined upon. A mili- tary force was organized, and Houston, under the title of general, was soon appointed commander-in-chief of it. Ho comluctcd the war which ensued with great vigor, and brought it to a successful termination by the battle of San Jacinto in Apr., 1S36, in which Santa Anna was captured, and by which the independence of Texns as a separate re- public was achieved. In Oct., 1S36, (»en. Houston was in- augurated the first president of the new republic. In 1845- 4G, Texas was admitted into our I'nion as one of the U.S., and Gen. Houston was elected as one of the two Texas members to the Senate of the U. S. This position he held for twelve years. His decided opposition to the policy of secession lost him the confidence of the people for whom he had done so much. He went into retirement, and sur- vived the outbreak of the war in 1801 for a short time. Taken all in all, (Jen. Houston was one of the most remark- able men who has ever figured in American history. D. at Huntsville, Tex.. July 25, 1S63. A. H. Stei'UEXh. Ho'vcn, or Hoove, a disease of cattle and sheep, characterized by great distension of the stomach by car- HOVEY— HOWARD. 1013 bonic acid gas, derived Trom fermentation of food. It is oflcn seen alur :i marked change from a mea^ro to » rich pasture. A sin:irt purge, the administration uf linic-wuler or weak ammunia-wMUT, and the introduction of tho stom- ach-tube arc to be tried. If these fail, }iluu;;e a tiucar and canula into the slumueh at a point halfway helwccD the haunch-bonc uud the hist rib^ and near the back-bone. There is some danger of fatal peritonitis aftor the operation, but most animals recover. Hov'ey (Alvah), D. D.. b. at Greene, N. Y., Mar. 5, 1820i graduated at Dartmouth College, N. H., 1S44. and Newton (Ma.«s.) Thcolocical Institution in 1S4S; was Uap- ti^t pastor at North tJloucester, -Mi'.; from 1S50 to 1SJ3 instructor in biblical literature at Newton Theological Sem- inary ; from ISb'A to 1856 professor of eeelcsinstical his- tory. Since ISjG he has been at the same institution pro- fc.-^S'ir of Christian theology, and its president since 1S6S. ilc has published, with Uev. I>. I>. Kurd, a translation uf I'ertho's Lifttif Chrjfsogtom, anil by hirnself. Li/etnid Times of Itfinc /?«'i-K»{lSjS), Shite of the /nipeuiUnt Dead ( ISb^}^ The Afintrtr* uf Chritit (180-4), Scriptural Law of Divorce (ISCSj, Ooii wit/t Us ( 1K72). and. privately, Lectures on The- oluffif, Jieliffiinif aitU the Slate (IS74), llovcy (Ai.viy P.).b. at Mt. Vernon, Tnd., May S, 1821 ; Btu<lied law and practised his profc?sion with success. Durin* the civil war he was appointed major of Indiana volunteers, subsequently colonel, serving in the South-west at Stiiloh and Corinth; promoted to be brigadier-general of voluntevr^ Apr. 28, 1S02; commanded a tlivision at tho battle of Champion Hills, contributing largrly to tho suc- cess of that day; subsequently engaged in the Vieksburg campaign. Brevctted major-general of volunteers Julv, 18ti4 J resigned Oct., 18G5. In 1SC6 he was appointed U. S. minister to Peru. G. C. Simmons. How fLvMAS Bartlrtt), a. M., M. I).. U. in New Bed- ford, Mass., Feb. 2.i, 1838; graduated A. B. at Dartmouth Cullogo ISfiO; studied medicine iu the medical department of that college and in the New York College of Physicians and Surgeons; took the medical degree in 1802; practises at Maiiuhestcr, N. II.; became professor of anatomy and physiology iu the meiiical department of Dartmouth Col- lege I SOU, which position ho holds (187a). llow'urd, county in the W. of Arkansas. Area. Ci2b square miles. Its \V. border is washed by Saline Creek. It is fertile, rolling, and well wooded. Cap. Centre Poiut. Howard, county of Dakota, traversed by tho Missouri and the Little Missouri rivers. Its N. W. corner extends to tiic mouth of the Yellowstone, Area, 4320 square miles. Howard, county of N. Central Indiana. Area, 310 square miles. It is level and very productive. Cattle, grain, ivool, and lumbi r are stajilc products. It is inter- sected by the Indiana(>olis Peru and Chicago and the Cin- cinnati and Chicago II. Us. Cap. Kokomo. Pop. 15,847. Howard, county of the N. E. of Iowa, bounded on tho N. by Minnesota. Area. o70 square miles. It is partly )iratrio and partly timbcr-Iand, and h:ts a fertile soil. tirain is the staple product. It is intersected by the Mil- waukee and St. i*aul K. K. Cap. New Oregon. Pop. 0282. Howard, county of the S. K. of Kansas, bounded on the S. by Indian Territory. Area, 1271 square miles. It has great water-power and much fine tillage land, but is especially adapted to pasturage. Cap, Peru. Pop. 271*1. Divided since 1870 into KIk an'l Chautauqua counties. Howard, county near the centre of Maryland. Area, .100 square milrs. It has a good soil and undulatini; and hilly surface, with abunciant water-power. (Jrain and to- bacco are staple products. Cotton goods, flour, and iron are manufa'dured. (Jranile and iron ores arc abundant. Cap. Kllirnit City. Pop. M,I50. Howard, county of N. Central Missouri. Area, 400 square miles. It is undulating, well cultivated, fertile, and abounds in coal, sandstone, and limestone. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool arc 8laj)Ie products. The Missouri lUtws along thr W. and S. boundaries. Cap. Fayette. P. 17,2;J.^. Howiird, county of Central Nebraska, drained by tho Loup KiM'k of tho river Platte. Area, f»70 square miles. It is well adapted to grazing. Cap. St. Paul. There is no Btalemcut of its pop. in the census of 1870. Howard, Ip. of Conway co., Ark. Pop. "t.'i. Howard, tp. of Howard co., Ind. Pop. 1707. Iloivard, post-tp. of Parke co., Ind. Pop. 55L Howard, tp. of Washington co., Ind. Pop. 1108. Howard, tp. of Howard co., la. Pop. 204. Hc'Ward, tp. of Story co., la. Pop. 008. Hfr.ward, tp. of Tanm co.. la. Pop. 10L3. H iiftvard, tp. of Wayne en., la. Poji. J73. Howard, tp. of Cass co., Mich., od the Michigan Cen- tral K. R. Pop. 1171. Howard, ip. of Gentry co., Mo. Pop. I.TIO. Howard, tp. and post-v. of Steuben co., N. Y. Pop. of v. 107: of tp. 2122. Howard, post-tp. of Knox co., 0., on the Cleveland Mt. Vernon and Columbus U. K. Pop. 800. Howard, tp. of Centre co., Pa. Pop. 875. Howard, post-b. of Centre co.. Pa., on the Lockbavcn and Tyrone U. K., 1.1 miles S. W. of Lockhavon. It has iron nianufaelurcs. Pop. 334. Howard, tp. of Brown co., Wis. It contains the vil- lage of Kurt Howard, Pop. 3020. Howard (CATriAniNK), tho fifth wife of Henry VIII. and (luecn of England for some months, b. in 1620, a daughter of Kdniund Howard, third son of Thomas Howard, duke of Norfolk. The king first saw !ier at a banquet given by the bishop of Winchester in 1540. He had just married Anno of Clevcs, and his dislike for that vulgar woman grew into disgust by comparison with the graceful and spirited Catharine. On July U, 1540. he was divorced front Anne, and on Aug. S lie married Catliarine. The marriage was very hap])y. The queen underttood how to dispel tho gloom which gathered now and then in her husband's soul, and to manage the nioroseness of his temper. But tho happiness did not last more tluin five months. Arclibishop Cranmer communicated to the king the confessions of a certain LasccIIes, according to which Dereham and Man- nook, two gentlemen in the service of the duchess of N(»r- folk, had been Catharine's lovers before her marriage. Tho king at fir-^t refused to believe. Nevertheless, Dereham and Jlannoek were seized and questioned. They confessed, and were executed. At last, even the queen confessed. But as such a crime, committed before marriage, was not a sufiicicnt reason of divorce, her conduct after marriage was subjected to a most rigorous scrutiny. Very suspicious circumstances came to light. She had taken Dereham into her service after her marriage. Another of her former lovers. Thomas ('ulpejipcr, a relative of hers on her mother's side, she had admitted to her bed-chamber one night for several hours, no other being present than Lady Rochford. After a protracted trial she was sentenced, and decapi- tated Feb. 13, 1542. Most historians admit the disso- luteness of her conduct before her marriage, and few ])Ut any confidence in her loyalty after that time, but there seems to be an under-current of jiolitieal intrigue running through her history. At the head of tho religious reform party stood Cranmer. archbishop of Canterbury, while the duke of Norfolk and IJisliop Gardiner represented a party which wished a reaction in favor of the Roman Catholic Church. Tho king's marriage to Anne of Cleves was the work of the Reform party, which linped to bring tho king entirely over to their side by placing him in more intimate connection with theticrman Lutherans. Hut the plan had failed. The Howards were in power. The Roman Cat Indie cause was in the ascendant, and it is more than jirobable that the fate which overtook Catharine Howard arose from thtse eircuinsfances. Howard ( Fi.onoARno), M. D., Pn. D., h. in Stafford co., Va., Mar. II, ISIl: was cclucated at CoUimbian College an<l (Jeorgetown College, I>. C. ; is professor of obsletries, puerperal diseases, ami diseases of children in the medical department of (Jeorgetown College, Washington. D. C. ; president of the Medical Association of tlie District of Co- lumbia 1874-75. Howard (Hknrv), M. D., b. in Frederick co., Md., May 2S, 1702 : d. at Charlottesville, Va.. Mar. 2. 1S74. He took the degree of M. D. from the University of Pennsyl- vania, and for twenty-four years practised in Maryland. In 1837 he filled the jirofessorship of obstetrics and disea>e8 of women and eliibtren in the university of his native State, and then was elected professor of practice and ob- stetrics in tho University of Virginia, which he occupied to 1807, when the infirmities of age eompolled him to resign. He left an enviable reputation for his devotion to the pro- fession and zeal us a teacher. Pai i, F. Kvi;. Howard (Jacob M.), LL.D.. b. at Shaftesburv, A't.. 1805; d. at Detroit in 1871. Graduated at AVillinn'is Col- lege 1830 : taught tn academies in Massachusetts and Mich- igan in 1832; was admitted to the bar in ls;i3; became a member of tho legislature in ls;iS; member of Congress in 1841— n, and attorney-general of Michigan in 1855-01. From 1802 to 1871 he represented Michigan as its Senator, and was the sponsor of the Rejiublieiin party in 1854, tho drawing uj» o\' the platform at tho first convention being also attributed to him. lie is known in tho literary world by his transhiti<m of the Secrtt Memoirs uf the Emprcn9 Junrphinr, from the Frciieli. Howard (John), b. at Hackney, near London. Sept. 1014- HOWARD— HOWE. 2, 1726. From his father he inhcritcJ a considerable for- tune, and he spent his y<uith in studying medicine anrl in travelling. Having settled at rardiugton, Bedford.-^hire, in 17oS, and having made himself conspicuous hy his schools and model cottages for the peasantry, he was elect- ed sheriff in l"7iJ. On visiting the jails he became ac- quainted with the intolerable conditions under which prisoners lived ; thus it often happened that a ntan spent several years in jail because he could not pay the jailer's fee for his deliverance. Howard now travelled through the whole kingdom, visited all its jails, and presented in 1774 a report to the House of Commons, the result of which was the passing of two reform bills. Next he went to the Con- tinent, visited Franco, (Jcrniany, and Holland, examined their prisons, and published on his return, in 1777, Slate of the Prisons in EnffUiud and Wales, with Preliminarif Observations and nn Arconut of some Foreir/n Prisons, to which he afterward added supplements, having made new travels and new researches. The immediate result was the adoption, on trial, of the hard-labor system in some of the English prisons. In 1785 he started on a new tour through Italy. Turkey, and Asia Minor, in order to make himself acquainted with the lazarettos, and on his return published, in 1789, An Account of the Principal Lazarettos of Europe. In order to push his researches into this sub- ject still further, he ^:tarte^l in the same year on a tour to Asia, but d. Jan. 20, 1790, at Kherson, Russia. Howard (John Eager), b. in Baltimore co., Md., June 4, 1752 ; served throughout the Revolutionary war with the greatest honor, and was present upon most of the important battle-tields of the war, attaining the rank of lieutenant- colonel, and receiving a medal from Congress for his valor at the Cowpcns, Jan, 17, 1781. He was a member of Con- gress 1787-88; governor of Maryland 1789-92; U. S. Sen- ator 1796-1S0;{; and in 1798 was appointed a brigadier- general by Washington. He was a man of wealth, and his reputation for valor and patriotism made his old age one of great honor. D. Oct. 12, 1827. HOAVard (Oliver Otis), LL.B., b. at Leeds, Me,, Nov. 8, 1830 : graduated at Bowdoin College 1850, and at the Mili- tary Academy 1854, when he was promoted in the army to be brevet second lieutenant of ordnance ; promoted to be second lieutenant Feb., 1855, first lieutenant July, l!S57; served as assistant at, and in command of, arsenals 1S54— 56; as chief of ordnance against hostile Indians in Flor- ida 1857; and at the Military Academy as assistant pro- fessor of mathematics from Sept., 1857, to June 3. ISfil; resigned June 7, 1861. Appointed colonel of the third Maine Vols. June 4, 1861, and commanded a brigade in the battle of Bull Run, July 21 : appointed brigadier- general of volunteers Sept., 1861 : served in the Virginia Peninsular campaign lSti2, and at the battle of Fair Oaks (June 1) was twice wounded, losing his right arm; re- joined the army Aug.. 1802, and was engaged in the battles of Antietam and Fredericksburg ; appointed major-general of volunteers Nov., lSti2; at the battle of Chancellorsville (May, 1863) he commanded the 11th army corps, as also at Gettysburg. July, lJ>63. Transferred with his command to Tennessee Oct., 1S63, he was engaged in the battles of Lookout Valley and Missionary Ridge. In Aj)r., 1801, the 11th and r2th Qorps were united to form the 2Uth corps, and Gen. Howard was assigned to the command of the 4th corps. Army of the Cumberland, and in the July following to that of the Army of the Tennessee, being engaged around Dalton, at Resaca, Kencsaw Mountain, siege and occupation of Atlanta, and in the various actions and bat- . tics during the famous march to the sea with Gen. Sher- man, and subsequent invasion of the Carolina?, terminating with the surrender of Gen. J. E. Johnston at Durham Sta- tion, N. .C, Apr, 26, 1S65. Appointed commissioner of Bureau of Refugees, Frcedmcn, and Abandoned Lands May, 1865, which position he retained till June, 1872; served as special commissioner of Indian affairs 1865, and was president of Howard University 1869-73. Gen. How- ard was appointed a brigadier-general in the U. S. army Dec. 21, 1801, and brevet major-general U. S. A. 1865. G. C. Simmons. Howard (William A.), b. in Vermont; graduated at Middlebury College 1830 ; moved to Michigan, from which State he was a leading member of Congress on the anti- slavery side 1855-61. Being a man i»f high order of talents, strong convictions, and unquestioned integrity, ho had not only the respect but the esteem of his most decided opponents. Became postmaster of Detroit 1861. A. H. Stephbns. How'nrd Cen'tre, post-tp. of Howard co., la. P, 294. How'ard <'it'y, post-v. of Montcalm eo., Mich., ."^3 miles N. of Grand Kitpids, on the Detroit Lansing and Lake Michigan and the (Trand Rapids and Indiana R. Us. It has good graded schools^ 3 churches, an exchange bank, 1 newspaper, several large lumber, shingle, and planing mills, 2 hotels, and stores. Pop. about 1000. W. E. Morris, Ed. ** Record." Uow'ardsville, pc^t-v. of San Juan co., Col. IIowardsviHc, post-v. of Scottsvilie tp., Albemarle CO., Va. pup, 83, How'ard I'niver'sity, an educational foundation sit- uate at Seventh street, Washington, D. C, established by virtue of a charter granted by Congress in 1867, and deriv- ing its patronymic from one of its most prominent founders. Gen. 0. 0. Howard, who continued to occupy the presi- dential chair until 1873, when he resigned. Though neither creed, color, nor sex is permitted to preclude admi.^sion to the ranks of its alumni, the institution was sjiecially de- signed for colored people, of which fully two-thirds of its students consist. In 1872-73 the total number receiving instruction in the several departments (the normal, pre- paratory, collegiate, theological, legal, and medical) was 507. The university is placed under the management of twenty-one trustees ; antl though the U. S. government granted aid at its establishment, it is now entirely depend- ent upon voluntary contributions and the fees of students for its support. It possesses a library of 7500 volumes, a picture-gallery, a niincralogical collection, and a mu- seum of curiosities. The terms of study allotted for the students in the various departments are — normal depart- ment, 2 years; preparatory, .1 years ; collegiate, 4 years; theological, 2 years; law, 2 years; and medical, 3 years. Over fifty students have already graduated from this in- stitution. Howe, tp. of Forest co.. Pa. Pop. 78. Howe, tp, of Perry co.. Pa. Pop. 410. Howe (Albion Paris), b. at Standish, Me., Mar. 1.3, 1818; graduated from the U. S. Military Academy, and appointed second lieutenant of artillery July 1, 1841 ; after a term of two years passed on frontier and garrison duty, he returned to West Point as assistant professor of mathe- matics, where he remained until 1846; served throughout the war with Mexico with credit from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico, winning the brevet of captain for Contrcras and Churubusco. From 1S48 to 1801 the monotony of garrison- life was relieved by occasional expeditions against Indians, and in 1851) he was at Harper's Ferry during the John Brown insurrection ; on the outbreak of the civil war ho was a captain of artillery, and accomjianied Gen. MeClellan in his campaign in West Virginia, at Rich Mountain, etc., and throughout the Virginia Peninsular campaign (1862) in command of light artillery brigade, having been ap- pointed brigadier-general of volunteers June 11, ISfi2; subsequently* in all the various battles of the Army of the Potomac, in command of a brigade and division of the 0th army corps, until the spring of 1864, when he was as- signed to duty in "Washington as inspector of artillery. At present serving on the Pacific Coast with his regiment (1th Artillery), of which he is major. G. C. SniMOXS. Howe (Elias), inventor of the sewing-machine, b. at Spencer, Mass., July 9, 1819; was the son of a farmer and miller; went in 18115 to Lowell, and worked there, and afterwards in Boston, in machine-shops. In 1845 ho com- pleted his fir?t machine, and patented it in 1846, laboring with the greatest persistency, in spite of poverty and neglect, working for a time as an engine-driver on a rail- road for small wages and with broken health. He spent two years of unsuccessful exertion in England, striving in vain to bring his invention into notice, lie returned to the r. S. in almost hopeless poverty, to find that his patent had been violated ; but he at last found friends who as- sisted him with money, and after years of litigation he made good his claims in the courts in 1854. He atterwards realized a large fortune from his invention. During the civil war he volunteered as a private of the 17lh Connecti- cut volunteers, and served for some time. He received the cross of the Legion of Honor and many medals. D. at Brooklyn, N. Y,, Oct. 3, 1867. Howe (Jonv), b. May 17. 1630, in Leicestershire, Eng- land : d. A]tr, 2, 1705; completed his education at Cam- bridge and Oxford. After holding for several years a rural curacy, he was appointed (1654) domestic chaplain io Crom- well, a position ho held until the death of the PVolcctor (165S). He was an eloquent preacher, ami univerr'ally es- teemed for his ability and Christian character. *He was the friend of Baxter, and labored in the same lincwHh him for Christian unity. Ho was one of tho leading <tontro- versiftlist writers of his day among the noneonlformist party, hut free from all animosity and bitterness^ His principal works are — The Oracles of God, The Living Triitple, The liefleemers Tears over I^ont Souls, and Thr\FilesS' ednesk of the liiyhleons. Editions of his Complete^' Works during the present century have been issued at Ot^'idon, r HOWE— HOWITT. 1015 1810-22, 8 vols. ; ibid., 1S48, 3 vols. ; anil at Phila.lclphia, 2 vols. The best biograiihy is that of Rogers, Lonilou, 1830. Howe (Il"ii. .I.)SKiMi). b. in Halifax, N. S., in lvS04, was tlic son of Jolia Howe, a loyalist refugee from Boston. Ho was bred a printer, and in 1827 became connected with the Acn^llon newspaper, and in 1S28 cdilur and proprietor of the -Vora Scoiiuii. As an outspoken liberal ami Iricud of responsible (;overnuient he was invcUi-.l in a vexatious libel-suit and fought a duel with iMr. llahburton. As a mcni\)cr of the Provincial Parliament, colonial agent in England, provincial secretary, etc., ho was long one of the most prominent men in Nova Scotia, and was one of the founders of resiionsible government in the jirovince. He was (1803-72) secretary of state for the provinces in the Dominion government, and superintendent of Indian affairs and afterwards became a incniber of the Uominion Parliament for Hants, N. S. ; was afterwards liculenant- eovernor of Nova Scotia. He published two volumes of V'''"'« "'«' •''«*''■"-• ^"'"'' (1^^**)- ^- "' ""''f"'' •'"'"' 1, IST.i. Howe (JtxiA Ward), ihc daughter of Mr. Samuel Ward and the wife of Dr. S. (1. Howe, b. in New\ork May 27, ISl'J; married Dr. Howe in 1843. Her /'n«»,ou l-lmctr, (lS.i4), Wo,;l. lor ihe Hour (1850), and Lalcr /.uricn (18GG) contain her most important lyric poems. Thr World; CI.C.. (I8Ji) and //.>,'"'.'/'"» < 18:iS) arc dramas. Shu has also published two volumes of travel, and mouy able papers upon social and philosophical subjects. Many of her poems are of a high order of merit. She is an active worker in the woman's sulTrago movement. Howe (KicHARD), Eaki., b. Mar. 19, 1725, was the third son of the second Viscount Howe; studied at Eton _nnd Westminster; became a midshipman under Anson 1739; post-captain for gallantry at Fort William 1715; captured Cherbourg and Martignan 17i8: succeeded his brother as viscount (Irish peerage) 1758; defeated Conflans 17o9; treasurer of Ihe navy 17(!5 ; rear-admiral of the blue, with chief command in the Mediterranean, 1770; with William Howe, his brother, was appointed commissioner to avert the war in the American colonies 177l>; fought D'Estaing off Rhode Mand 1778; became admiral and viscount in tho British peerage, bv creation, 1782; relieved Gibraltar in 1782- first lord of the admiralty 1783; created earl 1788; took command of the Channel licet 1793; defeated the French off lirisl 1794; K. 0. and general ol marines 1795. D. in London Aug. 5, 1799. Howe was of a stock related closely to the royal family by illegitimate descent. Howe (Samiki, (Jumi.KV), M. D., b. in Boston Nov. 10 ISOl ; graduated at Brown University in 1821 ; was a surgeon in the (ireck war for liberty 1824-27; organized tho surgical service and was placed at its head. Ho then returned to America for aid, and afterwards founded a colony on the Isthmus of Corinth. In 1S31 ho visited Europe again after his appointment to the superintendency of the Perkins Asylum for the blind, an.l while there at- tempted, as presiilent of the Pcilish cunmittce ..f Pans, to carry aid to the struggling Poles, but was iiniinscmcd fur six weeks in Prussia. After 1832 he had charge ol the 1 er- kins Institute f.ir tho blind. South Boston. Mass. Ho was long a prominent abolitionist. In 1871 ho was one of tho U .S commissioners to Santo Domingo. Author of /lii //i«- U,'r;,alSk^lrhofll,<-llrr.k llrrolnUo,, ns28), lUodcr for lliC JUind (1839). 'D. at Boston, Mass., .Ian. 9, 1876. Howe (TiMOTiiv 0.), b. at I.ivcrmorc, Me., Feb. 24, ISKi- received an academic education: adopted tho pro- fession of law and was admitted to the bar; member <.f State legislature 1845; removed to Wisconsin late in IMJ, and in 18511 was elected judge of the circuit an.l supremo courts of Wisconsin, which position he hebl until 185j, when ho resigned. Chosen U. S. Senator for Wisconsin m 181)1, and has been twice re-elected. Howe (Sir William), VisioiST, b. Aug. 10, 1720, bro- ther of Richard. Karl Howe; stiolied at Kion ; entered the dragoons; served at liuebec under Wolfe; colonel of the 4th1'ool 17li I, and major-general 1772; took the chief cuin- mand in North America 1775. after Gage's departure, Howe having previously commanded at Bunker Hill; evacuated Boston Mar.. 17711; went to Ilaliliix, and thence to Staten Mand ; gained the battle of l.mig Island Aug. 27 ; occupied New York Sept. 15 ; won the victory oi White Plains Oct. 28; of Fort Washington Nov. 10; of Brandywine Sept, 11, 1777; occuided Philad.lidiiaSept. 2fi; repulsed W ashing- ton at liermanlown Oct, 4 : was superseded by Sir H. Clin- ton in 1778; returned to England, where his conduct was vindicated alter a parliamentary investigation ; became a lieutenant-general 1782; general 1780; succeeded to the Irish peerage as viscount 1799. 1). July 12, 1814.— The families both of Earl and Viscount Howe arc now «xtinct, tho present Earls Howe being of tho Cur/.on family, enno- bled in 1788 and raised to tho earldom in 1821. How'cll, county of Missouri, bounded on the S. by Arkansas. Area, 804 square miles. Its soil is fertile, and it is extensively covered with pino forests. . Corn is the principal product. Cap. West Plains. Pop. 4218. Howcll,post-v., cap. of Livingston CO., Mich., 50 miles N. W. of Detroit, on Ihe Detroit Lansing and Lake Michigan R. R., is surrounded by a line agricultural district ; has good educational advantages, 3 churches, 2 banks, foundry and inachino shop, sash and door factory, 2 Hounng-nulls, 2 newspapers, stores, etc. Princijial occupation, dealing in aTicultural products and impleinents. Pop. of Ip. 2o«3. J. D. Smith. Ed. '•Livingston Rli'Uulican." Howell, tp. of Howell co.. Mo. Pop. 970. Howell, Ip. of Monmouth co., N. J. It contains a number of villages. Pop. 3371. Howell (DAVin). LL.D., a native of New Jersey, was b. in 1747, and d. in July, 1824. At Ihe age of twenty- thrco ho was appointed professor of natural iihilos"pby and mathematics, and filled the chair of law at the Brown Uni- versity from 1790 to 1S24. In the interval he hllcd the several offices of attorney-general of the State, judge of tho supreme court, member of tho Continental Congress, commissioner for settling the eastern boundary of the U.S., and district attorney, and was subsequently district ludge for Rhode Island till his death. He was equally distiii- l.ed as a classical scholar and political argumcntator. Sec First Biennial Suitle- gUl: HoweH (James). " Howell (John Apams), V. S. N., b. Mar 10, 1840, in New York; graduated at the Naval Academy 185S; became a lieutenant in 1861, a lieutenant-commander m 180o; served as executive officer of the Ossipee at the battle of Mobile Bav, Aug. 5. 1804, and is honorably mentioned in the despatches of his commanding ofhcer. Com. W . i.. Lo J, , ' Foxiiall A. Pakkku. Howell (.Ions C), h. Nov. 24, 1819, in Philadelphia; en"rcd the navy as a midshipman June 9 1836 ; became a passed midshipman in 1842, a lieutenant in 1849, a com- 'mander in 1802. a captain in 1860 a commodore in IS,-, was executive officer of tho steam-frigate Minnesota at the battle of Hatteras Inlet, which resulted in the capture of Forts Hatteras and Clark, and commanded the Nereus in both Ihe Fort Fisher fights. For - cool pcrlormance of duty ■■ recommended for promotion by Roar-admira 1 orlcr Jan ^^ 1805; from 1808 to 1870 chief of staff of the Eu- ropean fleet: from 1870 to 1S72 commandant of navy-yard at League Island, Philadelphia; from 1872 to 1874 com- mandant of navy-yard at Portsmouth, N "• ; '"J'j'" 1874, appointed chief of the bureau of yards and docks. " FoXnALL A. PAKkLR. HoAvell ( Robert BovTii Crawford), D. D., b. in Wayne CO N C. Mar. 10. 1801; graduated at Columbian College 1820: pastor of Baptist church, N'"-f"ll<. }.'>■' .I'^-J.^'^ ' Nashvi'lle, Tcnn., lS3'5-50 ; Richmond Va., 8.0-0, ; Nash- ville Tenn., 1857-68: and rendered good service to the cause of education. He wrote several works; the best known is On the Vcm-omhip. I). Apr. J, 1808. How'clls (William Dean), b. at Martinsville, Belmont CO Mar 1 18:17 ; removed to Hamilton, O.. in 1840 Willi his fai'her, who was a printer. His father w.is of Welsh, his mother of Pennsvlvania-German stock. Mr. Howe Is learned the TJrinter's trade of his father, and was afterwards edi ori- ully connected with tho Cincinnati doz,,!,- and the Uluo S,„U- Jommd. He was (1801-05) U. h. consul at \ enicc. In 1871 he became editor-in-chief of tho Atlo„l,c Mo„tl,l,/. He is one of Ihe most facile and readable authors of our time,' a graceful iioet, and a writer of dainty, elegant prose. His wo?ks are /'ormn of Tn., /.',■,■,,„/« (writ ten «'il i J. J. Piatt 1800), Vniellon /. ./c ( 1 860 ), JUthoi, ./<„,rMr.v» ( 180l ), A-o //ore Lo.t{m»), k-nburbw, iy,v;(,;/.c. (1870) /Ac,r 11 crf- d;.i,j Journn, (1872), A Chance ^cj«ai»«(ince(18i3), and A foriiioiif ('oncluiiun (1874). Ilow'.'llsvillP, Ip. of Robeson CO., N. C. Pop. 1023. llowo''s I'livc, posl-v. and station on the Albany and Susquehanna R. R., in Cobleskill Ip., Schoharie co., N. Y. It has a largo natural cave and important quarries and limekilns. llow'isoil (RonERT R.), b. at Fredericksburg, Va., in 18''0 has been since 1845 a prominent lawyer of Richmond. He'h'as publishe.l a JliHlory of VmjMa (2 vols., 1S40-18), / irr, of Morgan, Marion, and liates, Crimimil /ri«(» (1801), ii' JI,Kt,.ni of the Wtir of UOl-llS, and other works. How'itt (Mary), wife of William Howitt.b. at Uttoxc- Icr En-land, about 1804, the daughter of a Mr, liolham, a tjuaker: was married in 1823; has written many poems, bvinlis, and ballads, some novels, and inflruetive books for the young; Iranslalc.l .Miss Bremer's worksand some td those of H C, Andersen, and was with her husband joint author 1016 HOWITT— HUBBARD. of The Literature and Roninnce of Northern Europe. (18521 aud other vaiiiable works. — Her daughter, Mrs, Anna Maky Watts, is author of The Art Student in Muuirh (lSj:i), The School of Lt'/i', etc.. and a painter of merit. — Another dauj^htcr is a successful writer of books. Ilowitt (AV1LI.IA.M), b. at Heanor, Derbyshire, in 1795, of Quaker stock. His first books were written partly by his wife, Mary Howitt. He also published a HiMtortf of PrUvteraft (1834), Rnral Life in En;fhii,d {\^?>'i), Student Life in Grrmaui/ (1S41), liural and Domtstic Life in Ger- mniit/ (1842), Land, Labor, and (iidd (IS55), au account of his experience!' in .Australia; lllstori/ of Ewjhi-nd (1854- (51). and translations from the German. D. Mar. 2, 1879. How'itzer [derived by Orinini and Littrfi from the Bohemian hanfnicc, "catapult"], a short cannon for firing shells horizoutally, differing in this from the mortar, which is used for vertical fire. It was introduced by the Dutch in ItJOfi, aud soon became of general use, except by tho French, who, considerin;^ it of small value because of tho short range and inaccurate fire, did not introduce it until after Napoleon's wars had shown him its value. The how- itzer was made with a chamber for the jiowdcr (of smaller diuinetrr thiin tho bore), and with a length of bore regulated to admit of the ithell being reached by the hand, to adjust the fuze in the axis, after tho gun was loaded. After tho adoption of sabotn (a block of wood to which the shell is attached) this could be secured in long guns, and the how- itzers for field and garrison service were then made of greater length ancl came into universal use. The siege howitzer, generally of S-in. diameter, is still made short, as tho sabot cannot be safely used if the gun is fired over ad- vance parties, as is necessary in sicgo firing. Tho first cannon cast by the colonial authorities of America were 8-in. and 2-4-pdr. brass howitzers, some of which are now preserved. The Russians in 1777 introduced tho Ucorne, au improved howitzer. Howitzers, except for siege and mountain service, are no longer manufactured in the U. S., as our present guns are equally suitable for ?hell-firing in field or garrison service. P. V. Hagner. Ilow'land, post-tp. of Penobscot cc, Me., on the W. side of the Fenob:^cot Kiver, 32 miles N. of Bangor, Me., near the European and North American R. K, It has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 170. Ilowland, tp. of Trumbull co., 0. Pop. CGI. Iluwlaud (Hon. William Pearce), C. B., b. in the State of New York May 29, 1811. He removed when young to Canada, and became one of the wealthiest merchants of the Upper Province. In ISJS he was elected to the Parlia- ment of Canada; in 1862 became minister of finance: in I8fi;{ receiver-general; in IHGI postmaster-general; in 1806 minister of finance ; was si^nt as a delegate to England, and was made a C. B. ; in 1868 became lieutenant-governor of the province of Ontario. Ho is a liberal in politics. HowI'ingMoil'keys, a genus of prehensile-tailed mon- keys of Soutli America, of u low grade of intelligence, fierce and untamable disposition, and large size. Some t^vclvo or fourteen species are reported. The genus {.l/yce?t'« or Alu<Ota) is distinguished from all others by tho presence of a great chamber within the hyoid bono and communi- cating with tho larynx. The possession of this chamber gives these monkeys the power of jirodueing those tre- mendous howls which in the night re-echo for half a league through the Brazilian forests. This hideous roar is proba- bly an amorous serenade. The ursine howler (.If. uminus) is the best known species. ISows (John A.), b. in New York City in 18.'51, and d. in the same city Sept. 27. 187-1. He graduated at Columbia College, and after studying first for the ministry, and after- wards for the law, besides being connected with religious and society journals, adopted art as his profession. Ho painted several pictures which achieved considerable promi- nence, but his best known works were his drawings on wood. Among the books which were illustrated by him exclusively were A Forcut Jli/mn, In the Woods, Forest Pictnrr.s in the Adirondacks, A Chriatnias Carols and Co.xe's Chriniian lial- tudn. J. B. Bishop. How'son (.TonN- Savl), D. D.. b. in England in 1810 ; graduated with high honors at Cambridge in 18.37; was or- dained in 1815, and was principal of the Liverpool College 1849-(!5 ; became dean of Chester in 1807. nnd is examin- ing chaplain to the bishop of Ely. With W. .1. Conybeare he published (in 1S50-52) Tht-' Life and Epiillea of St. I'anl, furnishing the principal part of tho geographical and historical matter. He has also published The Charac- tn- of St. f»a»/(lS02; .-id ed. 1871). The Metaphors of St, /'.i.(>(18fi8). The CoN'panionit of St. Paul (1871). Ilox'ter, town of Westphalia. Prussin, anciently a Hanse town. It is 28 railed E. N. E. of Paderborn, and stands on \ the Weser. It is a place of venerable antiquity, and has brisk manufactures of flax, cotton, and paper. Pop, 5041. lloy, one of the Orkney Islands, 2A miles from Pomo- na. It presents a coast of wild, precipitous cliffs, in some places more than 1000 feet high, but to the S. it has a fine harbor at Longhopc. Pop. 1486. 1 Iloyle (Ei)Mi'Nn), author of sevenil works on games, was an Englishman, b. 1672. and d. 1769. Since his death there have been many much improved editions, British and American, of lioyle'H (iftmeii. lioyt (Benjamin Thomas), son of the Rev.Benj.R. Hoyt, b. at Boston Oct. 18, 1S20: was sueces?ively teacher, pro- ' fessor. and president in various collegiate and educational i institutions, and editor of the /ndinna Slafi SrhoolJonmal. ! From 1846 to 1852 ho occupied the position of principal in the schools of Mid<lletown, Conn., and Chelsea, AlasB. From 1852 to 1858 he was president of the institute of Lawrenceburg, and of the College for Young Women in Indianapolis. Ho was professor of Latin from 1858 to , 1803, and professor of belles-lettres aud history in the In- ! diana Asbury University until his death at Greeneastle, J Ind,, in 1867. His services to the cause of education in J Indiana as superintendent of schools, as presideut of the I State Teachers' Association, and as au educational Writer I were invaluable. Iloyt (Edwin), b. in Stamford, Conn., in May, 1805. When nineteen years oUl lie became a dry -goods merchant of Now York. In 18;J5 the firm of Hoyt & Bogart was established, afterwards Hoyt, Tillinghast &, Co. In 18aS the firm of Hoyt, Spragucs & Co, was constituted. Mr. Hoyt d. in New York May lo, 1874. At the time of his death he was the oldest dry-goods merchant in New York, universally honored for probity and mercantile recfitudo. i Hoyt (Francis Soithack), D. D., b. at Lyndon, Vt., Nov. 6, 1822; graduated at Wesleyan University, Middle- town, Conn., in 184-1; was presideut of \Villanietto Uni- versity, Salem, Or., 18J4-6U; professor of clicmistry, etc. in tho Ohio Wesleyan University 1800-72; and in 1872 became editor of tho Western Chrtntian Advocate, Hoyt (Joseph Gibson), LL.D., b. at Bunbarton, N. H., in Jan., ]81o; graduated at Yale College 1840; became in- structor in mathematics ami natural jdiilosophy. and sub- sequently for eighteen years fulfilled the duties of member of tho faculty in Phillips Academy. Exeter, N. H.. from 1841 to 18.'»8; and was appointed chancellor antl pr<il"essor of Greek in Washington University, St. Louis, from ISjU to his decease at St. Louis. Mo., in 1862. His chief literary labors comprised a carefully revised and enlarged Colton't Greek Header, and a volume of miscellaneous writings, re- 1 views, lectures, aud addresses. Ilaaca. Sec Guaca, by Com. Foxhall A. Pakker, U. S. N. Hualapais' Indians, ahostile tribe of Arizona, found near the Colorado. N. of the Mohaves. They number somo ' 1500. ' Hualla'sca, a river of Peru, rises in the Andes in hit. 11° S., and emj)ties itself into the Amazon after a northerly ; course of nearly 600 miles. j Huamanga. Sec AvArrrno. Huancaveli'ca, or GuancabcUca, town of Peru, situated in the Andes at au elevation of 11,000 feet, and engaged chiefly in mining gold and (luickslhcr. It is reg- ularly built, is tho capital of a province of the same name, ' but is rather decreasing. Pop. 5000. ^ Illian'taf a well-built town in the department of Aya- ' cucho, Peru, abuut 200 miles S. E. of Lima. It has a largo trade in drugs, grain, and cattle. Pop. 5000. | Hua'nnco, or Gnanuco, town of Peru, situated in | an exceedingly beautiful and fertile valley of the Andes. Sugar and coffee are raised here, both of excellent quality, but as there are no roads, they cannot be raised for expor- tation. The town is decaying. Pop. 5000. Iliiara/', town of Peru and the capital of the depart- ' merit of Iluaraz. on the Santa. It is a beautifully situated and well-built town, with about 8000 inhabitants, mostly 1 mestizoes, engaged in agriculture and garden cultivation. Ilub'bard, tp. and post-v. of Trumbull eo., 0., on a I branch of the Atlantic and Groat Western 11. K. Here arc important coal mines. Pop. of v. 1120; of tji. 4588. Hubbard, tp. of Dodge co., Wis. It contains the vil- lage of HomcoN (which see). Pop. .'J008. Ilnbbard (Davio), b. in Virginia, removed to Law- rence CO., .Ma., nnd in 1842 entered the State legislature, having previously for many years been connected with the State government; was in Congress l>s;J0-41 an<l 1849-51; a man of decided ability, and an extreme State rights man ; wns a prominent State legislator, and after the war of 1861-05 removed to Nashville, Tenn. HUBBARD— HUBMEYER. 1017 Hubbard (Hkxky), b. at Cliarlestown, X. H., May 3, 1781; graliiiLtoiJ iit Dartmouth iu Ii^o:j; bccsiiuc a luwycr, and waa st-vcral tinit'S Speaker of the New ilaiunt^hirc House; Judi^o o( prubato in Sullivan co. 1S27--U; Uciiio- oratic member ol" Congress IH2S'-.'»J, and for a short time Speaker; U. S. Senator 1835—11 ; governor of New llamp- ahire lsr2-4;i; U. S. assistant treasurer l«-lC-49. D. at Charlestown, N. H., June 6, 1S57. Hubbard (Joiis), M. D.. LL.D., b. at Keadficld. Mc., Mar. 22, I7*J4; graduated at Dartmouth in IslG ; taught in Maine and Virginia : practised medicine in Dinwiddio CO., Va., lS22-21t, and in 1830 removed to Hallowell, Me. ; was State menator 1S42-43 ; governor of Maine l.SjU-53, and a Maiuc-Iaw Democrat; agent for the U. S. treasury 1857-oy ; commissioner under the Reciprocity Treaty 1859- 01. D.at Hallowell, Me., Feb. G, ISGU. Plubbard (Joskph Stillman), b. Sept. 7, 1823, at New Haven, Conn. ; graduated at Yale College in 1813 ; in 1844 was appointed an assi-^tant in the High School Observatory at Philadelphia, thi'n in charge of the distinguished astron- omer, Sears C. Walker. Tho next autumn he was em- Eloycd by Capt. (afterwards Maj.-Gen.) Fremont to reduce is Rocky Mountain obsjcrvations, and was invited to ac- company him nn his next cxpcilition. Declining this offer, be was uppoiu'eil and commissioned a professor of mathe- matics in the V. S. navy May 7, IS4i, at tho instance of Fremont and Senator Benton, and was at once assigned to duty in the Naval Observatory at Washington, where ho remained until the time of his death. He soon acquired a brilliant reputation, and the printed volumes of the Wash- iugtoD ob.servations are full of the evidences of his skill as an observer and computer. He was a frequent contributor to the A^tronomicftl Journal^ which contains his elaborate investigations on Uiela's comet, as also those on the great comet of 1843, on tho orbit of Kgeria, and on other sub- jects. D. Aug. Ifi, 1SG3. G. C. Simmons. Ilubbard (Sami-kl Dickinson), LL.D., b. at Middle- town, Conn., Aug. 10, 17'J'J; graduated at Yale in 181U; waa a lawyer and a wealthy and benevolent manufacturer; a Whig member of Congress 1S46— 19; postmaster-general 1852-53. D. at .Middletown, Conn., Oct. 8, 1S55. Hubbard (Wh.mam), b. in England in 1G21 ; came in youth to New England; graduated at Harvard College 1042; settled as minister of Ipswich, Mass.. 1G5S; teni- ?orary pn-sident of Harvard I'niversity in IG88: and d. at pswieh Sept, 14, 1704. Author of fhv Prcnent State of Ncie Kntfla II fl {1(j77), Mrmoirn of Maj.-Uvn. /Veju'ffon ( 1084), and a /fiiton/ n/ Xcir Eiujlmul, for which the colonial authorities paid him £50. Editions of this work were printed in 1815 and 1848. Hub'bardston, post-tp. of Worcester co., Mass., 04 miles W. X. W. nf Boston. It is traversed by the Boston Uarre and Gardner and the Ware Uiver R. Us. ; has a fer- tile soil and manufactures of chairs and boxes. It has 3 churchi-s and a public library. Pop. 1054. llubbardston, post-v. of Ionia co., Mich., miles from the Detroit and Milwaukee U. U. It has 3 churches, a flouring-milt. foundry, and steam saw-mill, sash and blind factory, 5 ilry-goods and clothing stores, 2 drug stores, mineral springs, 1 newspaper, and good water- power. Pop. 531. A. V. PiiisTKR, Ed, *' Advicutisek." Ilub'bardsville, post-v. of Hamilton tp., Madison co., N. V. Pop. 117. Ilub'burdton, post-tp. of Rutland co., Vt., 7 miles N. of Castlcton. It has 2 churebcs ami nianufaetures of leather. Hero the Americans under Warner and Francis were defeated bv tho Hrilish and Hessians under Eraser, July 7, 1777. Pop. 000. Ilub'ble, tp. of Capo Girardeau co., Mo. Pop. 1089. Ilirber (Fn.iN(;ois), b. at Geneva July 2, 1750. IJeforo the age of fifteen bo had completed a course of physics under De Saussiire, and familiarised himself with jiraetieal chemistry in (he laboratory of a relation. Inheritance and education combined to awaken early in him a passion for natural history, but intense applieatiun and study at night by dim lamplight or moonlight forcccl liim for a time to suspend his s'udies. His fniher took him to Paris, when ho was just fifteen, to consult tho best physicians. Tron- chin ordered him to 8pend some months in the performance of comnxm farm-work, whieh soon restored his general heallh, but hi« ophthalmia was declared incurable, and ho beeanie. in a lew year><, totally blind. He marrietl Mario K'wnf'i' l.ullin. a wife who proved unfailing in her tender- ness and devotion. By tho aid of his wife, his son, and an intelligent peasant iiameil Francis Burnens, whom ho train- ed to the work of ob:»crvation. Hiibcr <IevoteiI his life to the study of bees. He discovered (hut the fertili/alion of tho quocn-boo lakes place in (he air. and but once, and that ii queen whoso impregnation is deferred beyond the twcnty- hrst day produces only drones. IJe conhrmed Schirach's statement that bees when lett queenless can convert a worker-larva into a queen by enlarging its cell and sup- plying it with diflerenl food. He delermine<l the fact of the yearly massacre of the drones, and thai it lakes place only when swarming-timo ie> past and a fertile queen se- cured. He observed that queens manifest bitter animosity against each other, engage in combats if there are two in tho hive at the same time, and destroy all royal pujia;. Ho investigated the question of the modification of bees in conse(|uence of the size of cells in whieli tliey are reared, and witnessed through blown-glass cells all the processes of tho cocoon-spinning. Ho examined into the senses of bees, and determined their seat, and discovered that Ihey use their anteuure for the communication of ideas and for the accurate performance of their varied work within tho darkened hive. He found that the workers were of two kinds — wax-workers and nurse-bees — demontitrated the or- igin of propolis, and discovered the whole secret of the se- cretion and manipulation of wa.x for building purpo.^es. He detected the Sphinx ittmpoH in its ravages in the hive, and witnessed the bees' contrivances for their own protec- tion. He funnel that bees respireJ, absorbing oxygen and evolving carbonic acid, and that the purity of the air is maintained by a system of ventilation, the currents of air being induced by the rhythmic motion of their wing?. By means of dissections niaile at his request by ^Mdlle. Jurino he exploded the theory of neuters, and proved tlie worker to be an imperfecth' developed female. The record of his work he first gave to the world under the title of Lettren tX 67(. //ou;ic( (171)2). In 1700 other discoveries were added to the former, and the new edition was entitled Nonveltcs Ob»cn-ationH titir Ics Aht^ill<:». Later editions have included his subsequent observations under the same title. In con- nection with Scucbier he published the Mcnxn're i:iir Viiifln- eticc tie I' air dtins Ic fjcnninnttonn dtt i/r<utin {Geneva, ISUl ). To this last work he contributed only the materials, which were worked into form and recorded by Sencbier. He d. Dec. 22, 1831, in full possession of all his faculties. The work done by Huber in his own department perhaps equals that done by all observers before and since; his observa- tions are almost without a flaw, and his generalizations remarkably accurate. Mits. S. B. llKimiCK. IIuber(JunANN Xepomuk), b. in .Munich Aug. IS, 1S30 ; graduated at the university of his native city 1854 ; became in 1851) professor of theology, at which time he published his Philiimphit: (Icr Kirrhenrliter, which was soon alter placed in the fndtx £,rinir;/alnrii(n. He was the avowed antago- nist of the Ultruuiuutanisls ; and they, in turn, used every effort to coerce him to silence, but without success. In 1871 he took a prominent part as a leader in the war against tho Jesuits, and was an active and formidable opponent of tlio dogma of papal infallibility, in connection with the Old Catholic movement in Havaria. He wrote .'■cveral other polemical works and j)amphlcts in support of his peculiar views. D. Mar., 1879. Ilubcr (Pifure), b. at Geneva Jan. 23, 1777. He made investigations upon humble-bees, ants, butterflies, etc. His work is recorded in sixteen memoirs, to be found in /tiH, liritanniqnv (1>*0I and 181)5), and in the Minntin •* Sin\ Phtf*^ (Geneva, from 1821 to 1843). He assisted his father in tho observations and publieatirm of the second part of Nutt- vfllfH ()bncrvatlnUH unr IcR Aheillea. His most valuable work is translated undcrthc title fliiton/ o/thc Natinr and J/abits o/AntH (1820). D. at Vvcrdun Dec. 22, 1840. Mks. S. B. Heurick, Ilub'ley, tp. of Schuylkill co.. Pa. Pop. 547. llub'mcyer, or iliibmaier (Baltiiasak), one of tho originators c)f tlio Anabaptist movement in Germany in tho first part of tho sixteenth century, b. about 1480 at Friedberg, near Augsburg; studied theology and philos- ophy at Freiburg under Kek 1503: became professor of tbcolngy in Ingolstadt in 1512, nntl in 1510 j.rcacher at tho eatiicdral of Kegensbnrg, whence he removed in 1523 to Waldshut. Hero he embraced the Refonnation, but began soon to develop original, or rather separatist, ideas, especi- ally after his acquaintance with Thomas Milmzer. Ho tau^flit that it was wrong to bapti/c small children ; tho baptij^m ought not to take place until the full-grown man demands it as the external symbol of his faith. As Hub* ineyer was a very gifted jireachcr, his whole congregation ndopteil bis ideas, liut soon (lie Austrian government inter- fered, and he (hen Ilcd (in 1525) to Zurich. Imprisoned au'l pi-rsecuted here also, he went to Nikt)lsbcrg in .Sloravia, where he formed a largo Anabaptist congregation. Al- though ho was a sound and clear-minded man himself, be eould not prevent the religious fanaticism and social ec- centricities which generally oharaotcrized the Analiaptists from breaking out in his uougrcgutiou. Disorders urose, and 1018 HtJBNER— HUDSON. when, at the death of Luilwig of Hungary, Moravia full to FerJiuand of Austriii, llubmeyer was seized, carried to Vienna, sentenced to death, and burned at the stake, Mar. 10, I52S. Some of liis writings were colleeled and jmb- lished in 1746. (.Sec Anahai-tists and Bai'Tists.) iliibner (Josrpii Ai-kxandek'I. IJahon, b. at Vienna Nov. 2t), ISl 1. JIaving completed his studies at Vienna, he travelled in Italy, and on his return (in 1833) was intro- duced by Prince Mctternieh into the service of the govern- ment, liis diplomatic career began at Paris in 1S37. After several minor appointments he was sent ambassador to Paris in ISH), and recalled in IS.iO. It was to him, on New Yi-ar's liay, 1859, that Napoleon III. adflressed the remark which foreshadowed the impending Kranco-Austriau war. From 18G0 to 1867 he was a second time at the head of the Austrian embassy at Home, lie has managed many delicate and difficult matters with consummate ability and tact, lie visilcil Ihe U. S. in 1870. and again in 1871, when he went around the globe. He is now (187j) residing in Rome. He has published an admirable work on Pope t>ixtus V. — ^ixtusdcr Fiin/te (2 vols. 1871 ; English trans. 1872), and a charming account of his ramble around the globe — Promrnafle Autoiir (In Monde (187^^; 3d cd. 1S74; Eng. trans. 1874). R. D. Hitchcock. Hue (Kvahiste Regis), b. Aug. 1, 1813, in Toulouse, where he studied theology; entered the order of the Lazar- ists and look holy orders in 1839. Immediately after he set out for Macao, where he lived for eighteen months, studying the Chinese language. With his skin dyed, his head shaved, and in Chinese costume he then travelled from Canton through the interior of the empire to Peking, anti from Peking to He-Shuy in Mongolia. In 1S44 he started from He-Shuy for Lhassa in Thibet, whicli he reached in 1846, but had to leave after a stay of a few months. He now travelled tlirough the southern parts of the empire to Can- ton, and in 1852 he left China iu order to return home. His health IkhI suffered very much, and he d. iu Paris Mar. 31, 1800. Published Souvenirs d'un royiiqe dnmi la Tnrtnric, le Thihft. et la Chine (2 vols., 1852). L'Empire Cliinois (2 vols., 1Sj4), Le Chrititiiiniume en Chine, en TartarfCf et en Thibet (4 vols., 1858), all translated into English. Huck'Ieberry and Blueberry, names applied to the North American representatives of the AVnoiiTLEBERUY (which see) of Europe. Our huckleberry-bushes are erica- ceous shrubs of the genera Gai/lnsmtvia and Vaccininm. The berries are extensively marketed, and eaten as dessert fruit and in pies and putldings. Gai/hisnacin hrachi/ccra, dumosft, /rondoia, rcsinotn, and ttrsina furnisli most of the proper huckleberries, mostly hard and dark-colored fruits; the blueberries, generally lighter-colored, softer, and sweeter than the huckleberries, are mostly from Vaccinimn Pmn- vt/lranirum, Cnnndcn^Cf varillans^ coryinhosum, and others. The annual product and the money-value of fruits of these two genera are very great. Ilild'ilorsficld, town of England, in the county of York, at the continence of the Holme and the Colue. It has very large mauufaetures of cloths, kerseymeres, flush- ings, and serges, extensive coal-mines in the vicinity, and easy communication with all important commercial points of England. Pop. 70,253; of parliamentary borough, 74,358. Iliid'son, county of the N. E, of New Jersey, bounded on the E. by the Hudson River and New York harbor. Area. ISO square miles. Its eastern border is marked by the Palisades, a remarkable ridge of trap-rock. The county is almost entirely suburban to New York City. It has manufactures of cigars, clothing, and many other kinds of goods. It is traversed by numerous railroads, centring at Jersey City and Ilobokcn, its largest cities. Cap. Jer- Bcy City. Pop. 12D.0G7. Hudson, tp. and post-v. of McLean co., III., on the Illinois Central R. R.,8 miles N.of Bloomington. P. 1392. Hudson, tp. of La Porte co., Ind. Pop. G36. Hudson, post-tp. of Penobscot co., Me., 15 miles N. N. W. of IJangor. It manufactures lumber. Pop. 739. Hudson, tp. and post-v. of Middlesex co.. Mass., 16 miles N. E. of Worcester, on the Fitchburg R. R. It con- tains 3 churches, a savings bank, several large shoe-shops, foundry, and pianoforte manufactory, 1 newspaper. 1 hotel, stores, etc. Principal occupation, shocmaking and farming. Po]t. 338t). >Vonr> &, Rawson, Eds. •'Pionekr." Hudson, tp. and post-v. of Lcnawco co., Mich., 50 miles W. of Toledo, on the Lake Shore and Michigan South- ern R. R, It has 2 union schools. 7 churches, 2 banks, large ('poke and butter-tub factories, 2 newspapers, carriage- shops, and other manufactories. P. of v. 2459: of tp. 4094. W. T. B. ScnKUMKKHoitN, En. '■ Hcnsox Gazette." Hudson, tp. of Douglas co., Minn. Pop. 448, Hudson, tp. of Macon co., Mo. Pop. 137(3. post-v. of Hillsborough co., N. H., 3 Pop. 106fi. Hudson, tp. and miles E. of Nashua. Hudson, city, cap. of Columbia co., N. Y., situated on the E. bank of the Hudson River, at the natural head of navigation, 115 miles N. of New York, and 30 miles below Albany, on the Huilson and IJostun ami the Hudjion River R. Rs. It contains the Hudson Academy, one of the old- est collegiate schools in the State. 15 churches, 4 banks, largo manufactories of paper car-wheels, steam iire-engines, and stoves, 2 iron furnaces, 2 daily and 3 weekly newspa- pers, 6 hotels, and an orphan asylum. The city, covering an area of about one sq^uare mile, is supplied with gas, and water from the river is being introduced (1875) at an cx- ]icnse of $250,000. It has an extensive trade by the river. Pop. 8015. iM. Paiikeh Williams, Ei). *' Daily Register " and " Weekly Gazette." Hudson, tp.and post-v. of Summit co., 0., at the junc- tion of the Cleveland and Pittsburg and the Cleveland Mt. Vernon and Delaware R. Rs., 24 miles S. E. of Cleveland. It is the seat of Western Reserve College. P. of tp. 1620. Hudson, post-v., cap. of St. Croix co., Wis., IS miles E. of St. Paul, Mo., on the West Wisconsin R. R. It has an academy and other schools, 5 churches, 2 banks, 3 news- papers. 3 hotels, railroad machine-shops, wagon and plough manufactories, numerous wheat warehouses, flouring-miUs, etc. Principal occupation, farming. Pop. of v. 1748; of tp. 2203. II. A. Taylor, Ed. " Star and Times." Hudson, tp. of Walworth co., Wis. Pop. 1312. Hudson (Erasmus Darwin), M. D., b. Dec. 15, 1806, at Torringford. Conn., was educated by private tutor and at Torringford Academy; graduated in medicine at the Berkshire Medical College 1S27 ; practised in Rloonificld, Conn., and was a member of the Connecticut State Medical Society, etc. In 1S2S he began to lecture on temperance. From 1837 to 1849 he was lecturing agent of the Connecti- cut Anti-slavery Society and general agent of the American Anti-slavery Society, Since 1849 he has devoted himself to mechanical and orthopaedic surgery, not only in private practice, but in a majority of the government cases of gun- shot injuries of bones, resections, ununited fractures, and amputations at the knee and ankle joint. Ho has written Essay on Temperance (1828); was a contril)utor to The Liberator and Sational Anti-tilareri/ Standard (1837-40); co-editor of The Charter Oak (1838-41); has published monographs on JiescctiDns (IS70), Si/mc' it Amputat ion 1 1871), Immobile Apparatus /vr Ununited Eractnrcs (IS72); and has contributed numerous reported cases, published in the Medieul and Snrtpcal Ilintori^ of the War of the liebelliun (Washington, 1870-72). Hudson (Erasmts Dauwin, Jr.), A.B., M. D., b. Nov. 10, 1843, at Northampton, Mass.; graduated at the College of the City of New Y'ork in 18C4, and at the (^ollegc of Phy- sicians and Surgeons, New York City, in lStJ7; in 1807 and 1808 was house-surgeon of Bellevuo Hospital; since 186S has been engaged in the practice of medicine; served as health inspector 1869-70; was attending physician to the class for diseases of the eye, out-door department of Belle- vue Hospital, same year; was attending physician at North- western Dispensary 1S70-72 : attending physician to Trinity chapel parish and Trinity Home 1870-75; and since 1872 has been professor of principles and ])raetico of medicine at the AVoman's Medical College of the New York Infirmary. Ho has jiublishcd lirpurt of Pnhe and liespiration of In- fants in Klliufs Ob^trtric r/j"»("c (1872). and monograph on I^he I'ri vention and Early Arrent of Pidmouan/ Phthisis. He is a contributor to Johneon'H Universal Cyclopadia. Hudson (FnEnERir), b. at Quincy, Mass., Apr. 2."), 1819; was educated in Boston; was for thirty years on the editorial staff of the New York Herald. Author of Juurnalisni in the U. S. D. Oct. 21, 1875. Hudson (Georce), b. at York, England, about ISOO; commenced life as a draper. He made a large fortune in railway speculations during the railway excitement of 1845- 40, was known as the " railway king," and was regarded in England and Franco as an oracle on the subject of rail- way operations. He was a member of Parliament from 1845 to 1S59, and was three times elected lord mayor of York. After exercising influence in every branch of so- ciety, ho d. in reduced circumstances Dec. 14, 1871. Hudson (Henry or Hendrik), an English discoverer of whose birth and early history noliiing is known. In 1007 he made a voyage in search of the North-west pas- sage. In 1008 ho sailed to Nova Zombla, and in 1009, in the service of the Dutch India Company, he sailed in the Half Moon for Davis" Straits; hut reached Cape Cod, went to Chesapeake Bay, discovered the Hudson River, up which he sailed as far as where Albany stands. In ItilO he sailed again in an English ship, discovered Hud- son's Strait and Hudson's Bay, in which ho wintered; but HUDSON— HUET. lOl'J after suffering many hardships his crew became mutinous and «et him, witli his son John and seven infirm sailors, adrift in a shallup : after whieh ho was never heard of. A part of his crew arrived in England in IGll. Hudson published Diicm Voi/utieii nnd Xiirlhrni /)i'«c.irtri'f» (1607) and A Sccnml V«ya<je (ICOS). (Sec Oio. AsiiKit's mono- graph (Hakluyt Soc., 1859), and J. JIekkditii Head, Jii.'s, /utjitii-t/ couceritlmj Illtdmnl (Ibtifi). Hudson (Heniiv Xokman), b. in Cornwall, Vt., Jan. 2S, ISU; was bred a farmer and coachmnker ; graduated in 1S40 at .Middlebury College; he afterwards taught in Keutucky, .-ilabama, and elsewhere, and beeamc a successful lecturer on .Shakspcaro. In 1^49 he was onlaincd a priest of the I'nilestant Episcopal Church : was for a time edi- tor of the Churchiiiiin ; rector of a church at Litchfield, Conn., 18J9-C0, and was an army chaplain during the civil war. He has published Lertureit on Shnktprnrc (2 vols., 1.S4S), an edition of .Shakspearc (1 1 vols., ISiU-or), A Clmp- i'tin't Viimpititjntcith Gun, /»u//cr ( ISfiJ), School Shaktpearc (1870), Shid'/iiare, Ai's Li/c, etc. (l.'*72). Sermoiia (lS7t). Ilildson River, called also North River in its lower course, is one of the noblest of .American streams. It rises some 3000 feet above tide-watcr in Essex co., N. Y., among the .Adirundacks. After a ra]iid and devious course among the mountains, it is joined by the Schroon River, and 10 miles farther on by the Saaondaga. Thence its course is generally eastward to Sandy Hill, from which point it flows almost duo S. to its mouth. The Itatten Kill and Hnosick join it from the E. At Cohocs it receives tlie Mohawk, which more than doubles its volume. Three miles below, at Troy, it becomes a navigable tidal stream. Above this it is chiefly noteworthy for its romantic scenery and its noble and unfailing water-power. I!ut it is pro- pn.ted to open slack-water navigation, by means of locks and dams, to Eort Edward. The largest affluent received below Troy is the Walkill. The tidal rise at Albany is only one foot, and below this point there aro some obstructions to rapid navigation, the most noteworthy of which is the \ " Overslaugh " or bar at Castleton. To remedy these difli- ! eultics the U. S. have expended over SI, 500,000 (besides largo Slate appropriations) in deepening and dredging channels, building dykes, revetments, and the like, and the work is not yet complete. There are also 21 lighthouses and lighted beacons owned by the general government upon the banks of this river. The appropriations have been almost entirely expended above the city of Hudson, where the obstructions cease. The river is navigable 117 miles to this city for ships of the first class, and to Troy, IGfl miles, for steamers and schooners. Tliirly miles below Troy the river approaches the remarkably line scenery of the CatskiU Mountains. At Xewburg, IJO miles from New York, the Hudson enters the Highlands, through whoso impressive scenery it flows for 20 miles. Helow Verplank's I'oinI the river expands into Havcrslraw liay and the Tap- paan .'^ea, a noble, lake-like expansion. Helow, the western bank of the river is marked by the Palisades, a preci])ico of lofty trap-rock, at some points jOO feet high. The fish- eries of the Hudson are of consiil»!rable im])cM-tance. Shad, bass, and sturgeon aro extensively taken, and several spe- cies of fish native to the .St. Lawrence basin hav*- natural- ized themselves in the Hudson since the opening of the Champlain and Eric canals. It is probable that the Hud- son was never a salmon stream, but sonio attempts have been made to stock it with Sulmo /iftlar and .S'. f/iilnuat, tho true and tho California salmon. The Erie Canal connects the river with Luke Eri<', the (^'haniplain t'anal with Lake Cham])lain, the I)elawaro and Hudson with the Pennsyl- vaniacoal-rcgi<tns. The river is thus tho thnrouglifare for large numbers of canal ami freight boats to and from New York and the neighboring cities. Its passenger steamers arc not excelled in splendor by any vessels afloat, and for size and spe<'d tliey take a high rank. The waters of the Hudson enter the inner bay of New York, flowing between Now York City and Jersey City on the E. and ^V. respect- ively. Tho river, with its canal connections, has done much to make New York what it is inilustrially and oom- mer.'ially. It is about ."iOO miles in length. It was naukcd in honor of Henry Hudson, its first European explorer. Ilmlsoii's liny, a great landlocked sea of Hritish North Anierica, SOO miles long from N. to S., and 000 miles across, lying between 61° anil OP N. la(. and 7HO ond 0.>° ^^^ ion. It is HO much ()bstriielcd by ieo that in winter it is not navigable. At no time is its navigation 8;ifc or easy. It has many islands and shoals. Of late there is a considerable summer whale-fishery within its limits. Area, IlilO.llOO square miles. Hudson's Strait is its outlet to tho Allanlio. liudson'N Hay Company, the Inst of tho great Eng- lish conini'-reial corporations, was chartered .May 2, 1070, by Charles II., and ceased to oxereiso its monopoly Juno 2.'), 1870, after 200 years of authority in the northern parts of North America. For many years after its foundation tho French were in possession of Canada. The North-west Com- pany of Montreal was a formidable rival from 1783 to 1821, when the younger company was merged into the older. Tho ]irincipal trade of the company was in furs, ond it was uniformly a ]irofitable trade. It originally possessed a pro- prietorship and a monopoly of trade throughout Hupert's Land, as the land whose streams flow into Hudson's Uay was called. This name was derived from the famous Prince Rupert, the principal original corporator. In 1821 this jurisdiction (with the original authority to govern and also to make war upon savage nations) was extended westward to tho Pacific — tho autliority for the new territory to last only for periods of twenty years by royal license. From 1849 to 1859, ^'ancouvcr's Island was also licensed to this company. .After 1.159 the company had no monopoly VV. of the liocky Mountains. In IKIW the company was au- thorized by act of the British Parliament to surrender its powers and rights to the Crown and incorporate its terri- tories with the Dominion of Canada. In 1SG9 this was carried out, and in 1870 the full transfer was accomplished. Hudson's Strait, connecting Hudson's Bay with Davis's Strait and the Atlantic (Jccan, in British North America, is situated between 60° and 64° N. lat. and 65° and 77° AV. Ion. It is 450 miles long, and its breadth averages 100 miles, the narrowest point being 60 miles. Hue, thecajiital of Anam, on the Iluf, near its entrance into the China Sea. In the beginning of the present cen- tury it was regularly fortified by Frencdi engineers, and it is generally well built, but it is accessible only to small- vessels, on account of the shallowness of its harbor. Pop. 100,000. HueI'va, town of Southern Spain, the capital of (ho province of Iluclvn, at the junction of the Odiel and the Tinto. It is a handsome town, but unhealthy on account of the salt-marshes in its vicinity. It has a lively coasting- trade, especially in fruits. Pop. 8423. Huerfli'no, county of Southern Colorado, lying prin- ciiially K. of the main Rocky Mountain range. Area, about ICOO square miles. It is well watered, and contains the Huerfano Park. The raising of cattle and wool is a leading pursuit. Cap. AValsenburgh. Pop. 2250. Hucr'ta,de la (A^icf.ntk Gaucia), b. at Zafra, in Es- tremadura, in 1729, and d. in 1797 in Madrid, where ho held the ofiicc of first librarian of tho royal library. In the hot ccmtest which took place at that time in the Span- ish literature between tho adherents of the French influence and the defenders of tho old Spanish taste, Hucrta headed the latter party, and exercised a considerable influence, both by his tragedy, Iliiniic.l, which was first produced in Madrid in 1778, and made a great success, and by his col- lection of the best works of the cMer Spanish dramatists (17 vols., 1784-85). He also published two volumes of poems, Obras J'oeticas (1778-79). Hues'ca, town of Spain, the capital of tho province of the same name, on the Isuela. It is beautifully situated on a jdain covered with vineyards and olive-forests, and has many interesting buildings, among which are a (lolhio cathedral built in 14110, a university founded in 1354 (not now in operation), ond a circus for bull-fighting. It is a bishop's sec. Pop. 10,069. Hues'oar, town of Spain, in the province of Grenada, on the Cuardal. It has some manufactures of linen goods. Pop. 7332. Huet' (FitANi;oi9), b. at Anilcau, department of Euro- Ct-Loire, Dec, 1S14; d. July I, 1869. nt Paris, where ho requested to bo buried ci'n'i'rmciil— that is, without the ac- companiment of any religions ceremonies. Huet was ono of tho precursors of Dilllingcr. Ilvacintho, and other (lid Catholics, though his own doctrine, which found some ad- herents in France, bore the name of NeoCotholicism, was opposed to the ultra dictates of tho A'ntican, and claimed to have realized the alliance of reason with religion. II net was a pupil or disciple of liordas-Dcnioulin ; he held a professorsbi|i in the Cnivcrsity of Ghent. About 1865 re- turned to Paris, and was tutor lo Priin^c .Milan Obrenovitch, whom he accompanied lo Servia when (he prince was ele- vated to tho throne. Huet has published t'«ir(c«/fiiit'*;;(, or Tntr Hfiiittviitioii of Srifnccit, Social Jt«itj» of Chnnllotnti/f J5,'«mii/« oil llif (.'iiliiollc Uffiinn, oto. F£i.ix AdiAiciNK. Huet (Pirnmi: DAXit;!.), b. at Caen Feb. S, 1B30, and educated by the Jesuits ; nceoinpnnicd, in 1652, Boohart (o the court of Queen (.'hristine of Sweden ; was in 1670 ap- pointed sub-governor under Bossui't (o (he dauphin ; (ook holv orders in 1676; became bishop of Avranohes in 1692; retired in 1699 first to Caen, and (hen (o (he house of (he Jesuits in Paris; and d. (hire .Ian. 26, 1721. As n young man he cultivated polite litcratun', eom|iosed a romnnoo. 1020 HUEY— HUGO. Diane tte Cantro, piiblitihcd Carminn Lathtn et Grtecn (1664), and wrote Snr t Orit/i'nr defi Rt>mnufi (1670). lie was also an adherent of the Cartesian philosojdiy, but afterwards be- came one of its adversaries : teuHnra /*!n'lo»opJtin- Cditcsiaufr (IGS'Jj and Mt»ii>irra pmir servir u f flisfaire fin CartcHi'an- ismr ( 1692). The most prominent of his other writings are — Demount ratio Kvaiigclirn (1670), Hi/itinri: (fit Commerce ct de l(t X*ivi(ffitinn des Aiictcus (1716), a book slill of great value, and CommottariuH de Kthus ad earn pcrtincntibng (171 S}, lately translated by Nizard. Hu'ey, tp. of Calhoun co., Ark. Pop. 153. Ilu'felnnd (CinusTorii Wimiki.m), b. Aug 12, 1762, at Lan;;onsalza. in Thurinjjia: studied medicine at the uni- versities of Jena and (Tiittingen ; was ajipointed a profes- sor in nu'dicinc at the University of Jena in 1793, and re- moved in 1798 to Uerlin. where in 1809, on the establish- ment of the new university, he became professor in special patholo;^y and tijorapeutirs ; d. Aug. 2b, 1836. lie was a noble and kiml-hrarted man, of sound and comprehensive view?, and, witii the exception of his Enchiridion mcdicum, oder Aiiltitttntj zur mcdiciit. Prajcie (lS;i6), most of his writings have a generally instructive, philanthropical, rather than a scientific character, such as Makroliotik ndrr dii; Kitust, das menschliche Lchcn zu i-erliinf/crn (1796), (inter litith fin Mutter iihrr die wichtitjstcn Puukte der phi/- nischcn ICrziehunff der Kinder (1799), etc. These books were often republished, and exercised a beneficial influence. HuflT, tp. of Spencer co., Ind. Pop. 1569. Huff's Creek, tp. of Wyoming co,, W. Ya. P. 342, IJil^ (Jon.VNN LE0>'nARD),b. at Constance June 1,1765; an eminent Roman Catholic theologian and professor, au- thor of numerous learned works in biblical criticism, of which the l>cst known is an Introdnctinn to the Study of the N. T, (1808; Eug. trans. 1827). D. Mar. 11, 1840. Hii'gel, von ( Kaul At.exaxder Ansf.lm). Baron, b. at Ratisbon Apr. 25, 1796; studied law at Heidelberg 1811 ; entered the Austrian array in 1813, and was employed in different diplomatic missions; retired in 1824 to devote himself exclusively to the study of natural science; under- took (18.'>l-37) very extensive travels through Western and Southern Asia ; and d. at Brussels June 2, 1870. He wrote Kaschmir iind das J'cich der Sikhs (4 vols.. 1840-42) and Das liccken von ICabid (2 vols., 1851-52). His rich collec- tions in cthnograpliy and natural science were bought by the Austrian government and, incorporated with the collec- tions of Vienna. Hiiger' (Benjamin), b. at Santee, St. James parish, S. C, Nov. 22, 1805 ; graduated at West Point, and entered the array as second lieutenant of artillery July, 1825; served on topographical and ordnance duty till May 1. 1832. when he was promoted to be captain of ordnance. In the war with Mexico ho was chief of or<lnance and artillery with Gen. Scott's army, being in charge of the siege-train at A'era Cruz, and present at the battles of Cerro Gordo, Molino del Key, Chn]mUepec, and final capture of the city of Mexico. For gallant conduct in battle he was brevettod major, lieutuuiint-colonel, and colonel, and was presented with a sword of honor by the State of South Carolina. From 1848 to 1861 ho commanded various arsenals, and was employed on important board duties. In Apr., 1861, being ut that time a major of ordnance, ho resigned his commission and espoused the Southern cause. He was made a major-general of the Confederate army, and bore a prominent but unsuccessful jiiirt in the early days of tho civil war. Since 1809 ho was engaged in farming in Vir- ginia. 1). at Charleston, S, C, Dec., IS77. IIii£:'c:iiis, tp. of Gentry co.. Mo. Pop. 1112. Iliigtiins (Wii.mah), F. R. S., D. C. L., LL.D., b. in Loud*>n Feb. 7, 1824; w:is educated at the City School and by private instructors, giving much attention to the ex- perimental study of the physical sciences and to astron- omy ; in 1852 was made a memher of the Microscopical So- ciety, and became a student of biologv ; in 1855 established a private astronomical ohservatory, where after 1862 ho gave great attention to spectroscopic observations upon the heavenly bodies, with important results, especially with re- spect to the discovery of (he direction and rate of the proper motions of tho fixed stars. Hughes, post-v. of Arapahoe co.. Col., at the junction of the Denver Pacific and the Boulder Valley R. Rs., 19 miles N. of Denver. Hughes, post-tp. of Nodaway co.. Mo. Pop, 1420. Hughes (Ball), b. in London Jan. 19, 1804; d, in Boston, Mass., Mar. 5, 1868; studied with Edward Hodge Bailey, and while a student won prizes awarded by the Royal Academy, and other silver and gold medals; made busts of George IV. and the dukes of York, Sussex, and Cambridge; came to New York in 1829; made the marble statue of Hamilton — the first work of the kind done in America — for the Merchants' Exchange, which was de- stroyed by fire in 1835; also the high relief of Bishop Ho- bart in Trinity church : the casts of Little NcK and Uncle Toby in the Boston Athcnieum are his work, and the bronze statue of Dr. Bowditeh in the cemetery of Mt. Auhurn. Other works from his studio are a bust of AVashinglou Irv- ing, a statuette of Gen. Warren, a Crurijixiou, a model for an equestrian statue of Washington. He was a man of various ingenuity, a lecturer on art as well as an artist. 0. B. FUOTHINOIIAM. Hlis:hes (Most Rev. John), D. D., b. at Annahoghan, CO. Tyrone, Ireland. June 24,1797; emigrated to America in 1817, and worked for a timeas a gardener and nurseryman ; was educated at Mt, St. Mary's College, Kmmittshurg, Md., which he entered in 181'.), and where he sustained himself for a time by the care of the college garden. Here he won the lifelong esteem of Drs. Dubois and Brut6, both after- wards bishops. In 1825 he was ordained a deacon of the Ro- man Catholic Church, and in the siimeyeur a priest. He had (1826-38) pastoral charges in Philadelphia, where he found- ed St. John's Asylum in 1829, and established The i'lithdic JSernId in 1S33. In 1838 he was made bishop of Basil- eopolis f)( partihuf, and coadjutor to Bishop Dubois of New Y'^ork, and in 1842 he became bishop of New Y'ork. In 1839 he founded St. John's College, Fordham. In 1850 he was made archbishop of New York. In 1 861-62 he was a special agent of the U. S. in Europe, and in 1863 publicly addressed the draft-rioters in New York with a view of dii^suading them from violence. He d. Jan. 3, 1SG4. Archbishop Hughes early attracted much attention by his controversial corre- spondence with Uev. John Breckinridge in 1833-35. In 1839-42 he was prominent in the struggle of the Roman Catholics against the ])ublic school system of New York, and in 1851 had a famous controversy with the Hon. Eras- tus Brooks respecting the tenure of church property. Per- sonally he was a kindly and genial man. His writings, nearly complete, havo been published in two vols. 8vo, (See his life by J. R. G. Hassard, 1S66.) Hughes (Thomas), Q. C, b. Oct. 20. 1823, at Newbury, Berks, Eng. ; was educated at Rugby and at Oriel College, Oxford, where he graduated in 1845 ; studied at Lincoln's Inn ; was called to the bar in 1 S4S : became queen's coun- sel in 1869; was in Parliament from Lambeth 1865-68» from Frome 1869-74. Author of Tom Jirown's School Daj/s (1856), Scouring of the White J/orne (iHbS), Tom finnpn itt Oxford (1861), Alfred the Great (1869), etc. Is (1874) principal of the College for Workingmen and Women, Lon- don, and prominent in practical reforms and questions of social science. Hughes'ville, post-b. of Lycoming co., Pa., in Wolf tp., 19 miles E. of WilUamsport. It has a large lumber trade. Pop. 456. Hughs, county of Dakota, having the Missouri River as its S. \V. boundary. It is not organized. Area, about 700 square miles. Hughs, tp. of Tuscaloosa co., Ala. Pop. 637. Hu'go (VirTOU Marie), A'Icomte, b. at Besaufon Feb. 26, l8l)2. His father was an officer in the array of Napo- leon : his mother came from La Vendue, and was a staunch royalist. In his childhood he led a rather errant life, mov- ing from France to Italy, and from Italy to Spain, but ho received, nevertheless, an excellent education. In 1817 an ode he addressed to the Academy, tSnr Irn Aranta»/CH de V£tnde, was highly commended by that institution, and in 181S he gave up his professional education to devote him- self exclusively to literature. He was eminently successful. In 1840, after publishing his novels, tian d' hlaude (1823), Iiu»l-Jarffftl (1826), and Xtttre Dame de Air/s (1S31), his dramas, Cromwell (1827), Marion Dcbtrme (1831), Le Jiui s'amufte (1S32), Lucrice Bonjia (1833). Rmi HUtu (1838), and Hcrnani (1839), and the two celebrated volumes of lyrical poems, Lett FeuHles d' A ntumne ( 1 831 ) and Le» C/tantu de Crtpniirule (1835), he stood as the founder of a new literary scho(d in his country, and was acknowledged as the greatest living poet of France, perhaps of Europe. In 1823, Louis XVIII. gave him apension ; in 1845, Louis Philippe created him a peer of France ; and in 1818 he was elected a representative of the city of Paris both to the con- stituent and to the legislative assembly. When, in 1851, Napoleon banished him from France, lie took up his resi- dence on the island of Guernsey, and in his exile he wrote Ln Leifcnde den ttitcleit (1859), /,<« J/i«t'r«/</c« ( 1862), Lr$ TravaiUeura de la Mer (l^GG), I'lfomme r/in' rit (IS69). and Quatre-vintft treizr^ which works have extended his fame, (hough without strengthening it. During the latter part of his life a marked change has taken place in his social views. He first changed from a royalist into a worshipper of Na- poleon, and when he eame in actual contact with polities ho became a republican with a peculiar touch of socialism. The HUGUENOT— HULIN. 1021 influence which this change exercised on bis litcrory pro- (luctiun? was not good, llis political writings, iV<i;)t>/<?oii U /'Hit and Let VhatimcntB, are nearly worthless ; his talent broke down completely under his ire. And whenever his social views hecoinc visililc in his romances and j>ocui3 the effect is painful ; his ideas are obscure, because they are ba.<:cd not on understanding, but on sympathy, and his sym- pathy with the mass,thepoor, the depressed, tile persecuted, is offensive to the reader, because it is violent and exagge- rated. Of far greater and much more beneficial influence was tlie change which early in his life took place in his ar- tistic views. lie began a classicist, and ho became tlio founder of the romantic school ; Madame do StaiM and Chateaubriand wrought this change in him. The supreme law of the classical school was, the idea shall be beautiful and the expressions shall be polished : literature is a mir- ror of good society. Agiinsl this maxim Victor Hugo pro- claims that the idea shall be true and the expression natu- ral ; literature is a mirror of nature. Ami although he had to fight an authority of 200 years' standing, he carried his point, and made his principles an actual influence in French literature — not, like Goethe, by the magic of a fresh and rich sensibility, for his taste is narrow and even a little coarse, but by dint of a brilliant, creative power. His imagination is his talent. His poems lack the moving warmth of a full heart. His dramas lack the magical presence of a complete characterization. His romances are like turbulent seas, formless expanses of colossal forms. And yet in all his writings, even the latest and weakest, he gives pictures of nature in uproar ami of man in passion which delight by their truth as much as they astonish by their grandeur. The limits of his genius would never have been visible but for the faults of his method. .Mtbough in the famous preface to Cmmwrll, he tells us that ordir is the principle of freedom in art, rcgulnriii/ that of thraldom, yet Ills own method is too often a dead mechanical regularity, lioth his plans of composition and his delineations of cha- racters show it, and his style more than shoivs it ; it cries it out alouil. There ore whole pages in his books in which his " brilliant " antitheses sound like the monotonous, evcr- reeurring grating of a plane, and which tell too plainly that brilliancy, especially of style, is something which can be made by machinery. Ci.kmens Pkterskn. Ilu'gucnot, tp. of Powhatan co., \'n. Pop. 2527. Huguenots, the name by which in the sixteenth cen- tury the Roman Catholics designated the adherents of the Calvinistio Keformation in France. It is of doubtful origin, some deriving it from the (icrman Eitlr/eiioiucn, others from the words J/itr ii.,*, with which one of the earliest jiublic documents of French Protestantism begins, and others again from //«//-) (or ///i'/i(.«) CiprI, the first king of the Bourbon dynasty. Prof. Mahn (who quotes fifteen deriva- tions) connects the name with //ic/iir*, an obscure heretic. After the consolidation of the Reformation in France, it fell into disuse, and the Protestant establislinient of that country is now known under the name of the Reformed Church of France. Protestantism was not introduced into France from Germany. There were from olden times dissenting elements in the (iallican Church, especially in the southern parts of the eountry. where the Visigoths had settled. The Visigoths were Arians, and in the course of time one sect after the other arose in these regions and protested against the authority of tho pope and tho eloctrines of the Roman Catholic Church; as, for instance, tho Albigenses. The general eommolion which at the end of the fifteenth and in the beginning of the six- teenth century took place within the Roman Catholic Church itself was strongly felt in France, and showed it- nclf even at the Sorboiine, which, next to the pope, was the highest theological authority in Christendom. liut in France, at tho court of Queen AJargucrito of Navarre, this movement partly assumed a merely literary form, and be- came a simple assertion of independence raiher than a ])ro. test, until Calvin with his iron hands grasped the some- what vague ten.lency anil gave it a more striking stamp and a more decided direction than it received anywhere else. Francis I. tried to slop the movement, and Hugue- nots were burned. Hut during the reign of Henry II. (I.VI7-.>'.I) Protestantism was rather favoreil, and at hia death there existed a Protestant parly of great political power; and a religious war began w'hiih lasted almost without interruption to tho end df tho ccnturv. was re- neweil in the following, and did not finally subside until the spirit of tolerance, the best acquisition of the cigh- leenlh eenlury, made religious persecutions an impossi- bility in France. At the head of the Roman Catholic [larty stood the famous family of tho tiuises, represented by Huke Francis and the cardinal of Lorraine; at tho head of the Protestants stood the family of lioiirbon, represented by Ihc king of .\avarrc and the prince of ConiU-. lietween the two parlies the rnyal jiower. represented first by Cath- arino of Medici, last by Cardinal Richelieu, occupied an intermediate position, using with great art the one to crush tho other. Francis II., a son of Ucnry II. and Catharino of Medici, married in Ijis Mary Stuart, a niece of the cardinal of Lorraine. He was only fifteen years old when in IJJO he ascended the throne, and with him the Guises were brought to the court and came into power. Their ar- rogance, ambition, and auducily caused immediately Ihc formation of a Protestant jiarly, anil the war began. Next year (IJtiO) Francis died, and in order to curb the (Juises, Catharine, regent during the minority of her second son, Charles IX., favored tho Protestants. The edict of Jan. 17, 1JG2, gave them freedom of conscience and a limited liberty of worship, and to these rights were added scv oral fortified cities, among which was Rochellc, as places of safety, by the peace of St. Gcrmain-en-Layc, Aug. 8, 1570 — a peace which for a moment slopped the war that was still raging in spile of all edicts and treaties. Cath- arine, however, meant by no means to tolerate Protestant- ism in her realm. She haled it as an abominable heresy, and she began to fear the party since, during the preceding wars, she saw how it was supported from England with money and from (icrmany with troops. Imniediatelv after the peace of St. Germain-en-Laye she concluded an alliance with the Guises, which resulted in the massacre on the night of St. Bartholomew (Aug. 25, 1572) of 5000 Protestants — among whom was Coligny, their leader — in Paris, and .30,000 in the provinces. The I'roteslauts fled to their places of safety, and the war began again ; but the royal army was repelled from Rochellc, and when in 1574 the duke of Alciifon, the youngest son of Catharine, and a large party of the Roman Catholic nobility, allied Ihem- selves with the Protestants against the queen and tho Guises, the cause of the Reformation stood better than ever before. Treaties of peace were concluded and broken several times, but when (in 1581) Henry of Navarre, the head of the Protestant parly, became heir-apparent to tho French throne on the death of the duke of Aiijou, it came at last to a final battle. The Guises now openly avowed that they aspired to the crown of France, and the king, Henry III., had both Duke Henry and Cardinal Louis murdered at Hlois in 15SS. Pursued by Ihc Roman Catho- lic parly, he then fled to the Protestant eaiup, but next year he was himself killed by a monk, and Henry IV. ascended the throne. Henry entered the Roman Catholic Church from political reasons, but by the Edict of Nantes in 15118 the position of the Reformed Church in Franco became finally settled and secured, and there was peace for about twenty years. But the Protestants possessed in their places of safety and in their right of assembling a political power which it was difficult for the royal authority to consent to; and when the idea of the absolute jiowcr of royally found an adequate representative in Cardinal Richelieu, a change in the political position of the Proleslants was unavoidable. The war lasted from 102i to lli21l. On Oct. 28, 1()2S. Ro- chellc was taken after a siege of fourteen months; of its 24,000 inhabitants only 4000 were left ; the rest had fallen or perished from hunger. Their other strongholds were also taken, but their freedom of conscience, and even their liberty of worship, were respected; Richelieu's measures were purely political. Once more, however, the Proleslants of Franco had to experience persecutions on account of their religion. Louis XIV. and Madame Mainlenon, who was herself bred a Protestant, were both very devout, and after the death of Colbert (1GS4) their devotion showed itself in the harshest and most cruel measures against tho Protestants. Their churches were destroyed and their property confiscateil ; bands of soldiers, accompanied by fanatical monks, scoured the country, and such as would not renounce their religion were exiled or killed. .Some fled to the ('cvenncs. where they were butchereil ; others to .Swil/erland, Holland, ami England. In tho three years following immediately after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (t>et. 2.'t. 1085) France is said to have lost nearly 1,000,1100 inhabitants. Louis XV. also tried to do some- thing "to the glory of (iod," and issued in 1752 an edict which <leclare<l the Protestant baptism and marriage in- valifl ; but the edict caused such an indignation, even among the Roman Catholics, that it had to be revoked. I!y the d^ilr A'o/.n/Aoi, the Cliarlra of |s|5 and ls:',0, and the coiislilulions of 184H and 1872, the social and political position of the I'rolcslants in France has been made equal to that of the Roman Catholics, and during the last twenty years (heir s|jiritual life has developed with great energy and exerciscfl a considerable influence on tho Protestant churches of other countries. (Fklisk, Hininlie ilm I'lu- Ictlanln de France ; Haao, La France Prolmlaiitr.) Ci.KME.xs Pktkrsi;n. Iliiirts. tp. of Edgefield Co., S. C. Pop. 2550. Iliiliii', or lIuMin (Pii-rrf. At'ni:,sTix), Coist, b. at Pans Sept. 0, 1758; enlisted in the army in 1771; distin- 1022 HULL— HUMBLE-BEE. guishod himself at the storming of the Bastilc July 14, 1789; was appointeil captain of the national guard Oct. S, same year, but became ?u.''[>icious to Kobespierre on ac- count of his moderation, and was imprisoned. Liberated at the fall of Robespierre, ho entered the Italian army; was made a bris-idicr-goneral in 1S03 : presided over the court- martial which sentenced tho duke of Enghien to death Mar. 24, 1^01; was military governor of Vienna in 1806. of Ber- lin in I>07, of Paris in 1SI2, and was created a count in 1808. On the restoration of the Bourbons he was banished from Franco in 1 SI 6, but allowed to return in 1819; and d. in Paris, blind. Jan. 9, 1841. In 1S23 he published Exp/i- cati'fus it^KFten aiix homiufs impartitiiij- mt sujrt dc in com- minsion mitttaire iiisti'tttfe en Van XII. pour Juf/cr le due d' Enfjhicn. llull, or Kin^ston^on-Hullf one of the commercial centres of England, is situated in tho East riding of York- shire, at the inllux of the Hull into the llumber, and is de- fended by a citadel, conuuanding tho entrance of the Hull roads, and by two forts lower down the Humber, at the vil- lage of High Paul. The most rcuiarkablo of its public buildings are tho church of the Holy Trinity, tho oldest brick building in England, erected in 1.112, and the church of St. Mary, Lowgate: of its monuments, an equestrian statue of William III., standing in the markot-placc, and a statue of Wilberforce, raised on a fluted Doric column SO feet high. It has many benevolent and good educational institutions, a Latin and a medical school, a school of navi- gation, a botanical garden, museum, and several associa- tions fur science and art. Its manufactures arc quite con- siderable, especially of linen and cotton goods, cordage, machinery, chemicals, leather, sugar, and pottery. In its docks, which comprise an area of more than 8"^ acres, much shipbuilding is carried on: in 1S70, 5S4 vessels, of 71,805 tons burden, were owned at Hull. But it is more especially its commerce which gives Hull its great import- ance. Nearly all the traffic between England and Xorthern Europe is carried on through this port. It is connected by regular steamship lines with St. Petersburg, Kiinigsberg, Stettiu, Copenhagen, (Gothenburg, Hamburg, Bremen, Am- sterdam, Ilotterdam, Antwerp, and Havre. Linen and cot- ton goods, hardware, machinery, iron, and coal are ex- ported ; corn, cotton, flax, hemp, timber, and bones are im- ported. In 1871, 3-417 vessels, of 1.1S8,S11 tons, entered the harbor, and 2911, of l,044,loS tous, cleared it. The total value of imports was in the same year £15,076,095; of ex- ports, £27,:i87,07r.. Pop. 84,690 'in 1S51 : 97,661 in 1361: \2?,,\\\ in 1371. Hull, a thriving v. of Ottawa co., Quebec, nearly op- posite the city of Ottawa, with which it is connected by a suspension bridge. It has a very great water-power, and manufactures immense quantities of lumber and some woollen goods, cooperage, axes, etc. There are valuable iron -mines in the vicinity. Pop. of sub-district, 8.318. HuU, a v. of Aviston tp., Clinton co., 111., on the Ohio and Mississippi R. R., 25 miles W. of .Sandoval. Pop. .300. Hull, post-tp. of Plymouth co., Ma^^s., consisting of a peninsula connected with the mainland by a long isthmus called Nantasket Beach. It is 9 miles S. E. of Boston, and is an attractive summer resort. Pop. 261. Hull, tp. of Portage co.. Wis. Pop. 621. Hull (AsBcuv). son of Hope, b. in AVashington, Wilkes CO., Ga., Jan. .30, 1797; graduated at the State University 1814; was for more than forty years secretary and trea- surer of the board of trustees of the same; was often a member of the legislature, and repeatedly Speaker of the House; was a member of the secession convention of 1861, but declined its presidency. He was a man of a high order of talent and spotless purity of character. D. at his resi- dence in Athens Jan. 25, 1866. A. H. STKriiKxs. Hull (Henry), son of Hope, b. in Washington, Wilkes CO., (ia., Oct. 20, 1798; graduated at tho State I'niversity 1815; studied medicine, and rose to distinction in its prac- tice; afterwards was professor of mathematics in his alma mater from 18.30 to 1S46, when he resigned, and has since devoted his time to literary and scientific pursuits. A. H. Stkpiiens. Hull (HoPE),oneof the founders of Methodism in Creor- gia ',son of an Englishman of the same name), b. in Wor- cester CO.. ,Md.. Mar. l:t, I76:i ; moved to Georgia, and es- tablished a high school at Washington in the latter part of the last century. He was a man of great usefulness and distinction in his day, an<l made an impression upon tho times in Georgia that will remain for generations to come. I), near Athens, Ga., Oct. 4, 1818. A. H. Stephens. Hull (Isaac), b. at Derby, Conn., Mar. 9, 1775, the son of a Revolutionary officer; became a mariner, and when nineteen years of ago was master of a merchant ship in the Loudon trade; became lieutenant U. S. na\"y 179S; [ was made first lieutenant of the Constitution frigate ISO! ; distinguished himself by valor and skill againtit the French on the coast of Hayti; served with distinction in the Bar- bary expeditions : sailed from Annapolis in command of \ the Constitution .luly 12, 1812, and for three days was j chased by a British squadron of five ships, from which he ; escaped by bold and ingenious seamanship. On Aug. 19 he cni.'onntered the frigate Guerriere. Capt. I)a<Tes. one of his late pursuers, and fought her for half an hour at close quarters, when she surrendered, but was so much cut up that she had to be burned. For this, the first naval ad- 1 vantage of the war. Hull received a gold medal from Con- gress ; was afterwards made a naval commissioner, and had command of various navy-yards. D. Phila. Feb. 13, 1843. I Hull (Wim.iam), b. at Derby, Conn., June 24, 175.3; ; graduated at Yale 1772; studied divinity one year; went ' to Litchfield Law School, and in 1775 was admitted to the bar; served with distinction throughout the Revolutionary war, in which he rose from the rank of captain to that of I colonel ; became a very successful lawyer of Xewton. Mass. ; was major-general of militia in Shay's insurrection; com- missioner to treat with the Indians of Upper Canada 1793; was very prominent in the public affairs of Massachusetts, , in which State he became a judge of common pleas; gov- ernor of Michigan Territory 1805-14. As brigadier-gen- eral commanding the army of the North-west he surren- dered Detroit to Gen. Brock, for which he was court-mar- tialed, found guilty of cowardice, and sentenced (1814) to I be shot, but was pardoned in consideration of his age and I former services. He published T/ic Campnif/n n/" the North - ' west A rmi/ {IS2 A). D. at Newton. Mass.. Nov. 29, 1825. (Seo his Life, by Maria Campbell and James Freeman Clarke (1848), in which Hull's character is fully vindicated.) Hull (William Hope), son of Asbury, b. in Athens, Ga., Feb. 2, 1820: graduated at tho State University 1838; studied law ; was elected solicitor-general of the western judicial circuit ; held many positions of public trust : was assistant in the U. S. attorney-general's office during Mr. Buchanan's administration. When Georgia passed her ordinance of secession he returned to his native State and resumed his profession. D. in New York City Sept. 13, 1877. A. H. Stephens. HuTlah (John), b. at Worcester, Eng., in 1812; drew general attention in 1836 by his comic opera, The Village Cof/iicttr.s, and began in 1838 to work for the establishment of popular singing schools in England after the French model. Having met with eminent success in this under- taking, he was appointed musical inspector for the United Kingdfim and leader of the orchestra and chorus of tho Royal Academy of Music in Loudon. Hulme'ville, post-v. of Bucks co., Pa., 20 miles from Philadflphia. It contains a school, 2 churches, a large cotton and grist mill, 1 newspaper, 3 building associations and several societies, a steam-laundry, stores, etc. Pop. about 400. William Tilton, Ed. " Hilmeville Beacon." Hulse'ail IjCc'mres,anumberof lectures, not exceed- ing six and not less than four annually, delivered at the University of Cambridge, explanatory of the evidences of Christianity and of the difficultii'S of Scripture. There are also a Hulsean professorship of divinity, a Hulsean prize and scholarships, etc. These were founded by the Rev. John llulse (1708-90) in a will of 200 pages closely writ- ten, with nine codicils. Humane Society (Royal). See Resuscitation, by B. Howard. A. M., M. D. Humanita'rians^aname which sometimes designates that school of Unitarians who consider .Icsus Christ to have been a mere man, without superhuman attributes. It also sometimes designates the professors of the so-called " religiun of humanity."' Ilum'bcr^ the estuary of the Trent and the Ouse, hav- ing its entrance on the E. coast of England, in lat. 53° 3S' N. Its average breadth is between 2 and 3 miles, and it is navigable for the largest vessels up to Hull, 22 miles from its mouth. Humbert'^ prince of Piedmont, crown prince of Italy, b. Mar. 14. 1844. Ho is u good stddier; took part in the wars of 1859 and 1806 ; commanded a division in 1866, and covered the retreat of the Italian army after the battle of Custozza. He is married to the princess Margaret of Savoy. Became king of Italy Jan. 9, 1878. A. Niemann. Ilum'ble-bee, a name common to the hymenopterous insects of the genus liombus, nearly fifty species of which are known to live in North America alone, besides numerous Old World species. The mother-bee hibernates, and in tho spring selects a place for her nest in a wet, mossy place, or in a mouse's nest, or under a stump. She collects pollen, mixes honey with it. laying her eggs in the mass from time to time, and meanwhllo busily adding to her store of food. HUMBOLDT. 1023 From tho egg to the perfect insect the transformatioD is very gradual. The larvie cat out cells in the pollen mass, spiouin;; a tining of i^ilk, which tho oUl hvc furtifies with wax. The y<»uug bocs come I'orth from time to time and add to tho stores. There are many ways, among so many species, of constructing the nest. The males, females, and working hoes appear to live together in harmony. The aggregate number of injects in one community is usually very small as compared with the numl)cr in one swarm of honey-bees. The humble-beo is beset by numerous para- sitic insects. Foxes, skunks, and bears, as well as boys, know well how to extract the sweet treasures of tho humble- beo from the earth ; for, though the sting is severe, most species of hiimblo-bees aro less active in attack or dcfenco than honey-bees, hornets, and yellow wasps. IItim'boIdt,county of thcN. \V. of California, bounded on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. Area, about I'SOO square miles. Its climate is cool and moist, its surface broken, and covered with forests of enormous reclwood and other trees. Cattle, wool, potatoes, lumber, and grain arc staple prod- ucts. Petroleum is found. Cap. Eureka. Pop. 0I4U. Humboldt, county of N. \V. Central Iowa. Area, 4.'i2 square miles. Its surface is varied, its soil ])roduetive and well watered. Coal, iron, gypsum, and limestone arc found. Grain is tho staple agricultural product. It is traversed by tho Dcs Moines Valley U. K. Cap. Dakota. Pop. 2690. Humboldt, county of Nevada, bounded on the N. by Oregon. Area, I0,50U square miles. It contains numliers of lakes and streams having no connection with tho ecji. Most of the surface is arid and broken desert-land, which in some parts yields ]»asturagc. The eounty alTords silver, gold, sulphur, and other minerals. It is traversed by tho ilumbuldt Uiver and the Central Paeilic K. R. Cap. Win- ncniucL-a. Pop. (exclusive of Indians), lUlG. Humboldt, tp. of Coles co.. III. Pop. 2023. Humboldt, tp. and post-v. of Humboldt co.. la., 17 miles \. of Fort Dodge, settled by a colony from Western New York, their original constitution forbidding the exist- ence of either liquor or gaming saloons, which has been ri;;idly enforced to tho present time. It is the seat of llutnboldt College, and has 1 ohureh, 2 mills, 1 newspaper, 1 hotel, stores, shops, etc. The Dcs Moines River fur- nishes ample water-power, not utilized to any extent. The village contains several fine ]»arks. Pop. ;i:i4. Gko. Elliott, Ed. " Kosmos." Humboldt, post-v. and tp. of Allen co., Kan., on the Neoslio Uiver and on the Leavenworth Lawrence and Gal- vestim and tho Missouri Kansas and Texas R. Rs., 80 miles by rail S. of Lawrence. It has a weekly and a monthly periodical, some fine business-houses, a bank, and manu- factures of cigars, etc. The river is crossed here by a bridge. Pop. 1202; of tp. 2035. Humboldt, post-v. of Marquette co., Mich., on tho MarqueUe Ilougnlon and Ontonagon R. R., 27 miles \V. of Marquette, in the iron-region. Humboldt, tp. and post-v. of Richardson co., Neb., on tho AtehiMin and Nebraska 11. R., 21 miles N. AV. of Falls City. Po]). 00.*). ' Humboldt, a station of the Central Pacific R. R., 422 miles N. E. of San Francisco, Cal., is in Humboldt co., Nev. Pop, of Humboldt tp. 136. Humboldt, post-v. of Gibson co., Tenn., 12S miles W. of \ashvilh-, at the crossing of the Mobile and Ohio and Memphis and Louisville K. R^. It contains an Odd Fel- lows' female institute nnd Masonic high school, churches, and sc'veral largo mills and shops. It has 1 newspaper. Pop. about .'UiOO. I). L. Rivkus, En. " Joitiinal." Humboldt, Ip. of Brown co., Wis. Pop, 735. Humboldt, von (FitiBiinicii Hkiniikii Ai.kxandkr). R.UiON, b. Sept. 14. 1703, at Ilerlin, of a wealthy family, received, together with his eldi-r brother, Karl Wilbelm, a most careful education in his home under the direction of his mother, his father having died very early. In 17^7 bo studied at tho University of Frankfort-on-lhe-OdiT, and after spending tho following year in Berlin, occupied in the study of the technology of miinufactures and (he (Jreek lan- guage, he passed two years iit tho University of (iottingen, sturiying philology under Heyne and natural history un- der Blumt'obacb. His first published work, I'vUfi- di>- Hn- Hnll'-„m J!/if:t'n (Berlin. 17110), belongs t() this pcrioil. After n rapid journey through Belgium, Holland. England, and France, in company with George Foster, ho settled for some timo in Hambiirg, studied tlio modern languages with great zeal, and heard lectures on banking and bookkeeping, having determined to devote himself to commorcial pur- suits. His ]iiissiim for slmlios. especially of nature, was too strong, however, and in 171*1 he entered the celebraled mioing school at Freiberg, where bo studied under Woruer and Leopold von Buch, and where he wrote his interesting essay on the Flora Suhferrunen Friberr/eiisin, which ap- peared in 1793. From 17'J2 to 1797 ho occupied a superior position as a mining officer at Bayreuth, at the came time exploring and conducting mines, making observations and experiments in almost every field of natural flcience, study- ing history and philology, making geognostic journeys, filling diplomatic missions, and finishing his great work Uvher dlcycrviztc Mnektl- und Xerven/aacr, tiehst ycrjinit/imt- gcn uhcr den chcmi»chcn Procvun den Lcbens in dcr Tfiier- Hitd PjUinzemvelt (2 vols., Berlin, 1797); which book is still admired, in spite of the subsequent progress of physiologi- cal knowledge, on account of the correctness of its observa- tions, tho ingeniousness of its experiments, and the gen- eral validity of its conclusions. On the death of his mother {in 1797) he determined to gratify his desire and make a scientific journey in the tropical /.ones. He bad prepared himself for the task tlirougb several years. Ik' mastered a great number of living languages; he understood how to use all kinds of scientific instruments; ho was thoroughly familiar with the present state of all branches of natural science; be had a large experience in scientific travellin<»' and in making observations and experiments; he had health and be had money. He first ])lannod a tour to Egypt with Lord Bristol; then he determined to join tho expedition of Baudiu which the Directory of France sent out; then be thought of accompanying the Swedish con- sul, Skjoldebrund. to Tunis; but all the?c plans failed. It was the generosity of the Spanish government which at last brought him to America. On June 5, 1799, he started from Corunna : on Aug. 3, 1804, he returned to Bordenux. He spent tive years in the Spanish colonie9 of (Central and South America, walking, riding on horse- back, sailing, rowing, always carrying along with him a whole caravan with helpers and instruments. Tho world had not seen anything like it since the days when Alexander the Groat fitted out a scientific expedition lor Aristotle. And the results corresjionded to the prepara- tions. Humboldt brought back with him an immense store of the most valuable scientific materials, astronomical de- terminations of localities, barometric measurements, me- tcorologic, climatologic, and magnetic obscrvatifms, maps, profiles of mountains, herbariums, etc. He settled in Paris as tho scientific centre of the world, and. although fre- quently engaged in scientific travels or diplomatic mis- sions, he resided here from LSO.'i to 1827, occupied with the arrangement and publication of his scientific acquisitions, which appeared successively during this period in twenty- nine volumes, written in Frencli and translated into Ger- man, and accompanied by upwards of 2U0U excpiisite illus- trations. The world was astonished. The information was new, exceedingly attractive, ranging over the whole field of natural science; and it was c(*rrect. New ideas wero started, the geography of plants, the isotiiermal lines, etc.; new impulses were received by every branch of sci- ence; nay, an infiuenee was felt even in poetry and art. In 1827 ho removed to Berlin at the solicitation of the king, and resided in his native city for the rest of his life, occupying himself with diplomatic offices of a lighter de- scription and the most severe studies. The two remark- able events of this period of bis life were the Russian expedition to Central Asia and tho ])ublieation of bis Kofimotf. In 1829 the Russian emperor Nicholas fitted out a most magnilicent expedition, which he placed under the direction of Humboldt, and wliich went thruugb Moscow, Kasan,and Tol)olsk to the Atlas lAIounlains and the Chinese frontier, and thence back to the Caspian Sea. The results of tliis journey Humbrddt coiumunieated in his Am'e Cen- trah {.*{ vols., Paris, ISCi). The first volume of A'oxmo^ appeared in IHl.'i; the fourth ami last was not published till after tho death of tho author. May (>, 1859, KtmmuH is Humboldt's chief work, the most perfect and tho most characteristic. It gives a striking and attractive descrip- tion of the numberless varieties of forms which the world contains, but this multitude it gathers under total views, anil represents tho world as one consistent existence; and there is no mysticism or sentimentality in the repnsenta- tion. There is only clear generalization. It is awonderlul book, stupendous in its learning, admirable in its ease. But it is a popular book, rather than a scientific one ; and although we suppose that science is proud of having pro- duced such a work, it occasioned a swarm of imitations whicdi bad better have remained unwritten. There is a peculiarity with Humboldt which posterity must remember in order not to be unjust to him. '* With Iiim ends a groat period in the history cd' science,*' says Agassiz : mid that IS just his peculiarity ; ho was the end of a perioij. not llio beginning. l!o was the plastic, forming power which finishes, not tho weird, breaking force which starts. (Sco Kl.KNKE, Alrxnnder von Ilninhuldt, cin hi*t<fraphischc9 Vaikmal, 18iiU.) Clemens Petersen. 1024 HUMBOLDT, VON— HUME. Huinboldtf von (Karl Wilhelm), Baron, brother of the i>reu('diuj^. b. at l*otsiliim June 22. 1707. After finish- ing his studiL's of philology and philosophy at Giittingcn, be Ii\cd iiltcrnatciy at Erfurt, Weimar, Jena, and Berlin in intimate intercourse with Suhiller, Goethe, F. H. Jacobi, and otlicr celebrities of his time, and on the Thuriugian estates of his wife, the spirited Karoline von Dacheroden, whom he married in I7iH. From 1797 to 1799 he resided with hi;< family in Paris, whence he made a journey into Spain, spending his time partly in literary occupations, poetical and critical, uf a lighter description, partly in jienelrating and exhaustive linguistic studies. In 18U1 ho was appointed Prussian ambassador to the court of Rome, but returned in 1S08 to Berlin as minister of the interior, in which oflice he developed great activity for the reorgan- ieatiou of the Prussian state, more especially for the estab- lishment of the University of Berlin. In 1810 he went as minister plenipotentiary to Vienna, and he played a con- spicuous part in the immense diplomatic stir which accom- panied and followed the fall of Napoleon. He sat at the congresses of Prague, Chatillon, A'icnna, and Aix-Ia-Cha- pcUe ; ho signed the treaty of Paris, and represented Prus- sia in the first German diet. lie was a member of the Prussian council of state up to 1SI9 ; and ho exercised a great and beneficial influence on the development of Ger- man affairs. His influence was preventive, however, rather than productive. As a statesman he possessed great busi- ness capacity, industry, clearness, and tact, and he enter- tained liberal and even largo views ; but he had no inven- tion, hardly any ideas. His noble sentiments made him an ally of everything noble, and the respect which his charac- ter, his connections, and his talents commanded prevented much evil from taking place: but there is hardly anything positive which can be called his work. In general litera- ture he occupied a similar position. He was a man of ex- quisite taste, of warm interest, of ready sympathy, and his correspondence with Schiller, Goethe, and others shows how he brought light and elevation along with him wherever he went. But his poems, his criticisms, his letters, have only historical interest. The influence died out with the man. Not so, however, with his scientific works. His merits in the establishment and development of the science of com- parative philology are lasting as they are great, and his linguistic researches are in many points both ingenious and exhaustive. His principal works in this line are — lien'ch- tiijunffen und Zn»atzc zu AihJnntfH Mifhrtdateg iibcrdie cnn- Utbrische oder bitM/,-i'nche Sprache ( 1817) ; Prli/uiig der Untcr- SHchuuffen iibcr die Vrbcivohner Hinpnnicnit vcrjuittch der haskischeti Sprnchf: (1821) ; Ucber Dnali's (1828) ; Ueher die Vencandtschn/t der Ortnndrrrhieii mit dem Pronomcn (1830); Uebcr die Kntcinprache (lS.'lG-40) ; Vocdbnlairr. in6dit de In langue Tntirtine (1813), etc. This great and even bril- liant scientific activity began after his removal from <ithce. The Prussian king, like t!io other (Jorinan princes, broke the promise of a representative constitution which he had given during the war against Xapoleon. and under the pre- text of putting down dcmagogism he persecuted liberty. Humboldt understood the manoeuvre, and fought against it with all his power. Suddenly (Dec. 31, 1S19) he was dismissed in a signal manner. He afterwards lived on his estate of Tegcl at the Lake of Spandau, where he d. Apr. 8. IS3o. (Sec SCHLESIEU, Eriniicrnngrn an Wilhelm von Jlumboldt, 1846.) Clemens Petkiisen, Iliimboldt River, the longest river of Nevada, rises in Elko CO.. and flows :JS'i miles in a generally S. W. course. Its w.ater8 arc alkaline, being charged with soda. It is nowhere many yards in width, and is generally fordable. Its banks have clumps of willows and other vegetation, and there are some fertile alluvial plains. It finally ends in Humboldt Sink, "a marshy spot in a sandy plain," not really a lake except in high stages of the river. The river is chiefly remarkable as furnishing the only K. and \V. val- ley through this region, while N. and S. valleys are nume- rous. The Central Pacific R. U. follows its valley for many miles. The river-bottoms average a mile in width ; outside of these the land is good, but needs irrigation. Numerous streams approach the Humboldt, but sink after leaving their canons. The Little Humboldt is its largest aflluent. But in high water the Reese River passes its sink and flows into the Humboldt. Some five miles above Humboldt Lake are the " Big Meadows," with an area of 6000 acres, fur- nishing great quantities of hay and some peat. The sink is 3920 feet above the sea-level. Humboldt Wells, tp. of Elko co., Nov., on the Cen- tral Pacilic K. R. (Wells Station), fiG9 miles N. E. of San Francisco. Here are some twenty very deep natural wells of good water, supposed to be of volcanic origin. Silver, lead, and copper ores are found and smelted here. Wood, water, and grass are abundant. Pop. of tp. 42. Ilum'bu^, tp. of Siskiyou co., Cal. Pop. 2Jl. Hume, tp. of Whitesides co., HI, Pop. 676. Hume, tp. of Huron co., Mich., on Lake Huron. P. 475. Hume, tp. and post-v. of Allegany co., N. Y. The township has several villages and very extensive water- power. Pop. of Hume or Cuid Creek v. 254 ; of tp. 1^20. Hume (David), the most noted of modern skeptical philosophers and a distinguished essayist and historian, b. Apr. 20, 1711, at Edinburgh. His father, Joseph Hume (or Home), a member of the Faculty of Advocate.^, and pro- prietor of the estate at Ninewells in the parish of Chirn- side, Berwickshire, died leaving Duvid still an infant. At the age of fifteen Hume entered Edinburgh University, and, although he wa.s intended for the bar. his own inclina- tion was toward literature, his favorite authors being Ci- cero, Virgil, Seneca, and Plutarch. His slender means let! him at the age of twenty-three to enter mercantile life at Bristol, but after some nuuiths he resolved to pursue his literary ])rujeets, and sought cheap living and retirement in France at Rheims and La Fleehe, where he composed his Treatise oji Human Xature, which he published in I73S, after his return to England. ** It fell dead-born from the press," says Hume, "without reaching such distinction as even to e.xcite a murmur among the zealots." In 1741— 12 he published the first part of his Moral and Political Ea- Sfii/f, which were favorably received. In 1744 his reputa- tion for skepticism prevented the success of his application for the chair of moral philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. In 1747 he attended tJen. St. Clair on an em- bassy to Vienna and Turin, where he recast the first part of his Treatine, and yuiblishcd it as an Inquiry concerning the Human Understnndinff. In 17r>l he became librarian of the Advocates' Library in Edinburgh, which position ho held for five years, and. availing himself of its resources, undertook his Hi^tortf of England, publishing the first vol- ume in 175-1, treating the reigns of James I. and Charles I., and bringing much obloquy upon himself fur his leni- ency shown towards Strafford and Charles I. ; but his sub- sequent volumes achieved great popularity for the work. His Political DisconrseSf published in 1752, obtained wide fame on the Continent, and contributed largely to the cre- ation of the science of political economy. His Inquiry concerning the Principles of Morals appeared in 1752. He accepted the carl of Hertford's invitation to attend him on bis embassy to Paris in 1703, and on his arrival was "loaded with civilities" by the nobility, foreign ambassa- dors, the savants, and the royal family. He became inti- mate in the circle of H'Alembert. iMarmontel. Diderot, Du- clos, Helv6tius, Herault, Buffon, Malesherhes, Hoibach,and Turgot, and was the special favorite of the ladies. In 17fi7-G.S he was under-secrctary of state, appointed by Lord Conway, brother of the earl of Hertford, and had charge of Scottish affairs, including the patronage of tbo churches. He resided at Edinburgh, ami was chief of a literary circle including Robertson, Blair, Lord Kames, Adam Ferguson. Adam Smith, and others. Warned by an incurable disease, he wrote his own Life and provided for the publication of his Dialognrs on Natural Jiffigion, a work written in early life, and calmly awaited death, which came Aug. 25, 1770. His philosophy is the completest statement of the ideas that produced the French Revolu- tion, and may be regarded as the culmination of the re- actionary movement towards individualism and naturalism inaugurated in the era of Bacon and Locke, and reaching its di'nt>u> incut in the eighteenth century. It has been the stimulating cause of the notable systems since. Kant con- fessed that " Hume's exception to the idea of causality first interrupted my [Kant's] dogmatic slumber." Hume exposes the basis of his system thus : "All the perceptions of the human mind resolve themselves into two distinct kinds, which I call impn-sKionn and ideas. The difference betwixt them consists in the degrees offeree an'l liveliness with which they strike upon the mind and make their way into our thought and consciousness. Those perceptions which enter with the most force and violence we may name imprcHninns. and under this name include all our sensations, passions, and emotions as they make their first appearance in the soul. By idcng, I mean the faint images of these in thinking and reasoning." Thus, ideas arc copies of im- pressions of individual things, and the phase of universal- ity belonging to them is completely ignored. He consist- ently denies all objective validity to complex ideas, and holds the conceptions of substances, modes, and relations to be fictions of the mind. Hence, " the identity which wo ascribe to the mind of man is only a fictitious one." The complex idea of cause and effect is, as Hume says, "de- rived from experience, which, presenting us with certain objects constantly conjoined with each other, produces such a habit of surveying them in that relation that we cannot, without a senf^ible violence, survey them in any other." Hubit is the sole universality and necessity, ilencc, the HUMERUS— HUMPHREY. 1025 doctrine of an Ahsoluto First Cause is unwarranted in phil- osophy. Pleasure and pain form the basi« of moral prin- ciples. His fiiinems arp;uinent a;:jainst miracles — invented in 1736 at La I'lrfhe to silence a Jesuit who claimed the recent occurrence of miracles at his convent — is this : *' In- variable experience is in favor of the uniformity of nature, while it is not in favor of the infallibility of human testi- mony : hence there is, in all cases, a greater jirobabjlity of the falsity of the testimony as to the occurrence of a mir- acle than of the violation of a law of nature thereby im- plied." (For best sources of information sec the A{/V and Correnpntutenre of David /ftiinr, by JoiIN Hll.l. IJlUToy, 2 vols., Edinburgh, IS 16; also Mi/ Omn Lif'r, in ml. i. /fist, of Kiifj., by I). lIiHK, Boston, 1S30.) Wm, T. Hauuis. Illl'merus, the large cylindrical bone of the upper arm from the shoulder to the elbow, forming at its upper ex- tremity u hemispherical head, which is connected with the scapula and two tuberosities fur the attachment of mus- cle;'. The whole combination of the head of the l)umerus, the scapula, and the clavicle is also called humerus. Humes (Thomas William). S. T. D., b. at Knoxvillc, Tenn., Apr. 22, ISIJ ; graduated in IS-'JO at East Tennessee College (now a university): was rector of St. John's church (Protestant Episcopal) lS16-61and lS6;j-69, aud since I8G5 has been president of East Tennessee University. Author of various published sermons and addresses. II tun in ate Nuns, an order of Benedictine nuns, called also .\uns ol" Blassoili^ from the name of their found- ress. They served as nurses, etc. In 1571 they were sup- pressed by Pius V. for some disorders, but a few convents, greatly decayed, still exist in Italy. Ilumiriatcs (I/Hmiliati), an order of canons and lay brothers following the rule of St. Benedict. They were originally lay brothers of a congregation founded about 113*. In 1151 they were reformed by St. John of Meda, and became in part canons regular of St. Benedict. Iluin'mel i Joiianv Nkpomik ), b. at Presl)urg Xov. 14, 177S; d. at Weimar Oct. 17, 18:{7. His father, a proficient and an orchestra leader, commenced his son's musical ed- ucation by teaching him the violin. But the eliild showed little aptitude, and was thought to have no talent. He was then taught tosingand tophiy the piano, and in these studies his extraordinary gifts soon berame manifest. In one year he acquired a skill that made liim a musical prodigy. The Ilummels removed to Vienna, whore they found iMozart. The talented boy so interested the celebrated man that ho took the lad to his own liouse and gave him lessons, though such work was much against Mozart's taste. At nine years of age he was so much ailmired by all who hearil him that he and his father made a concerting tour through (fernuiny, Den- mark, and Scotland, The years 1791 and 171*2 he passed in liondou, and there studied the pure, methodical style under Clemenli. At tifteen years of ago he returned home, and Bcttlctl down to hard stufly in Vienna under his severe and exacting father, lie afterwards became tlie pupil of Alhreehtsbcrger for harmony, and of Salieri for singing aud the principles of dramatic composition; in 1803 entered the service of Prince Nicholas Eslerhazy. for whom he wrote his first mass, which was well received by Haydn. In iHll he left the Esterhazy service, and for live years gave piano-lessons in Vienna ; in 1816 was appointed chapel-master to the king of Wiirtemberg; in 1820 re- signeil that oflice and became ehapel-master to the grand duke of Saxe-Weimar; in 1822 obtained leave of absence to make a pedestrian tour in Itussia, where he was en- thusiastically received; in 1S23 travelled through Hol- land and Belgium on his way to Paris, where the artistic world showed a wortliy appreciation of his fame and genius. From Paris he returned to Weimar, which ho made his per- manent home. Some altercation had estranged Beethoven from Hummel. In 1827, when Beethoven's illness gave anxiety. Hummel went to Vienna, and Iheir dilTerences were lost in the fullest reconciliation. In 1820 he made asecond visit to Paris, where, six years before, his reception had been one of the most brilliant passages in art; but now his per- formances were a failure. In London his presence was scarcely remarked. One other tour, in Poland, was the last of his wanderings; the rest of his life he passed quietly lit Weimar. In Hummel wore three artists — the performer, the im- proviser, tlie composer — in eoeh respect ho was a genius of liigh order. As a performer he founded a school which is the rneiins liv wliieh most of his n<»ted sueeessors have risen to eminence. His voluminouH Mrthnd for the piano was a new and valuable creation in the field of studv, classifying the dilheullies of fingering and other details of piano practice. The greater volume and sonority atlaine<l liy his successors made Hummel's touch appear weak and t;imc perhiips, but no one surpassed him in jiurity. regu- laritv. and citrreetness of execution, or in <lelioiite shading Vol.. 11.— 6;-. and beauty of phrasing. As an improvisor ho was very remarkable; his inspirations, so regular in form, so finished, yet so fresh an<l full of unexpected fancies, seemed like meditated compositions. As a composer he is not generally appreciated by the public. Had iJeethoven not been his contemporary, ho jtrobably would stand as the first com- poser of his age in instrumental music. In his works nol>le. elegant, and graceful themes are treated with the skill and experience of a consummate master. But the most perfect finish was no match for the passion and power of the unapproachable Beethoven. His most esteemed works are — the Septuor in D minor Top. 74), the (juintct for piano (op. 87), the'cnncerto? in A minor (op. 85), in B minor (op. 80). in E major (op. ] 10), and in A flat major (op. 113), and the grand sonata for piano for four hands (op. 02). He wrote 11 dramatic compositions, including operas, ballets, and cantatas ; 4 compositions for the church ; 2^ instrumental works, including overtures, concerted pieces forthe piano, violin, violoncello; and many sonatas and other compositions for the piano. C. H. FAnsuAM. Hum'melstOAvn, post-b. of Dauphin co.. Pa., 9 miles E. of Harrisburg. on Swatara Creek, the Union Canal, and the Philadelphia anil Reading K. K. ; has fine schools, a weekly newspaper, bank, 4 churches, several mills and machine-shops, brownstone saw-mill, 2 carriage manu- factories, terra-cotta works, hotels, etc. Pop. 837. W. R. IIkndricks. Pl'B. **SUN." Hum'ming'*Bird, the name of many genera of small slender-billed American birds of the family Trochilidae. They arc most numerous in species and individuals near the equator, are very numerous in Mexico, and one species is found northward in summer (^vcn in British America. This species is the TrochiluH colnbrin, the only species often seen in the Northern States. It is known as the ruby- throated humming-bird. In its flight its wings produce that well-known humming sound wiiieh is so characteristic of the family. It h;is been supposed to live entirely upon the honey which it is well known to gather from flowers, but it has been known to swallow spiders and other species, at least, certainly eat small insects. There can, however, be no doubt that the long hill and the slcmier. almost pro- jectile tongue, which is attached to the hyoid bone in a very .singular manner, are especially adapted to the collec- tion of honey from fiowers ; and the siglit of these brilliant little birds darting about from flower to flower with light- ning speed is one we are all familiar with. Its lichen- covered nest, lined with a silky fibre, is a wonderfully neat structure. In the far North-west the .Sr/anph<>nin ru/H»t, a very brilliant red species, appears to replace the foregoing. To enumerate even the genera of the humming-birds would bo tedious. There are some 400 species. Of these only eight or ten are ever found in the U. S. The largest known species ( Ift/lDrhan'n (ji(iam, eight inches long) and the small- est {MelUcaija nnnima, whose body is barely one and a quarter inches long) are both tropical. Illimp'bnck Whale, a name given hy sailors to those fin-backed whah-s ( I'aheiiopterida?) which have the dorsal ^\n represente<I by a hump or bunch, genernlly about tho size of a man's head. They form a group, Megapterinie, comprising three genera, M'-'fipdra, J'neHropiti. aud Efch- richtiuH. One of the best known is Merfaptera longhnana, calleil Johnston's bumpb.aek, found in the North Atlantic and Arctic waters. It is fierce and dangerous, but is killed for its oil, which is worth nearly as much as sperm oil. The baleen is short and poor. II 11 in 'phrcy, post -t p. of Cattaraugus CO., N. Y. P. IOCS. Ililinphrry, tp, of Darlington co., S. C. Pop. 896. Iliiinplirey (Edward PouTnit). D. I)., LI,.!)., oldest son ol Hemau, noticed below, b. at Fairfield, Conn., Feb. 10, 1808; graduated at Amherst in 1828, and at Andover in 1833; was tutor at Amherst 1832-33; Irom 183:1 to 1835 f)reached at Jeffersonville, Ind.; was pastor of Second Pres- lyterian church in Ijouisville. Ky., 1835-53; was professor of ecclesiastical history in l>anville( Ky.) Theological Semi- nary 1853-66; and in 1866 took charge of Crtllege street church in Louisville. He has published numerous dis- courses and rf.'vievv articles. Although lining at the South during the war, ho was loyal to tho Vnion. and bore an im- portant |)art in the reunion of the two branches (Old an<l New School I of the Presbyterian Church. W. S. Tvlkk. Illlinphrry ( Hkman). D. D., b. in West Simshury, Hart- ford CO., Conn., Mar. 26, 1779 : graduated at Yale College in 1S05. He was pnslc)r of the Congregational church in Fairfield. Conn., ten years; pastor of the church in Pitts- field, Mass., five years; and jiresident of Amherst Col- lege twenty-three years (1823—15). Taking charge of that institution in its infancy, ho c*)nlributed largely to its growth ami prosperity, aud impressed upon it much of hia own character. \i tho aamo time ho exerted a leading in- 1026 HUMPHREY— HUMUS. fluence in the Congrcgationnl and Presbyterian churches, and iu the revivals, missions, and national religious soci- eties which had their origin in his day. He wrote often for the religious uewspapers and journals, particularly Thr l>iin<:liliKl. Till- ChrixliiinS/iecliilor.aml The Srw Yuri; OliMi-riT. He gave to the jiuhlic some twenty-live or thirty sermons and addresses on special occasions, ami left, besides, piililished works to the number of eleven volumes. Among the pamphlets, the most celebrated was his /'(iir/Z/c/ AWirr.il liilrmpcraiice itiiri the S/fiiv- Trade, which, while it struck a heavy blow at intemperance, was a scarcely less formiilalde indictment of slavery. Of his books, the 7"iir ill France, Ureut Jlrilain, and Uel;filim, in 2 vols., has had the widest circulation. Dr. Humphrey's accurate observa- tion, practical wisdom, and racv style all appear to advan- tage in this work. D. at Pi'ttsticld Apr. :5. ISGl. (Sec IllsUiry of Amherst Cnllciie, by the author of this sketch, and Mriiiiirlal Sketcliea n'f llemiin and Siiphia Hiimphrci/, by Z. M. HiMPHnEV and'll. Neii.l.) W. S. Tvlkh. Humphrey (.Iames). a son of Dr. Heman Humphrey, b. at Fiiirlicld, Conn.. Oct. 9. 1811 ; graduated at Amherst in ISIil ; became a lawyer of Louisville, Ky. (where he re- sided but one year), and of New York. He was (l,S:)S-riO and isivt-lifi) a member of Congress from Xcw York. D. at lirooklyn, N. Y., June 16, 1S66. W. S. Tvler. Humphrey (Zei'Iianiaii Moore), D. D., fifth son of Dr. Heman Humphrey, b. at Amherst, Jlass.. Aug. 311, 1824 ; graduated at Amherst College 184:1. and at .'Vndover Theological Seminary ls4lt ; a popular preacher and pastor of churches at Racine anil Milwaukee. Wis., 1850-59; of First Presbyterian church, Chicago, 1S59-6S; of Calvary Presbyleri:in church. Philadelphia, lSI)8-"a; is now pro- fessor" of ecclesiastical history and eliurch polity at Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, 0. ; was connected with the New School branch of the Presbyterian Church before the reunion of 1SI\9 ; contributed his influence to the re- union, and was elected moderator of the reunited Church at Chicago in 1871. Hum'phreys, county of N. W. Central Tennessee. Area, 5ill square miles. It has the Tennessee Kiver for its western Ijouudary. and is traversed by the Nashville and North-western K. R. It is a fertile and undulating region. Cattle, corn, and tobacco are staple products. Cap. Wav- erly. Pop. 9320. Hum'phreys (.\NnnFw .\TKt\soN). LL.D.. b. at Phila- delphia, Pa.. Nov. 2. 1810: graduated at the U.S. Military Academy, and appointed second lieutcn.ant of artillery .luly 1, 1S:',1 ;'began his military career with a season of garrison duty at Tort Moultrie, S. C. : thereafter employed on varied service, including a period in the Cherokee Nation and an eight miinlhs' active campaign in Florida, participating in several actions against the Seminides. until Sept., 18110, when he resigned his commission. Returned to the service of the government as civil engineer the following year, when his health was restored, and reappointed in the army July 7, 18:!8, as first lieutenant topographical engineers ; promoted to be captain 1848, major Aug., 18C1, serving during this time on harlior improvements; again actively engaged for eight months in Florida war, and for five years (1844-49) in''charSc of the Coast Survey ofliceat Washington. In Nov., 1850, he commenced the topographic and hydrographio survey of the delta of the Mississippi, directed l>y Congress for tlie purpose of determining the most practicable plan for securing it from inundation, as well as for deepening the channels of the river. Compelled by sickness in 1851 to reliniiuish charge of this work, ho visited Kurnpe, and from a |iersonal examination of its river-deltas informed himself of the knowledge there acfpiired by the experience of centuries as to methods of protection against inundation. Returning in 1854, he was assigned to special service to de- termine the most practicable and economical route for a rail- roail from the Mississipjii River to the Pacific Ocean, upon which he continued until 1801, meanwhile serving on the lighthouse board and on various commissinns. anil in 1857 resumed the survey of the delta of the Mississippi, which shortly after his retirement from the work in 1851 had been discontinued, Lieut. Abbot being assigned to personal direction of the work. The valuable report upon Iho Physics and Hvdraulics of the Mississippi Kiver was sub- mitted in Aug.i 1801, having been hastened to a close by the outbreak of civil war. In Dec., 1861. Humphreys, now major, was assigned to duty on the stafl' of Gen. McClellan, and upon the transfer of the Army of the Potomac to the Virginia Peninsula was apjioiuted its chief topographi- cal engineer, serving as such throughout the campaign having been promoted, however, to be colonel. A. A. D. C, Mar., and brigadier-general of volunteers Apr., 1862. Upon the return of Gen. McClellan to the command of the Army of the Potomac. Gen. Humphreys was (Sept. l.'l. 1862) as- signed to oommand a division of new troops attached to the 5th corps as .Sd division, and followed the army, mak- ing a night-march of 20 miles from Monoeacy Bridge, join- ing it at Antictamon the morning of Sept. 18 ; made recon- naissance from Sharpsburg to Lectown Oct. 16-17 ; engaged at Fredericksburg. Dec, 1802. the battle closing with the as- sault of bis division on the " stone wall " at Marye Heights; iu command of his division at Chancellorsville, the time of service of which expiring soon after, bo was (May 20) as- signed to the 2d division :iil corps, which he commanded with great ability at Gettysburg, extricating it from its per- ilous position, tliough wiih great loss; on July 8 was pro- moted to be m.ajor-general of volunteers and appointed chief of staB' to the commanding general Army of the Po- tomac, which important and responsible duty he performeil wilh great credit until assigned to the command of the 2il army corps, Nov. 25. 1804. a period when, though the close was nigh, much hard fighting remained to bo done. In the stirring events before Petersburg and subsequent pursuit of the Confederate army the 2d corps continued to bear an important part, up to tiic final action at Farmvillc Apr. 7, its commander winning the brevet of major-general U. S. A. for Sailor's Creek. Apr. 0, 1805. Continued in the volunteer service until Aug. .SI, 1806, during the first half of the year engaged on plans for the relief of the alluvial region of the Mississippi from inundation: Aug. 8, 1800, appointed chief of engineers, V. S. army, with the rank of brigadier- general, which position he stiil retains (1875). In addition to the high duties of his office has served on the light- house board and on various commissions coneerning im- portant engineering works. Is also member of various American and foreign scientific societies. G. C. SiMMOxs. Humphreys (DAVin), LL.D.. h. at Derby, Conn., in 1752: entered the ormy as a captain at the beginning of the Revolutionary war; was appointed aide-de-camp to AVashington in 1780 ; accompanied Jefferson to France in 1780 as secretary of legation: went in 1794 to Lisbon, and in 1797 to Madrid, as ambassador, and returned to America in 1802. He was one of the first to introduce merino sheep to this country, and established a large woollen and cotton factory in Derby. During the war of 1812 he commanded the militia of Connecticut, and d. at New Haven Feb. 21, 1818. While residing at Hartford ( 1780-SS) he published, together with Hopkins. Barlow, and Trumbull, tho .Aiuir- cliiad. The most prominent of his other poems arc In Addremi to the Avmiea of the U.S. (1782i, The Future lllori/ of the U. S.. The Lore of Country, and The Death of II ii«A- iiK/iou. He also wrote a I.U'e of Pnluam in 1 79S. His works were collected and published in New York in 1790 and 1804. Humphreys (Henry Noel), b. at Birmingham in 1810 : resided for several years on the Continent, especial- ly in Rome: and puidisbed in 1840 his first work, the de- scriptions to W. B. Cooke's VIeien in Home. Together wilh I. O. Westwood. he published in the same year Driiiih TlullerlheH. and their Trannformaliinm and BriHnh Moths, and their Transformations. 'Among bis other publications arc— .-lii.iViit Coins and Medals iu 1850, The Coiuage of the British Fmplrc in 1854, and a number of anonymous novels. Hum'phry ( Wim.iam Gii.son), M. A., b. in 1815 ; grad- uated in 1837 at Cambridge : was Hulse.an lecturer at that university in 1849-50; and was nomin.atcd vicar to St. Martin-in-thc-Fields. London, 1855. His Ilulscan lectures were on The Doelrinc of a Future Slate and The Early Proj- ress of the Gospel. He has also written A Commcntar;/ on the n'ool- of the Arts of the Apostles, The Character of Si. Paul iu 1858, Thcophiliu of Anlioch, etc. Hu'mus T'^er. ITnmin: Fr. huinine; from Lat. hwnus, "moist earlli" (soil)]: Iluiiiii- .Vcid \Gkv. flumlnsUurc; Fr. aeide /iiimiV/ii.-j ; lUmine [Ger. Flmin ; Fr. viminc; from Lat. ulmus, the "elm tree"]: lUmic Acid (Ger. UlminsUurc; Ft. acidc ,<lm!,,ue] : IJeiC .Vcid [tier, (iein- sUnre: Fr. «cirf<- flcii/nr: from Gr. ri or r.a. tlic "earth ] j Crcnic and Apocrenic Acids [Ger. Qnellsaure and Qiiellsah.siiure : Fr. arides e,-,-,i/./.lc and ajMcrenyiue^ ; from Gr. Kpiji'i. a ••well" or ••spring"); l\itrohnmic Acids, Silico-nitrohumic Compounds, I'eat, etc. Tins large class of substances — comprising the proximate or more immediate products of decay, fermentation, and ero- macausis of plant-tissues, under subacrial or subaqueous agencies, or both— presents great' chemical difficulties in its exact investigation. It has therefore, notwilhstauding its essential import.ancc in connection with several sciences ,„„1 arts — including (dant physiology, plant nutritiori, chemical geology, ogrieulture. watcr-supjdy, etc.- received, so far. the attention of but few chemists. Fortunately, these few include some of the greatest and most reliable names, such as Berzclius. Mulder. Bcrlhclot, Paul Tbi'nard, etc. : so that our knowledge, imperfect and incomplcic as it is. has especial value. The ulmic and humic subslances found in soil and vegetable ••mould," rotten wood, peat, etc. were chiefly investigated by Mulder about 1.840- -45; HUMUS. 1027 the cronic and npocrenic compounds l)y Berzclius about the same period, and later also by Mulder; while the highly imporiant relatiuii? of the huinic suhslances to silica were aunounccd only five years since by Paul Th6nard, and arc but obscurely Ivnuwn. Ulmiiir. — This is the name j»iven by Mulder to that por- tion of brown decaying or decayed vegetable matter, such as rotten wood. peat, etc., which is insoluble in water, adds, and alkalies. The name uimfne originated with Klaproth, who applied it to what was probably n gun-.my exudation friini an idm tree. The propriety of its use here is not evi- dent. Mulder found also that canc-sugur, when boiled with acids, air being absent, yielded brown substances so similar in composition and chemical characters that he prepared mitst of his ulmino and ulmic acid for investiga- tion in this way. Mulder's analyses of ulmine, both from peat and from sugar, yielded him the formula (now nota- tion) ('-.•oHigO;: which it will be useful to us to reduce to nn expression ** isologous " (having the same carbon-num- ber) with those now most commonly in use for cellulose, the proximate plnnt-constitucnt from which natural ul- mine is generally, or at least chiefly, formed — and for su- crose. Sucrose (cane-sugar) Ci^HcsOn. Cellulose riiyijoOio. XTlminc rjslIsGOi.s. " There seems small ])robability that this so called ulmine is composed of a single definite compound, and it is doubt- less a mixture of two or more. The illustrious Itcrthclot ]>ublished in ISOO some curious experiments with Mulder's ulmine from sugar, consisting in the application thereto of his new synthetic method of hi/ilrnf/runtinn, by heating to 27.*° C, underpressure, with concentrated bydriodic acid. {linllctin dc In Soci/^f^ Ch!- mirjne df /*ori>, Apr.. ISfiO, p. 2^\.) The ulmino was changed almost entirely into liquid hydrocarbons, from which he obtained, by fractional distillation, the principal one. boiling at about 200°, which gave him the composition CttHsfi. He calls it hi/drtirrt '»/ tfiiodcr'/lcnc. This is evi- dently a saturated hydrocarbon, homologous with marsh- gas. CnHjn^?. Like the parafhnes and other pctroleum- hydnM-arlnms. he found it to be indiflVrent to the action of the most powerful reagents. These facts have an obvious bearing on tho true theory of petroleum-genesis. Uftnic Acid, — This is tho portion of brown peat, rotten wood, sugar rotted by hot acids, etc. which is soluble in alkalies. Mulder's formula, amended, is CjoiruOa, or re- ducing, as before, to an isologuo of cellulose. Ci^IIt 40^6. This is much more likely to bo a definite compound than ulmine, and it will bo observed that it difTers from cellulose by not very far from HIIjO, which difTerencc. if exact, would give for ulmic acid (doubling tho formula) CimIIicOs, anil would make the action of tlio acid one of simple de- hydration, as usual. Another ehomist, namoil Ph-in. has pjnce made analyses of ulmine and ulmic acid, and claims that they are isomeric, both eorrespon<ling to C-nUtH^^g. Ulmic acid, precipitated from alkaline solutions by a min- eral acid, is a brownish jelly, which, as soon as the precip- itating acid is washed out, begins to dissolve in the wash- water. Its perfect S'dubility in pure water and in alkalies is partly impaired by strong desiccation, ulmino being probably formed. Nitric acid converts it into formic and oxalic acids, and into nporretiatc of ammonia. Concen- trated muriatic acirl, without access of air. converts it into olminc. A nnmbrr of tdmnfrg were described by Mulder. HumuH or //iimitir. — Mulder makes this to be a jiroduct of oxidation of ulmine, with separation of water. His derivation of humino from ulmine may be thus expressed : Ci^HfteOij t- Oort-0.:tH20=»C,2no04.5 = humino. Hu- minc is also obtained directly from sugar by long boiling with aeids in tho presence of air, and dissolving out tlio ulmic and humie acids formed from tho huniine by an al- kali. It is eonvortod by strong alkalies into humic acid. liumir Acid ( ('12H7 2'^3fi*. — Black peat contains humic acid in combination with ammonia, a compound so strong lliat boiling with soilic carbonate will not decompose it, but only dissolve it to a double humato of soda and am- monia. Potash expels the ammonia, but with destruction of the humic acid. MuMor appears to have obtained pure humic acid only artifiri:i|Iy, h\ Inntr bnilinu of sug:ir S parts, sulphuric moriohydrate 2, and water 20, disi^olving tho dark-brown produet in potash, and precipitating with muriatic acirl— a brownish-blaek slimy mass, which when dry is insolubh- in water, black, jet-like, amorphous, taste- less, and inodorous. Nitric acid etrnverts it into apocrenate of ammonia, with formation of formic and oxalio acids. Concentrated sulphuric acid, without air, forms a now black substance of curious properties, not named by Mul- der. Mulder makes tho remarkablp statement that this liumie acid, wholly fri'o from nitrogen, exposed in a moist pla'-o fr.r «\x months to tho air. is then foimd to contain considerable ammonia; inferring that during its oxidation the aerial nitrogen is caused to combine with the hydro- gen of the humic acid, and presumably also that in soils this same process of ammonia-genesis must proceed by virtue of their contained humic acid. Iloussin^ault's ex- periments have appeared to disprove this ; but F. H. Storer has shown ( liiif/rtin 0/ thf liuHnrif Af/riruftnral IiiHtiftition, 1874, pp. 2G2-2riS) that Boussingault's experiments were not conclusive, and has reopened a number of questions connected with this subject ; insomuch that a re-examina- tion of the original rest-arches of Mulder seems desirable. Mulder found rotten willow-wood to be composed, in part, of humate of ammonia, evolving ammonia with potn?h. In black garden-mould humic acid exists also as humate of ammonia, with crenic and apocrenic salts, and is difficult to isolate. From such soils Mulder obtained his </eicac!d, which he makes to be Ci2^h.i^*.i' Crenic and Aporretn'c Arida. — Berzelius discovered these two compounds together in a mineral uprivff in Sweden, whence these names. They arc now known t*) be eommon products of vegetable decay. Mulder first found them in soils, as above statecl. They are also found in some iron ochres and bog ores ; and Berzelius recommends their preparation from these latter by boiling with potash, add- ing acetic acid and acetate of copper, which precipitates brown apocren.ate of copper. On filtering, saturating with carbonate of ammonia, and adding cupric acetate again in excess, the greenish-white crcnate of copper goes down completely on warming. For the composition of these acids Berzclius's analyses afford Crenic acid CjiHsoOig. Apocrenic acid Cj^HuOig. Mulder states that they cannot be obtained wholly free from ammonia. Crenic acid, isolated from the cupric crc- nate by sulphohydric acid, and dried, forms a hard, trans- parent, yellowish, amorphous, inodorous mass, of acid and astringent taste, solublo in all proportions in water and alco- hol. Its aqueous solution absorbs oxygen, producing apo- crenic acid; dissolves in eold nitric acid without reaction, and is apparently not much acted on by the hoifiti^ acid. Apocrenic acid is dark in color, dissolves with brown color in water, also in aloohol, not in other; has an acid reaction on litmus, but its taste is astringent, like tannin, and not sour. Sal-ammr)niac and murintir acid both precipitate it from aqueous solution as dark -brown flocks. A recent experimenter. M. W. Detmcr. reports that ho could not accomplish the absorption by the roots of plants, or by a seawood, of solutions of humic acid or of soluble huniates, but that crenic acid, on the contrary, was readily absorbed. Ho attributes this to the possession, by the humic compounds, of a coffoid nature; and he concludes that humic matters in the soil must pass by oxidation into crenntes and n(poorenatcs before nourishing plants. Ac- c«»rding to a very ])Ossible hy])Othrsis, however, these humus- matters merely act as ammonia-providers for the roots, without any absorption thereinto on their own part, but by forming ammonia from tho air. If this bo their function, their incapacity of absorption by the roots becomes merely a provision to secure their continuance of action. Jfunn'r ^fnftrrH and SHira.—Jn 1S70, M. Paul ThC-nard made a communication to the French Academy of Sciences of a merely preliminary kind, which appears to promise an era in the history of this subject, although it appears to have awakened little attentirm. ( Coinptrt licndnn, vol. Ixx. p. 1II2.) Ho claimed to have discovored that by certain modes of fixing ammonia in humic compounrls by substi- tution (as in tho formation of ethylamino, for example), he had formed at least four new compounds of the humic type which had tho power to dissolve groat quantities of silica. These bodies possess a remarkable (ixity, not completely losing their nitrogen at temperatures between 1000° and 1200° C. These new compounds, which he calls nitro-humic acids {aciden uzhnmiffUfA, contain from 7.5 to 24 per cent, of nitrogen, and the proporti()ns of silica which they are oble to take up nrc proportional to these numbers. There are thus formed new acids, which he calls silico-nitrohumio {Hi/icn-azhuini«fu^n) acids. Ills nitrohumio acids exist nat- urally in small proportion in soils. In his brief discus- sion of the subject ho maintains that the silica which is always found in solution in the colored li(|nids that leach from soils (as had been shown analytically by MM. Verdcil and Kisler) has entered into solution in the form of his silieo-nitrohumic aeids; also distinctly favoring tho view that the tiitrnf/rn uf thr nir enicrs here into the process for the behoof of vegetation. prat. — It is manifest that the above facts have an inti- mate bearing upon the origin, history, composition, nature and properties of the common material known by this name, peat, aecording to the cirenmstances of its formatitm or subsequent exposure to aerial oxidation, will contain either ulmic or humic compounds, or both, in admixture with 1028 HUNDRED— HUNGARY. more or less of unaUe:cJ cellulose. These compounds will contain more or loss ainiuonia already in combination — even if the ammonia-making power be denied lo it — and hence should have ils value, greater or less, as an agricul- tural agent. The discussion of peat as a fuel, the condi- tions of it.s growth and formation, with otlu-r points relat- ing to peat, will be elsewhere treated of. IIknuv Wl'Iitz. Hun'dred [perhaps because originally supposed to con- tain a hundred families], a division of many English coun- ties, is stated to have been first made by King Alfred. Some of the counties have no hundreds, but have wapen- tnkes. wards, or other similar di\'isi<ins. The counties of Delaware are likewise divided into humireds. Huner'ic ['Ovtupixo^], the second king of the Vandalic empire in Africa, reigned from 477 to 4M a. n. He was a son of Gcnseric, and married to a daughter of the emperor Valentiuian. lie was cruel and cowardly, and became most noted for the persecutions which he raised against the or- thodox Christians. Iluiifarvy (Pal), b. Mar. 12, 1810, at Nagy-Pzalok, in Hungary: studied law ; was appointed professor in juris- prudence in 1S!2 at the academy of Kasmark ; sat in the Hungarian diet 1818-49, and has lived since in Pcsth. By his philological and ethnological researches he has defined the position of the Hungarian language in the Uro-AUaic family, and explained its relations to the Finnish and Turkish. In ISJG he founded Ma(ji/ar A't/ch-i-szrf, a period- ical for the Hungarian language, in Peslh ; in 18(il he gave a Cfnestontathiii Fonu'rii. — His brother, Janos Hl'NFALVY, b. at Gross-Schlagcudorf June 8. 1820. became professor of sta- tistics and history at Kasmark in lS4fi : took part in the Hun- garian rising in 184S, and lives since 1S5.S in Buda as pro- fessor of history at the Polytechnic School. He has written a Uiiicei-Htil History (1862), a Geography of Hungary {Z vols., 1803-66). etc. Hunga'rian Grass, an annual grass much sown as a forage-plant, is merely a variety of Sctaria Germanica, the common millet. It is valuable for its quick, luxuriant growth on even poor soils, and is much relished by horses and cattle; but if overfed it appears to act as a diuretic, and is hence by many considered injurious to horses. If fed in reasonable quantity, it is very nutritious and quite harmless. It gives a good weight of excellent hay. Huu'gary, in the wider sense of the word, meaning the countries of the Hungarian crown, consists of Hungary proper, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slavonia, and com- prises an area of 98,717 square miles, with a population of 15.609,45a, It forms an independent state, the kingdom of Hungary, and constitutes one part of the Austrian em- pire, the Transleithan kingdom, being connected with tho German and t^lavic countries, which form the other, the Cisleithan j)art of the empire, by a common dynasty, a common army and navy, and a common representation in foreign countries. The emperor of Austria bears the title of king of Hungary, and governs tho kingdom of Hungary by a responsible ministry and a diet, which assembles an- nually and consists of 47.3 members, of whom 369 are re- turned from Hungary proper, 96 from Transylvania, and 18 from Croatia and Slavonia. Hungary, in tho narrower sense of the word, meaning Hungary proper, comprises an area of 68.583 square miles, with 1 1,630,397 inhabitants, of whom, with respect to races, 4.950,000 are Magyars. 2,:>&0,000 ^Slavi, 1,470,000 Rou- manians, 1,430,000 Germans, and tho rest belonging to other different nationalities; and with respect to religion, 6,933,813 are Roman Catholics, 2,607.983 Protestants, 2,395,81 8 belong to the Greek Church, and 51 7,338 arc Jews. The surface of the country presents a vast plain sloping down from tho Carpathian Mountains, which form tho northern boundary, and the Alps, which cover the southern frontier districts towards tho Danube, which, with its pow- erful affluents, the Theiss, the Drave, and the Save, trav- erses it and drains tho soil. The soil of this plain is in some places sandy, almost desert-like, in others, especially along the Theiss, swampy and marshy, but generally it is extremely fertile, and by tho raj)id progress of agriculture the unproduc'.ive portions of the soil arc annually dimin- ished. Tho climate has also its drawbacks. Tho winters are often severe and protracted; the summers are often very hot, and droughts and destructive hailstorms are not unfrequent. But in gener.al it is agreeable, healthful, and favorable to agricultural pursuits. Of the soil, one-third is covered with splendid oak forests, in which large flocks of Bwine are fed, and which literally swarm with jiheasants, partridges, deer, slags, wild-boars, and wolves. Another third is under tillage, and although agriculture, in spite of recent progress, is still in a backward state, between 60.000,000 and 70.000,000 bushels of wheat of first quality are annually raised over the demand for home consumption. The remaining portion is partly occupied by meadows, where large herds of cattle, sheep, and horses of superior quality are reared, partly by gardens, orchards, and fields uf llax and hemp, and partly by vineyards, which produce the tiacst wines and in sufficient quantity to supply the half of Europe. No less abundant is the mineral wealth of the country. The supply of rock-salt is inexhaustible ; and of other useful minerals there were produced in 1858, 44,000 ounces of gold, 48,000 ounces of silver, 6300 cwts. of quick- silver, 27,000 cwts. of lead, 36.760 cwts. of copper, 1,676.000 cwts. of iron, and over 7,000,000 cwts. of coal. What Hun- gary lacks to beconu) one of the richest countries in the world are, first, the tools of modern civilization — namely, associations to create capital, machinery to cheapen pro- duction, and railways to carry the products into the mar- ket — and then a little more of that spirit which understands how to use these tools, a little more of that modern spirit which prefers the bustle and energy of enterprise to the half-dreamy enchantment of the imagination. Hungary is inhabited by several distinct races speaking several distinct languages, but the predominant race is the Magyar, a high-sj)iritcd, proud, and generous people, richly gifted in every respect, in body strong, mentally bright, and possessed of an inexhaustible energy. They came into Hungary at the close of the ninth century. The country had been a Roman possession, forming parts of the two provinces of Pannonia and Dacia. After the fall of the Roman empire it was overrun by different nations, among which the Huns and the Avars sustained themselves on the soil for the longest period, and are supposed to have given the country its name. At the close of the ninth cen- tury it was divided into many small kingdoms, and Wal- lachs, Bulgarians, and (iermans formed a large portion of the population. The Magyars are a Turanian per.ple, allied to the Turks and to the Finns. For a long time they dwelt first in Caucasus, and then in the region between tho Don and the Dniester, but in 887 they descended under Arpad into the plain of the Danube, and after ten years' fighting they conquered tho country and ruled from tho summits of the Carpathian Mountains to the foot of tho Styrian Alps. Their history falls into three periods — under tho dynasty of the Arpads to 1301; under tho elective mon- archy from 1301 to 1526, and under the dynasty of the house of Hapsburg from 1526 to our time — but during its whole course, and in spite of the many splendid deeds and great achievements which it contains, its general character throughout is a peculiar backwardness, tending either to enslave the nation by indolence or to break it into fac- tions. The most remarkable of tho Arpad dynasty was Stephen I., from 997 to 1U3S. He was crowned by Pope Sylvester II. in 1000 as king of Hungary, and received tho title of "His Apostolic JIajesty " (which since that time has been the title of the Hungarian kings) as a reward for his exertions in Lehalf of the Church. Under him Chris- tianity was established among the people, tho country was divided into bishoprics, and schools were founded for clas- sical and theological learning. But it was also under him that Latin became not only the official langunge of the Hungarian government, but also tho only acknowledged vehicle of Hungarian civilization ; and this ])itiful mistake, this great calamity, stood unremedied for nearly 800 years, and affected tho people like a somniferous potion. During the next period the elements of faction were grafted on the nation. Of all forms of government, the elective mon- archy is the worst. People think it a privilege to choose for their king him whom they like. But that privilege is a curse. If a king were elected only for a limited time, the election would be a privilege, for then it would be possible for those interests which were defeated at tho election to live and work on as a party. But as soon as the king is elected for life the party, defeated at the election, immedi- ately becomes a faction. Furthermore, the elective monarchy gave the Hungarian nubility an opi)ortunity of carrying changes into the constitution of the country which made it possible for them to depress the peasantry into serfdom, and prevent the formation of a powerful third estate living independent in the cities; and the nobility did not for- get to utilize the op])ortunity. The most backward period, however, is that under the government of the house of Haps- burg. Twice the Hungarians saved this house from utter ruin — first, under Maria Thorrsa, when all Kurope felt a desiro to divide her dominions ; and a second time, under Francis, when Napoleon hesitated whether he would let this family cease to reign, or whether he would marry one of its daugh- ters. But this fidelity has more than once been rewarded with infamous treachery. Up to the days of the present em- peror it was always thn policy of Austria to try to dissolve the Hungarian constitution, and recast the Hungarian nation in German moulds. Tho effect of thispolicy wasjust opposite to what was intended: it brought the different estates of the Hungarian people, the haughty nobility and the poor serfs, nearer together, and that political movement in modern HUNUARY. 1029 civilization which demands equal participation in tho gov- ernment for all citizens of the state, equal taxation of all tho members of the society, equal nckuowlcdgment ot all religious denominations, and absolute abrogation of all privileges and monopolies, was in Hungary brought about by tho nobilitv itself. A constitution dictated by this spirit, abolishing feudality, enacting a new election law, and pro- claiming the liberty of the press, was sanctioned by the diet an 1 by the Austrian crapernr in 184?, but at the very same lime'thc Austrian government in Vienna began agi- tatin". through its agents, the German, tJlavic. and Kou- manian races living in Hungary, against the Magyars, and it succeeded in creating such an uproar and confusion in tho country that the abrogation of the free constitution by Russian arms and tho establishment of an unmixed despot- ism seemed the only means by « bich to procure order. The relations between llungary and Austria were very near an open rupture when the revolution of Feb., 1818. broke out in Paris, and occasioned a similar rising in Vienna. On Mar. 13, Prince Mctternich fell, and with hiin the old re- gime. The emperor Ferdinand acceded in principle to all the demands of the llungurians. An independent Hun- garian ministry was formed under the presidency of Count Batthyiinvi; Kossuth and Ueak were among its members, and the Diet of Presburg dissolved after sanctioning the necessary measures for tho convocation of a national as- sembly at Pestb in .July. It can hardly be doubled, how- ever, that the Austrian government began to undermine this agreement almost from the very moment it made it. The Slavonian, Itoumauian, and German parts of tho popula- tion of Hungary were jealous of the predominance of the Magyars. The Germans and .Slavonians of Hungary proper protested against the separaticm from Austria, and Tran- sylvania and Croatia demanded the same independence of liie lluiigiirian crown as Hungary of the Austrian. This mnvement was stirred up by secret emissaries from Vienna, and in some cases — as, for instance, in the election of Jel- hu-hich as ban of Croatia, and his defiant opposition to the Hungarian government — it was openly encouraged. Soon a war of races bndic out with fury within the boun- daries of ilungary. The national assembly convened in July, and, fired by the eloquence of Kossuth, it promptly agreed on measures for the suppression of the Slavonian rebellion: 42,0110, UOO florins were granted, 200,000 troops were levied, tho Honviids were formed, the fortresses equipped, cic. But from this time tho central government at Vienna made greater and greater difficulties. It de- clared a separation between Hungary and Austria in mili- tary and financial respeels an impossibility, and it con- tinued to employ the Hungarian troops for tho suppression of tho insurrection in its Italian ]irovinces. At last it plainly refused to sanction the measures of the national assembly, and .lellachich crossed the Drave. In Septem- ber the cabinet of DatthySnyi resigned, and a coniinittce of defence under tho presidency of Kossuth was formed. A vigorous resistance against the Slavonians on the one siile and the central Austrian government on tho other was organized; Jellachich was defeated; anil when a new ris- ing took place in October at Vienna, the Hungarian cause seemed to have won. IJut in December the emperor Fer- dinand abdicated: Francis .Joseph acceded to the throne; the Austrian arms were successful in Lombardy ; and in the spring of ISI'.t an Austrian army under Prince Wind- isehgriitz entered Ilungary. demanding unconditional obe- dience 10 the Austrian aiitborily. The national assembly, which had moved from Pestli to Debreczin, declared the house of Uapsburg deposed, chose Kossuth governor-gen- eral of the country, and a deadly struggle commenced. The various successes, the military heroism, and the polit- ical confusion with which it was carried on are described in the articles on Bi;m, Dkmhinski, lioKc:i:i, Ki,ai-ka, Kos- suth, etc. It was decided by the intervention of Russia. One Kussian corps under Paniutine entered Hungary from tho W., another under I^iiders from the K., while a third army, numbcriug 130, 000 men. under Paskewieh. entered tlio Hungarian plain from the N., Aug. 13, 1840. (iiirgei surrendered at Vihiyos; Kossuth, MC'sziiros, and others (led to Turkey ; and many of the richest and noblest men of the nation became scattered all over tlio world. Bat- thviinyi, Kis, and others were executed, and all tho dun- geons of the empire were filled. Thus Austrian order was once more restored. Nevertheless, in spite of the terrible defeat, the resistance of the Hungarian people was by no means broken. An opposition ogainst the Austrian rule was soon formed on a broader basis and with a clearer consciousness, and the demands for the constitution of 1818 became louder and louder every year. At last, after the battle of Sadowa (.Tuly 3, 186(5), and the entire separation of Austria from Germany, the Austrian gov- crnmenl felt compelled to submit. In Feb., ISflV.an iinle- pcndent Hungariuu ministry was formed under the leader- ship of Count Andrdssy, and in December of the same year the final emancipation of the Hungarian crown on the basis of the constitution of 1S4S was accomplished. There still reigns a good deal of confusion and some strife in the relations of the country, both within and without, hut, generally speaking, the country is now rapidly progressing in material as well as intellectual respects. When in the ninth century the Magyars settled in the Hungarian plain, their language was already fixed, and seems to have undergone comparatively few and unimport- ant changes. The foreign words it lias adopted, Latin, Greek, Slavic, licnnan, and Turkish, have been thor- oughly remodelled. It belongs to the Turanian family, is nearest akin to the Turkish and Finnish, and resembles the latter closely in its )ihonetic system, especially in its vocalization and in its grammatical formations. It has, however, in its compound sibilants ca and c r, and gen- erally in its accent, when spoken with passion, something weird and wild which tho Finnish has not, and which sounds very strange to a Saxon car. It is spoken, at present, in tour dialects — the Gyori, on the Raab : the Bihari, on tho Theiss; the PaI6cz, in the Mutra Moun- tains; and the Sz6kely, in Transylvania. The last is said to bo somewhat mixed with Tartar words, the third to contain most ancient words, but tho difference between them and the written language is not, great. It was not, however, until the latter part of the eighteenth century that this language liecame a truly literary language and the bearer of a national civilization. With the introduc- tion of Christianity, about 1000, Latin became the lan- guage not only of the Church and its service, but also of the Taw and all court proceedings. Tiicre were monasteries and ecclesiastical seminaries in Hungary in the elcvcntll century ; in the twelfth, Magyars frequented tho universi- ties of Paris and Bologna; and in the Ihirtecnth, they founded libraries and schools at home. But all communi- cation with Western Europe, and, indeed, the whole pro- cess of civilization, was carried on in the Latin language, and the national tongue, so far as it appeared in public, was confined to the eiunp and tho tavern. In this a change took place with tho Reformation, which was introduced into Hungary from Bohemia. Translations of the Bible occur as early as 1382, but in tho sixteenlh they became frequent; Konijati (li33), Pesti (1530), Sylvester (lo41), Heltai (lo4G), Szekely (lO'lS), Melius (150,1), etc. The chronicle of the country was written in the native tongue by Szekely (1550), Tcmesvilri (1509), and Heltai (1572). liymns, and even popular songs, were produced. The development stopped very soon, however, here as in Ger- many and the Scandinavian countries, though from differ- ent causes. The accession of the house of Uapsburg to the Hungarian throne afler tho death of Louis II. in 1526, confirmed Latin as the oflicial language of the country. Tho Reformation itself spread German widely among the middle classes to the detriment of the native tongue, and alter the introduction of the Jesuits in 1561 the Magyar language was looked upon as a cover for heresy. In the seventeenth and the first \r.u-i of tho eighteenth century I Latin predominated more than ever. The first regular newspaper of the country, started in 1721, was published in Latin. It was the school reforms of Jose]]h II. which first awakened the ]iopiilar spirit, and it was his attempt at Germanizing the people which made the awakened spirit national; the attempt was met with the most de- cided resislance. Laws ivero jjromulgalcd which intro- duced the Hungarian language in schools and courts of all degrees, and social life commenced to assume, in all its various branches, a most decidedly national eliaiacter. In 1787, Matthias Rdth started in Presburg tho first Hunga- rian newspaper, thereby inaugurating a journalistic liter- ature which probably has employed greater talent and exercised a deeper influence than that of any other Euro- pean country. Its most brilliant period embraces the years between 1840 and 1814, when Louis Kossulh edited the /'.<i(i' lliilnp, and treated all vital questions involved in the situation of the Hungarian people with a nobleness of tone and elegance of manner wbiidi actually raised the lit- erary standard of the nation. In 1788, Kiizinczy com- menced his Arar/i/ar Miiiriim, and although this, as well as its nearest descendants in the periodical press, was con- fined to the rich and educated classes, from it sprung a peculiar kind of annuals of misoellaneous contents. Kl/mih; Kmlfuii, elc. wbieli became Very popular. In 1703, Raday established a national Iheaire in Pestb; in 1817 appeared the first comedy by Kdroly Kisliiliidy, and since (he debut uf Joseph Szigligeli as a playwriler in 1831 the Magyar theatre rests principally on the national drama. In 18311, Baron Jnsikacomuieneed bis very i)rolific and successful ac- tivity as a romance- writer, treating subjects of the history of the .Slagyarsafler the mode of Waller Scott, and from 1842 to 1810 appeared the //(»(../ 1/ :■/ IIhdiihiii by Horvilh. Other 1030 HUNGARY NECK— HUNT. fit-Ms of literature and science, especially travelling sketches and Innffuagc?, have been taken up and cultivated with equal success during the course of the preseut century. But its true inaufiuration as a literary language, ns Ihe bearer of a national civilization, as the expression of a national ge- nius, the Hungarian language received by the publication in |s]7 of Iliiii/j/'n Low, by Sandor Kisfaludy. An un- broken chain uf lyrical pmduclions or epics, with a strong lyrif^al tone, of different character, but generally of great merit, connects //('/;»/)/'« Love with our days, and culmi- nated with Sdndor Petnfi. With Www all inspiration from foreign ideas, all imitation of foreigu models, censed. The Magyar genius stood fully revealed, free and independent, in one of its phases, and a truly national school of po- etry was formed; one of its chief members is Joliann Ararcy. Nor was the check which this development received from the failure of tho revolution of 1.S48 abso- lute; on tho contrary, after a short and merely tem- porary disturbance, it went on, as it seems, with renewed vigor. Clemens PeteuseV. Ilimigary Xeck, tp. of Somerset co., Md., on Chesa- peake \i\i\. Pop. y3s. Hungary Water, a perfume for the toilet, is simply dilute alcohol aromatized with sage, rosemary, ginger-root, or other fragrant substances, and then distilled. It has had a limited use in medicine as a stiniulant. Hun'ger [Ang. Sax. hmujcr'], the craving for food, tho sensation which impels animals to eat. It is an intensifi- cation of what is called the appetite. An abnormal condi- tion of hunger is also induced in animals by the ablation of the spleen, and perhaps by tho removal of other ductless glands. Hunger is probably induced normally by the gen- eral need of nutriment throughout the system, but the sen- sation is chiefly referred to tho stomach. It may be dimin- ished by the administration of various drugs and by the use of tobacco. Ilun'ncwell, post-v. of Jackson tp., Shelby co., Mo., on the Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R., Zl miles W, of Han- nibal. Pop. 327. Huns, The [Lat. Hnnm'], were an extremely savage and ugly tribe of warlike nomadcs, with dark complexions, smrtll, deep-set, black eyes, broad shoulders, and flat noses. They came from the vast barren plateaus of Kastcrn Asia, N. of China, and while one part of them settled along tho shores of the Caspian Sea, and later became known as tho AVhite Uuns, the other part crosj^cd the Volga and con- quered the Alani, who became incorporated with tlicm. In 370 they crossed the Dnieper, defeated the Goths, and drove them over the Danube into the Roman province of Panno- nia. In 434, under Attihi, they crossed tho Danube, and tho Roman emperor, Thcodosius II., had no other means of stopping them than by paying them an annual tribute. When, after the death of Thcodosius, the tribute ceased to be paid, Attihi pushed forward and visited Gaul, where he was defeated on tho Catalaunian plain, and Italy, where Pope Ken I. persuadeii liim to retreat. After the death of Atlila the Huns dissolved and disappeared among the other barbarian tribes. The Huns were proba- bly Tartars, perhaps of tho Mongol branch, but the term appears to have been used somewhat vaguely, and to have included Turkish or Ugrian peoples, perhaps even the Magyars. Hunt, county of the N. E. of Texas. Area, 935 square miles. It is a rolling country, with abundance of hard- wood timber. The soil is generally fertile. Live-stock, corn, cotton, and wool arc staple jtroducts. Cap. Green- ville. Pop. 10,291. Hunt, tp. of Scott CO., Ark. Pop. 2S0. Hunt (KnwAnn B.), b. in Livingston co., N. Y., LS22 ; graduated at West Point Military Acaflemy July 1, 1845, ami entered the army as brevet second lieutenant of engi- neers ; jiroMiuted to be second lieutenant Dec., 1S4 J. first lieu- tenant July, 1803, captain July, lSij9, and major Mar., l.Stj3. Upon entering the army in 1845 ho was ordered to New York as assistant to the board of engineers fur coast de- fence, and served in this capacity about one year, when he was detailed for duty at West Point as assistant professor of engineering, which position he retained till 1849, when he was ordered to Boston, Mass., ns assistant engineer in tho construction of Fort Warren. From 1S51 to 1855 he was on duty in the ofi'ice of Prof. Baehe, superintendent V. S. Coast Survey, and from 1855 to 1857 was engaged in the construction of fortifications and lighthouses on the coast of Rhode Island. He was transferred to Key West, Fla., in IS57, and engaged in tho construction of Fort Taylor until 18tJ2, when ho was relieved, and became chief engineer of tho department of the Shenandoah, which po- sition ho held hut a short time, being engaged from Apr., 1862, to Oct., 1863, in the construction of forlifioations in I Connecticut and Rhode Island, and during the same time on special duly under the navy department in perfecting his invention of a submarine battery (the '* Sea-Miner ") ; and it was while eonducting experiments at Brooklyn, X. Y., with this device that he was overcome by escaping gas, and, falling into the hold of the vessel, was killed, Oct. 2, ISfi.'J. Ho was a brother of ex-Gov. Washington Hunt of New York, and a man of high scientific attainments, and earnestly devoted to his country and profession; mem- ber of several scientific associations, and a frequent con- tributor to various literary and scientific publications. G. C. Simmons. Hunt (Freeman), b. at Quincy, Mass., Mar. 21, 1804; entered in ISIG a printing-ofiiee in Boston ; established the Ladies' Mafjaziiic and recommenced the publication of tho Pcmn/ Mafjftzinc ; became managing director of the Be- wick Company and edited The American Marjazine ; re- moved in 1831 to New York, where he established The Tratrflrr in 1S31 and the Mrrchaiit's Ma<jazinc in IS39. He also published The Z,H»rari/ of Commerce (1856—57) and The Lives of American Merchants. D. at Brooklyn Mar. 2, 185S. Hunt (Helen), a daughter of the late Prof. N. W. Fiske, b. at Amherst. Mass., in 1831, became the wife of Maj. E. B. Hunt (1822-63) of the U. S. engineers. She resides at Newport, 11. I. Her Verses hy //. //. (1871) and Bitft iif Travel (1872) have won a brilliant popularity. Hunt (IIexry Jatkson), b. in Detroit, Mich, (then a Territory). Sept. 14, 1819; graduated at West Point Mili- tary Academy July 1, 1839, ond entered the army as second lieutenant of artillery ; promoted to be first lieutenant 1840, captain 1852, mnjor 18GI, licuteuant-eolonel 18^3, and col- onel ISfiO; served on frontier and garrison duty 1839-46; in the Mexican -war 1840—48, at Vera Cruz. Cerro Gordo, Churubusco, Molino del Rey (wounded), ChapuUcpec. and the capture of tho city of Mexico (brevet captain and mrvjor). During tho civil war served as aide-de-camp to Gen. McClcIlan, and commanded the artillery reserves uf the Army of the Potomac in the Peninsular campaign of 1SG2, r.nd commanded in chief the artillery of that army from Sept. 18, 1CG2, to the close of tlie war. Appointed brigadier-general of volunteers Sept. 15, 1862; brevet major- general of volunteers and brevet colonel, brigadier-general, and major-general of volunteers for gallant services in the field. Author of various reports and papers on artillery, artillery projectiles, tactics, army organization, and organi- zation of artillery schools ; member of various hoanls for the armament of fortification?, and president of the per- manent artillery board for the army. G. C. Simmons. Hunt (jAMrs HnNUV Leigh), b. at Southgato, Middle- sex, England, Oct. 19, 17S4, the son of a clergyman who had been a lawyer in Philadelphia. Leigh Hunt was edu- cated at Christ's Hospital, read law for a time, and found a place in the war ofiicc, which he left in IS08. His Jitvc- nilia (poems, lt^01) was published by his father, and in 1805 ho became a critic for the JS'ews, a journal, and in 1808 established, with his brother John, The JCxaminrr, a journal which became a power in the political world by reason of the independent course of its editors. The bro- thers were impri^^oned (1812-15) for using Irtnguage which was regarded as lacking in respect for the prince regent, but the kindness of Moore. Byron, and the AVhig literati made Hunt's jail-Ufe a very ptensimt episode in his career. His best poem, Thr Stori/ of Jiiwini {\^H)), was among tho hooks written during his imprisonment. His literary life was one of much activity; many volumes of poems, essays, translations, and romance followed ; but in spite of his in- dustry Hunt was always very poor. In 1822 he visited Byron in Italy, ami quarrelled with him, but after tho lat- te'r's death published ReeolhrtitmH uf Uxjrrm in 1828. Hunt performed much editorial labor, and in 1S47 received a pen- sion of £200. Hunt was a man of happy disposition, but was of a character not altogether admirable. Dickens's Harold Skimpole is believed to set forth Hunt's least aclmirablo qualities. As a writer he had a felicitous style anil an artistic way of putting things, but ho wrote too often when he had nothing important to say, and most of his many books are already forgotten. Among the best are .Ucii, yVmnvn, nn<l linuks (1847) and J»^j6i*o_7ra7^/M/ ( 1850), ed- ited by Thornton Hunt, his son. Leigh Hunt d. at Putney Aug. 28. 1859. Hunt (John), b. near Lincoln, England, Juno 13, 1S12; joined the Wcsleyan conference in 1836, and in 1838 was sent to the Fiji Islands, where for ten years ho travelled and preached, introducing Christianity in many tribes. D. there in 1S48, having translated the New Testament into the Fiji tongue, besides writing in English a treatise on Entirv Sanetijicatifitt. Hunt (HirtiARn Monnis), b. in Brattlcboro', Vt.,^Oct. 28, 1828; went to Europe iu 1843; was a pupil at tho Ecolo HUNT— HUNTER. 1031 dcs Bcaax Arts in Paris, and attained distinction there; | was made an inspector ot' the builJin;; between the Louvre ' and the Tuilerics; returned to America in ISii; devoted himself actively to his profession, and has been of service in elevating the taste for architecture at home. He has built villas in Newport, residences in liostou and New York, the Stevens' apartment-house, the Lenox Library, the Di- vinity College building at Vale, the Cnpitul extension at 1 Washington, and is the architect of the Trihtnn- building in New York. His summer residence is at Newport; in winter he lives in New York. O. B. Fiiotiiinuihu. Hunt (RonERTt.b. at Dcvonporl, England, Sept. B, 180". He is a self-educated man, but has acquired a great name, partly by his annually published ilinrrnl Stntiniim for the United Kingilom, which he was the first to establish, partly by his researches on light, communicated to the Tiiii',Mi,rtinnii <;/" lh<- Itritinh Amiodalifm, whence resulted the discovery of several important photographic processes and a better understanding of the chemical in8uences of the solar rays. He is conservator of the Mu.seum of Geol- ogy in Lonilon.and has published I'oclry of Science (1848) and Paiiilici (1!<4'JJ. Hunt (Tnoins). M. D.. b. in Charleston, S. C, May 18, ISOS; d. in New Orleans Mar. 30, 1S07; graduated in the medical department of the Tuiversity of Pennsylvania 182'.i, and in ISGH the same degree was conferred upon him by the Royal Univer.sily of Havana. Cuba. He was the first pro- fessor of anatomy and physics in the medical department of the University of Louisiana IS.U ; then its dean, and in IS48 became professor of physiological and pathological anatomy, which he held at his death. He was also house- surgeon to the Charity Hospital: president of the Physico- Medical Society of New Orleans, and became the presiilent of the University of Louisiana 1SC6. Uc also contributed largely to medical journals. P.\i!I, F. Eve. Hunt (Thomas Stkkrv), F. R. S., LL.D., Ph. D., b. at Norwich, Conn.. Sept. 5, 1S26 ; studied medicine and chem- istry, and in ISli became assistant in chemistry to Prof. Silliman: served under Sir W. E. Logan as chemist and mineralogist for the geological survey of Canada ; was in IHjjone of the English jurors at the Paris Exposition, when ho received the cross of the Legion of Honor. In 185!) ho was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society. He ha.s been professor of chemistry in the University of Quebec anil in .Mctiill College, .Montreal, and now lISTa) holds a similar position in the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology. He has written many important papers upon min- eralogy, chemistry, dynamic geology, and kindred topics. Hunt (Waup". LL.r).,b. at Utica, N.Y., Juno U.ISIO; educated at Hamilton and Union Colleges, graduating in 182H: was mayor of Utica and member of the New York assembly ; was judge of the court of appeals of the State of New York from 1S6S to 1873. when he became justice of the Supreme Court of the U. S. Hunt (Wasehsgton), b. at Windham, N. Y., Aug. 5, 181 1 : admitted to the bur at Loekport in 18:M ; appointed first judge of Niagara Co. in l.s.'iil; member of Congress |si:i-l'J; comptroller of New York 184il, and governor 18JI-53. He was one of the leaders of the conservative wing of the Whig party, and when Ibis party was dissolved ho became a Democrat. He was a delegate to the Chicago Convention in 1804, and d. in New York Feb. 2, 18G7. Hunt (William Hoi. man), b. in London in 1827; stud- ied in the school of the Royal Academy, and exhibited for the first time in 1840. In the first years he generally took his subject from some poet, Keats, liulwer, and others, but with his picture .4 Vnurirlrd lln'litih Fiinlili/ Slicllnintj a ChriHtinn MUxioiutry from the /\ rteriition i// thi- DruidH, exhibited in 18j0, a radical change had taken place, not only in his choice of subjects, but also in his style of exe- cution ; with this picture the new school of pre-Raphael- ites was, if nitt fountled, at least announced. In US.'j.'l he painted Our Entjlitlt C-m^tn; in 18J4, The .lira/.'riir(/ t'uii- tcient-c and TIk: Light of thr Wurfti, explained in two letters by Kuskiii, published in the Timirn; in 18ti7, After Snnnct I'l'i Kfifi/il! and in 1872, The Shfuloio if Ih.ilh. Hunt (William Mdiiiiis), brother of Richard M., b, in Bratlleboro', \l.. Mar. 31. IS24 ; entered Harvard College in l.sio, but did ntit eomidetc bis course: went to Diissel- dorf in 18411: in 1848 was a pupil of Coutnre in Paris; re- turned to the U.S. in 18.').i. and took up his residence in Newport, but removed thence to .laniaica Plain, which is now ineluiled in lloston. Hunt was one of the first to intro- duce what is commonly known as the French school of art into America, but he made it his own, and used it to ex- press original ideas. His pictures are numerous and of great variety in subject, genre-painting antl portrait being his great excellence. Thr Ltmt Kid, The t hitriilern, tiirl at the Ftiuiitaiu, Muri/iirritr, Mi, mini/ Slur, /ttit/ie Cult, l>rn,nmtr Itui/ are well known, and have most, if not all. been reproiluccd in lithograph. Some of his portraits — those of Dana the poet, Chief-Justice Shaw, and several of ladies— lire much admired, but in this work he was unequal, his success depending greatly on his sympathy with the sitter. For several years Mr. ilunt taught classes of ladies in Boston, and awakened enthusiasm in the study of art. D. Sept. 8, 1879. 0. B. Fkothixcham. Hunt'cr, tp. of Edgar co., III. Pop. 1029. Hunter^ post-tp. of Greene co., N. Y.. in the Catskill Mountains. It was formerly celebrated for its extensive tanneries, and is an attractive summer resort. Pop. 1524. HuntCFf tp. of Laurens co., S. C. Pop. 2657. Hunter (David), b. at Washington, D. C, July 21, 1802; graduated from the U. S. Military Academy, and entered the army as second lieutenant of infantry July, 1822 : engaged for fourteen years on frontier duty, rising to the rank of captain of dragoons 1833; resigned in 1836. In 1842 he re-entered the service as paymaster, with the radk of major, on which duty he served until ISCl, when (May 14) he was appointed colonel 6th U. S. Cavalry, and three days later brigadier-general of volunteers, as such commanding division at Bull Kun (July 21), where he was wounded : promoteil to be major-general of volunteers Aug., 1801. In May, 1802, while in command of the department of the South, he issued au order declaring slavery abol- ished in that department, which order was annulled by Pres. Lincoln in a proclamation. In May, 1804, Hunter succeeded Gen. Sigel in command of the department of West Virginia; the battle of Piedmont and subsequent march against Lynchburg riVi Lexington occurred the fol- lowing month: a strong Confederate force arrived in good time to the relief of that city, however, and Hunter's am- munition giving out, he made a hasty retreat, closely pur- sued by the enemy. In 1805 was member of the military commission to try the conspirators engaged in the assassi- nation of Lincoln. Retired from active service July, 1806. G. C. Simmons. Hunter (John), F. R. S., b. at Long Calderwood, near Glasgow, Scotland, July 14,1728 ; youngest of ten children, of whom one was the afterwards celebiated William Hun- ter. John received very imperfect instruction at school ; was apprenticed to a cabinetmaker ; went in 1748 to study anatomy with his brother : studied at Oxford 1753-54 ; bo- came asurgical pujiil at St. Bartholomew's 1751, and at St. George's 1754 ; studied surgery under Cheseldcn and Pott ; lectured upon anatomy 1754-5y ; attained great knowledge of hunuin and comparative anatomy ; served in France and Portugal as staff-surgeon 1701-03; began to practise sur- gery in London 1703; was made F. K. S. 17117, in conse- quence of the publication of important pajiers containing new discoveries in pathology and physiology ; became surgeon to St. George's Hospital 1708; surgeon extra- ordinary to the king 1776 ; surgeon-general of the forces and inspector-general of hospitals 1790. D. in London Oct. 10, 1793. John Hunter was the boldest and best operator of his time, an anatomist of marvellous know- ledge, and one of the fathers of zoological science. His stylo as a speaker and writer was bad. owing to his defective early training. His manners were coarse and repulsive and his temper violent, but ho possessed many strong and noble moral qualities. He was one of the fnundtrs of the modern school of surgery. Author of Niilitriil llitl. of the Ilnmitn Teeth (1771-78), On Veueieal iJiHeauc (1786), ObneriattoHa on Certniit I'lirtt of the Anitiial Eeoniimii (1780), On the lllooil, Injliimmotion, and ffiiii- tliot Womuli (1794). Ho was the collector of the great Hunt.rian Museum, chiefly of pathological and anatomical specimens, purchased by the British government and pre- sented to the Koyal College of Surgeons. Hunter (John- Kklso). b. at Dunkeith, Ayrshire. Dec. 15, IH02 ; was at first a cobbler, and afterwards a portrait- painter of repute. Hcpublisheil The Itilronpeit oj iin Art- iat't Life ( 1S07 I. Life-.Slndien „/ fhiiriietrr ( 1870). the last highly valued as containing fresh information upon the persons and places celebrated by Burns, Tannahill, and other Scottish poets. D. at Pollockshield Feb. 3, 1S74. Hunter (Jcuix W.), b. in Bedford (now in Brooklyn), N. Y., Oi't. 15. 1^*07; became n clerk in the New York custom-house Ix.'Jl; was assistant auditor there 1837-65; was long prominent in the educational affairs of Brooklyn, and was an oflicer of the Dime Savings Bank ; chosen to Congress in 1800, and in 1874 became mayor of Brooklyn. Hunter (Joshimi). See Ai-I'eniux. Hunter ( Uobf.rt MeiickkTaliakkuho), b. in Essex CO., Va., Apr. 21, IHO'.I, and was cilucated at the University of Virginitt anil the WineheNler Law Sehocd ; member of the Virginia house of delegates ; was a member of Congress 1S37-41 and 1845-47, taking u prominent position, and being Speaker I839-tl. lie was (1847-01 ) a II. S. .Senator 1032 HUNTER— HUNTING. from Virginia, chairman of finance committee, find was afterwards Confederate secretary of state, and t^till later a member of (he Contederate Senate, and was one of the commissioners wlio met Pres. Lincoln and iMr. Soward at the Ham}tton lloads conference in Feb., 18G5. i Hunter (William), M. D., F. R. S., elder brother of .lolin Hunter, was b. at Long Calderwood, Scothmd, May 2;t. 1718: studied at (ilas^ow University ITMJ— 17, with a view to the ministry .: became the medical jmpil of Cullen; studied medicine in Edinburgh and Lontlon, wliither ho went in 17-11; began to lecture on surgery anil anatomy 1710 ; acquired a wide fame as a surgeon and accoucheur, devoting himself after 1719 chiefly to the practice of ob- stetrics; took his degree at Glasgow 1750; became phys- ician to the queen 1761; K. R. ^^ 17G7; professor of ana- tomy 1770; president of the College of Physicians 1781 ; associate of the Academy of Sciences. Paris, 17S2. D. in London Mar. .'ifl, 17S:i. His splendid collection of ana- tomical and pathological specimens, coins, books, etc^ is now the Hunterian Museum of the University of Ulas- gdW ; it was partly collected by John Hunter, from whom he was for many years estranged. William Hunter sur- passed his brother in scliolarship and courtesy, but was not his equal in professional ability. His principal published works WGve Medical Cniiimnitrirics {17(i2-fil) and the splen- did Aiititttniia Hiimaiii Uteri Graridi {X77-i). Hunter (William), D. D., b. May 20, 1811, in the county of Antrim, Ireland; brought to- the U, S. in 1S17, he entered Madison College in 1S:UI. In 1S:?:J he began his ministry in connection with the Pittsburg (Pa.) conference. He has edited the Pittsburg Conference Journal, also the Pittsburg C/iriHtian Adrocate (M. E.), and was presiding elder in the Clarksburg (Pa.) and Beaver (Pa.) districts. In 1855 he became Kramer professor of Hebrew and bibli- cal literature iu Allegheny College, Pa. In 1870 he re- turnccl to pastoral work, and in 1872 to religious journalism, being then re-elected as editor of the CItri>itiiin Aili-ornte. He was the author of several books of hymns and spiritual songs, an<l of a ])oem on American Method inm, « Plea for Unift/. Some of his devotional songs have obtained a wide popularity, and are sung in many lands. They have been translated into various languages, as the Bulgarian, several dialects of India, Africa, Ceylon, and China. D. at Cleveland, 0., Oct. IS, 1877. A. Stkvens. Hunter (William), LL.D., b. at Newport Nov. 20, 1774: graduated at Brown University in 1791; studied me-lifine for some time under his celebrated kinsman, John Hunter, in London, but left this study and adopted that of law. aiul was admitted to practise in Newport on his return in 171*5. He was member of Congress 179'.)- 1811, and U. S. Senator 1811-21. From 18;U to IS45 he was chariff. d'aifnirex and minister plenipotentiary to Brazil. D. at Newport Dec. 3, 1S49. Hunt'crdon, county of New Jersey, bounded on the S. W. by the Dt-Iaware Uiver. Area, about 400 square miles. A part of its surfaei* is bndten, but its soil is generally very fertile. Cattle, grain, fruit, and wool arc staple jiroducts. It has manufactures of metallic wares, flour, harnesses, carriages, lumber, and other goods, and is traversed by the Central R. R. of New .lersey. the Belvidere Delaware, and other railroads. Caj>, FU-mington. Pop. .*JO,yO^. Iluut'er's, tp. of Tehama co., Cal. Pop. 40. Hunter's Hill, tp. of Gates co., N. C. Pop. 1401. Hunter's Point, tho S. W. portion of Long Island CiTV (whi<'h sec). Queens co., N. Y. Pop. 1590. Hunt'crsvillc, a v. of Spring Creek tp., Miami co., 0. Pop. 2;i:j. HuntorNvillc, post-v.,county-seat of Pocahontas co., W. Va., cm a liui; plateau, 40 miles N. by E. of Whitt* Sul- phur Sprini^s, a station of the Chesapeake anrl Ohio U. R. Hunt'in^;, like war, is coeval in origin with man. " Be- fore it was a pleasure," says E.^ Blaze, ''hunting was a ne- cessity," since people wore urged to it not only by hunger, but by the need of protecting themselves from wild beasts. But though King David was respected for skill in tho field, it is evident that of all jnojile the Jews were least inclined to the chase, owing to their being religiously I trained to avoid almost nil amusements, as savoring of Gentilism. But among Greeks and Uomans hunting be- came sacred, Apollo and Diana being its chief patrons, while even its subordinate dvpartments had caeli a tutelary deity. Pollux presiding over tho training of horses for the chase, Orion of assembling dogs in packs, and Hippolytus cf snares and toils. The influence of hunting on culture has been very great, and, with a few tlrawbacks. very ben- eficial to man. It is exhilarating, and in most forms very condueivr to health, as it induiu-s much expusure to fresh air and involves exercise in many forms; in fact, it may bo assumed as a broad principle that those race's which tako no interest in field-sports, and thereby become unfamiliar with Nature in her wilder forms, are generally cowardly and depraved. It is said that the chase induces cruelty, but it lias been remarked that the Koraans as they left olV hunting became more sanguinary in their games, and tho French, who ridicule *• /e sport," and say that an Kngtish- man always remarks if the weather is fine that ** one ought to kill something," are themselves much bloudier and more vindictive in their political outbursts and jiunishments. This is also true of tlie Chinese. A subject whose history is as old as that of humanity, and which embraces the taking of almost all animals, from the hare to the elephant, cannot be even sketched witliin our limit, and we shall therefore simply spt-ak of what is at tho jiresent day chiefly understood by hunting, or that branch of it which involves such an outlay of capital as to have almost entirely appropriated the word to itself. This is the pursuit of the deer, fox, and hare on horseback, which in Great Britain probably costs more every year than all the games of ancient Rome did iu the same time. The ancient Britons, in fact, were vigorous sportsmen, and Strabo informs us that their dogs for deer were exported to tho Continent, and particularly to Gaul. The iSaxon? were far more addicted to hunting than the Romans. an<l at an early period established those forest-restrictions which play such an important part in Englisli history, and which, in fact, did much to develop the art into that earnest form which in Kugland is a serious part of most country gentlemen*s lives. As early as the ninth century, says Strutt, and prob- ably long before, hunting constituted an essential part of the education of a young nobleman. Alfred tho Great, ac- cording to Asserius, was most carefully trained in all tho branches of the art, and excelled iu them before he was twelve years old. It is somewhat remarkable that an- tiquaries more familiar with MS3. than with nature have doubted whether horses were ever employed iu hunting previous to the Norman Conquest, since it is not probable that people who, as we know, had horses both good and fleet, would dismount in order to chase a deer or fox. Tho very fact that fox-hunting was a special amusement amonj; the Saxons would indicate its pursuit on horseback. Tho fondness of every Saxon for tho chase, and the feeling which appears to be innate with men that animals fcra nnturm are common property, led to much resistance to forest-laws through the Middle Ages, and incredible suft"er- ing. Hundreds of villages were destroyed by tho Norman kings to make immense parks; and so severe were the penalties enforced for poaching that it was commonly said that one might kill a man with more impunity than a deer. This spirit of pre-emption and resistance has continued to tho present day in England, and it is not many years since Mr. Thomas Carlyle discovered that England had " more garac-Iaws than poor-laws." Robin Hood and his followers were in a great measure the result of forest-laws. Through the Middle Ages hunting increased in importance, in lux- urious details, and, so to speak, in science. It had from remote times possessed a literature. Aristotle had at tho command of Alexander the Great written on field-sports, and tlie Ci/ncrfcticii'i (a treatise on dogs and hunting) of Xenophon may still be read with pleasure. The Roman writers on hunting embrace Pliny. Horace, Cicero, Virgil, v^cneea, and Justin. Early in tho fourteenth century Eng- land had several treatises on the subject. That of William Twici. huntsman-in-ehief to Edward II., written in Norman French, also exists iu an English translation. In it the poet-sportsman thus speaks of animals : "And for to setto young hunterys iu the way To venery, I cast me tirst to go Of which four bestes be. that is to say, Tho hare, the herte. the wulf, and the wild boor. But then there ben other bestes five of the chase, Tlie buek the first, the seeonde is the do ; The fox the third, wbieh hath ever hard grace; The forthe theiuartyn, and the last the roe." As these beasts disajqicared or became rare, the fox grad- ually rose to be the first in consequence. "Nimrod" (Charles James Apperly) observes that it was about 150 years ago when the fox was first considered an animal of the higher chase. Hudibran, he observes, has a great deal about the hare, but not cmc word about the fox. and in Suincrvillc's poem of the Chncc, very little is said of tho latter, but a great deal of the hare and deer. The reason for this is that in England then, as now on the Continent, the vfihtt of tho game, especially as an edible, was always considered. This has entirely disappeared at present; all that is eared for in the fox is his *• brush," while "puss" (the hare) generally goes "to the dogs." Chaucer gave in his time a spirited i)icturo of an improvised foot fox-hunt: "Aha the fnx, and after him they ran, And she with staves many another man. Ran ('mII our dotj. and Talbot and (Jerlond, And Mulkiu with her distatl" in her hund. HUNTINGBURG— HUNTINGDONSHIRE. 1033 Ran cow and calf, and ckc the veray hogges, So fert*d w»to for barking of ilit'tio^ites, And iduiuling of the men, and wunien eke, They ruiiiR'u so, hem thought her hcrtes brake." The first f'»x-liuntin^ was with so-called *' trencher do;is." which one aulhority declares were an nsstmbly of any and everythini^ iu do^ shape, but it i? more probable that they were of the breed of broken-haired harriers which still abound in Wale?, and are an excellent doc^. RIaino states that "the first real steady pack of foxhounds" was that of Thomas Fownes, Esq., of Stcpleton in l>orsctshirc, in 17;Ut. "They were," says a writer of ISIS, "as handsome and fully a-? complete in every respect as most celebrated packs of the present day" — an assertion which of itself imlicatc:? that good packs had existed lon^ before; and "Niinrod" tells us that a pack of foxhounds was kept by Lord Arundel in Ifi'JO, and this pack subsequently con- tributed materially to the celebrated Quorndon Hounds. But this Arundel pack — as its excellence proves — was probably far from beins: the first in Kn^land. With the great improvement iu doj^s in modern times, and the con- stant ertorts to secure better horses, the system of hunting has changed, and instead of sounding the horn at cock- crow, as soon as they could see to ride, ten, eleven, or even twelve o'clock is now the hour for huntsmen's assembling. la fact, in the old time gentlemen were often obliged to ride many miles hrfore daybreak, but now the horses are sent by "rail." whilo the rider takes the same conveyance. In the old time hares and foxes were rare, but now they are Fo carefully preserved that hunters arc sure of them. ' In fact, foxes are often imported from the Continent when they become scarce in any part of England, an<l the writer knows of a gentleman who recently br<Migbt a number to Ireland, lie also knows of another gentleman who, having bec-n suspected of shooting or poisoning a troublesome fox, was completely cut by the whole country and shunned like a felon. The change in horses for hunting has also been very great. A century ago the hunter was a half-breed animal^ of great ?frenglh and handsome, powerful frame — "acom- plete snaQlc-bridle horse, and a standing as well as a (ly- ing Icaper.'' He had great endurance. At present the thoroughbred. as shown in the "cock-tail," or three-fourths pure bloo<I, delicate but fleet, is gra<lually taking the place of the true hunter. The crpcnuc of hunting has accord- ingly been increased in proportion to these changes. A thoroughbred horse, though he can for a short time perform greater feats of speed, and in fact of leaping, is soon dis- abled, and must be kept from three to seven days quiet after a hunt. (lentlemcn who can afford it have two and even three horses brought for them to a hunt. In short, hunting, like all other sports, is rapidly assuming in Eng- land an intcn!<ely artificial an'l highly elaborate character, entirely foreign to the spirit of the rfin^r as expressed by poets and understood by the world at large. In old times the buckskin breeches, well staincfl ami worn, were cha- racteristic of hunting, but the ideal rider at a "meet" at present i.<? an fUijnnt in primrose kid gloves and snow- white cords. His hounds run faster, his horses leap, it is said, higher than did those of old. but to one who has, like the writer, hunted both buffalo in America anil foxes and bares in Knglan'l, the latter compares with the former as a walk d'twn Ilrmd street in the season does with a pedestrian tour among the Alps, Hunting in Englaml, notwithstand- ing the ()stentation of expense which is rapidly reducing it more to a matter of money and style than is po]>ulurly supposed, is still of incalculable benefit, since it pructicully familiarizes hundreds of thousands of people with good riding in its truest and fullest sense. The man has always a physical— wc may say a nervous — superiority who can without an emotion clear hedge anri <litch or keep the sad- dle all day in a thorough chase. Were it not for hunting many gentlemen would never get beyond a trot on tbo highway, and that familiarity with the itorse in all his best qualities which 'uakes a man mrinlier wuuld bo lost. It is amusing to observe the manner in which the rules of sport are carried out in foreign countries. It is not long since a gentleman twenty five years a resident in India, and an experienced tiger-hunter, assured the writer that anyone known to have killed a tiger-cub would be "cut " by every gentleman in his part of the country. It is but just to say that (here has been of late a strong reaction against this spirit of selfish cruelty, both in India and England. The extent to which hunting is pursued may be judged from the fact that during the week beginning with Nov. 2S, 1S7(. 170 packs were advertised to run in (In-at Ilritain. nn<l that these met fiftni two to four times tluring the week. Fifty pounds is the lowest price for an ordinary hunting- horse; at many meets the average woubl be £l.'>0. In 18 tO a writer estimated the average cost of fourteen hunters at £700; at the siiine time, he wrote that incbulinij these borsca the annual expense of a pack, but nut including the value of the hounds, would be £22.'i5. It would be safe to double this sum at present. A few years later "Nim- rod" tells us that ten couple of hounds were sold for 1000 guineas, and that Lonl Mid«lIeton had many hounds for which he would not take LMiO guineas apiece. Strangers can, however, join in a hunt ut moderate expense. A "tolerably lair," though seldom a really good, horse niiiy be hired at a livery stable for £1 to follow the harriers, ami £2 for the fox-hounds. During t*lic hunt an official will demand from him from five to ten shillings as (he regular fee. Stag-hounds arc larger than fox-hounds ; otherwise they are nearly the same. The harrier, used for hunting hares, "is the next remove after the stag or fox-hound from the talbot," or old English hunting-dog. There are thrco prominent varieties. The modern harrier is little more than a dwarf fox-hound. The beagle is a very small hound, used almost entirely for hares, and is frequently, if not generally, followed on foot. Ciiaui,i:s (_J. Lkla.\d. Hunt'in^bur§;, post-v. of Dubois co., Ind.,has manu- factures of flour, lumber, carriages, wagons, woollens, fur- niture, tobacco, saddlery, etc.: a weekly newspaper (Ger- man), numerous stores, a line s,?hool-house, 5 churches; is situated in a region abounding in block and canncl coal, plumbago, iron ores, fine potter's clay, mineral paints, lime, and sandstone, and is the centre of four projected rail- roads. Tobacco is extensively produced here, as well as grain, fruits, etc. E. PurKHAKOT, Prop. "Signal." Ilunt'ingdon, borough of England, the capital of tbo county of Huntingdon, on the left bank of the Ouse. Tho bouse in which Oliver Cromwell was born still stands. Pop. of parliamentary borough, 6600. H.uiitingdon, a fertile county of Quebec, Canada, tho westernmost of the counties S. of the St. Lawrence. Cap. Huntingdon. P<.p. 10,301. Iluiltillgdon, pr)st-v., cap. of Huntingdon co., Quebec, Canatla, 50 miles S. W. of Montreal, in a good agricultural region, has manufactures of farm-implements, eastings, lumber, etc., an academy, a weekly newspaper, and a con- vent. Pop. of sub-district, 70.1. lilintiiigdon, county of S. Central Pennsylvania. Area, I'M) square miles. It is traversed by grnnd moun- tain-ranges, but has very fertile valleys. Bituminous coal, iron ore, and limestone are abundant. Metallic wares, leather, carriages, flour, and furniture arc among the lead- ing articles of manufacture. Cattle, grain, and wool arc staple products. It is traversecl by the .Juniata Uiver and the Pennsylvania and the Huntingdon and Broad Top K. Ks. Cap. Huntingdon. Pop. :il,2jl. Huntingdon, post-l>., cap. of Huntingdon co.. Pa., on the Juniata, at the junction of the Huntingdon and Broad Top U. K. with the Pennsylvania R. K., 104 miles W. of Harrisburg. It has a national and a private bank, 1 re- ligious and 4 secular newspapers, 2 planing-mills. gas- works, manufactures of brooms, boots and shoes, furniture, etc., car-works, an academy, u select .«chool, and 8 churches, and is in a region abounding in iron, lead, coal, fire-clay, limestone, and fine timber. Pop. :i03i. A. B. BiMMBAtfiH, Lit. Ed. " Jolrnai. " and *' Pilgrim." Huntingdon, post-v., cap. of Carroll co., Tenn., on the Xasliville Chattanooga and St. Louis R. R. It has a weekly and semi-weekly newspaper. Pop. (lOtb Huntingdon (Selina), Coisthss ok, daughter of Washington Shirley, Earl Ferrers, b. 1707. and became distinguished in the religious history of the time in which she lived. In 172S ^hc was married to Theophilus Hastings, earl of Huntingdnn. a man of great religions zeal, who died Oct. LI, 17-lt>. Numerous children were the fruit of this marriage, of whom four rlied young. Whether owing to this aflliction or not, the countess became a very devout and zealous Christian ; and as at this time tlie revivals un- der Wesley and Whitcfield were at (heir height, a strong religious excitement existed in England. The countess in- clined to the (*alvinistic tenets of Whitcfield, whom sho made her private chaplain, and she became the leader of Calvinistic Methodism in Englund, and her followers were known as the "Countess of Huntingdon's Connection." Her large means were devoted to the ilissemination of her religious views, and to this end she built and maintained i\ college at Trevceca, Wales, for the education of Calvinistic ministers; sho also built chapels throughout England, and provided for their support. It is said that in all she erected Gl chapels, the finest of which is at Bath, for tho manage- ment of which she bequeathed the bulk of her fortune iu trust. D. .Juno 17, 171'I. Hunt'ingdonHhiro, county of England, bounde.l by the enunties of Cambridge, Bedford, and Northampton. It ettntains 22'.*,.^>ll acres of low, mostly level or slightly hilly ground, watered by tho Otise and the Ncne, and well adapted to agriculture. Pup. (ll.'JfiO. 1034 HUNTING QUARTER— HUNTSVILLE. Hun'ting Quar'ter, tp. of Carteret co.. N. C. P. 940. Hunt'ington, county ot' the N. E. of Indiana. Arc.i, 400 square miles. It is'vcry fertile ami generally level. Cattle, grain, wool, and lumber are staple products. It is traversed by the Toledo Wubash and Western R. U. Cap. Huntington. Pop. 19,0:;f,. Ilmilinston, tp. of Elmore co., Ala. Pop. 1.117. Iliintinstoii, tp. and post-v. of Fairfield co.. Conn., 1.') miles W. of New llaveu. Pop. 1527. Illintlllgton, titv, tp., cap. of Huntington Co.. Ind., on the Toledo Wabiish and Western 11. U. and the M abash and Erie Canal, 24 mile.s S. W. of Fort Wayne and US miles S. W. of Toledo. It contains 12 factories working wood into various shapes, 2 iron-foundries, 1 national and 1 private bank, f< churches. 2 newspapers, a free graded school, a public-school building costing $JO,000, the usual number of stores, and is the dt-pot for a large lime-burn- ing region operating :;0 kilns. A library, reading-room, aiiTl museum are being cstablisheil in connection with the iiublic school. The city is built on both banks of Little River. Pop. of city. 202o ; of tp. 4449. .loiiN F. MosKs, Ed. of '• IxnuxA IlF.n.\i.D. ' Huntington, tp. and post-v. of Hampshire co., JIass., on the Boston and Albany R. R., 1 1'J miles W. S. W. of Boston. It has extensive water-power, and manufac- tures of paper, flannels, etc. There are 4 churches. Pop. 11. ^ft. Huntington, post-v. and tp. of Suffolk co., N. 1 .. on Long Island R. R., .IS miles from New York, with wliieli it is also connected by steamboat the greater part of the year. It has S churches, a union graded school building which cost $20,1100, 2 weekly newspapers, and some manu- factures and trade. About .30.000.000 bricks arc annually made in the vicinity. Pop. 24.3.3 ; of tp. 10.704. G. H. Shf.pard, Ed. "Long Islander." Huntington, tp. of Brown co., 0. Pop. S020. Hiintiugton, tp. of Gallia co., 0. Pop. 1609. Huntington, post-tp. of Lorain co., 0. Pop. 834. Huntington, tp. of Ross co., 0. Pop. 2367. Huntington, tp. of Adams co., Pa. Pop. 1595. Huntington, tp. of Luzerne co.. Pa. Pop. 1847. Huntington, post-tp. of Chittenden co., Vt., 19 miles W. of Jlontpelier, has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 8C4. Huntington, city of Cabell co.. West Va.. on Ohio River, and on Chesapeake and Ohio R. R., was founded in 1S71. anil has extensive manufactures. It is the scat of Marshall College, has 2 pulilic schools, 9 churches. 3 hotels, and 2 newspapers. J. J. Gilbeut, Ed. '■ Advertiskk." Huntington (Coi.i.is Potter), b. at Harwinton, Conn., Oct. 22, lS2i : receiveil a common-school education, and be- came interested early in life in the management of railroads ; is president of the Soulliern Pacific Railroad Co.; vice- president of the Central Pacific Railroad Co. ; trustee of the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Co., and a director of the Occidental and Oriental Steamship Co. J. B. Bi.shop. Huntington (C. P.), V. S. N., b. Jan. 2, 1.S41. in Illi- nois: graduated at the Naval Academy in 1S61; became a lieutenant in 1SG2. a lieutenant-commander in 1S66 ; was in several actions on the Mississi]i)ii River in 1SG3 while serving on board the Monongahela. and in ISfil, at the battle of Mobile Bay, owing to the wounding of Command- er Mullauy, was for a while in command of the Oneida, during which period ho distinguished himself for his cool- ness and bravery. Foxhai.l A. Paukeu. Huntington (DANiET.),b. in New York Oct. 11, ISlfi; educated at Hamilton College: was first .stimulated to the pursuit of art by Charles L. Elliot, whom he met while a stuilent : in 1S;!5 began to study under Morse; later was a pupil of Inman ; in 1S36 traveller! and sketched in the Highlands of the Hudson; in ls39 went to Italy and painted figure-pieces; returned to New York, paintcil por- traits and commenced illustrations of the Pihjrim'K I^i-mj- rrnur which failure of eyesight crimpolled him to discon- tinue; revisited Europe in 1S44, and ]iainled other etun- position pictures, which added to his fame: on his return resuuieil the painting of ])ortraits, but found lime to exe- cute two or three historical pieces, JIniri/ Vl/f. <iud Onth- arine Ptirr, Mori/ Siipihtrf the Ih-rtlli-wnn'aiit of Lniiif Jaiir Grfi/, and Lmli/ June (Irei/ in the Tower. For many years past his permanent resid-^nco has been in New York, where his reputation is very high. Huntington has been suc- cessful in several fields of art. He has painteil mountain scenery, marine views, landscapes, historical compositions, cabinet and genre pictures, groups and figures of fancy, icleal heads, subjects of religious story ancl sentiment; but his most distinguished work is in portraiture, .\mong his numerous sitters have been Bishop Mcllvaine, Dr. Muhlen- berg, Gulian Verplanck. Chancellor Kent, Lord Morpeth, Sir Charles Eastlake, Agassiz. Bryant, Lincoln. R. B. Min- turn— names that suggest a wide and eminent fame. Hunt- ington's most ambitious picture is Tin- Ilepublieun ConrI in the Time of Waahinr/ion. It contains sixty-four figures, all portraits of men and women celebrated in the Revolution- ary epoch— some copied from original j.aintings by Mal- bone, Stuart, Copley, or less known artists, others con- structed by the aid of family lineaments and traditions — the wholcgrouped as naturally as the conditions allowed. The picture \3 owned by A. T. Stewart. Mr. Huntington h.as been greatly honored by his profession and by the pub- lic. In ISJO aspccial exhibition was made in New York of all the pictures of his that could be eollecteil, the best known artists and citizens joining to make the tribute worthily expressive of their regard. On May 14, 1862, ho was elected president of the National Academy of Design, a position to which none but artists of recognized ability are chosen. 0. B. Frothixgham. Huntington (Rizht Rev. Frederic Dan), D. D., b. at ILidley, Jlass.. Jlay 2S, ISIU : graduated at Amherst in 1SS9 and at the Cambridge Divinity School in 1S42. En- tering the Unitarian ministry, he held a p.asloratc in Bos- ton iS42-55, when he became Plunimer professor of Chris- tian morals and preacher to Harvard University. In 18.')9 he took orders in the Episcopal Church ; in Islil was one of the founders of the Church Monthli/ ; and in ISG'J was consecrated bishop of Central New York. He has pub- lished 2 vols, of sermons, one of lectures on Ilwiian Soeirli/ (1860). and Letsons oil the I'arcMea, and other works. Huntington (Jedidiah Vinoent), M. D., b. in New York Jan. 20, 1S15 : was educated at Yale College and the University of New York, where he graduated in 1835; graduated M. D. at the University of Pennsylvania 1838; was professor of mental philosophy in St. John's College, near Flushing. N. Y.. for three years ; rector of a Protestant Episcopal church in Middlebury. Vt. ; in Europe 1846-49; became a Roman Catholic in 1S50; was editor of the .IfWro- polilon, Baltimore, 185.3-54; founded and edited (1855-57) the Leader, St. Louis ; author of /■ociii« (1842), LikIi/ Mice, a novel (1849), Alhan. The /■•orc«M1852), The Pretti/ Pl«le (1852), Koecmarij (1860), nioiiile tuitl lirnnetle (1858), Amerien Dieeoi-cred (1853), a poem, and some translations from the French. D. at Pan, France, Mar. 10, 1862. Ho was a brother of Daniel Huntington, the artist. Huntington (Samiel), LL.D., a signer of the Decla- ration of Independence, b. at Windham, Conn., July 3, 1731 ; learned the trade of a cooper; became in 1758 a law- yer of Norwich, Conn.: held many important offices; was a member of the Continental Congress 1776-83, and its president 1779-81 ; judge of the Connecticut superior court 1774-84; its chief-justice 1784; lieutenant-governor of Connecticut 1785; governor 1786-96. He received the honorary degree of LL.D. from Yale in 1787. D. at Nor- wich, Conn., Jan. 5, 1796. Huntington (Samitel), a nephew of Gov. Samuel Huntington j 1731-96), b. at Coventry, Conn., Oct. 4, 1765; graduated at Yale in 1785 ; became a lawyer in 1793 ; set- tled near Painesville, 0., in 1800; was a judge of tho common pleas court 1802-03 ; of tho superior court in 1803, and afterwards chief-justice; governor of Ohio 180.S-10; a colonel and paymaster in the war of 1812-14. HewasaLso a member of the first constitutional convention of Ohio, and Speaker of the first State senate. D. at Painesville, 0., June 8, 1817. Huntington City, post-v. of Prince George co., Md., 16 miles from Washington, 1). ('.. at the junction of tho Baltimore and Potomac ami the liowie and Pope's Creek R. Rs. ; has 2 hotels, a weekly newspaper, railroad machine- shops ; is situated in a farming and tobacco-growing region. J. W. SioTT, El). •■ HlNTiyUToMAN." Ilunt'ley Grove, posl-v. of Grafton ip., Jlcllenry co., III., on the Galena division of the Chicago and North-west- ern R. R., 7 miles N. W. of Elgin. Iluntoon' (Jonathan O.), b. at Unity, N. H.. in 1781 ; removed to JIaine, of which State he was governor 1830- 31. D. at Fairfield, Me., Oct. 14, 1851. Ilunts'burg, posttp. of Geauga co., 0. Pop. 824. Hunts'viUc, city, cap. of Madison co., Ala., tho " tjueen city of the mountains," is one of the most beauti- ful, thriving, and important towns in the State. It stands upon the bench of a mountain which is a spur of the Cum- berland Mountains; is on the Jlemphis and Charleston R. R. : has a brass and iron foundry, railroad machine- shops, planing mills, fire department, gas and water works, a national and a savings bank, a female college (Mcth- oilist). a female .seminary (Presbyterian), 9 churches, 3 weekly iiews]iapers. and fine public and private buildings. It has a large spring, which supplies a copious stream, HUN'rSVlLLE— HUliON. 1035 tributary to the Tennessee, 10 miles distant. Pop. 4907; of tp., exclusive of city. 3511. «;. M. .loiissTox, Kn. and Pcd. "Advocate." Huntsvillf, ])Ost-v., county-seat of Madison co., Ark. Pup. 221. Huotsville, post-tp. of Schuyler co., III. Pop. 1228. Hnntsvillc, postv. of Madison co.. IncL.on the Clcvc- Innd Columlms Cincinnati and Indianapolis R. R., and in Fall Creek tp. Pop. 202. Huntsvillc,ar. of West River tp., Randolph co., Ind. Pop. i:in. Uuntsvlllr, post-v., cap. of Randolph co., Mo., on the .St. Louis Kansas City and Northern U. U.. Ij:! miles from St. Louis. It has a college for both sexes, important coal- mines, a woollen-mill, machine-shop, Houring-inill, public high school, 4 churches. 2 hotels, 2 newspapers, etc. liiicii: & HtxTEii, Pc lis. "Hkiiald." Huntsville, tp. of Uockingliam co., N. C. Pop. 1S80. Iluntsvillc, posl-v. of .Mc.Arlbur tp., Logan co., 0.,on the Cincinnati .^andusky and Cleveland R. R. Pop. ;i22. Hnntsvillc, piist-v., county-seat of Scott co., Tenn., on New River. Pop. So. Iluntsvillc, cily, cap. of Walker co., Tex., 200 miles S. E. of .\uslin, on a branch of the Houston and Great Northern R. 11. It is the scat of the State penitentiary, in which arc manufactured elegant furniture, cotton and wool- len goods, bouts, wagons, buggies, etc. There arc 8 churches. It is the scat of.Vustin College (Presbyterian) and Andrew Female Seminary : has 2 steam corn-mills and cotton-gins, a newspaper, hotels, :! brickyards, and a largo tannery. Here Oen. Sam lloustun was buried. Chief business, ship- ping cotton. Pop. 159'J. G. RoDixsos, Ed. "Itkm." Hunya'dy (Jaxos), b. in Hungary at the close of the fonrlcenih century, but the year and the place of his birth, as well as his parentage and the origin of his surname, t'urri'iiii*, are unknown. I'nder Sigisniund and .\lbert ho acquired great fame by the valor and military skill with which he fought against the Turks, at that time the terror of Europe; and by .Vlbort he was made governor of the Hungarian provinces S. of the Danube. In 14.'i!), Albert d.. and VlaJislas, king of Poland, was elected king of Hungary. Under his reign the arms of Ilunyady were still more successful. He drove the Turks behind the Bal- kan, and compelled them to conclude an armistice of ten years (July 12, 1441). But Vladislas broke this armistice, and the result was the battle of Varna, in which the Hun- garians were totally routed and tho king fell (Nov. 10, Mil). During the ininority of Ladislas, a son of Albert, who was elected king of Hungary in 1411, Hunyady gov- erned the country, and he showed no less ability as a states- man than as a warrior. Ho kept order in the country ; and although in his contests with the Turks he met with some severe reverses — as, for instance, in the three days' battle of Kossova, Oct. 17, 1118 — ho nevertheless succeeded in checking their progress and preventing them from over- running the whole of Europe. His most brilliant exploit was the attack on the Turkish camp at Belgrad (.Inly 14, 11 JC). Miihammed II. ha<l laid siege to this city with an army of 1 jO.UOII men ami :100 cannons. But with a far in- ferior force Ilunyady eumpcllcd him to break up the siego and draw back, leaving behind him all his artillery. Shortly after Hunyady died. Of his two suns, the oldest, Ladislas, was beheaded at Buda fur having killed Count Cilley, a personal enemy of his father: the younger, Matthias Corvinus, was educaleil by (Jcorg Podiebrad of Bohemia, and became king of Hungary after Ladislas. IlupchS or Iloopeh, province of Central China, be- tween lat. 20° and .1:!° .\., and between Ion. 108° and 110° E., traversed by the river Yang-tze-Kiang. Area, 70,4^0 8<|uare miles. I'op. 2S, 0011,000. It is tho most fertile prov- ince of the Chinese empire, and no corner of it is left un- cultivated. Cap. WooChang. Illip'IVId ( Hkumaxs), b. at Marburg Mar. 31, 1798; d. Apr. 24, ]!<*jit; was successively professor at Marburg and Halle, where he succeeded to the chair of Oriental lan- guages on tho death of (lesenius, IS4:i. His most import- ant work is a Commrtitfji-y on the I'nnlmH (4 vols., lS.^,o-i;2), which is remarkable for its originality and scholarship. An iJnglish translation is now (187.J) in process of preparation. Ilnpp (,I(iiiN C), M. D., b. in Washington co.. Pa., Nov. 24, ISIU: gradualid at Wa«hinglun College. Pa.; look tho degree of M. D. from tho .leffersun ,Mi'di<*al College. Phila- delphia, 1847, and seltleil in Wheiling, Vn., where ho now resides. He has coniributetl Iargel,v to tho Mfdicnl awl Siiri/irnl Itrpnrlrr of I'hihwlelpbia ; has now a largo prac- tice in West Virginia ami Ohio. Paii. F. Evk. Ilu'ra, or Snntl-box Tree ( f/nrn rrrpioum, order Euphorbiaceu^), a native of tropical America. When tho seed is ripo tho woody capsule bursts with a load report. It was once customary to mako sand-boxes of the unripe woody fruit, and it is related that these boxes would some- times spontaneously explode after being used for years. The seeds are sharply purgative. Hurd (RniiAnD), U. D., b. in Staffordshire, England, in 1720 ; educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, where he took his <lcgree in 1742, and continued to reside till 1767. when he was appointed rector of Thurcaston, in Leicestershire, where he remained until 1705, when ho was chosen preacher of Lincoln's Inn : promoted to the arch- deaconry of Gloucester in 1707, and to the bishopric of Lichliclil and Coventry in 177a, from whence he was trans- ferred in 1781 to that of Worcester, where bo continued until his death, declining the offer of the arcbbi.<hopric of Canterbury on the deatli of Dr. Cornwallis in 1783. Ho was the lifelong friend and admirer of Bishop Warburton, whose biographer he also was, and wrote numerous pam- phlets vindicatory of Warburtou's views. Of his writings, which were very numerous, tlie most prominent are his DitiloqncH, Li'ltpft on Homaticr. and Chii-fttry, Eiiijlinh Com- mrntartj tin the Ejtintle of ILiiiii'ii on the Art of PorAni, Tirelv: DincoursiH on the Projjhteice, his Sermona, and tho life of Bishop Warburton. D. in ISOS. Unr'dic, a flat rectangular framework of stakes and wattles employed for fencing material by European farmers, and sometimes used in warfare in the construction of earth- works. Hurdles arc often set up in the race-course for horses to lcai> over. HurUwnr', a small town of Ilindostan, situated in lat. 29° 57' N. and Ion. 7tl° M' E., at an elevation of 102J feet above tho sea, on the spot where the Ganges bursts from the hill-country into the plain of Hindustan. During tho latter part of March and the beginning of April this placo is yearly visited by more than 200,000 pil:.;rlms, who cunio to make their ablutions in tlio holy water, ami on some occasiims tho number of visitors is said to increase to 2,0110,000. A large fair is held here at tho same lime, to which the products of all tho neighboring countries are brought. Pop. r>0U0. Iliir'dy-gurdy, a musical instrument of tho stringed kind, formerly much used by the European peasantry, but now seldom seen except in the hands of Savuyard boys, who play it in the streets. It consists of a flat sounding- board, connected by tolerably deep ribs to a back of the same size and shape. It has four strings of gut, which are put into vibration by the erige of a wooden wheel turned by a handle. It is suited only to very simple melodies. Iliirrbiirt, tp. of Logan co., 111. Pup. 470. Illirl'biit (.Stepiie.v A.), b. at Charleston, S. C, Nov. 29, ISIJ; received a liberal education, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1837 ; removed tu Illinois and settled in Belviilere. In 1S47 he was eleclcil tu the Slate consti- tutional cunventiun as a Whig ; Presidential elector on the Whig ticket 1S48; member uf the State legislature IS,"i9, 1801, and 1807, and Presidential elcelor on the Republican ticket 1808. During the civil war ho was appointed in .May, 1801, a brigadier-general of volunteers, commanding a division at the battle of Pittsburg Landing: promoted to be mn.ior-gencral of volunteers Se]it., 1802, and commanded the llitb army cor|is and department of the Gulf. In 1809 he wasa])poinlcd minister resident to the V. S. of Columbia, which ollieo he held till 1872; elected member of the 43d Congress from the 4th district of Illinois. G. C. Sim.moxs. Ilurlbiit (Wii.i.iAM IlKN-nv), b. in Charleslon, S. C, July 3, 1S27. He was graduated at Harvard College in 1817, at Harvarrl Divinity School in ISID; went the same year to the University of ISerlin, and the next year to Rome and Paris. In 1852 he entered Harvard Law School, and in 1853 went to the West Indies; in 1864 published /'/<■- tiirca of Ciili'i : in 1855 joined the staff of I'lilniim'n M,t,,,t- zinc and the .1//ii'.ui ; in 1850 went to England; in ls.,7 ioinc* the New York Timet; in 185S travelled through Englaml, Gcnitany, and Russia; in lsfi2 joined the New York H'urW .• spent lSCB-07 in travelling through Mexico, Austria, Hungary, and Italy; visited Suez in 1801); tho (Ecumenical Cuuncil at Rome in l'<70, Santo Domingo in 1871 : revisited .Mexico in 1871, and again in 1^72; in 1873 visited Spanish .\nicricn, to Cape Horn, returning by Mun- tevideo. Brazil, Portugal, and England. Author of don Ellen (IS5I), Ocn. McClcllan and the Condnel of the War (18011, etc. J. B, Bisilof. Ilur'ley, post-lp, of Ulster co., N. Y., has extensive quarries of flagging and building-stone. Pop. 2087. iiii'ron, county of Ontario, Canailn, on tho E. side of Lake Huron. Area, l.'i92 square miles. Tho soil is very productive, and the scenery often (lieturesque. There are 2 ridings. The county is intersected by a branch of the Graml Trunk Railway, Cap. (iudcrich. Pop. 00,105, 1086 HURON— HUSH. Plliron, county of Michifjan. having Lake Huron upon the N. and E. and Saginaw Hay upon the W. Area, about 8."J0 square miles. It is mostly covered with pine forests. Lumber and grain arc staple products. Cap. Port Austin. Pop. OOl'J. Huron, county of the N. of Ohio. Area. 464 square miles. It is level, fertile, and well cultivated. Cattle, grain, wool, and fruit are ])roduccd. The manufactures include lumber, carriages, harnesses, cooperage, etc. It is travcrsecl by the Cleveland and Columbus, the Sandusky Mansfield and Newark, and the Cleveland and Toledo 11. Ks, Cap. Norwalk. Pop. 28,j:J2. Huron, post-tp. of Des Moines co., Ta. Pop. 807. Huron, tp. of Houghton co., Mich. Pop. 7C0. Huron, tp. of Huron co.. Mich. It contains the post-v. of Huron City, on Lake Huron. Pop. 4U3. Huron, tp. of Wayne co.. Mich. Pop. 126.^. Huron, post-tp. of Wavne co., N. Y., on Lake Ontario. Pop. 201)0. Huron, post-v. of Eric co., 0., on Lake Erie and on the Lake Shore R. R., 8 miles S. E. of Sandusky, at the mouth of Huron River. It has a good trade, the river serving as a harbor. Pop. G97 : of Huron tp. 14S:i. Huron Indians, or Wyandots, a tribe of Iroquois stock. They anciently occupied a large area in Canada, from Montreal westward. Having joined the Roman Cath- olics, they were set upon by the Six Nations, and, with the Eries, were nearly exterminated by them in 16;i6. A large party of them took refuge on St. Joseph's Island, and there perished by hunger. A party of them settled at Ancienne Lorctte, in Lower Canada, where some 200 of their descend- ants remain. A large body settled S. of Lake Superior, whence they were expelled by the Dakotas. We next find tliem in Detroit, and then about Sandusky and N. of Luke Erie. In 1704 they could muster ;i(lO fighting-mcn. They served against the U. S. in 1812-15. In is;i2 they were removed to a point near the mouth of the Kansas River. They numbered in 1832, 6S7 : in 1S3G, 575 ; in 1S47, 6S7 ; in I'SfiO, 435 ; in 1870,222. This loss is partly owing to the adoption of U.S. citizenship by a portion of the tribe. This portion is generally prosperous : the others by no means so. Their reservation of 20,000 acres is in the In- dian Territory, between the Shawnee and Seneca Indians. Those of the U. S. bear the name of Wyandots, the name by which they called themselves, while their long-sepa- rated brethren of Canada are still called Hurons. Huron, Lake, the third in area of the great lakes of the St. Lawrence Basin. Its area is 23,800 square miles. It lies between the State of Michigan on the W. and the province of Ontario, which bounds it on the E. Lake Huron has more bays and good harbors than any other of the great lakes. The principal bay is Georgian Bay or Lake Manitoulin, in Canadian territory. Near the entrance to this bay is a chain of islands, of which the principal is Great Manitoulin, a rocky and thinly inhabited region. Lakes Superior and Michigan exceed it in area. The river St. Mary connects it with the former, and Mackinac Straits with the latter, while its outlet is the river St. Clair. Lake Huron averages about 1000 feet deep, the maximum being about ISOO fet't. Its waters are clear and cold, and abound in fish, of which the white-fish is commercially the most im])ortant. The lake is suliject to severe storms. The season of navigation extends from about May 1st to abuut Dec. 5th. Its surface is 574 feet above the sea-level. The lake receives the waters of numerous streams, which are mostly not very large. llur'ricane, tp. of Bradley co., Ark. Pop. 689. Ilurrii-ano, tp. of Greene co., Ark. Pop. 385. Hurriennr, post-tp. of Saline co., Ark. Pop. 390. Hurricanr, tp. of Fayette co., 111. Pop. 1333. Hurrirauc, post-tp. of Montgomery co., 111. 8- "24. Hurrii-ane, tp. of Carroll co., Mo. Pop. 2285. Hurricane, tp. of Lincoln co,, Mo. Pop. 3712. Hurricane [originally a Carib word, signifying a ** hi'^h wind "] is distinguishable from cyclones, storms, etc. by its extreme fury and .'•udden change in character. It is not neeessarily rotatory, as in a cyclone, or spiral, as in whirlwinds, but may partake of all or any of these charac- teri>tics. Hurricanes are unknown in the polar regions ; of frequent occurrence in the torriil zone, where they are especially violent ; and occasionally occur in the temperate zone, either indejiendcntly or on their transit from the torrid zone. They arc generally accompanied by rain, thunder, and lightning. In the Pacific and Northern In- dian oceans and the China Sea they arc called tvphoons, but po.-scss the same distinctive elements as the hurricanes of the districtft bounded by the Atlantic and Southern In- dian oceans. The premonitory indications of a hurricane arc a peculiar haziness of atmosphere, a general and om- inous stillness or calmness of wind and tide, and a peculiar feeling of physical lassitude or indolence. The barometer falls sensibly, and gradually incrnising winds from sonic unexpected quarters of the compass arise. The hurricane arrives at its climax of strength in from four to twenty-four hours, when the opposing currents of wind, rain, etc. sub- side as gradually as they commenced, leaving a sad wreck of property and life behind. In violence the hurricane ex- ceeds the force of the strongest waves. The highest hur- ricane winds on the British coast are recorded to have at- tained a velocity of 130 miles per hour. In reference to hurricane-tracks, their course appears to be. in the North Atlantic Ocean, southerly, to the N. of the Windward Islands; northwardly, over Newfoundland. Very few Imr- ricanes occur in the South Atlantic Ocean. The most fre- quently visited portions of the U.S. arc the coasts of Geor- gia and South Carolina. The origin and cause of the hur- ricanes of the Atlantic Ocean are but little known; they have occurred in the neighborhood of Florida when a cold N. wind has conflicted with the warm, moist air of the Gulf and ocean. They have also occurred in the western portion of the Gulf of JMexico afterthc presence of a Texan norther. The great proportion of the Atlantic hurricanes (both ns to number, extent, and violence) originate be- tween the Windward Islands and the African coart, moving along the American coast on its route to Iceland and Nor- way. (See Winds.) Hurst (John F.), D. D., b. Aug. 17,1SC4, in Dorchester CO., Md. ; educated at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., and Ilallo University, Germany J entered the Methodirt minis- try in 1858, and in 1CC6 went to Germany to take charge of the theological instruction in the Martin ?.Iission Inrtitutc, Bremen. Ho remained five years in Germany, during wliich time ho visited all the leading European countries, and in 1S70 made the tour of the Er.st. In the same year ho ac- cepted the professorship of historical theology in the Drew Theological Seminarv, Madison, N. J., made vacant by the death of Rev. Dr. B. H. Nadal. In May, 1S73, he' was elected president of the same seminary, a position which he still occupies, retaining his connection, however, with the chair of ecclesiastical history. Author of translations of Ilagenbach's Hintory of the Church in the Eif/htrmth and yinetefjiith Centuries (2 vols.), Langc's Comnicntftrt/ nn Jiomans, Van Oosterzce's Lectures on John's Gonpcf, and of an original ///w/ory o/ /f((f/o*ia^r«Hi, OutlincH of liiblr and Church HiMtori/, and Martj/rs to the Tract Caune. lie has in preparation a Hintorti of the Church, which will cover the entire period down to the present day. Hur'tcr, von fpRiFDuirn Emantel), b. at SchafT- hauseu JMar. 19, 1787 ; stuflied theology at Giittingen ; was appointed minister at Schaffhausen in 1824, but re- signed his office in 1841, and embraced Catholicism in 1844. In 1S4G he settled at Vienna, and was apjiointcd histori- ographer to the emperor of Austria. D. at (iratz Aug. 27, 1865. The )>rincipal of his works are — GeschirUtc den ost- ffothiHchm K'iulffs Thcodort'ch und seiner Jici/ieruuf/ (1807), Genchichtc Pttpst lunocenz III, nnd seiner ZeitycnoHScn (1834— 12), Geschichte A'atser Ferdinand If. und seiner El- tern (1850-57), Die Bef'eliidunf/ dcr Katholischen Kirche in der Schiccitz srit dem jahre 1S34 (1842-43), and Gehurt uud Wiedvr.jeburt (1845). Uurtes'ville, post-tp. of Russell co., Ala. Pop. 1440. Hushaud and Wife. See M.\RiaAf;R, by Pitor. J. N. Pomi:kov. LL.D. Husbandry, Patrons of. See Patcons of Hrs- DAMutv. by L. p. Brockett, a. M., M. D. Ilus'bands fnEitMAN).b. in Pennsylvania, but removed to Orange c<i.. N. C., where he became a member of the legislature and leader of the Regulators, of which party he published a full account in 1770. On May 10, 1771, a con- flict took place between Gov. Tryon and the Regulators; the latter were defeated, and Husbands flecl to IVnnsyl- vania. In 1778 he was a metnber of the legislature there ; wasconccrneci in the whisky insurrection in 171'4.and associ- ated with iiallatin. Brackenridge, and others as a com- mittee of safety. Having been imprisoned for a short time in Philadelphia, he determined to return home, but d. o^ the way. Mar., 1795. Huscli'ke (GKonr. Pnii.ipp Eiu'ard), b. at Miinden June 2(t, ISOI ; studied 1S17 at Gottingen, and was ap- pointed professor of jurispruflenec at the I'niversity of Breslau in 1827. His principal writings are — Stndhu dea rowiichen lUchts (1840), Gains (1855), Die /i/uvischen Ta/eln (1859). Hush, town of Roumania (Moldavia), has a Greek bishop, a normal school, and is a place of cotiimercial im- portance. Pop. variously estimated at from 4000 to 16,000. HUSKISSON— HUXCHESON. 1037 llas'kisson (William), b. at Birch-Moreton, Worccs- fcrsUirc, ICuglaud. iM:ir. II, 1770; r<;siili<l iis a student in Paris 17S;;-'J2, ivIrto Iio was a ineuiln-T of the Soeiote tie 178'J, a liiuderatc repubiioan club, and at tlie fe'aiuc time was private sccr,-tary to Lord Gowcr. the Uritish minister. He witnc!?od the deslruetioo of tlic liasiilo and opposed the issue of the assignats. In 17'JJ, Pitt appointed him an undor-sccretary for war and for tlie coliMiies; in 1790 he entered Parliament; became secretary of the treasury 1804; commissioner of woods and forests ISIl; member of the finance committee ISlC; president of the board of trade and treasurer of the navy 1S23; was colonial sccre- tarv 1S27-1!9. On the occasion of tlio opening of the Liv- erpool and Manchester Railway (.Sept. lo, I.S.JO) ho was struck by one of the engines, and d. on the same day. lluskisson's brilliant state papers, his ability in public af- fairs, and his liberal principles, which had (,'reat iutluence upon the course of reform in Kngland. entitle liini to a per- manent ]dace in history ; but throughout his public life he hail to contend with the strong prejudices of the English people, who generally regarded him as a dangerous inno- vator, with deep designs against the interests of society. Hus§ (.ToiiN), b. in l:i7.3 at Ilussinctz, in .Southern Bo- hemia, near the Bavarian frontier; entered in i:!S'J the Vniversity of Prague, where he took the degree of M. A. in l.iOB, and begin to give lectures on theology and |)hi- losophy in 13US. In 1401 ho became president of the faculty of theology, and in 1409 rector of the university. In phi- loiiophy he was a realist, and in opposition to the German professors, who were nominalists. By reviving an olil ordi- nance of Charles IV'., which gave the native students four votes in all discussions of university matters, and the for- eign only one, he caused a rupture, and the Polish, Saxon, anl Bavarian students, with their professors. 50U0 in num- ber, left the university. But those remaining, consisting chiefly of native Bohemians, drew so much the more closely around him. and in his contest with the Church, which now began to grow hot, the university was one of his principal supports. In 1 100 ho had taken holy orders, and in 1402 he ivas appointed preacher at the Bethlehem chapel at Prague, lie delivered his sermons in the Bohemian lan- guage, and gathered immense audiences, lie was a mild and kind-hearted man, with a pure, spiritual enthusiasm, hut his sympathy with the suffering and downtrodden was impassioned, and his opposition to vice, fiilsehood, and abuse was fierce. In a short time he became the idol of the lower classes of Prague, and at court he was high in favor; he was the confessor of (iueen Sophia, and King Wcnces- laufl was his friend. Nor was he at first met with enmity bv the Church, though his denunciations of the false doc- trines ill her teaching and the vices in her discipline were very loud. But by degrees .Vrchhishop Sbynko of Prague became frightened at the commotion which lluss's preach- ing caused, and as he knew the connection existing between the ideas of llnss and the writings of Wyclifi'e, he ordered all books by the latter to be deposited in his palace, and appealed to the pope. Alexander V. sent a bull against Wycliffc and all who held his opinions, and Sbynko had Iho books, 200 volumes, publicly burnt. IIuss protested, not against the pope, but against the measures of Sbynko, and addresscil a brilliant exposition of the whole matter to the new ]Mjpe, .John XXIII. A committee c»f cardinals was appointed, and Sbynko's acts were denounced as transgres- sions of his legitimate power, but at the same time lluss was accused of heresy and summoned to appear before the pope. The king, the f|neen, the university, the magistrates of Prague, even the archbishop himself, wrote to the pope to attest tiie orthodoxy of Huss, but in vain ; and. as he rcfnscii to ap])eQr, he was condemned and excommunicated, an<l a ban was placed on the city which received him within its walls, lie left Prague, but the popular inovcinents be- came so violent that Sbynko had to flee for his life, and lluss returned to his chapel, where his preaching against the pope and the Church became bolder and bolder; the po|)c was compelled to acfiuicsce. But in 1412, . I ohn XXI 1 1, preached a crusado against La.lislas, who fought with Louis II. for the possession of Naples, ami the pope granted indulgences to all who would take arms against Ladislas. Pcandaliied at seeing the head of the Church meddle in this way with secular affairs, lluss gave, in his Qiiimtin tir Jtninfi/rutii^ nivc tic crucintit painr Jtntmiin XXIII. and C'lulrit lliilliim pnpn- Junuuii XX III., an expnsiliim of the frauds and lies, doctrinal and historical, on which the whole Church establishment rested ; and in clearness and conclusiveness of demonstration, and in simplicity ami im- prcssiveness of representation, these writings have perhaps never been surpassed. .\ new bull of ban was flung against him. but he now appealed to a general council in open op. position to the pope. Provided with a safeguard from tlie emperor Sigismund, he repaired to Constance, where (Nov. I'.i, 1 11 1 ! the general council opened. He " ■ ' well received both by the pope and the prelates, and seemed even to in- spire confidence. But by the intrigues of his euemies affairs soon took anothertnrn. He was imprisoucd first in the cathedral, then in a iJoininican convent on an island of the Lake of Constance, then in the castlu of Uottlebcn, where chains were put on him ; and when at last (June, 1415) he actually appeared before the council, it was evi- dent that he was condemned before ho was heard. On July G he was sentenced, and the same day he was burnt at the stake outside of the city, and his ashes were strewn on the lihine. Many attempts were made to persuade him to recant, but he refused, and he died singing with loud voice the h'l/ric elelson. Of his collected works there aro two editions, Strasburg (1525) and Nuvcmbcrg (1558). Of his Bohemian writings there is an edition by Erben in 1804. His letters wero translated into French in 1810 by Emile dc Bonneehosc. CLEMiixs Pkteiises. Hussar' [Hung., from liiisz, "twenty;" every twenty families were obliged to furni.sh a man], originally the irreg- ular cavalry of Hungary and Croatia. The name is now ap- plied to many light cavalry regiments in various armies. The British army (187.3) had sixteen hussar regiments. Ilus'sites is the name of the followers of Huss. Im- mediately after his marlynlom they arose in Bohemia, and took a frightful revenge <m flic priests, monks, and prelates of the Konmn Catholic Church. King Wcnceslaus succeeded, however, in appeasing the storm by granting them religious freedom and a])propriatiug a number of churches for their use. But when the' king died in 14 I'J, and the pope issued an order for the conversion of the Hussites by force, a civil war began. They assembled under the leadership of John Ziska on Mount Tabor, captured Prague, pillaged and burnt the monasteries, and defeated at Deutchbrod in 1422, and in several other minor encounters, the troops of Sigismund, the German emperor and the heir of Wcnceslaus. Ziska d. in 1424, but his successor, Procopius, a former monk, was still more successful. He defeated Sigismund at Micss and Ta- chau, and carried the war into Austria, Bavaria, Franconia, and Saxony. Meanwhile, the Hussites had separated into two parties', the Taboriles and the Calixtines. The former were the most radical, and acknowledged no doctrine which was not immediately given by the text of the Seriiiturcs; while the latter held a more moderate position. In the be- ginning, however, they acted in perfect concert with each other. But in I4:i.'! the Council of Bale succeeded in com- ing to an agreement with the Calixtines ami in drawing them out of the contest, the result of which was that the Tahorites were totally defeated at Biimischbrod in 14.'i4. By the treafv of Iglau'(14.''.n) the einiiernr Sigismund grant- ed to Bohcn'iia both religious and )><ilitical tVcedoin, but tho civil war did not cease uutil 14S5, when King Ladislas, at the diet of Kuttenbcrg. solemnly confirmed tho treaty of Iglau. (Sec BoiiKMiA.s Buf.tiiiikx.) Husson' (.!i:\N lloxoiif; AuiSTinn), h. at Paris July ."!, 180.", ; studied si-ulpture under David, and received the first prize in l8:;o for his 7'Ac».'ri«, and the gold medal in ls:;7 for his Gitindinii Aiuitl. His most celebrated statues aro lldiilfr, in the museum of liicnoble, and Siimmtr and Au- tumn, in the Place de la Concorde, Paris. Ilu'stocl ( JAMi:s W.), h. at Bedford, N. Y., Oct. 31, 1833; graduated with honors at Vale 1854 ; was admitted to the bar 1857 ; early entercrl public life; was cho.scn school commis- sioner for 'Westchester co., N. v., ill 1858; deputy superin- tendent of insurirncc department 1800 ; was afterwards har- bor-master and then deputy captain of the port of New York; judge advocate for the 7lll brigade New York Na- tional Guard, etc. ; became major-general of the 5tli divis- ion New York National Guard in 1H73; Speaker of tho assembly 1874; president of the New York State .Military Association 1874; is a high oflicial of tho Masonic^ order and a. successful lawyer. Itceidcncc, Pcckskill, N. \. Illl'stisfonI, jiost-tp. of Uodgo CO., Wis. Pop. 1C96. Ilu'stoii, tp. of Blair Co., Pa. Pop. 133S. Huston, tp. of Centre co., Pa. Pop. 803. Huston, tp. of Clearfield co.. Pa. Pop. 087. Iln'stonvillP, post-v. of Lincoln co., Ky., 53 miles S. by E. of I'r.iTikfort. Pop. 320. IIut'«-lirson (FuAScis), b. Aug. 8, 1094, at Drumalig. I'Ister. Ireland, whither his grandfather had inimigraled from Scotland; studied theology at the University of Glas- gow 1712-10; lived as a public teacher in Dublin 1717-29, during which period he published Intjiitrif iitio Ihr Ort;fiitttt at' our IiUim «J llcauli/ iiiiil Vhliii- (1720) and X'litKrc iiiid ('iimluvt of thr /'.M«.oi.» iinrl .\ffi-rii,m<i (1728), an.l was in 1729 appointed professor of moral philosophy at the Uni- versity of (Hasgow. He d. during a visit to Dublin Aug. 8, 1740.' His Stjnirm „/ Maial I'liilufjthii was publisbeil by his son in 1755. In tho history of Scottish philosophy. Ilutehe- son occupies a conspicuous place, though his books ceased to 1038 HUTCHINS— HUTTEN, VON. be generally read soon after his death. Ho was strongly op- posed to Locko and the whole empirical tendency of the English philosophy, and this may be considered as the prc-eminentiy Scottish clement in his philosophy, as an an- ticipation of Dr. Ueid. Hut by his own time he was, on the otlicr hand, suspected as belonging to the " new lights," and intending to put a new face on Scotch theology; and the suspicion was right. Moral goodness he defines as the right relation between the propensities; virtue he repre- sents as hencvoleuce ; and the whole moral state of man he rests on a sense jjceuliar to man, the moral sense. Uut the assumption of a moral sense brought him in dangerous propin(|uity to the opinion that man could be moral with- out knowing God: which opinion evidently involved that the hcatiien were not necessarily condemned: and for this very sentence his former teacher. Prof. Jcdin Simsou, had been dismissed from the University of (;iasgi»w in 1729. llutcheson delivered his lectures in English, though the banflbooks in logic, metaphysics, etc., which he published for the use of his classes arc written in Latin. Hut'chilis (Thomas), b. at Monmouth, N. J., about 1730. At an early age he entere<I the British military service, and became captain in the '* Iloyal American " regiment; acted as engineer in (ien. Henry Bouquet's famous expedition against the Shawnees (1764). and participated creditably in a campaign against the Florida Indians. Being in Lon- don in 1779, his known clevotion to American independence led to an imprisonment for six weeks on a charge of main- taining correspondence with Franklin, by which circum- stance he is said to have lost £12,000. Soon afterward he sailed from Franco to Charleston, S. C, and joined the army under Gen. Greene, receiving the title of "geographer- general." He furnished the maps and plates for Dr. Smith's Arronnt of Bouquet's Ejcpvdition ( Phila., 1765; London, 1706); published A Toptajraphicnl Dcncriptiou of Virginia, Pennni/lvatiin, Mavifhind, and Cnrnllnnj with mapti (London, 1778; in French, Paris, 17.S1); and An Historical and To- pofjraphical Description uf Louisiana and West Florida (Phiia., 1784), besides several papers in the Transactions of the scientific societies at Philadelphia. His geographical works were largely used by Dr. i\Iorse in the compilation of his American tfnzetUcr. D. at Pittsburg Apr. 28, 1789. Ilut'chinson, county in the S. E. of Dakota. Area, about 720 square miles. It is intersected by the Dakota lUver. Cap. Maxwell. Pop. 37. Hutchinson, city, cap. of Reno eo.. Kan., on the Arkansas and the Atchison Topeka and Santa Fc R. R., has a weekly newspaper, a court-house, bank, churches and schools, and is in a healthy, fertile region. Founded 1S71. C. C. HrTCiirs'soN, En. " Resotrcks of Kaxsa.s." Hutchinson, post-tp. of McLeod co., Minn. P. 440. Hutchinson (Annk), a famous religious enthusiast, founder of the .\ntinomian sect of Xcw England, b. at Al- ford. Lincolnshire, England, in lJ9I,thedaughtcrof Francis Marbury, a parish clergyman. On her mother's side she was a second cousin of the poet Dryden. In 10;i4 shccame to Boston, Mass., to enjoy the preaching of John Cotton. Here she instituted meetings of women for the discussion of doctrinal questions, and her influence crc:itcda powerful faction and led to public disturbances. She even claimed a measure of divine inspiration. In 10o7 she was ban- ished to Rhode Island, where she was the leader of a small sect until 1042. when, after her husband's death, she re- moved to the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam, where (as some say near Hell (iate, or according to others near Al- bany) she was murdered by the Indians in KM.'i. Among her followers was her brother-in-law, .John Wheelwright, the founder of Exeter, N. H., and Sir Harry Vane, the govern- or of Massachusetts, was her defender. Even John Cotton seems to have been at one time favorably inclined to her doctrine. Hutchinson {John), b. about IGIG: married, in ICiS, a daughter of Sir Allen Apsley, governor of the Tower of London, and settled on liis estate atOwthorpe. In the be- ginning of the civil war he was appointed governor of Not- tingham Castle; represented Nottingham in the Parliament, and was a member of the high court of judiciary which sen- tenced the king to death, but retired from public life, dis- agreeing with Cromwell. Shortly after the Restoration he was arrested and detained in prison, first in the Tower, and then in Sandown Castle. Kent, where ho d. Sept. 11, 1661. — His wife, Lrov HrTciiissox. who survived him many years, wrote a memoir of his life, which was published in London in 1S06 from the original manuscript, and is considered a valuable record of events. Hutchinson (John), b. at Spennithorne, Yorkshire, in 1674 : <1. in I7^>7. Me was first steward an<i then riding purveyor to the duke of Somerset, and had dabbled a little in many different things; as, for instance, mineralogy and Hebrew. In 1724 he published the first volume of his Moses's Principia, in 1727 the second, and then followed a long series of miscellaneous writings, 12 vols, in all, in whieli ho ridiculed and reduced od absHrdnm Newton's views of nature and exjiuunded his own. These he pro- fessed to have extracted from the Old Testament by means of the only true and eomjietent method of interpreting the Hebrew language, which he alone was possessed of. By itself, this maze of craziness and ignorance has nothing remarkable, but it is a curious fact that it found believers and adherents in England. Hutchinson (Thomas), b. at Boston Sept. 9, 1711; graduated at Harvard College in 1727; studied law, and served as representative for Boston in the general court for ten years; was three times Speaker; iiecame lieutenant- governor in 175S, chief-justice in 1760, acting governor in 1 769, and was commissioned full governor in 1771. Hutch- inson early became obnoxious to the patriots on account of his unwavering support of all the tyrannical measures of the British ministry. In the Stamp Act riots of 1 765 his house was twice attacked; on the second occasion (Aug. 26), his furniture was burned in the street and an invaluable col- lection of historical MSS. lost or destroyed. Brought into constant collision with the assembly and council (luring the stormy years preceding the Revolution, Hutchinson was the most prominent mark in America for the invectives of Otis, Bowdoin, Hancock, and the two Adams. Wearied with the conflict, he saile<l f<jr England on leave of absence June I, 1774, and never returned to America. His services were rewarded by a pension from the Crown. Hutchinson was an accomplishcil scholar, and his writings arc valuable sources of information for New England liistory. He pub- lished in 1764 and 1707 two volumes of a Jliatori/ of the J*rovincf of Massacfinnttts liaj/, and in 1769 a VnlUction of Oriffinal Papers relative to the History of th*! C'olont/ of Massachusetts Bajf. A third volume of the History, com- pleting the work to 1774, appeared in 1828, edited by the author's grandson. Rev. John Hutchinson. D. at Bromp- ton, Eng., June 3, 1780. Hutchinson (Thomas Joseph), F. R. G. S., served as senior surgeon on the English expedition in 1854-55 to the rivers Niger. Tshadda. and Bine, and was appointed British consul in this territory in 1855; in 1S61 ho was transferred to Rosario in the Argentine Republic, and in 1870 to Callao. He has published Narrative of the Nifjcr Expedition (1855), Impnssionfi of Western Africa ilS58), Ten Years Amonif the Ethiopians (1861), Buenos Ayres (1865), Parana (I'SOS), and Tico Years in Pern (1874). Hut'sonriHe, ]>ost-tp. of Crawford co., III. Pop. 1S51. Hut'ten, von ( Ulrich), was a kind of literary knight- errant, whose influence it would be impossible to realize unless his life were viewed in connection with a detailed description of his time. He was b. in the castle of Steck- elberg, near Fulda, in the electorate of Hesse, Apr. 20, 1488, and in 1498 lie was placed in a monastery in Fulda in order to become a monk. But in 1504 he fled to Erfurt, where he conversed with poets and schcdars : and when, in the next year, a pestilential disease broke out and com- pelled him to leave the city, he went to Cologne. Here he made acquaintance with some of the most marked speci- mens of the riri ohiruri — as. for insJance, lloogstraten — and also with one of tbeirmost decided opponents, Johan- nes Rhagius. He allied himself with the latter, and fol- lowccl him in 1506 to Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where a new university was just established. Here he received the de- gree of M. A., and published his first poem. Carmen in Laudrm Marchiir: but in 1508 he was attackecl himself by the above-mentioned disease, and for several years he wan- dered ar<tun<l in Northern Germany, experiencing numy turns of fortune, courted to-da^' and beaten to-morrow. In 1511 ho was in Wittenberg, where he juildished his Ars vcrsificatoria, siud in 1512 he went through Moravia and Bohemia, through Vienna, to Pavia. in order to study law. But after the conquest of Pavia he was jdundcred of all ho owned, and was at last compelled by the danger of starva- tion to enlist in the imperial army. He left it very soon, however, and returned home to Germany, and during the two following years (15L5-15) his denunciations of TUrich, duko of Wiirtcmbcrg, and especially his defence of Rcuch- lin, made bis name quite famous. The j>ublication of Epistohc obscurorum vii-oi-urn, in the writing of which he probably bore a part, is generally considered as hav- ing furthered the cause of the Reformation. In 1515 he once more went to Italy, but returned again in 1517: was knighted by the emperor at the diet of Augsburg, and en- tered the service of the archbishop of Mentz. Next year, however, he retired from the court, and at this time he be- gan the publieation of the severest attacks on the pope and the eb-rgy written in German. The pope demanded his surrender as a prisoner, and Huttcn fled, first from his own HUrrER— HYACINTHE. 1039 castle, and then from that of Frani von Sickingen, where he found rcfuic. He went to Switierland. and here, again attacked liv his old disease, he d. Aug. l!:i. lil.':J. in IJfenau, an ijland in I-akc Zurich. A coUe.-lcd edition of his works was published by Bucking (1S02), and a biography by Slrnuss (1857). Hut'ter (r.EOMTAiinT). h. at Xollinsen, Bavaria, in 156.1 ; vludicd thcd.igv at PtrasliiirK, Leipsic. Iloidellierg, and .Iina, and was appointed in l^'ufi pridVssor in Wittenberg, where he d. Oct. 23, lOlfi- His most prominent works are — /'.jneor./m r-ncort (1614). written in defence of the Lu- theran system of doctrines, which had been atl.ieked by llospinia'n in his CmcnUn ,li,c.,r>: and (•■.m,,,;i<l/iim l.,ro. r.iiii ilicii/n./iranwi, a Lutheran dogmatic treatise, which has been published several times; last ed. 180S. Iliit'ton, post-lp. of Coles co., 111. Pop. 2196. Iliitton, Ip. of Putnam CO., West Va. Pop. ljG8. ilutton (riiARLKS). b. at Newcasllc-on-Tyne Aug. 14, 1737 ; lived at Newcastle as teacher from 1760 to 1773, dur- ing which period he wrote his Ticuliie on ylii//imc(/c ami «<7"*--ile,/).Fi7 (1764), Trrallie im Mfiiimrniivn (1771), and Prliir!/,!,^ <,f Ilrkl'lfi and Malliciiialirut fjcmnnntralion of Ihe Lair, „f Arche'n (1772) : was in 1773 appointed professor of mathematics at the military acailcniy of Woolwich. and in 1774 elected a member of the Royal Society. D. .Ian. 27, IS23. Besides a number of papers in the Traiuaclimt of the Royal Society, in the I'/filonnpln'ral Traiisnctimm, and the Ladiet' Oi'ari/. he published J'ahUa of PrndiKlt and /'oicrrt «/" Xiimberii ( 17S1 ), Mathematical Tablel ( 1785), r.mrie «f Malhematica (17'J8-1801), and Kecrcaliont 111 M'llhrmiitlct and Xnlarul Plii'liiiojihi/ (4 vols., 1S03). Ilutton fJA>fF.s).b. in Edinburgh .Tunc 3.1726: studied medicine in his native city, in I'aris. and at Lcyden, where he look the decree of .M.' 1>. ; engaged after his return to Knirland first in the manufacture of chemicals, then in agricultural pursuits, concentrating his studies on tho fields of natural science, especially geology. The principal re- sults of his researches were a Tlirnri/ nf Iliin, cnmmuni- caled to the TranMarilont of the Royal Society of Edin- burgh, and a Thron/ ../" llir- Earth, in which he claims that most geological phenomena which by Werner and his school were explained as effected by aqueous influences were pro- duced by igneous fusion. The former is still considered a valuable contribution to the science of meteorology ; by tho latter (2 vols., 17115-96) he established tho principle of pliilonisin. I), in Edinburgh Mar. 26, 1797. Hux'Icy (Thomas Hkshy), iM. B., Pn. I)., LL.D., F. R. S., b. at Eiling, Middlesex, England. May 4, 1S25; became a student of Charing Cross Hospital 1S42; gradu- ated .M. B., with honors, from the University of London ISli: was assistant surgeon of the royal navy 1816-53; Failed around the world in II. .M. S. Rattlesnake, which then perrormcd surveying service in Australasia, 1S46-50; became V. R. S. IS51, in acknowledgment of tho value of tho observations in natural science made by him while in tlic naval service, concerning which ho had from time to time sent papers to that society ; became in 1854 professor of natural history in the School of Mines, which position he retains in 1875 : Huntcrinn professor in the Royal Col- lege of Surgeons 1S63-69; president of tho (ieological and the Ethnological societies 1S69-7U ; was appointed one of the royal commissioners im scientific instruction and the advancement of science 1S70; was on the London school boar<l 1876-72; secretary of the Royal Society 1S72; lord rectnr of the I'uiversityof Aberdeen 1S72; and has twice been named Fullerinn 'professor in the Royal Institution. Prof. Huxley has for many years been one of the most la- borious workers in biological science. The comparative anatomy of both vertebrate and invertebrate animals, and tho systematic arrangement of organisms, have been the fields in which he has been chiefly distinguished. He has proposed several bold rearrangements of animals into new classes, orders, and has discovered some remarkable analo- gies in the development of vertebrate and invertebrate animals. His theory of protoplasm, his able advocacy of the Darwinian hypothesis, and the doctrine lioldly ad- vanceil by him in his address before the physiological sec- tion of the British Association at its Belfast meeting in 1874, that the seemingly voluntary movements of animals, and oven of men, are automatic ami independent of the will, have attracted much attention. Author of Thr Orranir I/i/drozoa (1S57), .Voii'» Phirr In Xalnrr (1863), On llir PluiHiral Ilamt af Life (1868), Elrmcntari/ Plii/tiidiiriy (1.866), fnlrndnrli,',n tn the ClaimlJIralinn nf ytiiinin/« (1869), Lai/ .S>riiioii«. etc. (1870), 'Vi'(i./ii<-« and Addretnci (1873), and of many important scientific papers. Iliiy, town of Betginui, in the province of Lidge, at the confluiuce of the Hoyoux and the .Maas. It is strongly forlilied. and has rieii coiil and iron mines in its vicinity, which is mountainous, almost alpine, in its character. Pop. 11,055. Huydecop'erfBAi.TnASAn),b. in Amsterdam in 1695; filled lor many years the office of sheriff of his native town, and d. there Se[>t. 21, 1778. llis Latin poems and his Dutch tragedies. Arltittm, Arnarrii, etc.. are not now read, but his remarks on V'ondel's translation ui Oridii Mrttim<ir/>hnnri,and his other critical and linguistic works, started in the Nether- lands the grammatical cultivation of the Dutch language. Hny'Rhcns (CnnisTiAx),b. at the Hague .Apr. 14. 1629, and cilucated at the universities of Leydcn and Breda, where he stvnlied law and mathematics. He made several journeys to Denmark, France, and Englan<l. and resided from 1665 to IGSl, at the invitation of Cdbert, at Paris, where he w.as made a member of the .\cademy of .Science and had apartments assigncif him in the royal library. Tho latter part of his life he spent at the Hague, where he d. July 8. 1695. .As a mathematician, especially as a geo- metrician, he enjoyed the greatest fame, and his papers on the calculus of probabilities and on the quadrature of a portion of a cycloid were considered masterpieces. His views on optics and mechanics also attracted great atten- tion. He was the most able advocate of the nndulatory hypothesis of light, which he developed in 1678. It was not generally adopted, l)y reason, prol>alily, of the great authority of Newtcm, who embraced the emission hypoth- esis. By the later labors of Young, Frcsncl. and others the doctrine of Iluyghens was restated, and is now universally received. But it was more especially his astronomical dis- coveries which made his name celebrated. -At different times in his life he was much occujiied in making improve- ments in the construction of telesc<)]>es, and in l(i5C he discovered the first satellite of Saturn, and in 1659 the ring; which discoveries he described in his Si/Ktrnia Sattir- ninm (16591. He became still more widely known as the inventor of the pendulum clock, which he described in his /Inrolni/lum (Jncillatnrlum (1658). His works were pub- lished in two collections. Opera varia (1724) and Opera reliijna (1728). Iliiy'sum, van (.Ian), b. at Amsterdam in 1682; re- ceived instruction in landscape painting from his father, but devoted himself exclusively to the painting of tiowcrs and fruits, in which (jmre he becinie one of the greatest masters, if not the very greatest. D. in his native city in 1749. lie was jiroud. jealous, and of a dithcult tempera- ment ; kept his knowledge of the preparation of colors and oilier tecliniealities a deep secret: worked slowly, Init ac- quired a naturalness ami life in drawing and a warmth and brilliancy of coloring which have never been surpassed. His representation of dewdrops resting on the tips of grass, of down floating iu the air, or of an insect crawling over a leaf, arc often too true, making an impression as if the fly were sittijig on tho picture and not on the flower. His ]tainfings are found only in the greatest galleries. Ily'ai'inth [so called from the youth Hyaciiithus, slain by the quoit of AjioUo ; from his blood the flower was fabled to have sprung], a genus of bullious-rootcd flowering plants of the order Liliacea>. Several species are natives of tho Old Worlil. Besides these, some species of Mnicari (globe- hyacinths) and Srilla, or stiuill, are called hyacinths by florists. The true hyacinths of cultivation arc varieties of Hi/aiinthnii arirntalin. There are a great many kinds pro- duced from seed, but for ordinary culture the bulbs are planted. These bulbs come eliielly fioni Haarlem in tho Netherlands. They do best in a rich but sandy soil. They arc often planted in pots, and for house-culture they do tolerably well in hyacinth-glasses with water only. Ac- cording to tradition, the petals of the hyacinth are inscribed with the llreek letters m. ai, .Apollo's exelamalion of grief when he found that he liail slain the beautiful llyaeinthus; or va, the first two letters of his name. Hence, .Milton calls it •' tiiat sanguine flower inscribed with woe." Most people fail to finil any such mark u|ion the hyacinth, and it is not certain that the hyacinth of the ancients was identical with ours. But ."^prengel iind others profess to have sei-u hya- cinths with tlie inscription. //. noH'tcriptua is the bluebell of lireat Britain. (See Br.i'RnKi.f..) Ilyncinthf or Jacinth, is a term aj^plied to bright- coloreil varieties of zircon, a mineral that crystallizes in the rlinietrie system, and is in composition a silicate of zirconia. The hvaeinth is used as a gem, and varies in color from various shades of reil to orange. It is doiibll'nl, however, whether this is the ua*cie5oc of the ancients, which may have been the amethyst or the sapphire. Ilyarintlie (CiiAni.ns Loyson, called Fatiii:r), b. at Orleans in 1S27 ; after his regular course of studies in tho ' college of Pan he entered the ecclesiastical college of St. ' Sulpice. Four years after he was ordaim-tl priest, and was professor of theology in several schools. Ilyacinthe wa.i 1040 HY^NA— HYBRIDITY. then attached, as a working priest, to the parish of St. Sul- pice in Paris, l)ut he soon made himself a monk, and en- tered the convent of the Carmelites in Lyons. From 1804 till ISIl'J he was one of the most celebrated preachers ever licard, at liordeau.x, Xante^, and in Notre Dame of Paris. But he was then suspected of uttering too liberal religious doctrines, severely attacked by the I'ltramontanc papers, and linally excommunicated by tile pope. Father llyacinthc soon after ( ISOD) made a voyage to the U. S., where he was warmly received. t.ln his return to France he married an American lady, who bore him a son. Persecution, open and concealed, com)ielled him to take refuge in Switzer- land, where he established an Old Catholic church at Gene- va, but here he was assailed by some dissenters of his own Church, who thought he was not sufficiently radical in his doctrine, because he contiuned to affirni liis faith in Ro- man Catholicism, minus the maintenance of papal infal- Hliility and other secondary dogmas. For some time F'alher llyaciuthe did not preach, but he has recently found another congregation, and again begun preaching in another church at Ccneva. F'ki.ix Aucaigne. Hytr'iia [Gr. iawa: Lat. hiimnn], a genus of carnivorous mammals belonging to the -Eluroidca, or eat-like division of the sub-order Fissipedia, order Fcric. As in the cats and dogs, the feet are digitigrade, the weight of the body being supported by the toes instead of by the whole foot, as in the bears. Tlie dental formula is — incisors - — -, canines — r, premolars ., ~, molars - — -. Iho last up- per tooth, or true molar, is small, transversely elongated, and tubercular: the last jircmolar, or succcssional tooth, being the sectorial or flesh tooth. In the lower jaw the true molar is the sectorial tooth. All the teeth, especially the molars, are large and strong, and set in powerful jaws, which are worked by muscles of corresponding develop- ment. The hyivna is thus fitted to obtain its living by de- vouring the cartilages, and even gnawing and crushing the bones of animals killed by the lion and other aetivo predaceous beasts; and most of its subsistence is thus ob- tained, although it sometimes captures living prey by the chase. The auditory bullie are destitute of the septum found in the cats. The toes are straight, with blunt, non- retractile claws. The hind legs are usually short, the tail short and bushy, and the neck provided with a short bristly mane, whence the classical name, signifying a *' sow." Three living species are known: two of these are from Southern Africa — viz. the brown hyicna (//. bntutiea), with the fur clouded, rather long, brain-case compressed, a largo and deep sub-caudal gland, and the legs of nearly equal length; and the spotted hya'Ua (//. crociifn), with no sub- caudal gland, and having the hinder legs short. The striped or banded hya'na (/A »f)i<i((i) ranges over Africa and South- ern Asia. The fur is striped, and there is a sub-caudal gland. The brain-case is larger than in //. Itruiim^a. The cave hyjcna was a large and fierce species that roamed over the continent of Europe during the Quaternary, and left, especially in the cave-deposits of Englaml, abundant fossil remains of its own bones, mingled with those of otlicr ani- mals licaring unmistakable marks of its powerful teeth. This species, notwithstamling its large size, is now regarded as identical with the spotted liy;cna of South Africa. No species of hya-na, recent or fossil, is yet known from tho continent of America. 0. C. Mar.sii. Hyrcn'idte [from Gr. vmya, a "sow;" Lat. V/irim], n family of fissipedc fera! belonging to the group ,151uroidea (distinguished by the relations of the foramina of tho basis of the skull and the relations of the auditory bulla to tho paroccipital and mastoid processes), having the external aiipearance of a dog, but with the. shoulders elevated : ."! 1 teeth (M. \; P. M. ^: C. {; 1.^X2). of which the molars are large and approximate, tho true molars rerluced and tubercular, and tho last upper premolar sectorial and like tliat of the cat ; the true lucdar of the lower jaw sectorial; the jaws and muscles thereof arc very powerful. This family has been established fur the well-known hyienas, of which there are two genera: (1) Ifi/iriia, including species with a large sub-caudal gland, the tubercular grinders of the upper jaw enlarged and with three roots, and colored with clouded areas or bands; (2) Crocutn, with no sub- caudal gland, the tubercular grinders of the upper jaw small with only two roots, and tho color distributed in spots. The three living recognized species of the family are confined to Africa, and two of them (//i/.r?M( bntuiica anci Crociita titacittnia] are restricted to South Africa. In former times, however, forms scarcely distinguishable from the living species existed in Northern Europe, and their remains have been found in abundance in caves in Eng- land, especially at Kirkdale in Yorkshire. TnEononE Gill. H yn-n'otlon [Gr. iatva, a " hyicna," and oSovt, a '• tooth"], an exlinct genus of carnivorous mammals, the type of an extinct family, Hya!nodontid8D, partaking, in jiart, of cha- racters of the wolves, cats, and hyienas. The name was first used for a species from Ihc Lower Miocene of France, and the genus also occurs in the Upper Eocene of that country. Dr. Leidy has also described three species frnm the Miocene of Dakota. The largest of these, //. Iinnitlim, is the largest known species of the genus, and equalled in size n large black bear. The form of the skull is inter- mediate between that of the wolf and that of the opossum, tho brain-case being suiall,.ns in the latter animal. The temporal fossae arc large, and the lower jaw is strong. The ■A—^ 1—1 3cisors - — , , canines - — i, premolars All the true molars, both above and dental formula is— 3—3 , 3—3 4-4' ■"»'"" 3~3- below, are sectorial in character, the posterior one being much larger and stronger than the other two, and the series is remarkable for the entire absence of the posterior tuber- cular nndars usually found in Carnivores. The canines re- semble those of the wolf. The H. trittntus and H. crncitin« are smaller species, the latter a little larger than the red foi. 0. C. Maksii. Ilytrnodon'tida" [from vaira, "hywna," and oSovt, a "tooth"], a family of mammals which has generally been referred by some naturalists to the order Fera', and by others to the order Marsupialia. They had apparently 44 teeth (M. |, P. M. $, C. j, I. i X 2), and the second and third, as well as first, true molars were sectorial ; the last premolar of the lower jaw was enlarged. The family has been based upon the fossil remains of several species of animals which have been found in the Lower and Jliddle Tertiary deposits of F'ronce, and especially the Paris basin. There has been considerable diversity of opinion as to the systematic relations of these forms, but the latest original investigator. Prof. Gervais, has recently obtained casts from the interior of the cranium of one of the species, and has shown that in the former the brain was much more like that of a marsupial than that of a placental Carnivora: it further agrees with the marsupiiil Thylaeinids iu the sec- torial nature of all the true molars; but on the other hand it apparently resembled the Carnivores in the development of only six "incisor teeth in each jaw, and the absence of the inilectcd margin of the lower jaw. Theodork Gii.l. Ilya'lea [Gr. CrdAto?, " glassy "], a genus of transparent- shelled pteropod niollusks, of which nineteen species arc found in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and East Indian waters. The mollusk has two long appendages to the mantle. Ili/aha tridcntalu is the typical species. Some five or six lossil species are known. Hy'alitc, or MuUcr's Glass, a form of opal or hy- drated silica, of glassy lustre. It occurs as an incrusta- tion, generally in the form of pellucid drops. Ilyan'nis, post-v., seaport, and harbor of refuge on the S. side of Cape Cod, in liarnslable tp., Barnstable co., Mass., is the S. terminus of the llyannis branch of the Capo Cod K. R., and is 79 miles from ISoston. It has a national hank. Its outer harbor is protected by a breakwater. Be- siilis a harbor-light. llyannis has a fixed catroptric light in Inl. 41° 3S' U" N., Ion. 70° IC tiW W. Hybernation. See lIinKUNATiox. Hybrid'ity, or Ily'bridism [Lat. hyhriila, a "mon- grel : ' i)erhaps from the Gr. v^pn], treats of the issue of dis- similar kinds of animals and plants, or, in other words, the offspring of parents which belong respectively to different varieties or species. FVw subjecis have been so much misun- derstood or have given rise to so many superstitions as this. In tho olden times, and indeed until quite recently, among the educated as well as among the ignorant, thegrossest cre- dulity prevailed respecting the possibility of offspring be- tween the most dissimilar forms. Nor was this credulity always an innocent one : it hiis even affected the laws and customs of states. The belief prevailing that women could become pregnant from intercourse with beasts, laws have been framed condemning lo death the parents who were judged guilty of the crime of such unnatural commerce. In 1543, c. </., a woman in .'\vignon, France, was delivered of a child "which was thought to look like a dog, and this supposed resemblance was sufficient evidence that tho molher had had intercourse with the dog, and she was con- sequently condemned, with her quadruped paramour, to die at the stake, and was accordingly executed. Although such beliefs have now been driven lo more obscure quarters, they arc by no means extinct, and indeed are still very prevalent; "in fact, extravagant accounts of animals of mongrel origin arc frequently iniblished in the daily and weekly newspapers. It may therefore be advisable lo enter into some detail, and in advance to deny the truth of most I of the reports. IIYBRIDITY. 1041 Under tho gorifral designation of hybrids arc embraced all those forms whose parents belong to different varieties or species, whether the offspring is fertile or not. The word hybrid is thus essentially similnr in its meaning to the Anglo- Sax on term montjrd, but for present use it has superseded that term, leaving the latter for tlio offspring between vnrtctim^ and, to a considerable extent, for fig- urative expressiitns. French writers have classified the forms embraced under this general term under three cate- gories — viz. (1) Mi'ti? (mestizoes); (2) Hy brides (hybrids); and (;{) Mulcts (mules). (1) Metis, originally specially em- ployed to designate tho offspring of an Indian mother by a white father, has been extended, as a generic term, to animals and plants of mixed origin — i. c. to the offspring of two races or vuriiticn of the same species, as well as of two distinct Bpecit-H — and consequently to every organized being owing its origin to dissimilar parents, or to every product of u cross. (2) Hybrid is, in general terms, any ani- mal or plant engendered of two different spedc/t. (3) Mulct, originally applied to the offspring of a mare by a jackass, is extended to embrace all those organized beings which are analogous to it, as well in mixed origin as in ntfrilitt/, and also to forms characterized by their sterility, even though their origin may not be mixed, as in the case of bees, wasps, etc.: thus, infecundity is the prime clement. Such arc the distinctions employed by French authors, and followed in the dictionary of the French Academy, but they are not recognized by English writers, and indeed scarcely aeem to be definite enough to warrant recognition. It is only necessary to indicate that we use the word hybrid in the same sense as the French do mftis. K distinctive term is, however, needetl for the offspring of hybrids inter ff, and the word mouf/rfi might be extended, in accordance with analogy, to such forms. Repeated and prolonged critical observations and ex- periment- have amply demonstrated thai fruitful union i^ impossible between animals or plants of widely different ppecies (i.r. belonging to decidedly different families), and tliat such is only possible within comparatively narrow although uncertain limits. We may therefore at once dis- tniss, as utterly unworthy of belief, the many re])ort8 of offspring from such form-? wlui'Ii have been published by even accredited writers of natural history in past times, such, r. (/., as the alleged cases of hybrids between a hen and a duck ; an opossum and a cat ; a boar and a camel ; an otter and a rabbit ; an otter and a sheep ; an otter and a cat; a raccoon and a eat ; a bear an<l a hog ; a bear and a dog ; a cat and a rat ; a monkey and a slut ; and especially women and apes, dogs, or other animals. Whatever details may bo given iiavc been found to lack essential requisites, and in al- most all cases the belief has had its origin in some vague exter- nal cliaractoristics which suggested a similarity which had, however, no real existence in structure. In the name catn- clop'ird we have a term which is the expression of a past belief that the animal in question was a hybrid between tho camel and the leopard; and such was actually claimed to bo the origin of that animal by some old writers — r. _</. Mat- lliicu in the eleventh century. In the case of an alleged hy- brid between a cat and a raccoon, scon at Taunton, Mass., an Angola eat was the supposed hybrid: the cx]»lanation lay in tho fact that the Angola cat is a large animal with a bushy tail and color somewhat resembling the raccoon, and thus it received the name of r.accoon cat; the step thence to the belief that it was the offspring of a rac- coon an<l cat was natural; this belief at a distance be- came embodied in the assertion of such origin as a matter of fact : such was the basis of a statement which was fully examined into by the writer of this article. Another case was simply the result of a intsconception of the meaning of authors. (Jeoffroy St.-IIilaire ami Ilyrtl refer to an al- leged hybrid between the axis deer and hog, said to have been recorded by Hamilton Smith aud Morton, ancl very properly urge that such an offspring would be impossible. On referring to the two authors mentioned, however, it is evident that they simply alluded to supposed hybrids be- tween the axino buck (Ccrvuii n.r/*) and the hog deer (Ccr- ii(» porcinug), designating tho latter under the name "porcine species" (i". c. of deer), (itoffroy St.-Hiiairo in- terpreted tho word ''porcine species" to mean hog, and hence a belief quite venial (whatever may have been its basis in truth) was exaggerated into one entirely unpar- donable in a seientific man. The alleged eases of hybrids between otters and other animals are doubtless tho expres- sions of another scries of facts. There is somewhat of a tcml- ency among animals towards a diminisheil size or an off- turned position of tho legs which recalls tho form of an otter, as is exemplified, r. tj., in tho turnspit dog and Ancon sheep. These Ancon sheep (which have been especially referred to by l>arwin in his Oriifin itf Sp'cirit) were also called, on aeeuunt of this peculiarity, "ottor shi-cp," nnd from this name was d'jubtkss developed the report of hy- V..I,. 11.— IW, brids between sheep and otters. Such has doubtless been the origin of the belief in tho other otter-like animals. Hybrids partake of tho characteristics of their parents, and the extent to which they do so is, within a certain range, definitely fixed for those of each kind; further, tho degree in which the hybrid shares tho characters of the parent is determined by the sex of each species contributing to tho hybrid. Thus, in the case of hybrids between horses ami asses, which arc the best known, wo have in the mule tho offspring of the mare and jackass, and in the hiuny that of the stud-horse and shc-ass : the mule resembles in many of its characters the ass most, but is larger, while the hinny more resembles the horse, but is smaller than tho mule. These conditions will be found to affect tho in- ternal organization and external appearance, and the like is the case respecting other hybrids. Therefore, every al- leged hybrid should exhibit positive evidences in its organ- ization, as well as its external appearance, of the parentage on both sides; and if such evidences are not afforded, or if only a vague superficial similarity to some alleged spe- cies exists, while the fundamental characters are all those of another species, we are necessarily forced to conclude that tho allegation as to hybridity has no real foundation, and that the external indications are illusive. The natural love of man for the marvellous prompts to a ready belief in extraordinary hybrids. Pecuniary interests are also (dten involved with this belief, and inducements are thus held out to propagate it. Hence arc constantly arising fables respecting hybrids of various kinds. Hybrids have been classed in various categories; e. fj. (1) according to general aftinities as expressed in their structure; (2) according to tho degree of aflinity of tho parents— I. e. whether congeneric with each other or bi- generic (i. e, representatives of distinct genera) ; (iJ) accord- ing to tho fertility of the progeny of the hybrids or other- wise ; (4) according to the degree of prolificacy of the hy- brids : and (o) according to the frequency or rarity of their occurrence. Our present purpose will bo best subserved by the consideration of the species arranged according to their affinity. Among the Primate mammals, or monkey order, nu- merous hybrids have been obtained by congeneric spe- cies of monkeys; c. g. (1) the common macaque or kra {Mnrnrufi cynomnlijiin) and bonnet monkey {M'trncim sin- icT(s); (2) the macaque and maimon or bruh {M. nemes- triuus) ; and (.*?) the papion and chaema baboons { C. sphinx and C. porrnriuH). Among the Carnivores also numerous hybriils have been obtained, tho chief of which are those (1) between domestic or feral common cats and the smaller species of tho countries into which they been introduced; (2) the lion and tiger; (3) the jaguar and panther; (4) common dogs and native wild species — e. ij. wolves, jack- als, etc.: and (a) dog and red fox. Among seals several cases have been reported of hybrids between tho sea-lion {Eiimetopiag alcflcri) and fur-seal ( Cnlorhiuus tirsinns), but these require confirmation. Among the ungulates numer- ous hybrids have also been produced, among which may be especially enumerated of the horse family (Kquiilie) (1) tho mule between the ass and marc; (2) ass and zebra; (3) ass and dauw ; (4) quagga and horse; (5) kiang and zebra; (G) kiang and dauw; (7) kiang and ass; (S) horse and zebra; and (D) quagga nnd horse. Of the ox fam- ily (IJovidie), hybrids have been raised from the tlomestio cattle and almost all other well-known species and rep- resentatives, even of different genera (r. y. buffalo, yak, and bison), and also between these nncl so many other forms that specification is unnecessary. Hybrids have also been obtained from sheep and goats, ami various species of each group. Among the rodents successful intercourse has been effected between the hare and rabbit; and their offspring have been ndvantajjeously raised even for the market. Among tho birds hybridity is so frequent, and has been effected between such widely distinct species, and representatives of even markedly distinct genera, that in- ability to hybridize is rather tho exception than the rule. The most notahle cases are those bct\veen ditlVrent generic types of the Phasianida? (common fowl, pheasants, etc.) and Anatida> (ducks, geese, etc.). Little is known re- specting hybridity in reptiles or amphibians; an<l the only case that need be specifically alluded to i;* one that has very recently been procured, by Prof. Paul (Jervais, between the sircdon of Mexico and the Iriton ( Triton c/-»>- tntiiH) of Europe, members of two different families. In this case young were hafeluvl from the eci;s of females of siredon iniprcf^nated I)y the triton, but did not live to maturity, all having died within a short time after hatch- ing. Among tho fishes also hybrids between diverse genera have been obtained : ^. 7. between various species of .'^almonoids and Cyprinoids. A number of very dis- tinet forms, existing in a state of nature, have been de- clared by certain auLliors of bii;h reputation (r. ff. Siebold 1042 HYDASPES— HYDE PARK. and Gunther)to be hybrids between representatives of dif- ferent geiieru : such arc especially (I) Ourpio Kullarii, be- tween Vffprinus carpio and V<irc.>i8iu8 vulfiuris ; (2) Abrami- dopnis Ltmci'artii, between species of Ahmmia and Leitcis- ciiH ; (3) Bficcopsi'* ohramo-rutiiHs, between a species of Abritniis and ^Sriirtlinini cn/tkrt>pfithalniiu ; (■{) LeuciscuH (lolabrntuH, between AlbnmuH liividits and S^jUftUiis ceph- alus : and (5) Chondrutttoiua ryseUi, between Chondro- stoiiia namiH and Tclcstcs AtjaHsizii. These, however, have not been cxperinicntally determined to be hybrids (except, perhaps, in the case of the first), and there is etill ground fur i^kepticism. Such are some of the best known and most characteristic cases of hybridity among the; vertebrates. Among the in- vertebrates there are less known and determined cases, but hybrids have been obtained between difiorent species of bees, butterflies, etc., and many intermediate forms found in a state of nature have been supposed to be hybrids. Several botanists — c. fj. C.artncr. Kiilreutcr, Herbert, No- ble, etc. — have devoted much time and attention to the subject, and their results, although affording some basis for difference of opinion, essentially coincide with the facts rehearsed as to the best known animals. The results thus far obtained from all these various departments may be summarized as I'uIIo^vs; (1) Allied species arc capable, as a rule, uf pairing and producing ofispring, and this capa- bility is in indefinite ratio to the degree of their likeness. (2) Hybrids are frequently fertile with their parents when those parents are closely related to each other. (3) Hy- brids are more rarely fertile among themselves, and mostly (but not always) in cases where the parents are very closely and even suspiciously related. The degree of fertility between original species and their hybrids need not be in ratio to each other; c <■/. offspring between certain species is very difficult to be obtained, but hybrids which have been once obtained may be fertile among themselves. On the other hand, certain species will pair and have progeny without difficulty, but the hy- brid offspring may be nearly or absolutely (?) infertile; and this case may even occur in the same genus, as, for ex- ample, in the plant-genus Dinuthns. From all these facts it is plain that there is every degree of difference between absolute sterility and perfect fertility in the intercourse between different species; that, however, infertility to some degree attends sexual intercourse be- tween different species; that fertility is certainly no evidence of specific unity. Fertility, it is equally plain, is almost imjioysible between species of different families, and all j)opulur accounts to the contrary may be at once set down as destitute of a real foundation. The explanation of this want of fertility between forms that are very dissimilar is doubtless to be found in some liifference of structure in the genital organs, although the differences may be so ohscuro as to have escaped detection till the present time. These difference?, at the same time, need not necessarily be co- ordinated with other differences, at least to a greater extent than in other parts of the animal economy; and hence wo may find species that differ considerably in appearance quite tertile, while others that resemble each other much more closely may be less so. There must, however, be some degree of co-ordination between the modification of the genital organs and those of the other organs and parts, and hence fertility is only possible within acertain limited range. A noteworthy fact is that domestication and cultivation exercise an appreciable effect upon the intercourse between animals and plants of different species, and increase the degree of fertility: in a state of nature members of dif- ferent species rarely pair, and hence hybrids are excep- tional, and thus specific forms are perpetuated pure and undefiled : under the influence of man, however, mongrel races readily arise and are indefinitely sustained. Before dismissing the subject it is advisable to allude to some very curious and, at first sight, inconsistent phenom- ena exhibited by cross-breeding. Many plants depend for impregnation upon pollen brought by insects from other imlividuals ; and although the sexes may be combined in the same individual ilower. the pollen of its stamens ap- pears to be insulficient to iin]>regnatc its ovary. Kven niak* ing allowance for the disturbing effects of manipulation, enough is known to at least indicate that (hero is a less degree of fertility between closely related individuals than more distant ones. The evils of close breeding are even recognized by man in the laws affecting the marriage state, as well as in his usage in the rearing of his domestic ani- mals. It may be. therefore, that even the difficulty of ob- taining hybriils fertile among themselves may be in part duo to the fact that those hybrids are too closely related by consanguinity, and that the conditions for perfect exper- iments have thus not been completely fuliilled. Much has been done towards the elucidation of the subjeet, but much still remains to be done. TiiLO. Gill. Ilydas'pes, the name by which the Greeks and Romans designated the present .Ijivlum (which see), an atfluent of the Ganges. On its banks was fought the great battle be- tween Alexander the Great and Porus in ;i27 b. c. Hvdat'idf a morbid growth characterized by the devel- opment of a cyst, which contains an aqueous and transpa- rent lluid, in which floats a parasitic worm, generally the acephalocyst. The term was formerly used to designate any encysted tumor containing a transparent liquid, but it is now restricted to that form which encli'sea a parasite. The organs most commonly affected by this jieeuliar dis- ease are the uterus, ovaries, and liver; next frequently wo find it in the breast and testicles, but rarely in other parts of the body. It generally appears as a round hard tumor, which occasions more or less pain and inconvenience; this tumor is made up of hydatids, although we sometimes have it occurring singly, when it will be proportirmately large. Each parasite consists of a body and head ; around the latter we find a row of teeth which are hook-like and sharp. The body is solid, and displays a number of ovoid bodies beneath its coat, which giNc it a speckled appearance. As the tumt)r increases in size, if it is near the surface, we can feel fluctuation; the pressure under the skin causes it to ulcerate, and the hydatids may thus perish. If they arc situated in some internal organ, they may produce very serious complications, as jieritonitis, osteitis, etc. The treat- ment consists in excision if they are sufficiently superficial, otherwise we can do nothing. Edward J. Beumingham. Hyde, town of England, in the county of Chester. It is a rapidly growing place, with numerous cotton-factories, and in the neighborhood are extensive coal-mines. Pop., with surroundings, 21,221. Hyde, county of S. E. Central Dakota, Area, about 995 square miles. The Missouri Iliver flows for some distance along its S. W. border, Hyde, county of the E. of North Carolina, bounded on the E. and S. by Pamlico Sound, Area, 720 square miles. It abounds in marshes, lakes, and forests. Corn, rice, and forest products are the staples. Cap. Swan Quarter. Pop, 6445, Hyde (Alvan), D. D., LL.D.. b. at Franklin, Conn., Feb. 2. 17t»S; graduated at Dartmouth College in 17S8; studied theology, and in 17U2 was ordained pastor of the Congregational church at Lee, Mass., where he remained the rest of his life. He was an able and influential pastor, and a zealous friend to Williams College, of which he was for twenty-one years vice-president. Dr. Hyde published a number of sermons. D. at Lee Dec. 4, 18.13. Hyde (Ammi Bradford). D, D., b. at Oxford, N. Y., JIar. I.'i, 1825; graduated at AVesleyan University in 1840; entered the Methodist Episcopal ministry; taught (1846-Cl) in the seminary at Cazcnovia, N. Y., and in ISfit became jtrofessor of Greek in Allegheny College, Mcadville, Pa. Hyde (.\nne). a daughter of Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, b. in 1637, and lived at the Hague as maid-of- honor to the princess of Orange, sister to Charles II. and James II. Here James, at that time duke of York, formed a liaison with her, and shortly after the restoration of his family to the throne of England in 16*>0 he married her clandestinely. For some time the royal family would not recognize her, and much intriguing was going on for tho purpose of breaking the marriage; but .Anne's perseverance at last conquered all difficulties. She was not handsome, but very prepossessing, spirited, and dignified, and she ex- ercised a great influence on her husband. She was a Ro- man Catholic, and converted him. Her two daughters, however, Mary and Anne, who both became queens of Eng- land, were educated in the Protestant religion. Anno d. in 1671. Hyde (Edward). See Clarendon. Hyde Park, an enclosure comprising 400 acres, and extending from the western extremity of London to Ken- sington Gardens. When the monasteries were dissolved under Henry VIIT., these grounds became the property of the Crown, and after the Restoration it became the favorite drive and promenade of London. (Sec London.) Hyde Park,post-tp. of Cook co., III., a southern suburb of Chic;igo, now under village organization. It covers 49 square miles, and includes 4'J villages, towns, and hamlets; has 25 churches. 23 schools, 13 post-offices, 30 manufacto- ries, gas and water works, and all city conveniences. Ex- cept in South Chicago, Hyde Park is chiefly inhabited by persons who do business in Chicago, Pop. in 1870, 3644; estimated jiop, in 1873, 35,000, I. L, VAN.SANT, Ed. "Socth Side News." Hyde Park, post-v. and tp. of Norfolk co„ Mass., 7 miles from Boston, on the river Xeponset. and on the Bos- ton aud Providence and the New York and New England HYDE I'AKK— U\"DKA>GEA. 1048 R. Us.; has a savinga bank, public library, newspaper, 5 churohcs, excellent graded schools, and a good fire dcpart- mtnt. It is ehiclly a plaeo of rcsidcni-c lor persons whoso places of business arc in lioston. Pop. 4i;i6. K. 0. Gktciiell, Ed. " Gazette." llyAe Park,post-tp.of Wabashawco.,Minn. Pop..S80. Hyde Park, Ip. and pnst-v. of Dutchess co., N. Y., on the Hudson River and the Hudson Uivcr U. R., 5 miles N. of Poughkeepsie. The township has many splendid coun- try-houses. The village has 4 churches, and is beautifully situated. Pop. 600 ; of tp. 2093. Uyde Park, a portion of Scranton, Pa. (in Luterne CO.), separated from the main part of the city by the river Lackawanna. It has 8 churches (.S with M'clsh services), S halls— Odd Fellows', Masons', and Red Men's — a savings bank, 3 hotels, etc. Coal-mining is the principal industry. Hyde Park embraces the 4th and 5th wards of the city, and is built upon a hill. It has a weekly and a monthly period- ical, both in the AVelsh language. \V. RODERTS, En. OF " Y Cyfaill." Hyde Park, postv., cap. of Lamoille CO., Vt., on the Portland anil Ogdenshurg R. U., has a national bank, a newspaper, an academy, a quarry of limestone, beds of mineral paint, a copper-mine, S large saw-mills, besides several smaller ones, manufactures of pails, tubs, pegs, starch, and a very great water-power. There are 3 churches and 3 hotels. The manufacturing, agricultural, and com- mercial interests of the place are imporliint. The town- ship has 1 1 small natur.%1 lakes and numerous streams, and is a good place for fishing and as a summer resort. Pop. of tp. 1624. I'. ('. Mouse, Ed. " XEWsnEALER." Hyderabad' (or Haiderabad, as it is written in official English papers), the capital of the nizam of tho Deeean, the most powerful of the Indian princes under English protection. The number of inhabitants is va- riously given ; the best source, however (Thornton, Gazct- Itrr of the Territorift under the Qoierument of the Bant India Cnrnpiini/, London, 1R57), says 200,000. Tho city is situated in the centre of tho plateau of the Deevan, about 520 metres above tho sea, on the Mussi River, which hero is nearly IfiO mi-trcs broad, and presents a magnificent prospect with its numerous mosques and surrounded by granite cliffs of a strikingly picturesque form. The larger part of the city, more especially tho old city, stands on tho southern bank of the Mussi; on tho northern is that quar- ter which by Englishmen is called tho Princess Bazaar, and which contains the magnificent building of tho Eng- lish residency. This building communicates directly with the palace of the nizaui, standing on tho opposite bank of the river, by a beautiful stone bridge constructed by Col. Oliphant. The building of the English residency, which was commenced in \sm, after a plan by T. Russell, and executed in grand style and with great splendor, is tho most beautiful and most important structure of tho city. The palace of tho nizam is badly situated, and has nothing striking about it. Amcmg the private houses the palace of the influential minister, Salar Jung, is the most remarkable ; tho pala-e of .'Ihumsul Umra, who is at tho head of tho administration together with Salar Jung, is also noteworthy. The city is prin- cipallv Mohammedan, and tho most prominent of its mosques arc the cathedral mosqui', with immensely high minarets, and the mosque of the Prophet, a structure of enormous dimensions. A very striking buiMin;; is tho ("hahar Minar. formerly a university. Where the four principal streets cross each other it rises on four immense arches, so that the streets run below it. The city is very extensive, but contains many small and poor houses in narrow streets; it is surrounded by a wall, which, however, is too weak and insignificant to make a real fortification. The surrounding country is rich in magnificent gardens with numerous ]>onds, pavilions, and villas. Hyderabad was formerly the principal market for tho diamonds cut jn the neighboring (iolcou'la; its manufactures of cotton and paper arc still considerable; himkhtmt,, a silk embroidered with g'dd. and turbans ore made. A railway is projected, which will connect Hyderabad with Oulbarga on the one side and Chnnda on tho other. The city was founded in tho sixteenth century by Mo- hammed kuli. who wagcrl many wars with the neighbor- ing rajahs and formerl an alliani'e with Persia. Among bis successors, .Vbdullah arid Abu llusain are noteworthy; the latter was defeated in Ills; by Aurungzebe. The pres- ent territory of the niiain is tho snnio as that of the subnh of the Dcecau in Iho time of tho Mogul. Area, 0.i,337 square miles. Pop. 10,500,000. A grandson of one of tho ablest generals of Aurungzebe, Asuf Jah, made himself in- dependent lord of the country as subadar of the Doocan in 1724. and took Hyderabad for his capital. Ho founded tho Asuf dynasty. His successors concluded an alliance with Dupleix, tho Frcndh governor of PonJichcrry, and kept a French army corps, commanded by Bussy. But on tho outbreak of the war of 1756 the policy of the country changed. On Mar. 14, 1759, tho first treaty was concluded with the English ; the nizam, Salabut Jung, ceded the dis- trict of Masulipatain and dismissed the French. Tho sec- ond treaty was concluded Nov. 12, 17116; the nizam ceded tho districts of Ellore, (iuntur, and Rajamandri. and bound himself to furnish troops on the receipt of an annual sub- sidy of £90,000. .Several wars, in which the nizam fur- nished auxiliary troops to the English against Tippoo and against the Pindarees, and several new treaties (Sept. I, 1798, July 13. 1799, Oct. 12, 1^00, and Dec. 12, 1822), broui^ht the nizam more and more imder English author- ity, and great misery came over the country, threat re- forms were commenced, however, in 1853, when ,Salar Jung became minister. According to a treaty which the resi- dent. Col. Low, mediated, the nizam was to cede more land in order to get rid of all his financial obligations to tho English, and only furnish 5000 men, infantry, 2000 horses, and 4 batteries. But Nasrn-d-Daulah would not consent to the cession, and tho treaty was not ratified until under his successor, Afzula-d-Daulah, when Salar .lung had be- come minister. On Dec. 31, 1800, it was determined that the nizam, as a reward for his services during the war of 1857-58, should receive the conquered territory of .Shora- pur, that of the formerly ceded districts, those of Raiehur Doab ami Dharasco should be restored to him, and his debt, £500,000, cancelled. The English retained only so much of the territory of the nizam as would yield an an- nual revenue of £320,000, to pay for the contingent of auxiliaries which the nizam was to furnish. This district is called Haiderabad assigned districts, or lierar, and forms a province with an area of 16.960 square miles and a popu- lation of 2.231,565. Afzulu-d-Daulah d. Feb. 26, 1869, and was succeeded by Mir Mahbub Ali Khan. AuGi;sT Niemann. Hyderabad, town of British India, the capital of tho district of Sinde, in the presidency of Bombay, stands near the Indus, in lat. 25° 22' N., lou. 68° 28' E. It is famous for its manufactures of arms and cutlery. Pop. about 24,000. Hy'der A'li, b. in 1728 at Bangalore, which his f.athcr heldasafief of tho rajah of Mysore. In 1756 he inherited the fief at tho death of his elder brother, and in X'Wi he made himself actual ruler of Mysore, having to the rajah noth- ing but his title and a portion of tho revenues, liydcr was one of the most prominent of tho Mohammedan princes of India, both with respect to talent and to character, lie was mild and just, and had groat respect for all the inven- tions of a higher civilization. Ho encouraged agriculture, manufactures, and conuuercc. His army he organized on tho Prussian plan, and had it commanded chiefly by Eu- ropean oflicers, but he was himself possessed of great military talent, and was eminently successful in his wars. He con- quered Calicut, liednor. Onor, and Cananor, and threw off the supremacy of the Mahraltas over Mysore. In his first war with the English ho dictated peace under the walls of Madras, Apr. 15, 1769, and in tho war between the English and French he sided with tho latter, and fought with va- rious success, butd. at Chitorc in 1782. before tho war was over; his son, Tippoo Sahib, sueccedcd him. Hydra (Polyp). Sec HvniiotnA. Ily'dra, an island of Orcece, off tho E. coast of Morea, II miles long and 3 miles broad. Pop. in 1871, 11,684. It is high, rocky, and bare ; and almost all its inhabitants live in the town of Hydra, situated on the northern coast of tho island, with a good harbor. The island was unin- habite<l in ancient times. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuri.-s fugitives from Albania, Argolis, and Attica, who fled from Turkish oppression, founded tho city, and it soon rose to a high degree of prosperity. Hydra is still one of the finest cities of Greece. In 1825 the jiopulation of the island was estimated at 40,000. Hydrac'id [hif/rnycii and acid], a name formerly ap- plied by chemists to those acids of which the base was sui.iiose'd to bo hydrogen. The generally received theories of the constitution of acids are quite at variance with those oneo prevalent ; all acids, according to Dulong's hypothe- sis, being regarded as compounds of hydrogen willi some radical. Tlie term is at present u.sed (when usiil at all) to designate acids formed upon tho liydroelilorio acid type. (See Aims, by C. F. CiiANni,EK, Pii. D., M. D., LL.D.) Hydran'Rca [Gr. iioip, " water," and iJYYot, a " vessel," perhaps from the fondness of tho plants for water], a genus of shrubs of the order Saxifrngaoeie. The V. S. have three (Southern) species, all elegant shrubs iu cultivation—//. radium, arhoretren; ami ijiierrifutia. Tho common hy- drangea of the green bouse is //. Iiurten'in of China. It is remarkable for the mutable color of its flowers. It requires peaty earth and plenty of water, and is very hardy, ff. 1044 HYDRASTIS CANADENSIS— HYDRAULIC ELEVATOR. Thnnberfjii furnishes leaves which are highly prized in Japan as a substitute for ten. There arc other species. Ilydras'tis ranaclon'sis, the only known species of its genus. (I rauuneuliiceous plant of the U. S., comraou in many parts, and known as puccoon, yellow root, etc., is used to n considerable extent in medicine, and has the power of dyeiu;; a rich and permanent yellow. Its valu- able tonic jtowers depend in part on the presence of ber- berin and hydrastin. llytlratc of Chloral. See Ciiloual. Hy'drate of Cro'ton-Chlo'ral. By papsin^; dry chlo- rine gas over pure aldehyde, there are formed hydrochloric acid and the chlorated aldeliycle of crotonic acid, or croton- chft'nil (('4113030). a body Imidinj;; the same place in the allyl group that chloral docs in the ethyl. Obtained pure, it is a dense oily liquid of peculiar odor. Mixed with excess of warm water, it forms croton-chloral hydrate (C^HaCIgO f il'jO), a crystalline substance almost insoluble in cold, but soluble in hot water and in alcohol. By contact with an alkali. croton-chloral first forms a trichloratcd com- pound, allyl-chloroform, which speedily decomposes into the biclilorated body bichlorallyleiie. Croton-chloral hy- drate has been lately tried in medicine as a substitute for chloral-hydrate in certain cases. Its asserted advantages arc a greater freedom from danger of paralyzing the heart, and a special ]H)wer of producing anicsthesia — and thus re- lieving pain — in the parts of the head and face innervated by the fifth pair of cranial nerves. Euward Curtis. Hy'drates [Or. vSujp, "water"]. This term is applied to compounds formerly supposed to contain water. Ac- cording to the recent theories of chemistry, most hydrates are supposed to be compounds of hydroxyl (Oil), and to be produced by the replacement of half the hydrogen in water (H2O). The following examples illustrate the two views : Sodic hydrate Na20.n20. Na(On). Calcic " CaO.Il20. Ca(0H)2. Bismuthic " 61203.31120. Bi(0H)3. Aluininic " A^Os.^JII^O. Al2(OU)6. Kthy lie alcohol CC2H5)20.H20. C2U5(0I1). Ethene " C2H*0.}l20. CjHit 011)2. Propenyl " (C3H5)203.:JFl20. CaHslOlHs- Mannite " CeHsOa.aHaO. €6118(011)6. Nitric acid H-.O.NaOs. (H0)N02. Sulphuric acid H2O.SO3. (II0)2S02. Phosphoric acid 3H2O.P2O. (HOJsPO. The formation of hydrates from water by the replacement of hydrogen is shown in the following formulas: H.O f Na = Na(On)-^ U. II2O is H ~ - H Sodic hydrate is Na - - H. Nitric acid is H - - NO2. 2II2O is H2 = O2 = H2. Calcic hydrate is Ca - O2 = Ih- Sulphuric acid is H2 = 02 = SO2. 3H3O is 113=^ 03 = 113. Bismuthic hydrate is Bi - O3- II3. Phosphoric acid is 313^03^ PO. 4H2O is H4= 0*= H4. Stannic hydrate Su ^04= H4. 6H2O is He = 06^ He. Ferric •' Fe2iOciH6. (See article Ciikmistuv.) Hydrates maybe formed by — (1) The displacement of hydrogen in water, as in the case of the alkaline metals, as already shown for sodium. (2j By the direct union of the anhydrous base or aeid (anhydride) with water, the combi- nation being often attended with the evolution of heat: n20 + Na.jO-2NaOH. H2O + Ca0 - ra(0H)2. 2H2O ! .SO2"02SO." =2(H0)2S02. 3H2O + P0"'03P0"' ^ 2(HOl3l'0. (3) By double decomposition, as when soluble metallic salts are precipitated by alkaline or alkaline earthy hydrates: MKS04 + ramHi2= MgfOII)-. fraS04. FeaClG + eKOH =.Fc2fOH)o ' CKCl. Hydrates retain their water with various degrees of force. Some, as cupric hydrate, give up water at a moderate heat; others, as calcic, ferric, and stannic hydrates, lose it at a red heat: others, as sodic andpotassic hydrate. arc not decom- posed by any degree of heat. Tribasic phosphoric aeid loses, when exposed to a red heat, first one-third, then an- other third, (pf its water, but the last third cannot be re- moved. (See Piiospiionrs.) The volatile acids exhibit peculiar relations to water. They form a series of hydrates with one, two, three, four, or more molecules of water, eaeh hydrate being permanent under certain fixed ecmditions of temperature and pressure. A weaker acid under these conditions gives off water, a stronger gives off acid, till the most permanent compound alone remains. Thus, we have H20.S03i H-SO4 or (H0)2 S02),2Il20.S03 and iUI-^O.SOj. The hydrate's of the alka- line metals, of barium, strontium, and thallium, are very soluble in water, forming strongly alkaline solutions. Hy- drate of calcium, mercury, lead, and silver are slightly soluble. The other metallic hydrates are insoluble, or nearly so. The hydrates of the acid radieals (the acids) and the alcoholic hydrates (the alcohols) arc nearly all soluble, the exceptions being certain organic bodies of high molecular weights, such as ])almitic, stearic, oleic acid, etc. Many compounds contain water evidently as such. Thus, crystallized baric hydrate is Ba(OIl)2.-in2b ; alum is K2SO4. Al2(S04)3.24H20 ; gypsum is ('aSO4.2n20 ; cupric sulphate is CuS04.i)ll20. Most of such water is expelled by a tem- perature of 100° C, but some salts retain a portion of this water with greater tenacity than the rest. Sulphate of zinc, ZuSOi.THjO, becomes" Zn.SO4.H2O at 101)° C, and re- tains the last H2O till heated to 238° C. This last molecule of water may be replaced by another salt, thus : Crystallized sulphate of zinc ZnPOi.IIaO + GH2O. Sulphate of zinc and potassium...ZnS04.K2S04 -|- CIloO. The water easily expelled is called water of crystallization; the water in ZnS04.H20 is called by Graham fouititufioual icdtci-f and such compounds are called by Liebig hnlhy- drntcs. C. F. ClIAVDLEU. Ily'dra^ The Lcrna^aiiy in Grecian mythology, was a monster with the body of a serpent, but with many heads, seven, nine, fifty, or even one hundred, which grew up again as often as they were cut oft", and from whoso mouths issued a deadly venom. It inhabited tlic marshes of Lerneea, in Argolis, but was destroyed by Hercules. Ilydraii'lic Crane, a device by which the enormous power of the hydrostatic press is utilized in the working of derricks, cranes, etc. It is chiefly employed in Great Britain, where the *' hydraulic ** or hydrostatic press is a favorite means of exerting great force. In unloading and loading ships, and in filling railway cars with heavy goods, it is sometimes convenient to have a considerable number of cranes, which if managed by the direct application of steam-power would require complicated and cumbrous ma- chinery ; but a steam-engine working a hydrostatic press, with r.n accumulator attached, is made to work the cranes by very simple means, the necessary rapidity of motion being gained by long leverage and the use of jiullcys. Hydraulic £levator, or Jkscenscur Edoux. This is an invention of M. Leon Edoux of Paris. France, de- signed to lift weights by hydraulic pressure from level to level, though in its actual application employed only to elevate persons from story to story in public hotels or other lofty buildings. Its construction may be understood from the following description of an elevator of this kind which was in ofieration during the Exposition of 1867 in Paris, in the gallery of machines of the Exposition: The essential parts of this apparatus consisted of a cylinder 20 metres (GO feet) long, sunken ])erpendicularly into the earth, with a plunger descending into it to the same depth, and packed water-tight at the top of the cylinder. Into this, below the packing, water, from the source from which the Exposition received its supply for general purposes, was admitted, by means of a valve which was under the con- trol of the attendant. The piston rose tinder the pressure to the required height, and was maintained there by clos- ing the Aalve. A car or kiosk, for the accommodation of passengers, rested on the upper extremity of the piston, and was elevated as it rose. The descent was effected by opening another valve whieh allowed the water to escape at the level of the earth's surface; when, the pressure be- ing relieved, the car descended by its own weight. The diameter of the piston i)lungcr was 0.25 metre (10 inches), and that of the cylinder only sufficiently greater to allow free water-way. The plunger was a hollow easting, turned and polished on the exterior, anil closed at the bottom. It was tormed of four lengths carefully united. A strong wire cable extending through the interior from end to end firmly bound the parts together, and served as a security for hold- ing them in position in case of the occurrence of any acci- dent. In its ascent, the car was guided by four cast-iron columns, whieh formed a reetangular framework or tower around it. These columns were hollow also, aft'ording space for the ascent and descent of heavy weights within them, by whieh the weight of the empty car was principally counterpoised. Chains ])assing over pulleys at the top connected these weights with the car at its four angles. I Only sufiicient preponderance was given to the car to allow , it to descend without a load. The resistance to whieh the hydraulic pressure was opposed amounted, therefore, to 1 little more than the weight of the varying charge. It is to ! be noticed, however, that as the car ascends the weight op- i pused to the pressure virtually increases, since the plunger, I so long as it is immersed, is buuycd by the weight of an j equal bulk of water. A compeusjition for this increase of I resistance is provided by Mr. Edoux, in giving to the chains a weight per running foot equal to the eighth part HYDRAULIC ENGINES. 1045 of wciEht of the piston— that I dependent of public waterworks, and even of natural of the thus accruinj! increase is to say, about 2 kilograms, or a little more than 4 pounds. There being (our chains, and each chain being diminished one foot in length on the side of the car. and increased in length on the side of the counterpoise, one foot for each loo? of elevation, the counterpoise is thus increased at the same time 15 kilograms, or about 31 pounds, which is equal to the simultaneous increase in the virtual weight of the piston. The charge which an apparatus of (his kind will elevate, the cross-section of the piston remaining the same, will de- pend on the height of the hydraulic head. If we assume the system of eounlerpoises to be such as to maintain the whole moving apparatus (supposed to bo without a load) in etiuilibrio when the pressure of the head is shut off and (he escape-valve is open, or with only a slight predomi- nance of weight in favor of descent, and to do this in every part of the course, the elevating force will be found by making the proper substitutions in the expression y=,i,,r'irli, in which F represents the force, d the di- ameter of the piston, w the weight of a cubic unit (metre or foot as the ease may be) of water, and h the height of the head. It was stated that the reservoir from which the supply of water was received was situated at an elevation of :1U "metres above the point of application. Putting, thore- . fore, A = 30, rf = 0.2 j, and i(.= 1000 kilograms, we shall obtain the result /' = 3.14IM X 0.062.i X 30 xKlOO ^- 4 = 1473 kilograms nearly. Putting the average weight of an adult at 00 kilograms, say 130 pounds, the aacenaeur was capable of carrying up twenty-four or twenty-five persons at a time. It will bo seen that the ingenious system of counter- poises introduced by Mr. Kdoux makes the height to which the charge is elevated quite independent of the height of the hydraulic head. Other considerations, however, prac- tically limit the extent to which the system can be applied. In proportion as the length of the piston is increased it becomes nceessary to increase its diameter and the thick- ness of its walls, in order that it may preserve a sufficient rigidity under the increasing strain and pressure to which it'will be liable. Its weight will be correspondingly in- creased, entailing the necessity of eriually increasing the weight of the chains and counterpoises. Thus the appar- atus will become too ponderous to be advantageously em- |)loyed. The weight of the pistons of the uicemenrs in the xposition was 2100 kilograms, or more than 2 tons each. This weight exceeded, therefore, alone, not considering the car.-, the whole force of elevation, by more than GOO kilo- grams ; so that without the system of counterpoises the apparatus would not have worked at all. On the other hand, fur the ordinary purposes of a hotel elevator, it is not necessary to have a source of water by any means so high above the point of application as that which operated the nucenaeura of the Exposition. It is sufficient, we will suppose, that such an elevator may bo capable of carrying up eight persons at a time, having a total weight of ioOU to IKHI pounds. Assuming an outsido weight of 1200, and, transforming the expression above for iF 4S00 xl't the value of h, wo have h £' mPw 3.14159X100X62.5 35 feet nearly, putting the diameter of the piston at 10 inches, and toking 02.5 pounds as the weight of a oubio foot of water. If the diameter of the piston bo enlarged to 12 inches, the hydraulic head required will be but twenty-four feet. .Such an elevator can therefore be introduced into any house in which the water rises to a height of 35 feet, or even 24 feet, above (he lowest point at which it can be eon- ducted off after being discharged. It is desirable, of course, to have a eupcrduity of force, but that can abundantly bo obtained in any house in which water from the ]iublio works is delivered in the third story, and communication with the public drains can be established from the base- ment. Hydraulic elevators in dwellings have the advantage over mechanical contrivances for (be same purpose worked by sIcam-cngincB, turbines, or other motors, because of their siinplieity of eonslruction, (heir extreme facility of manngement. their perfectly smooth ami silent motion, and, in general, their largo snneriority in point of economy in operation. The economy, however, may not bo realized in large eilics. where water rales are high ; but the advan- tages are in nlber respects so much iu favor of these eleva- tors, especially when (he security attending their use is also taken into consideration, as to justify their introduction oven in cases where it might bo necessary to creoto the hydraulic head by means of steam-pumps. If steam- p'ower has to be u«e.l at all. it may as well be employed in elevating water as in direedy operating an elevator. And if this plan is once adopted Iho cstablishmont bcoomos in- sourccs altogether, after having provided a moderate origi- nal supply, since the same water may bo constantly used over and over again. It will be necessary for this purpose to have a tank at the lowest level and another at the high- est. And if we assume {as has been shown above to be just) a height of 35 feet to be sufficient in ordinary ca.ses, it is not difficult to compute the work which an engine would have to perform in lifting the water required for the daily service from the lower tank to the upper. Supposing the course of the piston to be 60 feet, and its diameter, as above, 10 inches, it will require an expendi- ture of about 33 cubic feet of water for each ascension. Supposing an ascension to take place every six minutes, or ten every hour, which is about the fact at the Charing Cross Hotel in London, and that the elevator is in operation eighteen hours a day — i'. c. from six in the morning until twelve at night — the total daily expenditure of water will be 5940 cubic feet— say 8000- to raise which 35 feet gives a total work of 13,125,000 foot-pounds. This work a one- horse power engine would do in a little more than six hours and a half. It would not be desirable, however, to raise the whole quantity at onee. nor even desirable to have so largo a quantity at a time in the tanks, since the weight of fiOOO cubic feet of water would be somewhere near 190 tons. A tank capable of containing 200 cubic feet would suffice for six ascents ; and if an engine should bo employed con- stantly in raising the water as it is drawn down, onethird of a single horse-power would exceed the demand. Such an engine could probably be run at a much less cost than is paid in London for the supply of the elevator of tho Charinu Cross Hotel, which was stated to exceed £1 a day. F. A. P. Baksaud. Hydraulic Engines. The usual, and generally tho most eligible, mode of employing water-power is to apply it to the circumference of a wheel. (See WAiEn-wuiCKi. and TiiRBisi;.) Occasionally, however, it may be more advantageous to use it as steam is used, to act on a piston in a cylinder. This mode of application is especially adapted to the case of a small supply of water having a large fall. Hydraulic engines, like steam-engines, may bo cither reciprocating or rotary. Some niodilications arc necessary in the constniclion of the parts, to accommodate them to the different physical properties of the denser fluid. The induction and eduction pi]ies,for instance, must bo larger than arc required for steam, and should have no abrupt angles. Freer valve-ways also are necessary ; the eduction valve should open very promptly at the end of the stroke, and tlie induction valve should not close until the stroke is quite completed— that is to say, tho influx should cease and the cfllux should begin exactly at the same mo- ment. Any material error in making the adjustments de- signed to accomplish this end, or any imperfect working of" tho machinery which prevents its attainment, will pro- duce coneussion's (, ■„»;)« (h hflicr, "water-ram blows," as they are called by the French), which will very certainly be injurious, and which may be destructive. In the hy- draul'ic engines which have been most extensively intro- duced, and most successful in practice, provision is mado by relief valves or other expedients to mitigate or obvialo tho evil resulting from this cause ; but in so far as it is possible by the adjustments of the machine itself to permit the column by which it is operated to maintain a uniform vclocKy, both true economy of jiower and durabilily ol arts will be best consulted. In the case of sleam, a(len- to the particulars here jiointed out is not so rigid'" 1': necessary7th'c'd'ifferenee arising from the fact that steam is eminently compressible, while water is so only to a de- gree which for ordinary purposes may bo regarded as insensible. . , , , , ,• It is only in some special industries that hydraulic en- gines have as yet been extensively introduecd. In large foundries they have been found very convenient in the working of cranes and other heavy maohinery. lliey have also been employed occasionally for the drainage of miius. A remarkably ingenious illustration of their possible use- fulness for this latter purpose may be seen at present in operation at lluclgoat, in Brillany. The great waler-eii- eino of lluilgoat, (he invention of Mr. Juncker, engineer of the niiiK s it is employed to drain, has been oflen de- scribed. A very full description is given by Mr. Dchuinay in his Mrcliaiiii-n. This engine is single-acting, and it acts directly lo lift Iho pisfon of the pump by which (he water is drawn from tho mines. It makes five and a half slrokes per minu(e. (he stroke being 2* mistres, or more than 8 feet in length. The pislon rod is 230 metres (767 foot) long, and it weighs 16,000 kilograms— say 16 tons. Tho power of (he engine is derived from a source at a height lib mi>tres (370 feet) above its own level. In (his case, though the direct apjilieation of the power reduces tho en- U)4ii IIYDKAULIC FORGING. gine to iu simplest furm, yet the great inertia of the mov- ing columns of water requires that their movements should be very carefully regulated. In a reciprocating eugiue there are moments of rest, and successive periods in which the piston moves in opposite directions. When the driv- ing force is communicated to a machine through a crank, it is a favorable circumstauce that crank-motion necessarily retards the movement of the piston toward the end of the stroke, and brings it insensibly to zero, while at the begin- ning of the stroke it in like manner favors gradual acceler- ation. But iu the engine at Huclgoat, withont some rac- clianieal coutiivauce to rcdu^^e very gradually the volume of intlowing water toward the end of the stroke, the piston would reach the limit of its course with its maximum ve- locity, and the sudden arrest of its motion would produce a concussion which no strength of materials could resist. The ingenuity and the simplicity of the contrivances by which this powerful maeliine is made to regulate automati- cally its own motions, so as to prevent the occurrence of the slightest perceptible shock, has excited the highest ad- miration of every engineer who has examined it. irydraulic engines upon a smaller scale, and designed for use in the operations of ordinary industry, have been constructed in a variety of forms. Several of these — as, for instance, the hydraulic motors of Perret and Coque of France, and of Garret, Marshall & Co. and Ilamsbottom of Great Britain — are described in full in the Jicport on the Indtistrial Arts at the Paris Exposition, by the writer of Fig. 1. Rarasbottom's water-engine, this article. The latter, a high-pressure engine which has rendered more important services to industry than any other of its class, is represented in elevation and partial seetion in Figs. 1 and 2. This engine is oscillating, and employs two eylinders operating the same working shaft by means of two cranks at right angles to each other. The cylinders arc supported in a stout framework of cast iron. Fig. 1 is a sec- tion through the cylin- ders, which arc vertical, and sliows the mode of suspension of the cylin- ders, and the elianncis of indvi'-'tion and eduction, which lire marked /, and wliieh are east with the cylinder. The doited cir- cles c and c' show the position of the supply and discharge pipes. Fig. .1 shows a cross-section of the cylinders and their JT^ pivots, and in this will ^Ji^ be seen the places of at- tachment of the pipes just mentioned at K and K'. The pivots are of steel. Those intermediate between the eylinders are firmly fixed in the support. The externul pivots admit of adjust- Pwatusbottom's water-engine, ment Iiy means of the screws and screw-nuts d and/", Fig. Fig. 3. 2, which is a section through the line 1 and 2. Fig. 1 shows the system of water-distribution. The apertures of induction and eduction are represented at h and i, and have the form of truncated circular sectors, whose centre is the centre of motion. The spaces marked h arc divided from those marked » by a sectoral partition, which is of precisely the same area in cross-section as they. The aper- tures of admission and discharge on the side of the cylin- ders are also of the same form and dimensions. The sur- faces of contact between the cylinders and the supjiort D are perfectly plane and polished, and arc made water-tight by means of the adjusting screws U and /of the pivots. When the piston is at the end of its course in either direc- tion the cylinder will be truly vertical. In this position the piston is momen- tarily at rest, and both induction and eduction valves should bo closed. Accordingly, thedispo- i sition of the parts is n\^| such that, when the cy- 'Q Under is vertical, tiie ^,^ openings by which the channels j j communi- cate with the supply and discharge pipes, present themselves ex- actly opposite to the Cross-section of cylinders and their solid sector dividing h pivots. from i. In the next moment the flow of water will recommence, the cylinder discharging itself from the full side of the piston, and fill- ing anew on the opposite side. From this statement it is apparent that the influx and efflux of the water proceed with more and more freedom from the beginning to the middle of the stroke, when the passages are at their maximum opening, and that from this point to the end the reverse takes place. But it is to be also observed that, from the nature of crank-motion, tiie velocity of the piston varies correspondingly, and that the relation of the supply of water to the demand is very nearly constant. Very nice adjustment is evidently necessary in these engines, in order that the moment of the absolute closing of the valves may correspond to that of the com- pletion of tho stroke ; and as it is possible that this perfect coincidence may not be exactly secured or permanently maintained, some provision against counter-pressure and the eff"ects of hydraulic shocks is necessary. Air-chambers and relief-valves are employed for this purpose. The re- lief-valves open a backward communieation between the cylinder and tho driving column, so that if there occurs an obstruction to tho discharge, the pressure on tho two sides of tho piston will be equilibrated by the opening of the valve. The engines of this model heretofore in use are generally small, some of them having cylinders of not more than two inches in diameter. They have been used for a variety of industrial purposes, as for operating printing- presses, circular saws, lathes, etc.. as well as for cranes nod other machinery in foundries. Their siiiiplieity and neat- ness render them preferable to almost nny ether form of small motor wherever the hydraulic head can be easily se- cured for working them. But in general it is not a natu- ral hydraulic head that is depended on; and indeed no natural head could furnii^h. in machines of so small model as those employed in foundries, anything like tho largo power which they exert. The head is established in an accumnhttor of power, which is a body of water driven into a reservoir under heavy pressure by forcing-pumps worked by steam. For lighter industries such expedients are un- necessary. In cities in which the water-distribution is from elevated reservoirs, and in which the water-supply is suffi- ciently abundant to justify the applieiition of a porticm of it to industrial uses, the water-engine is recommended by the combined advantages of simplicity, neatness, compact- ness, constant readiness for work, perfect safety, economy while working. an<i the absolute cessation of expenditure during interruptions and after the work of the day is ended. F. A. P. Baknaiid. Hydraulic Forgrinp. This process of forging con- sists essentially in substituting the powerful and continu- ous pressure of the hydraulic press for the repeated blows of a hammer in shaping wrought iron ami steel. A swcdge, or mould, of the desired object is necessary, and under tho proper conditions of temperature the metal may be forced into cverv angle and reeess as perfectly ns if made fluid by fusion and cast : but objects so made are very much stronger than castings, and are claimed to be even superior to forg- ings made in the ordinary way. The process has been carried to groat perfection, after years of patient experi- mentin-r. by Mr. Haswell at the machine-shops of the Im- perial State Railway Co. of Austria, in Vienna. It is used HYDKAULIC PRESS-HYDRAULIC RAM. 1047 there chieav for forming such parts of locomotives as cross-heads,' link-bars, axle-box frames, and for ear-wheels and various other intricately formed parts of railway roll- ing slock, where superior strenglh and lightness arc import- ant It is also used instead of heavy steam-hammers tor drawing down large ingots of Bessemer steel. The results appear to justify the conclusion that ingots so treated give stronger and more homogeneous bars than are obtained by hammeVing. At Vienna two large hydraulic presses arc in use— one with a piston 24 inches in diameter, giving I'HIO tons pressure, and one with an 18-inch piston, work- ing up to COO tons pressure. The pressure m the pumps is COJ atmospheres. The action is vertical; the piston de- scends upon the work, and for forging ingots has a ham- nier-likc head opposed to an anvil of the usual lorm below In drawing down an ingot, say of one ton weight, of soft Bessemer steel, the work commences at the end, and alter each squeeze by the descending piston the mass is pushed alon.' until the first half of the length of the ingot has been acted on. when it is turned end for end. It is then turned over and back and forth, as is usual under a hammer, until the whole has been drawn down to the required size. In this operation there is no noise or jar. The piston descends slowly, but irresistibly, and forces the hot metal each way as if 'it were a mass o'f soft putty. The work is effectively pcrfurmed, and it requires less time than ordinary forging or rolling. The pressure affects the very centre of the mass of the in.'ot. Its action is by no means superficial, and it is far more effectual in modifying the structural condition of the bar than blows on the surface can he. There is no distribution of the force of the blow through the anvil to the foundation, as there is in (he violent impact of a steam- hammer. The ingot yields gradually to the pressure, and bulges out at the sides and end as in Fig. A, and is not drawn over more at the surface than at the centre, so as to give a ragged hollow end (Fig. B), such as is usually formed under hammers and rollers. c Before the forging of an ingot is completed a distinct structural arrangement of the steel is developed, and is seen most distinctly when the h<.t steel sinks down under the pressure. As the piston-head descends into the mass, and squeezes it upon the anvil, the lines of structure visible in the sides of the ingot bend downward, and are com- pressed as shown in the annexed cut, the movement ex- tending to the very centre of the mass. | | This structure or " fibre " is doubtless the result of a difference in chemical constitution in planes approximately parallel to the squeezing surfaces, and, | ^ 80 regarded, the process may be consid- ered 10 be more favorable to the development of structure or "grain" than ordinary forging. But, from whatever cause it originates, this grain is an important factor of strength in pressed forgings, and characterizes them in a remarkable manner, as was beautifully exhibited at Vienna in a series of forged objects which had been sawn asunder and etched so as to show the grain. These structural pe- culiarities are most distinct in the pressed forgings made from piled iron masses, and are beautifully shown in etched sections of irregular angular objects like cross-heads, as in the figure, a section of ft cross-head, about i natural size, after 21 hours' etching in aqua regia: In forging such objects as the parts of machines weigh- ing from 50 to 150 pounds or more, a mass or ball of metal is cut as nearly as possible of the required weight from the end of an ingot, and is heated nearly white hot prepara- tory to being thrown into the mould. The moulds are made of iron or steel, in several parts if necessary, and these parts are securely held together by bands of wrought iron. They are left open at the top for the reception of the metal and for the descent of the plunger or follower, which is attached to the piston-head of the hydraulic press. The shape of this follower, called by the workmen the "stamp," determines the shape of the inside of the object to be formed. The mould is placed directly under the piston-head. All the parts being properly adjusted, and the inside of the mould and the surface of the plunger be- ing smeared with thick oil or grease, a mass of hot steel is thrown into the open top of the mould; the plunger is brought slowly down, and pushes the hot metal before it into every part and recess of the mould. The excess of metal, if "any. after the mould is filled, rises on each side of the plunger and protrudes. This leaves a wing or "burr" which is afterwards easily cut off with chisels; but a little practice enables the workmen to cut off masses so near the required weight that there is but little excess to bo trimmed off. When the stamp has reached the required depth the pressure is removed; the key which attaches the stamp-head to the piston is knocked out; the piston is raised out of the way, and the mould and contents are re- moved from the bed of- the press. A few blows of a sledge- hammer detach the fastenings of the mould and liberate the forging, which is thrown aside to cool. If the work has been well done, all the angles of the object arc full and solid. All pieces pressed in the same mould are alike m dimensions, and there is no great excess of metal in any part to be cut away; and consequently it requires less labor and expense to fit up such forgings than it does for those of irreplar dimensions made in the ordinary manner. The rapidity with which intricate forgings are m.ide is one of the greatest advantages of the method. It is es- pecially adapted to heavy work, where there are many anglcs'and interior surfaces to be shaped. Of such objects as cross-heads for locomotives from twenty-five to thirty or more can bo made in a day with hut little labor. The moulds are mado of cast iron, and are used cold. The stamp-heads are also of cast iron, and duplicates are kept on hand to replace those which break. The wheels lor locomotives and for railway carriages aro forged out in this way in segments, which are afterwards united by welding under the press. The process is also applied to forming boiler-heads, steam-domes, etc., large plates of Bessemer steel being forced through a ring. The total pro- duction of pressed forgings at the railway-works, Vienna, during nine months previous to 1873, was ^S.^O pieces, weighing 1,071,200 pounds. W. P. Bl.-vkis. Hydraulic I'ress. See HvDnosTATic Press, by .T. P. FiuzKi.i., I'. K. Hydraulic Ram, a well-known machine invented by Montgollier for elevating a part of the water furnisbed by a stream to a height greater than that of the source from which it is drawn. ' Its action depends upon the property of inertia which water, in common with all heavy bodies, possesses. A heavy body, moving with a given velocity, perforins, while being brought to rest, an amount of me- chanical work suflieicnt to raise the body lo the height duo to the velocity. A car. for instance, moving upon a track with a velocity of 48 feet per second, or nearly Xi miles per hour, and reaching a steep incline, would mount it to a height of .'IS. 82 feet (friction and resistance of the air not considered), that being the height which a heavy body must fall to acquire a velocity of 48 feet per second. The me- chanical work performed by a moving body in coming to rest is represented by the resistance opposed to its motion, miiUiplicil by the distance which the body moves against this resistance; so that the resistance necessary lo stop a moving body, or the pressure which itcan exert while stop- ping, is great or small according as its motion is arrested suddenly or slowly. , , . , e In the hydraulic ram the moving body is the ninss ol The lines of the grain, it will be seen, conform in ft remark- able degree «o the form of the mnsB, winding in and out around the curves and angles in such a manner as to give the greatest strength where it is most needed. These lines show in a very interesting way the flow or movement of the viscid metal when under pressure. Kxpericneo has taught that very sharp angles in some parts of moulds interfere with the proper flow of thjomclnl. This difficulty is avoided by rouniling off the angles, or by building Ihcm out so as t<> give more space for the metal lo move in. The super- fluous metal is cut away, leaving the internal curves of the grain in the best shape for Iho strength of the object. water contiiiued in a long pine, the exit of which is alter- nately opened and closed. The resistance opposed to the water's motion when its exit is closed, is the elastic force of air eontined in a closed vessel, and the work performed by it eonsist.s in compressing this air, which, by its tendency to expand, forces the water to a higher level. The accom- panying figure is a section of a hydraulin ram. showing also' the chamber or pit in which it is placed, a is (he sup- ply-pipe leading from the pond or other source of supply. The longer this pipe is, the better, provided there is fall enough to give the necessary velocity ; i is a cock for clos- ing tbo supply-pipe; o is a plato to which the air-vessel d 1048 HYDRAULICS OF RIVERS— IIYDKOCAREOXS. is bolted. Ilclow this plato arc two compartments — one, r, formiDfr a chauncl IhroM'-h \t|p.)i the water passes freely when tho valve y is op- : i Mninicating with the air- Hydraulic ram. vessel by the valve /, which allows the water to enter the air-vessfl, but not to return. The other compartment com- municates freely with tho air-vessel, and with a rising pipe, not shown in the figure, for conveying the water to the higher level. The valve tj being in the position shown, the water commences to move through the supply-pipe, escap- ing at *7 and passing off through the waste-pipe h. The velocity soon becomes so great as to lift tho valve jr, which closes the outlet. While coming to rest the water in the pipe exerts a pressure sufficient to lift the valve/", and com- press air in the air-vessel by flowing into it. As soon as the water comes to rest, the pressure censes, the valve /' closes, the valve // opens, and tho same thing occurs again. The expansion of the air in the air-vessel causes a uniform flow through the rising pipe. J. P. Frizell. Hydraulics of Rivers. See Rivers, Hvdrallics OF, by Gln. II. L. Abbot, U. S. Army. Hydrides [Gr. vSwp," water"], compounds of hydrogen with metals, alcohol-radicals, organic acid radicals. Met'illic HifdrideB. — Hydride of copper, Cu-iH or CcuII, is produced by the action of hypophusphorous acid on cupric sulphate. With HCl it yields CcuCI -f- H. Hydride of iron is formed by the action of zinc-ethyl on ferrous iodide. It is a black metallic powdor which evolves H in water. Arseuurctted hydrogen ( HaAs) and antimouurctted hydrogen (HgSb) are formed when solutions of thcso metals are brought in contact with metallic zinc and dilute sul- phuric or hydrochloric acid or potassio hydrate. They are gases. (See Antimonv and Arsen'ious Oxidh.) Hydrides of (he Alcohol Radicith* — The parafiins, as marsh-gas, CH*. etc., are often viewed as hydrides, CH3II, etc. (See Hydkucarijons and Paraffins.) Hydrides of Acid Radicals, — The aldehydes referred to the type HII constitute this class of compounds. Acetic aldehyde C^iUO = C2II3O.II ; benzoic aldehyde, bitier-al- mond oil, is the hydride of benzoyl, C7H5O.H. (See Alde- nvi)i:s and Almonds, Oil of.) C. F. Chandler. Hydriodic Acid. See Iodinf,, by E. Waller, E. M. Hvdrobromic Acid. See Bromine, by Prof. C. F. Chandlku, Ph. D., M. D., LL.D. Hydrocar'bons [Gr. v5<,ip, "water," and Lat. carho, "coal"], compounds consisting nf carbon and hydrogen only. Many such compounds are found ready formed in nature; most of tho essential oils, as turpentine, lemon, orange, bergamot, neroli, etc., are hydrocarbons. (See Essential Om^.) Caoutchouc (see India-Rcbber) and Gitta-Perciia (which see) are hydrocarbons. Methane (marsh-gas) is found in the mud of stagnant pools and in coal-beds, and under the name ot jire-damp produces the disastrous explosions in mines. Petroleum and ozocerite are mixtures of several homologous hydrocarbons. (See Petrolei'm.) The mo^t fruitful source of hydrocarbons is the destructive distillation of vegetable and animal sub- stances. This always results in the formation of tour dis- tinct products : (1) the charcoal or coke which remains be- hind in tho retort J (2) the fixed gases; (3) tho tar; (4) the watery product, which is acid when distilled from non- nitrogenous bodies, such as wood, etc., owing to the pres- ence of acetic acid, and alkaline when derived from nitro- genous bodies^ owing to the presence of ammonia. The gas and tar consist largely of hydrocarbons, solid, liquid, and gaseous. (For a detailed statement of the products of the destructive distillation of coal, see article Gas-Ligbt- ING.) The hydrocarbons are the simplest of all organic com- pounds, and are regarded as the starting-points from which nil other organic bodies may be derived by substitution or addition. (For the methud!* by which organic compounds are formed from hydrooarbon-*. see articles Alojhol, Ali- ZARESE, Aniline, and Aniline Colors.) The hydrocar- bons may be formed (1) synthetically from carbon and hydrogen, as when hydrogen is passed over carbon heated to redness by the voltaic arc : CarboQ. H^'dmgcD. Acetylene. Cs + Uj = C2U2. From acetylene other more complicated hydrocarbons may be built up. (2) From compounds containing these ele- ments: Carbon Hydpogcn rnr^n-.. «-.»,««<. Cnnroua dbulphldc. sOlpliidc. Copper. Methane. en,'phide. CS2 -I- 211jS + 8Cu = CHi -H 4CU2S. Methane (marsh-gas) may also be formed from carbon diox- ide (CO2) by first converting this into carbon monoxide (CO), converting this into formic acid (IlCIiOa), and then subjecting a salt of this acid to destructive distillation. Alcohol heated with an excess of sulphuric acid yields ethylene (olefiaut gas) : Alcohol. S"^f^""'= Ethylene. CalleO + HaSbi = C2II4 + H2SO4 + HjO. A hydrocarbon maybe transformed into another of greater or less complexity; methane (CH*) may be changed to acetylene (C2H2) by a scries of induction sparks, or to naphthalene (CioHg) by a very high temperature. Methane and carbon monoxide yield tritylene when jiassed through a red-hot tube : 2V\\i -\- CO = CsHs r lU-O. In the process of cracking (see PLTnoLEiM) the heavy hydrocarbons are split up into lighter oils by exposure to temperatures near their boiling-points. By substitution, the hydrocarbons yield haloid ethers: CHi -h Cl2= CII3CI -|- HCI. These, in turn, may be changed to alcohols by the action of potassio hydrate : CH3CI -f- KIIO = CH3OH + KCl. Hydrocarbons may be oxidized eitlier by the action uf the air, long con- tinued, or by the action of powerful oxidizing agents. (See article on the oxidation of petroleum, by W, P. Jenney, in the Am. Chemiat, Apr., 187o, and also "Oxidation of Car- bides of Hydrogen " (by chromic acid) in the Chem. News, .\ix. 27.3.) Classijication and Nomenclature of the Hydrocarbons, — The simplest of all hydrocarbons is methane or marsh-gas, Cn4. This is a saturated molecule, and is consequently incapable of combining directly with chlorine, bromine, etc., or of receiving any addition of hydrogen. It may, however, unite with any number of dyad elements or rad- icals, as such a radical introduced into a group of atoms neutralizes one unit of equivalence, and introduces another, leaving the combining power or equivalence of the group the same as before. The saturated molecule, CH4, may therefore take up any number of molecules of the dyad group, Cn2, giving rise to a homologous series (sec Ilo- MOLOGv) of saturated hydrocarbons: CH4.C2H6.C3Hs,C4llio ....CnIT2n + 2- Thesc saturated hydrocarbons may be deprived of two atoms or one molecule of hydrogen (Hj), and thus produce a second series of homologous hydrocar- bons: CH^-CzIuXsHe-C^Hs C„H2„. By a similar re- moval of H2 from these bodies a third series mav bo pro- duced: C2H2,C3H4.C4H6 C„H2«-2. Twelve'such suc- cessive series are already known, containing even numbers of hvdrogen atoms. The first six of these series, with the names proposed for them by Hofinann {Proc. Roy. Soc, xv. 67), are given in the following table: Uctfaaac. Methcnc. CHi CH2 Ethane. Elbcne. Call, F Ik inc. C2II1 Propiinc. Propcoe. Proptnc. Propone. fjUs Calls fjH, C3H2 QtmrtADC. Quartcne Qtmrltne. Qiiartonc. Qna7t<nio. (■(llio C.Ils I'.IU C,H4 Cjlla QiiinUtnc. Quintene. Quiniinc. Quintonc. Qulotune. Csllii! CsHio C'slls Calls Csll, CsHj S>'xtane. Soxtene. Scxtinc. Soxtooe. Se:(tune. Csllu CsUia Csllio CsIIe Cells CsH, CsH2. Fiml Serlea (Cnllflj + j) — Painffinn. — .Methane (marsh- g!>s), Cllt, is the simpkst: ethane (C^lls) and propane (Calls^ are also gases at ordinary temperatures. Butane (CiHs) is a liquid above D4° F. The following fifteen or twenty members of the series arc liquids, and constitute the greater portion of petroleum : C27II56. and the higher mem- bers of the group, constitute the beautiful white solid known as Paraffin (which sec). Sccnnd Series (CnHi.>„) — Olefinet.— The simplest mem- ber of this series is ethylene (olefiant gas), CjH4, and tho scries includes gases, liquids^ and solids. (See Etiivlkne and Olkfinks.) Third Series (C„Hi„ _ j). — Five members of this series are known: ethine or acetylene (CjHj). propine ur ally- lene (Cslli), quartine or crotonylenc (C4Hc), quintine or valerylcne (CsIIs), and se.xtine or diullyl (t'ellio^. They are readily formed by heating tho monobrouiinitfeU deriva- HYDROCELE— HYDROCHLORIC ACID. 1049 tivesof the oleBncs with gndium othjlate: CsIIiBj + CsHs- NaO = NiiHr + CjlUOlI 4- CsiU. Funtlh Scnei (('H„H2« - «) — Quintonc or valylene {C^He)' — The terpcnes f«co Isomkkism) were supposed to belong to thir< scries, but uil of turpentine is now believed to be a hydride of cymol. /V/V/f Series {CnH2n- g) — Aromatic Ilydrorarhonn. — Benzol (CgIIg) is the simplest member of the series. Other known members are toluol {C;Hsl. xylol (CgHio), cumol (Cglln). cymol (Ciolfn). and laurol (CuIIic). This and most of the following series of compounds ftre rcmarknblo for the readiness with which the members exchange H for NO^'aud form nitro-dcrivatives : BcDiol. Nitro-bcneol. C'elle + IIXO3 - CcIIsNOj-f HjO. From these nitro-derivativcs the amines arc readily formed by the action of nascent hydrogen (see Amines and Ani- line) : Nllr«-bpn/ol. Anilini.'. C'ellsNOz 4- He = Cel^N f 21120. Sixth Scriet ( C„H2n - 8).—Phenylcno (Celli^ styrol, or cinnamcne (CgH^I. Seventh Seri'ct (Cll^n - lo)- — Cholcstercnc (CofiH*,;). Ei'jhth Series (Cnllsn - 12). — NAI'nTIIALKNB {CioHy), (which see). Ninth Series (CnH2« - h).— Diphcnyl (C12II10) and di- benzvl (CuUu). Tenth Series (Cnllan - le).— Stilbeno (CuHn). Eleventh Series (CnHzn - w). — ANTHRACENE (CuUlo), (which see). Tieel/tk Series (CnHju - m). — No members known. Thirteenth Series (CnH-jn - 22). — PYRENB (Ciellio)* (which see). Fourteenth Series (CnH2n- 2*)- — Chryscno (Cigllu). HtfdrOritrbonH eont'tininfj Uneven Nnmbcr^ of lilfdro(jcn Atoms. — The saturated hydrocarbons of the first series may give up one, two. three, or more atoms of II in exchange for n, Br, or I, producing haloid salts, from whicii the al- cohols are readily derived, as already shown in this article. The hydrocarbons existing in these haloid salts and al- cohols are compound radicals, as raethvl (CII3}*, ethvl (C2II5)', ethene {('■iU,)'*, propone (CallcA cthenyl (CjIfaA propenyl {C3II5)'", olhine (C'zII-i)'', propino (Call*)'', ethinyl (C^ll)', propinyl (C3H3)', propone (CsIIa)*', proponyl (CjH)*^. etc. The radicals with even numbers of II atoms are included in the series already mentioned: those with uneven numbers of II atoms may bo included in a separate group of scries. Firnt .SVriM.— (C„H2„ + 1).— Methyl (CIIs), ethyl (C2TI5), etc. These are the radicals of the common alcohols, methyl hydrate, wood-naphtha (CII3OII), ethyl or com- mon alcohol (t'jIlfiOII), etc. Second Scn'en (C„II_»fi - 1). Mcthcnyl (CH), the radical in chloroform (CHCI3) and iodoform (Cllla); propenyl (C.1H5). the radical in propenyl alcohol, glyceriuo (C3II5 (OIII3). Third Sf-ries (r„Il2„ _ 3).— Propinyl (C3H3). Fourth Series {Vnlijn - b)- — Proponyl (0311). C. F. CnANDI-EK. Hy'drocelC [Lat. hydrocele ; Or. OSpok^Atj. from iiSwp, "water." and itJJAij, " tumor"], an accumulation of water be- tween the two serous coverings of thotesticles or of the sper- matic cord, known as the tunica vaginalis. It may follow an inflammation of the testes, but generally follows strains. It may afTrct both siilcs at the .'»ainc time, but usually we find the elTu^inn on one side only. It is a curious fact that musi- cians who play on wind instruments are more subject to this disease than any other class of individuals; it seems to be due to the constant strain produced by blowing. It forms a pear-shaped, painless tumor, wl)i<.-h causes uneasi- ness to the patient only on account of its .«i/o; it sonic- times grows BO lorge as to reach nearly down lo the knees. Unless the sac in which the fluid is enclosed bo abnormally thick and distended to its utmost by the contained fluid, flucluiitidn can be felt. There is no impulse felt ujion cnuKliiug. liy strclching tlio integuments over the tumor, and placing a candle behind it in a dark room, the light will be transmitted; this would not oceur if the swelling were soliil. Another test to determine the consistence of it is lo plunge a needle into the mass, and sec whether it falls over to one side niid floats about, or retains the position in which it was placeil. The treatment of hydrocele may bo di- vided into the palliative nnd the radical. The former consists in drawing olT the en"u8ed fluid by the trocar and eanula; this relieves the patient for a lontrer or shorter time, but the sac is apt to fill again, when the operation lias to bo repeated. We find patients submitting to this operation from onoo to four times annually thrnut^hont their lives, rather than submit to a procedure which is jierfeotly harm- less atii) wiMihl ensure their complete reci.vory. The radical cure is ciTected by exciting an iuflummation in tho sac which shall cause tho opposing surfaces to adhere, and thus obliterate the cavity and prevent further cflTusion. This is sometimes accomplished by irritating the surfaces with the end of the eanula before it is withdrawn, but this method is uncertain. Generally, it is done by injecting some stim- ulating fluid; for this it was customary to use port wine or zinc lotion, but more recently tincture of iodine seems to be the favorite. A prominent New York surgeon has lately used the lunar caustic for the same purpose; this causes more general disturbance of the system, but it is never ne- cessary to use it a second time. After the operation tho patient should keep in bed for a few days and avoid all stimulating articles of diet. If there is much inflamma- tion, cold applications locally and opium internally aro the indications. Edward J. BEUMiNcnAM. Hydroccph'alus [Or. vBpoKi^ta^ov, from v5wp, " water,'* and jccf^ttA^, " head "], a dropsical cflusion of fluids into tho interior of the skull, occupying one or more of the ventricles of the brain or tho sub-mcningcal space, or both. Acute hydrocephalus is ordinarily a symptom of Meningitis (which sec), particularly of tubercular meningitis; but cases occur in which no tubercle can be discovered after death. Tho causes of chronic hydrocepholus are various. Gross states that, in his opinion, a sub-acute or chronic ar.achnitis, usually congenital, is a frequent cause. It is regarded as certain that arrest of development of the brain- substance, pressure U]ion the veins of Gahn by masses of tubercle or cancer, and in fact any condition which obstructs the venous circulation in the brain, may lead to hydroccph- nlio eft'usion, just as a contracted liver produces ascites. It is probable also that in arrest of brain-development the in- croaso of the normal sub-arachnoid fluid is a conservative process, serving to keep full the space between the brain and tho cranium, Tho largo ninjority of cases are congen- ital, and hydrocephalus must be set dov.n as a disease (or symptom) belonging to infantile life; but cases occasionally occur in mature life or in old age. Dean Swil't, after three years of illness, died with hydrocephalus, the result, doubt- less, of organic brain-disease. The prognosis of chronic hydrocephalus is very grave. The child may live for many years, but (with rare exceptions) becomes idiotic, and in some cases is epileptic. The head becomes distended, the fontanels remain open, osna triquetra form in the courses of tho cranial sutures, and in f(nne eases quarts of fluid are effused, consisting of water, with earthy salts and a little albumen; while in acute hydrocephalus there is sometimes much albumen present, with some pus-corpuscles or a littlo blood. "When the disease is detected early, mercurial in- unctions, with the administration of the iodides, may pos- sibly afi"ord benefit. Treatment by systematic compression or by tapping the skull (the latter operation to be followed by firm compression) has been tried in many cases, but tho most common result has been tlie tpecdy death of the pa- tient, although in a few instances it would appear that moro or less advantage has been obtained by these means. Tho term npuriouH hi/dronphahut is sometimes applied to infantile tyi)h()id or other enteric disease, the general symptoms of which may simulate those of acute menin- gitis. C. ^^'. OltEENE. Ilydrochlo'ric Acid, called also jlluriatic, Chlo- rohydric, and Chlorhydric Acid [ancient names, junrhte arid, spirit of siift; Vi\ aeidc muriotiquc, acid«- chliirhifdrique ; tJcr. Snhtiiiure, Chloru-iiHseretoJfufiHrc^. The muriatic or hydrochloric acid of commerce and of tho laboratory is a solution in water of the gaseous compound, HCI, of hydrogen and chlorine. It occurs in nature only as an Irregular product of volcanic eruptions. It is, how- ever, a natui'al constituent of gastric JuiccH. Artiflcially, it is always prepareil by the action of sulphuric acid upon common salt, tho chloride of sodium — an action evolving tho gaseous chloride of hydrogen, tho latter being passed into water kept cold, which absorbs it with groat avidity to tho maximum extent of about llil) times its volume, in- creasing in liulk one-third, and in weight about "j per cent. In commerce, there are three distinct (|ualitic8 — the common yellow commercial acid, which is suhl in carboys, an<l which is usually quite impure, owing its yellow color, in part rtt least, to iron, and usually containing sulphurous and sul- phuric acids, with other contaminations; the grade calli'd "jeweller's acid," which, when prepared with the use of distilled water, is likely to bo a good article, suflicicntly so even for medical uso ; and tho so-called "chemically pure'* acid, U'v analytical uses, which should of course be made from distilled water, and should justify its name. Hydrochloric acid gas is colorless and transparent, and of sufl^oeating odor. In tho air it forms white fumes by condensing tho aqueous vapor to a liquid fog. It contains by weight \)7.'2Ct per cent, of clilorine and 2.7 I of hydrogen, and by vcdiiine equal measures of these two gases combined without condensation. Under a pressure of -10 atmospheres 1050 HYDROCHCERID.E— HYDRODYNAMICS. it condenses into a liquid. Its density is 1.269, air being ]. The iiffinity of IK'I for water iiso great that the latter, when free to enter a vessel filled with the gas, will rush thereinto with almost as much violence as into a vacuum, and a piece of ice introduced into the gas will mcit ns rap- idly as in a lire. ^Vhen saturated with the gas the liquid acid has a density of 1.20 or 1.21. Such acid requires a cold of 60° below zero F. to freeze it. Heated, it gives off the gas, with appearance of einiliition, until its density runs diiwn to 1.094, when it will distill over unchanged. Tho following is one of Dr. Ure's tables, giving the compo- sition for varying specific gravities: Spcciflc gravity. AquC0U4 acid ofsp. gr. 1.2. GaAcous acid. Chlorine. Specific gravitj. Aqueous acid ofep. gr. 1.2. Gaseous acid. ChlorlDC. 1.2000 100 40.777 39.675 1.1102 55 21.822 22.426 1.1910 9.1 38.738 37.692 I.IOOO 50 20..38S 19.837 1. 1 822 90 3G.700 35.707 1.0899 45 18.318 17.854 1.1721 85 .14.600 33.724 1.0793 40 IG.310 15.870 1.1701 84 34.252 33.328 1.0697 35 14.271 13.887 i.ir,2a SO 82.621 31.746 1.0.597 30 12.233 11.903 i.i->;i9 79 32.213 31.343 1.0497 25 10.194 9.919 i.i'iig 75 39.582 29.757 1.0397 20 8.155 7.9:h i.mo 70 28.544 27.772 1.0298 15 6.116 5.951 1.1308 &i 20.504 2.5.7S9 1.0200 10 4.078 3.908 1.120(i 60 24.466 23.805 1.0100 S 2.039 1.984 Testa for Purity. — Pure acid shouM leave no tache when a drop is dried on briglit platinum foil and the latter ig- nited. To test for sulplmrie iind sulphurous acids, evap- orate in a clean porcelain dish after adding a crystal of nitrate of baryta, or a little clilorate of potash and chlor- ide of barium. The dry residue should then form a clear solution in distilled water again. Any turbidity is sulphate of baryta. After warming with a fragment of chlorate of potash, saturation with ammonia should give no precipi- tate (iron). It must not tarnish bright copper when boiled in it (arsenic). It must not dissolve on boiling therewith tho minutest speck of gokl-leaf {nitric and nitrous acids). For most uses sulphurous acid is likely to be the most detrimental impurity, and, unfortunately, is one of the most common. In case of poisoning with muriatic acid, tho symptoms of which are generally similar to tliosc of other corrosive mineral acids, nnitfncsln, prepared ch<tlk, or even soap, may be administered in large quantities us an immediate anti- dote. H. WUUTZ. (For the medicinal uses of hydrochloric acid sec Mineral Acir>s. by Edward Curtis, M. D.) Ilydrochflcr'idde [Gr. iiatup, "water," and x^'po?. "hog"], a family of symplicidentate rodents distinguished by the large size, the great oval anteorbital foramen, and the structure of the four molar teeth (the posterior of whicli is very much elongated, and transversely simply foldcrl, while the others arc provided with transverse Y-shaped folds), and especially by the union of the alveolar portion of the maxillary bone with the squamosal about the level of the condyle; tho clavicles are obsolete; the fibula and tibia SL'parate from each other; and the nails are blunt and somewhat hnof-like (whence they have been called sub- ungulate); the hair is but little harsh. This family is es- tablished for the reception of the capybara of South Ameri- ca, which is by far the largest of living rodents. As indi- cated by the name, it frequents the water, and its asjiect st>mcwhat (but very slightly) resembles that of a hog. Un- like other rodents, it has not a "squat" body, with limbs much flexed, but it walks with its limbs extended from the body at about the same angle as do the large quadrupeds. Theodore Gill. Ilydrocyan'ic Acid. Hydrocyanic acid is a most deadly poison to both animals and plants. In the anhy- drons state it is one of tho most active destroyers of life known, a single drop put on the tongue killing a large dog in a few seconds, and death being even caused by breathing its fumes. Even the medicinal preparation, a dilute aqueous solution containing 2 per cent, of the anhydrous acid, is a tremendous poison, and must be used cautiously. In ex- cessive dose the symptoms are merely those of the act of death. The sufferer falls as if struck by lightning, all the vital functions being apparently arrested simultaneously. In less dose <Ieath ensues by failure of breathing after a brief interval of from a few minutes to hnlf an hour of con- vulsion or paralysis and collnpse. The nature of the poi- sonous action is not yet thoroughly made out. There is no chemical antidote, and in cases of poisoning by accident or malice death is generally so speedy that all remedies are too late. Ammonia, atrojiine by subcutaneous injection, artificial respiration, and alternate dnshings of hot and cold water on tho chest, are tho means that offer most hope. Medicinally, tho dilute acid is useful to arrest nausea and vomiting, nllay cough, and, locally applied, to relievo irri- tati<ui and itching of the skin. Edward CfitTis. Hydrodynamic Engines. See Hyduallic Engines, by F, A. P. llAlJNAUD. Ilydrodynam'ics [Gr. CSwp, "water," and Cwc^itKOf, "power," from ^vfaaOax., to " be able'*], by most writers treats of the laws governing the motion of fluids. Its applica- tion, in what follows, is restricted to liquids, of which water Fig. J. is considered the representative. Water remains at rest only when confined on all sides. In this condition the pressure in any given direction, at any point in the liquid mass, is balanced by an exactly equal jircssure in the opposite di- rection. This equality of pre.-^surcs may be disturbed, in water confined on all sides, by external forces acting inter- mittently, as the wind acting upon the surface of large bodies of water. This gives rise to oseiIhitor3' movements called waves, but does not move any particle of water per- manently away from its position of rest. Continued mo- tion in any one direction takes [dace only when an open- ing is made in the boundary ol the confining reservoir. The liquid particles adjacent to the opening are no longer sustained by the resistance of the boundary, and, yielding to the pressure on the opposite Bide, are set in motion and driven through the opening. Their displacement disturbs the equilibrium of adjoining particles, and the movement extends to all parts of the reservoir, being, if we suppose the opening to be small as compared with the total bound- ary of the reservoir, active in the vicinity of the opening and slower in parts more remote. AVater thus moves when- ever a way is opened by which its surface may reach a lower level. Its velocity, other things being equal, is great or small according as the descent of its surface during the movement is great or small. This descent of the surface is called the hend. Velocity. — A heavy body falling freely, acquires velocity at the rate of ;>L*.2 feet per second. This figure represents the effect of gravity acting without obstruction. A body moving under a force greater or less than its own weight acquires a proportionally greater or less velocity. The velocity acquired in falling through any given height is found by multiplying the height by twice this quantity and extracting the square root of the product. The velocity acquired in falling 4 feet, for instance, is the square root of 4 times 0-1.4, or IG.Ol feet per second. In other words, Iti.Ol feet per second is the velocity due to a height of 4 feet. For all ordinary purposes, it is sufficiently accurate to say that the velocity is 8 times the square root of the height, and the height is l-64th of the square of the ve- locity. The velocity im- parted to water by a given head is the same as that acquired by a heavy body in falling through a height equal to the head. A few words of explanation are neces- sary to avoid misappli- cation of this term " head." When water issues from an orifice in the vertical side of a ves- sel, the head producing the velocity with which it leaves theorificc is the height of the .surface of water in the vessel above the centre of the orifice. If, after leaving the ori- fice, it falls to a lower level C, tho head producing the -^ A M... H \ IIYDKODYNAMICS. 1051 velocity at such lower level is the height A C. When water issues rroiQ an orifice under water, the head is the height of the surt'aee in the discharging ahovc that in the receiving basin. When water flows from one basin to another through a long pipe, llje head producing the velocity in the pipe is not the height of the surface in the discharging above that in the receiving b.isin. The motion in this case is not free. It is resisted, and a part of the head isexpended, not in pro- ducing motiou, but in overcoming certain resistances. Let Fig. 2 represent the entrance to the pipe. Sujiposo u small vertical tube to be inserted in the pipe near its origin. The head producing motion is the height at which the water in the reservoir stands above that in the tul)e. The following tabic gives the velocities due to heads up to 15 feet: Table 1. Hcul Tclocit; llrad Velocity Hntl Velocity Head Velocity In Id fwt pcT In lu ftH-l per In IQ fivt per ill In rept per (feci. 0.0 teconj. tM. weoDd. rat. •CCOQd. feet. second. 0.000 1.8 10.700 3.6 15.217 7.0 21.219 0.1 2.-536 1.9 11.055 3.7 15.427 7.5 21.904 0.2 3.587 2.0 11.342 3.8 15.634 8.0 22.085 0.3 4.393 2.1 11.622 3.9 15.839 8.5 23.383 0.4 5.072 2.2 11.896 4.0 16.040 9.0 24.01)1 0..') S.671 2.3 12.163 4.1 16.240 9.5 21.720 O.f) 6.212 2.4 12.425 4.2 10.4:47 10.0 2.5.362 0.7 6.710 2.5 12.681 4.3 16.631 10.5 25.988 0.8 7.173 2.6 12.932 4.4 16.823 Il.O 26.i;no 0.9 7.609 2.7 13.179 4.5 17.013 11.5 27.193 1.0 8.020 2.8 13.420 4.6 17.201 12.0 27.783 1.1 8.412 2.9 13.658 4.7 17.387 12.5 2R.3.)6 1.2 8.786 3.0 13.891 4.8 17.571 13.0 28.917 1.3 9.144 ai 14.121 4.9 17.753 13.5 29.463 1.4 S.-190 3.2 14.347 5.0 17.931 14.0 30,009 1..1 9.S23 3.3 14..509 5.5 18.809 14.5 30.510 l.fi 10.14.5 3.4 11.789 6.0 19.615 lo.O • 31.062 1.7 10.457 3.5 15.004 6.5 20.448 Ififftrantfc Heml. — It is shown in the article UvnitosTAT- ics that the pressure per square inch at any point in a res- ervoir of wati'r, when at rest, not counting the atmospheric pressure, is equal to the weight of a column of water 1-iiich square reaching vertically from the given point to the level of the surface. This is not true of water in motion. The head cannot exert its full static elTec-t of pressure and its dynamic etfict of motion at tlie same time; any exertion of one of these effects is accompanied by a corresponding abatement of the other. Water moving with the full ve- locity due the hydrostatic head is under no jiressure. The diminution of pressure consequent upon the motion of water is representi'tl by the head due the velocity. In Fig. 2, if the velocity in the pipe is \ feet per second, the pressure upon the sides of the pipe will be less than that corresponding to the height of the wa'er in the reservoir by the hca<l due the velocity of 4 feet per second — viz. 0.25 foot; t. r. the water in the vertical tube will stand 0.25 foot lower than that in the reservoir. Let water be flowing througli a vessel of the form sliown at Fig. 3, A H represent- ing the surtax' Kuppos<d to be maintained at an invariable level. The water will move fast in the contracted and slow in the expanded section. In a tube r branching up- ward from the widest part the water will stand near- ly as high as in the vessel; in the tube lower. -H the narrowest part the jtressurc may ho negative, or less than that of the atmosphere, so that water will enter tnc vessel through a tube /'. brandling down- war. I as indicated. EJIiuSt in- the DtHrhftrfff nf Witfrr from (frifircH, — An orifice, in its simplest form, is an opening in the C wall of a reservoir remote from any other side, the wall being sup- posed to have no s<'nsible thiek- neas. This supjiositinn merely irn- i plies, as in Fig. I, that the water escapes as a jet. an<l does not toucn the prolongation of the ori- ficc after passing the plane A B. (/, considerably Fio, 4. A "A Such an opening i« called nn orifice in a thin plate, and when the term ori- fice is used without qualification, this is usually understood. C D is the axis of the orifice, A B the plane of the orifice. Contract toil. — To compute the quantity of water dis- charged from an orifice of known dimensions under a known head would bo a very simple matter if the fluid particles traversed the orifice in parallel directions and without resistance. In that case the discharge would be the product of the velocity due the head multiplied by the area of the orifice. The fluid particles, however, approach the orifice in converging tlirections, .sume in diametrically opposite ones. Arrived at the plane of the orifice, they do not instantly change their direction, hut still tend toward the axis of the orifice. This produces what is called eon- traction of the fluid-vein. At a distance from the plane of the orifice equal to one-half its diameter the fluid par- ticles assume parallel directions, and here the contraction is greatest, the diameter of the stream being about eight- tenths that of the orifice. The velocity in this section of the stream is very nearly that due the head, falling short of it, ordinarily, about 3 per cent. The ])roduct of the area of the orifice by the velocity due the head is called the theo- retical discharge. This term is used for lack id' a better, though it implies what is not true. No rational theory in- dicates this as the true discharge. The discharge from ori- fices is always considerably less than this. It is found by multiplying the theoretical discbarge by a certain fraction called the coeftieicnt of efiUix. The coefticient of contrac- tion is the fracti(tn Iiy which the area of the orifice must bo multiplied to give the area of the most contracted section of the stream : and the coeflicient of velocity is the fraction by which the ^clocily due the head must be multiplied to give the actual velocity in the most contraetcil section of the stream. Very numerous and accurate experiments have been made to determine these coefficients, particularly the first. The most extended scries of experiments was made in 1S28, under the auspices of the French govern- ment by two of its military engineers, Poncelet and Les- bros. It results from these experiments that the coefficient of efflux is not constant for orifices in a thin plate, being greater for small orifices and low velocities than for the opposite conditions — that it is much greater for long, nar- row orifices than for those with circular or nearly square forms. For circular orifices Weisbach found the results given in Table 2. Table 2. Diameter of orlQce, reel. Coefflclent of efflux Tor n bead of— i.sesitet. 0.82 rcct. 0.032.8 O.O6.-16 0.0984 0.1312 0.628 0.021 0.014 0.607 0.637 0.6-19 0.622 0.614 It will be seen that the coefficient of efflux diminishes slightly as the diameter of the orifice increases, and in- creases as the head diminishes. Table 3 gives values of the coefficient of efllux obtained by Poncelet and Lesbros for rectangular orifices: Table 3. llcocfflolcntor ef- Cocmclcnt of cmiix for an orlflce 0.656 feet wide, , llu,\ for nn orillco Willi B helKlit of— 1 1.9T feet wide. In wlitiaiieiglit of— o.eM 03J8 O.I6( 0098 0.066 0.033 ooto 0.066 feet. feet. feet. feet. feet. feet. feet. tot. 0.033 0.007 0.030 0.600 0.701 0.644 0.060 0.572 0.596 0.015 0.034 o.6.'.n 0.691 0.643 0.161 0.58.-. 0.005 0.025 0.610 0.658 0.i;79 1 0..'i97 0.641 0.262 0.589 0.0 lU 0.029 0.638 O.050 0.070 O.OOI 0.640 0.32H 0.592 0.011 11.030 0.037 0.054 0.060 0.002 o.ao 0.820 0..599 0.616 0.0311 0.032 0.0)0 0.053 0.6110 0631 1.640 0.603 0.017 (I.IV.'8 0.030 0.610 0.011 0.007 o,o:!o 2.297 0.604 0.616 0.027 0.029 0.037 0.010 0.007 0.028 3.2R1 0.005 0.015 0.020 0.028 0.i;33 0.I13L' 00.-I 0.026 0.562 0.601 0.0117 0.1113 0.012 0.012 0.611 11.002 0.020 9.843 0.601 11.003 0.006 0.008 0.010 O.OOU 0.601 0.615 The head wns measured at a point in the reservoir where the water was sensibly still. It wns measured from the level of the upper edge of the orifice. /iouttdril th-fficfH. — An orifice may be so rounded inter- nally as to almost entirely obliterate the contraction; in which case the coefficient of contraction becomes very nearly equal to unity. The rounding shiMild he such as to make the orifice conform in shape as nearly as jiossible to the contrncted vein. Weisbauh found for a well-rounded orifice about 0.4 inch in iliumeter (he following results : I-'ora bend of. onr.tifi. i.r.i ft. U ■'■ ft. :.ti ft. 32H ft. CloetlicUnt of etilux 0.'J5U 0.DG7 0.'J7."» O.'j'Jl 0.994 1052 HYDKODYNAMICS. It is hardly necessary to remark that the smallest sectioQ of the opening is to bo regarded as the orifice. To exemplir_y the use of these results, let the orifice at Fig. bo square, 2 inches diameter ; let i ig. 5. the head acting on the centre of the ori- tice be ;i feet. The eoellicieiit of efflux should be about 0.1'" ; area of the ori- fice, 4 square inches = U. 028 square foot ; velocity due head by Table 1, n.S9 feel per pocond : theoretical di>- rharge, 0.028 x 13.S9 = 0.:i89 ; actual do. = 0.389 X 0.07 = 0..177 cubic foot ]ier second. Vnr an orifice of the sanu- size not rounded the coefficient, accord ing to Table 3, should be 0.00, and th.- discharge 0.389 x 0.60 = 0.233 cubiL- fuot per second. The discharge is, there- fore, increased Gl per cent, by rounding | the orifice. Difft-'f-vnt Degrees of Contraction. — The more the direction of the water is changed in passing the orifice, the smaller the coefficient of efflux. The greatest Fig. 6. Fig. 7. TabI/E 4. Part of tlic I)cr!Inl^■ ttr or tile iirilicc'Dti which the conlruc- tioQ is suppressed. DiMihsrgc, R3 cum- l.:ired Willi lli;a from a simiJle ou- nce uudcr the same coaditioos. 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 O.G 0.7 1.01.5 1.031 1.045 1.052 1.077 i.ooa 1.108 change of direction undergone by any particle of water in Fig. 10. passing an orifice may be as much as ISO de- grees, and from that down to nothing. In the orifice Fig. it is 180 degrees; iu Fig. 7, be- tween ISO and 90; in Fig. 8, 90; in Fig. 9, less than 'JO; and in Fig. 10, nothing, this being a rounded orifice involving no abrupt change in the direction of the water. Wcisbach gives the following as the result of his experi- ments on this point : Greatest eliaiifc nf direction- , »„ IW^ 157^0 13i^ 1I2H^ W> 67^" «« 22M° "M^ 5«' (^ Co. of cffl..0 5U 0.5« O.o7? O.GKl 0.632 0.681 0.7*1 0.882 OMii O.WJ 0.1«6 fnr >m)] Ictc Contraction. — An orifice may be so situated with reference to the sides of the reservoir that the water cannot ap- proach it from all direc- tions. Thu^, in Fig. 11 the orifice tt can be ap- proached from all sides by the water; h can bo approaehed on three sides; c on two, and d on one. The contraction 15 here said to be sup- pressed on the sides from which the approach of the water is prevented. tion i.s to give an increased discharge, and also to in- cline the direction of the effluent stream toward the sides on which the contrac- tion is suppressed. In the orifice Fig. 12 the tendency which the water coming from A, has, to approach the axis, after passing the orifice, is not balanced by a similar tendency in thcop- positedirection, and the re Fig. n. d 1 J such an orifice, according to Weisbach, the axis C D of the stream is inclined to E F, the axis of the orifice, about 9 degrees. Taljle ■1 shows the eftect of sup- pressed contraction, ac- cording to Weisbach, up- on the discharge. It ex- plains itself. AVhen, f.r;., the contraction is sup- pres.«ed upon four-tenths of the perimeter of the orifice, the discharge is fi per cent, greater than from a simple orifice of the same size and form, and under the same head. Imperfect Contraction. — In wliat precedes, the orifice is supposed to be small as compared witli the wall of the res- ervoir in which it is placed. \Vhen. as in Fig. 13, the ori- fice is but slightly less in area than the wall containing it, the result is a diminished contraction, showing itself in an increased discharge, and also in the apjjcarauce of the is- suing stream, which is Fig. Vi. opaque and troubled, , while that from a sim- ^ pie orifice is transpar- ent. Table j shows tlie effect of imperfect con- traction, according to Weisbach. This table requires no explanation. For an ori- fice, c. <j.y thrce-tenlhs as large as the wall contain- ing it, the discharge is per cent, greater for a circular orifice. 7 per cent, for a rectangular one, than for a simple orifice similarly circumstanced as to size, form, and head, iu a wall of practically unlimited extent. Weirs. — This form of orifice is peculiarly adapt- ed to the measurement of water, and has for that reason been the subject of very numerous and elaborate experiments, not only in the series un- dertaken by Poncelet and Lcsbros. but also, upon a larger scale an<l with every precaution necessary to accuracy, by Francis of JIassachusetts. Table is computed by him from the results of his experiments. It Table 5. Discharge as compared with thai Troin a Area or the nriQco as simple orifice under the same condilioDS. COQipurcd with thatof the side coDtaiDiog it. Circular. Rectaogular. 0.05 1.007 1.009 0.10 1.014 1.019 0.15 1.023 \sm 0.20 1.034 1.042 0.2S 1.045 1.056 0.30 1.059 1.071 0..iS 1.075 1.0R8 0.40 1.092 1.107 0.4S 1.112 1 128 0.50 1.134 1.152 0.55 1.161 1.178 0.60 1.189 1.208 0.65 1.223 1.241 0.70 1.260 1.278 0.75 1.303 1.319 0.80 1.351 I. SOS 0.85 1.408 1.416 0.90 1.471 1.473 0.95 1.546 1.537 1.00 1.631 1.031 Table 6. The effect of incomplete contrac- Fio. 12. w>-.^— ^ a Bult is an inclined direction of the effluent stream. In nisoii. Depth nuch. 1 Depth DIsch. Depth DIseh. Depth Dlsoh. In In eul>. ft. In cult. ft. iu jcub. fl- .'° cuh. ft. feci. per sec. 0.105 feet. 0.10 per sec.l 0..^7 1 feet. 0.50 per sec. 1.177 feet per see. pcrteo. 0.10 0.70 l.O.'.O 0.90 2.843 0.1 1 0.121 0.31 0.575 I 0.51 1.213 0.71 1 1.992 U.91 2.891 0.12 0.138 0.32 0.603 0.52 1.249 0.72 2.034 0.92 2.938 0.13 0.1.% 0.33 0.631 0.53 1.285 0.73 2.077 ' 0.93 2.9.96 0.14 0.174 0.34 0.660 0..i4 1.321 0.74 2.120 0.94 3.035 0.1.1 0.193 0.35 0.6S9 0.55 1.3.18 0.75 2.163 0.95 3.083 0.16 0.213 0.36 0.719 0.55 1.395 0.76 1 2.206 0.96 3.132 0.17 0.233 0.37 0.749 0..'i7 1.433 0.77 1 2.250 0.9; 3.181 0.1. S 0.254 0.38 0.7811 0.58 1.471 0.78 2.294 0.98 .3.231 0.1'J 0.276 0.39 0.811 fl..59 1.509 0.79 2.338 0.99 3.280 0.20 0.298 0.40 0.842 0.60 1.548 0.80 2.383 1.00 3.330 0.21 0.320 0.41 0.874 0.61 1..586 0.81 2.428 1.1 3.842 0.22 0.344 0.42 0.906 0.62 1.626 0.82 2.473 1.2 4..377 0.23 0.3C.7 0.43 0.939 0.63 1.665 0.83 2.518 1.3 4.936 0.24 0.391 0.44 0.972 0.64 1.705 0.84 2..564 1.4 6.516 0.2o 0.416 0.45 1.005 0.65 1.745 0.8.5 2.610 1.5 0.118 056 0.441 0.46 1.o:K) 0.66 1.78.5 0.80 2.656 1.6 6.739 0.27 0.467 047 1.073 0.67 1.826 0.87 2.702 1.7 7.381 0.28 0.493 0.48 1.107 0.68 1.867 0.88 2.749 1.8 8.042 0.29 0.520 0.49 1.142 0.69 1.909 0.89 2.796 1.9 2.0 8.721 1 9.419 1 HYDRODYNAMICS. 1053 rio. 14. gives the discbarge for different depth?, from a weir ono foot in horizontal length. The depth is reckoned from the level of the crest of the weir, and is taken at a point a little up-stream or asirle. beyond the curve of the surface conse- quent upon the discharjje. To correct the results for the cfTi-ct of eon(rao(ioD nt the ends of the weir, the length is to be diminished by one-tenth of the depth for each end- contraotion. If an end of Ibu weir coincide with a vertical wall of the canal or reser- voir, the contraction at that end is annulled. Fig. 11 shows the form of the hori- zontal crest and vertical sidrs or ends of the weir for which this table is computed. The computation by Mr. Francis's ~\ =^,:;i formula is uncertain for depths less than 0.1 foot. A weir for measuring water should always bo short enough to give a greater depth than this. To find, r. r/., the discharge from a weir with two end-con- tractions with a depth of O.S:J foot, the length of tho weir being 20 feet; length to be used in calculation, 20 — 2 X 0.8;ixO.l = iy.S34: discharge for ono foot in length, 2.51 S cubic feet per second; total discharge = lU. 831 X 2.518 = 49.9-12 cubic feet per second. In the above table it is as- sumed that the opening of the weir is inconsiderable, com- pared with the cross-section of the channel through which the water approaches it. Where this is not the case, the water pa.-ses the weir with a velocity greater than that generated by tho head, as measured at the weir, and tho iliscliarge is consequently greater than indicated above. The correction for this source of inaccuracy is made by tho aid of Tablo 7, given by Weisbach. In the above example let the section of the weir-stream be four-tenths that of the approaching stream ; tho discharge, according to Weisbach's table, will be 49.942 x 1-044 = 52. n9 cubic feet per second. Table 7. Section of »elr-itr«iiin ni»chargc ai compared with tbat given ia Tabic 6. ..comparM nidi Ihat which the wiitiT ap- For a wotr witli end. For a weir without proujhc tba wclr. contraetlooi. cnd-contractiouH. 0.05 1.000 1.042 0.10 1. 000 1.04.5 0.1.) 1.001 1.049 0.20 1.0{« 1.056 O.iS 1.007 1.0G4 0.30 1.014 1.074 O.M 1.026 1.086 o.to 1.014 1.100 0.1.1 1.070 1.116 0.50 1.107 l.l:t3 Short Tabr9. — If wo apply a short tube externally to an orifice, the conditions of the discharge are entirely changed. From the simple orifice the issuing stream is contracted and transparent; from tho tube it is uucontracted and troubled. The velocity of tho stream is diminished, but its cross-section is increased. A very raaterinl increase takes place in tho quantity of water discharged. Tho tube must have a length of 2^ or II times the diameter of tho orifice, otherwise tho stream, when the head is consider- able, is liable to issue without tourbiiig the lube, in which case (he latter has no infiumrc tipori the discharge. Under heads of from '.\ to 20 fret the coefiicient of efflux through a short tube \\ to .3 inches diameter is about 0.815. It in- creases somewhat if the size of the tube is increased or tho head is diminished, being, in some cases, as much as O.8.05. It is sufficiently correct for most purposes to say that the discharge from an orifice in a thin plate is increased one- third by the addition of a short tube. I{t'ni»t finer to the Motion of Watrr. — Though Water moves under tho acti<tn of tho slightest force, it? movement is al- ways accompanied by a certain resistance, analogous to that which solid bodies experience in sliding or moving one upon another. There is this difference, however, be- tween the friction of solids an<l that of fluids: the former is the same whether the movement is rapid or slow; tho latter iuerea'^cs with the velocity. A car, r. fj., runs down a track of uniform grade. It moves because the force of gravity exceoils tho resisting force of friction. This excess takes effect in increasing the vdncity, an<i does not diminish ns the velocity increases. The longer the car continues in motion, the faster it moves. Thin, at least, would be the case if it dirl not encounter a fluid resistance— that, namely, of the air. When, on the contrary, water flows down an in- clinnl channel or through an inclined pipe, or, what is tho same thing, tlirough a horizontal pipe under the action of a head, tho re-iisfuiKO incr<:is"S as the vrloritv ini*r"iis's. Uniform velocity always establishes itself at such a rate ns to make the resistance equal to the moving force. The head or force of gravity is entirely expended in overcoming tho resistance to tho water's motion. M<itiou of Wnter in Lonij Pijjca. — The head expended in overcoming the resistance to motion in long pipes is called "frietional head,*' and sometimes ** lost head " or " loss of bead." It is directly proportional to the length of the pipe, and nearly, though not exactly, proportional to the square of the velocity. It is less, cutcria paribus, for a large pipe than for a small one, and depends grcatl)' upon the nature of its internal surface, being much greater for rough than for smooth surfaces. Table S, computed from the results of experiments made by Henry Darcy at the expense of the French government, serves for any calculations ordinarily required as to the motion of water in pipes. The formula is /i /— b V-, in which H is the radius of the pipe in feet; /, the loss of head in feet per linear foot of pipe; r, the ve- locity in feet per second; 6 is a number varying with tho size of the pipe. It is given in the third column. If the loss of head per foot is required, the velocity and size of the pipe being known, /= — -. /is found by multiplying the quantity in the fourth column by the square of the ve- locity. If we desire to find the velocity corresponding to a given loss of head per foot, we must multiply the square root of the given loss of head by the quantity in the fifth column. Table 8. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Diameter of pi|ic, feet. Radius, tect. h. It VI 0.04 0.02 0.0004780 0,023900 G.4C646 0.08 0.U4 0.0003163 0.007908 11.24520 0.12 0.06 0.0002623 0.0O4372 15.1238 0.16 0.08 0.0002354 0.002942 18.4365 0.20 O.IO 0.0002192 0.002192 21..3589 0.24 0.12 0.00020S5 0.001737 23.9939 0.28 0.14 0.0002007 0.001434 26.4074 o.a2 0.16 0.00U1949 0.001218 28.6534 0.36 0.1. t 0,0001904 0.001058 30.7138 0.40 0.20 O.000IS69 0.000934 32.7210 0.44 0.22 0.0001339 0.000836 3-I..5857 0.48 0.24 0.0001K15 0.000756 36.3696 0.52 0.26 0.0001794 0.000690 38.0093 0.56 0.28 0.O0OI776 0.0006.34 39.7151 0.60 0.30 0.00U1761 0.000587 41.2744 0.64 0.32 0.0001747 0.000546 42.7900 0.68 0.34 0.00017:ri 0.000510 44.2,';08 0.72 0,36 0.0001725 0.000479 45.6912 0.76 0.38 0.0001715 0.000451 47.0882 0.80 0.40 0.0001707 0.000427 4S.,3934 0.84 0.42 0.0001699 0.000405 49.0904 0.88 0.44 0.0001G92 0.000385 60.9647 0.92 0.46 0.00016,S6 0.000367 62.199C 0.96 0.48 O.OOOlliSO 0.000350 63.4522 1.00 0.50 0.0001074 0.000335 64.6358 1.04 0.52 0.0001009 0.000321 55.816 1.08 0.54 0.0001665 0.000308 66,980 1.12 0.56 0.0001061 0.000297 68.020 1.16 0.58 0.0001657 0.0002,% 69.131 1.20 0,60 0.U001653 0.000275 60,302 1.24 0.62 0.0001649 0.000266 61.314 1.28 0.04 O.OOOIOIC 0.000257 C2.378 1.32 0.66 0.0001643 0.000249 03.372 1.36 0,tW 0.00011140 0.000241 64.4IG 1.40 0,70 0.0001637 0.000234 6,5.372 1.44 0.72 0.0001(i35 0.000227 60.372 1.48 0.74 0.0001032 0.000221 67.267 1.50 0.75 0.0001631 0.000217 67.S,S4 1.00 0.80 0.(H)01620 0.000203 70.186 1.70 0.85 0.0001621 0.000191 "2..'«7 1.80 0.90 0.0<1»I617 O.OOOIKO 74.636 1.90 0.95 0.0OOI6I3 0.000170 76.696 2.00 1.00 0.0001610 0.000161 78.811 2.10 1.05 0.0001007 0.0001.53 80.845 2.20 1.10 0.0001604 0.O0OI46 82.761 2.30 1.15 0.11001601 0.000139 84819 2.40 1.20 0.0001599 0.0001.33 86.711 2.50 1.25 0.0001597 O00012S 88.388 2.00 1,30 0.00Ol.'.95 0.000123 90.107 2.70 1.35 o.oooi.v.!;) 0.0001 IS 92.0,57 2.80 1.10 0.0O01.>91 0.000114 93.059 2.90 1,15 0.0001,590 0.000110 95,346 3.00 1,50 0,0001,588 0.000106 97.129 This tabic npplics to now riist-iron pipes. For pipes conloi internally witli )>itun)eii or pitch tlio hiss of liead will ho about two-tiiirils ns iiiiirh. and for uncoateti pipes, long in use. twice as imnOi, iis imlicated b.v tiiis table. Kxftmplr. — Wliat is the loss of IieaJ in a new ca.'^t-iron pipe 1 foot in ilinnictcr, .'iOOO feet long, convoying 1 cuhio foot >A water per second — cross-section of pipe, 0.7854 foot : 1 velocity, r-"^ = 1-273 feet per second ? /= los.s of head per foot of pipe »■■'= 0.000,1.35 X 1.273 X 1.273 0.000543. Total loss - 3000 y 0.000313 = 1.C29 feet. What 1054 HYI)i:(>l>YXAMICS. quantity of water would this pipe deliver with a loss of head of 10 feet? / = 3J85.V7= 0.05773, » = 54.6358 X 0.0577:) = 3.154. Quantity, 0.7854x3.154 = 2.477 cubic feet per second. Jctf. When water issues vertically up\7ard from an ori- fice in a vessel under pressure, it would rise to a height correspondiug to the pressure, if it encountered no resist- ance from the air or in passing tlirough tlic orifice. Tho last-named resistance, however, prevents the velocity from being quite equal to that due the pressure, and tho first prevents the stream from rising to the height due the ve- locity. When the velocity of issue is from 3 to 20 feet, the height of the jet is subslaiitially that due the velocity. For higher velocities the resistance of the air has a greater in- fluence. A contracted stream rises higher than an uneon- tracted one of the same size and issuing under the same pressure, tho ccuitracted stream having the greater initial velocity. But an uncoutr.actrd stream will rise higher than a contracted one of Ihe same initial velocity, as the latter presents swells and bulges which increase the resistance of tho air. Other things being equal, a thick stream rises higher than a thin one. An orifice well rounded internally, and provided externally with a conical converging tube, is most favorable for a great height of jet. Table 9 gives, upon the authority of Weisbach, the height of jet for dif- ferent velocities and different forms of orifice : Table 9. No. of orifice. 1 2 3 4 Height of jcl, the head due the velocity bcios— 10 feet. a.fil 9.71 0.48 9.C,9 !0 feel. 30 fct. 40 feet. 50 feet. 60 feet. 70 feet. 1S.31 18.74 1S.53 19.08 25.93 23.7.i 23.77 28.02 32.58 33.77 33.97 3G.39 3S.12 42.76 45.99 39.72 1 41.63 4S.23 39.93 1 44.79 48.47 44.09 1 51.08 57.31 No. 1 was a circular orifice in a thin plate 0.4 inch diam- eter ; No. 2 was a circular orifice 0. jB inch diameter ; No. 3 was a circular converging tube 5.9 inches long, I.IS inches diameter at the inner end, n. 39 at the outer end; No. 4 was a shorter tube with an e.-cternal orifice of 0.56 inch diameter. Expandlmi Submerged Tubes. — When water flows through an expanding tube AC ( Fig. 15), discharging under water, Fig. 15. alter passing the nar- rowest part of tho tube it moves with a con- tinually iliiu in ish in g ve- locity. Now, as a cer- tain force nuist be ex- erted upon water to ac- celerate its nuition, a certain force is exerted by water when its mo- tion is retarded. This farce is here employed iu diminishing the pressure opposcil to the movement of the water — viz. that due to the subnicrgeuce of the tube, and the at- mosphere. The result is a virtual increase of the head. The velocity in this case may be greatly in excess of that due the diff'crcnee of level between the discharging and re- ceiving basins. Mr. Francis has made very careful and ac- curate experiments upon this subject. Ho employed a tube of the form shown at Fig. 15, diverging at an angle of 5 dcrecs. It was made in five parts, .\, IS, C, D. E, each one foot in length. The mouthpiece A was 1.37 feet diameter at tho inner end, rounded by a cycloidal curve to a diam- eter of O.I foot at the outer end. The sections B, C, I), Table 10. ■'y^-y-^-'y-^ ' :<^^^'f^^ Head or dl fference of level Velocitr at the smallest Parts of the tube iD use. between the two bosloa, section ns compared with tcct. that duo tho head. A 0.0339 0.815 0.230 0.863 0.938 0.928 1.514 0.911 A B 0.020 0.100 1.151 1.S96 0.8.54 1..592 1.470 1.575 A B C 0.014 0.002 1.418 1.7S4 1.100 2.104 1.312 2.123 A, B, C, D 0.014 I.3S5 0.0.59 1.817 1.177 2.431 1.361 2.427 0.014 0.057 1.438 1.R7G 1.282 2.421 1.408 2.267 E, were respectively 0.145, 0.234, 0.321, 0.40S foot in di- ameter at the outer ends. Table 10 is a summary of his results. The principles of the flow of water tlinuigh di- verging tubes find a useful npplicatiuu in the difl'user, an appendage applied to Ihe turbine water-wheel by .Mr. Hoy- den. The tvaler is discharged from tho wheel through an expjinding passage, and the momentum which would other- wise bo wasted is employed in increasing the velocity and consequent effectiveness of the water jiassing the wheel. Yar'unia llcsiiitnnceii to the Motion of It'ii(er. — Every ab- rupt change of velocity or direction in the motion of water is accompanied by a loss of head. "■ ■ manifesting itself in pipes by a di- minished pressure, and in channels by a depression <d' the surface, after passing the point of such change. An abrupt change of velocity results from an enlargement of the pipe (Fig. 16). In this casethe head lost is that due the change of velocily. Thus, if the pipe IS have a diameter 3 times that of A, the velocity in A ij^_|fSs|S=^ being 6 foot per second, the velocity F=i3i?SS==ii will be I = 5 foot per second in B. ^ <ii:££=^ The change of velocity is 6 - 0.67 = A .Xs 5.33 feet per second. The due this velocity is 0.442 foot. head This is the loss of head. If two small pipes a and h, reaching Indefinitely upward, are inserted one in A and one in B, the water in '< will stand 0.442 ' '°- "• foot lower than in n. This -A loss of head may be avoided g by making the enlargement r=:= gradual. At the entrance to a pipe from a reservoir or from a larger ]iipe a loss of - head takes place. If the water enters through an ori- fice smaller than the pipe B, this loss may be very great. Table 11 is given by Weis- bach as tho result of his experiments on this point. When, c. g., the area of the orifice is one-half that of the pipe, the head lost is 5.256 times that due the velocity. Table II. Table 12. Area of the Loss of head, as compared compared with that due with that the velocity iu of the pipe. the pipe. 1.00 0.480 0.9 • 0.734 0.8 1.109 0.7 l.STli O.G 3.077 0.5 5.256 0.4 9.612 0.3 19.78 0.2 50.99 0.1 231.7 Angle of de- viation, de- grees. Loss of head, as compared wl'h that due the vetocity. 20 40 GO 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 0.046 0.139 0.3ii4 0740 0.984 1.260 1..5.^6 I.S61 2.1.58 2.431 Elbows or Atiijlcs in pipes occasion a loss of head depend- ing upon the amount of deviation from a straight line. Ta- ble 12 is given by Weisbach for a pipe a little less than IJ inches in diameter. The loss of head is considerably greater for smaller pipes. For a pipe 0.4 inch diameter, deviating 90 degrees, it was 1.536 times that duo the velocity. Bends in pipes occasion a considerable loss of head, though materially less than occurs with elbows. This loss is found to depend upon the proporlinn which the semi- diameter of the pipe bears to the radius uf Ihe bend. Table 13, given bv Weisbach. ap])lies to this case, the bends being full quadrants, or what are called quarter turns: Table 13. Loss of bead, as compared with that due the Semi-diameter of pipe. velocity. as compared with radius of curve. Recungular pipe. Circular pipe. 0.1 0.124 0.131 0.2 0.135 0.138 0.3 0.1 SO 0.1.58 0.4 0.2,50 206 0.0 o.:»s 0.294 0.6 0.643 0.440 0.7 1.015 0.661 0.8 1.546 0.977 0.9 2.271 1.408 1.0 3.228 1.978 Resistance of Valves and Cocks.— A knowledge of the re- sistance occasioned by the various contrivances for control- ling the ftow of water in pipes is of great importanee. Tho several tvpes of these contrivances are indicated by Figs. HYDROFLUORIC ACID. 1055 18 to 22. For largo pipes a. sliding gate (Fig. 18) is used. It is niiscd into a chamber by a screw working through a stuffing-box. Wlicn partly closed, it leaves a crescent- shaped opening in circular pi|>cs, and a rectangular ono in rectangular pipes. Fig. ID is a cock consisting of a cyliu- FiG. 19. Fig 18. surface would not be nffectcd by the operation, and opening an orifice in the vessel's bottom. It' the vessel Is of uniform horizontal section, and the urilicc is of the same size in each case, and the same form with reference to inward as to out- ward flow, it would bo filled to tho level of the external water in the same time that it would require to empty itself when so filled if suddenly raised clear of the water. If the coefficient of cfllux were con- stant, this time would be twice that required to discharge the same quan- tity of water through the saino ori- drical or conical plug pierced with a rectangular opening. It closes tho passage by turning about its centre. Fig. 20 is a throttle-valve, Fig. 21 a puppet-valve, and Fig. 22 a clack-valve. Prof. Wcisbach gives the following results for these different forms of valves: Table 14. SUUineymvci (Fig. 18). Cocki (Fig. 19). Cylindrical pipes. RcctaDBular plp«>. CyllDdHcal pipes. Rectangular pipes. Aroaof Ill-ad loft. Area of Head lost, Area of Head lost, Area of Head lost. opon'K, an cofu- .i|«:ti'g, a* com- opcn-g. as com- open's. as com- M com- as com- pared as com- pared as com- pared pared wlth that pared witii ttiat pared nltti ttiat pared Willi tliat >Ull duo tho Willi duo tlio Witll due tlic with duo the Mx-tloa vctocltylD ■ PClioQ vclocllyfn section velocity In section vclocityin of pipv. tbo pipe. Of pipe. tiio pi[>C. of pipe. the pipe. of pipe. the pipe. 1.000 n.noo 1.00 0.00 0-926 0.0.1 0.926 0.0.5 <J.9<S 0.07 0.9 0.09 0.S--.0 0.29 0.6-19 0.31 0.8.56 0.26 8 0..i9 0.772 0.7.5 0-709 0.88 (1.740 0.81 0.7 0.9.-. 0.C92 l..'ili 0.6S7 1.84 0.009 2.06 0.6 2.08 0.GI3 3.10 0.001 3.45 o.icr. S.-W 0..') 4.02 o.ry.is .V47 0..520 0.1.5 0.::15 17.00 0.4 8.12 0.4-18 9.08 0.436 11.2 0.159 97.8 0.3 17.8 o.:;s.i 17.3 0.3,';2 20.7 (1.2 41.5 o.:ii.i 31.2 0.2159 41.0 0.1 19:i.0 o.2.-,o 52.G 0.188 9.5.3 0.190 105. 0.110 273.0 0.1.)7 206. 0.091 486. T.MILE 15. Tlirettic-valTM (Flj. 20), Puppct-valvci (Fig. -.11). Ciacit-vnlvcs (Fig- Tl,. Area of openlnn as compared Head io^l, as com. parL-<i with that due the velocity. Area of opcng. Head lost, etc. Anglo of opening, Head lost, with section (Cylindri- Kectang- degrees. of pipe. cal pipe. ular pipe. 0.913 0.2.J 0.28 0.9 0.69 1.5. 90. 0.826 0.52 0.4.5 0.8 1.10 20. 02. 0.741 0.90 0.77 0.7 1.82 25. 42. 0,0.-,8 1..54 1.34 0.0 3.03 30. 30. 0..577 2..51 2.16 0.5 5.24 3.5. 20. 0..500 3.91 3..'i4 0.4 9.67 40. M. 0.426 6.22 5.70 0.3 20.0 45. 9..5 0.3.57 10.8 9.27 0.2 .52.0 .50. 6.6 0.293 18.7 1.5.07 0.1 239.0 55. 4.6 0.2*1 32.6 24.9 60. 3.2 0.181 .58.8 42.7 a5. 2.3 0.134 11.8.0 77.4 70. 1.7 0.094 2.->i5.0 IM. 0.030 751.0 368. Efflux uuder Varinhle Pre^mire. — When a vessel ( Fig, 2'i) cmjities itself through an orifice in its bottom, tho head, and consequently the rapidity of the flow, diniini.'^lies as tho sur- face falls. The same thing occurs when a vessel is filled through an oriliee in its bottom, as, for instance, by sinking it to a certain dentli in a body of water so large that its fice under a constant head equal to that acting at the commencement of the flow ; or, in other words, to twice the time required to discharge an equal quantity of water at the initial rate. Tho slight increase of the coefficient of cffiux as the head diminishes modi- fies this and the following statements slightly, but not materially. For a vessel larger or smaller at the toji than at the bottom, the above proportion would not hold good, neither would the time of emptying Ije equal to that of fill- ing. A vessel larger at the top than the bottom requires less time to empty and more to fill than one of uniform horizontal section, and vice vcrnd. Such a vessel will empty with its small end uppermost in the ,«ame lime that it will fill in a reversed position, and \-icc vcrtid, the orifice and initial head being tho same in both cases; the orifice being in the face or extremity which forms the botlom for tho time being. . A wedge-shaped vessel (Tig. 24) will empty itself with its vertex uppermost in 25 times the time required to discharge an equal quantily at the initial rale of flow. In a rever.'^cd ]iositiou it will empty itself in \\ times the time re- quired to discharge an equal quan- tity at the initial rate. A vessel liav- ing the form of a pyramid or cone will empty itself with its vertex upward in V,^, witli its base upward in 1^ times tho time required to discharge an equal quantity at the initial rate. The commonest form of vessel for holding water is a conical or pyramidal frustum. The contents of such a vessel are separable into three parts: (1) a prism or cylin- der; (2) a wedgo; {'.I) a pyramid. This will rearlily appear, as regards a pyramidal fVuslum. from an inspection of Fig. 25. This is separable into — (1 ) a prism or parallelopipedonj Fig. -24. Fio. 25. (2 ) two wedges, whieh may be con- sidered as ono; {'.\) a pyramid. A con- ical frustum or tub contains apjiroxi- niately — (I) a cy- linder whoso base is the small end ; (2) a wedge whoso base has a length equal to tlio cir- cumferenco of tho small end, and a breadth equal to tho ex- cess of tho radius of tho large end over that of thi' small end; and {;J) a pyramid whose base is half tlie product of the difi"erence of the circumferences by the dinVreneo of the radii. The common height of the prism, jiyramid, and wedge is the depth of water in tho vessel. When a vessel of this form stands ui)on its small end, the time re- quired (o empty it is twice the time requited to discharge tlic cylimier or prism of water, one and one-third that re- qnire<I to discharge the wedge, and (uie and one-fifth that required for the pyramid, at the initial rate. AVhen it stanils on its larger end, the time is twice that required for the prism or cylinder, two and two-thirds tiuuH that for tho wedge, and three and one-fifth times tliat for the pyrnniid, at the initial rate of flow. J. P. Fiti/.KLI,. llyilrodiioric Acid. See Fi.ronvDitic Acii>, by Fkop. C. V. CirANDi.iin, I'll. I>.. M. 1»., LL.D. 1056 HYDBOGEN. Hydro^TCn [Fr. ht/dyofjene; GcT. Wneseratofffjan; earlier chemistti, inflammable «i>]. Hi'stori/. — The ancients believci! water an elementary substance. In the sixteenth century Paracelsus discovered that iron and sulphuric acid engen- der tof^L'ther an ai-riform hody or gas. Not until 1G7- was this ohserved, hy hoth Maycrnc and Boyle, to be combus- tible. It was henceforward known as inflammable air, until Lavoisier, after the discovery of its chemical nature and origin, called it ht/droz/rn, or wator-gcnorator, from the (ircek vBuip and ytwdta. In 1700, Lemery iliscovcred that it explodes in admixture with air. Henceforth, it was re- garded as being or conveying the principle of fire, and under the fauxuis theory of Stahl was believed to be wholly or chiefly composed of the so-called phlmjixton. In ITfifi t!io groat Kngli-jh cheinist Cavendisli (irst took up its in- vestigation, and qivickly discovered that when burned it produces water. Two other chemists, Macquer and Do la Motherie, recorded the same observation at tlie same date. Nut till 17S1, however, did Cavcndi^i^h complete the discov- ery by burning together o.ri/ffcu — previously discovered, in 1774, by Priestley — and hydrogen, and fimling that the sole product was water. James Watt is also believed to liave made the same discovery, independently, in this same year (1781). Occurrence in Xnture. — Many authorities assert that hy- drogen is never found free in nature upon the earth. It certainly exists, liowever, in volcanic gases. II. Rose and others have asserted that the gas found compressed in the decrepitating salt of Wieliczka contains free hydrogen. Graham found it, in the condition be called "occlusion," in the iron of aerolites. De Candoile made the remarkable statement that certain fungi evolve free hydrogen night and day. The spectroscope detects hydrogen in the chro- mosphero of our sun and in many other stars ; also in cer- tain nebula?. Water contains one-ninth of its weight, or 11.11 per cent., of hydrogen. Steam, and water in other vaporous forms, contain an amount of hydrogen which, when set free in gaseous form, is found to assume, at the same temperature, exactly the volume of the vapor itself; gaseous water being made up of two measures, or volumes, of hydrogen, an*! one of oxygen ; the three measures con- densing, in combining, to two measures. Steam therefore contains its own volume of hydrogen. Liquid water, how- ever, contains 12158 times its volume of free gaseous hydro- gen. Hydrogen occurs also in nature in combination with nitrogen, as ammonia ; with carbon, as marsh-gas, the chief constituent of rhe gas of gas-wells and of the tire-damp of coal-mines, which, of all known compounds, is the richest in hydrogen, containing one-fourth of its weight, or more than twice as much as water. It also contains twice i(s own volume of hydrogen. With carbon also, as j)otro- I('U[n and paraffine ; and as an essentia! constituent of most of the solid tissues of organic beings, both animal and veg- ntablc; and therefore of all mineral substances of organic origin, such as coals, asphalts, bitumens, mineral resins and resinoids, etc. In volcanic gases it occurs as muriatic acid gas; also as sulphuretted hydrogen under many cir- cumstances; and. some believe, also in combination with phosphorus, as native phosphuretted hydrogen. Prfparation. — Hydrogen gas may he obtained from water by many methods, of which there are seven principal ones that have been and may be useil, according to uircum- slanccs: 1. The method of Paracelsus, with iron (or zinc, which is oftener now used) and a dilute acid, generally eitlier sulphuric or muriatic acid. This is the most com- mon method, but yields generally an impure and very mal- odorous hydrogen, contaminated by combination with the impurities of the metal and acid used. In the case of iron, important quantities of volatile and gaseous hydrocarbon compounds are formed with the carbon of the iron, and it is dnubtfiil whether pure hydrogen can be obtained by any modification of this method, unless possibly by the use of /inc of chemical purity, wliieh must then be mixed with platinum to produce voltaic currents, or else it will decom- jioso the acidulated water but very slowly. 2. Metals whose oxides are soluble in caustic alkaline solutions, such ns zinc and aluminum, will decomj)oso water and evolve hydrogen when warmed with such alkaline solutions. With alumi- num free from carbon, hydrogen thus prepared should bo ]iure. 3. The alkali metals, such as potassium and sodium, tiecomposc pure water directly by appropriating its oxygen and setting the hydrogen free — a method useful only as a lecture cx])erimen(. 4. Metallic iron, when incandescent, will decompose steam, with formation of magnetic oxide of iron nnd free hydrogen. This method is not to bo reo- ommendt*d in practice. The action is very quickly retarded, ami becomes sluggish, from the coating of oxide formed over the iron, 'k A far more rapid and practicable method is arrived at hy substituting for the iron some form of mineral or artificial carbon. Hydrogen is thus obtained in admixture with carbonic oxide. Unless the temperature be very high, more or less carbonic acid is also formed. At very high heats, a mixture of about two volumes of hydro- gen with one volume of carbonic oxide, and but a small percentage of carbonic acid, may in this way be prepared on a large scale from steam. This is known technically as " water-gas," and is used by some us a diluent for coal nnd petroleum gases for illuminating purposes, anil is proposed to be used by itself, on a large scale, for warming, cooking, motor, and manufacturing purposes, fi. By "dissociation," or the method discovered by Grove in 1S4G — that is, by the direct decomposition of steam by a high heat, which will furnish a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen. Prof. B. Sil- liman discovered in 1S61) that this mode of preparation may be effected on a considerable scale by forming beneath the surface of pure water the voltaic arc from a battery of considerable power, the mixed gases coming off in torrents. Pure hydrogen may be procured by absorbing the oxygen from such a mixecl gaseous product, 7. By electrolysis of water containing in solution some substance which in- creases its conducting power for the voltaic current. Hy- drogen is then evolved from the cathode or negative elec- trode, and may he collected in a state of purity. Hydrogen is also a product of the destructive distillation, at incandescent heats, of all organic substances. Tiius, common coal-gas contains 40 per cent, or more of this gas as a proximate constituent. Hydrogen is the lightest known gas, and of course, there- fore, the least dense of all known substances. Air being 1, its density is 0.0693, but water being 1, its density is only 0.0000S07'4. One cubic foot weighs ?,\).\\)A:) grains, an equal volume of air weighing 505 grains; hence its use sometimes for filling balloons. Air is 14.48 times as heavy as hydrogen, and water is 11,143 times as heavy. The metallic mineral platiniridium, the heaviest known sub- stance fsp. is over 250,000 times as hoavv as hydrogen, the lightest. Pure hydrogen is colorless, in- odorous, and tasteless. It is not directly' poisonous when inhaled pure, death ensuing from mere absence of oxygen ; but it should never be inhaled unless certainly pure, the contaminations that are incident to it being often highly poisonous, and several chemists ha\ ing lost their lives through reckless experiments of this kind. A person breathing it speaks with a peculiar squeak. The great tenuity of hydrogen gas gives it a great penetrative or rapid diffusive power; many solid metals are even readily pene- trated or permeated through their pores, iron being one of these. When there is an adhesive attraction — or, it may be, a feeble chemical affinity — between hydrogen and the metal, the former may become largely c<m<lensed in the pores of the latter. This condensation, called by (irnham '•occlusion," occurs with iron (ns in meteoric iron), but much more notably with palladium, which Graham caused to condense nntl retain 600 or 700 times its volume of hydrogen, forming what he imagined to bo of the nature of a metallic alloy ; whence ho believed hydrogen passed here into a mctnUiv form, called by him " hydrogenium." Few chemists, however, have favored this hypothesis of hydrogenium. When soft iron is permeated by condensed hydrogen, its tenacity is greatly injured ; and Klein and other chemists have obtained hy voltaic precipitation iron otherwise cheuiieally pure, but so largely impregnated with condenseil hyiirogen that it was ns brittle as glass, and would take fire from a flame, and burn as if it were wet with alcohol, from the hydrogen expelled by the heat. Such iron becomes soft and malleable on losing its hydro- gen. Iron wire often loses its tenacity when it is immersed in acid "pickle," to remove films of oxide, through the condensation of hydrogen in the substance of the nielal; but the tenacity is said to return after a time, by reason of the spontaneous escape of the hydrogen. Hydrogen, in its tendency to combine directly under nor- mal pressures and temperatures with oilier elements, is almost as passive and inert as nitrogen; the only element towards which it manifests much activity being chlorine. With this it does not combine sjiontaneously in the dark, but light causes an immediate combination to form muri- atic acid gas; and direct sunshine will even set up rapid and ex]»losivc combustion. When mix<!d with oxygen or air no combination takes place spontaneously, but contact with certain metals causes a condensation and combination. to form water, on the surfaces of such metals, developing heat ; which may easily be so managed as to raise the metal to incandescence, and thus cause the gaseous mix- ture to kinfllo throughout, with explosion if confined. This phenomenon, discovered by Diibereiner, furnishea the principle of what is known as Diiberciner's " liydrogen lamp," in which a jet of hydrogen, generated in a self- regulating reservoir of that gas, may be emitted into the air, and the gaseous combustible mixture thus formed caused to impinge on a small mass of platinum in spongy form, which latter instantly becomes red hot and kindles IIYDKOCiEX, PEROXIDE OF— HYDROGRAPHY. 1057 the hydropen jet. Thus fire may l>c at any moment ob- tainctl. At timperatures higher than nonnal, hydrogen will combine with some other elements, as uith sulphur at the boilin),!;-point uf the latter, to form snljihurottc*! hydrogen, and with bromine and iodine, at a reil heat, to form the hydracids corresponding. Kveu witii carbon, at the intense temperature of the voltaic arc, it was found by IJcrthclot that ft tendency to direct combination was deveIo|>c<l, one pro- duct being acetylene gas. There are other eases in which hydrogen aiipear;" to enter directly into coni}>ination — namely, when in the act of bcingevolvod from wafer by the agency of a metal, or of electrolysis, or in what has been cuMed the "nascent state." Vndcr these conditions it will even manifest sufficient activity to decompose other exist- ing combinations present in tlie liquid, and ajijiropriato their elements. It will thus take uj). for example, iirnni{c and anttniiiiit/, and carry them along with itself in gaseous combinations. This is the principle on which is founded the well-known "Marsh's test" for arsenic and antimony, which is of such immense toxicological importance. Henry Wirtz. Ily'droson, Peroxide of, called also Bioxicle, Itiiioviile, Diovide, and Oeutoxidc of Hytlro;;en ; al--o Oxv;;euated Water [Fr. rttn oxi/>j^ii»<e .- Oer. ira«- Kerntoff Htfiirroxtfd, SdnerKtuff wit finer, Oxi/dirtcn ]Vns»rr]. It was discovered in 1818 by the French chemist Thenard. lie found, when peroxide of barium. BaO., was added in the cold to dilute muriatic acid, IKM. instead of a decom- position, such as might have been anticipated, IJaOz -h 2IlCl-BaCl.i + IliO + 0— that is, the formation of neutral chloride of barium and water, with a setting free of the second equivalent of oxygen of the peroxide — that no oxygen appeared to be set free at all; and he was finally led to comprehend that the rcactitm is as follows: na02 -|- 2nCl = BaCli f Hj**:. a new compound being formed, con- taining twice as much oxygen as water. By a long, com- plex, and laborious jtrocess of alternate jiurifications and concentraticms Thenard finally obtained the hydrogen peroxide almost free from excess of water, and almost of the composition stated, containing -175 times its volume of oxygen over and above that of the wafer itself. Polouze afterwards devised a simpler methoil, founded on the uso of hydrolluoric or hydrofluosilicic acid (instead of hydro- chloric), which aci(ls precipitate the baryta at once in an insoluble form. The final concentration, for separation of intermixed water, is effected in mruo over oil of vitriol, by reason of the fact that the new compound, though volatile without decomposition, is nevertheless less so than water itself. The resulting product is transparent and colorless, with a density = 1.452, nearly half as high again as water; not freezing at 22° V, below xero : tastes like tartar-cmcfic; and makes itching sores on the skin. It breaks up spon- taneously at ordinary temperatures into water and free 'ixygen when pure, but the presence of acids makes it more stalile, and that r.f alkalies less so. Tidd preserves it. By suddenly heating it to the temperafuro of boiling water oxygen is evolved \Tith explosive rapidity. Mere contact with certain substances, as charcoal, some metals, and some oxides, sets up more or less violent ilecomposition, often with strong evolution of heat. On many substances it acts as a most powerful oxidizer, converting them into their highest oxides. Among these are arsonious and sulphurous acids. Sulphide of lead becomes sulphate. Arsenic, mo- lybdenum, chromium, and selenium are at onco converted into their highest oxides. On the oflicr hand, on another class of substances this poculhir compound actually operates as a powerful reducer, as on argentic; and mercurous oxides, manganic and plumbic peroxides, chromic and permanganic acids; oxygen being evolved simultaneously from theoxirlo operated on and from the peroxide of hydrogen itself, Bnuiie first (in I8.'J0), and Schiinbein afterwards, proposed the view that in the cases in which peroxi<lo of hydrogen and another oxido decomp(»se each other, the two com- pounds contain oxygen in two dificrent "allotropic" mod- ifications, re|irosente<l as positive and negative (-t-an(l — oxygen ). and that the ordinary molecule of oxygen set free was producrrl by the combination of these positive and negative molecules. Schonbein showed that the peroxide of hydrogen destro^-s ozone, and he viewed ozone as being the negative oxygen O, and the sec(»nd equivalent of oxy- gen in peroxide of hydrogen as positive oxygon <), which ho also called *'antozone." These views may be regarded as still in controversy. Meidinger. and subsef|uently Sclion- bein, fimnd hydrogen-peroxide in water that has undergone electrolysis. It has been fouml nls<i to be formed in many cases of slow oxidatirm of moistened substances, such as metals. It bleaches indigo and decomposes iodide of po- tassium, with liberation of iodine, easily detectable by starch. It alsi) decolorizes a solution itf permanganate of pcdash bv reduciioii. With chromic acid it forms perchroniie acid ; \..i,. 11.— i;: and one method of detecting it in a liquid is to add chromic acid and ether, whereupon the latter is colored bright blue by perehromic acid, in its presence. The diseovcrerofperoxideofhydrogcn, Thenard, proposed its use — after testing it jtersonally — for restoring paintings which had become <lim through the conversion of the wliile lead-carbonate used in the pigments to black sulphide of lead. The latter is at once converted by it into white lead- sulphate. Of late years it is stated that it has been large- ly sold, in France at least, for hhachiuff liriiuj human httir, in accordance with certain dictates of fashion. IIknuv Wurtz. Hydrogen, Phosphides of. .See Piiosphorus. by PROK. {'. V. CuANDi.Kit. Til. !>., M. D., LL.D. Hvdrogen, Sulphides of. Sec Sulimitr, by Prof. C. F. CnAN!>i.i:i(, Pn. D.. M. !>., LL.D, lIvdrof;'raphy. Hydrography, a comparatively modern term, is deriveil from two (Jreek words, one of which sig- nifies " water,"' and the other to " write " or to " describe." This science has for its object the measurement and de- scription of all the surface-waters of the earth, together with their coasts and islands, in so far as they are important and useful for purposes of navigation and commerce. Hy- drography embraces within its scope, therefore, marine surveying, the construction of marine charts, and the col- lection and publication, under various suitable forms, of all physical and other information tending in any monner to the perfecling of navigation. Hydrography natnr.ally divides itself into three grand and distinct branches — viz. Continental Hydrography, having for its object the measurement and investigation of the continental waters; Marine Hydrography, having for its object the ordinary measurement and description of the seas, coasts, and islands; and, lastly, Pliysicol Hydrog- raphy, having for its object the determination of the winds, currents, variation, and many other things respect- ing the sea as a whole, which can only be discovered by the careful and laborious study of a vast number of obser- vations, taken in all quarters of the globe. The early history of hydrography, like that of many other of the art? and sciences, is involved in much obscurity. AVe know, howe^er. that from the earliest times mariners have made uso of charts; hence it may be said that hy- drography is, in reality, as old as navigation. The charts of the ancients were of the rudest description, being mere sketches of the coasts, which were laid down according to roughly estimated distances; hence, in such of them as remain to us it is no unusual thing to find the coasts and islands represented at many times in excess of their actual extent. Owing to various causes, among which may be mentioned superstition, timidity, the lack of proper instru- ments for making observations and of prtiper ships for making extended voyages, the acquisition to hydrographic knowh'dge was, for many centuries, scarcely worth con- sidering. I>own to the time of Homer, who flourished '.>()7 B. ('., as little was known of the surface of the earth as Is now known of the interior, (ireccc was then regarded as the centre of the earth, which was surrtuindcd, at the distance of &00 miles, by the Octau Jiiver ; later, the land was extended farther, and a limited form given to the old continent. In the time of Pliny (about a. n. 80) the Mediterranean Sea was referred to as the centre of every- thing; and even as late as I.'tOO the p(tpc gave to the king of Spain all countries to the M'est as an exteniled plain ; the theory of the rotundity of the earth was treated as a heresy, and was not fully established until the completion of llio first voyage of circumnavigation in I J22. When, however, we consider that the mariner's compass was not introduced into Furopo until about the twelfth century, that the chronometer was only invented in 1(»7;"», and reflecting instruments, for measuring angles, brought, into use at somewliere near the same lime, we can readily understand the backward state <d' hydrography at so late a period; and we are prepared to accept the ilatc commonly given as the one wlicn the first steps were taken towards its erection into a science; this was about I'liO, when Henry tho Navigattir. a Portuguese prince, and son of King John I. <d' Portugal, founded an observa- tory at i^agres. in Algarve, near t'ape St. Vincent, and by causing persons to be instructed in the science of naviga- tion, by sending out numerous expeditioTis of discovery, by collecting hydrogrnphi<* inforniaiion from persons who had made n<tted voyages, and by constructing nmny marine charts worthy of the name, there laid the huindation for the science of hy»lrogra)»hy. The charts in the time of Henry, though a great improvement over those of an earlier date, were yet rude and imperfect ; the instruments for de- termining positions and measuring distances with accuracy had not yet come into exislenrc ; the log was iinltiiown ; and tho astrolabe, a graduatid ring with sights, was the only 1058 HYDROGRAPHY. instrument for takini; nltitudes. Henry, whom we may Btyle the first hvilroijraphcr. died in HB.'i.and next to him, as a noted laborer in the science, came Christopher Cohim- bus, who. alter liaving obtained much hydrographic know- ledge by study and an experience of many years at sea, became a maker and seller of marine charts. While en- ga;^ed in tliis occupation he conceiverl his «;rand design of a voyage of discovery to the W., an<l in WJ'2 discovered America, thus extending the field for hydrographic research more, in a single voyage, than had the laliors of all the preceding centuries. The way having been thus pointed out, voyages of discovery were prosecuted in every direc- tion, and the increase in hydrographic knowledge was vast and rapid ; but the formation of hydrography into an ex- act science, such as we find it at the present day, had scarcely yet begun. Founded upon mathematics and as- tronomy, and wrought out by means of many instruments of the utmost precision, tho accuracy of liydrographic work is now limited only by the accuracy of the observer. Pursuing further the events connected witli the gradual dcvclnptnent of the science of hydrography, we find many of tlicm worthy of mention. Among the collections of tho works of the French Academy of Sciences for tho year 1092 may be fcmnd a memoir by Pothonot. having for its aim to fix the place occupied by an observer in relation to three other neighboring ])oint-«, the positions of which arc known ; this is the famous three-point problem, the very foundation of marine surveying, and which, though thus early discov- ered, does not seem to have been put in practice until many years later. Camus, in his Course of Meithematir.s. in tho year 1753, and Dairy mp!e, in a memoir published in 1771. recommended to navigators, for surveying upon tho sea, tho use of the circle .and the observation of three ])oints. To the French hydrographic engineers is due the credit of having first applied tho theorem of Pothenot, and they made by it a great advance in hydrogr.aphy. Alexander Dalrymple, as just mentioned, publislied in 1771 a memoir entitled An Esattyon the Mnst Cummndions Modes nf Murine Sxrrri/iuf/; this is considered as tho first hydrographical work; and in it we find a description of tho construction and adjustments of Hadlcy's quadrant. M. Beautemps- Beaupr6. a celebrated French hydrographcr, published at Paris in 1S08 a work called .-In /ji^-o(/»c//o» to t/ir Practice o/ Marine Snrvrtfinfj und fli»: Constrnrtion of Sea-Charts, ii/nv- triit'il f»f thlrtif-four 2>hit€»; this is considered astho second hyilrographical work. Other early writers upon hydrog- ra()hy were tho Jesuits Ricciolus, De Charles, and Four- nicr. tlie latter of Avhora published in ISM the Manuel dn f\ibut''nr. Cook, in tho remarkable voyages which have immortalized his name, was the first to introduce the sys- tem of running surveying; his running surveys, however, were very defective, as they were based ujion compass-bear- ings and other unreliable data; later fuHowers of Cook im- proved upon his method by substitu'ing astronomical for comj)ass-hearings ; but it was not until 1837, in tho hydro- graphic surveys under M. Dumont d'lTrviilc, that reliable running surveys were made, and tho present m.athematic.al system introduced. Tn 1S23 the work of M. IJeautcmps- l,teaupr6 was translated into English by ('apt. Richard Copeland, R. N., aud in his preface this officer writes: " At no period of our history has tiio attention of naval men bnen so generally directed to tlio study of hydrography as the present: yet this branch of nautical science has been hitherto so little cultivated that it is dilncult to find ofiSccrs qualified to undertake the duties of surveyors." Although numberless discoveries had been cfTected, and vast atiditions made to the stock of hydrograjdiic infor- mation, prior to the commencement of tho jiresent century, yet the great hydrographic works did not begin until tluit time. Then Franco reorganized her corps of hydrographic engineers, and began the survey of her coasts; and other maritime powers, in imitation of her, created special corps for hydrographic work, and tho true hydrographic survey of the world began. For some time Franco took the lead in the now established science of hydrography, but lier un- fortunate political complications soon caused her to fall be- hind some of her rivals in the work, and the lead was taken, and has ever since been maintained, by Kngland; which naticn at the present time docs more home and foreign hydrograjibie work in each year than dr>es any otlier : and to her are we at this time indebted for by far the greater por- tion of all our foreign charts. For about 300 years after the time of the discovery of Amer- ica by Columbus the expeditions fitted out and sent abroad by maritime powers in the interests of hydrograjihy, naviga- tion, and commerce were more properly voyages of discov- ery, and they did not result in great and permanent addi- tions to hydrography; the surveys made during these voy- ages were rough ones, and the charts rude in comparison with those of tho present day. Of this nature were all tho famous voyages completed np to 1791. ,\t this time was fitted out the French expedition, under Rear-admiral d'En- trecasteaux, to go in search of La Pcvousc. Writing of this expedition, JM. Beautemps-Bcaupr^. wl)o was the prin- ci])al marine surveyor ai' it, says : '• During the time which has elapsed between the time of the first attempt at bring- ing the art of navigation to perfection by means of reflect- ing instruments and chronometers, and the year 1791. many celebrated navigators have materially increased our know- ledge of hydrography, and it has already become difficult to exceed the point at which they have arrived; every sea has been explored, and there remain no great discoveries to be made." He then goes on to state that the aim of the present expedition, in order that it might be of benefit to hydrography, navigation, etc.. would be to give more accu- rate surveys and more detailed information of the various fijreign places visited by it. Here, then, ended the era of reconnoissancc, so to speak, and began the era of thorough hydrographical surveying; the discoverers were now suc- ceeded by tho surveyors, who hold the field up to the pres- ent time, and have yet a vast work before them, while the field for marine discovery has been almost exhausted. The vast accumulation of hydrographic information by maritime powers led early to the establishment by them of hydrographic offices, where this information was taken in hand and wrought into marine charts, books of sailing- directions, and other practical shapes, for the benefit of navigation and commerce. These offices soon became, and liave ever since continued, matters of prime concern to all governments having a marine, and they form a most im- portant branch of the naval administration. Without her own efficient hydrographical establishment no maritime nation can feel perfectly independent respecting her com- merce, nor respecting herself, in tho event of foreign com- plications, for if she be largely dependent upon foreign hydrographical supplies, they are liable to be cut off at any time, thus creating serious delay and embarrassment. The largest, best appointed, and most important hydrographic offices in the world are those of England and France ; these together publish charts and sailing-directions for every portion of tho known world : they each issue about 3000 diff'crcnt charts, almost all of which arc printed from en- graved plates, and about 100 hydrographical works on va- rious subjects. Both these offices arc under the direction of naval officers of high rank and great ability in the spe- cial branch in which they are serving. The original sur- veys made by tho French and English during each 3"car are much greater in extent and more numerous than are those furnished by all the other maritime powers combined. Tho French have now in hand a complete survey of the coast of Brazil, besides many others in divers quarters of the globe. The English arc constantly surveying all over the world, and produce many new and original charts each year, besides sending out many scientific expeditions in various fields. All the home surveys are worked up and converted into marine charts at the various hydrographic offices, as are also all f<ireign surveys which may come into their possession by exchange, tracing, etc. Here are writ- ten the sailing-directions, and hence issue the light-lists, notices to mariners, etc. Tho U. S. support, at present, two hydrographical estab- lishments — a regular Hydrographic Office and a Coast Sur- vey Office. The former of these is of comparatively' recent origin, having been founded only in ISOlJ, yet already it issues many very important and valuable charts and works, derived, in great measure, from the U. S. exploring and sur- veying expeditions under Wilkes, Rodgers, Perry, Page, and others, and from numerous surveys by in<liviilual ves- sels in various quarters of the world. This office has now in hand, besides its regular office-work, the survey of Lower California and its gulf, tho survey of an extensive belt across the Pacific, tho running of a line of soundings across tho Pacific, the survey of the (iulf coast of Mexico, and tho telegraphic cstablisluuent of longitudes in the West Indies. It issues already some GOO charts of various kinds, and the nnist com])leto works and charts ever produced on physical hydrography. Besides tlic charts of its own issue, this of- fice keeps constantly on hand some 20,0lM) English and many French charts for the use of our navy, and requires annu- ally not less than .0000 foreign charts to supply deficiencies in this stock. Some 12,000 copies of its own charts, and nmny humlred copies of its works, are sold annually by this office, through its agents, to foreigners and to our mer- cantile marine. The Coast Survey office was created many years ago for the purpose of executing the hydrography of the coasts and inland waters of the V. S.. and it has made great prog- ress in that work, which is the greatest hydrographical work ever undertaken by any country. This office does no foreign work whatever, being confined strictly t(y the home field ; it issues about 700 charts and several hydrogrnphical works, and keeps constantly employed a considerable sur- HYDROIDA. 10.59 Tcying force, both od our E. and W. coasts, making the most exact anil elaborate surveys of any hydrographical cstablisbmcnt in the world. To give smuo idiu of the demand for charts and nautical books uiion iMu- of the older oflicts by navies and luercautilo marines, it may be slated that during the year ISOD the English o6See alone sold 6S,2Sl) charts and U'JIS books of sailing-directions, etc.; and even Ibis large amount would fall verv far short of an annual sale at this date. I!v reason of the very jierfect mail and telegraphic com- munication between countries at the present day, hydrog- raphers are enabled to keep themselves thoroughly posted on all which takes place concerning the science in any quar- ter of the globe. All new surveys arc published at oneo by the offieo of the e(mntry making the survey, aud no new light is established, nor any rock, shoal, or danger discov- ercil, that is not immediately announced in a notice from some one of the offices, and copied by all the rest ; all the charts and plates alTccted by these notices are corrected at once ; the notices are forwarded to all naval vessels in com- mission, that they may correct their charts, and the contents of the notices arc further puljlislicd in the leading papers, for the benefit of the merchant marine. There is a perfect system of exchange between all the hydrographic offices, so tiiat all the publications of any one arc known to all the rest as soon as they arc issueil. Of the arLi embr.aced within the scope of hydrography, the first and chief one is the art of marine surveying — an art which, it is said, may be traced back to the time of the Pharaohs — an art of very ancient origin, therefore, but nevertheless of very recent perfection. iMarine surveys, according to circumstances, arc conducted in two distinct manners. When the surveyor is fully supplied with all the necessary instruments, skilled assistants, etc., has ample time and perfect command over the territory which he is to survey, then he carries on a combined system of sea and shore' observations, which should result in the production of an almost faultless work. On the other hand, when there is a lack of time, when a hostile coast is to bo sur- veyed, or a coast of such a nature as to preclude the possi- bility of landing, then the surveyor must resort to tho method known as running surveying, and make all his ob- servations from afloat: this method, when skilfully and carefully executed, gives very reliable results, which, though deficient in details, are sufficient for tho construc- tion of charts for coasting purposes. The aim of the sur- veyor is to furnish such plans and other data as will suffice fir the determination of the following particulars of the locality surveyed : tides, currents, depths, bottom, rocks, shoals, channels, anchorages, variation, latitude, longitude, landmarks, leading-marks, contour, and general topogra- phy of coasts. These particulars concerning a locality, being forwanleil to the hydrographic office, are there taken in hand, carefully examined, verified, and finally constructed into a marine chart. A marine chart is a representation, by priiji'ction in piano, of a portion of water, \vi(h the land which it surrfjunds or by which it is surrounded. These cliarls give all the points of the compass, variation, merid- ians, parallels, coasts, capes, bays, islands, shoals, depths, channels, rocks, bottom, etc. in their proper positions and proportions. The Mercator projection, which represents all the meridians, parallels, and courses as straight lines, is the one comnKJuly employed in the construction of marine charts, except in Ihc high latitudes, where, owing to vari- ous causes, it becomes absolutely necessary to employ some one of the circular projections. According to the use for which they arc intended, marine charts are divi<led into three distinct classes — viz. general charts, coast charls, and harbor cbarls. The first class, or general charts, arc usually const meted upon a small scale — that is, a small fraction of an inch to a degree of latitude. They furnish only general outlines, ollen cover whole oceans, and are used only for reference charts or for open off shore navigation — say, to within iiO or 75 miles of a coast. Tho second class, or const charts, are constructed upon such a scale, depending much upon the nature of the coast t(i be represented, as will enable a vessel to navigate by them clear up to the very entrances to the harbors thereon. The third class, or barber charts, arc upon a still larger scale, and by them the navigator is cnableil to con- duct his vessel through tho most intricate channels of en- trance, and bring her to tho j)ropcr spot for anchoring in any well-surveyed harbor. Most charts arc printed from engraved copper or steel plates; some few are lithographed; and. by a process of photo-lithography of recent invention, wo arc ni»w enabled to rcj)roduee hundreds of copies of any foreign chart which we may desire in almost as short a space of time as would be rcrjuired to print them had we the plates. The charts of the present day. issued from tho leading hydrographic offices and covering exact surveys, are so perfect in topog- FlG. 1. Fio. 2. raphy, construction, and detail as to seem to leave nothing more to be added to them which would be of any aid or benefit to navigation. Such, in brief, is the history of the origin, rise, progress, and present state of the science of hydrography — a science which, except in its physical department, has reached at this time to such a state of perfection as to render it one of the most exact of all the sciences. GkokgI': W. Sumskr. Ilydroi'tla [Lat. hi/<lrn; (ir. vjpo, a "tnythological monster," and tli<K, " form "], one of the orders of Acalephs, remarkable for forming compound colonies, \isually ccin- sisting of numerous individual zoiiids of two or more distinct kinds, organi- cally united together, one set of tho zobids being, in all cases, devoted to feeding the community, another to sex- ual reproduction. The feeding or liydri- form zoiiids are usually fixed, and origi- nate from eggs produced by the re|iro- ductive or medusifonn zoiiids, wliich originate as buds from the former, and may either remain permanently attached to tliem or may finally become frec- Syncoryn'- mirahiUs, swimming medusa; (Figs. 2 and .*!). Tho with medusa- buds nutritive zoiiids usually consist of a more (.^gassiz). ^j. ]|,jg sivollen, oval, or fusiform body, changeable in form, containing a large digestive cavity, with a simple terminal orifice or mouth, and bearing exter- nally a number of more or less slender tentacles, either scattered or in one or more circles. The tentacles aro covered with peculiar minute stinging organs, known as thread-cells or " lasso-cells," for seizing and killing the minute animals upon which they prey. The body of these zoiiids is usually supporteil upon a hollow slem (Fig. 2, «i), which is usually covered with a chitinous, flexible sheath. It may be long or short, and is sometimes want- ing; and then the body arises immediately from the creep- ing root-like tubes serving for the attachment of the colony to some solid support. The central tube of tho stem com- municates freely with the digestive cavity of the zoiiids, and with those of the branches and basal tubes, so that all the zoiiids of a colony arc intimately connected. The luitriiivc lluitl is circulated freely thriiugh the stems and branches by means of vibrat- ^ ., . . ing cilia that cover all tlie interior . <g W^^ surfaces. There may be but one i\ 'L y^S^ nutritive zoiiid, but in most cases ^^Lj/y^/tl the primitive one, originating from ?*/$r'!r9i^^ the egg. very soon gives rise to ^^^^\\//^\^^ buds, either from its stem or from ^ \ fil V hollow, stolon-like extensions of its base; and these may develop into other zoiiids, like tho first, thus producing more or less com- plex branching colonies, ofteti con- sisting of hundreds, or even thou- sands, of zoiiids. Such colonics often grow to the height of one or two feet on our sea-coasts, though the zoiiids themselves may be very minute. The buds destined to form reproductive zoiiids, or mc- tenlacles; i/, a medusa dusoids, are produced at certain bud not fully developed reasons of the year, generally on (Agassiz). particular parts of the body, stems, or root-fibres, the position varying according to the species. Thoy start ns hernia-like, hollow BWcllings. the cavity communicating with that of the stem or zoiiid from which the bud arises. In some species (Figs. 2, -1) the mcdusoid buds arise directly from the nutritive zoiiids: in others they arise from another kind of asexual zoiiid (Fig. 0, li), usu- ally destitute of mouth and sto[n;ich, and apparently des- tined for this particular olhee fl.lonluHti/lr). The reproduc- tive zoiiids (d'len develop into perfect medusic (Figs. :;, 9), provided with tentacles, loeouLotivc disk, proboscis, stom- ach, radiating and circular tubes, and sometimes with reproductive organs, even before Ihcy break away from the i)odieels by which they were attached; but they com- monly increase in size and ]icrfection of parts after they become independent medusiv. In many species, however, the mcdnsoiil buds never develop a mouth, stoumch, nor locomotive disk (Figs. 4, l>). atid often neither tentnclcs nor radiating and circular tubes (Fig. fi, (/, c). though these Romotimes appear in a rudimentary state. Such mcdusoi<ls, known as Hptirmmci, seldom become free, but dexelop their reproductive organs, either male or female, and produce embryos while still atliiehed to the colony, after which they wither away and disappear. In one genus ( IHmripir) the sporosacs become detached, and swim about by means One of the zoolds of .S. mirabllia, much enlarg- ed: 0. mouth ; e, bndv ; /, leans 1060 HYDROIDA. of tho cilia that cover the whole surface. The free mcdussD of hydroids often grow to large size after becoming free, in some species attaining the diameter of ten inches, while others never exceed a quarter of an inch. As a rule, large hydroid mcdusio {■?■. g. Zi/'j'ittttcf>/Ui, Ltt/oitt) come from small and inconspicuous hydroid colonies, while those hydroids which produce large branching colonies, or which have large nutritive zoiiids, generally give rise to mi- nute fixed medusoids (sporosacs) or to small free medusje {^. </. Obvfia, Si^rtularui, ICndeudrium, Tuhulana). The free hy- droid medusa^ may be distinguished from tlin?c of the DiHrophorre by tho presence of a diaphragm-like meml»rane or vthim (Fig. o. '^) partially closing the opening of the umbrella or bell-shaped disk ; by the simjile (rarely branched) radiating canals; by the existence of either colored ocelli or of spherical sense-organs (fitho- '■i/)i(s), containing one or more hard gran- ules, and attached to the margin of the umbrella (Fig. 9) ; and by the position of the reproductive organs, which are either situated between the imter and inner walls of tho digestive cavity (Fig. ^), or else depend, in tho form of purse-like lobes, from tho lower side of the radiating canals (Fig. y}, and discharge their contents ex- ternally through a rupture of the outer wall. All the sexual zooids of one colony arc also usually of one sex, though a few exceptions to this occur (e. ff. Hydrny Di- jthasia). The free medussQ of some species Mature free me- dusa of 5. r/n'm- hiiis: 0, mouth ; h, a radiating tube; r, circu- lar tube ; e, ve- lum; /, tenta- cles (AgassizJ. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Paryphacrf)cra,f>nGQ{ i\\Q A female sporosac, much cn- zouids, with clusters of landed: a, tentacles; 6, mcdiisoid buds (spore- pc^dicel; c, spadix; </, body sacs), about natural of embryo; e, tentacles ; /, size (.\gassiz), rudiment of stem of em- bryo (Agassiz). of Ilydroidea (c. fj. Lhzins Di/nmorpkoea, fft/bocodoUf etc.) in thfir turn jiroduce medusae-buds, which bcconio de- tached and develop into mc- Fig. G. dusio similar to those from which they originated. In Jfi/bocodon these buds arise from the base of tho large solitary tentacle on the mar- gin of tho disk J in the two other genera named above they are produced on the sides of the digestive cavity or "proboscis." These buds may coexist with true ova in the same medusa. A few in- stances of reproduction by spontaneous division liavo been observed, both in the medusic and in the nutritive zotiids. Two types of sexual rcpro- ductinn have been observed. Inmost of the species the eggs, after fertilization by sperm- ulcs, undergo complete seg- i^"% Jlfidraclinia pofycHna, part of fe- malf colony enlarge<l: a, nu- tritive zooiA ; 6, blaslostyie; c, dt-feiisive zoiiid ; d, c, /, spuro- sacs or medusoid buds con- tain injjecgs in ditferent stages of development (Agassiz). mentation and develop directly into round and somewhat elongated embryos (Fig. 10. «), which arc covered ex- ternally with cilia, by means of which they swim ac- tively about for a time: thc?e young embryt.-s are known as phmufa. They consist of an outer layer (ectoderm) made up of prismatic cells, and an inner layer {endo- derm), of larger and more globular cells, which encloses Fig. 7. Fig. 8. ■^^ Sertidaria pumila, on a Obelia cointulssnralis, a sea-weed (Fucus), nat- gonotheca and two Iiy- ural size. drothcoie, enlarged (Agassiz). the central cavity. In this stage there is no external opening. The planulai soon attach themselves to some object like a stone, shell, seaweed, or submerged timber, by one end, which rapidly enlarges (Fig. 10, 6) into a flat- tened disk-like form; the cilia disappear at the same time; Fig. 9. IT the upper end then begins to enlarge, and the interme- diate portion becomes nar- row and elongated to form a stem; very soon the upper end enlarges into a body, and develops a mouth at the end, and the central cavity becomes a stomach; at the same time tentacles grow out around the mouth, and a thin covering of ehit- inous matter is deposited over the stem and lower ayita JoAni(ori(, the mature me- portion of the bodv (Fig. dusa, enlarged. J^j. ^^ ^hat the little hy- droids begin to resemble the adult nutritive zooids. The second mode of sexual reproduction is only met with in Tubularidiv, Hydrn, and a few other genera. In Tubn- laridfc the mcdu- ^- ^^^- ^"- ^- soids are small oval sporosacs (Figs. 4, 5), arising in clus- ters from the body just above the long tentacles. The apa- dU (Fig. 5, c) be- comes surrounded by a celhilar mass of Kmbryos of Melicertum campanula: n. p.pr„,iiii,l matter planu!a;&,embrv..sjustattathed,much prminai manor, Jmlarged (A. Agassiz). ^'-ow which, in the female, irregular egg-like masses are separated from time to time. Each mass soon flattens into a concave disk, which rapidly becomes angular, and then the angles elongate so tliat tho form becomes star-shaped; the rays gradually elon- gate into tentacles (Fig. 5, <■) ; the outer convex surface protrudes, and shows an internal cavity ((/), and in some cases small oral tentacles grow out around the end : iVom the concave side a projection ( /') is devehiped, which will ultimately form the stem. In this state the embryo hy- droid (actiuulfi) is discharged. It then swims about, and also creeps upon its tentacles, mouth downward; linally it attaches itself by the opposite end (/), which expands into a disk at tho base, and elongates into a stem ; a mouth and stomach are formed, and it then lu'couies a nutritive zooid. The existing Ilydroida may be divided into four princi- pal sub-orders. TIio coral-forming species {MiUfpora) may constitute a fifth, but arc little known. The extinct Grap- toh'trH probably rejiresent a sixth sub-order. I. The Thecopbora (or ('alyptoi)lastea), including the families Sertularidic (Fig. 7), Campanularidie (Figs. 8, 9), Plumularid*, etc.. are characterized by having all parts, except the upper portion of the zooids. covered with a chitinous sheath: around the body of each zoiiid this forms a protective caliele, into which tho upper parts can be re- tracted when disturbed. In Plumularida^ there are also smaller cup-like calicles from which irregular ])rocesses of naked sarcodo may be extended. The medusoid buds arise from a blastostyle enclosed within a chitinous cap- sule (•j'oiofh'ffi), which also serves to contain and protect HYDROMETER. 1061 the buds until developed cither into fixed sporosaes or free nieduste. The latter usually have re)iroduclivo organs (re- garded as sporosacs by Allinau) on the radiating tubes. II. The Aiheeata (or tiym- Fic. 11. noblasteal, including Coryn- ida> (Figs. 1, 2. :i), Clavida>, Ilydractinida; (Fig. C), Tubu- laridiB (Figs. 4, 5), etc., usu- ally have the root-fibres and stems covered with a chitinous shcalh, but this does not form oalicles around the nutritive zoijids. nor gonothcca- around the mcdusoid buds, which are naked, and become cither spo- rosacs or free medusic. The latter have their reproductive organs on the digestive cavity, and do not have lithocysts on the margin. III. The i?iphonot)hora. in- cluding Physalia (the "Por- tuguese man-of-war "),Velella, Porpita, etc., are very complex, free-swimming colonies, com- young hydroids of -V. c«m;>a- posedofmanyunitedhydroids. mila, much enlarged (A. In these one or more of the Agassiz). Eooids becomes transformed into a floating apparatus, usu- ally in the form of a vesicle or bladder filled with air; others ai3 nutritive zoiiids ; others locomotive: and still others reproductive. Some species produce free medusa;, others fixed ones or sporosacs. IV. The Gymnochroa, including only the fresh-water Ilydrip.have the bodv naked and furnished with a sucking disk for volunlarv adhesion at the posterior end. They can creep about, and also float free in the water. The re- productive zoiiids are very simple sporosacs, arising from the sides of the body, both sexes often on the same hydra. The male sporosacs are conical bodies just below the ten- tacles; the female ones are irregular tuberculiform, and situated toward the base. The eggs develop into ncinnil^, which become Ilvdra;. The ordinary buds arise from the sides of the Hi/tlrn as simple hernia; of the body-walls, but Ihcy soon elongate and develop a mouth, stomach, and tentacles like those of the parent; then the hollow pedicel bv which they are united to the parent becomes constricted, anil the voung hydra; detach themselves, and soon become exactly like the first. The species of ffi/tira inhabit fresh water, and are noted for their wonderful powers of repair- ing injuries, restoring lost parts, and reproducing the entire body even from minute fragments. A. E. Vebhii.l. liydrom'oter [«r. v6ap. " water," and ^irpov, " sure:" Kr. In/,lr,„iirir,], Ara-ometer, or (Jravimctcri an instrument consisting of three parts: (1) a graduated stem of uniform diameter and cn.ss-scclion ; (2) a bulb ; (.'!) a counlerpoise or ballast. On being placed in a liquid it sinks until a certain point on the scale is on a level with the surface of the liquid, and from the reading of the scale at that point the specific gravity of the liquid is cither ascertained directly or by a simple calculation. The principle of the hydrometer is simply that of the law of floating bodies —viz. that when a body flouts the weight of the bulk of liqui<l displaced is equivalent to the weight of the body floated. I'he bulb is put on in order that the instrument may float, anil the counterpoise or ballast ensures its floating in an upright position. The stem is of small diameter, in order that small difler- cnees of specific gravities in liquids may show conBidoralilo difl'erences on the scale. Hydro- meters arc usually of glass, though they are sometimes made of metal, (ilass has the ad- vantage of cleanliness, resistance to corrosion, incaiinbilitv of fraudulent alteration except by an experienced worker in glass, and its facility ofmaiiufaclure. Its fragility, however, is a point against it. Some of the first hyilrometers con- structed were mailo so that weights might j'" ji,.jr(,„,(.ter aided to them, either in a pan at the top iif the • stem, or attached between the bull, and counterpoise, and hTdrometer, however, introduces considerable complication into the instrument, and renders it difiicult of accurate ad- justment. The .Sikes and Dycas instruments have, how- ever been used as standards in the Uritish custom-house for a considerable period. The Dycas hydrometer was or- dered bv the U. S. Congress as the ofiicial instrument in 1790 and was still in use in ISW. This instrument pos- sessed the advantage that by the addition of weights a considerable range might be given to the instrument Nicholson's hvdrometer is, like the preceding ones, ol metal, and has not only a pan at the top of the stem for the reception of weights, but has also a pan just above the counterpoise for the reception of solids of which it may be desirable to determine the specific gravity. The majority of the hydrometers at present in use are invariable in size and weight, and arc usually constructed of glass, borne of these are graduated, so as to read ofl- directly in specific gravities. The hydrometers of Schmidt of Berlin, con- structed carefully on mathematical principles, have given his name to some instruments, made on this plan ; but usually hydrometers made on this plan have not the naino of any individual attached to them. Wilsons or Lovi s beads arc a peculiar form of hydrometer (if a number of bodies can be spoken of in the singular -/"f '^'■)- J^jy consist of a number of bead-like bulbs of glass, slightly difl-ering from each other in weight or volume, each en- graved with a number. On being thrown into a liquid, some float, while others sink, while the figures on the imo which neither floats nor sinks, or barely floats or sinks, show the specific gravity of the liquid under examination. Most hTdrLeters are, however, constructed with an arbitrary scale, so that their readings contain no decimals. Iho Twaddell hvdrometer is so graduated that the >">"''^" "f desrces iniiicated, multiplied by o and added to 1000, give the specific gravity of a liquid referred to water as 1000 The marine hvdrometer for sea-water has a range of 40 degrees, the number of degrees indicating t^e third place of decimals in expressing specific gravities; thus^ 5 'degrees indicate a sp. gr. of 1.005 ; 22 degrees, of 1.022 etc Hydrometers with an arbitrary scale are extensively used in certain manufactures or for testing the products o such manufactures, and are graduated with this object. Thus that of Brix (sometimes called a saccharometer) is graduated so as to indicate at once the percentage of sugar fn an aqueous solution. This is used by sugar-refiners on he Con'tineut. Southworth's hydrometer f^f^'^J"?^ time since in the State of New York by act of the legisla- ture, has the zero-point at the point to which t'.e instrn- ment sinks in proof spirits (oO vols, of alcohol to 50 of water), and the graduations above and below indicate the percentages above or below proof. The hydrometer ot Gay-Lussac (also called alcoholometer) is graduated so that the readings give the percentage of alcoho by volume iii an alcoholic solution, in which alone it is inlended to bo used The temperature, which is an imiiortaiit laclor m considering the indications of a hydrometer, is lor t.ay- Lus-e' "n^strument, 1 o" C. or 50° F. A table of corrections for temperature lias been P"bHshed. The a Icidmlon der of Trallcs is essentially the same a. that ot ^'^. -l/";^^; but is intended for a temperature of C0° F. This is now the oflicial instrument for testing alccdiolic iquors in tho U S Numerous other hydrometers for testing alcoholic liquids have been devised, among which maybe ">ont,oned Richter's, which reads in percentages by weight of alcohol: Mcissner's, which has two scales, one giving percentage by wei-ht, and the other by volume, etc. Dmacourt s galac- ronfetc is intended for use in testing samples of milk for watering. The of tho scale is at the point to which the Tns rumcnt sinks in pure water; tho 100 tlie point o which i^sinks in pure milk . which ordinarily has ■"^P-'ohe grav- T ofl 02i' The space between is divided into 100 equal parts, and the readings of the instrument show, with a ?o'e approximation to the truth, the amount o pure milk which he sample contains. The hydrometer ol lia ling s arbitrarily graduated, its indications being converted into 3 therefore below the surface of tin liqui d. Fahrenheit's hy- drometer is a sample of one having the pan at Iho top of the stem, to which weights may be added lu order to sink tho hydrometer to a certain mark. Tho bydromolers ol Sikcs and nvcas are hydrometers where the weights arc added to the portion immersed in the liquid The addi- tion of weights in this way. by increasing the volume of tho immersed portion, as well as the weight of tho entire 200 . ... specific gravities by the formula sp. gr. = ^--, "i which „ represents the reading of the hydrometer, the + sign being used when the liquid is lighter than water, the - sfgi; when it is heavier. This instrument is used by many manufacturers, dyers, etc. in England. The instrument, however, which is most generally used, ,,„„i here and abroad, is that of UaunK^ ^'•'''^" "nT^V in,, there arc two instruments bearing the name i.f "'"""'' the one for liquids lighter than water, Ihe othiM- for those heavier, and the seah;s do not correspond. For liquids lighter than water the zero-point is the point '» ;>>"5'' 'J instrument sinks in a solution eontaiuing parts of tom- mou alt, bv weight, in 00 of water, while the lO-niark l. at "he poin fo wMeh tho instrument sinks ,n pure water. 1062 HYDROPATHY. Tlic space between is divided into ten parts, and the j^radations arc continued indefinitely. For liquids heavier than water (lie zero-point is the point to which the instru- ment $\nks in pure water, and 16*^ is at the point to which il sinks tn a solution containing 15 parts by \vcight of coni- For the pOse esprit, sp. gr.= ^,"|^ _ ] McCuUoh, iZrpori on Hiidrometers, Pub. For the pSse acide, sp. gr. = — i^''— I 1^"*^- ''"'". ^848. mon salt in 86 of water. The space is divided into 15 parts, and the gradations arc continued indefinitely down- ward. The first-mentioned instrument is called the p^se t:nprity the hitter the yjtKc acidc. The formula) for convert- ing the readings into specific gravities arc — 136+1 152 — X J Numerous tables have been constructed by different scien- tific men, showing the specific gravities corresponding to the indications of the 13autne hydrometers. They diflTcr somewhat among themselves, owing to the fact that the common salt used to standardize the instruments often con- tains impurities, which cause a slight difference in the in- dications. Moreover, the liquids used, in consequence of the attraction of the glass stem of the hydrometer, rise in a curve against it, so that it is difficult to determine the exact point which coincides with the level of the liquid, and errors of manufacture are* thus introduced. The specific gravities corresponding to the indications of the liaume and Beck hydrometers arc given as follows ( Watta'a DUt., vol. iii. pp.*2U9, 210): CompariHitn of the Der/rccs of Baume'a Htfdmmetf.r iritk the rctil Sp'cijic (ii-fnitics of Liquids heavier than water, cal- culated hij G Hpin' 8 formula. 134+ 1 Sp. gr. = 144 144 — : (iilpin, and V. a. Visp. Degrees gravity. Degrees. Spccinc gravity. Degrees. SpcciOo gravity. Degrees. SpcciQo gravity. 1.000 20 1.152 39 1.345 58 1.617 1 1.007 21 1.160 40 1.3.57 59 1.634 2 1.013 22 1.1C9 41 1.3G9 60 1.052 3 1.020 23 1.178 42 1.382 61 1.670 4 1.027 24 1.188 43 1.39.5 02 1.689 5 1.031 2.5 1.197 44 1.407 63 1.708 fi 1.041 2f. 1.20S 43 1.421 64 1.727 7 1.043 27 1.21G 46 1.434 Gj 1.747 8 1.055 28 1.22G 47 1.118 CG 1.767 1.0G3 2!) 1.23G 48 1.462 67 1.788 10 l.OTO 30 1.240 49 1.176 68 1.809 11 1.078 31 1.25G 50 1.490 69 1.831 12 1.08G 32 1.2G7 51 1.505 70 1.834 13 1.094 33 1.277 52 1.520 71 1.877 14 1.101 34 1.288 03 1.535 72 1.900 lo 1.109 3o 1.299 61 1..531 73 1.924 Ifi I.IIS 3G 1.310 53 1.367 74 1,949 17 1.120 37 1.322 56 1.533 75 1.974 IS 1.134 38 1.333 57 l.GOO 76 2.000 19 1.143 liaumCe Hydrometer for Liquids Htjhter than Water, calcu- lated by Gilpin's formula. Degrees. Spccilio ; gravity. Degrees. Specific gravity. Degrees. Specific gravity. Degrees. .Specillc gravity. 10 1.000 23 .913 36 .849 49 .789 11 U.993 24 .913 37 .844 50 .785 12 .986 23 .937 33 .8.39 51 .781 13 .980 26 .901 39 .8S4 52 .777 14 .973 27 .896 40 .830 53 .773 15 .967 28 .890 41 .82.5 54 .768 16 .960 29 .885 42 .820 55 .764 17 .934 30 .880 43 .816 56 .760 18 .948 31 .874 41 .811 57 .757 19 .942 32 .8G9 43 .807 58 .753 20 .936 33 .864 4G .802 59 .749 21 .930 34 .859 47 .798 60 .745 22 .924 35 .854 48 .794 Table for converting degrees of Beck's Hydrometer into real Specific Gravities. . Speolflc gravity. i Speoiac gravity. | SpceiQe gravity. Greater Less tiiao 1.000. .991 ! Greater Less than 1.000. E Greater Less tlian 1.000. ° tbaul.OOO. Q 23 Ibanl.OOO. a thauiOOO. 1 1.006 1.172 .872 1 48 1393 .7.80 2 I.0I2 .9S8 1 26 1.181 .867 49 1.4U3 .776 3 I.OIS .983 > 27 1.1S9 .863 50 1.417 .773 4 1.024 .977 28 1.197 .859 51 1.429 .769 3 I.OiiO .971 29 1.206 .854 52 1.441 .766 6 1.037 .956 30 1.214 .850 53 1.433 .762 7 1.043 .91)0 31 1.223 .846 54 1.466 .759 8 1.019 .933 32 1.232 .842 55 1.478 .7.56 9 1.0.56 .950 33 1.241 .837 .50 1.491 .752 10 1.063 .944 31 1.250 .833 .57 1.5M .719 11 1.069 .939 35 1.2.59 .829 SS 1.518 .746 12 1.076 .934 36 1.268 .825 59 1.5-12 .742 13 1.1 183 .929 37 1.278 .821 60 1.516 .739 14 l.liOD .924 38 1.288 .817 61 1..5G0 .736 13 1.097 .919 39 1.298 .813 G2 1.574 .733 16 1.104 .914 ! 40 1.303 .810 63 1..589 .730 IT 1.111 .909 41 1.318 .806 64 1.604 .727 IS 1.118 .904 42 1.328 .802 63 1.619 .723 19 1.120 .899 43 1.339 .798 66 1.635 .720 20 l.I.)3 .893 44 i.:M9 .794 07 1.631 .717 21 1.141 .890 43 1.360 .791 68 1.667 .714 22 1.119 .885 46 1.371 .787 69 1.683 .711 23 1.1.57 .881 47 1.382 .783 70 1.700 .708 24 1.104 .876 The Holland hydrometer is essentially the same as Kaume's, used, as its name implies, in Holland, where it is the official standard. The instrument of Carticr. adopted at one time by the French government, is essentially the same as that of Buume. The 22°-mark of each is the same ; for other points, either above or lielow, 15° of the Carlier scale correspond with 16° of the Baum6 scale. The con- struction of this instrument was really an infringement upon Baum^, who was thereby deprived of the emoluments wiiieh he would otherwise have receivcil had his instru- ments, instead of Carticr's, been adopted by the government. Beck's hydrometer is one having the zero-point corre- sponding to a sp. gr, of 1, and 'M) to sp. gr. 0.850, and the scale is extended by equal divisions both above and below 0. Several other hydrometers with arbitrary scales have been constructed, but as a general rule their use is so limited that a further enumeration of the instruments is unim- portant. Temperature naturally has a considerable effect on the indications of the hydrometer. All the above-mentioned instruments are intended to be used at the ordinary tem- perature, or about 00° F. A hydrometer resembling a flute — in fact a graduated brass tube closed and loaded at one end — is det-cribed, under the name of hydroHcopittm, in a letter of Synesius to llyjiatia. but Archimedes is claimed to be the real inventor. It was not introduced into general use, however, until the close of the seventeenth century. E. Wallkk. Hydrop'athy [Gr. iiSup, " water." and naeelv, from Traffxetf. to " sufi'er "]. The numerous health institutions in the U. S. and other countries under ihe names of '• water- cures," "hydropathic establishments," "hygienic insti- tutes," and '* Iiygeian homes," where invalids of all classes are treated by means of bathing, diet, exercise, and other hygienic agencies to the exclusion of all drug medicines, illustrate the extensive results that can often lie traced to insignificant beginnings. The incident of a >prained wrist, and the instinctive application of water IVom an adjacent pum]», originated an entire system of the htaling art. Vincent Priessnitz, a German peasant of Silesia, being then thirteen years of age, sprained his wrist, and. finding that water allayed the ])ain and inflammation, followed the ap- plication with that of a wet cloth ( l'iii>irhl>i;/), from which also he received much beneiit. Anotlier accident, Ihcerush- ing of his thumb, enabled him soon after to repeat the ex- periment of water-treatment with a similar result. But in this ease the cure was attended with a rash on the skin, which lie attributed to impurity of the blood, and at once conceived the idea that water favored (he elimination of morbid matter from Ihe system, and was therefore u puri- fying as well as a soothing agent. This rash was the origin of the idea of '■ crisis " which subsccjuently became an important feature in the hydropathic treatment of chronic diseases, although at the present lime crises aro regarded as accidental complications, ralher than essential conditions, of the eliminating processes. In his nineteenth year Priessnitz met with an accident which fractured several ribs, and so displaced the bones that the surgeons found it difficult to rej)lace them satisfactorily. But the sufferer was equal to the emergency. I..eaning over a window-sill and inflating the lungs to the utUKtst, the ingenious patient succeeded in bringing the broken ends of (lie bones in juxtaposition. To alleviate the soreness and inflammation, Priessnitz npplied his favorite wet bandage. This relieved, and was followed by another rash, which confirmed him in the theory that water was a powerful eliminating agent. In his intercourse with his neighbors Priessnitz naturally suggested the water-treatment to others in their various accidents and ailments, and acquired considerable reputa- tion as a*' water-doctor." But he soon learned that many severe and protracted chronic diseases required a more thorougli and careful management and a stricter regimen than most jiersons were able or willing to attend to in con- nection with business and family cares at home. This ob- servation induced !iim to open an institution where patients could have ])roper nursing facilities, and where the neces- sary discipline could be enjoined ; and in IS^J'J the famtuis Griifcnberg water-cure began to receive patients — whore, reducing his ]dan to something like order and system, a variety of baths, .adapted to ditTerent cases and constitu- tions, was added to the remedial appliances. Among these IIYDK0P1I1D.E— IIYDKOI'IIOBIA. 1063 were the flin-turh, or rubbing wet sheet, the wct-shoctpack, the dry-blaukct or sweating pack, the hip or *SVrs-bath, (he head-bath, fout-bath, douche, spray, plunge, wave, etc. batlis. Patients were soon attracted to rirUfenberg from nearly all parts of the civilized world, ani! the writinj^s uf Claridge, Seudumore, Johnson, Wilson, and ( I ullyolKngland. I'ranckc, Wfiss. and Munde of Germany, and Jlcnry ('. Wrij^ht and Drs. Trail and Shew of the U. S., made the public tamiliar with the leading features of the system. It has been charged that some of the practice at Orafeuberg. in the application of cold water, water-drinking, and exercise, was too severe, especially for the feeble invalids suffering from nervous and dyspeptic affections. It wuuld be very strange if, in the infancy of the sy!>tera. such errurs did not occur. But it is not true that his method was a " coftl water-cure." nor that he treated all diseases with "water alone." He attached great importance to the auxiliaries of 8im|)lieity of diet, due exercise, a proper amount of sleep, and other hygienic infiuences. Priessnitz was sus- pected of using more or less medicine clandestinely, and on that suspicion he was arrested and imprisoned fi)r prac- tising medicine without a license : but as no meciicine of any kind could be found by analyzing the water in which his patients were bathed and the sponges through which the patients drank while enveloped in the "pack," he was acquitted and released. A hydropathic society was organized in London in 1842, and soon after institutions were opened at Malvern and other places in (Jreat Britain. The system was introduced into the U. S. in 1S4;J by the writings of Drs. Trail and Shew. In the spring of ISU. Dr. Trail opened an institu- ti<m in New York, and in the fall of the same year Dr. Shew opened another. In the spring of 1845, Dr. Shew opened an institution at Lebanon Springs, N. Y., in con- nection with David Camphcll. In a few years thereafter there were U'O similar institutions in the country. The entire literature of the system embraces about 100 volumes, the most popular and com]trehcnsivo of which are Dr. Trail's /fi/dropritftir Eiiri/cfopTtlia and Dr. Shcw's ////- dropatfiir Fnmihf Plnjsirinti. Of European works, the best known are rrnnche on the W'ntrr-mre, Johnmtn'n ffi/drop- affiif, and O'ulft/ on Chronic DinrnHci. The W'ntcr-Cttrc Joiinuit was slarted by Dr. Shew in LS44, and in 1S45 transferred to Fowler & Wells, who continued its publi- cation for twenty years. About 1S7:1 S. H. Wells, who succeeded the firm of Fowler A Wells, commcnctd the publication of a monthly periodical entitled the Science uf lirnlth, on the plan of the original Wtiter-Cnre Jourvnt, and intended to be an exponent of the system. But it must be observed that in the U. S. the term hi/dropitthj/, which literally means " water-disease," is generally regarded as a misnomer: and the majority of practitioners have adopted the term hygienic, for the reason that tho system contem- plates the treatment of diseases by means of all hygienic agencies, of which water is only one. They claim, too, that while in many cases — fevers and inllammations, for example — water may he the leading remedy, in other cases — dyspepsia, scrofula, plethora, etc. — diet, exercise, rcMl. or some other agency may bo of much more relative importance than water. K. T. Thall. Ilydroph'id.T [fromr.Sujp," water/* and S^i^." serpent"], n family of protcroglyph serpents (i. r. gcrpt-nts with front teeth grooved to serve as canals for the contents of the poi- 8on-glnnds) distinguished by tho compression (»f tho caudal vertebra) and the extension of their neural spines and liy- papophysea to serve as a basis for a compressed tail, which is udiipted for s^vimming by propulsion from side to side. The serpents contained in this group are highly venomous, and art- pre-eminently adnpted for aquatic life. They arc ehirfly inhabitants of tho List Indian neas, but one s|>ccies is also found on the Pacific coast of Central America. They arc generally beautifully colored, and may at onco be rec- ognized by their very compressed tail. Kcvcral genera and a number of species have been described. TnronoRE Gri,L. Ily'drophilc, or Ilyilropliilidtr [from /fi/drophifui, " water-lover," one of the genera], a name given to various water beetles, coleopterous insects often having oar-like legs for fiwiniming purposes. They constitute a family, Ilydrophilidic, whose larvie arc carnivorous, while the per- fect insects live on decaying vegetables. Thus they arc important water-scavengers. The brown hydrophile (//y- drophiluH pircHM) Is ono of tho largest Kuropvan beetles. Ilydropho'bia (syns. W'ntt r-drrad, liuhic», Rnhiet cnuiim, ttiihivM tunOitfioHti, Ltfftn, Li/nun, Cifindf/aMO, Ltfnna cnniii'i, Entania li/tta, /ftfifraphithitt, Airophobin^ Enthi»- tnuM hi/druphohin, Cfoium htfdrophitltiti, Ptiutophohift, Pttra- ph'ifnti, Phohndiju^i'i, Phrinftfiinnt, Ci/ntitithrnpitt, litf^vatn- ptmiit, Phrenitin tatraiiM ; Kr. Jiti'je, Hydrophobic, lirachy- potir, Mftl de St. Hubert ; Gcr. Wttth der Huude, I/uudit. WHthy llttndtoUheit, Wnthhrankhcit, WaHnerHchctir ; Dutch, WntcrvrccH, Hondndolhcid ; Sp. Jiabia, Hidrofobin ; It. Rabbia, Idro/obia ; Hung. Dwhobctft Kntyak diibouxfit/rh ; Polish, li'itci'fX7i'nia; Roumanian, 7'urburea: Turk. Kinftiz. Qiiodtiozfyy, KtiUh ; Arab. ( pure) Ifd ul htiUtb iiw til khucf ntia alma: (Algiers) Mkloub; (IJarbaryl hith: Dan. ISnudn- krock ; Swed. \\'attrjinknick ; Hind. Ifautdntl kiitta), [from the Greek vBup, "water," and 4>o^o<;, "fear"] is a remark- able disease to which both the human species and probably all of the brute creation arc subject. In examining its very interesting history we find that the Hebrew writers are altogether silent in regard to it, and we can discover only rare allusions to it among other authors previous to the Christian era. Such references, however, are sufficient to indicate that, although it may not have been so prevalent among the nations of anti(juity as among those of more modern periods, yet it was in very ancient times recognized as a peculiar disorder iniesting certain animals, and even man himself. The earliest distinct mention of the disease occurs in a Hindoo medical work of great antiquity — dat- ing probably as far back as nine or ten centuries before Christ — written by a renowned i)hysieian named Susruta. It is observed therein that when dogs, jackals, foxes, wolves, bears, or tigers become rabid, they foam at the mouth, which remains open and from which flows saliva; their tails hang down; they do not hear or see well; they snap at and bite one another, and thus communicate the same malady* The symptoms of hydrophobia in human beings who have been bitten arc likewise detailed briefly, and arc said to terminate in convulsions and death. Scarification of the wound and burning it with boiling (/her — a sort of oil made from butter — are recommended, as well as various antidotes to bo subsequently a<Jministcred. Tliis concise and rem.arkably accurate dciicription of the affection, with suggestions for treatment, may be regarded as an epitome of all ancient and modern research upon the subject. Tho extract given can be found in Wise's //ihtury of Medicine ftinoutf the HindonH. Homer is supposed to allude to hydro- phobia in the expression kuvo. Xvffffijr^pa of the fliud, where Hector is compared to a raging dog. There are two pas- sages in Hippocrates whieli appear to indicate that the physician ot Cos had observed its charaetcristic symptoms in man. but failed to regard it otherwise than as a variety of idiopathic phrcnitis. His contemjiorary. Democritus, howevci", who was a famous traveller, had probably encoun- tered the disease in foreign regions, as he was evidently well acquainted with its most striking peculiarities. Wo arc informed by the distinguished jibysician Cu^lius Aure- lianus that Democritus. in a treatise upon opisthotonos, had described the affection in the human subject, admitting its origin from the bite of rabid animals, but ctjiisiduriug it simply as a form of tetanus. Theocritus and Plalo refer to madness among wolves. Aristotle, in his Hittory of Auimah, remarks that dogs are afllicted with madness. quinsy, and gout; that the first renders them furious and inclined to bite other animals, which thereupon also become rabid; and that all animals execjit man are liable to bo seized with and destroyed by the malady so engendered. Artemidorus and Gains, who flourished some two centuries B. c, allude to the disease, the former locating it in the stomach, and the latter in the j)neumogastric. Aselepiades, less than 100 years a. r., refers the chief cause of hydro- phobia to irritation of the brain membranes. In the early jiortion of the Christian era tho allusions to this affection become more frequent. M. Artorius. tho friend and medical attendant of .\ugustus. speaks of it in a treatise on the subject as being situated in the st<)mach. Gratius Faliscus. a poet of the same period, describes rabies in a work entitletl the (\i/ue(/rticnn. Virgil, in his (ironjicit, classes rabies among the di.'-tempcrs of cattle and sheep induced by a pestilential condition of the atmosphere. Ovid speaks of a rabid slie-wolf and rabid centaurs (ciiZ-m/i /iiinenibrca), and Pliny <»f the bite of a nm<l dog. Ovid states, moreover, that hydrtqdiobia and gout are incurable maladies, while Pliny advises a number of specifies for the prevention of the former. Horace employs the expression rabicM canin in a figurative sense, applying it to the fierce heat of the d(»g-slar. instead of using the ordinary phrase. antuH nniiriifiT. The disease is mentioned by Columella, ii writer on husbandry in the first century, who alludes to an opinion eommon among shepherds that a dog may be en- 8ure<l against rabies by biting ofl' the last bone of its tail on the fortieth day after birth. This is still a popular su- perstition. Suetonius relers to wiM animals allVeted with madness (/cnt rabidit ). Kumedes, a physician in the reign of Tiberius, makes some interesting observations upon tho discafie, remarking that even the shedding of tears will ex- cite pharyngeal spasms in an affeetod person. Dioseor- itle-. in the time of Nero, appears to be tlie first who claims to huvo actually observed and treated the disease. Both 1064 HYDROPHOBIA. he and Galen desoribo it as attacking animals and men, and agree in the opinion of its uommunicability from the former to the hitter by contact of morbid saliva with the second skin. But (lalen, and C'elsus as well, concern them- .■^elves rather with the prevention and treatment of hydro- phobia than with its history and progress. Their contem- porary, Magnus of Ephesus, locates the affei-tion in the stomach and diaphragm. According to Plutarch, it was not until the time of Pompcy the Great that the rabific )M>ison first began to manifest itself among human beings. Andreas of Caryste, a physician of the Alexandrian school, has left a work upon the disease, which he terms Kyt-oAvaao?. CiKlius Aurclianus, whom we have mentioned, a distin- guished physician of the reign of Trajan or Hadrian, or perhaps as late as the fifth century, is the first to furnish an accurate detailed description of the affection in man, and of the various controversies regarding it. He men- tions it as being endemic in Caria and Crete. He called it pasHto hi/drophubica, and relates one instance of its occur- rence in a seamstress who used her teeth to rip the cloak of a hydropholiic patient. About the same period the affection is treated of with more or less minuteness by Pedanius Dioscorides the Cilician, Claudius ^Elianus. Clau- dius Galeuus, Oribasius, and Vegetius Rcnatus. /Etius, a Mesopotamian doctor of the sixth century, is the first to furnish anything like an accurate description of rabies in dogs. A century later the physician Paulas ^Egineta gives an excellent account of hydrophobia, dividing it into two varieties — viz. that arising from inoculation, always fatal, and that due to nervous irritability, capable of cure. A similar distinction is now sometimes made, particularly by French authors. Among the Arabian physicians, Yahia- ebn-Serapion, Rhazes, Africanus, and Avicenna mention the disease. Yahia-ebn-Serapion, who lived in the ninth cen- tury, expresses the opinion that the affection produced by the bite of a mad dog is incurable. Rhazes affirms that a certain hydrophobic man barked by night like a dog and died, and that another when he beheld water was seized with trembling, extreme terror, and rigors. Avicenna, at the commencement of the eleventh century, describes hy- drophobia with considerable fulness, noticing several of its phenomena ignored by the (rreek and Roman authors. He terms it simply canit rabi'di morsus. Since the time of Paulus .Egineta we find the disease described by numerous European writers, the study of its symptomatology es- pecially keeping pace with the general progress of medical science. In 1020 an outbreak of rabies among dogs is mentioned in the laws of Uowel the Good. From that time it appears to have been well known in England, nu- merous specific remedies, charms, and incantations against it being recommended in old Anglo-.Saxon manuscripts still extant. On the continent of Europe the modern history of rabies is obscure until the thirteenth century. One of the earliest reports of scientific interest refers to wolves afllicted with the disease in Franconia, Germany, in 1271, where more than thirty shepherds and peasants fell victims to their attacks. Since that period wo find frequent men- tion of the affection as ])rcvailing in an epizootic form in almost every country of Europe, but more particularly in the wooded districts of Germany. Switzerland, and France, appearing to attack principally wolves, dogs, and foxes. \ ulpine mailness. however, was not noticed until the be- ginning of the present century in Europe, although it had appeared in the neighborhood of Boston, U. S., in 170S. In 177t> rabies made its first appearance in the French AV'est Indies, and in 178.? it became extremely prevalent throughout the U. S., and since that time the disease in br»th animals and men has occupied a prominent place in our medical literature. It was unknown in South America until 1^03, when it broke out in Peru. It has been recog- nized for centuries in Northern Africa, hut its presence in Western anil Southern Africa is denied upon the authority of dii^tinguished travellers. In Asia its history, as we have seen, is very ancient. It has never appeared in Australia or New Zealand. The popular belief that hydrophobia is in all animals characterized by an nhhofrence o/ irnter was long since proved to be erroneous. The mad dog laps it eagerly, and will not hesitate to swim in it when it obstructs his course. In the case of man, however, the attempt to ilrink, or what- ever is suggestive in any manner of that act, induces such dreadful spasms of the muscles of deglutition and respira- tion, with sense of suffocation, that a horror of fluids, even though associated with intolerable thirst, may be truly re- garded as one of the most prominent and characteristic features of the disease. For these reasons a distinct term, nif/if". has been employed by some wrilers to designate this affection as it prevails among the brute creation, the word hi/drophobia being restricted to the disorder as manifested in num. Such a distinction is observed by Fleming, a recent English author, who has written certainly the best work upon the subject. Others have spoken of rabirM in a universal sense, while endeavoring to abolish entirely the term hydrophobia. Numerous other more or less compre- hensive terms have been proposed to distinguish the affec- tion, but hydrophobia has continued, and will probably always continue, to be its most popular and general name among English-speaking nations. Although the manifestations of hydrophobia are clearly modified by character, habit, and temperament in various species and varieties of animals, and even in individual.s, it is undoubtedly the same disease in all, whatever its pecu- liar form or mode of origin and propagation. It is almost universally conceded that the introduction of a gpectjic vinit, from a rabid animal, into the gysteni, through either an ac- tual wound, an abraded KtirJ'iire, or a drlirate mucoiia mem- brane, in an efmentiul preliminary to the licvrlopment of thin affection in man. But its origin among brutes has always been, and still is, a subject of much discussion, and one worthy of our most serious consideration. Hydrophobia certainly infests, and by many is regarded as originating de n'ico among, certain Carnivora — viz. the dog, wolf. jackal, cat, skunk, and raccoon — while herbivorous and other creatures, including man, contract it by inoculation atone. Of the various conditions asserted as favoring its spontaneous development in the canine race, few have even a probable foundation. They are principally repressed sex- ual desire, extremes of atmospheric temperature, excitement of anger, want of water, and putrid or insufficient food. Ziegler fixes the origin of the disease in lack of the instinc- tive degree of nourishment from blood and flesh, and hence designates it Hfntdnrsf and Fleisclnjier. Still another pre- sumed influence is the presence under the dog's tongue of a worm-like appendage, whose extirpation in pnppy- hood is considered an infallible preventive of the disease. This idea may doubtless be referred to a very ancient myth. Pliny speaks of it, terming the peculiar appendage lyssa. The Germans term it ToHwiirm, or worm of madness, and among them it has long been a popular superstition. The practice of removing this so-called worm still exists in Thrace, Turkey, Greece, Roumania, Moldo - Wallachia, Spain, and even in the Southern U. S. Its efficacy has been entirely disproved by scientific investigation, and the ojiera- tion may be best cb.aracterized, in the expressive language of Dr. Johnson, as " a substance — nobody knows what, ex- tracted — nobody knows why." The other presumed causes of spontaneous hydrophobia would appear to be equally equivocal. Unsatisfied salacity, putrid food, hunger, thirst, anger, and extremes of temperature are manifestly circum- stances which obtain among dogs quite generally through- out the world. But in some regions abounding in dogs hydrophobia has always, so far as can be learned, been either totally unknown or extremely rare, while in others exempt from it for ages it has only recently appeared, and in most instances can be traced positively to importation. Such exemption has been particularly noticed in various islands throughout the world and in isolated localities. It is related that Mr. Meynell. the most eminent English sports- man of the last century, preserved his kennel of hounds from hydrophobia during many years by forcing every new dog to undergo a rigid quarantine of several months pre- paratory to his admission into the pack. There is little doubt that were the universal adoption of such a system of sequestration practicable, rabies would become extin- guished. Jiohiev caninn prevails indifferently in all seasons, as the following figures prove most conclusively. They embody the large number of 2620 distinct and authentic cases ob- served in France, Italy, Austria, England, and the U. S. The foreign statistics refer almost exclusively to cases in- vestigated by distinguished veterinary surgeons; those of our own country (1 01) are derived from a report on the subject by Dr. Blatchford to the American Medical Asso- ciation in 18.^6. Of the 2520 cases, there occurred 704 in the spring, 621 in the summer. 60S in the autumn, and 587 in tlie winter. These figures demonstrate the absurdity of repressive laws designed to be in operation only in the dog- days, when the canine race is ]iopularly supposed, as Mr. Mayo observes, to be afflicted with a sort of dog-lunacy, having the same relation to Sirius that human insanity has to the moon. We must acknowledge our ignorance of any influences concerned in the spontaneous development of this disorder, and accept the theory of j'm reproduction nolely by inoml'i- tion from one animnl to another. Such certainly is the mode of its transmission in the rant mnjority of in^tancm; and although it be urged that the disease must have sprung from a beginning, such argument when used with regard to any communicable affection can only remove us from the sphere of susceptible proof hack to the confines of the mys- terious and impenetrable domain of original causes. It seems quite well established that all creatures liable to con- HYDROPHOBIA. 1065 tract the disease are also in a greater or less dcgrco compe- tent to transmit it.and wcknowof noanimal.s exempt from it. It is true that herbiv<irou.'* and runiiniiting beasts, owing to the formation of their jaws and teeth, as well as to tlieir seldom attempting to bite when rabid (sheep only except- ed), rarely communicate the disease; and hence the belief, entertained for some time by such eminent men as Sir Astley Cooper and the veterinary professors Coleman and Renault, that the power to propagate the atfectlon was con- fincil to such animals as naturally employ their teeth for weapons of offence. The fallacy of this opinion has bet*n proved by numerous unrjuestionable experiments, and it is now likewise conceded by the best authorities that the sa- liva of a hydrophobic human being is capable of inoculat- ini; the disease. Among the various crcnturca subject to hydrophobia, the dog, on account of its intimate association witV man. is not only our greatest source of danger, but it affords us the most frequent opportunities for observing the phenom- ena of this redoubtable affection. A knowledge of the dis- ease, therefore, as manifested in the canine race is of vital importance in enabling us to recognize it promptly, and thus to escape the dreadful consequences of its communica- tion to ourselves. Hydrophobia in the dog has been by sumo writers rlivided into two varieties, dumb and furiouit rabies, according as the animal is silent and uuilcmonstra- tive or noisy and fierce. Other authors recognize still a third variety, which they term tntn^piH rabies, where the animal is quiet, indifferent, and unaggressive. These dis- tinctions, however, are by no means clear, and are alto- gether denied by VircUow. who considers the different forms merely as prolonged conditions or stages which, ac- cording to him. are — 1st, the stage of mehini-hulif; 2d, the irrit'thle and fnriouH: .'id, the purahjtlc stage, ft is often very difficult to detect the existence of rabit;s in its nascent state. This accounts for most oases of hydrophobia in per- sons inoculated by dogs supposed not to have been mad which dieil or were injudiciously destroyed before the full development of the disease. Fortunately, however, the disposition to bite is not apt to be exhibited until the affection is well established. The disease is first mani- fested by constant restlessness, uneasiness, and irritability of temper, the dog of fondling and sociable dispo;>ition be- coming snarly, morose, and shy, retiring under pieces of furniture, into dark corners, or the interior of its kennel, but not remaining long in any one spot, and being continually engaged in licking, scrati-hing, or rubbing some portion of its body. Costivcness and vomiting arc often present. The appetite becomes depraved, such indigestible substances as hits of thread, hair. wood, glass, straw, and dung being swallowed by the animal, which also shows a propensity to lap its own urino and oat its own excrement. It grows quarrelsome towards its canine companions, and chases and worries the eat. The countenance undergoes a marked change; that of the doeilo and affectionate dog assumes an earnest, inquiring, appealing expression ; that of the savage brute becomes the very ])icture of ferocity. In the early stages the animal's attachment for its master appears greatly exaggerate»l, and as long as it retains its con- ficiouHness it will refrain from injuring him. Two early ancl characteristic signs of rabies arc a pei-nliar delirium, causin.; the animal to snap at imaginary objects in the air, and a remarkable alteration in its voice, the bark ending very abruptly and singularly in a how] a fifth, sixth, or eighth higher than at the conimeneeinent. Souu-tinn-s it will utter a hoarse inward bark, rising slightly in tone at the close. Common .symjitoms are strabismus and twitch- ings of the face. In a couple of days the animal begins to lose contri)l of its vohmtary muscles and experioncns diffi- i-ulty in eating and drinking. In the early stages frothy spume or slaver is generally seen <lripping from its jaws, but this soon lessons in quantity and becomes thick and glutinous, adhering to the corners of the mouth ami fauces, and causing intense desire to drink. In its eagerness to lap water the d<»g oflen overturns Ihe vessel containing it. It is now insensible (o pain — will munch burning eoals or even mutilate itself without apparent suffering. It exhibits an inclination to escape from home, to which it will sometimes return after many hours of absence. It is restless and sav- ;i;^c, wandering about, attacking innigiimry objcetn or vent- ing its fury upon real ones. If confined, it gives utterance to the peculiar bark and howl described. When at large, however, it pives forth no warning noise, but sroms only determined upon a straightforward trot. If interfered with, and more espfcinlly if struck, it will wreak its ven- geance on the offender, but will seldom, as a rule, go ont of its way to do a mischief, and if pursued will generally endeavor to escape. This is not invariably the ease, as a natvirally ferocious dog is apt to hunt out its pre}' dili- gently, often attacking nmny animals and persons in its fearful course. It does not continue its progress long, but becomes exhausted, and moves with unsteady, tottering gait, drooping tail, head toward the ground, mouth open, and ]trotruiled tongue of a Icad-bluo color; finally paraly- sis ensues, lirst of the hind quarters and then of the whole body, which is promptly followed by death. The progress of canine rabies is rapid, and its termination almost al- ways fatal. Its duration rarely exceeds ten days ; the ordi- nary time is from four to six days. Nothing has been jiosi- tively determined with regard to the interval elapsing be- tween the receipt of the injury and the appearance of rabies in the dog and other animals. It seldom, however, exceeds six nir)nths. The phenomena of rabies in the cat arc gloominess of disposition, restlessness, tendency to bite and keep aloof, thirst, refusal of Ibod, and sometimes depraved ai>i)ctitc. When the disease reaches the furious stage, the original tigor-like ferocity of the animal becomes predominant; it froths at the mouth; its eyes glare; its back is arched; its tail boats its flanks: its claws are rigidly protruilcd. If disturbed, it usually flies at the face. It soon gets hag- gard and emaciated, its voice sounds hoarse aud sinister, and paralysis and death finally supervene. The wolf and fox, and in fact most wild t.'arnivora, when rabid become extremely audacious, taking to the fields and roads, enter- ing towns, and without hesitation furiously attacking men, dogs, horses, herds, and flocks. They usually fly nt the bands or face, and hence their wounds are nuieti more fre- quently followed by inoculation than those of dogs, who are apt to snap at the legs, and from whoso teeth the rabid saliva is often absorbed by the clotliing. Renault, in a re- port to the Paris Academy of Medicine in 1S,')2, presented statistics of 2j4 persons bitten by mad wolves, of whom 104 perisiied from hydrophobiii ; wliiie, according to Nie- Dieyer, of \Xl} persons bitten by rabid dogs in Wiirteniberg, only 28 contracted the disease. In the jug, horse, sheep, goat, and bovine species the general symptoms of rabies are very similar. They arc manifestations of disagreeable sensations at the seat of injury, restlessness, irascibility, hallucinations, alteration in voice, salivation, exalta- tion of sexual desire, great susceptibility to external in- fluences, loss of appetite, difficulty in swallowing, dilata- tion of pupil, congested eye, emaciation, and finally par- alysis, C4)nia, aud death. The desire to bite is often exhib- ited in the pig, horse, and particularly the sheep. All have paroxysms of rage, during which inoy attack everything within reach with their natural weapons. Fowls manifest the disease by restlessness, excitability, mental delusions, and frenzied movements — finally sraggering, convulsions, and paralysis. They are often aggressive, and sometimes endeavor to bite. Hydrophobia in our own species possesses a deep and melancholy interest on account of the peculiarity (d' its mysterious and often prolonged latency, the horrible in- tensity of its paroxysms, and its irresistible fatality. The most venomous reptile or insect may inflict a wound for whoso effects an antidote may be successfully administered, but the virus of the rabid animal, when once its insidious operation has begun, defies the most consummate thera- peutical skill. When the rabifio poison has been depos- ited within the body no extraonlinary appearances succeed about the ])oint of rece]ition, which seems to heal and cica- trize entirely in a natural manner. At that spot, however, the virus remains prvdu, until at some uncertain period it comes forth steallhily upon its deadly errand. Watson in- fers that it is shut up in a nndule of lymidi. or detained in temporary aii'l jtrccarions union with some of the tissues, until liberated by an injury t<i the cicatrix or some consti- tutional disturbance. The duration of this union is no less variable in man than in the lower animals. According to Thamhayn's statisti<*s of 220 cases of hydrophobia in tho human subject (in Srfiwidt'n J(tUrhHrh>i\ IJiJU), the period of incubation in 202 instances ranged fntni three days to six months. In 1 l;'f, or the large majority, it extended to from fonr to thirteen weeks, fine occurred after four years, and anr»tlier after five and a half years. Many other un- questionable eases of prolonged incubation have been re- corded, and it is by no means improbable that Ihe poison mav, if undisturbed by causes such as those mentioned, remain latent until tlic oecurrenee of natural death. Abr)ut the year 1S|S, Dr. Maroehetti. a Russian phy- sician, announced that ho had discovered in a number of eases which he had attended in tho Ukraine eharactoristiu phenomena never previously noticed. These consisted of pustules beneath the tongue, appearing ordinarily between three and nine days ufter tlu' bite, and which contain the virus transmitted from the point of injury, their iinmediato destruction by cauterization being necessary in order to arrest tho disease. Similar appearances, terin*'il Itf^mr, were said to exist in rabid ilo^s. This announcement crcatt'd n great sensation in the medie:il world, but Marochetti's opinions were soon proven to bo entirely erroneous, tho su-called 1066 HYDROSTATIC PRESS. pustules Ijciiij; simply enlarged mucous follicles caused by the disease. One of tho earliest symptoms is usually a tingling sensa- tion at tlic cicatrix, which sometimes opens and dit;chargos a thin ichorous fluid, lu a short time the person grows deji'ctcd, morose, taciturn, restless, and irritable; he seeks solitude and shuns bright and sudden light. Within a period varying from a few hours to gcveral days the more serious and characteristic symptoms arc developed. The patient is sensible of a stiiTuess or tightness about the throat, and is troubled with some difliculty of swallowing, espe?ially liquids. Deglutition soon becomes impossible unless attempted with the utmost resolution. The real paroxysms of the disease then supervene: they arc cither spontaneous or produced by anytliing suggestive in the slightest dcj;ree of the idea of drinking; they arc preceded by chills and tremors. During these attacks sensations of stricture about the throat and chest are experienced ; the rcjipiration is painful and embarrassed, and interrupted with sii;hs and sobs: in fact, there occur terribly violent spasms of the muselesof the throat, almost intercepting the entrance of air into the trachea. In the intervals between the paroxysms the patient is sometimes calm and collected, retaining full consciousness and knowledge of his condition, but gener.iUy he exhibits more or less excitement and ir- regularity, and occasionally has fits like those of insanity. Frequently he is seized with a species of delirium ; lie seems to see about him swarms of flies; he converses with imag- inary persons or fancies himself in the midst of perils. When suddenly addressed, liowever, his hallucinations are for a time dispelled. 0^'casionally, in some of ins fits of violence he will attempt to bite his attendants, will roar, howl, curse, and endeavor to destroy anything in liis reach. He often seems conscious of the approach of such iittacks, and will beg to be restrained. Hypera^sthesia of the skin and acute sensibility of the nerves distributed to tlie other organs of the senses are usual. In some instances there is developed unwonted loquacity, and in others a singular in- crease of intelligence. The latter phenomenon is recorded in the Gnzette den Ilofjitatix, Aug. 27, ISJ4, as having been noticed in the case of a confirmed cretin, seventeen years old, suffering from hydro])liobia. The paroxysms are some- times attended with involuntary micturition, priapism, and ^-emi^al emissions. A very characteristic symptom is the cojiious secretion of a viscid, tenacious mucus in the fauces, which the patient constantly hawks up and spits out with vehomcn^-e in every direction, producing a sound some- times imagined to resernlile a dug's bark. The tongue is at first coated and red, afterwards dry and brown. Occa- sionally, there is vomiting of a " cofl'ce-ground " fluid. The pulse is quick and excited, becoming VQry frequent and feeble before death. The urine is high-colored and scanty. It generally contains albumen, sometimes sugar. The temperature of the body is always elevated, which is eoin- eldcnt with rapid waste of tissue. Often within a few hours a plump and well-nourished patient grows shrunken and emaciated, and the face of youth is transformed into t'lo shrivelled visage of old age. As the disease atlvancos cerebral disorder becomes more and more marked. The eyes are staring, bloodsliot. and always open, with fre- quently dilated pupil ; the speech is abrupt, rapid, and in- coherent, and at length there is eonfirnicd delirium. Some- times remissions oe^ur. and the patient cats and even drinks — with great difliculty, however. Toward the end such a remission, with complete subsidence of agony and agitation, is not uncommon. But this relaxation is only a delusive cahn, the prelude to dissolution, which is usually unattended with violent symptoms. Death ordinarily en- sues from asphyxia. The duration of the disease is gener- ally from two to five days. It has been known to terminate within twenty-four hours, four of such cases being recorded by Thamh:vyn, while in a case mentioned by Tardieu life was prolonged for nine days. It is now quite generally admitted that although hydro- phobia may be originally due to a blood-contamin:ition. its :ictiou when developed is manifested exclusively through tlie nervous sys'em, and princip.ally that ])ortion whose functions are governed by the medulla oblongata. In former times there was much diversity of opinion upon the character of this disease. Some eminent men believed it to be a c'lntinm-d fcrcTy while others even went so far as to consider it a putrid fever. Some maintained its analogy to yeUow fivrr, principally on account of the ''cofl'ee-ground " or black vomit occasionally observed. Itocrhaavo regarded it a5 an iiijidinntarort/ afi'eetion. and this idea was generally accepted until the time of CuUen, who placed it in the class J^'citrosiH, or<ler SpaHini. The autopsieal appearances in both hydrophobic do^s and human beings are variable and non-distinetive. Bruek- miiller. after the most careful auttipsies of .'J75 rabid dogs during a period of twenty years, arrived at the conclusion that the evidence furnished by dissection is of no value in defining or distinguishing the disease, and is worthless as a foundation for any theory. In man the most careful ex- aminations of those who have perished from hydntphobia hnvv proved similarly inconclusive as to the pathogeny of the disease. In some in.<tances the cerebrum, eerebellum, medulla oblongata, spinal cord, and eighth jiair of nerves, in both origin and distribution, have been fnund apparently normal after the closest scrutiny with the naked eye as well as skilful microscopical investigation. It is true that con- gestion, effusion of lymph, and even softening, have occa- sionally been observed in portions of the brain, medulla, or cord, but these and all other lesions thus far discovered in the body can only bo regarded as vchuNh of the dreadful disturbance in the nervous centres and respiratory and cir- culatory systems. The otlier morbid alterations noticed may be briefly mentioned as follows: great vascularity of the mucous membrane of the fauces and air-passages; in- tense pulmonary congestion; injection of (he gastric ves- sels; soniHimes ecchymoses and effusion of dark blood in the stomach. The whole blood is usually dark and grumous. There is apt to be more or less hypera-mia of all the paren- chymatous organs. Autenreith, Brandreth.and Sallin have seen the nerves communicating with the cicatrix inflamed. Ilallier has recently aflirmed that he has discovered in the blood of hydrophobic animals a micococcus which when cultivated is transformed into a cryptogam, to which ho gives the name Lyasuphyton. The (listinctive character, however, of these disease-germs remains to be established. The diseases with which hydrophobia in man may be con- founded are tetanus and delirium tremens, and in dogs anthrax, epilepsy, and distemper. An enumeration of the distinctions between hydrophobia and these various affec- tions would occupy more space than the limits of this article will permit. Suffice it to say, that to those who are ac- quainted with such disorders there can be little difficulty in the differential diagnosis. There is, moreover, a special hysterical or nuiital fiT/drophfdn'a, as Trousseau named it, induced by emotion on seeing hydrojihobic patients, through fear of the disease after having been bitten, or even in very nervous people from simply hearing the description of a case. In this spurious hydrophobia there is only difficulty in swallowing, and no convulsions, scantiness of urine, or elevation of temperature. It is very rarely fatal. When once the rabific virus has declared its presence in the human sj-stem, all measures hitherto adopted would appear unavailing to arrest its course. It would be quite useless to mention the almost numberless "specifies" which have been proposed for the disease, and have been employed without success, from time immemorial. The fact is, that with our present knowledge the most satisfactory treatment after the disease has appeared consists in simjdy fulfilling rational indications — viz. by palliating the symptoms as far as possible, excluding all controllable causes of mental and physical disturbance, and supporting the powers of the system with stimulants and appropriate alimentation. There is no doubt, however, that we have at our command eflVctual jiiuphiflnrtU- means for destroying the jioison, pro- vided they be employed within a reasonable time after the infliction of the injury. These precautions consist in (ho application of a ligature, if possible, to impede the circu- lation from the wound, in sucking the wound, and in its thorougli cauterization, nitiafe of silver being the most valuable agent; but if this be not available, the hot iron, a burning coal, potassa fusa, or almost any acid may be used. Mr. Youatt, the very best authority upon this subject, tes- tified in 1S;;0, before a committee of the British House of Commons, that he had been successful in arresting the in- oculation of the virus by means of cauterization with ni- trate of silver in some -100 human eases and in innumerable dogs — in his own person, morrover. as he had been very frequently wounded by rabid dogs, and once severely by a mad cat. Ch.\ulks P. Kissel. Hyilrostat'ic Press, a machine much employed in the mechanic arts for producing great pressures. The pressure apjdied to a small piston or jilunger is transmitted, through the medium of water, to a larger one, and increased in the same proportion in which the sectional area of the latter exceeds tliat of the former. Fig. 1 shows the main features of this machine. A is a very thick and strong cylinder, generally of cast iron. A broad flange surrounds its mouth, resting upon masonry. B is the plunger, with .a water-tight packing at/. It carries the platform C, on which is placed the body to be submitted to pressure. E, a very strong plate confined by the uprights D D, receives and resists the pressure exerted by B. F is a shaft turned by a belt and pulley, which, by means of an eccentric, works the plunger (i of the force-pump I. The force-pump and its accessories are shown on a larger scale at Fig. 2. I is the force-pump with its plunger tJ, working through a stuffing-box. The valve II opens during the up stroke of IIYDKOSTATICS. 101)7 the plunger O, nnd closes during ils down stroke, prevent- ing the w:iter from being driven bacliward through tho supply-pipL- X. In like niiiii- ncr, the valve K is closed during the np stroke and opens during the down stroke of the plunger. The pipe leads to the cvlindcr. L is a safety-valve so weighted that when the pressure becomes great enough to endanger the bursting of the cylinder, it allows the water to escape into the waste-pipe. M is a branch communicating with the wasle-jiipe. A cock in this pip<^. upon being opened, allows the water to escape from the cylinder and tlio plunger to descend. The packing of the plunger con- sists of a cupped leather col- lar I Fig. ."5)- It is a chan- nel-shaped collar encircling the pluuger in a recess formed in the mouth of the cylinder, its open side being turned to- ward the chamber of the cy- linder. The water entering it from the cylinder, and tending to escape on the op- posite siile, keeps it firmly pressed against the surface of the plunger. If the diam- eter of the plunger (i bo one inch, and that of tho plunger li one foot, the area of the cross-section of tho latter will bo 144 times that of Fig. 2. characterizing that distinguished investigator. It will be noticed that the density of water — f. e. its weight per cubic foot — increases from :i2° up to .10° (in strictness, 39.1"), and thence diminishes up to the boiling-point. This tem- perature, 39.1°, is called the temperature of maximum density. For ordinary temperatures, and for calculations not requiring great exactness, the weight of water may bo taken at G24 pounds, or 1000 ounces, per cubic foot. In what follows the weight will be assumed as that correspond- ing to a temperature of 60 degrees, being (j2.::7 pounds per cubic foot. Water expands about ^., of ils volume iu freezing. A cubic foot of ice weighs 57.5 ]>ouuds. Table of the \Vci;iht of a Cubic Foot of Pure Wnlcr at Different Temperalure$* the former, and a pressure of 1 ton applied to G will exert a pressure of 141 tons upon li. About 10 per cent, of the power applied to li is abs(trbeii by the friction of the pack- ing collar. These arc the essential parts of tho hydraulic press, though in the different forms of the machine adapted to ils numerous uses they occupy all conceivable positions with reference lo one another. In presses for fixing car and other wheels upon their axles the cylinder is sometinies horizontal. In Diauy mochiues the force-pump is worked by hand. J. I'. Fiuzkll. Hydroslat'ics [(Jr. f-Swp. " water," and <TraTt«ij, "statics," from i<rro<»9ai.lo" stand "]. The term hydrostatics is used by most writers to mean the science which treats of the mechan- ical properties of fluids in a state of rest. A lluid is a body which offers no resistance to a change of form. Fluids arc of two kinds: (1) elastic fluids, which may be compressed to any extent by a sufficient force, recovering their original volume upon the withdrawal of the force ; (1!) liquids which, though strictly speaking, admitting of slight compression, are for all practical purposes lo be regarded as incompressi- ble. In this treatise the term hydrostatics is restricted to liquids, of which water is taken as the representative, it being understood that whatever is affirmed of water is true, with certain modifications depending upon tho weight, for any other liquid. '(ifiin-nl I'ropcrtlci of U'titrr. — As indicated above, water is slightly compressible. Its volume is <liniinislu-d about TUtHioon ''•'*' " pressure equal lo that of the atmosphere, or 14.7 ptmnds per sriuarc inch, while the volume of air would be reduced one-half by the same pressure. Water is ex- pansible by lu-at. Its exact weight per cubic foot depends upon ils temperature. Tho accompanying table gives Ihe weight of a cubic foot of pure water, corresponiling lo dif- ferent teiiiperalures by I'ahrenheirs scale. The weight of a cubic foot of wati'r at the temperature of maximum den- sity is taken upon tho authority of Uunkine. The weights at other temperatures are c<»mpuled by tho aid of a table given in the Trau^mlinuH of the Berlin Academy of .Sciences lor IS.iS, by (i. Ilagen, deduced by him from his own cx- ncriineuis, which were made with all the care and accuracy Tdm. Weight, Tem. Wcisht. Tcm. Wciglil, Tern. WelEllt.l Tcra. Weight. Fahr. Ibi r«lir. 57 Ibi. Kahr. 82 Iba. FaUr. lbs. 164 3? 62.417 62.382 62.201 114 61.807 60.920 X\ 62.419 .'■,8 62.377 83 62.191 116 01.777 106 00.879 .•M 02.421 .W 62.372 84 02.181 118 01.747 108 60.838 ■K\ 62.422 00 62.307 85 62.171 120 01.710 i;o 60.796 ar, 02.424 01 02..361 86 62.161 122 61.685 1V2 00.7.55 37 62.424 6! 62.356 87 62.150 124 61.6.53 1.4 60.712 «R 62.42.". 63 62.350 S8 62.140 120 61.621 176 00.070 39 62.42.5 04 62.344 89 02.129 128 6I.58S 1 178 00.627 40 62.425 ai 02.3,38 90 02.118 130 61..5.55 180 00.584 41 02.421 66 G2.:!31 91 62.107 132 61. .521 182 00.540 4'> 62.424 07 02.325 92 62.095 134 61.487 184 00.496 43 02.423 OS 02.318 93 62.084 136 161.4.52 186 00.452 44 62.421 69 02.311 94 62.072 i:i8 ! 61.417 1 188 60.407 4S 62.420 70 02.303 95 62.000 140 01.3,si 1110 60.303 4R 02.418 71 02.290 96 C2.04S 142 01. .345 192 00.318 47 02.416 7-,' 02.288 97 02.030 114 01.3(18 194 00.272 48 62.414 73 02.280 98 62.024 116 61.271 190 00.227 49 02.41 1 74 62.272 99 02.012 14S 61.231 198 60.181 50 62.403 62.261 100 61.990 1.50 .61. 1911 200 60.135 ill 62.-105 76 62.235 102 61.973 1.52 01.1.58 202 60.088 .")? 62.402 77 62.247 104 61.947 1.54 ,61.119 204 60.042 53 02.39S 7» 62.2.38 106 61.920 1.56 ,61.080 200 .59.995 .14 62.39 1 79 62.229 ins 61.893 1.58 61.041 208 .59.948 .5.1 62.390 .10 62.220 110 61.86.5 160 61.001 210 59.901 56 02.386 81 62.210 112 6I.8:i6 162 60.961 212 .59.853 PreMurc. — The condition of fluidity implies that tho fluid particles move, with reference to one another, under tho action of tho slightest force; one consequence of which is, that a pressure apjilicd at any part of a fluid mass acts at all parts of it and in all directions. If a vessel with a horizontal bottom bo filled wilh water lo a depth of ono foot, every square foot of its bottom will sustain a pressure of 02.:'" pounds; every square inch will sustain a pressure of G2.:!7 ^ 1U=0.4.'!3 pound. Let Fig. 1 be a prismatic vessel containing water. \ IJ Ihe surface of tho liquid, and C D a horizontal plane. The fluid immediately below B this plane sustains a pressure in jiounds per square inch of 0.4;13 time the height 2) AC in fed. This is true not only of iho vertical pressure, but also of that in every otlicr direction. The fluid par- ticles in tho plane C D exert the above pressure against ono another and ogainst the sides of the vessel. Tho pressure now under ciinsideratioii is that due to Ihe weight of Ihe water. If an additional pressure be applied lo the surface, the pressure at any point wilhin the vessel will be in- creased by Ihe same number of pounds per square inch. Such an additional pressure is always present, consisting in the weight of the atmosphere, which in its ordinary stale, at heights not far above the sea-level, exerts a pressure of 14.7 pountls per square inch. Thus, Ihe ab.solute pressure at any point wilhin a vessel is that due to the superincum- bent water, increased by 11.7 pounds per square inch. Inasiuuch, however, as the atmospheric pressure acts u|ion tho oulsido of tho vessel as well as the in- side, it may, for most practical pur- poses, bo neglected, and wo may reganl the pressure us Unit duo to ihe weight "°- •'• of Iho liquid. The pres- sure at any jioini in a mass of water does not A Fio. 1. ^ , J ":^ Fig. 2. depend at all upon tho form of the vessel con- taining it. This may bo n prismatieal vessel, as in Fig. I, a vessel with a vortical tubi- (Fig. 2), with an inclined tube (Fig. 3), or an entirely irregular form (Fig. 1 1. Iti either case, if we neglect tho weight of tho atmosphere, Iho pres- 1068 HYDROSTATICS. ure in any horizontal plane C D depends solely upon the Fir,. 4. It is often conveni- vcrtical height from this plane to the horizontal plane A U of the surface. This vertical height is called the head. In most hydraulic calculations the pressure is designated as eo m.any feet of head. Thus we say, a head of 10 feet. 20 feet, 100 feet, in preference to saying a pressure of 4.33, S.66, 43. .3, etc. pouu Js per square inch. The foregoing considerations ap- ply to vessels having free communi- cation with the atmosphere. The pressure in confined vessels depends upon other conditions. In a steam- hoiler, for instance, the pressure de- pends upon the tension of the steam, and this, again, upon the temperature. ent to reduce such pressures to an equivalent head of water by ilividing the pressure in pound? per square inch by 2..">. Let B (Fig. 5) be a pipe communicating with the closed vessel A, both filled with water. Let P bo a piston fitting closely in the tube B. -iVny pressure ap- plied to this piston will be trans- p[ milted to all parts of the vessel A. If the area of the piston be 1 square inch, and the pressure applied to it be ID pounds, the pressure at all points within the vessel .V will be increased by 10 pounds per square inch. The aggregate pres- sure transmitted to the surface C D will be as many times 10 pounds B as the surface contains square inches. If wc suppose A to be a strong cylinder accurately bored, and C Dto be a close-fitting piston capable of moving therein, we have a hydrostatic press, and may readily conceive what enorm- ous pressures these machines are capable of exerting. I'riasurfs upon the Surfaces of Immersed Solids. — To find the pressure upon a horizontal immersed surface offers no diSiculty. We simply multiply the area of the surface by the pressure due the head. Thus, the pressure upon a horizontal area 100 square inches in extent lying lU feet below the surface of the water is 100 X 10 X 0.433 = 433 pounds. When the given surface is verticsil or inclined, however, the question is not so simple, the head being dif- ferent upon different jiarts of the surface ; and when the surface is bounded by eurved lines, the operation becomes very complicated, involving the more intricate processes of mathematics. The general principle applicable to all plane surfaces, whether bounded by straight lines or eurved lines, and whether vertical or inclined, is this : If we understand by Ar'i'/ the depth of the centre of gravity of the surface below the surface of the water, the pressure may be found in the same way as fur horizontal surfaces. For a piano surface partly immersed the centre of gravity of the immersed portion is to bo used. The pressure so found is the normal pressure, or that perpendicular to the surface. In the case of an inclined surface, it is often necessary to find the pressure in a hori- zontal or vertical direction. Understanding the term head as above, the horizontal or vertical pressure upon an in- clined plane is found by multiplying its horizontal or ver- tical projection by the pressure due the head. Thus, in Fig. 6, let A C represent the inclined face of a dam, D the Fig. G. depend at all upon the extent of the body of water behind it. The pressure upon A C is the same whether the body of water confined by the dam is limited by a wall or surface at F (i, or is practically unlimited in extent, as a great pond or lake. Preeturee upon Curved Surfaces. — In considering such pressures, the object usually is to find the resultant pres- sure, or that with which the fluid tends to give motion to the surface, or to resist its motion in some particular direc- tion, usually horizontal or vertical. The pressure, for in- stance, tending to burst a water-pipe is not the entire jires- sure upon the curved surface of the pipe, but the pressure tending to separate one half the pipe from the ojiposite half, and is represented by the pressure which the same bead would exert upon a plane whose width is the diameter of the pipe. The pressure acting upon a curved surface in any given horizontal direction is the same as would be exerted upon the projection of the surface on a vertical plane perpendicular to the given direction. The ]iressure u]ion a curved surface in a vertical direction is equal to the weight of the mass of water lying vertically above the sur- face. In finding, according to this principle, the upward pressure upon the lower surface of an immersed solid, wo must for a moment regard it as a surface merely, not per- taining to a solid, and suppose the space between it and the surface of the water to be wholly occujiied by water. irri'7/l( Lnsl hi/ /mmerscd SoUdu; Sprrijic Ururili/.—The upward pressure upon an immersed solid tends to raise it ; the downward pressure tends to sink it. This latter is equal to the weight of the mass of water lying vertically above the upper surface. The excess of the upward over the down- ward pressure is evidently equal to the weight of the mass of water displaced hy the' solid. If the weight of the solid is less than this, it floats; if greater, it sinks. In either case, the weight lost bv the body is equal to that of the mass of water displaced" by it. This property is emjdoyed in determining the relation between the weight and volume of solid bodies. If we weigh a body in air, or, more strictly, in a vacuum, and again while suspended in water, the dif- ference is the weight of a volume of water equal to that of the body. Dividing the entire weight of the body hy 'he loss of weight in water, we have the ratio of the weight of the body to that of an equal volume of water. This ratio is called the specific grariii/ of the substance. A body lighter than water is immersed by attaching to it a body heavier than water whose weight "and specific gravity are known. The weight of a volume of water equal to that of the lighter body is the loss of weight of the aggregate, less the loss of weight of the heavy body. A piece of dry pine, e. g.. weighs 27 pounds. It is attached to a piece of lead. sp. gr. 1 1.33, weighing 45 pounds. The aggregate weight in water is 8 pounds : loss of weight, 64 pounds ; loss of weight of the lead, 45 -i- 11.33 = 3.97 pounds; loss of weight of the wood, or weight of equivalent bulk of water, 04 — 3.97 = 60.03 pounds; sp. gr. 27 -:- 6U. 03 = 0.4498; weight per cubic foot, 62.37 X 0.449S = 28.05 pounds. Stabllily of Floaliiiij Bodies. — When a solid floats in water, it takes a position such that its centre of gravity is in the same vertical line with the centre of gravity of the fluid displaced by it. This position is called a position of rest or equilibrium. Most floating bodies have more than one jiosition of rest. A position of rest is said to be stable when the body tends to return to it on being tilted or in- clined : unstable, when it tends to rotate into another posi- tion. One body has more or less stability than another ac- cording as a greater or less inclination is necessary to over- come its tendency to return to its position of rest, and a greater or less force is necessary to produce that inclina- tion. The theory of the stability of floating bodies is of the greatest importance in shipbuilding. Let G (Figs. 7 and 8) Fig. 7. Fio. 8. centre of gravity of the part under water, F \ B the hori- zontal lino of the bottom, C B a vertical line. Then, if .K C represent the normal pressure upon the dam, C B will represent the pressure tending to shove it horizontally, and .K B that tending to load it down. It will he noticed that the pressure tending to move an inclined dam is the same as for a vertical dam of equal height. The advantage of the former consists in the pressure tending to load it, whioh has the same effect as an increase of its weight. It must be observed that the pressure upon a weir or dam does not be the centre of gravity of a floating body ; 11 the centre of gravity of the fluid displaced by it in its position of rest ; 11' the corresponding point in an inclined jiosition. A line II M drawn through II and tJ is vertical when the body is in its position of rest. In the inclined position 11' M is vertical. Two forces act upon the body : ( 1 ) its own weight, acting vertically downward through I! ; (2) the pressure uf the water, acting vertically upward through 11'. The direc- tion of this latter force intersects the line II (1 in M. If M lies above G, as in Fig. 7, it is evident that the two HYDROXYI^HYGIENE. loi;;) forces will tend to bring the body back to its position of rest; if below G. iis in Fig. S. they will cause it to recede farther frcmi tliat pusilion. Wlien the body is in its posi- tion of rest, these forces act in the same line and have no tendency to cause rotation. The position of M, correspond- ing to li very slight inclination, is called the metacentrc. A section of the body made hy a plane coincident wilh tho surface of the water, the body being in its position of rest, is called its plane of flotation. A Hoating body in rocking or oscillating always tends to revolve around a horizontal line drawn through the centre of gravity of its plane of flotation. The height of the nictacen(re above the centre of gravity of the displaced fluid is equal to the moment of inertia of the plaue of flotation wilh reference to a hori- zontal line drawn through its centre of gravity, divided by the volume of the displaced fluid. The height of the meta- ccntre above tho centre of gravity of tho body determines its degree of stability. That is to say, among all the posi- tions of equilibrium which can bo assumed by a body of given weight, it will have the greatest relative stability in that in which its metacentrc is highest. The absolute sta- bility of a very light body is but slight in any position, since the lighter the body the less the forces tending to re- store it to its normal position when disturbed. Up to a certain ]ioint tho stability of a floating body is increased by increasing its weight. It is fur this reason that a vessel returning without cargo from a distant port is obliged to take on board a quantity of heavy material, usually sand, to give her what seamen call "stiffness." On tho other hand, beyond a certain point an increase of weight dimin- ishes the stability of a floating body. A homogeneous body when entirely submerged has no stability ; it rests indiffer- ently in any position. Surface vf LiiimiU. — It is a law of mechanics that tho surface of a liquid in equilibrium under any forces what- ever is, at any point, perpendicular to the resultant of tho forces acting upon it at that point. When, as is commonly the case, the only force acting upon water of limited e.vtcnt is gravity, its surface, so far as our senses can perceive, as- sumes the form of an exactly horizontal plane. In strict- ness, however, since gravity does not act in parallel lines, but in lines tending toward a common point — viz. the centre of the earth — no liquid surface is auex.act plane, but forms a part of the surface of avast sphere. When water is contained in a vessel revolving around a vertical axis, its surface is acted on at any point by two forces — viz. gravity, act- ing vertically, and tho centrifugal force, acting horizontally. The re- sultant force is neither horizontal nor vertical, but inclined, anrl the surface takes such a form that the resultant force is at all ))oints perpen- dicular to it. A vertical section of the surface of water in a vessel (Kig. 9) revolving around the vertical axis A B, is the curve called a parabola. J. P. Fhizf.i.l. Hytlrox'yl f<!r. iJSajp, "water," ifw, "sharp," and y)l, the aciil radical teruiinalion ), a univalent radical (Oil) which in its chemical relations is analogous to chlorine, bromine, and ioilinc, and may he substituted in compounds for an atom of hydrogen or other monads. Water may bo regnrdid as II. OH, analogous to IK'I; potassic hydrate, K.OII, to Kl'l; liaric hydrate, lia(Oll).. lo fiaCli. (See llvnuATKS. ) liy the substitution of Oil for II in hydro- carbons the .alcohols arc produced; marsh-gas, CH«, yields methylic alcohol, OII3OII : ethane, CjHo, yields ethylio (cominon) alcohol, OjlUOU ; propane, CjHs, yields pro- pcnylio alcohol (glycerine), ("3lIi(OII)3, etc. C. F. CnAKDI.KR. IlyJircs, town of Southern France, in the department of Var. It is famous for its delicious climate, which scorns to be an cverlasliug spring. Pop. l(l,!<7!<. HvCiei'a, in ancient mythology, tho goddess of health, was a daughter of .'Esculapius, and worshipped in connec- tion wilh him. She is generally reproscnlid as a young girl feeding a Hcr]ient, the synibid of health, from a cup which she holds in her left hand, tho serpent winding around the right arm. Ily'uieiie, the science and art of preserving hcnllh and preventing disease. Coming direclly from the French word hy<iitii'-f the term may bo traced to tho ilrcek vyitu-o^, "licallhy," Ilygicia, the ancient goddess of health, being the daughter (some say tho wife) of yKsculapius, the god of medicine. From the earliest times men must have observed somewhat of the favorable or unfavorable influences of tho ciroumslanccs under which they lived. As an art, in its FiQ. 9. B rude beginnings, hygiene must have preceded medicine, and even surgery. The early temples of iEsculapius, be- fore Hippocrates, wcre»(iiii(oi'fri ratherthan medical schools. Ilygicia was named, with other deities, in the oalh wliich every physician was required to take as one of the Asclc- piadne: "liy Apollo the physician, by jEsculapius, by Hygieia, Panacea, and all the gods and goddesses." Hip- jiocrates wrote the first hygienic treatise now e.\tant — on yli'r*!, W'titri-n^ find f*Iart>i. He therein pointed out too effects of climates and localities, not only upon health, but olso upon the characters of races of men, anticipating at so early a date (400 n. c.) the conclusions arrived at in recent times by Montesquieu, Michelet, (?uyot. and Iluckle. Positive sanitary measures were probably first instituted by Acron of Crotona, of tho school of Pythagoras, who is said to have dissi]tatcd the cause of a plague at .\tliens by means of fires burned in the streets. Empedocles after- wards found it possible to destroy or impede the action of malaria, in one instance by draining a swamp, and in an- other by building a high w.all to protect an exposed town. Ilerodicus was so famous for his application of gymnastics to the improvement of bcaltll that Plato accused him of doing an ill service to the stale by keeping alive people who ought to die, because, being valetudinariaus, they cost more than they were worth to the community. The Sji.ar- tans reversed this in their custom of exposing young chil- dren to the dements, whereby only those survived and grew up who were possessed of natural hardihood. Early writers upon the preservation of health were Philiston, Diodes, Plutarch, Oclsus, Galen, Oribasius, Aetius, and Paulus .'Egincta. Ancient Rome showed an appreciation of sanitary art by extensive drainage of the base of the hills on which the city was built ; by the immense sewer, Cloaca Maxima, of which a part is left, the oldest ruin in Europe, thirteen feet in diameter at the outlet ; by the aque- ducts ; by suburban interments, whose number is .still at- tested all along the Appian Way ; and by the appointment of oflicers (niiiU-s) whose duty it was to inspect and regu- late tho construction, with a view to salubrity and safety, of all private and public buildings. In Egypt the great pyramid of Cheops has an arrangement showing an early recognition of the principles of ventilation applied to its interior chambers. Embalming the bodies of the dead, not only of men but of animals, however it may have been as- sociated with religious ideas, is so well adapted to the jire- vention of in.salubrity in a populous land with a tropical climate as to make it appear likely that it sprang, in part at least, from the sanitary sagacity of the priesthood. Sinco a resemblance is traceable in many particulars between the Mosaic ceremonial law and the usages of the ancient Egyptians, it is also likely that some measures fur the j>re- servation of health, prescribed in the Levitical code, cor- responded with usages known to the Israelites while in tho land of bondage. Moses, however, must have much ex- lendcil the provisions required fur the care of the health of his people. His regulations concerning food, ablutions, and other purifications, and segregation of persons having certain diseases, were precise and imperative. All tho most enlightened nations of antiquity held phys- ical culture in high estimation. .'Socrates, the philosopher, was of powerful bodily frame. Plato also was a superior athlete, and so were Pericles and Alcibiades. It is not im- probable that the intellectual supremacy of the Creeks was in some part owing to their sedulous care of the develop- ment of the whn/c vnjaitizaliiin, brain and body together. Archiatcrs (chief physicians) were appointed imblicly by the (ireeks for gratuitous attendance ujion the poor. In most of the cities of ancient (ircece public baths existed, for tho poor as well us tho rich. Itome also had, at one period, hundreds of private and public balh.s, some of which, as those of Caraculhi, were palatial in grandeur. Although at first designed for hcallh, these degenerated afterwards into cITcminatc luxuriuusness, ns the j/i/miinKiVi did, at last, into the scenes of gladiaturial fights of men and beasts. Imitating tho (Ireeks, the Itoman emjieror Antoninus Pius niipointcd public medical officers of towns, and Valcniinian and Valens confiri[ied the privileges of tho colleges of arrliiiiiri pnpiilarcH in the larger cities of the em- pire. Under the name of mcdici ciiii<l<,lli such oflicers con- tinued to be maintained in Italy down to the fiftccnlh cen- tury. About 1 fill the emperor .'^igismund createil the offices of mcintcr ar:l in every chief city of (Jermany. Of this func- tionary tho modern K'ninplii/Hicim an^l .Slaillaizt uiay be re- gardc<i as in some sort tho successors. In (he school of Saler- num, in Italy, tho oldest medical school of Europe, founded in the ninth century, ins(ruc(ion was given u|ion tho |ire- venliun of diseases, ns well as the preservation of health. That institution gave forth in the twelfth century a very re- markable^ treatise, tho llc/hncn SanllaliH Siilcniilaiilim, a poem upon the maintenance of health, in " leonine "or rhym- ing Latin verses. Many of the precepts in this " Code of Saler- 1070 HYGIENE. nura " are sound and good : some of tbera havo passed into almost proverbial inodurn us^c. Tlic institution ot t/uttrun- tinc in ihf Idurtecnth century in Italy, to exclude the plajjuc, was an event in the history of sanitary progress. From Florence this method of restriction of intercourse with infected places sproail first to Venice and Sardinia, and afterward?; throu<;hout Europe. In America the first quarantine law was enacted xmcler William l*enu in 1700, at Philatlelpiiia. (See Quakantink.) Englancl was somewhat later than Itnly and Germany to advance in sanitary improvements, yet some quite early lc;;isla'ion was in this direction, as an ordinance in the reijn of Edward II., forbiddinj: the sale of " muzzled swine's flesh; " one under Richard II., to prevent the jiol- lution of rivers, drains, etc. ; and others during the times of Henry VI. and VII. and Elizabeth, for the inspection anl cleansing of sewers, prohibiting the slaughtering of cattle in towns, and interdicting the overcrowding of dwell- in'j;s. Jenuer's introduction of vaccination for the preven- tion of smallpox is perhaps the greatest of all the tri- umphs of " preventive medicine," as sanitary science has sometimes been called. This event dates from 1798. (See VArciNATioN.) But the benefits conferred u])on mankind through the advance of knowledge in regarJ to the causes of disea^se and the cimditions necessary for health, es- pecially in communities, have been obvious, great, and numerous. In the time of the great medical author Syden- ham (1024-S7) the largest part of the mortality of London was produced by four diseases — plague, smallpox, scurvy, and ilysentery. Of these, the first has long disappeared from Groat Britain and the continent of Europe ; the second has been, by prevention, shorn of most of its destructive power: the third is now seldom known except in places remote from civilized life; and the fourth is at least very much less mortal than formerly, especially in cities. Macauhiy, in his flt'st'tn/ nf Eni/lniKl, estimated that the dilVerencc between London in the seventeenth and the same c^y in the nineteenth century is as great, in regard to mor- tality, as between that of the time of prevalence of epi- demic ch<dera and that of ordinary years. In Constanti- nople, in 513 A. P., 10,000 people died daily during one season of plague alone; in l(i63, tiS.OOO died of that disease in the city of London; in IfiSa, not a sickly year, the deaths in London were 1 in 20 of the inhabitants; now they average about 1 in 40. In France in 1772 the annuiil proportion of deaths was 1 in 25 ; in IS 10, 1 in 45. The mean duration of life in the same country was. in 1800, 2Si years; now. :iU years. At Geneva the mean probability of life in the sixteenth century was 8 or U years; in the seventeenth century. 13 to 14 years; in the eighteenth, about :J0 years; in the nineteenth, 40 to 45 years. Life may bo safely said to have been, on the average, prolonged 25 per cent, during the last fifty years. While improve- ments in medical and surgical practice no doubt have had their share in effecting tiiis result, the greater part of this very important change must be ascribed to increased knowledge and appreciation of the laws of health. Yet much remains to be done before the ideal of perfect sanita- tion is attained. Yellow fever and cholera are still at times the deadly scourges of cities and of some other place* : malarial fevers render certain localities almost un- inhabitable; and the mortality of towns, especially with young children, continues to be far in excess of what it ought to be were the conditions of liealth properly main- tained. The best hope of the sanitarian and philanthropist on this subject is that which is derived from the increased and increasing interest in all that concerns health, now pre- vailing in all civilized communities amongst educated men. The modern literature of hygiene had its beginning chieflvin Fr.ance. Bucrhaavoin Hollan<l { 1063-1 73S). Locke (1032-1704) in England, and Cullen (17I2-'J0) in Scotland, had written upon physical culture and other sanitary sub- jects, but French writers first gave a definite form to the soicncc. Prominent among those who havo dealt with it in France have been Tourtelle. Halle. Du Chatelet, Tardieu, Villenne. Foder^, Cabanis. Bomlin. Levy, and Motard. A ' comparatively early English writer upon personal health was Dr. Andrew Combe. Climatology has been ably treated ' of by Johnson, Martin, and Johnston. Public hygiene has had its later lights in threat Britain in Chadwick. South- | wood. Smith, Simon, Letlieby, Uumscy, Groenhow, and I Florence Nightingale. On the general subicct of hygiene must be added the names of Angus Smith. Parkcs, Wilson, Mapothcr, Guy, Cameron, and Tilt. On tlio continent of Europe, outside of France, most noted as sanitarians liavo been Quctelet. Friedlander, Miihry, Casper, Hufo- land. Thiersch, and Pettenkofer. In America, Dr. Benja- min Hush (174.>-1S13) wrote ably upon some sanitary subjects. The first American treatise on the Eiemc»t9 of Hytfiene was that of Prof. Robley Dunglison.of which a second edition was published at Philadelphia in 1S44. No second work with a similar title appeared until the issue of a Treatise oh Ht/i/ienr, dr., by Dr. W. A. Hammond, then surgeon-general of the I'. S. army, in KSfili. Di. John Bell of Philadelphia wrote with much ability and learning on iieijimen and Lotif/cvitif (1.S42), and not long after on iJatha and Mineral Wtit^rn. The number of authors upon subjects connected with personal and public health has lat- terly become so large that to name a few may seem invid- ious. It may be justly mentioned, however, that the late Drs. Forrey and Gouverneur Emerson wrote usefully upon climatology and vital statistics; the best treatise on men- tal hygiene yet published has been that of Dr. Isaac Hay ; and the late Dr. Wilson Jewell of Philailelphia, the Into Dr. George Derby of Boston. Drs. H. I. Bowditch, Jarvis, and Curtis of the latter city. Dr. Snow of Providence, U. I., the late Dr. J. H. Griseom, and also Drs. E. Harris. A. N. Bell, and others of New York. Dr. Barton of New Orleans, and the late Dr. Drake of Cincinnati. 0., have contributed much by their lahor.s to the ])rngrcss of sanitary science. The oldest periodical published ehiclly \n the interest of the same class of subjects is the AimalcH dc Hi/t/irnc J'tib- liqnc, issued now for many years at Paris. Amongst other journals at present in circulation arc Pnblic Ilvufth in London, and the Sauitarinu, established in 1873 in New York. Associations devoted to hygienic investigations and to the promulgation of tlieir results are the Epidemiologi- cal Society of London and the American Public Health Association. The latter was founded in 1S72. The Social Science Associations, both of Great Britain and of the U. S., take cognizance of public health as constituting one of their leading departments. No subject has of lateycars advanced more rapidly in public interest, or in the actual development of practical knowledge concerning it. A natural classification of the departments belonging to this branch of science is that into Personal, DoniCHtic, and Public Hifrjienc. The second of these, however, may be merged into the two others. Connected also with public health is the hygiene of cncampmentu (military or other- wise) unil maritime {or naval) hygiene. Moreover, certain topics arc necessary to be cfmsidercil as atVording facts, theoretical and practical, fundamental to the above depart- ments; e.g. Vital Statistics and Etiidoijif, or the causation of disease. Personal hygiene may either refer to adults or to persons of all ages and both sexes, or it may be eon- sidcred especially in reference to children or to women. Most of its practical precepts, as well as its essential prin- ciples, are common to all human beings. We may therefore divide personal hygiene in a pliysiological manner, accord- ing to the functions of the body, thus: alimentation (food and drink); resi)iration, including all atmospheric influ- ences; circulation of the blood ; clothing; bathing ; excre- tion; reproduction (sexual hygiene); exercise and muscu- lar development; and cerebro-nervous (including mental) hygiene. Public hygiene embraces measures for the ex- clusion of certain causes of disease from communities, com- monly named under quarantine, and the methods of pre- serving health by internal regulation and supervision, des- ignated as sanitary police. The latter refers to the main- tenance of cleanliness in streets, markets, dwellings, wharves, etc. ; drainage and sewerage ; abatement of nui- sances ; inspection of water and food supply; public vac- cination ; oversight of certain avocations in reference to health ; and medical attendance upon the poor. In the present article, considering personal hygiene chiefly, our space may be best occupied with a brief and summary statement of some of the most important condi- tions of health, in connection with the diflerent functions, as well as with the causes of disease. Alimentation. — Requisites in connection with food arc, that material bo furnished to supply the needs of the body for two purposes — ( 1 ) to form and repair its tisanen or solid structures and fluid secretions for special uses; (2) to gen- erate and maintain forct:. which is consumed in the rxter- iiat activities of the body and also in its internal func- tions — i. e. in external and internal work. The latter sort of work is exemplified by the propulsive contraction of the heart and the slower "peristaltic" movement of the stom- ach and intestines; also by the chemical manufacturing processes, from which result comjdex materials, such as the gastric juice, milk, etc. Vor timtn* -ma Li nt/, food-substances must be obtained which contain the elements of which the bo(ly is composed (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus, iron, calcium, etc.) ; these must be in an organic state (vegetable or animal, n()t mineral, except salt), and of such consistence as to be broken up or crushed by the teeth and dissolved by the digestive fluids. The same kinds of materials avail also for /'^rcf -food, the ttimmnt of force, as manifested in animal heat, muscle-power, ncrvc- force, growth-force, etc., being about equivalent to that which may be obtained from the ox(V«/ioh of the samesub- stftnces in ordinary combustion. For healthy alimentation HYGIENE. 1071 food must bo taken in sufficient (jnantitie* at such ttiferva^ as will meet the waste of the body. It must also bo caton sfotrh/, chctreii ihoroiii^hly. antl at a time of rrpogc both of body and mind. Since the same ultimate elements exist, in nearly the same states of elaboration, in )>lants and in animals, it is sometimes assorted that vcE^ctaldc food alone i? ncce^isary or advantageous to man. It may be iiduiittcd that men can, under favorable oirc»m!>tancei>, exist through Ion;; periods without meat. This is shown iu the instances of many tribes in .'Vsia and Africa, who live almost entirely on rice and other grains, and also by many of the peasantry ef continental Europe and the Scotch Highlanders, who are confined to a diet containing very little animal food. Yet it is equally true that men can exist on meat alone, as is done by the Indian riders of tho South Anicricnn pampas for months together, and by some impoverished dwellers by tlio sea. who live constantly on fish, as the IVchorais of Terra del Fuego, the poorer Norwegians, and also the Es- quimaux and other natives of the frlgiil zone. The teeth and digestive organs of man, compared with those of other animals, show him to be adapted to a mixed diet. Expe- rience shows, moreover, that, at least in the artificial cir- cumstances of ordinary civilization, such a diet is the most favorable to the maintenance of full vigor in an active or laborious life. Cunccntrated diet is especially needful for those engaged in severe or protracted hmtn-tcorl-. Not moro than one-fourth of the whole au.ount of food consumed ought to consist of animal substances. Nature's model foot! is milk, consisting of representatives of three classes of substances — (1) caseine and albumen, nitroffruout {i. c. containingcarbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen): sugar of milk or lactin, ^(tccJtarinc (non-nitrogenous, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen); and fnttt/ substances (making butter) ; these last also being non-nitrogenous. It is an absolute rule in alimentation that with man and all the higher animals life can be sustainod for a length of time only by a diet containing nt least ttm of the above-named three classes of food-principles. Milk contains also saline ingredients (chloride of sodium, other chlorides, sulphates, phosphates, and carbonates) ; and these arc requisite in certain proportions eif her in our solid food or in our drink. Errors concerning diet are chiefly the following: (1) Eating too fust, thus promoting indigestion, which when chronic or habitual is termed dyspepsia ; (2) excess in tho amount of food taken; (3) insuniciency in amount or de- fect of quality for full nutrition; (4) unwholesome condi- tions of food — (T. y. commencing putrefaction, or changes produced by disease in animals whose meat is caton. Cook- ing our food aids digestion, extending the range of articles available for human diet, besides often giving a moro agree- able flavor to things which we eat. Raw ve:;otables. as celery, loltuf'C. radishes, etc., and fruits in moderation, are wholesome. Haw meat frozrti.tknd thus made tender, is so also. One danger attends the consumption of underdone muat — namely, that of thu-' rei:eiving parasites into the body : in the case of beef, Timin, the tapeworm ; of pork, the more dangerous, sometimes fatal, Trirhlnn. (See Tni- rniKA.) This danger is entirely obviated by thoroughly cooking meat. Smrvif is prorlucod especially by long de- privation of frcHh rpf/rtnhh: fooii. Captain Cook first as- certained this to bo the mode of causation of this disease about 1770. Coiifiimrnti aro articles used in diet in small amounts for seasoning, as salt, vinegar, pepper, mustard. Salt is need- ful as an ingredient in the blooil and secretions of tho body. Vinegar is innocent at least, when moderately used. Pep- per and mustard arc most serviceable in hot climates and for persons of weak <ligestion, especially in old ago. For the stomach, as for other organs, it is a true principle that alf unnrrrnHtiri/ ittiiiniftitiiin involvci rt wa«tt oj force in pro- pnrtioit to thr. dftjree of rrr.rHn. Wntfr is inditipcnsablo to the sustenance of lifo. From 20 to -10 fluidounces of it, alone or in tho form of some beverage, are nectled by every adult daily, tho greatest amount umler active exercise or in warm weather. Its purity is of great importance. Excess of mineral ingre- dients (most commonly carbonate, sulphato, and chloride of calcium, making hard waters) may irritate tho stomach and bowels. Mori; injtirious is excess of organie nmtter, as in rivers or wells poisoned by sewage, streams flowing through graveyards, ete. Typhoid fever, ch<dera, and other disorders arc thus produced or promoted. A ])uro and abundant water-supply is one of the most essential requi- sites for every habitation, an<l, on a largo scale, ffir every city. Filtration through charcoal and gravel will improve that which is defective; but if no good supply can be ob- tainerl from terrestrial sources, rain-water may be used. This also requires filtration when it pa^iacs through tho air over a crowded eily. Spring-water is mostly the be.-it ; well-water, free from contamination, is about equal to it. Wells tor drinking-water should never bo placed near privies, cess-pools, or barnyards. Artesian wells yield wator free from organic matter, but often warm and con- taining an excess of mineral matter. Good drinking water should contain not more than \.h organic matter per gallon ; total of solids, not more than 30 or 3j grains per gallon. Variation in the mineral constituents, so perceptible in many rivers (the Mississippi, Nile, and (langcs especially), does not necessarily render water unwhobrsonie. The water of a large, deep river is more generally desirable than that of a small, shallow stream, as water grows purer as it flows by oxidation of impurities and deposition of sediments. Sea-water is absolutely undrinkable. At sea, sometimes distillation is restirtcd to for a supply. Distilled water is tasteless, but may be made more agreeable by agitation w ith the air. On tho subject of tho effects of stimulants, weaker and stronger, as tea, cofTec, cocoa, alcohol, etc., on health, refer- ence must be made to the articles in this work treating of those substances. We may repeat, with emphasis, in con- nection with them, the important hygienic law, that all unnecessary or excessive stimulation involves a waste of force in proportion to the degree of excess above the level of natural, iiealthy action. Cocoa is scarcely to be called a stimulant: it is, for most persons, an entirely wbolesumo beverage. Black tea, in moderation, is innocent for all, and under the wear and tear of ordinary life an often use- ful means of refreshment. Cofi'cc is loo ]>owcrful an ex- citant of the heart and nervous centres to be benefii-ial to most persons us a daily drink. Its best place is that of a jirop under special strain of muscular or mental fatigue. Arctic travellers and navigators find tea and coffee the best of stimulants under exposure to cold, wet, anxiety, and exhaustion. Aleohol bus been and continues to be a sub- ject of much contention. Avoiding extreme views, it may bo stated that durintj perfect health it is never ncccusuri/, and therefore never wholesome. In groat prostration from disease it is often the most valuable of supjiorting agents. Stales occur, also, between illness and full lieaUh, in which, under the judgment of physicians, dilute alcoholic bever- ages (ale. wine, etc.) may be emploj'ed in regulated quan- tities with advantage. No such article does good wlien it hurries the pulse, flushes the face, or disturbs the brain — I. c. acts as an iiiebriaut narcotic. By actual observation, Drs. Parkcs and B. W. Richardson, and Count Wollowicz, have provc<I that alcohol unnecessarily used consumes force by excessive action of the heart, reduces muscular strength, and lowers the bodily temperature. Excess causes subse- quent depression, begi-tting a craving for renewal of tho stimulation; and thus grows the habit of indulgence, with loss of power of the will to resist the increasing demand. Intemperance in this manner becomes a frequently incura- ble disease. (See Mktiiomasia.j Hyfjicne of Respiration. — On this extensive topic we can here remark but very briefly. The conditions necessary for healthy respiration are as follows : ( 1 ) Sound lungs and air-tul)os; (2) muscular power and nerve-force; (.'i) pure atmosphero; (4) renewal of the air, including removal of the exhaled carbonic acid and organic matter, and a suffi- cient supply of oxygen. (See Atmosi'iieke, Di.sini'kction, RKSPiiiATiitN, and Vkntii.ation.) Clothiu,f.—l\nA must, for health, be— ( 1 ) suflieient ; (2) not excessive in amount or pressure; (3) properly dis- tributed over the body ; (i) permeable to air and moisture; (5) changed frequently enough for cleanliness. Being in- suffieiontly clad in cold weather is depressing to tho system, inviting attacks of disease, especially of the organs within tho chest. Wearing too much clothing makes the skin delicate and the whole body morbidly susceptible to changes of temperature. The order of warmth in materials is as fol- lows: (l)fnrs and wool; (2) silk; (."l) entton, as muslin; (4) linen. In clistribution over the body, the vhrst needs especial protection in winter and in cold clinuites, tho ah- d'tmrn in warm seasons and countries, and the feet in all times and places, unless near the tropies. Habit of course makes a difference in this respect with every one, but ex- posure never hardens any one. unless the system reacts at the time, so as to suffer no chilling or depression. It is needful in hygiene, as in eonstruetivo engineering, to keep within the limits of perfect recovery. Children should br at least as warmly elad as adults, since their power of r*' sisting exposure is less than that of grown persons. Aged people also suffer moro from cold than adolescents or those of middle age. On /iathimf, see the article on Baths. /Tj-rrr/ioii.— Health requires the eonstnnt or regularly periinlie removal fro?n tho body of the results of waste »>t tho tissues and combustion of nmterial for tho generation of force. These aro analogous to the smoke and ashes of ibi! locomolivc-engine. By the lungs wo exeretc carbonic aeid : other matters by the skin, kidneys, and large intestine. If cither of these eliminative processes be arrested, disorder 1072 IIY(ilNUS— HYGROMKTKY. must ftt once occur in the bod.vj a continued interruption of either of thcui will be fatal. Insufficiency or irregular- ity' in the ixction uf the kidneys or bowels promotes or causes disease. Ke^lect of the proper action of the bowels is a frequent error, often bringing on habitual constipiilion. Kvils connected with this, alwavs endangered, though not always resulting, arc — {1 ) irritation or infianiiiiatiou of the liowels; (2) hernia or rupture, with jios.-^ihly fatal strangu- lation; {'A) irremediable obstruction of ilie bowels; (4) sympathetic disorder of other parts of the system, as the liver, brain, etc. ; (5) blood-poisoning from uon-e.xcretion of effete putrcliablc matter. To prevent constipation the most important measures are — suthcipnt daily e.xercisc in the open air; a varied diet, including a moderate amount of fresh or dried fruit; bran bread: and, if these fail, rhu- barb-root or some other laxative medicine. Ese.rvise. — Referring, for much that might bo said on this head to Gymnastics, the most general statements are the following: Every organ, including the muscles, requires for its healthy development while growing, and afterwards for maintenance of vigor, these conditions: (1) a sufficient supply of blood of good nourishing quality; (2) innerva- tion — i. e. a supply of nerve-force; (3) exercise, according to its function: (4) intervals of repose. Violent exereiso is not conducive to health, because it tends to exhaust in- stead of adding to the strength, and also because it agitates the heart, sometimes, when often prolonged and repeated, I)roducing morbid enlargement of that organ. Increase of strength follows exercise only when it is followed by pfrjada uf rent sulJirirnf to remove all the cffevta n/j'atifjur. I)r. Wind- ship's rule has been never to exert himself up to the top of bis capacity, and not to continue any very severe muscular efforts long at a time. Upon this principle, by frequent and considerable though still moderate daily exercise, the strength of most persons may be doubled in a few months. Invalids require to be very cautious in the amount of their exercise. Many cases of feeble health require absolute rest, or only passive exercisCj as riding in a carriage, sail- ing, etc. Sfj-u(d Hi/giene is a subject not adapted to this work. Mental Ht/t/irne is too extensive a topic to be embraced within the limits of the present article. The best treatise upon it is that of Dr. Isaac Ray (Boston, 1S63). (See Vital Statistics for facts of importance bearing upon hygiene; a'.so, PiBLio Health and State Mkdici.ve.) Hexry Hartshorne. Ilv^i'nns, a name which occurs in Roman literature pretixe'l to a variety of treatises, most of which are now lost. Suetonius in his lives of distinguished grammarians has given a brief account of C. Julius Hyginus. whom he calls a freedman of Augustus and a Spaniard by birth, al- though, he adds, some consider him a native of Alexandria, and say thathe was broughtto Rmno when a boybyJulius Cicsar. Ho studied under Cornelius Alexander, and was jtlaced by Augustus over the library founded by him in the temple of Apollo on the Palatine Hill. He was an intimate friend of Ovid. Hvginus wrulc scholia on the poems of Virgil and of Hclvius Cinna: lives of illustrious men, a work similar to that of Cornelius Nepos, in at least six books; on the cities of Italy; on the gods, and on agricul- ture. These are all lost. To this writer also arc assigned by some critics two works still extant — the first entitled Ftihnfanim Uher, containing 277 fabuhe, considered by some an extract from a work entitled Oencttlorjiir by C. J. Hygi- nus ; and the second an astronomical treatise of the signs and constellations, interspersed with fables, in four books, entitled I'ofti'ran Astrouomic6n lihri IV. Many, however, regard these as of much later date than the time of Au- gustus. The best edition of the two works is in the Atic- tores MiftJutijrnphi Lotitit ot Van Stavcrcn (Leyden. 1742, 4to). To a different writer, styled Hyginus (Jromaticus by way of distinction, of the time of Trajan, are assigned sev- eral treatises on surveying and mensuration and a work on castrametation. The remains of the former treatises are collected in hachmann's and Uudorff's Oromntiei Vetrrrg (vol. i., Berlin, 1S48), and the work J)c Munitinnibna Chh. frorum by C. C. L. Lange (Giittingcn, 1848). (See, for the former writer, Tcuffel's Ifht. Latin Lit., ^257: and for the latter, ? 3.3i>.) H. Drisler. Hy$;iniiSf Saint, reckoned the ninth bishop of Rome. ' is thought to have been an Athenian philosopher at one time, and to have been bishop ir,U^142? A. v.; but very little is certainly known of his life. ; Ilygrom'etry [Gr. vyp6^, "moist," and fxirpov, "meas- , uro"J. This terra is applied to the measurement of the amount of vapor in the air. The atmosphere over every part of the earth contains a greater or less quantity of invisible vapor, which gives it the variable qualities denominated humidity, dryness, dampness, and aridity. As these are ele- ments ofclimate, and as the human body is very much affected by these states of the air, the subject is one of much practical importance. Before speaking of the methods which have been devised for measuring the amount of vapor in the at- mosphere, it will be necessary to say a few words in regard to tiic relation which exists between air and vapor. In former times it was supposed by the meteorologists that water in the form of vapor was dissolved in the atmos]>herc', and that it could hold in solution, at a given temperature, only a definite quantity, and when this quantity was pres- ent the air was said to be saturated. It was, however, proved by Mr, I)alton that vapor exists in the atmosphere in an almost independent state, its quantity depending, where water is present for its generation, entirely on the temperature. In studying this subjoet, ^Ir. Dalton placed two barometers near each other in the same vessel, contain- ing mercury. One of these barometers was used as a stand- ard, and into the other was introduced n small quantity of water, which ascended through the mercury up into the vacuum at the top of the column. A portion of this water immediately flashed into vapor, and by its elastic or ex- pansive force depressed the column of mercury. The tube and its contents were then gradually heated through a series of degrees of the thermometer, and the diminution of the height of the column corresponding to each degree, as com- pared with the standard, was noted. At each increase of temperature a new portion of vapor was given off from the water, as shown by the diminution of the latter ; which vapor, being forced into the same space, increased the density of that already existing, and consequently its elastic force, in accordance with the law of Marriotte ; the elastic force, however, was also increased by the increase of tempera- ture, and hence in the table formed from these exj)eriments the increment of elastic force, or of tension of the vapor, as it is callcti, as measured by the depression of the mercury in the barometer-tube, was in a geometrical ratio, while that of the temperature was only in an arithmetical ratio. By making similar experiments with a small quantity of air, not sufficient to drive the mercury entirely from tho lube, and forming a table of the increase of expansive force of the air for every degree of heat, and then allowing a small quantity of water to ascend through the mercurial column, a portion of this would spring into vapor less rapidly than before, and would occupy the interstices of the air, as it were, and, exerting its own elastic force, would depress the mercury an additional quantity to that due to the elasticity of the air. A new table being forn:ed of tho elastic force of this mixture for different degrees of tho thermometer, and the corresponding figures of the table of elastic force of air subtracted from it, the result was found precisely the same as that given by vapor alone. Another point to be determined was the density or weight of a given volume of vapor of a liquid formed at a given temperature. For this purpose a large barometer-tube was employed by (iay-Lussae, and a known volume of water, contained in a bubble of very thin glass, was allowed to ascend to the toji of the mercurial column, where, by a gentle increase of heat, the buhble was burst, in consequence of the more rapid expansion of the liquid than the glass. The water thus exposed was then converted into vapor by gradually increasing the heat, and at the moment the liquid entirely disappeai'cd the elastic force was noted, and also the vol- ume. By repeating this experiment with different quan- tities of water at different temperatures, a table of the den- sity of vapor was formed. A table of this kind indicates the ratio of a given volume of the vapor to that of tho same volume of air at the same pressure and temperature. AVhat we have given in the jireceding is merely ageneral view of the process by which the elastic force and density of vapor at different temperatures existing over the water from which it is formed is determined. To form accurate tiiblcs exhibiting these relations requires more refined pro- eesses, especially such as have been used by Rcgnault of Paris, for \vhich we must refer to the articles Elastioitt, Density, etc. Mr. Dalton inferred from his experiments that air and vapor are vacuums to each other — that an equal ([iiantity of each may exist in the same space at the same time, each, however, exerting its own elastic pressure on the sides of the containing vessel. He also arrived at a similar conclusion in relation to the diffusion of different gases through each other, each actingasif it were a vacuum to the other, and repelling only its own atoms. This hy- pothesis is in accordance with the dynamic theory of heat, and also of the diffusion and elasticity of gases and vapors through each other. That the air is a vacuum to the vapor of water is true only in their statical condition, after time has been allowed for the diffusion of the latter through the former; during the process of diffusion a resistance has to be overcome, and the air itself is expanded. At no part of tho surface of the earth is the air entirely devoid of moisture, and it is rarely at any jioint so charged with aqueous vapor as that the quantity is equal to that HYGROMETRY. 107 wbich a given spacocouM contain at the gircn temperature. This is owing to tbc prevalence of wind and the slow per- meation of tbc air by vapor. If tbe air is entirely filled with vapor— that is, if tbiro is as much vapor in it as tbc space enn conlaiii at that temperature — the sligiUest ditui- uution of the tiuiperature will cause a precipitation of tbc vapor in the form of dew or mist. If, for instance, at a higher temperature there be present not quite as much vapor as the space can contain at that temperature, then, if the air be cowled down only a few degrees, some of the vapor will bo deposited in the liquid state. The tempera- ture at whieh this takes place is called the dew-point. From this it is evident tbut if tbe quantity of vapor in the air at its exisling temperature be great, the dew-point will be high. All substances exi>osed to tbc air will be affected by tlio tloposition of moisture when the dew-point is reached, but many substances will be affected long before this takes place ; our bodies, for instance, will experience dampness, although the vapor of the air is far above tbe dew-point. On the other band, if tlic temperature bo far above that of the deposition of moisture, the air will have a condition of dryness. From these facts it may be inferred that the sense of dryness or diimpness docs not depend upon tbc absolute amount of aqueous vnpor present in a given quan- tity of air. If tbe ternper.aturc be very low, although the air does not contain much vapor, yet this may approach very near to the maximum amount which the space can contain at that temperature, and being near tbe point of frccipitation, it will have the characteristics of wetness, f the same mixture of air and vapor bo heated up many degrees, the vapor will represent only a small fraction of the amount which con be retained at the higher tempera- ture, and hence tbc air will feel very dry. In a space sat- urated wich vapor, water ceases to evaporate; and con- versely, in a space where there is little vapor in relation to the temperature, water evaporates rapidly. Tbc condition of 'Iryness or dampness of the air is expressed numerically by the conception of relative humidity which is the fraction expressing the ratio between the tension {that is, elastic force) of vapor actually present in the air at a given tom- per.iture, and that of the greatest amount of vapor which it can contain at that temperature. The amount repro- sonliag complclc s:ituration is generally indicated as 100, and on this principle 10, jO, ."O, etJ, will denote that the air contains 40, jO, or ;10 per cent, of the maximum amount which ciu be contained at that leinpcraturc. We shall now proecod to describe various instruments raadu use of in hygromctry. For determining the relative dryness or dampness of tbe air various modes and instru- ments have been employed: most of tbe latter in use pre- vious to the expennicnis of Mr. Dalton would more appro- priately be denominated hygrosjopc-s than hygrometers. They consist principally of three different classes: Ist, thos:; composed of substances which arc augmented or di- minished in weight by a change in the humidity of the air ; 2d, those of substances which increase or dimiui.sh in vol- ume : and '.^^, tbosoo4" substances which twist, or untwist by changes of moisture. Of the lirst class are sul])buric acid ; various deliquescent salts, such as the chlorate of potassa, sulpbatoof soda, and nitrate and chlorate of lime ; sponges, paper, etc. A given weight of these substances being sus- pended from one end of the beam of a balance, countor- jtoised at the other by a weight, so that the beam will bo hurizonta) \vbcn the substance is in n state of extreme dry- ness, or, in the ease of sulphuric acid, in the condition of a given drgreo of density, by an increase in the moisture of the air the weigbtecl end ol the beam rises, and by an inde.K imlieates tbc change in tbc moisture of the atmosphere. All the insirunients of this kind arc affected by tempera- ture, ns well as by the moisture of tbc air. Tbc amount of water absorbecl by sulphuric acid is less at a high tempera- tun*, and the affinity of all substances for moisture varies with the tempera' ore. llygrosoopes of tbc second class, those that dnpcml upon ebange of volume of bodies, consist chielly of hair, of threads of silk, of linen, of hemp cords, of goMlteatcrs' skin, of slips of whalebone, of ivory, and of wood. The most celebrated of these is that of the hy- groseopo of Saussure, which consists of a human hair de- prived (d" grease by boiling it in a weak solution of earbon- ato of soda. This, heing.lixccl at its upper en<i, is stretched by a small weight after passing round a delicate pulley to which a hand is attached; by an increase of moisture the hair expands, tbe weight at Ihc other end descends, and the pnlU'v turns, giving motion to the hand or pointer, whi*'h indicates the degree of moisture by pointing to the division on a graduated arc. This instrument is graduated experimentally by placing it in air which has been dried by sulphuric acid, and afterward in a vessel saturatoil with moisture: the extreme positions of the point(*r in these two conditions Is divided into 100 parts called degrees. In using the instrument a correction must bo applied for Vol. jr.- 68 temperature, which is also ascertained by direct experi- ment. A simple hygroscope which will serve to iudieatc a greater or less degree of humidity is furmed by a long lish- ing-line {previously boiled in a weak solution of carbonate of soda), fastened at one end and passed backward and \ forxvard along a corridor over pulleys, with a weight to keep I it tense at the farther end. By increase of dampness a ! greater amount of water is absorbed, tbc transverse diam- I etcr of the cord is increased, its linear extent diminished, ' and tbe weight consequently rises. A pointer ntlaclied to the weight indicates changes in tbe moisture by an arbi- trary scale. An amusing hygroscope of this class can bo constructed of two pieces of wood glued together, one of which is soft and readily absorbs moisture. For this pur- pose a rectangle is formed of one piece of say (> or S inches in length and 1* inches in width, the longer axis of which is in the direction of tbc fibre of the wood; to this is glued another jiieco of tbc same dimensions, of which the fibre is at riglit angles to the length. If tbe gluing has been ef- fected in a dry condition of the wood, the compound struc- ture will be straight; if, however, the air is afterwards charged with vapor, tbe wood will absorb moisture and expand unequally in different directions, assuming the form of a bow. if. now. into the slip of wood having lon- gitudinal tibres four stiff wires, sharpened at tlic outer end, be inserted, so as to resemble the legs of a table, with the excc[)tion that each is inclined at an angle of ;iO*'or -10° to the perpendicular, and then the arrangement be placed on a long shelf of soft wood, it will travel in the course of a season from ()nc end to tbe other, liy an increase of moist- ure the upper surface will become convex, and the binder feet will be drawn forward, while the fore ones, on account of the direction of their action, remain fixed; when the moisture diminishes, and the wood resumes its straight form, the fixed points will be tbc hind feet, the fore ones being projected forward. In this way a progressive mo- tion will be produced with every variation of moisture. The effect will be increased by making tlie lower slip of some hard wood and covering it with varnish, while the upper slip with transverse fibres is of soft wood and ex- posed to the action of tbc air. The wood may be cut into the shape of an animal. An example of the thiid class of by - groscopcs is eatgnt, which untwists when moist and twists wlicn dry. There is a well-known toy in which there arc two figures, a man and a woman, sui-pcndcd by a piece of this substoncc, and so adjusted that the man comes out of the door when it is damp, and the woman when it is dry. All these instruments, as we have said, indicate, riitbcr than measure, the hygromctrie state of tlic air. We shall now proceed to describe instruments by which the state of the air with regard to moisture can bo dctcrnjined with pre- cision ; and such arc denominated hygrometers. The lirst of these is Daniell's dew-point hygrometer. This instru- ment (Fig. 1) is composed of two glass bulbs; the one. A, is more than half filled with ether, and contains a deli- cate therniouuter, the bulb of wiiich is plunged in the liquid. The space above is void of air and of everything but tbe vapor of ether. The bulb IS is covered with fine muslin, upon which, during the experiment, ether is drop- ped. Tlio evaporation of this produces intense cold, in eon- sequence of which the ether vapor inside IJ is rapidly cnu- densed, and luncc the ether in A ns rapidly cvnporales. Danieirs dew-point hygrome- Ti,e evaporation of the elher ^^■'^* in A cools the bulb until tbe air surrounding it sinks below tbc dew-point. Dew is theref<ire deposited on tbc nntsido of A. which is made of hbiek glass, in order that this de- position may be more readily observed. At tbc moment of the deposition the tenifierature is read from tbe seale of tbe tlu'rmometer in A. When the dew disappears as tbe temperature rises by ceasing to drop ether on the bulb 11, the same thermometer is read again, and the mean of the two readings is liiken as the temperature of tbe dew-point. A thermometer. C. placed on the outside of the column which supports tbe instrument, gives tbe lemjierature of the air nt iho moment of observation. Ity taking from a table the elastic force or tension of vapor at the tempera- ture of tbe air, as given by (', and also the tension of vapor at the temperature of the dew-point, the ratio of the two numbers, the first being called lOt), will give tho relative bumiility. The dew-point may also be (ditninod approxi- mately by suspending a thermometer in a bright metallic Fro. 1. 1074 HYKSOS— PIYLID^. Regnault's dew-puiut hygrometer. tumbler half full of water at a temperature a little above tlio dew-point, and gradually cooling it by pouring in ice- water until dew begins to appear on the surface of the metal; at this moment tlic temperature of the dew-point is indicated by that of the immersed tliennometer. In making this experiment care must be taken to stir the water in the tumbler, and not to suffer the moist breath to f;ill upon the tumbler. The objection to this method is its want uf d'jiioacy. and the liability to produce a local dew- point by the evaporation of the wafer. Regnault's dew-point hygrometer is an improvement u]ion that of Daniell. It consists (Fig. 2) of two tubes or «hort cylinders, closed at the end, of polished silver, Fig. 2. having glass tubes fixed to them. The cylinder A is half filled with ether. It contains a thermom- eter t', with its bulb in the ether, and also a fine glass tube open at each end, the extremity c being exposed to the atmosphere, and the other being plunged below the ether in A. The cylinder 1> also contains a ther- mometer f, the object of which is to indicate the temperature of the air. There is a communica- tion between the air in A and an exhausting tube D E. To the end E of the latter tube is at- tached an aspirator — that i?, a vessel filled with wa- ter, which being allowed to run out through a stop- cock near the bottom, an Cfpial (piantity of air takes it>: place, which, entering at and bubbling up through the ether, causes the latter rapidly to evaporate, and a diminution of temperature is thus produced until at length dew is deposited on the polished silver of A; and if the temperature of t' be immediately noticed, the dew- point may be obtained with great exactness, since the agi- tation of the other renders it certain that the temperature uf this thermometer is precisely the same as that of the polished silver, while the thermometer ( gives the undis- turbed temperature of the air. Although observations with this instrument give the clastic force of vapor of the air with great precision, yet it is not as convenient to use as could be desired for the daily registration of the liygrometric condition of tho air by ordinary observers. To obviate this difficulty the wet and dry bulb hygrom- eter has been invented. It was devised by Ma- son, and consists of two thermometers, of the same size of bulb and bore, placed alongside of each itther (Kig. -J)* "no having a naked dry bulb, and the other a bulb covered with fine muslin, moistened at the time of observation, or kept continually moist by the ascent of water in a cotton wick, as shown in the figure. Owing to the evapora- tion from the covered bulb, its temperature will bo generally below that of the naked bulb, and this difTcrenco will be greater when tho air i> very dry. When it \> wet, or near the dew- point, the evaporation will be very slow, and the two thermometers will indicate nearly tho same temperature. It has been objected to this instru- Fig. Mason's wet and dry bulb hygrom- eter. ment that the evaporation is greater when there is a cur- rent of air, but it must be remembered that the same cur- rent tends to elevate the temperature of the covered bulb in nearly the same proportion. By compiiring the indications of this instrument with that of the Uegnault hygrometer, a table may be formed experimentally by whieh the dew- point and elastic tension of the air can be determined at once by inspection. l>r. Apjohn of Trinity College, Dub- lin, who has given much attention to this subject, has ob- d h tained the following formulas: f =f—^ ^.»7' '"^ which/ denotes the maximum elasticity or tension of vapor corre- sponding to the temperature of the wet-bulb thermometer; r the elasticity of vapor present in the air which we de- sire to find ; d denotes the difference in degrees of Fahren- heit's scale between the two thermometers ; and /* the height of the barometer when accuracy is required. This formula is for temperatures above 32°. For temperatures below this d h point the formula ^^ /=/— r^X^T- Having found /. or the elasticity or tension of vapor present in the air, wo have only to look in our table for the temperature of saturated vapor /", which gives the dew-point. A series of tables for facilitating tho process of obtaining the relative humidity by moans of tho wet and dry bulb thermometers, as well as by the dew-point instrument, have been constructed for the Smithsonian Institution by Prof. Guyot of Princeton College, which are now in general use in this country and in various parts of Europe. Joseph Henuy. Hyk'sos, or Hykshos ("shepherd kings"), the name given by Manctho to the kings of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth dynasties in Egypt. Their capital was Tanis in the Delta, the " Zoan '* of the Old Testament, now called Sdn. Important discoveries recently made there by Mariette throw much light upon this very obscure portion of Egyptian history. The Hyksos were not, as some have supposed, the Hebrews, but probably a collection of the nomadic hordes of Arabia and Syria, mostly Canaanitcs. They were not mere savage conquerors, but adopted Egyp- tian'manners and customs and worshipped Egyptian gods. Thev held the country for about 000 years — according to Mariette, from about 2200 b. c. to about 1700 B. c. ; Poole and Wilkinson sjiy from about 2000 to about 1600 b. c. Tho present inhabitants of SUn and tho shores of Lake Men- zaleh have exactly the same Semitic cast of features as com- pared with the regular Egyptian type. II. D. Hitchcock. Hylirosau'rus [Gr. vX-q, a "forest," and <javpo%y a "lizard"], a large extinct reptile fmni the Wealden of England, belonging to the order Dinosauria. It was de- scribed by Mantel! in 1832. Tho teeth are small in pro- portion to the size of tho animal, close together, and set in sockets, with a subcylindrieal fang and a somewhat com- pressed, expanded, and incurved crown, having the bor- ders of tho apical half straight and converging to a blunt apex, but not serrate, and indicating, according to Owen, a mixed or vegetable diet rather than a carnivorous one. The skin appear? to have been defended by suhcircular bony scales, and largo bony spines indicate the existence of a strong crest along the back. Tho length of this ani- mal may have boon twenty-five feet, and the i)artieulars of its structure, so far as known, correspond with those of other Dinosauria, for which sec article on IlAnitosAunus. 0. C. Marsh. Ily'lidir [from If i/l a, the ancient name of the "tree- frog "j. a family of biitraehians of tho order Salientia or Anura. with the vertebra? proco.dian ; the sacral diiipophyses dilated at their extremities; the coccyx articulated by con- dyles : the external metacarpals bound together ; the ter- minal phalanges .articulated below to the extremity of the penultimate, swollen at the base, and with slender curved and claw-like ends; fronto-parictal bones shortened an- teriorlv, and usually embracing a fontanelle ; superior plate of ethmoid never covered by fronto-parietals, and usually produced anteriorly between the fronto-nasals. The family, with the limits thus given, embraces the ordinary tree-fmgs of America and forms related in structure inhabiting other parts of the world. It has been thus limited by Prof. Cope, independently of adaptation to arboreal life, and solely with reference to the agreement of its members in the particu- lars of structure implied in the definition. Atm<tst all the species of the family, however, are arboreal, living among the branches of trees. Some of them, at least, undergo their development out of water, and come out from the egg with tho form of the adult, the tadpole stage being very transitory, or suppressed and limited to intraov.al life. Tho toes arc dilated at the extremities into round pcllct- like extensions which act as suckers. Prof. Cope lias re- cognized 17 genera and \?>2 species with the characters as- signed to the family. These are distributed in the northern IIYU)HATIN.E— HYMEXOPTERA. 1075 hcraisphero, as well as in Sonth America and Australia, bat none are found in Africa, The types of structure, however, are distributed in a very unequal manner: thus, of the known species, more than half uelong to the genus Hyln^ and most of these are Pouth American, a number, however, being found in Australia and North America. Of the other generic types, 13 arc peculiar to tropical America, and (ex- cept TrachifrrphfiluM) have only one to three species each, while Australia has only a single peculiar and monotypic genus {Hnnoiflea), in addition to its ffi/ffr. Two genera (Arrt'n, with one species, and Chorophiius, with fivel are pe- culiar to North America, and twelve species of Hf/la are also inhabitants thereof. (See Cope, Trans. Acad. Nnt. Sc. Philn., n. ^.. vi. S3-SS, etc.) Theodore Gill. Hy lobat'insc [Gr. uAtj, " wood," and ^aivttv, to " walk "], a sub-family of apes (embracing the long-armed gibbons), and contrasting with the group Simiinac (including the gorilla and chimpanzee), and distinguished from them by the slender form; the ilia) of the pelvis notalate; the cere- brum scarcely or not at all projecting backward over the cerebellum: the molars of the upper jaw with no oblique rid:;e: and the buttocks provided with eallti:iities. The gibbons thus form an intermediate link between the large apes and the typical monkeys of the Old World, although they are most nearly related to the apes. They live chiefly among the trees, swinging to and fro with their very long arms. They delight in fruit. When walking they gener- ally apply their knuckles to the ground, and yet stoop but little, but sometimes walk erect with their long arms thrown upward and used as balancing-poles. To this group belong two genera, Siamamja .and Ift/lobntcfi. Theodore (Jill. Hy'men [Gr. 'Yttrjv or 'YM<Vato?]. the Greek god of mar- riage, perhaps a personification of the nuptial song, called also Ai/nicn, and probably related etymologically to hifmn. The mythus of Hymen varies greatly. He is represented as a comely youth bearing the bridal torch. Hymenop'tera. This extensive and interesting group of insects comprises the bees, paper, wood and sand wasps, ants, ichneumon-flies, gall-flies, and saw-flies. There are estimated to be 2.'»,000 specie?, of which perhaps oOOO spe- cies inhabit the U. S.. the number of ichneumon-flies and their allies carrying the number up. Their range is not confined to the tropics and temperate zone alone, but a few species occur near the North Pole, a humble-bee and sev- eral species of ichneumon-flies having been found in Po- laris Hay, the northernmost point yet reached. Their geo- logical range is not great, the earliest species known occur- ring in the Jurassic formation, while other well-developed insects (Neuroptcra) have been found as low down as the Devonian formation. The llymenoptera fso called from vfi^v, a " membrane." and irTfpdi-. a 'Mving") are usually characterized by the four membranous, naked wings, with a peculiar arrange- ment of the veins, the hinder pair being much smaller than the others; by the large head: the complication of the mouth-parts, the jaws being adapted for biting as well as seizing prey, while the maxillie and labium are much elon- gatccl and adapted for lapping the sweets of flowers: the ligula. or so-called tongue, which is a prolongation of the labium or under lip, sometimes attaining a great length; by the presence of a well-developed ovipositor — in the ants, wasps, and bees modificil to form a sting. The more im- portant character separating the llymenoptera from other insects is the fact that in all except the saw-flies the thorax consists of four rings, the fourth being the basal ring of the abdomen, which in tho course of the trunsformations of tho bee or wasp i« thrown for\vard on to the thorax or middle region of the body. This indicates a transfer of foree headward, an atlrairnblc Instance of the law of eepha- lization discovered by Prof. Dana. For these and other anatomical features, their social instincts, the differentia- tion of the sexes in certain grouj)8, and their complete transformations, the Hymenoptora stand at tho head of the insect series. The young, or larva', are white, soft, fleshy, and worm-like, without feet, except in the young of the saw-flies, which closely resemble caterpillars. All except the liitter arc fed by the parent^ either directly or from stores of honey and pollen or animal food laid up before Ihi'ir birth by their parents. The pupa is inactive, closely resembling the adult, and protected by a thin silken co- coon, except in the saw-flies, which approach the Lcpi- doptera in spinning a dense cocoon, as well as in the oatcr- pillar-like form of tin* larvce. The anatomy of the Hymenoptera is very complicated, iin^l greatly modified in accordance with the varying hab- its of the diflferent species. They have a sucking stomach opening into the long «esoph»t;us. Tho salivary glands consist of two short ramified tufis, often contained entirely in the head. The honey is formed, by some chemical change as jet unknown, from the food contained in tbo crop^ which is regurgitated into the honey-cellp. A charaot eristic of those species provided with a sting is the two large poison- glands situated in the end of the abdomen. The poison se- creted in them is discharged into a pear-shaped sac lodged near the base of the sting, which is provided with a pecu- liar muscular apparatus for its sudden extension and with- drawal. The poison has as a base formic acid, which im- parts the poisonous properties to the secretion. The sting may be seen in a rudimentary condition under the infegu raent of tho larva. At that period it consists of three pairs of simple appendages or buds, which, by their increase in length and by changes in the form of the segments at the end of the body towards the close of the pupa state, form the sting. Just previous to this period the three pairs of long blades may be separated, the two outer pairs ensheath- ing the inner, which are barbed, and constitute the sting proper. Another feature of much interest in the bees is their power of secreting wax. This is accomplished by special mi- nute one-celled glands lodged just under the skin, opening externally by pores connecting with a fine chitinous tube in the integument. In Uic honey-bee these pores and glands are situated on the under side of the abdomen. In the stingless bees (Trirfoua) the wax is secreted on the up- per side. The jaws of the bees and wasps are rounded at the extremity, with slightly marked teeth. This form is of use in the honey ant! jiollen gathering bees, while in those species which build clay nests they arc used as trow- els. In the carnivorous wasps, such as the Sphex and Pompxlns, the jaws are sharp and hooked, adapted for seiz- ing and retaining large insects. The legs are also exposed to much variation In the different genera. For example, in the hind legs in the pollen-gathering bees, such as the honey and humble-bee, the tibia or shank is very broad and hollo^Tcd out on the outer side, while stiff bristles pro- ject over the depression from each side, forming the honey- basket [corbiruium) In which the masses of honey and pol- len are piled up. The mode in which the bee collects tho pollen is very curious. She gathers it from the flowers with her mandible, from which it is removed by the an- terior pair of legs. From there it is passed to the inter- mediate pair of legs by manifold scrapings and twistings of the limbs, whence it is by similar manteuvres deposited on the hind legs. (Shuckard.) In the fossorial species, on the contrary, the legs are slender, but very hairy. The sand-wa?p, or Sphcr, for examjde, by tho aid of its large sicklc-likc mandibles, which are of use in removing small stones and gravel, digs a hole from four to six inches deep in half an hour. The hairy legs are used much as a dog docs its paws, and with perhaps nearly equal intelligence. Tho carpenter-bee and wood-wasp by means of their power- ful jaws tunnel regular holes several inches deep in solid wood, the stems of plants and shrubs, or the trunks of trees. The complicated, many-chambered nests of the ants are familiar objects. Indeed, there are no insects which in their structure are more highly difTerentiatcd than the various genera of Hymenoptera. and we find in them an intelligence and power of adaptation to new and unfore- seen circumstances which evince something more than "blind instinct," in fact, a reason perhaps not inferior to that shown by many of the vertebrate animals, and dilTer- ing but in degree from that of man. Not only is tho individual structure of the Hymenoptera highly complicated, but in certain genera of bees, wasps, and ants there is a difl"erentiation of tho individual into three instead of two sexual forms — i. e. males, females, ami workers (wrongly called neuters), the latter being sexually undeveloped females. In the bees and wasps the workers difi"er from the queen in having undeveloped ovaries and incomplete a<*cessory organs, but difl"er externally only in size, being a little smaller than tho females. In the ants, however, while the workers are much smaller, they arc also wingless, and differ in the proportions of the body. The honey-bees and certain wnsps and gall-flies lay eggs which produce young without being fertilized by the male. Von Siebold discovercl that only tho queens' and workers' eggs are fertilized by the spermtitozoa stored in the rcrrp- tac.ulum acntinin of the female. These she can fertilize ut will (the only animal known to possess this power of pro- ducing either sex at pleasure), and retains the power for a period of five years, as tho muscles guarding the duct lead- ing from tho sporm-bag are supplied with a nerve, being thus rendered voluntary and subject to her will. When she wishes to lay an egg lo produce a drone, the egg is allowed to slip out of the oviduct past the orifice of (lie reccplacu- lum seminis, kept closed by the voluntary muscle. Drone eggs are also laid by unfertilized queen-bees, and in somo cases even by worker-bees. It is well known that bees when deprived of their queen select several worker eggs or very young larva; for the purpose of rearing queens. " The colls in which these oggs arc situated arc lengthened out 1076 IIYMliTTUS-lIY-MNOLOGY. and the end turned downward." Whether, as Lcitch (from whom wc have quoted) thinks, the development into a queen is caused hy the increased temperature of the queen- cell or as Iluber previously thought, by being fed with different food (the royal paste or jelly), is not entirely set- tled Probably both causes—/, c. a higher temperature and richer food— taken together, arc sufficient to produce an increased development of the young and an acceleration in the development of the ovaries. We know that the vir- gin reproduction of the Apln^ is terminated on the approach of cold weather, an.I that differences in temperature and ^ the density of the saline lakes in which the Artemtu, a. crustaceous animal, lives, causes it to develop either by layin" eggs in the normal way or to reproduce partheno- geneticallv. Von Siebold has .also ascertained that the common European Polhic, Gallicn reproduces partheno- gencticallv. the workers laying eggs without intercourse with the 'males. The Cynipides, or gall-flies, have long been supposed to reproduce in this manner, but it has re- cently been proved to be the case by an .American entomol- ogist' Mr Walsh. He ascertained that a species of Ci/iitps in Illinois in the autumn is represented by females alone. The«c lay e<"'S. and the spring brood consists of males and females. HTprovcd this by colonizing certain trees with a number of individuals of Cj/»!ps (p,ercm-nc,c,ilnta, and finding the next spring that the eggs Laid hy them pro- duced C. qnercus-ipom/jirn. The autumn brood ol Cu^nps consists entirely of agamous females, while the vernal brood consists of both males and females; and -Mr. \\ alsh de- clares, after several experiments, that "the agamous au- tumnal female form of this Cipiips (C. q. aclculal,,) sooner or later reproduces the bi.se.xual vernal form, and is thus " a mere dimorphous female form " of Cipilp" '}■ spoMjifica. Mr H F. Bassett states in confirmation that in Connecti- cut Cnunt qi<erc«,-operalor is double brooded ; thirty of one brood of females ovipositing in the buds of Q,iercus illc!f"lia. while some of a second brood oviposited m the voun.r acorns of the same species of oak. From these and 'other" facts he infers "that all our species that are found only in the female sex are represented in another gener.a- tion bv both sexes, and that the two broods are, owing to seasonal differences, produced from galls that are entirely distinct from each other." Here again, we find tempera- ture the main active agent in inducing an abnormal mode of generation, the eggs laid by the fertilized female in the heat of summer producing agamous females. With the exception of the white ants, which belong to the Neuroptcra, the Hvmenoptera is the only group of in- sects affording species which are truly social .and live in colonies. In the social species there are almost invariably three sexual forms, the workers forming the large majority and doing most of the work of the colony. They even assist largely in rearing the young, the males and females not usuallv laving up food or providing for their offspring. This division of labor is carried on unequally in the ditlcr- ent species, and is best marked in the honey-bee, whose colony contains but one female, the queen. In tho colonics of tho ants there are numerous males and females, and in s.,me genera (/'/.'•.■.;"^-, &■'>"") two sorts of workers— one with a lar-'e head, called a worker major or soldier, and the usual form or worker minor. In the honey-ant of Texas and Mexico, while the normal workers are of the usual shape and perform the active duties of tho form.carmm or nest the lar^e worker is inactive and does not quit the nest but lies almost immovable in its gallery, and elabo- rates a kind of honey in its abdomen, which swells up as lir"-e as a pea. Certain ants also enslave other species, makin.' them do the work of the colony. They also herd ai.hidM in their underground nests, and entertain as per- ,,'ancnt visitors certain beetles, thus adding much to their labors and to the complexity of their social life. The following synopsis presents briefly the characters of the more important families of Hymcnoptera, beginning with the lowest : 1. Body short, abdomen sessile, and provided with an ovipositor forming a saw: larvae caterpillarOike, with 9-11 pairs of legs: Tenthredinidx (saw-tlies). 2. Like saw-flies, but tho body longer; larva with six thoracic legs, and abdomen ending in a horn : Uro- ccri'rfir (horn-tails). 3. Minute, with a short compressed abdomen, and a slender long ovipositor : ('viii/jiV/h- (gall-flics). 4. Body slender, with a long prominent ovipositor: Ich- neumonifirr (ichneumon-flies). 5. Body usuallv short and small, ovipositor short, incon- spicuous ;' antenna- elbowed; wings with one vein, with metallic colors : Clialcidiila- (ichneumon-flies). 6. Minute ; wings with one or no veins : Prnctotrt/ptdx (egg-parasites). 7. Body oblong ; skin very dense, with a powerful sting : Chi-yaididx (cuckoo-flies). IG 18. 8. Body slender; antenna) elbowed; wingless workers: Formicidx (ants). 9. Ant-like; body very hairy, with a powerful sting: MatHlidiT. 10. Body hirsute, with short, hairy, spiny legs; eyes often lunate ; species ofccn of large size and gayly colored : Sf:iiliidx. 11. Antenna; long; body compressed; color usually blue: I'ompilidir (sand-wasps). 12. Like the Pompilidic, but the body not compressed, and abdomen petiolated : SphajidK (sand and mud wasps). 13. Somewhat like the Sphegidae, but with the abdomen sessile and oval, conical : Lnirld.f. U. He.adlarge,body flattened, highly colored: Bembccidir. la! Body with a loiig, club-shaped, or a conical sessile ab- domen ; antenn;e clavate : Ai/'inuidir. Head large, cubical; fore legs of males variously modi- fied in form; body high colored, like the wasps; tongue short : Crnhmindir (wood-wasps). Males, females, and workers; fore wings folded once longitudinally : Veipid.r (paper-wasps). Males, females, workers ; social in the higher genera. Body usually hirsute ; tongue long ; living in nests or underground tunnels : Apidiv (bees). A. S. Fackakd, Jn. Hvitiet'tus, a mountain-ridge of Greece, 4J miles S. E. of Athens, 2i;Sll feet high. The honey collected here has been famous from remote antiquity to the present time for its exquisite flavor. Hymnol'ogy [Gr. vmw, a "festive song" or "ode," and Aoyos. " discourse "], the science of sacred lyrical poetry. A hymn, according to St. Augustine, " must be praise to (Jod in the form of song." By the looser definition which pre- vails now, it is a lyric expressive of religious feeling, or celebrating, howeve'r indirectly, the object of worship. The Greek pai?an hvmns were in honor of gods and heroes, and were usually sung at their festivals. (See a fine example, translated, i'n Mr. Pai.crave's Lyricnl Poem«, p. 2o8.) A parallel may be traced between these and the Christian hymns for saints' days, etc. The more ancient Greek hymns, as Homer's, aie chiefly descriptive, and are considered epic ; the later ones, as of Callimachus and Pindar, lyric. In most of these, to a modern mind, the devotional and cthi- cal elements arc wanting; not, however, in Cleanthes' •'Hymn to Zeus." and in the noble (unmetrical) outburst of Epictetus, ■' Of Providence." end of chap, xvi., B. 1. The Oriental sacred books, especially the Vcdas, contain many hymns, which have received no little attention of late. Of ail the sacred poems of antiquity, the Jewish Psalms of course are the most familiar and most precious. They have become practically incorporated with Christian hymnody, and their influence has been great on all its developments. Christian hvmnody is coeval with Christianity; from the Christmas song oi' angels the lyrical element had large place among the belongings of the new religion. Every language in which the gospel was proclaimed had probably very soon its own supjdy of sacred verse. The " Tersane- tus" the "Gloria in Exeelsis," and the "Te Deum " are of early though unknown date. The Syriac hymns of Ephrem (d. 381) have been translated. (For primitive Greek hymns in an English dress see The Voice <•/ Chrh- li,ii, Life 111 .N'oiif/.) Clemens Alexandrinus and Gregory Naziaiizen arc the earliest Christian bymnists or hymn- writers known. In later times Analnlius. Andrew of Crete, John Damascene, Cosmas, Stephen the Sabaite. Theodore and Joseph of the Studium. Methodius. Tbeoctistus. Met- rophanes, and others sup|died the wants of Greek worship till the tenth century. Some of their productions are ex- quisitely translated in Dn. Xeale'.s ////m..« oj the Easlcn, Church. (See al-so Mrs. Biiowsixc'.s tfceft- CJirlsliau P„ei,.) The seed of religious song was soon carried into Latin soil where it bore yet more abundant though hardly richer fruit (See Dr. Ne'ai.e's paper on "Sacred Latin Poetry," J?i,ci;e/. Mcirop.. vol. "Roman Literature.") The great name here is Ambrose (d. 397); he founded a school of hvmn-wrilers, and had many now forgotten imitators, whose work is often indistinguishable from his own. The Ambrosian hymns are marked by a severe simplicity, which to readers unfamiliar with them may seem hard and dry. After him came Prudentius (d. about 413), Venantius For- tunatus (d. 609), Gregory (d. 004). Bede (d. 73a). Ihco- dulph (d. S21),Rabanus Maurus. Godeschcalcus.nnd many others. By degrees these mcdiseval bymnists assume a more ornate style and a more passionate devotion. St. Ber- nard (d. llo3)'and his namesake, the monk of Cluny, have given us glowing strains, than which none are more pre- cious to English and American worshippers of our day. Peter Damiaoi (d. 1072), Hildebert (d. 1133). Hildegarde (d. 1179). Adam of St. Victor (d. 1192). and Thomas Aqui- nas (d. 1274) were also no mean poets. Some of the world s IIYNKS— 11Y0P0TAMID.E. 10 i i most famous hymns, produced at this period, are of doubt- ful ori<;in or by authoris who arc known by a single piece; thus, iMiiinent far (jrnndeur, " Vcui Creator Spiritus " uud '• l>ics Ir;i' " (by Thomas a Cchinol. and for lnvclincss or pathos, ** Vcni Sancte .Spiritus" (Kobert IF. of France). **Stabat Mater" (by Jacopone), and "0 Dcus, Ego aino Te," questionably ascribed to Xavier. One or two moJorns have written good Latin hymns, as the biothcrs Satitolius Maglorianas and Viclorinus (d. lt)S4, IGUT), and Clnirles Cotfin {\\. KlU). For this department of literature see the Roman and Parisian lirrviaricn and Daniki/s ThrHUHrwi ; anil lor translations, the works of Newman, ClianiUer. Mant, Isaac Williams, Caswall, Copeland, Campbell, Blew, Neale, Chambers, Kynaston. With the Ueformalion came a new birth of lyric fervor, and great waves of saercd song in the vernacular rolled over the Protestantizing lands. Clement Marot rendered the Psalms into French metre, and Calvin himself wrote a hymn or two. But the effect was naturally greatest in Ger- niany, where arose by degrees what is probably the largest, and claimed by many to be the finest, body of hymns in any language. (For this subject see Miss WiNKWORTn's Vhriitimi Snujcrs o/ fjermniii/ &nd Mu. KlfBLnn's Historical Xot'-H to the Li/rtt (tcrnifinicft, an<l especially Ivocii's (ic- Hchiffile (IcH DentHchfii Kirrhenllcd'i. '.U\ cd. 7 vols.) Lutlicr led the van, and was closely followed by Hans S:ichs, Paul Eber, M. Weiss and other *' Bohemian Brethren," N. Her- mann. Sclnecker, Nicolai, etc. We can mention but a few names of the following centuries, in chronological order: Stegmann, Meyfart, John Heermann, Kinkart, Risf, (Jc- senius, Clausnitzer, Alberti, Paul Gcrhardt (IfiOU-TG), by common consent the greatest of German hymnists; John Frank, Xcumark, Kcheffler or Angelas Silesius, Von Rosen- roth, Tcrsteegen ; J. Xeander, Von Canitz, C. F. Richtcr, Ro.Iigast, G. Arnold, Laurenti, A. If. Franke, Bogatzky, Zinzendorf (who was fiillowcd by other Moravian writers), S, Frank, S..-hmolkc; Gcllert, Klopstock, Novalls, Fouque, Spitta. Knapp, Lange. Meta Heusscr. The various schools among which these poets divide are elaborately discrim- inated by Mr. Kiibler. An immense and valuable col- lection of over liltOf) hymns has been made by Albert Knapp — Li' tferm-hatz. Many tierman hymns have been rendered into Knglish by John Wesley. I7mD-I0; by Jaciobi and Ifabcrkorn, 1722-6(1; by the Moravians, 175 (, etc.; and mure recently by Miss F. E. Cox, A. T. Russell, R. Massie, Miss Borthwick. and others ; specially by Miss Winkworth, whose Li/rn Genmtiiivrt (2 vols.) and Chorale Hook havo added much to our English stock. The Scandinavian countries have their own hymnic sup- plies, and are proud of them, but these are little known to English readers. In Italy and France there is not so much material of tins sort. Many sacred lyrics of Madame Guyon (d. 1717) were translated by Cowper in 1782. In England hymnoily was a plant of late growth; its plaeL- was long filled by psalmody. Mylcs Coverdalc, one ol the Reformers, in I5."l- put furfh forty Ghostly pM<tliitcn ami S/n'riftiall Si'iiiji-K, but there is no evidcn'^e of these having com-.' into use. A better fortune attended Thomas Stern- holJ's PanltM {1 J49), completed by Hopkins and others in 1602: this 0^^ Vrraiitn became popular, and was bound up with the Prayer Book for nearly three centuries. It was afli-rwards in part superseded by the Nrw Vcntinn of Tate and Bra<ly (I'lyt;). .Aleantiinc, the Puritans usecl thcScotch ver.^ion by Francis Rous (Ifilj). Hymns, as such, were not written till later, for (Jeorge Herbert and his contem- poraries were sacred poets rather than hymni-;ts. A begin- ning on a small scahr was made by Bishop Jeremy Taylor (lf..j.'>). and followed up by John Austin (K'.fiH). R. Baxter (IftSi ), and eminently by .John Mason ( IfiS.'l), whose hymns were perhaps the first to be sung (o any extent in Englaml as accessories of worship. AVilMarn Harton. .losepli Sten- nctt. an<l Bishop Ken had also the honor ftf pri-eeding Dr. Watts. The latter is properlv the father of English hymn- ody ; the appearance of his ffi/miifi in 1707-01», and of his /*H'i/iiii in 1711>, introducetl a new era: they were hailed with delight by the Inilk of Dissenters, and for a long time by tbem used exclusively, or nearly so, in Britain and America. The publication of Cbnrles Wesley's first hymns in 17;ttt marked another era. He is the most voluminous of sicred poets, ami one of the most gifted. Fur tifty years he continued publishing, and his verses, recently collected, fill thirteen volumes. The intliience of these lyrics was great in promoting the Wesleyan revival. J(»hn Wesley also wrote hymns, though but few. His great Coffrrtion (1779). eomposetl chiefly of his brother's pieces, was hmg used by the Methodists everywhere, and is still the basis of their various hymn-books. The other hymnists of the eighteenth century, except Addison. Pope, and Byrom. were chiedy followers either of Wiitis or Wesley, or of both. To the first school belong Simon Browne, the Scotch Paraphra- sers, Gibbons, Boddume, Fuwoctt, Hawcis, S. Stonnott, T. Scott, Necdham, Mrs. Barbauld ; to the second, Cenniek, Hammond, Olivers, Toplady. Hart, Cowper, Newton. Med- ley. W. Williams, Ryland. Grigg, Perrouet.Scagrave, Rob- inson, Shirley, and others, show the intluence of both mas- ters. (Much of our knowleilgo of these old authors is duo to Mr. Daniel Sedgwick of Bisliojisgate, Lonclon, who for many years has made hymnology a special study.) With the present century arose James Montgomery, whoso services and influence in this field were great, and Thomas Kelly. The year 1827 was marked by the appear- ance of Bishop Heber's Hyuiii'tiuul of Keble's Christian Vvav. About the same time Sir J. B()wring, Sir R. Grant, Condcr. Edraeston, Reed, Lyte, Miss Aubcr, and Mrs. Adams wrote; more recently Charl(»fte Elliott, Dr. Bonar, George Rawson, T. T. Lynch. T. II. (Jill, and many others. Faber, Cas- wall, and Bridges belong to the Romish Church. That of England, long negligent in this p.articular, was awakened to its importance by the Oxford movement of IS.tIi, and a fresh and increasing tide ot lyric life has since been jioured in. Dr. Xcale. Dean Alfi)rd. Bishop Wordsworth. Dr. Monsell, Mrs. .\lexaijdcr, Sir H. W. Baker, Earl Nelson. F. T, Palgravc, W. C. Dix. J. Ellerton are noticeable names. New and carefully prepared hymnals are con- stantly appearing, ami the material for them is increasing every day. lu no previous :ige, perhaps, were more and better hymns written than now. In America, having the literature of England at her back, comj)aratively little has been done or was needed. Davies. Dwight, Doane, Onderdonk, Muhlenberg, Bryant, Alexander. Pierpont, Furness, Coxe, Ray Palmer, Sears, and others have given us hymns, a few of which will not die. Here, as in England, attention is being paid to hymnology. and the improvement in this department of knowledge and worship is alrcatly visible. We have better hymnals than our ancestors hud, and the next generation will have still better. Various books have been written on the bibliograjthy of hymnology, but none that thoroughly covers the entire ground. The best thus far is Josiah Mil- ler's Siiujers and i^ou^s of the Church (1872). Fredkiuc M. Bird. Ilyncs, tp. of Russell co., Ala. Pop. 1120. Ilyiiobi'idir [etymologj' uncertain], a family of sala- niaaders cstaldished by Prof. Cope, and with the cranium deficient in an anterior axial bone ; the palatines contigu- ous and prolonged over the parasphcnoid, and with teeth on their posterior external margins: the jirefrontals and }>terygoids arc well de\'clopcd ; the frontal not embraced by parictals and prefrontals ; the orbito-sphenoid separated by a membranous wall from the prootic; the postfronto- squamosal arch is atrophied, iind the occipital condyles avo sessile. The family includes a single genus (IIi/uobitiH) from Japan, and is most nearly related to the Desmog- natbi<l:e and Pletliodonlidie of the U.S. Thkodori: Gill. Ilyodon'tidjr [ from Y, /. c the U-shaped or hyitid bone, and oSoii?, "totith '"]. a family of isospomlylous teleocepha- lous fishes, having a herring-like form ; cycloid scales ; head scaleless ; the margin of the upper jaw formed by tho snpramaxillaries on the side, and with those bones articu- lated to the extremities of the intermaxillaries ; and tho dorsal fin behind the anus; the stomach is not ciecal, and has only one ])yloric appendage ; the air-bladder is simple; the ovaries (lischargc their eggs first into the abdomirml cavity. This group has been constituted esnccially for tho reception of the '" moon-eye heri'ing '' {f/i/oaoii tcrt/iitKu) of tho lakes and Western rivers, to whicli it is peculiar. It is most nearly related to the CUipeids (herrings, shad, etc.). TuKonoiii-; Gill. IIyog:aiioi'dea [from Y, i. c the U-shaped or byi>id apparatus, and (innoidca], a super-order of ganoid fishes, chanieteri/.ed by the completely ossified skeleton ; develop- ment of the intermaxillary and supramaxillarv bones: tho external nasal apertures; the development of tlie njierou- liir apparatus: ami the complete hyoid apparatus (whence the name). It embraces the existing families Ainiida' and Eepidosteida', and numerous extinct forms. (Sec Fisni:s.) Tiironoiti; tiii.i.. Ily'oid Konc, a bono comparatively unimportant in man, supporting the tongue, but represented either in an osseous condition or by rudimentary cartilages throughout tho Vertebral a, and of great iinportiince in the lower classes. in which it is of increased coniplexity, forming the support fur the lirancbial n]iparatus. Ilyopoliim'idjr [from &«, n "hog," and ttotomo?. ''river "J, a family of ungulate mammals belonging to the sub-order Arliodactyla and the group with '• selenodont " molars (f". r. like those of ruminants), with the ujipcr molars crowned with five (.'tantoH- 2 post) well-developetl crescen- tifortn lobes ; Ibo canines of the lower jaw simulating and parallel with the incisors; incisors persistent (5x2) in both jaws; dental series intorruptod by very long diaslo- 1078 HYOPSODUS— HYPERBOLOID. mata above and below ; and the canine teeth of the up- per jaw well developed; the snout was correspondingly elon<'atcd; the mastoid processes but slightly developed, and the zvgomatic pnieesscs of the squamosals were direct- ed forward aud backward from their bases: the lower jaw had its rami produced backward, and frequently armed with tubercles projecting outward from the sides towards the front. This family was richly dcveloi>ed in the early Tertiary period, an.l especially in the Eocene and Miocene a"-e3. the name Anthracotherida; has been also ^iveu to tie group. It embraces numerous genera and Species, among which are Uyopotamm (with its synonyms or sections, Ancdm, C,/clo;,,mtl,m, /lothnodon), AnlUraco- Ihrrinm. T,<inmnl<m, Diplupm, etc. The richest field in which their remains have been found arc the Miocene de- posits of Auvcrgnc in France, and near relations have been found in this country in the Orcodontid.c or Merycodoi- dontid* The species varied in size, from dimensions little more than those of a rat to those of an ass. The members of this family have lately ( 1S75) been the subjects of a very elaborate monograph by Dr. Kowalevsky ("On the Oste- olo.'y of the Hvopotamida;," part i.) in the Philosophical Tru,isacHum o(' ihe Royal Society of London (voh cl.'iin. pp. 19-95, pi. 35-40). Theodore (.ill. Hyop'sodus [(ir. t,. a" hog," 5*«, "appearance," and iSovs a " tooth ■•], an extinct genus of small mammals from the Eocene of Wvomiiig. named from its supposed resem- blance to the suillines, but now known to belong to the Quadrumana. (Sec Qi'.idkumana, Fossil.) 0. C. Marsh. Hyoscyamus. See Henbane. Hypa'tia [-V^aT.-a]. daughter of Theon, a Greek of Al- exandria, no less renowned for her knowledge of mathe- matics than of the \co-Platonic philosophy, which she tau<'ht with applause in her native city. Her beauty and modestv were also celebrated, but the clergy believed that she made use of her influence with Orestes, prefect of Alex- andria, to the injury of St. Cyril, then the archbishop of Alexandria. Accordingly, she was set upon by a mob led by priests, who carried her into a church, stripped her of her clothes, and then tore her in pieces (+15 A. p.). Theod- oret accuses Cyril of instigating this murder, but of his guilt there is no proof. Hyper'bola [(Jr. virep. " over," and giA^eii'. to '• throw "], a plaue curve that mav be generated by a point moving in such a manner that the difreicnce of its distances from two fixed points is always equal to a given distance. The fixed points arc called Jori, and a straight line drawn through them and limited by the curve is called the trausvcracaxia. The centre is that point of the transverse axis which is midway between the foci, and a line through this point perpendicular to the transverse axis is called the coiym/nlc axis This axis does not cut the curve, but it is limited by the condition that the diagonal of the rectangle describes upon it and the transverse axis shall bo equal to the dis- tance between the foci. The ecc.-ntrlcii;/ is the distance from the centre to either focus, divided by the semi-trans- verse axis. The diagonals of the rectangle described on the axes indefinit.ly prolonged are anpnptote* to the curve; as we recede from the centre the curve continually ap- proaches these lines, becomes tangent to them at an infi- nite distance, but never crosses them. These asymptotes are the limits of the curve. If h is less than <i, the angle between the asymptotes is acute and the hyperbola is ncute • if fc is greater than a, the hyperbola is ohtunc ; if 6 i* equal to n, the hvpcrbola is rectangular or cpnlalerul. The hypcrljula is one of the conic sections. The conic Mirface from which every variety of hyperbola may bo cut bv a secant plane is a surface that may bo generated by a straight line moving in such a manner as to touch a given circle and pass through a given point. The directing circle is called the lm«c of the cone, the fixed point is callcil tlie vrric..: the moving line is the y.iio-nO-ijr, any position ol this line is an element, and a line through the vertex and centre of the base is the axh. The surface thus described consists of two parts, united at the vertex, which are called vappen : the lower nappe is the ime that is on the side of the base : the other one is called the upper napnc. By varying the position of the vertex with respect to the base, the' cone mav be made right or oblique, acute or obtuse. If we pass a plane through the vertex of this general cone, it will cut out two elements, and by suitably varying the position of this plane these elements may be made to have any inclination to each other. If we pass a second =ecaui plane parallel to the first, it will cut from the cono a hyperbola whose asymptotes are parallel to the elements cut out by the first plane. The plane of the hyperbolacuts all the elements of the cone except the two to which^^lt is A system of planes parallel to the first cut out a system of similar hyperbolas— that is, hyperbolas whose axes are in a given ratio. If this system of hyperbolas is projected on the plane through the vertex by jirojectors parallel to the line that joins their centres with the vertex of the cone, these projections ivill be equal, in all respects, to the curves themselves, and will all have the same rectilineal asymp- totes ; they will also be curvilinear asymptotes to one an- other. The lines cut out by the plane through the vertex maybe regarded as a hyperbola whose axes are infinitesi- mal ; that is. they may be regarded as the limiting case of this group of similar "hyperbolas. If we take the case of an oblique cone, and suppose the vertex to move towards the plaue of the base, and ultim.atcly to coincide with it, the cone will reduce to a sector of that plane, the elements cut out by the plane through the vertex will coincide with each other, and planes parallel to the first plane will cut out straight lines limited towards the centre; that is, in- definite straight lines with a part removed. Such lines may be regarded as hyperbolas whose foci are at the ver- tices of the transverse axis. Two hyperbolas which are so related that the transverse axis of either is the conjugate axis of the other are called conjngatc hvpcrbolas. Two conjugate hyperbolas have the same asymptotes, and their four foci are all on the circum- ference of the same circle. Conjugate hyperbolas arc so related that a complete discussion of cither necessitates that of the other; in fact, they ought to be regarded as a single curve with four branches. From this point of view the equation of the complete curve may bo written thus: „2,y2 _ 6V2 = T «'-''^. in which a and 6 arc the semi-axes; the upper sio-n corresponds to the branches whose semi- transverse axis is a, and the lower sign to the branches whose semi-transverse axis is b. An examination of the above equation shows that there are four values of i/ for each value of x, and that these values, taken in pairs, are equal with contrary signs; also that there are four values of X for each value of i/, and that these, taken m pairs, are equal with contrary signs; consequently, the entire curve is svmmetrical with respect to both axes. All values of x between - a and + it render one pair of values of i/ imag- inary and the other pair real ; all values of x less than - a, or greater than -I- a, make both pairs of values of y real. In like manner, all values of >/ between - 4 and -^ 4 make one pair of values of x imaginary and the other pair real ; all values of u less than - 6, and greater than -f h, make both pairs of values of x real. The equation of the com- mon asymptotes of the four branches is >^ = ±-^ x, as may be shown by a discussion of the general etjuation of the curve. Two conjugate hyperbolas may be cut from a pair cl con- jugate cones, or from a pair of conjugate hyperboloids. Let there be two straight lines intersecting each other at right angles, and let there be a third lino lying in their plane and passing through their common point; if the last line is revolved about each of the others in turn, it will generate a pair of conjugate cones tangent to each other, and any pl.ane parallel to their axes will cut from these cones a pair of conjugate hyperbolas whose asymptotes are parallel to the elements of contact. (For particular properties of the hvpcrbola refer to special treatises on conic sections, of which Sadiox's Conic Seeiioni is prob- ably the most full and complete.) W. G. Peck. Hyper'boloid, a surface such that the sections made by passing planes in certain directions are hyperbolas, there are two classes— tV/i/jdViti and parabolic hyperbo- loids In the former all the plane sections that are not hvpcrbolas are ellipses, and in the latter all the sections that arc not hvpcrbolas are parabolas. The elliptical hy- perboloids aro divided into two species— hyperboloids of one nappe and hvperboloids of two nappes. The lormcr are warped surfaces, and the latter are surfaces of double curvature. In the hvperboloids of one nappe every section made bv a plane parallel to a tangent plane is a hyper- bola, and all other plane sections are ellipses ; in the hypcr- boloid of two nappes everv section made by a plane parallel to a tangent plane is an ellipse, and all other sections arc hyperbolas. If two conjugate hyperbolas arc revolved about either axis, they will generate a pair of conjugate hvperboloids of revolution, and their common asymptotes will generate a cone which separates the two and is a com- mon asymptote to both. The hyperbola that revolves about its conjugate axis generates a hyperboloid of one nappe; that which revolves about its transverse axis generates a hyperboloid of two nappes; and the asymptotic cone is Eri sr sdi-j;: '.;;r:.t;:- r.E?r I ' ^iss'i^sr: . ..„- ..,.-. .«.. IIYPKKBOREANS-HYPOCHLOROUS ANHY DRIDE; AND HYPOCHLORITES. 107 9 one genus, Afi/xinr, represented by species in the norlhcrn and southern' hemispheres; and (2) Bdellostomida.'. whoso ipeeics are confined to tho Pacific Ocean, one of them as- lendinc as far northward as California. TiiEO. (iii.i.. may bo generated by a straight lino moving so as to touch two straight lines and be parallel to a given plane. The fiXL-d lines, which must not be parallel, are called dlrcctriceg, tlie plane is called the /il'inc direrUir, the moving lino is ciilled the i/mcrulrix, and any position of tho directrix is called an c'lcmrnl of the surface. If we take a new ]ilanc director parallel to the given directrices, and any two ele- ments of the surface as directrices, and generate a surface in the same manner as before, it will coincide with tho sur- face just described. The surface has therefore a double mode of generation. Through any point of the surface two straight lines can always be drawn that will coincide witli the surface, and the plane of these lines will be tan- gent to the surface at that point. Any plane parallel to a tangent plane intersects the suxface in a hyperbola ; every other plane, in a parabola. W. G. Peck. Ilyperbo'reans [YirtpSifKiot, "beyond the north wind." or lioreas], a mythical people who, as the an- cient Oreoks supposed, dwelt in the far North in a happy clime, where sickness, old age, and sorrow were unknown. Herodotus believed that tho myth of tho Hyperboreans was based upon facts; which opinion, it need not bo said, is now known to bo incorrect. Tho myth is variously given. Ilypercor'acoid [(Jr. virtp, "upper," itopaf, -crow, and <iJo5, "loriu"], the upper bono apposed to tho inner surface of tho great scapular cincture of the typical fishes. It is one of three bones which together are homologous with a single cartilage in the more generalized fishes— i'. c. ganoids— and was regarded by Cuvier as tlie radius; by Owen, as tho ulna; and by GcgenbaUr .and Parker, .as tho scapula. TuEODOEiE G11.L. Ilypcri'des, a patriotic Athenian orator, b. about 100 n. c, a friend of Demosthenes and a pupil of Plato and Isoerates ; began life as a practitioner of law ; was faithful to the interests of the people in the contests with Philip, and in H.'iS n. c. proposed to free all the slaves and enfran- chise tho resident aliens and the disfranchised .\thcnians. In .121 he was for a time at variance with llcmostlienes, whom ho accused of receiving money from llarpalus. In .122 II. r. he was cruelly murdered at .Egina by tho emissa- ries of .\nlipator. His private character was not above suspicion, but his public acts appear to have been uni- fr)rnily disinterested and wise. The ancients speak in high terms of the purity and grace of his style, but of his many orations only slight fragments existed up to IS-I", when f.>ur orations were discovered in Egypt, one of which, iirJp r.v{ci';>rirou ("in defence of Euxenippus"), only was entire. Published by liabington (in fac-simile), London. IS.iO, ISo.'i, and I80.S; edited by Blass, Loipsic, ISliB, and by Miiller in Ortitont Ailid, Ptiris, 1358. (Seo Journal „/ I'lill:!;,,,/, vol. i. pp. 10'J-I24.) Ilypcroar'tia [Gr. Jirepuia, "palate," and ipno?, "per- fect"], an order of marsipobranchiates distinguished by the .lovelopniene of the skull and the eceeal nature of tho median external nasal aperture; no duct perforating tho palate, which is therefore left entire (whence the name). The branchial apertures are on each side hehiml the head, and seven in number; the inner branchial ducts debouch into a separate common tube. The ova are small, and su- perliciallv like those of fishes. Tho young undergo a com- plete metan\(irphosi3 after leaving the egg. The larvic have an elongated slit-like mouth, and arc without teeth or eyes. In this condition they were formerly considered to be mem- bers of a peculiar group (Auiuimcirtr»). At maturity tho mouth is circular, surroumled by a lip, and armed with Jontigcrous lamellm on its disk, as well as with lingual teeth; enlarged plates above and below the antrum of tho oesophagus have been called maxillary and mandibular, but they have no homologieal relation with the upper and lower jiiws of ordinary fishes, and tho lower jaw in them is absolutely wanting. This order embraces only a single family of existing species (the Petromy/.ontidie or lam- preys), of which there are at least five genera, three of which are represented in North .\merica. TiiEo. Gii.i.. Ilyperolrc'ta [Gr. uirtpua, "palate," and tptto«. "pcr- forateil"]. an order of marsipobranchiates eharactcri7.cd by the structure of the cranial cartilages iiinl tho complete tubulation of the median nasal aperture, and its |)erforation of (ho palate (and hoiico the nann')- 'I'be branchial a]ier- tures are developed on each side far behind the head, and are variable in number; the inner branchial ducts com- municate directly with the oesophagus ; the ova arc largo, and provided eac h with an oval horny case constricted at each end, and with numerous filaments thereto. Tho em- bryology is still unknown. In tho adult condition tho mouth has no lips and no plates on the disk, but a median tooth is above the entrance of the oesophagus, and two poo- tiniform rows or teeth on the tongue. The order I bus de- fined is composed of two families— vii. (1) Myxinidu), with cending as I Hy'pcrsthene [Gr. vni/i, intensive, and irS.Vot, "strength "], the Labrador hornblende, or, more strictly, the thin-leaved, brittle, and bronze-colored variety of py- ro.xene, an impure ferro-silicatc of magnesia. It is often quite handsome, and is cut as an ornamental stone. Hyper'trophy [Gr. iin-cp, "over," and rpo-frq, "nourish- ment"], in |iatliology,tho overgrowth of any part or organ, or the disproportionately largo size of such an organ. Hy- pertrophy is simple, horaccoplastic, heteroplastic, or hyper- plastic, these terms defining the character of the added ma- terial which gives tho increased size. It may be caused, 1st, by an increased exercise of the part, an exemplification of which we have in the blacksmith's arm : 2dly, by an in- creased supply of blood to a part, the part being healthy; 3dly, from some local derangement, as may be seen in ex- ostoses, fatty tumors, etc. tho treatment of hypertrophy has been very unsatisfactory; in fact, we can do next to nothing for patients suffering from the first and second varieties. The third should be removed by the knife if any inconvenience is caused. EnwAiui J. Berminuiiam. Ilypuotism. See Mesmerism. Hvp'nuin [Gr. iinpai'], a very large genus of mosses of tho sub-order Pleurocarpi and tribe Ilypnea;. Many of them are large, and grow on wot ground or on old logs. Tho U. S. have some 100 species, many of which are Euro- pean also. There are many sub-genera, some of which arc probably worthy of being considered genera. HypoL-hlorous Anhydride; and Hypochlorites, or Bleaching Salts. The compounds that belong iindi-r these heads comprise many of the most valuable of our bleaching and disinfecting agents. Hiipnchlormis aulii/- dridc, formerly called hypochlorons acid (a name wc now use for the product of its union with water), has the composition C1»0, containing its own volume of gaseous chlorine, and by weight 81.0 per cent, of that elcinenl. It is a pale yellow gas, which explodes, though without mu.li energy, when healed. It differs much in odor from chlo- rine, and is condensed by snow and salt to a deep red, very explosive liquid. It is prepared in the gaseous form by reaction of dry prrrijiiintcd mercuric oxide on chlorine gas, an oxyehlori'de of mercury being formed : 2IIgO + t'li = HgCI2HgO + CljO. Both the liquid and the gas combine with water to form hypochlorous acid: CI^^O n Hod = ll^Cl-O-. Solutions of the acid in water may be ]ireparid also by several other methods; as by distilling together, with special precautions, bleaching salt and a mineral acid ; by passing air and muriatic acid gas together through a heated solution of permanganate of potash in a retort; by passing chlorine into water in which carbonate of lime is suspended. In tho latter caso carbonic acid is set free, and tho reaction is as follows ; CaO,C02 -|- CU -I- H2O = CaClj + CO2 + II2CI2O2. Tho aqueous hypochlorous acid that distills over in each ease is yellowish, smells like the gas, has a strong peculiar but not neid taste, and corrodes the skin more rapidly than nitric acid. It cannot be preserved in concentrated form, decomposing spontaneously in time, though it is sufficiently stable to bo distilled. With hydro- ehloric acid it evolves chlorine, as follows: H2t'l-..02 -1- 2IIC1 -= 2H2O ( C'U. It is of course a very powerful, and would bo aVerv useful bleaching and oxidizing agent, wero it not for its "instability, which unfits it for storage and transportation. The immensely valuable properties of this substance must be secured, Ihcref.iic. by means of com- pounds, which arc capable of evolving or producing it. Hill,;,lil;iilr „i' piilimh is the active ingredient of what has been known as " JavMr wnlcr," or " rnu (/<• Jni^rllc ;" also called " chloride of potash." This is a colorless liquid, of peculiar smell, which is prepared by passing chlonno iras through a cold solution of carbonate ot potash : •!K,0,C02 +("U - 2CO2 I- 2K<'1 + K.CljOj. It, therefore, contains both potassio hypochlorite and chloride of potas- sium. Tho potassio carbonate solution must be kept cold. and the operation must conse before an excess of chlorine over two equivalents for each one of potash-carbonate has been used: as. unless an excess of the latter is present, potassio ehloriite and chlorite may be formed, with an in- creased proportion of chloride of liotassium. Ilenee. strong .lavelle water of necessity contains an excess of unchanged potassio carbonate. Another method of preparing .lavello water is by adding to a solution of " bleaching powder " or "chloride'of lime" (see below) a soluliim of potassio car- bonate, in quantity sufficient to precipitate all the lime as calcic carbonate. Tho clear decanted liquid will contain the same constituents as before, but will bo likely to bo less potent, or to contain less, ill Jiroportion. of the active con- stituent. Javello water is used lor taking out stains, such 1080 HYPOCHONDRIA— HYPOPHOSPHOROUS ACID. as those of fruit, from wbito textile fabrics, and for bleach- ing wood, straw, etc. Jfi/porliloritc of soda, in solution, constitutes what is c:i11clI '* Labarraquc's disinfecting liquor," after a Parisian druggist who niauufacturcd aiidsold it fDrdisinfe-cting pur- poses. It is also called *' chloride of soda," and in medicine '* chlorinated soda." The methods of preparation are pre- cisely simihir to those given above for the potash-hypo- ehlorite, u^ing sodic in:-tcad of potassic carbonate. In making the Labarraquo solution, for whitdi sodic eariionatc and gaseous chlorine are the materials, but half the amount of chlorine needed for complete reaction is usimI, and no cnrbonic aeid is evolved, being retained a(iparently as sociic bicarbonate. This is stated to furnish a more per- manent or stable preparation than the other method. The sodic hypoc;lilorite solution, as prepared for commerce, has a feeble chlorinc-Iiko odor, alkaline reaction, and strong bleaching and disinfecting powers. It is considered a very valuable m:'dicinal material. H;ip>ch(nrit€ of Lime. — Under this head it is proper to treat the important commercial product known as hlench- iuj pnwih'r or chloride ttf lime (tier. Chlorkalk; Fr. chlo- ruve de rhmtx). It is proved, however, by recent re- searches th.it 8olid di'if bleaching powder docs not contain cal(;ic hypochlorite, which is first formed by the action of water or moisture upon it. The chloride of lime of com- merce is |)re])arcd by exposure of dry or slightly damp slacked lime to chlorine gas. The lime is spread on trays placL'd in a stone chamber whoso interior can bo inspected through glass windows. The gas must be passed in slowly at first, to ]>revent heating of the lime, which would pro- mote t!ic formation of chloride of calcium, to the detriment of the proiUict. The wliole time required is about four days. If the process he too rapid, and heating occurs, there is formed, according to Schourcr-Kcstncr, some calcic chlorite, CaCI-jOi. It forms a dry or slightly moist gray- ish-white powder, having a peculiar, highly nauseous odor, differing from, though suggesting, that of chlorine. It gradually discomposes and deteriorates with time, and can- not be preserved in sealed packages, by reason of slowly evolved gas, probably chiefly oxygen. Barrcswil proposed to corapre.'S it into cakes or blocks made as hard as stone, asserting; that it was tnus rendered far more permanent. Chemical Compusitlon nnd Cnn^titntion. — This has been the subject of much controversy, and various theories havo been successively supposed proved, adopted, and aban- doned. Of these the one even now generally in vogue, and taught in the textbooks of all countries, makes it to be a mixture of calcic chloride aud calcic hypochlorite. CaCIa + C.aCI-jOj, whi;di would be simply formed by the interaction of 2CaO and -ICl. As long since, however, as 1SG2, Fre- scnius showed that cold water, when first added, dissolves from it chiefly calcic clilorido, and that to get much hypo- chlorite requires successive washings and time. lie sug- gested tiiat iiypochlorite may not pre-exist, but may ho formed from some unknown ingredient by reaction with the water. Since 1867 this fact has been confirmed, and the view rendered certain by J. Kolb, who founcl that pure dry hydrate of lime, when completely saturated by chlo- rine, fiinns a mass containing .'JS.,') per cent, of the latter, and having the empirical cr)mposition Cn3ll606Ci4, in which the three equivalents of water and the three equivalents of oxide of calcium (hypothetically or possibly present) are wholly essential, and cannot be eliminated without a com- plete destruction of the constitution of tlio bo Iv. Wafer, by its solvent action, leads to a breaking up into hydrate, chloride, and hypochlorite: CuallcOgCU -= CaO.IIaO + CnCl2 + CaCloOj + 2II20. If we suppose the last factor of this equation, the 21130. to pre-exist, as such, in tiie bleach- ing powder, then the latter is a Iiydrato of an unknown coni]>ound whose empirical formula is CasCUH^tOi. The whole question of the true nature and constitution of this product in the solid form would appear, therefore, to be now reo])ened, and to be a matter for speculation and in- vestigation. It is regarded now as proved that in the at- mosphere, by virtue of its moisture, the same breaking up occurs n:< represented above with liquid water, and that then, by the carbonic acid of the air, hypochlorous acid is set free from the hypochlorite that has been formed : to which latter acid the diHin/cctiiif/ action is due, and not to the evolution of free chlorine, as has been most genor.ally believed. Ohtoriinetrif — Tcntinff the Value of Tileaehinff Powder. — This is n highly important laboratory operation. The jiractical point to bo settled is of cour.se the rehitivc amount of active chlorine, or its equivalent, that is present. At the present day this must be. and is almost altogether, ef- fected by rapid methodfi of the volumetric class, in which very closely and accur.atcly mennnrcd quantities arc em- ployed, of solutions of known strength or value, of appro- priate reagents. One simple method that has been much used is to prepare a solution of the lower oxide of iron (ferrous oxidcj of known strength, and ascertain how much of it a certain weight of tlie bleaching powder will oxidize up to the higher, or ferric oxide; the jioint being deter- mined by testing — after every addition otthe normal ferrous solution — a drop of the solution cx;imined with red prus- siatc of potash. Another method is to mix the weiglied bleaching powder with muriatic acid an<l iodide of jiotas- sium, iodine being thus set free in amount equivalent to the effective clilorine, and coloring the liciuid brown. A nor- mal solution of hi/poHidphite of soda is then added, in suc- cessive measured quantities, until the color vanishes, when the quantity of hyposulpliite that has been used will he a datum for the calculation uf the value. ^Iitny other meth- ods, similar in principle, have been used. A first-c^a.^s, fresh-made ariiclo should furnish 28 to 30 per cent, of ef- fective chlorine. Ili/pochloiife of Mtigur^ia. — This, in solution — formed either by passing chlorine into a mixture of magnesia with water, or by precipitating a solution of chloride of lime with sulphate of magnesia — is recommended for bleaching uses by Bolley, on the grounds that its action is more rapid tlian common bleachinp;-powder by reason of the more ready decomposition of the magnesia compound, and that magnesic hydrate is less caustic, and hence less liable to injure delicate fabrics, than the calcic hydrate. lIi:.\KY "WtrtTZ. H^*pochon'dria (pl.)» [Gr. Ti vToxoi-Spta, the regions "under the cariilagcs"], in an.atomy, the regions of the abdomen on eilher side of tho e] igastrium. The name is alro given to tho diseased condition of late more frequently called hypochondriasis by the medical profession. Hypochondri'asis [ro-callcd from tho old belief that the hypochondria wcro the scats of tho disease], a morbid state of mind, moro common in men than in women, in which tho patient imagines that ho sutlers from diseases which ho does not posrcss, and in which he sufTcrs froia subjective sensations entirely unaccounted for by the ob- jective signs of dircaso iu his case. Tho disease itself is real. It may result from dyspepsia, from Ecxi;al excess, or from other causes interfering with tb.o nutrition of tho nerve-centres. Tl.c disease may amount to positive in- sanity, and is then classed fis melancholia, J'cdicuio and hygienic regimen often do but little good. Chccrfid com- panionship, fichinr, hunting, and boating, long journeys, even tho reading of well-sclcctcd novels — in fact, arything which will divert the mind from its habit of morbid self- observation — will bo found useful. Ilypocor'acoid [Gr. vtto, " under," Kcipaf, "crow," and c(6o?. *■ form "J, the inferior bone connccttd with tho inside of tho great scapular girdle of the typical fishes. It is ono of three bones which together arc homologous with tho intrascapular or coracoid cartilage of the ganoid fishes, and was regarded by Cuvier as the ulna; by Owen, as tho radius : by Gegenbaiir, as the prccoraeoid ; and by Parker, as the coracoid. Tiicodorc Gill. Ilypocy'cloid [Or. un-o. " under," *' within," and kvk\o~ ct6^s. *' circular''], a curve whose course is generatid by a ]»oint iu the circumference of a circle roiling on the con- cave side of a fixed circle. When the rolling circle has a radius equal to just half that of the fixed circle, ono revo- lution of the smaller circle will generate a hy])ocycIoid equal to the diameter of the greater circle. If the rolling circle is the larger, the hypoej'cloid becomes equivalent to an epicycloid. If the generating point of a hypeeycloid be in the plane of the rolling circle, but not in its circum- ference, the curve generated is a hypotroehoid; and if tho r.adius of the fixed circle is double that of the rolling one, the liypotrochoid becomes an ellipse. Ilyp'o^enc [from tho Or. vwd, •* under," and yiVoMoi, *M<) be" or " to be born "]. a term in geology. ])ro])Osed by Lyell to designate roeks tliat arc nether-formed, or formed at great depths, nnd consequently underlie sedimentary and ejected volcanic rocks, which are of superficial origin. (Jranito, gneiss, and diorito arc examples of h^'pogcno rocks. Ilvponitric Acid. Pee NixRocrN, by PnoF. C. F. rnvNPi.r.i!. Vu. I).. M. D., LL.D. Ilypophos'phites, salts of hypophosphorousacid. In medicme the term is currently used as referring to potas- sium, sodium, and calcium hypophosphite, which arc con- sidered by some to yield the mcdicinnl effects of phos- phorus, while Uaa from the laffcr's jioisonous qualities. They were not loni; since highly vaunted as remedies for consumption, but have not sustained their reputation in that particular. (See Pno<irnoRis.) EnwAim Cimitis. Ilypophosphoroiis Acid and Ilypophosphiles, Pee I'Hosi-iioKi s, by Pitor. C F. CuASDLnu, Pii. D., j>I. D., LL.D. HYPOPHTHALMIDiE-HYPSOMETRY. 10«1 Ilypophthal'midoE [Gr. 6to." under —i. c. "inferior or 1..W .l„wu "-i^aaAMM, "c.vc," »nd ill"; the family terminal ion], a faiuilv of nemaloKnatiii or silurouls distin- cuishca bv the persistent distinction and very sliclil mod- ifieation of llic anterior dorsal vertebrie. and Willi the head dcnresfcd; oiiereula dcvclu|,cd; Ihe inferior pharyngeal holies united for their entire length ; branchioste-a rays nnineroiis; the dorsal lin developed from the caudal por- tion of the vertebral column: and the skin naked. Ihis faniilv is confined to South America, and is represented thcre'i.y two genera—//-//'"/''"''"'"'""-"'"' i^'^*''>"'' species and //.•,'.,7e.„», with a single one. These differ from all other repVesentatives of the order in the seiiaralion of the anterior veriebric in contradistinction to their eonnucneo into one, as in the other members of Ihe group ; the eyes arc situated very low down behind and below the angle of the mouth; and' from this peculiarity Ihe typical genusand family have received their names. In other respects they hue fonsiderablo superficial resemblance to the cat-fishes of our own waters. TiiKOiJOUE Gill. Ilyposul'pliitCS, salts of hyposulphurous acid. Me- dicinally, the alkaline hyposulphites may be used for the same purpose as the corresponding sulphites. (Sec .SuL- PiiiTKs.) KowAuu Crims. Ilyposulpliurous and Ilyposulphuric Acids, Hyposulphites and Ilyposulphatcs. Sec Si Liiitit, by I'll"!-, r. V. CiiANiii.Kii, Pit. !>., M- D-i LL-D- Ilypotlicca'tion [Ur. iiro, ''under," and riSijui, to "place"]. In the civil law this was a kind of pledge in which the possession of the thing pledged remamed with the .Icblor instead of being delivered to the creditor or lender, as in eases of pledge properly so called. Strictly speakin', it applies to iminovablo things, not susceptible of delivery from hand to hand. (See Plkikik.) The tcrni is but little used at common law, but is sometimes employed with reference to bottomry bonds, which arc given to ob- tain a loan of money by making a vessel security for tho repayment. (See liorroMiiy.) (;ko:iue Chask. Revised by T. W. Dwionr. llypoth'csis [(Jr. irTdSetru, from vworWrii^i, to "place under," to " sujipose"], a judgment which is provisionally proposed as an explanation for some fact or group of lacts in science, and which may he discarded if found untrue. When an examination of a sufileicnt number of tho facts of the case shows that the hypothesis will stand tho tests of exporienee, and is not inconsistent with known facts and prini-iples, it becomes a lhci>n/. Tho lii/potliciin is tho work of illla^'inalion. the t/iroiy/ the fruit of observation and rea- soning? The lii/jmihciU is the temporary scafl'olding by means of which' the arch, tho perfect theory, is constructed. Ilypsom'otry [l!r. i;i;<o!, " height," and ^irpov, " meas- ure"), a. branch of geodesy which treats of the measure- ment of heighls, cither absolute, when referring to the sea- level, or relative, between any two distant jilaces on Iho earth's surface. There arc three jirineipal and iiidepeiidenl methods in use. Tho first and most aceuratc depends on llic property of (luids when at rest to jirescnt their surfaces at right angles to the direction of gravity ; the second depends on the angular measure of elevation, in combination with Iho kno'.vn distance of the object, and having regard to tho effect of atmospheric refraction: tho third and least accurate method depends on the law of tho decrease of pres- sure of the atniosphcre willi an increase of altitude. The first method cmplovs Ihe levelling instrument, the second tho theodolilc, Ihe third the barometer. Since the intro- duction of the aneroid baromeler (an inslrumont of pre- cision and of great simplicity and iiortability) the molhod of measuring differences of elevations by means of Iheteni- peralnreof boiling water has almost been abandoned; it depends on the kiiown relation between the variations in the atnios]iheric pressure and the corresponding changes in tho boiling-point of water, as measured by a very Bcnsilive Iherinomcter; Ihe results, however, aro subject to eonsiiler- ablc unecrlainly. The aenond or Irigononielrical method is the only one applioablc in ease one or both stations aro inaccessible. (I) Spirit levelling is generally conducted as follows: The levelling instrument is set up nearly midway between any two oonsvcutivo stations, A and li, on the line of levels, and after its ailjuslment the readings of the slaves placed over Ihe stations aro siicceBsively taken : tho lino of sight having been made horizontal, the difference in the readings cquals'lhe differenecof heighls (A— I!). The inslrument is next placed miilwav between stations li and (', and Iho difference of heights (B— I') i» ascerlaine.l in a similar way ; this process is repealed until Ihe lerminal point is reached, which is freqiicully many hundred miles distiint from tho starting point. Tlie principal adjustment of the inslrunient consists in placing Ihe optical axis or lino of eollimation, asdelerinincd by the centre of Ihe objective and tho intersec- tion of the cross-threads, parallel to a tangent to the level, thus rendering the sight-lino horiiontol. For aeeuralo measure tho level must bo very sensitive; it is filled with Fig. 1. Level, alcohol or ether, and ils inner surface is generally ground to a, radius between 50 and 250 metres, and its least count usually varies between a few seconds and less than a single second for the best levels. The magnifying jiower of Ihe telescope emjiloyed is generally within the limits of :;0 and JO for the better class of instruments. To render the effect of any imperfection in tho yarious adjustments the least possible, also to make the effect of redaction in the line of sight and of the earth's curvature insensible, the instrument is'placcd midway between any two stations; if this .should not be the case, corrections for difference of refraction and for difference of curvature for tho distances to the staves must be ap)ilied. This is done readily by means of tables. The distances maybe stepped off", or may be measured by a tape-line, but arc most readily ascertained by a telemeter arrangement in the telescope; such, for instance, as two horizontal threads equidistant from the central thread. Iho number of divisions on the staff includeil between them being read oil', from which tho dislanee becomes known. If tlu; distance between telescope and sliiff isnot limited by Ihe slope or configuration of the ground, il should be taken as great as the optical power of the instrument and the sensibility of the level will permit without detrimenl to accuracy : ordinarily, the distance varies hetwern !>» and 150 mitres, though occasionally it may even be ilouble the last-mentioned distance. The staff should he divi.led deei- mally (the unit being the metre or foot) ; and if rend by tho observer Ihrough the telescope, which is preferable, should ho divided into block epaces willi block figures, so as to be seen at the greatest jiossible distance ; if Ihe pointing is lo he made by means of a movable largcl, lime will be saved, after the assistant has placed the target very nearly at the correct height, by effecting tho exact pointing Ihrough dis- levelling the instrument and eorreeliug Ihe result for change of level? Uespecting tho accuracy atlainable, the mean error may be staled to be about -jjoo "'' ""-' ''''*l'""''' f'"" telescope's magnifying ten times, hut will decrease lo about „..t... with the" best instruments. ]5y convention, tho average surface of the ocean has been chosen as the zero- level from which to count abscdule heighls: lo I'onueet a lino of levels with it a scries <d' consecutive high and low waters must be observed, from which the mean or halt-licle level is to be deduced. It follows that if we could level from the enualor to the pole, we would find no dillerciiee ol height, though we ni)proaehed Ihe ei.rlh's cenlie by nearly K! miles. The difference of height between any two distant Blalions should be Ihe same, no matter over what route the levels have been carried; Ihat is, the local defieclions ol the direelion of gravity will not affect the result, provide.l the inlermediate slalions have not been loi> hir aparl in passin- over a region of rapidly ehangiiig deviations ol Ihe plumbriine. (For detailed infornialion the reader may eon- suit TlK-mrtiKhc widprurtlHchr A ulrilmi;/ sum NirelUm,. von S. Stamiteii (Wien, ISI5); 7;ihl<„ „/ ll.-!,,l,t>. ,ic. </w.r. iniiicd III/ llir (Imil rriijiinnmellu-iU .Sm-r,;/ ;/ fiiiliil (Cal- cultn, ISfii!) ; Nmlhiimit ile prfcUion dc la Sinnac, nmn, In dii;i-ilmi do. A. Hirtoh ct E. Pluntamour (Qcnive, liftle, Lyon, IH71).) ' . . ... (2) Trigonometrical levelling consists in measuring the vertical angle bi'lween Ihe zenilli of Ihe slalion occupied mid tho ilislallt ohiect Ihe beighl of which is lo be d.tcrmined : I he hori/.onlal dislanee to Ihis object must he known, and is gen- erally given by triangulati and the measureil angle must bo increased iin account of refraclion, which may be taken roughly ns proportional to the length of are of junclion, and onlinarilv ei|nal to about ,', of the corresponrling nnr-le al ihe earth's centre. Wc may either inensiire Iho double zeiiilh distance— one-half of Ihe operation with 1082 HYPSOMETRY. position of theodolite, say circle left, the other half with circle right (the instrameut having been turned 1S0° in azimuth) — or if the zenith point (or horizontal point) of the vertical circle be previously determiucil, it will suffice to measure the single zenith distance {or altitude, a doprcs- sion being a negative altitude). Irrespective of other ad- justments of the theod- olite, those for eolliina- tion, for vertieality of the vertical axis, and for horizontality of the horizontal axis of the telescope must be care- fully attended to ; the observer should also ex- amine the vertieality of the plane of his circle to the last-named axis. The principle of rejieti- tion (use of the repeat- ing circle) is not recom- mended unless the grad- uation be very inferior in comparison with the optical power of the tel- escope and the sensi- tiveness of the level ; the accuracy depends mainly on the level, which must be read be- fore and after reversal. We may also measure ditferences of zenith distances or small an- KiG. 2. Theodolite. gles of elevation (or depression) micrometrically, either by an eye-piece micrometer or by a micrometer screw, as shown in the cut of the levelling instrument. All measures of zenith distances are affected by any deflection of the plumb-lines which may exist in the vertical planes of the stations, but the uncertainties in the results for height de- pend chiefly on the variations of the atmospheric refrac- tion, on account of which, for accurate work, the distances may be limited to about 20 and 2j kilometres (say 12 and 15 statute miles). For such distances very accurate results may be had by observing only within about two hours of apparent noon, during which period the refraction is steady and is near its minimum value; observations taken on ob- jects at great distances, say 100 kilometres and above, should of necessity be restricted to this period of the day (from 10 A. M. to 2' p. M.). Although the refraction exhibits daily variation, and is a function of the temperature and pressure of the atmosphere, yet it is extremely irregular; in its ordinary variations the coefficient keeps within the range of ^ to ^g, but occasionally and abnormally it may be several times greater, or it may become zero, or even take a negative value. The refraction is slightly greater for lines crossing water than for lines over laud; it diminishes with altitude and with increasing tempera- ture, but increases with increasing atmospheric pressure; in general, its value depends on the law of the distribution of temperature with height. Thus, the more rapid the de- crease of temperature the smaller the refraction, and the slower the decrease of temperature the greater the refrac- tion ; with a suihcicntly rapid decrease of temperature it may become zero, with no decrease, or for a constant tem- perature the refraction is large,and will still increase should the temperature increase with height. If we measure only one zenith distance, a value of the refraction must bo adopted suitable to the circumstances; if we measure the zenith distances at the two stations, the differeneo in the two results for diflercnce of heights will indicate a change in the value of the coeffieieut and the error of the assumed value combined : if we measure reciprocal and simultaneous zenith distances, the coefficient of refraction can bo elim- inated under the supposition that it is the same at each station, and that there is no effect from station errors, and from such measures its value may bo determined. If, be- sides, the difl"erence of level between the two stations has been ascertained by the spirit-level, the angle of refraction may be deduced for each station, and we shall generally find the refraction at the upper station less than at the lower one. Observations of the sea-horizon in connection with au assumed value for the refraction will roughly de- termine the height of the station ; the state of the tide may also be cont^idered. (For the usual trigonometrical formula) applying to these cases see art. Oeoi>ksy, also the account of the principal triangulation of the ordnance survey of Great Britain and Ireland, by Lieut. -Col. II. James (London I85S).) In Xo9. 147S-1480 and 1587-1500 of the Antronomiache Nachrtchten (IStit'i), Dr. Bauernfeind has developed at length the equation to the path of a ray of Tight passing througli the atmosphere, based upon Laplace's differential equation for the atmospheric refraction. {Mecuniqnc Celeste, tome iv. p. 24G.) An application of this to experiments made in California will be tound in Count Sttrvet/ licport for 1871, Appendix No. II. (3) Passing now to the measure of heights by means of the barometer {see IJauometek), this instrument, in the form of a mercurial barometer, may be regarded as essen- tially a balance in which, under the influence of gravity, the mass of the superincumbent atmosphere is equilibrated by a mass of mercury: in tlie Anehou) IIarometer (which see), on the contrary, the atmospheric pressure is counter- acted by the elasticity of a corrugated metallic vessel (gen- erally filled with gas, sometimes supplied with a spring). A change of gravity could not therefore be indicated by an instrument of tlic lirst form, but would be by one of the second form. Thus, if two such instruments, side by side, were to read alike at the equator, they would, if they could be trunsported to the Pole, differ at the latter jdace, the mercurial barometer remaining unehnnged, but the aneroid indicating the grentcr pressure existing at the Pole. This distinction should be kept in view in hypsometry : the ane- roid barometer, however, is generally used only as a difl"er- eutial instrument, and as such maypo;^soss great accuracy, especially when the following reductions arc carefully at- tended to. According to Mariottc's law, the elastic force of the at- mosphere is proportional to its density: further, the den- sities decrease in a geometrical progression when the alti- ! tudcs increase in an arithmetical one; this leads directly ; to the simple logarithmic formula for the difference of height, //^= AT log —, where 6 and h' are the respective heights of the mercurial columns at the lower and upper stations, and N represents a numerical coefficient, found either theoretically or practically by comparisons of results by the spirit-level or vertical angles and the barometric pressure. iV equals nearly IS, 400 metres. The mercurial columns should be at the same temperature; if not, they may be reduced to 0° C, or H may be corrected by means log 7- — "TT:;^ )- Since wo must rise 6 1 2 ( o / higher in warmer than in cooler air for the same decrease in height of the mercurial column, a correction for tempera- ture is needed; taking the cocflieicnt of expau>ion for air = j^3 for the centigrade scale, and for t and t' the atmo- spheric temperatures at the lower and upper stations, the factor becomes jl-f 0.00367 ~^'~)? fm'tlitr, multiplying with the factors (1 + 0.00262 cos 2.^) to allow for change of / 2n -1- h\ gravity with change of latitude <f), and with 1 1 H - I, to allow for decrease of gravity with height, a being the altitude of the lower station above the sea, R the earth's radius (about 0.'i(U'i740 metres), and h an approximate value for //, we obtain finally the expression — ^=l84oo"^^log^,-Y^^^+y^^^^ 1 1 -H * I . This formula is only intended as a typical one; numerous expressions have been given in various forms, of greater or less complexity, with various numeri- cal coefficients, for different units, and for use either with or without logarithms, most of them accompanied by tables to facilitate their application. They may be divided into two classes — those adapted to a mean state of humidity of the air, such as Laplace's (see Mecauiquc (VUstc, tome iv. p. 292), and those taking into consideration the actual amount of the vapor pressure, such as Besscl's (see AHtnmoiitische XnvhrU-htnt, Nos. 279, May, 1835. and :J56, 357, Sept., 1838), which contain perhaps the most complete investigation made on the subject. The first height determined baro- metrically was that of the Puy de i>omo in 1(>48. at the suggestion of Pascal, and I>r. Ilallcy was the first (in 1080} to establish the correct theoretical basis for computation of heights; many of the formula} coustruetcd since his time have been collected by Dr. Kiihlmann. who also gives an ex- tensive list of authors showing the great extent of the lit- erature on the barometer. (See Vie harometyischcn Jl'dhen- nicHnutiffen, etc., von Dk. R. Ht'HLMANN, Leipsic, 1870. For a selection of formula) and tables, sec the Smithsonian Mct^-oroloffical and Physiotojical Tables, by Dn. A. GUYOT, AVasbington, 1850.) Respecting the accuracy in resulting heights attainable by means of the barometer very divergent opinions exist, but it is believed that with close attention to sources of error, instrumental and local, and especially to the efl"ect of tho daily variation of the pressure and temperature, IIYRACEUM— HYRCANUS. 1083 Flo. 3. great relative accuracy may bo reached. Errors of con- siderable muguiiiidc may creep in if tlie two stations are at a great di.-tuiice horizonlally, but tlicy will arise princi- pally from the difiicully uf ascertaining the true tempera- ture of the intervening stratum of air, whieh cannot be taken equal to ihe mean of the temperature observed at the lower and upper stations; indeed, the problem has been inverted, ami from the known (by level or triangula- tion) ditfercnec of height and tlio observed pressures the temperature of the air has been inferred. In this way it was ascertained that the intervening air partakes very con- siderably less of Ihe daily varialion of tem|)er:iture than what is found by direct observations near the eartli's sur- face. Ramond (about 1810) appears to have been the first to notice the relation betiveen barometrically-deduced heights and the time of the day when these measures were taken ; Kreil proposed the use of the annual meaus of pressure and temperature to secure reliable results. I'lauta- mour and Itiihlinann have given special attention to this subject; it appears that diflercnccs of heights, barometri- cally determined, reach their maximum value shortly be- fore the time of the greatest heat of the day ; this is fully developed on clear days, less so in cloudy weather ; in win- ter, differences of heights are generally found too small, and too great in summer; heights deduced from annual means differ little from the truth. For accurate hypsometric measures the hours recommended arc the following : begin- ning with March and ending with October, S, 7A, 7, 6\, GJ, 7, S, 10 A. M., and 11. 7, 7, 9*, flj. 7J, r. M. (See Cuatl Sur- vci/ Hepurl for I.S71, Appendi.i No. 11.) To correct or reduce to a given place the reading (-4) of an aneroid to the corresponding reading (B) of a mer- curial barometer, we may use the relation It = A -^-x-^-y ((_ („l + I {;) —/)„!, where J- is an index correction, y is a temperature coelfieient, and z a pressure coefficient; which three quantities have to be ascertained e.\perimentally for each instrument, and require to be tested from time to time, to make sure of their constancy, or otherwise allow for change. In one of the latest forms of the instrument, in whieh the elastic chamber is doing no mechanical work, it baa been provided with a long index-arm, and the reading is made after bringing two lines to coincidence by means of a screw (made by J. Goldschmid of ZUrich). When the temperature of the boiling-point of water has been observeil, wo may linil the corresponding indication of a mercurial barometer by means of Kegnault's table, revised by A. Morit?,, as given by A. Guyot in the Smilhmminn Mrtroro- liiijlcal and Plii/nirnl Tuhlca {Mi»ccl- laneoM Collecii'm Xo. 31, Washing- ton, 1859). The idea of measuring heights by means of the temperature of boiling waleroriginatcd in the early f)art of the last century with Fahrcn- leit i/'lill. 7V.in»., vol. xxxiii.) and Cavallo (/'/iiV. 7V'iii<i., vol. Ixxi.); the apparatus itself is duo to Dr. Wollas- ton (Pkil. rrriii.., 1817, part ii.). I'ig. ;t presents the instrument as made by Cascllaof Lon'Ion. The idea of delineating a surface by contour-lines, or lines of equal level, originated in I7:(7 with the Academician Buaehe, w ho applied the principle to lines of eiiual depth, but refers also to those of equal elevation. A general hypsometric atlas was pub- lished atWintcrthur in IS.^0 by J. M. Zieglcr, hut beautiful and most in- structive applications of tliis princi- pie may bo seen in the hypsomctrio charts in Dr. Petcrmann's Ocoyraphitclicn Milthribmiicii (dotha) ; for instance, in No. ii., 1875. C. A. Scmott. Ilyrn'ceiim, a substance imported from Ihe Capo of (i J Il.qie. and now believed to bo Ihe excrement of the klip-ilas (////r/ij- Cnpentin). ( ,'<ie IIvii.vx.) It is a brown pitch like substance, having much the taste ami smell of American castoronm, for which it has been used us a sub- stitute. It was formerly collected by the colonists for a ferlilizcr, but the supply has given out. Ilyrac'id.TC [Or. iipof, "mouse," and idir, the family termination], the only existing family of mammals of the order llyracoidca, at oneo distinguishable by the rabbit- like form of the body anil the small size of the animals (about that of the rai.bill, combined with the peculiarities noticed under the ordinal name. The best known species of the family is Ili/ruj- .SViKiidcm, an inhabitant of Pales- tine, known under the vernnoular designation of ii-iti', and whoso ancient designation has bei'n translated in the ae- oepted version of the liible, oouey — i. c. rabbit. The species is frequent in rocky regions in Palestine. (See Tristram's Xaturat Hifluri/O/ the Bible.) A number of other species are found in Africa. Theodoiie tiii.i.. Ifyracoi'dea [dr. vpof, " mouse," and oidt-n, the super- family affix], an order of educabilian placental or mono- dclph mammals, with feet whose inferior surfaces are fur- nished with ]pads (as in rodents and carnivores), toes (four to the front, three to the hind feet) with the terminal pha- langes encased in hoofs (inner nail of hind foot curved) ; fore feet with the carpal bones in two iutcrlocking rows, the cuneiform extending inward and articulating with the magnum, and thus forming an enlarged attachment for the ulna, which is anirorscly produced, and the unciform and lunar scparatcil by the interposition of the cuneiform and magnum ; hind feet with the astragalus at the anterior portion extended and much deflected inward, articulating in front only with the navicular ; teeth ]icculiar, the molars resembling those of the rhinoceros, and the incisors four in each jaw, those of the upper jaw next to the symphysis with persistent pul]is. long and curved, and those of the lower straight and normal. The placenta is deciduous and zonary. This order has been constituted for the reception of the Hyraeida-, which were formerly supposed by natu- ralists to be related to the rodents, but were later (c. </. by Cuvier, etc.) referred next to the rhinoceros. TjiEononr. Gii.L. Ily'rax [Or. ipaf, "mouse"], a genus of herbivorous mammals belonging to the order llyracoidca. These ani- mals were formerly classed with the rodents on account of superficial resemblances, and Cuvier considered them as closely related to the rhinoceros from the form of the molar teeth. They are now regarded as constituting a distinct order. In fully adult animals the dental formula is — in- 1_1 . n— , 4—4 3—3 cisorsr^; canines— j; premolars ^— ; molars ^^. The upper incisors arc large, triangular, and somewhat tusk-like ; as in the rodents, they are curveil and grow from persistent pulps. The lower incisors arc straight and nor- mal in their mode of growth. The molar series strongly resembles that of the rhinoceros in miniature. The soles of the feet are furnishc<l with pads, as in the rodents and carnivores, but the terminal joints arc furnished with hoofs or flat nails, four in front and three behind. The inner- most nailofthc hind foot is peculiarly curved. The astrag- alus articulates in front only with the navicular. There are from 29 to lU dorsolumbar verlebru", the greatest number known in any terrestrial mammal. The tail is short or wanting, the body is covered with fur, and the snout or muffle is split, as in the rodents, .'icveral species have been described, but they are found only in Syria and Africa, where they inhabit rocky places and arc known as damans. The best-known species is perhajis the klipdas ( //. cii;jc)i«i«) from South .\friea. //. .SVimi'dein or J/. Si/n'tiriia is the coney of the liil)le, where it is erroneously regarded as a ruminant from its habit of moving the jaws constantly from side to side. 0. C. M.\iisii. Hyrca'llia, an ancient district of Asia, the present Mazauderan, was bounded N. by the Caspian Sea, E. and S. by Parthia, and W. by Media. It was inhabited by nom'ades of rude and savage habits, and its extensive for- ests swarmed with wild beasts, of whieh Ihe Ilyrcanian tiger is often mentioned. The honey of its bees was much appreciated. Ilyrcail'us ['YpKaw], the name of several historic Jews of the Maccaba;an period, of whom the most noteworthy are (1) ,ToiiN llyni'AM-s, son and successor of Simon Macea- banis, prince and high ]iriest of the .lews, restorer of the independence of ,ludiEn, and founder of the monarchy, which continued in his family till the accession of llerod. When, in i:!7 ll. r., Antioehiis VI I. had established himself on the throne of Syria, ho deterniincd to reiluee .luda'a to its former condition of a tributary province of the Syrian monarchy. Ills general, Cenilebeus, invailed the country with a great force, but was ilcfeatcd by .Judas and John Ilyrcanus, two sons of Simon Maecabieus. Shortly alter, however, in 135 ii. n., Simon, together with his two sons, Judas and Mattalhias, was assassinated liy his 8(.n in-law. Ptolemy. Ilyrcanus now assumed Ihe title of prince and high priest, and led an army against Ptolemy, whom he shut up in the fortress of Dagon, Meanwhile, Antioehus Sidetcs invaded Judica with a large army, anil Ilyrcanus, unable to meet him in the field, retreated to Jerusalem, where he was besieged and pressed hard by Antioehus. At lust a treaty of peace was concluded in 133 n. c, accord- ing to whieh tbo fortifications of Jerusalem were to be do- molished and an annual tribute paid to Syria. Four years aflerwanls he followed .\ntiochii8 with a force of .lewish auxiliaries on his expedition against Parlliia. but was for- tunate enough to escape Iho disaster which overtook the 1084 HYRE, DE LA— HYSTERIA. Syrian king and army by an earlier return to Judsea. As soon as AnfioehuH was dead, Hyrcanus hastened to secure t!ic independence of his own reahu, and sent an cmbas^sy to Rome in order to get the alliance conL-kided during the reign of Simon confirmed by the senate. In this he suc- ceeded. He also conquered Siehem in Samaria, destroyed the temple of Gerizim, subdued Idunia;n, and extended the boundaries of Judfiea. Meanwhile, Demetrius II., the brother and successor of Antiochus, returned from his cap- tivity in Parthia, and prepared himself to invade .Iuda;a, but was prevented by an internal war, in which he was killed, 125 «. c. Hyrcanus now ruled for several years in peace, but at last, deeming himself strong enough for the task, he invaded Samaria with a great army and laid siege to the capital. The Samarians invoked the assist- ance oi' Antiochus Cyzicenus, but this king was defeated by Antigonus and Aristobulus, two sons of Hyrcanus, and Samaria was taken and razed to the ground, 109 B. c. Hyrcanus reigned three years longer, but these latter years of his government were disturbed not a little by the quarrels of the two powerful socts, the Pharisees and SaJducccs. Hyrcanus belonged originally to the for- mer party, but left it and allied himself to the latter; he d. loii B. c. (2) Joii.v Hvrcanl's II., grandson of the foregoing, son of Alexander Jannieus; was appointed high priest by Alexandra, his mother, 7S b. r., and on her death ((»9 B. c.) assumed the sovereignty, which in CO ho resigned to his more energetic brother, Aristobulus : fled for protection and assistance to Aretas, king of Stony Ara- bia, fir> ; cng;iged in a civil war, but without success until G3, when lie was reinstated by Pompey and made high priest and ctlinarch ; was deprived of the latter title 49, but in 47 the actual sovereignty was restored to him by Julius ('xs:ir. Meanwhile, his brother Aristobulus and Alexander, son of Aristobulus, who made him much trouble, were put to death by the Romans. Antipater, the able lieutenant of Hyrcanus, was poisoned with the consent of the higli priest 44 d. c, and the young Herod, afterwards called the Great, a son of Antipater, became the virtual ruler. In 40 B. c, Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, induced the Parthians to send an array against Hyrcanus, who was by treachery taken prisoner, deprived of his cars, and then allowed to live in peace at Babylon, where he remained until 'S-i B. r., wlien he retarncd to Jerusalem, but, falling under the suspicion of having plotted against Herod, he was put to death ;J0 b. c. Ilyre, de la (LAUHEXT),b. in France in IfiOo, and d.in Ht.')tl. He belongeil to the so-called school of Fontainebleau, wliose founders were Primatice and Rosso, and which de- veloped chierty under Italian influence. Hyria, or Ilyrium, an inland city of ancient Cala- bria in Southern Italy, situated on the Appian Road, about midway between Brundusium and Tareiitum. Herodotus represents it as having been the metropolis of the Mcssa- pians. ftiunded by a colony of Cretans on their return from Sicily. Strabo mentions that a palace of one of the ancient native kings was sliown there in Iiis time. In early times it was a place of importance, and near the modern town of Oria inscriptions have been found in the Messapian dia- lect, and numerous coins in Roman charavters bearing the name of Orra. There was at least one other place of the same name in Southern Italy, ns is proved by coins of another class found in Campania. IIvnnciitrii(1e,or Krmentriidc, a daughter of Eude?, eoutit of Orleans, was married Dee. 14. S42. to Charles the Bald ; tl. Oct. ('», Sfil). She did not mix in p(dities, but many religious institutions were founded and endowed by her. llyrtacina, city of Crete, S. E. from Polyrrhenia, on the southern const of the island, near the temple of Arte- mis Dictynna. Ruins have been found by Mr. Pashley, being numerous vestiges of polygonal masonry, on a hill near the modern village of Temeuia. Coins of the ancient city are also found. Hyr'tl (Joskph), M. D., b. Dec. 7, 1811, at Eisenstadt, Hungary; was educated at Vienna, where in 18;J:J he be- came prosector in anatomy; was professor of anatomy at Prague IS:;7-Jj: professor of anatomy at Vienna IS 15-74, and for a part of the time was rector of the university. He founded the Vienna Museum of Comparative Anatomy, and made an incomparably fine private eolieetion of materials il- lustrative of some defiartments of comparative anatomy (now in possession of Prof. E. D. Cope, Haddonfield, N. J.). Hyrtl was the first German to give much attention to regional anatomy, ami has made many discoveries in human and comparative histology. Author of J'tipof/mphiachc Aiinto- mif (2 vols., 1S47), Lchrbuch tier Auntomic (1847; many editions since), Ilnndbtivh tier pro/.- tisc hen Zfi'glietlerunfjM' kniifit (1S60), Orhrr eiitllosf JVerifn (1805), Cebrr Amp\dlen am Pnrtita Cynticut der FUche (18G8), />f> fihttf/r/tiHiie der menachlichen Nachjeburt in normalen und abnormaien Ver- hnltiiinsen {1S70), Daa Nierenbecken der Siiugethierc uud dea Mcnschen (1870). Uysia^9 town of Bceotia. at the northern foot of Mount Cilhicron, was situated on the high-road from Thebes to Athens, and formed an important point in the strategic dis- position to the battle of l'lat:ea. In the time of Pausanins it was in ruins; an unfinished temple of Apollo and a sacred well were still extant; now nearly every trace of it has dis- appeared. Hys'sop [Gr. i;<Tau>iros ; Heb. f~o6]. the Hyasopug ojjfici- naliH, a half-shrubby labiate plant, a native of Europe, sparingly naturalized in the U. S. It is an aromatic stim- ulant, abounding in a volatile oil. In domestic meilieine it is a very useful expectorant. Hedge hyssop is tlie pop- ular name of various species of ^/r<(f(o/«, of the order Seroph- ulariaceffi. As the hyssop of (Jreek authors is conceded to be the common plant of that name, it has been inferred that it was also that of the Old and New Testaments, but this is by no means certain. Celsius has enumerated eigh- teen different plants wliich have been considered as the scriptural hyssop. Dioseorides. a Greek botanist, described two kinds, and the Talmudists have done the same, distin- guishing the wild hyssop from the garden plant used for food. It is mentioned of Solomon that he " spake of trees, from the cedar tree that is in Lebanon even unto the hys- sop that springeth out of the wall:'* and in Psalm li. it is said. "' Purge me with hyssop and I shall be clean,'* etc. ; from which indications Dr. J. F. Royle has, after a careful study of the ancient and modern notices, identified the hys- sop of Scrijifure with the modern eapcr-plant (Cappuria spinom, Linn.), which is still found in abundance in Egypt, Sinai, and Palestine. llystaspt'S, author of a prophctico-apoealyptie work, Vatictnia N/jfttaspis, which was much read by the early Christians, and believed to contain predictions of Christ and the future of his kingdom. Of his life nothing is known, and the book itself has vanished; but it is often mentioned by the early Christian Fathers. Justin says of it that "the bad demons, in their efforts to pre\"ent man's knowing the truth, succeeded in establishing a law whi'-h forbids the reading of the j3i^AorYcrTao-T7ov. . . under penalty of death; but the Christians, notwithstanding this law. not only read the books themselves, but even incited the hea- then to study them." Clement of Alexandria says of it that '"the Christians found in it, even more plainly than in the books of the Sibyllincs, references to Christ and the future of his kingdom, and especially a reference to Christ's divine Sonship, to the sufferings which awaited him and his followers, and to his final return." Hyste'ria [from uorepa. the " womb "], a peculiar nerv- ous atfection which in former times was supposed to havo had its seat in the womb, but at the present day Hasse's theory of its origin is generally received — viz. that it arises from a nutritive derangement of the general nervous sys- tem, both central an<l peripheral. This may be caused by anv organ of the body being diseased, and there can be no doubt but that it is dependent most frequently upon disor- ders of the uterus and ovaries, simply because these affcc- tious produce a deejier impression upon the nervous system. Sometimes irritation of the genitals, arising from excessive sexual intercourse, has as marked an influence on the gen- eral nervous system as a well-marked lesion of an internal organ ; but we must not be too ready to ascribe a case of hysteria to deranged sexual function, for Ilasse attributes these cases to a ])sychical rather than to a physical cause. This condition of the nervous system may also be produced by improper nourishment. There is a predisposition to the disease manifested. A tendency, either congenital or ac- quired, plays a much more important part in inducing this affection than all the causes enumerated. Hysteria generally attacks women from the age of pu- berty to the decline of menstruation. It is of rare occur- rence among men, and in them is produced in a manner similar to that in which it is produced in the opposite sex. Hysteria may nmnifest itself in a great variety of ways; in fact, it simulates almost every known disease, and often with the greatest care the )>ractitioner is unable to ditler- cntiatc them. The most common form, however, is llio hysterical fit. In some cases this consists merely of the twitching of the muscles of a particular region, as of the face, arm, or leg. In other eases the whole body is affected at once. The patient generally laughs and cries alternately; this is due to spasm of the group of muscles which operate in producing these acts. Another very common accompa- niment of these paro.xysms is the so-called t/iobus ht/tftcn'rim; this consists in the sensation as of a ball rising from the uterus and ascending through the abdominal and thoracic cavities (o the throat, and is caused by a spasmodic con- traction of the oesophagus. The patient may scream, tear her hair and clothes, and beat her breasts. In severe cases HYSTEROTOMY— HYTU. 1085 we sometimes havo loss of consciousness and convulsions; when this occurs it is nimost impossible to distinguish it from epilepsy. The (its usually terminate with the dis- charge of a large quantity of almost colorless urine. Per- haps the next most common manifestation of the disease is hvpeneslhesia, either general or localized, hut most fre- quently the lairer. Vnder this heading would come hys- terical perilonilis, in which the patient will complain of great pain and tenderness over the region of the abdomen ; she will jump and cry "Ut upon the slightest touch. Ac- companying this condition there will he a rft]>id pulse and increaseil temperature. The characteristic of the hysterical affLclion is that the pain is not aggravated upon deep pres- sure, and if you distract the patient's attention from her trouble, you can very often knead the abdnnien without the least discomfort to her. The " stitch in the side '* of young girls and women can generally bo ascribed to hysterical livpenBslhcsia. The opposite condition, auLCsthcsia. may occur, sometimes, to such an extent that the patient will allow your finger to he thrust into her eye or needles to be filunged deeply into the flesh without wincing. Hysterical lemiplegia and paraplegia very often occur. They are very perplexing cases, and can hardly be differentiated by any but a careful ami experienced observer. Paralysis of the muscular fibres of the bladder, or spasm of its sphinc- ter, is sometimes simulated. Hysterical patients very often protend that they are suffering intolerably from retention of urine, and can only be relieved by the introduction of the catheter several times a day; which, indeed, seems to be all that they desire. When such an affection is made out beyond a doubt to be feigned, it is best to leave the patient to her own resources. Even in cases where this has been dune, the patients have been known to drink their own uriiiC in order to carry out the deception. Gravel and stone in the bladder are other diseases simulated; the pa- tient will put common gravel in the urine after it has been voided and pretend to have i)asscd it, or she may even place sand in the urethra. Watson records a ease in which a young woman made the surgeons in one of the London hospitals believe that she had stone in the bladder, and who actually submitted to be tied upon a table in the position usMally adopted for operations for lithotomy, before a the- atre full of s'udents, before the deception was discovered. Hysteria very commonly mimics affections of the spina and joints. Paticn's have been known to have been kept on their backs for months, and even years, and to have had blisters, leeches, and issues almost constantly applied for supposed disease of the spine, which subsequently was a9^*crtained to be purely nervous. So with hip-joint dis- ease, etc. There arc many hysterical affections referred to the fauces, aphonia or loss of voice, mock laryngitis or pha- ryngitis, stricture of the oesophagus, aud many curious sensations. One patient imagined that a number of tape- worms came up from her stomach to licr throat, lillcd her ears, and came out upon her tongue. Every time sho attempted to cateh them with her finger they would dis- appear. This occurreil several times a day, and it was im- possible to persuade her that such a thing could not bap- pen. Among the other more common affections simulated by hysteria are pleurisy, consumption, cough, hiccough, in- digestion, in which the patient swallows a quantity of air, and then protends to be suffering from tympanitis and eruc- tations ; vomiting also sometimes aeeoinpauies this hyster- ical dyspepsia, simulating cancer of the stomach. Very often patients Buffering from hysteria have a depraved appetite; they eat very little of anything, especially at table, and will hardly touch meat at all, except it he a little ham ; they will devour slate-pencils, wafers, chalk, pickles, lemons, and such "jut-of-Mic-way articles. Notwithstanding this mode of life, their health does not materially deteriorate. We next come to speak of the treatment. This nmy be divided into two modes — viz. that of the paroxysm, and that between the paroxysms. In the first variety the dress should bo loosened and plenty of fresh air admitted into the room. An emetic should then by administered and cold water dashed in the face; sometimes it is necessary to con- tinue iloing this for quite a while (fifteen or twenty min- utes), but the patients will generally succumb at last. If at the enil of this time no iniprovenienl be noticed, the strong aqua-ammonia should be held to the nostrils, and when the patient draws her head away, i( should bo fol- lowed by the bottle. You should gel the confidence of the attendants, and be very careful not to suy anything in the Itrcsenee of the patient that you tin not wish her to hear, laving done this, if there is still no improvement, order, so that the patient can hear you. two or three flat-irons to ho heated nearly red hot ; say that it is a very urgent case, au'l tint you intend applying them along the ?pino. The cases in which iho patients will give the irons time to heal will bo verv few. and sonietitnes, when they have resisted every other means, the mention of such harsh treatment will make them start up instantly. However, should they still resist, the irons should be applied ice-cold along the spine, at intervals of two or three minutes. In tlic intervals be- tween the paroxysms, or in the other forms of hysteria, laxatives, tonics, and the correction of any diseased func- tion should be our first care. Besides this, the patient may take assafu?tida pills, infusion of quassia, or, what seems to be much better now, the ammouiated tincture of guaiuc. EnwAitit J. Hkumingham. Hysterot'omy [Gr. v<rrepa, " womb," .-md rofi-q. •• a cut- ting," from rV^i-ctf, '* to nut "], orCapsareaii Opera 'lion, the delivery of a child by opening the abdomen of the mother. Pliny (lib. vii. cap. ix.) says that Caisar was so called from being taken by excision out of the womb of his mother, and that such persons were called casonrH, from the Lat. crrdu, to *• cut." There is an obvious improbability in this story, for there were other Caesars in tlie family be- fore the m;in who made the name illustrious. It may bo that Julius Ca;sarwas born in the manner described, but it is very unlikely that this was the origin of his name. If the story be true, the mother must have survived, as Aurclia was alive wlieii her son invaded liritain. The incision is made in or near the middle line of the boily, to the length of six or seven inches. The uterus is exposed, carefully opened, the child lifted out, and then the atlcr-birth. The uterus contracts, the wound is closed, and opium is given to iilhiy pain and nervous irritabilit}'. Ana?sthctics should of course be given. In recent times the (,ii?sarean opera- tion has repeatedly been ])crformcd with complete success, the life not only of the child but the mother having been saved. Some women, indeed, have had several children, ench removed through an abdominal incision; one woinan submitted to it seven times. Practitioners arc not quite agreed as to all the circumstances which justify the per- formance of this operation. The late Dr. tiibson of Phil- adelphia, who jierformcd the operation twice on the same wom.'in with entire success, considered the operation com- paratively safe if eomuieneed early, before the patient's strength has been impaired by labor. It appears that out of 17 o]>eralions jicrformed during or at the close of the first day of labor, M of the children and 12 of the women were saved. (Sec Ajucricau Jounial of Medical Seiencca for July, 1872, pp. 290, 291.) Rkvised by Wili.ard Parker. Hystric'idac [Gr, varpi^, "porcupine"], a family of symplicidcntale rodents, of moderate size, with a large anteorbital foramen; four molar teeth (on each side of the upper as well as lower jaw), traversed by re-entering valleys from the inner as well as outer walls, and with pit- liko excavations of the surface; the alveolar portion of the Eupramaxillary normally connected; the clavicles rudi- mentary or obsolete; the fibula and tibia separate from each other; the claws of all the feet acute or little blunt, and huirs developed as robust si)ines. To Ibis group be- long the porcupines of the Old AVoiId, but nut those of the New, they being distinguished from the former by the com- pletely developed clavicles, as well as differences of Iho skull and dentition. About a dozen species arc distributed in the tropical as well as temjtcrale portions of ihe Old World, and especially in Africa and India. Tlicy havo been combined under three genera, J/ffsln'.r, A r audi ion, and Athcrura. TlIKODoni: Gii.l.. Ilythn [Ang.-*Sax. hi/dr, a "haven"], a parliamentary and muniei|>al borough and market-town in the county of Kent, England, 11 miles S. of Canterbury. Though for- merly one of the Cinque Ports, it is now half a mile from the sea, while the adjacent ancient Koman port of Lymne {PvrtiiH LrmaniH) is now nearly -i miles troni the coast. In ancient times an important battle must have taken place here, as is shown by the jdlcs. containing miiny hundreds of human bones mid skulls still to be seen under the elmn- cel of the well-preserved Normiin chnreh. Many of the skulls are of extraordinary f izc, and have deep sword-cuts in them : local traditions make them Danes, and fix the dale of the battle at abiml 10(10 a. d., but no certain account has been iireservud. During the hist century smuggling was carried on at Hythc to a great extent, but since it became a summer watering-place and the seat of the national . •school of musketry (1S.'>1) smuggling has ceased. Pop. of munici- pal borough, about .'1000. Ilytu^ Ilitiif or Iti'i, town of Brazil, in the province of Sao Paulo, on Ihe Tiele, which Iwcomcs navigable here, just below the great c;itariict, is neatly Imilt. and is <ineof the most prosperous provincial towns of the country. Tho plain in which the town stands extends along the Ticl6 at tho foot of a plateau of considerable elevation, and is ex- tremely fertile, covered with plantations of sugar and cot- Ion. The trade in mules and asses is a considerable one. Pop. about 10,000. 1086 I— IBKAHIM PASHA. I. I, the ninth letter of the Roman alphabet, was once in- terchangeable with J, which is a form of the same letter, although at present of very difFcreut power. I is a vowel, and in English has three well-marked sounds: (1) the sound of long e, as in machine, niarinc ; this is the sound almost invariably given to it in all other languages which have this letter; (2) the "long sound. "that heard in mind, «?V/i( ; this sound is strictly a diphthong between a broad and long e ; and (3) the -short" sound, heard in pin, min- ion. As a numeral, 1 stands for one (1). In chemistry it is the symbol of iodine. laba'dius, the name under which Ptolemy described a vast island of the East Indies, near the tfolden Cher- sonesus. It was fertile in grain and produced gold; the capital was called Argyre. From the similarity of names, both of which mean "barley," it is generally thought to be identical with Java, though Humboldt argues for Su- matra. lac'chns, the mystic name of the god Dionysus at Athens and Kleusis. (See Elkusinian MvsTEniEs.) It is probable, however, that lacchus, the Roman liacchus, was originally distinct from the Theban Dionysus; the former being a Phrygian divinity, represented as a child, the son of Zeus and Demctcr, while the latter was always called the son of Zeus and Semele. lal'ysus, one of the three principal Doric cities in Rhodes, anciently the chief place of the island, and often taken as a synonym of the island itself. It was very flour- ishing in the time of the Homeric poems, and some remains of its ancient greatness are still seen at the modern village of laliso. The foundation of lalysus was ascribed to a mythical personage of that name. lani'bic [Lat. iamhicus, from iambus ; Gr. lafifSoy], a poetic metre much used in Greek, Latin, and modern verse, consisting of a succession of iambi. An iambic foot is formed either of one short and one long syllable, as in amdnH, or of an unaccented syllable followed by one ac- CL'uted, as in esteem. lam'blichus, a Neo-Platonic philosopher of the fourth century after Christ, was a disciple of Porphyry, and re- sided in Syria. With him that combination of Greek phi- losophy with Oriental mysticism which was the character- istic of the Neo-PIatonic philosophy became mere theurgy. He taught that it was possible lor man to put himself in direct communication with the Deity by means of certain rites and ccremouics. Five books of his work on Pythag- oras, and his book on the Egyptian theology, are still extant. lan'thina [Gr. ldv9tvo<;, "violet-colored"], a genus of mollusks including the ocean-snails or violet snails. They have a snail-like shell, and Ooat on the open sea, supported by a cartilaginous raft, containing air-vcsiele?. The float is a part of the operculum. They have no power of rising or sinking in the water. The eggs and young are attached below the float. They arc carnivorous gasteropods of the family Ilaliotidie. and feed on little aciilephs. There are six known species. They arc named from their jmrple juice. lap'etUS [Or. 'laiTfTo?], in Grecian mythology, a son of Uranus and Ge, brother ot Kronos and Occanus, and father of Atlas, Prometheus, and Epimetheus. Ho was regarded by the (Jreeks as the father of all the human race, and the name is supposed to be the same as the J.\I'HETII of Gen- esis (which see). Iatan% post-v. of Marshall tp., Platte co., Mo., on the Missouri Itiver and on the Kansas City St. Joseph and Council Bluffs K. 11. Pop. 129. Iba'f^ne, town of Colombia, department of Cundina- marca, 70 miles W. of Bogota. Pop. 6000. Ibar'ra, town of Ecuador, at the foot of the volcano Inibaburu, 00 miles N. E. of Quito. The surrounding country is exceedingly fertile and the inhabitants are mostly engaged in the cultivation of cotton and sugar. It suffered severely from an earthquake ISflS. Pop. 13,200. Ibcrdy or Yberii, a series of marshy lakes in the province of Corricntes. Argentine Republic, between the rivers Paran.'l and Uruguay. Ibc'ria^ one of the names under which Spain was known to (he ancients, was chiefly used by the Greeks, and prob- ably derived from Iberus, the Ebro. Iberia^ parish of Louisiana, bounded on the S. by tho Gulf of Mexico. Area, ahout 000 square miles. It is di- vided into three portions by Grand Lake and Vermilion Bay. It has very important deposits of ruck-salt. The soil is very fertile, the surface low. level, and well tim- bered. Cottou, corn, rice, molasses, and sugar are staple products. Cap. New Iberia. Pop. '.M142. Iberia, post-v. of Washington tp.. Morrow co., 0., on the Cleveland Columbus and Cincinnati 11. R. Pop. 238. I'berville, fertile county of Quebec. Canada, on the E. side of the river Richelieu. Area. ISU square miles. It is traversed by the Stauslcad Shefford and Chambly R. R. Cap. Iberville. Pop. 15,413. Iben'ille, a v. (P. 0. St. Atoanase), cap. of Iberville CO., Quebec, Canada, on the E. bank of the river Richelieu, opposite St. Johns, with which it is connected by a tine bridge. It is the seat of Canadian Institute. Pop. of sub-district, 1497. Iberville, parish of Louisiana, extending eastward from the Atchafulaya River, and having the Mississipj)i as a part of its eastern boundary. Area, about 450 square miles. Its surface is low, but fertile, and it is sometimes subject in part to inundations. Cotton, corn, sugar, molas- ses, staple products. Cap. Plaquemines. Pop. 12,347. Iberville, d' (Pierre Lemoine). the brother of tho Sicur de Bienville and of five other able public men, b. at Montreal July 20, IGGl; captured Fort Nelson 16SG ; served in the Schenectady affair 1090 ; in 1G96 destroy»!d St. Johns, and took nearly all of Newfoundland from the British, whom he defeated in Hudson's Bay in the naval fights of 1G97. In 1699 he fortified Bilox'i, and in 1700 ascended the Mississippi River. In 1702 he fortified Dau- phin Island and founded a settlement near Mobile. In 170G, with three ships, he attacked and captured the Isle of Nevis. D. at Havana, Cuba, July 9, 1706. I'bex [Lat.], a genus or sub-genus of the goat family, distinguished by very large horns and rather scanty beards. The species of Ibex, as generally recognized, are /. Alpinun (the Boi'QUETiN (which see) or ibex of the Alps), /. A/;c- naieus, Hispanicns, Caucasicns, .SV^/rtVits, Siibiaiius, /limn- layamts, and others; but it is likely that some or all are mere varieties. The Alpine ibex breeds freely with the goat. Ibiapuba, a mountain-chain in Brazil, in the province of Ceara. Ibicui, a large river in the Brazilian province of Rio Grande do Sul, flowing AV. into tho Uruguay. I'bis [Gr. Tpt«], a genus of wading birds of the family TantalidiB, allied to the snipes and herons, and having very long legs, neck, and bill, and a very short tail. The American species are I./alcinelfns, the glossy ibis, common also to the Old World ; the white ibis (/. aiba) of Florida (believ- ed with some reason to be a mere variety of the sacred ibis, hereafter noticed), and tho sear- let ihis (/. rubra). All these arc handsome birds, found most- ly in warm regions. The wood- ibis of America is Tantulns loc- vlator. The sacred ibis ( /. rc- ligiosn) of Egypt, as well as tho glossy ibis, is trequently found " embalmed in tliat country. It was regarded as an incarnation of the god Thoth, and was looked upon with peculiar reverence by all classes of the people. The staw-neeked ibis ( d'cronticua ttpinicof/ie) is a large Australian bird of this family. Ib'rahim Pasha', a son of Mehemet Ali,b. at Kavala. Roumelia, in 1789. His father was appointed viceroy of Egypt in 1806, and Ibrahim very soon gave brilliant proof's of the great personal qualities of which he was possessed by subduing the wild tribes of Up])er Egypt in 1S12, l.y reducing tho Wahabees and conquering a great part of Arabia in 1819. by reorganizing the Egyptian army after European models and founding a navy, and by his cam- paign in the Peloponnesus from 1S24 to 182S. ilis great- est exploit, ho^vever, was his Syrian can)]>aign in \!^'M. Having defeated the Turks in decisive battles at Tripoli and Horns, he conquered tho whole of Syria in one year. IBYCUS— ICE. 1087 and pushed forward into Asia Minor to Konieh. Hero he coinpletfly routed the Turkish army. Dec. 20, 1S:12, and oa liis tlcet had cliascd tho Turkish ilect from place to place, the way to Constantiuoplc wns open to him. liul Ru9!!>ia intcrfcrcil. Peace was concluded, and the whole of Syria was ceded to Meliemet Ali. Ibrahim was appointed gov- ernor of the new province, and in this position ho showed that ho had talents not onl^' as a general, but also as a statesman and admini.-trator. In 1839 war again broke out between Kgypt and the Porte, and Ibrahim ajrain suc- ceeded in routing the Turkish army compk-tely at Nezib, June 21, Imt tiiis time too the Ottoman cmjiire was saved by the interference of the European powers. Kngland. Austria, an<l Russia agreed to compel Mohcraet Ali to givo up Syria and Arabia, ancl content himself with the heredi- tary possession of Egypt ; and after a short resistance Me- hemet Ali had to submit. Ibrahim Pasha lived for several years as a private gentleman on his estates at Ilcliopolis, where ho established large and very fine cotton and oli%'e plantations. Hut about l!^ II. Meliemet AH began to fall into dotage, and the government now devolved on Ibrahim Pasha. In IS IS he went to Constantinople, and was con- firmed as viceroy of Egypt, but ho d. very soon after his return, at Cairo,* Nov. 9,'lS48. Ib'ycus, b. at Rhegium in the sixth century b. c, and lived for some time in Samos at the court of Polycratcs. Of his poems only a few fragments arc left, but the story of his death is known by all. lie was attacked by robbers and mortally wounded while travelling through a desert place near Corinth, but before dying called upon a flock of cranes flying over him to avenge his death. Shortly after it happened at Corinth that a flock of cranes flew over the theatre while a performance was going on, and one of the murderers cried out involuntarily, *' Behold ttie avengers of Ibycus!" which led to the discovery and pun- ishment of tho crime. Edited by Schneidewin (Gottingen, 18.13), and in the Poctv Li/rici Orieci of Bergk. I'^a, town of Peru, is situated in lat. 14° 41' S., and connected by railway with Pisio on the Pacific Ocean, through whicli it exports large quantities of wheat, maize, wine, and brandy. Its diniato is very hot, but not un- healthy. Pop. about 8000. IcardS tp. of Burke co,. N. C. Pop. 929. Ica'ria, or Ic'arus (Nikanu), an island of the /Egcan Sea. W. iif Samos. It is some 15 miles long from N. E. to S. W,, and rather narrow ; area, 50 square miles. It has a population of 8000, and, as of old, is valued for its pas- turage. Ic'aruSy the son of Dncdalus, who forgot, according to the old myth, bis father's advice on their flight from Crete, and flew so high that the sun molted the wax with which tho wings were attached to his shoulders, aud he foil down and was dro\Tned in tho aca which after him is called the Icarian. Ice, The freezing-point of water is .32° F. or 0° C, The presence of salt impedes congelation ; sea-.water, thercfitre, requires a temperature strvoral degrees lower than froHh water to solidify. Pure water placed in pol- ished vessels may be reduced 17° below freezing-point (to 15° F.) without congealing if it bo kept perfectly still ; tho slightest agitation or the introduction of a foreign body will, however, cause it immediately to freeze: in which case heat U engendered, and the frozen mass comes up to the usual temperature, 32° F. Ice in assuming the solid form expands by about one-ninth of its own vohinio, its specific gravity being 0.9IS4 at the temperature 32° F. or 0° C. As cold increases, solid ice contracts; the ico on ponds occasionally cracks from this cause with a loud re- port. Ice sometimes forms at the bottom of streams when the water above does not freeze; this is probably duo to the extreme stillness below. This "anchor ice," if detached from the body around which it has formed, rises and floats on tho surface. Ico is the normal condition of water. Ice, wator, steam, aqueous vapor, fog, cloud, etc. are chemically identical; their physical din"erencc is due, in the main, to the greater or lesser separation of tho molecules by the action of heat. As heat is withdrawn from water its constituent particles approach, in accordance with tho general law that heat expands and cold (or the absence of heat) contracts bodies. When tho temperature 39° F, or 4° C. is reached, tho vol- ume of water begins slowly to expand ; a now force, that of crystallization, coming in to modify the re.^ult. Tho particles of water are marshalled into orderly array, and their arrangement is so changed that in uniting they leave larger inter-atomic spaces than they possessed before freez- ing began. The expansion of crystallization compensates. an<l more than compensates, for the contra'-tinn of cold, and tho mass expands by the diff'orencc of the opposing forces. Water in freezing gives out heat — i. c. that molecular force which had been devoted to the work of holding asunder the particles of water and maintaining it in a liquid form, is released from its work as the mass solidifies, and becomes again the molecular motion known as heat. In crystalliz- ing each molecule approaches every other under the con- trolling power of a fixed law; each spicule, as it forms, unites with every other at an angle of 00°. As a result, ice-crystals are formed infinite in beauty and variety, but all obedient to this law — six-rayed ice-blossoms and stars and feathery foliage, whore every spine joins the central stem at the invariable angle 60°. The ice which covers every sea and lake and pond is built up of film upon film of just such exquisite frostwork as sometimes covers the inner surlaco of our window-panes. The architecture of tho frost may bo slowly undone, and the process, in the re- verse, watched. A slab of ice, cut with its faces parallel to tho plane of freezing, is placed in the path of the electric beam; liquid flowers and leaves start into view in the in- terior of the slab. (See fig.) A brilliant central nucleus Iceii yntalx appears in each figure with an audible click. The ice as it melts contracts ; the space filled by the frozen flower is not quite filled by the liquid one, and the water, which has been rendered very cohesive by the elimination of the air in freezing, ruptures with a cound, producing the central vacuum. A property of ice discovered by Faraday in 1S4I (see Rkcelation) accounts for tho advance of the great glacial ice-masses which move down the Alpine and Arctic valleys. (See Olacikhs.) Tho magnificent icebergs of tho northern seas are generally only the terniiiiiil nm>ses of tho Arctic glaciers, which have crept over the beach to tho sea, and there been worn away and broken ofl" by tho action of the waves aud the tides. The ice-caves described by Alpine travellers as existing in the glaciers are very beautiful; stalactite and stalagmite of pellucid ice, cIuBtering branches, pillars, Jind domes adorn their roofs, floors, ami walls. One of them shows in every crevice and depression of its walls the lovely blue tint eharacteristic of glacial ice in shadow, while tho roof, which is thin enough to permit tho sun's rays to penetrate it, glows with a delicate rosy tint. Ordi- nary ice, though crystalline, is not prismatic, but that which has frozen at a temperature below 32° F. shows a decided prisnmtic structure. In many of tho ice-caves of France and Switzerland this structure is found; sometimes the stalactites are formed of common ico surrounded with a shell of the prismatic. The interior, being the softer, melts. leaving tho stalactite hollow. Some ice-prisms, as men- tioned in Pof/(frti{/<tr/'it Aimiifcii (vol. iv. p. 475), when ex- amined by polarized light, manifested a feeble double re- fracting power. Tho sudden disappearance of enormous sheets of lakc-ico is explained by the breaking up of the vast mass into prismatic blocks. A stub of ice through whiih the beam of tho electric lamp is sent will mark its path by tho formation of innumerable little luminous spots, as the motes mark tho path of a sunbeam. Tho snots form in any plane, hut in those which arc parallel to tno piano <d' freezing they shoot out spicules, nntl linally produce the flowers before desi*ribed. The planes ;if freez- ing of a bl'ick of ice may always be dctenuin^Ml by thus 1088 ICE. sending the beam through it and noting the formation of the ilowcrs and leaves. In laUe-icc liubhles may be seen, with solid layers be- tween, evidently marking the limits of successive acts of frcezin'.;, and with each block composed of such layers of solid ice and bubbles, a surface layer is associated, which gives evidence of h.aving been acted upon by external influ- ences. In Ihis surface layer are numerous small nir-bubbles around which a bleb of water CNists. This pheuomenon Agassii! exjilaius as being due to the arrest of heat by the air, and the melting of the surrounding ice by its elevation of tempcratnre. Tyndall holds, and proves conclusively, that the mcUing of the ice in the interior of the block is due to its conducting power. In summer, ice is often only a congeries of water-cells in a skeleton of ice: a saw will go through the mass with comparative ease. In freezing, water excludes the l.irgest p.irt of any solid held in solu- tion l)y it; this quality is used in the arts to concentrate certain liquids. As a" geologic agent ice has been very prominent (see GLAcrEns), not only by means of glacial ai^tion, but by the disintegration of rocks and niountain- mas.scs, which have then been carried away and d;-posited as lainiuatcd strata on the lowlands or the ocean's bed. Hoar frost, one of the most familiar forms of ic:e, is only frozen dew. (See Dew.) Mrs. S. B. IlERRirK. Ice. Its /Irlalione In Navigation, Travel, and Trans- portation. — The closing of rivers, bays, sounds, and estua- ries by ice greatly impedes, .and sometimes completely pre- vents, navig.ilion for several months of the year. N. of the lOth degree of latitude in North .\merica, and of the 5»tli degree in Europe and Asia, the navigable rivers are closed for three or four months, and in the higher latitudes for six or seven, to all passage of steamers or sailing ves- sels. In exceptionally cold seasons the estuaries, harbors, bays, and saunds of these regions are sometimes closed for several weeks. The obstruction of the East Kivcr. or the estuary between Xew York and Brooklyn, and of the N.ar- rows and inner harbor of New York, the Kill von Kull, and Newark Bay fur same days is not a very infrequent occurrence; the "winters of 1SJ7-58, of lS6o and ISfiti, and of IS74-7a arc among recent instances of this obstruction, and during the last-named severe season Long Island Sound was" frozen over at its western extremity except a narrow channel, and Cape Cod Bay was closed for two or three weeks. In 1741 it is said that Long IsLand Sound was frozen in its whole extent, and that an adventurous citizen drove over it from New Y'ork to Greenpoi-t in his sleigh or cutter. .\s we approach the Arctic regions tho olisrructions to navigation from ice become more formidable. The whaling licet has met with heavy losses by the crush- ing of their vessels in the ice, and the numerous Arctic ex- peditions have almost without exception been thwarted or ]irevcnted by the ice from attaining their desired results. But. though these obstructions to navigation cause serious delays, and often occasion much suffering, they .are in other respects a benefit. The Finns, Laplanders, Ostiaks, Kamt- ehadalcs, Esquimaux, and other Northern tribes regard the winter season as the most .agreeable of the year. Warmly clad in furs which arc impenetrable by the intense cold, thcv go firth from their huts built of the ice, and journey long distances on sledges drawn by dogs or reindeer, pre- ferring for rapid travel the comparatively snrooth ice of the bays and sounds to the rougher surfaces of the drifted snow and ice of tho shores. In more civilized countries skating is not only a favorite amusement, but in Europe is turned to practical account, the pack-pcd<llers, messen- gers, and many of the servants performing their journeys on skates witli great ease and rapidity. The ice boat, a triangular platform rigged with large and strong skating irons? and propelled by immense sails which enable it to scud before a strong wind at the rate of 50, fiO, or even 70 miles an hour, is becoming a very popular though some- what dangerous amusement on our Northern rivers; and the ice-bridges which span the larger streams above the 4'2d degree of N. lat., often for several months of the win- ter, furnish a safe and easy transit to thousands of teams and tens of Ihons.ands of foot-passengers, though to the manifest dissatisfaction of ferrymen and bridge-tenders. As nn Artirle ../' Commerce. — There is a large demand for ice as a commodity for three distinct purposes : viz. for its cooling qualities, for its antiseptic or preserving po^yer, and for its use in medicine and surgery. In all tropical and semi-tro))ieal countries there has been a demand in all ages for some means of cooling wine and other beverages, and imparting to the drinking-water of those countries sufficient coldness to make it pabatable. The means natu- rallv suggested was the use of snow brought from the mountains and stored up to be used in cooling the bever- ages in use. Solomon undoubtedly refers to this practice (which was even bef>rehis time in extensive use in Oriental countries) in Prov. xxv. 1.1: "As the cold of snow in the time of harvest, so is a faithful messenger to them that send him ; for he refresheth the soul of his masters." Re- peated references are made to the practice by Creek and Konian writers. Theocritus. .Aristotle Horace, and Plutarch all mention it, the last describing minutely the methods adopted for preserving the snow. Nero cstablifhed store- houses for ice and snow in Uunie, but they were not suffi- cient to supply the demand. It is worthy of notice that snow is still gathered for this purpose on the Apennines by Italian peasants (or was, a very few years since), and brought into Naples, Rome, and Florence, where it is stored in cellars and sold to the wealthy inhabitants. Our coun- tryman Mr. W. J. Stillman, when consul at Rome, under- took to introduce American ice there, importing a cargo of Wenham Lake ice, and ofl'ering it to the pcojde at the price asked for this dirty snow; but he was informed that he could not bo permitted to do this, as the right to gather and vend this snow was one of the vested privi- leges of tho Italian peasants, and must not be disturbed. In Spain and Portugal, and in Sardinia and the S. of France, snow, and sometimes ice, was gathered from the mountains and stored to some extent in the cities and in icehouses on the estates of wealthy nobles and grandees, but was used very sparingly. In England and Scotland it has been the practice for two or three centuries, among tho wealthy, to have icehouses on their estates, and (ill them with ice each year from the nearest accessible lake, river, or mountain. In England, however, the ice was generally thin and not very pure. Ice was not for sale, to private customers generally, in London before l.'i4.i, and only a few of the first-class fishmongers and confectioners made use of it. Their supplies were brought from ponds, or after lS2o from Norway. The wealthiest citizens and some of the nobility had a' small supply brought from their country- seats, lu this country icehouses have been very common in the rur!il districts for almost two centuries. They were cheap affairs — a cellar dug in the ground, floored with stone on which straw or sawdust was thickly strewn : the sides ceiled with rough boards placed nearly a foot from the earthy wall, and the space between filled with spent Ian- bark or sawdust: the peaked roof covered first with rough boards, then heavily th.atehed with straw, and then another roof of rough boards with broken joints; the ice jmt in during the coldest weather of the winter, with layers of sjiwdust or straw between, and then, if the weather was cold enough, water thrown over each layer to freeze it into a solid mass, and the whole covered closely, and the double or triple roof put on. Access to it was generally indirect, and it was onlv opened at night in hot weather. The ex- pense was considerable, but the supply was generally suf- ficient for several families. In our large cities at the North as late as 1820 it was difficult to obtain ice even for tho purpose of cooling water or other beverages, and the South- ern cities were entirely without it. In the country, and to some extent in the cities, those who bad no icehouses and no interest in any. made use of cool cellars or deep wells for keeping butter, milk, etc. cool, and for the preservation of wines. ° The pitcher of water was wrapped with a moist- ened napkin and cooled by the evaporation. lee became a commercial product on a small scale in Boston about the beginning of this century; i. c it was kept in storehouses, and probablv carried around to the few customers who were disposed to buy at about tiiat period. As early as 1,^05, as we shall see further on. ice was exported from that city to the West Indies. In New York City it was not a com- modity to be generally bought and sold before lS2.'i, though it was used bv the butchers, fishmongers, and perhaps the conrectioncrs."at an earlier date. The trafl^c has grown enormously in fifty years. It now employs in the seven or ei-ht companies in New York City u capital of nearly $8,000,000, gathers from 1,000,000 to 1.600,000 tons of ice annually (the ice-crop of 187o exceeded 2.000.000 lons^, em- ployin"- over 10.000 men and over 4000 horses, and col- leet"s from fO.OOO.OOO to .«10.000,I100 for its products, in- cluding the ice exported. Portland, ISoston, Hartford. New HavenT Philadelphia, AHiany. Rochester. Buflalo, Cleve- land, Chicago, Cincinnati. Louisville, and St. Louis are all largely concerned in the ice-trade, though the last three ilraw "their supplies from a distance and ship little or none to other points. Many of the smaller cities have a large local trade in the conimoility, and a lew of them export considerable quantities. The capital invested in the busi- ness is estimated at about .'f:'.0. 1100,000. The first demand for ice had reference solely to its cool- ing qualities, but its .antiseptic properties soon created for it a still larger market. Indeed, had men but comprc- hcn.led tho lessons taught them by nature, the antiseptic character of ice would have given it its fir.st v.aluc. That meals and the carcases of animals intended for food could be transported for a great distance when frozen, without injury, was a fact well known ages ago ; but the practica- ICE. 10«9 bility of using ice to preserve such meats and carcases, even withuut freezing tbeui, does not seem to have occurred even to the keenest ohservers, though glimpaes of the truth camo to their eyes, from tiuio to time; thus, in King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version of Orosius's I/istoriurum tKicergun l*a*jano8, lib. vii., in an udditiuu by Alfred hiniseif, giving the narrative of one Wulfstau, an early Northern naviga- tor, in regard to the Esthoniani^, a Finnish tribe E. of the Vistula, whom he had visited, we find an account of their practice of keeping the bodies of their dead in their houses ior a long time {frum one to six months, according to their rank) unburnt and not embalmed; and then follows this remarkable ])assage (we use Thorpe's translation) : "And there is among the E.-<thonian!) a tribe that can produce cold, and therefore the dead, in whom they proilure that cold, lie so long there and do not putrefy : and if any one sets two vc.^sels full of ale or water, they contrive that one >^hall bo frozen, be it summer or bo it winter." This, bo it remembered, was in the eighth century, or perhaps in the latter part of the seventh. At a later perioci a more strik- ing illuatra'ion of the antiseptic property of ice occurred. In 170;i, after an unusually protracted period of rain and tliaw, there was discovered near the mouth of the Yenisei and along the shores of the Frozen Sea ^n Siberia a vast deposit uf the carcases of the ma-ilodon and other pre-his- toric quadrupeds, with their flesh untainted and edible, pre- servecl from putrefaction and decay by the protecting intlu- enco of the ice in which it had been imbedded for thousands of years. This flesh was greedily devoured by the Samo- icdes. as well as by their dogs, the wulves, and other car- nivorous animals who gathered to prey upon this mighty feast. In that region, according to Ernian. an attempt to sink a well resulted in finding alternate layers of ice and gravel to a depth of .3S2 feet. In this vast natural refrig- erator, flesh not salted or prepared in any way had been kept from jiutrefaclion, change, or decay for, at the very least, several thousand years. Yet so slow are mankind to loarn, that more than a century passed before the idea of preserving dead bodies by surrounding them with ice, or of preserving meats, fruits, butter, milk, etc. from putrefac- tion, fermentation, or decay by an artificial unil'orm low temperature produced by ice-packing, occurred to any one, or, at all events, before it was reduced to practice. Now, however, ice is regarded as absolutely necessary during the summer months in jjroserving the boilies of the dead until the time of burial; and it forms in the refrigerating closet or chest one of the most inrlispensable articles of household use for the preservation of meats, milk, butter, vegetables, or fruits. IJut its antiseptic value does not stop here. Kc- frigcrating cars bring to us from the Pacific coast choico ripe fruits, game, and other articles which it would other- wise be impossible to obtain in this market, and bear back oysters and other shellfish, condensed milk, Imtter, and other articles from the Atlantic coast. Steamers fitted up with refrigerating chambers bring beef ancl mutton from Texas, ripe oranges, lemons, bananas, and guavas from the West Indies, South American fruits from Brazil, and carry in return milk, butler, oysters, apples, peaches, pears, etc. to tropical climates. Preserving-houses in several of our '•ities preserve with a slight percentage of loss, oranges, Irmons, grapes, apples, pcars^ peaches, etc. from quo to thrrc years. The exportation of ice, which commenced in 1805 by tho shipment of i;tO tons to Martinique by Mr. Frederick Tu- dor of Ho!4ton, had a slow growth. For the first ten yeara Mr. Tudor made little or no profit by his ventures; in 1815 ho obtaineil some exclusive privileges from the Cuban au- thorities, and between lSI7and lS20l)t>gan to send cargurs also to Charleston, Savannah, and New Orleans; but in all thf-c years he met with frequent disasters, and from the lung passages of tho sailing vessels often lost tho greater part of his cargoes. As lafe as 1h;12 his whole annual ship- ments amounted to but ■l'io2 tons, all of which was taken fr(»m Fresh Pond in Cambridge, .Mass. In ls:(;t bo sent his first cargo to the Fast Indies, shipping ISO Ions to Calcutta. Kighty tons melted before tho arrival of the cargo at that port, but the remainder sold promjitly at a large profit. From tliat time tho business began to thrive. In 18.*!6, 12,000 tons were exported from Hoston abinc ; in 18-10, r.5,0()0 tons: in IH.'je. 1 Ift.OOO tons; in 1806, nearly 250,000 tons; and in 1871, though other ports were, and had been for liventy years or more, partieiputing in the export trade, the shipment from Ronton was more than itOO.OdU tuns. Tlie entire export from thn Northern cities, aside from tho supply of New Orleans and other cities along tho Missis- sippi River, which was drawn nminly from the North-west, was in IH70 about .'iUO.OOil tons, and in 1875 did not fall below UOO.OOO tons. In using this term tj-purt, hfiwevcr. it is proper to say that by far the largest portion of these shipments are to the cities of our own coast and of tho in- terior, tho entire export to foreign countries in tho year \'nr.. II.— <'.'.t ending June 30, 1873, being only 5.3,553 tons, and in 1874, 51.572 tons, having a declared value in 1873 of $1S8,0'J5, and in 1874 of $1'J8,013, though probably realizing three or four times those sums. Tho tra<le with (ircat Britain in this commodity is increasing, though Norway is a large competitor fur the traffic, and commenced it as early as 1821 ; and the Dominion of Canada is also competing. In tho Southern cities of this country and of Europe, as well as in the West Indies and South America, artificial ice is supplying a considerable part of the demand. Afi a Jicmedial Af/tnit in Medicine and Snrffcri/. — The use of ico for medical and surgical purposes is one of the addi- tions made to our materia medica in tho present century. Tho Russians had, indeed, for 200 years or more passed from their intensely hot steam-bnths into a bath of snow, but this was rather an experiment in hygiene than an item of medical treatment. Ice is now used medically, inter- nally and externally ; in the former way, by breaking it up into small bits to be swallowed by the patient, and in iced drinks in gastritis and gastric fevers, as well as in some diseases of tho pharynx, larynx, or bronchial tubes. Its external uses are manifold; it is applied, pounded, in ice- bags to the head in acute mania, iirain fever, or some inju- ries of tho brain; to the temporal arteries and carotids in some fevers and in eases of diphtheria and scarlet fever; along the spine in ice-bags in cholera, yellow fever, etc.; over the bowcKs in cholera; locally in rare cases, to dimin- ish sensation preparatory to surgical or dental operations, rhigolcnc and other frigorific jircparations being more easily manageable and more convenient of application than iec. It is a remedial agent of great value. The- (tutherimj und Storimj of the Ice-crop. — Although tho act of freezing expels from the crystallized mass the salt and other mineral ingredients, leaving it when in a frozen state very nearly pure fresh water, yet ico formed from or floating in salt water gathers in the interstices be- tween the crystals so much salt, brackish, or impure water that it becomes unfit for houscliobl purposes. Hence, the ice-crop must bo gathered from fresh-water ponds or lakes or from rivers above tide-water. The supply of Boston, both for home use and export, is derived from several small lakes at no great distance from tho city, such as Fresh Pund in Cambridge; Wenham Lake, about IS miles from tho city ; Saugus Lake or Pond, etc. Portland and Bangor derive their supply from tho Kennebec, Penobscot, and Androscoggin rivers, .above tide-water, and from some of tho great lakes of Maine; New York, from the Hudson above tide-water, and from Koekland, Mahopjic. (Jrecn- wood, and other lakes; Pbilndelpbia, from the Delaware and Schuylkill above the Falls, and from several lakes of Pennsylvania and New Jersey ; the North-western cities, from the great lakes and the numerous smaller lakes of Wisconsin. Minnesota, and Dakota. In mo'-t cases the ice- companies have secured tho right to take tho ice from these lakes and ponds by tho purchase of the lands bordering on them, and have erected largo storehouses on the shores in which to deposit tho crop. These icehouses are somctinics of brick, but oftcner of wood, from 100 to 200 feet in width and from 200 to -100 feet in length, with double, trij>le, or quadru])le walls, and generally throe, four, or five stories in height, with strong floors and doors closing tightly on each floor, but no windows. There are numerous inclined planes, movalilo and adapted to each story, and to service without as well as within ; in tho larger storehouses a steam-elevator is used to drag t)io blocks of ico up the pianos. The capacity of these storehouses varies with the locality and the conveniences fur shipping ieu from them, many of them being cajiable of storing from 20.000 to 40,000 tons. Tho spaces between the walls are filled with sawduat, spont tan-nark, or some other poor conductor of heat. When a favorable time has come for storing the ice, thoro is a scene of great activity in the vicinity of iho store- houses. On the Hudson and its neighborhood tho period for gathering thu ico is rarely more than four or five days at one time, and Si)metimea not more than ten or twelve in all, and hence the greatest speed is necessary in securing the crop. Tho thickness of tne ico being ascertained (and this should not bo less than ten or twelve inches, and two feet is better), the ice-field is temporarily fenced, tlie snow. if there is any, scraped off by a broail scraper drawn by one horse, and the ico planed by another scrajier armed with a steel blade to thu di-ptli uf pcriui]>s two inches, to remove the porous ice. In seasons like that of 1871-75, where the ice has not been covered willi snow and is two feet or more thick, clear, solid, and transparent, very little scraping is retjuired. Tho surfaee being cleared, the nuirker eommcnees his work, using a kind of ]iIough drawn by ono horse, which makes a narrow groove about three inches deep, and running tho lines five feet apart, and then turn- ing and crussing these by another scries uf grooves, also 1090 ICEBERG— ICELAND. five feet apart, so as to make square blocks five feet each way If the ice is thick, these blocks arc reduced by au imiicment like a harrovT with three jiarallcl rows of long sharp tooth, one row running in the groove, and '^""<f' „1ohU, with a Ion-, sharp, and comparatively Ihin blade , run rnpidly through the principal grooves. One row of blocks is then cut through by means of hand-saws, he blocks pushed under or hauled up on the ice, and run to the inclined planes or loaded on sleds. The succeeding blocks arc i.rie.l ofl" with a crowbar by one gang, and another catches them with boat-hooks and drags them up, or tows a sheet of perhaps fifty blocks, with a grappling-iron and rope or chain, by horse-power, toward the storehouse, where it is broken into blocks, run up the inclined plane by the elevator, and packed away, the blocks standing on end and bein.' seVaralld hv sawdust, shavings, rice-hulls, or spen tan As soon as a floor or story is filled the doors are closed ti-hily. and the inclined planes raised to the next story which is filled in the same w.ay. There are g><"ers and drainwavs near the walls which receive and carry off the draii.ings from the melting of the ice. During the moon- li..ht niihts the work is carried on by night and day until the storehouse? arc filled, all parties working with a will. The cutting and storing of 600 tons in an hour at a single storehouse is not an uncommon feat. The cost of the labor for gathering and storing the ice in a favorable season does not e.\cecd eight or ten cents per ton. Ice ii very perishable if exposed to the air m the summer temperature', though that from Canada, Maine a"d Massa- chusetts, being much more dense than that of the Hudson River, melts less readily. On the Hudson it is kept in the storehouses till just before it is wanted, and then loaded into barges, which, if possible, are brought directly to the storehouse, and a half dozen or more of these barges are towed by a steamer to the company's city wharves, where it is either received into a storehouse or loaded directly trom the barges upon the heavy covered wagons which are wait- ing to "eccive it. The net cost of the ice delivered to city customers in New York or Brooklyn varies from S.2 to ?.i T.er ton. and in unfavorable seasons may reach $4. It can be shipped in large cargoes from their wharves in most sea- son" profitably at ?1.50 to S2 per ton. The profits on the business are immense, the prices to the large packing estab- Vishments and the larger hotels ranging from bo to M J per Ion • to butchers, grocers, druggists, and confectioners, from ?S to S''0 per ton ; and to families and small consumers, from «U to S3n. These prices have provoked such com- petition that it is doubtful whether the maximum will again be reached in those cities. In 1874 ice was brought m large quantities from Maine and sold to consumers at halt ■the prices which the New York companies had fixed, and a -profitable business was done at those rates. Ice has within the part few years become a necessity of lite, the loss ot ■which entails great suffering, and should no more be subject to the caprices of spceul-ating monopolies than wheat flour i,i any other indispensable article of food or clothing. _ A rdficml /ce.— That ice could be produced by mechanical and chemieal processes has been long known, but until re- cently it has not been possible to do this at so lo>y a cost as to mike it profitable. Within the past fifteen years, how- ever, there have been several processes patented and ma- eliines constructed which accomplish this at a cost euffici- ently moderate to warrant their use in regions below the 35th parallel of N. lat. Siebc's ether ice-machino was the first of these, and made ice in thin plates by the vaporua- tk>n of ether acting upon a strong brine which -^'J'^"'^"''! through a cistern containing the ice-moulds. A better machine was CarrC-'s ammonia ice-machine, which produce, cvlindersof ice bv the vaporization of liquid ammonia, at iinodcrateexpenJe, though with some dangerof explosions. A German modification of this produced plates of i" with k-= aan-er and somewhat less expense, but the cost ol the marhiuel was so high as to prevent their general use; «COOI» being the price of one which would produce ten tons of ice per day bv vtry hard work. An American company attempted the inanufaeture, using for the iiiirposo one ot the most volatile and infiammable of the naphthasproduced in the distillation and refining of petroleum. Their ina- chinery was simpler than that of the foreign processes, but it was rather a refrigerating than an icc-makiug process, and required some motive-power to keep the relngerating liquid in motion, and the material used was so explosive and dangcroiw that their success was not great. By none of those prneesses could ice be produced at a less cost than ^lor$J at»n, and bvsome of them the cost was from *<• to $8 per Ion. In the Southern cities, like Charlcsion, Sayan- nah. Mobile, Now Orleaof, an.l Memphis, they could be used to advantage, but not in Northern cities, where large consumers could ordinarily, by combining, obtain their ice from nature's manufactory at j;4 per ton. or even lower. There is, however, a wide field for the inventive gcuius o: man to signalize its power in the construction of a simple, cheap, and effective ice-machine, employing no dangerous or explosive chemicals, and making a pure ice in solid cakes, at a price so low as to compete favorably with the natural product. L. P. Bhockeit. Icc'berg, a great mass of ice floating in the sea. Ice- bergs arc huge fragments of glaciers detached by the action of the water from the lower end of the glacier. Greenland, from the great number of its glaciers, is the fatherland of the iceberg. Icebergs are far more numerous in the northern than in the southern polar regions. They bring with them in their journeys masses of rock, earth, and sometimes seeds of plants. Polar bears and seals are sometimes thus transported from one region to another. Icebergs are often of prodigious size and most remarkable shape. They have often been observed to measure 300 feet in height. Only one-eighth of the mass is above the surface of the water. Icebergs are extremely dangerous to navigators in polar seas. These dangers are extended southward by the Lab- rador current, which brings great numbers of them into the Atlantic, where they arc melted by the warmer waters ol the Gulf Stream, and drop their loads of gravel and stone upon the banks off Newfoundland. The streams of water from their sides" are always fre.sh. Ice'land [Dan. hlaud], a large island subject to the rule of the king of Denmark, and situated between the Atlantic and the Arctic oceans, between lat b., 24 and 66° 33' N., and between Ion. 13° 31' and 24° 1/ W., 600 miles distant from Norway, 250 from Greenland, and oOO from Scotland. Area, 39,207 square miles. Pop. 6fl,,b3. Cap. Revkiavik. Iceland is of volcanic formation, and the double effects of the intense cold of a northern climate with its long, bleak winter and short, dreamy summer, and the tremeodous volcanic powers which, under one form or an- other seem to be active at every minute and on every spot, have given the whole island a most singular appearance- desolate but grand, poor but interesting. With the excep- tion of the southern part, which presents some tracts ol low and level land, the whole coast is high and precipitous ; on the eastern and northern sides barren and inhospitable, on the southern and western sides indented with numerous deep and narrow fjords, which afford excellent harbors, and aloig which stretch the inhabited valleys. The interior is a high table-land resting on Plutonic rocks covered with im- mense beds of lava, and broken now and then by hot springs (eeysers). which throw columns of boiling water sometimes 200 feet high into the air, and form steaming streams, which after a short course disappear under the lava. It is studded all over with conical hills of smoking ashes and boiling pits of sulphur, and traversed by ranges of mountains whoso summits are often connected with glaciers which lorm wherever the ground rises above 4000 ieet, and which often descend to the ocean, making it dangerous, almost im- possible, to travel from one valley to the other. Oerafa Jukul(/oi-«« being the Icelandic name for glacier) is the hi -best point of the island, 6420 feet above the level of the sen, and forms in the south-eastern part the centre of an immense system of glaciers and volcanoes. Its first eruption within the historic period took place in 1 '--i.^hcn it suddenly burst forth, filling the valleys with red-hot lava, riising up islets far off in the ocean, and sending its clouds of ashes hundreds of miles over the sea. The famous Hrn A and Gi:ysF.n (which see) are situated in the south- western i.art: Krafla in the northern. The aofvity of these volcanoes is not continuous: there seems to be lO or 80 years between each great eruption of Hec a. Jlean- whi'lc. au innumerable multitude of smaller mud-volcanoes and hot springs are playing, and these arc often of so changeable a nature that they may be lormcd in one month and disappear in the other. The climate of Iceland has changed, and seems to be still changing. It would seem UiatUie island had formerly large forests. ^"'P''"'«f remains of them, forming a peculiar kind of brown coal, arc found in many places, and arc used, together with the white turf and drift-wood, for fuel. Now there is not more than one tree on the whole island, the mountain-ash at Akure" ri on the N. coast, 25 feet high. The Thingvalla Forest; covering an area of about ten sq""^ "'■'"• ""^ composed of willows and birches, consists of shrubs which arc inlv between three and four feet high. Dfcrent sort= of grain, which were extensively cultivated 300 years ago, cannot now be raised at all. The winter is not extremely se- en-, but it is very long ; in .Inly, and even in August, ce may be found drifting along the coast. Only a few gar.lon yegctables and potatoes can be raised, and bread made from hnportod meal is a luxury. But in the valleys grow good grils and many fine herbs, among which Icel"-! mos» constitutes a e.uisiderable item of exportation. Therucrs and the fjords abound in fish-salmon, trout, and cod Numerous seals and whales gather along the coasU and ICELANDIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE— ICELAND MOSS. 1091 Birartns of wild sea-fowl?, among which arc the eider-duck and the pwan. vi!*it the shores. Thus, huntinj;, fishing, and rearing ol' sheep are the chief pursuits of the Ice- hinder's life, and cider-down, dried aud salted fish, wool — generally manufooturcd into socks and mittens — tallow, and fish-oil arc the main articles he can give in exchange for manufactured good?, coffee, tea. wine, tobacct), coal, and grain. Among minerals, sulphur is found in enormous quantities ; also iron, rock-crystals, and the famous double- refracting spar, but the mineral wealth of the country is very little developed. The value of the total annual exportation is about ^.T.UOO.OOO. Iceland was discovered nud (-(donized in the ninth century by the Norwegians, who here formed an indrp-ndent republic. In a short time the country at- tained a high degree of prosperity, and developed a civil- ization which far surpassed that of the mother country. But feuds between the different families, in whi'-h whole estates, with all their oceupants and all the property be- longing to them, were burned down, brought the independ- ence of the republic to an end, aud made the country a dependency of Norway. In l.'JSO it was. together with Norway, united to Denmark, an'l remained so until 1811, when N'orway was separated from that country. Iceland was governed by a StiptawtmalSr, who had the executive power, and waa appointed by the king, and an Altht'iif/, which had the legislative power, and consisted of dep- uties chosen by each county. It required an annual support of $60,000 from Denmark. But in 1S7I, upon the celebration of the one-thousandth anniversary of the colonization of the island, Icclancl became entirely in- dependent of Denmark, though subject to the king as tho head of tho Icelandic government. Its new governmental iDstitutions are entirely republican in spirit, all citizens having equal rights and perfect religious liberty. Tho Icelanders arc a noble race of people — bra%'e. of pure morals, and intellectual in a very high degree. The old tongue, which is the foundation of the three .Scandi- navian languages, they have kept during 3000 years in its original purity, and the humblest workman can read and write, and is thoroughly conversant with the Saf;as, tho history and the laws of his country, and with his Bible. A comparatively large number of students cuuio yearly to tho University of Copenhagen, and many of them have aequired celebrated names in science. Nay, there are Ice- landic poems so thoroughly imbued with the loftiest ideas and sentiments of modern civilization, and so thoroughly impregnated with the elegance and brilliancy of modern art. that in reading them nobody would b-,'lieve that they were written in a low but built of lava-bloeks and moss, and looking out on tho dreary gloom of a winter of nine months. Ci.EMKNs I'kterses. Icelandic Language and Literature. Under the iiiime of Vuwh titmjfi (" Danish tongue") or Xttrnrna (" XurtluTu speech ") one language was generally spoken throu;j;bout tho three Scantlinavian countries, Denmark, iSwedcn, and Norway, during the pagan times and down to about the eleventh century. There were no doubt local modifications of this language, the more so as tlic Goths hud come into the country in two difft-rL'nt swarms, on two different roads, anr| probably also at two different periods. But the skalds travelling from court to court, or visiting the great jarls (earls) on their estates, were universally understood, and the Uunic inscriptions spread over the whole of Scandinavia show no differences. In the ninth cen- tury this language was brought to Iceland by the Norwe- gians who scttlc'l on the island, and here, in a distant cor- ner of the world, wIuTe a little republic flourishetl for more than three centuries ("from H2S to 12r>2l, it was consolidated into a rich, and even brilliant literature, and has been [)rc- serve<I, almost without any changes, up to this very day. For tlie study of the languages of the Teutonic family this lei'Iandic language, as it is now generally called, is of par- amount importance; for although its literary monuments ari' much younger than, for instance, Ulfila's translation of the Bible, still its growth was more independent, its de- velopment more energetic, than that of any of its stster- ton;,;ues, and it is extant in a literature whose study is ne- cessary for a full understanding of the history of Europe during the Middle .4ges. Its most characteristic features, when compared with other Teutonic languages, are these: it has no indefinite article, and the definite is not put be- fore the noun, but appended to the end of it : the first and scQond personal pronouns have a dual form : the verbs have a passive form unknown to otlicr Teutonic languages; ami while in the (Jermanic tongues the infinitive always ends with a consonant, it ends in Icelandic invariably in a vowel. When compared with modern languages, its purity, flexi- bility, and richness of forms give it a peculiar charm. Etymology, which in EuRlish. for instance, is a dear! know- ledge, employable only by a proeess of reflect i<pn, is in Ice- landic a livinj; principle in the mind of the speaker, work- ' ing instinctively. New words, expressive of new ideas or I new shades, are formed with the greatest facility, univcr- I sally understood, and easily kept alive as long as the idea lives, but with the idea they die. Originally, this language I was written with Uunic characters, but with the introduc- tion of Christianity the Roman alphabet came into use. The letters c and fj were dropped as fully represented by « and ky and two new letters, Srand t>. were formed to repre- sent the aspirated */ {th in thoufjh) and the aspirated t {th in thtntijht). For the complete representation of the some- what intricate system of vocalization the vowels were pro- vided with dots and strokes. The oldest monument of Icelandic literature is the poetical Edda, compiled by Siemund Sigfusson (1054-li:t;i), but whose single parts probably belong to the eighth or ninth century. This, as well as the prose Edda, compiled or written by .Snorri Sturleson {lITS-1241), is chiefly of religious or mytholog- ical interest, giving a representation of tho contents of the old pagan faith. The prose Edda, however, gives also a kind of review of the art of poetry, of synonyms, of poetical words and phrases, of metres and strophes, etc. Proofs of this art have been left us, not only in the songs of tho poetical Edda, and in fragments of songs occurring in tho different prose works, where they are quoted as evidence or applied as ornaments, but also in about twenty complete {)oems or drnpitn. The Icelandic skalds and tbeirartwcro lighly esteemed, and the names of Egill Skallagrimson, Eyvind Finsson, Thord Kolbeinsson,and Ivar Ingimundar- son were celebrated throughout Scandinavia as much as thoso of the greatest kings and jarls. But most of their productions have perished, and we may add that not much seems to have been lost thereby, rcriphraec, not poetry, artificiality, not art, were the character of these poems. Nothing was called by its true name or represented in a true manner. Figures, almost contorted into enigmas, stalked along in difficult metres, ringing with alliterations and rhymes. (Juite otherwise with the prose literature, the Sttf/as. They are of great importance for the history of the Scandinavian countries, of still greater interest to the his- tory of European civilization, and perfect in their artistic form. They are partly fictitious, taking their subjects from old songs — as, for instance, V'OUninjfiH<njn and Fn'thJo/n- aaf/ft— or from foreign talcs, such as K'urlunififfnusiifuja, Tri'«/ftH(s»((7«, and Trojumanunannga; partly biographical, narrating the history of some great and powerful Icelanclic family, as, for instance, Xjtthnaijn, EtjifuMfifffi, Laxffnln- (tatjn, YatnH<hrlann<jn and fj'retfiMnatfa ; and j)artly histor- ical — as, f(>r instance. fCiij/th'iit/antrr/tt ar\dJ»iiiinn'kiitffasag(t, treating Danish history, Hr.imakriutfla, treating Norwe- gian, and Stur/inif/tntamt, treating Icelandic. But of these three divisions of the sagas, the main importance rests on the second one, the biographical. M'ith respect to form, the /find has nothing to boast of before XJ'tfuKfufa, either in plasticity anri precision of representation or in simplicity and grandeur of style. The form of the Icelandic saga is perfect, like that of the Greek epic, and probably produced in the same manner, though under such very difterent cir- cumstances. In the S(ditude of tliat island, far away from the rest of the world, in the loneliness of that hearth, many miles distant from the nearest neighbor, and separatedfrom him by flaming volcanoes and boisteroufe fjords, in the stillness of that long twilight, when people sat frostbound or snowbound for months, the falln-r would t(dl about Njnl slowly and with emphasis, and the son would listen, rapt and pondering. Then, when the time came for the son to tell the story to a younger generation, he would repeat it word by word, just as it bad been fixed in his mind, and making no other changes than such as were inspired by en- thusiasm and reverence. Tlius worked out into perfection, the saga was at last written down some time before the middle I of the fifteenth century, at which period literary life utterly I declined in Iceland. Great, however, as the lesthctic in- terest <tf the sagas is. their historical interest is neverthe- I less still greater. They are the only pure and unmixed I source from which any knowledge' can bo had of tho jirim- itivc character of the Scandinavian races. Those conceptions ' of life and of the laws of life, and those representations of \ passions and of the ideals of passions, which the pngas con- ' tain, may he differently judged, but whether they areeon- ' 8i<icred sublime or rude, it was nevertheless these which formeil tho (»crman nation, and to some degree also the French : it was tln-se which conquered Nornunidy and Enj;- land. anrl it was these wliiidi made the Crusades and settled down at last in feutlalism. The great importance of the Icelandic sagas for the study of European civilization has beer»nie more and more appreciated during; the course of tho present century. Ci.p.mkns PrTKnsi:N. Iceland IWosSf a lichen belonging to the genus (Vtra- rin {(\ /«/(iH(/(Vfi), so called from its habitat, but found in the northern parts of both continents. It is usecl as an article of f<tod ; boiled, having liceu freed from its bitter- 1092 ICELAND SPAR-ICHTHYOLOGY. ness by repeated maceration, it forms a nutritious jelly, or ] it may be powdered and mixed in cakes or bread. It is also used as a medicine in pulmonary complaints. Iceland Spar, transparent calc-spar, of which the beat specimens are obtained from Iceland. It displays iu great lierfcctiou the jihcnomcua of double refraction. Icp-Plaiit, an herb of Southern Europe and Northern and Western Africa, the Mcmitbn/dutlicmiim crygtallinum, of the order Mesembryaceie. Its succulent leaves are cov- ered with vesicles which appear like crystals of ice. It is often seen in house-culture, aud has demulcent, diuretic, and e,\pectorant properties. Ichneu'mon [Gr. \.\vt<i^<.iv, the " tracker "]. a name in its largest sense applicable to the numerous genera of small quadrupeds of the family Vivcrridic, sub-family llcrpes- tin.-c — all Old-World carnivorous mammals of active habits and tierce disposition, preying upon serpents, birds, and small game of many kinds. Hut strictly, the name desig- nates the Uerpenlea'ivhnciiinon of Egypt. It is famous as the devourer of the eggs of the crocodile and as a destroyer of venomous serpents. Hence it was worshipped by the ancient Egyptians. Spain has an ichneumon, Ilerpealea Widdrimjltjuii. (See Mlxgoos.) Ichneumon-flies (lehneumonidtc), a great family of hymcnoptcrous insects which are of the greatest service to tlie agriculturist and to mankind, since they deposit their eggs either upon or within the eggs or larva; of larger in- sects and spiders, the future larva of the ichneumon-fly devouring the insect upon which it is hatched. Immense numbers of noxious insects are thus destroyed. There are nearly ."iOOO known species (one-half American), of which .some 300 species belong to Ichneumon, the typical genus. Ichnol'ogy px""'' " track," and Aoyot, " discourse "], or the science of tracks, a name proposed by Dr. Buekland. The animals whose existence is made known by their foot- marks upon stone may be called Ichiiozon. President Hitchcock has detailed sixteen permanent characters in footmarks which serve to distinguish satisfactorily differ- ent classes of animals. The following are examples of them : whether tracks of feet; trails made by the body or its caudal extremity drawn along in the mud ; width of the track-way; relative size of hind and front feet; length of step: number of toes; mode of progression ; spread of the toes; character of the heel, claws, and pellets. (See fur- ther under Fossil FooipnixTS.) C. H. Hitchcock. Ich'thin, or Ichthulin, albuminoids found in the eggs of cartilaginous fishes. Ichthyocol, or Isinglass. See Gelatine. Ichthyol'ogy [ixBii^, a " fish," .and Adyo!, " discourse "] is that branch of zoology which treats of the vertebrated an- imals formerly collectively known under the name of fishes, but which are now distributed among the classes (1) Fishes, (2) Selachlins or Elasmobraschiates, (3t Mau- SIPOBBAXCHIATES, and (4) Leptocardia.ns. Referring to the articles under those several heads, as well as that under Vertebrates, for information respecting the structure and relations of each, remarks will be here confined to the most important facts in the bibliography and history of the group of classes. In or<ler to ensure clearness of concep- tion, (1) the gre.it general works on fishes will bo first no- ticed, and then (2) the principal stages in the systematic arrangement of the class or its primary constituents. I. Gcuciiil Wrirkf and Nnmeriral Ai'i/uinilions. — Many ancient and mediscval authors had published coin])ilations containing descriptions of various species of fishes, but none can be said to have advanced ichthyology. The chief authors afler the revival of learning were Helon, Salviani, Kondolet, Gcsner, etc. Their works, however, were chiefly of local interest, and related mostly to the fishes of the Jlcditerrancan. The first general work that deserves special mention was the Hisloria Pitcium of Willoughby and Ray, published in IfiSfi. In 1735, Linnseus, in the first edition of the famous Siitlcmn JVntiinr, first introduced to the world a synopsis of the arrangement of fishes and digest of known species, which Artcdi, his fellow-student, had elabor.atcd; but that author having come to an un- timely death, his manuscripts were left to Linnajus, and published under his eilitorship in I73.'< in five parts. In these parts were successively considered in his own words — ( 1) ichthyological bibliography, or the literary history of fishes, in which was given an enumeration of the authors who had written on fishes; (2) ichthyological philosophy, in which were elucidated the fundamental principles of the science ; (;i) the genera of fishes, in which a complete sys- tem of ichthyology was proposed, with classes, orders, cha- racters of genera, specific differences, and many observa- tions; (4) the synonomy of almost all fishes, in which was given an enumeration of the names of fishes mentioned by all authors who had ever written of them; and (5) de- scriptions of the species of fishes which Artedi had dis- sccteil and examined alive : these subjects being entitled at length in Latin, with corresponding titles. Artedi ad- mitted into the system 212 nominal species under 52 genera, but these are to be divided among 22.S species and 45 gen- era of true fishes, and 14 species and 7 genera of Plagiuri or cetaceans, Artedi having, like all his predecessors, con- founded these two groups in the same class. Linnaus, in (I) the first edition of the .S)y»(<nia -Vodirir, which was pub- lished in 1735, enumerated 145 nominal species of fishes under 36 genera, and 10 cetaceans in 5 genera; (2) in the fourth titular (or second original) edition he had 23S spe- cies of fishes under 4.S genera, and 8 cetaceans under 5 genera; (3) in the sixth titular (or third original) edition, published in 174S, he recognized 2S1 species of fishes, dis- tributed under 47 genera, and 12 cetaceans under R genera ; (4) in the tenth titular (or fifth original i edition (wherein the class was first restricted to the fishes proper, and the cetaceans separated to be united with the mammals) ho increased the number to 414 species (including, however, the Amphibia Nantes), ranged under 57 genera; aud (5) in the twelfth titular (or sixth original) edition (which was the last one in the lifetime of Linnaeus) 477 nominal spe- cies of fishes (including the Amphibia Nantes) were de- scribed and placed in (Jl genera. The eighth titular (or fifth original ) edition was limited to the vegetable kingdom. Between 1740 and 1749, Jacob Theodor Klein, secretary of state of Dantzic, published five numbers or " missus " of a work on ichthyology, remarkable for its crudity, but which has had a considerable reputation. In this work 51.'! nominal species of fishes were described, and referred to 61 genera, quite dilTerent from those of Artcdi or Lin- nteus. From 1782 to 1795 a great work on fishes was pub- lished in two sections — one of three, "■''■ and the other of ninet volumes — by Dr. Mark Elieser Block, a physician of Berlin, in which about 418 species of fishes were de- scribed and illustrated, in fine large oblong folio volumes of plates, but the drawings are very inaccurate, and the coloring still more erroneous. During the time the work of Bloch was being published, several compilations were issued from different European presses. In 1787, Kene Just Haiiy (better known as "the crys- tallographer")contriljuted, anonymously, a volumefto the natural history department of the Eiici/ilapi'die ilflh<id- iijiic, describing the fishes in an alphabetical sequence under their French names, and with tabular synopses, each on a special page, giving the classes, genera, and species under their French names, in connection with the descriptions. In the foUowingyear (1788) the Abbg J. P. BonnaterreJ contributed also to the same series a volume under the title Ichthydotjit', in which the species were arranged according to the Linntcan classification, and illustrated in 102 plates, representing about 400 species, which he had collected from all sources. Also in 1788, Johaun Friedrieh Gmelin issued an edition of the Si/stema A^tturir of Linna?us, in which he collected together from many sources descriptions of species, which were, however, referred to their places in the system with very little judgment; he raised the apparent number of species to 826, which he grouped in 65 genera, but many of these were identical with each other, and the number of real species was therefore much less. A few years later (in 1792)the work of Linnaius's friend (Artedi) also found an editor in Johann Julius Walbaum, who used the dmera /'iscium as a nucleus around which he brought, in the form of foot notes and appendices, all the species which he could collect from all sources, and which amounted to about »65. grouped under 228 genera; of these also a considerable proportion were synonymous with other species. , Between I79S and 1803,lj Bernard Germain Kticnne do la Ville-sur-Illon, Comic dc Lac6pi'de. published nn exten- sive work on fishes in the French language, entitled Hii- tnire Xaturellr den /'<»i»«on«, in which he introduced, with very great modifications in the system, numerous generic divisions and many species based on figures made chiefly by French naturalists and travellers ; very little wholesome criticism was exercised in this work. Fourteen hundred and sixty-three (1463) nominal species were described. •Blnrh's (D. Marcus) Oekonnmische Naturgeschichle der Fitr/ie DeuUcMandi, Berlin, 1782-83 (text, 3 vols. 4to; atlas, 3 vols., obi. Ibl.l. t Bloch's (D. Marcus) Xnlurgeschichte der auslilndUclien Ffiche, Berlin, 1783-9.') (text, 9 vols. 4to; atlas, 9 vols. fob). JHaCly(Ren6Ju8t), Ennie.hipMie.MUhodiriHe.^HistaireNnlurdk. Tome troislf'Tue ("onteniint les Poissons.— A Lifje, )7.'<7, 4to. ?B(]nnaterre (J. 1'.). Tableau Enct/elopfdique el .WlAoiliipie des Inns rir/na dr. la AaJure.—Jc/ilhyolOffie.—A Paris, 1788 (4to, with lOJpl.i. I' l.aci'ppde (Comie de). Ifistoire NatureWt de» Poisxom, Paris, 1798-1803 (4to, T, vols.). ICHTHYOLOGY. 10D3 In I SOI the Greek scholar, Johann Gottlieb Schneider,* who hud puid considerable attention to natural history, !ind cjpecially ichthyology, published a posthumous work of Bhich's, hut which doubtless owed considonibic to him- self, under the title Stfulema Ichthyoloyia- icuuihuH ex. illiia- tratiiiit. In this work the species were primarily grouped in clas^^cs, distinj^uished nominally by the number of fins, although very often the species referred to the classes did not support the characters attributed to them. The classes were again divided into orders distinguished by the posi- tion of the ventral fins. In 1803 and 180t, George Shaw published the fourth and fifth vulumes (in four parts) of his Geneml Zoitlinjjf, nr Si/n- tcmitlic Xtitiiritt Iltmtftrxf, which were exclusively devoted to the fishes. He adopted, with a few trifling modifications, the system of Linnanis. as rectified by Gniclin, and described 12'50 nominal species of fishes. With Shaw the age of mere compilations of descriptions of species of fishes came to an end, nnd although the sub- sequent works devoted to such descriptions were few, they were far more valuable in every respect, and based chiefly on original materials and observation, and a comparibon of the fishes themselves. In 1828, Baron Georges Cuvier commenced the publica- tion, in connection with M. Aehillc Valenciennes, f of a great work on fishes (ffinfoire Xatiirrf/c ties PoiHsous), which was continued through many years (1828-(9), and was only brought to a stop in ISC.i, when twenty-two vol- umes had been published; all of the apochil fishes, almost all of the ganoids, and all of the elasmobranchiates, inar- sipobranohiates. and leptocardians being left undescribed. The first ten volumes were prepared by Cuvier and Valen- ciennes, each elaborating s])ecial groups, but on the <lcath of Cuvier. and after the publieation of tlie manuscript he left behind, the work was carried on by Valenciennes alone. Owing to the length of time during which the work was published, n great inctjuality in its proportions necessarily resulted, the last volumes describing a larger proportion of the uow known species than the earlier ones; 4514 nominal species of fishes were described in the twenty-two volumes, almost all of which belong to the typical fishes or to tho order of Teleocephali. In connection with the work of Cuvier and Valenciennes may be considered one by A. Dum6ril,J bearing, in part, the same title — r'. e. Ifititoii'e iVftturr/lt; f/c* /*>iiit»iiiin, on /r/itfii/n{of/ie tj/n^rafr. This work is complementarv to the preceding, as it embraces the selachians, ganoids, and lopho- nranohiates, groups which had not been described by r'uvier and Valenciennes. Two large volumes were pub- lished between 1805 and 1870, when the death of its author arrested its further progress. 626 nominal species wero described in the volumes issued. Between 1859 and 1870, in the form of a Catalogue of the. Finheit in the Jiritinh Mitieum,, by Albert Olinther. M. D.,^ all the species recognized by the author, ns well fr<ini au- topsy OS descriptions of species unknown to him, wero de- scribed. This is the only work published since the early part of the century which contains a complete conspec- tus of the living fishes. It is in eight volumes, which were issued every one or two years. The author udopte<l OSl.t Hpccies as established, while 1082 otliers are considered a? doubtful, and refcrrerl to by name only in foot-notes to the genera to which they are supposed to belong. It is assumed that about 1000, however, of the dr)ubtfui species will be ultimately confirmeil : and, allowing 1000 species to have been described (luring the eonrse of publieation of the pfries, it is estimated that \ve may put the total num- ber of fishes known at present as about 9000. II. Prof/rin» t,f CfnHHifirtttinii. — Norhing like a scientific ola8.-<ification of fishes was known to tbi- ancient nr mediipval ' authors, Aristotle in this respei-t being but little if any in ad- vance of otliers, and none of his followers or successors nro better. The first germ of a regular system based on any- tliing like scientific principles was not j>ub|ished till near the end of tho seventeenth century. In lOSfi, Kuy pub- lished the f/iMtun'tt PtMciuut left by bin frien<l Willoughbv, in which tho species wero dichotomously divided, prim- arily, («) into (I.) CAnTii.AnivKi, and ( II.) Osski ; (h) tho fortuer fl.) into Lmif/i (ineludintc sharks) and f.nii fin- eluding rays): and tlie latter fll.l into Pi, \Nt nnd Non- Pl.AM ; (rj the Pi.ASi included only the flat-fishes; the NoN- i-LANi were distinguished uocordlng to tho form of (he • nineliU (M. E.^ ftt/nlemn !rhthynU»fji(r irnnihux nr. Htuxfrattim Pirnt fthitiitn nitetortJi upu» inrhoa/um nhsatvU, correxit, irUerpolavit Ju. fw'ol/lirb Xr/m*'iV//T.— Kerolini. IHOI. Svn. t Ciivler (Itarnn (leorif^i and Aebille Valenciennes. Ifistoire S'alurrllr fif.t i\,ijisr,ns —A Pari-*. IK2H-I0 ('-"J vols. Kvo). J nuin(iril (Aujtusl). itUtmrr Xa/nreUr deA PbiAsonn, on Irhlhy- afoffie fjrnf^raU, ouvraRC necompnitnC de planches, Paris, 1865-^0 (text. "J vols. »vo ; atlas. Inr(;er 8vo). <>(ianther (Albert C. L.G.t. OUatogne of tha FUhci intheBriiiih iViueum.— lA>ndon, 18o9-7U (» vols. 8vo). body, whether eel-shaped {Anguilliformea) or more con- tracted ( rojyjore rojitrarr/orr), and [fl) those according to the absence of ventrals [nine vcntralihuf) or their presence {cum vfiitralifittg) : (c) those without ventrals were only difFerentiatcd into genera; those with, into Malacoptcrr/^ii\ or soft-rayed fishes, and Arnuthnpterytjii, or spiny-rnyed fishes. This scheme exhibits some idea of system, but in most respects, and in its details, it is quite defective. Artedi classified the 45 genera known to him under 5 orders, accepting to a considerable extent the views an- nounced in tho work of Willoughby and Ray. These orders were (I) Malacopterygii, (2) Acanthoptcrygii, (3) Branchiostegii, (I) rhoudropterygii, nnd (5) Plagiuri. It is only necessary to observe that among the Malacop- terygians ho included the genera Sifugnathus, Stromatctm, and Aiutrrhichas, as well as the true Malacopterygians of later authors ; and under the Branchiostegi he combined the genera fialistrs, Ontyacio)}, Ci/doptcnut, and Lnphinn. In 1758, Linnteus published an original system of ichthy- *^^ogy> >ind («) rejected (as Brisson had previously done) the cetaceans from the class of fishes; [h) applied the bi- nomial system of nomenclature to the species: and ((•) intro- duced a new system of classification, based chiefly upon tho position of the ventral fins, and recognizing 5 orders, distin- guished severally (1) by the supposed structure of the bran- chiae (Branchiostegi), (2) the want of ventral fins (Apodes), or their presence (3) under the throat (.lugulares), or (4) at the thorax (Thoracici), or (5) behind the ventrals (Abdom- inales). Linna-ns ran to an opposite extreme from his pre- decessors in limiting the class, and not only excluded the cetaceans, but committed a grave error in separating from the fishes and referring to tlie amphibians the flinndrop- ter3-gii of Artedi. He was led into this mistake by erro- neous information respecting the air-bladder, communicated to him by Dr. Garden of Charleston, S. C. ; and this error was still further aggravated in the succeeding edition (the twelfth, or the last published during bis life). The true fishes were again brought together by Gmelin in his edition of the Sifntcma Nnturrr^ and the class, remaining purged of the cetaceans, was retained with the constituents generally accorded to it till within the last few years. In 1801, Bloch and Schneider published their Systemn IchthifoliHjiiv, in which they distributed the genera under 1 1 classes, distinguished by the number of fins from eleven down to one — )'. c. Ilendecapterygii, Decapterygii, Enne- apterygii.Octoptcrygii, Hcptapterygii. Ilexapterygii. Pent- apterygii, Tetrupterygii, Tripterygii, Diptcrygii, and Mon- opterygii. Within the classes orders were recognized based ujjon the ventral fins — i. c. whether jugular, thoracic, ab- dominal, or wanting. This system had not even the merit of being based upon a correct appreciation or count of the fins : and independently of this, it was in the highest degree unnatural, bringing together forms that were in nowise re- lated, and separating others that were very closely allied, or even congeneric It must be remembered, in this con- nection, that a greater or less number of fins is often simply tho expression of more or less abbreviated or shortened raj"S, and more or less deeply incised membrane — r. y. dif- ferences such as may be found between the species of black bass or species nnd genera of Serranidn?, etc. Nearly eontcmiioraneously, from 1799 to 1804, appeared the work of Lue^'pedc, in which the classification adopted is a proerustean system of (1) sub-classes, (2) divisions, and (3) orders. Flrnt. — .SV6-c^(««f(t, based on the supposed con- sistence of the skeleton {Sons-classes, (1) Poissons carti- lagineux, (2) Poissons osseux.) Sreoud, — /ViViaiV.im, under each sub-class, established on the supposed presence or ab- sence and various combinations (•)) of the opcrcnia nnd branchiostegal membrane — that is. the presence of both, of one, or the other, or none. Thirii. — Ordtrfi, distinguished by the presence of ventrals (Anodes), or their presence at difl*erent regions (.lugulaires, Thoraciens, Abdominaux). Several of these categories are non-existent in nature, and the reference of species to them is due to erroneous obser- vation or supposition. Numerous new genera were in this work for the first time instituted, but most of them were very bailly defined and congeneric species were frequently combined with other types. In ISOO. M. Dum^-rit. in his Znoforfir Auah/tt<inr, pub- lished a system of fishes which was to a considerable ex- tent siii»iily a modificatiitn of Lacepi>de, but be for the first time introduced the category of '* families " in the classi- fication of fishes: his arrangement, however, was as arti- ficial as that of I.ac^'pt'^de. .Several other authors published new arrangements or introducecl modificatiims in the elassifientiitn of the class : among them wero Hafincsque in ISIO, Piilhis in 1811. Bali nesiiuc anew in 1815, Do Bhiinvillo and Gken in 1816. Goldfur4s in 1820. and Risso in 1827. Almost all of their modifications, however, were devoid of merit, and there- fore need not detain us. 1094 ICHTHYOLOGY. In 1817, Cuvier, who had previously published numer- ous special memoirs on fishes, and rectified many details in their classification, introduced his complete system in the first edition of the litynr Atn'maf. He primarily distin- ^^uished fishes into 'H"]ioudroj)terygien8 " and "Osseux." The ehondropterygian fishes were disintegrated into those with attached brauchiaj ("a branchics fixes") and those with free hranchiie ("a branchics libres ") : the former were subdivided into *'Suceurs" (Marsipobranehiatce^, and into "Selacicns" (Elasniobranchiates) ; the latter included only the sturgeons and paddle-fish (" Sturioniens *'). The osseous fishes were divided into the orders '* Plectogna- thes," " Lophobranchcs/* ** Malacopterygiens abdomi- naux," "Malacopterygiens sub-brachiens," "Malacopte- rygiens apodes," and *' Acanthopti-rygiens." The natural groups Plectognaths and Lophobranchs were thus for the first time recognized: as to the rest, the merit consisted chiefly in the criticism exercised in the elimina- tion of doubtful forms and their proper identification, and in approximations of minor groups, rather than in the ap- lireciation of the outlines of classification. In 184fi, Johann Miiller, the most able anatomist of the ceutury, who had long been engaged on very elaborate an- atomical investigations of difl"erent groups of fishes, gave expression to the result of his studies in a remarkable memoir on the classification of fishes. He recognized in the class 6 distinct sub-classes — viz. {!) Leptocardii, (2) INfarsiiiobranchii, (3) Elasmobranchii, (4) Ganoidea, (o) Teleostei, and (6) Dipnoi. These sub-classes were based upon weighty structural diff"erences, and the combinations indicated by them were far superior to any that had been previously proposed. Perhaps his most valuable results were the recognition and characterization of the sub-class of Ganoidea. The members of this group had previously been cither (c, *;. by Cuvier and his followers) widely dis- persed and their relations not at all appreciated, or (by .\gassiz) very unlike forms had been combined with them in one group, on account of partial agreement in characters of very slight value. Miiller was the first to recognize a natural group distinguished by definite characters; he also defined, in a much more scientific manner than had been previ(jusly done, the sub-classes which had already received names adopted by him. On the whole, his classification marks the most noteworthy epoch in the history of syste- matic ichthyology. The great majority of the other natural classifications of fishes proposed within the last half century have been either slight modifications of Cuvier's or iMUller's, or (e. g. Owen's) eclectic ones combining seleclions from each. To this generalization, however, there are several marked exceptions, and notably the classifications of Prof. Agassi?, and Dr. von Bleeker. The former has been so celebrated that some reference to it may be demanded. Tn 1833, Prof. Agassi/, published his views respecting the ichthyological system, and, exclusively basing his arrangement on the character of the scales, segregated all the existing and fos- sil fishes into four orders: (1) Ganoidei, with enamel-cov- ered scales; (2) Placoidei, with shagreen-like scales; (.3) Ctcnoiilei, with ordinary scales pectinated at their free margins: and {-i) Cycloidei, with ordinary scales entire at their free margins. The illustrious and learned author re- tained this classification till about 185". It was not. how- ever, received with favor by any other original investigator, and was justly objected to on account of (1) the characters themselves being insufficient, (2) the distinctions being very trivial and intergrading, ns well as (3) on account of defi- ciency in diagnostic precision, large numbers of forms be- ing left unprovided for, inasmuch as many fishes are en- tirely destitute of scales. Very many fishes, also, have two kinds of scales (cycloid and ctenoid) in different parts of the body. In 1871, Dr. Albert Giinther proposed a modification of the system which has been much noticed. The tendency among zoologists had always been towards a differentiation of the fishes into the teleost and ganoid forms on one hand, and on the other the selachian types, but Dr. (liinther re- versed this, combining the ganoids and selachians in one sub-class (" fourth sub-class, Pnlfcirfithift-s '*), contrasted with that of the TeUosts. The Pahvichthyes were subdi- vided into two "orders" — order 1, ("honclropterygii. with two "sub-orders" (Plagiostomata and Holoecpbali). and order 2, Ganoidei. with five "sub-orders" (Amioidei, Lepi- dosteroiilei, Polypteroidei, '^hr)ndrostei, and Dipnoi). Many other modifications have been proposed by vari- ous authors, but scarcely require notice here. Only one other system need detain us. In 1871, Prof. Edward 1>. Cope, after first recognizing three classes by most authors confounded under the old term "Fishes" (Lepto- curdii, Dermopteri. and Pisces), divided the fishes proper primarily into 5 sub-classes — viz. (1) Ilolocephali (= Elas- mobranchii bolooepbali, Miiller), (2) SeUcbii (== Elasmo- branchii selachii, Miiller), (3) Dipnoi (Miiller), (4) Cros- sopterygia {= Ganoidei erossopterygida?, Huxley), and (5) Actinopteri (new). The Holocephali, Selachii, and Dipnoi had the same limits as the homonymous sub- classes or orders of Miiller. The Crossopterygia included those having the " hyomandibular articulated, opercular bones well developed, a single ceratohyal : no pelvic elements; limbs having derivative radii of the primary series on the extremity of the basal pieces, which are in the pectoral, nietapterygium, mesopterygium, and prop- terygium." Three orders were recognized — viz. llaplistia, Cladistia, and Actiuistia. The Actinistia embraced such forms as had *■ opercular bones well developed or separate and complex suspensorium : a double ceratohyal, no pelvic elements: primary radii of fore limb parallel" with basilar elements, and entering the articulation with scapular arch ; basilar elements reduced to metapterygium, and very rarely mesopterygium ; primary radii of posterior generally re- duced to one rudiment." This sub-class was primarily di- vided into three tribes: Chondrostei (Miiller) with 2 orders; Physostomi (Miiller), with 12; and Physoclvsti (Miiller), with 10. Cfasses. — From this point more lucid ideas may be ob- tained by considering the primary subdivisions of the group known under the general name of ''Fishes." Up to the close of the eighteenth century, under this name all the vertebrated inhabitants of the waters adapted for exclusive progression through the liquid medium were confounded; consequently, the true fishes and cetaceans had not been decidedly separated. In 1756, for the first time, Mathurin Brisson {lie^fnc animnf, (Ih-ise m neii/ chivsefi) removed the cetaceans entirely from the fishes, distinguished them as a class, and placed them immediately after the mammals ; he therefore was the first naturalist who limited the class Pisces to the typical branchiferous vertebrates. As pre- viously indicated, Linnw^us never recognized anything like the true limits of the class, at one time confounding with them the cetaceans, and later, when he excluded them, also excluding typical fishes which he referred to the class of amphibians. Gmelin, however, rectified this error, and thenceforth the fishes were recognized as a homogeneous class until a comparatively recent date. To this statement, however, several exceptions must be noted. E. Geoffroy St.- Ililaire and Latreille (1825) difi'erentiated the fishes thus understood into tim classes — viz. (1) Poissons (= Fishes proper) and (2) Ichthyoderes (= Elasmobranchiates and Mnrsipobranchiates), the Leptocardians being then un- known. I. Gcoffroy St.-Hilaire, Bonaparte (18561. and Moquin Tandon also recognized tiro classes, but with dif- ferent limits — viz. Poissons (= Fishes, Elasmobranchiates and Marsipobranchiates) and Myelozoa {= Leptocardians). Agassiz has distinguished /"nc classes — viz. (I) iSIyzontes (= Marsipobranchiates and Leptocardians). (2) Fishes, (3) Ganoids (2 and 3 = Fishes proper), and (4) Selachians {= Elasmobranchiates). Ha'ckel has likewise adopted/our classes, but very different from those proposed by Agassiz — viz. (1) Pisces, (2) Dipneusta (= Dipnoi), (3) Cyclostoma, and (4) Leptocardii. (Jegenbaiir, Schmidt, Cope, and sev- eral other recent naturalists recognize three classes — viz. (1) Pisces, (2) Cyclostoma. Cyelostoioata, Dermopteri, or Marsipobranchii. and (3) Leptocardii. It will be tlius seen that the present tendency and the weight of authority is decitleilly in favor of the recogni- tion of class-value for the differences of structure exliibited by several constituent groups of the old so-called class of " Fishes," and the more thoroughly we enter upon the comprehensive study of the anatomy of all the vertebrates, the more disposed we must be to the recognition of the naturalness of 6uch associations. In fine, on a review of the various step? in the progress of knowletlgc gained respecting these animals, it aj^pears that the early Linnjean and post-Linniean authors rather added to the confusion in which species were already in- volved than advanced the science; that Cuvier and his disciples did much to clear that confusion away, and intro- duce sound methods of study : that Miiller made a great advance in the rigorous application of anatomical ])rinci- ples to the distinction of the several groups; and that sub- se(|ucnt progress has chiefly resulted from the more or less general recognition of the principle that the consideratiC'D of the entire structure must be the paramount guide to a correct appreciation of the true relations of the various types of organization, and that telet*1ogical modifications are quite unimportant in comparison with morphological. (^/ftHniJirntlini. — In conclusion, we append a synopsis of the primary and secondary groups, down to sub-orders, that maybe most advantageously admitted among the fishes; they arc arranged in an inverted ascending series: Class Pisi'Ks, or Fishks I E. GeofFroy St.-Hiiaire, Latreille, Agassiz (fraction), Cope, Gill). Sub-class Teleostei. ICIITHYOKXIS— ICIITHYUSAURUS. lO'J.j Order Plecto^nathi. Sub-urder Uymnodontes, " ** Ostraeodermi, " '* Sclerodcrmi. Order Lopholtrawehii. Sub-order Svngnathi, " " Sulcnostomi. Order Pediculati. Order Hemibriinchii. Order Teleocephali. Sub-order lU'tcrosoniata. " *' AuactiDtbini, or Jugularos, " " Acanthopteri, " " Pcrccsoce?, " " Svnentognathi, " " Ilaplomi, *' " Isospondyli, " " Eventngnnthi, " " Gymnoiioti. Order Scypht»piictri. Order Xematognathi. Order Apodes. Sub-order Ichtbyocephali, " " Ilolostonii. " " Eiichclyccphali, " " Colocephali, Order Opistbomi. Sub-clafi.s (tanoidei. Super-order Hyoganoidci. Order Cycloganoidei. Order Rhonihogatioidei. Super-order ChondrogaDoidci, Order Chondrostei. Order Sclacbostnmi. Super-order Bracbioganoidci. Order Cro««(iptcrygia. Order Actinistia (extinct). Super-order Dipnoi. Order Sireuoidei. (?) Order Placoganoidei (extinct). Super-order (?) Aspidoganoidei (extinct). Order Cepbalaspidoidea (extiuct)- (?) Super-order Aeanlhogunuidea (extinct). Order Acantbuduidea (extinct). Class Selachians or Elasinubrauchiates. Super-orrler rhini:ene. Order Holoeephali. Super-or<ier Pbigiostomi. Order Rain?. Sub-order Masticura, '* Pacbyura. Order Srjuali. Sub-ordt-T lUiinic, " Galei. Class Marsipohranchii. Order llyjjeroartia. Order Hyperotreti. Class Leptocurdii. Order Cirrostomi. Anthnritiea. — In addition to the general worke whose titles have been sulynined in riH>t-noteH to thi.x account, the fullow- ing artictcH may bo reft-rrcd to — viz. : " Iclitbyology," hy Sir John K\i'AmuU*i\\,\\\ \\\e iCntiiehtfurtUn Jin'titiinicn ; *' Ob- ccrvfttionH on the Systematic Relations of the Fishes, " by Edward D. Cope, in the I'nirtrdimjt >,/ thr American Attso- ci.ttinn fur the Advitnvrmt'itt uf Sri, urr /i,r 1S7 1 (IH72), pp. ;il7-.1i;i: and '* Arranj^enK-nls of Ibe Families of Fishes," by Theodore (Jill. Lists of all the fisbca of Nwrth America havu been given by DeKay. Storer, and Gill ; those of Hrit- ish America have been deweribed by Richardson, Forlin Storer, Perley, ami Knight; (hose of Maine Ity Holmes; of MassiuOmst-lts, by Siorer and others; those of Connec- ticut, by Linslcy; of New York, by Mitchill, l>eKay. and Ayres: of New Jersey, by Ruird and Aldnitt ; andof'South Carolina, by llolbrook. The most iinjiortant of these for the general student are tho-e of DeKay,*^ Ilolbrook.f and .Slorer.J The latent list of (ho species' has been given by (fill.? and In that work nforences will be ftinnd to other authors. Numerous artieles on Anieriean fishrs will be found in iho i^ruicfdintj* uf the Acttdruit/ nf Satural Sci- encet of PhUadelphxa ; Proceed ttign of the Boston Society of Xfiturfti Historif : ftoHton Jnumal of Xatural Niston^ ; AnnaU of the Lt/vrum nf yntiirat Ilintoryj New York : and especially in the HeportM nf the U. S. Commianioncr of Fixh nnd FinherirH, Prof. .S. F. Raird. The fossil fishes have been chieQy studied by Agassiz, Pander, Egerton, Hugh Miller. Huxley, and Kner, and those of the U. 8. have been well illustrated and received much attention from Dr. Newberry, whose article on Fossil FisuES in this volume will give further information. TiiKoiKJitK Gill. Tchthyor'nis [Gr. ix^v^, ** fish," and opfis, " bird "], an extinct giiiiis of birds described by Prof. Marsh from the Cretaceous of Kansas. Thoy pos'-essed teeth and biconcave vertebriD, from which fish-like character the namo is derived. (See OlWNTOKMTHES.) Ichthyosau'rus [Gr. ix^"?- " ^"1^" and travpo^, "liz- ard"], an extinct genus of marine reptiles having some fish-Iiko characters, whence the name, meaning "fish- lizard." In general form these reptiles were elongate, with the head set inimciliately upon the body, without any con- striction at the neck. They bad four (in-like pad'iles, and the tail was flattened, nn<l probably expanded toward the end into a powerful vortical tail-fin. as in the fislies. The skull of the ichthyosaurus is elongated and tapering at the •Dekay (Jamew E.), Znotofrtf of Xetr York, or thn New York Ewna. part Iv.. Tithes (Albany, Ift-I?. -Ilo) ; 'XV, nomlnMl species iin- deHcrilK-d aiul nio.sily fi^ored ns New York fl«lii>s. tHo|l>roitk (.lolin r>lwarihi. Irht/n/ntni/i/ of S»iith niroiina (Charleston. S. C. lit c-I. IKV. ; 'Jd i-il. ISfi'j.^to'. unrtnlishedi. tSton-r I Havld lliun)>hr< vn), .1 llixtoni u( Ihr Hshe.i uf MoAJia- chiufUn (Catiihrldk"* mid HoHton. \M,1 \ r<jirinl<'d from J/>i/i. Am. Arml. Arf/i fin./.SVi., JH.V{-tl7, 4i«i; l:i:( hix'cIi'm tlifunil <»■) Mi plates! ?'11II (Tb<'«Klon-i, tiUaioffHf uf the Fixhts of Ihr J-:„At (hiut of ynrth Atu'^rirfi ( WiuhlnKtoii. I8T;l, Mn, pultllHbed by the Smlth- Hoitlan InHtttiitioii); :MI iipeeics enum«rate<l. lehUiyosaurus (head). snout, which, in the upper jaw, is formed principally by the much-cniargfd ])remaxillarics. The rami of the man- dible arc also uuitcil in an elongated symphysis, as in (ho moderu gavial. Tho (ce(b are simple, conical, of nearly equal size, and in an unintcrruiited series. Their surface is marked by longitudinal im*)ression8 antl ritlges, varying in the ditferent species. The}' are inserted loosely in a long and deep continuous furrow, and were retainecl by slight ridges extending, between the teeth, along the sides and bo((om of tho furrow, and Iiy the gum and the organ- ized membranes continued into the groove nnd \i\Hm tlio base of the teeth. The nostrils are small and near the orbits, which are jiirge nnd evidently enclosed highly de- veloped eyes. There is often found in front of the orbit in fossil skulls a circular series of petrified thin bony phites ranged round a circular aj^ertnre. Such a series of scle- rotic plates is now found only in the eyes of turtles, lizards, and birds, showing, writes Dr. lluckhind. "that the enor- mous eye of which they formed the front was an optical instrument of varied and ]>rodigious power, enabling tho ichthyosaurus to ilcP(;ry its ]»rey at great or little distances, in the oltscurity of night or in tl»e depths of tho sea." There are in the skull large supratcmpural fossie, and tho infratemporal fossuj are closed over by plates of bone The centra of the vertebra* are short flattened disks and deeply biconcave, resembling those of fishes. ']'hc only transverse j)rocesses t\wy possess are tubercles de\'cl(»pe 1 from the sides of these centra. Tho neural arches are forked bones, connected only by cartilage, with two flat surfaces, one on each side of the middle line of tho upper surfat^es of the centra ; ami in tho greater part of the boily they are not articulated with (»ne another. The cerviciil and dorsal series of vertebrie are not separated by any marked characters; and there is no sacrum, but tho caudal vertebra' are distinguished by the chevron bones which are attached to their un<ler surfaces. The anterior ribs have ii capitular nnd lubcreubir articulation. The seiipula is nar- row. The coracoiils are broad, an<l meet on the iiiedinn lino below. The clavicles are stout, curved, and uniterl with a T-shaped interelavicle. The shouhler-girdle forim-d by the union of these bones resembled that of the sini^ulnr itquntie mammal <d' .Australia, the ornilhorbynchus, and 1)robably enabled the ichthyosaurus to visit tho shore, per- mps to deposit it.t eggs, when it would crawl with its belly dragging on tho grouncl. The humerus is short and prismatic, nnd distally supports two bones repn'senling the radius and ulna. Six or seven bones in tho two following series are reckoned as cnrpals, and the next series ate molaearpnls. They are foHowcd by not more than thr< e to flvo compb'te series of pnlygonul bones, representing as many dii;its. which, however, sometimes fork, nnd there are in addition marginal series of Imuios upon mch side uf the padillo. This construction, which is peculiar to tho ichthyosauri, la repeated in the hind paddles, but they are much smaller. Tlio pelvis consisted of the itrdinary three bones on onob side, but was nut couneotcd with the verto- 1096 ICHTHYOSIS— ICONOCLAST. bral column. The ischium, as well as the pubis, met its follow on the median line. The body seems to have been covered with a i^mooth or finely wrinkled skin, imd desti- tute of scak'S. These animals sometimes attained a length of more than thirty feet, and were predaccous in their habits, as is witncj*sed by the scales and bones of contem- porary iishes sometimes found under the ribs of these fossils. The composition of the singular spiral " copro- litcs" affords additional evidence of this fact, which might also be easily inferred from the construction of the jaws and teeth. Ichthyosauri may have abounded in the Triassic seas, but their remains have not been certainly identified earlier than the Lias, and the latest species occur in the Chalk. 0. C. Marsh, Ichthyo'sis [Gr. Ix&vi, b, **fish;" i. e. "fish-skin dis- ease "J. a disease of the human subject characterized by the presence of scaly growths in or upon the integument. Three distinct diseases have been called by this name: (1) Intra-utcrino ichthyos-is, in whieh the remix caaeoau, or glutinous secretion of the skin of the fcetus, becomes hard- ened into a horny armor, crippling the development of the child and leading io its death. (2) True ichthyosis is a hypertrophy of the papillary layer of the skin and of the epidermis. The patient is covered, as to a great part of the body and limbs, with unsightly scales of forms varying in different patients. This disease is thus far quite incu- rable. It is generally hereditary, but is not always so. Ichthyosis has been known to cover the skin of the knee after recovery from severe destructive disease of the joint. Frequent bathing and anointing are useful, but never curative. (3) The so-called sebaceous ichthyosis depends on excessive functional activity of the sebaceous glands, the secretion of which rapidly hardens into scales. This dis- ease is often caused by some reflex disturbance, and is curable as a rule. Revised Br Willaru Parker. Ic'ica Res'in, a resin from Guiana, similar to elemi. I'co, town of Brazil, in the province of Ccara. on the Salgado, is well built and thriving, carrying on a lively trade in the products of the province and in European manufactures. Pop. about 6000, Ico'nilim [now Koutch], in Asia Minor, on the high- road between Ephesus and Antioch of Syria, a place of considerable importance in the time of the apostles (Acts xiii. 61). An oasis in the desert, it was called the Damascus of Lycaonia. In 1099 a. d. the Seljukian Turks made it the capital of their kingdom of Roum. It was captured by Frederick Barbarossa in 1189, and recovered by the Turks in 1190. It has massive walls, between two and three miles in circumference, with suburbs almost as popu- lous as the city itself. Its most remarkable building is the tomb of llazrct Mevlana. the founder of the Mevlevi Der- vishes. Pop. nearly .'iO.OUO. R. D. Hitchcock, Icon'^oclast [from Gr. cUwf, "image," and kAow, " I break "], a name given in the eighth century to the de- stroyers of images, distinguishing them from iconolaUrg, image-worshippers. The excessive and ever-increasing reverence paid to images in the Christian Church had already been reproved by some of its most enlightened members, but the great iconoclastic conflict was begun a. d. 72(3 by Leo the Isaurian, who had ascended the throne of Byzantium in 71". As the writings of his partisans were either destroyed by the iconolaters or lost tlirough neglect, the emperor's motive for opposing image-wurship is un- known to us. His opponents accused him of listening to Jewish and Mohammedan advisers, especially to the rene- gade IJeser ; and it may be that a contemplation of the simpler Mohammedan worship led him to condemn the semi-pagan Christianity of his subjects. His first edict (720) forbade the adoration of images, and ordered that such pictures as were movable sliould be hung higher, so as no longer to receive kisses and other marks of devotion. Authors disagree as to the chronology of these events, but according to Theophanes and later Byzantine historians, Pope (iregory II., upon Leo's publication of his edict, wrote to him demanding its revocation, and when the em- peror refused compliance, forbade tho Italians Io pay their customary tribute. In 7U0, Leo held a council at Con- stantinople, at whieh he commanded the destruction of images in churches, imposing severe penalties on those persons who should persist in worshipping them : he also deposed the aged patriarch Gernianus, who disapproved of his measures, and put Anastasius in his place. This second edict excited the ieonotaters, among whom were nearly all the clergy, to open revidt. An oflicer who. by Leo's order, attcnipled to 4k'iiitroy a miracle-working image of Christ at Constantinople, was bi-aten to de:ith by the populace. Tho islanders of the Archipelago proclaimed a new emperor, one Cosnias, and sailed against Constantinople; the rebels were discomfited by the Greek fire, and Cosmas was made prisoner and executed. In 731, Gregory II, was succeeded by Gregory III., also an enemy to iconoclasm. This pope and Leo the Isaurian both died in 741, The emperor was succeeded by his son, Constantiue Copronymus, ^vho, hav- ing defeated the usurper Artavasdus, continued the oppo- sition to images. In 754 he convoked a council at Con- stantinople, called by the Greeks the seventh general coun- cil, but never recognized by the Roman Church. It was composed of 338 Oriental bishops, who prohibited all images, and anathematized those persons who should set up any, either in a church or private house. They also cursed by name the principal champions of image-worship — Gcrmanus (who had not long survived his deposition), George of Cyprus, and the learned John of Damascus. The monks now took refuge in their cloisters or in deserts, whence many of them were dragged to prison, torture, and even death. The patriarch Constantiue, successor of Ana- stasius, being accused of disrespect to the emperor, was pub- licly degraded and beheaded. Constantiue Copronymus died of fever in 775. His son and successor, Leo Chazarus, though in weak health and of a mild disposition, enforced the laws against iconolatry. After Leo's death (a. d. 780) his wife, Irene, who was devoted to images, became guardian of her young son, Constantino VI., and immediately pro- claimed liberty of conscience. She promoted her secretary. Tarasius, a layman, to the patriarchate, made friends with the pope. Adrian, and assembled a council, first in 786 at Constantinople, where it was dispersed by the iconoclasts, then in the following year at Niciva. It was attended by 375 bishops, who set aside the decrees of the Council of Constantinople (754), anathematized the persons who had composed it, restored tho worship of images, and solemnly cursed all iconoclasts. The churches of France, Germany, England, and Spain took a middle course between the de- struction and the adoration of images, which they regarded simply as useful memorials of faith and history, A book of controversy was composed and published in the name of Charlemagne, who assembled a council of 300 bishops at Frankfort. This assembly, while blaming iconoclasts, pro- nounced a more severe censure against the Council of Nicaia. In the Eastern Church the decrees of the Nicene Council remained in force until 813, when Leo Armenus, an enemy to images, became emperor, and treated the icono- laters with great severity. Among those who suffered for their doctrines was the historian Theophanes. Leo was murdered in 820, and succeeded on the throne by Michael the Stammerer, who restored image-worship and recalled the monks banished by his predecessor. Michael's son, Theophilus, became emperor in 829, and opposed image- worship, which, after his death (in 842), was again estab- lished by bis wife. Theodora, who governed the empire for her voung son. Michael, afterwards called the Drunkard, and "instituted a festival, still kept in the Greek Church, to celebrate this final triumph over iconoclasm. The original motive for iconoclasm is, as already said, unknown to us; but whatever it may have been, and how- ever much we may condemn the use of images, we must allow that their overthroxv by Leo and his successors was a mistake, "a (iremature rationalism," as Dean Milman ex- presses it. It was a violent change, but not a reformation ; a rooting up, unfollowed by any planting. Pictures aud statues, sacred books for those who could read no others, were destroyed, and nothing better was given to replace them. The very fact that they frequently were not re- garded simply as emblems, but adored for their own sakes, made the unwisdom of their destruction so much tho greater. Ignorant and superstitious persons would prob- ably have cared little to defend mere symbols, hut they clung obstinately to carvings and paintings which were to them as present gods. The images worked miracles of healing, wept tears, and shed blood — in short, lived, so be- lieved their worshippers, as truly as the invisible Christ and his saints in heaven. AVhcn Leo's edicts against images were followed by rebellion, the hatred of the icono- clasts was extended from ])ictures and statues to those who adored thoni. AVo may suppose that each party in this struggle was actively cruel towards the other, but tho em- jierors had the army on their side, and eousequently greater iiower of injury. Tho persecution of iconolaters became particularly violent under Constantino Coi)ronymus, of whose barbarities tho Byzantine historians give many ter- rible examples. This emperor was chiefly incensed against the monks. He destroyed or secularized the monasteries, and subjected their inmates to every possible insult, caus- ing them to break their vows of celibacy under pain of exile or death. The governors of provinces were Constan- tine's willing agents, the most zealous being Michael Lacha- nodraco. prefect of Thraee. in whieh prefecture there was soon left hardly one man bold enough to wear the monkish dress. Andrew and Stephen were the two chief martyrs of this reign. The former, having reproached the emperor for his persecutions, was scourged to death. Stephen, an eloquent ICTINTS— IDAHO. 1097 preacher against iooDoclasm, was killed after a long inipris> onmcut. The cause of his violent death is curiously like that of Thoiniw u Beckefs. Cuustantine, hearing that even in prison he spoke in defence of images, cried, '' Am I or is this monk the emperor of the world!'" Some soldiers having heard these words, took Stephen from his dungeon, fast- ened thongs to his feet, and so draj^gcd him through the streets until he died; they then cast his body into the common grave of criminals. The patriarch Conslantinc, though an iconoclast, was accused of conspiracy and of using disrespectful words against the emperor. Having been ileposcd from the patriarehutc and forced to acknow- ledge a eunu«-h as his successor, he was banished from Con- stantinople, liut the emperor, not content with this much vengeance, had him brought back to he scourged, exposed to tiie derision of the populace, an«l finally beheaded. The term iconoclast has in modern times been used to designate those reformers who, tiirough excess of zeal, de- stroyed statues, painte<l windows, and other works of art in Uoman Catholic churches. Jaskt TitKEY. Icti'nns, a contemporary of Pericles, built, in connec- tion with Cullicrates. the Parthenon in the Acropolis of Athens, whirh was linished in 4.'iS b. c: alpo the temple of Apollo Ejiicurius, near Phigalia in Arcadia, and the building at Kleusis in which the mysteries wore celebrated. All these were of the Doric order, I'da [Or. if 'iSri], a mountain in Asia Minor, is a spur or branch of the Taurus system, and traverses the ancient Phrygia and Mysia, itself throwing out many spurs. From it flow the (Jranicus, the Siuiois, the Seamander, and other streams whose names are historic. Its highest point is Mount (Jargarus. 46J0 feet high. — Another Ida [now called Psiloriti], enually famous in song and story, is in the island of Crete. It terminates in three peaks, and rises to the height of 7674 feet. Ida^ county in the W. of Iowa. Area, 432 square miles. It is intersected by the Mapio River, and is very fertile. Cap. Ida. Pop. 220. Ida, post-v., cap. of Ida co., la., on the line of the un- finished I. P. U. U. ; has a court-house, weekly newspaper, graded schools, 2 churches, etc., and is in a very fertile re- gion. Pop. oil, much increased since the census. W, P. Evans, Ed. " Iha Coi ntv Pioneer." Ida^ post-tp. of Monroe co., Mich., on the Michigan Southern R. R. Pop. 1020. Ida, tp. of Douglas CO.. I^finn. Pop. 224. Ida'ciiiSf or Itha'i'ius, b. at Limica, in Galicia, Spain, in the latter part of the fourth century, was ap- pointed bishop of his native city about 427, but was deposed by the invading Suevi in 401, and d. after 409. Ho wrote ft Chrnnirinn, arranged according to the succession of em- perors, and embracing the period from .'i7*J A. n. (at which point Hieronymus breaks o(Tj to 429. It gives a brief ac- count of events besides the enumeration of names and dates, and is considered as a valuable repertory of facts. It was first pul>lished complete in 1019 by Sirmond, and is incorporated in Hosier's Cfironirtt Mrilii ylCrt (1798). I'daho, a Territory of the Pacific slope of the U. S., lying almost wholly in the upper Columbia River basin. It is bounde<l on the N'. by British Columbia, where its breadth Is but one degree of longitude, about 4S miles in that lati- tude; on the K. it is bounded by M^mtana and Wyoming, contributing also for about 26 miles to form the western boundary of the National Yellowstone Park, a narrow strip of which was contributed by this Territory ; the lino of its Beparali»»n frnm Mnnfana is, in the X. K., the watershed or divide of the Hitter Hoot Mountains, and lower d<<wn the principal Kneky Mountain chain, which sweeps around the liead-waters of the sources of the Missouri River. The Teton range, a spur of the Rocky Mountains which branches off almost due 8., coincides nearly with the boundary-lino between Idaho and Wyoming T<*rritory ; on the .'^. it is bounded by L'tah and Nevada, the boumlary-line b»ing the 42d parallel: on the W. by Oregon and Wusliingt<)n Ter- ritory for about two-fifths of the distance (from Fort Ilois6 to the mouth of the Clearwater Uivor), the Snake River forming the u'-tual boundary. The Territory lies between the 12d and the 49th parallels of N. lat., anil between the 1 1 Ith an<l the 1 17th meridians of W. Ion. from (Jreenwich. Its length from N. to .S. is about 442 miles; its breadth varies from 4S miles at the northern boundary to :i08 on the southern, the mean breadth at the parallel of 44° .10', about 2.'>7 miles. Its area is 80,294 square miles, or 55,228,100 square acres. /Vtce of the t%ntntrtf. — Idaho is for thr most part a moun- tainous country. The ItiKcr Hoot Mountains, which from their origin in Rritish Columbia form the weslerninost or outlying rang)' <»f the iJreat Itocky M'luntain chain, form at the north-eastern line of Idaho the divide between it and Montana, and from the northern bank of the Columbia River and its tributary, Clark's Fork, these mountains have covered the whole country to the Sierra Nevada with a succession of spurs or short ranges running nearly due W. Prominent among these, both from their height and breadth, are the Kootenai Mountains in the extreme N., the Coeur d'Aleno Jlonntains near the 47th parallel, and the Clearwater or Lapwai Mountains along the Clearwater River and its tributaries. As the Ritter Root Mountains near the M)X\\ parallel draw closer to the main chain of the Rocky I^Iuuntains. a new range of outliers, forming almost a distinct mountain-system of its own under the name of the Salmon range, follows the course of the Salmon River and its aflluents. The summits of this range are mostly lufty, rugged, and snow-capi)ed. Many of them are above 12,000 feet in altitude, and several of the loftiest over KJ.OOO feet. The town of Klurence, in Florence Basin. 2000 feet below the summit of Florence Mountain, is 11,100 feet above the sea, and is jirobably the highest town in the U. S. Spurs from this range along the Snake River and its tribu- taries have received the names of Wciser, Payette, Bois6, Owyhee, and Sand Toofiii mountains. Below these, and towards the S. E. along a part of the Snake River, is a somewhat elevated plateau or prairie with two or three terraces, as at the American and the Shoshone Falls, but constituting a broad and tolerably fertile tract of arable soil. S. of the Snake River Valley wo find the Bear River Mountains, the Goose Creek Mountains, and other ranges which form a part uf the rim of the (Ireat Salt Lake Basin, while in the extreme S. E. of the Territory Bear River and Bear River Lake arc within that basin. Rivers, Lafccn, etc. — Although some of the summits of the Salmon Mountains, and perhaps of the others, are higher than those of the Rocky Alountains proper in the same lat- itude, yet no portion of the waters of the Territory flows eastward. With the exceptiitn of Bear River in the ex- treme S. E., which discharges its waters into the tireat Salt Lake, the entire drainage of the Territory is into the Co- lumbia River, and the whole region is a part of the upper basin of the Columbia. The Clark's or North Fork of tho Columbia and its affluents, including the Vermilion River, tho Pend d'Oreille Lake and its tributary streams, and the outlet of the Iloo-doo or Tcssentines Lake; tlie Spokane River, a smaller but considerable branch of the Columbia, with the beautiful Ca'ur d'Alene Lake and its affluents, of which it is the outlet; and, as the principal river of the Territory, which lias a course of about 8o0 miles within it, tho Lewis Fork or Snake River, which, with its branches, tho Clearwater and tho Salmon, with their nunu-rous afflu- ents, Wciser Creek, Payette River, Boise River, Owyhee River, Bruneau Creek, Salmon Creek, Malade Hiver, Gooso Creek, Raft River. Baunaek Creek, Pont Neuf River, Black- foot River, Teton or Pierre's River, and Henry's Fork, which has its source in Henry's Lake on the borders of Montana, only a few miles from the Yellowstone Park, drains nearly 70,000 square miles of the Territory. Tho only other river of any size in the Territory is Bear River, which drains the S. E. corner, and is, as wo have said, trib- utary to Great Salt Lake. The principal lakes bcBides Pend d'Oreille, Cu'ur d'Alt^ne, Tessen tines, Bear, and Henry's lakes, already mentioned, are the Payette lakes in Idaho CO., and several unnamed lakes in Alturasand Bois6 cos. Many of these rivers have fertile valleys, some of them of considerable extent, which constitute the best ar- able lands of tho Territory, and which yield even to a rude cultivation large crops. Prominent among these valleys are those of Wood River. North Mabide. Haft Uiver. Bear River. Owyheo Uiver. the upper waters of Snake Uiver as far dtiwn as Fort Hall, Long Valley around Payette lakes, Round Valley, the Upper Payette valleys, Indian Valley, Lower, rpper. and Weiser River valleys, Boisf' Valley, tho (ireat and Little Camas Prairies, Goose Creek Valley, etc. The Snako River is navigable without dilfieulty for about 2O0 miles of its course in the Territory — viz. from the mouth of Powder Uiver to (he Salmon Falls, just above tho mouth of Miiladc River. BeU'W the mouth of Powilcr River for IjO miles to Lewiston, where it turns westward into Washington Territory, tho Snake River navigation, though not impossible in a high stage of water, is difiicult and dangerous from the numerous obstructions, nipiils, etc. Above the mouth of tlie Malade, and between that and the junction of Bannack Creek, W. Ion. about 112° 40'. thero are three remarkable cataracts — Salmon Falls, in W. htn. about 114° 4.^)', Shoshone Falls, 111° 20', and American Falls, about 112° .'lO'. Of these, Shoshone Falls arc Iho most note«l. The river is here 000 feet wide, the descent a little greater than that of Niagara, and at some seasons of tho year the vtdumo of water nearly as large, while the sur- rniitiding scenery is magnifiiMMit. There are numerous wa- terfalls in the Territory of great beauty and inueb greater height, though of smaller volume of water. In the K. S. E. 1098 IDAHO. the Territory contributes a small portion to that wonder of the world, the Yellowstone National Park, and the region adjacent, aliout Henry's Luke and the whole eourse of Hen- ry's Fork iif the Snake Kiver to its delta-like junction with that river near the Crater Buttes and the Lava Hills, is a region full of \vondcrs and interest. In S. E. Idaho there are a numher of sinks or tracts where the roofs of deep caves have broken through, and considerable streams sud- denly sink below the surface and become subterranean in their subsequent course. The whole region is volcanic, and must have been at some period of the remote past in a con- dition of active eruption, though now the geysers, steam- springs, and ^oda springs ancl the natural hot baths, give but faint indications of its former activity. GfoJoijji. — The geological system of Idaho is very simple. The Eo7,oic rocks cover nearly three-fourths of the Terri- tory, but the Snake River Valley, the valleys of the Lower Salmon Hiver. the Owyhee, IJruneau, Maladc, McArthur, and Weiser rivers are evidently volcanic. The ujjper wa- ters of Salmon Ri^er and its tributaries, the S. fork of the Clearwater, and Bear River, flow through valleys of con- siderable width, whioh are wholly <»f Tertiary formation, and there :ire also Tertiary plateaus of eonsiderablo extent in Southern Idaho. There are eight or nine small jiatches of Silurian rocks, none of them of any great extent, but lying among the foot-hills on either side of the Bitter Root Mountains. In the Bear River Valley, not far from the Yellowstone Park, there is a small outcrop of Cretaceous rocks. Mineralogii. — Gold and silver ores are found abundantly in Idaho. iJnld was first discovered in the Territory in 1S52, on the Pend d'Oreille River, and near the lake of the same name, but there were no considerable mining opera- tions commenced until ISRO, when placer-mining was be- gun on the S. fork of Clearwater Kiver. There are now mines of gold or silver at tlie sources of all the rivers and in every county of the Territory, In Kootenai co. there are extensive leads in the quartz veins, and many quartz- mills have been established. The placer-mines of Shoshone, Nez Perce?, Idaho, and Lemhi cos. yielded in 1S72 about $500,000 gold in each county. In Bo'ise co. over $1,000,000 worth of gold-dust was taken out in the summer of 1872, and several quartz gold-mines were opened and tunnelled which yielded largely. In Ada, Alturas, Owyhee, and Oneida cos. the mining is mostly for silver, the argentif- erous galena and other silver ores of that region yielding bountiful returns, ranging from ^120 to $280 the ton of ore. Placer gold is found also in considerable quantities in Altu- ras and Owyhee. New silver-mines of very rich ore have recently been opened near the Utah line. The yield of gold and silver in 1872 in the Territory was estimated at somewhat more than S8, 000, 000. The placer-mines under the improved methods of washing will give out in a few years, but before that time there will be sutticient quartz-mines opened and a sufficient number of quartz-mills in operation to keep up and probably increase the gold production of the Territory, But Idaho is rich in other metals, ores, and minerals, as well as in gold and silver. The lead from the argentiferous galena is so pure as to be worth saving for its own sake. There are extensive deposits of coal and iron at various points in the Territory ; quarries of valuable huilding- stonc could bo opened at small expense; and the volcanic region of S. E. Idaho yields sulphur, soda, magnesia, car- bonates and sulphate of lime, very pure salt, and other valuable minerals and alkalies, and the mineral springs of that region bid fair to furnish healing to the nation. Vegetation. — The mountains of the Territory are for the most part covered with forests up nearly to the snowdine, and the forests arc largely evergreen, having numerous va- rieties and species of pine, spruce, hemlock, tamarack, and fir, of which there are many on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains and on the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada, but aside from these there are large tracts of red cedar in Kootenai and Shoshone cos. on the Ontt-hills and mountain-slopes. This is supposed to be the largest single tract of red cedar in the U. S., and it is of excellent qual- ity. In the more southern counties there are many decid- uous trees, and in some districts vast sage-plains which were at first supposed to be worthless, but it has been ascer- tained that the white sage, which is the principal species, after ripening its seed is preferred by cattle to any of the grasses, and that they will fatten on it as a winter browse. The soil of sage-lands is mostly a decomposed granite, with a considerable quantity of vegetable humus, and when ir- rigateil, for whioh the Territory offers extraordinary facil- ities, they yield very large crops — from 'Mi to 45 bushels of wheat and corresponding amounts of other cereals to the acre. There are said to be nearly IB. 000, 000 acres of these lands. The river-valleys are very fertile, and though some of them require occadional irrigation they yield large crops. Agriculturally, Idaho is, with the exception of these val- leys, better adapted to grazing than to the culture of cereals. Indian corn is not a sure crop, owing tn the late and early frosts. The greater jiart of the Territory is from 3000 to 5000 feet above the sea, yet e\en in the northern counties snow seldom lies to any considerable depth in the valleys, and cattle can browse, and even fatten, through the winter without being housed. The ordinary garden vegetables, as well as potatoes, do well in the valleys, and fruit trees generally yield fruit in great abundance and of fine flavor. The smaller wild fruits are found in great profusion in the fertile valleys and on the mountain-slopes. There are na- tive wild grajies of the Vitin Itihrunrn or fox-grnjie species which ripen in the valleys, but the cultivated species and varieties rcqviire a higher temperature and less liability to frosts during the summer and early autumn months than are found in most sections of the Territnry. In the southern part, however, on the mountain-slopes having a southern aspect, and especially where there are considerable lakes with steeply sloping banks, the culture of the grape may be made very profitable. Zoolorj}/. — The beasts of prey are those characteristic of the Columbia basin and of the Pacific slope. The grizzly bear ( Crstts hor rih His or feroj-) is the largest and most formidable of them, and his congener, the black bear ( Ur- siis Americanus), is also found in the forests of the Territory. The raccoon, badger, wolverine [fr'u/o lusruH), iwa sjjecics of skunk (the Californui and the little strijied skunk), the fisher-marten, the American sable or marten, tlu' mink, the pjinther, wild-eat or red lynx, and the banded lynx, rac- coon-fox or mountain-cat, the gray wolf, the coyote or barking wolf, and four or five species of fox, are found. Among the rodents, there are beavers, moles, several species of grounrl-squirrels, and at least three of the tree-squirrels, the yellow-footed marmot, and at least three species of bat. There are ten or twelve species of the mouse family, musk- rats, gophers, one species of porcupine, and several new species of rabbits and hares. Among the ruminants there arc the bison or American buffalo, the moose (Afce Aineri- cintiiii), the elk, the blaek-tailed and mule deer, the Rocky Mountain or prong-liorn antelope, and the big-horn or Rocky Mountain sheep ( Oris luoutajirt). The birds are very numerous, and many of them of beautiful plumage. Ninety-five species, including specimens of most of the orders and families found on this continent, were shot by the naturalists of the JIayden expedition either in or near this Territory. The species of reptiles are not very numer- ous, though some of the harmless snakes and batrachians abound in the marshy portions of the Territory. There are three, and possibly four, species of rattlesnake, fifteen or six- teen species of harmless snakes, tw<i tortoises, at least fifteen species of lizard, ten or twelve of frogs, several toads, newts, etc. Fish of the usual fresh-water kinds are found in the lakes and rivers. There are also several fresh-water mol- lusks and testaeeans. The various geological ex])editions which have traverr^ed this and the adjacent Territories have unearthed numerous and very interesting fossils. Among the larger mammals discovered are several of the mastodon, elephant, and ta|)ir families; new fossils of the bear and monkey families, ten or eleven genera allied to the horse, marsupials, rodents, several genera of erocodiles, alligators, and otlier saurians, tortoises and turtles in great numbers, lizards, serpents, batrachians, and twenty-six species of fish, many of them of large size. Not all, perhaps not the greater part, of these were fovmd within the geogra])hical limits of Idaho, but they occurred in the geological forma- tion and the deposits which are eommon to S. E. Idaho and the adjacent Tcrritoriea of Montana, "Wyoming, and Dakota. Climate. — Statistical tables of the climate of the greater part of Idaho are wanting. AVe know, indeed, that W. of the Rocky Mountains, especially in the upper Columbia River basin, there is but a moderate amount of either snow or rainfall, and that the climate is much milder, even though the land is elevated, than E. of th«ise mountains. The an- nual range of the thermometer in Northern Idaho, in the river and lake valleys, is said to be between 5° and 03° F., though in exceptional seasons it may surpass either bound- ary by two or three degrees. The most of the central por- tions of the Territory is very mountainous, though with valleys from ten to fifteen miles in width wherever there are streams of water. These valleys are from .3000 to 5000 feet above the sea, but the climate is very equable. Far- ther S. are extensive plains covered with snge-bushes and grease-wood, but these give way to fine crops when the land can be irrigated. The rainfall is small here, though greater than in Ci)b>rado, or perhaps than in Wyoming, but the facilities for irrigation are much better, and on all the higher summits there is perpetual snow. In S. E. Idaho, which belongs really to the tJreat Salt Lake Basin, there is a somewhat different climate, and perhaps a slightly greater rainfall. At Fort Uall, 4754 feet above the sea, in 1871 the IDAHO. 1099 barometric range from June to October was but f^ of an inch; the mean temperature for June was fi4.62'= F. ; of July, 70.44°; of August, 70.90°: of September, 57.78°; and of the first eighteen davs of October. .■)7.:'S°. The average observations of the Hayden expedition the same summer for June and July, from the southern boundary of the Territory to the Montana line, corresponded very nearly with the temperature at Fort Hall. Agriciiltiiriil /'r<)(/u<(«.— .\ccording to the census of 1870, there irere in that year only 77,l.'!y acres of land in farms in the Territory, of which only 20.60:! were under tillage, 50,536 being woodland or other unimproved lands, being 65.5 per cent, of the entire land in farms. The average siic of the farms was 186 acres, or a little more than a iiuarler section. The value of the farms in the Territory in 1870 was $492,860. and of farming implements and ma- chinery, $59,295; the farm products of the same year were valued" at $637.797 ; animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter were valued at $57.9:12 ; home manufactures, at $.'.(.730; the forest products, though of considerable amount, were not reported ; market-garden products were estimated at $24,577; orchard products, at $725; wages paid to agricultural laborers, including board, $153,007. In 1869, 75,650 bushels of wheat were harvested, almost all of it spring wheal: 1756 bushels of rye; 5750 bushels of Indian corn; 100,119 bushels of oats; 72,310 bushels of barley. There were 2776 horses reported : 59,996 neat cat- tle; 3415 pounds of wool; 6985 tons of hay; 21 pounds of hops: 64.5.i4 bushels of potatoes: 610 bushels of peas and beans; 14 bushels of grass-seed: the value of all live- stock was $520,580. Besides the horses enumerated above, there were 371 mules and asses: of the neat cattle, 4171 were milch cows, 522 working oxen; the remainder were probably for the most part cattle driven into the Territory lor pasturage: the number of sheep was 1021; of swine, 2316. The dairy products were 111.480 pounds of butter, 4464 pounils of cheese, and 11,250 gallons of milk sold. The increase of population since 1870 has unquestionably more than douldcd, perhaps quadrupled, all these amounts, but there are no available returns which give even approx- imately accurate figures of the actual production. .W.iii.i/Vi'dirr. iiMil fii'liiatnal /'nidurta.— The inilustrial progress of Idaho since 1870 has been rapid, but there are not, we believe, any existing statistics to show its extent. In 1870 there were 101 manufacturing establishments of all kinds, in which II steam-engines of 311 aggregate horse- power, and 16 water-wheels of 295 horse-power, furnished the motive force; in these establishments 205 hands were employed, a capital of $742,300 was invested. .$112,372 wages were paid, raw material to the value of $691,785 was u.«ed, and the annual product was $1,047,624. Of this amount, the greater part was the product of smelling fur- naces for the extraction of silver and gold from the argent- iferous galena and other ores, and Owyhee co. claimed $464,116 of the product, .\da co., $317,025, and BoisC co., $156,147. leaving only $110,000 bclween the other six coun- ties. The milling of quart/., a branch of this smelting in- dustry, yielded alone a i)niiluet of $523,100. Hoilriinilf.—.Ki yet (.May, 1875) there is not a mile of railroad in the Territory, though the Ogden and Franklin branch of the I'nion Pacific comes lo its southern border. The Xorlhern Pacific was intended lo traverse by two dis- tinct ami widely separated lines the northern counties of the Territory— one line f.)llowing the valley of the Clear- water through .'hoshone co. and the northern border of Nci Perees co. to Lewislon, at the junction of the t'lcarwater ami .8nake rivers, while the other or more northern route, striking north-westward near Freiichtown, .Mont., was to follow the valley of Clark's Fork i>f the Columbia, around the northerly shore of Lake Pend d'Orcillo, and then turn south-westward till it reached the ,>;p(.knne lliver in Wash- ington Territory, its whole course in Idaho being in Koote- nai CO. Kventually this road will probably be built, but whether it will follow either or both these roules is uncer- tain. \ road is projected, in continuation of the Ogden an<l Franklin branch already spr.ken of, to extend through S. K. Idaho lo the Yellowstone National Park. II would probably follow the valleys of the Bear Uiver, the upper .Snake lliver, and Henry's Fork. Another road, projected, is from .Monument Point or Terrace on the Central Pacific, up the valley of .>5allnon Creek lo Silver Bar at the mouth of .Maladi' Kiver, from whence the Snake River is naviga- ble for 200 miles lo the moulh of Powder Hiver, and could bo rendered navigable at a moderate expense to Lewiston at the juncliim of the Clearwater. Eventually, probably, this road would follow the valley of Snake River, and thus connect the CenlrnI Paeilie nilh Ihe (iregun and Washing- ton lines. All Ihese projects, however, have been postponed almost indefinitely by Ihe failure of the great banking-house which was engaged in promoting them. Financr; etc. — The asaesjed valuation of Idaho Terri- tory in 1870 was $5,292,205, and the true valuation was estimated to be $6,552,081 ; of this, three-fifths were in the two counties of Bois6 and Owyhee, and nearly four-fifths in the throe counties of Boise, Owyhee, and Ada. The entire taxes, not national, of the Territory were $174,711, of which $40,594 were territorial and $132,171 county taxes. In 1873 the internal revenue tax of the Territory was $19,275.80. The jmblic debt of the counties in 1870 was $218,522. and Bois6 City had besides a debt of $4099. The Territory has an assay-office at Bois€ City which assays several hundred thousand dollars of gold and casts it into bars for trausportalion. The ]jrincipal exports of Idaho arc gold and caltle. Of the former, about $7,500,000 is sent from the Territory yearly ; of the latter, probably about 20,000 head go to market. The imports are mostly of manufactured products, which, owing to the great ex- pense of tran.s]>ortation, bear a high price. There is one national bank at Boise City, with a capital of $100,000 and liberty to increase to $500,000: no savings banks, and 4 private banking-houses — 2 at Boisf City and 2 at Idaho Cilv. There are no life or fire insurance companies in the Territory. Popiitntion. — The true population of Idaho Territory in 1870. including Indians, nomadic and on reservations, was 20,583, of whom 5631 were Indians, 3284 were on^the va- rious Indian reservations of the Territory, 4274 were Chinese. 10.618 whites, and 60 colored. As the Territory was not organized until ISI'i3. and there was only a mere handful of settlers within its limits in 1800, there is no recor<l of population earlier than 1870. The density of the po]iulation in the Territory in 1870, exclusive of tribal Indians, was 0.17 to the square mile. Of the constitutional population (14,999), 12,184 were males, 2815 females: 7114 were natives, of whom 5054 were males and 2060 females; 7885 were of foreign birth, of whom 7130 were males and 755 females; 10,61s were whites, of whom 7073 were males and 2645 females. Of these lO.ClS white persons. 7018 were natives (5002 males and 2016 females); 3000 were of for- eign birth (2971 males and 029 females). Of the 00 of Af- rican descent, 42 were males and 18 females; of these. 47 were natives of Ihe I'. .'^. and 13 of foreign birth. Of the 4274 Chinese, 4148 were males and 126 females; there were 47 civilized Indians. 21 males and 20 females. Of the to- tal population, 1095 (897 males and 798 females) were of school age. 9430 males were of military age (18 to 45), 10,313 males were 21 years old and upwards (citizen's age), and 5557 males were actually eitiiens. Education. — In 1870 there were 25 schools of all classes in Idaho, having 23 male and 10 female teachers, and 602 male and 600 female pujiils ; Ihe income of these schools for the year ending June 1, 1870, was $19,938, of which $16,178 "was from taxation and public funds and $3700 from other sources, including tuition. Of lliesc schools, 21 were public, having 20 male and female teachers, and 1048 pupils and $16,178 income; there were 4 privalo schools, having 7 teachers (3 male and 4 female) and ICO scholars (75 male and 85 female), and $3760 income, mostly from tuition. There was no college, scientific, professional, or technical school. At the beginning of 1873 there were 37 school districts. 32 public schools, 00 teachers (20 male, 34 female) ; 20 school-houses ; the average mimllily pay of teachers was $162.50 ; there were 1898 children of school age, of whom 1416 were enrolled in school, with an average attendance of nearly 1000. The sum of $22,490.81 was re- ceiveil for school jiurposes from all sources, and $17,219.56 expended. There is a school law and school board, with a superintendent, in each of the nine counties. Lilnnriet, Xeicpnprrh, etc.— In 1870 there WCro 11 pub- lic libraries, with 2860 volumes, and 32 private libraries, with 7705 volumes, making in all 43 libraries, with 10,025 volumes. There were 6 newspapers in the Territory— 1 tri-weekly, 1 semi-weekly, and 4 weekly- wilh an aggre- gate circulation of 2750, and an aggregalo annual issue of 200,200 copies. In the same year there were 15 churches of all denominations. 12 church" edifices. 2150 sillings. ami $18,200 estimated value of church jiroperly. Of these, 2 were Baptist, having 2 church edifices, 175 sillings, and church property valued at $2000; 6 ProtestanI E^iiseopnl churches, wilh 4 edifices, 600 sittings, and $1000 ol church ' properly; 1 Presbyterian church; and 4 Roman Calholic ' cougregalions. wilh 4 church edifices, 575 sillings, and 1 $11,000 of ehurih property. In 1873 Ihe number of con- gregations had increased io 10, of which, however, 6 were missions. There were also 6 missions of the Jesuit Fa- thers ainiing Ihe In^liuns. Of the 9 regular priests, were missionaries among Iho Indians, and one was the vicar apostolic of the vicariate of Idaho. CiniMtlluliutt, (''inrlit, lOpvptrntixtirrt Ml ConffrcK*, etc. — The governor and seerelary of state arc appointed by Ihe President for a term of four years; the treasurer, comptrol- ler, and luporinloudent of publio instruction are elected by 1100 IDAHO— IDEALISM. the people. The legislature comprises a council of 13 mem- bers, chosen for two ycaris, and a house of representatives of 25 members, chosen for one year. The constitution of the Territory is similar to other territorial constitutions, and will be abrogated when the Territory becomes suffi- ciently po])ulous for admission as a State. The su- premo court consists of a chief-Justice and two associate justices, appointed by the President for four years. It holds at least one session annually at the territorial capi- tal. The Territory is divided into three judicial districts, in each of which one of the supremo mart justices holds a district court session. The Territory has a delegate in Congress, who is entitled to speak on any question, but not to vote. Cminfief. — The Territory is divided into ten counties, as follows : Pop. in 1870. Counties. Lemhi 988 Ncz Pcrces Ifi07 Oneida 1022 Owyhee 1713 Shoshone 722 Counties. Pop. in 1S70. Ada 2fi75 Altnras 689 Hoist'' 38.34 Idaiio 849 Kootenai (new county taken from Shoshone). Prinripal Tutcns. — Bois6 City, the capital both of the Territory and of Ada county, has a population of loOO to 20U0. Idaho City, county-seat of Boist'- county, is of about the same population; Lcwiston, capital of Nez Perccs county. Silver City, Malade City, and Florence are the other towns of note. IliHtnry. — The history of Idaho Territory is very brief. AVith the exception of the bold explorers, Lewis and Clark, who early in the present century followed up nearly to their sources the two forks of the Columbia, Clark's and Lewis's Forks, which traverse this Territory, the only white men who had trodden its soil previous to 1S50 were some of the trappers and hunters who had penetrated its mountains and valleys in pursuit of their game. In 1852 gold was disc;»vered in the extreme northern part of the Territory, but it attracted few miners or settlers. It formed a por- tion of the Territory of Oregon up to 1S03. Its first paying gold-mine was opened at Oro Fino in 186(1, and others in Owyhee county in 1862. When first organized it included portions of the previous Territories of Oregon, Washington, Utah, and Nebraska. In ISGl its boundaries were changed, and a part set off to Montana. While it possesses as much arable hind, as large a proportion of forest and grazing lands, and as valuable mineral wealth as most of the Ter- ritories, its settlement has been much impeded by its in- accessibility. It has no railroads, and no good wagon- roads traversing any great extent. Yet it is steadily and healthily growing, and from its tine climate, its valuable mines, and its large extent of grazing lands it must become an important Territory and State. Governors. — William H. Wallace 18G3-f.4|David W. Ballard 1868-70 Caleb Lvon IHivl-CiGilHIman Marston 1870-71 Paviti W. Hallard l-^GG-67 Thomas W. Bennett 1871-75 Isaac L. Gibbs 1857-681 L. P. Brockrtt. Idaho, county of Idaho, extending E. and W.from Ore- gon to Montana. It is generally mountainous, and is very dt'fi'-ient in roads. The river-valleys are generally deep, fertile, and so well sheltered from winds that cattle need no protection in winter. The Piiy<'tto Valley is a splendid prairie, producing gr.ass, grain, cattle, and some timber. It abounds in game and fish. Cap. Mount Idaho. P. 849. Idaho, post-v., county-seat of Clear Creek co., Col., in Clear Creek Valley, among the Rocky Mountains. l^A miles W. of Denver and 5 miles from Cqncord, on the Colorado Central R. U. It is in a most romantic region, and is well known for its hot .and cold mineral springs, which are use- ful in a very wide range of diseases. Idaho has ample hotel accommodation, and is visited every summer by great numbers for the purpose of regaining health by means of the baths and tlie charming climate. Idaho City, post-v.. cap. of Bois6 co., Id., in a valley of a spur of the Salmon River Mountains ; lat. -13° 4o' N., Ion. 115° 30' W. It is in the centre of a very important mining region ; has a national bank, a weekly newspaper, public and private schools, 2 churches, a court-house, jail, and various manufacturing and business firms. T. J. SiTToN, El). ''InAHo Woni.i)." IdaMium (now Dali), a promontory of the E. coast of Cyprus, on which was situated a celebrated temple of Aphrodite; hence her surname, /dalia. I'davillc, post-v. of Jackson tp., White co., Xnd., on the Columbus Chicago and Indiana Centriil R. R. P. 197. Ide, a fish of the carp family ( Cy prinida-), the Leiici»cu9 Idu>t, found in rocky lakes of Northern Europe. It is a good table-fish. Ide (George Barto.n), D. D., b. at Coventry, Vt., in 1806; graduated at Middlcbury College in 1830; entered the ministry ; became pastor of a Baptist church in Albany, N. y., in 1834, of the Old Federal street church in Boston in 1835, of the First Bajitist church in Philadelphia in 1838. and of a church in Springfield, Mass., in 1852. Dr. Ide was distinguished for scholarship, eloquence, and logi- cal power; he was averse to writing for publication, but in the course of a ministry of forty-two years quite a number of his .sermons appeared separately or in volumes. D. at Springfield, Mass., Apr. 16, 1872. Idc'a, one of the most important terms in mental phil- osophy (from the (ireek lUa or e'fio?, as employed by Plato to signify what is objectivtdy permanent under changing phenomena), used in modern times, especially since Des- cartes, to designate subjective notions and representations with or without objective validity. Plato discovered, as a result of his "dialectic," that under the constant change which goes on with individual things there is a permanent form or type of the process, which abides — somewhat after the manner of the " persistent force " or " law of nature " described in modern science. These archetypal forms or " ideas " he represented as existing prior to. and independ- ent of. things manifest to the senses. Aristotle held to the doctrine of a pure, self-active form {irpwrov etSo*). which transcends material existence, but he opposed Plato's doctrine of independent ideas. The doctrine of the exist- ence of ideas as logical conditions of reality, and as con- ditions of the possibility of all the general conceptions which the mind forms, was held by Spinoza, Malebranche, and Leibnitz, in a modified form. Descartes was so strongly impressed with this doctrine that he attempted to prove the existence of God from the subjective idea of a most jierfeot being. The ancient philosophers investigated the question. What is true in and for itself? The moderns propose the problem of certitude. How to proceed from thought to being? Since the time of Locke it has been common usage to designate by the term "ideas" all thoughts, notions, conceptions, images, perceptions, and intuitions, whether necessary or arbitrary. According to the sensational school of Locke and Hume, all ideas take their rise in sensation, and immediate sensuous imj)res- sions give the most adequate knowledge, while ideas, and especially complex ideas, are fainter and less valid copies of reality. Kant pointed out the objective validity of universal and necessary ideas; they were to be regarded as expressing logical conditions of reality in time and space. But ideas proper were with him the product of the reason in its regulative activity, llcgel gave the name of idea (Ider) to the highest actuality — the universal form of existence considered as a totality, self-related activity, or thinking reason. This was a return to Plato's insight, or rather to that of Aristotle. Taking "idea" in the modern acceptation as the common term for all representa- tions, it may signify — I. Sensuous ideas = images of sense formed in the lowest stage of thinking; II. Abstract ideas = general concepts formed by abstraction and generali- zation from experience; III. Concrete ideas = synthetical conceptions or notions formed by tracing out necessary re- lations and correlations dialectieally ; IV. Absolute idea = the comprehension of the totality in its self-determination (what the Platonists speak of as "knowing by wholes"). Ideas are spoken of as simple or complex, necessary or contingent, absolute or relative, universal or particular, innate or adventitious, clear or obscure, ad('<jiuitc or inade- quate, etc. W. T. Harris. Ido'alism, a philosophical doctrine defined (a) as hold- ing that in external perception the objects immediately known are ideas, or (h) as holding that the external world is a mere phenomenon manifesting a superseusuous essence which is (1) spirit, reason, or thinking intelligence and will, or (2) force, law. or some unconscious principle of evolution. According to the former definition, nearly all philosophers, excepting those belonging to the Scottish school, would fall in the class of idealists, thus numbering such difterent systems as those of Locke. Hume, Kant, Plato. Aristotle, Descartes, etc. all in one school. Accord- ing to the latter definition, the theistic or spiritualistic thinkers would be classed in one divi?i<»n (tf the idealistic school, while the pantheistic thinkers (including even the modern " positivists ") would belong to the other division : and opposed to these would be the nominalistic branch of matcrmlists and the .«elf-styled "common-sen.se" thinkers. It has been contended, in fact, that all philosophy must be impliedly idealistic in that it undertakes to explain im- mediate things — or at least the knowledge of them — and thereby presupposes a unity or ground for them u[ion which they depend. All dependent things arc in a certain sense ideal or potential, and underlying the external mul- tiplicity of such things there is .a unity. AVere there no interdependence or correlation among things, it is held that IDELER— IDIOCY. 1101 there could be no philosophy. Although Parmcnidcs, Anuxagoras. and especially Pythagoras, arc to be regarded ns idealists, yet Plato is the idealist par txccllciice, and the father of that selmol of thiukers. His "ideas" or arehc- lynal forms — irofoStiyiuiTii. — are immaterial and eternal cs- seuces which arc shadowed forth or manifested by finite realities. Finite things are " copies " of ideas, and by rea- son of their inadequateness as copies they are in a state of perpetual flux or transition from one phase to another, each imperfection giving place to a more correct copy, which, again, is defective in some other respect. Thus, the process of finite things arises from their mutual imperfection, and from the consequent struggle to attain adcquaieness. .Sub- stantiallv identical with this is the doctrine of Aristotle, who opposes the doctrine of " ideas " as separate archetypes, and lays stress on an intelligent First Cause as the supreme principle of explanation. The Nco-PIatonists were Aris- totelian in the scientific form of their systems, but they betray a strong Oriental influence upon their modes of i thinking. Oriental idealism is unable to reconcile the in- finite with the finite, holding the former to bo the uncon- ditioned and indeterminate, consequently as impersonal. The Neo-Platonists endeavor to seize a first principle higher than intelligence or than consciousness ; they seek, after the manner of Oriental idealism, an impersonal abso- lute uuitv. The idealism of Plotinus and Proclus, and es- pecially that of lamblichus and .'^ynesius, strives to reach a primordial essence as the secret ineff'ablo cause and final goal of all things. The visible world of time and space is a creation i>f the soul in its "lapse" or descent from the divine world of ideas or eternal verities. Valcntinian Gnosticism undertook to furnish a Neo-Platonio basis for Christianity, adding, however, a more explicit principle of mediation or means of return from the " lapse" to the highest principle, .\lcxander of Aphrodisi.is, and more especially the .\rabian commentators of Aristotle, set up a pantheistic idealism ; which indeed is the outcome of Ori- ental monotheism as contrasted with the Christian Trini- tarianism. The ideal principle to which all individual ex- istences in the world arc subordinated, and before which thov perish, is a world-soul conscious in individuals not en- dowed with immortality, and not possessing, of itself, per- sonality. Christian philosophy, as such, is essentially idealistic, inasmuch as it has to provide a speculative basis for the doctrine of a personal Creator and for an immortal creature. Thomas Aquinas .says that Ood " eternally knows all things as present, and through this knowledge these things themselves arc caused." But with the disputes of Nominalism and Uealism arose the distinction which sepa- rates later philosophy into iikalism and materialism. The "realism" of Anselm, Albertus .Magnus, and Aquinas, is idealism in the ]iroper sense of tho term, holding to the origin of the world from the thought of Ood, tlin.ugh his eternal ideas which make possible our cognition of things by means of general ideas, these being the subjective cor- relates to the eternal ideas manifested in individual things. Kcttlism thus holds the universe to exist oiitc rem in the mind of Ood, in rem in tho phenomena of the world, and poll rem in the human mind recognizing it by the act of cognition. Numin.alism, as developed by Uoscellinns. .\bc- lard, and Occam, looked upon general terms as arbitrary creations! /liiliurneia) without objective reality correspond- ing to the'in. Ilach individual thing exists in its isolated independence, and there is no species or genus or class in nature, but only individual beings. Hence, sensuous cer- titude is the nearest approai h to truth, and abstract or general ideas are tho fartnest removed from it. — But when the mind perceives the existence of essential relations in na- ture, such as it names force, /die, life, etc., indicating de- pendence and interdependence among tho things in tho world, it finds itself obliged to recognize, perforce, the ob- jective validity of its complex or general ideas expressing '•substances, modes, and relations." Powers and forces give rise to indivbluals, and cause theni to vanish again. While tho particular individuals begin and cease, the power or force persists, and is mnni/cilett in the evanes- cence of things as much as in their origination, and thus proves itself to possess greater reality than tho particular things which Nominalism supposes to bo the only reality. The existence of processes which are generic in their na- ture and corrcspoml to our general ideas, comes to con- Rciousness in modern natural science as the doctrine of the " persistence of force." In the first stage of idealism, ac- cordingly, all individuality is looked upon ns transitory, and an abstract unity of force is regarded ns the ultimate reality which swallows up all special existences, spiritual or material. From this pantheistic idealism to spiritual idealism the transition lies in tho perception that all force or essential relation is necessarily, in the last analysis, a phase of sclf-determinalion, and hence of jiersonal being. This insight is the key to the idealism of Aristotle, Lcib- niti, Aquinas, Eckharl, Hegel, and of most thinkers who have founded svstems that explain human institutions. Idealism, accord'ing to Sir William Hamilton, deduces the object from the subject, while materialism deduces tho subject from the object. This would exclude the numer- ous forms of idealism wherein both subject and object are deduced from a spiritual principle. Among distinguished modern philosophers, called idealists in accordance with one or the other of the above definitions, are to be named Berkeley and .Malebranche as theological idealists ; Des- cartes, as )irobleinatieal idealist ; Hume, as skeptical idealist: Kant, as transcendental idealist ; Fichte, as sub- jective idealist ; Schelling, as objective idealist ; Hegel, as absolute idealist: Schopenhauer, as theoretical idealist; Jacobi and Schleiermacher, as sentimental idealists: Spi- noza, as substantial idealist. These and similar designa- tions arc liable to convey a false impression unless supple- mented by reference to the full systems of those thinkers. (Sec KnAiTii'.s /Icrkcle;/, Philadelphia, 1874: also the sev- eral articles in this work on the philosophers above named, on Sciiooi.MES, and on PniLOSoniv.) W. T. llARnis. I'deler (CiiRisTrAX la-nwic.l, b. at Gross-Brese, in tho Prussian province of Brandenburg, .<ept. 21, 17GB, and ap- pointed professor of astronomy and chronology at the I ni- versity of Berlin in 1821. His principal works arc — llnmlbuch dcr miitliemalhcheii iinrf Icehniscliai Vhrnnotogic (ISSIjand Die Zcitrcchmiy der Chinesen (1839); but his earlier writings. Hitloritche UnlcrgKcliungen iibcr die a«- Ironomiaehe Hcobiichlmn/en dcr Altai (1S06), Haudhuch dcr Fronzmiaelicii Spraehc iwd Liltcralur (1852), etc., were also well received. D. in Berlin Aug. 10, 1846. Iden'tity, a philosophical term used to indicate unity with persistence and continuity. By it is not meant ab- stract unity, but unity in plurality, in multiplicity, succes- sion, diversitv, or change. Hence it is predicablo of sub- stance, and of tho quantity of force, matter, and other essential relations in nature. It is more especially jiredi- cable of life and of personality. Personal identity is at- tested through conseionsness and memory. In conscious- ness there is the antithesis of subject and object, and the self is certain of the identity of itself as subject with itself as object. This identity is a mystery, perhaps identical with the mystery of the Trinity, or of the participation ol tho particular thing in the generic or universal. Identity may be regarded as existing in various degrees: I. As the identity of the inorganic substances in nature— of the min- eral, fo'r examidc. Here there is supposed to be an iden- tity in material or substance— an identity of composition, but scarcely any identity that might be called individual identity, although in the" crystal this begins to be suggested. II. In'tbo plant, according to Aristotle, dwells the 7ionii«i- i.i.'/ soul, so that there is identity of life, and even of ]irop- agation of species— identity of individual and identity of genus. There is a preservation of identity under diverse conditions and transmutations. III. In the animal tbeio is a still more remarkable preservation of identity, iiias- inucli as to tbiM-v, (ofiif soul is added the/cc/iiifl soul, and the individual animal feels his identity even in his extrem- ities. IV. Man thinks his identity, and consciousniss is tho result. In his entire history man may bo regarded as coming into identii v with himself— i. e. as realizing, by edu- cation, in himself, his faculties and possibilities us mind, and as making these actual in the world in the shape ol institutions and social organizations. Man's uleiitity is personal identity, and essentially difl'crent from the identity of tho plant, wl'iich grows and reneats its s|)ecies in new individuals, or from the animal, which also JeeU, but can- not generalize. In man the species.or the generic process, enters entire in each individual as consciousness, the uni- versal and particular being identical with the iiolividuiil— constituting subject, object, and union of tho two. Tho doctrine of id.ntitv. as taught by Schelling (see Sciiki.- I INU) holds the absolute to be the identity of the ideal and real or of the subjective and objective— matter and mind being the two poles of one infinite substance. The Prin- ciple of Identity in logic slates in another form what the PriiKiido of Contradiction lays d.iwn ns the lundaniental law of thought— namely, that a thing cannot he and ii,.( ie ot tho name time. (Sco Louie, oud Immortality.) W. T. Harris. Idos. Sco Cai-esds. Id'iocy [from the Or. iJiuTijt, a "private person," hence an unlettered man. and finally an idiot, or person without mental enpacitv |. the want of a natural and harmonious development ol' the menial, active, and moral powers and faculties of a human being, dependent upon some defect or infirmity of the nervous organization. It varies in degree, ennlingent upon the exieni of nervous degeneracy, from a slight iinpuinnent of the mental faculties, or imbecility, by insensible gradations and shades, down to complete idiocy. 1102 IDIOCY. This maximum of imperfcclion and incapacity stops sliort only at a condition of nerve degeneracy inconsistent with thccontinuance of human life. Idiocy may exist with an apparent condition of bodily health, but is more commonly associated with obviously disoiused physical states or some impairment of general physiological functions. There is a notable form of idiocy that is known as cretinism, which is a marked want of mental development, associated with ex- treme scrofulous degeneracy and great bodily deformity. This is more commonly prevalent in mountainous districts. Idiocy is sometimes confounded with dementia, which is a loss of mental powers and faculties once possessed. This occurs at a period of life later than childhood. Various methods of classification of idiocy have been suggested, but these are either arbitrary or based upon pathological distinctions that are valueless for any prac- tical purposes of classilication. Of the first class, those based upon differences in mental capacity, it may be said that they have a certain convenience when it is fully under- stood that thev are proposed only to define general degrees of mental defi"ciencv that nevertheless run into each other by insensible gradations. Of the latter, where idiocy is classified bv known or probable pathological conditions underlying "it, such distinctions are of little pr.actical value in devising modes of obviating the resulting mental stales or in predicting the results of such methods. A patholog- ical classification may, however, be used to indicate the ordinary and immediate causes which produce idiocy. From such a study it would be seen to occur, first, as a form of human degeneracy, the result of congenital or post- natal influences; or, secondly, as a consequence of acci- dental causes that have interrupted or checked the laws of normal human growth. Of the former, a majority may be classed as the result of hereditary neuroses in one or both families. The intermarriage of near relatives is a not in- frequent cause of idiocy, because it intensifies the family defects and vices in the offspring. Again, ill-health, any serious constitutional affection, or the intemperance of one or both parents at the time of conception, insufficient food, continued ill-health, depressing influences, or any sudden shook to the mother during gestation. Of the latter, all in- juries to the brain in infancy, whether the result of primary or secondary disease or from accidental causes. Thus, on the one hand there may be the ill efi'ects of convulsions, epilepsy, hydrocephalus^ or any primary brain disease, or the translation of eruptive diseases to the brain. On the other hand, there may be injuries to the brain in partu- rition from instrumental interference or otherwise, from blows on the head or concussion in infancy, and in rare instances from fright. Premature ossification of the skull may prevent mental development by checking or stopping cerebral growth. In many cases, however, the search for causation is a blind one. Idiocy has existed in all ages and in every country. The relative number of idiots in any community will depend upon the physical and social influences that lead towards nerve-degeneracy, but the ratio to the general population seems to be an increasing one. With the present imperfect civilization of the civi/ized world, it is safe to estimate the number as at least one to every thousand in the population. The statistics of the sutiject would support this estimate, after excluding all cases of dementia, and not including those unrecognized as idiots on account of infancy. Their status as subjects of law and objects of pity and charily had been recognized from time immemorial, hut any known attempts to ameliorate their condition were reserved for quite recent times. In fact, systematic efforts for the im- provement of their condition date back only some forty years. There was a prior period of incubation, in which circumstances combined to direct attention to this class, to their peculiarities and their needs. Efforts to improve the condition of the insane, to educate deaf-mutes and the blind, had been attended with great success. In individ- ual instances, where idiocy had been studied and some de- gree of improvement had been attained, the facts had found their way to the public ear. Scientific curiosity had been awakened as to the nature of idiocy and the extent to which remedial means might be rationally applied. Civil- ized communities wero thus made ripe for an extension of experimental measures of relief to the class of idiots. By general consent the name of Dr. Edward 8eguin of Paris stands at the head of European specialists in the manage- ment and training of idiots. He organized a school for the purpose in lS:iS. His intelligence, skill, and zeal, to- gether with a happy faculty of presenting his principles and methods of instruction and the results, attracted pub- lic attention. The public authorities of Franco and scien- tific bodies acknowledged the merits of his system. Visit- ors from many nations went to see the wonderful results. Thus were sown the seeds that have ripened into extended labors in the same direction in many lands. His work on the management, training, and education of idiots, pub- lished in Paris in 1840, has been almost the only textbook on the subject till the issue of a second treatise in English published in 18G6 in New York, where he now resides. Institutions have been established in many of the conti- nental states of Europe. In Great Britain the growth and spread of institutions for idiots has been almost unexam- pled. Beginning with a small school founded by some benevolent ladies in Bath but a little more than twenty- five years ago, there are now eight institutions, public and private, in England, three in Scotland, and one in Ireland. More than 1000 idiots and imbeciles are now gathered in institutions designed for their management and instruction, supported by their friends or by the liberality of wealthy and benevolent individuals. Besides these, several large custodial establishments exist where indigent and pauper eases of idiocy are properly cared for at the public expense. In Great Britain, therefore, the cause of the amelioration of the condition of idiots may be regarded as having been fairly adopted and placed upon a firm foundation, both as a charity and a measure of public policy. In the U. S. efforts at instruction in individual cases of idiocy or imbe- cility were undertaken as early as 181S. The first school, however, was opened at Barre, Mass., in 1848. Only a few months later, an experimental school, under the patronage of the State of Massachusetts, was begun at Boston. To this enterprise Dr. S. G. Howe, long identified with the education of the blind and other works of philanthropy, gave the prestige of his name. Thence followed the estab- lishment of similar institutions in other States, a list of which is here given : Name BQdlocalioQ of Institution. Priv.ins stale " State " State " State " State " State " State ' City " Priv. ' Slate ' ..Barre, Mass S.Boston, Mass.. Syracuse, N. Y... Media, Pa Columbus, O Lakeville, Conn. Frankfort. Ky... .Tacksonville.IlI. New Y'orkCily.. Fayville, Mass... Glenwood, la Total number SuperintcodeQU When found- cd. 1848 184S 1831 1863 1SS7 1858 1860 18G.5 1865 1870 1876 under instruction No. or pupils. t)r. George Brown... Dr. S. G. Howe Dr. H. B. Wilbur Dr. I. N. Kerlin Dr. (i. A. Doren Dr. II. .M. Knight.... Dr. E. H. Black Dr. C. T.Wilbur Com. of Charities... Mm'es Knight AGreen 120 198 22.-i 357 57 99 100 200 30 I4B8 The underlying or associated physical causes of idiocy have been referred to. From the nature of the case, they are, the most of them, not directly remediable; but in an indirect way much may be done to obviate their conse- quences, if lio more. These physical causes may be classed either as defects or infirmities. As a defect, there may be want of size or want of brain-capacity, from whatever cause arising : a want of proper anatomical relation or connection in the elementary parts of the brain, or various abnormal modifications of its more intimate structure or organization. As an infirmity, there may be a general de- fault of normal functional activity. This statement includes a variety of subtle conditions or influences that may be suggested or inferred, rather than demonstrated, originat- ing in the brain itself or derived from im]iairincnt of func- tion of remote but correlated organs. Of these physical causes of the first category, it will be seen that they cannot absolutely he removed by any treatment. They are con- genital, organic defects or abnormal organic conditions in- duced by disease in a region and in tissues not susceptible of much modification by remedial measures. In other words, absorption and regeneration cannot bo rendered active and operative. Of the second class of physical states or influences, some degree of reformation under fa- voring circumstances may be predicated. Thus, to estab- lish a healthv functional activity of the nervous system and other bodily organs, hygienic and remedial measures may be undertaken with a reasonable hope of success. To bring the brain and the nerves of relation into exercise, increas- ing their forces, actual and potential, is the work of edu- cation. And inasmuch as nil jiliysiological growth is the result of reciprocal action between organ and function, while size or capacity and perfection of organism controls and determines the amount of functional activity, so im- perfection of organic structure and want of size may be the result of the absence of proper functional exercise in the brain, as in any other organ. Education, then, may have an indirect efl'ect in obviating even the profounder causes of idiocy. Rational efforts for the amelioration of the condition of idiots resolve themselves, first, into mea- sures of management, training, and education. In insti- tutions for this purpose the same general features are everywhere seen : a gymnasium, to develop muscular power, attention, dexterity and a proper carriage : a nursery, where the younger and lower grailes of pupils are trained to habits of cleanliness, decency, order, and self-care; a school-room. IDIOSYNCRASY— IDUM.EA. 1103 with a coQiplete Bcalo of mental exercises, from those ap- plicable to the first dawning» of sense-power and sensc- T.erceptiou up to the ordinary studies of an elementary school The same principles of education are hero as in any other system of instruction. But the special adapta- tions of these principles to meet the peculiar needs of this class of pupils mav bo quite varied. The will of the teacher may be needed to'supplement an absence of spontaneous- ness on the part of the pupil. The beginnings of instruc- tion will he at such a point in the series of exercises as the cxigeucies of each case may demand. The progress will be bv such gradual steps as are within the reach of each puniVs intelligence. The acquisitions of each day. in the way of greater nerve-force, awakened intelligence, and in- creased self-control, are applied to the practical matters of everv-day life in the household or elsewhere. The ulti- mate end of all these efforts is to establish good habits, to impart a capacity and a willingness for some form of use- ful occupation, to develop greater power of self-control and if possible, to bring idiots under the sway of moral obligation. The experience of institutiuns now for many years in operation has established tho fact that the ma- jority of idiots of a school attending age and condition are susceptible of marked improvement, and may attain the end proposed bv their education in the manner and by the means thus briefly indicated. Ordinarily, tho precise extent of iraprovability can be determined only by experi- ment, as the actual physiological limitations of the mental growth can only thus bo ascertained. Of some, unim- provability may be predicted at the very outset; thus, where the degeneracy is of a kind to be self-developing with the progress of age; where there is an obviously un- derlying pathological condition progressive in its nature ; where there is such a degree of deformity as to prevent the [ use of the various means of training, etc.; and, finally, where there is an extreme nervous excitability, the natural termination of which is in some form of insanity,— for all such unimprovable cases there is needed another class of institutions— namely, of a custodial character. As a ques- tion of social science two practical principles may be laid down as to the disposition of idiots. First, it involves less trouble and no more actual expense to care for them by themselves in the hands of competent persons, and with proper surroundings and appliances, than in the public almshouse with other socially dependent classes, or even lu the homes of indigence. Secondly, whenever practicable it is a wise public economy that provides for them appro- nria'c means of management, training, and education. •^ II. B. Wilbur. Idiosyn'crasy [Or. ;«io(rvY«p«<ria. a "peculiar admix- ture"], a marked individual trait of any function of body or of mind which is possessed by only one or by very few per- sons. Certain bodily idiosyncrasies appear to bo compat- ible with perfect health. Others arise from diseased con- ditions, and cease upon tho cure of the disease. Mental idiosyncrasies may not amount to marks of insanity, and yet it is impossible to draw a line between the two. I'dlewild Cave, a large cave at White Pine, Nev. It was discovered by miners who ran a shaft into it. It has been but imperfectly explored. I'docrase [Ur. «ISoi, "f„rm," and Jtpaai?, " mixture," from its resemblances to other minerals], a mineral crystal- lizing in the dimctric system, and essentially a silicate of alumina and lime, with a smaller proportion of iron, and in some cases also containing magnesia, etc. ; hardness, 6.5; specific gravity, . 1. 4. It occurs chiefly in lavas, but is also met with in' gneiss, serpentine, aud granular lime- stone. Idol'atry [from the dr. «Koi, an " image." and XoTp«ii«ii to "servo"] is distinguished from iMAr.K-Wuiisim' (whic ich see) or iconolatry in this, that tho former is applied to literally worshipping the images themselves, whereas icon- olatry is restricted to signifying simply the use of images to direct the mind in worshiji to tho deity or saint repre- sented. Tho ignorant find it difficult to distinguish between the two, and end by believing that there arc sanctity and mi- raculous or magical virtue in the image itself. Idolatry ap- ]i. :ir3 to be of great antiquity. Tho Turanian races (/. <:. the i ionic, Turkish, Tartar, aiid Iral-.Mlaic, Dravidian, and .ognalc tribes, including perhaps tho Basque and Etruscan) worshippod tho spirits of their ancestors, and represented these by little images, as did tho Romans, who derived the custom from the Etrurians. As soon as the belief was established that tho departed were immortal, it would occur to the survivors that their spirits might benefit them, and that this might be made sure by worship. The beginning of this < ii//ii« was before all history, since Boucher do Per- thes found that the earliest races huried their dead in urns with offerings. The more civilized branch of humanity divided into tho Indo-European and tieiuilic. The former appear to have been inspired with a deeply poetical and pantheistic spirit, from which came the tcudeuey to deify not only the principal forces in nature, but all their sub- divisions, so that eventually there was a god or goddess for every separate river or kindof jilant — all represented more or less by images, which were worshipped. The Semitic races limited their ideas, expressed in gods, to the first prin- ciples of reproductiveness and death, especially the former, whence resulted a sex-worship and obscene rites. But thoy found in Moses and Mohammed reformers who vigorously repressed all nature-worship and its resultant idolatry to such an extent as to very strictly forbid the making of graven images; Mohammed, with great practical shrewd- ness, going 8o far as to forbid the making of any image what- ever. It is a curious fact that the literal worship of images in themselves ajipears to be in proportion to their monstrosity and ugliness. The (jrecks maile statues of their gods, but seem to have merely admired the former while thoy adored the latter. In the Roman Catholic Church the Virgins of Raphael and of the great artists genernlly serve merely fur icnnolnln/, but where irlol<iln/\s developed it is common to some barbarously adorned rural image or to one absolutely hideous — e.f). the jet-blaek Virgin of Altiltting. The tend- ency of humanity to invest material objects with magical virtues is universal. A savage who has by chance always killed his enemies or his game with a certain weapon soon believes that it possesses a peculiar virtue, and this belief readily extends to ornaments and amulets, which are sup- posed to bring luck. From amulets — pebbles or beads — the faith readily extends to human images, whether of an- cestors or representing powers of nature. Idolaters of every country endeavor to please their divinity by sacrifices, and many punish it when their prayers are not answered. It is not many years, as the writer can vouch, since the in- habitants of Segni, in Italy, having prayed in vain to St. Bruno for rain, took his image down, punished it with stripes, and stuck it into the mu.l of a river heail down- ward. A great shower happening to fall immediately after, tho people came in solemn procession, took the imago up, washed it. and reinstated it in its shrine. It is needless to say that the Catholic Church does not sanction such idol- atry, though it encourages iconolatry. A curious form of idolatry is the totem-worship by which a certain sacred animal is regarded as originating and protecting families and tribes of a common descent. This was to be found, <•. g.. among the Teutonic Wolfinge — whose names survive inlludolf, Wolfgang, etc. — as also among North American Indians. Sir .John Lubbock briefly explains this as fol- lows : " In endeavoring to account for the worship of ani- mals we must remember that names are very frequently taken fnim them. Tho children ancl followers of a man called the Bear or the Lion would make that a tribal name. Hence the animal itself would bo first respected, then wor- shipped." Mr. Herbert Spencer regards this as the origin of fetichism, or the lowest forms of all idolatry. " He whose family tradition is that his ancestor was the crab, will con- ceive'thc crab as having a disguised inner power like his own. Hence . . . multitudinous things around will acquire imaginary personalities." Idols representing forms half human, half brutal, also originate, in all probability, from this source. There is more than one royal or noble family in Europe and the East which has a tradition that it spi^ang from the amours of a woman with an animal, the animal having been simply a man named after one. According to Max Miiller, races so rude as to have simply one word for every one idea, cannot represent active powers, natural or supernatural, in any but a personal and more or less human form. This would also account for the origin of nuieh rude idolatry. Iconolatry becomes idolatry when the image is believed to wink, bow, or display signs of life, owing to the actual presence in it of the spirit which it represents, or when it is believed to possess healing or magical power. Tho most extensively disseminated idols arc those of Boud- dha and of the Chinese queen of heaven, which bears a striking resemblance to Isis. Cii.uiles Q. Lelaxo. Id'ria, town of Austria, in Carniola, on the Idriza. It is situated in a kettle-shapeil valley, and is famous for its quicksilver-mines, which arc said to be the richest in Eunqio. producing annually 3000 cwts. Pop. 4;i00. Id'stcdt, a y. of Sleswick, noteworthy on account of the battle (.luly 21 and 2.i. 1S50) by which tho Hanes crushed the Sleswick-IIolstein rebellion. Idumic'a, territory of Western Asia, was bounded N. bv .Judiea, \V. by tho Mediterranean. At one time it com- prised parts of Judiea a.s far N. as Hebron, and in Arabia the peninsula of Petrnja. It was inlmbiled by the descend- ants of Esau, and was annexed to .ludxa by David, and later by the .\Iaceabees. The relations between the .lews and the Iduniwans (Edomiles) were always hostiloand full of haired, even after the Jews had received an Idumican 1104 lESI— IGNORAKTIA JURIS. dynasty in the son of Herod the Great, in whose time the Idumienns were, however, Jews in rehgion. le'si, town of Italy, in the province of Ancona. It is said to he of Pelasgian origin, and through the I mbnans and Gauls it passed to the Unmans, traces of whose c,y,.- lation arc everywhere seen. The city walls are Hanked hy over" , and the place is well supplied with good water. 1 he public 'buildings' are very respcetable, ".n''.~"l'"°;""'^^^^^: Dietures, as well as some curious antiquil.es. Ihe trade ^nd manufactures of this town are very considerable. Pop. in IST-l, 18,912. IfliantI (.\rr.isT Wilhei-m). b. at Hanover Apr in, 176'.l ; took to the stage at Gotha in 1777 ; acted ... M.an- hcim I77il, and became in 179G director of the National Th a.re of Berlin, where he d. Sep.. 22, ISU ."'^dramas of which he wrote a great number, =^°d,7'"'^Vv and ScaT were performed on all the stages of Germany and bcan- dinavfa, are narrow, sentimental and affected P'o'";^;^^ <>/ the trivialities of everyday life ; but hey "7"' ^ '"g"'*'^^^ without psychological interest and ">''f.","^'.<=^^^^-^^^'i7 actor he was the perfection of th.at wh.ch b.s dramas in- tended to represent-the natural, the noble, the true ; bu ho was great only in the representation of that which m reality Ts small- ■ CLCMP.N-S Petersen. Igasu'ric -Vcid [Malay, igasura, •• vom.ting-nut ], an acid fo.ind in \nx vomica and St. Ignat.us beans, and in the root of Sln/rhnna colubrma. leasu'rine [.Malay, .;7as".-i, "vomiting-nut"], an al- kaloid which occurs in .Vnx vomica in company w.tli strych- nine and brucine. It is intensely poisonous. (See Desno.x, ,/ Pli„vm. [.■>.], XXV. 202. and Sehutzenbcrger, Compt.rend., xivi. 1234; Ann. Ch. Ph-irm., cviii. .'US.) lelau', town of Austria, in the province of Moravia, on the Iglawa. It is an old but well-built town, w.th exten- sive Tnanufactures of cloth, tobacco, and mach.ncry, and rich silver-mines in the vicinity. Pop. 20,112. Igle'sias, town of Sardinia, in the province of Cagliari. It io a walled city, with crenelated towers and a castle, and is situated in one of the most fertile portions of the island. Silver and other mines are found in the vicinity, and sd prosperous are the mining operations that tt.s town is known in Sardinia as the "city of the mines. There is, however, little general industry except among the women, who make quantities of linen and woollen stuffs. P. 9816. lelesias (Jose Mauia). See Ait-exdix. Ig'lo, town of Hungary, in the county of Zips, on the Hernad. has copper aud iron works, and a considerable trade. Pop. o90U. lena'tius, Smst, bishop and martyr. It is not known whinher he was of Svrian or of Greek descent, nor whose disciple he was. Eusebius (ff.Vf., iii. 22) makes h..n the seco..d bishop of Antioch, Evodius having been the first The Ap;,tolic. Co»,ltlulio„3 (vii. 46) ra.ake Evod.us .ind Ic-natius bishops together— Evodius appo.nted by Peter, aid Ignatius by Paul. Baronius and Natalis Alexander think thev were bishops tojether— Evod.us of the Jews, Ignatius of the Gentiles. That be was a martyr, hav.ng b?cn condemned at Antioch, and taken to R»n.o to be thrown to the lions, is hardly to be doubted. Tho dateot his martyrdom is. however, a mooted question. The earliest date is that recently given by Dresscl on the authority of a now codex of the .Varf./r.nm, first edited by hl.n m Uj. (••d ed ISi;:)). which begins : '• In the fifth year of tho reign of the emperor Trajan," i. c. 102 A. D. The old M.,r,;,r,u,„, which has the api.oarance of having been tampered with, names Dec. 20, 107. Hut as it is now generally adm.ttc.l that T,-aian did not go to the East till 114, winter.ng at \ntioch' 114-15. critical opinion is now gravitating to- wards 115. Perhaps we may say Dec. 20, Ho. Bear- in.' the name of Ignatius there are fifteen £;)^«('c., ei^ht of which (three in a Latin and five in a Greek recension) are now generally considered spurious. The rc.naining seven (A>/n'«K<«., Man""'""'- TraUinm, Ka- ma,,- written at Smyrna; Philadrlphiam, i„„yn!taM, f'ohrnrp, written at froas) are in two (Ireek reeons.ons : (l)the longer, first published by Pacieus in los, ; (2) the shorter, first published by Archbishop Usher in 1644. Three of the seven (AyK„-..»», llo„,.;,». I'„l,r"n>) ""<> P."''- lished. with a translation, in a still shorter Synac rpocnsion, by Curcton in 1S45. Since then the Ignatmn controversy has been renewed with great sharpness. The several opin- ions are as follows : ( 1 ) KiUen thinks them all spur.ous, b..t imagines that the Syriac three were the first to be forged. in the time of Origen (18,5-254), soon after which they were translated into Greek, expanded, and others added, belorc the time of Eusebius, who had the seven. (2) Baur and Hilgenfeld think them all spurious, but are of the opinion that the seven shorter Greek epistles were the first to bo forced after 150. The .Svriac three, it is contended, read like extracts. (3) Cureton, Bunsen, Ritschl, and L.ps.us advocate tho genuineness of the Syriac three. (4) A strung array of the ablest critics, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, such as Gicscler, Uhlhorn, Miihler, and llcfcle, may still be reckoned on the side of the shorter Greek re- cension. The longer Greek differ from tho shorter in tho greater emphasis which is put— (1) upon episcopacy; (2) the divinity of Christ. R. D- Hitchcock. Ignatius, Loyola. See Loyola. Ignatius' Bean, or Bean of St. Ignatius, the beau-like seed of .SVn/r/in.w J.piatii. a rather large shrub with curious vine-like branches growing in the Phil.pp.nes, and belonging to tho order Loganiiieeic. The seed is an inch long, half an inch thick, aud has the proper!. cs of nux vo.uica. but more actively, for it contains a much larger percentage of strychnin. Tlic commercial supply is irreg- ular. The seed was named by the Jesuits in honor of Ignatius Loyola, their founder. I"'neous Rocks are those which have been formed by the "cooling of melted materials, as distinguished from sedimentan/ rocks, which are formed of mater.al depos.tcd from water, and mrinmorphic rocks, scdin.cntary ... the.r origin, but much changed in character by the action of he^t and pressure. Igneous rocks arc formed by the cool- ing of lavas from volcanoes or of the fused matters cast up through fissures in the earth's crust, constituting dykes of non-stratified rock. Igneous rocks are either /Mgpalhic (white trap, porphyry, trachyte, phonolite, pitchstone, ob- sidian, pumice, etc.) or .n.gilic (diorite, basalt, doler.tc, etc ) Granite, greenstone, etc. are sometimes reckoned as igneous rocks, but in many cases they appear to be truly metamorphic. le'nis Fat'uns [Lat. " vain or foolish light ;" Fr./cii- fullcl- Ger. Inlifht or /rnci'sci], a luminous meteor, ap- pearing during summer and autumn nights on marshy land, ifear stagnant water, in graveyards and other places where decomposition is going on. It is an unsteady blu.sb light usually seen a few inches above the surface of the gfound, sometimes stationary, but commonly moving with great rapidity. It appears brightest at a distance, and re- cedes from the observer as he tries to approach it ; thus travellers have frequently lost their lives through being deluded by it into dangerous bogs. From Us resemblance to a li.'htcd wifp of straw or torch borne quickly aloiig. it has received a number of names, such as Will-o -the-W.sp, Jack- (or Peg-) o'-Lantern, Friar's Lantern, Kit-w.tb-thc- Canstick (,-.c. candlestick), and has given r.se to many popular legends. It was formerly attributed by the coun- tr/-people to evil spirits, who found pleasure in lur.ng hunian beings to destruction, but was sometimes supposed to be souls escaped from purgatory, all in flames, with the hope of inducing men to pray for their deliverance. •\\ hen appearing in churchyards, the ignis fatuus is still m some places called " corpse-candle,' a.id regarded as a presage of speedv death, geuerallv to the person by whom .t .9 seen. The English gypsies, to whom, owing to the.r out-of-door life, the ignis fatuus is a familiar spectacle, call it mnWos v„„„eU>. or ghost-light. A light of this species, called .n Buckinghamshire "Ihe Wat," is said to haunt prisons, and when seen bv a prisoner before his trial is considered an unfavorable "omen. The cause of the ignis fatuus is not fullv decided. Some meteorologists refer it to electricity ; others to an issue of marsh-gas (light earburetted hydro- gen I caused bv the decomposition of vegetable matter and inflamed bv an electric spark. It is most generally sup- posed to b'e phosphuretted hydrogen arising from decom- posing animal matter; this gas takes fire spontaneously upon coming into contact with atmospheric air. Beloro the introduction of an improved agricultural syst^em, and the almost universal drainage of marsh-lands, the ign.s fatuus was a very ordinary phenomenon. .U present it is more r.arolv seen, and is often vainly sought lor by students of meteorology. Sir Isaac Newton defined it as • a vapor shining without heat," but other observers havo described it as producing a slight degree of warmth, and have even succeeded in igniting flax at its flame. Janet 1 ucKtv. Ignoramus. Sec Gbaxd Jury. Ignonintia Facti. See Ic.sorantia Jims. Ignoran'tiaJu'ris (Lat., "ignorance of the law"]. It is a cardinal legal principle that ignorance of the law a - fords no excuse for a violation of, or fa.lure to observe, its requirements. Il is conclusively presumed that every ono is acquainted with the established rules of law. and under- stands that his eondtict should be regulated in accordance with them, without regard to bis lack of opportunity to ac- quire such knowledge. This presumption. tho..gh .t may work great hardship in particular cases, is based upon the necessitv of securing the practical and u..iform enforcement of the liw, and is therefore demanded by cous.dcrat.ons ot lli.NUUANTlNKS— ILKIM. 1105 publlo policy. If a different rule were adopted, the desire to avoid legal necountahility would lead to a general disre- gard of the law, and it might therelorc be transgressed with impunity, and would beeomo wholly ineffeetive. In regard to itfiiornucc v/ /net, however, there is not the same reason for a similar presumption, and a diflVrent rule is established. Aets done or transactions entered into incon- sequence of ignorance of material facts, when the lack of knowledge is notatlributable to unreasonalile remissness in inquiry or a disregard of readily available sources of in- formation, will not, therefore, as a general rule, be held to iniiiosc any legal liability, or at least the same degree of liibility as would otherwise have been incurred. These rules as to ignorance of law and of fact arc at ]iresent rec- ognized in the common-law tribunals, as well as in courts of equity. Kor examjile, in civil cases it is lu-ld that if money is paid in any transaction with full knowledge of the facts, but in ignorance of the doctrines of hiw applying to the case, it cannot bo recovered back if there be nothing unconscientious on other grounds in the retention of it; but, on the other hand, if money be paid through ignorance of the facts merely, ami without laches, it will in general be recoverable. In like manner, in criminal law, if an offence be committed which is in fact a crime, though not known to be such by the wrongdoer, the plea of ignorance that the law forbade such an act will not be accepted in justification : but if a house-owner should, in the exercise of a reasonable degree of caution, and in the belief that it was necessary for self-protection, kill a person by night in his house whom ho innocently but mistakenly believed to bo a burglar, his ignorance would be upon a point of fact, and would free him from responsibility. Ignorance of the laws of a foreign state is deemed to bo ignorance of fact, and the States of the I'nion are for this purpose deemed to be foreign to one another. Hut these rules in regard to the effect of ignorance are modified at times by other principles of law, so that their application is not invaria!>le. Thus, if a point of law bo doubtful, and certainty of knowledge thereon cannot be attained, a compromise of claims atVectcd by it will gen- erally be sustained as estalilishing the rights of tho parlies, since it is desirable that litigation be diminished. More- over, if a person's ignorance of law has afforded another opportunity to practice fraud or imposition upon him, his ignorance will not preclude him fr(uu obtaining relief, since, if such were the ease, the other party would bo permitted to profit by his own wrong, .^gain, it is a salutary rulo of law that when one of two innocent parties must Buflcr the loss resulting from any act. the consequences should fall upon the one who has caused or enable*! the act to be committed, rather than upon tho other. Hence, if a person assume to act as agent for another in conducting any trans- action, believing that he has authority so to act, while ho has no authority in reality, the interests of tho third person with whom he deals upon such a basis will generally bo protected, and the pretended agent will have no claim to relief on the ground of ignorance of material facts. Tho generally prevalent doctrine is, that he woubl be liable to the third pcraim in such a case upon an implied warranty of authority. In like manner, special considerations may at times lead tho courts to modify tho application of tho rules cimeerning the effect of ignorance, and courts of equity particularly may, in peculiar cases of hardship, oc- casionally grant special indulgence to one innocently vio- lating tho law. (See Mistakk.) (iKoucE CiiAsi:. Kevised dv T. W. DwionT. Ipnornntincs. See Brethren or Tin: Ciiuistian I Schools. Igunln'cia, town of Spain, in tho province of Barce- lona, on the Noya. It is an old and gloomy town, with a bright and handsome suburb, a brisk trade in wine, oil, and fruits, and extensive manufactures of weapons and cotton and woollen goods, with several paper-mills iu the vicinity. I'op. 14,000. Igiin'nn [Sp.], a genus of lizards inhabiting Central and Siiulh America ami the West In<lies. These animals are of large size, often four or five feet in length to the end ] of the tail, which is l(!ng, slender, compressed, and covered with small, e(|\ml, imbricated, and carinated scales. The body is also scaly, and provitlecl with a prominent median fold of integument under the throat, forming a conspicuous dewlap, which is serrated in front, with large scales, An- othiT fold along the back is similarly raiseil into a deeply and acutely sirrnleil crest, highest on the dorsal region and extending upon the tail. There is a single row of femoral pores. The tongue is short, contractile, and iHptehed at tho lip. There is a ilouble row of small teeth upon the ptery- goid bones of tho palate, and larger teeth upon tho usual maxillary bones. These teeth have the crown compressed, acute, arid with a scrruled margin. Tho external surfaoe Vol.. II.— 711 of tho crown is coated with enamel ond traversed by a median longitudinal ridge. The bases of tho teeth are elongated, subrylindrical, and soldered to excavations on the inner surface of the outer wall of a shalloiv, oblique alveolar groove, thus exhibiting tho pleurodont type of dentition. The vertebra;, besides the ordinary articulation by the zygapophyses or oblique processes from the arches, are further united by a process (zygosphene) from the front part of each arch, which fits into a cavity {zygautnun) upon the posterior face of the preceding arch; and in this respect they resemble the vertebra; of serpents. There are five well-developed toes on each foot, all provided with claws. They are active animals, living mostly upon trees, and are herbivorous. Their flesh is considered a delicacy. The best-known species is Itjvana tnherculata, so named from the tubercular scales upon the sides of the neck. 0. C. XlAusn. Igrua'nodon [from Sp. ir^uana, a species of lizard, and Gr. oSoiit, '•tooth"], a genus of extinct reptiles belonging to tho order Dinosauria. and found in the Wealdeu and Cretaceous of Europe. These reptiles were first discovered by Dr. Mantell in the Wcalden of Tilgatc Forest, and Iho remains fir.«t found consisted of teeth. The name of the animal was intended to express the reseniblance of these teeth to those of the iguana. As in that animal, the base of tho tooth is elongated, the crown expanded and notched on the margin ; at first it is acuminated and compressed, its sloping sides serrated, and one surface, external in the upper jaw, internal in the lower, is traversed by a median longitudinal ridge and covered with a layer of enamel. On each side of this ridge are one or two lower ridges, separated from each other and from the serrated margin by wide smooth grooves. The marginal serrations are seen under a low magnifying power to be tr.'insverscly notched. These teeth were set in sockets giving a firm support for mastication, by which they seem to have been worn until nearly tho whole crown was gone. In the earlier stages of use a sharp, irregular edge was maintained by the layer of enamel ; later, the ossified pulp, harder than tho dentine, formed a transverse ridge, fitting the tooth for its work as a molar for grinding and bruising the coarse vegetables that formed the food of these animals. The vertebra; of the neck were moderately convex in front, concave behind, becoming concave on both faces in the dorsals, resembling those of some mammals, while other points of structure allied these animals with the birds. The ribs were bifurcate. Tho shoulder-girdle resembled that of lizards, and the fore legs were comparatively small. The pelvis had the ilium extending far in front of the acetabulum, and furnishing only a widily arebid roof to that cavity. Tho ischium was much elongated, had an obturator process as in birds, and probably united with its fellow in a median ventral sym- physis. The unusually large bones of the hind limbs were exeavatecl by a large medullary cavity, and fitted for ter- restrial locomotion. The femur had a strong inner tro- ch.anter. and its distal end was bird-like in the ilevelopinent of a strong ridge, which played between the tit)ia and lilnila. Tho metatarsals were elongated, and so fitted together as to hardly if at all move on one another. The inner and outer digits were short or rudimentary, leaving only three well- developed toes, of which tho middle was the largest and strongest. Large three-toed tracks iu tho Wealdcn aro sncli as might have been made by these animals. A/uouo- (loH Mtiiilclli (so named by Prof. Owen for its discoverer) was thirty feet in length, with a bulky body, and was per. haps tho largest of terrestrial animals. This genus has not yet been identified from America. (Sec IlAnnosAiuus.) 0. C. Marsh. Ili'Inne-Ili'lang [Tagel. for "flower of flowers"], Iho rich and ]ir)\verful jurfume of t'noiiu niliiratintima, a noblo forest tree of the Philipjiines and Malay Islamls. Tho volatile oil of the flowers of the tree is largely em]iloyed in making the rich hanrlkercbief-perfumc of I his name. This oil is distilled in the East, and is worth about $2J0 a pound. Il'cliostcr, snmll town of England, in Somersetshire, on the Ivel. is noteworthy as the birlhplaee of Koger liaeon, and there are iu tho neighborhood many llomau remains. Pop. 7!<I. IIC-«lc»Fraiicc',an old province of France, with Paris for its capital, is now divided into the departments of Seine, Oisc, Aisne, Seine-et-Marne, and Scine-et-Oiso. Ilcx'boro, a village of Washington tp., Hocking co., <). Pop. iVl. ireum [Or. »;*u, to "twist," from its convoluted np- penrance]. tlie lowest portion of the small intestine, extend- ing from the jejunum to the bend of the colon. In niiin it is about twelve feet long, thus including some threc-fiftlis of the length of the small intestine. It is one and a quar- ter inches in calibre, is thinner and narrower than tho jo- 110(5 ILEUS-ILLINOIS. iunum, has less marked valvulm co„mvente,, and is ordi- narily the only part of the intestine which has Peyer s patches (agminatcd glands) upon its inner surface. H'eus r«r- «;^'«' '^ " twisting ;" Lat. vol,:ulu>, or miserere men i very painful disease of the intestine, produced by mechanical obstruction, as by twisting, intussusception or knotting of the cntrail. Intense pain, persistent vomiting (sometimes stercoraceous), hiccough, etc. are characteristic symptoms. Intussusception, or the passage of a part ot tiie intestine into the cavity of another part, is one of he most common conditions, as when the lower part of the small intestine is slipped down into the large intestine The disease is very often fatal. Spontaneous reduction of the displacement may occur; the intussusceptcd part may slou-h away and .in inflammatory process occur resulting in rceoverv ; dilatation of the bowels by the bellows may effect a cJre. As a last resort, gastrotomy may bo tried with possible success. Ilex. See Holm Oak and IIollv. Ilha'vo, town of Portugal, in the province of Beira, is well built and thriving. In its neighborhood is the cele- brated glass and porcelain manufactory of Vista Alegre. Pop. S215. ., ^ . , . Ilic'ic Acid [Lat. ilex, "holly"], an acid contained m the leaves of the holly, Ilex aqnifolnim. Ilic'in [Lat. ilex, '• holly "], the bitter principle of holly. Ilex (irjui/'olium. ,. i ., <■ lliiats', or Iliyats', the name of the nomadic tribes ot Persia Thev are of various descent, Turkish, Arabic, etc., and most of them are Mohammedans of the Sunni see . Each tribe has a district or graiing-ground appointed to it, for which it pays a tribute in lambs, oxen, etc., money be- in- unknown among them; but on account of the some- what unsettled social state, it happens every now and then that a tribe falls into habits of robbery and plunder. Ilini'za, or Ilinis'sa, a volcano of the Cordilleras of Ecuador, South America, 10 miles S. of Quito. Its two peaks, from which smoke and flames have been seen to is- sue, rise 17,:iS0 feet high. Il'ion.post-v. of German Flats tp., Herkimer Co., N. Y., on the S. hank of the Mohawk River and on the Eric Canal. Hion Station, on the New York Central R. R., 70 miles from Albany, is on the opposite side of the river, in Herkimer tn liorse railroads connect Hion with Mohawk and Her- kimer It has 4 churches, a national bank, 2 weekly news- papers, and extensive manufactures of firearms, sewing-ma- chines, agricultural implements, and other goods. P. 287b. Hion, or Ilium. See Troy. Ilis'sus, a river of Attica, rises near Hymettus and flow= to the Phalcrie Bay. In ancient times it was cele- brated for its beautiful scenery, but its waters have now greatly decreased, and near Athens it is dry in summer. Iliian'thin [Lat. i7ex, "holly," and Gr. fa^Sd,, "yel- low "], C17II.2O11. a yellow dye contained in the leaves ot hollv. Ilex aqulfoUum. li'kcstou, town of England, in Derbyshire, 8 miles N. E. of Derby. It has large manufactures of hosiery, l-><='=- and §ilk. and rich coal and iron mines in the vicinity. P. Sbb.. Illawa'ra, post-v. of Carroll parish. La. ine-et-Vilaine',departincnt of North-western France, in Brittany, bordering on the English Channel. Area, 2a04 square miles. Pop. 5S9,i:i2. The ground is mostly low occupied along the sea by dunes and marshes, but much of the soil is fertile, producing, besides good crops of gram, lar-e quantities of hemp and flax, which are mannfacti.red into thread, cordage, and woven goods. The oyster fish- eries are considerable. Cap. Rennes. irier, a river of Southern Germany, rises in the lyrol, flows N. through Bavaria, and empties into the Danube. Illima'ni, the highest peak of the Bolivian Andes, sit- ua'ci ""a .. ih :i7' S^and Ton. 67° 49' W. It i; 2>.\49 ^ct high, and covered with glaciers to the height of 10,350 feet. mini, tp. of Macon co., 111. Pop. S21. Illinois', one of the central Stales of the Union, lying in the ui.pcr Mississippi Valley, extending from the par- allel of -M" 59' N. lat. to that of 42° 30', and from 8, ° 35' to 91° 40' W. Ion. It is bounded N. by AVisconsin, E. by Lake Michigan, Indiana (from which it is in part sep- arated by the Wabash River), and by Kentucky, from which it is separated on the S. E. and S. by the Ohio River. It is also separated from Missouri for a short distance on tho S by the Mississippi River, which forms its entire western boundary, severing it from the States of Missouri and Iowa. Its territory extends both on the Ohio and Mis- sissippi rivers to the middle of those rivers. Its area is 55,410 square miles, or 35,462,400 acres. Face of the Comi/ri/.— Illinois may be described m gen- eral t«riii3 as a gently inclined plain sloping from Lake Michigan toward the Mississippi and Ohio. A somewhat elevated plateau extends from Wisconsin into tho N W. section of the State, and is there manifest in some bluffs Seal of Illinois. and hills, and another moderate elevation includes Ford and the adjacent counties : but neither of these secticms rises to a greater height than SOO feet above the sea, while the Grand'Prairie is not more than 500 feet above the sea, and the lowest portion of the State, at the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi, is 340 feet above tho Gulf of Me.xico. The State is therefore very nearly level. The N. W . corner is the most uneven portion of the State, though the^nvcrs have in some instances cut such deep channels into the clay and alluvial soil as to give a broken appearance to the sur- face In the extreme S. there is a range of remarkable hills crossing the State from Grand Tower to Shawncetown. Rivers, Lake,. c(c.— The State is drained almost exclu- sively by the Mississippi and its tributaries, the Ohio and it< affluent the Wabash, the Kaskaskia, the Illinois, and Rock rivers, and the smaller affluents and tributary streams of the=e. A few short and inconsiderable streams flow into Lake Michigan, but the largest of these, the Chicago River, now flows bv an artificially deepened channe through the HIinois Canil into one of the branches of the Hliiiois River. The HIinois, formed by the junction of the Dcs Plaincs River from Wisconsin and the Kankakee from Indiana, is the largest river wholly within tho State. Its course is nearly 500 miles in length, of which 245 are navigable, and its principal affluents are Fox. Spoon, and La Mam nvers and Crooked Creek from the N. and W.. and Vermilion, Mackinaw, and Sangamon rivers and Macoupin Creek from the S and E. In Woodford and Peoria cos. its bed ex- pands and forms Peoria Lake. It enters the Mississippi River 15 miles above Alton. The Kaskaskia River rises in Champaign co., and runs in a nearly parallel course with the Illinois for 250 miles, joining the Mississippi near Ches- ter in Randolph co. Rock River enters the State from M is- eonsin.and finds its way to the Missi.=sippi at Rock Island. The Big Vermilion, Embarras. and Little W abash arc trib- ularies of the Wabash ; the Saline and Cash of the Ohio The Big Muddy is a smaller but considerable affluent of the Mississippi. Lake Pishtaka in the N. E is the only con- siderable lake, besides the expansion of Illinois River al- ready mentioned, in the State. . G^eolony.-^h^ greater part of the surface of II inois be- longs to the Carboniferous era, the great coal-llcld of the State extending 375 miles in length from N. W to S ^ , and in breadth from St. Louis to the N. E. about 200 miles^ The thickness of these coal-measures is much less than those of the same formation in Ohio and Pennsylvania; and as the strata are thrown into waves, tr.aversing the State from N. W. to S. E., the limestones and sandstones of tho formations below arc frequently brought to he sur- face. The workable beds of coal are comparatu;e y small for the large area occupied by the coal-measures. The N. L portion of the State for a considerable distance from Lake 'Michigan belongs to the Post-tertiary formation. J''"°;'- ley of the Illinois River (which has cut for itself a deep channel) consists of successive terraces of limestone, indi- cating that at a period not geologically remote the waters of the great lakes found an outlet through this channel to the Gulf of Mexico. In the S. E. strata belonging to the Permian group have been discovered overlying the coal- ; measures eonlirmahly. In the N. W. corner ot the State, I in Jo Daviess Co.. there is a small distnol forming the ter- minal portion of the great Western lead-bearmg belt. Tho ILLINOIS. 1107 argentiferous galena is found in the lower Silurian lime- stones, and the mines are so productive as to form an im- portant item in the products of the State. The soils of the Slate are of diluvial origin, and seem to indicate that at an carlv period the greater part of the surface of the State was a po'rtion of the bed of an immense lake. The jirainc soils are very deep and fertile; in some of the bottom-lands the loam and mould are reported to be from 25 to 100 feet in depth. Whatever the depth, the loam is underlaid by a prevail, and in the vicinitv of the Ohio River yellow pine, cypress, and cedar. The prairies in the spring and early summer, where not under cultivation, are carpeted with a profusion of flowers, those of the same or allied species forming large masses of bloom, and then giving way to those of an entirely different family. Later in the season the intense heat of the sun renders these broad lands much less attractive. The grasses in the rich and fertile soil attain great height, and their stems are stiff and almost The State abounds in fruit trees, and much of its dense, almost entirely impervious, clay, which keeps the --''y-^f-^^^^,,^^^ ^„^,i,^.. ^hc apple, peach, pear, plum, cherry, apricot, etc. are successfully cultivated; grapes of all varieties do well, and the smaller fruits, as strawberries, moisture from leaching away. , , o . • Mineralo,,,/.— First among the minerals of the State 13 the coal. Wo have already spoken of the extent of the great coal-field. Its area is estimated at 45,000 square miles but much of it is not workable. The coal is bitu- minous, containing from :i to 20 per cent, of incombustible materials: and in some of the mines the cannel coal pre- dominates; in others excellent smelting coals are found. In 1S70 there were over 400 mines worked, and the product amounted in round numbers to 2,500.000 tons. Ith.-is since increased to a little more than .'^OOO.OOO tons. The position of these coal-mines, readily accessible by railroads and convenient to the Ohio, Mississippi, and Wabash, and fur- nishiug to the vast manufacturing establishments of St. Louis and Chicago, as well as to the countless steamers on the Mississippi, abundant fuel for steam purposes, greatly enhances their value. The iron ores of the State are not very valuable, though they answer a good purpose when mixed with the valuable specular, spathic, and ha3malitio ores so readily and cheaply brought into the State from Missouri and from the L.ako Superior iron-region. Lead ore containing a considerable percentage of silver (ar- gentiferous galena) is mined in large quantities in Jo Daviess co., and the flourishing city of G.alena derives its name from it. There are fine and productive veins of cop- per ore in the northern part of the State, on the Peckaton- ica River and I'lum Creek. Zinc is also mined in the northern part of the State. Limestone of excellent quality, both for burning and for building, a drab freestone of great beauty, gypsum, and a fine variegated marble, are among the other mineral treasures of economic value; there are salt-springs in .Jackson, Vermilion, and Gallatin cos.; sul- phur and'chalybca'e springs in Jefferson co., and other meilicinal springs between Ottawa and Peru. A cave in the rock in Hardin co., ou the Ohio, presents, as the place is approached, a vast mass of rocks of a castellated appear- ance, resembling the ruins of some fortress of the Middle ;\gcs. The entrance to the cave, which is from the river, ami ii but a little above high w.alcr, introduces the visitor to a chamber 80 feet square and 25 feet high, with a farther chamber of smaller size beyond. It was in the early year.s of this century the resort and hiding-place of bands of robbers, counterfeiters, ami river-pirates. Starved Rock, the Lover's Leap, and Buffalo Rock are well-known points on the Illinois River near Ottawa. I',.;,<-(-,(i'.,;i.— Though not by any means a densely wooded State, Illinois has a sufficiency of woodland for its present homo requirements, but imports much timber from the States farther N. Most of its prairies have islands of oak and other forest trees, and where the limestones and sand- stones have broken through the overlying coal-iucasurcs there are wooded bolts of considerable extent. lUit for her extensive coal production, however, the State would have been long ere this completely denuded of its forests. .\s it is, a little more than one-sixth (Ifi.9 percent.) of its surface is wnodlauil. The forest trees most abundant are oak, black walnut, sugar maple, ash, clin, locust, linden, hickory, per- simmon, pecan, and in the bottom-lands cottonwood, syca- more, buckeye, tulip tree, poplar, beach, and black birch raspberries, blackberries, etc., arc raised in great quantities. Ziiolofju. — There are a few deer left in the State, though most of the larger game has disappeared. Bears, wild-eats, and panthers arc very rare. The coyote or prairie wolf is occasionally found in the sparsely settled districts ; there are some foxes, mainly the fuscous or red fox, aud of the rodents, the gopher, several species of squirrel, and numer- ous field and dormice. There arc at least two species of hares. The wild-turkey, stateliest of game-birds, the prai- rie-hen, a species of grouse, and an abundance of other feathered game, are slill found in great numbers on the prairies and in the woodlands. The rivers and lakes abound in fish of good quality— the white-fish, the great lake-trout, black bass, catfish, and other species. The insect tribe are in their usual variety, about 20,000 species having been enumerated in the Slate, though less troublesome than far- ther S., except the small number of species injurious to vegetation. These in some years appear in countless num- cii'mafe.— Stretching as Illinois docs over five and a half degrees of latitude, there is of course considerable variety in its climate. In the northern portion the annual range of the thermometer is very great, the summer heat being at times intense, and the cold of winter very severe. At Chi- cago, and in the N. of the State generally, the prevalent winds throughout the year are those from the S. W. and S., though in the spring and summer N. and W. winds arc moderately frequent. The wind blows almost constantly in some direction, only 44 out of 1100 observations noting a calm condition of tlic atmosphere. At Cairo, in the southern extremity of the State, the most prevalent wind was that from the' S., though closely followed by that from the N. E., while those from the N. and the S. E. were less frequent. About one-eleventh of the observations represented the ab- sence of wind. At Rock Island the S. W. wind was the prevalent one, though N. W. and N. K. winds were also common. The annual range of the thermometer in Peoria in 1859 and 1800 was 117° F. (the maximum being 104° in July and the minimum -i:)° in December); in liiley, Mc- Ilciiry CO., near the N. line of the State, 12:!° F. In 40 N. lat. tiie mean temperature of the year is about 54°; of the summer 77°. iuul of the winter 3:i° .lO'. At Beloit on the N. line of the State the mean annual temperature is 47° :I0' ; at Cairo 58° 30'. About 245 days of the year ore clear and 120 cloudy or rainy. The climate is generally healthy, the paludal fevers which prevailed in the early settlement of the State having mostly disappeared or become greatly mitigated with more thorough cultivation and drainage. In the low and swampy bottom-lands, especially in the Bouthern part of the State, bilious and intermittent fevers and diseases of the bowels are prevalent. The following table, eomiiilcd from the signal service report of 1873, gives the mean temperature, and range and barometer mean, to- gether with the rainfall of each month, and the annual rainfall and the annual means of barometer and thermom- eter in 1872-73 for Chicago, Rock Island, and Cairo : BABOurniR, monthljr nnd annual mean prcaoiira. Ctil™ico» (lat. «" 52'. Inn. SJ" 3* ; All- above Ma, f,;,7 n. ) .10.093 30.080 30.1M 30.051 Rock Inland tilt. IP aC, Ion. OOo SA' ; nit. above nea.GOS ft.).... Cairo I (laL 370 Ion. 85^ la'; nil nbove ■OB, 3.Vi ft.) 30.110 30.118 30.W5 Wl.lM IWl.llW IW.W30J30 30.000 90.010 ■ami a.soe tt.SSS 20.683 3I>.DO!l'29.S0!> 30.000 29.034 30.004 30.012 30.000 30.028 30.003 30.022 30.040 30.0&1 TiiKiuJOMrrKR, monthly and annual mean tcmiicraUirc. £>3.9|70.2 71.2 .6i77.»,Ii.« IM.7 77.678.7 62.4 40.26 48.47 62.3 68.9135.67 Chicago Rook Inland... Cairo TiiuuioMKTBR, monthly rangoa. I><° 72° W Vio 1 Hfi I ii' I sV'> 1 41^' i IB'' Raovitall. monthly and annual amouuta In Inobea, oto^ n' 470 0.6.1! 1.06 .... O.filll.S'^ jw'p 1 Si'^ 1 46^ III I6'0.f,7 n.47 O.Rt 0.77 1.4:1 6,fisl •1.27 3 64 6.37; 2.10 .',.6714.4 • Annualraago ot tborroomcter, lie", from »30 (July) u, -laf (Deo.). If* ■'■■™ Manual ranBOotlhcrmomelcr, 104", from OO" (July) to -B" (Jan.) 28.73 25.21 4I.I>S 1108 ILLINOIS. The report of the State department of agriculture, pre- sented to the Illinois legislature in 1S74, throws adUitional lio-ht on the climate of different parts of Central Illinois. a" Sandwich, l)c Kalb co. (lat. 41° :U', Ion. SS° 30', eleva- tion above sea-level, GT-l feet), the highest degree of heat in 187:5 (..Tune 2-t) was 9S° ; the lowest (Jan. 2a) was —-^^, the ranijo 12:!° ; the mean temperature of the year 48.7°; mean temperature of summer mouths, 71.5°; of winter months ''2.9°; the prevailing wind was W. for 10 months of the 12 ; E. and N. W. for the other two. There were r'7 fair and 2.'i8 cloudy davs, 143 days without frost; the last frost of spring was April 24, and the tirst of autumn Sent. 14. The total rainfall was 45.4 inches, April, July, Dec. and Aug. being the months of greatest precipitation. This town seems to be the centre of greatest precipitation in the State, its average rainfall for sixteen years being .M) 17 inches. Havana, in Mason co. (lat. 41° 14', Ion. 90° W , elevation 465 feet above the sea), had for its maximum temperature in 1872, 102° (in Aug.), for its minimum -2:, in Dec— living an annual range of 125°. The mean tem- perature of the year was 49..3° ; of the winter months 2'' 7°- of the summer months, 74.:i°. The annual rainfall of the same year, 33.10 inches, of which 9.83 inches fell in the month of" June. In 1S71 the rainfall was :W.90 inches, and in the first nine months of lS7:i it was 33.42 inches. Evanston, near Chicago, elevated 044 feet above the sea, from observations taken for several successive years, has the least rainfall of any town in the State, the average be- ing 24.78 inches. Anriciilturai ProdiKlloiis.—ln 1870, according to the census the value of the farms in Illinois was $920,506,346 ; of farming implements, .534,570,546; of forest products, «!1 087 144- of home manufactures, $l,408,01o; of animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter, $56,718,944: of all live- stock, $149,756,698 ; of farm products, $210,800,585 ; of or- chard products, $3,571,789; of marliet-gardens, t.76o,992 ; makin.' a gr.and total of farming lands and productions of ''I 3791:52,100. Vast as this aggregate is for a State which sixty years ago had not 20,000 inhabitants, the four years which have sfnce passed have greatly increased it. In 1873 the assessed value of cultivated farm-lands (stated by the State auditor to be less than 40 per cent, of their real value) was $642,912,908, representing a real value of not less than $1,600,000,000: the assessed value of town and city lots was $243,961,152: and these were similarly underrated. The valuation of railroad property (70 per cent, of actual valuation), the vast property of the Illinois Central R. K. being excluded, that road paying a ^P""^''}^^'^.'^^ $98 400.545.53, representing an actual value of &128,0U0,uuu ; while tiie as.sessmcnt of personal property, which was of course greatly underrated, was $302,778,499. The actual propcrtv of the State, real and personal, was not less than $■> ,800,000,000. The live-stock of the State was reported as'foUuws by the State board of equalization in the summer of 1873- ho'rses, 930,947 (the A'lricnltnml, Report of Jan., 1873 estimates them at 1,049,400, at the average price of $66 31 ), averaging a value of $52.41 , and giving an aggregate value of $48,790,933 (i\vi Aaricutlurnl Report above named gives their value as $60,585,714); cattle, board of.<;qu=^'- ization 2,014,801, valued at $17.74 per head = 4...o,r42,ol)3 (the Report makes the number 1,971.800, but the value $51709,806): mules and asses, 98,316, average value, $■,9 09 a<'"ro<'ate $5,809,404 (the Ayrlrulliirnl Report makes' thrnumber about the same (98,800), but the valu- ation $72.58, giving an aggregate of $(.i, 8,0-4). iho State board gives the number of sheep as 1,092.080, and the aggregate value, $2,140,474, while the A;iri"tllnrnl /ffiKH-r makes the number 1,394,300, and their value $4 461 460 The State board reports 3,360,083 hogs, 'averaging $3.17, and worth in the '^•iS'-<'g^'<: ^'V;^^''^^' while the Ayrieultural Report makes the number 3,700,300, averaging $1.30, and having an aggregate value ot «l5 9t7 090 The aggregate value of the live-stock was iirobahlV somewhat greater than the very largo sum stated in the census report. We have not the full crop-returns of 1873, but those of 1872 give 283,481,600 bushels of corn, worth $68,035,584 : 25,329,027 bushels of wheat, worth at a low estimate $31,154,703; 66,519.146 bushels of oats, worth $13,303,829; 3,267,356 tons of hay. worth $31 039 877: rye, barley, buckwheat, etc., worth $t, 240., ,10; tobacco, valued at $1,276,000; hemp, flax, etc, $1,316,000 ; dairy products, $13.79.8,630 ; pasture, valued at $24,..61,ob.!, and other farm products, not specially enumerated in t he returns for 1872, were valued at over $25,000,000. The year 1873 showed a very considerable increase on these large sums. M,i„»i;,et„ri«y /nrfii.frv.— The State has made great s'ridcs "in manufacturing since the census of 1870 was taken especially in Chicago and the other cities; and ther"'is good reason for believing that the manufacturing statistics of the State, always ascertained with great diffi- culty, and often onlv by crude estimates, are very inade- quately represented in the ninth census ; still, these returns are later and more comjilete than any other. In 1870 there were reported in Illinois 12,597 manufacturing establish- ments, emploving for motive-power 2330 steam-engines having an aggregate of 73,091 horse-power, and 528 water- wheels with an aggregate of 12,953 horse-power. These establishments employed 82,979 hands, of whom 73.045 were men, 6717 women, and 3217 children ; the capital used was reported as $94,368,057 ; the wages paid ^amounted_to $:;l 100,244; the raw material purcha.sed to $127,600,077; the' annual product to $205,620,672. The first rank in these manufactures belongs to flouring-mill products, for which there were 681 establishments, employing 3581 hands and a capital of $12,931,000, paying wages to the amount of $1,704,778, using raw material valued at $32,090,825, and producing flour and meal valued at $39,413,618. Next in importance was the p.acking of pork and other cut meats, in which 33 establishments were reported as engaged, em- ploying 2236 hands and a capital of $6,921,000, p.aying $448,560 wages; using $16,836,541 of raw material, and producing $19,818,851 of packed meats annually. In Jan., 1873, the°product of this branch of industry in the city of Chicago alone for the previous year was $19,153,851. As many of the smaller cities of the State are engaged in this business, it is evident that it had largely increased, or that the census report was much below the facts. JIalt and dis- tilled liquors, in which 193 establishments were engaged, employing 1955 hands and $7,397,900, paying $1,031,142 wat'cs usin.' $6,898,377 of raw material, and producing li<|Sors valued at $12,042,975, came next; and lumber, planed and sawed, is not far behind, 410 establishments producing $11,382,649. Agricultural implements came next. 294 establishments producing these to the value of $8,880,390. The various manufactures of iron produced in' 130 establishments wares valued at $7,738,443; 458 es- tablishments produced clothing valued at $8,407,005; 1165 manufactories produced carriages and wagons valued at $6 019 ■'91. Machinery of all descriptions was produced in'l31 establishments to the value of $6,398,794 ; the man- ufacture of tobacco in its various forms, in 274 factories, produced goods of the value of $4,319,716 ; leather, tanned and curried, in 97 establishments, was produced to the value of $4,148,163; woollen goods, in 85 factories, were produced to the value of $2,725,690 ; printing and publish- in- in 129 offices, to the amount of $2,727,519; furniture, 37T factories, to the amount of $2,982,522 ; 391 cooper-shops produced goods valued at $2,501,531 : hoots and shoes, in 88 factories, were made to the amount of $2,298,130; oils, animal and vegetable, in 17 establishments, were produced to the value of $2,642,733; saddlery and harness, in 687 establishments, to the amount of $2,581,416; sash, doori!, and blinds, in 94 factories, to the value of $2,316,320; tin, copper, and sheet-iron wares, in 478 shops, to the amount of -*•' 194 812; 24 confectionery establishments produced good's to 'the value of $1,948,710; 128 bakeries produced Soods valued at $1,732,885 ; 240 brick-kilns made bricks To the value of $1,638,761; marble and stone work, includ- ing monuments and tombstones, were produced in 122 es- tablishments to the value of $2,098,209; soap and candles, in 24 factories, to the amount of $1 ,250,930 ; grease and tal- low, in 5 rendering-factories, to the amount of $1,412,900; paper was made in 16 mills to the amount of f'.T'MOO; railroad cars, in 5 car-shops, to the amount ol $1,010,007. The other branches of manufacture, though of large aggre- gate amount, did not individually produce goods to the value of $1,000,000. Railrooih.—'Vhe railroad system of Illinois has acquired a remarkable development, scarcely any county being un- traversed by one or more lines. The number of miles ol railroad now existing in Illinois exceeds that of any other State of the Union, the increase having been especially rapid since the close of the war, during which time the mileage has more than doubled. In 1850 there were only 111 miles of track, while in 1855 there were 8b, ; in 1860, "790 ■ in 1865, 3157; in 1870, 4823; in 1871, 5904; and in 187'^ 6361 This statement shows the remarkable tact that more than 1000 miles of railroad track were constructed in Illinois in a single year. The most important railroad the Illinois Central, traverses the length of the State from Chi- cago to Cairo, 705 miles: it was commenced in I80I, and bv"the aid of an immense grant of public lands was coui- pieted within about five years. The railway interests of Illinois form so vast and complicated a portion of its ma- terial wealth as to have become the subject of much special legislation. By the constitutional convention of 18,0, State control over the railroads was organized in consider- able detail, and general supplementary laws for their gov- ernment were enacted in 1871 and 1.873. The following table gives the condition of all the railroads of the btato to Jan. 1, 1874 : ILLINOIS. IIO'J el *5 E--c-os^f5»=- = !i53t»=- Era o o o onoo o o oo o ori : ; b; m : f-i— ; £: m; ■; . . a . 3 . =;3 ~. ~, a . a . • •&•&• 13 • T' 7. A. c. : g: ?: g.r-: :•< S^g c :; n =. &: S- O.S ? ? : ; o.: c. ?: I a- g.: ?: f: t: B O O ^ e — PS S7 h Is ISS U ^ -< *. M O (JXM o g '^"^S £ S S £* S 5 ioS«3 »S 3 ^^u js 8 8 s £ s a'sa s a sas 3 S S S§ § i g gS g 3 g ?3 S S S fS 2 S IS § g g f g s sS » e S t»_ffl-f W « N*« « C: s -» OS "^ B a s S M o s e s s ■K ^ iJ p JO 00 o td ca o (X od ::S S JBIA * A O M * OD JO 1-3 8 s 8 a 8 a 2 Sow V tJ (.iSui S O M S CI O C £ 5- -' " § cn oo o Q o ga s sS § £ s ^ i 8 § i S ^esS s s 8 S gists s ^ ooo s o 8 1 ;; i g § § ig = S £ 8 S lis £S 8S « M M 1 s a S S 8 M i S2S 8 £88 en fr-ti. * 6 SS: i OS V 8 "S S £ !^ i i a s s "n 1. : a K s r-->: C : § i 8 : a M o o ■ o a : B D B £ S: 8 8 £ HISS S 8 S 8 8 3 8 S III S igi 8 2iii8 6 S s i 8 8 OO- o (o si: 8 - 8S: 8 S Es a gg'SR g S o o o o o &• gS8i3 S 5 |S8 ?l I i i i i i 8 8 8_ 8 8 8 ^»3 ^ £^ n 8 sis s S U3S i i S : lllg I § S88S S S I I i r 8 8 8 S £8- o 8SS v;c>' * k 8 8 £ g£' *. 91 « ES: 2 g g =8: S 88 S i: I 8: t ^r K "^ 2 S ^ S £ S I 8 is 8 8 u* 8 e 8 a 8 a S83 8 3 3SS s; 8 88: 8 ssssss 8 88 S £ — — CB O a 8 St2 3 3 .8.S.3 !JS!S w * o i s e 8 i s rj tj en 8 00 S Isa S s i she 8 ss s m4 0*S. A C* ^ 8uiS S £i S ;SS s a 5SSS £2 8 <£ O C> ££ = g 35 S S3 S 2 B — jp g £ • II S £ 2 is 8 3 ? .3 S § s 5 ages 1 p 1 "g g -; oo t> SSs ajjg s s s ieSis 8 8 s .S r PP: S » ? ?': ap: S S S iS: is S ■ \ 3 g : 3 2 5?.£ 8 I .1 .S »^S Q C i; : 3 g g 8: : 8 2 3 8 p £ a IS 8 2^ c r Sa s; If : P : 8 : : a : » ■■ : SS : IP i ' oS • T5S : 3 S i 2 S ; S8 8 S a I "S 3 g»^ S 3 £ 5 S C* O Vi g § isi is § ^ § i e 3 «£ S 'a 'tS "U RS 8 §2i 3 ^1 £ 5 a s 9 ss HP a ::8a 8 :j83 : 1110 ILLINOIS. f, -nance*.— The assessed valuation of property in IS. J was- real estate, $612,912,908; railroad property (not in- cluding the Illinois Central, which pays annually into the Stale treasury a certain percentage of its gross receipts), S9S 400.54O.O.3. This was stated to be 70 per cent, ot the true valuation, while that of real estate was only about 40 per cent. Personal property, certain specified kinds ot propertv, including, besides stocks and bonds, live-stock, fireproof safes, carriages and wagons, musical instruments, plate and jewelry, diamonds, agricultural and manufactur- in.- tools and machinery, watches and clocks, sewing-ma- ehTnes,etc.,S?.02,S0:5,262; making the entire assessed valu- ation 81,044,116,715.53. The increased assessment ot rail- road property and stocks, and of stock of telegraph and other corporations, ordered by the State board of equalua- tion. brought the whole assessment of the year up to SI 339,570,950, which is probably not quite one-hall the actual value of real and personal estate of the btate. The State tax on this valuation is three mills, and there are also school fund and canal debt fund taxes, aside from the county, town, and eitv taxes, which are of varying amount. The other items of revenue to the State are— 7 per cent, ol the gross earnings of the Illinois Central R. K, paid semi- annually, and which now amounts to nearly S.oOO,000 per annum : insurance fees and fines collected from agents, and other fines and forfeitures ; tolls and rents from the State canal and slack-water navigation ; and occasionally other sources. The annual State expenditure for the fiscal years 18,1 and 1872 was $0,000,039.57, but this included the payment ot ^53 408 470 of the State debt. In Jan., 1873, the entire Stkte debt was $1,732,407.18, the treasury reserve having been used for this reduction. In .Tan.. 1874. it had been still further reduced, and then stood at Sl,706,, j0.o9. Ihe amount of railroad bonds outstanding Jan. 1, IS, 4, which had been issued by counties, townships, cities, and incor- porated towns in the State, was $13,501,051.58; this was apportioned as follows: 45 counties had bonds outstanding to the amount of 85,380,904; 212 townships, bonds to the amount of $6,003,147.58; 17 cities, bonds amounting to 81 019.500; 27 incorporated towns, bonds amounting to ^467 500 But the counties, towns, and cities had other debts besides these. In 1S70 the amount of these was for the counties $12,817,922, and of the towns and cities S"4 483 010. It has been considerably reduced since that date, but more than one-half of the last item is the debt of the city of Chicago. Commerce.— Tha grand system of railroads which cross the State in all directions and connect it with the great lakes, with all the ports on the Ohio, the Mississippi, and the Missouri, as well as with the opulent cities of the At- lantic and the Pacific coasts; the Illinois Canal, 100 miles in length, which connects Lake Michigan with the Missis- sippi : the Mississippi River, navigable for the largest steamers alon" the whole western boundary of the btatc; and the Ohio and Wabash, which are navigable for one- half the eastern and the whole southern boundary, together with the other navigable rivers in the State,— give to Illinois unsurpassed facilities for commerce which arc most indus- triously improved. The entire amount of its internal traflic cannot well be ascertained, for its surplus agricul- tural and mechanical products are shipped from ports with- out as well as from those within the State. Some idea of their magnitude can be formed when wc state that the re- ceipts and shipments of grain, flour, and other articles of commerce in the port of Chicago alone in 1872 w-ere over $370,000,000. A very considerable portion of the com- merce of St. Louis is in the productions of Illinois, and considerable quantities of its products find their way to market through Indianapolis, Louisville. Cincinnati, and Toledo while no small amount is shipped directly and without breaking bulk to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New Orleans. The direct foreign com- merce of the State is mostly carried on through the port of Chicago bv Ihe way of the great lakes, the AVelland Canal, and the St. Lawrence River. This is large and con- stantly increasing. ,. I Bm,!.-s.— There were in Nov., 1874, 152 national banks in the State, of which 10 were closing, leaving 142 in oper- ation. The capital paid into these banks was $20,338,0,0 ; the amount of bonds on deposit, $10,742,400; the circula- tion issued, $23,296,405; the amount of actual circulabon, $10,035,201; their assets, Sept. 12. 1873, $41,489,877.07; their surplus and undivided profits, $3,790,083.84; and their liabilities, $37,699,793.73. There were at the same time 12 State banks and savings banks doing a discount and deposit business; these had an aggregate capital of $3,300,000. There were also 217 private banking-houses doing business in the State. „ . „, . Insurance Companics—Mt^^T the great fire m Chicago in isn many of the fire insurance companies of the btate went into liquidation, but in J""«' .18pv'«r-nr4m/and operation, having an aggregate capital of $1,, 08,400 and assets to the amount of $2,508,000. There were in July, 1873 life insurance companies, all in Chicago, having an aggregate capital of $1,800,000, and assets to the amount of $3,355,000. ., , .. Pon„!alion.—'Thc following table shows the popn ation at each census, beginning with 1800, when the population of what was then the Nerth-west Territory was first distin- guished bv districts, so that the inhabitants of what is now the State "of Illinois could be distinguished from the other inhabitants of that vast Territory ; it also includes the dis- tinctions of color and nativity, and the density of popula- tion, so far as obtainable : year. 1800 1810 18-20 1830 1840 18.iO 1860 1865 1870 02 .0044 .22 1.00 2.84 8.59 15.37 30.90 38.64 45.34 ToUk) population. 2,458 12,282 .55,103 157,445 47<\,183 851.470 1,711,951 2.I4I.510 2,539,891 2 **" 4 5:! 1.55, 4 840 ,704, 1.124 :,.511 .501 783 ,061 ,254 .034 ,291 ,170 ,096 183 781 1,374 2.384 3,929 5,4:i6 7,628 17,340 28,702 736,149 1,387,308 2.024,693 111,892 324,643 515,198 168 slaves. 917 slaves. 747 slaves. 331 slaves. 3,429 of unknown nativity. 986,035 of foreign parentage. Of those of foreign birth in 1870, 203,758 ^«" b"™ ■" Germany ; 192,960 in Great Britain and Ireland 32,5o0 in BriUshAmeHca; 29,979 in Sweden, n^??' "'-^ZZY' 10911 in France; 89S0 in Swit^.erland ; 73o0in Bohemia 4180 in Holland; 3711 in Denmark ; 2099 in Austria ; 1690 in Poland ; 1071 in Belgium ; and 2033 in all other foreign countries. In the enumeration of sexes, there were in ]8d0 44S321 males and 403,1 19 females; of these, 44o,o44 were white males and 400,490 white females, 2777 colored ma es and 2659 colored females. In ISCO there were 902,701 males and 809,190 females; of these 898,941 were while males and 805,350 white females, 3809 colored males and u819 co ored females. In 1805 there were 1,102,223 males and .0+1-2" females, of whom 1,09.3,111 were white males, 1.033,059 white females, 9112 colored males, and 822S eoloredjemalos. In 1870 there were of all races and colors l.p '»•.?, «,'""' and 1,223,351 females in the Slate ; of these, 1,03.1,161 were native males, and 991.532 native females; 283,3,6 males of foreign birth and 231,822 females; 1,.301,5S3 white males and 1,209,513 white females; 14,934 colored males and 13,828 colored females; 19 Indian males and 13 fcini^l'^s- Of the total male population (1,316,537 males% 52o,8,3 were between the ages of 18 and 45 or of "'.''"^jiy "?« = "\ these 346,564 were natives and 179,309 foreigners ; 518,924 white and 6941 colored ; 625,139 males were 21 years old and upward, or of the voting age ; of these, 390,735 were natives and 2:i4,4t;4 of foreign birth, and 542,833 were citizens. Of school age— I. c. between 6 and 21 years- there were 414,547 males and 404,219 females. Education.— In 1870 there were in the State 86,368 per- sons of ten years old and over who could not read and 133,584 who could not write : of these, 90 o9j were of na- tive and 42,989 of foreign birth ; 97.6ob whites (40,801 males and 56,857 females) were over 21 years of age while 8051 colored (3960 males and 4082 females) over 21 wero equally illiterate. Of the persons attending schooI_ in 18, {o4S ''■25 in number), 522.939 were natives and 2p,286 ol foreig,; birth; 285,283 wero males (284,084 whites and Te^coloredj'and '262,968 females (2'51/,1-„"h ''' wefe 1155 colored). According to the census of IS, there were in the State 11.835 schools of all classes, with 2_4,0o6 teach- ers (10,411 males, 13,645 females) and 767,i /5 pupils or students (389,955 males and 377.820 females) The annual income of these schools was $9,070,009, of "h,ch $252,569 was derived from endowments. $6,027,510 from taxation and public funds, and $3,689,930 from other sources in- cluding tuition. Of these schools, 11,050 were classed as public schools, having 20,097 teachers (8,91 males and ILLINOIS. 1111 ll,.106 females) and C77,r)23 scholars (:il3,«5 males and iis'l.l'S females). The incomeof these schoola wasS7,SlU,J(>a, of which .•?,'..8i8.24y was from taxation and public funds, and SI/JJL'.OIti from other sources, including tuition ; SO schools were classical, professional, and techuical. having 671 teachers (^H males and 217 females) and 11.7o6 stu- dents (72.-).') males, 4500 females), and $S'j6,n72 of income, of which $222,374 was from endowment, $101,318 from taxation and public funds, and $il2.6S0 from othersourccs, including tuition : 705 were private schools of lower grade, having 33SS teachers (12fifl males and 2122 females) and T* 107 nunils (:!y.255 males and 39,142 females), and an annual im.nno of $1,203,372, of which mi95 was from endowment, $7943 from public funds, and Sl,22o 2.U from other sources, including tuition. The sessions of the Illinois k<.islaturo being only biennial, there is no report frnin the smioriniendent of public instruction of later (late than .hui., Irt73 and the statistics are only to the autumn ot \»iZ. This' report gives the number of persons of school age (6 to 21 years) in the Slate in Sept., 1S72, as 882,093 ; the num- berof school districts. 11,231, of which 10,707 had schools in session si.t months or more of the year, and 2,5 for less than six months, while 189 had no schools. There wore II 390 public free schools, of which 91 were public high sel'iools, 651 graded schools, and 10,414 ungraded schools. In these schools there were 20.924 teachers, of whom 9094 were male teachers and 11,459 females ; and 002,049 schol- ars nttcndcdihcm.of whom 345,023 were males and 310,426 females. The schools were maintained an average period of 9 months. The number of private schools reported in 1S72 was 430, having 34,784 pupils. The total number of public school-houses in the autumn of 1872 was 11,289, of which 470 were built during the year at an average cost of $1517 05 each! The estimated value of school-houses in the State in the autumn of 1872 was $12,477,039 ; of the school lots, grounds, and appurtenances, $2,603,938 ; of other lands and properly belonging to districts. 52,537,917 ; of furniture, apparatus, and libraries, $1,373,950; of re- pairs and improvements, $883,204; making a total appro.x- iniate value of $19,876,708. Thonumbcrof district school li- braries was S30. and of volumes in them 54,280^ The aggre- gale principal of township school funds was $1,808,555.01, and the iniorest received $528,811.47. Thchighcst monthly wa"e3 paid to teachers was, to males, $2uO ; to females, $120; the lowest was, to males, $12; to females, $9.50. The average monthly salaries were, to males, $50 ; to fe- males, $39." In 75 of the 102 counties of the State the sal- aries of the best male teachers range from $100 to $250, and in SO counties the salaries of the best female teachers range from SJOto $120. The total annual cost per scholar, including tuition, incidental expenses, and per cent, in- terest on the estimated valuation of school property, is, upon the number enrolled, $9.25 ; upon the average daily attendance, $18.58. In 1872, 100 teachers' instilutes were held and attended by 7771 teachers, and instructed by 632 lecturers and instructors. They continued an average of 5.4 days, or, in effect, a week. The amount received from all sources for school purposes in 1872 was $7,500,122.70, and the expenditures for the s.amo year $7,480,889.24. The whole amount of principal of the common school funds of the State, Oct. I, 1872, was $0,382,248.08. For the in- etruclion of the teachers of these schools, besides the teach- ers' institutes, there is the Illinois State Teachers' Insti- tute, which holds an annual session of fourteen days, gener- ally devoted to natural science; two normal universities —viz. the Illinois State Normal University at Normal, founded in 1857, a most admirable institution, with every facility for thorough instruction in the art of teaching, ex- pending about $31,500 annually, and having an average of 20ft7iornial pupils annually, besides tho large attend- ance on its model school ; and the Southern Normal Uni- versity, at Carbondale, which, foundcil in 1809, commenced actual instruction in Doc., 1873. There are also other very efrielcnl normal training schools— the Cook County Normal School, at Englewood. 7 miles S. of Chicago court-house, establLshed in 1807, which in 1872 had 207 pupils; the Peoria County Normal School, in Peoria, established in 1908, and having about 85 pupils ; and tho Ocrman-Eng- lish Normal School, at (lalena. etc. The State has also provided lilicrally, in connection with tho national agricultural college grant, for the scientific and practical education of those desiring to obtain such educa- tion. Tho Illinois Inilustrinl University, located at Urbana and Champaign, is now in its seventh year of instruction, anil is in most respects a moilel institution of its kind. In Jan , 1874, it had lands valued at $80,000. buildings and improvements valued at $175,000, furniture, library, cab- inets and apparatus valued at $75,000. and funds and in- ves'mentst.i the ninounl of $124,000. making its total assets $700 Onn. Its annuiil eurnnt expcndilurc is about $08,000, but of this about $27,000, belonging to tho expenses of tho farm, gardens, and mechanical shops, is repaid from their products. It has eleven distinct courses of study, agri- cultural, mechanical, civil engineering, military, chemical, mathematical, natural history, classical, etc., a_ faculty of 24 professors and other instructors, and in 1873 had 320 male and 74 female students, of whom 300 were from Illi- nois, 33 from other States and Territories, and 7 from foreign countries. There is also an efl'icieut and well-conducted soldiers' college at Fulton. III. Of the other institutions of hifhcr education in Illinois, there are C so-called univeisi- tie°, 4 of them, as well as 3 of tho colleges, being universi- ties in fact, in tho sense of having professional or scientific schools connected with them; 19 colleges, several of them with professional or scientific schools attached to them, and nearly all under tho care and patronage of some religious denomination. These institutions have about 220 ]iro- fessors and over 4000 students. There are also 10 female colleges and seminaries of the highest grade, having 98 professors and teachers and over 2300 pupils; and 40scnii- uaries and academies of high grade for both sexes, having about 300 professors and teachers and nearly 4200 pupils. There are also, aside from the Illinois Industrial University, 3 scientific schools— tho scientific departments of Chicago and Blackburn universities, at Chicago and Carlmvillc, and tho Illinois Agricultural College at Irvington ; 10 theo- logical schools or seminaries, 4 of them at Chicago, having 3.5'professors and .about 280 students ; 2 law schools, one at Chicago and tho other at Lebanon ; 3 medical schools of the reo-ular practice, 1 eclectic, and 1 homoeopathic, and 1 college of pharmacy. These have 75 professors and over 500 students. , . r » . The institutions of special education for tho untortunate, orphans, diseased, and endangered classes are— (1 ) the Illi- nois Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, at Jacksonville, founded in 1810, and having 25 teachers and other officers, and 294 jnipils. lis current annual expendi- ture is about $08,750 per annum, all of it opi.ropriatcd by the State; (2) tho Illinois Institution for the Education of tho Blind, also at Jacksonville, founded in 1848. and having 9 teachers and other oflicers, and 00 pupils.and ex- pending annually about $17,000, all of it appropriated by the State; (3) the Illinois Charitable Eye and Ear luflrm- ary, at Chicago, expending about $15,000 per annum, of which $10,000 is derived from the Slate; (4) the Illuiois Institution for tho Education of Fecblc-Minded Children, at Jacksonville, founded in 1805. and incorporated in 1871 ; it has 7 teachers and other officers, and 107 pupils: it is now in rented premises, but is to have a new building completed in the winter of 1875 ; its expenses arc about $24,000, all furnished by the State; (5) the Illinois Sol- diers' Orphans' Home, at Normal, founded in 1805. has teachers and 320 pupils, and expends annually about $52,000, all furnished by the State, besides the products of tho farm and house, which arc njiplied to materially re- duce the expense po- capita ; (0) the Illinois State Reform School, at Ponliac, founded in 1870. which has 3 officers, 100 inmates, and expends about $33,000 per year, of which $■'5 000 is derived from the State. There are other relorin and industrial schools in the State, but they arc established by cities or counties, and not by the State. That in ( hi- cigo is a great success. It had 212 inmates in 18,2, most of whom were reported reformed. In this connection it is as well perhaps to speak ot I 10 charitable institutions of the Slate, which, though not di- rectly educational in their character, have yet some eomiec- tion with education. The Hospital for the Insane, at Jack- sonville, founded 1847. has an average of 450 patients, and its current expenses arc about $1 10.000 per annuin ; tho Northern llnspilal and Asylum for the Insane, at Elgin, founded in 1808, in 1873 luill 7 officers and an average of about 200 patients, and its expcndilurc is in round numbers $50,000 per annum: the Siiulhcrn Hospital lor the Insane at Anna, is a new inslilulion. intemled for 250 patients, and has nearly that number now. Its annual expenses aro ab,)ut $2.50 per patient, and when it is full will rcMu.ro $02,500 per annum. Tho two latter, when Iheir lmildin;,-s are completcl. will acconimodnte 950 patients, llicre is also an insane asylum for Cook eounly, really a part ol Cook county almshouse, which has 200 patients, and 2 small private asylums. Tho number of insane persons in the Slalo exceeds 3000. /',M,7„v,».„ nn'( Cr.mr.- Of the 2303 paupers returned in theeensusof 1870, 1213 were native whiles, 4 1 native colored, 1109 foreigners. Of 1795 persons in prison Juno 1, 1870, 1229 were native whiles, 143 nalivo colored, and 423 for- eigners : 1552 persons were convicted during the year. The Slate penitentiary, at Joliet, was for many years managed at a heavy loss, hut since June, 1872. it has ciirncd a con- siderable sum over its expenses, while its general condition lias been greatly improved. There were in Jan., 1873, 1321 convicts in the penitentiary, 15 of them females. Tho 1112 ILLINOIS. prison has a, large library, and provision is made for the instruction of the prisoners in elementary studies, as well as for tlieir religious welfare. l.iliraries. — There were in the State in 1870, 13,570 libraries of all classes, public and private, containing 3,32a, i)U volumes; of these, 3705, eontaining 924,513 vol- umes, were public libraries; these included one State libra- ry, with 10,000 vols.; 53 town and city libraries, with 35.010 vols. ; 135 court and law libraries, with 23,S32 vols.; 1122 school and college libraries, with 1+0,759 vols.; 2308 Sunday school and church libraries, with 480,100 vols. ; 7 literary and benevolent associations, with 153,492 vols.; 79 circulating libr.aries, with 75,352 vols. ; and 9SG5 private libraries, with 2,399,309 volumes. Newtpapera and Periodiciits. — There were in Illinois in 1870, 505 newspapers, having on aggregate circulation of 1,722.541, and an aggregate annual issue of 113,140,492 copies. Of these, 39 were dailies, with a circulation of 106,400; 10 were tri-weekly, with 40,570 circulation; 4 were semi-weekly, with 2950 circulation ; 364 were weekly, with 890,913 circulation; 11 were semi-monthly, with 107,900 circulation; 72 were monthly, with 490,808 circu- lation; 2 were bi-monthly, with 11,000 circulation; and 3 were quarterly, with 12,000 circulation. C'Aiirc/ics.— There were in 1870 in the .=tate 4298 churches, of all denominations, 3459 church edifices, 1,201,403 sittings, and $22,01)4,283 of church property. Of the churches at that date, 722 were Baptist, with 571 church edifices. 181,454 sittings, and $2,601,612 of church property. According to the Baptist Year Bool: for 1875, the number of associations in 1874 was 44; of churches, 1056; of or- dained ministers, 732; of communicants, 08,313; of addi- tions. 7.333 ; of iSunday schools, 640 ; of teachers and schol- ars, 59,700; of volumes in libraries, 01,088; of contribu- tions for benevolent and church purposes, S924.179. The Christian Connection and the Disciples, in 1870 had 350 churches, 251 church edifices, 85,175 sittings, and J621,450 of church property. They have incrca.sed somewhat in four years, hut their statistics are so incomplete that it is difficult to s.iy how much. The Congregationalists in 1870 had 212 churches, 188 church edifices, 66,137 sittings, and $1,867,800 of church property. At the close of 1874 they had 239 churches, 221 ordained ministers, 20,557 communi- cants, and 25,766 scholars in the Sabbath schools. The Protestant Episcopal Church had in the State in 1870, 105 parishes, 85 church edifices, 30,395 sittings, and ftl .426,300 of church property. In 1874 there were 101 parishes, 91 clergymen, 0785 communicants. 953 confirmations, (i838 Sunday school teachers and scholars, and the contributions to benevolent and church purposes were 8149,812.97. The Bvangelic:il .\ssoci!ition had in 1870, 68 churches, 56 church edifices, 20,176 sittings, S329.650 of church property. In 1873 they had 73 itinerant and 72 local preachers, 94 churchetij 8171 members, and about $500,000 of church property. The Friends had in 1870, 5 meetings, 4 meet- ing-houses, with 1000 sittings, and $13,400 meeting- house property. They have increased considerably within the last four years." The Lutherans in 1870 had 230 churches, 207 church edifices, 74.301 sittings, 81,043,476 church property. The Lutheran church has so many dif- ferent councils," ministeriums, and synods in the U. S. that it is difficult to isolate the churches of any one State; but as nearly as can be ascertained they had about 260 churches and 25,.i00 members in Illinois in 1873. The Methodists of all the Methodist bodies in 1870 had 1426 churches, 1124 church edifices, 357.073 sittings, and $5,206,620 of church property. In 1874 the Methodist Episcopal Church alone had in "the State about 1900 niinister.s of whom 998 were itinerants, 1321 churches, 108,120 members, $5,700,731 of church property, 1046 Sabbath schools, 145,861 teachers and scholars ; while the other Methodist bodies had per- haps one-third of that numbej. The Presbyterians, in- cluding all branches, in 1870 had 595 churches, 523 church edifices, 184,849 sittings, $3,637,625 of church property. In 1S73 the Presbyterian General Assembly (Northern) had 435 ordained m"inisters, 482 churches, and 38.557 mem property. In 1874 there were in the State 313 priests, 459 congregations, and an adherent population of probably 226,000. The Second Adventists in 1S70 had 8 churches, 6 church edifices, 1300 sittings, $7100 of church property. The Unitarians had 23 congregations, 17 church edifices, 5960 sittings, and $492,900 of church property. The Uni- ted Brethren in Christ (German Methodists) had 125 churches, 58 church edifices, 17.996 sittings, and $126,800 of church property. In 1873 there were 324 churches, 210 ministers, and 11,351 members. The Universalists in 1870 had 62 congregations, 44 church edifices, 15,225 sittings, and $543,300 of church property. In 1873 they reported 79 parishes, 52 congregations, 2776 members, and about 16,000 adherent population. There were also perhajis 200 congregations of the minor denominations, with 1511 church edifices, 35,000 sittings, and $125,000 of church property. Gonatilialon, Courts, etc. — The present constitution of Illinois was adopted by a constitutional convention held in 1870, and ratified by the people of the State the same year. It contains a bill of rights based on the priucijilcs of English constitutional law, defines the qualifications for legislators, prescribes that the senate shall consist of 51 senators, elected for four years, but in two classes, those in the odd-numbered districts being elected in 1874, and every four years thereafter, and those in the even-numbered dis- tricts" in 1872, and every four years thereafter; the house of representatives to consist of 153 members, elected for two years. The legislative sessions are biennial. They are prohibited from special legislation ; the house of rep- resentatives has the sole power of impeachment, but the senate must be the trial court for the impeachment. Mi- nority representation is provided for. The pay of senators and representatives is $5 per day, 10 cents a mile for actual mileage, and $50 per session for postage, stationery, etc. The executive department consists of a governor, lieuten- ant-governor, secretary of state, auditor of public accounts, treasurer, superintendent of public instruction, and attor- ney-general, all elected by the people, and all, except the treasurer (whose term is two years), for four years. The treasurer is ineligible for re-election for two years after the expiration of his term. The governor has the veto power, which can only be overridden by a vote of two-thirds of all the members elected. The judicial powers of the gov- ernment of the State are vested in one supreme court (which is also a court of appeals), circuit courts (which may have appellate jurisdiction to a certain extent), county courts, justices of the peace, police magistrates, and such courts as may he created by law in and for cities and in- corporated towns. The supremo court eousists of seven judges, one of whom shall be the chief-justice, and four shall constitute a quorum. The judges of the supreme court are elected by the people of their respective districts for a term of nine years, and provision is made so that their terms of office" shall expire at different times. The chief-justice is chosen by his associates, and holds his office till the expiration of his term. The circuit courts are held in judicial circuits of 100,000 inhabitants, exccjit in Cook county or other counties having more than 100,000 inhab- itants (which form a single judicial circuit whatever their population), and the circuit judges hold office for si.\ years, .ludges of county courts hold office for four years. Probate judges are elected for four years, and, except as above, 1 to every 50.000 inhabitants. The minor judicial offuicrs iire to be elected in such districts as the legislature shall provide. Every person having resided in the State one year, in the county 90 days, and in the election district 30 d'ays next preceding any election therein, who was an elector in the State on Apr, 1, 1848, or obtained a certificate of naturalization before any court of record in the Slate prior to Jan, 1, 1870, or who is a male citizen of the U. S. above the age of twenty-one years, shall be entitled to vote at such election. All votes ore by ballot. No elector loses his residence by reason of absence on business of the U. S. or of the State of Illinois, or in the military and naval ser- vice of the U. S., and no soldier, seaman, or marine in the army or navy of the U. S. is deemed a resident of the State - ' ■ ■ •■ ' therein. The general hers- the United Presbyterians had 74 ministers, 87 : in eonsequcuoo of being stationed ,u- „;„,,, ehur;he.'. and 6836 comm"unica„ts. There were also eon- \ assem_bly has power to pass Jaw-s excludmg from the r.ght sidcrable numbers belonging to the Presbyterian Church, South, to the Cumberland Presbyterians, and to the Kc- formcd and other independent synods. The Reformed Church in America (lato Dutch) in 1870 had 14 churches, 14 church edifices, 4880 sittings, and $160,200 of church property. In 1873 the same Church had 20 ministers, 19 of sufrr.igc persons convicted of infamous crimes. An ef- ficient system of free-school education is provided for. and the legislature and counties, cities, towns, etc. arc for ever prohibited from making any .appropriation or paying from any public fund whatever anything in aid of any college, seminary, literary or scientific institution which is con- bmehos and 1 78- communicants. The Reformed Church i trolled by any Church or sectarian denomination whatever. th^U^ (late German) in 1870 had 32 churches, 30 i No teacher or school officer is allowed to be .nfercsted .n hurch edifices, 7170 sittings, $93,000 of church property. It has since increased, but the arrangement of their statis- tics is such that we cannot separate those of Illinois. The Roman Catholic Church had 290 congregations, 219 church edifices, 136,900 sittings, $4,010,050 of church the sale, proceeds, or profits of .any hook, apparatus, or furniture used in any school. There arc also provisions in relation to counties, to railroads, warehouses. State revenues, etc. The State under the new apportionment has 19 members of the House of Representatives in Congress. ILLINOIS. 1113 Vniiutif-K. — The State is dividcil into 102 counties, whose Dames and population in 1870, 186U, and 1S6U were Uv-i follows: Cotmnu. ToUlpop ItlTO. Uiilc, imo. Female, i»;o. Toul pop ItttO. TotJil pop. 1(00. .30,305 10,564 13,152 12,942 12,20- 32,4ir 6,.362 16,703 11, .580 32,737 20,363 18,719 1.5,87.- 16,285 25,23.3 1 349,966 13,889 12,223 23,265 14,768 13,484 16,635 21,450 7,565 15,653 19,638 9,103 12,632 .33,291 ll,l:i4 20,277 14,938 13,014 85,935 5,113 12,582 3.5,506 25,782 19,634 11,234 17,864 1.3,054 27,820 11,248 39,091 24,352 12,399 39,322 21,014 60,792 12,3.i;i 27,171 31,471 23,053 26,431 32,726 41,131 20,622 10,9.36 16,181 9,581 2:;,.309 23,762 53,983 11,7.35 18,7u9 12,982 25,314 23,403 10,.383 27,492 47,310 13.723 10,953 .30,768 11,437 8,7.32 6,280 20,8.39 12.803 29,7.« 12,714 46,:i32 17,419 10,631 23,476 10,7.31 61,058 31,008 27,903 16,518 80,338 8,811 23,174 17,699 19,768 10,846 27,603 43,013 17,.329 29,301 I s,!136 j.519,891 28,52- 5,20< 6,765 6,S6j 6,2.39 16,898 3,562 8.70C 6,089 17,423 10,881 9,650 8,131 8,614 12,984 180,007 7,018 6,274 12,002 7,845 7,118 8,784 11,077 3,840 8,256 10,170 6,039 6,484 19,739 .3,716 10,677 7,741 6,532 18,309 2,670 6.801 18.487 13,481 10,331 5,738 9,010 7,932 14,196 5,713 19,836 12,703 0,435 20,014 10,096 31,228 0,383 14,220 16.632 12,445 13,690 16,963 22,8S8 10,501 8,334 8,083 4,890 13,540 12,174 28,310 6,237 9,789 6,815 13,235 14,579 5,481 14,.'J.35 21,244 7,133 6,632 13,811 6,794 4,571 3,223 10,889 6,439 1.3,369 6,378 24,010 9,479 6^37 1.3,231 5,663 27,323 1.3,598 14/.45 8,,3a7 1.3,702 4,427 12,100 9,1.37 10,201 8,407 14,371 23,221 9,062 14,762 9,993 1,316,637 27,835 5,298 6,387 6,377 5,946 15,517 3,000 8,003 6,491 15,314 9,482 9,069 7,744 7,671 12,251 169,959 0,871 5,949 11,263 6,923 6,306 7.901 10,373 3,723 7,397 9,468 4,064 6,163 18,.3.>2 5,418 9,600 7,197 6,432 17,420' 2,443 .5,781 1 17,019 12,301' 9,273 5,196, 8,854 7,092' 13.624 5,333 19,225 11,614 5,944' 19,503 10,318 29,.361 6,150 12,951 14,809 10,008 12,.39l! 1.3,701 21,243; 10,12ll 8,102! 7,.301 4,685 12,963 11,588 23,618 6,493 8,980 6,167 12,039 13,884 4,904 13,137 2i,29C 0,.388 6,101 14,9,37 5,613 4,181 3,037 1 9,970 6,304! 11,414' 6,326' 22,342' 7,940 4,973 12,2.!2 5.0S6 2:1,743 15,020' 13,,338 8,151 14,626 4,414' 11,074 8.442 9,.5,54 8,379 13,132 19,793' 8 267 14,539 89k; 1,223,354 41.32: 4,70- 981.' 11.67t 9,U38 26,<2C 5,144 11,73; 11,. 323 14.629 10,491. 14,987 9.:i3r 10,941 14,203 141,951 11,531 8,311 19,080 10,820 7,140 14,701 16,925 5,454 7,816 11,189 1,979 9,393 33,338 8,035 16,093 10,379 9,915 29,065 3,759 9,301 20,630 12,325 9,539 8,561 12,955 12,051 27,:i25 9,:!42 30,052 1.3,412 13,074 28,633 18,257 48,332 9,214 17,051 11,637 14,272 13,738 21,602 31,251 12,739 13,437 10,931 6,213 20,039 22,089 28,772 9,584 15,012 12,832 13,979 22.112 6,383 22,838 36,601 9,552 0,127 27,249 0,742 3,913 6,.387 17,205 9,711 21,005 9,331 32,274 14,681 9,059 14,613 9,004 37,691 2-3,112 21,470 11,181 19,800 7,313 18,336 13,731 13,223 12,403 18,737 29,331 12,203 21.491 13,283 1,711.951 26,508 2,484 Bund 6144 7,624 7,108 8,841 Calhoun « Carroll 3,231 4 3S6 ra-<s 7,253 Charapnixn 2,619 3,203 riark Hriy 9,5:12 4,289 .5,i;;9 Cok-s 9,:;35 C-Kjk 43,385 7,135 3,718 I). Kalb 7,540 I),. Witt 5,002 r>oii?las 9,290 rU'ar Edwards „ 10,692 3,.324 3 799 8,075 Ford Franklin 6 681 Fulton Gallatin 22,508 ,5,443 12,429 3,023 6,362 14,6.52 2 887 H'^'odersoQ 4,612 Ilmrv 3,807 4,149 Iroquois Ja'K:<on ,Tasn'*r 5,832 3,220 8,109 .T,>rs-y 7,:;34 Jo Daviess ,T'>hnson 18,691 4,114 10,703 7,730 l;!,279 14,226 17,815 0,121 6,292 1,.332 6,128 3,938 12,3.35 20,411 6,720 5, ISO 6,921 4,092 7,616 14,973 10,163 6,:M9 ,5,216 7,679 6,277 16,034 3,2:m 10,020 17,517 6,278 1,606 18,f!19 3,975 2,205 .3,921 11,079 4,012 6,937 5,3?3 19,228 10,373 7,914 7,P07 3,710 20, IPO 11,636 12,032 7,613 11, -'92 4,090 8,176 0,9.33 6,823 8,925 5,361 16,703 7.316 11,773 4,-15 8.51.470 Kankakee Kndall Lake La Salle 1,-1- Llvini^ston r>»'ran Ma-on Mili^.iti Marion Mir^hall M^<.n Mi^sac M -Donom-h Mllonry M Ivan M nard M-rCLT 1 M'tnt^onicry Mnfjan M'lUllrlo Ofli- P"nna P"rrv Plait Piko Popo Pulaski Uaii.li.Ipli Ki -liland - "^alinp ^ari'^amon ^ liuyler ■ili'lliy'.!'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'."".'.'.'.!! "ilark <t. rblr ^1 ■plii^nson Ta7'MreU Wiliaili Wavno Wliif \Vliilcsiile« Will Williams'tn Winn'-hat-o V..o-lford Total Prinrtpnl TotciiM. — Chicap;** is t^^c largest city, not only of Illinois, hut of the re-^ion formerly coinprised in the North-west Territory, Its population in 1S7« was 298,977 and has since increased with great rapidity, notwithstand- ing the terribly destructive lire of Oct.,' 1S7I. Quincy, Peoria, and Springfield are cities of hctwecn 20,000 iind 30,000 inhahitants ; IJluominglon, Aurora, Uockford, Galcs- burg, Jacksonville, and probably Alton, have more than 10,000 and less than 20.000: Belleville, Frecport. Calena, Kock Island, Ottawa, Decatur, and Joliet, Irom SOOO to 10.000; Cairo. East St. Louis, Elgin. Pekin, and La Salle, from 0000 (o SOOO : Chamjtaign. Danville, Dixon, >Vaukcgan, Monmouth, Molinc, Litclifield, Mcndota, Peru, Sterling, AVarsaw. Princeton. Morris, Bclvidcre, Canton, Geneseo, and !*aris have about oOnO inhabitants each. ///\/or^.— Tlie fir^rt white settlements in this State were made by the French from Canada, and were the result of the enterprise of the great explorer, the Sicur de la Snlle. He set out from Canada in 1079. crosf-cd the lakes, and de- scended a river, on the banks of which he found an Indian tribe whom he names in his journal the Illini, and from whom be gave the river the name Illinois. Gaining their good-will, he establi^^hed a small fort at the mouth of the river, and left the Chevalier doTonty there with a few men, naming his little fort Creve Coeur. After descending the Mississippi for some distance, be returned to Canada, but in ir>S2 came again to the Illinois River with a colony of Canadians, and made a beginning of settlements at Kaskaskia, Kabokia, and some other towns. These settle- ments increased, and (he Jesuit missionaries who visited the region early in the eiglitecnth century were so delighted with it that they described it as a new paradise. The colunists, like most of the French emigrants of that period, main- tained the most friendly relations with the Indians, and cvcntuall3' so far degenerated as to bcuome very little above the Indians among whom they dwelt. The vagabond and reckless life of the half-breed Canadian vovageur is wdl known, and the greater part of (lie c<»lonists were of this class. In nc.'J the English government, by the conquest of Canada, succeeded to the dominion over all this region, to which the French had previously laid claim, but in the twenty years that followed they seem to have paid very littlo attention to this portion of their domain. At the close of the Revolutionary war this region was ceded to the U. S., and in 1787 the whole countr3" N. of the Ohio River to the Canadian line was erected into the North-west Ter- ritory. In 1?00, Ohio was made a separate Territory; in ISOJ, Michigan was set off as a distinct Territory; and in 1809, Indiana Territory was organi/xd. This left for Illi- nois Territory, as it was soon after organized, the present States of Illinois and Wisconsin and part of Minnesota. The census of ISIO reported 12.2S2 inhabilants in this Territory. The Indians had fur several years been very troublesome, and the settlement of the Territory liad been hindered by their hostilities. In Aug.. 1812, they attacked the fort at the mouth of Chicago River, and murdered most of the garrisim and the settlers in the vicinity. They wero severely punished for these outrages, and the hostile tribes being finally driven away, the northern section began to at- tract a largo body of immigrants. In 18IS it was found that there were 35,220 inhabitants in the Territory, and all but a very fc^r within the present limits of the Stale. In that year Illinois was admitted with the present limits into the Union as a State. Two years Inter it bad 6.'j,2ll in- liabitants, and in 1S.30, I.'i7,'l'l5, a gain of 18'».2 per cent. In 18:;2 the troubles with tlie Sac and Fox and other tribes of Indians, which had existed for a year or two. culminated in the RIack Hawk war and (he finnl removal of all (he In- dians from the State. During the continuance of lutstilitics there was much excitement ami alarm in the State, but llio result was eminently beneficial in making more widely known the great advantages the State offered to iuimi- gr.ants. Congress granted an appropriation in 1S3( for tho improvement of the harbor at Chicago, and in 1835 tbo Illinni.s and Lake Michigan Canal, conneding (he great lakes with tho Mississippi River, was pntjectrd and the State bank organlzeiL Jn July, 183fi, the canal was com- menced and several railroad enterprises undertaken. Rut tho financial panic of 1S:;7 fell with crushing effect upon Illinois, and led to the abandonment of every work of in- ternal improvement. Tbo growth of the State in popula- tion conlinuerl. however. thr«iugli all (bis period of depres- sion, and in |8|0 it had 470.183 inhabitants, a gain of 202.1 p"'r cent, from Is;i0. In 18(0 the Mormons removed from Afissfiiiri to Naiivoo in Illinois, and. rapidly increasing in numbers, commenced erecting their t'mple there. From the first their lawlessness and their irregular and profligate lives had prejudiced the people against them, and as their offences became more tlajjrant there was manifested a very general d'-teriuinafinn tu <Irivc (hrm out of the Sfa'*'. In JuDCf 1841, tho brothers Joseph and Hyrum Smith, tlio 1114 ILLINOIS— ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL. leaders of the Mormons, having been arrested and con- fined in €arlha_i;e jail, tlic jail was surrounded by a intib on the 27th of that month, and the Smiths were both mur- dered, lu the following autumn the iMormons. to the num- ber of about L'O.IUIO. left the State under the leadership of BriL^ham Vouii;;, and commenced their migration to Utah. In i.SJ J (he population, according to the State census, was 043,482. In 1S47 a ne\v State constitution was ado])tcd. In 1S50, the tide of emigration having set very strongly toward Iowa and Wisconsin, tlic percentage of increase of population had fallen oft' considerably, the census rupoit- ing only Hj1,470 inhabitants, an increase of only SO. 7 per cent, on the previous decade. In 18,'»li, Congress granted a vast quantity of land to the Illinois Central llailroad Co. for tlie construction of their railway through the whole length of the State. This, and the other railroad enter- prises which folhjwed it, gave a new impulse to the growth of the State, and have made its development more rapid than that of any State which had preceded it. A great city was rapidly growing up on the shores of the lake, and river and lake, canal and railroads, were all contributing to its swift and irrcsistilde progress. In 18(10 the popula- tion of the State was 1. 711.1)51, a little more than double that of 1830, and it had but very little government land remaining unsold. The civil war taxed the resources of the State very severely, but her citizens rcspnnded most nobly, and by the aid of improved agricultural machinery she was able to send a very large force, more than her full quota, into the field, and jet retain her pre-eminence as the granary of the nation. Owing to the losses of the war the increase of her population was proportionally less in 1S70 than in 18GU, though the actual increase was nearly the same as in the previous decade. The census report gives her in 1870, 2,639,S'J1, an addition of 827,940. Since 1870 she has enjoyed (except the great calamity of the Chicago fire) uninterrupted prosjicrily, and her growth has been as rapid as at any former period of her history. The conflict in regard to policy which in 1873 and 1874 had occurred between the farming pcfjjulatiou and the railway comjKinies, though it may cause some bitterness of Iculiug for a time, is di:stini.Ml to be settled on terms which will bo fair and just to both parties, and in the end will result in an increased business and a more satisfactory develojnncnt of the vast resources of the State. In 1870 the State ngain revised its constitution very thoroughly, and in the inter- ests of an economical and wise government. Coventors o/ Illinois. — Term. Territory. Ninian Edwards 1809-18 State. Shadrack Bond 1S18-22 Edward Coles lS22-*2r> Ninian Edwards 182G-30 John R'-ynolds 1K30-:J4 Jnsepli Duncan I8:J4-38 Thomas Carlin 1838-42 Term. Thomas Ford 1842-46 Aupuslus C. I'rtuch lS-lG-53 .Toil A. MatUbun 185»-57 WilliuHJ H, Kitsell 1857-Gl Richard Yates 186I-fi5 Kiciiard J. OKlesby ISG-VeD .Inhn M. Palmer 18C9-73 Richard .1, O^jlcsby 1*57:1-73 John L. Beveridge 1873- Vntr at Presiflrntial Elcctioux. — Illinois not having been admitted into thr Union as a State until 1818, her first voto for President was cast in 1820, as 1820 1824 1828 1832 183S 1840 1844 1848 1852 1856 18G0 1804' 18GS 18721 CaDdidale^ who received the electoral vole. James Monroe P 1 D. D. Tompkins V.-P.... ) AnJrew Jackson P John Quincv Adams P lolin C. Calhoun V.-P .\iulrew Jackson P 1 Joh n C. Calhoun V.-P... ) .\nilrew Jackson P ) M. Van Buren V.-P / Martin Van Buron P 1 R. M. Johnson V.-P j Martin Van Burcn P. R. M. Johnson V.-P.., JaniLS K. Polk P G. M. Dallas V.-P L'-'wis (.'ass P 1 \V. O. Butler V.-P f Franklin Pierca P William R. King V.-P.. .lames liuchanan P .I.e. BrcckiMiridse V.-F .\braham Lincoln P 1 II. Uamlin V.-P f Abraham Lincoln P ) A. Jolinson V.-P / U. S. Grant P 1 Schuvler Colfax V.-P J U. S. "Grant P I Henry Wilson V.-P J u Popular vote. 3 Not rec. 2 1 3 1,901 1,642 3 6,763 5 14,147 5 17,275 5 47,476 9 57,920 9 56,300 11 80,597 11 105,348 11 172,161 16 189,490 16 250,303 21 241.944 J. Q. Adams P.. R. Rush V.-P..., John Quiney Adams P.. .T. Q. Adams P R. Rush V.-P II. Clay P John Sergeant V.-P.. W.H.Harrison P F. Granger V.-P W. H.Harrison P > J. Tyler V.-P f H.Clay P 1 Th. Freliniibuvsen V.-P. ( Zach. Taylor P ) M. I-'iUmore V.-l' ( Winfield Scott V | W. A. Graham V.-P ) iTohn C. Fremont P.... W. L. Dayton V.-P S. A. Douglas P H. V. Johnson V.-P.. (;. B. McClellan P > G. II. Pendleton V.-P.../ Horatio Seyniiiur P | F. P. Blair V.-P f Horace Greeley P \ B. Gratz Brown V.-P j Not rec. 1,542 1,581 5,429 14,292 4.5,537 45,528 53,047 64,934 96,189 160,215 158,730 199,143 184,938 /Crawford P.. Ih. Clay P ("John Floyd and Wilkins \ Williiiui Wirt and Henry Lee.. Hujch White and John Tyler... "l Daniel Webster «... W. P. Mangum and Smith J J. G. Birnev P J. G. Birney P M. Van Burcn P J. P. Hale P., and Julian V.-P Fillmore P., and Donaldson V.-P. ( Breckenridtje P., and Lane V.-P 1 Bell P., and Everett V.-P C. O'Cbnor P.. Popular 219 1,047 Not rep. 1-19 3,570 15,774 9,966 37,444 2.-J04 4.913 8,058 Illinois, tp. of Pope co., Ark. Pop. 16j7. Illinois, tp. of Washington co.. Ark. Pop. 1200. Illinois and i>licliigan Canal. This importantline of commuuieation unites Lake Michigan with the navigable waters uf the Illinois River — that is to say. the Gulf of St. Lawrence with the Gulf of Mexico — and the summit-level of the canal lies about 580 feet above tide-water. The near approach of these waters to each other was known to the curly fur-traders and Indian misi^ionaries of Canada. By the Fo.x River (by Green Bay) and the Wisconsin River, Father Marquette, the Jesuit, passed from the lake to the Mississippi, descending that river to the mouth of the Illinois, lie returned to the lake by this last-named stream and Chicago River, having to make but short portages at the two intermediate points ; this in the year lli7.'i. Soon after the formation of the State of Illinois from the North- ■we.-it Territory — say, in the year 1S22 — Congress granted the right of way through the public lands " for the route of a canal connecting the Illinois River with the southern bend of Lake ^Michigan," and in the year 1S27 a further grant was made to aid the State in the construction of a canal — viz. a quantity of land " equal to one-half of five sections in width on each side of the canal, reserving each alternate section to the U. S. from one end of the said canal to the other;" this and a .^similar grant made to tlie State of In- diana, also in 1-S27, for aid in the construction of the Erie and Wabash Canal, constituted the first material support by grants of public lands made by Congress under tlie sys- tem of *' internal improvements," so called in that day. The number of acres included in the grant to Illinois orig- L. P. BnoCKETT. inally was 280,000; but it having been discovered subse- quently that the State had not received its full quota under the terms of the law, an additional 32,895 acres was granted in the year 1854, making the aggregate of 318,895 acres re- ceived by the State. Prior to this grant of land by the U. S., the State of Illinois, in the year 1825, had received a rejiort from a board of commissioners appointed by tho legislature to examine the route of the proposed canal, favorable to tho project, stating tho estimated cost of five several plans, varying in amount from $('ioll,000 to $71G,0(lO ; the length of the canal being about 100 miles. In 1829 a new board of commissioners was organized, with authority to construct the canal and to dispose of the lands granted by Congress to provide means for carrying on the work. In the following year experimental surveys were made liv a party of engineers acting under the orders of tho war de- partment, but their investigations were confined principally to the question of a supply of water. In the year 1833 other surveys and estimates were made by the State, and tho engineers then employed reported the cost of a canal 40 feet wide and 4 feet deep at $4,04.'!,000. It was not until 1830, however, that really efficient meas- ures were adopted for the prosecution of the work. A board of commissioners was again organized in that year, with authority to construct the canal, an experienced engineer was appointed, surveys were made, and estimates in detail furnished for an enlarged work — to wit, for a canal 00 feet wide at surface, 36 feet at bottom, and fi foet deep. The estimate upon this basis for the work and its apju-ndages was $S,G."t4,OllO. The work wa^ put und<T eontra'-t in June, 1830, and was prosecuted uninterruptedly until Mar., 1841, ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL. 1115 when operations wore suspended for the want of adequate means to carrv on the same. In Feb., IS 13, the governor was authorised bv hiw to negotiate a loan of $1,000,000 solely on the credit and pledge of the caual, its lolls, rev- enues and lands, for the purpose of completing the work. The n'sTotiation of this loan occupied more than two years, fur it w°is not until June, 1S45, that the lull amount ol sub- scriptions re.iuircd was secured. At that time a contract wi^ a-rced upon and executed between the .State of Illinois and the subscribers to the loan of $1,GUU,UU0. The canal and all its works, with 225,000 acres ol land and LOOO lots in rhica^o, Loi-kport, La Salle, etc., were placed in the hands of three trustees, with full authority to complete the canal, sell the lands and lots, and, possibly, to restore the canal and remaining property (after payment of the loan and the bonds) to the State of Illinois. . j. , In the original plan of the canal it was designed to make a through cut from the waters of Lake Michigan to the main eastern branch of the Illinois Kiver (the Dcs Plaices : bv this the summit-level, some SO miles in length, would receive a never-ending supply of water from the lake for navi<'atioa and for lockage of the inferior levels— say, to the entrance of the main southern branch, the Kankakee, cnterin" the Illinois Kiver 50 miles below Chicago, and about midway of the canal. The formation of the land between the iake and the Des Plaines presented nothing formidable in appearance, being an almost flat prairie, more or less wet, and rising only from 12 to 15 feet above the ordinary level of Lake Michigan; hence the plan adopted for" the construction of the lino of canal between the two points named established itself, as it were, for there seemed to bo no alternative to desire. However, during the year 1837 (the second season of work) the cuttings proved to be very difficult and e.-ipensive upon the summit division, 19 miles averaging IS feet in depth, the lower 12 feet, be- ing ceincnlcd clay, next 8 miles (Saganski Loup) the cut- ting was in magnesian limestone, U to IS feet in depth, with abundance of water. These results, as developed dur- ing the later progress of the work, le I to the modilication of "the plan of ISlifi. by the act of the legislature of 1S43, in a most important feature— to wit, authority to abandon the through cut, to raise the summit-level one lock in height, and to rely for the supply of water therefor upon tho trib- utaries of the Illinois Kiver, the Calumet, Des Plaines, etc. In .June, 1815, the trustees before referred to wein placed in possession of the canal, lands, etc., and proceeded to organize their work by distributing their duties among each other, appointing a chief engineer and assistants (tho same who had planned and constructed the work from the begin- ning in 1836), a secretary, land-agents, etc. Under tho act of lS-13 the lands and lots were valued by appraisers ap- pointed for that purpose, contracts were entered into lor the construction of the canal and feeders, and the work was pushed forward diligently and successfully to its completion and opening for purposes of navigation in Apr., 1848, tho same falling within the period prescribed in tho act of 1843 jiy, three years — and it may bo added the cost of com- pleting the canal and its subsidiary works fell within tho estimate male by the chief engineer in tho year 1843— $1,429, fine. Tills sum, added to the previous cost, esti- mated'at S4,T40,fi20, exhibits tho entire cost at $6,170,220 at the opening of the canal for navigation, Apr., 1848. VeHcrijiliou <>/ the dinrd aiiri iM lKor/«.— Tho eastern terminus of the canal is at the S. branch of tho Chicago River, anil 5 miles from the entrance of tho main stream into the lake. The line is direct to the valley of tho Des Plaines at Summit, about 8 miles distant ; thence it pursues that valley uninterruptedly to the mouth of tho Kankakee River, 42 miles, passing through the towns of Loekport anri .I'oliet, and receiving within the tlistanco named four fe„,icr3— Calumet, Des Plaints, Du Pag.-, and Kankakco; between the junction of tho Kankakee and Des Plaines tho combined rivers lake tho name of Illinois, and within this valley tho canal pursues its course to its western terminus. La Siille. passing through the towns of Morris and Ottawa, and receiving tho important Fox River feeder at the last- named place; tho entire length of tho canal proper being 90 miles. Tho difference of level between Lake Michigan and the Illinois River at La Salic is 1 15 feet, and in tho ori"inal or through-cut plan this fall was distributed through 15 locks, varying in lift from 3} to I2i feet each. Upon the modified or'raised-lovcl plan two additional locks became necessary- one of 8 feel at the easlern end of tho snmmit-level, and one of 10 feet at the western end, the difTcrcncc, 2 feet, being given to the declivity between the two locks. The canal is 96 miles in length. CO feet wide at the surface, 34 feet at bottom, and 6 feet deep. The 17 locks arc 110 X 18 feet, designed fpr boats carrying 100 to 150 tons. , ,„„.., There are flye feeders of the aggregate length of 2.) miles, all navigable, and 40 feet wi.lo and 4 feet deep ; 4 aque- ducts ; and 7 dams— two of tho last of stone at Joliet, for crossing the river. There are e.xtensivo basins at Loekport, Joliet, Du Page, Ottawa, and La Salle; three of these fur- nishing ample water-power for manufacturing purpo.«cs. Notwithstanding the full provision made for a supply of water by feeders in the original plan, it was found ne- cessary in the modified or raised-level to introduce a fur- ther supply upon tho summit-level to meet wants which might bo produced by droughts. So, in addition to the Calumet and Des Plaines, it was decided to add two pump- in"-engines (steam) at the eastern terminus of the canal (Bridgeport), of power suflicient to raise any desired quan- tity of water from the lake-level that might be needed for the summit and for lockages below. As the lift was but 8 feet at an ordinary stage of tho lake, tho pumping appa- ratus required was quite simple and not costly. It con- sisted (finally) of two steam-engines, with the power ap- plied to twowhecis of 38 feet diameter, with buckets of 10 feet length or width, called, in England, " scoop-whcels," each wheel working in a stone cell or chamber, independ- ently of each other, and each capable of delivering 15,000 cubic feet per minute upon the summit-level. The entire cost of these two machines, with all the necessary buildings and appendages, was about $55,000, and these were continued in use every year, except the year 1855, from 1848 to 1870, inclusive. In connection with this brief account of these useful auxiliaries for purposes of the canal, they became indispensable to the city of Chicago at an early day for sanitary purposes. That is to say, the drainage and ^cw- a-o of the city were discharged into the Chicago River for a distance of five orsi.x miles, their only outlet being to tho lake through the same river. Now, with the wind in a certain direction, the wafer of the river could not find lis way into the lake; on the contrary, it was forced back to- wards tho interior, and if long continued the effect upon the atmosphere was simply dreadful. To obviate this evil an arrangement was made with the city aulhorities by which the pumping-engines at Bridgijiort were brought into use, thereby withdrawing the foul water from Ihe river, emptying it in'to the summit-level of the canal, and as a consequence substituting the pure water from the lake for refilling the river. At a later day, when the drainiige question became vital, the city of Chicago in the year 1865 obtained an act from the legislature providing for the com- pletion of tho Illinois and Michigan Canal upon Ihe plan adopted bv tho State in 1S3G. Under the authority of that act tho original or through-cut plan was carried out— an operation requiring about four years in time and an ex- penditure of some $3,000,000 ; but the great object was sc- „,„.„H_.lrninnirn for the city: for all that part of it, at cured— drainage for the city; for all that pa least, which lies upon the S. side of the river, and on tho S. branch, is carried through the canal to the Des Plaines River, and there discharged. Other means have been pro- posed, it is understood, for cleansing and purifying the N. branch, and, it is to be hoped, with like good results. In connection with the Illinois and Michigan Canal, tho improvement of the Illinois River by a system of locks and dams has been inaugurated by the Stale of Illinois, with some moneyed assistance from the general govern- ment. This river, for its very moderate fall, some 45 feet only from La Salle (outlet of the canal) to its mouth, a dis- tance of 213 miles, is wonderfully well adapted to improve- ment bv locks and dams, not more Ihan seven, perhaps, being necessary to furnish an unbroken navigation from Chicago to the Mississippi River. The following schedule exhibits tho entire amount ol money received and expended by the board of trustees of the lUinois and Michigan Canal from the organization of the trust in June, 1845, to Nov. 23, 1870-23 years: OlnssillcaUoD. Rocfllptfl. Loan of Sl,600,000, principal and in terest ■• ■ Conslnictirm of canal, feeders, etc... Canal-lands, sah-s, jirotection, etc... Arrears of Interest on registered bonds •- Piinelpal of rcKislcred bonds. Maintenance and repairs of canal and feeders " Tolls, collections, inspectioos and salaries Canal daniaKc.s. flowaRO, etc (Jeneral expenses and contingencies Premium on jrokl for dividends on tioiids payable in London Interest and exebanRP Losses on "Wildcat" currency, counlerfeit bills, broken banks, etc., 1.14H to l.Ht;:i. Inclusive Balanr.' in hands of treasurer Nov 30, 1S70 Total $1,601,891.00 2,i;t2.25 4,698,320.02 111,003.97 4,385,675.77 S 923.27 179,911.00 $10,979,861.18 $2,153,771.31 1,429,606.21 115,023.23 2,l.'>.5,r,22.38 2,113,840.34 1,828,802.05 1!)7,S95.17 22,163.32 415,507.71 362,303.25 21,073.80 14,563.52 11 IG ILLINOIS INDIANS-ILLUMINATI. By analysing the figures in this table the cost of mainten- ance repairs, and renewals of the canal and all its works, its feeder.-, iiumiiing-engiues, etc., for a long series of years. can be usuVullv exhibited, to wit : 91! miles canal iiropcr; 25 miles navigable feeders; 2 pumping-engmcs, with uc- cessary adjuncts of every description : tlie cost per mile per annum was $010, the gross sum expende-d therelor hav- nx' been Sl.Tl'.SOO. The canal reverted to the htate ol Illinois in ISTI. the registered canal bonds, principal and interest, and the loan of $1,000,000, princijial and mterest, havin- been paid by the trustees uu.lcr the terms ot the contract with the State. The amount of the hrsl was $4,G:!l,7fi.^, and of the last, $2,1.^3,771; total of both $8 7S5.j:i7. Since Mav, 1S71, the canal has been controlled and worked by three commissioners appointed for that pur- pose by the legislature of the State. W. U. Swikt. Illinois Indians, a confederacy of tribes, including the Cahokia, Peoria, IvasUaskia. Tamaroji, and Moingwcna Indians, who were Algonkins, and the Micliigamcas, proba- bly of Dakota race. Their principal territories were in what is now Illinois, but they also occupied lands W ol the Mississippi. They were faithful allies of the French, and were often at war with the non-Algonkin tribes and with the Sacs and Foxes. At present there are a few relics of these once powerful tribes living in the Indian Territory. The name Illinois means " superior people," according to Gallatin. Illinois Industrial University, at Urbana, county- seat of Champaign co., Central Illinois. It was the first collco established under the laws of Congress of July, lS61°and .July, 1800, and under acts of the legislature of Illinois bearing date Jan. 25, Feb. 2S, and Mar. 8 1S07, " to teach in the most thorough manner such branches ot learnin" as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts including military tactics, and not excluding other scientific or literary studies." The Congressional land- grant amounted to -180,000 acres, which was sold as scrip and the proceeds invested in interest-bearing bonds, except 25 000 acres, which were located in Nebraska and Min- nesota and are hold bv the university. The county of Champai'-n made a donation of $450,000 in buildings, lands, and farm?. The State of Illinois has for sever.al definite purposes contributed nearly S.'.OO.OOO. The assets of the university are nearly $1,000,000, with a regular income of about SIO.OOO. The main university building is 21i feet in length, with two wings extending 124 feet to the rear, 3 storfes hi-'h, with basement and mans.ards. It has one fireproof wi'ng, with a library of nearly 10,000 volumes, a lan'e cabinet of geological, zoological, and other specimens, and a physical laboratory ; in the other parts of the build- inf lecture and recitation rooms for 1000 students, a large chapel society rooms, etc. The old university building Illinois River, the largest stream in Illinois, nearly bisects that .Slate. It is formed by the junction of tho Dea Plaincs and Kankakee rivers, and flows S. W., Iravcvsiiig Peoria Lake, and reaches the Mississippi Uiver 20 miles above the mouth of the Missouri. It is navigable 215 miles by steamers, and, with the canal from Chicago to La Salle, affords an all-water route from tlio Mississippi to Lake Michigan. Its channel is to bo dredged to the miui- mum depth of four feet. Illiop'olis, tp. and post-v. of Sangamon co.. III., on the Toledo Wabash and Western K. 11., 22 miles E. of Spriuglield. Pop. of v. 305; of tp. 1829. Illuminated .Manuscripts were very common among the Egyptians, who employed many colored figures, gen- erally red: and the art of illuminating manuscripts was probably practised by all nations of antiquity in which papyrus and parchment were used. It has been denied that the ancient Romans illuminated their manuscripts, but passages in Ovid and Pliny fully indicate that some works were highly ornamented and illustrated, liyzanlino and Italian illuminations arc no doubt simple deyclopmcnts of an ancient classic art. Both stylos are gorgeous with gold and bright colors, and deal very freely in idd Greek and Roman architectural ornaments. Quite independent of classic art an origin.al style of illuminating manuscripts sprang up in Great Britain, especially in Ireland, whence it was carried abroad by Irish munks, adopted in the schools founded iiy Charlemagne, and spread all oyer Ku- rope. There is doubt as to whether the elaborately inter- twined knotwork. generally called Kunic, is purely of Irish orifin, but there can be none that the most elegant appli- cations of it were Iliberno-Saxon. Of these works Mr. Digby Wyalt remarks, that in delicacy of handling and minute but faultless execution the whole range of paloeog- raphv offers nothing comparable; a detailed description is found in Owen Jones's Grammar of Onmmctit. With the invention and general introduction of the printing-press the artol illumination vanished from Europe, but the Persians, Arabs, Turks, and Chinese still produce very delicately and beautifully illuminated works, charming as regards industry and grace, but inferior to the European with re- spect to strength and character. C. G. Lelaxb. Illumina'ti [from the Lat. iUumuiatim. " those who are enli-htcued"]. From early times, both in Asia and Eu- rope, the mystics and thcosophists of different religions, belicyin" that by abstraction and devotion to God a diviuo li.'ht wal shed on the soul, have called themselves Illumi- nati, or the Illuminated, in one language or another. Among these were disciples of Jacob Bohme, Swedenborg. and many others of tho scyentccnth and eighteenth centuries. Aboit 100 years ago, when the most radical theories as to eovernment, religion, and morals were inspiring all Eu- two ideas became prevalent— the one of a skeptical shops, iron and wood working machinery, a 20-horse-power engine of the university make, mechanical cabinet, pattern and paint room, foundry, etc. The upper story is one largo drill-hall, with armories and artillery-rooms in towers. There is a farm of 410 acres, with large barn and farm- house, collection of agricultural implements, specimen herds of Durham, Ayrshire, Herefordshire. Devon, and Jersey cattle. Berkshire and Essex swine, Southdown sheep, etc. The horticultural and experimental farms. 200 acres, with specimen orchard of 3000 fruit trees, large nurseries, forest plantation, experimental plots, farmhouse, large barn, and erecnhouscs. The university was opened in 1809 ; in 1871 women were admilted, and the attendance was as follows : 1800, 78; 1870, 196; IS71 (254 men, 23 women), 277; 1872 Law in Ingolsladt, inspi.-,- , , , . . , i with whom he had some personal quarrel, and instructed by certain passages in the works of Bode, a professorin Frankfort, conceived the idea of a secret society which should unite all mankind in brotherly union, introduce iustice, abolish all abuses resulting from priestcraft and aristocracy, extend education, surround kings with wise counsellors, and in short reform society. This union foundcl, it is said. May 1, 1770, received at first for its members the name of Pcrfectibilists, and then Illuminati A mystical and m:.gical order, called the 11 umines of Avr^non, had been already founded in 1760 by Pernety and Grabianca. It does not appear that \\ e.shaupt in- clined to magic or Rosicrucianism ; in fact, his quarrel neering and architecture; (3) colleg chemistry, and n.atural history: (4) college of literature and art; (5) school of commerce; (fi) school of military science: (7) school of domestic science (for women). Dr. J. M. Gregory is regent of the university ; the faculty con- sists of 13 professors, 9 assistants, and foremen in the practical departments. The management of affairs is in the hands of aboard of IrusteesofO members, who elect their president. They arc appointed by the governor of the State, who himself, with the president of the State Agricul- tural Society, is an ex-officio member. This university is forbi<lden by Slate law to e<mfer degrees, but gives certifi- cates of scholarship, with record of all studies pursued, and standing attained in each. S. W. SnATTtcK. ind major. Scotch kniglil. epope or priest, regent or prin«. illuminatus, magus, and king. -As >»»'> ■"-"•<■"" 'of old. Weishaupt led his pupils through different grades of free thought up to complete " emancipa ion. A noted writer. Baron Adolph Fii'inz Fried. Lndwig von knigge, joined the order, and through his influence it rapidlj in- creased Weishaupt, who was a weak man, could not re- frain from expressing to his neophytes his ■advanced opiii- i ions, and, moved by fear or jealousy, q'""-" '7\ " '^^ Kni"K0. This resulted in complete exposure, and works appeared revealing all the secrets of the order. On Jan. ■>•' 1784 an edict was issued for its suppression in Bavaria. W'^eishaupt was dismissed from the university, and retired ILLUMINATION— IMAGK-WOKSHIP. 1117 to Ratisbon and llalle, where he d. 1830, aged eighty-three. He had use*! German Masonry to forwunl his views, hav- ing been in advunuo of it as regards puliliciil radicalism; French Freemasonry ia its turn borrowed largely from Illumineeism, the latter being introduced into the seven Musonic lodges of Paris by Ilode. who became ehief of the order after \Vcisliaupt lost \u» influence. It is said that llhnninati still exist; if so. they are probably to be found in the ranks of the Communists. The name Illuminati belongs rightly tr) the QriETisTs and Mystics (wliiih see), who existi'il in one furm or the other under this name since thL- earliest age of Christianity, but at present the word is popularly understood as applicable only to Weishaupt's order. (For works on this subject see I'Abb^ IJarrucI, Mtmoi'rt; I'rof. John Robison, Pronfa nf « Connpiraci/j etc., Kdinburgh, 1797; Pro*>f>t of the I'Jxintence of Illumin- itm (an abstract of the works of Barruel and Robison), by Seth Payson, Charlct^ton (America), ls02. These works, however, arc so prejudiced as to be of little real value to any save the most impartial reader. Also, Larousse. Diet. CiiivrrnrUe, article " Illumin6es," and an article by the writer on the same in iXid Princeton- KtiHKmt Monthly 18-12.) ClIAItI.ES G. Lelanu. Illumination. See iLLUMisATKn .Manusckipts, by Chaui.ks G. Lkmni), a. M. lllus'trated Puhlica'tions are those which combine engravings and grapliic ligurcs with lctter-])ress. The old- est form \>i book-illusIratii>n, that by wood-engravings, is slill, on the whole, the best. During tho eighteenth cen- tury, and still earlier, copper-plate engravings were fre- quent in brioks, but liad to be separately printed. Aqua- tint came next intct favor, but was open to the same objec- tion. Finally, wood-cuts have been restored to favor, and in the hands of the best engravers have fairly surpassed, for illustrative purposes, an^'thing ever done by the old masters of the art. Of late, photography, photozincography, photolithography, nature-printing, and a variety of other transfer processes have been considerably employed, and arc valuable for special uses, but there is no process yet ilcvised that is likely to supersede wood-engraving. Illyr'ia, tp. of Fayette eo., Ia. Pop. 851. Illyr'icum, or Illyria, a name which now has no geo- graphical or political signification, but which at different epochs has denoted important provinces of different em- pires. It was in ancient times inhabited by a fierce, war- like, and savage tribe, allied to the Thrncians anri addicted to robbery and piracy. The eastern i)ortion of tho coun- try, corresponding nearly to the modern Albania, was eon- fpiered in ;ijy B. c. by Philip of Macedon, and annexed to Slaeedonia. The western portion, comprising the modern Datmatin, Croatia, Uer/egovina, and parts of Kosnia, re- nmiue<l independent till the middle (»f the last century before the Christian era, when it was conqueroil by tlio Romans and raaile a Roman province. At the >livision of the Roman empire both Illyris Gru'ca and Tllyris Romana f*'!! tn tlic K;isfern em])ire, I)ut the Slavic tribes which had fettled in Illyris Romana soon made themselves independ- ent. l>iiring the .Middle Ages Illyricum was divided be- tween the Venetians, the Hungarians, and the Turks, and the name fell out of use until Xapoleon in ISO'J organized the IMyrian provinces, consisting of (Jarlnthia, Carniola, llalmatia, Istria, antl parts of t'roatia, and incorporated Ihem with France. In ISl,') these provinces were formed into a kingdom and annexed to Austria. The kingdom has since been dissolved, and for administrative purposes divided into provinces, but tho territories are still Austrian possessions. limcn'y a lake of N'orth-wcstern Russia, in tho govern- ment of Novgorod. It is 'M^ miles long l>y 2\ broail, and very rich in fisli, but untit for navigatictn on account of its stormincsa. The Volchow connects it with the Lake of Ladoga. irinrnite, titanifcrous iron. See Titanates. Ilnic'niiim [from //"ifn, a range of mountains in Sibo- rin. vvhero the ore is found], a supposed element announced by Hermann, regarded by Rose as impure niobium (eolum- bium). Ilopan'^o, a lake of Central America, in the republic of San Salvador, bordering on the departments of La Paz, San Salvador, and Cuscatlan, is situate<l in the centre of a very terfile, well populated, and well-cultivated plain, and eelelirated for its beuuly. Im'a;;e-wor'ship, or IconolatrVf as distinguished from ifiolatry, is the adoration r.f imiigt's or extreme honor paid to them by the Roman Catholic Church. According to ancient legemls, iniages of Christ are as old na Chris- tianity ; St. Luke, say they, left portraits both of his divine Master and of the \'irgin Mary ; our Lord himself gave to St. Ver<)nica a liandkercbief upon which his face was mi- raculously impressed : the woman who was healed by touch- ing his garment (Mark v. 2j) set up his statue at Caisarea- Philippi. Some Greek controversialists, whose assertion is supported by Baronius, afiirm that a council of Aniioch in opostolic times sanctioned the worshiji of images; but most authorities, both Catholic and Protestant, agree that they were little, if at all. used during the first three centuries after Christ : and the correctness of this opinion ie borne out by the silence of heathens on tho subject. They were frequently reproached by the early Christians with ador- ing lifeless gods, yet we read of no instance in which tliey recriminated ; nor during tho hist persecution, when Chris- tian churches were plundered, were any images seized in them. Tho Council of Elvira, about a. d. "M^, decreed that pictures were not to be in a ciiurch, lest ihey should be- come objects of worship. In the same century Epiphanius, bishop of Cyprus, having found before the door of a cer- tain church in Palestine a veil or curtain whereon was a picture of Christ, tore it down, and sent a plain one to he used in its stead. St. Augustine disapproved of images, which evidently were worshipped in liis time. "I have known," he says, ''many adorers of tombs and pictures" . . . whom "the Catholic Church condeiiuis and daily studies to correct OS froward ehildrLii." Tlie pictures of living persons were frequently put in churches. That of Paulinus, bishop of Kola, was during his lifetime ])laced in the church built by Scverus. Paulinus caused the ba- silica of St. Felix to be adorned with paintings of Bibhs stories, that the jieosants who assembled there niigbt have their minds occupied with sacred sul>jeets. In Ihe sixth cen- tury, Sercnus, bishop of Marseilles, seeing that his people gave undue honor to images, caused those in his diocese to be defaced or broken. For this deed, wliich offendeii many ]iersons, he was censured by (Jregory the Great, who, how- ever, praised his zeal against the worship of things made by hands. From this time image-wtirship greatly increased, and in the eighth century disputes respecting it caused that great schism (see Iconoclast) which separated the Western from the Eastern empire. The decrees of the Council of Nicje a (a. d. 7S7) were rejected by nearly all Western nations, who, while adorning their churches with images, refused to worship them, and this decision was confirmed by tho Councils of Frankfort (794), of Paris (S25), and of Aix-la- Cliapellc (829). Rut iconolatry spread by degries through the whole of Europe. Miracles were attributed to a par- ticular picture or statue, around which Hocked crowds of worshippers bringing rich ofl'erings to the church wherein it was placed. This preference for some special image — a remnant, doubtltss, of the old pagans' tutelary idolatry — was discouraged by many wise ecclesiastics and condemned by the Council of Mayeuce (16-19), which decreed that such objects of peculiar devotion should be removed from churches. The doctrine, still held by enlightened Roman Catholics, that images are mere reminders of Christ and the saints, was set forth by tho Councils of Poissy (liJCl) and of Trent (lOCIi, .'sess. 25); the latter insisted tliat such representations are to receive due veneration, not on ac- count of any divinity or virtue in themselves, but because honor is thus refleetcd on those whom tliey represent. Tiiis same doctrine is very clearly explained by ^f. Sanders, a divine of the seventeenth century. Both pictures and statues are used in the Roman Catholic Church. The Gretk Church forbids statues, but this pro- hibition is comparatively modern, for one of the Virgin was ])laecd by tlie emjicror .Ldianncs Zemisces (a. p. 970) in tiie metropolitan elinreh. and was honored as the pal- ladium of the state. And in tho eleventh century Alexis Comncnus, needing money, caused many gold and silver images to be taken from the churches and made into coin, which act I^eo, bi^llop of Clialcedon, denounced as sacri- lege. At tlie Reformation, images were condemned by Zwinglinsand Calvin, but Luther regarded them as unim- portant ornaments, useful for instructing the people; and (lis followers still admit thim into their places of worship. They are forbidden by the Church of England, though some of the more advanced Ritualists defend their use. Even after imagc-worshiii was sanctioned by the popes, it was forbidclen to delineate God the Father. This may be atlributeil partly (<> the influence nf Gnrtstic theories, partly to a fear lest the idea of .Jupiter should lie recalled. Paulinus describes a jiainting where the Father is rcpre- aontcd by a voice : " PIrno coruseat Trfnilas mysterlo: Stat Cbrlslus anno; vox Patris ea-lo tonat ; i;t per eolumbam Splritus Sanetus tiuit." At a later jterind (iod the Father was represented by a hand extended from clouds, generally in the attitude of blessing. After tlic twelfth century ho was depicted as a venerable man. frequently wearing royal or pupa! alt ire. Christ was at first representeil as ii lamb or a lion : iifter- wards as a man, generally of great beauty. \ dove has Ills 1MA(j1NAKIES. always been emblematical of the Holy Ghost ; in the twelfth ccntjry artists began to depict him as a human being, somotinics very young, but more ooniuionly of mature age. The cross is not merely a symbol of Christ's death, but in itself is an object of veneration. It is pcrsonilied, as it were, and the details of its history are given. It has been made the subject of many poems, especially by Rabanus Mauru.s bishop of Mcntz. Saints and martyrs arc repre- sented with certain appropriate emblems, for details of which see Didron's Iconnr/rapliic Chrctienne : Mrs. Jame- son's Sacred and Legendary Art, etc. J.I.NET TucKEY. Imag'iliarics (in mathematics). It is a very remark- able and important attribute of all s;/mbnh that, while ab- solutely c.-iscntial aids not only to reasoning, but to the very exnres.sion of thought, they ever refuse to limit their meaning to the particular idea for the expression of which they were invented. From mere rn'ds, tliey become not only provocatives of thought, hut, as it were, rcvealers of new fields of investig.ation. Thus, the symbol of euhtractlnn, from being the mere sign of a simple arithmetical opera- tion, has become incentive to, and symbolic of, tho most transcendental of mathematical conceptions. If, passing from arithmetic to algebra (or universal arith- metic), wo .?yraboli7.o magnitudes by letters a and b, and tho operation of subtraction by the minus sign, tho expres- sion n—b IS symbolic both of the operation performed and of the result of the oper.ation. So long as b is less than a, tho symbolism, without any stretch of meaning, is complete and simple. But what if 6 exceed a? Since the given magnitude can yield to the process of subtr.actioo no more than itself, wh.at can a — b{b exceeding n) indicate but an impossihilitij ? If we commence with considering hypo- thetical values of 6 less than a, and go on increasing them, the remainders become smaller and smaller, and finally {b = ri) becomes zero (or nothing), reaching the absolute limit of m.ignitude, considered ns such mcrehj. A quantity less than nothing is simply an "impossibility," or a contradic- tion in terms. Nevertheless, so long as our subtraction is algebraic (that is, merely symbolic), and the quantities a aa'd b are indeterminate— that is to say, represoutatis-es of any pairs of single values we may have cause to assign — wo operate algebraically upon the expression a — b with- out concerning ourselves with their relative magnitude ; and if we obtain a negative quantity as tho final result of our operations, instead of reg.irding 'it as imaginary, or involving in the problem data of impossible fulfilment, wo evade thTs by an ints-rpretation which involves considera- tions other than thoso of pure magnitude. The geometrical idea of direction is one of the most common of these. If n and b be supposed to represent linear extension (which is but one of many notions of mn'jnitude), a + b must re- present a length equal to the sum of the respective lengths. But if a bo a distance measured in tjiren direction from a given point. th= adding of .another distance implies the lay- \n" off of the distance b from the extreme limit reached by a in^the same direction: the subtracting will therefore imply tho reverse direction ; and if 6 exceed a, the excess will ex- tend in this reverse direction beyond the starting-point of the distance a. Thus, we have the negative result a — b interpreted as a distance equal to tho absolute difference, but laid off as a distance in the rerrrse direction. Now, it appears that if wo multiply together algebraical or numerical expressions maiie up of several terms cto- nected by the signs of addition and subtraction, + and — , the individual products resulting from the combination of terms Bf multiplier and multiplicand having like signs must receive the plus sign : of unlike signs, tho minus sign. Hence, the " rule of signs" of multiplication .and division. But what meaning can we attach to multipUjing — n by — h, or (reverting to numbers) — 4 by —5? Tho sign — was invented simply to indicate subtraction without ulterior reference; its existence, therefore, implies a minnend as much as it does a subtrahend. We have already encoun- tered the difficulty of assigning meaning to the isolated expression — b, and now we have another logical problem ; we have to use the negative sign as an integral part of a multipHcr — i. c. to determine how it shall operate in an "operation" quite alien to the idea of that particular one to express which it was invented. Algebraists appreciate very well the rationale of the (before-mentioned) "rule of signs," and we need not dwell upon it. It is a logical nc- cessitv of our agreeing to accept a — b a,s symbolizing both the operation of subtraction and tho remainder, without reo-ard to (still undetermined, perhaps) relative values of a nn'l b. Wo have shown how the "impossibility" of a " negative" quantity disappears when we call in besides the ideas of ptiro phvsical magnitude some of its attributes, such as that of direction. A negative dimension must be interpreted as one laid off in the rercrsc direction to that attributed to the positive one; i'. c. the negative sign re- verses direction. This was arrived at without reference to multijilication; we now see that it is in perfect accordance with the logic of the latter algebraic operation. If multi- plying by -(- 1, one be understood as taking the multipli- caud unee,just as it is, multiplying by — 1 must be under- stood as reversing its direction. Logical as all this is in its geometrical interpretations, we must still remember that wc have, in inventing a universal arithmetic, departed very far from the simple meanings we assigned to the " opera- tions" of common arithmetic. To "multiply " any thing, or any magnitude, or any number, is to take or " repeat " the thing, magnitude, or number a specified number of times, llcnce, muUiplyiug hg anything but an arithmetical number is unmeaning; still more unintelligible (abstractly) would be multiplying by something itself less than nothing. It very soon appears, however, thnt wc cannot make an algebra without conceding wider n.caning to its symbols; and in fact they have an inexorable logic of their own which /o;*ce» such extension of meaning. Since, by the rule of signs, a negative quantity multi- plied by itself produces a positive product, we have no means of representing the square root of a negatire (fuonttti/ except by indicating upon it the operation itself, square root of o'^ can be written either as -(- a or for the square root " ' '* ^; -- i-- Tho but - a^ we have no alternative but to write (_ n2)i,or l/— a^; or, separating — «'•' into two factors, n' and — 1, to perform the operation on the first and indicate it on tho second, — 1 ; lhus<r>''— 1. Hence, the symbol K — 1 is the symbol of "impossibility," or, as more commonly known, the symbol of an " imaginary quantity." Why? Because we cniinot interpret it by any real representation of magnitude associated or not with other .attributes? Wo have seen how the absurdity of quantity less than nothing was evaded (geometrically) by associating the idea of direc- tion. Now, if we multiply a, considered as a line laid off to the right, hy V^— 1, the analytic product is nl' — 1; midtiply again, and the second product is — « ; i'. e. wc have, by two successive operations, reversed the direction, as if we had revolved the length a about its starting-point through a semicircle. Is it not, therefore, perfectly logical to consider one opei^ation of the V — \ to be half this rota- tion — i'. e. that aV^ — l shall indicate the length laid off in the direction perpendicular to the direction chosen for a? So long as we deal with dimensions of ?f "•/(// only, and inter- pret these, when real, geometrically by one single Hue of real direction, this interpretation of V -1 is logical and consist- ent. If we concede that the application v'- 1 be interpreted as indicating a direction perpendicular thereto, and further- more that the sum of a -|- ll^ — 1 be the distance accnm- pVished from the origin, .after traversing the distance n in the fixed direction, and then the distance 6 in a direction perpendicular thereto, and call this accomplished distance p (involving also the conception of its direction], and call the linear distance r, we shall have p = (a -(- 1 V — l). Let 9 bo the angle which p makes with the direction o[_a; then tho foregoing is equi\'alent top^= r (cos9 + sin «l/— l). If, by Maclaurin's theorem, t*>'-i be developed (f being the Na- pierian logarithmic base) into 1 + ''— l~'2~2;i — — . etc., wc shall find two sets of terms — one real, and 2.3.4' the other having V — 1 as a factor ; the sum of the first set makes up the algebraic development of cos 9 ; the sum of tho others that of sin e\/^l ; hence, the equation, which is the connecting bond between exponentials and circuiar functions (the so-called " transccndcntals "), c»l'rT= cos9 + sin«l/-l. (1) Hence also _ r(cos e + sin ev'—\)^ re*' -> = p. Wc must therefore interpret <•*''- ' as the symbol of rota- tion through tho angls : and as 9 may be any angle wliat- cver, it readily follows from (1) that l/_ 1 = (cos » + sin 01 1 . 1 cos —8 + sin ^ e ■1 (2) a result well known as " Dc Moivrc's theorem." Tho conception of multiple roots of unity— the assump- tion of their necessary existence— is a secondari/ one ; and tho conception and tlio assumption come not from the na- ture of things, but as corollaries of the logic of our sym- bolism. The idea of "powers" and "roofs" is based on numbers; nothing can. in the strict and original meaning of multiplication, multiply itself by itself, but a number. Hence, there is no other root of unity Aiif unity. Our alge- braical symbolism has carried with it an extension of the idea of multiplication, and has created a "rule of signs " by which we have come to regard - 1 also as a real root. IMAGINARIES. 1119 For the idea of $fiil more "roots" — of roots in number equal to the degree — //m/ comes from other considerations. Ir wp multiply l<>j;ether u factors of the form .r — a, a* — h, X ~ c, etc., wc ohtiiin an anali/tical expression of the nth degree in x of the form x" + {a + 6 + c, ctc.)a-'*-* + {ab + nc + he +, etc.) a:»- ^ — {abc -i-, etc.), x" ~ ', etc ± abed A superficial examination will shoiv tho law by which the coelfRMcnts of tho different powers of x arc formed from the N symbols *7, It, r, etc. ; that the iudopeiuluiit term is (abalractiun made of bujiim) iUq product o/ thnu ail. Con- versely, given an expression of the Hth degree, X" + vla-«-i -f Bx^-- .... JrQy it should be resolvable into factors ar — «, x — 6, etc., of which the n, ft, r, etc. would be determinable in terms of tho n ijiren coofTicicnts A, li, C . . . . and Q ; just as, £/i'yc», a, bj c, etc., w© have tho values of A = - {'t + b + c ^ d, etc.), B = + {ab -}- 6c + ac, etc.), Q= iz{abcd ....); so wo should, conversely, havo u ditfcrcnt expressions for a, by c, etc., as onalt/fical comhinationfi o/ A, /i . . . . Q : combinations which liave no reference to A, ft ... . etc., as reprvsentations of ina'juitnde or ffunntttativc value (to which, indeed, we havo made no reference), but which should result from certain laws of nuali/tical combination. For all analytical expressions of the 2d, 3d, and 4tb de- grees, and, exceptionally, for some cases of tho higher de- gree, we huno these combinati()ns ;- but whether wc know them or not, they aro supposed to he determinable, and in the sense of Kifinbolic determinations they would, if found, all be real. Thus, for the 2d degree we would have a = — 1 ^ + i/ 1 A'l—Q, These arc tho two analytical or symbolic roots (as they may properly be callc;!). Substituted for « and b in tho factors X —a, x'— b, their product becomes x^ -f- Ax + Q, (the given expression) ; and in like manner we should ob- tain x" + Ax"—^ 4- lix"—^ .... 4- ^, had we the u cor- responding expressions for a, ft, c, etc. If, now, wo pass to (juantitatirn considerations, and ask for vulnrHof x which shall render tho above expression "equal to zero," wc rec- ognize that tho very "roots" we have obtained arc the symbols of such values. Does it follow, therefore, that there arc » diffcrcot quantitative values for x? By no means. If it turns out, on coming to assign values (that is, on converting uur svmbols into specific magnitudes) that Q is greater than ^A^ (in our expression of the 2d degree), thrn the diffvyencc (which we may call D) must have the minus sign, and the symbol of impnssihiliti/ V —I makes its appearance, and wc havo by which wo learn that tho partirulnr conditions cannot bo fullilled by any linear magnitude; but all this is an after consideration. The roots are " imaginary " because wo can- not assign any idea of ''quantity" or "magnitude" to them. Uut the two symbolic roots (.T) are the ral solutions of the equation, nevertheless. And did we /:iioir how to com- bine .4, // .... (^, etc. for the equation of ihe nth degree, wc should have n symbolic expressions for a, ft, c, d . . . . tho reolitt/ of which (as distinguished from " imaginary ") is entirely a !>ubordinale question; as analytical or sym- bolical expressions they would be always the same, and alwayH real. If we deal directly with uinnhrrs in place of tho letters A, //, C, etc, the positive or negative character of quantities under the radical sign arc indeed forced into notice at once. . Nevertheless, it is supposed that the sym- bolic combinations which satisfy the conditions^whcthcr we choose to call them real or not — nitiifl exist. Hence, tho expression x" — 1 = (a particular case in which A, li, C, etc. aro each icro, and ^^ — I) should be resolvable into symbolic factors, ii, in number. It is in this sense that wo assert tliat the number of '• routs of unity " must equal tho indt'X of the degree of extraction. Analysts have not been alile to disrorer the rtymbolic forma of llio roots of the gen- eral equation of tho »th degree. Nor havo they been ablo to solve (/(Vf//</ the particular form jr" — I = 0. They know, however, that had they the tjcneral solutions for a, ft, c, etc. in terms of A, It, (' Q, by making in them ^^—1 and A, Ii, (\ etc, zero, they would obtain ii dif- ferent symbolic expressions, each of which would havo unity for its nth power; and, moreover, thoy would havo • It U curiously illustrative that for tho cnso of three real roots for equal iou.H of (he third dt'cn-e. Ihi-sc LoinliinallonH nro so piindy inia/t/firitl that they caunot be interpreted as expres- slotis of mai;nltude. ^ = (— 1) for their product, and A (zero) for their sum, and B (zero) for sum of products taken two and two, etc. Inasmucii as none of them can be zero, and no combination of + 1 and — 1 can meet these conditions, the sole remain- ing symbol (for all even degrees of extraction resolve into this) r — 1 must enter ; and the roots containing it must be tn pairs involving like terms multiplied by it with contrary signs, so that the sum of thum all (which constitutes the coefficient A ), and the sum, in pairs (which constitutes Ii), etc., shall all be zero. But such tjencral analytic combinations have never been arrived at (except for a few of the lower degrees) by alge- braic solution. The real symholie relation tietwecn expo- nentials and circular functions indicated by Be Moivre's theorem (already given) led to the discovery of the roots of the particular form ,r" —1. Suppose d to be zero or2Tr, or any even multiple 2m of n- ; the second member of (2) becomes 1" , while the first mcm- 2m 2m — - ^ ,'- , bcr cos — It + sin — n i/— 1. For 1»* , therefore, we get n n *^ as many symbolic expressions for the Hth root of unity as wc can give different forms to the first member by assign- ing to ;/) values from zero to n. If, e. //., we take 12 for tho value of j(, wc have the twplvc roots, grouping them in pairs (since cos 30° = cos 330° and sin 30° = — sin 330°, etc.). cos 0°±sin 0° V^ - 1 = -|- 1, cos 30° ± sin 30°/-l = i V3±j /- 3, cos 00° ± sin 00° l/-lj=i±^j/3l/— 1, cos 90° i: sin 90° l/— J_= ± l/- 1, _ cos I20°isin ]20°l/-l =-\h\V^V ~\, cos 150° ± sin 1 J0° /-J_= - | l/3± J l/ — 1, cos 1S0° ± sin 180° /- 1 = - 1. In tho. sense of being symholic solutions, these expres- sions aro truly and perfectly such, and therefore completely real, ^\'e sec also how curiously these solutions knd them- selves to interpretation — almost flow from — the geometri- cal interpretation of direction, or the mechanical one of rotation. Each one of these roots, thus interpreted, indi- cates a unity-line, or radius, rotated from the normal -|- 1 direction tbrongh an angle which, tnelre times repeated, re- stores that radius to that normal ])OsiXon. For many fields of investigation this wholly logical in- terpretation of V-^ — 1, or modifications of it, is fruitful of results. Ajipliod to the study of certain funt-tions of a eintjlc variable (that is, of a single gcotnetrical dimension), it led to the discovery by Abel of douljlr periodiciti/ in cer- tain important and well-known functions, the theory of which, as developed by (.'auchy, has led to results of great importance. From what goes before, it need excite no sur- prise that the consideration of imnginarirs — so called — has played so important a part as it Inis done in the theory of equations, and it seems (le->tincd to equal potency in de- veloping the theory of functions. " IJut," say the au- thors f of the Theoric des fonctions douitlement p^riodique, "to comprehend tho importance of this idea wc must do away with the sort of antagonism or opposition which has been permitted to subsist betwei-n what, up to the present time, have been called real and iinaifinari/ quantities." Would it not be more correct to say that when wo resort to symbols as aids to reasoning, wo should dismiss tho idea of quantiti/ (to which, after all, wc attach no very precise notions, blending in various ways Ibc fundamental notions of uui(fnitn>lr and numbr.r with sundry ineidiMituls thereto), and simply accept all Ibc forms which under the laws of symbolization mako their appearance, as real ; nt least so long as they are merely serving their nurposc as aids to reasoning. There should then never liave been a doubt concerning tho legitimacy and (ruth of solutions obtained through agencies or intervention of tho so-called imngi- naries. In thus claiming reality for tho imaginary forma ns le- gitimate symbolic instrunu nis of investigation, it is not to be understood that, though geometrical interpretation:" have been found for imaginary expressions where only linear di- mension is concerned, all imaginary forms are susceplililc of or nrrd other interpretation than that of *' impo^9ibility." Tho Cartesian equations of tho circle and the right lino involve tiro dimensions of space measured by a common linear unit. We cannot, therefore, use either as a direction indicated by k— 1. If wo eliminate between them tho symbol representing one of those dimensions (//, for in- stance), wc havo an '* equation " of tho 2d degree in .r, tho two roots of which are tliuso values of x for which t/ is tho tBrlot ct Bouquet (Paris, 1859). 1120 IMAGINATION. same in the two equations: in other words anil geometri- cally spcakini. the two roots correspond to the abscissie of the two inlersections of the line with the circle. If the perpendicular distance of the lino from Iho centre exceed the nuiius of the circle, there can be no intimeelion; but (his ia a matter which results from assigning definite values to the symbols by which these relations arc deter- mined. Hence, these annli/iicnt roota must always exist under forms irrespective of such assignment, and icliellicr there he inlri-tectiiin or not. If there be no intersection, there can be no linear value of .t, answering as an inter- pretation of the result; if there were, it would be in direct conflict with the geometrical fact, and prove our symbolic logic wrong. The symbol V —1 which first revealed itself as'one to which no "idea of pure magnitude could be as- signed, hero comes in very logically {after specifying iidues) as^the symbol of geometrical impossibility. Both planar direclioiis of space have been appropriated otherwise, so that our former interpretations are excluded, and whether there may or may not he, nevertheless, some logical inter- pretation, is another question. For such a case that of " impossibility " is wholly sufficient, and the expression of it neeetfiri/. Xeverthclcss, the processes of analysis — and this is the point to be insisted on — take no account of the distinction between real and imaginary, so important in pure geometry. If. in the above example, wo take the combined figure of circle and intersecting line and deduce certain properties (e. //. those concerning poles and poliirs), such properties may liobl true and be predicated on purely analytical grounds (see Salmon, Coiii'e .S'ccfioim), though there be no real intersections. This principle "of continuity" is but another form of the proposition that the so-called '• imaginary " forms of symbols are, in the purely symbolic rcgioiTs ofthought to which they legitimately belong, as real as any other symbolic forms. It has been shown that the notion of " n roots " to every equation of the nth degree is a purely analytical conception, founiled upon the assumption that since the A, B, V, etc. of the equation are easily derived from the n, b, c, etc. of the factors (.r — n) (x— 6), etc., when the latter arc known, the iitcertte openitiitn must tie practieabfe. But it is not. and it may be safely asserted, I think, that our algebraic sym- bols are iinl mi'aeeplibU of thi- required combinntiom. All eflTorts to find them have failed for equations of higher than the 4th degree. It is reasoned, indeed, that there viuH be certain funeiloni of A, H, C to express such real values of 3- as will satisfy the equation, since these values depend vpon those of the coefficients. But this is another ques- tion : the hypothetieally realizable analytical solutions could make no distinction between "real" and " imagi- nary ;" they could differ from one another only by permn- tnlioiis of letters and signs, while the distinction of " real " and " imaginary " is an ofter result ensuing in the transi- tion from the general to the particular.'^ I'lJiics, indeed (if there be such), which satisfy the equation may be found with all desired accuracy by the tentative and test pro- cesses known to the "theory of equations" and "higher ab'cbra." but these are not " roots " in the nuttli/tieni sense. It°would, therefore, in the writer's opinion, be quite war- rantable to say that, instead of " ii roots," there are (in general) no rn'ola iil nil to an equation of the >ith degree, where >i exceeds /our. Conceptions duo to symbolism, the symbolism which should exhibit them, is, at yet, quite as "imaginary " as the so-called " imaginaries " for which I have claimed a logical ralson d'etre, and a reality not only as agents of thought, but as true analytical solutions. That a higher transcendental analysis may yet give, in visible form, a "local habitation" to these "airy nothings," is quite possible, and, indeed, is rendered, by the theorem of Cauchy, and by other considerations, quite probable. J. G. Barnard. Ima^jina'tion [Lat. I'nm^o, an "imago;" imnfiimiri, to " imagine"]. An image is simply the representation of anything formed of real substance, but as in early times it generally set forth some being which had only a fancied existence, it soon became the base of a verb signifying not only the voluntary creation in the mind of literal things, but all formation of iileas or representations by modifying and oombiuing conceptions. The first stage is clearly set forth by Glauvil when he says, " Now. our simple appre- hension of corporal objects, if present, we call gmite ; if absent, we properly name it imnffination." From this root, imatjo, which according to Vossius and Festus is derived from imilor, to "imitate" 'ab imitatioue dietn), came sev- eral words bearing varied meanings, as. for instance, imaijt- notim, " whimsical, full of strange fancies " and " conceits," and Smarflnntut, " fashioned or formed :" in all of which tho English language has unfortunately not only followed tho Latin, but even gone beyond it. as when, for instance, wo hear " I imagine that you are in the right." instead of " I think " or " believe." The consequence of this weakness, so characteristic of Latin derivatives, has been to burden a few words, all from the same source, with very difl'crcnt meanings, the further result being frequently a great con- fusion of ideas, even among good writers. .According to Adilison. all that is pleasurable to the imagination — i. e. all that engages its active powers — is reduced to greatness, novelty, ancl beauty. Thus, the imaf/hiary here chiefly in- volves three of the noblest attractions which can give value to a work, while Blair, on the contrary, uses it to signify simply the worthless. The German word for imagination, Einhildmiij (i. c. in- or on-buildingi, is derived from liild, an " image," but is more accurately defined and ripplied than its English synonym. " It is," says Kant, " the power to bring an image when absent before the perception ;" while, according to Fichte, " it is the ability to imotje under the name of imagination." In analyzing the faculty we may first observe that when wc recall the image of any- thing we simply remember, and do not in reality imagine it, though many people would misuse the word in this manner. If wc recall the image involuntarily, but in any other relation than its own, we exert, so to speak, a passive imagination. But if we deliberately vary and combine ideas derived through observation or memory into iicm forms and relations, wc then exert our active imagination. When the mind devotes its active power to truthful and )iraetical objects, wc recognize it as rensoii ; when it grati- fies simply taste, as for the new, the beautiful, or what is agreeable through association or culture, it acts as the im- agination. In reasoning we select from or classify that which already exists or is created ; in uuotjiniiiij we en- deavor with this material to create. Hence, imagination is identified with invention and originality. In verbal ex- pression its chief form is poetry, the identification of which reation is shown in the Greek origin of 'make;" also in the Old •E Even the appearance of an essentinth/ imaijinnrji form i' — (i^ Id not prove non-reality; (or we have observed that in the simplest case of the M degree real roots appear inextricably in- volved in imaginary forms. art with original crea tho word poem's, from poet'}), to ' English word mater, a "poet." Imagination is the guiding power in art, as reason is of science. In pure chemistry, geology, or astronomy the only object is to ascertain what exists. As science becomes technology — i. e. applied to specific wants, or creat vc — it also assumes the character of art. Our reasoning power, it may bo said, occupies itself with discovering that which is true, which in turn is the basis of the useful; but imagination ministers chiefly and directly to pleas- ure. Between reason (or science) and art (or imagina- tion) lies, however, a vast range of the ap]ilic:ition of skill to the arig, by which plural we understand some- thing more practical and useful than art in its higher forms. But as no work of imagination can he successful as to the end in view without an outline of reason, so no rational investigation and no sciences ajipcal to human sympathy unless they be inspired with that spirit of orig- inality which is akin to imagination. It is not unusual to say of men who write on the driest topics, though they confine themselves strictly to the subject, that they are (jenial — meaning that they m.anifcst the keen and active interest caused by genius, and are quick to perceive and set forth what is new. .^uch mind? arc those in which imagination is active and makes itself felt, even while strictly reasoning. The poet without reason becomes fan- tastic, or so unreal that his works are most widely remote from aim or usefulness ; while the man of science without imagination sinks into the mere analyst and dull investi- gator, who plays only a secondary part in the pursuit of truth. The concurrent opinion of mankind establishes the fact that there is such a thing as beauty, and a comparison of human intellect and of natural laws, as developed in form and color, gives us an approxiiiuite standard of tho beautiful. The Venus of Milo is not only beautiful be- cause people have been trained to think so. but because anatomy has determined that practical perfection agrees with the so-called rrstheiie. Now. as the exercise of tho imagination is a pleasure, and as the beautiful is a pleas- ure, the two possess a common ground : and it is with the latter that the former is chiefly occupied. It is true that the imagination, like nature, can, and often does, display its power in that which is repulsive, but in precisely tho same proportion both seem to act most naturally on the agreeable, the harmonious, or, in a word, on the beautiful, ifencc it is generally agreed that the greatest artists, whether painters or sculptors, and the best poets, are also the most imaginative of men; and it is certain that the first among them have devoteil their powers to setting lorth that which is most purely agreeable — that is. what is most beautiful. The craving for novelty, variety, and contrast is a deeply seated want. Nature herself indicating this in IMBECILITY. 1121 the constant chanson nnd effects which she makes in colors ami ID ill! thing.s. When the imaginntion leaves the purely beautiful, nnd busies itself more with widely viirifd ele- ments for the sake of grotifying the taste for clianfje and contrast, it <lovcIu|iP the appnlling, the sturtliiii:. the gro- tesque or quaini ; :\nd when 6omc reinnrkable incongruity presients at the same linio a resemblance to sonii-lhing con- gruous and real, it gives us humor with its subordinate form, wit. Hence we may say that a writer has a witty imagination, or one which is humorous, grotesque, terrible, or appalling. The same general faculty, that of ereative- nes!", of originating fornix nnd combinations which never e.xistcd, underlies all these different developments. It may be observed that there are arts in which a great degree of feeling, whether of beauty, humor, horror, or other senti- ments, may bo excited with but little imagery — /. c. with comparatively little creative imagination — as by music, wliich a<;t8 through ill-defined a:>sociation ; and (hero are also artists who can produce great effects without much imaginative effort. For imagination is always creative in ]iroportion to its integrity, and though groat effects may be produced, they an; not due entirely to the imagination of the artist when by suggesting he causes the beholder to complete the work in bis own mind. Alany modern paint- ings illustrate this. The connection of association with imagination, as of actual thought and mere emotion, is dif- ficult to analyze, and yet it is in this obscure realm that our creative faculty, often with very little material, exerts some of its most startling effoLits. A flash of light in dark- ness or a mysterious whisper will excito the imagination into presenting the most extraordinary forms or apprehen- sions ; an<l of this we have remarkable illustrations in the witch-manias, vampire-faiths, and similar mental epidem- ics which have swept over Europe. When the brain is so affected that imagination alone remains active, without the guiding power of reason, insanity invariably exists, while the mind utterly devoid of imagination is that of an i<liot. It has been observed that .as the flower precedes the fruit, so in the history of races the period in which imagination exerts its principal influence always goes bi-foro a raoro matured and rational age. Thus, the Middle Ages pre- sented in contrast to the ninotconth century a carnival of gay, be;iutifiil, and grotesque life, inspired by imagination, on<l not without full development of all its darkest nnrl most mysterious forms. Pno regard should be had to the true meaning of the imagination in the use of certain words which partake of its nature. One of these \s fnntnfty, from which is derived "fantastic." It is gf-norally held that the more a work of imagination is separated from tlio rea- sonable, and the more it is devoid of actual moaning or what is popularly understood by a moral, the more fantas- tic does it become. A work may be highly imaginative without being fantastic, but it is difficult to conceive of any fantastic work pro-iceding from human will which is nit of the imagination. Dreams in their relation to thought and the colian harp in music are purely fantastic, and the word is well applierl to such writings or paintings as resemble them. Closely allied to the fantastic Is tlio tfrntitf/nr, in which, however, th*^ cliief distint^tion is sim- ply as lo form ami material. When the jtarts of a compo- sition are extremely varieil, novel, and unexpected, it is grotesque. It may have both meaning and moral, but while it is in substance lik'' the fantastic, it differs from it in this, that the fantastic nerd not necessarily be varied and novel in its elements (»r inspired with startling incon- gruities. Ity /(iiiri/ wo understand the imagination whon it creates fantasies. Common usage, however, while it allows to fancy an action in what is light and graceful, seems to separate it from the fantastic, as though the latter were more extravagant or more nearly allied to the gro- tesrjun. To fancy nmy. in fact, be defined as to iumgino, to believe, or to conceive without certainty. To fancy In the sense of to Hke implies that a downright, deeply settled desire is not i\'^ yet in being, but only that imagination has surrouncled the object with ugrecalile associations. In one sense, to fancy is used as a synonym for to imagine, which is, strictly Kpeaking, ineorroct. since in expressing the not of imagining wo should qualify it with sonio word indi- cating whether it bo devoid of reason. Charles G. Lrlanp. Imbccil'ity. The term imbeeilily, at law, follows in interpretation the etymology of the Latin ndjoolivo imie- ciffii», from which it is deriverl, ami means "weakness of min<l." liut inasmuch as its import, when npftlied to the admeasurement of civil rights and responsibilities, is one of variable character, the law treats it ns a condititm of qiiofi/ird rather than nfmnlutf! ineompetencv. Hence, the acts of imbeciles, whether in the nature of eontracls. wills, or torts, are always open to the suspicion of lacking n legally assenting niintl. and as stich tin' former are void- able wherever things can be restored (o their previous con- Vui.. II.— 71 dition. In the Roman law a refined distinction was made between incapacity arising from mental weakness and that arising from <lisease. In the former case it placed the party under a tutm-, in the latter under a citrfttor. The former wore regarded as mental infants, or minors whose weakness age might cure if of the malo sex, while women were held to be perpetual minors and always under guard ianship. (Sec Insiit., lib. i., tit. xiii.. (A> Tutclia.) The liberality of the common law has never tolerated such refinements in mental discrimination between the sexes as this, nor imported such subtle distinctions into the field of guardianship. Under its canons imbecility derives no special complexion from the sex of its subjects, and their acts are never weighed per n'-, so mucli ns ifimttii line, or in relation to the merits of a particular transac- tion. Imbeciles being possessed of some share of mental capacity, whatever may bo its degree, arc not therefore disqualified from performing legal acts involving legal re- sponsibilities. But their acts are always looked upon with suspicion, ns likely to bo influenced by fraud or compul- sion ; for it is particularly against extraneous influences that such persons need to bo guarded. Says Mr. Justice Story in this connection: "The acts and contracts of per- sons who arc of weak understanding, and who are thereby liable to impositions, will be held void in courts of equity if the nature of Iho oct or contract justify the conclusion that the party ha^ not exercised a deliberate judgment, but has been inipot-cd upon, circumvented, or overcome by cunning or undue influence." (1 JCc/. Jun'sp., ^ 2.18.) I'lider this principle any misrepresentations, over-importnnities, improper influences, or anything, in fact, which limits the free moral agency, will tend to annul the acts of an imbe eilc, although they might not bo suflleiont to operate coer- civcly upon an ordinary mind; for legal competency must bo estimated by the character of the act performed, as well as by the mental power of the actor: and it is b.y this rule alone that an equitable interpretation can be applied to the Contracts of a person alleged to be imbecile. It will bo goon by this that the contracts of such persons, whether of marriage, purchase or sale, labor or hire, arc not neces- sarily void, but simply voidable, upon proof that they were made under eireumstnnces disarlvantageous to a right com- j ]>robension of their full imjiort by Ibc party of weak un- derstanding, and provided always that things can he re- stored to their original status. But an imbecile has the same right ns any other person knowingly to enter into a contract where the advantages to bo gained arc not mutual. The law can only ])rotcct him so far us he did not know the true nature and consequences of the act ho was performing, and to that same extent could not bo said to have given a legal assent to the transaction. The voidability of any contract made under such cir- cumstances will turlher depend upon the fact of its present condition. Is it still cxvutortf or is it cxrvutcd / And if the latter, t(t what extent? If not completely so. and the condition of the things operated ujion by the contract is not materially altered, then the contract may be annulled, and the parties restored to their previous condition. But in tho case of wholly exeeuted contracts, this reilintegratinn of parties cannot always Ito accomplished without serious detriment to third ancl innocent parties, who have acted l)ona Jifir nnd in ignorancoof the taint in the original con- tract. Hence, in such cases the ccmtract will have to stand, and the injured party must seek his remedy in another way, for here equity follows the law. In regard to in'fh made by imbeciles, whether the imbe- cility be congenital or supervene ns a consequence of old age. the general rule is to allow tho instrument to prove the capacity of the testator, nnd not to set it aside as void »ifi tin'tio because executed liy a person of weak understanding. Tho subject-matter of wills differs so widely that an ini hecile may often find it entirely within tho range of his comprehension to dispose rationally of what he possesses. Particularly is this tho case where pcrsoinil pnijurty i> iti volved, and the leniency of cmstruetion jiut upon tjic en dition of such testators has always been deemed wiser and more humane than to insist upon the posscssif>n by them of a mental power superior to tho necessities of the act lo be performed. Hence, wills have been sustained where testa tors were very ageil and greatly debilitated ; when* llicv were very deaf and partially blind: where thev were so paralyzecl ns to be unable to write or feed themselves; and where they exhibited ridiculous eeoentricities in conduct or religious belief. In all the above cases it was shown that they had reason enough to kiMUT intelligently what tb-y were doing. The low asks no more. Whatever, thereioje. may be the physical condition «pf a testator, citherns fo age or bodily intirmilics. so long as he has the mental ability to perlorni the act intelligontly, his legal capacity cannot bo called into question. As luturtH committed by imbeciles, they nre placed upon 1122 IMBERT-IMITATIVE MUSIC. the same footing as those committed by the insane, and their estates are responsiWc in civil damages to any party ao-"Tievcd. Whenever the tort becomes a crime with a iiersonal nenaltv afiixed.thcn the legal responsibility of the wrongdoer wilfbe tested hy a similar standard to that ap- plied'to those who labor under partial insanity. The an- *^- •■ ■ "■- nil alo-y upon which this rule is founded is not a perfect one in any sense, since mental wealtness in the imbecile is not contcinporarv with actual physical disease, as in the insane ; but it serves the purposes of justice and humanity best to associate these two classes into one category, because the law does nut concern itself so much with the possible causes of mental weakness as with their consequences upon human conduct; and if an act be done by any mind incompetent at the time to act intelligcntlv and as a free moral iigcnt. it is alike the act of an irresponsible being, whether that being be styled imbecile or insane. In either ease the law con- siders the m,>/„« anhiiu, to be wanting. But this does not negative the fact that both imbeciles and persons partially insane are often found who are legally competent to commit crimes, and if so are fit subjects lor punishment. John OnnRONArx. Imbert' (B.vrtholomew), b. at Nimes in 1747; studied in liis native city, and removed in 1707 to Paris, where ho en<'a"-ed in literary pursuits, and d. Aug. 23, 1790. Ilis poenr Le J„.jemc„t\)r Purls (published in 1772), achieved a great success, but in spite of the many small triumphs which he enjoyed in nearly all fields of fiction, tragedy, comedy, etc.. the onlv work which has jiroved to be of lasting in- terest is his Choix (rniickne/abliaitx, in verse (2 vols., 17S8). Im'bros ['In^poi. now Emhro], a Turkish island of the jEca-an, U miles W. by N. of the entrance to tho Helles- pont. It is 18 miles long from E. to W., and contains sev- eral villages, though none of them are historically import- ant. Theisland is rough and wooded, but very fertile, pro- ducing corn, wine, oil, and cotton. The highest peak is 1S4J feet above the sea. Pop. 4000. Imhof (Jacob AViliielm), b. at Nuremberg Mar. 8, Ifiil ; studied at Altorf: travelled much in Germany, tho Netherlands, France, and Italy, and settled in 1G73 in his native city, where he devoted himself to genealogical studies, andd. Dec. 20, 172S. His most important works ate— SjiUUc'iium Ritlei-huaianniim (6 vols., Tubingen, 1683- Sj), containing seventy new genealogical tables, and Xn- tilta S. R. 0. Imperii procernm (2 vols., Tubingen, 1084), of which a fifth edition was issued in 1732, containing fif- teen plates of arms. He has also given numerous genealogi- cal contributions to English, French, and Italian history. Im'ides, monamides in which two atoms of hydro- gen are replaced by a diatomic radical, as /tuccinimidc, N(f',H402)"H, and pTro-tartrimide. N(C5ll60)"H. (See Amioes, by PnoF. C. F. Chasdleh, Pn. D., M. D., LL.D.) Imita'tion. In music, a subject, group of notes, or short strain is said to be imilnlcd when, after its first ap- pearance, it is repealed, with more or less exactness, by one or more of tho various parts of the composition. Imita- tions of a given theme may take pl.ace, under certain con- ditions, on any of the intervals of the diatonic sealo, and admit of great diversity in their treatment. Imitations may be either strirl or free, clirril or inrcrsc, rctroijrutlc or inrerHv-retroyrade. In strict imitation the answer must correspond exactly with the theme, not only in movement, degrees of the scale, and quality of notes, but also in tho succession of tones and Ecmilones in each step of its prog- ress. This rigid sjiccics of iinituliou is practicable only under certain limitations, on account of the peculiar struc- ture of the diatonic scale. If the scale consisted of a reg- ular succession of irhult Imiet, it is evident that a given theme might be repeated on any degree of such a scale without undergoing any material change or distortion. But as the scale really is a succession of (■./if« and mmi- tonei in a certain fixed order, it follows that a theme when moved from its place to a higher or lower one on the scale (the octave excepted) will no longer be strictly true in the succession of its intervals. In/rcc imitation all this pre- caution is unnecessary, as a general resemblance to the theme is suflieicnt. Uilliam Staiston. Im'itative .Mu'sic. Under this term is comprehended such music as is intended to be representative, descriptive, or suggestive of certain ideas and things cj-ler}Hit to the mrinic ilmlf—i. c. to music considcrcil as mere melody and harmony. Music thus possesses two distinct properties t>r oflices. \ strain of music may be beautiful, grand, and impressive in its own nature, and capable of producing in the mind certain peculiar feelings and sentiments not obtainablo from any other agency ; or, on (he other hand, music may be so contrived and ingeniously written as to bear so near a resemblance to ]iartioular external objects, sounds, motions, and even strongly-marked events, as to recall them to the mind of the hearer, iii acldilifin to the emotions arising out of its own intrinsic powers and em- anating from itself alone. A similar effect may also result from mere association of ideas — as, for instance, when theatrical music reminds us of the theatre, and church music of the church, because the music and the place where it is generally heard have become associated to- gether in our minds." lint such a case must not be con- founded with what we call imitative music. Nor can the mere reproduction of certain sounds under new conditions as, for instance, when the actual notes of the hunter's horn, the military bugle, or the chimes and changes of church-bells are played on other instruments — be included under this term ; they are mere copies. The simplest kind of imitiitivc music is that which repre- sents vtntinit. whether on an even jdane, or on ascending and descending grades, or by leaps from high to low, and low to high, etc. There seems to be some mysterious analogy very generally felt between the grave or acute in the musical "scale and the familiar idea of depth and height. When we move from the graver jiart of the scale to tho more acute we call it (iKcciuliiuj.a.nA progress from acute to grave we call di^aceiidiiir/. A sound is .«aid to be hitjh or low in proportion as it is acute or grave, and the extremes are regarded as very deep, profound, and abysmal, or very high, lofty, and "soaring. Advantage is taken of this im- pression by composers when they connect with words sig- nifying motion, height, depth, etc. notes suggesting corre- sponding ideas. That this resemblance is not altogether arbitrary or fanciful, but founded on some natural principle, will appear from an examinatiim of Ex. 1, where at o the music and the words seem to be in antagonism, while at 6 they mntualiy support each other : Ex. 1.— n ^^^^^P i- I rise. Among imitations, properly so called, are those repre- sentative—or at least suggestive— of a large class of m.iiie, or iitimusical »oiin(/«, such as the roar of cannon, the clash- ing of swords, the tramp of horses, the steady marching of troops, tho cries of wounded men. the wails of the dis- tressed, and the groans of the dying: the solemn move- ment of a funeral procession, and the elastic spring id' mer- riment in a ball-room; the familiar sounds uttered by do- mestic animals, the lowing of cattle, the screams and roar- ing of wild beasts, the croaking of frogs, and the buzz of insects; the pattering of lain and the clatter of hail ; the roll of dist.ant thunder, the moaning of the wind, and the furious rushing of the storm. All these and many other noises, including crying, sneezing, and uproarious laughter, the hum of the ol'd spinning-wheel, the strokes on tho smith's anvil, tho chirp of the cricket, and the rocking of the cradle, have been imitated with more or less success in musical compositions: or, in oilier words, musical forms and combinations have been so used as to remind the hearer of things which are essentially unmusical. More nearly approaching the sounds represented on the diatonic and chion-.atic scales are the songs or utterances of certain birds, to which may be added the crowing of cocks, the alarin-crv of hens, the cooing of doves, the solitary notes of thc'ciukoo. and the dismal screech of the night- owl; also the tap and roll of the military drum, the half- mnsical cries of sailors in hoisting and of hawkers in tho streets, together with the rude noises of barbaric music and gypsy songs. Some of these may be imitated so closely as to be"undcistood or rccognizeil by the hearer without effort or previous admonition. With less distinctness music may be ma.lo to represent the calmness of eventide, the sweets of pastoral lilc. the tumult of war, the raging of the sea, the noise of floods, earthquakes, tornadoes, etc. \ cry few persons, on hearing the introductory movements to Haydn's S,rcn Last Words and the Crc.tio,,. would sus- pec"t thai the former was intended for an earthquake, or that the latter was set forth as a" representation ol chaos. The most extraordinary of all musical imitations arc those which profess to deal with objects not of hearing but of siaht There is an api>arent absurdity in all such at- temots to represent through one sense things that belong to another. And yet between sight and hearing a certain correspondence has been found to exist, sufficient to form a basis for a partial interchange of symbols. It is very necessary, however, for complete success that thr hearer ,ho<dd be iij,,jri,cd b,r„rchai,d, or by words annexed, ^- ichttt I MLA Y— IMM ERMANN. 1123 1* f» that the mtuic i> intended to reprenent. Moro than half of tho effect lies in the prcpariition of the hearer's miud ; for Iho very same music inifjht have been used — had the composer so pleaserl — for the stirring up of an entirely dif- ferent class of emotions. Haydn's representation of the creation of light, for example, has been both severely criti- cised and entiiusiastieally admired. In itself, it is doubt- less nothing more than a common nmjor triad coming with sudden force on the car as the termination of a progression in the minor mode. In any other connection, or in any other piece, it would have attracted no special notice ; but the hearer's mind having been prepared by the pre- vious words and music, and brouglit into an attitude of eager expectancy by tlio I)ivine command, " Let there be liglit," he is forcibly struck with the outburst on the words, **.\nil there was I.IGEIT," so that, as Hombet remarlis, his eyes arc dazzletl, '* as by the Hash of the midday sun on one just emerging from a dark cavern." Many otlier visual objects arc thus successfully illustrated in musical works by an appeal to the ear, as may he seen in the Crctitinn^ the oratorios of Handel, Spohr's Lunt Jiiitijmrut, Mendels- sohn's E/ijfih, etc. .-Vinong these objects are the brooding of <larkness over the deep, the fall of the apostate nngels, tho rushing floods, tho upheaval of mountains, the rising of tho sun anil moon, tlio growth of ]dants, tho whirl of insect life, the loa]>ing of doer, the dark and bright sides of nature, decay and death, and finally the resurrection. But music representing these, however skilfully written, cannot bo its own interpreter from the very nature of the case. When, however, its meaning is conveyed by words or other- wise to the hearer's mind, there is no difficulty in tracing resemblances, even though their viviilness must depend, for tho most part, on the help of imagination. AVii.i.iAU Staintox. Iin'laV) posttp. of Lapeer CO., Mich. Pop. 121.'!. Im'lay Cit'y, post-v. of Imlay tp., Lapeer co., Mich., on the Chicago and I'oint Huron It. 11., :U miles W. of Port Huron. It has a very large grain-elevator. Immac'nlatc Conccp'tion or the Vircin Mary, araodorn dogma of (he Roman Church, proclaimed by Pope Pius IX. on tho feast of tho Conception, Deir. S, 1*851, in the church of St. Peter, and in tho presence of more than 200 cardinals, bishops, and other dignitaries, in these words : " That the most blessed \'irgin Mary, in the first moment of her conception, by a special grace and privilege of Al- mighty trod, in virtue of the merits of Christ, was preserved immaculate from all stain of original sin" ('tli omni orii/i. flrt/f* ritlpre Ifthf, prenrrriitnin tinmitrtriit). This the papal bull " Ineffabilis iJcns" declares to bo a <livinely revealed fact and dogma which must hereafter bo constantly be- lieved by all Catholics, on pain of excommunication. Tho dogma was not sanctioned by any (ecumenical council, but since tho Vatican Council of 1S71I doclared the pope infal- lible, independent of a council, tho decree of 1H.'jI must bo re- ceived as an infalliblo utterance, and cannot bo changed. Pins IX. had previously, by an encyclical of Fob. 2, ISI'J, invited tho opinion of tho (!atholic bishops on tho subject, and received more than (ittO affirmative answers : only 4 dis- sented from tho pope's view, and 52, while agreeing with him in tho dogma itself, deemed it inopportune to dcfino and proclaim it. This shows that the t'Midcncy of the Ko- man (^'hurch was strongly in this direction. The dogma of the imiuaulato conception and the Vatican ilogmaof papal infallibility are tho characteristic features of m»lern Ro- manism, as distinct from tho Romanism of the Council of Trent, and widen Iho breach between it and the (Ireck and Protestant churches. By the ileereo of ISJI the Virgin Mary is taken out of the family of tho redeemed, and de- clarcil absolutely free from all complication with tho fall of Adam and its consequences. The definition of such a dogma presupposes a divine revelation, for (loil omniscient alone knows the fact of tho imnmculatu eonoejition ; and as the Ilible nowhere informs us of it, (lod must have revealed it to Pius IX. in 1851, cither directly or through tho voice of Iho fiOO bishops assenting to his view. But if he is really infallible, ho did not need the advice of others. From tho Roman standpoint this dogma cimpletes tho Mariology and Mariolatry, which step by step proceeded from the perpetual virginity of Mary to her frceilora from actual sin after the conception of the .Saviour, then to free- dom from sin after her birth, and at last to her freeilom from original or hereditary sin. The only thing lift now is to proclaim tho dogma of her assumption to bea\-en. which has long since been n pious opinion in the Roman Church. To this corresponds tlio progress in the worship of .Mary and tho multiplication of her festivals. Her worship even overshadows the worship of Christ. ,"she, the tender, com- passionate, lovely woman, is invoked for her powerful in- tercession, rather than her Pivino .Son. ,Shi' is made the fountain of all grace, the mcdialri.x between Christ and tho believer, and is virtually put in the place of the Holy Ghost. There is scarcely an epithet of Christ which devout Roman Catholics do not apply to the Virgin (sec St. I.igu- ori's Gliirio c/ .1/(111/), and Pope Pius I.X., who is himself an intense worshijipcr of Mary, has sanctioned the false interpretation of (ien. iii. l.i, that she (not Christ) "crush- ed the head of the ser|tent." As to the history of the dogma, no passage in its favor can be found in the Old or New Testament {for the inter- pretation of the I'lulcranifcliiim just alluded to is clearly ruled out by tho Hebrew text). On the contrary, the Bible declares all men to be sinners and in need of redem)iti(m, and exempts Christ alone, the sinless Redeemer, from this universal rule. Mary herself calls fiod h<-r Savinuf (Luke i. 47), and thereby includes herself in the number of the saved ; which im]dies her sense of personal sin and guilt. With this corresponds also the predicate given her bv the angel ( i . 2,S ). cililmd irith r/riicr, h ighl;/ fiivnrcd (Kf^upiTcuMe'cl, which the Vulgate has mischievousiy changed into the ac- tive 'irnlin pleii'i. full of ijrnt-e). 'The Christian Fathers, though many of them (even St. Augustine) exempted Mary from actual transgression, know nothing of her freedom from original sin, but ahvays imply, and often expressly teach, the contrary. Some, as Irenieus. Tertullian. Origen, and Chrysostom, interpret (^brisfs words at the wedding of Cana (.lohn ii. 4) ns a rebuke of her unseasonable haste and immoderate ambition. The origin of the dogma must bo sought in the Ajioeryphal (iospels, which substituted mythology for real history, and nourished superstition rather than rational faith. The doctrine crept into theology through tho door of worship. The first clear trace of it is found in the twelfth century, in the south of France, when the canons of Lyons introduced the festival of the conception of the imniaeulatc Mary, Dee. 1*, Ii;!'.l. This proves that the belief then ex- isteil as a pious ojiinion, but by no means as a dogma. On the contrary, St. Bernard, the greatest doctor and saint of his age, opposed the new festival as an nnnnthorized inno. vation, derogatory to the dienity of Christ, the only sinless being in the world. He asked the canons of Lyons wlicnee they discovered such a biilden fact. On the .slime ground they might appoint festivals for the conception of the mother, grandmother, and greal-grandmother of Mary, and so back to the beginning. The same ground is taken es- sentially by the greatest Sohiinlioen, as Anselm. Bonaven- tura, Alberlus Magnus. Thomas .Aquinas. But during the fourteenth century, through the influence ehieny of Duns Scotns, "the subtle doctor." the doctrine of the iinniaeulate conception became apart of (he theology of the Franciscans orScotists. and was a bone ofcontrnlion between them and the Dominicans or Thomisls. They charged each other with heresy for holding the one view or the other. The Council of Trent did not settle the question, but rather leaned towards the Franciscan side. Soon afterwards the .Tesuits took up the same side, and defended it against tho .Innsenists. To their zeal and perseverance, and their in- fluence over Pope Pius I.\., the recent triumph of the dog- ma is eliiefly due. The whole Rnniau Catholic world qui- etly acquiesced until the Vatican Council roused the " Old Catholic " opposition against jiapal infallibility, which ex- tended also to the dogma of the immaculate conception. Litniitiire. — The papal bull hirfTiihilig /Iriin ( Dec. S, 1S54); Perrone, On ihr [nnnnnilfttr i'lmrrptinn (Latin, (!cr- man, etc., 1840); Passaglia, he inimttr. Dfiprtrrr tnnpcr Viri). cnnr, (l,'!54 «e(/., 3 vols.): Preuss, The Jtomlnh fine, trine of' the fmmaeufrtte Cnnreptinn (German and ICnglish. lsfi,'',)j Puscy, Eirenikan (part ii., ISr.Tl; H. B. Smith. Melhnrl. Qiinrlerh/ Iter, for 1S55 ; Hnse, IIinKlh,,.,!.- „f P,„l- eifant Pntemien (1871). Of older Catholic works we men- tion .T.Turrecremata, De reritntr ennceptinniit hcttt. VtrtjiniH n5l7: republished by Pusey, 18110), and .1. de Lnunoy, a .lanscnist, J'r-rii:Ti/iti<:nei ile l\,iieeptii II. Mnriie Yiiij. (1C77), both against tho immaculate conception. PlIlI.IP .SrItAFK. Im'mcrmann (Kahi. Li:ni;REriiT), b. at JIagdcburg Apr. 24, 179r>; studied 181:! at Halle; took nart in the campaign of 181.'), and wrote, in opposition to tlio political enthusiasm prevailing at that time at all (lernian uni- versities, I'rhrr ilir .Slriitiijhiileu Jtr Stndiiciiilen in Halle fI817), which book was solemnly burnt at Warlburg by Iho students. Shorlly after he received a government office in his native eitv, whence ho removed to Miinster in IS2lt, and to DiHselilorf in 1827. From 18:M to 18:;S he under- took the nianagenient of the theatre of Dilsseldorf. in which, boiviver. he succeeded only partly, though his per- fect taste and pure enthusiasm exercised a beneficial in- fluence on the (iermnn theatre. Tho most remarkable of his many comcdios are — Don Anrje der l.irle 08211 and Die Sehnle der Friimmen (1829); of his tragedio--, Mej-in fI8:!2)and Ghimonda (18;19); of his romance^, Epupmrn (18.10) and iUiiiicA/iomcii (181)8). As an author ho had 1124 IMMORTALITY (OF THE SOUL)— IMPANATION. inoro artistic training tlian natural talent, and a greater power of reflection tlian of imagination or feeling: very charming, however, is his tale, Talifiintchcn (ISoOi, on ac- count of its naivete. His controversy with Platen made a great sensation, or rather scandal, and brought no results. D. Aug. 25, lS-10. Immortarity (of the Soul), the doctrine that the human soul is impcrishaljle, being .separable from the body at dealli and destined to a conscious life beyond the grave. The history of this doctrine is the history of the develop- ment of the idea of substantiality, or, indeed, of the idea of God. Without a personal (iod there could be no im- mortality. If the substantial is found to be a rigid, lifeless substance or an unconscious force, there can be no per- sistent individuality. But, in spite of philosophical or theological tenets, the belief in a future life is almost uni- versally prevalent. Among degraded savages, as in Central Africa." it takes the form of dcuiouology, or belief in spec- tres or ghosts. In Asia, where the theological dogmas do not reconcile the Universal or Absolute with the existence of the individual being, making the Supremo Being an un- conscious substance destined to absorb the individual man at death, still the popular belief holds to the doctrine of immortality. Egypt is especially noted as the country where '»rcat stress was laid on the doctrine of immortality. The temples, sphinxes, statues, and pyramids, all had some suggestiou of the future life of the soul. The cycle of the risTand fall of the Nile, and of the life of the seed in its germination, growth, fruit-bearing, and decay, is closely coiniectcd with the doctrine of immortality. The soul's cvele is set at 3000 years, after which it returns from its wanderings to the body again. Hence the care with which the Egyptians preserved the body by embalming it, and the extravagant outlay of human labor on the Pyra- mids as tombs of the kings and symbols of their faith. With Greece the Oriental idea of the subordination of the soul to nature gives way for a more spiritual theory. The Greek conceives the spiritual as something independent of, or at least as a reaction against, nature. Spirit is essen- tially self-determining and free. The portrayal of its ideals of free activity gave to the world the forms of the divinities of Olympus. The Titans or powers of nature are subdued and made serviceable to .spirit. The Roman phase of civ- ilization is devoted to the formulating of the will into laws and defined rights. The subordination of the individual to the general will as embodied in the state is the charivc- teristic°Roman principle. Immortality, with Greece and Home, assumed a definite shape, elevated far ivboye the Oriental conception, inasmuch as it eliminated the principle of transmigration. But there was not an adequate rcali- /.ation as yet of the principle of infinite responsibility, which the Christian religion first added to th.at of the im- mortal destiny of the soul, making man, moreover, the ob- ject of divine mediation. The growth of the idea of the substantiality of the soul, as thus traced, is marked in the world's history by the corresponding growth of institutions of a humanitarian character. Tlie proofs of immortality are numerous and of varying degrees of strictness. Among those most relied upon by the popular mind arc the following: I. The return or resurrection from the dead. II. (Jeneral belief in the exist- ence of the soul after death: probability that such general beliefs of mankind are well founded. III. (ieneral desire of man to live for ever, and his horror at annihilation. IV. The infinite perfectibility of the human mind, never reach- ing its full cap:icity in this life; contrary to the course of n:Uure or to the Divine character to endow a being with cajiaeities never to be developed. V. The fact that per- fect justice is not dispensed in this life; the goml sun"er and the wicked triumph: necessity of future retribution to justify God's government.— The metaphysical doctrine of immortality includes various positions, favorable and unfavorable, the most important of which are the follow- ing: I. The highest principle is regarded as indetermi- nate pantheism ; consciousness considered to be a disease or evil of which death or unconscionsness (Nirvana) is the cure. II. Highest principle a rational intelligence— mono- theism : the .soul a transient incarnation which vanishes in death (Arabic interpretation of Aristotle). III. The soul held to have pre-existed in an intelligible world, and to have come hither through a lapse from holiness or for necessary experience: death releases the imprisoned soul, and it rejoins its former state or enters a new body (emanation theory— Phito). IV. Aristotle's doctrine of the pure reason (roiJc) as an unconditioned energy, im- perishable, while the lower faculties of the soul, such as sensation, imagination, feeling, memory, etc., are perish- able. This doctrine has been the occasion of much contro- versy. An immortality which should eut off an individual from' his past would not preserve his identity. But the experience of ordinary life exhibits to us a constant wan- ing of the faculties of mere sensuous perception, of mere mechanical memory, and of fancy, with a corresponding increase of the higher faculty of inference or reason. Hence, the lower faculties may be said correctly to be perishable, while the faculty of insight, which sees in an individual all its p.ast history at a gUvnee, is immortal or continually on the incre:ise. The immortal life would use the perishable faculties less and less, but might never lose them altogether. The disputes of the Schoolmen over this question were very essential to the support of the Christian dogma. V. From the time of the Sehoolracn, arguments in favor of immortality, drawn from the "simplicity of the soul," were in vogue, and especbally elaborated by the Leibnitzo-Wolflian philosophy. VI. Kant attacks all the- oretic proofs of immortality as based on a paralogism in- volving an unwarranted inference from the phenomenal appearance of the soul as Ego to the same as Noumenon. But he finds immortality to be established as a practical postulate of the Will. VII. Hegel exhibited immortality as the esscnti,al attribute of conscious beings, denying it to animals (in the closing chajiter of his Plitlngoplii/ of Xalnre). Recent discussions of the subject have been rather skeptical in their tendency, espechally in Germany, England, France, •and America, owing to the prevailing evolutional theories in science. German literature was quite prolific in treatises on immortality for several years alter the death of Hegel. Feucrb;ieh, Strauss, Conradi, Michelct, F. Riehter, and oth- ers held a negative attitude toward the doctrine, and con- tended that the only immortality is th.at of the race or spe- cies. Marheineke.Blasche, Weisse, Ilinriehs, Feehner. J. H. Fichte, and, above all, Goschel, defended the doctrine of individual immortality. W. T. Harrts. Immortelles' [Fr., "immortal"], or Everlasting Flowers, arc flowers largely employed in Europe, es)ieci- ally in France, for the m.anufacture of wreaths and crosses for the adornment of churches and cemeteries. The IleU- cIin/Kum Or:ntt<dc, a native of Crete, but much cultivated in Southern France, is the flower chiefly used for the abcive purpose, though there are many other genera of plants, snch as llhoclitiilhc, which arc also occasionally employed. The use of immortelles in America is of recent origin, and they are usually imported from France. I'mola [Lat. Forum Conielii], town of Italy, in the province of Bologna, about 20 miles E. S. E. of the city of Bologna. It was enlarged and embellished, if not actually founded, by the dictator Sulla, who sent a colony here about 80 B. c, and throughout the Roman period it was a town of some importance. Cato had a villa here. During the Middle Ages it was claimed by the see of Rome as a part of the r/i'/'f o/" CuiitlniiUne. but was suliject to frequent as- saults and occupations bv the rival powers that then divided the Peninsula. From the time of Julius II. it formed a part of the Roman states, except when held for a short time by the French in 1737. until the whole papal territory was an- nexed to the new kingdom of Italy. The town is well built, and surrounded by its old walls with towers and trench. Its manufactures, "leather, wax, glass, majolica, silk, and hempen stuffs, are very considerable. A choice wine called vino sniilo is made here. Pop. about 12,000. Imola (Innopeszo FnASCuc-ci da), an Italian painter of Bologna, an imitator of Raphael. D. 1549. Impale'ment, or Empalement [Lat. in, and pnlM, a "stake"], a form of capital punishment by means of a stake thrust through the body. The victim was often raised up from the earth, and one end of the stake was driven into I the ground : hence the Greeks ajiplieil the name (rraiipuffit ("stake-punishment") to crucifixion as well as impale- ment. Impalement is still practised in half-civilized and barbarous countries. The driving a stake through the heart of a suicide and his burial under the cross-roads arose, it is believed, from a fear that his spirit would otherwise walk and frighten the living. Impana'tion [I-at. I'li, and ?mMi'«, " bread"], a term belonging to the Eucharistic controver.sy. invented soon after."and in opposition to, that of Tian^nhiilnniintioti. It was intended to express the intimate union of the bles.sed body and blood with the consecrated eUmcnIs, without a ileslruction of the substance of the bread and wine. Rupert, abbot of Deutz near Cologne fd. ll.'JJ). who first used the word, likened the mystery implied to that of the incarna- tion, wherein the divine nature was conjoined with the human nature in the one person of Christ. By body he mnant that which hung upon the cross, and by blood, that which flowed from the Crucified ; but yet he denied the real presence in a gross and carnal sense: " Fit corpus Christi et sanguis, mm mntatum in carnis saporcm sue san- guinis horrorem, sed," etc. Impanation, like .all terms in- tended to simplify our conception of a mystery, is liable to misinterjirctation, and is not now used by anj^one as ex- pressive of his own views. W. F. Brand. IMPEACHMENT. 1125 Impeach'inent, in law, is commoDly used to denote a I mode of trial of a crimiuul offence. The fame word is used in the law of evidence to menu the act of discrediting I a witness before a jury or court tryin<; a question of fact, j by showing that Ik* is unworthy of belief. In this article ■ it will bo employed exclusively in the sense first pointed out. Id the early English law when a crime was committed it was regarded in three aspects — either as an injury to the individual or his family, to the king, or to the state or na- tion. The injury to the individual was prosecuted by a proceeding called an appeal; that su,)posed to be done to the king or executive officer, by indictment; while the wrong done to the state was redressed by a proceeding termed an impeachment. The appeal having become obso- lete, there remained two great criminal proceedings — in- dictment and impeachment. The resemblance between an indictment and an impeachment should be briefly noticed. The office of an indictment is to present to an ordinary court of justice the opinion of a select body of citizens that there is apparent reason to believe that there has been a criminal violation of law hy a specifled person. Notwith- standing tliis, the law still presumes his innocence, and takes no action against him except that \vhich is necessary to secure his attendance at the trial. Ultimately, tho case is presented to another (or trial) jury, by whom tho result is determined, either acquitting or convicting the person charged in the indictment. It is apparent that an indict- ment is but a mode of procedure adopted for the purpose of securing caution and deliberation in judicial affairs. It presupposes tho existence and definition of the crime for whi<:h the prisoner is to be tried. The same general train of thought is present in tho case of an impeachment. Instead, however, of being made by a fimall number of persons, it is a presentment of the House of Commons as representing the state. It is made in writ- ing under the name of "articles of impeachment." The articles are presented before a tribunal acting judicially — not, it is true, an ordinary court of justice, but the entire House of Lords. The Commons may impeach for any crime, whether it be a felony or misdemeanor, no matter by whom committed, whether a peer or commoner, and may attach to conviction tho ordinary punishments. There is one important distinction that should bo noticed between the two modes of proceeding. An indictment can only bo found in a particular county, and in general only in that where the offence was committed. An impeachment, from tho nature of the case, is confined to no locality. It has been sometimes resorted to in England for the prosecution of an ordinary crime, to avoid the necessity that would otherwinB exist of prosecuting tho case by inrlictment in a Particular county. The effect of an impeachment by the louse of Commons, like an indictment by a grand jury, is only an affirmation that there is reason to believe that there has been a violation of law by the person impeached. It must be cnnducfed in accordance with rules of evidence. The person impeached can only be convicted of a crime already known to the law to which regular methods of pun- ishment can be attached. A court of impe:u-hment should be distinguished from the "court of the lord high steward." This court is or- ganized in the following case. Whenex-or a peer of the realm is imlictcd in an ordinary court of justice, in order that his case may be removed to be triiMl by hts peers, the king issues a cunimission to a partii-ular nolileman to act as jutlge, who is then calle<l, for the time being, ** lord high steward." By the commission other noblemen arc asso- ciated with him to decide the questions of fiict which mny arise in tho case. The court is therefore substantially com- poscil of a judge and jury. It differs from a court of ini- |ieachmcnt in three respects: it can only dispose of the questions arising upon an indictment found )>y a grand jury; it may, and perhaps must, sit during a recess of Parliament; and it may consist of a small number of peers {r. (f. twelve), instead of the entire house. It is a court that a king might easily pack with bis own creatures in order to ruin an obnoxious nobleman. This is forbidden by statute in cases of trial for treason, and (he entire House of Lords must in that case be summoned. As tho presiding officer of the court of impcnchment in capital cases is also termed a "lord high stewartl," much caro is sometimes requireil in reading legal history to distinguish bct\Teen the two tribunals. The Jtitliriftt nature of an impcnchmcnt is also readily seen by contrasting it with a bill of attaimler or of pnins and penalties. These latter are mere laws. The houses of Parliament in passing such bills ena<*t that a person is guilty of .1 crime. Though they may go tlimugb forms of judicial inquiry, their tlocision is a law and not ajndffment. Bills of attainder are wholly contrary to sound legislation, as they are an assumption by a legislature of judicial power. An impeachment is decided by the House of Lords alone. Unless that bo dy^ were to follow judicial forms, and to give their decisions upon evidence and inquiry as applied to a violation of law. an impeachmeut would be more objection- able than a bill of attainder, for it would need only the arbitrary will of one house to lake away one's liberty or life, instead of the concurrence of two. The result is, that under the English law there have been from time immemorial two parallel modes of reaching an alleged criminal : he might be either indicted or impcacheil. The two proceedings are deemed to bo wholly distinct. If he is indicted first, he may be impeached afterwards; and, conversely, an impeachment is no answer to an indictment. It might seem, at first sight, that if this were so, an im- peachment should never be resorted to. as this proceeding is dilatory, cumbrous, and expensive. Tho reasons for adopt- ing it in special cases have mainly been because it could more readily be made an instrument of faction, or because it was a powerful weapon in times of political disturbance or revolution. Again, there have been instances of a salutary effect from its use, where an alleged criminal was a man of power and influence, and likely by tho weight of his name and by his position to ilisturb the judgment of the ordinary criminal courts. It is a weakness necessarily ap- pertaining to this court that there is no appeal from or review of its decisions. Unlike all other courts with which men trained in English jurisprudence are familiar, it de- cides at once and irreversibly lioth upon the law and tho fact. The absence of repeated discussion and consideration, which are, in general, so fully accorded to suitors through the action of appellate courts, may in times of political excitement lead to inconsiderate and unjust decisions, and it is too much to expect from these tribunals that there will be an unbroken adherence to wise and safe precedents. One of the most important questions connected with Ibis whole subject is, whether an impeachment can be had where the act is of such a nature that it cannot be prose- cuted by indictment. Can an impeachment be had for any act unless it constitutes a criiin- against the general law of the land ? Can this mode of trial be extended to mere acts of indecorum having no fixed criminal aspects? Crimes may, of course, exist either by the rules of the common law or by statute. Can there be an impeachment in the absence of any form of crime? If this question is to be decided by the nile>; of the English law, it would have to be said that prineiidcs and precedents are both opposed to an impeachment except for a crime. The most recent and leading cases upon this subject are those of the earl of Macclcsfielil. of Warren Hastings, and of Lord Melville. In Iho case of the carl of Macclesfield, who was impeached for the sale of offices connected with the administration of justice, the whole argument of counsel was, on the one hand, to show, and on the other hand, to disprove, that the sale of such an oflice was contrary cither to a rule of tho common law or of an act of Parliament. He was de- clared guilty, hut only on the ground that a statute jiasscd in the reign of Edward VI. had been violated. Lord Camjibell, a great jurist of our day, who defends the im- pcaclimeut, rests its lawfulness solely on the ground that tliis statute ha<l been violated. (4 Campbrll's L>>nl Climi- c*7Ao>, 536; Ifi Howell's Stntt Triah. i<'2'^.) In the case of Warren Hastings (1788), th^ Lords resolved that they would insist on the same rules of evidence us were ajiplied in tho inferior courts of justice. In the trial of Lord Mel- ville in ISOfi for malversation in office, the(|ucstion was put to the judges whether the acts with whieh he was charged wero unlawful, so as to be the subject of information or indictment. It having been decided that they were not, Lord Melville was acquitted. (29 Howell's Sfnte 7'riah, 1170.) These decisions were made n( a time when there was no party feeling, and wlun the House of Lords in- tended to act with judicial Impartiality. They are there- fore entitlerl to much weight. In nmnv instances it should bo observed that tho court asks the opinion of the ordinary judges upon the law of crime and the relevancy of evidence, and closely follows their views. Reference may also bo made to the opinion of leading text-writers and jurists. Wooddeson is particularly clear and emphatic. He says: "The trial differs not in essentials from criminal prosecu- tions before Inferior courts. The same rules of evidence, the same legal notions of crimes and punishments, ]trevail. /'or I'niprfichmrntt are not /rtimrd to after thr htir, but tn carrt/ it into more rffrciunl rjreetttian ichcrc it mitjht be t>b- gtrtivtcff bif thr influence of ^*(> pnirerftd dch'nquvut*, or not frt«i7v i/itraverefi in the courln of ordituinf f'uriiiflivttou by renttfiU uf the prruHar tfUuHttf ti/ the tii/ci/rti criuirti. Tfic jut/tpnrnl thereof in fn be Murh an i» irarrantetf b>/ irijal prin- ciptr» nr prerrdrntK." (2 /.rrturra, fill.) The Same view is well expressed by Lord Chancellor Cowpcr in the year 1715, who says: "Though one of your lonlships supposes this impeachment to bo out of tho ordinary and common 1126 IMPEACHMENT. course of law and justice, it 13 yot as much a couvso of prOL'CCciing according to the conimnn law as any other whatever." (See also Cushing, Law and J'ructUc <>/ LeyiH- titlitc Agscmbiirti, ^ 2oC>'J ; 4 Hlaekstonc's Comm.f 259 ; and the able argument of Jlr. Webster, 5 Worka, pp. 613-jIj, in ik-fcnco of Judge Prcscott.) This subject has assumed great importance in recent trial.s by impeachment in the U. S. It must be conceded that public and professional opinion is here to some extent divided upon it. Impeachment as used under American law docs not have so wide a scope as in Kngland, though we have derived it from the law of that country. Tlic ob- ject of the trial licrc is to reach ofhcial delinquency, and to remove the offending officer from oftico or to impose a permanent disqualification upon him. it is, however, con- ceived that this does not vary the case. The impeachment is still fur a crime; thenfficcr is to be removed or disqualified because ho has committed an act in the nature of a crime. tJu no other theory can there bo a strictly judicial proceed- ing. There must have licen a wrong committLd. but bow can th:it be unless there has been a ^■iolation of law ? AVith- out a crime how can there be a trial, and how is it possible to apply any rules of evidence? Mr. Hallam contends, with great force of reasoning, that not only must a crime be committed, hut it must be set forlli in the articles of im- peachment. Thu?, if there were an impeachment for trea- son, the offence described should of itself, in jioiut of law, constitute treason. His argument is that the court can only trif an offender for an existing crime. It cannot create an offence by its fiat. (2 Const. Hist.. 412, 413, Murray's ed. ISiifi.) (An able presentation of an oppo.sitc view has been made by Judge William Lawrence of Ohio. See American Law Ih'jistrr, vol. vi. p. Gil.) In the constitution of New York of the year 1777 im- peachment and indictment are coupled together, as if they were deemfd tu be only different modes of trial of tlic same offence : " l\\ every trial on impeachment or indictment for crimes or niisdemciinors the parly impeached or indicted shall be alloweil counsel as in civil actions." (Art. 34.) In the U. S. Constitution it is "declared that the President and other civil officers of the U. S. sliall be removed from office on impea(diment f(jr and conviction of treason, bribery, and othur high crimes and misdemeanors." (.\rt, 2.^4.) Who can doubt that the words *• treason " and '' bribery" are here used to mean specific crimes. Ac:;ording to all ordinary rules of construction, the words '■ other crimes" must have a similur application. The same general ques- tion was discussed to some extent by tlie judges of the New York court of appeals in the recent case of the impeachment of George G. liarnard as a judicial officer of the S^atc. The drift of the opinions would seem to be that an act to be im- jjcachable must bo of a criminal nature, and usually the suhjtctof an indictment, though this rule might not always apjdy to a judge. Thus, on grounds of public policy ho may be exempt from ordinary criminal prosecutions for acts affecting the administration of justice. (Sec ojiiuions of Grover, Andrews, and Folger, judges, 7Vi'a/, etc., vol. iii. pp. 2n:i7. 2ir.7, 2170.) Minti' of Proccdnrc. — When an impeachment is resolved upon in Englaml.a membcrof the House of Commons usu- ally rises in his place and makes a charge of crime, which he siipports by proofs, and ihen moves for an impeachment. If this motion is susfained, the number is ordered to go to the House of Lords in company with others to institute the impeachment. Written articles are subsequently presented. In this country the impeachment is commonly brought for- ward by the report of a committee of the more popular branch of the legislature. The matter of arrest of the per- son impeached is of much consequence in the Knglish law, as the proceeding may involve liberty or life. In the U. S. no arrest is necessary, as, if the party has been properly summoned, the trial may go forward in his absence, and the whole object of the proceeding is achieved by removing him from office or imposing a disqualification for the future, or both. The subject of suspension from ofiice is. how- ever, one of grave consequence, particularly in the case of so imjcirtant an officer as that of President of the U. iS. A consiitutinn may proviile for a suspension in office while an impenchment is pending, when of course no question arises. The U. .S. Constitution is silent upon the subject, and the only source of information open to us is the prac- tice arloptett in England. It is not necessary to consider the ease which has frequently occurred in England, of the impeachment of a member of either house of the legisla- ture, as no such practice is adopted here, each house by the r. S. Constitution having the nower of expulsion. The inquiry will acconlingly be limited to the case of the sus- pension of executive or judicial officers from office after impeachment and before judgment. These cases are of two general classes: (I) where the office is held at the king's pleasure; (2) where the tenure of office is fixed, so that the officer has a claim to continue in his office. In the first class of cases the only way in which the impeaching bodies coulil express their wishes to the king would bo by an ''address" or joint resolution. Although the Com- mons have frequently asked the House of Lords to concur with them in sucli an address, that body has regularly re- fused to do so while the iin]ieachment was pending. The course (»f jjroeeeding is manifest in the case of the trial of Lord Bacon while lord high chancellor. After he had been imjieached, and had confessed his crime, we arc told by historians that a difficulty remained in proceeding furtlicr while he retaineil the great seal, for by the rules of the House of Lords acting as a court of impeachment a defendant pro- duced before them is to receive sentence <m his knees at Iho bar, and the lord chancellor, if present, must preside on the woolsack and render sentence. This rule made it necessary that Lord Bacon should pronounce sentence on himself. This embarrassment was only removed hy the Lords en- treating the king, after Bacon's confession, on Apr. 30, 1021, to sequester the great seal, i Lnrdn Jonrnali, Apr. .10, ir)21.) The king requested its surrender, and received it on May 1. This course of proceeding is a very potent argument against the existence in the impeaching tribunal of any power of suspension or removal. In fact, it is contrary to nUJudiciitl theories that a court while a proceeding is pending should do any act savoring of punishment or deprivation of rights. Such an act is executive in its nature; and though it might bo allowed by statute in England or by constitutional pro- vision in this country, it would not be tolerated as an or- dinary branch of judicial procedure. Reference may also bo made to the case of the worthless and incapable Scroggs, chief-iusticc of the king's bench in the reign of Charles H. The House of Lords absolutely refuseil to join the Com- mons in addressing the king to suspend liim from oflioc. It was understood by the Commons to be a positive decision upon the point that while an offieehnldcr was uncondeinned he should not bo suspended from the administration of his office. Their leaders complained in their places that the ''Lords would not address to sequester Scroggs from his place, but would leave it to his modrtttif whether ho would exercise it or no." (8 Howell's Stnte Trinh, 21.'^, 214: LJ Journals Uoune of Lords, 73; Foss, Liim of JndijfS, 170.) In the second class of cases, where the tenure of office is permanent, the argument is still stronger. Even the Commons have not insisted on suspension or sequestration in this class of cases. That house has drawn a distinction between the two cases, refusing in a well-known instance to address the king to remove the duke of Buckingham from an office of a permanent nature, though it asked for his dismissal from an office held at the royal pleasure. (6 Howell's Strife Trials, 1004.) According to these principles, what rule should be ap- plied in the ease of the inipeaidiment nf the President of the U. S.? Undoubtedly, tlio people have a right to his continuous services, of which they cannot be deprived by either l)rane!i of Congress acting in an impeachment before his conviction, unless by some constitutional provision, either express or implied. There is certainly no express clause in the Constitution, nor, according to what has been seen, are there any im]ilications to be drawn from English practice. It may bo added that there is evidence to be de- rived from the debates of llie framers of the Constitution that their opinion coincidetl with the English view, though great stress shouKl not be laid on discussions of this kind. (See 2 Madison r<ipcr«, 1 1 J4 ; 3 ib., 1572, 1573.) It seems quite plain that an implied power to suspend the President from office, beginning to operate at the very moment of his impeachment by tlie House of Kepresentativcs, would bo of a highly dangerous character, as a majority adverse to that functionary might sci/e upon this mode of removing a President obnoxious to them, and by dilatory processes might prolong the trial so as substaniially to remove him from othcc without any real cause. In this way, a mod© of trial for grave crimes which was only intended to be used in extreme cases when the majesty ut the people was offended, might be resorted to on frivolous and absurd pretexts, and as ft method of scourging or frightening a political opponent; or an impatient legislature might re- sort to this process to grasp at executive authority or to overcome executive vetoes. Assuming that articles of impeachment have been pre- pared, and an answer received an<l reply made if necessary, a day is fixed fnr the trial of the cause. The court in Eng- land is organized with inueh pomp and solemnity. .\ graphic description of it will be found in the case of the trial of the earl of Stafford (7 Howell's Stntr Trials, 1194), as well as in the essay of Lord iMaeaulay upon the life and career of Warren Hastings. The proceedings on the part of the House of Commons are conducted by a committee, called *' managers." An opening speech having been made, the trial proceeds much in the same way as in ordinary IMPENETRABILITY— IMPERATBIZ, VILLA DA. 1127 Criniiuiil proceeding;?. coudscI repre?on(in{^ tlic accused. And evidence being adduced in ii formal and regular way. The proceedings are Irequeutly dilatory, and u prorogation or dis<iolutiuu of I'arliauient may intervene. It has been de- cided that such an event docs not vitiate the proceedings 8o that it will be necessary to commence a;::iin, but that they will continue until a conclusiou is reached. 1,1 May's CoHHt. JJiat., 4;i7, and authorities cited.) The rules attending judgment arc special. Questions which are considered to involve the merits of the case hav- ing been agreed upon, each member of the court is interro- gated by the presi<ling officer a;» to his opinion in the pres- ence of the accused and the House of Commons. The peers, commencing with the one lowest in rnnk, as tho ques- tions are put to them rise successively in their places, and standing uncovered and placing their right hands upon tlieir breasts, say. as the ease may be, "Guilty" or " S'ot guilty, upon my honor." If the accused is found guilty, the next step is for the Commons to dcnmnd judgment. Impeachiueuts in England have within tho last one hun- dred years been very rare, only tw« being known to have taken place — that of Warren Hastings and that of Lord Melville. (I May. Const. I/i'Mt., -llJo.) Under the U. S. Constitution the House of Representa- tives presents tlie impeachment. The trial is had before the Senate, except that when the President of tho V. S. is tried tho chief-justico of the iSupreme Court presides, the Vice-President in that case not sitting. Tho Senators act- ing as a court of impeachment are ref(uircd to taico an oath or affirmation. There is less formaliiy in rendering judg- ment. Ka?h member, rising in his place, votes guilty or not guilty upon the respective ''articles of impeachment " presented by the House of Representatives. Two-thirds of the members present must concur to ensure a convic- tion. I'ndcr the English law a par<lon by the king cannot he pltmlt tl ill (jiir u( an impeachment. The effect of this provision is that the king cannot prevent the trial and con- viction of the accused. After judgment the onliuary rule is unilerstood to apply, and the king may pardon. Under the U. S. Constitution the President is deprived altogether of the power to pardon. There seems to be a good reason fur the distinction in the two countries, as under the Eng- Ii>li law the jurisdiction of the court is both criminal and political in its nature, while in the U. S. it is political. having only to do with officers and their administration of office. In tlie various States of the Union it is the common praetici? to provide in tlieir respective constitutions fcir the organization of a court of inipcachmout to try State oHi- cers. In the main, the general outlines <»f the clauses of the IJ. S. Constitution are followcil. Tho more popular hramdi of the legislature presents tlie impcaciiment, while the upper house or senate tries it. In New V»jrk the judges of the court of appeals and the lieiitenunt-govornor arc joined with the senate, though the latter officer does not sit when the governor is impeached. Some of tho States proviile expressly in their constitutions for the suspension of officers from office when on trial. In some there is a re- quirement that tho eliief-jusiiee of the supremo or other high court shall presiile when the governor is trieil. The details must be sought in the resiiective State constitutions. Reference is made bebtw to some nfihc more jirominent cases of impeachment in ICnglniid and in this country: Trial of I-ord Latimer, A. n. l.iTtJ; ib. of llie .lukeof Suffolk, A. D. 1 (f)!t ; ib. of Mompes^on and ass^^tciates, temp. .Tames 1.; ib. of Lorcl Bacon, do.: trial of Lonl Inanity in the reign of Charles II. : trial of earl of Macclcslielil. 172j; trial of Warren Hastings, ITHM; ib. of Lord Melville. IsOfi. Many of these and (»ther cases arc found in Howell's Sintr TriaU. Ilatsell's U«j-/-«, and the journals of the two bouses should be referrcfi to. Recent impeachments in the U. S. are that of Andrew Johnson, President of the U. S., ISOH, published in il vols.; also that of (leorge 0. Barnard, judge in New York, 1872, publishcil in :i vols. Earlier cases were Iho impeachment «d" William Itlount, a Renntor of tho \}.i^., 17;)7. published in Whart<.n's Sintf Trinh, 2011 : tha* of .'^amind Chase, asstjciate justice Supreme Court U. S.. I SOI. published by Smith .t Lloyd. 11 vols. ; ami that of.lnhn Pickering, ilislrict juclgo of New Ham]ishire, lHO;i (see 'i Hildreth's ///«/. /'. .S'.. ..IS). See also 2 Story's Cnmm. on thr (\,nnlitntiim; Cuslling's L*iw ttnti /*rnrtirr uf I,rifi9- int;rr AHMr,„hfir». T. W. D WIGHT. Impcnetrabirity (Lat. imp^nrtrnhifin, "not to be peni-trated "]. one of the essential properties of matter, implying that no two bodies can oeeiipy (he sann' portion of space in the snme instant of time. If a nail be driven into a piece of wood, it does not, properly speaking, pt-nr- trnfr tiie wood, for the fibres are driven aside before the nail can enter. With regard to liquids, the property may be jiroved by very simple experiments. I^et a vcswel bo filled to tho brim with water, and a solid incapable of solu- tion in water be plunged into it; a portion of tho water will overflow, exactly equal in bulk to the body immersed. If a cork be rammed hard into tho neck of a phial full of water, the phial will burst, while its neck remains entire. The disposition of air to resist penetration may be illus- trated in the following manner: Let a tall glass vessel he nearly tilled with water, on the surface of which a lighted taper is set to lloat. Jf over this glass a smaller cylindi ieal vessel, likewise of glass, be inverted and pressed downward, .the contained :iir maintaining its place, the internal body of tlic water will descend, while the rest will rise up at tho sides, and the tajier will continue to burn for some seconds encompassed by tho whole mass of liquid. (Leslie's L'/e- incntu a/ A'atitnil Philosophy.) The lightest gases arc really as impenetrable as tho densest solid, although, owing to their compressibility, it is not reailily made apparent. Strictly speaking, this property applies only to the «/om» of a boily. In many phenomena, bodies apjtear to pene- trate each other; thus, the volume of a compound body is always less than the sum of the volumes of its constituents; for instance, the volume of a mixture of water and sul- phuric acid, or of water and alcohol, is less than the sum of the volumes before mixture, in all these cases, how- ever, the penetration is merely apparent, and arises from tho fact that in every body there are interstices or spaces unoccupied bv matter. (Ganot's Phyaice, cd. Atkinson, Now York, 1S72.) Impeii'nates, or Impcnnes [Lat. in, and pnina, "a wing"j, the name of a tribe of swimming birds having shoft wings covered with feathers resembling scales ; the penguin {AptcnodifUit) and the great auk {Alrn intpcnuis) are exam- ples of this group, wliich, however, is not a natural one. Imperador% Villa do [Port., ''city of the emperor"], large town in Rra/.il, province of Parahiba, 'J.) miles N. \V. of Pcrnambueo. It has a considerable traffic in sugar, cotton, coffee, Brazil wood, drugs, and timber. Impcr'ative, Categorical or Moral. In the ter- minology of the Kantian school of psycliologieal ethics, this expression denotes tho idea of Duty. "Man, in the consciousness of his moral liberty, recognizes two great laws regulating his will; the first promjtts hiin to seek bis own well-being: the second romuntn<h him to bo virtuous, even at the sacrifice of happiness. From this opposition in !iis moral nature between Desire and Conscience springs up tho Idea of I)uty." otherwise the Moral Imperative, to which term Kant added the epithet (ntet/oricft! to indicate tlutt its commands are absolute and unconditional. Imperative Mood [Lat. imprro. "I command"], in grammar, tho form of tbo verb which denotes command, entreaty, or, in general, desire, Iinpera'to (Fi:itnAN'Ti;), b. in Naples. Italy, about ir)fir) ; be<'anic a dru^gi^t ; made a fine collection of minerals ; foundeil a butanieal garilen at Naples, and devoted himself with great enthusiasm to natural history, on which subject he ])ublislied a folio volume. Orfla /xtoriti Naturah- l.ihri XXVUf. (Naples, iJiHlt. which was reprinted at Venice in ir.7'J. and translated into Latin (Cologne. KlO.'i). It is not so much a treatise upon natural history as a descriptive catalogue of plants, minerals, and precious stones, having no great seienliiic value. It was, however, the occasion of a curious literary controversy,, it having been vigorously asserted and denied that the work was written by one Ni- colas Stelliola, who sold it to luipcrato for 100 dueats. Tho authority of Tiraboschi is unfavorable to the claims of Im- perato. wh(t was. however, on terms of intimacy nnd cor- respomlcnce with several eminent naturalists. He lived far into tlie seventeenth eentury. Impcra'tor [Lat.. " commander"]. During the entire existence of the Roman republic, of which the forms were preserveil for bunrlreds of years after the republican spirit had disappeared before tho eneroaehmcnt of centrati/ation combinerl with universal dominion, the title imprmtor had a meaning verv different from that of the Ryznntine, tho mediieval. or the modern term "emperor." Originally of purely military ap|die[»lion. it meant nearly tho same as " captain " or " general," nnd the soldiers who on tlio bal- tle-lield acclaimed their leader impn-ittor meant only to ex- press their belief that he wtis worthy to exercise command. The concentration of power in the hands (»f .\ugustus and his successors, with which their title of imprmlor is ])opu- larly associateil. was exercised not by virtue of that title, l)ut bv accumulating in tlio bands of a single indivirluat the additional offices of consul, proconsul, tribune, pontifex maximus. and censor ; tho attribution of all these powers to an imprvitinr is a later iib'a. Iinperatri'/% Villa dn [Port., "city of thoemnress"], town tif Brazil, province ttf Cearll, on the Serra Urubure- lama. Medicinal plants are abundant in the mori/f (forest), and gold, silver, iron, copper, nnci suit nre all found in greater or less (|uantities in tho adjacent mountains. 1128 IMPERFECT— IMPRISONMENT. ImpcrTect, id music, a. term indicating deficiency or a Tvunt (jf comjileteuess or finality. An impcriect iiitamtf is one whicli is a ccmitoue less than the ])erfect. Thus, the interval B — F is an imperfect htth ; but by the addition of a semitone to eitiier the higher or lower term — l. c. by flattening B or sharpening F — the interval becomes per- fect. Thirds and sixths are commonly regarded as im- perfect intervals, because they may bo readily changed from major to minor, or from minor to major, by the use of a flat, sharp, or natural. An imjierfect thind is one in which some of its intervals are wanting; as when, in a chord of the seventh, we occasionally omit the third, the fifth, or even the root. In some cases tico of these intervals are omitted. The imperfect cadence (or half cadence) is that in which the harmony of the triad is followed by that of the dominant, being the exact contrary of the perfect ca- denee. lly some writers several other cadences, not final, arc termed imperfect. William Staunton. Iinpeti'$;o [La!, an "attack." from impcfn, to "rush ui)on "J, a skin disease, resembling eczema in being more or less diffuse jnllammation, but resulting, unlike eczema, in pus-formation. T!ic rrneta Ittrten of young infants is one of its forms, which are rather numerous. True im- petigo is not contagious. It freiiuentiy is cured by time alone, but if persistent should be treated with oxide-of- zinc ointment or some other mild stimulant. The so-called iinj/ctif/tt Jifjni-«tt<t is a distinct disease, depending on the presence of Tiic/i>>phift(nt tnii»nraiiit, a parasitic vegetation. Epilation of the part with irritant washes, as of corrosive sublitiiate, will cure the disease, which is truly contagious. Impey (Sir Elijah), chief-justice of Bengal in 1774, ber:une infamous in history by liis atrocious perversion of law. He sentenced the celebrated Nuncomar to death for the assumed crime of forgery in 1775, w.as recalled in 17S2, impeached in 17SS. and d. Feb. I, 1SI2. (See Macaulay's Eumtif nit W'trrru Ilfistill'/M.) lin'pcyaii Phoas'ant, the Lophnphonin fmpei/anuft, a fine large jdieasant frijm the Himalayas, is nearly as large as a turkey, splendidly cidored.and has been domesticated. It is a native <if the higii. cold regions of the Himalaya. Im'plements, Agricultural. Of these, the more important are noticed under their alphabetical heads. The manufacture of this class of goods is a very extensive industry in the U. S. In 1870 there were reported 207fi establishments, employing 2o,24'J persons, a capital of $.'U.s:;4,600, paying $12,lol,J0-l as wages, and producing goods worth $21, 170,025. Imports. See CoMMRnrK, by ,J. S. Giijboxs. Impos'tors, The Three (Dr tn'bns fmposton'btia), a supposed work attacking the Jewish, Christian, and Mo- hammedan religions, which at various times since the tenth century has been written of by theologians and others. The most diverse statements have been maile as to its au- thorship and cliaracter, and it is very doubtful if a genuine work of this title ever existed. But in later times there have been many spurious works written, pretending to be the real De tn'bua Impnstonhua. Not one of them is of any great antiquity or of any possible value. Impress'ment, in English law. is defined as the for- cible levying of mariners in time of war for the king's ser- vice at sea. It was formerly the usiuil method of manning the liritish navy, and a similar procedure waa employed by otlier maritime powers. The power of impressment was a branch of the royal prerogative, first mentioned in the statute 2 Richard II. c. 4 as a recognized usage. .Many acts of Parliament from the time of Queen Mary down to George III. rcgubited the system of impressment and exempted certain classes of mariners. The mariner? were seized by an officer acting under an impress-warrant, and having under his oifdcrs an armed party of picked men (the press- gang), with which ho visited the usual haunts of seamen and violently seized the most robust men, not without fro- ({uent and bloody struggles. A merehant-vcasel or a priva- teer was also liable to bo so depleted of sailors by any man- of-war as to becrippled for all practical jiurposcs. The laws sanctioning impressment are still unrepealol. but the sys- tem of bounties lias practically taken its place. The im- pressment of American sailors was an abuse practised for several years by tJreat Britain during the great continental war against the French empire, notwithstanding the con- stant and earnest protest of the 1^ S. government : and this finally became the immediate eause of the war of ISI2 be- tween the two countries. It has been often noted that in the treaty of peace signed at Ghent in IHU nothing was stipulated regarding this original eauee of the war; never- theless, the American doctrine achieveil a practical victory, and impressment has not since been employed by Great Britain, not even during the Crimean war. It will prob- ably never be revived. roiiTEit C. Bliss. Impris'onment. In the most comprehensive sense of the term, imprisonment denotes any deprivation of per- sonal liberty, whether by actual onfinement or simply by forcible restraint or detention against a person's will. I)c- taining a man in a public street or taking him into custody, either by the exercise of actual force or by the exhibition of such real or assumed authority as secures his submis- sion, would, in this view, be a sutlieient imprisonment. When no actual force is employcil the imprisonment is termed constructive ; in other cases, actual. When the re- straint upon a man's person is unlawful it is called "false imprisonment," and this is a violation of personal rights for which an action at law may be instituted and damages recovered. (See False Impkisonmknt.) In its narrower signification, however, and according to more popular usage, imprisonment denotes an actual confinement of the person under legal process in some prison or jail which la specifically employed for such a purpose in accordance with provisions of law. The power to imprison, using the word in this narrower sense, is either inherent in courts or magistrates as one of their essential prerogatives, or is conferred upon them by statute. Imjirisonmtnt is em- ployed in both civil and criminal proceedings. It may be used as a form of civil remedy, as when a debtor is arrested and held in custody for the purpose of securing the satis- faction of some debt wliieh ho is under obligation to l)ay ; or it may be adojiteil as a means of obtaining testimony, as where, in criminal cases, witnesses are kept in confine- ment that they may be forthcoming at the trial of a cause ; or it may be cmi)Ioycd as a mode of punishment, as where persons guilty of contempt of court or convicted of a crimi- nal offence are sentenced to be kept in prison for particular periods. These are the most imjiortant purposes fornfaioh imprisonment under authority of law is employed, though particular classes of persons may be placed in legal con- finement for still different reasons, as, for instance, where lunatics are confined in asylums; but places of this kind are not usually known as prisons, and this kind of impris- onment will not therefore be considered in this connec- tion. (See Insanity.) Imprisonment for debt was at com- mon law iu former times generally allowed at the suit of a creditor as a matter of course, and became the regular practice. But in recent times the tendency has been to abolish it by statute, excc])t in relation to particular classes of debts, among which arc usually included those founded upon fraud or misfeasance, fines and penalties, etc. la England the first statute of this kind was passed in 183H, but the act which at present (1S7,")) regulates this subject was enacted in IS(i9 {'.',2 and 33 Vict. eh. 62). This provides that no person Shall be imprisoned for making default in the jiayment of a sum of money except in cases of penal- ties not arising upon contract, of default by trustees in making iiayments directed by a court of equity, of default in payment of a sum recoverable summarily before a jus- tice, and in a few other cases of less importance. In these excepted cases the imjirisonment cannot continue longer than a year. There are also some further qualifications of the general rule in special instances. Thus, when a jjcrson makes default in the pavment of any debt due in pursuance of the order or judgment of a competent court, and is proved to have had the means to jiay since the order or judgment was rendered, he may be committed to prison for a term not exceeding six weeks, or until payment is made. Arrest and imprisonment upon mesne i)roccss is abolished entirely, with the single exception that where the suit is for XoO or more, and there is reason to apprc- heinl that tlie defendant will leave England, he may, on proper evidence under oath of these and a few other neeessary facts, be iniprisoneil for a term not exceeding six months, or held to bail. In New York an act to abolish imprisonment for debt was passed iu 1S3I, and is still in force. This provides that no person shall he imprisoned on civil process at law or on execution in equity founded on contract except in the following cases: in proceedings as for contempts to enforce civil remedies, in actions for fines and penalties, or on promises to marry, or for moneys col- lected bv any pul)lie ofTicer, and in actions for any miscon- duct or negleet in ofliee or in any jM-ofessional employment. Moreover, in eases of debt claimed in any suit or founded upon any judgment or decree of a court of record, the de- fendant may be arrested upon an aflidavit of the plaintiff stating the sum due to be more than $51', ami charging the commission of certain fraudulent aels; as, that the defenil- ant is about to remove any of his proi)erty out of the jurisdiction of the court to defraud his creditors, that he frauilulently conceals property, or has assigned, removed, or disposed of it with like intent, or that the debt was fraudulently contracted. The defendant is thereupon eom- milted to prison, unless he either pays the debt and custs of the suit or gives security to pay them within a certain time, or unless he makes an assignment of his property for IMPROVISATION. 1129 the benefit of his creditors, or gives security that ho will . make such an assigninent or that he will not rlitipose of any of his property until the demand against liJm is satisfied. If he makes such an assignment uf his properly, there are provisions in the act hy wliieh he may ho discharged from his indebtedness. Further provisions of an analngous na- ture to those contained in this act were embodied in the New York code, adopted in ISIS, The debtnr may be ar- rested and imprisoned cither on mesne or on final process. The jirincipal grounds of arrest are, with a few exceptions, the same as those enumerated in the previous act. The defendant, witen arrested upon mesne ])rt>cess, may be ad- mitted to bail. The imprisonment upon final process is for the same causes, and is applicable when the execution against the clcbtor's property has been returned unsatisfied, in whole or in part. The most important difference be- tween these provisions ancl those of the earlier statute is that in (he later act means only are provided for securing the paynien* uf the debt of an individual creditor, and there is no ajjsignment provided for in behalf of all the creditors, or any means afforded of obtaining a discharge of the debtor from alt his obligations. A large number of the States of the Union have acluptcd :*imilar statutes. (A compre- hensive summary of these may be found in Kent's Comuuttt- nrieSf vol. it. pp. .'J9S, .^99. For the rules regulating the subject of arrest on civil process, see Arrest.) In criminal proceedings, imprisonment is employed as a means of detaining alleged offenders in custoily. in certain cases, to ensure their appearance at the time of trial, and also as a common form of punishment to which a convicted prisoner maybe BcnteuccJ. It is the ordinary penalty both in cases of felony and of misdetneanor. and the classes of offences in which a sentence of this kincl may bo given, and the terms of imprisonment which may be imposed, are gen- erally determined by specific statutory provisions. A min- imum and a maximum pcriotl are usually declared as ap- propriate to any particular crime, ami the magistrate may impose a greater or less term within these limits according to his discretion. Fines arc frequently imposed in connec- tion with imprisonment as an a*lditional penalty. (See FiNR.) The means of adequately adapting the severity of the penalty to the degree of heinousness in the (iflTcnce, which is affordeil by the facility with whi'-h longer or shorter terms of impris4inment may be meted out. nnd tho opportunity which is given for tho reformation of offenders when they arc confined in ])risons, render this one of tho mc»3t salutary modes of punishment which the law provides. (.Sec PrNisi!Mi:vT. For tho methods of pris<in manage- ment and discipline, see Prisons, Phison I>isrM'i.iNK.) Imprisonment in cases of contempt of court is discussed under the topic Costkmpt. In regard to the imprisonment of witnesses to secure their testimony, see Witskss. The remedies which the law affords in cases of unlawful imprisonment are of various kinds. Thus, the j)erson who has wrongfully caused or procured the confinement of an- other may, as has been stated, be sued by the latter in a civil action for false imprisonment, or he may be subjected to a criminal proseeution. When the prisoner desires to obtain a release or ilisehargc. a petition upon h<thcnft cnrjmH may bo marie by him or in his behalf to the proper court. And a petition of this kind may even be resorterl to when tho imprisonment is not unlawful, as in cases where a per- son confined under legal process desires to be admitted to bail, or to have the reasons for his detention investigated and its validity determined. (The rules upon this subject arc stated under the topie Habkas Corits.) (fKounR Chask. Rkviskd dy T. W. Dwiciit. Improvisa'tion is the art of composing poetry cxtem- ])oraneonsly. Although the term embraces every rhythmic form of impromptu song or recitation, and is sometimes even applied to un])remeiUtated prose declamation, es- pecially to that of a highly figurative and impassioned cha- racter, yet it is restricted in jiopular use not merely to metrical compositions, but to those which please by syllabic consonance or corresp<>ndeiice of sound. The moilern ear, in tho countries and clauses where improvisation is most practised, has lieen trained to demand not only a regular recurrence of metrical feet or accentual longs ami shorts, but lull or half rhyme, assonance, or at least alliteration, as an indispensable condition of this species of intellectual entertainment. Hut even in Italy anrl Spain, especially in the more olevateil and refined exercise of the art, that ^a- tiety of rhyme whiidi led Trissino to invent modorn blank verse — first emplnyeil in his S^iphnninhn in I. '('J I— sometimes induces improvisators to dispense with this ornament, and to content themselves with a simple iambic or trochaic ar- rangement of nylhibles in verses of a determinate length. There are, too, nations in whose extemporaneous ])oelry parallelisms in sense or imagery, coupled with metre, sup- ply the place of consonance. Keadcrs familiar with Kate, vain and //mwalha will readily perceive that this varied repetition of thought and illustration may bo used with very happy effect in improvised as well as in deliberate composition. Improvisation is doubtless the most primitive and universal mode of expressing poetic feeling, and it appears to have always existed among semi-barbarous races sufficiently advanced in intellectual development to derive pleasure from any form of poetry. The early poets of Greece and of many other ancient c<nintries were min- strels, and chantecl their compositions, which were in a great degree extemporaneous in detail and expression, though probably not often in subject and general treatment, to a musical accompaniment, wJiich we must suppose too simple to have served much other purpose than to mark the time or metre. The improvisators of recent ages have not generally availed themselves of this expedient. The most genial examjilcs of modern improvisation are found among peoples and in classes possessing a considerable amount of traditional, though not of scholastic, culture. With the diffusion of instruction, and of printed, and espe- cially of periodical literature, and above all, with a wider participation of the higher and mi<Idle ranks in active business nnd political life, it gradually ceases to enjoy favor, and the power of irnjtrovisation diminishes with tho social demand for it. The rhetorical character of impro- vised poetry depends less on the material condition and mode of life than on the moral, intellectual, and social training and habits of the composer and liis audience : its special forms, as indeed those of all poetry, are determined, or at least greatly intluenced, by tho orthoopical system and the grammatical structure of the language emjdoyed by the bard. It is noticeable that the jdiysical character- istics of the scene of tho poem are less frequently re- flected in unpremeditated verse than the actions and pas- sions of the bard and his personages. Ileal nature is too familiarly known to the uomade, the shepherd, and the rustic cultivator as a hard and niggard landlord to be an attractive feature in his imaginative recreations, and his spontaneous lyrics teach i 1 more of the man him- self than of Ins surroundings. This consideration furnishes an argument againstthcautlienticity of the pretended poems of Ossian. They have too much material coiifrur lorah to bo accepted as genuine specimens of bardic song. The most untrained ear readily seizes and soon learns to enjoy accented rhythm, and a frequency of corresjjonding sounds in a given language almost mechanically prompts a dispo- sition to employ them as a means of giving a melodious expression to feeling and to thought. A strongly marked syllabic accent and an abundance of rhymes, therefore, are circumstances favorable to the invention and free and ready employment of ])oetical forms; and it is chiefly in languages marked by these characteristics that impro\ isation is most general. The modern languages of the Latin stock — with tho exception of French, which is scarcely Latin otherwise than in vocabulary — have a very distinctly acccnteil ])ro- nunciation; they abound in rli\ nied endings, and they ac- cordingly present great material facilities for the construc- tion of verse. All inflected languages to a certain extent supply rhymes, because words of the same class and in the same grammatical category have generally the same final syllabk' or syllables. But. on the otlior hand, the very fact tiiat like endings occur only in like categories makes words disparate which in nninflected tongues might freely be paired in rhymes under almost any circumstances. To ex- cm])li(y ; the Italian fftino is radically the same word as tho Latin (oiniii: the Italian pnum* the same as the Latin pan- unit. Now, anii't and paiiuo have each but one change of form, the plurals mini and panui; auuuit and pauuun, in their different cases and numbers, have each eight vari- ations of ending. The Italian words, then, in their re- spective singulars and jdurals. rhyme with each oilier in all syntactical combinations; the I>atin,with the exception of thccoincidence between the genitive singular ami nomi- native plural, can be employed us rhymes only when they happen to be in tho same case. Besides this, the regular diminutive ami augmentative nninflected forms, in which Italian is so rich, arc a great re^ouree to the rhymer. A comi)arison between Italian and tho (!othic languages would furnish analogous illustrations, and there is one pe- culiarity of the inllectional system of the Icelandic which merits notice as having profialdy influenced the poetic forms of its literature in a curious way. S(>i>u>j iiifiections, or those where etymological variations consist in vowel- change, are more common in Icelandic than in the other (iothic languages, and wore so in a still higher degree at an earlier stage of the language. For example, tho nomi- native singular hUnd has tho genitive hauJar, the dative singular hrmlt. Laud singular has the nominative and accusative plural fi'mtt. It is doubtless to this fact that wo are to ascribe the adoption of /laf/ rfit/mr, which, as well as allitoratitm, is now generally an indispensable feature of Icelandic verse, oven when ordinary end-rhymes also aro 1130 IMPUTATION. employed, ffnf/ i-hi/nieM are syllables containing the same final consonants with different vowels, and both they and full rhymes arc introduced aecordiu!^ to certain rules, gene- rally not at the close, but in the body of the verse. Thus, while /li'iml singular and /Unti ])lural are full rhymes, both those forms arc gctod half rhymes with the singular laud and with the genitive and dative haudaf and hentH. A vowel-ehange, tlicrcfore, which destroys a full rhyme often maki's amends by sujiplying several linlf rhymes. But not- withstantiing this and ])eculiar prosodicul advantages of other tiothic languages, there is uo doubt that in facility of versification Italian surpasses not only these, but the Spanish also. The Spanish, indeed, gains in this respect by allowing nRsonauce, or the corrcspoudence of vowels while the final consonants difler; but its consonances ap- ppur to be fewer than in Italian, and the rigor of its rules in the employment of rhyme renders it less tractable as a metrical medium than the sister speech. Reasoning from analogy, wo should expect to find improvisation in all not abs<>bitcly savage races whose languages exhibit uncommon orthocpical facilities for melodious or harmonious expres- sion. Hence the Cherokees — whose remarkable speech has but eighty-five possible syllabic combinations of elementary Boun<ls, and therefore supcrabouu<Js in rhymes, and who, like the other Xorth American Indians, iiave great readi- ness in extemporaneous prose harangue — ought, in their present partially civilized condition, to excel in improvised verso. But we do not know that any species of native poetry is cultivated among them. Our knowledgeof the extemporaneous poetry of unlettered peoples amounts to little more than we have already stated. Such races, of course, cannot commit their own effusions to writing, and strangers rarely know enough of any unwritten language to be able to seize and record its poetic accents. Ancient compositions of this sort have indeed been handed down and long preserved by tradition, but in this mode of transmission the diction, thoughts, and imagery change with changing generations, and after a longer or shorter time the poem ceases to be identifiable with the original. Probably the most authentic specimens we possess of primi- tive improvised poetry are those which occur in the sagas or narrative literature of Iceland. These usually extend to but a few couplets, and, rhetorically speaking, are little more than cjaculatory expressions of thought or feeling. But, though they are generally frigid in tone and destitute of real poetical merit, they are, to the last degree, artificial and complicated in structure and figurative in diction. AVe can scarcely suppose that such nuy.'v dij}iriha could have been truly extemporaneous, and we cannot help suspecting that most of them, like the sudden inspirations of many professional modern orators, belong to the class of premedi- tated impromptus, deliberately composed and stored up for use wlicn the occasion should present itself, or that they have been much elaborated by the historians who quote tht-m. There have been improvviaatori in almost all European peoples, but in none of the Gothic or Latin countries, ex- cept in Italy and perhaps Spain, have they been numerous 1 enough and gifted enough to have had any real literary ) importance. Some of the Italian improvvisatori of the sixteenth century composed in Latin as will as in their native language, and many of those of thv' seventeenth and eighteenth, as well ns of the present century, were persons almost as remarkable for learning as for dexterity in the production of unpremeditated verse. Perfetti in the seven- teenth century, t'orilla in the eighteenth, Sgricci in the early part of the nineteenth, were all persons of high cul- ture, and in our own times Regaldi and Giannina Milli combine with a surprisingly ready command of varied versification a range of thought and of illustration which shows a wide acquaintance with history, willi life, an«l with literature. Some of the published works of Italian improv- visatori are of unequivocal merit, and few of them are with- out more or less frequent flashes of genius, but as a general rule we admire the art rather than the product, tlio loom rather than the tissue. As we have already hinted, im- provisation is now much less common than formerly ns an entertainment of highly cultivated circles in Italy. Though still occasionally practised in fashionable society, it is, so far as such society is concerned, substantially a thing of the past, but it subsists with almost unabated vitality among the peasantry of many provinces. Tigri's Cnnti Popofari Titnl Giuliani's Z»V/»/rt'/'/tf> Vlvtnte defla Toacniia, which contain many specimen? of impromptu verse taken down as faithfully as possible from the lips of peasant re- citers, are well worth the attention of the reader. The as- tonishing quickness of intellect of the Italian people shows itself as brilliantly in the unpremeditated lays of the rustic as in animated discussion and action in the educated classes. Improvisators ef lioth sexes, who are what the Italians call anuh'aietiy or unable to read or write, extemporize, like their brethren of higher culture and social condition, in every metre, every structure of verse, couplet, and stanz.a, every style of poetic composition, lyric, narrative, didactic, dia- logue between two rival bards, nrradcH umbo, and dramatic; and it is worth noticing that at many of the popular theatres the playwright only furnishes the characters — which indeed are usually regular stock )-6lc8 — and the skeleton of the drama, leaving the personages to extemporize the dialogue, which is often most genial and spirited, as the action pro- ceeds. The rnstic bard has an inj])ortant advantage in the childlike simplicity of his hearers, who. like real children, are never tired of iteration. The child never objects to a tale that is "twice told." The peasant extemporizer, in his narrow range of thoughts, words, and imagery, may use the same maxim or proverb, the same epithets, the same similes, the same pairs of rhymes, indefinitely, and his audience are as little wearied with his repetitions as was the old German with hearing Gisclhcr always called "the youthful" through a narrative which extends from his boyhood to his old age, or the Fiulander with the ever- repeated epithet of "old and truthful," which Kalevala constantly applies to Wainamoiuen,even when he is lying. The educated improvvisatore, with his m(»re multifarious culture, has of course a larger and more diversified stock of material, and, like the preacher and the popular speaker, he habitually prepares at leisure new verbal combinations, happy turns of expression, similes, and illustrations, to be introduced into his recitations as occasion serves. But these stores cannot be inexhaustible, and when the stock grows thin and ins])iration flags, he cannot repeat himself to his exacting audience, as the humble bard may do in his rustic circle, and he usually retires from the field after a short though, It may be, a brilliant career. GnoRGH P. Marsh. Imputa'tion of sin, guilt, and merit. This word is the English equivalent of the Hebrew DuH, hanhar, which is represented in theSeptuagint and the New Testament by the Greek word Ao-yt'^o/xai. These words are of very frequent oc- currence in the Scriptures, and are variously translated in our version ; e. fj., to tkitik (Job xxxv. 2 and Rom. ii. 3 ) ; to rcfjard iJsa. xxxiii. 8) ; ?o esteem (Isa. xxix. It), 17 and Rom. xiv. 14) ; to rerlrnn (2 Sam. iv. 2) ; to be rerhoncdforor among (Rom. iv. 4: Luke xxii. .*>7): to i/npiite (Lev. vii. 18 and Rom. iv. G-S) ; to iaif to one's ckarf/e {2 Tim. iv. IC), etc. Liddell and Scott deiine the general meaning of Aoyt^o/iai to he "to count, deem, consider, that anything is." Crc- mcr ifiib. T/ieo. Lex. of A. 7>«^ Greek) says /ioyi^eudai ti TtVi, " to reckon anything to a person, to put to his account, either in his favor or as what he must be answerable for." lu Christian theology this word is used in connection with the terras " sin," " guilt," *■ merit," *' righteousness," etc. Shi includes two essential elements: (1) Mnculn, moral pollution or defilement, as sin stands opposed to holiness; (2) reatuB, 0"'^^^ ^^ it stands opposed to Justice. Again, rectus or guilt must be distinguished as (I) reatus culpn-f desert of blame, and (2) reatus ^a'na-, just obligation to punishment. It is agreed by all parties that neither the rnaciifa, ])ollution, nor the rentun cidpn\ desert of blame, can be separated from the person sinning, and imputed or charged to »he account of another person. But the whole Christian Church, Roman, Lutheran, and Reformed, is agreed that the rentns ptrute, or just liability to punish- ment, may be charged to the account of other persons than the actual transgressor when those other persons stand in such a relation to the actual transgressor as. for any reason, to be justly responsible for his action. *' To tn)|>ute sin or guilt," therefore, is to charge the legal responsibility for transgression upon any one as the ground «f judicial pro- cess. ** Xot to impute sin " is to "cover it," remit its pun- ishment, and so refuse to make it the substance of a penal indictment (Rom. iv. G-8), Thus, though for very differ- ent reasons, was the guilt (rmtus pwurr) of Adam's act of apostasy imputed or charged to the account of nil his nat- ural descendants, who are punished together with him ; and the "many olTenees " uf all his peoj>Io were "la-d upon" or charged to the account of the Lord Jesus, and he suffered their punishment vicariously — i. c. in their stead and behalf. " The Lord hath laid on him the iniqui- ties of us all " (Isa. liii. f.-l2; Gal. iii. 13; 1 Pet. ii. 2-1); " Therefore as by the offence of one. judgment came upon all men to condemnation" (Rom. v. IS). Merit must also be distinguished (1) as worthiness of praise, which is inseparable from the person, and (2) wor- thiness of reward, which may be "imputed" or credited to all who by previous union or stipulation may have rights involved in the action of the meritorious agent. HiijhttniiH- nena means "that which satisfies law" (CVfWfr). all th:it constitutes the condition of acceptance or of reward — i. e. of forensic justification. This righteousness may bo wrought out personally in behalf of one's self, or vi'-ari- ously in behalf of another. Thus by the rewardableness INACHUS— IN'CLINED PLANE. 1131 of Cbrist's obedience, or his vicarious ri;;fhteousncss im- puted lo all who hflieve, as the ;;roun(i of tlicir sins being parJuned and thfir persona aueepted and treiiled as those with re;;ard to whuiu all tlie demands of the hiw have been fulfilleil. '* Even so by the ri;j;htL'OUMneiis of one the free pift came upon ail men unto justilication of life;*' ".So by the obedience of one shall many be made righteous " (Kom. V. IS, 19 and iv. :i-a). The entire Church agrees as to the fact, though difiercnt theories exist as to the jrrounds. of the imputation of Adam's first ."in. The imputation of Cliri^t's merits is clearly hehl hy the Lutheran and Reformed churches, but is obscured in the llonian Church by their doctrine of works, subjective justification, etc. IJclhirniine. Ann'us. ;/rat., v. 17 : "(The first sin) was iuij)ufed to all who were born from Adam." Fonn. of Concord, p. I'lllit, ilase : '■ We all, on ac- count of the disobedience o( Adam and Eve, are by na- ture children of wrath." James Arminius ( 1000-1 (JOU); "Whatever punishment therefore was inflicted ou our first parents . . . now rests on all their posterity." I'onu. of Conront, p. fiSJ, Hase : 'MVe believe that a sinner is justi- fied before tiod . . . only on account of the single merit, the perfect obedience and severe suffering, death, and resur- rection of our Lord Jesus Christ, whoso obedience is im- puted to us for righteousness." To the same effect see Jfcidrlhr.rg C'lfrchifni, quos. ))(). and WrHtDiliister CouJ\ of Faith, ch. ii. ^ 1, and all other Protestant symbols. A. A. HODRF, In'achuSy in Grecian mythology, the god of the river Inaehiis in Argos. who in the dispute between Poseidon and Here about the possession of Argos decidcil in favor of the latter, and hence was deprived of his water by Po- seidon and made dry exeept in the rainy reason. In otlier places Ina^hus is referred to .as the first king of Argos. who after the flood of Deucalion led I he Argivcsl'rom the moun- tains down into the plains; hence Argos is often called Inachian. Inarching* Sec Aiicuation-. In'ca [a Qiiichua worl. signifying *' chief"], in its strictest sense, designates the aI>soliitc monarch of the an- cient Peruvian empire, who was also chief jiriest and the recipient of divine honors. He was the doscimdant, hy unmixctl blood, of .Manco Capac and of the sun. The inca mn^t, if possible, be the child of his predecessor by his own sister— a custom which also prevailed in ancient Egypt, in Persia, and in many other lands. In a larger sense, the whole ruling and sacerdotal caste of ancient Peru were called incas. They also received a superstitious reverence from the lower ranks, and jiossosscd mnny social and jio- litieij privil-gcs. It is claimed hy c-rtain South American Indians that the old blof>d-royal is still ])reservcd. Ilicanta'tion [from I'l/, "upon." "over," and rnuto, to "ch;int"l Wits a lorni of magiif wliich was much believed in durin'^ tlie Middle Ages by all (icrmanic and msiny other nations, and of which some remnants are still extant in certain popular superstitions in Rngliin'l, Scnndinavia, an*! Germany. It consisted in the chanting or solemn recita- tion or mys'ical murmuring of certain phrases, generally of no incauin;;, but of a striking rhythm. In the mouths of certain persons these jihrases had the power of killing or curing a man, of blessing or blasting a field, of raising or laying a storm; or they could compel the spirits of the elements, or even the spirits of the dead, to apjicar and make revelations. Most often, however, inc-aniation was applied only as an accompaniment to other witchcraft, a-^, fur instance, to the preparation of tovc-potions or similar magical drugs; and remnants of this form arc still exist- ing among the European peasantry. In many j)Iaces the first use of a new tool, a new dress, etc. is invariably ac- companied by the pronunciation of certain phrases; and now and thf-n some old hag may bo met with in .Scothuwl, Norway, Jutland, and certain parts of (Jermany who iie- knowIedgi'H that she can euro fe\or, aches, rheumatism, consumption, heart disease, etc. by means of a formula t<hii has received in some m3'sterious way from another oM hnij. The incantations in Mufhrth and, Fitunt give a very vivid picture of this kinrl of magic. Incnr'natc Word, Lnilics of the, a congregation of nuns founded 1I>1.'.'> by .Jeanne Marie Chczan) do Matcl (I^DtJ-ir>70), approved hy the pope in l(i:t;5. Their work was at first one of instrnelion, but in IS(ifl they assumed the caro of hospitals. Tiiey have (1S76; eight houses in Texas. Incnrna'tioii [Lat. I'a, and mro, cnmh, " flcwh "], a term ap])liid grtK-rally to the presoneo of deity in a mortal form; theologically, to the union of God and man in (he person of Christ. The motives for the incarnation were — (iod's li»vo for man. nnd will to save bim from the worst coiisecptrnees of sin ( .John iii. 1 ti). his de«ire to raise human nature by joining the divine nature to it^ and to show man- kind "a perfect and exalted model of human excellence." That Christ might be given to the world two princi])les were united — the Holy Ghost from heaven, the Virgin Mary on earth (Luke i. ;jj). Through his conception by the Spirit he was entirely holy, " pericet God;" through his human birth hu had capal>ility for all human infirmi- ties exeept sin. was "perfect man," jiosscssing a "reason- able soul." (See Nickxk and Athasasian Crickijs.) No dogma has caused more dissension in the Christian Church, Among its early oii])osers were the Sabellians; the Samo- satencs, followers of Paul of Samosata; the Origenists; the Manicha;ans; and, most important of all. the Arians in the fourth century. (See Anns,) In the fifth century arose the sect of Eutychians, who. while aeknriwledging Christ's (lodheail, denied liis assumption of humanity. In modern times tlic doctrine of Christ's incarnation has been rejected by the Monnrehians, the PutrJpassians, and the Unitarians. Many authors, among whom StrauFs and Renan are eminent, have in our day written aldy to prove the mere manhood of Christ ; and tlic more advanced of the Broad Church ])arty are regarded as tending towards their opinion. (See The /nrnnmtifni, etc., by J. Metdrum (London, 1S07) ; Pull, JJr/etiHi'o Fidci Aiccnn-; Whately, EsHftyn un some uf the Pecufiarities of the ChrUtitin licfiy- ion.) Janct Tl'ckev. In'cense [Lat. inrmda, to " burn "]. a substance burned for the fragrance of its smoke, and used in the performance of a relisious ceremony. Tlie ancient Egyptian, the He- brew, the Crahmanical, and other religious ceremonials made use of incense-burning. The Roman Catholics and some of the Eastern churches use incense in their services. Tlie Catholic Apostolic (Irvlngite) Cliurch has adopted the practice. Various gums and spices are enijiloycd, but in the Roman Catholic Ciiureh olilianum is used, mixed with storax, cascarilla, and other ingredients. It is burned in a thurible or censer swung by chains. In'cest [Lat. inrcHtnm, from in, ** not," and castni, "chaste"], cohabitation or carnal intercourse between a man and a woman related to each other in any of the de- grees within whi(di marriage is proiiibitcd by law. This was not a criminal offence at common law, but, like adultery and fornication, it was left to the cognizance of the ecclesi- astical courts, which had power to annul incestuous mar- riages aufl to require the offender to perform a public pen- ance in the parish eluirch. Such a marriage was therefore not void, but voidable, and sentence declaring its nullity was required to he pronounced during the lifetime of both of the |)arties or it couhl not be pronounced at all. But by statute t) and William TV. ch. b\ ( lSr..'i-:;(i) murriages be- tween jK-rsons within the prohiljited degrees are declared absolutely null and void. What these degrees are is not stated by the statute, and this point is to be determined hy the previously established rules of the canon law and older statutes. IleIationshii> both hy consanguinity anil by affinity is coriiprehended within the prohibition in ac- cordance with the .«o-ealled Lcviticai degrees. If is held that marriage with a deceased wife's sister is within these degrees, and consequently void. The disability by con- sanguinity a[iplies to those who are of illegitiniiitc as well as to those of legitimate birth. No statute has, however, been passeil in Eni;land declaring incest to be a crime, so that it is not indictable at present any more than formerly. In the States of the Union incestuous nnirriages are gene- rally pndiiliited by statute, anil the degrees of relationsliip to wliieli the prohibition a)ii)lii s are. as a rule, specincally declared. Connection by affinity is not usually marie a cause of incapacity to marry. In New York, for instance, marriages between ])arents and children, including grand- parents and grandchildren, and between brothers and sis- ters of the half as well as of tlic whole hlooil, are incest- uous and voiil. This provision applies to illegilimato as well as to legitimate ehihiren. Incct-t is also declared lo be a crime by some of the Slates. In New York it is made a felony, anil is pnnisliable by inij>risonment in a State prison for a term not exceeding ton years. (^i:or(m; Ciiask. Ri:visr:n dv T. W. DwiniiT. Inch'bnid i Ki.i/. uu-.tii Simi'Son), h. Oct. If), 17:»3. at Stannin'^lii'ld. Suffolkshire, Englaml; nmrricd in KT2 the actor In<dibald, and went upon the stage the fame year; acted in London and other English cities with considerable success, luit retired from thr stngn in 17S1), and devoted herself to literary pursuits. She translated a great number of drannis fnon the French and German, and publi>hed Thf /tritinh Thrittrr, a collection of dramas in 2o vols. (LSOft-OK). The Modrrn Thfttlrc, a e.dlection in 10 vols. (If^O!)), and a colli-elion of FnrvrH in 7 vols. Her greatest success, howevf'r, was her romaiieo in l vols., .1 Si'mjifr S'ort/. published in 17U1, and translated into several of tlie Eur>>|M-iin lnngiiiit;es. I), in London Aug. I, lS'2l. Inclined Plane, in mechanics (witli the wheel and 1132 IN CCENA DOMINI— INDEPENDENCE OF STATES. ftxie, the pulley, the screw, the wedge, and the lever), one of the so-called "mechanical powers" or *' simple ma- cliincs." by which a small force, nctinj^ throiiph a great Icni^th of path, is made to overcome a greater force through a short length of path, tho intensity of the rniallcr force re- quired to the greater being inversely as the leni;tii r.f path through which each acts. Thus, a heavy gun islit(ed through a vertical height of say 10 feet (gravity or the weight of the gun acting vertically), and its path being thus estimated by a tractive force of ^th the weight of the gun acting along an inclined plane (or romp) Kill feet long from foot to summit. ■An inclined plane in general is an artificially-made nunp or surface inclined at a small angle to the horizon. (For inclined planes for railroads sec RAii.noAns; for canals, SCO b;cr-iNKi> Tlanes for Canals, in Aitendix.) In Cw'na Do'mini [Lat. for " at the Lord's Supper ;" its first words as at one time written, it having after 1027 been read annually for many years on Ilnly Thursday, the anniversary of tho first eucharistic feast], a famous bull against heretics, schismatics, sacrilegious persons, pirates, forgers, and others. This bull is of very ancient and un- certain date. Opposed by several governments of Europe ns an infringement upon royal privileges, thi? bull was de- clared void in lylO by the Council of Tours; but it still was annually read at Rome, though often modified in form, until 1770, when its annual promulgation ceased, another and more modest document taking its place. Easter Mon- day was finally appointed for its annual promulgation. In'come-Tax, a form of direct tax based upon the ac- tual annual income of individual citizens. Theoretically, it is the most equitable of all taxes, according most fully with the generally accepted maxim of Adam Smith, that "the subjects of every state ought to contribute to the sup- port of the government as nearly as possible in proportion to their res]>octive abilities; that is, in proportion to the revenues which they respectively enjoy under the protec- tion of the state.** It would seem fairest that a small per- centage should be levied on all incomes. Cut most advo- cates of this tax insist that incomes beluw a certain amount should go altogether uutaxed, and that tho percentage should be increased on the larger incomes. Usage has adopted those two features. The chief objection to an in- come-tax is the difficulty, almost impossibility, of ascer- taining men's real incomes; partly because many keep no accurate accounts, and partly bccnuse few, comparatively, will make truthful report of their incomes, and the inquis- itorial nature of the tax is offensive. Hence the honest and conscientious bear the most of this burden. In Great liritain an iu'-oiue-tax was first levied in 1798, but it was abandoned soon after the close of the Xapoleouic wars. Tt was again instituted in IS 12, and has been con- tinued froui that time to the present (1S75), not without mucli murmuring on the part of the people. Incomes under £100 are exempt, and a lower percentage is levied on those between £100 and £1.»0. It is estimated that nearly one-sixth of the annual revenue of the kingclom is derived from this source. In the l'. S. the national gov- ernment collected an income-tax for ten years, from ISO;! to 1872. The first law exempted $000, and levied 5 per cent, on all incomes above that sum to ?jOOO, 7 per cent. on all from $5000 to $10,000, and 10 per cent, on all above $H>,O00. Whatever was ]>aid for rent or repairs was de- ducted. Subsequent legislation increased the amount ex- empted—first, to $1000. and later to $2000. The largest amount raised in any one year from personal incomes wa3 in 1SG«— about $Gl,6u(l,Oo6, fnim 460.170 persons asscssc-l. Actual experience under the law tended to relieve difficul- ties an<l objections. When most efficiently carried out, con- cealment and dishonesty wore certainly not greater under this form of tax than under auy other form affecting per- sonal property. A. L. Chaims. Incoinmensurables* See Couuensurables, by F. A. 1*. Barn \in>. Incorporeal lie reditaincnts. See IlEnEDiTAMEMs iNconiuittAi., by I'ltoK. T. W. DwuJiiT, liL.D. Iiiciibation. See IIatciiisg. Incuin'brance, or Encumbrance, a burden, im- pediment, a hindrance: in law, a legal claim on an estate, for the discharge of which the estate is liable. The term is a general name for liabilities by which an estate in lands and hereditaments may be burdened, such as mortgages and annuities. Incunab'ula, the name given by bibliographers to Iwoks printed betore IJtlO. and important not only for the history of printing, but also in artistic and scientific re- spects. The name is derived from the Latin rNCti;i<i6i(/M, a '•cradle," hence generally "beginning." Indenture. See Deed, by Pkof. T. W, Dwionr, LL.D. Independence, The, of the U. S. of America. See Deilahatio.n of Isdei'Endence. Indcpen'dence, county in thcN. E, of Arkansas, trav- ersed by the navigable White Kivcr. .-Vrea. 1010 square miles. It is iiilly and very f'^rtile, producing grain, to- bacco, cotton, wool, cattle, ana hay. The county is well timbered, and contains lead and other valuable minerals. Cap. Batcsville. Pop. 14,.>;'.G. Independence, tp. of Autaga co., Ala. Pop. Ii:;7. Independence, tp. of Marion co., Ark. Pop. 220. Independence, tp. of Pliillips co., Ark, Pop. 63S. Independence, tp. of Pope co.. Ark. Pop. 210. Independence, post-v., cap. of Inyo co.. Cab, 275 miles N. of Los Angeles, in the fertile Owens Valley, and in a region abounding in gold, silver, and lead ores, both quartz and galena. It is ;jj miles Is. E. of Mt. Whitney, believed to be the highest mountain in the V. S. Its court- house, destroyed by an earthquake in 1872, has been rebuilt in fine style. It has a weekly newspaper and important business interests. Pop. of tp. 400. CUALFANT it PaIIKEU. PlBS. " InVO iNDEPEXnENT." Independence, tp. of Saline co., III. Pop. G-IS. Independence, a v. of Madison co., Ind., in Boono tp. Poj). 40. Independence, post-v. of Warren tp., Warren co., Ind., on the W. t'ork of White River and on the Toledo Wabash and Western U. K. Pop. 183. Independence, tp. of Appanoose co., la. Pop.loriO. Independence, city, cap. of Buchanan eo., la., on tho river Wapsipinicon, and on the Illinois Central and the Bur- lington Cedar Rapids and Minnesota R. Rs.. 65 miles AV. of Dubuque. Its school buildings cost $75,000 ; it has 2 banks, 2 newspapers, 1* churches, apubUc library, :» fire companies, 3 parks, spacious fair-grounds, and very fine mills. It is a very handsome town, and is the scat of a State insane asylum, of which the buildings cost nearly $1,000,000. It is in a rich agricultural region. Pop. 2945. W. BaHMIAUT, Ed. " iNDnPFXDESCE CONSEUVATIVE." Independence, tp. of Jasper co., la. Pop. 8:14. Independence, post-v., cap. of Montgomery co.. Kan., on a liranch of the Leavenworth Lawrence and tialvcston R. R., Ili4 miles by rail 8. by W, of Lawrence, and on tho river Verdigris. It was founded in 1870, has 5 churches, 3 banks, 3 weekly newspapers, a fine school-building, and is an important business centre. Pop. 4.35 ; of tp. 131)4 ; much increased since the census. W. T. YoE, Ed. ** Tribfxe." Independence, post-v. of Kenton co., Ky., on the Louisville and Cincinnati U. R. Pop. 134. Indci)endcnce, tp. of Oakland co., Mich. Pop. 1586. Independence, tj>. of Henncpiu co-.^Iinn. Pop. 502. Independence, tp. of Dunklin co., Mo. Pop. 747. Independence, city. can. of Jackson co.. Mo., 10 miles E. of Kansas City, with which it is connected by a narrow- gauge railroad. It is 3 miles from the Missouri River; is the seat of 2 colleges and other important public and pri- vate schools; is a well-built town: has 2 banks and 2 weekly newspapers. It has a historical fame as being for many years the head-quarters of the overland routes to Oregon, California, New Mexico, etc. Founded 1S27. Pop. 3184. J. N. SOLTHEKN, Ed. **Se.ntisel." Independence, tp. of Macon co., Mo. Pop. 1120. Independence, tp. of Nodaway co.. Mo. Pop. 670. Independence, tp. of Schuyler co., Mo. Pop. 1 115. Independence, tp. of Warren co., N. J. Pop. 1766. Independence, tp. and post-v. of .\llegany co., N. Y. It has considerable manufacturing interests. Po]). 1175. Independence, tp. and post-v. of Cuyahoga co., 0., 4 miles from Clevclaud. Pop. 1701. Independence, tp. of Washington co., 0. Pop. 1395. Independence, tp. of Beaver co.. Pa. Pop, 728. Independence, tp. and post-v. of Washington co., Pa., 7 miles from Wellsburg, W. Va, Pop. of v. 144; of tp. 077. Independence, post-v. of Washington co., Tex., 25 miles from Hempstead on the Houston and Texas Central 11. R., 12 miles from Brenham on the Austin branch of that line, and situated near the Yegua River. It is the seat of Baylor I'niversity and Baylor Female College, be- longing to the Baptists, the university containing a library of 2700 volumes. It has public schools and 3 churches. Independence, post-v., cap. of Grayson co., Va. Independence of States. States are said, in polit- ical science, and especially in international law. to be in- dependent when they are self-governing as far us internal ^^^ii^^pi^^^^^E PLANTATION-INDEPENDENTS^ 1133 relations are concerned, and can perform towards other 1 states all inlcrn,itional nets. The term, denol.n^' the ne- gaUonuf control, is the negative side of s„v,.rc,,„.y «_l.cn fl?at term is tnk-,. in its strict sense. Thus, no Mute of the U S isinJopcMdeut. because the separate .■stales are not ttbsuiutelv so fKovorninir. and because they have properlj :„7nu'rn^.ional character, while the qua „y belongs to the V. S. as reallv as to any simple torm ol "■<"""■;>'>•. But the „„rddoes-not imply the power of absolutely tree action be!-a«se treaty, temporary or V'^V't-'^'' :^%''^ZlZ- such free action. Independence Plantation, a settlemeut in I'enob- j soot CO., Me. IV'p. l'"^''- Indenen'dents. I. A politico-religious party in the tin "of the"o„M".nwealth of Kngland The conthct wh.ch , became a civil war in tho reigu of Charles I was. po f- callv a conflict between a king wh., thought himself a , so erei-n bv divine right with absolute power, and a peo- | «^ deU-rmined to mamtain the.r inherited liberty and to Ca d with new securities. But tho poltical questions ^f the time were intimately blended with religious and ec- clesmstieal questions, which had been agitated lor a luu- dred years. The English Reformation, il we regard . as pocee^iing from the people, was characterized by a violen kniipathv against the ecclesiastical system of the Middle r.el, and therefore against all compromises with what was, in" the view of the Reformers, a mischievous superstition. Re-arded as proceeding from the government, it was mainly l„7"l empt to make Knghmd independent ol n.n.<,hycon- ?er ing upon the sovereign the ecclesiastical jimsdiction wh -h had belonged to tho p.ipe. Consequently there aro.e a conflict between tho ideal reformation, expected but "„t vet attained, and the government nforma ion, abhoi- rc, t of radicalism and disposed to retain whatever of the an ent svslein was not incompatible with the supremacy o? the Crown in ecclesiastical affairs. As tlio confl.c pro- ceeded the I'uritan or reforming party became almost identical with tho political party opposed to absolu ism in he state ; and. on the other hand, the court party, devoted „ tl o king, became the conservative I'^rty in the Church. At he be^nningof the Long Parliament (lOiO) the par y of law and liberty in the slate, and of reformation iii he Churrb%ad no dennite plan for tho reconstruction of tho eccnastical establishm'.nt, an,l all who were opposed to Uiat establishment as then organized and administered c 1 d act together. Hut when tho conllicl had become a war between the king and tho Parliament and especially I er "the Solemn League and ^^1"'']'^, nrZ' I i Puritanism of England and that of Scotland (1G4J) had b ,X a powerful Scottish influence into the southern k ngdom, diversities of opinion as to the f"'"™ »";■•" " of tlie Church of England began to bo '"M-'r '"'t '" lie relation to public affairs. It was assume, t liat tl'c d irol reformation of the national Church was to bo efrected by the authority of the nation, as in the preeeding century the reforinaiiou under Henry VIH. and Edward V ..a id af.erwards under Elizabeth, had been eftected. Accordingly, the Parliament had convened, not "/"'P'-"^^"'"^';"^"';'' „r convocation that might as.nimo to bo the t ''".';f f""l " .et up an aulhority co-ordinate or in conflict "'" '" ^'V, thori y of the state, but only an •' Assembly ot Duines, who were to consider such matters only as might bo refer ed to them bv the Parliam.-nt, and to give advieo which he Pa liamenl might accept or reject J he nienibers of t he Assemblv were selecte.l with the evident design that all Prot- fstat diversities of opinion con.-erning the eonsti..ition a oriler of the Church should be fairly expressed and considered. Such diversities of opinion developed parties both in tho Assembly of Divines and m tho Parliamen . .q.rne had for their ideal a r.:due"d episcopacy, will, a 1,1- nriy expurgated in the inlce.t ollhorough 1 rolesta iitisni. Others, formidable in number and in zeal, desired to see tho national Church governed by presbvterial and synodi- cal assemblies, alter the fashion of the llelormed or ( alvin- ■ Stic churches on the Continent an.l in .Seo land. .S i 1 another party had heard of " the New Englaml way, and, be", " in cor?espondenco with Puritan friends who had re- moved to ^Llssaehusell3 and Connecticut, and were there inslituting what thev deemed a more primitive system of ..eelcsiastical order, they had learncl to recogni/.e no other church government than that of vduntary churches self- governed under Christ and mutually indepe.ident, yet bound to each other in relations of comity and niutual in- tercourse. Those who preferred that - New Kngla,.,! way to tho scheme of a reformed and purilied national Church were known as /ii</>v"'"''''""- In both Houses of the Long Parliament there were some eminent men who. while heartily agreeing with "-e niajor- i,V in the subversion of tho eeclesiaslical system which md been established in the reign of Elizabeth, were not willing to establish in its place a presbyterian ^""P''"'^'''^'',' '"] of Scotland. Among the peers. Lord Say and Seal, Lord lirooke. and a few others were in full sympathy on relig- ous grounds, with the " dissenting brethren." or Independ- ents who were a small but able and persistent minority in tl e Assemblv of Divines. In the House of Commons a few men of eniinent ability had aceeptcl, with religious faith, the New England church polity as better han any reformed episcopate or any presbytcrial and synodical gov- ernment. One of them was Sir Henry Vane, the younger who ha.l lived a year or two in New England, where he h.wl made his entrance into public life as governor of Massa- ehusetts Another was Nathaniel Fiennes. who was a son of Viscount Say and Seal, and a trusted lea.ler. and was associated with his father in the Committee of bafe ty the executive council through wliieb Parlianient governed Eng- Hnd while in conflict with the king. Another was iver Ciomwell, who was the kinsman and close friend ol .lohn Ilamp.len, and had already succeeded to a large share of ' that llnstrious patriot's influence in the House, lo these i may added tlie name of Oliver St. John one of the nios ' emfnent lawvers of England, who had been counsel lor jZ Ian pden in the ship-money case, who was atlerwards so Ic tor- Jneral, and who was no less a st.atesman thiin a awver In the strictly ecclesiastical use of the name, the Spendents,difl-eriug from the Presbyterians not on doc- t"inaH oints,but only on church government, were a small thoiul able minority in the nation, as well as m the As- em.lv of Divines and in the Parliament. Their deman, wTs not that their ecclesiastical system s liou d he establ.sl ed bv law and all others suppressed, but only that the chnrche wh ch thev were eonstiti.ting by voluntary agreement inight bo to crated. Politically, however, the Independen s be- came a numerous and powerful party. The Bap ists (or :rthev were then opptobriously ^al'-l, ' - .A->"P<-^ were Independents, religiously as well as politicallj . All he swarmin- "sectaries" in that age ol excitement the "secT and schisms" which so terrified those who had set their hearts on national nniformity. were eoun cd with the sue party, and the army was full of them. In the prog- c o inqilirv and controversy about ecclesiastical reei- s ruction the scheme preferred by the mnjonty of the 1 uil- an clergy was not, on the whole, gaining favor in Parlia- nent An increasing number of e„l ghtened men wero determined that the Presbyterian discipline, enlorcing by ehur™ cmirts its strict morality and its rigid dogmatism, 8 on not, wilh their consent, be established in England a a sv"te n to vliieh all Englishmen must be by law suh- ecred- Mostof tho laymen in the Assembly of Dtvincs- fmong whom tho lawyers Sel.len and Whiteloeke were con- s^ ous-seem to have favored the opinion that there ought to be no distinction between ecclesiastical govcn.nien and civil that participation in Christian sacramen s should be "he r'i'ht of ever' citizen, and that there should be no ex- co nmunicatiou or church censure but by the -S- •-'«• These men were called Erastians ; and two ol tl e clergy- men in the Assembly-.he two, ^f ''""'-'; ','';-"'J^: were in some respects the most learned-held the same heory The learning and ability of the Erastians. as well as iK- veal ami enthuriasm of the •' sectaries." went to , n - crea e the strength of the In.lependents as a poll ical party rthe Parliament and in the nation. /^ ha had bee,, he „reat I'uritan party, intent on the relormation of the im- f^U'Zurch Ll -the vindication of KngHs h il^r.y was ,iivi,i,.,l and br.dicn up. On one side were tho 1 lesbyte- iai as al 1 o nliiformity of doctrine and disciplino ; 1 ; nat onal Chmeh as (Jucen Eli.abi.h and her prelates Ta,! ever been for unilormitv of ritual, and as abhorrent of es. Are bishop Laud himself ha,l been. On the other side were the In.lependents, inelu.ling all those who hoiight or felt thi n„ e-clesiastieal government of E.iglan, by pres vteries ami svnods might b,. as irksom.. as hat whi.'h [lad been so l„telv-abolished. The division had been f,..m he first inevitable, for it was the result ot pri„ei|.l,s hat could m.tereeon;ile,l. an.l that c.uld n.d but come into CO f^ c ov r anv definite pr.q.osal for eccles,ast,c,.l recon- sm t m. Puritanism, looking to S.-.., an.l and relying ■« Hi. ••S.demn League and Covenant," ha.l becnie Presby- te ian s, ,. an.l, the king ami his party being va„.,u,she. , Tf .1 a n.^w antagonist in the parly of the In.lepen.le its. V .,, the cnln.lof afl-airs in the name ,d the Parlia- ment i. passe,! from the Presbyterians lo the Indepen.l- Tt" ek "g.whoha.l been for s..nie ,„ne a prison... and who in his neg.,tia.b,ns with all parties I.a.l shown loo faithless t.i be trust.'d. was brought lo trial b. tore a e inn ission .■onstitute.l f..r the purpose, was con. eniiied to 3: ami »as beheade.l (.Ian. ■.'». IfilO). Eor tha runs^ „rli.,nll.e In.lependents as a party were responsibh. In ennneetion with it. and as preliminary to the ordinance wle I onstitute.l the cmniilsion. th,. House of Comnioiis "len reduce.! t.. a s.uall remnant of ,1s original number, 1134 INDETERMINATE. matlc a formal declaration that tlic people, under Go<l. arc ] the nriginal of all just power; that the I'oninions House I in Parliament, bein.i; ehoscn by and representing the peo- ple, have the supreme power; and that whatever is by them j enacted has the ibree of law, tliou-;!! tlie eonsent of kinj^ j ancl pet-rs he not added to it. A few days alter the death j of Charli'S I. (Feb. fi) it was voted in the same assembly i thiit tlie House of Peers in Parliament is useless, danger- I ous. and ouj^ht to be ab()lished. Tlie next day it was voted that the office of a kinj; in the English nation, and to have tlio power in a sin^^Ie |jerson, is unneecssary, burdensome, anil dangerous to the liberty, safety, and pul)lic interest of the people. A council of state, to be annunlly appointed, was invested witii the executive power. Of that body, five | were peers (for though tlio House of Lords had been abol- i ished, such of the peers as had not adhered to the king in ' his wjir against the Parliament were permitted to retain ] Ihcir estates and their titles of honor) ; two were sons of peers; five were baronets; two were keepers of the seal; three were the chief judges respectively of the three great courts of law ; three were eminent military commanders in the service of the Parliament; five were knights, and the remaining seventeen, untitled, were, all save one. members of t)io body that appointed them. John Bradshaw, who hnil presided in the trial of the king, was chosen president of tlio council, and his kinsman, John Milton, was its Latin secretary, for it had determined that its corrcsponcl- ence with foreign governments should be only in the lan- guage which was common to Christendom, The attempt of the Imlependents to convert England into a republic failed, os similar iittcmpts have failed in other countries. It was the attempt of a republican mi- nority against the will of the anti-republican majority. Of the three parties into which the English nation was at that time divided, the Independents, though strong in the abil- ity and enthusinsm of their leaders and in their control of a veteran and victorious army, were numerically the weak- est. The most numerous party, when the residuary Par- liament decreed the abolition of monarchy, was the Pres- byterian, animated with zeal for a national Church and for religious uniformity, hut abhorrent of that religious liberty which the republic was to establish, and which to the aver- age Englishman of that age seemed almost identical with irreligion. But only less numerous was the party which, having adhered to the king, retained its sympathy with the lost cause, and which favored an episcopal rather than a prosbyterial government over the national (^hurch. and the beauty of a venerable liturgy rather than the fervor of ex- temporaneous jirayers in the worshipping assembly. These two parties together were in truth the body of the English people; and as they were agreed in desiring a national Churcli, together with the old government by king, lords, and commons, they were also agreed in hating and fearing the victorious Independents. In a (rue republic the ma- j jority must rule, but the founders of "the Commonwealth j of England '* attempted to establish a republican govern- t ment over an anti-republican people. Conscious of being 1 sustained by only a small minority, the Parliament, a mere j residuum of the great body which met in 1040, dared not i ajipeal to the people by dissolving itself and calling for a \ new election. All the ability with which it governed I through its council of state enuld not win for it the conti- | dcnce of the nation. It aimed at the establishment of lib- | crty and justice, but by the great majority of Englishmen I it was felt to be a usurpation supported hy military power. In the fif'h year of the Commonwealth the republican ' Parliament, derisively called "the Ilum[i." was working at | a hill for its own dissolution, and wsis endeavoring to pro- j vide such arrangements for the election of its successor as I would secure the ascendency of its own ]>arty, when it was I dissolved and dispersed (lt)5;i) by the military power which j had made it what it was. Then followed the Protectorate I of Oliveii Cuomwkm. (which see), who attempted in an- | other way what the statesmen of the Uump were nnaiile to ! do. H? was in fact a " king by the grace of (lod," though without the crown or the name of king; and had his reign ' been prolonged, the vigor and sjdcndor of his government might have reconciled (he English people to that principle of government which first made the Indepemlents a politi- cal party: which was so abhorred by the Presbyterians i that to escape from it they aided in the restoration of Charles II.; which was only imperfectly recognized in the *' Act of Toleration" (lOSil): nnd which is now triumphantly marching toward the disestablishntent of the' national Church in England — the principle of religious toleration. On that principle the Independents were united, though it is not to bo supposed that all of them — perhaps not that any of them — saw clearly the reach, or consented to all the legitimate applications, of the principle. (Sec the histories of England, especially Godwin's Vuuimnnirciltb of JCmj- l.iinl. Lkonaud Bacon. II. A religious body in England holding that every stated congregation of Christian believers associated under a voluntary agreement, formal or informal, for Christian worship and for mutual watchfulness and helpfulness in the Christian life, is a complete Church, invested with every prerogative wbi<di Christ has conferred on any Church, and dependent for the exercit^e of ecclesiastical funtitions on no authority exterior to itself, whether secidar or hierarchical. (See Conguhgationai.ism.) The most con- siderable difierenee between Independency in England and Congregationalism in the U. 8. is that in the former the principle of the fellowship and mutual responsibility of churches, though recognized, is not so fully developetl and made practical as in the latter. The ecclesiastical his- tory of England gives no dcfiuite trace of a Church consti- tuted on the platform of Indopendeney earlier than 1507. More than ten years later, Robert Browne, a clergyman of the EstaVdished Church, began to jireaeh against all na- tional churches, and to urge the duty of falling back upon the original constitution of Christian socii-ties as deduced by him from the \ew Testament. Compelled by persecu- tion to take refuge in the Netherlamls. he printed there (l.')S2), for circulation in England, two books, in which he propounded his new idea and method of church reformation — a method as unwelcome to the Puritans, who were work- ing and suffering for a reformation by act of Parliament, as it was to the bitterest enemies of Puritanism. His idea was '' reformation without tarrying for any." or separation from the national Church as an essentially anti-Christian institution, and the formation of independent churches. It was impossible to suppre-s the idea, for, notwithstanding the prison and the gallows, the early "separatists" woulil not attend the parish churches, would hold their con- venticles, would propagate their revolutionary opinions, and persecution cxacerliated their enthusiasm into fanati- cism. They were called " Brownists." though Browne had deserted them. They were also called *• Barrowists." from Henry Barrowc, another of their champions, who was one of their martyrs. At a later date ( in the time of the Long Parliament) (hey began to be called Independents, and they accepted the name. By that name their successors have ordinarily been designated till the present century, though now they prefer to call themselves Congregationalists. The Independents or Congregationalists in Great Britain and the British colonies are a numerous and enter])rising body of Christians. They have more than .'JOOO cliurches, and the number is constantly increasing. The Lontlon Missionary .Society, though not exclusiv<ly theirs, is the organization through which they conduct their foreign missions. They have a home missionary society for their work in England, and a colonial missionary society to aid their churches in the colonies. Exehuleil till within a few years past from the universities, they lia\e established col- leges of their own for the classical and theological educa- tion of their ministers: and their colleges in England are now affiliated with the London I'niversity. Several jour- nals, weekly and monthly, are ojnductcd in their interest, and the lin'tix/i Qmn-f' ifi/ Jinitw may be regarded as rep- resenting, unofficially, their principles. (.See .Skeats's //("«- tortf of the Ficc Cfiitrc/irt> nf Eixjluml.) LkoNARD Bacon. Independent Treasury, See TuEAsiftv op Unitfd Statks. Indcter'minate. A mathematical quantity is said to ho imictermitKitf when it admits of an infinite number of values. An etfuntntu is said to be iitf/rtmniwtte when the unknown quantities that enter it admit of an infinite num- ber of values. Thus, the equation of a straight lino y = r(.r -f fc is indeterminate; for, if we give to x any value, we can find from the equation a corresponding value of y such that the assnmeil and deduced values will satisfy the equation; that is, there are infinite sets of values of .r and ;/ that will satisfy the given equation. In like manner, it may be shown that any equation which contains moro than one unknown quantity is indeterniinale : it is obvious that any group of simultaneous equations is indeterminate when the group contains fewer equations than there arc unknown quantities; hence, the equations of lines and sur- faces used in analytical geometry are indeterminate. For this reason analytical geometry is often called indeter- minate geometry. A pn,hlt m is saitl to lie tuihterminnte when it admits <if an infinite number of solutions. A prob- lem will be indeterminate when the number of independent ermditions is less than the number of required parts, for in that ease the numberof equations tliat express the imjiosed conditions will he less than the number of unknown quan- tities ; the equations of the problem will therefore be in- ileterminate, and consequently the problem itself will bo iniletenninate. Thus, the problem in which it is required to find a point from which the tangents to two given circles shall be equal is indeterminate; the solution of the prob- lem shows that there arc an infinite numberof such points. INDETERMINATE ANALYSIS— INDEX, CONCORDANCE, ETC. 113.3 which, taken together, lunke up a straight line cnllod the I radical axis of the two circles. W. 0. Pkck. Indeterminate Analysis is that branch of annlysis | wliich treats of the si>luti«<a nf inilt'tiTininale problems. I In most practical cases the ;;iven conditions limit llie num- i ber of solutions, without iifTrcting the mode of treatment, j The method of treatinjif indeterminate problems will he best illustrated by means of a problem of this ehararter. Let it he required to find what year of the current Julian ' period corresponds to 1S75 A. n.. that year beini; the eighth ; of the current nol<tr cifcle, the fourteenth of the current huinr ri^^l>\ and (he third of the current cyctr of int/ictioii. The statement of this problem depends on the following definitions: the Mftfaf tt/r(e is a ])eriod of 28 years: the ! tini'ir ci/cir is a period of 19 years ; the ci/ric of {u<llrtion i is a period of 15 years; tlio D'fnujHiitn period is a period of 2S X 19, or 532 years, whose first year is the first year of a solar and also of a lunar cycle ; and the JtdUtn period is a period of 2S X 19 X 1''. or T'JSO years, whoso first year is the first year of a solar cycle, of a lunar cycle, and also of a cycle nf indiction. Firnt. To fin<l the year of the current Dionysian period, let X denote the number of complete solar cycles that have I elapsed since the begiuuin;; of this period, and tf the nuiii- ■■ her of complete lunar cycles that have elapsed ; from the | conditions of the problem we have I I9y -f.ll^2S^ + 8, or 19^V = 28j-_G. (1) It is required to find the least entire values of .r and y that will satisfy equation (1) ; dividing by 19, we have in which tho last term must be a whole number; placing this equal to t, wc have 9*~6 = 19f, orx = 2/ + -^*, (:J) in which tho last terra must be a whole number; tho least vubio of ( that will satisfy this condition is ',\ ; this value of / in (o) gives a:= 7, and this in (2) gives i/ = 10 ; hen-jc, the year 187j is tho 204th year of tho current Dionysian period. Srrondli/. To find tho year of tho current Julian period, let II denote the number of complete Dionysian periods that have elapsed since the beginning of the current Julian period, and z tho number of complete cycles of indiction; wo shall have, as before, 155 + 3=-532u + 20-t, ors = 35w + 13 + — -^ *j (4) placing tho fractioaal term equal to «, wo bavo 7k -h 6 =s 15», or H = 2» + — — . (5) The least entire value of « that will satisfy (6) is « = H, which gives ii = 12 ands— liJU. Hence, the year IS".") is the 053.Sth year of the current Julian ]!eriod. We also find that since the beginning of this jieriod 2;j5 conipluto solar cycles have elapsed, and 439 complete lunar cycles. W. G. Pi:cK. Indeterminate ('ocflicicnts. An idmtir'tl etfun- fion is nil equation that is true for all values of tho unknown quantity or quantities that enter it. In every such equa- tion the unknown quantity or quantities are indeterminate, and the cot^fficients of the different powers and combina- tions of powers of these quantities aro called indrttriniinUc citrjjifi'riitg. If an identical equation containing any num- ber of unknown quantities is cleared of fractions, tho co- enielents id' the like powers and eoinljinations of powers in the t wo nii'tnbfrs are rcs]>ectively iH|ual to each other. This is tfifi pn'iiri/ilr «)/ iti<lctrfmiiuitt'. c'trj/irit'iitH: it is much used in developing ((uantities into series and in resolving frac- tions into partial fractions. W. (J. Pkck. In'dcv, Concordanoo^ Digest, Talile of Con* tents. In bililidgraphy, an index is an ulplmhetical list or table of tho principal suhjects, facts, words, or names discussed, employed, or noticed in the work to which it is appeinb'd, with references to tho chapter, page, or para- graph in which they occur. Indexes are usually printed at the end of the last (or sometimes of each separate) vol- unn- of tho book. An index may be general or special, comprising in the latter ease suhjoets, nnf {u<lr.r ; words, vrrhiti iudrx ; or personal ur geographical names. Tho title '* index " is also applied to independf^nt lists of books — c, tf. the Iiifirj' fCr/tiirijafitriuit or ludrx Lihronim t*rtt- hihitorum of (he Komish Church: or to catalogues of nuh- jccta, as tho manuscript tables in some libraries, which refer tho student to all the works in the library in which a given subject is treated of. Indexes separately jtrinted sometimes embrace the contents of more than on« work, as AVuber's valuable index to J.(irimin's Dnifaihc O'rammattk and to his (Jesrhichtc drr Dmtnchrn S/>raffif\ A concordance is an alphabetical list of words occurring in a particular work or collection of works. It diflfers from a verbal index by being somewhat more full, as it usually cites enough of tho passage whore the word occurs to show its grammatical relations to the period. (See CoNcoitDANrK.) To the list there given may br addetl Fliigel's ('otimrdnnre to the K'ttrmi, II. II. Furness's Cimcordfiticr to t/ir /^triiiit uf S/niknprure, and that of Piendergast to the J'oems of Miltun (Madras, 1.S57). A digest is an alphabetical table of subjects, differing from a real index or index of subjects by being suftieiently copious to give a sutuinary of the doctrines of the littok on each topic referred \o. Tho word is most frequently ap- plied to tabular abstracts of points judieinlly decided in books of legal reports. Digests are often published sep- arately, and comprise tho contents of voluminous series of reports. A table of contents is a list of the subjects or important facts discussed in tho work or volume to which it helongs, arranged in tho order in which Ihey oeeur in the text. It is usually printed after the preface or introduction. It in some degree serves the jmrpose of an index, but its general use is rather to give a conspectus or comprehensive view of the matter and method of the work than to aid the stu- dent to find particular passa<;cs. Tahles of contents are doubtless older th:in indexes with references to folios or pages. The jircpaiation ttf an index is a work of too much labor to bo ordinarily performed for a single copy. Tho manuscript copies of any work would not usually corre- spond in column or page, and therefore a prige-referenec index prejiared for one cojiy would nttt serve for another, while a table of contents, following the method of the hook, would answer equally well for all, however dilfcrently jiagcd. The most familiarly known ancient table of contents is that which forms the first book of the Xtittmil //iston/ of Pliny tho Elder. This tabic, as Pliny says in the dedlt-ation, he prepared in order that "as any man is desirous to know this or that, he may. seek and readily fincl in what ])laee to meet with the same." IIo adds: "This learned I of Va- lerius Soranus, one of our own Latin writers, who hath done tho like before me." Pliny therefore intended this tabic to serve tho purpose of an index, and as the catalogue of precious stones in chapter x. book xxxvii. of tlie JVut- nral I/ixtori/ shows that be was acquainted with the valuo of an alphabetical arrangement, it is singular that he should not have employed it in his tai)le, referring to books instead of pages. M"e should infer from Pliny's language that ho knew no other examjile of a table of contents than that of Soranus. but Cicero, \'arro, f^eneca. and Quintilian use the word index in a way which shows that something like tabular summaries or digests of the matter of philo- sophical and other writings existed in their times. Tho LartntitiiiH of 14()j (the first book printed in It;ily with a date) has a table of contents following the order of the chapters, but it refers also to the folios on which the chap- ters commence. These numeral references are pn'utrd, hut tho numeration of the folios, as well as the headiiit^s of tho chajiters, is manuscript. At the end rif the second volume of the Latin Hible printed hy Pannartz at llomein 1171 isa copious niphabetical list of Hebrew proper names occurring in the Scriptures, with interpretations of tho etymological meaning. The early editions of ancient classics tire verj commonly provided with tables of contents and with reg- isters of the signatures, hut alphabetical reference intlexes wore hardly known until the practice of numbering tho folios or pages became general. Tho tables of contents in fifteenth-century editions often refer U* the folios by printed numerals, but in books of that age the folios themselves aro rarely numbered typographically, and Aldus Manutius in one of his i)refaecs advises students to numher them by hand. The Aii/nn GrlUun puhlisheil at the press of Aldus after his death in I.'il.'i lias its folios numbereil, and is one of the earliest examples of completeness in indexes. It is jirovi^lecl with an iudrr corviit i/iirr nnfitfn f/Zf/nn, etc. in six- teen folios, containing not only sulijeel.H, but single words, arranged in nc'arly exact nlphahetii'iil order, and with printed references to tho folios ; also with an uttrr imfcc, or table of matters, ffiiir nd f/nninmit train Hi'vr tid utiim nrtnt prrtiinnnt,\n fifteen folios, arranged under chapters in the order in which the subjects occur, and with relVTcnees lo tho number of the folios. These two (ahles precede tho text. After the text follow a list of the titles of the chap- ters in the same order as in the volume, in twenty-lhreo folios, without references to (he numbered folios, and an- other li^l, in twenty-eight folicis, <if the Ctreek quotations emjiloyed by Aulus (Jellius, with Latin translations, and with references l<i the nufiiatnrrn of the sheets. In this book, then, we find nearly all the forms of imlex known to nnidern bihliography. It is probable that verbal imlexi's— and, wo may add, glossaries and dictionaries — ori^inate<| in tho practice of making glosses or notes explanatory of particu- 1136 INDEX-INDEX LIBRORUM PROHIBITORUM. lar words on the margin of manuscripts. When a scholiast j had thus annotated a vohimc it would be an easy step to collect the notes into a table. An alphabetical arrangement would naturally suggest itself as the most convenient, and the collection of glosses would grow until it embraced all the obscure or otherwise noticeable words employed by the author, and finally answer the purpose not only of a glossary or special dictionary of the vocabulary or stock of words of the writer, but also of an index. Verbal indexes and concordances are most useful, not to say indispensable, aids in philology and criticism, and real indcNCS are not less so in llie study of works of science, and even of general literature, especially history. If such works conformed strictly to philosophical method, real in- dexes would be less needed, and tables of contents would sufficieullv answer the general purpose of a guide to the matter of'a volume. Uut. unfortunately, French writers alone seem to possess the science of method, and English as well as German literature is conspicuous for the want of this excellence. Besides this, the encyclopffidic learning of German (and in late years of English) scholars both tempts and facilitates the accumulation of an immense mass of subsidiary, illustrative, and documentary material in their works which it is impossible so to arrange that any perfection of method could conduct the student to it. It is perhaps to a consciousness of the want of a power of orderly arrangement that we owe the English habit of sup- plying all books of serious scientific or philosophical pre- tcnsio'ns with full indexes; and the absence of these con- veniences is one of the greatest annoyances a foreigner experiences in the study of the graver literature and science of Germany. The German editions of classical authors, on the other hand, are gener.ally furnished with complete indexes, and we can hardly point to any more satisfactory labor of this sort than the inv.iluable re.tl and nominal word-lists in the fourth volume of Groskurd's German translation of Strabo. By the force of a habit which seems almost like a conspiracy among authors the books which perhaps above all others require verbal indexes are almost always without them. Wc refer to grammars, especially of foreign languages, among which it would bo hard to find one provided with such an index as the student needs as a help iu the actual use of the tongue he is acquiring. Un- doubtedly, the habit of desultory reading, which is en- couraged' by copious indexes, is an evil, but in the present enormous multiplication of works which claim the atten- tion of the scholar it is a necessary evil. Life is not long enough, nor is the action of eye and mind swift enough, to put i"s iu complete possession of the literature of any im- portant subject. The old rule, miiltiim iioii miilta, is no longer practicable for men of the comprehensive scholar- ship required by our ago: and those who aspire to the pos- session of what is called "general knowledge" must con- tent themselves with little more than gleanings from the works of special inquirers. For such persons — and they must always be the vast majority — indexes are an indis- pensable guide to literature and science. Nor is it merely dilettanti and persons in pursuit of general iutelligenco aluue who need such helps. The most tenacious memory of the most )ihilosophic scholar can retain but a relatively small proporticm of what he reads, and for refreshiiig his recollection, as well as for the use of his learning in his own compositions — for wc all build more or less on the labors of our predecessors— he needs indexes almost as much as the mere amateur. Authors ought, as a gener.al rule, to be required to furnish these facilities for the study of their works. Public opinion can do something to en- force the ]perl'ormance of this duty; and in all cases when an index is worth making critics should always stigmatize the want of it as not only a serious defect, but as a grave literary offence. Of course in works of ephemeral litera- ture the result would not bo worth the labor, but in books which aspire to a sufficiently wide and permanent circula- tion to need tlie protection of copyright it would be neither unjust nor unwise to make good indexes a legal requisite for securing a monopoly to authors or publishers. Gkorge p. M.\rsh. Index, tp. of Cass co., Mo. Pop. 795. Iii'dex Libro'rum Prohibitc'rum. This title is applied to official lists issued from time to time, under papal authoritv. by the Congregation of the Index at Konic, enumerating' books, single sheets, engravings, and other printed matter the use or even possession of which is for- bidden by the Church. The proscription of books deemed hereticalin religion, treasonable or seditious iu politics, or corrupt in morals, is a practice of very ancient date. Not to speak of examples under heathen and modern civil gov- ernments, wo find that as early as the fifth century the works of Arius were denounced .and i>ul)licly burnt by the authorities of the Church, and the writings of other here- tics often met with the same fate at different periods in the course of the Middle Ages. The right of prohibiting the use of such books is a necessary incident of the general authority claimed by the Romish Church over the con- sciences of the faithful, and not only popes and councils, but inferior spiritual directors and confessors, have exer- cised it at all times as a regular part of the discipline of the Catholic Church. These prohibitions were naturally at first special, and it docs not appear that any general list of condemned books was promulgated before the year 1540, when the emperor Charles V. published a list of for- bidden works, which was followed in 1548 and 1550 by new imperial edicts prohibiting to his subject? the use of all books contained in a catalogue drawn up by his order by the doctors of the Tniversity of Eouvain. Lists of books condemned by the theological faculty of the University of Paris were issued by royal authority in 1545 and 1551, and similar catalogues appeared about the same time under the sanction of the theologians of other great European schools of learning. The first formal pontifical index is said to be that issued in 155" by Paul IV., and this, as revised and enlarged in conformity with certain canons of the Council of Trent, by the Congregation of the Index established and charged with the censorship of books by Pius IV., was reissued under his authority in 15f)4. New and more com- prehensive lists apjieared under Gregory XIII.. Sixtus V., Clement VIII., and .Alexander VII.. and many more or less modified editions, supplemented from year to year by the Congregation, have been published since. In the ear- liest indexes the prohibition of the works enumerated was absolute, but Sixtus V. organized a board of censure for the preparation of a list of books which might be used after due expurgation ; and this seems to have been printed un- der the title of liiclrx librornm Ej-piirgniiclonim, or Ej-jntr- rjatorhm, but wo believe that the same Congregation now exercises the functions of both condemnati<m and expur- g.ation. The I'egiitn- Iiullcln prescribed by the Council of Trent, together with additional rules by Clement VIII. and Alexander VII., are contained in many editions of the /»- tiex. They forbid all books condemned by popes or cecu- menical councils before the year 1515; all the works of • heresiarehs, as Luther. Zuinglius, C;ilvin, Friedenberg. Schwenkfeld. ami h!i si'miYo, whatever may be their titles or subjects; the writings of all other heretics on religious topics; books of immoral tendency, except the works of •ancient heathen authors, which are permitted propter eer- monis ehr/iiJitiain et proprielntcm, though not to boys; and books on the various arts of divination, auguries, omens, sorcery, and magic. They also contain provisions author- izing "the bishop and confessor to allow to learned and pious men the use of modern translations of the Old Tes- tament, not made by heretics, by way of illustration of the Vulgate text, though not as authoritative, as well as for the permission of various other classes of books and for the censure and expurg.ation of literary works. In modern editions of the Index some of the publications are noted as prohibited absolutely, others until corrected or expurgated bv new editions, erasure or obliteration of condemned pass- ages, or substitution of cartons for the leaves containing such passages. The Intlr^x and supplements down to 1754 embrace about 20.000 titles, including flying sheets and engravings. Many of these are repetitions, but, on the other hand, in hundreds of cases these titles include all the works of voluminous authors, so that, upon the whole, the condemned publications greatly exceed the number wc have stated. The Inrlt-x is not designed for the common use of lay believers, but rather for the guidance of confessors ; and as the vast multiplication of printed books now renders a universal censorship of the literature of the world impos- sible, spiritual directors are often obliged to avail them- selves of the more comprehensive clauses of the rules, some of which admit consideralilo latitude of interpretation. In the recent supplements to the Imlcx the condemnation is gencr.ally confined to publications (for the most part by professedly Catholic writers) conspicuous as dangerous at- tacks upon the doctrines, discipline, prerogatives, or privi- leges of the Church, and as at the same time likely to ac- quire a wide popular circulation. The earlier Indexes furnish some interesting contribu- tions to literary history by fixing the date of the original jmblication of "books condemned, and by giving titles of works no copies of which are now known to exist. At the same time they illustrate, by what they insert and what they omit, the" fluctuations of religious tendency in the Catholic Church itself; but the value of all this informa- tion is diminished by the vagueness of the indications, which are frequently so bald that wc cannot now identify the book intended. In earlier centuries the prohibitions of the Index controlled the intellectual culture of the Cath- olic world, and they incidentally caused the destruction of great numbers of works of more or less importance in eccle- siastical literature. Confessors deny absolution to penitents INDIA. ii;i7 who refiisa to deliver up books oxpresslr or impliedly for- bidden, and these, when surrendered, arc Konenilly burnt or HO iiiutiliited as to be illegible. This explains the rarity of many old books formerly widely read; as an illustration of which wo may refer to the treatise on the lUnrfitH of' the Deith It/ Chrint, as;;ribed lo Aonio Paleario. of which only two or three copies are known to survive, thnuj^h not less than lO.OOU or JO.OOO were sold within a very few years after its publication in lo43. In the present state of pub- lic opiniun in many Catholic countries the condemnation of a book by the IndfW discourages few from reading it, hut, on the contrary, it often serves as a recommendation which increases instead of diminishing its popularity and circulation. Gkorgk 1*. iMaksii. In'clia: Its GnonRApnv and Ethn'oi.ogy, and its Las- OUACKS AND LiTKRATURE OTHKR THAN SANSKRIT. India, a lar*je peninsula of Southern Asia, otherwise called "The E.ist Indies," and "Hindustan.*' The meaning of these terms has frequently been strangely misconceived. Ilin- duslan does not mean " the land of blacks," but " the coun- try (if llie river Indus — the fertilizer." The river's name, Siinlhu, is derived from tlie root «^ft»f^, to *' flow," " irri- gate," ** fertilize." The manner in which the letter « has dropped out of its place, and the letter A substituted, in ffiri'Iimtan, opens up a strange leaf in the earliest history of India. The old Persians, speaking Zend (see Parsees), many centuries before the Christian era, crossing over from Persia to India, were met by the broad waters of one of the most magnificent rivers in the world. They asked its name, and were tolil it was the Siiidiiu, the "irrigator" or the ''fertilizer." liut. very curious to say, they could not pronounce ", nor is that letter to be found in their alphabet. The Zend-speaking people thus called the river the /find. Stan being the Persian for ** land," wo thus have " Hindu- stan," "the land of the fertilizing river." But there was still to ensue another strange change. The iJrccks with Alexander crossed over to India, and also came to the river and asked its name. I'pon being told that it was /find, they naturally added the on, making IHnditH. But the Greek af- phabet itself is deficient of a letter, and that is A. So InditR remained for the name of the river, and India or the /ndic» for that of the country. The fact is a very strange one, therefore, that were it not for a people living in ancient times close to the north-western frontier of India being uniible to pronounce the letter /f, wc should now be talking and writing of the river t'^indus and the country Sindia. Geiiijyuphy. — The India of the present day extends from Peshawur, a frontier town in the N. W. of the Peninsula {:v:,'= 57' iV. lat.. 71° -tn° E. Ion.), to the banks of the Bur- mese river Salwin in the E.. and from the long chain of the Ilimfltayas in the N. to Cape Comorin in the S. (lat. N. S° C, Ion. E. 77° ■iO'). It is divided commonly into two great ilivisions, Hither and Further India — namely, that portion to (ho W, and th;it portion to the E. of the Ganges. Hither India — that is, India within (he (Janges, otherwise called Hindustan — is that pfirtion which mn^t almost wholly mo- nopolize our attention. The rest consists of the Indo-Chi- nese peninsula and the islands of the Indian Archipelago; and it is a pity — though it was perhaps unavoidable — that the gf'ography of this portion of the British dominions in the East should have been in any way mixerl up with that of 80 distinct a country as Hindustan. Inclu<liMg Further India, geographers inform us that the extent of Inriia from W. to E. is about HJOU miles, antl that from X. to S. it falls little short of 2000 miles. India ontuins about 1,000,000 square miles. Of British India tho entire population, as returned by tho census of 1.S71-72. is about 2S:i. 000,000. (See Imua: Historv.) Leaving asitio tho Aryan and Ko- larian inhabitants of India, the jiopulation of the Dra- vidian peoples has been minutely and accurately ascertained by the father of the writer — the Bev. Dr. Caldwell, author of the f\nnp'irtttirr fintmmitr nf thr l)ntvidittn I^'innnnnrH. The list is esjie^ially interesting, as it gives a clue to Iho relative numerical strength at the present time of the chief section <if (he aboriginal Indian races to that of Hindus (if later origin. The Tamil-speaking rommuiiitv numbers 1I,.^00,000; the T<'lugu. 1 .'...'jOO.OOO : Ciinares.'. 'n.L'aO.OOO ; Malayalam. :t,7.»0.000 : Tulu, .'tOO.OOO ; Co-»rg. I .'.0,000 ; Tuda, 7.)2;*Kotn. 1112; Gond, l,!:^,.'."^ : Ku. 2(i7,y01 : Kajma- hal, U.OS'J; and Oraon, 2fi:!.000. Thus tho toliil number of persons speaking the Drnvidiiin diiileets is estimated at l.'i,ritiO,o:J2. However, a subtraction must be nnnle in this sum-total, as the Tamils arc an enterprising and migratory pi'oplc, and many of them arc (o be found scattered over I lie globe. Th" numerical strength of the ethnological , family of Indian Kolar^ans is much smaller ctill than that nf the I>ravidians. Tho Aryans arc everywhere in enor- uHtus mnjority. Bri(ish Hindustan is made up, first, of districts wholly umler the sway of Britain; aecontlly, of a few scattered ports and townships belonging to other European nations; Vol. II.— 72 I thirdly, of protected states; and fourthly, of allied inde- pendent states. The whole country is formally divided in(o three presidencies — that of Bengal, capital Calcutta; thnt of Madras, capital iMadras: that of Bombay, capital Bom- bay. Bengal is umlor a lieutenant-governor, but his pow- ers are limited, in that he has only control over that portion of tho presidency which comprises Xorth and South Behar. Orissa, Assam, and Bengal ])ropcr. The North-west Prov- inces, capital Allahabad, arc also under a lieutenant-gov- ernor. Tho Panjaub has also its lieutenant-governor. Oudo is under a chief commissioner, as is also Mysore. Indore, in Central India, is under an agency. The Central Prov- inces are under commissioners. Kajputina is governed by a political agent, t'ommissioners, political residents, and high oflicials deputed by tlie governments of tho various presidencies overlook the interests of Travancore, Cochin, Poodoocottah. Baroda. Kolapore, Cutch, Vizianagram. Jey- pur, the states of (iuzcrat and Kattiawar. etc. The follow- ing are tho titles of the rulers of the twelve i)rincipal feud- atory states in India: the nizam of Hyderabad, maharajah scindiah of Gwalior, the paikwar of Barmla. niaharajah of Jeypur. maharajah of Travancore, maharajah of Cash- mcer. maharajah (d" .Toodjioor, the holkar. the begum of Bhopal. maharajah r>f Pultiala. maharajah (d" Oodevpore, and maharajah <)f Bhurtpon-. The island of (Jna. with a small scrap of the adjoining mainland, belrjugs to the Por- tuguese. The inhabitants do not exceed 4(10,000. The French still possess five small settlements in India, and the population of all of them put together docs not amount to 250,000 inhabitants. They are ( I ) Pondicherry, on the Co- romandel or eastern coast; (2) Knrikal, close to Pondi- cherry; (.3) Vanaon, in Orissa; (4) Chandanngore, in Ben- gal; and (5) MahC', on the Malabar or western coast. Tho physical characteristics of the Indian Peninsula arc remark- ably striking and simple for so largo a tract of country. Hin<tustan is especially remarkable for the height of its mountains, the breadth of its plains, and the size of its rivers. Whilst other countries, however, can show plains of vaster extent and rivers of greater volume, the Hiniii- layas stand suj>reme amongst the mountains of the world. The highest peak in them (Mount Everest, in Nepaul) reaches 31,0flt} feet; and the Himiilayan chain possesses thirty-nine other peaks taller than Chimbornzo. the height of which is reckoned to be 21.124 fret. The other principal mountain-ranges in Hinduslan are the Viiidhyas. wliiL-h extend through Behar and the North-west Provinces, along the N. bank of the Xerbudda River, to Broach; the East- ern and Western (Jhauts. which, running stuithward, meet at the Neilgherry Hills in the Madras presidency, and then continue their united course to Cape (_'omorin ; the Sulei- man and Hala Mountains, on the N. W. frontier; the ."^at- poora Hills; the Bajmahal Hills; and the Garrows, to tho E. of Bengal. Most of these great ranges are called " hills " in common Indian parlance. For instance, the Neilgherry Hilh — not Mfuntainft — are spoken of, and yet one of these *' hills" rises to the height of 8700 feet. The river-sy.'stcm of Hindustan is very extensive and ramitied. The great rivers are the Indus, tho Ganges, the Brahmaputra, tho Xcrbudda, the Taptee. the Malianuddee. the (iodaveri. tho Kistna. the Peniulr. the Pulilr. and the Cauvcry. The trib- utary rivers of the first two of tiiesc are such large and im- portant streams in themselves that mention must be made of them. The tributaries of the Indus are the Cabool and the five rivers which irrigate and give its name to the Pan- jaub — namely, tlie .Theluiu, the Chinab, the Bavi, the Bias, and the Suthj. The tributaries of the (ianges are, first and foremost, tho Jumna; then no less than fifteen other rivers, each of large size, and in the rainy seasons, or " monsoon.*," of great volume. The vast peninsula of India is crowded with cities of great size, fertile plains irrigated and cultivated, deserts such as that (d' Bajpuluna, and wild, inaccessible jungles. Kcmghly speaking, in all hulia there is only one European to .'ijOO natives, and tho standing wonder is, how Britain can keep its footing in tho East. One explanation of this is to be found in the fact that the Hindus are, as a nation, tho most disunited on the ("ace <d' the globe. Not only are they separatcrl amongst themselves by natural ethnological distinctions, but by greater barriers of their own raising. Their innumerable religious divisions, and especially their countless eiist^' distinctions, prevent them from becoming a united people capable <d" governing Ihemselves. If Britain were to leave India to-morrow, the Peninsula eould only find safety from utter anarehv. and especially from bloody internecine wars between Mohammedan and Hindu, by seeking the protection of souk' other civilized power. A few brii'f particulars may In- further added ere passing from this epitome of Indian gcnpraphy. The western coast of the Peninsula, washed by (he Indian Ocean, is called the Malabar const ; the eastern shore, washed by tho Bay of Bengal, ii? called the Coroinandel coast. All kind^ lliJS INDIA. of climate prevail in different localities in India, nccord- in" to their different situation and elevation. The line ol CT?ate^t boat is said to pass through the city of Madras. The heat of certain district.", such as IJensal proper and the southern parts of the Malabar coast, where there is a heavy rainfall, and consequently a natural exuberance of troiiical vegetation, is moist and enervating, and the cli- mate often malarious; the climate, however, of many other parts of India is dry and cNliilarating. Then, .again, as the peninsula of India narrows southward, it becomes more open to and affected by the sea-breezes, and its climate cunscnuentlv becomes more equable. All through India, in the hiU-r'anges, are delightful sites for stations, canton- ments, and retreats, whore the climate is balmy ""'l t^'"- peratc. Tennvson writes of " the sweet half-English ^eil- Lherry air;" "and bis description is thoroughly true to nature. In these hill-ranges— from the llim.'llayas and mo-intains of Assam to the southernmost spurs ot tho Ghauts, overlooking the triple line of the breakers of Cape Clomorin— tea, cotTee, and cinchona cultivation is rapidly extendini'. Evervwhere throughout India a network of roads is being spread, and great attention is being paid to the linino- of those with avenue trees, to protect wayfarers as much as possible against the tropical sun. Canals and railwavs, too, are opening up the country in every direction. One can now travel by rail from Negapatam to Calcutta, and shortly one will be able to pass from the roots of the Himilavas, at Darjceling. to Tuticorin. in Tinnevelly, only a few niiles from Cape Comorin. The government has been takin" ui> public works of every kind, and in a short time several of the great irrigation works now in progress are expected to .alter the face of hirge tracts in India, where water means wealth. Change is rapidly following change, and we can only dimly guess what tho India of a few years hence may be. „ ^ ,. . . . , <• Ethnology.— The ethnology of India may he treated ot under three heads— namely, tho Aryan, the Kolarian, and the Dravidian. But befo.e we enter upon a critical ex- amination of the existing races and languages of India, the oucstion natur.ally arises. What do we know of the peop c of Hindustan in the very earliest times ? It is a very little indeed that wo do know, but that little is extremely intcr- estinn-, as it carries us back— just as in tho case of Egyp- tian Sntiquitios— to the extreme youth of the world. Long before the Aryans came into India tho Peninsula appears to have been peopled by aborigines, and in vfls, in al prob.ability, even densely. But when did tho Aryans first enter Hindustan? It is impossible to tell, and all wo know is that there appears to have been a succession ot \ryan invasions, and that the Aryans did not como over ^ in 'one vast flood at once. In all probability they were , pourincr in, little bv little, wave after wave, even while the PvramTds were being built. Yet when they did arrive in India they undoubtedly found there those two great classes of aboriginal inhabitants which still survive in the Penin- | «ul.a— namely, the Kolarians and the Dravidians. This is capable of clear proof. But setting this niatter for a while aside, let us turn to a still more ancient pliaso of the sub- io.-t How did the Dravidians and Kolarians themselves get 'into India? or were they really from the first ahorig- ines ' Here we come to questions affecting a time not long subsequent to the building of th^ Tower of Babel All kinds of theories have been advanced, but some are at least plausible, and appear to be borne out by evidence of eon- 'iderable weight It has, for instance, been clearly ascer- tained that the Dravidian dialects are of the s.amc stock, and intimately connected with the .«cythic etc.; whereas the Kolarian "dialects are distinctly Indo-thuiese. It is probable, then, that the Dravidian was introduced into India from the N. W., and that the KoUinan entere,l from tho N E. But if thov so entered, what did they find be- fore them in the land? It has been suggested that the Negrito element evidently observ.ahle in some of tlieir tribes can only be explained by supposing that the Dravidians and Kolarians, on entering India, found ins ailed there already a black race, with thick lips, no beards, high cheek- bones/and woolly hair, and that to some extent they be- came commingled with them. In the case of the Kolarians =ome Orientalists insist on this theory very strongly. In them the distinct Mongolian typo of face is ajiparent, yet frequently the Xegrito type appears just as prominently ; indeed, many of them appear to be simply Africans with almond-shaped eves. But. taken as a whole, the Negrito theory is more ingenious than reliable. The Negrito type of phVsique, if observable in Hindustan, must be a corrupt one for it is eharactcriied by diminutiveness, and many African races are strong and powerful of build. However, the Ncrito facial angle, the flatness of the nose, the woolly head, the absence of beard, etc. are quite strikingly ob- servable in many of the Indian aboriginal tribes. Col. Dalton remarks them in the Orions. The African temj.er- < ament, too, is to some extent observable in many of the least civiliied Indian races— love for music, light-hearted- ness, impulsiveness, and the rest. When examining into the ethnology of any country, six considerations should prevail with'the student—namely, (1) physical and (2) mental characteristics, (3) religions, (4) languages, (5) laws, and (0) habits and customs. Whatever may have been tho origin of the Kolarians and Dravidians, by each one of the above six points we can see clearly that they arc distinctly non-Aryan classes of the Indian people. Notwith- standing the theories to which allusion has been made, the Kolarians and Dravidians may. speaking generally, be termed without hesitation Indian abcn-igines, and Aryans the invaders and civilizers. We know nothing of the state of India before the Aryan invasion. In every prob.ability society was in the rudest and most patriarchal state. The earliest word for " monarch " in Southern India is. 70a (i. c.a " cowherd," or a man of the shepherd caste) : and this evi- dently points to a time when the possession of cattle was considered to confer a dignity which is now attained by the possession of an illustrious ancestry and gold and cities and fortresses and armies and fleets. The changes which fol- lowed upon the Aryan invasions from the N. W. have left clear traces behind them, and thus we can speak with some certainty concerning this part of the subject. The invaders, not only by their numbers but by their civiliz.ation, appear to have driven the aborigines everywhere before them, especially in a southward direction. Not so, however, with thc"Kolarians, as a whole, was this exactly the case ; the advancing Aryan tide seems rather to have gradually surrounded them," cut them off and islanded them, so to speak. This appears also to have been the case with one or two Dravidian tribes, such as that of Kajmahal. Yet one more point must bo noticed. Not only did the Aryans push the aborigines southward, hut to a con- sid'erable extent followed with them and intermingled with them. At a very early age Cape Comorin was as well known to Brahmins as to the aboriginal Shauars of Tinnevelly and Travancorc. Let us now take up the threefold division of this part of our subject, first speak- ing of tho languages and literature of the Kolarians (as this may be dismissed very briefly); then, secondly, of tho Prakrits of Northern India and the peoples speaking them ; and then, thirdly, of the languages and literature of South- ern India. , , , , I. The Kolarians.— VndQV this general head may be classed the Coours of Elliehpoor: the Korewahs of Sirgoo- iah and Juspove: the Moondahs of Chutia Nagpur, also the Keriahs of that district ; the Hos of Pingbhoora ; the Bhoomij of Manbhoom and Dulbhoom ; the Nakales, the Kodas; the Sonthals of Manbhoom, Singbhoom. Cuttack, the tributary Mcbals, Ilazrrebagh, and the Sonthal Per- gunnahs: th'e .Tuangs or Puttoons of Cuttack, Keonjur, Pal Lehra, Dhenkanal. and Hindole; Ghatwals: Bendkurrs, Birhoc=, Boyars; Kharwars and Rajwars in South Behar ; Kaurs near Oodevporc; and the Koolees and Bheels ol Guzernt and Raip"ulana. All these are undoubtedly Indian aborigines, not of the Dravidian stock. Their languages arc of tho rudest description. Literature they have none. Many of the more civilized of these scattered tribes speak Hindi and other Aryan dialects. As a rule they practice most degraded customs, some living almost entirely naked. " Puttoons," for instance, mean " the leaf-elad." (The render who is curious to know more of these tribes should consult Dalton's magnificent work on the Eil„iolog,i uj Ilcu,/al:kit: George Campbell's interesting but inaccurate contributions to hllla,, Elluwlogy (Journal of the IScn.jal AnlaUc Sor,cl,l. vol. xxxv., part ii.. etc.).) Col. Dalton;s list of the Bengal Kolarians is as follows: the .Tuangs. Kharrias, Mundahs, Hos, Bhumii, Ho or Larka Kols. Sanlals. Birhors. Korwars, Kurs, and Kurkus or Muasis. The particulars of the habits and customs of these tribes given by the gallant author arc very curious and interesting. He also furnishes a vocabu- lary of familiar words in the Kolarian dialects, and photo- graphs carefully de,iicting the typical characteristics of the various tribes which speak those and other Bengal vernac- II We have now to turn our attention to tho languages and iitcrature, other than Sanskrit, of the Aryan inhabit- ants of Hindustan. This is one of the most interesting philological fields in the world, and is one which has re- cently been wonderfully opened up by Mr. Beames in his r.mmarative Grammar of the Mothrn Arr/an Languago oj India. These languages .arc seven in number— namely, Sindhi, Panjaubi, Marathi. Gujerati, Hmdi. Oriya. and Bengali. Sindhi is sjioken in the extreme ^. " . of India, and'next to it Panjaubi. in the land of the five rivers. In the Bombay presidency Gujerati and .Marathi i.revail. Hindi holds the great central position amongst the Aryan lan"ua.'es of Hindustan. At the very outset it should be renumbered that Hindustani, or Urdu, is simply Hindi INDIA. 1139 plni a great deal of Persinn. There is no doubt that Hin- dustani liati a f;;re»t hold of Tntlia, in that it is tlie lingua franco, SO to f;|)cak,of Hindustan ; it is tlie language which is chiefly used everywhere in the Peninsula a.s a medium of general eommunicatiuu ; but when treating of the lan- guages and literatures of Hindu Aryans it must merely be con?iiIered as a dialect of Hindi. Oriya is the language of Orissa, and Ilengali of IJciigal. Each one of tlicse seven vernaculars is ba^cd on the IVakrits of the Sanskrit. First, let us glance at them as a whole, noting their origin from the graml parent stem. It has been said that the Aryans did not come over to India ali at once. There were suc- cessive waves uf immigration, and the immigrants, in every probability, spoke various dialects of the common language. As Mr. IJeames says, "One only of these dia- lects, however, became at an early period the vehicle of religious sen'iment, au'l the hymns called the Vedas were transmitted orally for centuries, in all probability with the strictest accuracy. After a time the iJrahinans, consciously and intentionally, set themselves to the task of constructing a sacred language by preserving and reducing to rule the grammatical elements of this Vcdic tongue. Wc cannot tell whether in carrying out this task they availed them- selves of the stores of one dialect alone — probably they did not — but with that rare power of analysis for which (hey have ever been distinguished they seized on the salient features of Aryan speech as contained in all the dialects, and moulded them into one harmonious whole; thus, for the first time in their history, giving to the Aryan tribes one common language, designed to be used as the instru- ment fur expressing thoughts of such a nature as should be deemed worthy of preservation to all time." All this was before the art of writing, but when that art was dis- covered, it was chiefly used to reproduce works in Sanskrit, that sacred queen of all Aryan languages. But all this time, whilst Panini an<l others were engaged in fossilizing, polishing, and perfecting Sanskrit, the local dialects con- tinued to exist. As they had been anterior, in their rude shapes, to the pcrfectecl sacred tongue, so after Sanskrit ceased to be spoken — save perhaps by a few of the holiest and most learned of the Brahuiaus — they continued to be generally spoken by the common people, and were being continually developed into now verna'-ular forms. These forms of Aryan speech, other than Sanskrit, and spoken by the masses, are the Prakrits. They were all of the same stock as the Sanskrit, but they went on changing like clouds, whilst Sanskrit remained within its own fixed limits like the sea. So holy was the language ()f the Vedas that many of (he formuhe wont to be repeated by Brahmans were regarded by thcin to be composed of letters each one of which was a divinity. The Prakrits, on the other hand. were conslantly being changc'l as they carao in contact with foreign tongues or with each other. At one time they are said to have numbcreil no less than twenty-two. However, in the earliest records we find that they are generally classed under five distinct heads. First, there was Mahiir;"Lshtri, the chief of the five, mainly spoken iu Southern Uajputilna uml the northern portions of that part of India which we roughly term now "iMahratta country." The second was the Sauraseni. which was spoken near Malhura. The third was the Magadhi, the dialc?t which was spoken in I!ehar, and which is the parent of Ceylonese Pali. Fourth- ly, there was the Pais.Vjhi : and fifthly, there was the Apabhransa, or '* corrupt" Prakrit, of Siu<lh and Western Uajput^na. Ucames remarks : " In the Sanskrit <lramas a s'ill more artificial distinction prevails, a different dialect being attributed to each class 'of chara<'lers. Thus, kings and IJrahmans speak Sanskrit, ladies of high rank Mah:\- rlshtri, whilst servants, soldiers, buffoons, and the like, use one or other of the inferior dialects." But one of the Prakrits has come down to u?* embalmed in a more note- worthy way. Magadhi will not be forgotten as long as the Itlernlures of the Kast rcmiiin unobliterated. It was used in the sixth century before Christ to preserve the teaching of .Sakyamuni, 'MJotanuv Buddha," the founder of a relig- ious system which overran all India and crushed nearly all the life out of Urahmanism for ten eeuttirirs. Mngadhi is simply Pali, the sa'-rcd ''written" language of Ceylon. Sakyamuni died in 'i-l^ n. r., in *)ya in Southern Behar, and his teachings, preserved to us in Magadhi, give us a ciciir insight into that Pnikrit in its form in those days. Buddhists, even at that early time, protlu'-cd nuiiiy ami voluminous works, and Jains to n greiit extent copied them, for wo have many .laina sacred writincs in the Ma- hirilshtri prakrit. The last point which need he mentioned about the prakrits is that tncy are ** syntheticul or inllec- tional langua(;es." Out of these prakrits sprnn;; the mod- ern seven Aryan vernaculars of India. In the composition of each of these dialects wc havu three elements : ( 1 ) words the same as Sanskrit words; (2) words like Sanskrit; (li) a number of non-Aryuu wurd.i. The difference between the non-Aryan vernaculars of India seems mainly to consist in the different apportionment amongst each of these three diflcrent classes of words — ^words which are severally called by the felicitous Sanskrit appellations of Tatenma, Tad- bhfiva, and Devaja, Of the modern Aryan vernaculars it may be said — "These lauftuaseA Are one at root. Their natures- are alike; But, being grafted into ilivcrse soils. In sliapc of leafy bouvjlis dissimilar seem, Differ in hue aii'd fravjraiire of their (lowers, And vary in taste of their abundant fruit." Let us take each of them in turn. First. Sindhi. the most north-westerly of the modern Aryan dialects of India, and perhaps the roughest and least Sanskriti/.ed. The first jiroviuce in India which was contjucred by invaders from the N. AV. was undoubtedly Sindh, and next the Panjaub. It was in these provinces that Mohammedanism was rooted the earliest. Brahmins, from the earliest times, appear to have avoided these two provinces to a considerable extent. So we learn that the earliest Prakrits spoken in Sindh were noted for their corruptness. The country seems to have been left by the Brahmins to pastoral tribes, such as the Abhiri. the (Injars, and afterwards to the excommunicated Ksbatriva Juts. The whole land from the earliest times appears to have been in a state of chronic convulsion. Towns were constantly pillaged, cultivated tracts desolated, cattle slaughtered, tribes broken up, and the pojiulation seems to have carried on a stormy and precarious existence under the shadow of perennial wars. It was hut natural that in such a case little time could be devoted by loeiil pundits to the improvement of the language, by correcting it from time to time, and by introducing into it, to give it fresh vitality, new blood fripm the old and yet vigorously healthy language of the Vedic hymns and great dramas. So Sindhi is still a rough aud in many ways :in anomalous language. For instance, whilst Hindi is content with only three f(»rm8 of the genitive particle, Sindhi demands no less than twenty. (Sec D. Trumpp's St'ui/hi Oram mar.) But there is something charming about the roughness of Sindhi to some scholars, just as some wine-tasters revel in the roughness of some wines. Beanies, for instance, speaks of Sindhi as having " somewhat the charm of wild flowers in a hedge, whose untamed luxuriance pleases more than the regular splcn4lor of the parterre. . . . There is a flavor of wheaten flour and a reek of cottage smcdvc about Panjaubi and Sindhi, which is infinitely more natural and cajitivating than anything which the hide-bound, pundit-ridden lan- guages of the eastern parts of India can show us." But this is, perhajis. more prettily juit than true, just as some poets imagine that there is more real soul-music in the ]irattle of a child than in tlie trained voice of a prima donna. Sindhi has three dialects— the Sirai, in the N. of Sindh; Viehohii, in the central parts; and Lari, in the S. and along the sea-coast. There are many other dialects, but only the above need be mentioned. It remains to lie mentioned that Sindhi bus very Httlo literature and no fixed system of writing. M'c must now pass on to Panjaubi, but a great deal of what has been said of Simlhi applies to it. It must be borne in mind that the Mohammedan power was in a measure consolidated iu the Panjaub -JflO years be- fore such was the case in the lands where Hindi is spoken. Thus, the Prakrit had U ss time in its infancy to become trained and guided, and the Mussulman iu\ aders found a more virgin soil to plant their own idioms. They brought numbers of their own words with tliem. which became en- grafted into Panjaubi before the Sanskrit equivalents had time to s)>rintc up in the language. Yet it has been truly said that the Panjaubi of the present day is, after all. an idd Hindi dialect. In Panjaubi. for reasons already relVrred to. there is a great ndniixture of Arabic aud Persian, and but little " Tatsania" Sanskrit terms, such as are to be found in Bengali and Oriyn. Panjaubi is similar to Hindi in rcganl to the nouns in the language, which have the same sim- plicity of declension. The verbs too arc alike, with only faint dialectic differences. The pronouns alto are nearly the same in both languages. Th- claims of Panjaubi to be considcre.l an indepcmlent languaKc rest upon its phonetic system aud upon its peculiarities of phraseology. The character in which Panjaubi Is written is called (ninmiukfii. It employs thirty-fivo letters. As ft)r its literature, it is very searitv. Nanak. the relicions reformer and founder of the Sikh creed, is the earliest author in the binffua^e, vet nothing of his is extant which is distinctively Panjaubi. The iHaleets of Punjnubi are almost innumerable, but are hardly distinguishable one from the other. But on the borders of the Paiijaubi-speiiking country, on all sides, the language almost imperceptibly dovetails with other ver- naculars. This has given great trouble to superficial lin- guists, and has led to many mistakes. Wc now c«imo to Maratbi. It must not be too hastily coneludi'd that Mnra- thi is the direct lineal descendant of the Mahlrasbtri Pra I 1140 INDIA. krit. Indeed, these two have little in common save the name. Magadhi and Saurascni Prakrits mainly He at the base of Marathi. It is ou the wliule an elegant and cul- tured tongue. Mahratta Brahmans took great care ot the language Tn its somewhat rude inlancy, and the wave of Mohanunedan invasion was somewhat late in sweeping over the country where it had its central hold. Marathi contains a good many " Tutmma" Sanskrit words, and is a pleasing fluent tongue. The language is a playlul one; it delichts in assonances and harmonious phrases and •'jin.'lin' formations." In structure it is comparatively oomplicatcd. Its phraseology is copious and beautiful. Grammatically considered, Marathi is as much the German of the Aryan vernaculars of India as Hindi is the English. It possesses a great array of terminations and mflcctiuns. It is just as difficult to determine the gender of a noun in Marathi as in German. In every part the language shows the effects of the labors of learned pundits who worked lor centuries to beautify and polish it. The Mar.athi pronoun is nearly the pure Prakrit. The verb is participial m its formation. The literature of the language is copious, ihe following mav be taken as a brief yet fair summary of it : "Namadeva,'the first poet, whose date is uncertain, but probably about 1290 A. i>.. drew his inspiration, as was the case with so many poets of his time, from the writings of Kabir and other reformers. Contemporary with hun was the famous Dynilnadeva, who wrote a poem called Dni/dn- calnrari. Then follows a long string of more or less ob- scure poets, among whom Sridhar deserves notice on ac- count of his voluminous Pauranic paraphrases. Tukaram, the most celebrated Marathi author, was (A. D. 1609) a eon- temporary of the illustrious Sivaji. (See India : its His- tory.) An admirably printed edition of Tukaram s poems has been produced at Bombay recently by two pundits. The poems are called Ahhaiu/ns, or ' Unbroken:' probably from their being of indefinite length and strung together in a loose flowing metre. Tukaram was a half-crazed de- votee such as we see so commonly in India, who began life as a petty shopkeeper, but, being unsuccessful, devoted himself to the worship of the idol Vitoba, whose ohiet shrine is at Pandharpur. At the temple of this idol at Dehu, near Poena, Tukaram spent the greater part of his life in improvising these endless Abhtunjns, which were co ■ lected by his disciples. Ho eventually started ofi' on a pil- grimat'e, and, as he never returned, he probably died on the road, l)ut his followers chose to believe that he had ascended to heaven." There is nothing very original or striking m Tukaram's poems. They are like the ordinary run of In- dian religious poems. Here is a specimen : "Torches, unihrellas, liorses— these are ot no value. Wliy now O lord of Pandhari, dost thou entanscle me in them . Honor, pomp, sliow-tliese are merely the excrement of swine. Tukaram says, O Lord, hasten thou to deliver me! The reader will see that all this is rank commonplace, but ill JIarathi the mellifluous diction atones for much, and Tukaram's jmems are household words in the Bombay presidency. Ne.xt to Tukaram came Moropaut (a. D. liLO), ami his poems arc preferred by some to those of Tukaram. There is aisp a wide Anacreontic literature in Marathi, which may be styled " Rabelaisian without the wit, and with twice the amount of impurity." The chief prose works in Marathi are the Bahhars, or " Chroniclea of Kin-rs ■• much of which is legendary and impossible. Me must now pass on to speak of Gujerati. This language has a greater admi.'cturc of Arabic and Persian in it tlian Marathi has. It is avowedly a dialect of the Saurasom Prakrit, and .ns a language is only partially developed. It retains throe genders, whereas Hindi and Panjaubi have only two. The pronouns are almost identical with those in Hindi. According to some grammarians, the Gujerati verb rejoices in five presents, seventeen preterites, and four futures, but these, in practice, can be greatly reduced and simplified. Of lato days Gujerati is becoming more and more emploved as a commercial language, especially by the P.ar3ees'of Bombay, and thus it is becoming rapidly impregnated with foreign phrases and idioms, to the detri- ment of the purity of the language. The first Gujerati author of note is Xarsingh Mchta, who flourished in llo7 A. D. His writings are religious, and arc east in the form of short poems somewhat i-esembling sonnets. After hiiii the chief Gujerati writers arc Vi.shnu Das, Shiv Das, and Samal Bhatt. It is a remarkable fact that the Gujerati of the present day is strikingly similar to that language when it was first written. We now come to Hindi. This lan- gua^'O is justly regarded as the first of the modern Aryan languages of India. It is spoken in the great valley of the (ian"-es from the source of the Jumna to Rajmahal. In a wor.r Hindi holds the central position of all of the Aryan lan^-uar-es of India, and the country in which it is spoken has' ever been the centre of Aryan Hinduism. »e have lUreadv mentioned the close relationship which exists be- tween Hindi and Urdu or Hindustani. It has been truly said that Hindi is to modcru India what Sanskrit was to the ancient. The central scat of Hindi itself has ever been Delhi. Mr. Beames savs : " In respect of 'ladbhnien>, Hindi stands pre-eminent, whether it be that form of Hindi which relies principally ou indigenous sources for its words, or that other widcfy employed form which has incorporated the flower and grace of Persian and Arabic nouns, and which is sometimes called Urdu, sometimes Hindustani." The multiform strength of Hindi is in a measure owing to the fact that the great central area of India in which that lancuafc is spoken has always been occupied by Hindus and' M°ussulmans. in tolerably equal proportions; thus, whilst Sanskrit has not been forgotten, Arable and Per- sian words have been allowed, in due measure, to enrich the vernacular. Of the seven modern Aryan languages, Hindi is the most advanced, as it shows the most marked r^so from the synthetical to the analytical state. In its verbs Hindi has greatly rejected the Sanskrit inflectional system. Only one Hindi tense is synthetical— namely, the indefinite present, which has been corrupted from the pres- ent indicative of the Sanskrit. The date of the earliest Hindi poem is A. n. 1200. It is a famous one— namely, the Prithlrdh linsan of Chand Bardili. This Chand was a native of Lahore. He was a professional bhat or min- strel and was attached to the court of the Kajput king Prithirai, the last Hindu monarch of Delhi. The poem is the record of the ancestry, birth, life, heroic deeds, and final overthrow of Prithir.aj ; but upon the history which thus forms the basis of the work Chand Bardii builds a fantastic structure of religion and mythology. The gods come down to earth: celestial garlands descend on the brows of heroes : Siva follows the war-path and drinks the blood of the wounded ; the power obtained by sacrifice and penance, even over deities, is magical ; and birds and beasts converse like men. Subsequent to Chand Bardai, Hindi lit- erature became crowded with long, verbose, dull, religious poems. Tulsi Das adapted from the Sanskrit the Jidmai/aim of Valmiki. Bebari Lai was a correct and elegant Hindi writer whose poems are concise, pretty, graceful, and some- times meritoriously thoughtful. We now come to the Oriya language. This language, like the Bengali, is higlily im- pregnated with Sanskrit, and overflows with Tnt«a,mi woi°ds. But it is a neglected tongue, and retains to the present day many rude archaic forms. The mountainous character o"f the country of Orissa. stretching along a lonely shore-line, peopled bv men accustomed to a solitary life in great measure, often decimated by famine and disease or devastated bv periodical cyclones, itself furnishes a reason for the very partial cultivation and polish of the language spoken there. The literature of Oriyacommenecs with Upen- dro Bhauj, who composed a large number of religious poems which are held of high account. The poet was the brother of the rajah of Gumsar, a small hill-state, which has always maintained its reputation for preserving the Oriya language within its borders in the most perfect and pure state. Upen- dro Bhaiij did not live more than 300 years ago. He com- posed two rhyming dictionaries, the SiihrUmuU, and the ChitahkiddHo'. Many of his minor poems arc superlatively indecent, and withal filled with puerile verbal quibbles. Nearly contemporaneously with Upendro Bhanj flourished another Oriya poet, named Dinkrishno Dis, who wrote the RanakiiUulii, the most famous poem in the language, fho poem owes its celebrity to its mellifluous and harmonious versification; as for the rest, it is simply a farrago of ob- «c-nity The Ilhayav,idc,!lu, RdrndynM, Padma Furami, and L<,hsh,„i Puraim arc albreprcsented in Oriya by adap. tations more or less felicitous. In conclusion, it should be mentioned that the Oriya character is the clumsiest of In- dian alphabets. We have now to refer, briefly, to the last of the seven modern Aryan languages of India— namely, Bengali. Occupying the most easterly iiosition of these laiig°uages, it possesses the largest share ot the pure y ,^an- skrit element in its composition. The origin ol the lan- guage was a very obscure one, and for centuries it was c.-ctrtmelv rude. It is only lately that Bengali literature has, with marvellous success, sprung up. Four centuries a»o Bengali was unwritten. Then it closely resembled ifindi, but since that time a marked change has crept over it. The i.overty of the laiigu.agc began to be so e early, from the first, apparent to Bengali pundits that they had o have recourse to an enormous number of l„lmma words to patch up their difliculties. The Bengali noun has a purely 'nfleetional genitive. There is no preparalion of the base (iender is practically neglected. The verb is simple and i constructed on the participial system. The pronouns are I almost the same as in the Prakrit. The singular of he \ pronoun and of the verb has been banished l.om use, the 1 ilural being u.scd for politeness' sake, and two new plurals being added for convenience' sake. The alphabet of the Bengali is very elegant and facile: the typogr.aphy of a INDIA. 1141 Bengali book is simply charming to look at and read. The alphabet may be described a? " very little changed from the Kutila brought down from Kanaiij by the Hrahmans whom King Adi-sur invited to Bengal in the latter part of the eleventh century." The literature of liengali, as it is at present, is far ahead of all other portions of Aryan India. The reformer Cliaitanya first gave it its imjictus in the fif- teenth century. The Kirtnns or lyrics which he collected soon became popular. But the first Bengali poet was prob- ably Vidyipati. Some writers have ascribed to him a date as early as a. n. i;!20, but he probably flourished consider- ably later. Another famous Bengali writer of the earliest period of its literature is Kabi Kankau, The adapters of the Raiiitif/nud and Mufiuf'fi'hotn in Bengali were the poets Kftsidas and Kritibas. Another Bengali j)Oct of note is Bh&rat Thandra Uai, Kabi, or satirical poemi^. have much popularitj' in Bengal, and have been composed by different authors at different times. Iswar Chandra (Jupta, the Ben- gali Rabclai?, was famous half a century ago for his spark- ling wit. Three great modern Bengali writers may be mentioned. The first is Babu Piari Chandra Mittra. who is the author of AUahr Ohnrcr DuhU ("Tlie Spoilt Child of the House of A'lil"). a clever novel, which is by far the best fiction in the language, and abounds in wit and humor. The sccon<I is Michael Madhusiidan Datt, a native Christian, whose voluminous works have gained for him a very high rank in Bengali. And the third is Kali Pra- sauna Singh, a clever but sometimes coarse writer, who has the art of depicting in the most felicitous way the main characteristics and foibles of his countrymen. The most modern developments of Aryan literature may bo spoken of, together with the latest phases of Dravidian letters, after we have glanced at the South Indian family of lan- guages, which coDstituto the third great division of Indian tongues. Iir. Dravidian Lanffuat/c» and Literature. — This family of languages consi.^Es of the following mem'jcrs: Tamil. TcluRu, Canarese, Malayalam, Tulu, Coorg, Tudn, Gond, Ku, Rajmahal, and Oraon. In this brief epitome the last seven of these dialects need only be mentioned. They have no literature, and the interest which attaches to the four dialects mentioned first wholly eclipses any thf^so seven might possess were they the only representatives of Dra- vidian speech in India. For the same reason wc ouly need make a passing allusion to Brahui, a language wliieli has a strong Dravidian clement in it, though not Dravidian. nor spoken on the Indian side of the north-western frontier, but which, however, somewhat attracts attention, as it forms an important link in t ho chain which binds the Dravidian pro])cr to the Scythian group of tongues. With this group all tho Dravidian languages of India arc radically connected, and the Scj'thian family to which they are the mott intimately allied is the Finnish or Ugrian. {See tho introduction to the Rev. Dr. Caldwell's Cnrnptirfittvc Grauimar of the Dra- ridi'in Lftnffiiufft*.) The m'tst important of tho four prin- cipal Dravidian languages is undoubtedly Tamil. Next to Sanskrit, it stands supreme as an Indian language, both in regard to its structure, its genius, and its varied, ancient, and original literature. However, our notice of Tamil will at present bo very cursory, as particular mention of it is m:ide elsewhere. (See Tamil.) Speaking generally. Dra- virlian India is tho whole of that portion of tho Peninsula which lies to tho S. of the Nerbuddi River and the Vindhya Mountains. There are, of course, offshoots from this broad ba«ie, and wo find Driividian words in use amongst the mountain-fastnesses of Bi.-looehistan, in tho northernmost jungles of the Rajmabal hills, and in parts of Ceylon. Tho term "Dravidian" is of Sanskrit origin. It means "be- longing to the country of the Dravidas." The country of tho Dravidas properly means Tamil-land. The Dravidas arc described in Sanskrit dictionaries as "men of an out- cast tribe, descended from degraded Kshatriyas." Of course this simply exemplifies the low opinitm which was at first entertained by the .Aryan invaders of the aboriginal in- habitants of India. Indeed, as represented In great Brah- man poems, the Dravidians were uncouth, savage, given to horriliic rites, caters of raw meat, cannibals, disturbers of bidy hermits engaged in contemplation, and giants or apes in form. Even in thefninous KtlmCn/ftun, in xThichpoem the Dravidian chief, Hanunirin, is represented as RuinnV most devoted and useful ally, that South Indian king is ridiculed at the same time that he iw praised by being portrayed as a monkey-god. The Tamils, of all the Dravidas, first expe- rienced the dawn of Dravidian civilization : ond with this epoch tho name of Agastynr, the " snge." the " Cnnopus " of Snulhern India, is insepnrably connected. The <lnte of this epoch mny bo fixrd at about the sixth century B. c. But notwithstanding the comparative antiquity of this date, it was not till more than twelve centuries subsequently that, in all probability, Tamil literature began to spring up, and of all Dravidian literature the Tamil is the oldest as well as most important. In the case of Tamil, just as in the case of Telugu and Canarese, the period of the dom- ination of the .Jainas was that in which the vernacular lit- erature sprung up and flourished. Malayalam literature is not more than three centuries and a half old. That lan- guage has in its composition a very large admixture of San- skrit, and its literature mainly consists in translations and adaptations from the Sanskrit. This must also be affirmed of Telugu an<l Canarese, only the literature of these lan- guages dates from several centuries jirevious to the rise of Malayalam literature. The first Telugu grammar is said to have been written by Kanva, in the days of Andhra- raya. the king in whose reign Sanskrit was first introduced into the Telu;^u country. But his work is not extant, and the oldest which exists is by a Brahman called Nannnppa; but this grammar, though about Telugu. is written in San- skrit. ?fantm])pa translated the MnhCibhtirnta into Telugu; and this is the earliest work extant in the language. Its date is probably the twelfth century. Telugu is a sweet and sonorous language, but has not the logical precision, sturdincss, and great copiousness of Tamil. Mr. C. P. Brown's admirable Grammar and Dirtioimn/ of TehnjH should be consulted by every student of that language. Canarese uses a character identical with that of Telugu, but differs very widely in most other particulars. It lacks the wonderful richness of Tamil, a language remarkably full of synonyms and exact in its grammatical structure. The Jaina period, during which litcratui*.- flourished most conspicuously in Tamil-land, extended from the end of the seventh to the thirteenth century of the Christian era. The oldest work extant in tho language is the Tid-Kuppit/am {" Tho Old Composition "). This is a grammar of the lan- guage, and was probably written in the close of the seventh century, but in it arc to be found quotations from poems of a still earlier date, though these have not come down (o us intact. The JCural of Tiruvalluvar, the greatest work in the Tamil language in the opinion of many, was prob- ably written before the close of the eighth century. It is a great storehouse of polished distichs on all subjects con- nected with morals and political economy. The Chiui&- mani, a great Tamil epic poem, containing some 15,000 lines, was probably written not a century later; and shortly afterwards tho Nan-ntkly a High Tamil grammar, appears to have been composed. By this time, too, several of the works ascribed to Auvvei (''the matron "), a distinguished Tamil poetess, were probably written. (For further par- ticulars regarding Tamil and its literature see Tamil.) In conclufion, we must m::ke several general remarks concerning Hindu literature as a whole. First, the greater part of it is incontestably poetical in form. That is. Hin- dus from time immemorial have been accustomed to throw their thoughts — no matter on what subject, and no matter whether using an Aryan or Dravidian language — into verse instead of prose. If, for instance, in the N., Chand Barddi wishes to perpetuate in writing the history of the glories and sorrows of tho heroic Prithiraj, he does so in Hindi verse; and if in the S., Tiruvalluvar desires to teach the priests and sages of Madura the principles of political economy, be does so in Tamil verse. Thus, Hindu liter- aure is chiefly poetical. AVe have poems on astronomy, and poems on medicine, and poems on grammar. This, after all, was but to be expected, for, just as children are imaginative, nations in their infancy arc naturally poetical. But now, everywhere in India, a sound sturdy prose liter- ature is springing up. This is especially the ease in Ben- gali and Tamil. Tricks of style, ossonanees, mimetic words, flowery metaphors and similes, j'ugling rhymes, and vapor- ous expletives, — all these arc being gradually exchanged for a sober, robust diction, and simple, straightforward lan- guage which clearly expresses llie thoughts meant to bo conveyed by it. Secondly. Indian poetry, os a whole, is poor. Hindu poets constantly aim more at writing beauti- fully than at thinking deeply. There is a great deal of glit- ter, but little intrinsic value. Of course there are some ex- ceptions. I should plaeo Tamil poetry, with that of San- skrit, wholly outsidoof Ibis category : that is, taking Tamil poetry as a whole. The thonghtful couplets of Tiruval- luvar. tho descriptive power of Kamban's gorgeous verse, Bcrchi'fl stalely and splendid periods, Auvveiyar's chaste and elegant stanzas, TiLyum^nnvar's pure and sidemn strains of meditative poesy, tho exuberant fancy displayed in the ChintAmani, the roughly-expressed home-truths of the Siltars or poetical quietists of Tamil-land, tho earnest sadness of Pnttiragiriyar. and the jiassionate volubility of Sivavaykkiar, hater of latler-ilny Brahmanieal supcrsli- tions. — all these and many more are phases of Tamil poetry which raise it as a wh'de — if we eoubl only forget tho beauty and majesty of Ihe .'^ansk^il dntma — higher not only than the poetry of any other Dravidian or modern Aryan language, but also than Sanskrit itself. In the last place, any notice, however brief, of Indian literature would bo iu- 1142 INDIA: ITS HISTOBY. complete if no allusion were made to two effects which have been produced by the introduction of English civilization into Hindustan. Translations in the various vernaculars arc everywhere appearing of the works of the leading thinkers of Christendom, and the native press has lieeomc an established fact. It is quite true Ihat many of these translation.'! are in wretched taste, and arc worse than merely worthless : it is quite true that many of the triins- lators are foreigners, and barbarize the language into which thev translate by flooding it with unnatural idioms and terms: and it is quite true that, in Bengal especially, the vernacular press is in too great a hurry, and works of a trashy nature arc being flung in cartloads upon the public. But notwithstanding all this tlic benefit is incalculably c-rcatcr than the mischief. The effect now being ]>roduced mion the languages and liter.ature of India resell bles that wonderful quickening power which began suddenly to exert itself in Europe immediately after the art of printing was discovered; and though much evil may have resulted from the discovery of this art. who can think of that when the untold good it has effected is taken into consideration.' The vernacular journalistic literature of India is daily as- suming wider proportions, and in Calcutta .and Bombay, and to°a very slight extent in Madras, the newspaper press is already a power. In Calcutta the Bengalis have what we should call a farthing daily paper, and m Bombay tlie Parsees have their Puwh. The number of daily, weekly, and monthlv native periodicals throughout India, already very great, is rapidly increasing. The statistics, if given to-day, would have to be added to to-morrow. The publi- cation of tracts, books, and Bibles by missionary societies forms a large item in tbo modern literary activity of India. The schoolbook and vernacular literary societies of India, patronized by the English government, arc also aiding m the work of civilization. Attempts have from time to time been made to adapt the Roman character to the vernacu- lars, many of which employ cumbrous and clumsy alpha- bets but as yet such attempts have failed in gaining the approval of Hindus themselves. Many Hindu books were of old written on palmyra-palm leaves: paper,now bccom- in" plentiful, is being widely employed instead. The know- Icdfo of English is rapidly extending, and there has been much discussion as to the ultimate effect of this. French is used in the French settlements, and Portuguese is spoken at Goa In conclusion, it may be mentioned that a small but very interesting colony of Jews at Cochin on the Mala- bar use' Hebrew much in the same way that modern Brah- maos in India use Sanskrit. R- C. C.iLDWr.LL. India : its History. There can bo little doubt that the iiopulation of the whole of the Indian em))ire must be estimated a:', at present, not under 300,000.00(1. This re- markable fact is made obvious by the results of the Indian census of 1S71-72. These results (at the time oi the pen- nin.' of this paper) have not yet been published, but it is known that the number of inhabitants in British India has been computed at 28:1,000,000, and that in this number the inhabitants of all of the independent provinces,of sev- eral Indian protected states, of remote hill and forest trilies. and of the tribes peopling the north-eastern frontier of India have unavoidably not been included. India is the molt thickly populated country in the world to which the census has yet been apjilied : and now that it has been ap- plied, the startling question arises if it be not, after all. the inost populous country iu the globe, not excepting China itself. The po|mlation of China was some time ago sup- priaed to be 500,000,000 ; now it is computed at 400,000,000. But there has been no census of China, and geographers ami ethnologists will begin to ask themselves the question, '• On what grounds do wo give the pre-eminence in the matter of population to China over India ?" In writing a brief epitome of the history of India, we advisedly draw attention thus prominently to the present slate of the pop- ulation of that country. India has never been so thickly populated .as it now is, and there are clear signs that its pres- ent population is daily increasing at a swift rate. I'rom this fact, as from a (linnacle, we look down on the past. Here is a country which from the earliest ages has been the scene of national convulsions. It hrs Iieen the prey of successive invasions and the vicliin of constant intestine strife. Then a civilized ]>ower from Europe set its foot on the soil. After a brief and necessary struggle the reign ol order began. What is the result ? The country is protected from foreign raids, and internal warfare is gradually and thoroughly repressed. Trade and commerce spring up and flourish: "wealth and education spread more among masses ; the weak and outcast begin to enjoy safety- peace. Canals fertilize the country they open up prevented. Is it a wonder, then, that such a change in the history of a country should be followed by a marked in- crease in its population, and that this increase should be pointed to as one of the evidences of the beneficial nature of that change? The past of India, though writers may describe its glory in some things, has been, after all, only a glorious night'. Even now we have only a dawn. The Aay is yet to come when the full effects of Ihe i)resent civil- ized government of India will bo realized. In tracing the history of India from the earliest times, we are necessarily led to speak of its ethnology. It may be premised that' the conglomerate character of the inhab- itants of India is only less remarkable than their number. (With regard to Indian ethnological questions not touched upon in "this article, see India : its ClEOGitAPDV, Ethnol- ogy. LaNGTAGES, ANn LiTERATfUE.) The history of India may best be written of under ten distinct head's: I. The history of ancient India till the time of Mahmud of Ghazni, A.D. "lOOl. II. The history of India from this first Mohammedan invasion to the date of the first battle of Panipat, A. n. 1 J2G. III. The history of the Mon-nl empire from the first battle of Punipat to the death of The last Mogul emperor, in 1859. IV. The history of the Mahrattas from the birth of Sivaji (a. p. 1027) to the present time. V. The history of the Carnatic from the date of the Mohammedan invasion of 129+ A. D. YI. The his- tory of the Portuguese in India since the landing of Yasco da'Gama in 1408 A. n. YII. The history of the European companies which vied with each other in the strugslo to get a share in Indian trade before 1744 A. D. YIII. The history of the English and French in India till the surrender of Pondicherry. A. d. 1761. IX. The history of the British power in India, leading up to the appointment of the first governor-general. X. The history of the Brit- ish power in India, as marked out by the successive rfiguncs of different goyernors-gencral, since the days of Warren Hastings to the present day. I. The Ancient History of India. — The earliest history of India is involved in the "deepest obscurity. No date of a public event can be fi.xcd before B.C. 327, and no connected narrative of Indian national transactions can be attempted till 1300 years .after. We have only traditions and legends to guidc'us, and the very heterogeneous character of the races which from time immemorial have peopled India adds another obstacle to research. However, everything is not guesswork, and authorities who h.ave entered deeply into the subject arrive at a number of conclusions winch may be regarded as at least approximately accurate. ( I ) The VciIaZ which are the oldest sacred hymns of the Aryan Hindus, were probably arranged in their present form as early as 1400 n.c. Their actual antiquity is much greater, but cannot bo decided on, even a)iproxiinatcly. (See Sak- SKRiT.) (21 Even before the time of Moses (b. 1574 B. c.) India and Europe were in active communication by sea. Yessels used to plv between India and the ports of the Red 8ca and Persian Gulf, and the Saba-an and the Phoenician commerce of those old days with Hindustan was probably the most lucrative in the whole world at that time. (3) In the days of Solomon we read of the ships of Tarshish trad- ing with Ophir. and bringing from thence to Jerus.alem '• gold and ivory, apes and peacocks." Sir Emerson Teii- ne'ut, in his admirable work on Ceylon, considers that the port of (ialle in Ceylon is Ophir. In the earliest days Galle was one of the greatest of Eastern emporiums. But wherever Ophir may have been situated, one thing is cer- tain— namely, that the Hebrew equivalent for " peacock, which appears in the Bible, is simply Ihe Tamil word ta-ei. (4) The history of the Solar and Lunar dynasties of India is in a great measure founded on fact, as clear traces of the invasions recorded in connection with them now remain. The magnificent Hindu epic, the Jlum,',i,„„>,, records the adventures of Rami-i.thc hero of the Solar race, who con- quered Ceylon, probably in the year 1200 b. v. The Malia- hharatn is the great record of the Lunar dynasty. It de- scribes the wars of Ihe Pandus and Kurus, which were prob- ably fought between 1400 and l."00 b. c. The great battle was fought at Taneshwar, 30 miles W. of Delhi, (a) Go- tama Buddha, the fouuderof Buddhism, d. at Uya. in South Behar, about 543 b. c. (0) The conquest of India by Bae- tbc and Every- wirero sanitary measures are adopted for the security of the people from the ravages of pestilence. Rewards are given for the destruction of snakes and tigers. A terriW^ famine appears, and it is promptly relieved and loss of life conquered the Punjaub and Scinde, and made it a satraj.y. The tribute paid to him by this satrapy i'/i"'' '." , '''^^ been wholly in gold, and to have amounted to 1,-..0.00U pounds sterling. (8) Alexander the Great, having defealed Parius and conquered Persia, proceeded to India. In n. c. ■:.:m he founded the city of Herat on the frontier. Three years later he crossed the Khyber Pass and the Indus at INDIA: ITS HISTORY. 1143 \t.ock. He fought and overcame Porus at Gujirat on the 1 own son-in-law, because of which he himself was assassi; ■^ B _ _ . — ,^ , Dated, anil his iissassm, named the ■' Durnei ot lue « oria. ,TclMm. assisted l.vTnxiles, a prince of the country between the .frlum aud Indus. Thence he advanced to the Sutlej, but had to return because his soldiers, alarmed at his rapid progress into such unknown countries, superstitiously re- fused to advance. We know this much of the India of Alexander, that the Hindus at thai time were considered to be wonderfully civilized. Their cities were most opulent and arts andscionces flourished. (9) About this time in Bengal there were dynasties of Pala and Sena kings. Other little-known dynasties reigned at Delhi. Ajmecr. Mewar, and (iuierat. The latter, in the second century A ' ' a Riijput dvnastv called Balabhi. The Persians, under Nushirvan. are supposed to have conquered and driven these jirinccs out of Newar, where they had emigrated in the sixth century A. D. Concerning ancient India few other particulars are known, but we have yet to touch on an important subject connected with the general colonization of the peninsula of Ilindostan from the earliest times. In the very earliest a'cs, long before the writing of the Vednn or the entry of the Arvan races into India, there appears to have ex- isted in the eouiitrv an aboriginal people, thoroughly non- Aryan in their c'haraclcrislies, and who were possibly of "the same familv as the Mongols and other tribes of Central Asia. Invasion after invasion poured down like successive tides into India, and always from the N. W.. and the aboriginal inhabitants were either pushed down southward or left, here and there, in isolated districts of hill and forest land, like islands, surrounded by the ad- vancing wave of colonization. The first invasion we know of is tiio .\rvan. and this may have taken place in the times of the'llebrew patriarchs. Then came the Moham- medan and mixe.l invasions, also from the >'. W.. pushing the Indian aborigines still farther southward, or islanding them still more completely in the impenetrable jungles and mountainous regions of the Peninsula. Here we have one great clue to the ethnological puzzles which India of the present day places before the student. But the whole of this subject will be found fully entered into in India: its Gkochapiiv. ETiixoi.or.Y, Laxguark, and Literatitre. II. The Hiilnni of the ilnhnmmcdiin Pntirr in /iitlin/rom itt Firtt Ettitbtiiliment !n 1001, hij Mnlimiid of Ghnzni, la in OierlhroK and llii- Etinhllilimcnt of the Mi.yul Empire in iJ-'ff.— The period of Indian history we now enter upon is certainly one of the ghastliest epochs which could be presented to the reader's mind. For more than .')00 years. Intlia, or at least the northern, and especially the norlb- western, portions of the Peninsula, literally reeked with blood. One sovereign overturned another, one dynasty supplanted another, and again and again recurred the same old story. The first act of a monarch on ascending his throne was to murder his relatives, spoil a city, desolate a province, and .slaughter, immolate, or iin])ale certain given thousands— men. women, and children— of his pre- decessor's adherents. Except in rare instances mercy was not known. The glory of the .Mohammedan dynasties which preceded the establi.shment of the .Moguls— .1fo)i(/M/«. as they ought to be termed — consisted in the sacking of cities, "in the plunder of temples, and in a series of bloody vii-tories. Nearly all the Mohammedan invaders of India at this time were Afghans or Pathans. Originally fire- worshippers, thev were converted to Islam, and in bigotry soon surpassed those who converted them. They first, for several centuries, contented Iheniselvcs with feeble raids into India. Hui Mahinud of (ihazni was more fortunate, and after ten raids succeeded in annexing Lahore and its fertile territories. His standard was black, fit enildem of his crimes. Ho stormed Batinda, a fortress of enormous strength, whereupon ,Ii-i|>al, king of Lahore, abdicated and committed suicide. After this he eugagcl in nine more bloody raids before making Lahore his residence, and thus finally laying the foundation of Mohammedan power in India. " During this period he gained many victories, and still further did he subsequently signalize himself He attacked Somnath in (iuzerat. This was the most ancient and opulent shrine of the Uajpuls. A terrible battle was fought. All the R.ajput princes banded together, and op- posed, with desperate bravery, the iconoclast of (ihazni. But their efforts were unavailing. Somnath was captured, and the booty obtained in gold and precious stones was simidy incalculahle. For more than 100 years subse- quently the desolation of .<omnalh remained as a monu- ment to the desperate and fanatical couniffe of .Mahmud. Ho d. in lO.'iO. His son, Ma«auil. sueeeeded bim. after having blinded bis twin-brother, but Masaud was after- wards depnseil. and the blind prince rose to the throne. In a few years all was in confusion again, and there was a 1-apid aeriei of assassinations in the royal households. In HIS, Beirain ascended the throne. He was an estimable prince, as things then went, but could not resist murdering his introduced the (ihoriar dynasty and reigned in his steed. A Turki slave. Kutb-ud-Deen, succeeded him, and founded the first Indian slave dynasty. His son, Ar.am, succeeded him, and was in a year deposed by .\ltainish. When Altaiuii-h in his turn died, liis sou succeeded him, but in seven months was depo.sed by his beautiful and clever sister, Rezia, who is known to have been the only female who has ever ruled personally in Delhi. Her Britannic Majesty, Queen Vic- ..!,:,.<... toria. is '•empress of India," but tjueen Rezia is the only . p., had I female potentate who has ruled, as the head of all Indian sovereigns, in the capital of Hindoslan, for such Delhi was then reckoned. It is narrated of her that she adopted a very ultra-Bloomer costume, and went about administering justice amougst men as if she herself were a man. A Turki chief, Altunia. rebelled against her. There was a severe battle, and she was defeated : but she soon con- quered her conqueror — by marrying him. Shortly after- wards she and her husband fell victims to a rising of nobles. Beiram, her brother, ascended the throne of Delhi after her, but was soon quietly assassinated. His succes- sor Masaud, was deposed. Nasir-ud-din-Mahmud and Balin followed after him. and were themselves succeeded by Kei Kobad. With him ended the dynasty of the slaves of the sultan of Ghor. Kobad's life appears not to have been remarkable for anything but vice. He poisoned his prime minister, plunged into the wildest debaucheries, aud ended his life miserably after an attack of palsy. He was followed bv Feroz Shah, who inaugurated a new dynasty of these Pathan kings of India in the year 12kS. He was followed bv a prince of great ability, who reigned for twenty-one' vears. and on the whole successfully and glor- iouslv". but w"as rightly termed, Ijy Mohammedan historians, "the" Sanguinary." Alla-ud-din-Khilji— such was his name— began his" reign by murdering his aged uucle just as the old man was patting him affectionately on his check and assuring bim of his friendship. He next distinguished himself by killing the two sons of Feroz Shah, his prede- cessor. Constantly, at this time, the Moguls were attempt- in" to establish themselves in India. Alla-ud-din sent out his able general. Zafur Khan, against them, and was com- pletely victorious. But the "sanguinary " potentate was jealous, and allowed the valiant soldier who had saved his kingdom to be sacrificed, just in such a manner as we are informed in the Holv Scriptures Uriah was. He then con- quered Rajputfina. When the Rajputs found his army at the gates of Chitoor. the queen aud all the women of the city, with their children, flung themselves on an immenso pv'ro that had been previously prepared, and died in the fl'amcs they themselves kindled, whilst the Rajput men, fin-hting to"the last, allowed Ibemselves to be slain, one by one, outside the walls, rather than yield. Padmani. the queen, was a woman of rare beauty, and the Rajputs still remember her name with devotion. Alla-ud-din captured, during the course of his wars, a young, handsome eunuch named Malik Kafur. whom he appointed his prime min- ister, fiebl-niarshal, and viceroy. Malik subsequently poi- soned his master and rose to his throne. Malik kafur next blinded the two sons of Alla-ud-din, but the third escaped, raised the armv, and killed the treacherous eunuch. The name of this sin of Alla-ud-din was Mubank. The very first thing this sovereign did was to murder those who fore- warned him of Malik Kafur's purpose and protected him, and the second thing he did was to put out his infant brother's eyes. The rest of his life JIubarik spent in de- baucheries "and flavine his enemies alive. Kliusru khan, whom he made bis vizier, was a Gujcrat Parwary slave. After ablv conducting his master's aftairs, be assassinated him and reigned in his stead, but was soon himself assassi- nated and in l.'t21, Ohiaz-ud-dcen-Tughlak. his murderer, sat himself on the vacant lhr..nc aud began the dynasty of the Tiighlaks. which is cninmonly known as the filth \firhan dvnisly -Tuna Khan, the son of Ghiaz, contrived to ki'll his fallier bv the lall of a gorgeous pavilion into which the uiisuspeeiiug king was induced to enter. .luna Khan was a verv Icarne.l but inilTiciuit ruler: his state grew insolvent aiid everywhere rebellions menaced bun. We need not refer to the remaining kings of this miserable dvnastv The seventh dvnasly was more wretched flill under ih'e weak sway of the four Syeds. The last dyna.«ly of the Mohammedan power, before the .Mogul empire ab- sorbed all. was that of the three Lo.lis. The last of these Ibrahim, f.oight Sultan Baber, the Tartar governor of f'abonl. The latter sacked nnil burnt Lahore, and over- threw IlM-nhiin at the famous battle of Panipat. Ibr.allim was killed. Dilhi and Agra were taken, and from this tiino (l.'>2fi) must he ilnted tho rise and progress of the Mogul empire in India. irr. The ffinlnni a/Ihe M„^,il Empire.— The Jlogul em- pire was one of the most splendid dominations India hat 1144 INDIA: ITS HISTORY. over known. In its i)almiest days it was a sovircc of real and wide good to Hindustan. According to Mohammedan aulliorilies there were fifteen eni]ierors of tliis dynasty; some later authorities say seventeen, for as tlic tenth and eleventh rulers of this line they include two Rafis, who.se comhined rule only extended over a period of three months in 17111. Omitting these, we have the following emjierors : Baber, who ruled from 1526 to 1.^)30; Humayun, li.JO-oG; Akbar. Ij5(i-1605; Jehangir, 16U3-28; Shah Jchan, 1028- 58: Aurungzccb, 105.8-1707; Shah Alam I., 1707-12 ; Je- handar Shah. 1712-13; Farukshir, 1713-lU; Mubammed Shah, 1710-48; Ahmed Shah, 1748-54; Alamgir, 1754-59; Shah Ahim II., 1759-1806; Akbar II., 1800-37; Moham- med Bahadur, 1837-57. Baber, the founder of this noblo nice of kin"s, was descended from the Tartar Tamerlane, bis mother being a Mongol. He hated the Mongols, yet his dynasty obtained the name of that race under the cor- rupt form of " Mogul." His life was one long battle. Pani- pat secured bis footing in India. The plunder of Agra find Debi in 1526 at once raised him to a position of immense power, for opulence means power in the East, as a rule. In 1529 be conquered Behar and Bengal. His death (in 1530J was a romance iu itself. His eldest son, Humayun, ■was mortally sick. Baber pr.iyed that his own life might be accepted 'for that of bis son. Strange to say, from that hour the son recovered .ind the father's health declined. A beautiful tomb in Cabul covers his remains. Humayun now ascended the throne, but in stormy times, lie was defeated by bis enemies, and during his lligbt from India his son. the famous Akbar, the glory of the Mogul dynasty, was born. After many years of exile and suO'ering, during which time India was" convulsed under unsettled govern- ments, he returned, invaded India, took Lahore, and shortly afterwards met with a fatal accident in his palace. His son, Akbar. was now only thirteen years old. Under the able generalship of Beiram Khan, a Persban, Akbar's hotly- contested position was established. In 15CU, Boir.am Khan, who had gradually been usurping too much power, at- tempted a revolt against AUbar, but was defeated, cap- tured, and generously pardoned, but on his way to re- lii^ious retirement in Mecca was assassinated in Guzerat. Akbar, then in bis eighteenth year, was at length recog- nized as the real as well as nominal emperor of Delhi. He had Ijeen nursed in warfare from his childhood, and under- gone a wonderfully successful training for his difficult posi- tion. He entered upon a number of campaigns immediately after Beiram's death, proved successful iu almost all his undertakings, and e.xhibited, in the midst of all his most e.xhilarating victories, an equable temper and a liberality and mercifulness quite remarkable in those savage times. The reader must not forget that all the Mogul emperors were Mohammedans. Some of them were exceedingly bigoted ones, and oppressed the Hindus iu the most cruel w.ay. But .\kbar set before him a policy of conciliation which has never been paralleled in Indian history till Eu- rope claimed India for her own. In 1592, Akbar obliter- ated evcrv trace of the Afghan dynasty in India. All over India — ainongst the Rajputs, in Cashmeer, Scinde, and Kandahar — the armies of Akbar were victorious. Akbar next anne.ted Khandeisb and took .\hmednuggur in the Deccan. At length (in 1605) this wise pcditician, great monarch, and large-hearted man died, and was buried near Agra, and Jebaugir, his son, reigned in his stead. He was inTemperate, violent, and soiled his hands with blood as his father never did before him. He was a bigoted Mus- sulman, and alienated the Hindus by reversing his father'^ well-advised policy. This emperor is chiefly known as the husband of a beautiful and wise woman, Nur .Jchan, or " Light of the World." The name of that mighty empress upheld the dynasty like a spell. Even when, after a ter- rible disaster, her "unworthy husband had been captured, she rushed to share his captivity, plotted his escape, over- threw the enemy, iind restored to the emperor bis throne. At length he died, and Shah Jchan succeeded him. Little need be said of this emperor. He lived surrounded by battles with the Deccan in the S., decimated by pestilence and f;vniine. Suddenly he fell dangerously sick. His sons fought for the throne "while the parent was still alive. Au- rungzeeb was the most successful of these, and assumed the imperial dignity in 1G5S, putling nearly all his opponents and relations to death, and his aged father in prison, where ho died eight years after. Thus began the most super- ficially magnificent reign India has ever known — a reign to laud which to the utmost JIuhammedan chroniclers can find no words sufficient. Aurungzeeb utterly revoked the policy of Akbar. He was a most narrow-minded Mussul- man, and the slaughter of infidels was his supreme delight. Everywhere Hindus fled before his h.ateful power. But he was .a man of immense resource, ability, self-relianee, and resolution. His armies, minutely under his personal su- pervision, carried all before them. Every detail of civil or military government passed under his eye. He spared no labor himself, and enforced in certain military matters the most rigid diseipliue, whilst in others he gave his fanatical troops the utmost license. But it was dangerous for one of bis subjects to become too successful. He was morbidly jealous, and the general who rose to too great eminence after a campaign was as a rule assassinated fur bis pains. Mosques, mausoleums, minarets, and palaces rose rapidly in the great ceutres of Muhammcd.auism, but works of gen- eral utility were neglected. Enormous wealth flowed into the coffers of the emperor, and flowed out as fast without doing any good, further than aggrandizing the dynasty. At length, in the eighty-ninth year of his age, Aurungzccb died, and with him, it has been said, the Mogul empire passed away. Internal divisions rent it ; a constant suc- cession of wars between different pretenders to the throne set the vvholc land aflame; the Mahratlas grew up to be a mighty and warlike people, who defied the power of the kiiigs of Delhi; the llujputs rose and won for themselves independence ; the Carnatie became the great battle-ground of India. So change succeeded change, as one Mogul em- peror succeeded another, till in 1857 the last miserable ruler of the house, Mohammed Bahadur Shah, rose against Brit- ain and abetted the mutineers. His sons and grandson were shot, and he himself transported for life to Burmah, where, in Maulmain, he died. Such was the close of the Mogul empire. IV. Tlic Illclun/o/lJie Cni-iiaHc. — ^Vc must briefly glance at this, without entering into any detail. Hitherto, the In- dian history we have gone over has related almost wholly to North-western and Northern India. Southern India now claims a word Jor itself. It was hero that, after the first Aryan invasion thousands of years ago, the aborigines chiefly 'took shelter and became massed in dense commu- nities. Then afterwards, when other invasions from the N. W. succeeded, and the Afghans and the hordes of Baber poured, in wave after wave, into India, still Southern In- dia remained as the great refuge for the earliest inhabitants of the Peninsula. Curious references to Southern India ap- pear in the writings of Ctesias, the Persian court-physieian IB. c. 400). Several )io"rts on the Coromandcl coast of South- ern India have been identified with those mentioned in the famous Pcutingerian Tables. The Carnatie, till A. B. 1294, was wholly ruled by Hindu rajahs. After that it became successively a Mohammedan, Mabratta, French, and Eng- lish battle-"field. Tlie Carnatie is interesting as having been the scene of the glories of the Pandiyan .and Chola dynas- ties. The capital of the Chola dynasty was Conjevcram. The Pandiya rajahs took Madura in the S. for their cajnlal, and the batter city has been regarded as the Benares of the Deccan. It was the great Carnatie centre of Hindu activity from the eighth century till quite recently. It was the fos- ter-mother of art, science, literature, and religion. From the earliest times Southern India has lieen one vast gran- ary. It was boasted by the chroniclers of six centuries ago th"at " not a span of land in the Deccan was free from cul- tivation under the Chola and Pandiya kings." Every- where stately temples arose, and in the present day the sculptured shrines of Srirangam, Chillambram, the Seven Pagodas, Madura, Tanjore, and Ramcswaram vie, in their way, with the most famous specimens of ancient architec- ture in the Bombay or Calcutta presidencies— with the caves of Elephanta or the Taj at Agra. The Carnatie is the scene of Nizain-ul-Mulk's enduring successes. The fa- mous Vizian.agar Hindu kingdom, once occupying nearly the whole of the countrv now called the JIadras presidency, has still a limited jilaee in Soulbcrn India. The fertile provinces of Mysore and Travancorc have an interesting history ; and it was in the Carnatie that the English had to figlit to the death— first with Hyder AM, and then with Tippoii Sultan. V The IlUtorv of the Mahratlas.— Mai. ere passing on, we must at least allude to the Mahrattas, without a men- tion of whose astonishing successes as a brave, warlike power the briefest epitome of Indian hisb.ry would be im- perfect. The founder of the Mabratta p..wer was the great Sivaji, a man who was at the same time as bravo and in- trepid as a lion and cunning and wary as a serpent. He was born in 1027 a. d. The .Mahrattas at that time were good fighters and thorough balers of the Mohammedans. Their militarv tactics were formcil upon plans which ad- mirably suited the countrv they inh;ibited: and these tac- tics Sivaji perfected. Tlieir ciuntry is one which presents a constant sueeession of rooky hills and masses of boulders, rising above alluvial plains. In these elevations the people constructed their most impregnable hill-forts. The race themselves were hardv, naturally active and brave, capital skirmishers, and rea"dv to go to the world's end, so to si.eak for plunder. Their svstem of warfare was of the rough and impetuous kind, and the (Ian of Mabratta cav- alry rendered them dreaded everywhere. Tennyson, the INDIA: ITS HISTOEY. 1145 poct-laureate of England, is quite felicitous when he writes — '■ Whtu in iriW Mahratla batlle fell ray father, evil-starr'd. Sivaji began his career at the early age of nineteen in eeiiing the hill-fort of Tornca and then in building an- other. He next took in succession several other forts, and attacked the Vizianagar government, and also carried his frecbooting expeditions even into Mogul territory, then | under Shah Jchan. The Vizianagar power sent Afzal Khan to crush Sivaji, but the wily Mahralta entrapped * the general, plaved lihud to his Eglon, and destroyed the : whole of his armv. After three years the ^ izuinagar j government was glad to make peace with the man whose name was a terror from the Malabar to the Coromandel ' coast; whereupon, at once, Sivaji turned his attention to the Moguls and ravaged their territories to the very gates ; of Aurifngabad. Then, to inspirit his troops, he performed | an exploH of incredil.le daring. At midnight he slipped, j whollv by himself, into the city, joined in some marriage festivities, surprised the Mogul viceroy and wounded him, killed his son and attendants, and escaped to his own force scot-free. For many years he carried on this war during the reign of Aurungzeeb at Delhi. Siv.iji attacked Surat, got together a fleet of 8j sail, and became the terror of the whole Malabar coast, and annoyed the Mussulmans by constantly chasing and destroying their Arabian pil- grim-vessels. At length, by weight of numbers, Sivaji was partially subdued, and was actually induced to Join the Mogul forces as their ally. This he did, and, as he could never live without fighting, attacked the Vizianagar power and gained a series of brilliant engagements. Shortly afterwards, breaking again with the iMoguls, he caused himself to be solemnly enthroned in Rligliur. He weighed himself agaiust gold, and gave the ten stone of the precious inetal which represented his weight to his lirahman sub- jects. Ho next engaged in a raid in the South, and re- turned with great plunder to Raighur. his capital. He d. Apr. j. 11)80. Sambagi succeeded him, but he was the weak f.)n of a great father. At length ( in lOS'J) Aurungzeeb cap- tured hiin, i)Ut a red-hot iron to his eyes, had his tongue lorn out by the roots, and then decapitated him. From those days to the present, though the character and fortunes of their successive chiefs have changed, the Mahratlas have still remained a warlike people. They measured swords bravely with the Portuguese and English, and were not thoroughly taken in band till, after having been over and over agaiii hopelessly vanquished by the British arms, the " subsidiary system " was put in force, and the land is now [it IlCUCC. VI. The Hilton/ of the Portngueae in Indiu. — Whilst treating of this portion of our subject, we may also speak of (VII.) the history of the various Indo-European com- panies ; of (VIM. > the history of the French in India till their surrender of Pondiehcrry ; and of (IX.) Anglo-Indian history till the npiiointment of the first governor-general. In 1 197, Vaseo da llama rounded the Cape of Good IIo])e, procured a pilot at Melinda, struck out boldly across the Indian Ocean, and landed at f'alicut on the Malabar coast, where ho was received with great pomp by the rajah. Dsx liama, having thus o].ened up the way to India, returned i to Portugal, and in 151)0 a second expedition was sent out to India under Alvarez Cabral. Eight friars were sent with this expedition to propagate Christianity in India, but on arrival they used the sword as freely as the gospel. V/ar naturally followed, and the Portuguese bombarded Calient and burnt the shii.ping in the harbor, and then withdrew to Cochin. In a year's time they returned to Portugal, eminently suceessful for the time being, as far as mere trade went, for the whole Inilian Ocean was now at the ecimman.l of their ficet. liut their arrogant policy made them hated in India. In Io02, Vaseo da liama re- turned to Calicut, and .some of bis first acts were to burn a ship with all its crew and to cut off the hands and feet of fifty natives of various classes collected from the native vesVels in Calicut harbor. He returned to Europe without accomiilishing anything better. In l.^OJ the Portuguese sent out their first viceroy. Almeyda. In 1 JOS, Albuquer- que, the greatest name in Portuguese Indian history, suc- ceeded Alineyda, and in the next year he captured the city and fine harbor of (Ina, and at once the power of Portugal rose to importance in Inilia. liut soiui wars sprung up on every side, and alter Albuquerque's death the Mahratlas and Mohammedans pressed the colony very sorely, anil within a century the Portuguece empire in the East— in Ceylon and the .Sloluecas as well as at Goa— may be sai.l to have almost utterly collapsed. With it also, fortunately, ool- lapsed the Inquisition and other peculiar institutions which Ihe Portuguese introduced into India for the " benefit of Hindus, "shortly after the first nppeaianee of the Portu- euesc in India four European East India coinimnies fol- lowcl them— namely, the Hutch in liUl, the English in 1600, the French in 1C6S, and the Danish in IGIC. The Dutch settlements in India have never been very iiuporlaut, and have subseciueutly all been ceded to England. Tliesc were Negapatani. Bimlipatam, Pulicat, and Sadras. Tho Danes established themselves at Tranquebar and Ser- ampore, and sold these places subsequently to the English in 1845. At tho present da_y it is most curious to notice these quaint Dutch and Danish towns in India, which have a curious Oid-World air about them. In l.'»7'J i a curious uiu- >i oriu air aoouL iiieiii. xu i./i .» an Euglish- man named Thomas Stevens travelled to Goa, and pub- lished a narrative of his travels in England. The book attracted great attention. Other English travellers re- counted their adventures, and some of them travelled t" the court of Akbar with letters from the English queen Eliza- beth: and then (in lliOO) Queen Elizabeth determined on incorporating by charter the famous P.rilish East India Compauy. The company was to be tho medium of all trade-communication between Britain and India ; was to have twenty-four directors and one chairman ; and in lfi24 the company was formally authorized to punish, even cap- itally, their .servants, and' thus were regarded as a govern- ment as well as a trading association. lu IGU the first English factory was established at Surat, ou the western coast, and five years later, besides several other factories, the company had one on the eastern coast, at Masulipatam. In 11139, Fort St. George, at Madras, was built. In 1G4» the first Bengal factory was established at Hooglily. Everywhere along the sea-line factories, more or less fortified, sprung up. and did a rapidly increasing business. At length, in 1664, Sivaji attacked"Surat, and the natives first learned to appreciate the bravery and aptitude for war of the English, who successfully drove the victorious Mahratlas back, and protected the town of Surat in a manner which so delighted Aurungzeeb that he forthwith gave the English tinders great concessions. In lOOS, Bombay wa« made into a pres- idency. It had been given to England as a part ol the dowry of Catharine of Braganza. In 1098 a fort was ordered to he built in Bengal : it was called Fort William. Thus begins the history of Calcutta. But bclore this tlie French had lauded iu India. The famous Colbert organ- ized a company on a firm basis in 1CG4. under the patron- age of Louis XIV. This company began rapidly to estab- lish factories near existing British ones; for instance, in Masulipatam and Surat. In 1G74 the French bought Pon- diehcrry, on the Coromandel coast, which still belongs to their government; Francois Martin was the founder. In 109:) Pondicherry was attacked and taken by the Dutch, but was subsequc'ntlv returned after the Peace of Ryswick. It was then more eiaborately fortified by the French, and soon rose into great importance as a mart and port on tlie Coromandel coast. In IGSS, Aurungzeeb gave the Freiich Chandanagore, in Bengal, a small settlement which they possess at the present day. In 17:il. Dupleix, the French Clive, was appointed director of Chandanagore. Every- where the French factories rose and flourished, and it was not long before it was seen that the supremacy of !■ ranee or that of England in India must be decided by force of arms. From the first there had been no boundaries between Ihe rival companies, and their factories were indiscrimi- nately dotted over the Peninsula. When war between Eng- land "and France broke out in Europe, Ihe spark would naturally fly to India and the whole country be ablaze. This was clearly anticipated, and thus French and English vied with each other to obtain influence and form alliances with those native potentates who happened to possess at the time large standing armies. At length war did break out between England and France in Europe, and the flame spread to India. Dupleix and Ea Bourdoiinais thelieuch admiral, attacked Madras in 174G, took it and the garrison and compelled the English to redeem it with a ransom of four lakhs and 40,000 rupees. The English cantives were sent as prisoners to Pondicherry, saving a few who escaped Among these latter was the future hero of India, I live. At this brilliant French success the nawab ol Arcot grew jealous, and sent 10,0011 men against them. But the wlu.lo of this armv was overthrown by 2.10 Ircnchmen under Du- pleix and Paradis, assisted by only 700 native troops Plie fame of this splendid achievement spread through all Imlia. The French wore rcgarde.l as the greatest Euroiiean pow-er in India. This state of afl-airs continued till 1.4S, when by Ihe Peace of Aix-ln-Cliapelle England and 1 ranee were once more at unity. Dupleix, mortified and chagrined, had to deliver back Madras to the Knglish. Peace was nothing to continue between the two European powers in India. The throne uf Arcot was the subject of a war helwecn the occupier. Anwar-ud-deen, and Chanda Sahib, the aspirant. Tho latter had the symiiathies and assistance of the Frciicli, and was at first successful. Anwar-uddeen was killed. 1 lie British then supported tho succession of his son as against Chanda Sahibs claims, and inarched GOO Englishmen, un- I der Lawrence and Clive, together with a vast native army 1146 INDIA: ITS HISTORY, (a largo part of wliich was composed of Mahratta soldiers), j towards Pondicherry. Now the tables were turned, and i the Kn;;lish won the day. But in a short time the French, j under the able and irrepressible Duj)U'ix, suddenly mur- dcreil Xazir Jung, the viceroy of the Deccan whom the English had appointed, and in a great measure regained their jjrcstige in Snuthorti India. In 1751 the Freneli were | still the real rulers of the Carnatic. But now a terrible ; strugi^Iecoinnicnccd. Tlio Knglish were thoroughly aroused. I ('live with ;120 men and i officers took Arcot, and held it j lor seven weeks against 10,000 of Chanda Sahib's troops. At length the garrison was relieved by Sauiulers after a ' desperate fight ; Chanda Sahib fled. Tlie prestige of Eng- j land rose anew. In 1762, ("live followed up his victories. I Dupleix had built a town and pillar to commemorate his successes; these Clivc deinolislied, and thereby greatly impressed the minds of the superstitious Hindus. Next, the rock of Trichinopoly, beleaguered by the French, was relieved. The French army was caught in a trap in an island between the Cauvcry and Colcroon rivers, and Law, the general, "Hj FrctichTncn. and 2000 native troops were captured by Lawrence an<l Cl.ivo. Chanda Sahib fled to Tanjiire, and was there soon after assassinated. After this, for several years, Du})lcix did his best to retrieve tho French cause, but failed. In 175fi the news reached India that Eu'/land and France were again at war. The French general Lally came and took the field, and unsuccessfully besieged Madras. The English commanclcr, VA're Coote, soon after landed, and opened the campaign against tho | French. The decisive battle of Wandewash was fought. Tho I French power was for ever utterly crushed in India. But | two years before this the great battle of Plassey had been fought in tho North, and all India was already virtually nt the mercy of England. At first the English factories had been unimportant in Bengal, as compared witli Madras. In 17.')0 a new native ruler ascended the throne of Bengal, Behar, and <.>rissa. This was that most infamous name in all Indian history — Nawab Surajah Dowlah. This man suddenly attacked the English in Bengal, first at Cossira- bazaar, and then at Calcutta. Drake, the governor, found no means of resisting the overwiiolming enemy. Sending all tho women and children out of the settlement by ship, he himself followed, leaving Mr. Holwell and 145 Euro- peans behind to treat with Surajah Dowlah. The infuriated nawab now entered Calcutta. That evening — a sultry one in tho hot month of June — the entire number of the 146 I'nglish captives was crammed into a dungeon eighteen IVct square, with only two small breathing-hides in it. In such a climate as that of India in the month of June, tho j.rison would have been found very oppressive for one European prisoner, but here were 146 thrust into it. The horrors of that night can scarcely be even imagined. In the morning all of the captives were dead with the excep- tion of 2.'}, and these were at the last gasp and i)resented a s:id sight. Such is the memorable episode of the Black Hole of Calcutta. The news of the atrocity quickly flew to Madras, and soon Clive was in Bengal, where he carried tvcrything before him, A hollow ])eace was made in 1767, liut soon broken. The nawab must be deposed. In tho intrigues necessary to obtain native co-operation towards this end, a wily Bengalee named Oinichund was employed. The plot grew ripe, whon suddenly thuichund informed Clivc that he woubl n-veal nil uuless lie were jiromisod, by a clause in the treaty nominating Meer .Taflir to tho throne of Surajah Dowlah. the sum of ;i. 000. 000 rupees. Clivo now k-nt his hand to the one ignoble action of his life. Two treaties were drawn up — one on red and one on white jiaper. The one on red was tho false treaty, with tho clause which Omichund required inserted in it. This was shown to tho Bengalee, and he was satisfied. Clive now wrote to tho Nawab Surajah Dowlah dnnanding instant satisfaction for all the injuries which had been incurred by the Eufi^lish, stating that he must answer to tho British army for his crimes unless he at once satisfied each one of the claims which shr)uhl be made. Of course the nawab sprang to arms, and with 50,000 infantry, 18,000 cavalry, and an immense train of artillery, ]ioured down on tho English general with his (\'>Q European infantry, 1.^)0 gun- ners, 2100 Sepoys, a few Portuguese, and 10 j>ioccs of ar- tillery. On the evening of .Tune 22, Clive held the only council he summoned in nil his campaigns. It was a very anxioua one. Thirteen of the members of it voted against attacking the immense army of Surajah. Seven — one of whom was the sagu'-ious anil intrepid Coote — voted in favor of the attack. After the council liad risen Clive took a lonely walk on the rivor-bnnk. The whole scene is an his- torical one. The next morning was to eee the vast penin- sula of Hindustan, from tho Ilimalayas to Cape Comorin, virtually won for Britain. CHve and his little army at- tacked the nawab with the dawn. Plassey was fought and won on .lune 21^, K.''*". The victory was terrible and com- plete, though the English only lost 72 killed and wounded. Surajah was seized and jiut to death by his successor. But the English soon had occasion to dethrone Meer Jaffir and to appoint Meer Kassim, his sou-in-la\v, as nawab. But ho soon rebelled, ami at Patna massacred 14S English gentlemen and soldiers in cold blood. He was, however, soon vanquished. By successful wars and tho natural oper- ations of trade the English power in India went on increas- ing and consolidating, till (in 1774) Warren Hastings be- came tho first govcruor-gcnerjil rtf British India. X. The (jovrruorH-ffcneruf nf /ntfifi. — A\'arr('n Hastings, as ho was tiie first, may bo regarded as also undoubtedly the greatest, of the governors-general of India. Whatever may have been his mistakes, he was brave, honest, disin- terested, and of great ability as a statesman and soldier. His governorship extended from 1774 to I7S5. Tho chief events of this time may thus be briefly summed up. Tho famous Regulating Act was passed, by which the Parliament of Britain formally recognized the East India Company as a ruling body, it being agreed in the charter that the gov- ernor-general should be paid £26.000 ji year and have a supremo council of four, and that India should possess a supreme court of Judicature. It was at the same time stipulated that England should receive from tho East India Company forty lakhs of rupees annually. It was in virtue of this act. and under the provisions of it, that Hastings became governor general. Col. Monson, Gen. Clavcring, Philip Francis, and Jlr. Barwell were his council of four. The first three of these did everything they could to thwart the governor-general. Francis was their leader. He is ■well known to English history as that Sir Philip Francia who is supposed to have been the author of the Lettcra of Jatiiua. An implacable hater, in social life a heartless vil- lain and debauchee, in public life a shrewd and calculating politician, he was an unscrupulous enemy of great poaver; and to him must chiefly be traced Hastings' final impeach- ment. To proceed, Shujah-ud-Dowlah. nawab-vizier of Oude. died in 1775. His mother and widow, called begums, claimed his treasures, 2,000,000 rupees, and for a time they got possession of them. Thus, the young nawab entered upon his reign with an empty treasury, g(d into debt, and accused the begums of plotting against Hastings. The lat- ter suddenly cut the knot of the difficulty by making tho begums pay 0,700.000 ru)>ecs to the East India Company. Shortly before this a wily native named Nuncoomar tried to crush Hastings by ascribing to the governor-general crimes of various kinds. The three members in the su- preme council inimical to Hastings actually believed this accuser, and favored him in his designs against their com- mon foe. But Hastings was equal to the occasion. Tho Brahmin had supported his evidence against Hastings by documents palpably forged. An eminent native merchant suddenly brought a suit against Nuncoomar for forgery. The case was heard before the chief-justice of Calcuttii, Sir Elijah Impey. The real prosecutor of course was Hastings. Nune<K)mar was fouud guilly and sentenced to be hanged. To the horror of all Bengal, the lioly Brahmin was not rc- ])rievrd. The execution was not forgotten for many a day. On the pari of Hastings it was a stroke as politic as it was pitiless. It at once asserted his power even against the majority of his council, and this was needed at a time when the Mysoreans. the Dutch, the French, and the Mahrattas were all fighting together against the English. At length {in 17S6) Hastings retired to England, jlis impeachment belongs to English history. In 1780, Lord Cornwallis went out to India as the second governor-geueral. He had done nothing to justify his appointment, unless his delivering himself and his army in America to Washington only five years previously may have been regarded as a sign of his good sense. During his governorship he did nothing re- markable, save to give his im])rimatur to an excellent sys- tem of land settlement. The third governor-general was Sir John Shore (UlKUHS). Tho fourth was the Marquis of Wellesley, whose r6gime extended from 171*8 to 1805. The marquis was one of the ablest men who ever set foot in In- dia. He acted with great decisicm of character in his deal- ings with native potentates, and by everywhere pursuing a wise policy of friendly intervention, using violent inter- vention when absolutely necessary, he aggrandized tho British power and firmly consolidated it. Hydcr Ali in tho Cjirnatic had been overthrown. Under the marquis Welles- ley the fourth Mysore war, against Tipjioo Sultan. s<m of Hydcr. was successfully terminated in 1700. Scringapatam was taken. It would require n history in itself to describe seriatim the struggles of the British power in India in the Carnatic with Hyder Ali and the " Tiger of tho Deccan," his son. But it was in this year (17ltO) that the stronghold of the latter, Serin(;apataiu. was stormed, and Tippoo him- self slain under a heap of his fierce defenders. In ISOl tho aflTairs of Oude were regulated. Shortly afterwards the second Mahratta war was sueccssfully brought to a close. INDIA INK-IXDIAXA. 1147 Everywhere the Britifh arras were victorious. Lord Corn- wallis, for the sefon.l time covcrnor-gcncral. succeeded Marquis Wcllcsli-v in ISOj. His policy was that of peace at any price, lie did not live loug euough to do serious mi'chicf, an.l Sir (Jcorgc Barlow suceeedcl him in the same vcar, and governed till 1807. lie was inclined lo cniiv Lord Cornwallis. with certain laudable exceptions. On '.July 10. ISllO. at 2 a. «.. the Sepoys of the Carnatic icilitary station of Vellore mutinied, and massacred in European troops. Their reasons for thus rising against the British Government were stated to be that the new „„7.;,-.e sanctioned as a head-dress for the troops was really a European hat. and that the emblem of the cross had been introduced into their uniforms: Jjy which the Se- poys auderstood they were to be made forcibly Chris- tian" "So great a fire a little spark kiudlcth. They were'nuicklv overcome. Earl Minto succeeded Barlow in l"*!); and his governor-generalship lasted till IM... The Travaneore war broke out and was riuellcd during this period. The marquis of Hastings succeeded Earl Minti in ISU, and his rule lasted till lS2:i lie, like his predecessor, was a man of statesmanlike ability, llie war of Ncpaul was entered into at this time, and termi- 1 nated in a measure favorably for the British arm«. The eighth governor-general was Lord Amherst (182.i-LiS). His rfeimo was first distinguished by the hazardous under- taking, yet successful termination, of the Burmese war. In 182i, Malacca and Singapore were ceded by the Dutch to the British empire in the East. Lord Bcntinck was (he ninth governor-general (1828-35). At this time the Thugs j were repressed and the horrible practice of the self-immola- tion of Hindu widows isee Sittkf.) forbidden. Lord Auck- , land was the tenth governor-general. The fatal Afghan expedition and the Chinese war marked his r.-gime. I'rom I14' to IS 1 1, Lord Ellenborough ruled as the eleventh . governor-general. During this time Sir Charles Napier | conquere.l and quieted Scinde. His laconic despatch after taking the countrv will be remembered : " /'err„n . —i. e. •• I have sinned ""i Scinde). The twelfth governor-general was Lord llardmge (ISH-IT). The first Puujaub war was now fought, and four great battles were won in 54 days. The thirteenth governor-gcnetal was the earl of Dalhousie (184S-5G). Oudc was now annexed, the second Burmese and the second Punj.aub wars fought, and the system of Indian railways and telegraphs organized. The fourteenth governor-general was Lord Canning (ISofi-Cl), and his r6- L'irao is not likely to be forgotten in the annals ol Hind'>s- tan, because of the great Indian Sepoy mutiny of ISo,. Hero again we enter upon an episode of Indian history upon which hundr.'.l-i of volumes have been written The s'pov regiments were getting dissatisfied. They felt their numerical power. They had been furnished with new Enfield rifles. Bigoted Mussulmans among them declared that the new cartridges which had been supplied to the lro(,ps ha.l been smeared with the fat of pigs and cows. On Mar. 10 the mutiny began at Berhampore. Everywhere throughout India fanatics, ascetics, fakirs, and moulvics ru«hed about spreading disaffection, and prophesying the fill of the British power and the extermination of white men from the face of India. Especially the Mobainiiie.hins considered that they were to regain their cmimc in the East The last .M.igul emperor headed them. The signal for war was circulated from the Himalayas to Cape Como- rin in the form of flat flour-cakes called .liup/iniiir,. At Meerut the first great outbreak took place. 1 he eyes ot the European officers throughout India were fata y blinded They believe<l in their men, and their naturally honest Anglo-Saxon character could not fathom the depths of the treachery of the wily Asiatic. The European part of Mcernt was burnt, and every English man, woman, an.l child massacred. At Delhi the commissioner, military coniniandant, the chaplain and his poor daughter first met their doom in the sight of the last Mogul emperor. Everywhere the land was in flames against the white inan. Tlo- lii>rrible massaere of ( 'awnjiore forms one ol the blackest ni.'es i>f the history of the world, and was perloriued un- diTihc supervision of that supremest of miscreants, Nana >Jahib The garrison defended themselves, but were prom- ised tiieir lives if they would depart and give up the treas- ures of the place to liie muline.rs. Alter a long struggle thev consenlcl. When they were once in the boats which were to convey them nwav. Nana Sahib and the treacher- ous mulineers'on the bank of the river opene.l fire. Men, women, and children were killed, mutilated, and w.mndcd. Many were .Iragged back to the shore. Fair and noble Euroiiean ladies were carried back to the ei y, sumred pol- lulioii worse than death, and were flung with their children down the now famous well of Cawnpore. Sir Henry Have- lock soon avenged their .leath. Outram aiul C yde and Lawrence and Neill arc a few of the l.onorab e names which shine in that dark and stormy time. Lucknow and Delhi were stormed. The mutiny was quelled, but the shadow of it has not vet passed from the hearts of living men who have ha.l anything to do with India. In l.s,,s. (he year after the mutiny, a great change was inaugunited. India was placed under" the direct authority of the eiown of Britain : the East India Company was done away with ; the governor-general was made "viceroy;" the Indian European army, as such, was abolished; the Indian civil service was thrown open to competition. Tho governor- general is now responsible, not to a board of East India Company directors, but to the secretary of state for India, assisted bv a council of fifteen members. Queen Victoria issued, on all this being determined, a solemn proclamation to India, which now the native princes and Hindus gener- ally regard a.s the supreme charter of (heir liberlies. After Lord Canning's rf-gime. Lord Elgin. Sir .lohn Lawrence, the earl of Mayo (assassinated at the Andaman Islands), and Lord Nor'thbrook have followed as governors-gener.al and viceroys. Lord Xorthbrook is now (1875) in power, and his governnien( has been especially marked by the wis- dom and thoroughness with which a fearful Indian famine in Bchar and Bengal has been met and finally overcome. R. C. Caldweli-. India (or Chinal Ink is of two kinds : (1) the dried pigment frimi certain cuttle-fishes. When browned by tho action of an alkali it bceomes sepia. It is prepared in 1 Italy, in Turkey, and in Asia. (2) A mixture o( fine lamp- black with glue'or size and a little camphor. It is prepared in China, and is a very useful pigment. Bo(h of tlie above 1 arc used in Asia as writing inks, and both are practically indelible. (See I.vK, by I'ltoF. B. Sii.i.niAN-, M. D.) 1 India Matting, a material largely employed ns a summer carpeting and for the covering of the floors of , sleeping chambers. It is imported from Bengal, where it I is woven from the stems of Papyrus Pangurci or coi-jni- hositft. In'dian, tp. of I'lumas co.. Cal. Pop. 8S0. Indian, tp. of Washington co.. Me. Pop. 14. Indiiin, tp. of Williamsburg co., S. C. Pop. 1147. India'na, one of the central States of the American Union, Iving between tho parallels of .'57° 46' and 41° 4G' N lat., and the meridians of 84° 49' and 88° 2' W. Ion. Seal of Indiana. Its ereatest lenglli from \. to S. is 277 miles, and its great- est brea.Kh from E. to W. 176 miles, while its average breadlh is about 1 10 miles. It is bounded N by Lake Michigan and the State of Michigan, the parallel of 41 46' being the boundurv-line ; E. by Ohio, its eastern limit being a line drawn due N. from the mouth of the (.reat Miami niver: S. E. an.l S. by Keiilueky, from which it is divided by the llliio River; W. by Illinois, the boundary being tho meridian of 87° :UI' W. until (hat meridian strikes the Wabash River, and thoneo through the inid.Ue ol the main channel of the Wabash River to its entrance int.. (he Ohio The area of the State is :!:i,S01l square miles, or '21,6:17,760 acres. In 1870 it ha.l 40.75 inhabitants to the square mile. . • • r„ /•'.I.-. ../' Ihe Countri/. — There are no mountains in In- diana, and n.i hills of'consi.lerahle height except what are ealle.l' the river-hills. The rivers which drain the Slat.- have in the pn.gress of ages ero.lcd valleys of e..nsi.leial.le dei.th an.l uiucli greater width than (heir ].resent ehonn.ls, ' an.l the slopes which bound these valleys give (h.- appcar- ftuce of hills varying from 200 („ 400 feet in heighl above the river-vallevs, an.l at (ho highest points being ab..ul 600 feet above the level of the sea. The highest p..rli..n8 of (he State are on its E. an.l W. si.Ies, some of the river- hills along tho Wabash Valley attaining (he alliludo of 1148 INDIANA. GOO feet above the sea : and from these points to the Ohio below the falls near Louisville there is a gradual slope ot somewhat more than 100 feet. There is. however no marked or distinct watershed in any part ot tlie M.ue. About two-thirds of the State is very level, the remainder broken or ndlinj:. but with no high elevations. But owing to this re.ature of river-hills an aeeount of the nver-systems of the Slate and their valleys is necessary to a full umlcr- standing of the face of the country Beginning ">""'';; S we have first the Ohio River Valley, including that ol the White Water River, whicb occupies a tract of aliout 5.500 square miles in the State. The Ohio River borders the State for a distance, by the course of the river, of about 3S0 miles. The Ohio River Valley on the Indiana side was originally covered with heavy forests. The river-hils are rugged and broken, a.i.l about a dn/eu -'"■^■;'«^' ""j^' ^ small and not navigablc-Ihe Great Miami and the Wa a h being the only c.oeptions-break thi^igh the "ver-^lulls on the X. sidean.l form bold bluffs. The valleys of the E. and W. forks of White River, and the prairie-lands which thev enclose, extend from the Wabash to the Ohio line, coverin" a little more than a degree of latitude and an area of aboiil 9000 square miles, or somewhat more than one- fourth of the area of the State. The region is almost uni- versally level, and the eastern part was originally heavily timbered, while the W. is prairie, with oceasiona ly some low, broken hills. The streams are generally clear and unfailing, and there are sufficient falls to furnish a^""' »" water-power. The soil is very rich-much better than that of the Ohio River Valley. The valley of the Wabash River and its affluents is the largest in the State, covering an area of over 12,000 squ.are miles. It interlocks with the M-hite River V.alley, and resembles it in its fertility. The K portion is somewhat more rolling and broken. There are considerable waterfalls in the middle portion of the vab lev The Wabash has a course of COO miles, and, though much obstructed by drift-wood and silt, might be made navi-rable for steamboats of light draft to Wabash in W a- ba^h°co., about 400 miles, though only by a heavy expendi- ture The valley of the Maumec and its principal trilnitary, the St. Joseph." occupies a tract of about 2000 miles in the N E part of the State, and slopes gently toward Lake Eric'into which the Maumee discharges its waters. An- other and larger St. .Joseph's River, from Michigan, dip- pin- down into Elkhart and St. Joseph cos. and returning to Michigan, drains those counties into Lake Michigan: while in the N. W. the Kankakee, an affluent of the llli- nni. with its branches, drains eight counties into that river. The Kankakee Valley is somewhat swampy, and the river expands at several points into broad marshy lakes, iho soil is generally good, though near Lake Michigan it is sandy a^d barren. The tributaries of the Ohio .n the State are the Great .Miami, which touches its S. E border, and its main affluent, the White Water, the Laugbery, Indian Kentucky, Fourteen Mile. Silver, Buck Creek. Indiai. Blue, Great Blue, Little Blue, Oil Creek, Anderson s. Little Pig- eon, Big Pigeon, and the Wabash: of these only the f.r.t and last are navigable <.r of much importance. Tlie Wa- rces in Ohio. Its course is N. W. to Hun- bash has its sources in Ohio. Its course . - - tiu.'ton CO., thence W. by S. to Amsterdam m Cass co., thence S W. to Baltimore in Warren cA., and thence !r., biarii..' sli-btlv W.. till it enters the Ohio. Its principal ?i?, aaries-areifrom the S. and E the Salamon.e Mis^ 8is,inewa, Deer Creek, Wildcat Creek. Sugar or Rock, Big and Little Raccoon rivers, Otter ""■<"■'•/''''"'';•,''"',„ e^ creeks, and White River: from the N. and W.. Ee . Tip pe- ~ Little, Vermilion, Embarras, and Little Wabash, the fa three bJing mainly in Illinois. The E and ^^ .forks vhich, uniting: form the White River, the largest affluent of the Wabash, have themselves a number of tributaries of considerable size. Among those of the E fork a>e fie Sal , Mus.atatuck, Sand, Clifty. Flat K'^k. SuK-"- ^I'^^'V'' and Lick Creek, while th.- W. fork has Fall Creek, Big .- dian Bean Bhissom, Richland, and Prairie creeks, and hel River The St. Joseph's and the St. Mary's unite to form the Maumee in the N. E., and the Michigan St. Joseph >:c- eoives the Pigeon River and the Little and Big K"^l>art m the State. The Kankakee has several small fecdeis in the State, and its principal branch, the Iroquois after a con- siderable course in Indiana, unites with ,t in Illinois. Deep and Calumet rivers, small streams which flow into Lake Michigan, run very near its shores. The State is well wa- tered. There are numerous small lakes and ponds, but none of large size. Beaver Lake, the largest, is in Newton eo., an.l covers about 10.000 acres. The southern shore has an extensive marsh. There are also several very pretty s.iiall lakes in Noble. Kosciusko, Marshal, S'»'^' »">'„I';. ^^-^J^ COS., and three or four in Knox co. in the S. W. part ot tbe ^"o'°'.?o.,w.-Indiana has not a great variety of geological . formations on or near the surface. The Silurian system .» 1 the oldest in the State, and, proceeding in a direction about S W by S. from bmh Lakes .Michigan and Erie, it appears in the e'xtreme N. W. and S. E. of the State. In both eiises il dil.s under the Devonian rocks, which occupy with their formations about three-fiflhs of the surface of the btate. In Benton co. the Illinois coal-field enters the State, the Devonian rocks dipping b.neath it. The coal-m.asurcs extend from the Wabash River to Crawford eo. on the Ohio, and crossing the Ohio enter Kentucky. Their area in Indiana is .about 7700 square miles. There are many different qualities and varieties of this coal. At Cannel on and other points on the river it is found high up on the river-bluffs as cannel coal, and is in great demand |..r river-steamers and for domestic purjioses. and at various points along the Wabash and Erie (anal, from Evonsville northward, seams of free-burning bituminous coal of good quality are worked. In Spencer co.. and thence N. N. » . to Clav eo. and above, the block coal (so named from its occurring in quadrangular blocks of varying thickness) is abundant. It is easily mined, and is found to be superior to anv other coal known, and even to charcoal, for the pro- duction of pig iron and steel. Two specimens of this block coal analyzed by Prof. Dclafontaine gave the following rc- ' Water at "12° F l.SC-3.91 ; Fixed carbon ^;?2;:^X'?', VolaMk. n^atte? 37.11-:!0.K4 Ash, while 2.80-2.44 ' On distillation in a closed vessel the following resulU were obtained: . (•o);e G3.05 I Water, approximately.... 15.11 Tar, approximately 15.30 , Gas • •_ The water contained ammonia and other soluble chcnii- cals besides a small amount of hydrosulphate of ammonia. The amount of phosphoric acid was 0.3 per cent., and ot sulphuric acid. 0.0 per cent. The amount of phosphoric acid is verv much less than that of the best English smell- ing coals, "those of Pontypool, Bcdwas, Eborvale. etc., and there was an entire absence of sulphur, of which there was a notable percentage in the English coals. Tbe importance of these facts to iron-masters is very evident, as_^the phos- phorus (or phosphoric acid) and sulphur are the two in- eiedicnts which have most seriously injured the quality o American iron. It is found, too, that there is very m.ch less phosphorus than in charcoal, that from elm. oak, and appli tree wood yielding from 4 to V per cent of phosphorus, while the block coal yielded but three-tenths of 1 per cent. This coal is said to make also the best Bessemer steel. Salt- springs are found along the borders of the coal formation. There are also many quarries of white limestone of excel- lent quality for building purposes, a fine sandstone like the Chen.ung or Portsmouth (0.) sandstone, slate, brick, and norcelain clays. Some grindstones, small deposits of gyp- Cu. and bog-iron ore. though not sufficiently abundant to pay for working, are the other principal minerals of the '^' "vVr/ftnt.-on.— The State in its earlier history was largely cover'ed with forests, having much less open prairie than Illinois, but under the influence of settlements, the demands of its railroads, and the requirements for fuel these forests are rapidly disappearing, and less attention is given to the culture of forest trees than should be. A careful investiga- tion bv the agricultural department gives the entire average in woodland in the State at 7..S41,145 acres or 34.8 per cent, of the entire area. The forests are mainly deciduous trees, such as black walnut, white, red. burr, and black oak, hickorv, sugar, and red maple, ash, beech, linden, svea. more, el «. and tulip or whitewood. There is very li He native pine, spruce' or hemlock in the State. The under- growths are principally dogwood, pawpaw, wild plum. Thorn, persiininon, erab-anple. etc. 1 he "'^""^"ke ( /.....- ,,l„,ll„;„) and some of tKe species of ■'"»"''^^'' »",,[' "^ along the streams. Wild flowers are abundant, although Tin. number of species is not large. W ild aiumals. espe- ciallv the Carnivora. are nearly extinct in the Mate Bears are very seldom seen ; the coyote or prairie-wolf is becon,- inir rare : and occasionally the raccoon, opossum, and skunk, as well as the woodchiiek or ground hog and the gopher are found. Hares or rabbits and squirrels abound ni the forests, and the smaller rodents are sufticenlly picnt.v. -The Erouse or prairie-hen has been bunted so relnitless ly that ft is comparatively scarce. Pigeons, partridges, and occa- sionallv wild-turkeys are found. CV,Lle -The climate is liable to sudden and frequent changes. The range of the thermometer each ■^""t';. '« very great. The heat in summer is intense, and the win- ter'i cold equally severe. These extremes »>«. ";i""' greater in the northern than the southern part of the State. The following table gives the monthly and annual "^"'P''™- ture, range of the thermometer monthly, average annua pressure of barometer,- direction of winds, and annual maximum and minimum temperature in M"=>l'gan C t.^ Logansport, Indianapolis, and New Albany-four poinU INDIANA. 1149 nearly cquiUistant from each other, and fairly representing tha different climates of the State — in the years 1S72-73 : UtCTituin City. LoOAJtHPOBT. [ifUUKAPOLU. .Vbw .iLIANY. Ob«ervftUoilt. L«. JI'ss-.N. I.!>1. (0° « N. L«l. S90 «' S. L»t. M' 20' X. Ixm.UGJiT'W. l.on.(i<r>2.'W. Un .«;'(»»•. Loh.7:P03'W. Ann'l mean Klcr.,G5ifcet. Klc«-.,510tc<!l. Elcv., 746.7 n. Elcv., <96 IM. pr>.'&iure ba- rniueter 30.033 30.023 30.060 Monthly range of temperature: October 54° 64° 54° 52° Xovembcr.. 61° 48° 42° 53° December... 69^ 35° 65° January 07" 38° 0j.5° February... 71° 54° 50° 01.0° March 72° 71° 60° 6.S.0° ■\pril 5S° 52° 48° asP 30° ■trp 40° 32° 4.3° 48° 41° 40° 35° 41° 52.0° I rfav 43.0° 41.0° July 35.0° 1 Auj^ust 31.0° 1 ,'Septcinber.. 47° 4-1° 53° 52.0° j Monthly mean temp- erature: October 50.8° 44..'!° 50.0° 56.0° November.. 32.5° 35.2° 36.0° 37.5° December... 20.3° 24.4° '29.4° January 20.7° 25.0° 31.1° Februa'ry... 24.0° 31.3° 30.4° 36.8° March. 34.6° 31.7° :i8.5° 43.3° .\pril 42.3° 53.9° 70.2° 71.2° 71.7° 47.7° 53.1° 7i!i'° 73.5° 50.3° 04.0° 77.0° 73.5° 75.0° 51.0° May 07° 78° July 79° .\USU3l 78° September.. 62.4° 62.7° 64.0° 69.5° Ann'l mean 1 temperature. 46.25' 53.0° 50.84° 55.23° .Monthly ! rainfall; ' October 0.05 \ ^-'^ f 1.07 3.92 I N'tvorabcr.. l.OC 1 0.80 0.56 December... 0.19 t ? 2.10 2..'iS January 2.53 V 12.3 J 4.50 2.93 F.:bruary... 0..17 i •2.85 5.42 Mar.-^h 0..'i9 ) 343 3.39 April 12 V 10.5 ■ 12.8 ■J 5.91 3.05 May- 7.20 1.44 4.04 1.SS 1 3.89 f 3.70 J 11.23. 1. 1.32 5.73 3.87 July 3.43 August 3.04 S.:ptcmbpr.. 2.511 -.... 1.76 2.51) .\n. rainfall... 23.75 42.8 42.o6 40.42 Prev. winds: Parts of davs of N. wind. 128 90 96 " N. W. " 85 147 188 " \V. " 141 142 113 " S. W. " 213 176 l.")0 " 8. 117 180 192 " S. E. " 79 78 8S " E. " 79 64 143 " N. E. " Ml 83 100 " Calm " 44 133 1-27 Max. temp.... 102° Wi" 101° 9.-.0 Minimum -■ifi — 1U° -8° -4° A'jfirAiltnrnl Pivdncts. — Indiana belongs to tlic grain- growinj5 Statos, and in some of the grains takes a very high rank. Its production of cereals in the year ISli'J-TO, aocr>rding to the census, was — uf wheat, 27,7 17,222 huslieU; of rvc, •iD7,l'>'S ; of Indian eurn, i}\,Wl,y.iS ; of oatH, S.5'j6,409; of barley, ;i0rp,2r»2 ; of buckwheat, 80,2111. Four years later thct^o crops were reported as follows: wheat, 2U.k;{2,O00 bushels (a decided falling off); rye, ;;'.I7. 111)0 : Indian corn, G7,>< 10.000 fa gain of ncarlv ir.,7lfi,000 buMhcls); oats, ll.HIO.OOO (a gain of 10 per cent.): barley, 608,000; buckwheat, irt'J.UOO (or almost double). The crop of Irish potatoes in 18011-70 was .'...IIMJ.OU bushels: in l-s;:!, only 2,520.000 ; tobacco in 1809- 70, 0,:t2j.3'J2 pounds: in 187;t, 16,(100,1)00; hay in Isfill. 1.070,708 tons; in 1S7:J, S'.Kt.liOU. The value of these nine crops in 187-'* was $70,66fi,260, tliese constituting not nioro than one-half of all farm productions in value. The value of all farm proiluctions in ISO't-70 was $122.91 4, ^^02, and this incliicled, besides otl)cr iniporhint items to bo men- tioned nre?enlly, $2,868,080 of orchard products, $187,179 of market-garden products, $2.15(6.079 of forest products, $r»06,fi:!y of homo manufactures, and $30,240,902 of animals >laiightcre)l or nold for slaughter ; nearly $r»7. 1*00, 000 in all. In lSOll-7", aTording to the census, Indiana pro- duced 5.029.02."t poinuls of wool, 36,620 buslicts of peas and beans. 160,706 bufshels of sweet potatoes, 19,479 gallons of wine, 22,916,386 pounds of butler, 283,807 pound J" of cheese; and sold 930. 9S3 gallons of milk. The iflablishmcnt of butter and cheese factories since that time in the State, nearly IiiO being now in operation, hits tloubled the pro- duction of butter and cheese. Among the other agricul- tural products of 1869 were Cl,li>S bushels of clover seed, 17.377 bu.^hels of other grass-seed, 03,884 pounds of hops, 22 tons of hemp, 37.771 pounds of flax, 401,931 bushels of Qaxsecd, 1,332,332 pounds of maple-sugar, 227,880 gallons of maple-molasses. 2,020,212 gallons of sorglium molasses, 12,0('J pounds of beeswax, and 396,278 pounds of honey. In 1870 there were in the State 497,883 horses, 43,260 mules and asses. 393.730 mileli cows, 14,088 working oxen, 018,300 other cattle, 1.012.080 sheep, and 1,872,230 hogs. The value of all the live-stock was estimated to be $83,780,782. In 1874 the numbers of each were as fol- lows : Horses, 049,600 ; mules and asses, 68,600 ; jnilch cows, 448,100; oxen and other cattle, 780,300; sheep, 1,722.500: hogs, 2,490,700. The value of this live-stock was estimated at $91,401,474. M'i)ntf<trtiir>"i. — Manufacturing industry has been of slow growth in Indiana, but has now attained to a considerable magnitude, and is rapi'lly increasing. The largest branches of manufacture arc (lour and flouring-raill proilnct?. lumber, woollen goods, machinery, cars and carriages, iron and iron goods (now rapidly increasing), furniture, boot.s and shoes, clothing, agricultural implements, packed meats, and sad- dlery and harness. In 1870 there were 11,847 manufactories in the State, in running which there were used 2881 steam- engines of 76,851 horse-power, and 1090 water-wheels of 23,618 horse-power; employing 68,862 hands, of whom 61,112 were men, 2272 women, ancl 2108 cbildreu; using a capital (undor-cstimated) of $62,062,426 ; paying wages to the amount of $18,360,780 ; working up raw material of tlie value of $63,136,192; and producing to the amount of $108,017,278. The largest industry was that of flouring and grist mill i>roducts, in wKifh 902 establishments, era- l)loying 3214 persons and a capital estimated at $8,516,627, produced goods of the value of $26,371,322. Next came lumber, planed and sawed, and sash, doors, and blinds, which together, in 2006 mills and factories, employed 10.724 persons, and produced lumber, etc. to the value of $1 1,788,203. In wool-carding and dressing and the manu- facture of woollen goods there were 176 mills, em])loying 2409 hands, and producing goods to the value of $4,329,71 1. In the way of machinery, 98 machine-shops, employing 2592 hanils, produced wares of the value of 5^l.l4il,3S4. In the manufacture of carriages and wagons, 770 t^hops, employ- ing 3326 hands, produced goods to the value of $3,()lti,068, and 10 car-shops, employing 1403 hands, made cars for p.as- sengers and freight valued at $2,677,720. In the manufac- ture of furniture 362 establishments, employing 3190 hands, niaile goods of the value of $3,820,930. Carpentering and building, in 996 establishments, employing 2893 hands, pro- duced houses, etc. to the value of $3,44"8,959. Distilled and malt liquors were produced in 136 distilleries and breweries, with the aid of 723 men, to the amount of $3,363,560. Iron in the various forms of manufacture was produced in 122 establishments, em])loying 2101 hanils. to the amount of $7,447,147; the present amount exceeds $12,000,000. Packed meats (Ijeef and pork) were produced in 12 cstab- lishincnt.s. employing 407 men, to the value of $2,826,021 ; boots and shoes, in 988 shops, employing 2702 hands, pro- duccil goods to the value of $2,099,114. Clothing for men and women was produced in 267 establishments, emjiloying 1019 hands, to the value of $2,329,787. Agricultural im- plements were produced in 124 establishments, employing 1208 hands, to the amount of .$2,128,791. (^JOper^lge was carried on in 367 sliops. employing 1S08 hands, to the amount of $1,921,878. Saddlery and harness, in 430 es- tablishments, em]»loying 1833 hands, to the amount of $1,064,311. Tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware, in 322 es- tablishments, to the value of $1,293,200. Printing and publishing, in 09 establif^hnu-nts, to the amount of ^1,(08,142. Placksmithing, in 1332 establishments, em- ploying 2G62 men and boys, to tho amount of $1,910,037. iinilrnndn amf Ctuifih. — Indiana is interlaced with a complete network of railroads, traversing nearly every county. Acfvirding to Poor's UtiHioad Mttuntil for 1874- 76. at the beginning of 1874 there were 22 railroatls par- tially or wholly within tho State, showing tho total length of railway track to be 3837.06 miles. In Jan., 1876, the number of miles of railroad in the State had increased to 4,378.06 miles, though the cost of roads and eipiip- ment was re])resented Ijy about tho same figures an tlio year before. There arc two canals in the State. The Wabash and Kric, from Kvansville to Toledo, a part, of the way by plaek-water navigation of the Wabash and Maumce. is 407 miles in length, 379 of which nre in In- diana. It is no^v unu><ed beyond Lafayette. Tho White Water Cjinal is 76 miles in length, from Lawrcnccburg on the Ohio to Hagerstown. It is of more service thnn the other. The statiNtiea of the compbted railroad) in the State at the beginning of tho year 1874 are presented in the tabic on tho next page. 1150 INDIANA. o ■■:: ■ iiili^igississlKiSisq s :SSp|;§ 'as: iSg23'^ sss£Si8seagrf|gs ;s :S :SS 1 : ;=5^ :SS ijjng :3s Si l^t. 5 'J? «r £ £ _ J K ?; £ ^ ' S !|5 ■"ISiiSssSlsiiiiiiSMSfSis a-^s I "■'=" :5 :SS :S3| fc i -"" -"-si- :- = i :sr ;Si i|i|sliiiiti|s|siltiii I iSSSSSa :8SSgSSS??S.523 5 ,• SS2SS888SSSSSSSSSSS^SS!3 :3 1= SSsS«5«3SSwSS^ !S I- a_ - CO- - : -. 2 :j 5;f f ;of^ ; Fmnjiccs.— The State debt of Indiana on Oct. 31, 1S73, was $4,895,81.'i.31. Of this. $9!14,0.".U.I2 was held abroad, but wa9 paj-able on presentation, a sufficient balance being retained in the treasury to meet the bonds as fast as they are surrendered. The "remainder of the debt. $3,904,783.22, is held by tho Stale for the school fund, and is not negoti- able, the State paving the interest on it annually to tho schools. The receipts of the Stale treasury for the year ending Oct. 31. 1S73, were, including the balance on hand at the close of the preceding year, $4,3(IU,G03 ance from the previous year was $755,024.87. Tho dis- bursements of the year, which included the redemption of the unsurrendered bonds of 1S3C. the reimbursement of over 890,000 of illegal ta.\es, and the payment of a large portion of the expenses of the legislature of 1871, in addition to the ordinary expenses, amounted in all to §4,115,457.55. The assessed valuation of real and personal estate in 1870 was S0r.3.4.)5.044, of which f4r,O,120,974 was of real estate and $203,334,070 of per.s<inal estate. The true valuation of that year, according to the estimates of the r. S. marshals, was' $1,2(58,180,543. C'immcrri:. — Indiana has no foreign commerce CTCcpt that transacted through the ports of Chicago, 111., and Miami and .^andusky. 0.: the amount of this is very con- siderable, but not easily separable from that of the adja- cent Stales. The intei-Statc commerce of the State is very large. The gross earnings of its railroads from freights in 1873 were $1(;,915,744. which could hardly represent less than $1,000,000,000 of freight shipped and received, while to this is to be added ils'lake and river freights. The transportation of iron ores from Lake Superior and from Missouri to the newly-established blast furnaces of the block-coal region for smelting is a branch of commerce which has made great progress within the past three years, while the moving of its vast crop of cereals, its million or more of hogs for slaughter, and its immense droves of caltle. task even Ihe large capacity of its numerous railways. The return freights of manufactured goods, imported and do- mestic, adcflargely to the mighty aggregate. There were in Nov., 1874, 104 national banks in the State, 6 of which were closing. These had an aggregate capital of $18,278,8110; $16,575,300 of bonds on deposit, $21,333,075 circulation issued, and an actual circulation of $14,905,206. There were also 19 State banks, under special charters, having a capital of $2,080,000 (savings banks' amount of deposits not stated), and 96 private banking-houses, including 2 insurance companies which did also a banking business. /n/iiiraiicf.— There were in July. 1873. 2 fire insurance companies in the State, both at Indiana|ioIis, one of them mutual, the other with a capital of $250,000, and the two having assets amounting to $600,402. There was 1 life insurance company (mutual), also at Indianapolis, with as- sets to the amount of $303,159. Ediii-nti'ni. — In 1870 there were, according to the cen- sus, 395,263 children and ycmlh who atteuded school some portion of the year: of these. 391,524 were of native and 3739 of foreign birth; 207,996 were males (206,363 whiles, 1620 colored, and 13 Indians). 187,267 females (185,777 white. 1469 colored, and 21 Indians). In the same year there were 76,634 persons, ten years of age and over, who could not read, and 127,124 who could not write. Of the latter number. 113,185 were natives of the State and 13,939 of foreign birlh ; 118,761 were whiles, 8258 colored, 105 Indians; 5938 males between 10 and 15 years old, and 5134 females between the same ages ; 7878 males were between 15 and 21 years, and 7752 females between the same ages; 36,543 males were over 21 years of age, and 60,839 females were over 21. There were in 1870, 9073 schools of all classes in the Stale, with 11,652 teachers (6678 males and 4974 females) and 464.477 pupils (237,664 males and 226,813 females). The total income of these scho(ds for the year ending .June I, 1870, was $2,499,511. of which $50,620 was derived from endowment, $2,126,502 from taxation and the public funds, .and $322,389 from other sources, including tuition. Of these schools, 8871 were public, or belonging to the coinnion-sehool system of the State. These had 11,042 teachers (6402 males and 4640 females) and 446.076 pupils (228,189 males and 217.887 females). Their income was $2,063,599, of which $2,002,052 was from taxation and the public funds, and $61,547 from other sources, includ- ing tuition. There were 50 classical, professional, or tech- nical schools (inelu.ling colleges), having 325 instructors (184 males and 141 females) and 8337 students (4930 males and .3401 females). The total income of these schools was $366,511, of which $50,620 was from endowment, $118,250 from' taxation or public funds. $197,041 from other sources, including tuition ; and 152 other schools, with 285 teachers (92 males and 193 females) and 10,1164 scholars (4539 males and 5525 females), with an income of $09,401, of which $6200 was derived from taxation or Ihe public funds, and $0,3,201 from tuition. Of the public schools, there were 1 normal, with teachers (3 male and 3 female) and 49 male an.l 54 female students: 69 high schools, with 229 teachers (106 male and 123 femalcl and 5228 male aud 4845 female pupils: 371 grammar and graded common schools, wjlh 171 male and 558 female teachers, and 17,578 male, 18,751 female scholars: and S430 ungraded common schools, with 6122 male and 3956 female teachers, and 205,334 male and 194,237 female scholars. Of tho schools not public, there were 6 universities (so named), with 06 male and 7 female Tho bal- ' professors or instructors, 1428 male and 239 female stu- IXDIANA. ll.H deoLs, and an income of $;>2,S00 from endowment, $17,700 from Iho public funds, and $17,OaO from tuition, etc. There wore I.'J colleges, witU 116 mule and 2S fcmalu iostructors, 21,U male and 071 female students, and au iucomc of $I8,J20 from endowment, $17,700 from the public funds, and $l't»,o;jO from tuition, etc. There were 10 academies, with 20 male and 00 female teachers, i:!0j male and 2275 female pupiU, and $7;nOOO iucomc, of which SIOOO was from endowment and $S0J0 from the public fun^ls. There were I law school, with 2 professors and 51 students; 1 medical school, with 5 prt)fessors and I'.i students; 2 the- ological schools, with -J professors and -Ui students. There were 7 eommereial schools or colleges, with 15 instructors, and 782 male and '.VA female |>upils; I institute for the blind, with .1 male and -1 female teachers, .and 4:) male aud 57 female pupils, which received from the ^tatc $;I2,500 annually ; I institution for the deaf and dunil>. with 8 male and 5 female teachers, 143 male aud 120 female pupils, which received $00,000 from the .'»tate annimllv. There were also 4 schools of art and music, with 4 male and 5 female teachers. .'M male aud 218 female pupils, and an in- come of $8720 from tuition. There was alst) 1 other tech- nical school, with .'I teachers, Gl male and 18 female pupils, and an income of $1720, of which SI 100 was from endow- ment. Of the other private schools of the State. 124 were day and boarding schools, with 58 male and 143 female teachers, and 2802 male ancl 3404 female pupils, and a revenue from tuition of $47,427 ; 28 were ]iarochial and charity schools, with ,'!4 male and 50 female teachers, 17.37 male and 2031 female scholars, and a revenue of $0200 from the public funds and $15,774 from other sources. There was consitlerable progress made in the next two years foUtiwing the census. The State has the largest school fund (though it is not quite all productive) of any State in the Union; it amounted in 1874 to $8,616,031. The amount of revenue for the public schools in 1S72 was $1,717,443.34. The legal school age is from 6 to 21 years, and there were in the State 031,540 persons between these ages. The number enrolled in the schools was 450,451, and the average attendance 208,056. The total number of dis- tricts was 0100, aud schools were taught in all but 70 of these. There were 145 graded schools; the average length of the schools in days was 116 days, or 23 school weeks and 1 day. The whole number of teachers in 1872 was 12,248 (7430 males and 481s females). The male primary-school teachers receive an average of $1.05 per day, the female primary-school teachers, $1.47 per day ; male high-school teachers, S3. 77 per day; female high-school teachers, $2.40 per day. The whole number of school-houses in 1872 was U080 ; of these, 88 were of stone, 877 of brick, 7568 of frame, 547 of logs. The total valuation of school property for 1872 was $0,100,480.15. In the matter of higher education there are 10 colleges and universities, so called, and 3 collegiate institutions exclusively for the instruction of women. The State university is a university in the sense of having ]>ro- fessional and scientific schools connected with it ; and, though they have not all the professional schools attached to each, yet as having some schools of post-graduate in- struction. Wabash College. Hanover College, the Univer- sity of Notre Dame, the Xorth-western Christian Univer- sity, and Howard College may be reckoned as universities. Hartsville University has a United Brethren theological seminary connected with it. but Indiana Asbury Univer- sity has no post-graduate schools. Population. — The following table exhibits the population at each period, jiccording to the census, since the organ- ization of the Territory in the various relations of race, sex, and color : Ceoaui jrcar*. 1800 IKIO Hl.i isjn ISM 18:W 13:i5 1811) 1845 13:iO lS-,4 18M IS.iS 1870 5.3 W 2J,sao l'-i.V,T38 saoiii'ra 678,098 on.V.M l,338,7io 1,03'5,837 free eolortd. Slaves. Indians. 163 303 135 237 ioii "ij ■'"3 290 240 1,230 3,629 "7,Va5 11, -.'Gi 11,428 24,560 Tout. 5,641 24,520 00,074 147,178 224,717 343,031 485,053 685,800 82.'i,410 988,410 1,143,905 1,:»0,42S 1,.")3 1.080 1,080,637 2,574 12,570 77,303 177,742 357,704 611,893 699,200 857,994 2,003 11,320 69,685 165,286 329,339 476,523 651,168 822,643 930,458 1,232,144 1,539,103 Foretgncrs. 55,572 118,284 141,474 Of the native population in 1870, 770,009 were males and 760.151 females; of the foreign population, 78,085 were males and 62,480 females : of the white population, 845,307 were males aud 810,530 were females; of the colored race, 12,585 were males and 11,075 females. Of the 567,175 per- sons of scho(d age (5 to 18 years) in the State in 1870, 287,357 were males antl 270,818 females; of those of native birth, 282,424 were males and 274,080 females ; of those of foreign birth, 1033 were males and '4832 females; of the white population of school age, 283,486 were males and 275,1121 liMuales. There were 3830 colored males and 3842 culured females of school age, 41 luilian mule children and 55 female children. Of the military age (18 tr» 45), there wore of all classes 310, G>8 males; of these 274,618 were natives, 45,010 of foreign birth, 314,329 whites, 5294 col- ored, and 35 Indians. Of the ago of citizenship (21 years and upwards), there were 388,2.31 unties, of whom 318.055 were natives. 70,176 foreigners, 382,070 whites. 0113 col- ored, 48 Indians, and .370,780 actual citizens. The density of the population to the square mile was in 1850,29.24; in 1800, 30.04; in 1870, 49.71. The number of families in the .State in 1850 was 171,501; the number of ilwellings, 170,178; in 1800, the number of families was 2ls,60l, and r>f dwellings, 256.946 ; in 1870, the number of families was 320,100, and of dwellings, 318,469. The number of per- sons to a family at these three periods was respectively 5.70, 5. 1.3, and 5.25. The number of persons to n dwelling, 5.81, 5.26, and 5.28. Mtifufiitnr, t*iittpri-iitm, and Cn'mr. — The State liaa a well-comlueted hospital for the insane, though overcrowded with patients; on Nov. I, 1873, it harl 474 inmates, and its expenilitures for the year were $155, 170. .'[3. In the two .State prisons, at Micliigan City an<l .leffersonxille, there were res|iectivcly 295 and 3S7 prisi>ners ; these prisons are self-supporting. The house of refuge IukI 216 boys in charge; its expenditures for I 873 were $56,508,06, of which $31,900 was from the State tretuiury. There is also a re- formatory institute for women and girls, and a homo for soldiers' orphans, both supported by the .^tale. The census reports but 3(>52 paupers, an cstitiiate so far below the truth that it is of no value for statistical purposes. During the year ending June 1, 1870, 1374 persons were convicted in the criiuiinil courts of the State, and 907 persons were con- fined in the county jails on the 1st of .lune of that year. Of these, 091 were native whites, 04 native colored, and 152 foreigners. Libriirlea. — There were reported by the ninth census 2333 ]iublic libraries, containing 027,894 volumes, of which 1 was a Sliite library, with 17,^70 vtdumcs; 52 town :nid city libraries, with 39,029 volumes; 92 court and law li- braries, with 10,308 volumes ; 1000 school and college libra- ries, with 323,391 volumes: 1075 Sabbath-.school libiaries, with 201.692 volumes; 87 church libraries, with 24,356 vol- umes ; 20 circulating, with 8248 volumes ; and 2968 private libraries, with 497,059 volumes. Acicspapt-i-H ami Prriotiirai». — In 1870 the number of ncwspajicrs and pcriotlicals of all classes in the State was 293, having an aggregate circulation of 303,542, and issuing annually 20,964,984 copies. Oflliese. 20 were dailies, with a circulation of 42,300; 3 tri-wccklics, circulation 2200; 1 semi-weekly, circulation 350; 2.33 weeklies, circulation 239,.342; 6 semi-monthlies, circulation 9200; 28 nuinthlies, circulation 64,150; 2 bi-monthlies, circulation 6000, There were 6 advertising sheets, with 8700 circulation ; 5 agricul- tural and horticultural, with a circulation of 11,500; or- gans of ben<'\ olcnt or secret societies, with 7250 circula- tion ; 4 cotnniercial and financial, with 13,000 circulation; 16 illustralcrl literary or miscellaneous, with 27,350 circula- tion ; 2 10, including all the dailies and most of the weeklitNS, political, with a circulation of 256,342; 9 religious, with 29,600 circulation ; 7 technical or professional, with a cir- cuhitifui of 9800. There has been a considerable a<lvaiu'o in the number t>f periodicals in the State since IS70, espe- cially in the agricultural anil miscellaneous class. t'Aiirt7/i».— There were in I870, according to the census, 3698 churches of all ih'nominatiuns, with .'ilOO ihurch edifices, 1,008,380 sittings, and $11,912,227 of church prop- erty. Of these, there were 552 regular liaptist churches, 476 church edifices, 1.35,575 sittings, and $1,047,625 of church ijroperty. In 1874, according to the llapiinl Yrnr- //.I"/- for 1875, there were 30 associations, 56.3 Ihiplist churches, 333 ordained ministers, and 39,352 members of 11.52 INDIANA. the churches: .jg.i Sunday schools, with 11,1119 teachers ,ind sciiolars : li;J,Si;j volumes in Sunday-school libraries : and the amount expended for benevolent contributions and church purpopcs was S;t(il,763. The census of ISTO re- ported fi8 churches of minor Baptist denominations, 15 church edifices, HJ.SOU sittings, $S'J.700 of church prop- erty. Of the Christian Connection, which in the census in- cludes also the Disciples, unci probably to some extent the Christian Union churches, the report of 1S70 gave 455 churches, 37" church edifices, 122,775 sittiners.and SS10,S75 of church property. In 1870 the Congregationalists in In- diana were reported as having IS churches. 12 church edi- fices, isno sittings, and $ll'.I.StOO of church property. In lS7t they had 25 churches, 19 ordained ministers, and 12.).'} members. The Protestant Episcopal Church had in 1S70, 19 parishes, .IS church edifices. in,:i00sittings,$4y2. 500 of church projierty. The Prntrntant Epitrtipttl Almnnnc for 1S75 gives liut -12 parishes. ;^.9 ordained clergymen, 3210 communicants, 3S11 Sumlay-school teachers and scholars, and $1 17,50.3 of contributions for benevolent and church purposes. The Evangelical Association (AHiright Method- ists) had 47 churches, 40 church edifices. 10,925 sittings, and S124,G00 of church property. In 1873 they had 85 ministers, 80 churches, 5909 members. The Society of Friends in 1870 had 81 meetings, 76 meeting-houses, 29.500 sittings, $203,800 of church property. The Jews had 5 so- cieties, 4 synagogues, 1900 sittings. $113,000 of church property. The Lutherans in 187(1 had 195 churches. 180 church "edifices, 62,285 sittings, and SB1»,600 of church property. There has been a decided increase since that time, but owing to the formation of their synods it is im- possible to give accurate statistics. Their membership is probably about 12.000. The Methodists of all classes had, according to the census in 1870, 1403 churches. 1121 church edifices. 346.125 sittings, and $3,291,427 of church prop- erty. In 1873 the Methodist Episcopal Church alone had 605 travelling preachers, 1361 church edifices, 100,434 mem- bers, $3,672,215 of church property. The Moravians in 1870 had 2 churches, 2 church edifices, 650 sittings, and $5000 of church property. The New Jerusalem Church (Swodenborgians) had 1 church, 1 church edifice, 100 sit- tings. $4000 of church property. The Presbyterians (Pres- byterian (lencral Assembly, North, and United Presby- terians) in 1870 had .333 churches, 315 church edifices, 116.500 sittings, and $2,000,550 of church property. In 1873 the Northern General .Assembly had 2 synods, 8 pres- byteries. 210 ordained ministers, 297 churches, and 21.644 members. The United Presbyterians had 9 presbyteries, 72 ministers, 98 churches, and 8517 communicants. There was also a considerable number of Ueformcil and Cum- berland Presbyterian churches. Of the minor Presbyterian bodies, the census reports 42 churches. 42 church edifices, 12.100 sittings. $71,550 of eluirch property. There were in 1870 two Reformed churches (late Dutch). 2 (dlurch edi- fices, 500 sittings, $8200 of church property: 34 Reformed (late German) churches, 33 church edifices, 8880 sittings, $97,300 of church property. In 1870 there were 204 Ro- man Catholic congregations, 201 church edifices, 86.830 sittings, $2,511,700 of church property." In 1874 there were 2 dioceses. 2 bishops, 183 priests, 243 churches and chapels. 94- congregations and stations, and an adherent population in the two dioceses of somewhat more than 130,000. There was in 1870, 1 Unitarian society in the .State. Tlie United Brethren in Christ (trcrman Method- ists) in 1870 hacl ISl churches, 12! cliureh edifices, 33.975 sitting.?, $188,000 of church jiropcrty. In 1874 ihcy li:id 507 churches, 270 ministers, and 21,521 members. The Univcrsalists in 1870 h;id48 congregations, 15 church edi- fices, 6300 sittings, .$73,100 of church property. Their present numbers are (1874) 40 congregations. 24 ministi-rs. and 2.334 members. There were also in 1870, 4 union orgjin- izations, with 5 church edifices, 1200 sittings, and $.3500 of church property. CotiHtitHtion, Courts, nrprcsentfitiret in Cimr/resn, etc. — The f)rescnt constitution of Indiana was adopted in 1851, but las undergone some amendment from time to time. Its genera! provisions arc similar to those of most of the West- ern States. The governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, treasurer, auditor, attorney-general, and supcrin- tcn<lent of pulilic instruction arc chosen by the people at elections heUl lui the 2(1 of October in each alternate year. The govern(tr and lieutenant-governor hold office for four years: the otht'r officers for two years only. The legisla- ture, which consists of a senate of 50 members, chosen for four years, one-half being elected every second year, and a house of representatives of 98 members, elected biennially, meets regularly in January in the odd years, 1875, 1877, etc. By an amendment to the constitution ratified in 1873. the courts of common picas were abolished, and the judiciary now consists of a supreme court of four judges, chosen by the people for seven years, and 38 circuit courts meeting in their several districts, the judges of whioh are elected for six years. There are no county courts. The divorce laws, which have been for many years a reproach to the State, were materially modified and remodelled by the legislature of 1873. Under the new apportionment of 1872, Indiana has 13 members of Congress. Cinnitirn. — The .State has 92 counties ; the following table gives the names and popul:iti<m (male and iemale) and total of each in 1870, and the total population of each in 1860 and 1850: CoUDttCJ. Adams Alien Bartholomew Ucnton Blackford Boone Brown Carroll Cass darke Clay Clinton Crawford Daviess Dearborn Decatur Dc Kalb Delaware .Dubois Elkhart Fayette Floyd Fountain Franklin Fulton Gibson Grant Greene Hamilton Hancock Harrison Hendricks Henry Howard Huntington Jackson .Tasper...^ .lay .leifersou .Jennings .Tubnson Knox Kosciusko La Grange , Lake Laj>orte Lawrence Madison Marion Marshall Martin Miami Monroe Montgomery Jlorgan Newton Noble Ohio Orange Owen Parke IVrrv Pike. Porter Posey Pulaski Putnam linlnlolph "ipley Rush ScotI Shelby Spencer Starke Steuben St. Joseph Sullivan Switzerland Tippecanoe Tipton rninn Vanderburgh Vermilion \v:n AVabasb Warren W;irwick WasbingtOD ™ \\'avne Weils While Whitlev I Male pop- ulatiou. 1870. R.m 22,474 10,763 3,113 3.24.5 11..510 4.412 R,.3.|6 12,472 12.7.3-1 D.908 8.S18 4,978 8,37.5 12.162 9,098 8.805 9.763 0,390 13,318 0,258 11.4.39 8,.53S 10,183 C.G06 8,893 9.461 9,782 10,700 7.740 10.10.5 10..363 ll.OSS 8.005 9,702 9.-5-1 3,226 7,G2C 1.5,063 8,117 9.:i.57 11,039 11,946 7,219 6,4;«) 13,970 7,391 11.700 .36.920 10,420 5.696 10,7.50 7,059 12,.301 8,925 3,109 10..383 2,944 6,851 8.147 9.407 7.490 7,070 7,199 9,886 3,943 11,009 11,018 10,062 8,906 3,998 11,2.50 9,247 2,076 6,593 i:!,061 9,:i29 6,045 17,396 6,117 3.244 16.797 6,639 17,008 10,840 5,.309 9,098 9.:!.5.5 16.866 6,954 .5.519 .:«.3 Female Total pop- 1 Total pop- popiila- uluUon, ulatloR, popiila- tioD.lSTO. .5.671 21,020 10.370 2,502 3,027 11.053 4,209 7,806 11.721 12,0.36 9,176 8,512 4,873 8,372 11,954 9,8.55 8,862 9,267 6,207 12.708 5,218 11,861 7,854 10,040 6,120 8,478 9,020 9,732 10,176 7,383 9,808 9,914 11,298 7,842 9,331 9.403 3,128 7.374 14,678 8,101 9.009 10.523 11,5.85 li,929 5.900 13,092 7,2:17 11,070 a5.019 9,791 5.407 10.:i02 7.109 11,464 8,603 2.720 10,006 2.893 6,046 ! 7,990 8.7.59 7,311 I 6,709 I 6,743 9,299 S,*JS 10.505 I 11.244 10,315 8,6(>0 3.875 10,642 8,751 1,812 6,261 12.261 9,124 6,0S9 16,119 6,8.36 3,097 16..'H8 5,201 16,i>ll 10,465 4.895 8,.555 9,140 17,182 6,631 6,0*5 7,0.56 uluUon, I8T0. Totals 8.57.994 822,643 1, 6,80,6.37 |,l,i50.428i 988,4 ir. | ll,:!82i 43,491 21,i:i:!j 5,615 6.2721 22..593 8,681 16,1.52 24.193 24,770 19.084 l7,:i;io 9,851 16,74 24,116 19.053 17,167 19,030 12,.59' 26.026 10,476 23.:S00 16,389 20,223 12,726 17.37: 18.48; 19,514 20,882 1.5,123 19,913 20,277 22,9.% 1.5,84" 19.030 18,974 G,;i54 15,000 29.741 16.218 18,366 21, .502 23.531 14.148 12,339 27,062 14,628 22,770 71,939 20,211 11,103 21.052 14.168 23,705 17,528 5,829 20,389 5,837 13,497 16,137 18,106 1-1,801 i 13,779| 13.912 I9,185i 7.801 21.514 22.802 20,9! 17,62i; 7.87: 21. .sg; 17,99.>i 3.888 12,854 2.5.:!r- 18.453 12.1.34 33,5: 11,953 6,341 33,115 10,,'<40 3.!,.5.19 21.305 10.20! 17,6.53 18,495 34,0*8 13,,585 10,.5.5t 14.4991 I UM. pull ulatloR, 1B60. 9,252 29,;!28 17,865 2,809 4,122 16,753 6,.507 13.189 16,813 20,502 12.161 14.5a5 8,226 13,323 24,406 17,294 13,880 16,753 10,394 20,986 10,225 20,li!3 15,.560 19.519 9^422 14,.532 15,797 16,041 17,310 12,802 18,521 16,953 20,119 12,.524 14,807 16,286 4,291 11,399 25,030 14,749 14,654 16,056 17,418 11,366 9,145 22,919 13,09; 16,518 39,855 12,722 8,975 10,8:51 12,847 20,888 16,110 2,300 14,915 5,402 12,076 14.370 15,5;i8 11,847 10,078 10,313 16,167 5,711 20,081 18,997 19,054 16,193 7,303 19,509 14,.556 2,195 10,374 18,455 15,004 12,098; 25,7261 8,170 7,109 20,.552 9,4221 22.517 :7,.547 10,057 13,261 17,909 1 29..558| 10,844 8,2.58 10.730 Tola! pop ulalioD, 1850. 5.797 10,919 12,428 1,144 2,860 11,031 4,s-46 11,(115 ll,(l:il 15.S-J8 7,944 11,.SG9 0,524 10,:'.52 20.100 1-5,107 8,251 10,843 6,321 12,690 10.217 14,875 13,253 17,908 5,982 10,771 11,092 12,313 12,084 9,098 15,286 1-1 .083 17,605 6,057 7,S,50 11.017 3,-540 7,017 2:j,916 12,096 12,101 11,084 10,24:1 8,3H7 3.991 12,145 12,097 12,375 24,103 5,348 5,i)41 11,:)34 II, 286 1S,0,V4 14,576 7.940 5,:i0S 10,809 12.106 14.908 7,268 7,720 5,2:m 12,519 2,095 18,615 14,725 1-1.820 10.415 5.885 15,.5n2 8,616 557 6,101 ln,'.l51 10,141 12,!132 19,377 3,5:!2 G 91 1 1I,!14 S.GGl 15,289 12.138 7,387 8,811 17,040 25.:wo 6.1.52 4,701 5. inn INDIANA. ll.V] Pn'ncipnt Totcnt. — Indianapolis, the capital, lias some- what more thau 50.000 iuhiibitants; Evansvjlle, Fort Wayne, Tt-rrc Iluutr, and New AMjudv range between ]S,doO and L'j.OOO iuluibiiuDt:* : LuniycLtc, MnJison, and Uichmond, between U'.UUO and KS.OOO ; Logansport, Jef- lersonville, Suurh Bend, Laporte* and Vinceuues, between bOOU and 12,000, while Michigan City, Aurora, Columbus, Crawfordsville, Elkhart, Goshen, Grecncasllc, Lawrence- burg, and Peru each contain from 1000 to SOOO inhab- itant:<. KUctoral nnd Popular Vote at President utl Ehrtioun. — Indiana was admitted to the Union as a State in ISHi, and the same year participated for tbo first time in a presiden- tial election : 1S16 1820 1S2-1 1828 18.12 I33G IS40 1814 1813, 13.'.2j I8oC ISCO' 1864* 1868 1872 CaodliLitea wbo reccivrd iho slcxtoral vote of UK Slaic James Monroe P. ) D.I). Tompkins V.-P.... f Janit-8 MonnM* P | D. I>. Tompkins V.-P... / Andrew .hickson P I J. C.CiiMiDiin V.-P ] Andrt*w Jackson P I J. r. Ciillionn V.-P ( Aiuirewr Jackson P M. Van Biiren V.-P \\\ H. Harrison P F. (Jran-,'Lr V.-P W. H. HarriMm P John TvbT V.-P James k. Polk P (i. M. Dalhis V.-P Lewis('a.ss P W. O.Huller V.-P Franklin Pierce P W. R. Kinfi V.-P James Itiu'hanan P J. ('. Itreekfnrid;;e V.-P. .\braliam Lincoln P II. Hamlin V.-P Abraham Lincoln P A. Johnson V.-P U. S. (irant P S. Culfax V.-P „ U. S. (Jranl V Henry WiUua V,-P Not rec Not rec 7,a4;l 22,2.37 31,552 41,281 65,302 70,131 74,74.5 95,340 118,670 139,040 150,422 176,552 186,147 Ritfns Kinc: P \ J. MarshairV.-P J John Qiiiucy Adams P... .Tohn Quincv Adams P.. 1 N. Saulurd V.-P ] John Quincv Adams P.. I R. Rush V.-P J Henry Clay P. I J. Sergeant V.-I* ( M. Van lUiren P 1 U. M. Johnson V.-P f M. Van Karen P 1 R. M. Johnson V.-P ' Henry Clay P T. Frelinuhuysen V.-P.. Zachary Taylor P M. Fillinorc V.-P Winfield Scott P W. A. Graham V.-P J.C. Fremont P \V. L. Dayton V.-P S. A. Douglas P H. V. Johnson V.-P if. B. McCIellan P <;. H. Pendleton V.-P... H. Sevinour P F. P.iJIair V.-P Horace (ireelev P B.Gratz Brown V.-P Not rec Not rec. 3,095 17,052 15,472 32,478 51,701 67,807 69,907 80,901 94,375 115,509 130,233 166,980 163,632 Henry Chiy P.. J. Ci. Birnoy P M. Van Buren P > C. F. Adams V.-P f John P. Hide P 1 G. W. Julian V.-P / M. Fillmore P j A.J. Donelson V.-P J {Breckenridge and Lane Bell and Everett Charles O'Conor P Popular vote. 8,100 0,929 22,386 12.295 5,306 Histonj. — Indiana was originally a part of the French possession?, and probably a Canadian French colony had established one or more trading-posts within its present boundaries before the close of the sevcntecnih century. In 1702 there wa.'' a fresh migration of cousiclerablc numbers, who settled at Vineeunes, Corydon, and other points. They speedily made friends of the Indian tribes then inhabiting the country, and so far amalgamated with, them as to adopt (heir habits antl customs. Nothing was heard of (hem till the cession of the territory to the English in I7IJ'!, when by the treaty their territorial rights were confirmed. By tho treaty of 17H:1 this, as well as the whole North-west Terri- tory, was transferred to the C »S. In 178S there was trou- ble witli the Indians, and a local war en.>ued which caused great distress among the .settlers at Vincenncs, The In- dians were attacked at the mouth of tho Tippecanoe by Gen. Wilkinson in I7'.n. anil through his judicious man- agement and that of <ien. Wayne several victories were gained, the Indians were compelled to submit, and a dan- gerous confederation of the tribes was broken up. A time of greater peace and quietness followe*!. very little disturbed by the rai'ls of hostile Indians. In 17'J3 tho l'. S. obtained sev- eral eliijiblc tracts of land by the treaty of Greenville, and It considerable number of emigrants settled in the Territory. Ohio was erected into a separate Territory May 7, 1800, and all tho country W\ and N. of it organized as tbo new government of Indiana. The same year, according to the IL S. census, there were ISTo inhabitants in the (irchent limits of the State. Michigan Territory was set off from it in IS05, and Illinois Territory in ISOU. leaving Indiana Territory with its present boundaries. In IHIO, notwith- Btanding some Indian troubles in tho five or six years pre- ceding, the jiopnlation had increased to 24.520. In ISll the Shawnees. one of the largest tribes of Indians in the Territory, were excited to a eomjdete frenzy by the elo- (punec of their propliet and leader, Tccuraseh, and com- menced a scries of raitis and outrnires against the settlers. The governor of tho Territory, William Henry Harrison (afterwards President of the U. S.), assembled a fcrco of regulars and militia at Vincenncs, and on Nov. fl, ISll, marched to Tippecanoe on the Wabash, the prophet*s town, nnd demamled the restoration of the property which the Imliuus had taken from the settlers. After a parley the Indians proposed a delay till the next morning, nnd gave intimations of their readiness to enter into an amicable ar- rangement. During the nigh(, liowever. they nmde a sud- ilen and violent attack on the forces under Gov. Harrison, but, to their surprise, found them watchful and prepared. A short but sanguiimry battle ensued; the In'lians, untler tlio shouts and encouragements of their propliet leader, fought with tho utmost desperation; but they could not resist the steady and resolute advance of the white troops, and after a terrible slaughter they fled, sullen, bnt thor- oughly defeated; and soon after, their town having been Vol.. 11.—::; burned and tho surrounding country laid waste by the vic- torious troops, the Shawnces sued for peace. The war with Great Britain, which soon followed, gave a fresh impulse to Indian hostilities, but the tribes were again thoroughly bumbled and subdued, and after the peace of 1815 never molested the Indiana settlers again. In Dec 1815, tho subject of admission into the Union as a 8tatc began to bo agitated throughout the Territory ; in Apr., ISItJ. an en- abling act was passed by Congress; a convention was called, and the first constitution of Indiana adopted Juno 21), and on Doc. II, 1815, Indiana was admitted into tho Union. Her growth from this time onward was very rapid, the census (»f 1S21) .-^bowing an increase of 500.2 ])er cent, during the preceding decade. The completion of the Erie Canal and tho building of tho National Road stimulatctl immigration Into the fertile and beautiful State, and moro than :i, 500.000 acres of government lands were purchased within the Slate in tho ten years ending witli 1S;10, and the population had increased I.'!;}. I per cent. Then com- menced an era of wild speculation. Eight railroad com- panies were incorporated, the AVabash and Erie Canal was begun and driven forward with great rapidity, a State bank with thirteen branches organized, antl numer- ous other great enterprises fostered by the State and its banks. When the crash came in 18^7 there was general bankruptcy and a State debt of $14,057,000, tho interest of which was not paid wholly or in part till 1816. Yet in lS-10 it was found that the population of the State hat! doubled, and that immigrants to tho State had taken up 9,122,688 acres of government lands. In I8 1(J arrange- ments were made for the resumption of interest on iho State debt, and prosperity began to return. In 1850 tho increase of population during the previous deca<lc was found to be 44.1 per cent. In iSjl a new constitution was adopted, and in 185;'. a free-banking law nasscd. The de- cade from 1850 to 1800 was marked by tiic completion of its great canal from the lakes to the Ohio, as well as by tho execution of other important public works, and by the great increase of its railroad facilities, from 228 miles in 1850 to 2163 miles in 1800. Tho financial panic of 185" made havoc of (he free banks of the State, but produced far less di-saster than that of IS.'t". In the late civil war Indiana sent her full quota to the field, and though there was some trouble at first through the machinations of those opposecl to the war. which necessitated tho assumption of unusual war-pnwers by the governor, tho general record of tho State for patritdism and efficient service was in the highest degree honorable to it. In two or three instances its leg- islature, under the influence of unwise and partisan leaders, has attempted something in the nature of a coup d'/tat, but the result of these efforts has so soon returned to plague and injure their contrivers that it is hardly possible that they will ever again be attempted. Like some of its sister States, Indiana has been agitated of late on the question 11.J4 INDIANA— INDIANAPOLIS. of cheap transportation of produce, but it has not de- veloped in that State so decidod an antagonism between tlic raih'oad companies and the farmers as in some of the other Stales, mainly perhaps because her facilities fin- transportation are less dependent upon tlie railroads than some, and in part, also, because that her railroad compa- nies have been less liostilc to the producing classes from uhom they derive their support. The National Congress (if Agriculture which mot at Indianapolis in May, 1873, discussed this question very tborouglily and in an excellent j^pirit. (jovcrnors. — Term. TERRITORY. William U. Harrison ISOO-lt John CiUsoii (acting) I811-i:{ Thuinas Posi-'y 1S13-16 State. Jonathan Jennings 18IG-22 William Hendricks 1822-25 James B. Rav 182r>-31 Noah Noble.! 1831-37 Intliaiin, county of S. W Term. David Wallace 1837-40 Samuel Iliuger 1840-43 James Whilcomb 184:i-48 Paris C. Dtiuning 1848-19 Joscpli A. Wrisht 1849-57 Aslihfl P. Wilhird lS.-)7-61 Oliver P. Morton ISfil-G? Conrad Baker 18fi7-73 Thomas A. Hendricks... 1873- L. P. Brockett. Central Pennsvlvania. Area, 77tl square miles. It is hilly, but for the most part quite fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. Bitu- minous coal, iron ore. and salt-springs are found. Metal- lic wares, wagons, leather, lumber, furniture, castings, and farm implements are leading articles of manufacture. Its soutbern part is traversed by the Pennsvlvania R. R. Cap. Indiana. Pop. 30.1:JS. '* Iniliaiia, tp. of Marion co., la. Pop. 1332. Intliana, tp. of Allegheny co., Pa. Pop. 2S06. Iniliana, post-b., cap. of Indiana co., Pa., 72 miles N. K. (if Pittsburg, at the terminus of the Indiana branch of the Pennsylvania R. R., has 2 banks. 3 planing-mills, 2 foundries, I machine-shop, a fine court-house, 3 newspa- pers, a national bank, several churches, and a large trade in lumber and agricultural products. It is the seat of a State normal school erected at a cost of $!25.000. Pop. 1005. S. A. Smith, En. "Messenger." Indianap'olis, city, capital of Indiana, and seat of justice of Marion co., is situated near the geographical centre of the State, UKistly on a plain, on the E. bank of ■White River, in 3'J° 55' N. lat. and 86° 05' W. Ion. Its first settlement was made in 1S19. It was settled as the seat of government in 1820, laid out in 1821, and occupied as the capital in lS2i. Its streets, lined with forest trees, arc from 00 to 100 feet wide, crossing each other at right angles, except four broad diagonal avenues, which converge towards a circular park in (he centre. Numerous railways have opened communication with every portion of the State and the great commercial eities. Its first railroad, the Jladison, was built in 18-17. The population then was about lOUIt. It now has 13 rjiilroads in operation, and one in process of construction, with their numerous branthes and connec- tions giving direct access to all but t> of the i!2 counties of the State. These roads centre in the Union depot, where 82 passenger-trains and 328 passenger-cars enter and leave daily, with an average of 10,000 persons daily, and 3.000,000 yearly. The number of freight-cars for the last eight months of 1S74 was 470,000, making for the year more than 700,000. These railroads traverse localities unsurpassed in agriculture and mineral resources, thus furnishing facil- ities for supjdying the raw material to the manufacturers and for distributing the jiroducts of the city. Situated near the centre of the great corn-belt, it is the natural grain-market for a vast area. There are two large grain- elevators and ten fiouring-mills. There are 8 pork-packing houses, and 1 for packing beef. The total hog-])roduct fur 1874 was valued at SS. 500, 000. Indianapolis possesses pe- culiar advantages for manufactures of iron and wood. Im- mense forests of timber, beds of coal, and mines of iron ore abound in the State. Five railroads in three hours' run reach eoal-fields of nearly 8000 square miles. Excellent for fuel, the block coal is unrivalled for working iron and steel. Its manufacturing interests are specially represented by 2 rolling-mills, malleable-iron works, car-works, saw- factories, 18 or 20 foundries, maehiiic-shops, and shops for various branches of iron and brass work, numerous saw andjdaning mills, and sash, door, and blind factories, manu- iactories for agricultural implements, carriages, sewing- machines, household furniture, school furniture, church and parlor organs, pianos, boots and shoes, cotton and woollen goods, glass, starch, glue, '• Sarven wheels," step-ladders, and wooden ware, ami many others. There are 30 incor- porated manufacturing institutions. The entire manufac- turing capital invested is not less than $12,000,000. The number of buildings erected in 1874 was 2900, in value nearly $8,000,000. The Belt Railway now (1875) building around the city Statu CapitoL, will more completely connect the various lines of railroad ' anil aid the transfer of freight, location of workshops, ware- biiuscs. stockyards, etc. The Central Canal, cutting a bend of White Uivcr, furnishes partial water-power for llouring- niills and factories. The tire dcjiartmcnt has 7 steam lire- engines, with 100 men, and an electric alarm telegraph. AValer is furnished by the Holly system, having 45 miles of pipe. The street railw.ay has 18 miles of track, 50 cars an<i 150 men. There are G national, 10 private, and 2 sa\ ings banks, with a united capital of about $5,000,000. A manufaclurcrs' and real estate exchange, meeting weekly ; a board of trade, meeting daily, exchanging products and Indianapolis. securing market reports from the great marts of trade; 7 home insurance companies ; 118 American and foreign companies represented here; numerous lodges of Masons ami Odd Fellows ancl orders of secret and benevolent societies; acity hospital ; free dispensary : board of health ; national surgical institute; home for friendless women ; 3 homes for orphans ; sisters of Providence; Bible society; V. M. C A., etc. Here are State institution*! for the deaf and dumb, the blind, and insane, and the women's prison an<l reformatory institute. There are 5 English and 2 CJer- maii daily newspapers. 12 English and 5 (Jerman weeklies, and 12 monthly publications ; 17 job printing and publish- INDIAN Ai:aill'KLAUO— INDIAN LANGUAGES OF AMKIUCA. 1155 !ng establishments ; 6 libraries (the city library ha? 17,000 vols.); a reading-room, with the leaOing American and European periodicals. This and the library are supported by a Slate tax. They are open daily, an<i free to all. There arc a universiity, law school, 2 medical colleges, a Catholic theylogicul seminary, 6 (lermaii and several select and private school?. The free-school system is maintained by local and State taxation and by its .vhare of the State school fund uf $H, 000. 000, which is larger, by more than $*_', 01)0. 000. than that of any other State; a city high school, training s-hool, and 20 district schools. The number of school cliildren enumerated is over 20,000; value of city school property, $700,000; assessed value of taxable?, $72,000,0110 ; rate of city tax 187I.SI.10 on S100,Statc and county tax, 71 cents on $100. Tht'rc are 70 churches — 12 Pre-byterian, is Methodi-t, 7 Baptist, b Episcopal, 5 Chrisiian. 5 Lutheran, 4 Catholic. 2 Congregational, 2 Hebrew; all others, 10. Crown Hill Cemetery, 2 miles N. \V. of the city, opened in 1S(U, enclo.-:es w.'iO acres. Among the puidic buildings is the Statc-hou^c, built in IS.'Io, of brick, in the tirecian style, containing the legislative chamber. State library, State agricultural so- ciety and geological cabinet. It being in a decaying condition, measures have been taken to replace it. The State building, of brick, contains rooms for the State ancl supreme court oflicers. The State benevolent institu- tions are located in or near the city, ancl are monuments of the munificence of the State. The U. S. court-house and post-ofR<^'e is of iron and dressed stone, costing $200,000 : on an elevation just E. of the city are the U. S. arsenal buildings, four in number, in an enclosure of 70 acres, com- m:tn<ling and beautiful. The county court-house surpasses any building here in dimensions and tasteful design, of dressed stone and iron, 275 by I'M) feet, three stories with ccntriil tower of 200 feet, high basement, and mansard roof in the Renaissance style of architecture. The immense Ex- position building, built in 1873 by the State agricultural society, is of brick, :108 by 150 foot, two stories high, with elovafed galleries. It is N. of the city, in the State fair- grounds, and cost $I.'.0,000. The Union dCpAt, of brick, sfone and iron, although 420 by 200 feet, is too small for the local trains. The chamber of commerce building, sub- stantial and imposing, erected last year, cost .$";>, OOO. Among other structures worthy of note are the Odd Fel- lows' Hall and the Masonic Hall, the Academy of Music, many of its churches and massive business-blocks, not a few of whicli are models of construction and tinish. The h'^-alth record of Indianapolis will compare favorably with th:it of any citv East or West. Population in 1850." 8091; in Isr.O, 18.000'; in 1870, 48,244. Charlfs N. Todd. Indinii Archipelago. See Eastkus Auchipki.ago, Indian ArcliiU'rtnrc. See Auciiitkctiri: of the Ami KM \\ AiiMi:i.;iNi:s, by Hon. L. H. Morgan, LL.D. Indian Hran. Sec Catai.pa. Indian Corn, or Maize [Zm maijH, Linn.], the most nbundsint of the cereals, and most important grain raised by American farmers, belongs to the tribe Phiilarid;c of the naturul order (Inimineai or grasses. It is indigenous t<» Americu, where it luifn alw.iys formed the chief food of tlic Indian races, from which the name is derived. Its cul- tivation was introduced from America to Southern Europe and Asia and to Northern Africa, where it spread with great rapidity. It is alleged that this grain wiis known in very ancient times (o the Chinese, but if so it fell into com- plete oblivion. Indian corn is properly a sub-tropical grain, a native probably of the table-lands of Mexico or Peru, the great height of which gives them a distinct character from the lowlands in the same latitude. It thrives best under a hot summer sun, and its rapid growth and ripening give it a peculiar value for high Northern latitudes, where the summer hi-at is as intense as the winter cold. In England the summer heat is not sufficiently intense to favor its pro- duction. The chemical ingredients of Indian corn are chietly starch and oil; it yields abundance of phosphorus, and is n most nutritious and heallhful diet. There are many varieties, presenting great differences and possessing very unequal value. The original type was probably the wild variety, having a separate husk to each grain; the lowest variant types appear to ho the small riee-corn and nop corn, and the highest is perhaps the '• Improved King Philip." The lower types hybridi/.e very readily; not so the higher, which appear lo have nearly or quite reached the limit of perfecrihility. New varieties are constantly appearing, and with proper care most valuable improve- ments might bo introduced. As food for man there is a great difference in the varieties. Tusearora corn contains no oil. rice-corn contains the most, pop-corn next, Canada corn ranks third, and brown corn fourth. It thus appears that the effect of careful cultivation is to augment the starchy at the expense of the fatty contonts. The lato- ripening kind called sweet corn furnishes when green a savory article of food for several months (say from July 15 to Oct. 15), either boiled or roasted. Indian corn in the U. S.'is emphatically the poor man's crop. licing hardy and easily cultivated, it is the first grain planted by the new settler amid stuutjis and iullen trees, by the aid of the hoe alone. The yield ranges from 10 bushels to the acre, which is the average on the worn lands of the Gulf States, to 200 bushels, the apparent maximum yield which in a few instances has been produced under very exceptional circumstances from small and carefully-tended patches in Kentucky and Tennessee. In the Central States the aver- age yield is from 25 to 30 bushels per acre. The price has fluctuated from 5 or 10 cents per bushel, at which it was often sold in Kentucky and Ohitt early in the j)resent cen- tury, to $1 ami njore, at which it has been sold in the East- ern cities. The height of the full-grown corn varies, accord- ing to species and soil, from three to eighteen feet. The method of cultivation formerly in universal use was plant- ing in rows of hills some five feet apart, but ibis has been replaced to a great extent of late years by the more advan- tageous system of sowing in drills, economizing manual labor by the use of imjiroved ploughs and other imple- ments. The yield and quality of the grain are much im- proved by careful selection of the best ears for seed, and by soaking the seed-corn in copperas or Unic-water, which hastens the process of sprouting and protects the seed from certain insects. The average time of planting is May 20 to June 1. The total yield in the U. S. in 1870 was 7G0.*J44,549 bushels; the largest yield in a single State was that of Illinois, 12".),02],:iU5 buslu-ls. (For further statistics see articles upon the several Stales.) Porter C. Buss. Indian Creek, tp. of liullock co., Ala. Pop. 11G2. Indian Creek, a v. and tp. of Trinity co., Cal. Pop. of V. I8:i; of tp. 78;j. Indian Creek, tp. of Cass co., III. Pop. 433, Indian Creek, tp. of White co.. 111. Pop. 2U10. Indian Creek, tp. of Lawrence co., Ind. Pop. 1348. Indian Creek, tp. of Monroe co., Ind. Pop. 988. Indian Creek, tp. of Pulaski co., Ind. Pop. 812. Indian Creek, tp. of Mills co., la. Pop. GUO. Indian Creek, tp. of Story co., la. Pop. 1074. Indian Creek, post-tp. of Monroe co.. Mo. Pop. 654. Indian Creek, tp. of Pike co.. Mo. Pop. 1103. Indian Cress, See Tuoi'-KOLACE-f;. Indian Cnenniber. Sec Medeola. Indian Dye. See Puccoon. Indian Fields, tp. of Tuscola co., Mich. Pop. 825. Indian Fifj. See Caotace.*;. Indian <;r»>ve, tp. of Livingston co., 111. Pop. 2G35. En ilia II II<Mnp. See Cannabis, Hasiiism, Arocv.vACE.t:. Indian Hill, tp. of Abbeville co., S. C. Pop. 1920. Indian Lake, post-tp. of Hamilton co., N. Y., in the Adirondac region. The tp. incUules many lakes (among them Indian and the Eckford lakes). Pop. 202. Indian Land, (p. of Lancaster co., S. C. Pop. 9G9. Indian Liui;;uages of America. In a general view of the languages of the Western World their number and variety are at first more remarkable than is that ap- proach to uniformity in plan of thought nu'i verbal struc- ture which establishes something like a family likeness among them all. No accurate enumeration of these lan- guages has been or can be made. Kirclier in 1075, on such information as he could gather from Jesuit missionaries, ( stimated the number at abctut 5<MI. Garcia cited authority for reckoning more than 50t)0. Ilerrera had been told that every village in Mexico bad a language of its own. anil Ilervas adopted a statement that the number of South American languages and dialects was between 1500 and 2000. One estimate is as good as another, since none can be based on suflicient data. Somewhat nearer approxima- tir>n may be bad to the number of gftnfcs or families of speech in North America. In ISlfi, Mr. (iallalin enume- rated thirty-two distinct families in and N. of the U. S., not including the languages of California, which were not then — and arc not even yet — sutliciently well known to Justify their arnmgement by families. T!io acquisition of New Slexicn by the V. S. made a eonsiderabto addition to Mr. (lallatin's list. His classification, so far as it goes, has been generally accepted by philologists, subse({uent inves- tigations having confirmed ni'ift of his conclusions, or at least havintr faileil (with perhaps two exceptions) lo estab- lish affinity between the linguistic groups he separated. At least four-fifths of North America K. of the Rocky Mountains and N. of Mexico was occupied by nations and 1156 INDIAN LANGUAGES OF AMERICA. wandering tribes speaking dialects of not more than four radically distinct languages — namely, the EsKiuu, Atha- bascan, Algoxkin, and Sioux or Dakota. The Eskimo was spoken, in various dialects, near the shores at' the Northern Ocean, from the E. coast of Greenland to Beh- riu^'s .Straits, a distance of nut less than j4t)0 miles, and it extended southward on the Atlantic to the Straits of Bell- isle and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. S. of the Eskimos the territory between Hudson's Bay and the Kocky Mountains, and stretchini; westward, between 5U° and IJU° N. lat., nearly to the Pacific, was occupied by the .Athabasias family in numerous tribes, among which may be named the Chepewyans (see Northern I.ndians). and the nearly-re- lated ■• bog Ribs." the Slave and the Beaver Indians, the Takulliis, anil probably the Loucheux. E. of the lloeky Mountains the most southerly of known .-Vthabasean tribes is that of the Sussees, near the head-waters of the Sas- katchewan Uiver, about 51° N. lat.; but W. of the moun- tains offsets from this stook have been traced as far S. as Mexico. Small tribes and bands of Athabascans were found near the Pacific in Soathern Oregon and Northern California, and Prof W. W. Turner showed that the Apache nation of .Arizona and New Mexico, including the Navajos, Pinalenos, and Jicarillas, belong to the same great family of speech. (See Dr. J. C. E. Buschmanu's Der AlhnpaH- kisrhe Spruchatamm dunjealellt, Berlin, ISJo, and his Uas Apache, mit einer ai/atem. Wurtta/cl d. Athap. liprach- stamms, 18f)0-63.) E. of the Mississippi, and of a line drawn north-westerly from the head-waters of that river to those of the Missinipi (Churchill's) Kiver, was the vast territory of the .\lgonkins, within the bounds of which, however, was comprehended that of two groups of Iroquois tribes, speaking a radically ditferent language. 'When North America became known to Europeans the .■VIgonkin country was hounded on the N. by the Athabascan, Hud- son's Bay, and the Labrador Eskimos; E.by the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the .Atlantic as far S. at least as Cape Hatteras ; S. by an irregular line running westwardly from that cape to the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi or its vicinity. One Algonkin tribe, the SaUiknn or Blru:kf:mt,\s found far W., between the head-waters of the Saskatchewan and the Missouri, at the foot of the Rocky .Mountains, and another, the Oiei/cnnc or .S'/iyejoic, roameil till lately the country that borders the North and South Platte rivers, to which region they seem to have strayed from the far N. " The most widely diffused and the most fertile in dialects " of all North .American languages, the Algonkin, was (in the words of Mr. Bancroft) "the mother-tongue of those who greeted the colonists of Raleigh at Roanoke and of those who wel- comed the Pilgrims to Plymouth. It was heard from the Bay of Gaspc to the valley of the Dcs Moines; from Cape Fear, and it may bo from the Savannah, to the land of the Eskimos; from the Cumberland River of Kentucky to the southern bank of the Missinipi. It was spoken, though not exclusively, in a territory that extended through sixty degrees of longitude and more th.an twenty degrees of lati- tude." In some of its numerous dialects the polysynthetic type or plan of structure seems to have attained its highest expression and the grammatical apparatus its nicest adjust- ment. Some of its characteristic features will be noticed hereafter. The fourth great North .American family, the Dakota, or Sionx (the latter being an abbreviation of Xiuidemcwioiijc, itself a French corruption of the name given to the D.akota3 by their rivals and enemies, the Al- gonkins), claimed most of the region between the Missis- sippi and the Rooky Mountains, from the Saskatchewan on the X. to .Arkansas Kiver at the S. A detached tribe, the HViiiutn^oM, were found (with a tradition of a removal from the W.) near Green Bay and Lake .Michigan. .Another Sioux tribe, the Amiiiibuiiis, wandered N. along the upper Missouri and the Assiniboin rivers to the W. side of Luke AVinnipeg and the Saskatchewan, and became allies of the Algonkins. Next to the Algonkin language, that of the Dakotas, perhaps, has been most thoroughly investigated, and the labors of missionaries of the American Board of Foreign Missions, liberally seconded by the Smithsonian Institution in the publication of a grammar and copious dictionary (edited by the Rev. S. R. Riggs), have brought this language prominently to the notice of .American and European philologists. (See Dakota Ixdiaxs.) To the tribes named in that article as speaking languages of the Dakota stock may be added the Omnhas, Ponkas, loways, Otos, .Mandans, and Minitaris or Hidatsii. The /'<iirnec« and Coynanrftr^ were included by mistake. An loicai/ Grammar, by Rev. W. Hamilton and S. M. Irwin, was printed in 1S48, and a Ormnmar and Dn-tionary of the Jlalattn Lanijnatje by Dr. W. Matthews in 1873 (J. G. .Shea. New York). Next after these four principal families, those of the Iro- quois, the CiiAIiTA-.MusKOKi, and the Chkrokek (if the last two may not ultimately bo reduced to one) were the most considerable. The Iroquois-speaking tribes were, as has been stated, nearly enclosed within the territory of the Al- gonkins. Their northern group comprised the " Five Na- tions" living S.of Lakes Va-\v and Ontario and of the river St. Lawrence, and W. of the Hudson and Lake Champlain, and. further N., the Huron s or Wyandots, the Attiwandarons ("Neutral Nation"), the Eries, and the Andastcs. The southern Iroquois, separateil from their congeners by inter- vening .Algonkin tribes, were the Nottoways, and perhaps the Meherrins or Tnteloes, of Southern Virgini.a and North Carolina, and S. of these the Tuscaroras. who removed northward early in the eighteenth century and joined the confederated Five (thereattcr known as the Six) Nations. (.See lltoguois, and L. II. Morgan's Lriit/iit: of thr. Iroijuoin.) Recent investigations by Mr. Horatio Hale have thrown doubts on the hitherto accepted affinity of the Tnteloes and Iroquois, if they have not fully established the connection of the former with the Dakota slock. Mr. Hale regards the Tutelo as a Dakota dialect, and inclines to the belief that formerly '• the whole of what is now the central por- tion of the U. S., from the Mississippi nearly to the Atlan- tic, was occupied by Dakota tribes, who have been cut uj* and gradually exterminated by the intrusive and more en- ergetic Algonkins and Iroquois." (.Sec Proceed in(/i of Am. Philolotjival Socielij, 1871, p. 15. For a general view of the Iroquois language, sec (iailatin's SynopsU of the Indian Tribes, pp. U32-2;J8, and Etudes philoUnjiqueH snr queltfucs Laiiijuea Sanvarjes, par N. 0., Montreal, 1866.) TheCHAiiTA- MusKOKi family, comprising the Choctaws and Chicasas, Muskokis or Creeks, Seminoles, Coassattis, Alabamns, and Hitchitis, oecujjied the territory now constituting the States of Georgia, .Alabama. ^lississippi, and Florida, with a jior- tion of Louisiana E. of the Mississijipi, except the shore of the Gulf from Mobile westward and the banks of the Mis- sissippi, inhabited by various small tribes, and a tract in Northern .Alabama, on both sides of the Tennessee River, which belonged to the Cherokees. The Choctaws and Chicasas speak nearly related dialects of the same lan- guage, to which probably the llitchiti also belongs. The Creeks, Seminoles, and small tribes of Coassattis and Ala- bamas speak dialects of another language of the same stock. (For the Choctaw, sec Byington's Choctaw Gram- mar, edited by Dr. D. G. Brinton, 1870, and his EntiUsh and Choctaw Definer. 1852; Rev. A. Wright's vocabulary and grammatical notes, in Gallatin's Synopsis. Extensive vocabularies of the Muskoki. Coassaiti,. Alabama, Chitctaw, and llitchiti are preparing for publication by the Smith- sonian Institution.) The Cherokees {Tsalatfi) lived in villages along the Tennessee River and its tributaries, their country extending over the mountainous regions of East Tennessee and the ni)rthern portions of Georgia and -Alabama. In the Cherokee language every syllable ends in a vowel or a nasal, and this peculiarity, with the ab- sence (with rare exceptions) of double consonants, inclined Mr. Gallatin to adopt Barton's suggestion of the affinity of the Cherokee and Iroquois. .At present, however, such affinity cannot be considered as established. The inven- tion of a syllabic alphabet by George Guess (or Sequoyah), a half-breed Cherokee, in 1826, has promoted the general education of that nation, but for those to whom the lan- guage is not vernacular the necessity of learning eighty- live arbitrarily-chosen characters interposes an additional obstacle to its study. (See Mr. Pickering's Remarks on the Indian Lanrjnatjes of America, from the Eneyctopixdia Americana, vol. vi.; Rev. S. A. Worcester's Jlemarks on the Principles of the Cherokee, in Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, ii., 413; H. C. von Gabelentz's Grainmatik d. Tscherokesischen Sprache.) The seven families which have been mentioned were spread over more than nine-tenths of the territory N. of Mexico, E.of the Rocky Mountains. Between these moun- tains and the .Sierra Nevaila the most important family is that of the SnosiioNK. occupying Utah, Ne\ ada, the southern part of Idaho ami Oregon, including the Kizh and Netcia of iSouthcrn California and the Conmnches of the prairies of New Mexico and Texas, with the Shoshtmes or Snake In- dians, Wihinasht, and Bannacks in the valleys of Snake and Owvhee rivers, and the several divisions of the Ute (Utah) nation. Dr. J. C. E. Buschmann has endeavored, but as yet with questionable success, to establish the connection of this family with the Sonora stock of Northern Mexico. N. of the Shoshones, between 45° and 52° XO' N. lat., are two considerable families, the Saiiaptix and the Sni.isn (TsinAii.i-SEi.isn of Hale). The former includes, besides the Sahaptins proper (NcJ Percys), the Walla-Wallns, Yakamas, Pelouse, and Kliketats, in Northern Oregon, the south-eastern portion of Washington, and the western bor- der of Idaho. The Tsiiiaii.i-Sklish are distributed by Mr. Hale in four groups, represented by (1) the Shushwaps or .Atnahs of British Columbia, and the " Flatheads," or Selish proper, on the upper Columbia and its tributaiics, IXDIAN LANGUAGES OF AMERICA. 1157 including the Pend d'Oreillcs. Caeurf< d'Alenc, Spokanes, nnd Piskous; (2) the N'skwally, on Piigcl Sound; (3) the T^ilIailish or Cliihailish, bclwotn the N'skwally and tho ocean, and the Kowelitsk or Cowlitz, S. of the N'skwally; and (4) the KiMainuks (Tilhiinookti). alonj; the coast of Norlh-wc?tern Oregon. Of these, only the first group, tho Selish and Shushwaps, arc inland tribes?, the other three divisions iK-ing ineluded geogra]>hicaIIy with the Sound Indians. Little prngrc?? in elassification of the languages of numerous small tribes of the Pacific coast has been made since the publication of Mr. Hale's vocabularies. ( U. S. Ex- pforiti'f E.rprifit!',n,vo].\u.," Ethnography and Philology.") Kor all that is known of their territorial divisions, past and present, see the first volume of Mr. JI. H. Bancmft's iWitive /iitrcn xtf the Pacijir Stntce, 1874. Of the structure of tho Sahaptin and Selish languages, Mr. Ilale's grammatical notes to vocabularies give the best general account. Seo also M. C. Pandosy's (I'mmmttr and Dictiouart/ »f On: )'«- k'tmn (a Sahaptin dialect), and Mengarini's (i'rammatica /.tntjn.T ScticiF^ both printed in J. G. Shea's scries of Amcr- iVfin Linffiiintiea, Of langunges spoken near tho southern border of the U.S., two or three have already been mentioned as belong- ing to the Athabascan and Shoshone stocks. The Caddocs (properly, Cado-hadacho), Adais, (.'hctimachas, and Atta- capas. tribes or remnants of tribes W. of the Mississippi, on the Red River and between it and tho (lulf, speak four hinguages, which Mr. (Jiillatin classes as railically distinct. To the Caddo belong the dialects of tho Nandakoes. tho Nabedaches, and tlie Inics or Ttirhir.n, who have given their name to the State of Texas. The Yitma language is sp'>ken on both sides of the (Colorado River, above and below the junction of the (lila. To it belong the dialects of the Coco-Maricopas, now living in a village on the N. bank of tho (Jihi: the Cuchans, near the Colorado; tho Mohavt'S, farther N. ; the ilualapais, Yampais, in Arizona; and the Dieguenos, near the Pacific in Southern California. The Pima, with its dialects, spoken on the Gila and its southern affluents, is included by Buschmann in his Sonora family, of which the Taraluimara, Tepeguana, Cora, and Cahita of North-western Mexico constitute tho first group ; tho Tubar, Iliaqui, Kudcve, and Opata of Sonora make the second; tho I'iina the third; and the Kizh, Comanche, Shoshone, elc. tho fourth. (Sec Buschmann's Die Spnmt d. AztekinchiH Sprnrftc, otc, Uerlin, ISaO, and his Die Pima Sprnchc, 1857. A grammar of the Pima or Nevome, trans- lated by Iluckinghani Smith, has been printed in Shea's Amrrirnn Lint/nittica, vol. V.) The isolated languages of tho Pitrfj/'iH or V'illagc Indians of New Mexico and Arizona, near the Rio Grande, and between it and the upper Colo- rado, ])resent problems of special interest to ethnologists and philologists which still remain unsolved. In these scattered villages dialects arc spoken of four or five distinct languages, between no two of which have genetic relations been established. The picture-writings of tho Aztecs, the incised symbols on the atones of Palenquc, Copan,and Yucatan, with other evidences of a higher civilization than appears to have been attained by northern nations, impart peculiar interest to tho languages of Mnxiro and ('i;ntrai. Amkuica. Since tho publication in 1815 of Mr. (jtallatin's A^»^■'^ on the S'tnii- civilized jWafioiiti of Mexico, etc. ( Trann. Am. ICfhnof. Soc^ vol. 1.), much has been done for the comparative philology of these tongues, particularly by Pimcnlol's i'nndro dt:- Hrripfirtt t/ rump'irtitino dc Ihh IrnffnnH ile Mexico (1862-05) anil the flvtxjrtifitt dr Inn hnipmH dc Mfxint of Orozco y Ilorra (Mex., IKCI). The most important family is that of which (he Mexican proper, Xtthutttl or Aztv, is the reoog- nized type. This appears to have been spoken by tlic Nahuatlacs in the valley of Mexico, and in the adjacent country to the K. and S., and in numerous dialects it ex- tended throughout the Mexican empire. Ruschinann in his principal work, /^iV .Syxrrcji d. Aztrh. Sprnchc, main- tains the northern origin of tho Toltecs and Nahuatlacs, and has collected tho evidence of affrnity of the Aztec with the languages of North-western Mexico, and of the latter with the languages of Sonora and Lower California. De Charencey, A'o/tVc •itr qurlqurt fnmiUra dc litutpun dii Mrx- iqitr (1S7U), accepting Puschmann's chissirication, recog- nizes in tlic " Chichimecan family " two groups — tho north- ern or "Oregon," comprising the Ctunanehe, Kizh, Sho- shone, Uto, etc.; tho southern or "Mexican," including the Pima and other languages of Sunora, with the Cora and the .A/.tec. The Otomi or Uin hni. spoken by tribes N. and \V. of the valley of Mexico, differs widely from other languages of this region, and its jjresumcd monosyl- labi(: character, together with certain peculiarities of struc- ture, has leil some writers to regard it as utterly discordant from the general typo of American speech, and as probably of foreign origin. But tho monosyllabic character is much less apparent in tho J/azd/iui', a dialect of tho Otomi, and disappears in tho Matlazinga or Pirinda of Toluca, tho affinity of which to the Otimi sceras established by recent investigations. Other Mexican languages of undetermined affinities are represented by the Tarasca (of Miehoaean), Tlapanec (Puebia), Totonaco (Puelda and Vera Cruz), Za- poteco and Mixteco ((_)axaca), Zotjui and Mixe {in parts of Oaxaca, Tabasco, and Chiapas). The lluaxteco or Hu- astee, which is spoken in the N. of Vera Cruz and in Puebia, has fexv coincidences with the Mexican or the Otomi, but is allied to tho great Maya family. To tho Moi/ft stock belong tho Quieh6, Kakchiquel. Zutugil, Ixil. Choi (or Pu- tum), JIame, and IVikonchi of Guatemala; Tzcndal, Zot- zil (Chamula), Chorti, and Liicandon of Chiajias; Chontal of Tabasco ; with the Maya of Yucatan. The Abb^- liras- seur de Bourbourg, an enthusiastic and indefatigable stu- dent of Central American antiquities and languages, pub- lished, besides a grammar an<l vocabulary of the Quiehf* (Paris, 1SG2), translations of tho Pojad Vnh, or sacred book, and of a Quiche drama, Hahinal-Avhi. His discov- ery in 18C3 of an ancient phonetic alphabet employed by the Mayas of Yucatan, preserved in manuscript by Bishop Landa, excited hopes that the pictured annals and seutj)- tured stones of Central America must soon give up their secrets. The hope is not yet realized, 'f'lie AbV'6 Bras- seur's attempt at translation of a part of the Troano manu- script by means of Landa's alphabet was, as ho subsecfucntly admitted, unsuccessful. More ample materials for tho study of the Maya language and its dialects may hereafter enable scholars to use the key which his discovery supplied. Dr. n. Berendt, who has given many years to the investi- gation of Central American languages, has compiled from ancient manuscripts a copious Maya dictionary, which it is hoped will soon be published. (For the literature of Central American languages, seo E. G.Squier's Monof/raph of Authors nh't have written on the Lauffuagea of Central Amcricoy 1861.) In SorTi! Amkrica the numlier and diversity of idioms arc much greater than in the North. " Of no part of the world," says Latham, "is the comjiarativc philology more uncer- tain nnd obscure." For a general classification, that of A. d'Orbigny (//Ifnmme Am/^rivaiu, Paris, 18;j*J) has been accepted provisionally, though it is founded on the physi- cal types of races which the author regards as distinct, and not primarily on language. Varying (with Dr. Prichard and other recent writers) (he order of D'Orbigny "s groups, the South American nations may be divided as follows: I. A.NDO-PKitrviAN, from the Isthmus of Darien to Capo Horn, comprising (1) the /'eruviaji — Quiehuas or Kcchuas (whose language was spoken by all tribes subject to tho Incas) and the near-related Ayniaras; Atacamas orOlipes; and Changes: (2) the AntiHinu (of the Eastern Andes) — Yuracaros of Bolivia, Moceteniis, Tacanas, Marojms, Apo- listas. and various isolated tribes of unknown atlinitios; (:J) South-Aiidi'in—Araucans of Chili, Patiigonians (Te- huelhet), and Fucgians (Yacana-cunny, Aliklmolips, Peche- rays, etc.). — H. Kastkkn Nations (Hrasilio-(«uaranian of D'Orbigny); (1) Tupi-Uuaranian — including many tribes speaking languages distinct from the Guarnni, and of un- known affinities; (2) O/W^trffii — comprising nations of the northern coast of South America, Guiana, and Vene- zuela, allied to the Caribs of tho Antilles, Tamanacas, Cbaymns, Guarafinas, Cuinanagotos, etc. ; (ii) nations and isolated tribes speaking languages which seem not to belong to the Tupi-Guarani or the Carib stock, but whieh. with few exceptions, have never been adequately investigated. Among these are tlie '* Botoeudos" (AimorC-s, GuaymarC's), Goyatacas, Paris, (iuatos, Parcels, etc. (For tho names and what little is known of the languages of these nations see Von Marti tis's important HeitrUije z, Ethnog. uud Sprnchcul-nudr Aimriku'ii. with a volume of vocabularies. lS()7.j — III. MiOLANi) nations, including (1) those on the Lower Paraguay and tho great plain of Cham — the (luay- curfls, Lengoas, Tohas, Abipones, Mbocobis, Mbayas, Guay- anos or (Juiilaches, Guatrts, Payaguas or Payaquofis, and others; and (2) tho C/iifptitnf and the Moxoh — between Potosi an<l t\w upper streams of the Parana — with whom D'Orbigny groups seventeen other tribes attached to the Chiquito and Moxo missions, speaking different languages. Looking back to the vast field which has been only par- tially surveyeil, the (ptestion presents itself: Ls there any bond of union between these numerous families of lan- guages radically distinct? any characteristic features com- mon to th<'in all whieh testify to tho original unity of all, or at least distinguish them as a class from languages of the Kastern hemisphere? The answer must be given less confiiiently now than it might have been fifty years ago, when the attention of scholars ha*! been directed to only a few of tlie American families of speech, and it was easy to assume that tho structural and grammatical characteristics of these were common to all Indian languages. At present, broad generalizations are felt to be hazardous. As the 1158 INDIAN LANGUAGES OF AMERICA. range of observation bus widened, and new linguistic ] groups and isolated dialects have been brought to notice, I it has been disc-overed not only that American tongues difl'er among themselves in some of the features which formerly were regarded as distinctive of the class, but that no one of these features is, in kind if in degree, peculiarly American. After twenty-five years' stuiiy Mr. Gallatin reached the conclusion in which scholars have been obliged to rest — that '' although he perceived and was satisfied of the similarity of character in the structure of all the known Anierican languages, he could not define with precision the general features common to all." No morpholof/icil classification which has yet been proposed provides a place for American languages exclusively, nor in fact can their separation as a class be established by morphological cha- racteristics or external peculiarities of structure. Their common likeness is in theW plan <>/ thomfht, rather than in their methods of combining elements of words or annexing formatives to roots. Mr. Duponcoau was the first to sug- gest this in his correspondence with Mr. Heckeweidcr in 1816. and more explicitly in the report of the historical and literary committee of the American Philosophical So- ciety in 1819. He observed in all known American lan- guages, from Greenland to Cape Horn, a common type or plan of construction, for which he proposed the name of '■syntactic,'* or '* polysynthetlc," as being that *■ in which the greatest number of ideas are comprised in the least numl)er of words," this being effected principally in two ways: (1) By a peculiar mode of compounding locations "by interweaving together the most significant sounds or syllables of each simple word" employed in composition; (2) by " an analogous combination of the various parts of speech, particularly by means of the verb, so that its va- rious forms and inflections will express not only the prin- cipal action, but the greatest possible number of the moral ideas and physical objects connected with it, and will com- bine itself to the greatest extent with those conceptions which are the subjects of other parts of speech, and in other languages require to be expressed by separate and distinct words." It is to the union of these two methods of synthesis, or more accurately to the constant trmUncif to extreme synthesis which underlies them both, that American languages owe that common likeness which seems to indi- cate genetic relationship. The class-distinction founded merely on the peculiar mo(ie of compounding words — which was not quite accurately stated by Mr. Duponceau — was not generally accepted by European scholars. W. von Uumbuldt in 1822, suggesting a threefold division of hu- man language, as isolating, agglutinative, or inflectional, referred the American tongues to the second or** aggluti- native" oriler, associating them with the so-called Turanian, and denving them the possession of true inflections and grammatical forms. This classification has been generally adopted as sufficient for practical purposes, though mani- festly inexact, for ''when we analyze each language more carefully, we find there is none exclusively isolating, or ex- clusively agglutinative, or exclusively inflectional." (Prof. M. Miillcr, On the Strati ftcdtion of Lnnf/iiftf/e, p. IS. Other defects of Humboldt's threefoM division are noticed by Prof. Whitney, fjaitf/uafje aud the Science of Lnufjunrje, ;;t)0 ff.) If the American languages must be brought under this classification, a considerable number of them certainly are as fairly entitled to inclusion in the inflectional class as are the Semitic or the Indo-European. No definition of an inflectional Language has been given that will exclude the Algonkin while including the Hebrew. The modification of the root by varying vocalization is as well-marked a feature of one' language as of the other. And if the appli- cation of the term " j)olysynthetic " is to be restricted to the morphological features of language, it may bo given as appropriately to the Turkish, and perhaps to the Basque, as to the American. Mr. Duponceau was mistaken in sup- posing that in the mode of componmlinq words the Algon- kin materially differed from the Indo-European. There is no *' interweaving together the most significant sounds or syllaldes of each simple word" to form the compound in any other sense than is true of the Latin or the English language. The runts of each simple word enter intb com- position, divested of grammatical formatives, but entire and unchanged. "The fundamental characteristic of the Indian lan- guages" was first clearly pointed out by Mr. Gallatin [Siinopnin of the Indian fribeii, 164) AS "a universal tend- ency to express in the same word not only all that modi- fies or relates to the same object i>r action, but both the ac- tion and the object, thus concentrating in a single expres- sion a complex idea or several ideas among which there is a natural connection. All the other features of the lan- guage seem to be subordinate to that general principle." This tendency charaettrizes the whole plan of thought, and is at the very roots of language. It is found everywhere in American speech, and, so far as the languages of the world have been investigated, it is found in the same de- gree nowhere else. The word-clusters all gather about verbal roots or assume verbal forms. It may almost be said with truth that Indian languages — pronouns and a few particles excepted — are all verbs. Every word may be conjugated by moods aU'I tenses; every so-called noun has its preterite and future, its indicative and subjunctive ; and many nouns have active and passive voices. Every syn- thesis is predicative, and. however long and cumbrous, is built on a verbal theme and assumes one of the conjuga- tion-forms of a derivative or compound verb. The Chip- pewa language (said Bishop Baraga, who had attained a remarkable proficiency in its study) "is a language of verbs. All depends on the verb, and almost all is or can be transformed into verbs." Father Lacombe {Grammaire CrlHc, p. 53) characterizes the Cree in nearly the same words. The Rev. Mr. Byington, after fifty years' acquaint- ance with the Choctaw, asked, " Cannot all Choctaw nouns be treated as verbs?" ( ''Ao<?f«iP tfrfi*H»iar, p. 45.) Prof. Steintbal has, it is true, taken the opposite view, and he is followed by Fr. Miiller and some others in denying to the Algonkin languages true verb-forms, and treating the synthesis as a noun and its prefixed pronoun as always possessive : but no long or very intimate acquaintance with any Algonkin dialect is required fur showing the error of this position. Mr. Gallatin justly regarded *' the happy manner by which, through the insertion of a single parti- cle, not only tenses and our common moods, but almost every modification of the action, is specially expressed," as the chief excellence of Indian speech. The nature of the polysynthetlc structure, and some of the grammatical de- vices employed in its composition, can best be shown by examples. It must be rentembered, however, that these syntheses were framed by missionaries, not by the Indians themselves, to express conceptions foreign to the Imlian nature and language, or in some instances merely to exhibit the resources of these languages and the almost infinite possibilities of verbal eomjtosition. Eliot, in his translation of the Bible into the Algonkin dialect of Massachusetts, uses for "our lusts" the word nHm-mnlch-e-kod-tan'ta-nioo-on-f/a-nitn-no-nask. It was not easy to give an Indian the Puritan conception of lust as "sinful longing." Eliot's synthesis is a verbal, with the affixes of the double plural — i'. e. of the pronoun and the action or desire. The verb kvdtantam means "to long for, to greatly desire ;" malche-kodtantajn is " badly to desire ;" mntrhc'kodtantam-oo'onk is a verbal, "badly longing or desiring;" num (for n) is the possessive pronoun "my," which becomes plural, " our," by the insertion of -fmuoa before the final -ash, which is the plural termination of the verbal. The whole expresses "our evil longings." If for matrhe, tcunni should be substituted, the meaning becomes " our good (or pleasing) longings ;" if -ji»h be substituted for kodt, it will be "our evil hatings;" and so on. La- combe, in his Grammaire de la Lnnqite dea Crin (1874), gives examples of more cumbrous and exaggerated syn- thesis. In Western Cree, Kit-ondicd-aonit/aw-i-iru'taKKnten- {■fjan-ubisk-n-m-i-s-iai-uotc-ok means " our small gold can- dlesticks." (The hyphens here divide elcraents of synthe- sis and euphonic connectives, not syllables.) Lacombc'a analysis is too long to be given here. The literal transla- tion is something like this: "Our yellow-silver lighting- instruments of metal, the very small ;" but the first letter, A-, is the characteristic of the incluaive plural, and, in con- nection with the urn (after ubink), gives the meaning, " be- longing to all of tin" "yours and mine," which the Eng- lish pronoun does not express. The Rev. Experience May- hew, a missionary to the Indians of Martha's Vineyard in 1722, gave a similar specimen of word-building: Nup- pahk- nuh- td -pc- pe- nan -wiit-ckut-chiih-qnS - ka-Jtch-cha- ufh-cha-c-nin-uu-innn-no-nOK; *' our well-skilled looking- glass-makers." Of the twenty-two syllables, eight are re- quired for the name of "looking-glass." which, like every Indian name, conveys a specific description of the object as a "clearly-reflecting instrument." In the preceding examples the'process of forming highly compounded words bv combining several significant roots is nearly the same — the pronominal affixes excepted— as in the Lai in, German, or English language. Such compounds as " imperturba- bilis." "expergefactus," " incomprehcnsibleness, ' do not difl'er essentially (as Mr. Gallatin observes), "cither in the number, nature, or arrangement of their elements, from a large portion of the Indian compounded words." Of an- other mode of synthesis, and one more characteristic of American speech, some of the conjugation-forms of Algon- kin verbs supply good illustrations. Baraga gives, in the Chippewa, rfe^i'm/itAiimrfo'/, meaning. "I think what they say of that poor fellow is but too true." The significant roiit here is deb-i (in the Massachusetts dialect tapi), " it , satisfies, it equals," hence, " it is true." The primary verb IXDIAN LANGUAGES OF AMKRICA. 1159 is (l^hice, "he speaks true;" the Iransitivc-animate form is dfhinmn^ ** he Speaks th<" truth o/' another pirHou ,*" and of this the '* pitting form" (us liaraga caMs it) is dt'himitHhij "he speaks the (ruth of another, poor fellow!'* or imper- sonally, "what tlipy say of liini i^ unfortuniiIf!y true;" in the " lUihitative " form, this bcctunes d.'biiiinufn'n-adtiff, ** I think what they say," etc. All cxoept the radical ili'b is grammar, and each successive modification of the meaning is given hy regular conjugation-forms. In another family of language we have, as a specimen of Choctaw synthesis (Gallatin's Sifitopsh, '24*.*), \Vi-ni-taw'-ti-<fr'(ji'nn'li-sK-nw'- luutj-ta-tuttc-ne-li-'ti-fie-ttti ,* translated, *' They will by that time have nearly done granting [favors] from a distance to thee and rac." The same capacity of synthesis is found in languages of the Pacific coast, of Mexico, and of South America. In the Sahaptin (Nez Perce) of Ore^^on the word K'i-thnp-tau-tn-af-n-ivihnnn-knH-nn-ui'Uin signifies "he travelled hy on foot in a rainy night." The jirimary verb is iciknay " to travel on foot :" tntt and tunln. are adverbial prefixes, meaning, respectively, " by night" and "in the rain;" hnu denotes a "passing by;"?(rt is the characteristic of the indicative mood, hi of the third person, etc. (Ilule's Nfitcn nil Lntufxaffcn o/ the ytirth-iccst.) Paredes observes that Mexican compounds usually consist of two words only, occasionally of three, and that such as exceed the latter number are principally used with reference to sacred things, having been formed by the missionaries. Of these, tlovn- tziiitifiztffitlacoUi, for " original sin," is un example. This is compoumlcd from tlncatl, "a person," tzinti/htfi, " com- mencement " or "principle," anil fffilfacolfi, "sin." The name srcnis a long one. tint perhaps the doctrine has never been clearly taught in fewer syllai)le9. The process of word-growth will be most conveniently cxhibite<l by bringing together some of the <ierivatives of a single root. The following are selected from Chippewa words (in HaragaV* Dictionttn/) formed on the verbal root WAn, "to see." With the verb in the indicative is given the conditional participle, which is used as a noun to de- note ono who may or habitually does perform the act ex- pressed by the verb, or who is vonceirvd ax performing it. To fnrm this nomm nctnrifi, and generally in conditional statements, the principal vowel of the root is strengthened ; thus, wAh'iy " he sees." makes icniabid, " a seer " — /. r. one conceived as seeing, who may, can, or habitually does sec; ilhif "he remains," makes /AiV, "ono who remains;'* viOn, "ho dies," n/hrtd, "a dead person;*' ^iossr, " he hunts," f}finH)if,d ^ "a hunter," etc. If the verb has an adverbial or other prefix, the ehan<;e takes place in the vowel of the prefix, and that of the principal root is not afTected. This vowel-change, a characteristic feature of Algonkin lan- guages, is in itself a sufficient reason for regarding them as iiijh'rtitnitif, and a sufficient proof that they are not des- titute of true verb-forms. The root wab is found in the prim.iry verb mAb-t, "ho sees;" and by the passive sense, "to be seen," come the meanings " to be light, bright, white," or otherwise visible, Mcnce. WAiuc't. it dawns, lit. "there is seeing;" w.innfuf, to-mor- row, lit. "at the dawn;" conditional (with change of vowel) WAiAB'»",7, at dawning — i.e, whenever it daivns. WAOrtHi (n.), dawn, the ea-^t ; WAii'/n-ony, in the east ; hence, a name fif the mornin;; star. hiwKVi'ni, dawn (lit. "seeing") comes, nin WAnrrni", I sco (an animate object); WAiABffmrtt/, one who sees, etc. nm \VA'B«»*/'fn, I aeo (an inanimate object) : WAiA'Daiirfant/, ono who sees, etc. nin bftn'\\'.(ind<nt, I lose sight of (it); benKHandanrj, i)HQ wh(» loses sight, etc. nin wxwbftndiH^ I sec myself: part. wwAvinudiaed. uln WAttnuditft;, I sec something (intrans.); part* iptnub- audiffrd. nin WAWiiufjr^ I see, look on (indof. intrana.); part, icfn'/ii- auijrd. nin offA'a, r see from a distance: p. whintthid. \\ KVitinmri, he is a sorcerer (seer) ; p. tnaiAbnnowid. nin WAHi'ft. I make him see; p. trninbind. iii'nwAii'"'. I am seeing — /. c. I survive the night. in/i wA'n'HiiV*, I (with difTiculty) Rurvivo the winter, wabm/, a swan (literally, "ho is while"). WAii"«, a hare. \v\i\iffini, a blossom (lit. " it is seen "). V, AViif/itn, while clay ; irAbiijuiifr, he plasters with elay. WA'nAR/</'(;i (intens.t. lime — /. r. very white clay; tcubabi' (jitniif, he whitens with lime. iVA'B'V//n, white fiannel. WAB"»*ni, a blanket. WAB'f'"'/-. tin — f. r. white metal : nhik i? not nn independ- ent word, but a generic formative of names for rocks and minerals. viAfiiithhi. it becomes white, is whitish or gray. WABjWiA'iHt", he is whitish; part. waiCibiihhinid, a whitish man. WAHtHhkiice, ho is (by nature) whitish; part, tcai/ibinh' kitcedf a white (whitish) man. In the greater number of the derivatives here given, tbo root has its secondary or passive sense, " seen "= while, or distinctly visible. Still more numerous arc the verbs ex- pressing inodtH of seeing and relations of the subject to the object of sight. The variety of conjugation-forms that any of these verbs may assume is practically without limits. A paradigm of the primary nin nmb — in Schoolcraft's orthog- ra))hy ne wnnh — fills 90 quarto pages (2'.iy-;>SS) of the olh vol. of his Information renpectivij, etc. the Indian Tribes. A manuscript paradigm of the same verb, by the llcv. Thomas Ilurlburt. is still more extensive, and he declares, moreover, that having estimated as nearly as he eould all the p<tssible "inficctions of this one root wab, he finds about 20,0110,000." Evidently, however, he uses the term "inflections" in a larger sense than grammarians will al- low it. making it include such modifications of the action as arc elTeeted by prefixing or incorporating adverbial par- ticles. But apart from all these, which belong rather to the composition of words than to grammar, Indian conju- gational forms arc prodigiously numerous. They may bo referred to three classes: (1) ;>»r«f>*((i/, expressing by the so-called "transitions'* the grammatical person of the ob- ject as well as of the subject of the verb; (2) animat<^ and inanimate, distinguishing the object or subject, or both, as belonging to ono or the other of these two classes; (3) mo- da( and irirrnnistnntial, corresponding more nearly to the Scmitie than to Indo-Kuropean forms of conjugation, though far exceeding the former in number and variety. The per- sonal conjugations, in which the pronouns of the subject and the object are united with the verb, are found in all American languages that have been investigated, and may be regarded as one of the characteristics of the class. Tho division of nouns into animate antl inanimate is not pecu- liar to, nor is it recognized in all, these languages. Such a distinction is observed in the (new) Persian, and by Kafir tribes in South Africa; and there is something like it in the Tamil and other Dravidian tongues of Southern India, which divide nouns into " high caste " or "rational," and "no-caste" or "irrational." It pervades the entire struc- ture of Algonkin languages, aiul is pcrhiips their most striking feature, modifying the inficctions of all nouns and the conjugations of every verb, according as the action is exerted by or upon an animate or inanimate object. Thus, a Cliippcwa Indian says, nin pahitrint, " I strike him " — e. ,'/. a man or a horse ; nin pakid'aii, " I strike it," a stone, a block, or other inanimate thing; jimi pakiteiffe, '^ I am striking " (somebody or something indefinite) ; ni'ii pakitfo- man, " I Strike (an animate object) belonging to him" — e.f/. his child, his horse : pokitfitfan, "it strikes" (and, used as a noun, "a hammer"); pakit{:itisKin, "it strikes some- thing" (unintentionally), etc. In some cases the distinc- tion is not merely a granimatieal one, but inheres in tho root — r. <f. nin niidjiu, "I cat" something inanimate, whence, impersonally, midjim, "it is eaten" or "they eat it," used as a noun meaning " food," and the participial niadjid, "an cater:" but nin amwa, "I eat" somctliing of the animate class (which includes bread, corn, jiotatocs, fruits, as well as the Hesh of certain animals), and tinirad, "an eater." In no other American family is this distinc- tion so stronj;ly marked or of so extended application as in the Alt;onkin, but it is found in the Iroquois, less promi- nently in the (Mierokee, in some Jlcxican langunges, in tho Arrawak of Cuiana, the Quiehmi of Peru, the Tupi ((lun- rani) of Ilrazil. etc. In the Dakota it is indicated only in the plural of animate nouns. Algonkin verbs have not only conjugation-forms corre- sponding to the active, middle, nnd jiassive voices of Indo- European languages, but a great variety of niudal and circumstantial conjugations, such as the ineepli\e, causa- tive, dcsidcralivc, frequentative, habitual, mutual, involun- tary, simulative ('■.,7. niha, *' ho sleeps;" uibA/cano, "ho feigns sleep**), compulsive, deteriorative or derogative, etc.; and many of these forms may bo conjugated alfirma- tively, negatively. an<l donhtinrffi/. the system of personal " transitions " ami the distinction between animate and in- animate, in subject and object, being maintained through- out. Similar richness of verbal expression brlonK^ *" other American tongues. Von Tschudi enumerates thir- teen classes or forms of Quiehua verbs, all formed from the primary by cftnjugational suflixes. In nniny languages nouns have tho same form in tho plural as in tho singular, })lurality being expressed by an independent W()rd mcanint; " many.** by n numeral, or only by the foibtwini; verb. Others, like the Sioux-DaUoIa. have a plural form U*r anitnatr ntiuns. but not for the inanittmte. In tin- Algonkin each of these two classes has its charac- teristic plural, that of animate nouns being nearly the samo 1160 INDIAN LANGUAGES OF AMERICA. in all dialects of the family, while the termination of the inanimate iilural varies considerably. Cherokee nouns, pronouns, and vcrlis huve dual as well as plural forms. an(l the Iroquois has in addition to these an "indeterminate" or collective plural. The distinction of prranim, as first, second, and third, is so well established in Kut'lish gram- mar that it SCCIU3 to us the only natural one. In many Indian languages there is no pronoun of the third person, its iilace being supplied by a demonstrative. In many others there are Iwn pronouns of the first person ]ilural, wliich. combinin'^ with nouns and verbs, form the inrhisirv and exrliiHirr, or "general" and "limited," plurals, tlie former including both the speaker and those l<> whom he speaks ("you and I"), the latter including only the •speaker and those /'w whom he speaks, and excluding all others (" we, not you "). The Cherokee distinguishes two tlilr<l persons as ";)rc»t"( or ab^-cnl. and has also two first persons, dual and plural; and the same distinction is ob- served in the Cliavma (and perhaps other Caribi-Tamana- eau dialects 1, the" Quichua. etc. The double first person plural (inclusive and exclusive) belongs to all Algonkin languages, to the Iroquo- '^' '■" ''' Cherokee, Choctaw, Pahaptin (i» doing, the act expressed by the verb, corresponding to the English iiomeii iiciorii in -rr. This name is formed as a coniii'tional particijile, or as the third person singular of the conditional present, with a change of the vowel of the root: thus, from Chip. iiu>«i<; "he huut.<," comes ;i/iiMal, " a hunter ;" from ijimotli, " he steals," iji'moilid, " one who steals, a thief" (anil if the name is intended to convey a re- proach, ff^mof/isHKiii. "one who too much steals, an habit- ual thief ") ; from ujl(nn, " he makes it," w<Jili>'l. •■ one who makes," etc. Another very large class of nouns is formed from the indicative present, to denote the action of the verb, answering to the English substantive participle in -iii<i: <•. </. (Chip.)'/i'm'!(''', "he steals;" ii!mM!-irin, "stealing, theft;" mi'./(i(/i'.'"he fights;" m/'/^li/iin'/i. " fighting, war;" muiikwc, " lie drinks ;" miiiihii-hrhi, "drinking " (so, miiiilcirHnfiMvin, "too much drinking, intemperance:" minikuH'S.Mriii, "not drinking, abstinence"). Other verb-nouns serve to name instruments for performing the act exjiressed by the verb; as from C\\\f.pakll(lrii:, " he strikes," is formed pahih n/nn, " a hammer," literally " it strikes ;" from pMikIti, " it ex- plodes, bursts" (with noise), comes pAiilikixiijan, "a gun' ■ can exploding instrument; from //i' instrument; from j'ibdinbandan, "he (Ne°z PotcM, Ouichua. and others. It is found also in the ! looks through something, j,l,„u,b„ndj,,pw, an instru Dravidian languages of Southern India, in the Manchu, in Polynesian aiid some .Australian dialects, and in those of Hottentot tribes of South ,\frica. and would seem to have been verv "pncrally resorted to, at one stage of the devel- opment of language, in finding a way from the primitive dual to the conception of unlimited plur.ility. In the Cherokee, as has been said, the dual as well as the plural has inclusive and exclusive forms for the first person — " we two" it. <: "he and I"), and "wo two" (i. e. "thou and I, and not be "I; but in the ibtrd person there is no dis- tinction made between dual and plural. In some Indian languages, and particularly in the Al- gonkin family, both transitive verbs and the (animate) nouns and pronouns they govern have two or three third- persrm.al forms, distinguishing degrees of rel.atioo to the subject of the verb. Baraga ( Otvlnpwe Ornmmnr) and Lacombe (Grammaire Crlae) call these the simple, the second, and the third-third persons; Cuoq (Eiitdet plulo- lii,,:,iiics) denominates the second as the third person "ob- viatif," and the third as the " sur-obviatif " To take an example from the English: in "John struck Paul," John is the first-third and Paul the second-third person; in "John struck Paul's son," "son" is the third-third, or " sur-obviatif." If the subject of the verb is in the first or second person, the governed noun (if in the third per- son) has the first or simple form: '(Chip.) nin sagia iintu, " I love my-fathcr; " if there are two third persons in the sentence, one takes the second-third form— e. g. aw inini nd-amikilav-au iiossAN', "that man works for (serves) my father;" if there arc three or more third persons, tho first is in the simple form, the second in the second third or obviative. the third and all others in the third-third or super-obviative; e. .7. Jnscp o-r/i-odaplnan abintidil'i.KS nt/lni-fiaie, "Joseph took the young child and A/« mother." [ (This example is t;ikeu from Baraga, p. 72. i In the Chip- pewa, the second-third person ends in 11, an, or 011, the third-third in «/, aul, or oiii', and a corresponding change is made in tho form of tho governing verb ; e. <j. Jak ,it- ttlcemAN o-«r,/.-,7l,\N-ISI Sabrl\s of -f.aiVlNI, "The sister of ,Tacques loved the daughter of Elizabeth;" lit. "Jacques his-sister she-loved Elizabeth her-daughter," where " sis- ter" and Elizabeth .are in the second-third person, "dauo'hter" in the third-third, and tho verb has the dou- ble affix of second and third, a»-hn. (Cuoq,) The Eskimo has two forms for the third person, one of which, accord- in" to Egedc, is used only when tho object of the verb be- lonc/H In \he subject; thus, kitnrnX UirnivS., "he gave it to his'(anotlier person's) child," but kilornl lurniva, " he gave it to his (own) child." Eliot, in his Massachusetts version of the Bible, makes use of the "obviative" form, but has not mentioned it in his grammar of the language; and as Zeisbergcr seems not to have discovered it in the so-called Delaware, it was not brought to the notice of Duponeeau, Gallatin, or Pickering. It is probable that some such dis- tinction between the principal ami the ilependent third persons inav be found in most American dialects. Pandosy in his Yakiima ( Sahaptin ) grammar notices a difference of inflection " when the governing substantive is itself gov- erned by a verb," In the Quichua the distinction is effected by special forms of the demonstrative; in the Tupi of Brazil, bv a "reflexive particle." Not tlie least remarkable feature of these languages is the facility with which concrete and abstract names may be formed not only from every verb, but from the several voices, moods, and tenses of tho verb. One species of vcrb.nouu, of very frequent use in Algonkin speech, has been mentioned liefnre— that, namely, which designates a person who habitually docs, or may do, or who is conceived and s^giidi ment made for looking through, a spy-glass," etc. Since everv so-called adjective may be conjugated as a verb, from which nouns may be formed for designating the actor, action, and instrument, ami since the formation of all such verb-nouns is regular, so that every new name is self-de- fining, it is plain that the possible enlargement of the vo- cabulary is absolutely without limit. The Inilian languages are far richer in concrete and special than in abstract and general names ; but this is not because they are inadequate to the expression of abstract ideas or generalizations, but because the Indian aims always at the attainment of abso- lute precision, and at an exactness of denotation w-bich higher culture and larger intelligence permit Indo Euro- peans to disregard. There is an illustration of this in the nicety of the distinction made between the active and pas- sive substantive-participle in many American languages. Tho Indian has no expression for abslracl love, hate, truth, fear, anger, etc. Love, for instance, is either " a loving" or "a being-loved," according as it is referred to its subject or objcc', and it is named by an active or passive verb- noun. In English "the love of God" may mean cither man's love to God, or God's love to m.an. The Algonkin avoids this ambiguity. In the Chippewa, for example, _ from tagiiice, " he loves," is formed suijiimuin, " a loving (love giveyt) ; from sfi'jiUjoiii, " he is loved," is formed s&gHgoaiiein, " a being-loved" (love received); from mlgiidiii, "he loves himself," is formed a&glidisiwhi, " self-loving ;" d from the miitu.al conjugation-form of the same verb, liwhi, "mutual loving." So, from pnkitfige, "he strikes," come pak'itdqewin, "a beating given." and paki- lligowin, "a beating "received." And the form of these veib-nouns may be modified according as the object of the action or emotion is animate or inanimate. Similar dis- tinctions are found in other American languages. Paredes (quoted by Gallatin) notes the double forms of verbal nouns in the Mexican, "both of which exjiress tlie acts of doing that which the verb signifies." the former actively, tho latter passively ; thus, " tella <,•"<'" i-"-"-' is ' the love I have for another.' iivtla rollmvw is 'the love another has for me.' " In the (Juichua. Von Tschudi notices four kinds of verb-nouns, formed respectively from the active participle and the imperfect, perfect, and future of tho innuitivc, in both active and passive voices— c, 7. from apa. " to bear," come apuk, "bearer," apa,j. "the burden" (that which is borne), apnsca, "he who has borne," apanca or apana, " that which is to be borne," etc. "Scmic learned Europeans have not disdained to study tho structure of the idioms of America with the same care as they study those of the Semitic languages and of the Greek 'and Latin. They no longer." said Baron von Hum- boldt, "attribute to the imperfection of a language what belon-'S to the rudeness of the nation. It is acknowledged that almost evervwhere tho Indian idioms display greater richness and more delicate gradations than might be sup- posed from the uncultivated state of the people by whom thev are spoken ;" and he observed as evidence of this that ihe Idi/h of Theocritus "had been translated, with grace- ful simplieitv, into the language of the Incas, and that he was assured' that, excepting treatises on science and phi- losophy, there is scarcely anv work of modern literature that might not be translated into the Peruvian." Vixera has "iv'en a translation of an ode of Anaercnn into Olmni. The Abb6 Brasseur de Bourbourg. by his French version of the Itabmnl-Achi. from the Quiche of Guatemala, has shown i that lan"ua''e to he not ill-furnished for poetical and dra- I matic cSmp'osition. In the Algonkin, Iroquois, Chahta- INDIAN OCEAN— INDIAN RED. IIGI Muskoki, Dakota, and other North American families the rcailineas aud taae with which new words have been lormed for ideas and objects previouply uiiknuwn — the funnation being always in strict accordance with (he structural laws of the lan^ua;;c — j;ive sufficient evidence (as Mr. Gallatin remarked) that these Indian tongues " had within them- sclve:< the po\ver of progressive iuiproveineut whenever required by an advance in knowledge or civilization." The author of /^tudea phtloiofjir/ws mtr fftif/quex Lanynei Sun- vnijfM tie VAm^r!'/ue (Montreal, 1800) and oi Jvfjtment frron6 de M. Enirnt /Irnnn sur lea Lnngnm Snuvatjcn (1SG9), who wriic3 with oxcollent knowledge of his subject so far as the northern Ab^onkin and the Iroquois dialects are concerned, has shown h<tw •iili2:ht foundation there is for the opinions expressed l>y M. Ilenan and some other eminent philologists of Europe, that these languages are incapable of exi)ressing abstract idea?, that their richness in forms and in special terms is at the expense of accuracy in denotation, and that they are destitute of true inflections. On this last point something has already been said in this article, but it may be well to add the weil-considcred statement of Mr. Galla- tin in his last work, that "the Indian languages abound with inflections, having precisely the same character with those which are universally considered as such in other" —or, as he says elsewhere — '* in the classical languages." However numerous may be the derivatives and possible syntheses, the number of n>'»/* in any Indian dialect is small. Those, of course, are common to all languaces of the same family, but they are not exempt from phonetic change in passing from one dialect to another. Their identity may thus be nearly lost, and perhaps cannot be established except by extensive comparison of dialects. Th? Dakota name for "ten." for example, is in the Sioux wl-hrhe-inrm; in the Winnebago, kh'ra-pun; in the Ponka, (jlhe-bn. Those (rejecting a prefix in the Sioux) are merely phonetic variations of the same name; kche, kU'ra, anjl tjfhe are equivalent, and so are mnn, puiif and b'l. In the Alg<mkin family the range of divergence is less wide, yet still considerable: the Abnaki areni, "man," and the Illi- nois i7/i«i, are nut far a[»art or from Chippewa i'hi'h/; in Micmac I'un (or c/*hiO and Quinnipi ten the difference is more apparent, and still more in Hudson's Bay Cree ethin'u, Wi-stern Oreo ii/i'nti. and .Shyeunc it'mi. Till the comparative grammar of the languages of each of the principal American families shall have been investi- gated, and the laws and limits of jthonetic change are bet- ter un'lerstood than at present, questions as to the genetic relation of one of these families to another must remain un- answered. As yet, philology has no sufiicient data for de- termining either the fact or the degree of such relationship. SMII less is the philologist competent to decide, on evidence now supplied by langua-xc, that any family of American speech is, or is not, of Asiatic, European, or African deri- vation. In support of difTereut theories rcspcctiitg the origin of the Indian races, various resemblances and analo- gies have been pointed out between American dialects and one or another of the languages of the OM World. Those who believed the Indians to be descendants of the lost tribes of Israel, discovered in their languages striking af- finities to the Hebrew, and one writer conjectured that the Mohawks were of the tribe of Levi, because their name cor- responds so nearly to Hebrew ^fri^■f|„f:r/:, translated "law- giver" in Gen. xlix. 10. Vater in Mithriffatci gave a long r^t of words of similar sound and meaning in Indian and Asiatic languages, as evidence that America was peopled by emigration from North-eastern Asia. The vocabulary of the Caribs ha:* been made to give ovidonceof their African origin. M.deCharencey, impressed by structural unci gram- matical resemblances between certain American dialects — particul.irly the Eastern Algonkin — and the Hasque, is led to believe that the New Worbl was peopled by Iberian colo- nists fromAVestern Europe. ( l>r^ AjjimtfHtlr (e f'tn'jne linirfHe nvrc ten hfiomcn flu \<nirrnti-}finir/e, 1807.) The Supposed likeness of some Indian words to Greek, I*atin, and San- scrit has more (ban once been pointed out; as, for exomplo, Algonkin iritfirnm and <lr. oiicoc, L'lt. virni; Aztec f^nt/ and (Jr. 9^09. Kviflence satisfactory to such as were predis- pn-icd to accept it has been found of the genetic connection netween American speech and Egyptian, Mongolian. Tun- gusic, Sanioyedic, Malayan, and Polynesian, and in fact almost every known language of the world. On the other band, ethnologists of the school of Morton, Nott, and GHd- don attach litdo weight to any such evidence of extra- American afTinify, and regard the languages of the Indians, like their raee, as autochthonous. For a general view of the structure and comparative grammar of North American languages, Mr. flallatin's S'fnnpiiiii n/ the Indian Ti'ihen {TrnnMfictionn of the Am. Aiftifj, Sftriehf, vol. ii.). Supplemented by his notes on Hale"fl Vornhu/nrirn ( Trann. Am. Ethnnl. .S'onV/y, vol. ii.), are still the best guides. Mr. Pickering's excellent paper I on Indian Lang^iageg of America (in the Appendix to the Enci/ct. Ainerivfuut, vol. vi., and separately' printed iSol), and his notes to the reprint of Eliot's Indian Grammar I liegiui (in il/«««. I/iit. Cotiet:tit*us, 2d series, vol. ix.), should i be consulted, and a paper by Dr. F. Lieber On the Plan of I Thotitfht in Amcricitn Lanijmtgei^y in vol. li. (pp. 340-i.'M9) j of Schoolcraft's great collection of /JiHlitrical and Statia- 1 lical Iii/ormati'in rcHpcctiug the Indian TrihcH (6 vols. 4tO, ' 1851-66) — a work which contains much valuable material, though this, unfortunately, cannot easily be separated from I the worthless mass in which it is buried. The third vol- I umc of MithridatcH, by Adelung and Vatcr (1:^12-10), eup- I plies much valuable information, particularly as to South I American languages. For the general bibliography sec ' Triibner's edition of Ludewig's Littiniturc of American ' Abtjriffinal Lanf/uaj/ett, with Prof. W. M'. Turner's addi- tions and corrections. An Ensat/ tounrdi an Indian Ilib- ' litujrapbify by Mr. T. W. Field (New York, IST.'J), though ' primarily designed only as the catalogue of a private library, is a convenient and useful b(.ok of relerence. For languages of the Pacific coast, Horatio Hale's col- lected vocabularies and grammatical notes in vol. vii. {Ethnorjraphij and P/iilolof/i/) of the Ih pint of the U. S. Ej'ploriny Ejpedition, supplied much valuable material, to which W. H. Dall's Alanl-a and its liesourecs maile im- portant additions. The best authorities for the Dakota and Athabascan languages have been mentioned elsewhere in this article. For the Eskimo sec the Uroenlamhk Oram- matica of 0. Fabricius (Copenhagen, l"i)l). and Klcin- Schmidt's Gramnmtik d. (iroenl. Sprache (Berlin, lKf)l). For the Algonkin, besides the works of Duponceau, Pick- ering, and Gallatin, see Baraga's Otcfiipin- Grammar and Dictionary^ J. Howe's Cree Grammar, Lacombc's Gram- mnirc de la Lantjne dee CrU (Montreal, 1874) and accom- panying Diet ionary f and the two works previously jncn- tioncd by **N. 0., ancieu missiounaire " (M. Cuoq). Etndcn philoioffiqncit, etc. and Jufjcmrnt erronf de M.Ernei^t Itcnan, etc., which give a good outline of Iroquois as well as Al- gonkin grammar. For the languages of South .America generally see C. F. P. von Marlins's HeitrUf/cznrEthiiof/raphie iind Spracheuknndc Amerifca'n (Leipsic, 1867), and A. d'Or- bigny, I/IIomme Amerirain, etc. (Paris, 1839); an<i as an aid to the comparison of South with North American lan- guages, .r. J. von Tschudi's Vic Qnirhna Sprache (Wien, 186;;) is of special value. J. Hamhonh TitrMBirr.L. Indian Ocean is tlio name of the vast sheet of water between Africa, Asia, and Australia, traversed by the equa- torial current, flowing from E. to W. with a somewhat varying velocity, and forming a very rapid current along the eastern coast of Africa. Indiano'la, post -v., cap. of Warren co., la., on the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. R., Indiauola branch, 20 miles S. of Dcs Moines. It is the seat of Simpson Cen- tenary College (Methodist Episcopal), has a national and a private bank, graded school, grist-mill, pinning mill, manufactures of farming implements, several chuichcs, 'A weekly newspapers, etc., and is situated in a beautiful and fertile region. Pop. 1428. Graiiasi & Knox, Prns. " Herald." Indiauola, port of entry, cap. of Calhoun co., Tex., on the W. ^;hore of Matagorda liay, 10 miles from the Gulf of Mexico. Its harbor is large and commodious ; it has steamers thrice a week from New Orleiins, and two lines of sailing vessels ply regularly to New York, and there arc many other domestic ports with which it has a trade. About ten vessels bring lumlicr from Florida and I-ouisiana. Cattle, wool, hides, cotton, ct-. are extensively .^hipped from this point, from which the Gulf. Western Texas and Paeific H. K. already extends over 70 miles into the in- terior. The town has two banks, a weekly ncwspnncr. and several lari;e importing ami wholesale establisliments. Pop. lOUO: of Old Indianola, 200. On Sept. 15, 1H7.*". a severe storm, lasting live days, visited the coast from Gal- vestitn to Indianola, causing the waters to rise and flood the more exposed places, sweeping away several smoll villages, with great loss of life, and destroying much properly in *ial- veston, Matiigorda, and other towns. Indianola was sub- merged, and except the larger business-houses, was entirely swept away. The loss of life throughout this section is be- lieved to have been over 200, CiiARi.PS A. OosntRV, En. "Bri.i.ETiN." Indian Orchard, a pleasant manufacturing postv., constifntimr a part of SprincOeld. Mass. (Hampden eo.l. It is miles N. E. of Springfleld. on the Boston and Alliany and the Sprimrfield ,\thol and North-eastern K. Ks. Indian I'oiiil, tp. of Knox co., HI. Pop. 18.14. Indian I'rairic, tp. of Wayne co.. III. Pop. 1727. Indian Hod, a mineral pigment from Persia, consist- ing of ferric oxide and silica. 1162 INDIAN RIDGE— INDIAN TERRITORY. Indian Ridge, tp. of Clarke co., Ala. Pop. 31G. Indian River, in lirevard and Volusia cos.. Fla., is a narrow tidal channel parutU'l and usually only half a luile from the coast. It extends S. S. E. from a point some IS mile3 N. \V. of Cape Canaveral to Indian Kivcr Inlet, 100 miles distant, and is continuous southward 60 miles to Jupiter Inlet as St. Lucie's Sound. It is in a beautiful and healthful region, and the river abounds in fish. It is n:Lvif;able, and the inlet will admit vessels of 5 fectdraught. The river is becoming a resort for invalids and sportsmen. Indian River, hundred of Sussex eo., Del. P. 1GG7. Indians, American. At the time of the discovery of America the whnlc continent was oecujtied by scattered tribes, and as the land was supposed to be a part of Asia, and called India or India beyond the Ganges, the inhab- itants received the name of Indians. The question of the origin of this population was for centuries a much-disputed one. Some tribes — for instance, the Athabascans — i)Os- sessed a tradition concerning their emigration across the P.aeific, and different scholars endeavored to establish a connection between the American Indians and the Jews, Welsh. Mongols, Malays, and other races of the eastern continent. The attempts were nf)t successful; and while the modes of living and the implements of the American Indians resemble very much those belonging to the earlier stages of European and Asiatic races, no link of connec- tion has been found between the respective languages. The dilTcrent dialects or languages spoken by the American aborigines seem, in spite of all variations, to have origin- ated from one common stock, and an identity of race seems furthermore to be confirmed by an extensive community in physiological traits and in the general character of their civilizaMon. At the time of the discovery there was a great diiTercnce between the tribes living in Peru. Central America. Mexico, and New Mexico, and those living far- ther to the S. or to the N., with respect to the stage of civilization which they respectively represented. The for- mer had domesticated the llama; they cultivated maize, squashes, beans, tobacco, plantains, etc. ; they built houses of adobe and temples of stone ; they understood the art of pottery, of making bronze, etc. The latter were sometimes almost wh'dly savage, living in holes in the ground, and eat- ing their fish and game raw. And yet there were certain common traits in religious ideas, in moral character.in form of government, in industry and mode of living, etc., which pervaded the whole race from the savage to the semi-civil- ized, (For more particular information see Am-HiTECTnuE OF THK American Abdiuoines, M.\n and his Migrations, Indian IjANGUAOKS, Tuibk, etc., and the names of the dif- ferent tribes.) Indian Shot. See Canna. Indian Springs, post-v. of Butts co., Ga.. has saline suljihur springs, much visited for the cure of rheumatism and stomach and liver disorders. It has 1 weekly news- paper. Pop. 24S. Indian Springs, tp. and post-v. of Washington co., Md. I'u]). \i>i>o. Indian Springes, tp. of Wayne co., N. C. Pop. 12S0. Indian Summer. Sec Dark Day, in Appendix. Indian Territory, a tract of land originally belong- ing to the Louisiana purchase, and which was set apart by the government of the U. S. as a permanent home for such of the Indian tribes as could be induced to settle there. It included at first all the unorganized portion of the Loui- siana cession lying W. of its eastern meridian, and in ISjO its area was stated at 105,274 miles; but Kansas and a part of Nebraska were subsequently taken from it, and the bounilary between North-western Texas and the north- wciitern portion of this Territory was carefully surveyed. As it exists at present, its northern boundary is the 117th parallel of N. lat., which separates it from Kansas and for one degree of longitude from Colorado ; its eastern bound- ary is the meritlian of 94° 30' W. Ion., which divides it from Arkansas and for a short distance from Missouri; the lied River, which separates it from Texas, is its southern boundary as far as to the 100th meridian, which it follows northward for its western boundary to the par- allel of .30° 30', and then turns westward on this par- allel to the 10;',d meridian (the eastern boundary of New Mexico^, when it again runs N. along that meridian to the 37th parallel. It has thus Texas for its southern and western boundary, except for a distance of 35 miles on the 103d meridian, where it joins New Mexico. Its area is stated at 0H,001 square miles, or 44,164.2-10 acres, which is probably a near approximation to the actual area. The greater part of the Territory has been granted in districts proportioned lo their numbers to those Indi.an tribes which wiuld confine themselves to their respective tracts, either cultivating them or using them as hunting-grounds, but about one-fifth of the present area (8,947,473 acres) was ceded back by the Chickasaws, Cherokces, Creeks, and Seminoles to the U. S. in ISGG and 1S67, and is now held by the government to be u:^ed as a home by other Indian tribes when they can be induced to settle down upon these lands as a (permanent home. Fact of the C'niutn/. — There is a gentle declination from the foot-hills of the Rocky M<mntains. which occupy the extreme X. W. portion of this Territory, towards the Mis- sissippi River, and this general slope trends also somewhat towards the S. E., so as to reach the valley of the lower Red River. Between the Red and Canadian rivers there arc several groujis and ranees of mountains of no very great elevation, as the Washita Mountains, the Potcau and tlio Sans Bois mountains. In theeastirn pari of the Territory the rivers have broad and fertile bottom-lands, sometimes overflowed in spring or early summer, which are usually shut in by blufis more or less abrupt, which form the boundaries of the undulating uplamls. The western por- tion, especially the narrow strip ext* nding from the 100th to the 103d meridian, is arid and for the most part treeless, forming a portion of that gradually diminishing region formerly known as the dreat American Desert. Tlio Ar- kansas and Red rivers, with their affluents, drain the Ter- ritory. Some of these affluents are nearly as large as the main rivers. The Arkansas enters the Tcrritoiy near the 97th meridian, ami leaves it at Fort Smith, in lat. about 35° 30', but its principal tributary, the Canadian River, traverses the entire Territory from W. to E., as do also its N. fork and the Cimarron or Red fork of the Arkansas. The other alilucnts of the Arkansas are, from the N., Ver- digris and Little Verdigris and Neosho rivers and Flint Creek; from the W.. Little Arkansas, Black Bear, Wolf Creek, and Poteau River, a branch of the Canadian. The tributaries of the Red River in the Territory are the N. fork of Red River, Cedar Creek, with numerous branches, tHe Washita River, a large and long stream. Muddy Creek, Walnut Creek, Baggy River, and Kianashi River. Gcologi/. — E. of the 97th meridian most of the Territory belongs to the coal-measures, though we believe but littlo coal has as yet been mined there. There is, however, a small tract of Eozoic rocks on the Arkansas River between the Cherokee and (he Creek countries, about lat. 35° 30', and another in the S. W., crossed by the 35th parallel and Ion. 99^ W. All the rest of the Territory belongs to tho Triassic and Jurassic formations, except a little tract of Cretaceous rocks in the extreme N. W., on the borders of New Mexico. The barren and sandy table-lands of tho narrow strip in the N. W. arc often covered, especially in summer, with saline efflorescence. Vegetation. — The eastern part of the Territory has much rich and fertile land, not only on the river-bottoms, but on the upland prairies and woodlands. A bolt of forest, known as the ■** Cross Timbers," from 5 to 30 miles in width, ex- tends along the border of the t^'arboniferous formation from tho Arkansas River to the Brazos, and separates the fertile and rich prairie-lands from the dry and sterile table-lands of the N. W. W. of these there are few trees except in tho river-bottom?:, and the soil grows more and more arid and unproductive, till at last there arc only thorny cacti, yuc- cas, and the gray sagebush to be seen, and even these only in scattered and widely separated ])atclics. Animals. — This is still, especially in its central and west- ern portions, the favorite haunt of the buffalo, Ihenutclopc, and to some extent of the wild horse; deer and other game abound; the black or brown bear is found in the " Cross Timbers:" and the prairie dog. the wild-turkcy, the prairie- hen, the sage-hen. and a great variety of birds of prey, as well as those noted for beautiful jdumago or for melodious song, are found in all parts of the Territory. There are not many fish in the rivers, which, except the Arkansas and Red, are usually dry, except in pools, in the summer. CT(Hjarf.— Like that of most of the region between tho same parallels W. of the Mississippi, the climate is warm and inclined to drought. In the S. E. it is more moist, tho average rainfall being 52 inches, but it is also hot, tho mean annual temperature exceeding 00° F. In the central portion there is not quite so much heat, the mean annual temperature ranging from 57° to 59°, and tho rainfall hav- ing diminished to 35 inches. In the N. W, the menn tem- perature of the year is lower, not exceeding 55°, being reduced by tho cold ** northers " from the Rocky Mountains, and the rainfall docs not average more than 20 inches for the year. ProductionM. — The Cherokees, Creeks, Chickasaws, Choc- taws, Pcnecas. Quapaws, and Shawnees have settled on their reservations, ami many of them have good farms and have made considerable jirogress in civilization. These tribes had before (he late w.ar many slaves, ami raised largo crops which they sent to market. Since the emancipation of the slaves many of them still hire laborers and are wealthy; INDIAN TEKRITOKY. 11(J3 but as no taxes arc levied on either their personal or real c^itute, the census does not report their productions. The other tribes are nomadic, and make little or no efTort to till the soil or engage in any branch of civilized industry- The following statistics were gathered in relation to the Terri- tory in 1-S72: Acres of improved land. 204,(17-1 ; bu.^hels of wheat, etc., C,7'Jy,.iJ5; value of farm ](roduce, SI.GO.'i,(J10 ; numbor of horses, cattle, etc., *101,4li;>: their value, $I,!U7,101; total value of real and pcrsoniil property, $Ifi.l>S7.S18. Land is held ia common, and is not included in this valuation. There is one railroad, which traverses this Territory from N. to S. — the Missouri Kansas and Texas Railway — 200 miles of it within the Territory. The Atlantic and Pacific Railway also extends from Seneca to Vir.ita, a distance of about ?f5 miles in the Territory, connecting there with the Mis^souri Kansas and Texa?. Numerous other railroads have been projected, and one, a Pacific Railway to follow the ."loth parallel, has been endeavoring to obtain from Con- gress the right of way anrl a grant of lands through the Territory, but the Indians oppose it. IhmKii, rtc. — There are no banks, savings banks, insu- rance companies, or. so far as we can learn, private bank- ing-houst?s, ID the Territory. Population, — Until the census of 1S70 there had been no attempt to take a full census of the inhabitants of the In- dian Territory. As the Indians v/ere not taxed, and had no interest as voters, etc. in tho giivcrnmcnt of the V. S., there seemed no other motive except that of curiosify for such enumeration. The number of white persons and of persons of African descent in tho Territory was enume- rated. In ISfiO these together numbered 9701. In 1870 tho change wliicli had taken place in tho relations of sonic of the tribes during and consequ'-nt upon the late civil war made an enumeration necessary. The U. S. marshal re- ported in 1S70 that there wore in the Territory CS,Iii2 in- habitants. Of these, 2 107 were white?, 0.173 colored per- sons of African descent. .'>9,.'JC7 Indians sustaining tribal relations, of whom 19,007 wcro on reservations an<l at agencies and more or less civilized. (Of these, 388-i wcro m^n, 4t85 women, 51 It) male children, and 5592 female children.) There were also 5900 reported as estimated luembers of these reservations and agencies, but not ac- tually enumerated by the as-sistant marshals. Tho c^^ti- matcd number of nomadic Indians (i". c. notou reservations or located at or near agencies) in the Territory was ;>4,400. Later statistic?, taken in IS72, give a materially dificrcnt statement. They make the number of civilized Indians, including the Cbcrokccs, Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, Seminoles, Quapaws, Senecas, Wyandots, Shawnee?, etc., 5.'),S74, occupying reservations of 19,018,095 acres, of which 216,850 acres arc under cultivation by individuals and 4 155 by iho government. These Indians occupy 5;M4 dwelling- houses. The uncivilized Indians, including stragglers and Osages, Caildoes, Kiowas, Comanchcs, Apaches and Dela- warcs, Chc-yennes, Arapahoes and Apaches, numbered I 1.515, making an aggregate of 70,^89 Indians, or about 11,000 more than the census reported. The Osages, Kio- was, Comanches, and stragglers had reservations amount- ing to 9,544,720 acres, of which only 2G0;i acres wcro culti- vated by individuals and 006 by tho government. The other uncivilized Indians, numbering 0:VJ2, had no definito reservations, but roamed at will through tho 15,000,000 acres of unallotted lands*. Tlio uncivilized Indians had in all but 250 ]>ermanent buildings. Tho total amount of funds held in trust by tho U. S. government fur all these tribes, civilized and uncivilized, is about $8,000,000. Edncntion. — The schools are mostly contlned to tho Chcrokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, and Seminoles, the other tribes caring little for schools. In these five tribes there were in 187.T, 15H sehools, with 4700 sehohirs. Tho Cherokeos had in 1H7.T, 00 of these schools, attended by 2'iOO children, and besides, an orphan school, with 90 pupils, 1 female high school, and 1 (Moravian) missionary school. Their school fuu'l amounts to $520,1.11,04, and their orphan fund to $218,000.51. The Creiks had in 187.'!, 1 boarding school and .'il day schools, attended by 800 pupils. The Choctaws and Chickasaws had 2 boarding schools and 4S day schools. an<! ll*;»9 scholars. The Semi- noles, 5 day schools ancl 20" s;^bolars. The school funds for all tho tribes except the Chcrokees amount to about $251,000. Tho leading chiefs of the Cherokees, Creeks, and Choctaws advocate the abolition of tho tribal system, tho holding of the lands in severalty, and tho education of tho children to tit them for citi/.ensliip. /irligton. — Tho Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws. and Chick- asaws have been for half a century under missionary in- struction, and n very considerable proportion of thorn arc membrrs of ("hrislian churches. The nggr^'Kate number of church members in tbc>;e four tribes somewhat exceeds 7.*>(in, of tlu'S<*. over ilUKl are Chcrokees, 2050 Creeks, 2500 Chickasaws and Choctaws. lu tbo entire Territory the Baptists in 1«74 had 3 ossooiatious, 61 churches, 47 ministers, and 3910 members. The Methodist Church, South, has also a considerable number of churches and communicants in the Territory, and several missions j among the less civilized Indians. Their report of thuir I conferences in 1874 gives for the Indian mission (not all, ! we think, in this Territory) 20 travelling preachers. 82 ! local preachers, 172 while, 454 colored, and 4590 Indian members. Tho Presbyterians, both Xortb and South, have mission stations in the Territory, as have also the Cougre- gationalists. The Roman Catholics have two nii.'sion sta- tions, and there arc several Moravian congregations. yewspapem. — There are three or four newspapers print- ed in the Territory. One. at Tahlcr|uali. is partly in the Cherokee language, and one at Caddo is. we believe, in the Creek or Choctaw. Konc of these papers have a very largo circulation. The fjovcrnment of the civilized Indians, and indeed of all the Indian tribes of the Territory, is one of independent chiefs, whose ])Ower is, however, limited. The tribes are the wards of the U. S. government, which nevertheless in- terferes as seldom as possiI)le. For the purpose of punish- ing crimes against citizens of the V . S. the Territory is annexed to the judicial districts of Arkansas and I^Iissouri. Tho Chcrokees have a legislature or council of their own, as do some of the other civilized tribes, thougli not so com- pletely organized. They have also courts and a code of laws, few and simple, but suflk-icnt for their purposes. They aro not represented, even by a delegate, in Congress, but occasionally, when tliey desire some change in their arrangements with the U. S. governnunt, they send some of their most intelligent chiefs to Washington to rejircsent their case before tho President, the secretary of the inte- rior, or a congressional committee. Divisionft of the Tcrritonj. — There are. of course, no counties or townships in the Territory, but all the civiliztd tribes, and sonio of the uncivilized, have their reservations — considcrablo trarts of land. lying each in ono body, which is tho joint property of tho whole tribe. Some of the tribes, having diminished in numbers, had more land than they needed, and have ceded it back to the U. S. for a liberal sum of money, which is invested and the income applitd to tho use of the tribe. Tho reservations set apart for tho tribes now there are as follows : Cherokees ChocCaw8 Ciceks Chickasaws Seminciles Quapaws, Senecas, Wy anduts, Shawnees, etc.' Osages Caddoes Kiuwas Comanches Frayments of tribes set- tled luKetber No. of booses. 879 83 9 104 Popula- tion, OS I'd. 17,217 16,000 12,295 6,000 2,438 1.219 2,823 1,52^ 2.000 2,198 1.192 Acrca of | Improved rcscrva- b^ tiidi tion. viduals. 89,250 50,000 31,000 SO.OOfJ 7,600 90 92.'* 186 60 1.342 Imi»r'd ))j- gov orDiD't. 4,390 65 116 ISO 70 250 Tho two branches of the .Apache tribe (Pima and Coyote) or BO many of them as aro in this Territory, the Delaware?, Cheyennes, and Arapahoes, numbering together 4774 per- sons, have as yet no definite reservations. 7'o,r,M. — There are no large towns in the Territory. Tahleqnab, tbo capital of the Cherokee country: Caddo, the largest settlement in the Choctaw nation; Vinita, tho point of junction of the Missouri Kansas and Texas and, the S. W. branch of the Pacitic railroads; IJlue Jacket, on the former road: Muf^eogte, in the Creek country; and Tishomingo, in the Chickasaw Nation, — are settlements of moderate size. Tho U. S. government has ten or twelve forts, some of thein of considerable size, in the Territory. //inton/. — The history of the Territory is very brief. Though a part of tho Louisiana purchase, it does not seem to have had at any time any considerable population. It was occasionally traversed by the Apaches, Comanches, or Arapahoes, and perhaps by the Cheyennes, in the pur.-^uit of tlie buffalo or the wild' horse. It was sehcted by tho V. S. Kovernment in 1H;12 as the homo of tho tribes E. of the Mississippi, principally on account of its remoteness from while settlements, and the Creeks, Choctaws, Cliieka- flaws, ami Cherokees were removed thither from 18,'{.'i to IH.'tS.and the Seminoles and some fragments of other tribes a little later. Tho first grunts of land secured to them by treaty were mmdi larger than thuse they now li'dd, and embraced portions of Kansas and Nebraska. By subse- quent treaties these were ceded back to tho V. S. During 'These havo each a sepnrnle though small reserTAtlon. 11G4 INDIAN TOHACCO— INDIA EUBBER. the late civil war several of the more civilized tribes took the side of the South, and were at first held to have for- feited their lands, but were finally reinstated in their pos- session. L. P. BnOCKETT. Iniliiin Tobacco. See Lobelia. In'diantowu, a thriving suburb of St. John, N. B., near the moulh of the St. John River. }lere the river steamers have their wharves, A steam-ferry connects it with Point Pleasant. Indiantown has large steam saw- mills and an extensive lumber-trade. Pop. about 2oOU. Indian Town, tp. of Bureau co., III. Pop. lOGO. Indian Valley, post-tp. of Floyd co., Va. Pop. 1+75. Indian Village, tp. of Tama co., la. Pop. 1523. Indian Yellow, or Pnrree, a yellow pigment, oon- sistins essentially of euxanthato of magnesium. (See PlKlTEE.) India Rubber, Caoutchouc (from cachuchu of the South .American Indians), or (iuin Elastic [Ger. Aawf- «c/iii/.- Feilci-liai-z; Fr. caviilchoiic], a peculiar substance, composed of carbon and hvdrogeu, found in suspension in the milky juice of a great many difi'erent families oi plants. It has been stated that all milky vegetable juices contain it, but this is not the ease, many of these juices yield gum- resins free from caoutchouc. //,«(,„.,y._AlthoU','h known at a very early date to the Peruvians and thethinese, it was not brought to Europe till the beginning of the eighteenth century. The first scientific notice with resard to it appeared in the Traiiaac- (ion» of the French Academy of Sciences in 1735 from the pen of M. dc la Condamine, who had noticed it, under the name of cnclnichu, on his voyage down the Amazon. He describes it as in constant use among the natives in the form of bottles, boots, etc., and for making cloth water- proof. In 1751 he again called attention to "the elastic resin" of Cayenne {Mem. tie V Acad. Eni/ale, 1751, pp. 17, 319), his friend M. Fresncau having reported its occurrence in the French colonv of Cavenne. Herissant and Macquer (Mem. <le V Acad. R-<j., 1703, p. 49) published their chem- ical investigations on " solution of caoutchouc," and Mac- quer in 1 7G8, " on means of dissolving the resin caoutchouc." Priestley (1770) mentioned the use of the gum for erasing lead-pencil marks, its cost being three shillings fo- " " ""l"- 'a cubi- cal piece of about half an inch." Berniard published in- vestigations in 17S1 ; Fourcroy, on the sap in 1790; tiros- sart. " on the means of making instruments of gum elastic in 1791 . Important contributions to the chemistry of caout- chouc have been made by Faraday, Xees von Eisenbach and Marquart, .\driani, Ilimly, Payen, Bouchardat, and others, while the practical applications have been made by Mack- intosh, llandcock, Goodyear, A. G. Day, and other invent- ors. The first use made of caoutchouc in Europe was for crasin" pencil-marks; it was then used in solution in oil of iurpentine and alcohol and in coal-tar naphtha for water- proofinc cloth, the most important industry of this kind havin^^been founded in 1823 by M.ackintosh at Glasgow. Rubber overshoes, made by the natives of pure gum, wore imported from Pari in 1S25, and formed an important ar- ticle of commerce till the increased price of the gum made it necessary to limit its use to a minimum in the manufac- ture of the cloth overshoes covered with rubber much di- luted with litharge, whiting, etc., and vulcanized with sul- phur which are now in use. In 1826, Rattier and Gmbal introduced machinery for cutting threads of rubber for the manufacture of elastic fabrics, which have since been exten- sivclv produced. The most important invention in regard to rubber was made bv Charles Goodyear of Massachusetts in 1><:'.9, and patented" June 15, ISM. It consisted in mix- ing with the rubber a small quantity of sulphur, fashioning the articles from the plastic material, and curimj or ndcnn- izimi the mixture by exposure to a temperature of 205° to 270° F. The product, known as vulcanized rubber, pos- sessed all the desirable properties of rubber with none of its objectionable qualities, and soon found a thousand im- portant applications. The next great step in the rubber inrlustry was the invention of hard rubber or vulcanite. The invention is claimed for Kelson Goodyear, but the writer, after the most careful investigation of the subject, believes that the real inventor of flexible " whalebone " rubber was Austin G. Day of Connecticut. Nelson Good- year's caveat, filed Dec. 31, 1819. and his patent, granted May 6. 1851, are for a hard, stifl", inflexible compound, which he says is best obtained by heating a mixture of rubber, sulphur, magnesia, etc. Day patented .Aug. 10, 1S58, a mixture of 2 parts of rubber and 1 of sulphur, 275° to 300° F., which he describes as flexible though his representatives have succeeded in monopolizing Day's invention under the plea that it was covered by Goodyear's patent. (See Am. Cliemht, ii. 329.) Doinny. — Caoutchouc is produced by numerous trees and shrubs of the families Euphorbiaccoe, Urticacea:, Arto- carpacea;, Asclepiadcic, and (inchonacea;. The best rub- ber, which is brought from Para, South America, is ob- tained from the Hiphonia diislica of Persoon, Siphoiiia Cachiichii of Rich, JtUropha clantica of Linnaius, and Hevea Gmnnensis of Aublet. Six or seven other species ofSiphonia furnish caoutchouc in Central and South .\meriea. In In- dia the most abundant rubber tree is the /'I'ciM c?a«(i'ca. It occurs on tiie coast of Coromandel, and is abundant over more than 10,000 square miles in Assam: grows solitary or in twofold or threefold groups. The main trunk of one measured 71 feet in eircumfercnce, while the girth of the main trunk with the supjiorts immediately around it was 120 feet. The area covered by the expanded branches was 610 square feet, and the height of the central tree was 100 feet. It was computed that 43,310 of these trees grew wilhin a length of 30 miles and a breadth of S miles in the forest near Forozepoor, in the district of Chardwar, in Assam. The same tree was said to be equally abundant in the dis- trict of Naudwar. The geographical range in Assam seemed to be between 25° 10' and 27° 20' N. lat., and 90° 40' and 95° 30' E. Ion. It grows on the slopes of hills up to an elevation of probably 2250 feet. The I'rccnla elatlica abounds in the islands oi' the Indian Archipelago, at Su- matra and Pcnang: produces the ginlawau of the Malays. It is described as a creeper of growth so rapid that in five years it extends 200 feet, and is from 20 to 30 inches in "girth ; can yield by tapping, without being injured. 50 to 60 pounds of caoutchouc in one season. The families of plants yielding caoutchouc thrive in tropical parts of the world where high tem])eraturo is combined with moisture. The belt of land around the globe 500 miles N. and 500 miles S. of the equator abounds in trees producing the gum of India rubber. "We find, accordingly, that caoutchouc is imported from Para and other places in South America, from Central America, India, Singapore, Vera Cruz. Sierra Leone, Java, Sumatra, and Pcnang. The caoutchouc of Para. South America, is produced by Sipliaiiia elaalica ; Central America. Siphoin'n caontchouc, Castlfleja elastica ; Penang, Urceola elastica; Sumatra, I'rcrnhi cloHlica; Java, a species of Ficua ; continent of India, Ficua elaalica; Sierra Leone, a species of Siphraiia. The industrial de- mands for India rubber are so important that experiments have been made in Brazil with a view to cultivate the trees, as the cinchonas have been grown in the Himalaya. Caout- chouc occurs in opium to the extent of 4 or 5 per cent. : also in the juice of the milkweed (Aaclepiaa), which grows abundantly in the T'. S. and Canada. Efforts have been made to extract it from milkweed, and it is said that a company has been recently organized for this purpose in Canada. Sources of Supply.— Most of the rubber of commerce is derived from South America, from Par.'i, Central America, Mexico. Carthagena, etc. ; smaller quantities from Java, Pe- nang. Singapore, Assam, and Natal. VoUectiiuj the Cilice.— The juice is obtained by tapping, that drawn from old trees in the cold season being pre- ferred, and the flow being greater the higher the incisions are made in the tree. AVhen the bleeding is confined to the cold months, and not repeated too often, the trees do not appear to suffer in consequence. Propertiea and Cumpoaition of the Juice. — Caoutchouc juice or sap has been imported from time to time into England in considerable quantities, but it is found more economical to prepare the crude rubber where the juice is collected. It resembles ordinary cow's milk in color and consistence. Its sp. gr. varies from 1.012 to 1.041. Sev- eral circumstances may conduce to give the commercial juice a gravish-brown, milky-gray, or pale-yellow color, but the pure" juice, as it issues from the tree, is white. Dr. Adriani, who made some valuable (Chem. Neioa. ii. 277, 289) experiments upon the fresh juice of the Ficua elaalica, apped bv himself, says that as the general result of bis tapj.^.. --. ---, — ., - experiments the quantity of solid matter contained in the niilkv juice decreases according to its being collected from incisions made in the higher and consequently younger parts of the plant. The tree which yielded the juice for his experiments was a young plant 2.25 metres in height. Per cent. 25.15 24.05 20.98 17.70 Height ut which ToUl cvaportttod. il was talccn. residue. OMiX cnns. 0.30 metres. 0.04(5 grms 0.?.9.'» 1.74 " 0.09.5 " 0.M3 •' 2.10 " 0.030 " 0.S2.'i " Top. 0.145 " heated to *J7j" to .^uu" r., wuicn ne acscnutrs as ihjajmi^ i • . , , , ..i i, lu - .:„-s ;» ti,^ and ehastie. This produc , correctly described by Day, is \ These figures prove, as stated above, that the J •>« " 'he Urn vurcantte or ha?d rubber whieh"is so extensively man- ' older parts of the ,,lant does contain more ™l'd matt" factuVed for combs, pen-holders, jewelrv. etc. lioodycar's than that in the younger parts O'd trees, then, furnish bUtle compound hv.s never been an arUcle of commerce. ' the richest juice, and Mr. Grifliths states that the juice of INDIA RUBBER. 11G5 the reflex roots, which lie exposed, is richer in gum than I cream. This is removed, diffused through a fresli quanl.ly any 'vhiel. is ubscquen.lv druwn ofT. If the juice be left ' of water, and again left to rise to the .urfaee By repca - arrest for a few hours, the globules of the gum rise to the I ing this operation til the wash-water .8 perleetly lMn,.ul, surface and float like cream on milk. Heat and agitation the caoutchouc may be obta.ned very nearly pure. It i also cause the juice to coagulate. statements concerning the action of alcohol, .\ilriani affirm- atcs that in There is a conflict in the j then to be spread upon a plate of unglazed earthenware to absorb the water, and afterwards pressed. 'llic crude rubber of commerce presents difl'ercnt shapes ami structure according to the method and care employed in its preparation. The purest from Pari is much mure valuable than that from other localities. It appears in lar^e bottles and thick plates, often entirely free from im- purities, and very light colored within. The Carthagcna lent. ing that it produces coagulation, while Ire slates that two samples of juice containing, respectively, 20 per een and :i" per cent, of solid caoutchouc, alcohol of 0.82:') s gr. afforded no appearance of coagulum when mixed with them in any proportion. The juice of the Ocjnca, and possiblv tha't of other plants, produces coagulation of the ; , , •,- , „ •,■ ,nn „ „„^c caoutchouc juice. The"^ emulsive juice mixes readily with ] gum comes in very large lumps, often weighing ^OOfoanAs, . .■'. , ,: :_:. ,1 1, ;. ,i„„i. ,„>t i^n. ! and evidently formed by pressing thin sheets together. It water, alcohol, and pvroxylic spirit, though it does not be- come at all clearer; it will not mix with eaoutebine. naph- tha, nor, indeed, with any of the usual solvents of solid caoutchouc, but remains a"t the bottom of these liquids as distinct as mercury does under water. When caoutchouc has once been coagulated it is not possible to bring it back a<;ain to the emulsive state. Ammonia prevents coagula- tion, and was used for this purpose in the importation of I black within as well as without. The East Indian gum appears as a conglomerate of light and dark reddish- brown masses, often mixed with much wood, bark, leaves, gravel, etc. Crude impure rubber often undergoes a very injurious change, especially when exposed to the direct rays of the sun. It softens, becomes smeary and semi- fluid like tar. African gum is said to be more liable to inuid caoutchouc prior to Isoi The following physical i suffer in this way than any other In the interior of many 17 . . , '....,..._. • - .~! r , A.^1,.; ,^f tUn hnll« wl»n>b comc from Hrazil and the jiast liniies and chemical properties of the juice are taken from Adri- ani's paper: Under the microscope caoutchouc juice is seen to consist of a clear liquid wherein float a largo num- ber of spherical globules. These globules strongly refract light, and present, consequently, black circumferences by transmitted light, while they reflect the light with a white color. The diameter of the globules varies from ^iJuu to 5X5 of an inch, averaging about yulisij. The reaction of the iuico is slightly acid. The addition of water produces no change. Alcohol does not change the appearance of the globules? but causes the formation of groups of needle- shaped crystals. Ether causes the globules to adhere to- gether and form an amorphous mass, and also develops crystals, which appear to be a magnesian salt of a pe- culiar organic acid. The following analyses have been published: Juiee of Ficus claatica (Adriani). Water f'aoiitchouc R sin, soluble in alcohol, but not in ether Magnesia, combined with peculiar organic acid A lubstance soluble in water and alcohol, but not in ether An organic substance, soluble in water, takes a yellow tinae with alkalies (dextrine), and traces of salts of hme and soda i_ 82.30 1.58 4.49 0.36 ^Hi'ce 0/ Siphonia cachachu {^Faraday). Water, acid, etc ^-^ ('aoutehouc 31.70 Siibitauccs soluljle in water, not in alcohol 2.90 Albuminous precipitate l.JO Peculiar bitter coloring-matter, a highly azotized body I ^ jj Wai > L- 100.00 Dr. Urc found in two specimens 20 per cent, and .37 per cent., respectively, of caoutchouc. Alcohol of 0.825 sp. gr. failed to afford any appearance of coagulum when mixed in any proportion ; whence he infers, contrary to the con- clusions of Faraday, that albumen is not a necessary con- stituent of the juice. A. (Jirard (Cniiipl. rend., 07, 523) dis- covered a crvstalli'/alilo saccharine substance, damhanUe (CjIIs'Ja). in the white liquid found in the interior of tho loaves of caoutchouc from fi.aboon on tho W. coast of Africa. Later, he noticed another saccharine substance, hnn<i;it<: (r,Il;Oo). {Cnmpl. rend.. 7:!, 420.) Both these bodies may be sublimed without decomposition. Prepiiritllon of llic Crude Cnnnlchoiic. — The juice is dried over a fire, when it becomes blackened by smoke, or in tho sun. iThen it is very light-colored, on moulds of clay, pad- dbs, or (formerly) on lasts imported from tho U. S. for ov.'rshoes. According to Mr. Edwards, the last, on the end of a stick, was dipped into tho milk, and immediately held over the smoke to dry; it was then redipped, and tho pr (cess repeatoil till the shoo was of sufhcieiit thickness. When clay moulds arc used, tlwy are subspqucnlly bri>kcn and shaken out of the rubber bottles pro luccd upon them. The juice is sometimes evaporated by solar heat, a pellicle of rubber forming on the surface, and being renewed as fast as it is removed until all the rubber is removed. Those sheets are rolled into balls and combined into masses. In Nicaragua the juice is coagulated by an application of tho juice of tho bojuca vine. Tho coagulatcil mass is pressed in'o cakes by hand, and rolled out into a sheet on a hoard with a wooden roller. These .sheets are called lorlillas; they arc about 2 feet in diameter and 2 inches thick. Fara- nends for the i>urification of eaoiitchouc to dilute of the balls which come from Brazil and the East Indies spots are often found of a viscid, tarry matter, which when exposed to the air seems to act like a ferment and decom- poses the whole m:vss into a viscid, sticky, .semi-fluid sub- stance which is good for nothing. Plii/aieiii Prnperlies of Caoutchouc. — Pure caoutchouc freshiy prepared is colorless and translucent. The dark color which it generally exhibits is attributed to soot and to aloctic and other impurities, and to tho action of sunlight and oxygen. It is a bad conductor of beat and a non-conductor of electricity. It develops electricity by friction. Its specific gravity varies from 0.'J20 to 0.902. "Its texture is not fibrous, but under the microscope it is seen to contain pores, irregularly rounded and very numer- ous, which communicate with each other, and become dis- tended by capillary attraction in those liquids in which caoutchouc is not soluble. Thin sections of different qual- ities of gum, immersed iu water during thirty days, ab- sorbed from 18.7 to 2G.t per cent. Their volumes were in- creased from yjjj to jJS^, and their tenacity aud adhesive- ness wore impaired. It takes a very long time to eliminate water from thick masses of gum, since the exterior pores contract in drying, and thus retard the desiccation of tho interior. Anhydrous alcohol, especially when warm, easily penetrates thin sections of caoutchouc. Immersed during eight days and warmed at intervals, the sections become opaque lind more adhesive, even in the midst of the liquid ; their volume was increased 9.4 per cent., and the weight 13 per cent., although the alcohol had dissolved ^^jj of an oily, yellowish, fatty matter. After evaporation of the ab- sorbed alcohol, the caoutchouc was less tenacious, more translucent and adhesive than before treatment." (Poi/ni.) Freshly-cut surfaces adhere easily and firmly when pressed together — a property which is made available in forming tubes and vessels out of sheet caoutchouc. By cold or long quiescence it becomes hard and stiff, but not brittle. It is capable of condensation under compression. A cube of 2J inches was compressed ^ under a pressure of 200 tons. It is perfectly elastic, becoming turbid and fibrous when strongly stretched. Gerald observed that fibres which may be extended to six times their length, might again be ex- tended six times after exposure to a temperature of 212° F., and that the original length could thus be extended from 1 to llir)25. The diameter being of course at the same time diminished, fibres of remarkable fineness arc obtained m this way. Rubber mav bo temporarily deprived of its elas- ticity. If a strip be forcibly stretched, and while in this condition be quicklv cooled, it will lose its clnslicity, and may be left for an indefinite time without regaining it. A siinplo way of cooling the strip is to wet it and evaporate the water by vibrating it rapidly in the air. In the above condition tlic caoutchouc resembles frozen rubber, though it is not quite so rigid as it might be in such a state. It somi regains its clnslieily on being subjected to an atmosphire of "0° F.. or even much below this; but rubber deprived of its latent bent by compression has been kept several weeks in an atmosphere of 80° F. without returning to its normal condition. If the heat be raised much above Ml". or if the rubber be placed in contact with a good conduct. .r at S0°, it grailually recovers its latent heal, and in a few minutes is restored to ils original dimensions. If succes- sive portions of the inelastic strip be pinched between Iho fingers, it conlrnets powerfully in these parts, leaving the others unaff<clerl, thereby preserving the nppeararce of a string of knots or beads, which may be preserved in this slate fnr any length of time if not handled and if kept at a thJ natural juic" with four times its weight of water, and ' moderate temperature. The junctions of the different por- leave it at rest for tw.nty-four hours. The caontchouo 1 tions continue abrupt and well defined, showing that there then separates and rises to tho surface in tho form of a 1 is no tendency to distribution or equilibrium of the latent 11G6 INDIA KUBBEK. beat. When the inelustic strip is enclosed in the hand a slight degree t>f coolness i? felt from the rapid absorption of heat. The above peculiarity is slated to belong to the native gum, and to be hardly perceptible in the rubber pre- pared in either of the following methods: (I) solution in turpentine and subsequent drying. :uid (2) merely grind- ing the crude material to a pasty mass and reducing to thin sheets between heated rollers. Another nietho<l of rendering caoutchouc inelastic was employed in IS 10 in the man ufacrt lire of "clastic tissues," to jircparc the threads for receiving a sheath upon the braiding-machine. The threads were stretched by hand, in the act of winding upon the reel, to seven or eight times their natural length, and left (wo or three weeks in a state of tension. The elasticity in this case also may be restored by warming tlie rubber — rubbing it between the palms of tlic liaTuls. for instance. Considerable heat is developed in the sudden extension of caoutchouc. Mr. Brockedon states that ho raised the tem- perature of an ounce of water two degrees in fifteen min- utes, by collecting the heat evolved by the extension of caoutchouc thread. { FlfnnNt,m.) An apparent pai-mhu- lias been announced in the fact that India rubber, when stretched and exposed to the heat, contracts instead of expanding — a fact very contrary to common experience as the result of the application of heat. This is explained, however, by tlie fact tliat the rubber is very porous and filled with air-cells, which, when the rubber is stretched, assume an elongated shape. AVhen heat is applied it of course expands the rub- ber to a certain degree, but at the same time it expands the air-cells, which, liy shortening their longitudinal axes, pro- duces a virtual cimtraction of the rubber. Elfect of Heat on Caoutchouc. — " Below 0° C. it becomes hard and rigid. When heated it gradually softens, and at 120*^ C. (21^° F.) begins to melt; when it is fused it re- mains greasy and semi-fluid after cooling, but if exposed to the air in thin layers gradually dries up and recovers its original properties, provided it has not been heated much ab'.ive its melting-point. If, however, it be heated to 200° C. (:VJS° F.). it begins to fume, and is converted into a viscid mass which no longer dries up. If mixed in this state with half its weight of lime slaked to powder, it forms a tena- cious non-drying cement, which serves admirably for at- taching glass jdates to vessels with ground lips, such as aro used for preserving anatomical preparations, as it forms an air-tight but cnsily-loosened joint; if a drying cement be required, a quantity of red lead may be added equal in weight to the lime." { \\'aftf>.) By destructive distillation caoutchouc yields an empyreumatic oil called oil of eaout- cAoKc, which is a mixture of a considerable number of h}'- drocarbons. The following compounds have been recog- nized by Bouchardat, Himly, and G. AVilliams : CoTn[>nsUioa. Sp. gr. Boiling- point. Tetrylene C^U^ 0.G30 32° F. Caoutchenc C4H8 0.650 58° F. Faradavin 0.654 91° F. Isoprenc C5H- 0.6S2 100° F. Cauutehin t^'ioHie 0.842 352° F. Hoveene t'nHo^ 0.921 599° F. Creosote, resin, etc. From impure gum small quantities of carbon dioxide, car- bon monoxide, water, and ammonia are also produced. The residue left in the retort forms, when dissolved in oil, a var- nish impervious to moisture and very elastic. Exposed at once to a reel heat, caoutchouc yields .10.000 cubic feet of extremely rich gas to the ton, which is free from ammonia and sulphur compounds. Ignited in contact with the air, it burns with a sooty flame. F^\:rt 4,/ Water on Caoutchouc, — Water, whether hot or cold, has no solvent action upon it, but by long boiling in this liquid it swells to some extent, in which state it is af- fected by some solvents with greater facility than in its ordinary condition. Exposed to the air, the caoutchouc resumes after a timo its original form, though the desicca- tion proceeds very slowly. The absorption of water by thin sheets has been already alluded to. W. A. Miller no- ticed that when a sheet of the best masticated rubber was exposed in water, open to the air, to diffused light, it finally absorbed 87 per cent, of water, becoming white, opaque, slimy, and sticky. In this condition water could be squeezed out of it. In sea-water, under like conditions, it absorbed only per cent. Si*fubifit}/ uf Caoutchouc. — In alcohol it swells and soft- ens, but docs not dissolve. Alcohol precipitates it from its solutions. It .sometimes extracts a fatty, fusible yellow matter, which is probably an oxidation product. Ether, freed from alcohol by washing with water, dissolves caout- chouc in moderate quantity, leaving it on evaporation with its original properties, except that it adheres firmly like a sheet newly cut. "No solvent appears to make a complete solutir)n of caoutchouc, but a mixture formed by the interposition of the dissolved portion between the pores of the insoluble substance, which is considerably swelled up, and has thus become easy to disintegrate. By employ- ing a sufficient quantity of these .solvents, renewed from timo to time, without agitation, so as not tu break the tume- fied portion, the caoutchouc may be completely separated into two parts — viz. a substance perfectly soluble, ductile, and adhering strongly to the surface of bodies to which it is. ap- plied; and anothorsubstance, elastic, tenacious, and sparing- ly soluble. The proportions of these two principles vary with the quantity of the caoutchouc and the nature of thcsolvent employed. Anhydrous ether extract? from amber-colored caoutchoucCil percent, of white soluble matter: oil of turpen- tine separates from common caoutchouc -10 per cent, of sol- uble matter having a yellow color." ( M'atts.) Chloroform, oil of caoutchouc, oil of turpentine, oil of lavender, and many other essential oils aro solvents for caoutchouc. A mixture of 1 part of caoutchouc with 1 1 of oil uf turpentine, worked up to a thin paste, to which is then added i part of allot concentrated .solution of sulphide of jtotassium (K2S5), leaves the caoutchouc on evaporation perfectly clastic and without viscosity. Bisulphide of carbon is one of the best solvents, particularly when mixed with fi to 8 per cent, of absolute alcohol. ''If the alcohol be mixed with a little water, a dough is obtained, from which the caoutchouc may be drawn out into threads and spun. By Gerard's process gutta ]>ercha is also soluble in the above mixtures of sul- phurct of carbon and alcohol." ( Urc.) Considerable dis- crepancy exists among writers with regard to the solubility I of caoutchouc in the fixed oils, especially in linseed oil. According to Booth, linseed oil has no efifect. J. Sjiiller exposed virgin, unmanufaeturcd rubber for nine months to the action of boiled and of imboilcd linseed oil. *' It re- sisted the action of the solvents," he says, "almost per- fectly retaining its toughness, except in tliosc parts which were al)0ve the surface of the liquid and exposed to light. A'irgin rubber, masticated and treated in the same way, was in each case greatly swollen and gelatinized, and, in- deed, in the case of the unboiled oil, was completely dis- solved." Perfectly dissolved by boiling linseed oil. {Hcun- ler,) Linseed oil dissolves caoutchouc, forming a varnish which, according to Ure and Parnell, has not the property of depositing the gum on exposure to the air. Vnrrcntrapp. in the Ilaudirortetbuch, says linseed oil behaves like other fatty oils, which take up a little caoutchouc when healed. He also remarks that different varieties of gum behave very differently with regard to solvents, some being with difli- culty soluble even in bisulphide of carbon. He attributes this difference to the presence of more or less water. Coal tar naphtha, benzol, coal and shale oil naphthas, and petro- leum naphtha arc all solvents for caoutchouc. The naphtha solution or varnish was used in pre])aring the waterproof cloth of Mackintosh, being placed between two thicknesses of the cloth. A mixture of 60 parts of benzol and 70 parts of rectified turpentine has been recently recommended as a solvent for 2(> parts of caoutchouc. The crude gum must first be boiled in water to remove dirt, etc., cut underwater into sheets about one-third of an inch thick, rolled out into thin strips, and thoroughly dried in a heated room. The mixture of gum, etc. must be passed through a mill. The benzol and turpentine must be free from fat. Action of Hraffiiitft on Cftoiitrhouc. — .■\cids and alkalies have no effect on it when dilute, and little when concen- trated imless heated. Sulphuric acid carbonizes it slightly on the surface when cold, but entirely decomposes it when hot, with the formation of carbonic and sulphurous acids. Strong nitric acid decomposes it, especially when heated, forming carbonic and oxalic acids, and evolving nitric oxide. The strongest potash lye dors not attack it at a boiling heat. (lasos, such as chlorine, sulphurous acid, and fluo-siiicic acid, have no action upon it, but nitrous acid vapor readily attacks it. Ammonia, after a eont.act pro- longed several months, seems to exert the curious influ- ence of bringing it back to the state of an emulsion, in which form it may be used as a varnish, as it recovers its peculiar qualities on drying. Thoroughly kneaded with sulphur and exposed to hcnt for several hours, it is con- verted into vufcanizcd rubber, which, with less than 1 of sulphur to l of gum, is soft and pliable ; with half its weight of sulphur, after c.xi)Osure to a temperature above 2S0° F., it is hard and flexible, like whalebone — vufennite, W. A. Miller has shown {J, Loud. Chcni. Soc, ISfio, p. 273), in an investigation on the Decay o/Gutta Pcreha and Caoutchouc, that caoutchouc is liable to deterioration by exposure to the action of oxygen in the presence of solar light, but the gum is less rapidly injured by their influence when in the native state than when it has been previously masticated. When subjected to the action of air, excluded from light, it docs not experience any marked change, even during very long periods. It is, however, important to ob- serve that the masticated rubber is much more porous than (he unmanufaeturcd caoutchouc. A sample of the best Pari rubber after nine months' exposure had gained 2.S INDIA RUBBER. Iti7 per cent., had become brown and sttckj, and yielded to al- cohol 1 1. SI per cent, ol' a resin containing C. 6'.2'i, II. y.d4, 0. 2.^.23. CJtemind Compotitidn of Caoutchouc. — According to the experiments of Ore {Fhit. Traim., 1S22), confirineil by those of Famday {Quart. Journal of Sc.^ Lit., and Art^ .xi. IK), caoutchouc is composed wholly of carbon and hydrogen, containing S7.5 per cent, of carbon and 12. j bydro;;en. It is not, however, a simple proximate principle, but chielly a mixture of two substances, one much more sulublo in ether, benzole, and other liquids than the other. The following analyses have been published (Ure's Phil. Trajm.^ 1822; Faraday "f Q. .J. Sci., 1826, xxi. 19; G. Williams's J. Chem. Sue, XV. \2.',): TjT6. Carbon 90. Hvdrogen 9.12 Oxygen 0.88 Nilrosen „ Loss „... Ash Faradaj. S7.2 i; ^O.lViUlams.-, Browa. VeUow. SG.l 12.S 100.0 l 0.7 0.9 100.0 S7.2 12.8 lOO.O 100.00 The following are the results of W. A. Miller's analyses of pure manufactured ParA rubber, compared with a sample of good sheet masticated or manufactured rubber (J. Chem. Soc, 1865, iii. 273): VlrglD. Pure caoutchouc 96.(50 Ucsin 1.80 MoUture 1.30 Ash ^0.30 iooloo Deducting moisture and ash, the elementary composition gave — virgin. Carbon 8.5.S2 Hydrogen 11.11 Oxygen 3.07 100.00 Masticated. 9G.i;4 2.06 0.82 _0^ loo.nb Uastlcated. 85.53 12.06 2.41 100.00 Fig, Adrian! {Chem. A'cict, ii., 1860, 314) found the following composition for a sample of caoutchouc which had brcii dried for months over sulphuric acid. The specimen was in part readily reduced to powder, and cuutaincd C. 87. 2j, H. 10.34, 0. 11.40; total, 99.99. This sample also con- tained nitrogen, but its quantity was not deterniine.i. Several chemists report the presence of nitrogen in com- mercial caoutchouc. Adriani found that a sample of the above caoutchouc, after having been confined in very dry air for some weeks, lost its most prominent physical proper- tics, and that a change set in which Payen compares with the growing rancid of fats and oils. " Perhaps," Adriani says, '• the decom])OsitioM starts from that eonslituent por- tion which contains nitrogen, although this element is present in only minute quantity." Caoutchouc luanu/acturca have of late years acquired enormous importance, and are found in every department of the industrial arts. The caoutchouc is used (1) in blooUs, cakes, sheets, etc. ; (2) in tapes or threads in woven fabrics for the production of elastic tissues: (3) as a var- nish between two surfaces of cloth or on one surface, for the production of waterproof fabrics: (4) in solution alone or combined with other substances as a cement ; (5) com- bined with a small quantity of sulphur and mixed with other substances, as tio/t vulcanized rubbet; lor the manu- facture of overshoes, boots, gloves, waterproof clolhing, and other goods, life-preservers, gas-bags, steam and water packing, belting, tire-hose, tubing, springs, artificial sponge, etc. ; (6) combined with a larger prujjortion of sulpliur. and cured at .a higher temperature, as hard vulcanized rubber, or vulcanite, lor the mauutacture of combs, pen and pencil holders, rulers, inkstands, buttons, canes, syringes, jewelry, and colored with vermilion for mountings for artificial teeth, etc.: (7) combined with asphalts, oils, sulphur, etc., and vulcanized, as the kerite of A. G. Day, for covering telegraph wire— a most valuable substitute for gutta pcrcha for air-lines, as it is not affected by atmospheric intlueuces, which so quickly destroy the latter substance. 1. ->tieatlng rolls. Purijicalion of the Crude Gum. — The crude gum is soaked in hill water, to tvbich is frequently added ?"me soda-lev in order to .«ol'len and cleanse it. It is then masticated between most powerful rolls made of chilled iron, under streams of cold water. By this operation it is lorn into shreds and cleansed of its impurities, and finally appears as a loose mat composed of shreds. These mats are placed in drying-rooms heated by steam for several weeks, to re- move the moisture. When ready for use they are kneaded botwoen smooth rolls, which aro hollow and warmed by 1108 INDIA KUBIJKK. steam, one of which revolves much faster than the other. Ilt're the gum is thoroughly mixed and reduced to a homo- geneous mass, ready for cutting into any desired lurni, or for mixture with the materials necessary to convert it iuto soft or hard vulcanized rubber. Cutting into t/hccts is performed by a self-acting machine, in which a straight steel bhidc, kept cool witli water, vi- brates in a horizontal position. tStripn or bamis arc cut from disks by circular shears, like those used in paper- works. Thi'cudft of India rnbher for %?caviug into elastic fabrics are cither natural or vulcanized ; they are cut from ribbons or bands by circular cutting edges. "They are stretfht'd. and kept extended till nciirly deprived of their cbisticity, and till they furm a thread of moderate tiueness. Tliis thread is pnt into a braid-machine and covered with a sheath of cotton, silk, linen, or worsted. The clothed caoutchouc is then laid as warp in a loom and woven into an elegant ribbon. AVhen woven, it is exposed upon a table to the action of a hot smoothing-iron, which restoring to the caoutchouc oil its primitive elasticity, the ribbon re- tracts considerably in length, and the braiding corrugates equally upon the caoutchouc cores. Such bauds possess a remarkable elasticity, combined with any desired degree of softness. Sometimes cloth is made of these braided strands of caoutchouc^ used both as warp and as weft, which is therefore elastic in alt directions. When a light fabric is required, the strands of caoutchouc, either naked or braided, are alternated withcommon wurpyarns." ( Ure.) Hound threads are made from a mixture of India rubber and bisulphide of carbon, with a little absolute alcohol. This jiaste is put into a vertical cylinder, somewhat similar to those which are used by the vennicelH-niakcrs. The elastic matter, forced through by the piston, comes out in threads through small lioles placed in a single row, in order that they may not overlie cacli other — a precaution that is not required in the making of vermicelli. The threads arc received on an endless web of velvet in motion, and trav- erse in this way a course of V\ feet ; they are then taken up by a web of common cloth, which passes over a space ot 600 to GGO feet in about ten minutes. At the end of this journey they are sufficiently dried ; the solvent is in great measure separated : the threads then quit the web, and are received into channels or grooves, whicli conduct them into small cups disposed in seven rows, in such manner that each one has its own particular cup. When the cups are full the filament is taken out, and is left for some days ex- posed to the action ot" the air. The threads prcluced by pressure have any required thickness, and this may be made to var}' at ]tleasure. Experience has shoivn that a thickness of .0394 of an inch is preferable for regular work, Mixing but these do not suffice for all kinds of fabrics : in a great I number of cases they must be used finer. For this pur- pose annealing is resorted to. The caoutchouc, being drawn j out and exposed to a temperature of 239° F., no longer shrinks, but retains the leni^th it has acquired, and more- ; over may even be drawn out anew. By thus stretching and annealing it successively a thread of caoutchouc may be brought to a degree of fineness limited only by the dex- ■ tcrity of the workman, and may, for example, be repre- sented by a length of 'JK.-|nO feet to 2.20h pounds. The thread thus obtained is of common caoutchouc, but noth- ing is simpler tlmn to make, in the same manner, thread of vulcanized caoutchouc; for this purpose it is only ne- cessary to incorporate the caoutchouc into a paste with flowers of sulphur, and to heat to the temperature of 2GG° or 2S4°. I.ct it be noted in passing that at the tempera- ture of 239°. necessary for the annealing of the stretched thread, no vuhranization takes place, i hfmtjtratt.) Wdterprof,/ f'ttbriri are made by jdacing a varnish or paste of caoutchouc, dissolved in any of its solventSj be- tween two layers of cloth (doubh^-trxture fnhrim) or on one side of the cloth [einffU-ttxtnre fabrim). The poorest kind of rubber may be used for this purpose. An objection ex- isted to the single- texture fabrics, as the rubber surface was rolls. liable to become sticky and adhere when exposed to the sun, closely packed, or brought in contact with perspira- tion, hot surfaces, grease, etc. This was prevented by the sincalor process (nine m/orc. " without heat "), the nature of which was kept secret. It is also prevented by using vulcanized rubber, the mixture of rubber, sulphur, etc. be- ing applied to the cloth by means of calender rolls, and vulcanized afterwards. liuhhrr cenuniM^ possessing astonishing adhesive proper- ties, are made by combining solutions of caoutcliouc in naphtha or other suitable s»dvent with other materials of a resinous character. Jeffrey's marine glue is made by dis- solving 1 pound of caoutchouc in 1 gallon coal-tar naphtha, and adding 20 pounds shell-lac. The mixture is gently hoatecl till uniform, and is then pourcci nut upon platts of iron to solidify. For use it is melted at a ttmperature of about 2j0° F. It is insoluble in water, and wood joined by it breaks sooner across the fibres than at the joint. A cheaper marine glue is made by substituting asphalt for the shell-lac. A liquid marine glue is made by increasing the quantity of the solvent. Su/f rufrnnized rnoiitchoucwas invented by Charles Good year of Mnssnehusetts. In the early introduction of In- dia-rubber goods it was found that the articles were not INDIA RUBBER. 11 oy only liable to serious injury from various causes, but they were often fouud to <ielcriorate and become almu.st useless after a few years of the most careful use. The following arc some of the most serious disadvantages of the uuvul- caiiizcd gum : (Ij It becomes rigid and iullexiblc in cold weather. (2) It is softened and decompo.^ed in tlie sun and hot weather, (o) It is very soluble, and quickly dis- solved when brought iu contact with any kind of grease, ess.'utial or fatty oils, and, though more slowly, yet as eurely, cli.-<sulveU by jierspiration. (1) It is, in its native state, so very adhesive that when any two surfaces are brought in contact they become, by slight pressure, one mass that cannot be separated. (5) It loses its elasticity by continued tension or constant use. (GJ It has a very unpleasant odor. The Mackintosh goods made in England, and in which a solvent was used, were less liable tu damage and decomposition, because the gum was protected by be- ing spread between two cloths. Even iu these goods, liow- ever, the gum was found to melt and penetrate through the meshes of the cloth iu a warm climate, or when much worn by those who perspire freely, and purchasers were cautioned against approaching too near the fire with the goods. The inability to overcome these defects caused the failure of many manufacturers in Boston, South Boston, Chelsea, Woburn, anil Eramingham, Mass., and in Staten Island and Troy, X. Y. Factories had been started in these places with capitals varying from 850,000 to $500,000. In thcsummer of Isllfi, Mr. Uoodyear became acquainted with Xathauiel Ilayward, who had been em]iloycd as lore- man of the Eagle Company at Wobuin, where he had made use of sulphur by imi)regnating the solvent with it. It was through him that Mr. (joo.lycar received the first kncjw- ledge of the use of sulphur as a ilrii r of guni-elustic. Mr. Goodyear purchased the claim for combining suljihur wilh India rubber, for which a |)atent was taken out Feb. 24, 18o0. "It should be remarked," says Mr. G., "that this claim was for the use of sulphur, and not for the heating or vulcanizing j)rocess, which he subsequently discovered." Mr. G. manufactured a large lot of goods containing sul- phur, but they all decomposed iu a short time. While cx- perinienllng upon sciuiu of tlie material, after the failure of the compound, to ascertain tho effect of heat upon it, he was surprised to find that the specimen, being carelessly brought iu contact with a hot stove, charreil like leather. Ho in- ferre.l .lircctly that if the process of charring could bo stopped at the right point, it might divest the gum of its native adhesiveness Ihrougboul. Upon further trial he was convinced of the correctness of this inference by fin. ling that India rubber could not be melted in boiling sul|ihur iit any heat ever so great, but always charred. On heating one of his specimens before an open fire, ho noticed upon tho edge of tho charreil iiorlions of the fabric a line or border that was not eharreil, but perfectly cured. Ilis discovery was now estalilisheil ; it renuiined only to complete it in detail. In speaking previously of Ihc obstacles that stood in his way, Mr. Goodyear says : " No one who had any knowledge of tho nature of the gum would bo likely to apply a high degree of heat to it fnini design, when it was so well known that it would melt {il ii low lempcralure." Tho process of treating caoutchouc which .Mr. (ioodycar thus discovered is Vnr.. ri— r-i known as vulcanization. Tho product of his manufacture is known as tin/t ruhhrr. Since there are to-day other jiro- cesseg for treating caoutcltouc difl'erent from that of Charles tioodyear. and which in sonie instances yield an entirely different product, but all i>f which pass under Ihc same gen- oral designation of "vulcanization." tho latter term must ho understood as embracing thr trrulmrtii a/ caoiilrlintii: irith Komf /ontt nf Htilphur fn iji'rrt {'irtm'tt cftant/en in tin prfij}crticHj (uiil i/ifld If ifdf't or tt httrif priitUict, The folhiwing vahmble properties of tho soft vulcanized rubber are enumerated by Mr. tioodyear: (1) Kt'mfirifi/. — Improved and increased as regards strength and continu- ance, and also made available in all climates and in all cir- cumsliinci'S. {'2) I'linln'/i'li/. — Pliable in the highest degree, not being alTected or made rigid by the greatest cold. (.1) J)nraln'lifi/. — Unchanged by time, whether kept in a wet or dry slate. (1) /im^lnhili'lt/. — Not absolutely in.soluble. be- cause it can be snfteiied, and even dissolved, by pnwcrful solvents of tho gum when heated and boiled. Its power of rosistaoco to solvents and other destructive chemical agents 1170 INDIA RUBBER. is, however, truly great. In a few words, it is either im- proved or remaius uuinjured when exposed to destructive Uciits that destroy other fabrics, and even wood, leaiher, and the metals, such as iron, coiipcr, and brass. (») Vh- altemhilUii by Climate and Ailijicial i/caf.— tudurancc of artificial iica't very great ; when eompouudcd with partic- ular reference to this quality, and with a larger proportion of sulphur than is ordinarily used, it will bear a ''cat ol •iOO° F Above this chars, but does not melt. {6) Iiiadhc- 8,-,-«irs».— Entirely free from this objection, no way being vet found to unite it firmly, even when it is desired. (() '/mue.meabHUy lo Air. Gu^es, n>,d /,,V/H/rf».— Improved lor retaining water and other liquids, as it is not sottencd by thi-iu, but it cannot bo stated that it is more impervious to air and gases. (8) Plu^lidti/.—'ihc facility with which it is lormed into any shape before being heated in the oven i^ not surpassed by wax or by lead, or any other material. i9)Xan-dectnc Projieri,/.— One of the best non-conductors of electricity. (10) Odw:— Mr. Goodyear says that vul- canized India rubber is, to a very great extent, freed Irom the natural offensive odor of the native gum. Tluon/ ut' Viilcanhal!oi,.—T:he sulphur appears to com- bine directly with the rubber ; the total chaugo in jiroper- ties and insolubility in the ordinary solvents for rubber makes the theory of mere mechanical mixture untenable; while the fact tliat no appreciable quantity of sulphuretted hvdroo-en is evolved during the operation makes it improb- able that a substitution of sulphur for hydrogen ocsurs. In experiments conducted by Prof. B. PiUimao and the writer it was found that mixtures of sulphur, even when vulcanized into hard vulcanite, lost only 2 to 3 per cent, in weii'ht, of which much was moisture: in two eases the ll-jS'produeed amounted to 0.36-0.5y per cent, of the weight j of the mixture. a- . , i i The mnniifaetiire of soft vulcanite ffoods is cBected by simple mechanical means. The purified and masticated j gum is kneaded on the warm rolls with the proper proper- ^ tion of sulphur; less than one-fourth the weight of the gum, ; (ioodvear's patent states, generally o or 6 iier cent, in prac- i ti^e. " Various other substances are added to increase the | volume of the product and make the caoutchouc, which is ^ the most expensive material, go further. The following is | a mixture in common use: rubber 16, sulphur 1, whitmg 14 white lead 2i, litharge 2. Lead compounds blacken the ('oods by forming black sulphide of lead ; oxide of zinc is Sometimes used in its place. Refuse vulcanized rubber and fabrics composed of rubber and cloth are torn up on the masticating rolls and incorporated with the mass for some goods. After the mass is kneaded into a uniform mixture, it is taken from the rolls in the form of a thick sheet and rolled into smooth sheets between calender rolls. From these plastic sheets articles of any desired shape are readily formed by simple mechanical means. The mixture may also be applied on the calender rolls to one or both sides of cloth or canvas. As the mixture is in this con- dilion very adhesive, the coated cloth can be cut and fash- ioned into" overshoes, boots, fire-hose, etc., each article con- i sistin" pr.actieally of one single piece after vulcanization. The combination with the rubber of cloth or canvas gives great strength to the manufactured articles, while the rub- ber gives tbe waterproof properties. Fire-hose made of several layers of rubber-coated cotton duck was found by Prof. Henry Morton and the writer to withstand an internal water-pressure of from 375 to -13o pounds to the square inch. To prevent the decay of the canvas of this hose, Mr. John Murphy of the New York Gutta Pcrcha and Rubber Manufacturing Co. uses carbolic acid, which is simply incorporated with the rubber mixture before it is applied to the cloth. Sheets built up of successive layers of canvas and rubber are extensively employed for valves and for [lacking. The heali'mi or vuhaniz!ng is conducted in very strong horizontal cast-iron cylinders {the healert). one end of which is movable and serves as a door. The goods to be vulcanized arc loaded upon a car and run in on a railway which extends along the bottom of the healer. To prevent adhesion of the different articles, powdered soapslone (stea- tite) is freely used, the goods being often packed in boxes filled with this substance. When the heater is charged the door is securely fastened, and steam from a high-jiressure boiler let in till the desired temperature is secured. The ited extent, though, owing to the fact that the sulphuri- zation of the caoutchouc is more or less superficial, the manufactured articles arc inferior to those yulcauized by Goodyear's process; in fact, they arc sometimes almost worthless. The caoutchouc articles are simply immersed in a mixture of 10 parts of sulphide of carbon and 1 part of chloride of sulphur: they are next placed in a room heated to 70° F.. and when all the sulphide of carbon has been volatilized, the jiroccss is in so far complete that it is only requisite to boil them in a solution of 1 pound of caustic potassa to 3 gallons of water, the vulcanized caout- chouc being next washed to remove excess of alkali. Hum- phrey in 1S70 introduced the use of gasolene from petro- leum', instead of sulphide of carbon, as the former fluid dissolves chloride of sulphur readily. Other methods of rukaiihoiiun have been tried, but with little success: (1) Bv immersing the sheet caoutchouc in sulphur heated to 233° F. till it has absorbed about ,"5 of its weight, and then heating it for a short time to 302° F.^ or by immersing the caoutchouc in sulphur heated to 302 F., a'nd keefiing up that temiieraturc till the sulphuration is complete. (2) Handeoek : exposing the rubber in sheets to vapors of sulphur. (3) II. Gaultier do Claubry ( l!-GO) vul- canizes caoutchouc by the aid of bleaehing-powder and flowers of sulphur. This mixture produces chloride of sul- phur, and the caoutchouc treated by it contains some chlo- ride of calcium. (4), Gerard: by immersing articles ol caoutchouc in a solution of polysulphide of calcium or po- tassium, marking 2.5° Baumc, keeping them in it for three hours at a temi>erature of 300° F. under a pressure ol » atmospheres or 7o pounds to the square inch. The goods are finally washed with an alkaline ley of G0° B. (0) Burke : mixing the rubber with o to li per cent, of orange sulphide of antimony (kermm). and heating the articles fashioned from it to 2i0°-2S0° F. , , . Hard vulcanized caoutchouc, vulcanite, chonile, hard rub- ber, is prciiared by kneading together 10 parts of rubber and S of suliduir in the manner already described for soft rubber, rolling the pKastic mixture into sheets, rods, tubes, and other forms, and vulcanizing in a steam-tight heater. To secure a smooth, polished surface each article may be enveloped in thick tin-foil, which is stripped off after vul- canization. The articles are placed in the heater in trays filled with powdered soapstone or water. The product is very hard, .and possesses a spring-like elasticity, like that of whalebone. It may be sawed, filed, and worked in a lathe like ivory, and admits a very high polish. Its color is dark brown, nearly black. It may be colored jet black by the addition of a"little litharge, red by vermilion. A mixture of 10 parts of rubber, G of sulphur, and 12 ol ver- milion is bright red, and is mucb used. AVhcn properly made, vulcanite is not brittle: an elastic shred may be cut with a penknife from its edge. The careful regulation of the temiierature of the heater during its vulcanization is necessary to secure the best product. The following heat gives cxeellent results: 1 hour at 275° F.; 3 hours at 300°: 3 hours at 30.1°. Vulcanite differs from soft rubber in the proportion of sulphur used, in the high heats used in curing it, and in its hardness. The turnings and bor- ings of vulcanite are reduced to a fine powder and pressed in^hot iron moulds for the manufacture of buttons, strips for knife-handles, etc. The vulcanite is not attacked by solvents, neither those which dissolve the pure caoutchouc nor the mineral acids and alkalies. On this account it is used in place of glass for cups for galvanic batteries. It is also especially distinguished by the largo quantity of electricity which it evolves when rubbed ; hence it makes an excellent material for the plates of electrical machines. It will be impossible to enumerate the various applica- tions of this material; some of them have been already mentioned. An important application is for the manufac- ture of emery-wheels and hones for sharpening scythes, sickles, etc. For this purpose it is mixed before vulcaniz- ing with emery or quartz. The following proportions give excellent results: rubber, 11 parts; sulphur, 5 parts; em- ery, 100 parts. , , , . Nelson Goodyear is generally considered to have been the discoverer of flexible vulcanite, and was claimed to be such by Henry E. Goodyear, the administrator of his estiite. No one will dispu'io his claim to the discovery of hard rubber, but the writer and others who have carelully of the case believe that Austin (.. temperature employed and the time of exposure vary some- , cxamiiied the history.. ---,--„„;,:,,,„ „,,i,,„nUe which what according to he character of the articles: 5 hours at Day of Connee, cut invented the A?^''' ''J"' ""'/^rJ'i'^J ■- ■ is the only kind that ever possessed any practical value or commercial importance. Nelson Goodyear's original pat- ent was granted May 0, 1S51. In this he says : •■ I he na- ture of my invention consists in so compounding caout- choue with other substances that the composition thus formed, when subjected to the heating or curing process described in the patent of Charles Goodyear, dato^d Juno 16, 1844, and in the reissue of said patent, dated Dec. 25, 210° F. is stated to be the temperature employed for fire- hose. The following 4i-hour "heat" is used in some of the factories where smaller articles are made : 1 hour at 255° F. : 1 hour at 260° ; 1 hour at 265° : 1 hour at 270° : J hour at 275°. The temperature should never exceed 230° F. Parket'a cold vulcanizing proeem was patented by Alex- ander Parkes of Birmingham, and has been used to a lim- INDIBILIS— INDICOPLELSTKS. 1171 1849, will form a bard, stiff substance hitherto unknown ,cte. The indispcnsal)le ingredients used in my coui- position are caoutchouc and sulphur : and when only these two ingredients are used, the best proportions will be about equal parts bv wci'.'ht of each of them ; indeed, a much less proportion of sulpliur will not suHiee. But though the combination of so largo a proportion of sulphur with the caoutchouc will produce, when cured, a hard substance, a still better result will be obtained by the introduction of magnesia, lime, carbonate of magnesia or lime, or sulphate of mainesia or lime, into the composition, in which case the fo'Tbnving pr"i>ortion will be found a highly .advan- tageous one— uamclv, 1 pound of caoutchouc, J pound of EuTphur. and i pounil of magnesia or lime, or carbonate of nui'niesia or lime, or sulphate of magnesia or lime . . . , etc. The compound must be subjected to the heating or curiu" process already mentioned as patented by Charles Goodyear, and to which reference is hereby made for a par- ticula'r description thereof: in most cases the heat will be required to be raised as high as 260° or 275" F., and the time of exposure to the heat will range from three to six hours or even longer . . . , etc. What I do claim as my invention, and desire to secure by letters patent, is the com- bining of India rubber and sulphur, either with or without shell-Tae. for making a hard and indexible substance hith- erto unknown, substanlially as herein set forth. And I also claim the combining of India rubber, sulphur, and magnesia or lime, or a carbonate or a sulphate of magnesia or of lime, either with or without shell-lac, for making a hard and inflexible substance hitherto unknown, substan- tially as herein set forth." The product of the foregoing specifications is distinctly stated to be an inflexible sub- stance. On the death of Nelson Goodyear, Henry B. Goodyear, his administrator, obtained two separate reissues of the oriiinal patent— ono for the process of manufacture, and the~othcr for the product, both hearing date of May 8, 1858. ! In both these reissues we find an entirely new property claimed for the product— viz.. theeprimj-like properly, under flrriire. fonnd in irlmlebonc. The writer has discussed this subject with the men who worked in the factory when Goodyear made his experiments, and who say that he never made '■ whalebone rubber," but simply a hard, brittle com- pound. He used a large proportion of magnesia in all bis cnmiiounds, and did not heat them above 275° F. ; both of which facts are fatal to the theory that he made whalebone rubber. His specimens were cured in a heater used for soft-rubber goods, which was run at heats from 255° to 275° F. ; a higher temperature would h.avc ruined the goods. In an elaborate series of experiments on this subject, made on a large scale by Prof. B. Silliman and the writer, it was found that a mixture of rubber Hi. sulphur 8, and mag- nesia 8 was converted into a hard, brittle compound by a temperature of 275° F., but under no conditions into whalebone rubber; while a mixture of rubber 10 and sul- phur 8 could not bo hardened at all unless heated above 275° F. This conliruis the other statements with regard to (ioodyear'a hard, brittle, and useless product. Day has never" been able to vindicate his claims to this invention iu t he courts against the powerful combination of capital which hoMs the Goodyear patents. (.«co .41/1. Clieminl, ii. 329.) IhnliU rwlcnnite. consisting of rubber l(i, sulphur 6 to 8. vermilion 12 to Iti. was mixed and sold to the dentists, who used it for plates lor mounting artificial teeth. This is ono of the most important applications of hard rubber ever made, as it greatly reduced the cost of artificial teeth. The dentist makes a mould of the mouth in plaster of Paris, sets a plate of the plastic-rubber mixture in it, arranges the porcL-lain teeth in proper position, and heats the whole in a small vulcani/.er over a gas-burner, thus converting the whole into a light plate of teeth which fits the mouth of the patient. The high charges of the patentees of this application of vulcanite drove the dentists to seek to evade the pilents. The greatest success attended the eiforls of J. B. Newl>rongh and E. Fagali of New York, who obtained patents for hardening rubber by means of iodine and bro- mine. Considerable litigation resulted, which finally ter- minatcil in a compromise. It was found that rubber could be hardene 1 by iodine .and colored with oxide of iron with- out the aid of any sulphur, but when colored with vermil- ion a certain addition of sulphur was required — less, how- ever, than the minimum of the hard-rubber patents. (See Am. Cliemini, ii. :!73.) Newbrough also sucecedeil in hard- ening rubber with a product obtained by treating oil of turpentine with oil of vitriol. Cumpanndi nf coitl-lnr, n'pfiiill. etc. with caoutchouc have been frequently tested, but they can bo used only for very inferior goods. Kirltc is a compound containing coal-tar and asphalt, with several other substances, the exact nature of which is a secret. It was invented by Austin G. Day, and is exten- sively used for covering telegraph wire. It is cheaper than gutta percha. and possesses the additional advantage of re- sisting the atmospheric influences which destroy this sub- stance. Knmptnllcon is the name that was given to a mixture ot India rubber, gutta pereha. and cork or wood sawdust. It was rolled iuto sheets, vulcanized by contact with sulphur, and used for floor-cloth. Arlifieial caonleliouc has been made from oil, chloride of sulphur, and collodion (/'nr/t-ueiic), and from the resinous body produced by the oxidation of linseed oil (Camptienn). S'talislii'H of the India rubber industry arc given in the 9th census report. The capital invested in this industry in the U. S. in 1870 was $7,4S6,G00, the number of estab- lishments SG, hands employed 6025, the value of the prod- ucts S14,566,:i74. ,. . . Literature. — Gnm-elnslic ond its Vnneties, trilli a De- tailed Account of ilv Applicalionis and Vies, and of the Dis- covery of Vulcanization by Charlcn Goodyear (New Haven, Conn., iSo.l); The Caoutchouc or India Jtnlber Monnjuc- ture in England, by Thomas Handcoek (London, 1857); The Hoot and Sho'e Manufacturer's (inide (including a his- tory of India rubber and gutta percha), by W. H. Kiehard- son (Boston, 1858) ; Nouvcan manuel complel du Fabricant d\ pa Vobjets en Caoutchouc, en Irutia percha et en Uommefactice, jarM. Paulin Desormeaux (Manuel Roret, Paris, 1855); 'Caoutchouc and Gutta Percha considered chiefly in their Chemical Relations, by T. M. Blossom (a most valuable series of papers, written largely from notes collected by the writer of this article, and extensively quoted here); Aw. Chemist, ii. 81, 137, 173, 225. 287, 329, 373. (See also Ure's Diet , Payen's Precis de Chimie Industrielle, Handle, d. Chemie, Muspratt's CTicni., especially the last German edi- (iou ) C. F. CuANDLEit. Indi'bilis, a Spanish prince of the tribe of Ilergetes, first mentioned in B. c. 218 as commanding the native aux- iliaries under llanuo, the Carthaginian governor. In 212, Indibilis led a force of 7500 men to the aid of Hasdrubal .against P. Cornelius Scipio, who was killed in b.attle. Soon afterward he came iuto conflict with the Carthaginian gov- ernor, who required the surrender of his daughters as pledges of fidelity. These hostages were captured by the younger Scipio (A"fricanus) in 210, and thehonorabletreatineut given them so impressed Indibilis that in the following year (209) he joined his forces to the Romans. In 200 they revolted from Rome, but were conquered and pardoned; again revolt- ed in the following year (205), when he was defeated and killed. In'dican. Pee Ixdigo. by Vvmv. C. F. Citasdliir, Pii. D., M. I)., LL.D. Indicoplcus'tcs (Cosm.\5). an Egyptian trader in the sixth century; in early life made extensive voyages in the East, visiting Syria, Arabia, Ethiopia, Persia, and India, carefully observing the modes of life, manners, and customs of all tlio ncoplcs with whom he opened a tralfic. and prob- ably kecp'ing a journal of his wanderings. After many years spent in this manner. Cosmas renounced the world, and, entering a monastery, devoted himself to contempla- tion and study. His store of personal knowledge of geog- raphy, whiehhad' gained him the surname of ludico-pleus- les (" the Indian navigator"), was increased by the study of Scripture and the ancient writers, until he became the oracle of Egypt upon all matters of cosmography. In his old age ho wrote in Greek a work in twelve books upon universal geography, usually cited by the Latin title. 7'.<- porjraphia Chriiliu'na sire Chrisliailorum Opinio de Mundn, of which the chief object was to combat the opinion of the astronomers that the earth is a spherical body. According to Cosmas. the shape and proportions of the earth an- shadowed forth in Scripture by the description of the Jew- ish labernaelr. It is a vast cdiloug plain enclosed by tlir ocean, the length from E. t.. W. being just twice that froin N. to S. Multitudes of proofs were adduced in support ot this oiiinion from Scripture, reason, testimony, and the au- thority of the Fathers of the Church. In the part of his work ba.sed upon personal observation. Cosmas described the countries ho had visited with consiilerablo accuracy, and inserts by way of episodes many curious pieces of in- formation, the most important of which related to an in- scribed marble throne set up by Ptolemy Euergetes (217- 222 n. r.) at .\iliilis in Nubia, near the coast ol the Ued Sea. He also preserved some fragments of ancient wiileis otherwise unknown. The book of Cosmas was written at different times, and the manuscripts vary much in com- pleteness. It was first published by Montfaucon in his Cid- lerllo A''*i'a I'atrum rt Scriptorum Grircorum. vol. ii. (Paris, 17001. and this is still the best edition. Cosmas wrote other works, commentaries on Psalms and Canticles, a treatise of Universal Cosmoijraphy, and .UdoiioMi'di/ 7Vi4/e«, no longer extant. ll; INUICTION— INDIGESTION. Indic'tion [Lat. inrficfio, "proclamation"], the name | used in clironology for a certain method of reckoning time j by periods of fifteen years. This method was occasioned hy a tax which was Icvijd in the Roman empire every tifteenth year, and the point of time from which the indictions be- | gan was Sept. 15, .•?12. lis use in reckoning time was cummcnced chiefly by ecclesiastical historians during the life of Athanasius. Later on, when the method was adopt- i ed by the popes, Jan. 1, HID, was fixed as the slartiug-point, and tliis change was called the papal indiction. During the Middle Ages reckoning by indictions was commonly used, not only by writers, but in practical life, in charters [ and public deeds. (As to the historical coinmelicement of the era of indictions, sec Gibbon's Utclinc uiid Fall.) Indict'ment [Lat. indtco, to " show "], a written accu- sation of one or more persons of an indictable offence, consisting of a felony or misdemeanor, preferred to, and i prc.=entccf upon oath by, a grand jury. (See Granu i Jiiitv, Crime.) A draught of the indictment, prepared by the attorney-general,' district attorney, or other proper officer representing the government, is laid before the grand jury when they are lawfully convened, and if twelve or more of them" are satisfied, from the ei parte evi- dence presented to them, that there is ;)ri'ma /noie reason to conclude that the alleged offender is guilty, the words " A true bill" are written upon the back of the draught, and the indictment is then said to be " found;" and upon the basis of the charges therein cont.ained the prisoner is placed on trial, at a regular session of the proper court, before a petit jury. (Sec JfRV.) When a presentment is made by the grand jurv, an indictment containing the charges pre- sented is drawn up subsequently, and upon this the party .accused is tried. (For a definition of "presentment" see (jRANn JiRY.) An indictment commences with a formal preliminary statement termed the " caption," contains next the special charge or accusation, sometimes termed technically the " statement" or the " body of the indictment," and terminates with a formal ending, called the "conclu- sion." The caption, which is, strictly speaking, in the nature of a preamble only, and no part of the indictment proper, states the name and term of the court in which the indictment was found, the names of the justices, and the fact that the grand jurv was lawfully convened, and that they were duly sworn and charged. It shows .an observ- ance of such "forms and rules of law as must be complied with before the finding of the indictment, in order that the court may aciiuirc jurisdiction in the particular instance. The " statement " or body of the indictment is a narrative of the offence charged, and must contain a full and partic- ular deseriiition of the alleged crime, and have such a de- gree of certainty ami precision in the accusation that it may he seen by" the court that the act charged, if true, woiild constitut'c a crime. The name of the prisonershnuld be stated, or if that is not known, he should be so described as to bo adequately identified. The time and place at which the ofTcneo was committed should also be alleged, though it is not generally necessary that allegations on these par- ticular points should be jiroved exactly as charged. It is, however, essential that in staling the time the offence should appear to have been committed before the finding of the in<lictment, ami within the period prescribed bylaw for the iirosceution of the particular crime alleged. Moreover, in certain classes of cases the time must be specified correctly, and any variance between the allegation and the proof will lie fatal. Thus, in the indictment for perjury, the day on which the perjury was committed must be truly staled. When murder is "charged, the death must be described as occurring within a year and a day from the time when the fatal injury is alleged to have been committed. The place namcil must be within the jurisdiction of the court. When several persons engage in the commission of an offence, they may be indicted cither jointly or separately. It is an al- lowable and frequent practice to describe the same offence in the indictment in several difi'erent ways, the successive statements being termed " counts;" the object of this is to prevent the possibility of a variance or failure of proof. liy variously modifying the terms of the accusation in this way, it is rendered more likely that some one of the counts will accurately correspond with the evidence to bo adduced, and if any count is sustained, the ])risoner may be con- victed. Whenever an indictment charges an offence created or declared by statute, it must be accurately framed in ac- cordance wilii the provisions of the statute. There are also various rules of law which must be observed to prevent the allegations of an indictment from being absurd, incon- sistent, or repugnant. Particular technical averments are sometimes necessary to be employed. Thus, in a charge of felony, the word " fVloniously " must be used ; in a case of burglary, the word " burglariously." So larceny is alleged by the words " took and carried away." Hut though there are certain formalities to be observed in framing every in- dictment, the allegation of the nature of the offence and the acts constituting it will afl"ord scope for the exercise of special discretion and professional skill. The general rule is that the indictment must charge explicitly everything that is necessary to constitute the offence; every material circumstance embraced within the definition of the alleged crime must be stated. The '•conclusion " of the indictment is a formal statement with which the law requires that it should end. The usual phraseology is. "against the peace and dignity " of the king or commonwealth. In indict- ments for a statutory offence it is customary to use also the phrase " contrary to the form of the statute in such case made and provided." Since in the U. S. crimes arc gen- erally defined by statute, this mode of concluding the in- dictment is commonly employed. The mode of framing the body of the indictment is also sometimes modified by statu- tory" provisions. Only the common-law rules upon the sub- ject have been here stated. At common law. the defendant was not, in eases of treason and felony, entitled to a copy of the indictment. In prose- cutions fo"r high treason the rule was changed in England by statute, and it was provided that a copy should be given to him ten days before the trial. But in other cases of felony the rule remained unaltered. The court at the time of the ar- raignment would order the indictment to be read over slowly to the prisoner, but would grant no further privilege in this respect. This harsh rule has been abolished in several of the States of the Union by statute. Thus, in New York every person indicted for any offence, who shall have been arrested or held to bail, "shall on demand, and on paying the fees allowed by law therefor, be entitled to a copy of the indictment and" of all indorsements thereon." Similar statutes have been enacted in New Hampshire, 'Vermont, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Georgia, Texas, and a few other States. Gkorge Chase. Revised bv T. W. Dwight. Indies, East. See India, Ixdo-China, and Eastern ARCnU'ELACO. Indies, West. Sec Antili.i:s. and West Indies. Indiges'tion, or Dyspepsia [Gr. SiJs, "bad," and i TTfTTTu, to " digest "]. Indigestion has many forms, and in- I eludes groups of symptoms indicative of departure from one or many of the conditions of healthy digestion. The i digestive process is complex, and is performed by the agency of the saliva, the g.astric juice, and the intestinal, pancreatic, and biliary secretions. For the proper secre- tion of these several digestive fluids the blood must be in a I healthy state, and be freely supplied to the glandular struc- i lure of the stomach and intestines. The innervation es- sential to the digeflive process demands moderation of j mental activity, emolion.al tranquillity, vigor and healthful I action of the liervous centres, especially of the sympathetic system. Tonicity of the muscular walls of the stomach and intestine is essential for the thorough contact and ad- mixture of food with the digestive fluids, for its transit through the intestinal tract, and for the regular evacualion i from the bowels of undigested and excretory mailer. In- digestion may be gastric or inteslinal — often the two com- bined. It i.s either primary — an essential disorder of Iho I digestive ap])aratus — or secondary and symptomatic of disease in other organs. Obstruction of the circulation of the blood by chronic disease of a large vascular organ— as, the liver, spleen, or kidney — induces ]iassive congestion of the mucous surfaces. Heart disease, rapidity of circula- tion, and elevation of temperature in fevers and febrile dis- orders cause gastro-intestinal engorgement, catarrh, and in- digestion. When bile is imperfectly eliminated, when urea is imperfectly excreted by the kidneys, when fa-ca! matter is retained and absorbed", the efl'cic elements circulating in I the blood excite gastric or intestinal or gastrointestinal ca- tarrh. Primary or idiopathic indigestion includes all oases in which careful investigation has failed to discover a de- pendency on other disease. It may be a simple functional I disorder of digestion, or due to an organic cause in some part of the digestive tract. Functional dyspepsia is termed atonic. Organic dyspepsia, if mild and due to temporary and slight lesions of the secretory surface, is termed irritative ; if severe, it is designated chronic gastritis, a condition which by as- sociated symptoms and physical exploration may be found to depend upon ulcer, cancer, or inflammatory thickening. Atonic dyspepsia may be due to defective innervation — from continuous and exhaustive mental action ; from emo- tional disturbances, as excitement, sorrow, fear: from pro- longed exercise and fatigue; from dissipation. It may bo caused by deficient supjily and quality of the blood, inac- tive circulation from indolence and neglect of exercise, ana-mia and impoverished blood from privation or recent sickness. Deficient or perverted secretion of digestive fluids results. Reversely, digestion may be interfered wilh by excess of blood and gastric catarrh, when neglected INDIGHIRKA. 117:; cleanliness or chilling of the skin or cold extremities dc- tcruiiuu bluod to internal parts. Obesity, indolence, gen- eral debility may lower the tonicity of the muscular struc- ture of the stomach and intestines, and weaken the peri- staltic movcuienls. causing failure in the contact of food with digestive fluids, and resulting in its accumulation and fermentation. .As a rule, however, nervo-force. bluod-sup- ply, and digestive apparatus are not primarily at fault, and arc adequate to ordinary digestion, the majority of indi- gestions being the result of gross excesses of diet and vio- lations of hygienic law, excess of food, too frequent meals, rapid eating with incomplete mastication and insalivation, food unfit for digestion or improperly and insuiliciently cooked, the habitual use of condiments, rendering the peptic glands dependent upon their stimulus, the imbibi- tion in excess of liquids, as water, tea. or coffee, at meals, causing ililulion of the gastric juice. .Alcoholic stimulants create temporary and artificial appetite, but soon destroy healthy digestifin. Tea, coffee, and tobacco impair the in- nervation of the stomach. The chief symptoms of gastric indigestion are sense of fulness, weight, distress, and dull ])ain over the stomach, coated or irritable tongue, foul breath, perverted appetite — usually poor in the morning, and often morbid and ir- regular — sometimes nau.sea and vomiting, eructations of gas, regurgitation of acid or alkaline liquids and of food, often constipation, and less often colicky pain, with irregu- larity and looseness. There may exist lassitude, mental inactivity, drowsiness, cranial oppression, headache, ver- tigo, sometimes clouded vision, diplopia or double vision, and numerous nervous symptoms and perversions of the senses may exist: shortness of breath, sighing respiration. prwoordial distress, palpitation and irregular action of the ncarl. There may be poor circulation ; relaxed and pallid or sallow surface and complexion ; cold hands and feet ; in women, menstrual disorders. With the more marked and aggravated symptoms there may bo mental depression, anxiety, ilespondoncy, and apprehension, constituting hy- pochimilria. A diagnosis of the form of dyspepsia is es- sential to a correct treatment. Atonic may bo distinguished from irritative dyspepsia by the following differences: In Functional or Atonic DyS' pcpxia. 1. Deficiency or irregularity of appetite, absence of thirst. 2. IngL-stion of food affords sense of comfort for a time. 3. Food retained. 4. Condiments and stiiiitilants craved, aid dii^estion, and cause sensr- of comfort. 5. Languor and inaptitude for exertion during diges- tion. 6. Tongue pale, broad, flabby, thinlv furred. 7. nreathVoul. «. No fever. 9. IVrsons In general good health and flesli. In Irritative Dyspepsia. food, 10. Constitutional few. 1. Morbid craving for morbid thirst. 2. Ingestion of food causes dis- tress. 3. Food often ejected when taken, or soon after. 4. Condiments and stimulants create or intensify dis- t ress. .5. Pain and mental distress during diu'estion. 6. Tont;ue small, comiiact, red, with elevated papilla* or sensitive abradi-cl patches. 7. Breath may or may not be foul. «. Often slight fever. 9. Reduced health, bad nutri- tion, and emaciation. symptoms 10. Variable general cllects. The symptoms of functional and irritative dyspepsia often coexist. In functional dyspepsia the fermentation of food develops gases. Kructalions may be of carbonic acid gas from acetous fermentation, of hydrogen and carbonic acid gas from ileconiposition <)f hydrocarbons or fatty food, or of sulphuretted hydrogen from decomposition of nitrog- enous substances, as meats, eggs. f)f regurgitated liquiils, the most common is a clear, opalescent. ii]si|,id. alkaline liquid, sometimes saltish or brackish, probably the accumu- lation in the oesophagus of saliva, and its frequent rising in the throat is known as watcrbrash or pyrosis. In gas- trie catarrh gelatinous mucus may rise in the throat. Tho regurgitation of acid, acrid liquid, causes sense of burning in the sfomach, beneath tho slernum, ami in the throat, technically cardialgia, popularly termed heartburn. Such fluid is usually serum or sero-mueus, containing ncclie or lactic acid. If brown, acrid, bitter, rancid, and offcnsii-e, it is due tr) the conversion of fatty food inio butyric acid. Food may be regurgitated at various stages of i'ls diges- tion. When fioil is ejected many hours after ingestion, it may present products of fermentation— sporules of Ttirnhi cercrlii!ir,or sporules aggregated into segmentated, cubical masses, known as Snrcintr rrtitricn/i tt'irrinn, a *• wool- pack "). tJoffee. ground substance in ejecta is due to blood which has undergone gastric digestion, and indicates an abraded, ulcerated, bleeding surl^ace. The aceumulatitm of food and its ejection en mnniif hours after ingestion denote obstruction at the lower or pyloric orifice. Tho prevalent idea that gastric juice is often regurgilnted is erroneous. Bile appears in regurgitated fluids seldom, and in vomited matter only after prolonged or violent cme- sis. In aged persons a steadily progressive loss of appe- tite, progressive inanition and emaciation, and death from slow asthenia, without other symptoms of indigestion or evidence of disease in other organs, result from degene- ration of the gastric and intestinal tubules, the peptic glands. When fatty food passes in the fa-ces undi<'cstcd disease of the pancreas may be suspected. " ' Atonic dyspepsia predis|ioses to acute indigestion, sub- acute gastritis, gastroenteric catarrh— the cholera morbus of adults and cholera infantum of children whenever ex- citing causes are superadded, as the imbibition of cold water or eating acrid fruit.s, chilling of the heated bodv in summer. Indigestion may at first induce looseness of'ihe bowels, irregular action, or diarrhiea. but ultimately pro- duces constipation. Indigestion, by developing lactic acid in excess, is the frequent cause of rheumatism. It is the source of the lithic acid or gouty diathesis. Indigestion is tho frequent cause of urinary precipitates. Imperfect di- gestion of nitrogenous food gives rise to oxalic acbl. oxalate of lime in the urine, irritation and congestion of the kid- neys and bla<lder. Indigestion in young and susceptible children and infants is the most frequent cause of convul- sions and sudden febrile attacks. It may be the chief or only cause of chorea (.St. Vilus's dance). Chronic irrila- tive dyspepsia is most often the result of alcoholic excess, less often of excessive errors of diet, or may he symp- tomatic of gastric ulcer, pyloric constriction, or malignant disease. In the treatment of indigestion regulation of diet alone often effects a cure. The diet should be nutritious, mod- erate in quantity, taken at regular intervals, and slowly eaten. The food at breakfast should be simple and laxa- tive, at dinner substantial, at supper light. Of dishes there should be variety, yet simplicity, including animal food, vegetables, nndfruits in rcslricted quantities. ISread should be stale or aerated. Milk may be freely taken, corrected with soda or lime-water. Fatty food, grease, sugar, and pastry should bo avoided. Artificial adjuvants to the diet, as Licbig's prepared food. Ridge's food, and malt extract are of value. Drink of any kind a( meals should be very limited. Attention to general regimen is essential. There must bo outdoor exercise, freedom from mental stress, from physical fatigue, and dissipation in any form. liy cloth- ing, aclivo friction, and judicious bathing the external cir- culation is ke|it vigorous. Tendency of the fcod to decom- pose demands correctives. For the acid stomach, bicar- bonate of soda, the bicarbonate of potash, or lime-water : for alkaline fluid and gastric mucus, diluie mineral acids and acidulated drinks. Bisniulh, either (he subnitrate or sub- carbonate, is the remedy for pyrosis. When the stomach fails to digest albuminoids, pepsinc may be given. I'au- creatino will aid the intestinal digestion of fat. Ferment- ation of food, with fetid products and foul breath, may be treated by the sulphite, bisulphite, <u- hyposnlphilc- of soda, the sulpho-carbolale of soda; eharcoar is also efficacious. In atony of the stomach. eariiiinati\'cs. as ginger, calamus, capsicum, and compound tincture of cardamum sfimulatc glandular secretion; bider vegelable tonics, chnnioniile, quassia, calumbo, gentian, wild-cherry bark, casearilla, and cinchona barks create nppelite, and nux vomica increases the muscular tone ami activity of the stomach and intes- tines and prevents flatulence. Quinine and ferruginous tonics, ns the citrate of iron and quinine, the biotophos- phate and carbonate of iron, and lilaud's pills produce gen- eral vigor, improve the blood, and aid digestion. Laxa- tives are essential when constipation exists ; violent eaihar- tics are to be avoided. Laxative food, as the coarse cereals and ripe fruit before breakfast, may be tried. Tamarinds and figs, ,St. (iermain tea, senna, and magnesia may be used to stiiuulato the bowels to action, fiflcn active exer- cise, walking, or horseback riding will sufllee. Hubbing and kneading the bowels or the ajiplicalion of electricitv to the nbdouiiiial muscles will cure obstinate constipation. Rhubarb, podophyllin, or dried ox bile in small quantities may be needed fo increase the secretion of bile, aloes to unload the reclum, belladonna and nux vomica to create ])Crmaneiit tonicity ami regular action of the bowels. A judicious combiiialion of these remedies in a fonic-laxativo tiill may be taken until the slomaeh and intestines resume lieallhy and vigortuis activity. i<alino purges are to be avoided. Rut the milder mineral wafers may be taken when acid indigestion is present or there is a personal tendency to rheumalisiu or gout. K. D.uiwi.v UriisoN, Jii. Indighir'ka, or /npndnnin Kolimn, a river of Easlcm .Liberia, rises in the Yablonoi Mountains, in Ibe government of .lakoolsk, and enters fbe Arctic Ocean in Ion. 1J0° E.. after a course of 7on miles, mostlv Ihiough deserts and froion marshfs. A few villages are' senflered along its banks, whoso inhabitants live exclusively by hunting. 1174 INDIGO. In'di|;o (Indicum of the ancients), the most important blue dvo known. It is olilaincti from several epecies of the genus /ii(/iV/"."'''n which grow princi])ally in warm elimales. it has also been noticed in uiorbiil urine, and Dr. Sehnnek has shown that it may be obtained from the urine of healthy men and animals by the action of strong acids. It has also been observed in the milk of cows. JJhlori/. — This most valuable dyeing substance was used as a dyesluff in India and Kgyptlong before the Christian era, and the Romans were acquainted with it, although Ihi-y only used it as a pigment, not knowing how to render it soluble, and so available for dyeing. It is only since the sixteenth century, or from the time of the discovery of the passage to India" rouml the Capo of Ciood Hope, that it has become generally known in Europe; and its emjdoyment as a dye was greatly retarded by the opposition it met with from the large vested interests of the woad-cultivatnrs. wlio induced the English, French, and (Jerman governments to )iromulgate several enactments against its use. So severe were some of them that Henry IV. of France issued an edict condemning to death any one who used that perni- cious drug called the '• devil's food." It is only since the year 17:i7 that the French dyers have had the right of "using indigo without restriction. It was urged against this dye that it was fugitive, and even prejudicial to tho wool. " The Dutch were the first to introduce it. Indigofera. liotanrj. — This coloring matter is furnished by the leaves of several species of plants belonging to very different genera and orders— from Indiijofcra lincloria. I. Anil, I. dinpermn, and /. pieudolincloria, cultivated especially in the East and West Indies; also from Ntriiim liiictoiiiim and Calanthe rcrndi/o/i'd, natives of Hindostan ; Aaclqiiua lincloria and Mursdrnin liiirlorin of Sumatra; Pubjrimmm tinclniium, hatis iiidiijulica, Jntdcia tincluria, and lildia Tankenilliir of China; and Amorpha fruticoiia of South Carolina. The only European plant which yields true in- digo-blue is Imlis (i'iif(ori'«,WoAn (which see). This plant was mucli used in ICuropc before the introduction of indigo, but it is inferior in quality and small in quantity, and is now used only as an addition to the indigo-vat. jMany other European plants yield blue coloring-matters, but they arc not believed to be identical with indigo. Cidliiatiim. — The indigo-planis require a warm climate, with not too much rain. The seeds arc sown about the first of -April, and in tho latter part of June the flower- buds burst and the plants will bear cutting. Two months later a second inferior cutting is taken, and a third and fourth of diminished value may be made. Jndicaii. — The jlants do not contain the indigo when they arc gathered, but a peculiar substance, indican, which is a yellow, transparent, glutinous solid, soluble in alc()hf>l, ether, and water. Indican is a glucosidc, and is converted by fermentation or by boiling with sulphuric or hydrochlo- ric acid into indigo-blue, indigo-red, etc., and a peculiar glucose-like body, indigluein: Inillcnn. IrnJiRO-btuc. Indiglucin. CmHsiNOh -f 2II2O = CsHiNO -r SCeHioOe. Fermentation does not appear to be essential, as a mere in- fusion of the plant in hot water deposits indigo on standing in the air. Indican yields by decomposition, besides indi- go-blue and indigo-red. a variety of bodies, as o.\indicanine, oxindieasin. indicasin. indieanin. indifulvin, indihumin, etc. (See H'oKs's />lc^, article "Indican.") Indican has been found in human blood and urine. The crlraiiiun 0/ the iiidif/o in Bengal is effected cither from fresh or dry leaves. (1) From thr Fi-esh Leaves, — Two large stone cisterns are provided — the sleeper, or fer- menting vat, about 20 feet square and .3 feet deep, and the healer^ standing lower, of the same width, but a third longer. The fresh plants, tied in bundles, are siratilio.l in the steeper and fastened down by beams. They are then covered »vith water, when fermentalion begins at once, and is completed in fourteen or fifteen hours. The liquid is at first yellow, but bectunt-s dark green, and exhibits a blue scum. It is drawn oil' into the beater, and ten men beat it with oars or shovels called bmf/itets. Paddle-wlieels or dashers have been used. After being beaten for an hour •and a half, if the previous fermentation has been satisfac- tory the indigo agglomerates into flocks and settles as a precipitate. Tho object of the beating is to introduce oxygen. The precipitation may bo hastened by the ad- dition of lime-water, but this throws down extractive mat- ter, and makes the indigo hard and reil. The precipitate is allowed to subside, the supernatant water is drawn off, and the moist precipitate is strained through a coarse bag. It is then boiled to separate a yellow exiraetive matter and increase the density and intensity of its color. It is then .sent to the dripping or filtering vat, which contains a per- forated false bottom covered with cotton cloth. The drain- ed magma is placed in a strong bag and squeezed in a press, and the moist mass is cut with a brass wire into cubes about three inches each way. The cubes arc dried in the air, a white cftiorescencc which appears during tho drying being removed with a brush; 1000- parts of tho liquor from the steeping vat yield 0.50 to 0.7;i indigo. (2) Frum Dried Leaves. — The cuttings are dried in the sun, the leaves separated from the stems by thrashing, ami stored away for convenient treatment. To obtain the in- digo they arc macerated for two hours with six times their bulk of water. Tho solution is treated as when obtained from wet leaves. As the use of dry leaves makes it pos- sible to select the most suitable weather for macerating, the indigo produced is more uniform, and the fermenta- tion, capricious in its course, is superseded by simple ma- ceration. In the hilly regions of India the leaves of the Xerium tincloriiini, a small tree, are treated for the extraction of indigo. It is necessary to use hot water for steeping ; L'oO pounds of fresh leaves yield 1 pound of indigo. Dr. Schunck has explained why if the indigo-manufacturer does not manage the fermenttition with great care the in- digo will be poor in quality and small in quantity, and even in some cases entirely lose the eoloring-malfer. Tlie indiglucin produced by the decomposition of the indican is liable to pass by fermentation into alcohol and acetic acid, and these bodies unite with the indigo and form a body which resists oxidation, and consequently fails to furnish indigo: Indigo. Alcohol. Acetic add. CslIsNO -f SCjHcO -(- SCjHiOa -1- COj New compound. Walter. = C3lU39NOl-|-lall20. The eommereinl t^nrielics of indigo .arc very numerous. The Bengal indigo ranks first in quality ; it is classified as — fine blue, fine purple and violet, fine red and violet, good |)urple and violet, middling violet, middling defec- tive, consuming fine, middling and good, ordinary, and ordi- nary and lean trash. Some merchants recogni/.c sixteen distinct grades. Besides the Bengal, there occurs in com- merce the Java, twenty-one grades. The Bengal and Java range from 40 to SO per cent, of indigo-blue; the remain- ing varieties vary from 10 to .17 per cent.; they arc Coro- mandel, Oude, Madras, Manila, Egyptian, Guatemala, Caraceas, and Mexican. J'rnperlies 0/ ihe Crude Indigo. — The color is deep blue, with a shade more or less purple or violet. It is devoid of smell and taste* It may be dry or moist, hard or soft, compact or porous. Being always more or less porous, it adheres slightly to the tongue." Its fracture is dull and earthy. The streak )>rodueed by the nail is glossy and purplish-red in the best qualities; when it is dull, and the indigo furrows on each side of the streak, tho qualify is poor. The best indigo floats upon walcr. INDIGO. 1175 0)m/)o«i7iono/Priu/e/iirfi<7o.— Besides indigo-bIue(indigo. tine), which is the characteristic constituent of indigo, and which varies in quantity from 10 to SO per cent., a variety of other bodies are present, either derived from the plant or aided intentionally. Among these are ( 1 ) indigo-gluten, a nitrogenous body resembling ordinary vegetable gluten. It is extracted bT treating the indigo with aeiil ami then boiling with wate'r. (2) Indigo-brown, extracted by alka- lies. The indigo-green of some authors is supposed to be a mixture of indigo-brown and a little indigo-blue. {Xj In- digo-red, extracted bv boiling alcohol. (4) Brown resinous bodies, (b) .Mineral matters (ash), usually from to 12 per cent., but sometimes SO to 40 per cent, in Madras indigo. They arc composed of carbonate and phosphate of lime, oxide of iron, alumina, soda-salts, clay. sand, .and some- times a trace of copper and lead. ffi> Water, from .I to 10 per cent. Chevreul gives the following analysis of a fair samplo of Guatemala indigo: Indigotine .Soluble in water: gum, etc., deoxidized indigo, a green matter combined with ammonia, etc 12. ."Soluble in alcohol : resin, green matters, a trace of indigo-blue ■"■;• A red resin, soluble in hydrochloric acid o. Carbonate of lime ^• Oxide of iron and alumina Silica (sand) and clay 4o. _3. 100^ The nduUeranU are starch (most common), rosin, Prus- sian blue, smalt, ground dyewoods, etc. The pnr!fi<-nt!on nf iiuliyo is effected by boiling it succes- sively with dilute acid, water, and alcohol. The pure in- digotine mav be extracted by changing it to soluble white indigo by reducing agents, as explained further on, and subsequently reoxidizing it. Inrliiin hlue, iiitlignline, oxidized indigo (CbHsNO), may be obtained nearly pure by exhausting indigo by solvents as above mentioned. It may also be obtained (1 ) by sub- limation, in crvstals. mixing the powdered indigo with plaster of Paris and water, spreading it on an iron plate to harden, and carefully heating the dry cake: (2) by solution in boiling aniline, which deposits it in crystals on cooling; (3) by reducing it to soluble white indigo by contact with gr.-ipe'-sugar, soda-ley, water, and alcohol, or by contact with slaked lime, copperas, and water. The yellow solu- tion obtained deposits indigotine as a blue powder when expoacil to the air. Indigotine appears as blue crystals with a coppery lustre, or as a dark-blue powder, .acquiring this lustre when rubbed with a hard body. It h:is neither tasic nor smell, acid nor basic properties: sn. gr. 1.500. Ilealed in the open air. it melts, boils, and burns with a smoky flame. Heated in a current of air at about .SfiO" F., it volatilizes without decomposition ns a purple vapor. It is insoluble in water, in dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, and in alkaline lyes, in cold ether, alcohol, oil of turpentine, and fatly oil's. Its best solvent is boiling ani- line. It is soluble to a greater or less extent in hot creosote, phenol, benzol, chloroform, alcohol, ether, cssenti.il oils, falty oils, petroleum, amylic alcohol ; in the acetates, chlor- ides, etc. of aniline, morphine, cle,, bees' wax. .lapan wax, Canauba wax, parafhn. spermaceti, and stearic acid. It is soluble in anhvdrous acetic acid to which a very small quantity of sulphuric acid has been added, and is precipi- tated from the solution by the addition of water. This is the only process known by which indigotine can ho repro- duced in its priinilive state on fabrics, without previous rcduelion to S'dnble while indigo. Tlie aclimi nf Htilphiiic arid mi indigo gives rise to three distinct compounds, the production nf which depends upon the strength and ratio of the acid, the temperature, and the duration of thecontiicl : it is diffieult to conduct the renclion sn as to prevent the formation of at least a small portion of each. If powdered indigo is digested with oil of vitriol, and the deep-blue liquid poured into 40 or ofl purls of cold water, a purple powder remains umlissolved which is (1) suhdiophfcnicic acid, while the deep-blue solution contains (2) sulphindigotic and (.T) hy)io5ulphindigolio acid. By forming the ammonium-salts of the Inst two acids, evapor- ating t') dryness, and digesting with alcohol, the hypo- sulphindigotalc only is dissolved. kdphnphfrniric Arid (2r,IUX0.Sn.,), S,dphnpnr,mr,e Arid. rndi<tn.l':irplr. r/imiiViii.— This acid is best prepared by adding 1 part of indigo to 4 parls of oil of vitriol, and healing from .10 minutes to an hour, or until a drop gives a deep purido color with a large quantity of coM water. Too high a temperature or too long digestion causes the formation of mucli sulphindigotic acid. The acid mixture is thrown into 40 to .'iO parls cold water, and the beaulifiil purple precipitate is collecleil on a filter and washed with weak hvdrochlorio acid. It forms a blue mass or ft purple- red powder. It is soluble in water, and soluble in strong sulphuric acid, especially in the fuming acid : both grad- ually change it into sulphindigotic acid, more rapidly if heated. It is insoluble in dilute acids. The salts of this acid are prepared by adding its solution to an aqueous solution of anv salt." They ajipear as purple nocks, which are but slightly soluble in water. When dry they arc red. Their solutions are blue: are reduced to yellow liquids by sulphydric acid, copperas, and lime, or by caustic alkalies. I but become blue again on exposure to the air. Wool may ! be dyed with this acid by immersing it in an aqueous solu- tion and adding a little hydrochloric acid. By passing the wool so dyed through a weak bath of carbonate of soda various shades of purple may be produced, a small quantity of sulphindisrotic. which is always present, being removed, and the sulphophcenicate of soda being formed, which is a faster dye than the acid. .\ peculiar purple-blue, consisting probablv of the soda-salt of this acid, has been invented by I,, and E. Boilley {Tlinrjl. pnl. ./.. clix. ."18), and patented in England bv .lohnson^ It is m.ade by dropping powdered indigo into 20 times its weight of fused acid sulphate of soda, pouring the product into a large quantity of water. and adding common salt. It separates as a precipitate of silky crystals, possessing a beautiful coppery lustre when dry. Sec samples dyed with it in Rep. Cliim. app., 1861, p. 21.1. Sulphindiqotir Arid (rsIIsNO.POs). Sulphote of hidujn. Soluble nine Imlitjo. Sidphiudylir Acid, Sulphoranilir Arid. — This acid is prepared by dissolving 1 part of in- digo in 10 or 12 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid (0 parts of fuming acid answer the same purpose), and heat- ing the whole for several hours at 120' F. The operation is "complete when a portion dissolves completely in cold water. The product is a mixture of this acid with hypo- sulphindigotic acid. To free it from this, and the impuri- ties derived from the indigo, well-washed wool is allowed to absorb the dvcs from the solution. This is washed in water and digested in a dilute solution of carbonate of ammonia, which dissolves both acids. On evaporating to dryness the two Rmmonia-snlts may be separated by alco- hol (8.1 per cent.) in which the sulphindigotate is insoluble. This separation is not resorted to in prnelice. the mixture of the two acids being used directly. The sulphindigolio acid may be freed from the excess of sulphuric acid by adding an excess of a solution of common salt. It is then obtained as a blue precipitate which may bo drained on a filter. Sulphindigotic acid is very soluble in water and in alcohol, but not in strong saline solutions. Charcoal, espe- cially that from blood, removes it completely from its aque- ous "solution, but yields it to alkaline carbonates. It is decomposed by an excess of caustic alkali, and ihe color cannot be restored. Reducing agents, as stannous and ferrous salts, sulphydric acid, nascent hydrogen, etc., de- colorize it. the color being restored by exposure to the air. Sulphindigotatcs arc formed by neutralizing the free acid or by double decomposition. They do not crystallize, are dark blue with a coppery lustre, and taste feebly saline and decidedly of indigo. The alkaline sulphindigolntes are slightly 'soluble in cold water (requiring 100 lo 150 parts), more so in hot water. The lime, magnesia, and alumina salts arc freely soluble. The solution is blue by reflected light, red by transmitted light. Alknlitir Sidphivdirjolaltl. IndirfO-Carmitie, TUnc-Carmine, SnUihle fndii/o. and Prrclpltnird Indiijo are prepared by adding alkaline carbonates to the diluted solution of llio acid. They appear as precipitates, being insoluble in saline solutions ; Ihe alkaline sulphates formed at the same time arc sufficient for the purpose. The potassium-salt di««olves in MO parts of cold water, and in inucli less boil- ing water: I ]iart of salt gives a blue odor lo 500,000 parts of water, about ^^ grain per gallon. Water containing 1 per cent, of acetate of sodium does not dissolve it in the cold. It is soluble in sulphuric acid, insoluble in concen- traled hydrochloric and in alcohol of sp. gr. 0.800. The sodium-sail rescnibles Ihe potassium-salt, and is used fur similar purposes, much more extensively. It is more solu- ble in saline solutions. Besides being useful as a dye. Ihe indigo-carmine is used ns a water-color pigment, and made into balls with starch and a little gum-water it is used ns wa.shing blue. /fiipoKidpliiiidii/olie Arid. HtlpoHidphornridir And. — Tins acid, the compiisition of wliich is not known, has been already menticmed as always occurring in Ihe solulion ob- tained by Irentiug indigo wilh sulphuric ncid. The acid differs little from sulphindigolic ncid. and Ihe sails arc distinguished chiefly by their solubility in alcohol of 84 per cent. CnmmrrrinI Prrpnrnltonn of Indigo and flidphurir And are mixtures of the three acirls above mentioned or their salts. There are three distinct kinds of preparation : (I) The simple solution of Ihe aciib in water, known as .'^n.mn 1176 INDIGO. blue ( having been first iutroduced by Barth at (irossenhayn in Saxony in 174.')). chemic, chemic blue, sour extract of in- diffo, Hiilpluttcof indi'jo, etc. Numerous receipts are given for its preparation. Tcrsoz saj's mix 1 poumi each of in- digo, lumin;; sulphuric acid, and uil of vitriol. Aft'T standing 48 hours, heat the mixture over a water-bath till it gives no precipitate in cold water. Dilute to 1.134 or 1S° B. Haussmimn uses indigo 1, fuming acid 0.5. An- other adds gradually 1 part indigo to 5 or fuming acid or 10 to 12 common acid, allnwr^ it to stand 24 to 48 hours, pours into cold water, and liltcrs. Another: 1 pound in- digo in 15 pounds common acid; keep at 120-140° F. for tliree days. (2) The precipitated acids. pnHte,sirrct extract, made by adding a strong solution of salt to the diluted and liltcrcd solution of indigo in sulphuric acid. Ji'cti/»ts. — 1 jtnund indigo, 5 acid, 10 to 13 hours at 100" V., dihited with 3 gallons water, filtered, concentrated to .'i gallons, treated with 4 pounds of common salt, drained on a filter. Another: 10 pounds indigo, 80 acid, 24 hours at 80° F., diluted with 5 gallons water, treated with solution of 80 pounds salt in smallest quantity of water. (3) Neutral soda-salts, inditfO'Carminr, fmlnble iuditjo, solid bine, chemic, centfciu, centho-nidphtitr, extrnrt of indiffn. This is made by neutralizing the solution of indig<i in sulphuric acid by carbonate of soda; being insoluble in saline solutions, it appears as a jirecipitate, which is washed on a filter with solution of salt, and sold as a paste or as a dry powder. The washing with salt-solutiou removes green matters (cblorophyTO and improves the shades. Jicrdpts. — .Add 37 pounds acid to 4 pounds indigo, keep at fi0°-70^ F. for 8 days. Pour into it a solution of 40 pounds salt, then a solution of t)0 puunds carbonate-of-soda crystals: add 2 pounds precipitated carbonate of lime; filter, wash with salt-solution. The yield is 120 pounds. Adding acid to indigo secures a richer and purer color. An inferior quality is made with 8 pounds indigo, 74 acid. 144 salt, 112 ear- bonate-of-soda crystals, and 4 chalk, in same manner. A fair sample of carmine of indigo gave water 86., indigo 10.2, saline residue 4.8. I)i/cing with S'tilphuric-Acid Compounds of Indigo, — (1) Cotton has no atfinity for these compounds, and they are never used except for a faint bluing for market, as in wash- ing clothes. For this purpose the free sulphuric acid is removed by acetate of lead, or neutralized by acetate of soda, the product being erroneously called "acetate of in- digo." (2) Wool is dyed only in the aeids or in carmines .ii-i'lulated, as alkalies, and even soap, are liable to remove tlic color. Saxon blue (acid) was formerly used with alum and cream of tartar. Carmine is now preferred with alum and cream of tartar, used warm. For printing, so-called "acetate of indigo" is used. These colors are fugitive, and are now generally replaced by Prussian blue, etc., ex- cept for compound colors, as green, olive, gray, black, etc. (I!) .Silk is dyed in the same manner as wool, but is gener- ally first alumed. Carntincis generally used, as it is easily fixed, and is free from the green tinge of the acids. For printing, a solution of carmine, with oxalic acid and gum, with sometimes a little alum, is used. Indigo-White (C16II12N2O2), Jndigogen, White Indigo, Reduced or Deoxidized Indigo. — The sulphuric-acid com- pounds of indigo already described are not suitable for dyeing cotton, and as they do not give colors on wool and silk that can be considered fast, indigo would have but a limited ajiplication in dyeing and calico-printing wero it not fur the indigo-wbite. This compound is produced by the action of reducing agents on indigo, and results in the addition to a double molecule of indigotine of a double atom or molecule of hydrogen, H2; Indigotine IndlffOKCH- 2C8H5NO2 -h H2 = C16H12N2O2. Chcvreul supposed that indigogcn existed ready formed in the indigo-plants, but this was shown by Pchunck to be erroneous, (1 ) because indigogcn is soluble only in alkaline solutions, while the juices of these plants are acid: (2) be- cause indigogcn turns blue on exposure to the air by oxi- dation, forming indigotine; (3) he determined the com- ]iound existing in the plants to be the glucosidc indican (CjolhiXOiT), as ;ilready slated. The indigogcn being soluble in alkalies, the dyer has only to impregnate his yarns and fabrics with the solution and expose them to the atmosphere, when the insoluble blue indigotine is formcil throughout their substance, and they arc uniformly dyed with the most permanent and insoluble blue. ImliitrtKcn. Owsen- Indlitnllnc. Wmcr. CieHnNjOj + b = 2CeIliX0 + H2O. (For advanced views on the constitution of indigotine and indigogcn see Liiwcnthal (J. pr. Ch., Ixx. 468); Bacyer (Her. Phem. Gm., ISGf*, 17), and A. Sireckcr (Jnhrrth. li. Chem., 1808, 789).) A great variety of reducing agents ac- complish this change in indigotine : (1) Alkaline metals which decompose water, as sodium, potassium, sodium amalgam, etc. (2) Metals which doconipose water in the presence of an allvuiine base, as tin, antimony, aluminum, zinc, and phos- pljorus. (:i) Metallic o\idcs capable of higher oxidation, as fer- rous, manganous, and stannous o.xides. (4) Acids capable of higher oxidaliim, as phosphorous, hypophosphorous. hyposulphurous. and sulphurous acids. {.i) Some sulphurets. pliosphuret?, ami arscnurets, as realgar, orpimcnt, stannous sulphide, sulphides of anti- mony, potassium, sodium, hydrogen, etc. (G) Organic bodies oxidizablo in presence of alkalies, as glucose, gallic acid, etc. (7) Reducing and alkaline fermentations, as the butyrous and urinous. Liiwenthal denies the production of indigogcn by sul- phurous and phosphorous aeids, sulphiclc of potassium, and some of the other substances mentioned above. {J.pr. a,.. Ixx. U,?,.) Indigogcn may be prepared from indigo purified by hy- drochloric acid by mixing it with slaked lime, ferrous sul- phate, and water in vessels so arranged that air is excludLd. The clear yellow solution produced is transferred to an- other vessel, and tlie indigogcn precipitated by hydro- chloric acid. The precipitate is filtered in un atmosphere of carbonic acid, and washed with dilute sulphurous acid. It is a grayish-white, lustrous body, insoluble in water and acids, soluble in alkalies, alcohol, and ether. lis solutions are yellow, and turn blue and deposit indigotine when ex- posed to the air. Indigogcn forms with lime a neutral compound readily soluble in water, and a basic compound almost insoluble. The latter is precipitated from a solu- tion of the neutral compound by digestion with an excess of lime. It is also formed when indigo is digested with copperas and «» extf-ss of lime in making the solution of indigogcn. It is a lemon-yellow compound, which in the air becomes first green, then blue. Most metallic salts produce in solutions of indigogcn precipitates which arc generally white, but become blue in the air, Berzelius supposed from these properties of the lime-compounds that an excess of lime should be carefully avoided, but .Schlum- berger has shown that in practice other conditions occur which not only prevent any injurious results from such excess, but make its ]ircscnee very desirable. Applicaflon 0/ ludltjfujrn in Dyeing and CftUco-printinff. — This form of indigo being soluble, can be made to pene- trate textile fibres, and when by oxidation the indigogcn is converted into insoluble blue indigotine, the color is fixed in the pores of the fibres, so as to adhere firmly and resist the action of washing and soap. Indigogcn is employed as follows : (1) Orclluari/ "Vat-dyeinr)." — The indigo is reduced and dissolved, and the yarn or cloth is immersed, and then ex- posed to the air. Figures in white, which may even be col- ored, are produced by printing on resiKta beforehand, which prevent the penclration of the dye, or discharges after dyeing, which remove the color, (2) " Pencil Illue." — The solution of reduced indigo is printed or painted on certain portions only of the cloth with a "pencil," a small flat, blunt-|iointed piece of wood. (?,) " Precipilitleil III- Faut Illiir." — Indigogcn is precip- itated as a paste in combination with strongly reducing metallic oxides, as hydrated stannous oxide, to prevent too rapid oxidation. This paste, properly thickened, is jirinled on the goods, and the cloth is then passed through lime-water or soda-Icy to replace the stannous oxide and form a soluble compound of indigogcn, which penetrates the fibre and is fixed by subsequent exposure. (■I) " Chinii llhie." — Pulverized indigo is printed on tho cloth, and theu so treated, by passing it successively through milk of lime, copperas, soda-ley, ami sulphuric acid, as to fix the color by causing local reduction and solution, and subsequent oxidation. The inrfiV/o tin(» or solutions employed by dyers and cal- ico-printers are varied according to the character of the goods. Cnid rain are produced by reducing agents of a mineral origin, while warm rain are produced by organic matters which undergo fermentation, and thus develop indigogcn. fl) The Cnpptras Viil. — To 2000 gallons water arc added \ CO pounds indigo, 180 slaked lime, 120 ferrous sul[ihatc (copperas), which must be free from every trace of copper- salt. This vat is used for calico, linen yarn, linen thread, and hemp yarn and thread. After exposure to the air the color of the goods can be improved by passing them through hot milk of lime or caustic alkali, by which some yellow matters are eliminated. (2) The Tin Vat, commonly used for calico-printing.— The indigo is reduced by a solution of stannous oxide in soda-ley. By adding to this an acid solution of tin, a pre- INDIGO. 1177 cipitato is obtained consisting of indigogcu and stannous oxide, which i^ u^cd in printing. (3) The Orpimeiit \'tit is uiude by mixing indigo^ sulphide of arsenic^ and potasli. It is ciiiefly used in calico-prititiug. (4) The Zinc Vitt has recently been introduced by R. Schloesser it Co. of Manchester, Eng., as a luarlccd iin- provctnent on ibo copperas vat. It is free froui the bulky precipitate of oxide of iron, and avoids the loss of indigo due to its combination with this oxide. It is composed of 2000 giillous of water. 20 pounds indigo. 30 iron horings, 30 of their remarkable powdered zinc, 36 quicklime. The zinc furnishes hydrogen by decomposing water. (5) The Ifi/poMiifphite Vat was introduced by Schiitzen- berger and be Lalande (Chem. Ciutr., 1873, 735). The authors employ a solution of sodium hyposulphite as the reducing agent for the indigo. A Sfihitiou of sodium bi- sulphite of 30° to 3j° B., is agitated with pieces of sheet or granulated 7,inc in a closed vessel. The quantity of zinc should till about one-fourth of the internal space of the ves-jcl. After about an hour the solution is mixed with milk of lime in excess, which precipitates the zinc-salt. After agitation and the addition of water, the liquid is fil- tered or the clear solution decanted, tl»e whole operation being conducted with as complete exclusion of air as pos- sible. The hyposulphite solution so obtaineil is added to the indic;o, together with the necessary amount of lime and soda. The yellow solution obtained contains, as insoluble constituents, only the earthy matters in the indigo. From 1 kilo, indigo a very concentrated vat of from 10 to \b litres can be prepared. The dyeing of cotton take? place in the cold, that of woollens with gentle warmth. The ex- cess of sodium hyposulphite is said to reduce the froth which forms on the surface of the bath, Uy adopting the foregoing method in the case of woollens, clearer and fresher tints are obtainable. A new method of printing with a. concentrated and thickened alkaline solution of indigo re- duced with great excess of sodium hyposulphite, gives uni- versal satisfaction, and is certain to supersede the older costly and troublesome process in whicli tin and tin-salts are employeil. For oxidation, the printed pieces are hung out in the air 12 to It hours, and then washed and soa[)ed. In comparison with the older method, 50 to CO per cent, of intligo is economized, the shades arc liner and more permanent, and the definition sharper. (tJ) The W'uad or Pastei Val. — In former timcs woad was the only material known to the dyers of Europe for pro- ducing the blue color of indigo. For this jiurposc it was previously submitted to a peculiar process of fermentation, and the product was named pastel in France. For most purposes indigo has taken the j>lace of woad in the dye- house, and for cotton goods it is now used alone. In the dyeing of woollen goods, however, the use of woad has been retained to the present day, for the purpose rather of exciting fermentation, and thus reducing the indigo which is employed at the same time, than of imparting any color to the material to bo dyed. Indeed, the woad used by wooden dyers in this country contains no trace of col- oring-matter. \'ariou8 substitutes, such as rhubarb-leaves, turnip-tops, weld, an'l other vegetable matters, have ac- cordingly been tried, but without success, since the fer- mentation is more steadily maintained by means of woad than by any other material. Pastel, whit-h does contain a little blue coloring-matter, is preferred to woad by many of the French dyers. The materials employed in the ordi- nary woad or pastel vat, in aiblitton to woad and indigo, arc mad<ler, bran, and lime. The chemical action which takes Jdace in the woad vat is not diflicult to understand. The nitrogenous matters of the woad begin, when the tem- perature is raised, to enter into a slate of fermentation, which is kept up by means of the sugar, starch, extractive matter, etc. of the madder and bran. In consequence of the f<'rmentation, the indigo-bhie becomes reduced, and is then dissolved by the lime, thus rendering the liquid fit for dyeing. Great care is necessary in order to prevent the process of fermentation from passing into one of putrefac- tion, which if allowed to proceed wouhl lead to tne entire destruction of the indigo-blue in the liquor. If any tend- ency to do so is observed, it is arrested by the addition of lime, which combines with the acetic, lactic, and other orf^anic acids that commence to form when putrefaction sets in. On the other hand, an excess of lime must also be avoided, since the reduced indigo-blue is thereby rendered insoluble, an<l unfit to combine with the material. In set- tinga vat the following materials are used : 5 cwt. woad. 30 pounds indigo. 5(» bran, 7 madder, and 10 (juarts lime. The vat is first filled with water heatecl to 1 H)° F. ; the materials are then added and well mixed. The whole is covered, and allowed to stand over night. At 6 o'clock the next morning 5 quarts more lime are addecl ; at 10 o'clock, ;'> pints more: at 1*2, the vat is hcuteil to 120° F. ; and at 3, another quart of lime is added. The vat is now ready for use. (6Vf.) (7) The Potash or Indian Fnf.^Eight pounds of pow- dered indigo are added to a bath containing 3i pounds bran, 3* pounds madder, and 12 pounds potash, which is maintained for several hours at a temperature of 2UU° F. It is then allowed to cool to IUU° F., when fermentation ensues. After about -48 hours the indigo is rendered solu- ble, being reduced by the decomposition of the sugar and other products contained in the bran and the madder-root during the process of fermentation. The bath should have a greenish-yellow appearance, having a frothy scum of a blue coppery hue. (C'tfrrrt.) (8) The German Vut. — Of late years improvements have been made in this class of vats, by which the expense of using madder is avoided. They are now prepared by add- ing to water, at a temperature of 200° F.. 2i) hnekets* bran, 2C pounds soda crystals. 12 pounds indigo, and f> pounds slaked lime. After five hours the bath is allowed to cool to 100° F.. when fermentation ensues and the indigo is dis- solved in the alkali. ( Ca/vrrt.) (0) The i'n'nc Vat is employed only in small dvc-housea and in certain localities, as at Vcrviers, for the dyeing of wool. The putrefying urine furnishes at once the reducing agents to convert the blue into white indigo, and the am- monia necessary to dissolve the latter. ( Wfrtlx'tt Diet,) Jicgists for printing on cloth to prevent the dying of cer- tain portions, aud thus |)roducc figures on a blue ground, act eitiier mechanically, as wax. pipeclay, etc., or chem- ically, by oxidizing the indigogen before it can penetrate the fibre, as salts of copper, mercuric chloride, etc. The following are receipts for difierent results (Crooks, p. 474) : (1) For Deep Ulue. — Water, 4 litres; sulphate of copper, 1.26 kilos.: acetate of copper, 500 grms. ; nitrate of copper, 875 grms.; alum. 240 grms.; pipeclay, 2.125 kilos.; dex- trine, 1.25 kilos. (2) For Medium Iifu>\ — Water, 4 litres; sulphate of co[)per, 500 grms. ; acetate of copper, 250 grms. ; nitrate of copper. 500 grms. ; alum. 2-JO grms. : pipeclay, 2 kilos.; dextrine. 1 kilo. (3) Jird Rrsist,go-rttUid Lapis. — Red liquor (acetate of alumina), sp. gr. 1.07, 12 litres; gum Senegal. 2 to 3 kilos.; pipeclay, 4 to 6 kilos.; olive oil. 1 kilo.: sulphate of copper. 1 kilo.; nitrate of copper, 500 grms. ; sal-ammoniac, 1.5 kilos. (4) White l.apitt. No. 1, — Lime-juice, sp. gr. I.IOO, 5 litres ; thickened lime-juice, thickened with 1.5 kilos, of gum upon 2 Hires, 1.5 litres; sulphate of copper, 1 kilo. ; pipeclay. 3 kilos. No. £, — Water, 2 litres; sulphate of zinc, 1 kilo.; pipeclny, 725 grms.; gum Senegal, 500 grms.; solution of nitrate of cop- per, sp. gr. 1.52, 0.12 litre. (5) Far While UndcvniurdtnitH and for lilne Cuntnurs. — Caustic soda solution, sp. gr. 1.070, 8 litres; arseniatc of polassa. 3.5 kilos. ; corrosive suhlimate, 500 grms.; pipeclay, 3 kilos.; gum Senegal, 1.5 kilos. f)i^chnr//c Puttern»t are ])roduce<l by dyeing the cotton cloth of a uniform blue in the copperas vat. and then print- ing upon it the desired figures with some powerful oxidizing agent, which will destroy the blue indigotine by converting it into soluble jsatin. leaving the figure in white. The most useful discharge is chromic acid, but as it would be exhausted by the thickener before it reaehed the cloth, a circuitous proces? must be resorted to in order to secure its action. On the blue cloth hichromote or chromatc of pot- ash is padded (see Cai.ico-I'UI.nti.vg}, and when this has been dried in the dark, the figures to be discharged arc printed with a mixture of acid ; oxalic, tartaric, nitric, or sulphuric: a thickener, gum, dextrine, or starch: and some ]>ipeclay. The chromic acid is set free and the color dis- charged at once, and the goods are washed in warm water to which s<»me chalk has been added to neutralize the ex- cess of acid. Another plan is to print on iho blue cloth chromatc of lead properly thickened, and pass through warm hydrochl*»rie acid, when chromic acid and chlorine are liberated, which discharge the color. Hvdrated binox- ido of manganese may be substituted for ehroniate of lead. The discharges can be made to include mordants, Fr> that colored designs on a blue ground may be produced. Thus, if acetate of alumina or of iron, or both together, bo mixed with a discharge, and the alumina fixed in the washing oflT, the goods may be dyed in madder or garuneino with the prorluetiun of red, lilac, purple, or chocolate designs. Pome- times the discharge and resist are comliined together ; for instance, on a light-blue ground are printed simultaneously, first, an ordinary resist ; second, the same resist, lo whieh have been added hichromate of potash and hydrochloric acid ; on vutling again a pattern of light blue and white will be found on a deep-blue ground. liwript^. — ( i) Chrome liquor: water. 2 litres; yellow cliromate of potasli, 500 grms. f2i Acid composition: tartaric acid, 3 kilos.; oxalic aeiil. 250 grms.; dextrine, 4 kilos.; nitric neid, 500 grms. ; woter, 4 litres. Printimj /'enrif fttur, for which the orpimcnt vat is used, was formerly cfTeeted hy hand, but is now acconiplished from rolls by the aid of the "doctor box," I»y which the blue oxidized layer of color la removed and the roll works 1178 INDIGO. last in the green solution cont.aining the indigogen. carry- j ing it at once to the cloth. lUrfipt fnr iiii Orplmnil Mijc- i (1,,-e for Ihirk Pcnril /?/.i«-.— Inrtigo-pulp. HI gallons, con- tiVinin" 40 pounils indigo; vcllow orpiment, 4(1 iiounds ; soda-lov. 70° Tw.. lU g.allons ; water, 1st gall.ms: lime, I 4 pounds. Coil till vellow, when sprea.l on glass: let .set- tle, and thicken the clear liquor with 120 pounds gum sonc- gai. I l-'or further details with regard to use of indigo in : calico-printing see works mentioned at end of this article.) PiodiiclH i>f Ihc Ikcnmponitiiin of /iiidv,...— Chhuine de- stroys moist indigo, as well as its sulphuric-acid com- pounds, with the formation of a variety of jiroducls which vary with tlie conditions of the treatment. Among them have heen noticed trichlor-.aniline, trichlor-phcnol. chlor- isatin, and ilichlor-isatin. Dilute nitric acid produces isatin (CsHsNOj) and a hrown resin; a stronger acid forms indimitic (nitrosalievlic) acid (C7ll3{NO.hO:)) ; very stron" acid (sp. gr. 1.43) yields picric acid (trinitrophenol) (CellafNO.ViO), forming at the same time carbonic, prus- sic, and oxalic acids, and the so-called artificial indigo- rcsin : 5 parts fuming nitric acid become so heated with 1 part indigo that the mass takes fire. Chromic acid de- stroys indi"o. with the formation of isatin. Boiled with dilute potash, indigo is but slightly attacked, but with strong potash it is completely dccomjiosed, with the forma- tion of indigogcn and isatate of potassium. KChIIcN'^s (Gcrhardt, liev. Sr'icnI., x. 371). of ehrys.anilic acid (Fritzsche). Fused with potassic hydrate, it yields, first, isatic acid (CkHtXOjI : then, from this, phcnyl-carhamic acid (CtIItNiIj); and further salicylic acid (CvHeOa), and phenvlamine (aniline), CeHjX. Ariifirlal AirfiV/".— The nature of the products derived from indigo as iiist mentioned has created the imjiression in the minds of'ch'-.niss that indigo will be prepared arti- ficially from carbolic :icid. Recently, Emmerling and Eng- Icr have actually produced indigotiue from a com|iound acetone discovered in 1S57 by Friedel, which they call acclophrnmic. Indigotino is isomeric with cyanide of ben- zoyl, C,Il50.CN. „ . , 'TesUiici and Vahmtwn nf TntHfin.—Wnter is determined hy drying a weighed sample at 212° F. in a platinum cru- cible. After weighing, the whole is ignited for the per- centage of ash. Starch may bo detected by boiling with sliMitly alkaline water, and testing the cold filtrate with iodine." Older methods for determining appro.ximately the percentage of indigotine were based upou oxidation— more recent methods on reduction. The following methods are given in n'alti'a Did. : (1) Willi Clilnrim; Wttter.^A. weighed quantity of the finely pulverized indigo is added by small portions to a measured quantity of a saturated aqueous solution of chlo- rine as long as it'dissolves with yellow color, and the qnan- titv thus dissolved is ascertained by weighing the residue. { NoOj + lc203= ^ic"-' + A similar trial is then made with perfectly pure indigo-blue, , the sample of indigo i and a comparison of the two results gives the proportion -' "" "" of coloring-matter in the sample of commercial indigo un- der examination. As the strength of the chlorine-water alters very quickly, it cannot be titrated long beforehand. ('•')' 117/// Chloride of ii'mc— The indigo is first dissolved bv digestion for five or six hours at 60° or 00° with fuming sulphuric acid; the solution is thoroughly mixed with dis- tilled water, and poured into a gradu.ated burette, and from this vessel it is added drop bv drop to a measured quantity of aqueous chloride of lime, till the blue color just becomes permanent. A similar experiment being then made with an equal weight of pure indigo-blue, the coloring power of the two samples is in the inverse ratio of the quantities of the blue solution consumed in the two experiments. (Schlumberger. Ilidl. Sor. Inditstr. dc MidUniiiu: vol. xv.) ({'.) Willi' lliidnirhlnrir Arid and Chlorate of folasitiitm. —1 "-rm. of finely pulverized indigo is digested for some hour" with 10 grms. of fuming sulphuric oeid, agitating from lime to time to assist the solution. The liquid is then poured into a basin containing a kilogramme of water ; ."iO grms. of strong hydrochloric acid are addcil, and the liquid ia heated to the boiling-point. On the other hand, 0.2.') grin, of chlorate of potassium is dissolved in 100 grms. of water, and the solution is poured into a graduated bu- rette, and added drop by drop to the boiling indigo solution till the blue ccdor changes to red-brown. The richness of the sample of indigo is directly proportional to the quantity of chlorate consumed. (Bolley, Ann. Ch. I'harm., Ixxv. 242.) (4) tt',V/i .S'lilphiirir Arid and Arid Chromale of Potail- ,,-„„,._The mo.le of proceeding is the same as that just described: 10 grms. of pure indigo-blue prepared by Fritzschc's method require for decoloration exactly 7J parts of the acid ehromate. (Penny, Chcm. Soe. J., v. 297.) All these methods are liable to the objection that it is diflicult to institute an exact comparison between the dif- ferent shades of color rejulting from the oxidation of the indigo in different cases, the pure green tint thus jiroducfd in solutions of pure indigo-blue giving place to a dirty olive or broivnisli-green when crude indigo is used, in eon- sequence of the impurities contained in it. Moreover, in dissolving indigo in strimg sull>hiiric acid it is scarcely possible to avoid the formation of suljilnirous acid, the jiresence of which will of course raise the apparent per- centage of indigo-blue in the sample. By employing thc.so methods, indeed, it is common to find in a good sample of indigo more than 80 per cent, of pure indigo-blue, whereas the best qualities seldom contain above fiO per cent., and average qualities not more than 40 to .SO per cent. The following methods, which depend upon the reduc- tion instead of the oxidation of the indigo, give more ex- act results : (5) Wilh Prolosulphale of Iron. — A weighed quantity of the finely pulverized indigo is well mixed with an equal weight of pure lime jireviously slaked with water. The inix'ture is poured into a stopjiered bottle of known capa- city, and the mortar is well rinsed with water, which is adiled to (he rest. The bottle is now heated in a water- bath for several hours, and a quantity i>f finely powdered sulphate of iron is added ; the bottle is then filled up with water; the stopper is inserted : and after the contents have been well shaken, the whole is loft at rest for several hours, till the indigo is reduced and the sediment has sunk to the bottom. A portion of the clear liquor is then drawn ofi" with a siphon, and the quantity of liquid having been ac- curately measured, it is mixed with an excess of hydro- chloric acid, and the precipitate, after having been oxidized (by exposure to the airi, is collected on a weighed filter and washed with water. Lastly, the filter with the indigo-blue is dried at the heat of the water-bath and weighed : and the weight of the filter having been siibtractcd from that of the whole, the weight of the indigo-lilue is ascertained. Suppose, for example, that the whole quiintity of liquid was 200 measures, and that .'iO measures have been drawn off, yielding 10 grains of indigo-blue; then the total quan- tity" of indigo-blue in the sample is 40 grains. For 60 grains of indigo it is necessary to take from 1 pound to 2 pounds of water. This method, though rather tedious, gives better results than any of the preceding. The quan- tity of indigo-blue indicated by it is usually somewhat less than the actual quantity contained in the sample. Leuchs {Zcilschr. /.'Chcni. [2]. v. 150) converts the in- digo into indigo-white by digestion with ferrous sulphate ami milk of lime, mixes the clear solution, acidulated with sulphuric acid, with a solution of amnionio-ferric sulphate, and determines the quantity of ferrous salt thereby pro- duced by means of a -[Jj normal solution of potassium ehro- mate. The conversion of indigo-white into indigo-blue by ferric salts takes place as shown by the equation : ("isHi!- ~ -*- II..0 + CicIIioXiO,.. l.:!l grm. of mixed, in a tall cylindrical, well- closed vessel, with a quantity of lime and solution of fer- rous .=ulphate occupying .100 cub. cent.; 100 c. c. of the clear solution are tlien added to C,r<^ c. c. of a solution of ammnniacal iron-alum acidulated with sniidiuric aci.l : the liquid is filtered, and 100 c. c. of it titrated with the ^th chrome-solution. If the hitter be added from a measuring tube divided into J c. c, each division will correspond to 1 p. c. indigo-blue in the sample under examination. (6) Wilh S'laininim Chlioidr.—Thc tin-solntion is titrated with a solution of pure indigo-blue, ]ircparcd by dissolving the substance dried at 21(i°-2M° C. (410°-44fi° F.) in ir, parts of strong sulphuric acid, with the addition of pounded glass to divide the indigo and facilitate Ihc solution. The indigo-solution thus obtained is diluted with water till a litre of it contains exactly 1 grm. of indigo-blue. The in- digo to be examined is then dissolved in a similar manner, and the titrated tin-solution is added to it from a burette till the blue color changes through green to light yellow. Iron, if present in the indigo, must first be removed by di- gestion in hydrochloric acid, with addition of pounded glass. (E. Mulder, Scheik. Onderz., iii. [1], 37 ; Jahretber., 1860, p. 613.) (7) Wilh Zinc. — A solution of indigo in sulphuric acid is diluted with water and hydrochloric aci.l. and decolor- ized by zinc in an atmosphere of carbonic anhydride. A measured volume of this solution is then introduced into a graduated tube filled with air or oxygen gas. and the vol- ume of oxygen absorbed is read olT after a few hours. A similar exp'erimcnt is then made with pure indigo-blue, and the value of the commercial sample is determined by ciun- parison of the results. _ .... /.i/enidii-c— In addition to the works mentioned at the end of Camco-prixtixc, see AV,(f« upon Indiifo. by.Tolin Q. Hayes, in the BuUelin of the Xalionul Aiiocialion of 11 ool .V<."iM,/Vic(»ivr» (Boston, 187.3) : Lecture by Dr. Crnce Calvert. ■ Am. ('h',ni>l. iii. 221; Handbook of Dyeinn and Cnhrn. ; priniinq. bv W. Crooks (London. 1874). C. F. Cii.vNnLEn. INDIGO BIRD— INDIVIDUALITY. 1179 Indiffo Birdy Ctfanoapiza ctfanen, one of our most beau- tiful native finches, is of u rich grceuish-blue. feeds on seeds and insect?, nests in the L*. S., usually on n low bush or oa tnll grass, and winters in tropical America. The bird is nearly six inched loDg> and has a brief but very pleasant song. Iiulisotinc. See Indigo, by Pnop. C. F. CnANDi-ER, Vu. 1).. M. I>., LL.D. Indirect'. In music, consecutive unisons, fifths and octaves, arc said to be indirect when thoy arc not aetuiilly expressed in form, but still implied or involved in the pro- gres?ion. In'dium [Or. ivSiKovy "dark-bluo dyo"], a metal dis- covered by means of the spectroscope in Freiberg zinc- blcndc by Keich and Riehter in lS(j:i. It has since been found in various zinc mineral;^ and in wolfram, also in the flue-dust of the furnaces in which zinc ores are treated, as well as in the zinc itself. The zinc-blende of Roxbury. Conn., was found by Pruf. Cornwall to contain a con.-^iiler- able proportion of indium. The Freiberg zinc contains about U.OJ per cent, of indium. liiittgcr found the flue- dust of the (iosler furnaces to contain about 0.1 per cent, of the oxide In203. Metallic indium is obtained by dis- solving the ores or metal in acid and udciing pieces of metallic zinc to the solution. The indium, together with some small amounts uf other metals, is thereby precipi- tated in the metallic state. ^Vhcn purified the metal is found to have a bluish-silvery lustre, resembling lead in its softness and ductility. Its specific gravity is 7A2\. atomic weight li:J.4. It tarnishes slo^vly in air. Its melting-point is 170° C. (3iy° F.). Its very low fusion-point compared with other metals permanent in air is a striking peculiarity. It is not very volatile, and resists oxidation at tempera- tures considerably above its point of fusion. The spectrum consists of two blue lines. E. Wallek. IndividuaTity [Lat. {tnliv{dnu8,"tha.t cannot be di- vided"], in the ordinary sense of the word, is defined as "a state of oneness *' (Arbnthnfit), or " the quality of being individual; separate or distinct existence" { Wovccufer) ; and the idea obtained is of a complete unit which is itself indivisible without mutilation. The current idea, inasmuch as it is based chiefly upon a contemplation of the higher forms of life, is so distinct in this respect that it assumes an axiomatic cliaracter, but, far from being thus self-evi- dent, there are few questions involved in such uncertainty, and concerning wliich opinions have varied so widely, as respecting this very subject. Some of tlic definitions that have been given are radically antagonistic. Thus, on one hand. Sehultz-.Schultzonstcin, in the consideration of plants, has regarded " not only the shoot, but even its single parts, the internodes. with their leaves, as series of individuals shooting out of each other, or intimately connected by continuablc bu(l formation." On the other hand, Huxley, by the study of the phenomena of increase in the lower animals, was led to believe that "the inUiriilHal animal is the sum of the phenomena presented by a single life; in other words, it is all those animal forms which proceed from a single egg, taken together." The many inter- mediate views have been based upon a partial consider- ation of the facts in the case, and take their shade from the nature of the phenomena studied. If we attempt to opply either of the definitions cited, the results will often appear to be absurd in view of the conventional idea of individuality. Thus, if wo accept the signification of tSchultz-Schultzcnstein for the plant, for the coral animal, or for the protozoon. not only will the flowers and the leaves, as well as the distinct animals, be individuals, but the intermediate spaces will represent indefinite indi- viduals : in this case potentiality of individualism, or the possible future development of a more or less perfect plant or nnitnal from the space in question, is contounded with actual indtvi'luality, or the positive developnient of a plant or animal. Rut if we accept Huxley's definition it becomes, in the lower forms of life, equally impnssildo to recognize either the constituents of the individual or the complete individual. Inasmuch as (he sum of the production of an egg or a seed constitutes the *' individual " in tho caso of |»olyps, hydroids, etc., which are capable of indefinite re- proilucli<)U by budiliiig and by excised parts, the traces of individuality would bo only evi4lent if the entire life-phe- nomena, from the moment of exclusion from the egg to tho death of the last constituent, could bo observed: in tho case of plants, too, the constituents of the Individual may be propngatecl lor centuries, and may he spread over the ghdie — r. ;/. tho weeping willows, and the many plants that are almost exclusively raised from buds or shoots — and although they may be thus entirely disconnected, and many of the derivative plants dead, inasmuch as thoy were derivetl from the same germ, they are only parts of an in- dividual. Su'd) arc tlie contrary views that have hern entertained, and such the logical results of the opposite views. At first, both views might appear equally absurd, but they are really not so, and both arc worthy of serious consideration. They follow naturally from different ways of viewing the dift'used or limited individuality in the lower forms of life, which diflfers thus widely from the specific individuality in the higher and more familiar forms. Nevertheless, the mind revolts from such exten- sion of the idea of individuality, and a study of certain phenomena, and the terms generally applied to them in the higher forms of life, may furnish hints for a moro satisfactory restriction of the term " individual." In the domain of teratology, or the science which treats of monsters, there is a special department of double mon- sters — i". c the undoubted product of a single egg or ovum, but the contents of whicli were early segregated into two more or less distinct components, and both developed therefrom. There is, among such monsters, every grade of differentiation up to those twin organisms, such as tho "Siamese Twins," which severally manifest differences of habit and temperament, as well as possess a nearlv or quite com])lete and independent set of organs. Xow, whatever we might call the other double monsters, and wherever we might be disposed to draw the line of dis- tinction, the world would undoubtedly regard each of the constituents of the compound organism known as the "Siamese Twins" as an indivitlual man. If we also view the female of any vertebrate animal, wo shall find a greater or less number of well-developed eggs, and potentially each of those is an individual, as under certain exciting causes it may develop into an organism similar to the parent. Nevertheless, there is room for much difference of opinion as to when, exactly, the indi- vidual conies into existence, for there are all grades from tho formation of the egg to its maturity as a simple egg, its fecundation, and the development thereafter of a foptus. A similar although less obvious difiiculty as to tho precise identification of the individual thus may or does j)revaii in the vertebrates as in the lowest of animals and plants. It may also be recalled that the body of man as well as all other animals is subject to constant changes by molecular action. Distinguishing, however, between potential and fully-developed individuality, wc may, from tho consider- ation and appreciation of tiie phenomena which would be generally recognized as individuality in the higher ani- mals, be furnished with a clue for its recognition in tho lower. If, now, we are prepared to admit, e. ff., the "Siamese Twins" as true individuals, notwithstanding their union and their origin from a single ovum, we must be prepared to apply the same principles to other forms, and designate as individuals forms which resemble and arc homologous with others possessing all the elements of individuality. Thus, in the case of tho couiuion "sea-flowers" or ** sea- anemones " ( Actiniida*, etc.) wc have undoubted individual- ity exhibited in the single product of each egg, and which does not increase by budding. Rut in the case of tho colony of coral animals wc have a number of similar forms connected together and constituting a trcc-liUe combina- tion. Inasmuch as there is in all except their union an exact homology between tho Actiuiidx' and each of the coral animals, we arc therefore compelled to recognize each ci>n- stitucut of the colony as an individual. In like manner are we obliged to recognize the individuality of tho several constituents of the colony among acalephs, but in the caso of many of these there is every gradatimj between a specialized individual and a mere permanent bud. On the whole, however, the recognition of individuality for the several components in these instances is attended with less cniliarrassnient than an extreme course either way. Indi- viduality, it must, however, be remembered, is much less defined In these budding and composite types than in tho nionogenotic-egged animals. Still less is individuality developed in tho vegetal king- d<un. In plants generally, the elements of generation and repntduction (flowers, etc.) are developed periodically, and apparently as secondary products of tho seed. Tho " flowers " and " fruit," e, g., are simply tho outgrowth of the '• plant ;" in composite animals, on the other hand, tlio *• zoiJids " are the prominent objects, and are simply con- nected by a continuous basis. Nevertheless, the term '" in- dividual " is better applicable to tho organisms which arc destined io continue tho species, and which perform the samo rule in the vegetal kingdom as do tho sexes in tho animal kingdom, than ( 1 ) to the undifferentiated as well as dificrentiated part of the plant, or than (2) to the sum of the products (which maybe scattered throughout the world) from a single seed. It will bo, however, in any case, im- possible to always discriminate exactly the individual, for the adage " Natura wu\\ facit saltum " is as applicable in lliis case as in others. Rut by recalling the phenomena 1180 INDIVISIBLES— INDO-CHINA, FARTHER INDIA, ETC. connected with reproduction in the several departments of nature, and attending to the distinction between putential and actual individuality, there will be few coses where serious doubt will practieally exist. Although the npi)Iication of the term " individual" to eatrh more or less jierfect expression or simulacrum of the reproduelivc organism seems thus to bo most ad\ isable, it is important to distinguish the difference in the physi- ological as well as morphological value of the individuals. Thus, the specialized single product of an egg is the per- fect *'2oo7i" or animal, while (he separate constituents of a colony derived from a single egg are called by jiuxicy '^z-ioii/n," or auimal-like organisms. The principal differences in the inter-relations of indi- viduals among various nnimals are the following: I. The simple product of an egg incapable o\' multipli- cation by budding or fission, i, «■. typical animals. a. The sexes differentiated in distinct individuals: ver- tebrates generally, most articulates, majority of mollusks, many radiates, cte. b. The sexes united in the same individual : a few fishes, many worms, many mollusks, many radiates, etc. II. The compound product of an egg capable of multi- plication by budding or fission, giving rise to new indi- viduals or " zociids.'' a. The zooids undergo little change, the egg-bearing form being an ordinary individual. Example, Hydra. h. The zoiiids undergo great change, the egg-bearing form being a specialized individual. Example, most acalephs. Thus the individual, as one separate animal, is very def- inite in the higher types and quite indefinite in the lower. In the Coelenterates, etc. the jihenomena of individuality may be best considered in connection with their reproduc- tion. (See Repkodlxtion.) Theodore Gill. Indivis'ibles. In the mediaeval geometry the victhoff of itulirhib/ci was essentially the same as the modern method of infinitesimals. It proceeds on the supposition that lines arc made up of an infinite number of ioHnitcsimal points, that surfaces are made up of an infinite number of lines, and that volumes are maile up of an infinite number of surfaces. The method of indivisibles holds the same relation to tho infinitesimal calculus, as devised by Leibnitz, that the an- cient method of exhaustions does to tho method of limits, as employed by Newton, As an example of tho method of indivisibles, lot it be required to deduce an e.^pression for tlie volume of a right eone with a circular base. De- note tho area of the base by A, the altitude of tho cone by /(. and let h be divided into an infinite number of equal parts; through each point of division supjiose a piano to be passed, cutting out a section parallel to the base, and denote the distance of any such section from the vertex by h'. Then, if we denote the area of this section by a, we shall have, from the principles of elementary geometry, a: A: : h'^ : 7i^, or a = ^^X h'^. From the nature of indivisibles wo shall have tho volume of the cone equal to the sum of all the sections from tho vortex to tho base; that is, the volume will be equal to '-- multiplied by the sum of tho squares of all the values of /(' from tho vertex to the base. If we take one of (he equal divisions of the altitude as a unit, and call it 1, the differ- ent values of A' will be the series of natural numbers from (I to h; but the limit of the sum of the squares of the na- tural numbers from to A, when h approaches co, is equal A3 A A3 to - ; hence, the required volume is equal to -X ' or to A - ; that is, the volume is equal to the base multiplied by one-third of the altitude. This result agrees with the ■well-known expression for tho volume of a right eone with a circular base. W, G. Peck. In'do-Chi'na, Farther India^ and India-be- | yond-the-(>an§;es are the names given to that portion of the south-eastern peninsula of Asia which is bounded on tho N. by Thibet and China, on tho W. by the Gulf of Tonquin and the China Sea. S. and S. W. by the China j Sea, the Strait of Malacca, the Gulf of Martaban, and \ the Bay of Bengal, and on the N. \\\ by Hindustan. Its ' area is about S50,0()0 square miles, and tho population is j estimated at 2J.000.0un. The adjacent islands of Andaman, .Mergui, Nicobar. and Prince of Wales belong to the Indo- Chinese peninsula. PhtfDical Friiturrx. — A bold, picturesque chain of moun- tains runs through the country in a continuous and unbro- ken ridge parallel with the coast, increasing in altitude as it approaches the city of Hue. the cnjiital of Cochin-China. The northern jtrovince of Tonquin consists of a vast j)lain watered by the Songkha Kivor. Cochin-China proper stretches along the coast, and exhibits every diversity of scenery between 11° and 18° N. lat. The ^Meikhoug. or Cambodia, which is tho largest river of the Indo-Chiucso peninsula, takes its rise in Yun-nan on the frontiers of S'efan, where it is called Lan-Tsang: towards the S. it is renamed Kew-Iung-Keang, or Nino Dragon River. Tho volume of water which it receives from the stupendous mountains through which it forces its way renders it a ' mighty stream. It not only traverses tho kingdoms of I Laos and Cambodia, but after a course of more ;han l.')00 I miles separates into several distinct branches before empty- I ing itself into the China Sea. Cochin-China, from its I many navigable rivers, its central position, and its numer- ous excellent harbors, possesses extraordin:iry advantages for commerce. The Bay of Turon, situated in lat. 10° 7' N.. is equalled by few in the Eastern World for its beauty of scenery; and for the security and convenience which it affords to shipping it can he surpassed by none in tho world. The chief town is Hue. or " the head." situated on a river navigable for sliips of moderate buidcn. It is for- tified, and all its arrangoincDts are carried on in a style in which both magnitude and neatness are observed, showing a bold and warlike people. The other important towns are Cachoa in Tonquin, Saigon in Cambodia Ta mercantilo town of some importance, situatcil on a branch of the Sai- gon River), Faifi. now in ruins, and Turon. once the chief mart of trade between China and Japan. Udong, tho present capital of Cambodia, is situated N. E. of Kom- put, one of its ports, and about 4^ miles from that arm of the j\Icikhong wliich forms the great lake Tala- Sarp, lying KJ5 miles from Koraput. A marshy plain covered with a dense but magnificent forest stretches in an nnlirokcn lino almost to the very gates of the city of Udong. The Songkha. or "great river" of Tonquin, has a course of nearly 400 miles, while Hue. the river of Cochin- China proper, flows through a cultivated country and abounds in the finest scenery aflorded by any of tlie rivers of Asi.i. The changes of climate in these regions are sud- den. Heavy rains tall during the summer, which produce a general inundation at the end of October, after which the climate is pleasant for about three months and best fitted for European travel. Biitish Burmah or Arraean, I Pegu, Martaban, and Tenasserim. including all the AV. or frontier lands, with their rivers and ports, are permanent portions of British territory and under tho direct control of British authorities. Tho kingdom of Slam lies in tho middle, extends to tho Gulf of Siam. and comprises some portions of tho Malayan peninsula. To the E. and N. E. of tho frontier of British Burmah and around some portion of the iSalwcen River arc found several tribes of Karens, more properly Khtiricns, some of which acknowledge Brit- ish, some Siamese, and others Burmese suzerainty, while there are other tribes which are not only really but nomi- nally independent, and arc said to be as wild as the moun- tains they Mihabit. Passing over the Salween valley, and approaching tho northern portions of Cambodia, there are found the Shan states, tributary to Burmah, and acknow- ledging their vassalage in the inverse ratio of their distance from the Burmese capital. To the W. of these Shan states are other tribes whose comparative ])roximity to the Irra- waddeo makes them more substantially submissive to the Burmese government : and. strange to say, in crossing the Mcikhong River other Shan states are met with which are tributary to China. But within the boundary of tho Siamese territory, near the western frontiers of Anam, tho southern limits of China proper, and the eastern boundaries of tho Burman emjdre, are all occupied by Shan states whose allegiance to any of these four powers seems to bo very ill defined. Tlio Kakhyans arc a portion of the vast horde of Singphoos which inhabits the mountains N. of Assam. They have succeeded in ousting many of the Shan tribes, particularly the l*aloungs, from the hill-districts. The commercial state of the Kakhyans, which is the name given to the Singphoos by the Burmese, is in some re- spects very remarkable. They grow cotton in part of tho country, out of wliich they manufacture a strong fabric for exjiort and for their own consumption, which is of such excellent quality that Manchester could not attempt to compete with it in cheajtness and durability, owing, no doubt, to the nominal value of labor among them. Tho Kakhyans constantly levy black-mail even to within 6 miles of Bamho, the seat of a Burman governor of tho rank of wongyee. Everywhere they inspire the people with such terror that no Burmese or Siamese will travel alone in their vicinity. The general population of Northern Burmah is Shan; there are also several other tribes along the upper defile, such as the Pawons, Katha, Khadoos, etc. AM these tribes are Booddhists, bearing a good character for quiet, orderly conduct, with some enterprise in trade and agri- culture. The mineral products arc yet undeveloped ; the IXDO-CIIIXA, FARTHER INDIA, ETC. 1181 lead and silver of Burmah, however, are found in the Shan Blati'S. The Shans are a fine, athletic, larjije-boned race, with hing hair, which ihuy twist into a knot licliind, after the fai<hinn <A' the Uuriufse; their dress i^ simply a coarse bag. with holes cut in it for the head and arms. Their language is a dialect between that of the Burmese and the Laotians. The hitter call them Khonpah, " wild forest- mrn." The Mai Longec teak-forests are fnuud in this region; (hey have three large streams running through them, the Salueng, tlie Ma Home, and Ma N'oi. These large streams are supplied by numerous small ones which the pt'ople call hueiH. Through those lesser streams most of the teak-tiraber is floated into the hirgcr streams, by which it is carried for sale into the Miiulmein River. Many thousands of logs are thus floated annually into the great markets of Buruiah, Maulmein. and Siam from the famous Mai Longce forests. These forests, which pro<luce unfail- ing supplies of the finest teak-wood in the world, are owned by a few hereditary princes of Chiengmai. The Laos iron- works are next in importance. Ban Boor, the home of iron, is a Laotian mining-town. The iron-works arc about two days' journey from tlie town ; the reason the miners live so fur from their work is that the grounil in the locality of the mines is sterile, and they believe the jihicc to bo in- fested with evil spirits. Tbey always offer fowls and a variety of other offerings to the place before they commence operations, from a superstition that if they did not do so they would be afilicted with some dreadful mahi'ly. The iron is very abundant here ; it is smelted at tlio mines, an<i conveyed to the town by means of elephants. The process of working the iron is very simple, the heaviest of the work being ilone by tlie women. The young men are the miners, the elderly men arc the blacksmitlis. the young women use the sle'lgc-hammers, and the old women and children are the bellows-blowers. Taking the slender means they have for working iron into consideration, it is surprising to sec the variety of tools they make. Chiengmai is the capital of the Laos. The surrounding scenery is very beautiful. To the westwaril, about 3 miles from the capital, are the Doic .Sua Tape Hills, about snO to 1000 feet high. Tho female popul.ation of Chiengmai are a hard-working, in- dustrious people. They are all weavers and spinners. The whole process of spinning, weaving, and dyeing the cotton and silk is performed by tho Laos women. They make silk saroangs of a strong, duraldc. and excellent texture. They arc dyed after the fashion of tho Scotch tartan, only of a broader pattern. The woollen patooarps are also made by them, many of which are ex])ortcd. The whole of tlie market business is carried on by women. Tho market-girls come from the suburbs of Chiengmai, bringing with them vegetables, fruit, flowers, eggs, preserves, anil fowls for sale, or for exchange for salt and salt fish, which arc very dear here. Tho Laos are a hardy, industrious. and peaceable people, having a wholesome sense of what is right and just. The laws are severe; tlioft is invariably punished hy death, drunkenness by imprisonment. Tho persons of the females are held sacred. The Laos form of niarringo is in most cases performed and recorded hy tho Mrti'. or magistrate : a divorce may be obtained where tho parlies arc not comfortably suiteil to eaeh other ; morality IS nowhere better observed. Tho Laos are a decidedly musical people, and certainly ono of the most interesting of the Imlo-Chincso race?. French or Lower Cochin-China lies in tho southern ex- tromity of tho enstcrn portion of the rndo-Cliinese penin- sula, lilt. 'J^ 5'-10'' N., Ion. 10J='-I(I7*' E. This vast terri- tory has been gradually aciiuired by tho French after tho dreadful war sai<l to be provoked by the continuous perse- cution of tho Christians by the king of Anani, who is sup- posfil lo have secretly instigated the cruel murder of cer- tain French and Spanish missionaries in his kingdom. At : tho conelusion of this war, whleb very greatly increased I the military presligfi of the French army in Cochin-China, : three rich provinces, called Ban-IIoa, Meitho, and Saigon, \ with the islands of Puloh, Candour, and a few others off ' the coast, oamo into the French possession (IStU). In 1867 new hostilities led to fresh annexations of three provinces, j A new treaty was formed ceding Vinchalong, Chandour, and Ihiytieng, thus yieMing lo the colony of Coehin-Chino Franfiiise an area of 21.000 sfjuarc miles, and a population in LS7U-72 of I.20l,-S7. Aceoniing to the established sys- tem of the Indo-Chinese govcrnnn'iits, every male belongs to the king, and must either enlist in his unny, or work one-third, if not one-half, of the year for the sovereign without any pay. In urging (m the vigorous measures which led to tho French ami Cochin Chinese wars Napo- leon III. seems to iiavc been inspired with the tradition that Franco had prior elaims to be adjusted, ami far greiiter wrongs to bo redressed, than even those which ostensibly led the French and Spanish governments to resolve on war. Cambodia was formerly a large, powerful, and indcpcDdcnt nation, and its kings were often at war with Anam and Siam. On some occasions the Cambodians were victorious, and succeeded in subjugating tho provinces, at other times the Anamitcs or the Siamese had tho advantage. During the reign of His Siamese Majesty P'hra-Chow-Maha-Cha- krapi\t. who rcignctl in the old capital of Ayodhya in the year 16-10 (.v. n.), the Siamese, being at war with Pegu, were laid siege to hy the Cambodians. Having subdued the Peguans, the king of Siam pursued the Cambodians, marched to the very capital of Cambodia, and besieged it, cutting off all supplies, until the king of Cambodia ac- knowledged himself vanquished, and offered to become tributary to Siam ; on which the king of Siam returned to Ayodhya. taking with him as hostages the two sons of tho king of Cambodia, the elder of whom was appointed gov- ernor of the Siamese province of Savankalok. On the death of the king of Cambodia the king of Siam was about to ai)point as his successor the governor of Savankalok, when he learned that a relative of the deceased king, as- sisted by the Cochin-Chinese, had resolved to throw off his allegiance to the monarch of Siam. The latter sent a large army against the insurgents, but the Siamese were defeated and Camboilia became a province of Cocliin-China. Fi- nally, the king of Siam. having once more repelled the in- vasion of the Peguans and Burmese, marched to Cambodia, captured the capital, put tho king to death, and appointed king in his stead one of the princes, P'hra-Narai-Raina, who was friendly to Siam. From that time fur the space of 300 years the kings of Siam have held the right to es- tablish the rulers of Cambodia and to the payment of an annual tribute. In 17S7. Ghialong, the king of Anam, de- sirous of securing his throne against the joint armies of Cambodia and Siam, entered into the famous treaty with Louis XIV. of France, by which he agreed, in return for French ai<l. to cede to his allies the beautiful town and harbor of Turon Kwang Han and two atljacent islands. The vigorous help afforded by France proved effective not only in establishing (Ihialong on the throne, hut in adding to his dominions the rich provinces of Tonquln and Cam- bodia. But the promises made in the treaty to Franco were never fulfille<l. with the exception that the French Christian missionaries enjoyed perfect civil and religious freedom. After the death of Ghialong. and during the reigns of the three successive emperors who followed him, Cochin-China was once more ])lmiged into a series of wars, which led to the persecution of French Catholic mission- aries, and which continued uff and on for several years, until the establishment of Lower or French Cochin-China, when the kingdom of Cambodia was onec more declared independent of Siam. Tho ruler of this kingdom, in real- ity only a viceroy aj)]iointed by the king of Siam, was crowned king in tlie jtresencc of the French and Siamese representatives, at his capital of Udong. under the title of P'lira-Xarodom. etc.. in June, IStVl. P'hra-Xarodom has lately ceded to the French authorities the right of forming a settlement on tlie banks of the Meikhong Kiver at the junction where its four arms divide before falling into tho China Sea, said to bo one of the most delightful sites in the entire kingdom. Ever since the instalment of P'hra- Narodom under the French jtrotectorate nothing has been left undone to secure the good-will of the natives. Tho laws and customs of the ancient regime are resjiectcd, and even upheld: tlic natural municipalities are carefully pre- served; the laud-tax, which has always been obnoxiuus to the cultivator of the suil, has been lowered : and, above all, tho proportion of able-bodied men annually required for mililary and police service has been considerably lessened. In ISnt) a new law was issued regulating civil ofliccs. The resources of the country, however, are as yet but poorly developed, although rice of a very fine quality is produced in great abundance; cotton, sugar, indigo, silk, and to- bacco are also successfully cultivated, but not with their utmost possible results. The dwarf mulberry grows freely ; silkworms are raised with great facility, even with the poor attention given to this branch of industry; hemp, the betel, and the areca-nut are also abundant. The natives j)artic- ularly excel in naval architecture, owing no doubt to tlio magnificent size and qualify of tho timber employcii for that purpose; their row-galleys and i>leasure-bargrs are often from ;'»0 to 80 feet in length, composed of fine single planks, each extending from one extremity to the other. They empli>y various descriptions of vessels in their coast- ing-trade, in fishing, and in eidleeting the hvthr-de-mfr, or Kea-slug. and the swallows' nests among the cluster of islands ealh'il the Paracels. Their tracling vessels are built on tho plan of the Chinese junks. The religion of the most part of the inliabitanis of (lie Indo('bines<> jieninsula is a niod- itioatittn of the system of Booddha. A yearly contrihution is levied by the government for tho sujiport of a certain number of temples, priests, and monasteries, in which tho priests invoke tho deity for the public welfare. Voluntary 1182 INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES— INDRA. contributions of the people for the support of the priests are very groat, as they are extremely superstitious. Iiulu- Cliiiiii'- Rncrs and L<iii;iitiiiieii. — The chief character- istics of the various races inhabiting llic Indo-Chinese pcn- insuhi arc mainly two: (1) Ihey arc move or less of Mon- golian type: (2) they speak languages classed as monosyl- labic. These races are now divided into seven groups: The ThiheHyan and liholyali, who inhabit Thibet proper N. of the Himalaya Mountains, comprise the first group. Tlic most important of the races under this head arc Hhors, Dliciplilas, Lepchas, Bhutans, Kharatis, Semboos, Nawars, with many others. The second group comprises the liur- mcsc and'the Lohyla races, now in possession of the west- ern ]iortion of the Indo-Chinese peninsula. A number of wild tribes, commonly called Lohyta, arc offshoots of these respective races. The third group is the numerous Nagha tribes, or serpent-worshippers. They style themselves Kli:iwphcc, and nre founil scattered all along the regions W. iif the river Kho])hccli. The remaining tribes worthy of mention are the Khycngs, who inhabit the Yoomahdong Mountains, which separate Assam from the beautiful valley of the Irrawaddcc: the Kharicns, a wild but remarkable hill-tribe, who occupy the mountains of Pegu and the southern part of Burinah (the more civilized Kbaricns arc found scattered in the valleys of the Irrawaddeo and the Salween) : the Sabaing, who occupy the valley of the Sitta- wong, may be classed with this group. All the various tribes which are found among the mountain-regions and river-valleys of this province arc probably the aborigines of the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Another ancient and abo- riginal tribe inhabiting the delta of the Irrawaddee is the Mongs, called Talaengs by the Burmese. The Khamains, or inhabitants of Cambodia; Shans, called Penonis by the Cambodians, Kho by the Siamese, and Moio by the Anam- ites — all these names simply mean savages. The whole chain of mountains which extends from the N. of Tonqnin to the S. of Cochin-China is inhabited by wild primitive tribes speaking many different dialects. The savage Stiens also inhabit these mountain-regions. The Siamese, or rather the Thais ("free men"), arc one of the most im- portant of these Indo-Chinese nations. (See SiAM.) The Laos inhabit the interior; they are classed under two heads — Laou poouk khoa, "white" or "not tattooed" Laos, and the Laou poouk dun, " tattooed Laos." The Indo-Chinese langu.agcs are of monosyllabic charac- ter. On the primitive language of the Anamitcs was grafted the Chinese. Booddhism had specially selected the ver- naculars of the day as the vehicle for its teaching; thus, all over Tndo-China are found in use a stratum of words having no affinity with their languages, but which have been in- troduced by the early Booddhist missionaries. All the Indo-Chinese languages are distinguished by certain rising ;md falling accents, and a great number of words when thus moiliiicd cx]iress entirely different meanings. There are eight of these accentuations, properly speaking— the soft, the abrupt, the grave, the sharp, the circumllex, the broad, the rising, and the falling; only five are used in common. Without some knowledge of the musical inflections and modilications of sound it is impossible to understand any of the Imlo-Chincse languages. All the other languages of this group were originally dialects. In this sense the Cambodian, Siamese, and Burmese represent the most wiilely diffused form of the Indo-Chinese languages. But there" is a marked dilTcrenee between the speech of the Siamese, the Cambodians, and the Burmese. The Burmese alphabet employs a grc:it number of double and tripb' con- sonants; the f/i sound is used with a marked guttural bre:itb- ing, which the Siamese and Cambodians render into «/>. In all these dialects not oidy the words, but the vowels them- selves, arc so complicated liy virtue of a system of tones, like those of music, that a single vowel has several dis- tinct methods of utterance, and unless the word be pro- nouncerl correctly, not only as to sound but to tone, the meaning is entirely changed. The alphabets of the Bur- mese and Siamese are very different in character. The Burmese use a round character supposed to be derived from Ceylon. The Siamese use a very handsome upright character, borrowed from the ancient Cambodians, which is still iiscd for their saered books, and sometimes called Maghadhi and at others Pali. I'ali means simply writing, not language. The Laos, in the N. of Siam. speak a dialect peculiar to themselves, but with many Siamese and Cam- bodian affixes, and the alphabet is like that of the Burmese. (See Asinlir Joimiul; Slum and Cmlnn-Chtnii, by John Crawfurd; Trnrela in Indo-Chlna, by M. H. Mouhot ; and Tiniiih in the Kiiiijdom of Chicnymni. by Lieut. S. 11. I'oole.) JIiis. A. II. Leoxowess. Indo-Gcrmanic LanguaKcs. See Laxgu.ige, by Pniu-. W. D. WiiiTNMV. I'll. 1)., LL.I). Iiitlo'rei a subsidiary or protected state of Hindustan, belon-iug to the family of Holkar, and consisting of sev- eral almost insulated territories situated on the slope of the Vindhya Mountains along the river Nevbudda. Area, 42.')0 square miles. Pop. SI;;. 01 J. The inhabitants belong mostly to the aboriginal tribe of the Bheels, one of the wildest and most savage of India. Cap. Indore, situated in lat. 22° 42' N. and Ion. 75° 5U' E., with l.i.DOO inhabitants. Indorsement. See Bill oi- Excu.tNGi:, by Piior. T. W. DwiciiT, l.L.D. lu'dra. The ancient Hindus, in the Vedic period of their religion, did not worship the Indian Triad or heroes, but deified and worshipped the sky, the sun, the dawn, fire, lightning, wiml, and other elements. Indra was the chief of the deities then worshipped. His name is from the .San- skrit root id, to "sec, discover, or discern." Indra denoted the sky, which, from overhanging the world, was supposed to discern all. It also ajipears from the name given to the sapphire, Indra-iiila, or " ludra-blue," and from other con- siderations, that it was on account of the blue color of the sky that the stone received the name of the Hindu deity. The primitive Aryans of India believed that it was the sky which caused rain, and they therefore regarded Indra, or the sky. as the chief of the gods. From all that we find narrated about Indra, it is evident that his causing rain was regarded by Hindus as the most important evidence of his divine power. M'atcr means wealth in the East, and Indr.a's compelling the fleeting clouds to pause over the riee-cl.ad country, and drop their precious burdens on the earth, was esteemed as the ehiefest of his godlike exploits. In offering him praise as the author of rain, Hindus fancied that the cloud which failed to bring rain was an osiira, OJ demon. Sueli a cloud was ])articuhirly a rrifra (from vri, to " hide or envelop "), because it spread over the face of the heaven and tried to obscure the face of the sun. Hin- dus pictured Indra's undertaking to cause rain as his going forth to do battle with this evil vritro: and they represented rain to be caused by his cleaving the demon-cloud with his i-a;Vo, or thunderbolt, and thereby slaying the nsiirn. With reference to this feat, numberless songs were composed in praise of the sky-god ; and inasmuch as Indra was com- pletely victorious in every one of his contests with the cloud-demons, he gradually came to be regarded generally as the giver of victory, and in particular as the god who enabled the .\ryan invaders of India to conquer the abo- rigines; and sohis worship rapidly became more and more popular. In the epic and Puranie periods of the Hindu religion, Indra enjoyed great legendary fame, but he grad- ually lust his place in the Indian Pantheon as the chief of the gods. In Vedic times, however, he was supreme, or only shared his throne with ^.^iii' (fire), Siii;/u (the sun), the Miiniix (winds), and f'sAiis (the dawnb The hymns in praise of Indra arc amongst the most spirited and beautiful in the Jlii)- Vrda. It is impossible to introduce lengthy ex- tr.acts into this place, but one famous one may be given. In the .12d Sakta of the 1st Maudala of the Ulij-Veda it is written as follows : 1. I declare the former valorous deeds ofludni— deeds which the tbunderer has achieved. He cast the waters down to earth ; he broke a way for the torrents of the mountains. 2. He clove the torrent which sought refuse on the mountain. Tr.islilru ilbe smith) sharpened for bim his far-whirling thunderbolt; the fullowinK waters quickly hasteucd to the ocean, like cows hasleuiug to their calves. « « » * 3. Inasmuch, Indra, as thou hast divided the first-born of the elouds, thou bast deslroved the delusions of the delnders, and then causing the siin, the dawn, the sky, to api)Car, thou hast not left an enemy to oppose thee. . , ., 4 With his vast and destructive thunderbolt Tudra struck the dark, mutilated Vrilni. As the trunks of trees are felled by the axe, so lies Ahi prostrate on the earlh. * * • * 5 The mother of Vriira was bending over her son, when Indra struck her back with his bolt. So they lay, the iii..llier above, the son below; and Danu slept with her son, like a cow witli its calf . « • • 6 Then Indra, the wielder of the thunderbolt, became the sov- erci-.;ii of all that is movable and iiuuiovable, of bunied and of bornless cattle ; and as be abides the monarch of men, he comprehended all things within him, as the circumlerence comprehends the spokes of the wheel. As the sky. though changeable, constantly reverts to its perfection of cloudless beauty, so Indra was celebrated as the " ever-youthful " and " the unfading." As he was sup- poscil cspe"ciallv to protect the Aryans, he was praised as •' the discoinfiteV of those who neglect religious rites ' and "b.rd of the devout." But as time went by the worship- pers of Indra gradually regarded him us more a god of war than anything else: and so, by a natural transition, they passed on to anthropomorphize their deity, and im- agined him at length to be a brave, imperious, impetuous monarch. In i\\e Ailnrnin-lin'ihmiimt (an anciellt_ ex- planatory eommeularv on' the .1/.i.i(r<i» of the ICuj Vrda) Indra is'reg.arded as the ruler of the inferior gods, and the INDKE -IXDL'CTIOX AND ABSTKACTION. urn personification of all that n mortal king should be. Indra afterwards bccamu luss an object of wor^^hip than of ad- miration, and in the epic and Puranic period of Hindu literature ho was made a favorite subject lor the ehibornte and extravagant eulogies of poets. The>e gradually in- vcsNd him with a peculiar splendor, whirh again attracted to the gud the langui.ihiiig attention of Uiuduslan, and re- vived his ciiltitH. He was now represented as enthroned in the east as one of the eight guardians of the world. He divflt in an ineflably luxurious paradij^c. Sirtirifii, the hoaven of the inferior divinities, and the final blissful goal of all pious mortal.'^ who had attained sanctity hy a life spent on earth devoted to the due performance of religious duties. It was hero that Iho Gundhnrvaa gang in chorus songs sweeter tlian any ever heard by man ; and it was here that the lovely dancing-girls, the A}}9<ttusn», displayed those blushing charms which tlie austerest of mortal hermits could scarcely resist. Here, too, rose the turrets of the most glorious of cities. Am&ravitti ; and here spread that most exquisite of gardens, Xmnfannf with its five all-yield- ing trees. Surrounded by all this happiness and beauty, Indra still sent the sweet rain upon the earth, and struck the cloud-demons who refused to obey his behests with his unerring vajni. We now find him being represented in paintings and sculptures. He possesses innumerable eyes.. as the sky-god who discerns all. These eyes are repre- sented as thickly covering his body. He has four arms, perhaps typical of the four quarters of the sky. In one famous painting he is represented as riding on an elephant with three trunks. In another he is depicted as standing on an elephant, whilst a tree grows out of his head and peacocks nestle in its branches. The eyes in the tails of the peacocks may n-prcscnt the stars of the firmament. Indra figures in four Interesting drawings in Moor's //i'ik/h Pantheon. Sculptures of the god are to be found in the caves of Elephanta and Ellura. The characteristics and attributes ascribed to Indra in Indian mythology are capi- tally reproduced by Sir W. Junes in his famous hymn to the god, who is represented as "Mounted on the sun's brl^lit beam, Darter of the swilt blue bolt. Sprinkler of gonial dews and fruitful rains O'er hills and tbirsly plains.'* The following lines may also be quoted, as they vividly bring before the reader the god himself, his appearance, bis "robes of changing dyes" (perhaps the variable clouds), and the deities which act as his servants. The story to which the lines arc a sequel is this: Indra on one occasion assumed the form of a shepherd-lad, that he might steal some pomegranate-flowers from a garden ** to detrk the dark tresses of his charming consort, ludrani.'' Whereupon, "The reckless peasant, who these glowinc flowers, Hopeful of rubi«*d fruit, had fostered long, Si-i/.t'd, and with cordaw strong SbackltH! thp ^f»d who irave him showers. Hlr:ii.:ht from st-vt-n winrls iuimortal ^cnii flew: Vakin'a ijreen, whom foamy waves obey; Itriijbt Vahni, fluiiiint; like the lamp of day ; KrviiKA, sou^'ht by all, <'njoye<l by tuw; M \ttT"T. who bills the wiiiu'M brc-zrs play ; Si. Til ^'am\, rulhlfHs ju(li.'tv, and ls.\coId; \\"\l\\ Naiukit, mildly hold; — They, with the rud<ly Ibish whieh points his thunder. It -nd his vain bands u^'^under. Th' rxidting C'hI resuuies hin thousand eyes. Four arms divine, and lob^'S of cbauging'dyes." These lines allude to a late period of the cultus of Indra, as he is represented as taking the form of a shepherd-boy. Still, the idea of Indra breomiiig occasionally incarnate is oni* which does not seem foreign to the spirit of even some of the Vedic hymns, in which he is lauded as the destroyer of certain chiefs who arc aetually mentioned by name. One feature of his earliest worship was the ofl'iTing to him, by f>iou^ IJrahumns, of the juice of the soma-phint. The later egends about Indra are not all creilitablc to him. The sl«'ry of his seduction of Ahilya, the handsome consort of Gotama, is narrated in all its coarseness in the :'.8th chap- ter of the itnmQifnmt. Hntced, Indra became in Puranic timt.'S noted for his profligacy. He constantly sent Ap- iKu-aitftM (Iho beautiful dancing-girlH of his paradise) to tempt ascctifs. When the holy hermit, Viswamitra, had been cngage<l for thousands of years in praetising the most rigorous austerities, Indra fent the moi't beautiful yrnnhi to him. The unfortunate sage was immediately overcome, '• for, seeing her bathing, of surprising form, uii|mrallelcd in beauty, her clothes wetted by the stream exhibiting her fascinating symmetry of frame, he. subdued by the arrows of Kttfi(f<trf,a, approacheil her, and five times five years spent in dalliance with her passed away like a moment." At length, however, (he ascetic exclaimed, "What ! are my wisdom, my firm resolution, my nusterities, all destroyed at onee, and by a woman ? Seduced by the crime in which Indra delights, I am stripped of the advantages arising from all my austerities.*' (Jiamiit/aua, section 60.) Indra is also called by the names of Sak-rOf Vajrapani, Siitakratii, VritnihuHf Vuanva, and Makcmira. K. C. Caldwkll. Indrc, department of Central France, on the Intlre, a tributary to the Loire. Area, 2024 square miles. Pop. 277, til*:;. Although a part of the surface is barren or swampy, considerable quantities of wine and wheat arc niised for exportation. Among articles of industry arc cutlery, earthenware, leather, and cotton cloths. Of ;J4,0tlO children between seven and thirteen years, Ill.OOO did not receive any school education in iSo". Cap. Chatcauroux. Indre, a river of France, chiefly in the department of the same name, flows into the Loire S. W. of Tours, after a X. AV. course of 1 16 miles. It is navigable from Locbcs to the Loire, 45 miles, Indre-et-IiOire, department of Central France, on the Loire, along which high dykes have been built to pre- vent inundations. Area, 2332 square miles. Pop. 317,027. Wine and wheat are produced, trufilcs and fruits are raised, and the culture and nmnufacturc of silk are steadily in- creasing. Of 39,809 children between seven and thirteen years, 8645 did not receive any school education at all in 1857. Cap. Tours. Induction and Abstrac'tion arc the two forms of Genke:.\i,i/,ation (wliich see), abstraction comparing ]ihe- nometia with respect to the similarity of their substance, and establishing a class; induction comparing jthcnomcna with respect to the similarity of their cause, and establish- ing a law as the result "of the generalization. As reduction is the opposite to abstraction, deduction is the opposite to induction. Cy abstraction the definition of a species is established; by reduction a specimen is referred to its spe- cies. By induction the law is established which governs cer- tain phenomena; by deduction a phenomenon is explained as governed by a certain law. The establishment of the law of gravitation from the fact that ajiples fall to the earth is an induction ; the explanation of the ]>benonienon of ebb and flood from the law of gravitation is a deduction. It must be noticed, however, that although these disti net ions arcof great importance as means of understanding thorough- ly the logical operations of the human mind, yet in actual thinking the^' occur very seldom, if ever, in a perfectly un- mixed state. In thinking we generally use the two o]»po- site methods of operation at once, just as in seeing we use both the eyes, in iiearing both the ejirs, in working both the hands, and in walking both the legs. It is true, in general, that inventions are the fruits of deduction, and dis- coveries of induction ; and as it is the natural order tliat the law shall be fouml by induction before it can be applied by deduction, we find, as a general rule, that discoveries pre- cede inventions. First came Oersted's discovery of elect ro- magnetism, then Morse's inveution of the telegraph. Kut was the invention of the lightning-rod a mere deduction? or was the discovery of the globular form of the earth a more induction ? With Ptolemy, who after Hipparchus assumed that the earth is a globe from the movements of the heavenly bodies, it is as impossible to reduce the rea- soning process to a merely inductive or merely deductive ' method as it would be to say whether it is the right hand which washes the Icit or the left which washes the right. The inductive process of reasoning has received its most thorough analysis from Stuart Mill in his Si/nlim *>/ Lni/lc. I He distinguishes between four different methods in which the inductive operation can he carried on — namely, Iho , methods of agreement, of diirerence, of residues, and of concomitant variations— and he condenses the descrijition of each method into a formal cnn(»n or rule of in<luetion. Thus, tho first canon, or the rule of the method of agree- ment, pronounces that )'/ two or mure iiiKtaiit-cH of the phe- nomenon under invfttiyntion have onfi/ one circnnititanec mi j common, the circitviHtiincc in ichivh ahnic aft the inntitnee^ atfrce {» the cnnae of the ffiiin phenomenon. IJut ns in many ' cases it would be n difl'ieult and liiborious. not to say end- less and impracticable task, out of the millions vi' eircum- stances whieh may accompany a phenomenon in dilferent instances, to eliminate (hose whieli arc accidental, because , they do not occur in all instances, and single out that one which must be the cause, because it is ever recurring, it is necessary (o follow another method in carrying on the ope- ration of induction. In such eases it will be found more expedient to single out that one circumstance by the ex- clusion of which the phenomenon disappears, and which consequently must bo its cause. The rule of Ibis method, the method of diflferonce, is expressed in the following canon : //* mi tnntnner in trkieh the phenomenon ntult r in- ventiiftttion oceurn^ and an i'iit/«uirr in rr/n'r/i it doen not oe- riir, htirit ccerif eircnmntnnce exrrpt one in common (that one o'tnrrinif oii/y t'li the former), the eiicumatance in tchieh itluui- thf two inxtfineeg differ in the caune, or ft uerrsgnrif . p'lrt *f the cuime, of the phenomenon. Tlicrc are phenomena, IIM INDULGENCE— INES DE CASTRO. however — and as our knowledge extends they become more frequent — of which the causes are partly known, ])artly un- known. In such cases the method of residues must bo re- sorted to, for which the rule is: Subduct from any phcnomcn>tn stirh pnrt as is kvown bi/ }>rrrtouH iiitliiction to br the tffect of certain antecedents, and the residue o/ the p!i<nonicnvn /« the rifcrt of the remuinintf antecedents. Finally, there are phononicna of which the cause cannot be found out by any kind of elimination, because the causal a;j;ency is universal. Thus, the laws governing; jihcnumf-na caused by the earth's attrai-tiou or by heat cannot be ascertained by any of the tbree former methods of induction, because we cannot get out of the sphere of the earth's attraction, and because there is nothing in which heat is absent. In such cases the method of concomitant variations must be applied, the rule fur which is: Whatever phenomenon raries in ant/ tnan- jier irh> nrrrr another phenomenon varies in some particular mannrr, in either a cause of that phenomenon, or is connected irith it throuffh some fact of causation. The precision and exhaust iveness of these rules arc striking, but it is also ob- vious that real thinking seldom, if ever, follows any of these tracks exclusively. As induction and deduction generally walk together, hand in hand^ so also the different methods of induction. Clemens Petersen. Indulgence meant originally a release from the tem- poral penalties which remain due for a sin after the sin itself has been remitted by confession and absolution, and was granted during the first centuries of the Christian Church not only by the pope, but by all the bishops, to in- firm persons or to those penitents who showed extraordi- nary contrition. I3y degrees, the practice of remitting punishment for money was introduced, the bishops allow- ing offenders to buy off the canonical penalties by bestow- ing gifts for some religious purpose: and from this time the popes began to reserve for themselves the right of granting, or rather selling, indulgences. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries this right was extended in an enor- mous degree. After the establishment of the doctrine of Oi'EitA SiPEiiEUOttATORiA (whichsce) the pope arrogated not only the privilege of releasing from temporal penalties, but the power of forgiving sin; and this enormous extension was accompanied in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with the most scandalous practices. (See Reformation, Tetzel.) In'dus, the great river of Southern Asia which separates Hindustan from Afghanistan. It rises in the Himalayas in lat. ."il° 20' N. and Ion. 81° 15' E., on the northern side of the Kailas, at an elevation of 18,000 feet. After receiving the (Jartope, it bursts through the Himalayas and flows through the lowland to the Arabian Sea. At Attock, the point where Alexander entered into India, \m) miles from its outlet, and at an elevation of only 1000 feet, it receives the Cabool and becomes navigable: 470 miles from the ocean it is joined by the Punjaub, which is formed by the conniicneo of five large rivers; but at Migani, S miles N. of Hyderabad and 75 miles from the ocean, it divides and forms a delta whose breadth along the coast is 130 miles. It enters the Arabian Sea through a great number of mouths, of which the Koree is the widest and deepest, but even that one is not accessible forvcj^sols of more than fifty tons, the channel being much encumbered by shoals and mud-banks. The Indus abounds in fish, but is much in- fested with crocodiles. Industrial Kxhibitions. See Exposition, Inter- national ANh I'sivKUsAi., by F. A. P. IJausahd: and Km'iisition, Tim-: International Universal, by Prof. W. P. Ulaki:. a. M., Pii. B. Indus'trinI Schools, a term which may have several applications, hut of which the strict legal meaning in Great Britain is confined to institutions, established or recognized by the government, to which juvenile offenders may be sent by a magistrate. Attempts to ingraft the industrial feature upon voluntary schools have not been rewarded with much success, at least as regards their usefulness to the lower classes; and in the British revised code the grants for- merly made to such schools were discontinued. It seems necessary to the usefulness of industrial schools that the chiMren be wholly withilrawn from the control of parents, and their entire direction assumed by the school author- ities, in which carsc they naturally become assimilated to reform schools or houses of correction, thus suppressing the element of sjjontaneity which alone can entitle industrial schools to a classification ajiart from discijdinary institu- tions. The number of industrial seliools in England and Scotland in ISGl was only oil, with iilSU pupils. Industry, tp. and post-v. of McDonough co., 111., 8 miles from Macomb City. Pop 37S ; of tp. 1533. Industry, post-tp. of Franklin co.. Jle.. 10 miles N.E. of Fitrmington. It has -1 churches, and manufactures of agricultural tools. Pop. 725. Industry, a v. of York tp., Belmont co., 0., ^ mile from Powhatan Point, on the Ohio River. Pop. 58. Industry, post-tp. of Beaver co.. Pa., on the Ohio River and the Cleveland and Pittsburg R. R. Pop. "96. luebri'cty [Lat. inebriare, "to make drunk"], in the present acceptation of the term, is used to denote the dis- eased condition of the system produced by the habitual use of alcohol. Its synonyms are ahohofism. di/psomania, and oinomnnifi. Alcohol introduced into the circulation acts upon, and to a certain extent destroys, the red corpuscles of the blood, and thus, secondarily, affects all the organs of the body. Its most common moilc of introduction into the system is in the form of s]iirituous and fermented drinks: and in those addicted to its habitual use the prin- cipal lesions arc chronic hypcra^mia and subsequent softening of the brain, cirrhosis and fatty degeneration of the liver, fatty degeneration of the kidneys, and fatty degeneration of the heart. Formerly, inebriety was re- garded as a crime, but within a few years science has shown it to be a disease, and institutions have been es- tablished for its treatment and cure. Statistics f:-om these institutions have demonstrated — I. Inebriety is a dis- ease, and is curable. 11. Relapses may or may not occur. The patients in hospitals for the treatment of inebriates may be divided into three classes — viz. I. Those who by social indulgence, without hereditary taint, have become inebriates. These, as a class, are curable by the aid of an institution. II. Those in whom the disease is inherited, in which cases it manifests itself in paroxysms ("sprees") at variable intervals. These are more difficult to restore to health. III. Those who seem totally depraved in all their instincts, and exhibit no desire for restoration to health. These, as a class, are incurable, and should, for the ])rotection of society, be placed under permanent re- straint in institutions distinct from those of a reformatory character. Carefully prepared reports from hospitals for inebriates show that a very large percentage (between 50 and fiO) of the patients treated in them are restored per- manently. WiLLARD Parker. InequaTity [Lat. in, and rrqualitas']. An inequality is an algebraic expression indicating that one quantity is greater or less than another. The sign > is called the sign of inequality: when placed between two quantities, it in- dicates that the quantity at the opening is greater than the other. Thus, the expressions 3>2 and 5<9 arc inequal- ities; the former is read 3 is greater than 2, and the latter, 5 is frus than 9. The parts connected by the sign are called members; that on the left of the sign is called the /rr»/ mem- ber, and that on the right the second member. Of two un- equal quantities, that is algebraically the greater whose value is nearer to -(■ co. Two inequalities are said to sub- sist in the same nmxe when the greater quantity is in the first member of both, or in the second member of both; they subsist in a contrari/ sense when the greater quantity is in the first member of one and in the second member of the other. Thus, the inequalities 3>7 and 4>9subsist in the same sense, but the inequalities 3>7and 9<I4 subsist in a contrary sense. Inequalities may bo transformed in accordance with Iho following principles: (1) If we add the same quantity to, or subtract it fr<)m, both members, the resulting inequality will subsist in the same sense. (2) If two inequalities subsist in the same sense, and if we add them member to member, the resulting inequality will subsist in the same sense. (3) If both members of^ an inequality are multi- plied or divided by the same positive quantity, the result- ing inequality will subsist in the same sense. If both members are multiplied or divided by the sumo negative quantity, the resulting inequality will subsist in a contrary sense. (I) If both members of an inequality are positive, and if both are raised to any power, the resulting inequal- ity will subsist in the same sense. These principles enable us to reduce an inequality to another in which one member is the unknown (piantity; the other member is then a limiting value of that nuantily. W. (i. Peck. Iner'tia, or Vis Iner'tiro [Lat., the "power of inac- tivity "], a universal properly of matter by reason of which if in motion it will for ever continue in motion, or if at rest it will for ever continue at rest, unless operated upon by some external force, I'nes de Cas'tro, descended from one of the richest and noblest families of <!alicia. when her cousin. Donna Coustantia, married Don Pedro, the crown prince of Portu- gal, nceompanied her as maid-of-honor. Incs was very beautiful ; she was called *' Incs with the heron-neck." At the first glance I>on Pedro fell in love with her, and when, in 13tl. Honna Cimstantia died, ho secretly married her. In 135.'i. Don Pedro's father, the old king of Portugal, Al- fonso IV., had her assassinated for political reasons; and INFALLIBILIST— INFALLIBILITY OF THE POPE. 1185 the passioDato depth and wild character of the lore which Don Pedro bnd entcrtaiued for her became nppareut in his sorrow and in his revenge. AVhen Alfonso died iu 1367 and Pedro became kiu}^, the corpse of Ines was placed on the throne in royal attire and received royal homan;e ; then it was solemnly entombed under a niagnificenl munumeut and with f^or^eous jirocessioiial pomp, llcrassassins were put to deiilh in a most cruel manner. Infal'libiliHt [Lat. mi, " not." and /.t/Zjfc/^ "capable of erring "], one who believes in the infallibility of the pope. The term is of recent origin, and was brought into use in 1870, during the Vatican Council, which at first was divided between iuf'-tiUhiUftH and nnti-in/affibiHita, but at last de- cided that the pope was infallible — »'. c. free from all error — in his official utterances as the head of the Catholic Church on questions of faith and morals. Theanti-infallibilists were divided into two parties — those who opposed the doctrine of papal infallibility from principle, as false (Bishops Ilefele, Marct. Kenriok. Darboy), and those who oppo:?cd it only from expediency, deeming it inopportune, or untimely and unwise to define and to declare the dogma ; hence the latter were called also tnopportiini^t^y as distinct from the oppor- tHHtata. (See I.vfallibihtv and Vatican Cor.voii,.) Philip Schaff. Infallibil'ity of the Pope, Infallibility [It. inj\d~ lihilitii; i^]^Vkn. iii/alihilidnd: Yt. in/aHdhUitf.; Ger. I n/al- lihiUtlU, C^t/ehlbftrkeit] is exemption from error (incrra- bility), and corresponds to impeccnhllity, or exemption from 8in (sinlcssnessl ; the former is the perfection of knowledge. the latter tho perfection of will or character; both are united in (Jod and in Christ, but not in any human being in this world of sin and error. The word is chiefly used in connection with tho Church and tho bishop of Home. All Christians believe that tho word of Uod in the Bible is inspired, and hence infallible. The Greek Church holds, in addition to this, that the Church universal, as represented in a truly cecumenical council, is infallible, but restricts this to the first seven councils from .32 j to 787. The Roman Church goes still farther, and declares the pope, even with- out an oecumenical council, infallible, not indeed in his in- dividual but in his official character, whenever he speaks ex rafAr(/i-<i— that is, whenever he addresses tho whole Catholic world on a matter touching Christian faith or morals. This view was formerly a disputed opinion, stronglv opposed by the Galileans and all liberal Catholics, but is now by a decree of the Vatican Council a dogma of faith which must bo believed by every Catholic on pain of ex- communication and damnation. Tho Vatican decree of July IS, isTfl, thus states the new dogma: *' Therefore, faithfully adhering to tho tradition received from tho be- ginning of tho Christian faith, for the glory of God our Saviour, tho exaltation of the Catholic religion, and the salvation of Christian ]icople. the Sacred Council approv- ing, wo teach and define that it is a dogma divinely re- vealed ; that the liomnn pontiff, when ho speiiks ex cathrdnt — that is, when in discharge of the office of pastor and doc- tor of all Christians, by virtue of his supremo apostolic au- thority, he defines a doctrine regarding faith or morals to bo held by tho universal Church, by tho divine assistance promised to him in bles>'e<l Peter — is pofiPitirff of that infal- lihifiti/ icilfi irfu'rh thr divine /icdeemer teHfed thnt kit f-hnrch nhonld he endmrrd /or drjinxng doctrine rcfjardinfj faith or moraf»; and that, therefore, such definitions of the Roman pontiff are irrr/'ormahfc of' themielreii,nn<\ not from tho con- sent of the Church. But if any one — which may (iod avert ! — presume to contradict this our definition, let him bo anathemn." Papal infallibility was the chief topic of tho Vatican Coun- cil ; it was <liscussed under powerful opposition for several months, and carried at last by the infiuencc of thepope and the Jesuits. When tho vote was first taken in ?ecrct session (July 13, 1S70). 451 bishops voted in tho aflirmativc (pinret), 88 in the negative (non phieet), (12 voted with u qualification ( pfarrt jurta mo'/iim), and over SO. though present in Rome, ai)stained from voting. On tho evening of the same day the minority, which inelud«d the alilost and most influen- tial prelates fas Darboy of Paris. Schwnrzenbcrg of Prague, Hnuscher of Vienna. I>upanloup of OrK-ans, Forster of Preplan. Ketleler of .Mayence, Strossmeyer of Bosnia, Hefelo of Hottenburg. Kenrick of St. Louis^, sent a depu- tation to the pope, which begged him on their knees to modify the proposed decree ami to nnike some concession for the pearo and unity of tho Church; but Pius IX. sur- prised tno deputiition with the assurnnce that tho Church h:id always believed in tho unconditional infnllibility of tho pope, file claims to be the infallible judge of the Church's teaching, aeeording to the saying attributed to him, ** I am tho trarlition.") In tho secret session of July 1ft, on motion of some Spanish bishop, an addition was in- serted, which makes the decree still more obnoxious by de- claring tho pope infallible hr/m-c and icithout tho consont X(i.. ir.— 7.i of the Church (non antem ex comienaH ecclena). On the 17th of July, 56 bishops opposed to the new dogma sent a written protest to the pope, declaring their firm adherence to their conviction, but also their reluctance to vuto against him in his face on a matter aff"ecting him personally, and asking leave to return home. On the evening of the same day the signers of this protest, and 60 additional members of the opposition, left Rome (taking advantage of the ru- mors of war), and by this cowardly act they gave an easy victory to the majority and the triumph of error. In the public session, held July 18, there were but 535 members present, and all voted pfaeet except two (Bishop Riccio of Sicily and Bishop Fitzgerald of Arkansas), who changed their vote before the close of the session. After the vote the pope, amidst a fearful thunderstorm and flashes of lightning, read by candlelight in St. Peter's cathedral the decree. of his own infallibility. The ilay after. Napoleon III., his chief politic:il support, declared war against (ler- many ; tins war in a few weeks swept away both his tlirone and that of tho pope, and resulted in the prostration of France, the unification of Italy, and the rise of the Ger- man empire under the lead of Protestant Prussia, Tho proclamation of this new dogma is the cause of secession of the "Old Catholics" under the lead of Doliingcr (here- tofore the prido of the Roman Church in Germany) and other eminent Catholic scholars. It is also the cause of the renewal of the serious conflict between the pope and tho emperor, since no independent government can treat with an infallible pope on terms of equality. It may yet lead to a religious war in Kurope. The Old Catholic movement would have become much more formidable if some, at least, of the protesting members of tho council had remained faithful to their convictions, but all of them submitted, even those who during tho council bad made an unanswerable argument against papal infallibility. As they all professed to believe in the infallibility of an oecumenical council, they had either to give up this faith and virtually become Protestants, or to admit the infallibility of the pope after it had been so decreed by the Vatican Council, which they admitted to be oecumenical. To a Protestant this very council furnishes the best argument against the infallibility of an opcumenical council, since it solemnly affirms what three other oecumenical councils positively denied — viz. tho infallibility of the p0])c. Either the council is fallible or the pope is fallible, or both are fallible. It is impossible that both are infallible, since they contradict each other. This new dogma is the apex of the pyramid of the Ro- man hierarchy. Logically, it is more consistent than tho Gallican theory, as an absolute monarchy is more consist- ent than a constitutional monarcliy. It teaches an unbro- ken and cvcr-activo infallibility, while (lallicanism secures only a periodic and intermittent infallibility, which re- veals itself in an wuumcuical council. But neither theory can stand the test of history, and is a mere pretension. Papal infallibility especially is unknown to the Bible and unknown to the ancient Church, and was never heard of till the period of the forged decretals in the ninth century. It lacks every one of the three essential marks of catho- licity (the ftcnipcr, the uhif/ue. and the ab omtiibns). It is not taught by any of the Fathers, (ireck or Latin, nor by any of the oecumenical creeds, nor any of the oecumenical councils. On tho contrary, the sixth tccumenieal council, which was held in Constuntinoplo OSO, nud is universally acknowledged in the Kiist and the West, condemned and excommunicated Pope Monorius I. ((i2."t-ri3S) *' as a heretic (Monothclite), %vho, with the help of the old serpent, had scattered deadly error." This anathema was solemnly re- peated by tho seventh and by the eighth oecumenical coun- cils (787 and 8fi9). and even by the popes themselves, who down to the eleventh century, in a solemn oath at their ac- cession, endorsc'l the sixth oecumenical council and pro- nounced "an eternal anathema" on the authors of tho Monothclito heresy, tngelhcr with Pope Ilonorius, *• be- cause he had given aid and comfort to the perverse doc- trines of the heretics." This papal oath was probably prescribed by Gregctry If. at the beginning of the eighth century, and is prinlerl in the Liter dinrnu« and Liber pon- tiJira/iH ilown to the eleventh century. Even the editions of the Roman Breviary before the sixteenth century re- iterated the charge of heresy against Ilonorius. Pope Leo II. strongly confirmed the decree of the couneil against his precleeessor Monorius. and denounced him as one who "en- deavored by profane treason to overthrow the immaculate faith of the Roman Church " (" yi/i" hanc apoatoUinm eccte- tiinm non aponto/irte traditionin dortrina inHtntrit, ned pro- ffinn prodifionr innnaeitlatnin Jidi m tinbverterc rtnintnH eit "). (See Mansi, t'onci/in, torn. xi. p. 731.) This case of Ilono- rius is as clear as daylight (according to tho triumphant argument even of Roman Catholic scholars before the pas- sage of the decree, such as Marct, Gratry, Kenrick, and Hofole), and is alono suflioiont to overthrow the colossal 1186 INFANT. claim as a historical lie {" si falttu in uno,/ahiia in om- nibus"). , But history knows of other heretical popes: Zc]ihirinus (201-219) unci Callistus (219-22u) were Patripassians ; liibcriiis (."ioS) signed an Arian creed and condcinned Ath- anasius, "the father of orthodoxy." who mentions tlie fact with indignation ; Feli.x II. was a decided Arian : Zosimus ( tIT) at li"rst endorsed the heresy of Pelagiusand Coclestius, whom his predecessor. Innocent I., had condemned: Vigil- ius (5;!8-55.i) vacillated between two opposite decisions durin» the Three Chapter controversy, and therehy pro- duccd'a long schism in the West; .lohn XXII. (d. l:i34) denounced an opinion of .Nicholas III. and Clement V. as heretical : several popes taught the universal depravity of men in a manner tlnlt clearly includes the Virgin Mary, and is irreconcilable with the recent dogma of the immacu- late conception; Si.xtus V. issued an edition of the Latin liiblc with innumerable blunders, |iartly of his own mak- ing, and declared it the only true authentic text. Bel- larmin, the great Roman controversialist and infallibilist, could not deny the facts, and advised the printing of a new edition with :v Iving statement in the preface, charging the errors of the infallible pope upon the fallible printer, though the )>opo had himself corrected the proofs. The present pope started out as a political reformer and advocate of Italian unity, which he now detests as the worst enemy of the Church. The Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals first set up the claim of infambility, and by a monstrous forgery, long since ex- ploded, put it with other falsehoods into the mouths of the oldest popes in barbarous French Latin and with glaring anachronisms. Other hierarchical fictions, as the legend of the donation of Constantino and his baptism by Popo Sylvester, arose in the same uncritical and superstitious a^e, and were readily believed. But there was no time wTicn these claims were not resisted. The famous oecu- menical Council of Constance (1414-18) asserted its supe- riority over the pope by deposing one pope (.John XXIII.) for infamous crimes, and another pope (Benedict XIII.) for heresy, and electing a third one in their place (.Martin v.). Tlicre is no escape here from the logical dilemma, either to admit the vali'lity of the council or to invalidate the election of Martin V. and his successors; both alterna- tives are fatal to papal infallibility. After the Reformation the Jesuits became the unscrupulous and untiring cham- pions of this doctrine, but they failed in their eWort to com- j mit the Council of Trent. All the .Jansenists and the I greatest modern ch.ampions of Romanism, as Bossuet, Mcihler. and the principal popular catechisms used before Ism, deny the infallibility of the pope. The Irish bishops Doyle, .Murray, Kelly, affirracd under oath before a com- mittee of the British Parliament in 182.i, and openly dc- chired in a Pastnml Aildreus to their clergy and laity in 182(), that the infallibility of the popo is "not an .article of the Catholic faith." It was on this explicit testimony th.at tho Catholic emancipation liill was carried through Parliament. The Vatican Council was convened chiefly hy .Jesuitical influence for the purpose of defining this now dogma and killing (Jallicanism : but tho arguments and facts were on the part of the opposition, which might have triumphed it' its moral courage had been equal to its learn- ing and ability. Liberal Catholicism is now crushed by au"hority. The Vatican system requires tho slaughter of private judgment and individual conscience, and divides tho allegiance between the popo and the home government whenever they come in collision (as may be the case in the questions of education, marriage, and the restoration of the temporal power). We must indeed respect the higher law and "obey God, more tha^ m.an," but tho pope, far from hein" God .\lmighty. is a mortal, sinful man; anil the gov- ernment which the apostles disobeyed was not the state, but tho cccUtinnticnl government of the ,Tcwish hierarchy, which forbade them to preach tho gospel (.\cts v. 29), and set a bad example to the Roman hierarchy, Litcraliirr. — 1. In favor of papal infallibility: Arch- bishop Cardoni, E/nrubratto tic doffmnfira liomani Poitlijiris infallibitiinie (Rome, 1870, semi-oflieial) ; Archbishop Manning, Pari Prinilrrjium (London, 1871) ; also his reply to Gladstone (1874) : ,\rchbishop Deehamps, l.'Infnillibiliif et le Cnncilr Gfniral (Paris, 1SI59) ; Weninger, tlir In/ull/- bilili/o/lhr Pope (German and French. 1809): .T, 11. New- man, Leiur In the Duke i,f Norfidk. in reply to Gladstone's Valirfin Drerers (London and New York, 1874), ft very qualified defence of infallibility, with a reserve of the rights of conscience. Older champions of infallibility are Bellarmin, Litta, Liguori, and Count do Maislre. 2. Against papal infallibility : (a) By members of the Vatican Council —Bishop Maret (dean of the theological faculty in Paris), Iht Cnncile (Ifntnil el He la pair reUijieuse (Paris, 18fi9, 2 vols,) ; Archbishop Darboy, Ln libcrif du Conrileet I'in/ail- Ubiliti (in Friedrich's jjocumenta, i. 129-1S6) ; Bishop Hefele, the author of the best history of councils, Cnma Htinorii Paps' { Neap.. 1870) ; and Ilonorius mid das seeltste aWjemeine Vuncit (Tubingen, IS70; trans, by H. B. Smilh in the Presbi/t. Qimrt. Jtcr. for Apr., 1872, p. 273) ; Arch- bishop Kenrick of .St. Louis. Coucio in Concilia Valicano habcnda al nnn habita (Naples. 1870; reprinted in Fried- rich's /Jo'umciifo, i. I87-22U). (t) By Catholics not mem- bers of tho council, now mostly Old Catholic sccedcrs— Janus (pseudonymous). 7Vic Pope and the Council (German and English, Leips. and London, I8C9) ; Dlillingcr, I'cber die Unfchllmrluits-Adresse (Munich, 1870): Rciukens, now Old Catholic bishop, Vcbcr piipulliche Unfvhlbarkeil (Munich, 1870) : A, Gratry, Four Letters to the Ilinhop of Orleans (Uupanloup) and the Archbishop of Malincs (De- champs), (in French, German, and English, 1870. Gratry recanted on his deathbed), (c) By Protestants— W. E. Gladstone, The Vatican Decrees in their liearinij on Ciril Allegiance (Lond., 1874), wilh a history of the council and the text of the decrees, by Philip Schaff (New York, Har- pers, 1875) ; Gladstone, Vaticanism, nii Ansieer to Ucpronfs and Replies, oi JIanning, Ncwm.an, and others (Lond. and New York, lS7a). Comp. also the literature on the Vatican CoixciL. Philip Sciiapf. In'fant, in law, is a person whoonaceount of youth and inexperience is incapacitated either wholly or in part from entering into contracts or performing specific acts. The incapacity may be natural or artificial, and is affected by rules of positive law. Thus, under some systems of law a person has not full capacity until attaining the ago of twenty-five ; under the rules of the common law full ca- pacity is attained at the age of twenty-one; though by a special rule a marriage m:iy be contracted by a male at the age of fourteen, and l^y a female at the age of twelve. Wills of personal property may be made at the same age. These rules were borrowed from the ecclesiastical courts, where questions concerning the validity of marriages and of wills of personal property were disposed of. This matter in the V. 18. is to some extent regulated by statute. A promise to marry is not binding unless the promiser is of full age. By an ancient rule which is still law a person becomes twenty-one on the day preceding the anniversary of his birthday. This is on account of the legal pro]iosition that the law" recognizes no fraction of a day. and as full nuijor- ity would be reached at the close of the preceding day, it is attained by this rule at any time on that day. In some states females attain majority at an earlier age than males. This diversity of rules in the difi"erent states or nations leads to interesting questions in private international law. (See Intf.rnatioxat. Law. Privatf..) Thus, if a person not of age in a country where he is domiciled hajipcns to be temporarily in a country where he is of sufficient age to make contracts, and docs in fact assume to contract, the question will be whether the validity of his contract is to be tested bv the law of his domicile or of the place where the contract is niailc or to be performed. Under the Eng- lish and American law the law of the place where the con- tract is made is assumed to govern. In testing the validity of a will of personal property reference will be liad to tho law of the domicile, and of a like disposition of land to the law of the place where the Land is situated. The subject maybe considered under the following prin- cipal divisions : 1. The capacity of infants to make eon- tracts, and to do o'thcr acts of a civil nature involving judg- ment and discretion: II. Their liability fur wrongs (torls) ; III. Their rcsponsil.ilitv for crimes ; I V. Tlicir rights in a court of equity; V. Their liability as properly -owners to bear the legal burdens imposed on property. I. It is a general rule that an infant's contract is not binding upon him. There has been great controversy upon the point whcllier his ai'ts arc void or voidable. The elfce.t of this distinction is. tlial if the contract is void, it is inca- piililo of confirmation by the infant on ;ittaining majority. On the other hand, if voidable, the infant has the power of confirmation. There is a strong tendency in modern law to construe the act to be voidable rather than voul, and there arc but few contracts made by infants at the present ilay which are incapable of ciuifirmation. This rule makes the subject of confirmation of much importance, ond fre- iiuentlv'queslinns arise as to the point whether it may take place by implication as well as by express agreement. It has often been decided by the courts that confirmation may be inferred in certain cases from acquiescence for a consul- erable time after mnjoritv, particularly where the Iruits of the transaction are still enjoyed by the infant, as in the case of purchase of property or the execution of a lease. In the latter case the reception of rent would be strong evidence of confirmation. This doctrine would not he so readily admitted in (he case of the sale of the inf:vnt's land, and there arc authorities of high respeelabibty which maintain that the title will not bo perfect in this ca^e. in the absence of direct confirmation, until there has betn pes- INFANT. lis? Bession by tho grantee for the time required by the statute of limitations. (See Limitations. Stati'tk ok.) A person will not be liable to pay a <Iebt conlractod during infancy without a promise to pay made after majority. Under these doctrines it is plain that an infant at his majority may, except in special instances to be hereafter mentioned, repudiate his contract at will. In doinsj this bo must^ in general, return to the other party what he has received from him. His infancy is to bu used "as a shield and not as a sword." Should he repudiate the contract, it would seem that he would be under a legal duty to make restitution only in case the property was under his control. In other words, he nui.^t. on rescinding a contract, put the opposite party back in his original position, if that is in his power. If he makes a contract to serve another for a epecificd time, he may repudiate the contract, and still ex- act payment for what he may have dono under it. The principal exception to tho voidable nature of the in- fant's contract consists in the fact that he may bind him- Felf for "necessaries." This term refers to contracts for fooci, clothing, shelter, medical attendance, and proper in- struction or education. There will, of course, bo a wide ranze in respect to these articles, depenrling upon the in- fant's wealth and position in society. While the judge? determine as matter of law the classes of things for whicli infants arc liable, they refer special cases to the jury to decide whether, under all the circumstances, the expendi- ture was proper. There may. however, be cases of such a glaring character as to show that the goods could not on any theory be necessary, when the judge will dismiss the case. It should be added that while the infant may be bound by his contract in respect to such articles, it does not follow that he will be required to pay the price which is charged to his account or which he has agreed to pay. He can only be held for tho real value of tho goods, without reference to the price fixed, though that be stipulated by his note or bond. Under these rules, if an infant should borrow money with an intention expressed to tho lender to purchase necessaries, he could not be made to repay the money unless it wore actually used for that purpose. These rules, being designed for the infant's protection, are liber- ally construe! by the courts. The doctrines applicable to necessaries would be extended to his wife and children, and he could contract for their support. There? may sometimes be a question whether the price of supplies is to be paid by the infant or liis parent. Tho true line of inquiry in such a case is, To whom wis the credit ffiven f If given to the parent, tho tradesman cannot recover of the infant, though the parent should prove pecuniarily irresponsible. Witliout pursuing this branch of tho subject further, mention may be made of certain ofher ca^es in which the infant will be bound by his acts. It is a general rule that he will be hound whenever he voluntarily does that which ho could have legally been compelled (o ilo : r. 7. if ho could have been refjiiired. as a trustee, to execute a dee<i, his voluntary execution of it will be sufficient. Tho same rule will be .applied if statute law gives him in special in- Btanr-es an exceptional capacity to act, as where ho is au- thorized by law to enlii^t in the army or navy or required to support an illegitimate chihl. In th™ following instances an infant is hv the law of this country usually incapable. He cannot hold a public office or act as an exe?'itoror administrator until he is seventeen, and in some States until twenty-one Mhough ho may be appointed), nor can the doctrine of estoppel be applied to him in a court of law. though it may be in some instances inequity: nor can he in general npp<Mnt, an attorney or appear in court by an attorney, though a next friend or guardian may act for him. who may appoint an attorney; nor will tho statuteof limitationn begin to run against hiin. The explanation of the la>Jt branch of this statement is. that if a cause of action should arise during his infancy, neglect cannot be imputed to him for failing to vin*licate his rights by nctitm. Accordingly, the statuteof limitations, which is framed to prevent undue tlelay in litigation, will not ap- ply to him until his infaney ha« ceased. The rule, how- ever, does not extend to the case where the infant takes by succession from another a right which might during the ownership of his predecessor have been enforced by action. n. LinhiUhf of the fii/ant /or MVom/A/ .!r/* (torts).— In this class of cases the ground of liability is a wrongful act and consequent damage to another. The reason for the in- fant's exemption from liahilily here fails. There is no longer any policy of the law to protect him from responsibility. Tho artificial rule of incapacity is dispensed witn, and if nn infant having sufTirient di««cretion commits a wrongful aet and causes injiirv, he will he liable to an action as though he were an adult. There will frequently he eases in which it will be difficult to rlraw the line between liability upon contract and responsibility for a tort. It is in a certain sense true that a wrong may arise out of a contract, and tho inquiry must be made as to tho rule to be applied in such a case. For example, nn infant may hire a horse, and from his youth and inexperience may treat the animal injudiciously by overdriving hira or watering him when heated, and thus cause damage. To hold the infant liable in such a case would be substantially to break down all the safeguards which the law has e.slabliished for his protection. On the other hand, if the infant simply use<l the contract as an opportunity or an occasion to commit a wrong, or if, in the case supposed, ho wilfully abused the animal, the wrong could in no proper sense be said to arise out of the contract, and the infant would be responsible. Owing to this dis- tinction a prolonged controversy has existed among jurists as to the point whether an infant is liable for fraud prac- tised by him in the making of a contract. On the one hand, it is claimed that the fraud is so inseparable from the eon- tract that the right to plead his infancy includes the right to exempt himself from responsibility for the fraud. On this view, the only remedy of the injured party would bo to annul the contract on account of the fraud, and to de- mand a return by the infant of what be bad receivecl under it. This is the view prevailing in the Knglish courts. On tho other hand, it has been nmintained in some of the Amer- ican courts that the fraud is such a wrongful act as to give a substantive ground for an action of damages. The weight of reason would seem to be with the Knglish view, and the opposite doctrine can scarcely be considered as established in this country. Courts of equity have held in some in- stances that an infant who has fraudulently represented himself ns of full age. and has obtained property on that basis, is estopped from denying that he is of full age, and have thus by this artificial rule indirectly held him respon- sible for his fraud. This doctrine is not very satisfactory, and rests more upon authority than u]ion 5oli<l jirincijile. The law upon the whole subject of the distinction between tho infant's liability for a wrong, whether considered as connected with a contract or as independent of it. is in an obscure and perhaps transitional state, and only general and probable results can be given. A clear instance of liability may he found in the case of the wilful use of a chattel entrusted to him under a contract in a way pro- hibited by the owner, and consequent damage. An Kng- lish illustration is the act of hiring a horse, with a pro- hibition by the owner against using it to jump fences, and the deliberate use of it by him notwithstanding, followed by damage. This is really an exercise of an act of owner- ship inconsistent with the contract of hiring, and substan- tially an appropriation of the chattel to the infant's own use, and thus the act is a wrong unconnected with the con- tract. III. Cnpacittj of Infants to Commit Crimes. — Tho same act which when regarded from the point of view that an individual is injured constitutes a tort, may in reference to society be regarded as a crime. There is no good reason why if there is sufficient intelligence on the part of tho infant he should not be responsible. The arbitrary rule established for his protection in the case of contracts should be discarderl, and the sole point of inquiry should concern his actual capacity to understand the nature and consequcnecs of (be act done. The criminal law. however, contains the arbitrary rule that under seven years (pf ago he cannot commit a felonious crime. When he is between seven and fourteen years of age there is no presumption either in his favor or against him: his actual capacity is fully open to investigation. When fourteen years of ago and upwards he is presumed to be capable, and the burden is cast npon him to produce evidence of incapacity. For physical reasons a male infant under fourteen years of ago is conclusively presumed in Kngland to be incapable of committing the crime of rape. This rule has been dis- carded in the State of New York, and ])crhaps elsewhere, on the ground that puberty is attained hero at an earlier age than in Englanrl. Tho older law-books are disfigured with accounts of children of tender years who have been executed for capital crimes. The more humane policy of modern times is to sentence juvenile criminals to houses of refug** or correction, where educational and disciplinary measures are resorted to with a view to eradicate, or at least to ameliorate, their vicious dispositions. IV. The PoHitinii of an Infant ill a Court of Eqnit\f. — Infants are favorites of this court, and are frequently under its special proteetion ns being its wards. The court has abundant power to protect them by means of its ability to funish for contempt those who interfere with its orders, n thot court the authority of a parent is regarded rather as a trust than ns a power, and the court may for good reasons withdraw a child from its parent's custody, and give it over to persons deemed capable to train and educate it. (See PAnKNT ami CiiiKn.) When the property of nn infant is before this os well as other einirts, a guardian for tho purposes of tho litigation {ad litem) may bo appointed 1188 INFANTADO-INFANTRY. to look uftcr his interests. He at the same time will not be alloweil by his negligence or inattention to aficct injuri- ously the infant's estate, and any untoward admissions in an action jircjudicial to his ri-^hts will not be regarded. The validity of his marringo settlements frequently come before this court. It is a wcll-settlcd rule of the Knglish law that a female infant may on the eve of marriage, by a proper settlement, bar herself of all claim of dower in her husband's land. This may be done under a statute as early as the reign of Henry VIII., known as the "statute of jointures." The same general rule prevails in this country. Her right to part with h^r utcii rftt caiatr in this way is much more restricted, and a settlement having that effect may he avoided by her after attaining majority, and after the termination of the marriage, and. according to the views of some jurists, even during its continuance. The same rule would bo applied to the case of a male infant making a settlement of his real estate. The power of both classes of infants in respect to personal properly is much less restricted. The whole subject is at present regulated in England by statute. V. An infant considered as an owner of property is liable to the burdens incident to ownership. Thus, he would be bound to pay taxes or other assessments of a legal nature. His land can be taken under the rules of eminent domain in the same manner as that of an adult. There would bo a distinction between property cast upon him by a rule of law — e. {/. by descent — and that which be has acquired by his own act. In the first case, the law would make him competent to hear the burden, and ho could only shift it off by a sale. On the other hand, where he had acquired it by his own act, he could reputliate the transaction, and thus relieve himself from liability. But even in this ease, so long as he remained owner his liability to such burdens would continue. { Reference may be had for further informa- tion to the treatisesof Bingham and Jlacpherson on f>\fanrif; Forsyth on the Custody of In/aiitu; Chambers on Chancery Jnriftdiction ; and to the treatises of Reeve and Schooler on the Domestic lielnfionn, as well as to more general works, such as Kent's Comnienturien, and Story on Eqiiittj Jurinpiudence. See also GiARDiAN and Parent and Child.) T. AV. DWIGHT. Infanta'dOf a district in Spain which formerly consti- tuted the personal domain of the infantes or royal princes, aod which gave title to a dukedom, created in 1403, which was held by several of the most powerful of the Spanish nobles. It was composed of the four villages of Penas de San Pedro, Alcoccr, Salmeron, and Valdeolivas, situated in the province of Guadalajara, about 50 miles due E. from Madrid. Iiifan'te [Lat. in/ans, "an infant"], in Spain and Por- tugal the official title of the princes of the blood-royal, the princesses being called iu/antafi. The heir-apparent to the throne, however, was not called an infante,- in Spain his title was principe de Anttirtai, or simply fl principr, " the prince;" and in Portugal, until the separation of the Amer- ican colony, he was called the prince of Brazil. The name infante was also applied in Spain at an early period to the children of the nobility, and the "seven infants of Lara," who were killecl in an attempt to rescue their father, the 8€?lt)y or lord of Lara, from Moorish captivity in Cordova, arc famous in Spanish ballad-poetry and romance. Infante (Jose MifiUKi,), b. in Santiago de Chili in 177S, was one of the leaders of the revolutionary move- ment of 1810, which resulted in the independence of Span- ish America ; a member of several of i\\Q jnnta» of govern- ment established by the insurgents; was president of the provisional juntas of 182.3 and 1S2.); member of the '"con- gress of plenipotentiaries" in IS.'U, and chief-justice in 1S1;I. Infante was the founder of one of the earliest po- litical newspapers of Chili, and was prominent in organ- izing the common-school system of his country. 1>. in Santiago Apr. 9, 1841. Infan'ticidc, Law concerning. Infanticide, at common law, consists in the doing of any act whereby the death of an infant child is caused after it is fully born alive. It is to be distinguished from the killing of a child within its mother's womb, which is now known as fivticide. When the death of the new-born infant is occasioned by an unlawful act, as distinguished from mere accident or un- avoidable casualty, such act will constitute the crime of felonious homicide (see Homicide), nnd may be either mur- der or manslaughter, according to the circumstances of the particular case. (See Mirdkr, Mas.slai'«htkk.) In every instance, however, the death must occur after the actual birth of the child, or no crime is committed. If means be used for the procurement of an abortion upon the person of the mother, either by the administering of medicines or by the use of instruments, or in any other way whatever, and the foetus is destroyed before birth, the aot is neither murder nor manslaughter at common law. This defect in the law has, however, been generally remedied in recent times by the enactment of statutes for the prevention and punishment of abortion. (Sec Adortion.) The doctrine of the common law is that when a child is fully born he first becomes a human being within the scope of that rule in the law of homicide which requires that the person killed shall be '* a reasonable creature in being," in order that the act of killing may be iclonious. The infant is said to be actu- ally and fully born when eirri/part of it is wholly produced or separated from the body of its mother in a living state. It is not necessary that the umbilical cord be severed, nor that the child should ever have hroalhecl before being killed, if it was fully delivered and alive. On the other hand, if it be proved that the child did breathe before its death, this will not be sufficient evidence that its birth was eomplete, as breathing sometimes begins during the progress of tlio delivery. It is only requisite to constitute criminal infanti- cide that death occur after actual birth. The injuries may have been inflicted previously. Thus, if a child is born alive, but subsequently dies from the effect of bruises which it received wliile in the womb, the person inflicting the in- juries is chargeable with murder or manslaughter. But if the dealh occur during the progress of the delivery, though a portion of the child's person has been removed from its mother's body, no crime is committed. It is not, however, necessary that the full period of gestation should be completed, for if a person intending to procure an abor- tion does an act which causes a child to be born before the expiration of the natural time, and it dies in consequence of its exposure to the external world or from the injuries it has received, he will be guilty of murder. (See the works of Bishop, of Wharton, of Russell on Criminal Lnic; Whar- ton on Homicide: Archbold's Criminal Practice, For tho various medical tests employed to determine the cause of a child's death, and whether it has occurred before or after birth, such works may be consulted as Wharton and Stille's Medical Juritprudence: Beck OR the same subject ; and also Taylor.) George Chase. Revised by T. W. Bwigiit. In'fant Je'sns, Daughters of the, an order of nuns in the Roman Catholic Church. Founded at Rome by Anna Moroni of Lucca for the industrial instruction of poor girls ; it was first acknowledged in 1673 by Clement X. No con- vent can have more than thirty-three members, that being the number of years Jesus was on the earth. There was also an older order called "Sisters of the Good Jesus," which a])pears to have been long extinct. In'fantry [Lat. infana, "child" or "servant," applied to servants who went on foot, and infanteria^ to foot-soldiers generally] is that portion of a military establishment armed and equipped for marching and fighting on foot, in contra- distinction to artillery and cavalry. It is the oldest of the "three arms" into which armies arc conventionally divided; was the favorite of the Greeks, the Gauls, the (ierinans, and the Franks, and was that mainly with which Rome con- quered the world. Under Grecian and Roman civilization it attained pre-eminence as the arm of battle, but fell into contempt and comparative desuetude early in tho Middle Ages, and did not emerge from that obscurity till the de- cline of the feudal system. It steadily increased in power from the tirst years of the fourteenth century, and is now recognized as constituting the principal strength of mili- tary organizations. This importance results from the fact that it can be used everywhere, " in mountains or on plains, in woody or open countries, in cities or in fiehls. on rivers or at sea, in the redoubt or in the attack on the breach." It is tho self-sustaining arm in the field of battle, and is moreover less expensive, man for man, than its auxiliaries. j Aitcitnt Infantry. — The primitive fonnation of heavy in- fantry was massive, as is shown in the solid squares of I 10,000 men portrayed in Egy])tian history, and this order I was gradually reduced in depth through the Persian and Dorian formations till it reached the phalangial systems of Sparta, Thebes, and Athens. These systems became ! homologous under the Macedonian empire, and the ])halan.\ as it existed under that domination is now described. The I foot -soldiers were divided into three classes — ihe hopl it ea, or heavy infantry, in complete armor and carrying the sarissa. a spear over twenty feet in length ; the peltaetrH, or light infantry, with shorter spears and less eomplete armor; and tho puilif, or sharpshooters, who wore no armor and carried only missile weapons. Tlie pfiolanjc. comparable, in size at least, to a modern division, consisted nominally of 4ii:Kt hoplites, organized into two ^e/f/rc/uVf (or brigades), each consisting of two cftiUnrrhra (regiments or battalions), ■ and these in turn divided into four ftyntagmata (battalions or companies). Tho syntagma combined sixteen files, I each file (lovhos) containing sixteen men; and thus in line I of battle tho phalanx presented a nominal front of 2i>{\ men 1 and a depth of IG men. In open order, as for the march, INFANTRY. 1189 there were intervals of about six feet between the files; in close order, us in advancing to the attack, the spaces be- tween ranks and files were reduced to about three leet ; and in the locked, or dcfent;ive order, the men closed shoulder to shouhler on the front rank, overlappint; tlieir shields; and in this order presented an almost iniponetralile hedge of steel to the enemy. The peltastes bad a similiar forma- tion, though of less depth and under ditlVrcnt denomina- tions, but it is not clear that tlie psilse Imd any MSlcmatic orgnnization. Four of these elementary phalanges, with their complement of light infantry and cavalry, formed the grand phalanx, or army corps. But a rival system, substantially anticipated in tlie He- brew armies of Joshua, reappeared in |{otnau infantry. The fcgion was coetanoous with the foundation of Rome, and, in so far as it combined all the constituent eletnents, was a prototype of the corps d'armee of to-day. Originally, legionary infantry was massed according to the phahingial method, but as early as 340 u. r. that formation had been superseded by a system of heavy lines so divided into tac- tical units, called tnanipuH, tliat while each line and each unit could act separately, they could execute combined movements with celerity and precision. The complement of infantry for each legion gradually increased from .'iOOO to 6000. and in the details of equipment and organization changes were frequent. As existing in the First Punic war, and consisting nominally of 4200 pidH'H, the heavy in- fantry was formed in three lines — in the first line l-IH) hni>. tafi, young and inexi)erienced warriors ; in the second. 1200 pniicipen, men in full vigor of life; and in the third^OOO trinrii, the veteran trotips. Kach line was divided into ten fnaM(7)i(^(' (companies), tbe first two lines being in ten ranks and the third in six ranks; and in each company the space between ranks and files was about three feet, the men in rear of the front rank standing opposite the intervals of the rank next in their front. To this force was attached a corp of 12U0 celiten (skirmishers), who probably had neither company organization nor fixed position in the legion. At this period all of the heavy infantry were equipped in com- plete armor, and were armed with the short straight sword ; the haatati and principes also carried heavy javelins, and the triarii had long spears. The velites wore no armor, and used none but missile weapons. l*rior to this period the long spear had been borne by the hastati, and the pi- htmy a heavy javelin, by the triarii ; hence the name of the first line, and the designation of that and tho second line as antepilani. These misnomers obtained, however, till these classifications of heavy infantry ceased. In tho Second Punic war the manipuli of a legion were grouped into ten rohorlen (battalions), consisting each of a eornj)any of has- tati, one of principes. and one of triarii, with probably a corresponding proportion of velites. About 100 h. c. the heavy infantry, ceasing to bo divided into classes, are armed and equipped alike, the velites disappear from the legion, separate corps of light infantry are formed from tho auxiliary forces, and the cohort, becoming the tactical unit, resembles more closely the morlern battalion. This was tho formation employed by Maritis and Ciesar, and maintained till about the time of Hadrian: and subsequent modifiea- tinns did not destroy the distinctive features of tho system. Tho contrast between the rival systems of antiquity is confined to the heavy infantry, or troops of tho line, and is, briefly, that of large masses comparatively inert, with smaller force-units of corresponding mobility. The pha- lanx, thougli equal t<j a modern division in numbers, was, tactically speaking, simply a huge battalion, and its usual figure was that of an oblong rectangle (Fig. 1). This for- Fio. 1. I tL. ^HZEES mation cniiM chanjjo. iind pxleml or onnlnict its front, nnd form roliiniiK'i, sqiuircy. wcij^rx. etc. ft wiis peculijirly for- miilalilr in ilffonKivc nlliludp. nnd was ovorivhdniinK in an onHlnuglit over finorutilc grounil and for short distancos ; hut there scorns ttt have lieen no provision for mantnivor- ing hy fractional parts except to form masses of greater depth, and the phalanx ongnKed at all was enitaged as a whole. On tho other hand, the taelieal units of the legion never exccedecl fillO men, and these could he maniruvcred separately, in croups, or as a whole. The formations most cbaractcristio of tho Uoman system were the manipular ar- mumQ Mmmmm M ray in quincunx order (Fig. 2). and the later formation in two or more lines of ecdiorts, with small intervals in each line for the passage of light troops ; and from either of these orders, columns, continuous lines, hollow and solid sqnares. etc. were readily derived. The manipular system gave grent flexibility to the legionary infantry, but at tho expense of its powers of resistance, and the later cohort formation as arranged by Csesar (Fig. ;i) was a partial reversion to the Ki.;. :i. T I I phftlangial order. iModern criticism is pronounced in favor of the Roman cohort, but in its renaissance infantry was again displayed after the rival methods of Alexander and Ciesar; and in conijiaring the two systems there is danger of overestimating the effect of purely tactical combinations upon the fortunes of ancient armies. At Marathon an Athenian line only four deep and at "double time" suc- eessfnlly charged great odds in dense masses; at Leuctra the Spartan line, eight deep, is pierced by tiie Theban col- umn : Greeks in phalanx conquer the Persians in like order, but finally succumb to the Roman cohort, hut that in turn was annihilated by tho barbarian hosts in phalangial ar- ray ; and it is significant in this connection that while Pyrrhus and Hannibal adopted Roman wenpons, ihey did not discard the niassi\e formation. In the Miffillc A(jrn infantry eontinued to constitute the principal strength of the dominant powers of Europe till the feudal system was established. In the seven days' battle of Tours (a. n. 7.'52} we find tho heavy battalions of the Franks defying the fury of the Saracenic cavalry, and for ever turning back the northern tide of Moslem inva- sion: this, however, was its last creditable appearance for several centuries. I>uring the period of its aliasement, war was pre-eminently the occupation of mankind, but military science was in abeyance. Armies worthy of tho name ceased to exist, and all discipline disap])eareii ; cavalry be- came the principal arm, and for over 400 yenrs the mnn-at- arms in conijiarative security trani]>led the despised infant- ry, then a tumultuous mob that pillaged or fled as fortune served their mounted musters. But feudalism forced roy- alty into alliance with the commons; to curb the nol)Ie iho king armed and disciplined the peasant. ''Communal" militia was organized, and soon proved superior to the ba- ronial followlngs, and as early as 1214 some of the German infantry is ilescribed as " very good, and trained to fight on the level vrm <tijniuH( cnralry." In the next century Flemish infantry with crossbow and ])artisan overthrows the chivalry of France at Courtrai (Ki02), the Austrian man-at-arms comes to signal grief on the Swiss pike at Morgarten (i:il.'>). Sempach (i;'.8fi),and Nafels (i:i88), and the Knglish knight dismounts to fight beside the victorious archer at Cressy and Poitiers (l.'!4fi-f)n). The prestige thus re-established, though often challenged, was never lost; corps of pikemen and archers became essential elements in all military organizations : ami in the standing armies raised nbout the miiidle (if the fifteenth century these troops attained such steadiness and dexterity that cavalry, in its last crustnceons security, soon fared but indifl"erently in disputing precedence with infantry; and when the weap- ons of the latter delivered missiles through the heaviest plate-armor that man and beast ctuild bear, the issue was decided. Cavulry was still important, but was relegated to an auxiliary position. From the fall of the Western empire till about the battle of Pavia (1.02.'i) defnils of military formations are exceed- ingly meagre. While systematic arrangements obtained, there appears to have been adherence t(t the systems of Greece and Rome. At Casilinum (a. n. UbX) the Franks in phalangial wedge are defeated by the cohorts of Narses ; at Tours they are victorious in massive square; ot Hast- ings tlie Anghf-Saxons adopt<'d n similar order; at Ron- vines (1214) the Gernnins were in hollow square; the iUhut of Swiss infantry ts in Grecian wedges and sqnares; wliilc the Spanish infantry, eqimlly famous a few years later, fir?t appears in the Rinuan order, and. like its prototype, ex- hibits a pnrtiiil reversion to the (Jreek method when con- fronted with the Swiss copy. The principal infantry weapons, ofl'ensive and defensive, during this period were straight swords, pikes, axes, spiked clubs, hmgbows, hal- berds, crossbows, parlisa?is. helmets, ntail-jackets, corselets, and shields. As in former perioils. the use of missile arms is almost exclusively confined to light troops. Mmlcrn iit/autn/ is conveniently nssumecl to date from the general introduction of firearms — not because that event at once revolutionized military methoils.bnt because from that period there is aullientie record of the gnidnal revival of military science. Firearms were in general use 1190 INFANTRY. when tho battle of Pavia occurred, but for many years these weapons were unwieiay, uncertain of aim, and lim- ited in range. They did not entirely supersede the bow till about tho middle of the sixteenth century, and the musket did not become tho sole arm of civilucd infantry till at the beginning of tho eighteenth century, it became, with the socU'ct l)ayonet, a pyro-ballistic Jiikc. In the in- fantry "bands" organized by Francis I. in laii, and promptly imitated by other nations, the arquebusiers and archers'in equal proportion to each other, constituted two- fifths of the entire force; in 1562. "regiments'' of about 3000 men become common, and, the bow disajipeanng, the proportion of firearms is soon increased to one-hall. At the bc^'inning of the Thirty Yeais' war "battalions of about 500 men had been organized, which in extended or- der presented a line of contiguous company squares, ten or twelve r.anks in depth, with the light infantry (then mus- keteers) on the flank.-!. But notwithstanding the steadily increasing destructiveness of artillery and small-arms these battalions were still habitually massed for action into close columns of twenty, and even thirty, files; and these un- wieldy imitations of tho phalanx suffered an additional incunilirance in the immediate pro.ximity of the enemy from the huddling of their own musketeers within the pro- tection of their pikes. The impotence of this system was rudely exposed by tho genius of Gustavus Adolphus, who seems to have been the first to awaken Europe to the value of infantry fire. His innovations consisted simply in so adaptini' "his battalion formation and gr.and tactical com- bination's as to develop tho full force of his own fire with the least possible exposure to that from the enemy. To accomplish this result, he formed battalions of mobile di- mensions, reduced the depth of his ranks to six men, in- creased the proportion of firearms to about three-fifths, li-rhtened the musket, shortcnc.i the pike, discarded useless annor, and introduced the cartridge and cartridge-bo.x. Moreover, bis men were taught to use the spade as well as their legs. His usual order of battle was in two lines, re- sembling the quincunx system of the Romans (Fig. i). The Fig. 4. Peace of Paris to the present day but trifling differences have existed in the organizations of difl'erent nations. The English were probably the first to adopt a habitual forma- FiG. .5. ^OFFICERS ■N.COfFICEflS (File-closers and supernu- meraries omitted.) ^1 n^dJisD ^ ^ piKEMEN DmUSKETEERS superiority of the Swedish system was so forcibly demon- strated at Breitenfeld and Lutzen (1031-32) as to be gen- erally and speedily adopted. About 1670 the bayonet was generally introduced, and the proportion of pikemen was correspondingly reduced, till in 1075 it did not exceed one-fourth in any of the prin- cipal armies. The socket bayonet appeared in IfiO'J, and within six ycar.s tho pike virtually disappeared from the battle-field; and while all infantry is armed with the same weapon, the distinction between heavy and light corps, originating in the incompatibility of the ancient wielded and missile weapons, remains nominal. AVith the discard- in.' of pikes came a reduction of lineal formations to four ranks, but the distance between the ranks was yariable; in them the elbow-touch was not preserved, and the ca- dence step, common from the most remote period of Egyp- tian history till the extinction of classic civilization, was not yet revived. This contrivance for securing mobility in cohesive order was adopted by Marshal gaxe, whose battalions thereupon astonished both Iricnd and toe by the aggressiye use of their legs. Frederick the Gteat is generally considered as the next reformer of military methods, and the maneuvering of his battalions and their evolutions in line of battle certainly reconciled celerity with precision of combination to a de- gree till then comparatively, if not totally, unknown. At- taching greater importance to the fire of his infantry than to thei" use of the bayonet, he increased the volume of fire by extending the battalion in three ranks, and by thorough drill so accustomed his troops to tho use of their weapons and to steadiness in marching that in unwavering lines, advancing or retreating, they could pour well-sustained volleys upon the enemy. His battalion, two of which con- stituted a regiment, consisted of six companies, five of fu- .silicrs, and one of grenadiers, and its nominal strength was 090 men, rank and file. Each battalion was divided for tactical purposes into eight divisions, and each"company into four sections, but, unfortunately, his division embraced sections of three different cuinpanies (Fig. 5). A force of supernumeraries accompanied each battalion to fill vacan- cies in the ranks. The Seven Years' war made the Prus- sian infantry tho arohotypo for Christendom, and from tho tion in two ranks, and the propriety of reduction to one rank is now seriously discussed, and is provided for in the U. S. tactics. The division of infantry into light and heavy troops, that had become nominal about the year 1700, was revived, first by placing the new arms, as muskets were improved in range and accuracy, in the hands of picked men from each battalion or in special corps (fusiliers, grenadiers, etc.). and subsequently by the introduction of rifled arms, which as first employed were deemed unsuitable for " troops of tho line." Corps of riflemen were accordingly organ- ized under various denominations (chasseurs, tirailleurs, etc.), were trained in gymnastic exercises, and specially drilled for marching and fighting in open order as sharp- shooters. But in the present day the distinction is again nominal. The rifle is universal, and all infantry is really light infantry. . . ^ The present organization of infantry is in Companif.s, Battalions, and Regiments (which see); for tactical pur- poses the companies are generally divided into platoous, the battalions into wings and divisions; and for like pur- poses the battalions are grouped into Brigaues and Divis- ions (which see). Regimental organizations are purely administrative; in the armies of Europe they generally consist of two or more battalions, and the nominal battal- ion strength, rank and file, ranges from 500 to UlOO men. In the army of the U. S. the infantry is organized into twenty-five regiments, each consisting of one battalion of ten co"inpanies. To each regiment there is a colonel, lieu- tenant-colonel, major, adjutant, quartermaster, sergeant- major, quartermaster-sergeant, chief musician, and two principal musicians, and to the two " colored regiments a chaplain each. Each company has a captain, two lieu- tenants, five sergeants, four corporals, two musicians, two artificers, a wagoner, and, under the organic law, from oO to 100 privates, but under temiioiary restrictions in the an- nual appropriation for the army the number of privates avera.'cs only 34. which gives a regimental strength, rank and hie, of about 4S0 men. The companies arc permanently designated bv Iclters of the alphabet, and are so posted in the battalion as to have the senior captain on the right, the next in rank on the left, the third in the centre, and so on The lieutenants, when not commanding subdivisions, and the sergeants, when not acting as guides, constitute the "file-closers." and are stationed in rear of tlieir re- spective companies. The various distinctive formations of our battalion and of a company are indicated m ligs. 6 and 7. The individual soldier is armed with a brecch- FiG. 6. A. HUE OF OATTLE. B. CtCSC COLUMN BY DIVISIOM. C.RALLY AGWMST CAVALRTf, loading rifle and triangular bayonet, and is now experi- menting with a contrivance designed to combine the dan- gerous qualities of the bayonet with the protective virtues of the spade. His uniform is distinguished by light-blue trimmings, and in heavy marching order he carries a knap- sack with complete change of clothing, a blanket great- coat, several days' rations in haversack, a canteen of water, and 00 rounds of ammunition. Theoretically, the proportion of infantry in all properly organized armies sliould be from two-thirds to three-four hs of the permanent establishment, but as efficient infantry can bo created moio readily than serviceable artillery or INFANT SCHOOLS— INFINITE. 1191 cavalry, thi» proportion is rarely maintained i» a peace c.ttablif^limcnt. In the U. S. service the proportion of the three arms is about — artillery ODC-eighth, cavalry three- Fio. 7. A. ~li- □ 6 □ 3 cm C3 7 DCZ2C3 2 9 6 n r 1 1 r T B -1 -] 1 1 n 5 - - - ' ' _ El D Q D □ A, in line; B, column of fours. 1, captain; 2, first lieutenant; 3. second lieutenant ; 4. first sergeant; 5, second sergeant; 6, lliird sergeant; 7, fourlb sergeant; 8, lil'lh sergeant; 9, musicianfi. eighths, and infantry unc-half, but the exigencies of this service demand a cuDstant interchange of duties between the three arms. Kdbeut N. tScoTX. InTant Schools were originally charitable institutions that sprang up in the early part of the present century, simply to relieve the mothers of the laboring classes of the care of their little children when they are away at day labor. Their value was merely that they kept the children out of the streets and physically comfortable. They got the name of »cAoo/« because among the devices for keeping them quiet by circumventing their spontaneous activity, they were taught to march and some gymnastic exercises, ond to sing in rhyme or intone the multiplication table, the names of the days of the week, of the months of the year, and other things of that kind. The best thing taught in the infant schools was to sing hymns, for music is the natural language of piety, and little children thus get the notion of religion and some of its most suggestive sym- bols into their ''chambers of imagery." Some of the dis- ciples of I'estalozzi. and especially Wildcrspin. endeavored to develop something educational out of these charitable institutions, introducing some object-teaching, lint they were not even the germ of the kindartjartcn (see KlioRltEL and KiNDKRtJARTKN), becausc they were not founded on any study of the nature of childhood, and tlieir methori was simply ronliti'T, which is the opposite of cnldvatimj; so far from preparing children for the schools of instruction, as the kindergarten education docs, their substitution of memo- rized words for observed things renders children less sus- ceptible of being taught the way to discover facts and truth. Our countryman, jMr. A. B. Alcott, in articles written in the first Journal of EdncntloH published in America — which was edited by William Uussell in Boston in the years 1820-29 — pointed out the radical defect of the infant school method of dealing with children's minds. lie made experiments of a more vital one. His wonderful success in touching into activity the moral sense of the neglected children in the cellars of Broad strcci, gathered by some charitable ladies of Buston into an infant school in 182G, atfracted the attention of (ho cultivated classes, and led to the establishment of a school, of which a volume called the Record of n School gives an account, and which contains a genuine study of childhood and a high appre- ciation of Mr. Alcott. But in the last edition of this book the author is seen to have bei-omr the disciple of Froebel's broailer and more natural method, whoso scope involves all that is good in the infant school, corrects its errors, and supplies its deficiencies. Klizabrth P. Pkaiioov. Infanzona'dOf a district comprising 72 villages in the plain-country of (he Spani.-^h province of Vizcaya or Bis- cay ; it was eonsiilered as tlic noblest region of tlie Itncquo country, and its reprcBentattvcs enjoyed a preference at the juntttH. The name is supposed to imply that this territory was once the flomain of the iuftnzonrx — liir-rally, the "great infants" — of the royal family. The territory is divided into the five merindudet of Uribe, Busturia, Ar- ratin, Bi-<Iia, and .Marquina. Infi'ction. See Contagion. In'lidel [Lat. in/?^/*:/!'*, "unfaithful," "unbelieving"], a term a]»plied, usually with something of reproach, (1) to disbelievers in the Thristian religion, whether atheists or deists (see ArnEtsM. Dfists); (2) to non-believers, such as Mohammedans and heathens, but this uflo of the word is antif|uated an<l nnw unfrequent; while (;'. ) the skeptic or dovibter (soe Skki'TIcism), as a non-believiT, is aNo io some extent liable to the reproach of infidelity ; and in popular parlance the term free-thinker is synonymous with iutidel. (See FnEi:-TniSKEKs, by 0. B. Fkothinguam.) In'finitc [t'ri^ negative, and _^«i>, "end "]. In music, certain canonical compositions which have no proper close arc called infinite (or without termination), because each part, on arriving at the last note, immediately returns to the first and proceeds as before, the number of repetitions being at the pleasure of the performers and terminated by an arbitrary signal. The real ending should always be on the chord of the tonic or one of its inversions, and this also on a principal accented part of a bar or measure. Sometimes a final cadence is expressly added to the canon, or is a part of its construction, and forms the proper ter- mination. The canon is, in such case, said to be finite. Kohner remarks that " an infinite unrestricted canon is easily made finite, and a finite made infinite: it is required only to add a cadence in the one case, and to take it away in the other." William Staixton. Inflnitej in philosophy. As a philosophical term, "infinite" expresses the form of Being which is self- related and contains no implied contrast to other-being. If the term is used to ex])ress a contrast with the finite or indefinite, and the infinite is regarded as a " beyond" to the finite, the thought of the infinite is inadequate, and the conception is really that of one finite over against another. The infinite must be conceived as con- taining the finite within it as an essential element of its self-relation. There arc three significations in which the term "infinite" is employed, corresponding to the three stages of theoretical reflection: («) the dogmatic, (/>) the skeptical, (r) the speculative. I. As merely negative of the finite, in which case the finite expresses concrete reality and fulness of relations, while the infinite expresses a mere- ly abstract and negative notion. '■ conceived only by think- ing away the very conditions under which thought itself is realized." The infinite in this sense is. according to Sir William Hamilton, " the unconditionally unlimited;" the absolute, defined as "the unconditionally limited," being the other species constituting the genus of the "uncon- ditioned." Such an Infinite, being indeterminate, and de- void of all properties or attributes, and without distinction or difference from anything else or within itself, is an empty abstraction. The very thought of it involves self-contra- diction ; the form of its definition places it in relation or contrast, as excluding the finite, while the content of its definition denies all relation or determination whatsoever. The attempt to conceive such a thought results in a sort of ideal oscillation between the determined and undetermined — the thought of the Indefinite, or Infinite Progress. II. The "infinite progress" is the form under wliich the infi- nite is most commonly thought. The infinite divisibility of space, its infinite extent, the infinite regress of causes or conditions in the search of a First Cause, the doctrine of moral perfectibility, etc., furnish practical examples. The mind passes from one phase to its opposite, and returns again only to repeat the process; for it finds in eucli phaso its other, and endeavors analytically to separate them. Each cause, inasmuch as it begins to act, must have an- other cause to explain the occasion of its action at this particular time; each space divided furnishes two spaces which are in all respects like the first space, and capable of division :igain ; beyond any space which wo may con- ceive or picture in our minds there is still other (<paco ; whatever is, is finite iiud imperfect, and therefore ought to bo reformed or improved. \n the thought of the infinite as a progress there is an unconscious dual activity in tho mind, in which the inuiginatiiui and reflection take part. Tho famous " antinomies " of Kant arise in this way. Tho finite is pictured to the mind, and tho pure reflection tran- scends the picture or image, and defines for itself tho logi- cal conditions of the finite, but immediately applies these conditions to a finite realization and renews its mental im- age. Sir William Ilamillon held that "all that is conceiv- able in thought lies between two extremes, which, as con- tradictory oi' each other, cannot bulb be true, but of which as mutual contradictories one must be true." His proof is "by application to the |)henomena." In regard to space, for example, he finds, on tho one hand, that we are unable to conceive space as hounded, for then it would be surruund- cd by space: on the other hanil, wo cannot conceive it as infinite, fur we arc unable to "realize in thought" unlimit- ed space by "transcending in fancy " tho finite, or even by "exhausting imagination" in tho attempt to image it. In this we have (ho representative faculty t'liilitig to produce an adequate picture of infinite space. Since even mental pictures must be finite, a successful picture of space as a whole would prove its finitude, and thus contradict the in- ference of pure reflection, which pronounces space infitiitc, on the ground that any limitatir.n nf space must be made hy 1192 INFINITES AND INFINITESIMALS— INFLAMMATION. space itself and thus continue it instead of ending it. Since, however, an image or pielure of space is impossible, the two results harmonize, and tli<TC is no antinomy. III. t'uder the thought of the "infinite progress" lies, therefore, the thought of the positive infinite. Spinoza culled this the infinitum octti vcf rati'onin, to disttnguiiili it from the infini- tuih. itnnfftnationtu, already described. The infinite recur- rence of the same limits implies the necessary self-relntion of the process. To affirm that beyond every conceivable boundary or assignable limit there is still more space, im- plies an insight into the self-limiting or self-continuing nature of space. If it related to something else, it were finite; to be infinite, it must be its own limit or rtZ/^ritm. The highest example of this is to be found in conscious being, wherein the subject is its o\vn object, knowing and known being identical. Aristotle makes the Infinite and highest truth to be vorja-i^ rojjo-ew?. — Dr. Noah Porter {The Hum. Int., p. 057) gives this standpoint clearly: "The 'antinomies' of Kant and the * essential contradictories' of Hamilton, each of which seems necessary to the mind, and each of which excludes the other, are all made by the mind itself in the attempt to illustrate the infinite by the finite. The antinomies of Kant are incompatibilities be- tween an {muf/e and a relation which the image exempli- fies, or between two images adduced to illustrate different relations, or between two concepts which are not both ne- cessary to the mind. The solution of them is to be found in the restatement of the conceptions between which these incompatibilities are said to exist." ''When Hamilton says we must conceive of space as a bounded or not bound- ed sphere, he introduces the image of an object existing in space and limited in space, in order to illustrate space it- self, and confounds the one with the other. To introduce the image of an extended object to show that space exists and holds some relation to every extended object, is legiti- mate, but to substitute the limited — i. c. an extended ob- ject — for the true unlimited — i. e. space which makes ex- tension possible — and then to be embarrassed by the incom- patibilities of our own creation, is to fall into the very se- rious error of confouuding the image with the notion (an- Hchauunff with the Berfriff) against which Hamilton ex- pressly cautions his pupils." While nominalists and ma- terialists have generally denied the possibility of knowing the infinite, for subjective or objective reasons, most real- ists and idealists have claimed a knowledge of it more or less adequate. W. T. Harris. Infinites and Infinitesimals. In mathematics, an infinite quitntiti/ is a quantity greater than any assignable quantity of the same kind, and an iufinitetinial is a quan- tity less than any assignable quantity' of the same kind. To illustrate the meaning of the terms infinite and in- finitesimal, let us take the fraction —, whose numerator is a finite constant — that is, a quantity that contains a definite number of known units — and whose denominator is ran a - hie. As X diminishes, the value of the fraction increases; when X becomes exceedingly small, the value of the frac- tion becomes exceedingly large; in all cases we can give to X a value so small as to make the fraction greater than any assignable quantity of the same kind. The value towards which the fraction tends as .r tends toward is said to bo infinite, and is denoted by the symbol :c. Again, as x in- creases, the value of the fraction diminishes; when x be- comes exceedingly great, the value of the fraction becomes exceedingly small : in all cases we can give a value to x so great that it will make the fraction less than any as- signable quantity of the same kind. The value towards which the fraction tends when x tends towartls infinity is said to be infinitc^inifil, and is often, though not properly, denoted by the symbol 0. These relations are expressed by saying that a finite quantity divided by an infinitesimal is infinite, and a finite quantity divided by infinity is an in- finitesimal: that is, !- = '» and — = 0. Neither an infi- 00 nitc nor an infinitesimal can bo expressed in terms of a finite unit. The terms infinite and infinitesimal, as above explained, are purely technical, and their signification must not bo confounded with their absolute or popular meanings. Thus, the or naught of common language is an absolute nega- tion of quantity, whereas the infinitesimal, or the as wo have described it, is a quantity, but it is a quantity so small that it is inappreciable in comparison with any finite quiintily. Infinites and infinitesimals, according to their technical signification, may be compared with each other; that is, they may have definite ratios. Thus, if we take the cx- rt 2a :ia ... pressions — , — , — , etc., x being the same in all, and then if we suppose x to become infinitely small, thero will result a series of infinites of which the second is twice the first, the third three times the first, and so on. Again, if we suppose X to become infinitely great, there will result a scries of infinitesimals in which each bears a definite ratio to every other one. The principle here enunciated is the basis of the infinitesimal calculus; thus, the ratio of the infinitesimal increment of the variable to the correspond- ing increment of the functiun is a definite ratio, and is calleil the differential coefficient of the function. The ratio of these simultaneous increments can be found from the re- lation between the function and its variable, and conversely the relation between the function and variable may be found from the ratio of their infinitesimal increments. The terms infinite and infinite.-imal are purely relative, so that we may have infinites that are infinitely great with respect to other infinites, and infinitesimals that are in- finitely small with respect to oftier infinitesimals. For, let 1 X x*-* us take the continued identical equation, — = — = —r-> etc.; if we suppose x to be infinitely great with respect to 1, then will J- be infinitely great with respect to r. j^ will be in- finitely great with respect to x^, and so on : if we suppose X to be infinitely small with respect to 1, then will x^ be in- finitely small with respect to x, x^ will be infinitely small with respect to x^, and so on. Infinites and infinitesimals may be either positive or negative. Thus, if n divided by X is a positive infinite or infinitesimal, then will —a divided by X be a negative infinite or infinitesimal. Infinites and infinitesimals are subject to definite rules, and the resulting calculus is as rigorous and true as the calculus of finite quantities. In fact, many of the processes of geometry are based on the ideas of infinites and in- finitesimals as above explained. Thus, if we inscribe a regular polygon in a circle, and then bisect the arcs sub- tended by each side of the polygon, and join the points of bisection with the adjacent vertices of the polygon, there will be inscribed a second regular polygon having twice as many sides as the given one; this polygon will coincide more nearly with the circle than the first. If we form a third regular polygon in the same manner, having t^vice as many sides as the second, it will coincide still more nearly with the circle than the second, and so on indefinitely. If we conceive this process of bisection and formation of polygons, each having twice as many sides as the preced- ing one, to be continued, the varying polygon will con- tinually approach the circle, and finally, when the number of sides of the polygon becomes infinite, the polygon will coincide with the circle. Hence, we say that a circle is a regular polygon having an infinite number of siilcs, and consequently whatever can be predicated of regular poly- gons can also be predicated of the circle. Thus, the area of a regular polygon is equal to its perimeter multiplied by one-half of its apothem ; but the perimeter of a circle is its circumference, and the apothem of a circle is its radius; hence, the area of a circle is equal to its circumference mul- tiplied by one-half of its radius. W. G. Peck. luflammable-gas Engine* See Gas-Exgive. Inflamma'tion l'l4nt. infimn mo. infiatnmntnJn,to " kin- dle, " yfa»JH)«, *' flame"], a morbid process characterized by heat, redness, pain, and swelling. The predisposing cause may be anything which tends to influence injuri- ously the animal economy — plethora or aniemia. When a part has once been the seat of inflammation, it is very liable to be affected again under the slightest exciting cause. Ago is a predisposing cause of inflammation ; in infancy the parts most subject to become inflamed are the bowels, pharynx, larynx, and brain, whereas during adult life these parts are seldom affected, the favorite seat then being the lungs, heart, urinary ap])aratus, etc. Sex exerts a certain influence; a female is more apt to suffer from peritonitis, phlebitis, or cellulitis in consequence of the par- turient act. So the tcm])erament, food, occupation, climate, etc. ail influence, to a greater or less extent, the suscepti- bility of the individual to be attacked by inflammation. The exciting causes may be divided into the constitutional and local : the former includes all those agents which are capable of rendering the blood impure, as poisonous gases, cold. heat. etc. The loc.il cause is generally an injury of some kind, cither chemical or mechanical. Every vascular part may be the seat of inflammation, and usually in pro- portion to the amount of its vascularity. It also seems necessary that nerves should be present. Cartilage con- tains no nerves and but few vessels, and is therefore rarely the seat of inflammation. Epidermis, hair, and the nails arc never inflamed, being destitute of blood-vessels, nerves, and lymphatics. Inflammation may extend from one part to another in one of the following ways: By continuity of tissue; thus wo find that in inflammation of the arachnoid the inflammatory action after a few days extends to the brain-substance and causes delirium; through the agency of INFLECTION— INFLEXION. 1193 tho blood-vessels, ihcy carrying the products of the inflnm- matory actiou to heulthy jiarts, nnd exciting therein a dis- eased action; and through the nervous system ; but the last way is probably more theoretical than borne out by fact. Tho inlhimmation more likely arisi's de novo than that it is produced through nervous sympathy. Inflammation is generally divided into the acute and chronic varieties; the former runs a rapid course and is attended by well-marked symptoms — pain, heat, redness, and swelling. The.-c have been given as the symptoms of intlammalion from tho time of Hippocratus. The swelling is caused by enlargement of the vessels, and more particu- larly from serous effusion, whicli takes place into the ad- jacent tissues: at a later period we have plastic exuda- tion, which in the end tends to lessen tho size of a part. Tho redness is a leading feature, and is due to enlarge- ment of the vessels and an increase of the coloring-matter of the blood. Pain is not essential to the disease — pneu- monia and encephalitis are not painful diseases — but ex- ternal inflammations are always attended with pain, which is line to pressure upon the ultimate sensitive nervous fila- ments. Serous membranes stand next to fibrous structures of joints in tlie severity of innamniafion, altliough we may have serous membranes inflamed without pain, as in puer- peral peritonitis. The heat is a direct result of hypcra^mia. It is chiefly felt in external inflammations ; the part re- ceives more blood, and is consequently of a higher temper- ature than the rest of tho surface, but it never- rises above tho heat of the blood. Acute iuflammatiou is always at- tended by more or less fever, which may bo ushered in by a chill. The pulse runs up to 100-120, the respirations are increased in number to 2;') or ;iO per minute, and the tem- perature is raised to 10li°-10l° F. ; tho secretions are sup- pressed, and there is headache and sometimes delirium. Many attempts have been made to ascertain the exact changes which take place in a part attacked by inflamma- tion by artificially producing an inflammation in the web of a frog's foot or the wing of a bat, and closely watching tho changes under a powerful microscope; these observa- tions have led to the t'ollowing conclusions : In inflamma- tion the first change is in tho ganglionic system of nerves, but of this system we know nothing except its efl'erts. This nervous system influences the variou.s ilelerminations of blood, as seen in blushing and the local temporary engorge- ment of nervous women; as also congestions, which aro not mechanical in their cauHC, but occur from a passive atato of tho vessels. Next we will notice the changes which arc seen to occur in the blood- ve^sr-ls. There is at first active congestion of the part, and this condition is causetl by internal or external irritation. Soon stagnation is ob- served to take place at points. In the natural state the red blood-corpuscles never touch the walls of the capillaries, but in intlainmation this rule no longer obtains, ancl they begin to adhere to the walls and to each other. This is known as tho nfasia ; as it increases tho vessels continue to dilate, and very soon after tho stasis is established tho vessels begin to cxu'lo their contents, which makes its ap- pearance amongst tho tissues. This exudation is not a coagulation of tho blood as seen outsitio tho body ; it is serous at first, but is 80<»n followed by an efl"usion of lymph or li(|uor sanguinis, which, according to the old theory, might be organized into false membrane or degenerate into pus, it depenrling on the tissues involved and the consti- tution of tho patient. At the present time, however, Cohnheim's theory of the formation of pus is tho one gen- erally received — viz. that tho corpuscles arc identical with tho white blood-corpuscles, which arc exuded through tho walls of the vessels. In process of tiuio the false membranu becomes smooth. It has not yet been ascertained whether nerves aro f<)rmed in tho tissues or not. Two theories aro given to account for the formati'in of vessels in these now productions — viz. Vogol's and JIunter's. Vogel believes that ho has seen tho membrane itself produce the blood, and afterwards the vessels to contain this blood, and ho gays that finally these new vessels communicate with the old ones. Hunter believes that tho new vessels are given off from tho old ones. After vessels have been formed in these new tissues contraction commences, and both tho membrane and the vessels become smaller and firmer. This contraction sometimes proves a serious nuLtter, as in tho contraction of hands around tho intestines, especially in tho neighborhood of tho rectum : the elTerts of the contrac- tion are also serious about tho pericardium, causing at times hypertriipliy of the lieiirt; the pleura sufl'ers least from it. Tho duratif.n and character of tho inflammation vary with the eiindition of the part afl'eetcd and the constitution of the patient. When once fairly established, it may de- stroy life by exhaustion or by interfering with tho function of S(tme importunt organ, as the lungs or heart. It may aN'o terminate in resolution, suppuration, or murtifieation, |{'--^olution consists in the restoration of tho alicctcd part to its normal condition, without suppuration having taken place. It is by far the most favorable termination of in- flammatory action. Suppuration consistsof the formation of a fluid called pus, as described above : it is a yellowish liquid, in which float numerous small round granular cor- puscles. When the pus is thin, dirty, and acrid, it is called ichor. When suppuration continues fur any length of time, it gives rise to a fever known as hectic fever. Tliis is diurnal in character, commencing with a chill, followed by a fever, and then sweating. The chill lasts from half an hour to an hour, the fever from one to tw«f hours. In a great many cases the three stages arc not well marked, one, or even two, of them being often times omitted. The in- flammatory action may be so intense as to deprive the part of its proper supply of blood, and so cause ulceration and mortification (see Gangiikni;) ; this condition is attended by a symptomatic typhoid fever, the sym])toms of which are — dry tongue with sordes, trembling, restlessness, de- lirium, muscio volitantes, pulse feeble, small, and frequent, involuntary evacuations. Truttmcnt of /iijlaviinnti'on. — We havo local and consti- tution.al means for combating this ctmdition ; sometimes one abme will do the work, but generally we emjiloy them conjointly. The first thing to be done is to rcnunc tho cause, if discoverable; if not, the bowels should be freely moved once a day, and the skin and kidneys be made to act by the adminir^tration of diajihorctics and diuretics. Careful attention sliould be paid to the diet and regimen of the patient, and beat and moisture applied to tlie in- flamed part, either in the form of poultices or spongio- peline or the hot-water bath. If the ])aticnt be plctlioric, it will be a great benefit at times to bleed him to the amount of about sixteen ounces. This practice has been greatly decried of late, but prac^titioners are too apt to swing from one extreme to the other; from tho practice of almost bleeding a person to death for the most trivial ailment tbey havo come to discard the lancet altogether. How the benefit arising from the moderate abstraction of lilood from a ro- bust, healthy individual who has been stricken down with pneumonia or any acute inflammation, can be questioned, is a mystery. Surgeons, however, aro not so averse to local blood-letting, which may be done by scarifications with a lancet, by wet or dry cujiping, (tr leeches. It seems to afl"ord instant relief to the patient by removing pressure and consecjuent irritation of the inflamed part. Cold evap- orating lotions (MJiitinuously applied arc a great relief. They cause the capillaries to contract, and thereby diminish tho afflux of blood, EnwAitn J. liKitMi.NGiiAM. Indcc'tion [Lat. itijirftn, iuftxum, to "bend"], tho general term eoniprising all Ihe various modifications of a word {declension, conjugation, etc.) by which modifications of the idea (plurality, past and future tense, etc.) are ox- pressed. In the monosyllabic languages any change which tho iili'a undergoes is expressed by the addition of an inde- pendent word ; in the agglutinative, these additions do not remain independent, but conibine with the j)rimitive sig- nification and form composite wonls ; but in the inflectional languages a change of tho end of the word — with or with- out some phonetic change in the root itself — suffices to ex- press the various modifications of the idea. It must bo ob- served, however, that these inflectional endings are not mere- ly arbitrary signs ; they were originally independent words themselves. Thus, the ending </ found in the nominative sin- gular of many nouns in the (Jreek and l^atin languages is a remnant of the personal pronoun of the third person; and the endings forming the oblique cases wore originally pronouns indicative of some direction of motion — wheve (dative and ablative), trfiithcr (accusative), and whcnve (genitive). Or, to take an example from a conjugation, tho endings hat and vll, inilicating tliejiast tenses in the Latin language, are simply phonetic modifieations of the aux- iliary verb f'li'it and f'tn't. Hut as the laws of ])honetio change aro very diff'ereni in the diflferent languages, and imperfectly known in them all, and as a still greater uncer- tainty prevails with respect to tho laws of phonetic decay, tho whole subject of inflection is as yet very obscure. Inflcx'ion* A point of inflexion is a point nt which a curve from being concave in ^ any direction becomes con- y^ cave in the opposite direetio>i. Thus, in tho curve V S Q, tho concavity is turned down- ward from P to S and upward from S to Q; hence, S is a point of inflexion. In passing a point of inflexion tho ra- dius of curvature of the curve changes sign by passing through »; but this requires that the second difl'erential uf the ordinate should change sign y ^y ^ ^ X 1194 INFLORESCENCE— INFLUENZA. by passinj? through 0; henco, we may deteruiiue the num- ber and pusitioiis of the points of inllexiou on acurve whose equation is given by the Ibllowing process: DifiLTenliatc the equation of the curve twice,' then from these equations and the equation of the curve find the value of the second dilTcrential of y in lerni.s of ^, and place the result equal to 0; from (he resulting equation find the values ot" j-; these will indicate the positions of all the points that can by pos- sibility be points of inflexion. Then test these values of j- as follows: substitute each value of j-, first diminishol by, and sccondltf increased In', an inlinitcly small quantity for X in the second differential of//, and see if the re;*ults have contrary signs; if so, the corresponding value is the abscissa of a point of inflexion; if not, it does not corre- spond to a point of inflexion. \V. G. Peck. Inflores'cence [Lat. injlorcgco, to "begin to blos- som"], the term which botanists use to designate the ar- rangement of flowers upon a plant. Flowers and branches arc evolved from buds. These two kinds of buds agree in the positions which they occupy; consequently, flower- buds, like leaf-bud?, may terminate the stem or branches or may rise from the axils of leaves. The former arc called terminttf, the latter axUlury. AVhen one fluwer only occu- pies the summit of tiie stem, it is tfymimtl nnd Holitnnj ; when only one occurs in the axil of a leaf, it is oxifUtrt/ niifl oh'tai-}/. If several flowers are developed near each other on a stem or branch, so as to form a cluster, the con- tiguous leaves arc generally unlike ordinary foliage, and are known as bravt.'t. The stalk which supports a Ho\ver or a flower-cluster is its pcdiiueff\ and the stalk of each flower of a cluster, its pedicel. When flowers have no sup- porting stalks, they are sessile. The axis of inflorescence is the name given to that part of the stalk on which the flowers of a cluster are arranged. AVhen it bears sessile flowers, it is called the rhachis; when it is very much short- ened and thickened, the rereptnde. All forms of inflores- cence are referred to two types, or to a combination of the two. These plans are known under the following names: (1) indefinite, indetcrmiu'ite, or ccntriprtnl ; (2) d'jinite, determinnte, or centrifugal ; (;i) mixed, in which the main axis develops in one way, and the separate flower-clusters in the other. 1. fndr/inite injlorescence is characterized by the spring- ing of flowers from axillary buds, while the terminal bud of the stem develops as an ortiJnary branch, by winch the main axis may be indefinitely prolonged. The simplest ease is that in which the flowers are axillary and solitary. Many such solitary flowers may appear as the main axis lengthens. If approximateJ, and the leaves are di- minished to bract;;, tiiey form a flower-cluster of the in- definite sort. Such clusters are simple when the pe- duncle is unbranched, compound when tlie peduncle branches to support smaller clusters of the same kind. Simple, indefinite clusters may have (1) the flowers borne on pedicels along the sides of an elongated axis {raceme); f2) along a shorter axis, the lower pedicels length- ened {corymb)'. {'6) clustered on an axis which is so short that all the flower-stalks appear to spring from the same point {umbel). If the flowers are sessile and ar- I ranged along a lengthened axis, the cluster is a npike ; if the axis is very short, a head. The ament or catkin is a I peculiar scaly and usually drooping spike. The spadix I is a fleshy spike or head with inconspicuous flowers, the whole frequently enveloped by a showy bract, a sjmthc. The raceme, corymb, and umbel may become compound. If the two former branch irregularly, they form a panicle ; if this is crowded into a compact cluster, it is sometimes I called thi/rsus. The little clusters of a compound umhcl I are ttmbclle.ts. When several bracts are grouped closely together at the base of a cluster, they constitute an /»i- volncre ; if they occur at the base of partial clusters, i')t- volncels. 2. Definite Infloreacence. — In this the main stem, or each successive independent branch, is terminated by a flower. When a blossom is evolved from a terminal bud, growth of the stem or branch is of Cfiurse arrested, and all further growth depends upon the development of other axes or branches from axils below, which in turn are arrested in the same way. The simplest definite inflorescence is that of a solitary and terminal flower. When several branches I from the axils underneath have been successively termi- ; nated by blossoms, the cluster so produced may be distin- I guished from one of the indefinite kind by the reversal of the order in which the flowers expand. The upper flowers bloom earlier than thoge which arc below. Such a cluster is a ci/me. Cymes may be simple or compound. The clus- ters of a compound cyme are termed et/mules. A very com- pact cyme is called a fascicle or glomerule. Cymes of an anomalous character result from tlie suppression of the cen- tral flower or one of the side hranches. 3. Mixed lufiortsccnce. — Indefinite and definite inflores- cence may occur in the same plant, and in two ways: first (as in Composita}), by centrifugal development of tbo branches which bear the heads, while the flowers of each iiead expand centripetally ; second, the reverse of this, has the main axis(as in Labiatio) producing, in centripetal or- der, clusters which develop centrifugally. The following table exhibits the principal sorts of in- florescence at one view : A. Indefinite, from axillary buds. Simple : Flowers on pedicels : On the sides of a lengthened axis, raceme. On a short axis, lower pedicels lengthened, corymb. On an extremely short axis, umbel. Flowers sessile: On an elongated axis, spike. On a very short axis, head. With their varieties, apadix and catkin. Compound: Branching regularly, compound raceme^ corymhy and umbel. Branching irregularly, T^ajuV^c and thi/raua. B. DcfiititCy from terminal buds: Open, mostly flat-topped, at'mjj/e and comjjownti cyme. Contracted, fascicle. C. Mixed. G. L. GooDAi.n. Influen'za [It.; as if produced by the influence of the stars], an essential, intecrtious, epidemic, febrile dis- ease, characterized by a variable degree of constitutional disturbance, especially nervous depression, and having a local expression in irritation and catarrhal inflammation of the air-passages and their appendages. The name " influ- enza" is Italian, indicating "the influence" of a prevail- ing atmospheric cause. In Fr:vnce it is termed la yrippe, from eifjrijiper, to "seize," indicating the sudden, precipi- tate onset of the epidemic and of the individual attack. It is also termed epidemic catarrh, epidemic bronchitis, and, better, epidemic catarrhal fever. It is described as first prevailing in Europe in the tenth century, and later in tho years 1.311, 1387, and 1403. But its certain and undoubted record begins with the epidemic of 1610. Since that time to the year 187o there have been ninety-two epidemics, of variable severity and at. irregular intervals. These epi- demics are singularly uniform in identity of characteristics and in obedience to law of origin and dilVusion. The dis- ease appears suddenly in the E. or N. E.. usually in the N. of Europe, exceptionally in the Indies or Northern Asia, and travels to the W. It travels in cycles, invading tho whole of Northern Europe, often extending to America, and exceptionally fell in the equatorial regions and the southern hemisphere. Unlike cholera, its diflusion docs not depend on human commerce. Its progress is rapid, a great wave from E. to W. precipitating itself upon communities and countries with a suddenness warranting the names popularly applied to it — "lightning catarrh," *'Ic petit courricr," "la grippe." Less often it appears coincidently at places far removed, as at the Cape of Good Hope and London in 18;!0. In its zone of progress it often ajtpears simultaneously at many isolated foci, from which it seems to radiate until disseminated over vast areas. Its influ- ence is not confined to the continents, but is immediately exerted at mid-sea upon all who sail into the districts of atmospheric infection. Appearing in a community, it at- tacks a majority of its members, of both sexes, of all ages ami social position, and with a rapidity precluding the idea of communicability. No nationality is exempt, and as a rule only a fractional part of the population escapes its effects. *It would a])pear to attack preferably women, next adult males, and lastly children. In some epidemics chil- dren are exeni])t. During the prevalence of influenza tho animal vitality is lowered, tho type of other diseases is modified, assuming adynamic or typhoid forms, and tend- ing to a greater general mortality. Influenza is not con- fined to man. but often extends its epidemic influences to the domesticated animals, especially the horse, and is known as the fpizoiitic. In England the epidemics of 172S, 1732, 1733, 1737, 1743, IS03, 183!, and 1837 were accompanied by the epizootic among cows, horses, and dogs. The pesti- lential epizootic extending throughout the II. S. in 1872- 73, attacking in New York ltl,(U)U horses, was an epidemic of influenza, prevailing with less severity among men. The influenza is first recorded in America in 1577. Tho chief epidemics in Europe have extended to this country. The most noticeable ones are that at the close of the war of 1SI2. that of 1843, of 1872. and tho recent season 1874- 7J, in which pneumonia has existed as a frequent and fatal complication. Of the intimate nature of the subtle atmo- spheric or telluric cause of influenza nothing is definitely known. Schonbein regarded an excess of ozone in the air as producing bronchial irritation. Prout attributed the disease to selenuretted hvdrogen. Much has been written INFORMATION. 1195 of its concurrence with the appearance of comets and meteoric showers, and the opinion \» in favor that electrical and magnetic disturbances of the atmosphere arc related to the epidemics. The advocates of the "germ-iheory of disease " regard influenza as due to the wide dis^eniination, by air-curreni?". nt" animalcula or crvptogaiiiic vegetable products — malarial emanations. Elircnberg describes " dust-fog cnrrf^nls " in the higher strata of the atmosphere, from whicii many genera of animalcules may be collected. The epidemic of influenza occurs at nil seasons of the year, often in the spring, and in both warm and cold, in dry and damp or foggy weather. The usual duration, in one local- ity, of an epidemic is from four to six weeks, exceptionally much longer. There may be local recurrences in the same season, but as a rule the victims of the first are exempt from the second attack. As regards the disease, it is thought that a specific poison is absorbed and circulates in the blood, irritating the nerve- centres, producing prostration and febrile disturbance, and causing hypersecretion and inflammation of the mucous lining of the air-passages. The symptoms vary in severitj' in different epidemics and in individual cases. The onset is sudden. anuouncciJ in severe cases by a marked rigor, more often by chill and shivering alternating with flashes of heat. Then follow general lassitude, debility, nervous prostration, soreness and stiffness of the limbs, pains in the neck, back, and loins, hcatlachc. frontal oppression, pain in the orbits, cheek-bones, and root of the nose, injection and sensilivencs of the eyes, with copious flow of tears — often heated, the '* fiery tears'* of the early records — sneezing and tingling, followed by watery and often acrid discharge from the nose, soreness of the tonsils. Eustachian tubes, and ears, experienced in swallowing, hoarseness, u short, fre- quent, harassing cough, with slight cxpeotoratinn, and a slight fever of the remittent form, having its exacerbation towards evening. The fever is seldom pronounced, but the restlessness, irritabiliiy, exhaustion, an*! mental depression arc mnrkcil. and usually disproportionate to the bronchial complication. In other cases there is soreness, tightness, and pain beneath the sternum, dyspnoea, sense of suffoca- tion, and danger of capillary bronchitis or pneumonia. The?e unfortunate complications are the chief causes of death from iiifliieiizn, and occur mainly in the aged, in inva- lids, and in delicate rhildren. The usual duration of raild cases is from .three to five ilays, of grave cases from seven to ten days. The termination of the disease is often as sudden as its onset, and frequently occurs with a critical and profuse perspiration or liiarrhoea. The mortality from uncomplicated influenza in healthy persons is very slight. Influenza has no pathology indicarive of its specific nature, and presents only the lesions of the associated catarrh — tumefaction and redness of the mucous lining of the nose, the tear-duct, anri eyelids, the frontal and maxillary sinuses, of the throat, Kustachian tube, and mcnibrana tympani, of the larynx and bronchial tubes, and the lesions t»f pneumo- nia when it exists. The majority of cases are mild and require no treatment. A purge at the outset may shorten their duration. More marked eases require a preliminary purgative, a tow diet, the avoidance of exposure to cold, resort to hot draughts, as of lemonailo or elder-bloom ten, to stimulating foot-baths, to the use of Dover's powder, Tully's powder, spiritus Mindereri. or other remedies to secure free perspiration, and the relief of bronchial conges- tion by inhalation of steam, by ammonia, or l»y stimulating expectorants. Ileailache and <lislress in the nose and or- bits, duo to irritation of the Schneiderian membrane and its processes, may bo relieved by the inunction of oil or grease or by the insufllation of warm ano>lyno solutions. Quinine in doses of five grains three times a day. if taken at the beginning, may cut short the attack. When the bronchitis tends I<» become capillary, i|uinine or tincture of bark is indicated to support the strength, ammonia to favor the liquidity ami discnargo of mucus, and the oil-silk jacket to favor free secretion. The extensions of pneumo- nia may be limited by arterial seihttivrs, earbnnat4> of am- monia, quinine, and anodyne jjoullicrs or fomentations. It \9 essential to ftroper treatment to rrmember (hat blood- infection is primary ami bronchitis or pnnumonia is sec- ondary ; the constitutional disease will admit of no de- pressing remedies, and the speedy termination of the in- flammatory complications will follow supporting measures. During epidemics of influenza the aged and feeble should keep within-doors in well-warmed rooms, and partake of quinine, ammonia, and guardfd but nourishing diet, as measures of prevention. E. Dakwin IhnsoN. Jr. Informa'tionv in law, a written charge or aceu«ation made against a defendant in a suit or pr'H-c'ding which is <lircctly instituted against him in behalf of the state or gov- ernment by the attorney-general or other proper law-oflieer ropresenting the government. It is so ealled bi-caupr it is founded upon iu/nnuittiitn given, or supposed to bo given, by the prosecuting oflliccr. This form of legal process is employed in proceedings of various kinds, being used either as a mode of criminal prosecution, a form of civil remeily, or a particular method of instituting a suit in equity in certain cases. These various modes of legal procedure may be considered separately. I. In criminal prosecutions the proceeding by informa- tion at common law i.«, in cases of misdemeanor (except misprision of treason), a mode of remedy which may be adopted, if deemed desirable, in jdace of an indictment, which is the usual method of prosecuting in cases both of felony and of misdemeanor. The difference between an in- formation and an indictment is that in the former the accu- sation or charge is presented directly by the attorney-gen- eral or prosecuting officer, while in the latter the accusation proceeds directly from a grnnrl Jury, upon whose oath it is based, (.'^ee Indiptment, Ueiand Jrnv.) They do not, how- ever, differ materially in form and substance. There must be the same rlegrec of particularity and precision in stating the offence charged, the same observance of the ordinary rules of pleading. It is only in some merely formal and comparatively unimportant statements at the commence- ment and the close that a diversity exists in the general nature of the contents ; and whether the prosecution be in- stituted in the one way or in the other, the charge must be tried before a petit jury. Criminal informations in the English law arc cither such as are partly at the suit of the Crown and partly at that of a subject, or such as are wholly at the suit (d' the Crown. The former arc brought upon certain penal statutes at the instance of common informers. The latter arc of two kinds: (I) Those filed ex-n^rin by the attorney-general, or, in the Viicaney of his office, by the solicitor-general, solely in behalf of the Crown; and 1 2) those filed by the king's coroner and attorney in the court of king's bench, usually called the master of the crown office, at the relation of some private per.son or common in- former. These two varieties of proceeding by information in the name of the king alone may bo resorted to in all cases of misdemeanor (with the single exception already mentioned), but in practice are commonly employed when the offence is of a particularly grave and serious character, or has an especial tendency to disturb the administration of the government, or when a more speedy mode of prose- cution is desired than a proceeding by regular indictment. In both these classes of cases the prosecuting officer in early times possessed authority to file an information at his own option, without obtaining permission from the chief court of criminal jurisdiction, the king's bench; and this independent j)rerogative is still retained in regard to such informations as are included within the first chiss, where the Crown is the actual jirosecutor. But in relation to in- formations presented at the instance of some private per- son, in which the Crown appears only as the nominal prosecutor, the practice has been changed. It had become customary to instifute a proceeding of this kind as a mat- ter of course at the application of any one; and. as no penalty was imposed upon the applicant in case the accu- sation proved groundless, this method of prosecution was often adopted for purposes of vexation and oppression. To remedy tliis evil a statute was passed in 161*2 (-1 and 5 Will, anil M. ell. IS), providing that informations should not be filed at the suit of a private person except by leave of the court, and on such persons giving security to tho party proceeded against for costs. In tliis country several of the Slates have retained the English practice of prosecution by information, though tho extent of its application and the mode of procedure are variously modified by statute. Thus, informations may be presenteil for all offences declared to be misdemeanors, as distinguished from felonies, in New York, Connecti- cut, Massaehusetts, New Ilanijisbire, and a few other Slates. Tho officer by whom it is usually jirovidcd that tho information shall be filed is the attorney-general of the State. This mode of procedure is, however, much less fre- quent in this country than the proceeding by indictment. In Pennsylvania anrI a few other States there can be ]»ro- eccding by information where an indictment lies. In the Federal courts informations have sometimes been resorted to in cases of illegal exportation of goods, smuggling, etc., but havi; never been especially authorized by any laws of Congress. Uy the provisions of the U. S. Constitution no offence which is capital or infamous can bo prosecuted by information, but only by indictment. IT. The use of an information as n form of civil remedy is most common in the proceeding which is technically known as an " information in the nature of a quo tvnnanto." The ancient oommon-taw writ of tfuo icnrranto has been fluperscded by this more convenient practice. (See Quo WAunASTo.) The object of such informations is to inquire by what authority or warrant tho defendant exercises certain official or corporate powers, or assorts a right to certain fran- 1196 INFORMER— INFUSORIA. chises or offices which are alleged to be unlawfully claimed or to have been forleited, Thiis. for example, an informa- tion may be presented against an unincorporated associa- tion for assuming corporate powers; against a lawfully or- ganized corporation for non-user, long neglect, or misuse of it:^ franchises or powers, or for a violation of its charter or the provisions of any law ; against any ])crson for a usurpation of or intrusion into a public office, or for the exercise of any franchise not conferred upon him by law, or for the performance of otficiai duties after his office has bfcn forfeite<i, or after the term for which he was appointed or elected has expired. This is a common form of pro- cedure against corporations to deprive them of their fran- chises and obtain their dissolution, on the ground that cor- porate powers have been forfeited by misfeasance. The remedy by information in these cases was originally a criminal proceeding, in analogy with its use in the prose- cution of offences strictly criiniual. and it still remains so in form. Its object was to secure the imposition of a line upon the defendant if convicted, as well as an ouster from the office or franchise unlawfully claimed. But in sub- stance it is a civil jirocecding. the purpose of which is to try and determine the defendant's right to the franchise, and to secure its forfeiture if wrongfully exercised. In England, informations in the nature of a <jno warranto may be presented in three ways: they may be filed (1) by the attorucy-gencral of his own authority, and in the ex- ercise of an iiidependt'Ht discretion: (2) by the master of the crown office under the permission or direction of the court of king's bench ; and (3) by the proper officer upon leave of the court at the relation of some person or persons who desire to prosecute the defendant. The first two modes of presentation are the same as those which have been already mentioned as appropriate to the prosecution of misdemeanors in criminal procedure. The third is a form of practice established by the statute of Anne, ch. 20. It affords the means of determining controversies between private parties in regard to the right to corporate or other franchises, public offices, ete. The Crown or state, repre- sented by the attorney-general or other officer, is only tho nominal prosecutor, the party at whose instance the pro- ceeding is instituted being the actual prosecutor. It is provided by the statute that this party shall be technically designated in the proceeding as the " relator," because from him the relation proceeds upon which the inform.ation is based. At common law no such party as a relator is known in a proceeding upon information. This form of practice was originally introduced by the statute. Infor- mations at the suit of a private person can be presented only by leave of the court, which will be granted, not ar- bitrarily nor as a matter of course, but in the exercise of a sound discretion. Permission will usually be granted when the right upon which the suit is based is disputed or uncer- tain, or depends upon a point of doubtful law, or where there is no other remedy. In several of the American States the proceeding by in- formation in the nature of a fjuo irnrranto is still in use, and corresponds very closely with the English practice. The suit is usually instituted by the attorney-general of the State of his own authority, or by the private prosecutor or ''relator," who employs the name of the attorney-gen- eral in the proceeding as a matter of form. When the suit is at the instance of a private person the case is regularly en- titled " The People" (or " The Attorney- General ") *' ex ref, (i. c. €jc ri'liittonr, " from the relation of") A. B. r*. C. D.," A. B. being the relator and C. D. tho dofi-udant. The power to file an information of this kind in some States depends upon special statutes corresponding with the Eng- lish statute of Anne, while in otliers the same practice is adopted, irrespective of any statute, as part of their com- mon-law system of procedure. It is the usual rule that the leave of the court shall be obtained in cases of this kind, as in England. In New York informations in the nature of a qito tcarrant<» were in use until 1S4S, but the (_'()de of Civil Procedure adopted in that ye.ar abolished the pro- ceeding, substituting in its place a special form of civil action, which nevertheless accomplishes tho same results by a very similar mode of practice. Another instance of the use of the proceeding by infor- mation as a form of civil remedy is found in the common- law practice in England of filing an information in the court of exchequer for the recovery of money or other chattels claimed by the Crown, or to obtain damages for any injury committed upon tho lands or the possessions of the Crown. The attorney. general institutes the suit of his own authority and at his own discretion. The most common informations of this kind are the information of intrnsion and the information of debt, the former being presented for any trespass upon the lands of the Crown, the latter upon any contract for moneys due to the Crown or for forfeitures under penal statutes. In the U. S. in- formations are not unfrequently employed in the Federal courts for the recovery of penalties and forfeitures, as, e, tf., in cases of violation of the revenue laws. These are usu- ally civil proceedings iu rem. (See In Rem.) III. The method of instituting suits in equity by means of an information exhibits much the same form ot practice as in the common-law courts. In England the suit may be wholly in the interests of the Crown, in which ease it is institutcii directly by the attorney-general or solicitor-gen- eral of his own authority, or it may concern the rights and interests of other parties than tlic Crown. In cases of this latter kind the government officer sometimes acts at his own discretion, but generally upon the relation of the party wliose rights are involved, who is then termed the " relator." When the interests of idiots or lunatics are concerned the attorney-general may exhibit informations in their behalf ejC'Ojficio, representing the Crown as pnrms pain'ir. It is the common practice in England to regulate the adminis- tration of charities by proceedings upon information. As the Crown has the general supervision of charities, the attorney-general may act of his own authority, no relator being necessary. Generally, however, he only proceeds at the instance of some relator, who is made responsible for costs in case the information has been improperly filed. There has been some discussion among jurists upon the point whether the power of the attorney -general to file an information for the purpose of establishing or administer- ing a "charity" was a regular part of English jurispru- dence, or was derived from the statute of 4:i Eliz. ch. 4, concerning charities. The inquiry has assumed importance in some of the States in which that statute has not been re-enacted or recognized. Careful investigation shows that the information has its roots in equity as well as in strict common law. The authorities are collected in Dwight's Argument in the Rose Will Caite (New York, 1S63), pp. 257- 270. Informations were used for this purpose in this country during the colonial period. An interesting illus- tration is Cullen's charity in the court of chancery in the province of Xcw York Sept. 7, 1707. There was a leg- acy '* to the poor of the city of New York and of Albania " ( Albany), which was enforced in their favor by the attorney- general. The proceedings and information are found at length in the same volume f pp. .'U4-;i.iI ). In the C S. informations may be euiploycd as a mode of instituting equitable suits in some of the States, but tbe practice is not so common as in England. (On this whole subject see Cole on Informat'tonfty Angell and Ames on Cin'pnrationSf Bishop's Criminal Procedure. DanicH's Chancery Practice, Tudor on Charitable f/sc*, Boyle on Charities.) GEoitr.F, Chase. Revised bv T. W. Dwight. Inform'er* This word is employed in law as a techni- cal designation, denoting a person who brings suit or pre- fers an accusation against another for the violation of some penal statute. It is sometimes provided in a statute of this kind that the whole or a certain portion of the penalty recovered from the pers-m who shall be convicted of vio- lating its provisions shall be given to any one who will sue for the same, or who will give information of the offence to the proper prosecuting officer. The party by whom the proceeding may be instigated is sometimes termed not merely "informer,** but "common informer," because he may be any member of the community. The object of such legislation is to elicit the active efforts of the people generally in the detection and punishment of wrongdoers by the prospect of a reward. Actions brought by an in- former under such a statute, when the penalty is recovera- ble partly for himself and partly for the benefit of the state, are technically termed f/ui tarn actions (f/nf" tarn, I.at., " who as well"), because tho plaintiff is described in the suit as one ir/io Hxirs as well for the king or commonwealth as for himself. This peculiar Latin phrase was adopted at a time when legal pleadings were expressed in that language, and these words formed the commencement of the allega- tion in which the plaintiff described the character in which he appeared in the action. Statutes authorizing 71*/ tarn actions are more common in England than in this country. Gkoroe Chase. Revisfo uy T. W. Dwigiit. InfllSO'ria [Lat. in/undo, infusum, to "pour over," to "make an infusion." because these organisms wrrc first ob- served in infusions]. If organic substances, either animal or vegetable, are soaked in water, the liquid dissolves por- tions of the solid mnttcr, forming an "organic infusion." If Ibis be exposed to the air, a scum or pellicle forms upon the surface, which, when examined under the microscope, is found to be composed of minute molecules. Presently thesemoleculesunitetoform short filaments called bacteria, or, if the segments are of considerahle length and jointed, they are known as vibrioneii. When perfectly developed, these two organisms exhibit vibratile movements. After a while they disintegrate, and there result small spherical bodies moving actively through the fluid, which are called monads. INGALLS— INGEKSOLL. iiy? These arc often ciliated and possess a mouth. Two theories explain this growth: (1) Tncse or^^anisnis are produced spontaneuu^^ly, and arc not ilcrivod IVom any pre-existing Infusoria in mud of the Antarcilc Ocran, greatly magnified. (Capi. James RussJ germs; (2) they originate from germs of extremely minute size, di!<}>cminated tlirougli the atmosphere and in various solid Buhstanccs. whioh develop into these fungus organ- isms under favorable conditions. Klahorate experiments have hecn instituted to show whether these organisms will germinate in infu'jioiis which have been subjected to great iipjit and deprived of air, with ro--*uIts favoring the second theory, though observers are not yet agreed. It is estab- lished, hiiwcvcr, that the bacteria and vibriones are alga', or the simplest kind of plant, while the monatls are ani- mals, sometimes the larval forma of tlie higher Infusoria. They are never generated except in organic solutions. Later writers restrict the name of Infusoria to the higher division of the Protozoa, excluding the forms already spe- cified. They possess a mouth, rudimentary digestive cavity, and vibratile cilia or contractile filaments. They are ex- tremely minute, and their bodies consist of three distinct layers, (ienerally, they have the power of swimming about freely, while some are fixcil in the adult period, and others constitute colonies by budrling. The outer layer is a trans- parent cuticle. The central mass is a soft, semi-fluid sub- stance, c:ipable of receiving particles of forxl, and is known as sareode. An intermediate layer is of firm and consistent sarcodc. The Infusoria are <livided into the three orders of Ciliata, Suctoria, and Klagdlata. They arc most abundant in fresh water in every country upon the face of the earth wherever organic matter is held in solution. They also occur in the ocean. The higher forms are to be sought for on the stems of aquatic plants, not in artificial infusions. C. JI. Hm iicoi'K. IircnIlR (UiTFi's), b. at Denmark, Me., 1820 ; graduated from the 1'. J<. Military Academy in ISJ.'S. and entered the army as brevet second lieutenant of rifles; transferred to the dragoons ISi/i, and to the quartermaster's department, with the rank of captain, in ISIM, rising through succes- fllvo grades to be ( IH71 ) ctdoncl and assistant quartermas- ter-general U. S. A. From the date of his graduation In- galls served with his regiment on quartermaster duty almost constantly on the frontier, participating in the war with Mexico and various expeditions, up to ISliO, when he was ordered to Washington, I>. C, where, on the outbreak of civil war in IStil. ho was at once called u|ton to assume re- sponsible duties as chief i|uartermaster of the ra]»idly arriv- ing volunteers, in proviiling for the embarkation of the Army of the I'otomac to the Virginia Peninsula, in trans- ferring the vast supplies of that army from the Vork to the James Uiver, and as chief quarlermnster nl' (hat army in the suh«iequent evacuation of the Peninstila, the estab- lishment of a new base of supplies at Acquia Creek, and, as chief i(uar(ermnster of the armies of tlio I'otomac and of the James, of establishing a d<''pot of stipplies at City Point ami supply of Iho-^o armies. Kis duties, ennstantly increasing in magnitude and responsibility, were diseharg- ed with great ability and despatch. Hreveltcd lieutenant- colonel to major-general. At the chtso of the war served at head-quarters of the army, and in 18fi7 at New York City as chief quarternmster of military division'of the Atlantic. (1. C. J^IMMONS. Inf^nil'ni [Gr.'lYyavvoi], a Lignrian tribe inhabiting the sea-eoast and mountains W. of (Jenoa in the first and second centuries B.C. Their capital was Albium Ingaununi, now called Albenga. They boro a prominent part in the long-continued wars between the Komans and the Ligur ians, and in the Second Punie war they were effeetivo allies of the Carthaginians. They were routed in a great battle by the proconsul .Kniilius Paulus (B. r. ISl). losing l.'i.OOO killed. From this time little more is heard of the Ingauni, but they were still recognized as a separate tribe in the time of Strabo an4l Pliny. Ins'bcrt, or Sanct Iii$;l>ort, town of Germany, in Rhenish liavaria, on the Kohrbaeh, has largo coal, iron, and quicksilver mines. Pop. 8433. Iii^$;elmun8ter, town of Belgium, province of AYcst Flanders, 7V miles N. of Courtrai, noted for a victory gained by the French over the allied Knglish and lluno- verians. May 10. 1701. Pop. 5Q00. In'selo\V(Ji:AN), daughter of William Ingelow, b. 1830 at Boston, England ; has published several volumes of verse (1863, 18t)7, 1871 ). besides prose works of fiction, including Talcs of Orrh (18G0), Studiea for ,Stor!rti (18(U). //„ni€ Thouf/htfi and Home Scenes (i8(;7), OJ}' the Sfcrllnja (1872), etc. Immediately on the publication of her first volume of poems she was recognized as an original poet, and her fame has grown wider ever since. Sometimes her poems have something scattered and romantically vague in the total representation of the idea, as is the case in one of her most celebrated poems. '* High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire." liut the details iioth of human character and of nature are often painted with a most exquisite del- icacy, as, for instance, in *' Tiie Letter L ;" and there is always in her verses a genuine warmth and noble natural- ness, connected with simplicity and grace. Iii'f;<!inaiin (Pkiinhaiu) Skvf.uin), b. May 2S. 17>^0; studied at tlie tniversity of Copenhagen ; travelled 181S-IU through (Jermany, France, Switzerland, and Italy, ami was appointed in 1SJ2 professor of Banish literature and lan- guage at the Academy of Soriie, which position he filled till his death. Feb. 24."isr.2. In 1811 he ]>ubli>hed his first volume of poems, and afterwards attempted almost every kind of fiction; his collected works comprise ijy volumes. But he became eminent only in two directions. Inspired by Walter Scott, ho treated the most brilliant and rcunantic period of the history of Denmark in a series of romances — Va/dtmur Scier (1^20), Erik McnvcWn Barndom (I82S), Kitutj Erik o'j de Frcdliisc (1833), and Prindn Otto »;/ hmis tSaiiitid { 1835) : and these romances, though inferior to their model in historical truth and in jiowcr of characterization and description, became truly popular. There existsperhaps no Dane who bus not read them ; they were also translated into (Jerman and Knglisb, and are fVe{juently found among the Scandinavians in the Wc>^t. An etjual impression he produced by his hymns and religious songs, of which some morning and evening songs were unsurpassable for tender- ness and purity of feeling. Ci-emkns Pktkrsen. In'gt'lihousz (.Iax). h, at Rreda. Holland, in 1730; studied medicine, and after practising in Hnlland went to England in 1707; travelled in Franco and Italy, and re- turned to London, where he devoted himself to seientilio research, and became a fellow of the Royal Society, in whoso Tr<ii\8<totit,un he published several important essays. To Dr. Ingenhousz is ascribed the first medical use of car- bonic acid and the invention of tiie plate electrical machine; he discovered that plants when exposed to light exhale oxygen, and when dej>rived of light exhale carbonic ncid. He d. at Rowood, the seat of the marquis of Lansdown, Sept. 7. 1709. In'gcrsall, town of Oxford co.. Out., Canada, on tho Thames and the Creat Western Railway. 10 miles liy rail from London, has a heavy trade in grain and lumber, im- portant manufactures of farm implements, woollen goods, eheeso, and lumber. 1 branch bank, and 2 weekly newspa- pers. It has fine public buildings, and is rapidly increasing in ini])ortan<'e. lN>p. ftf sub-district, 1022. liigersoll, tp. of Miillund co., Mich. Pop. 402. IllCcrsoll (Chaui.ks Anthon v). A. M., b. at New. Haven. Conn., in l70^^ ; held a high rank at the bar, and after hi»td- ing various important oflices was appointed judge of tho U. S. district court by President Pierce. D. Feb. 9, 1800. In^erHoll (Ciiaklks Jakiid), h. in Philadelphia Od. 3, 17^i'.', was a son of Jared Ingersoll (1710-1822). He ro- ceivetl a eollegiate educati^ui ; became a lawyer, and was a member of Congress 1813-14 and 1811-4"; l'. S. district attorney lSi;i-20, and held varittus important oflTices. Ho wrote ('fii'imnrn, n. poem ( ISOtt). InrhiifuiuK Lcttrrg ( 1810), J/inliiririil Skrtrh *\f the Srruud War with Grcnf Hritain f 1 vols.. |8if)-,'»2), anil several other works, chiefly liistor- ieal and )ioelical. D. in Philadelphia Jan. 14, lS(i2. Ilif^rrHOll (CiiAiti.is RoBcnrsK LL.D.. b. at Ni-w Ha- ven. Conn., Sept. Ifi, I82I ; graduated at Yale College in 1810. and at the Yalo liaw School in 1844. since which lime he has been a practising lawyer in his native city, which ho 1198 INGERSOLL— INGRES. has several times represented in the general assembly of the State. He was elected governor of Connecticut by the Democratic party in 1S73, was re-elected in 1874, and again in IST.i. Ingcrsoll f.T,\REr)t. LL.D..b. in Connecticut in 17(0, and gradunfcd at Yale in I7(J6. He studied law in Lotidonjand settled in Phihidi'lphin, whore he became a prominent law- yer, lie was a member of Congres'S T7'^0-SI ; n member of tbe convention which framed the V. S. Constitution in 1787. Ho afterwards licid many important public positions; was often atturney-geueral of Tennsylvania ; and at tbe time of his death was presiding judge of the district court for Philadelphia CO., Pa. D. Oct. -i!, 1S22. Ili^crsoll (JosKPH RF.Er»). LL.D., D. C. L.. a son of Jarcd lugcrsoU, b. in Philadelphia June II, 17^0: j^rad- uatcd at Princeton in 1804, and became a prominent law- yer of Piiiladelphia. He was a Whig member of Congress 1835-37 and IN42-4U, and U. S. minister to Eughmd 18J0- 53. He published a memoir of Samuel Breck (18ri3) and *SVcc««/on a Folly and a Crime. D. in Philadelphia Feb, 20, ISC.S. Ingersoll (Ralph Isaacs), LL.D., b. at New Haven, Conn., in 17.S8; graduated at Yale in 1808; studied law, and took high rank at the bar of his native city; was the Democratic leader in the Connecticut legislature in the tempestuous session of 1819, and afterward until 1825, when he was chosen to the lower house of Congress, re- maining there four terms, and taking liigh rank in tho practical machinery of legislation. In 1833 he declined a re-election in order to devote himself to his ]irofession, which he continued to do with great ability and success for tlie remainder of his life, refusing "all temptations to accept jtolitical appointments, except on one occasion iu 1840. when, at the personal solicitation of Pres. Polk, he accepted and filled for two years the post of minister to Rus.^ia. D. at New Haven Aug. 27, 1872. Ins^'ham, county of S. Central Michigan. Area, 576 square miles. It is level, fertile, and well timbered, and produces coal and iron ore. Cattle, grain, and wool aro staple products. Lumber, carriages, brick, ami saddlery are leading articles of manufacture. The county is trav- ersed by various railroads, centring at Lansing, the cap- ital of .Michigan, which is io this county. Cap. Mason. Pop. 2;..20S. Iiis^ham, post-tp. of Franklin co., la. Pop. 293. Ingham, tp. of Ingham co., Mich. Pop. 1392. Ingham (Bknjamis), b. at Ossett, Yorkshire, England, June 11. 1712; was educated at Batley School and at Queen's College, Oxford, where in 1733 he became .associated with John and Charles Wesley, the founders of Methodism. Ho was ordained and accompanied Joiin We:?ley to Georgia in 1735, remaining two years in America, returning with Wes- ley, and accompanying him in his visit to the IMoravians io (Jermany. So strong was his attraction to that body of Christians that he wished to assimilate the rising Method- ism to their type, and he actually foun>Icd in Yorkshire several congregations of what might be called Moravian Methodists, otherwise " Ingbaraites,*' and in a few years there were in England 84 of these societies. In process of time Ingham, who had married a sister of the earl of Hunt- ingdon, removed to Abberford and evangelized the whole surrounding region, being elected a bisliop or tjeucral orcr- eeer hy the Church he bad founded, which was long in fel- lowship with Methodism, but in 1759 and the succeeding years three-fourths of the societies, and finally Ingham himself, went over to tho Sandemanians (which sec). lie d. in 1772. Ingham (Charles C), b. in Dublin, Ireland, in 179C; belonged to an artistic family, and early developed a ge- nius for painting: gained a prize from the Dublin Academy when only twenty years of age ; came to the U. S., and with a brother attained the first rank of portrait-painters in New York ( 'ity, where he was one of the founders of the National Academy of Design. D. in New York City Dec. 10, 18ti3. In^hira'mi (Chevalier Francksco), b. at Volterra, It- aly, in 1772. was sent in boyhood to Naples to study at the military scIiodI ; the examination of the Museo Rorbonico determined his vocation for the study of antiquities. His Mounmeuti Etrusrhi, in 10 vols. ( 1821-27), is the most com- plete account of Etruscan antiquities. Ho wrote also (ral- Icria Omericn, in 3 vols. (1827-28), Mumco Etntnco-Chiu- Rino, in 4 vols. (1833), a Jfintori/ of 7\tMffitjt/, in 16 vols. (1841-45), and numerous other works which gained him a Kuropoan reputation. D. at Florence May 17, IS4G. In'glcby (Clk^!knt Mansfiklo). b. Oct. 29, 1S2.1, at Edg'mston. near Birmingham. England: studied at Cam- bridge : became professor in philosophy in 1855 at the Mid- land Institute of Birmingham, and foreign secretary to tho Roval Institute of Literature in 1870. He wrote The Skak' gpeare Fabrications (1S59), Vieic of the Shal'gpeare Contro- vcrsj/ (1861), Introttartiou to i^fetapht/sics (IS^^J). In'glis (Davih). LL.D., D. D.. b. June 8, 1825, at Green- law, Berwickshire, Scotland ; educated in the University of Edinburgh, where he graduated in 1841, and completed his theological studies there in 1S44; in 1816 was ordained pastor of the Presbyterian church of Bedford, Westchester CO., N. Y. ; in 1849 accepted a call to St. (Jabricl street church, Montreal: and in 1851 became pastor of tho Mc- Nab street cliurch, Hamiltiui. Ont. After a pastorate of sixteen years hereraove*! to Toronto, having been called by the (Jeneral Assembly of the Presbyterian Church of Can- ada to the chair c)f systematic theology in Knox College. From Toronto be removed in 1872 to Brooklyn, L. I., and bceamc pastor of Reformed (Dutch ) church on the Heights. He was the author of Tri-Cinteunni nud TlKnifcugivinfj Ser- mons, liiyhti-oneneHs Exaltrfh a A'atimi, Si/ftematic Thfolotjtj ill its JiclativH to Modern Thought, etc. D. Dec. 15, 1877. Inglis (Hf.nrv David), b. in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1795; travelled extensively in various countries in Europe, and under the pseudonym of '* Derwent Conway" pub- lished some very entertaining works — Talcs of ArdenneSf Solitari/ Walks ihrontjh Af<tiiif Lnnds. Joun\e>f through Nor- iCfty, Siccdt II. and Dvitmurk, Tour through Sicitzerland, etc., Spain in ISSO, New Gtl lilas^ or Pedro of Ptnajlor, Jonr- ney thronifhout Ireland in lA'34- The Tyrol, and Rambles in the Fontsteps of Don Qni.rote. The works of Mr. IngUs aro filled with information which is generally sought in vain in works of travel ; they have been frequently reprinted, and have become, in a measure, authoritative. D. in Lon- don Mar. 20, 1835. lu'golstadt, town of Bavaria, in the province of Upper Bavaria, on the Danube. Its fortifications, which were de- stroyed by Moreau in 1800, were rebuilt in 1830, and aro considered very strong. It has some manufactures of leather and paper. It was once the seiLt of a famous uni- versity, ^vbich was founded in 1472. transferred to Land- shut in lst)(l, and thence to Munich in 1S26. Pop. 15,025. Ili^graham, tp. of Mills co., la. Pop. 318. Ingraham (Di-ntan N.), b. Dec. 6. 1802, at Charleston, S. C. ; entered tho U. S. navy in 1812 as midshipman : rose to the rank of cnptain, and rendered himself famous in tho Martin Koszta affair at Smyrna in 1S53: for his conduct in this matter he was voted thanks and a medal by Con- gress. Afterwards he Avas appointed chief of the ordnance bureau of the naval dep.artment, which position he held until South Carolina passed her ordinance of secession in 1860; he then resigned his commission in tho U. S. navy and took service under the Confederate States, in which ho ruse to tbe rank of commodore. A. H. Stepiikns. Ingraham (.Joseph H.), b. in PorHand. Me., in 1809; early engaged in mercantile pursuits, but afterwards became an instructor in Washington College, Miss. He published The S'otith-tcest, by n Yankee (1836). which was followed by a considerable number of romances, some of which bad a very wide popularity. He afterwards took orders in the Protestant Episcopal Church, and was in charge of a par- ish at Holly Springs, Miss., where he had also a boys' school. Besides the above works ho wrote The Prince of the /fouse of Darid (1855). The Pillar of Fire (1859), and Thr Throne of D^fiid. D. in 1861. In'gram Cross-RoadSy tp. of Lauderdale co., Ala. Pup. 511. Ingram's, tp. of Johnston co., N. C. Pop. 1326. In'gres ^Jran Dominiqte Ai'custin), b. at Montauban, France, Sept. 15. 1781 :d.at Paris Jan. 14. 1867. His father, a painter and sculptor, had him instructed in music, hut the passi(m for painting was early awakened ; he studied un<ier MI\I. Roquc and Briant. and at nineteen entered the stucUo of David ; at twenty-one gained tlie second grau'I prize ; .it t^vonty-two gained the first grand prize for the painting of Achilles in hin Tent receiving the Ambassadors of Agamem- non, in the Kcolo des Beaux-Arts; in 1806 visited Rome, took up his residence there, and sent thence to Paris seve- ral canvases, wliieh were not received with special favt)r. Between 1814 and 1832 many works wercfinislicd and sent to the exhibitions at the Louvre, historical pieces mostly from classical and modern story — Virgil reading the yFneid to Augwtns, Franccnca de I'iniini, Philip V. of Spain bentnirittif the Golden Flreee on thr Marshal dc Uer- trick — but none of his works had the reputation in Paris that they had in Italy. M. Ingrcs*s fame dated from works executed in Florence — 77(c Entrance of Charles V. into Paris and The Vow of Louis XI IT. The artist received the decoration of the cross from the king, and was nia<le suc- cessor of Baron Denon in the Academy of Fine Arts. The Apotheosis of Homer (1827) and The Martyrdom of St. Sym- phorian excited much controversy among the critics. Sen- sitive to assault, the artist left France lor Italy, where he INGRIANS— INJU.N'CTION. 1199 was made director of the Villa do' Modici. In Italy his productive period returned. The Venuv Aunilt/otnctic, Jesus aitionrf the IfnctofM. Mnliere in Am Librnrtj, iittrtuf- in Court Cuntume, Jcau d' Arc at the C*mn€crittiun of Chnrlm VII., were amonj? bis more celebrated compositions. Tiidcr the Third Napoleon. lDi;res painted on the coiling of the Hfttcl do Villc a f;ri'at picture. The Apothi:o«iH <>/ Kapulcon /., with the legend. In nepote rrdiriviin. At the Exposition of ISjj the artist's works were displayed in a room devoted exclusively to them. A museum at Montaubun bears his name. He received a grand medal irnm tiie jury of the Internationnl Exhibition, was made an nflicer in the Legion of Honor ( 1S41 ). commander (IS-IJ), liigh officer (ISSJ). senator ( I StllH. and was also elected member ol the imperial council uf public instruction. 0. U. FitoxniscnAM. In'grians, a Finnish or Ugrian race, inhabiting Ingria, or Ingermannlancl. a portion of Russia now mostly included in the government of St. Petersburg. They arc mainly Lutherans, very poor and ignorant, but the process of Russiani/ing in manners and religion is going on. The true Ingrians (Votlj are estimatctl to number 17,>^0fl, but there are reported in the district 42,97'J Savakot and !?'.>, ">M Auramoiset — Finnish peoples allied by language with the Karclians rather than with the Ingriansand the true Finn?. Intiamban% Iiihamba'na, or Inhambaucy a Portuguese town of .Mozambique, lat. 2.'J° o'J' iS., Ion. .'Jj" 51' K., near the mouth of the river of the same name. It has a trade by sea in wa.\, ivory, etc. Pop. IU,II00, Inheritance* See Heir. In^a, a genus of toothed delphinoid cetaceans of tho family Iniida>, which contains one known living species and several fossil genera. Tlie Im'n /Ittfiriemtiit, of the rivers and lakes of the interior of South America, is from seven to frmrteen feet long, is carnivorous an<l gregarious, and is caught for its oil. The females care tenderly for their young. Injaya, The Logical School. Sec Hindu Pni- Losoi-nv, by Piiof. John XJowsu.v. Injnnc'tion [Lat. injnnctio], in its more general sense, as a law term, is an order mado by a court possessing equitable powers, atldressed to a designated person, and commanding him either (I) not to commit some act which he threatens to commit, or (2) to desist from the further prosecution of somo act which he has already commenced, or (.*1) to restore to its former condition something which has been interfered with and altered by his act. This judi- cial instrument for tlie prevention of wrong was, like many other remedies and forms of proceeding, borrowed directly from the Roman law. in which it was extensively used un- der the name of *• interdict." Interdicts were commands issued by the prietor or other magistrate, in which he or- dered something to be done or not to bo done. 7'ho num- ber of particular instances in wliieb they n)ight be used was very great, and inrleed tliey might be resorted to for tho protection of all species of property, public and private. The certainty and ease with which threatened wrongs could bo prevented by their means, and a restoration of rights could bo effected, raised the remedial department of the Raman law to a high position of practical etficacy which has been surpassed by no mofU-rn system of jurisprudence. The primary division of interdicts was into three classes: (1) Prohibitory, which prohiltiterl something Crom being done; (2) rcstoratory, wliich cnminamlfd sometbing to be restored; and (3) exhibitorv, which directed some person or thing to be prorluced and exiiibited. In this last class wa« one. i/c fihei'o honiine ej-hihem/o, which was used to pre- vent a freeman from being restrained of his liberty by any person whatsoever, and which therefore bore some resem- blance to our writ of habeas corpus. Tlic only speeics of injunction for a long time used hy the Eiiirlish and American courts as a part of the equita- ble relief administered by them resembled and was bor- rowed from tho prohibitory interdict of tho Roman juris- prudence, since it merely forbade the commission of some act; but a modified form has been recently introrluccd under tho name of *' mandatory injunetion," which is sim- ilar in its design and etVecIs to the restorntory interdict. Tho ancient common law furnished no remerlies which were directly preventive: its reliefs, in all (trdiiiary ]>rivatc coiitro\ ersies, were either (1) the recovery <d* money as a compensation f'>r the wrong complained <»f. or (2) the re- covery of a specific tract of land, or (II| the recovery of a specific chattel. Tho court of chancery, untrammelled hy the arbitrary and technical forms and doctrines of the law- courts, and administering a remedial system which those triliunals could not or would nr>t administer, was ablo to introduce a preventive moilo of relief, and from tho very outset the injunction became the most potent instrument in building up its peculiar jurisprudence. Tho flrst im- portant and constant use to which it was put was tho re- straining the prosecution of suits in courts of law. As the doctrines of equity arc often quite different from those which prevail at law. and since from the same facts and circumstances involved in a given controversy it frequently happens that the law would regard one party as possessing the legal right, while equity would look u|)on the other as the one entitled to relief, it necessarily follows that the courts of law would decide stich controversy when brought before them in favor of one litigant, and the court of equity would render its decree in favor of his antagonist. If, therefore, the person who held the legal right should bring an action in a coinm<in-hnv court, ho would necessarily re- cover a judgment, while at the same time if his adversary should prosecute his demand in chancery, a decree would be rendered in his favor establishing his claim in direct antagonism to the decision made by the court of law. In this manner an unseemly confiict might have arisen and been perpefuatecl between the two classes of tribunals, had the chancellor not posscssc<l the preventive instrument of injunction which enabled him to enforce his own decrees and uphold his own jurisdiction. The ]>rohibition was not, however, directctl ai;aiiist the courts of law nor the judges thereof personally, but against tlic suitors before those courts. The theory of the court was, that it was un- just and inequitable for the suitor in the particular case to make use of his strict legal remedies. Tlic mandate of the court was accordingly addressed to him to refrain from doing an act whicdi in right and conscience he ought not to do. By the use of the injunction the chancellor, when a proceeding was instituted before him to establish an equi- table right, forbade the opposing party from commencing orcarrying on any action in a court of law based ujum the same facts an<l circumstances, and thus a conflict of juris- diction in all cases wns prevented. In this manner and for this purpose an injunction to stay the prosecution of suits at law became, from the very commencement of his judicial functions, an ordinary remedial instrument in the hands of the chancellor, anrl by its means alone was ho finally enableil to establish his jurisdiction and to create the system of equity jurisprudence as a co-ordinate branch of English law. The question as to the power to interfere by injunction being decided favorably, the court of chancery at length established the ftdlowing general principle, which deter- mined the occasions in whicii it would resort to such pre- ventive remedy. In all cases where the courts of law can furnish an adequate relief "Tor the wrong done or about to be done, equity will not interjiose its restraining power, but j will leave the injured (tarty to his legal action. By tho term "adequate relief" is meant the recovery of a judg- ment at law which is considered asufHcicnt satisfaction for the wrong done or contemplated : and it embraces, in gen- eral, all those cases in which pecuniary compensation can be awarded in the form of debt or damages, and those in which tin- thing itself, land or chattels, can be restored to the rightful possessor. The most important occasions to which this principle docs not npply. and in which, there- fore, an injunction will be granted in order to prevent a threatencrl wrong or tt) restrain the further commission of an incquit,;iblc act. arc the following : ( I ) To restrain pro- ceedings at law. This general class embraces many par- ticular instances. Among tho grounds for such interfer- ence, tho most imjiortant arc when the legal right and tho proceedings to enforce it arc aft"ecled by fraud, mistake, or accident ; when they require a long accounting; when tho litigation is vexatious; when the controversy involves tho rights and duties of trustees, partners, executors, admin- istrators, sureties. uHirtgagors. ancl mortgagees, or requires the nmrshallinir of assets, or depends upon tlie effects (if an equitable set-idV or assignment. In these, and in certain other similar instances, the litigant parlies and their at- torneys and agents will be restrained from carrying on proceedings not only in courts having full common-taw powers, but also in tribunals of an inferi<»r or special juris- diction. In addition to this use of the injunction, it is also resorted to in eerljiin well-defined clashes of eases to prevent the commission of acts which would bo so perma- nently injurious to property that no adequate relief could ho given by the common law remedy of damages. It is true that in all the instances about to be mentioned somo pecuniary compcnsati<ni could bo obtained, hut from the very continuous and lasting nature of (he wrongful act done, repeated and perhaps innumerable suitsat law would be necessary, uidess it could be stcqjped at once by some preventive relief. Tho classes of cases thus described, in which a wrong will bo prevented beenuse the law can give no suthcient remedy, are as follows: (2) to restrain tho conimission of waste, which is necessarily a permanent in- jury to tho land wasted; (.1) to restrain continuous or re- peated trespasses upon land. Although an injunction will 1200 INK. not be granted to prevent violence to the person nor to chattels, nor single acts of injury to lands, yet if the tres- pass to land is vontinuons. so that it becomes analogous in its effects to wasti'. courts of equity will now interfere, by a liberal use of the injunction, both to ])revent the further wrong and to compel a restoration of the ])reniiscs to their original condition; (-1) to restrain the creation and main- tenance of nuisances ; (5) to prevent the infringement of patents and copyrights, and the unlawful use or piracy of tratle-marks ; (G) to restrain the breach of covenants or agreements in a few special instances. In general, the breach of an agreement will not bo enjoined, but in a few cases, where the injury would be of such a character that damages would be no adequate relief, courts of equity will interfere by injunction. In some eases an injunction is used as a moans of enforcing an agreement. Thus, where a parly has agreed that be will iu>l do a particular thing, an injunction will causo him to fullil his contract; (7) to restrain a disposition of their property by debtors so as to hinder, delay, or defraud their creditors; (S) to restrain assignments and transfers of property which would inter- fere with the settlement of bankrupts' estates. These arc the most important and usual cases in which the power of eqviity triluinals to issue an injunction is now firmly estab- lished. There are somo other special and exceptional in- stances which it is not necessary to enumer.ale. In respect to their effects, injunctions are either prohib- itory or m.andatory. In the former class the order of the court is negative, and commands the party vnt to do the specified act; in the latter, it is aflirmative, and commands the party to Jo the specified act. The object of a manda- torv injunction is generally to compel the defendant to re- move some structure which he has wrongfully erected, and which is a nuisance or a trespass, and to restore the premises to their original condition. In respect to their form and the manner of granting them, injunctions are either final and perpetual or interlocutory and temporary. Final injunctions aro granted after the hearing and decision of the cause, anfl form a part of tbo decree which <letermines the rights of the parties. Inter- locutory or temjjorary injunctions aro orders made at the commencement of the action or during its pendency, on the application of the plaintiff. Their object is to prevent the defendant from so interfering with or disposing of the subject-matter in controversy as to render a final decree against him ineffectual. The reformed system of procedure which has been ailoptcd in many of the V. i^. has to a great extent obviated one most important use of the injunction as above described. According to that procedure, equitable defence can bo set up and maintained in legal actions; the whole matter in dispute, the legal and equitable rights and claims of tho parties, can be presented and adjudicated upon in one con- troversy, and the holder of the equitable right is no longer forced to institute a separ.ate suit in chancery and to enjoin the adverse action brought against him in a court of law. AVhenever this ])rocedure prevails, therefore, the employ- ment of the injunction to restrain the prosecution of suits at law is in most cases no longer necessary or proper. With this single exception tiie preventive remedy of in- junction is freely usecl by our courts, although in most of the .'itates the same tribunals are clothed with both equit- able and common-law powers and jurisdiction. ■Tonx NollTON POMEBOV. Ink [Fr. encre ; Ger. Tinle ; Lat. alrnmciiliim]. Any colored fluid used in writing or printing is an ink. Tho essential difference in composition between writing inks and printing inks leads to a natural division of tbo sub- ject. We will consider first writing inks, and subsequently printing inks. I. AViiiTiso Inks. //i«(orica?.— Very little is definitely known of the composition of the inks used I)y tho ancients, but it is generally conceded that the use of the stylus indi- cates the use also of carbon inks, not unlike, probably, the China or India ink which is still the almost exclusive atramontal substance used among the Chinese and other Asiatic peoples. Tho use of iron salts is certainly very ancient. Dr. IJIagdcu (Phil. Trnna., vol. Ixxvii.) found that the faded cljaractcrs of very ancient MSS. could bo restored by the use of prussiato of jxttash and diluti- muriatic or sulphuric acid, or less ])erfectly by infusion of galls, redevelojiing tho iron black. Pliny, Dioscorides, and other ancient writers give evidence, however, that car- bon in the form of soot was the essential constituent of ancient ink. flliick Ink-9. — Tho black ink in common use in modern times is made from the action of infusion of gallnuts upon green vitriol, exposing the product to the influence of air, and hohling the precipitate in suspension by gum, sugar, or mucilage. This fluid, the production of which is more particularly described beyond, is far from being chemically perfect, and is open to the objections that it corrodes steel pens, is prone to mould in warm weather, and to deposit a sediment on standing. The writing is also liable to grow yellow or brown with age, and, when not carefully pre- ])ared. to destroy the paper on which it is used, liut these dilficulties arc in great part capable of correction by skilful nnmufaeture and tho use of proper ])recautions. The fact that well-made iron inks stain tho substance of the paper with a stain diftieult of removal, and speedily growing darker with age up to a certain time, has rendered their use verv general in sjiite of their acknowledged defects. The carbon writing inks are liable also to the objection that they arc not true solutions, and usually are wanting in fluidity. Tbo logwood chrome ink is a true solution, but open to some serious objections. Stephens's and Ar- nold's writing fluids are true solutions with an iron base, pale when first written with, but rapidly growing darker to a fine black, and possessing many exeellfuccs. Tho aniline dyes also aiTord some good black or blue-black inks, which have many good qualities. Somo of these are mea- tioned beyond. Nulgoll Iron Iiil-n. — Both gallic and gallo-tannic acids, which co-exist in the infusion of galls, especially after con- siderable exposure to air. produce deep-black precipitates with ferric salts, but with ferrous salts whitish |irecipilates, becoming black by exposure to air. As gallic acid pro- duces a much deeper black with ferric salts than tannic or tanno-gallic acid, we sec why it is advantageous to leave the infusion exposed for many days to air, in order that the tannic may be changed to gallic acid, fium arable or gum Senegal is added to retain the precipitate in suspen- sion, prevents the formation of a sediment, and adds a cer- tain degree of lustre. To prevent the growth of mould somo essential oil, carbolic acid in small quantity, and rarely corrosive sublimate, are used. Other vegetables containing tannin aro often substitutes for gallnuts, chiefly from motives of economy, but only with a loss of quality. Logwood is, however, used in certain inks, as giving not only tannin, but a peculiar color. Recipes without number" exist in the technical books for the prepara- tion of iron black ink, and each manufacturer boasts his own. Many of them arc worthless, as containing too much acid or too little g.all-infusion, too much gum or some other objectionable ingredient in excess, or some defect in manu- facture. We will select a few only of tho best, and such as have been prepared with some regard to the chemical character of tho ingredients. Dr. Lewis, at the close of tho last centurv. who seems to have been tho first chemist to study ink quantitatively, found that equal weights of gulls and sulphate of iron gave an ink which, although of a good color when used, subsequently heeamo yellowish-brown ; that as tho quantity of sulphate was increased the inks were less durable in color; and that those in which the galls predominated were most persistent. The proportions which ho found best by experiment were — Powdered sulphate of iron 1 ounce. < .round loswood 1 " Itruiscd palls 3 " <jum arable , I " Wldto wine, or acetic acid 1 quart. lie found that although water answered for all ordinary purposes, white wine gave a deeper-colored product, and the ink made with acetic acid was still blacker. Alcidiol was injurious to tho color, causing a dcjtosition of the tinc- torial precipitate. A decoction of logwood, substituted for water, improved the black both in richness and depth of tint. Ho directs tho materials to be put into a glass, earth- enware, or other non-metallic vessel, and the mixture agi- tated four or five times every day. In ten or twelve days it is ready for use — ^if placed in a warm situation consider- ably earlier; but if the ink is allowed to remain on tbo materiel it continues to improve for a lengthened period. When decanted it may be kept in good order with greater certainty if a few broken — not bruised — galls and tivo or three fragments of iron arc placed in it. {Mimpralt.) Dr. Urc, whoinade careful researches upon inks, gives the fol- lowing directions for the best black ink : To make 12 gal- lons of ink we may take 12 pounds of nutgalls, 5 pounds of green sulphate of iron, 5 pounds of gum Senegal, 12 gal- lons of water. The bruised nutgalls are to be put into a cylindrical copper of a depth equal to its diameter, and I boiled during three hours with three-fourths of the above 1 ([uaulitvof water, taking care to add fresh water to replace what is'lost by cva]ioration. The decoction is to be emp- I tied into a tub, allowed to settle, and the clear liquid being drawn off, the lees are to be drained. The gum is to he i dissolved in a sm.all quantity of hot water, and the muci- lage thus formed, being filtered, is added to tho clear de- coction. The sulphiite of iron must likewise be scp.arately dissolved and well mixe.l with the above. The color dark- 1 ens by degrees, in consequence of the peroxidation of tho INK. 12IJ1 iron, on exposing the ink to the nctioD of the air. But ink afforJa a more durable writing when used lu the pale state, because ita particlfis are then tiner and penetrate the paper more intimately. M'hen ink cunsists chiefly of taunnte of peroxide of iron, however black, it is merely euperfieial, and is easily erased or effaced. Therefore, whenever the liquid made by the ab<ive recipe ha.-* arquircd a moderately deep tint it should be drawn off clear into bottles and well corked up. Pome ink-makers allow it to mould a little in the casks before bottling:, and suppose that it will thereby bo not so liable to become mouldy in the bottle?. The ink made by the recijie piven above i? niucb more rich and powerful than many of the inks commonly sold. To bring it to their standard a half more water may safely be added, or even 20 gallons of tolerable ink may bo made from that weight of materials, as I have ascertained. Sumach and logwood admit of only about one-half of the copperas that galls will take to bring out the maximum amount of black dye. M'utts has tabulated various recipes for the preparation of black ink, calculated for 1(100 parts of water, as follows : a. h. e. d. t. f. g. Galls 225 187 133 125 66 62 31 Copperas 75 73 55 24 22 31 19 Oumarabic 25 73 55 24 111 31 8 h. i, k. I. m. Galls 50 174 50 60 42 Logwood 100 20 21 Copperas 32 87 10 20 21 Sulphate of copper ... 5 Gum 9 43 47 20 10 Sugar 23 1000 Vinegar 125 135 Of the genuine inks {*t-(j). a, b, and c arc too strong for or- "linary use ; ft, r, and / are perhaps the best ; y would bo somewhat too pale. The re-t (h-m) cannot he recommend- ed, excepting for special purposes. Sulphate of copper deepens the color of the precipitate, but renders it more compact an<l heavy, anci therefore more apt to settle down. A certain quantity of sugar renders the ink more fluid, and permits the addition of a larger proportion of gum. It like- wise renders the ink adhesive when dry, so that a copy of the writing may easily be taken off l)y the copying-press. .An ink containing lorjwood with the galls has been much used in Germany, and is mafle as follows : 1 kilo, of coarsely pulverized nutgalls and l.')0 grms. of logwood chips are ex- hausted with 5 litres of hot water ; 600 grms. of gum arable are dissolved in 25 litres of water: and 500 grms. of sul- ph.ite of iron in some litres of water; each of these solu- tions being made separately. This done, the gall-logwood infusion is mixed with those of the gum and copperas; a few drop3 of es«<ential oil of cloves or of gaultheria (winter- green oil) having been added, there is added as much water lis will bring the bulk of the liquid up tr> II litres. M'liilo this kind of ink attacks nml corrodes steel pens, it has the adilitional disailvantago that after a time the writing be- rnmes yellow. Booth gives the following formula) : For su- perior black ink, take 12 pounds Aleppo galls. 4 pounds 'iilphate of iron, 3^ pounds of gum, ami 18 gallons of water. For a fine exchequer ink, fO pounds of Aleppo galls, 9 pounds of sulphate of iron. HI pounds of gum, and (5 gal- lons of water. In both these cases it is directed that the bruised galls be exhausted by three consecutive boilings, each time diminishing the quantity of water, and supply- ing by fresh aildition any loss by evaporatitm. The eop- ])cras and gum in solution are added to the strained decoc- tion of galls whilst both are yet warm, and the whole is allowed to repose for several weeks, when the fluid is drawn off from the sediment. A few cloves, or some drops of cre- osote, are added (o prevent any parasitic growth. The best fluid to dilute ink which has become too thick for use is a strong decoction of coffre, which improvcfl the lufltro and c<dor of ink without decomposing it. The imperfections inherent in the ordinary black ink from gulls and iron salts became more manifest on the in- trodui'tion of the steel pen, which, aside from its being cor- roded more or less rapidly, caused, the ink to concrete and deposit its coloring-matter. These imperfections have been sought to bo avoided by the introduction of various Jhiid iiif.-M, H-hirh are true s<dutions. The first of these in order of time was the flni<l of Henry Stephens of London, who prepared a blue liquid wliieli iiossesses the property of turning in a few hours after writing to nn Intense black. It biis the advantage of perfeet fluidity, flowing easily from the pen upon the paper, with which it forms a tenacious combination. These properties were imparted to the ordi- nary gallic ink by adding to it sulphate of indigo, which holds the coloring-matters in solution. The so-called ali- z'triu hikii (a mere commercial name, by no means imply- ing that they contain the alizarin of madder) cmsist of common ink mixed with :i litfle free sulphur!'' acid, which, V..r.. II.— n; like other acids, retards the oxidation of the ferrous precipi- tate (see Ikon. Salts of), so that the writing becomes block only after exposure to the air; the change being, perhaps, accelerated by the neutralization of the sulphuric acid by the basic substances contained in the paper; the ink blackens very quickly when exposed to ammouiacal vapors. A certain quantity of sulphindigotic acid or its sodium-salt (indigo-carmine) is usually added, so that the ink may not appear too ]iale in writing. An ink of this kind may be prepared by exhausting 40 parts by weight of nutgalls with 112 parts water, and then adding 7 parts copperas and i part oxalic acid. At the same time, 1 part of finely pulverized indigo-blue is dissolved In 4 parts fum- ing sulphuric acid; the solution after twenty-four hours is diluted with water, and mixed with a small quantity of carbonate of soda; the precipitate is collected, washed to remove the saline solution, then suspended in water; and this liquid is added to the former till the whole exhibit? a rather deep greenish-blue color. Stark, after manufactur- ing and testing for fourteen years 22'J different kinds of ink, states that he found nothing for durability of writing and genera! excellence to compare with gallnut-copperas ink, with a certain amount of sulf)hate of indigo. He gives as his final preference for the best ink : To each 1 gallon, 12 ounces of best gallnuts, 8 ounces of copperas, 8 fluid- ounces of sulphate of indigo. 4 to 6 ounces of gum arabic, and a few cloves. As metallic iron impairs the quality of all iron inks, he recommends that all legal and other im- portant documents be written with a gold or quill pen. ( Ch\ Etuj. <md Arch. Jour., Aug., 1855.) Chrome ink is preparer! by adding 1 part of chromate of potassa to 1000 jiarts of a saturated solution of logwood, made by boiling 22 pounds of logwood in a suflicicnt quan- tity of water to give 14 gallons of decoction ; to this men- struum, when cold, the chromate is gradually added and the mixture well stirred. The addition of gum is injurious. If care is taken not to permit the ]iroportion of chrome salt to exceed 1 part for 1000 parts of decoction of logwood, a deep blue-black writing fluid is formed which drops no de- posit, like the ordinary gallate-of-iron ink. Paper written upon with it may be washed with a s])onge or be left twenty- four hours under water without the marks being erased. "Weak acids do not destroy the writing, nor do they even change the shade, whilst that made from galls is effaced, and the ink made with logwood and sulphate of iron is turned red. Runge, the discoverer of this ink. used it with steel pens for two years without their becoming rusty or obstructe<l by solid njatter. It is not liable to turn mouldy, but. on the other hand, it is incompatible to use it with pens which are dipi)ed in ordinary ink, and it is prone to gelatinize. A much-esteemed French fluid ink, *• the black- violet ink of Houcn," is prepared by boiling 750 ]»art8 of logwood with 6000 parts of water, 35 parts of alum, 31 parts of gum arable, and 15 parts of sngar-candv, leaving the mixture to stand for two or three days, and straining through a linen cloth. A chnuiio ink unlike Kunge's chromate-of-potash ink has been proposed by C. Puscher in Nuremberg, 1S67, thus: Take 10 loths of logwood ex- tract with four times its volume of water, boiled till half the water is evaporatcil ; 2 loths of ebrome alum are then dissolved in half the same volume of water, and both solu- tions mixed and boiled for fifteen minutes, in which lime it should be in solution. Add further 1 bithof gum arabic, end we have 25 loths of a clear deep violrt-blue eolution. which Boon writes black. To convert this into a good cojiying ink, add 1 loth gum arabic and * loth of glucose or glycerine. (Wagner. */"Arc«-/?erjVAr, xiii. IS67.) Vanndhtm BInrk Ink. — Berzelius advised the UBO of vanadate of ammonia with infusion of gallnuts. A sur- ]irisinglv small quantity of the vanadium salt suffices to produce a perfectly black ink — so small, as lierzelius says, it will not bo worth consi<!erlng when ranadium is more generally known. The writing obtained with this ink is perfectly black. Xo sediment forms from it. It flows read- ily from the pen. ancl does not ci)rrode steel ; is not attacked by dilute alkalies, but is turned red by acids. Dr. A. A. liayes (Prorml. Am. A caff., lt<75) has lately shown the vanadium comi»ound9 to bo far more widely diffused than was before known. Althougli this ink cannot be said to bo absolutely indelible, yet it strongly resists reagents which cause common ink to disappear. An excellent rxtrmporuur<,tin ink is nmde oa follows : Take of taniiie an<l gallic acids each 20 grains ; dissolve in two fluid-ounee« of water; also take crystallized green vit- riol (sulfdiale of iron I and of tirlrd eulpbate {tuif/than /V/ti exHirrntum \. of eoch 15 grains, and dissedve these separately in a like quantity of water (best distilled) : mix the two so- lutions and add of mucilage {mnvilngo ffummi nrnhiri) 2\ fluid-drachms, of oil of cloves 2 drtips. This is by no nieiins a cheap ink. but is very permanent, and of a beautiful black color. 1202 INK. For travcllincf expeditions it is convenient to have ink in cakes and iitk-puirdvra; two of tlic following recipes for these are quoted from AVatts's iJictiomtry: Ink in (^aketf. — 42 parts of f^ood nnt_;;;allsand .'J parts of madder are boiled in about Fix times their \veight of water; tlic filtered decocticm is mixed with ;">i parts copperas and 2 parts pyrolijnaie of iron ; I J parts solution of in<li<;o (in sulphuric acid, diluted with water) are then added ; the nnxturc is evaporated nearly to dryness at a j;entle heat and with constant stirring; and the pasty iiiasi^ is then made intoeakes nndtliorou^hly tlricd. This ink, dissolved In 6 parts of hot water, is said to make an excellent ropyin;; ink, and in 10 or 12 parts water a very fine writing ink. Portfihfe luk. — At a recent meeting of the Pnlytceh- nic Association of Frankfort. M. Bnttj*cr exhibited a new kind of ink which is convenient for travellers. It is prc- pired by saturating white bibulous paper with aniline blaek. and then pressing several sheets together, so as to form a compact block. Other aniline colors may be om- jiloyed for making red, violet, green, and other inks. A piece of the prepared jiaper two or three centimetres eqnaro will furnish sufficient ink for a long correspondence by sim- ply steeping it in a li'flc water. Ink Poicdcr. — A solid chrome ink may be made by triturating together to a fine powder lOD parts extract of logwood. 1 part neutral chro- mate of potassium, and -^^ indigo-carmine; 1 part of this powder, added to .".2 parts water, is said to make very good ink. A mixture of 4 parts pounded galls, 2 parts copperas, and 1 part gum arabic is also frequently sold as an ink- powder. Cnpying inks are only concentrated common inks, to which more gum and sugar or a portion of glycerine is added. If the body is good, thrco or four legible copies may br taken from the same writing by the copying-press. A very much esteemed French copying ink is made thus: Take 30 grms. of extract of logwood. 7. J grms. of crystal- lized carbon.atc of soda ; boil this with 210 grins, of water, and add. while vif^orously stirring, ;i0 grms. of glycerine. When the fluid has become cold, dissolve in it 1 grm. of neutral chromate of potassa. and add. lastly, 7.6 grms. of gura arabic, previously m.ade into a thick mucilage with water. The paper upon which it is desired to transfer a capy need not be moistened if this ink is used. The fol- lowing preparation is much recommended : 4 parts by weight of logwood extract arc dissolved in a mixture of fiO parts vinegar and 70 parts water; and .T parts copperas, 2 parts alum, 2 parts gum arabic, and 4 parts sugar are then added. This ink is at first more violet than the Rouen ink, which is also used as a copying ink. Another like prep.ara- tion of American origin is as follows: Take V a pound of extract of lo:;wood (Sanford's is best), 2 ounces of alum, 4 drachms of blue and as much of green vitriol, and 1 ounce of sugar: boil thcpo ingredients with 4 pints of water, filter the ilocoetion through flannel, and add to it a solution of 4 draclims of yellow chromate of potassa in -1 ounces of wa- ter, and finally 2 ounces of ehemic blue in 2 ounces of glycerine. The ehemic blue, also called '* blue dye." is the solution of indigo in oil of vitriol, and otherwise used for dyeing wool. Letter-books, with pajicr kept moist by gly- cerine, have been prepared which are said to avoid the necessity of using a brush or sponge in copying U'ttcrs. A good copying ink is said in the Chcm. Cent. lifaft (for 1S().^, j 'My'2) to be obtained by using 16 grammes of logwood ox- I triiet, 2 of alum, | ouch of green vitriol and blue vitriol, antl 1 of .sugar, boiled in .*' pints of water; strain and add ) of chromate of potassa in 4 of water. Then add 2 of i sulphate of indigo and 2 of glycerine. The indi*;o solution is made by treating \ powdered indigo with 5 Nordhausen acid, and rlilute with '.'> pints of water. Nnthe Vrfffrfnlifr fnkn. — The juice of Con'an'a tki/mi/oli'a, or ink-plant of New (Inmada, locally called chnnchi, is at first of a somewhat reddish color, but becomes intensely I'lack in a few hours. This juice can bo used for writing without requiring any further preparation. It corrodes ftcel pens less than ordinary ink, and resists chemical agents better. All the old documents under the Spanish ' dominion in America were written with chauchi. Pea-\s'ater I does not affect it. Experiments are being made in Europe ' to acclimate this ink-plant. The Srqnniit f/i;/(nitra, or '' big trees," of the Sierra Nevada furnish a peculi.ar sort of tannin, highly colored ami largely soluble in wnfer. fur- ' nishing a strong deep reddish-black liquid whieli I find to be a quite tolerable natural ink when used alone, and with , a steel pen the color is rendered much darker. This coloring-matter is found only in the cones, the seeds being implanted in it, and it also fills the spaces between the scales of tiic cone. A gum resin accompanies the tunnin which is quite soluble in ililuted alcohol. Boiling injures ' the color of this natural ink, which cold water sufiiccs to i exhaust. It is highly ]irobable that observations to this end will discover other valuable native inks. (Sec beyond In(fr-fil,fr .\fni-kif>;j Inkdoin anacardium nut.> The Deuteche I Ind. Zcitnutj gives the following recipe for an old and well- known natural ink: lilnck Ink J'ruia Elder Ticnicn. — The I bruised berries arc ])Iaccd in an earthen vessel, and kei»t in ■ a warm place for three days, then pressed out and filtered. , The filtered juice is of such an intense dark color that it , takes 200 parts of water to reduce it to the shade of dark I red wine. Add to the 12^ quarts of this filtered juice 1 ounce of sulphato of iron and the same quantity of crude I pyroligneous acid, and an ink is prepared which» when I first used, has a violet color, but when dry is indigo blue- black. This ink is superior in many respect? to that pre- pared with galls : it docs not become thick so .soon, it flows easier from the pen without gumming, and in writing the letters do not run into one another. There is quite a list of plants whose seeds give a lasting black color as inks and dyes of silk and linen fabrics or hair. Such are,4m^ri> toxifcra, Camovhtdia hilCffn'/olia, C dciitatn and C. pnnc- tnafa, Cotida tdhn (or EcHpta cvcctn), the seeds of which the inhabitants of Cochin-Cliiua use to color their hair of a permanent black. Jidicofjict cane^ccnn bears juicy ber- ries, the juice of which alone can be used as ink, and leaves permanent stains on linen, etc. Colored Writnif/ Ink^. — Ink may he made of almost any desired color, and the variety., richness, and permanence of colored inks have been greatly increased of late by the introduction of aniline colors, many of which may be used with great advantage, and have already u. wide circulation under various trade-names. Hed ink is usually made from cither cochineal or Brazil- wood, the latter being the nunc permanent. But some of the aniline reds are rapidly replacing the former sorts. Tbo cochineal inks are the brightest, but at the same time the dearest and most fugitive. The best is a solution of pure carmine in caustic ammonia; it must be preserved in well- stopped vessels. Buttger recommends 1 part of good car- mine, 120 caustic ammonia, and H parts gum arabic. A cheaper but less brightly colored ink is made by drenching 12 parts of pulverized cochineal and 4 parts of carbonate of ammonia (or pearl-aslO with .'12 parts hot water, then digesting and pouring off the clear liquid. Addition of cream of tartar and st.annic chloride renders the ink more scarlet; cream of tartar and an equal weight of alum give it a crimson tint. Brftzil'innod inks arc made by boiling the wood in water, adiUng tin-salt (stannous chloride) or cream of tartar and alum to modify the tint, and thicken- ing with gum arabic; e. </. -l j)arls Brazil-wood boiled in fiO parts of water, the decoction boiled down to ."C parts, filtered, and mixed with i part of tin-salt and i part gum arabic ; or 8 parts Brazil-wood, boiled with 2 [larts alura and 2 parts cream of tartar in 120 parts water; the liquid concentrated to parts by weight, and mixed with 2 parts gum arabic and 2 parts sugar. Ucade's patent red ink (1847) is made as follows: Cochineal is first boiled in suc- cessive quantities of ])urc water till it ceases, or nearly so, to afford tinctorial matter. It is then subjected to ebullition with dilute ammonia, which dissolves the remainder of tbo tint-giving principle, leaving the animal matter nearly white. These aqueous and ammoniacal decoctions aro then mixcfl in an earthenware vessel, and the crdoring- matter is then thrown down I>y means of the double chloride of ammonium and tin. The compound thus formed is sub- sequently boiled in ammonia, and iodide of tin is then added till the required degree of brilliancy of hue is ob- tained : this completes the (noecss, the degree of body rc- quircti in tlie ink being given by an ad libitum addition of w.ater. This ink, says the patentee, is greatly superior to the common solutions from peach and Brazil-wood, not only in permanent richness of color, but also in its free- dom from acid, and couscqucnt fitness for uso with steel pens. lilue Inks. — The most familiar blue ink is Stephens's patent blue writing fluid, which is ,^0 parts of soluble Prus- sian blue (Paris blue) dissolved in 4 jiarts of oxalic acid in 1000 parts of water. Common Prussian blue is digested in successive portions of hydrochloric acid until the solu- tion ceases to react for iron with fcrrocyanidc of potassium. It is then washed completely neutral with water, gently dried, and carefully mixed with oxalic acid in fine powder, drenched with pure cold water added in small portions at a time, making a solution more or less dense according to the intensity of color desired. For a concentrated solu- tion, parts of Prussian blue, weighed before the acid treatment, will after digestion be taken up by 1 part of oxalic acitl and a proportional aimuint of water. Stephens's Prussian blue ink fa<les in the light, but is restored in the dark — a fact familiarly known to dyers as true of textile fabrics dyed with Prussian blue. This blue ink resists the action of chlorine ancl strong acids, but it yields to oxalic acid and alkalies. Reade's patent blue ink is nothing more than soluble Prussian blue prepared by a costly reaction between ferric iodide and potassium fcrrocyanidc. Dr. INK. 1203 Xormandy prepared also a blue ink from ferrocyanide of iron macerated in potassium binoxalatc, but it is not better than Stephens's. Ohmc's blue ink is also soluble Prus- si:in blue. It is curious to sec the recent revival of the sol- uble Prussian blue iuk iu II.N. Nissen's patent, which was nothin;^ new. ( ir</_7*i<T, 187-1.) The aniUnc Unc in/en arc not quite equal to the color of a well-made Berlin blue ink, showing usually of a little ^ray cast. But any one who knows the trouble it costs to make the Berlin blue ink, and how easily thi-i aniline ink is made, will prefer the nearly equal indi;;o and blue-red aniline ink. To produce it take 1 part ot'6/e« tfc niiit (bleu do Paris) in 200-2.30 parts boilinj; water. If it shows the coppery sheen on the paper, add more water. In use this ink holds like the fuchsinc ink. The alkali blue (it B. or 6 B.) furnishciii a blue ink of a most delicate shade, but- this ink is rather costly. Xormandy's pnrpfr ink is a log- wood ink, prepared as follows: To 12 pounds of Campeachy logwood add as many gallons of boiling water ; pour the in- fusion through a funnel, with a strainer made of coarse flan- nel, on 1 pound of hydrate or acetate of copper (verdigris) finely powdered; at the bottom of the funnel a sponge is placed; then aild immediately 14 pounds of alum, and for each 17 gallon? of liquid add l pounds of gum arable or senega!; lot these remain for three or four days, and a beautiful purple will be produced. The aniline jturple and violet inks far exceed all others in brilliancy, are free from corrosive action, quite sufficiently permanent, and may be ren«lcred practically indelible. The same is true of tho aniline green. Viofct nnift'ne ink is most easily made of all aniline inks. Take 1 part of violpt blue anilino to .100 parts water. The solution is of a vivid and beautiful vio- let color, never lets fall a precipitate, flows smoothly, and dries quickly. It is greatly to be preferred to tho common copying ink made from logwood, alum, cuprio sulphate, sulphate of indigo, and glycerine. A pen that has been used for such copying ink if dipped in aniline violet ink ins'antly impairs its Ciilor and granulates it. Orccn itniluic ink is the finest color, but most costly, of all thcso brilliant inks. Take 1 part of methyl green (methyl iodide), solu- ble in water, to 100-110 parts of boiling water: this gives a shining blue green ; if a yellow green is desired, add a little picric acid. It will by its remarkable beauty displace all existing green inks. Chrome ffrren ink, after AVincklcr : Disj^olvc 180 grains of bichromate of potassa in 1 fluid- ounce of water; add to tho menstruum, while warm, J an ounce of spirit of wine; then decompose the mixture with concentrated sulphuric acid until it assumes a brown color. Tho liquor is now evaporated lill it is reduced In quantity to one-half, when it is diluted with 2 ounces of distilled water, filtered, mixed with S an ounce of alcohol, subse- quently with a few drops of strong sulphuric acid, and then allowed to rest till after some time it assumes a beautiful green color. It is finally adapted for use by the addition of a small quantity of gum arabic. Vrflow anifine ink is not to bo commendotl. The mixture of 1 part picric acid in 120-110 parts water is almost never used. Much yet remains to be done to perfect and develop tho anilino inks, for which ample materials already exist. C'lt'bon (Hid other nn-cnllr-il Intlrlibte Writinfj <iud Mark- inrj fnkn.—T\\Q resistance ofTcred by car'mn to tho action of chemical agents is well known, and it is honco tho basis of tho most permanent and unchangeable inks, cdiiefly printing inks, as carbon cannot bo brought into solution. All inks on this basis must be, like China or India ink, serlinifnts held in suspension by some vehicle, and conse- quently less fluiil than is desirable for ca-^y and constant use with a pen of inod?rn construction. Ilenco, wo find Oriental nations writing chiefly with a pencil of camel's hair, and the ancient nations with a stylus of split reed. Tho elaborate engrossing on parchment in both ancient and mo b^rn times, in inks of all colors and in gold and silver sizing, is performed with liko implement^) and tho uso of colors held up in vehicles of various kinds, and al- ways of a certain consistence nnauited to uso in an ordinary pen. XL-vertheless, the ingenuity of prantieal chemists and mauufii "turers has dev iscd numerous carlion and other in- deliblo or permanent inks, of which we will mcntitm some of tho most important. Jndinn Iuk nr Cfiinn Ink. — This well-known pigment is prepared from finely divide! earbon, chiefly lam|>ldnek or tlio soot of the oil of sesam/"*, formed into cakes by tho use of some glutinous vehicle or adhesive substanct*. suf'h an gum-water or glue. Mcrim^-e says in hia work ( hr la Printiirr d f'lliiif' ) the Chinese do not uso gluo in tlio fabrication of Ihnir ink, but certain vegetable juices, which render it more brilliant and more indelible on paper. Other authentic accounts of the manufacture of this famous ink by tho Thinnse state in substance as follows: The basis of all the different kinds and qualities of Fndia ink is lamp- black, the best of which is obtaincrl from pig's-fo,»t and other oils, and sometimes fr«im resins, while an inferior sort is made from pine wood. The materials are burned iu a furnace about 100 feet long, along tho sides and top of which tho smoke condenses. That most remote from tho fire and nearest the top is the liuest. and is carefully kept separate from the rest. Glue made from the skin of the bufi'alo of the country is soaked in water for a time until it is much swollen, and afterwards completely dissolved. The lamp- black is then introduced and worked in until it forms a soft paste. When the materials are thoroughly mixed a quantity of the oil of pens is added, and the tenij)crature maintained for a time iit from 110° to 1(0°. until the paste is homogeneous in character. It is then removed and sepa- rated into little cakes, which arc allowed to remain for some time drying and becoming mellow, after which they are strongly compressed in wooden moulds, on the interior of which arc engraved tho characters which arc seen u])on the cakes. The surface of the cakes is finally coated with a kind of animal wax, which gives a polish and prevents tho ink from staining the hands. The peculiar odor of India ink is produced by adding to it, during the process of preparation, a mixture of Borneo camphor and musk. Only the finer qualities, however, receive this addition. Merim^c (before quoted) gives the following directions for preparing this ink with glue. A concentrated infusion of gallniits is turned into a solution of glue. Tho elastic, re- sinous-looking product (artificial leather) is immediately washed clear of the mother-liquor by hot water, and is then dissolved in a thin solution of clarified glue. Kilter this Folntion, and concentrate to the proper degree for incorpo- rating it with purified lampblack. Infusion of galls renders the iuk permanent on paper, otherwise it might be removed mechanically. Provost says that lamphlack purified by pot- ash ley. when mixed with a solution of refined glue and dried, formed an ink which was preferred by artists to that of China. Ritfault in his treatise on the jifaiui/adure of Colors gives the following formula for the preparation of China ink, by which this color, it is said, is now largely pro- duced in rur;)pc and sold as the original article: Calcined lampblack, 100 parts; boghead shaleblack, in imjtalpablo powder. 50 parts; indigo-carmine, in cakes, 10 parts; car- mine lake, 5 parts; gum arabic (first quality), 10 parts; purified oxgall, 20 parts ; alcoholic extract of musk, 5 parts. The gum is dissolved in 50 to GO parts of pure water, and tho solution filtered through a cloth. The indigo-carmine, lake, lampblack, and shalc!)lack arc incorporated with this liquor, and tho whole ground upon a slab with a muller, in the same manner as ordinary colors; but in this case the grinding takes much longer. AVhen tho paste is thoroughly homogeneous the oxgall is gradually added, and then the alcoholic extract of musk. The more the black is ground tho finer it is. The black is then allowed to dry in the air until it has acquired sufficient consistency to be moulded into cakes, which in their turn are still further dried in tho air out of the reach of dust. When quite firm these cakes aro compressed in bronze moulds, having appropriate de- signs engraved upon them. The mouhlcd ink is then wrapped in tin-foil with a second envelope of gilt paper. Tho ink which has been prepared in this manner possesses all tho properties of the real Chinese article. Its grain is smooth, it flows very well, mixes perfectly with many other colors, and becomes so firmly fixed to the jiaper that other colors may he spread over it without washing it out. The indf-lihli'. ink tif the Acutlcuii/ of SririirrH of Paris was pre- pared in l^"j by a commission culled for by the minister of finance, charged with the duty of discovering a truly indel- ible writing ink for use on the public securities, banli-notcs, etc. The result was an ink formed by dissolving China iuk in dihtle ht/firochloric arid. It appears, therefore, that tho Academy ink described below from Prof. Johnson is in a sense the same as this, substituting an alkaline for an acid vehicle, both very dilute. Either of these vehicles will serve to penetrate the paper and prevent the easy mechan- ical removal of (he coloring-matter. The alkaline vehicle has tho advantage of not attacking sttel pens, and of over- coming a certain unetuousncss of surface found on some highly-finished papers or imparted by the fingers of some persona in tho act of writing. I do not find mention of these inks in any of tho cyclopip»lias. The little manual Uoret of MM. Champour ct F. Malepeyre (Xourcnii ninnttrf romptrt dr ht /uhrtrafion dm rncrrn, Purls, l^^O) gives tho report of the commission of the Aoadcmy, hut it does not .«peak of the nlkiiline menstruum. The Avadcmtf ink, so called, is China ink lieM in sohition by about 1 per cent, of potassic hydrate. Pritf. S. W. Johnson, who has used this ink for some time, informs me that it is made cither by rubbing up tho India cake in polash-wntt r. or more easily by placing a small lump of the India ink in a bottle with loss than its bulk of stick potash and a little water. The ink slowly dissolves in the strong potash lyc, and is then largely Ihinneil with water. This ink holds up its carbon in the veh'ele almost without precipitation, flows freely from the pen, writes perfectly black, and is completely 1204 INK. unalterable by time or chemical agents. A good permanent writing ink may be made extemporaneously by mixing any good ink with a little genuine China ink. It will resist washing with a camel's hair brush and the action of oxalic acid, chlorine, etc. It writes well also with a pen. and may be used on both paper and textile fabrics. The vanadium ink already mentioned is a good iudelililc ink. Other in- delible carbon inks arc made as follows: Traill (Kdiiilir/. Phil. Tnuis:.) says: Gluten, obtained in the ordinary way, is kept from twenty-four to thirty-six hours in water, and is then digested in acetic acid having the specific gravity 1 0:):i or 1.0.34, in the proportion of ?, parts of gluten to .0 parts of the acid. Bv the aid of a gentle heat a grayish- white, saponaceous fluid, which may be kept for some time, , . ■ > T7, Q ... lo ^-..;.,n nf *lio fin(.st liiinnblack ; obtained. iceous iiuiu, «iiii.w lu.ij "^ ...J-. — From 8 to 12 grains of the finest lampblack of indigo form the coloring-matter for each antl z grams oi luuigo luim lu,. vvjiv-i.^g, ......... -- fluid-ounce of the vehicle, with which it must be thoroughly incorporated. An agreeable aroma may be communicated bv di>'esting bruised cloves, pimento, or cinnamon in a portion of the original acid. This ink may bo used with a steel pen, but should not be left in it. It resists water, chlorine, and dilute acids, but it is not calculated for wnt- in" im parchment. Henry .Stephens's varbou ink has be- come famous, and is made by boiling shell-lac, or common resin, in carbonate of soda, potassa, or ammonia solution, in about equal proportions, until all the resin is dissolved. This solution is then mixed with finely-levigated lampblack until it has the proper consistence. This alkaline liquid may also be mixed with other colors to form an indelible ink. Dr. Normandy has suggested an indelible writing ink which cannot be obliterated or defaced by any known chemical a^ent : 24 pounds of Frankfort black must be ground with mucilage— formed by adding 20 pounds of gum to 00 gallons of water— and the mixture strained through a coarse flannel, or passed through a funnel the tube of which is closed by a sponge ; 4 pounds of oxalic acid are then added, together with as much decoction of cochineal and sulphate of indigo as will give the required shade. Bossin's indelible ink is made of 2 parts of pow- dered acetate of copper, 4 parts of sal-ammoniac, 1 part of lampblack, and 20 parts of water, well mixed together. They make a good indelible ink, which, however, must al- ways be shaken before using. Scott has patented (1S40) .an "indelible ink in which gas-carbon (/. e. carbon from the burning of coal-tar) and indigo or Prussian blue in very fine powder are incorporated in a logwood and gallnut ink. Imlelihle Markinq f„lcs.—Dr. BiMsev (Bnijenschea Iiid. „„,; {Icwrrb-Blatt, Dec, 1872) states that the juice of the anacardinin nut (Auacnrrliiin Orientale) contains an oily matter which by exposure to air gradually assumes an in- tense black color; this color is acted on neither by acids, alkalies, chlorine, nor cyanide of potassium. The powdered nut is treated in a closed glass bottle with gasoline, and after so digesting some lime is left exposed to air for spon- taneous evaporation. The remaining fluid, which is tbick- ish is used either by writing or stamping by a die upon linen or cotton. The color is at first dirty brown, but it gradually becomes intensely black— an efl'ect produced in- stantly by moistening the linen or cotton with liquid am- monia. The same author also gives the following lormula for an indclihti- aniline- hUtrk wriiinf/ ink (Din.jhr, Jan., IST'l) ■ 3 65 grammes of aniline black are rubbed fine in a liorcclain mortar with 00 drops of hydrochloric acid and 2'2 grammes of alcohol. This solution is mixed with a h.d solution of 1.S2 grammes of gum arable in 8j grammes ol hot water. This ink does not attack steel pens, and is not acted on by strong mineral acids or by alkalies. If the .aniline black solution is diluted with shell-lac solution (21 grammes in Sfi of alcidiol ). an aniline black lake is obtained which is suited for coloring wood and leather. An indelible marking ink, described by Jacobson {.MireK-liinrh. xii. BS), is prepared from aniline by mixing the two foMowmg solutions : (n) cupreous solution— 8.52 grm. of crystallized chloride of copper, 10.65 grm. of chlorate of soda, and j.-.j grm. of chloride of aniinonium arc dissolved in BO grm. of distilled water; (h) aniline solution— 20 grm. of hydro- chlorate of aniline are dissolved in :'.0 grm. of distilled water, and 20 grm. of a solution of gum arable (1 of gum to 2 of water) with 10 grm. of glycerine are added. By mixing in the cold 4 parts of the aniline solution with 1 part of the cupreous solution, a green liquiil is obtained which can be used immediatelv for tracing characters upon linen ; the marks, however, alter after the lapse of a few davs. It is neccssarv to keep the solutions separate until required for use. If'ihe fluid does not flow easily from the pen, it may bo diluted without fear of diminishing the in- tensity of the tint, which, at first green, gradually darkens and becomes black. Heat causes the change to take place instantaneously ; a steam heat is sufiicient, and is better for the fabric 'than a hot iron. Afterwards the linen is washed in warm soap and water. Indelible Bine Mol,,bdeniLm /at.- Roder directs (/o/^( Xoiizblall, 185B, 112) to dissolve five parts of oxide ol racdybdenum in the smallest necessary quantity of murnatic acid; also diss..lve 2 parts of extract of licence and (. of gum arable in 210 parts of water. Mix the solutions, and write with them on the linen to be marked. After writing, moisten with a solution of chloride of zmc in wa er. This is an ink not only indelible in ordinary washing, but in acids and alkalies.' It is said this ink cannot possibly be removed, except by destroying the article written upon In fact, it is an utterly indelible blue dye, while the so-ca led indelible silver inks may be removed by cyanide of potas- sium, and other chemical agents. Mirate-of-sdeer mark- inn ink,, although commonly called indelible, yield readily to the solvent power of cyanide of potassium (ammonia and chlorine). One of the best is Red,eood;. made as fol- lows : Dissolve 1 ounce of nitrate of silver and li of crystallized carbonate of soda in separate portions of dis- til'led water, and mix the solutions: collect the resulting precipitate on a filter, edulcorate it well with distilled water, and introduce it, while still moist, into a « edgewood-ware mortar; add 8 scruples of tartaric acid, and triturate the whole until eff-ervesceuce has ceased : next add a sufficient quantity of ammonia to dissolve the tartrate of silver; mix in 4 fluid-drachms of archil, i drachms of white sugar, and 12 of finelv-powdered gum arable; and pour in as much water as'will make 6 ounces of mixture. By this r.rocess the nitric acid, which is essential to a good mark- ing ink, is retained, and the tartrate of silver formed is soluble in half the quantity of ammonia ordinarily required when nitrate of silver is the basis of the ink. This flu d requires no preparation on the cloth, and becomes instantly da\ on application of a gentle heat. It does not a tack the most delicate tissues. M. Kuhr (Co.mo, June, 1.S69) recommends the following preparation : 1 part of hypophos- phite of soda and 2 parts of gum arable are dissolved in 16 parts of distilled water. The tissue, linen or cotton, to be marked is thoroughly moistened with this liquid, and then left to dry. After having become well dried the fol- lowing liquid, composed of 1 part of nitrate of silver and 6 parts of gum dis'solved in 6 parts of distdled water, is used as marking ink with a quill-pen The mixtures here described are stated to yield an indelible and very deep black-colored ink. Numerous other ""l"'« f"'',,""";';^:' ,^ ink from nitrate of silver might be cited, but these will suflice, espeoiallv as the more modern improvements in this art render them no longer of so much use as fo""^'";'^-' Gold, ph„inn,n, pallndinm, iridinn,, and other metals of the same class are used to produce indelible marking inks by usiugthe chloride solutions. Merget, in h.s researches upon gaset as developers in photographic work has ^bowii hat the salts of this scries of metals are reduced by certain gases in presence of moisture, and that vapor of mercury Ih-en off at as h,w a temperature as 40° f. will serve to reduce gold, etc. in the substance of tissues, paper c e., producing indelible stains of a color corresponding to the metal. The dampness of the tissue must be preserved by a solution of ferric tartrate, ammonic nitrate, or some other hvgrosopic salt. ( r„m;,(f» Z^"-/., .xxvi. 14,0.) _ ■ I good permanent ink may be made by mixing a strong solution of chloride of platinum with a little pot..sh, sugar and gum to thicken. The writing made therewith should be passed over with a hot smoothing-iron to fix i . An ink for writing on -Jne plant-lal.el, may be made by dissolving equal parts acetate of copper and sal-ainmoniac ■> distilled water. When characters are written with this solution on a zinc plate the copper is precipitated forming deep black, very durable marks. Ink for marking copper and ,<he, •es els may be made by boiling suljdiide o antimony in strong potash ley, leaving the liquid to cool and fi tering from Separated kermes. As this iquid does not act upon iron, steel pens may be used for writing with ,t on the metal. The characters on copper and silver ain- black and yer, d - able ; on tin, lead, and zinc less durable. Ink Jo, 11 , ,l,na on ff/o.,-A solution of fluoride ol ammonia is recom- mended as furnishing a ready means of writing with a pen of any kind upon glass, and is especially "'i»P "^ f" "^^ j lin-' bottles, cylinder-tubes, etc. m the laboratory , as well as for marking the degrees upon hydrometers and apparatus of similar construction. , , vi ■ .„;,i rt;i„(e Bemov.d of /„/r-.^'(o/M..-Dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sulphuric acid, and oxalic acid will destroy and rcno e the color of most gall and logwood inks. CWoruie s. lu- tion or as bleaching-powder acts in a similar manner 1 o- tassie, sodic, and ammonic hydrate attack many c°'"^' '""'• alternated with the acids, destroy stains "h><=l> »" ""Re- moved from paper and tissues by either ■^l"'"'-,.^" /^.^^^j plication of chemical agents to paper requires that it should L free from the binding of a volume. Ozone 'P^^ Powerhil bleaching agent, and has been recommended for removing stains from engravings. Bottger recommends the use ol INK. 120o pyrophosphate of soda to remove ink-flecks from colored goods which will not allow the employment of bleacbing- powdors and oxalic acid. Si/mpatfi'dc inki arc those fluid? which, when used to write upon paper, arc invisible until broujrht out by heat or the influence of some chemical aj^ent. Acetate-of-lead solution leaves no trace of the marks made by the pen nnlil exposed to sulphydric acid vapor, when it suddenly develops an intense brown-Mack incluliblo color. A weak i*«/ii«r«ii o/ 'jiilU leaves no sign of the writing until dctel- oped by a solution of iron. Even milk (mentioned by Ovid) will develop visible characters by gently heating the paper, or even by dusting it over with some dark powder. The Kame \a true of ftuyar-wftter. Water made aci'l with dilute gufphun'r nri'fi. Written with a quill or gold pen, is quite invisible till by a slight warming the evaporation of the water leaves the acid in a form sufficiently concentrated to char the paper in black characters. Dilute yrllmr pruti»utte of potnah develop*" blue with a ferric salt. The metal cobalt is remarkable for the fine blue-greeu tint it develops on paper written with a jtolution of its chloride, while the acetate of cobalt develops pink when helil to the fire. A winter landscape-drawing may thus be made to show ver- dure and pink flowers, which disappear again on cooling. Nitrate of cobalt, with ')xalic acid as a mordant, develops hfue. Chloride of anlimon.v develops ycUow by decoction of galls. Subacetate of lead also develops yellow by hy- driodic acid, and a dilute solution of eupric eliloride forms a beautiful sympathetic ink. developing afiuoycllow colorby heat, and fading out ag:iin when cooled. Colorless arsenito of potassa solution develojis a lively green when washerl over with a dilute solution of a eupric salt. Chloride of gold turns to purple of Cassius when washed with stannous chloride. An acid solution of ferric chloride, so dilute as to he quite invisible when written on paper, becomes blood- red on washing with sulphocyanide of potassium, and again invisible by vapor of ammonia, and these changes can be alternated at pleasure. Linen stained with nitrate of silver or indelible ink may l)e bleached by first moistening the spots with tincture of iodine, which is followed soon after with solution of sodic hyposulpliite. This removes the silver stain, and also the blue color duo to the iodide of starch. Another method is by treating the spot first with eupric chloride (not too strong), and then with hyposulphite of sodium, and in any case washing well after in ample water. Ink which has become faded out by ago may often bo redeveloped by tracing the characters with a pencil wet with gallic acid. If the ink was an iron ink, it will be tlnis plainly developed. Ink which has been too long written to allow of copying by the press may be rendered transferable again by using water slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid with which to moisten the copy paper. This method, however, fails on very old writing — r.rj. a century. Such documents, says M. Niepce do ,St. Victor, may bo repro- duced by using copy paper wetted with a dilute solu- tion of glucose or honey instead of water. After pressing, this paper is exposed to the fumes of strong ammonia, which brings out clearly lines otherwise quite invisible. The fading out of old MSS. occurs ehielly when the writ- ing is removed from the presence of light into a dark Rn<l damp place. An old MS. written in IMO a. n. is now preserved in the abbey of Cluny in France, and is to-day as fine a black color as can be seen, in spite of the rav- ages nf time. An eflort has been made by M. Carre to fix (he relative age of old MSS. by the use of dilute H('l. (1 : Ul), which has the power of changing the color of log. wood inks red. and alters also the gallnnt inks, while it has no eff"cct on carbon ink. But some of the ancient MSS. of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries changed red by this treatment. But such methods are very unsatisfactory, and may bo completely illusory. Lith'tfjrttphic Writintj Ink. — Tho lithographic art is de- scribe I under Litiiogkaimiv. Two kinds of ink are used in this art — one, eallcil lithographic crayons or chalk, forms the pencil with which the artist traces bis designs. Tho composition of these crayons has received much attention, as the success of the art depends upon them. The compo- sition of which they are formed must be firm enough to hold a fine point to secure delieney in drawing, and yet adhere strongly to the stone. Tho French crayons of Ber- nard and helarue i>f Paris are made of best quality wax \ parts, dry white tallow poap 2 parts, white (alhpw 2 parts, gum-lac 2 parts, lampblack 1 part, copal varnish I part. The wax is melted over a gentle fire, the laf broken small, added as it melts, then the soup in fine Hha\ings, the tallow, and lastly the copal and liimpblurk, stirring nil the time with a spatula. Il is ca«<t in brass cylindrical moulds. An- other preparation is as follows: For \\ ounces of shoU-lao take 2 ounces of soap, 3 ounces of white wax, and about 1 ounce of tallow ; add about :i tablcspoonfuls of a strong solution of gum sandarach, and when ready color with lampblack. The lithographic jtrinting ink is describeil under Ln iiofiitAi-nv ; its composition is similar to tin- crayon ink, but it is made thinner, and acts as an emul- sion. II. Printing Ink (Fr. Enere d'imprtmt^re: Gcr. liuch- driicker/nrbc). — Printer's ink is a carbon ink in an oily and resinous vehicle. The carbon is lamplilack. sometimes ivory-black, and with a little indigo or Prussian blue. The oil is generally boiled and burned linseed oil, or in some Eu- ropean countries nut oil. In addition to thesechief ingre- dients, rosin and turpentine are used, more rarely balsam copaiba, and lastly soap (common yellow rosin soap) is a very essential ingredient. Tho preparation of these in- gredients requires care, and every manufacturer has his own methods and technical secrets in the manufacture of his ink, which printers in these days seldom or never make for themselves, Tho conditions required of a good ink are chiefly — (1| that it distribute it^elf easily and well over the rollers and typof (2) it must give a sharp and clean impression, without adhering to the type tenaciously or blurring the paper with excels of oil : ('■**)\i must dry rap- idly on the ]>aper, but remain soft upon the type and roll- ers ; this is especially important for the rapid-moving printing-maehines of modern times and the exigencies of great newspapers, jirinting .'JO.OdU to HIO.OOO im]>reFsion8 in two or three hours ; (4) it must be black, and not brown in color; and, lastly, it must be proof against all the rav- ages of time and the power of chemical agents. It is not. however, to be understood that even the best |>rinter's ink is incapable of being removed by means of chemical skill, as such is not the case. The linseed oil is clarified from the fatty matters, and the pure oil is boiled with great care at a carefully regulated temperature; and during the boil- ing the best pale yellow soap is aclded to give it consist- ency, and the require<l dryers arc also now mixed with it. The best black is that olttainctl from the smoke of naphtha, the combustion being carefully regulated. This black is grountl up carefully with the drying oil. which has assumed the character of a varnish, and the ink is comjilete. The oil demands particular attention. It is clarified from the fatty and useless matters, and is better if old, and must not only beh)ng boiled, but burned by setting fire to the vapors floating over it, tho flames being extinguished by a tight- fitting metallic cover shut over the boiler, which should never be more than half full. The following account of Savage's process (of England) is condensed from Ure by Watts: 10 or 12 gallons of the oil are set over the fire in an iron pot cajtablc of holding at least half as much more, for the oil swells up greatly, and its boiling over into the fire would be very dangerous. When it boils, it is con- tinually stirred with an iron ladle; and if it do not itself take fire, it is kinillcd with a piece of flaming paper or wood ; for simple boiling, without the actual inflammation of the oil, does not communicate a sufficient degree of the drying quality required. The oil is suffered to burn for half an houror luore, and the flame being then extinguished by covering the vessel close, the boiling is afterwards con- tinued with a gentle heat till the oil appears of a proper consistence: in this state it is called varnish. Mr. Savage in his work on the /'rrpnratitm nf Priutintj luk [ London, \^'\2) says that good varnish for printing ink cannot bo made without allowing the oil to burn. The (lerman prac- tice appears, however, to be somewhat diff"erent ; for in tho I/fitifliri'irtrrhurh ifef Chenn'r ( Bd. vii. p. ;tlM ) it is stated that the oil should be heated only till the vapor which rises from it can be set <in fire with a piece of burning paper, but will cease to burn of itself after a little while, or at least will be easily extinguished by putting on tho cover; further, that if this temperature be exceeded there is great danger of the oil getting into a state of violent combustion, which cannot be extinguished even by covering tho vessel, and may occasion an enorntous loss of oil. Il is necessary to have two kinds of this varnish, a thicker and a thinner, from the greater or less boiling, to be occasionally mixed together as diflV-rent purposes may require, that which an swers wril in hot weather being too thick in cold, and large characters not rctpiiring so stifi'an ink as small ones. 'I'hc thickest varnish, when cold, may be drawn into threads like weak glue, by which criterion the workmen judge of the due boiling, small quantities being from time to time taken out an«i dr<»ppei| upon a tile for this purpose. It is very viscid and tenacious, like tho soft resinous juices or thick turpentine. Neither water nor alcohol dissolves it, hnt it mingles readily enough with fresh oil, and unites with mueilaires into a mass diffusible in water in an emul- sive form. The oil loses from one-tenth to one-eighth of its weight by boiling into the thick varnish. For lelter- presB printing ink the addition of soap to the varnish is indispensable, to enable the ink to bo taken up clearly from tho types by tho moistened paper without smearing. Tho 1206 INKBERRY— INNKEEPERS. soap useil for the purpose is yellow resin soap ; it is cut into thin slices, well dried, rubbed to coarse powder, and incorporated by small portions at a time with the varnish, which is then once uiorc ])Iaced over the fire, to expel any remaining moisture. The coloring-matter of black print- ing ink is the best lampblack, previously calcined to free it from empyrcumatic oils and resins. Its somewhat brown- ish color is corrected by the addition of a little Prussian blue or indigo. The ink used by copper-plate printers differs in the oil, which is not so much boiled aa to acquire the adhesive quality. This would render it less disposed to enter the cavities of the engraving, and more difficult either to be spread or wiped off. ( Ure.) * The black is likewise of a dif- Jerent kind. Instead of lampblack or sublimed charcoal, the Frankfort-black is used, which is a residual or denser charcoal, said to be made from vine-twigs. Lampblack is $n'nl to give a degree of toughness to the ink which the I'rankfort does not, but the goodness of the color seems to \)G the leading inducement fur the use of the latter. One pound of a superfine printing ink may be made by the fol- lowing recipe of Mr. Savage : Balsam of copaiba, D ounces ; lampblack, ."i ounces; indigo and Prussian blue together, p. leq. li ounces: Indian red, 3 ounce; turpentine (yellow) soap, dry, ?> ounces. This mixture is to be ground upon a slab with a muUer to an impalpable smoothness. Colored prhitinij inkn arc made by using in place of car- bon any desired color to mix with the varnish. Ink of any tint of color may thus bo obtained, and by the use of the bronze powders, made now ofalmost all colors, everj- metallic effect required by ornamental printing may be readily pro- ducod. In the use of bronzes a nearly colorless size is used in place of ink, and the bronze powder is dusted on while the size is yet fresh. B. Silliman. Ink'berry (Ilex glabra), the popular name of an elegant shrub, generally from two to four feet high, with slender and flexible stems, brilliant, evergreen leaves, leathery and shining on the nurface and of a lanceolate form, and pro- ducing small black berries. It is found on the Atlantic coast of North America, and is now much cultivated by florists. Inkerman', a small Tartar village in the Crimea, near the E. extremity of the harbor of Scbastopol. It is built on the ruins of an ancient city, supposed to bo the Ctenos mentioned by Strabo, at the foot of a perpendicular hill, which rises several hundred feet above the valley of the river Tchernaya, and is covered with remains of walls and towers, while in the sides are numerous eaves hewn in the pnlid rock, with traces of altars, chapels, and paintings. The heights of Inkerman opposite to thi? hill, across tlie valley of the Tchernaya, arc memorable as the scene of one of the most desperate battles of recent times (Xov. .'j, 1854), in which 11,000 allied English and French troops (chiefly the former) heM their ground for many hours against 00,000 Russians, ultimately driving them from tho field with great loss. The action began early in tlie morn- ing by the Russians attempting to carry the allied posi- tions by assault. Tho fifth volume of Kinglake's graphic HtHtori} of the Cfinintn Wnr. recently |>ublished (1S76), is entirely occupied with the battle of Inkerman. InMiind, post-tp. of Cedar co., la. Pop. 1112. Inlaiitl, post-tp. of IJenzic co., Mich. Pop. 204. Inland Navigation. Sec Navigation, Islasd (Ca- NAi.si. by .1. ,J. K. CuoKs. and Navigation, I.nland (Rivers AND Lakks), by W. E. iMkkkm.i,. Inlay 'ing, the ornamentation of surfaces of wood, metal, shell, stone, etc. with pieces of a different color. Marquet- crie, Florentine work ov pivtra dura, damaskeening, mosaic- work, etc. are forms of this art. Italy, mcdiirval Byzan- tium, Damascus, Russia, India, China, and Japan have all had schools of these arts, where most nu-ritorions work has been done. Russia, Italy, and the East are the most iui])ortnnt seats at present of the inlaycr's art. In'man (Hiary), b. in TItica, N. Y.. Oct. 2«. 1801; d. in New York Jan. 17, lS4fi. His earliest inclination was towanis a military life; he !iad already secured a com- mission to enter the Academy at M'est Point, when tho 8ight of Westmiillcr's fJmiae deter.mined his bent to another career. He studied with John Wesley Jarvis ; went to Boston as a portrait-painter in 1822; in 1S;12 removed to Philadelphia: from thence, chiefly in order to be in tho country, he went to Mount Holly. N. J.; returned to New York, but, being disabled by ill-health, was induced to visit England with commissions to paint for American friends portraits of Chalmers, Mncaulay, and Wordsworth. In 1845, resisting strong professional and social temptations ♦ In the Hiindir/'irttrhueh dfr f7irv}ifi (\'ii.^99) it is stated, on the contrary, that ink for copper-plate print iiic is prepared with the thickest linsced-oil varnish, which has been allowed to burn. to remain in England, where his success as an artist and his popularity as a man had been eminent, ho returned to his native land, to sicken again and die. Inman's reputa- tion was established early, and continued to increase. Among his sitters were Bishops Mclh-aine and White, Dr. Hawks, William Wirt, Nicholas Biddle, Judge Bctts, Col. Johnson, Horace Binney, Audubon, Chief-Justice Nelson, De Witt Clinton, Martin Van Buren, and William H. Seward. His portraits were life size, cabinet size, and in miniature. The subjects of his other pieces were various — Birutini Wood, Hi/dal Water, Lake of the Disiiiaf Swamp, Trout-FUhiiifj, The Xewahni/, Hip Van Winkle Atcakinij, Scene from the Jiridc of Lnmmcrmoor, Family Gruitpn, Sterne's ^farill, Mnmhlc-the- I*cfj, and others of unequal merit. He executed a great deal in crayon and with the pen, and did work in litliograph. He was a pleasing writer also of sketches antl letters, a man of fine literary taste and poetic feeling. His best works are portraits, in private bouses, not easily seen. They entitle their author to a very high rank among artists. 0. B. FROiiiiNGnAM. Inman (J. O'B.l, son of Henry, as an artist known chieily by delicate flower-pieces and genre pictures, pleas- ing in color and graceful in sentiment; has lived several years in Rome, where his work has elicited praise from critics. Inman TThomas). M. D., a physician and botanist of Liverpool, England, was for some years professor nt medi- cal institutions in London ; wrote numerous medical works, but is chiefly known as author of a very remarkable and learned but eccentric book, Ancient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Tiamcs (ISOtl). Inn. See Hotel, by C. G. Leland, A. M., and Inn- KEEPF.RS, by J. N. POMEROY. Inn [Lat. (Enus']. a river of S. Germany, and the largest Alpine tributary of the Danube, takes its rise in the Swiss canton of Orisons from the Lake of Longhino, nearly TOUO feet above the sea; flows N. E. through that canton, form- ing the valley of the Engadine ; enters the Tyrol at Fin- stermunz ; flows with great violence through Northern Ty- rol by lunspruck ; flows through Bavaria for about 90 miles to Braunau. whence it continues nearly N., forming tho boundary between Upper Austria and Bavaria, and enters the Danube at Passau, after a course of Z\b miles. It re- ceives tho river Salzach from the S. ; is navigable as far as Innspruck for small vessels, and to Hall, S miles below, for steamboats. Engadine is the name of the Upper Inn in tho Romansch language, spoken by a small remnant of an ancient nation near the head of this river. The Inn is broader than the Danube at their junction. In'nes (Thomas), b. in ]rpr)2, of a noble Scottish family ; was educated in the College of Navarre in Paris; became a Catholic priest, and succeeded his brother Louis as princi- pal of the Scotch college at Paris. He was the author of a highly esteemed ethnological work, A Critical Fitsny on the Ancient Inhnbitantu uf thr \orthrrn Pttrts of Britain (17211), and divides with his brother Louis tlie reputed authorship of the Mrmoim of James //., published in 1816 by Dr. Clarke. D. at ParisFeb. 9, 1744. In'ncss (George), b. in Newburg, Orange co., N. Y., May 1, 1S2j ; took lessons in art ; came to New York at six- teen, and studied engraving; was prevented by ill-health from pursuing his object ; returned to his home in Newark, N. J. ; emerged four years later; spent a month with Re- gis Gignoux, and then began his career as a landscape- artist. Inness has been called a disciple of Theodore Rousseau, whoso pictures his own in sentiment resemble. His landscapes arc touched with imagination and charged with poetic feeling. His themes are imaginative: Pence and I*leutif. The Sign of Promise, A Viniou of Faith, The Valley of the Shadow of Death, The Apocalyptic Vision of the Xcw Jerusalem and the Jttrer of Life. His less am- bitious works, A Pasiing Storm, Summer Afternoon, Tici- li'jht, Snnshinc and Shftdow, Moist (Jreen Level trith Trees, show a tender sympathy with nature. Inness has twice visited Europe, but never studied there with a master. Ho now (1S75) resides at Boston, Mass. 0. B. Frotiilngham. Inn'keepers. An innkeeper is one who carries on tho business of receiving into his house and entertaining guests. An inn, which is the technical legal name, and includes tho tavern and hotel, is the house in which he thus receives and furnishes entertainment. The word "guests" is used in this definition in its technical legal sense, which will be here- after defined. It is not necessary that a person should confine his entertainment to actual travellers in order that iiis house should be an inn and himself an innkeeper. It is enough that ho keeps a public-house, and holds himself out as ready to receive all who come, and to furnish them general entertainment, including lodging and food. Provision need not be made for horses and carriages and cattle, although INNKEEPERS. 1207 this is customary, and probably universal in country taverns. There is a legal clistinction between an inn and a boardin;;-house and a restaurant. A boarding-huuse is not an inn, because (he |iroprictor does not hold himself out generally to take all who apply, but only receives thoFO with whom ho chooses tn make an agreement. A special contract is the basis of all the legal relations between the keeper of a boarding-house and his boarder, while a com- mon-law public duty is the basis of all the kgul relations between the innkeeper and his guest. Still, an innkeeper may. in the same house in which ho entertains guest?, also have boarders. As to the one class of persons, he willhuld tlio relation of innkeeper, and as to the other that of boarding- house keeper. The proprietor of a restaurant, like the inn- keeper, holds liimself out to the public at large, but not as one who furnishes general accommodation and entertain- ment, for he furnishes only food. A person, however, docs not lose his legal character as an innkeeper because he docs not actually supply all his guests by a laUc-d'hotf. If he furnishes lorlginga to all who come, and means by which they may all obtain meals at bis house if they choose, ho keeps an inn. In fact, the common-law doctrines in refer- ence to this entire subject giew up at a time when meals were furnished at inns only as they wcro ordered, and tho tabU-ii'hotc system was unknown. Before describing tho legal rights and obligations of tho innkeeper, it is important to determine who is a '**/»<?«(" at an inn, for it is only towards his guests that tho inn- keeper's peculiar and severe liabilities exist. All persons who apply for entertainment or refreshment to him as an intilrceprr — that is, in virtue of his inn — and obtain it. are guests, and his common-law duty to them arises. On tho other hand, if an innkeeper has a restaurant also in con- nection with his inn, and a person only procures refreshment thereat; or if ho maintains a stable for public accommoda- tion, and a person simply leaves his horses or cattle to be taken care of, without himself becoming a-guest; or, finally, if tho innkeeper by a special contract receives a person into his house in tho character of a boarder — in neither of these cases do tho legal rights of a guest c.\ist in favor of tho one party, or the legal responsibilities of an innkeeper devolve upon tho other. These propositions may be better illus- trated and explained by a roferenco to tho facts of a few judicial decisions than by any general discussion. I pur- posely select those whicli aro extreme, in order to nhow tho extent to which the common-law obligations have been car- ried by the courts. There can be no possible doubt or dif- ficulty in respect to tho relations of tlie parties where trav- ellers and others are actually received into an inn, and nre entertiiineil in the ordinary manner and under ordinary eir- curastances : it is tho extreme and somewhat exceptional instances which indicate tho limits of the legal rule. In an early case decided by tho Knglish court of king's bench a person came into an inn situated in a market-town and re- quested permission to leavo a box of giod-* until the next markot-day. The request being refused, ho sat down in tho public-room and ordered some liquor. This was sup- plied, and he remained a 8h<irt time drinking it, having plft''cd the box on tho floor behind him. When ho arr)se and was about to go, it was discovered that the goo*ls had been stolen. For this Io.ss the keeper of the inn was held responsible; tho procuring and iiartaking of tho liquor in his house made the owner of the box a guest for tho timo being, and subjectetl tho other, while that relation lasted, to the eommon-law liability in respect of the property wliieh had been constructively jilaced in liis custody. Tho facts of an analogous case dc^ddcd a few years past by tho su- premo court of New York show that the same severe rule is still enforced. A person came into an inn about seven o'clock in the morning and procured souje liquor at the bar for himself and for others in his company. Taking off his overcoat, and directing it to bo hung up, ho immediately left tho house, and was absent tho entire day. Upon his return lato in tho nftern<ton the coat was gone, and tho inn- keeper was adjudged bound to mako good this loss. Tho facts of still another case are given to illustrate the dis- tineriun already mentioned between the furnishing enter- tainment by an innkeeper, (i* uttrft, which makes the |>arty entertained a guest, and the furnishing it in some other capacity, which does not givo rise to the same legal condi- tion. The owner of a eily hotel hud in connection with it a saloou or restaurant. On a certain oemsion a public ball was given at his bouse. One of the eompany in attetnlance at tho ball upon bis arrival took off his cont and other outside wrappings and left them in charge of a servant of tho proprietor. iMiring the evening he visited the restau- rant and obtained liquor and other rcfrephment. The arti- cles which he hud entrusted to the servant were missing, cither lost or stolon ; hut as tho ftict« narrated diti not o()n- stitute their owner n guest of tho inn, he was not ablo to fix any responsibility for them upon tho innkeeper. The peculiar duties and obligations which aro imposed upon the innkeeper in virtue of his public occupation are two in number; the first being in respect of tho gueyts personally, and the second in respect of their goods. (1) In Jicspcct of the Guests Pfisfmally, — The keeper of an inn is bound to receive all travellers and wayfaring men and other applicants, and to entertain them for a reason- able compensation if he has room, and if they aro well behaved and free from any special personal qualities which might disturb the good order and well-being of his house. The " reasonable compensation " hero spoken of means tho prices customary at that particular house. A '•Fifth Avenue hotel** is not compelled to receive persons at tho rates charged by a country tavern. The duty to re- ceive depends also upon the conduct of the applicant and the condition of the inn. If the latter is full, no ono has a legal right to bo received, and the law does not prescribe tho amount or limit of accommodalion in this respect. Nor is the landlord obliged to admit a person who is intoxi- cated or disorderly, or wlio is inflicted with a contagiou.-^ or infectious disease wliich would be dangerous to the hcaltli of the inmates, nor, perhaps, a person of notoriously bad character and reputation, whose presence would be highly offensive to other guests. A refusal to comply with the ob- ligation thus described — that is. to receive an npplleant against whom no legal objection existed, and when there was roou\ for his accommodation — gives a right of action in favor of tho injured party against the innkeeper to re- cover tho damages caused by the unlawful rejection. Such actions are of course very infrequent, but the right to maintain them is recognized by tho highest authorities, an- cient and modern. At tho common law an indictment for a misdemeanor also lay against the innkeeper wlio should violate this his public duty. (2) In JicRprct of the Giirsffi' (joods.— The eommon-law doctrine is well established that the innkeeper is responsi- ble for all tho goods received into his custody — or, as it is often Baid, received within tho curtilage of the inn — from a guest; in other words, he is liable for all losses of and injuries to such goods, even in the absence of his own or his servant's negligence or other wrong, except where tho loss is directly occasioned by the *' act of God,*' or by tho " act of public enemies," or by tho fraud or negligence of the guest himself or his servant or companion. Ilr is, therefore, in fact, an insurer o( his guest's goods, while in his custody, against all losses and iujr.rics whatsoever, un- less resulting from some one of the three causes jusl men- tioned. This rigorous rule of the common law, originating at a very ancient period in English history, when all trav- elling was dangerous, and when it was supposed that inn- keepers were often in league with robbers, has been main- tained to the present day, and is still enforced in all tho States of tho Union, with one or two exceptions, unless modified by tho legislature. In Vermont, however, a less stringent rule prc\ails as the result of judicial decision, and the innkeeper is not held responsible for losses occa- sioned by casualties over which he bad no control, such as incendiary fires. Tho term ''act of God" is not synony- mous with "inevitable accident." It is an occurrence which arises entirely from natural causes outsido of tho ordinary course of events, and in whicli human agency could not by possiliility have intervened. The most famil- iar examples aro lightning, storms, unusual fre.-^hets, earth- quakes, and the like. The term "public enemies" implies actual war, and it docs not include mere robbers, rioters, or mobs. If an insurrection should attain such magnitude that it amounted to a war, the rebels would become public enemies within the meaning of tho phrase ns hero used. Applying these explanations, tho innkeeper is seen lo bo responsililo for all losses of tho goods while in his custody except those which result immediately from extraordinary natural events, such ns lighlning-slrokes, earthquakes, etc., or from the violence of the hostile forces in time of war, or from tho fraud or negligence of the guest himself. In order that the liability thus deseribed should arise, the ar- ticles must be under the control, actual or constructive, of tho innkeeper. In respect lo the extent of the liability, and tho kind of gooils to which it applies, an attempt Inis been made in a few recent decisions to restrict it to tho personal baggage of the guest, including such an amount of money only as may bo reasonably necessary for his travelling expenses, ami thus to place tlio responsibility of the innkeeper for his guest's goods and that of tho common carrier of passengers for their luggage upon exactly tho same footing. This limitation, however, is opposed to tho rule as established by an overwhelming army »if deei'lcd ca«es. No restriction has been placed eithi-r upon tho extent of tho liability or upon the kind of goods ombraood within it. Innkeepors have been hold responsible for baggage, for nuinry in largo sums wbothor in trunks or in separate packages, for nicrchan- 1208 INNOCENT. dise of aU sorts, for animals, for vehicles; in short, for i o erv snecies of personal property which can be brough . witLin?he curtilage of th*; inn and left in the.r legal Tu todv It "ill be seen from the foregomg that this strm- j eent obiigation imposed upon the innkeeper extends only f,! a,e ffoods of hi guests! In respect to those plaeed ,n h,s care and eustod/by persons other than guests, h.slega dutv" far ess onemus : he is responsible for them only a a knoMt" or as a bailee for hire-that is. for losses and fnUes caused bv the wrongful or negligent acts and om.s- 8ions of hituself or his agents and servants, and no l^u 1 er ]""„t Su.Morn M.nlificallun^.-'Ihe common-law l.ab.l.ty of unkeepers has beci partially relieved by legislation. A statute pa-ed in Xew York in 1855 enacts that «hen an inn- keeper hall provide a safe for the deposit of any moneys, fewc" or oriaments belonging to a guest, and shall notify him thereof bv posting a notice stating the existence of 'Th Ife in Uie roo.n occupied by such guest, and such cue.t shall neglect to deposit his moneys, jewels, or orna- ments in the safe so furnished, the innkeeper shall not be "sponsible for the loss of such moneys, jewels, or ornaments A sLilar statute has been passed in many, and V^fMy fo rst, of the other States, as well as in England (26 and 07 v"; ch. 41, ? I). Only one method, it will be seen, s here expressly mentioned of communicating information to a gue' t'^^hat i safe has been provided m compliance with "he law-namelv. by a written or printed n°f™ P'jf,'' '° he room occupied by him. It is very properly held, how- ever, that in the absence of this construe ive mode of m- part ng the knowledge, a direct, personal notification will L wer'the same purpose. The relief 'bus given to,,^ innkeeper extends only to '•■moneys, jewels, and orna- ments!" AU other articles placed in his custody by a gues "e left to the operation of the common-law r_ulee^^^U,at ■•nioneVs! jewelF, and ornaments'' are within the meaning ot the statite ? Xo exception is made in its language, but some of the courts have attempted to engraft one upon its tlZs- and there arc cases which hold that an amount of monev' sufficient for daily expenses, and the P"--^ J«- els and ornaments ordinarily worn are not mcluded, and need not be deposited in the safe in order that the innkeeper should be responsible for their loss. These decisions have not been generallv followed, and the better opinion is, that "ll moncjs, jewels, and ornaments must be plaeed in the safe or no n'.ponsibilitv for their safety arises except, of CO rse. the lia^nlity which would result from the wrong ul at Jo the landlord himself. When the P™"^"'" °f l^" stilute have been complied with by the guest, and the de.- -nate'l ardcles have been delivered to the innkeeper or his ervan ts in order that they may bo deposited •" tlic «-fe bis eommon-law obligation in respect to their safety at once a taches to its full extent, and continues as long as the spc- ei vl cu' tody lasts. There is a tendency to relax by leg.sla- t.'n the severe ,,,,,onsibilities of au innkeeper. Thus, m X w York itTs pro'vided by statute that he is "ot l.ab e for g,ods destroyed by ^re in an outbuilding, where he .s no . f„„li «nd the fire is the work of an incendiary, f-till b'dr legislation is to be noticed in England in the stat- KH:i;rts^^:srwS^:u!^:=-- 1,;^ in his room, h. ;nn;^ceper hav.g no rea» <o_^sup- l;:?:!" "^moX no'^^':;!:r r-^oods on.oa.lL. l;:^Ln is sometimes given bj^s^t^e, as. xew Wk. (See Bailment.) •'""• . ■ .■ u^ ,„„„ce„t . , S.,^ h ^.t AH;an. was^.lec,ed bis^ :!i,^rS:l.n^^.:^'-;^;Kast..nbeh^f^fthepa^. -^tf?^=o:'iu::i:^':m::^^::^-^tk; ecute Ihc Donatists. who were excoramuni at b the Council of Carthage (4»5|: made e«rt.ons t,. sine Kome from Aliric and his Vis goths. who nevertheless saiKcu [ iTeVtv Aug 2tNl"= condemned the doctrines of the Pelagians and the Xovatians ; first practised the system ^f'se'^d^ng legates to represent the m^f^^^^y^^.^%1 districts: was vigorous in maintaining ^^e "g" "J » ' ^ ,„ exercise appellant jurisdiction over "'^er bishopric and enforced the celibacy of the clcrgv. D. Mar. 1-, -i}' of France. Germany, and England: was supported by St. liernard and by the Council of Khemis ; was forcibly re^- stored to power at Rome by Lothaire, whom he crowned emperor in^he church of St. John Lateran "f^ >--.»?.';- driven from Rome the same year; held a counci at I isa and excommunicated his rival; was again restored by Lothaire 1137. and was finally recognized by the rebc lou cardinals after the death of Anaeletus in "Ss. Innocent convoked in 1139 the second Council of Lateran attended by lOUO bishops; condemned the opinions of Arnold of Brescia and of Abelard (ll-KM: pronounced an interdict upon the kingdom of France, and had bis temporal au- XrUy overthrown bv an insurrection of the Romans, who rest"rld the senate and the tribunes of ancient Rome^ D^ «ent 21 1143.— IxsocEST III. I /.-'oi-i" f «'""). b- 'n n1^ 'at Anagni; studied at Rome, Par s, and Bo^gna: became a cardinal-deacon in 1189 ; succeeded Ce lestine I II. riaces of the kings of France and Leon, and in both in- st. fees the pope was victorious; '='!'»I'-"i,I^'°.\t'? "/ En!'land bv the same means, to give up the right of in- yc"titnre' and make his possessions the tributary fiet of RomeTeaused himself t!. '-,-knowledged suzerain of Sicily^ Bavaria^ and^D.^a.^ = ^i;^-ef,-^j^: SrndJr'th'rL^Un' empire - Cons.nHnople ; eon the no es in temporal matters, his power being as much lUe ^Uof avorLg condiHons ^;;^^^ -,?--« and ambition.— 1NN0I.NT ^i';- "V. _ ,,'-K_sn and d. in I cniorceo loe ti-iiijin.. ,V ,,t ■ r> i feast iseelebrated.-IxsooEXT II. ( l.reynru.l .< •I""' ,rhi\ ?1^^rr;?l^^^r;o;i,'a;;da«orw„rds abbot lnheconven.of.«..Xi.h...as;;vas.ega. r br/evci; '.^ etiina/s. but Peter de Leon was put JorWar^l as pope by a minority of the electoral body under [he^Ule of Anleletus II. Innocent was driven from Rome „en to C unyin France; was recognized by the monarchs and ambition.— INNOi I.M ii»-. -»■■■• '_ , , . bishop of EjonsKi., ana Author of numer- chosenpopo.n 1;' « •/■ J"°f^,\:; Vl. (£<ln,ue Aul.-,Kh. ^^1Sr4i"o^>:'^S:o '^ll^kli^t al. ar^- hi ho, orRavennl became cardinal in 13S9 pope in 1404. I) X-'v fi 140G: was a man of learning and of mai^- Mr- U. JNo\. o. ^* "' .. r f,-/..rniiiii'«""i«'" '''"')• ''-'n Genoa lri4T2rGr: k oek wL: a man of irregular life, the :th r of many bastard children, and -- '»--^/,';^° ordained; became bishop ot Savoue and .^l""' "inrt ear d na in 1453; obtained the papacy by simony in 1484. ri -1 iVrrr under ook" o\evive the ancient discipline i::f';^;^,^:;landh..^arr.swithT...^ '-F?^S^S^\:3eni.:-ri:s - p-r? ?2iSr:;gi;f7:;vr :r^^^ li,hed a brief abolishing the nghi . ^^^ exercised by foreign "■"'."'f'!"^":' ! ' ( , '„ ,t \nd entered ; French envoy, who "n''"'»'°"'"'^./f; condemnation i Rome with a military escort ; '""^['""'I'^J",-,,^ ., joined l,v ,be Inquisition of Mol-o s d-tniie of «^^e _ J the League of AuRsburg and d. Aug^l-^ !«»«• ^^, IXNOCENTIUS— INNS OF COURT. 1209 D. Sept. 27. 1700.— Innocent XIII. {Michel Angeto Conti), b. at Rome May US, 1055: became archbi.-ihop of Tarsus in 1695, car>liDul in 1707, and bishop of Viterho in 1712; succeeded Clement XI. in 1721 ; and d. Mar. 7, 1724. He was virtuous and devitut, but not a very capable ponliff. and there is reu.'Jon to believe that he was poisoned in conse- quence of his determination to suppress the Jesuits. C'HARI.KS W. (iltEKNE. Innocen'tius, a Roman jurist of the times of Constan- tine the (ireat and his sons Constantius and Constans. by whom his wrilings and opinions were invested with a kind of legislative force. None of his works has survived, and their tenor is known only bj' a few references of later writers. Innocents' Day [in Old Enj^lish. Chi/derman'], the day on which the Culholic and Ansli<^au churches celebrate the ma!>sacre of the children at Bethlehem, who are called the Jf"fy [nnoreutt and considered as the earliest Christian martyrs (Dec. 28). The Society of Lincoln's Inn, London, used to choose a Kimj uf the Covkneyt on this day ; children were permitted to wear the clothes of thoir elders and ex- erci!>e a mook authority- ; in the convent the youngest nun became lady superior for the nonce, etc. The priest on this day wears a blue gown in church. In some Catholic coun- tries the festival of the Holy Innocents is even now cele- brated by playing practical jokes, precisely as in the U. S. the 1st of .April is reckoned ,-1// Fooin Dni/. In Spanish- American countries, after a practical joke has been ])layed, the expression equivalent to ** April fool" is, Qur la ino- cenria le viiftja — t. e. " May your innocence protect you !" Inns of Court, colleges in London designed for the education of students for practice at the bar, and having at the same time the right to admit persons to practice. These institutions do not govern attorneys, who arc admitted to practice under the direction of the courts. The Inns of Court were situated between the city of Lon- don and Westminster. They are four in number, having preparatory schools called Inns of Chancery. At the pres- ent time the Inns of Chancery are only used as chaniners. The Inns of Court arc the Inner Temple, the Middle Tem- ple, Lincoln's Inn, and (iray's Inn. To the first of these are attached the Inns of Chancery, called respectively Clement's, Clifford's, and Lyon's Inn; to the Midf'le Tem- ple, New Inn : to Lincoln's Inn, Fumival's, Thavies^, and byrnHiid's Inn ; while to (Iray's Inn arc added Barnard's and Staples' Inn. The Inns of Court are voluntary soci- eties and unincorporated. They are thus described by Pearce : ''They are voluntary societies, for ages submitting to government analogous to other seminaries of learning; from lime immemorial enjoying the protection of the Cro\vn ; at common law suhject to the visitorial powers of the judges of the superior courts, who possess a domestic jurisdiction over these bodies, to whom an appeal lies in every case against orders affecting members of these societies, form- ing a university with power to grant degrees in the munici- pal law of Knglan<l, which constitute indispensable qual- ifications for practice in the superior courts of law; no corporations, and possessing no charters from the Crown ; by the policy of the common law permitted self-govern- ment, suhject to the qualifications mentioned in order to secure the independence of the bar." They were called inns, or in the Latin records ** Ao«/>»'rm,'* as distinguished from public lodging-houses (f/i'(vr«oriVi). The meaning of the term is well shown by an order of the judges issued in the reign of Charles I., wherein it being set forth that as the institution of these societies was chiefly ordained for the profession of the law. and in a secondary degree for the sons and youth of riper years of the nobility and gentry of ,the realm, and in no sort f"ir lodging or abode of country gentlemen, which if it should he sufferc)! would turn them from konpitin to diremnrifi, it was j>rovided that no person who 4lid not belong to the society should bo admitted or allowed to lodge in the houses. Being unincorporatc<l, the momhers have heen oblig'^d to resort to speoml methods to keep the title to the yiroperly in the society. The first grant was made to a select numl»er in trust for the society at large. This select number forms the bench. As the members die, others are chosen from the society, nnd new conveyances are iinide from time to time, the suceecsion hav- ing heen thus kept up lor hundreds of years. (She/ford on Afortmain, p. :t3.) These colleges existed at a remote period in English his- tory. Kortescue, writing in the reign of Henry VI., gives a pleasing account of them as they existed in his time. Ho says: "The students resorted thither in Ereut numbers to bo taught as in common schools. Hero they Irarn to sing and to exorcise themselves in all kind-< of harmony. On the working day(» they study law, and on the h<tly days Rcripture, and their demeanor is like the hchnvlor of suoh as are coupled together in prrfeel amity. There* is no place where are found so many students past childhood as here." The early modes of instruction in these institutions were disputations (or moor*) and readings or lectures. The mem- bers were divided into four grades — benchers, utter barris- ters, inner barristers, and students. The government nf the society was committed to the benchers, or seniors, the discussions and readings appertaining to the barristers. In the course of time the office of reader came to be attended with great expense. 8towe informs us that the reader in his day for upwards of three weeks kept a splendid taMe. feasting the nobility, judges, hishops. principal oflicers of state, and sometimes the king himself, insomuch that it has cost a reader above £1000 — certainly a large sura of money at that day. Curious details are given by tbc authors cited at the end of this article as to the masquerades and revcllings at the inns, growing more numerous and attrac- tive as the business of instruction declined. The requisi- tions for admission to the society became nominal. *' The applicants were examined in the classics to ascertain how they had spent their time before coming to the inn, and whether they had the manners of gentlemen." After the stutlent period had jiasscd the requisites for admission to practice consisted mainly in the fact that the student had eaten a certain nunihcr of dinners in each year for a fixed number of years in the common hall. Until within a few years all instruction was dispensed with. This entire tle- parture from the original theory of the schools attracted until recently but little attention, and where it was no- ticed only elicited mild expressitpns of dissatisfaction. Her- bert, writing in ISO*, says: " It may be worth a question, however, whether the total rejection of every restraint in professed seminaries of instniction is an improvement or a disadvantage." Latterly, the hest professional sentiment has strongly tended in favor of making these institutions [ true seminaries of learning, and amjile courses of lectures ! have been introduced, and opportunities given to those I students who may desire careful instruction to receive it. The rules adopted hy the benchers provide for a prelimi- I nary examination, testing the student's general culture. It j is quite certain that the result of the renewed interest in j legal education, nf which the present lord chancellor is I a distinguished exponent, will be to produce a class of law- I yers not only versed in the rules of the common law, but I well informed as to the principles of the Roman law and I the doctrines of general jurisprudence. I The benchers not only have the ]>ower of admitting per- sons to the bar. hut also of disbarring those whom they deem unfit to practise. From their decision no appeal lies I to any court as such, but only to the judges, exercising a limited power of review in the cdiaraeter of visitors. By : this means the general sentiment of the profession, as rep- I resented by the benchers, may exercise a most salutary con- trol over delinquent members, while, owing to the super- vision of the judges, there is but little danger that so great ! a power will be wantonly or capriciously exercised. These I principles are well illustrated in a recent case (187-1), where j a barrister brought a suit in eciuity against his inn, pray- ing, among other things, that he might he adjudged to ho entitled to retire from the inn without undertaking not to practise at the bar. The c-ourt decided that it had no juris- (Jiction over the subject ; the whole matter was between a voluntary society and a member. The sole question was, whether he had couijilied with the rules of the society, and that point the court had no power to determine. His ap- peal was to the judges as visitors. The object of the bar- rister in bringing this suit was avowedly to obtain a de- cision that the monopoly enjoyed by the inns to admit barristers was not founded upon any rule of law, but dc- jiended solely on the sufferance of the judges. The judg- ment must be regarded as an emphatic reaflirmanoe of the authority of the Inns of Court. The beauty and quiet rejiose of the grounds where the inns are situated are justly celebrated. Herbert, writing in 1804, gives a pleasing description of them as they ap- pear to one looking from the Inner Temple: "A beautiful garclen on the Thames side, ehielly covered with green- sward and having a spacious gravel walk or terrace on the woter's edge, fronts the hall. This is laid out with great taste and kept in perfect order, and in summer-time forms a crowded prninenatle ; from whence the view up and down the river is extremely rich. Blaekfriars bridge, part of Westminster bridge, and the elegant back frimt of Somerset House, with the winding Thames, the opposite busy shore, nnd the beautiful swell of the distant Surrey hills, all to- gether form nn assemblage of objects unrivalled in variety ami mngnifleence." Otoferenoe may ho made for further information to Herbert's Antiquitirn of the Inut of (.'iturt ttuff Chiturrrtf (London, 1S04); Poaroo's Ifi^tmy tf ihr fnna of' Court nnd Chnnffry (J.nndon, I8IS); Ireland's fiiii» of Court; Wharton's Low Dictionnri/, title " Inns of Ctotrt." For Information as to the inns of Ireland nee I>uhigg*s Kin'/t Inu».) T. W. iJwiOHT. 1210 INNSPRUCK-INQUISITION. Inns'priick, or Innsbruck, town of Austria, the cap- ital of the Tyrol, on the Inn. It is beautifully situated at an elevation of I SOU feet above the level of the sea, and en- circled bv mountains from (1000 to 8000 feet high. The five suburbs which form the new part of the town arc finely laid out and well built. The cathedral contains the cele- brated monument of Maximilian I., of marble and bronze, and aNo that of Andreas Hofer. Innspruck has a wcll- frequtnlod univcrsily and extensive manufactures of cloth, silk, iind gloves. Pup. 1C,S10. Inniiit. Pec EsgiJiMAUx. Ino, in Oreeian nivthology, was secretly married to Athanias, kin' of OichomenuF, to whom she bore two sons, Loar.hus and Mclicertes. Having accepted from Hermes the voun" Dionysus to nurse. Here visited her and her hus- band with madness, when Ath.amas slew Learchus. Ino did with Mclicertes in her arms and leaped into (he sea. where she was changed into a sea-goddess, Leucolhca. As the myth of Ino was much used by the Greek dramatists, it received many enlargements and augmentations, and ex- ists in many different versions. Inocar'pus edu'lis, a stately evergreen tree of the Pacific Islands, and of (he order Thymclaceie, producing a nut which after roasting is a palatable and important food. The tree puts out from its trunk curious plank-likc but- tresses, which arc very convenient to the natives for use as natural boards, after peeling off the bark. Some of these planks are four feet wide at the base. Inocilla'tion \h^l. !m,cuh, to "bud"], in general, the intentional or accidental conveyance of disease to an indi- vidual by means of the actual application of morbific ma- terial tohis person, especially upon a wound ; in particular, it signifies such a transfer of variola, or smallpox ; which proceeding is also known by the more specific term of rnn- oh.Hon. Inoculated smallpox differs from natural smallpox chiefly in its course being milder and shorter, the mortality of the former being less than 1 per cent., whereas that of the latter ran"cs from 10 to ;.0 per cent. This comparatively mild character of the inoculated disease seems to have ex- cited the attention of the Chinese and certain other Oriental peoples at a very early period, and hence they have prac- tised intentional inoculation from time immemorial for the Tiurpose of procuring immunity from the natural smallpox. The practice found its way into Europe by way of Con- stantinople, where it was openly introduced in ^\^ p" \ 1701 The influence possessed by Drs. Timoni and I yla- : riui overcame the religious scruples of the Turks, an.l , inonilation became a recognized practice. AlthouKh ;t , was favorably spoken of in England as early as I, 14, i 1 was not until' 1722 that the first inoculation vvas performed j in that country— upon the daughter of L.a.ly >Iary \V orlley j Montagu, wife of the British ambassador at Constantino- ple At first it met with some opposition in England, Init j after a few years it was extensively practised, and rapidly 1 spread to France, Germany, and other continental coun- ties In America it was advocated by the Rev^ Cot on Mather, and first practised in 1721 by Dr. Zabdiel Boylston of Boston The proceeding consisted essentially in the in- sertion of lymph from a smallpox pustule into an incision or abrasion made for the purpose. In Asiatic countries, h.iwevcr.the practice was somewhat difTcrent : for instance, the Chinese inserted a variolous crust or a bit of linen from the clothing of a smallpox patient into the nostrils. This was called " buying the smallpox," and the proceeding was invested with a quasi-religious sort of rays cry. Inocula- tiun stood the test of experience as regarded the protection of the individual inoculated, but it proved the source of disaster to the communily at large, since inoculated small- pox was found to be as infectious as the natural disease, and therefore served to spread the latter broadcast to a ereater extent than would otherwise have occurred Owing Shiellv to this fact, but partly also to other considerations which need not he mentioned here, inoculation was rapidly sunplaiitcd bv the announcement of Jenncr's discovery ot VA.rivvTiox'twhiehsec). in the year UOS, and has now fallen into complete desuetude. Although perhaps some- what more cfiicient than vaccination, it was fraught wiin such danger that it does not deserve to be revncd. FnANK P. FoSTEIt. Ino'sic Acid [Gr. U, iy^. "muselc," —fihrc"], CsIlsXjOe. an acid found in the mother-liquor m prepar- ing creatine from flcsh-juioc. In'osite [Gr. U. i^w, "muscle," "fibre"], or PlinsP- omannitc, CoHijOo. a variety of glneoso found in the heart lun"s. kidneys, liver, spleen, and brain, and in tlie urine in a case of Urighfs disease; also in kidnoy-beane, common peas, cabbage, potato-shoots, asparagus, etc. 1 is soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol and ethor: i» not discolored by boiling with potassic hydrate; does not ler- mcnt in contact with yeast ; undergoes lacteous fermentation under the influence of cheese, flesh, or decaying membrane and chalk. Evaporated nearly to dryness with nitric acid, treated with ammonia and calcic chloride, and again evap- orated, it yields a characteristic rose-tint. C. F. CllASDLKR. luowrnc'law, town of Prussi.a, in the province of Po- sen. It has luaiuilaeturcsof saltpetre and a rauch-fiequentcd cattlcfair. Here are great beds of rock-salt. Poji. 7429. In Par'libus Infidel'ium ("in the regions of the unbelievers"). .Since the Church of Rome in theory still holds ecclesiastical sway in those countries wlicme the Church has been expelled (such as parts of Asia and North Africa), the custom has long prevailed of giving to suflra- gans, coadjutors, vicars-general, missionary bishops, and other inferior dignitaries the nominal bishoprics of jilaces far remote from their scene of duty. Thus, for example, the two missionary bishops at jiresent (IS75) serving in North-western British America are respectively bishops of Satala and Anemurium, cities of Asia Minor. Such prel- ates are called bishops j'li parlibuD tnfulvlium, or simply bishops in jxirtlbiis. In Perso'nam. Sec Ix Reh. In'quest of Office. In English practice this is an inquiry made by the king's (or queen's) ofl'icer, his sheriff, coroner, or eschcator, virltitc officii or by writ sent to them for that purpose, or bv commissioners specially appointed, concerning any matter that entitles the king to the ,.os- session of lands or tenements, goods or chattels. The in- vestigation is made with the aid of a jury, which is not required to consist of any specific number of persons, but may have either twelve or more or lAs, The most im- portant cases in which inquiries of this kind arc instituted relate to the escheat and forfeiture of lands to (he ( rown, cither by reason of the alienage of their owner, who ac- quired them by conveyance or devise, or because llierc are no heirs of a "deceased person to inherit the land of which he died seized. Upon a finding by the jury that the owner is an alien, or that he has died leaving no heirs, the prop- erty vests immediately in the Crown without any lurther proceeding being necessary. As the inquiry terminates with a fii"li"9 «'■ certain facts by the jury, the proceeding is sometimes termed "office found," which is aii abbrevia- tion for the fuller expression, " inquest of office found. Inquests of oSice were originally devised as an authentic means of giving the king his right by solemn matter of record, and in order that by the intervention of a jury the subject might be protected against arbitrary seizures of his property. In the U. S. this form of procedure .3 still retained in a number of the States, though it is not uniformly made applicable to the same classes of cases as in English practice. It is only resorted to when real prop- erty is to be forfeited to the Slate and does not apply to pefsonaltv. It is a proceeding employed chiefly when lands escheat to the State for want of heirs. In some of tho States also, the common-law rules regarding the right ot aliens to hold lands still prevail, and in these an inquest of office would generally be applicable to vest lands ac- quired bv purchase in the State, unless a different mode of procedure has been adojited by statute. In a number of the States, however, statutes have been enacted enabling aliens to hold lands by an indefeasible title An inquest of office in the Slates following the New \ork code ol pro- cedure is an action instituted by the attorney-general of the Stale. (Sec J\'c«> YmI.- Code, ? 447.) Georck Chase. REVisEn bv T. W. Dwicht. Innuisi'tion [l.at. in^.n-itio, a " seeking" or "searcli- in- for," "inquiring into." "examination;" used in the Vulgate. Acts xii. 1'.']. in law. a seeking for proof in sup- port of an accusation, a legal investigation, invorving tho examin-atioii of the inquisitors anJ."" ""l"'^"""'; P^»- cess. (See Carpzov, /'n-c „ov. m,,,n-n,L Ao.r. Hcv. Cnm., ed. Quint 1 fiG5, index. ) In history, first a process of investi- gation, then a tribunal under various forms ""J "Yd.hea- Tions, then a fixed institution of a twolo d type, bearing the names h„,u'''i^<> >""■"''='' I""";""'': ^"nT"rfTZ' II Sauto Officio. La Co«i,,(<:,aiioi. .„ S..„„ Ojff,cc. <•'^•'^'■^'- nrrichl. K ncnjcrici,!. established in some parts of the Ro- man Catholic Church and slates to protect "'f. f''>'l' J-/ searching out and bringing to penance or I'"";f ;"« ^"^T ties, unbelievers, and certain classes of <>«'="'"»»«%"'' I morals and tho canon law. (See Du Cange, «/o.-n';. Med Hiufim. L.tiuiio,.. iii. S44.) ( For the early relations of the Church to errorists see Heresy.) .\ careful defining and classification may help us to avoid some of tho confusion which marks many of the accounts °'l n:t;;:w"i /„,..,./o„.-This was nm alriliu.^ bu a civil process. The emperor Theodosius the Great r-:C4\) used inquisitors or inquirers after tho heretics for the detection especially of the Mauichaeans (382). They INQUISITION. 1:211 were appointed hy the prefect of the prtetoriuni. Aggra- vated cases of leaJcrsliip in certain specified forms of heresy were punislied witli dealli. (Theodorut:, //I'ff. EvxUt.t v. Itj.) Justinian ( J25-a05) employed similar officers to search for heretics in general (62!)). The Christian doctrine, as de- fined hy the four hidy synods general, and the canons framed by them, were acknowledged as part of the law of the en)- pire, and heresy thus hecaine a civil olTence, the trial and penal visitation of which belonged solely to the civil mag- istrate. The whole matter was confined lo the ordinary courts, and the bishops exercised for centuries no tcnijioral jurisiliction. The bishop Ithaeius reached Priscilian through the civil powers. But the Church had not then learned to make the subtle distinction which afterwards became so general. Though Priscilian was a very danger- ous hercsiarch, and though his trial and torture were con- ducted by the prefect, and his behcailing was ordered by the emperor' (^Sj), the issue was regarded with widespread horror, Ithaeius was degraded, excommunicated, and died in exile, and the best men in the Church refused commu- nion with his supporters. (Baronius, Aniialcn, ann, ;i,Sl, 38 J, :isri, :i!)7. i^ce Ukresv.) II. Thr Di'oceanii fii>jnisll!i>ii gradually arose out of the imperial, relieved it of part of its duties, and gave it a subordinate character in the infliction of penally. This iniuisition was not a tribunal, but an ecclesiastical process or function. As the penalties visited upon olfenders under the codes of Theodosius .and ,Iustinian wore largely of an ec- clesiastical nature, and the bishops were more and more recognised as governmental aids, the civil powers coni- mittoil the jurisdiction in inquisitorial cases to the bishops in their several dioceses (.about 800). Tho bishops used for this purpose their synodal courts. There tho accused were examined. If found guilty, they wero instructed and admonished. If they remained obdurate, Ihey were loft in the hands of tho secular court to bo ])unishc 1 under tlio common law. This sort of function assumed a far wider significancy in the twelfth century. Pope Lucius III. ( llSl- 8j) at the synod of Verona (llSl) prepared » decree against tho heretics of that time. He puts them under per- petual anathema. Laymen arc to be delivered into tho hands of the scsular judges to be ]>unished unless they abjure at once. Tho relapsed are not to bo allowed a second pardon. The bishops are to make at least an an- nual visitation to dcS!:over such heretics. All tho secular authorities are to render every ]>03sible aid in tho work under pain of excommunication and forfciluro of dignities. " In this decree," says Fleury, " we see tho concurrence of the two powers — tho ecclesiastical and civil — for tho extir- pation of heresies." He considers this decree a* involving the germ of the Inquisition. (Fleury, Hist. Ecrlcs., iv. 700; Du Pin, Twelfth Century, ch. ix.) III. The Papal I.eijalhie fiiqitinitioii, for which tho way was preparing, became independent of the diocesan, though coexistent in part with it. It was create 1 by special com- mission, was not permanent, was not an institution. The disalTeetion toward tho Church whitdi marked the close of the twelfth century spread more and more rapidly. In .South- ern Franco her opponents ha<l become almost tho dominant arty. To Innocent III. (llUS-rjlO) it seemed that tho ishons wero carrying on proceedings against these heretics in quite too languishing a stylo. Whatever might bo tho ihilosophy of it, their lack of success was beyond dispute. le sent, therefore, as papal Irgalei, tho Cistercians Raineri ond (iuido into .Southern France tr) give more energy to tho repression of tho Wal lenses ( 1 ISIS), with authority to em- ploy the interdict in coercing the civil powers. Peter of Caslclnau was appointed associate inquisitor in Southern Franco (1200), and was active, in conjunction with other Cistercians, against the heretics, from Toulouse as a centre (120:1). The powers of tho papal legates wero further enlarged, so as to reach tho easo of non-compliant bishops. To meet tho popular aversion created by tho dissolute lives of the clergy, Diego, bishop of Osma, and Dominic, by permission of the pope, went on foot and in poverty to preach among the heretics. Peter anil Raoul were sent on a mission among the Albigenses (1200). Count Ray- mond humbled himself before tho legate, Peter of Castcl- nau (1207), and promised to aid in extirpating the heretics ho had been protecting. Dominie urged the crnsndc against tho Albigenses (I20S|. Tho Icgatine inquisitors to a largo degree acted indepenilcntly of the bishop of the diocese; they held n court of their own, and by authority of tho pope wont on to try. to condemn, and to inflict penalties, anil, with the concurrence of the magistracy, even death itself. Raonl feigned himself one of the heretics, and got possession of their secrets. Many priests, monks, laymen, and women were thus detected, and conrlemned in a coun- cil at Paris. Ten were burned ami four imprisoned for lifo (1200). Proceedings so crafty, unsernpulous. and vigorous had all the success of which their nature allows. Tho search was very thorough, and the remedy seemed temporarily almost complete. Peter do Castelnau, by a baud never traced, was murdered near Toulouso (120S). (Guillaumc do Nangis, 67ir»iii<;iic ,■ lluizot, Coll. d. Memoins, xiii. 1)7.) But his death helped ti) complete tho work of his life. In- nocent, exasperated to the last degree by the death of his faithful servant, hurled against tho .\lbigcuscs a crusade, in part under Arnold (afterwards archbishop of Narbonne) as legate (1209), which after a bloody struggle ended in their extermination. IV. Jlitir of' the hiquisitioii an a Permanent fiigU'titlion — Acta of the I'niin-iU.^Tha vigor with which tho Icgatine inquisition had acted, the success of its mission, and tho enormous jircssure on the Church, which ihc old mode of procedure had allowcil to increase, and of which the new measures had been but a local and temporary jtalliativc, strengthened the tendency to give system antl permanence to some institution which should furnish the specific relief required in the time of crisis. The olTicinl initiative in this work may be said to have been made by the Twelfth General Council, the Fourth Latcran (1215). Innocent III. presiding. It took the first steps in the direction of a i)er- mancnt inquisition. It virtually gave something of tho character ot an inquisitoi-ial tril>nnal to the synodal courts of the bishops. Provincial synods were to be held an- nually, and violations of the Latcran canons were to bo rigorously punished. The punitive discijdine was no longer to bo a spontaneous and irresponsible matter, but the courls were to be under Church decree — by pre-eminence, courts for the searching ont, trial, and punishment of here- tics. The condemned were to be left in the hands of tho secular power, and their goods were to be confiscated. Tho secular powers were to be admonished and induced, and, should it prove necessary, were to bo eoinpcllcd (eompellnu- lur) to the utmost of their power to exterminate all who wero pointed out os heretics by the Church (ttnlrcmos hirre- ticoti ub eccfceia (taiiotatnu. pro ririhicn cxtenniuttrr). Any prince declining thus to purge his land of heresy wag to bo excommunicated. If he persisted, complaint was to bo made to the pope, who was then to absolve his vassals from their allegiance and allow the country lo be seiy.cd by Catho- lics who should extcrminale the heretics. Those who joined in tho crusade for the extermination of heretics {hrrre- (iVonini e.rtcniiuiiiim) were to have the same indulgence as tho crusaders who went to tho Holy Land. Every bishop was to sec to the carrying out of these provisions under pain of canonical vengeance (ultionls). lie was to be de- posed for neglect to cleanse his diocese of the leaven of heretical ])ravity, and his successor was lo be one who had both the will and i>ower to destroy it. The mclhod of proceeding against olVcnders was by accusation, denun- ciation, and inquisition. (Carrania, Suiiima Conciliorum, Antwerp, 1550, liS5, 336; cd. .Schram, August. Vindelic, 1778, vol. iii. 3G-3U; Fleury, ///«(. Ecclcxlasti'qiie, Paris, 1840, V. 123.) Tho Council'of Toulouso (1220) adopted a number of canons tending to give permanent character lo tho Inquisition as an institution. It was ordained that tho bishop should make an annual visitation, and sec lo it that in all parishes one priest and three laymen of good repute shoubl be appointed lo ilcvolc their entire time lo the mak- ing the iiiquisitiou for heretics. The local magistracy was to unite in this search. Any one permitting a hrrctic to re- main in his country, or who in any way shiehh d him, was to be punished by forfeiture of land, personal properly, and official position.' All heretics were to be luuuUd over lo the archbishop, bishop, or local authorities, 'llie houses in which they wero found were lo bo levelled with tho ground. Heretics, and those under charge or suspicion of heresy, wero to be excluded from medical ]iraclicc {offirin medlri noil utcntiir). Any one could make ii:quisilion and seiuo heretics in Ihc country of anollier. Genuine penitents wero lo he removed from the tainted ncigliloiliood, wero to wear two crosses on their clothing, diUcrent in color from it. till the bishop allowed Ihcm to be laid aside. Their forl'iiturc of |)ublic ri);hls could only be rcliKUcI by a papal dispensation. Ili relics driven to penitence by fear were lo be imprisoned, so as to prevent their corrupting others. Men from the ago of fourteen, and women from twelve, were lo nuiko oath, and renew it every two years, that they woulil inlorm on heretics. The laity were strictly prohibited from having the Holy Scriptures. (Carrania- .Schram. .Vuniiiio, iii. 70-72; Ilarduin, /ctn Coneiliorum, Paris, 1711, xii. 173; Mansi, Cnlleriln, Vcnct., 1778, xxiii. 1SI2; Fleury, V. 21 1: Du Pin, Thirlrcnth Cent.) The local councils of this era I'olloweil up Ihc work of tho Fourth Latcran with special provisions in its rpirit. Thus, tho Council of ChiVteau-Oontier ( Mayenoe, 1231 ), .lews can- not testify against Christians; tho Counoil of Bezifres (1233), tho laying olT of Ihc crosses shall be ennsidercd suf- ficient proof of heresy ( Fleury, v. 252) ; the Council of Aries (1231) convicted heretics to bo imprisoned for life. 1212 INQUISITION. the heretic detected after death to be exhumed and given , to the secular judgment (Fleury, v. 266). The Council of Narbonno (12:'.5), under direction of the pope, laid down j rules for the Dominican inquisitors. Prisons were to be constructed for the converts who had not properly to sup- port them in .iuil. Those \vho relapsed into heresy were, with<uU furlher hearing, to be left to the secular judges for punishment. No one was to be e.vcused from imprisonment I because of old age, of wife, parents, or children : the names of witnesses were not to be made known by word or sign. ■ Even the infamous and convicts were eligible as witnesses. I (Carranza-Schram, iii. S3; Fleury, v. 271; Du Pin, Cent. Xlll.. ch. vi.) V. Oninnic Euinhliithment of the Inquintton. — Gregory J. A. (1227-41) found that not even the multiplication of rigorous canonscould overcome the scrupulosity, the mildness, or, per- haps, sometimes, the indolence of the bishops. In Aug., 1231, he placed the Inquisition in the charge of the Dominicans, an order specially founded for the defence of the Church against heresy. Papal inquisitors ofthat order were appoint- ed for Germany, .\ragon, and Austria (1232). and for Lom- bardy and Southern France(1233). They were made formally free from all restrictive dependency on the bishops (1233), and could in certain cases summon the bishops themselves before them. The Inquisition then became an org.anized institution, a permanent tribunal, papal in its supreme au- thority, and administered mainly, though not exclusively, by the' Dominican order. Under its jurisdiction persistent heresy was treated with unsparing severity. But "the Church does not thirst for blood." That maxim was too fixed to be disregarded. Blood had to be shed, the Church's need required it, but the Church could not shed it with her own hands. The casuists and divines hardly discuss the question whether the Church, as such, can shed blood; it is agreed that she cannot. That the Church might not even' wear the ajipearance of staining herself with blood it was necessary that the princes should obligate themselves toco-work with her in carrying out the measures designed to repress heresy. Louis IX. of France (afterwards canon- ized) had shown his willingness, out of a pious mind, to use the powers of the state against the Albigenses (122S). Raymond VII. of Toulouse (1233) and Frederick II. of Germany (1234) followed up the work by the requisite laws, but neither of them with the unsuspected zeal of St. Louis. As these movements in the state followed in a secondary way \ipon the suggestions of the Church, the Inquisition of this type may properly bo called an eccle- siastico-political tribunal. Both Church and state co-op- erated in it, but the Church was supreme, and used the state. The relation was reversed in the Inquisition as it existed at a later period, especially in Spain : there Church and state still co-operated, but the state was supreme and used the Church. , m . VI. Method and Laws nf the Ecr-leniagtico-political Tri- hwnnl, the " Andeut" Iiiquinltion.—Wo have seen the regu- lations established by the councils, under which the seizure and trial of persons "suspected of heresy and other crimes took place. Their fellows in guilt, and even common con- victs, were accepted as witnesses against them. The ac- cused were to know nothing of them. Confession was wrung from them by torture. The torture of those sus- iiected of heresy was sanctioneil by Innocent IV. (1202). The torture was at the beginning applied by the civil au- thorities, but as the requisite secrecy was impossible with this arrangement, the Inquisition subsequently took the matter into its own hands, under direction of I'rban IV. (1261-61). The penalties inflicted were penances of various kinds, forfeiture of civil and ecclesiastical rights, confisca- tion of property, imprisonment or the galleys, sometimes for life, and capital punishment, usually by burning alive. In mitigated cases persons were strangled first and burned afterwards. Rigorous as the Inquisition was even in this form, it was in many respects less arbitrary and severe than the politico-eccIesiastic.ll Inquisition of after times. The bishops. were not wholly ignored, the law of secrecy was not ns strictly enforced, the means of defence were more ample. In Aragon and even in other countries conviction of heresy was not followed by sequestration of property. In a word, the Inquisition in its prevailingly ecclesiastical form was more dependent, more open to the influence of public senti- ment, less compact and centralized, rather local than na- tional, and altogether less terrible. VII. The Ere!,-iifi»l!ro-pol :i!cal hquxnition, Bx'lory nf. — 1. In France.— T\\o special sphereof the Inquisition in the period of its earliest organization was in Southern France (1229-34'!. Its proceedings were marked with such severity that an insurrection of the people took place, and it was driven out of Toulouse and Narbonne. Four of the in- quisitors were put to death in Toulouse, and the pope was compelled to withdraw the Inquisition from that place. It was again restored, and again fell into its earlier cruelty. It was. however, put under some restrictions by Philip the Fair (12SO-1314). In the fourteenth century it died out in France. When, two centuries later, an attempt was made, under cover of the intense passions excited by the Reforma- tion, to bring it in again and use it against the Huguenots, the ministers of Henry II. I l.i47-o9) assured him that per- sistence in the movement would bring on a civil war. His queen, Catharine de' Medici, and others, Roman Catholics and ardent opposers of Protestantism, resisted the restora- tion of the Inquisition. But. though the Inquisition was not allowed a formal estaiilishmcnt in France, its in- fluence, though with a certain furtiveness. has been very great there at times. The Cn.\MBRE Aupkxte (which see) (1535) was associated with an inquisitorial tribunal, of which the pope was a corresponding member. Both were established by Francis I. (1515-47), who more than once, with his mistress, enjoyed the excitement of the public burning of heretics. '.Several heretics were burned when Henry II. entered Paris in 1540, and the cruelties of the conjo'int tribunal aided in bringing on the religious war of 1560. 2. Germany. — The Inquisition was introduced into a num- ber of other countries. In some it was unable to obtain a permanent footing, and in all its spirit and history were in some measure modified by the character of the nationality. Conrad of Marlnirg, a Dominican, was appointed by Greg- ory IX. grand inquisitor of Germany (1231). He aroused the pope to a crusade against the STEnixGEKS (which see), while the Inquisition proceeded with judicial measures against them as heretics. The cruel earnestness of Conrad, w'hich imperilled the lives even of those who gave their souls to his keeping, directed itself alike against the high and the low with an impartiality which intensified the common aversion of people, princes, and bishops toward the Inquisition, and made it for ever impossible that it should find a permanent home in Geriuany. The pope was appealed to, and, expressing wonder at the long endurance of such atrocities, disavowed the excesses of his official. Before his reply was received Conrad was assassinated Ijy some German iobles (Julv 30, 1233). Droso, a Dominican, was associated in spirit and work with him. (See Hofler in Wetzcr and Weltes' Kireh-Lexic., and Wagenmann in Herzog's Real Encjldop.. '• Konrad.") For more than a century the Inquisition seemed robbed ot its vitality in Germa'nv by its own excesses, but in the fourteenth century the BEr.'HARns and Beguises (which see) were persecuted with great severity (1367) by AValter Karling and another inquisitor, both Dominicans, sent by I'rban V. (1362-70). Their work was legalized and efficiently sustained by three edicts granted by Charles IV. (136(1). Gregory XI. en- larged the number of inquisitors for Germany to five (1372). and Boniface IX. sent six for North Germany (about' 1399). Toward the close of Ihe fifteenth century it received a new impetus from the bull '• Summis desiderantes affcctibns," isfued bv Innocent VIII. (Dec. 5. 14S41. in which he alarmed all Germany, and stimulated to the last degree the superstitions of the peojde, by informing them that their country was overrun with witchcraft, and in the hands of magicians who were in covenant with the devil. For the extirpation of these criminals he appointed two inquisitors. Heinrich Kfimcr {In^tHor, '-merchant," is the I.al inizcd form in which it often occurs ) and .lakob .Spreugcr. Out of the confessions of those charged with witchcraft, aided bv suggestive questions and the torture, was built up ft complete system of demonology. The jirocesses and re- sults of thcs'e examinations were wrought up by Sprenger in the Mallens Malefiearum, the " Hammer of Witches, who were assumed to be for the most part feminine ( Cologne. 14^9) This book long remained an authority in the pro- ceedings against that class of ofl-enders. The repression became the excitant. The temptation of sulTering and publicity alwars swells the number of crimes of the imagi- nation. "An epidemical mania swejit over (.crmany. Ihou- sandsof women were burned or tortured to death, some- timcs'confessing, ofltimes boasting, that they were witches. Science, authoritv, and law made superstition almost invin- cible, and one o{ the latest roots of medurval thinking whi.-h clung to the soil of Germany and of other parts ol the Protestant in common with the Catholic world was the belief in witches. The Reformation com]ilctcly broke the power of the Inquisition in Germany. The Jesuits en- deavored to restore it in Austria and Bohemia. In Bavaria (1.599) it was formally established, but it lacked vitality, and soon vanished from all parts of Germany. 3 Italy— Itnme.— In Italv its life was protracted, though political'complications prevented its assuming the seventy I of character displayed wherever the government completely controlled it or it controlled the goi-ernment. It was in- troduce,! into Italy by Gregory IX- < •-''f 'Vv A rT- rii tribunal at Rome was employed by Paul IV. (155o-59) against Protestantism. He declared in his last hours INQUISITION. 1213 that he found in it the onlv roenns of rescuing the Roman Catholic religi.in an.l the authority of the aiic.=tnlie see from (lostruclion. i (Jnuphrius. quoted in Hoi.legiicr, //i«(or. I'Hutit., I09S, 2lt.) lu conjuuelion with the liinuisilion .too.l Ihe Connrefc'iition of the Holy Office, whi.h a short time heforo ha.l heen established by Paul ill. (Ija4-a0), xvhoso action in so doing had been influenced by Cardinal CaralTa, afterwards I'aul IV. Sixlus V. (1,-.S5-'JII I enlarged the powers of the Congregation (I.'.SSi. The Koinan In- qui"ition was eomiiosed of twelve cardinals and ot ofllcials styled consultors or riualifiealors. The chief inquisitor was alVavs a Dominieau. The pope himself met with the court at leiit once a week, and eontlrmed its .lecisions. Inqui- sitorial courts, with a general similarity of ..rgani/.atinn, but with a varying number of members, chosen by the Congregation of the IIolv Office, were introduced through- out Italy. The Inquisition in Italy was abolished by Na- poleon ("l80.'<), was sanctioned again by Pius VII. (l^lt|. but was used after that time mainly as a disciplinary tri- bunal fur the clergy, and was cstinguisbed by the oonsoli- | dation of the kingdom of Italy, Oct. '.>. 17S70. 4. IV.iiVf.— The re|iublic of Venice refused to receivo from the pope an inquisition dependent on him, but insti- tuted one under stale control (llisff). The papal nuncio j pre-id-d indeed in it. but with him were associated the patriarch, the pater inquisitor, who was always a Francis- ! can. and three civil judges, without whose concurrence , nothing could be decided (12S9 1. The Venetian Inquisition mi"ht indeed ho classified as politico-ecclesiastical, as the i poUtical was in some sense the primary element, and so take its place with Spain. But the Inquisition of Venice was really in the main an ecclesiastical tribunal, kept such I bv the stale. While Spain stimulated the In.iuisition, and g'avo it the largest powers. Venice restrained it, confined 1 its iurisdiction to cases of heresy, did not allow it to deprive the" heirs of the condemned of the properly, and gave it no censorship of books. The Creeks and Armenians had froe.lom of worship, the .lews were tolerated, and the University of Pa.lua was not limited to Roman Catholics in conferring its degrees in divinity. The ecclesiastical Inquisition of Venice is not to he confounded with the stale Inquisition. (See Fra Paolo. M»r>i<,U!er ; Fleury, d. 96; Darn, ff/.f. rfe Venhe (1819), i. 405-+I2; ii. 532; iv. 342, 160.) .i. Xnplrt. Sidli/, Tiincnni/.—The Inquisition was never established in Naples. It was prevented on the one side bv (he dim -ulties with the pope, and on the other by the unwillingness of the pope that an Inquisition should ba established independent of his own control. The Inquisi- tion which was established in Niijiles under the control ol the general inquisitor of Spain was abrogated 17S2. It was restore.I in Sardinia by (iregory XVI. (l.'*:;.'!), and stood until 1.848. In Tuscany, the grand duke had re- luctantly given up (ialileo to the Roman Inc|uisition ( Ifif.;!). The Tuscan In(|uisition was supjircsscl by the gniiid duke Leopold II. (|h2I-.'>9). In the political reaction following the year 1819 the Inquisition exhibited tokens of a re- vivcl life in Tuscanv. An evidence of this which aroused Chrislenrlom was the sentencing of FitAVcKsm and Ros v Mauiai (which see) lo the galleys (18.-i2 1 for having be- come Protcsiauls. The incorporation of Tuscany into the united kin,' bun of Italy under Victor Emmanuel (1859) put an end lo its Iii([uisitiop. , , . « Oih.r r,„„if,iV«.— In Poland it was introduced by Pope .lohn X.KII. (i:'.2-), but was soon abolished. All the efforts of the pope to introduce it as on institution into England were fulile. Inquisitors were sent thither, but exercised lilile influence, as Knglaii.l, with a very decided disposition to exterminate heresy, preferred to do it in her own independent fashion. ,,,,,, VIII. Tllf /'nllllfn-Kfrlfiatllrill /lliyill'ldoM — llir "Mntl- /ii./iiMiVio".— 1. S'/miii. The ecelcsias- tico political Inquisition had been fixed in Spain in Ara gon, and lo its central inquisitor, Nicolaus Eyineric (d. 1399), wo owe the Dhrclnrlum lui/iiinilnntm, which is a voucher for Ihe substantial unity of the spirit and method of the In<|uisition under its two forms, P.ut the old In- quisition of Aragon is almost forgotten in the ni'W Iuc|ui- silion of Castile. The great thealri' of the most terrible form of this Inquisition ami of its highest activity has been Spain. The whole purpose and strength of the Church and Sl;ile has never been so centralized as there, in the reprcs- i sion of what was regardetl as a common evil Ihrcatening the life of both, A vigorous absolutism on the throne found a congenial mind in the Church, for State and Church were welded together in Spain in a theocratic conjunction almost without parallel in i Icrn history. The primary rei-ons of all these facts are connected with the entire eirlier history of that land an.l with civil and religious necessities, largely real, and always phiiisible, which rose out of that history. The long struggle with the Moors had been one in which Ihe antagonisms of races bad been vivi- fied by the antagonisms of religions. The Moors had been beaten in the field, but their conquerors felt that there could be no abiding security for Spain till the vanquished accepted the faith of the victors. The Jews had from an ancient period been a numerous, active, and influential element in Spain. .\s between Christianity and Moham- medanism, they had been more sympalhetic with the lat- ter than with tiic former. Jew and Mohammedan had been compelled toward the end of the fourteenth century ( 1391 ) to make a profession of Christianily. These reluctant con- verts, Moorish and Jewish, were more than suspected of clinging in secret lo the faith they had pulilicly renounced. They w'crc charged with atrocious ads and dangerous de- signs involving the government and the Church. A com- pulsory fidelity is the natural sequence of a compulsory profession. Of this compulsion the Inquisition became the organ. One of the earliest distinctive movements in this direclion wa.s made by Cardinal Pedro Gonzales de Men- doza. archbishop first 'of Seville, and afterwards of Toledo, who (1470) gathered together the legal maxims and regu- lations bv which a sifting of these pretended converts might be made.' This collection was circulated among the clergy to arouse and give precision to their cfiorts to repress the imminent mischief and peril. As this measure lacked Ihe cogency in which relief alone could be found, the cardinal proceeded (1477) to punish in Seville a number of persons of Jewish origin who were charged with maintaining in secret the laws and usages of their fathers. He then sub- mitted to the government the sketch of a permanent eccle- siastical court, in which the early vigor of Ihe older In- quisition, which had been allowed to languish, should bo restored. Inn which should possess larger powers and more effectual methods. In short, it was to he the Inquisition reformed. The plan met with the approval of Ferdinand and (after a temporary hes'italion 1 of Isabella. At the car- dinal's suggestion, which was all-potent (he was called "third king of Spain"), the jdaii was submitted lo the Cortes at Toledo ( 1480 i, and. despite the opposition of a number of the states of the kingdom, was adopted. The king and queen loved the Church and loved their people. They meant to strengthen the throne by the altar, and the alta'r bv the throne. Thev meant to serve the Church and to use the Church. They wished to secure the goodwill of the pope, and to gain by it. In their motives were mingled fear, piety, patriotism, absolutism, and ambition. Heresy waste he repressed : the dangerous races were to be kept under ; the arrogance of the hereditary nobility and of the clergy was to be held in check ; and the royal wealth and prerogative enlarged and made sure. In no permanent forms of persecution has there ever heen a comiilcte sc]ia- ration of political from religious motives. On petition ol the sovereigns. Sixlus IV. had issued a bull I Nov. 1. 14,81 outhorizing them to appoint and depose iiii|iiisilors. and to possess Ihemsclvcs of the property of the condciiinc<l for the royal treasury. The Inquisition assumed the cha- racter of a predoniin'aiillv. though not exclusively, stale in- stitution, in which the' tbr.uic was largely allowed lo define for itscll how it would use the Church, yet under such bonils of fealty lo the Church as made it qncstionablo which wnuM be master if llicir councils should ever be di- vided. The papal permission was not formally acted upon till Sept 17. 1480, when Ihe king and queen nominale.l as inquisitors two Dominicans. Morill,. (previously inquisitor in Aragon) ami St. Marlin. AVith them was conjmncd as asscss.ir Mclina, the queen's counsellor, and as procura- tor-fiscal, Lopez, her ehuplain. This court began Us offi- cial work (.Ian. 2. 14*1 1 by the publication of an edict which gave directions in regard to the arrest of heretics. These were f,ir the most part the "new Christians. Jews who hail professcil conversion. The entire body of nobles was threatened with loss of title and estate if they neglect- ed the orders of the Inquisition. Numbers ol Jews were accused. F.iur days after Ihe first edict. II of the condcniiied were burncl. 17 in'ore in March, an.l by Nov. I 27.^j>ersons had been sacrificcl in the autos-da-f.- ol Seville. The .lead were accused and convicted, an.l their remains dug up and bnrn.-.I. Many of the convicts were .if high position. Wealth secme.l'nilher to invite than turn asi.le the stroke. The i.laguc called the Inqui-ilion t.i a.lj.uirn lo Aracena, but di.l not relax its energy. In that year (or. according to one inleri. relation of .Mariana (xxiv. 17). within several years) Ihe total iiumher burnc.I alive is computed at 20110. 'Many nior.' were burneil in effigy ; 17.000 were reconcile.I— that is. ha.l the capital sentence c.immuliMl I., iniprisonment for life, c.mfiscalion, anil other nenallics. The Jews fl.d in great numbers. Some bore their sorrow I.. Ihe iiontill himself. Sixlus IV. (1481) wrote lo Ferdinand rebuking the iiKiuisitors for their severity, an.l llircalene.l them with deprivati.m. Hut in 1 (8.T he quietcl the scruples of Isa- bella an, 1 encouraged Fcr.linau.l an.l her lo continue the 1214 INQUISITION. good work. In this samn year(I48:t) he appointccl Thomas dc Torqucmada. a Dominican prior, inqui.-'itor-general of Castile and Ara<2:on. This nmn was confessor of tlie queen, and had prepared her mind to shake off its womanly aver- sion to tile cNlirpalion of heresy by force. lie was now invested with full powers to give the coniplotest unity, method, and cfliciency to the Holy Office. The estimate of the number burnt aiivc — principally nominally Christian Jews — in the eighteen years of his ministry ranges from about '.mou to lli.dllO; between nOOO and TDUII werc^ burned in effigy. This was not the triflinc, the almost ludicrous tiling which the words suggest to the modern mind, but invoTvcd infamv to the dead, and to the living the loss of all that makes life dear. Nearly 100,0(10 were punished in other ways. Overawed by the grand inquisitor, the Span- ish sovereign signed the edict for the expulsion of the .lews (Mar. :iU, 1492). Fearing because he had in.ado himself to be so feared, guarding against poison at homo and against assassination when he went abroad, the "confessor of sov- ereigns" died in quiet at the age of seventy-eight (149S). (Pee Preseott's Fcnliii'ind mul hiibrUa, i. 25i-2G8, and Wctzer u. Wclte's A'. L.. v. (iil.) Diego de Dcga, a Do- minican friar, the friend of Columbus, archbishop of Seville, Ferdinand's confessor, and preceptor of his son John, suc- ceeded Torqucmada as gr.and inquisitor (1499). lie issued statutes or instructions for the regulation of the tribunals ( 1500-0 t). .-Vn insurrection excited by the extreme meas- ures of the inquisitors led to his removal (150(5). Under his administration 1004 were burned alive, 8:i2 in effigy, and :i2,450 punished in other ways. ( Herzog, Jlt-nl- Enci/kl. xviii. X.\2.) The third inquisitor-general was Cardinal Francis Xiinenes do Cisneros (1507-17). In those ten years Morciite (iv. 255. cd. 1818) computes that 2530 were burned alive. 1.3G8 in effigy, 47,20.'! were punished in other wavs; but in this estimate is included those who suffered in Aragon, whose Inquisition was not subject to Ximcnes. (Hcrzog, li. E.. vi. 687; Hefele's Xi'mnim, tr. by Calton, .'!'.I9.) 'riie Inquisition in Spain long maintained its orig- inal rigor. Philip II. (1555-98) used it with effect to the crusbing out of Protestantism. The style of procedure in the trials of the Spanish In- quisition was very thoroughly mcthoilizcd. It was the business of subordinate officials, called " familiars," to ar- rest the heretics and bring them to the place of judgment. The familiars were supposed to take the place of a godfather (padrino) to the accused. -\s the position had various prerogatives of an ecclesiastical and temporal nature, it was greatly sought for. The various tribunals which were es- tablished in the provinces and colonies were formed on the general model furnished in Madrid. They consisted of three inquisitors, three secretaries, an alguazil (constable), three receivers and assessors, together with the familiars and jailers. Every inquisitor was obliged to submit to the test of the fasct limpia (''pure family"): that is, w.as obliged to show that he sprang from an old and unsuspect- ed Christian ancestry, none of whom had ever been brought before the Inquisition. Ho was also sworn to secrecy. In its earlier history, as the " ancient " Inquisition, it had con- fined itself to charges of heresy or the suspicion of holding or conniving at it, of astrology, fortune-telling and witch- craft, of blasphemy, of offenctts against the Holy Office itself or its officials. In its Later form the civil power, with the concurrence of the popes, extended its jurisdiction over professed converts from the Jews. Mohammedans, and over unbelievers, in as far as any of these classes gave offence to the Holy Office. The immediate process in Spain was as follows:' The person suspected or indicted wa^ summoned three times (eilifialilur)—!. e. by a public judicial citation. If be failed to a|ipear, he was, under reservation of a yet severer punislimenf. excommunicated in cttutiimtiriam and fined. .Vn o])porlunity of escape was rarely allowed to those who were criminated. The familiars, the holy l/crmaiidfid (the government police fraternity), and the Fraternity of the Conciada followed pitilessly on the lr.acks of all who had been designated by the Inquisition. If the person criminated appeared, he was at once put under arrest. The suspicion of the crime was enough to cause his desertion by kindred and friends. They did not dare even to make their appearance with proof of his innocence, lest sympathy with his person should be construed as evidence of sympathy willi his heresy. After the prisoner had been rigorously examined, a list was made of his effects, especially of his books and papers, and his property was confiscated so far as was necessary to cover the preliminary investigation. To render recog- nition easy in case he should escape, his head was shaven. He was committed to a dark prison. If ho promptly con- fessed his guilt, real or alleged, he was as a penitent spared the penalty of death. But even in that case he and his entire kindred were ilishonored and declared incompetent to bear anv office of public trust. If be denied the charge, and the proofs were insufficient, ho was dismissed, but as a person suspected he remained under the surveillance of the familiars. The ordinary result of this was, that he was ar- rested a second time, and then began the lingering process of the Inquisition proper. This was conducted in general accordance with the prescriptions which are found in the DirccUii-ium Iiuiuinltorum of IS'ICOI.AIS EvMKRIC (which sec). If the prisoner refused to confess at the first hear- ing, he was remanded to prison, and after the lapse of several months was requirc<i to make oath before the cruci- fix that he would acknowledge the whole truth. If he re- fused to do this, he was condemned without any further eviilence. If he took the oath, leading questions were put to him well calculated to entangle him. The lcg.al coun- sellor was not to act in the interest of his client, nor see him in private, but was to urge him to the confession of the truth. The accused was not to know who were wit- nesses against him. Their testimony was received on their unsubstantiated word, and was laid before the ac- cused in such a fragmentary form as was necessary to keep him ignorant who his accusers were. Even in this shape it was frequently postponed for years. Any one was re- ceived as witness against him. Two hearsay witnesses counted as one eye-witness. The testimony of the informer himself was admitted. The domestics and the family of the accused were allowed to testify against hiu), but not in his favor. If, after all this, the attainted one stood firm in his refusal to confess, he was subjected to the three grades of torture— the cord, the water, and the fire — under the direc- tion of the inquisitors and the bishop of the diocese. If the wretched being was brought to confession, he was put to the torture a second time to ascertain his motives. A third time ho was tortured to lead him to betray those who were his accomplices and .sympathizers. 'When everything had been extorted from him he was left to his angui.sh without medical care. After these confessions he was regarded as a penitent, but a solemn abjuration was required of him. If it was his acts which had brought upon him an impu- tation of heresy, his abjuration was said to be de levi — '■ from a light suspicion." If after the testimony of two witnesses he had acknowledged himself guilty of Judaism or heresv. it was dc rchcmcnt! — of a grave or violent sus- picion. If he made his peace with the Church, including a promise voluntarily to subject himself to all the punish- ments which might yet be in reserve, it was in forma. Tho person convicted was generally condemned to imprisonment or to the galleys for life, his goods were confiscated, and his family stamped as infamous. Any one who both confessed and abjured was punished by being compelled for a fixed period to wear over a black undergarment the Knmbeiiito (the French form of the word is »<iii h(nil»), a slccvtlcss coat, with a red St. Andrew's cross (substituted by Ximenes (1514) for the ordinary cross) on its back and breast. Tho penitent {saiiibntii'ido] who attempted to lay off this coat before the time appointed was punished as impenitent. AVhcn the time of his penance was over the coat was hung up in the church, with his name and a statement of his of- fences attached to it. Relapse into his crime was punished with death. If the three grailes of torture failed to extort a confession, the accused was thrown into a more wretched prison. Of prisons there were three grades — public, inter- mediary, and secret. If even this produced no results, tho opposite policy was tried. Relatives and friends were per- mitted to see him : the hope was excited in his mind that a penitent confession might yet secure pardon or pity for him. If any one died under suspicion, or if suspicion was first excited after his death, the trial went on as if he were living. If forty years had passed between his decease and his conviction, his heirs retained his property, but were in- famous and incapable of bearing public office. If the re- mains of the suspected dead could bo found, they were burned: if not, the burning in efiigy was substituted. When the various formalities had been gone through the Aiito-da-Fk (which see) was held. The most appalling feature of this, and the most attractive to the thousands whom it brought together, was the burning to death of the eondeinncd. But the autos-da-fe were not exclusively scenes of death. In some there were no executions. Re- lief was brought to burdened hearts by the announcement of release or pen.ance, or of punishments short of death, and the tenderer passions, as well as the fiercer, drew crowds logelher. The autos-da-fe were a climax to the solemn autos of'thc religious drama. They were dramas of awful reali- ties, and seemed to the people an epitome and anticipation of the terrors and pardons of the Last Judgment. In the seventeenth, and vet more in the oighlecntli, century these •'acts of faith" became rarer. The material had been re- latively burned out. But. more than this, better convictions as to the true mode of dealing with error had become more general. The penalties were executed privately. The tri- bunal lost more and more of its most drea.lful characterislics, and finally came to fight with books rather than with men. INQUISITION. 1215 Charles Til. (17Jtf-8S) imposed legal restrictions on it. No final tentcoce could be passed without the concurrence of the kinf^, and no new regulations could bo established with- out his sanction. The ^riind inquisitor was relegated ( 17f>2) to a monastery for coudeniniug a book contrary to the wishes of the king. Count Aranda, minister of state, limited the powers of the Inquisition still further in 1770. Though Aranda was overthrown in 177.'t by the influeuec of the clergy, public opinion sustained the spirit in which he had acted toward the Inquisition. The pope himself or- dcrcl various restrictions of its powers. IJy an edict of Joseph IJonnpartc. is?uod from Madrid Dee. 4, ISOS, it was abrogated as prejudicial to the civil government. Krom the period of its introduction in its later form into Spain (14S1 ) to tho time of its abrogation f ISOS) it is estimated by Llorente that tho Inquisition had burned alive .■J1,912 of those whom it had tried, had burned in efiigy 17,G09, and had inflicted severe punishments of other kinds on 291.!."jri persons. These direct sufferings involved sorrow and calamity to millions. On tho return of Ferdinand VII. to tho thpme(lSM)ho restored tho Inquisition. In the rcvolutTon of \^20 one of the first objects of the pojiular fury was the Casa Santa, the palace of the Inf(uisition at Miulrid. Tho tribunal itself was again abolished by tho Cortes. The clerical or "apostolic" party considered tho restoration of the Inquisition a matter of vital necessity, and labored energetically to bring it about. In ]S2a a junta favorable to tho Inquisition came in, and in lS20thc InqnUition was re-cstablisbcd in Valeneia. After the deatJi of Ferdinand VII. tl.S:i:!),the law of July 15, 1S;J4, again abolished it, and by a royal edict of ISlJj its property was confi.'cated and devoted to tho payment of tho jiublic debt. In the now constitution of 1855 tho Roman Catholic re- ligion i.-i cstablislied by law, private freedom of faith is protected from jiorsecution, but liberty of worship is not granted. In .*pite of this, in i8o7 very active proceedings wore ontured into against all persons and books suspected of tho taint of Protestantism. By the new constitution of 18u9 tho nation binds itself to sustain in good faith the Roman Catholic wormhip and the Roman Catholic clergy. Foreigners nf other eonfessicms resident in Spain arc tole- rated in both the private and public rights of religion, lim- ited only by tho general rules of morality and law. Span- iards who fttrsakc the Roman Catholic faitfi arc tolerated under the pamo general provision. 2. The Xcthrrlfinfin. — From Spain, where the Inquisition had been so efficient an instrument of tho slate. Clmrles V. flJlO-jft) and Philip IT. (IjjG-'J.'I) endeavored to transfer it to the Netherlands, to be used against the Reformation. "The number of Netherlanders burned, strangled, behead- ed, or buried alive in obedience to tho edict of Charles V. . , . has been placed as high as 100,1)00 by distinguished autliorities. and has never been put at a lower mark than 50,000. Charlt'S was no fanatic. It was political rather than religious heterodoxy which the despot wishecl to sup- press." (Motley, Itinf of the lintck firpithlic, i. 114.) The result of the policy of which the Inquisition was a jire- cminent part was tho revolt of the Xcfhcrlands. After an eighty years' war. in tho course of which millions of lives wore sacrificed, the country almost depopulated by the sav- agery of .\Iva, the remnant of tho pcuple condemned to death in a mass by the Inquisition, tho institution of horror was rooted from the land, ami the lanil itself lost for over to Spain. The .Tew lives. Protestantism lives, free govern- ment live^.but tho system centring tn tho Spanish Inquisi- tion, robbing of life all to which it clung, lies, a withered parasite, on the tree it exhausted. (Sco Prescott, PhSlip If. (I8jj), and his edition of Robertson's C/iftrfcH ]'.; Rrandl, I/itt. of Itcfitrmntiun in lloUand ( IG7I) ; Motley, Llorente, Puighlanch.) .3. Anirririi, — Soon after tho discovery of America the Spaniards Introduced tho Inquisiti(»n into it. Mexico, Carthagena, and Lima were the principal scuts of its juris- diction. (See Prescolt's Mvxicn a.v\{\ l\ru.) A. /*oriiit/fif. — The Intjuisition was intr'>duccd into Por- tugal under Spanish domination (loi>7) after a protracted resistance. Its supremo court was in Lisbon. The grand inquisitor was nominated by tho king and confirmed by tho pope. .John IV. nf Uragnnza. after the liberation of his country fnun tho Spanish "sixty years' captivity " (IfilO), was anxiou:* to abolish the Inquisition, and withdrew from it tho right of confiscation. John himself was put, after his death ( l(i.'>0), under (ho ban, and not for Rome time was a sol- emn abs'dution pronounced over his body. The Portuguese Inquisition exhibited special severity in Iho Kawt IniiicH; Ooa was its centre. Pombal (1750-«2) repressed or used tho Inquisition as might best promote bis political reforms. Neverlhfloss. by his influence tho Inquisition was obliged to state the charge and give the names of the witnesses to the accused, who was entitled to (he choice of a lawyer as his advocate, and had the right of conferring with him. No gentcncG could be executed until it was confirmed by the royal council. John VI. (17y2-iy20) abolished the In- quisition both at hume and in the colonics. Dun Miguel (1828-.'J4) showed a strong di.^position to restore it, but was not able to do so. The WDrld over, the Inquisition, in both its forms, has fallen. U'hatcvcr may be tho difierence in their details, the historical conditions of its life in both forms arc substantially the ^ainc. IX. Defences of the. Inquinition. — Paramo, in his work on ihz Sacr eft liKfuiaidon { 1 .')!)8), treats of its "dignity and util- ity," and in 1 JlMJ he published an answer to the objections made against it. But tho best defences of the Inquisition belong for the most part to the period of ii.s decline and extinction. The two best known arc from the hands of Count do Maislre and of Mefcle. So far as these defences rest upon the cxjtosure of the confusion in clasfilication and mi.stakes in facts fairly chargeable upon writers on the In- quisition, they will be found accepted and embodied in this article. Baudri has very compactly and forcibly presented the argument for his Church in these words: *• There are three points which wo arc carefully to hold in view : I. As a distinctly spiritual institution for (he preservation of purity of faith and sound discijdinc (he Inrjuisilion needs no vin-. dication. In this aspect it is wholly correspondent with the plan and spirit of Christ. II. When it has been united with tho civil power, or has been shaped into a state In- quisition, as in Spain, it was the State, not tho Church, which sought the conjunction. III. As to the abuses and abominations of the Inquisition, the reply to be made is, first, (bat these have sometimes been overstated ; further, that what are called the victims of the Inquisition were either common criminals, who would have been punished in accordiince with the laws and spirit of the time bad there been no Inquisition, or if they were licretics they were ?unisbed by civil law as ofi'cndcrs against the public weal." n All pern'. Kireh. lexik., v. Ascbbach (iii. 4S0, 1850), Ilefele has argued on the same general basis, and with great circumstantialitv of detail in Cnrdiunl Xiineuen (Tiib., 184!: 2d ed. 18.M. pp. 207-370: Eng. transl. by Dalton, ISGO, 270-400) and in his article "Inquisition" in Wetzer and Welte's Kirrhin- Lex ikon (l-SjO). The main points made by him. and the spirit in which they are received by intelligent Protestants, are well presented by Ilerzog : " Ilofelc has made (be effort to put (he Spanish Inquisition in its true light. He has done this partly by showing that its character was rather political than ecclesiastical, partly by exposing unjust crimination of it, an<l ]iarlly by correct- ing mistaken allegations as tt) its ])roccdures. Such an effort deserves," in general, a thorough acknowUdgmcnt and praise. It is not fair to paint the Spanish Inquisition blacker than it really was. In its very nature, withont a single tonch of the pencil, its hues arc sunibre enough. It is especially necessary to bring into relief the influence exer- cised n])on the Sjianish Inquisition by the royal authority, and, wc might aild, iiy the national character. Ilefele begins by carefully showing that the Inquisition was at once the creature and the organ of the royal absolutism. It is unde- niable that, at the beginning especially, it was this in a liigher flegrcc than it was an ecclesiastical institution. (The conference between the king and the grand inquisitor in Schiller's Vint Cuilott rests, (lierefore, upon a mistaken impression as to their mutual I'clations.) On this ground Ilefele relieves tho Thurch of all the odious and fciirlul as- sociations which cling to the name of the Inquisition. I(e then points out carefully h(tw often nml liow strongly, though usually without result, the po[ies endeavored to put a check u])on the cruel and initniKous nets of the Inqui- sition. There has been, in fact, no other institution of tho Catholic Church on which the papal censures have been so earnestly and repeatedly directed. No fact could more strikingly illustrate the spirit of the Spanish Inquisition, aufl show tho pertinacious severity of its procedure; for it will hardly be nmintained by Ciitholics themselves that the tendency of the popes has been toward undue leniency to- ward those who refused obedience to tho Church. Hcfcle goes on to correct the excessive estimates of the number of the victims of (he Inquisition. He corrects the chief mistake which Llorenle made on this point when ho stated that Torquemada alone, in the first year of his administra- tion at Seville, burned to deii'tli 2000 persons, while accord- ing to Mariana these 2000 nre to be divided among all the years of his rule and the whole body of inquisitorial tri- bunals uiuier him. The words of Mariana quote«l by Ilefelo do not, however, necessarily bear the sense he puts on them : A Toniiienntiln nirninrmif tluo miUiticrfmntnn »"*/»*-. etc. ( Ma- riana, xxiv. 1 7.) Ilcfclo further directs attention to thr fact that tho proccfUiro of tho Inquisition, in fact its entire nietho<), was no worse, and indeed was in nmny respects far milder, than that of the criminal law of tho era. whoso severity and inhumanity iire bevnud dispute. True as tliis is in general, yet wc must be careful not too readily to infer 1216 IN REM. that the course of procedure was always in keeping with special mitigations. It is in this as in other parts of the same system, which in the written account wear a less re- pulsive air, hut in whirh the contrast is great between theory uml practice. The nit-thud. for exampU\ by which the rule that forhaclc mon- th:in one applieutitin of the Inr- ture wa!" evaded, shows of iiow illtle value were those miti- gations on which Ilefele relies. The wretch who had been almost tortured to death was allowed to rest for a couple of days until he was sufficiently recovered to endure new tnrtures. This was styled tlie interruption and resump- tion of the one torture. But why need we argue? Sad as is the theme, yet it is hard to avoid a smile when Ht'fi'lc treats as if it were made in serious earnest the official request of the inquisitors, when they gave over the condemned to the civil power, that their lives should be spared, and puts it exclusively to the account of the secular ]>ower that this petition sank to an empty formality. It seems that even in Germany there is a man who could persuade ns that in those days the maxim was held in good faith, Errlrnia nhhiirri't <t mniffninc / — ' The Church shrinks from bloodshed.' Hefele further adopts the opinion of Joseph le Maistre that the Inquisition was not detrimental to the intellectual life of S|>ain — an opinion with which Huber, a Protestant author, has recently concurred. The clumsy manner in which the opposite view has often been maintained gave some color to this opinion. The com- mission of the Cortes which (1812) introduced the motion to abolish the Inquisition, for example, says. 'From the moment the Inquisition appeared authors vanished.* There is no disputing that precisely at the time- at which the In- quisition entered on its work, there began in Spain an ac- tive intellectual life, and that even poetry bloomed in new beauty. Hefele of coarse does not go to the extreme of re- garding this as the work of the Inquisition, but he claims that it proves that the Inquisition did not have the repres- sive effect charged on it. But in the nature of the case it was involved that the fruits of the Inquisition could only ripen at a later period. Is it necessary to say what these fruits are? What has Spain been for the last two centu- ries ? In answering this question we must indeed he care- ful not to charge all the misery of Spain on the Inquisi- tion. Nevertheless, so much stands fast that the ecclesias- tical and political absolutism by which Spain has been sunk so low has been bound up with the working of the Inqui- sition. But Hefele goes on, and it is impossible to avoid a feeling of profound astonishment when we read that the Inquisition so far wrought beneficently when, as with an inspired vocation, it saved Spain from innumerable errors and heresies, and fmm the horrors of the religions wars oc- casioned by the Reformation. Ilefele does not indeed put forth these views directly. He urges them not in his own name, but under the authority of the most cultivated, the noblest intellects among the authors of Spain. It is clear, however, that he is not ready unreservedly to contradict them, and though he doi-s not entirely adopt them, yet there is an unmistakalilo effort on his part to commend them as judgments which carry with them great weight. Thut a (ierman Roman Catholic, who should be familiar, alike from history antl personal observation, with the hap- py inlluence which Protestantism has exercised on Roman Catholicism itself, should envy Spain the repose of the grave, once deep, but now long broken, proves most clearly that the old spirit of Rouian Catholicism is not extinct. This, inch-ed. is made manifest by many other signs of the times. Mefele also reviews the work of Llorentc. That this book is fairly open to many sorts of censure is demon- strated, and yet it may be said that Hefele involuntarily becomes its apologist, for every fact which he adduces to set the Inquisition in a fairer light is drawn from Llorentc himself. This shows very clearly that hlorente's work was not written purely for the making out of a case." (lical- Eiiriikhipadie f. protest Thcolof/ic tt. Kirche, 1856, vi. 690- fH»2.') X. JiihUogrnphtf and litrrotiirr, — The bibliography, di- rect and collateral, of the Inquisition is large. Lists of the most important works will be found in Lipenius. liibf. Theuin,,., 1685, ii. 100: ib., iiibl. Fhih.M.. 1081, i. r^'^•, ib., lillf. .fund., iri79. 2.11: Walch. lUhf. Thcnf. StL. I75K-62. ii. lilt; iii. T.'t" ; Xnsselt, yl/urci'* zn. K. fiUcher, 1800,8, .'50 : Fuhrmann, Iluudirihicrhiich Reluj. h. Kirrhvtuje- srhiehtc, 1828, ii. 458: Winer, Handbuch Theofoff. Lttrrat., 18.38, i. 096; Urasse, Lrhrb. d, Litnilnfeschich'te, 1840, ii. I, 3; Danz. Unirmi. WUrterburh, 1848, 451 ; Clericus, liihlir. StHdrnt'ii AnniHtnnt, Ediub.. 1844. 48; PooIc. Iiulcj- to Ptriod. Lit., 185H, 240, 457; Denis, Pinion, Martonno, Nouv. Man. dc liibliotjr. Vn\ver*eUr, 1857, ii. .39; Pierer, Unir. Ltxik.y 1859, viii. 928; Pfirenn^s. Dirtinnnaire d. Bib/iftfjinphif^ Cnthnh'f/ur. 1859. iji. 545, 671 : Branct, ^fa- huei dii Libraire, 1865, vi. 1164; Malcom, Throlotjiml In- dex, 1868, 241 : Kurtz. Lrhrinuh d. K'irchfii'jrttrh., 1874. i. 374, 399. Among the most important works may be men- tioned : (1) those which are documentary, embracing rules. methods of procedure, and instructions. Qiii^fitioueM ( Fifteen Questions for the Inquisition ) prepared by Cardinal Falcodi, afterwards Clement IV. ( 1265-68). edited with the annota- tions of Carrera, an<l his treatise of the mode of procedure in the Holy Office (1641), with the Pntxin infjuiMitorum of Pegna, and additions by Carrera (1669). Clement V. (1305-14) presented to the council at Vienne (1311-12) special instructions for the inquisitors. These form a ])art of the Cl'-mriitinet, v. iii. 1, 2. 3 i t'ot-fiuH JuriM, Colon, ftlun. 1730). Eymeric, forforty-four years inquisitor-general of Aragon (d. 1399), wrote the Ifirtrtnyimu InquiMitornm. The first part gives the ancient Church laws and decretals ; the second part, the papal laws concerning heretics and inqui- sitors; the tiiird part details the methods to be observed by the inquisitors: first published 1503. with commentary of Pegna, 1578. Simanca, Praxin hiFrenfon, Venet., 1568- 73: ib. De CathoUcin fuMtitiitlonibus, 1575; Reuss, .Vnwm- liit}</ {CoffrctinH of fuHtrnctiiinn from the SpaiiiMh, colferted bif order of (\irdiiiaf Mnnrttjue), %vith a sketch by Spittler, 1*788. 2. Histories: Xiffrhnot, 1582; Paramo. 1598; Mar.'ol- lier, 1013: Limhoreh (best of the old worksl. 1692. Me- moires: 1716, Baker, TifTensee, Baumgarten. 1741 ; Cramer, 1784; liai'sonu. Erz'dbh. 1784; Caused Celebren ftntnrjPreK, 1827; Rule's Hifitori/ of the Inquisition from its Entahligh- ment in the Tirelfih Centnri/ to ita Extinetion in tkf Aine- teenth, 1874. The French Inquisition. De la JMothe-Largon, 1829; the Venetian Inquisition. Paul (Sarpi), 1638; the Spanish Inquisition. Oonsalvi, 1567; Arnold, 1609; Ursi- nus. 1611 : Bebel. 1692; luqniiition in Spnnien it. Achtfu- stiirken, Leipsic. 1810: Puigblanch, Inqniaition VumnKked, tr. by Walton, 1816: Lloreute, 1815. 1818. 1820 ; De Mais- tre, Lettrrit snr V hiffuis, Enparjuole, 1822; Hefele, AV»*ifne«, 2d ed. 1851 ; transl. by Dalton, 1860. The Portuguese In- quisition, Herculano,* 1858; at Go'a, Dellon, 1668. The histories of the heretics, councils, martyrs, the papacy, the religious orders, are of importance here. The best general church histories arc also useful. Among those of the most importance on the history of the Inquisition are Bzovius, Spondanus, Raynaldus. and Fleury among the Roman Catholic writers, and Mosheim and Sehriickh among Prot- estant church historians. Some of the monographs on special eras and ]>artieular nations are also important : Brandt's Netherlaudm, Milman's Latin Christianity, Mac- Crie's Spain and Itafi/, Ranke's Popes, the works of Pres- cott and Jlotley. Prescott's statements in regard to the In((uisition have been reviewed by Archbishop Spalding, Miitrcllanea, 1866. A thorough history of the Inquisition is greatly needed. Mr. H. C. Lea, of Philadelphia, is en- gaged upon such a work, which will doubtless prove worthy nf the distinguished reputation he has won by his other monographs on ecclesiastical history. C. P. KitArxH. In Rem [Lat., ''against the thing"], a technical legal term used to designate an action or proceeding directly in- stituted against the thing or property the title to which is in question, or upon which some lien or claim is made, or to denote the judgment or decree which is the result of such an action or jiroceeding. It is also applied to decis- ions directly determining the legal stntun of a party before the court with reference to marriage, divorce, bastardy, settlement, and other similar personal relations. Actions against the person, which are the ordinary forms of suit in courts of general jurisdiction, are termed, by way of con- tradistinction, proceedings in firrsouam. Suits in rem fre- quently occur in courts of n<lmiralty an«l in proceedings under revenue laws. Of this nature are proceedings for the enforcement of maritime liens against a vessel or cargo, for the recovery of salvage, for the condemnation and for- feiture of property on account of a violation of the revenue laws, or as prize in time of war. and, in general, all actions in admiralty whereaclaim is madedirectly against specific property. The title which such an admiralty cause receives indicates that the action is in rem, since the properly is represented as if it were made defendant in the jiroceeding, as, e. fj., *' The V. S. vx. The Ship Osjtrey." The jiroccedings to enforce the judgment or decree of the court in such cases are confined to the property which is made the subject of the claim in the aoti<in. On the contrary, in suits in per- sonam the judgment of the court is carrierl into effect by the levy of an execution, and all the property of the de- fendant, with the exception of a few classes of articles ex- empted by statute, may. if necessary, be sold to satisfy the judgment. A judgment or decree in rtm, whether the suit be against specific jiropcrty or with reference to personal sttttHs, is, in general, binding and conclusive, not only upon the parties in the cause, hut upon all persons. It will, sub- ject to some exceptions, be deemed valid and binding in foreign countries if the court by which it was rendered ha'l jurisdiction of the proceeding. The judgment may, how- ever, be invalidated unless it were obtained honfi fidp and INSANITY. 1217 without fraudulent means, and unless the suit was con- ducted with an observance of the regular and requisite forms. Whiitcvcr di.'sposi'.ion, therefore, a court having jurisdiction makes of property by a judgment in rem, or whatever determination it makes in regard to ntntut, set- tles the question generally as to all the world. This ob- ligatory force of judgments in rem is based chiefly upon considerations of public policy, since it ia desirable that Iho title to propcrlv which has been the subject of litigation should not be left doubtful, ami also that the personal re- lations of every member of the community .should be defin- itively settled. (Sen . I iDOinNT.) This doctrine also rests partly upon the ground that in most cases in which judg- ments of this kind can be rendered all persons who have any interest in the subject in controversy may appear and assert their rights. Gkokge Chase. Revised bv T. W. Dwight. Insan'ity' [Lat. intanilng, "unsoundness "] is a mani- festation of disease of the brain, characterized by a gen- eral or ]iartial derangement of one or more faculties of the mind, and in which, while consciousness is not abolished, mental freedom is perverted, weakened, or destroyed. An essential feature of the definition here given is, that insaii- ity depends upon a diseased condition of the brain. It is therefore only a symptom, like paralysis, coma, or any other phenomenon of cerebral disorder; but as wc cannot in the present state of our knowledge alBrm with any degree of accuracy what part of the brain is affected in any given case of insanity, or even say how it is disordered, wc arc ob- liged to take the manifestation for the disease. It is not many years ago that cough was regarded as a disease, and \ bv niany paralvsis still is. In reality, these arc symptoms referable to disease of some part of the respiratory or ner- vous apparatus, and are not diseases in themselves. But it is questioned by some even at the present time whether in.sanity may not exist and the brain be in a perfectly healthy condition. The relation of mental aberration to cerebral derangement certainly cannot be invariable, unless the normal mind is directly dependent upon a normal stato of the brain. If. however, it can be shown that the mind comes from the brain, or. what amounts to the same thing in physiology, is manifested through the brain, it follows lo"ic!illv, as well as pathologically, that ins.anity is the re- stiit of "cerebral disorder. The proofs of this relation arc the following: . ,- . (1) The action of on organ, even within the limits of health, frequently gives rise to sensations of various kinds, and slight functional derangements are very distinctly felt. Thus, the pain of indigestion is referred to the stomach or howcis, as the case maybe; difficulties with the urinary excretion are accompanied by uneasiness in the kidneys; derangements in the secretion of the bile are often only in- dicated by pain in the liver; loud noises produce unpleas- ant feelings in the ears, and excessive or improper use of the eyes causes pain in these organs. So it is with the brain. Though ordinarily we are not conscious of any particular sensation when we use it in thinking (and the same is true, mulnliM mulaniliii, of the other organs men- tioned), yet inordinate mental exertion gives rise to head- ache, vertigo, and other derangements of sensibility rcfcra- bio to Iho brain. In some persons even slight mental ac- tion invariably iiroduccs pain in the head, and it is well known that the brain becomes diseascil when it is unduly taxed, just as d'lcs the stomach, the eye, or a muscle. (2) injury or disease of the brain impairs in some way or other the powers of the mind. A blow on tlio head causes confusion of ideas, and if hard enough may destroy consciousness or the power of thought altogether. A piece of hone or a bullet pressing on the brain likewise destroys the ability to think ; and though examples are not wanting of terrible wounds of tho brain in which there is for a time no well-marked impairment of the mind, careful ex- amination will reveal Ibe existence of deterioration from tho first, and eventually tho patients die with head-symp- toms. The various diseases of tho brain likewise produce at some time or other of their course derangement in tho evolution of mind, and insanity is generally shown after death to have been accompanied by structural changes in tho brain, (3) Tho notion of the brain, like tho functionation of •The writer of this vorv at)lc article has einploycil the lan- cuaKC commonly used liv ilie wboi.l of pby»iol<.i;isls who hold the doctrine of the correlation of nirntal and physical foreen. To those who, like the editors of Ibis wiirk, do not cntcrlnin that vlnw the interest of the article will not be Impaired by tills circumstance; while those to whom the doctrine Is ncccplablo will esteem il on this account as more strictly in harmony with Ibe actual slate of advanced physloloRical science. It is to be observed that the writer, and many others who regard the mind as a funeticu of the brain, disclaim the Inipulatlon of materbilisin east upon them bv some ; and Ibis diselainier should beconsiderol in judginj; ufthelrmodes of speaking— l-DS. JOHN- SOS'S t'vi i.or.KruA. Vol,. II.— 77 other organs, results in tho disintegration of its substance, and this destruction of tissue is in direct proportion to Hie amount of mental work done. We find, therefore, that tho alkaline phosphates, which arc mainly derived from the destructive metamorphosis of ihe nervous tissue, and which arc excreted by the kidneys, are increased in quantity after severe intellectual labor, and are diminished by mental quietude. In a memoir published several years ago I gave the results of experiments performed upon myself, which show very conclusively that increased use of the brain causes increased decay of its substance. (4) The si/e of the brain is well known to have a direct relation to the intelligence of the individual; and when all other conditions are alike it may be said that the largest brain will produce tho greatest amount of mental energy. Quality is, however, an important factor, and when witn great size there is also a large amount of gray matter, tho intellectual capacity is at its maximum. Thus, Dr. Thur- nani has shown tliat the average weight of tho brain in Europeans is 411 ounces, while in ten men rcraarkaldc for their intellectual development it was 64.7 ounces. Of these, the brain of Cuvier, the celebrated naturalist, weighed C4.5 ounces. Spurzheim's 5J.00. and Daniel Webster's 53.5. On the other hand, the brain is small in idiots. Of three idiots whose ages were sixteen, forty, and fifty years respectively, Tiedemann found the weight of their brains to bo 19J, 2Jj, and 22* ounces. Mr. Gore has reported the case of a wo- man forty-two years of age whose intellect was infantine, who couid scarcely speak a few words, whoso gait was un- steady, and whose chief occupation was carrying and nurs- ing a' doll. After death her brain was found lo weigh but 10 ounces and 5 grains. Mr. Mar.shall has also reported a case of microcephaly in the person of a boy twelve years old whose brain weighed but S< ounces. The convolutions were stronglv marked, though narrow and few in number. (5) Exjieriments performed upon the nerves and nerve- centres show that from the brain proceeds the force by which muscles arc mrivcil. and tliat it is the organ by which sensations are perceived. Thus, division of a nerve sup- plying a certain muscle cuts off the connection between tho brain and thai muscle, and hence the will can no longer cause it to contract. Division of the optic nerve prevents the perception of visional images, and so likewise for the other nerves of special sense. From all of which considerations the connection between the brain and the mind is as clearly made out as any other fact in jihvsiology. The miii'l differs from forces in gen- eral in being compoun<l — that is, in being niado up of several other forces. These arc perception, the intellcel, the emotions, and Ihe will. All the mental manifestations of which Ihe brain is capable are embraced in one or inoro of these parts. Either one of them may bo exercised in- dependently of the other, though they are very intimately connected, and in all continuous mental jiroccsscs are brought more or less into relative and consecutive action. As constituting the basis of the classification of the several forms of insanitv to be considered in this article, it is ex- pedient to describe briefly these four sub-forces of tho 1. I'crrepli'in.— 'By perception is to bo understood that part of Iho mind whoso oflico it is to place the individual in relation with external objecls. For Ihccvolulion of this force the mind is in iutimale relation with certain special organs which servo the purpose of receiving impressions of objects. Thus, an image is formed upon the retina, anil the optic nerve transmits the excitation lo its ganglion or part of Ihe brain. This at once functionates, tho force called perception is tvolved, and the image is perceived. If the retina bo sufiicienlly diseased the image i» not formed ; if the opiic nerve be in an abnormal condiliim, Iho excita- tion is not transmitted ; if the ganglion be disordered, the pereeptivo force is rot evolved. I-iko reasoning is appli- cable to the other senses, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. Perception may bo exercised without any su|ierior intelleo- tuul act— without anv ideation whatever. Thus, if Iho cerebrum of a pigeon be removed, the animal is still cajiablo of seeing and of hearing, but it obtains no idea from these senses. Tho mind, with tho exception of perception, is lost. ,. , 1 ■ 2. Tlic Inlrllret.—Xn the normal condition of the lirain tho excitation of a sense and tho consequent perception do not stop at the special ganglion of llint sense, but are transmitted to a inoro complex pari of Iho brain, where tho perception is resolved into an idea. Thus, the imago impressed upon tho retina, Ihe perception of which has been formed bv a sensory ganglion, ullimalely causes tho evolution of another force, by which all its nllribulcs ca- pable of being represented upon Ihe retina are more or less perfectlv appreciated accoriling to tho slruclural qualities of tho ideational centre. To the formation of tho idea several important faculties and modes of expression of the 1218 INSANITY. intellect contribute. Tlius, if we suppose the retina to have received the image of a ball, a higher ganglion converts this into a perception, and a still higher one into an idea; and this idea relates to the size, the form, the color, the material, etc. primarily, and to the origin, uses, ownership, etc. secondarilv. In gaining this conception of the thing impressed upon the retina, the memory, judgment, and other faculties of the intellect are brought into action, and the process of reasoning is carried on. 3. The. Emntiom. — .\n idea in its turn excites another part of the brain to action, and an emotion is produced, or this last-named force may be evolveil under certain circum- stances witliout the intermediation of the idea, but solely from tlie transmission of a perception to the emotional ganglion. An emotion is that pleasurable or painful feel- ing which arises in us in consequence of sensorial impres- siims or intellectual action. .According to Bain, the word ^million is used to comprehend all that is understood by feelings, states of feeling, pleasure, pain, passion, senti- ments, affection, etc. Within the limits of health the emo- tions act powerfully on certain organs of the body, and thus express their liwn activity. Thus, grief is exhil)ited bv the flow of tears from the over-excitation of the l.achry- ninl gland; extreme joy may also cause weeping: the jaw falls and the angles of the mouth curl downward in morti- fication or sorrow, while in pleasure the face expands late- rally. The eyes, the nose, and the mouth are the three facial centres from which emotional expression is mainly produced. Other organs of the body, as the salivary glands, the heart, the mammary gliinds, the liver, the kid- neys, and in fact nearly every viscus of the body, may exhibit the effects of emotion by the transmission of exci- tations through the sympathetic nerve. Most of the result- ing effects are due to the fact that the sympathetic nerve especially presides over the vaso-motor system, and thus regulates the calibre of the blood-vessels. 4. Thf Will. — By volition acts are performed. Some acts are automatic, but all done in consequence of intellec- tion are the result of willing, and are for some specific pur- pose connected with an idea. Volition in the scries of mental manifestations may precede emotion, but it always follows perception and ideation. To sum up these outlines : a person walking in the street sees a man on the opposite side of the way — jicrceptiou; he recognizes him as a friend whom he has not met for many years — liilelkri; he determines to go across and speak to him — will; he does so, and exhibits joy at the rcuuion^ ciiKiluiii. Or, to alter the sequence somewhat, a person at a theatre sees and hears an actor on the stage — pc-eeptioii; the attitudes, gestures, .and words of the player call up cer- tain ideas— Intellect; he is moved to great joy or grief — emotion; and determining to recognize the aliility of the actor — wilt — claps his hands or throws him a bouquet. In individuals whose brains are well formed, free from structural changes, and .are nourished with a duo supply, neither excessive nor deficient, of healthy blood, the per- ception, the intellect, the emotions, ami the will are mani- fested in a manner common to mankind in general. Slight changes in the formation or nutrition of the brain induce corresponding changes in the several parts of the mind or in it as a whole. As no two brains are precisely alike, so no two persons are exactly alike in their mental processes. So long, however, as the deviations are not directly at variance with the average human mind, the individual is sane ; if they are at variance, ho is insane. But within the limits of mental health marked irregularities are met with in different parts of the mind. Thus, some persons are noted for never perceiving things as the majority of people perceive them; others have the emotional system inordi- nately or deficiently developed; others are weak in judg- ment, defective in memory, feeble in powers of application or vacillating in their opinions; others, again, are lacking in volitional power — in the ability to perform cert;iin acts, to refrain from others, or to follow a definite course of ac- tion which the intellect tells them is expedient or wise. Persons whose minds deviate in some one or more notable respects from the ordinary standard, but yet whose mental processes are not directly at variance with that standard, are said to be eccentric. It is not always easy to draw the line between strong eccentricity and n\ild insanity. About the former, however, there is this marked chnracteristic — that its manifestations are according to a fixed system, are not founiied on delusions, and are generally excited by those emotions or desires which are reficcted ba^'k to the individ- ual, such as pride, vanity, the love of ai>|irol)alion or of notoriety, etc. Eccentric persons stand upon the verge of insanity, with a decided ]>redisposition to mental disease, and ordinarily if they do not pass the limit it is for want t)f a sufficient exciting cause. Instances of eccentricity I'lssing into positive insanity arc common enough, and in- 'iuirv will frequcu'ty disclose the fact that the insane have been eccentric for several years before becoming affected with cerebral disease to such an extent as to produce de- cided mental aberration. Many classifications have been made of the various phe- nomena met with in insanity. Obviously, the only proper arrangement would be one based on the actual brain-lesions, but in the present state of our knowledge it is impossible to make such a one. We cannot say, for instance, that when an individual hiis a delusion, such or such a part of his brain is nflectcd, nor that when he is melancholio another part is involved. We arc obliged, therefore, either to arrange the symptoms into groups without any philo- sophical basis, orto classify them according to the relation which they bear to the several parts of the mind. Follow- ing this latter jdan, we have — I. l\rrr],iioniil intnnlty, cha- racterized by the tendency to the formation of erroneous perceptions, cither from false impressions of real objects (illusions), or from no external excitation whatever (hallu- cinations). II. Intellecliiol iimnnil;/, char,actcrized by the existence of delusions. III. Euiotionnl insuniii/, charac- terized by the uncontrolled or imperfectly controlled pre- dominance of one or more of the emotions. IV. VoUlionnl innnnlty, in which there is an inability to exert the full will-po"wer. either affirmatively or negatively. V. .V<i)ii'i, characterized by the union of two or more of these forms in the same individual. VI. General pnnitijHis, a peculiar form of insanity attended with progressively advancing loss of mental and motor power. VII. Idiocy and de- meniin, the first due to the fact that there are original structural defects in the brain; the second resulting from the supervention of organic changes in a brain originally of normal power. Before proceeding to describe these several types, it is necessary to touch upon certain important symptoms of mental disorder, the character and import of which must be clearly understood. These are illusion, hallucination, delusion, incoherence, and delirium. Illusion. — .\n illusion is a false perception of a real sen- sori;vl impression. Thus, a person seeing a ball roll over the floor, and imagining it to be a mouse, has an illusion of the sense of sight; another, hearing the pattering of the rain on the roof, and perceiving in this sound the voice of some one calling him, has an illusion of the sense of hearing; another, having some bitter substance placed upon his tongue, and forming the perception of a sweet flavor, has an illusion of the sense of taste; and so on as regards the other senses. In all such eases there is a ma- terial basis for the perception, but this latter is not in exact relation with the former. Illusions arc not always indica- tive of cerebral disorder: indeed, they are very common with all of us under certain circumstances. It is, |)crhap?, never the case that the perception is precisely in accord- ance with the real projierties of the substance making the sensorial impression. We never see, hear, taste, smell, or feel things exactly as they are. This imperfection may be due to surrounding circumstances not being favorable. Insuflicicnt light may thus make our vision imperfect ; loud noises may render us incapable of appreciating gentle sounds : a strongly sa]iid substance previously rubbed over the tongue and faiiecs prevents our distinguishing delicate flavors; a powerful odor may make such an impression on the Schneiderian membr.ane that other odors for a long time smell like it; and exposure to very cold weather interferes markedlv with the discriminating |iowcr of the sense of touch, "imperfect perceptions are often formed in conse- quence of the perceptive ganglia being otherwise occupied. Thus, if we arc looking intently at some object of interest, we arc apt not to attend to the sounds which reach our ears, and consequently no clear perception of them is formed. Illusions of all tlie senses, but especially of sight and hear- ing, are met with in insanity, and particularly in those acuteforms characterized by the presence of delirium. Hnllncinntiiin.—A hallucination is a false perception without any material basis, and is centric in its origin. It is more, therefore, than an erroneous interpretation of a real object, for it is entirely forme. 1 by the mind. An individual who on looking at a blank wall perceives it to he covered with pictures has a hallucination ; another who when no sound reaches his ears hears voices whisper- ing to him also suffers from a hiillueinalion ; and such fafse perceptions may be created as regards all kinds of ! sensorial excitations. The organs of the senses, in f.ict, arc not necessarv to the existence of hallucinations. T'""'' '' the eyes be closed, images mav still be seen : if the hearing be lost, voices mav still be heard; and the reason for this is found in the fact that the erroneous perception consli- tuiiiig the hallucination is formed in that part of the braiii which ordinarilv requires the excitation of a sensorial im- pression for its'funetionation. Hallucinations arc always I evidence of cerebral derangement, and are common phe- . nomena of insanity. They may be exc;t-:d by emotions of INSANITY. 1219 various kinds, by which the chnroctcr or quantity of the blood circulatin<; in the braiu is changed, by intellectual exertion, by cerliiiu drugs, and many other factors to bo presently more fully considered. DofiiMioii. — Illusions and balluciuations may exist, and the individual be perfeelly sensible that they arc not reali- ties. In such ca^:es the intellect is not involved. IjuI if he accepts his false perceptions as facts, his intellei-t partici- pates, and he has delusions. A delusion is. therefore, a faL-^c belief. It may be based upon an illusion or a baU lucination, may result from false reasoning in regard to real oecurroDccs, or be evolved out of the intellect spon- taneously by the result of imperfect infurniation or of- an inability to weigh evidence or to discriminate between the true and the false. Delusions arc not a lost for insan- ity, as most lawyers and many physicians believe. If thoy were, one-half the world would bo trying to put the other half in luualie a^vlums. They may be present without co- existent insanity, and many c:ises run their course without them. To be indicative of insanity a delusion must be in regard to a matter of fact, and contrary to the custom- ary moilo of thought of the individual. Thus, a believer in Spiritualism is not necessarily insane because he sees and converses with the spirit of Benjamin Franklin, for bis delusion is one not capable of proof or disproof, and it is a part of his mentality to believe in the existouco of spirits :iiid In the possibility of evoking them so as to see tln-m and talk with them. But, if a non-he!i(*ver in Ppirit- ualisin should imagine that ho was in the habit of seeing Franklin's spirit, and of conversing with it, it would be good evidence of his insanity. And, further, though the Spiritualist might think he had interviews with Franklin, and still be sane, yet if he believed, without foumlalion and contr.ary to evidence, that his brother tiad tried to poison him, he would have a delusion sufiicicnt to indicate insanity. At a former period of the world's history a belief in the possibility of seeing devils and demons of various kinds, and of suffering from (heir torments, was commonly enter- tained. Indeed, it is religiously held now by a great many otherwise sensible people. Such a belief is, according to our mode of thought, a delusion, and probably nine-tenths of those who rcail this article will agree with mc in so re- garding it. But it certainly would not be safe to consider every one holding such a creed as insane. A like reason- ing applies to the holders of every other form of belief not in aci!ordance with our own. A delusion, to be Indicative of insanity, must bo such a belief ns would not be enter- tained in the ordinary normal condition of the individual, must relate to a matter of fa-'t, must have been formed without such evidence as would have been necessary to convince in health, anci must be held against such positive testimony as would have in health sufliccd to eradiciito it. Insanity may exist without delusions at any time being pre?ent. Thus, there may bo emotional insanity, the main feiiture of which consists of mental depression with an un- reasoning tendency to suicide; or there may be volitional insanity, characterized by an inability to refrain from set- ting fire to neighbors* houscs'or from committing homicide. /nrohrrriirr. — A person is said to be incoherent when the words he utters are without proper relation to each other, or when his language is not in accordance with h'.s ideas. Incoherence is a prominent feature of delirium, and is some- times met with in the chronic insane. It is directly due either to the impossibility of keeping the attention suffi- ciontly long on one idea for its full consi'li-ration. or to a like difficulty in co-ordinating those parts of tho brain whii'h arc eoncernod in the formation and expression of thoughts. D' fi'riiiin. — Delirium is that condition in which there arc illusions, lialluoinalions, delusions, iiml incohereneo, to- gether with a general excess of motility, an inability to sleep, and an acceleration of pulse. In acute delirium these phenomena are xtcII marked ; in the low and chronic firms they arc less strongly indicated. Srimetimes one or the other of these elements notably preitouiiiiates. De- lirium is present in the early stages uf acute mania, and mny exist ns an oet^ompaniment of certain disea<<es uf tho brain which do not ordinarily cause insanity, such as eer- cbnil congestion or aniemin. It is alsi common in fovors and in several other disorders of the system. I. f*rrcrftlifnifif fimnnfttf. — In uncomplicated peroop- tional insanity those parts of the brain only are disordered whi-'h are concerned in tho formation of )percepti<)ns. It constitutes the primary form of mental aberration, and of itself is not of sudi ii character as t<i lessen the responsibil- ity of the individual or to warrant any interftrenco with his right'*. It consists entirely in false perceptions, and if the intellect is for a moment deceived, the error is im- tnoiliately corrected. As already stated, these are either illusi(ms or hallucinations. In some cases the erroneous pnr*' pfions m;iy cocr.i>'t in tbe sriinc individual. They may bo related to all tho senses, but are especially common as regards sight and bearing. Illusions, as already men- tioned, arc not necessarily due to any centric difficulty, though such an origin is common. Thus, it is an illusion if a person on looking at an object sees two images. This result is due to sonic cause destroying the parallelism of the visual axes, and may be produced by a tumor of tho orbit or by i>aralysis of one or the other of the ocular mus- cles. Even in such a case, if the paralysis were due to central lesion the higher ganglia of the brain might escape implication. Illusions arc often exciteil by emotional dis- turbances, and are then probably directly due to some dc- rangetncnt of the cerebral circulation. The false percep- tions Galled hallucinations are of more importance than illusions in the symptomatology of insanity in general. In the purely perceptional form of mental aberration they are also exceedingly interesting, and arc very often troublesome symptoms. Thus, a gentleman who had overworked himself in financial business was subject to hallucinations of hear- ing, which, however, did not in the least impose on his in- tellect. As he walked through the streets to his place of business lie heard a voice continually whispering to him, "Take care! take care!" So strong was the impression made that he often involuntarily turned round to sec who was speaking to him. In another case a gcntlemiin saw images of various kinds as soon as his head touched the pillow, though they were never present when he was stand- ing or sitting. The case of Nicohii, the German bookseller of tho last century, is well known as remarkable, and others are afforded in the eases of Jerome Cardan, Pascal, and many other noted personages. Like illusions, the imme- diate cause of hallucinations is generally derangement of the cerebral circulation, either as regards quantity or qual- ity. As is well known, they are frequently produced by alcoholic liquors, opium, belladonna. Indian hemp, and other drugs. They may also result from mental exertion and emotional disturbances, from an overloaded stomach, or may occur in the course of various diseases, especially those of a febrile or exhausting character. Perceptional insanity may make its appearance suddenly, the first evi- dence of its presence being the illusion or hallucination. Usually, hovvever, there are prodromata indicating cerebral derangement. These are pain in the head, irritiibility of temper, suffusion of tho eyes, noises in the ears, a general restlessness, and some febrile excitement. The skin is gen- erally dry, the mouth parched, the bowels costive, and the urine high-colored and scanty. If not arrested, it may pass into one or the other of the following types of mental aberration. II. fiitrlfvcticaf Inifuit'ti/. — The essential feature of intel- lectual insanity is delusion. It may be developed suddenly, or, as is generally the case, is preceded by evidences of cerebral disorder, which, though at the time of their occur- rence not attracting particular attention, arc called to mind by the oi)Scrver3 after the disease has become fully devel- oped. In tho first stages of intellectual insanity it is not often that the delusions are fixed, and they may succeed each other with such rapidity that the patient resembles one affected with mania. They may be based on illusions or hallucinations, or may arise froni the reasoning of the patient from purely imaginary premises not connected with the senses. Sometimes they are spontaneous, and at othi-rs they appear to come from dreams. Thus, a gentleman who bad for several days Iiccn singular in bis behavior awoke in the night and imagined that he saw his wife standing by his bcdsido with a phial of prussic acid, which she was about to empty into his mouth. The hallueination took such strong nold of him that ho went into the ailjoining roi»ui, wlnTc his wile slept, to see if she were there or not, and, th<iugh he fouml her sleeping quietly, be awoke h r and accusi-d her of having attempted lo poison him. No an)ount of argument or persuasion could eradicate the false belief from bis mind. Another for several days had been spending money very freely in articles of little or no usvi to him, when one morning be announced lo bis faniily that for several days ho had been thinking a great mistake had been committed in his conception, and that his soul had got into the wrong body. Ho was therefore convinced that ho was not the man he should have been, ami hence be had done a great many things which were altogether repugnant to his physical senses : so long as the antagonism eontinui d between his mind and his body there was no hope of any happiness for him in tbifl world. In this ease there had never been any hallucination or illusion of any of the senses. The dohnion was therefore entirely the result of the patient's own perverted thoughts. When rapidly fol- lowing each other, delusions are clearly spontaneous, are not tho result of any series of thoughts, but come on the spur of the mnnient and upon very nlight suggestions. As they arc rearlily fiirmcil, they are not fixed in character. A lady, for instauL-e, after receiving some very sorrowful 1220 INSANITY. news relative to her husband, imagined that she had lost her eyesight. For a few hours she remained w.th her eyes shut alleging that there were two deep cavities behind the lids Suddenly she opened them, said she saw perfectly well, but that the top of her head had been cut oft ; and this was almost immediately changed to the belief that she was perishing with cold ; and so on, no one delusion lastin" lunger than a few minutes. In many cases like this the erroneous beliefs are excited by sensations m va- rious parts of the body, but this was not so in the present instance. , . ... „ The connection between dreams and insanity is very close. Most of us have at times had such vivid dreams that they have been removed from our mind with difficulty. There appears to bo no doubt that many of the de usions of the insane have dreams for their cause. The delusions of the insane are in a great majority of cases connected more or less directly with themselves. Thus, a person be- lieves that his leg is made of glass, that his head is reversed on his shoulders, that he is some great personage, that a lar-e fortune has been left to him, or that some misfortune has deprived him of his property or his friends. He will often reason logically and forcibly from the premises he has assumed, and will give no evidence ol insanity outs.de of his delusion. Such cases are embraced under the term "reasoning mania." and the skill and .acumen exhibited by persons thus affected are often surprising. « hen it is important, in their estimation, for them to conceal their delusion, they will often do so for a long time, and strata- gems of various kinds are necessary to their speedy detec- tion. Sooner or later, however, the delusion comes out. The designation monomania can properly be applied to many of the cases of intellectual insanity In the uncom- plicated form of the disease it is rare, after it is fully es- tablished, that more than a single object or a small class of objects is the subject of the delusion. The delusions of the insane may be comprehended under two categories— those which are of a pleasant or exalted character and those which are unpleasant or morbid. These usually leave their impress on the countenance of the patient, and his actions and manner are in accordance with them. It would be strange if this were not the case. The only guide which man has for his actions is his reason. lie weighs argu- ments and motives, and determines according to the bear- in-' which they may have on his mental processes. A deTusion is, in many cases, simply a false premise ; the conclusions which the individual draws from it are entirely lo.'ical. Taking, for instance, the case of the gentleman who had imbibed the idea that his wife had attempted to pni.son him, and admitting that he was correct in this no- tion, his subsequent actions— his denunciations, his re usal to live with her, his efforts to have her imprisoned, etc.— are perfectly reasonable. The line of conduct was such as most men would have pursued under like eircumstances In such cases, therefore, there is no fault in the intellectual process after the fir.st step is taken. It is this first step 'vhich constitutes the disease; it is the delusion which en- slaves the mind. ,. . , i .», ■ Intellectual insanity is often uncomplicated by any other form of mental derangement. There are no illusions no halhioinations. no overpowering uiHuence of 'ho emouons, and no loss of control over the will. Even when the de- lusion is of such a character as apparently to be connected with some one of the senses, and thus to be based upon a false perception, full inquiry will often show that there is no error of the sensorial processes centric or eccentric. Thus a lady had the delusion that she had lost her palate, as she called it. A mirror was held to her face, and while she opened her mouth the fact was pointed out to her tha all the parts were present. '• Yes," she replied, " I see all that ; the form is there, I know very well, but the substance is .rone ;" and no arguments could convince her to the eon- traTy A gentleman conceived that his right hand was made of glass, and therefore, to prevent its being broken he kept it earcfullv enclosed in a stout case made to fit it accurately. On calling his attention to the physical qual- ities of his hand, and pointing out how they differed Irom those of glass, he said, " I once thought just as you do Mv brain was then incapable of appreciating minute dil- ferences as well as it can now ; and though I confess that my senses still convey to me the idea that my hand is like other people's, yet I know the conception is erroneous, and I correct it at once by my reason. My hand looks like flesh and blood, but it is glass for all that, ^"thlng is more calculated to deceive than the senses.' Persons al- tVKod with uncomplicated intellectual insanity may go throu^'h the world without giving any considerable evi- dcnee of mental derangement unless the subject of their delusion be touched upon. Still, there is no telling to what extremes a delusion may carry its subject. SucU a person, for instance, imagines that he is the emperor of Russia. At first he does not comprehend the full import- ance of his supposed position, and if of moderate reason- in"- power, possessing deficient information, and naturally of'a quiet disposition, he may never go further than dress- ing himself in some tawdry finery and strutting pompously through the wards of the hospital. But under other cir- cumstances he reflects upon the greatness of his station, and thus from time to time conceives new ideas of his powers and importance, and may thus become a very trouble- some patient, lie comes to believe, perhaps, that he has the power of life and death, and may attempt to exercise his imaginary prerogative. Delusions in regard to relatives and friends are very common, and hence the conduct of the person entertaining them is changed as it relates to the ob- jects of his erroneous ideas. It is a usual thing, therefore, for such an insane person to disinherit those who would naturally be heirs to his property. This point is of im- portance in its medico-legal relations. Delusions may be of such a character as to aftect the emotions secondarily. A very common delusion is that of having committed the unpardonable sin, and accordingly the patient suffers great emotional disturbance. This in- fluence upon the emotions is perfectly natural and logical, for if the person really has committed a sin for which there is no hope of pardon, and has thus incurred the punish- ment of eternal damnation, it would be strange if the emo- tions of sorrow and despair were not excited into activity. Such cases, however, are not to be embraced under the head of emotional insanity : and though at first sight they may appear to be of that type, inquiry will reveal the fact ot the pro-existence of the delusion. III. Emolwinil /nsniiiV^.- The emotions are at all times difBcultto control, but thev may acquire such undue promi- nence as to dominate over the intellect and the will, and assume the entire mastery of the actions in one or more re- spects This effect mav be produced suddenly, from the operation of some cause capable of disturbing the normal balance which exists among the several parts of the mind, or it may result from influences which act slowly, but with gradually increasing efi'ect. In either ease there is not necessarily either delusion or error of judgment, but it very generally happens that the intellect sooner or later becomes ' involved. Emotional insanity may be produced without there being any discoverable cause, and without the patient being able to allege a motive. Some emotions arc more frequently disordered than others. Those of a sorrowful character are pre-eminent in this respect, and when they are afl-ectcd the tyjie of insanity called melancholia is the result This may be either acute or chronic in its course. The first is rarely uncomplicated, and hence will be more properly considered under the head of Mann,. Homicide suicide'and other crimes may be the result of emotional insanity as well as of intellectual insanity. The most com- mon of these is undoubtedly suicide, the individual com- mitting self-destruction in order to escape from the depress- ing influences which act upon him. A person, for instance, to'eite the example previously given, imbibes the delusion that he has committed the unpardonable sin or that God has deserted him, and in consequence passes into a condi- tion of settled melancholy, during which he may attempt self-destruction to escape from his harrowing thoughts, or commit a homicide in order that the same end may be ac- complished by his being hanged for murder. Other emo- tions may of course be excited into morbid activity by de- rangement of the intellect. Delusional jealousy, anger, hatred, or love may thus urge their unfortunate victim to the periietration of crime, plunge him into a depth ol un- hapiiiness from which Ihero is no escape, or lift him into an ecstasy of bliss far exceeding that derivable irom the i realization of all his wishes. j ,„,.„, i Under the head of moral insanity, Dr. Prichard several years a^o described a form of mental derangement which imbrac?s several species which are now more proper y placed under other heads. ,«everal of these are c early [motional in character, and most of them relate o altered modes of feeling or of the affective faculties and therefore, in the largest sense of the word, may also be called emo- tional. Careful and thorough inquiry will, however, often show that the primary difficulty is one ot defect not of aberration or exaggeration, and that, therefore, t he e in- stances of deficient moral sense, leading the subjects to he perpetration of crimes of various kinds, sh«""l.''°, «'f ;,!^ mider the head of imbecility. Many cases of 1^ hat are called temporary insanity, mania ephemera, transitory mania, and morbid impulse are really instances of cmo lonal insanity. That such a condition exists there can be no doubt, and it is important, both as regards the subject and society, to be able to recognize or to disprove its presence A few words, therefore, on this point will not be out ot place The state with which transitory emotional insanity is 'most apt to be confounded is that which has been desig- INSANITY. 1221 natcd *' beat of passion." Pnssion is cmotiunnl activity. It refers to that niodo of the mind in which certain imprcs- siunii or emotioD.s arc felt, and which is accuinpiuiicd by a tendency or impulse, often irresistible, to act in accordance with these impressions or emotions irrespective of the in- tellect. An act performed in tho heat of passion is one prompted by an emotion which for the moment controls the will, the intellect not being called into action. It is an act, thercfure. performed without reflection. The passions are, to a certain extent, under the control of the will, and this power of checkin;^ their manifestations is capable of being greatly increased by self-discipline. Some persons hold their passions in entire subjugation ; others are led away by very slight emotional disturbances. Tho law recognizes the natural weakness of man in this respect, and wisely discriminates between acts done after duo reflection and tho«c committed in tlio midst of passional excitement. The acts performed during temporary emotional insanity, in their more obvious aspects and when viewecl isolatedly, resemble those done in the heat of passion. But they are so only as regards the acts themselves. Thus, a person entering the room at tiio very moment when one man was in tho act of shooting another would be unable to tell whether the homicide was done in the heat of passion or under tho influeneo of an attack of temporary insanity; he would be equally unable to say whether it was committed in malice aforethought or in self-defence. The act, there- fore, by itself, can teach us nothing. Wo must look to tho attentling eircum.stances and to tho antecedents of the per- petrator for the facts which are to enlighten us as to tho state of mind of the actor. Now, tho conditions of tem- porary emotional insanity are so well market! that tho act which indicates the height of tho paroxysm may almost bo disregarded, for it is always preceded by symptoms of mental aberration, while acts done in tho heat of passion are notthtis foreshadowed. And as regards the subsequent state of tho inrlividual tho distinction is equally apparent. Tho one who has committed a criminal act in tlic heat of passion soon subsides to his ordinary condition of equa- nimity, and generally begins to think of his safety. Tiio one who has pcrpetrate<l a similar act during an attack of temporary emotional insanity never thinks of escape, nor even avoids publicity. He may even boast of his Tonduct or deliver himself into the bands of tho law. What is, however, of greater importance is tho fact that though ho may subside into a condition of comparative sanity, tho evidences of disease are still present, and remain iu him for days, weeks, or even months and years. These symp- tonu arc generally those of cerebral congestion, ta which attention has already been directed. In the heat, of passion the act follows immediately on tho excitation of whicli it is tho logical sequence. In temporary insanity the act is tho culmination of a series of disordered physical and men- tal manifestations, and may or may not be in relation with tho emotional cause. Tho distinction 'm therefore clear and preoise. IV, Volitional liiaaniti/, — In uncomplicated volitional insanity there arc no delusions and no emotional disturb- ances, but solely an inability to exert the will in accordaneo with the intellect. Many cases of inrtrbid impulse arc in- stances of volitional insanity, in which an idea suddenly flashes across tho mind and is immediately carried out by tho individual, although his intellect and his emotions arc strongly exerted against it. Thus, a ]»ers(m who previously has not exhibited any very obvious aymptoins of mental derangement — though careful inquiry will invariably show that slight evidences of cerebral disease have been present for some days — instanta.neously feels a morbid impulse to commit a murder or perpetrate some other criminal act, and is forced to yield, notwithstanding all the efforts ho may make. Numerous cases of this kind arc on record. Thus, l^.squirol relates the case of a man thirty-two years old, of a nervous temperament and quiet disposition, who had been well educated and who was fotid of tho fine arts. Ho had sufl^ered from a brain disorder, but had been several months cured. After being in Paris for about two months, during which time he led a perfectly regular life, ho one day en- tered the Palais do Justice and attacked an advoca'o with great fury. Tho next morning when seen by I-isquirol he was perfectly tranquil and erunposed, showed no onger whatever, and had slept well all night. Tho same day he designed a landscape. He recoUeelcMl what be had done the previous day, and spoke of it with coolness. He de- clared that ho had entertained no ill-will against tho a<lvo- eatc, had never even seen him before, and had no t)usiness with bim or any other lawver. He eouM not understand, ho said, what had aetuate<l him to umke the af<sault. Sub- setpiently ho exhibited no intlioatifms whatever of being insane. Many instances of so-called moral insanity may properly be placed under the head of volitional insanity, fur tliey arc characterized by an inability to so exert tho nill OS to refrain from the perpetration of acts known to bo crimes. Of such are cases of kleptomania, dipsomania, pyromania, etc. The will in insanity is often secondarily affected through disturbance originating in the intellect or the emotions, and acts are hence performed which give evidence of the existence of mental aberration. In mania of all kinds, and especially in dementia and general paral- ; ysis, there is either a loss of volitional control or an in- ability to exert the normal wilI-])ower. I V. Mania. — In mania the mind is affected in several, ' generally all of its parts. There are illusions, hallucina- ' tions, delusions, emotional disturbance, and loss of voli- I tional power or control. The patient is either morbidly excited or depressed, and is often violent in his language and actions. Acute mania is the more common species of mental aberration, and in its two types of exaltation and depression constitutes the form most commonly met witli. Ai*nte Mania ivith Exaltation has its prodromatic stage, the symptoms of which arc very similar to those which precede an attack of fully developed cerebral congestion. These, in the main, are pain and fulness in the head, eon- fusion of ideas, increased irritability of the mind, and, above all, wakefulness. In addition, there arc restlessness of body and a singularity of btrhavior which strikes those thrown into intimate relations with the subject, and causes them to suspect that something is wrong with him. The character and disposition undergo a change, ami it is very common for unfounded prejudices to bo formed against persons formerly highly esteemed. Before very long there are illusions and hallucinations. At first the patient strug- gles against them, but eventually ho accepts them as true, and hcucc becomes subject to delusions. These are rarely fixed in tho earlier stages, and may not be so through tho whole course of tho disorder. Willi these symptoms there arc derangements in other organs besides the brain. Thus, the appetite is lessened, the bowels are torpid, the kidneys fail to eliminate the normal quantity of urine, the heart becomes irregular in its actions and beats with increased frequency — a certain sign of a weak and excited nervous system — and the skin is cither bathed in persjiiration or is dry and hard. AVilh the full development of the disorder the ])atlcnt becoracs incoherent and rambling, showing a great disposition to talk, to laugh, and to sing, and to in- dulge in antics of various kinds. His delusions mainly have reference to himself; he imagines that he is some great personage, that he has suddenly become very rich, or that ho has been specially singled out for some other piece of good fortune. Not unfrequcntly ho is exceedingly trou- blesome, clestroying the furniture of his room, tearing his clothes, attacking those around liim, and making all kimis of attempts to escape from rcslraiiit; but at the same time there is rarely any serious effort to do great bodily harm either to himself or others. Sometimes, however — and this fact should always be boruc in mind by the attendants — there isadispositiun to perpetrate acts of extreme violence, and such a tendency, even when not previously manifested, may very suddenly bo developed. As a rule, patients with acute mania lose all sense of decency, and become exceed- ingly filthy in their habits and obscene in their language and conducl. ,\t times such hinatios exhibit a surprising degree of cunning, and arc able to exercise great control over their conduct when they have an end to accomplish. They may thus deceive tho young and inexperienced jdiy- sieian, and induce liim to forego the idea of jiulting them under permanent restraint, or they may so impose on him as to inrluce him to relax his vigilance, and thus allow of their committing some outrageous act. It must bo re- membered tliat acute mania is not suddenly cured, hut runs a definite and allotted course. It is rare that the memory of tho patient suffers to any eonsiderahlo extent in acuto mania. The patients are perfectly conscious of their i^ur- rountlings, and are seldom deceived by the subterfuge so frequently and so unjustifiably employed that they are to be taken to a hotel or a country-seat when about to depart for an asylum. If the stratagem does for a moment impose upon them, they recollect the frauil, and will not again re- pose confidence in those who have perpetrated it. Their a]>petites are generally unchanged. If in the habit <if smoking ()r drinking, they still want their tobacco and their wine, and are usually able to eat a full allowance of food. After tlieir entrance into the asylum the main object of their lives is to get out again as soon as possible. They often recognize their condition, and will call attention to any indications of improvement they may exhibit. They ore not for a moment deceived by tho delusions of their fellow-Iunaties, It is rarely the case that tho sleep is regu- lar an«I sound. Often they will lie awake at night talking over their plans, or else will annoy their attenilants in every conceivable way. Although Imving usually um-omfortablo feelings in the head, they rarely suffer from ucule ])ain in that part of the body. 1222 INSANITY. Acule Mania with Depreuion.—'Tha acute melancholia of many authors is a very terrible form of mental aberra- tion. Lilie that just described, it is generally preceded by proJriimata, which indicate by their character the type ol insanity which is about to be developed, but it often ap- pears with great suddenness. In the case of a lady the hand ever tir.-it eviilencc of menial disorder was a violent scream, due to the fact that an idea had instantaneously (lashed through her mind that she had committed the unpardonable sin, and had consequently lost all hope of saving her soul. For sev- eral days she continued, with scarcely an intermission, to scream, to cry, and to sob, at the same time showing the greatest terror from apprehension that the devils were ap- proaching her. Graduallv this extreme state became less violent, but she still continued to be actuated by intense fear, and paced the floor night and day, wringing her s, weeping, and exclaiming, " Lost ! lost ! lost for In another case of a lady the idea suddenly oc- curred to her that she was about to bo killed. She screamed and begged and prayed to those around her not to allow her to bo injured. In the furniture and attendants she saw her murderers, and to escape from them made several attempts to throw herself out of the window. Then she believed that she was to be poisoned, and refused all food with the utmost pertinacity, closing her teeth so firmly together that it was only by the use of great strength that they could be opened. Of all the forms of insanity, this is the ono in which illusions and hallucinations of the senses are most common. Those are particularly so as regards sight and hearing, and do not, as a general thing, refer to the body of the'patient, although generally in direct relation with his delusion. In all cases of acute mania with depression too great care cannot be taken to prevent self-injury or suicide. It must bo constantly kept in mind that the idea is a very common ono with this class of patients, and that frequently they manifest great astuteness in concealing it till they are ready to make the attempt. VI. Gem-ral Pnrnlii^ia. — The affection known as general | paralysis was first described by Delaye in 1822, by Baylc in the same year, and, with much more thoroughness and exactness, by Calmeil in 1820. It is a very common form of mental derangement, and, aside from the implication of the mind, presents the very striking feature of a grad- ually advancing paralysis, which derives its name from the fact" that it involves, "sooner or later, nearly every muscle of the body. This paralysis may show itself at the same time that the insanity is manifested, it may precede the mental derangement, or it may be subsequent thereto. The latter is much the more usual order. The mental .symp- toms differ in several important respects from those which occur in other forms of insanity. The first indication of disease is generally an excessive .anxiety in regard to mat- ters which are really of no great importance. Of the cases which have come under my care, one was first made ap- parent by a morbid apprehension on the part of the patient that he was not managing some trust-funds in the best pos- sible way : another, by the idea that he was constantly wounding the feelings "of his friends ; and another was con- stantly changing his mind about the most trivial things, and a"piiarently thinking that the world watched with great anxiety all his movementa. At first, the general mental type is" that of depression. The emotions are easily excited, and the delusions which soon make their appearance are of the melancholic form. The idea of propriety in the every- day acts of life seems to be lost, and the patient will com- mit all kinds of indecent acts without appearing to bo aware that he is doing anything unusual. His memory fails rapidly, and his" intellectual vigor declines from the very first. "Hence, he is not able to argue in defence of his de- lusions, but attacks with physical force those who venture to differ with him. His acts are in other respects eccentric and absurd. He spends money in things which arc of no manner of use to him, and at the same time refuses to pay his small debts; he harasses in every possible way those who are about him, gives them impossible orders, and then abuses them if they are not at once obeyed ; he is whimsical at the table, and drinks vor.aciously, or declares that noth- ing is cooked to suit him, and leaves the table in a rage, (iradually the form of his mental aberration changes; he becomes more cheerful, forms all kinds of impossible schemes for suddenly acquiring great wealth, and these are quickly abandoned for others equally impracticable. Thus, delusion after delusion rapidly succeeds each other, and those, in the great majority of cases, relate to the grandeur, the wealth, the physical strength, or some other great quality of the patient, constituting the dclire dc>i ,jnaule\ir» of the French. Ono will tell of his immense palaces built of gold and inlaid with precious stones, and in the next breath will descant on his great weight or his extreme lightness, or on the number of children he has, or on the millions of operas ho has composed. Another urges his great importance in the political world— tells us that he has elected all the members of Congress himself, that ho has paid off the national debt, and that in consequence ho is to be made emperor of the United States, witli a salary of a thousand millions a year; fh.at he is goiug to have a thousand physicians, who are to be clothed in blue velvet uniforms embroidered with gold and diamonds; that he has chartered the Great Eastern for a pleasure-trip, and engaged ten thousand musiciiins and a similar number of ballet-dancers to go with him. The next day he has for- gotten all these fancies, and is off on another series of ab- surd ideas. In no respect is he restrained in the extent of his delusions. Impossibilities arc not regarded. While scarcely able to drag one leg after the other, he will brag of his "great flcetness of foot, and in the very death-gnsp will mutter about his extreme strength or endurance. The .symptoms connected with sensation are equally well marked. In the early stage headache is often very severe— so much so that, as Westphal has remarked in his excellent mono- graph on the subject of general paralysis, the patient often dashes his head against the wall. At other times the feel- ing in the head is that of fulness or tightness, and these sensations are often accompanied with vertigo. Neuralgia .'/'■' in various parts of the body is common, and some of my patients have complained of the different degrees of numb- ness, especially in the hands and feet. But still more strongly manifested are the disorders of motility, duo to the progressive paralysis. Ono which is very often ob- served before any mental derangement is perceived is a slight defect of .articulation, due to paralysis of the lips. At''fir3t this is scarcely perceptible ; there is merely a little trembling— an action such as that seen in persons who arc endcavorlnc to restrain their emotions— but it is suflicient to give indistinctness to the utterance of those words which contain labial letters. The tongue is the next to be affect- ed Examination shows that there are fibrillary contrac- tions of the muscles, and the organ is moved with less fa- cility. The articulation is slovenly, words are slurred over, and"there are both stammering and stuttering. The patient notices these difficulties, and in endeavoring to obviate them makes matters worse by his inability to be exact, contrast- ing strongly with his efforts. The paralysis of the tongue graduallv becomes more complete, and at last this organ can only" be moved with great difficulty. The other facial muscles" participate, and a blank, somewhat sorrowl'ul ex- pression is constantly present. The voice loses its fulness and there is great difficultv of swallowing. The muscles of the eye are also generally involved, producing ptosis from paralvsis of the levator palpebraj superiosus, diplopia from impli'cation of the internal rcctu.s, and contraction of the pupil ; all of these effects, except the last, being due to lesion existing at the point of origin or in the course of the third nerve. The pupils arc often unequal, ami Austin declares, with all seriousness, that contraction of the right pupil is associated with melancholic delusions, and con- traction of the left pupil with elation. Further investiga- tion has not confirmed this theory. The gait of patients affected with paralvsis is very peculiar, and is of two dis- tinct kinds. In the one it is similar to that of a person suffering from sclerosis of the posterior columns of the S])i- nal cord" (locomotor ataxia). The feet are lifted high, anil are thrown down with a great deal of force, the heel strik- inc the ground first. As Westphal remarks, patients with th?s gait cannot stand with the eyes shut and the feet close tcether. In the other kind the feet are scarcely lifted from the ground, but are shuffled over it, and the action is some- what like that of a person attempting to balance himself on a tio-ht-rope. Patients with this gait can without d.lli- culty st°and with the eyes shut. As regards the upjicr ex- tremities, the fingers lose their strength and delicate co- ordinating power. The handwriting is shaky, and there 18 awkwardness in buttoning the clothing. The grip of the hand is still strong, but there is an impossibility, as shown bv the dynainograph, of maintaining a continuous muscu- lar contraction for even a few seconds. The senses, with the exception of sight, do not often become materially af- fected. Atrophy of the optic nerve causes amaurosis or amblvopia. t)phthalinoscopic examination will very gene- rallv"detect this condition of iho papilla at a very early sta^e of the disease, together with retinal and choroidal anl?inia. Convulsive seizures occur, and these are gene- rally epileptiform in character, though occasionally they are of the nature of apoplexy. They vary greatly in cha- racter, sometimes resembling the petit mnl of epilepsy, at others characterized bv strong convulsive movements or coma Besides these, there are attacks of complete paraly- sis of certain muscles, which, however, rarely leave any permanent effects, the usual degree of power being regained in a few davs. , , , The course of general paralysis is often marked by pe- riods of great improvement, and the patient's friends im- INSANITY. 1223 n.rine that he is certainly recovering. The symptoms, men- tiTl un.l phvficttl, all abate in violence, ami may even dis- appear to such an cttent as not to bo evuknt to general oii'crvcrs. lint the phvsieian must not bo deceived, for the amelioration is merely tem|.urary. and sooner or later the disease regains its former ascendency. M no time, even during the height of the remission, is the mind of the patient in such a condition as to admit of any consKlerable intclleolual exertion. There may be an absence of delu- f iuns, but mental weakness still exists. Progressively, this decline in the force of the mind becomes more strongly marked, until at last a condition of extreme aementia is reached. Simullaucouslv, tho physical power diminishes, until finallv the patient, unlible to walk, to stand, or even to sit is cunfined to his bed for the rest of his existence, lied ■■■ores form ami deglutition becomes more ami more difficult From this cause the food may become impacted in the fauces. and thus death bo produced by interruption of tho rcspiratcry process, or the food may enter the larynx. The sensibility of tho lining menibr:inc of the checks and fauces is notablv diminished, and hence the patient in eat- in"- goes on filling his mouth, not knowing that he is doing •^o" When he at last attempts to swallow, the mass of food is greater than can pass down tho o?sopliagus, and unless some one is near to assist him ho chokes to death. Death may otherwise take place from a gradual cessation of tlic respiratory process or from sheer exhaustion. The dura- tion of general paralysis is variable. Sometimes death re- sults in a few months, and in others it may bo deferred for five or six years. The average period is about three years. General paralvsis is not likely to be confounded with any other affection than chronic aleoliolic intoxication, from which the hislorv "f the case and its general progress will suffice to distinguish it. With lead-paralysis it has scarcely anv features in common, (iencral paralysis is almost invan- abiv fatal. A few cases of recovery have been reported, but there is room for doubting that most of them were actual cases of the disease, and the others were probably, as (Jriesingcr suggests, instances in which tho remission was long. , VII. f'li'on/ mid ncmnil!rt.—ln idiocy there la such an abnormal organization of the nervous system or arrest of development that deficiency of mind results as a natural conscquenco. Many idiots are possessed of less intellectual force than well-trained dogs or other animals. Occasion- ally, iiliols show an excessive development of some one menial faculty, which has appeared Ui grow at the expense of all the rest. This is especially seen as regards tho ca- pacity for appreciating and remembering musical tones and f'or acnuiring the ability to perform automatically, as it were, upon some musical instrument. There is scarcely an idiot whose mental status cannot be elevated by systom- tttic and appropriate education, though where tho cranial development is small no very material progress is to bo ex- pected. />.mf).(m.— Dementia may be primary, hut such is very rarely the case, it being in the vast maj.irity of instances the conscquenco of an acute attack of insanity or incident to old a-c. The characteristic feature of dementia is mental weakneiTs, and this is shown as regards the emotions, tho intellect, and the will. The former are not held under con- trol ■ slight matters bring them into inordinate action, and tears are shcil and laughter excited when there is no ade- quate cause for the one or the other. The intellect is af- fected in all its parts. The power of application or of fixing the attention is materially lessened : and this is doubtless ono reason whv iiiiperfeet ideas arc formed of very simple matters, and «hv it is so difficult to conceive a series of connected thoughts. The memory, especially for recent events, is weakened to an extreme degree, and the delu- sions of the patient, if still preseiil. are constantly under- going change from the impossibility of reeolbeling them. Volition is almost entirely abolished. The patient is al- together controlled by others, the idea of otTering opposition to their wishes never entering his mind. Tho facial ex- pression of a ]ialicnt affected with ileminlia is not always characterislic.and this mainly for the iiason that the ]ihys- ical health is generally good. The deficiency of mental power is, however, readily perceived in the majority of cases when the attempt is made to excite the brain to action. Tho failure of the face to respond to the ideas sought to bo conveyed beeoines very evident. CiiiifH. .\mong the causes inherent in the individual none is so powerful in its action as here.litary tendency. This may show itself not only by the fact that ancestors hnvo been insane, but that insanity in the de-eendaiitsniay have resulted from hysteria, epilepsy, catalepsy, or some other general nervous affection in them. It ofleii hamicns, too, that the .lisease, like many others known to be hered- itary skips a generation. Insanity is more common in males than in females, though tho diffcronco is not eo groat as ronny suppose. The period of life between twenty-five and forty-five is that at which insanity is most liable to make its appearance. Cases are on record of infants having manifested unequivocal symptoms of mental aberration, but the affection is not often met with under the age of puberty. The civil condition of the individual as regards marriage or celibacy exercises an effect over the causation of insanity. Statistics show that celibates of both sexes aro more liable tlian the married. So far as males are con- cerned, this result is probably due to the fact that in celi- bacy, as a rule, the mode of lifu is more irregular. In- sanity is assuredly more common among civili/.ed than un- civilized nations, but as regards the dirt'erent classes of in- dividuals who go to make up a civili/.ed community, it is very certain that the refined, educated, and wealthy classes arc not so liable to insanity as the lower orders. The ex- citin" causes are both moral and physical. Of the former, emotional disturbance, grief, tenor, disappointed aflec- tion. anxiety, ^rcat joy. etc. stand first in infiuence. It is doubtful if "moderate intellectual exertion ever, of itself, causes insanity. It is only when the brain is worked night and day, to the depriv.ati<m of sleep and without sufficient change, that insanity results from mental labor. Continual thinking on one subject is the most effectual way of produ- cing insanity by the action of the brain, .'\mongthephys- icaf causes, drunkenness, the use of opium and other nar- cotics excessive sexual indulgence, blows on the head, ex- posure to severe heat or cold, tho puerperal state, and cer- tain diseases may be referred to. Other points in tho natural history of insanity, such as the diagnosis, the prognosis, tho morbid anatomy, and the treatment, would lead too much into the domain of medical science to warrant consideration here. Prci'idrncc iif Iiimnilij. — The question whether insanity is or is not on the increase has for many years been dis- cussed, but with no very definite result. Tho weight of evidence, however, appears to bo to the effect that, although tho number of the insane reported in official documents is greater every veor, this increase is apparent only, and is duo to tho facts that the registry is constantly becoming more complete, that eases of insanity are, through the ad- vance of medical science, more readily recognized, and that through the same cause there aro fewer deaths, and that hence tho same cases are counted every year. Thus, in a paper read before the .Medico- Psycliologieal Associa- tion of Great Britain by Dr. Maudsley in Dec, 1S71, it is shown that in 1.S44 there were in England and Wales, 20,011 registered insane persons, including idiots, or 1 in 802 of the population; on Jan. 1. 18;)!), tho total number I was ;>0,7G2, or 1 in b?,i; in ISO.'), tho number was J:'),!!.")!!, or 1 in 431; and on Jan. 1, ISTl, the total number was 50,75.'), or 1 in 400. Now, it is very clearly shown, by inquiring as to the num- ber of new cascsOccurriiig every year, that the great increase in tho number borne on the registers is not thte result of any markcil increase in the number of persons becoming insane in any one year. Thus, Dr. Maudsley gives tho following table, showing tho proportion of admissions to the population in each of tho twelve years from '""■" '" 1870, inclusive: 1850 to In lsr,.->, 1 in.. In isilii, 1 in.. In ISCT, 1 in.. In im'.s. 1 in.. Ill l>^i>'.', 1 ill.. In 1*170, 1 ill.. ,...2,013 ....2,111 2.01.1 ....l.9:m ....l.U.Vi 1,901 In 18r,0, 1 in 2,114 In isr.o, 1 in 2,092 In isni. 1 in 2,15G III lH(,i, 1 ill 2,240 In l.si;:i, 1 in 2,307 In ISOl, 1 in 2,192 This table shows a slight increase during the last throo years, but it is fully accounted for by the greater diligence cxerciseil in finding ca.ses, ami by the fact that many cases of mental disease are recognized and counted as such when formerly they were not. , - ,, Upon the wliole. Dr. Maudsley draws the following eon- elusions: "(11 There is no satisfactory evidence of an in- crease in the proportion of cases of insanity lo llie [lopula- tion; and no evidence, therefore, of an inercnsrd halnhly to insanity. (2) It is not necessary to assume such an iii- erease in I.nler to account for the undoubted great increase in the niiml.er of registered insane persons. (3) The dif- ference between I insane person in 812 of the poi.ulalion in 1841, and 1 in 100 in 1870, is mainly, if not entirely, owing to the fact that in the former year the returns in- clmled only liiilf tho existing insane persons in the country, while in llie latter year nearly all of them have been regis- tered. (4) Some part of the difference is owing lo the laet that certain patients aro registered as lunatics now who would never have been thought so in times past. (5) A lower rale of mortality and a lower pereentago of recov- eries may account for' a part of the increase in the total amount of insanity. (6) Tho proportion of admissions lo tho population, which rcprescnis approximalely tho occurring cases of insanity, does not, when tho ncecs- 1224 INSANITY BEFORE THE LAW. sary allowances are made, yield evidence of any serious increase.'* . , i ti In the U P. similar conditions have existed, and like results have hecn obtained. Thus, in 1S60 the total num- ber of the insane, including idiots, was— of males 22,841, and of females I'J.SS.'i, being a total of 42,824; while m 1S70 the numbers were— for males 30,S0o, and for iemales 29 772, total 59,677. Now, in ISGO the total population was ai, 185,741, giving a ratio of insane to the population of 1 in about 728; in 1S70 the population was 3S,Uo,G41, or 1 in about every 637. Hero the apparent ratio is not to be ascribed to anv actual increase, but to the fact that the researches were more thorough in 1870 than in 1860, and that hence a greater number of the insane were discovered than in the previous census. There is no reason for be- lieving that insanity is more common in England than the V. S., "though a superficial consideration of the foregoing statistics would lead to this conclusion; but it is very cer- tain that the registry in the former country is much more thorough. But, as will readily be admitted by all neurol- ogists, there are periods during which insanity is more common than at others, and hence it is not safe to take any statistics which do not extend over a long series of years. If, for instance, the number of insane in Franco for the vear before the recent war with Germany bo compared with the number existing in the year after the war, the latter will be found to be much the greater ; and the like is true of our own recent civil war, and of all other periods of political excitement. Still, taking the civilized world as a whole, it will be found that the exciting and restraining influences about b.alance one another, and that insanity is not more frequent now than it was at any former period duriu" which records have been kept. Cure or' the Insane.—In every State of the Union, with the exception of Delaware, Florida, and Nevada, there are suitable asylums for the reception and treatment of cases of insanity. All the States, with the exception of those named, have one or more public institutions, and in addition there arc a number of private asylums in various parts of the countrv. The U. S. has thus not notably fail- ed in its duty to the unfortunate class of individuals under consideration, and a great deal of the interest which liaj been manifested, and which has in numerous instances led to the construction of .asylums, has been due to the dis- interested exertions of Miss D. L. Dix, which have led to the action of State legislatures in the direction mentioned. It is not to be doubted, however, that here, as every- where else, the provision is not so full as it ought to be, and this is especially to be noted as regards the pau- per insane, who in many States are still kept in the county poorhouscs or boarded out. The whole question of such provision is still somewhat unsettled in relation to the ex- act kind of protection and treatment certain of the insane should receive. The advocates of entire non-restraint — which in reality docs not exist— have gone so far as to recommend thc'cstablishnient of colonies of the insane m villages ; and one such has been for some time in operation at (iiieel in Belgium, with but moderate success. Whether or not the insane should be treated in separate and distinct institutions, or in general hospitals more or less isolated from the other patients, is a subject well worthy the fullest consideration. At a time when insanity was considered to bo a disease of the mind, and not of tlio brain, asylums were well enough, for the treatment thought to be necessary could be more advantageously carried out bv metaphysicians than by physicians. But at the present day more practical and far more scientific notions are prevalent, and it is beginning to be a recognized principle that insanity is not to be treated from any very different thenuieutical standpoint than that proper for gastritis or intermittent fever. Hence, the insane require medical treatment; and the more thoroughly educated the physi- cian is in his science as a whole, the higher will bo his qualifications for ministering to the unfortunate class of beings under consideration. So far as curative influences extend, it is not to be denied that the insane may be better treated in their own homes than in asylums. But owing to the character of the insanity, or to the impossibility of providing the necessary restraint and care, a certain num- ber of lunatics absolutely require sequestration. Ilibliorirapliii.— The number of monographs and treatises devoted to the' subject of insanity is very large. The most that can be done here is to cite the more important published during the last 100 years : Crichton, An Inijuiri/ inlo llir^ A"o- Ifire and Orii/iu of Meulal DernniicmenI, r.li\ ( London, 1798) ; Arnold, Obacnatinna on the Nulure, Kind', Causes, and /'reventton of Jtuiiniti/ (London, 1806); Haslam, Observa- tions on Afnilness and Melancholy (London, 1809); Pinel, TraiK medico-philosnpliique enr I'alKnation mentalc (Paris 1809); Rash. Med leal Inquiries and Observations upon Diseases of the Mind (Philadelphia, 1812); Georgot, Discussion medicn-legale sur la folic oil alienation mcnlale (Paris, 1826): Calmeil, JJe la parabjsic considirie chez ies aliinia (Vans, l>ii6) ; Guislain, Traite sur I'alienalton mentale (.\msterdam, 1,826) ; Conolly, An Inquiry Cunccrn- inij the Indications of Insanity (Loudon, 1830); Pritohard, A Treatise on Insanity and other Affections of the Mind (London, 1835); Broussais, Ue I'irritation el de la folic (Paris, 1839); Calmeil, Ue la folic, etc. (Paris, 1845); Es- quirol, Bes maladies mcntalcs, etc. (Paris, 1838); Kiescr, Elemente der Paychiatrik (Breslau and Bonn, 1855); Brigham, Observalions on the Injluencc of lieH'jion upon the Health and Physical Welfare of Mankind (Boston, 1835); Griesinger, Pathologic und Therapic des psyehischen Krankheiten (Stuttgart, ISGl).; Schriidcr van der Kolk, Die Pathologic und Therapic der Geisteakrunkheiten auf anatomisch physiologisch 6'ri/iuHn</c (Braunschweig, 186.1) ; Bucknill and Tukc, A Manual of I'syvhological Medicine (London, 1858); Winslow, Obscure Diseases of the Brain and Disorders of the Mind (London, 1860) ; Morel, Traitl des maladies mcntalcs (Paris, 1860) ; Ray, Menial Hygiene (Boston, 1863) ; also various important papers collected and published with the title Contributions to Menial Path- ology ; also Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity (5th cd., Boston, 1S71); Lcidesdrorf, Lehrbuch der psyehischen Krankheiten (Erlangen, 1875): Sankcy, Lectures on Men- tal Diseases (London, ISGG); Maudsley, The Physiology, and Pathology ol' the Mind (London, 1867); Blandford, Insanity, and it's Treatment (Edinburgh, 1871) ; Dickson, Medicine in Relation to Mind (London, 1874) ; Ham^mond, Insanity in its Relations to Crime (New York, 1873), A Treatise on Diseases of the Nervous System (6th ed.. New York, 1875), Morbid Impulse (New York, 1874), and va- rious monographs in the Psychological Journal. William A. Hammond. Insanity before the Law. The term insanity, al- though unsusceptible of a strict definition, hasyet received at law a convenient interpretation in the phrase noii cu))i;)08 Mentis. By this is meant a condition of mind, resulting from the influences of bodily disease, in which the individual has lost control of his faculties. Ho cannot think as ho either wants to or needs to. and consequently as he would think if in the enjoyment of mental health. He is under coercion to a greater or less degree, and cannot, although at times conscious of his infirmity, overpower it by any eflfort of the will. He is the slave of his mental faculties, whose caprices henceforth rule him and give color to his actions. But however good may bo the legal phrase iion compos mentis when used in its general application to the insane, the attempt to subdivide this class into four cate- gories, as made by Lord Coke, is one resting upon ignor- ance of the nature of the disease, and therefore confound- ing symptoms with sources. In his first category he places idiots or natural fools. But, properly speaking, many idiots are teachable, and can use their faculties to the ex- tent of their possession of them, so that they are not neces- sarily noil compos, any more than is an infant. Their pos- sibilities are. like his, a question for future demonstration ; and while they may always need guardians, this does not per sc constitute them insane. So with his third category of lunatics. Science docs not at this day admit that lunar influences can singly or conjointly tend to produce insanity. Speaking with technical accuracy, there are no lunatics, however otherwise insane any person so called may be. So also with Lord Coke's fourth category of drunkards. Such people, having voluntarily placed themselves in this con- dition, arc not legally insane, since the law holds them ac- countable for all acts" done while in that slate. It is only in his second category that Coke properly describes (he in- sane, according to modern views of the sources of thcircon- dition, by describing them as persons who were of good and sound memory, but by sickness, grief, or other accident wholly lose their memory and understanding. The presence of the basic element of disease is, there- fore, the indispensable prerequisite to any legal recognition of insanity ; and no other form of insanity than that which springs from bodily disease is known to the law. Hence, it can lake no cognizance of any forms of moral disorder, regarding them purely as varieties of dcpr.avity until they are shown to be the offspring of physical disease. Then, and then only, it considers these in their bearing upon questions of intention and responsibility. It is true that in medical investigations inio the symptoms of insanity, moral acts arc allowed much weight, as tending to show the progress rather than the existence of the disease ; but in mcdi- eineno more than in law are such acts, ;;«• «c, considered primd facie evidence of mental disorder. For in all cases the individual must bo gauged by his own standard, and questions of mental strength and competency in this direc- tion or that are questions of der/rcea relating to facts. There is scarcely a lunatic to be found who cannot perform some acts in a "rational way, and were those acts alone to bo oh- INSANITY BEFORE THE LAW. 125 served nothinE would bo discovered in them evidencing 1 «anc, as in the State of New 1 ork where they are clasM- inslnit'v I is ow°n" to those varieties in the complexion lied as cither pr.r„,e patients, ,„</w.,(.. or /.--y-e,-,. Rut of Z-Ji'ordrZloV aifrerinKan.lesundoribichit i tho common law knows nothmg of th,s k.nd, .ts ,nq«,ry is viewed, that the law has recognized the necessity of vary- ing the legal significance of the acts of persons medically adjadired to bo insane. They arc not to bo absolutely dis- franchised on this account, but their acts will be weighed apart from their condition, and if found proper and right will be sustained. The scrutiny of such acts is directed to the discovcrv of how far the actor was at the time an in- telligent and free moral agent : and while merely impor- tuning a person would bo considered no just ground for invalidating the acts of ono who was sane, it would tend to raise a presumption of undue influence in the case of one who was insane. The phrase '■ mental unsoundness," which is the modern svnonvin of tho ancient term iioii com/)o» moilU. has, therefore, been very generally adopted, because it expresses, like its Latin analogue, the fact that the mind is unbalanced, and the party not possessed of the same power of regulating its functions as formerly. 'Vet to the cTtent and within the limits of that power many rational acts mav bo done. , , .i Under the shadow of these principles it follows that both mental unsoundness and weakness of mind may vary in the degrees of their manifestation to such an extent as to render their border-lines wholly indiscernible. Exactly when tho transit occurs from mere eccentricity to loss of mental equilibrium, exactly when weakness of mind passes into conlirmod imbecility, are moments not to be ascer- tained witli dcliniteness from any single act committed. Signs, symptoms, and acts must be grouped, evidence must he'cumulativo and plenary before any judgment can be safely pronounced, since in no department of human evi. donc'o is there such a field for debate and contention over premises, over the relative weight of facts, and over the conclusions which can logically be deduced from them. It is here that most commonly occurs the fallacy of commut- ing the subjective with tho objective, of thinking as we feel, and of reasoning al')ne from our consciousness; for it is incidental to our nature to believe implicitly tho testi- mony of our senses, and necessarily of discrediting that which contradicts their report. Thus, many persons squan- der their propertv through extravagance who are not in- sane, and raauv persons legally adjudged insane are dis- posed to bo frugal : the former, so far as properly is con- cerned, need guardians more than the latter, and yet the law cannot interfere with their sovereign rights over their own so long as they are not insane. According to tho standard by which tlic miser regulates his conduct, tho ex- travagant are insane; according to the opinion of the ex- travagant, the miser is insane. Each juilges the other by the rule of his own life and the standard of his own feel- ings, and thus it is that each may judge erroneously. Tho modern phrase "mental unsoundness" is intended to cover the same ground as the varieties of nm com/yo» metmfi did at common law. It is to ho distinguished, therefore, from the phrase " insanity," which implies the highest grade of unsoundness as tested in any particular direction. Thus, the term '• partial insanity at law "is the equivalent of monomania in medicine, and imports limita- tion in the nlcni rather than in the (/«//<■<■ of insanity. It is complete insanitv as far as it goes, and as such tends to nullify all civil acts infcolcd by it. In mental unsound- ness wo have rather an inappotcney than a strict disorder of mind founde.l upon bodily disease. We can apply tho term with proprietv to any adult mind in which there is present a manifest incapacity to deal with the ordinary contingencies of life. Hence, we may speak of an idiot or imbecile as being mentally unsound, meaning thereby that such person is unequal to the ordinary strains of complex business relation-, although able to feed, clollie, and pro- tect himself. In him the incapacity consists in not being able to rise above a fixed plane of action, while in the par- tially insane tho mind can attempt, and does generally, to execute, but does this in a faulty way, obedient to the co- ercion of some disordered foculty or overpowering delu- sion. The law, adapting its principles to these varying phenomena of mental action, therefore recognizes innnnili/. parllnl iinnni'/i/, and mrnlnl miiomxlnrtt as varieties of mental incapacity, passing from simple weakness to com- plete delirium and incoherence of ideas. /iMdiii'i/. or Minin. — Insanity proper is distinguishable, both in law anil medicine, from the merely temporary de- lirium of fever, and is only recognized as a condition of legal incompetency when hecomo on established habit of lift. Tho common law takes no special ciignizance of oouto stages as set opposite to chronic, tho prcibkin to bo solved in every inquisition of lunacy being simply that of eompon onion c"om/.o«. Statutes mny. for purposes of hospital elassi- fication or equitable regard for individual and pecuniary circumstances, establish special distinctions among tho in- being directed to the question of saue or Hoii-«aiic as an established condition. Hence, even a habitual drunkard or an imbecile is not considered legally insane, but only weak-minded to the extent that evidence ni.ay show him to he unfitted to manage his own affairs. Little need be said, therefore, to show that insanity, under whatever name re- cognized in medicine, has but one designation in law, and that designation is founded upon the fact that mental in- competency exists in such permanent form that there is continuous enslavement or duress of the reasoning faculties. Consequently, every act performed by such a mind which involves responsibility at law is voiilnhlc. although not ne- cessarily void. There may bo acts which, without injury to other parties, enure to tho benefit of the lunatic, and it would be manifestly a wrong to him to set them aside merely because of the condition of mind in which he per- formed them. Thus, a lunatic may purcha.so necessaries or employ a physician or any other skilled labor, and his contract would be sustained if otherwise reasonable. The law always permits the exercise of every right which an individual can enjoy without injury to others or himself. Hence, persons legally insane and in charge of committees have been allowed to perform many acts of a character iiii- plying the possession of mental competency to a certain degree. Nor is there nnythiug paradoxical in this, since it is simply following tho law of our mental constitution, which presents us with great disparities of strength in tho faculties of the same mind even in health. In law no per- son is presumably insane until .after office found, and par- tics may deal with him as though sane, provided nothing in his manner or language be calculated to give warning of his real condition. In such cases, as elsewhere slated, his contracts are not even voidable if their subject-matter has passed into such a condition that it cannot be re- stored to its previous stale. It would be a great hard- .ship and a manifest wrong to a bona Jhle purchaser from a lunatic for a valuable consideration, who had subsequently disposed of the ])roperty, to compel him to restore it spe- cifically ; and it is difficult to conceive of any principle of equity upon which this could be demanded from the mere incident of the partv's lunacy. If the transaction is un- tainted by fraud, whv should it be set aside? If it be a reason- able act i-easonablv performed, that is all which the law can or does exact. But as the act is always open to suspicion derived from the menial condition of one of the parties, it behooves men to know whom they are dealing with, and to what extent their transactions may be subsequently voidable. Whence it follows that whenever a person is in charge of a committee, this constitutes to the world notice of his mental incompetenev, and all jiersons deal with him at their peril. It is not competent for them to plead ignorance of these facts, because tlu-y are barred by a judicial record; and although it may bo that nothing in the conduct of tho lu- natic or the character of the transaction is suggestive of insanity, still courts of equity will readily inteh-eno to an- nul the contract if tho least cloud of suspicion is 6cen to rest upon it. , , , . 1 i • PorHut /,i»«iii'(i/.— It is unquestionably demonstrated in medicine that such a condition as that known under tho name of moiiumiiiiia or piirlial iiiaunili/ cannot exist «(rir(,«.i,iii» vcrliiH " We are mad or not mad ; wo cannot he hall deranged or three quarters, full face or profile." Such is the languago of one of the leading Europeon authorities in psycholog- ical medicine. These aro facts which all experience of in- sanity certifies to. But, practically speaking, an insane person mav do many reasonable things which, having no flavor of insanitv in" them, the law will not set aside. To that extent, therefore, it legalizes a sane act by whomsoever committed. And if a person being notoriously insane is capable of doing habitually a majority of his acis in a rea- sonable way. and only a few in a persistently insane way, there seems to he no just objection in law, particularly lor convenience of description, to designating such person as parHall,/ insane. For, after all, insanity is largely a ques- tion of <Jc<;r-,-» of more or less mental power, and it cannot bo gauged bv the same standards which medicine applies to it. Municipal law must rest of necessity very largely upon artificial reasons, including convenience as among its chief ones. And since insanity proper has its varying tem- peratures and seasons, during which tho indivi.lual hceonies more or less competent to perform ordinary octs in a rea- sonable wuv, it follows us a cori.llary that one who has never exhibited this form of disease in any other than a mild typo is entitled to as much more freedom of legal action, ns bo would be to as much more freedom of personal liberty if in an asylum. The simple question nt law is lliis viz. T" what extent aro bis acta rational? If they bo BO in the majority of instances, then in the mojority of in- 12-2G INSANITY BEFORE THE LAW. stances his acts do not differ from those of a sane man, and to that extent thev deserve to be sustained. It is only for convenience' sake that the term " partial insanity is used, for the le^al principles governing it are all found applying to insanity in its larger sense, and the latter includes the former both legally as well as medically. iMunicipal law looks only to the remlta of disease in its psychological in- auiries, and does not concern itself with specific names or phoscs of insanity, both which are often but symptoms ot a common disease arrived at different stages of progress. Hence, courts cannot make judicial distinctions m the eivil or criminal responsibility of the insane based upon med- ical designations of the particular form of that disorder under which they may labor. It is sufficient for them that the rry„lt of sucii disorder has been to degrade or to over- throw the reason, because the condition of the remnn and the win are the only standards by which the law judges human responsibility. It might happen, indeed, that^in a question relating to the existence or non-existence of lucnl intervals the prcdieabililv of such could not bo determined without knowing the degree or form of mental disorder which the party exhibited, but it is clear that even in such cases courts would venture to give no opinions of their own, relyin" solely upon those of medical experts. Therefore, there arc no legal grounds upon which to discuss such top- ics as melancholia or ihmentin. since they are not specific diseases, but only symptoms of insanity, either in its in- cipient, its middle, or its last stage. Formerly, these were treated as rnrletkt of partial insanity ; now a better com- prehension of the pathology of that disease has classified them where thev belong, among symptoms. It is for tliese reasons that American courts have not followed the dicta of En"li3h tribunals in passing upon questions involving partia? insanity. All our decisions, whenever this point has been nino'ed. have reaffirmed the one cardinal principle that the law cannot concern itself with degrees of insanity, and that it is sufficient, in the interests of true equity, to lay down the rule that wherever the subject-matter of the transaction, be it contract or will, is not infected with in- sanity, the act even of one alleged to be partially insane is only voidable, and not ah inlilo void. In England this was also the rule, repeated and reaffirmed in all those de- cisions which have immortalized the name of .Sir .John Nic- oll nor was it ever questioned until the year IS+S, when Lord Brougham, in a case before the privy council, ruled that it was'crroneous to suppose that a mind shown to bo partially insane could be really sound upon any subject, and therefore competent to make a will. This decision was the first introduction of a purely psychological dogma into the elements of a legal judgment, and while abstractly sus- tainable on the basis of fahm in imo, faUiis In omnibus. has not, as before stated, secured any favor before our courts. Hence, with us partial insanity does not nccesaarily invalidate an executed contract, nor testamentary capacity, unless it enters into and infects the subject-matter of the contract or will. Where no evidence of such mental dis- order appears upon the face or in the texture of the instru- ment the partial ins.anitv of the testator at the time of its execution, although a matter of general notoriety, as where he was in charge of a cominittcc, will not. Ipm fnctn. in- validate his will. Nor do defects of the senses incapacitate if the testator possesses sufficient mind to perform a valid testamentary act; but in such cases it must be proved that the mind accompanied the will, particularly where such in- strument is neither holoiraphic nor officious. These doc- trines of American law, it will be seen, are far in advance of those of the civil law. which rendered the deaf and dumb intestable if the infirmity was congenital, or of Brit- ish courts, which adopt the rule that every act of an un- sound mind is necessarily an irrational one. •So, too, in relation to responsibility for crimes committed by persons alleged to be partially insane or temporarily insane, the law has discarded all those terms of medical designation which imputed insanity to the instincts alone. Kegarding these, when perverted, as exponents either of voluntary depravity or as states of mental duress and loss of self-control arising from disease, it requires to know sim- ply whether the party is capable of discerning the true na- ture and consequences of his acts, coupled with the power of acting or abstaining from acting in a particular way. .^nd if not, why not? The true test of criminal responsibility before the law is the possession of reason and frec-wiU. When both these are present the party is responsible ; when either is absent, he is not. By reason is meant an intelli- gent comprehension of the circumstances in the midst of which one is placed: and by free-will is meant the power of doing or abstaining from doing a particular act. No mental duress can be pleaded as insanity which has not its foundation in disease. Hence, drunkenness or heat of blood, both which work loss of self-control and possibly reason, are not bars to criminal responsibility, for they do not, in their uncomplicated form, rest upon disease as their foundation; and yet a case may be imagined where a sane epileptic might become insane through drink or heat of blood to such an extent as to be an irresponsible agent. Here the foundations of mental power are already under- mined, and a cause of insufficient magnitude to overthrow a healthy brain becomes the dcteriniuiug factor in the pro- duction "of insanity; for. after .all, the only physiological test of mental power is the ability to bear strain. Mental Unsomidnejis.—lhe condition known as mental unsoundness at law is one which is easily confounded with imbecility wherever the congenital character of this slate is overlooked. There are those, too, who may think that the attempt to distinguish them by name is an attempt to establish a distinction without a diffeicnce in fact. But it will be seen upon reflection that a born imbecile does not necessarily present us with a ease of unsound mind, for every chi'ld, if his mind does not develop proportionally with" his body, but remains infantile after adult age, repre- sents to a certain extent imbecility in some one of its phases. There may be weakness in intensity or cxtensity of action in minds otherwise sound, without, however, there bein" absolute imbecility, for there arc as in.any va- rieties of original constitntion among healthy minds as there are among healthy bodies, and every one must bo I 1 ip< indeed by a standard w'hich is derived from observations maife upo'n the majority of men. What constitutes abso- lute mental health or absolute mental sti-englh is a very difficult question to answer categorically. Mental un- soundness is frequently used also as synonymous with in- sanity, and in medicine there is no improiiricty in com- muting these terms, but at law there is a distinetioii be- tween them, resting upon the fact that mental unsoundness may be, and frequently is, due to other causes than disease, wh"creas insanity, whether manifested as mama, melan- eholla. or epileptic vertiqo, has always a foundation ot physical disease to rest upon. Thus, mental unsoundness may arise from age, from habitual drunkenness or other vic"es producing precocious senility, or from a natural ex- haustion of the mental powers as a consequence of inherited weakness, though unaccompanied by appreciable bodily disease. Its subjects not being necessarily dangerous to themselves or the community, it would be wrong to de- i.rive them of their liberty or the control of their property from the simple fact of mental unsoundness, until it was first shown that some form of guardianship was necessary for their well-being. And while in an individual pursuing a mechanical vocation mental unsoundness, to even a very considerable degree, might not impair his usefulness, in a professional man like a judge, a lawyer, or a physician t he least dimming of the mental mirror might jeopardize the entire value of his personal services, and require also, finm the more enlarged character of his possessions, that their care should be assigned to a guardian or committee The necessity for thus differentiating men according to the ex- tent of power present in them for self-guidance or the care of property forms one of the most delicate and difficult problems with which courts of equity have to deal : for it is always reducible to a question of plus or minus power, measured both in action and at rest, in the midst of such variable factors as age, health, previous education, habitual employment, future exigencies, and the like, all of which have ri disturbing influence in reading the scale of any hu- man being's character and possibilities. Nevertheless, the distinctions between simple mental unsoundness and posi- tive insanity may be drawn with sufficient clearness to en- able us to classify an individual with relation to his civil responsibility, because the law will always secure hiin his personal rights to the fullest extent commensurate with liis ability to enjoy them, treating him not as an imbecile ab- solutely, but as one over whose mind a him has come ot unequ.;i density and of varying consequences. His power over property, and much more over his own person, wil not be taken" from him until it is abundantly shown that its further exercise is incompatible with personal safely or pecuniary welfare. In determining criminal responsibility in connection with mental unsoundness a different standard has to bo employed. The peace and safely of society requiring that every individual should restrain his passions m their tend- ency" to overpower his self-control, the mere fact of mental weakness is not an answer to an indictment for ermie un- less that weakness or unsoundness be the direct offsi.ring of disease, and the disease overpower the reason and the free-will at the moment of committing the offence. A weaK mind is not absolved from the duty of watching over its own conduct and restraining its evil propensities; and while it mi-'ht not merit the same degree of punishment for offendin" as a strong one. it would bo wrong to assert that it was wholly dispunishable cither in law or ,„ foro i comoienti^. J""" Ohdronaux. INSANITY BEKORE THE LAW-INSCKIFTION. 1227 Insanity before the Law (Supplemental). Jarit- dlcliml of C'ouriM of Chmicfrij at U ike Ciittmii/ and Control of Iiisant /'t/soin.— Tlio court of clinnccr.v in England has, from a vcrv rarlv period, exercised a general power of supervision" and Jimtrol in relation to tlio interests of per sons of unsound mind, their custody, and protection. Tl 'his power, though its origin is si.ininhal obscure, is generally deemed bv writers upon equity jurispru.lcncc to have had its source in the general delegation to the court of the in- herent prorojative of the Crown as /ki/-cii» i>aiiliv to pro- tect those who arc incapable of protecting and caring for themselves. But as tho result of legislation in the reign of Edward II. (KiOl), tho authority of the chancellor m regard to insane persons has hcen in many respects con- ferred since that time l)V special commission Irom the Crown under the king's sign-manual. This warrant gives to the chancellor the right to provi.lo for their maintenance and for tho care of their persons and estates. The chief objects for which this special jurisdiction of the court is exercised arc the ascertainment of the fact of insanity by a judicial investigation, tho placing of a person judicially declared to bo insane under the guardianship of one or more persons termed a "coinmitlce." and Ihc subsequent control of the committee in the management of the insane person's property and the custody of his person. In mak- ing an inquiry in regard to a person's insanity, the practice is to issue a commission out of the court of chancery, upon a proper petition addressed to the chancellor, authoriiing the commissioners therein designated to examine into the person's mental condition with the aid of a jury, and com- manding them to report to the court the result of the in- quisition. This commission is said to be " in the nature of a writ </c hiiiiiii'ro iiiqnimido." The commissioners have power to summon witnesses and to examine the person tiimsrlf who is supposed to he insane, if he thinks fit to be present. The commission may issue even against a non- resident if he have lands or other property within the juris- diction of Ihc court. The degree of mental unsoundness which will justify the appointment of a committee need not be so great as to amount to idiocy or lunacy. Mental imbecility, resulting from age, inlirmily, disease, or the de- cay of the natural powers, may bo sullieicnt. Tho finding of the jury, however, must show that the person is to such an extent of unsound mind as to bo incapable of governing himself and managing his property and directing his affairs. And this conclusion must be directly stated in the report as Ihc result of the investigation, and appear as a positive verdict by the jury. It will not be enough to state the facts proved which indicate tho existence of in- I sanity, leaving it for the court to draw tho conclusion that it actually exists, since this is the appropriate province of | tho jury.' If there be any irregularily in conduc-ling the in- , quisition. or if the return he insullicicnt in law, or if the verdict rendcrc<l be attributable to mistake or partiality, the inquisition may be quashed and a new commission l)o issued. If the return untruly finds the party insane, it may bo traversed (or allcgeil to be false) by himself or, on proper terms, by any one who has a claim against him upon contract; and the court may in its discretion allow funds out of the estate for Iho trial of the issue thus formed. In. tho appointment of a cominittce. relalives of the ])erson ad- judged insane are usually chosen, though this is not neces- sary^ It is the duty of the committee to manage the prop- erly entrusted to their charge carefully and prudently, to mako such investments as may be necessary to keep tho estate reasonably profitable, and lo account for the manner of adininistraticin when required by the court. All gills or contracts made by the insane person himself after tho actual finding of the inquisition arc utterly void. Tho power of tho committeo to deal with the property in the oxcrciso of an in(b'pendent discretion is very limited. In most instances special aulhority to charge or dispose of the property must be nbtaincd from tho court. In tho management of the estate under tho direction of the court tho interest of the insane person is to be regarded ralhcr than the interest of those who are enlilled lo the succession. An order may be made autbori7.ing a cliango of personal property into real or of real into personal, if it be deemed for his advantage. So, in making provision for those who are dependent upon him, the same principle is followerl, and expenditures may be made ont of his properly which ho is not legally bound to incur if Hoy are substanti- ally for his a Ivanlage. Thus, if the falber of a family bo a lunatic ami under tho charge of a committee, tho moro legal right of bis n ife and children will not be regarded by the court, but an allowance may be made suilable to their station in life. Provision may even be made in some cases for Iho support of persons who arc nut related lo the insane person, and have no legal claim upon him for mninlenanco, as. r. If., persons whom he has ndoplcd as chililren, or his brothers and sisters. This is on tho ground that it is reasonably presumable that the owner of the properly would have made a like disposition of tho income under such circumslanees. and that his interests are promoted by assisling those whom he lias made dependent upon him- self, or who arc intimately related to him. In such cases the court exercises its own discretion in fixing tho amount of tho .allowaiicc which it authorizes to be made. The education of tho children of the insane person and a rea- sonable provision for the ordinary expenditures of his family will be deemed of special importance by tho court. After a proper allowance has been made for the maintcn- anco of a lunatic and his family, any surplus remaining will be appropriated to the payment of his debts. I'pon a petition bv a crcdilor a reference will be ordered to dc- teriniuo the amount of the debt and its validity, and if a report be made in favor of the creditor, the court will order the debt to be discharged if there are sufficient assets. After the appointment of a committee, suits in belialf of tho lunatic must be instituted in tho name of tho committee, who are responsible for the conduct of the suit. The luna- tic, however, is usually joined as a p.arly plaintiff. So suits against the lunatic are brought against the comniillce. On thc"death of the insane person the power of a.lniinis- tration ceases, though the committee still continue under the control of the court until there has been a final account- in". Should an insane person after being ])laccd under the guardianship of a committee be restored to sounrlncss of mind, the court may either remove the committee altogether, or suspend its authority until it can be ascertained whether tho restoration to sanity will be permanent or temporary. The members of a committee are not allowed, as a general rule, any compensation for their services, but arc only en- titled to" receive remuneration for necessary disbursements. The question has recently arisen whether if a person has become permanently insane, but no inquisilicm has been held and no committee appointed, a suit can be brought in his behalf by his next friend; and it is held that this may be done. In this country courts of equity in some of tho btates exercise the samejurisdiction in relation to persons of un- sound mind as the English court of chancery. This is the case in New York. In other States such persons arc placed under the charge of guardians appointed by courts ofiiro- bale, as in iMassachusctts. Tho mode of nppointing a com- mitteo or guardian anil the extent of their authority aro usually regulated to a great degree by statute. Tho same general principles prevail in regard to the power ol the court exercising such jurisrliction, and its control over tho management and disposition of property, as have been es- tablished in the English procedure, though minor ilifier- ences exist which need not be here delaiUd. In some of ' tho States the same power is exercised in regard lo the cus- tody and control of habitual drunkards and spcndlhrifis as in relation to insane persons. (SecShclford on Lunacy; Willard on E'lnilij .Inrinprndrwr ; Adams on B/m'/.i/.) (!i:oni:K CiiASi;. Ukviskh bv T. W. Dwiciit. Inscrip'tion [ I.at. iii, " on," and tr.rihcrc, to " write "], language inscribed, sculptured, written, or impressed upon clay tablets, metals, wood, stone, or other niatenal except papyrus, paper, or other fragile subslances used for books. Stone was principally used for the purpose, and rocks at tho very earliest period, some nations, as the Egyptians, Assyria"ns, Creeks, and Ilomans. using inscriptions for ofiiJial and other records. In the East the oldest nabylo- nian and Assyrian inscriptions, cut in the cuneiform or wodge-sbaped characters, dale as early as Hie oldest liaby- loniaii (or Assyrian) reign, being Ihal of Urukli, about 2000 n (■ These were continued as late as the Roman empire, and tho most remarkable is that of Parius Ilyslaspis at liehistun, giving an accouni of his subjeclion oi the dif- ferent nations and rivals to his power. It is in lli»e kinds of cuneiform and languages-lho Persian. Median, and Habylonian. Another remarkable inscniilion is that of Had'ii Abad, in a character called Pehlevi— which later came into use in Persia-and is supposed to refer to tho Parthian monarch Sapor. The inscrii.lions of the Egyp- tians are as old as Hie Pabyloni.iu, and are in the li.ero- glynhic cliaractcr. the oldest known being a slab of the reign of the monarch Sent of tho seccuid dymisly, accord- ing lo some chronologisis above 3000 n. r. In Egyjil tho n«o of inscriiilb.ns more extensively prevailed than else- where, the walls of l.mibs. temples, and oilier buddings, be- sides objects of use or attire, being covered with I hem. The most remarkable aro those recording tho working of the mines at Ml. Sinai from tho third to (ho eighteenth dy- nasty, others detailing ibe expulsion of the Shepherd rulers or invaders, the wars ..f Tlmllimes III. un.l I!iimese« II., Ibe invasion of Egypt by Ihc Ethiopian king Pianchi, tho tablet of San or decree of tho synod of priests lieM at Canopm 2.1.S n. c, and the llosetta Stone, or synodical dc- oroo of priests at Memphis lUO u. c, both of which aro 12 J« INSECT FERTILIZATION— INSOLVENCY. in three languages, Egyptian hieroglyphic, Demotic, and Greek, and which are keys to the decipherment and inter- pretation of the hieroglyphs. Amongst the Semitic na- tions of Palestine iuscriptiuus were more rarely used, and seldom of any length. Of these, the best known are the in- scription on the coffin of Asmunazar, king of f^idon, and the Dhiban Tablet or Moabite Stone of Mcsha. king of Moab, about DOO b. c, the oldest known in the Phrcnician charaetcr. Numerous inscriptions arc found in the Wady JMokatteb at Sinai, supposed by some to have been the work of the Israelites after the Exodus, but now referred to a later date, about 300 B.C. or later, and attributed to the N:ib:itheans. Many lliniyaritic inscriptions of a still later datu have been found at the dyke of Mareb and Sanaa in Southern Arabia, some on bronze plates which hove been affixed as votive offerings to the temples of the gods. Be- yond the rule of the Egyptians few or no inscriptions have "been fi)und in Central and Southern Africa, but at the sites of Carthage and Utica, Punic inscriptions, chiefly votive, in a Phoenician character, have been found, and at Dugga and other places, in a peculiar script called Libyan, one bilingual in both characters. Another remarkable inscrip- tion is a bilingual one in the Cypriote and Phoenician character found at Dall, dated in the reign of Melekiathon, king of Cittium and Idalium. The Jews appear not to have used inscriptions at an early period, and none are known earlier than the Christian era. It is in Greece that inscriptions of all classes and on all objects abounded, the oldest to which a date can be given being that of Abu- simbcl in the reign of Psammetiehus I., about B. c. 665. They have continued in use till the present day, and some of the most remarkable have been found at Athens ; but on the whole, the Greek inscriptions, although throwing con- siderable light on the municipal and social life of the Greeks, are not of great historical value. The Roman in- scriptions, which commence with the republic about the time of the fall of Corinth, 145 b. c, continue till the ex- tinction of the Latin language. There arc also above 2000 Etruscan inscriptions, but the language has not been de- ciphered. In India no inscriptions have been discovered earlier than the age of Asoka, about 400 b. c. but in China that of Vu has been referred to 2205 b. c, although its au- thenticity is more than doubtful. Inscriptions of 1200 b c, however, exist. Those of Indo-China and Japan are much more recent. In America the inscribed monuments of Mexico and Yucatan are of an undefined antiquity. For pala'ography, the verification of history, chronology, geo- graphical sites, the appreciation of the social and municipal condition of nations, and the relative antiquity of monu- ments, inscriptions are of the highest importance. In numismatics, iuacription means the letters in the area, not round the device. Inscriptions are more sparingly used in modern times, except for sepulchral purposes, printing having superseded their public employment. They are sometimes found in relief or in bronze letters attached by plugs to marble or other material, and were often painted for greater distinctness. S. Biitcii. In'scct Fertiliza'tion. One of the most significant modern discoveries in the domain of vegetable physiology is that the services of insects are indispensable for the fer- tilization of numerous kinds of flowers, which are so con- structed that the pollen cannot pass without external aid from the stamens to the pistils of the same plant, much less to those of other plants. Hence, these flowers are provided with a nectar which attracts insects, and is so placed that to reacli it they must first come in contact with the stamen, from which the ptdlen adheres to (he insect's body, and is communicated in the same manner to the pistils of the same or of other flowers. The popularization of these fuets is chiefly due to Mr. Charles Dnrwin. who, in his monograph on Fcrtifizati'on of Orchids {18fi2). has exhaustively traced the operations of insects in relation to a single botanical family. Iiiscctiv'ora [Lat. i»i«fcf«, "insects," and vorai-c, to '* eat "], an order of jneducabilian placental mammals whoso anterior as well as posterior limbs are primarily adapted for walking, although they may be secondarily modified for other purposes. The carpal bones of the jiroximal as well as distal rows, ami the metacarpal as well as pha- lange;il bones, are normally diiToreutiatcd and developed; the ulna and radius arc more or less distinct; clavicles are always present and well developed ; the hind limbs are normally related to the pelvis, and their elements to each other ; no calcar or spur-like appendage above the ankle is developed; the lower jaw has well-defined condyles, which are more or less transverse, and arc received into special glenoid pockets. The teeth arc diphyodont, and are of three kinds {i. c. canines, molars, and incisors), but arc more or less aberrant from the typical forms: the molars in tbo most familiar types have sharp-pointed cusps. The placenta is deciduate and discoidal. The order is divisible into two sub-orders — (1) Dermoptcra, including the Galco- pithecid;c ; and (2) liestioe, including all the other mem- bers of the order. These sub-orders are chiefly based on modifications of the anterior members and of the dentition. (1) The Dermoptcra are Insectivores with members modi- fied for flight or progression in the air, the limbs being much elongated and very slender, and connected by an extension of the skin which involves the wrists and ankles and advances forward to the neck, and backward inclosing the tail; the condylar portion of the lower jaw extends outward ; the incisor teeth of the lower jaw are palmate and deeply pectinated, while those of the upper jaw, as well as the autcrior molars of both jaws, are compressed, and have multicuspid crests. (2) The Bestia; are Insect- ivores with members modified for walking or progression on the ground, the limbs being comparatively short and robust, and tree: the condylar portion of the lower jaw does not extend outward ; the incisor teeth of the lower jaw are con- ical and not pectinated ; those of the upper jaw, as well as the anterior molars of both jaws, more or less conic, and with unilobate crowns. The licstin- are divided into eight families — viz. Tupayidse, Macroscclida^ Erinaceida?, Tal- pidse, Soricidip, Centetids, Potamogalidip, and Chryso- chlorida?. These types are limited to the northern hemi- sphere, Asia, and Africa, only one (Centetida^) being rep- resented in Cuba and Hayti, and none in South America or Australia. Theodore Gill. Insectivorous Plants capture insects and consume them. That some plants capture insects has long been I known : that a few might possibly make use of their prey I as food was suspected long ago; but it is only of late that i the suspicion has deepened into certainty. The clearest j case is that of Dinntrn mttncipttla. (Sec DiON,tA.) An I allied plant. Droskka (which see) or Sundew, efl"ects its j captures by the aid of bristles which arc somewhat sensi- j tive, and have at their glandular tips drops of a glutinous exudation. This insect-lime holds its victim while the sur- 1 rounding tips converge towards the insect. Pitcher-plttutu i (see DAULiXGTONiAJof different families attractinsects to the i open mouth of their hollow leaves. The mouth is guarded ! by short stiff needles which point downward. Over these ! the descent of the insect is easy, a return difficult. In the ' liquid of the hollow leaf insects are drowned, and scon de- I compose. That the liquid thus enriched serves as food for I the plant is not proved, but is probable. Minute ai>imals j in water are entrapped by the leaf-appendages of hladder- I icort. The stomach-shaped sacs have a mouth provided with delicate hairs which converge within to form a funnel. Through this guard minute organisms can pass in, but not I readily out. The mechanism for entrapping is elaborate; ' it is unlikely that the captures effected by it are not of ser- I vice to the plant. Mr. Charles Darwin published an clab- ; orate work on Itisectivoroua Plants [iSlo). G. L. GooDALE. Insects. See Entomology, and the names of the orders , and of impffftant species of insects. j Insesso'res [pi., the Lat. for *'perchers**],a term used by ornithologists in various senses. Some systematists apply the term to a great sub-class, including the order , Posseres (Oscincs, or "singers," Clamatores, or " crying- i birds," etc.). the order Strisores.or ** shrieking birds," and I the order Raptores, or "birds of prey." Others exclude I the Kaptores from the order. But most popular authors I make the term synonymous with "passerine birds," and I consequently make the term a comparatively narrow one. Insolvency [Lat. in, and solrrre, to " pay "], the state of a person who is unable to pay his debts as they fall duo or in the usual course of trade or business. Tliis is the general and most comprehensive sense in which the term is used, but in the English law until recently it was usually employed in a restricted technical meaning, and was care- fully distinguished from bankruptcy. A bankrupt under the English system was a trader or merchant who had be- come unable to pay his debts. Those only were termed insolvents who were not traders or merchants, and could not meet their obligations. In the legislation regulating the distribution of a failing debtor's property among his creditors the same distinction was preserved, and laws were termed bankrupt or insolvent laws according as they ap- plied to one or the other class of persons. The additional distinction was also established that bankrupt laws ope- rated to relievo a trader absolutely from his present in- debtedness, while insolvent laws only discharged a debtor from imprisonment, while they left his future acquisitions still liable to the claims of his creditors. But even in Eng- land these precise distinctions arc disregarded in recent legislation, and it is declared in the latest bankrupt act, which took effect on .Tan. 1, 1870, that all persons may be I adjudged bankrupts whether they are traders or not. This I statute contains the same general jtrovisions concerning the INSOLVENCY. 122'J \ adjudication of bnnkruptcy in reference to all classes of I failing debtors, and makes no distincliou between them in regard to the riglil to <.l,tain a discharge and the method of procuring it. In the V. S. the accurate discrimination bc- tvreen bankruptcy and insolvency which formerly prevailed I in England has licvcr been observed in legislation. Stat- | utes of the Slates have been termed insidvent luws which ] were similar in their objects and the general nature of : their provisions to the English bankrupt acts. There has, however, been a somewhat different application of the | terms bankrupt and insolvent in actual usage, though this has depended upon other grounds of distinction. l!y the U. S. Constitution power is given to Congress to establish a uniform rule on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the U. R. In pursuance of the authority given by this provision, statutes have from time to time been enacted by Congress which have been designated distinctively bank- rupt acts. Those enacted before the act which is at pres- ent in force were repealed within a few years after their pa'^sage. and laws passed in the Slates severally upon the subject took their place. These Slate statutes were gener- ally termed insolvent laws by way of distinction from the legislation of Congress, even though there was no material difference in the general character of the provisions which they contained. The discrimination, therefore, did not de- pend upon the diverse nature of the laws adopted, nor upon the different classes of persons affected by their provisions, but upon the circumstance whether the legislature by which they were enacted was a State body or the I'. S. Congress. This distinction, however. <lid not rest upon any substan- tial basis, and the terms '• bankruptcy " and " in.solvency " were oflen employed interchangeably. It was decided that a bankrupt law might contain those regulations which were generally found in insolvent laws, and an insolvent law might contain those which arc common to a bankrupt law. The power given to Congress to establish a sysleni of bankruptcy laws causes its legislation ujion the subject to supersede that of the Stales. This was the effect of the resent bankrupt act. which went into ojieration in ISO". .t would, therefore, be of little imporlance to consider the insolvent svstems of the several States as they prevailed licforo the a"doplion of this act. They were all enacted for the same general inirpose, to secure tho division of a fail- ing debtor's assets proportionally among bis creditors, liiough the regulations prescribed for the adainment of this object were somewhat diverse. The provisions of tho present bankrupt law will be found under the title li.iNK- uiiPT. The supcrscdurc of the State insolvent laws by the II. S. system of bankruptcy has been a salutary change, since the regulations thus estalilisbcd by Congress have a uniform effect and operation throughout all the States, and controversies similar to those which previously arose in regard to the effect in one Slate of decisions under tho in- solvency laws of another can no longer occur. The opera- tion of 'the law of ca.-h Slate upon the subject was conlined to ils own limits, and a debtor's discharge obtained in one Stale might be of no validity in another. It is not an uncommon practice for insolvent debtors to avoid the necessity of a resort to tho methods of obtaining a discharge from "their indebtedness established by bank- rupt laws, by a voluntary arrangement with their creditors, who agree to accept a |iart paynieut in full satisfaction of their claims, ami grant tho debtor a complete release. .Vn agreement of this kind is technically termed " an agree- ment for a composition," or simply " a composilion." This is usually made by deed termed a "composilion deed," though n'hen the indebtedness is based upon simple con- tract the agreement may be made by jiarol— i'. r. cither orally or by an instrument not under seal. The composi- tion must in all cases be founded upon a sufficient consid- eration or it will have no valiility. When the arrangement is made with a single creditor, tho agreement which bo makes to accept a certain percentage of the delit in full satisfaction, even though it be followed by an acceptance of the amount fixed upon, will not eonsliluto a consideration and the arrangement will bo void. Even if a receipt be given whiidi is expressed as being in full discharge of tho claim, the debtor will still bo liable for tho entire debt. That tho agreement may bo binding in such a case there must be a new and independent consideration, such as tho paynieut of a sum of money by a third jierson, or an en- gagement by the debtor lo ]>ay the reilueed sum in a man- ner or at a time more advantageous lo the creditor than was originallv agreed upon, or there must be a release under scab which imports a consideration. Hut nn arrangement for a coni|iosition made with more than a single creditor will be valid, though there be no independent consideration. The benefit which each credilor gains by the engngemcnt of the others to forbear, and tho conncqiienl securing of a fund for the mutual benefit of nil, is a sufficient considera- tion to sustain the agreement into which they mutually enter. Tho composition deed or agreement is not required to be of any special form. It may contain such reserva- tions or conditions as the parties may choose to insert ami make binding upon tlieinselves, provided these are not fraudulent nor invaliil by general rules of law. Thus, it is sometimes provided tiiat the agreement shall not bo binding upon any of the creditors executing it until each and every creditor who has a claim against the dcblor shall also enter into the same compromise. So there may be a reservation in the deed preserving the rights of a creditor against the debtor's sureties, though it provides for an ab- solute release of the dcblor himself, and contains a cove- nant not to sue him. Such conditions will be held valid, and will be enforced according to their terms. If they are not fully complied with, the debtor will be liable to the ex- tent of his original indebtedness. It is not necessary that all the creditors of an insolvent enter into the composition deed. If any less number agree to its terms. Ihey will be bound by it, "anil will only be entitled to the perccniage agreed lipon, unless they have qualified their acceptance by the stipulation that the consent of all must be obtained before any shall he bound. One partner may agree to a composition of a partnership debt, and tho agreement will bo binding upon the firm. A creditor's assent to a com- position may be signified as well by surrendering debts and taking composition notes as by executing a composi- tion deed." But after such assent has once been given, in whatever pro]>er modo it may be indicated, it cannot bo subsequently withdrawn by the creditor without the debt- or's consent if the agreement bo originally valid and be properly fulfilled, liut if any one of the creditors be after- wards refused the benefit which a faithful performance of tho agreement would afford him, it will cease to be binding upon him. So. unless payment of the sum stipulated in the agreement for composition be made at the time ap- pointed, the original debt is revived. Any creditor who joins in a composition is not allowed to include in it only a portion of his claim against the debtor, and sue for (he amount of the residue. He must agree to a compromise of the entire claim, or else avoid entering into the composition arrange- ment. When a creditor signs his name to a composition deed without specifying the amount of the indebtedness, the agreement will be Inld ap]ilieable to the full amount of his existing claim. After a eom|iOsition has been agreed upon with several creditors, every agreement or arrangement by which an advantage is secretly secured to any one of them which is withheld from tho others is a fraud upon the credi- tors from whom it is concealed, and consequently invalid. No securities given in pursuance of such an agiecment will bo enforceable. So, when there is an arrangement for a com- position it is a fraud in any one credilor to sue the insolvent contrary to tho terms of Ihc coni|ironiisc. Composilion deeds and other agrecmcnls of a similar nature, if fairly made and executed, and not invalidated b.y any subsequent fraudulent transactions, will be duly carried into cfi'ect by the courts. Tho validity of such arrangeiuenis depends upon tho same principles as Ihe legal doctrine of accord and satisfaction. (See Accoun ANn Satisfaction.) They acconi)ilish practically the same results as bankrupt and insolvent laws, by securing a ratable division of an iiistd- vent debtor's assets among his creditors as a condition of his full discharge. Another modo by which insolvent debtors are accustomed to secure a division of I heir property among their creditors, without taking ailvanlage of bankrujit laws, is by making an assignment in trust for the benefit of their creditors. Tho assignee of tho property becomes a trustee, and the creditors are ccs/iii's i/iie Inttl. Such a transaction is gov- erned by the general rules jiertaining to all modes of as- signment in trust, and the assignee slanils in the same posi- tion with reference to his rights and defences against third persons as tho assignor. He is under the same responsi- bility as nil persons who are authorized to admiuislera trust fund, and is held to a failbful discharge of his duly. Tho mode of making the assignment and of distributing the assets recciveil is frequently regululed by slalule. It is also sometimes jirovided that a schedule of the debts paya- ble and the available assets bo delivered losome magistrate. with an aflidavil as lo ils accuracy, and also that the as- signee shall give a bond with sufficient sureties. If the assignment is fiauilulent, it may be set aside. liefore the cnaelmcnt of tho U. S. bankrupt law a debtor might make in some of Ihe Slates what were known as )iieferenlial as- signments, by which the claim of one creditor might be preferred lo that of anolher; but this act prohibits the making of such nssignnionts within a specified time (two in<tnths) before the filing of the petition in baukrupley. Such an assignment, if made, is void, and Ihe assignee in bankruptcy may recover the properly from the parl_\ receiv- ing it. The claims of all the crcilitors must be paid propor- tiolialcly. (iKouGi; CiiAsi;. Ki;visi;n uy T. W . IHvight. 1230 INSPIRATION. Iiispira'tiou [from the Lat. iiispinttio; Gr. eftn-f«vffi? or iiirvtiv, to •• brciithe into " or " upon," to infuse into, to inspire (llic soul) from some supernatural source. In tho classics it may be the mind under the iulluence of any divinity, but the New Testament, by the use of the adjec- tive fltd:ri'eu(7T05 (2 Tim. iii. IC), defines this source to be the one personal God], that superintending influence of tho Holy Spirit over tlic minds of Scripture writers which secures such a record as t!od designs. The subject is im- portant, as attempting to answer the question. Have we in tho Bible an infallible guide to religious belief and prac- tice ? The method best adapted to an impartial considera- tion of the moral evidence is — //■.■^ indications of the superhuman origin of the Bible; moiirf, objections to the same; and lliirti, specific inspiration. I. SliPERlIt'MAN OltlGIS OF THE SlUIPTUBES. Of tho lines of argument indicating this, tho following may here bo given. 1. The Scripliirea nf the Old and iVew Tcftamnts coiisti- lute a iinltjuc book, being (") the product of many writers scattered over a pei-iod of ten centuries, and so without tho possibility of consulting as to the design or character of each other's writings; and yet, (h) though independent compositions of many men in different ages, still a self- consistent whole — a nniiij in doctrine and method, in both respects unlike all other hooks. At the same time, (o) it has a thoroughly historic basis and application, thus ren- dering a unity, on the one hand, more difficult, and afford- ing on the otlicr a valuable test of credibility. " This alono sharply discriminates it from all other so-called sacred books, from which the historic element is almost wholly wanting." (Raijem.) (d) Tlirough great vencr.ition for it. especially on the part of tho Jews, it has been pre- served in such marvellous purity that the most careful criticism and collation of manuscripts finds occasion for few important, and very rarely of fundamental, ch.anges. Furthermore, (c) that is true of the Bible which has been realized in no other book — it can be translated into all languages and still retain its import, its force, and, to great extent, its beauty. 2. The ThiirovijUhi Mnnnlheistic Character of the Scrip- tures in nr/alnsl the Siippoeitinii of their Unmun Orir/iii. — For I'l) they were written at a time or times when all nations were poly theists, and yet from beginning to end they assert the existence of >,iie onli/ true God. Moreover, (b) liow is it to be explained that monotheism should be taught by a people whose " fathers worshipped other gods," and who, once reclaimed, were disposed to relapse into idolatry ? .'!. The Moralili/ a/ the llible nhnwH n Siipcriorili/ in ihear reiprriii. — (a) It makes God supreme as «iic/i, and will not allow human virtue to become separated from him or his honor. Connecting morality with theology, it subordinates virtue to religion, (b) In Scripture the heroic virtues most highly applauded by men are regarded as inferior to the pitn'.ire ones of forgiveness, patience, and submission, (c) Its incentives to virtue are duty, God's will, his holiness, his favor, and blessedness the fruit of holiness— quite un- like those urged in the schools of philcisophy. It is to bo allied (d) that its superior morality is nevertheless one which, in its process of nllitinmciil, is in conflict with the sentiments and current maxims of mankind. •4. The Ileliqidm TcnchiiKj and Method of Scripture arc Peculiar to iltelf. — If not in making God everywhere supreme, and having for its dc«ign to set men right with God, that Christianity, its religion, which is pre-eminently the sum of its teachings, has many things that are «iii r/cncriii. («) Its aii(/ior appears in a character altogether his own— human, divine, man. God, both in one: without beginning of days, yet in time inearnalo : sinless, yet dying for^sinncrs. As the infidel Diderot confessed, it lies not within the possibility of human genius to invent such a character. (A) Tho Bible teaches salvation — impossible without him — secured by and in the incarnate Son of God. Hence, both as a possibility and in its method, salvation, aa taught in Scripture, is divine and supernatural. {<■) Notwithstanding this, rather in consequence of it, Chris- tianity is represented to be exclusive of .all other religions. But (rf) it allows no coercion, but leaves its claims, though universal and morally inflexible, to the intelligent and voluntary acceiitance of all, while yet, ('■) though allowing no compromise of doctrine or metliod, an<l requiring faith as the test of either, it boldly announces a certain and abundant future «mccc»» to the Christianity which it advo- cates. 5. Could the ITumnn Intellect Produce tuck a Hook .' — It has, to a greater extent than any other book, held the at- tention and enlisted the interest of mankind for centuries : has shown itself adapted to the wants of all; "has gone hand in hand with the moral and intellectual cnltivation of the species ;" and *' its very presence as ,a believed book has rendered tho nations emphatically a chosen race." {Coleridge.) And if not from God. the Bible presents tho fourfold anomaly; (") It would substitute for all human the one God-ordained system, although the tendency of tho race has ever been /ram God to man-devised religions. (A) Nowhere else is human nature willing to represent itself, as the Bible does, destitute of restorative energy, and re- quiring a divine interposition to save it from itself. And if proiluced by men, then (c) by a people whoso history it condemns, whose belief it opposes, and whose morality was not adapted to receive it ; and ((/) as no other hook has been able to do even approximately, it has impressed the difl'er- cnt chisses of its readers in all ages with a sincere and reverential conviction of its diriuc ori;/lu. II. Odjections. — These m.ay be jmt into three classes: 1. Those which seem to Invalidate the Claim of the llible as bciiir/ from Hod. — Examples: Since all from the first needed it, why was revelation delayed so long, and then given to so few? If from God, why has the Bible, on tho one hand, so many things insignificant, and, on the other, many that are obscure? And how can a book which is from God sanction cruelty and injustice? This whole class of objections may first be met by analogy, like that of Butler. Similar and equally weighty objections lie against "the constitution and course of nature;" hence, why should those who admit theism object to the word of God because of what is found equally in the system nf thini/s which he h.as ordained and controls? Analogy, in- deed, can only silence objections by showing Xljust as rea- sonable to admit the Bible as the course of nature to be from God ; while the word of God often aids in surmount- ing difficulties which Nature herself cannot do even in her own sphere. For example ; in the course of nature war, famine, and earthquake destroy the good and bad alike, but when God orders Amaick destroyed the judgment is seen to be penal, because that people is declared ripe for de- struction. If the innocent Son of God is permitted to sufTer for the guilty, this is justified by the work of grace as a whole, which satisfies law and justice, and rises higher than the possibility of pure law. And if it is for man's good that many things lie before him in obscurity, requiring patient study, as nature does, revelation is given, it must be remembered, to those on probation, and that an intellectual is necessary before and in order to a moral pro- bation, and that both are best secured by a communication of God's will neither too clear nor too obscure. 2. Objections Presumptive ufjainst Plenary Infpiratiou. — Apparent discrepancies, inaccuracies, seeming conflict with science. Tho objections cannot be here discussed seriatim, hut the following remarks may indicate tho proper treat- ment of them: (a) The language of sense and sight, not of science, is alone adapted to all peoples and times, and Scripture writers — who arc to be interpreted accordingly — have wisely chosen the former. ('>) If a mistake is really found in the Bible, if a date, a reading, a historic state- ment, is prored to be wrong, tho correction is, in so far ^ to be made, and can be, without invalidating other parts, (r) Nothing is to be feared from the most thorough scientific inquiry if it bo honest, but assumptions and hypotheses should not disturb the biblical student until fully verified and accepted in their appropriate field of science, (rf) Ki in the past the most careful inquiry has lessened the num- ber of supposed errors, so we have reason to believe it will be in the future, and that science and Scripture will in the end be admitted not to conflict. "With all the pains and ingenuity which have been bestowed upon the subject, no charge of error, even in matters of human knowledge, has ever yet been substantiated against any of the writers of Scripture. But even if it had been otherwise, is it not conceivable that there might be infallible divine teaching in all things spiritual and heavenly, whilst on mere mat- ters of history or of daily life prophets and evangelists might have been suffered to write as men?" (Prof. Brotme of Cambridge, Eng.) " We have no means of settling def- initely whether a posse pcccare in minor matters may or may iiot be compatible with a divine revelation communi- I eati-d through human media; but certainly till inaccuracies, fairly and incontcstably proved to be so, are brought home to tiie Scripture, wo seem logically justified in believing that as it is with nine-tenths of the alleged contradictions in Scripture, so it is with the alleged inaccuracy." (Ellicolt.) :!. Objections from the Xotnre itself of Inspiration.— ll has been said that a full inspiration should give idcniiii/ of expression when tho same events arc narrated by differ- ent writers: which is evidently not the case. And again, that inspiration must involve a suspension of the writer's own powers, but that intimation is given (hat they arc still free. Further, that men. being themselves fallible, could not be the media of infallible truth. And, moreover, as by Kant, that the writers could not clearly distinguish a state of inspiration from their own thought. To which class of objections it is replied («) that iusjjiration must he neces- INSPIRED, THE— INSTALLATION. 1231 sarily a secret miracle, not cognizable by common con- sciousness, but yet clearly so by those made the subjects of it, and to be received on their testimony if credible men. (6) No theory of inj-piration can be (enable which docs not allow freedom and individuality in the writers. At the same time («■) it is claimed f<»r the Scripture writers that. though in themselves fallible, they arc kept from error in that /or tchirh they are employed by the divine Spirit. "Human instrumentality . . . has been moulded by the Holy Spirit into the orj^anism of revelation — each ray of (he divine li'^ht has hcen borne to mnDkind through the me- dium best suited for its trunsmission ; and yet. while bor- rowing in its course that particular hue which the medium lends through which it passes, it retains, no less sensibly, the purity of the source from wiiich it streams.*' (Lcr.) It may be observed that objections to the inspiration of Scrip- ture arc raised in one way or another from its human ele- ment, and that it depends largely on the use made of this what theory shall he adopted— whether the Bible shall be received, and how fur. as infiillible. III. SrKriFic iNsniRATioN. — The theories need to be dis- tinguished and the proof given. A. TiiDJRiEs. — These would group themselves into three classes, according as the Bible is held to be not at ail from Gotlf pnrt/i/ from him. or tthuUy from him. 1. Tlir liible h, t'n no Pccnh'itr Seuitr.from God, — Natural~ inm or /'oHt'tirt'sin, ignoring a personal God, logically rejects revelation; Panthchm, regarding everything alike divine and inspired, can admit nothing to be peculiarly so; and /iittionafitriii linds as much in Homer and Plato to call in- spired as in Isaiah or Paul. 2, T/ie fiiblc in Partially fnnpired, since it CONTAINS, hut IS SOT, a Hrrclatiun from dod. — Varieties are — {a) parts only are inspired: (h) the writers possess a consciousness, however high, differing, not in kind but in dctjrce only, from* that of others, (c) There must be a '* unifying fac- ulty" which is subjective. This class, in all its varieties, finds it not difficult to assume dcf/rcrn of inspiration, but not easy to determine the authority for Scripture; while, moreover, the subjective state of tho individual becomes the critrrion in each particular case. It. T/ic fiihh, hriiiij fmm Gnd, poHHCHscs a Full luipfrn- tion. — («) The mechanical theory of dictation, the writers being mere amanuenses, would indeed give plenary in- spiration, but not the manifold human clement, nor the variety in style and freedom of the writers which every- where prevail. It is hence to be rejected for (h) the dy- namir theory, whieli holds to the divine superintendence throui^hdut, but affirms the result to be gainecl through the free activity of the writers' own minds. '* Inspiration is that divine influence under which all parts of the Bible have been committed to writing, whether they contain an account of ordinary historical facts or the narrative of su- jiernatural revelation." (Lcc.) If (Jod communicates his will, it is through, as well as to, man, and in a genuinely human form. But a distinction is to be made between rrrrlntioit and tunpiration. The former refers rather to the divine thought communicated — nut otherwise knowiiblc ; the hitter, to the record of whatever truth (iod would have recorderl. Hence, there may be revelation without inspira- tion, as to Malaam and Xehuchadncz7.ar ; and inspiration without revelation, as through all parts not directly re- vealed. Tho Bible thus contains a rcrc^atioji, and is an inspiration. B. PnooF. — I. Presumptive. — f«) All the lines of argument showing the Bible to bo superhuman ; r. <j. its brief, graphic, but unaflorncd narrative, as in the Gospels; its simple com- prehensiveness, as tho Ten Commandments, which con- vinced an able but infidel Inwyer that they could not bo human. (Sec under I. of this article.) {h) A revelatiim grants d.nncl this because supernatural instruction is need- ed, inspiration may bo presumed, since a mere human rec- ord of whatever truth would not bo an infallible guide. {'■) Tho doubtful attitude into which wc are tlirown by denying inspirnlir»n favors it, since without this we could have n<) uhjrctirc standard of religious truth binding on all, and i<h inspiration may be precumed from the thor- oughly harmonious commingling of the prophetic and miraenlous with tho historic and diilactic ]>ortions, which is evervwhcro found. If Scripture is the divine in the hu- man, the human seems at all points nervadeil by the divine like an incarnation. (.ScoT. \t<iw\9, hirinr- Human in Scrips fure; also I. Taylor's Hrhrrw Poetry, and H. Uogers's Hit- prrhuman f frit/in nf the lUldr.) 2. Mnrr Dirrrt. — (a) Tho Scripture writerfl distinguish between a divine communication and their own subjective sfate, false prophecy being subjective only, " prophets of tho deceit of their own heart," the true having a valid ground outside of their Own mind, like the rul] of a bonk in whieh wa« written " the word of the Lord " (rf. .ler. xxiii. L'.'i, L'l;, and Ezek. ii. 0, 10). (h) The wtitcis imply their belief in the organic unity of Scripture by quoting and using what others had said, all such utterances being treated as binding; also, by assuming often a pregnancy of mean- ing in the original words, (c) Inspiration of the Xcw Testament writers. [Xutc. Paul, one of the most important writers, was an apontU miravuluunly prejmrcd for this ofliec (Gal. i. 11. 12). which he c^(j"mc</ f I Cor. ix. 1-6), and which was admitted by others (Gal. ii. 0). Alt other New Testa- ment writers were apostles, save Mark ami Luke. Whether they wrote. .Mark under the supervision of Peter, and Luko under that of Paul, or were t/i'rcct/y inspired, their writings certainly have been more readily received than some other portions. Hence, the argument for the inspiration of tho New Testament is substantially that for tlie inspiration of the apostles as such, and is summarily this :] ( 1 ) The apos- tles were promised divine direction when arraigned as wit- nesses : *' Take no thought how or what ye shall speak. It is not ye that speak, but the Spirit of your Father that f!peaketh in you "* (Mark x. 19, 20). (2) And were to ho kept from mistakes in their ofliciai testimony: "The Spirit of truth . . . will guide you into all truth, and he will show you things to come" (John xvi. i:*.). Also in respect to the past: "He shall bring all things to your rcinein- brance" (John xiv. 2C). And (T.) The Spirit was to co- operate in their testimony (cf. John xv. 2C, 27, with Acts i. 6-8). (4) They affirm their own inspiration: " Wc have received . . . the Sjiirit which is of (Jod . . . that wc might know the things of (iod, which things we speak, not in words which man's wis<iom teaclieth. but whieh tho Holy Ghost tcacheth" (I Cor. ii. 12, III; Eph. iii. 2-;>) ; while (6) They assume without argument that others will admit their inspiration: 'MVhen _ve received the word of God which ye heard of us. ye received it not as the word of men, but as it is in truth the word of God" (1 Thc?s. ii. 13; iv. 8). Accordingly, (0) they speak and write as for God and with his authority: " Maketh manifest the savor of his knowledge by us in every place." (See Rom. XV. l.'i-Ill: 2 Cor. ii. 11 : iii'.S ; iv. 5: v. 20.) (d) Inspira- tion of the Old Testament. (I) The New Testament gives proof of the inspiration of the Old, recognizing the three parts of the Jewish Scriptures- — the Lnw or Pentateuch, by referring to or quoting various passages, and saying. "God commandcil," or "Ye reject the commandment of God;" the Psalms ( Ilagiographa), as in Mark xii.36, '■* David said by the Holy Ghost ;" and the Prophets, Luke xviii. .^1, etc. Moreover, our Lord speaks of the customary divisions, and then combines the three as *' Scrijjfurcs :" "An things must be fulfilled which were written in the law of Moses and in tho prophets and in the ptahus concerning me. Then opened he their understandings, that they might under- stand the SWiptures" (Luke xxiv. 44. 45). (2) Tiie Old Testament contains in itself corroborative proof. For ex- ample, the prophet jnust speak, though he might die ineon- s'.qucnce. (Sec Jer. xxvi. 1 1-1 1.) Pn trudrrs wcvc to bo severely punished even by dealli (cf. Deut. xiii. I-o with Zcch. xiii. .*i and Jer. xxviii. 11-17). It is further sugges- tive that direction was given to record hintorienl events: " Moses wrote their goings out according to their journey- ings, by thr rtanmnud/nrut of the Lord" {^utu. XXXlii. 1.2), Finally, the Old Testament writers, like those of the New, affirm that they speak in the name of the Lord: "Tho Spirit of the Lord spake by me, and his word was in my tongue. Tho God of Israel said :*' " Lest they should hear the law and the words which the Lord of hosts hath sent in his Spirit by the former prophets" (2 Sam. xxiii. 2, .'i ; Zeeh. vii. 12). Sueh is the outline of proof — necessarily of a moral eha- racler. but found to bo cumulative — that in the ScripfnrcH of the Old o;k/ AVip Testaments ice hare nn objective standard /troriflrd by Hod himself a« an infallible yuidc to rvligious belief nnd prarticc. J. It. IlruiiKK. InspirotU The, or The Coinnninity of True I«- spiniiion, a small sect of ('hristians who trace lluir origin both to the old (icrman Mvsties and Pietists, and through the" French Prophets" to thcCamisardsof France. They accept the teaching of Bohmo anci Schwenkenfeld. They reject the sacraments, (iractisc to some extent com- munism in respect of property, nnd are evangelical in doc- trine. They profess at times to receive divine inspiration, passing into a somiuimbulistio state. They liave commu- nities in Iowa nn<l Canada. From 1814 to 18j4 they had a flourishing eoinmunity at Kbeni'zer, Wc^t Seneca tjt.. Erie CO., N. v., u hence they removed to Amana, la. Instnllil'tioii [Low Lat. r'li.and stallum, a " seat "], tho oeremoniul act by which nn ordained minister is furnmlly put in pos.'^ession of his ofllco and empowered to exercise its functions and receive its emoluments. Tn the English Church the <'eremoniul form differs according to the ofilco conferred, and alsti the name, inthronitotion being the tcchuioiil term in rcfercuco to a bishop, and iuduction for 1232 INSTERBURG— INSTINCT. the lower clergy, while iimtallalion properly refers to the office of a canon or prebendary in a cathedral ehurch. In the Congregational Church ol America the term applies to all ministers, and is distinguished from orrfiimd'oii as being the conlcning "f the pastoral office over a particular church. Ill'stcrbiirg, town of I'russia, in the province of Prussia. at the conftucncc of the Angerap and the Insler. It carries on a considerable industry in weaving, tanning, brewing. and distilling, and a brisk trade in corn and linseed. It owes a great deal of its pmsperity to a number of Scottish families which settled here in the seventeenth century. Top. riSa. lu'stilict [Lat. insliiiclwi. "incitement "]. Instinct, in popular language, is generally contrasted with reason. It is spoken of as an entity, a principle controlling the lower animals, and peculiar to'thcm. Instinct more properly im- jilies a peculiar mode of action which may ])rcvail in the lower animals or man. It is a name for a class of impulses and capabilities that give rise to actions apparently con- nected with voluntary powers— actions for the benctil of the actor, hut independent of intelligence. Instinctive acts thus simulate intelligent action, while there is no compre- hension by the actor of ends, or of means in relation to ends. Such comprehension, wherever found, is the work of intelligence. But instead of attempting at the outset to frame a concise definition of instinct, we shall give a series of definitions and explanations which will aid us in under- standing the nature of instinctive actions, and their rela- tions to functional and reflex action on the one hand, and intelligent action on the other. 1. An iiitliiiri may be defined as .an impulse to a particu- lar kind of action which the being needs to perform as an individual or representative of a species, but which it could not possibly learn to perform before it needs to act. In- stinct, as a general term, jiroperly includes all the original impulses (excepting the appetites) and that apparent knowledge and skill which animals have without experi- ence. There are some actions which have been regarded as instinctive that are probably only refle.x; that is, actions produced without volition, as the immediate eilect of some stimulus. The stinging by a bee is plainly a reflex action, be- cause the abdomen of the bee when severed from the thorax will not only thrust out the sting, but will direct the sting towards th J part that is ton died. But when the bee flics at an enemy in defence of its nest, the act is instinctive, as that term is generally nsed. The definition of reflex action has been so extended by some as to embrace all the acts which wo terra instinctive. ( Demnrtcs, Hirhi-rl .Spencer.) We can- not, however, regard the return of fishes to their breeding- places, the migration of birds, or the storing up of food by animals of difl'cront kinds as in any proper sense reflex actions. They are so complex, involve so much of timo and space for their completion, and so simulate the wisest and most skilful actions of intelligent beings, that they at least deserve a specific name, which we have in the word itiHlinctive. The activities properly denominated instinct- ive may be classified into four grou)is: (n) Impulses aris- ing beyond the sjiherc of the appetites, or ministering to the appetites, as the impulse to migrate, to store food for winter; also the desires so called in man. U') .Ability (knowledge?) without instruction for meeting the demands of the appetites and desires, and for doing those things essential for the continuance of the individual and the species, (c) Ability (skill?) without instruction or prac- tice to carry out the plans necessary for the good of the species, as the various methods of securing food, the build- ing of nests, and care of young, (il) -Ability (knowledge?) arising independently of any demand of the appetites, as recognition of certain enemies without instruction or ex- perience. Three things are involved in the highest manifestations of those activities which are together labelled Ixstixct — impnhi'. kiioirlnlyc, and aki'll. or an iihiHiii that in action simulates both knowledge and skill. In the animal king- dom, as now existing, wo find impulses to .specific actions, and so much of apparent knowledge and skill belonging to each species as shall enable its members at birth to he- gin life successfully; just as a certain completeness of or- gans is given to them at birth that the vital processes may go on to perfection. .\s the physical .system develops, new instincts are developed to secure the proper use of organs and the proper relations of the whole being to the world. However the result may have been securctl, we now find, as a matter of fact, that structure, function, and instinct in all species supplement each other in a wonderful manner. The special manifestations of instinctive action illustrative of these general propositions are exhibited by animals, chiefly, in the following manner: (1) By those acts that supplement physiological functions, as in the choice of food, the methods of securing it, and the union of the sexes. (2) By the natural recognition of certain enemies, and by those specific acts to avoid them, common to all members of the same species. (3) By the use of special structures, as the fang of the rattlesnake for defence and the use of the oil-gland by fowls in dressing their feathers. (J) By those acts necessary for the existence of communities of difterent kinds of individuals, as in the ease of bees and ants, where individuals from the same mother have difl"er- ent instincts, but all working together for the welfare of the .s])ecies. (Sec Bke and .\nt. ) (5) By the development of special impulses incidental to the ])arcntal relation for providing for and defending the young. (See Daibdii.) (G) By the structure of complicated homes characteristic of difi'ercnt species. (7) By the peculiar impulses of the young, by which they are at once brought into proper re- lations to their parents and the world. The young of our hoof-bearing aninmls, for instance, must seek the udder for themselves, as the m'jther cannot aid them. (8) By the change of impulse and habit in different stages of existence of tho same individual for its own advantage, as among insects. (0) By those impulses and actions of animals de- manding certain changes in other beings to complete their work, as the formation of oak-galls to complete the work of the insect in providing for its young. (10) By tho many cases in which the instinctive act exactly supple- ments structure and function, as in the honey-bee, which has the function in the rings of its body of secreting wax, and in its m.andibks instruments for forming a cell. In- stinct prompts the bee to use the iustrunient and the prod- uct of its function to construct its comb. {Sec Bkk.) (11) Bv the interaction of tho instiuct of the mother and that of the young, as when the fowl gives the note of warning, and the young instantly scatter from her and hide, because she cannot protect them. (12) By those cases, as among fishes and many insects, in which the young never sec the parent, never have an opportunity to learn from one of their kind, and yet instinctive impulse directs them in the same way and in the best way in all the exigencies of life. A careful study of the subject shows the great difliculty of distinguishing instinctive action from reflex on the one hand and from intelligent on the other. This difliculty arises from the fact that the difi'ercnt kinds of acts are often alike in their results; and in the chief fielil of their mani- festations — that is. among the lower animals — wo have no means of determining their nature but observation as to the method and the condition of the action. Whether there is among them conscious relation of the actor to the act it is imjiossible for us to learn, except by inference. Reflex and instinctive acts are both in the same line, for the ben- efit of the individual in whieli they appear, or when against the welfare of the individual they are for the welfare of the species to which he belongs. As bnth classes of acts are in the same line, and are alike in their results, it be- comes diflienlt, not to say impossible, to apply a satisfac- tory test for determining the class to which certain acts belong. The young bird jnst from the egg raises its head and opens its bill to receive food. Whether that act is sim- ply reflex, or belongs to those acts properly denominated instinctive, we cannot certainly determine. But tho act is in tho same line as the instinctive work of the bird when, becoming older, it seeks food for itself. Instinctive acts commend themselves to reason as tho best possible for the being that performs them : and in the lower animals they so simulate intelligent action, and seem to be so intimately joined to it in man, that it is here also very diflienlt to apply in a satisfactory manner any test for distinguishing one kind from the other. Hence arises the difficulty of proving that the lower animals ever perform any acts higher in kind than instinctive. They plainly learn by experience, and as a consequence of that experience per- form acts that they would fail to perform without it. They come to have great power in interpreting the actions and words of men. Many facts seem to imply that there is in some of the higher animals an apprehension of means in relation to ends. As before intimated, such an apprehen- sion is inlclligence. Instinctive impulses appear in man, and the instinctive principle of action plays an important part even in his higher nature. Hamilton says: "We can hardly find o more snitablo expression to indicate those incomprehensi- ble spontaneities themselves, of which the primary facts of consciousness are the manifestation, than rational or hitct- heliinl iiitlinrte." (.Vt^o/)., Bowen's ed.. p. 205.) I'res. Hop- kins says: " What is conscience but a rational instinct, a guide without comprehension, but rational, because it re- veals itself as the voice of Hod, which all instinct is with- out thus revealing itself?" {Mor. Science, 1st ed., p. 244.) The impulse of worship seems to be plainly instinctive. It is sure to appear in some form under proper conditions. Tliciirici. — The prevailing theories in regard to instinct- ive action may in the main be reduced to three: (1) That INSTITUTE OF FRAN'CE, TIIK. 12:!;] these impulses nnd capabiliiios were the direct c<ff of the Creator to each species a.-* its essential outtit. This theory would be satisfied with the doctrine of special creations, or the doctrine of evolution according to a plan, by which new organs and new instincts are co-ordinated in the evolution of new species from one form, as the organs and instincts of the individual are co-ordinated in its evolution from the e»». The essential thing in this theory is tliat each species shall have as an original gift all tho:jc instinctive powers and capabilities essential to its existence as a species and the development of its members as individuals. (Sec EvouTiov.) (2) That what we call instinct is simply the accumulate'! results of individual exjieriouce, fixed by rep- etition and received by the living races by inheritance. Kvery instinct, according to Lewes, is an "organized ex- perience," a "lapsed intelligence" (A'n^fre, Apr., 1873); **it^ genesis fis] from actions that at first were tentative, in other words intelligent " fA-'>/(/*>nM n/ Li/f nwl Mind, vol. i. pp. 20S, 209). {.1) Mr. Darwin, while allowing that some intelligent actions may become converted into in- sfincts, and bo inherited, claims for the greater number of complex instincts an entirely different origin; that is, "through the natural selection of variations of simpler in- s*inctive actions" (Ihireut o/ .IA/m, vol. i. p. :J7)— varia- tions that arise from unknown causes. IIo thus attempts tu explain the most complex ca.«es of instinctive action. The full discuRsioD of his theory as a whcdc, and the spe- cific oases under it, would require more space than we can give. (See Chadboume's InntSnct in Atiimatit and Man.) The impulses of animal life arc functional, as the appe- tites, or instinctive, as the desires. In the animal king- dom, as it now exists, the impulses find their expression through complex directing powers that supply for these lower animals the place of acquired knowledge and skill in man. In specific simple acts instinctive action depends upon the impression made upon the senses. Instinct may thus bo deceived by appearances. In many cases we find instincts the exercise of which immediately after birth is essential to life, as the instinct of the young mammal to seek the udder. We cannot conceive of a time when such an instinct was not essential to all such animals. If wo attempt, with Darwin, to explain the comb-making instinct of the honey-bee by the influence of natural selection in preserving those swarms that built best, because they used less honey in making wax {Orifjin nf Spf^riet), wo cannot help asking how we shall account for the similar six-sided cells in the nest of the wasp, where no honey is used for making wax and no food stored for winter. We can only state as a fact that we find each species as it now exists endowed with such instincts as enable it as a whole to hold its place in the world against all ordinary contingencies. We find these impulses and directive powers arising in in- dividuals as naturally as the difi'erent organs develop by growth. The young animal comes into the world with a physical organization suflicient for carrying on the work <»f the physical system to perfection, and with instinctive impulses and capabilities sufficient for beginning and car- rying on the same work. While physiological forces carry on the growth within the body, instinctive forces adjust the relations of the animal to the external world. Through flii'se impulses and activities all animals are urgeil on to their end in that course best for the species as a whole. lu man the instinctive impulses are never wholly self- directive, but are conditional for the action of that rational niiture through which man as a free agent seeks his own en»l. (Consult Kirby's /irii/ffeicnt^'r Trrntiiir: Wood (J. G.), IfnnicM irith'tut Ihiufh: Bain, The. Sruttm and the fntrlirrt.- Lewes (<i. H.), I'l-'tbitmn o/ Lift- and Mind; Diirwin, Oi'i- fjin of S fir r tin, De»c*iit of Man, etc. ; Wallace, Xatural Sc- ffit'tion; Spalding, Mncmiilan'n Mag., Feb., 1873 ; Flourens (P.), I)e I'lit/itinct ft r/iiteffiffrnrr d't Animaitx; Chad- bourne. fnntinrt in AnimrtU and Man,) P. A. CiiAluiorRNK. In'MtituCe of Francey The, occupies a unique posi- tion amongst the learned societies and academies of Ku- r(»pe. " Many countries," says Ernest Uenan (himself a member of the Institute), "have academies which may rival ours by the fame of their members and by the im- piirtance of their works. France only has an In»iitut where all the efforts of the humiin mind are bound together in one shenf ; where the poet, the philosopher, the histo- ri;in, the phibdogist, the critic, the mathematician, the physician, the astronomer, the naturnlist. the chemist, the lawyer, the sculptor, the painter, and the musician may call themselves comrades." As early as l.'i7li, Franco had begun to imitate the Ital- inn^ in the matter «f academies, but it was half a century later before its famous Academy arose. In a time of in- tellectual activity literary coteries and clubs naturally flourish. To one of these knots of literary men Uichclicu made a proposition that they should be converted into a corporate body. With some hesitation tbo ofTor was oo- Vol.. IT.— 7A oepted. The king's letters patent were issued early in 1G35, nnd after two years an<i a half more the sanction of the Piirliamrnt of Paris was obtained, and the Aradftntc Frant;aiin- came into existence, the first learned society endowed and erected into a corporation. Its chief aim was to fix the standard of the language, and a dictionary was the thing first thought of. This has notatlvanced very far, and is less likely to be completed now than when it was first undertaken. A less elaborate dictionary was issued under its supervision in Hi'J4, and has since been frequently reprinted. In order to flatter the inordinate vanity of Louis XIV. a committee of the Aeatlemie were entrusted with the task of drawing inscriptions for medals, etc. in commemoration of his glories. In this manner ci>mmenccd the Acadtmicdes InncriptiouH et //r//c«-A<'^/re«, which after- wards devoted itself with great spirit to the study of an- tiquities. In IfiOO, Colbert founded the Acadrmie dea Sct- encfg; between IGtS and 1671 arose three more academies, sculpture and painting, music, and architecture, which at the last-named date became the Arad^mi*: den licanr Artft. These learned societies were all <lissolved by the National Convention in 1791. The Revolution did not seek to dis- courage literature and learning, but to break the conti- nuity which bound thera to the royal and aristocratic past of Freneli history. For the continuance of their work the same c<mvention in 1795 called into existence the Institut, which was in almost every way the heir of the older asso- ciations. The three men who had the greatest share in the framing of its constitution were Lakaual, Daunou, and Carnot. It was divided into three classes, which were re- spectively charged with the advancement of ( I ) physical sciences and mathematics, (2) moral and political sciences, (.1) literature and fine arts. The Directory nominated 48 persons, a third of the members, and these elected the re- mainder. Some changes were introduced by the First Con- sul, wlio looked with suspicion ujion a body which might be expected to unite intellect and independence. The modifications of 1803 were in some respects improvements. They involved, h<)wcver, approval of the chief of the state for each election, and provided that moral and political sci- ences shonid only be studied in their relation to history. Whilst mathematics and physics flourishcil by the aid of Lagrange, Bertbollet, etc., the literary sections displayed comparatively little spirit. In 1807 they undertook the continuation of the Ilistoire liltrrairt- dc Ai France, com- menced by the Benedictines. The Restoration was as eager to link the institutions of Franco with its monarch- icalpast as the Revolution had been anxious to destroy their continuity. Tho Institute indeed escaped destruction, but a roval ordnnnaucc in ISIG, after naming the foundation of tbo old academies as one of the glories of tho ancestors of Louis XVIII., declared that it was right and proper {cnm^enahlr) to restore to each class of tho Institute its original name, in order to bind together their ancient glory with that which they had since acquired. Tho opportu- nity was taken of depriving twenty-two persons of their right of membership. David tho painter, Monge, Lakanal, and Siey^s were amongst the illustrious victims of royal spitefulness, an<l their places were supplied by nominees of the Crown. Tbo unity which had been one of the aims of tho Institute was l)roken. During tho Restoration it lan- guished. Tho revolution of July (lid something to improve upon tho feebleness and intriguing spirit with which it hail become infected. Guizot in 1832 restored the class which Napoleon had supjiresscd. Ten of its old members were fouml, and they constituted the nucleus of the present Arailrmiv drn SciciiccH moral* s ft p(ditii/iit>'. The fear of socialism, which reigns perennial in the well to-do French- man's breast, led Cavaignao to ask tho aid of this Academy in combating the communistic ideas of the wearer.s of blouses. They complied, and produced a volume of small treatises which, as Renan remarks, j.robably had not a single reader amongst those whom ibey wanted to convert. In its present organization the Institute is made uj) of five distinct academies, each having its own officers, meetings, publications, etc.: (H Tho Aradrmir Franraitir. Its origin has alreiidy been given. The number of members is re- stricted tn forty. The elections have not always depended upon merit alone. The old Academy rejected Moli("^rc, and tho influence of Monsignor Dujianloup, bishop of Orleans, suflleed to procure the rejection of LittrC' on bis first can- didature. Tliat the Academy which in 2011 years has not got past the letter (! of its dictionary should blackball tlie man who single-handed accomplished the neglected labor, is indeed a striking proof that the highest culture is not suffleiont to ensure eitiier the presence of justice or tho absence of bigotry. A body like the .Academy is generally conservative, yet in 1827 it had the courage to address the king in opposition to the laws for tho restriction of the press. The Academy has the functions of a high jury. The French, with their passion for liberty, have also a pro- 1234 INSTITUTES-INSURANCE. dilection for authority, and the approhation of the Academy is one of the prices to which young authors look forward. The Academy is rich. The annual allowance fron, the state is about" Si.OOO francs, a good part of wh.ch goes m member"- allowances. The prices for eloquence and poetry X"rb 1000 francs. Whether any prii^j poem wdl ever go down to posterity may be doubted. The Montyon pr.ze for™rtue is well known: 20,000 francs "e .vearly d.v d.^ amon-t poor persons who have distinguished themselves r some s'^eeiallv virtuous act. Montyon also left a yearly •ri^eTo rew.ard the publication of the book most eondncn-e public morality. De Toef,uevillc-s work on An,er.ean de^c acy is perhaps the most not,0,le book wh.eh has re- ceived this diltinction. The prU- Gohert. founded m IS.W, 's for the most eloquent work relating o the h.story of Fr'nee Thierry and H. Martin have been amongst its Faureale^. It amounts to 10,000 francs. There are many other prizes. In ISBfl the emperor created a f and b.en- niarnri e of 20,000 francs to be awarded m turn to he special Tudes represented by each of the five academies. T^l e n s tTwhom^t was awarded was M. Tluers. who un- meaiately presented it to the Academy for the foundation of an annual prize of :i000 francs. (2) The Arn.U'mie rf« I„s«-;pl!ous el Ilel!c.-Lclt,-es.--lt has 40 ordinary, f honor.ary. 8 foreign assncates and oO correspondingmembers. It has the distr.bnt.on ot variou pre the most important being that fonndod by Gobert Fo th^most learned'work relating to the h.story of France (31 The Acndlmk dcs .SV,V„c.», having 6o ordinary 10 honorary. 8 foreign, and 100 corresponding members. The r^t brilliant names in French science have adorned the roll of this academy. Arago, Ampere Gay-Lussac in the new, as Lagrange, Laplace, Ilauy in the old have made it °rtrTo„s.° The descriptions of French '/f .^'. .h". '"^^P^- etc issued by the old academy were useful in their da^ and have still their value. In the new academy assoc.ated tork has been left aside, and it is the indu-idual labors of Us members which are chronicled in the Complcs revdm This, by its frequent publication, is now the most^important scientific periodical. The eight foreign members of the academy may be regarded as those whom a eompetent though not always nnprejudiced jury regard ^^ 'he most em- inent men of science out of France. It is related tha when Dalton, during his visit to Paris, attended a session (in his en acitV of foreign member), those present stood up in h, honor, a compliment which was not paid to the emperor when he joined their body. , , .a j- „.„ in (4) The Arademie cU, Beaux Arts has 40 ordinary, 10 honorary, 10 foreign associate, and 40 eorrespoud.ng mem- bers. It distributes a number of prizes and has published a dictionary of the tine arts. (51 The 'Ae,«{fmie dca Seieuces morales et pnhtuiues has 40 ordinary, B honorary, 6 foreign associate, and 40 corrc- ^''"^i'chfs'th'e"manner in which the Institute i. divided. All the year there are five academies but on the 14th oi Au-ust the Institute holds a general meeting of all the secUons of which it is composed. There ,s a line and rare mriry attached to the Ins.itut. Each member receives a salary of 1500 francs, and the s6creta,res perpeluels Imo fifloV francs per year. The Institute is a creation of which FraLmay'wel be proud. Beyond the personal renown oi its members and the value of their labors, the organiza- tion of the Institute shows that Its founders had a clear sense of the udidarite of knowledge-a unity sometimes lost sight of in our own age, when nearly every savant is a spec alist. The tr.adition of the old academies lias stereo- typed the Internal form of the Institute, and probably pre- vented a -rowth and classification of its sections more in accordance with the present state o^^-;';-;-^, ^ ^^^^ Institntes (of Jistini.in). See Law, by Prof. T. W. DwiGiiT, LL.D. „. Institii'tion [Lat. >laU,ere in, "to establish on J, a word which is especially used in the plural, and applied to a scries of doctrines and to some establishments. 1 or in- stance, there are political, judicial, theological, medical charitable, and other inslitutions. It applies more to the immaterial aim than to the material and practical repre- sentalion of said institutions. A political institution mean a whole set of such or such doctrines, rather than the kind of government entrusted with their application. A med- ical institution applies to the intellectual part of the con- cern, and not to the building in which the intellectual and medical programme is carried out. When ""-Vhi'dy speaks of the " poUtical institutions - of the U. S., he thinks more of the .,).>.•( of the political principles embodied in he American Constitution than of the letter of that Consti- tution, which provides for the organization of a Congrc s of a supreme court, and other practical .applications of the Dcclar-ation of Independence. FiiLix Av'CAloE. Insnr'ance [from in and «iirp], in its most general def- inition, is a contract whereby one agrees, for a suui of money, to indemnify another in case the latter shall suffer loss by certain specified risks. It is termed vmrme or J,re accord- in.' as it is applied to maritime or fire risks. It was un- known to the ancients, and had its origin in the exigences of modern commerce. It was first applied to mercantile adventures. The fear of pecuniary rum by the loss ot ship or cargo checked the spirit of enterprise. Few were so wealthy as to he able to hear alone so great a loss, but bv dividing the risk amongst many it was seen that the in- convenience to each of the proportion of loss which he as- sumed might become trivial. Thus originated the practice of insurance, which has for its purpose to break the force 1 of the blow of calamity by increasing the power of resist- i ance Though known and practised amongst th" commer- 1 cial communities of Southern Europe at a much earlier pc- ; riod it was a comparative novelty in England in the time ! of Elizabeth. During the last century, however, it has 1 received an immense development, until now every prudent I person who has property at risk takes care to seek shelter i under a p.dicv of insurance. Tlie principles which under- lie the contract are substantially the same to whatever sub- ieet-matter they may be applied, modified only as the peculiarities of the different risks assumed may require. Its fundamental principle is indemnity for loss; and so far as it is made the means of accomplishing more than this it pas!-es over into the domain of speculation and leads to the mischiefs of gambling. It is a personal «!>'■•."<"- I insuring not the thing, but the person interested m Us preservation, against loss to him by reason of injury to it The person who undertakes to pay in crise of loss is termed the insurer; the danger against which he undertakes, the risk- the person protected, the insured; the sum which he pays for the protection, the premium ; and the con raet it- .elf when reduced to form, the policy. So general if not universal, was the use of a policy in the early history of the contract that until quite recently it has been doub ed whether writing was not essential to the vali.lUy of the contract- but it is now conceded that both a verbal agree- ment to issue a policy and a verbal agreement to insure are valid, even though the contract covers a period of tunc longer than one year, as the contract may be determined by the happcnin'g of the event insured against^ within a year, and 'so is not within the statute of frauds. Even corporations, which, under the ancient stringency of the common law, could only bind themselves Kv a con ract under seal, it is now held, may contract verbally by then officers or other agents. All persons competent to make other contracts may be parties to this. Formerly, and to some extent at the present day, as in the case of the "Lloyd's"— a society of private capitalists who meet at Lloyd's subscription-rooms in London, and subscribe to such proportions of the risks there offered as they may feel inclined to-the business was carried on by private underwriters; but the superior advantages of public com- panies now give them the chief control. Policies are for panics now give mem me cu,... ^„,.,.«.. - ■ ■■ k sum agreed upon to be paid in ease of loss, hence called valued- or for whatever the amount of the loss may prove to be, hence called open : for a fixed time or for the voyage, hence called time or voyage as the case may be The con- tract is complete and binding when the parties have agreed upon all its terms, and, if entered into by correspondence, when the letter accepting the terms offered is depositetl in the oflice for transmission in due course of mail If the terms are agreed upon and the policy is made, it will bo valid and bimling without delivery if it be the understand- in- of the parties that it shall become operative from and affer a certain act. The law will not permit an illegal bus- iness or an unlawful enterprise to be encouraged by insu- rance Nor will U permit the insurance of an interest the protection of which would manifestly tend to evils which would more than counterbalance the advantages of insu- ranee. Seamen's wages, for instancc^eannot be insured as this would tend to render them indifl-crent o the safety of the ship upon which their wages depend. W hatever, how- ever, does not contravene good morals or sound public po V may receive protection. Subject to these l'""'"''""^- Lv propertv or interest in its preservation may be the sub- 1 1ect-ra'tter-of the contract. Policies without -his ,n erest io support them are wager policies, and are prohUii cd as a specierof gambling and a temptation to fraud and crime ; T^he insurance, however, in the same policy o a lawful "'.d i a prohibited interest will not vitiate the policy as to the ulZl interest if it be separate and distinct. Insurable interests are as manifold as the relations of indu uhials to propertv. Whoever owns property, whether by an abso- ute^ r qualified, legal or equitable title, or any . uteres in propertv, or has upon him the duty or in him the right to rrofect and preserve if. may insure it to the extent of his nterest or liability. The owner of a vessel or house, the INSURANCE. 12o moves on her way. ami ends, in the absence of express stipulation, when she has been moored in safety nt her port of desi illation. Like a voluntary deviation, a substantial alteration in the property insured against fire, such as to make the risk in kind a'dilfcreiit one from that assunK<l, mortgagee or lessee, e.tccators, administrators, and trus- tees, common carriers and bailees generally, consignors, supurcargties, whose compensation depends upon the suc- cess of the voya^je, or under instructions to land goods and wait for a market, captors and salvors having a well- founded expectation of an allowance out of the property captured or saved, and sheriffs and l^ther officers of the law having the care and custody of property, may severally insure their respective interests. The insurability of the interest depends not at all upon its value, provided it has . , . ,,„„„.,.,., some value- nor is it any objection .hat several interests in ! terations. the insured could neillur ,,reser>e his pro pirtj fomewiiuL, iiui 15 in...., V J _ ___^ ^^^^^ decay nor avail himself of improved methods of will avoid the policy. Ordinary uml reasonable changes and repairs, however, made in gooil faith for the due pres- ervation of the property or prosecution of the business, will not vitiate the jiolicy, although alterations increasing the risk are forbidden. If such rejiairs were deemed al- tho same property are coineidenlally insured. The mort gagor may insure' to the full value of the jiroperty, and the mortgagee or successive mortgagees may nt the same time insure t'o the amount of their several interests, and each may recover, in ease of loss, to the extent of the several amounts insured, though the aggregate of these may much exceed the entire value of the property. .V iiartnir may insure the entire stork of the copartnership, being inter- ested in the whole, out of which to realize his share, and for the same reason, no doubt, a stockhobler in an incorpo- rated company may insure the entire property of the com- pany to the amount and for the protection of his interest. The vendee in possession of real estate under a contract partly perf.inncd, but not enforceable at law or in equity, since" the venilor may not refuse to perform, an insolvent debtor, in the possible surplus which may come to him after payment of his deiits. and the niechanic who has a lien upon the building for labor or materials furnished, have also insurable interests. The interest must subsist at the time of elTccling the policy ancl at the time of the loss, though it need not continue the same in amount or wiihnut inter- ruption. If an insured vessel be solil, ami repurchased during the time covered by the policy, the policy will cease to protect during the period of alienation, but will reat- tach anil protect after the repurchase. Slocks of goods may be sold anil replaced by others under the same ]iolicy. The shifting interests of a mortgagee who makes advances and receives payments from time to time may likewise bo prnteeted. The policy is generally issued upon an application con- taining certain statements descriptive of the property in- sured and the circumstances affecting the risk. These statements are termed representations, and if by reference or otherwise they arc made part of the policy, they are termed warranties. A warranty is an agreement that a fact is as stated, or some future act or omission shall bo as promised, upon penally of forfeiture of all rights under the poli.'y if the statement prove untrue or the iironii.so be not kepi : while a representaiiun, being no jiart of the contract, but only an inducement thereto, need be true only so far as is material to the risk. Untruthfulness or mistake in a , will not avoiil business— a result which neither party can be presumed to contemplate. Alterations in the surrounding circum- stances, as in the erection of new buildings and changes not under the control of the insured, unless by special stipul.ation. are not imputable to him. If the insurer will i.rotect himself to this cxient, he must so stipulate in clear and express terms. In point of fact, however, the rates of premium are based upon an assumed liability for such risks; nor would any (irudent person accept a |Mp!icy which did not protect him" from dangers beyond his control, the most perilous perhaps to which he is exposed. It is common to except from the risk such articles, uses, and tr.ades as are regarded ns specially hazardous, and the risk of which the insurer docs not wish to assume. This is done by including them in a memorandum of articles ex- cluded, in which case nothing can be claimed as indemnity in case of loss of, or damage to, such excluded articles; or it may be done by a clause in the policy prohibiting the use of the premises for such and such inocesscs, Irailes, or businesses, or for keeping or storing sueli and such goods, on penally, unless specially aulhorized by Ihe policy, of avoidonce'of the policy. In Ibis case special aulliority is deemed to be given if the subject-matter of insurance, by fair intcrprelation and according to usage, includes the ex- cepted article or use. The insurance of a stock in trade, for instance, "such as is usually kept in a country store." will permit the keeping of all such goods as are usually kept in such stores, although some of them may. Iiy Ihe terms of the policy, bo iirohibitc.I as hazardous. The in- surance of a "furniture business" will likewise permit the use of such oils and varnishes as are customarily useil in the manufacture and preparation of furniture for sale, although tlio keeping and use of such oils and varnishes may be expressly prohiliited. And if. during the period of insur- ance. s<iine'new process not used or known before comes into vogue, it may be adopted by Ihe insureil wiUnuil prejudice to his rights, unless it be of such a characler as manifcslly to makc'the risk greater than cither party ciuild have eon- temlilalcd. It cannot be sujiposed that in such cases it is the intention of Ihe parties that the iiisureil shall be tied down to the methods and iiroce-scs of Ihe dale of the sured'of an unlawful act upon the ]iremiscs a use of the f expre'ssiin'or otiier cireumslanco there premises for that purpose. I'laying a single game of cards rcnrcscntali.m. unless material to the risk, ...i. ..".. ....u... ........ -- .■■- - - . i,;„,c,.lf nf kocIi Ihe l.olicv, while cither in a warrantv, unless imputable to policy, and deprived of the right to a ail lunisell ol suUi I e f u o he insurer, will be fatal, whether material to the , improvements as may bo nceessary to the successful prose- ineiauii Ol in. in.ur r, . . e,„ion of the business. " Use and keeping " mean habitual use and keeping. A mere casual use of a prohibited arti- cle as, for instance, benzine or naphtha to lie niixe.l with paint while repairs aro going on, or Ihe building a tire for the purpose of heating tar to bo used in the course of such repairs— does not conlrnvenc a policy prohibiting the kcoiiing of fire or the introduction of hazardous arti- cles njion the premises. Nor is the permission by the in- ■ - ■ " ' t upon the ]iremi , _L>. I'laying a sing Iocs not make the premises a gambling-saloon. Unless otherwise agreed, houses may bo left vacant, tenants may be changed, factories may he worked or shut il.iwn. and properly may bo watched and cared for, heated, and lighted at the (iiscre'tion of the insured; an. I slipulalions for tho use of care an.l i.rccaution against lire arc generally not warranties, but representations to be earric.I out by sub- stantially doing that which is jirovidcd. In such ease cnniTale'nts will do. Keeping ashes in any rcceplaele made of crpiallv incombuslibl'- nialeriiil is a fulfilment of on agreement to k. cp llieni in an iron receplaele. Notice is fre(pienHy rei|uired of any changes in Ihe circumslanees or surroundings of the insured property aflecting the risk, in oriler that the insurer may have the option to continue or cancel the policy. I'lider lliis n-quirement notice nerd be given only of such changes as arc material : an.l if within a reasonable lime after notice the option to cancel is not signifieil, all objection to Ihe change will be presumed to be waiveil. and Ihe policy will remain a valid sccurily. Anil, generally, it may bo sai.l that whenever a eondilion risk or not. A warranty that a ship is American, or that she will sail at a given time, will bo violated if she bo liritish or sail at a ilifforent time. A representation that a buililing is occupie.l in its several parts for certain spe- cified purposes will not be vilialcd though it appear tliat Olio of the aparlmcnts bo ililferenlly occupied, or not occu- piel at all, if the dilTcrenco bo not material to the risk. Warranties are not favored, because they work forfeitures ami somelimcs operate very harshly; and for this reason, if from Ihe form of expressioi is chance for doubt, a statement will be rogar.led as a repre- s.'nlation rather than a warranty. It is sometimes said that representations shouhl bo more full in marine than in fire policies, since in the former there is less opportunity for personal inspecli.in. liut this .lepcnds upon cireum- flnnces. and is no rul.' of law. That representation is ma- terial which induces the insurer to lake a risk upon terms less fav.irable to himself than ho would liavo ina.le had he known Ihe trulli. The same test applies to a concealment, which is Ihe wilhhol.ling a fact which ought to bo mado known, if auili fact be not known or ought not to be ex- pcclc I 1.1 be known, to the insurer, an.l is known, or ought t.) be kn.iwii, to the insured. Mere silence about a matter which is unknown, or about which it is not to bo expected that the insured wouM know, is no concealment. War- ranties specially stated in tho contract are express. There arc als.i implied warranlics. as of ownership, scaworlhi- ness at the eiunnieneemcnl of a v.iyage policy, and against deviation — which is a voluntary departure from Ihe usual course of Ihe voyage without necessity or juslificalion. 1 the right to Ir.-at as for instance, to avoid capture or lo save lifc-nnd such has been vi..laled, giving lo the insure ^s bstanlial al,-ralion as 'to change the identity of Ihe the policy as yoid, any subse,,uent recognition by I hen, ?i.k ssum .Seaworthiness is ntness for Ihe parlicular , after knowledge of the breach of the policy as a subsisting service and is one thing at one time and place and another , and valid contract, as by Ihe „cc,-|,laMcc of premiums o: '" ■ '^ . The voyage com- the .loing of any oilier ad Irom wliieli il may bo fairly in at another, according to cireiimstanecs monccs w r. according lo cireiimsiiui.-es. i ...- »-.>..^.; ^ -* ....... , . . „ „.,«„(• hen tho vessel casts loose from her fastenings and . ferred that the insurers do not mean to take advantage of 1230 INSURANCE. the breach, will bo a sufficient answer to any attempt by them to set up the breach against a claim for Ing!«. Aliciui- tion or i*alc of course suspends the ojjcratioii of the p<)Iicv, as when the property passes out of the hands of the insured, having nothing at risk he can suffer no loss; and if the alienation continue till the time of loss, nothing can he re- covered hy the insured. Having lost nothing, he can claim no indemnity. But there is no alienation so Kuig a?' tlie iii- suroil retains an interest in the suhject-matter, altlinugh that interest may have undergone a change or even suffered a great diminution. A mortgage is not an alienation, nor is a written agreement, with or without seal, to convey, nor is a deseent of property to heirs; and such qualified changes in the title or interest will not work a forfeiture unless specifically so agreed upon. Even an absolute sale bv one partner of his interest to his copartner is not to hn regarded as an alienation, but rather a shifting of interests among joint-owners, so long as no stranger is admitted. As any substantial change in the relation which the insured holds to the property insured is a matter of consequence affecting the judgment of the insurer as to the quality of the risk and the propriety of continuing it. the charaeter of the person insured being oftentimes an important ele- ment in making up the estimation, so it is of consequence to him to know the true state of the title and interest of the insured in the property insured, whether absolute or qualifie'l or incumbered, or how otherwise, to the end that in adjusting the amount to be insured so much in value shall be left unprotected as to make the insured himself also interested in guarding against loss. The sound principle of insurance is that the insured must be in such position that in case of total loss ho must him- self necessarily suffer loss. If he be insured to the full value of possible loss, he may be tempted to carelessness, or even fraud and crime. He may not only neglect all pre- caution to prevent the happening of the peril insured against, but he may be tempted to scuttle his own ship or set fire to his own house. To inquiries made touching these and various other circumstances affecting the judg- ment of the insurer upon the value of the risk the answers must be with precision and certainty if they amount to warranties, or only with substantial truth if they are rep- resentations merely. If no specific title be required, then any form or extent of title or ownership will he sufficient. A declaration of ownership sim])ly is but a declaration that the applicant is in some form or sense an owner. In mutual insurance the true state of the title is more especially ma- terial, since the lien which such companies usually have upon the real estate they insure constitutes to some extent the capital of the company. It is therefore of importance that the title should be such that a lien will attach. Hence, a misrepresentation as to the title may he material in a mutual company, while it might lie quite immaterial in a stock company. It is also material, and for the same rea- sons, that the insurer should know nut only w1iat insurance may already exist upon the property upon which insurance is applied for, but also whether any and what furtlier in- surance may thereafter be obtained. I'pon these points, therefore, inquiries and stipulations are usually made. Other insurance is additional, prior, or sul>sequent insurance effected hy the same person, or for his benefit and with his consent, upon the same subject-matter, risk, ami interest. Owners of different interests may insure them respectively without violating the condition against other insurance. The additional insurance must also bo valid, or it is no in- surance. A policy by its own terms void if there he prior insurance without notice, will not he a breach of the terms of a prior policy to be void if other insurance be obtained without notice. When notice of subsequent insurance is required, it must be given within reasonable time, and if the insurers, having the option to cancel the policy upon such nntiee, neglect so to do for an unreasonable time, or meanwhile recognize the validity of the policy as a subsist- ing contract, they will be held to have waived the right to insist upon a forfeiture. Ovor-valuation of the property insured is another mode in which the insurer may be misled into making a contract which he would not otherwise have made. While intending only to make the prudent contract of insuring one-iialf the value of the property, he may be led by over-valuation into the risky contract of insuring the property up to, or even beyond, its full value. If this over-valuation be fraudu- lent, or so gross as to justify the inference of fraucl, the policy will ho void, whether there be or be not any stipula- tion therein upon this point of over-valuation. The assignment of the policy without the consent of the insurers is often forbi<Men. and is objectionable upon the same grounds as alienation is objectionable. The insurers may be quite willing to insure one person, while they might bo quite unwilling to insure another, or that to that other should be transferred the interest in the policy. Strictly speakings a policy is not assignable or negotiable, so as to give the assignee the right, in his own name, to claim the benefit of the contract. In order to this there must be an assent of the insurers to enter into direct relations with the assignee, as by consenting to the assignment and to pay the assignee in ease of loss. In such cases the assignee will be substituted for the assignor, and may recover as he, and only as he. could recover; so that if the assignor after the assignment violate any of the conditions of tho con- tract, this violation will work a forfeiture of the right of both the assignor and assignee to recover under the policy. To avoid this result, the polii'v and property may both be transferred to the same person with the assent of the in- surer, the assignee securing by a new note or otlier memo- randum the obligations of the assignor towards the insurer. The transaction thus becomes substantially a new contract. rather than nn assignment of an old one. and is not subject to be ilefeated by the delinquencies of the assignor, the original insured. The premium is the consideration which (he insurer re- ceives for the risk he assumes, and is greater or less ac- cording as experience and tibscrvation have shown that tho chances of loss upon the particular risk are greater or less. The premium is usually paid when the policy is delivered, but this is not necessarily so. And even though by the terms of the policy it can only become operative on J*ay- nient of the premium, a delivery of the ]iolicy wilhont in- sisting upon this condition will make it operative. It is » conditiim for the benefit of the insurer, and like other sim- ilar conditions he may waive it if he will. In the absence of express sti|)ulatinn as to tlie modes of payment, a note or check sent hy mail, if so requested, or any other ordi- nary mode of payment acceded to by the insurer or his agent having authority in the premises, will he sufficient. Should it so hapjien that the property insured is never ex- posed to the perils insured against — in other words, if the risk never attaches — the insurer may demand a return of the premium if he has not been guilty of any fraud. The whole premium, however, is earned if the risk attaches even for a moment. In marine policies, unless restricted, the risk extends fo all losses proximately caused hy the perils of the sea — that is. all losses which happen fortuitously from the extraor- dinary action of the winds and waves, stranding, collision, lightning, and other like natural and unavoidable aocidents connected with navigation. Besides these perils, it is usual in marine policies to insure against loss by fire, barratry — 7. e. tho fraudulent misconduct of the master or crew — theft, piracy, capture, arrests, and detentions. As uo one can stipulate for immunity from the consequences of his own fraudulent or criminal misconduct, where the master of n vessel is also owner, barratry is not covered by the policy any more than a house is protectetl to the owner against loss by fire set purposely by himself. But in both marine and fire insurance loss by mere negligence of the owner or of his servants will be covered by the policy. In fact, ng it is inij>ossible for any one who has even a moderately ex- tendeil business to give his personal attention to all Ihe details, one of the prime objects of insurance is to guard against the negligence of servants. An<I negligence of the insured himself, not so gross as to warrant the inference of fraud, will also be within the risk. All losses directly at- tributable to the risk insured against come within tho sweep of the p<dicy unless there be nn exceptitm stated in the policy itself. Damage by fire may happen without actual ignition, as by cranking of glass, or the blistering of pictures, or the scorching of paint, or heating and thus ilestroying the value of certain articles of commerce. Dam- age by fire produced by lightning is within the risk, but damage or demolition by liglitning without burning is not. To protect in such a case the insurance must be against loss by lightning. So damage by fire resulting from ex- plosion, as of gunpowder, for instance, is within the risk. Explosion is but the burning of the gunpowder by sudden combustion, and if damage results by concussion from such an explosion it is damage by fire. But loss occasioned V)y theexpl'ision of a steam-hoiK-r. the bursting itself not being occasioned by unusual fire, and no fire supervening, is not a loss by fire. Whether such loss would be a loss by ex- plosion is a mooted question, some holding that explosion is the remote and fire the immediate cause, while others luild that explosion is the immediate cause through fire. Damages and expenses in reasonable efforts to save the in- sured property from destruction, as by water, removal, covering up, or any other suitable means, are included within the risk of a fire policy. So arc damages by falling walls if the walls fall by reason of the fire. If, however, they fall by their own inherent weakness, crushing the in- sured property in tho ruins, whence fire supervenes, this is not a loss by fire, as the property is destroyed by the fall and not by fire. So loss by the bursting of a boiler, where- INSUKAXCE. l-S.il by a vcascl ^oes down at once, is not loss "subsequent to | and in consequence of such bursting," the bursting and the ! loss being pnictically simultaneous. When a vessel sinks till the water reaches htr furnaces and drives out the firo upon her w(>odwork,5o that the vessel is burned to the wa- ter's edi:e. the loss is attributable to the lire if, but for the | supervention n{ the fire, she would not have sunk ; other- | wise not. When tlicre arc two concurrent causes to which the loss may l>e attributed, the predominating and cflicicnt cause where the damage is indiscriminate will be deemed to be the true cause. If it be doubtful what property is covered by the policy, the doubt will be resolved in favor of the insured. A house I or building includes all the appurtenances m-cessury to the ! ordinary use of the principal building, and a mill includes the machinery by which it is operated. Property in trust ' is not limiteil to property technically held in trust, but in- cludes all such property as the insured m:iy have the cus- i toily and care of for special purposes; and a ])olicy may ' be so wor<l('d as to follow and protect jiroporty as it passes through divers hands, as by expressly insuring goods , "sold, but not removed." When there is an actual total loss, the insured recovers I to the foil amount of his insurance if the property be worth so much, and there be no express limitation to a proportion i of the loss. Tn marine insurance there is a constructive , total loss whereby, when the property, though not entirely j destroyed, is dama^xed to such an apparent extent as prnc- i tically to render the voyage worthless as a pecuniary ad- venture, as where the damage exceeds one-half of the value of the vessel or of the gon<Is, or the vessel be captured or detained by embargo, the insured may abandon the dam- aged or detained property to the underwriter and claim lor a total loss, leaving the latter from that time forth to get what he can by sale or use out of the abandoned property. This rule promotes commerco by reinstating the insured ; immediately in his capital, wherewith to engage in new a'lvcntures. rather than to subji-ct him to delay and possi- i lile ruin by further efforts to restore his shattered fortunes. It is at the option of the insurer whether he will abandon, | and this option must be made within reasonable time, and , notice thereof given to the insurer in onlerthat he may at once avad himself of his right to treat the pntperty as his , own and make the most out of it. The abandonment car- ries with it all rights and claims on account of ship or 1 cari;o, so that if the ship be recovered aiul the voyage com- | pb'lc'I and niadii productive, the insurer will have all the i benefit both of the property recovered and of the ])rofits in : the way of freights carne'l. or citherwise. In the U. S., ■ however, only so much of freight goes to the insurer as is earned after the abandonment. When the loss is jiartial the rule in marine insurance is that the cost of repairing the vessel, less one-third for the greater value of the new subfllituted for the old. may be recovered. But in fire in- puranee there is no right of abandonment, and no rule of proportionate deduction <m account <»f the greater value of the new, actual indemnity being the limit of the rij;ht to recover. In either case, when goods are dania[;ed, the insured recovers the difference lietweeu the value of the damaged goods as they are ami the market prieeof sound goojs of like kind. The adjustment of ma- rine losses, when all the interests saved are to contrilnite their proportion of indemnity lor those lost, is oftentimes a matter of great nicety, and comes under the head of gen- eral average, a peculiar and intricate branch of mnri- limo law. There is less difViculty in adjusting losses under fire pojieies, where general average contribution is unknown. I'nder both kinds of insurance, however, there may be (livers policies upon the same subject-matter, in whieh case, if the loss be less than the aggregate insurance, either insurer may be held for the entire lous, unless there be an average clause, as it is called, limiting bis liabilities to his pro)i(!rtion of tho loss. In case he pays it. ho will have his claim over for his inrlcniniry against each of his co-insurers. Only tho actual loss can, however, be recovered by the insured from all the insurers. The amount of loss recoverable within the limits of the amount insured iloes not always depend on the vulue nf the interest to the in- sured. If the insured has any insurable interest, and that interest attaches to tho whole property, he may recover for the whole value. Thus, n commission merchant, netuatly interested only to the amount of his advances iind com- MiissifMix, may recover to the full value of the j;oods lost, hobling any lialaneo for his consignor. A mortgagor may insure lo the full value of the property, and recover the whole loss, althnugh the insureil mortgagee may also re- cover to the full amount of his interest, and thus tho in- sured he compelled to pay mucdi more than thewbolc value of the property ilestroycil. The respective enntracls are indepenrlent, an<l cover distinct interests, eaeh of whieh mny extend to tho whole value of tho property. Special and extraordinary circumstances — as that the building in- sured is on leased land, and must be soon removed at great cost or forfeited, or that a house is about to be sold on exe- cution, or that duties have or have not been paid on im- ported articles — do U'li v;iry the rule of damages. The fair market-value of the jirupcrty, without regard to such cir- cumstances, is the criterion of tho amount of the loss. Sometimes tho policy stipulates that the insured, in case of loss, shall recover only a certain projiortion — two-thirds, for instance — of the actual damage. In such case the in- sured will be entitled to the whole amount of his loss if that does not exceed two-thirds of the whole loss. A part- ner after the death of his co-partner can tmly recover for loss to the partnership property as it was at the time of tho dissolution by <lcatli. Goods bought after the dissolution will not be covered unless by special agreement. When tho right to repair or rebuild is reserved to tho insurer, as it sometimes is, as a mode of payment to which they may re- sort if they deem the claim for loss exorbitant, it is optional with him whether he will or will not avail himself of his right; and if he do not. the rule of clamages is the actual loss, and not the cost of restoration, which may be, as in the case of an old and dilapidated building, greatly above the actual loss. If a new building be erected by the insured, it is not the cost of the new, but the value of the old one de- stroyed, that is recoverable. And the option of rebuilding must bo mado known without unreasonable delay. An agreement to replace goods stands u])on the same footing. The insured is to he indemnified, and no more. If the in- surer be prevented from rebuilding or replacing without the fault of the insured, as by the intervention of the jiublic authorities, that is his misfortune, but no defence against the claim of the insured. When the insured is not desig- nated by name in the policy, but is referred to indefinitely as *• the estate of A " or " whom it may concern." tho loss will be payable to all such persons as can bring themselves within the scope of the designation ; and if the policy be to A for the benefit of whom it may concern, A will tako the loss and hold it for the parties in interest. Sometimes disputes arise as to the disposition of the loss after it is paid or as to the right of the several parties in interest. But as a rule neither con claim anything from the other unless by the terms of the policy it appears that it was the intention of tho parties that one should be heuefiteil by the payment to another. If the loss be paid to a mortgiigec, the insurer can neither require liim to assign the mortgage, nor can the mortgagor require the money to be applied to- wards the reduction of the mortgage or to repairing tho damage. Each party stands on his own contract as against the other, unless it appears to be intended that some third party shall have an interest, as where a mortgagee insures at the expense of the mortgagor. But when the insurer pays a loss caused by the wrongful act of some thirtl person, against whom tho insured might have brought an action, the insurer is said to be subrogated to the right of the in- sured against the wrongdoer, and may, in the name of tho latter, recover against him whatever sum the insureil might have recovered. This right is based u]»on the ground that it is just that the wrongdoer shall be made to bear the loss which he has occasioned. Tlic liability of the wrongiloer is ! first and chief: and if the insured insists, as he may, upon I proceeding against the insurer, he is in fairness bound to i allow the insurer to use his name in proceeding against tho I wrongdoer. But if the insurer pay tho loss, and nfterwards I the insured jiroeceds against the wrongdoer, tho latter can I claim no advimtage by the payment. If A sets fire (o B's house, and B gels his insurance, A cannot avail himself of , this fact as a defence to a suit by B against A for damages. j After loss the insurers must be notified, and generally agree to pay in so many days after proof of the loss. If no ■ form of notice he agreed upon, any notice, verbal or writ- , ten, will answer. Notice " forthwith " is notice without I unreasonable delay, and should be given to the person desig- ' nated in the policy, or, this wanting, to some officer of tho ' insurance company or to some agent acting in its behalf. The proofs of loss must also be such as are required by the terms of the policy, and substantiiilly in the form required and within the time specified. If the certificate of the min- ister of the parish or <if the nearest magistrate to any par- ticular fact, or that the loss is as stated, be required, sucli i certificate miift be ]iroduced before payment con ho dc- ! manded ; ond if the minister or the magistrate in some sense I nearest will not so certify, the insured must fail in bis I claim. It is his misfortune that he cannot ccunply with the I terms of the ctmtraet into which he has voluntarily entereil. and which seems to be perleclly proper and fair. Such I agreements shouhl bo avoiiled. or provision maiic for some ' snbfititute<l niodo of proof; ns. for instance, the rertificoto of some other satisfactory person. In fact, as these arbi- trary ccmditions ore mode by insurers in their own special interest, they may waive them if they please either in form 1238 INSURANCE, LIFE— INTEREST. or substance : and if they receive notice or proof, however inforniJiI or imperfect or out of accord with the requtre- meiits of the jioHcy, without objection, and do not give the in?urod to uii<ifr.<tand thiit Ihcj- are insufficient and unsatis- factory, and in what respect, so that he may have an oppor- tunity to supply thedcticiencies, or if the insurers, by silence or otherwise, induce in the mind of the in^ureil the belief that they are sufficient, they will not be permitted to inter- pose such insufliciency against a claim for loss. If upon ihe receipt of verbal notice of a loss the insurers declare they will not ])ay, this will relievo the insured from the duty of further notice or proof. The law does not require a use- less formality. If stipulation be made that suit shall not be brought against the insurer unless within a limited time, the insured will be bound by it. It isreasouable to require that disputed claims should be brought to an early trial, while the facts are comparatively fresh and the witnesses are at hand. But an agreement that a suit shall be brought in a certain place or court, or that the whole matter in lUs- pute shall bo submitted to arbitration, has no validity. The law determines how and where suits shall bo tried, and parlies cannot by their agreements settle or unsettle the jurisdiction of the courts. And when to an action to re- cover a loss the insurers set up in defence any breach of condition, misrepresentation, or other matter, it is always a good reply that such breach or other delinquency is chargeable to the act or omission of the insurers themselves or (heir agent. In mutual insurance the holders of policies besides being insured are also insurers. They are members of the com- pany, and by virtue of their membership arc oldigcd to contrilnite to the losses of their associates, and have the right to claim from them by way of assessment or contri- bution, in proportion to the amounts for which they are severally insured, indemnity for their respective losses. Rightly managed, it is the safest and cheapest form of in- surance, since, whatever be the rate of premium, the asso- ciates participate in the profits ; and if the premium be tixed sufficiently high the aggregate amount of premiums, paid or promised by deposit notes, will constitute a capital adequate under any but most extraordinary circumstances to meet contingent losses. J. Wilder Mav. Insurance, Life, See Life Assurance. Integral Calculus. See Calci^ls. Intellect. Sec JIixD, by IIox. W. T. Harris, A. M., LL.D. Intemperance. See Inebriety, by Prof. Witr,ARD Parker, M. I>., LL.D., and Intoxication, by E. J, Ber- MINGHAM, M. D. Intercala'tif>n [Lat. intercal'trr, to "insert"], the in- sertiou of supplementary days or months into the calendar in order to cfiVct an adjustment between the civil and tho natural year. (See Calendar, by F. A. P. Barnard.) In'tcrconrse, tp. of Sumter co., Ala. I'uj). 440. Intercourse (Ri^ht of) between Slates. This expression can include political and cnninieicial inter- course, togetlier with the right of individuals to pass into or through a given country. No text-writer on the law of nations, so far as wo kni>w, maintains that nations are bound to have commuuieatiun with one another by am- bassadors; least of all would the claim to send resident ambassadors be admitted as having the nature of strict right. As for tho right of commercial intercourse, it is hard to maintain that a nation may rightfully force an- other into such a relation. It must begin in a voluntary way, on terms agreeable to both parties. If, now, one of the states wants nothing that the other can furnish, with what right can tho other, to satisfy its wants, compel it to take certain products? But if there is a theoretical diffi- culty in such demands, intercourse is pretty sure to begin wlienever an honest, peaceable way of bringing it about be tried, because all men iovo to exchange, and can be soon made to see the advantages of so doing. As for the right of travelling into or across a country, if this be necessary in onler that a nation may have access to the rest of tho world, it seems to be a right, subject to such precautions ns may prevent dangers from foreigners. T, I>. Woolsey. In'terdict [Lat. intcrUirtum, a *■ prohibition"], in Eu- ropean history, censure ])ronounced liy the pope, by a syn- od, or by a bishop, withdrawing from particular persons or places, or both, certain religious privileges. It still exists in theory as one of t)ie ecclesiastical censures of the Roman Catholic Church, but is seldom exercised, except towanla individuals, who may be, for example, interdicted from en- tering a chureh. It is also sometimes pronounced against places whore liorribic crimes have been committed. In the Dark Ages tlie interdict was the most terrible of punish- ments. Every man's hand was against the interdicted per- son, and even great princes have been humbled by tho power of this censure. At one time no bell might ring or organ be played in an interdicted district: the church doors were locked ; services were performed without solemnities and in secret ; all crosses and ornaments were hidden ; Lenten food only could be eaten : no one could give or receive a kiss : the Kucharist was not given except to the dying; no man could shave his beard or brush his hair until the interdict was raised. But few interdicts, however, were so severe as this, though at the best an interdict was regarded as a se- vere measure. The Church licrsclf from time to time miti- gateil the terrors of this dreadful visitation. Among the most celebrated interdicts were that laid upon all France by Gregory V. in 1)9S ; that laid on England by Alexander III. in 1171 as a punishment for the murder of A'Becket : that laid liy the same pontiff upon Scotland in llSO; by Inno- cent III. on France, 1200; on England in 1209 under King John ; on Venice by Paul V. in lt)06. Interesse Termini. See Landlord and Tenant. In'terest [Lat. interest (an impersonal verbal form), "it is of advantage"], the compensation paid for the use of money borrowed. The most c<mvenient form of capital to. bo loaned, for both lender and borrower, is money. Hence, loans arc most commonly made in money. an<l in- terest is always reckoned at a certain per cent, of a defined sura of money, which is called the prinripnf: the per cent, paid is called the ma-, and is usually stated as the rate per annum, though often payable at sliorter intervals than a year. The compensation for the use of capital in the form of land and fixed improvements upon land is called rent. This is determined In* other considerations than the money-value of the property loaned or leased. (See Rent.) But in tho case of other kinds of property an estimate is commonly made of the value in money, and interest is charged accordingly at the current rate. Thus, one may purchase a steam-engine for a mill, or cotton to be worked u]i in a mill, and give his note for its value, to be paid at tho end of six months, with interest. Or he may borrow of a friend the money with which, as an in- strument of exchange, to make either purchase, and give his note on interest. Tho transactions arc essentially the same. The engine or the material is what he wants, and what he actually borrows and uses as a part of the capital of his business. The rightfulnessof interest rests upon two facts : (1) The fact tb.at capital is the result of past labor, preserved by self-denial in saving. One's right of property in that which he has earned and saved is indefeasible, and it is but simple justice that if the owner allows another to use his property instead of using it himself, he should be compensated. This is all plain enough in the case of the engine or the cotton, and the principle certainly holds good when by a sinijde exchange the jiroperty saved takes the form of money. It is tho ]>roperty-right which is to be recognized, tho same always, whatever may be the material form in which it is embodied. (2) The fact that in the production of values present labor is crippled, almost fruitless, witliout the prod- ucts of ])ast labor — /.c. capital — to work upon and to work with. Tho effectiveness of labor is increased many fold by tho capital joined with it. Hence, he who provides the capital may rightly claim to share with the laborer in the profit of tho joint result : and the labcirer can well afford to pay for the advantage he gains. The loan is made for Ihe sake of bringing present labor into union with past lalmr, all the same whether it is money or that which money can buy that passes from borrower to lender. The etymology of the term *• interest," and its fitness in this applietition, imply such a mutual advantage to b(»rrower and lender. Where mouey is burrowed to provide for the immediate su])port of an individual or a family, or for some |)rosent gratification, the property which it represents is consumed at once, without a profit ; but the loan is made in some an- ticipation of mean.s to be realized from labor or other sources at a t'uture day. and the consideration is. even then, a sup- posed advantage to the borrower as well as to the lender. This iutereat or mutual advantage marks the prime differ- ence between a loan and a gift. The genera! rate of interest in a community is deter- mined by three considerations: (1) The average produc- tiveness of industry: (2) the jiroporfion between tho sup- ply of capital and the demand for it; (.'i) the degree of security given to contracts by the protection of law and prevalent moral sentiment. In a new country these con- siderations combine. Lalior is very jiroductive in develop- ing new and rich resources; capital is scarce, because the hardships of pioneer-life repel the rich ; and contracts are insecure, because law and social order and mutual con- fidence are not well established. Hence, tho rate of interest in a new country is high. It declines gradually as. in the course of time, population increases, society bec«»mes organ- ized, wealth is accumulated, and tho fertility of the virgin INTEREST, HISTORY OF— INTEREST, LAW CONCERNING. 1239 soil ond other priiuitive rcs'jurces of nature are exhausted. In particular case.*', especially of speculation, tlio rate of interest is affected hy risk on the one hand and the ex- pectation of great i)rofits on the other. The j:tueral rate of interest is lowest in an old country, where the aeuumu- lation of wealth is large, industry is active, exchanges are rapid, and men's integrity and honor are sustained by found public sentiment and guarded by good laws well executed. (Jreat fluctuations in the rate of interest arise chiefly from the infusion of the element of credit in the currency of a country, and the consequent expansion and contraction of the volume of currency, with the reckless siieculations, panics, and commercial crises incident thereto. \\'hfttcver imparts instability to the instrument of exchange must cause fluctuation in all prices and uncertainty to all contracts; and to all such influences interest is most sen- sitive. -A. L. Chaimn'. Interest, History of. From the time of Thespis 'lownward. as has been remarked by Bentham. there is scarcely an instance where a lender and a borrower of money appear upnn the stage without the sympathies of the audience being enlisted for the latter. The ])hilos- ophers of Greece and Rome never emancipated themselves from the current of popular opinion upon this subject, and their extant writings afl"ord abundant proofs of the odium which they contributed to fasten upon the money-lender. Iloth the philosophers and the common people usually r.randed the money-lenders as the main cause of the de- cline of the Roman empire. The laws of Rome expressly authorized the practice, but the legislators were constantly attempting to regulate the terms of interest. The severity 'if Roman law against insolvent debtors drove men to ex- haust every resource to maintain their credit ; and the exorbitant interest exacted from the unfortunate confirmed the popular idea that " interest is wealth made from the poverty of others." The evils above indicatccl had become an important feature of society at the time when the au- thority of the Christian Church was first brought into the scale. The Christians of the first two centuries were poor, industrious, and ofsiniple tastes and habits ; hence they had little occasion for availing themselves of the services of the money-lender. Accordingly, the writings of the Christian Fathers unanimously reflect an intense condemnation of ••u?urv,"and when Christian ascendency stamped its imago upon the earliest legislative codes of semi-barbarian and mediccval Eurfti»e, divine and human anathemas were alike incorporated thi-rein. The ''usury" of the .Middle Ages wiis simjdy what the name implies, the price of the »«*' of money at whatever rate; it was strictly synonymous with intercut. It cannot be doubted that the rates of in- terest then current would now be deemed exorbitant. The monopoly of usury which the Jews long enjoyed was owing not more to their peculiar genius for monetary transactions than to the fact that they alone had no conscientious scru- ples against the practice. It was not until the eleventh century that the Lombards, and still later that the Chris- tian merchants of Florence, became the rivals of the Jew- ish usurers. It was the revival of the commercial spirit among the republics of Northern Italy that initiated that conflict of opinion between the Church and the world which has finally culminated during the present century in a gen- eral recognition of the lawfulness and usefulness of money- lending. When the Eastern commercial enterprises of Venice, Pisa, (Jenoa, and Anmlfi proved the possibility of obtaining from cajMtal in legitimate traffic a rich return, it was no longer thouglit a hardship to pay handsomely for the control of capital for investment. The old idea was that men would only borrow irtoney from usurers un- der the impulse of hanl necessity ; thus, when the business was presented in another and an agreeable light, as a means of obtaining a share of the '* wealth of Ormus or of ind," the credit system of the modern world wns founded. It is true that the earliest Reformers did not innovate up<m the current theological view of usury, and some Trotestant writers, like the celebrated secretary of slate of t^ueen Elizabeth, Sir Thomas Wilson, vehemently denounced it 119 contrary to the law of nature; but the eommercial en- terprise (if ProtC!4tant countries silently and speedily pro- ■liu'cd a healthful change of sentiment. Salmasius and (irotius lent the great weight of their names to the same scale, ami by tbo middle of the seventeenth eenlury the lawfulness of money-lending was generally admitted in Protestant countries. The battle was Imrfjer among the Cntholies, from the immense mass of theological tradition which had to be overoine. The means linally employed for eiTecting a change of opinion consiHte<l of subtleties of casuistry as to permissible cases of usury ; then n distino- tion was drawn between a fair and an excessive rate of interest ; the former was justitied, and the odium embodied in the word uiturt/ was exclusively attached to Ihe latter. Ity an easy gradation of thought the modern meaning of the word was ascribed to the Fathers of the Church and to the canons of medi:eval councils in their denunciations of usury. Finally, the civil and canon laws were held to ini- ])ly merely tlur right to regulate the umoitiit of interest, which has accordingly been the sole object of recent legis- lation thereupon. It was reserved for the economists of the school of Locke, Hume, and Adam Smith to exjiosc, and ultimately to overthrow, a legislative folly which had been current for so many centuries. The final demonstra- tion of the utility of interest was made by Jeremy Benthani in his famous Ltttern on Vmiry (1787). It only remains to add a few statistical data upon legislative enactments af- fecting the rate of interest. In the earliest Roman law- code, the Ttceli-fi Tables (b. c. 460), the rate of interest was established; the restrictions were removed by the Licinian laws '166-;i6j ; the former law was re-established 357 : the rate was again lowered '.'A7 ; all interest was prohibited by the Genusi.in law 341; the Sempronian law extended a uniform legislation to the allied Italian nations 193; the rate was fixed at 6 per cent, by Justinian a. n. 529. In England, the rate was fixed at 10 per cent, by act 37 Hen. Vni. c. 9, 1543—14: the taking of interest was prohibited by acts 5 and fi Edw. VI. c. 20, 1652; the latter was re- pealed by 13 Eliz. c. 8, 1570; interest was restricted to 8 per cent, by act 21 Jac. I. c. 17, 1G23 ; to G per cent, by act 12 Car. II. c. 13. 16GU : to 5 per cent, by act 12 Ann. st. 2, c. IG, 1713; finally, most of the preceding legislation was repealed by act 17 and act l-S Vict. c. 90, of Aug. 10, 1S54. (See the works of Locke. Hume. A. Smith, Turgot. Ucn- tham, J. B. J^ay, M. Chevalier, J. S. .Mill, and W. E. H. Lecky.) PoitiEit C. Bliss. Interest, Law Concerning. In tlie comprehensive sense in which the word iutcrtnt is popularly used, it denotes any compensation for the use of money which a debtor pays to the creditor, but in legal usage it has obtained also a technical meaning by which it is distinguished from usury, and denotes such a measure or rale of com])ensation as is allowecl by law. Usury, on the other hand, is an excess of compensation above the rate established by law. This is a distinction whose original introduction into legislation is attributable to the belief which was generally prevalent in the early history of the Christian Church and in tlie Middle Ages that it was wrongful and contrary to the ex- press teachings of Scripture to receive any payment for the use of money. The necessities of trade caused legal sanction to be given at an early period to the taking of a certain specified percentage upon the sum loaned, but the common conviction that there was an element of extortion and oppression in requiring compensation for money still remained a]iparent in the stringent laws which were en- acted to jiruvent the taking of higher rates than that which was established as legal. (See Ust'RV.) The results of this theory are abundantly manifest in the law even at the present day. Until within a few years nearly all of the States of this country had laws prohibiting the taking of more than an established rate of interest, and though the ]iroliibition has been removed in a few of them by recent legislation, in the majority of them such laws are still in force. In England there was an established legal rate until 1854, but in that year all the laws against usury were repealed. In the U. S. the lawful rate generally jirevailing is G per cent, upon the sum loaned, or ]»rincipal. In New York it is 7 per cent. In some of the States there is a particular rate declared applicable to ordinary transactions in the absence of any special agreement, but the parties arc allowed to stipulate for a higher rate if they desire. Laws to prohibit the taking of usury never i.revenl an agreement being made for a lower rale than that estab- lished by law, but only forbid Ihe parties from stipulating for a higher rate. The obligation of u debtor to jiay inter- est ujion the sum which ho owes may either arise out of contract, in which he expressly or impliedly agrees to its payment, or may be in the nature of a jienalty imposed ujKin him for default in Ihe payment of the principal at the time when it was due, or for the misuse of trust funds committed to his charge. In the one case, interest is said to be pii-yublo by contract, while in the other it is given by wav of damages, notwitlislanding there is no agreement for its payment. A contract to pay interest may l>e either express or implied. It is vxprmH when there is a positive stipulation between the parlies thai Ihe amount ])aynble to the creditor shall bear interest, and the lime from which it shall be reck<»nei|, the manner in which it fihall be jmyable, and the rate al which it shall be estimated may be directly specified in Ihe agreement. If no rate is mentioned, the legal rate is underslond. No higher rate, however, can bo agreed upon than that established as legal unless such an agreement is expressly authorized by statute. If by the terms of the contract the debt is to bear interest, but Ihe time from which it is to be reckoned is not staled, interest will generally bo computed from the date of the contract 1240 INTERFERENCE. or the time when it is made. The stipulations of the par- ties may relate to the computation of interest not only until the time of the maturity of the deht, but after the debt has become due and in case of default in payment. If a rate be fixed upon not obnoxious to the laws a^^ainst usurv. and it ifl provided by the terms of the contrnct that intercs^t shall continue to he reckoned iit the same rate if the debt be not dischar<;ed when payable, the computation ivill be made at this uniform rate until the time of actual payment. If. however, there is no stipulation as Ui the rate of interest which the debt shall bear after maturity, it be- comes an important question whether the rate agreed upon as computable before maturity shall continue after that time, or the rate fixed by statute. I'pon this point the decisions are still in conflict, so that no settled rule can be stated. The prevailinij doctrine appears to be that inter- est shall be reckoned at the statutory rate after the default, since the provision in the contract can have no force after that time in the absence of express specification, and in- terest must be given, if at all. by operation of hiw.and by way of damages for the debtor's failure to pay at the time appointed. A contract to pay interest is imph'tti when nn agreement is entered into of such a nature that an obliga- tion to pay interest is naturally inci<leutal to it, and is to be presumed as within the contemplation of the parlies. Thus, it may bo inferred from the course of dealing be- tween the ])arties. as where interest has before been charged and allowed under like circumstances, or where it has been the uniform practice of the creditor to charge interest, and this was known to the debtor at the time of the transaction bv which the debt was incurred. So. where there is a general usage in any particular trade or branch of business to charge and allow interest, parties having knowledge of the usage are deemed to contract with reference to it. For example, interest is not usually recoverable on an open running account for goods sold, but if there be a usage in any particular Slate or locality for merchants to charge interest upon such accounts at the expirati(m of a certain term of credit, and the purchaser can reasonably be pre- sumed to be acquainted with such usage, he will be charge- able with interest, which will usually be computed at the legal rate. interest recoverable as damages is given by operation of law, and does not depend upon contract, express or im- plied. It is the general practice in the courts of this coun- try to award interest, computed at the legal rate, for de- fault in the payment of any liquidaletl debt or claim at the time it becomes due. The time from \vhich it is reck- oned is the d.ate when payment should properly have been made. This practice depends partly upon the ground that the debtor in retaining the amount due gains the benefit of its use, and should justly reimburse the creditor at a rate of interest which measures the iucome which might ordi- narily be derived from the money, and partly upon the ground that the debtor should be punished for his default by increasing the amount of the debt. The time when the debt becomes payable is frequently fixed upon by the par- ties when the transact i(m occurs out of which the debt arises, and the interest will be computed in such cases from the date ajipointed. Interest will be given as damages whether the deht bore interest before maturity or not. In many instances the time when the debt originally becomes pavable does not depend upon agreement, and must be de- termined by special rules. The general principle is that interest will be c<un])Uled from the lime when the creditor might have brought action to enforce his claim. Thus. when money is lent to another or paid to his use. interest accrues from the time of the loan or payment. When goods arc sold, and no time of payment is specified or credit given, interest is coiu|iutable from the day of the sale. A note payable on demand draws interest from the time of the demand. It shouhl be, however, noted that for some purposes a note on deruaml is due immediately : e. g. for the running of the statute of limitations. (See Limitations, Stati TK oF.l So, generally, wherever there is an unsettled claim with no ileterminate time for payment, the creditor may demnnd payment, and, if it be refiiscd, inieircsl will run from the time of the demand. When eredit is given, interest will bo calculated from the expiration of the time of credit. Tpon a judgment it is reckoned from the time when the judgment was rendered, .hulgments did not hear interest at common law, but this rule has been generally changed in this country. T'pon unliquidated demands in- terest is not, in general, collectible, since there is no specific sum upon which it can bo reekimed until the amount of the claim is liquidated or ascertained, and usually no definite time at which payment is to be made and from which the interest can be computed. Thus, a debt for board and lodging, where there was no price or time of payment ex- pr'^csly or impliedly fixed, will not draw interest until it is leduced to a judgment, or its amount otherwise liquidated. AVhile. as has already been seen, interest cannot be charged upon the items of a running account for goods sold or ser- vices rendered unless there be a particular usage to the con trary, still, after there has been a mutual agreement of the parlies upon a balance struck, and the amount due thus as- certained, interest may generally be computed upon this balance. It is a common practice for creditors, when they desire to secure the settlement of an open account, to send to the debtor a statement of the items of the account, and of iho amount computed to be payable, and the assent of the debtor to the correctness ()f the balance may be presumed from his failure to make objection to its accuracy after a reasonable opportunity for examination. This presumption, however, is not conclusive, but may be rebutted. Generally, after the lapse of a reasonable time, interest will commence to run upon the balance stated. Tn cases where the debt arises from an unliquidated claim, but the time of payment was deter- minate, and the amount then due could have been ascer- tained by computation, it is the law in New York, and gen- erally in this country, that interest may be collected upon that amount from the appointed time, upon the principle that that is certain which can be rendered certain. The English courts, however, do not allow interest in such cases. It is on the ground that a creditor's claim is unliquidated that interest is not generally given in actions for damages for tortious injury. In cases of the conversion of personal property, however, interest is usually recoverable upon its value from the time of conversion, since that value is in general readily ascertainable, and the retention of the prop- erty is a continued wrongful act from the time it is taken or wrongfully detained. The same rule is also applied in some other cases of injury to property where the amount of the claim can be computed. It is not so general a prac- tice in the courts of England as in this country to award interest as damages for the wrongful detention of a debt. It is only in relation to particular modes of incurring in- debtedness that interest is held collectible on this ground. Interest given by way of damages for the maladminis- tration of trust funds is not grounded upon the detention of a debt after it is regularly payable, hut depends, in the main, upon the same principles — viz. that the owner of the properly or debt is entitled to the percentage which might be obtained upon it by a faithful administration of the trust, and that interest may be chargeable as a means of punishment. Thus, guardians, executors and administra- tors, and trustees of every kind will be charged interest upon all trust funds in their hands which it is their duty to invest, upon failure on their part to do so within a rea- sonable time or with proper jirecautions against loss. (lenerally. simple interest will be charged against them, or the rate which would have been obtained by a judicious investment, but in cases of gross delinquency compound interest may even be recovered. Compound interest, by which is meant interest computed upon a sura consisting of the principal and previously ac- crued interest, is not in general recoverable at law. To require its payment is thought to savor of usury and to bo unduly oppressive upon the debtor. P^ven though there be an express agreement that compound interest shall be paid, the contract will not be usually enforceable for more than simple interest. When, however, interest has already ac- crued and become payable, nn agreement that it shall be added to the principal, and that interest shall be subse- quently computed upon the new principal thus formed, will generally bo deemeil valid. In like manner, compound in- terest may be payable in certain kinds of inereautile trans- actions by virtue of usage. And even where it would not generally be recoverable upon an ordinary contract in which its payment was agreed upon, yet if it is actually ]>aid it cannot he recovered hack. When]>ar(ial payments are made from time to time upon an interest-bearing debt, it is necessary tn apply them towards the discharge of the debt in such a way that interest shall never be reckoned upon interest. The following is the rule which has been generally uflopted : Compute the intcrct-t on the principal from the time when interest became I'ayalde to the first time when a payment alone, or in conjunction with pre- ceding payments, shall equal or exceed the interest due od the principal, deduct this sum. and compute interest on the balance as before. By this rule there is never any balance of interest remaining after dctlucting a payment upoD which subsequent interest can be reckoned. tiKOHRK Chase. Rkvised bv T. W. DwionT. Tnterfer'ence [Lat. inter, "between," and fen're, "to strike"], a term used in hydrodynamics, acoustics, and op- tics to denote the mutual intluence of different undulations which conspire or conflict in consequence of (he superposi- tion of one upon the other. A gross illustration often em- ployed in explaining this Idea is to refer to the appearances presented by the intersecting rings formed in water into which two jiebbles have been thrown. The elevated rings INTERFEREN'CE. 1241 and their iDtervening depressions are undulations: the mulecular muvemeuls ure verlical, uliile the undulation ](rogre53 is liorizuntut. AVheu thu riuj^s intersect, ihc points where two ridgt;* crusy are doubly eU'vated ; the jioiuts where two hollows cross arc doubly depressed ; while the points in which a ridge in one syt-teni crosses a hollow of the other are neither elevated nor depressed. The term applied to this influence of one undulation upon another is intfrfemtrr. The interferences of liquid waves are finely illustriited in the undulations of mercury contained in a vessel of ellipti- cal figure. If a disturbance be produced at one of the focal points of the ellipse, the circular waves proceeding from this will, by reflection from the sides of the vessel, form a second similar system having for its centre the other focus. If the corresponding points of interference be connected, they will form, as the figure shows, two sets of curves, el- liptical and hyperbolic, having for their common foci the foci of the original ellipse. Fig. 1. Tho interference of u i , - u n i i nften very percepti- ble. It is observed only in niiisK-;il ^^imiids. because it t'<(ii only be observed in those whose undulations are continuous i and uniform: and such sounds are musical. It is best ob- | served when the waves are long — as in the case of the grave tones of (he heavier organ-pipes. The sinking anil swelling of the sound, called by musicians the hf-nt, is owing to one of tho interfering waves being slightly longer or shorter than the other. In many repetitions this slight dificrcnce of length accumulates until it reaches half an undulation ; when, if tho two waves originally conspired — that is (to borrow again an illustration from the water), if their two crests were originally superposed— they will, after this dif- ference has crept in, be in conflict; or the crest of one will fall upon the hollow of tlio other. During this interval, a sinking of tho sound will have been observed: but imme- diately after, as the ilifference of path goes on increasing from a half to a whole undulation, the sound will swell ! again as the two crests once more approach superposition. ' It need hardly bo remarked that the interference of waves ' of fioun'l of it^r/frtti/ rifiiii/ Irinjih would not be perceptible , to a person stanrling motionless; for, in that case, the re- sultant sounil would be a co»i*Mii/. Should he endeavor, by ! moving about while two boflies of precisi-ly similar jiitch j are sounding, to j)ass from the jioinls of cr»nspiring to those ! of conflieliiig undulation, he would not find it easy to detect , these points for several reasons. In the first |dace, when | tho molecular movements are normal to the wave front, as in tho case of sound, there is no cnmpfttt- interference, or approaeh to comphte interference, except where the waves are tangential, or apppiximately so, to each other; except, therefore, in or near the line of the centres; and except, it may be added, when the <Iistance between the centres is an exact number of half undulations. Again, at the iiift-nivc- tinii^ of sonorous waves, whether the nioIe<-ular movements conspiroorconrtict, the resultant of these movements is never BO great as the sum, nor so small as the diff^erencc, of the two components. The difference of intensity between tho maxima and minima of sonu'l in such eiises will not bo striking, unl« ss they succeed titr-Ii other with brief inter- vening intervals of time, as in the case of the hmtn.^ It 18, however, by this second method that we detect tho interferences of light, and not at all by the first. That is to say, wo discover these interferences by moving the eye through the space where they exist, in the course of which •The rather dilTtcult experiment of local i:tn(j tho Interfer- ences of sound from iwn pipcn hi perfect unison was successfully acconiplisbcil by Mr. Pespreiz. movement the points of maximum and minimum brightness are easily observed : or we let fall the interfering rays upon a white surface, when the same points will become manifest by their diflcreuce of illuminating power. The first method is best, especially if tho eye be assisted by a lens; hut the second is that which was used l)y the earliest observers. Wc cannot detect the interferences of light by observing periodical maxima or minima, like the beats in music, be- cause of the almost inconceivable shortness of the undu- lations. But if the waves of light were as long as the waves of sound, interferences might easily be made to manifest themselves in this manner. The phenomena attending tiie interferences of luminous waves are such as to compel us to assume that the molecular movements are not, as in sound-waves, normal to the wave front, but are, as in liquid-waves, in the wave front itself, and normal to the direction of progress. In liquid-waves gra^'ity determines the azimuthal direction of these move- ments, confining them to the vertical plane y)asging through the wave centre, or origin of molecular disturbance. In the case of luminous waves, there is no such determining or constraining force; and hence it happens tiiat ordinary light has no determinate plane or azimuth of vibration ; but its successive undulations assume every variety of azi- muth. There is no proof, however, that changes of azimuth arc incessant ; in other words, that many undulations, in fact many thousands or perhaps millions, do not follow each other, usually, in tho same azimuth, between tho changes. This, indeed, is probable, since the ethereal vi- brations take their character from those of tho luminous body; and these may reasonably be presumed to have a certain jiersistence in their modes of viliration, or at Icust not to undergo incessant and abrupt changes. Beyond a certain limit, however, this persistency could not continue; nor could there, among the changes which occur, be a pre- dominating disjiosition to return to one azimuth oftrncr than to another, or to remain in it longer, without impart- ing to the light, more or less decidedly, the character of polarization. If five hundrccl millions of the mean undu- lations of white light were to follow eacli other in a single azimuth, they would occupy It s.s than the one-niilliontli part of a second ; and, accordingly, if five hundred millions of such undulations should take place in each of a million difl'crent azimuths successively, the whole would be per- formed in one second, and no instrumental tist could de- tect polarization in the aggregate beam. The polarization of light consists, therefore, in the determination of all its vibrations to a single plane. (See Poi.akization.) AVhen two polarized rays f(dIow each other in the same path, or intersect uiuler a very acute angle, it is obvious that, if their planes of polarization agree in azimuth, they arc in condition to interfere. If in phase of undulation they are perfectly accordant, the two waves will be super- posed, and the ni'decular velocity of the resultant wave will be equal to the sum of the velocities tif the two com- ])onents; but if there is a ditVerence of pliasc between tlicm amounting to exactly half an undulation, then the crest of one wave will fall on the hollo\v of the other, and tho re- sultant molecular velocity will be equal to the diflerenco of velocities of the com|)oncnls. If tlie dificrcnce of phase is any other fraction of an nmlulatiun. the resultant molec- ular velocity, and eonse(|uently the resultant intensity of the luminous eliect. may be deduced by means (tfii mathematical formula into which this diflVrence of jdiase enters as an ele- ment. If the azimuths of molecular motion are difi'ercut, the effect of interference on nii>leeulur velocity and luminous intensity will vary with this dilVcrencc: and the character of the niovemeiit itself will change with difierence of phase, becoming elliptical or even circular, instead of remaining as originally rectilinear. If the difference in azimuth is l»0°, the luminous intensity is not afiVctcd by diflVrence of jiliase, and lienec the interference is insensible to direct ob- servation ; but on testing the condition of the light by suitable optical methods, the molecular movement may always be resolved into its two component rectilinear move- ments. Kays of common light, if the diflferencc of their paths be not very great, will interfere, notwithstanding the fact that their umlulations are confined to no determinate azimuth. This fact proves, what has been above assumed, that the changes of azimuth in common light cannot bo incessant. Hut there is one condition absolutely indispen- sable to protluce interference in any case: it is that tho rays shall have a common origin. If the light subjected to experiment be unpolarized, the necessity of the condition is easily explained. The changes of the azimuth of vibra- tion in two sudi rays eould not, except upon a supposition which has an infinity of chances against it. take place at tho same intervals and in the ,>.amo order; and if they did, the chances would be equally great against the coincidence of those planes. But as it is true of polarized as well as ]:i42 IXTERFEEENCE— INTERMITTENT FEVER, ETC. of ordinary liglit. wo must look for a different explanation, and we find it in the fact that light is not homogeneous hut (MiniT»oun<l : there being present, in every lumiiious emana- tion, undulations insensibly difleriug from each other in length through a range ai)proaehiiig the ratio of I to 2. When two minute and isolated portions of a wave thus constituted are brought together by rcileetion, by refraction, or by ditfraclion, at a very minute angle and with a very slightly difl'erent length of path, interferences of aulago- nism will take place between some of these elementary movements, and interferences of reinforcement between others. Coloreil stripes or fringes will therefore make their appearance ; but these, owing to the diflerenees of interval between those of different colors, will at each repetition be less and less distinctly separated from neighboring ones, and llie whole will soon overrun each other, producing while by the blending of their colors, and uniformity of inlcnsily by the nverbipping of the brighter and fainter stripes. Even with wave elements from the same source, sensible interference cannot be produced when the paths of the uniting waves differ by more than a very few units in the number of their undulations. The jxissibility of their sensibly interfering at all therefore depends on their abso- lute identity of conilition at a distance from the point of interference" differing by only this small amount, .'^ueh identity will necessarily be found at contiguous points of a wave front from a single centre; but the chances are in- tinitely against its occurrence in points taken in two wave fronts" from different centres. To this it maybe added, that the actual sources in nature of luminous emanations are not jierfectly fi.'sed points. There are irregularities at the very origin of the uudulatious. or at the surface of the luminous body, which are propagated with the undulations, and which ]irevent the permanent eoineideuce or conflict of two sets of undulations, unless both arc equilUy affected by the same irregularities. An instability, for example, .affecting the position of the origin of two successive sets of undulations to the e.itent of a single one-hundred-thou- sandlh part of an inch, would put tlicm into entirely oppo- site jihases. (^'onsidcring the activity and energy of the forces .at work at the surfaces of incamlcsceut bodies, it is impossible to believe that the waves they generate can have their origins absolutely invariable in position. Interference is the cause of the colors of thin plates or films (as those of soap-bubbles) of Newton's rings (which see), of ruled-plate spectra (see Spectkim), and of the iridescence which distinguishes many objects in the mineral anil organic world. In the earlier history of optics, most or all of these ]>henomena were accounted for more or less satisfactorily, upon hy]iolheses having nothing in common with the theory of umluhitioii. Of the truth of the undu- lalory theory itself, Kresncl jiroposcd an experimental test, whieil he afterwards successfully em]iloyed as follows: — Two mirrors of polished metal arc placed edge to edge and very nearly. l>ut not (piile in the same plane. A small solar beam brought into a dark room and concentrated by a lens of short focus forms a radiant before these mirrors. Fig. 2. The light from this radiant reflected by these mirrors, forms, after reflection, two intersecting waves, which, being received upon a screen, produce precisely the scries of parallel bright and dark stripes which theory leads us to anticipate. In the figure, R is the radiant, A B and A C are the mirrors. S and S' are the apparent sources of the reflected undulations. The circular ares described with these |iuints as centres represent the intersecting waves, the full lines representing the crests and the dotted lines the hollows. Where two full lines or two dotted lines intersect, as at o and I. there is reinforcement, and a bright stripe is seen ; where the intersectiim takes ]dace between a full line and a dotted line, there is conflict, and the stripe is dark. Further and quite conclusive confirmation of the truth of this theory of interference has been derived from the chromatic phenomena of polarized light. (See Poi..\iiiZA- Tiox "I- I.ic^iiT.) F. A. P. Bah.nard. Inlcrfer'ciice [Lat. iuifr, "between," and /cn're, to '•strike ■■]. or IiiU-rvculiou [Lat. i;i(.rrcii(iVj, '-coming between"]. In international law these words are used of the measures which one stale takes to prevent injury to itself arising from the political measures of another state, or growing for some other reason out of the other sovereign's coniluct. The principal cases of interference are — first, that for the purjiose of ]ireserving the balance of power — that is, of preventing a state from gaining, by ]iolilical means or by force, an accession of power which would be dangerous to its neighbors. Many alliances and wars have take°i place in Euroiie on this ground within the last four centuries. The plea here is self-preservaticm. A second class of instances of interference, all or nearly all of a modern age. have grown out of the efforts of nations to right themselves against tyrannical governments by revo- lution. The plea here also is sell-preservation— that no government can stand ag.ainst the revolutionary fever of neighboring countries. But the plea is made for the benefit of The powers that be, and not lor that of the people. As a practical rule, it does not ai)ply to great nations like France, which changes its political forms at will, without standing in fear of other states. It is also a dangerous rule to those who follow it. for it only intensifies revolutions within and without by exciting the feeling that there is a radical, endless antagonism between the interest and \yill of legitimate governments, so called, and the nations which they^rv to keep down. A llihil and more righteous kind of "interference is that used when a government commits great inhumanitv in punishing revolutionists, or great cru- elty against rebels in war. (In the whole, there is a some- what viigue border-line, beyond which, in extreme cases, nations having common interests and a common civilija- tion will pass, in order to put an end to evil or to avert danger from themselves. T. I). Wool.SEY. In'terim, the name of certain formulas or confessions of faith adopted by the Reformation in (iermany at the in- stance of Charles v.. with the object of maintaining the «fii/ii« </iin until a general council could dcciile all questions between Catholics and Protestants. There were three such : the Interim of Hatishon (loll i. of Augsburg (May 15, l.i4.S), and of Lcijisic (iJec. 22. 1518). each being the result of conferences between Catholic and Protestant theologians upon the points at issue. These interims were in reality des- potic ordinances of Charles V,. forbidding the Protestants to innovate n|ion the doctrines or rites they had once professed or agreed to. No permanent result could be expected from such attempts at compromise ; accordingly, the Leipsic In- terim was generally disobeyed and resisted by arms, was abrogated by Charles in 15i2, and was finally superseded by the Angsiiurg Confession, confirmed to the Protestant slates in l.i5.i by the diet of .\ugsburg. In'terlakcil, a v. of .-Jwitzerland. in the canton of Berne, on the Aar. It has only InOU or 20011 inhabitants, and consists mostly of hotels" and boanling-houses. As it is beautifuUv situ.ated. and its surroumlings presc ut some of the finest prospects of Switzerland (the Slanbbach and the Jungfrau), it is visited during the summer by many thou- sand tourists. In'lcrlutlc. This term, which originally meant certain short pieces of music inserted between the acts of a drama or in any other intervals of a public performance, is now more coilimonlv applied to the brief strains usually played by organists between the verses of metre iisalms and hymns in divine worship. Interludes are now jiassing out of use as a needless interruption, or are introduced only once or twice in long hymns for the relief of the singers. Iiitormit'tciit Fe'vcr, Agiic-roviM, and Apuc, an essential, periodic fever resulting In.m infection ol the blood by malaria or marsh-miasm. JIalaria emanates from decomp'osing vegetable matter exposed to the action of the air and the sun's heat. It exists in swampy districts and in low, damp, umlrained places, upon the banks of rivers, upon inlets of salt water, where variable water-level and tides expose a saturated soil to the atmosphere. Malaria INTKRXAL KKVKNUE-INTEKXATIOXAL LAW. 124:'. is most concentrated and intermittent fever most prevalent and severe in the tropic?, where vegetation is luxuriant, ami 11 soil enriched by decaying plants and falling foliage is subjected to the extreme influences of alternate seasons of rain and drought. In temperate regions it is present in new districts. ,!isappcnring as the land is populated, culti- , vatcd, and drained. It may appear in cities by the expo- sure of marshv subsoil when excavating to build, or by the escape of maiarial air from defective street sewers con- structed in a swampv substratum or emptying on a malarial water-course, whose tidal changes ilam back inarsh-iniasni i to escape in the various quarters from which the sewers extend. Intermittent fever occurs in paroxysms separated by intermissions or non-febrile periods. The paroxysms niay recur dailv. constituting the "quotidian" form, or on nlternale days! the ■•tertian" form, since it recurs on the third day, including the previous attack. There is also a " ((uartan " form. Kxccptiimally, there may bo a " double quotidian," with one strong and one mild attack each day; ^ a " double tertian," with a daily onset, that of every second , day being relatively weak: a'Moublc quartan," having two attacks in every three days. Febrile paroxysms | usually recur at a definite hour each day or alternate day. A recurrence of successive paroxysms at an earlier hour , for each attack is termed "anticipating." and indicates an I increasing malarial influence. When the paroxysms come at a later period, with successive attacks, it is termed "postponing" or "retarding," and indicates a subsidence of the malarial influence. Paroxysms may occur a fen- hours after cx]posurc to malaria or after a period of incu- bation as long as two weeks. A paroxysm has three dis- tinct periods or stages : (l)cold stage; (2) hot stage: (3) sweating stage. The average duration of the cold stage is I one-half to three-quarters of an hour; it may be a few moments or two to three hours. It begins with shivering, chilliness in the loins, extending to back and limbs, mus- cular tremor, the lips quiver, teeth chatter, and the whole bodv is shaken. The respiration is sighing, the pulse feeble, the "face pale or livid, the nails livid, the lingers waxen and cold. The general surface is (lale, cold, often shrivelled. The thermometer in the mouth or armpit, however, reveals an increased temperature of the blood even in the cold sl.age, the blood having been expelled from the skin and extremities by the involuntary contraction of the elastic tissues of the skin. During the first stage there is therefore a determination of blood to internal organs, which may bo dangerously congested, constituting the "pernicious" or " congestive " forms. Headache, vomiting, tenderness over the liver and spleen, arc 9yin|itomalic of such congestion. The transition from the cold to the hot stage is gradual ; chilliness ceases, flushings of he.al are felt, " the coldness melts away." The skin becomes hot and red, pulse full and bounding, the face flushed, headache increases, the lem|ierature of the surface may be 10o° or 100° F. The duration of the hot stage is from three to eight hours. The third or sweating singe at lirsl is gradual ; moisture appears on the face, snon on the trunk and extremities. Ileat. headache, thirst, and restlessness subsiile, the temperature falls nipidlv, the person is drowsy, falls into long and re- freshing sleep, with profuse or slight sweating. The dura- tion of this stage is from three to four hours. During the intermissions or apyrexial periiuls there may be good health, or in graver cases impaired digestion, debility, pallor, or sallow cachectic complexion. Malaria ininoverishes the red corpuscles ami lessens the albumen of the blood. In- termiltent fever tends to recur when incompletely cured, either in marked paroxysms or in less pronounced " latent," "masked," "concealed" forms, vague symptoms of ehilli- ncsa and weariness known as "dumb ague" or in periodic neuralgia. The spleen is often |iermanently enlarged, and is termed " .igue cake." The periodical recurrence of the iiaroxvsms is due to successive en"orls at elimination, the nierval being the time required for the zymotic material f malaria to redevelop and impress the system. tie time reqiui develop and it The paroxysms recpiiro no treatment other than warm drinks an.l blanketing .luring the cold stage, cooling ilrinks and sponging during the febrile or hot stage. The treal- locnt for the prevention of the paroxysms is to be in the periods of intermission. The i hief of remedies is the Peruvian or cinchona bark, and the alkaloids derived from it. (iuinine is mostly nseil in the form if the sulphate ami Uisulphate, less oflen'the muriate, t'inchoniiie is an alkaloi.l resembling quinine, but less powerful. The niotbcr-liquor from which these nlkaloi.ls are precipitated is evaporated, and an impure, eru.lc sediment, in part i|uinine and ein- ehonine, and mainlv qiiini"idia ami cioclomioidin, or amorphous alkaloids. 'is .ditained, and is mneb used— known as "chinoidine." Salicine. the alkaloid of willow bark, berberinc, piperine, api"l. eucalyptus, and other vegetable substitutes are w.aker and less eflicacious than quinine. (rode "r unblcaebed quinine, an inexpensive arliolo, has recently been ascertained to have the full efficacy. Quinine is given either in one full dose of ten or more grains or in divided doses of live grains three times a day to break the jiaroxysms, and continued in smaller doses for many days to prevent their recurrence. Fowler's solution of arseuite of potash is second only to quinine in power. Nitric acid, sulphites of soda, ferrocyanidc of iron, chloride of aniuio- niuni are al.«o uscil. The patient may be more efliciently and permanently cured by combining eholagogue cathartics, and subsequently employing iron and tonics generally. The prevention of intermittent fever is to be sought by soil-drainage, by avoiding damp night air, and sleeping in closed rooms well above the ground. The sunflower freely planted adjacent to dwellings has been considered protec- tive by absorbing malaria, and more recently the £iica- li/pliis'glnhiiliu, or Australian fever tree, has been exten- sively planted in Algiers, at the Capo of Good Hope, and in Cuba, and is asserted to lessen, or even eradicate, malaria by its presence. K. D.inwis Hi Dso.v, Ju. Internal Revenue. See Kevexi e. Interna'tional L.a\v,lNTRoiuTTioNTo. International law is a collection of rules by which nations, and their members respectively, arc supposed to be governed in their relations with each other. In its exact sense, law is a rule of properlv and of conduct prescribed by sovereign power. Strictly speaking, therefore, as nations have no ecnnmon superior, thev cannot be said to be subject to human law. But there is "nevertheless a body of rules, more or less gen- erally recognized, by which nations profess to regulate their own ccmduct towards each other, and the conduct of their citizens respectively. Being rules of jiropcrly and of conduct, though not prescribed by a superior, they are somewhat looselv designated as laws: and taken together they form whtit is called international law. and as such are enforced bv each nation separately upon persons and things within its jurisdiction. This body of rules is derived from custom or treaty. From the earliest times there must have been some .«ort of rule, tacit or expressed. f<ir the inter- course, however small, which must have existed between nations, and must have begun with the beginning of na- tions. No community has ever yet existed, and none could exist, so independent: and isolated as to have no communi- cation whatever with its neighbors ; and intercourse between communities, as between individuals, necessarily required some kind of regulation. We find, accordingly, in the oldest historical records, mention of messengers or em- bassies .sent bv nation or king to another nation or king, 1 and of compacts between them. Treaties followed the iin- i written regulations as a matter of course, for the necessity i of changing or of adding to existing rules led to express stipulations. These were expressed as stipulations between individuals were expressed ; orally before a written lan- guage was known, and orally or in writing afterwards. Of these treaties or compacts between nations there are many and mullil'orni records. Various collections of them have been made, the most important and coinidele of which are those of Domont, Kousset. Martens. M<.rliard. Saiuwer, Calvo, and I>e Clercq. Notwithstanding the treaties ol every kind and form that have been entered into, the greater part of international law is to this day customary only. These customs have been declared and enforced by judicial decisions, and .set forth in the writings of publi- cists in all the languages of Euro]ie. The b.idy of law which we have thus described is some- times also' called public law, or the law of nations. Its formation has been gradual, and its history is curious and instructive. Thev err greatly who say that it is the sole product of modcrii times. It is the product of all times ever since there were nations upon the earth, though its greatest development is unquestionably modern. The .Anipbietyonic Council enforced a kind of international law among the (ireeks, by which, among other things, an exchange of prisoners of war and a truce after a battle fir the burial of the dead were enjoined. The Humans, improving »]'"n the (Jrccks, instituted a college of heralds for the declara- tion of war. and established one important and bcnefieeni rnle : thai none but a soldier sworn into the service could fight the common enemy. Christianity wrought, with il^ other changes, a great change in public law. The spirit of Christian brotherhood found its way into cabinets and camps. The citir.eii ol iinotbcr stale or the subject of an- other king was yet a brother in Christ, and the barriers which separated natiims were, in part at least, tbriiwn down. The influence of the Christian Church upon the public law of the world cannot be overestimated. .As soon as the brotherhood id' man came to be aeeepted as a re- ligious tenet, it was inevitable that the old doctrine of the natural antipathy of nations shoubl, sr>oner or later, dis- appear. In the "earliest ages the stranger had been sc- oounled an enemy, and even the victims of shipwreck 1244 INTERNATIONAL LAW. might lawfully have boon plundered. Such barbarities fell before the gnjpti : and othtrs (less gross), which kept their hold in spite of the Bible and the Church, gradually Ussened in intensity and in number. The laws of slates, the ordi- nances of kings, and the writings of publicists have mod- erated the severity of earlier times, while every new treaty between nations lias been an addition to public law. Start- ing from the theory of the natural rights of men and the equality of nations", publicists have striven lo establish the code of ethics as the law of nations. Montesquieu de- clared it as a maxim that nations .should do each other as muuh good in peace and as little harm in war as possible without injury to their own interests. The rules of the Ihinseatie Leiigue, the laws of Wisby ami of Oleron, the I'onsolato del Mare, and the Ordinances of Louis XIV. were all so many contributions to international law. A host of writers have discussed its principles and enforced its pre- cepts. .Aristotle, I'ieero, Bacon, tJrotius, Barbeyrac, I'uf- IVn.V.rf, Wolfius, Burlamaqui, Rutherforth, Bynkershoek, and \attel before our times, and in our own days Kent, Wheaton, Phillimorc, Twiss, Lawrence, Wharton, Woolsey, llalleck. Field, lleffter. Bluntschli. Hautefeuille, Cauchy, Paricu, Masse, Calv", Mancini. lloltzendorf, tiiraud. Gold- schmidt, .\sser, Lorimer, Westlake, Bernard, and Pieran- toni are among those who have written on the subject. Of all these writers, lirotius stands as the acknowledged head. As now existing, international law is a science of which the major part is generally understood and accepted. The residue consists of propositions more or less dis]iuted or unsettled. Kegarded as a whole, it consists of two main divisions ; one treating of peace, and the other of war, or rather of the relations of nations and of their members to each other, excejit as they are modified by a state of war, and the modifications of "these relations produced by war. The portion of international law relating to peace is nat- urally subdivided into two divisions; one public and the other private. Public international law contains the rules respecting the relations of nations to each other, and to the members of other nations ; private international law con- tains the rules respecting the relations of the members of a nation to the members of other nations. Only tlie briefest possil)le enumeration of the subjects treated in the various subdivisions of these two departments can here be given. In respect to the first department, they relate to the essen- tial rights of nations, such as their sovereignty, equality, ]]crpetuity, territory, projierty : to their extra-territorial action in regard to navigation, discovery, exploration, and colonization; to fisheries and )iiracy ; to the intercourse of nations with each other by means of accredited agents ; to international compacts, asylum and extradition, national character and jurisiliction, and domicile; and to the re- ciprocal duties of nations to foreigners, and of foreigners to the nation where they live, in respect of residence, occu- pation, religion, obedience to the laws, taxation, civil and military service. To the subject of private internationni law belong provisions respecting private rights and the ad- ministration of justice. Hero may be groujied together regulations concerning personal c.Tpacily, social condition, the validity and iuterpretatiou of contracts, the ell'cel of marriages and divorces, the devolution of property at death, the administration of justice, procedure and evi- denee, as these subjects apply to the persons and property of foreigners. This brief enumeration shows how vast is the scope, and how varicil are the details, of international law. The tenilency of the science is strongly towards ameliora- tion. Various causes are working to produce this result, such as increasing intercourse between dift'erent parts of the world and the waste and suffering of war. Men are perceiving more and more the need of reforming and of defining clearly the rights and duties of nations, that war may be discouraged, international controversies avoided, ami international intercourse increased. The changing circumstances of men always require a corresponding change in the rules which guide and restrain them. The opjircssion of standing armies, the tyranny of conscrip- tions, the burden of taxation to meet the interest of debts contracted for war. are all so many moti\'es to modify, if it be possible, and to define with exactness, the rules by which nations are to be guided in their intercourse with each other. Of all the measures taken in our time for the civilization of international intercourse and the settlement of internati<uml difTerenees. none is comparable to that of international arbitration. The idea is not new — indeed it is as old as Henry IV. of France — but the practice is mod- ern. America has the honor, on whi<di she nmy justly pride herself, of having oftenest taught by ]ireeept and t»ftenest ailopteil in jtractiee the closing of international controver- sies by the intervention of irnjiartial arbiters. There arc many" instances of international arbitration, and among them the following: One in 17'J4, between the U. S. and Great Britain to decide what river is the river St. Croix ; one in 1SU2, between the V. S. and Spain respecting the ex- cesses committed during the previous war ; one in 1S22 be- tween the U. S. and Great Britain respecting slaves taken during the war of 1S12 ; ami another afterwards between the same powers respecting the limits of the J^latecjf Maine: then in 1S4:;, between Great Britain and France respecting the capture of British ships on the western coast of Africa; in 1S:!'J and in I CfiS, between the U.S. and Mexico respect- ing claims upon the latter: in lS5:t. between the V . S. and Great Britain respect ing certain questions under former tren- tics ; in IS.'iti, the international commission at the mouths of the Danube; in 18o7, the arbitr;ition between Prussia and Switzerland in the affair of Xeuichatel ; in INiS, between the U. S. and Chili respecting captures by the latter; in LSCn, between the V. S. and New Grenada, and between the U. S. and Costa Rica; in l.-<6:i, between the U. S. and Peru respecting the vessels Lizzie Thompson and Georgi- ana; in 184'.l, between the U. S. and Brazil: and in 1.S67. respecting the grand duehy of Luxemb.purg. The most memorable instance is the arbitration of Geneva between the r. S. and Great Britain for the settlement of the dis- pute growing out of the deprediitions of the .Mabama and other Confederate cruisers built and sent from England during the civil war. This arbitration was preceded by a joint''high commission of the two governments, by which a treaty called the Treaty of Washington was negotiated, and aii arbitrntion at Geneva agreed ujion, to proceed ac- cording to three rules of neutrality then first formally enunciated. A provision for arbitration has been introduced into several treaties: in one between Spain and the Hawaiian Islands : in another between Spain and Sweden ; in another between Spain and Uruguay ; and in seven different trea- ties negotiated by Sir John Bowring. The arbitration of Geneva was followed by ft TOtc of the British House of Commons on July S, 1873, by which, on the motion of Mr. Henry Rieh.ard, it was resolved : " That an humble address be presented to Her Majesty, praying that she will be graciously pleased to instruct her principal secretary of state for foreign affairs to enter into commu- nication with foreign powers with a view to further im- provement in international law and the establishment of a general and permanent system of international arbitra- tion." The measures which have been lately taken for the codificaticm of international law are of much significance. At the meeting of the British Association for the Promo- tion of Social Science, held at Manchester in Oct., 18IJfi. » motion was made by Mr. David Dudley Field for the tt))- pointment of a committee to prepare the outlines of an international code. The proposal was agreed to, and a committee appointed, comprising jurists of different coun- tries. Some circumstances, however, led Mr. Field to pre- pare and to publish in 1872 a draft of the whole work, which he entitled Hi-til'l Oulliiict of iiii Intrrniitional Votlr. In 18(18 Prof. Illunt.sehli of Heidelberg published a work (M;ili:rncii V,ill.-'ii;rlil ilcr L'hilisi'rlin Stnlrii. ah lieclilt- hmh LarijcKUlIt) which has been translated into French under the title of I)i„it Inlimuiiuiml Cui/i/it. On Sept. 8, 187:1, eleven publicists .assembled at Ghent and founded »u institute of international law. The number of members is limited to fifty. The next meeting of the institute was held at Geneva in Aug., 1874, and the Ibllowing three sub- jects were there more or less examined, anil reports there- on were made: uainelv, international arbitration ; the three rules of the Treaty of Washington ; and private interna- tional law. On 0"ct. 10, 1873, upon the invitation of an American committee, a conference was held at Brussels, where was founded an association for the reform and eodi- fieutiou of the law of nations. This conference was at- tended by representatives from America. Kngland, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Holland, and Belgium, comprising soi'ne of the most eminent authorities on inter- national law. The two following res.dutions were unani- mously adopted : "I. The conference declares that an in- ternational code, defining with as much precision as pos- sible the rights and duties of nations and of their members, is eminently desirable in the interest of peace, public order, and gcnera'l prosperity. It is therefore of opinion that no effort should be neglected to obtain the preparation and adoption of such a code. The conference reserve the ques- tion as lo how far the codification of interimtional law should be simply scientific, and how far it should be incor- porated into treaties or conventions formally accepted l>y s,.vereign slates. H. The conference declares that it re- gar<l» arbilnilion as the means essentially just, reasonalde, and even obligatory upon nations, for the settlement of in- tcrniitional differences which cannot be settled by negotia- tion. It abstains from affirming that in all eases without exception these means are applicable, but it believes that the exceptions are rare. It is convinced that no difference INTERXATIONAL LAW. 1245 own 1' same •hould be considered as insoluble until after a clear expla- nation of the matter in difterence, u sufficient delay, and i the exhauatiou of all |.acific means uf acconimodution. This association had another meeting in 1S7I. at which I t.apcrs were ..resented on various branches of international | law That the steps thus taken may lead to such a reform and codification of internati..nal law as will define, with all the precision possible, the rights and duiies of nations, and thus lesson the occasions of dispute and the ,.pp..rlunilies of conflict, the wise and good of all countries must de- voullvhope. DAVm D, I.I.KV Hkld. International I.aAV, Simmarv or its Pkixciples. —I ICi.ihlt .1:1./ (M;,,„lluns «( \almis, cjcrpt ».- Jar n« /*,,■ „r/ Modijhd I.J iy„r.— \. Hero we speak, first, of the essential nature of a slate, and of the parties to inter- national law. (.<) An individual man cannot bo a party of this kind, but can only claim, if a stranger, humane treatment. The law of nature will be respected by the courts, but the law of nations is not as broad nor does it cover the same ground as the law of nature. « hen certain blacks, imported against Spanish law into Cuba, rose on the crew, killed the captain, and came into the waters of the U. S., our Supremo Court held that if not slaves they were not eommitting piracy in getting the vessel into their ower; and so thcv were not delivered up. liy the application of the'laws of humanity, persons fleeing fr.mi cruelty at home, or shipwrecko.l mariners from a country not under our law of nations, would be treated with the same kindness as those with whose countries we had treaty relations. None are parties to international law except independent oreaniie.i communities— that is. nations properly so speak- in-, communilios having the full power of making treaty contracts with other nations. This definition will exclude from active partnership in international law all protected or dependent states, all provinces and colonies, all eon- tcdcracies, the members of which by their organic law form 3 close union, and the separate kingdoms which become one by a perpetual compact. Thus, the separate States ot the U. S. have no more power than private persons have of making arrang.-menls with foreign nations, unless per- haps that ol selling Slate lands to them for purposes not inconsistent with the Federal Union. On the other hand, no form of governinont or of religion excludes an inde- pendent state from participation in international law; there are examples of all forms of government among the nations which acknowlc.l-e this law, and of various forms of a common Christian religion; even Turkey, a Moham- medan state, belongs to this international brotherhood, and there are si^ns that other stales more remote from our civ- iliiation will move in the same direction. Although the present international law originated within the circle ot Christian nations, there is no reason why it should not ein- ; brace heathen states if they could consent to come under its iirovisions. (h) Independent states arc said to be norerci./ii ami c/iiof. The latter term dioiolcs r<iHnl!l,i in rights and obligations, which is the same as saying that they are all equally states, r,r a slate has certain fixed relations towards the members of it, and towards other states, out of which rights and obli- gations grow. Si/.f, therefore, and rank or dignity according to the etiquette of courts, have nothing to do with this slate cqaalitv. .VovrciViif^, again, denotes properly the condition of havi'n" no superior in the political sj.here, and is insepa- rable from in li'pcn.lonce. It is an unfortunate word, espe- cially in the U. S., because we have been in the habit of talkin" of qualified and divided sovereignly. But as far as inlernali.inal law is concerned, only the Union or state cilled the United States is sovereign; the separate States in this sense have not a particle of sovereignty. But the Slates have local powers of great moment, and might com- mit a crime against the law of nations. Who is respon- sible? Clearly the U. S. Some one must be, and no one else, under our Constilution, can bo called to account. (e) Kvery state which is capable by its organization of fiiUilling the ends fur which states exist, and especially that of entering into treaty relations to others, is /r./iti'mn/c. International law knows onlv states dc facto: it does not iretend to decide that allhough they exist they have no ridil to exist, nor dois it pretend to deny such right to an organized communilv that has begun to exist by revo- Intionarv means. In fact, a large part of the slates of Eu- rope anil America have in violent ways passed through scparalions or unions or changis of form within the last century. It mav happen, however, that an organized com- munity, which lias heretofore been a portion or a depend- ence of another, is acting as an independent body, and re- sistin" efforls to force it back into its former condition. Whatsis the legal attitude of old stales toward such a new- comer' They have no relations lo it whatever, and have acknowledged the state from which it has separated as one of their bodv. Thev can, if they please, aid the parent state to subdue it: a'gainst this help from one state to an- other there is no law. Or they can remain neutral while a contest is going on. But they cannot aid the insurrection- ists wilhoul thereliy engaging in war with the parent stale ; and if the new coniniuuity has so far become inde]iendent that the parent state gives up endeavors to bring it back into subjection— if. in short, the new state is without ques- tion a slate dc fuctv — they cannot, with any reason or pro- priety, refuse to concede to the eiunmunily thus born a place among the parlies to international law. A slate being a miirdFiii pert'iiia. capable of taking obligations upon itself, cannot destrov the obligations by any change of eonstitn- tion. Thus, the V . S. acknowledged that it was bound to pay the debts of the old Confederation, and when Denmark and Norway separated in 1S14 they look each an equitable share of the debt of the old kingdom. (</) A state's independence is exercised especially in the free management of internal affairs. The right of inter- ference in the internal policy of a state, or even in its ex- ternal peaceful policv. is so inconsistent with the end for which separate states exist in the world that such inde- pendence is universally aeknowledgid. Yet there are sev- eral exceptions to the rule of non-interferrnce cither en- dorsed or admitted by international law. The first of these that we mention is interference for the preservation of the balance of power. That is, -whrn. by diplomatic means, a state is bec.iming dangerous to the peace of its neighbors, it is held that thev mav fake combined measures lo check such growth. Thus! when by management in 1 TiMi the throne of Spain passed over to a grandson of Louis XVI.. a large part of the European powers combined to prevent it. and wilb this the war of Succession was begun. Intervention for this purpose will not be resorted to unless the aggrandizeiueut takes place bv political measures, unless those who arc par- ties to it live" near enough to fear each other's increase of power, and unless such increase takes place on the land. Commercial growth, colonial growth in remote parts, fur- nish little ground for apprehension. The jiica lor inter- vention in this case is self-preservation. The same plea, after the French Kevolulion and the fall of NaiioUon, was made for iuterference in the hitnuul afi'airs of oilier states. It was urged that the right of a peoide to alter lis govern- ment against the will of the reigning dynasty is danger- ous, anil that revolution is opposed to lbs peace of all sjatcs in the neighborhood. On this plea some ot the leading pow- ers of Europe put down revolutions in Italy and Spnui. al- though they did not venture to obstruct the way ol rcMJu- tion in France after the restoialiiui of Ihe Bourbons. 'Ihe principle has never been admitted by England: it is con- trary to the principle of national sovereignty, and it only delays and intensifies revolution. A princi|.le just the op- posite of such intervention, and intended to prevent lis application to the Spanish South American republics, lay at the bottom of the "Monroe Doctrine "-that is. of the declaration, made bv Pres. Jlonroe in 1^23, that the U. S. would ''consider anv attempt on the part of the allied Eu- ropean powers to extend their system to any portion ol our hemisphere as dangenms to our peace ami salely. Ibis declaration, highly jusi and timely, against political inlcr- fcrenco was made in concurrence with English policy, at a time when Mr. Canning opposed the measures ol the had- ing eontinenlal states, and it had a decided eflect. JSor has the policv on our part ever been altered. lo this righteous ound for interlerence we add anolher. diclated by feel- of humanilv, when anv great cruelly or barharily is I" comm'itledr'such was Vhepret"ext f..r interfering on behalf of the Creeks in their struggle for liberly in l^.. . 1 ic three great iiowers. tircat Britain. France, and Hussia. by their efl-cclua: aid destroyed the Turkish power in .'-oulbern (Ireeco and built up a Creek monarchy. It is held. als... that atrocious barbarities in war, csneeially in civil war, but measures lor Ihe will justify not onlv reinonstranees, prolection" of the weaker power, to the extent even ol an earlier recognili.in of its independence on that account. But all thcso instances of interference, so lar as they arc to be iuslificd at all. are to be regarded as extreme and exceptional cases. T^ie exception must bo looked at wilh severe impartiality, as a measure of necessity, and not be made Ihe rule. , n- ■ 2. Anolher right of a state is that of Prnperlf/niKl hn-i- ton/ A stale cannot exist wilhoul being sovereign wilhin eer'lnin limits. A slate may hold properly like a private person, such as public buildings, ships and forts, ulioecu- pied lands, etc.; it is Ihe protector id' all private property within its limits, and has the right of taxing its ciiizens or subjects: and it is also territorial sovereign within the "same limits, by which is intended that it exercises juris- .liclion there over properly, territory, etc. to the exclusion of all foreicn powers. A state's territory consists ol all the surface uf the earth, land or water, wiiliin such l.coindaries ; 124(5 INTERNATIONAL LAW. of the sea-line to the dislancc of a marine league from the | shore: and of harbors, gulfs, and straits within certain not very reniole headlands. Jlere observe (n) that the elaiui of control over the sea for a marine league is a rule dictated by sclf-nreservalion and the necessities of conuucrce. If, for instance, war between two other powers could be waged within sight of land, serious evils to the nation inhabiting the land would grow out of it ; and if there were no control over the i>|>erations of commerce within a moderate distance from the shore, there would be room for many evasions of the laws touching the revenue. The eontr<il over such an extent of sea is an iuiiilmi to the occupation of the coast. I (4) There is no absolute rule as to the remoteness of the headlands within which the waters are subject to territorial laws. It is perh.aps enough to say that they ought to bo near enough to enable vessels to ascertain when they arc j within territorial jurisdiction, and that a very considerable i interval would obstruct the freedom of the seas and be un- necessary for national self-defence, (e) Outside of such limits tlie sea is free to all nations, so that the right of using it for commerce or for fishing purposes is eomiuon. | But wliilc fishing— c.;/. on the banks of Xewfouudland, as being a part of the ocean— is free, the power of spreading and drying nets and of curing fish on adjoining coasts caii be lawfully exercised by foreigners only under sanction of treaties, (tl) It was claimed by llUbuer and other writers in the interest of neutrals in the last century that HhqM on the high seas were territory. This, however, was an un- fouudctl position, taken for the purpose of preventing, as far as theory could, the cxcrcisoof war-rights, such as that of searching neutral vessels. A commercial vessel on the high sea, so long as it retains the national character and commits no )iiratical act, is under the exclusive juris- diction of its own courts, but its deck is not properly territory. The vessel is sim]dy private property under the jiroteetion of its own country. Hence, when it lies in a foreign port it may be attached for debt, and its crew may be amenable to the laws of the port and of the foreign country, (ci Ilivcrs bounding two states, unless treaty pronounces otherwise, are common to both, and the boundary-line passes ahmg the principal channel. (/) Rivers rising in one state, and having their entrances into the sea in another, have been treated by international law as subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of the state within whose boundaries they are contained. Thus, the dwellers on the upper waters have no right to descend to the sea through other territory except by concession ; and yet there seciiis to be the highest equity, amounting almost to a right, in their free use of the entire river. The conflict between strict territoriiil right and this equitable claim has been settled by a succession of treaties, chiefly made within the last sixty years, which have now opencil all or nearly all the navigable rivers of the Christian world to those who live in states situated on their uiiper waters, and some of them to outside nations. The Rhine and the .Scheldt were opened at the Congress of Vienna in lSl.i; the Danube by the Peace of Paris in l.S.')li: the La Plata and its great system of waters by treaties from 18 jl! onward; the Ama- zon in isfifi ; and the St. Lawrence, after varying arrange- ments, by the Treaty of Washington in isri, which treaty also provided for the free navigation of the Yukon, Porcu- pine, and .Stikine, rivers of Alaska, as an earlier one had provided for that of a principal branch of the Columbia rising in British territory, '.). The Rrlaliiina of t'lireijitern in'lliin n Coiiiiln/ to ils Laim and Hurernmeut.—lUve: we eomo to a department of international law where the rules of comity, or of humanity and comity — that is, not of strict right and obligation, but of equity "and duty — determine the shape of the science. Of course, these rules express themselves with some diller- ences in a multitude of treaties, but the general tendency of modern times is towards increased privilege, so that all the disadvantages of one foreign nation as compared with another arc disappearing with every new treaty. It has been contendcil that no nation has a ri'jht to shut its ports to the rest of the world or to prevent their passage through its territory, if this should be necessary for their interests. It has even been said that there is no right of cutting off other nations from the use of necessaries that cannot be ob- tained elsewhere. But intercourse can hariUy be called a right between nations, any more Ihau between individuals of the same nation. I nni not bound to trade with anyone, but may raise everything which I use. I have the right of contract, but nobody is bound to make a contract with me. The most civilized nations obstruct the way of free trade by highly protective tariffs. The true view seems to bo that a nation may shut itself out from the society of the world, and that there is no right to force it from auch a position. And in truth intercourse takes care of itself: it is so natural, a savage even is so ready to accept that which he cannot produce in exchange for that of which ho has an abundance, that only an ojiportunity of awakening a sense of want, and fair treatment afterward, are needc(L The ])riucipal jioints to be noticed under this head are — («)lhat aliens eutering a country are subject to its laws, unless ex- empted by treiity or internaticjnal usage, (b) Their con- dition is not necessarily tlnit of citizens — in fact, ordinarily they cannot vote nor hold re;il property — but they have a secure enjoyment of their proj)erty, subject to ordinary tax- ation, the use of the courts, and the same rights of contract and eomniuuication with others. Sometimes they are called on to aid the country by persoiuil service in time of war, but this, we believe, is not common unless they are domiciled, nor does it seem to be right. They can make wills in favor of heirs abroad, transmit property to their own land, and have consuls as well as aml>:isPadors of their native country as their protectors, (c) There are several de- scriptions of persons who enjoy what is called exterrito- riality — that is, they arc exempt, in whole or in part, from the action of local laws — such as sovereigns travelling through a foreign friendly country, ships of war in its ports, foreign armies if allowed to pass through its borders, and ambassadors accredited to its government. The crews of ships of war, when on shore, arc under the control of the ptdice; and it seems that police ])Owcr may be exercised when soldiers in transit stray away from the army or from their corps. The exterritori:ility of ambassadors will be considered hereafter, {it) There are some nations where, by special treaties, the residents from Christian lands are exempt from the local laws, and ]daccd under the protec- tion of consuls or other representatives of their own nation. This practice first arose in the Jliddlc Ages, when there seemed to be a wide gulf between the Turks and the Chris- tians, and when personal, instead of territorial, law did not seem as strange as it docs now. Such nations are Turkey, JIuscat, Japan, and China. Thus, by the treaty of 1858 criminal acts of Chinese subjects towards citizens of the U. 8. are punishable by the Chinese authorities according to the law of China, and "citizens of the U. S., either on shore or in any merchant vessel, who may insult, trouble, or wound the persons or injure the property of Chinese, or commit any other im]iroper act in China, shall be punished only by the consul or other public functionary thereto authorized according to the laws of the V. S." The saino provision is found in our treaty of 18j8 with Japan, by which also the courts of Japan and the consular courts are respectively opened for the recovery of just claims, (e) Foreigners may have privileges in Christian states, if mere residents or travellers. But there is also a condition known to the law called ilfimirilc, the criterion of which consists in residence with no intention of returning to one's native country or departing elsewhere except for temporary pur- poses. This status is of inqtortance where the question is. Who is an enemy aiul who a neutral ? It is also of import- ance in IxTEn.NATioNAi. PuivATi: Law (which sec). (/) There is still a closer relation which an alien may form with the country of his residence, called mititni/lzfition. By this process he becomes a citizen, ha^■ing all or nearly all the rights of native-born citizens. In England it was for- merly held that no English native-born subject could ex- patriate himself, nor could a foreigner be naturalized with- out a special act of Parliament. But by an act of 1814 a principal secretary of state, on petition from a foreigner desirous of being naturalized, can grant him all the ca|)a- citics and rights of a natural-born British subject except that of being a member of the privy council or a member of either house of Parliament. The secretary may except other rights also. In the U. S. five years' residence is neces- sary before naturalization, and three years' residence after a U'gal ileclaration of intention to become n citizen and to renounce former nationality. (;/) As the laws of countries difl'er in regard to the hold they have upon native-born persons, it may happen that one is legally a citizen or sub- ject of two states, and collisions of jurisdiction can thence arise. Recent arrangements with the North Oerman Con- feeleralion, with Bavaria, and with (ireat Britain have re- moved a great part of the possibility of such collisions. (/,) Aliens taking refuge in any country on account of crime form a class by themselves. If the crime is political the freest nations now give to such persims their protection. If it is a gross crime against person or ])roperty, treaties of extradition provide for their being delivered up. This sub- ject, which has a connection with international private law, will be considered under that title. (0 The rights of copy and patent which persons enjoy in their own country are "to a considerable extent granted to them in other coun- tries according to a rule of reciprocity. 4. A. The Riiihta iif Lnjulinti anil Urprcscntalion, or Ain- bnitnilorn niirf Comiils. — Every party to international law is a treaty-making power, and every such power must act by some representative. No inferior community, no body of lower grade than a stale, no organization trying to be- INTERNATIONAL LAW. l'>47 come a state but not yet reeostniied as such, is entitled to ! scnil reprcscnl-.itivfj abroad who have international rights. A province vr colony or city may have agents in foreign lands, but such persons have none of the rights of aiiihai- tailori. This term, iimbiitimi'ir, iniiy bo used generically to include various grades or kinds of diplonialic ministers, and it is often used also to denote mif, and generally the hiiihcti. class of such ministers. Other words arc Itijulet Olid iiH/iriV,«. usually denoting rcprescutatives of the pope; chnnjfn d'nffnirrt, si word for a lower grade of ambassadors ; c»r«i/« and pleuiiMlrnli'iriet. which latter term generally means less than its derivation implies. There are again ambassador? sent for a particular object, and others whose functions relate to all the political transactions of a nation with another; there arc temporary and resident ambassa- dors; there are also persons who discharge the office with- out taking the name, as kings or commanders of armies sometimes negotiate treaties. .All ambassadors, of what- ever rank they may bo, have the privileges ivhich belong to this class of persons by the law of nations. j Ambassadors have had from very early times a sacred I character, which has been sometimes accounted for by their | being origin.ally persons of a religious order : but it is bet- ter to say that the office was protected by religious sanc- tions on account of its great importance. The ancient herald became a sacred person because ho could not other- j wise safelv mediate between armctl men. The ambassador needs for his protection the same sanctions, and, as he represents the highest interests of a state, it is a great crime to treat him with indignity or injury. There is a difference between the ambassadors of ancient and those of modern times, consisting especially in iliin — that the former were sent for a temporary purpose, and relumed after completing their work, but the latter, since the time of Louis XI. of France and Ferdinand Ihc Catholic of Spain, have generally resided in the foreign country for a considerable time. The resident minister is now expected to make himself acquainted with the piditics nf the country where he lives, to calculate the chances of war and peace, to use a constant influence in behalf of his own country: and thus, since this custom began, nations have felt them- selves more secure than before. As intercourse is suspended by war. ambassadors, on the outbreak of a war or in ex- pectation of it. are either dismissed or summoned home. When peace returns, the renewal of intercourse is marked by the parties receiving each other's diplomatic represent- atives. .\n ambassador represents the sovereign or the sov- ereignty of his country. In a republic Ihc power of ap- p.iinting such officers is determined by Ihc constitution or the laws, but instructions are given by the executive au- thority. In most monarchies the king or emperor appoints those who represent him in foreign courts, but this he docs as the head of the government. Hence, when a sovereign is deposed, and is no longer the aetual bead of the ailiuin- islration, other ccuintrics are not bound to recognize bis ambassadors, nor on the other hand are they bound to re- ceive those of a new sovereign tie i'hHo. The rule here, apart from dynas'ie and political preferences, is the same which holds good when new slates are recognized. When the lie I'lirln government is ncfiuicsced in by a country, and is in orderly operation, other countries will enter into neiv diplomatic relations with it. If agents of the old and dis- placeil anihorily are received also, they will have no rank, and to do thisal all after an established stale of things exists in the revolutionized country is an unfriemlly pro- ceeding, implying a hope that there may bo a countor- rcvnbition. The privileges of anibaosadors may be comprised under the terms inviidabilily and exterritoriality. As llie privi- leges Ihemselvcs arc, in great part at least, due to comity, and as the feelings of men \vill change from age to ago with changes of civilization and greater closeness of inter- course, these terms, especially the second, may vary some- what in their extent of meaning. It will not be safe to give to exterritoriality the broarlcst meaning it can bear, an<l then from that meaning deduce the privileges accorded. ^\'e must inquire what is the general umlerstanding of the present age in regard to the position which an ambassador may lake in a foreign land, and then ])erha|»s it may bap- pen that his own country will somewhat contract his lati- tude of privilege. The privileges in fiuestion arc (a) in- viidabilily of person ; that is, exemption from all violence, whether proceeding from Ihc public authority or from pri- vate persons. The exceptions to this rule are that Iho public nnthority, when be has commilteil a gross crime, may send him beyond the borders, using so much force as is necessary for Ibis end; and that private persons do not lose Iheir rights of self-defence if he is an aggressor. ('>) He has various privileges, summed up in llie word exterri- toriality, which amount to cxeniplion from Ihc operation of foreign law. There is no departure from Iho theory of his office if when he returns home he is called to account for transactions pronounced to be illegal by his country's laws which take place while he resides abroad ; but usually he is not called lo account. His first privilege — which may be referred to his inviolable character, as well as to his ex- territorial — is his exeiiiptioli /rom (he criminal jurisdietion of the country where he is resident. If there he commits crimes, acknowledged to be such by the moral sense of mankind, he cannot be tried nor punished, but can be re- quired to leave the land, and only in an extreme case, if he refuses to do this, can force bo applied, lie cannot commit treason, but he can abet treason an<l be a party to revolutionary measures, yet his punishment must be left to his own sovereign and country. iSoine of the older British lawyers, as fir Matthew liale, thought that any capital offence except treason, as rape, munlcr, or theft, might subject an ambassador to indictment and trial like other aliens ; and still later it was held that for crimes com- mitted by them against those moral laws which keep all societies together they might be brought to justice like other offenders. Hut this opinion would hanlly find favor at present. Both the law and the feeling of England have increased in the rcs|iect they attach to these foreign repre- sentatives. The need of a rule is obvious, for if subject to arrest and trial an ambassador might not be able to dis- charge his functions. (<■) The nnil>assador is exempt from the civil jurisdiction of the land where he is resident. This exem])tion is conceded to him everywhere, although it is not strictly necessary for the discharge of hisdulies. If he contracts ilebls. the only remedy is by appeal to his sov- ereign or by suit in his country's courts after his return home. The laws of the U. S. include distress for rent among other legal remedies which arc denied lo the cred- itors of a foreign minister, (f/) The hotel also and the goods of the ambassador have the same immunity from local jurisdiction. As far as he himself and bis retinue are concerned, his house is a sanctuary, but the iluinunity will not allow him lo defy the law of the land by sheltering transgressors. It is admitted, we believe, at the present day, on all hands, Ih.at criminals belonging to the coun- try of bis residence, if not his servants at the time of llie crime, may be searched for and seized in his hotel, and Hull all Ihc force necessary for effecting an entrance for this purpose may he applied, (c) By national com- ! ity the personal efl'tcts of the foreign minister and the ■ ai-licles from abroad which he needs for himself and his family arc cxcmjit from duties. lie may. however, be re- quired to pay taxes on his hotel if it belongs to him or to his government, and he is liable to the payment of i tolls and postage, but cannot be compelled to have troops quartered upon him. Formerly, ambassadors abused their privilege of having goods passed free of duty through the cuslom-house. and, as Bynkershoek, near the beginning of the eighteenth century, charges upon them, they imported merchandise which they afterwards sold. The same abuse I continued for sonic lime afterward, and was, when diseov I cred, complained of in more than imo country. Within a few years a minister of Ihc V. ■^. in .<pain has been charge.! with making imporliilions for himself on account of certain mcrcliants. It is plain that exemptions from duties were never intended to cover any articles besides those intended for the use of the embassy, and it would be no breach ol comilv to have even this privilege taken away. (./) Lib eriy of worship. This is allowed in all Christian lands, anil even beyond their borders, lo ambassadors, Iheir fami lies, and, by a stretch of comity, to oilier persons belonging to Ihc same nation, but coreligionists with the ambassador, if subiects of the slate in whose biuinds he resides, arc per- mitted only by sufferance to be present. This exemption, of course, has no signilicauco wh< re, as in the V . S., all re- ligions are free; and it has, at least in one instance, been claimed that, where Ihere was already a church of the re- ligion which the foreign minister professes, the permission to set up another for himself might be denied him. The jealousies of Catholic and Protestant Christians, in times past, have led lo the rule that the ambassador's worship must he pririilr. and even /roii.c worship, wilboul hell, or- gan, or other sign making it known to the public, anil that the cliapliiin must not appear in his canonicals. The rea- sons for this frceilom of worship are obvious. No sinic could with any regard for its own dignity consent to send a minister lo another court, where he was forbidden to ex- ercise his own or his country's religion, and no honest or honorable man would be willing to represent bis govern- ment where such prohibition existed. (;/) That Ihc foreign minister may freely discharge his functions he must have some assurance of having his retinue at command. Ac- cordingly, his family, the secretary of legation, ami Iho other officials who compose his train have the snnie exemp- tions which are couccded lo him. In this privilege bis 1248 INTERNATIONAL LAW. servants are included, and as these may bo subjects of the countrv. nnd '• Imd subjects'* besides, this usage creates some difficulty. If it shuuld appear that he took a knave. or even a political luvpccff into his service in order to shield him from the law, this would at least bo a ground of com- plaint against him to his own government. A custom for- merlv ob^icrved. then disused, then again brought into vogue in later time-;, is that of requiring from ambassadors official lists of their servants, to secure to the latter the protection desired. (A) If the state itself has no direct enntrol over an ambassador's suite, it is evident that he ought to have, but how much power he may use over them is a matter, in part, fur his own country to decide. In former times the jurisdiction of foreign ministers was almost as great as that of consuls from Christian states in Mohammedan countries. When Sully, tlien marquis of Uosny, repre- sented the French court in England in 100:1, one of his train having killed an Knglishman in a quarrel, a jury of Frenchmen being called together found the man guilty, and delivered him over to the English authorities for execution. It is evident that the exercise of high justice would not now be allowed in any Christian state, and no notice would be taken of such a procedure. The ambassador now can only collect evidence in criminal eases and send a member of his suite home for trial. Nor has he properly any cii-i'l jurisdiction except that of a voluntary kind, such as re- ceiving and legalizing testaments and affixing his seal. "The right of contentious jurisdiction is nowhere." accord- ing to Hcffter ({* 21G), "conceded to ambassadors in Chris- tian countries, even over the people of his suite." (() An ambassador can be also a merchant, and merchants in former times not infre([uently represented small states, or, it might be, the same person acted for several states. Fur- thermore, a native of a state formerly acted as the repre- sentative of a foreign state in his own country. None of these usages are common now, and some of them are almost unknown. While they existed, the douI)le character of the ambassador gave rise to various questions. Thus, it was asked whether the ambassador had any more rights as a merchant than others of his class. The answer given to this was that as far as his commercial relations were con- cerned, he stood on the same level with everybody else, although, of course, his person still remained inviolate. Again, if he were an ambassador to his own government, and withal a resident there, while it might be free to refuse him recognition in this capacity, yet, as soon as his own country consented to receive him, it admitted that he had nil the rights of other like persons. The case of Wicque- fort, the author of L'ttmltnitHadeitr et hcs funviions, was unique. He was not only a native of the United Prov- inces when he represented the duke of I^iineburg, but he also held an office under the States General, and was accused of betraying state secrets to foreigners. For this he was tried, condemned, and sentenced to confiscation of goods and imprisonment for life. The case so far diflered from that of other natives employed by foreigners that, while they are in the act of accepting them in the character of agents clothed with the rights of agents, he could not di- vest himself uf the responsibility which his being a public officer iraposcil on him. For aught that appeared, the Dutch had as much right to punish him for this crime as the duke of Liineburg would have had if he had detected him in gross violations of his duty as an ambassador, and had been able to secure his person within the duchy. ( /) Has the ambassador such a kind of inviolability that third par- ties — for instance, enemies of his country — are bound to respect his official immunities ? The answer given by his- tory is that one enemy has had no scruple at cajituring negotiators of the other, and at treating them like every other foe in war. Further, although a friendly power would bo regarded as c<)mmitting a hostile act if it seized or imprisoned such a person, yet it might refuse him transit through its territory, and in the act of transit, if ho were found past-ing into a hostile country, he might bo prevented from pursuing his journey. Cases have occurred also where foreign ministers were arrested in a third country on account of pecuniary obligations contracted there. But there is no right to seize even an enemy's ambassador on a neutral ship, much less on neutral soil, (k) The ambassa- dor's rights begin when he lands in the country to which he is sent, and continue until he leaves its soil ; and tliis whether he is received or not, and whether peaceful relations con- tinue between his country and that to which he is sent or not. On his arrival at the court to which he is commissioned he is expected to produce his letter of credence — which is some- times accompanied by one of recommendation — and his /»///>oirrr, which indicates the subjects on which he is au- thorized to treat and the amount of j)ower with which ho is invested. According to their rank, somo envoys are ac- credited directly to the sovereign of the country, and somo to the minister or secretary for foreign affairs. AVhcn his mission, for any cause not involving personal or natiooal misunderstanding, is terminated, according to general usage the ambassador presents a letter of reuall, and requests audience in order to take leave. Also when hii» rank is changed without his retiring from his mission he presents a letter of credence. As for the relative rank of ambassa- dors, the rules laid down by the i>lenipoteutiaries of the eiglit leading powers concerned in the Congress at Vienna are generally followed, together with the supplementary rule od<»pted at Aix-la-Chapellc in 1818. The ranks are— (I) ambassadors, legates, or nuncios; (2) envoys, minis- ters, or others accredited to sovereigns; (li) resident minis- ters; (4) charges d'affaires accredited to ministers of foreign affairs or secretaries of state. In each class or rank the diplomatic employes take ])recedence annmg themselves according to the date of the official notification of their ar- rival. When the ministers of several powers sign acts or treaties in common the order of signature is determined by lot. These rules cut off some of the quarrels between am- bassadors of different nations in regard to rank and national honor, which were not infrequent in earlier times. B. Consuh. — These are agents clothed with no diplo- matic or political power, residing in a certain district in order to protect the interests, chiefly commercial, of the country which commissions thera. Their special duties are determined by their own government, and they receive a permission to perform their duties from the foreign au- thorities. This is called an exequatur, and may be with- drawn for reasons judged sufficient by the same autliorities. Consuls have no exterritoriality unless by special treaty, but are subject to the laws of the country where they reside. A gross insult to the consular flag would be a ground of complaint, and so an insult to the consul's person might be resented as an insult to his country, but in general, and where his representative character is not attacked, he is like other men in his privileges. In Mohammedan lands, however, where f<>r a long time diplomatic intercourse fell into consuls' hands, they liave nearly the same rights as am- bassadors. The duties imposed by the U. S. on their con- suls are principally to receive the protests and other papers of masters of vessels, to aid destitute seamen and reclaim deserters, to act on behalf of the owners of stranded vessels, and administer upon the ])roperty of persons who have died within their consular province. The office of consul bears some analogy to that of ihc proj^f-nitM in (I reck states, whose business it was to aid the citizens anil pay attention to the envoys of the city wliich apjwintcd them. They were, however, always citizens of t!ie place where they acted as pmxeni, and tlie office, which was an extension of the relation between host and guest, remained in the same family. But the true origin of the consul, in the modern acceptation of the word, is to be traced to the times when commerce began to be active in the Middle Ages. The merchants of the cities on the Mediterranean had already officers who were called by this name, and who settled dis- putes that arose in the course of business. It was a short step, when bodies of merchants from the same place went for business purposes to the eastern parts of the Mediter- ranean, that a consul should go out with them or should he sent to live among them, invested with similar powers. We have spoken in another place of the office of consuls in the East, which much resembles this institution of the Middle Ages. 5. Treaties. — There could bo no intercourse between na- tions without some understanding in the form of a contract or treaty, and a confidence that it would bo observed. The main work of foreign ministers is to make arrangements of this kind, either temporary or permanent. The history of international law is in great meiisure to be gathered from such arrangements between nations. The subject of treaties is one attended, in its general principle, with little difficulty, and the interpretation of them follows substan- tially the rules wliieh settle the meaning of other written con- I tracts. We pass over these ])oints to dwell for a moment on ' one or two which need some explanation, (a) The treaty- j making power is determined by the constitution of each sepa- I rate state. In the U. S. treaties made by the executive and submitted to the Senate need two-thirds of the votes of I that body for their ratification, and if the payment of a sum 1 of money forms one of the conditions of a treaty a majority of the House of Representatives must concur. In this way I it would be possible, in certain cases, to defeat the ac- I tion of the Senate; hut to do this, except in extreme cases, , would oppose the spirit of the Constitution, which evidently j intended to invest the President and Senate finally and ab- 1 solutely with the treaty-making power. A similar conflict might take jjlace when in (Jrcat Britain the king's minis- ters had made similar agreements with foreign powers, for, as money is voted for particular p\irposes and not in a lump, the Parliament might refuse to sanction a payment to which the treaty had pledged the country. A question has been INTKRXATIONAL LAW. l-24!» discussed as to the extent of power lodged in the hands of the President and Senate liy oiirCouslitutiou. as it respects the cession bv treatv of land bclon-ini; to a State. Very hi"h authorities on constitutional law have taken ground whi.h would sanction the idea that the treaty-making iiowcr is practically omnipotent. But surely uo treaty could alter Ihe relations of the general government to the .States, and as to cessions of land, the better opinion seems to be 'that nhilo treaty can determine boundaries and so take away from a Slato what was supposed to ho its terri- tory it cannot dispose of territory admitted to belong to a 8ta"te without ils consent, unless in the extreme c«se of connuest, when treaty simply admits the fact of actual transfer of territory to the jurisdiction of another pr.wer, j and declares this to be inevitable, (h) The legitimate au- thorities of a nation may weakly or wickedly make a treaty greatly to ils disadvantage. What is to be said ot this ease, ind of treaties obtained by force? The true answer is that, as in Ihe case of agencies, where both parties ought I to be supposed to know the extent of the agent's power and the nature of a contract, so here, where a State's repre- sentative really transcends his power or acts under com- | pulsion, the agreement is void. It is implied in all agree- ments that the parties are acting freely : to which we may adil, and not under deception lor which one of the parties i is responsible. Hut the jdea of compulsion must not be j used to coyer very wrong motives, such as may be sup- posed to have acted on Francis I. ot France, when, to efl'cct I liis liberation from captivity in Spain, he made a treaty which he renounced alter he had procured his Irecdoni. For it was not necessary for the French nation that he should be set free, nor was force, in the pioiier sense of the word, used upon him. Sometimes a subordinate authority, as a general, makes an agreement without having the requisite authority. .\ noted case of this kind, often referred to, was the" »/>""•'■"• so called, of the consul Postumius (n. c. 3211. when ho delivered his army from captivity by a peace, which the senate of Komc afterwards declared null. This declaration was constitutional, but in good faith the whole army should have been given over to the Sam- nites as prisoners of war. (c) It is needless to say that, as an agreement to do a wrong thing can never make it right.'a treaty for iniquilims purposes is invalid. (<l) The "term lrciil<i includes various transactions, such as treaties of peace or of alliance, truces, conventions. Trea- ties may bo for political or for commercial purposes, in which latter form they are usually temporary. In short, all the relations into which states enter between themselves take this form. Among the forms of treaty we mention only treaties of >,ii,ir(inl,/. in which a third parly becomes a pledge for the 'g"od faith of one of the contracting (low- ers. This kind of security for the faith of treaties was once much more common llian it is now. The party giving this security is not considered as engaging to jiay a sum of money, iii case of the failure of tho contracting parly to discharge his obligation, nor as engaging to compel liiin to do this, unless one or the other of these acts were ex- pressly mentioned, but as using his best endeavors to efl'cct this end by urgent persuasion. He must in general induce the other parly to perform his stipulated duly, but is not rciiuired to perform it himself, (iuarantics therefore may mean comparatively little. They .arc a way of interesting the honorable sentiment of another state in tho lullilinciil of an agreement, and possibly tho non-fulfilment may be a ground for unfriendly relations or even for force. This last is true wh-n a strong power guaranties the indc|)end- ence of another. We can say as much, at least, as this— that an attempt to ilcstroy tho independence thus stipu- lated gives ground for interference. (<•! Treaties go into efTcct when they are signed, unless they contain .«omo other specification of th<' lime when tlicy begin to be operative. In treaties of peace and of truce (to which we shall return when treating of war) it is customary, where tho operations of war are scattered over a wide space, to fix on separate dates at which tho treaty shall come into elfect in diflcrent quarters. ( /" ) A treaty becomes valid when the constitu- tional treaty-making power gives its consent. Here we may touch on tiio question whether, in forms of government where the executive is authorized to conclude a treaty, ho is bound by the action of his negotiator, provided the latter proceeds according to instructions. It was formerly held that, if the agent who made the treaty proceecUd according to his /'nil piiirri- but not acconling to secret instructions, tho princiiial was bound by his action, since the full power, being known to the other party, was tho motive in consid- eration of which he consented to treat. Hut at present it is hel.l by the best authorities that the principal may withhcdd his ratification, in certain circumstances, even when the negotiator lias followed his private inslnietions. The refusal is justified in eases like these (see Whealon, iii. oh. ii., ilii 2o6-2«3): (1) "On tho ground of tho impossi- Vcli.. II.— Til bility, physical or moral, of fulfilling the stipulations;" (2) "on tho groun<l of mutual error in the parties respect- ing a matter of fact, which, if it had been known in its true circumstances, would have prevented the conclusion of the treaty ;" (:*.) on the ground of " a change of circum- stances on which the validity of the treaty is made to de- pend, either by an express stipulation or by the nature of the treaty itself." To wliiidi may be added the case where the treaty would involve injury to a third party. II. In'tenuiliiiuiil Rclnlwiti tin Ajf'eclcil hi/ H'or. — Almost all the important questions and discussions of international law are connected with a state of war between two or more nations. War, of course, must interrupt intercourse between the belligerents, and it may also prevent neutrals from pur- suing the same kindof comineice with either of the bellige- rents as before. It is thus an act or a state of relation of two nations by which other nations also may be seriously alTected. Hence, we have to consider war first as if tho belligerents were alone affected by it, and then what other nations must consent to endure, and what they have a. right to do. Thus, the rights of war in the limited sense, tlie rights and duties of neutrals, and how far the bel- ligerents may wage war to the prejudice of neutrals, aro the principal subjects of consideration in this part of in- ternational law. Wiir itself is armed contention between two organized communities, and a jnsl war is such a contention for tho purpose of obtaining justice which has been denied. The power of waging it, and the decision when to wage it, must he left by the nature of the case to each of the independent cominunitics of the world. If a state can wrong another and refuses to redress the wrong, the injured party, having no superior, must decide for itself wh.at it will do. It may decide to take no steps to recover its rights, but to waive them as being trilling in the particular case or as not worth tho cost of prosecuting them ; or it may ask others, its equals, to interpose by way of mediation, or, if the other state will consent, of arbitration ; or it may make use of armed force. The choice belongs to the injured party, just as, in disputes between man and man, if appeal to tho courts and single combat were allowed, the olTeniiing party might emiiloy cither of the alternative methods he thought best. No one therefore can interfere in a just war, other- wise every war might become universal. But, as was said in the ease of interference, so we must say here— that in wars judged by third parties to be unjust there may be armed interference in oxtreiuo cases oo tho part of tho injured. Tho particular causes of war are as many as the rights of an organized conimunity or of tho individuals under its protection which have been invaded; and to these must bo added that an apprehension of intended injury may bo so great as to justify the jiarty concerned in striking the fust blow. But war" can never be right, although it may bo undertaken to vindicate just claims, unless nieasuies have been taken to obtain reparation in a ]icaccahle way. I This, of course, applies to the active party, as the passive or defensive party accepts a fact and wards olT attempted I harm. Wlien two parties are in an alliance involving mu- tual protection or rlefence, each must judge whether tho casHu l\v(lcrig has occurred— that is, whether the assistalico is called for by the other in order to prevent a wrong which tho alliance contemplated. All these rules, however, aro I violated, especially by strong nations; and the most friv olous pretexts for w'ar, for joining others in war, for re- fusing to abide by treaty-obligation, and in this way or by some other wrong bringing on war, have been employed niany times over in the history of nations. When nations have complaints against one another, thoro ore several summary |irocesscs by which justice has boon sought without recourse to actual war. These are hotiiU rmhnrqocii, rrprlmiln, pncljic hlockailcH. (>i) Wo aay lin,- lilr einbargoes, because there aro what may be called peaceful or civil embargoes. An embargo being a stop- page or prevention of a vessel's quitting u port, there may bo occasions where such a measure can be adopted in order to prevent war by keeping the vessels of a country safe from collision witii the rules of belligerent powers. In this cnso the complete non-intercourse does not generally begin until vessels, especially of foreign powers, have liberty to leave the ports, ladeii or in ballast. This was formerly thought to be an unexceptionnblo measure, but it is not much in use. and apparently will go out of use, for it puts obstacles in the way of comnierco which all friendly stales foci and must complain of. Tho /i<i»^'/c cmbarg.i here con- temiilatcd is a detention of the vessels of a (larticular na- tion which may hajipin to he in tho ports of the injured country. These are detained by way of olTset for a wrong done by Iho olher country, in Ihe hope that this attach- ment of tho property of its subjects may lead to a peaceful eeltlcment and prevent actual war. (b) This is a form of 1250 INTERNATIONAL LAW. reprisals— a word which, taken in its large sense, denotes any seifaire and detention of property for the same pur- nose for which ships of a foreign power would be detained in the case already mentioned. Reprisals imply an at- tempt to obtain justice without having recourse to war, while ,-elors!o„ or retnliativn is not an attempt to obtain iusticc hut rather to express wounded feeling by uninendly treatment similar to that which has been received Irom tlie other nartv. Keprisals have often been made the subject of treatv.'and in many instances it has been agreed that a nation will not resort to them until several months— lour months are named in a number of treaties-shall have elapsed after the threat to make use ot them. The evil ot embargo and reprisals consists in this-lhat an innoeen subject or citizen suffers loss for the wrong or pretended wrong of his government. This evil can be prevente^d or compensated for only by distributing the harm which he «uflers over the whole political body, and making him a compensation, (c) Padfic blockaden are an invention of one or two of the leading nations of the present age, the object of which has been to prevent neutral vessels from entering or issuin" from certain ports of an offending state just as in war with the same rules of proclamation and arrest tor violation of the rules as in war, while yet war ,s declared not to ccist. The examples of the application of such a pretended rule all occurred between 1827 and 1S3S : that is to sav, two of them continued for some time in or after the year last mentioned, but none began before or since the period mentioned. They may be said to have become ob- solete alreadv. Of the writers on international law who mention them at all, most do this to condemn them as an experiment unjust to neutrals. This appears to us to be evidently the correct opinion, because if any measure im- plies a state of war, blockade does so most decidedly ; and no such new measure can be introduced into the law of nations without the consent of all. Neutrals, therefore, would have the ri'^ht of making complaints against such a principle, which affects their commerce. In fact, when a Brazilian vessel was condemned in a lower French court for breaking .uch a blockade-France and England being nearly alone in this new experiment— on the ground of attempting to take contraband of war into a blockaded port, the higher court decided that as there was no war there was no contra- hand of war, and restored the article thus condemned. 11a «tate of war did not exist, there was as much obligation to allow the vessel to go into her port as there was to restore the eoods condemned on this ground afterward. _ Besides these measures for the purpose of bringing an- other state to act justly, taken by the injured state itself there are others attempted by one of the states, or through friends of both parties, the object of which is to commit the difference complained of to some impartial counsellor or iud^e. These measures are mediation and arbitration. lW.-n(°V,a is the intervention of a friend volunteering to nacifv the minds of his friends, and offering them his ad- ^k-e towards a settlement of their difficulties Wh™ 'wo nations want a pretext for avoiding a war to which they are tending, this is a way of getting them out of their un- pleasant position and yet saving their honor. But media- ion binds no one: it is mere advice, without any pledge on either part of listening to it Such a course woY^T; mended in the protocol of the Congress at Paris, Apr. 14, "™ in these words, which might include arbitration as well ■ " The plenipotentiaries do not hesitate to express in the name of their governments the wish that states, between which a serious disagreement might arise, should, before rppealingto arms, have recourse, as far as circiimstances should permit, to the good offices of some friendly power. ITlu-ation, to which in the introduction to this article Tefe once has been made, is of two kinds-that oy mean of a permanent international court, and that by ">e^P<-"al action of the states which are at variance. The fir^t is a cumbrous, unwieldy thing in the present state of he wor d and would hardly work very well if a few of the statts governed, by Christian international law should hold aloof. The other is simple, easy in its operations, and has often been tried with success. The parties agree on "'<;;»";' jj arbitrators, on the points to he submitted, on the place time, etc., on. the law which is to govern the decision, and pledge themselves to abide by the result ; it being under- stood that the decision does not go beyond or aside troiu the points submitted, and that the arbitrators arc honest and impartial. The success of the late arbitration a Ge- neva between Great Britain and the V. S. has brought this kind of arbitration, by compromise as it is called, int.. greater notice, and inspired many with the hope hat war. ^m be more frequently avoided hereafter in that method. The Parliament of Italy, on motion of one of the deputies. Prof. Maneini, a distinguished P"W«;^M^f <^f 'i'"/".!'"": ing resolution in their session of Nov, 24, l*'^- /"^ ehlmber c.vpresses the wish that the king's government, in its foreign relations, may endeavor to render arbitration an accepted and frequent means of settling, according to jus- tice, international controversies in matters susceptible of arbitration ; that it may propose on fit occasions to intro- duce into the stipulations of treaties the condition of sub- mitting' to arbitrators such questions as may arise in the interpretation and execution of the same ; and may consent to persevere in the praiseworthy initiative which it adopted a number of years since of promoting between Italy and the other civilized nations conventions for the purpose of makin.' uniform and obligatory, in the interests ot tho re- spective peoples, the essential rules of international private law ■' The unanimous acceptance of this resolution, ac- companied by the advocacy of it by the minister of foreign affairs, the vote of the British House of Commons, to he same effect substantially, in the summer of 1!m3, and the Earnest wish still more recently expressed of vast num- bers, that arbitration may at length be an efficient and formally adopted wav of terminating disputes between na- tions, make us hope that a better time is coming, when wars shall be less frequent. AVar is an „pc,i,p»bUc, not a secret, covert, way of at- tempting to obtain justice. Not only must a demand have been made beforehand, which the complaining party con- ceives to be just, and a denial of justice, as he eonceivcs it to be, have come from the other party, but there must be an open withdrawal from intercourse, an open commenee- ment of hostile relations. The way of doing this is called a declaroiwn of war. In the old times no war was thought to be ri.'htfuUy commenced without such a declaration lui the pari of the assailing state. The Greeks made their declaration by a herald or by an ambassador and a herald. The Romans" in their early times had a formal and cere- monial way of making complaint and declaring war through a college of fetiaU>. The notice here seems to hav e been ..iven for the purpose of allowing time forreaect.on to the enemy. In the Middle Ages the declaration, accompanied, it might be, by challenge to combat, seemed intended to remove all suspicion of cowardly, underhanded conduct. A true knight, according to the ideal rule of knightly feudal honor, cSuld take no advantage of his enemy. Open dec- larations continued until long after the practice of having resident ambassadors at foreign courts came to be the rule but in modern times such declarations, formally made to the enemy, have ceased to be accounted necessary^ although they have not always ceased to be desirable. Diplomatic correspondence and the increased publicity of political re- lations make nations aware of each other s intentions ; and when two states are at variance, and military prepo.rations are going on in one of them, the other is apt to demand the reason through its ambassador; it is thus possible o have earlier information of hostile intentions than could be obtained by simple declarations, and often the fin.i breach is indicated by tho ambassador s demand of his passports. Still, a war begun on slight grounds and pre- cipitated upon the other party, like that of Napoleon III. in 1870, shows an intention to get the start ol an enemy and attack him when he is unprepared. But, although declarations of war to an enemy are not now thought to be required by honor between nations, it is a very frequent practice to'issue to other courts, or in some more directly public way, a justification of the determination to declare war It is also common to give notice to one s own sub- jects in different parts of the world, so that they may pro- tect their commercial interests against the loe, and make ready for a change of affairs. In our country, as war >s in the hands of Congress, a resolution of the national legisla- ture is all that is needed. .-a j The commencement of foreign wars is now often notified by a neutral government to its own subjects in documents, to wldch the name of proclamatiom of uculrah,)/ has been gi,"n These papers make known the fact of the foreign war, recite or refer to the laws of the nation made for t lie purpose of preserving its own neutrality, and warn its ub iect« of the penalties which they may incur by unneutra act and sometimes give notice to belligerent powers what wVll'be allowed and what forbidden in neutral wafers. By these proclamations a nation screens its subjects from tho ,enalt?es for"iracy in case they should be ^^n^^onUari ,f a belligerent vessel engaged m the work »t ""• ^'^ f takes from itself the power of «»'"P''''°'"S ''.f V'JXl and goods are visited with the ordinary effects of lawlu war. as the declaration of the fact of war is good aga nst u"e f Puch announcements are of little use eomparatn cly when two states, already long known as ""•''I '"j^rf «f international law, begin to carry on war against one an- other bit thev are of great use when organizations calling thtn elv s stites rise up suddenly hy a revolutionary pro- cess, because in this case there is generally no definite com- mencement of war, no point of time when what seemed a sedition blossoms into rebellion, and generally no willing- IXTEKNATIONAL LAW. 1251 nc68 on the part of the old state, against whieh the revolu- lionary proceedings are directed, to acknowledge that war exists. Proclamations of neutrality have not heen long in use. nor do thcv carry with them any especial authority. They niav. however, in the case last supposed, bo galling to a slate a'tleniptiiig to quell a revolt, because, according to the rule now usually adi>ptcd by nations— but adopted without necessity, as we think— the Hag of the revolution- ary organization meets with the same reception in the ports ..f'the nations as any other (lug. On the whole, although such proclamations iiiav be issued too soon, and so may encourage a revolt that' would otherwise be crushed, they do much more gooil than evil. The effects of a stale of war next demand our notice. The first of these isniiii-itilercmiriic between the individuals belonging to the two belligerents. That is, all relations of comineree. all rights to reside in a country conceded by irenty—unless in express terras perpetual— every means of communication by direct channels belwccD the snb- jecls of the opposing parties, come to an end. It follows that in strictness houses of business, in which one of the partners is a belligerent enemy's subject, must be sus- j pendcd or dissolved, and that the portion of profits due j to him. or in general debts duo to a person pertaining to a hostile country, cannot be paid over. Sometimes slight exceptions arc made by the government of a bellig- erelit to this total non-intercourse by granting licenses to trade, which, however, do not make such trade interna- tionally lawful, nor protect it against capture without the other hostile parly's consent. There arc abso permis- sions, often given and sometimes conceded in treaties, that an enemy's subjects may reside during the war under pro- tection of the other hostile government if conducting them- selves peaceably: and generally time is given to them, on the outbreak of"a war. to remove with their effects from the country. liut this is a concession indicating the progress of hunifinily. and not a strict right. The strict rule would be that foreign residents, as soon as their hostile character began, were bnble to be detained or deprived of their liberty, and their property exposed to confiscation. The Supreme Court of the V. P. decided, in accordance with the prev- alent opinion of text-writers, that the property of enemy's subjects and debts due to them are confiscable, but added that an act of Congress was necessary to carry such a measure into effect. And the treaty of 171I4 (ratified in 17!ij) with (ireat Britain ])rovides that •'neither the debts due from individuals of the one nation to indiviiluals of the other, nor shares nor moneys which they may have in the public funds or in the |.ublic or private banks, shall ever, in any event of war or national difference, be sequestered or confiscated; it being unjust and impolitic that debts and engagements contracted and made by individuals, having confidence in each other and in their respective governments, shoubl ever bo destroyed or im))aired liy national authority on account of national differences and ilisconlcnts." Tliis is a permanent article of the treaty, and important as a declaration of what the U. S. regarded to be just. Many similar stipulations are contained in the treaties of other nations, and no example of confiscation of debts occurred for a century and a half before the French Uevo- hition, with the exception of the Silesian loan in I75:i. No exiimple. we believe, has ever been known of ;,ii///rc ilihl, whi'lherduc to the other belligerent or to his sulijeets, hav- ing been confiscated. As for the persons of the subjects of one enemy within the jurisdiction of the other, the treaty just now cited expresses itself to the effect that in case of a rupture merchants and ollicrs. sulyccts of the enemy, may remain and continue their trade so long as they behave peaceably: and in case their conduct should render them suspected, and the respective goyernments should think • to remove them, the term of twelvo moiilbs frinn the pro| »;.' ubiicalion of the order should be nllowed for that purpose. 'fhis provision, however, unlike the other before cited, is limited in its operation to twelvo years. A multitude of similar provisions can be found in the treaties of other powers. It maybe said. then, that at present— ( 1 ) debts and other items'of property belonging to an enemy's sub- jecis before the breaking out of a war remain intact; but (2) the owner has no power, while the war continues, of getting at his own by nny process of law or in any way perinitled by law. unless sjiecinl treaties grant him the lib- erty: and tiiat (Hi at the end of the war the power is re- stored to him of prosecuting all claims for property held by him before its commencement. Also(l), that I he enemy's sub- jects are generally nllowed to remain in the other enemy's country if there resident before the war ; and (:>). if Ihought necess:'iry to require their removal, that ample time be given to them "to withdraw, taking their effects with them. The effect of a war on previous treaties between the two helligercnt powers deserves notice. Provisions of treaties, it is clear, which relate to the rules of war to be observed betireen the parties, cannot be suspended by the fact of war, since only then can they eome into operation. It is also clear that certain arrangements in their very nature are perpetual, and so do not terminate at the eommencc- ment of a war. Thus, the recognition of a slate like the U.S., made by Great liritain in 178:!, or of the South Amer- ican republics by .'^pain, would not need to bo renewed after the war was over, on the ground that such a transaction is in itself final, and that such a state has become an inter- national entity, unless, indeed, conquest or some act of such a stale as itself jiuts an cud to its international character. The same may be said of boundary-lines and of rights named iu a treaty deducildc from the existence of a state as such. But when we depart from these clear cases, we find some diversity of opinion. Kent says that "as a gen- eral rule the obligations of treaties are dissipated by hos- tilities." Ilalleck says, inter alio, that "treaties of com- merce and navigation are generally either suspended or extinguished by a war between the parties" to them. Of course they must be suspended at least, or war could not exist. Calvo says that " as for postal and custom-house arrangements. conventions relating to navigation and com- merce, agreements relative to private interests, they arc generally reg.ardcd as suspended until the cessation of hos- tilities." As commercial, postal, and similar conventions are yery often limited in time by their express terms, it seems safe to say that such orrangement.«, and others, like them, liable to be changed in these particulars in a few years of peace, ought to be regarded as broken off by war. which brings with it new feelings and interests. W e adil from Calvo that opinions agree "in favor of admitting the tlcfiiiitire riijjiure of conventional obligations entered into expressly in view of a state of peace, of such as have it for their special object to favor the relations of good harmony between nation and nation, such as treaties of friendship, of alliance, and other acts of the same nature, having a political character." A distinction was made by some of the older writers between the efl'ects of a new war arising from a cause independent <pf a treaty, which they thought would not affect the provisions of a treaty, and a war grow- ing out of the breach of a treaty by which its provisions would be annulled. Hence, in a given treaty, if one of the articles had been broken, and a war arose out of the breach, the rest of the treaty would be unaffected. It is easy to see that this distinction would complicate affairs between parties wishing to make peace. The practical rule sug- gested by these doubts is, that as silence may be misinter- preted, it is best always to make mention of the old treaties by way of renewing and confirming them. It is said by Dr. Twiss that Great Britain "in practice admits of no ex- ception to the rule that all treaties, as such, arc put an end to by a subsequent war between the eoutcnding parties." In conformity wilh this rule, orto prevent doubt, the I'cace of Westphalia and the Treaty of Utrecht were renewed a number of times over when the parties to them after war made new treaties with one another. It may be added to what has been said, that private rights, resulting from rules of admitted justice, are not extinguished by a war; and so a debt due bv one nation to another, where the same rules of right prevail as are acknowledged in municipal law, survives a war. An interesling discussion arose be- tween Great Britain and the V. S. aftertlie warof 1M2-Ia whether the colonies, after the recognition of their inde- pendence, retained the rights of fishery on British coasts, as a matter of course, which they bad had while depend- encies of Great Britain. Mr. .lohutjuiney Adams and others contended that they retained these rights, and in the d.s- cussion the question of the effect of war on treaties came up To us it seems that the British side of the question had the .soundest arguments in its favor. We jilaced our- selves on the footing of an in.lependeni nation and had no more rights than others: nay, even if we had been obliged to submit again to the Brili.sh crown, this right of fishery might have been taken away. A very important distinction, not always ohserycd, but founded' both in justice and in humanity, is that between active and passive enemies, or those who prosecute the war either as the responsible government of a country or as combatants, and those who obey the laws of the land in relation to a stale of hostilities without any active pnrloi- iiation in them. The latter being by far the most iiiiiner- ous class, and making no resistance to the enemy, can bo saiil to be in a slate of non-intercourse only, and are really not enemies. They suffer the ills of war so far as the unity of interests and .lesliuies in a p<ililieal body makes this necessary, but they are not in modern warfare even expected to annoy an invader, and arc secure against de- vastation, and for the most part against requisition, while they remain in that )mssive slate. The interests of human- ity'thus reipiire that on the land, the Ireatment of non- combatants should be such as lo interfere, as little as the 1252 INTERNATIONAL LAW. necessary meosures for prosecuting war will allow, with the occupations of peaceful industry and with the quiet of do- mestic life. On the sea, however, the rules of war have been much more free: the peaceful use of the sea l>y enemies' vessels has never yet been permitted, .'^liiiis and their cargoes have been lawful plunder until nniv. although to despoil an unoffending householder of his goods and to burn his house would be considered barbarous. This dif- ference is .iue partly to the greater suffering of families produced by carrying the rigor of war to an extreme, and partly in this— that capture of vessels and goods weakens the capacity of an enemv to sustain a war. Not a few voices have been "lifted up in favor of removing innocent traffic on the sea, whether belonging to friends or enemies, from liability to capture. So many steps have been taken in this direction, that capture of enemies' vessels engaged in innocent trade on the sea will henceforth be hardly worth the expense of employing cruisers for this purpose, and must ere long come to an end. The t'i>rce» lawfully employed on the land and on the sea in times past have been somewhat alike, with important differences. On land they are national or standing armies, and a militia, as well as' volunteers: which latter bodies arc often commanded by officers of the regular army. On the sea Ihey are national vessels and privateers. The cit- izen soldier and the privateer armed vessel arc as legiti- mate forces of war as national armies and navies. In fact, privateers date from a time in Europe when there were few or no navies, except such as were improvised out of mer- chant vessels. These vessels, with their crews, might be hired by the governments, or impressed into the sovereign's service, whether owned by natives or by foreigners — that which was called the jus mtynriif or droit (Vnngnrlc — or thoy might be vessels owned and manned by private per- sons, but kept up at the public expense; or public vessels with a crew and outfit provided for by.private persons; or, finally, private vessels officered and sent to sea at the charges and risk of private persons under a government's commission. Of these four ways of sending vessels out to sea, the latter only has been in vogue in the most recent times. In commercial states this has been a favorite way of employing sailors and merchant ships when trade was crippled by war, and to a nation, with a small navy but with a large seafaring class, offered the prospect of some- thing like equality on the sea with a nation possessing a good-sized fleet. The plan was for the government to put the owners and captains of such privateers under bonds. A letter of marque is given, which alone entitles a vessel to any share in a capture made from the enemy, and the ab- sence of which cxpo.ses a vessel calling itself a privateer, with its crew, to harsh treatment, as almost having a pirat- ical character. Any great irregularity or lawlessness will involve forfeiture of vessels and other penalties. But, in truth, lawlessness and harsh treatment of the enemy could never he prevented. The motive of the expedition being plunder, the captain and officers having no professional honor, the crews being often a motley collection of .adven- turers, privateering was long felt to be a great evil, and earnest voices were raised against it, especially by enlight- ened men belr>nging to our own country. At length, in 1856, the parties to the Declaration of Paris brought about a new era in international law by the four rules relating to warfare on the sea, one of which was that "privateering is and remains abolished." Other nations were invited to give their assent to these rules on the condition of accept- ing all or none, and nearly all Christian states accepted them. Several of them were such as the V. P. had always contended for, but our government refused to give in its adhesion, on the ground that wo should have no adequate force, if we abandoned privateering, to cope with nations possessing a large navy, as our own policy was to have a small one. The offer, however, was m.ade— but without ef- fect— to adopt the rules, provided that the signers of the Declaration of Paris would go further and exempt all inno- cent traffic of enemies on the sea from capture. In 1S6I, Mr. Seward, being secretary of state, made offer to two of the principal European powers, on the part of the li. ,*., to come under the operation of the four rules: but as it was understood that the stipulation would bo for the entire republic— for the Confederate States, as well as for theloyal ones- and as thus these powers would be parties in impos- ingarulo of warfare on the Confederate States, as, in short, it was a scheme to prevent them from using privateers by the aid of international law, the offer was declined. The abandonment of the use of jirivateers by so large a number of states, together wilh the .safety of enemies' goods on neutral vessels provided for in the same document, puts a new face on maritime warfare. At the outbreak of a war, if the risk of capture is great enough, neutral ves- sels henceforth will take the place of belligerent ones for commercial purposes, and the motive of capture is greatly diminished for public cruisers, the only ones now remaining. Thus, it can be no very great concession that belligerents mav safelv use their own merchant ships, unless neutrals regard it of importance for ihem to get the business of times of contest into their hands. Wo add to this, as a hint in regard to the meaning of the four rules, that tho parties to them may still legitimately employ privateers against the V. S. and other non-signers of the rules, the obligation to observe them being only a reciprocal one be- tween the signers. The General Umyet of ^yar,especiallt| on Laiirf, although somewhat vague, and dependent upon the temper of the be]li<'creuts. or still more upon the character ol^ the com- manding officer, deserve our consideration. We have no space to compare the present manner of conducting war with that of past ages, and to illustrate thereby the in- creased humanity that has taken possession of the Chris- tian world. The principles of a humane and yet efficient war-code are principally these: that war is a way of ob- taining justice when other means have failed : that it is waged between governments; that quiet inhabitants of a eoiuitry are to ho treated with humanity and with as little severity as will allow of the effective prosecution of the conflict; that, as soon as justice can be secured, armed con- test ought to cease ; and that retaliation, if necessary on accounrof the inhuman or deceitful conduct of an adver- sary, cannot go to the extreme of justifying that which is morally wrong. The cinises which have brought on a more humane mode of warfare are various, such as the increased sway of the Christian spirit: the professional feeling in standing armies, coming down from the officers, which looks on the military forces of the foe rather as servants of the state than as enemies: the general practice of carry- ing supplies for troops on the march, and the system of commissaries and quartermasters, which prevents recourse to plunder in a great degree : and the use of weapons which do their work at a distance without exciting a feeling of rage between man and man. The rules of warfare have been codified in our country in Inslmctinns for the Gmrm- menl of the V. S. in the Field— -i manual prepared by the late Dr. Lieber, and which, we believe, is the first war-code, properly speaking, that has ever been prepared. AVhat we aim at here is nothing more than to give a brief summary of tho leading provisions for preventing the excesses to which war is liable: lor) One of these relates to the weap- ons to be employed, as well as the other means for injuring the enemy. Here much is vague. On the sea a greater license is "allowed than on the land. Torpedoes were used extensively in the late war between France and Prussia to protect the harbors of North tlcrmany. On the land, weapons are to be condemned which merely give a ghastly wound without otherwise adding to the efficiency of war. (h) The troops employed in war must be such only as can be under military disci)Iline. Hence, to employ savages, like our .\mericanlndians or like the Turcos used by the French, is. to say the least, questionable; and it increases the gen- eral ferocity of war, as the opposite parly will return to regular soldiers the brutalities inflicted on them by this part of the foe's army, (c) Perfidy and solicitations to com- mit crime are not allowable. Military necessity, as our war-rules express il, admits " of such deception as does not involve the breaking of good faith, either positively pledged regarding agreements entered into during the war, or sup- posed by modern law of war to exist. Men who take up arms against one another in public war do not cease on this account to be moral beings, responsible to one another and to God" (iSi. l.''l. And, again ((* i. Ifil, " military necessity does not admit of cruelty.— that is, the infliction of suffering for the sake of suffering or for revenge— nor of maiming or wounding except in tight, nor of torlure to extort confes- sions. It does not admit of the use of poison in any way, nor of the wanton devastation of a district. It admits of deception, but disclaims acts of perfidy." (rf) When prisoners of war arc made, they must be humanely treated as it respects food and quarters. It is customary to allow officers their libertv, on parole of honor not to serve again until exchanged. " Deserters, found among the prisoners taken from the enemv, may be dealt with as having com- mitted a high crime. Escaped prisoners have committed no crime in seeking to regain their liberty, but wl'en re- taken may be subjected to more rigorous confinement. The treatment", however, of irregular troops, especially of guer- rilla-parties and of " bushwhackers," who lay aside the sol- dier's character or put it on at pleasure, is much more se- vere than that of regular troops. (<■) Of the trealmeut ol non-combatants and of their property we have already spoken in part. We add here, on this most important of all the points rebating to the conduct of war, that nothing 1 but military necessity can justify the seizure of private ' property, that domestic privacy is lo be respected, and that I the persons of unoffending individuals are to be considered INTERXATIONAL LAW. 1253 sacred. The code before referred to speaks thus of private property : " I'niess forfeited by crimes or by offences of the owner, it can be gtized only by the way of military neces- sity for tlie support or other benefit of the army or of the U. vS. If the owner has not fled, the cominauding officer will cause receipts to be given, which may serve the spoli- ated owner to ohtain indemuity.** {/) As fur property not private, hospitals, even thuse for military purposes, and other humane or relii;ious institution!?, arc to be respected. Public buildings and works of art are not to be wantonly destroyed, nor the latter scattered or given away by the coptor. Booty taken on the field of battle is generally con- sidered the property of the conc|uering army ; but prisoners, aoconling to our code, are not to be desp<»iled of valuables found on their persons or ot extra clothing. It is, however, added that large sums found on the persons or in the pos- session of prisoners may be taken from them after leaving enough for their support. (*/) In storming fortified towns the practice, even under humane commanders, has been to put little restraint on their troops. lint nowhere is greater humanity needed, since the inhabitants are liable to a triple curse — to the horrors of bombardment, to the suf- ferings and discomforts arising from a nuiltitudo of troops cooped up within the same walls, and to tlic final storm. The forces of war can and ought to protect houses and persons from plunder at such a season. (A) The rules of war allow of certain communications between hostile countries or hos- tile armies, such as those by flags of truce, heralds, cartels for the exchange of prisoners. These persons, if admitted within the enecny's lines, have a sacred character, but it may bo inexpedient to receive them, and of this the party visited must judge. A few remarks need to be added here in respect to cer- tain kinds of war, on account of something peculiar in one of the parties. One of these is war with Hnvaffen. where the simple rule of humanity is all that can be required of the civilized combatant. The parties being uuequnl. and one of thcro ignorant, distrustful, and perfidious, there can be no law of nations to govern their intercourse. Another is war with pirattn. A pirate is a sea-rover who jireys on the vessels and goods of any nation that ho falls in with, or makes descents on the land for a similar purpose of plunder. A privateer exceeding its commission might not be accounted as a piratical vessel, but one with a commis- sion from the tico opprmitf belligerents would be obnoxious to this character, since the only motive for such a double commission is plunder of both parties and of vessels bound to the ports of cither. The vessel of a part of a stnte, or- ganized for rebellion and independence, has been held to bo )>iratical, because, although it may have received a com- mission from the rebel government, it carries a flag un- known to international law, and commits treason against its legitimate country. But the better opinion is that as such a vessel docs not scour tho sea for tho purpose of pluhtler, and wages war with but one nation, it wauls two important characteristics of piracy. Piracy, in tho inter- national sense of tho word, is a crime against all nations, but each nation in its own criminal code may class other crimes under this heai! : thus, tho V. S. made the slave- trade (o be piracy for all citizens on any ship, and for per- sons not citizens on our vessels ; yet, for all that, the slave- trade, though it might be made criminal by the laws of all civilized nati<Mis, is not piratic:il in an international sense. A slave-trading vessel from this country could not bo captured by the cruisers of any other country without special treaty to that efl'ect ; but an act of strict piracy could be tried everywhere, for a piratical ship, as being at war with the world, could be captured by tho vessel of any nation. Still a third kind of war with marked peculiar- ities is that bctirtfii ft nifitfirr-ciiuitht/ nm/ a rrvultrd rtttntn/, or a state and the people of a seceding territory. Jlere Iho first question is. Does war exist? for the commencement of such a war is often diflicult to bo determined. It may bo a sell it ion or an insurrection ; it may need only the civil jiower to quell it or a slight military movement. Itut or- ganization under a new government, njiparent determina- tion (o make the secession complete, laws and practical ef- forts for creating an army or a navy, positive acts of war following all this, can give such an aspect to the move- ment that other nations will have a right to regnrd tho fact of war as manifest. For, be it obsr-rved. other nations have the sumc right ((f judging wlictlur civil war or re- bellion exists, as tliey have of judging when it has ceased to exist, and when the in<iependence of the rebels ought to be practically acknowlcdgeil. And this judgment of theirs is Iho more justifiaMe, if the mother country sanctions it by belligerent acts, such us proclnmiilions of bloekiide or levies of troops. When, now. such a kind of war exists, the re- lation between tho parties to it is peculiar in this — that every rebel is technically a traitor, waging war against his own lawful government, giving aid and comfort to its eneiaics. Those, therefore, who are not killed in war may be hanged by sentence military or civil. But in general, at the present day, when so many revolutions are attempted, such severity would only awaken the spirit of retaliation or of revenge; and so also to act on tho principle that rebel cruisers are piratical would only embitter the feelings of the rebels, shock foreigners, and provoke remonstrance, if not interference. The true policy is to treat such rebels as jituli hasten on land and on the sea, entitled to the same rules of war as other belligerents. A nation can employ also against its rebels the same means of war as if they had been foreigners from the beginning — can obstruct tho avenues of trade with them, and, after due notice, seize ou foreign vessels attempting such trade. All this being in- cident to an international war, foreigners are bound to re- spect such proceedings. Further than this, What is the rela- tion of foreigners to the two contestants ? One of these is an acknowledged stiitc : the otherhas no (ji^f^rnn/jotia/cxistcnce, and so towards the latter foreigners have no hitcnuitt'onai obligations whatever. If they give it aid, this is a cause of war for the jiarent state: if they recognize it, and so concede to it an international stitfus, this too is a cause of war; but, on the otlier hand, they may help in its subju- gation if they please, thus rendering service to a friend; they may refuse its ships admittance into their harbors; they may decline to acknowledge title gained by sales made of captured vessels under its authority. All that they are bound to do is to exercise towards its troops or ships the same spirit of humanity with which they would treat refugees from a battle or from a storm at sea. Tho common practice, however, as far as there is any. is to take a neutral atti- tude ; to acknowledge the revoltcrs' vessels as engaged ia regular war; to give both parties the same privileges that are conceded to belligerents in any other contest. That such concessions must tend to encourage revolutionary govern- ments, to give them the feeling of having reached the dig- nity of a world-power, is manifest. War, whoever the parties to it are, contemplates capture and conquest. These are so far morally justifiable in a just war as they have it for their object to procure tho means of compensation for wrong ])reviously inflicted, to pay the exjienses of obtaining justice, and to provide some security fur the future. But as both belligerents generally claim to have the right on their side, and as there is no ar- biter between nations, the facts an<l results of war are ac- quiesced in, unless outrages are committed, or wrong done which excites in a high degree the moral sense of the worhl. As for capture, which has been a tide of the law of natitnis discussed and shaped by the courts more than any other in times past, its inijxirtance will be much less in times to come, since now neutral ships may carry enemies' goods with impunity, and therefore to a greater extent than here- tofore will be used for that purpose. The motives of gov- ernments in sending cruisers out upon the sea for purposes of capture are to distress and uniioy the enemy — to pro- duce such derangements in the commerce of his subjects as to make him willing to come to equitable terms of peace. No one, as we have seen, can make captures unless under authority from a government. When a capture is made, a question may arise as to its validity, and then no property can be passed by sale with a good title, unless tho pr<incr court of the country to which the captor and his vessel bo- lting, gives a title after examination of the facts. The ship and goods taken, however, belong presumptively to tho government or country in tho interval between capture and such judicial decision. Ilenee, if for any reason it is in- convenient for a captor to carry or send his prize into port, a very barbarous usage allows him to burn it. A great deal of destruction of ships and goods took place in con- formity with this usage in our late war of secession, as the j Confederates hat! no ports into which they could take their prizes. It has been sanctioned by the Knglish courts under the condition, however, of responsibility of the captor or his government, and was prnctised by us in the Uevolutionary war, anil by Franco in the wars of the first part of this century. It is a dangerous jiraclice if a neutral vessel is 80 treated. A better way of treating prizes, which it is ! verv inconvenient to convey into port, is to allow them to ' proceed on their voyage under what is called a ransom contract. That is. as a prisoner of war or his friends for- j mcrlv paid a sum of money for his Hberatiiin. or bargained BO to do, so a captured vessel could be redeemed from cap- tivity <>» similar conditions. The validity of such aeon- tract is recognized by the law of nations, but may bo against the laws of particular nations, whose cruisers, tliere- I fore, are under especial temptation to burn their prizes. ! The ransom-contract secures the captured ship against fur- ther ea]ituro from tho vessels of the captor's country or of its allies, provided it goes on a specified course, so far as violence of the weatlier does not prevent. To secure tho payment of tho contract a hostage is sometimes delivered 1254 INTERNATIONAL LAW. over to the captor. Tho contract is forfeited if the cap- ] turin" cruiser is itself taken with that Jccuraent or the ' hostage on l>oard. The various questions relating to ran- som which may come lieforc courts must be left to larger treatises, cspcciallv to sueh as Wildman's Inalitidcn, written | especially for lawyers practising in pri/.e-eourts. Nor have wc any space for the doctrine of salvage or tlie reward paid for saving a vessel, which, altliough it comes within the province of international law, is lor the most part de- termined by the law of each particular country, and has little more to do with war than with peace. Recapture, or the recovery of a captured vessel by a cruiser of the same country or of its ally, has been treated of by most text-writers under tho form of the Koman doctrine of postliminy. As, however, the principles of recapture differ almost' as much from those of postliminy as they resemble them, we must refer the reader for the meaning of that term to the article on it in this C'l/rlojvrdiit. and content ourselves with giving the briefest explanation possible of rc- turc. If a vessel, having been talicn, is carried m/ra captu vherc by international law a prasltlui — that is, to a place w capture cannot be made— and is condemned as lawful prize of war, its former owner's right of property ceases. II cap- tured again after this, it is like any other property t.aken from a hostile owner. Recapture, then, holds good only when a prize is on tho way to a place of security; if it is effecteil within these limits, the property reverts to the original owner, subject to the payment of such salvage as the" law of tho land prescribes. If men arc recaptured, there is no salvage or ransom-money, as far as we arc aware, that can bo demanded for them according to inter- national usage. If prisoners of war in a port of a neutral escape to the shore, they cannot lawfully be surrendered; and this is a point where Roman and modern law agrees. There is also a case bearing analogy to recapture on a large scale where after conquest a government is set up and the country is again recovered by its own troops or those of its ally. The°point of difficulty here is, What are the rights of the restored government, and what respect is due to the ordinances of the conqueror during his temporary sway ? It is easily seen that some very perplexing political ques- tions may arise in such a state of things : we may refer the reader to Phillimore for the extended consideration of some of them. Supposing the conqueror to have not only occu- pied, but also politically organized, the land before being driven out, we may say, in general, (1) that whatever in this interim he does by virtue of his political power, legit- imately exercised, is valid. Taxes paid to his collectors cannot be recovered from them on the ground of the unlaw- fulness of the government. Legal acts, done by officials or subordinates of his during his supremacy, are justifiable on their part. If he sells state property or borrows money on the credit of the state, this too is valid if done for ordinary state purposes, and not with a manifestly flagitious object in view. Thus, the acts of Napoleon as head tie ftirtn of France between his arrival at Paris in Mar., 1S15, and his surrender to Capt. Maitland in July, had validity : taxes already imposed, but collected by his officials, were legally collected, and new taxes, if collected in this interval and paid over, could not be recovered by private persons. But (2) none of bis changes in the eonstituti.m or law have any claim to pennanonee; and (31 the restored or legitimate government has not the authority of going back of its res- toration and claiming whatever services or dues it could have claimed during the intermission. It is manifest that some such rules are necessary to avoid the perplexity of private persons in regard to obedience, and to mitigate tho sway of a tyr.annical conqueror. The hist point relating to war, as considered in relation only t» the belligerents, is its suspension and termination. (1) There are suspensions of war with a special and par- ticular iitiject in view, or having elTeet only so far as cer- tain individuals are concerned. Here belong licenses to trade, which need no explanation, except tho remark that they arc of strict interpretation, which is true also of pass- ports and safe-conducts or permissions to enter a hostile territory for certain specific and temporary purposes. Hero we may mention also conventions relating to the war. such 03 a commander is allowed to make, or makes under neces- sity, arrangements respecting the manner of carrying on war, cartels and ransom-contracts (before mentioned), ca- pitulations, conventions relating to exchange of prisoners or to requisitions. (2) Tni<-r. — This is a suspension either of all the operations of war, or of those in a particular quarter or before a particular place, .''uch agreements arc made by o sovereign, or by a military commander so far as he has authority for such a purpose. They commence and termi- nate at a certain day, and need no notice of their expiration. Or, if the truce is general, different days may be appointed fir the beginning and end in different quarters of the world. Truce allows generally a return to peaceful (or rather to non-warlike) relations for a definite period, but does not involve withdrawal of armies from before a fortress or from a special theatre of war. A question on which considerable difl'erenco of opinion prevails is. What can be done during a truce, and especially whether a besieged place may repair its walls and construct new works in such an interval? An answer which would perhaps fail of removing all difficulty might be, that anything might be done wbieh would have liecn directly prevented by war, or which is not in itself a directly hostile movement. Thus, a besieging army cannot lawfully add to its works of siege, and a fortress cannot be repaired — at least in places wliieh would have been com- manded by the guns of the enemy. {'■') TrcalicH of Pence. — The only rational object of war is to secure a state of justice involving reparation and security for the future. Treaties of peace, being appeals to force, do not always bring the adversaries to just terms, but, whatever their re- sult, they are tho most im]iortant acts of treaty-making powers ; they often form epochs in national or in continental history. To n;iine only one or two: the Peace of West- phalia, those of Nimcguen, Ryswick, and Utrccht-Badcn, the Treaties of Paris and of llubertsbcrg in ITIi.'i, the Peace of Paris and that of Versailles in I7s:i, the two treaties of Paris in 1814 and IS15 respectively, the Peace of Zurich in 1859 and of Prague in IStili. and the Peace of Paris in 1856 (on account especially of its international character), indicate memorable changes of relative strength, or mark a new policy, or bring in a new dynasty, or are in some way the eras of some kind of progress. They arc the hands of a clock, but the war was the moving force. Treaties of peace are subject to the same rules of in- terpretation with others made by the constitutional power in tho state, etc. — Wc have already considered the effect of war on previous treaties, and on particular arrangements of those treaties. Only two additional points remain to be considered : (<i) When do treaties go into effect ? Tlicy bind the parties, as wc have seen, when they arc signed or when they are ratified. They bind individuals when they receive news that such treaties have been made. In the interval between ratification and knowledge of the peace by military officers or by cruisers, injuries must be made good by the country to which the party committing the in- jury belongs. Captures made after a peace, but without knowledge of it. have been held to subject tho capturing officer to civil damages, for which he would have a right to demand compensation from his government. Captures, again, made before the time for the termination of hostili- ties, but with knowledge that peace has been concluded, are held to be invalid and subject to restoration. (6) Tho effect of peace is to put an end not only to a war, but also to all complainls relating to the subject for which war was undertaken. It is an oblivion or amnesty of all past difli- cultics. A new war can be undertaken for similar causes of comjilaint. but not for the same. They are forgotten and forgiven, whether menlioncd in the treaty or passed over in silence. In regard to the state in which the war leaves the parties, if the treaty makes no mention of this point, the principle of ii(i jmsniihlls is admitted. Terri- torv stays in the actual occupant's hands unless passed over by express agreement, and a strong place must be re- storedwithout injury to its works. When a part of a coun- try is yiehled up at ])eaco to the enemy, the former sov- ereign is neither bound to make compensation to those who suffer by the change of jurisdiction, nor to secure the new sovereign ag.ainst resistance from the inhabitants to liis au- thority. All he does is to renounce his own sovereignty and jurisdiction. Tivo topics remain to be considered, both of which are of jirimc importance — the rliihla nuil oJiUiitUirmH <>/ netilnd nnliinm, and the liabililien atirl riijhlii of uculra/ tratle. In m.idern times neutral interests have become of such mo- ment that a war between any two slates under our modern international law produces wide-swceiiing effects such as ancient history never knew. All industry and finance is filled with apprehension; the neutral asks what he can do to avert the effects of war from his borders by changing the course of trade, or how he can interfere by influence to prevent or abridge war. And i< may ere long become a serious question whether, considering the increased amount of disaster that war brings on tho world in modern times, the nations should have unlimited power to declare war— whether neutrals ought not to have a voice in the matter — whether, in short, as civilized nations are brought by their closeness of interest into something like a confederacy, they ought not to have something like tho political authority of a confederacy, so as to have a deciding infiuencc, at least, in all external wars. A neutral is a state which is a friend to both the bellig- erents and takes no part in the war. Sometimes, according to an earlier treaty, a power of Europe has been bound, on 1 tho breaking out of war, to furnish troops to one of the INTERNATIONAL LAW. 1255 llanil in IS-IO. tances belligerents : but it is plnin that the other may regard this as llic act of an ally if be chooses. There is also a neu- trality or ii«-ii(r<i/i.:<i(iV.ii now known to jmblic law. by which a certain territory and its inhabitants have put on the cha- racter of permanent neutrality, so that no armies can cross the boundaries of such a st.ite. and it can itself engage in no war. .«ui-h. since the vear ISli.bas been the condition of Swilzerlan.l and of I>art of Savoy— which last-mentioned country, so far a.s it was placed in this condition, continues in it since its cession to Franco in lf<GO : such also that of Belgium became, after its disruption from Holland in And, again, the northern powers of Kuropc in two iiist; (in 17S0 ami in ISOO) formed what was called armnl iicii- (ro/i'v for the iiurpose of maintaining certain alleged mari- time rights against both the belligerents j but a league like this ni^ght turn into a secondary war. A neutral state must be impartial in rendering the same favors to both bel- ligerents, hut this is far from being enough. It must stand nIo<.f. and keep its territory and its subjects aloof from the war as far as possible. Impartiality may, in fact, bo a great privilege and assistance to one of the parties, but none at all to the other. For this reason especially the modern idea of neutrality is stricter than that of a ecn- t'lry or of two centuries ago. While the neutral slate thus stands aloof, it must be humane to both parties, receiving their vessels into its ports when driven in by stress of weather or, as it would receive fugitive troops on the land, admitting them into its waters when escaping from the enemy ; yet in such sort that on the land the troops are disarmed, while the vessels can do nothing more than make the necessary repairs and procure provisions. The neu- tral is not bound to allow cruisers to enter its ports with prizes unless obligated by treaty ; and the safest, most neutral course, is not to iiUow this. Much less can ves- sels of war of the enemy procure military stores. Coal is an article of use in both war and peace; by modern ; practice— and there is no other— vessels of war are fur- 1 nished with enough to take them to the nearest port of their own country; but war steamers arc too modern for j any well-understood rule to have grown up in this respect. It "was formcrlv not thought to be unneutral to allow tran- sit to foreign 'armies in a time of war; and Switzerland supplied by treaty more than one state of Europe with mercenaries, but the age of such concessions has passed. It has become of far more importance in the present age than it over was before to decide what ncutr.als may not do and may allow to bo done within their territories that may have a bearing on the fortunes of a war. Looking first at the second point, what neutrals may allow or suffer, wo re- mark that a distinction is to bo made between those private transactions and those ordinary proceedings of trade which cannot bo prevented without consiilerablc »itrviill<ince, and those acts of individuals which arc open to inspection. If a neutnirs subject lends money or goes abroad privately to serve as a soldier. <ir exports articles to a blockaded |iort, or such as are contraband of war to any belligerent port, he does these things without sanction oflaw; and thecourls both in (Ircat liritaiu and in the V. S. will refuse to help him to recover money lent to a belligerent, on the ground tliat tlic transaction is contrary to the law of nations. (Sec I'hillimorc, iii. J l.'il.) liut hitherto, neutrals, whilst forbidding or warning against most of these things, do not make them punishable. It is otherwise with more public acts, such as building war-vessels for a belligerent or enlisting men for his service. Even hero commercial ciipi.lity and the tricks of foreign agents can often prevent the purpose which they ore attempting to accomplish from coining to light. A neutral, however, if it he bis duty to prevent his territory from becoming tho starting-place for carrying on war against friends, can make effectual laws and maintain an active police. It is not the office of foreign ambassadors and consuls, but of the home government, to look into such trespasses, and tho more, because they otherwise expose themselves to complaints from tho injured belligerent. On the other hand, the conduct of neutral governments themselves is tolerably clear. They cannot lend money or troops to either belligerent, or open their ports for hostile purposes, or permit their courts to be used for deciding nucstions of prize whore cither of the belligerents is con- cerned. To secure the neutral conduct of their subjects, neutrality laws arc enacted by several nations, perhaps by all who arc under the Christian law of nations. Thus, tho l'. S. passed one in 1S17 which is still in force, and (ircat Britain one (M) (leo. III. oh. (>'.>) which continueil in force until 1S70, when a new act was passeil, entitled, like tho first, a " foreign enlisllnent act." but far more stringent and conceding far more power to the administration. Vndcr the nril Ilritish act vessels destined to prey on tho com- merce of the V. S. in tho interest of the Confederates slipped out from British port.s and did their work effect- ually. (ircat complaints arose on our side, until in May, 1871, the Treaty of Washington was effected, containing three rules which the parties agreed to have applied in deciding their past difficulties, to observe for the future be- tween themselves, and to urge on the acceptance of other nations. These rules arc — that "a neutral government is bound, ./ir«(, to use duo diligence to prevent tho fitting out, arming, or equipping, within its jurisdiction, of any vessel which it has reasonable ground to bclicyo is intended to cruise or to carry on war against a power with which it is at peace; and also to use like diligence to prevent the de- parture from its jurisdiction of any vessel intended to cruise or carry on war as above, such vessel having been specially adapted, in whole or in part, within such juris- diction to warlike use; nccoiirf/i/. not to permit or suffer either belligerent to make use of its ports or waters as tho base of naval operations against the other, or for tlie pur- pose of the renewal or augmentation of military supjilics or arms, or tho recruitment of men ; ihirilly, to exercise due diligence in its own ports and waters, and as to all persons within its jurisdiction, to prevent any violation of the fore- going obligations and duties." In regard to the meaning of these rules, we observe that -'due diligence." as well as "reasonable grounds of belief," is necessarily indefinite; only the facts of the case can determine whether one neu- tral has reason to complain of the other as to these points. A most important question of interpretation is whetlier " to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction " relates only to the original departure, when the vessel is ready for sea, or to any future departure, if it should enter the ports of tho same neutral. Wo have good reason to believe that the commissioners of the U. S. understood the words in tho latter sense, and so also did the judges, or the majority of the judges, at the tribunal of (iencva. In other words, the crime rests on the vessel, and the flag which it floats does not protect it: which is thus true of tho vessel of uiiii ch- Uihliihrd government, but much mme of a vessel belonging to an organized revolutionary body, which has no rights or status under the law of nations. Neutrals, on the other hand, have important rights against belligerents, the principal one of which is that their territory or tho sea withiu their jurisdiction shall not be touched by operations of war. Accordingly, a capture made within neutral waters, even if in hot pursuit and flight the contending vessels pass out of the open sea, is vitiated; and the same is to be said of captures following a contest in neutral waters which is completed on the high seas. The neutral has a right to demand from the bellig- erent captor satisfaction for such invasion of his rights, to seize the prize if brought within its waters, and perhaps to chase and arrest the captor on his way from tho scene of , the offence. So any attempt to conipromiso tho neutral's : position by enlisting men to servo in war. or by inducing I them to go aboard for the purpose of enlisting, is an in- fraction of tho law of nations, connivance at which on the part of the British ambassador in 180G led the U. S. to demand his removal.— Tho subject of arresting neutral yessels on the high seas will bo considered under tho head i of Scfirih iiutl Viaitdliiiii. ' Thr /.inbililif'n itml Riuhta <,/ Xeuliul Trn(lc.—(a) Here, I when we 8]ieak of neutral owners and neutral (iroperty, tho ! word nrulral is taken in a qualified sense. He is a neutral owner who is resident in a neutral country, and that is neutral properly which is owned by a neutral and is tho pro.luct of iiculnil soil. That, on tho contrary, is hostile : property which belongs to a person resident in a hostile country, and hostile property is liis properly or the produc- 1 lion of hostile soil. It may happen that one partner is i hostile and one neutral ; if capture takes place, their rc- speelivo intcrcsls in the concern will decide how much is exempt from, and how much is liable to, tho laws of cap- ture If a person resident in a neutral country has n place of business and cajiital in a hostile one, ho has so far 1 forth a hostile character: but the English courts have ruled ' that a person domiciled in a hostile country, but having a commercial liouse in a neutral one. is not neutral, but lios- tile. To these particulars we add that a hostile flag or license to trado makes a ship hostile: that papers relating to the nationality of a vessel cannot bo changed .luring a voyage williout strong evidence of fraud : and that proiluoc ofsoil whicli a neutral owns in a hostile country follows the character of the soil. (H A subject of a neutral may identify himself with one of tho belligerents in several ways: ho may carry contra- band of war. or try to break blockade, or lake out a trad- ing license, nhethe'r between the belligerent mother-country and a colcmy or between ports along the belligerent's coast. Most of these actions would bo regarded us oriminal. and \ OS exposing a vessel to pains and penalties. But the ques- tions arise. What may a neutral vessel do? what may it noldo? That it can do unneutral acts is uuiloubtcd ; that the belligcrcnla ought not to stop neutral trade, unless iu 1256 INTEENATIONAL LAW. self-defence, will bo gcDcrally admitted. The great diffi- culty always was. until the Declaration of Paris, to decide whose goods the neutral trader might take on board of his vessel. Numberless were the contentious, the diverse ar- rangements by treaty, on that subject. The second and third rules of that Declaration laid the basis for uniformity of practice among the signers : and as they are such as the U. S. always strove to have come into operation, they may be said to be all but universal, although we have never given our adhesion to tlicm. They arc, that the "neutral tlag covers the enemy's goods with the exception of con- traband of war," and that " neutral goods, with the excep- tion of contraband of war, are not liable to capture under an enemy's flag." Enemies' goods on enemies' vessels arc still liable to capture, whatever be their quality ; hut as the cautious trader, to avoid risk, would employ a neutral ves- sel, the amount of property on the open sea exposed to the vessels of the other enemy will be very small; the number of captures hereafter may be expected to be very t;mall ; and as privateers will cease to be employed as an auxiliary to national vessels, it is not unlikely that ere long no goods or shijjs will be exposed to capture but such as directly aid in war. The law of the future, in short, will provide that there shall be no difference between neutrals and enemies in regard to the right of undisturbed passage over the sea. (c) The history of past rules and opinions touching lia- bility to capture is too large a subject, and withal too anti- quated, for us to enter into in an article like this. We will only add on that point one or two sentences which may serve to aid in xmderstanding former practice and histori- cal allusions to it. Two rules, then, may be said to have been in contlict heretofore — one making capture to depend on the tintiimrtlittf o/ prnpcrfi/ convei/ed over the sea; the other, on the natiunaUtif of the coiiveyiiiff vessel. By the first rule the neutral's goods were aa/e on any vessel, the belligerent's intsit/e on any vessel. By the second, the neutral's sliip protected the goods, the belligerent's exposed them to capture: or, to put this into another form, free ships made free goods, enemies' ships made goods hostile. As for the last part of this rule, it was of slight importance wh.it usage should prevail in regard to enemies' ships car- rying neutrals' goods, for in war the neutral would naturally do more of his own carrying than before. But it was of great importance to the belligerent that the neutral flag should not protect his enemy's goods, while it was of great importance to the neutral that a rich carrying-trade should be opened to him in time of war. In this conflict of pr.ic- ticc the belligerent interests, especially those of a nation, like Great Britain, with a naval force strong enough to protect itself antl annoy its foe, prevailed; and so, on the whole, the first of these twi> rules had the most vogue when treaty did not intervene — the rule, namely, that the property of a neutral is safe under any flag, ami that of an enemy unsafe under any flag. This rule exposed the neu- tral to great annoyance, as his cargo might be mainly hos- tile : but we must regard it. after all, as most just that not the vehicle but the j)roperty should determine liability to capture. For the reason for capture is — apart from cases of blockade and contraband — that the thing in question belongs to an enemy; and a neutral certainly has a right to lake his friend's goods on his vessels, and to use his friend's vessel for the same purpose. The war-right of his friend's enemy may subject him to inconvenience, but neither his property nor his right of payment for freight (Might to be taken from him. The present rules — that is, the rules of ISofi — are not more just, but they are more hu- mane, than those which iJrcat Britain and our Supremo Court held to be the true law of nations. (See fntroduc- tion to /iifernalional Laic, by the author of this article, §g lO'J A— 171.) {d) When, under the old rules of capture, a neutral ship was found with an enemy's goods on board, freight was paid by the captor fc»r the voyage, capture being considered equivalent to delivery : but when a hostile vessel was cap- tured with neutral goods on board, if the captor conveyed them to their original destination, ho was allowed to charge freight, otherwise no freight was duo, (e) When a neutral used an armed vessel of the enemy for conveying his goods, he exposed them to capture, ac- cording to British doctrine, as thereby showing an intention to resist the inconveniences of search and capture. But our courts held a different language, for why would the neutral run the risk of (he total destruction of his goods in consequence of an engagement, as ho was safe already from capture? A rule for this case is now of no great import- ance, whichever way it be decided, since privateering has ceased in great measure, and ships of war arc not much in the practice of carrying the goods of private persons. ( /*) Cnntrahnnd »>/ War. — The word " contraband," orig- inally signifying that which it was against a ban, edict, or I proclamation to export or to import, now denotes those arti- I eles which a neutral cannot send to a country in a state of I war consistently with the neutral character or without vio- ' lating the law of nations. These are articles which directly j aid the operations of war, and to send these to an enemy I identifies the neutral with him. I may assist in \var as I eff'ectually by sending arms or gunpowder as by getting ! men to enlist in a belligerent's service. What these arti- cles are is, for the most part, pretty generally admitted, although there is a dispute about several of the more im- portant ones. The U. .S. have a formula whieh has been inserted into a number of treaties with South American republics. This list includes — "(I) cannons, mortars, how- itzers, swivels, blunderbusses, muskets, fusees, rifles, car- bines, pistols, pikes, swords, sabres, lances, spears, halbcrts, hand-grenades, bombs, powder, matches, balls, and all other things belonging to the use of these arms; (2) buck- lers, helmets, breastplates, coats-of-mail, infantry belts, and clothes made up in a military form and for a military use; (3) cavalry belts and horses, with their furniture ; (4) and generally, all kinds of arms and instruments of iron, steel, brass, and copper, or of any other material, manu- factured, prepared, and formed to make war by sea or land." Besides these, on which there would be a very general agreement, naval stores and materials for ship- building are mentioned in a number of treaties as haviug this character, and provisions may assume it, according to some authorities, when there is a prospect of reducing an enemy by famine. Ships made ready for war are not found in some lists, but would probably be regarded as contraband ptir cmtneitce. So the nmchinery for steam-ships, an arti- cle of modern times, might be classed in the same list. Whatever article is of contraband character, thus much may be said — that belligerents have no right to add to the list, nor neutrals to take away from it. To restrict the trade of neutrals, especially by an arbitrary act, is not a thing to be endured in the present age. AVe are thus jire- pared to condemn the doctrine of occasimial contraband, — which has not received the assent, nor been sanctioned by the practice, of all nations, — according to which naval stores, and provisions especially, are declared contraband by a bel- ligerent when the circumstances seem to require it. The fluctuating character of such a doctrine is shown by the rules of the English judges in the early part of this cen- tury, as that such articles were viewed with greater indul- gence if they were the produce of the country from which they were exported, or if unmanufactured or destined to a commercial port, than if shipped from a country where they were not grown, or in a manufactured state or destined to a naval station. Afterwards the English judge. Sir Wil- liam Scott (subsequently Lord Stowell). withdrew this in- dulgence as to the commercial jtart. on the ground that the articles might there be used to fit out privateers. (See the author's Introd., ^ ISO.) The complaints of neutrals led to a new modification of the harsh practice in regard to pro- visions and navul stores. Their whole trade might consist in such articles, and the belligerent doctrine be ruinous to them. The rule of pre-emption, %vhieh had some sujiport from ancient precedents not strictly applicable, was now applied by way of relaxation of the rule, and consisted in this — that a cruiser at sea was allowed to detain vessels laden with provisions or naval stores, and bound for the enemy's ports, and to take them into a port of his own country. The articles thus intercepted were paid for at the market-price, and with a fair profit added, but not at the ]>rice which the neutral expected to obtain in the coun- try to which he was conveying them. The U. S. in one treaty, that of 1794, sanctioned this principle. AVhen a vessel is taken with contraband articles on board, the mod- ern very mild rule is to confiscate such .articles, and let the vessel with the other goods go free, unless both or either of them belong to the owner of the contraband, in which ease, or where false papers show privity in carrying them, the guilt passes over to the remainder of the property of the same owner, or also to the owner of the vessel. Special eases of contraband trade are the conveyance of ships of war or of transports with their crews, of persons in the military service, and of despatches. All but the last would have been considered by older writers and by courts as highly criminal. Despatches do not seem to have been sj>oken of before the beginning of the present century. The doctrine, first brought out in the English courts, but now pretty generally accepted, is that a shipmaster who knowingly conveys hostile despatches exposes his vessel and the cargo, if he is the agent of it, to confiscation. But what are hostile despatches? They are in substance de- fined to be "official communications of official persons re- specting the public affairs of government.'' Such despatches as keep up the intercourse between a belligerent and a neutral country are not hostile despatches, nor ha^* the oth* r belligerent the right to obstruct it. It seems likely that IXTKRNATIOXAL LAW. 1257 vessels carrying the public mails, especially if on a certain staled course, would not be exposed to suffer from the oper- ation of this rule. According to received doctrine, neutral governments are under no responsibility to restrict private pcrsuns from conveying any kind of contraband to either or both of the belligerents. The articles are not contraband until they have left the neutral limits, it has been said, and the neu- tral is not obliged to maintain an expensive police of the sea. If two nations choose to fight, they must guard their own coasts: the world suffers enough from their contests without aiding them in any respect. But there is another side to the doctrine of the responsibility of neutnils. They thrive by the rpiarrels -tf their friends; they supply the materials for death : and in so doing they demoralize society almost as much as if they entered upon tho slave-trade. Furthermore, tho articles that arc contraband arc in some cases almost indistinguishable from those which could not bo sent abrojid without exposing the nation itself to charges of unneutral conduct. A ship of war made to bo sold in the ports of a belligerent, if without a crew, is contraband, but a ship made by contract for the belligerent government is more — it is something which neutrals must not allow to slip ont from their harbors. The difference between the two cases is almost annihilated if the neutral merchant has a secret understanding with tlie belligerent to make the ship for him while acting as the owner himself. Add to this, that nations rush tho more readily into war if tboy know that a supply of arms and ammunition will be on hand when they wunt it. For these reasons we think that not only what Dr. Phillimore contends for — the making it unlawful for belligerent private vessels to get materials of war — should come to be a rule of international law. but also that no neutral ve.'fsel should be allowed to export such articles to either of tho belligerents. This might bo effected by requiring sufficient bonds from all vessels before sailing that they have no contraband on board, and imposing a penalty besides in case of transgression. Let all merchant ships of every nation be freo to carry innocent articles to tho theiiii-r of war ; let no ships of any kind bo allowed to carry articles contraband of war. (7) There was formerly a special pndiibition against a certain kind of tnirle. called tho rule of IT-'iO, which Eng- land insijited and acted upon, but which never fully passed into international law. and has now become of no signifi- cance. It related to trade closed in peace, but open in war. Such tra<lo might be cofintiuf/ or cohniiai, the first of wliich nati'ms generally do not open to foreigners, while it was for a long time a principle to confine tho other to native- born sufjjects or open it only under limitations. .Such trade at first was allowed, we believe, in all cases, only to foreign vessels that had obtained a license. There was reason enough to regard a licensed vessel as identified with tho belligerent's interests, and so far the rule was not harsh; but when tho trade was opent-d to all neutral vessels, the same rule was urged with somewhat less of justice ; tho neutral saverl a slate from some of the embarrassments intu which it might bo brought by its enemy. Our government contended against tho rule in its apjdioation both to coast- ing and to cfilonial trade, but some of our publicists were willing to let the rule have fnrre in regar<l to coasting trade whifh has an especially nati<mal character. Since tho Declaration of Paris of ISofi, by which the neutral ship has a right to take enemies' goods, this rule has necessarily expired. (A) /tf'irkmlr. — This word might be usetl of nil obstruc- tions put in tho way of approach either to a besieged town on the land or to a besieged piece of water; but, as facility of approach is confined ehiefiy to water, all the questions under this titlo r'-latc t»» that element and to iHMitral vessels upon it. Tho riglit of blockade is admitted on .all sides ; the true ground Utr ilefending it is the same that would make it dangerous to bring supplies to a besieged place in Ihn interior. If F allow neutrals tu ai'l my enemy by pro- visions and military st'ires. I can never terminate a war. Ifo assists his friend to my injury, and this, if there be any rights in war, I ought to have a right to prevent. Only harbors and mouths of rivers, and perhaps passages through straits, can bo blockaded. A stretch of const does nota'Imit of this nnlcs the nutnber of vesf;els is augmented in pro- portion to tho local limits of tho blockade. Mouths of rivers cannot bo so blockaded as to obstruct the commerce of the riparian states that are neutral. A blockinle is a fact or event that may begin or end, and ther<'("i>re there must bo Hoin/r nftlifh-iitinn «/ 1'/ to traders, to neutral governments, or to both. The French rule is to give two notifications — the diplmnatin imo, an'l that eonimunicnted to the ves«cl at the mouth of the harbor — and at no stage of the operation to nogleet tho bitter. .M. MoK-, nnnister of foreign affairs, writes in I M.'tS to another Frerieh minister of stale : " \ will not recall here tho rea.-ons why, independently of tho offi- cial and diplomatic notice of a blockade, every ship show- ing itself before the blockaded port ought to receive the warning from tho ci)mmanding squadron." Tho French, however, hold, if we are not mistaken, that at the outset of a war, before notice has had time to travel over the commer- cial world, a simple warning to a sliip is sufllcicnt, and that an attempt to break through into the port after this would expose tho vessel to seizure and trial. Tho English and our own rule does not require the double notice. It is enough to send the diplomatic notice to all neutrals, and only at tho very commencement of a war, especially before notice has had time to rty abroad, to warn off any approaching vessel. If, meanwhile, a vessel should seek to enter tho blockaded harbor under the plea of ignorance, the length of its voyage and other circumstances must decide whether the plea is just. The diplomatic notice must be sent every- where, and if only common fame has carried it to a partic- ular country, that is not sufficient to involve in guilt a ves- sel of that country, when seeking the blockaded port. If wo compare tho two rules, we shall give the preference to the Englisli. The diplomatic notice is intended to prevent voyages, which may be useless or losing, to places in an actual condition of siege. Should a vessel now appear at the harbor's mouth with the claim of not knowing tho state of facts, tho presumption is against the story, and she must prove her words a3 she can. But why give a new warning here, any more than to a burglar at your door? It is highly criminal to break bluekade ; the purpose to do it is a hostile purpose, and no indulgence is called for by such traffic. T/ie amount of force necessary to make blockade legal and effective is somewhat indefinite. Tho fourth rule of the Declaration of iSfiO is that "blockades, in oriler to be binding, must be effective : that is to say, maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access to the coast of the enemy." It may be asked what '* sufficient to prevent ac- cess " means. Suppose a number of trim, swift blockade- runners slip through a cordon of ships, does this destroy the effectiveness of the measure? Certainly not. Appar- ently, as far as its afiirmativo meaning is concerned, this rule loft things as they were before. If there is real danger of capture, and a force is stationed before the harbor in- tended to create such danger, tho blockade would be con- sidered effective. On the other hand, ail paper blockades, like those of the Berlin Decrees, the two liritisli Orders in Council, andthejMilan Decrees, all of 1S07, by which whole coasts for hundreds of leagues were put under a blockade- ban — tho two parties concerned, Na]toleon and the British government, in turn going beyond each other in their (iiplomatic war — arc entirely forbidden. A blockaile. being a fact, luHtn ouhf ho long as tho vessels are on hand to make it such, unless, indeed, a temporary storm drives them frtun their posts, to which they return as soon as possible. When they are driven off by the aupcrior poKcr of the enemy, or iHscontiuur their operations by orders of the government or commander of the squadron, the blockade ceases, and needs the same fonnatitics for its renewal as for its commencement. When a vessel in tnkeu, and foiiml by the proper court f/nilti/ of attempting to enter or (put the blockaded port during the blockade, tho jienalty is confiscation of the ves- sel, and tho cargo shares tho same fate, unless some proof can be given that the breach was against its owner's will. The liiibility to bo tried and condemned rests on the vessel, according to English decisions, until the end of the retitrn voj/a;/r. On the doctrine of blockade and of contraband has horn engrafted that of contintiouH voi/iti/i:fi. The English courts, in order to prevent neutral captains froui evading the rule of 1"6C in regard to colonial trade by stopping at a neutral port, there landing and rclading cargoes, and getting a new clearance, made tho decision that if nn original intention could bo proved of carrying the goods from the colony to tho nuilher-country, the proceedings at the neutral port were to be regardeil as a mere sham, and the ullinnxle des- tination was to deeiile in regard to the nature of the trade. In our late war with the Confederates many vessels brought contraband of war or other articles to a port in tho West Indies, espi'cially to the port tif Nassau, and eilher took a new start from tliere or put the goods on blixkade-runners better fitle<I to semi hy a squadron that might be upon tho lookout. To avoid the mischiefs growing out of these pro- ceedings (nir government applied the English doctrine just now mi'iitioned to ihip* elastt of eases. Consignment to some one at Nassau, or any papers making that the destination of the vessel, would not screen it if an original destination could be estaldished of sending the goods ultimalely to a bloekaded port, or, in the oaso of contraband of war, of a drfltination for tho hostile coast. Such intention would subject them to capture from the time <»f setting sail. Still more stringent was tho application of the rulo to goods 12.36 INTERNATIONAL LAW. bound up tbo Rio Grande for Matamoraa on the Mexican side of the river, if, when tliey were intercepted, it could be made to appear that there «as an intention alter laiidms them to earrv them overland into territory ol the U .S. (Comp. note 27 in the author's work, before cited, p. 4bb, " I i) Search —To carry out the rules of nations respecting contraband goods, blockade, and enemies' goods on enemies vessels, search is necessary : that is, the process by which it is ascertained in war what is the nationality of the ves- sel and the nature of her freight. This right is essential to the others, so tliat if certain writers, as Ilubner (1 ,39), could have made it out that a ship on the open sea is under the same law as territorv. a great part ol the effectiveness of war on the sea would have ceased. Being, however, an acknowledged right, it must be submitted to, and resist- .ance would authorise force on the part of the eriiiser: the search, however, must not be made annoying. II me ves- sel is on an innocent, lawful voyage, she is to pursue her way • if otherwise, she may bo seized and taken into a port for'thc purpose of adjudication. Search being a very irri- tating' process for the neutral, the northern states of Europe around the Baltic attempcd to introduce the so-called right of c.oiioi/. by which a public vessel, escorting merchant vessels and liaving their papers on board, could be a secur- ity for their being engaged in a commerce permitted to neutrals, aud thus might free them from the necessity of bein" vi=ited. This was a rule which the armed neutrality of 1800 endeavored without success to establish It has hitherto been unable to find a place in the law of nations, although a large number of treaties have provided for it. It is attended with the practical difficulty that a fleet ol merchant vessels under escort may often got separated from the convoying ship of war, and thus a bel igerent cruiser may mc'ct one of the merchant ships at a distance from such convoying ship. . , . u The ri<'ht of search is properly a war-nght, to be exer- cised in the case of merchant ships only. It is still a war- rit-ht whenever vessels smjieclcd of piraci/ are required to Ii?to'aad submit to examination, because pirates are ene- mies of the human race. It may happen that such suspi- cion uniustlv attaches to a particular vessel. This is like the arri-t of an innocent person at night under suspicious circumstances by the police. He is bound not to resist and to give an account of himself for the sake of the peace of societv So the vessel is bound to satisfy those who are enf a^ed' in the search, because it is for the good of the wodd; aud if the detention can be shown to be unreason- able, or to have been made annoying without reason, tho commander has a right to complain. In one case a small Spanish government ship was stopped in order to ascertain whether she were or were not a pirate, and the court ot the U S., in speaking of this, says that ships of war acting nnder the authority to arrest pirates or other offenders, •'may approach any vessels descried at sea for the purpose of ascertaining the^r real character." There is likewise a permissible search on tho high seas in peace when frauds kre suspected against the revem.e. This may take efiect , when a vessel that has committed an oftenee within the , waters of a country flees from justice, in which case ho public ship may chase her into the high sea and arrest her there An English ordinance prohibits the transshiiwnent of foreign goods within four leagues of the coast without paying diUies, and a law of Congress of 1799 contains | iimiUir regulations, " The exercise of jurisdiction to that , distance for the safety and protection of the revenue laws was declared by tho Supreme Court to be conformable to the laws and usages of nations." (kent s (uiii., i. ^I, '^\n"lhe early part of this century England claimed tho right of detaining and visiting neutral vessels in war, in order to ascertain whether any of her subjects were on board, and, if so, of taking them out, that they might ren- der military or naval service to the British sovereign. Ihis claim was"founded on the doctrine that an Englishman owed perpetual and indissoluble allegiance to his country. The evils of such a summary process bore hardest on tho V S as many emigrants or residents in England were ainon'g our sailors. This was one of the causes of the war of l.'<12. The claim was distinctly stated by Lord Ashbur- ton at tho Treaty of Washington in 1S42, but since then the supply of seamen for the navy by the impressment ot persons on British soil has gone into disuse. As for the rirrht involved, it must be most emphatically denied. A seaman, or even a criminal, can no more be forcibly <^n"ied off from a neutral vessel than a similar iicrson could be taken by force from a neutral territory. The fact of war, al^o had properly nothing to do with tho case. The ncu- iral'was not violating a war-right, but had hired a roan to be a sailor on his vessel. The rights to require indefeasible al- legiance and military duty are as truly such in peaoe as in war, so that the picas for their exercise would apply to a state of peace as well. But it is not probable that tho English principle in regard to allegiance would be equally rigid now, since a treaty of 1S70 with the U. S. allows renoun- cing allegiance and resuming it, and since an act ot tho BriTish Parliament, passed in 1S44. gives authority to one of the principal secretaries of state to grant to an alien, on his petition, nearly all the rights and capacities of tho native-born subject. .Moreover, as far as taking a person out of a neutral vessel on the sea is concerncil, in the case of the Trent the British government committed itself to the principle, that it is illegal to detain a neutral vessel and take from her even persons at war with their country and liable to the penalties of treason. A right of search, on suspicion that a vessel was engaged in the slave-trade, was mutuallv conceded by (ireat Britain and the U. S. in 181)2. Tlie treaty confined the right to certain tracts of the sea near Africa and Cuba ; it was care- fully "uarded ; it granted damages for losses incurred by the wrongful detention of vessels ; and could be terminated after ten years. Before this there had been several discus- sions between the governments, the British government claiming that there is a distinction between ii«i'( and «c«i-<-A, of which the first relates merely to the nationality of the vessel, the other to the character of the cargo and what- ever else needs to be found out. It was said that a British police-vessel on the coast of Africa could uol have control over slave-traders breaking the laws of England if the fly- ing of tho American flag was a security against visiting any ship that might hoist it. On the American side it was contended that no distinction was made, in text-writers on international law or elsewhere, between visit and search, and that a ship of war stopping a reputed slave-trader ot another nation.ality must do so at its peril. In a certain sense both views can be justified. An innocent vessel de- tained on the high seas has a claim for any damages aris- ing out of the detention, and its government, on complaint, would naturally inquire into the matter. But the flag that is hoisted is no" good evidence of the nationality of the ves- sel or crew. There is, then, a real distinction, and a neces- sary one, between visit and search ; or, in other words, there is a kind of search, call it what you will, which does its work when the nationality of the vessel is ascertained. (Jrcat Britain had treaties with Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and Sweden concerning the uuitua right ol searching vessels suspected of slave-trading, Ilow cou d a Spanish ship be searched if the hoisting of our flag could prevent it? Then, again, a nation has a right to search its own merchant vessels on the seas in time of peace. Sup- pose an English ship should grossly break the law just be- fore sailing with the intent to go out on an illegal expedi- tion The nation must have the right of sending out a cruiser in pursuit of it. and a vessel supposed to be tho offendin" one could bo made to lie to until the fact could be ascertained, or else all police over vessels is nugatory. Suppose, again (see the author's Inlrod., ? 201 ), two nations mutually to give up the right of search in war. W ould it not stili he necessary for the cruisers of one of them, if war should break out with a third party, to ascertain the nationality of the merchant ships fallen in with, in order to give to the vessels of the other the s.de benefit of tho provis- ions of the treaty? Otherwise, such nati.uis would have to abandon the right altogetber, as everything afloat won .1 wear tho protected flag. We conclude, then, that search, so far as to discover the nationality of the vessel carrying a certain fla<', is oftentimes necessary, and is just, but that for mistakes in carrying out this right the government of the cruisers making such a search are responsible. We have given a brief account of the principal rules ol international law, and wo close with one or two brief re- marks- (1) International law is f.uiudcd on justice, and contains the noble idea that universal, world-wide justice can be realized. (2) Its principal division is that respect- in.' a state of war, hut its whole spirit is to avoid war, b.iTh l.v having fixed rules and by the possibility of arbi- tration thr.uigh the help of some im).arlial pc.wer or court. (3) Its progress is greatly encouraging. It has grown lu detiniteness, in humanity, in justice, in tho extent of its sphere of operation. (4) It is, however, .lestined to be- come less important with the increasing humanity ol the world. As laws and courts would sink in tlicir importance if all men became thoroughly just and unselfish ; as law, according to the apostle. •' is not made for the righteous man, but for the lawless and disobedient : —since the love in the righteous man's heart is the fulfilling of the law,- "., a day may come when men shall wonder at the mass ol controversies between nations, at the numberless trealiscs r,n international law— above all. at the prominence given to tbo laws and usages of war, because in their belter age tbev will look abroad on universal peace and righteousness. TUEODOBl! 1). "OOLSEY. INTKKNATIOXAL PRIVATE LAW. 12.39 Interna'tionnI Private Law is the branch of jurisprudence which regulates the reciprocal relations of 8ul)jecls (transienll>- or otherwise) of different states. The notion of such a community of law was foreign to the ancients. To su|iply its felt need the Roman jurists and their successors fashioned congeries of precepts concerning the conflict of laws, whence the maxims ami nomeuelature now in use have been largely drawn. Much is indeed still lacking and doubtful in the science, but there is so marked a tendency toward a unity of civil and commercial legis- lation that certain publicists look for the recognition by all civiliied states of a common system, affording all men cvervwherc liberty and security in private transactions. To this three conditions seem necessary: 1st, every one should be assured of the enjoyment of his civil rights abroad as well as at home ; 2d, every one should be able to foresee, with tolerable certainty, what laws will govern the rights attaching his person, his property, and his acts; Sd, the basis of international regulations shouM be conform- able to right, reason, and the nature of things, so as to ensure permanence to the rules themselves, and the rights acfjuired under them. The first and most general maxim of international private law results directly from the independence of states, and is — Kach state has" an exclusive sovereignty and jurisdic- tion wilhiu its own territory. Consequently, the la\ys of every state govern all persons and all properly within its limits. The second general principle is the converse of the former, and — Xo state can by its laws bind persons or objects outside its own territory. An important conse- quence of these two general principles, or converse sides of the same principle, is that all deference paid to foreign laws depends upon domestic regulations — upon the consent, express or implied, of the state where the foreign laws are applied. International private law rests, then, for its sanc- tion upon considerations of utility and reciprocal conve- nience or comity. " It is not a question of the comity of courts, but of states, in that the legislature decrees what effect shall be given to foreign laws, and leaves the courts nothing to do but to carry out the directions of the statutes." When the legislature has supplied a law for the case, the applicability of a foreign statute cannot come in question. Its pertinence can only be assumed by a judge in the ab- sence of express provision, and when conformable to estab- lished custom or tho analogy of his own jurisprudence. The applicability of a particular law to a given case mainly dcpen<ls upon the connection of tho person con- cerned with a certain legal territory. To determine this two rrilcria arc contended for — nationality or domicile. NnlinnnUly is the quality attaching by birth in, or for- mal adoption into, a particular community. It has of late lost so much of its significance (by the adoption of the Ro- man principle that children follow tho condition of their parents, and that adults are free to choose their own coun- try) as to be considered by some solely of political moment. Nationality, however, remains of importance concerning rights not political; <•. 7. claims under treaty stipulations securing special rights to citizens, and tho whole category of the disabilities of aliens. Tho character impressed by birth is so indelible that it, upon a duo change of residence and intention, easily effaces the 8U]iervcning character of domicile. It has also the advantage of being directly as- certainable, while domiciles are divided by very indistinct lines. Domicile may be dofinod as "a residence at a particular place, accompanied by positive or presumptive proof of continuing there for an unlimited time." Thus, it answers very much to the common meaning of the wonl Immc. Where it may be said of a person having two residences that he makes one his home, that is to be taken as his domicile. Intent, the element which determines the ques- tion of domicile, may be evidenced in various ways. If such intent be proved, the fact of residince lor the briefest time will suffice. A person may elect to regard his place of business as his domicile, and he may even have differ- ent domiciles for difl'erent specific pnr|ioses, but he can only have one principal domicile. This is the accepted test of the general national character of his business relations, and impresses itself upon his affairs and property. Minor children, if legitimate, lake ami follow the dorai- cilo of their father until competent to choose one for them- selves. Illegitimate children generally follow the domicile of the mother. It is usually held on the continent of Ku- rope that the death of the father fixes the domicile of a legitimate child, so as not to be changed by tho mother or guardian without net of law. The domicile of a wife gen- erally merges in that of her husband, unless he sufl'er for a crime or be under restraint for lunacy or like incapacity. Knvoys, consuls, prisoners, lunatics, exiles, students, and, in general, officers, acquire no new domicile. SlalM is tho sum of special rights and duties belonging to a person, over and above tho general rights and duties which he shares with all the members of the community. To determine the status of a person outside of the country of his domicile many theories have been proposed. Tlie one most accepted is. that status is determined by domi- cile, with the qualification that in case of doubt laws favoring cajiacity are favored, and the contrary disfavored. Laws abridging capacity for rights — r. tj. concerning sla- very — have admittedly no extra-territorial force. Natural incapacity, such as lunacy, accompanies the person every- where. In other respects, the general tendency is to respect the law of the place of tho transaction, as that imposes the least burden upon business. Oicnership and Propi:rtij. — Whether any particular thing bo an object of ownership is admittedly delenniucd by the law of the place of controversy. The capacity of a person to ai-quirc and dispose of property generally depends upon tho law of his domicile. A distinction which reconciles many embarrassing contradictions in tho books is into a capacity to act and a capacity for rights. The former, proceeding from the personal status, depends upon the law of tho domicile; the latter, upon the law of the situ- ation : c. g. the inability of aliens in New York to transmit projierty resulLs from a local incapacity for rights. Tho elder jurists sharply distinguished immovables from mov- ables and other means of estate. The former, including not only land, hut also all dismemberments of the prop- erty in land and the rights to their enjoyment, are admitted to be under the domination of tlio law of their situ.ation, except when massed for purposes of succession and tho like. By the tremendous fiction that movables cleave to tho person, all personal property, however ponderous and permanent it might be, was subjected to the law of tho domicile of the owner. The increase of ]iersonal projierty in comparative value and importance, with other consider- ations, has. however, led to a rejection of this distinction, so that outside of England and the 1". .S. the now prevail- ing rule is that " movables, when not massed for the pur- poses of succession or marriage-transfer, and when not in , transit or following the owner's person, are governed by tho law of the situation, except so far as the parties inter- ostcd may select some other law." Like considerations, particularly those of public interest, arc tending to incor- porate the "same rule into .^nglo- American jurisprudence. Itttil /liijliin, or claims upon things obtaining against all persons, are, for the most part, governed by the law of the {ilace where the subservient property, movable or immova- )lc, exists. Implied real rights are not favored inter- nationally, and are not upheld unless recognized by tho laws of both places. Thus, tho hypothecation of an ob- ligor's entire estate, implied by certain contracts in certain countries, is not recognized in others where such conslruc- tivecovenants are not known, although such a claim might support an equitable action to compel the obligor to ex- ecute a formal hypothecation. Liens on movables arc extinguished by removal, though eminent jurists have maintained that real rights should not be so defeated. It is also admitted that a lien unknown at the place of contract cannot bo croatcil by a mere removal of a chattel. Whether it may be asserted by special proceedings dejicnds upon whether the lien be regnnled as a jiart of the contract, or as extraneous to it, anil simply a matter of procedure. The priority of liens "depends upon tho place where the property lies, and where the court sits." Ineniimriul Cli'itlcli—cj. letters patent, copyrights, and trademarks— are the creatures of local laws and clearly have no validity beyond the territory of the authority con- ferring them, unless extended by treaty stipulations. Thus, it has been held in France by the court of last resort that a Frenchman may stani]i the unprotected trademark of a foreign nianufaetiirer upon his wares with impunity. Ohlii/iiii'iiiii, in the sense of international jurisprudence, include all legally coercible duties, whether arising by act or accident, voluntarily or involuntarily, conformably to good morals or tho reverse. A normal or unilateral ob- ligation restricts tho liberty of one party, debtor, obligor, and enlarges tho rights of the otbor, creditor, obligee. While tho essential properties of obligations are, from motives of public policy, held beyond the interference of parties making engagements, no small freedom is allowed in the determination id' their natural properties. Among the latter is the law by which the obligation is to be gov- erned, and which, under certain restrictions, is left to the choice of the parties themselves. Whenever, therefore, it may be assumed or shown that the parties have chosen a particular territorial law, their obligations are to bo deter- mined by that, so t'ar as they are at liberty so to elect, and have their will respeete*! at the place of suit. Two palpable facts are distinguisbablo in every obligation — in- oe]itinn and fulfilment, 'fhe law cd" tho place of inception uniler most circumstances regulates, according to very geu- 1200 INTEKNATIOXAL PRIVATE LAW. oral agreement, the formal conditions of a transaction. It is commonly said, therefore, that an obligation valid at the place of its origin is valid everywhere. The eonver.se, that a transaction invalid at the place of origin is invalid every- where, is also asserted, though subject to more e.\cc|)tions, in that courts are disposed to recognize engagements in ac- cordance with their own laws, even if formally defective under the law where actually entered into. The law of the place of performance governs, according to most jurists, the obligation itself. I'lausible and ingenious arguments are put forward for other rules, particularly that of the debtor's domicile, but it is urged in opposition and with re:ison that tlie parties presumably purpose, uuless stipu- lating otherwise, to be governed by the law of the place where a specific act is to bo done or thing delivered. Where other indications of an intended submission to a particular law arc at hand, these are to be respected: thus, the obligations arising out of a continuous course of busi- ness are to be determined by the law obtaining at the permanent seat of that business; e.g. liabilities under a foreign ])olicy of insurance arc subject to tho law of the place of the permanent seat or principal office of the com- pany whence it is issued, tliougb the obligation to pay the premium is subject to the law of the domicile of the in- sured. So, again, an obligation arising under circum- stances warranting tho ex}>ectation tiiat it will be dis- charged at the same place is governed by the local law ; e. (J. that of a guest to pay his hotel-bill. In other cases the applicatory law is that of the debtor's domicile at the time of contracting the obligation. Obligations arising from delicts or torts — wrongful acta as connected with private redress — cannot, of course, be considered subject to a certain law because the same has been chosen by the obligor {wrongdoer, tnrt/cagcr). The principle of many of tlic foregoing conclusions is therefore inapplicable to them. Wherever a wrong is done, there the perpetrator of it, whether a transient pas- senf'er or a domiciled subject, is justiciable, and must answer for the consequences. The law of the place of com- mission of an admittedly wrongful act determines the mea- sure of damages. It has been judicially intimated that an act unnoticed by the law of the place of perpetration, but treatecl as tortious by tho English law, would sustain a suit for damages in England. The more approved doctrine is, that what is legally innocent where it occurs cannot be made a delict elsewhere. English and American courts have assumed jurisdiction over torts committed abroad, even where the suitors were non-resident foreigners. There is a growing inclination to disfavor such suits. The consideration of every valid obligation should be meritorious. To vitiate an engagement on its account the moving cause must offentl against universally accepted views of public morals and public safety, and not be illegal only by reason of special statutes. Thus, claims arising from sales of lottery-tickets in Kentucky arc enforced in New York, where such sales are contrary to law. Still further, a foreigner, unless he be an accomplice, can re- cover in England the |)rice of goods sold with the explicit understanding that they were to be smuggled into the lat- ter country. What is intrinsically contrary to )iublie morals is far from well settled. It might be supposed that a polygannuis promise would be disregarded throughout Christendom, but a learned and respected judge has said from the bench that the proclivities of a Turk would be protected in North Carolina. Tho belief as to the best means to attain tho same end is as varied as nationality. In this wise the consideration of illicit cohabitation is so variously treated that it has given rise to more conflicts than any other. In France and some other countries re- gard for decency and morality interdicts all inquest con- cerning paternity; in others, as Scotland, obligations aris- ing therefrom arc considered but " (ibedicntial and natural." In actual practice the application of recognized legal principles is embarrassed by the fact that a majority of ob- ligations are not simple or unilateral, but reciprocal or bi- lateral. However involved the process, the separation of the latter into the several unilateral obligations of which they are composed will often prove the most convenient if not the sole solution of the problem. Thus, each party to eommorcinl paper is liable according to the law governing his particular engagement ; so again, as has been intimated already, prcuiium for insurance may be collectible by a very different law from that deciding claims under tho policy — often a vital distinction in states forbidding inen- ranco by foreign companies. Mnrriarje is 60 hedged about, from reasons of moral and religious ])olicy. by p<isitive eoereitive statutes as to lose much of the nature of a contract, and become an institu- tion differing widely in different states. Admittedly, it must be a conjugal union between competent parties for life. Tho conditions — or, as they are commonly discussed, the impediments — to it depend, according to the Anglo- American and elder doctrine, upon the capacity of the spouses under the laws of their respective domiciles. On tho ground that the bride submits herself to the bridegroom's domicile, this is regarded by the later (icrman opinion as controlling both, excepting where her domicile cannot be changed by her own act. The formal conclusion of mar- riage is reguhiteil by the law of the jilace of celebration. The true seat of the relation (wherever contracted) is the domicile of the recognized head of the family, the husband. Mutual rights of property are fixed by the man's domicile at the consummatKin of the marriage, for it could not be endured that the husband should bo able to change the rights of his wife over her own property by a change of residence. Laws restricting liberality during marriage depend upon the domicile at the time of the act ; being intended for the protection of moral purity, they arc de- signed to control all persons in the territory. Intestate succession between the spouses is regulated by the last domicile of the deceased. Dhnrce is governed by the law of the country where it is sought, in that the law. resting upon the moral nature of the union, is strictly positive and compulsory upon the court, which, too, must be that of the actual domicile, as it alone can have jurisdiction. Paternal power over legitimate children depends upon the law of the domicile of the father at the time of the birth; over children legitimated by subsequent marriage, upon the domicile of the father at the time of filiation. (/nnrdiaiiship is to be instituted under the law of the ward's domicile. There is a strong presumption in favor of tho competency of an administering court. Succession, testamentary and intestate, to immovables is governed by the law of their situation. Movables com- monly pass by tho law of the decedent's last domicile. But tho disposition of personalty in a will validly executed un- der the law of a former domicile is respected in Europe ; it is otherwise in most of the U. S. Ciril jurisilietion is called contentious or voluntary ac- cording as it is exercised in litigated causes and the exe- cution of decisions, or in affording public authentication to matters not in controversy. Of the voluntary jurisdiction of magistrates and oflicials the foreigner may commonly avail himself equally with tho native, and a compliance with formalities required by local law is accepted every other where as sufiicient. In most countries, and saving such restrictions as giving security for costs, an alien can ordinarily contend in the courts on the same footing as a subject. In France, however, non-domiciled foreigners can sue their fellows only for certain causes of action ; e.g. commercial obligations. Subjection to a certain jurisdic- tion is a question of territory. Nothing, movable or im- movable, can be judicially disposed of unles.s it lie within the purview of tho court. Power to pass upon property abroad has been asserted in England and in some States of tho American Union, but such decrees are of no foreign force. Judicial power over persons can be had only through personal service and domiciliation in the country ; domicile in tho lesser sense of commorancy will suffice. By English law English courts assume jurisdiction over causes of action arising iu England, although the assumption is disregarded elsewhere. Procedure is regulated solely by the place of suit: if a particular remedy be essential to the enforcement of a right, resort must be had to a court administering the remedy. Evidcneo is admissible or in- admissible according to tho law of tho country of the court, albeit tribunals are prono to admit foreign modes of proof when indispensable to tho judicial establishment of facts. Foreign judgments have no effect unless sanctioned by domestic authority. If the competency of the court pro- nouncing them be unimpoiichable, they may, as conclusive upon the merits, be enforced by new judgments of the same tenor or made directly executory. Vrimiiial jnristliclion depends upon the relatiim of the government to the place of the oftcnce and to the person of the offender. The former consideration has been mag- nified in lireat Britain and the U. S.— the latter upon the European continent. To meet modern exigencies, both systems have been modified, by statute and interpretation, iiito a vcrv general approach to the rule that courts of the country of arrest have jurisdiction over all offences com- mitted' within its territory, ond also over those perpetrated abroad distinctively against its sovereignty. Independent slates administer only their own penal laws. Tlicy assist the enforcement of others by surrendering foreigners upon presumptive proof of crimes not political. That the ob- ligation so to do does not arise purely from treaty provis- ions was aptly set forth when an eminent Frenchman said, "Le prineipe de Vextrndition est Ic principe de. la loliilarite, de la t&reti riciproque . . . contre I'uliiqnilf du mat." Charles F. MacLe.\n. INTERNATIONAL WORKINGMEN'S ASSOCIATION— INTERPLEADER. 1261 International Workin^men^s Association, The, was fouu<l-(l Sept. 1*S. Is(;4, at a large meeting of workingnien from nearly all European countrie;", in St. Martin's Hall, London, at which the manifesto an4l statutes, [ as drawn up by Dr. Carl Marx, were adopted tor puhlica- i tion, and a provisory administration established. It is an ! association of trades' unions, intended for the defence of the interests of workingmcn against the encroachments of ; the power of capital, and aiming ultimately at the aboli- ] tion of all labor paid with wages as a form of slave-labor, i and the establishment of ai-soeiatcd labor ou a national ' scale. The statutes of the association were not finally cs- ! tablished. however, until sanctioned by the first general ' congress, held at ttencva Sept. :^-7, lS(i6. Here the pro- j grammes of Mazzini and Bakunin were rejected, and that i of Marx adopted. As reason? for the formation of such an association it was proehiimcd that the emancipation of the working classes must be conquered by the working classes themselves ; that the struggle for the emancipation of the working classes means not a struggle for class priv- ileges and monopolies, but for equal rights and duties and the abolition of all class rule; that the economicnl sub- jection of the mass of labor to the monopolizer of the means of labor — that is. the sources of lite — lies at the bottom of servitude in all its forms, of ail social misery, [ mental degradation, and political dependence; that the economical emancipation of the working classes is there- , fore the great eml to which every political movement ought to be subordinated as a means ; that all efforts aiming at i that great end have hitherto failed from want of solidarity | between the manifold divisions of labor in each country, and from the absence of a fraternal bond of union between I the working classes of different countries: that the eman- i cipation of labor is neither a local n<»r a national, but a social problem, embracing all countries in which modern society exists, and depending for its solutii)n on the con- currence, practical and theoretical, of the most advanced countries ; and that the present revival of the working classes in the most industrious countries of Europe, while it raises a new hope, gives solemn warning against a re- lapse into the old errors, and calls for the immediate com- bination of the still disconnected movements. A constitu- tion was then adopted, and the association was actually started. It held its next general congress at Lausanne, Sept., 1S67; the third in Brnsstls, Sept., IHfiS; the fourth in Bile, Sept.. 18fi9 ; but the fifth, destined to take place in Paris, Sept., 1H70, was prevented from meeting by the Franco-Prussian war. Meanwhile, its intluenec was widely fell. The strikes of the brouze-workers in Paris in 18G7, and of the builders in Geneva in iSfiS, were suppr)rted and carried through by English money, and in England, where trades' unions and strikes were institutions of older stand- ing, they were made much more effective, as the association pr<diibited cheap labor from being imported from France, Belgium, and (lermany. In different countries, especially in France and Austria, the government began to interfere, but this only made the association more popular among the workingmcn. It received a severe cheek from the Franco-Prussian war. No general congress hns been held since. Many members of the Paris Commune belonged to the association, and the excesses of the Commune were defended by tho association, both in a pamphlet written bv -Marx and published by tho general council in London, and in other ways. Nevertheless, in spite of tho less con- spicuous part which the association has played in public life during the last four year^. its importance can hardly be said to have decreased. The number of its members is inen-asing, and in most countries it has established organs of its own for the diffusion of its ideas. C Pktkhskn. Intrrpleatrer, in law, is tho right which a person who hobls a fund, or has possession of any item of property, or owes a duty or <d)ligation, has, when there arc rival claim- ants to the fund, etc., and he cannot determine to whom it belongs, to require them to settle in court their conflict- ing claims as between themselves, and to be allowed on his part to make over the |)ropcrty, etc. to the court, to abide the events of the litigation or to hold it under its di- rection. The jurisdiction of courts of law over this sub- ject is very limited nnd imperfect, and this branch of ju- risprudence may now, in practice, in the absence of stat- utes, bo said to be exclusively administ<Ted in courts of equity. Tho method in which relief is obtained is by bill in equity. (See Bin, iv EgriTY.) These bills arc of two kinds — strict interpleader, nnd bills in tho nature of aD interpleader. (1 ) ,1 Stn'rt nut of Intrrptrndrr. — The function of 8Uch a bill can be most clearly slateil by putting the proposi- tions ajipertaining to it in the form of rubs. ItnU I. There must be two or more persons claiming from tho plaintiff the same debt, duty, or thing. This rule is of easy application when an item of property is in dispute. It is, however, quite difficult in some cases to ascertain whether the same debt or duty is claimed. An illustration may be found in the case where a tenaut under a lease is called upon by his lessor for rent, and at the same limo a third person asserts that he is tho owner, and that the amount of the rent should bo paid to him. This woulcl nut be a proper case for a bill of interpleader, since the lessor claims under a contract, while the stranger asserts that tho tenant is in possession by wrong. Some other method must accordingly he resorted to in order to determine the rights of the parties. On tlie other hand, if a piTson is taxeil in two different towns for the same projierty when he is only liable to be taxed in one. and it is doubtful to which town the right to tax belongs, he moy file a bill of interpleader to compel the tax-collectors or towns to settle the rights as between themselves. In this case the del>t or duty is the same. Jlufr J. As a general rule, a bill of internleailer will not lie when tho holder of a fund stands in confidential rela- tions towards one of the claimants, and the other is a mere stranger, claiming by an independent and para- mount title. Thus, if an agent, consignee, or bailee have goods committed to his care, in legal phrase there is a "privity of contract" created, which will prevent him while ho retains possession from disputing the title of the person for whom he acts. The agent or bailee must defend himself from conflicting claims as well as he may. Ilufe S. The second rule must be confined to the case where the agent, consignee, etc. seeks to dispute or test the orif/- inal title of his principal or consignor. It frequently hap- pens that after such a contract relation has been created the title by subsequent acts of the principal or employer becomes complicated. lie might, for example, make con- flicting assignments of doubtful validity to different per- sons. So his assignee in bankruptcy might claim the goods as against one to whom it was insisted that the owner had made a transfer in fraud of the bankruptcy act. In such cases as these the holder of the goods might demand an interpleader. It is manifest that he in no respect contro- verts or denies the fiduciary relation, but, while he admits its existence, asserts that tho acts of his principal have 9inrc itH creation so complicated their relations that he is uncertain how to proceed. Jitiic 4- I" cases where both claimants assert wholly distinct ond independent titles, ac- cording to the weight of authorities no interpleader will lie. The ground of this rule apjicars to be that there is an objection to the interference of a court of equity in trying legal titles upon a dispute between parties where there is no privity of contract. It has been held (hat a sheriff who seizes property on an execution cannot bring an action of interpleader upon account of an adverse claim existing to the property seized by him ; for as to one of the claim- ants he necessarily arlmits himself to l>e a wrongdoer. This rule appears to be highly technical, and tho narrow construction put upon the jurisdiction of the court is much to bo regretted. This action is plainly a beneficial one, and should have been encouraged rather than discounte- nanced. There is certainly room for legislation whereby the power of courts to allow an interpleader may be jihiced upon a more satisfactory foundation. litiir 5. It is not necessary that the claims of the respective parties should be both legal in the sense of being recognized in courts of law. Ono may be legal, and the other equitalde, or both may bo equitable. Huff 0. Tho rights of the respective claimants must bo doubtful. If the ease shows no claim of right in one of tho co-defendants, there is no ground for an interpleader. liuh ?. The holder of tho fund, etc. may commence an action, although he has not yet been molested by either of the claimants. It is enough that he is in danger of sustaining injury from conflicting rights. lie may, however, wait until an action is brought against him bv ono of tho claimants, and then in turn commence his action of interpleader, making all of tho rival claimants parties. Jlnle 8. A matter of iletail should bo referred to in this connection. There should be in tho bill an aflidavit that there is no collusion between the plaintiff ond any of thu other parties; an<l in tho case of money it should be brought into court, or there should be at least an ofler to bring it in. (Further details may be found in the books on equity or chancery practice. See DnnielTa Chtinccn/ Pntc- j tirr: Barbtuir's do.) (2) /{iff in tfif Aatiirc of an Tnterplcadrt: — A suit of this I kind may be instituted by ono who is not strictly a stake- holder. It may ho brought by a person who is interested ' in a fund to ascertain his own rights. and at the same time to settle tho conflicting rights of third jiersons. An illus- j tration is supplied by the case of a mortgagor who desires to pay off a mortgage, while different )>arties lay claim to the mortgage-money. It is plain that he would naturally siek to neeomplish a double result — to redeem his property from the lien of the mortgage. and at tho same time to pay , tho money to tho party who was really entitled to it. An 1262 INTERPOLATIOX— INTERPRETATION. important instance of a bill in the nature of an interpleader is one filed by an executor or trustee to obtain the eon- structioQ of a will when there is a doubt or uncertainty as to the meaning: of its provisions. In this case the pro- visions of the will are set forth, and the confiictinj; claims of the parties interested, accompanied by the statement that the executor cannot safely proceed in the matter with- out the direction and judgment of the court. In these cases the duty of the executor is said to be performed when ho has brought the parties in interest before the court, and thev may ajtpear by counsel, who represent their respective claims under the will. As a general rule, in a strict bill of interpleader, the stakeholder is entitled to bo paid his costs from the fund in controversy as a matter of right; costs in a bill of the nature of an interpleader are discre- tionary. IJy recent legislation tn England the courts of law have jurisdiction to a certain extent in matters of interpleader. (f=ec 23 and 24 Vict. ch. 12G, ^12.) So, under the New York Code of Procedure, and that of other States resem- bling it, a defendant against whom an action is pending upon contract or for specific property may at any time before answer, upon affidavit, that a person not a party to the action, and without collusion with him. makes against him a demand for the same debt or property, upon notice to such person and to the adverse party to the action, apply to the court for an order to substitute such person in his place and discharge him from liability on his depositing with the court the amount of the debt, etc. This statute does not supersede the regular jurisdiction in equity, but is an additional remedy given to a stakeholder who has been actually sued, by allowing him to assert his rights in an antwer, and byway of defence, instead of instituting an action. The rules applied are substantially the same as in the bill of interpleader. T. SV. Dwight. Interpola'tion [Lat. nt^erpo^*], the operation of insert- ing a term bL'tween two consecutive terms of a tabulated function that shall conform to the law of the function. A table of tho kind referred to is generally computed from a formula containing two variables — one of which is the ftijicti'on, and the other the independent variable, or, as it is usually called, the an/umeut. The table is formed by f iving successive equidifferent values to the argument, computing the corresponding v.alucs of the function, and then \vriting tho results in a table ; this operation is called tubiifdti'itg the function. Thus, to compute a table of log- arithms, we assume some convenient formula expressing the relation between any number and the corresponding logarithm; in this case, the quantity that represents the number is the argument, and the quantity that represents the logarithm is i)iQ function. We next make the argument equal to all the successive natural numbers from 1 up to the limits of tho table, and compute the corresponding values of the function ; these results, when properly arranged, con- stitute a tnhh <>/ logarithms, from which we may. by simple inspection, take out the logarithm of any whole number within the limits of the table. We may find the logarithm of a mixed number, as 2^. by the method of interp«)lati'm. The oliject to be obtained may be illustrated graphically: let .1 A' be the logarithmic curve whose equation is ?/ = log J-, and let B K, C i, I) M, etc. be ordinates cor- responding to the abscis- sas 2, 3, 4, etc. Knowing these ordinates. we have the points A", L, .If, etc. of the curve; it is then re- quired to find an ordinate, St, whose abscissa is 2g. This ordinate might be computed from the formula used in computing the tables, but this would, in most cases, bo en- tirely too tedious. What we actually do is to pass a ])arabola through a sufficient number of the points A", Ly M, etc., and then compute the ordinate of this parabola corresponding to the given abscissa. This ordinate will approximate the more closely to the required ordinate the greater the num- ber of points taken. If we take two points, A' and L, the parabola is of the first order — that is, it is a straight line, whose equation is of the form if =t p -:- i^x; if we take three point*, the parabola is of the second order, whose equation is of the form j/=^ p H- f/x + rx*; if we take four points, the parabola is of the third order, whose equation is of the form t/= p + '/-r + rx + sj^, and so on. By taking a suffi- cient number of points, as m + I, we have a parabola of tho mth order, which may be made to coincide with the curve of the given function to any degree of approximation in the neighborhood of tho required ordinate. In most cases a parabola of the third or fourth order is amply sufficient. We can find the equation of the auxiliary parabola by the method of finite differences r\s follows: Let the successive ordinates, jB AT, C L, etc., be denoted by a, b, c, etc.; then let each be subtracted from the one following; the remain- ders thus found form a new series called tho first order of differences. Now. let each term of the new series be sub- tracted from the following one; the remainders will form a series called the second order of differences ; and so on, as indicated below: rt, b, c, d, etc., 6 — CI, c — b, (/ — c, etc., c— 26 + a, rf — 2r -f b, etc., d_3c-f 3i — a, etc. etc. If we denote the first terras of each of the orders of differ- ences by d\y d^y dzt etc., we shall have rfi = 6 — a, whence, 6 = a -f rfi ; rf2 = c — 26 -f a, whence, c = o -f 2d\ + rfj ; rfa = (/ — 3c -f 36 - a. whence, rf = a -h 3rfi + 3^2 + ^3, and so on. If we denote the ordinate which has « ordinates before it by y, we have, by continuing the above process, „{n-l) , „("-!)(»« -2) ^ y = a + «rfi+ '^g V g-f 'Yz <'s + ,ctc. If we now regard n as a variable abscissa, this will be the equation of a parabola of the 7)th order, passing through the extremities of h -i- 1 of the consecutive ordinates a, h, c, etc. In this case the origin of co-ordinates is at the foot of the first ordinate, and ii is expressed in terms of the dis- tance between two consecutive ordinates taken as a unit. By giving a suitable value to n, we may interpolate an or- dinate between the first and second, or between any two consecutive ordinates of the series a, b, r, etc. The result will usually be more accurate if we take the values of o, 6, c, etc., so that the interpolated term shall fall about midway between the extremes. As an illustration of this mode of nsing the formula, let it be required to find the right as- cension of Venus at midnight between the 2d and 3d days of Nov., 1S75, knowing her right ascensions at noon on the 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th of November, as follows : 1st difTs. 2d difTs. 3d diff. Nov. 1 15A. 5m. 47.27». r « ,o " 2 15 10 47.40 T ^A'' '^S*. nn " 3 15 15 48.76 ? *'^^ 1.23 ""*• " 4 15 20 51.35 ^ ^-^-^ Finding the successive orders of differences as already ex- plained, we have d\ = bm. 0.13«.. di = 1.23«.. and rfs = 0.0«. ; since the first right ascension corresponds to noon of Nov. 1, the value of n is lA; the value of a is loA. 5m. 47.27«. Substituting in the formula, we have if = ISh. bm. 47.27*. -f 1.5 X 5'". 0.13(r. -f- .75 X 1-23*. = 15A. ISm. 18.39*. ; which is the required right ascension. Other formulas for interpolation have been deduced, but tho one just explained is, in a majority of cases, the one most readily applied. W. G. Peck. Interpreta'tion [Lat.], in law, is the application of legal rules to the ascertainment of the meaning of language or other signs of thought. In its ordinary signification it is confined to the meaning of written language; in its legal aspect it is but a branch of a larger subject, since the same general principles must bo adopted in every department of literature and science to discover an author's meaning. The subject may be considered under two general divis- ions: I. The principles of interpretation; II. Their appli- cation to particular cases, e. </., statutes, contracts, wills, etc. I. The great object of interpretation is to ascertain the meaning of a writing, or, in technical phrase, of a " text." This is not to be obtained by conjecture, but only by tho application of settled rules. A distinction has been drawn between interpretation and construction. The former word has been taken to mean the sense of the writer as included within his language. Construction, on the other hand, would embrace the inquiry whether topics that were not expressed in the writing wero not included within the gen- eral intent of the author, or, as is sometimes said, within "the spirit" of the text. So, in some instances, the law forbids the e.xact accomplishment of the author's intent. It then becomes important to know whether the intent shall be carried out, though not precisely, yet as nearly as the law will permit. There is an important branch of law depending upon this distinction, known as the doctrine of cy pres. or of approximation. It is frequently resorted to in tho construction of wills or of statutes. Thus, if a per- son should be prohibited by law from creating a trust in property for a child whereby the income of a fund should be converted into principal beyond the attainment by the child of the age of twenty-one, and the parent should di- rect the accumulation of the profits until the child reached the age of twenty-five, the last four years might be dis- carded by the courts, and the direction be sustained until the age of twenty-one. This doctrine requires that the illegal direction should be in its nature capable of separa- tifiQ from that which is legal. Otherwise, the entire pro- INTERPRETATION. 1263 vision will be void. This doctrine has had in England a Inrgo application in the construction of wills endowing i-hiiritablc institutions or creating charitable trusts, c. j., for Ihe support of colleges, hospitals, schools, etc. (See Tiii'STS.) The intention of a donor, instead of bcina: car- ried out, has frequently been perverted by the court ; yet when properly applied, the doctrine is both rational and useful. Having pointed out the distinction between intcr- prelalion and constrnction as made by some authors, no further use will be made of it in this article. Text-writers upon this ."ubjcct enter into various nice and minute dis- tinctions. They speak of interpretation as being either close, or extensive, or free, or limited, or predestined, or extravagant. These terms arc used to point out the gen- eral tlilterence bet^vcen correct and erroneous principles. Interpretation cannot properly be " jiredestined" or ''ex- travagant." In the one case, the supposed interpreter has preconceived views and is laboring under a strong bias, and thus make.' the writing subservient to his wishes. In an extravagant interpretation one ceases to follow rules, and, in fact, docs not iitlrrprct, but guesses or conjectures. The distinction, however, between a close and an extensive interpretation is founded in reason. There are cases in which it is proper that words shotild be taken in their nar- rowest meaning, while in others a broader and moro com- prehensive signification should be adopted. The leading rules of interpretation will now bo referred to. Hiilf t. The meaning of a writer is to be ascertained not merely from what he states, but also from all that is implied by usage or otherwise. It would be intolerable if every subordinate pro])osition included within the written statement were required to be expressed. Tliis distinction frequently becomes of political consequence. A striking illustration is found in the diflerenee betiveen the powers conferred upon Congress by the old "Articles of Confeder- ation" and the present Constitution. In the former instru- ment it was provided that each State retained every power, pirisdiction, etc. which was not esprettfh] delegated to the V. ,S. in Congress assembled. In the present Constitution (Art. X. of Ainenilmcnls) the word "expressly" was de- signedly omitted from the corresponding clause, thus leav- ing open to the powers expressly conceded the doctrines of ini|.lication. In this way the Supreme Court of the U. S., as the final interpreter of the Constitution, has frequently been called upon to decide as to the implications to be de- rived from the words used in that instrument, link If. The whole of the writing bearing upon the subject in hand must be taken into account. In other words, the inter- preter must have rcganl to the context. It will not do to wrench a particular sentence from its connections. In this way an author's meaning may bo wholly perverted. This rule, as will be seen hereafter, is of gnat consequence in the interpretation of statutes. IlnUIII. Only the writing and its implications arc to bo eonsidercil. It will not do for the interpreter to go beyond the writing in search of a supposed sense. The true view is that it is of no eonse- ql>ence what the intent was, so long as it is not expressed or reasonably to be implied from the words used. This rule is applied with great inflexibility in courts of law. There is a well-known rule to the effect that oral evidence is not to bo resorted to in order to add to or to vary the terms of a written instrument. .Accordingly, the courts cannot sup- ply by interpretation an unexpressed intent of tlic legisla- ture or of a testator. This rule does not prevent the courts in certain cases from correcting mistakes; that is, from supplying or omitting words that wero inadvertently in- Bortcii or omitted. Hide IV, Wliero there is nothing in the writing or its surroundings to lead to the contrary, the gen- eral rule is that words are to be taken in their ordinary and popular sense. On the other hand, if the subject of the writing is a matter of art or of scieuco or other technical nature, the prcsum]ition is that the words are used in a special and technical sense. Itutr. V. tJood faith is to bo observed and sound sense exercised by an interpreter. The great object is to ascertain the intent and to carry it, if proper, into effect. Out of this principle spring a number of subordinate rules; such as, that where two senses arc possible, one of which is agreeaiilo to law and the other opposed to it, Ihe former is to be preferred. So inadver- tent omissions are to bo overlookcrl ; apparent repug- nancies, if possible, are to bo reconciled; words inconsist- ent with the main intention arc to bo rejected: stress is not to be laid on aeeurato grammar or orthography. It is a further rule that the situation of the writi-r and the eir- cunistancos surrounding him may be presented so as to put the interpreter in the position of the author. For example, if a testator should ilircct his property to be divided equal- ly "among his children," it would be impossible for a court to carry out his direction without tiseertaining from extra- neous evidence the number of his children antl identifying them. It is plain that this testimony would not alter the instrument, but would enable the court to regard the sub- ject from the testator's point of view. It should be added that in ordinary eases the meaning of a written instrument is a matter of law for the court rather than the jury. In this way fixed rules are established and an erroneous in- terpretation by a lower court becomes the subject of review by an appellate tribunal. "Where the words are technical, it may be necessary to ascertain their meaning through the testimony of experts, and to submit the matter to the jury as a question of fact. II. Application of the Rules of Interpretation to Special Casen. — The leading cases in which the subject is presented to courts of justice arc treaties, political constitutions, leg- islative acts, contracts, and wills. It will not bo possible to consider the special rules governing all of these cases. A few will be referred to in connection with the last three of tho instances mentioned. (1) Statitten, — The intention of a legislature in passing a statute is to be ascertained by tho application of tho general rules already stated, together with others of a special or subordinate nature. {«) It is a general rule that (be words of a statute are to bo taken in their ordinary and |iopular sense. This is just, as they are intended to govern tho action of tho public, who would nat- urally give them such a signification. Still, if tho statute wero intended to govern the action of a special class of per- sons, another rule might prevail. For example, a commer- cial tariff law, enacted by Congress to prescribe duties to bo paid upon imports, would be in the main intended to govern the conduct of importing merch.ants, and technical words would bo used, requiring a corresponding interpre- tation. (It) It frequently happens that a scries of statutes is enacted to govern a particular subject. These may be called into existence from time to time during a long period of years. Such statutes are said to bo I'lt pari materia — upon the same general subject. The ascertainment of the meaning of the latest in the series may require the exam- ination of all. ('■) The rule that the meaning must be found in the text to be interpreted has its full application in tho case of statutes. Tho courts cannot ascertain the legislative will by conjecture. If not cxpresseil or implied from tho words used, tho supposed meaning must be dis- carded. The technical expression is, voluit aid non dixit — the legislature may have had an intention, but it remains uncxiiressed. Where, however, words that are obscure are used, it is a strong argument in favor of a particular sig- nification (if that is possible) that, unless it be adopted, there will be no rational meaning, (d) In the inter|ircta- tion of a statute it is often essential for the court to know the circumstances existing at the time of its enactment, or. in other words, to becomo familiar with contem)iorary his- tory, to understand existing defects in the law, ami to as- certain what evils the legislature designed to remedy. This rule is well illustrated by the interpretation of the recent suffrage law in England, where the question was. nhclher tho word " man " as used in tho act included " woman," so as to give her tho right to vote. The court, in deciding Ihe case, had much recourse to the general history of the right of suffrage in England as tending to show the legislative intent. Tho words in a statute, though of a general cha- racter, must bo confined in their application to the defects to be remedied. One branch of this rule is referred to by law writers in the technical expression that regard must bo paid to the "old law, tho miscliiel. and the renuily." .\ single illustration may be useful. Suppose that a former law permits Ihe bishop of an established church to lease church lands for any length of time and any rent that ho may see lit. The "mischief" of this rule may ho that ho may lease them for a very long term and at a low rent, and thus impiiverinh hin Kuceennnrii in the bisho])ric, whoso in- come may bo reduced to a minimum. A statute is passed preventing a bishop from making a lease for more than twenty-one years. After this a lease is made for Ihe bish- op's own liie. which may, of course, exceed t«eiity-ono years. This lease is not within the "mischief" of the statute, as it does not tend to " impoverish his successors." It is thus necessary in many instances to go beyond tho letter of tho slatute'and to discern its true intent and spirit. Thus, if a law should prescribe Hint when two vehieles were passing along an orilinary highway in opposite direc- tions, each shouM turn to the right with a view to avoid col- lision, it coulil have no applicaticm to the case of an oniiii- hns and a street-car, as there could be no danger of collis- ion bv the non-observance of tho rule. Accordingly. Ihe omnibus might pass either to the right or to Ihe left of the car. (••) I'enal statutes ( i. r. those which inflict jiunishment) arc to be interpreted with much strictness. This rule was formerly carried to absurd lengths, but in n rational sense still prevails. It is founded in reason, since punishments should not be inflicted unless Uie transgressor of llie law was able clearly to know its meaning and to ascertain the ; legal cuusequcucca of his acts. (/) Statutes to prevent 1264 INTERPRKTATION. frauds are, on the other hand, interpreted liberallj', in order to relieve the injured party from the conse- quences of the fraud. The same statute may have a double aspect, or bo both remedial and penal, when the applica- tion of thc-'-e ilistiuet rules may lead to opposite conclu- sions derived from the same phraseology. For example, if a statute should provide that if one of two gamesters should win from the other more than fifty dollars at *'onc Bitting," he should not only restore the money won, but should forfeit three times the amount, and afterwards a game should take place which was interrupted by an ad- journment for dinner, and subsequently continued, the two periods might be reganled as " one sitting " for the purpose <ff returning the money, as that would be remedial, while it w()uld Dot bo so considered in reference to the for- feiture, (rj) It is a cardinal rule of interpretation that a statute shall in general be construed to operate as a rule for the future, and thus not have a retrospective operation. The rule is particularly strong when the retrospective opera- tion would destroy vested rights. In that case the words giving a retrospective operation t() the act must be ex- tremely clear. On the other hand, if the words are used to confirm existing rights defective in form or to add to the means of enforcing existing obligations, a retrospec- tive effect will readily be allowed. Under American law, if the words are plainly retrospective and attect vested rights, another question may arise. They may be repug- nant to some provision of the U. S. or State constitution, and for that reason be inoperative, (h) Another instance of the desire of the courts to protect vested rights is found in tho rule that all statutes in derogation of private rights must be strictly construed and their provisions closely fol- lowed. This rule finds much practical illustration in the sale, under statutory pro visions, of land for the non-payment of taxes. Where the authority is not strictly pursued the sale is void. This rule has been carried to such extreme lengths in some instances as almost to embarrass the operations of guvernmcnt. (Sec Blackwell on Trtj- Titles.) There is a tendency in some parts of tho country, e.g., New York, so to frame the tax laws as to give less practical oi)eration to this rule than formerly. (/) A distinction of some importance is taken between words that are simply directory and such as are mandatory. The former class are not obligatory in the same sense as tho latter. Thus, if an act is directed to be performed on a given day, it may, in general, bo performed on some other day : the words are ''directory." On the other hand, when the in- terests of the public are concerned or the rights of indi- viduals are involved, even permissive words may be re- garded as obligatory or '• mandatory :" tho word** may" will perhaps be construed to mean "must." ij) If an un- lawful act be committed fur which there is, in behalf of tho public, an existing remedy, and a new mode of redress be given by statute, the former one will not in general bo dis- placed. The remedies become cumulative, and resort may be had to either. This would not be the case if tho new provision wore inconsistent with the former law, for the latter would then he repealed by implication. On the other hand, if the act be made unlawful by tho statute, and a specific mode of redress be provided, tliat must be resorted to. {k) Where a statute prescribes a penalty for the com- mission of an act, it is thereby made unlawful, and a con- tract to perform tho act in question will be declared void. A penalty implies a prohibition. (/) It is a general remark that tho courts strive as far as possible to effectuate tho legislative will : discordant clauses or statutes will, if pos- sible, be reconciled. Where there is a plain repugnancy, the later statute, so far as it is inconsistent with an earlier one. displaces or repeals it. The same rule is applied even to inconsistent clauses or sections in the same statute. So a saving clause repugnant to the general scope of the act is void. A repealing statute of course does away with that which it repeals. Where a repealing statute is itself re- pealed, tho former law revives without express words of revival. It may be adtlcd that in arriving at conclusions by way of interpretation, the general opinion of the legal profession is considered as of importance. (See also Dwar- ris on Stntntcs.) (2) In tho case of Wriftcn CoutrnctJt. the court seeks to ascertain the intention of tho parties, and. having found it, to carry it into effect if tho rules of law and public policy will permit. The intention, however, must be found in the wrilintf itHfJfhy the application of rules of interpretation. If it is claimed that the intention was really different from that which the words indicate, it is not a case of interpre- tation, but rather of a mistake, which, if material, must cither bo corrected or must vitiate tho contract. If the mistake he material, a court of equity will "reform" or correct the instrument by supplying or omitting words, so a^ to make it express the real intention of the parties. If the minds of the parties did not concur in the writing, it will be a case of no contract either through fraud or mis- take. Assuming that there is no question of this kind, but that the writing contains what was intended, the court re- sorts to fixed rules in ascertaining the intent. These rules are numerous and complex in their operation, and cannot be fully stated in an article such as the present. A few of them will bo indicated. {<i) Words are, according to the general rule, to be taken in their ordinary and pop- ular sense. In many cases the contract concerns a par- ticular trade or calling, when the meaning is ascertained through the testimony of merchants who are skilled in it. (6) If the contract cannot be carried into effect precisely as the p.arties intended, the eourt will strive to uphold it on some other theory which will render substantial justice to the parties. This rule becomes of much importance in tho construction of instruments of a t( chnical character, such as deeds. These instruments frequently assume a special form, known as a " bargain and sale." or a *' release," or a " con- firmation." etc. etc., as the case may be. It is a well-settled rule that if the parties should erroneously resort to one of these instruments when they should have adopted another, the courts will effectuate tho intent hy construing the in- strument wrongly selected as practically amounting to the one which should have been adopted : as, for example, con- struing a deed of bargain and sale to be equivalent to a release. This rule is one most beneficent in its operation and is highly favored, and tends practically to obliterate, or at least to make harmless, useless legal distinctions, (c) It is frequently necessary to determine whether an instru- ment is executed or executory; as, for examjile, whether it is a lease or an agreement for a lease, a deed or aeon- tract for a deed. This is ascertained not so much by inter- preting particular words us by a view of the entire instru- ment and of the main intention of the parties, {d) An instrument is in some cases of doubt to be taken most strongly against the party who executes it {contra profe- rentem). Not so much use of this rule is made as formerly. Many instruments arc of such a mutual character that it is inapplicable. Still, in special cases it may be resorteii to. It has never been applied to grants by the sovereign power. Whatever is not contained in tho words of such a grant is not conceded by the grantor. It was at one time supposed by some jurists that if a grant was ma<lc by the sovereign power of the right to have a public ferry or a bridge, there was an implied contract on its part that it v/ould make no grant of another right of a similar kind that would inter- fere with the franchise conferred. (See FuANraiSE.) This doctrine is now exploded, and no exclusive right can be claimed unless it is shown by a fair construction of the words of the grant itself, (t) Instruments are sometimes partly printed and partly written. If there is a conflict between the two, the written are to be preferred, as being more clearly indicative of the intention of the parties, the printed words being regarded as a general formula, while those which are written are specially employed for the oc- casion in hand. {/) Usage is of much importance in the interpretation of written contracts. Where a contract co'n- ccrns a matter in any trade or business in which there arc known and well-defined usages, there is a presumption of la\v that the contract was made in reference to the usage. This doctrine has been in some instances carried very far; its exact limits have not yet been fixed by tho courts. A well-known Knglish case illustrates the diflieulty. There being a written contract for the sale of rabbits at a fixed price per thousand, the court allowed eviilence of a custom in the trade that "thousand" meant "twelve hundred." This decision has not met with universal acceptance. There is a disposition in some courts to hobl that such evidence is inadmissible to cimtradict the plain and ordinary mean- ing of written words, e. </., words of niiniber. Rules are laiil down by tho courts to test the validity of a custom; such as, that it must bo certain, reasonable, rstaldished, and undisputed. There is only a presumption that parties in- tend to follow tho custom, an<l it may accordingly bo ex- cluded by sufficient evidence of their intent. The words *' usage " and "custom" are often used indiscriminately, but in accurate language the former is rather evidence of the latter. (7) There arc other presumi»tions or implica- tions acknowledged by law ; such as, that a contract binds the representatives of the parties as well as the parties them- selves, or that a contract made by two ]>crsons is joint rather than several, or if no time is mentioned for perform- ance that it must take place within a reasonable time. Pome of the rules above stated, as is manifest, apply to unwritten as well as to written contracts, (h) Reference has already been made to a rule of law that extrinsic evi- dence of the intent of tho parties is not to be allowed to alter the terms of a written instrument. This rule means that the parties arc to be conclusively supposed to have merged all their stipulations and propositions anterior to the contract in tho instrument itself. That is the final and I.^■TERPR^:TA'rIOK 1205 111 HOle repository of their intentinn?. This rule is of great consequence both in tlie interprctsilion of contracts and of will?. While, in its correct furm, it is inflcxiMy applied^ there arc j<oine qualifications or apparent exceptions to it which should he stateiJ. It does nut include evidence by Wiiy of explanation of obscure or technical terms in the con- tract. It allows all cunteuiporaneuus writing; to which the contract refers to be introduced. It docs not bear upon clauses which arc iDtentiunally left incomplete. It permits evidence of the circum^itances surrounding llie parties when the eonlrjiet wai* execnfcd. t^o that the court cnn stand in their poi^ition and see with their eyes. Under it there may be evidence olfcred to show that the supposed contract is wholly void for fraud or other legal ground, for then there is no contract. Nor docs the rule interfere with tlic correc- tion of mistakes, such as the insertion of clauses acciden- tally omitted. "What is really meant is, that one of the par- ties shall not be allowed as against the other to introduce any evidence by wny of interpretation, where a written contract is in its exterior form complete, of clauses which were not iuteoded to bo inserted, but to be left to oral un- derstanding. If thnt were allowed, the certainty and pre- cision which a written contract was intended to secure would be wholly lost. The rule con, however, be pressed no further than its circumstances will warrant. Accord- iD;;:ly, it cannot exclude or.il evidence of avt^cquent modi- fications of or additions to the contract, as these could not po.-'sibly have been included in the contract when it was executed. There is an important inquiry applicable both | to contracts and wills concerning the exphinntion of am- j biguitics and uncertain clauses which enn be more conve- ; niently considvred under the next head ( Willv). (i) Subject to the rules already stated, there is a strong disposition l to effectuate the will of the parties so far as that accords ! with the rules of law. Incorrect grammar and spelling are j hut of littlo importance if the sense is not obgcurc. Clauses niny be transp<iscd in construction, if necessary, and the ' intent so!i;^ht an to the most solemn instruments, without [ reference to regularity of form. Still, it is unwise to draw important instruments in an inartificial manner, as it may lend to obscurity or perversion of the meaning. The courts will prefer a construction that will make the instrument Icg.il rather than illegnl, a'? they will ono that will uphold and effectuate it rather than one that will destroy it. (.1) W'iiln. — This is a very important subject for inter- pretation, and specinl rules prevail. In executing these instrumi-nlfl the testator is frequently without legal advice, and the courts seek to give Feopc to his intention, however inariificiaily it may be expressed. Still, it remains true that the intention must he found in the instrument. Con- jecturf, no matter how plausible, cannot be resorted to. The rule alrendy referred to in the expression vo/m't unl noil iitj-lt hiis full application. The following among other rules may he laid down n<! proper t'> ho followed : liulc I, Tcchnicnl words arc not necessary to give cdcct to any dis- osilion in a will. Still, if the testator n^^es those words, lie will be presumed to employ them in that sense, unless there is evidence from the context to the contrary. Rulf: If. Words are in general to be tnken in their ordinary and grammatical sense, unless an intention can be shown to the contrary. This rule, where langnacje is unambiguous, is Dot to he d'partr-d from, though it should result in incon- venience or absurdity, or in consequences which the testa- tor did not foresee. Still, where the intention is obscure, it is to be sought in a rntional and consistent rather than in an irrational and inconsistent purpose. Ru(e Ilf, All the parts of n will are to be e<mstrued in relation to each other, and so as, if possible, to form one ctmsistont whole. Word-* nnd limitations may ho transposed, supplied, or re- jected where that course is warranted by the context or the general schemo of the will. Words obviously miswritten may be corrected. So the word *'or" has been mndo in many eases to read *'nnd." and conversely. Where the in- I tention cannot operate to its full extent, it must bo mafic to operate as far as it can. While a construction is not to bo ! strained to bring a devise within the rule of law, if two ' con*<truelions are admissible, one of which will render it vfiid nnd the other valid, that is to ho preferred which will ! mnke it valid. Huh' IV. I'ndcr tho siime general view as ] prevails in Hulc III., the- following special statements mny i ne matle. Words occurring more thnn once in a will ns (o j the same subject aro presumed to be used in the same sense ' unless there is something to show the contrary. Express and positive devises aro not to be eontrollecl by the reasons assii^ned, nor is a plain devise to be nffeclefl by a subse- quent innecurate reference to its contents. I>evises not grammatically connected or united by the expression of a eommon purpose must he construed sepiirately and with- out relation to en''h other, unlen»i there is a manifi'st inten- tion to connect them. Huh I*. An heir is not to b*> disin- herited without nn express devise or necessary impllcatioQ. Vol.. ir.— 80 Nor can ho be disinherited by an expression of an inten- tion that he should take nothing; the estate must bo given to some other person. Rule VI. A will of real estate, wher- ever made, must ho construed according to tho law of tho place where the land is situated ; one of personal property, according to the law of the testator's domicile, liulc YII. A will speaks for some purposes from tho time of its execu- tion, but does not take effect until the testator's death. Rule VIII. Extrinsic evidence is not to be resorted to for tho purpose of adding to or altering the terms of a will, though tho court mny receive it to show the circumstances under which it was made ; such ns, the state of the testator's pnip- crty, his family, and the like. This branch of the law was first reduced to symmetrical form by Vice-Chancellor Wi- gram in his admirable work on the AihniFf^ion of Extrinsic Evideurein Aid of the luterpretntiou of Wlflt. The princi- ples are in a masterly form reduced to a number of leading rules. Without stating them at length, the substaneeof them is that where words in a will have two senses, a primary nnd a secondary sense, ihcy arc presumed in general to ho used in the primary sense, unless there is some evidence in tho context to the contrary. If there is no such context, and the testator's words arc aruiiblc tcith reference to ertrimtic circvmfitnnceg, the rule is inflexible that no evidence will be allowed to show that the words arc used in a secondary sense. On the other hand, if the words aro not sensible in reference to extrinsic circumstances, it may bo made to ap- pear that the wonls arc used in a secondary signification. A single illustration will show the bearing of these propo- sitions: If a tesfator should direct his property to be di- vided among his "children," tho primary scnso would be intended. If the fact were shown that ho had legitimate children, it would ho impossible to introduce any extrinsic evidence, no matter hov/ strong, that he intended illegiti- mate children. On the other hand, if ho had none that were legitimate, it might be shown that the illegitimate were in- tended. While it is proper, and sometimes ncecssarj', to introduce evidence relating to the person claiming to he in- terestecl under the will, as well as to the cireurastances of tho testator nnd bis affairs, yet if after this it is uncertain who was intended (except in special eases, to be hereafter no- ticed), no evidence of intent ion will bo allowed, and the will is void for imcertainty. Tho special cases in which the evi- dence of intention is allowed aro whcro tho object of the testator's bounty or the thing intended to bo bestowed is described in words which are equally applicable to more than one person or thing. This last proposition leads to tho long-recognized dir'tinetion between latent and patent ambiguities, on which much stress is laid by Lord IJacon. The charaetcristic distinction, as bo understood it, between tho two is that the one appears on the face of the instru- ment and the other does not. Thu;--, if a testator should give his property to William Gonlon of New York, and ex- trinsic evidence should show that there were two persons of that name, there would be a latent umhiguity not ap- pearing on the instrument. If the will itself should show by its different provisions that there were two such William Oordotis, it wouhl be patrut. Such a distinction is plainly useless and unfruitful. Bacon would bold that extrinsic evi- dence of tho person intended offered in the first ease, and not in the last. No such distinction is maintainable in reason, nnd it is just ns proper to idmtiftfhy extrinsic evi- deneo the person really intended in the one case ns in tho other. Tho real distinction is between nn omhiijuStti ns here used and an unerrtuinttf appearing on the face of the will. This last admits of no correction. A bequest of a sword to ''the bravest general in tho American army" would be incurably void, unles'^ the testator on the face of the will supplied the mode of determination. Under these rules the courts of equity cannot supply an omission in a will ns they can in a contract. This juris- diction has never been assumed, ns a will is a mere bounty, and tho beneficiary has no claim as a party to a contract would have. It is thi-refore nn important practical remark, applicable to drau'.;htsun'n of wills, that the greatest earo should bo taken to include all the provisions intended by tho testator. It is proper to add, ns a general rule Applicable to nil branches of the law, that tho rules of interpretation are tho snmo both in courts of law antl equity. While the latter courts assume a special power to correct mistakes, when they are simply engaged in ascertaining the meaning of words nse<i they adopt the same rules ns courts of Inw. (In addition to the works already mentioned in the course of this article, see Liidjer's Irfjnt nnd l*<ditirnl llrnurwu- ticB ; Se<lgwiek on the Con»trurtii>n ff Stntufm, ete. ; ,^mith, Stntiitr and Oni^litntional Line ; and Chitly or Parsons or Addiscm on Cuutrnet», nnd Jarman or Uedfield on With, ete. ete. Uef'-rencc should also he mad<* to approved di- gests and volumes of law reports for the application of principles to adjudged cases.) T. W. l)w»:nT. 1266 INTERRUPTED— INTERVAL. Intcrrupt'ed. Certain musical cadences are called in- terr"p" Vtn .hey terminate in a manner foreign to that n.turillv fi.-L'o:^tcd hv the previous hannonv In the tol- "owin? example seethe perfect cadence at 1, and several in- terrupted cadences at 2, 3, and 4: Es.l.-l 2 3 , * a I 1 ■■ I . ' ■ Fourths. Fifths. SI.XTHS. Perfect. Dim. Aug. Perf. Dim. Aug. Maj. Min. D im. Aug. -■■ - .^^ -<SK go- 5(&- ^^^^^^^i^^ The cadences called dfceptire differ little from the inter- rupted. They are often found succeeding each o her in a flowing movement, an.l .urprisiug the hearer by the unes- pccted turns assumed by the harmony. See i..x. *, at J, A and 3: Ex" ' 2 3 William Staistox. In'tcrval, in music, the distance or difference between anv two s.uinds in respect to gravity or aeutcness. or of anV two notes as measured on the degrees of the d.atonio scale, both extremes being counted. Thus from A to 13 above is a second : from A to C. a third ; from A to D, a fourth, and so on. Intervals are either s„«p!r or ro„,po,o<d, the former being tliose which are comprised wUli.n the limits of an octave, as the second, third, lourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth; and the latter those which CNtend more or less into the region of a second octave, as the ninth, tenth, eleventh, etc., as in Ex. 1 : Ex 1 Simple InUn-ah. Cnrnpoimd Inlm-als. ' 'unison. 2d. 3d. 4th. 5th. 6th. 7th. SIh. 9th. 10th. 11th. 12th. ^Tr~r r r r r r r r r In another sense the term " simple interval is applied to a .<■„„■(„,.., because this interval is practically indivisible n the modern svstem of music, and Mr tones, ns thirds, fourths etc., are said to be "compound,' because they com- prise two or more semitones. Of semitones also there are wo denominations-viz. the rfm(„,..V and the chro,„af,c called also „.«;or and minor. When4he semitone includes an advance from one degree of the scale to another (as from (' to nw or VS to r». it is diatonic, but when the degree on the scalels unaltered (as from C to CS or Eb to Bfl, it is "'""inThTclassification of intervals they are regarded as per,W,, Impcrfcrt. Mminishcd. or au^,,,.<„cd: to '^hich some "d,i the <touUc (or .^tr.mc) dimuMr,!. In Ex. 2 the na- ture of most of these distinctions will be perceived '>y reck- oning the number of tones or semitones comprised in the vario'us thirds, fourths, fifths, etc.: Intervals larger than these, as tenths, elevenths, etc., are (except in a few peculiar eases) regarded and treated as merely octaves of the third, fourth, etc. The m„„m, though not strietlv an interval, being merely the concurrence of two similaV sounds, or of two notes on the same grade ot the scale, is nevertheless treated in harmony ns an interval, because it frequently happens that two parts or ymces meet on the same degree, and such eases are subject to certain rules regulating their progression. By a close analysis ol Ex 3 it will be found that several of the intervals are iden- tical in the nunilicr of tones and semitones which they comprise, though named and treated as of different mag- nitude. Thus.^the augmented ,rr,n„l and the minor tiirrf, or the augmented fourth and the diminished J,_/ih, arc struck upon the same keys on the organ or pianotorte. and appear thus to be identical. But they are not so in reality because thev belong to the scales of different keys, and take their designations from such scales. For the same reason each particular finger-key on the organ, etc. is used for several distiuct notes, according as the music per- formed is in one key or another. Thus the finger key for F is used also for E sharp, and a D key may become C double-sharp or E double-flat. In Ex. 4 the very same keys are stnick for each of the chords, and yet different intervals are made, as is evident to the eye : Ex.4. To aid stin further in the analysis of Ex. 3, we give in the following table the contents of the principal >"'">■'' ^'° tones and semitones. It should be borne in mind that he diatonic scale, whether major or minor, contains in the octave five lone:, and (iro sem!lonr>. Consequently, any ^ther interval and its inversion, when added together, will make up the same amount ns the octave, because such in- terval is a portio,, <,f the octave, and its inversion is the remaining portion or complement: Ex.5 Semi- a ri — tones. Tines. =■ ■= " Ex. 2. 3 ■= •S .5 -S- :S S 5 3 2 -S -v m u ^ . £ o Sf a ■ - .S '5" .- =« S 3 - 5 a ,5 s .s .a J 1 L I J , I 1 1 1 '—a Of each of these intervals, except the augmented fourth and the diminished fiflh, the scale furnishes several in- stances Tlius, e. ff., the perfect fifth is made not only by C-G, hut also by' D— A, E— B, F— C, and in two other "^^ A more full and accurate view of intervals, as now recog- niied bv all ompnscrs and schools of music, we proceed to give in'Ex. 3 (in which abbreviations arc used for the terms major, minor, diminished, and augmented): Ex.3. I'sisoss. Seconds. Thirds. Perfect. Dim. Aug. Maj. Min. Aug. Maj. Min. Dim. ^ ^- i^ -^ ^ fH pC iiei *^ A A perfect or major interval becomes auymenled by the ad- dllion of a semitone, and a perfect or minor interval be- comes diminMed when rednred one semitone. The next distinction of intervals is into conmnant and dhsonant. The Car immediately recognizes a difference lietwecn one interval and another in regard to their con- nection and relation. Some are pleasing, sat.sfactor, . and eonelnsive in themselves: while "'^■■■■'\"',"fv.T /I pleasing, are so indefinite as to create a kind of yearning for something further, or rather for a line of progression n a partieulSr direetinu, forming what is called their r«o- /„/,-o,'. Those intervals, then, which are more or less con- clusive or independent are said to be co„«,,m..cc., while the others are known as dismnanre,. There is also a dis- tinction of consonances themselves into per/ce and t.n- TU-I, as alreadv noticed. The former arc he perfect unison, fourth, fifth, and octave, which cannot «'l""' "f change without converting them into dissouanees. The latter, or imperfect, arc the minor and major third and he maior and niinor sixth. Among consonances also are the fiflh in the diminished triad, and lis inversions. The dis- sonanecs are the remaining intervals-v.7.. "'».""■ ""d mi- nor seconds, major and minor sevenths, ninths, elevenths. INTESTACY— INTRENCI I ED C.V M PS. 120 and (ill (Itininished and augmeoted intervals. By some theorists, fourths of nil kinds arc ranked among the disso- nances, while hy others the pcr/rct fourth ifl treated as a pcrfeet consonance. Intervals nre also either /iindamental {i. c. when tho lower tortn is the prime or root) or hivertrtl (when tho prime, on which the harmony depends, is moved so far upward as to become the hijrher term). The rundamentiil iutervala are four in number — viz. tlie unison, fifth, third, and sev- enth. When inverted, their corresponding intervals will be the octave, fourth, sixth, and second. E»h<frmtn\i<- intervals, or those which are less than a semitone, are not practically in use, except in the case of organs like those of the Tenijdc church, London, and St. John's, Ciilcutta, which instruments are specially con- structed to express fpiarter tones, or even smaller divisions of the scale. Tii point of fact, there is a real difTcrenco between rj and Dfy, (J t and A b. etc., but by tlio modern system of temperament a mi<Mle sound (in the way of a compromise) is adopted and used as representative of both those elements, though it is really neither C5 nor Dtj, etc. Theoretically, and in musical composition, the distinction is still observed, as, r. (f., in cases of enharmonic changes, where one and the same chord for component of a chord) is taken in two difTcrcnt relations, thereby serving to effect a transition into some unexpected key. Thus, in Ex. fi Hie seventh on the dominant at « is assumed to be tlie txtreme nhfirp Hi'.rth on Eb (which it exactly resembles in sound), and the harmony is then suddenly thrown into tho key of a major. In this case, the I)(y at a is supposed, whilo sounding, to change into CJI, as explained at b : Ex. C. a b J — T\,„ I- (i^ ^^^^ jj^^^g^ il William Stauntom. Intostary. Pee AnMiNismATioN and ExKcrroR, by Prior. T. W. DwifiiiT. LL.D. Intes'tinal Jiiioo, the mucous secretion of the intes- tinal canal. It contains granulutt d cells and cell-nuclei, and usually fat ami epithelium. When filtered it is a tol- erably clear, mucous, alkaline liquid, which does not co- agulate \*v boat. Its constituents arc the same as those of mucus. In 1000 parts of the juice from a dog were found — water, on.'). fi ; solids, 'M.7 ; pancreatic and intestinal fer- ments, with insoluble salts, 9.(5: biliary matters, 10. (1: tan- nin, a.'.i ; fat, 0.7, etc. Intestinal juice converts starch into pugar, and digests albuminous substances, flesh, etc., though much more slowly than gastric juice. (See U'^/rtV Diet.) V. F. CHANhLKR. Intcs'tine [Lat. t»r^Wi'/i»«, "that which is within"]. that portion of (he alimentary canal wliich extends from the stomach to the anus. It consists of two distinct por- tions, the email and the large intestine. The former passes from tho pyloric orifice of the stomach to the ileo-cwcal fold. The intestine consists itf tliree layers: fl) an outer, pcrous layer, continuous with the jieritoneum by means of the mesentery, a fold of serous membrane which connects the bowel to the spinal column; (2) a muscular coat of pale, non-striated, involuntary muscle-fibre, whoso contrac- tions give the small intestine a peculiar movement called "vermicular motion;" (3) an inner or mucous coat, having (n) folils called vdlnt/iv ronnifriitt:n; (h) the glands called glands of Itrunn ; (c) tho follicles of Lieberkubn : (d) the solitary glands; (r) the agminated glamls called *' Peyer's palehcs;" and (/) tho intestinal villi. The small intestine is divided into the duodenum, the jejunnin, ami the ileum ; tho large, into the eiecuni,tbo colon, and the rectum. The total length in man is not far from 10 feel, three-fifths of which length pertains to the small inti-stinc. The more im- portant of the above-mentioned divisions arc described under their alphabetical heads. Iiitoiia'tion. A musical term denoting, in a general scii-^c. the utterance or delivery <*f any series of sounds formed on the scale. This, when correct in time, accurate in pitch, and refined in taste and expressiim, is said to bo /<((<•<■. The contrary, but more especially a failure in cor- rectness of pitch, is called /"(r/w intonation^ In church music the name of •' inttmation " is given to certain intro- ductory notes in (Jregorian chants which arc sung to each Torso of a psalm or canticlo on festivals, but only to tho first verso on other days. Intone'. This word is popularly used for tho recital of prayers, psalms, vi-rsiele-*, etc. in monotone, with or without inllcctions. Properly, it refers only to tho recital of a fow notes called the " intonation " standing at tho bo- ginning of a chant. Intoxication [Lat. i*n, and foxiciim, *' poison"], the cumulative efi"cct of an acro-narcotic poison on the nervous centres. The term is most commonly used to designate tlic condition of a person who has been brought nmlcr tlie in- fluence of tifrnhol by successive imbibitions during a short space of time, but should not bo confined exclusively to the poisoning by alcohol; opium, stramonium, cannabis indica, and all the poisons belonging to Ihe above-mentioned class, will produce intoxication when taken in sufficient quantity. Intoxication may bo divided into tho acute, sub-acute, and chronic varieties. Acute intoxication is a disease very rarely seen, even by tho physician. It is produced by drinking a large quantity of some spirituous liquor in a very short space of time. This is followed soon afterwards by sudden coma (loss of sense, sensation, and voluntary motion (Afouzn Cfnrk, ^F. I).)), wliich may be com])lcte or incomplete. Wo have present here the symptoms of eonia — viz. stertorous respiration, deviation of pujiils. frothing at the mouth, etc. l^nless assistance speedily arrives these symptoms generally terminate in death in from half an hour to five or six hours. Every endeavor should be made to arouse the patient from his lethargic condition. An active emetic, as sulphate of zinc, may be administered, or, better still, the stomach-pump should bo used to evacuate tho stomach. Ammonia may be given as an antidote, and if the patient be able to swallow he should take large drauglits of tea. The sub-acute form may bo seen any and every day in the week. It is the ordinary form of intoxication indulged in by persons either voluntarily, for the pleasant and exhilarating effect on Ihe senses during one of its stages, or in\oluntarily. in consequence of a depraved ap- petite growing out of the former method. We see some men — and, unhapi)iiy, women also' — who are seldom or never in a sober condition ; others who imbibe a little at all times, and get intoxicated whenever they are under undue excitement or depression ; and still others who "go on a l)urst " once every three, six. or twelve months, and in the mean time totally abstain from any of the intoxicants. To this last class belong those individuals who inherit the tendency to inebriation. Alcohol, taken to a de^rree to produce sub-acute intoxication, excites tho vascular and nervous systems; all the secrctiftns are at first arresteil, and the temperature <»f tho body is lowered, and not. as has been generally believed, increased. If taken by a person who is not accustomccl to it. it occasions derangement of the stomach, and nausea and vomiting are the result. Tho prin<'ipal effect, however, is noticeable iquiu the nervous system. There is a general feeling of increased physical power, and the mental faculties are exhilarated. The patient at first talks rationally, but is very verboge and grows confidential. Incoherence follows upon this, and then delirium and sopor. The effect is also seen on tho cerebellum by the impairment of the power of co-ordina- tion, causing at first the staggerintr gait, and ending in complete loss of muscular power. When this stage occurs the individual generally falls into a deeji sleep, from which it is almost impossible to waken him. When consciousness is restored tlierc is a feeling of depression, which the patient seeks to relieve by a resort to stimulants. Little can be said of the jialliativc treatment of this variety of intoxi- cation. With the exception of the employment of emetics to unload the stomach, and the administration of ammonia and tea as antidotes, the patient should be allowed to "sleep it off." (Vuv (he chronic eflect of iicro-narcotio poisons, see lNi:iiitii:TV.) EnwAHi> J. liKioiiNcnAM. IntrenchrtI Camps. From the earliest times armies have enveloped by inirenchmcnts positions which they dc- fen<l or which they temporarily occupy. Such camps or sucli fortificcl ])ositions. of which tho Romans nmde frequent and remarkable use, do not, however, constitute what are known at the present day as httrt nvhril rtinifii. The term was first applied to intrenched areas connecteil with, and under ]>ro- tcction of. fortified places; it has subsequently been ex- tended to large intrenched areas containing in llieir ccMitrc a fortified nucleus. An intrenchc<l position without nu- cleus, but defended by permanent W()rks, as that of Lint?, takes likewise Ihe designation of nn " intrenched camp." Taraps whiidi, though intrenched, arc to.be occupied merely for the period of a campaign, or which serve as refuge for II few days only to an inferior army, are styled "lines" *ir " temporary positions."* To the camp of Uuntzelwitr, nnd the " lines " of Torres \'edras. constructed by order of Fp'derick II. and of Wellington, these designations apply. Permanent "intrenched camps," destined to servo as • " Camnmlf xfi'our" ou " de passage;" the French phroscology can only be rendered as above.— Tr. 1268 INTKENCIIKD CAMPS. pivots of operations or as places of refuge to an army opc- ittting in the Jield, are of mudern creation. Not the gcriti even is to be fouuil in the memoir of \'auban (ICiUO) upon Xt'» cfinif/9 rttrnncln's. In tlii.s memoir t\u\ illu.siriuiis au- thor advocates small provisional camps for 10,001) or 12.000 men, connected with and au.xiliary to fortresses. More recent writers, as Moutalcmbcrt, D'Arfon, IJonsmard, Car- not, Xoizet de St. Paul, Dufuur, etc., recogniicd only in intrenched camps an agency for prolonging the defence of places, and of giving to small fortresses properties inliereut to those of the first order. Modern strategy has singularly augmcntcrl the importance of intrenched eani])s. In the time of Vanban what were so styled were merely excres- cences, so to speak {'* fniiiexcn'')^ of fortresses, which eon- 8cquently played the principal part. " They must," said Feuqni^rcs, " be protected by the place wliich they protect, and their flanks must be .secured by the artillery of the place and outworks, and under the lire of musketry from the 'covered way.'" Such is exemplified in the typical plan of Vauban in his last work, Trrilif tie la tli'/cuHt: ilea places. (See Fig. 1.) The camps of this epoch served to Fig. 1. augment the defensive and offensive power of fortresses; and Ihcy were, in the language of Vauban, "the surest ex- pedient for hiudering the siege of a place." Modern intrenched camps, on the other hand, have for their sole object the augmentation of the defensive and olfensive powers of unnicn in the Jiclil : and in them the fortress, instead of being the principal, become only an ac- cessory of so little importance even that, as at Lintz, it is sometimes suppressed, while quite recently distinguished engineers have proposed vast intrenched camps irithuiil a fortified nucleus. It should be rcrnarkecl, however, that Vauban took a larger view of the question, and that in connection with the defence of Paris he laid down princi- ples which have since been carried into effect in the con- struction of intrenched camps destined to serve as i>i\'ots of manoeuvres or places of refuge to entire armies. These principles are set forth in bis remarkable memoir entitled A' i'iinpoytanee (Unit I*iifis c^t n In Fninn , in which arc ' found the fundamental ideas which in ISIO received the sanction of the French legislature in its nrilonnuncen con- cerning the then initiated f.irlifications of Paris. Vauban counted, however, on having for the defence of that capital an army of only :!0,non regular troops and of 10,000 indif- ferently good auxiliaries raised within the walls, estimating that this force would suffice to render Paris (provisioned im one year! iiirrpiitpiable even though besieged by an army of 2.'i0.noo men. Hut in l.'^IO it was assumed that the capital of France would have, in such an emergency, a much larger garrison ; hence the substitution fur Ihe external enceinte, pro])osed by Vauban. of a girdle of large forts with free intervals of 1500 to 2o00 metres. The first engineer to set forth Ihe properties of camps inlrenche<l by isolated works with intervals was the gen- eral Rogniilt in his work (';miitcrntiinia xnr I'ait ilr li, ,7nciv<-. published in ISlfi. '•Intrenched camps should he capable," he says, "of containing, at need, 100,000 men, while they demand but few Iroops for mere defence; thev should allow for Ihe army that takes m(unenlary refuge in them perfect liberty of action and free ilevclopment when it desires to resume the offensive. These conditions arc Lest fulfillc.l by establishing four forls about each place (fovtressl, forming an immense square of which the place occupies the centre." "These forts, wholly enclosed, should be established on the most advantageous sumiiiita or commanding points, at distances of about 12110 to 1600 toisc5« from the works of the jilace. and of 200 to ::00 toises from e.ach other." " The interval between one fort and the next would form a position of battle for an army of from 60,000 to 100,000 men. i./i/c/, mm/ he considemi aa incjr. piti/iiiible." "The forts armed with heavy cannon would give perfect support lo the wings. As to the centre, where, on account of their distance, the aid of the forls would bo little felt, it may be strengthened by field-works thrown up for Ihe emergency and supported by the guns of the place. Thus, these four forts would conslilule about the place a vast intrenched camp |ircsenting four diflVrcnt positions of baltie, in which lo confront a hostile army coming from whichever quarter." The ruling idea of this project is the creation of four fields (or positions) for balllc around fort- resses, having their wings sustained by forls and their front by field-works. That the idea should be realized, it I would be necessary that the four posilions ccnslituting the "intrcncheil camp" should be as Ihcy arc aflirmed tolic incj-piirjniihle ; which is far from being the ease. Small forts 2000 to :in0O loises apart and field-works along Ihc interval woubl doubllcss furnish eflicaeious support lo Ihe centre and wings of Ihe defensive army, without, however, rendering the ])osilion inexpugnable; especially if the army had fallen back after a reverse, disorganized and shaken in mnrnle. The designers of the fortifications of Paris of 1810 have not drawn their inspiration from the ideas of Itogniat; they have preferred rather to improve upon the project of Vauban in substiluling a line of forts for the external enceinte of that )iroject. Better advised than the author of the ('nimiilerrilioiiasiir I'lirl lie la ijiierre, they have spaced the forts 1.S00 and 2500 mitres apart, in- stead of 2000 and :;000 loises. giving atlhesame time totho detached works more development and delcnsive strength. The only intrenched camps established before Ihe publi- cation of Rogniat, and realizing in some degree the emn- binalions now received as essential for the fortification of great strategic pivots, are that of Ulm, which enabled Kr.ay with 80,000 men to arrest for five weeks the advance of Morcau (with an army equal in numbers, but greatly superior in the viorale of success) upon the Danube; and that of flenoa.f in which Masscna was able with lo.OOO men not only to bold his own for two months against quad- ruple forces, but to harass tbeni incessantly, to ]iursuo them to considerable distances, killing or making prisoners in his different sorties 18,000 Austrians. These camps, more especially those of Genoa, approximated more lo modern intrenched camps than that of JJunlzelwitz con- structed by Frederick II. upon nn eminence two miles dis- tant from the fortress of Schweidnitz; more also than that of Torres Vedras, constructed by Wellington from the Tagus to the ocean, covering Lisbon. The camp of liuntzcUvitz was composed of a line of tem- porary works skirting the crest of the plateau on which the Prussian army had taken iiosition, making a rectangle of about 3000 metres base and 5000 metres depth. Large intervals were reserved in Ibis line to facilitate the exit and entree of the troops. In advance of all. and upon eom- m.anding ))oints, there were lunettes and redoubts fcr takiuL- in reverse all practicable approaches. This camp, defended by 400 guns, enabled Frederick with fill,nil0 men to arrest the march of KIO.OOO Austrians, and finally to compel tin ir retreat (1701). It was, however, rather a /(ronWoimie amp, like those of the Romans, than a i/real strategic pici,t ;d the modern acceptation. The lines of Torres Vedras approximate more nearly this last type, not only by the disposition of their works, b.il by the part they played. They were composed of two lircs of redoubts. The first had a length of 9J leagues,^ an 1 the second. 12 kilometres in rear, a length of Sleiigues. .Vt 25 kilometres in rear of the second line was another inlrencli- ment enveloping the Fort St. Julien, destined to cover, if necessary. Ihc re-embarkation of the Iroops. When M.tp- sfna arrived before these lines in ISIO, Ihey comprised 12(1 closed works, defended by 2!l,"51 men and 217 canm n. In 1812. when entirely finisheel. there were 152 feirfs. aruied with b?,~ cannon and dcfcnilcd by :il,I25men. The works of St. .Julien had an armament of 91 guns and a garrison of 5.150 men. We have deemed it necessary to give a sketch of tbese camps, all prior in date to the pretjcci e)f (Icn. KogninI, to show thai the last is far from ce)nstituting a progressive step, and that, though its author may have been instru- mental in bringing to notice the tactical properties of in- trenched camps, it is the essay of Vauban on the defence * The French Inise exceeels sHslitly f. English feel.— Tr. t A chain of forts liad been e-onstructeel around Genoa in 17-17 to prevent the close investment of the place; thus was consti- lote'il the inlrrrtr/ieit camp. X The French league (/i>mc) is about 2! English miles. INTKKNCIIKD CAMPS. 12tiy of Paris which more than any olher writing haa established j tho principles applied to the construction of modern in- tremhcd camp?. The triumph of these principles was the risult i>( Ion? and arduous discussions, in which tho most I distinguished engineers of Europe have taken part, and by j which tho arguments adduced in favorof a f.vstcm of which the works should consist of a single enceinte have been j dfmonstratcd to he untenable. At tho present day. when the armies of occupation, instead of consisting of 50,000, as Vauban contemplated, rcnch three or four times that number, and when mortars of 2:-00 or oOOO metres range are replaced bv ritled ca-inon of SOflO metres range, the last- named system is totally out uf tho question, owing to tho enormous development' required for the enceinte. It has become now indispensable to constitute intrenched camps of del ached works established at distances sufficiently great lo shelter tho place which they environ from bombardment. " Hetached works with large intervals, can alone prevent blockade, prevent olTensive returns, and oblige the enemy to abaii.lon the position." On this there is no longer ques- tion, but not so as to other conditions to be fulfilled. The questions in confrovcrsv are: 1st. Ought intrenched camps to be constituted bv a line of forts only, or by a line of forts n«'l an enceinte? 2d. AVhat should be the character of the enceinte? .Id. And what that of tho intrenched camp? We will examine in succession these questions, whijh subdivide into several others. I, Concerning ihefiml. Since the timcof Vauban to the present tho most distinguished generals and cnsineers have, with rare exceptions, pronounced in favorof the combina- lio^i of a line of detached forts nnd a continuous enceinte. Nevertheless, the recent investments of Metz and Paris have given rise to indications ofopinion,suniciently marked, in favorof the suppression of tho enceinte. Wo must, there- fore, ilis-uss thoqueslion from the standpoint of governing principles. When there is on^/ a line efforts, or when there is on?v an enceinte, the decisive battle will be waged (after tho fall of one or two of the forts or after the assault of the enceinte) in tho interior of tho place, and always under un- favorable conditions for tho defence. To avoid this, Vauban provided his grand enceinte with a fortified nucleus, whicli would allDW tho defensive army to dc-liver battle outside of tho place upon ground well adapted to the action of the three arms. The ireat utility of enceintes was clearly ex- hibited in 1S70 at .Met/, and at Paris. There is no doubt that if these two intrenched camps had been destitute of a fortified nucleus, tho Prussians might, aficr the liattlo of Oravclotle and the combat of Chatillon. have at once made themselves masters of the two cities, and forced the beaten armies to capitulate or to evacu.ate their positions. Tiio inlrenchcrl camp of Liniz (now condemned and partially demolished ) is the only one wliicli lias not a fortified nucleus. In the work (by iho writer) published in ISCJ. iViirfe* trir la <lr/'inii'- ilm' l^iiiln, etc., we suggested, in addition to argum'-nts already furnished by (Icn. .Toinini and others, tho following consideration, which alono would decide for the system of Paris in preference to tliatof Lint/,: '-After a falalclisaster, such as those of Ulm, Jena, Leipsic, or Waterloo, it may happen that tho defensive army falls back, precipilaleiv and in disorder, on one of the places of refuge or on the fortified capital. In such a case it is by no means impossible that an energetic pursuit may enable the victor to penetrate into the intrenched camp before the beaten army can olfcr effectual resistance. Tho wider the in'crvals between tho firls tlio greater this danger. A new battle must be nec-pter| therefore in rear of the defensive envelope, and as the defensive army must necessarily be, physically and mor.ally, inferior to that of its enemy, it can- not bo f xpected that its .advantages of position will counter- poise this double inferiority. SufT-ring nnollicr defeat — 'this time without placeof refuge — it cannot fail to become — men, material, everything — the prey of tho victor. An intrenched camp witliout nucleus is oidy a line of defence rc'uming into itself: now, every line onee forced is irrc- tri-vably lost. Hence, the duUe of V.'ellineton took the precaution to construct behind his first lino of Torres Vedras a lecond line, ami in rear of Ibis last the eontinnous in- trr-ncbments of St, Julien, destined to cover a forced re- embarka*i'3n." In writing these lines it could not be foreseen that the disasters of the French army in 1^70 would furnish such vivid illustration of tho correctu'ss of the ideas expressed. If Metz and P.iris had been fortified only by a lino of de- tnehcil forts, the first of the places would not for two and a half months, the so"ond for four months, have held at bay (ho victorious Ormnn armies. These armies, after Oravelotto and rhalilbm, must have penetrated within tho lino of tho forts, clo«ely pursuing the defeated forces, nnd would have compelled them to lay down llieir arm", or to continu'^ their reireni in abiindnning to their lute the groat df'pftt nnd capital which these intrenched camps enclosed. The existence of an interior enceinte, armed with cannon aud proof agaiust assault, sufficed to render impossible this prompt solution. II. We have now to consider the character which should be given to this enceinte or nucleus. This enceinte to an intrenched camp, destined to serve .as a pivot of manoeuvre or place of refuge for the army of a great military power, will fulfil all necessary conditions if it be proof agaiust as- sault ("a«of/iic </-• rtir force"). Such was tho opinion of Vauban. of the generals Bernard, .'Schneider, I'aixhans, and Rogniat of Marshal Soull and of the various " couiuiis- sions " which since ISIS have been named in France for tho study of the defence of Paris. The nttutil enceinte of that capital is on a greater scale (" a plnn d'lmporlunce ") than necessary. This is duo to the necessity of enlisting in support of the project of the government tho advocates of an cnecinic alnnc made strong enough for protracted de- fence. That government mi.ght have contented itself with a much simpler and (hence) less costly enceinte. The type which it adoptcil is not only heavy and costly (," onfmi:r"). but at the same time very defective. In fact, it presents high scarps exposed to plunging fires, flanks subject to ricochet, uncovered guns ("a cicl oiii'crt"), ramparts with- out Irtiverscs or sheltering masses ("a4ri'«"), and an in- terior {'■ corps (h place") destitute of casemates and bomb- proof quarters. As a mere enceinte of support it would have accomplished its purpose at half the expense if it hud been composed of rectilineal fronts, each of about a kilo- metre in length, flanked by sm.all eaponnicrcs, and secured against escalade by a detached scarp. An exception to the principle just laid down for the con- stitution of tho enceinte may bo made in the ease of in- trenched camps destined as tho place of refuge for the troops, in field, of small states, and especially when these camps arc near the frontiers. Surprised by a sudden inva- sion in the midst of preparations for hostilities, the sole army may be defeated or cut ofi" from its pivot. In this case an enceinte is desirable which can be held by the usual r/arrlson alone till tho succor of friendly powers be re- ceived. Such are the reasons which have induced the Bel- gian engineers to provide tho intrenelicd camp of Antwerp with an enceinte capable of sustaining a siege. III. We have now to consider the manner of constituting tho perimeter of the intrenched camp. This problem has received different solutions. At limes a system of small forts, reciprocally flanking and defending each other, has been advocated: at others, a system of forts each self-de- fensive. Tho lowers of Lintz, connected by a palissaded covered way, and the little forts of (icn. I'aixhans con- nected by epaulments, belong to the first system. The forts of Paris, of Verona, Cracow, and Antwerp belong to the second. The best intrenched camji being that which offers the greatest resistance to an assault {"dllaque tir rirr force") preceded by a hot cannonade, the system of large forts, self-flanking, is preferable to that of little forts, re- ciprocally flanking. This last mode of flanking fails to give coniidcncc to the defenders, because it is more disliint, more uncertain, nnd sometimes wholly inefl"cctual, as at night aud in time of fog or snow. The garrison of a little fort will never have a high >iio/-n(c, depending as it does on tho ability and vigilance of Iho commanders of the neigh- boring forts, and being necessarily weak in its own num- bers. ' For such and other rcasnns it is now conceded that intrenched camps should bo constilulcd of a line of forls of sufiieient magnitude to be scU-dcfcnsive; but Ihcre is yet room to discuss — Isl. the dimensions of the forls. Iheir trac6, anil their internal organization : 2d, the intervals between Ibcm ; .Id. their distances from the eneeinle. A fort will possess its maximum value when, while oc- cupying a favorable position, tho neighboring forts cross their fires before its fronts of attack. The iii(ciia/« of the forls must therefore be regulated by the cfiective range of artillery; lliis finds a limit in the difiieully of clearly dis- tinguishing troops nnd works of attack at more than liOOO metres. Hence, Iho intervals from fort to fort will be taken at about 2Jno mi^tres,iu order to secure a thorough mutual protection; but rref|uenlly the nature of the site and the too great multiplication of works justifies a deparlure from this rule. In this eiise the following rule is obligatory: Tlic forlt onrfht nut to he '<> far trparatrd that the iinnn uf the lateral fronts cannot rljlraci'omli) sipccp the intermit. Un- der this rule Iho forls may have about .lOOO mitres distance between their axes. In determining the dimensions of the forts and Iheir internal organization it must siitricc here to state in general terms that the greater Iho distance of a fort from its neighboring works ami from the plncc (or nucleus), the grenier tho strength (or power of resistance) it should have. In virtue of this principle, to the fori of JIr.nl Vab'rien — the nuisl remote and the most isolated work of the inirenebed enmp of Paris — has been given dimensions greatly cxeeeding those of the other forts. The 1270 INTRENCHED CAMPS. distance from the forts to the enceinte must be sufiicicnt to place the cnclosetl area of the enceinte out of reach of bombarilment. lieforc Paris it proved that the h>ng rifliMl gun of 15 continietrcs (0 inches) calibre of the Prussian gystom has a ran<j:e of 75U0 nit^tres (8250 yards), and more recent experimental firings have indicated that still greater ranges must bo guarded against. Ilencc, our intrenched camps should have a deptli of 7000 metres (from enceinte to line of forts), by which there will be about HOOO metres distance between the enceinte and the enemy's batteries, which cannot bo established under favorable conditions nearer than 2000 metres from the line of forts.- Si) far as tiiere may be choice, the more remote points f'lr locations of forts should be prefcrrccl, tn give more area and to allow of the troops being encam])ed out of range of shells; but this choice will be especially determined by the necessity of sweeping with fire all the ground in advance of the line to a distance of 2000 or ;iO(lO metres. The more perfectly this external zone is exposed the greater will be the difiieult}' of investment or of regular attacks (siege). Hence, sites in rear of ground furrowed by ravines or wooded should be avoided. To .sweep jiortions of the ground whieh may esc.ijje the action of the guns of the fi)rts, tem- porary batteries may be thrown i\\) in the intervals, or perm'itient Ixittcrirs, according as they may or may n<tt be near enough to cfiectually protect them. The enormous depth now required for intrenched camps has this advan- tage, that it renders more difiicult the investment; but it has also the disadvantage of increasing the number of the forts, and of exacting for their ordinary garrison too great a proportion of the defensive army. To the end of diminishing the cost of construction, the armament, and the ordinary garrison, it has been proposed to substitute for the (jraud permanent fnrtu little forts des- tined to servo as rtdintx to tfrnnd ficfd (or provisional) forts, to bo thrown up at the outbreak of war. But this solution, so seductive in appearance, is inadmissible, be- cause the time is, in most cases, not allowed for their con- struction. The experience of erecting such works at Florisdorf. at Dresden, and at Paris in ISOfi and lf^70 jiroves that to construct works of the character required {" hoiinc fortification mijcte") six to nine weeks arc necessary : now, modern wars run their course so rapidly that it would bo rash to count upon being allowed such a period of time. Besides, temporary works are ill suited to resisting a reg- ular attack {*' pied d pittV), or even a prolonged cannon- ade. Their parapets of fresh earth offer less resistance to projectiles than those of permanent works ; their gun-plat- foruis have less stability, their batteries less command above the natural ground, their ditches less depth, their scarps and fianking batteries less resistance against plung- ing fires; finally, their traverses, covering masses, maga- zines, and barraeks arc weak against the action of rifled irojectiles, so formiilable for blindages and new masonry. Moreover, the weaker a work is in i)rotile and internal organization, the greater number of troops and guns it needs for its defence. The resort to temporary works is therefore not an effectual means of diminishing the pecu- niary expenditure for intrenched camps, nor the number of troo])S for their ordinary garrisons. It will, tlicn, be proper to construct beforehand the forts of the intrenehed camp, and to reserve for the moment of war only the bat- teries and intrenchments necessary to complete the defences of the intervals. With \vhatever care the forts be con- structed, there will always he some external area which their batteries will not see or will but imperfectly sweep. It will, hence, generally bo necessary to throw up epaul- ments between the forts, not only for this reason, but also in order to divide the fire of the attacking batteries, which otherwise will be concentrated on ihf batteries of tlie forts, which they will promptly silence. The experience of the siege of Paris has proved tluit it is a matter of great im- portance ; it has also proved that these low batteries, thrown up during the siege, the trace and internal organization of which are unknown to the enemy, are more difiicult to de- stroy than the elevated batteries of the forts. We now consider the principles which determine the disposition of the works, or, in other words, the form of intrcnclied camps. f The application of the foregoing statement of principles leads to the circ»?(ir, or approxi- mately circular, form of these camps. Such are the in- trenched camps of Paris, Verona, Cracow, Mctz, Ports- • Peculiar circumstances rendered it practicable to establish the batteries much nearer at Paris, but such will not present tiiem^clves in future. tWe ni-eessarilyomil hero all that concerns tlie tracf, internal or;janizatic)u, dimensions, profiles, llie arranuement of the ram- parts and of flankini; batteries, and the computation of garri- sons, etc., as belonttiuK to h more teehnieal treatment of the subject, and also to that of permanent fortification. (See FORT- IFICATION.) I mouth, and Antwerp ; such are likewise to be those which the (xcrmans have, since 1S70, decided to construct. The writings recently published in France and England upon the defence of Paris and of London are all based on the same notions. The project of the commandant Ferron, who proposes to surround Paris with a girdle of 37 forts on a perimeter of ?>'2 leagues; that of Oen. Tripicr, who proposes for the same capital, with a tardcaf h'ue of de/'t nrc (a girdle of forts to protect from bombardment) and a fttrntcgical line nf defence (a line of 150 kilometres, or .*iO leagues development), serving as base of operations to the defensive army when it moves outside of the intrenched camp (properly .'^o called); that of ('<d. Jervois, for the defence of London (oO forts on a circumference of 4 leagues radius); that of Maj. Paliser of 31 forts on an elliptic perimeter (of 20 and 10 leagues, major and minor axes re- spectively), are all illustrations. The authors of these projects have removed the forts farther than mere security of the enceinte against bombardment alisolutely demands. This is to be commended; where it concerns the defence of a great strategical pivot (the political or military cap- ital of a nation), thecaptureof which marks the termination of national resistance, an excess of precautions can hardly be taken to retard the fall or to render the attack imprac- ticable. Now, the events of the recent war (Franco-Ger- man) have proved that the principal if not the only danger to which intrenched camps are exposed is that of invest- ment {'' hlovus")'. an operation of which the ditfieulties are proportioned to the extent of the zone of investment. To successfully defend an investing line against the sorties of an energetic garrison requires, generally stated, four men to every metre of development. That of the Prussian line before Paris had S;J kilometres, and the numerical force of the investing army did not exceed 230,000 men, or 2^ men per metre. At Mctz the line of investment was aiiout 50 kilometres in development, and the besieging army had a maximum eff'ective strength of 200,000 men. or 4 men per metre. Doubtless, increment of perimeter for the intrenched camp entails increased numbers of inactive troops (for garrisons), but these dis.advautages arc largely compensated by the obligation imposed on the enemy to increase the numerical strength of his army by 4000 men for every ad- ditional kilometre of line of investment. Admitting the great depth of intrenched camps as on im- perious necessity, and accepting as a consequence the obli- gation of separating the forts by intervals of 4000 to 5000 metres, the question has occurred to us whether a better arrangement might not be made than to dispose the forts on a line enveloping the capital to lie fortified. Such aline has the disadvantage of oiVering the enemy a large gap as soon as he has gained possession of one or more of the forts. To remedy that, we ]>roposed asearly as 1803 J to construct, in rear of the forts, transversal lines of defence, dividing the intrenched camp into several sectors. These lines were composed of a donhlc epaulment, forming a kind of caponniere, the anterior extremity of whieh was covered by a fort, and the rear extremity was within range of small- arms of the enceinte. That this line (which would some- times be 3000 or 4000 metres long) sliould be defensible throughout {pied d picd)^ it could be interrupted at inter- vals by redoubts destined to serve as traverses to the double caponniere and to flank the epaulments of which it is con- structed. At the epoch when we wrote it was not admis- sible to remove the forts more than 3000 or 4000 metres from the enceinte. At the present day, when double, triple, and even quadruple these distances arc allowed, the palli- ative offered by these lines of double defence can no longer be entertained. For this reason, in generalizing the idea we advanced in lS6i), to defend London by means of an in- trenched camp at Croydon, and three dr)uble tiffs-dr-pont on the Thames at Gravesend. Wo(dwieli, and Kingston, wo recently ji proposed to fortify great capitals by means of two or three intrenched camps, disposed as indicated by Fig. 2 (abstraction made of topographical features of the ground, whieh must necessarily influence the form and loca- tion of the camps). The three camps would be established with approximate symmetry at such a distance that be- tween the interior forts and the place there would be a zone of -SflOO or SMttlO metres (extreme range of the cannons of the jdace) of width. The movable troops would be encamped or placed in cantonments in this zone, in rear of the camps, or preferably in their intervals. A triple railway and two or three paved roads would unite all these camps. By aid of such dispositions one of the three fractions of the defen- sive army could, in a siufjle night, be reinforced by the other two, even without recourse to the encircling railways. The form of these camps, the number, location, and cha- racter of the forts, will be regulated by the following con- t Slude sur la df-fenxe dex Eyats, etc. § ^ude sur la fortification rfe* QjpUaU (1873). IXTKKXCHED CAMPS. 1271 siderntions: A. Each camp will have Tour sides. The most important, f:\cing the encmv, will be called the ejcterior side; the opposite odc, facing the place, the i/orjre; the two others, facing the intervals between the camps, htteral siilcs. B. The exterior side will be longer than the others, and the forts which constitute it will be the most important ; the Fig. 2. ,--1»^ ZONE or <NVes^ .--p- of OUTPOSTS ^ "■- TS tj "vH, iNQ ■-.3s 5-.Le_A_G_UES _D_EV!!:?-' intervals will ho about 5000 m&tres. If for local causes greater intervals be given, one or two permanent butteries, proof n^^ninst assault, will be interpolated. C. Besides these batteries, there will bo provided, in all the intervals of Ihrpatfncil attack, epaulnicnts for siege and light guns to be thrown up simultaneously wilh other preparations for immediate defence ('(ii uwmrnt dc la mini: m /tut dtt <h'- /fime). \Vg recommend likewise the use of low batteries established on each side of the forts, at the foot of the glacis of the lateral fronts in the proloui^ation of the gorge front. D. The forts of the gorge will be arranged to serve as d^pAts of provisions, arms, ammunition, and s^upplics of all kinds. On account of this destination, and so that there may bo in each camp a zone exempt, by distance, from the fires of the attiieU, theno forts will be placed at more than cannun range froni the line of the exterior forts. To these forts of the gorge will be given simjdy that degree of resistance to exempt them from being carried by coupde tiKtiii. They may be placed 7000 to sunfl kilometres apart. liCt us assume that the capital city has a radius of 6 Kilo- metres, and the central zone i) kilometres of depili. The circumference which defines the position of the "gorges" of tho camps will have a development of about Ht kilo- mMrcs. (living to these gorges a length of 11 kiloniMres, oecujiied by three forts, nnd to the exterior sides a length of I'U kilometres, occupied by live forts, fln<l supposing that the mean <listancc between the sides be '.> kilr»s., wc shall have the arrangement shown \*y Fig. 2. The lateral sides are broken intervals, so that tho forts x, x are thrown for- ward into the intervals, the better to sustain the contiguous forts //, t/. Tho troops of the defence nre divided into three armies of two corps each. One of each of the two corps is employed, alternately, on the external line {" vordon dc nnrvfillatice")', tho other is established in close ennton- mcnts, or in barracks constructed either in rear of the camps (rt, h, c, Fig. 2l, or in rear of tho intervals («', h',c'). E. If the zone of investment has "JOO metres of depth, and if ii is 2500 metres beyond tho exterior forts, tho axis of this zone will have about 35 leagues of development. Suf- fice it to gay, that it would be impossible for tho largest army in the world, and even to an aggregate of several allied armies, to invest a place like Paris, London, IJerlin, or Vienna to which has been applied the model plan hero sketched. This plan would doubtless require a greater number of forts than that for a single camp constituted by a girdle of forts, and therefore more expensive, m<)re guns, more troops for garrison ; but, on the other hand, it would afford much greater certainty to the defence. In the one ease the be- sieging army after having carried two or three of the forts of the single camp, may crush the army within, and com- mence his approaches upon the interior enceinte if there bo one, or if not, penetrate at once into the city. lu the other, these operations would be impossible on the hypothesis of a triple intrenched eamp : for if the enemy, after taking two or three forts, should seek to penetrate into one of theso camps, ho would be taken in flank by the forts of the hit- enil sides an.l confronted by the forts of the gorge. Tho defending army may decline battle by withdrawing into tho other camps, without detriment to its own safety or that of the place ('* ricn tit'itiort nc nrrail conipromis"). Tho besiegers must obtain possession of the lateral forts and of the forts of the gorge in order to niuke themselves nia.-'ters of the evacuated eamp; then recomnicnec the same oper- ations against the other camps. Such a succession of efftirls and of sacrifices would exhaust tho most powerful army. To givo tho same properties to an intrenched camp con- stituted by a gifdle of forts, it would bo necessary — 1st, to provide tho capital with a safety-enceinto {" tucciutr de nurrff"); 2d, to construct several rndiatiiitf time of forts from tho enceinte to the line of forts, enabling the defen- sive army to withdraw laterally in order to continue tho struggle. These radiating lines, by dividing tho single 1272 INTROIT— INUNDATIONS, MARITIME. camp into several intrenched and juxtaposed camps, would realize indeed, though in an incomplete and defective man- ner, the germinal idea of our model plan. One great ad- vantage uf this latter plan is the exemption of the defen- sive army from the dangerous agitations of the population, and to make its existence independent of the seditions whieli sometimes break out in the populace before or dur- ing the siege: for if there be three camps the capital is not included in any one of them ; whereas if there be but one it occupies the centre of that single camp. Finally, when there is only a girdle of forts, the great depots of supplies and arms arc exposed to the attacks (coups <lc main) of the enemy as soon as the lino is pierced by the capture of two or throe forts, and X6 the enterprises of a populace desirous of hastening the surrender by obstructing the defence. On the hypothesis of three isolated camps tliis double danger is not to be feared, because the d6p<1ts comprised in the forts of their gorges are secured against such enterprises {cniips tie main). While the armies are operating in open field the garrison of this great central camp ('' pirot crnind") will be made up of (he troops essential to the guard of the forts, and of a reserve of three divisions. These divisions will estab- lish themselves in the intervals of the intrenched camps (rt, by r, Fig. 2), so that they can be promptly united to con- front and repulse hostile corps which miglit seek to pen- etrate the capital to lay contributions or to produce a moral effect by a bold dash. The possibility of invading the city after beating tlio central reserve seems to afford a power- ful argument for a safety-enceiute ; but there arc so many chances against such an enterprise — which, besides, if suc- cessful, is so little tiecisivc — that this possibility need not be dwelt upon. It may, too, be guarded against by throw- ing up intrenchments in time of war covering the most ex- posed portions of the perimeter, as a substitute for a safcty- enceintc. A. Bnr.VLMONT. [Trtinslated from the French MS. of Gen. Brialmokt by J. G. Barnard.] Intromit, in .-^acred music, a composition for voices to be sung nr chanted while the officiating minister is entering within the railing of the chancel. Intussusception. See Ileus. In'ulin (("(jHioOs). a substance isomeric with and similar to starch. It is widely distributed in ])Iant5, occurring especially in tlie roots of elecampane, dandelion, chicory, feverfew, meadow saffron ; in the tubers of the potato, the dahlia, and the Jerusalem artichoke: in Scrp manna, in certain lichens, and probably in the seeds of the sunflower and of mustard, etc. It is jirepared by washing the rasped root on a sieve, and allowing the inulin to settle from tho liquid, or by boiling the sliced root with water and filter- ing while hot; the inulin separates on cooling. The juice of dahlia-tubers pressed in the winter becomes semi-solid on stanrling from the s:>paration of inuHn. Inulin is a soft, white, tasteless, odorless powder, resembling starch, whicli it appears to replace in plants. TTnlike starch, it exists in plants in a solution whicli has the consistence of a thin oil. If a slice of tho plant is soaked in alcohol, the inulin separates in spherical granules which can be recog- nized by the microscope. It is very hydroscopic, and ad- heres to the teeth and to moist paper. It is but slightly soluble in cold water, freely in boiling water, from which it goparates, on cooling, witliout forming a jelly. It is in- soluble in alcohol, which precipitates it from its solution in water. Heated with water, it is changed slowly to liovulosc (grape-sugar). Dilute acids change it to sugar even in the cold. Inulin is not altercil by diastase nor by other ferments. It is colored brown by iodine, is soluble in cuprainmonia and in nickclammonia, and it reduces salts of lead, coppL-r, and silver. C. F. Ciiandlkr. InundaHionSf Mar'itime. The sea., not content with the sncritiL-es which it exacts from those v/ho voluntarily throw thcrasolves upon its mercy, often wages battle with man on his own domain. So terrible have been the dis- asters caused by tlie unforeseen ovc;-no\7 of the ocean waters that even races of men otherwise most destitute of histor- ical records date their origin from some great flood. Tho mythic narratives which tell of sucli show often so curious a conformity to those of the biblical deluge that theolog- ians do not hesitate to receive them as concurrent evidences of the same event. The most noted of these are the floods of XvsYTiinus.OfiYCES.andDErrcALioN (for which consult those titles). Of the revolutions which have caused the formation of great islands and large seas we know nothing. The evi- dence adduced in proof nf the recurrence of what is called the Cimbric flood (that which is said to have insulated England, and to have considerably changed the condition of the low- lan<ls of Holland) amounts only to a vague statement by Isphorns (B. r. n')0) and Clitarehus. that the rimbrians were driven from their scats by a cataclysm of this kind. As Ar- istotle mentions that the Celts opposed the floods with arms, and as several ancient historians record the continual en- croachments of the sea, this mythic Cimbric flood must be presumed to have been made up of several (»f greater or lesser magnitude occurring in pre-historic times, by which Eng- land was at length severed from France and a communica- tion was opened between the ocean and the North Sea. This channel once established, the tidal currents tended to increase its breadth till natural barriers arrested the pro- cess. The Netherlands, presenting no such barriers, would have been totally swallowed up but for the forming of " downs "^' from the sand cast by the waves upon the sliore. These downs, however, furnish only a partial and temjiorary protection. The sands, chased by the sea-winds, encroach farther and farlher upon the fertile plains, forming new lines of downs, and the sea advances in their rear. Two centuries ago foundations of villages and of Roman castles, laid bare at a time of extreme low water, furnished visible evidence of the magnitude of such encroachments even within the historic period. Since tho coasts of the Netherlands are the most exposed of the Northern lowlands to the predominating north- western winds, it is not surprising that they have suffered most from inundations, or that many of these have effected extraordinary changes in the face of this country, while others, more numerous, though less destructive, have plunged the inhabitants for the time being into inexpres- sible wretchedness. It is to geology, and not to history, that wc must look for information as to the earlier and more formidable of these catastrophes. The map of the Nether- lands shows the coast to be sheltered by a line of downs, which also extends along the seaward shores of the islands at the entrance of the Zuyder-Zee. This Zuyder-Zee in pre- historic ages was much larger than at present, but its mouth became gradually obstructed. The existing belt of islands are the remnants of what was then continuous coast j tho Zuyder-Zee subsided into a lake, of which the area was rapidly reilured by the deposits of the Rhine, which ])rob- ably discharged into it the greater part of its waters through the Yssel, and perhaps some other branch (of which only dubious vestiges remain). Thus, this lake, then called Flevo, dwindled rapidly, and would have totally disajipeared but for the storms of the tenth and twelfth centuries, which bat- tered large breaches in the line of downs, submerged the greater part of the newly-formed land, and, gradually re- opening the channels between the islands, caused the Lake of Flevo to expand again into the Zuyder-Zee. For though the inhabitjinls, now considerably advance*! in civilization, did their utmost to restrain the waters, they found their toil and skill alike ineffectual, and many towns, villages, and monasteries were swallowed up for ever. At what period dikes were invented as a protection against floods is not certainly known ; the Romans may possibly have learned their use from Egypt ; they certainly employed ihcm ns causeways over martliy lands. Tacitus informs us that Nero's lieutenant. I'ompcius. constructed a dike to prevent the overflow of tlie Rhine, and the aborig'- ines of Germany sometimes flooded the country by bar- ring the rivers in order to prevent invasion. It appears that the province of Fricsland was diked in the seventh century by King Adgillus; the province of Zeeland was diked by the Danes and Goths in the eighth century; while Oldenburg was enclosed about ttS4 by Count Ofho. Ear- lier, the natives lived on small hills or elevations called "terpen." Such a '"tcrp" offered a place of security for men and cattle, and such exist still in some parts of this country, where recently a certain number have been erected by order of the government to serve as temporary refuges in case of the failure of the dikes. Of the storms which have caused notable revolutions, tho first recorded in authentic history is that of SnO. which carried away a great jmrt of the western coast of the Netherlands, and gave a more southern direction to that branch of the Rhine wliich formerly discharged its waters near Catwyk. On St. Michael's Day. KHI, a great part of England and of tho Netherlands was flood-'d. In 1134 a part of Flanders was s^vallowed up. Of the coasts of Fricsland (which then consisted of the Dutch provinces of North Ilolliind. the Zuyder-Zee, (Jroningen. Fricsland. part of Hanover, and Oldenburg), a certain part disappeared during the St. Juliana's flood of lIGI.and nil the lowlands of the Elbe and the M'cser were submerged. Still more disastrous was the All Saints* flood of 1170, tho first of that name. The formatinn of the Zuyder-Zcc and tho separation of Texel and AVieringen are erroneously attrib- uted to this calamity, for the Zuyder-Zcc had been already formed by more ancient floods, and the islands were more recently severed. In continuing this enumeration only the more important • Dutch dairvt, Fr. dunea. INUNDATIONS AND FLOODS OF RIVERS. 1273 of the almost ntimlicrlcas floods mentioned in tlio anuals will reciivc aiiiulion. In 1'21S» occurfL-d the M;ircellus nood, which was imly "f temporary charactir: luit in lliT? the gnlf of the Oiillart at Ilic mouth of the Kerns was formed, while in I:tfi2 the Mandruiikc's flood (the " men- drovvnin'^" flood) snatched away more than 'M villages on the coasTs of Sleswiek (Xordstrand). The gulf of Dicr- vlicl in Dnteh Flanders, then much wider and deeper than at present, was formed in i:!77. But the most disastrous flood hv which in later times the .Southern Netherlands have hcen visited was the (second) St. Eli/.alieth flood. which formed the Uiesbosch, submersed Tli villages, changed totally the lower course of the Rhine and Maas, and altered s') profoundly the conditions of these rivers that its influence is slill'felt, though modified, and in a meifture controlled, hv costly engineering works constructed in later years. This disaster resulted from the combination of a maritime and a fluvial inundation. The branch of the Khine cilled Waal previously to that event discharged its waters near the town of Bridle, and formed with the other branch, called LeU, the outlet of the Maas. It now i took the much shorter direction of tho outlets of Brouwer- shaven nn.l II ■llevoe'sluis, wJicre, moreover, the tide-range is greater famounting to 2"':i, while at Bridle it is only i l»-s). Th? fall per mile of the Waal being thus superior to that of the I.ek, the llhine was drained by the former, while the latter grew shallow. On this account the wide outlet of the -Maas gradually filled, an. I tho communication of Rotterdam with the s;>a became seriously im|iaired. In mil a flood occurred which formed in the Zuyder-Zco a practicable channel for vessels of heavy drauglit be- tween Enkhuizen and .Amsterdam, and thus gave to the latter town its commerce and its importance. Till then, the southern part of that sea hid been too shallow to allow more than a limited Iraflic. whieh was eonfined to the then flourishing cities of lloorn, .Medcmblik, and Enkhuizen. From this time onward, though tho floods increase in number, their violence diminishes and their effects arc less disastrous. Thus, the flood of All Saints' Day. li'O, though only surpassed in magnitude by that which oc- curre^l in MTU oa the same day, destroyed no land, though it submerge 1 llruges, .Antwerp, almost all tho islands which form the province of Zceland, Dordrecht, Rolterdam. Am- sterdam, part of the provinces of Friesland and (ironingcn, the coast of Oldenburg, Bremen, and tho city of Hamburg, and drowned at the lowest estimate IIO.OOII inhabitants. Before the breaches of the dikes could bo stopped new storms flooded tho country, .and within tho eight years en- suing the unfortunate provinces of (Ironingen and Friesland wore not less than six times partially submerged. These oontinunlly recurring disasters must bo attributed in great measure to the bad state of repair in which the dikes wero kept. Notwithstanding its importance, this matter had never been well regulated. Every village being independ- ent, Ihero existed no authority competent to coerce the delinquent, and so the negligence of some proved the ruin of all. Later, the Dutch republic was impotent to estab- lish proper no-opera'ion, and in such a state of afi'airs tho iron hand of a Napoleon was nccde<l to reduce the petty magistracies into obedience to a common superior. Tho new regulations established by him produced results so sat- isfactory as to ensure their ]iermanenco; ami, though there still arise frequent disputes concerning this vital point of Dutch economy, tho state usually succoods in accomplish- ing the projects of improvement which it proposes. The .•^punish douii:iaticm, though generally so disastrous In this country, |. roved in 1.J7.S of singular benefit to tho Frisians; for the Spanish governor of Friesland, tho emi- nent engineer Caspar do Rubles, lord of Billy, addressed liimself witli great energy to the repair of the dikes, cm- ploying hi.s soldiers in the work, ami forcing the Frisians to posTpone their dilTeriMures and ply the spaile. Many farmers and landowners (ileaded exemption, sujiporting their claims by ancient titles and patents. Ilobles took these deeds and cast them into the crevasse, saying. " There they go: if thev slop the gap. 'lis well; if they don't, you shall." Kobles further inereas.'d the r-trength of thi' dikes by giving them a height of 12 feel, and a lireadih at sum- mit of feel, with slopes of 1 : 1 on the sea-side, and of 21 : I on the biinl-side. As much greater dimensions than (hose are giv.n at the present ilay — viz. : a total height of 16 feet, Willi slopes of li : 1 and 2* ; 1 respectively, the dikes being also strongly protected nt the sca-sido by pal- isades and breakwaters — we can easily account for the eom- |.arative immunity from disastrous floods enjoyed by these enunlries in recent years. In Itl07 the eoiiniy of .'omerset (England) was partially flooded, but a inueh more serious enlamily befel the Danish diiinains in ir>:'.t. Part of the const, called Nordhind and its villages, which, though often destroyed, had as often, with undaunted resolution, been again rebuilt, was swept away, together with tho greater part of the population ( I I.IWS people and 00,;iS7 cattle). Hamburg. Bremen, and the coast of Oldeni>urg were also much injured. More than 10,S2S human beings and yu,IIOO cattle were drowned. In the great Christinas flood of 1717, which covered the whole northern coast, and even some parts of England, 5000 dwellings were totally and :i^00 partially ruined. Owing to the prevalent neglect of repairs already men- tioned, the years 171^, 17111. and (specially 1720. saw these countries flooded again. The most recent inundation of importance was that of IS2o, in which the waieis reached a height which was not asccriained. This flood in several respects dilfeied from any recently observed before; and on that account it lias been ascribed, with a semblance of proba- bility, to a submarine earlhciuake. Similar parliculurs had been recorded in ancient chronieles, but as no modern ob- servation had confirmed lliem, th.-y had jiaseed into dis- credit. The sea-water was very muddy, and seemed as if boiling; the waves wero not high, but short and eddying; the wind, W. N. AV., was not violent; and finally the posi- tion of the moon was not such as to favor an extraordinary tide. .Some days before the event certain springs dried up, and others became muddy, yellow, and brackish. Largo fragments of amber were also east up on the const of Jut- land. Facts corresponding to these had been observed during the floods of IBllO and lOfij, during the Christinas flood of 1717. and finally in 175.) during the famous earth- quake of Lisbon. The 'principal ell'eel of this most recent flood was the insulation of the iiorihern part oi' Julland. Tho floods thus far noticed arc such as have been caused by storms ami high tides, accompanied usually by wido de- struction, in which niulliiuiies perished and other multitudes escaped only with their bare lives, the inundations ordinarily occurring during the night. But, besides these, there aro others which, though local, aro not unattended with dan- ger, and which deserve a moment's attention. These aro the inundations which threaten especially the coasts of the tidal rivers. The powerful streams which separate tho islands of Zceland and of part of South Holland, being connected with the Scheldt, the Khine, and the Maas, form largo estuaries, which at flood-tide aie filled with tho water of fho North Sea, and during ebb discharge Ihc flood-water along with the drainage, the tble-water varying between 3 and + mi'-tres. Strong currents, especially during ebb, accordingly prevail in these streams, undermining tho southern shores of the islands. By observing the direc- tion of the ebb from N. K. to S. W., while that of the flood is opposite, we are enabled to account for the fact that all tho islands arc attacked in the same way and exllibit the same form— viz. a concave S. and a convex N. coast, tho latter augmenting by the undisturbed deposit of tho rivers and the detritus of the southern shores. The W. coast of the province of Holland is attacked in a similar manner, though with less force, the sea-cnrrents not being confined within narrow ehaniiels. The system of eoast- defencc of the Nelherlamls must therefore embrace two distinct objects — defenco against currents, and derenco against high seas and storms. The coasts of Fneshiiid, (ir.mingen, and tho Zuyder-Zec need only iiroteetions ot the latter class, while the dikes and downs of the W. coast of Holland and those defending llie islands must be con- sidered from both points of view. This portion ot our subject is reserved to be treated under the head ol Lkvkes (which see). 1'. Cai.ani.. Iniintlntioiis niid Floods of Kivors. These two terms are often used as svnonymous, but they are conveni- ently distinguishable, thus: an iiiiinrlailnn is the stale of a river when its waters rise to such a height as to spread be- yond its normal channel, overflow its banks, and cover the low grounils along llieni : a llmnl is Ihc ciuiditnm ol a river when its current, though rising above its mean level and filling the canal which il has excavated for itsell, slill re- mains within its banks, or, in other word,s, is '-without o'erflowing, full." Perhaps the nearest approach we can make to iirecision of distinction is to say that a flood be- eoin.s an inundation when the stream rises seuMbly above its mean high-water level, and spreads in considerable vol- ume beyond the limits of its natural channel as bouiub.lby the growth of spcmlaneous perennial land planls. It is, however, impossible to draw any sharp line i>( diseriniina- tion between floods and inundations as applicable to the whole course of rivers, because a river may be eonfined by high banks at one point, bordered by low flats at another, and these riparian conditions may be nltirnated many limes in the same stream; and hence il may be siinply at 1 flood in eerlnin ]iarls of its channel, in inumlalion at othiTs. I'sing the words in the general sense we have as- cribed In them, a flood is ordinarily a beneficial state of a river, heeause iis supply of water for meehanieal power, for feeding canals and aqiiednets, and for navigation is then ample, and yet not in excess. The nugmented volume and 1274 INUNDATIONS AND FLOODS OF RIVERS. velocity of the water are, espeoially in new ooontriea, a considerable advantage to navigation, because they par- ticularly favor the downward trade, which i? ordiuarilv the heaviest, if not the mo^^t valuable, and they not unfre- qucntly render a further useful service by preventing the closing of the stream by ice. Hence, measures hs.ve oft?n been proposed, and sometimes adopted, for keeping rivers permiUK'Utly at flood by introducing into them additional supplies of water from lakes or artiticial reservoirs, or by the diversion of other water-courses into their bed. Thus, the Illinois Canal, when enlarged, will furnish the means of maintaining at all dcs^irablc seasons a fluod-Ievcl in the Illinois, and even pcriiaps in the Mississippi; and it is be- lieved that a judicious husbandry of the natural sources of supply of the Hudson and of the waters of some of the Ad- irondack lakes may be made in the same way greatly to improve the navigation of the upper portion of that im- portant river. Inundations of great rivers, when they are of regular character both in volume and in peritjdic rccnrrcncc. are often not merely highly advantageous to human interests, but even essential to the permanent occupation of their banks by man. Of such rivers the Nile is the type. The seasons and the height of its rise are approximately con- stant, and therefore readily foreseen ; the inundation satu- rates with moisture the alluvial plains along its banks, and it deposits on them a supply of organic and mineral sedi- ment abundant enough and fertilizing enough to render the artificial application of manures in general su]ierfluous. But even here nature must be aided by human art, and from thv earliest ages the Egyptians have employed dikes and canals for retaining and distributing the waters of the inundation. (See Nile.) The more irregular inundations of smaller rivers sometimes render similar service to man, but with few exceptions river inundations are a highly de- struetive agency: and it is principally in this light that we shall consider them. The river-inundations of modern times, in both America and the Old World, even if not more frequent or more violent than those of earlier ages, have been more disastrous, because in many eases the beds of the streams have been elevated by sedimentary deposits faster than their banks, and because greatly augmented and more diversified moral and material interests are aflFected by them. Larger towns, vaster mechanical establishments, as well jis agricultural and commercial arrangements, great networks I of canal, railway, and telegraphic communication, more numerous common roads and bridges, arc now exposed to i their ravages, and of course the social interests endangered by them arc immensely multiplied. AVhilc. then, floods \ are to be promoted, inundations are to be controlled and as far as possible prevented. The best method of eftecting this is a very complicated problem, and for various rea- sons — among which the fact that the sources of consid- erable streams are often in one State or Territory, their middle and lower courses in another, is the most familiar — the contrivance of systems applicable to the entire flow of rivers has but recently engaged the attention of engineers, and it is not yet even theoretically completely solved. The moans of defence against river-inundations are di- visible into two classes — the preventive and the remedial, the former being designed to operate against their causes, the latter to protect valuable interests against their efi'ects. The immediate cause of river-inundations is the discharge of water into river-channels faster than those channels can carry it off. The insufficiency of tlie channel for this func- tion may be occasioned — {n) by excess of supply; {/») by obstructions in its bed; or(c) by the reduction of its inclina- tion. («) The excess of supply may bo due to abnormal and exceptional causes, such as the bursting of the barriers of natural or artiflcial accumulations of water, lakes, reser- voirs, or mill-ponds, but it is usually derived from rains and melting suows ; and as a general rule it may be said that it does not proceed from the down-fall in the great ; valleys which border the middle course of the stream, but from winter snows or equinoctial rains in the smaller I basins of the upland tributaries, whose inclination is more j rapid, whose fan-like expansion embraces a wider surface , than that of the main valley of the general recipient of them all. and which, moreover, often lie in elevated regions where the precipitation is greater than on the plains. The flow from the uplantl? is probably in the largest pniportion superficial, but it is now known that great quantities of mountain-water sink to a moderate depth into the earth, and then descend, by infiltration or other underground conduction, to lower points in the basins, and are there discharged into the river-<:hannels. High water rarely occurs at the same time in all the tributaries of large rivers, but there are instances, as the Seine and the Po, where the i floods of the nfiluenls are usually contemporaneous, not successive, and inundations of rivers are generally destruc- , tiro in proportion to the degree of coinoidonce in the floods I of their tributaries. (6) Obstructions which reduce the capacity of delivery of water-courses may be artificial, as the piers of bridges, dams, weirs, riparian spurs or wing- walls, the waste from mines and metallurgical establish- ments, or they may arise from the natural deposit of ter- restrial sediment in the channel, from the caviug-in of Ihc banks, from the accumulation of trunks of trees and other floating matter lodged on shoals, from the growth of aquatic vegetation, or from ice, which sometimes forms almost com- plete though temporary barriers in both European and American rivers, (r) The inclination of the bed of a river may be reduced by geological upheaval of its outlet or its lower course, by the lilling-up of its estuary by its own de- posits or by sand washed in by the sea. and sometimes by the elevation of parts of its bottom from sand or earth let fall in consequence of the cheeking of the velocity of its current from changes in the course of the channel, or as a result of artificial processes of improvement. A prcveutire system applicable to the whole course of a stream wouldcommcnceits operations at or near the sources of the tributaries, and its general aim in this division of the work would be first to check the discharge of surface- water into those tributaries by planting the declivities of the valleys with trees or shrubs, terracing their hillsides, running low embankments across sloping grounds, collect- ing the water in snmll reservoirs, and in short by any measures which tend to detain the water of precipitation a certain time upon the surface. In agricultural and pop- ulous districts the adoption of this part of the .«ystem can- not be general, because it would conflict with many indis- pensable arrangements of improved rural economy and civilized life. Agriculture requires a general grading or smoothing of the ground by filling up small dejiressious of the soil, and the removal of stumps, clumps of shrubs, rocks, little ridges, and other impeiliments to the plough, and it must be drained by superficial or underground con- duits: railways and common roads must be provided with ditches; streets must be j^aved or otherwise made imper- vious to water: and habitations and other buildings must be covered with roofs, which shed all the precipitation that falls upon them. All these artificial contrivances tend powerfully to promote the flow of surface and ground water into the natural channels of discharge ; and in the opinion of some able inquirers they arc the most active of all causes of inundations in highly improved countries. Hence, in such countries there is great difficulty in reconciling the adoption of the measures we speak of with interests not less important than those they are designed to protect; and in most cases we are reduced to a question of choice of evils. Some of them, nevertheless, such as clothing hillsides too steep for cultivation with trees or shrubs, circling/ or ter- racing rapid declivities, and the temporary flooding of fields by means of low ridges or embankments, are widely applicable not only without injury, but with positive bene- fit to agriculture. The next step slmuld be to retard the flow of the current in the lesser affluents by dams, barriers or traverses, heaps of rocks, and impediments of every de- scription. Such measures are of course applicable chiefly to the smaller rivulets in u]tland districts, an<l at points where, from the character of the channel and other circum- stances, no evil consequences are to be apprehended from their adoption. Thus far, (he immediate aim is to retain the water on the surface or in the beds of small affluents, but when we come to larger tributaries bordered by fiehls. t(iwns. and indus- trial establishments, and especially to the main trunk, the direct object is reversed, and increased velocity, and of course delivery, quite down to the point of ultimate dis- charge, is sought to be promoted. This is efl"ected by the removal of rock, sedimentary deposit, and, so far as prac- ticable, all other obstructions in the bed, by confining the channel to narrower limits at convenient points, and by excavating a deeper canal within it, and especially by cutting off loops and bends in its course, and thus at once diminishing the length and increasing the inclination of its bed. (See Rivkrs, Rkgi'lation op.) Although meas- ures are in progress in France and elsewhere for the appli- cation of these and other subsidiary processes to the entire flow of rivers, and though there is no doubt that the violence of inundations might be greatly mitigated, if not wholly prevented by such means, yet thus far we do not know that the system has been applied to the whole course of any great river; and in general, effort is directed, not to the prevention of inun<lations, but to the confinement of their spread within certain limits. Various plans have been sn^gcstcd for this purpose, among which the creation of great reservoirs for receiving the overflowing waters is one of the most specious, because it is an imitation of the econ- omy of Xature, who so often hollows out great lakes on the upper courses of rivers, and sometimes accumulates with- in them flood-water enough to drown the whole country INVALIDES, HOTEL DES— INVARIABLE PLANE, THE. 1-J70 below, but for tbe cbcck they oppose to its too rapid dis- charge. liemfflinf Mennurfn. — For rcnsons which cannot ho given here, the nietho'l of reservoirs la capable ofoiily exceptional application, and in tbe present state of our knowledge and our means wc must, in moft cases, content ourselves with snob palliatives as are affor<led by dikes or cm)>ankTnents high enough ami solid enough to protect the grounds they enclose, or rather front, against oneroaebmcnt l>y high water. Emhankments have been employed from time im- memorial in the East, and the recently constructed dikes or levees of the Mississippi are among the grandest mnilern works of hydraulic improvement. liul the nri/iui, or em- baukmcnts <d' the I*o, are perhap-^ the oldest wiili which we arc thoroughly ac<]uainted, and the theory and practice of emhanking as a defence against river-inundatinns have been more exhaustively considered and more skilfully ap- plied in Lomhanly than elsewhere, though in the classic studies of Ilumjdireys and Abbot on the Mississippi wo have now a work not surpassed in the whole compass of potamulogical literature. The embankments of the Po are suhstantially parallel to each other and to the axis of the river, hut they do not follow all its windings, an^l for the sake of pursuing a shorter course, and at the same time allowing greater space for the swelling waters, they some- times diverge so far from the channel as to leave a space of three or four miles, often including valuable cultivated land, between them. Their height ami thickness are regu- lated by the varying level of the ground and the force of the current as known by experience; but they arc designed to be everywhere sufficiently elevated and sufheiently solid to confine the waters wittiin the limits which they enclose at the highest level to which the river ever rises. They are com- posed of earth, and with rare exceptions not rerftrd or faced with stone or protected by sheet piling, but simply turfed or planted with willows. In general, they serve as an efficient protection to the land hchind them, hut there have been numerous cases of breach orercvasse followed by disajitrous inundations. (See Po.) This method of defence against inundations is objectionable chiefly on those grounds : The construction and maintenance of embank- ments involve a great original and annual expenditure; by con lining the current they increase its volo'Mty and transporting power, and hence it conveys to the lower course and outlet of the rivera larger quantity of sediment- ary material, which tends to fill up its estuary and raise the level of its hed ; for the same reason, the grounds which Mkirt the river are di-prived of the fertilizing nuitler which the inundations would spread over it, and which would at the same time raise their surface in jirojinrtiori to the rise of the river-bed; they interfere with roads and the con- venience of navigation; ancl, in spite of every precaution, they will occasionally burst, and in such case inflict far greater injury on the adjacent country than would be caused by any natural inundation. Many engineers are now of opinion that the system of high ciMitinuous emhankments ought to be abandoned, and low dikes, barely suflicient to keep the current from over- flowing at every slight elevation of its level, suhstitulcd. In great inundalion!<, then, all the huvlanils along (he bunks would be overllnwed, and hoth enriched and gradually raised by the sediment deposited by the water. This plan is recommended hy powerful reasons, and where high dikes have not alr4'ftdy heen constructed and rural arrangements accommodated to them, ought, no doubt, in very many cases to be adnpted. Lomliardini, the highest authority on this subject, lays down the fnllowing propositions on the subject of river- embankments : The immediate en"ecl of embanking a river '\* generally an increase in the height of its floods or inun- dations, but at the same time a depression t}{ IIfi bed ; the current, hy reason of the incrcasecl vtdocity resulting from its confinement, transports coarse material farther; the emhanknient of the upper trihutaries of a river increases tlicir velocity anil dtlivery, and therefore augments the height of the inundations in the middle and lower course ; embankments, before the beti of a river becomes established and constant, ullimalely tend to raise its level; the ein- l>ankiiient of the lower course of a river causes the eleva- tion of the bed. holh as a direct effect of ineren!>ed deposit ami because the deposit at and near the point of ilischargo into the sea prolongs the course, onri eoiiser]uently dimin- ishes the inclination of the becj and the transporting powor of the current. The literature of this subject is very I'oluminons. Spe- cially deserving of notice are the nmny hyrlrologieal essays of the eminent Milanese engineer Elia Ijomhurdini, among which wo particularize — /niportanzit dttfH Sfmlf ^u/ta Stn- I titilictt ilfi Fiiimi; I)i i f^iiiifi'tttnriiticniHaf/ifinrifiir V ittrttulirti \ cnuflizionrtft / Pti ; Siitf*' Iii'nit/itzitnti arvenufr nt Iht Fnttifin ; i Dfir On'ifhii f lir/ f*,-"frrH>>n tlrlht Sri*-iizfi /(Iniiih'rii in Italia; \ Guida alio Studio deW fdroloff in ; Champion, Les Inondatinnn en Francp (Paris, 1S5S-64, 6 vols. Svo) ; the very valuable Report of Humphreys and Ahbot On the Phtfuics aud Hy- draulics o/' thv MinniMMippi Jiivcr (1S61, foiio) ; and T/,' Enrth as M'tdtjtfd hi/ Human Action, by the present writer (New York, 1874, Svo); in enumerating which works we refer also to the numerous authorities cited in them. (On the whole suhjcct see UiVKits. KKnn.ATioN of; for his- torical notices of memorable river-inundations, the articles on the rivers where they have occurred ; and on inunda- tions by the sea, and defences against them, see Ini;nda- TIONS, MAItlTIME.) GeoKCK P. MaHSH. Iiivali(U>s% liutcl des, at Paris, was founded in If.Tl by Louis XIV., and served until 1775 both as an asylum for maimed and wounded oflieers and 8(ddiers, and as a refuge for the old servants of the courtiers. At present it affords quarters for some thousands of disabled soldiers. It is a stately building and contains the tomb of Napoleon I., whose remains were jilaccd here in ISIO. Inva'riable Plane, The, a term of theoretical dy- namics, used pre-eminently in regard to the solar system. There is in mathematical relation with every s^'stem of ma- terial particles, subject only to their mutual actions and to forces directed towards a fixed point, or a point in uniform rcctilineor motion, a certain plane passing through the p<iint which preserves a fixed direction in space, remaining ahsolutely fixed if the point remain fixed, and moving parallel to itself if the point move; and which Laplace, who made it the subject of a memoir, named the invariable plane of the system. To obtain an idea of the characteristic property of this plane by which it is determined, su])pose lines (called radii ^cctorcs) drawn from the point in ques- tion to each of the difi'crcnt particles of the system, and then projected orthogonally upon any plane passing through the point. These several projections will vary in length as the direction of the plane on wliich they nrc made varies, and the areas descrihed hy them on the piano during any given time, in virtue of the motions of the par- ticles abruit the point, will therefore also vaiy. Now, at- tributing proper signs to these areas, according to the directions in wliieli the lines describing them move about the point, there is, among the infinite number of planes passing through the point, ntir for which t!ie algebraic sum of the products fornn-d by multiplying the area described by the projection of the radius vector of each particle by its mass, is greater than for any other, or a innximum. This is the invariable plane of the system. On account of the property just stated it is often called the plunr of 7»aximum fircas. Knowing the masses and motions of the particles, the ])osition of the invariable piano relative to assumed planes of reference passing through tlie origin of radii vcctorcs can be determined at any time by the appro- ]»riate mathematical forniuhr. If there are no extraneous torees acting on the system, any jcnnt in sjiacc may be as- sumed as an origin, and an in\ariable plane be determined for the system relative to it, in the same manner. The different planes which may thus ho determined for the same system with reference to difierent assumed points are all parallel. The existence of the invariable plane, it will be observed, is independent of the law of action between the particles and of the law of tho extraneous forces, and it preserves its constantly of direction whatever changes take place in the system under the action of tho specified forces. Theoretically, the particles of tho system may be isolated or aggregated, and, if aggregated, in any mannor. In a system of natural bodies tho rigorous deter- mination of the invariable plane depends upon (ho figures of tho bodies, and tlie biws according to which their dcn- sitv varies in (heir interior, ns well as upon their masses. Tin- fnntrlnh/r I'/nu.- of thr Sofnr Si/tlr,„. — 'Yho theory of the invariable plane derives its chief interest from the application Liiplaee nnidc of it to the sohir system. The fundamentiil planes to which astronomers refer the posi- tions and iiiofions of tin- henvenly bodies are subject to slow seeuliir changes; and even the stars, which we ordi- narily call fixed, and which would seem to furnish ns with natural jioints to which to refer (hese changes, have them- selves been found to have small "proper motions." Con- sidering these eirciimstanees, and tbe eniharrasstnent he anticipated astronomers woulil one day experience in enn- sequeneo of them in comparing observations made in widely separated ages, Laplace suggested (hat tho invaria- ble ]>bino of the solar system, determined relative to the contro iff the sun, might ho u-ied as one of reference in as- certaining these changes, and enleulated its position with referen(!e to (ho ooliptic at ilifferent epochs. It is implied, in speaking of Ibis invariable plane, that Laptaco consid- ered the sidar system in his eiilculation an independent one. pubject only t<i the mutual a'-tion of its memhers; or, in other words, that the action of tho stars upon it is in- 127G INVARIAMT— INVERNESS. sensible. He also neglected the comets, whose masses nre unknown, but which he had good reason to believe very small. Lastly, he supposed the masses of the sun and the planets ciincentiated at their respective centres of gravity — the satellites, with their primaries. This last supposition, though not in strict accordance with the rigorous theory of the invariable i)lanc given above, obviated an insuperable diflicHlly in applying immediately the latter to the case in question, arising from our ignorance of the laws according to which the densities of the bodies of the system change from their surfaces inward, and was regarded by Liiplaco as furnishing an adequate npproxinuilion. The result of his calculation upon liiese suppositions places the invaria- ble plane with reference to the ecliptic at the beginning of 1700 as follows : Inclination of the invariable plane to the eclip- tic al this epoch 1° 3.V 31" Longitude of its ascending node 102^ .17' ir," The results of his calculation for tho epoch of 1950 agree very closely with the foregoing. Since the time of Laplace the planet Neptune has been discovered, and a multitude of asteroids. Different masses have also been assigned to the planets from those be used. S'ocUwoll in his memoir on the secular variations of the or- bits of the eight principal planets, recently ]iublishcd by the Smithsonian Institution, adopting masses received at pres- ent, including that of Neptune, and using the formula! of Laplace, makes the position of the invariable plane with reference to the ecliptic at the beginning of 1860 to be as follows; Inclination 1° ^V ^9"A Longiludc of ascending node 10li° 14' 06" StockwcU's calculation, it may be added, does not include the asteroids, whose masses ore unknown, but believed to be in tho aggregate small. The eminent geometer Poinsot made the formula; of Laplace the subject of considerable criticism, maintaining that in treating the sun and planets as massive points, and in thus neglecting the areas proceeding from the rotations of these bodies upon their axes, and from the revolution of the satellites about their primaries, ho had not only failed to determine a truly invariable ))lane, but one even whose variations could be neglected in comparison with those which it should make known. Poisson and Ponl6- coulant, on tho other h:iud. hold that the analysis of La- place nevertheless detcrjnines a plane practically invariable, which was all he had in mind to do. It would require some space to give a just view of this difl'crence of opinion; here, we can only refer to it. Poinsot gives a rigorous rule for determining tho truly invariable plane, if there be one, which he proposes to call the equator of the solar system. But the unknown laws of density previously referred to entering it in the form of the moments of inertia of the bodies of the system, it does not furnish tho means of an iuimeiliate cleterinina- tion. Poinsot suggests, however, that by forming, at dif- ferent epochs sufficiently scp.araled. certain equations in which the masses and moments of inertia of the bodies considered appear as unknown quantities with coetTicicnts furnished by observation, these unknown quantities may ultimately be found, and thus the data obtained for the de- termination desired. This method, if actually applied suc- cessfullv. woubl, as Poinsot obser\'os, furnish us the masses of the bodies of our system independently of the New- tonian law of gravitation, from which we derive our present knowledge regarding them. Repealed dclerininations of the invariable plane maile in this way with precision would show by the accordance or iliscordance of their results whether we were right in our original assumptions regard- ing the system, or whether we had neglected actions which for long periods ought not to be disregarded. But if a truly invariable plane were exactly found for our system, in the present state of our knowledge it would after all be of limited utility for the purpose for which it was proposed. For, su]>posing it actually located in the heavens, it coubl (tf itself only serve to verify and deter- mine motions perpendicular to it, or, as we may say, ' changes of tniittith. To determine moti<ins parallel to it. or, as we may again say, changes of lontfittiffr. we should further need to know a right line of invariable direction iu tho invariahle plane whence to estimate the angular value of such motions. To make it truly useful, we should also bo able to determine precisely the position at any time with reference to it of the present natural planes of reference, such as the equator and the ecliptic, so that positions re- ferred to these might lie rodueed to it when desirable. Now. to d<» this we should equally need the direction of the fixed line named. To determine, for instance, the position of tho ecliptic with reference to the invariable piano, wc should not only' require its inclination — which we may sup- pose found by tho methods previously spoken of — but also the line of intersection of the two planes; and to locate this we should again need the fixed line on the invariable ]dane to measure from. Poisson has suggested that if it were sufficiently well determined, we might use the projec- tion on the invariable plane of the line which the centre of gravity of the solar system tlescribes in space, which, upon tho supposition implied in speaking of the invariable plane, that the system is uninfluenced by the action of the stars, is straight. But while we have an approximate knowledge of the points in the heavens towards which this line appears to be directed, thev arc by no means deter- mined with sufficient certainty and precision for so delicate a use as the one in question, and it may be doubted if they ever will be. There is no other line in the invariable plane which we can imagine it possible to determine for this pur- pose. This plane, then, is likely to remain in tho future, as it has hitherto been, chiefly a matter of theoretical in- terest, rather than one of much practical utility. For- tunately, the means of astronomical observation are now so excellent, and the heavens are so faithfully, skilfully, and widely observed, and the resources of astronomical theory already so higldy developed, that in all pnd)ability the astronomer of the remote future will be able to compare the places of the heavenly bodies with those they occupy now, despite the clianges of his fundamental planes, with a precision fully commensurate with all the needs of his time, unless, inijccd, these shall augment beyond our pres- ent power to conceive. flc/'crcticcs. — Laplace, in the Journal dc VEcnh: Poll/- technique, tome. ii. ; Laplace, Mfniuiqiic Cfhvie, liv.i.ch. 5; liv. ii. eh. 7; liv. vi. eh. 17: Poisson. Mfeanlque, cd. 18.33, liv. iv. eh. 9: Poinsot, M^mnire .ff/r /a Thforic et la Deter- mhuitlon tie VEijUfttrur (In Si/Hleiiie Sitlnire, appended to the later editions of the autllor's JilemcntH de Stnliqne ; PonlccoulanI, TUeorie Anuhjtiiine dn Synlemc dn Monde, 2d cd.. liv. i. ch. 4; liv. ii. ch. 8, and note vi. at end of tome i. John E. Ci.AnK. Iliva'riatit. .-V ra,tional algebraic expression of any degree in two or more variables is said to be linearly trans- formed when for each variable, .r. ;/. :. linear functions of new variables, such as Ai.V-t- m >'+ viX for .r ; Ai.\ -t- (<2l ■f viZ, for//, etc., are substituted. If the expression be hom- ogeneous in the variables, any function of its coefficients is called an iiivaridtil, if, after such transformation, the same function of the iieio coefficients is equal to the old function multiplied by some power of the mudulnt of tranv- fornitttion (which is afunction of the enejfieientn v/ trane/or- matlon, only, A| m v\ : Aj. n2, etc.). It is an til/nohile in- rnriinil when, the value of this power being unity, the function is absolutely unaltered hy transformation. The invarianee of discriminants® was first pointed out by Dr. Boole (Ciiinbi-idfie Moth. Jour.. Nov., 1841) : and " modern algebra" may be said to have had its origin in this dis- coverv. Mr. Cayley took up the more general problem, ic/io( functions possessed this property of invarianee, and brought to light many others (some of which involving the variables) which arc' unaffected by linear transformation. Those containing the variables are called eo-rnrionts, or eontrn-vnn'ants, according as the substitution is direct (as above) or i'iii-cr«e (a distinction which cannot here be ex- plainedV The important uses of these functions can only be briefly illustrated. If. for example, the equations of two conic sections are, by transformation, brought to their simplest (or "cnnonicai") forms, and their invariants ( which for these forms are comparatively simple) calculated, any homogeneous relation found to exist between them may be predicted for them, no matter to what axes the equations are referred. By this means we can with facility obtain i/eneral solutions for— e. . 7. the condition that two conies shall touch each other: that a triangle inscribed in one shall circumscribe the other: the equations of tangents to a conic at its intersection with any right line : the equa- tions of the four common tangents to any two conies, etc. etc. The first-named condition — or. more generally, the condition that any two curves should (one/,— is expressed by the vanishing of an invariant function of the coefficients of the curve-equations, called the tHci-inrarfanl. J. G. BAHNAnD. In'vcr GrovP, tp. of D,akota co., Minn. Pop. 971. Inverness', town of Scotland, the capital of Inverness- shire, on the Ness, near its entrance into the Jloray Frith. It has considerable manufactures of linen and hemp stuUs and extensive shipbuilding docks. Pop. 14,463. •If a liomoffcncous function in 1- variables be differenliaied wirli respect to each, 1 he resultant expression nrlsine rroui the .liMMuation of the variables from the t- differentials is c:>l ed the ill.frrimintml of the function ; as it is also t1ieWimin^«r ol the it- expressions, arisini frcmi the dilTerentiation It nuiy he written BS a Petkrminant (which see\ of whuh each row is formed of the coetBeients of one of the * differentials. INVERNESS— IXVEKTKBKATA. 1277 Inverness* the westerDinnsi co. of Cape Breton Islnnd* belonging to Nova Suotia. It has u fertile soil and beds of froofl coal. Cattle, produce, and fish arc exported. Cap. Port Hood. Pop. 2:j,41u. Inverness, post-v.,cap. of Megantic co., Quohcc, Can- a'la. it has a largo trade, a tanner^', and a weekly news- paper. Pup. of sub-district, 2741. InvcrnosSy tp. of Cheboygan co., Mich., on the S. side of Mackinaw Straits. Pop. V2'JZ. Inverncss'-shirc, county of Scotland, bounded N. and W. by Ilo-s shire an"i the Atlantic, and S. and E. by the counties of Perth, Aberdeen, and Nairn. Some of the Western Islands, among which arc Skyc and Harris, be- long to it. Area, 4200 square miles. 'Pop. S7,IS0. The western part is wibl, rug'j;ed, but well- wooded mountain- land: Ben Nevis, the highest peak in Great Britain, is •i 106 feet high. In the eastern part arc extensive tracts of heath, yet about 43.000 acres Arc under a regular rotation of crops, wheat, barley, and oats, and the county contains excellent pastures, especially for sheep, of wliich it pos- sessed 4j2,79'> in 1S.VJ. Wool and oats arc its chief ex- pr)rts. The tiaelic language predominates in this county. Inverse' [Lat. iuverto]. If two mathematical operations arc exactly contrary to each other, either is said to be tlio inverse of the other. Thus, addition an<l subtraction, mul- tiplication and division, diiTcrcntiation and integration, arc inverse oper.ations. If two varying quantities are so con- nected that either is a funetion of tlio other, and if one is called the ttircrt function, the other is called the iuvasc function. Thus, if wc regard a sine as a direct function of the cnrrespoading arc, the fire is an inverse function of the sine; this relation is syuibolizcd by the expressions ;/ -^t sin jr, and .*• ^ sin "*y. If wc denote the form of any direct func- tion by Ihc symbol »>, and the form of the corresponding inverse function by >^~', there may be two cases: (I) when both of (ho equations, «>[«^ i(j*)]=ar, and 0-'[«^(j-)] =ar, are satisfied; and (2) when botli these equations arc not satisfied. In the former case the direct and inverse aro said to be convertible; in the latter case thoy aro said to bo iHcuuvcrtiblc. Every direct function has one convertible invcrxe. and in addition may have one or more that arc in- convertible. Thus, if wc liave the relation .V-x2._2x, (1) and regard y as the direct function, wo have, by solution, j-= 1 + l/l ^-I/ and x^\- V \ + y. (2) Both these values of x, when substitutec! in equation (!) verify it, but the value of // taken from (I) does not verify both of equations (2) ; hence, both values of a arc inverse functions of j-'- — 2x, but both nrc not convertible. Let us replace if in tlie second member of equations (2) ; we have I 4- j/ 1 4."(j:f-2.r) = 1 -f- (x - 1) = a:, and \ ~V\-\-{x^-2x) = \ ~{x-\)==2-x. The first result shows that the Hrst value of x is convertible, and the t^ccond result shows that the second value of x is inconvertible. There is a class of functions each of which is its own inverse, as 1 — a*, — , V I — x"^. W, G. Peck. X Inver'sion, in music, a term of frequent use to denote cerlain i-hangts in meh)dies, chords, or harmonics, hy which ( 1 ) the motion of an air is rt'versed, or (2) an intereliangc \9 mad*! between the upper and lower terms of single chords, or of voices in a composition conjjisting iif two or more pari?. A iiieinf/if is said to bo invrrled when its motitDi upward or downward is reversed, as if it were turned upside down. This is also called rerertiiim. A flmrd is inverted wlien the lower note is not the root or fundamental bass, but is the original third, fifth, or seventh, elc. ; just ns, in an arrange- ment i»f tho figures I, ?,, [>, we might *' invert" them thus, ^, 1, .'», or .0, 3, I . A hfirmouizrd themr or Fuhjcct is inverted when any two or more of its parts change places, (ho higher bceontiiig the lower, and tho lower the higher. 1. The invrrsinn of a m/7of/r/ affects nothing but the up- warcl or <lnwuward motion in its progre??. I'^aeh vpivnrd step is answered in the inversion by a dotrntrttnl step cor- responding to it, interval for interval. Of such inversions (or reversions) of melody there aro two kinds — viz. tho nimfilr and the atrirt. In " simple " inversion it is suflieient tliiif the same motion from dt-grce to degree on th<' scale siioiild be preserved, even though a step of a wliole tone in the theme may often become a semitone in the reply, and vice r*T«/(. In ** strict " inversion the reply is the rxrift cou- trary of the theme. Tho wbolr tones are aiiswend liy whole tones, and semitones by semitones, so that the intervals mntle from note to note in the progress of the invrrsioii aro precisely like those of tho original theme. or sulijeot. 2. Invfrnittn uf i^hurdn. — The normal or natural position of a chord is that in which tho lowest note is its funda- mental liass, prime, or root, the other several elements (third, fifOi, etc.) heing built upon this, and deriving from it their names, uses, and relations. So long as the nctutil bass of a chord is the prime or root, such chord retains its fundamental form, whatever may be the "changes of posi- tion" assumed liy the upper parts. But when a new form is given to Ilie chord by placing its original third, fifth, etc. in the bass, and putting the fundamental note among tho higher parts, the chord is said to be imcrlcd. 3. Tho inversion of a harmonized snljcrt consisting of two or more parts or voices is when a higher and a lower part change places — r.'j. when the bass is so elevated as to become the Irclile, and the treble so lowered as to become the buss. Inversions of this nature constitute what is called "double counterpoint," and the simplest kind is that in which one of the parts is removed an orUtvf: towards tho other. Of course, in this process all the intervals are re- versed, a third becoming a sixth, a fourth a third, and so on. By such inversions major intervals become minor, and minor become major; diminished intervals are changed into augmented, and r.ice versa. Anotiier species of inversion is that called retroffrndc, in which a composition is so ingeniously constructed as to be read, first, in tho usual manner, and second, in a backward direction. Reverse rctrntpode is that in wliich the parts arc not only to be read backward, but are also inverted. There is also a donhle reverse retrograde, in which tho construction is siicli that the copy may be turned njisidc down, rend then played with good effect. Under such a process it is evident that not only are the notes read back- ward, but the upper and the lower parts change places, tho order of letters on the stave is changed, the clefs are al- tered, and the rhythmical movement of the notes exactly reversed. William ^^tatnton. Invertebra'ta, a term in zoology applied collectively to the various subdivisions of the animal kingdom that differ from thcVcrfebrata in wanting all trace of an osseous (or cartilaginous) spinal column, or back-bone, made up of numerous distinct bones termed vertebra?. Aristotle, .TIC years before our era, recognized this distinction in the animal kingdom where he says ; " All sanguineous animals have either a bony or a spinous column;" but it was not until the time of Cuvier thai the terms vertebrate and in- vertebrate came into use amongst naturalists. Cuvicr and Lamarck, after introrUieing those terms, speedily a[iprc- hcndcd that the divisions thus designated were by no means of equal value, and that the Invcrtcbratn, as a group, con- tained animals construct eil on Severn 1 widely diiVercnt types, any one of which presented distinctive characters equal in importance to those of the Vertebrafn. Linntcus had constructed four of his six great clas.^es out of what Cuvier now unificM as Ihc vertebrates, the remaining two, /nsecta ami \'enneii, including the heterogeneous inverte- brates. Cuvier, regarding tho former as a single sub-king- dom, subdivided the laltcr into thre*^ other suh-kingdoms, which he respectively termed from the arrangenienls of their parts Jiodinta, Articuialfi,iUid Mnlhf<-a. This triplo division of the invertebrates was for a time universally accepted, and is even now, with one modification, very generally received. It was soon noticed that Cu\'ier'3 Uadiata contained forms that could not he niiturally asso- ciated together hy structural clmraeters : in fact, in many cases the organization was so undefined that the creatures could not reasonnhlv he assigned to any of the sub-king- doms ; a new sub-kingdom was therefore established, to whieh these lowest of animals were relegated. This lifth suh-kingdom was named Protitzoa.^' But tho rapid inercaso of zoological knowledge, and (ho desire to arrive at a natural classification, havo from time to time suggested the necessity of further essential modifi- cations of the Cuvierian groups. Classes, or groups of classes, have been elevated to the rank of suh-kingdoma (or hranchcHy as they arc now termed by some authors) ; and in tho course of those changes tho Hacliafa havo been broken up au'l the name expunged altogether from Ihc list of primary divisions. As yet, no one of (he new ehissifi- eations has been found allogether satisfactory, hut. beiui; founded on etahorate investigations on tho embryology nntl lifo-history of tho various forms, they are each and all slcjis in the right direction, since it is only by applying our knowh'clge i.f the laws of development that we can Impe to attain to classifications that shall express the true relation- ships of living heings. To enable tho inquirer to realize tho changes that havo been proposed in the classifienlion of Ihe Inverlehrata. aiul to eorrelnte the different arrange- ments, we apjMMid the ehissillealion ]irop»uiTnled hy Prof. Huxley in lii.s Introdxrtinn to the Cfiianijiruti^n uf Animah, and that given by Prof. Rolloston in hiH Furm» of Animal • Simio authors, n« Brown, have snb!4iitiile<l the terms Am- nrphiizott for I'rolo/oa; Actinozoa for Kiidiala ; MaUicuzoa for Mnlhisca; /■^ntvinozoa for Arlicutata; and Spomlt/lozoa for Verte- l)r;ita. 1278 INVESTITURE— INVOLUTE. Liff, founded upon the sub-kingdoms of Gcgenbaur. The former will serve to show the differences between the mod- ern and tiie Cuvierian systems, whilst the latter will indi- cate by means of the connecting linesthc affinities that may be supposed to exist between the various sub-kingdoms; Tabh of the Primary Grnupn of the fiiixrtebrata, after Huxley. II. Mollusea. IV. Annulosa. III. JloUuseoidea. V. Annuloida. VI. Cielcnterata. VII. Infusoria. VIII. Protozoa. Trihle of the Claitees of the hivertehrntrt, after Huxley. ("The limits of the Cuvierian sub-kini,'<h>ms are indicated by dottrf lines 1 of Huxley's primary groups by brackets with numbers.) . MrilliLWa, Cuv. Artiailata, CVr. . I [II. repbalopoda. | (IV. Insectif. > I PtfTopoda. I Myriapoda. | I Pulinocasteropoda. ' Araclinida. i I Itraiicliiocasteropoda. 1 Crustacea. ' I Lamellibranchiala.] • Annelida. | ' Chietognatha.] . I [III. Ascidioida. 1 ' I Braehiopoda. i I I [V. Scoleeida. I. Polyzoa.] I fVI. Actinozoa. I Hydrozoa.] Echinoderraata.] Ha'imta, Cuv. [^^I. lafusoria.] I. fVIII. Gregarinidte. Rhizopoda. Radinlaria. Spongidffi.] Tabular View of the Cfastifirnflon of the Tnvcrtehratn (as adopted by Prof. RoUeston ; the arraugemcnt of sub-king- doms after Gegcnbaur) : In sent a, Aracbnida. Myriapodft. Arthropod A. Crustacea. IIolotluiToidpa. Echinoidea. ECHINODERSIATA. Crinoidea. Astcroidca. Cephalopoda Pteropoda. Gasteropoda. MOLLCSCA. Lamcilibranchiata. Tunicata. Braehiopoda. Polyzoa. Gephyrea. Annulata.— Rotifcra. Vermes. Neniatelmintlies. Piatyelminthes. Infusoria. Spon^adse.^ Protozoa.'' Rhizopoda. Gregarinte. Ctenophora. C<eli:nterata. Anthozoa. Hydrozoa. Edward 0. 11. Day. Inves'titure [Lat. inr«f("o, to "clothe**], as a feudal custom, was the open delivery of possession ("the livery of seisin ") of a fief by the lord to his vassal. This, in an age when writing was rare, was etT'eeted by means of some visible ceremonial and symbol, such as giving the branch of a tree or some material object that would evidence the convcyauco to public knowledge and permanent remem- brance. In the Church, after the analogy of feudal cus- tom, investiture was an open confirmation in ecclesiastical office by some symbolical act or emblem, such as the be- stownient of the'palHum or crosier and ring, as ensigns of official honor or of pastoral charge and spiritual espousals. The claim of the prerogative of such investiture of an ec- clesiastic by the political ruler was for centuries matter of controversy between the hierarchy and the monarchy — a controversy which interests not only as an important factor in the history of mcditeval Europe, but as a reflex of its condition and ideas as respects the relations between the secular and spiritual powers. This right of investiture was claimed in behalf of secular power as an appanage of the monarchy inherited from the old Roman empire, and also on the ground that the episcopal office, with the temporal- ities attaching in the feudal ages of manorial estates, priv- ileges, honors, and cniolumenls, was to be regarded in the nature of a fief, and to be bestowed with a like ceremonial by the lord paramount. The claim was resisted on the al- legation that laymen could not bestow the authority for priestly functions, a.** was tokened by the ring and the cro- sier, and that the degradation and corruption of the Church sprang from this usurpation and the simoniacal practices and oppressive exactions inevitably attendant on lay in- vestiture. In the early Church, Constantino and the Christian em- perors, as iiiheriturs of the ]>ontifieal rights of their pagan predecessors, undoulitedly exercised the prerogative of con- firmation after episci>pal elections. After the fall of tho empire of the West the Gothic and Lombard kings claimed the same power as successors to the prerogatives of the Ro- man empire. After them this claim was exercised by tho Frank monarchy — by the Merovingians, the prerogative of even direct episcopal nomination : by the Carlovingians, that of the investiture of the pope himself. It was the aim of Charlemagne to establish a theocratic monarchy, in which the emperor was to bo supreme lord so far as earthly or- ganization or administration was rcfiuired. The successors of Charlemagne claimed, and often exercised, the same rights of suzerainty over the Church. This claim, how- ever, was contesteil, resisted, or eluded on every opportu- nity ; and such opportunity constantly offered during tho dissensions of the descendants of Charlemagne, which often led them to seek the aid of tho clergy and to appeal to tho Church and the pope as arbiters in their controversies with each other. So for centuries tlie prerogative of investiture was asserted and exercised, denied antl resisted, according to the character and position of individual monarchs and popes. In 876, Charles tho Raid formally renounced his claims as superior of the states of the Church and all con- trol of elections to the papacy, and aceeptdl a papal viear as priraate for all Germany. In OS.'i, Otlio I. made tho Romans swear on the relics of St. Peter they would never afterwards elect or consecrate a pope without the permis- sion ami approbation of the emperor. Sylvester II. (999- 100.3). on the other hand, directly assailed lay investiture as the source of simony and the cancer of the Church, and himself sent the crosier and the ring directly to Arnulf, elected as archbishop of Rheims. Again, Henry HI. in 1047 received of tho Romans the admission of his perpet- ual right of choosing the pope, and their oath that they would never consecrate a pope without the emperor's con- sent. This controversy was brought to a crisis when Hildebrand, as prime-mover of the papacy, or as pop© (Gregory VII.. 1073-So). developed his policy of mak- ing the Church independent of all secular power, and ultimately supreme amid the governments of the worhl. Under his instigation, Alexander II. (lOCl-72) issued a decree against all lay investiture. Tn the Lateran Council, held by himself as Gregory VII. (1075), it was again de- nounced, and every bishop or abbot accepting it was ile- posed and those bestowing it were excommunicated. These decrees brought the papal and imperial power at direct issue, and the factions that arose therefrom, the Guelphs ami the Gbibellines — the former the party of the pope, tho latter that of the emperor — distracted Germany and con- vulsed and wasted Italy for a long period with eivil dis- cord and war. The fortunes of tins controversy were various. Tn its course Henry IV. was reduced (1077) to tho humiliation of .standing in a cold winter from the 25th to the 27th of January, barefoot and in the garb of a peni- tent, fasting the whole day, in the open court of the castle of Canossa, before the pope would accept his repentance and submission and give him absolution. Presently, tho strife was renewed still more fiercely, and the pope died in ejile. The dispute was continued under his successors, until, under Henry A', aud Calixtus II., it was settled by the enncordat of Worms (112;J) that henceforth all episco- pal elections should be conducted by the laws of the Church, but in the presence of the emperor, and that spiritual investiture by the crosier aud the riug should bo bestowed by the pope, but for temporalities, enfeoffment should be by the emperor with the sceptre. In other coun- tries of Europe the controversy respecting lay investiture had like fortunes and results. In France investiture by the ring and crosier was relinquished by the monarchs, and episcopal benefices were bestowed through written in- struments or orally. In England. Gregory VII.. during the controversy with Germany on his hands, forebore to press the question to an open breach with the iron will of William the Conqueror. It came to open quarrel between William Rufus and .Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury. and pope Paschal II.. but was finally adjusted by an agreement that for investiture with the crosier and ring should bo substituted the simple oath of fealty. Thus everywhere, in the issue, the symbols of strictly priestly investiture were relinquished by the secular authority, but the feudal obligation was asserted for temporalities at- tached to ecclesiastical benefices. T. iSl. Post. In'volllte [Lat. i it vol nt to]. If we wrap a string around a given curve, and then unwrap it, keeping the string stretched, each pctint of the string will generate a curve called an involute of the given curve. This mode of gene- INYO-IODOFORM. 1279 ration implies that the given curve is represented by a pattern cut out of some r'l^ul material, as wood or metal. Thus, to draw au involute of a circle, we cut out a circular pattern, around which we wrap a strinj;: we then lay the pattorn on a plane surface, attach a pt-nril or tracing-point at some point of the string, and unwrap the string; the pencil or point will trace out the rt'(|uired involute. It IS obvious that the same curve may have an infinite num- ber of involutes; hence, to find any particular involute we must know one of its points. To find the erjuation of an involute, let the equation of the given cvolutc be .V=/(«./3). . ..(1) anil nssiimc (he second and tliird equations of coDdition for an osculatory circle, whicb arc ,-3 = -^^, (2) ' — = -%(!l-^). (3) in which a and 3 arc the co-ordinates of the centre of any circle that is o^L-ulatnry to the required involute. Com- bining (1), (2}f and (.T), so as to eliminate a and p. we have a differential equation of the second order, which is com- mon to the whole class of involutes. Integrating this equation twice, and determining the values of the con- stants, so as to conform to the given conditions, we find the equation of the requirecl involute. W. G. Peck. In'yo, county of California, lying mostly E. of the Sierra Nevada. It is bounded on the N. E. by Nevada, Area, 1725 square miles. It is a great basin whoso waters do not flow into the sea. Owen's Lake is ihe largest body of water. The valleys contain much fertile land. Gold- boaring quartz is niine<l and milled. Salt is found in some farts. Wool, grain, and p<jrk are staple products. Cap. nJcpendence. Pop. Htj)>. I'o, in Grecian mythology, was a daughter of Tnaehus, bnt was transformed into a beautiful white cow by Zeus, who was enamored of her. and wished to conceal the affair from his jealous wife. Here, however, became suspicious, anil set -Vrgos with the humlred eyes to watch her; and when Hermes slew Argos, she sent a gad-fly, which pur- sued lo from place to ])lace all over the earth, until at last she found rest in Egypt. She appears in Prnmrthrui an»i The SnppiiftntH by i-Eschylus. By the synil)olioal school of modern inythologists she is identified with the moon, as Argos with the starry sky and Hermes with the morning. I'odine [Gr. twiri?, ''violet-like," from lov, **a violet," and fl6o«, ''form "I (atomic weight, 127; symbol I), an element discovered by M. Court<»i3 of Paris in l>^12 in the mother-liquor from the kelp or ash of seaweed which had been burned in order to obtain sodium carbonate. It has since been found in many mineral waters, in sea-water, in seaweeds, especially Laminari:e and Fucoids — in sponges, oysters, and other forms of marine life. Cod-liver oil con- tains from fl.f);J to 0.0 1 per cent, of ioclinc' It is found also in many land-plants, as toltaceo and water-cresses, nn<l even in potatoes, beans, barley, and oats, f'ertain min- erals also contain it, though those containing it as an essen- tial constituent are comparatively rare. Such are iodyritc, or silver iorlide, found among silver deposits in Mexico, Chili, and Spain, and coccinite, or mercury iodide, found in Mexico, Iodine also oecurs as an accidental constitu- ent in some dolomites, where it is combined with calcium and magnesium: in several deposits of alkaline salts, as Chili saltpetre and rock-salt. In some cases it has been found in tho products from gasworks, as the ammonia- liquor. Chalin claimed to have found it in tlie waters of several rivers, and in the rain-water, and even the atmo- sphere, of certain localities. It has been claimed, however, that tho reagents used by him themselves contained minute traces of iodine. iWpnraiitin <»/ fodi'ne. — Tho sources from which tho iodine of commerce is derived are kelp and Chili saltpetre. The former contains 0.1G2 to 0.17j per cent. Tho carboni- zation of the seaweed is usually conducted in closed ves- sels, in order to prevent loss by volatilization. Tho kelp i^ lixivialc'l, ami the liquors arc concentrated and cooled, in order to crystallize out tho sulphates, ehloricles. and car- bonates of potassium and sodium: and frrun the niorhcr- liquor tho iodine is extractcil either liy heating with con- centrated sulphuric acid', with or without nmnganese di- oxide, or by precipitation as copper subiodide by iron and a salt of copper ; i^rom which product the imline is expelled by treatment with sulphuric nr-id and manganese dioxide. The use of sulphuric acid without the manganese com- pound is not advantageous, ns sulphurous acid forms, which reacts upon the iodine and cau.ses a loss of iodine. Chlorine is also somctinies used to precipitate the io.Iine from the mother-liqui»rs. An excess of chlorine must be carefully avoided, since that would cause the iodine to go into solu- tion again as iodine chloride. Washing and a second sub- limation of the iodine is usually resorted to in order to purify tho product for market. Glasgow is the chief port for tho manufacture and export of iodine from kelp. Tho process of extraction of iodine from the Chili saltpetre is essentially the same as that pursued with the kelp. Propcrtien. — Commercial iodine, especially when obtained from kelp, often contains cyanogen iodide, sometimes to the extent of 1 per cent ; it also may contain up to 15 or 20 per cent, of water. It is sometimes adulterated with coal, charcoal, plnnibago, or manganese dioxide. Iodine ie a dark crystalline solid, with a color and lustre resem- bling plumbago. Its odor is like that of chlorine. It fuses at 107° C. (=22^.fi° F.), and boils between 17j** and 180° C. (.347-:t6G° F.). It is volatile At ordinary temper- atures, tho vapor having a fine violet color, whence the name is derived (Gr. iuiiij?, "violet-colored"). In a state of vapor it is one of the heaviest vapors known, its gravity referred to air being S.7I6. It dissolves in alcohol, ether, and. carbon disulphide, also in water contjiining soluble iodides or aminoniuni chloride or nitrate. In pure water it dissolves only in the proportion of I part in llHUl. AVifh starch it forms an intensely blue compound, and this is one of tho most delicate tests used for the detection of its presence, as the color is app.arent when but 1 part of incline is present in 450.000 of water. It is displaced from its compounds by chlorine and bromine. It destro^'s vege- table colors but slowly; its action on organized tissue is more rapid. Taken into the stomach in large quantity, it produces ulceration of the mucous membrane, and death. Starch or starchy substances are the usual antidotes. Conipounrlt. — Iodine combines with hydrogen, forming hydriodic acid, which has very similar ])roperties to hydro- chloric (muriatic) acid. It also combines directly with met- als, forming iodides. The principal compounds with oxy- gen and the metals are the iodntes and pcriodates. The oxides corresponding to these salts arc I2O5 and I-jO;, These comi>ounds decompose reaiUly. giving up their oxy- gen, and some explode violently on being struck or heated. With ammonia, iodine forms a compound, NI3. which when dry explodes violently with tho slightest friction. Cad- mium iodide is used in ])hotograi)l)y. usually in conjunction with iodide of potassium, for sensitizing collodion. (See PnoTocJKAi'UV.) One of tho most important ap]>lication3 of iodine is in tho manufacture of some of tho aniline colors. (See Anili.ve Colors.) E. Waller. Iodine, Medicinal Uses of. Iodine is used in medi- cine in simple schuioii in alcohol or dissolved in water by the aid of potassium io{lido {Lugol's solution). Locally, iodine is a powerfal irritant, and its S(»lutions stain the skin yellowish brown. Inhaled, its vapor is irritant to the mouth, throat, and air-passages, causing coryza, cough, watering of the eyes, and headache. Internally, in single (lose, tho effects vary according to the quantity swallowed, from mere uneasiness in the stomach to severe gastric pain, with vomiting and purging, headache, giildiness, and, though rarely, even general prostration and death. In eontinue<l administration of considerable doses a form of chronic poisoning called itxIiHin occurs. In mild cases tho effects arc more or less gas-trie disturbance with increase of tho secretions, irritation of the mucous racmhrano of tho eyes, nose, iind throat, with frontal heaiiache, and sometimes on eruption on tho face around tho eyes and about the nose and chin. In severe types there may be also a general febrile condition, vomiting and purging with abdominal pain, various nervous disturbances, and, according to some of the continental observers, a tendency to absorption of some of tho tissues of the body, shown by emaciation and wasting of certain glands. This latter effect, however, must ho very exceittiona!, as it is seblom seen. Iodine is rapidlv eliminated from the body, and tho poisonous effects just described speedily cease on discontinuance of the drug. Preparations of iodine are used locally ns counter-irritants, and internally they have smne unknown influence over nu- trition, pniving useful in goitre, certain forms of scrofulous disease, affections of the iilir<t«s and muscular tissues, etc. For internal ailniinistratioii. however, the alkaline iodiiles. especially potassium ioiliile, are now far more frequently used than solutions of ioiline. These salts are free from tho irritant local effect of iodine, but in continued ilosc may cause some of the milder symptoms of iodism describcil above. Medieiiniliy. tliey are used in the conditions ju«t mentioned untler iodine and in tertiary syphilis, chronic mercury and lead poisoning, and indeed in a great variety of diseases. They are often given in \k\t\ large quantities and with perfect safety. EnwAnn Ci'RTIs. lod'oform, amethenylethcr, CHI.i, formed by the mix- ing of alcoholic solutions of jiotassa and iodine. It is in the torm of small glittering, scaly, yellow crystals of a sweet taste, and strong, peculiar, very persistent saffron- 12.^0 lOLA— IONIC ORDER. like odor. It is slowly volatile, nearly insoluble in water, hut soluble in alcoliol, ether, and uils. It i;* deoomposed by :iikalies and by a heat of 2 JU°. Iodoform is a valuai>lo medicine, being anicsthetic like chloroform. Unlike the latter, however, it is totally uuirritating, even to nuicous mombraiics or abraded surfaces. On account of its solid form it cannot be employed as a general ana-sthctic by in- habit ion, but it is exceedingly useful as a local application to rt'liove pain, as in painful ulcers, sores, irritated or in- flamed mucous membranes. It seems also in many such cases to directly promote healing. EowAnn CntTis. lo'la, post-v.. cap. of Allen co., Kan., on the Lcavcn- WMiih I-riwrcnee nnd Galveston R. R., 78 miles by rail S. of Lawrence. It is in a fine agricultural region: has a bank. ."> churches, and manufactures of furniture and other goorb. The Neosho furnishes water-power, and there is ail unfailing artesian well which affords a mineral water useful in a wide range uf disease, and which also supplies iiillainmable gas enough to afford light and fuel lor a large town. It has I weekly newspaper. Pop. of tp. Ka'J. L. Walker. En. " Xnosno Vallky Register." lola, ]iost-tp. of Waupacca co., M' is. Pop. 729. lola'us [(Jr. 'I<iAao«], in Grecian mythology, the cha- rioteer and companion of Hercules, to whom ho was the first to pay divine honors after his death. He was said to have been the first victor at the Olympian chariot-r.ices, and to haveconriucred and civilized the island ol' Sardinia, where he died and was worshipped as a hero. I'olitCf a mineral crystallizing in the triraetric system, and being essentially a silicate of alumina, magnesia, and protoxide of iron. Its hardness is from 7.0 to 7.5; specific gravity. 2. (J ; in color it occurs of various shades of blue, and exhibits in a marked manner the property of dichroism, or of presenting, when viewed in different directions, dif- ferent colors, llcnce, one of its synonyms is dichroite. It is soinetinies used as a gem, being the sapphire d'cau of jewellers, obtained from Ceylon. I'on, in iirecian mythology, was a son of Apollo and Crcusa. the daughter of King Ercchtheus of Athens, and was brought by Hermes to his father's temple at Delphi, where he was edaeatcd. AVhen Crcusa married Xulhos, but bore him no children, a false oraclo made Xiithos be- lieve that Ion was his son, and he took the youth into his house. Crcusa. not recognizing him, tried to poison him, and lied to Delphi, where a priestess told her that Ion was her own son. This myth has been treated by Euripides in his tragedy Ion. Ion, a native of the island of Chios, ranked as one of the five jirineipal tragic poets of the Atbeni.iii canon, and was alsii a composer of other kinds of poetry. He was contemporary with yEs;;hylus, Sophocles, and Pericles, was an intimate friend of Cimon. and on one occasion carried off bnth the ditliynunbic and the tragic prizes. The num- ber of hi.^ tragedies is variously stated at twelve, thirty, and forty. A few fragments of eleven remain, also some passages of other poems and prose-writings, preserved ehielly in Atheniuus. Nieberding (IS.'iG) and Kopkc(lS3G) liave eilited the fragments of Ion, with notices of hid life. lo'na, or IcolmUiir, the most famous island of the Hebridi-s, W miles long by \\ broad, was colonized in udW by St. Coluiiiba of Ireland with twelve disciples, it having been grantecl him liy the kings both of the Scots and of tlic Picts. He built there the celebrated monastery, whit^h was regarded by (he Picts as their mother church, and from wliich Christianity was introduced into Scotland and tlio N. c)f England. lona was ravaged l>y the Norsemen in 7'.>,'), S02. SDO, 825, and S'JO, on three of which occasions most of the monks wore martyred. In the eleventh cen- tury the monastery xvas repaired by Queen Margaret the Saint, and in 10U7 a pilgrimage was made to it by King Magnus of Norway. For two centuries thereafter the jurisdiction was disputed between the bishoprics of Scot land, Ireland, and the Isle of Man. At the end of the fif- teenth century it became the seat of the bishopric of the Sc(»ttish isles, and was repeopled with monks from Chiny. Many kings of the isles, some of Northumbria, and even of Norway, were buried on this sacred island, which has been long nearly deserted, the present population being less than 'iOO. Of late it has become a resort of tourists. The oldest buildings uf which ruins exist appear to be (tf the eleventh and twelfth centuries. (See Dr. Jolmson's interesting account of his pilgrimage to lona in the Tour to (fir I/'hridcs.) lona Island, in the Hudson River, 47 miles N. of New York. It belongs to Cornwall tp., Orange co., N. Y., has o.\tensivc vineyards, and is a favorite point for picnics and excursions from New York. lo'nc, Ip. of Amador co., Cal. Pop. 1779. lone, tp. of Nye co., Ncv. Pop. 52. lone Valley, post-v. of Amador co., Cal., 40 miles S. E. of Sacramento, on Sutter Creek. It has copper-mines, lo'nia^ the ancient name of a portion of the western sca-eoast of Asia Minor, upon the ^^gcan Sea. It derived its name from its inliabitants, the supposed descendants of a mythic hero. Ion, son of Apollo. Ionia extended from the river Hermus to the Ma^indcr, and was the seat of the Ionian league of tnvelvc cities, chief of wliich were Ephosus, Smyrna, Clazonieuiij. Eryfhra;, Colophon, and Miletus. According to tradition, Ionia was colonized about Ul.'iO B. r. by settlers from Attica; hut Dr. E. Cur- tius in his Illstori/ o/" (irrrrc has shown reasons for believ- ing that the loiiiansliad resided therefrom time immcmoria!. Ionia, county of W. Central Michigan. Area, 570 square miles. It is a well-timbered, fertile, undulating region. Cattle, gr.ain, and wool arc staple products. Lum- ber, castings, carriages, and farming implements arc lead- ing articles of manufacture. The county is traversed by the Detroit and Milwaukee and the Detroit Lansing and Lake Michigan R. Rs. Cap. Ionia. Pop. 27,681. Ionia, post-v. of Chickasaw co., la., on the Iowa and Dakota division of the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R. Ionia, post-v., cap. of Ionia co., Mich., on Grand River and on the Detroit aud Milwaukee and the Detr*>it Lansing and Lake Michigan R. Us., and on the Stanton branch of the last-named road: has 2 national banks, rail- road repair-shops, over 15 other manufactories and mills, 8 churches, 2 newspapers, a public park, free reading-room, good schools, etc. Agriculture aud the lumber busiuess are leading interests. Pop. 2500 ; of tp. 4158. Ci.ARiv Tavlor, Ed. '• Sfntixel." Ionia, post-tp. of Dixon co., Neb. Pop. o34. lo'nian, in music, the name of one of the ancient ec- clesiastical modes. The Ionian scalcisnsually understood to be that which resembles in form the modern scale of C major. Ionian Islands, a chain of islands extending al<u)g the western and soulhcrn coast of Greece, of which the largest are Corfu, Paxo, Santa !Maura, Theaki. Cephalonia, Zanle, and Cerigo. Area. 10-11 square miles. Pop. 251.712. From the commencement of the fifteentli century to 1797 they belonged to Venetia. From 1797 to J 815 they changed masters five times, but were then formed into a republic under English protection. In 1804 they xvcre annexed to Greece, the inhabitants being (Jrecks. They are fertile and well adapted to the cultivation of vines and olive trees. Currants and oiivo oil arc their main exports. lo'nians [Gr.'Iwfc?, sometimes lengthened into'Iaoi'cc], a ra^'o of Greek descent who resided chiefly in Asia Minor and the adjacent islands, but spread themselves to all parts of the Eastern Mediterranean, to the delta of the Nile, and to India as far as Orissa. According to the prevailing le- gend, their ancestor was Ion ['Iwc]. the son of Apollo and Crcusa, who may perhaps be identified with the Javan of the Mosaic table of the founders of nations. The Greek legends speak of the loniaus as migrating from Attica about the eleventh century it. c, and settling in Asia Minor, in- corporating with themselves some of the original inhabit- ants and driving out the others. The lonians were always I a maritime race, and some recent writers urge with much I plausibility that they came to Attica from the East, and j that their migration to the shores of .A-^ia I\Iinor was a re- migration to their original abode; and indeed the Egyp- i tian monuments of the fifteenth century d. c. contain the I same group of liieroglyphics by which the Greeks were designated in the time of tlic Ptolemies. The ancient San- 1 skrit books speak of the Y'avanas, who are supposed to be lonians v/ho penetrated India from the region of the I'iU- phrates, by way of Cashmere. The Greeks who were left behind by Alexander the Great to hold his fortress on the banks of tlic Indus were also called Yavunas; and in Nurthern India all Mohammedans are thus designated. It would thus seem that the Sanskrit term came to bo applied in time to all foreign races, of whom the lonians were tlic earliest, who reached India from the West, just as throughout the Orient all Europeans are designated as Franks. Ionian Sea is the name of that part of the >Icditerra- neau which lies between Italy and Sicily to the \V. and European Turkey and Greece to the E. It forms the gulfs of Taranto and "Patras, and comnftjnicatcs with the Adri- atic by the Strait of Otrauto. lon'ic Order, in Greek architecture, is regarded as of Asiatic origin. It is now conceded that its use was as old as (or even older than) that of the Doric. Its principal seat was in Asia Minor. The temple of Diana at Ephesus, that of Apollo at Miletus, the temple of Wingless Victory an-l the Erechfhfutn at .Athens, and the temples at Tens, Priene, and Sardis, were .among the most famous examples of this stylo. Its rude beginnings are diseerniblo in As- IOXII-: INDIANS— IOWA. lliSl jyrian and Por?tnn niin" ?MI! cTi^ting. In its perfect form thel'in.i- : :; : - i' : nlnv ■limii' !■ i e. a h;isc of ^^ lle M \cr. v.iiMil form, twenty-four flutes on the shaft, sepa- rjlL'l by lilk'ls, nmi a capital formed by volutes. lo'nie In'Uians, a tribe of the Texas cuiifcdoration, allied by ra'c with the Caddoes. They removed early from the Hot Spring region of Arkansas to Texas, and their descenihinis (S5 in number in 1872) reside on the Washita Uiver, Indian Territory. They are self support- inj;. and have always been a peaceable and friendly race. I'OS [■!<«. iVi'<], an inland of the -■Egean, now, but not anciently, reckoned as one of the Cyclades. It lies N. of Thora and S. W. of N'axos, and is 1 1 miles long and 6 broad. Area, 20 square miles. It is rough, but quite pro- duL'tive, and has a fine harbor and some -lUUU inha)>itant8. los'co» county of Michigan, bounded on the K. by Lake llitron. Area, ^60 square miles. It has largo forests of jiiiic, and is generally level. Agriculture is not much cor- rietl on. Lumbering is the principal industry. It is be- coming a resort of anglers, on account of the prescneo of the grayling in its streams. Cap. Tawas City. Pop. 3163. Iosco, tp. of Livingston co., .Mich. Pop. 904. I0SCO9 tp. of Waseca co., Minn. Pop. 913. I'owa, a central State of tlie upper Mississippi Valley, .'v.al of Ivlng between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, between Vol. n.— SI the parallels of 40° 36' and 43° 30' N. lat., and between the meridians of S3° 5' and 96° 31' W. Ion. It is bounded on the X. by Minnesota; on the E. by the .Missi8sip|ii Kiver. which separates it from Wisconsin and Illinois; on the S. by Missouri, the Dcs Moines River being the bound- ary-line for a short distance; on the W. the Missouri River is its boundary, dividing it from Nebraska as far as Sioux City and the mouth of the Big Sioux River, which then be- comes its western limit, and separates it from Dakota Ter- ritory as far N. as the line of 43° 30' N. lat. The form of the State is irregularly trapcz.oidal. Its area is stated at .')5,045 square miles, or 35,22S,SflO acres. Its greatest lenglli from N. to |S. is 208 miles ; its greatest width from E. to W. a little more than 300 miles. Face of the Conntiy. — Iowa may be described in general as very level ; there are no mountains and no considerable hills in the State. Its average elevation above the level of the sea is between SOO and 'JOO feet. Yet within the Stale is the great watershed dividing the streams flowing into the Mississippi from those discharging their waters into the Missouri. This watershed passes through the N. N. W. por- tion of the Slate in a direction nearly S. by E., through Dickinson, Clay, Buena Vista, Sac, Carroll, Audubon, (i utli- ric, and Adair cos., turning in the latter county sharply to the S. E. through Miulison. Union, Clarke, Lucas, aud Ap- panoose COS. to the Jlissouri line. A secondary watershed, somewhat higher at points than this, continues S. from Adair co. through Union and Ringgold eos. There is there- fore not only a gradual slope of the whole State from the N. to tho S., but eastern and western drainage-slopes from thli great watershed toward tho Mississippi and Jlisfouri rivers. Tho rivers have worn valleys sometimes through tho earthy material, and sometimes through some of the underlying rocky strata beneath: these valleys have in many plr-ecs abrupt and rocky blnfis along the river-banks, tlius giving an appearance of hills, which, strictly speak- ing, do not exist, as these steep banks are rather valley- sides than hillsides, being in all cases depressions below the general level. The ])lain or plateau of which Iowa forms a largo portion is at all points considcraldy elevated above tho level of the sea. Tho surface of the Mississi]ipi at low water at the S. E. corner of the State is 441 fict above the sea, at tho N. E. corner of the State it is 660 feet, showing a descent in the river of 210 feet, or about one foot to a mile. The surface of tho Missouri at low water at tho S, W. corner of tlic State is 954 feet; of the Big Sioux at low water at tho N. W. corner of the State, 1344 feet; the surface of the great watershed at the north- ern State boundary, near Spirit Lake in Dickinson Co.. is 1694 feet, aud at tiie southern State boundary, in Ringgold CO., about 1220 feet. Tho descent from the highest point in tho State (near Spirit Lake) to the lowest point in the S. E. corner of the State does not exceed 5 feet 7 inches per mile, and in most directions it is not more than from 2 to 4 feet per mile. The whole country is therefore eminently adapted for tho construction of good roads and railroads, aud, as wo shall see, the State, young ns it is. is traversed in all direc- tions by railways. Most of the Slate wa.' originally what tho settlers call "rolling prairie" — j*. e. it had long wave- like depressions and elevations, resulting from the drain- ago of tho surface-water into the upper branches of tho rivers. It is now losing mncli of its prairie character, tho prevention of tho annual lire* buvingeaused tlio forest trees to encroach npon the prairies, and tho settlers also having planted many trees. Rivers. L'fl.ri; rie. — All the rivers and slrettins of tho .Stato arc aflluenls of either the Mississippi or tho Mis- souri; the former, draining the widest territory in the State, has tributaries of greater length and larger volume than tho latter. Among the streams flowing into the Mis- sissippi within the State are the I'pper Iowa, a stream of considerable rapidity, and having a deep valley which has eroded tho rocky strata to a considerable depth throughout its entire eour.se; Turkey Uivcr, which has also high onrl rooky bluffs along its banks; Maquoketa and Wapsipini- con rivers: tho Iowa River, a large and navigable streani : the Cedar River, which has rapiils and falls in a part of ils course; tho Cheeauqua or Skunk River, a broad but not very deep river; and tho Des Moines, a large and navigablo river which enters the Mississippi at the S. E. corner of the Slate. The rivers of \\w western drainage-slope, fall- ing into the Missouri, are generjilly small. .Several ftf them, as the Chariton, (irand, Platte, the Nodaway lurks, and Nishnabatona rivers, rise in Iowa, but flow southward into Missouri, and enter the Missouri River in that Stale; the Little Sioux ami I'loyd are streams of moderate siie and with broad fertile valleys, with few or no rocks or boulders in their course, Thi' Ilig Sioux, which rises in D;ikota and forms a considcraltlp portion of tho western boundary of Iowa, is a large stream, with high and steep bluffs along a portion of its course, but without rocks. It is navigable to 1282 IOWA. a poitit a little above the N. line of Iowa, where thero is a series of rapids by which it descends 60 feet in the course of h:ilf a mile. The Mississippi has two stretches of rapids opposite Iowa — the lower, called the I)es Moines Rapids, from Keokuk to Montrose, 12 miles in Icnjfth and with a total descent of 25 feet ; and the upper, from Daven- port to he Clairo. about 15 miles in icni^th, and having a total cioscent of 26 feet. Tlie lakes are mostly small, and in lhi> Kastcrn States would be called ponils; the jirincipal are Spirit Lake, in Dickinson co., about 4 miles hmg, and of the same width. It contains between 10 and 12 square miles. It was the place of a terril)Ie tujissacrc of whites by Indians in 1Sj7. Okoboji Lake in the same county is of horseshoe form, and drains S[>irit Lake. It is narrow, but the outside of the horseshoe is about lii miles in length. Clear Lake in Cerro (rordo co. is -i miles long and 2 wide. Storm Lake in Buena Vista co. is still smaller, having only square miles, but of great beauty. There are also two or three yet smaller lakes in Wright and Sac cos., which have barriers of boulders, sand, and peat which have given them the name of Walled Lakes. Geoloffif. — With the exception of the rivcr-vallcys and some small tracts, the surface of the State is covered to a greater or less depth with diluvial or drift deposits, and these again in some sections, as in the river-bottoms of the great rivers, with alluvium or loam. But an examination of the bluffs and rocky strata of the river-channels indi- cates that there are accessible at least twenty different geological formations, all of them, except a small outcrop of Azoic rocks — Siou.x quartzite (in the extreme N. W. cor- ner of the State) — occurring in regular succession from the N. E. to the S. W. portion of the State, and being inclined at such an angle or dip that each formation laps over the one next below it in very regular order. In the N. E. there is a tract extending from the sources of the Turkey River to the mouth of the Maquoketa which belongs wholly to the Lower Silurian system; all the formations of this system dip toward the S. W. at such an angle that the Upper Si- lurian laps over them just S. of the Turkey River. The groups of Lower Silurian here developed are the Primor- dial, represented successively by the Potsdam sandstone, Lower Magnesian limestone, and St. Peter's sandstone; the Trenton group, represented by the Trenton limestone and the Galena limestone; and the Cincinnati group, of which only the Maquoketa shales are recognizable here. Tlie Upper Siluri.an system, which follows immediately and overlaps the Lower Silurian, extends on the Missis- sippi from just above the mouth of the Maquoketa River to Davenport, but, though covering a breadth of two or three counties near the river, narrows as it approaches tho upper lino of tho State into a strip of not more than 6 or 8 miles in breadth. Hut one group and one formation of this system is represented — viz. the Niagara limestone. A broader band, and one of pretty uniform width, extending on the Mississippi from Davenport to Muscatine, and run- ning diagonally to tho northern boundary of the State, con- sists of the Hamilton limestrjnc and shales, tho representa- tive rocks of the Hamilton group of the Devonian system. This, in turn, is overlapped by the Sub-carboniferous group, represented here successively by the Kinderhook beds, tho Burlington, the Keokuk, and the St. Louis lime- stone. This extends from Muscatine to the Des Moines River, and, following the Skunk River valley to the source of that stream, stretches westward from Clear Lake in Cerro Gordo CO. through Butler. Franklin, Wright, and Humboldt cos. Tho Lower and Middle Coal-measures, which come next, occupy a broad belt in the niidillc of the State, being divided into two nearly equal portions by tho Des Moines River. They yield large quantities of bituminous coal of good quality. The Upper Coal-measures occupy tho whole S. W. portion of the State except a tract in Montgomery and Cass cos., where there is an outcrop of the Nishna- batona sandstone, the lowest member of the Earlier Creta- ceous group. In Woodbury and Plymouth cos. thero is also an outcrop of Cretaceous rocks, consisting of the Wood- bury sandstone and shales; and in <Iuthricand Greene cos. there arc two others, in which the chalky beds arc very prominent. Tho remainder of the State, comprising the whole N. W., and inchiding tho greater part of twenty-six counties, is covered so deeply with the overlying drift to a thickness of from loO to 200'fcet that it may' fairly be con- sidered as behmging to the Post-tertiary group. The Sioux quartzite, a very bard brick-red rock belonging to the Azoic system, is found only in ledges on the banks of the Big Sioux, just before it crosses the boundary. In Dakota and Minnesota this rock is abundant, and some strata of it are used by the Indians for making redstoDc pipes. Minrrnfntfif. — The Iowa coal-field contains at least 7000 square miles, and on its S. AV. border dips down at a very sm-ill au^lc under the upper or unproductive Coal-measures, and may be mined in the section covered by these. A very large number of coal-mines have been opened, mostly by dri/titnj from the valley-side, though in some instances shafts are sunk. The coal is bituminous ; canncl coal has occasionally been found, but is too impure to be of any value. Lead, the argentiferous galena ore, found in the galena limestone, is mined in great quantities at Dubuque and its vicinity, and smelted at the mines. There is lead also in the Lower Magnesian limestone on the T'ppcr Iowa River, but not in sufficient quantity to make mining profitable. There are few other metals in Iowa. The iron oro met with in various parts of the State is of good quality, but the quantity is small and the mining unprofitable. Gyp- sum is found in very great quantities at Fort Dodge and its vicinity in the condition of stratified rock, and quarried like ordinary limestone. It is largely exported. Building- stone of fair quality is found E. of the Des Jloines River. The Hamilton limestone, the sandstone of the Kinderhook beds at Burlington, the Keokuk limestone, and the gray St. Louis limcstoue. all furnish very good building-material. Gypsum is also used for this purpose as it comes from the quarries. Lime is manufactured largely from the lime- stones and from the chalky beds. Brick-clay, potters' clay, ami good building-sand are plentiful. Vft/rtatiini. — The State contains a greater proportion of tillable and fertile soil than almost any other in the Union. With the exception of the small portion occupied by rivers, lakes, ponds, and rocky bluffs, the whole surface is arable and yields everywhere libera! crops. The surface is so nearly level that agricultural machinery can be used every- where, and the labor of planting and gathering crops is thereby much facilitated. There are three descriptions of soil in the State, all fertile, yet differing somewhat in their characteristics: (1) The drift soil, formed of the surface portion of the drift or diluvial deposit, consists of a dark loam from one to three feet deep, and is found mostly on the prairies. There are no stumps and very seldom any stones in it, and it is very easily ploughed and cultivated by machinery. It is so fertile that in many places, after twenty years' cultivation without manure, it still vields abundant crops ; it contains considerable clay, and is there- fore classed as a moderately stiff soil. (2) The bluff soil is the surface portion of the bluff deposit ; it is very fine, con- tains less clay than the drift soil, and no stones or boulders. It can be ploughed earlier than the drift, being drier, and is fully as fertile, while it is deeper. (3) The alluvial soil, found in the river-bottoms, consisting of the soil and de- composed vegetable and animal matters brought down by the floods, is the richest and most productive and durable soil in the world. The area occupied by forests and wood- land in Iowa is stated by the agricultural department to be 4.98J,G6S acres, or about one-eighth of the entire surface of the State. The breadth of the State being but about 200 miles from N. to S., and the variations in its elevation so trifling, there is very little climatic difference in the vege- tation of the State. The persimmon and pawpaw do not rijien their fruit N. of the parallel of Burlington, but there are few other instances in which trees or plants do not flourish equally well in all parts of the State, The most common forest trees arc four or five kinds of oak, the com- mon elm. Cottonwood, black walnut, hickory, sugar-maple, soft maple, and linden. The buckeye, asjien. water-birch, wild-::hcrry, ash, box-elder, white walnut or butternut, syc- amore, and slippery elm, though occasionally found, are less abundant. There arc a few pine trees in Ea.stern Iowa on the sandstone bluffs, and some red cedar in similar sit- uations. The chestnut, beech, and tulip tree arc not natives of Iowa. The principal native fruits are wild grapes, plums, crab-apples, cherries, blackberries, raspberries, gooseberries, and strawberries, and among the nuts are hickory and hazel nuts, black walnuts, butternuts, and a few pecan nuts in the S. E. counties. The prairie-grass, which is of fair quality, is used not only for pasturage, but to a largo extent for ha^*, and is distinguished from that obtained from tho cultivated grasses by the name of wifd hai/. Thero is also a wild rice, of sonic value for nutriment, and which is in great demand by aquatic and otlu'r birds, which grows in the shallow ponds of Northern Iowa. The cultivated crops are, among the grains, corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye, and buckwheat. Of the first four the State ex- ports very large quantities annually. Hay. ]»rincipally timothy and red clover, is extensively made and exported, and blue grass and white clover aro cultivated for lawns and pasturage. Flax. hemp, and hops are crops of cou- sid'^rablo importance. Sorghum is not so largely cultivated as formerly. Potatoes are raised in great quantities both for home consumption and export. Sweet potatoes are grown successfully in the southern part of the State. Gar- den vegetables of all kinds grow well in all parts Among cultivated f-uits. appl*-? are very abundant and of excellent quality. Three dozen varieties are recommended by the IOWA. ris;] ngricultural society, and largely raised throughout the State. IVars grow well, and nre becoming plcutit'iiU but peach trees are liable tw be killed by the jievore winters. Grapes are grown snecessfully in all parts of tlie State, the Catawba and t'oneofl bein-j; the most common varieties. Plums succeed wpM where the eurculio docs not dc^^troy the fruit. The small fruits, gooseberries, raspberries, currants, and strawberries, are cultivated with great success. Much attention is paid to tree-culture, ami many foreign trees have been introduced with excellent result. The Osngc orange is much used for hedges in Southern Iowa, but docs not succeed so well in the nortliern counties. Zooloffy. — The rapicl settlement of the State has driven out most of the larger wild animals; the buffalo nnd elk, both formerly abundant in Iowa, have now disapjiearcd, thouijh at long intervals a .«tray elk from l)akota appears in the X. W. of the State. Doer are occasionally found in the wooded districts, but they arc not plentiful. The blaek liear was never very abundant in tlic State, and both lie and the panther liave long since disapi)cared. The large gray wolf and the wild-cat are very rare, and the mischiev- ous coyote or prairie wolf is fast disappearing. There are a very few beavers and otters in some of the rivers, and tnuskrats, minks, raccoons, foxes, and opo^^sunis are not very rare. The bir<ls common in all the Northern States arc plentiful in Iowa, and there arc a few which ;ire rare in other States. Havens arc occasionally seen in tlie nortli- ern counties, the yellow-headed blackhinl in the north- western ])art of the State, and paroquets in the southern tier of counties: among the game hinls, wild-turkeys and partridges or ruffed grouse are often found in the wooded districts, and prairie-hens in great number in the prairies which are as yet unreclaimed. Quails, snipe, and wood- cock are plentiful in their season, and some curlews are found, (rfcse. swans, and ducks visit the ponds and rivers of the State in spring and autumn in great numbers. The rivers of the .State yieM great quantities of excellent fisli, among which are found the salmon, the lake-trout, white- fish, brook-trout, troutlct, brown and commoa catfish, perch, roach, etc. nimntt. — The very slight differcnee of elevation in tho surface of the State causi-s the climate to be very uniform, tho variety being only that of the diffcrenco in latitude and the small variation in altitude. The growing season of vege- tation commences about ten days carlicron the southern than on the northern boundary. The average amount of rainfall docs not vnry so much as has been supposed from that on tho Atlantic coast. Observations continued for thirty-two years make tho mean annual rainfall fincluding the rciluc- tion of the snow to water) 12 inches for Iowa, while that of the same latitude on tho Atlantic coast is about 4^) inches. Less snow falls in Towa than upon tin; Atlantic coast, but there is sufficient for several weeks' sleighing every winter. Both tho Mississippi and Missouri generally freeze over opposite Iowa, and remain closed for two or three months in the winter. There have been but two winters in the past thirty-two in whieh they rliil not freeze over entirely, and in both these they remained open only below Davenport. All the small rivers freeze over solidly every winter. Ob- servations of temperature continued from IS.'iS to 1870 at Muscatine and Iowa City, both on nearly tlie same parallel, give the following results : The maximum of summrr heat occurred in July. 1870, when it reached 100° F., and the greatest winter cold in Jan., 1857, when the mercury in tlic thermometer stood at —'10° F. The mean average tempera- ture for each month of theyear for the whole thirty -two years was as follows: Jan., I'oo F. : Feb., 1.':*° ; Miir.,* ."ij^ ; Apr., -19°; Mav, .Vjo ; June. r.fi° ; July. 7:1°: Aug., 71°; Sept.. 6rt°; Oct., .^0°; Nov.. 20° ; Dec, 24°. The average annual temjierattirc for the whole thirty-two years was 47° 57' F. The mean temperature of the spring wns 47° 41' ; of the summer. 70° IS"' ; of autunin, 44° It'l' ; and of winter 2;'.° "^'i'. Tho following items in regard to the temperature of Keokuk, in tho extreme S. K. corner of tlio State, are for the year from Oct., 1872, to Oct.. 187.*{, and are from the chief stgnal-oflicer'a report : Monthly rnngo of the ther- mometer, Oct.. 58° ; Nov., fi;t° : Dec, 71°; .Ian., 7.^° ; Feb., r>0°: Mar.. 74°: Apr., 51°; May, 4:!° ; June. 47° ; Julv, 40°; Aug.. 4fi°; Sept.. 49°. Mean monthly temperature, 0?t.. 5.x5°; Nov.. :U.ft° ; Dec. 20.5°; Jan.. 17.fi°; Feb.. 20.1°: Mar.,:!S.7°; Apr., 48.5°: May. 01.5°; Junc.77.9°: July, 70.:i°; Aug.. 78.7° ; Sept.. 0.1.9°. Monthly rainfall. 0-t., 0.42; Nov., 0.74; Dec, 0.50; Jan., .l.:tl : Feb., 0..W ; Mar., 0.51; Apr., 5.05 : May, :{ri2 ; June, 1. 21: July, 8.77; Aug., 0.54; Sept.. It. ^7 — anniml rainfall, 28.97. Iowa is witliin the zone of variable winds. In the thirly-l wo years referred to the wind blew on an average 70 days from the N. X. E. : 70 from the K. S. IC. ; 105 from the S. S. W. ; II t from the AV. nnd \. X. W.. making 219 <lay« of west- erly winds and 1 10 of easterly winds. The avt-rajre time of the first flowering of ajqile trees at Muscatine is May 0; at Dubuque, about a degree N., May 12. Iowa ranks high among the healthiest States of the I'nion. Af/riciiitiintl Products. — The amount of land in farms in 1870, according to the census, was 15,541,79.'! acres. Of this, 9. .'590,467, or a little more than one-fourth of the area of tlie State, were improved, and G,I45,.'J20acres unimproved land. The average size of farms was i.'i4 acres. The value of farms was $:!92.fifi2,441. and of farming implements and machinery, ?20, 509,582. The value of all farm productions was $114,380,441 ; of animals slaughtered and sold for slaughter, $25,781,22.3; of home manufactures, $521,404; of forest products, $1,200. 4(58; of market-garden products, $244,903; of orchard products. $1,075,109; amount of wages paid during the year, $9,377,878. Towa was in 1870 the largest wheat-growing State in the Vnion except Illi- nois, her wheat crop that j'ear amounting to 28.708,312 bushels of spring wheat and 727,380 bushels of winter wheat. The rye crop amounted to 505,807 bushels : that of lu'lian corn to 68,935,005 bushels, being second only to Illinois in this crop; the oat crop was 21,005,142 bushels; the barley crop, 1,900,779 bushels; nnd the buckwlieat, 109,432 bushels. In 1872 the production of wheat had fallen off somewhat, and Iowa occupied tlie fifth place, her wheat product being in round numliers 22.080.01)1) liushcls. Her Indinn corn prtiduct iiad increased, but that of other Stat?s h;id increased in a still greater ratio, and she ranked third in that crop, producing 101,989.000 bushels. Of rye the crop of 1872 was 533,000 bushels; of oats. 19.934,000 bushels, a falling off of over 1,000,000 bushels : of harlev, 2,104,000 bushels; of buckwheat. 102,000 bushels; the po- tato crop, which in 1870 was 5.914,020 bushels, had in- creased in 1872 to 0,031,000 bushels, aside from about 50,000 bushels of sweet potatoes raised in Southern Iowa. The hay crop, whieh in 1870 was 1.777,339 tons, in 1S72 had fallen oft' to 1,001,000 tons. The value of these prod- ucts in 1872 was estimated (prolialily an untlercsti- matc) at $53,158,530, Of other agrieullural products we have no statistics later than those of the census of 1S70. when tho State produced 095,518 pounds of flax, 2,907,043 pounds of wool, 171.113 pounds i>f hops, 71.792 pounds of tobacco, 15 hogsheads of sorghum-sugar, 140.490 pounds of maple-sugar, 1.218,630 ga lion sofsorghum -molasses ( the crop of sorghum-molasses in 1872 was reported aj 3,500,500 gal- lons), 9315 gallons of maple-mtilasses. 42,313 bushels of peas and beans, 2225 pounds of beeswax, 853.213 pounds of honey, 37,518 gallons of domestic wine, 2475 bushels of clover-sced, 88.021 bushels of flaxseed. 53,432 bushels of grass-seed. The value of all live-stock in tlie State in 1870 was reported as $82,987,133; the number of horses as 433.042; of mules and asses, 25.485; of milch cows as 369.811; of working oxen. 22,058; of other cattle, 014,300 ; of siiccp. 855,493 ; of swine, 1,353,908. In 1873. according to the report of tho Iowa State Agricultural Society, tho following were the numbers and aggregate value of the live-stock: horses, 634,400, valued at $(0,506,440; mules and asses, 36,400, valued at $2,054,052; oxen and other cattle. 820,000, worth $19,196,200; niileh cows. 537,300, valued at $15,130,368; sheep. 1.708,000, worth $1,278,500; swine, 3,817,700, valued at $17,199,219; making the entire valuation of live-stock in Jan.. 1873, of $98,984,439. The dairy products of Iowa in 1870 were 27.512,179 jjounds of butter, 1.087,741 pounds of cheese, 088.800 gallons of milk sold. These have been very largely increased within tho past four years. Afftnu/dt'titrhiff Indni^try. — The increase in manufacturcB in Iowa has been very rapid. The very imperfeet returns of manufactures in the census of 1870 give the State 0566 manufacturing estaldishments, driven by 899 steam-engines of 25.298 horse-[)ower. anrl 720 water wheels of 14.240 horse-po\vcr, employiuf; in all 25,0;t2 operatives, of whom 23,395 were men. 951 women, and 080 children, using cap- ital estimated (very mueh bebiw the Irulb) at $22.120, 1S3, paying for wages $6,893,292. using raw material to the value of* $27,682,096. and producing K*»"ds worth $16,534,322. The prohal)iIity is that the annual product of the man- ufaetoriesof the State is now not less than $100,000.1)00. ' Of ihese products, the first in rank nre flour and flour- ing-mill products : in 1870 tlui'C were 300 flouring-njills, employin;; 1298 hands and $4,351,233 ciipital, using $9,385,363 of raw material, and producing $1 2.298,882 of flour and meol. Xext in importance was the manufacture of lumber, whieh was eonducteil in 339 milts, emidoying 3128 hands, auii a capital estimated at $3,711,031. u'sin;,' raw materiiil valued at $3,803,405, and jiroducint; luinl-er valued at $6,237,415. (^arriages ami wagons were rep-irted matio in 419 establishments, by 1602 emplny6s, of the an- nual value of $1,952,143; woollen goods, in 68 mills, by 1038 hands, to the value of $1,501,341. Cut meats were paeked in 10 eslal)lishments. by 328 hands, to the value nf $1.19O.4H0; sadiUery and harness in 325 establishments, bv 879 hands, to tho value of $1.1 10,852 ; clothing, 190 cstal- 1284 IOWA. lishmcnts, to the value of $1,003,732; agricultural imple- ments and machinery iu 56 establishments, by 562 hands, to the value of $SL*y,y05 ; malt liquors in 101 breweries, to the value of $992,818 ; furniture in 223 establishments, by 959 hands, to the amount of $981,091 ; tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware, in 231 shops, employing 609 hands, to the amount of $758,011 ; printinf;^ and publishing in 07 offices, to the amount of $618,752; 20 machine-shops, etnploying 500 hands, jiroduced steam-engines, etc. to tiie value of $017,113: iron eastings, to the amount of $532,789; sash, doors, and blinds, 31 factories, producing $467,586 ; coop- erage, 136 shops, producing $452,388; brick, 110 kilns, making bricks to the value of $425,919 ; and 53 boot and shoe shops, producing goods to the value of $423,283. The only other considerable industries were ihe bakeries, 58 in number, whicli produced gooils to the value of $315,530, and tobacco and cigar factories, of which there were 71, producing cigars, etc. to the amount of $377,773. Minhifj /m/iistrt/. — Iowa has a considerable mining and quarrying interest, conilnod almost exclusively to coal, lead, and gypsum. In 1870 there were 131 of these mining es- tablishments, employing 1028 hands and an estimated cap- ital of $756,224, paying wages to the amount of .$656,714, and producing the articles mined or quarried to the value of $1,063,484. Rnilrutuls. — .\t the close of the year 1873 there were 3800 miles of completed railroad in the State, 409 miles having been added since Jan., 1872. The principal rail- roads are summarized in the following — the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific, connecting iJavenport with Council Bluffs. 300 miles; the Burlingt<in Cedar Rapids and Min- nesota, connecting Burlington with Plymouth, 229 miles, and Plymouth with Austin, 32 miles; the Burlington and Missouri River, 349 miles ; the Cedar Falls and Minnesota, running from Waterloo to the Minnesota t-tate line, 75.5 miles : the Cedar Rapids and Missouri, connecting Cedar Rapids with Omaha. \cb., 271.5 miles, and Clinton with Lyons, 2.5 miles; the Central Iowa, running from the northern to the southern State line, and forming a portion of the line connecting St. Paul, Minn., with St. Louis, 203 miles ; the Chicago Iowa and JJebraska, connecting Clinton with Cedar Rapids, 81.5 miles; the Chicago and South- western, from Washingtnn to Leavenworth. Kan.. 271 miles ; the Dos Moines Valley, from Keokuk to Des Moines, 248.5 miles; the Dubuque and Siiiu.v City. 143 miles; the Dubuque .and South-western, from Farley to Cedar Rapids, 54.75 miles; the Iowa Falls and Sioux City, 184 miles; ' and the .Sioux City and Pacific, from Sioux City to Fre- mont, Neb., 107 miles. Besides these there are numerous I short connecting lines. With these great highways trav- j ersing every part of the State, and her eastern and western I boundaries washed by two great rivers, Iowa has excol- ] lent commercial facilities. The following table, compiled from Poor's Unilrund ^^^nnal far 1S74-75, gives the condi- tion of the railroads of Iowa about the beginning of Jan., I 1874 :'« NAum OF Bailkoads. Mnia All and I otber braocb. tracks. BurlingtoQ Cedar Rapids aod MianesciU Burlingtoti and South- western Cednr Falls and MIddc- sola Cednr Rapids and Mis- suuri River Central (of Iowa) Chicago Clinton and Du- btiquc I Chicago Dubuque aud Minnesota Cliicago Iowa and Ne- braska Davvnporl and St. Paul Des Moiaea and Port, Dodge ! De3 Moines Valley f . . . . ' Dubuque and iSioux City Dubuque South -western Iowa Fall.t and Sioux City Iowa Midland Keokuk and Dei Moines Missouri Iowa and Ne- braska Sioux City and PaciBc. ToWl. Milea. 389.73 1 16.60 73.60 274.00 189.00 60.00 ISi.OO 81.80 156.00 147.90 55. UO IB4.00 71.40 161.50 Miles. 14.00 40.00 3.00 10.00 15.00 2.50 11.00 17.90 10.00 14.60 3.70 6.60 14.00 3.373.55 ' 'J01.50 OBMBRAL LtABILtTISS. 2,000,000 1,587,000 7,6:90.000 960.000 3.500.000 3,916,200 4.000,000 6,000.000 1,180.805 4.625,000 3.9^4,666 1. 500.000 2,Oeft.5O0 882,000 5.882.000 5-i8,500 I 1.709,305 2.960.000 7.585.000 1. 314.000 I 1.311.000 2.153.720 1 6,078,320 2,000.000 1.628.000 I 3.500.000 3.696,500 43.292.010 '84.174.115 2.000.000 3,6%,500 87,941 33,316 61,360 300.000 40,000 1SJ,I«8 si.oei 114,942 400.000 133,000 30,013 9!.020 300,000 50,000 2;i,199 41,31'i 146,318 30,000 Gboss Ear-mnqs. From freight. S All other. ToUI amouDt. S S 700,000 59,809 1,059,809 69,135 109,135 85,074 129,750 1,250.000 441,000 .■,1.773 41,053 1.701,773 615,053 65,103 4,16S 108,172 1011,9.18 22,901 313,859 700,000 130,000 5«,-'92 9,369 1,056, '292 189.369 551.000 751.000 800.287 73,120 'fts-a 1,071.486 122,961 262.250 50.000 'V.rei 408.568 84.781 169,507 8,962 261,930 2.790,279 145,422 7,983,988 Earningg le<* opcraling expenses. % 414,415 112,000 559,555 31.312 153,802 396,110 149.413 142.999 1.980 Fimtnces. — In 1870 the assessed valuation of real and personal estate was $.302, .51.5, 418, and the estimated true valuation, $717,644,750. The taxation for all ]iur|ioses, 8tate, county, city, town, etc., was $9, OS,'!, 014. of which the State received only $8.32,918, the counties, $3,0:>2,y:il. and the towns, cities, etc., $.0,169,703. The .State had no debt, but the debts of the counties were $.3,732,929, and of the towns, cities, etc., $3,775,706. The fiscal reports of the treasurer and auditor are made up biennially. The latest is that of Nov. 15, 1873. The treasurer had received dur- ing the two years ending with that date, including a bal- ance of $81,740.84 on hand at the beginning of the bien- nial period, $2,211,318.35, and had disbursed in the same time $2,180,100.69, leaving at the close of the fiscal year a balance of $31,217.60. The estimated receipts for the next two years were $1,973,800, and the expenditures provided for by law amounted to $1,474,000, leaving $499,800 to be applied for sgieeial purposes. The amount of taxation for all purposes under Ihe levy of 1872 was $10,711,925.49, or 2.94 per cent, of the valuation. This valuation amounted to $3G9.S49.503.9I, which would make the true valuation about $863,11110, out). The amount of the permanent school fund is $3,294,742.83, an increase of $133,249.82 since 1871. There were patented in 1871-73. 48,817.08 acres of achool lands, 2320 acres of university lands, and 1 1,013.43 acres of swamp-lands. The selection of swamp-lands made in the several counties under the act of Congress of 1872 amount- ed to 865,770.46 acres. The entire grants made within the State for railroads and other internal improvements now amount to 4,898,608.88 acres. Commerrt, — The .State has a port of entry at Dubuque, with a fine custom-house built by the l". .S. government. Its internal and inter-.State commerce has been estimated on good authority to exceed $500,000,000 annually. Bauki, Savings ]ia»f:8 lusurancc CompcinieSf c/c— There are 80 national banks in operation in Iowa. They had, Nov. 1, 1874. $6,261,480 capital paid in. $0,095,000 bonds on deposit, $7,984,805 circulation issued, of which $5,002,869 was outstanding. There were also 20 .State banks, having an aggregate capital of $1,200,000, and deposits amount- ing to $2,898,954.58. There were IS savings banks, with capital and deposits of $1,247,600. There were also 163 private banking-houses. There were 8 fire insurance com- panies in the State in July. 1873, 2 of them mutual; the capital of the stock companies was $.335,025. and the assets of all about $908,000. During the year ending May 15, 1873. the amount of premiums received by these companies was $362,026.15, the amount of losses paid, $90,016.95. The aggregate expenditures were $273,978.09, the aggregate income from all sources, $425,943.74. Fifty companies from other States received during the same year $1,029,102.94 in premiums, and paid for losses $386,378.14. There is but one life insurance ei)mpany in the ,^tate, organ- ized in 1807 with $100,000 cai)ilal, which had $180,650 as- sets in .Tuly, 1873. In the year precc<ling it had issued 282 new policies and received $45,813.29 in premiums, covering insurances to the amount of $425,021. Forty-one life in- surance companies of other .States did business in Iowa, re- ceiving $1,037,622.34 in premiums and paying $231,531.09 in losses. Populnlitm. — Iowa has but a brief history, and its record of population dates back but about forty years. The whites were first permitted to settle within the present limits of the State in .lune, 1833, and very few actual set- tlements were made before 1834. In 1840 there were 43,112 •In the year 1R74 the railroads had increased till their mileage in Jan.. IR75, was 4314.4:), and the cost of roads, equipment, etc., $142,:n9,729. t Operated by the Burlington and South-western It. R. IOWA. 12S.3 iobabitanU; in 184G^ when it was admitted ns a State, 97,588; in I860 the number of inhabitiints was 192.214; iu 1860. 671,913; in 1870, 1,194,020; in IS7;J, by State census, I,2Jl,.'i:;.'J. The immij^ration, except in the new counties, is very nearly balanced by the emitrrntinu to Mis- souri and the States and Territories farther \V. The density of the population to the square mile was in 1830, 3,49 : in 1860, 12.26 ; in 1870, 21.69 ; iu 1873, 22.73. The number of families in 1S50 was 33,517, areragin;; 5.73 persons to a family; in i860. 124,098 families, averaging 5.44 to a family : in 1870. 222.430 families, averaging 5.37 to a fam- ily. Of the 1.194.020 inhabitants of the Slate in 1870, 939,323 were natives of the U. S., and 204,692 of foreign birth. Of those born in the U. S.. 410,139 were partially or wholly of foreign parentage, and 360,971 h:id both fatlier and mother of foreign birth. Of tluigc who were natives of the U. S., 428,620 were born in the State, 126,285 in Ohio, 79,143 in New York, 73,435 in Pennsylvania, 65,391 in Illinois, 64,083 in Indiana, 24.309 in Wisconsin, 19,563 in Virginia, 14.|Sfi jn Kentmtky, 13,831 in Misi^uuri. 12,204 in Vermont, 8929 in Massachusetts, 8918 in Michi- ffan, 5185 in Connecticut, 5688 in New Jersey, 5090 in North Carolina, 5060 in New Hampshire, 5943 in Maine, 5972 in Maryland, and less than 11)1)0 in any other State. Of the 204,692 persons of foreign birth in the State, 66,102 were from the different German states, 65,442 from Great Britain and Ireland (of whom 40,124 were from Ireland, 17,907 from British America, mostly from Canada), 17,556 from Norway, 10,796 from Sweden, 2827 from Denmark, 6766 from Bohemia. 4513 from Holland, 3937 from Switz- erland, 3130 from France. 2691 from Austria, 1314 from Luxemburg, 050 from Belgium, and 598 from all other countries. There wore 5762 colored persons (3099 males and 2663 females) in the State, Of the white population, which numbered 1,188,207, 622.786 were males and 565,421 females. Of the native population, 510,864 were males and 478,464 females; of the foreign-born, 115,053 were males and 89,630 females. There were but 48 Indians in the State, of whom 29 were males and 19 females. Of the 625,917 males in Iowa, 210,769 were of military age (be- tween 18 and 45 years); of these, 173,060 were of native and 67,709 of foreign birth; 1425 were colored; 290,717 were of the age of citizenship (21 years old and upward), and of these, 255,802 were citizens. There were 394,696 persons of school ago (5 to 18 years), of whom 201,531 were males and 193,165 females. According to the State census of 1873. there were at that time 491,344 persons of school age in the Sdite. but the school age prescribed by the State is between 5 and 21 years. Educntiun. — In 1S70 there were, according to the census, 306.353 persons who attended the schools of the State, pub- lic and private, during some portion of the year. Of these, 13,000 were of foreign birth. There were 160.269 while male and 1 15.121 white female scholars; and 661 colored, of whom 346 were males and 315 females; there were also 2 Indiiin j)itpils. The number of inhabitants of all races, 10 years old and over, unable to read and write wiis 45.671, of whom 20.092 were of foreign birth and 44,145 were whites ; of these, 5858 (3401 males and 2-157 females) were from 10 to 15 years of ago: 3680 (2014 males and 1636 females) were from 15 to 21 years of age ; and 34,007 (11,782 males imd I9,S25 females) were over 21 years of age. Of the 1524 colored illiterates, 70 (32 males and 38 females) were from 10 to 15 years of age; 146 (71 males and 75 females) were from 15 to 21 years of age, and 1308 (635 males and 673 females ) were over 21 years. The wholo n urn her of educational institutions in 1870 was 7496, having 9319 teachers (3650 males and 5663 females) and 217.654 pupils (105,665 males and I1I.9S9 females). The total in- come of these was $3,570,093, of whirdi $63,150 was derived from endowment, $3,347,029 fr«:n taxation and public funds, ami $159,314 from tuition and other sources. Thoro were 7322 public schools, with 8S66 teachers (of whom 3381 were males and 5|S5 females), and 205,923 pupils (100,308 males and 105.615 females). The total income of these public Schools was $3,245,352. of which $3100 was derived from end<»wment, $3,241,752 from taxation and public funds, and $500 from tuition ami other sources. According to the census, there were 21 colleges, with 139 teacher.'? (109 males and 30 females) and 3061 students (1685 nmles and 1376 females). The tniul income of thcso colleges was $101,950, of which $54,000 was derived from endowment, $10,000 from taxation and public funds, and $37,950 from tuition and other source;'. There wore 34 acailcmies. with 10;[ teachers ( 40 nuiles and 57 females) and 2333 pupils (1019 males and 1314 females), and an income of $55,880, derived from tuition nnd other sources. There were also 100 hoarding and day schools (private schools), having 136 teachers (61 males and 72 femalefjand 4872 pupils (1741 males ami 3131 females), and an income of $38,550, derived from tuition and other sources. The pub- lic-school statistics to the beginning of the year 1873 were : number of ungraded schools, 8163 ; of graded schools. 400 ; of persons between 5 and 21 years of age, 474,350 (males 243.522, females 230.828) ; scholars enrolled in Iho schools, 349,633 ; average attendance, 21S.13I : average time schools are taught. 6 months and 14 days; number of teachers, 15,193 (males 5888, females 9305); average compensation of male teachers, $36 per month ; of female teachers, $29.32 per month : average cost of tuition per week for each pupi 5>0.42 ; number of school-houses, 8235 ; total value of school houses, $7,460,3SI,I9. By the State census of 1873 the number of persons of school ago in the State was reported as 491.344, and there was an increase of 932 school districts. The total amount expended in 1S73-74 for school purposes was $1,229,455. There is a State university at Iowa City, which has 32 professors, 263 .sturlents, besides the normal class, and 4 departments — collegiate, normal, law. and med- ical. Its assets are $232,221.50. and its income for the two years ending June 3, 1873, $122,041.29. Its expenses from June21,lS7I,to(>et.I, 1873, were$103,4 15.93. There is to bo a department of dental medicine established iu connection with it. It still holds 7810 acres of its land-grant, which are valued at nearly $30,000. The agricultural college at Ames was organized iu 1869. It ha? 12 professors, 220 students, and has good buildings and the avails of 240,000 acres of government lands, of which, however, 22,765 are not yet leased or sold. It has received considerable appro- priations from the State. There are 16 universities and colleges (only 3 of them, however, having post-graduate or professional schools — viz. Iowa AVcsleyan University, Cornell College, and (Iriswold College) which are not Stato institutions. Of these, 4 are under the patronage of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 3 under that of the Bajitists, % Lutheran, 2 Congregational, I Friends, 1 Episcopal, 1 Christian, and I undenominational. Iowa College, the oldest, dates back to 1848; the others range between 1854 and 1870. Thc!-c colleges have about 130 professors, and about 1850 students, and libraries containing over 40,000 volumes. There is a scientific department to Cornell Col- lego; theological departments to (iriswold College and Iowa Wcsleyan I'niversity, the Wartburg Lutheran Thcti- logical Seminary at Casstown, and the German Hcfurrncd Theological Seminary of the Norlh-wcst at I>uliuquc ; law departments to Iowa State and to Iowa Weslcyau univer- sities ; a medical department of Iowa State University at Iowa City ; a college of physicians and surgeons at Keokuk ; an<l a department of pharmacy of the I<»wa Wcsleyan Uni- versity at Mount Pleasant. There are 5 or 6 academies of high grade at Davenport, Duhuquc, Denmark, and Irving. Of training or normal schools, there are dejiurtmenis at- tached to tile State University, to Iowa College at (irinnell, and to M'hittier College nt Salem. In theto in 1872 there wore 225 students. Of special schools of education, there is the Iowa college for the blind at Vinton, with 112 stu- dents and 32 teachers and empIoy«^s, property of the es- timated value of $250,000, and an annual inconie Uiwix the State of $24,000 : the institution for the deaf ami dumb at Council Bluffs, with 6 instructors and 119 pupils, juuperty valued at $179,000, and an income of $25,000 from the State; the soldiers' orjdian homes, three in number, at Daven]i(nt, Cedar Ealls, and Glenwood, with 508 children in their care and nn annual expense of $146,050; n State reform school for boys at Eldora. on a farm of 44 acres, the buildings costing $90,000. and having 145 boys in charge; a girls* reform school near Salem In Lee eo., on a small farm, with II Inmates. The State prison at Fort Madison has 276 prisoners ; a new one has been established at Anamosa. where there arc 25 prisoners. There are 2 in- sane hospitals in the Slate; that at Mt. Pleasant had in Nov., 1873, 495 patients, and its expenses for the two years preceding had hecn $229,441.25. The new hospital at In- dependence is not yet completed, but at the close of 1873 had 152 patients. StatiKtirit of Cn'mc. — The whido number of convicts in prison during the year ending June 1. 1870. is stated to have been 615, of whom 397 — 287 natives (273 white and 14 colored) and 110 persons of foreign birth — remained in prison .luno 1, 1870. This can only refer to the Stato pen- itentiaries, for in these, as we have seen, there were in 1873 over 300 prisoners, or if the reform schools are included, 457 prisoners. The 99 county jails and the several city penitentiaries and police prisons can hardly have been without inmates. Lihiuiri>». — In lS70thero wore 3540 libraries, public and private, containing 653,600 vidumes, of which 1153 were puldie lihraries, containing 377,851 volumes. Of these, the State library at Des Moines has 11,000 volumes; 23 town and city libraries, 22. SOS volumes; II court and law llbra- rie^i, I'll volumes; 15 school and collego libraries, 18,747 I volumes; 10S4 church and Sunday school libraries, with I 303,835 volumes; 1 literary society, with 150 volumes; IS 1286 IOWA. circulating libraries, with 20,3C7 volumes. The 2.'iS7 pri- vate libraries ba.l au aggregate of 295,749 volumes. Ncw<,><n)rr8.—Xa I S70 there were 2:j:i newspapers ot all clas'^es in the Stale, issuing annually 1 6,403,380 copies, anJ bavin" an aggregate circulation of 219,090. The number in 1874 exceeds 300, and the circulation has increased eor- rcsnondinglv. Of those published in 1S70, 22 were dailies, with an a""grcgate circulation of 19,800; 3 tri-weeklies, with a circulation of IfiiO; 1 scmi-weckly, with a eircula- tion of 1000; 19G weeklies, with a circulation ol 1S,,N4II; .1 semi-monthlies, with 3400 circulation : ,') monthlies, with 3950 circulation; 2 bi-monthlies, with 750 circulation ; and 1 quarterly, with 700 circulation. rinirchc— In 1S70 there were reported by the census 27R3 churches, with 1446 church edifices. 431,709 sittings, and $5,730,3.52 of church property. Of these, the Baptists had 352 churches, 165 church edifices, 50,690 sittings, $668,900 of church property. In 1S73, according to the Hnpt!,t Ycv Uoolc for 1875, the regular Baptists had 3, J churches, 252 ordained ministers, 20,734 niembcrs, 2o4 Sundav schools, 20,541 teachers and scholars, 20,o4() vol- umes in Sundav school libraries, and ?1 26,025 of benevo- lent contributions, aside from church expenses. There arc a considerable number of churches of the minor Ba.ptist denominations, as Mennonites, Tunkers, " Church of t.od. etc in the State, enumerated with Baptists m the census, but not in the Yeur Iio„k statistics. The Christian Con- nection had, including also the " Disciples, m ISiO, ac- cording to the census. 113 churches, 48 church ediltces, 15,750 sittings, and $124,450 of church property. The Concre^ationalists had 187 churches, 125 church edifices 33,925 sittings, and $529,570 of church property. In 18,4 they had. according to the CM,fircr,„l,o,ml Qnaricr(y,^-i churches, 19S ministers, and 12,803 communicants. I he Protestant Episcopal Church in 1870 had 58 parishes, 36 church edifices, 9584 sittings, and $192,862 of church prop- erty In 1874, according to the Cliurrh Almannc, there were 57 parishes, 45 clergymen, 2991 communicants, 3220 Sunday school teachers and scholars, and $7o,643 of be- nevolent contributions, aside from church and parish ex- penses The Evangelical .Association (.Mbrighfs) had in 1870 32 churches, 11 church edilicos. 2400 sittings, and $22,800 of church property; in 1873 they had 51 itinerant and 53 local preachers. 70 churches, and 4717 communi- cants In 1870 the Friends had S2 meetings, 00 meeting- houses, 17,075 sittings, and $125,800 of meeting-house nroiierty. The Lutherans in 1870 had 79 churches, 4d church edifices, 12,285 sittings, and $113,950 of church property. As neariv as can bo ascertained, m 18,3 they had 122 churches, 79 ministers, and about 15,000 commu- nicants. The Methodist Church, in 1870, had 982 churches, 492 church edifices, 142,655 sittings, and $1,490,220 ot church property. In 1 873 the Methodist Episcopal Church had 4 conferences within the State, 627 church cdihees, 531 itinerant and 868 local preachers, 52,026 members, be- sides probationers, $1,839,892 of church properly, 103d Sunday schools, and 73,433 Sunday school tcacheis and scholars. There were also a large number of churches ad- hering' to the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, and many belon"in" to the difi'crent minor Methodist dcnonuuafions. The Prc'sbyterian Church (including the Northern and Southern and United Presbyterian Churches) in 1870 had 375 churches, 222 church edifices, 64,890 sittings, and $962 325 of church property. In 1873 the Presbyterian Church, North, had 2 synods, 10 presbyteries, 222 or- dained ministers, 348 churches, and 16,991 members. The United Presbyterian Church in 1873 had 5 presbyteries, W ministers, 91 churches, and 5396 members. Tbo Cum- berland Presbvterian Church in 1872 had 4 presbyteries, 20 ministers, about 30 churches, and nearly 4000 members. The Reformed Church (late Dutch) in 1870, had 4 churches, 4 church edifices, 1500 sittings, and $25,000 of church prop- erty. The Reformed Church (late German) had 13 churches, 13"church edifices, 3950 sittings, and $46,000 of church propertv. Owing to the arrangement of synods and classes, the statistics of neither of these churches for the State can be separated. The Roman Catholic Church in 1870 had 216 congregations, 165 church edifices, 57,280 sittings, and $1,216,150 of church property. According to the Cnllioh'c y.^iVccMi-i/, in I 874 they had 13.5 priests.250 churches, chapels, and stations, but only 108 church edifices, and an adherent population of about 70,000. In 1870 there were 28 Second Advent churches, with 10 church edifices, 2950 sittings, and $13,050 of church property. There were 3 UnUariiin congregations, 2 church edifices, 715 sittings, and $19,000 of church property. The United Brethren in Christ (Ger- man Methodists) in 1870 had 188 churches, 28 church edi- fices, 10,445 sittings, and $69,250 of church property. In 1874 they had 4 conferences. 327 churches, 171 ministers, and 7449 niembcrs. The Univcrsalists in 1S70 had 35 con- gregations or parishes, 15 church edifices, 4465 sittings. and $99,525 of church property. In 1S73 they had 39 parishes, 24 organized churches, 1100 adherent families, and 782 members. There are a considerable number of churches of the minor denominations, such as Chriftiaa Union, Christadelphians, New Jerusalem Church, etc., and a body of 4000 or more Mormons, not included in the above statement, but there are not suflicient data for giving any accurate statistics concerning them. '('oimlilutioii, CourtK, Mep'-cseiilalireB iii Congress, eic. — When Iowa was admitted into the Union as a State, her people had adopted a constitution which remained the su- preme law of the State until 1857, when a new constitution was prepared by a convention called for the purpose, and adopted by the people. This constitution remains in force to the ]ircscnt time, except that in the 2d article, on the ricrht of suffrage, the word "white" was stricken out, by vote of the people in 1 808, thus giving to colored persons the same privileges and responsibilities as were before granted to whites only. That section now provides that " every male citizen of the U. S., of the age of twenty-one years,"who shall have been a resident of this State si.x months next preceding the election, and of the county in which ho claims his vote sixty days, shall be entitled to vote at all elections which are now or hereafter may bo authorized by law. All elections by the peo)ilo shall be by ballot." The legislature consists of a senate of fifty mem- bers elected for four years in senatorial districts ""■< " . and house of representatives of 100 members elected for two years in representative districts. Senators must be citi- zens and at least twenty-five years of age; representatives must bo citizens and not under twenty-one years of age. The sessions of the legislature are biennial. The execu- tive officers of the State— the governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, superintendent of public instruction, and register of the state land-oflice— are elected by the people of the State at the general election for the term of two years. The judicial department com- prises a supreme court, district court, and circuit court. The supreme court consists of four judges, who arc elected by the people and serve for six years, but are so classified that their terms of office close at different dates. Each judo-o in succession becomes chief-justice before his term exph-cs. The supreme court is both a court of errors and a court of appeal. The attorney-general is elected for two vcars, and the reporter and clerk of the supreme court for 'four years each. The State is divided into fourteen judi- cial districts, and every four years the people of each dis- trict elect one judge of the district court, one judge ot the circuit court, and one district attorney, who serve for lour years each. There arc no county courts, but both the dis- trict and circuit courts are held successively, but at difi'er- ent times, in each county of the district. Under the appor- tionment of IS72 Iowa has nine members of Congress. Coi,i,(,'c«.— There are 99 counties in the State, aad the following table gives their population by sexes in 1870, and total population in 1860 and 1850; Hales, 1870. Total pop ISIO. ! 2,178 I 2,470 1 9.319 I 8,498 ; 11,846 Black Hawk ' 11.3S1 Adair Adams Allamakee . Appanoose .. Audubon.... Benton. 7,57' 6.647 8,869 907 5,268 834 l,a32 2,923 10,297 Ccrro Gordo ! 2,634 Boone.. Bremer Buchanan Buena Vista.., Butler Calhoun Carroll Cass Cedar . 1,1.56 5,228 4,473 8GS 14.4.5.5 18,694 1,387 6,392 7,898 6,197 8,998 14,191 745 Dubuque ' 20,013 ! Cherokee. Ctiiekasaw.... (larke Clav Clayton Clinton Crawford Dallas Davis Decatur Delaware .... Des Moines.. Dickinson.. Total pop. Total pop. Kmmet . Favette... Floyd Franklin.. Fremont.. Greene Grundy ... Guthrie... 757 8,744 5,705 2.560 5,980 2,462 .3,472 3,753 1,804 2,144 8,549 7,9.58 553 10,608 10,325 7,007 6,8S1 8,165 678 4,683 768 1,119 2,.541 9,434 2,088 811 4,952 4,262 655 13.316 16,663 1,143 5,627 7,667 5,821 S,4:i4 13,065 644 18,9.56 6.35 8,229 5.063 2,178 5.194 2.165 2.927 3,303 3,982 4,614 17,868 16,456 1,212 22,4.54 21,706 14,584 12,528 17,034 1,.585 9,951 1,602 2,451 5,464 19,731 4,722 1.967 10,180 8,735 1,.523 27,771 a5,357 2,.530 12,019 15,5115 12,018 17,432 27,256 I. .389 38.969 1..S92 16,973 1U,768 4,738 11.174 4.627 6,399 7,061 1860. 984 1,.533 12,237 11,931 454 8,496 8,244 4,232 4,915 7,906 57 3,724 147 281 1,612 12,919 940 58 4,336 5,427 62 20,728 18,938 383 6,244 13,764 8,677 11,024 19,611 180 31,161 105 12073 3,744 1,309 6,074 1,374 793 3,058 777 3,131 672 135 735 3,941 3,873 2,822 854 7,264 965 1.759 12,988 10,841 825 1,244 IOWA. 1287 Mites, ItlTO. Hamilton 3,20S 524 7,360 4,"S9 10,9G4 3,399 1,408 124 8,671 11,088 11,601 9,248 Pentales, 1H70. Il:ilic(ick llnnlin — llnrrinon.. Ilt-nry Howard. ... IltiinbnUU IJ« Iowa .lacksoii... Jasper .Ifllerson.. .T<ilin30n 12,889 .loiics 10,273 Keokuk 10.079 Kossuth I 1,824 il^e ' 19,2c-'; Linn ; 16.23:! l.,ouisa 6,743 Lucas ! 5.368 Lvon ! 131 >faaUon 1 7,32.'! Maliaska 11,490 Marlon ' 12.579 9,387 4,8(J8 .5,068 1,995 6,671 3,3.i6 11,175 404 Toul pop. I [Total pop. Total pop. IISJO. Marshall Mills Mitchell Monona I Monroe I Montgomery 'Mitscalino O'lirien i)»ccola (new co.) Paie I'alo Alio Plymouth I Pocahontas Polk IPottawntiatnle.... ip<)we9hick - 'Ringgold LSac .Scott Shelby Isioux Istory Tama Taylor _ 'L'nion I Van Buren !' Wapt'llo - Warren Wxihin);ton Wavne » ,\Vcl)si..r Winiii/ltago i Winneshiek Woodl)tiry Worth Wright Total 5,292 7.56 1,245 785 14,-527 9,I«9 8,4.56 2,947 775 20,1.57 1,358 320 6,088 8,-595 3,1)35 3,199 9,0.59 11.669 9.2S6 9.7(16 5,8.53 5,.598 820 12.424 3,477 1,518 1,275 625,917 2,852 475 6,624 4,172 10,499 2,88:! 1,188 102 1 7,973 I 10,931 10,515 8,.591 I 11,999 9,458 9,:t35 1,.527 17, .5^5 14,847 6,134 5,020 90 6,559 11,018 11,857 8,195 3,910 4,514 1,659 6,053 2..578 10,513 311 4,683 580 954 661 13,:i30 7,704 7,125 2,744 636 18,442 1,IS2 256 5,.5G3 7..5:i6 3,;i.>t 2,787 8,613 10,677 8,694 9,1W B,4:S4 4,886 742 11,146 2,695 1,:!74 1,117 6,0.5.5 1 1,699 999! 179 13,6841 5,410 8,931 ! 3,621 21.403, 18,701 8,707 6,282! 3,168 2,596 332 226 43 16,644 8,029 822 22,619 18,493 7,210 22,116 9,883 1,280 17,8:!9 15.0:i8 ' 9,904 24,898 17,57:) 4,472 19,731 l:!.300 3,007 19,434 13,271 4,822 3,a51 410 37,210 29,2:!2 18,861 :!1,080 18,947 5,-141 12,877 10,370 4,9:i9 10,388 5,766 471 221 13,884 7,339 1.179 22,.508 14,816 5,989 24,4:16 16,813 6,482 17,576 6,015 338 8-718 4,481 9,-582 3,409 ;!,r,54 8:i2 12,724 8,612 2,884 0,9:i4 1,256 21,688 16,444 5,731 715 8 9,975 4,419 551 1,3:!C 132 2,199 148 1,446 103 27,857 11,625 4,513 li>,S9:i 4,968 7,828 15.,581 5,668 615 6,691 2,923 1,411 246 38,599 25,9.59 ^986 2,.540 818 576 10 11,051 4,051 16,131 5,285 8 6,989 .•!,.590 204 5,980 2,012 17,672 17,081 12,270 22,;i46 14,518 8,471 17,980 10,281 961 18,952 14,2:)5 4,957 11,287 6.409 340 10,4W 2,504 1,.562 168 23,570 13,942 546 6.172 1,119 2,892 756 2,392 1 653 ,194,020 , 074,913 i 192,214 non, Cedar Falls, Sioux City, Oskaloosa.nndMarshalllown have from 40UO to OllUO each. fll>i„r</.— The whole region lyinp; between the Missis- sippi an<l Missouri rivers in the North-west, as well as much of the country S. of the Missouri, was claimed hy the French on the ground of Marquette's discoveries in 1671!, and was transferred to ,<pain hy treaty in 17li:i. In 1800-01, Spain ceded it back to I'rance, and it was sold as part of the Louisiana purchase to the U, S. in 1S03. In 1804 the Louisiana district, wliich included what is now the State of Iowa, was placed under the jurisdiction of Indiana Territory, but the ne.\t year it was organized as a distinct Territory with a uovernraent of its own. In 1S12 thenamo was changed to Missouri Territory. In 1834 all that part of Missouri Territory N. of the State of Missouri and W. of the Mississippi was placed under the jurisdiction of Michigan Territory. In l.s:ifi. Wisconsin Territory was organized, and Iowa made a district of it. with the scat of government for the wliolc Territory fi.ved at liurlington. In IS.'.S, Iowa Territory was organized, and in LSliU the capital of the Territorv removed from Burlington to Iowa City. The Territorv was admitted into the I iiion as a Sla"te with the boundaries described at the beginning of this article, Dec. 2S, 1846. In 1857. at the time of the adoption of the new con.stitution, the capital was removed from Iowa City to Des Moinrs, where it now remains, fho present Territory of the State was for many years in pos- session of the Siou-i, Sac, Fo.\,nnd Iowa tribes of Indians, but by repeated treaties with the Indians their lille to the land was extinguished, and they all removed westward, until in 1870 there were but 48 Indians in the State. A few Frenchmen had Jettled at Montrose and Dubuque be- fore the close of the last century, and some French pioneers and Ameriean hunters had long lived among the Indians, but the first settlements of whiles permillcd by the 1 . S. govcrnincut within the present limits of Iowa were made in 18o:i-34 at Fort Madison, Burlington, and Dubuque. The first counties organized were Dts Widncs and Dubuque. The first train of cars run in Iowa started from Davcnijort in 1SJ5 over the Mississippi and Missouri road. Since its admission to the Union tlic growth of Iowa has been rapid and uninterniptod. an.l its prosperily steady. At the eoni- mcncenieiit ot the late civil war the State, under Ihc man- a.'ement of the patriotic governor, Kirkwood, made great exertions, and during the war sent Sli.OOO men. Us lull quota, into the field. During that period the wives, sis- ters, and daugliters of its s.ddiers, by ihe aid ot agricultu- ral machiuerv. planted, gathered, and harvested Us crops, and kept tlieStalc up to its full niensnreol iiroductivencss, and when peace returned ils prosperily found to bo very slightly impaired, Goveruora of the ,S'(a(c. — Territohy. Rolierl Lucas 1838-41 Principal Tiiicm. — Davenport and Dubuque arc the only cities of from 20,000 to 2:>,000 inhabitants ; Burlington, Keokuk, and Des .Moines ( the cajiital i have from 1,5,000 to 20,0110; Council Blnfla is the only cily having between lo[nOO and I.>,»00 inhaKitanIs; .Muscatine, Clinton, Iowa Cily, Cedar Rapids, ami (Itlumwa have from 8000 to 8000 ; Lyons, Waterloo, Fort Madinon, Fort Dodge, Mount Vor- ■ aud resources were John (liaulbers 1841-40 James Clark 1846-46 State. Ansel Uriggs 1846-50 Slephen Hempstead.. .18.50-.54 James W. Grimes 1854-.5S Ralph V. Ixiwe 1858-60 Samuel J. Kirkwood. . .1860-61 William M. Stone 1.SG4-CS Samuel Merrill 186S-72 Cyrus ('. Carpenter.... 1872-16 Samuel J. Kirkwood. . .1876- Elcctoral ami r,.pul<,r Vote at Prc«,<le«lwl /i^•.•0o>„.-- lowa was not admitted into the Union as a ,«ta e until l.vu., ond her first Presidential voto was at the election ol 1848. •J .•' I 8.8 Condldatct who rveotrod tho electoral Tot*. 1348 Lewis Cass P I W.I). Hullcr V.-P l.'<.")2 KrauUlin Pierce P (Williaui U. KlnK V.-P 1S.)G Jobu C. Kreuioiit P.... iW. L. Daylon V.-P 18G0'Al)raliain Lincoln P.. |H. Ilaiulln V.-P Pop. roto. I8S4 Abraham Lincoln P.... A. Johnson V.-P , laos'l'. S. ('.rant P Schuyler Colfax V.-P.. 1872 U.S. (iraut P Henry Wilson V.-P.... Oaofltdatct. ,, .„„ Zach. Taylor P I 12,093 J, ,,.i|,„„„.^ v.-l- t ,,.,,,, IWiiilield Scott P I 17,, 03 yf A,(;rahaui V,-P I .lames llueluinan P I J. C. i!reckenridj!0 V.-P. J Pop. veto. 43,934 70,409 89,075 120,399 131,-566 S. A. DouRlas P II. V. Johnson V.- n. B. McClellan P II. 11. Pendleton V.-P... Honitio Sevuiour P l'-. P. Blair V.-P Horace tireelev P ;1)- Grati Brown V.-P.... CaDdldolcs. 11,084 15,856 36,170 55,111 49,-590 74,040 1 71,190 Martin Van Buren P C V. Adams V.-P J. P, Hale P C. W. Julian V.-P M. Fillmore P A. J. Dnnelson V.-P. J. Bell P F-. Kverelt V.-P J.(V Hieekenridue P t Joseph Lane V.-P. J Pop. voto. 1,126 1,604 9,180 1,763 1,048 co-Conor P | 2,«> Wo acknowledge our obligations for many focts relfttivo to the phvsical and political gcogra|diy and history of Iowa, to Prof. C. A. White's Mainml „f the rhji>ical UcogfaphiJ and Inntituliimt of lotca, published in 1874. L. P. BuncKKTT. Town, a river in the Slate of Ihc same name, rises in llaneoL-k e.).. near the .Miunesola line, flows S. E. for 300 miles passin- by Iowa City, the former capital of (he Stale, aud enters the Mississippi Vo miles N. of Burlington. It is navigable for small steamers to Iowa Cily, SO miles from the mouth. Iowa, county ofS.B. Central lown. It is rolling and fer- tile ; cattle, grain, and wool are staple prodncLs. Area j, !■ square mil. s, II is on Ihe Iowa It.veraud the ( hieago Itoek Island and Pacific K. U. Cap. .Mareng... Pop. U.,01 1. lown, county of tho S. W. of Wisconsin. Area, about 7;,0 square mile's. It is bounded on the N. by W l^conslll River. The surface is somewhat broken, 'limber is no abundant. Tho soil is very fertile. Cattle, gram, an- wocd are staple products. Lead is extensively mined, an.l copper and zine aro found. Carriages und wagons aro leading manufactures. Cap. Dodgcville. Pop. 24,j44. 1288 IOWA— IPHIGENIA. Iowa, tp. of Allamakee co., la. Pop. .'U7, Iowa, tp. of Benton co., la. Pop. 20.19. Iowa, tp. of Cellar co., la. Pop. 1168. Iowa, tp. of Dubuque co., la. Pop. S78. Iowa, tp. of Franklin co., la. Pop. 125, Iowa, tp. of Iowa co., la. Pop. 962. Iowa, tp. of Jackson co., la. Pop. 1209. Iowa, tp. of Marshall co., la. Pop. 112;i. Iowa, tp. of Washington co.. la. Pop. 1062. Iowa, tp. of Winnebago Co., la. Pop. 436. Iowa, tp. of Wrifrht co., la. Pop. 204. Ii>wa* tp. of Doniphan co.. Kan. Pop. 3531. Iowa Agricultural College. See Appendix. Iowa Centre, post-v. of Indian Creek tp.. Story co., la., 8 miles frnin Nevada, a station on the Chicago and North-western R. U. Pop. 24S. Iowa C'ity, city, cap. of Johnson co., la., at the head of iiavii^atimi of the Iowa River, and on the Chicago Hock Island and Pacific R. R.. i:iO miles E. of Des Moines. It was (1839-55) the capital of Iowa Territory and State, and the buildings an<l grounds of what was formerly the eapitol are now occupied by the State University. There are 4 flouring-mills, and manufactures of WDollen?. flax, oil, etc., 1 monthly, i semi-monthly, 1 daily, and 4 weekly news- papers. 15 churches, 2 national banks, good schools, public and private, fine county and other public buildings, hos- pit.al, etc. The city has a hirge local trade. Pop. of tp. outside of city, 2180 ; of city, 5914, increased since census. N. II. IJnAixrRD, En. "Iowa Guy Republican-." ] Iowa Collejje, the oldest college in Iowa, was founded in 18 K by an assuciation of Congrcgationalisls and Pres- byterians, and established at Davenport. The bitter with- I drew in 1852. Like early New England colleges, it is under no ecclesiastical control, and no sectarian influence ' is exerted. A freshman class was formed in ISoO; ladies I admitted 1857 ; a four years' scientific course established | 1867. It has graduated 58 young men and 61 young ! ladies : of the latter. 56 graduated from the Ladies* course < (three years), and 5 from the college classical course. The j SL-icntific course contains some studies usually deemed post- ' graduate. Preparation for it includes the same Latin and iJreck as preparation for the classical course. Civil on- gineering and surveying are taught with practice; also chemistry and physics in both courses, recitations and laboratory-work occupying alternate weeks. English is ' taught from the Anglo-Saxon sources on the thorough plan of Prof. F. A. March. LL.D.. in Lafayette College. Pa. Norma! instruction, a year's course, is contemplated, the | spci;ial training in metho<ls being open to students in all the courses, and the English department becoming a model or practice school: normal students to teach in its classes one hour a day. Classes in the ladies' course recite with college classes to the college professors. There is a classi- cal academy preparing for both courses. The aim of the founders has been not to compete in mere numbers, but to surpass in standard of scholarship, thoroughness, an^l dis- cipline ordinary Western institutions. The professors aro eagerly sought lor their superior qualifications by older Eastern institutions, and the progress of the college has been crippled thereby, as well as by losses by fire. It is supplied with chemical and philosophical apparatus. The now Central College, erected 1872, is the most beautiful and convenient college-building in Iowa. The annual number of students is 250. In 1860 the college was removed from Davenport to Piiwesbiek co., in the centre of the State, where Hon. .7. B. (Jrinnell bad founded a colony-town bearing his name, composed of Eastern people entirely, in which no intoxi- cating liquor is sold, and there are no lager-beer saloons, billiard rooms, or other places of lounging and dissipa- tion. The largest Protestant church W. of Chicago is here — a Congregational church of over 530 members. The re- ligious influences of the college have alw.ays been very strong, though unsectarian. Nearly half of its male grad- uates have chosen the Christian ministry : some are foreign missionaries. Its endowment is less than $100,000. and its two largest benefactions have been — S30.000. for the en- dowment of the presidency, by Hon. Samuel Willisfon of Easlhampton, Mass., and $20,000. for the Latin professor- ship, by the late Aaron Benedict, Esq.. of Waterbury. Conn. It holdi the most central position in the State, :it the ernss- ing of the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. R. and Cen- tral R. R. of Iowa, connecting every section of the State. Geo. F. .Magoi'n. Iowa Falls, city of Hardin eo., Ta.. on the Illinois Central R. R., and 143 miles W. of Dubuque, on the Iowa River, which hero has a succession of rapids which give name to the town. The scenery hero is remarkably fine, and the city itself is one of the most attractive in the State. It was founded in 18ol),and incorporated as a city in 1870. It has a weekly newspaper, a fine graded school, and sev- eral churches. 0. W. Gaurison, Eu. "Sentinel." Iowa Intlians, a tribe of aborigines of the Dakota stock, formerly inhabiting Iowa and Northern Missouri. They were closely allied, not by race, but by association, to the Sac (Sauk) and Fox Indians. They at present num- ber 225 souls. They ocL'Upy 16,000 acres of the (Jreat Nemaha reservation : the rest belong to a band of Sacs and Foxes. The lowas are superior in industry and intelli- gence to most Indians. They receive a handsome annuity from the government, and sustain an orphan asylum. Iowa Point, post-v. of Iowa tp., Doniphan co., Kan., on the Missouri River and the Atchison and Nebraska R. R. Pop. 212. IpaH'a, post-v. of Fulton co.. 111., in Pleasant tp., on the Chicago Burlington and Quiney R. R. (Buda and Rush- villo division). It has I weekly newspaper. Pop. 4SS. Ip'ecac, an important drug, the dried root of CcphaeliB Ipccacuaiihri, a small shrubby perennial ])lant, natural or- der Rubiaceo>. growing in damp, shady forests in Brazil. The root is slender, from four to six inches long, and marked with annular ridges. The stem is also slender, and rises but a few inches from the ground. The plant bears sel- dom more th:in six leaves: the flowers arc white and very Somali, and collected into a closely packed grotip surmount- ing a round axillary footstalk. The root is gathered by the natives, cleaned, dried, and exported in large bags or bales. It yields a fawn-colored j)Owdcr of peculiar smelt and acrid bitter taste. Its active jirinciple is an alkaloid, <//i*-/rn, which, when pure, is a white uncrystallizabic jiowder, diffi- cultly soluble in water, but soluble in alcohol. The common impure article of the shops is in transparent brownish-red scales, delitjuescent, and very soluble in w.itcr and alcohol. Ipecac, locally, is mildly irritant, but some persons are fo susceptible that merely opening a bottle of the powder will cause sneezing, and even an asthmatic seizure. Taken internally in minute doses, as one-sixth to one-fourth of a grain, ipecac, like other irritants, tends to increase the ap- petite and promote digestive vigor. In somewhat larger quantities it disturbs the stomach, and causes relaxation of the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal and air- passages, with accompanying increase of their secretions. In large dose it causes speedy vomit inir and nausea, and a still greater etfect on the mucous membranes just men- tioned. Ipecac is accordingly used in small dose as a stomachic tonic, in somewhat larger as a relaxer of the dry and stiff"ened condition of the respiratory mucous mem- brane in the first stage of a catarrh, and in still larger doses as an emetic. With certain precautions the emetic efl"ect even of a largo dose may be avoided, and thus given ipecac is a valuable remedy in dysentery. Powdered ipecac and opium, 1 part each, and potassium sulphate, 8 parts, form the well known "compound ipecac powder" or ** Dover's powder." Ehwahd Cnnris. Ipliic'rates, b. about 419 u. r., was an Athenian gen- eral, and distinguished himself greatly in the Corinthian war(;J!J5-oS7 u. r.) by organizing a force of light troops, pel- taatir, with which he routed the Lacediemonian army near Corinth in IVJ2 b. r. After the peace of Antalcidaa he went to Thrace, where he fought in the service tA' Cotys, whoso daughter he married, and where he founded the city of Drys. In ;t77 he commanded the Cireck auxiliaries who followed Pharnabazus, the Persian satrap, on his campaign against Egypt. A disagreement arose bet\veen the tireek and the Persian commanders, and Iphicrates fled to Athens, where Pharnabazus tried to arraign him for treachery, but failed. In the social war Iphicrates once more commanded the Athenians, but though successful, was again accused and acquitted. D. about :150 u. c. Cornelius Ncpos has given a short sketch of his life. Iphigeni'a, the daughter of Agamemnon and Clylcm- nestra. When the (Jreck fleet lay bound by a dead calm in the port of .Aulis. the soer Calchas declared tluit the wrath of Dian.a was the cause of the calamity. Agamem- non had ofifondcd the goddess in former <hiys by killing a stag in her grove, and in order to propitiate her he had vowed to sacrifice the most beautiful born to him within a year, but as this hiippened to be Iphijjeiiia. he had not ful- filled the vow. Iphi'jenia was now brought to Aulis, but when carried to the nitar to be sacrificed, Diana herself took her away and brought her to Tauris, where she oflici- ated as priestess to the heaven-fallen image of the goddess. In after years Orestes, her broiher.camc to Tauris with the purpose of carrying away this image, but was captured and brought to the priestess to suller death in atonement for his intended crime. The brother and sister recognized IPOMCEA— IRELA N D. 128S Cftch other, and flcJ with tho divine ima<;e. This subject has been used by Kuripide:*, Hncine, and (ioethc for trage- dies, ami by Gluck for an opera. Ipomira. Peo Jalap. Ipsambiil. .•^ce Aur Sasibi'l. Ip'sara^ or Psara, a small itiland in tho Grecian Archipelago, W. of .Seio, belongs to Turkey. Jt is rocky and barren, but was densely peopled and very jirosperous befiirc the Greek revolution; but having been takeu by tho Turks in isiil, its conirncree was destroyed, its agriculture fell into decay, and its population decreased very much. At present its inhabitauts live mostly by fishing. Ip'sus [Gr. 'Ii^ous or "Ii^o?], small town of Phrygia, .Asia Minor, celebrated for the ;^reat battle fought there { u. r. ;I01) between King Antigonus and his son, l>cmetrius Polior- cetes. and the combined forces of Cassander, LvsntAcnis, pTui.KMY, and Sklkitis (see these names), in which An- tigonus was slain and his dominions conquered. In tho seventh and eighth centuries A. D. Ipsus was the seat of a Christian bishopric. It has been idcntiticd with tho modern ffj/iiU Jlt'etiar. Ips'wich, town of England, the capital of Suffolk, on the Orwell, which is navigable here for vessels of 200 tons burden. It has many good educational institutions, among which are a grammar school, founded by Cardinal Wolsey, who was born here, a mechanics' institution, and a work- ingmen's college: large iron and soap factories and exten- sive shipbuilding docks. Pop. 43,130. Ips wich) town of Queensland, Australia, on tho Bremer, was incorporated into a municipality in ISGO, and is a grow- ing and jirosperous place. Pop. 0092. Ipswich, tp. and post-v. of Essc.t co., Mass., 27 miles N. K. of Boston, on the Eastern R, B. and on Ipswich llivcr, 3 miles from the sea, has manufactures of shoes, soap, boxes, hosiery, isinglass, 2 woollen, 2 planing, 3 saw, and 2 gri^t mills, a weekly new?papcr, a public library, a ladies' seminary, savings bank, churches, an insane asylum, and a house of correction. The taking of clams employs some 200 men. Pop. 3720. E. L. Davknpout, Ed. "Cnnoxicr-E." Tra, tp. of St. Clair CO., Mich. Pop. 1580. Ira» post-tp of Cayuga co., N. Y. It contains 3 villages and 1 churches. Pop. 2014. Ira, post-tp. of Rutland CO., XL, ^y miles S. W. of West Rutland. It has manufactures of lime. Pop. 413, Irak'«/\j'enice^ the central province of Persia, trav- ersed by ranges of naked an<I barren mountains, which from the high Klbo()rz in the W. by degrees lower down into a desert table-land in the E. The valleys along tho rivers, some of which lose themselves in the desert, arc fer- tile, and the province contains several of tho largest cities of the empire, such as Teheran, I.-^pahan, and Koom. Irak'-Ar'abee, province of Asiatic Turkey, between tho Tigris und Eujthrates, and westward from the Euphrates to tho de?ert. It contains tlio ruins of lIai>ylon, Solencia, and Clesiphon, and is inliabitcd by nomadic Arabs. Cap, Bassora or Basra. Iran. See Pkrsia, Iran'ians [from Iran, the native name of Persia], a branch i»f Iho ,\ryan or Indo-European family, now com- prising the Persians, Armenians. Afghans. Kurds, and sev- eral isolated tribes in Beloochistan and In»Iia, the river Indus properly forming their eastern boundary, although tho Parsocsfso called from their Persian origin) are nu- merous in Bombay. Their original seat appears to have been near the sources of the Oxus, whence they spread in various directions, especially occupying the great plateau of Persia and the mountainous region of Armenia; they also penetrated .\sia Minor, and during the flourishing pe- riod of the Persian empire dwelt as far \. as the Caucasus and established colonies in the Crimea. They intermin- gled with kindred tribes, and tho modern Persians have a largo infusion of (Georgian and Circassian blood, so that their complexion is fairer and their features more regular than are foiin<l among the Afghans, who are probably (he host type of the purely Iranic race, of whiclt in ancient times the Mcdes and Persians were the mostnolaiile repre- sentatives. The Modes are Iho first franie race specially mentioned in hist()ry. Aceording'to Berosun. they wore a powerful pciiple as early as 2100 n. c, when a .Median dy- nasty ruhMl in Babylonia: but at a later peri'nl this waa expelled, and the Medes became, at least notniually, sub- ject to the great Assyrian empire, froiu which Ihey were tho first uf the subject tribes to revolt; and with this revolt Herodotus begins his history of the .Meilinn empire, whoio limits do not uppeiir to have been very ncenrafcly defined. In general, it may bo said to have extended on tho N. to the mountains near Atropatene, on tho S. to Susiana, on the E. to tho Caspian, and on tho W. to the river Zagros, which separated it from Assyria and Babylonia. The an- cient Persians were essentially identical with tho Modes, though somewhat ruder: botli were divided into varittus tribes and clans, the names of which, and littlo more, have been preserved by Herodotus. For the partial recovery of the ancient Iranic language we arc mainly indebted to our knowledge of the Sanskrit. Its oldest phases lie buried in the sacred books of the Parsces and in cuneiform in- scriptions of the time of Cyrus, Darius, ami Xerxes. Tho name Zeixl has been improperly applied to thit! language; this properly belongs to a translation into tho Pehlevi of tho sacred book of the Zend-Arcsta; recent German plii- lologists style the language the Old Bactrian. The first attempt at a grammar of this language was made by Tlatig in his Eesin/a on the Sncrcd Latif/uaffc, Writing, and lirliff- {on of the Parnrca (Uomhiiyf 1802} ; in ISfU, Justi published a Hnndbuch d^r Znidttpyriohr, in which he gave a lexicon of the Olil Bactrian. to which valuable additions were made by Lagarde in iiis /iritrdrfc -^ttr bnktrinrhm Lr.ricirfrfrphie (ISOH); in l.sOi appeared Spiegel's dvammatik der Ait- baktrinchen Spracht'. The Pehlevi is Iranic, and was prob- ably used as a literary language from about the third cen- tury ; it is known through inscriptions, coins, and gems, and the translation of the AvcHtn and a few other religious books; it maintained itself until the development of tho moiiern Persian, which is Iranic in its granimatic struc- ture, but contains a large number of Arabic words. E. of the territory of modern Persia are tho more jturely Iranic dialects of tho Afghans and Beloochees, and W. of these those of Ossetes, Kurds, and Armenians. The Iranians may be considered as the connecting link between the In- do-Europeans of Asia and Europe. A few of them are- nomadic, but the majority are agriculturists, craftsmen, and traders. (Sec Spiegel's Er&nische Alterthnmekundef Leipsic. 1871-73.) I'rasbiirg, tp. and post-v., county-scat of Orleans co., Vt. It has a national bank, manufactures of lumber, and the county buildings. It is 42 miles N. N. E. of Montpclicr. Pop. lOSJ. Irbit'9 town of Russia, in the government of Perm, at the confluence of tho Irbit and the Nisa. It is famous fur its annual fair, held in the montlis of February and March, and attendeil by a great number of European and Asiatic merchants. It is the largest fair in Russia, next to that of Nishni-Novgorod, and good.s from China, India, Per- sia, and Europe to the value of $25,000,000 arc brought I together and disposed of. Pop. 3100. I Iro'dcll, county in the W. of North Carolina. Area. I 600 square miles. It is hilly, fertile, and well watered I and timbered. Gold is found in some parts. Cattle, grain. I tobacco, and wool are staple products. The county is i traversed by the Western R. R. of North Carolina. Cap. I Statesvillc. " Pop. 10,931. I Ircdoll f.lAMKs), b. at Lewes. Sussex co., England, Oct. 5, 17.") 1. 11 ud settled in North Carolina in 17G8; was admitted to the bur in 1770, took an active part in tho cause of inde- pendence, was elevated to the judicial bench in North Caro- lina in 1777, and in 1700 was ap])ointed <ine of the associate justices of the Supreme Court of tho U. S. He was a man of extensive learning and great ability. Ho published in 1790 tho Lmr.H 0/ AV/r/A Car<dina 17-1590, D. at Edenton, N. C, Oct. 20, 1799. A. II. Stei'iikss. Iredell (.Iamks. Ju.), son of .Tames Iredell, b. in North Carolina Nov. 2. I7S8. at Edenton; graduated at Prince- ton ; was a member of the State legislature for a number of years, and Speaker of the House part of the time. In tho war of 1.SI2 he commanded a company of volunteers who wont to repel a threatened British invasion at Norfolk. Va. In IS19 he was appointed to the circuit court bench of his State. In 1S27 he was elected governor of North Candina, and was U. S. Senator from that State 1828-31. Aftcrthis ho was a reporter of the decisions of Iho State Buprcmo court, publishing thirteen volumes of law and eight of equity reports. D. at Raleigh, N, C, Apr. 13. is:.3. Aiir. 13. IS..3. A. H. Sn;i'iiKNS. Ire'land [lir. 'lourpWa, 'I^pi/ij ; Lat. Uibernia, Iheruin, • Ivrrntt, .hivnm ; Celtic or Erse, irrnc^ AViri], tho second I largest of the British isles (see (iukat Biutain). lies be- I tween lat. 61^ 2H' and :>5° 23' N.. and Ion. 5** 20' and Hi° I 20' W. of Greenwich. It is washed on throe sides by tho I open Atlantic, and separated from Great Britain by the I Irish Channel or Sea. Its greatest length is ."03 miles, its I greatest breadth 177, and it has an area of 32,2Sri squaro I miles, exclusive of that of 190 smaller islands belonging to I it, who.'io area is 210 square niiles. [ lirlir/. — By far the greater ])orti'Mi of tho island consists 1 of a level or undulating plain, filling up nearly tho wholo 1290 IRELAND. centre from sea to sea. and consisting to a great extent of bo'S, wliicli are incapable of cultivation and impart a dreary aspect to the country. The most extensive of these bo»s is tliat of Allen. The hills generally rise in isolated groups near the sea. If we assume the waters of the ocean to rise to the extent of only 500 feet, tlicy would cover 77 per cent, of the entire surface, and the bills would rise above them in the shape of more than 100 islands, encir- cling a shallow central sea. The most elevated of these mou'ntains are in .=;oath-\vestcrn Ireland, where the Carn 1 Tiial rises to a height of 3401 feet. The Wicklow Moun- tains near the E. coast culminate in the Lugnariuilla (.'iO.TJ feet ). In Mavo the mountains attain a height of 2038 feet; in the N. of Ireland they rise to 2228 feet (Mount Sawel), an.l in the county of Antrim to 1S02 feet (Mount Trostan). H,,,lror/raphj.^T)ic rivers of Ireland flow for the greater part'through plains, enlarging sometimes into lakes, and navigable in several instances almost to their source. Tlic Shaiuion is the most important amongst them. It rises in the county of Caviin at an elevation of 345 feet above the sea, .and enters the sea below the city of Limerick. It forms several lakes, amongst which Loughs Allen, Rec, and Dorg are the most important, and is navigable .as high up as the former, a small portion above Limerick excepted, where navigation is obstructed by the rapids of Doonass. It frequently inundates the surrounding country, in spite of expensive engineering works erected to regulate its course. The Lee is only a small river, but forms the im- portant harbor of Cork'. The Barrow enters the sea at Waterford, and is navigable as far as Athy, whence there is a canal to Dublin. ThoLiffoy is remarkable solely because it enters Dublin Bay. The Boyne is the most important river on the E. coast of Ireland. It is celebrated on ac- count of the battle of the Boyne (1090), but navigable only for 20 miles above its mouth. Tho Bann rises in the Mourne Mountains, and after a course of 40 miles it enters Lough Neao-h. It loaves that lake at the north-western corner, and'enters the sea below Coleraine. Owing to its rapid course it is navigaljle only in parts. The Foyle flows into a bay on the N. coast of Ireland, 6 miles below London- derry. The Erne forms several important lakes, and is navigable almost throughout its entire length. The Cor- rib forms the discharge of Lough Corrilj, and enters the sea at Galway, on the W. coast of Ireland. A subterranean rivor, 5 milcs'in length, connects Lough Corrib with Lough Mask. Ireland abounds in lakes. The most important amongst them are Lough Neagh (158 square miles), in the north-eastern part of the country ; the lower Lough Erue (43 square miles); Lough Mask (34 square miles); and Lough Corrib (08 square miles) ; Loughs Derg (30 square mild) and Ree (50 square miles). Climate. — The temperature of the central part of the country has been estim-ated at 50° F., that of tho S. at 51.5°. and of" the extreme N. at 48.5°, the difference between N. and S. thus only amounting to 3°. The mean temperature in winter is 4l".5°, in spring 47°, in summer 60°, and in autumn 51° F. The temperature is thus even more equa- ble than that of the British Isle, a feature to be traced to the influence of the Atlantic, which is likewise answerable for the greater amount of rain which falls throughout Ire- land, and for the greater moisture of the air. These cir- cumstances are most conducive to a luxuriant vegetation, and the name " Emerald Isle" is perfectly apiiropriate ; but they interfere to some extent with agricultural opera- tions. The average rainfall throughout Ireland may be esti- mated at 40 inches annually ; in the W. and S., and particu- larly in tho hills of Kerry, it is greatly in excess of this, but on a portion of the eastern coast it hardly exceeds 25 inches. tfrii(or0.— Ireland may be divided geologically into three regions— viz. tho great central plain. Northern Ireland, ami .Southern Ireland. The whole of tho former is occu- inhabitivnts. In 1811 this population had increased to 5,937,856, and it continued to increase until 1841, when it numbered 8,175.124 souls. But then came apotalb famine ; thousands died of starvation, and an immense impulse was given to emigration. In 1851 there were only 6,552,385 inhabitants; in 1861, 5,792,055; in 1871, 5,412,.377. The decrease is still going on atthepresent time, though at a less rapid rale than formerly. It was due, in the first instance, to famine, but is now brought about entirely by emigration. Irish emigrants not only cross the ocean in search of a new home, but they have likewise invaded Great Britain, much to the annoyance of the native working population, upon whose w.age3 this immense influx of unskilled labor has exercised a considerable iiiftucuec. (.See Gueat BiuT.viN.) Between 1851 and 1861, 1,149,118 persons emigrated from Ireland; between 1861 .andl871, 708,859 persons, exclusive of those who merely crossed over to the sister island. The population of thocountics of Ireland in 1871 was as follows : County. in acres. Carlow 221,-i43 Dublin - 22G,8nD Kildare 418.497 Kilkenny 509.732 King's county 493,98.5 Lonsford 2B9.409 Louth 202,124 Meath •. 0'9.8t.l Queen's county 424.8.'>4 Westmeath 453,468 Wexford 576,.WS Wicklow 500.1 1° Leinster 4,876,984 Clare 827,994 Cork ■.'.'.'.■.■.■.■..'. 1,849,085 Kerry l,18.i,918 Limerick 080.842 Tipperary 1,061, <31 Waterford 461.5.:)2 Munster 6,067,722 Antrim 76-3,749 Armagh 328.086 Cavan 477,394 Donegal 1,197,154 Down 010,740 Fermanagh 457.369 Londonderry 522,315 Monaghan 319,742 Tyrone 806,657 Ulster 5,483,206 Galway ^i?^ Leitriin 392,.j(;3 Mavo *'?i;.','o-c Koscommon ""'''S-', Sligo 4bl.7j3 Connaught 4, 392.041 All Ireland 20,819.903 1,339,448 1,393,485 420.170 179,260 140.738 218,334 277,294 92.794 173,906 114.969 21 .5.766 1,833,231 84(^213 5.412.877 The following were the towns having more than 10,000 inhabitants-In Leinster: Dublin, 254,808; Drogheda, 14 740; Kilkenny. 12,174; Wexford, 111,734; Dundalk, 10 4''8 In Munster: Cork, 78.642; Limerick, 39,3.')3 ; Waterford, 23,349; Clonmel, 10,112; Queenstown, 10,334. In Ulster: Belfast; 174,412: Londonderry, 25.242 : Newry, li364- Lurgan, 10,632. In Connaught: .Shgo. 10,0,0; Galway, 15,597. The majority of the inhabitants ol Ire- land are of Celtic race, and the earlier English immigrants have completely amalgamated themselves with them. In tho N E of Ireland, however, there are numerous linglisli and .Scotch settlers, who. being Protestant, exhibit a cer- tain amount of antagonism to the remainder ot the popu- lation. It is amongst these Irish Protestants that Orange lodt-es recruit their members, though of late years, and much to tho credit of tho people, religious animosities ap- be dying out. The English language is spoken Cretaceous, and Triassic rocks likewise occur in that part of the country, the latter near Belfast containing beds of gypsum and" rock-salt. South-eastern Ireland consists mainly of Cambrian rocks, equivalent to those of South Wales, upon which tho lower .Silurian strata (flags and slates) rest uneonforniably. In Kerry ami Cork the sand- stones and slates of the Devonian age are most prominently represented. , PopuUiiwn.—ln no country of Europe has there been exhibited within a recent epoch so vast an increase in the population, succeeded by an even vaster decrease, than in Ireland. In 1750, Ireland had a population of 2,372,634 agricultural schools have been established since 18. s ii parts of the country. The Irish generally refer their in- feriority in these respects to .absentee landlords and the uncertainty of tenure; ^nd although due weight should be given to tiiese causes, there is no doubt that local causes, such as the excess of small buildings as well as < •IT''r™c= of race, have had some effect. In "'<;?V=^1'" ^'^^,'"jS land act, one of the measures for the relief of Ireland passed recently by the British Parliament, should bo productive of much good. It places the Irish cultivator in a far better position than the' Scotch and English farmers, secures fixity of tenure, provides compensation for inexhausted IRELAND. 1291 12,745 1,171,837 318,091 K2.0G0 44,302 40,033 128,144 1,594.480 0,907,970 30.295 Horses, Caltie.. SlK'ep.. I'i 1863. 1870. 1»74. ,548 3.198 3;C94 1,305 533 3,800 4,337 1,101 526 4,113 4,i:)8 1,0U« improvements, and even facilitates the conversion of lease- holds into freeholds. Tho following are the agricultural statistics for IStiO and 1873 : ^^ ^^^^ Acre*. Acre*. ,,,l,o„t 409,042 108,435 n\,7 1,901,;!S4 1,510,089 itariLj.... 1>>K*» Here and rye ii,o— IkMHS and ]icas riilat">L'S Turnips -■ llict and mangold Cabbage, etc Vetches and rape I-las Mi<adow and clover Total under crops FilU'W •■■• WoikIs aiiii plantations 319,009 IVr.nan.Mit pa-slure ?/I?X''J2? TSt'w' «<»■' ind waste 3,;j1-V!2^ 4,rj/,o&- Wa"l?r .....". _i94.199 494,199 Total'area 20,819,892 20,819,892 Thcro can bo no doubt that the cultivated land has de- creased since ISCO, but not in the same rate as the popula- tion, whilst not much weight can be placed upon the differ- ent areas given for pastures and waste lanils. as those are elastic terms. The live-stock of Ireland (in thousands) was as follows : 18C0. 021 3,599 3,-538 1,209 Thcse'figurcs snCncicntly attest tlio gouoral and increasing pro-iierity of the country. /•Wicr/c".— The Irish tishorics were far moro important formerly than they arc now. In 18fil they employed 12,n:!:j boats, manned by 48,000 men and boys: in lS7:i only SloU boats. The dec'rca.se is duo to emigration and tho great demand for seamen. Tho Irish rivers swarm with salmon, and tho surrounding coasts with cod, ling, bake, herrings, pilchards, clc, yet Irish markets arc bein.g supplied with cnrcil fish from .Scotland and the Isle of Man. ;Wiiiiiiy.— The mining industry of Ireland is of very subordinate importance. In 1S71 there were only 28i2 miners, eng.igcd in coal, iron, lead, and copper mines, and in the salt-works near Belfast. Other metals, including gold and silver, occur. .l/.i;iii/V«'(urc«.— Ireland is not a mnnufuctunng country, as may clearly bo perceived on referring to tho slatomonts given under I'ireat Britain. The only munuliicture of any extent is that of linen, of which liellast is tho centre. The wh<do of the textile industry of the country is carried on in 2 Ci factories, having 1,002,70 J spindles and I S,l):)0 power- looms, and employing 01,812 hands (according to tho cen- sus tho textile inciustrics em)doy 17l,o2C hands). r,Vi)i«ic)-fr.— Inland in 187 I had a mercanlile marine of 17r.l scn-giiing ve.s.scls, of a capacity of 21 1,:!02 tons. The direet trade with foreign ccuintrics is comparatively trifling, us ibc greater part of the tr.ade is carried on through Kng- llsh and Scotch ports. The direct imports of foreign and colonial merchandise have a value of about £ 12,000,000 ; the direct exports of Irish produce do not cxccoil £1X0,000. The principal seaports arc l.)ublin, Cork, liolfast, Water- ford, and Limerick. There is no satisfactory record of the trade with Hugland, but the principal exiiorts consist of cattle, sheep, horses, butter, bacon, and other agricultural produce, porter, whisky, and linen goods. /trdi/iun and /'rovitiiin I'lir tin Siip/mrl. — According to tho census of 1S71, there wJre 4.i;iO.S(!7 Catholics (7«.7 per cent.), 007,9'J8 Protestant ICpiscopalians (12.1 percent.), 4U7,(ilS Presbyterians (11.2 per cent.), 4:1,411 Methodists, 4S,218 other dissenters, :iS14 Quakers, 28j Jews, and lOfi deists, etc. Tho bulk of the population is therefore Catho- lic, and tho existence of an established Protestant Church in connection with that of Kngland has always been looked upon as a grievance. In I8(iU this I'hurch was disestab- lished and disendowed, but annuities ami compensations have been granted on so liberal a sealo thatonl.va coin- parali\ely trifling sum will reiiniin after all liabilities have been met. After a payment of i.'iOd.ollll to the disestab- lished I'hurch in lieu of its private endowment, £;i72,:i:l2 to tho Catholic Maynooth College, ami £90,000 to noncon- formist bodies, there remained, on .Ian. 1, 187.). property valued at £ll!,7.)»,000 and producing £0211,022 a year. Liabilities (annuities, etc.) arc estimated to swallow up £11, .100, OIK) of this amount, and there will thus remain £j. 190,000, which are to bo devoted to educational and other purposes. Kiluciilinit.—A system of national education was inaugu- rated in 1845, but as these national s. 'bo, .Is are not ilenomi- national, thoy have never been supijortcd as heartily by tho ministers of different religious bodies as they ought to have been, and the education of tho people has suffered accordingly. In 1878 no less than 976,096 children at- tended these schools, but only ;!o.'),882 did so more than 90 times during tho year. The Hainan Catholic i)upils con- stituted 79.0 per cent, of tho whole number. There were 9S02 teachers and 381 work-mistresses, whose united sala- ries amounted to £501,004. According to the census_of 1871, there were 9490 primary schools, attended by 610,780 pupils, and 087 superior scho(ds, attended by 20,050. Amongst the superior schools Trinity College at Dublin and the Queen's Colleges at Cork, (ialway, and Belfast are the most important. These institutions are open to all alike, without reference to religious creed. There is like- wise a Roman Catholic university. Maynooth College is the principal institution tor the training of priests. y/(»toin.— ."iceording to tradition, Ireland was inhabited ori-inally hy Firboigs and Danauns, who were eventually sulHlued"by Milesians or Gaels. We know next to nothing respecting" Ireland for any period antecedent to the fourth century. °M that time tlio inhabitants of tho island vicrB known as Scoti, and they made descents upon the Roman province of Britannia and Scotland, and even upon tiaul. Christianity was introduced in the course of the filth cen- tury when' St. Patrick was the chief apostle of the new faith, and in the sixth century missionaries went forth from'the Irish monasteries to convert Great Britain and the nations of Northern Europe. At this early period Ireland appears to have been divided among numerous clans, who owned allegiance to four kings, and to an ard- righ or monarcli,to whom the central district called Mcath was 'allotted. The incursions of the Scandinavians, which bean in tho eighth century and continued for 300 years, cheeked the progress of civilization of Ireland. They cs- tal)lished themselves on the eastern coast, whence they made preilatory incursions into the interior of the country, until they were overthrown at the battle of Clonlarl, near Dublin ("lOM), by Brian Borumha, the "monarcb" of Ire- laml From the eighth to the twelfth century Irish scholars enjoyed a hi<'h reputation for learning, the arts were culti- vated, and the round towers are believed to bo remains of the architecture of that period. In 1150, Pope Adrian I\ . authorized Henry II. of England to take possession ol Ireland on condition of paying an annual tribute. In 1172, Henry made his first descent upon Ireland. He re- ceived the "homage of a number of chiefs, and authorized certain Norman adventurers to take possession of the en- tire island in his behalf. In the course of tho thirteenth century these Norman barons, favored by dissensions amongst the natives, had succeeded in linnly establishing their power, but in tho course of time their descendants identified themselves with the natives, even to the ex- tent of adopting their language. At length, the power of En-'lniid became limited to a few coast-towns ami to the" districts aroun.l Dublin and Drogheda. known as the " Pale." In 1541, Henry received llie title of" king of Ireland" from the Anglo-Irish Parliament, then sitting at Dublin, and several of the native i.rinces aekuowlcdged him as tlicir sovereign. The attempt to introduce the Re- formed faith led to repeated revolts, which were suppres.«ed. and the lamis of the rebellious ehiefs parcelled out amongst Protestant .Seolch an,l English seltlers. I he so-called ••Plantation of Ulster" took place in this manner under .lames I In 161 1 tlie Irish rose in rebellion and massacred the Protestants, but they were most severely punished by Cromwell, who overran the country in 1649. At the Kevo- lulion the native Irish generally sided wilh .lames II., the English and Scotch •' colonists " wilh « illiam and Mary, and the war was not terminated until 16112. Penal statutes were then passed against the Catholics, and the general dissatisfaction gave rise to numerous secret soeielies and to a rebellion in I 79S, which was not suppressed till Ist^O. On Iho Istof .lanuarv of the following year the Irish 1 ar lament was suppressed and incorporated with that of G real Bril.iin. From that year dates the existeuco of a Lnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. E. G. Uavi:nsti:in. Irclnnd (Wii.i.iam IIknim), b. in Lomlon in 1777, son of Saiiim I In'land, an engraver and autllor, who pub- lished several works of travel and tiixphiv nhutr(ilin„>, o/ llo;itiili ( 179 l-9y>. Ho was n]iprenlieed to a conveyaneer, and having aeeompanied his father u)ion a visit to Strat- ford-upon-Avon, he forged a lease containing the pretended signature of Shakspeare, which he said he bad diseoveied among some old law-papers. He afterwards executed other similar forgeries, and pro.lucod Koi-to/eni, a tragedy pur- porting to have been written by Shakspeare. which was acted at Drury Lane Theatre, Kemble playing the pniiei- pal part; this, wilh //,ii,.i/ //.. another forgery, was pub- lished ill 1799. The fraud was soon exposed, and ho abandoned bis profession, devoting himself to literary pursuits, writing several novels and The Xcjlvclvd Ociitui, 1292 IREN^US— IRIDOSMINE. a poem (1SI2). His Confcsnions (1R05) contain a full ac- count of his various forgeries : a new edition, with an in- troduction by Richard Grant White, was published in Kew York in IS74. D. Apr. 17, 1835. Irenir'us, one of the most distinguished of the early Church Fathers, b. in Asia Minor or Syria in the first half of the second century, probably between 120 nnd 1 10 A. d., and enjoyed as a yonn;? man the instruction of Polycnrp, the disciple of John and bishop of Smyrna. He went after- ward to (Jaul, and was a presbyter at Lyons in 176, in which yoar he vLsiited Rome. In 177, Photinus, bishop of Lyons, suflcrcd martyrdom, and Irena^us succeeded him in tht- episcopal ntlice. Hi? energy and zeal in liuilding up the Christian Chur(;h in (Jaul arc highly praised bj- his con- temporaries, but more particular events of his life arc not recorded. Some have supposed that he suffered martyrdom in the persecutions under Septimius Sevcrus, but as neither Tertullian nor Euscbius mentions any such event, it must be considered very doubtful. His position in the Church SclialT defines as '* the leading representative of the Asiatic Johannean school in the second half of the second century, tiie champion of Catholic orthodoxy against Gnostic heresy, and the mi-di a tor between the Eastern and Western churches. Ue united a learned (Jreek education and philosophical penetration with practical wisdom and moderation, and a just sense of the simple essentials in Christianity.'* Of his writings only the Afhcrttns Hivreaes has come down to us, and tliis only in a rather uncouth Latin translation, but, such as it is, it is of great importance for the under- standing of the movements in the early Christian Church. The best editions of the book are that by Stiercn (Leipsic, I83;i) and that by Harvey (Cambridge, 1857). Irc'ne [Gr. Eip^i-Tj. "peace"'], an empress of Constanti- nople, b. at Athens about 752, at seventeen became wife of Leo, son and heir of Constantino V., and upon his death in 780 was named in his testament as ruler during the minor- ity of their son, Constantino VI., then nine years of age. In 786 she called a council .at Constantinople to restore the images which had been l)anished from the churches ; but this being interrupted by the soldiery, she in the following year summoned another at Nica;a in Bithynia, at which the veneration of images was declared to be consonant with Scri])ture, reason, and the Fathers and councils. Her son was induced by his favorites to throw off the maternal yoke and proclaim himself emperor. Irene was secluded in one of her palaces, but conspiracies were formed for her restor- ation. In 797 an attempt was made to assassinate Con- stantine. but he escaped to Phrygia, where he was rejoined by his mother, who persuaded him to return to Constanti- nople, whore he was seized by the emissaries of Irene and his eyes pat out. She then ruled rigorously for five years, but the eunuch Niccphorus, her grand treasurer, having been secretly invested with the purple, arrested Irene, seized all her treasures, and banished her to the ishmd of Lesbos (802), where she gained a scanty livelihood by spinning. D. Aug. !5, SO.r Ire'ton (Hesry), b. at Attenton, Xottinghanishire, England, in 1010 ; studied law at Oxford, and took a con- spicuous part in the great civil war, becoming one of Crom- well's generals. In IGIG ho married Bridget, daughter of the future Protector. Ircton was taken prisoner at Nascby by Prince Rupert, but rescued the same day: he signed the death-warrant of Charles I., and accompanied Crom- well to Ireland in 1649. On the latter's return to England in 1050 the prosecution of the conquest of Ireland was en- trusted to Ireton. and prosecuted with vigor, not unmixed with cruelty. D. of the plague before Limerick Xov. 15, 1651, and was buried in Westminster .Vbbey, whence his remains were exhumed at the Restoration and burned at Tyburn. Ue left one son and four daughters. Irida'ceie [so named from the typical genus, /n*«], an order of the petaloideous division of monoctyledonous or endogenous jdants, distinguished by having only three stamens, alternate with the inner divisions of the a<lnate perianth and extrorse anthers: ami the leaves are almost always equitant. Some have tuberous root-stalks, others solid bulbs or corms. The juice in all is acrid. Tho prin- cipal economical products of the order are orris-root, from one or more species of /ri«, and Safkhon (which see), the deep orange-colored stigmas of CrocuM Hutirns. The order is mainly notable for the ornamental flowers it furnishes, such as those of /;■(>, Glttdiohtu, Tign'fh'a (or tiger-flower), and rV«»ci(«. Irises arc dispersed over the northern tem- perate zone, crocuses belong to the Obi World, but far the greater part of the order, especially those with solid bulbs, belongs to tho Cape of Good Hope. Asa Gray. IricVilim [Lat. iVr"». irt'iiin. the "rainbow"], one of the rare metals of the phitinnm group, was recognized as a dis- ! tinct element by Tcnnnnf in 1801. It takes its name from ; tho iridescence of its solutions. It has not been found in a | pure state, but is usually combined with osmium, forming the mineral species known as iridosmine, and with platinum giving the species platiniridiuiii. also in small (quantity with palladium and with native platinum. It occurs with these metals in varying, apparently indefinite, proportions, it is regarded as isomorjilious with ot^mium, the jiercentage varying from 4.'J to 77, an<i in the platinum alloy to range from 20 to 77 per cent. It is difficult of separation in a pure state from these metals, and processes for its extrac- tion, especially from osmium, have engaged tho attention of many of the most distinguished chemists. Persoz {Ann. <ir CItimie et dc P/it/MUfiK, Iv, 210) convert? the metals into sulphide by ignition in an earthen erucible with carbonate of soda and sulphur. Wiihler recommends ( Pof/f/. Aunafm, xxi. 101) the ignition to redness of the powdered alloy with common salt in a porcelain or glass tube through which a current of dry chlorine gas is passed as long as it is ab- sorbed. The resulting chlorides are dissolved in boiling water; tho soluti(m is concentrated and distilled with nitric acicl. by which the osmium is removed as osmic acid, leav- ing the iridium in solution. It is precipitated by chloride of ammonium, and the ignitiim of this precipitate yields metalHc iridium. Freniy roasts the ore in a current of oxygen at a red heat, by which the osmium is partly re- moved as osmic acid, and the remainder, after fusion with nitre, is distilled with nitric acid. {Comptea iivndug, xxxviii. 1008.) Clans {licitriujr ziir Cbcmic drr Plalin-mttuHe, Dorpat. 1854) fuses 1 part of the ore with 1 part of caustic potash and 2 parts of saltpetre. After pouring out and cooling, the fused mass is digested for twenty-four hours in cold water. Osmate and ruthenate of potash are dissolved, and are drawn off by a syphon. The portions of undecom- poscd ore are subjected to a second fusion after separation by washing from the insoluble black powder, which con- sists chiefly of the oxides of iridium, rhodium, and pla- tinum. Prof. Wolcott Gibbs, who has made extended in- vestigations of the chemistry of the platinum metals [Smith- Foui'an Co}itriiiutiojt/t, xii.. and Am. Juur. Sri., xxix.. May, 1860: xxxi. 63; xxxiv. 342; xxxvii. 57), employed this method with several essential modifications. He first fuses (ho ore with three times its weight of dry carbonate of soda, in order to remove the silica and other impurities. He re- duces the osmate of p(>tash obtained by the fusion with nitre and potash to osmite by boiling it in a mixture of alcohol and water. The ruthenate of potash is completely decomposed. The undi?solved portions are well washed with a saturated solution of chloride of jiotnssium. The platinxtni and iridium exist in the mass in the form of bichlorides, and their separation is eflected by the employ- ment of the alkaline nitrates, advantage being taken also of the different degrees of solubility of the double chlorides of tho platinum and alkaline metals. For the details of this and of the other methods rd'erenee is made to the memoirs cited. In all these operations great care must be taken to avoid the poisonous vapors of osmium. Devillo and De- bray have also publishcfl an important memoir on this sub- ject. {Ann. de C/iiwic it dc PhtfsiquCf 3d. Ivi. 385.) Iridium may be fused in the flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe or by the voltaic current, giving a hard, brittle. silvery-white metal, with a specific gravity of 21.15. When pure it is not acted on by acids or by aqua-rcgia. but is readily dissolved by the latter when alloyed with platinum. In its powdered state it is the best material for giving a pure black upon jiorcelain, anrl is largely used for tliis pur- pose. The bl.ack powder known as •' iridium-black " is ob- tained by decomposing a solution of iridic sulphate by alco- hol. It is similar to platinum-black in its action upon gases, and will ignite alcohol, .^n artificial alloy is formed by fusing iridium with platinum, which has valuable ]irop- erties for many jiurposes in the arts, but particularly for bushing the vents of heavy orrlnance. It is both hard, re- sisting wear, and indestructible by the gases of the powder. Specimens of this alloy in ingots three inches or more in length were exhibited at Paris in 1807 by Messrs. Johnson, Matthey »t Co. of London, known as " Matthey's alloy." One vent shown had fired ;;000 rounds from a Whitworth cannon without appreciable wear. William P. Bi.akk. Iridos'ininCf a native alloy of iridium and osmium, of great hardness and weight. It is usually in irregular flattened grains and scales rarely broader than the head of a pin. and has a tin-white or steel-gray color and metallic lustre. But the grains vary in size and form in different localities, and even from tho same locality, to such a de- gree as to indicate a great difference in the chemical com- position. It is also obtained as a heavy gray powder, and some samples resemble a fine gray metallic sand. Hex- agonal crystals have been observed. It is as hard as quartz, antl its gravity ranges from 19.3 to 21.12. It is found gen- erally with native jdatinum. and with placer-gold, but usu- .nlly in small quantity eoniparetl with the bulk of the gold. Nearly all of the gold-regions have yielded more or less of IRIS-IRISII LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 1293 this mineral, it ImTiiig been obtained in the Urals, Cali- fornia. Australia. Pouth America at Choeo. in .Tapan. and cNcivhcrc. In California it is more abundant in tlie north- ern counties than in the midJlo or southern, and it is most abundant in the beacb-sand deposits of the ncrthcrn coast at and near Port Orford. According to Ur. Toricy. for a vear or two after the establishment of the V. i^. assay-ofhco in .\ew York the proportion of iridojiuiuc in the (!oUl from California did not exceed half an ounce to yl.UUO.OOO. The quautitv afterwards increased until the average was seven or cit-'hl ounces to the million of gold, but it after- wards fell off. showing great fluctuations, dependent, no doubt, upon the opening of new diggings. In melting lar^e quantities of native gold this heavy mineral settles to tTie bottoms of the crucibles, and accumulates there. It was the practice at the New York assay-offioe to separate it from the gold by melting the gold with twice its weight of silver, allowing the iridosmino to settle, then pouring off the gold allov. A mass containing nearly all of tho mineral remained, and was separated by repeated fusions with silver and a linal ingestion in nitric and mtro-munatie aci.l and washing. It has been found to accumulate simi- larly in the melting-pots used in California, and it is com- mon to obtain it in tho gold recovered from old crucibles and sweepings. It has been announced as occurring in the same wav in the sweepings of tho Japanese mint. It Bomctiine's, however, eludes tho caro of mint-ofliceis and finds its wav into coin. Its presence in gold used by jew- ellers or in the arts is a great disadvantage, for it cannot be cut by a file or steel tools, and so renders the gold unfit for working. Such gold has to be remeltcd. The superior gravity of the grains of iridosmino carries them to the bot- tom. "Analyses show that the perecntago of irulium in samples from different countries varies from 4:1 to 7", and of the osmium from 17 to IS. .Small qu.antilies of platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, and other metals are usually present. \ sample of tho mi.\ed metals brought from Port Orford, Cal.. separated from the fine scale-gold by amalgamation, was found to contain nearly 49 per cent, of iridosmino and 4^^.h^ of platinum. The value of iridosmino in the arts is chiefly as a source of iridium and for tipj.ing the nibs of gold pens, for which purpose its great hardness, .and the fact that it can be at- • tached to the gold by soldering, makes it peculiarly suit- able. Grains of the proper form and hardness are much sought for bv gold-pen makers. The flat scales arc not so suitable as those which are more round and solid and of great hardness. They differ in appearance, as doubtless in eimiposition, from the tabular crystals, and in the Califor- nia mixtures of this mineral such grains do not usually | constitute more than one-tenth of tho whole, but sometimes ] the amount is as great as one-fifth. The pen-makers care- fully select such grains. Tliey are so minute that from lO.tino to 15,000 of thein do not weigh more than an ounce. A cubio inch would weigh about eleven ounces, and at the price of $230 per ounce would be worth ?27.)0. After these grains have been atta.;hed to the tips of the gold pens they are ground into the proper shape upon emery-wheels, and sometimes with great difficulty owing to their extreme hardness. William P. Blake. I'ris [so named from its various colors], in the eye, is a thin contractile curtain, nearly circular in outline, sus- pended in the aqueous humor between tho cornea and tho lens. It is perforated bv an aperture called tho pupil, cir- cular in man and most of the .Mammalia, cbmgated m tho cat tho fox, the owl, and some other vertebrates. Its sub- stance is partly fibrous, partly cellular (pigmentary), and partly muscular. The muscle-fibres arc involuntary, some of them circular and sphinclerie, and some radiating. Tho former contract, the latter dilate, the pupil under the vary- ing stimulus of light. Opium and Calabar bean contract, while belladonna powerfully dilates, the pupil. In the fre- tal state the pupil is closed by the memliraua pupillartt, a temporary structure. Iris [Gr.'Ip.t], in classic mythology, tho daughter of Thaumas and Electra and sister of the Harpies. In tho llomcrio poems she appears as a virgin goddess, who aots OS messenger of the gods among themselves, as medium of communication between gods and men, and as conductor of female souls to tho shades. On vases and bas-reliefs Iris is represented as a youthful winged virgin, dressed in a long tunic, with a herald's staff and a pitcher in her hands. She is tho personification of the rainbow as tho messenger of peace; the name maybe cnnneeleil with .ipu, "to join," and with .Ip^i-.,, " peace." In the later poets Iris appears as wife of Ze]diyrus and mother of Kros. Iris [named for the goddess or the rainbowl, tho flcur- de-lys or flower-de-luce, tho leading genus of the order luiiiACK.F. (which sec), consists of numerous species of iiercnnial herbs dispcfsed over the temperate regions of Iho northern hemisphere, all with showy flowers, several of them familiar and ornamental in gardens. They spring from root-stocks or tubers, or a few from bulbs. Their leaves are cquilant and sword-shaped, and the flower is peculiar in having the three outer divisions recurved, while the three inner are incurved or erect, and the three branches of tho style are largeand petal-like, overaiching the three stamens, which lie hidden underneath them. The violet-scented orris-root, used in jierfumery and tooth-powders, is from Ilia Florculina,and no less from l.pallirln and f.Hcimanica, common species of flower-de-luce. All three arc cultivated in tho neighborhood of Florence for this purpose. There are several indigenous species in the I'. S., of which /. vergi- ciilrtr, the common blue flag, is most abundant from Canada to Florida. Asa Gray. Iris (now Kitmhnak or Yekil Irmali), the classical name of one of the largest rivers of Pontus in Asia Jlinor. I'rish Cor'iier, tp. of Greenbrier co., W. Va. Pop. 810. Irish Language and Liternturc. The Irish or Gacdbilic lun^'uage is spoken in Irchuul. in the Hebrides and Highlands of Scotland, and in the Isle of Man. It belongs to the Celtic group of the Indo-European tongues. Its relation to English is not greater than that of English to Italian, while it is related to Welsh in about the same degree th.at English is rilaled to (Tcrmnn. The word Erse is applied to that dialect of it spoken in Scotland, and is merely a form of the word Eri/Khf or Injuh. Those who speak Irish, whether in Ireland, Scotland, or .Man, call themselves the Gaedhel and their language Gacdbilic. A language spoken throughout a region inclnding so many isolated districts has probably had several dialects from remote times, but these are of small literary importance and differ in no considerable degree. Till within the last ;iOO years the language of Gaedhilic books, wherever writ- tcij,"was almost nniforni. Thus, Bishop Carsuel's prayer- book printed in Scotlaml in l,'>r)7 does not dillcr from books written at the same age in Ireland. At the present day tho most distinct from pure Irish of Gaedhilic dialects is that of the Isle of Man. The Manx has a curious orthography, based upon Bishop Wilson's Bible, printed in \'bi, and it contains a good many words borrowed from the Welsh and from the Northmen." The Gaedhilic of tho mainland of Scotland differs from that of the isles, and the isles difl'er among tbemselvos. In Ireland the dialect of the southern half differs from that of the northern ; Connaugbt differs slightly from Ulster ; Kerry from tho rest of Monster. Underlying these trivial differences is a common gram- matical structure. Tho alphabet contains eighteen letters: I To these from an uncertain jieriod names taken from trees have been given. Thus, A is oi'/m, the fir; G is ;/.i;(, the ivy ; R, rtds, the elder. The characters in which these let- ters are usually written arc old forms of the Hoinan alpha- bet, and are fo'und in Early Saxon as well as in early Irish I MSS. Tho number of consonantal sounds is increased by I aspiration, a process which may be a)iplied to all tho con- sonants but I, m. r. Thus, ( aspirated becomes a slight guttural, and c aspirated a deep gultiiral. The system of aspiration, combined with that of eclipsis or silence of one consonant when preceded by another (as In, pro- nounced (), affords the basis of the system of inflection ; so far as consonants are concerned. The vowels a. o, ti, arc ealleil broad — '-, ', slen'ler. The alteration of broad syllables to slender and of slcmler to broad com- pletes tho means of inflection known to the language. Or- thography and pronunciation are based U|ion a familiar rule, riiiiih i'lnl luii" lialliiin Ir lcii(h(iii (narrow with nar- row'anil broail with bnuid). This means that in the same word vowels of eciual sound must be on opposite sides of a consonant. It is illu.-trated when English proper names are put into an Irish form ; thus, Cromwell will not do. be- cause o is broad and r slender, and it is made Cromaill. Irish has the usual parts of speech. It has two genders. There is one article on (Ihel. and it is declinable and of two genders. Nouns when written alono aro declined with terminal inflections. When preceded by tho nrMcle they have also initial changes. Grammarians differ as to llie number of declensions. Five are well establi'brd. The first is marked by an attenuation of the final syllable in the 1294 IKISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. eenitive, as h6yd (poet), Ren. b&ird. Most of the masculine nouns are of this (leclcnsion. Most feminine nouns belong to the second, which forms its genitive by the a.l.lition ot a slender sylliible. with consequent attenuation of the prc- ceilin" syllal>le, as ciUlcnrli (hag), gen. milUijhe. The thirJ 'declension forms its genitive by a broad increase, as cath (battle), gen. cntha. The fourth declension has a pe- culiar plural, but shows no change in the singular, as ciiKha (defect), n. pi. mxhaidhc. The fifth declension forms its genitive by addition of n, as mmnma (mindl. gen. mrunmau. Adjectives are declined as nouns, and are compared by use of the genitive singular feminine and a prefix, as </<•«< (white), nios c,ile (whiter). The pronouns in themselves have no peeu'liaritv, but their compounds w[th prqiosi- tions form one of the chief idioms of the langnngc. These compounds are used directly, as h mnHh nn n,rc a ihvg «, c//,H,'( (compound of dn, to, and /.i, thou)— "It was good the care which she gave to you "—i. e. " she took good care of you." To express pos.session, as Lvam sa nn imbhar (?.,"with, and mf, I)— "With me myself the book "— i. e. "the book is mine;" to complete a verb, as Tii dud ar/nm an {.HI. at, and mf, I)— "It is a wish at me in if— i. c. "I wish for it;" and in numerous other ways. There are also rcular possessive and relative pronouns. A'erhs are eon- uf-rated on one main plain. Their tenses and persons are formed by terminal and initial alterations of the root. There are two present tenses and two pasts. The second tense in each case, indicating action in a place, is called oonsuetudinal. Thus, root glan- (cleanse), active voice, prcs. (1) qlnnaim: (2) qlanam mf; past (I) ijhhtnas; (2) qhlnnninn: Mme. glan/ad ; infinitive, do tjhhtnadli : passive Voice, pres. (1) glanlar me: past (1) r/lauadh vie'; past (2) qlantaoi m<-: future, qlanfur; conditional, ,jhlanfa!dhc me; past participle, glanta: inf. do bheith glmla. The impera- tive active is the root; the imperative passive is the same as the present passive. The consuetudinal present has a distinct form in the active only. There are several irreg- ular or. strictly, compound or defective verbs. The main principle of the syntax is that the verb begins the sentence, as D' fa rl Scnm'ui ague to ghab vf Calhal au ri'ghcncht i I.' i,,i,d—" Died King James, and took King Charles the kin 'dom in his stead "— (. c. " King .lames died, and King Ch.irles reigned in his stead." The subjcet comes next, and then the rest of the predicate. The adjective, with a few exceptions (as scan bhenn. "old woman"), follows the noun, and its gender is marked by the affection of its in- itial, as ("11,7 m/Kfr, "great ship" (fern. ),/<■«)• mtfr, "great man." Here the initial of the adjective is aspirated where the noun is feminine. . Irish prosody comprised several metres. They consist in various combinations of syllables with alliteration and vowel-rhyme, but, except accidentally, they do not show I the En^iish syllnhie rhyme. The following example 13 j from an' ancient MS., and is the original of a well-known modern melody ; Thoralfjh en (Viviifina cats Is fail oil- aice rr a hais 1 tP Bhrifiin tanihhghil nar I'lm Do iMmcJiil aoinhhen Erim. " From Tory Island to rliodhna the pleasant, And a rins; of cold with her, In the time of Brian, brichl-sided, fearless, Went around Erin a solitary woman." Irish historians mention works written in pagan times in Ireland, and of these the most famous is the Saltair of Pm-n by Cormno Mac Airt, king of Ireland from A. D. 227 to ''I'lG It is stated to have consisted of metrical treatises on Hie' laws and usages of Ireland. Of this and other early works no more than the titles remain. The earliest existing examples of Irish are glosses, chieay on Latin MSS. of tho i Scriptures. These are found in codices of the eighth, and ; possibly of the seventh century. The libraries of Corpus and St.' .lohn's Colleges at Cambridge, of Milan and of St. ' Oall. contain examples. The glosses are sometimes of iso- lated words, but they arc often long'sentences, so that they ] illustrate completely the grammar of the Gaedhilic tongue at that remote period. A largo collection of such glosses i« to be found in Zeuss, Grammnlica Ccliiea, in Nigra, Mi- lan aiimcu. and in Stokes, GoidHha. Tho writings of this period are marked, among other peculiarities, by the ab- sence of the rule "broad to broad," etc., by indications of a neuter gender and of a dual number, and the language is called Old Irish. The next period is called the Middle Irish. To it the earliest complete works now existing be- loni. It fades gradually into the modern form of the lan- guage, which has beenestabli-shed without material change for about 400 years. It is to be borne in mind that the absence of works altogether in the oldest Irish is shown not to bo due to the intellectual torpor of its age, but to the fact that important compositions of Irishmen of that day remain in Latin. Thus, the wonderful life of St. Co- lumb Cille by St. Adamnan exists in MS. dating from the period of its composition, tho seventh century. The oldi book altogether in the Irish language is called l.mb!i,ir The oldest gether in the Irish language is called J.mbhnr na h-Uidhri. The original composition is referred by histo- rians to the sixth century, and to St. Ciaran, abbot of Cluain-mio-Nois, but the MS. now preserved, no doubt a copy from an older one, was written about tho year llflO by Moclmuiri m.ac Ceileachair. This venerable MS. is in fair preservation, and may be seen in the Koyal Irish Academy, Dublin. It is a collection of heroic titles, with a few pieces of other character, such as an account of tho royal buryiug-places of Erin, a sermon on the Resurrection, and one on the day of judgment. From the thirteenth cen- tury onwaril MSS. exist in large numbers. They are usu- ally collections of treatises made by learned individuals or by' communities. Divinity, law, physic, poetry, history, romance succeed one another, with no further sign of divis- sion than an ornate initial where each subject begins. The Lcahhar Brrac. or " Speckled Book." written by the M.ac Egans, the Book of Lciiisicr, and the Jlool: of nalli/iiiole arc examples. In each case the book is a body of tran- scription, tho editors being merely the copiers of earlier MSS. The period of collections of this kind is succeeded by that of separate works. The Annnta Hioi/hnchta Ei- r'rann. commonly called the "Annals of the Four Jlasters," Dr. Keating's Hittorii of Ireland, and the several works of Mac Firbis are examples in the seventeenth century. Print- ing in the Irish language did not begin till the third quar- ter of the sixteenth century, and the earliest specimen is a poem preserved in the library of Corpus College, Cambridge. After that time numerous books were printed in Irish in Dublin and on the continent of Europe. All the earlier and most of the later books are printed in the Irish cha- racter. The first Irish book printed in English type is a catechism for the island of Rathlin, published about 17.10. At the present day. excepting ancient works edited by scholars, the production of books in Irish is limited to a few translations, prayer-books, and now and then a little verse. . Turning from the actual MSS. and printed books to their subject-matter, Irish literature is found to have a wide Most works on divinity were written in Latin, but old range. a great collection of sermons and of hymns, some very old and curious, and innumerable lives of saints, exist. In this class two remarkable examples may bo mentioned^ the Ainhra Clinlulm Clilll! and the Fillre of Arngus. The former was composed in the sixth century by Dalian For- gaill, chief poet of Ulster, and is a poem on the death of St. Columb Cille. The latter is also a poem, and is of great length. After a preface explaining its origin, it recounts the saints of Erin and some of the greater saints of the Church at large, and their glories. Its in- trinsic merits are the simplicity of its thoughts, the purity of its devotion, and the richness of its imagery : and it is besides viiluablo from its numerous allusions to historical and topogr.ajihical points. The old MSS. contain a large number of legal treatises. From the extreme terseness of their style and their frequent use of obsolete words these works lire peculiarly difficult to translate. The best known are tho Scnrhun MiW and the liool: of Aicill. These are collections of legal maxims, of illustrative cases, of judg- ments and of principles on several branches of law, as on land-tenure, on wrongs and their remedies, and on social relations. The committal of the Scnelnm Mor to writing is referred by Irish historians lo the fifth century. From tho Irish word brcilheamh (a judge) these treatises arc often called lirehon laws. They are of profound interest, as showing the growth and history of a very ancient system of jurisprudence, influenced in no important particular by the Roman code. In historical romance Iri^h literature is particularly rich. The most famous of the old tales is the Tain lio Cnnlliinr. It tells of a war originating in strife about the finest white bull in Ireland. The men of Con- naue'ht invade Ulster, and the incidents of the war form ft largo part of the talc, and especially the feats of the great champion of Ulster in the first century, Cuehulbiin. The tale ends with the bull rnshing against a rock and dashing out his brains. Many talcs recount the deeds of heroes and saints, tho courtships of the beauties of old by rival champions, elopements, wars, travels. The Vni/agi: oj Va-ldnin's Corach describes an early voyage and discovery of land in the far West, which some late writers have thought to indicate a discovery of America. Of history one "of the earliest and most valuable works is Cogadh Gaedhel re Gallaibli—thc "war of the Irish with the Danes." This was probably written by one who lived in the last days of the wars, and may have been at the battle of Clontarf in lf>U. The Annah if the Four \fatter» is a history based upon ancient records. Michael OTlcry was its 'chief editor, but several other Franciscans took part in the work. It extends from the earliest times to 1616, and is a vast and, for the most part, reliable source IRISH MOSS— IRON. 1295 "f Information. The earliest translations into Irish are of nieces of the Scriptures. In the fourteenth century the travels of Marco Polo and numerous works on medicine ] were translated into Irish, and later the English version of the Bihlc. the !>,■ /mlmdmic ChrliU, and other devotional works, while in this century some of Miss Kdjreworth s talcs have annearcd, and Dr. MacIIalc has given the Il,.i<l and several of Moore's melodies. In the hist century and the one hefore a great many songs were written, and a few novels, llardiman's In.h MinnirfU;/ contains a collection of such songs. Some arc pleasant, hut many have niore merit in their simple, lovely airs than in their words I ho Irish lan-uage has for centuries been systematically at- tacked hy the English rulers of Ireland, and these efforts have at length succeeded in putting an end to its produc- tion of literature. It is to be feared that its life is almost at an end. and that in two centuries, at the longest, the air of Ireland will no more convey (taedhilic tones, and her peoide no longer use the speech which for 3000 years ex- pressed the thoughts of their ancestors. The best grammar of modern Irish is that of Donovan ; of ancient Irish. Zeuss. A grammar by .lohn O'NoUoy contains an excellent account of the differences of the provincial dialects. The best dictionaries are those of O'lieillv. O'Brien, .ind Macfurtin. O'Cnrry s I.cclurcHon Ihc MS. ^ralrrmh ,.f hixh Histor;! is a useful introduction to the literature. ' On the ecclesiastical literature. Dr. Uecvc's e.lition of .\d.amnan's life of St. Columb Cille, and the somewhat rare works of Colgan, should he consuUed. The puhlications of the English reeord-oSiec. of the Irish laws commission, of the Irish Archicologieal .Society, of the Ossianic Societv. of the Celtic Society, of the Royal Irish Academy, and of the Royal Areha?oIogieal Associa- tion of Ireland, contain numerous important works in the lan-uago. translated and e.liled by competent scho ars. (FoT the best account of early Irish (Brehon) laws and in stilnlions see Sir Henry Sumner Maine's recent ""''' of n mineral acid be added, with slight agitation, the irisito coa-ulates and totally separates. It is now profoundly al- tered, having become liiiolubic in all its former solvents. No analyses of pure irisito can yet be reported. Tlic no less singular mineral, nthrrlile, from the province of New Brunswick, was found by the writer to contain n liillr iris- ito and vi.'cosite. The grahamitc is claimed by some to be albcrtilc ((iesner, Maclarhine, <-t nl.), but C. M. Wethcrill found for albcrtite the following composition — Carbon 8B.U work, Lrcdtrcn on the Early Uintory of lml!l,il!<mH. 1S74 ) NoEiMAS Moohe. Irish Moss. See C.vnnAGF.r.x. Irish Sea, The, is situated between Ireland and Great Britain, and eonneeted with the Atlantic, S. by St. George's Chinnel and N. by the North Channel. Its greatest width is r'O miles. It contains the Isle of Man and Anglesey, besides some smaller islands. The principal inlets are the estuaries of the D.e. Mersey, an.l Uibblo in England. Sol- way Frith in Scotland, and Duudrum, Duudalk, and Dub- lin hays in Ireland. I'risite (I-at. irin, "rainbow"]. «■ ''"? singular resinoid substance wliieh is the main constituent of a peculiar American mineral, originally investigated by the writer, and called by him ,,,'•'•'•'"•"■■ Grahamitc occupies ver- tical fissurcs"in hori/.ontally-bedded rocks, so far as yet known only in Ritchie co.. West Va.. and at one other point —in tho centre of the continent, 100 miles W. of Denver, Col A sample from this latter locality, in the possession of Dr. .1. S. Newberry, has been identified clieniically by tho writer as genuine grahamite, containing about tho same proportion (SO per cent.) of irisite, the remainder beini' ViscnsiTE (which sect, just as in the West Virginia grnhamite. [The names originally assigned to tho two res- inoid constituents of grahamite by the discoverer wore u;»- i„r and vhrn.ine. Prof. .1. D. Dana has, however, cstab- li..l,cd tho terminology in He. and these must therefore bo mollified to in.He and ,!.r„.;te.] Tho probability is great that other localities will be found. Tho mean of analyses of grahamite by two analysts is— Carbon 7«-!!2 Hydrogen O.tygcn S..57 . 12.77 100.00 , of Hydrogen.. Oxygen Nitrogen ... f.06 . 1.97 . 2.93 100^ Density = 1.115. This is calculated independently of the 2 or .T per cent (irahamite is black in the mass; of resinoid, but variable lustre ; trace, dark chocolate-brown ; very soft, fusible under pressure, by reason of the highly fusible viseosito it con- tains, to' a tarry and frothy mass; is cmhiently tnliihle in chloroform, henV.ole. bisulphide of carbon, warm oil of Inr- iientine, and some other liquids. The visi-osite is readily dissolved <Mit friiin the irisite by ether or light petroleum- naphtha. The residual irisito may he obtained pure by sulution. Illlralion. and evaporation. Pure irisite is black, lirilliani, infusible with(wit decmposilion. like ulinino; which last, however, is wholly insoluble. This eomhina- linn of absolute infusibility with great solubility is cha- racteristie Its iio.W characteristic properly is that thin films of its solutions dry on polished surfac.'S to gorgeous riiiubi.w hues ; whence its name. If lo its solutions a drop Density = 1.09". —which differs irreconcilably from grahamitc. Its relations to solvents and chemical agents generally are also widely different. The trace of albcrtite is remarkably lihtck, sur- passing most charcoal in this respect, and nearly equalling anthracite. Both these minerals are believed by some writers (Lesley, Newberry, Fontaine, Macl'arhme. Jenney, r( al.) to be derived from liquid petroleum, and to he strict " asph.alts." formed probably in sihi. The writer, and with him Peckham, believe this impossible, both geologically and ehemicallv, but rather that they have been injected into their fissures in heated plastic condition. Dana also admits this latter view in his later editions. In 1856 the writer suggested that the West Virginia grahamite might be employed in the gas-manufacture. Since that, over ISO. 000 tons have been mined and used by gas companies throughout tlic U. S. for enriching coal-gas. (Under Vis- coiiTE some further information will bo given regarding grahamite.) "■ Wi,-ktz. Irit'is, a frequent and formidable disease of the eye, characterized by innamraatioii of the iris and the contigu- ous serous surfaces, by intolerance of light, by adhesions (^/ncchmala) to the surrounding parts, and by consequent distortion and immobility of the pupil. The color ol the iris also undergoes peculiar changes, so that the skilled diagnostician can usually detect its presence at once. When tho iris is at all actively inflamed, it also becomes quite insensible to the action of atropia. Iritis may bo traumatic in its origin, or may arise from overuse of the eve or from working in too intense light. It is. however, nsuallv ot' a rlieuniatic or syphilitic character. It is often very painful. Local bloodletting, iodide of potassium, mercurials, atropia, and finally tonics, such as iron, quinia, and strychnia, are employed in its treatment. IrUlitsk', goyernnient of East Siberia, bordered by (he governments of Yeniseisk and Yakutsk and the Chinese empire. Area, 207.555 square miles. Pop. ;)72,833. It comprises tho great Baikal Lake, but it is mostly mnun- tainous, traversed by the Nerchinsk Miniiilains and the .lahlomivy. Large tracts arc covered with pine forests; rye and oats are the common crops; rhubarb is much cul- tivated Of animals, reindeer, s.-ibles, ermines, and foNcs abound, and excellent fish, especially sturgeon and cod Gold silver, lead, jasper, topaz, emerald, rock-salt, and cal arc found. But agriculture and the transit trade between China and Russia arc the chief |uirsuits of Ihc inhabitants. Irkutsk, town of Siberia, the capital of the above gov- ernmenl. at Ihc confluence of the Irkut and the Angara, in lit 5''° 17' N and Ion. 101° Ifi' E. It is the scat of tho covcrnor-gcneral of East Siberia and of a Creek arch- bishop and has many educational institutions. Its houses aro mostly built of wood, and its manufactures of linen, leather, glass, and soap are merely local. But it is the principal station of the trading route lietwccn China, Siberia, and Russia, and large quantities of tea, silk, porce- lain, rhubarb, and furs aro hero exchanged lor European goods. Pop. 2.'i,S50. Irnc'riiis, Wcrncrins, or Garnicr, b. at Bologna, Italy in the second lialf of the eleventh century, becaino professor of Itonian law at the university of that city, m which capacity he discovered and expounded the /„«/i(i,tc« of .Instinian, and other eminent ancient jurists Ihus be- coming the restorer of Roman jurisprudence. D. at Bo- logna between 1 120 and 1 12S. I'ron ns n IMctnl. Iron is the most important metal at Ihe eommand of num. and the use of it, in its many dif- ferent forms, has elevated barbarism into civilized society. It may, then, seem strange to say that iron is a rare metal, but siich is the fact ; for it is almost unknown in a state of chemical purity. H is scarcely possible to obtain pure iron, such is Iho strength of its combination with certain ele- ments. The metal ordinarily known as iron is virtuolly n combination of the elements iron and carbon. According to the amount of carbon present the metal is called irrmiuhl i'r.,n, il'cl, mtillcutilc I'ruii, and runt i,;.ii or ;ii''/ ('• , begin- Vl'M IKON. ning with the metal containing least carbon. Wrought iron aiicT stool have been known from the earliest times. Iron was used by the Ejjyptinns. it is supposed, anterior to the time of Moses ; it was extensively applied by the Assyrians, and Indian steel was largely imported into Persia under the name of Parthian iron, which was steel in its rudest though a valuable form. The first steel produced in Eu- rope'^was maile in the thirteenth century in bars in small open lire.^;. while cast steel was invented by Huntsman litde more than 100 years ago. Cast iron was unknown till the fnurteentli century, having been made about the same time in England and in Elsass (.\Isace). The itraprilicK of iron claim our attention in the first place. They arc physical and chemical ; the physical prop- erties include the mechanical properties of the metal, and the chemical properties include its combinations with va- rious element.-i and the characteristics of its salts. Physical PiiOPKnTiES. — A./or. — Pure iron is silvery while, slightly grayish, with a mild but brilliant lustre. The color of the various forms is mainly determined by the amount of carbon present, since other elements, such as manganese, silicon, phosphorus, etc.. modify the lustre rather than the color. The color of wrou;:bt iron is gray, which is also that of steel, the varieties with most carbon being lightest in shade; in steel the color is darkest in the unhardened state, and when hardened the metal becomes whiter in proportion to its content of carbon. Cast iron varies from deep gray to white as the amount of free car- bon (irnphitc) present decreases. Fmcliirc. — Wrought iron has a fibrous fracture, the fibres bcin" longer and more silky the purer the metal is, the more it has been worked, and the more gradually like a tear the fracture has occurred. Steel is crystalline when broken : when hardened the crystalline character becomes almost imperceptible and the fracture conchoidal. Cast iron is also crystalline, white iron being crystallized in large plates, which decrease in importance as the graphite increases, till in deep gray iron the crystals are indistinct, so far as iron is concerned, but the graphite appears in scales of consider- able size. Specific Grnviii/. — The specific gravity of electro-de- posited iron is S.l.'ig: that of cast-steel bars and plates averages 7.823; that of tilted and hammered iron bars and forgings ranges from 7. 70 to 7.798 ; that of rolled iron plates and bars varies between 7.7(1 and 7.54 : while that of un- wrought puddled bar averages 7.40. We find that wrought j iron is very bad when its sp. gr. is less than 7.oO. The sp. gr. of east iron ranges from 6.85 to 7.35, that used in con- struction averaging 7.10. Cnnilticllou vf Heat and Elertricitij .-~T\\C conductivity of silver being 100 in each case, that of wrought iron for heat is 11.9, and for electricity 12 to 14. S. E.Tpausiini bi/ Heal. — From the freezing to the boiling point of -water cast iron expands in bulk 0.00:13, and wrought iron 0.00.^f) ; and wrought iron has a linear ex- pansion of 53^05 for each degree between 212° and 572° F, Cast iron e.-iposed to continued heat becomes pcimancnthj cxpanihd to the extent of U to 3 per cent, in length, so that grate-bars, for instance, should have 4 per cent, play. In cooling from a melted state gray east iron contracts 1 per cent., and white cast iron 2 to 2J per cent. In a stato of fusion the behavior of east iron is the reverse of that of leatcr, for the hottest iron is the densest and sinks to the bottom. This property enables us to melt it in a rcverbera- tory furnace by a flame applied on the upper surface of the metal, and also to keep it hot when melted. If melted iron acted as water does, it would be practically useless. t'nsiliilili/. — Pure iron is doubtless as refractory as pla- tinum, but its fusibility rapidly increases with the amount of carbon present. Cast steel is estimated to fuse at 4000° F., and cast iron at 27^0° F. Wclflini/. — Iron difl"ers from almost all other metals in the fact tiiat. though nearly infusible, its particles agglu- tinate at a white heat into a nearly homogeneous mass. All methods of producing wrought iron depend on this principle. Tcnaeili/. — In this quality iron vastly excels all other metals. The statements respecting the strength of .Amer- ican irons have been, unfortunately, overestimated by 25 to 30 per cent., owing to a defective method of breaking the test-piece at a point where its area was suddenly re- duced. Calculated for the original area of the test-bars, tho following arc correct statements of breaking strains : PoundH to sq. loch. Hard east steel 130,000 Medium " 110,000 .Soft " ft'i.OOO f 72 000 Rteel ■) **'^' '''*'* (homogeneous metal) < g.'i'ooo Pessemer steel (rails) 89.-')00 Spring steel 72.500 Puddled steel •[ f{l^ Wrought iron.... Cast iron PoQDdn to ftq. locb. Iron wire SG.OOO Bar iron CO.OOl) Plate iron 60,000 Unwrougbt puddled iron 30.000 ' StrouKcast iron 2.S,000 < Average " 16,500 \weak " 13,400 DiKlilili/. — Iron possesses this quality in a high degree, being excelled in it only by gold, silver, and platinum. The tenacity of a metal has a greater effect in producing ductility than has the malleability; hence, tho purer kinds of wrought iron can be drawn into wire of excessive fine- ness, even down to a diameter of 0,01 inch in continuous coils 49,000 feet long. Kesiataiiee to Compression. — Wrouglit iron under pres- sure loses shape and proportion like lead, and no definite point is marked at which ciim/iiii</ can be said to occur; yet under a load of 38.000 pounds per square inch the metal is too much distorted for practical use. Cast iron, on the contrary, can be crualicd by a load v,arying from 44,500 to 140,000', the mean usually assumed being 9.),000 pounds per square inch, or about six times the mean of its ten- sile strength. Wrought iron resists compression with a strength about two-thirds that with which it resists ex- tension. Hardness. — Iron is relatively one of the hardest of all metals, but there are among the various kinds many de- grees of hardness. Hardened steel is the hardest of met- als, and some kinds of while cast iron arc nearly as hard, while wrought iron and homogeneous metal are sometimes nearly as soft as copper. Stiffness and Elaeticili/. — Wrought and cast iron are elastic under a strain kejlt within certain limits, and both are safe in structures so long as the strain remains wilhin the elastic limit. There are two limits of elasticity — one for compression, the other for extension. Under compres- sion the limit of elasticity of cast iron may be stated as 35,000 pounds per square inch, that of wrought iron about 27,000 pounds, and that of steel say 70,(100 pounds per square inch for hard east steel and 3(!,000 for soft steel of finest quality. Under tensile strain the limit of elasticity of cast iron is about SOOO pounds per square inch, that of wrought iron about 2C.O00 pounds, and that of steel varies between one-half and two-thirds of the breaking strains of the various kinds. Bessemer steel, containing about 0.45 per cent, of carbon, breaks under aniininmni tensile strain of 74,000 pounds, and will bear in tension as well as in compression a ininlnmm strain of 3S. 000 ]iounds per square inch without exceeding its elaslic limit. It is a curious fact that cast iron i/ields at first to a given compressing strain twice as much as wrought iron, yet it will bearwith- out crushing three times as much pressure. Cast iron can he exposed under extension to a strain only one-third to one-fourth as great as (bat it bears under compression. Wrought iron will hear within elastic limits under exten- sion three-fourths of the force it hears under compression, but in practice it is usually taken the other way, owing to the fact that long struts of wrought iron arc very liable to fail by flexure. The limit of elaslicity. or the working strain of steel, seems practically equal for comprcs.sion and exten- sion. Steel is made more uniform tbanwrought iron,andwill therefore gradually supersede wrouglit iron in most struc- tures, with an increase of safety if not a diminution of weight. The pojjular term foii./Aiic«« means a combination of tenacity, ductility, and hardness happily joined to re- sist concussions and irregular strains. In judging a metal, tenacity alone would be a false guide, for hard, brit- tle steel .«how's the greatest tensile strength. Therefore, it is necessary to see that the melal stretches consider- ably before breaking: that is. not less than 5 to :!0 per cent, for good qualities of the different grades of steel, and from 30 to 60 per cent, for the different grades of wrought iron. Puch is iron as we all of us know il in its various forms and evcrv-day applications. The chemical properlies of the metal are not so evident as the tangible physical ones, vet thcv are the immediate cau.ses of Ihe great va- riety of characteristics cxhibiled by the various forms of iron. Chemical PnopEnriES. — Iron differs from all olher met- als in the fact that it combines at a high teinpenilurc with carbon to form fusible compounds : the fusibility of these compounds decreases as the carbon decreases. Iron rep- resents a most important group of metals, distinguished by their capabililv of combining with oxygen, chlorine, etc. in both odd and ercn proportions. These are iron, nickel, manganese, cobalt, chromium, and uranium. The first five are closely allied, have Ihe same atomic volume, and their specific gravities ami atomic weights form a regular .se- quence. The following is a list of iho principal salts of iron, Ihe atomic weight of iron being 5() : IRON. 1297 FfTTic Compoundi (odd). Perehlorlde...(F02)'H:i,{Fe,Cl3). Sesnuioxiilp..(Fe2)'iO''j(FejO,). Hyarated sosquioxide, H*'*" ["".l2Fe20„3HO). Scsquisulphide....(Feo)«iS",(Fe, S,). ferrous Compounds (rren). Prntorh!oride Kc'TUf FeCIl. Prntuxkle Ke"(>*'(KeO). Pnitosulphide -Fp"S"(F('S). Pnitosulpliate Fe"i^0"4/'-f 7HjO"iFeOSOa-i-7HO). Protocarhoiirtto, Fe'VC*'0"3/',Fe«CO»). In addition to these we have — Magnetic oxide of iron „Fe"(Fe2)»'0".(Fe3O4). MaRnetic pvrileit Fe"jS"B(Fe,S,). Bisulphide of iron Fe"S'V FeSi). The old notation with atomic woii:ht 28 is enclosed in brackctf". Of the ahove ?nlts. the protocarbonate occurs in nature as ?pathic iron oro. and the protosulphate as cop- peras tMi-'Ianterite^. The salts of iron possess an inky, astringent taste, but the two classes have marked charac- teristics by which they can readily Vie dislinpuishcd from each other ami from the salts of other metals. (1) Fer- muH SaftH. — These salts haven pale preen color. Alhali'ra throw down white or greenish-white precipitates, which qiiiikly oxidize and turn brown on exposure to air. Po- taiHium ferrirynuide (red prussiate of potash! occasions a bright-blue precipitate in neutral or acid solutions. (2) Frrrir Sufts. — In solution these salts exhibit a yellow or yellowish-brown color. AfkafirH throw down n reddish- brown precipitate, insoluble in excess of alkali. In neutral or acid soUiti<)ns pntnggtum fcrrirffnuiiie occasions no pre- ciiiitate. menly imparting a greenish hue to the solution. Solutions of ferric salts, to which an alkali has been added till a permanent precipitate begins to form, are completely decomposed on boiling, the iron being precipitated as an insoluble sub-salt. This properly enables us to separate iron from manganese, nickel, and colialt, which do not pos- sess it. Further, we find thai the protoxide of iron and the ferrous salts are magnetic, whilst the peroxide and fer- ric salts are not. The salts and compounds of iron are highly useful in the arts. Coppenis or green vitriol is a valuable disinfectant and a most imp»»rlant morilant in dyeing. The various sulphides of iron, in their natural state as pyriti-s, furnish most of the sulphuric acid of commerce. Iron unites with cyanogen and liydrogen to form acids, which in turn com- bine with iron, making ferro- and ferri-cyanides of iron, both of them brilliant blues, and the latter known as Prus- sian blue. A neutral solution of a ferric salt treated with tincture of galls yields a bluish-black precipitate possess- ing the peculiar property of remaining in a state of partial solution, as writing ink. In medicine, iron is an invaluable l(mic. ferric chloride especially, while the dried persulphate is a most efficient agent in stanching the flow of blood from wounds. The mrtftflui-f/irnt rfienn'ntrtf of iron can bo most clearly explained uncler the following heads: Iron ami 0.ri/f/rn. — Iron in a cttmpact slate suffers no change in dry air or oxygen at ordinary temperatures, but in a spongy state burns readily in air. In pure water iron remains unchanged, Viut the presence of carbonic acid causes a rapid oxidati(»n. which is counteracted by the presence of the alkalies and of lime, and by a coating of zinc. Sea- water dissolves the iron of east iron completely in the course of time, leaving the carb(^n. At a high temperature iron burns vividly in air, and ilecomposes steam nt a red heat, in each case forming magnetic oxide of iron. Welsh nail- makers keep llieir nails hot during forginc by throwing a little Mast uf air upon them. In the puddling furnace iron burns with great readiness. J'ittt<tri*lc of iviu is a power- ful base, and plays an impitrtant part in metallurgical opera- tions. It has a powerful affinity for oxygen, nncl the power of decomposing water. I'emsitir itf iron i» infusible ex- cept at high tcmpcTatures, when it is converted into mag- netic oxide. It has little or no alhnity for silica, but is caftily reduced to the metallic state by carbon, even without intimate contact, Mnijurtic oxidr uf iron is an important prodiiet and ni/mt in metallurgy, particularly in piififffim/. In the course of the oxidation of iron various oxiilcs are formed containing less oxygen than magnetic oxide, the most important being hummrr or Hmith Hntfe. fron find Ciirhon. — When metallic iron is heated in eon- tact with carbon, the result is wrought iron, steel, or cast iron, necnrding to the degree of heat :ippli<-d au<l the length of time. The induence of carbon in modifying the prop- erties of ir<tn is one of the most extraordinary phenomena of metallurgy, and the variations caused are so great that the compounds nre, practically, distinct mi'tnts. While there are no characteristic properties which <lislinguish one me- tallic compound from the others, and (he tliflerence consists mainly in tln^ degree in which particular chnraelers are pre- sented, yet in prnefiee the separation of the eompotinils is fixed by two striking phenomena — vir.. the tael that at a crtftin point graphite ceases to separate from ra»l iron slowly cooled, and the fact that ateel hardens on being Vol.. Tl. — S2 plunged at n red heat into water. The greatest total amount of carbon pig iron will contain is about 5.9 per cent,, but this is only when manganese is present, the ordinary amount being :i.2 to 4.7 per cent. Wlien the percentage of carbon falls to 2.2o. thecfit? i* oh refuses to ])art with graphite even when slowly cooled for days. Iron with 2 per cent, of car- bon is not malleable nor weldable. but falls to pieces on heating. When tiic percentage of carbon is about 1.75, the metal can iiarely be welded, but with 1..'j to 1,4 percent. of carbon the peculiar properties of ntcef are all clearly developed — viz. fusiiiility, combined with capability of hardening and weldability. As the carbon diminishes the two first qualities decrease and the third increases. With 0.4 per cent, of carbon steel con Ijarely lu- hardened enough to give sparks with flint, and below this percentage the compound is designated irroinjht irou, hut is calleil Htecfy iron or ]>uddled steel till the carbon falls to about 0.25 per cent. Bessemer steel, as now usually made, is a true steel. Soft wrought iron seldom or never contains less than O.OS percent, of carbon. Ordinary wrought iron is not homo- geneous in composition, but is made up of fibres or masses varying greatly in their percentage of carbon. The presence of other elements, such as silicon, phosphorus, etc., modifies the above boundaries, but not materially. Carbon exists in cast iron in two states — cnmhinffd curhon and qrnphite. The proof of chemical combination is given by the fact that infusible carbon heated with nearly infu- sible pure iron forms a fusible compound (cast iron), out of which, when very highly heated, part of the carbon sepa- rates as graphite. Iron containing much graphite is called firujf iron ; when, on the contrary, it contains much com- bined carbon, it is called ichite iron, the total amount of carbon being in ordinary pig irons substantially constant. The two kinds pass into each other by insensible gradations, and at a certain stage are both visible in the same jtiece, which is then called mottfrd iron. The varieties are often graded by numfrals into eight classes, but in this country usually into five, as follows : No. 1 foundry. No. 2 foundry. No. H or gray forge iron, mottled iron, white iron. The last two grades are often called forge irons. White iron, containing manganese, is called Spiegel iron. Iron (Cariton) tniil Mnnffftncnc — In cast iron manganese increases the amount of combined carbon an<l diminishes the amount of silicon. It is chiefly beneficial as a flux in removing sulphur, etc. In cast- and in Bessemer steel it is present in various proportitins, O.l to 1.0 per cent., and im- proves the working of the steel. It is seldom found in wrought iron. Iron (Carbon) and S!idphiir. — Iron combines freely with sulphur, the effect of whieli on east iron is to diminish the amount of carbon and hinder the sejiaration of graphite. In small quantity it is advantageous foreastings like runnon, as it makes cast iron stronger. In steel and wrought iron the effect of sul(d»iir i? to make both weak ami ragged when worked below n >/t/l"ir heat, hence the term rrd-kfiortnriiii. Steel resists better than wrought iron, but 0.1 is suflicicnt to injure either. Copper acts similarly, but less strongly, than sulphur, and dimini^^hes the weldalulity of the metal, //■oil (C'lrlxin) nud /'fionphortiM. — Iron is seldom free from phosphorus. In east iron this element increases the hardness, and makes the metal more fluid when melted, but weakens it when cold. Pig iron contains from 0.5 to 2.25 per cent, of phosphorus. It makes wrought iron easy to work while hot. thus counteracting sulphur, but brittle when cold, and renders steel more britllr ilum iron. The presence of 0.25 per cent, in iron and of Cl in steel is disadvantageous. Iron ( Curhon ) and Sih'con. — Silicon exists in all varieties of iron, and in gray cast iron in greatest quantity, because the heat causing grnyness in the iron also aids reduction of silica, and because silicon aids separation of graphite. i White east iron seldom has more than 1.0 per cent., but gray iron sometimes c(uitain8 as much as 5 per cent, of silicon. Ordinarily, it does not injure pig iron, but is bene- ficial when it is converted into Bessemer steel. But the effect of silicon rtn wrcmirhl iron is to make it brittle, rotten when heated, and less ready to weld. On steel the effect is the same, and an annuMit less than 0.1 percent, is decidedly noticeable for the worse. /foil (nnd Ctnitnu) also combine with tiintftiten, titanium, rhromiiini, anrl tin. They all impart greater hardness, if not brittleness, displace, except tin, carbon in cast iron, and reduce the weldability of wrought iron. Tungsten combines with irreat iliflieulty. and titanium scarcely at all; both are probably useful in mnkinir the grain of steel finer and inereiising ilsslrenglh and hardness. Chromium com- bines readily with iron, is said in some respects to he use- ful, and seems to render steel less liable to injury from overhenlincr. Tin renders wrouuht iron utterly worthless, oven when only 0.2 per cent, is present. InoN Alloys. — All the above compounds arc sometimes 1298 IKON. incorrectly called alloy,, but that term denotes the mechan- ical mixturo of two or more metals, either as such or (rarely) holJing in admixture a chemical eomlmiation ot the metals with each other. The term cannot api.tv to tho comljinations of iron with metalloids, nor to the combina- tion of metals with cnrhon and iron. The abuse of tho term alhy doubtless arises from indehnite use of the term irm,. Our knowledge of the alloys of pure iron is excecd- inolv seanlv. Iron alloys with cojiiier, nickel, and colialt in'various nroportions ; with zinc also, but only when zinc is the principal ingredient, the iron not exceeding 11 per cent The process ot riahnnizimj or coating iron with zinc was first practised at Kouen about 17S6. Iron alloys with copper, zinc, and tin to form tierro-mrlnl. a close-grained alloy of great strength, suitable for hydraulic-iiress cylin- ders and'for cannon, but the iron present does not exceed ■' per cent. White brnns is an alloy of ^0 zme. 10 copper iuid 10 iron: it has the appearance of zinc, but is much harder, ycry tenacious, and specially ad.npted for journal castings, iron alloys also with tin in yarious proportions up to SO per cent., making highly brittle crystalline alloys of little use. When clean wrought iron is dipped into, melted tin it becomes firmlv coaled with tin (('" pM"), and thereby protected from rusting. Iron alloys '"th alu- minium in'all proportions, producing bright and hard but forgeablo alloys when the aluminium does not exceed 1^ per cent Aluminium is supposed to cause the dixmnr.l: ot Indian steel wrought at Damascus into swords. Iron alloys with other metals, but the alloys haee no practical im- portance. Fi-rro-mangnneif. a combination of manganese iron and carbon, which contains »0 to 60 per cent, man- ganese and as little carbon as possible, is yaluablo in steel- making. Iron, Ores of. The ores of iron consist of the metal in an oxidized state, more or less mixed with clayey or siliceous impurities. I'sually the more iron the ore contains the .rrcater its value, but frequently ores of one class are val- uable in facilitating the smelting of ores of another class, and sometimes the presence of other oxides— manganese for instance, in ores for spiegelcisen— or the presence of coal (in black-band ore), is most desirable. Nothing which contains less than 20 per cent, of iron can be considered an iron ore. OreB of J von. Name. Couiposilion. Magnetic iron ore Iron and oxygen. Red hematite (specu- lar) Iron ana oxygen. Brown hematite. Spathic iron ore. .70. Iron, oxygen, and water Glj";, (water 12). Iron, oxygen, and car- ^ bonic acid 48j^. Argillaceous iron orc.Iron. oxygen, carbonic acid, and einy Average 33. Rlnrt.liinrt Iron, oxygen, carljonic Black-hana a..j(j, diy. and carbon- Variable, 20 to M aceous matter (coalj. eoalj. (10 to 1 XniivF /;o,i.— This is a curiosity, but not an iron ore. It occurs in minule particles in basaltic rocks, and in situ- ations where it has been reduced from ore by organic ma - ter It is found also in meteorites, which are malleable and consist mainly of iron, with from (i to 14.0 per cent. of nickel. „ . . , c • ee " M„ni,fl!e Trnu Ore (FcsOi).— Sesquioxide of iron 69, protoxide of iron .11 = 100. This ore is named from Mag- nesia in Lydia, where its attractive powers were hrst ob- served It is iron black in color, with a specilic gravity of 4 9 to b 2 and leaves a black streak when rubbed on un.'lazed porcelain. It is often strongly magnetic, somc- tiines possessing polarity, when it becomes the loadstone {t.;,d>louc) of yore. It is found massive, in sharp crystal- line grains as sand, and ochieous as an earth. It is not ehan.'cd by exposure to air. an,l is broken up but not oxi- dized" by roasting. It occurs mostly in jinmary crystalline rocks, and most abundantly in metamorphic rocks, in which it is found in vast beds. It abounds in Sweden. Norway, Kussia and North America, and is almost wanting in hng- land : as sand it is found in North America. New Zealand, and India, but in this state is apt to be made relractory by the titanic acid it contains. Its principal impurities are iron pyrites, copper pyrites, and phosphate ot lime (/1/K.(i7ei:" where the two former or sulphurous impurities abound, the latter is usually absent. 3. Spccilnr Iron Ore. nr Rrd Hematite (FcjOs).— Iron 70, oxygen :iO = 100. Anhydrous sesquioxide of iron. Specular ore is dark steel-gray in color, very thin pieces being blood-red by transmitted light, while the earthy va_ rieties (red hemniite) are red : both varieties leave a red streak. The specular variety is named from lustre (»pecii;Mni, "mirror"), and occurs massive and shining scales {micaceniia iron ore) named from its dark-red color (al^a. "blood"). It occurs massive, sometimes highly librous, as an ochre, and in an argillaceous form. As an argillaceous ore it sometimes re- sembles jasper, and in the fibrous form it is very beautiful, on account of the striking internal structure and the high polish of the outside of its rounded masses. Red hematite occurs all over the world in rcmar1<able abumlanee, being especially noted at I.avoulte in France, Cumberland and Lancashire in England, liilbao in Spain, Marquette, Pilot Knob, Iron Mountain and other localities in this country, and also in Algeria. This ore occurs in rocks of all geo- logical ages, and at volcanoes as a result ot igneous ac- tion, but is especially abundant in metamorphic rocks. It has no characteristic impurities, but quartz nearly always accompanies it ; it contains usually very little sulphur and little phosphorus. ■ j r r 4. Ilroirn Jlcnuilile, or Htjdrntcd Sraqmoxide of Iron (Fc-.03.:!I|.;l->).— Sesquioxide of iron tv.fi. water 14.4 = 100.' The'variety Giithite is rather a mineral than an ore, but brown hematite or limonitc (from Aeifioii'. •' meadow ") is one of the most important ores of iron. It is found mas- sive [pipe ore, etc.) and earthy, also containing lossils (one kind of fuMilifcroiu iron ore): when loose or porous it is called bog ore.' Its specific gravity is 3.6 to 4, and it leaves a yellowish-brown streak. It is extensively worked all over tho world in secondary or more recent geological formations, and is so widely distributed that no special locality need be mentioned. Beds of it in the comimct state have been worked for IJO years at Salisbury and Kent in Connecticut, which are celebrated for the quality of their iron. This ore is the result of alteration of other ores and minerals by air. water, etc.. is still being formed, and derives its peculiar character from this origin. It la mixed with clay, sand, wood. etc. Its impurities arc, naturally, phosphate of iron, organic matter, and seldom either siilphates or sulphur: it also contains manganese. Interesting instances of its modern formation arc the "lake ores " of Sweden and the ponds of Eastern Massachusetts. i S/mlhic Iron Ore ( FeCOs).— Protoxide of iron 62.1, carbonic acid :!7.U = 100; specific gravity 3.7 to 3.9. Color li'-ht yellow, turning to brown when the ore is ex- posed to" the weather : before exposure its streak is white. It is found pure, massive, crystallized in veins and vast beds, also in gloliular masses, and in an earthy slate with clay or sand. Part of the iron is usually replaced by manga- nese, which often renders the ore valuable for making white iron containing mangjinese [HpiegeleiHen). In its impure varieties, mixed with clay or sand.it forms the greater part of the o(.-i/ ironMone ores. Spathic ore proper is found in vast conlormable deposits in the clay-state lormations of Stvria and Carinthia, in Westphalia and Nassau in nume- rous sm-all veins (mostly owned by Krupp of Essen), and in Cornwall. , ^ r.i ■ 6. t^loy Ironstone, or Arrjillaeeoiin Iron Ore.— Clay iron- stone is the mincrs's name, denoting a distinct class of ores, which singly have little in common except their mixture with clav aiid sand. We find troir.i clay ironstone in com- pact masses and nodules, leaving a yellow-brown streak : arv.V/ncroiM hematite, a hard, heavy ore, reddish-brown to dark-red in color, sometimes oolitic in structure, when it is called fossillferons iron ore or lenticular iron ore: and Lastly, 'spathic clay ironstone, an earthy or siliceous impure carbonate of iron, which is often called simply earbonalc ore. The first two kinds are of local occurrence, but spa- thic clav ironstone is found in all countries, more particu- larly in'tho coal formations, of which it is the characteristic ore. In these formations it is sometimes found in coiilin- uous strata, sometimes in irregular masses imbedded in and under the shales and limestone rocks (uodnhr and hnhrsl.me „«). and aaain found loose in clays (Tertiary formations in Maryland, etc.). It often occurs in the eoa measures, in beds alternating with limestone and coal, and is always more or less calcareous. In these cases it is par- ticularlV adapted for smelting. Its color varies from gray to brown, and its weight is less than that ot other iron ores : hence, at first sight, some varieties do not appear to be iron ores, and were till recently thrown away (Vales, Westphalial. This ore is much more unilorm in composi- tion than might be expected, its percentage ranging be- twecn 30 and 40. with an average ot 33. file iinpurily its brilliant It is found in Kussia, Brazil, and in vast abundance in Elba, where it has b^on mined for 2000 years. The red hematite variety is >pain varies, however: in England clay pre.lomina tes, but in America sand, especially in the anthracite coal-measures The Pennsylvania carbonate ore contains an average ot 34 per cent, of iron. . „„„,, 7 «Mefr-fcn„(/. — When clay ironstone contains coaly matter in excess of 10 per cent, it becomes dark-brown or black in color and often shaly, resembling cannol or slaty coal The clav ironstone often occurs along with ■•.an" the Scotch miners call one layer eiay-band. the other blaeh- bnnd. It occurs in all coal-measures more or less— in \V est- phalia and in Ohio, for instance— but is especially devel- IRON. 1-299 oped in Scotland. It is a. %-aluabIe ore, for its coal suffices to roast [bum) it, and it is enriched by burning to OU or lO per cent, of iron. , . <•. 8 /'r<in/.7iiii'(e.— This is strictly an ore of 7,ino, liut alter Iho extraction of the linc the risiiluc is smclteil to prorluce •tiicolci^cn. a peculiar white iron valuable in sted-uiaking froiirils high percentage of manganese (10 to 24 per cent and carbon (4 to j.3 per cent.i. It is found only in Ne ■ I Silurian linicstone. * " " ) New It is iron- .lerjev in compact veins black" in color and leaves a brown streak : its specific grav- ilv is 5 1 It is composed of peroxides of iron 68.99. man- ginesc 8.:i2 ; and of protoxides of iron 7.58, of manganese ;i.74. of line 2I.:i7«100. , ,. ■. /ron />./,■./<•. can scarcely he called an iron ore, though i certainlv is a most persistent impurity of all iron ores, and i« the chief source, rather than coal, of the sulphur in cast and wrou.'ht iron. By itself it is useful in furnishing, when burnt, sulphurous gases for sulphuric acid manufacture: but the attempts to utiliie its ash have not succeeded, though it is rich in iron. . . <• All ores of iron seem to be benefited by roasting before use in the blast furnace, hut it is necessary to roast tho car- lumates and all sulphurous ores. Roasting is beneficial m removing water and carbonic acid and cracking tho lumps, thus enriching the ore and rendering its reduction easy, and also in removing sulphur somewhat, thus rendering the pi" iron purer and grayer with a given amount of fuel. The lo"ss in roasting varied from 10 to :t.') per cent., the car- bonates losing most. When tho ore contains no carbona- ceous matter the coal reiiuired for roasting is 1 to 10 down to 1 to 20 of ore, but coal-slack and waste are used for the sake of cheapness. . DisTRiBiTioN OF Iron Ores.— The brown hematites and carbonate ores are worked in all countries in widely dis- tributed localities, while the magnetic and red hematite ores occupy a more limited range. Tho brown hematites lio sometimes in rock, bat mostly in very accessible positions on or near the surface in clay, and are dug and extracted bv wa-hing away the elav ; the other ores lio wi place in rock, and 'must generallv bo regularly inincil. Tho red hematite, magnetic, and spathic ores, proper, occur by themselves, and bear the whole expense of mining, but some clay ironstones and the black-band occur so near the coal that'lhev arc mined along with it. Since the ores ex- cept brown hematite OL'cur in distinct geological formations which are hii-hly developed in some countries, while almost absent from others, it is evident there will bo great diversity in the ores worked in <lifl'erent countries. In ItuMin tho most iron is made from magnetic ores, which occur in great ])rofu- sion in the Ural .Mountains, while in .SVc./ci anrl \„ncn;j iho magnetic ores are substantially the only ones, the liraonite lake ores being very liinile 1 in quantity. ylii«(rm possesses vast and extensivejy worked dejiosits of magnetic ore in the Carpathian Mountains, in Hungary, and in the Hanat; tho earthy red hematites are the principal ores mined in Bohe- mia, with the exception of a remarkable deposit of brown clav ironstone; in Carinthia, in the Eastern Alps, there Iieniatite, 18 to lOO are most extensive dep^isits of brown heniiitite, feet thick in rock, while a short distance northward, in Slvria at Eiseneri, lies the greatest known deposit of spathic iron ore. the stratum of ore being 200 to OOO feet thick and eont.aining BO to XM feet of pure ore. Pruiiln (German em- pire): In^Silesia the brown hematites, spathic clay iron- stone! and black-band form the principal ores. In Prussia proper bog ore is the only ore worked. In Westphalia, black-band and carbonate clay ironstone are mostly mixed with brown hematite in inconsi.lcrahle amount, while in Rhenish Prussia, Siegen, and Nassau spathic oro proper is the ore of the country, with some specular ores. This district furnishes the iron used in tho great (Icrman steel- works, and also most of the spiegoleisen used. W. of the Rhine the principal ores are the eoal-mensure ironstones. Sninnif contains principally magnctio ore and specular ore, apt lobe siliceous, but some little bog oro is mined for spe- cial purposes. Friince is not rich in iron ores, earthy brown hema'ites being the main ores smelted: at l.avoulle. how- ever, an extensive deposit of earthy red hemiitile occurs. Fraiiee imports oro from Klbn. Spain, and Algeria, lifl- iiiiim: The orcschieflv smelted are earthy brown hematite and oolitic red hematites. All are lean i:in per cent.) ores, hence a grea' deal of ore is imported. /m/i/ • In general The principal deposits occur near Bilbao, and arc mined for English use. They are mainly compact red hematites in deposits of unusual thickness and accessibility, and contain a good deal of calcareous .«par, while quite free from hurt- fu? impurities, flrmt lliiiniii : The argillaceous carbonates are by far the most important ores, fully two-thirds of the entire product of the United Kingdom being made from them. Thev are largely mined in all the coal-fields cither as clay-band or as black-bund, and are worked on a vast ! scale in Yorkshire, as the Cleveland ironstone. Brown I hematite is extensively worked in the Forest of Dean and in Cornwall, and a sandy oolitic variety in Xorthnmptoii- shire: and in Cornwall, at Perran. a great vein of spathic ore has recently been opened. In Lancashire and Cumher- I land there exist very rich deposits of red hematite of great purity, which supply much of the English iron for Besse- mer steel, and have been long celebrated for their quality. r<i)m</(i: The principal ore worked in Canada is magnetio ore, and in Nova Scotia the principal ore is red hematite; some brown hematite is also mined. I'liited Sintea: In Ibis country largo deposits exist of every variety of ore. many of them of surprising extent and purity. It is hard to say which is the principal ore. but it is probable that the mag- netic ores supplv fully one-third the total product of pig iron ; tho specular ores are next in rank, with nearly as much: brown hematites and the clay ironstones being a? yet comparatively unimportant. The principal deposits of ma''netic ores are on Lake Chamidain, in New Jersey, and on Lake Superior. The principal dejiosits of specular oro are on Lake Superior, where beds 150 feet thick are quar- ried at the .lackson and Superior mines, and in Missouri at tho Iron Mountain of massive ore, and Pilot Knob of slaty iron ore like that on Lake Superior. Eastern Penn- sylvania is rich in brown hematite in clay, but the greatest deposits of this ore occur in Virginia, Tennessee, and Ala- bama, vast in extent and in close proximity to coal. Ex- tensive veins of fossil ore (red hematite) occur in Western New York and in Michigan. Bog ore is but little worked, and existsprineipally along theeastern coast. Theearbonalo ores amount to nothing in our anthracite measures, and in the bituminous coal-fields are unreliable in thickness, except in Ohio. A carlionate ore (Triassic) occurs in loose masses in clay along the W. const of Chesapeake Bay. Spathic ore has been mined in small quantities in Connecticut, Ver- mont, and Tennessee. PiRiTV OF Iron Ores.— They may be impure either in having too much earthy or siliceous admixture, or in hav- ing in themselves elements which are difficult to remove and which injure the quality of the iron made from thcni. All iron ores are more or less impure in the first sense; tho furliacc-nian thinks of them as nniiUncenn, orcn, mUccou, arm and cilctiremm o)-M, and mixes them accordingly with each other and with limestone in the proper proportions to promote fusion. It is seldom that ores yield un average over 50 per cent., nm\ probably the general average of all ores worked will not exceed 42. The lowest limit of eco- nomical extraction is 25 per cent, when the ore contains limo or can be enriched by roasting. American furnaces cannot afford to work an average under V-i per cent, of iron. In regard t.. the other class of impurities, the following general facts miiv be stated : The brown hematites and einy ironstones, when used alone, make the worst iron— viz. cold- short iron— on account of the phosphorus in the ores. Scotch pig iron contiiins so much phosphorus that it has special value as a foundry ir.>n IVom its Huidity. Magnetic and specular ores make the purest iron, with a tendency to red- shortness from the sulphur in the ores. S|.athie ores iisun ly make pure pig iron, neither cold nor red short, ns do also some of the best kinds of the others. The ores are used to neutralize each other a.'cor.ling to the qualities desired in the pig iron. The purity <d' an ore can he generally pred- icated OS above, but there are so many variations that each individual stratum even of Iho same mine should he sepa- rately examined. AssAViN-fi —The richness of an iron ore can he readily nseertained by powdering it and mixing it with chnn-.,a| to reduce, ami a fiux to coyer the iron when melted, llie whole is put into a small crueihle lined with charcoal. !Mi 1 subjected for some time to a while heal. On breaking the crueihle the iron is found at th.' bottom in a clean bullcm, and the percentage can be ascertained by weighing it. Tins /; its results are somewhat too high, for tho ,he country ha, little iron or. but remark,.ble,b.positsexi;,t l^^;;;^;-^^^„^_ The ,c,, „..„, give, more accurate The ore is disscdved, and all the iron carefully at Travers'ella in the Alp, and on Elba. That nt Traversella is an irregular muss of magnetic ore O.'p to InO feet thick, worked from time immemorial. On the islanrl of Elba hills of the purest specular ore have been worked equally long, hut without energy, pro.liieing yearly 100.11110 tons, three- fifth, of which is exported. //-rnVi; In the eastern part of the province of Constantino great vein, of red hematite of hi-h purity occur : they cover a large extent of country, but are worked mainly to supply tho French demand. Spam : result? - reduced to tho ferrous state, and an oxidizing solution ot known strength, usually bichromate of potash, is slowly a.ldiil till the iron is shown by potassium ferricyanido (rc.l prussiali') to bo entirely converted into the ferric stale. By measuring the oxidizing solution used the percentage of iron is directly ascertained. Iron, Mnnufnctnre of. Wo shall describe how 1300 IRON. wrought iron is made from ore and from pig iron. VVl en wroueht iron is made from ore the process is called the direct proee,,, iu contrast with the indirect prvctm, m ^Yhich Din iron is first made aud afterward converted into wrought iron. (For manufacture of pig iron, see Blast Fuhv^e; for manufacture of steel, see bTEEL ; for appa- ratus and machinery, see Fi'Bnaoe, Kolling-Mill, and ^"vrou"ht'i'ron 'was first made directly from the ore, and is still sS made in localities where the ore is rich and qual- ity is the principal object. The fires used are called bo,,„,- cnj fires o'r CatMun forge: when the iron was r'^-b™ "^ ° a similar firo this was called a cl„.Jcr,j (hre) but the roc-ular reverberatory furnace has long since taken its place e.Kcept in making iron for tin plate, when a W ,„<. lire of partially coked coal is used. When cast iron is the raw material, the fire is called a forge (fire), or in Lag- land always finer}/, . The ,/,Ve<-( «™«-»»e. are wasteful, but produce superior iron, partly because, the heat being low, impurities are car- ried off in'the slag, partly because the product is usually a low steel. It requires great care to make soft iron d.rcc from the ore by the bloomery processes The ores best adapted to the bloomery are the compact brown hematites, easily disintegrated by heat ; all other ores should be burnt, and "the impurities removed by leaching (sulphur) or by mechanical separation (quartz., etc.). The first bloomeries in Asia and India were simply holes in the ground or in a ma«3 of clay, in which charcoal was burnt by a weak blast from a goatskin bellows, ore being added at intervals in small quantities. Similar fires are yet used in India and Africa, and the lumps of iron are e.vtracted by breaking away part of the clay. The lumps weigh from a to 30, or even 100 pounds, and 200 pounds may be made in si.\teeu hours These old bloomeries were improved in Catalonia, a province of Spain (whence our name " Catalan forge ), and in Ariege in France. The original form used in the Pyrenees since A. D. 1293, was about 2 feet high, with a small cylindrical hearth about 11 inches deep, liaring out conically at the top. Two tuyeres were used, which were set about 10 inches above the bottom. The lumps of iron weighed some 35 pounds, about UO pounds being made in five hour*. At the end of the eighteenth century the hearth wi« 20 inches deep, proportionately larger, and the product had increased to 300 pounds in five hours. This increase was duo to the stronger blast produced by the trowpe or water-jet blowing apj.aratus invented early in the seven- teenth century. The form of hearth still used in the Pyre- nees is rectangular, one side at least being a heavy cast-iron plate One tuyere only is now used, and from it to the op- posite side the hearth measures 24 inches by 26 inches tho other way, in which direction, at the freest end, is the iron side thrJugh which, near the bottom, a " tappmg-hole is made. The tuyere is set 20 inches above tho bottom ; it Fig. 1. filled with charcoal, and on the side opposite the tuyere coar.e ore is placed, filling not quite halt the hearth, char- coal filling the remaining space. The blast is started at Catalan forge: A, coarse ore; It, coarse .harcoal; C, nuisse. or loop of iron being forioed; 1). slas or cinder; h, covering con- sisting of charcoal-.lust and line ore. inclines at an angle of 40°, and projects about 8 inches into the fire In this hearth a bottom, made of slag and char- coal is glared over at a high heat. The hearth is half View of a bloomery. shoiviiin the mode of raising the lump of reduced iron, or masse. 3-pound pressure : in the course of six hours it is gradually raised toU pounds, while the whole fire, except a small part of the'ore, is closely covered with fine ore and char- coal-dust, thus forcing the gases (carbonic oxide to pass out through the ore and reduce it. The ore gradually sinks down, and the slag is let off (Inpped) every hour. At the end of the operation a lump of iron weighing about o50 pounds is pried out of the fire, hammered under a 1400- pound helve-hammer, and cut up into three pieces These are reheated during the next operation, and torged out into bars, making about 330 pounds. Four operations or Afot, are made per day. The slag is kept very rich ■■; "-"xlo "f iron, and the blast is turned sharply down on the metal, which thus becomes urou;,l,t iron; the softness (low per- centage of carbon) depends on the skill of the forgeman. In thS Cataku, process 3 tons of ore yield 1 ton of bar iron, for which 23 to 3 tons of charcoal are required. In the Oe„ne,c forge, another variety of the Ca alan, the waste heat of the fire is used to roast the ore beforehand, and scrap iron is charged along with the ore, thus shortening the tune re- quired for a he, and increasing the yield of iron. Sepa- rate fires are used to reheat the lumps for forging. By these means five heats are daily made ins ead o four, with a consumption of 30 per cent, less charcoal than the amount required by the Catalan process: the weekly product is about 4i tons of b>,r iron. The Catalan processes required that the whole fire be remade each time iron was got out The (iermans (Alsace) therefore went back to the old method of putting the ore in a fine state :n la!,rr> in the charcoal. This plan ,.ermits a fire to be worked without any other interri'iptioi! than the withdrawal o the lumps as they are formed. The details are substantially the same cxcepi that larger fires can be used, and a greater product made by this method; so that the Germans increased the si^e and product of their bloomeries at an early date. The means of regulating the quality of the iron made >> l''""" - eries are very imperfect. They consist in varying the angle a which the tuyire is directed on the iron, and the ainoui, and kind of shig kept in the bottom to cover the soft metal L course of reduction. The metal in the Catalan forge is a°so protected by the charcoal. For the sake o distinction the bloomeries just described are usually called Ocryn TllTrie., and have reached their highest •l"elopmen in America. It is an interesting fact that the earliest bloom- er's were probably Catalan forges, which changed into German bloomeries! and it is equally interesting that in Pennsylvania practically all the bloonienes b--»« "f^^ (fineries) using pig iron as early as 1,40. The Ca alan proce s made good iron, but involved too much waste of Le and "o mudi loss of time. There are still a great num- ber of bloomeries in oper.ation in this country, about 37 works in all; of these 2S, with 147 fires, are in the State Tncw York'. These American bloomeries have one fca lure peculiar to themselves-yiz. the use (since 1844) of Ihe waste heat to make a hot Idast (,^i50O), thus saving 20 per cent, of charcoal and increasing the f'codn<:i. The hearths of the American bloomeries aveiage al«ut 3" iches square by 13 inches deep. The sides and bottom ,;e cast- roYplatos 2 or 3 inches thick; the fire is open at Z ront but is walled in at the sides and back ; be tuyere 1 s a the side, and the oven which heats the blast is placed IRON. 1:^01 over the fire. The ore is (brown on tho charcoal, bocoincs roduccil, and with thi- mcltcil ulag goes to tho liottom of the fire: thenco thf r-Iag ir* run out more or hss frequently ac- cording ti» the desired qual- ity of the iron. Tho iron bolls up into a "/ou/j," which 19 ''dug up" or taken out every tliree hours, and fliin- glcd under hclve-hauiuicra weighing 1', tu 2 tons. In one day eight heats and 2400 pounds of hlooius arc made per fire. When hiiiftg arc made, tlio loop is re- heated and forged out, but Bf(ths for boiler jdatoare fin- ish'.-d without reheating. X<» bar iron is made, but the billets aro toIUmI <lown into bars and wire and convertcl into east Btccl. Tho New York blooms or billets are usually low steel, r and showing a fino-g fracture. Ono ton of hloom requires IJ tons of dressed ore, or from 2 to 4i tons of raw ore, and about 27'* bushels (or say 2-^ tons) of charcoal. Tho idea of making irnu direct from ore in a single operation, without tho blast- furnace, has always been a favorite one. as is evident from tho list of processes given below. All execpi tho recent plans of lilair Vcrtlcnl sd and Siemens have failed on heartli o\y account of excessive cost of pip"' from the Ik-IIows ; C, hot-air reduction, great loss of iron ?PP»';i;ti's ; K. eliimney f.ir lead- I - » .1 ■ inn oil waste heal; D, tuyere. ID working up. and the in- ** ' ' *"^^*^- tcrmitlent character of the work — in other words, email product. Chtuot (France, lf*31), rich ores mixeil with charcoal treated in a vertical tuboexternally htated to red- ness, then passed into an air-tight cooling chamber. Tho cool sponge treated liko puddled iron. Improved by in- ternally heating and aho reducing the ore by a current of hot carl>onic oxido gns. r/«y (England, 1^37, 18-I0), same method, hut reduced iron put directly, while still hot, into a puddling furnace. Also, a mixture of ore, coal slack, and salt reduced with pig iron in a puddling furnace. /Irntuti (U. S.. l-*^.')!), a Bpungo reduced, from mixture of 25 parts ore and 73 parts coal, in a vertieiil retort, ivnd dis- charged direct into a furnace to bo welded into blooms. JJofcetf substituted inclined soapstonc trays for tho retort. Gitrit (Pruffsin, 1S37). used Clienot's im])roved plan, but mixed air with the carbonic oxide, thus raising tho lieat; gave the gas. at will, a carbonizing action in order to com- bine carbon with the reduced iron, and make steel or cast iron by melting tho product in a furnace placed under tho retort. G. JLntd Smith {V. S., ISi.-i), plan like that of (iurlt. characterized by the substitution id' a putldling fiirnare fur a vertical retort, and tho use of petruleuin or cual-tar gas to carbonize the iron sponge. W hrffilttj ami Storer, V. S., apply pulverized fuel to tho mixture of ore and coal on hearth id' a puddling furnace. H'ttjtr* (Kngland, ISG2), reduced the mixture of oro and coat in a rotary furnace placed over a puddling furniMc, iind heated by tho flamo from the latter. Ih\ JJiiptii/ (U. S., IH7(). proposes to reduce a mixture of oro and charcoal in a casing of thin sheet iron, which shall protect tho sponge from subsequent oxiflation. SirmriiH (Knghuid. IH"*!), Combined the plans of Clay and K(»gerswith his open-hearth melting furnace, in which, as in C'lay's, the sponge is melted in a bath of pig iron. This process is in successful operation at Iiundore, Wales, where it is also carried out in a rotary puddling furnace. /y^nV ( r. S., 1872), has improved Cheiiot's process, es- pecially as to cooling the sponge: this he compn^sses cold by hydraulic power into blooms, which can be welded in a heating furnace or melted into soft steel. This method is iu successful operation near Pittsburg. IMair ct)ndiiets his pr<ieess in a circular retort ."ifl feet high and 14 feel ill diameter. In the upper 10 feet hangs a metal pipe Hi feet in diameter, so ihiil tho ore and charcoal pass down an annular space about -1^ inches across. Heat is applied outside the retort ami inside the tube, and tho reduced ore rcmaiaa iu the bottom of the tubo till I oool. Ono retort gives about 2 tons of spongo in twcnty- j four hours, which is compressed and melted with half as much pig iron iu a Siemens open-hearth furnace. Loss, I about KO per cent. As early as the end of the sixteenth century it was found better to make cast iron first in a blast furnace, and then convert it into wniught iron in forges. A vastly greater amount of ore can be smelted in this way in a given time than by the bloomery process, which also requires very I pure and rich ores, Tho bloomeries exist to this day, how- ' ever, in localities whore charcoal is as cheap as coal, be- cause the total amount of fuel required to convert ore into bars is about the same as by tho indirect processes, and the I quality of the bloomery product is superior. When pig ' iron is tho raw matrrittl, it is advantageous to use none grayer than Xo. ?>, for in general the less carbon the easier the conversion. Tho removal of carbon is efTcctod in two ways — cither, first, by the action <if air direct in a blast, or, second, by the indirect action of the air through the me- dium of melted cinder or ore.parting freely withoxygrn and • taking it again from the air. The operations of the first class are tho forge or finery, tho refinery, and the liessemer process (for latter sec Sttim.) : tho pmldling process is tho representative of the second class. It is evident that the burning out of tho carbon can bo stopped at any point; hence steel is actually made by all these processes. The operation of making wrought iron is the same, but the nicthud by which it is made in the bloomery is the re- verso of that u.-^cd in the forge. In the former carbon (charcoal) burns out the oxygen of tho oro; in the latter, air burns out the carbon of tho pig iron. Tho hearths arc substantially alike, but tho forge hearth is shallower below ilie tuyeres — i, c. 8 inches deep. Ono or two tuyeres arc used, according to the size of the hearth, and the blast is sometimes hot, but usually cold. There were recently four- teen distinct methods of making wrought iron, and five of making steel in forgo fires, depending on tho kind of pig iron used, the different ways of working it during the re- fining, and the ways in which the blooms were made into bars. Swedish iron for conversion into stool is nearly all made in forges by the Lancashire or Walloon process. Since 1840 little or no bar iron has been made in America by means of forges, which now make principally slaby for test boiler plate; the description is therefore simplified. Fig. 4. Vertical section of a Corman forije-firo: T. tuyere; N, nozTile, made of |ii;ht sheet iron attached to a leather bag, and by that to blast-pipe. Tho process consists in carefully nulling down about 230 pounds of pig iron at a time, and when melted in keeping it constantly exposed to the blast, both by turning the tuyeres down upon it, and l>y stirring it up with an iron bar, till tho carbon is nearly burnt out and the mass be- comes jjosly. The fire is then driven, tho heat raised, and the metal worked and squeezed with a bar, so as to e<dUct the whole into a ball or lonp, as free from cinder as possi- ble. The cind<-r should be riidi in iron, and should bi^ fre- quently let oft' when wrought iron is desired; for steel the I cintler is left over the metal, and the blast is lessened and less sharply directed on tlie metal, so that its action may bo loss violent. The buin is raised and welded and forced nntler a heijvy (2-ton) hannner into billets or slabs. Tho I bloom is seldom reheated in the same fire. Forges in Penn- I sylvania nsualiy work only thirteen hours per day, and I make in that time six loups. weighing about half a ton; ! thn product of a fire in therefore about 3 tons per week. I When the cast iron is refined, as it usually is. a tire makes 1 I ton doily. A ton of billots requires about ^ ton of char- 1302 IRON. coal and 24 cwt. of cast iron. There are now 4fi forge- works in the U. S., of which 31 lie in Peunsylvauia with y^ fi ros. It is therefore advantageous to refine the iron, since the product is increased, but refining also lessens tlic waste of iron, by rcmuviog silicon, and also makes it possible to use Tin. 5. poorer and more impure ores in the blast furnace. Pig iron is refined in the rcjincri/ ur run -nut fire. It is probable that the idea originated in the Kifel Mountains at Eisorfey, ^vhcre for three centuries the pig iron in the hearth of a charcoal blast furnace has been refined previous to being let out, by turning the tuyeres right down, and blowing eharjdy into the iron. The modern refinery is a rectangu- lar box 42 inelies wide by GC ini-hcs long and 12 to 18 inches "deep — that is, large enough to liold 1^ to 2 tons of pig iron and some slag. The sides and one end are of iron blocks, cooled with water, while the bottom and the other end, out of which the iron is tapped, are made of refractory sand. Four to six tuyeres are used, their points being protected by Fig. 6.' Refinery, Bromford Iron-works, lUrnimghaui, Ens^. : vertical cross-section through two opposite tuyeres on the line E, F, G, II, I, Fig. 6. Refinery, Bromford Iron-works. Birmingham, Eng. ; vertical section. Figs. 5 & IJ, 5 A 6, SAG, 47, a, hollow sides of cask iron. b, hollow back of cast iron. r, front or dani-platc of cast iron, containing the tap-hole. (/, flat bottom of sand, which is continued beyond the lap -hole plate, from which it slopes down- wanl. e, f, plate of cast iron screwed on /, through which the tuyeres pass. 5Afi. .'i & 6, 5. /,/, cast-iron plate. 9*0,9, water-tuyeres, h, ?i, blast-pipes. t, i, leather conneetin^-pipes between the blast-pipes and the blast-main. k,k, Ihrottle-valvesfor regulating the blast. /, /, water-troughs of cast iron to re- ceive the water from the tuyeres. m, m, tanks of cast iron for water to supply the sides and back of Figs. the hearth and the tuyeres with water. 5&6, n,n, n, long ca&t-iron or running-out bed, to receive the molten metal from the hearth. 5, 0,0, cast-iron box. forming a ehnn- nel, ^>, over which the ruuning-out bed IS sup|>orled. 5 i& 6, j>, channel under the running-oiit bed, throiii^h which water is kipt in circulation for refrigeration. tratfr-tiii/crea. The iron is sometimes (for tin plate) melted in the refinery, but is usually run info it melted, as it issues from the blast furnace. The iron i.s then covered with coke and the blast kept, on it, burning away carbon, silicon, and some iron, while the metal boils from evolution of gas, till the desired point of purity and whiteness (low per cent, of carbon) is reached. The refined iron is then let out into a long cast-iron trough, in which it cools in thin plates, which arc broken up for subsequent conversion ; hence refined iron is often called plate iron. One refinery can refine lOD to ll>0 tons of pig iron per week, with 10 per cent, total loss, most of which can be recovered from the cinder made, and requires about 4 cwt. of coke per ton of iron when the iron is run in melted. The greater part of the wrought iron used is made by Puiidlinff ; but before describing the process it is proper to mention the Kller.^hausen process, a method of rcjhu'itt/ in- tended to displaee puddling. Pure magnetic or specul.ar ore is pow<lered and mixed with the molten pig inm as it flows from the blast furnace. The heated ore parts with its oxygen, which burns out, more or less conipletely, the car- bon and impurities in the pig iron. The balls or **/>'";/ hloomn*' thus made consist of a mixture of wnrnght iron and oxide of iron, and must he subjected for an hour or more to a high heat in a ]>ucldling furnace to separate the superfluous ore before they can be rolled into bars. The process has not met the expectations entertained. f'ort was the first to puddle iron successfully. The re- verhcratory furnace used by him had a bottom of siliceous sand, which could not resist the action of cinder, and either mottled pig iron or refined iron was us<id alone, the conversion being effected mainly by the action of the flame. His process is therefore called t/rv piifidttiiff, or simply pud- dling. The waste of iron was fully 7 to 10 per cent., and the quality poor. The pig iron laitl on the furnace bottom crnmbled, as it became hot, into .a sandy mass, which grad- ually melted. By the combined action of unburned air in the flame and of silica in the bottom, enough cinder was formed to convert the mixture of iron and cinder into a pasty ma!-s easily acted on by the flame, (iray iron re- mains too liquiil after melting for use in this method, but refined iron becomes pasty almost immediately. Hence with ordinary ores refining is quite necessary. S. B. Rogers reconstructed the furnace with an iron bottom cooled by air, and thus increasccl the weekly product of one fur- nace from S tons to 20 or 24 tons per week. Hal! then in- troduce*! the process of jcft puddltng, usually called fnn'liug. Here cinder rich in iron and oxygen is charged with the pig iron, xvbich is then, as it were, melted and worked tret in a liquid bath of cinder, by the agency of which the car- bon, etc. in the iron is burnt out. The boiling process does not require refined iron, and involves no loss of iron, but rather a gain, for the sides of the furnace bed arc protected by a thick coating of ore. which is partially reduced. The cinder is a silicate of protoxide of iron, which reailily dis- ' solves the ore. forming a new combination containing mag- netic oxide: this is constantly reduced by the carbon and silicon in the iron, and by the iron itself, but is rcoxidizcd by the flame till all the pig iron has been converted. The lorm of the furnace used is such as to furnish a chamber about fiO inches long by -IS inches wide, and 20 to 24 inches I Iiigh in extreme dimensions. The superficial area of the ' bed is about 20 square feel, and the grate usually has about I one-third this area — more or less, however, according to i quality of coal. The bed and grate are covered by an arched roof, highest over the grate and sloping down to the other end of the chamber, so as to rererbemtr the flame strongly down on the bed of the furnace before reaching ; the exit flue: this is placed low, and its area roust not ex- ' ceed one-fifth that of the grate. The stack is 20 inches I square inside, and about 40 feet high ; it can be closed at the top by a damper to regulate the heat, but the blast from I a fan Idown underneath the grate is now generally substi- I tutcd for natural draft. The grate and puddling chamber IRON. 1303 or bed arc separated by a brick wall, the firebridge. An iron frame about U inches high rests «n the iron bottom Ulate and forms the sides of the bed ; .t .s holinw, and cooled by water circulating through it or with a.r. while the bottom .s c«<.le.l by the circulation of air. The iron bottom consists ..f plutcs :i inches thick ; when used it .8 covered with a thick layer of nearly infusible cinder and orecarefullv smoothed and consolidated at a high heat Xhe sides are covered with lumps of ore or a lliick mass of ore and roasted cinder: this lining is intended to waste and be renewed, .\ccess to the bed is had through a hole about 20 nches square closed by a door, lined w.t 1. firebrick and Moving vertically. The door has at ■•%'>"";'"V\, "'"o hole, the .t„,,pcr-h„U. for the insertion of a long bar or ra66/e, as the intense heat must not bo lowered by opening Fig. 7. Sixou: Piddliso Flrsace. but with white iron (one-half the charge refined) seven heats of 541) pounds are made in the same time. On an average 24:ir. pounds of pig and 2648 pounds of rchned iron make 224U of puddled bars, wasting, say, 9 to 1- I^r cent., with a consumption of i to \\ tons of coal. Ibo largest production per furnace is made in Wales; there a 8in"lc furnace averages eight heats in twelve hours, or IS tons weekly, and a double furnace 3fi tons. Pndillinij re- quires 2.I06 to 2400 of refined metal to 2240 of bars. A single furnace using only refined iron averages in W ales about 23 tons jicr week, and burns per ton J to J <"" °' coal. These productions are all those of a low grade of iron : where quality is aimed at, the product per furnace averages 10 to 12 tons per week. For ordinary iron Burden's squeezer is almost exclusively used in this countrv. and the hammer, as a rule, for higher grades The Burden squeezer is a rotary machine, the best form of which consists of a serrated wheel, with a vertical axis or shaft placed eccentrically inside a fixed ring, the inner surface of which is also serrated. The wheel is driven by gearing, and its eccentricity is so gauged that the open- in At the starting-point is 15 inches, but diminishes grad- uaTlv through neailv the whole circumference to about J inches. The external diameter of the wheel is 5 feet .and the internal diameter of the ring is 7 feet. The puddle-ball l"l(l. 8. Fig <i, longitudinal section on C, D, Fig. b. FlK. f. cros.*-9ecllon on K, 1 Flg.o. Double puddline furnace, cross- section. the door. The essence of puddling, as distinguished from other operations, is the refining |.ig iron on the bed of a reverbcratorv furnace by means of heat applied by f^ame. We have described the pnddUnj process, and shall now de.cribo that of /?o.7,\,. A charge of 500 to 1,00 pounds of forge iron is laid on the bed of the furnace, often with as much as 100 pounds of cinder and seal.. rlie whole is then quickly melted at a high heat ; "Ih" fluid, fresh mill- scale or water is thrown in to partially ehill the cinder and iron, so that they may be thoroughly intermixed. Tho heat is then raised again, when the oxides ot iron in the cinder react on the carbon and silicon of the iron wi h such effect as to keep the mass frothing in a slate of lively ebullition. During Ibis part of tho process the ore lining furnishes oxide of iron to keep the cinder rich, and the yield of iron is increased by the redu.-lion of this oxide, usually the magnetic oxi.Ie. The boiling gradually ceases bright white spots of iron appear, the cinder seems to sink to the bottom, and tho whole soon comes into a spongy state, or is hr..w,ht 10 <,;lnre. This spongo is well worked to- eether by' moans of the rabble, and broken loose from all parts of the furnace, the heat meanwhile being kept high. The iniddler (boiler) now separates the whole mass into six or more balls, palling and squeezing them, with the rabb e, into shape an.l firmness. All this is .lone under a smoky or redJ:„.j jU,mr to avoid burning the iron The balls when ma.le are put into the hottest part of .he furnace ne„r tho bridge, receive a very strong final welding heal, and are ,lrawn out separately with tongs. They are then ear- rini t?. a ../u-.-'-r or to a hammer, in order that tho cinder may he expelled and the iron welded together. Both processes of puddling are slill in ordinary use, that of nudd ing. however, for inferior iron. In -"•';";/..» «"• 3 ir 11 is isuallvused in America, but in Kngland it isous- oma y to use refined iron largely. With gray forge iron sirheats of 480 pounds each arc boiled in twelve hours, No. 3. ^■^-r y^ Ai "-T^V,,,^ - ^ -r^ 1 1 1 ,...,-, ^ T ^4. 3" No. 4. Uail piles. No. B. -t;:^-^- Piles for beams, several kinds are oflen used in llie same pil.-. I l.i peeiallv Ihe case in rail piles, win re also desired in the different parls. Uotary »,,ucey.er, l,.ni/.ol,tal s,rti,.n : ...slronK cylindrical cust- iron frame ; 6, strong cast-iron wheel, is Dut into the squeezer in a roughly round shape, and is sl-i^zei rotated, forcibly compressed, formed i.Uo a eyhnder and delivered at the point of entrance still hot en..ugh fm rolling. (For the trains of rolls and mechanical "rpl" ""• for rolling puddle-balls into bars, etc. see Uo.,i..N«-.Mi.. 1..) The middle' or mill burs are usually about 3 J inches wide, and re cut up into pieces 4 to 5 feet long. Ihey ..anno , Tke I forge or bloomiry billet, be directly worked ...to bus, for tlic • are too rouglwiiid imperfect They an- here ., Dile.l one on another into a ••p'l''. '•<'''«'a'«'l. '«» '»l' "«"' ng iK'at in a heating furnace, and rolled "K-» ''"-■;^;>;','^ « or round bar for ordinary iron, or into a flat bar for lurlher working The ni..re iron is rk.d, either by hammering or ro lUng the more fibrous and homogeneous ..becomes 1 , ■,"".! e best iron is often rolled three or even l.mr times beforcVeceiving final shape. In order to economize work Fio. 9. No.l. No. 2. ...■ing ei- lifi'erenl qiinlilifs nro Nos. 1. I are rail- 1304 IRON. piles ; the first is a good American pile, the top layer being ' made from it, so as to ensure soundness. The waste in each three times rolled, the rest twiee; the second is avera* American, the t<jp and bottom layers being twice rolled iron — the second layers, for toj) and bottom, old mils, the rest puddled bar; the third is unusually good English, the top layer being hammered iron, the bottom ( hatched ) ht^'ers t\Tiee-rollcd iron, the rest puddled bar. The average re- duction in size from the pile to the rail is about III to I, the finished rail being shown in the centre of pilciNo. 1. The economy of rail-making depends on these arrange- ments, and the engineer wants good iron in the head and ilange, but allows comparatively poor iron in the rest or stem of the rail. The piles for girder beams like No. .^, Xo:?. 4 and fi. are similarly made up as to quality of iron, and exhibit expedients to avoid waste of metal (No. 4), and to secure strength { Xo. 6), the latter pile being also formed a? it is because a large bca[n is to be rolled from it. Kound bars if large are often rolled from round piles, and the size of a pile for a square bar is proportioned to the bar to be heating is 3 to 5 per cent., and the coal required is about 1 ton per ton of iron. Bars are rolled from 30 to 7U feet long, rails usually 25 to 'Mi feet, but sometimes double these lengths, and other forms as long as their weight allows. The ends of rails, etc. must be cut off to produce a solid end, the waste from this source being 8 to 12 percent., which is not lost, but must be reworked. ^'arious machines have been invented to lighten the labor of hand-puddling. These are of two kinds : ^firgt. mechan- ical arrangements to move the rabble as is done by hand; jtrcourf, to rotate the furnace itself, and thus cause the whole charge to work itself by the action of gravity. The arrangements of Eastwood. Whillmni, and Dunieny and Lemut are those most used : they lighten labor, but scarcely increase product, nor do they much diminish wages ; hence they can hardly be considered as permanent improvements. But machines of the second class, like those of Mene- laus, Uanks, and Danks improved by Jones, may Le le- FiG. 10. Il l I ^^ Danks' rotary puddling machine, seetioual elevation. gardcd as solving the problem. This furnace has a fan blast under the grate, and also j>ls of blast over the fire. The workmen can thus suit the heat to the requirements of the charge. The ash-pit and fire-hole are closed by <Ujors, the fire-hole casting being cooled by circulation of water in a coil of pipe cast in it. The bridge-plate Is also cooled with water, and has a lining of firebrick next the tire and fettling next the charge. Fastened to the brldge- phitc i.s a ring cooled by water, against which the revolv- ing chamber rubs closely. The revolving chamber has two end-pieces hooped with iron and resting on carrying roll- ers : these ends are connected by a series of stave-plates to form a cylinder. The stave-plates have hollow ribs to hold the lining fast and keep it cool. A movable headpiece connects the revolving chamber with the chimney, and acts both as door and flue. When it is removed balls of great weight can readily bo taken out; it is cooled with water and provided with a stopper-hole for observation. The vessel is revolved by a toothed wheel fixed on it and geared to a suitable engine, so that the rotation may be regulated. The chamber is first lined with a thick paste of powdered iron ore and pure lime, which sets hard and abcuit an inch over the ribs. The fettling is then made by throwing in ])ulvenzed ore and melting it, thus gla/.ing the lining and leaving a paste of melted ore to hold lumps thrown in all over the surface. For fettling a "OO-pound rotary furnace 2 to 2A tons of ore are required. In working, more scale or cinder than usual is used, and the iron is melted in 30 to 35 minutes, when the furnace is rotated fori or 10 min- utes to produce a thorough action of the cinder. Water is injected through the stopper-hole, and a portion of the cinder solidified, which carried down into the molten iron combines with the impurities. The heat is then raised, and the cinder liquefied so as to float on the iron, and it is then tapped off. The heat is again raised, and the furnace rotated six to eight times per minute. The charge is thus dashed violently about, and the particles of iron soon be- gin to adhere; the velocity is now lowered to two or three revolutions per minute, and the b.all sj>eedily forms. Loose pieces are moved to the side of the ball, which is made to fall on them. The movable head-piece is then removed, a large fork suspended from a crane is shoved into the cham- ber, and the ball is rolled on to the fork by a turn of the furnace and removed. The dijirnltic9 of the rotary mechanical furnaces are the wear of the fettling and frequent break-downs. When, however, the fettling is suited tolhenutal used and the iron is refined, no difiiculty is experienced on that i^core, and Mr. Jones has overcome the mechanical objections. lie constructs the Danks furnace with a dvnhh mniutj and a water-jacket, so that all parts are kept perfectly cool ('.10°) and work easily. This furnace works day and night, while the single cased furn.ices usually work only by day. Mr. Jones uses iron in a melted state, and charges 1550 pounds of refined metal, which is puddled in .'J5 minutes into a single ball 4 feet long by 15 inches in diameter. This ball is cut up while hot, reheated and rolled into bars (Mr. Heath rolls direct into bars). Each furnace makes six heats in eight hours, averaging 50 tons per week, with a con- sumption of about 1000 pounds of coal for puddling (less than a ton, including reheating), 1000 pounds of fettling per ton, and no loss of iron. Charges of a ton can be puddled in 40 minutes, and thus a furnace can make ^b tons per week. The rotary furnaces of Crampton are successful at Wool- wich. Sir John Alleyne is working well with i\laudsla\'s soup-plate machine, consisting of a rotary horizontal bed and a mechanical arrangement to move a rabble in one di- IRON. 1:50.3 rectioD. He makes five heats per day, each of B75 pounds. I M. Pernot uses the orij^inal Maudslay rotary bed with in- clined axif, so as tu work the charge by gravity, and mounts the bed on wheels to lacilitate repairs. He puddles 1-ton i heats of white iron, makiog 18 cwt. of bars with 14 cwt. j of slack coal and 2^ cwt. of fettling to the ton of bars. Siemens also has in use at Landore a rotary furnace like j that of Sellers i see Ki rnack ), but with the Siemens re- I generative system. This furnace is also working the dirtct ! process, as mentioned above. Iron, History of. The iScripturcs ascribe the discovery of working iron to Tubal Cain, while Kgyptian tradition made Isis and 0?iris the patrons of mctiillurgy, but credited the actual discovery to Hephic.-'tu?. the king preceding Osiris, who in date would coincide with Tubal Cain and is proba- I biy identical with him, Canaan is deseribed in Deut.viii. ly as '■ a land whose stones are iron." The books of Moses, ! written before 14Jl B. r., mention iron frequently; the Arundel Marbles fix a date before lltTO u. c, and about 1000 I B. r. wo find the use of iron recorded in the Scriptures for tools, arms, and cooking utensils (Dcut. xxvii. 5: xix. 5; | 1 Chron. xxii. 3; Lev. vii. 'J), The Philistines on con- quering the Jews (about 10 JO b. c. ) prohibited any *' smith in Israel" (1 Sam. xiii. 20). The Kgyptians made iron in the district between the \ilc and the Ked Sea, but imported mo^t of their iron from Assyria. The Assyrians used iron very freely, and before SSO b. c. used it as a core to save brass in articles cast in brass; Layard found at Nineveh Assyrian helmets and chain-armor. Herodotus { i. 'Ih) mentions the vase of Alyattes at Delphi, inlaid with iron by Glaucus of Chios, to whom is attributed the discovery of tcettling. Pliny (vii. ,'i7) credits the Dactyli of Mount Ida in Crete with the discovery of the nuvjuetic propftti's of iron, and ascribes the invention of the blacksmith's forge to the Cyclopes. Lycurj^us of Sparta use<l iron as money (about SoO B. r.). The Hebrews were doubtless fa- miliar with steel, as Jeremiah (xv. 12) says: "Shall iron break the northern iron and steel?" meaning probably iho material derived from the Chalybes of Pontus, the black- Finith.s of the ancient world, who hardened iron instruments for cutting, and first used coal. Their iron was made, ao- C'trding to Aristotle f'J22 n. c. ), fr<»ra sand ore dug from river banks, washed, and put into the furnace along with the ttinie fnfriinacfnt9 (jirc- maker) — that is, coal. The Greeks and Romans supply few facts of intere:;t. Plutarch (a. d. 1 10) mention.-i that the Celtiberiuii.^t " bury iron roils till tho rust cats out the weaker parts of the metal," and make their excellent swords out of metal so prepared. Strabo (a. D. 2j) mentions the exhaustion of the produc- tive iron ore mines of Chalcis and Kubom, and states that Great Itritain furnished iron to the Romans. The Ro- mans, however, derived their chief supply of iron and steel from Noricum, now Slyria. Strabo iklso ascribes the in- Iruductiou of iron-making in Great Britain to Odin, pcr- h:ips with reason. The later history of iron may be sketched aa follows from authentic data: A. D. "00. Iron-mines opened on island of Elba. 712. Siyrian inm-niines reopened. Ilt?de mentions iron as an luiiMrtant manuraeture in iireat Britain. 950-1000. lligh-hluomeries (tiluckofen) Kcucral in EUass and Hur|i;und>'. UfiO. Imii-works recorded a( Kimherworlh, Yorkshire. J."W5. Mloomeries first UHf<l tn Silesia. J:t70. First foundries in KuKlaiid. I4S8. Mines of I>atinemora opened. 1190. First fouiniri*'s and first stove cast in Ftsa.ss. 1543. Cannon first cast in England by Ralph Huge, at Buckstccd, Siis>ex. 1516. Af;rlcola records three kinds of furnnces: H) Catalan for^e ; (2) (ternian bloomerits, ;( fed hiuli; f'\) b1oom<-ri'-s .^ lol> feel biKh, the product of wliieli was remelted before shin^liiii;. 1 )W. WiHjden bt'llows invented by Hans Kobsinger, Nuremberg. lVi4. Si'vere leRishilion (o protect ICtivflish forcnts. IGOO {cirrn\ HIast furiinee 'Jl feet liii^h constructcfl In Han: Mountain:* with H-fo'it bnsbis. 1GI2. Sturtevant ohtaine<l pn(t-nt for .smelling Iron with pltcoul, asal.Hodid It<iven/on In l(ii:t. \*'AX Heating furnace (revcrheratory) lnvenl«*d by Rovenzon. 1G14. Regular bla.1t furnace introduced by (iermans into .Sweden, at the Instance of (iuMavus Adn'lphus. 1619. Dud Dudley made pig Iron with pit coal (coke); 3 tons a week. ir.il. Wootlcn bellows improved and largely made in the Harz. lti'J-_». I'ir^l bar Iron madi- in Aiiierican inliinifs. 1040. Tr«mipes (wnler-suetion blowin^'-niaehlncs) first used In Italy. 1042. Klrnt bla.st furnace built In American colonies. Ii;."i0, ('(ml first used In force fires for reheating;. ir(.'>8. IVut used by the iMilch for iron-maklnc. Itl74. EnKliHh blast furnaccH (charcoal) make H ton.* In six days. 1C81. Tin-plnie making introduced Into England from Bohemia by Viirrliiirlon. 1701. Peter the (;reaL, throuch Demldon*. cfltnblishoa charcoal blast furnaei's 4-'i feel high In the I'ral. 1720 (ciVcii). Rolling plate Iron invented by John Harbury. 1722. Steel-maktng by cementation described by Reaumur. ll'.iH. Coal coked by Darby and !<ucccs.sfully used" in bla-^t furnace. 1700. Cast-iron blast cvlinders made t>y Smeaton. 1760 (cifCii). Cast steel invented by Huntsman. 17G9. Watt's sinele-aciinf; engine usi'd for blowing-engines. 17S;I. (irooved rolls fi»r bars inventt-d liy Cort. 17S4. Puddling invented by Onions, who used fan-blast with clc»s>-d ash-pit. 17S4, Puddlint: made successful by Cort. 17S0 (circa). Homfray originated' modern process of refining. 1791. Cast steel made direct from ore in a crucible bv Lucas. 1790. Charcoal furnaces substantially abnndiuied in England. 1814. Waste pas of blast furnaces applied by Aubcrtot. 1R2S. Hot blast invented by Nielson. I.s:i0. Water-tuyere invented by Condie. 18.15. Puddled steel first n^ade at Frantsebach in Carinthia. 18;W. Anthracite first used by Crane in Wales. 1838. Anthracite first used in U. K. at Mauch Chunk by Baugh- niun, Giteau & ('o. 1S39. Fin-t three-months blast with anthracite at Pottsvllle. by Lyman. 1839. Heath invented theuscofmanganesein steel manufacture. 1840. Burden invented the rotary squeezer. 1842. Nismyth invented the modern steam-hammer. 1850. Puddled steel first successfully made by Riepe. > 1855. Bessemer decarbonized iron without fuel by Mowing air throush it; Kelly invented same process in U. S. 1856. Mushel made Uessemer process suceessfid V»y Inventing use of Spiegel iron as a recarbonizing agent. 1856. Siemens invented the regenerative system of using gas- eous fuel. We sec above that tlicrc have been few inventions origi- nating systems, but that from time immemorial one thing has slowly developeil into another. The Catalan forge grew into tho German Idoomery (English, air-hlonmrrif)^ that into the high-hloomery ( Englisli, fifust-bhomcn/), that into the low blast furnace with cold weak blast; then camo stronger Itlo^ving-engines, and then the blast was heated, when it was found that the furnace could be enlarged to its present height and pize. Here are seven stejis to reach one moilern result. But it is remarkable that a process once perfected is sacredly retained, and all the early steps are still in daily use. We find, however, that the history of the trade resolves itself into various ejtochs: (I) The perfec- tion of mechanical art to enable blast furnaces to lie used — l.')SO to 1C2I. (2| The general use of cc)ke as fuel— 17H;'>- 50; and the use of cast-iron blast cylinder? — 1760. (3) Application of steam-engine in iron-works first to blow- ing-engines — 1700. (4 ) Inventions of rolling and puddling by Cort— 1783-84. CO Use of liot blast and application of waste gases — 182R-3C. (C>) Economy of fuel by im- proved apparatus and processes, and perfection of works, engineering — 1Sj(» to present time: extended use of Steel. The history of the art in Great Britain and America runs as follows: Tlie Pha'nicians seem to have made iron in tho Briti:-h Isles very soon after they discovered them (500 n. ('.). A hundred years before Civ.'^ar's invasion (55 B. c.) tho Britons exported iron to the Continent ((Jaul) in their o\vn ships. Ciesar found, to his cost, plenty of iron in England, both as money and weapons of war. W'hen the Romans secured possession (a. p. 01), they established iron-works: Adrian built (1201 a great military forge at Bath, and supplied it with iron from the Forest of Hcan, where immense cinder-heaps still exist. The Romans en- couraged iron-making till 409, when they abamloncd tJreat Britain. Then all arts were thrust aside, by Saxon and Danish conquest and civil war, till the reign of Alfred the Great. No record is mailc of iron till the Doomsday Book mentions tliat William the Conqueror ( lOCfi) demanded iron bars as tribute from the city of Gloucester. After tlie Con- quest iron and steel were mostly imported from Germany. Little was made in the X. of England. U>t raiding Scots in 1317 could find none till they reached Furiiess. where (hey seized all they found. In 1355, Edward III. forbade the export of iron from England. During tho fourteenth and fifteenth centuries Germany and Spain supplied iron and steel largely, till the importation of articles whiclj could bo made in England was f(»rbidden in 1 183. In the reign of Elizabeth (1588) severe laws were enacted to prevent tho general destruction of the forests by iron-works; these laws were in force till 1750. Charles I. np|ioii)tcd inspect- ors in 1039 to stamp bar iron according to quality, and see that no woods were cut down contrary to law. The .scarcity of timber and charcoal caused numerous futile attempts to use coal: finally, I>ud Dudley .suceceded in lOIH. He gave in his Mrtatlitm Mnrtii a sad history of the efl'ects of the envy of importers and fellow niannfa<'- turers. He built five works, was tricked out of three, one was destroyeil by riot, and one by flood. He was u roy- alist, and iMajor \Vililman, with Cromwell as partner, bought hij" estate to wring his secret from him, but they failed. Vcrnat, Wildmnn, Copley, Buck and Blewstono nil failed to make iron with coal, though others used coal in forges instead of charcoal. Dudley kept his secret, and left it to his relatives; it lav in hi.4 skill in making bel- lows and in cn/cinj coal. Toward tho end of the seven- loUtJ IRON. teenth century Dr. Plot stated as the general opinion that " coke was fit for most uses Init for melting, fining and re- finin<' iron, which it canuot be brought to do." Jlcan- tiraL>°earlv in the eighteenth century, wood grew excccd- in^ly scaicc, and aljout 1740 large importations of iron, mostly pi", came in from Russia and Sweden ; American exports wire encouraged. England had only hO furnaces, with a product of 17,3o0 tons, and depended on loicign countries for pig iron for her fineries. Some English eom- iiauies had their furnaces in America and their forges in England. Darby, however, had experimented with coke since 171.1, and bv 17:15 was able to use it regularly, while Rmeaton erected "in 1760, at f:arron, a powerful blowiug- en-ine consisting of four single-acting cast-iron blowiug- cvriiulers driven bv a water-wheel in the rotation required for a uniform blast. Smealon applied the cylinder, hut Wilkinson, who invented a correct boring-machme lor Watt, was the first to apply the stcara-engmc to blow furnaces. After 1740 iron-iu.aking throve with surprising vi'^or and .i:) coke furnaces were built before 1788. The ch'^rcoal furnaces averaged 294 tons yearly in 1740 and 545 tons in 17S8, but in that year the coke furnaces made an average of 909 tons. The use of coke and blowing- engines quadrupled the production of pig iron in fifty years. Bar iron, however, was still made in charcoal lorges; the British forests were exhausted, and Sweden and Russia rapidlv advanced the price of bar iron. Great Britain then laid a' heavy duty on bar iron, beginning with £2 IGs. and rising continuouslv, till 1825, to £6 10.. in English and £7 18». Gd. in foreign ships. In 1797, Pitt abandoned his intention of taxing English iron 20». per ton, though he had exhausted his last resources of taxation to carry on the war against Napoleon. In 17S.'! and 1784 Henry Cort of Gospo'rt obtained patents for puddling iron and rolling it into bars (plate-rolling having been invented by Harbury). At this time the forge-hammers could make no size less than I inch square, and all smaller sizes, for nail-rods, etc., were cut in a slitting-mill. The hammers made 1 ton of bars in twelve hours, while Corfs rolls made lo tons, and 5 tons of the smallest sizes. His puddling furnaces made less than 5 tons a week. The original processes worked well but were never fairlv developed by Cort, though they came immediately into general use. Homfray first refined iron to prepare it for Corfs puddling. The only remuner- ation Cort ever got was a pension of £1(50 for six years, and £100 to his widow, renewed by Lord Palmerston to his children. The capital used by Cort came from .Jellicoc a pavmaster who defaulted ; Cort's patents were then confis- cated and locked up by Trotter and Lord Melville, both rascals. The latter a few days after Corfs death got from the House of Lords a release to himself of £2;),n00, on tho score of the great ami imcoiilested merk -./ C."-f« invenhon:, . From this ]ioint British iron manufacture steadily in- creased, the charcoal furnaces disappeared, and Gibbons and others largelv increased the product of blast furnaces by alterations of forin. The hot blast was discovered by Neilson in l^'^O. the opinion being general that the cVr/er the blast was the better. It was successful at the Clyde works, bcin" essentially aided by Coudie's water-tuyere, without which hot blast could not be used. At the Clyde, 1 ton of iron required 8J tons of coal coked, but in 1S:U hot blast was used, raw coal was substituted, and only 2^^ tons of coal were needed to the ton of iron. JIushct discovered bla.-kband in 1801, and in 1825 used it alone, with a saving of one-quarter the coal and one-third the limestone before required. The great production of Scottish iron dates from this time. In 1844 tho wild railroad mania stimulated all production, particularly that of Ssotland, and gave rise to speculation on warrants drawn against pig iron '" store : ; the stock then held at Glasgow often reached 4:10,000 tons. In 18:51. Perdonnet in France discovered that anthracite could be used with cold blast by excessive care and in mix- ture with coke. In 18:'.7,Mr. CraneofYnescodwin found that with hot blast he could successfully use anthracite coal alone. Since 1840 wages have gradually increased and improve- ments made to save Labor. The puddling furnace has been the suliject of constant attention in a mechanical direction, with the results described above. Iron was applied to a great variety of uses, especially to iron ships in 1834. For these, forgings up to :i5 tons weight were required for shafts, which were forged under Masmyth (1842) or Condie (ISi;i) hammers. Great improvements have been made in rolling-mills, both in strength and design ; the rolls were reversed, to save labor, and Ramsbottom adopted Xas- myth's suggestion to reverse the engine itself. These sys- tems are now used in every English works. The enormous consumption of fuel at iron-works led Siemens (185fi) and others to seek economical systems, that of Siemens being now in general use for almost every purpose, with a saving of 40 to 60 per cent. The hot-blast stoves have been im- proved by Whitwell and Cowpcr on the Siemens principle, and the ordinary cast-iron stoves by Player, Ford, triers, and many others. The temperature of the blast has been raised to"l300°,at which a ton of iron has been made with a ton of coke. In a business point of view, England has found since 1840 that joint-stock companies for iron-mak- ing were anvthing but a success. The period just described is marked by the struggle for economy in all aspects of the trade, but after 1850 inven- tion proper took a new course— viz. in the direction ol steel. Steel had been made in bloouieries up to the end of the seventeenth century, when it was found that bar iron could be converted into steel by heating it in large closed chests with charcoal, and the converted bars when sorted, piled, welded, and forged, made excellent aheur steel for cutlery. But for finer purposes shear steel was defective in temper and on account of scams. Then Huntsman, a manufacturer of watch-springs, discovered in 1740 that the converted or blister steel from the best bars, when sorted and melted in crucibles with bottle-glass, made a faultless material. He built works at Sheflicld in 1770, controlled the market, and kept his process secret for many years. Something c7ifn;)crwas needed, and in 1800 Mushet melted bar iron direct with carbon to make steel. Lucas in 1804 tried to decarbonize pig iron by cementing with oxidizing substances, as ore (thcoriginof mn//fn?.(o iion), hut withoat success. Then Heath in 1S3G found that the use of 1 to Z per cent, of a carburet of manganese, or materials pro- ducing it, made sound cast steel out of blister steel from cheap British bar, thus saving at least 40 per cent, of the cost This discovcrv is the basis of modern steel processes. Heath was betrayed" by his agent I'nwin, and, as the (*irrf in our list, got nothing for an invention which established the Sheffield steel trade. By the use of manganese lo make a thin slag, and also of Spiegel iron added near the end of the puddling process, Wistphalian and English firms made good puddled steel under Riepe's patent (1850). 1^ ant of uniformity has prevented anv general use of puddled steel, Cchatius'made steel in 1855 by reducing ore in crucibles with coal ; Parrv (1855) attempted to make steel hy direct acliim of air in" a puddling furnace, Kelly (1856) in the hearth of a blast furnace, and Bessemer (lSo6) in a close vessel. Bessemer finallv made a peculiar metal by blowing the air in nNmfioiis/iic"jft» (Martin ) through the iron, but did not make a reliable material till he used Mushcfs "triple compound of iron, carbon, and manganese." or spicel iron (1856, date of discovery) to make the steel mnl- leablr. The Kellv and Bessemer patents are united in America, and Mushet was so unfortunate as to allow his important one to lapse. It is now possible to attain in the Siemens and Eckmann furnaces a heat high enough to melt wrought iron with enough cast iron to convert it into steel (Martin, France, 1866). By the use of these processes steel is now rapidly approximating iron in cost, and is supplant- ing the best i'ron for engineering purposes. We have seen above the development of the art in Eng- land ; we shall see in American history the course of its application. The Indians had no knowledge of iron. The fir«t iron made in America was forged at a blooinery of the Virginia Companv by John Berkeley in 1622, on the James River, 12 miles below the present site of Richmond. The Indians destroyed the forge, and, owing to the lucrative tobaceo-trade, lio more iron was made in Virginia till 1724. Meanwhile, the people of Massachusetts Bay had built one " iron-mill " at Lvnn in 1631, and a London company, rep- resented bv John Winthrop, Jr.. built in 1644 a blast fur- nace at Hammersmith and works at Braintrec in 1646, and Ravnham (Taunton) in 1652, agreeing to erect "an iron fnriiaee and forge, and not a hloomcry only," and to sell bar iron under £20 per ton. They east .V.-i. pni,, etc. in 1016 under the direction of Joseph Jenks, who made our first «..»•« in 1652. Thev exceeded the fixed price for iron, and would not trade in kind, so that com]daints of damage, ras- ealitv andwant of monevon Ihepartof thcpeople brought these works to an end in 1670, during King Philip's war. But the increasing price of iron in England gave profitable occupation lo ourfurnaces after 1702,when the era of regular iron-making in the colonics began. In Plymouth ( Mass.) a furnace was built in 1 702 by Despard and the Barker family, and was succeeded hy many others, working 2d per cent. pond ore (limonite), mixed with 35 per cent, bog ore from Egg Harbor, N. J. Pv 1S04 they had seriously injured the forests in that part of "the State.and emigration had taken place for want of occupation. They all made e''«';"fl; (""' nig iron) direct from the furnace, at a cost of M9.m per ton in 1804. Xew England exported no iron, hut obtaincl l,i<' for her forces from Pennsvlvania. Massaehusetis bar iron cost in 1727. £12 5.. to £12 10«. per ton In Virginm, Col Snotswood built the first furnace in 1724, and made casiinJ'S out of an air furnace in 1732. There were four furnaces in 1732 between the Potomac and Rappahannock, I each making 20 tons of pig iron per week, or 800 tons a IRON. lo()7 year, which sold for £6 in Englnnd. and netted the pro- ducer a.i to Hi per ton. In Maryland, Mr. England and Augustine Washiiix'un (fatlicr of Ucn. Washington) built a for '0 in 1717 at Princijiio, where they made exciMent iron, which suld in Kn-land u|. to 1770 for £10 to £!ti per ton. Maryland and Vir^'inia exported their entire product to Fngiand.aiid Col. Spotswaod remarked, that Pennsylvania would do .«o too had she ships. Init failing these must manu- facture it herself. John Wiulhrop, Jr.. built iron-works at Pcnuot (New I.ondonl in Hill, and in liiJ7 a blast furnaeo at Now Haven, whieli, singularly enough, ran on EwiUih ore. No great activity was afterwards inaiiifestcd, thou.'h in 16J.5 the colony granted privileges to John Tuck- er of"Southold, L. I., for steel-making, and in 1727, Joseph Hi-'ljy made good steel, and exhibited samples of it ; both the"e'were probablv blister steels. George Eliot made steel in a blooniery from magnetic ironsand in 1701, and also had ft cemeiilhig furnace, built before 1750. In Ncwlork the .'Stirling furnace and works were built in 17.'il. and tho Anorain works, built in 1740 to use .'Salisbury ore. made •ni3 tons 12 cwt. of jiig iron and i:i02 tons of bar iron in tho years between 17J0 and 17.iG. Tho great _chain weighing ISO tons stretched across the Hudson in 1773 was forged at these works in six weeks. In ISOl tho first forges were built in Essex co.. at Willsboro' Falls on tho Boquet. In New Jersey the earliest works were hloomeries. Col. Morris built works in Monmouth eo. in 1GS5; tho Pctcrs- hur" hloomery, Morris co., was built in 1725, and tho O.-:- for.f furnace, in AVarren co., in 1745: the latter is still rnnning. The principal impetus to iron-making in tho State was given by the London Company, Baron Ilascn- clever an.l others, who built the Ringwood furnace in 17G2, and other works sjon after, utili/.ing the ponds of tbo region to great advantage as a source of power. The last mana- ger of tho original Ringwood works was llobcrt Erskine, afterwards chief of staff and engineer of tho Continental armv. In Pennsylvania the first forges were built by Hall, Nuti, and Uutter"in 1717 on the Sdiuylkill, while tho first furnace was built on the Christina River, near New Castle, now Delaware, bv Sir William Keith in 1720. Tho Dur- ham furnace was' built in I72S, and other furnaces built by the families of Potts and Nutt from I7:U to 1737, and by (■rubb in 1742 at Cornwall, followeil in rapid succession; in furnaces and 9 /iiicry/oiv/fs in all were built before 1730. The furnaces made 20 to 2.5 tons a week, running about 10 weeks at a blast, and the forges made about CO tons of iron yearly ; both stopped in summer. Pennsylvania exported iron ((irubbs's) to England, tbo West Indies and New Eug- land. Pig iron sold at the furnace in 17:U for £5 10». in Penn- sylvania currency ; in 175!1, for £:i G». »d. to £.". 1 0». sterling. In Ibo latter year bar iron sold for £15. Philadelpbians be- lieved in 1750 that when labor became cheaper they could undersell English iron ; and this feeling was general in Englanil. When tho colonies began to export bar iron m 1717, an agitation sprang up which ended in 1750with tho nhnuhitv priihiljitioii, (in u ciimmnn iiiiiHanrr, of tho produc- tion of bar iron (nail plate) and steel in America. Tho colonies continued to export pig iron largely. Between 1717 and 1770 a total ([uantity of about 150,000 tons pig and bar iron was exported to England. The Revolution gave a great impetus to the trade; new works were erected; all were occupied on war material. Congress reopened llio steel-works of Philadelphia, and took possession of the Andover iron-works to provide them with pig iron. On the return of peace in \7M the iron-trade was nearly dc- slroycil. The Stales became independent sovereignties, with customs regulations often mutually hostile ; the machinery of the works had not improved, as might have been cx- pecte.l from the familiarity of Robert (Jrace and others with lirilisb work. Tho olil wooden blowing-tubs fur- nished blast for charcoal furnaces, and bellows blew the forges, while all works operated on a small scale. Mean- while, coke bad come into general use in England, and tbo processes of iiud.Uing and rolling had superfcrled Ihc forges in lireat Britain. That country shiplied iron hither duty free, whilo she herself levied a duty of £:'• lO". per ton, and in I7«5 prohibited tbo export of any tools, en- gines, models, or plans of machinery "«<■'' •>' mukliiii iron under n penalty of one year's imprisonment, £200 fine, and coiiflscalioii of the articles shipped or rnlniilnl to bo shippetl. This Rtivto of things led to Hamilton's report in 17!lll, which caused tho adoption of the protective jiolicy to encourage tho natural products of our country. The system of internal improvements inaugurated be- tween 1S25 and lx:tll by many Slates marks the real enm- mencenient of iron mannfaeture in this country, for it made tho use of coal possible and faeililaled large operations. Previous t,, 1S25 tho Atlantic coast depended on English mines f,,r fuel. Coke was first used in the blast furnaeo hy V. II. Olipbant of Kavettoco., Pa., in lS3fi,nnd anthracite C()al first at Mauch Chunk by Baughman, Oiteau A Co. in 1838, though Mr. Lyman at Pottsville received $5000 of- fered by Nicholas Riddle and other citizens of Pennsylvania for the _/ir«( vontinii:, itn I,I.,hI „/ ihrrc muii(/i», which was com- lilcted ill Jan., I.'i40. David Thomas came hither in IS.'i'J at tho instance of Erskine Hazard of tho Lehigh Naviga- tion Co., built the first furnace of tho Crane Iron Co. in one year, and started it on July 4. 1840. The Messrs. Reeves built a furnace in 1S:;7, and Burd Patterson & Co., Biddlc, Chambers & Co., and George Patterson built in IS.'IS; all started before July 2, 1840. Before 1S40 the forges of Pennsylvania had practically censed to make bar iron though Gen. Philip Benner made his '■ Juniata iron " celebrated all over the West — and confined themselves to slabs for boiler plate; the puddling furnace took their place in making bar iron and common boiler plate: and it is probable that the Martin furnace or Bessemer converter will soon do so for best boilerplate. Raw bituminous coal was first used bv tho Mahoning (now Ada) furnace in Ii'46 by Wilkcson & Co. The refinery has been neglected in this country, and the yield of puddling furnaces consequently remains small. The quality of our iron has, however, been kept at tho highest point. Tho design of the machinery used at American works steadily improved, blowing-engines were made powerful enough, and rolling-mill engines were soon made sufliciently strong for rolling rails, which were probably first made at the Mount Savage works in 1840 and at tho Great Western Works (Brady's Bend) in 1841. Since th.at timo a great deal distinctively .\merican has been done in mechanical improvements of all kinds, such as Thomas's blast furnaces, Burden's squeezer, Lautb's plate-rolls, Fritz's hanging guides and feeding tables for rolls, Ilolley's improved Bessemer plant. Kent's hot-blast stove, Pearsc's cupola; in engines the Corliss and that of Mooro have been prominent. Danks. by his improvements in tho lining of rotary puddling furnaces, has made them suecCEsful, and Kelly divides with Bessemer the credit of perfecting tho process of making steel by blowing air through iron, having, it is said, succeeded in doing so in 1S51. The vigor and ability displayed in the inventions by which our iron-trade has been supported, and in the Bessemer trade, at least, placed at the head of the world, deserve tho highest praise ; in fact, tho mechanical has overshadowed tho metallurgical side of the art. Attention must now bo directed to improvement of processes by tho universal application of chemistry with a view to economy. Iron, Statistics of. We find the present annual prod- uct of pig iron in the world to be as follows : Years. Gross tons, Tcor<. Gross loin. C,.''.r.C,451 2,.-G0,9C'2 1,GG4,602 1 l,r,SI,000 I 052,665 IKT.-i ... IfiT:! ... It71 ... 1C73 ... 1872 ... Croat Britain.. Initeil States., Cermany France r.elgiiim Aiistri;i, ypitl Hungary 1871 Russia 1871 Sweden 1872 Luxembourg .. 1872 Canada 424,con 354,000 322,000 300,000 10,000 Italy 1872 Siiain 187U .. 73,709 .. 54,007 Norway .. 20,000 South America and Mexico .. 15,000 Japan 1871 9,370 Switzerland 1872 7,500 Asia ... 40,000 Africa ... 20,000 Australia ... 10,000 H,485,<)72 Gruncr estimates approximately the production of wrought iron and steel in lt;72 as follows, in gross tons : WroiiRlil iron. Rlo«.l. Great Britain Cnited S-lates Gcrinauy . 3,.500,000 500,000 1,005,922 H.'.,000 1,1.50,000 200.000 IsXium 502,000 15.284 "''"^'" ;....... 300.000 49,'2.50 Belgi Austria Sweden and Norway „,,„„„ nus;sia 24''."00 Spain ■^■'•''™ Italy Canada, India, etc 191,K00 I'WOO 7,204 250 24,000 70,0IH) 8,8015,722 tons. i,0Gf,,988 tons. The product of Great Britain may be summed up as fol ""*» vcnrs : Pig Iron, lows for 1.''.5 years : Clinroool. 1740 1788 179G ISOG IB'2.1 isrm 1839 1817 \nr>2 la.'.! 1873 17,360 14,600; r,800 800 A 85,200 125,079 250,400 442,003 078,417 1.0-11.021 493 1.459,040 nil 2.020.000 fiOR 2.073,234 ..I '■•504 '2,741,447 1 lca.70n l•.^57 5.572.751 54 130 144 l.'iO i«1'24i l«I23l 190,900 rcm.nos 77".,000 79''.,OOl 918,000 993,000 Tolul, gro*r. lou4. 17,350 69,700 125 079 2.58,20G 442,000 078,417 1,217,961 1,',I'.!'.',I>0.S 2,8111.000 ;t..i(;o,«:is 3.0';o,447 0.500,451 • '■ In blast;" previous figures mennlni; " total furnaces. 1308 IKON. Great Britain produced the following amounts of bar iron and steel iu 1869 4,73-1.145 Kro.ss tons. | 1871 5,566,175 gross tons. and e.x|)orted iron, steel, and manufactures thereof — 1871 3,169,219 gross tons. | 1872 8,388,622 gross tons. Pricet of Etujlinh Har Iron at Liverpool. Ye>r. £ «. 1806 17 1807 16 1808, 1809 1810 1811 1812 13 10 1813. 1814 13 18 1815 13 13 1816. 1817. 1818. 1819. 1820. 1821. 1822 8 1 1823 8 1824 8 19 1825 12 14 1826 9 15 1827 9 7 1828 7 1829 6 1830 6 1831 5 1832. 5 1833 6 1834. 6 1833 6 183G. 14 10 , 13 . 14 10 . 14 12 10 12 12 1 12 5 10 13 8 18 18 IS 3 13 13 12 11 18 10 Year. 18;J7 9 1 1838 9 4 1S;!9 9 15 1840 8 7 IMl 7 6 1842 6 17 1843 5 2 1844 6 2 1845 9 5 184G 9 13 1847 9 13 1S48 6 12 lfH9 5 17 1851 6 18.53 11 1834 10 18.55 11 1S36 9 1858 8 1859 7 10 1862 7 1884 « 10 1865 8 10 18G7 7 10 18S9 7 1870 8 1871 8 10 1872 14 1873 14 1874 12 14 10 12 6 In the U. S. the statistics of iron manufacture arc as fol- loiTS, in gross tons: In ISIO. 153 charcoal furnaces 53,908 tons pig iron. 330 bloomeries and l"(,rf;es 24.541 '* bar " 34 rolllDg and slitting mills 6,500 " nails, rods, etc. In 18S0. 202 charcoal furnaces 183.^3 tons pig iron. Bar iron made (including 5853 tons " bloomed " from ore) 112,866 " *' 14 steel-works 1,600 " steel,all kinds. In IS40. 450 fiirnacesCav. product, 772tonsea.). ,347,700 tons pig iron, 797 bloonieries, forges, and rolling- mills 197,233 " har, rod, etc. In IS45. 523 charcoal furnaces 441.000 tons pig iron. 17 anthracite " 45,000 " " 954 bloonieries, forges, rolling and > 291,600 " har. plate, etc. slittingmills ) 30,000 " blooms. In 3S49. 303 charcoal furnaces 379,624 tons pig iron. 57 anthracite " 151,331 •' " 7 raw coal " 7,800 " *' 10 coke " (estimated) 2,5,000 " " 552 bloomeries, forges, and rolling-mills..., 278,044 " bar iron. Detailed Statialict bi/ Slatei in 1S56 and 1S7S. isje. Itlnst furnaces. u Ine New Uampshlre*. ViTraout »aobu«ctts Rhode [Kland ('"liDi-ellcut i 14 -■ York j 29 .\cw Jersey I 6 Priiiivlvauln 143 Delaware ,.-. Harvlaod { 21 ■VlrKlol. -- \lv.t Vlrfjliila.- NiTth Carolina. South t'arollDa. tlrorKla Alabama T,'Utict»e« Kentucttjr tmio Indlaoa IllinoU Mk'hlsan Wisconsin Minnesota Mlxouri On'Kon Kansas fuh Territory.. CaUforula f S i 1873. 171 se IS so 149 B C"l a II'" 416 12I'I9» aw 189 TO9 10 2S7 V(W'lfi7 3" 47 • New Hampshire ceased in ISfifi to make pig iron, t The figures for t he ot her States arc wanting. 1856. 1873. St*tSs. Pljt Iron. ' •II klndi- WrosiEibt Iron and steel, all kinds. Pis Iron. aU klala. Wrought iron. Inelud- IDg ateei ralla. all kinds. 21,210 800 6.788 118,669 11,662 11,409 186,835 77,688 a58.946 11.617 58.025 15.603 51,796 110 10,624 500 16,.561 39.060 272,066 36.006 143,017 8,542 39,495 23,055 7,420 Maine 2,100 4,500 600 2,150 57,142 4.473 7.709 75,242 3:i.561 27.3,211 2,211 15.292 29,350 780 New Hampshire.... Vermont 2.420 13,007 3.100 21,136 Massachusetts 12,876 69,031 28,217 451,490 26.977 2116.818 102.341 1,389,573 New York Pennsylvania 41.718 14,828 .55.986 26.475 23.056 1,432 7,-501 22,283 43.134 69,889 406,029 32,486 65,796 123.506 74,148 «5,.552 280 AVcst Virginia North Carolina South Carolina 450 1.-506 2.807 1.495 28.476 36,.563 87,011 1,800 1.900 3,678 2,500 10,138 1,397 1,850 940 252 10,097 21,370 30,980 Kentucky Ohio Illinois 2,298 5,325 Texas 814,017 1587,238 2.868,278 i 2,029,009 | Of the iron made in 1873, 890,077 net tons were rails; of these 129,015 were Bessemer steel, and 2fi,.377 steel- headed rails. Besides these there were imported 159,571 tons steel and 99.202 tons iron rail.«, making a total con- sumption of 1.14S,850 tons of rails in IST."?. There were 875,13;i tons of angle, bar, etc., iron. 201.2.'J5 tons of cut nails and spikes, and only .32,80,3 tons of blooms from ore, and 29.701 from pig iron. The manufacture of blooms has remained stationary for many years. The production of Bessemer steel in the U. S. has been, in net tons, as follows: Year. Tons. Av. price per (tross ton. 1807 3,000 S160-00 currency. 1858 8.500 15S..50 1809 12.000 1.32.25 1870 40,000 106.75 1871 4.5,000 102..50 1872 111.000 112.00 1873 1.57,000 I20..50 1874 175,000 (est.) 94.25 The production of cast steel of all kinds has been as follows : 1870 35,000 net tons. 1871 37,000 " 1872 38.000 " " 1873 50,000 " IR65 15,262 net tons. 1866 18,973 " 1S67 19,000 " 1868 21.500 " 1869 23,000 " " The consumption of pig iron in the I'. S., gauged by the population of the country, has risen as follows: In 1810 the consumption was 16 pounds per head. 1829 " " 25 " " ]^(2 " " 47 " " 1846 " " 100 " " 18-55 " "117 1873 " " 103 The production per head in the U. S. constantly rises : in 1855 it was 84 pounds, and in IS7.'> it was 143 pounds. The growth of some districts is so rapid that we may soon ex- pect production to equal consumption in ordinary times. AVe find, for instance, that Pittsburg, whidi in 1828 rolled 3291 ton.< of iron, now makes nearly one-si.\lh the entire amoont produced in the country. Iu connection with the statistics of iron, two very strik- ing facts appear. First : that the cost of iron consists al- most entirely of wages paid for labor. A ton of pig iron rcciuires 10 to 13 days' labor of one man. Second; that the quantities of raw materials used are so great that the iron trade requires more transportation than any other in- dustry. It is estimated that in 1874 the iron-trade freight of this country amounted lo about 37* out of a total of 175 million tons moved over all our railroads, or more than 2U percent. More than onc-lhird of all coal mined in the t. S. is required for the manufacture of iron and steel. I am indebted to the American Iron and Steel Association for recent statistics; the earlier ones relating to America I have extracted from reports of the secretary of the treasury and lldziird's Hei/iKlrr, while those relating to Great Britain I have compiled from several old authorities. John B. Pearse. J Of this total, 7280 tons were steel. IKON. MKDK'INAL USES OF— IKON I'LATINti l-OR KoKTlFUATIoNS. loO'J Iron, Medicinal Vses of. Iron is an important in- fCrcdiunt of the subi'tancc of the red-blood corpuscles, and its iidmini?trfttion in some unknown way Jirtotly induces an increased formation of thci^c bodies. In heultli this effect takis place only to a limited extent, but in the mor- bid condition knouu as aiitpmia, where from any cause the blood is unnaturally jioor in red corpui^cles, this lu-tion of iron is far more striking, and the nornnil ])r'«p(.rtion of these elements is often rapidly restored by its intluence. On account of this peculiar property, iron is commonly called a blood-tonic, and its preparations tlius have a unique medicinal use in curing aniumia. To a full-blooded individual, on the other hand, they are injurious. I,ocaIly, the preparations of iron differ greatly in action. Some arc powerfully astringent and styptic, and have thus special uses by virtue of this property ; others arc nearly destitute of this action. The astringent group are also fxcitc-rs of the digestive faculty, and for" some unknown reas<m also euro anaomia, in some cases more promptly than the bland preparations. Almost all chalybcatcs tend to cause con- stipation, and tho astringents again more than the others. The ** muriated tincture," the mo.>t used of the astringent group, has, moreover, a great reputation in some special diseases, notably in erysipelas and diphtheria. The prepa- rations of iron used in medicine are very numerous — in- deed, unnecessarily so. They embrace both soluble and insoluble forms, but as the latter are readily dissolved by the aid of the gaf-tric juice, they are as active ns the former. Tho non-astringent preparations are reduced iron (/errinn ret/artum), known also as "iron by liydrogen " or "Quovenne's iron." consisting of the pure metal in a state of fine powder; pills of the carbonate (*' Vallet's ferrugi- nous pills*'): tho so-called sub-carbonate or *' saffron of Mars," consisting of the hydratcd sesquioxidc with a little undecomposed carbonate: and numerous salts, embracing the jdiosphate, pyrophosphate, oxalate, citrate, ammonio- citrato, citrate of iron and quinine, and of iron and strych- nine, and the ammonio- and potassio-tartrates. Tho as- tringent preparations arc ferric chloride, principally used in alcoholic solution under the name of •' muriated tincture of iron ;" ferrous sulphate or *' green vitriol :" ferric nitrate in solution; lactate, a feebly astringent salt; and the so- called solution of tho subsulphatc, or " Monsel's solution," chiefly used as a powerful styptic to stop bleeding. Fer- rous iodide is used to combine tho medicinal effe(;ts of iron and iodine; tho hypophospliite, to coinl)inc those of iron and hypophosphorous acid; iron alum, as a simple astrin- gent; and tho hydratcd sesquioxidc, in tho moist state, when freshly precipitated, as an antidote in arsenical poi- soning. Kdwaui) CiriTis. Iron, coun|y in the S. E. of Missouri. Area, /iOO square miles. It abounds in tho best of iron ores, and contains lead, gold, and other metals. It is mountainous and heavily timbered. Pilot Knob and Iron Mountain aro near its N. E. extremity. Wool and grain are staple products. It is traversed by the Iron Mountain U. U. Cap. Ironton. Pop. tl278. Iron, county of tho S. of Utah, extending from E. to W. across the .State. Area, about 7001) sfjuare miles. It is largely unexplored. Tho Colorado intersects tho E. por- tion. The western part is in a basin which has no water flowing into (he sea. The staple ]irodnct is wool. Tho C'Minty is believed to possess great mineral wealth. Cap. Parowan. Pop. 2277. Iroiif tp. of Iron co„ Mo. Pop. 1118. Iron, tp. of St. Francpis co., Mo. (See Iron' Muintain.) Pop. 2.>;>.). Irnnolads. Sco Ships, Iron-clad on AitMoitF.h, by ISAAI- NhWTUX. Iron Crown^ the ancient diadem of the Lombard kings, is a j<-weUed circlet of gold, containing a fillet of iron said to have been made of one of the nails of tho true cross, presented by Pope Gregory I. to Theodelinda, wife of King Antharic. in hMl). In 691 it was used at tho coro- nation of Agilulphus : in 77-1. at that of Chjirlerriagne ; and by Ibirty-lour other sovereigns. Ifenry \'II. of (Jermony was crowned with it in I:;i2: Frederick IX. in \\b2; Charles V. in 1.'»:10; Napoleon I. in 1H0.>. In iHfifi it wiu* given at tho doso of the Italo- Prussian war by tho em- peror of Austria to tho king of Italy, Victor Emmanuel. I^ondnlcs post-v. of Washington co., M(»., on the St. L.uis and Iri)n Mountain U. U., miles X. of Iron Moun- tain. Irondnle, post-v. of Snlino tp., Jefferson co.,0.. on tho Cleveland and Pittsburg It. II., 8 miles from Wellsville. Pop. 751. Iron'deqiioit, posfip. of Monroe co.. N. Y., having Lake Ontario on the \. and Irondcquoit Bav on tho E. Pop. :;tl'.iO. It is very iVrfib-. Iron Mask, The Man with the, a mysterious pris- oner of state who was in 1679 confined by the French gov- ernment at Pi'^nerol in Savoy; was removed in 1081 to Exilles ; in llisr, to tlie island Ste. Marguerite in tho Medi- terranean ; in IGUS, to the Bastile, in which he d. Nov. lil, ITO.'i. lie always wore a mask of black velvet. Much has been written with a view of determining this unfortunate man's i<lentity. lie has been in turn held to have been the duko of Vermandois, the duke of Beaufort, the duke of Monmouth, an illegitimate son of the queen, and a twin- brother of Louis XIV.: but it is now generally hebl that he was in reality the count Mattbioli. minister plenipoten- tiary of the duke of Mantua to France, unlawfully held a 5)risoner by the French court, or jierhaps a chevalier do viffenbach, confined for plotting against the king's life. Iron iMountaiu, or Iron Mount, post v. of Iron tp., iSt, Fran^fois co., Mo., on the St. Louis and Iron Moun- tain It. R., 81 miles S. W. from St. Louis. Here is the famous Iron Mountain, 22S feet high and covering iJOU acres. It is of mammillary shape, and consists chiefly of an iron ore which yields 55 or GO jier cent, of execllent iron. The oro is softer and less siliceous than that of Pilot Knob (which see). It is very rich and uniform, nearly free tVoin sul- phur, and carrying only 0.12 per cent, of phosphorus. It is magnetic, with distinct polarity, ami acting in several ]uirt8 very strongly on the needle. The amount of oro in Iron Mountain seems to be immense, f lie main body having a thickness of 50 feet, and continuing indefinitely in depth ; 202,177 tons of ore were shipped in 1H7I ; ,371,474 in L^72. Tho whole deposit has been described by I>r. Litton in the second annual report of the geological survev of Missouri (1.S55), and by Prof. Kaphael Pumpelly and Dr. Adoljih Schmidt in the volume on Jron Ovinaitil i'oal-Firfiin of tho now geological survey (1873). The village of Iron Moun- tain has several blast furnaces and other manufactories. Pop. 20 IS. Iron Plating for Fortifications. It was an Amer- ican soldier and engineer, tho late Gen. .1. (i. Totten. who earliest realized the need and predicterl the introduction of guns of greatly increased calibres into our sea-coast de- fences, jvsserting tho desirableness and practicability of a 20-inch gun as early as 1844. It is to the same distin- guished officer to wlioin is due the first introduction of iron pfittimj in the surroundings of the "embrasure" (or port) of our masonry casemates. (See " Report to the Sec- retary of War," IS57, Prof. Papers Corps uj Emjlncrja, No. G.) But tho 10-inch smooth-bore represented at that date the limit of gun development. The system he skilfully devised, .and during the ensuing three or four years caused to be extensively applied to the cascmated works then in construction, provecl inadequate, simply because this was precisely the era of the commencement of the great changes which have substituted immense caiil»rcs and rilled bores for small calibres and smooth-bores in artillery, and which havo introduced the " armored " ship and made it an es- sential and most formidable agent of naval warfare. It was nearly tho era. too, when a great maritime nation, England, unclertook a revision and reconstruction of her sea-coast fortifications. At a time when " tlie (is pounder was tho heaviest gun contemplated," and when tlie intro- duction of rifled artillery of more than ono calibre (tho 110 -pounder .Vrmstrong) was not anticipated, evidently it was not expected that attacking vessels would bear heavier ordnauco or be clad in mail jterfectly proof against such guns. Before much advance had been uuide by the Eng- lish tlio necessity of a partial sultstitution of iron for ma- sonry in the exjiosed fronts of masonry casemates became apparent, though neither the jirccise degree of resistance ultimately to be offered, nor the seieiititic means by which iron c<jiild best be nuide {if at nU) to yield that measure, were understofMl. Hence, nearly all the works wliieb had been designed us masonry casemaled batteries after thecdd models were modified by making, in the casemato fronts, openings of 12 teet horizontal dimension, by 8 feet vertical, to be subseijucntly lilletl up by an iron "shield." the inter- vening mastuiry piers and front wall being uhit niodifieil so as to furni.-h solid masses or *• merlons " of about 15 feet thickness. In adapting and executing this masonry const ruc- tion the4|uestion as to tho precise character uf tho iron shield was left an open one. Experiments to determine tlie con- struction comnieiieed as early as 1SG2, and are fully de- scribed in vuriou.s English publications, (I'm/. l*iip,rH Hoifitt Eiujinrrrt, vcds. xili., xiv., xvi., xvii., xviii., xix.; firport of the Sprritil CitmmxtU'f on thf Oihniltur ,Sfi{iifin ; /trport of /run Phitr Cummitlrr, vtc.) The failure of tho •• Gibraltar " shields (/. <■. shields which bad been prepared for the new works at Gibraltar and Malta) umbr the ex- perimental firings (Oct. anti Dec, ISG7, and .Ian., 1868), to give tho resistiinoe ex|iepted, and the not altogether sat- isfactory triala of tho '* Plymouth breakwater " oxperi- i:UO IRON RIDGE— IRONS. mental construction (June, 1868), appear to have tempor- arily arrested proffrcss in the application of iron to the otherwise nearly completed works. Renewed experiments finally led to the adoption of a shield construction (see Fig. 1 tor section of shield as fixed in tho casemate), described as follows : Fig. 1. as so satisfactory that were new works to be built but a very slight modification would be made in the arrangement of masonry and iron. An additional iron pluic may bo added whenever greater thickness may be judged neces- sary. For points of peculiar character and very great import- ance, the artificial or otherwise contracted sites of whieh require the greatest possilde concentration of guns, and which may be closely npproaehed and enveloped by hostile fire, a type of works like the " Plymouth breakwater fort" has been adopted; the eharacteristie being a rantiiiuoua envelope n/ irun arnuiid that part of the icork oecnpied hy gun caaematei. Fig. 2 gives a ground-plan of a casemalo Fig. 2. 0-- *• The armor consists of three ii-ineh plates, made to the full size of the shield by a process recently adopted in the fortification t)ranch, with intervals of 5 inches between them, in which a concrete composed of iron turnings and tar mixed hot, and weighing about 240 pounds per foot cube, is introduced. The front plate is bolted to the second by means of ten :'.-inch armor bolts with plus threads (5J threads to the inch) and spherical nuts at each end, seated in corresponding holes in the armor plates. The second and thiril armor plates arc held back to the supports by eight bolts of similar pattern. These bolts, however, are secured to the skin of tho supports by means of spherical nuts in coiled washers of special construction, similar to those used in the two small targets above referred to. Tho fastenings are so laid out that in no case does an armor bolt appear at the back of tho shiehl. The port opening in the front armor measures 4 feet hi;;h, and 2 feet 5 inches wide, and admits of tho Ill-inch IS-ton gun training Tll°, elevating 10°. and depressing 5°. Tho 12-ineh and 2."i-ton gun would train fiO° behind tho shield, elevate 8°, and de- press 5°. The supporting structure is composed of 1-inch Iilate, and IJ-ineh by (1-iuch by 1-inch angle-irons, built in the form of a case, to cover iho whole of the back of the armor except in the central space required for the working of the gun. The depth or thickness of this case is 2 feet fi inches. It stands ujion a 1 J-inch base-plate, the ends of which pass nniler the piers of tho masonry structure in which the shield is fixed. The whole of the case is filled with iron concrete. The shield is held down by means of 2-ineh bolts to a :i-inch plate, bcdiled in the foundation at a depth of about 2 feet below the floor level. '• It will be observed that this shield presents some im- portant points of difference from any that had preceded it: FIrKl. Each of the three 5-ineh thicknesses was one timjle plate. Tho joints, which had been such a source of weak- ness in former shields, no longer existed. Second. Tho three plates, instead of being in immediate contact, were separated by intervals of 5 inches, filled with the mixture <.r concrete of iron filings and tar. Third. The three plates are not c(mnccted by bolts running through the whole structure. The front and second plates are held together by ten 3-inch holts, with plus threads and spherical nuts at each end, seated in corresponding holes in the armor plates. The second and third ]>lates are held back to the su)iports by eight bolts of similar patterns. The fasten- ings are so arrangecl that in no case does an armor-bolt appear at the back of the shield. Fourth. Tho bolts used are peculiar." AVith some improvement of details tho shield described has been aj^plied to tho English casemated w<irks and to open batteries, and it is regarded by the English engineers of the work at Plymouth breakwater. The iron envelope is, like the shields, made u)) of three thicknesses of .5-iueh plates. In more recent iuter-aqucous constructions at Spithead both the intervals between the three thicknesses are made five inches and filled with concrete or brickwork, as described for the shields. Fig. ;! shows one of these works as first designed. In actual construction the turrets have been omitted. Fig. 3. Barbette batteries — that is, of guns firing orer a parapet without front protection — are seldom xiseil by the English, but unless in very high positions ( lilt) feet or more) these open batteries are protected with iron shields almost iden- tical with those described for the casemates. The history of the subject would contain a great variety of designs for the combination and arrangement of iron plates, beams, rails (or channel-irons), timber, rubber, etc., etc., as "shields " or protecting walls for sea-coast guns — some few of which have indeed, in Europe,* been renliied in construction — but tho English system described is the only one which has been tho outcome of long protracted and logically connected experiments, and which too, has been, on a grand scale, carried into actual execution. In this country, though the subject has been miu-h studied (see " Report on Fabrication of Iron for Defensive Pur- poses," Prnf. J'apcra Cnrpt of Enifrt, No. 21, and Supple- ment), and many experiments maile, yet, on account of the costliness, and on account of the as yet unsettled relations between gun-development and shield-resistance, no iron construction for fortifications has been ventured upon. J. G. Baii.vard. Iron Ridge, post-v. of Dodge eo.. Wis., on the Chi- cago Milwaukee and St. Paul R. U. (northern division), 47 miTes X. W. of Milwaukee. It has abundant iron ores of good quality and extensive iron-works. I'roiis ( Wll.l.l \M .loslAU), D. D., b. at Iloddesden, Herts, Eng., Sept. 12, 1812: graduated at Queen's, Oxf<.rd, in 18.13 : became prebendary of St. Paul's in ISfiO ; was liamp- ton lecturer in l."'70, and became rector of Wadinghaui and rural dean. Author of several volumes of ."."rmons. lec- tures, etc., and many controversial and other pamphlets. *Thus among the numerous recent additions to the mari- time defences of Cronstadt is a battery having six iron revolv- ing turreU. IRONTOX— IRRIGATION. 1:111 His trADslation of the Die9 Ira is considered the best in the language. IVoiiton, post-v. of Arcadia tp., cap. of Iron cu., Mo. It lias - weekly newspapers. Pop. 673. Irouton, tp. of Lincoln cc, N. C. Pop. 2162. IrontOIi,city,cap.of Lawrence CO., 0.. on the Ohio River, 1 10 miles ahove Cincinnati, at the tirniiiius ot' the Iron It. U.. 1.1 miK-s in length. It is the centre of thu " Hang- ing Iron region," and is the ht'ad-quarlcrs of business for a large number of iron furnaces: has a large nail-mill, 2 rolling mills, a stove-foundry. 2 macbine-shops. and boilcr- yartls, 2 pinning-mills, S English and 2 German ncws- paptTs, 2 national banks, 1 private bank, 15 churches, gas and water works ; does an annual business in pig iron of $2.oni).000; of nails, SfiOO.OOO ; bar iron, $750,000, etc. Capital invested in iron business, $:},500,000. Pop. 5680. E. S. Wilson, Ed. ''^Register." Ironton, tp, and post-v. of Sauk co., Wis.. 22 miles W. of Uaraboo. It has iron-works and a machine-shop. Pop. 1215. I'ron-wood, a name given in the U. S. to the two species of II'iunbi'am (which sec). The iron-wood of com- raercc is from Mctrosideroi* vera, a myrtle of Eastern Asia. Menitn ferrea and spectona of India (Guttifera;), Vcpris uudulata ('Diosmacea*). and Olca InurifoUa (Oleaccic), the last two from South Africa, and Sidfrndcndrum trijlorum (Cinchonacea'). are all callc<l iron-woods, and all have ex- ceedingly bard timber. To tbcso we may add Sidrroxjflon (Sapotaeeae), of which the IT. S. have one species, S.paHida, a tree of Florida. S. inernic, of the Capo of Good Hope, is a valuable timber tree. Ir'oqnois, the name of a confederation of Indian tribes which formerly inhabited the ct-ntral and western jiart of the Statn of New York. The cnnfedcration consisted origi- nally only of five tribes — the Mohawks. Oneidas. Ononda- gap, Cayugas, and Senccas — but in 1712 the Tuscaroras were admitted to the league, which now adopted the name of the ''Six Nations." The total number of members was about 15,000. They lived in villages and pursued agri- culture. Each tribe was governed by ?acbem?, but affairs concerning the whole confederation were decided upon by general assemblies. On the whole, the Iroquois were of all the Inrlian tribes of Xorth America not only the most powerful, but also the highest clevelopcd, and some of their leaders — as, for instance, Red Jacket of the Seneca tribe and Brant of the Mohawk — were men of valor, understand- ing, and elor)uenee. In the Revolutionary war they sided with the En::;lish. and in 177S. Rrant attaeked and nearly destroyed by fire and sword the settlements of Cobleskill, Andrewstown. and (ternian Flats. But in the ne\t year the Americans retaliated, an<l Gen. Sullivan nearly broke the power of the confederation. The Iroquoi;* present a remarkable exception to the supposed genera! law of de- crease among the American Indians, they having increased at every enumeration since the war of 1812, when they rea''heil their lowest point in numbers. Nearly one-half of the Iroquois have rem<»ve<l from New York to jioints farther W. The largest reservation is that of the Mohawks, on the Grand River in Ontario. 150 miles W. of Niagara. This was given to the Mohawks by the British govi-rnment in consideration of their serviees in the Revolutionary war, and the celebrated ehief Joseph Brant resided there until hi^ ileath. The Mohawks of Grand River number nearly 2000; with them are some hunrlreds of Tuscaroras and a few individuals of other tribes. Five-sixths of the Oneidas, or about 1200, live on a reservation on (ireen Bay, Wis., and some 400 Senecas reside in the Indian Territory. The Cayugas are the least numerous of the Six Nations. Hav- ing long since sold all their own lands in New York, they are scattered among the sister-tribes, with whom they have intermarried. Tlu'ir language is consequently nearly ex- tinct, there being now less than a score who speak it. The greatest collective number of Cayugas at one place is 55, now living at the Cuttaraugus (Seneca) reservation in Erie CO., 20 miles S. of Buffalo. All the Six Nations have enjoyed tb)' benefits of missions from an early peritKl in the century, and for twenty years past their schoi>Is have been supported by the Slate, the teachers being mainly natives. A teachers' institute was organized in 1^71 atuong (he Seneea teachers, numbering 15, An annual agrieultuml fair has for several years existed among the same Indians, and a republican form of government was established in 1H50, A president and IS couneillors, with other ofTieers. are annually elected by ballot. The languages of the Six Natitms are considered as distinct; they are closely related to raeh oIIht in gram- mar, and but little less in voeabulary, belonging to the same linguistic grou]> with the llurons and Wyandots. Some resemblances to the Cherokee language have been dis- covoied. Special works ou their history are — Coldcn, Hintory of the Five Nation* (1727); Cusick, an Indian of the Tusearora tribe, SlelchcH 0/ the Ancient HiKtorif of the Six Xations (1820); Schoolcraft. Xntes on the ftoquoii (IS-IG) ; Morgau, Lcuffuc of the frof/uois (\iib\). A gram- mar and dictionary of the Mohawk language was published by the Jesuit Bruyas in New York {1SG2). Iroquois, port of entry of Dundas co., Ont., Canada, on the N, shore of the St, Lawrence, 9U miles above Mon- treal, ou the (irand Trunk Railway and at the fool of the Iroquois Canal. It has large factories and mills. Pop. of sub-district, 781. Iroquois, county of Illinois, bounded on the E. by In- diana. Area, 1100 square miles. It is a fertile prairie, traversed by the Illinois Central, the Chicago Danville and Vineennes, and the Toledo Peoria and War.saw R. Rs. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. The S. part of the county is believed to contain beds of coal. Cap. Watseka. Pop. 25,782. Iroquois, tp. and post-v. (CovroRn Station) of Iro- quois CO.. 111., on the Cincinnati Lafayette and Chicago R. R. Pop. 079. Iroquois, tp. of Newton co., Ind, Pop. G19. Irrawad^di, a river of Farther India, rises in Thibet, and tlows, after a course of about 1200 miles, into the Bay of Bengal, in lat. 1G° N. and Ion. 01° E. In lat. 17° N. it separates, and between its easternmost branch, the Ran- goon, and its westernmost brancli, the Bassain, it forms a delta intersected in all directions by its minor branches, comprising an area of 10,000 square miles and covered with teak forests and inextricable jungles. It is navigable for vessels of 200 tons burclen as far as Ava. 40O miles from the sea, even at low tide, and canoes ascend safely 180 miles farther up tbo river. Irrel'ative, in music, a term applied to such chords or keys as have no elements in cuninmn tt) produce relation or connection. Thus, the triads of C minor and of i't nia- jor are irrelative ; and a transition from the key of C major into th.at of F} minor would be into an irrelative key. Irriija'tion [Lat. irrii/otio]. In the broadest sense of the term, irrigation embraces all artificial modes of using water for agricultural purposes. We shall consider the eom])lex effects of irrigation according to the several me- dia in which they are manifested. Soif. — The immediate effect of irrigation upon the mn- HiHtcnce of the soil is to soften it and render it more easily fenetrablo by the plough and by the roots of phuils. lence, in dry climates water is frequently applied, before ploughing, at the rate of about 400 or 50O cubic yards to the acre, or barely enough to loosen the earth to the drpth of a foot without dreiudiing it. But it is most important to observe that the ultimate effect of long-continued irriga- tion is to condense and harden the surface to a very incon- venient degree. Irrigation affects the qunh'ti/ of the soil by introducing into it common air and other gases, nn<l vege- table and mineral matter iield in suspension or solution by the water. In most eases the substances so introduced are beneficial to vegetation, but in some they are highly nox- ious. Even the water of large rivers sometimes, as lias licen observed in India, deposits on the surface, or intro- duces into the texture of the soil, salts whieh in the course of time remler it wholly sterile. Irrigation also acts upon arable soil by facilitating the decomposition of soluble or- ganic and inorganic matter contained in it, and carrying off such matter from it. The extent of this latter action is disputed, but it must be considerable, for constituents of vegetable growth have been found in underdrain water from cultivated fiebls, and largo tracts of ground, inipreg- nated with salts to sueh a degree as to nnike them incapa- ble of cultivation, have been rendered fertile by washing with fri'sh water. (See I)ui>oneliel. I/t/ilnmlit/iir Ar/ricnlr.) Irrigation often injuriously affects the Hiifmnil by charging it with water, whieh stagnates in it and renders it cold and four, as sometimes expressed, lo the roots of plants whieh descend into it. In countries where irrigation has been im- memorially practisetl this effect has not attracted niu(d» attention, but in the British Indian provinces watered by the new canals construofed l>y the government, and else- where when irrigation is first introduced, it is very observ- able. It also exereises an imp«irtant infiuenee on the tnittr- utippfif of lantls lying at a lower level, by diverting from their natural channels streams which originally llowed through such lands; an<l on the other hand liy diseharging upon their surface surplus water from irrigated fiebis. or by saturating theni with water conveyed to them from such fiebls by subterranean infiltration. These effects are seen not only in the soil itself, but in the diminished or aug- mented volume of spring and well water. Irrigation mod- ifies the trnipprntiirc of the soil benefieially or injuriously by communicating or abstracting heat, and by promoting i;!i2 IKKIGATIOX. brins til it, a supply of iitraospheric moisture so rapidly as to re'iidcr the determination of the local effect of irrigation in this respect very difficult if not impossible. But the at- mospheric temperature of artificially watered districts is, at certain times, sensibW lower than that in unwatered regions, while at other times the vapor thrown off from an irrigated surface may check radiation from the soil, and thus pre- vent or compensate the lowering of the temperature by evaporation. Irrigation has also a certain influence on the chcmU-al ronsli'iHllon of the atmosphere, by depositing on or in the soil organic or inorganic decomposable substances, and promoting the decomposition of such foreign matter on or a little below the surface of the ground, and thus disen- gaging gases which may diffuse themselves through the air. Stinitnn/ EffeclH.—llnmUlMy, temperature, and the com- position of the .air we breathe are terms in the equation of health. All these elements are subject to modification by ai-ricultural irrigation, and hence it is evident that water cannot be applied, in considerable quantities, to the soil or to the leaves of plants without e.\erting some influence on the sanitary conditions of climate. It has been observed that pure water moving freely over the surface or through the texture of the soil' is not generally sensibly injurious plants are, in a sense, artificial machines, and we rear them not for the sake of regular, but for nhiwimnt products, for the growth of which we can afford to sacrifice the rest of the plant. This subject needs to be specially studied with reference to seasons and quantities in irrigation. The problem of compensation of inferiority in quality by in- crease in quantity is complicated by the antagonism be- tween the interests of the producer and those of the con- sumer. It is hard to persuade the producer of a crop which he grows for sale, not for his own consumption, that he ought not to aim exclusively at increase of quantity, and consumers of few agricultural products arc supplied with sure tests by which they can readily detect inferiority in quality. Comparative weight is perhajis the most gene- rally accepted standard in this respect, but this is not of universal applicability. The heaviest potatoes, for exam- ple, are not the best. "The relative quality of watered and unwatered crops is now exciting much attention in Europe, hut popular opinion on questions of rural economy is eon- trolled by apparent results, and at present the tendency is strongly towards the extension of a system which offers such Tempting visible advantages. The importance of ir- rigation as a means of destroying noxious insects and small already alluded to, superficial or underground drainage is an imperious necessity in all irrig-'-^ '""''" ~'">- "•>*■■"•» to health Butwhen it stagnates on "or in the ground it } rodents in and upon the soil must not be fo'-go"e"; on becomes a dangerous and often very destructive source . The growth of large forests may be P™-" "^ ^ ' ^S - of disease Hence for sanitary as well as other reasons tion. The grounds which it is most impoitant to clou of disease. Hence, J ^^^^ ^^_,^^ drainage is with wood as a conservative influence, and which also ated lands where nature ! can best bo spared from agricultura use are steep h.ll- h-is not nrovided either in the configuration of the surface \ sides. But the performance of all the ofliees of the for- Innately of weeds, and water is in and of itself a neces- sary element of vegetable growth. Besides this, it is never quite free from extraneous matter, and it always contains, in solution or in suspension, foreign substances useful or injurious to vegetation. Hence, in climates and on soils where the natural supply of water is insuflioient for the normal growth of plants, remunerative agriculture is im- possible without artificial arrangements for procuring and administering it. And even where agricultural industry yields fair returns without irrigation, it is generally, it not "universally, true that the .application of water according to the common methods increases the i,nnnt!ty, or at least the nlumc. of leaf, flower, bark, ligneous tissue, root, bulb, edi- ble grain and other seeds, fruits, oleaginous and watery fluids, coloring-matter, aromatic and medicinal substances, produced on a given area of ground. Until lately, this augmented product has been too generally regarded as a positive advantage directly proportional to the increase; and this opinion has done much to promote the extension of the practice of irrigation. But agricultural chemistry and more careful observation have shown that in many eases the increase in quantity is more than eounterbalanced by a deterioration in the qnaUin of the product; and. fur- ther, that on ground of loose and light texture, rich in humus or other partially decomposed organic matter, the hygroscopicity of the soil is often such that it absorbs from the atmosphere, even in dry weather, moisture enough to supply the vegetation upon it, and consequently even the bulk of the crop is little or not at all increased by irriga- tion The present opinion seems to be that all the mmmil products of irrigated vegetables, including even the leaves, are inferior in nutritive properties, in flavor, and in all other valuable qualities, except mere bulk, to those of un- watered plants. It appears to bo well settled, however that the wnnJ of limber trees is not only much quickened in growth, but improved in quality by judicious irrigation ; for. as between trees of the same species, those whoso grain shows the largest yearly increment usually furnish the best timber. But. though the annual products of watered plants are generally comparatively inferior in quality, and in some rare instances— as is said to he the ease with the yield of olive-oil, for example— even in quantity, there is "reason to believe that if cultivators knew enough of the laws of vegetable physiology to be able to apply water always in just quantity and at the right time, irrigation might he- favorable for irrigation, as well as for manuring and eul tivating the tree. But even without so expensive a pro- cess very important results have been obtained by simply ditching declivities. " In order to hasten the growth ot wood on the flanks of a mountain, JI. Eugene Chcvaudier divided the slope into zones forty or fifty feet wide, by horizontal ditches closed at both ends, and thereby obt.ained. from firs of different ages, shoots double the dimensions of those which grew on a dry soil of the same character where the water was allowed "to run off without obstruction." (T)umont. Dis Trnvaux Public, etc., pp. 94-96.) The ditches were about two feet and a half deep and three feet and a half wide, and they cost about 40 francs the hectare, or $:i the acre. This extraordinary growth was produced wholly by the retentiim of the rain-water in the ditches, whence it filtered through the whole soil and supplied moisture to the roots of the trees. It may bo doubled whether in a climate cold enough to freeze the entire con- tents of the ditches in winter it would not be expedient to draw off the water in the autumn, as the presence of so larf'e a quantity of ice in the soil might prove injurious to frees too young and small to shelter the ground effectu- ally against" frost. Chevandier computes that, if the an- nual growth of the pine in the marshy soil of the Vosges be represented by one, it will equal two in dry ground, four or five on slopes'so ditched or graded as to retain the water fiowin" upon them from roads or sleep declivities, and six where "the earth is kept constantly moist by infiltration from running brooks. (C<,mplc, linubia «! V Ara<l(<n,f dc> Sciences, t. xix.. ,IuilIet-Dee., 1844, p. If.r.) The effect of accidental irrigation is well shown in the growth of the trees planted along the canals of irrigation which traverse the fields in many parts of Italy. They flourish most luxu- riantly, in spite of continual lopping, and yield a very im- portant contribution to the stock of fuel for domestic use : while trees situated so far from canals as to be out of the reach of infiltration from them are of much slower growth under cireumstanccs otherwise equally favorable. In other experiments of Ohevandier, under better conditions, the yield of wood was increased, by judicious irrigation, in the "ratio of 7 to 1, the profits in that of 12 to 1. At the Ex- position of 1855, Chambrelent exhibited young trees which, in four years from the seed, had grown to the height of sixteen and twenty feet, and the circumference of ten and twelve inches. Chevandier experimented with various IRRIGATION, PRACTICAL. l:]13 manures, nnd found that some of them might bo profitably applied to younij. but not to o!d trees, the quantity required in the latter case being too great. Wood-ashes and the refuse of soda-faotories are particularly recommended. I hare seen an extraordinary growth produced in fir trees by theappIicEitinn of soapsuds. According to Cnnernzzt Vtirab. fli Ayrn-oltiini, uow publishing — a high authority — irriga- tion of trees promotes the growth of foliage and wooil, but deteriorates the quality of the other products, whether fruits or juices. Of course it is suited for shade and orna- mental trees and shrubs, though not for olive trees, vines, and mulberries, in which latter the leaf becomes abundant, but less nutritious. Sec Mi'I-berry. Otnt-rnl Phi/iticnl and Sociaf Efffftn. — Tho diversion of wa'er from its original channels of dischnrge. which is nlways a necessity in irrigation, interferes with natural hydrology, though not always injuriously. It? effects on springs and wells at lower levels are among the most im- portant, thout^h habitually least noticed, of these effects. Tho reclamation of marshes by this process is a familiar example of beneficial results. The reduction of the supply iif water for mechanical power, and the obstruction of free communication over the surface by canals of derivation and distribution, arc evils too obvious to need to be dwelt upon. The* measurement of flowing water, and its appor- tionment between different persons entitled to use the same source of supply, are very difficult in practice, and when the quantity is not abundant they arc occasions of endless contention and litigation. The effect of these embarrass- ments is to discourage landholding in moderate parcels, to oblige small proprietors to sell their grounds and become day-laborers, and of course t<» diminish the numbers of rural homesteads and rural inhabitants. This is an evil much to be dreaded in countries with popular institutions, and it ought to engage the earnest attention of American public economists. Eronomfcai Comtuieratinnn. — The partial grading of tho surface of the ground for tho reception of water, tho con- struction of reservoirs, aqueducts, canals, and siphons for its supply and distributi'm, as well as of <irains on or below tho surface for its discharge, and tho care and labor in- volved in its application, are all expensive. Irrigation ouffht never to be umlertaken on a considerable scale with- out a certainty that the supply of water is adequate in quantity, and that it if of such chemical composition and such temperature as to bo useful to vegetation ; and, fur- ther, without enough of preliminary experimentation to show that the probable increase of product will warrant the expenditure. The importance of the first of the cau- tions bore suggested is much increased by the fact that the habits of watered plants soon become so modified that a f:tilure of (he accustomed supply affects them more severely than almost any merely natural drought does unwatercd plants. This modifieutir)n may become hereditary, and therefore it is prudent to take it into account in employing imported seeds. On most of these points we may observe that European experience, though not to be neglected, is not by any means altogether a safe guide. The difference in soil and climate, in the usual objects of cultivation, and in the cost of labor, is so great between the two continents that wo cannot confidently reason from one to (ho other. Before quit(ing this branch of our subject i( is well to no- tice that in many localities, rirc/itiff or horizontal side-hill ploughing, which is a cheap method of terracing sloping surfaces, answers most of (ho purposes of irrigation, and that water enough for crops may often be found by means of small reservoirs for retaining rain and snow water, eommnn wells, cheap artesian borings, or short tunnels into hillsides, which intercept subterranean currents and bring them to the surface as springs. With respect to the economicnl aspects of great systems of irrigation, it ou(rht to be observed that unquestionablo as are the financial advantages, and even necessity, of tho practice in many climates, yet in regions where rural hus- bandry is possible without it European experience shows that in most cases of cosily arrant^ements for this purpose, as indeed in very many inrhistrial enterprises of other kinds, the original capital is entirely sunk, and a pecuniary return is renped only by those who acquire the works at a price far below the original cost. Tattaneo. one of tho ablest economists of this eenturv. maintains, in refereneo to Lomliardy, that the income from irrii;:ite<I lands is not proportionate (o the entire expenditure incurred in canals, the grading of the soil, and other necessary works, and thinks this observation applicable to Holland and other coun- tries of advaneed ngriculture. fPee Tnttaneo. Mrmnrif di Ernnnniin Puhh'rn, Milano, I '^fiO, vol. i. pp. xi. 246; also Baird Smith. Ilnlinn frn'fjntinti. vol. i. p. 297.) Qtinutitifo/ Watrrnud Mrihud nf Apphfhuj H. — In Europe the quantity of water supplied during the season to ordi- nary plnuffhod or hucd field crops varies from twenty to v.. I.. II.— s.l I forty inches, though in the rice-fiolds, the moreife or water- 1 meadows of Lorabardy, and many other grass-grounil.«, ' this amount is vastly exceeded. Experience alone can de- termine the proper quantity and seasons on our soil nnd under our sky. The modes of application are by flowing with running, and flooding with partially stagnant, water ; by infiltration from superficial ditches or furrows, and more rarely from underground conduits : and by sprinkling with scoops or other light hand-implements. The even- ing hours are considered the most favorable time, but this rule is by no means universally observed. LcffiHlatire Actiou. — The evils we have referred to under various heads are such that legislative measures ought to be taken without loss of time to obviate them as far as pos- sible in the American States. We have space here to in- dicate but one which is of urgent necessity in all those parts of our territory where irrigation is n<;ccssary or prob- ably highly advantageous; and another which is of even greater general importance. The first is the assumption by government of the absolute title to all natural waters of sufllicicnt volume to possess any real importance as sources of supply, and the enactment of codes or the creation of special boards to control the construction of all hydraulic works and the distribution of water from them, including, of course, proper arrangements for disposing of the surplus water from irrigated himls. The second is the adoption of systems of forest economy which shall prevent the destruc- tion and secure the permanence, and where necessary ex- tension, of the woods around the sources and along the upper basins of the rivers. Literature nf the Stshjret. — The theoretical and practical, Juridical and economical literature of irrigation is im- mensely voluminous, and, cautiously used, of very great value. We have no space for critici^-m, but wo recommend cither as easily accessible or as specially important to tho American public the following works: Romagnosi, Trut- tato della liaffton Civile dcfle Aeque (Firenze, 183-t, 8vo); Komagnosi, Vclfa Condotta deffe Acfjtw (Firenze, \$?,3, 2 vols. 8vo) ; Calandra. Mtinuale Idraufico-let/ale (Savig- liauo. 1870, 12mo): Negri. Id^c Ehmcnturi per una Lefft/e in Materia delle Arrpie (Turin. ISCJ, pamphlet) ; Kiel, L' Affriculture den EtatH Sardes (Turin, l.S.'iG, 8vo) ; Vigan, Etude 8ur les Irrir/ationn dee Pi/rfn^et Orientalea (Paris, 1807, pamphlet); Cuppari, Mfmuufe deW Ayrieottore (Fi- renze, 187*', I2mo) ; BousPingaulI, Eennomie Hurafe (Paris, 18.'»1, 2 vols. 8vo) ; llerv^-Mangon, Ejrph-iencea sitr VKm- pfoi den Eaujc dans fe« Irritfatione {Paris, 1800, Svo) ; Cos- imo Ridoin, Lezioui Orn/i di Arjraria (Firenze, I8G9, 2 vols. 8vo) ; Baird-Smith. Italian Irriyation (London, 1835, 2 vols. Svo, and at Ins) : A. Vignotti, /)»» Irriffafiona du Pihnont et de la Lomhardie (Paris, lSn;i. pamphlet) ; G. Tagliasecchi, Canafi delV AUa L<tmhardia (Milano, 1872, 8vo) ; Duponchel, Traits d' IftfdranUque ct dc (J^oloi/ie AgricoU» (Paris, 1868, Svo); Millet, Lcs Mervcitlm des Fleuveg et dca RninHvaux. (Paris, 1871, 12mo); Denton, Water-Suppf)/ for Farms (London, 1865, pamphlet) ; Du- mas, Art Science dfft FontaincH (Paris. 1857, 8vo) ; Mar.^h, Man and Xafure (new edition. New York. 1874, 8vo), and Letter to Cttmmiasioner of Afjrirultnre on frritjation (M'ash- ington, 1873, pamphlet ) : Beardmore, Manual of Ifi/dml- offif (London, 1862, 8vo); Dumont, Ihn Travanr Fublica dana lenra JlnpporfH avrc I' Affrictihurc (Paris, 18-18, Svo) J Passy, Etndt Hiir Ir Service Ififdrnulifpie (Paris, 186S, Svo) j Jaubcrt de Passy, Voyatje en Eitpaijne (Paris, 1819); Ay- mard, Irritjationn du Midi de V Eitpatjne (Paris, 18G4, Svo, and atlas) ; C, R. Markham, On Spauinh fnii/ation (Lon- don, Svo), and works there citccl. The works of Nadault de Buffon on irrigation and general agriculture are all of great value, and the numerous papers on this subject by the eminent Italian engineer Lombardini, ehiefly published in scientific periodicals, are indispi-nsable to a knowledge of the hydraulic system of I'pper Italy, wliitdi is unrivalled iu scientific merit and practical value. Uehrgk P. Maksh. Irriention, Prnrticnl. Irrigating canals arc ustmlly derived from rivers. The water is raised to the required level by a weir or dam thrown across the river, and the head ol^ the canal is placed above the dtim. In the deltas of rivers, where the ground to be irrigated is little if at all above the level of the water iu adjacent portions of the rivers, the problem is solved much more simply, nnd at a much lesseneil expense, than in the general case where the river flows along the lowest line of the valley, and where the a<ljacent lands rise from the river-bnnks on either siile. In this latter case it is necessary to fix the head of tho cnnal at a considerable distance above the land to be irri- gated, and consequently a line of canal more or less in leniith, often making many miles, must be made to bring the water out on the level of tho ground. For illustration, let us suppose that the water in the river at the head of the canal is raised by a dam to a level 10 feet below the banks. Give a slope to the bed of the canal of 1 foot per 1314 IRRIGATION, PRACTICAL. mile^ and assume that the country slopes along the line at a rate of 5 feet per mile ; then for each mile the canal-water will gain a relative elevation of four feet, and it follows that the water-level in the canal will enier<:;e from the ex- cavation at a distance of 2^ miles from the head. On the other hand, in deltas the j^round falls from the banks on cither side, and a command of the land is quickly gained. If this upper and. so to speak, unprofitahk- section of the canal passes through a broken country, the difficulty and expense of construction are largely increased. In India we find illustrations of both systems. In the Madras prov- inces the deltas of the Cauvery, Godavery, and Kistnah rivers afford instances of the most successful irrigation at a small outlay, while the flanges and other large canals in the uplands of Northern India abundantly prove the greater difficulties in their several cases. In the projection of an irrigating canal intended to water a given area, the first point which presents itself is this— i namely, How much water will be required per acre? The , answer to this question results from a conslderiitioii of a i number of circumstances. It will dei)end upon the amount of rainfall in the irrigated district, and upon its distribu- | tion.both as to quantity and as to time; upon the tempera- I tare in the growing season : tlie kind of cultivation, whether | of rice, cotton, sugar, cereals, or of vegetables : and finally j upon the character of the soil, whether retentive of mois- ; ture or sandy and easily drained. Again, if the climate 1 permits cultiVation throughout the year, and the water- > supply is perennial, irrigation may bo continuous, and a I part of the land may be devoted to one kind of cultivation ; in the winter, and the remainder to a different cultivation in the summer. One cubic foot of water supplied each second for twenty-four hours will cover 4 acres with a trifle Icps than C inches of water, and supplied for 100 days, it will cover 400 acres with inches, or 200 acres with 12 inches of water. A cubic foot of water per second through- out the season is sufficient to mature rice in quantities varying from 30 acres to as much as 90 acres: this last case existing in districts of India exposed to heavy falls of rain. In Northern India, where the rivers are fed from the snow-reservoirs, and where there is a heavy fall of rain, with a winter and a summer cultivation, the average area irrigated in some cases rises to 400 acres per cubic foot a second. In most cases, however, it does not much exceed 200 acres per foot. This is for other cultivatron than rice, and principally relates to cereals. In California 12 inches of rain, with timely application, suflSce to ensure a crop of cereals. In pro|>ortioning the water-supply to the irrigable area. it«is usual to make a large allowance for the ground which in a particular season will lie fallow, and for that which will 1)0 taken up by roads, fences, forests, and buildings. Hav- ing determined, after full consideration, the capacity of the canal, which should exceed by 15 or 20 per cent, the esti- mate for irrigation, in order to make up for loss by absorp- tion, evaporation, and wa^te, we may proceed to (Ictermine 1(9 dimensions and the slope of its bed. Many irrigating canals are arranged for navigation. New conditions, more or less incompatible with those pertaining to mere irrigat- ing canals, are thereby introduced. The ideal canal for irrigation transports the water at the highest velocity which is admissible, for the reason that its section is thereby re- duced. The mere navigation canal should have no velocity, as by absence thereof transportation is facilitated. The eanai which shall subserve both ends must carry its water at a low velocity to permit navigation, and it must have an increased section to enable it to transport the required volume of water for irrigation. There are cases where the >'l<)pc of the country compels a low grade for the bed of the canal, and there are soils which will not maintain them- selves under any but a very low velocity. In sucli par- ticular cases the conflicting conditions of irrigation and of navigation are measurably harmonized. The relations existing between the slope of the bed, the mean velocity, and the section are conveniently expressed in this formula, which is sufficiently accurate for the purposes to which it is applied: v= '|/vn ^2t/», in which v is the mean velocity in feet per second; « is the slope of the bed in feet per mile; tl is variously termed the ''hydraulic radius" or " the hydraulic mean depth."' and it is obtained by divid- ing the area of the section of the water-wny. expressed in square feet, by the wetted perimeter expressed in linear feet. The velocity of the water ought not to be so great as to cause erosion of the bed and banks of the canal, and it ought to bo great enough to prevent the growth of water- plants, which interfere with the service of the canal. A stiff clay soil will stand under a mean velocity of as much as 4 feet per second, and where the bed is of shingle, a higher velocity may be permitted with safety. In a light sandy soil 3 feet per second is a maximum velocity, and in some particular soils disturbance of the bed and banks takes place with a considerable hnver velocity. In a hot climate a velocity of 2 feet per second is necessary to ])rc- vcnt the growth of plants in the water-way. If the water derived from the river is laden with earthy particles in sus- jicnsion, as is often the case, deposits will occur unless the initial velocity is maintained. If the silt is of a fertilizing character, it is desirable that it be transported to the culti- vated fields in order to sustain their productiveness. AVhen it is deposited along the line of the canal, periodical clos- ures become necessary to effect clearance, which is? attended in many cases with great expense. In order to carry the silt to the fields, it will be necessary to increase the fall of the ditches as their section is diminished. Something is gained by transporting the matter beyond the main chan- nel to the minor ditches, where its clearance will not re- quire the canal to be closed, and from which it can be re- moved at a lessened expense. In some cases the vehjcity near the head is slackened by diminishing the slope or by enlarging the section, so that the deposits may be en- couraged at this particular section, where the clearance can be more conveniently etfected than it would be if the silt is deposited along a larger line. The English engineers in India have adopted a rule which governs the proportion of width and depth of the canals, the width bnng made to vary from thirteen to fifteen times the depth. The slope of the bed is variable, depending on the fall of the country and on the character of the soil. Tlie ruling gradient on the Gauges Canal is 15 inches to the mile ; in many canals it is less. For illus- tration, it may be stated that by the formula a fall of 1 foot per mile will give in a canal 90 feet wide at bottom, 6 feet deep, with side-slopes of 2 base to 1 altitude, a mean velocity of 3 feet per second. If the slope of the bed is less than the fall of the country, it will be necessary to provide a series of falls, which may be arranged with dams giving a direct fall, or by rapids. The slope of the bed and the dimensions of the canal will generally be deter- mined, so as to conform to the fall and character of the land traversed, by assuming the quantities which cuter the formula in a succession of trial-cases. In this way a close approximation may be made. The alignment of the canal will be most favorable when it can be placed on the water- shed or divide. Such a position gives command of the land on either side, and avoids the passage of (he drainage-lines of the country. This advantage, however, is one which can seldom be fully secured. It is generally necessary to cross some of these lines, and certain arrangements result wliieh vary with the circumstances of the case. If the level of the canal at the point of crossing is higher than the stream, an aqueduct will be required to carry the canal-water, and in special cases of low lands adjoining the stream the canal must be embanked at one or at both ends of the aqueduct. Where the canal-level is below that of the stream, the latter may be carried over by an aqueduct, or the canal may be carried under the stream through a tunnel or a siphon. If a small stream crosses the line of the canal at a suitable level, it may be admitted into the canal : but if the stream is torrential in character, it may not be safe to admit its water into the canal. Regulating sluices will be necessary in this case to exclude the torrent from the canal, and a dam will be required to maintain the proper level at times when the stream is not full. It will readily be understood that these several works may be very expensive in construction. The irrigation- works of Italy and India afford many instances in illustra- tion of this statement. The Solani aqueduct is 1120 feet in length, and it carries the Ganges Canal in two channels, each 85 feet in width and 10 feet deep. After crossing the stream the canal is carried in an earthen embankment of IC feet in depth for three-fourths of a mile across the low lands. At or near the head of the canal a system of sluices or gates admits the water from the river in suitable quan- tities, and defends the canal from the attacks of the river when it is in flood. In the older canals these construc- tions are of masonry and of the most substantial character. It is also true that there are canals which have no head- works. In such instances the canal embankments arc ex- posed to great dangers, and there are without these works no means of regulating the sujiply of water. The position of the head of the canal is a point of great importance. The banks of the river should at this point be of a perma- nent character, and the regimen of the stream should bo well established and not liable to change. If the stream brings down sand or gravel, the bed will in time he filled to the level of the crest of the dam. In such cases it is usual to provide scourlng-sluiccs in the part of the dam adjoining the canal, which may serve to keep a free water- way at the head-works. It is desirable to provide rejru- lating bridges at intervals of a few miles, arranged witli IKKIGATION, PRACTICAL. l:n.3 sluices, so that tho water may be shut off from the canal in gcclions for purposes of repairs and for otlier purposes. At the same intt-rvals escapes shouM l»o arrangeil, hy whit'h an excess of water occurring at any time may be thrown into the natural drainage-lines of the country. The reproach of irrigation is defective drainage. The natural drainage of the country should remain unimpaired. Even when this much is accomplished, stagnant water is very liable to result from irrigating operations. The waste water at the end of tho caual or iu the minor channels should have free passage into the natural drain?, or if nono such f\i.-t. ;iiiiliri,il .iniui;iL''' >ii"uM hr |.r'.\ hi.-i|. Wli the canal is carried in embankments there is great danger of percolation, and hence stagnant pools may result. Tho cultivation of rico requires pools of water, aud its unhcalth- fulness is everywhere recognized. For economy of construction the canal should be partly within and partly above the soil, aud for facility of irriga- tion this arrangement is equally desirable. This sketch of tho principles which must govern in the projection and construction of an irrigating canal brings us to the actual operations of spreading the water over tho land. The diagram exhibits tho system pursued in irrigating Ihf plains of llu- >aii Jnaipnn \allfy in i alitoruia. Il will Irrigating system for grain, as laid out by the San Joaquin and King's River Irrigation Co., C'al. be seen that the water passes from the main canal into jiriniiiry ditches, from which it is delivered into scc- omhiry ditches, which in turn pass it into irrigating fur- pjHH, which are its immt-diale dispensers to the land; and finally, having done its duty, it is conveyed away by a drain to irrigate again below, or else it escapes into the natural drainage-lines. The main canal has a fall of 1 foot to the mile, while the fall of tho primary ditches is B feet, anil of the secondary ditches from 3 to 5 feet to the mile. The contour-lines of 1 foot difference of level are shown, and they inclicato a surface nearly plane and extremely favorable for irrigation. Tho primary ditclies in this case are one mile apart, and tho secondary ditches arc one-fourth of a mile apart. Tho irrigating furrows in the grain-fiehl are parallel to tho primary ditches, and tho "checks" are represented by lines parallel to the sec- ondary ditches. These checks are 50 yards apart, meas- ured parallel to the primary ditclies. Tho irrigating fur- rows arc 40 yards apart. The primary ditches, when full, will carry 50 feet per second, and one primary ditch will supply three secondary ditches. The water passes from the secondary ditche.« to the furrows by boxes 6x10 inches which pass through tho bank. Kaeh box will didiver 1^ cul)ic feet ]>er second, and each secondary will supply 10 boxes. Each secondary dilch waters SO acres, within which area there are about 5 miles of furrows and 4 miles of checks. There is a gate at tho junction of each primary with the main canal, and one in ca'-h primary for every three secondaries, and one in the middle of each secondary ; and each box is fitted with its little gate. With this description we are prepared to trace thoconrso of nn irrigation. A C D K contains SO acres, sown in grain. The gate in the secondary cliteh at 11 being closed, and that at A iicing open, the first half of tho secondary diteh will begin to be filled with water, which will run into tho irri- gating furrows to 0, inclusive, and will (low until it en- counters the dam made by the check Im, when it will rise and overflow the strip of lam) lying between the secondary diteh and tho cheek I m. When this strip is sufliciontly watered, the cultivator opens with a hoe a jmssage through the check Im for each furrow, and permits the water to flow in parallel courses until it is again cheeked at the lino « n for a time sulficient to water the "(trip lying between tho checks Im and ii n\ and this process is continued until tho •10 acres lying next the primary ditch aro completely irri- gated. This flone, tho little gates to K arc cloapri, the gate at H is opened, and the sanio steps are pursued in irri- gating tho other half of tho tract. In tnc alfalfa field the furrows are multiplied, to ensure a more equal difTusinn of (he water. In this ease the ground falls S ici-t to the mile, and as the checks ore 50 yards apart, the fall for this distance is 1.^0'''^ inches. When the water is Just even with the upper line of one of these strips between two con- secutive checks, it will bo 2^Qths inches in depth along the lowest line of tho strip. In this way a secondary ditch with a fall of five feet to tho mile, and running full, will spi;ead more than 4 inches of water over 80 acres in twenty- four hours. It is plain that the successful irrigator must use a level to lay out his ditches, and it will bo rare when so favorable afield for irrigation will be found as the one just illustrated. Tho ditches will rarely present so symmetrical an ajvpear- ance. In the general case the system will prove to be much more complicated. Tho primaries, for instance, will follow the minor divides of the plain, and they will seldom bo parallel or even rectilinear ; and having to supply variable areas, tho cross-sections will vary in each case. Tho vari- ableness of fall to tho ditches, and their varying dinien- f^ions in a le?s favorable field, add so many complications that tho work of an irrigator demands the acquirements of nn engineer. An irrigation of grain usually consists of two or three inches of water, wliich is repeated as often as tho needs of the croj) require. Irrigation has been little practised in the U. S., but it has had more development in the sections of America which were once under the dominion of Spain. Italy and Spain in Kurope, Egypt and India, present extensive operatiuns of this nature. The English have been extemling irriga- ting facilities in India for the past few years on a grand scale. Tho arrangements of the native inhabitants, which have existed for centuries, are also extensive.'^ They prac- tised irrigation by natural flow of water, but ihey supple- mented their supply of water by raising it from wells by means of various appliances. They made extensive use of reservoirs to colh-ct the water when abundant. an<l to hold it until the season for its appHcatittn to tho land. The Madras provinces are doited over with reservoirs in such numbers (hat the face of the country may bo likened to tho face of a person badly marked by smallpox. These reser- voirs are found of all areas, from that of nmny miles to that of one or of a few acres. Each inequality of tho grouml which aff'irded any facility for storage was utilized, antl it was surrounded liy an earthen embankment. The water-supply was afforded from tho natural drainage of the little basin, or, if this was insufficient, a channel was cut to conduct tho flood-waters of tho rivers to the store- houses. In the northern provinces of India the reservoirs are the fields of snow on the Himalayas. It is claimed, with a show of reason, that the water de- rived from rivers is superior for irrigation to that afforded by tanks or reservoirs. When the water is stored in rcscr- •For brief neenunl of wlileh see Sngincrrinf;, vol. xvW , and Van XostrarnTs En<j. Mat;., .July, 1874. 1316 IRRITANTS— IRVING. roirs it deposits the fertilizing particles which it has car- ried in su!«pcnsion. while the flowing water bears them, in part at least, to the fiohls. where they renc\v tho produc- tiveness of the soil. Water is generally sold in terms of the area irrigated and the kind of cultivation. There are many objections to this method. It is unequal, and it is wasteful. It pays a premium for careless irrigation. The absorptive capacity of the soil is not considered. The true plan is to dispose of water by the cubic foot. This plan is followed to a considerable extent in Italy. It requires special arrangements for measurement, and those that have been hitherto used are not entirely satisfaetory. The Kalian module or measuring apparatus keeps the head always the same by passing the water through a sluice- gate into an interior basin, from which it ])roeeeds to the irrigating channels. The gate being capable of adjustment, the water in the basin can always be kept at a constant level, no matter how the level in the channel from which it is derived may vary. As the Icvtd of the canal falls, the ajierturc of the gateway may be enlarged, and conversely a contraction of the orifice ought to follow an increase of head in the canal. The increase of production which results from irrigation in warm climates, where the rainfall is insufficient to pro- duce a crop, is quite sufficient to justify the large expendi- ture which is required to put the system into operation. It is estimated that the canals and primary ditches, including dams, head-works, and all necessary arrangements, except- ing the secondary and other minor ditches, can be con- structed on the plains of California for an expenditure which may vary from $10 to $20 per acre. It must be borne in mind, however, that the features of the country are in general extremely favorable, and that the gates, head-works, and other constructions are made of wood, and that they must be replaced from time to time. The minor ditches, it is estimated, may cost from $6 to $10 per acre, which makes the total probable outlay to vary between $15 and $-10 per acre. The simplicity of the irrigating system which is practicable on the plains of California is in strong contrast to the intricacies which have been developed in Italy; but space is wanting for the development of these, and its practical value in our own country is doubtful. Reference is made to the list of authorities appended to the article which precedes this. G. H. Mendell. Ir'ritants. Tn medicine all such agents are called )>?'t'- (rtii( as by coatact with the animal tissues cause one or more of the following effects : pain, increased ilow of blood to the part, inflammation, or active excitation of function, as increase of secretion by a gland, involuntary muscular contraction, etc. Such are, in general, mineral astringents ; all substances chemically disorganizing to the tissues, as strong acids, alkalies, and caustic salts, like corrosive sub- limate or silver nitrate, and certain vegetable substances, containing generally either an acrid resin or volatile oil, such as mustard, jalap, croton oil, oil of turpentine, squills, etc. Agents which excite the "irritability" of nerve- centres, like strychnine, are also sometimes called irritant. Irritants do not thus form a natural group of medicines, but the word '* irritant " expresses a certain general prop- ertv belonging in different modes to many distinct classes of medicinal agents. Edwaro Ctrtis. Ir'tish, a river of Northern Asia, rises in the Altai Mountains, in lat. 47° N., Ion. 89° E., flows in a north- western direction through the Chinese province of Songaria and the Russian governments of Tomsk and Tobolsk till it joins the Obi. after a course of about 1700 miles, 180 N. of the city of Tobolsk. Its upper course flows through the best agricultural districts of Siberia, but its navigation is much impeded by shoals and shifting sandbars. It abounds in fish, both salmon and sturgeon. Ir'vin, tp. of Howard co., Ind. Pop. 1.T16. Ir'vine^ town of Sc(ttland. in Ayrshire, on both sides of the Irvine, near its entrance in the Frith of Clyde. It has several educational institutions of high reputation, large ehipbuilding docks, and some manufactures. Pop. 6S66. Irvine, post-v., cap. of Estill co., Ky.. 70 miles S. E. of Frankfort, and on the Kentucky River. It has 1 weekly newspaper. Pop. 224. Irvine ( Wim.iam), b. at Fermagh. Ireland, Nov. .3, 1741 : studied at Dublin University, and became surgeon of a Rritish ship of war during the French war. after which ho came to America, and settled at Carlisle. Pa. He was a member of the provincial convention of Pennsylvania in 1774: was appointed colonel of the fith battalion of the Pennsylvania line in Jan., 177G: was taken prisoner at Three Rivers, Canada, in June of that year, and paroled, but not exchanged until May. 1778. He was a member of the court-martial for the trial of Cien. t^harles Lee in July, 1778,- appointed brigadier-general in May, 1779j served in New Jersey and at the battle of Bull's Ferry un- der Wayne. In 17^1 be took command of the defences of the N. W. frontier, witti head-quarters at Fort Pitt ; was State eomuiissioner for the distribution of public lands to the soldiers 1785; member of old Congress 17S6-SS. and of Federal Congress 170o-0.j; took part in the campaign against the insurgents in the *' Whiskey Insurrection " in 1704: superintendent of military stores at Philadelphia ISOl, and president of the State Society of the Cincinnati at the time of his death, which occurred at Philadelphia July 2i), 1S04. Ir'vineton (Irvine P. 0.). post-v. of Brokenstraw ^p., Warren co.. Pa., on the Allegheny River, at the junction of the Dunkirk Allegheny Valley and Pittsburg, the Oil Creek and Allegheny River, and the Philadelphia aiirl Erie R. Rs.. 51 miles from Oil City. The Brokenstraw Creek affords fine water-power. There is a foundry, a woollen-faetory, an oil-refinery, and other manufacturing enterprises, and an excellent sulphur spring. Ir'vingf post-v, and tp. of Montgomery co., 111., on the Indianapolis and St. Louis R. R., 72 miles N. E. of St. Louis. Pop. 751 ; of tp. 1591. Irving', post-v. of Marshall eo., Kan., on the Central branch of the Union Pacific R. R., 90 miles AV. of Atchison. It is finely situated, and is the scat of AVetmore Institute (Presbyterian). Irving, tp. of Barry co., Mich. Pop. 124S. Irving, tp. of Monongalia co., Minn. Pop. 276. Irving, post-v. of Hanover tp.. Chautauqua co., N. Y., on the Lake Shore R. R., 29 miles S. W. of Buffalo, and on Cattaraugus Creek near Lake Erie. The raouth of the creek constitutes its harbor. Pop. ."Jjd. Irving, post-tp. of Jackson co., Wis. Pop. 828. Irving (Edwaro). See Irvixgites. Irving (Pkti;h), M. D., b. in Now York City Oct. ^0, 1771; studied medicine, but never practised; founded in 1802 the Mornintj (Itronich, a Democratic paper which ad- vocated the presidential candidacy of Aaron Burr; trav- elled in Europe 180C-08; aided bis brother Washington in the earliest ]iart of the Kiiickrvhocktr ; resided in Europe iSOO-Hfi ; published a novel, Gi'nrnuni Sfioifnrro (New York, 1820). and d. at New York Juno 27, IS.'JS. Irving (Rev. TnEonoRK), LL.D., nephew of Washing- ton Irving, b. in New York in 1809, and graduated at Co- lumbia College 18:^7 : studied law and literature in Europe; was professor of liistory and belles lettres in Geneva Col- lege lS.";G-r?9. and afterwards held a similar professorship in the New York Free Academy; in 1854 took orders in the Protestant Episcopal Church. Author of Tfie Conquest of Florida (1835) and The Fountain of Living WiiierB (1851). Irving (AVashington), LL.D., b. in New York City Apr. 3, 1783. was the youngest son of AVilliam Irving, merchant, a native of Scotland, who had married an English lady and emigrated to America some twenty years before. His tddcr brothers, William and Peter, were partially occupied with literary pursuits, which naturally inclined him to follow their example. His school education was not protracted beyond his sixteenth year, when he began to s^tudy law. but his literary training was acquired by the diligent perusal at home of the older English writers, his favorites being Chaucer and Spenser. In 1S02, at the age of nineteen, he made his first literary venture by printing in the columns of the Mnniiiiff Vhrrmich, then edited by his brother. Dr. Peter Irving, a series of local sketches under the in>m-(lc- plume of •• Jonathan Oldstyle." In 1804, being threatened with consumption, he sailed for Europe, landed at Bor- deaux, and travelled through France, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, and England, laying up a rich store of materials for future use. Returning to New York in Mar., 1806, he quickly completed his legal studies, and was admitted to the bar, but never practised the profession. Early in 1S07 bo commenced, in connection with his brother AA'iUiam and .Tames K. PauMing, the amusing serial SitlmHijundi. which had an immediate success, and not only decided his future career, but long determined the character of his writings. In 1808. with some assistance from his brother Peter, he wrote A'nicK-erhnckcr's JUston/ »/ Xtw York, a serio-comic narrative, and in 1810 a biography of the poet Campbell, prefixed to an American edition of bis works. His attention was much absorbed at this time by the interests of a mer- cantile business in which he engaged with two of his bro- thers. It was not until 18i:i-14 that he reappeared in lit- erature as editor of the Analcvtic yfuqnzinc, published at Philadelphia, for which bis o\vn contribution was a series of biographical sketches of the naval heroes of the then existing war with Great Britain. Tn the latter year he was appointed aide-de-camp and military secretary of Gov. IKVING— IKVINGITKS. 1317 TompkiDs, with the rank of colonel — a title, however, which he never used. Eurly in ISl j. upon the conclusion of the war with (ireat I'ritain. " Colonel " Irvins; hastened to make another tour in Enghind. Wale.*;, and Scotland, cx- pectinc; also to visit the Continent ; the anticipated plea- Bure-trip proved to be an absence of seventeen years from America. For two or three years Irvinp wiis cn<rapcd in ramblini; thr<»uph the I'uited Kingdom, without other ol)- jcct than pleasure, making, however, many literary friends, and accumulating that minute acquaintanco witli Kn$;lish life which he afterwards turned to so pood aceount. About the close of 1S17 the commercial house in which Irving was a partner failed, and ho was thrown upon his pen for a subsistence. Ho sent the essays comiiosing the S/.-ctcJi- Boitk to New York, where they were printed in pamphlets in ISIS, over the signature of ''GeoflVey Crayon." Some of them were reprinted by Jerdan in the /.itrmr}/ Gnzettc of Lonilon. an<l were so cordially received that, aidcfl by the recommendation of Sir Walter Pcott, the publisher Murray brought out the work in good style in 1820. The Skctch-Iiook laid the foundation of the fortune and the per- manent fame of Irving: the Ict^cmls of .Shtpif I/otloirtiniX Jiip Von U7»/.7f at once took rank as modern classics, while the pictures of En<rlish life and customs were so genial, ar- tistic, and withal so faithful, that they fairly took the reading worM by storm. A new phenomenon had appeared in the world of letters — the first American author had gained an honorable name in Albemarle street and Paternoster Row. Ueneeforth the path of Irving was smooth, and his subse- quent writings appeared with rapidity. Uracebn'df/r JTaU was published in 1^=22; though rapidly written, and deci- dedly unequal to the standard of the Shctch-BonK; it was well received, and brought the author £1000. The Tahit uf a Trovcffft; published in 1^21. brought him Xl^OO. Irving had spent three winters on the Continent, chiefly at Paris and I>rc-den, when in 1S2.0 his attention was called by his friend Alexander II. Kverett. American minister to Spain, to Xavarrete's collection of documents upon Colum- bus and the early explorers of America, then appearing at Madrid. lie |)r<»ceeded to that ea])it:il, intending to make a translation of the work of Xavarretc, but finding it to be rather a rich mine of materials than a readable book, he fortunately changed his plan and produced his ffi'ston/ of thr lAfr. find ViiiffUfcn of (lirintrtphcr Cnhimhua (1^25*), to which was addetl (IS.'Il) its continuation, the Cotnpanione of Ctthtmhun. The former work is Irving's masterpiece in historical composition ; though not exhaustive in its use of the materials at hand, nor characterized by any acuto ap- preciation of the mental, moral, and political worM in whieh Columbus was reared, tlie work has all the charm of a romance combined with tlic fidelity of a chronicle. Its reception in England may be inferred fmni the facts that Murray paid £;tOflO guineas for the copyright, and a gold medal of fifty guineas was award<'d him as a prize given by Kin^ Ceorge IV. for excellence in hislorienl composition. In 1S2S-29 Irving travelled through the S. nf Spain, and spent three months in the ruined Moorish palace of the Alham- bra at Granada. In the latter year ho published the Con- qurHt <f flrnunila, and in 1>*."2 Thr Alhainhra, neither of which was quite as successful as his former works. Irving returned in July, 1S29, to London, having received the ap- pointment of secretary of legation in England. In 1831 the University of Oxford conferred upon him the degree of IjL.D. In is;t2, after seventeen years' absence, he re- turned to his native land, where all his books had of course been republisherl, and where to his Eurr)peiin fame was added the American element of pridr- in nn author who had done honor to his native land. Irving was now fifty years of aje. but he plunged at once into a new series of travels and studies with all the eagerness of youth. The same year he aceompaiiied Commissioner EIIswr>rlb in his journey for removing the Indian tribes to the W. of the Mi^sis- pip|ii, and narrated his observations in his Ti>ur on thr PruirUn fl8.'{j), published in the series called the Crayon Mitirrflttui/; to which were added in another volume Ah- hotMfttrtl and Xrimtrad Ahhn/, In iS.'irt ho published Am- tnn'tt. a narrative of the exploration of Oregon by American fur-traders; in IS.I", the Adiriituni tf C<tptfiin FionnrrUlr; and in IS.IK-II contributed to the Knirkcrhnrktr Mnrjazinc a series of nrticles afterwards published ns,'>.')) in the vol- ume tntillcil \V<dfrvt'n linnnt. In 1SI2, Irvinir rreeived the np|inintntent of minister ti> Spain, a jiost which he filled for four years, during which he discontinued authorship, and it was not unfil 1H19 that he reprinted with large achlitions a biography of Oliver Ooldsmith, furnished some years before to a Paris edition of that aulhor*s writings. In lS5ft lie published .lA'A-m'-/ n>,d In'* Surrr»H-,rii {'1 vols.). He was thenceforth occupied throughout his life in his ftintjuum o^M/r, the L iff of W'oiifihif/tnii, uf which the fimt volume ap]ieared in If^.'i.'i. and the fifth, concluding the work, in Aug., 18^9. In 1848, at the instance of the en- terprising publisher, Mr. G. P. Putnam, Irving had com- menced the reissue of his works, with his final corrections, the edition being conijdetcd in I8.7O in fifteen volumes. The success of this undertaking was instantaneous, and it gave Irving a new lease of literary existence, not less than 250.000 volumes of the republication having been sold dur- ing Irving's life. Xo one was more surprised at this mar- vellous renewal of uld-time popularity than the author himself, who had become in a measure his own literary descendant and the contemporary of a second generation of writers. Irving resided during the closing years of his life at Sunnyside (Tarrytown) on the Hudson, a quaint pre-Revolutionary edifice, whieli has become one r)f the shrines of American pilgrimage ; here, surrounded by friends, and enjoying the society of a brother, of nephews, and nieces, he passed an active and honored age until his death, Nov. 28. ISjO. Washington Irving was never mar- ried; an early bereavement was mourned by him through life, and the memory of his betrothed was present on his deathbed. Of the characteristic excellences of style which made Washington Irving the most popular of American authors it would bo superfluous licre to speak. Though his literary activity was exercised rather in England than in America, and many of his subjects were European, his dcservecl success is a matter of pride to his countrymen, who will not allow his graceful productions to fall into ob- livion. Porter C. Bliss. Irving (William), b. in New York City Aug. 15. 17G6, was brother of Washington Irving; became au Indian trader, residing at .lolinstown and Caughnawaga on the Mohawk from 17S7 to 1701. In 179'I ho married a sister of .Tames K. Paulding, and settled in New York as a mer- chant, where his extensive observation of the world, com- bined with geniality and wit, made his house a centre for tho best literary circle of the metropolis. His poetical and other contributions to Su/inaffnndi would, if separately published, haveglven him adisfinetplaee among American humorous writers, but he seemed entirely unambitioirs of literary fame. lie was a member of Congress 1813-19, when ho resigned on account of ill health. D. at New York Nov, 0, 1821. Ir'vingites, members of tho communion which is called by its adherents tho Catholic A])ost(die Chundi. The name ** Irvingitcs " was first given in ISIU to those who shared tho opini<ms of tho Rev. Edward Irving, who was b. at Annan, Dunifricss-shiro. Aug. 4,1792. and educated at Edin- burgh University for the Scottish Presbyterian ministry. Iloobtained no ehurcli employnient until IS]'.), when he was chosen assistant by the cilehrated Dr. Chalmers. Three years later ho accepted a call from a Presbyterian congre- gation in London, where his eloquence, modelled on the writings of Hooker, Paeon, and Jeremy Taylor, attracted crowds of bearers. At that time there was a general relig- ious revival, a remarkable reaction from the religious apathy into which Christendom had gradually lullen after the ex- citement of tho Reformation had died out. Most of the great missionary societies were then founded ; ministers of alt se:!ts spoke with new earnestness; the Bible was more eagerly read, special attention being given to its propheti- cal passages. Among students of prophecy Edward Irving was distinguished. In 1825 ho published /ioln/lon aud Jn- fldplitif Forrdoowed, and in tho following year his transla- tion from the Spanish of The Coming <>/ thr ^fftt'*iah in Gfoty and MnjcHttj. written by Manuel Laeuu/.a under tho pseudonym of Ren Ezra. In 1828. Irving began to preach the entire humanity of Christ. Our Lord, he declared, took upon himself the body of man as it became after tho fall — mortal, corruptible, cajtalde of sin. from which he was kept only by the power of the Mu\y Spirit dwelling in him. This assertion, wliich Irving himself regarded not ns a new thing, but as the ancient and natural belief of all Chris- tians, ])rovoked miiny answers nufl refutations, and caused some stir in tho Presl)yterian Church. In 18.30. Mary Campbell, a young Scotchwoman who had been earnestly praying for the gift of the Holy Cihost. began to prophesy and to speak with fervor in an "unknown tongue." Tho same phenomenon beeaino numilVst in other persons, aud in 1831 appeared in some members of Irving's congrega- tion. Irving, at first doubtful as to the origin of the?o "gifts," soon owned theni to be from (Jod. allowed their exercise in his church, and wrote and spoke in their de- fence. The projiheeits, which trt us who now dispassion- ately rend Iheni appear nowise remarkable, were in Eng- lish. Tho " tonpue." which those who uttered it supposed for a while to be the living speech of some fur-off country, wiM pronounced by philolocists to be totally unliki' any known language. That opinion was speedily ndnpted even by believers, who came to regard the " tongue '* as a super- natural sign of divine power, known in the primitive Church ; and spoken of by Paul in his First Epistio to the 1318 IRVINGTON— ISABELLA. Coriuthians (xiv. 2). In 1832, Irving, being accused of heresy, was tried by the presbytery of tlic Scottish Church in Loudon, dechircd unfit for the ministry, aud dismissed from the charge of his congregation. But some of its members still adhered tu him, aud with them he removed to Newman street, where a room, formerly the studio of Benjamin West, was fitted up as a chapel. There a new ritual was gradually arranged and a new ministry was formed. In lS;i;{, Irving was again tried, this time by the Scottish presbytery at Annan, aud was finally east out from the Presbyterian t'hurcti. Shortly afterwards the apostles of tlie Newman street congregation rcordainod him as angel or pastor of that church, and there he ofliciated until a little while before his death at Glasgow Dee. i>, 1S34, He WHS buried in Glafsgow cathedral. The new community continued to prosper. In London alone it soon numbered seven congregations, among which were many persons of wealth aud position, and in 1853 the magnificent church in Gordon Square was opened with much religious ccrcraouy. The CatlioHc Apostolic Church rejects the name '• Irvingite," and denies that Irving was its founder, declaring also that it is wrong to call a church after any leader, however excellent. Its special mission, says one of its pastors with whom the writer has corre- sponded on this suhject, is " the gathering ."ind perfecting in one in Christ, the whole body of God's election, living and dead, out of all nations, to reign with Christ in the world to come." It has a fourfold ministry — apostles, prophets, evangelists, and angels or pastors. The apostles, twelve in number, form the chief ruling power, and are appointed to no sjjecial churches, but watch over all. They ordain persons called to the ministry, aud lay their bauds on the people for the purpose of conferring the gifts of the Holy Gho.st. Through the prophets God is believed to de- clare his will to the Church. The evangelists, as the name implies, preach the liospel of Christ and declare his speedy coming. An angel or pastor is set over each church, aud with him are associated ciders, prophets, and evangelists, who aid him in governing and ministering to the congre- gation. There are also dc:ic'ins, sub-deacons, and deacon- esses, chosen by the people. The communion is adminis- tered every Lord's day, and also during the week. In large congregations the first and last hours of each day (count- ing from A. M. to G r. m.) are set apart for public wor- ship, and at these services a liturgy is uscil, taken from the (Jreek, Roman, and Anglican rituals. But there arc also frequent meetings for extempore prayer, when women, and even chihiren, are allowed to speak, ('oiifession, as a means of relieving the mind, is encouraged, but is not obligatory. Sick persons arc anointed with oil (.lames v. \i), but the motive of this ceremony is entirely different from that of '* extreme unction," with which some writers have identi- fied it. A lamp, regarded as symbolical of the Divine Presence, is kept always burning before the altar. Incense, candles, and ricli vestments are useil, also with a symbol- ical meaning. Kach member of the Catholic Apostolic Church devotes to it one-tenth of his income, besides occa- sional gifts. It has in London seven churches, with sev- eral thousand communicants, and others in various parts of the United Kingdom ; also in many European countries, the British colonies. and the U. S. The writer has applied to the head of a Catholic Apostolic congregatitm in London for exact information as to the aggregate number of com- municants, but from his reply it appears that no general statistics have been published, though "each angel knows the number of his own flock, and the apostles have full in- formnti'm of evervtliing." (See The. Lift: of Edfcnnl Inhuf, by Alr.^ 01iphant'(2 vols., London, lSG2,'8vo): Th^ Ori'ff- imi/ t'ouMtitution of the Chnrrh, and tta Jiestoration, hyliov. Jubal ilodges (London, 18fi4. 8vo) ; The Catholic Apos- tofic Church, by Ilev. W. AV. .\ndrews (London, ISfi", Svo) ; Eihrard Irviu'j tird the Cathnfic Apoittolic Chnrrh, by Rev. .1. S. Davenport (New York). Janet Tickkv. Ir'viiigton, post-tp. of Kossuth co., la. Pop. 605, Irvin^ton, post-v. of Clinton tp., Essex co., N. J., on the Passaic Valley and Poapack R. R., 3 miles W. by S. of Newark. Irviii^tnn, post-v. of Grccnburg tp., Westchester co., N. Y.. on (he lltids-m River and the Hudson River R. R., 22 miles N. of New York, and neiirly opposite Piermont. The re8i<Ience of the late Washington Irving waa in the immc<liato vicinity. Ir'win, county of S. Central Georgia. Area. 700 square miles. It is level and sandy, ami chiefly covered with pine forests. Some wool and grain are produced, but only a very small port of the land is under cultivation. Cap, Irwinville. Pop. 1S37. Irwin, tp. of Brown eo.. Kan, Pop. 2^00. IrwiOf Ip. of Venango co.. Pa. Pop. H89. Irwin, a b. of Westmoreland co., Pa., in North Hunt- ington tp., on the Pennsylvania R. R. (Iuwin's Station P. 0.). Pop. 833. Irwin (JAitEP), b. in Mecklenburg co., N. C, in 17o0; moved with his parents when a boy to Burke co., Ga. ; took an active part in the cause of independence during the Revolutionary war; was a member of the first legislature of Georgia after independence was achieved; was a mem- ber of the State c<)nvention which ratified the Constitution of the U. S. of 17^7; was governor of the State 1790-1)8, and again 180G-HU. He was president of the State con- vention that formed the constitution of 179S. It was his honor as governor in 1700 to sign the act abrogating the famous Y'azoo fraud, which had been perpetrated by a pre- vious corrupt legislature. D. at Tniiui Kill, Washington CO., Ga., Mar. 1, 1818. A monument to his memory stands in the court-house square at Sandcrsville, Ga. A. li. Stephens. IrAVin (John), U. S. N., b. Apr. 15. 18:i2. in Pennsyl- vania; entered the navy as a midshipman Sept. 9, 1S47; became a passed midsliipman in ISjo, a lieutenant in 1855, [ a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in 18fi6. Served in the U. S. frigate Wabash at the battle of Port Royal, and with a detachment of officers and seamen of that vessel took port in the bombardment and capture of Fort Pul.nski. Highly commended for "earnestness aud bravery.' Foxhall A. Pahker. Ir'winton, po5;t-v., cap. of Wilkinson co., Ga., 3 miles from Mclntyrc, a station on the Central R. R. Pop. 211. Ir'winville, post-v., cap. of Irwin co,, Ga., 35 miles S. W, from Chaunccy (or Eastmon), a station on the Macon and Brunswick R. R, Is [Gr. 'U, now Flit], an important city of ancient Baby- lonia, eight days* journey N. of Babylon, on the W. bank of the Euphrates. The name signifies hiluincu. and that material was carried thence to Cabylon for building pur- poses. The site has been identified by cuneiform inscrip- tions. I'saac [Heb., ''laughter"], the only son of the Hebrew patriarch Abraham by Sarah his wife, b. (2U6;J b. c.) in the extreme old age of both his parents, in fulfilment of the divine promise. For his sake I>hmacl, his half-brother, was thrust out into the wilderness with Hngar, his mother, a bond- woman or slave. Later, the lad Isaac was ofi"ered by bis father as a sacrifice on Mount Moriah, in ohedicncc to the divine command, but Isaac's life was spared in consequence of a heavenly interposition. When forty years of age Isaac married Itcbekah, his kinswoman (202.'i n. c), who bore him twin sons, Ksau (or Kdoin) and Jacob (afterwards called Israel). The former was the first-born and the fa- vorite of his father, but Jacob, by the aid of his mother, obtained the birthright. Isaac d. at Hebron (1883 n. c), aged 180 years. lie was a man of gentle nature, a nomadic herdsman of devout and bhimclcss life. Isaac 1*9 Comuenus, a Byzantine emperor, descended from the family of Comnenus. but was educated by tlie em- peror Basil 11., and raised to the throne in 1057 by a con- spiracy. Being prostrated by a violent fever, he abdicated in 10.>9, retired to a monastery, and d. there in 1001. Isaac II.4 .4.nejelus, a Byzantine emperor, descended from the family of Ciunncnu*. and was raised to the throne by a revolution in lis:». In 119a his brother, Alexis III., compelled him to abdicate and deprived him of his sight, but in 12U;i the crusaders once more pbiced him on the im- perial throne, whence he again was driven in 1204 by Alexis Dneas. \vho put him to death. I'saac (Daxiki.), b. at Caythorpe. Lincolnshire, Eng., July 7, 1778; joined the Wesleyan conference in 1800, and d. Mar. .".1. 1834. He was noted as a controversialist, be- ing called " the polemic Daniel," and published many vol- umes, chiefly on theology. His collected works were issued in London in 3 vols., 1828. I'saac I^rvi'la^ b. nt AVetzlar, Germany, in 1515; be- came one of the most celebrated Jewish rabbis of his time, but with his son joined the Roman Catholic Church in 1646 ; became professor of Hebrew and Chnldeo at Louvain, and in 15.'il took the corresponding chair at Cologne. Author of Dr/rntit, Vcritntis ffrhrfr/r Sncrnntnt Srripfnntrum ( i 559), fntrodurtion to the Ifchrrw (irammnr (1553), Meditntioues firhroirrr in artrm ffrauimftticnm (1558), and other excel- lent grammatical and philologienl works, besides transla- tions, etc. After conversiim be took the name of John Isnac Levi. T!io time of his death is not known. Is'abel, tp. of Fulton co.. III. Pop. 715. 1<«aberin, port on the N. coast of Santo Pomingo, 3C miles W. N. W. of Santiago. It was so called by Colum- bus, who in 1493 established hero tho first Europea-i set- tlement in the New World, some ruins of which are etiU visible. ISABELLA— ISAIAH. 1:J10 Isabel'la, county of the N. central portion of the suutbcru pi'uiusulu of Michigan. Aruri, 57(> S(|uare miles. It is generally level and well timbered. Grain uml pota- toes are stapio products. Cap. Mt. IMcasant. Pup. ilVi. Isabella^ post-v., cap. of Worth co.. Oa., on the Bruns- wick and Alljany U. U., IS miles E. of Albany. Pop. 64. Isabella, tp. of Isabella co., Mich. Pop. i>0. Isabella I.y tdk Catholic [Sp. /j»«ir?]. b. at Madrigal, Old Castile, Apr. 22, llol, daughter of John II., king of Castile, by his second queen, Isabella of Portugal, and sister to Henry IV.. who succeeded to the throne in ll.Vt, when she was but three years of age. She was brought up by lier niother in the obscure village of Arevalo, receiving an education largely tinged with the ascetic bigotry of the age. The insurrection which broke out in 1101 against Henry, alleging the illegitimacy of his infant daughter Juana (called "la Ueltraneja,'' from the name of her sup- posed father), and raising to the throne (IIG5) his brotiicr Alfonso, first gave political importance to the person of Isabella as a not improbable heir to both her rival brothers. On the death of Alfonso in 1468, Henry regained the throne, but experienced armed resistance from the former partisans of Alfonso, who offered to proclaim F^abclla queen. She refused the proposal, but consented to allege her claims to the succession against those of the infant princess, and the civil war was terminated, with the sanction of the Cortex, by Henry's promise to repudiate his queen and her off- spring, and recognition of Isabella as immediate heir. During this troubled interval intrigues had been rife for the <lisposal of Isabella's hand, which had first of nil been unsuccessfully sought for Ferdinand of Aragon, her des- tined husband. At the age of eleven she had been betrothed to Prince Carlos of Aragon (brother of Kcrdinand}, who soon died by poison, and two years later Henry ha'l prom- ised her hand to Alfonso of Portugal. Isabella having enorgetically refused to sanction this agreement, Henry next endeavored to compel her to marry the marquis of Villcna (who d. in llfiS), and after the peace of I4G8 re- turned to his earlier project in behalf of the Portuguese iirince. While these intrigues were going on overtures had been made directly to Isabella herself by her cousin Fer- dinand of Aragon, which she accepted in spite of her brother's threats of imprisonment. The articles of settle- ment were signed at Cervcra (.Tan. 7, 14G9), guarantying to Isabella the exercise of her sovereign rights in Castile. Henry endeavored to seize upon his sister's person, but she took refuge in Valladolid, under the protection of her staunch and powerful partisans, tho admiral of Castile and the archbishop of Toledo, primate of Castile. This prelate, in order to expedite the union, produced a papal dispensa- tion from the impedimentof consanguinity (which ultimate- ly proved to have been fabricated by him), and Ferdinand, traversing Northern Castile in disguise, was married to Isabella at Valladolid Ocrt. 19, \WJ. Henry, enraged at this resistance to his mandates, declared that by marrying against his consent Isabella had forfeited her rights, again proclaimed his infant daughter heir to tiie throne, taking, along with tho queen, an oath to her legitimacy, and be- trothed the iit/<tiitft to a Frennh prince, the duke cif Gui- eniie, brother of Ijouis Xf. The partisans of Isabella in Northern Castile stoutly maintained her claims, and in lll'.i, Henry again fouu't himself obliged, for his own security, to negotiate with his sister. They were publicly reconciled at Segovia amid great rejoicings, and Henry dying soon after, Isabella was proelaim»M| queen of Ciistile Dec. l.'i, 1 17 1. Most of the noliility at once recognized her, but a few, aided by Alfonso of Portugal, asscrte<l by arnjs tho claims of the tn/nnta Juana, now betrothed to that prince. Isabella took an active part in this war, encouraging her troops by her ]>resenee anrl by an unwearied attention to their nectls ; it was not until 147'J (hat this source of dis- quietude was removed by a treaty of peace, in accordance with which .Tuana, then seventeen years of age, who had retired to Portugal, took tho veil at Coimbra, where she Burvivc'l until I.VU). Meanwhile (he prince-consort, who had received the honorary title of king <d' Castile, succeeded to the throne of Aragon as Ferdinand V. in Jan., 1479, thus effecting a virtual union between the two principal states of tho Iberian peninsula, which was consolidated in the succeeding reign of Charles V., and laid the foundation of moilern Spanish history. One rif ilu- earliest acts of (he reign of Isabella was the establishment of the Inquisition in Caslile (.Tan. 2, 1481 ) ; in the same year commenced that final warfare with the Moors of (Irnnada which only ended ten years later by (he extinetion of (heir sovereignty in 1 102. On this (tcension Ferdinand and Isabella received from the pope tho title of ** Catholic sovercignH." by which they arc distinctively known in history. The honors of tho Moorish war belonged of right chiefly (o I-^abetla, who had personally directed tho operations, submitting for years to all the inconveniences of campaign life. Besides tho establishment of the Inquisition, another dark stain re>fs upon the memory of Isabella — the expulsion of the Jews from Castile: both acts may be palliated, but not justified, by tho prevailing bigotry of the times and the pres- sure of the papal court. Isabella's chief title to fame rests upou the well-known part she took in promoting the great project of Columbus, and in the New World, at least, her memory will be immortal. She was beautiful in person, of pleasing manners and kindly heart, though of inflexible will; ambitious and pron<i, though devout; had considerable learning and political ability; was a loving wife, and is justly revered by Spaniards as the purest glory of their royal annals. She d. Nov. 20, l.'>04, at Medina del Campo, and at her own desire was buried in the Franciscan monastery at Granada. She had five children — Isabella, who married Prince Emanuel of Portugal; John (Juan), who d. in 141.17, aged 20 ; Juana, afterwards called Ln Loca, or *' the Mad," who married Philip of Austria and was the mother of Charles V. ; Maria, who married Kmanuel of Portugal after her sister's death: and Catharine (t.'ataiina^ known in English history as the unfortunate queen of Henry VIII. and nuithcr of Mary Tudor. (For the volumi- nous literature relating to the reign of Isabella, see Pres- cott's masterly I/htori/ nf' the Rfigu of /''erdluattd aud I»a- hdla the CntholiCf in which copious bibliographical refer- ences may be found.) Porter C. Bliss. Isabella II., Luisa, of Spain, b. at Madrid Oct. 10, 18."0. succeeded her father Fenlinand VII. in ISIiil, under the guardianship of her mother; but war at once broke out, the followers of Don Carlos asserting that the Salic law, which had been the rule of succession in the Bourbon family in France, also held good for Spain. The first Car- list war lasted till 1S40 with varying fortunes. In 1843 she was declared of age : married her cousin, Don Fran- cisco, in 1?40. and after a reign disturbed by many violent revolutions she was deposed in 18G8,andin 1870 abdicated in favor of her son, who in 1S75 succeeded as Alfonso XII., the short reign of Amadeus and the attempted republic having intervened. Isabella was very unpopular in Spain. Is'abey (Eug?..n'k I.oiis GAimiKi-j. b. in Paris July 22, 1S04, son of Jean Baptiste Isabey. He has painted The Ilurricanr hfjore Jfirppv, The Purt of Duuhcy/ce, The But- tle of the Texel, View nf lioulofjiie. The Alchemittt, Cere- mony in the Church at Ih'f/t, The Ihtrning of the Stenmcr Austria (1RJ9), The Teniptation of St. Anthony. He has received three first medals, the decoration of tho Legion of Honor, anil was elected an officer Jan. 22. 18o2. 0. B. FnoTiiiN(;HAM. Isabey (Jean Baptiste), b. at Nancy Apr. 11. 17(»7 ; d. Apr. 18, 1865; studied under David, but made the paint- ing of ytortraits a profession : was a favorite of Napoleon I. and court-painter. The marshals, princes, and dignita- ries of the First Empire, with the chief personages of Eu- rope, sat to him. At the invitation of the emperor Alex- ander he visited tho Kussian court. His pictures had great celebrity. The pieces in wbieli nmny personages are groujK'il together, as in the Tnhlcuu den Mareehtaur and tho Coufcrcuee at Vienna, almost rise to the dignity of his- torical painting. 0. B. FitoTHiNUHAM. Istr'lis, b. at Chalcis in Greece, flourished in the first half of tho fourth century «. c. ; went to Athens while young, composed orations, nnd founded a school of rheto- ric, in which Demosthenes is said to have been a pupil. Hu was one of the so-called ten Attic <trators ; C4 orations were ascribed to him, of which 11 are extant, all relating to disputed inheritances; they arc given in the Oiatorca Attivi of Bikker and others, and separately by Schomann (Greifswald, 18;J1), and have been translated into English by Sir William Jones (London, 1794). Isai'ah [Heb. »«Am/«A, " saved by the Lord "], the Esaias of tho Now Testament, one of (he principal or greater prophets of the Hebrews. According to ch. vi. 1. Isaiah received his prophetical calling in the year in which King C/.ziah died (7.'»'.M. He lived at least until after the invasion of Judah bv Sennacherib. This event took plaee, according to the ordinary chronology, in 714, but Assyrian investigations show that it took niaeo in "01-00. (See Lenormant's Ilintory of the Enut, Lug. cd., i. .'199.) Thus, his aelivity extencied over sixty years. Tradition even asserted that he was sawn asunder in the persecutions under Munasseh (ef. Heb. ii. ;t7). He was married and had children. During his lifetime ho pronounced the word of Jehovah on every important occasion. Ho was the grcattsf of all the prophets for the vigor of his eloquence lunl the str<-ngth of his faith. His divine oriieles being (h'Spised, he reduced them to writing, as probably Hosca, Joel, and Amos had already done. Primarily, tliey were tliseourses adapted for immediate nnd popular effect. Pre- diction appears in them only as a warning of consequences, 1320 ISAMBERT— ISIS. a promise of the favor of God and a secure and happy fu- ture if, or when, the true kingdom of righteousness should be established in Israel (Messianic prophecies). A ques- tion first raised by Koppe about 100 years ago, respecting the unity and integrity of the book, is still in dispute among biblical critics, many affirming the oneness of au- thorship of the whole book, and many claiming that chaps. xl.-lxvi. must have been written by another person than penned the preceding ehajiters. The unauimotix testimony of Jewish and Christian tradition affirms the former view. Po also does the use apparently made of the later chapters of the book by .Teremiah (x. 1-HJ ; v. 26: xxv. :>I), Eze- kicl (xxiii. 40, 41), and Zephaniah (ii. 15 ; iii. 10). The decree of Cyrus in Ezra i. 2-4 is plainly founded upon Isa. (xliv. 2S; xlv. 1, 13), and accredits Joscphus's statement (.4*1/., xi. 1,2) that the Jews showed Cyrus Isaiah *s predic- tions of him. The New Testament also quotes prophecies found in the latter part of the book, and attaches to them Isaiah's name. J. II. Seki-ve. Isambert' (FnAxgois .4iNDnK). b. at Aunay, France, Nov. ;>0, 17'J2: after brilliant classical and legal studies at the College de France, became one of the king's counsel in iSlS, and gained a great reputation at the barns the chief defender of the rights of the free people of color of the French AVest Indies; was a member of the Chamber of deputies 1S.'J0-I8; was one nf the founders of the French Geographical Society and of the Society for the Abolition of Slavery, of which latter he was long the secretary ; ed- ited 1S20-27 the annual volume of modern laws; published (with other writers) the vast collection of ancient French legislation (1822 seq., 29 vols.), a M'tnunl for the Publicist . and Statesman (4 vols., 182G) ; Tlie Ht-fif/ious Condition of France and Europe (IS44), a Historif of Justinian (1866) ; translated the complete works of Flavins Josephus and the J-Jrr/>sin.sficnl HiAtor)/ of Euscbius : and wrote a large work ou the History '*/' the Origin of Christianitt/, besides con- tributing to many periodicals and writing numerous articles for Bidot's \ouvelle Bioyraphie Generate. D. at Paris Apr. 13, 1S57. Isan'ti) county in the E. of Minnesota. Area, about 430 square miles. The surface is diversified. Grain and potatoes are the staple products. Cap. Oxford. Pop. 2036. Isanti, post-tp. of Isanti eo., Minn., 12 miles from North Branch, on the Lake Superior and Minnesota R. R. Pop. 468. I'sar, or I'ser, a river of Germany, rises in Tyrol, enters liavaria. and flows after a course of 106 miles into the Danube. Munich is situated on its bank. I'satin [Gr. ItrdTi^, " woad"]. (Chn5N02), an interesting body formed by the action of nitric or chromic acid on in- digo. Several other bodies are obtained from isatin by the action of ammonia, potassic hydrate, etc. Isau'ria, district of Asia Minor, situated between Phrygia, Lycaonia. Cilioia. and Pisidia, was in ancient times in ill repute for the fierceness and daring rapacity of its inhahitiints. In 78 b. i_\ it was conquered by the Romans, but when in the fourth century A. i>. the Isaurians united with the Cilicians, they became a formidable enemy of the Byzantine empire, ancl two of their race oceupicd the Hyz- antiiio throne — Zeno from 474 to 4Ul, and Leu III. from 717 to 741. Is'chia [Gr. Pithecnsa : Lat. ^iiarfa], a mountainous island of igneous origin, about 24 square miles in extent, and situated in the Mediterranean, near Naples. This island, originally peopled from Asia Minor, is remarkable for the beauty of its scenery, the fertility of its soil, and the variety and excellence of its fruits. Monte Epomeo, the highest point of Tschia, about 2600 feet above the sea, is a volcano surrounded, like Etna, with small craters, and its eruptions have often caused great damage. The island has also suffered severely from earthquakes. The mineral waters of Is.diia are very cclebrate<l, and the perfection of the climate is an additional advantage for invalids suffer- ing from rheumatism and other similar affections. Pop. in 1874, 24,000. I'schI, town of Austria, in the province of Upper Aus- tria, at the confluence of the Isehl and the Traun. It is a small town, with only 3000 inhabitants, but its charming situation, its saline and sulphur springs, and the presence during several weeks each summer of the Austrian court and a great number of tlie Austrian nobility, have made it one of the most elegant and aristocratic bathing-places in Europe. Ischu'a, post-tp. of Cattaraugus co.. N. Y. It has valu- able quarries of building-stone. Pop. 872. I'seghcm, town of Belgium, province of West Flan- ders, 7 miles X. N. W, of Courtrai, has a large trade in cattle, manufactures of cotton, linen, bats, thread, ribbons, etc., breweries and tanneries. Pop, 7966. Ise'o Lake, in Northern Itajy, 16 miles long, 2\ miles broad, is celebrated for its picturesque surroundings. It sends its waters to the Po through the Oglio. Isere, department of South-eastern France, on the Rhone and its affluent, the Iserc. Area, 3163 square miles. Pop. 676,784. The northern and western parts are level, but the southern and eastern parts are covered with majestic mountains, of which Mount Olan is 12.004 feet high. The department is rich in minerals. Copper, lead, iron, and coal arc mined; gold and silver are found. The wine of these regions is superior. Cap. Grenoble. I'serlohn, town of Prussia, in Westphalia, on the Kalle. It has large manufactures, especially of iron and bronze ware. Pop. 16,763. Iser'nia, town of Southern Italy, in the province of Campobasso. It was a Samnitc city, and remains of the polygonal walls, as well as of very ancient tcuiples, sepul- chres, etc., still exist. The old aqueduct, hewn for the dis- tance of a mile through solid rock, still supplies the town with water and with water-power. Iseruia occupies a commanding position on a mountainous ridge about 24 miles W. of the town of Campoba?^so, and the pop\ilation (9006 in 1874) is chiefly occupied in the manufacture of hemp, linen, paper, earthenware, etc., aud in dressing parchment and other leathers. Ish'im, or Ischim, a large river of Siberia, in the gov- ernment of Tobolsk, flows N. 700 miles through a sterile region, and enters the Irtish 120 miles S. E. of Tobolsk. On its banks arc the important towns of Ishim and Petro- paulovsk. Ish'niaelf the son of Abraham and Hagar. the Egyp- tian handmaid of Sarah, was expelled, together with his mother, from his home when Sarah gave birth to Isaac. The Bedouin tribes of Northern Arabia, occupying the re- gion between the peninsula of Sinai and the Persian Gulf, are said to descend from Ishmael, and possess many Ish- maelitic traditions. Ishpcm'ins:, tp. and post-v. of Marquette co., Mich. It has a national bank, and extensive iron-mines, or rather iron-quarries, whoso ore is of the very best quality. The inhabitants are mostly Scandinavians. The town is on the Marquette Houghton and Ontonagon R. R., 10 miles W. of Marquette. Pop. 0103. Is'idore of Charax, a native of Charax on the Tigris, near the Persiau Gulf, was a distinguished geographer of the first century A. d. His Parthian Itinerary/, portions of which are extant, is an important source of information upon Asiatic geography ; it was printed by Hiischel (1000), Hudson (1703), and Miller ( Paris, 1839) in their collections of the minor Greek geographers. Isidore of Seville, or Isidorus Ilispalensis, b. at Cartagena between 600 and 670 ; was appointed bishop of Seville about GOO; and d. Apr. 4, 036. By establishing schools, and by harmonizing the moral and doctrinal sys- tem of Christianity with the habits and institutions of the various races which at that time composed the Hispano- Gothic kingdom, he became one of the brightest ornaments of the Church of Spain: and his fame aud authority were not confined to Spain alone. lie presided over the second Council of Seville (619), and over the Council of Toledo (633). His works, which form an encyclopicdia of the know- ledge of his time, were collected and edited by Perez and Grial (Madrid. 177S). bv Arevalo( Rome, 1797-1S03), and by the AbbC- Mi^nc ( Paris. 1802, 8 vols.). Isidorian Decretals. See Decrktai.s, False. I'siii^lass, a Gki.atink (which see) prepared from the swim-bladder of various sturgeons (Acipenscr) and other fish, such as the cod. the weak-fish (Otolithus rrtjalis), and the hake (Gadus merliiccins). It is used in preparing jel- lies, confections, blanc-mange, gum-drops, etc. ; in fining wines and liquors: as a test for tannic acid ; as an ingre- dient in court-plaster; us a size for delicate fabrics, etc. The coarser kinds (fish-glues) are used in various cements. "Japanese isinglass" is prepared from a seaweed. Com- mercial isinglass comes from Russia, Brazil, the U. S., and other countries. I'sis, an Egyptian goddess named lies, daughter of Seb or Cronos, and Nut or Rhea, sister and wife of Osiris, and locally one of the tetrad of Abydos, which consisted of Osiris, Isis, her sister Nephthys, and Horus. Her wor- ship is not mentioned at the earliest period, but became universal at the time of the eii;hternth and later dynasties. Her name is expressed in hieroglyphics by a scat or throne, and in her terrestrial type she is represented with this or- nament on her head. She is styled in the inscriptions the mother-goddess, or great mother, mistress of heaven, re- gent of the gods, and queen of the upper and lower coun- try. In her celestial character she wears on her head the ISIS— ISLES OF SHOALS. l:;21 disk und horna and the modius or cylindrical hcad-attirc surrounded by Iwulve serpents, cmbleui^ of the twelve hours of the day ami ui;;ht. lu the niunuiiients A\e is the con- stant c'impunion of Osiris, standing behin*! him, support- ing him, or hmiuuting at bis bier, or else as mother of HarpakhrHt, or " the youthful Horus." nursing and suck- ling that god on her lap. Isis is rarely if ever seen alone, except in votive figure, and if at a later jtcriud she is rep- resented winged, such a type appears to have been intro- duced from Asiatic sources. The legend of Isis is partly confirmed by the accounts of the monuments and papyri. l>uring the absence of Osirlg from his kingdom it is stated that she ruleJ over the state, and her name appears in a cartouche as one of the gods of the second dynasty who ruled Egypt. After the murder of Osiris by Typhon on the ITih of the month Athor, in the twenty-eighth year of bis reign, Isis was informed of the death of Osiris, and cut off one of the locks of lier hair. Slie also searched for Anubis, the god of embalming, the son of Osiris and Neph- thys. The chest In wliich the corpse of Osiris was enclosed was carried to Byblos, and lodged in the branches of a tamarisk tree, in which perched the ph<enix (bftniu), the soul of Osiris. The king of IJyblos liad made the trunk of the tree into a pillar of bis house. Ingratiating herself with the queen's women, whose hair she plaited, and sub- sequently engaged by the queen as wet-nurse for tlio king's son, she suckled tlie boy witli her finger, and laid him on burning coals to make him immortal, while she herself. transformed into a swallow, hovered rouu'l the pillar, and when her proceedings were discovered, obtained it by re- quest from the monarch. Opening the trunk, she took it with her into the desert, and opening the lid, threw herself in grief on the dead body of her husband: and when the king's son approaclied her she turned rountl an<l killed him with a glance. Ucturning to her son Ilorus. she left the chest at the city of IJutus in an unfrequented place, where, however, it was discovered by Typhon in the moonlight, who tore the body into fourteen or twenty-six pieces, and scattered (hern about, apparently in the river. These Isis collected, apparently irmu (he river, ujhui which she went for the purpose, and found all except tinej»icee, which had been devoured by the oxyrhynchus fish. In the war which ensued between Horus and Typhon at Kar for the Egyp- tian Babylon) on the fitb of the month Thoth. and which endured for three clays and nights, the gods changing dur- ing the battle from the human to animal forms. Isis chained both combatants. Subsequently she liberated Set or Ty- phon from his chains, and Ilorus, enraged at this act, cut off the head of Isis, which Thoth subsequently replaced by the head of a cow. Another account places this action at Ateh in the oxyrhynchitc nome. on the 7th of the month Tybi, wlien the boat of the Sun was moored at I*akhera. A second battle supervened at Anrutef at a later period. She ifl said (o have founded sepulchres of Osiris wherever she foun<I portions ot' (he boriy. She appears as godilcss of the lower world, for Rbampsinitus ( Uameses III.) de- flccnde'l to Hades and played at draughts with her. winning a goblen napkin, wilh which he returned to earth. One of the epagomena* or intercalary days was sacred to her. She was identified with other deities, as Urhck. Hast. Athor. and even Nephthys. and one of the sacred books was enti- tler! her sighs or respirations. Her worship was introduced into Asia Minor and tirecce about n. r. IVM), and into the Roman empire in the time of Svlla. and although attenipt- cil to be banished at different intervals fii. r. Ki.'I-IUy) by different act« of the senate, and repelled by Angusttis, was finally c-'tablislwil with the worship of Serapis at Home, and only dij^appeared with the fall of paganism, which took place A. ii. S'.M at Alexanclria. Isis was supposed to represent nature, the moon, earth, Demcler, and other ele- ments or powers. S. Biiiri?. I'his, the classical Latin name for the river Thames in England (Tham-r«i'<f = '■ the broad Isis"), still often em- ployed in the same sense in English poetry and belles-let- tres. The principal tributary of the Thames which passes by Oxf'ird is also called Isis. lsKnn<l<Tooii\ Kcnndoroon, or .\loxnn(lreUa, seapitrt town of Northern Syria, on the E. coast of the bay of the same name, anciently the Hay of Issns. It is the principal rtutlet of Central .Vsialic Turkey, bi'iiig Ibe port of .Meppo. and has the best harbor on the Syrian const. Formerly unhealthy and almost desolate, it has by im- proved drainage beeome salubrious, and is destinrd In ac- quire grcal iiuportancf whenever a railroad to the Euphra- tes shall attract to this route a portion of the overland Indian traffic. Several hundred vessels touch hero annually. Pop. I'ono. Is'ltrlib, town of Asiatic Turkey, in Asia Minor, near the M'-ditiTranean, has about DOOU inhabitants, all of whom arc Mohammedans. Christians aro not allowed to resido there with their families; they can only stop at the khans for a limited time. Is'la^ de (Jose Fkancisco), b. at Segovia in 1703, en- tered the order of the Jesuits, was expelled with them in 17fi7, and d, at Bologna in 17S1. His sermons attracted attention as early as 1729. but his fame he principally obtained by his satirical romance, Hintoria del fnmoHu prc(f traitor Fray Gcrnntiio dc Vampazaa. The first vol- ume of this work was published in 1758 without the know- ledgo of the author, l>ut in I7G0 its sale was forbid<ien. The second volume did not apjicar until 1771', in London and in English, and then in Spanish at Hayonnc shortly after. The whole work was jiublisbed in Madrid in 1813. He also wrote Cicero, a satirical poem, of which the man- uscript is found in the library of Boston, its publication in Spain having been forbidden. Is''la dc Ijeon', an island on the S. coast of Spain, in the Atlantic, 10 miles long by 2 broad, on which is the city and port of tlic same name (also called San Fernando), which was in ISIO the ciipital of Spain under the regency, and was the scene of the first constitutional movement of IS20. It is strongly fortified, has two hospitals, several convents, and an excellent observatory. Pop. 10,000. Is'la de Nc'gros, one of the Philippine Islands, in Ma- lay Archipelago. Area. ."JSOO square miles. Pop. oj,000. Islam. Sec Mohammedanism. Islnin;ibad% town of British India, in the presidency of Bengal, tlie capital of the district of Chittagong. is in lat. 22° 20' N., Ion. IU° b%' E., on the Kurramfuli, 7 miles from its mouth. It has important shipbuilding and a largo trade in rice, salt, cocoanuts, and tortoise-shell. Pop. 12,000. Isl'aiidy county of Washington Territory, consisting of isiunds lying in Puget Sound, of which the largest is AVhidby Island. Cap. Coveland. Pop. 020. Isl:iiuL tp. of Desha CO., Ark. Pop. 400. IsIjuhI t'reek, tp. of Duplin co., N. C. Pop. 14J9. Island Creek, post-tp. of Jefferson co., 0., 7i miles from Steubcnville. Pop. 1G2G. Island Falls Plantation, tp. of Aroostook co., Me. Pop. I8;s. Island Grove, tp. of Sangamon co., 111. Pop. lOfiO. Island Pond, ])ost v. of Brighton tp.. Essex co.. V(.. an important station on the (I rand Trunk Railway, 149 miles N. W. of Portland, Me., and 1 13 mihs S. E. of Mon- treal, Canada. It has a custom-house and several manu- facturing establishments. Islands, tp. of Accomac co., Va. Pop. 1122. Is'lay, an island of the Inner Hobride?, belonging to the county of Argylc, Scotland, Area, 220 square miles. Pop. 10,:i.*i2. The northern and eastern parts are hilly, traversed by a ridgo which at some places rises to the height of 1 '>00 feet ; the rest is level. Good crops of rye are raised, and a considerable distilling industry is carried on. Islay, maritime town of Peru, in the ^irovinco of Arc- quipa, distant. *jO miles from that city, with which it is con- nected by a railroa<i recently constructed. The jx'pulalion is insignificant, but it derives imjxtrtancc from being the seaport of Arequipa and of much of Southern Peru. Isle'boro', ])ost-tp. of Waldo co.. Me., consists of a narrow island of (lOlii) acres, calleil Long Island, in Pcnob- Bcot Hay, 10 miles E. of Belfast. Many of its inhabitants aro engaged in maritime pursuits. It has .'5 churches. Pop. i2:i0. Isle In Motte, an island in Lake Champlain. consti- tuting the post-township of Jsle hi Motte. iJrand Isle eo,, Vt. It is sometimes called the " Vineyard." It is 6 miles long. Pop. 197. Isle of Tranoe. Sec Mai-ritius. Isle of I>lnn. Sec Man. Islk of. Isle of Pines. Sec PiNi:s. Ist.E ok. Isle of Wight. See \Vn;nT. Isi.e op. Isle of Wipht, county in thi- S. E. of Virginia, bounded on the .V. E. by the James River, and on the W. by the Blaokwater. Area. 2^0 square miles. It contains consider- able pine forest, and is generally level. Grain, potatoes. and pork are (staple products. It is traversed by Atbintio Mississippi and Ohio U. R. Cap. Smithficld. Pop. 8;i20. Islo Koyale, county of Michigan, comprising Islo Koyalc and adjacent islands in Lake Superior. Isle Koy- ale is -IJ niib's long. 12 miles broad. an<l abounds in copper and other minerals, ami has nniny lakes, one of the largest of wbi(di. Siskowit Lake, has no outlet. Siskowit Hay Is the principal settlement. It was formed in 1S7j. Isles of Shoals, a group of eight small islands in the Atlantic, about In miles S. E. of Portsmouth, X. H. They aro barren and almost without vegetation. The 90 iuhab- 13-22 ISLIP— ISOMERISM, ETC. itanta live mostly by fishing. On White Island is a light- I hou'^e, and on Appk-dcre and Star I.'laud Iheie are large hotel accommodations for the great nuniberol tourists who , visit the islands each summer to enjoy the sea air. Is'lip, tp. and post-v. of Suffolk co.. N. Y., 40 miles E of New York City, on tJreat .South Bay and on the South Shore R. R. of Long Island, has :! churches, 2 acad- emies, 1 weekly newspaper, planing, paper, and flour mills a marine railwkvand shipyard, and is the head-quarters of .several sporting clubs. Fi.shing is a leading pursuit, and the rearin" of trout and the putting up of canned goods are imi.ortant interests. The township c.mtains a number of other villages, and has U. churches. Pop. of tp. 4.).)i ._ W. L. Cook, Kd. " Long Island Heiiald. Ismaeeliah. Sec Assassins and Ismaii-is. Ismail', town of European Turkey, in the principality of Moldavia, on the Kilia. a branch of the IJanul.e, It is a stron" fortress, has important leather manufactures, and carries °on an extensive trade in grain, wool, tallow, etc. Pop. 20.SG9. Ismail Pasha, or Ismail I., b. at Cairo in 18:10, son of Ibrahim Pasha bv a Circassian woman. He was edu- cated at Paris; returned to Egypt, and soon after Uis father's death (Nov. ii; 1S43) strongly opposed the new viceroy, Abbas Pasha, who died the next year, and was succeeded by Said Pasha, who placed him at the head of the administration while he himself was on a visit to Eu- rope and in 1S62 made him commander of the army. Said d Jan 18, 1863. and was suc'ceeded by Ismail as btth vice- roy of l'>ypt. lie acquired great wealth liy the cultivation of eottoii'dnring the American civil war, and was a zealous promoter of the Suez Canal project. In 1SG6 the sultan niade the succession direct in his line, in return for which Ismail increased his tribute and ai.led the sultan with a large army in the Cretan insurrection. In 1SC.7 he received the titles' of highness and khedive, with important ad- ditions to his authority ; but he demanded still more, and threatened, in case his demands were refused, to seize the island of Crete. Foreign powers, however, interposed, and compelled him to abate his demands. In 1868-69 he ex- tended his sway over the Upper and White Nile, increased his armv. proposed the neutralization of the Suez Canal, and eon'diieted himself as an independent monarch. The sultan thereupon ordered him to reduce his .army to 30,001 men recall his orders fur the construction of iron-clads and the purchase of breech loaders and the contraction of loans in Europe. The khedive. not succeeding in gaining the support of Russia, yielded for a time to the demands of the sultan, but bv bribery in June. 1ST3. succeeded in ob- taining' concessions from the Sublime Porte which rendered him vii-tually independent, the main restrictions relating to his intercourse with foreign powers. Early in 1S74 he gained a decided victory over the sultan of Harfur. and is now busily engaged in extending his authority over the barbarous" tribes Iviug around him. He is the absolute owner of all the lai'i.l in Egypt, which his subjects cultivate on terms prescribed bv him. He is also largely engaged in manufacturing enterprises, the whole industry of the counlrv being under his control, the common people being practically his slaves. He has. in an arclntectuial point of view, considerably improved Alexandria, .almost rebuilt Cairo, and has constructed immense public works through- out his kingdom. Ismail'in, town of Lower Egypt, on the N. shoro of | Like Tim-ah. on the railroad leading from Alexandria and Cairo to Suez, and on the Suez Canal. It was founded in 1S«3 to serve as the central point for the construction of the canal, and was named after the khedive. Ismail Pasha. Its situation gives promise of considerable commercial im- portance. Pop. about 4000. I$mail'is,a former sect of Mohammedan free-thinkers. Thev were originally Sbiites, but their doctrine spread throughout hl<im. the M.ihammedan world. Their outward practice was very devout, but their esoteric doctrines con- sisted of various degrees of instruction, finally leailing to universal negation, atheism, and indifl'erenlism. Resides this, their morality was of the worst, though cloaked with pious words ami acts. They originated in the ninth cen- tury, and especially honored .Mohammed ben Ismail, the seventh of their imams or caliphs. There are oven now relies of this old sect in existence. iKmicl', or Iskimid (the ancient ^'icnmc<li'l). town of Asiatic Turkey, in Asia Minor, on a gulf of the same name, i.i'lat. 40° 47'"N.. Ion. 20° 53' E. Of the brilliant old city very little is left, and the present town is a dirty, miserable pbicc, with some manulaoturcB of silk and earthwarc. Pop. 3000.' Isnard' (Maximin), b. Feb. IB. 1751, at Orassc, in Prov- ence- entered the National Assembly in Sept., 1791, as a deputy for the department of Var. He joined the t,irond- ists, though his ideas were more advanced than theirs, and became conspicuous for his passionate, sometimes even inspired, eloquence. When arrested in .June, 1793, he suc- ceeded in escaping, and concealed himself until the fa 1 of Robespierre. He was a member of the Council of live Hundred, but exercised no iuBuenee, and during the Em- pire and the Restoration he lived in retirement, oecupied with literary pursuits, in his native city, where he d. in IbJU. Isochcimal Lines. Sec Meteouolocv. Isoc'ratos, the son of Tlieodorns, a native of Athens, wash. B.C. 4."6, and d. of voluntary starvation B.C. .338. He was a disciple of Socrates and Theramenes and subse- quently attained considerable popularity as the founder of a school of rhetoric at Athens. Cicero declared him to be the first to perfect the melody of Greek prose. The Ale.x- andrian critics assign him the fourth place in the canon of Greek oratory. His style is ostentatious and elegant, rather than graceful and pleasing. The extant orations are given in the Omtores AllicI of Bekker and of Baiter and'Sauppe, and separately by Lange (Halle, 180.!), by ' Baiter and Sauppe (Zurich, 1839), by B";!^'^'" (Lop^C 1851): select orations bv Rauchenstein (Berlin. 18o5), The PuiifVi/'-oMS was edited by Prof. Fclton ( Cambridge). Isocrymal Lines. Sec Meteokolocv. Isola Bella. Sec Borromean Islands, I'sola del'la Sca'la, town of Italy, in the province of Verona, about 16 miles E, of the city of Verona. This town has a large Gothic church and o'her good buildings, ^Tlth an active and laborious populalion of (in 18(4) a^So. I'sola del Li'ri, town of S. Italy, in the province of Ca-'ert-i The immense water-power furnished by the Liri and the Fibreno is here utilized for manufacturing on a large scale, paper, linen, woollens, etc., and also lor work- ius metals, including the manufacture of chemical prod- ucts. The town is charmingly situated, and the troiit^of the Liri ore as famous as in the days of Martial and Ap- pian. Pop. in 1874, 5o82, I'som (Thomas Didi.ev), M. D.. b. in Maury eo., Tenn Sent 5 1816 • graduatcdinJe«fersonMedicalCollegelS39, and began practice at Oxford, Miss. He was made surgeon dnrin-rthe war. and assigned to the medical board of Gen. Joseph E. Johnston's army; is ( 1875) a successfiilpractitioner in Oxford, Miss., and is a trustee of the umversi^v of that State. IAIL*.E\E. Isom'erism, Pol ymerism. Allotropism. Amor- nhism, Uimorphism and Polymorphism, -lleta- merism, Kcnomerism. These words belong, and are necessary, to the language of chemical science, being of highly convenient, indeed indispensable, application in the arrangement of the vast accumulating masses of com- pounds into groups, and in exhibiting their relations among each other; thus facilitating their study and inves- tigation in a surprising manner. These terms do not, how- ever all convey actual natural principles, or generalizations; many of the groupings designated by them being in a great degree artificial, or founded on principles rather of a iie'/ti- tire kind; though others of them are unquestionably nat- ural The term I'sowc-i'.m is generally considered as in- cluding, broadly speaking, all the others; and isomerio croups, or groups of isomeres, may be dehned broad y as such groups as /k</>/.™ to have the same proportional ele- mentary composition, while specifically quite distinct; each nreinber of such a group being distinguishable from the rest by some one or more specific chemical or physical characteror relation to other substances, ,, , , ,, „ Oemral f:^a,„i.U..- Diamond and j/'V'"'. '"• K^t the hardest and most limpid known substance, the las one of the softest and most opaque ; both being chemical y pure i carbon. Chile and aya.jonile, differing fundamentally in • crystalline form (the first being hexagonal and the ast right rhombic), as well as in hardness and density, while both are simply lime-carbonate, CaCOj. Qnarl:, ru)y- rnilr. and .olAlc «.7,Vr,. Olefianl .jn. (C.H,) and Mra«n,- ;cM.(C.,„H,e).cach of which contains in imi parts b.v weight exactly 42.S57 of carbon and 57.143 of hydrogen; tlie la t, instead of being a permanent gis lighter than air, like the first, is a liquid whose boiling-point is higher than that of mercury, and whose vapor is ten times as heavy "' o'';?''"* gas, or half as heavy again as mercurial vaj-or itself. Lorn- moil nM,ol and mrihjUe ether, a liquid and a gas, each having the empirical formula WW, and the same cen- tesimal composition : 52.174 1,1.043 !"'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.','.','.'.'.'.'.'.'.!!'. ."M.TM lOO.OOO Carfion Hydrogen.. Oxygen ! Dexlro.e. or grape-sugar, and l^,-nh,e. or honey-sugar ' both CHitOe, but having precisely opposite actions on ISOMKKIS.M, KTC. 1 '~»0''> ll olariicd light: the first being also a solid and the last a | iqiiid. 1. Igomercf, in the restricted sense (Gr. iiTOM«P<t, adj., i "of equal parts" or "equally divided"). Recent writers j nronose to anplv llie term Immmiim narrowly and speci- ally to such grdiips As really appear to be more or less nainral ones : that is, such as not only have the same com- position, but similarorigin.wilh identical molecular weights and volumes; which are usually quite similar in their re- lation to heat and chemical agents, and furnish similar products of decomposition or trausfonuatiou by like agents. Such groups are found, so far. only among the immediate products of vegetable and animal life; and while among the commonest substances, still remain, as to their molecular constitution, among the least s.rutable; no very satistac- tory explanations, except of a liypothelical kind, having yet been presented for these kinds of isomerisms. Examplfn.—A large, familiar, and interesting group of natural isomeresis that known as the (ci/jeiies, including the volatile oils of turpentine, lemon, orange-peel, bergamot, ueroli, Borneo camphor, juniper, copaiba, nutmeg, and a multitude of others. These are all hydrocarbons of the formula Tiollis. which, while dilTcring so greatly in odor, and in some cases in their actions on polarized light, and even, within small limits, in densities and boiling-points, yet are notably similar in their general chemical relations much more so than is usual among the groups of pol;/- merrn and wi-inmefta referred to below. It seems certain, however, that in the course of investigation the true consti- tution and molecular derivation of these terpenes will he arrived at with precision, in which case they will at once take rank but as inctameres, and lose in great part their present mysterious interest. Two of the most common, terebeiithtiic, from turpentine-oil, and n'tii-ne. from lemon- oil, arc now under active investigation by skilful chemists, and the results seem to point to the constitution of the former being nearly or exactly fHhi/ilnirct of Unprnpyttn- liK-iie (<r//)/i'i-eymcn"e). and to that id" the latter as compris- ing the same molecular groups, with different arrangement among each other. Other important groups of natural isomeres occur among the proximate constituents or products of living tissues, both vegetaldc and animal. The inniiin'te group (CelluOG), comprising three or more isomeres — mnntiilc (manna or seaweed-sugar), dulcoso or iliilrile (a sugar from on un- known plant of .Madagascar), and itoilulciie, an artificial sugar. Tlic thi'orotical views commonly accepted regard- ing the con titution of the sugars generally, and hence of a very wide and highly imporlniit range of organic prod- ucts, rest upon the views held regarding mannite. {Pee below.) The <;/ii'',«c group f t'oIIijOn). including common qrapi-.fii'irir. which is a product both of vegetable and (as diabetic sugar) of animal life. /jr™/'-»e. in'j«i> (flesh-sugar), tfilrifinnc, niirbi'l)-, ami several artificial sugars of the same formula. These isomeres are regarded as nW(7i.i/f/c». eoire- sp'miling to certain isomerio (bexnlomic) alcohols, of which mannito is one representative. Thus, just as ordinary alcohol may yield orriinary aldehyde by oxidatioii in con- tact with platinum-black, mannite yieldsan artificial sugar isomeric with glucose, called tiiniini(o»c. C^IInO -fO = CjIIjO +11.0; and CfllluOo -f = ColIijOo + lIjO. MnimlU'. Mnonluxc. Also, it is stated that glucose, by reduction with nascent hydrogen (as with sodium-ainalgam), will yield conversely genuine mannite. A further support for this view is de- rived from the fact that the action of hydriodie acid on mannite produces the hydrocarbon hcxyleiic. Ci-.U,:. The «,irro«<-, or cane-sugar group ( ('i2ll-n"ll >• wbieli coiupnscs a largo class of isomeres, such as wlilux- (eucaly|itu8- sugar), iiu'-lrtilane (larch-sugar), trclialiM (Turkish manna), wi/coiir (ergot-sugar), /(k/o.c or milk-sugar (as a hydrate nalurallv), and doubtless a great multitude of oilier iso- meres. To these is to be added unihuir. the character- istic constituent of gum anibic. These isomeres are formed from the glucoses by the elimination of one equivalent of water from a coupled molecule of the latter group : [>'''■"« -1I..0 = 01,11250,,. I bIIijOo Tliev are therefore designated as (/iV//iiro»iV nlmhoU. Little progress has been made as yet in penetrating the nature of the relations which exist between Iho several members of the aliove groups of sugar-isonieres respect- ively, and no satisfactory reason can be suggested irlii/ they are isomeres. The same remark applies to another no less important group, eompriiing rrlliilnte. the ulnnhcn, initllue, 7/i/co</rN (animal starch, from livers and fn>tuses). etc.. which are isomeres of the general formula rir«II,(iOs. closely re- lated to tlie sugars. Two other isomeric sugars, of another mode of grouping, may also bo montionod. Those are />i'ni(« and qnercilc (California pine-sugar and acorn-sugar), which aro both CoHuOs, and have been rated as probably alcohols of pctitfitfttnic constitution. Tlir Tnrtiirif Ariil Ui-oup. — This seems a well-character- i/.ed group of natural isomeres, not to bo classed, so far as known, with polyiuercs or metamcres ; comprising ordinary or dej-tro-tartaric acid, hri'n-tartaric acid, raceniic acid, anil iii<ic(i'cc((ir((tri'c acid; the last three discovered by Pasteur. Action on polarized light and variation of crystalline form are the distinguishing characteristics of these : raccmic acid being a compound of dextro- and Itevo-tartaric acids, and therefore inactive. Their common formula is V,Ucflr,- Still another great and important griuip of pi'ihiible isomeres occurs in nature, distributed very widely both in animal and vegetable life. These are the proteine group, or ;)ro(ciV/«, also called nlbiimiiwidn {for a special account of which see the articles Albvmks and .Vi.in MtxoiDS. by Prof. 0. F. CnAXDi,t:K: also the article .'Vi.ai'MiNiiKiA). The considertition of the question as to whether this familiar thougli mysterious group of substances consists really of isomeres, or will ultimately be found to have some other connection, cannot be entered into here. The whole chemical nature of the protcids rests still in obscurity, and the designation of them here as one of the groups of nat- ural isomeres must be admitted as p4ssibly only conjectural. The narrow acceptation of the term iaamcre, which has been adopted above, can only be regarded as provisional, and likely to be ephemeral. In the duo course of chemical research it seems inevitable that the true molecular struc- ture of .-ill these groups will sooner or later be evolved, and thev will then, ot' course — while still remaining isomeres in the" broad and general sense — either fall into one or other of the groups below, or become appropriate subjects for new and specific terms, in newer classifications, which will more closely approximate to the true scheme of nature. 2. Pnfi/mrreH (Or. i7oA./|itpi)5. "of many parts"). — These have also been called iwmeridcn, from i<ro(up>is. and iSea, "form or aspect," signifying that they simulate in form or formula the isomeres above.'' Polymeres constitute groups which owe their similar centesimal composition to the fact that their compound molecules contain the same elemental molecules, condensed or combined in double, triple, or other multiple weights in the same, or in multiple volumes. 2 \. Oriiiniic Polfimi-reM. — Of these, which are best known, the case above, of olrfnint ijim and trlrnm;/!riir. will serve as an excellent example; and it will be useful indeed to cito here tho whole beautiful group of hydrocarbon polym- eres to which these two belong. (See talilo on next page.) A peculiar tlieoretieal interest attaches to this group, in consequence of the fact that it constitutes not only a group of polymeres, but also a scries of horaologues. being )iroba- bly tho only extended series of compounds capable of hold- ing among each other simultaneously these two relations. (.See article lIoMOi.onv.J It is doubtless rather by virtue of their being homologues, and not as polymeres, that they constitute a distinct natural family, being frequently coex- istent or congeneric as products of chemical change, ami as a series being distinctly ;)ro'/rc«»i'i.'c in their jiliysieal and chemical characters and "relations. The modes of deriva- tion of some of these polymeres from others arc interesting. Amyleno is converted into diamylene. from f'..,ll|oto finite, or twice Iho number "f molecules condensed into the same volume of vapor, by simiily dissolving in oil of vitriol. The diamylene soon separates from this sedation as an oily layer". Triamvleno and tctrauiyleno also, in which a sim- ilar condensation to the Sivme vapor-volume of three and four tiini'S the weight of matter, are formed by simply heating nmylene with chloride of zinc, which latter takes no part in the change. There is another small but highly interesting group of hydrocarbon polymeres, consisting of tho following mem- bers; ^ Acetylene, or ethinc 'iHj Benzene, or benzole f'nlla Cinnamene, or styrole t'sHs The first of these is a gas, tho other two— which are per- fectly entitle.l to the names triacetylene and lelrnectylcno arc lic|iiids ; .and ciiinainene occurs also as a solid iso- merc, ealle.l ni'laciiinmnciir, formed by simply superheating the liquid fium under pressure. Cinnamene is found also in nature as a eonstituoni of »t„rii.r. Benzene and cinna- mene maybe formed by direct synthesis from acclylene, by passing the latter through an incandescent tube. Tliesc bodies'ill occur abundantly in the products of the coal-gas retort, and bear the moat intimate relations to many others •There is, however, some confusion of laneiiage here— some writers applvlnit the term iiomi-rMfs Indiscriminately to polyin- ercs and inctameres. The terms imhimrridr and mrlnmmile Invc also been emploveil. sinipiv as svnonyms of iiolyuicrc and metnmere— a complication of terras which seems wholly un- necessary. i:J24 ISOMERISM, ETC. of its products not polymeric with them. Thus, if diphenyl I tube, both benzene and cinnamcnc result : CijHio + C2H< = (Ci2Hio).ahoilyfouuda88ocinted withanthracenoincuiil-tar, ('cHe + CgHg. Nnplitiialcne (("loUg), another most import- is passed in vapor form, with olcliant gas, tlirough a red-hot ' ant constituent of coal-tar, and toluene (C'TlIa), still another. The Known Poti/meric Olejinea, Cnlisn. Carbon- equivaleots, C= 12. 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 15 16 20 27 00 Methene Ainknown) Etheue, ethylene, elayl, or oletiant gas Propeac, or' propylene Butene, or butyiene Quinlene, or amylene Sextene, or lu'xylene Si'ptene, or licptylene Octene, or uctylene Nonene, or nonyleno Decene, decalyle'ne, dianiylene (or " paramylene " of Balard) Quindecene, or trianiyleiie Sexdecene, ceteno, or cetylene Vigintene, tetramyleno (or "metamylene" of Balard) Septemvigintene, or cerotene Trigintene, or melenc CH, C2H4 C3U, CiH, C5H1Q C.ojLo Ci.H,2 l,20''40 Centlerado points or fuBioD. 57° 62° CcDtl grade poinlH or ebulIitioD. — 110° — 17.8° -(- 3° 35° 69° 9.5° 119° 140° 165° 248° 275° 395° •t 375°? 0.97 1.45 1.94 2.42 2.91 3.39 3.87 4.36 4.84 7.60 7.75 9.70 13.09 11.80? arc also most intimately related to benzene and anthracene. Thus, vapor of toluene in the red-hot tube may be meta- morphosed as follows : . BenzcDC. Naphthalene. 4C7H8 = SCellc + C'loHs + 3H2; and Aulhraccne. 2C7ll8 = CuHio + 3H2. The consideration of these, with a great many other similar transfi)rniation3 among these hyJrocarbon.'^. produced by simple contact with incandescent surfaces, which have been observed by Berthelot and others, throw great light upon the processes that occur within the gas-retort. Connected with the great isomeric group of the terpenes^ which have been referred to above, there are believed to bo probably some polymeres, among which arc the essential oils of cubebs and copaiba, C-ioIl32. The two important substances caoutchouc and (jntta pcrcha have also been held to bo terpenc-poly meres, but Bert helot's investigations have cast doubt upon this view. Cyanogen, in its com- pounds, appears to have a peculiar tendency to form poly- meric groups. The most remarkable of these is as follows : Cyanic acid CIINO. Fulminic acid C2U2N2O2. Cyan uric acid CsUsNsOa. Fulminuric acid CallaNyOs. Of these the last, however, is doubtless a metamere of cyanuric acid, as it is bibasic, while the latter is tribasie. From the three strictly polymeric acids above formulated it will be readily understood that there may arise a great number of polymeric groups of salts. Thus, the silver- saUs arc constituted as follows : Argentic cyanatc CX.\gO. Argentic fulminate C2N2Ag20a. Argentic cyanurate CsNsAgaOa. The second of these is the celebrated /«/wni.i//H/;-«i7rcr compound. Other polymeric cyanogen compounds are the two chlorides : Gaseous chloride of cyanogen CNCl, Solid chloride of cyanogen.., C3N3CI3. The first of those, at ordinary temperatures, may bo con- verted into a !i(T[uid by a pressure of four atmospheres, and when then scaled up passes gradually into the solid com- pound. The nUlehytle polymercs are highly interesting illustra- tions. Strong sulphuric acid, gaseous muriatic acid, chlo- ride of zinc, and other agents, by their mere presence, transform oniinary aldphyde, according to the temperature, into one or the other of two solid fiolymeres, ;>rtr«/f/r/((/f/<' for el'i/ifr/nf,f,), and tuftn/ii>h>/'h\ The hitter, being very unstable and passing readily hack to the form of ordinary aldehyde, is not much known, but the other two have the following properties and composition : a„ „. RoniiiR- Vapor- "P- «'^' point*. dcQsltie* Aldehyde 0.790 22*^ 1.525 Paraldehyde...0.998 121° 4.516 There is still another polymere of aldehyde, a liquid called altfof, which is considered as containing two molecules of the former condensed into one, but is somewhat unstable, and hence not so well known. Anhyilrous chhn-ol {C-j, HCI5O), which may Vie considered as a chlorinated deriva- tive of aldehyde, changes spontaneously from a liquid into j cations of an insohiblc solid substance, most probalily a polymere. [ tliniorphism, One more interesting case of probable polymerism may be - ■ noticed, oeeurring in the ease of another familiar body, oleic acid, which, by the mere presi-ncc of nitrous acid, is changed from a liquid into a solid isomcre called etaiiiic acid. Formulre. C3II4O. C6H12O3. 2 B. Inorganic Poli/mercs. — There are a few cases known, among compounds of strictly mineral origin, in which well- marked polymerism is recognized. Some of these are as follows : Peroxide of nitrnr/eu, or nitrogen tetro.vidc, which is held by some investigators to be at low temperatures a solid or colorless liquid compound (N2O4), which by heat is resolved or dissociated into two moU-cules of a deep-red gas (NO2). having twice the vapor-v{>lume for the same weight. This, however, has been deemed unsettled by some other chemists. Mctaphosphntc of Soda. — When the amor- phous glassy metaphosphatc obtained by fusing microcos- mic salt is cooled slowly, another modification is crystal- lized out of it; and a third isomere is obtained by the action of an excess of phosphoric acid on sodic sulphate. It has been considered that these arc three polymercs: NaP03, Na2P-.0c, and NasPaOg. Autimoitic aud Mctantimoiiic Acidsf aud their Salts. — Two modifications of antimonie oxide (SbjOs) are formed by the action of water on antimonie ]>entaehloride (SbC'Ut and by the action of nitric acid on metallic antimony ; the last being monobasic antimonie acid, and the first bibasic met- antimonie acid. The normal antiraonates and acid motan- timonates have assigned to tliem the following general formula^, which make them polymercs: 2M2O, RbaOs. and 2M2O, 2Sb205. The crystalline mineral vtibuitc, lead-gray, with high me- tallic lustre, and in ])owdcr grayish-black, and the artifi- cial briek-red antimonious sulpliide, formerly called hcrmca inincral, arc isomeric, both being empirically Sb2S3, and arc readily convertible. The difference of their densities is sufficient (-1.15 for the artificial and 4,57 for the natural compound) to suggest polymerism. The differences in density between the three crystallized mineral forms of ti- tanic acid, octahcilritf, hrool-itr, and riitifc, justifies a belief that they may be polymercs as well as polymorphs. Their densities and hardnesses range as follows : niirdiicts. DcD.'tity. Octahedrite (Arkansito) 5.5 to C 3.8.S Brookite 5.5 to C 4.06 Ilutilo 6 to 6.5 4.22 Sfnunic and vtetaatanuic acids are well-established poly- nieros : Stannic acid SnO^.lI-.'O. Metastannic acid 8n.-,Oio,51laO- The first is formed by precipitating a soluble stannatowith an acid ; the second by the action of nitric acid upon me- tallic tin. Their salts are, however, not polymeric, being constituted as follows : Rtannatcs MjO.SnOs. Metastannates MjO.lHaO.tSnsOio. The two mineral crystallized v.inc-sulphides. t'phafrrite, or blende, and uurtzitCf have been supposed to bo jiojymeres, ZnS and ZnaSs, as well as dimorphs. They do not. how- over, differ much in their densities, these being 4.05 and 3.98. Among mercury compounds there are two cases of probable polymerism — that of the red feinnabarl and black forms of mercuric sulphide, and the re<l and yellow modifi- -uric iodide. The latter is also a ense of One more ease that may be mentioned is that of the' two mineral crystallized forms of ferric bi-iulphide, mnrcositc and pi/rite — right rhombic and cubical in erys- tallization, and therefore dimorphous — and having differ- ing densities, 4.7(1 and 5.1. Berzelius pointed out that a great range of substances undergo, at a certain temperature ISOMERISM, ETC. Vi-ir, Approaching ignition, a profound change of state, the point | being indicated by a sudden evolution of heiU j.rodueing n sudden incandescent glow that runs over the mass, and changes being produced in density, hardness, color, and siilubility in acids. Among these substances are lirconia, lilnnir, ami lanlalic acids, chromic oxide, ferric oxide, pyrnphntphiilc of m<i</ne«m, and a great many others. The great changes in properties that occur during this glow would seem to indicate molecular condensations; in other words, polvmerisni. , 3. .IWof,"..;,!.;,! ( Or. aAA.dTpoiros. adj., "changeable ). This term was initially applied by Berzelius to cases in which an e^emen^nr^ body exhibits two or more forms, distinct in physical ami ofteii in chemical characters. As, however, according to our accepted views of the molecular constitu- tion of bodies, no rational explanation of these cases can be assigned except polymeric association of two or more elemental molecules, it follows that this division of our subject is intimately connected with the preceding ilivision. It will bo convenient, however, for purposes of classifica- tion to retain the term of Berzelius. Some seven or more of the elcmcnlsare known to assume these allotropic states. Oxi/yen, ttilphur, phoiphnrim, carbon, silicnii. boron, and riVconiiiM are accepted cases, and to these wc believe might bo rcasonablv ad<k-d iron and nlKminum. Oxi/r/en and n:nne are familiar allotropcs. The density of ozone, as now known I'rom the determinations of different chemists m:i'le by different methods, shows that it is formed liy the condensation of three volumes of ordinary oxygen gas into two volumes. The remarkable and suggestive fact seems also to have been made out by a recent investigator, Ilollmann, that during this condensation heat disappears to the amount of at least 35oJ thermal units for weight. Our American chemist, Oscar Loew, has also shown thiit the products of ordinary free flame, as of coal-gas in air, ex- hibitozonc reactions. Whenever a thorough discussion and generalization shall be made by some competent chemist of our present knowledge of the relations of these two allo- tropcs to each other and to other bodies, we may expect some important new glimpses into the secret system of nature. • .'Sulphur assumes at least five—some believe six— allo- tropic forms, two of which are crystalline, crystallizing in different systems, and being therefore diniorphs, and four of which are amor/j/ioii/i, or belong also to the next division of our subject. Three of the six forms are soluble in bisulphide of carbon, and the other three arc insoluble. The soluble forms arc the right rhombic octahedrons of native sulphur (which crystallize out again in the same form from the solution), and the monoclinic sulphur formed by solidification from fusion; the third soluble sulphur being the substance precipitated as milk of snlphur by an acid,"from alkaline solutions of sulphur. This last is prob- ably the amorph corresponding to the native crystalline allotrope, as it passes in time into small octahedrons. Wo find in tlio two crystalline snlphur-allotropes an illustra- tion of the view thrown out above, that elemental allotropcs may be essentially polyinercs: for the densities of the two are perceptibly apart,"lhat of prismatic crystals from fu- sion being abo'ut 1.9S, while the native transparent crystals arc 2.(172. nearly .') per cent, greater. '■ Flowers" of sul- phur fsublimed) consist chiefly of the amorphous soluble modification, passing slowly of course into the crystalline condition. None of the insoluble modifications arc known in crys- talline form. One is produceil by suilden cooling of melted sulphur, an.l is traiispannt. reddish-brown, soft, flexible, anil somewhat elastic. In Ibis condili'in it has a density of l.'.Ki, about Iho same as the monoclinic soluble crystals, of which it is the amoriih, and into which it soon passes. Another is formed by the action of water on the chloride of sulphur, SjCI^: a third by the actii.n of ferric solutions on sulphurette.l hvdrogen when passed through Iho same. Another broail and highly import.ant natural ilislinction bolwecn the sulphur-allotro'pes was discovered by the great chemist Uertlielot. lie found that when eleetrolyzed, basylio compounds of sulphur, or those with the elcclro-positivo elements I including hydrogen), give lolMe sulphur at the ano.lr, while acidic compounds, or those with electro-nega- tive elements, yield intoluble sulphur at the cathode ; tho soluble allotropcs being therefore the acidic or electro-neg- alive sulphurs, and the insoluble allotropcs tho basylio or cleetrn-pimitire sulphurs. Pliotphorui forms three beautifully defined known allo- tropcs, almost aa well characterized as those of carbon, de- scribed below. (a) Ilraudl'ii I'lfitphorun. the common commercial form— soft, wax-like, yellowish, and translu- cent; mclls at 41" C, and boils at 2S0°. Oy.-tallizcs in regular dodecahedrons. Kindles in air— but not in oxygen into spontaneous, slow, luminous combustion. Is one of the deadliest known poisons. Is soluble in bisulphide of carbon, and to some extent in petroleums and fatly oils. When purified by sublimation may assume the form of transparent, colorless cubes of adamantine lustre (Blond- lot). ib\ Sell roller a I'hoaphoriu. the red amoi7)/ioii« allo- trope. — Brown-red. opaipie, brittle, infusible; does not shine or change appreciably in air under 200° C. (300° F.). Insoluble in everything, and not poisonous, (c) Hilior/'t Pliotphonm. the meiolloidut allotrope. — Violet-black rhom- bohcdral crystals, translucent; conducts electricity feebly. The densities of these three allotropcs are as follows: Common phosphorus about 1.80 or 1.90 Schrotler's '' " 2.10 Hittorfs " " 2.30 They must be admitted as most probably elementary pobj- mercs. Carbon. — Of this clement there are two crystalline di- morphous allotropcs — diamond and ijrapliitc — both of which are too familiar to need special description. Formerly, it was supposed that there was still a third amorplionx form, exemplified in charcoal, anthracite, gas-carbon, etc. ; but it is now known that these all contain hydrogen, and are in reality composed of hydrocarbons of highly condensed molecules. The densities of graphite and diamond arc about 2.16 and 3.54, and they arc doubtless polymeric. Some have rated the massive or amorphous graphites, like those of Borrowdale, Wuusiedcl. etc., as a third modifica- tion, but there is no specific difference in density, and tho point is still uncertain. Silicon. — This element is believed to assume three alio, tropic forms — two crystalline and one amorphous. One of the crystalline forms seems to correspond to the diamond form of carbon, the other to the grajihite form. The for- mer is fusible at a high heat, the other infusible. Boron has but twoknown forms— one crystalline, closely approaching diamond in hardness, lustre, transparency, and refractive power, while in the other form it is a dull, greenish-brown powder. Zirconium. — This element is parallel to silicon in its allo- tropic forms, which are three in number — adainantoid, graphitoid. and amorphous. The ndamantoid form has the color and lustre of antimony, but is very hard, like diamond. Iron. — Some consider the so-ealled aclire and pnstire states of iron in reference to solvents as indicating two allotropic states. yUiimiiiKm.— This metal, which is ordinarily highly in- different to oxygen, either of air or water, is so profbun.lly modified in its attitude thereto by mere couiact wiili mrr- cnry. that it oxidizes spontaneously in the air. with suffi- cient rapidity to develop strong bent, with a rapid efilores- ceneo of hydrate of alumina. This was first observed by the present writer in isi;". It is believed by him to indi- cate an allotropic modification of aluminum. 4. Amnrphi'm (Or. o, privative, and iiopijiii, "form," meaning " without crystalline form or structure "). Vri/pio. cr'/ntallizution ((ir. Kpuitrdt, "hidden," and «pii<TT<iAAo5 ) is also a term often used in this same conneclion, nicaning a crystalline internal structure on a scale so infiiiifesimaf or so' confused, or both, as to be beyond the power of our microscopes. Masaive is another term often ajiiiliid, particularly to mineral species when erypto-crystallino. Those inor</oiiiV bodies arc called amnrphom which luno never been found to assume geometrical forms externally or to exhibit internal crystalline cleavage. As the evidence of amorphism is usually merely ne-jotirc evidence, there is often much doubt of its reality, and as to whelher the amorphous state is not sometimes due to erypto-criiniollinc structure. Internal cleavage is very far from being a con- stant occurrence in bodies having external crystal forms, and its absence is fhcrcforo cquatly far from being i)roof of absence of the crystalline eomlition. It is also kii..wn that in numerous cases of bodies which lend to crystallize with eiisc, the mere jircscnce of some other matter in small proportion may so interfere as to cause an apparent amor- phism, which, in siunc of these eases, maybe easily proved ro be due only to crypto-crystallizalion. It is easy to un- derstand that two or more bodies dissolved together in the same menstruum, or dissolved in each other, may possess crystalline forces or tendencies so inlrrfering with, or in- deed altogether antagonizing, each other, as to confuse or ttltogetlier neutralize thai p<jlaric disposition of the uoili-- eulcs which conslitutes the crystalline structure. Anuilu r range of facts having a bearing here is prcsenteil by bodies o( arilreouH and rr«iio>i(« kind— like ordinary glass, for ex- ample which were early assumed lo present a ii/piral awor- phiam. but in a great many <if which crystalline slroclure has been since developed, by slow superficial solution or corrosion, and many id which have also been found to be- come crystalline when kept for sufficiently long periods at temperatures near fusion. These considerations, with others, have inflneneed some students of nature to deny the existence of any really i;]20 ISOMETRICAL. amorphous solid state of matter, and to maintain that < solidity 13 essentially iiu effect of crystallization; and hence that all solid matter must he erystallint'. A question is here involved of grt-ut and fundamental importance to science, whoso investigation has been much nej^lected. Among the main products of organic life arc many bodies a)>parently soluble iu water — starch, jfriatitte, f/tti>i, and al- hiimeii are familiar examples — which have never been ob- tained in crystalline forms. Among bodies entirely inor- ganic there are a few similar examples now. known, of which thc'most familiar is soluble amorphous hitica. The great chemist Graham discovered that these bodies do not really fr>rm true solutions in water, but that they could be sfparated from tlie water and from other substances really dissolved therein by straining or diffusion through mem- branous diaphragms. Graham therefore projjosed a new natural classification of all bodies into coUoifh and cryB- ttiUoifiif. vSo far as we yet know, the colloid bodies of Graham, if no others, would ajipear to be true amorphs ; and until these can be made to assume crystalline structure, the ancient theory of amorphism, and the ancient classifi- cation of solids into crystals and amorphs. must still hold ; and we must allow that solidity is not solely a couscquenco of cryi^talline cohesion or concretion — that is, of polariza- . tion of the molecules — but that there exist other cohesive ' solidifying forces in nature not yet well defined by science : — forces, or modes of force, which, when we consider that ' all orifdnic bodies are substautially based upon colloid or amorphous compounds, would appear to be in the most in- timate relations to life, and therefore to call for the most anxious and concentrated study. (See further under the head of Somatology.) ' Some special cases of amorphism are as follows: {(i) Ehmcntnrif Amorphft. — Under the head of nf/ofmpJKin most if not all of these have already lieen referred to. Wo have, in forms probably, or at least possibly, amorphous, the elements sutphur, phosphorus, ftHicou, boron, and zir- conium. Carbon, as amorphous graphite, is doubtful. Some chemists have held the view that the known pyrophoric forms that some raetals are capable of assuming, such as irou, uir/.-cf, cabalt, lend, au'l others, are amorphous forms; also that plfttinvm-blnrk and r/old in the black, impalpable form, are amorphs. These views, however, are not yet es- tablished. (6) Compound Inorganic Amorphs. — Of these, the opaline or amorphous state of silica has already been mentioned, hut there are other forms of this compound which should be here referred to. Silica assumes two crystalline forms, which, though seemingly of the same crystalline system, are not the same thing, being doubtless polymeres. as the common form, r/iinrtz, has a density of 2.0(13. or over IB per cent, higher than tridi/mitr. which is but 2.25, like opal. Now, there is still another form of amorphous and soluble silica, which appears to exist, in admixture with quartz, in flint, chalcedony, etc.. and which has the higlier density of quartz. Prof. Dana has suggested to call this form jenz- schite. after Jenzsnh, the mineralogist who first pointed it out. It appears, therefore, that we must now admit four distinct forms of silica — quartz, with its amorph jenzschite, and tridymite, a polymere as well as an isomorph of quartz, with it» amorph, which is common opaline silica. Another inorganic compound — whose amorph is known to be ditfuj^i- b!o throughout water as a perfect transparent colloid or quasi-solution, similar to those of starch, gelatine, etc. — is the ferric hydrate. Probably chromic and aluminic hy- drates might admit of being handled in the same w.ay. The hydrates of ferric oxide and alumina are moreover found native as minerals which possess crystalline struc- ture. Arsenious add, when fused, has been supposed to solidify to an amorphous mass which is transparent and glassy. It passes spontaneously into an opaque crystalline form, more soluble in w.ater, similar to the crystals which condense on sublimation. Fused borax and boracic acid and photphnric add have all been claimed as amorphs. Many crystalline anhydrous mineral silicates which are' unacted upon by acids pass when fused, often even when only ignitfil, with change of density, into what have been supposed to be amorphous states, becoming easily soluble in or decomposable by acids. Among thcs*- are some fjar- nets, vcMiiriaiittc, axinitc, rpidotes, piedmoutite, zoiaite, dan- burilc, icpiiiofite, tonrntalines, and others. (c.) Ortfanie Amorphs. — These, as already intimated, are numerous. Excluding the bony portions of animal bodies, with their muscular juices, and certain constituents of the sap of some plants, it may be said that almost the whole bulk of both these kingdoms of nature is built up of amor- phous or colloid compounds. In the case of plants, even the mineral matter, silica, which seems in many cases to be the nnalogue of the animal skeleton, is an amorphous hofly. The crystalline suffam — sucmnp, g/ucosr, etc. — pass when fused into amorphous forms. Other common organic amorphs are most revius, caoutchoucs, gallotannic add. cel- lulose, the proteids generally, vntdiie, pepsine, kcratine, hitirubiuc, and bifivirdinc, vlmic and hiimic substances, coaly matters, etc. etc. Great numbers have not been in- vestigated or isolated, because they are amorphous, and hence cannot be purified by crystallization. 5. Polymorphism (including Dimorphinm and Trimorph- /»ih), ((Jr. TroAuMop»i»o?, " having many forms"). When an element or comj)ound forms crystals which belong to two different systems of crystallization {on which subject see Crvstam-ouraphy) it is called dimorphous ; when to three diScrent .systems, trimorphoua. The only reasonable ex- planation of polymorphism is polymerism, and several of the known cases have been referred to, therefore, in the preceding paragraphs under that head. The elementary bodies known or believed to be dimorphous are carbon, sulphur, selcuium, phosphorus, boron, giUcon, zirconium, iridium, palladium, had, tin, copper, arsenic, fintimouy, and bismuth. Among compounds some of the more remarkable cases known of dimorphism and trimorphism may be cited as examples: Uinttirph". — Arsenious acid and antimoniotts oxide {A52O3 and SbzOs) both crystallize in the regular and trimetric systems, and are therefore isodimftrphoua. Stannic acid (SnOa) is said by I>ana to crystallize in two of the three forms of titanic add (TiOs), and therefore to be isodimorphous with the latter. Mercuric iodide (referred to above). Sulphide 0/ zinc, as the minerals blende and XDurtzite (referred to above). Pyrite and marcasitv, yellow and white iron-bisulphide, monouietric and orthorhombic. tSalfpftre (KNO3), hexagonal and trimetric. Lead pro- toxide (PbO), monometric and ortliovhombic (Mitscherlich). Trimorphs. — The three forms of titanic add have been explained. Besides the hexagonal and trimetric forms of calcic carbonate, calcitc and aragonite, Dana considers that the monoelinic form of baryto-calcite. composed of equal equivalents of calcic and baric carbonates, indicates further a case of trimorphism. Moreover, as baryto-calcite is itself dimorphous, having a trimetric form in bromlite, like witherife, this view is thus strengthened. Crystallized nickel-sulphate ( NiU.SOa.TIhO) is stated to crystallize in three systems — dimetric, trimetric, and monoelinic. (j. Metamerism. — (This important branch of the subject will be discussed under a separate head. See, therefore, the word Metamkrism.) Hr.nkv Wi'ktz. Isomet'rical [Gr. io-o?. "equal," and fifxpoi*, "meas- ure"']. Isometrieal projection is a species of orthographic Projection in which but cme plane of projection is employed. t is used by engineers and architects in delineating struc- tures whose principal lines are parallel to three rectangular axes. The plane of projection is taken so as to make equal angles with these axes; consequently, the projection of any line parallel to either axis bears a constant ratio to the line itself. The three axes are called co-ordinate axes, and the planes of these axes, taken two and two, arc called co-ordinate planes ; one of the three planes is usually taken horizontal, and that one is called the horizontal plane ; a second is taken in front of the point from which the object is viewed, and that is called the frontal jtlane ; and the third is taken to the left of the point of view, and that is called the lateral plane. The plane of projection is sup- posed to pass through the point of intersection of the three axes, which point is then called the centre of projection. The projections of the co-ordinate axes pass through the centre of projection, and make equal angles — that is, angles of 120° — with each other: these projections arc called the directing lines of the jirojection. If we construct a scale of equal parts on either axis, its ]»rojection on the corre- sponding directing line will beaseale of eqnal parts, which is called the scale of that directing line; the scales of all the directing lines arc the same, and may be assumed at pleasure. To explain the method of projecting points isometrically, let A be the centre of pro- jection, Ax, Ay, and Az the directing lines, and suppose Az\yt he vertical. Then, to constructthe jirojeetion ofa point whose distance from the frontal plane is 2, whose distance from the lateral plane is 4, antl whoso dis- tance from the horizontal plane is 5, lay off Ay equal to 2 from the assumed scale of the directing line ; from 7/ draw yx parallel to Ax, and aw it lay off yx, equal from X draw xz parallel to Az, and make it equal then will z bo the required projection. In like manner, any point may be projected when we know its distances from the co-ordinate planes. To project a line to 4; to 5 ISOMORPHISM, ETC. 1327 which is parallel to one of the axes, construct the pro;ection of one of it:* extremities as just explained: then from the point thus determinLMi draw a line panilkl to the corrc- fipondin^ directiii-; liuf, and on it hiy off, from llit' sealc, the length of the ^iveu line. To project a line that is not par- allel to any axis, pnycct its extremitie?. and join the pro- jections hy a straight line. To project a curve, pruject a sufficient number of points, and through their projections draw a curved line. These principles are sulhi'ient to make an isometrical projection of any structure whatever. In drawings of machinery it is often desirable to project circles whose planes are parallel to one of the planes of projection. Such pro- ^ jeclions may be made as follows : construct the centre.^ of theprojection in accordance with the rule given for construct- ing the projection of a given point, and suppose the plane of the given circle to be parallel to the frontal plane: through C draw CE parallel to Ax, and make it equal to the radiu:j of the given circle to the scale of the direct- ing lines; also draw CD parallel to Az, and make it equal to the radius of the given circle : on ('£,'and CD, as equal eemi-conjugato diam- eter.", construct au ellipse, and it will be the projection of the given circle. W. (J. Peck. Isomorph'ism, Hom(romorphi8m« Isosterism and Piiraliclosterisin, Isotoniv, Polymeric Iso- morphism, Allomerism, Ilc'tcromorphism, He- niimor|>liism. Thc-^e terms are all so intimaicly re- lated to each other in the language of chemistry that they should be explained in connection with each other. /nomorphism (Or. iaos, "equal," and fioptt>tj, "form"). I«omorphs. or isomorphous bodies, are bodies which crys- tallize in forms belonging to the same system of crystalli- zation, and having crystalline axes that bear the same pro- portions to each other. (See article on CnvsTALLOGRAi'iiv, by PROK. Thomas Eglestox.) The Abbe Haiiy, the father of crystallography, imagined that every distinct chem- ical body had a distinct crystal form, specific to itself. Nearly a century since, however, Werner began to throw doubt on this, by demonstrating the precise similarity be- tween the hexagonal prisms of the two native phosphates of lime and lead. Leblanc, Vauquclin, Borthicr, WoUaston, and Gay-Lussac followed up the direction thus indicated, until at length Mitscherlich announced, in ISl'O, as a grand generalization, that correspondence of crystalline form shows parallelism in chemical nature or correspondence in chemical structure, and conversely. The stuily and devel- opment of this prineiplo or general law, and of the per- turbations to which it is subject through many influences, has contributed wonderfully to our insight into nature. It may, for example, he said to be the corner-stone of miner- niotfif as a branch of chemical science, and without it chem- ical science in general would bo far behind its present po- sition. Isomorphism, in the narrow sense of the term, as signi- fying exfirt equality of form, is found, strictly speaking, only in bodies which cr^'stallize in the regular or isoraetrio system. The term homtpamorphiam {(ir. ofiotoc, " similar," and M^o/xfrij) is much preferable, as a word of more general application. Among the most familiar illustrations of the principle are those constiintly occurring cases in which n complex molecular group has one or several of its elemental molecules substituted, either wholly or partially, by other clenients. In this case there will be usually fiKind in all the anisoraetric systems, or those having unequtil axes, that variations will follow in the relative lengths or inclinations of the axes, leading to variations of the angles of the crys- tal ; while in regular crystal!' such variation of equality of axes or of angles, which would be, in reality, a passage to another system, can never, in the nature of things, occur. It has been inevitable that in the past the study of the relations of crystalline form and chemical composition, in- eluding homo?omorphisiii, has been ehietly among crys- tals found in nature, of which viiitrrdh furnish abnost all the examples. The generalizations, therefore, of the earlier students of this branch of science were unquestionably far too narrow; and even as early as IH;J2, \ on Kobell pre- sented broader views. Not to enter into the history of the subject, which would require great space, its ])rescnt con- dition may bo summed up by saying thtit as a result of uniting the modern views, generalized chiefly from the dis- coveries in organic chemistry, autl known as the theory of equivalence (sco article on CnESiiSTKY, by Prtor. Oko. F. Barkkr), with the facts of homoeomorphisra in the min- eral kingdom, our famous American philosopher, James I). Dana of New llavcn. has recently adopted theoretical views which appear to reconcile and to cover most of the facts known, and to furnish a basis for the classili- cation of chemical compounds in accordance with both chemical composition and mineral homoeomorphism. Prof. Dana's generalization may be expressed thus: 7'fic ircifjhts of the metals or other clemente ichich comhiiie with equal and equivalent tovttfhtn of oxygen, ttulpkur, or other electro-nerja- tivc or chlorous efemcnt, arc those ichich replace each other isomorphousft/ or homocomorphousli/. While the ordinary modern views of equivalence and classification arc founded on a comparison of, or reduction to, the types of hydroijcn- compounds, such as fratcr, ammonia, and marsh-gas, the wider and more comprehensive scheme used by Dana may properly bo considered as a theory of physico-chemical correlation of the metallic or basylous elements with oxy- gen and other acidic elements. Whether the two schemes can be reconciled and made consistent with each other, re- mains to bo seen. Homteomorphism among carbo-hydro- gen compounds has been studied as yet comparatively little, and wo cannot know how it may yet modify the views of organic chemists. In reference to this question, it may indeed be very sug- gestively pointed out that our present prevailing theories of molecular relations in organic chemistry, and the sys- tems of nomenclature, notation, and classification that they have, in a manner, /orfCf^ on tlic chemical world — arising, as they did originally, from the illustrious Laurent's idea in KSIG of the reduction of alcohols and ethers to the " water-type," followed up by our great American chemist, Sterry Hunt, in 1S48, by the reduction of all oxygen-acids theoretically to the same type — are generalized and rea- soned c.r(7»«fr»7// fr<»m the phenomena and relations of oxygen and hydrogen to each other and to other elements while in one special condition — Ihc yascous condition — of matter; a contlition of matter as widely separated as pos- sible from the crystal condition; in which latter certain modes of f(jrce must act. that in gases are wholly neutral- ized or latent. Hence, the belief can scarcely be resisted that the generalizations of the organic chemists can be but partial and imperfect ones, and that they must yet be sub- jected to the test of comparison with the relations which will be found among the rrystahoi organic compounds. From Dana's view it follows — or, rather, one of the promi- nent facts on which the view is based is — that different oxides, chlorides, and sulphides of the same metal may all be isomorphs or honKr-oinorphs. For exani])le : Fe203, FesO^, and FeSa arc all found in the regular system. Dana formulates these, hypothetically, as follows: Fe^O, Fe^o, and Fe^^R ; the weights Fc;., Fca, and Fci being isomor- phous, or actxially of the same form in crystals. He ex- presscs-the law nearly thus: 7'/(c replacing rahie in rrysiah equals the Cinnbining pinrcv (with a chlorous element). lie- sides these, iron combines with oxygen in two other pro- portions, FeO and FeOs ; and there are therefore five weights of iron, which are equivalent to each other in crys- talline form, and should repliice caidi other with(mt change of crystalline system — namely, Fe, Fe-.. Fct, Fci, Fcj. Dana calls these (crystallogcnically) the statet* of iron, and desig- nates them by the letters of the Greek alphabet. Fe being «/y»Afi-iron, Fe^ tctn-iron, Fci gamma-\xou, an interme- diate state (not known in ease of iron) M'> being the me- tallic (/e/^r-state, Fei r;Mi7on-iron, and so on. Any metallic oxide of one of these crystal-states should replace any oxido of any other crystal-state of the same metal, or even of any other cryslnl-slate of any other metal, homwomorphously. So of sulphitles or of chlorides. The enormous breadth thus given to our views of homoMimorphism may probably be somewhat restricted and moditicd by future investiga- tions, but known cases appear to justify the above state- ment quite to its fullest extent. In the further extension of these views to the clefming of the basic and acidic rela- tions of oxides, etc.. we cannot here follow Prof. Dana. Imt must refer to his magnitieent System of Mineralogy (ed. of 18CU), and to his published papers in the American J^urual of Science. It should, however, be pointed out that such replacements follow the simple law that the amountof both basic and acidic o.rygin, Hufphur, etc. remains always the same, in such replacements without change of crystal-sys- tom ; and the principle is thus made manifest that it is the ehctro-negative elements of a molecular group that uiniiily govern the crystalline or molecular structure assumed. Hydrogen, whose combining weight or volume is now matlo the basis of all classification and speculation in organic chemistry, is on a par with any other Electro-positive or basylous element in the illimitable field of inorganic or azote chemistry — so far, at least, as the eminently specific 1328 ISOPERIMETRY— ISOSTERISM, ETC. charactcrof crystal-form is concerned — and may be replaced or displaced, niulecularly or crystallogenically, hy iron, for example, in three or four diflereut proportions or "states." EfeiiifiiUil Isomorphs. — The followiuj^, among the ele- ments, have been observed to crystallize in regular or monouietric forms, and as such their molecules arc there- fore absolute isomorphs : Carbon (as diamond). phoHphnms, gold, plathium^ pnlhidiuniy iridium, sifrer, copper, fttid, tin, zinc, cadmium, tilaniitm, pntfissinm, nodium. Probably many more, if not all, will be obtained as monouietric crystals : as is readily inferable from many cases of isomorphism of their compounds. Other Elemental Homccomorphs.—lu the hexagonal or rhombohedral system we have c«r/^o« (as graphite), pAos- phorus (Hittorfs allotrope), palfndiinn, iridium, osmium, ur>tcuic, aittimoni/, bi»mnt/i, and tcHnriitm. The first four of these, being also mouometric, are dimorphous. In the trimotric system there arc two elemental homo?omorphs, iodine and snfphnr (in one of its forms). Compound Rcfjtdnr homorphs. — Very nearly all the known oxidei, chlorides, bromidct, iodides, fluorides, sulphides, Belenides, andry«»("(/e«aro isomorphs of Dana's «/;-)A«-state; also most three-four oxides, considered by Dana as com- pounds of n^/>A« and ic(a-oxides, such as spinels, magnetite, chromite, franklinitc, uraninite, linnmite, etc.; also two heta-i)\'n\QS, arsenious Vi^ndi. autimonious acids; X\\*i gamma - sulphides. l''cS2,MnS2,CoS2,Co(S,As)2,Ki(S,As)2; onee^si- /o»i-arseniet, CoAss; the alums, the garuets, etc. etc. Compound Hnmcromorphi*. — Of these there are multitudes of groujis. A few examples may be cited : Hexagonal bcta-oxulcs, ohimiua, hematite, chromic oxide, ilmenite (FeTi)-203, pero/skite (CaTi)203. tefradt/mitc, Bi2(TeS)3; also one three-four compound, Bi3(TeSSe)4. Hexagonal n/pha-ox\dcs, sulphides, etc., or polymeres (?), ice, zinc- ox idc, the zinc -sulphide imrtzite, IMS, argentic iodide (these are by some, with good reason, believed to be po^^- meres in crystal-form, thus, IlgOaZnaOs. Zng^s, and so on); (PbI2PbO), cinnabar, ligSe, >;iS, ]U(TeS), NiAs, MnAs, NiSb ; with one ^amma-sulphidc moli/bdeiiite, and one gani- ma-oxide, quartz SiOs. Orthorhombic oxides, chlorides, sul- phides, and fluorides : here we have mendipite (Pbt'],2PbO), cotunnite probably PbsCls, chiysoberi/l lieOAl-jOs, cryolite (3NaF.Al2K3), A.^^^^, Sh2^=3, Bi2p3. AgS, AgTe, brookite Ti02,Mn(>2. and marmsitc Ve^2 (the dimorph of pyrite). Tetragonal, Sn02.Ti02, as ritfi/e and f'r^f/(«f//-(>t?(Pb('l.PbO), and one three-four oxide minium, Trimetrie, As^O^.^ii^Os. Among more eomjilex com])ounds there are, of the licx- agoual forms, many carhnnatcs, soda and potash nitres, tribanic phosphates, several hi/posulphatcs; of the dimetric, Ni and Zn sulphates and selenafes with TH^O, the arseniles and phosphites, ammonia-silver sulphate selenate and chro- mate, etc. ; of the trimetrie, the aragouite group of carbon- ates, plumbic baric jmd etroittie sulphates, jiotiissie sulphate selenate chromate antl manganate, Alg Zn and Ki sulphates and selcnates; of the monoclinic, Jig Zn Co Ni and Fe sulphates and selcnates with 7II2O, and another group of the same with 611:0; a great group of double suiphatcs with (UI^O: a group of sufphates eelenatea and ehromates with mll-j*^, etc. ; of the triclinic, a gnmj) of sulphates and eehuates of Mn Zn and Co with 4II2O, and another group with 0H2O. Honuromorphic Replacements among Mineral Silicates. — This is a branch of the subject of the utmost importance in mineralogy and mineral analysis. (Its discussion will be found in the article Silicates, Chemistry and Classi- fication OF.) iHostcrism, hotomy, and Parallclosterism (see under sepa- rate heading of Isosteuism) ; Polymeric Isomorphism and Allomerism (see under separate heading of Polymeric IsOMonPHiSM) ; Ilcteromorphism [Gr. erepo?. *' different," and (LLop<fti)]. Heteromorphous bodies are those which, while having similar or symmetrical ehemieal formuhe — ex- cept that they may contain different basic or acidic ele- ments — and even sometimes possessing so-called isosteric relations, yet crystallize in distinct systems. The term is convenient for classifying apart these exceptional cases. Henry Wirtz. Isoperim'etry [Or. T^o?," equal," ntpi. ** around," and fi.«Tpov, " measure"], a branch of mathematics that treats of the properties and relations of isoperlmetrieal figures — that Lg, of surfaces having equal perimeters, and volumes bounded by equal surfaces. It may be shown by element- ary geometry that the greatest plane area having a given perimeter is a circle, and that the greatest volume bounded by a given surface is a sphere. Of all triangles having a given perimeter, the equilateral triangle has the greatest area, and in gcnernl of nil polygons with a given number of sides and a given perimeter, that has the greatest area whoso sides are equal. The principles of isoporimetry are best developed bv means of the calculus of variations. \V. G. Peck. Is'opods [Gr. laos, " equal," wow?, " foot "], an order of tctradecapod crustaceans, characterized especially by the presence of branehiie to the abdominal segments (although these may be functionally atrophied), and their absence from the Imscs of the legs, and typically by the approximate conformity in size and functions of their seven pairs of legs. The group embraces numerous small crustaceans, mostly inhabiting salt waters, and is also represented by fresh- water and terrestrial forms, the sow-bugs (Oniscus) and pill-bugs (Porcellio and Armadillo) being well-known ex- amples of the latter. Isos'terism, Ilomffiosterism, I'aralleloster- ism, Isotomy. These are terms which denote that branch of chemi-i)hysieal science which investigates bodies in relation to their iwdrrular or <h' micnf t,piicalent volumes. Isosterism is derived from the (Jr. lo-oy, " equal," and oTcppos or arepco?, " solid, impenetrable ;" isotomy from lao? and oTOjiio?, " indivisible." The molecular or equivalent vol- ume of a body is obtained by simple division of the mole- cule or equivalent by the specific gravity. Isosteres arc simply bodies which give, in this way, closely equal num- bers. Parallclosterism is applied to certain cases in which pairs or series of compounds, which are homoeomorphous or analogous, show equal differencs of equivalent volumes. Equivalent volumes are necessarily of three kinds, as ap- plied to the three conditions of matter — solid, liquid, and gaseous; and as the equivalent is a constant factor — sub- ject only to those multiple variations dependent on poly- merism — and the density varies usually with the condition, it is necessary to complete knowledge to search for numer- ical relations throughout all three conditions. The simple laws, however, which govern gaseous equivalent volumes have already been explained under the heading Chemistry, by Prof. G. F. Barker. The term isosterism, in ordinary usage, is not so applied as to include gaseous, but only solid and liquid conditions, though in the widest sense it would cover all. The difficulties in the way of the study of isosterism are very considerable, chiefly from the fact that the ea^es in which the variable factor, the density, is determinable with certainty and accuracy, and without in- terfering causes, in liquid and solid bodies, are rather ex- ceptional than otherwise. This drawback is more appli- cable to solids than to liquids, as in the former case abso- lute surety is only bad when the solid is both chemically pure and homogeneously crystallized. Of real cr^'stalHc and chemical homogeneity there can seldom be certainty, for isomeres, polymeres. and metameres, and even allo- tropcs, may often be. and in some eases are already known to be. also isomorphs ; and still oftencr, and with far greater likelihood, homajomorjihs. (Seearticle Isomorphism.) Such will usually crystallize together in the same crystal, even when differing materially in density : and in numerous such cases a knowledge even of the fact of such cryptic heterogeneity will arrive as the result only of a great ac- cumulation of observations, such as exists yet in but few eases. In the case of liquids, also, metameres, of differing densities, may not be separable, by reason of approxima- tion of their boiling-points. Density being variable with temperature, equivalent vol- ume is therefore a function of the temperature; and the question arises whether there is anj- uniform temperature at which all bodies should be taken in order to discover isos- terism ? If not, as is almost obvious, could any relative tem- peratures — for example, points equidistant from the fusing- pointur boiling-point in each case — be adopted ? This latter is yet without proof. It would appear as if proportional re- lations might be sought for between the coefficients of ex- pansion of bodies by heat — rather than between the volumes at any given temperature — and the equivalent weights. This, however, does not belong to our present subject. Though the study of molecular volumes is yet in its in- fancy, the literature of the subject is nevertheless very voluminous, while at the same time scallered through very numerous scientific journals. In Europe the principal authors and investigators have been H. Kopp, Sehroeder, Tsehcrmak, Liiwig, Filhol. H. Sehiff, Sufarik, .lungfleisch, Playfair and Joule : in America, Slerry Hunt, F. ^V. Clarke, Isidor Walz. and. above all. .lames D. Dana. The remark made under IsOMoKi'nisH, that (outside of the regular system) strict crystallic equality does not exist, we find still more applicable to this closely-related study of volume-equivalents; and. as in the former case, a term expressing approximation only seems preferable — indeed, here almost indispensable. tSuch a term is hnmreostcrism. In tabulating and classifying equivalent volumes, there are several important reasons in favor of adopting, as the unit for comparison, that of the crystal oi^ diamond. Diamond has the smallest huarn equivalent volume, and its true specific gravity is probably known with greater certainty, in the eheraieally pure crystalline state, than almost any other elementary body. I.SOT1IEKMAL LINES— ISPAHAN. 1329 Elemental Hnmtrmli-rti. — In a tabulalioft of tlie elements, in the order of their equivalent volumes, eoniineMiinj; with iliiimond ns llie lowest, nml cnlcuhiled to the diamond seale, we almost at onee encounter a rcmarkahle proup of eight elemental homa'osteres — Xos. 5 to 12 inclusive, in the sec- ond column below ; Equlr. vol».» 1. Piamond 1. 2. Boron 1.21 3. Graphite 1..51 4. Ulucinum(equlT. = 9.3) 1.303 KqulV. 5. Uranium 1.92 G. Glucinuin (equiv. == 13,93) 1.9.53 7. Cobalt 2.012 8. Kickel 2.03 9. Co|i|)er 2.117 10. rhromium 2.1 IS 11. Iron 2.119 12. Manganese 2.16 These eight metals form a stronglj-inarkcd nuinral group. Immediately followiug them cornea another, larger series of homceostercd : 13. Palladium 2.083 21. Gold 2.98 H. Iridium 2.BC 22. Indium 3. !■.. iihixlium 2.71 23. Silver (crystalli/.ed; 3.018 111. I'latinum.. 2.73 24. Tungsten 3.075 IT. 7Anc 2.735 2.?. Aluminum 3.123 IS. Kuthenium 2.74 2«. Magnesium (?) S.l.'i 19. INmium 2.74 27. Molylidenum 3.291 20. Vauadium 2.743 , 2S. Silver (fu.sed)...- 3.45 The position of magnesium here is founded on density- determinations of Playfair and .loule, which exceed the mean of other chemists by about :10 percent. These others bring its equivalent volume up to 4.1. This series includes all the so-called "noble metals," bringing in some, such as V, hi, W, .\1. and Mo. which other classifications separate widely therefrom : though all these clearly have claims to the title. Zn and Mg, however, have no such claims. One other example may be cited, among those elements (and elementoidsl, which havo the most voluminous equiva- lents, of a small series of homa_'OSteres : fl'/ni'i rhlnriuf, 7.85; /I'ffniU irvmine, 7.9 ; eolid iodint', 8.5; liijuirl ri/aii- offeitj 8.7tf. Cnmpnund Hnm<toiitere», — The new view above propound- ed, that there is really no true isosterism. but only a pro- gressive homo'opterism, is more remarliably exemplilicd and demonstrated by aeries of corresponding compounde than of elements. Some oxides of the form M2O give us the following : DoniUlc. Dlamond.^ale. volumc-cquiv. Water HjO l.Oo 53 Ice (mean of 29 determinations) 0.9191 S.7G3 Sodic oxide Na,0 2.805 6.21 Cuprous oxide Cuo'O 6.897 7.13 Argentous '• Ae",0 7.18 9.5 Menuroua " WiCM 10.09 11.44 Pota^sic " K„(') 2.0.10 IL.M PluMibous " PG.,.0 9.772 12.94 The oxides of the form MO, of the first scries of elemental hoimeosteres, tabulated above, so far as the densities are known, give us — rrnnous oxide f'(tl)alt<nis " EqulvalcDU. 13C 75 DcnultlcK. DlBinond- ... lO.lS 3.941 ... fl.ft74 3R88 N'irklous " 75 ... 6 315 . Wmw 79.5 ... 6.25 . . .. 3 741 GJ*.r> 72 Mangauous " 71 ... 4.909 4.2S4 This scries furnishes an illustration of the cxtromo im- perfection of mimy of our data, ns vet, for such calcula- tions. The liensitits of nearly all tho!"** most iinportiint oxides arc imperfectly known, and those on record vary much. F(»r instance, seven fij^ures ^jiven for NiO vary from 5.6 to 0.8. The one adopted above is the mean of tho seven. Sonic netquioxidet giro tho following progressive aories of votumcs : Clnrlna (considered as BOjOj) 7.3 Alumina 7.7 t'hromic oxide 8.944 CobaUic '• 9.11 TuTrif " 9.14 Vnnndtc " 9.;W2 Mantitinic *' 10.07 Nieklie " ;. 10.11 A numher of other proj^rossive series arc readily innde out among oxides of other forms. An analogy is strongly sug- t;rsted in this relation with the homoloffum of organic ohcmi?try (.sen nrtielo IIoMnr.ofiv, hy Piiop. II. WriiTz), in which there is found u similar progressive inoremont of •Tho molecular or oquivnlent Tohimrs nrlven In thin and sub- •icflMiiil iirtfrlcH hftvi' nil ln'cn enlcninli-fl imew, spi-fjiilly fftr this wi.rk. witli thr aid of t lie invnliial>)r Stiilttinonian Tatil'-?" of Den- silirftl.y Prof. F. W.CIarkcofrinrlnnRtl. ThcefiulvnW'nt^ imed are ilinne ndopttnl liv Trof. Barker in his article on Ciikmistry. V(.i,. ir.— S4 equivalent volume. Also among chlorides and nnlphuhn there arc similar serial relations. Of tho first clcmentnl homoeosteric series the following monoaulph ides arc present- able : CoS ... Ni.S ... FeS ... MnS. CuS.. 4.9 5.21 . .0.41 fi.lO 6.1.2 There arc apparently no indication.s of similarity in the order of progression in tho several coses of tho elcmculs, oxides, sulphides, and chlorides ; but the densities of many of the compounds are still so uncertain that \vc cannot de- cide that such dissimilarity is general. The most obvious and .^trikinsreon.'iequenceof arranging the elements in tho order of their equivalent volumes is that in very numerous cases individual elements, and groups of such, arc thus brought into contiguity or prox- imity, whicli are known to be allied to each other, but which, in any other mode of eIas.sifit'!itioii, fall far n]>iirt. This will be further treated of under the head of .Mulko ULAU VOUMKS. In chemical textbooks much stress is often laid on cases in which supposed isostercs are also iftmiorjihn, generally because found to be alike inoinrtrtr. Almost all the ele- ments may, however, be able to assume isometric forms, and such corres])ondcnces therefore do not seem to carry much weight. Attempts, moreover, are made to show nu- merical relations of equivalent volumes in '• sim|ik- multiple proportions." ( See Watts's IHclitmnry. "Isomorphism," vol. iii. p. 4.T1.) Closer calculation-^, with better data, are far from bearing out any of these assumed multiple propor- tions : and indeed it is difficult to sec why simple multiple ratios of vvhimc should inhere in any ease; a gcnmetrivul ratio, as that of the cube-roots^if there be any relation, which is yet to be determined — being more in nccordnnco with the nature of the case. It has been held by high au- thority tiiat jjerlVct and absolute isomorphism must imply isosterism, or iiioftniii/, as some term it. No « ;jrio/-i' reason is apparent for this, and facts do not bear it out. JMnO and Mn203 are mutually replaceable, fur instance, in crystals, in proporti(uis representing ei|ual amounts of oxygen ; that is, MnO and Mn->0 : of which the equivalent volumes are respectively 4.2r)4 and It.JiC. So also CoO and C02OS or C-0, have the respective equivalent volumes, replacing each other crystallogenically, of :i.8SS and 2. 978. (For some account of important investigations of Prof. James D. Dana upon this subject, see article on Sii.uatks, Chemistuv anu Classification or ; for others of Prof. F. C, Clarke, see AA'atkr of Cuvstalli/.ation ; and of Dr. Isidor Walz. sec .Sum TiuN and .Soluuilitv. IIenhv WruTz. Isothcral Lines. See MKTEonoi.or.v. Isothrnual Lines. See Climate, by Phof. A. tirvoT, Ph.D.. LL.D. Isotrop'ic [Tao9, "equal," and rpon-^, "turning"]. A homogeneous snlid is said to hv imilinjiic whtti any equal or similar (in form) portions cut from «»// relativi^ pi>sitions in tho body arc indistinguishable from one another, or when a spherical portion exhibits uniformity of quality along all its diameters. Cn/strif/inc substances, Htnttifivd substances, fihronH substances, etc. etc. are not isotropic, inasmuch as their elasticity, tenacity, etc. dilVer for dilVer- cnt directions; and such are called nfntropic. If we have reference not only to vu-clmuirul but to afl physical prop- erties (r. (/. absorption and transmission of light, of heat, etc.), a body may be isotropic iu one quality or class of quali- ties, and adotropic in others. .1. (J. Baksaud. Tspahnn% city of Persia, the capital of the province of Irak-Ajemi, on tllo Zendarud. iu Iat.:t2°:i9' N. and lon.filQ 44' K. From the fourteenth Ii> the beginning of the eigh- teenth century it was a flourishing and steadily increasing city, and when, in the seveulemth century, .Shnh Abbas made it his resitliiue and the capital of Persia, it ra])idly rose still higher, and became one of the most magiiitieeut citieaof Asia. Put in 1722 it was taken and sacked hv the Afghans, and although it was retaken in 172!) I»y Nadir Shah, yet Triieran becamo the capital of Pcr.-iia. and J.<pa- han fell into decay. Among its most .opiendid monntiu-uls arc the briilgi- over tin- /.cndarud, 1000 feet long, resting on 'M arches and bearing arched galleries ; tho palace of Cliehel Sittou ("forty colunius"), whoso front is formed by a dnublo rangi" of rolumns 10 fcpt high each, and with a base fornu'd of the united backs of four lions in white marble ; the mosijuc of Me«jid Shah, whose vast dome rises among a forest of spires, towers, minarets, and open gal- leries. But these and many other wonderful monuments are rapidly ilfi-ayiug. and they are snrrounclcd by ruins. Miles of streets liavi' no inhabitants. Tin- population is rslimntcd at between 00,000 and 100.000. There are signs, however, which indicate that Ispahan may rise once more. Its 1330 ISRAEL-ITALIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. manufachircs of gold, silver, silk, velvet, glass, weapons, and earthenware have maintained their high reputation, and, its artisans are esteemed the best in Persia. Its situ- ation on the main commercial route between India and Europe is the same as in olden times, and its surroundings arc still exceedingly fertile and well cultivated. Is'rael [Heb. Yhrarf, "a prince with (lod *'], the name bestowed upon Jacob (which see) when hv. wrestled with an angel at Peniel (Gen. x-Kxii. 28), afterward the distinctive name of his descendants, and particularly of the northern kingdom of the ten tribes. Israel, tp. of Preble co., 0. Pop. 1751. Israelites, See Jews, by Prof. Ff.lix Ani.EU. Issaque'na, county of Mississippi, having the Missis- sippi River on the W. and the navigable Yazoo and Sun- flower rivers on the E. Area, about 720 square miles. It is partly swampy and covered with dense woods. It is generally level and very fertile. Cotton is the staple prod- uct. Cap. Mayersville. Pop. 6887. Issoire', town of France, in the department of Puy de Dome, on the Crouse. It has several distilleries. Pop. 6159. Issoiidnn', town of France, in the department of Indre, on the Theols. It has extensive manufactures of woollen and linen stuffs. Pop. 14,482. Is'siie, in the law of pleading. This arises when a propnsitinn of fact or a conclusion of law is directly af- firmed by one party to the suit and controverted by the other. It is the point in dispute which is presented for decision to the court or jury. Issues are of two kinds — of law and of faet. The former arises upon demurrer, and presents a question of law, which is adjudieated by the court sitting without a jury (see Demurrer) : the latter arises upon a traverse or answer to the allegations of the opposite party, and presents a question of fact, which in a common-law action is determined by a jury, and in an equity case by n judge. In some of the States both classes of issues may by consent of parties be tried by a referee. It is the object of various rules of pleading that the issue shall be upon a point material to the controversy, shall be free from uncertainty or ambiguity, and shall present but a single question for <lecision tipon each separate subject of litigation. (See Pi,eai>ing.) There is a f()rm of issue termed technically a "feigned issue," from the peculiar manner in which it originates. Such issues occur in tho progress of a cause before a tribunal sitting without a jury, when some question of fact arises upon whicli the decision of a jury is desired. A fictitious suit is framed involving the point to be determined, and is brought to trial before a jury, and carried on to verdict in the usual way. The ver- dict rendered is then returned to the court in which the cause first arose for its further action. The application of the term "feigned" to the issue is not appropriate, since the fiction is not in the issue, but in tho action which is framed and in the state of facts upon which it is founded. Feigned issties almost invariably arise in the progress of suits in courts of equity, and are ordered by the court to be heard before some tribunal proceeding according to the forms of common la\v with a jury. Sometimes, however. they arise in courts of law. Feigned issues are abolished in New York, and it is only necessary that an order be made by the court for the trial before a jury of the point to be decided, and such order is the only authority necessary for the trial. (For Oenerai, Issue see that topic.) Georce Chase. Revised by T. W. Pwicht. Is'sns ['Iffffd?], an ancient city of Cilicia, near the mouth of the river of the same name, at the head of what is now the Gulf of Scandcroon. In Xenophon's time it was great and prosperous. Here Alexander {.^.■i.'{ b. c.) gained a great victory over Darius, whose family was cap- tured. No remains of the (own are believed to exist, and it is probable that its site is covered by the sea. Issy', town of France, in the department of Seine, on tho Seine. It has extensive bleaching -grounds. Pop. Isthmian Games. Seo Grecian Games, bv Prof. H. r. Srn«inT, S. T. D. Is'tip, town of European Turkey, in tho eyalet of Tskiup, on the Istip. It is a well-built town, with a large industry and extensive bazaars. Pop. 18.000. Is'tria^ countv of the Austrian province of tho coast districts (Kitstonland). consists of a mountainous penin- sula projecting into the north-eastern part of the Adriatic, and is bounded by the territory of the city of Trieste and the county of Gorg. Poji. 240,000. Cap. Pissino. Italian Architecture. See Renaissance, by C. Peteicsen. Itarian Laneriiage and Literature* The vernac- ular speech of the Italian jjcople embraces a great number of provincial dialects, widely differing from each other in articulation, but descended chiefly from a common stock, or. to speak more precisely, from a cognate linguistic group comprising Latin, Fmbrian. Oscan. and perhaps Etruscan, as well as other less-known ancient branches of the Italic family of tongues. They all contain more or fewer words of Germanic origin, besides many technical as well as purely local terms derived from other sources ; but tho proportion of the Italic or indigenous element is every- where overwhelming, and it is hardly an exaggeration to say that the vocabulary of the Italian language, in all its provincial varieties, is homogeneous. These dialects, ex- ce])t as spoken by the lowest classes in large cities, are not corrupt pnt'iin confined to the ignorant and the vulgnr. but many of them are rich, expressive, and refined, and they are habitually used in familiar intercourse, not only by the middle and inferior ranks, but by jiersons of social and lit- erary culture, to a very much greater extent than is the case with the provincial dialects of most other European langu.ages. Their diversities of pronunciation, of form, of idiomatic expression, and even of syntactical combina- tion, are such that a stranger who has acquired only Tus- can, or the language of literature and of general Italian society, finds all the vernaculars, inclurrmg the humble street and household dialect — or what may be called the cocJcnejf — of Rome, and even of Florence itself, almost wholly unintelligible. Even the native inhabitants of dif- ferent Italian provinces cannot freely communieate with each other without resorting to Tuscan, which is known by all Italians of the slightest pretensions to education, and is therefore properly characterized as the thitjun comunr, or "common tongue." of the whole kingdom. This dialect, though the common property of the whole Italian people, is tho peculiar fireside, field, and market, as well as liter- ary, language of Tuscany and parts of the adjacent prov- inces ; but even within these limits there are in popular use considerable discrepancies both in accent and in vocab- ulary. The better class of the peasantry in the mountain territory of Pistoja, in the u]>per Val d'Arno, and in some other localities, speak Tuscan with a beauty of arti<-uIalion — or, more accurately, of delivery — an elcgnnce of phrase, and a picturesqueness of vocabulary which can hardly bo paralleled by the popular discourse, not merely of other parts of Italy, but of any other European country. It is in this perennial "well of language undefiled." not in French or in classical Latin, that Italian literature ought to seek the enrichment and variety of diction, the flexibil- ity and versatility of construction, which the fhifftta comune needs before it can become truly an all-pervading vital me- dium of national thought and expression. But though Tuscan may fairly claim to be the solo na- tional medium of exchange of thought, and though the pronunciation of all the provinces tends to assimilate, yet in the different parts of the kingdom there is a wide range of local variation in oral articulation in good social circles, and of literary diction in the dialect of public discussion and of books. The speech of every provincial " bewray- cth " him. not only by his shibboleth, but by his idioms and the general choice and arrangement of his words; and in Parliament the jmme of every orator is at once recog- nizee! by both his accent and his phraseology. The writ- ings of all non-Tuscans are criticised as marked by sole- cisms, if not by positive fifjrnninintirnfurr, Manzoni, a Lombard by birth and early training, thought it necessary, after the first publication of his PnnufMHi Spimi, to reform his style by most minute and careful study of Tuscan mod- els, or, as he, with more force titan good taste or grace of expression, phrased it,** to rinse out his rags in the Arno;"* and when that deservedly renowned story had been fifteen years before the world he reissued it in an almost entirely rewritten form. Compare, for example, this paragraph as given in the editions of 1825 and 1840 (/ Pronifssi Sponi, cap. xxxiv.) : Venuto appi^ del ponte, volt<i Fcnza esitare. a sinis- tra, nella rin (frffti fn strada a San Marco, come a qucIJa che gli parve dover menaro verso rintcrno della citti. E procedendo, cercava cogli ocrhi intorno, sc potessi sco- prire qualchc creatur.a uma- na; ma altra non ne vide che uno sformato cadavcre " Arn'rnto o/ ponle. volt&, senza esitare a sinistra, nel- la Kfroda fli San Marco, pa- midotfh', a raffionv, che do- V'SKr rnndnrrr verso rinterno della citta. E audando avnn- ti, f/itordnra in gun e in tii, per veder se potevu scoprire qualchc crcaturaumana; ma non ne vide altra che uno sformato cadavcre nel pic- * Riseiaequare i suoi cenei in Arno. Our translation does not give the precise t^ftaci of the ortcinal. for though names of riv- ers usually take the definite article in Ttalian. the Tuscans make their river an exception, and personify it. An}o is the name of a being, not of a thing. ITALIAN l.AN(;rA(;K AND LITEKATUKK. 1331 nel fossatello chc corro f ra col fotnn che corre tra quelle quelle poche case (die ;illora poche ease (chc allora erano anchc meno) e u» pfzzo lUlla ntrnda. Passato quel przzn, tentigridare: * o <jttrlf 'uontn/' c gunrdnndo dii quclla parte. vidf poco lontano. a un ter~ yrtzziiio d'nttn ctiniircUt iso- lata, una povera d'lnna, con una iiidiattt di Intnihini inlnr- nn; la quale, nrjvilniidnln a chinmar': pli frr/' ceNNo an- cke con la uiauo." erano anchc menu* e hi via, per un tratto di es^a. Pas- sato quel tratto, rnii ccrto griiia,comr chinmnte cSe pa- r^tvin /Vi/fff (t /tti; c, Volto lo Bjuardo in 5U a quella parte doiide venii-ft it «i(ono, scorse, poco lontano, a un halcone d'una casnpola i^olata, una povera donna, eon un firup- pctto di f'lineiulli dattorno, la quale, chiamando, tutta- via. gll accennara pur colla m.lno rhf Ki facennr cicnio,^' And yet. after all this painstaUinjj, Tuscan purists find Lombardisins in the style of Maiizoni. Some eminent na- tive critics think it impossible, and even undesinilile. for the whole Italian people to conform to the Tuscan or to any other universal standard of diction, and they advise provincial writers and speakers to adopt the regular prnm- matioal inflexions of the /inf/im comiine, but to conliuue to employ every one his own native vocabulary and idiomatic phraseology. These locnl expressions, they snv. almost universally belong to the Italic word-stock, and would ac- cordingly he intelligible even where not habitually used. By this method, as they suppose, the provincial would en- joy as much freedom of movement as in the use of his ver- nacular, and would at the same time be eveti better under- stood anil appreciated than when under the constraint of employing words and constructions not familiar to him. Most of the Italian provincial dialects have been reduced to writing; some of them, Venetian and .Sicilian, for ex- ample, were somewhat largely employeit in literature and in official communication before, and c\'en for some time after, the supremacy of Tuscan was generally recognized ; there still exists among the peasantry a large stock of old unwritten dialectic prose and verse, which is orally trans- mitted from generation to generation by popular reciters and story-tellers ; new dramatic pieces, generally comic, are constantly represented in dinltitit in all the great cities, and every year gives birth to a considerable amount of popu- lar, humorous, and satirical poetry in the more important provincial speeches. But the language employed in serious literary eotnposilion. in religious teaching, in parliamen- tary ami forensic proceedings, in all branches of the public administration, in journalism, in commercial and private corresponrlence, and in general social circles is exclusively Tuscan. The early predominance of Tuscan is probably due rather to the political importance of the Florentine re- public, and especially to the relations of the old Tuscan capital to the internal commerce and the finnnciarinterests of the Peninsula, than to greater antiquity or to any special inherent fitness for literary purposes; for the original in- trinsic su|ieriorily of Tuscan to some of the other Italian dialects is by no means clear. It has now. however, re- ceived a culture which has given it a very decided advan- tage over all its rivals, anil the political unification of Italy has sirengthcned its position as the national tongue, and secured to it a eons'anlly widening sphere of living energy as a popular speech. Hence, it is no longer as true as it was in Byron's time, that "Few Italians speak the right Etruscan;" and. unfortunately, the Florentine pronuncia- tion, which is characterized by nn enfeebled — or, to bor- row an expressive term from a great philologist, a hizy — articulation itf what arc elsewhere more nvksculine and energetic consonantal sounds, is fast spreading. This tend- ency is aggravated by the predilection of fashionable Italian circles for the habitual use of French, and threat- ens to become universal. The critical study of the It.alinn dialects has until lately been much neglected ; and. in fact, the materials for its scientific treatment have hardly yet been brought together. But it possesses great linguistic interest, and it is now zeal- ' ously prosecuted by able foreign and native philologists. From their researches we may expect im|iortant results, hut at present we know little of the history and eimdition of these dialects at any period previous to the thirteenth century. The recorded literature of modern Italy is of later birth than that of Provence and of Northern France. Many of the earliest Italian poets wrote in Provencal, much of i the most ancient literature of moliipval Italy was trans- ' loted from French, and importuni prose works by Italian onthors— the 7V»r»o of Brunetto Latini, the ('lirnnlrU of \ Cnnale, and the TrtirrU o/* .Warro Palo, for instance — were composed in that language as late as the latter half of the thirteenth century. l)own to that period, with these and other exceptions to be noticed hereafter, Latin was the only tnit/rn tongue employed in Italy, but there is satis- factory evidcDoo that not only at that epoch, but through the whole historical era, there have been great diversities of uptei-li in the Italian territory. Even after the subjec- tion of the entire Peninsula to Rome, Orcek, Celtic, and Etruscan, as well as Oscan, Uinbrian, and other now for- gotten languages, were long employed in provincial dis- tricts. Centuries must have elapsed before the mother- tongues of the conquered tribes could be stamped out by the iron heel of Roman despotism, and Latin substituted, by the combined influence of civil government and re- ligion, as the only recognized medium of soci.al intercourse. In the mean time, the authoritative introduction of the Latin speech into the domain of these other peninsular languages, and the influx of barbarisms brnnght in by colonized veterans nnd other foreigners, could not but have produced the same effects that like causes have occa- sioned elsewhere. Even where the triumph of Latin was most complete, the hereditary orthoepicnl habits of the population could never have been altogether extirpated, and the provincial articulation of Latin must have been modified everywhere by local influences, as English has been by the Celtic element and other circumstances in Ire- land and Scotland. Diez. indeed — and there is no higher authority — aflirms that Italian shows no trace of the vOcal system of the Oscan, the most important of the Lower Italic dialects. But we may be jiardoned for doubting whether our knowledge of the ))i>wer of the letters of the (Jscan al- phabet is such as to authorize so absolute a statement ; and the great philologist himself admits a considerable in- fluence of other ancient dialects upon the pronunciation, the idiom, nnd the vocabulary of the modern speech. The devclo|imcnt of the modern Italian dialects is not a paral- lel case to the formation of the Spanisii. The old Ilispano- Latin, the parent of modern Spanish, grew u]j in the pres- ence of an indigenous speech of a totally different linguistic stock, too alien, in every characteristic, to admit of much amalgamation between the native and the intruding ingre- dient. In its Inter development it encountered the Arabic, I also a wholly unrelated tongue, which, though the language of a conqnering race, nnd possessed of much culture, did not sensibly affect the structure of the Spanish, though it enriched its vocabulary with a few words. On the other hand. Celtic and the (iiithic languages with which the- Ro- mans cnine in contact in their Northern conquests, though remote from Latin, were .still Indo-European, nnd there- fore at least distantly allied speeches. Hence, it is not surprising that their influence should be clearly traceable both in French and in the modern dialects of Northern Italy or Cisalpine (iaul. The old Italic dialects were much more closely cognate with Latin, and consequently still more rearlily becatne fupcil. or rather confused, with it in vernacular provincial forms, determined by local con- ditions of which we are almost wholly ignorant. The in- fluence of these dialects, then, on the spoken Latin of the provinces is a question merely of degree, nnd at present we are quite unable lo analyze it quantitatively. But wo are authorized to conclude that Latin was spoken with great provincial diversity, and there is no evidi-nce to prove, no reason to suppose, that classical Latin ever becatne the general language of ancient Italy in any higher sense or lo a greater extent than Tuscan is the universal tongue of the Italy of modern times. The Roman writers often al- lude to the tiHffiia ytiMfirn, or dialect of the j>rovinees. as distinct both from the classical language of Rome nnd from the vulgar or jilebeian speech of the city nnd its environs; nnd because they employ the singular form, nnd do not distinguish the speech of different provinces, it has been hastily assumed that but one Ihiifua rtintirn existed.* But the Romans were a people of dull ear and of obtuse lin- guistic perceptions, at least in the appreciatioti of strange and foreign sounds nnd idioms. Hence, they w(»uld cer- tainly not have diseriminati-d between Latinized Italic dialects sensibly differetit from the Rotuan, e\rn if widely discordant from each other; and there is nothing to con- trol the general presumption that every ethnological, if not every geographical and every municipal, district must have developed its own peculiar local speech. These local speeches, we believe, "still live." with more or less vita! energy, and in more or less modified forms, in the modern provincial dialects, which arc consequently lo be regarded as descended not from clussicnl Latin, but from the old rustic jargons which grew out of the clash of more or less conflieling elements. It is proper to (diserve here that when the primitive Italic tongues censed to exist as independent Inngunges, and consequently as disturbing forces in the development of the new Latinized dialects, the language of giivernmcnt and religion would naturally acquire a • The Uomnns apf>ear lo have used ttntjttn nfxffrti precisely as illalr/la is employed al the present day. ' .\n Italian, returning from a theatre at Milan or Reruamo, does not sav, definitely, that he saw a iilay ml ditttcUu Milanae, or Bergamasco, but sim- ply a pl>7 (n dialiUo. 1332 ITALIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. stronger influence over popular forms of speech, and these latter woulil of course recover soma indigenous linguistic i trails which they may have lost in the struggle between | the aboriginal and the invading elements. These consider- ations, we think, authorize us to say that neither the lingua comiiiK- or Tuscan, nor any other provincial dialect of mod- ern Italy, can be correctly described as legitimately and exclusively descended from the majestic speech of Latium. At the same time, Latin remained always the language of the Church, and has continued to be more or less employed by profane writers, in public inscriptions, and for other special purposes, down to our own times. There exists everywhere in Italy a traditional knowledge of Latin as, in a degree, a living tongue; and there can be no doubt that this general familiarity with the forms and vocabulary of the classical dialect has been a constantly acting force on the spoken, and especially on the written, language of the country. Many locutions in the various dialects which have been explained as ancient corruptions or modifications of the speech of Rome are merely comparatively recent draughts from that perennial fountain : and if Tuscan is the nearest representative of the classical tongue of Rome, it is because, in the long course of its literary culture, it has, in the largest measure, borrowed and appropriated, rather than inherited, the voice and accent of the ancient mistress of the world. The fact that the liiigim comiine is not the general ver- nacular of Italy, and the almost universal familiarity of Italian writers with Latin models — for almost every read- ing Italian knows and reads Latin as an ancient and ven- erable form of his mother-tongue — have protected literary Tuscan from the revojutions, the corruptions, and the de- basement which popular use. in the fervent and energetic national life of our democratic age, tends to introduce into language. No one of the great European tongues has changed so little within the last six centuries as Ital- ian. The old translations of the romances of chivalry and other prose tales are intelligible to all. The Renli di Fran- cift, flescribed by a late learned editor as at this day the most popular book in the language, is read from the Alps to Sicily in a version somewhat modernized in orthogra- phy, but otherwise almost a century older than Chaucer. On the other hand, the very eiroumstauce that to a vast projjortion of the people Tuscan has always been a sort of sacred dialect, set apart for elevated and formal uses, com- bined with the pedantic conservatism of the Delia Crusca scIkjoI, has prevented the enrichment of the vocabulary except in branches in which certain special classes have been interested. As a general rule, agricultural operations, industrial art. and the practical applications of science, de- scriptive geography, natural history, and physics, com- merce, internal improvements, mining, the machinery of representative government, popular institutions, and judi- cial proceedings have but lately entered deeply into the life and habitual thought of educated Italians, and have scarcely yet exerted a sensible influence on the diction of literature. The literary dialect of Italy, consequently, has not received the breadth of culture and the various wealth of vocabulary xvhich characterize the modern h^/lff-ftttrcs productions of the Northern countries of Europe and Amer- ica. The nomenclatures of many of the arts and know- ledges we have enumerated — agriculture and hydraulics, for example — indeed exist in the mouths of the peasantry and of engineers, but they have not been taken up into the language of literature and of retined society by any means as fully as elsewhere. Hcnee. the dialect of books and of elegant conversation is unpicturesque, or at least unde- P'-riptivc. Italian translations of such poems as Keats's Kiiili/miun, or Crabbe's Tulct, or Mrs. Browning's I'lVpioii o/" i'oei), or Voss's f'Ji/h, or of prose pictures of rural and village life in England, .\merica, and Germany, would not be practicable without the em])loyment of a diction not yet recognized as classical. A foreigner, listening to a discus- sion between educated Italians on subjects of homely, ma- terial interest, hears generic terms where an Englishman would use specific words ; and if he has enjoyed only such opportunities as arc usually accessible to strangers in Italy, he finds it excessively difficult — as did the old Roman in the poverty of his native Latin, and as does bis Italian descendant of to-day — to learn propria cnmmmiia ilirfre, and he is constantly embarrassed for want of equivalents for expressions of thought and fact which in his own coun- try make up much of the staple of discourse in cultivated circles. The beneficent political — and, above all, moral — revolu- tions of which Italy has been the theatre during the last fivc-and-twenty years have brought new and more diversi- fied influences to bear upon her language, and have made greatly enlarged demands upon its capabilities of expres- sion. Hence, the Ihifiun romitnr is luiturally. and without any conscious, organized general effort for that purpose, undergoing changes visible even to a foreigner. To tho improvement of tho language from these causes there arc various hindrances. Resides the hostility of the clergy to all ameliorations in the fields of both mind and matter, we may mention two leading obstacles. The one is inveterate and slow to yield. The removal of the other, which is ac- cidental, is more hopeful. We refer first to the fact that the Italians are a bilingual people— a people whose spoken tongue differs essentially from the written : an evil the iuagnitu4le of which only experience or long observation can make apparent. Eminent provincial or non-Tuscan writers have often lamented the necessity of thinking in one ilialect antl giving their thoughts an outward expres- sion l)y a mental translation into another. We have space only to allude to Ibis difficulty, and to illustrate it in ]>ass- ing by comparing it to the embarrassment and constraint we all feel in using a foreign tongue, however well under- stood : and we pass to the other obstacle, which is analo- gous in character, but. as we have said, accidental, and therefore not invincible. We mean a predilection for a foreign language and a foreign literature, which interferes, to a deplorable extent, with the cultivation and improve- ment of the national speech aud the national letters, as well as with native originality and independence of thought in Italy. French is far too generally the habitual language of fashionable Italian society, even in intercourse among natives ; ami when a foreigner addresses an Italian in what, if the compliments of his teacher are sincere, is the choi- cest Tuscan, his interlocutor, pitying his ignorance of Ital- ian, will almost certainly answer him in French, which he fancies to be a universal medium. AVe arc not here ob- jecting to the disproportionate importance given in Italy to the language and literature in question because they are French, but because they are foreign, alien to the national heart, and disturbing to the movement of the national intel- lect. The causes which have given this undue predominance to French in the education and social training of the higher classes in Italy cannot here be specified; and it must be admitted that the tongue and letters of France have stronger claims on the attention of the Italians than those of any other foreign country. In our times, unhappily, not merely the closet study, but the far more distracting practical use, of foreign modes of thought and speech, is an indispensable element in comprehensive culture. Rut, though a necessary discipline, or rather instrument, it is a necessary evil. AVith rare exceptions no man can freely use more than one language as a medium of intellectual or oral discourse, aud what we gain in power over a foreign tongue is compensated by a corresponding loss in the mas- tership of our own. The mighty intellect of Greece was weakened by no dispersion of linguistic culture, for her strongest sons knew no language but (ireek; and thimgh the study of the ijcemphuiu (liRcn by the Romans may for a time have improved their taste, it did not help their La- tinity, and in the end it crushed their originality in both literature and art. In one respect, indeed. Italians, as well as ourselves and the (iermans, may derive great advantage from the study and critical analysis of the best French literary models. We refer to the surpassing excellence of French writers in rhetorical even more conspicuously than in scientific method — in the art. that is, of beginning at the beginning, going straight to the mark, and leaving off at the end. thus avoiding the wordy involution of thought and ex])ression which is the banc of Italian perhaps even more emphatically than of other coutomporaneous litera- tures. .As we have said, every province has still its popular literature, oral and recorded. Rut there is no provincial Dante, or Petrarch, or Ariosto, or Tasso, or Villani. or Varchi, or Macehiavclli, and the tongue through which the Italian states have acted on each other, and Italy on the world, is exclusively the lingua cnmiinr. or Tuscan, which alone reflects and represents the mind and voice of Italy in the European republic of letters. The provincial lite- ratures of Italy are not, like those of ancient Greece, com- jioncnt parts of a national whole. They are specialized manifestations of intellect and of speech, and therefore in general have only a provincial interest. Their peculiar characteristics cannot be noticed in a brief comprehensive view of Italian literature. AVc must confine our sketch to that which has been accepted by the Italian people and ]>rcsentcd to the world as the aulhori/.cd expression of tho mind and heart of the nation ; and the following remarks must be understood as referring only to writings in the Tuscan or lingua rommio, unless otherwise expressed. The early history of Ibis literature is obscure, for, though there were Italian bards and raiila»tnri<: or saga-men, early in Ihe Ihirteenth, and doubtless in the twelfth centurv, yet Ibeir works are known to us only as disfigured by copyists of later ages, and we can rarely speak with confidence as to their dates, their dialects, or even their original literary ITALIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 1333 furins. In mauy ca^us, 03 we have seen, they certainly I wrote in French or Provencal, and in go close conformity to French an<i I'rovengal nioilels that tliey are entitled to ' no place in Italian literary history. In other instances, pri- I vatc letters and ot her docaments written in the thirteenth cen- tury are suspected to have been first composed in Latin and ; translated at a later period; an<l in several most important ' cases it is matter of grave douht whether the reputed works ' of historical authors of the thirteenth and even the four- teenth century are not coinparativuly modern fabrications. Intofiuestionsof this delicate nature, which native tribunals alone are competent to adjudicate, wc cannot enter. We ' shall accordingly give only the commonly received accounts ' of the literature of the thirteenth century, subject to allow- , ance for all the causes of uncertainty to which wc have al- luded ; and it is only from the epoch fixed by Dante as the I date of his great poem, the assumed '* middle point " of his > life, or the year l.'IOO, that we feel ourselves to be treading on safer ground. There is no doubt that ballad or narra- , tive poetry existed in Italy in an oral and traditional form , before any of the modern dialects were reduced to writing, ! bnt the earliest Italian poems which have come down to us, even in a modernized shape, are amatory or religious. In | some cases it Is difficult to say to which of these two classes ' they belong, for it is not always clear whether the lady cele- ; brated in them was a real person or only a personification of a Christian idea. Wc know, from the testimony of Danto and from abunilant other evidence, that many of the poets usually believed to have lived in the thirteenth century did certainly flourish in that age, and wc have many of their works in copies not very much later than the time of their writers. But wc can rarely fix the preclsi; date of these production?, and we can seMom be sutfieicntly sure of the strict conformity of such copies with their originals to au- thorize us to regard them as positively genuine exempli- fications of the grammatical structure of the dialect in which they were coraposcrl, or even of the rhetorical com- binations and metrical forms employed by their authors. There arc als{) extant certain prose compositions of the same century, and in some few instances either originals or at least contemporaneous copies of these productions still exist. Even where we possess only transcripts of such writings of somewhat more recent date, we may rely upon their accuracy as copies with more confidence than in the case of poetical compositions, because, th<nigh poetic forms, once established, arc more enduring than those of prose, j'ct the diction of verse modelled almost wholly after foreign types, as were the first Italian rhymes of whieh wc have any knowledge, could not so soon have acquired a fixed and settled expression. The earliest prose, on the contrary, consisted simply in reducing to writing popular modes of vernacular speech, and there was no external influenee, no motive of taste, whieh could lead to any rapid change in the stvio of ordinary written eomniunication. Upon the whole, in the fewpoetic^al and the eoniparativcly numerous prose manuscripts of the thirteenth century yet remaining, insignifieant as they are in bulk, wc have sufficient means of pronouneing, with approximate certjiinty, upon the gen- eral grammatical and lexical character of the Tuseitn dia- h'nt in the latter half of the thirteenth century. Tlie real importance of this century in Italian literary history is not in the merit of its produetiens, or in any influence exerted by them on the intellc:rtual culture and products of the age, but in the fact that they prove the existence of the liiiffint rnmiiiif as a wrilti-n tongue at that perio<I. and fur- nish evidence also that the literary supremacy of that dia- lect was — not universally, inileed, but very generally — recognized in Italy before the beginning of the fourteenth century. Pante, indeed, in his He Vuhftri El'tqututitt^iXc. nie?, with great acerbity of tone, the identity of Tuscan with the li'nffim cnnninf or VHhjnre iffnntrc, cnrdinnle, anti- | cum, el rni-inlr; and there arc not wanting later critics who maintain that Tuscany di<l not originate, but only adopted, the fiti'/iifi rtiiiniiif, which, in some way not yet explained nor easily ctmceivablc according to the general laws of lan- guage, arose and dovelopeil itself imlepcndently of loeal influences. Dante defines the hrntin ruhjin-h, which, he nays, forms the subject of his treatise, as that whiidi is I Icarneil, without rule, by imitating the spee(!h of the nurse, and in the dedication of the I'onn/ino to Tiin Oramle della Scala he describes the diction of the iJiriun Cummrdia ns \ rrminmia rt humifia iu qiuc rt muh'erciifir vininniiynninf. This* /ticiitio rti/;f'tri» lie declares to be more ncble llnin the Imi- guagc taught in the schools, and he aflirniH Ibai it was not i used by Guittonc dWre/.zo or nrunetto I>alini,but was em- i ployed byduido Cavaloanti, I>aiio (Gianni, Tino dn Pistojn, { and "one other." meaning, no doubt, himself. What pre- j cise distinction Dante would hnvo dr:iwn bcfweon the ml. • tfttre illiiHtrf, ttntirum. ft rttrinfr and the language of Catc- rina da Siena and other illustrious writers of the thirteenth century, which is unequivocally Tuscan, it is hard to see. In fact, Dante's observations on the provincial dialects of his time are to Italian as well as to foreign scholars an enigma which has not found its OMipus; and until further research shall reveal to us in-ich more than we now know of the actual history of the language of modern Italy, wc must content ourselves with the f^:ict that what is now both the Tuscan local and the Italian common speech did substantially exist and acquire its primacy as a literary tongue before the year KiOO. Dante has been said to have been the cunning artisan who forged this new literary in- strument. But poets are the conservators, not the creators, of language. Dante, therefore, did not invent his diction. lie was neither a coiner nor a borrower of words. He took and wisely used what be found — not always, indeed, in books, but oflener in popular speech. As Giuliani and Tommaseo have well cdisrrvcd, many expressions (jf Dante's, for which even his authority couid not secure admission into the general vocabulary, are still current in the mouths of the Tuscan peasantry, where Dante found them, and the discourse of this humble class serves to explain more than one passage in the l)!rinn Coiniiicilin which is otherwise unintelligible. In point of antiquity, the first place among the Tuscan ])oets is usually ascribed to Folcacchicro dei Folcacchieri, alleged to have been born at Siena about the year 1150, and many critics have claimed the poems of CiuUo d'Alcamo, the emperor Frederick 11. and his sous, Enzo, Enrico, and Manfrcdi, I'ier dellc Vigne, Kanieri, Ruggerone, and Inghilfredi da Palermo, Guido dclle Co- lonne (author of several Italian canzoni. and more famous as the compiler of a Latin history of the Trojan war founded on the works of Dares and Diefys), .lacopu <la Lentini, and other Sicilian versifiers of the thirteenth century, as jiropcrly belonging to the literature of the h'ntjua comiiiif, though the diction of all of them is strongly marked by Sicilian pro- vincialisms. The Bolognese Guido Guinieelli (called by Nannucci *' il padre dclla Italica letteratura ") and Onepto Bolognese are also ranked with Tuscan writers, though not Tuscan by birth. (Juittone d'Arczzo, Guido Cavalcanti, Dino Frcscobaldi, Dino (.'(unpagni, arc Tuscan poets of merit. Jacoponc of Todi, in the pontifical territory, wrote much in Tuscan verse, and is supposed to be the author, or perhaps only improver, of the world-renowned Latin Church hymn. Stuhnf Mutrv d»ti>roHn, The most important Italian prose works of the thirteenth century, admitting their authenticity, which has been dis- puted, are the chronicles of Mattco Siiinello, of the province of Bar!, and of Kieonlano and Giaeotto Malispini, the first Tuscan annalists. The M»nil Treatises of Albertano da Brescia, the original of Chaucer's l\rno}n:'H Tufv. written in Latin about I2j0, were translated into Italian by Andrea da Grosseto in 120^, and less than ten years later by Sof- fredi del (Jrazia of Pistfija. The former of these trnnsla- tions, published in the f^ifleztmic rli Oprre Tncdttr in 1873, from a manust^ript of the fourteenth century, is pr<»nounccd l»y the editor to be, "in respect to antiquity, the most im- portant document of the language in literary prose." The otlicr, printed in 1S.*12. was considered by Ciampi as an authentic specimen of tne language of Tuscany as p()pu- larly spoken at its date. But it must be remembered that neither edition is taken from the origiiuil miinuscript, or even from a contemjiorary copy. The Xm-tffi'no, or C'lnto Norvllc aiitichc. is oelicvcd to belong, in a considerable proportion, to the tliirteenth century, though we have the work only in later copies. The t'aiiti ifi Aufi'fti ntntficrt is iiffirmed to exist in a manuserii»t of tiie thirteenth cen- tury. The Lihrn di f^uto, the Ft'orc di /ictt-trictt of (lui- dotto da Bologna, the letters of (tuitttme d'Arez70. trans- lations of the romance of the Ilnund Table and of Iho treatise of Egidio (%)!onna, 0>f (tnvrmnuH utn dri Prxucipif Bono Giambuni's translations of the Tmnru of Brunetto Latini and of other mediivval Latin works, and various moral treatises and legemis of saints, are ascribed to the same period. Theri' are alsn und<iubt*'d municipal statutes, records, and other ducnrncnls. :is well us smne private let- ters, dated about the niid'Ile of the century, ami of course as old ns xrhat some maintain to be the earliest finecimeu of English, the famous proclamation of Henry III. issued in I2.^S. We come now to what the Italians with just pride call the g<dden age of their literature, the uumt trcccut,,, or, in our chronological notation, the fourteenth century — -the ago of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. It was in the course of this century that elassieiil literature, though not then first known to Iljiliiins, gnidually superseded the inllueiieo of Proven^-iil jin«l French as an informing element, and fiirnishcil un ineilemenl to all. models to many, for literary effort. The Italian poetry of the fourteenth century, ex- alted OS it is in genius and in literary merit, is far from being copious in amount, while the iMnileniporauetujs propo lilernturo is voluminous, and, in point of stylo at least, of almost unsurpassed perfection, la neither form of compo- 1334 ITALIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. sition were the Latin classics of real value, except as a stimulus and a means of culture. Both in form and in substance whatever is excellent in the productions of the aureo trccnito is, in the highest degree, original and inde- pendent. Dante, indeed, ascribes to the study of Virgil " Lo bollo stile cho mi ha fatto onore ;" hut if in this ex- pression he referred to the form or diction of his poems. and not to the Latinity of his prose writings, he confounded the primiim innbilr, the first impulse, with the character and direction of the movement, which were controlled and cle- termined by far other agencies. If we removp from the D'n'hm Cnwmrfiin all that can fairly be traced to the influ- ence of the works of Virgil, we shall deprive it of none of its leading characteristics, nothing of its real inspiration. The Muses of I>ante are not to be found among the heathen Nine. His highest flights, like Milton's, were proni])ted and sustained by the spirit of Christian theology as inter- preted and understood in his time, and his passion was unhappily in fur too great a degree colored by the partiali- ties, rancors, and resentntcnts of his political and civil life. The saving moral influence in Dante's mind was his early love, and when he employs, instead of fierce invective, a tone of mihb'r deprecation, a manner '' affettuosamente bat- tagliera." it is because the spirit of Beatrice is pleading for the offender. The Latin works of Petrarch, from which he expected immortality, are deservedly forgotten, and the classic idioms and constructions which Boccaccio thought the chief ornaments of his prose style are not only its greatest defects, but have exerted a very pernicious influ- ence on the diction and manner of later Italian writers. In all incipient literatures, at least, the true bard '' singet wie der Vogcl singt." Dante's great poem, like all works of high and original genius, shaped itself as it grew, in accordance with the law of his nature, rather than in con- formity to principles of conscious art. Its real character and spirit would never be inferred from his own statement of its import in the dedication of the Pararfifto to Can Grande della Scala. He regarded it as a system of relig- ious philosophy, the motive of which, ''literally consid- ered," was *■ the state of souls after death," the " allegorical subject," "man, as, by good or evil desert in the exercise of free will, he is amenable to retributive justice in the way of reward or punisliment." In the whole text of ihe dedi- cation there is not the remotest trace of the most promi- nent features of the poem itself — the inspiring passions of life, his pure and ardent love for Beatrice, and his bitter resentment ag.ainst his political opponents, though he ilid not disguise this latter feeling in tlie address of the ej)istle. where he styles himself '• Florcntinus natione non moribus." The knowledge of Dante was vast and various for the pe- riod, and his influence on the intellect of his age. when he was constantly appealed to as the universal arbiter, the tribunal of last resort on every possible subject, can scarcely be overrated. The prose works of Dante are valuable chiefly as indirectly a commentary on the Divina C'niune- rfm, and are not otherwise of sufiicient interest or import- ance to require special notice in this jdacc, Dante has been made accessible to Kngiish«,nd American readers by Mr. Longfellow in what is undoubtedly the best existing translation of his great poem, and it is only in his works, not in critical treatises, that he can be studied advantage- ously. The canzoni <)f Petrarch are too widely known by translations and imitations, and the poems of Boccaccio by the use which Chaucer has made of them, to need to be more than mentioned in what can he little but a list of lit- erary titles. The Di'ttdinondn of Fazio degli Ulx-rti, a sort of rhyming chronicle, geography, and natural history, is interesting as a summary of the knowledge uT his times, and not altogether without literary merit. Other poets of the fourteenth century are Ccceo d'Ascoli, Francesco da Barbcrino, Cino da Pistoja, and Antonio Pueci. Tho prose literature of this century deserves a higher repu- tation than foreign scholars have generally conceded to it. Benvenuto da Imola and other early commentators on Dante have not only furnished explanations and historical illustrations of obscure passages in his works, but they have frequently shown a critical ability rare in that age. The chronicles of Giovanni Villani and his continuators, and the history of Dino Campagni, possibly a later fabri- cation, are valuable repositories of fact, and important as good specimens of the caijabilities of Tuscan for literary purposes, though as histories not on a level with the French, Icelandic, and Catalan chronicles of the thirteenth century, or with Froissart, who flourished at the close of the fourteenth. The saintly legends and romances of chivalry of this period are generally conspicuous for purity and beauty of style. Many of them are included in the CnUczione di Oprrr htfUte o finr/-, of which more than 30 octavo volumes have already apjieared. and tho Scrfta tU Cnrionit'^ L€tt*rn7-if. in Ubno. now extending to 140 vol- umes. Two works of this century, not embraced in these collections, deserve special mention — tho novels of Sacchetti, which are believed to contain very faithful pictures of the manners of the age, and tho letters of St. Catharino of Siena, of which the manner and style would of themselves justify the epithet that Ttulian critics so often attach to that age. In jjoint r)f style, tlie L'tirrs of Catharine of Plena are not surpassed, if equalled, by any other European prose compositions of the fourteenth century. The writer owed nothing directly to classic culture, for it is doubtful whether her '• small Latin " sufliccd even for rca<ling the Vulgate, with which she shows great familiarity, but which she is supposed to have known only through the quotations of preaching friars or oral translations by other ecclesiastics. It is remarkable that in an age when the I>iviiin Cnmmedia was a theme of public exposition, atid even of juilpit dis- cussion, the works of St. Catharine neither mention Danto nor quote his poem. Perhaps she found his sombre tone and severe invective too repulsive for her kimlly temper; and Tommaseo is hardly extravagant in saying that though there are resemblances of thought and diction in their works, *'the likeness is that of a fair and gentle woman to a proudly austere and snllen man, whose brow is wrinkled by wrath, not hy years." The writings of St. Catharine are of great importance, as incontestably proving that in her day the liurjua eomune existed in its most perfect form as tho common vernacular of Tuscany, for she probably knew, and certainly thought, in no other tongue. M'erc other testimony in support of our proposition wanting, confirmatory evidence might be found in the Fioiettt di Sun Fi'ftncpHcn, which comjietent judges believe to be the truest possible expression of the simple beauty of the Tus- can familiar speech of the period we are considering. The increasing cultivation of classical literature in the fifteenth century produced much the same eflect as in England a hundred years later. It absorbed the intellectual activity of the age, and left comparatively little time or taste for original production. In Italy the study of (Jreck and Latin was general among the better classes, in all ranks and both sexes, to a degree not paralleled even by the learning of modern Germany. "Women who were educated at all were taught Greek and Latin, and Italian ladies filled pro- fessorships in both native and foreign universities. To Italy belongs the honor of having first acknowledged — what she has since too often forgotten — the intellectual equality, and therefore the equality in rights as well as in duties, of the sexes. She thus anticipated by four cen- turies the revelation of a truth which has suddenly dawned again upon the civilization of this generation as a princi- ple, the general acceptance of which constitutes the most beneficent moral revolution that humanity has seen since the promulgation of the Christian religion. In this century Italy ae(|uired an intellectual — unhappily not a moral — cul- tuie anil refinement which gave her an immense, a wiile- sprcad, and a long-enduring influence over the mind t>f the rest of Europe. Traces of this influence are abundantly visible in tho literature and history of every European state, but it was scarcely fully appreciated or clearly ex- pounded before the publication of Burckhardt's remarkable Cu/tiir der lirnntHdaurr, which we earnestly recommend to the reader. Still, this century produced great Italian writers in both poetry and prose, as well as great geniuses in politics and art. The most conspicuous poetical works of the age were the Mtinfnnte Muf/f/iore of Luigi Pulci, the Or- laudo Innamoratn of Bojardo, Ihe Fanda d'Or/ro, a drama, and other small works of Poliziano. lyrical compositions by Gasparo Visconti, Aceolti, and others. In prose are tlio chronicles of Collcnnuceio Corio and numerous other val- uable sources of historical information, many of which, like tho writings of Sabellico and Pius If. (.Eneas Silvius IMccolominil, are in Latin; others exist only in manuscript or in the voluminous collections of Muratori an<l other vast repositories of meditcval lore. To tho fifteenth century, too. belong the works of Leon Battista Alberti on architec- ture, sculpture, and jiainting. and most of the writings of Leonardo da A'inci. Many of these latter unfortunately remain unpublished, but. not less than his material works, they are unequivocally productions of a genius which in universality, versatility, and power has had no superior among men. In this age, too, lived two of the granrlcst characters and sublimest geniuses in the rcconls of human history — Columbus and Savonarola — both Italians and both martyrs. The intellect of neither is adequately represented by his literary productions, hut, though Ihe life of Colum- bus remains to be written, Savonarola has found a worthy biographer in Villari, whose life of tins remarkable man is one of the noi)lest historical works of our time. From about the middle of the thirteenth century to tho overthrow of the lil>crties of Florence in 15.10 by tho un- liolv league between the emperor Charles V. and Popo Clement VII.. Florence was the city of the world most con- spicuous for intellectual and physical achievement. Let- ITALIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATlRi:. 133.5 tor?, art, industrr, and commerco altbo were pursued with a genius in conception, a feverish euergy in execution, and a splendor ol' result probably unexampled in ancient or in modern limes. In particular branches of art and litera- ture she may have been excelled by .Vlhens and by Kome, but in the combined exercise of the highest faculties, men- tal and material, in every field of human cflTort. no three centuries of .\thenian or of Kotnan annuls can be paral- leled with those of Klorcn'-'e during the period we liave mentioneil. Most of the great names we have hitherto cited arc those of Tuscans, hut the political and the intel- lectual ascendency of Florence fell together, and with some brilliant exceptions her genius was clouded, if not quenched, by the final extinction of her liberties. In narrative and in lyric poetry the most celebrated Italian writers of the sixteenth century arc Trissino, Luigi Alamanni, Ariosto (whose ftf/ntidn Fitrioiin excels all other romantic poems), Tasso (whi>8e (rt^ntiifitcmme Lificrtita, of nU mo<lern poetical ' compositions, comes nearest to the idea of the classic epic), j B2rni (the rcversiflcr of Bojardo's Orlnmlo Jnn-uiinralo, and who gave his name to a peculiar class of light satirical verse), Fireniuola, Uucccllai, Tansillo. Davanzati. Pietro Aretino, licnibo. Annibale Caro. Michelangelo liuonarroti, VittoriaColonna.and Folengo. the writer of macaronic verse. It was in the sixteenth century that the drama first acquired a status in Italian literature. Many plays were written in I^atin, many of a popular character were sketched in out- line and more or less filled up by improvisation by the ac- tors — an art in which the Italians still show great talent. These, of course, are lost to us, and few if any of the more elaborate dramas of that period still hold their place on the stage. The principal comedies are those of Ariosto, Dovizio da Bibbicna. Macchiavelli, P. Aretino, Grazzini Firenzuola, Cecchi, .Salviati, ami Francesco d'Ambra. \ic- colo r'orreggio Visconli produced a pastoral drama, and the Panlfir Fill') of (iuarini still has a high reputation. The foundation of the musical drama was laid in this cen- tury by i;milii> did t^avalieri, and Rinuecini is regarded as the first author of a regular opera. liecehi is said to have produced the earliest opera bulfa. Tragedies were produced by Del Carretto, Trissino, Uucccllai, Andrea dell Anguil- lara. and Pietro .-Vretino. Numerous novels and romances appeared in this age. The collection of Bandello is well known. Firenzuola, Paraboseo, lliraldi, Orazzini, Mac- chiavelli, and Do Porta distinguished llieni.sclves in ficti- tious narrative. The didactic dialogue of Baldassare Cas- tiglione, // C'lrtir/iaiin, was translated into most European languages before the year ICOn, and is still not forgotten. The political and historical literature of this ago is vo- luminous and highly celebrateil. Macchiavclli's fame is universal. Parnta, tluicciardini, Varchi, .Segni, Caval- canti, Bonfadio, Foglietii, and Pietro Bembo acquired great distinction. Vasari's Livm nf Ihe Ailiiln, though often Erroneous, and the works of Borghini and Cellini, are in- dispensable sources of information respecting the history of Italian art. In philosophy the greatest names are Cai-- dano, and especially Oiordano Bruno, both of whom, how- ever, wrolo in Latiu. The ni'ist eminent Italian poets of the seventeenth cen- tury are lioccalini. .Marini, Francesco Redi, (irnziani, Chi- abrcra (whoso odes are specimens of great elevation of thought and iliction), Forteguerri, Tassoni (the author of the mock hemic). La .Scochia Rapita, Bracciolini. Lorenzo I.ippi, and Filieaja (who is best remembered by his patri- otic sonnets). But this century is chiefly remarkable for ifs successful cultivutiiin of [ibysieal science. The great names are those of tjalileo (who was compelled bv an ec- clesiastical tribunal to retract his astronomical theories, if not by actual torture, at least, indubitably, by the threat of torture), Torricelli, Borelli, I'assini, Viviani, Castelli, Riccioli, and lirimaldi. I'ampanella, who wrote chiefly in Latin, was distinguished as a philosopher. The nio.it im- portant historical works of this century aro Paolo ."^arpi's I(:-i.,r;i ni'ihr I'l.Hnril „/ Ti:,ii and Palfavicini's refutation I of that history, and the historical writings of the .lesuit Bart'di. Tlu: Civil Wiim in h'riinrr- of Davila and Benti- , voglio's ir<rr» m f'lanilrrii had a considerable reputation, but have been superseded by the researches of later inqui- i rers. Nanui wrote a Jlinlori/ o/ Venice, and Capecolatro of Naples. Afier the recovery of the Thurch from the first stunning effects of the Keformation. followed the t'utholic reaction of the latter half of the sixteenth century, and the inllu- enco of Kome has ever since been steadily hostile to all progress, intellectual, moral, and material. This is plainly seen in the lulht-lcllrrit literature of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, though in other fields of intellectual effort there was in the eighteenth century a revived activity, which at least partially restorer! to Italy her old position as a power in ICiiropean letters. In poetry and the drama the most eminent writers were t_Jozzi, Pnrini. (}ohloni, I Maffei, Casti, Mctastasio, and Alfleri. The founder of the modern science of historical criticism, (iiambattista Vico. ! the ])hilo.sophical jurists, Filangieri and Beccaria, and the j |)hysicists and naturalists, Volta, (Jalvani, Scarpa, and Spallanzani, have acquired and deserved the greatest eele- 1 brity. The historical writings of Dcnina and Tiraboschi should also be mentioned. As a means of general culture the Italian literature of the present century has not. for .Americans and Englishmen, the iuiporlance"which special circumstances have given to the contemporaneous produc- I tions of (Jerman and French intellect, but its deserts are greater than its European reputation. The Italians do not do themselves justice in this as well as in many other respects ; and if they have not received justice at foreign hands, it is partly because they have been too modest in claiming it. Another reason why Italian literature is little knownand appreciated abroad is that, contrary to the general belief, the literary language, from its great wealth of vocabulary and combination in some fields, its poverty in others, is extremely difficult for foreigners. Manzoni, as we have seen, found it so even for a native. Few strangers ever acquire more than the merest smattering of Italian, or learn enough of it to know how ignorant they remain of its real character and capabilities. Our narrow limits of space permit us to give but a few names in the literature of this century, and in selecting these we must be guiiled not by the actual merit of the writers, or even by their popularity in Italy, but solely by our view of the interest they may probably possess for those into whose hands this article may fall. Since the year 1800 the Italian press has been fertile in products of perhaps higher average merit than the works of preceding centuries, though in Italy, as elsewhere, comparatively few have risen to such a dcciiled superiority over their contcmjioraries as to warrant us in predicting for them a lasting place in literary history. With few exceptions, the writers best known abroad have owed their foreign reputation as well as their domestic popularity to the political tendency of their writings, and to the courage they have shown in the avowal of truths unpalatable to their rulers, not less than to the genius by which many of their productions have been distinguished. It is too soon to separate the inherent from the accidental elements of their success, and to assign to them their rela- tive rank as exponents of the national mind and as influ- ential causes in the develojiment of the national conscious- ness, and consequently as agencies in effecting the aston- ishing revolutions through which Italy passed in the half century between the years 1820 and 1870. Still, there aro unequivocally great names — names which It.ily and the world will not •■ willingly let die " — in the Italian literature of the nineteenth century; and there is abundant room for the hope of continued and oven greater literary achieve- ment by the generation which is now coming upon the stan'o of life and of lalx.r. The Italian writers of this century, in poetry and the drama, best known abroad are Monti (the author of the llantrllllniin), Pindcmonte, Ugo F'oscolo (/ Sepolcri), Silvio Pellico ( FranreMca da /{liiiiiii), Niccolini (Fillppo Slrozzi and Arntttfio du Urrsrltt), Leopardi (Cuuti, poems of true genius). Manzoni ( '^miledi Ctinnai/nota, Adel- rlii, Iiiui Sncrl, and the famous lyric fl cinr/ue Miii/ijio), Berchet (lyrics), Grossi (/ l.nmhardl nlln prliii'i Cmcl'iila), Tigri (io .SV/ie), Spolverini (La Itiiritle). Ariel (An /',(«fo- iij:iVi),<!iu8ti, the genial satirist. Ofniore purely national rep- utation, though not always by any means of inferior merit, are the iioems of Rieci, Sestini, Bagnoli, Mameli, Aleardi, Prati, Mamiani, Montanclli, t'osenza. ]Mesdaines Savio- Hossi, roloiiibiiii. and Fu:\-Fusinato, and the imprnvvlKntori Hegaldi and .Miss Giannina Milli. Acting plays have been very numerous, but they have met a discouraging compe- tition in translations from the modern French drama. Nota's comedies, though of little power, continue to bo represented occasionally. Ferrari and Ghcrardi dclla Testa have met with merited success, and at tlio present day the plays of I>c Kcnzis are deservedly very iiopular, and give promise of much future excellence, lipon the whole, the Italian prose literature of this century is enti- tled to rank relatively higher than its poetry or its stage plays. Foremost in narrative fiction stands the Pmmrati Spitni of .Manzoni. Kipsini ( Lit Munnen di Mnmn), Gross! {Mam, Vitcnil), Azeglio {Ellarr Fieramniica and XicrnIA dri l.api). (iiierrnzzi (.l«»'(/o) di Flniizr), are successful authors of historical novels of the same school, all which, as well as Ilolta's .S'Mn'n drila liiirna dill' /iidrpeiidrnza de,/ll Slaii I'liiii, and •SVoiiVi d' Italia; the historical works of Cesare Bnlbo ; CoUelta's Sinria del lirami- di Xapidi ; Fariui's I.n Slain Human,, dal ISl.lal IS.W ; Broffirio's Sl„rla del l'i,,nnnlr; Giobcrli's I'riinal,, ,1 Italia, Del Itln- n„ramrnt„ I'irilr d' Italia, ami other works; Alnari's / Vrupri .SVciViaui',- Oicognari's St„iia drlla S'inllnra, and the archicological works of Micali, Inghirami, Canina, and Fabretti— are well known abroad. The Italian prose work I'Sdij ITALY. of this century which has had the widest circulation in Europe is te Mir. Pn'^/ioni of Silvio Pellico, and we l>e- lievc that in moclern times no single volume has produced a more prot'unnd impression in Europu or occasioned more important ninral and political rt'sults than this. It secured for Italy tin- sympathies of the civilized world ; and, thuugh vears of misgovernment were still to be endured, tlmugh the concurreneo of many other causes was necessary to effect the linal liberation of the I'eniusula from foreign sway, yet it was the PrinotiH of Pellico which gave to Aus- trian domination the mortal blow. In polities and pdlitical economy Minghctti's (ifmitvidi Lcttcrari, especially his re- markable Lrtterson RiliyioHH Ltbcrti/. To this period also belong the works of Giordani, criticism and correspond- ence; Biitta, history of Italy and of the American Uevolu- lutioa ; Micali, ancient history of Italy; Laura Mancini and Madame Fcrrucci, in jioetry ; Mamiani, in pliiioso])hy ; Pietro Thouat, education and talcs; Litta, family history; Balbo, history and political economy ; Aleardo Aleardi, poetry; Montanelli, memoirs; Emiliano Giudici, literary history ; Ranalli. lesthetics and criticism ; Vanniicci, his- tory ; Bianciardi. Lozzi. Bon Compagni, political literature; Ausonio Franehi, Spaventa, Scialoja, in philosophy; De Sanctis, Settembrini.Pitre, Comparetti,Salvatico.l>e Guber- natis, in criticism; Boccardo, Maestri, Errera, political economy: Temistocle, Gradi, tales. The works of Roma- gnosi and of Gioja, all of which appeared before the great revolution of 1869-00, are entitled to special notice. This auspicious event released the Italian intellect and the Italian press, except in the jiontifical states, from shackles which had fettered them for many centuries, and there is now great activity in every department of literature. The most fertile and voluminous, as well as popular, historical writer of the present era is Cesare Cantil. Ricotti, La Lumia, Amari {Storia dei MusuIukiiii in Stcilia), Giudici, Azeglio (liicordi e Com'spondeitza), A'annueci (I Martiri (f'ff'i Liberta), Buu Compagni iChif:Ha e Stato), Bianciardi {Stort'a dci hi pi and Prior Liicn), Zini {Storia d'Jtnlia), Cibrario {Storia defla Schiavitit). Zamboni {(Jli Ezzclini e tffi Schiavi), Poraponio Leto (a fictitious name, Tl Concilio Vaficano), uTo writers of interest and importance. We must here notice the Spafjna of Do Amicio. a volume of travels remarkable for a degree of descriptive talent and easy liveliness of style rare in Italian prose. In political economy the works of Cattaneo. De Rossi (in French), Minghetti ( Economia I\ditica ), Cibrario ( Economic Politica d'l Medio Era), Celestino Bianchi {Storin Dipiumatica d' Italia), Boccardo, Lozzi ( Ozio in flafia), Sclopis ( lIiHtory of Italian Lcijialation), Brofferio (Storia dtl /'arliuiucuto Subalpitta)^ and Mazzini are conspicuous. In physical, mathematical, and natural science, Malloui, Phma, Mat- teucci, Secchi. Sehiaparelli, Donati, Menabrea, Sella. Boc- cardo, Lioy, Parlatore. Dclpino, Sto]>i)ani, Gastaldi. Cap- pellini, Negri, are distinguished names, though their labors do not belong wholly to the present generation. In theo- retical as well as practical engineering, and especially in hydrology, the Italians have long been very eminent, and Europe lias had no abler writers in this department than Mangotti, Paleocapa, ami Lombardini. In prose fiction Suner, Bcrsezio, Barrili, and Caterini Percoto are distin- guished. Linguistic science, new everywhere, and emphat- ically so in Italy, is ably represented by Peyron. Gorresio, Orcurti, Fabretti Amari. De Gubernatis, Arcoli. Flecchia, Teza, Lignani, Caix. Intellectual and moral philosophy has found an able cultivator in Mamiani. Many of the ablest Italian writers of the present day — wo will mention Bonghi and Messednglia as conspicuous examples — are known chiefly through es-says in periodicals, occasional academical discourses, and parliamentary re- ports. The periodical literature of Italy has long been very highly respectable, and the Autolofjia, established by Vieusseux, rose even to the rank of a political power, or at least influence, in Italy. The publication has been re- fiumed, and it is ably supportetl. The Ptditecnico, long under the direction of Cattaneo, has always been a very important scientific periodical. The Hivistn Europra is also excellent. A vast amount of most important Italian literary and historical material is accessible only in large miscellaneous collections, such as the Arrhtrio Storico, (he Prlatioiia of the Venetiim A mhanffadom, a.nd others to which wo have already alluded. An encyclopa'dic work, histor- ical, descriptive, and typognvphical, is now publishing under the title L' fta/ia, urnl will extend to twenty or more large octavos. But no thtirough knowledge of Italy, an- cient, or modern, can be attained without a constant re- sort to the labors of foreign scholars. The principal Eng- lish contributions to our knowledge of It.aly are by Roscoe, Napier, Rawdon Browne, and TroUnpo. The German works of Nichuhr, Mnmnisen, Ihne. and, for the Middle Ages especially, Burckhardt and Gregorovius [Gcnchichte drr Stadt Pom), are indispensable. Recent works useful to foreigners are the literary histories of De Sanctis and Sct- tembrini. Marc Mounier (L'italiti e»t cKc la Terre dea Mortn), and Ame<lee Rtiux. For Sicilian literature the writings and collections (jf Pitre and Di Giovanni arc in- dispensable. There is thus far no grammar or dictionary of the Italian language which at all satisfies the require- ments of modern jibilological science. Many dictionaries are now in course of publication, among which wo notice a series of special vocabularies in preparation under gov- ernment patronage. That of Canevazzi, embracing the nomenclature of agriculture and the subsidiary knowledges, is published as far as the letter C, and is truly excellent. The amount of controver!^ial discussion on the Italian lan- guage, and especially on the relations of the Tuscan dia- 1 lect to the present and prospective liiirpia comum- of Italy, I is very great. We have space to notice only the labors of ! Tommaseo, Gif»rdani, (iradi, Fanfani. tiiuliani {Liiiffnnytfio Vivcnte delta Tovraua), and especially Manzoni and Bon- I ghi. A work by the latter (Pcrc/iti la Lcttcrattira Italiana ' nofi sia popolare in Italia) is particularly instructive. I Georgc P. Marsh. I It'aly^ the central of the three great peninsulas of Southern Europe, lies between 3o° 30' and 47° 0' N, lat. ! and between fi° uS' and 1S° 32' E. Ion., projecting into the 1 Mediterranean, between the Tyrrhene and Adriatic seas, from N. W. to S. E., and united to the continent by the basin of the Po, lying between the northern extremities of ; these two seas an<l the vast semicircle of the Alps. Its ffcoffraphicftf boundaries, which do not always coincide ' with its political limits, arc — on the N., the Central Alps, i which divide it from the Swiss cantons of Valais, II ri, and I the Grisons, as well as from the Austrian Tyrol; on the I E., first, the Oriental Alps, which separate it from the Aus- trian provinces of Carinthia, Carni(»b, and Croatia, then j the river Arsa in Istria. the Gulf of Quarnero, and finally I the Adriatic Sea; on the S.. the Ionian Sea; on the ^V.. the i T^'rrhene and Ligurian seas, tlie Var, and the Western j Alps, the latter of which, together with the lower course of the Var, separate it from France. PoUticallif, the west- ern boundary is not the Var, but the Roja. The northern, the precise outline of which should be indicated by the crest of the Alps, falls much lower on their southern slope I at the point where the canton Ticino and a j)art of the Gri- I sons (Swiss) form the frontier for a distance of about 296 I miles, and the Tyrol and the Trentino (.Austrian) for 250 : miles; to the E. a line of 310 miles separates Italy from I Goritz, Trieste, and Istria, which also belong to Austria. Geographical Italy is divided into three great sections: (1) I Northern Italy, which includes all the strictly continental j portion — that is, Venice. Lombardy, Piedmont, and Ligu- ria, with no islands except the small ^'ene^ian group in the ' Adriatic; (2) Central Italy, including about one-half the I Peninsula ])roperly so called, with the ancient Etruscan. Ura- brian, and Latin territories, with the island of Corsica (po- i litically French), and with the Tuscan and Circean archipel- t agoes (Elba, Caprarn, (lorgona, Giglio. Ponza,\*entotena); (.3) Southern Italy, or the remaining portion of the Penin- sula, ineludiiig the Samnite, ApuHan, anci Calabrian dis- tricts, the large islands of Sardinia anfl Sicily, and the smaller, which compose (he Parthcnopean and Eolian areh- ijiclagocs in the Tyrrhene (Ischia, Procida, Cajiri, Ijipari, Vulcano, Stromboli, etc.), the Calipsean .Archipelago in the African Sea (Malta, Gozo. etc.), and the Diomedean Archi- pelago in the .Adriatic. The length of the Peninsula is 8^1 miles; its mean breadth Lis miles. The total superficies of geographical Italy is 129,570, that of political Italy, about 111,300 square miles. The extreme ])oints of the Peninsula, in the direction of its greatest length from N. W. to S. E., are — Mont Blanc in the Pennine Alps, and Cape Spartivento in Calabria; in the properly continental part, from W. to E., the Cottian and the Julian Alps; and. fol- lowing the curve of the Alpine chain. Monte dello Schiavo on the Mediterr.anean, and the Biltoray on the Adriatic; and. finally, in the peninsular porli<m. the greatest breadth is between Monte Argentaro on the Tyrrhene and the prom- ontory of Ancona upon the Adriatic. Internal Dirittions, their Area and Population. — The tcT- ritoTiea yeoi/ruphicalti/ Italian are — Surracc io itquaro miles. Population. The kincdom of Italy 114.200.85 26,h01,l.')4 Trieste, Istria, Goritz 3.29t. 541,758 Cisalpine Tvrol G,007. 518,059 Cisalpine Switzerland l,.ir)2. 131,256 Nice 1.0fi5. m.3fi2 Corsica 3,377. 259.861 Malta 144. 136.3-19 Monaco 8.88 7,0S0 San Marino 24.59^ 7, OS0 Total 129,570.32 28,525,496 I The kingdom of Italy is divided into 69 provinces, sub- ; divided into 111" circuits {ctreondari), and 97 districts (in j Venetia), which together comprehend S35i2 commwuM or ITALY. 1337 toWDsbips^ distributed over tho following natural^ otbno- grapbioa), aud bisturiual sections: (1) In Nortbeni Italy — Lumbardy, betu-eeu tbo Ticiuu, (ho Miuciu, the Po, and tho Alps; \'fiiotiii, lying K. of Lomburdy, between the Miucio and the Adriatic, thu Alps, and the Po; Piedmunt.on tho W., between iho Ticino, the Alps, and the Apennines; Liguria, between tho Ajiennincs and (he sen ; Emilia no'l Ilotiiagua, on iho ri. of the Po, between Picdmimt on the W., the Ad- riatic on the K. and the Apennines on tho S. (2) in Central Italy — Tuscany, between Iho Apennines nnd tho Tyrrhene Sea; Latiuin, 1^. of Tnscuny, in tho middle and lower basin of the Tiber; Uinbria nnd tho Marches, tho fir.-^t in tho upper basin of tho Tiber, tho second between tho Ajiennines and tho Adriatic, {'.i) In Southern Italy, tho ex- Neapolitan states, which comprise all tho region tS. of tho Tronto on tho eastern coast, and S. of Terracina on the western. The Oy provinces are grouped into 10 compartments, of which tho following tablo shows tho population (according to the two latest censuse?) and the aupcrlicics : Compart in?iil9. ■.-.s Piedmont 1487 Liguria 317 Lombanly .19d5) Venetia "95 Erailia I •'2^ LTmbria ' 173' Marches i 240 Tuscany i 2781 Latium 227 Abruzzi and Mo-, lise ; 456 Campania 614 Apulia I 23G Basilicata 124 Calabria ! 410 Sicily 350 SanUnla 368 Superflelpa Sfl la 75 • aq. mites. f' S^ Il,300.(i4 2.16 2,053.07 110 9,U8:i.70 :wu 9.IB9.34 291 7,920..S7 2G6 3,819.17 140 3,746..'".9 24.5 9,28G.83 22S 4,601.20 IGO G,G75.71 6,941.30 8,539.78 4,121.99 6,GG2.97 11,290.05 9,393.46 192 399 167 123 181 217 67 Kingiiomof Italy |8382 25,023,810 25,801,154 7.10 114,304.59 234 The following is a tabic of tho population according to the la?<t two censuses (IS(n-71), of the superficies, and of the number of inhabitants to the PijU-ire mile in the single provinces, with the number of townships comprised in each, and with the proportionate increase of the populatioa ID ten 3'car9 : Province* nnd co partmvou. r.i PopulatloD. iwi. vm. Alexandria 344 Cuneo I 263 jNovara i 438; Turin [jl42| Piedmont... 645,607 597,279 579,385 _ 941,992 1187 i7li4,2ti3 2i899,.'>G4 683,.3G1 618,232 624,98.". 972,986 So-; .■5.85 3.51 7.87 3.29 4.89 Genoa \ 210 Port Maiirizio 107 Liguria I 317 Bcrxarao ' 306 Brescia ' 28.'5l Oirao 518 Ocmona | 1351 Mantua 67| Milan 313| Pavia I 20;! i 7Sl 650,143 121,330 71G,7.VJ 10.25 127.053 4.72 771,473' 813,812' 9.38 347,23") 1 434,219' 4.i7,434' 28.5,148, 202,819 ■■t(iii,\r,2 4.TG.023 477,642 300,.'i95 2S8,942 948.320 1,009,794 Sondrlo Lombardy ,.. ndluno Padua Rovlt^o Trevlso Udinc Venice Verona VlcpnKa Venetia Roloitna Ferrara Forll Mrwlena Parma Piact-nra Ravenna Reggio-Kmilia. Umilia Perugia Ancona Ascoli-Pleeno. Mneerata Pesaro and Urbino Marches, 419,783 100,040 448,4;«; 111,2411 6,02 5.02 4.42 5.41 9.94 6.48 0.82 4.90 ■si H 1,951.70 2,7.55.07 2,520.33 4,0«7.,52 ll;i00..52 467.08 "2.0S,5ji6 l,087..5'3 1,043.85 1,0.50.12 031.16 950.93 1,125..5S 1,292.74 1,261,02 11965 3,201,000 3,10(1,824 0.13 9,043.53 107,229 .304,702 180,047 30H,48.) 440,.542| 294,4.501 310,493 327,074 17.5,282 3>V4,4:iO 200,835 3.52,538 481,5801 ;U7,.5:i8] 307,437 303,101 ' 4.82 19„58 11.18 11.28 9.32 14.63 10.10 in.".'. 1,270.95 754.00 G50.23 941.15 2,515.:)3 848.G6 1,060.60 1. '110.36 795 2,:H0,280l 2,042,807 ProviDoea Bod com- I'^irlmuiiU. Arc^^o Florcncu (Irosscto Leghorn Lucca Massa-Carrara Pisa Siena .33 350 222 247 237 250 451 271 329 277 455 183 112 890 340 88 Jm 137 482 308 .374 I 191 :«;8 I 346 ;k7 Tuscany.... Latium Aquila Campobasso.. Chieti Teramu Population. £3 219,959 690,214 loo.cii; 110,sii 236.101 140,733! 243,028 193,933 278 1,907,067 227 T27 134 121 74 7.50,413 ~:i09,451 346,007 327,31i; 230,001 AbruizlAMolisci J56, 1,212,833 Avelino Beneveuto Cascrta Naples Salerno Campania Bar! Koggia Lecce Apulia Potcnza Catauzaro Cosenza Eeggio, Calabria.. Calabria Caltaulsetta Catania Girgcnti Messina Palermo Syracuse Trapani rasiliari Sassari Sardinia.. 28 335,021 73| 220,500 053,404 807,983 159 528,250 61412^23^0 .53 ",5.54,402 531 312.885 130 447,982 234,045! 70G,S24 107,437 118,.-i.51 280,399 101,914 205,9.59 206,4461 2,142,-525 830,704 .332,784 304,208 339,9.86 243,004 ^9 a 6,87 10,11 0.79 1.75 9.46 15.07 9.44 6.45 ~8.92" 12 1,277.60 183 2,307.50 .323 1,080.78 005 108..56'1085 576.52 G87.22 1,179.95 1,465.04 9,349.23, J29 11.50 r'4,601.10 lie 7.54 5.26 3.87 6.93 2,609.05 132 1,777.56 203 1,114.80 305 1,283.08 192 1,2K2,!ISL' 3.78 I 0,685,69 1 192 373,091 232,008 097.403 907,752 541,738 2,7.54,592 0(M..546 322,738 493,394 230 1 1,313,269 1,420.892 492,939 ~384,1,59 431,922 324,546 1,140,627 223,17S, 4.50,400 2C3,8S0: 394,701 584,929! •2.59,013, 214,981 1 510,543 '4l2;226 440,488 363,008 1,200,302 ^230,060 493,413 2S9,018 420,019 017.07S 294,S,<3 230,388 3.01 1,408.7 6.72 4.38 2.,55 9.04 3.16 10.18 7.31 1.98 8.93 5.7 6 ^3.09" 9.9S 9..53 0..5G 5.00 13..59 9.90 360, 2,391 ,802 1 2,384,099: 8,04 2.58! 372,097 1 393,2081 5.67 5,2.56.90 110! 215,9371 24.3,452 12.73 4.141..55 368 1 588,004 ' ~636,660 ' ~8.26 ' '9,398.46 200 092.22 343 2,206.80' 310 4(11.41 22G1 2,130.84 2.54 6,840.1 0' ~4()2 2,292.24 203 2.9.53.04 1(19 3,293.33 149 8,538.62 J.1^21.89 T,306r98 2,840.93 1,514.95 "6;062.8(! 1,4,55.13 1,58 1,909.93 231 1,491.01' 193 1.707.931 238 1.904.071 814 1,427.15 1,214.48 11,290 .04 581 10 1 45 so! 481 21 ' r. 407,4521 199,158 224,403 200,.591 2.56,029 218,.569 2(K).51>i' 439,2:;: 2l3.:w.'.i 2;ii,o'.io, 273,231 26i,;isi| 225,773! 221.115 H.ll 4. 29 4.80 3,27 3..10 l,!M0.33| 719,06 905.82 1,2.50,00' 905.80 712'.: .;l2i 292 .03I 315 213 325 282 211 234 297 ',».,;:: : . 1.907 -tl 2.095 ■cyifli 7.7:16 Ji:t,(i72 2.964 91,5,366 9.703 :i.71'* ir N7 7:^*..4i, ;w« SI0.2-. 2.*iO i,n.w.rtil 223 1,114.241 IfK) YJliM I "246 Physical GEOORAPnv. — A. Seas and Conatn of Italy. — That part of the Mediterranean which washes Italy and her islands is divided into five principal arms: (IJ The Tyrrhene or Lower Sea. embraced between the Peninsula and tho islands of Corsica. Sardinia, and Sieily. This is the greatest expanse of Italian seji, and may nitnosf bo regarded as a vast lake nearly everywhere surrounded by Italian soil; (2) The Ailrintic or Upper Sea, Itetween Italy and tho territory of the Slaves (lllyria, ]>almatia, Al- bania); ('i) The lonijin Sen, between Italy, Sicily, and (ireoce: (t) The African or Libyan Sea, between Sardinia, Sicily, and Africa : (.")) The Ligurian Sea. between Liguria, Corsica, Sardinia, France, and Spain. The greatest depth of the wefitern basin of the Mediterranean is 10,600 feet, between Sicily and Africa. The eastern basin is of much greater depth; according to Capt. Spratt. la.O'.t^ feet be- tween I^falta and Crete. The bottom of the Adriatic is a great plain sloping downward from Italy towards tho Illyrian, Ibilmntian, an<l Islrian coasts, but the degree of inclination vnrirs greatly, being very slight, almost insen- sible, near the outlet of the Po, becoming gradtmlly more rapifl towards tho S. The great Mediterranean current, which carries the waters of the Atlantic from W. to K., creates two minor currents properly Italian : one enters tho Adriatic, follows along tl-e coasts of Ibilniatia and Istria as far as Trieste, then d«inbling it sweeps along the Italian coast from Venice to .Apulia, and so returns into the great basin from whence it set out: tho other, entering through the Straits c»r .Mes.-^ina. Mows into the Tyrrhene Sea, washes the western shore of the Peninsula till it reaches the \.\- gtirian (lulf, then turns towards Provence ami Spain in a direction opposite to that of the great current of immission from tho A I Ian tic Itt the Mediterranean. Besides tluse two principal currents, other secondary ones exist in the Italian yvwn: that which, fbiwinr;^ from N. to S., touelMs Iho we!<Iern eojints of the same islands, and finally en* counters that before mentioned in the Strait of Honifacio, which for this reason is dangerous to navigation: that which arises from the ehanRe of direction undergone in the African Sea by the general current, wliicli ,-lionId lend eastward, but, first bndien by the Kj^ades, then divided by the western angle of Sicily, separates into two arms, tho one directing itself into the channel of Malta ; the other, coastini; alon;; the prunmntory ot Pncbino and the western 1338 ITALY. shore of Sicily, finally unites with the so-calleil Ionian cur- rent, which enters iato the Channel of Faro : the other arm of the Sicilian current diverges from the northern line of the island, barely touching its many gulfs, then l)ondiug toward the K.. strikes the Eolian l-shmd^. to lose itself iu the Tyrrhene shore-current. With regard to the velocity of the Italian currents tlicro arc as yet no very positive data. Mnutanari calculates it at O.IG of a foot per second. Cialdi estimates it at a mean of half a mile per hour. Minard says that the great Mediterranean current on the coast of Algeria was found to have a velocity of 0.9;'* foot per second, and in some places even of 1.0-1 feet per second, but that it diminishes in swiftness during its vast course, and that on the coast of Franco it is not more than 0.25 foot per second. Marmocchi gives to the proper Italian cur- rents only a velocity from 4 to G miles in twenty-four hours; but ho observes that in the channels and around the capes it is much greater. In the Ligurian Sea, accord- ing to my observations, it is never found to exceed from 1.00 to 2 inches per second; but all the ])orts on the Tyr- rhene coast whicli open towards the E. have a tendency to shoal up. The number of degrees of longitude included in the Mediterranean is too small to allow this sea to have great tides. They are more sensible in the Straits of Mes- sina ( where the flow rises to 2G.10 inches), in the Neapolitan waters (from G to S inches), and in the Venetian gulf (o. 40 feet). The water of the Mediterranean is reputed to be more salt than that of the .Atlantic : the observations of Borrillon la Grange give it double the quantity of saline matter. But near the shore the saltness is, in many places, diminished either by the action of rivers and torrents, or by that of fountainsor springs of fresh water which are thrown up from the bed of the sea by natural siphons; and upon the whole it is impossible to estimate the proportion of saline matter in the waters of this sea with any ])reeision. The most r. lebrated of these submarine springs is that which wells up in the Gulf of Spc/.ia about a mile from the shore, and with such force tliat the fresh water rises several inches above the surface of the sea. and forms a convex swell about 20 feet in diameter. With regard to the tempera- ture of the Italian seas, Marsiglia has observed that the mean for the mcmths of De*-*ember. January, February, March, and April is between ."iO*^ and 52° F., while in June it does not exceed 44. G°. Thus, the Mediterranean is a powerful eontpensatory agent in tempering the severity of winter and the heats of summer. The Italian seas have always been renowned for their a/ure color, and for a transparency which reflects as iu a limpid mirror the beau- tiful hues of the sky. The phosphorescence of the water is remarkable, and according to an ingenious suggestion of Mr. (jr. P. Marsh, may have increased during the historic period, since the greater destruction of cetaceans and prc- daceous fish in tnodern times favors the multiplication of the lower marine organisms upon which the former feed, and whose bodies produce, in part at least, this phenome- non. The coast of the Italian Peninsula has a linear ex- tension of ;i2.">7 miles — UGO in the Adriatic, 1030 in the Ionian and Libyan seas. 750 in the Tyrrhene, and 495 in the Ligurian. The ci>ast-line of the larger i^slands meas- ures 92S miles. Setting out from the extreme W. bound- ary, vve come first to the port of Nice (no longer Italian), a small harbor excavated by Chark-s Kmanucl III. and Victor .Amadeus. About a mile to the K. follow the gulfs of Villafranca and, of Sant' Ospizio. then the little port of Monaco, between which and the town of Mentone rises Cape San Martino. Still continuing eastward. Capes IJor- dighcra and IJurghetto follow successively, then the gulf of the Ospitaietti, the road of San Remo, the beaches of Ccrvo and of Diana, the bays of San Stefano and of San Lorenzo, the landing of Porto Maurizio, the port of Oneglia, the Gulf of Diano Marina. Between Cape delle Mele and the little island of Albcnga arc the shores of Alassio and Lan- gueglia, which afford good anchorage. A vast gulf, at the bottom of which lies Albenga, extends from the island of Galliuara to Cape Noli ; then comes the open bay of Finale Marina. To this succeed the excellent roadstead of Vado, the little port of Savona, and from thence to (Jenoa a line of coast winch the industry of tlie inhabitants has converted into a continuous shipyard in which hundreds of ships are frequently on the stocks at the same time. The spacious artificial harbor of Genoa (about Ii20 acres, or one-half a square mile of xvater-surfacc) has to the E. a coast-line which, as far as the promontory of l*urtofino, affords neither roadstead nor anchorage except the lamling of Cauiogli. The (iulf of Rapallo, the little bay of Portofino. that of Carlo Alberto, the not easily accessible landing of Chiavari, the coast of Sestri Levante. Cape Manara. Cape Ilospo, the landing of Framura. the Cape of M<tntcross(i, the Bay of Bonassol, the beach of Levanto, Cape Mesco, the landing of Montcro^isu, the rugged r<»eks <>t Verna/.za, Corniglia, Manarola, Riomaggiore, are the principal features until we reach the magnificent Gulf of Spezia, the great naval arsenal of Italy. To this succeed the Tuscan coasts, with the little port of Viareggio, with the shoals caused by the deposits of the Arno, the shallow roadstead of Leghorn, op- posite which on a rock rises the historic tower of the Mehiria. We shall further notice Cape Cavallo, the mouth of the Cccina, Port Baratto, the promontory of Popolonia, the harbor of Piomi»ino, the large basin of Grosseto, the marshy coast of Plan d'Alma. the (Julf of Casligliouc della Peseaja, the headland of Talamone, the fifty-mile basin of Orbetello, the three picturesque rockscalled the "Ants " ( /.<• Fitnnicht:) of Gropseto, the promontory of Argcntaro, with the harbors of Santo Stefano and Port" Ercole. Following a monotonous and somewhat treacherous line of coast, we como upon the harbor of Civita Veechia, then the headlanil of the Jlari- nella or Cape Linaro, then Fiumirino and the well-known Roman sea-coast formed by the ailuviuni <d' the Tiber, the Cape of Anzo, the harbor of Neptune, the little promontory of Astura, Mt. Cireello (which, rising from a low isthmus, looks like an island when seen at a distance). From Tcr- racina the Neaj)oiitan coast coninicnces with the Gulf of Gaeta. Cape della Rocca, and 25 miles farther to the S. the Bay of Naples, the islands of Ischia and Capri, Capes Mesa and Miscno. the Gulf of Baia, the port of Pozzuoli, the rocky headland of Algalone, that of Posilipo, the rock of CasteJ del I'tivo, the harbor of Naples, Castellamare. and Cape Canipanella, where the Neapolitan gulf terminates and that of Salerno begins, itself ending at Cape Licosa. Next at the S. E. we meet Capo Palinoro, the promontory of Falconara, the Gulf of Policastro, which terminates at Cape Servero ; passing this, we enter the Gulf of Santa Eufcmia. in form a horseshoe, the other extremity of which is Cape Vaticano. Then follows the (iulf of Gioia, to the W. of which lie the Li])ari or Eolian Islands. This gulf, measured from Cajjc Vaticano to the promontory of Bag- nara, has an opening of 33 miles. The part of the Cala- brian coast most nearly approaching Sicily is the Torre del Cavallo. Crossing the strait, we find ourselves in tho Ionian Sea, having first passed the famous rocks of Scylla and Charybdis. Then coasting along Reggio, wo round the promontory of Pallaro, Cape dell' Armi, and Capo Spartivento ; the latter being passed, the shore curves cast- ward, forming the Gulf of Squillace, which terminates at Cape Rizzuto. With Cape dcllc CoIoniTc opens the vast Gulf of Taranto, tcrminatud by Cape Santa Maria di Luca, to the E. of which we enter the Adriatic. In this sea, after passing the deep inland harbor of Otranto, the beautiful Bay of Brindisi opens, and. fartiier on, the roadstead of Bark'tta and the great promontory of Gargano, which forms the spur of the Italian boot : then the Gulf of Man- fredonia, the port of Viesti, tho landing of Santa Croce, the rocks of Coechiara, the mouths of the Pescara untl the Tronto; then the harbors of Ancona, of Sinigaglia, Fani>, Pesaro, Rimini, Cesenatico. Cervia, Ravenna, Rimaro — all small and shoaled. The valleys of Comaeehio, between tho mouths of the Po and the territory of Ravenna, form an immense pool. 1G4 miles in circuit and from 3 to G feet in depth, in whicli the famous liigoon fii^hcries are carried on. Having passed the many mouths of the numerous arms of the Po, and afterwards of the .Adige, we reach the port of Brondolo, the low shore of Chif)ggia, the dunes of Pales- trina, the island and the port of Malamocco, and then sev- eral other tiinall harbors, before coming to the mouth of the Tagliamcnto. From this point, as far as Port Primaro, tho coast-line skirts the morasses of Aquileja and of Grado. The inlet of Idoba is the mouth of the Isonzo, N. of which is the port of Albcroni, and S. E. of this lies the city of Trieste. The extreme southern point of Istria, Cape Pro- montore. directs us into the (lulf of (^uarnero and to t lie town of Fiume. To coniplete this rapid circumnavigation of the Italian coast shouhl be added the most noteworthy pecu- liarities of the coasts of the three principal islands: (1st). Sict'/tf. The three angles of the Sicilian triangle are termi- nated by the same number of capes— that is, on the W. by Cape Boco or Lilibco: on the S. by Cape Passero or Pa- chino : on the E. by Cape Faro or Pcloro. The most im- portant gulfs are those of Milazzo, Tindaro, Termini, Pa- lermo, Castellamare. Agosta, and Catania. (2d). Sardinia. Capes St. Elias, Pula, Tavolaro, Argentara, Asiuara are noticeable; the gulfs are those of Cagliari, Palmas, Oristano, Alghero, the Aranci ; the Strait of Bonifacio separates it from Corsica. (3d). Corsica. Capes Corso, Cannella, Gar- bo or Calvi, Sanguinara or Ajaccio, Negro, Chizza, and BrogoHno : the gulfs of Calvi and Ajaccio. B and C. Mfniufninn. Voihifn, and Plains. — The moun- tains of Italy are co-ordinated into three distinct systems: I. The SffHtem of thr Afp». This forms, beginning near Nice on the Ligurian Sea, and terminating at Fiume on tho Quarnero. an uninterrupted lino of about 760 geographical miles. It is divided into three main groups and nine sec- tions. 1st Group : the Western Alps, from S. to N. and ITALY. 13:^1) N. to Em from the Col di Tenda to Moot Blanc, and com- priainj; (Sec. Isl) the Marititnc Alps, which, beginning near the sources of the Tanaro. extenil, in u course of about 94 miles, to Moute Viso (12.667 feet). The pass of the Col di Tenda is SSUO feet. Sec. 2d, (he Cottiun Alps, which ex- tend for a line of S2 miles to Mont Cenis | 11,-157 feet ). The Col of Monginevra is fil III feet. Sec. 3d, the Uraian or (jrecian Alps, for a length of 62 miles to the Col du Bon Homme on the Litllo St. Bernard (7ItS5 feet); the pass of Munt Crnis is (1772 feet. The triangular knot of lofty peaks known as the Grand Panidis group, or the Cogne Mountain^!. Iving between the valley of the Oreo, the Val 8avarcinehe, and the pass of the Col dclhi Kunva, may bo regarded as an ofTi^hoot from the tlraian Alps. It con- tains the two highest summits lying wholly in Italy — the tirand Paradis ( 1.1, ."iOO feet) and the Grivolii or Come de Cogne ( I.'t,02S feet), one of the most picturesque and beau- tiful peaks in the whole range of the Alps. 2d Group : the Central Alps, from the pass of the Bon Ilomme to the jieak of the Tre Signori or Drei-JIerren-Ppitze : they conijirise (Sec. 4th) the Pennine Alps, which include the loftiest sum- mits in Europe, Mont Blano (15,798 feet^. Monte Kosn, (15,210 feet), Mont Cervin, or the Matterhorn {14.8:t;i). Along their course of 62 miles open the passes of the Great St. Bernard (SI69 feet) and the Siinplnn {C,:}7b feet). Sec. 5th, the Helvetian or Lepontinc Alps, cxtemling from Monte Rosa, for a distance of 55 miles, to the 8t. Bernardino, with the pass of the same name (701 1 feet) : that of the St. Gothard (6804 feet); that of the Spliigeu (6912 feet): and the Maloja, overhung by a peak, 11,476 feet in heiglit. Sec. 6th. the Uhetico-Trentino Alps, which from the St. Bernardino run to the Picco dei Tro Signori (10,118 feet), to the E. of the valley of the Adige, through a course of about IS7 miles, including the ])asses of the Brenner (4659 feet) and of the Slelvio (90St5 feel ). 3d Group : the Eastern Alps, comprising (Sec. 7th) the Noricnn Alps, which extend for 35 miles from the Drei-Hcrren-Spitzo tu the Gross- (ilockner (12.769 feet), but separating from the first of these mountains they turn towards Austria and Hungary, and no longer belong to Italy: the pass of the Sominering is 4287 feet. Sec. 8th, the Carnican Alps, about 7U miles in length, beginning E. of Trent and terminating at the Col di Tarvi.-, Sec. 9lh, the .Julian Alps, for a course of about 105 miles, terminating at Fiume. The declivities of the Alps, while they descend gently on the X. side, arc rocky and precipitous towards Ii;ily. fo that while the Rhone has a fall of ."(250 feet in a course of 92 miles, the Po makes an c((ual descent in 22 miles. From Mont Blanc to the Tyrol 400 glaciers are counted, and the whole of the vast chain abounds in them. There are eorno not less than from 6 to 15 miles in length and from M miles to 2\ miles in width, with a mass of iee 16 Ml feet dei p. The valleys of Aosta and the Valtelline only have a longitudinal direction. All the other Italian Alpine valleys are normal to tho chain. There are 36 of these valleys, through which flow primary rivera or their afilueuts. li. Thr Siiufcm of tin- Ap' mtiucft. This system separates itself from the Maritime Alps at tho pass of Cadiliona: then, after following a lino from W. to E., turns S. and S. E., dividing the Peninsula into two great slopes, the eastern and the western. The Apennines are com]ioscil of three groups: 1st, the Northern Apen- nines, 182 miles in length, which, beginning at Cadibona, skirt the Gulf of tJenoa, describing an are: they are steep and rocky towards tho sea, but decline gently towards the N. on the side of the valley of the Po. au'l extend as far as Mont Cimone. Between tlieseaand tho Tuscan Ajicnniues. and between the Magra and tho Serehio, N. of the Arno, rises an isolated groifp of mountains, higher than the prin- cipal chain, which are called tho Ajiuan or Panian Alps. The loftiest crests of this section are Monte Corsaglia (6930 feet), and Monte i'lmone (6H90 feet). 2il. the Central Ap- ennines. These begin at the Cimone and end at the Velino, dividing Tuscany from tho Emilia, and crossing Cnibria, tho Abruzzi, and tho Samnile territory, with a preeiftilouB descent towards tho Adriatic, but a gentio iuclinatitm towanls the Tyrrhene, and throwing out two sub-Apen- nino !«purs. the Tuscan and the Uonian. The highest peaks are the (iran Sasso (I'ltalta. or Monte Corno, the loftiest of the Apennines (9;U2 feet). Mont Amaro or Majella (9131 feet), Monte Velino (81S0 feet). 3d. the Southern Apennines, which extend from Monte Velino to tho ex- tremity of Italy, dividing ibeuiSelvcfi into two branches, tho western and the eastern. Their highest summits are Monte Meta (7S35 feel). Monte Pollino (7070 feet) These moun- tains are prolongcti through ."^ieily to Capes Lilibco, Pas- scro, and Pcloro. HI. Thr S'lrdu-Cnr^irtin Si/Hem. — This chain, parallel with the Apennines, culminates in the island of Sardinia at Monte Brunia di Spina (6190 feet), and in Corsica at Monte Cinio lOL'IO feel). Italy has but a single great plain, enclnsed within the southern slope of the Alps and tho northern slope of tbo Apounincs, and detormiDed by the course of the Po and of tho other rivers which flow into the Adriatic. In fertility of soil, in facility of com- munication, in wealth, in civilization, and in density of ]>opulatiun this plain has no rival in the world. The tcc- on<iary plains of the Peninsula are tho Tuscan, the Konian. the Campauian (Terra di Lavuroj, and tho Tavolicrc of Apulia. D. Lukes. — Tho lakes are divided into two groups — the Alpine and tho Apenninc lakes: I. The Alpine hnkca. — Sujipiied l)v the perpetual snmvs. the glaciers, and the tor- rents or ri^■ers of the great chain of the Alps, these long and tortuous basins, if they have not the grandiose and Solemn character of the Swiss and Scotch lakes, ]iresent a degree of beauty and grace which is not to bo met with elsewhere. They are — 1st, Lake Verbano or Lake Mag- giorc, which receives the waters of the Tosa. of the Lake of Orta, of the Maggia, of the Ticino, of the Tresa (which issues from Lakes Ceresio and Lugano), and the small streams of I'artlesio and Acquanegra. which are the outlets of the lakes of Varese. etc. It is 36 miles in knglh and of variable width, being in many places 7 or 8 miles broad. Its greatest known depth is 2624 feet, and as its surface is 640 feet above the sea-level, its bed is 1984 feet below that level. Its abundant waters find their outlet through the Tieino, the richest tributary of the Po. The famous IJor- romean Islan<ls are in this hike. 2d. Lake Lario or Lake Como: this lake receives through the Adcla the waters of the Valtelline, together with (hose of the Mesa and of the Liro, collected in the little Lake of iMczzola, which once formed a J'art of the Lario until separated from it by tho deposits of tlic Adda. It has the form i»f a Y, with the tail turned toward the Alps: its length is 30 miles, with a maximum width of 3\ miles. .Id, Tho Benaco or Lake di Garda: this laUo receives (ho waters of (he Sarca and other small streams; is 45 miles long and froni4\ to 16 broad. The Miucio flows out of it. 4tli, Tho smaller lakes: the Margozzo and the Lake of Orta, those of St. Bernard and of Cenis, that of Varese, the lakelets of Biandrone, Mo- nate, and Comabbio : the Sebino or Lako of Iseo, that of Idro, etc. II. Thr Apcnnine Lnkce. — These arc almost all craters of extinct volcanoes, and nniy be subdivided into, 1st, tho upper or central Italian lakes, which arc those of Massaciuceoli, Bieutina, Chiusi, Montepulciano. and tho larger ones of Trasimeno or Perugia, of Bolsena, and of Braeciano. 2d. tho lower or southern Italian lakes. These are the Lako of Fondi in tho Terra di Lavoro. of Celano or Fucino in the Abruzzi (which Prince Torlonia is now draining), Verauo or Lesina, Luorino, Aguano, Averuo, Fusaro, etc. E. RiverH. — The rivers of continental Italy are divided into throe distinct groups: I. Tributun'cn of the Adriatic. — In tho upper basin of this sea we find the Lvonzo, which marks tho extreme E. boundary between Upper Italy and Islria; tho Corno (a name common also to several rivers flowing from tho Carnican Alps, and emptying between tho Isonzo and tho Tagliamentol, which, i>suing from Monte Piettino, Hows seaward from X. to S. : the Lcinene aii'l the Livenza, small streams between the Tagiiamcnto and the Piave, the latter of which also rises in tho Carnican Alps; the Brenia and tho Bucchiglione, which rise in the Tren- tin<i and traverse tlio Venetian lagoons; the Adige. forme<! by the uuion of the emissaries of three snmll lakes at the pass of Finisterro (Ueschen). and of many rivulets which descend from tho Khetian, Norican, and Carnican Alps. Tho Tyrolese call it the Ktsch. and it lioes not take its Italian name until below Botzen, after its confluence with the Isargo ( Eisoch ). The Adigo has a course of about 2."iO miles. The Po ( Padus or Eridanus) is tho chief of the Italian rivers: its length in a straight line from its source to its mouth is 262 miles, and, including its windings. 330 miles. It takes its rise on Mon(e Viso at a height of 6560 feet above the level of the sea ; it crosses Piedmont, divides Lombardy from Parnitt. Moilenn, and Ferrara, then enters Venetia; at Serravalle it divides into two branches: the principal arm ( Po Maestro) falls into the Adriatic 28 miles S; of Venice: the <»lber (Po <!» (!oro) enters the sea 15 miles farther to the S. .'^. W . The two arms are about 20 niiles in length, forming a lielta furrowed by secondary channels (Po della ToUe, Po I>un/ella. etc.). By moans of some of these streams the Pu communicates on the N. with tho Canal Bianco, which in its northern part lakes the niune of Po di Leviint<', and to tho S. with (he Po di \'oInn"' mid with (ho po di I'riinaro. At Turin the Pu is still inlerior in size (o several of i(s lower aflluents, but after its conflu- ence with the Bora Baltcn. which brings to it the waters of Mont Blanc, tt assumes imposing dimensions. Having reeeivi'd the .*^e!»ia, which brings with it the waters of Monte Kofin, the Po begins to Hpreiid itself over i(s own alluvium, branching out between many islands; above Valenra it unites again in a single wiiwling bed, but only to ramify I ftoew and to form now islands after roceiviog the tribute i;}4() ITALY. of the Tanaro; it atjiiiu collects itself near the mouth of tbo Tieino ; from tlit- confluence of the Titlone till its junc- tion with the Adda it once more divides into separate chan- nels; below the Oojlio its waters are re-collected within narrower limit«, and thus it continues its course to tho sea. Under ordinary contiitions. between the Dora and the Ti- eino tho inclination is from 19 to IV2 inches per mile; be- tween the Tieino and tho Adda, from 16 to I'J inches; be- t\vcen the Adda and tho OgHo, from 10 to Ifi inches. Near the mouth of the Panaro it is rerluced to 7 inches, and in its extreme lower course from 7 to '^\ inches per mile. At its highest flood the water rises near tho mouth of the Ti- eino 24 feet above extreme low-water mark : near Piacenza, 25 feet: at Cremona, I'ft feet: at Casal Massriore, 21 feet; at Dosolo. 27 feet : at <)sti{;lia. 31 feet; at Pnnte Lai;os- curo, 28 feet: and at Polesella. 27* feet. The width of tho Po between the confluence of the Tieino and the O^Iio is, at extreme low water, from 'S2S to 656 feet; in the ordi- nary state of the water, from 6ofl to 1.300 feet; at the highest flood, from 2600 feet to 9850 feet. Tn its lower course the width, at low water, is from 32R to 656 feet; in the ordinary ?tato of the water, from 656 to 084 feet; at the highest'flood. from 9>;4 to 4920 feet. Between tho Ti- eino and tho Oglio the Po is never fordablc. the depth of the principal currr*nt hein^, at low water, little less than 5 feet. Below tlie Oj^lio the depth of tho main current, even at extreme low water, is never less than 5 feet 10 inches. From Turin to T'asale the river is navigable for boats of 8 metric quintals burden ; from Casalo to the Tieino. for those of 20 quintals: from the Tieino to Quatrelle (160 miles). for vessels of 1300 quintals; from Quatrello to the sea (64 miles), for vessels of 900 quintals. The waters of the Po are always turbid from the great quantity of earth, which they transport — an effect especially due to the (dcanng of the forests and the brcakin;^ up of the soil. This earth forms -g^T^th of the flowin.^ mass. The quantity of allu- vial depo.-*it at its mouth is an annual volume of 55,00l»,ll()0 cubic metres, extcndinj"; the delta at a mean of 230 feet, and forming a flat which, iu tho progress of centuries, will fill up th.at part of tlie sea. The tributaries of the Po are, on the left, in Piedmont — tho Ohiandono. Rivosecco. Chisone, Chisola, Sangone. Dora Riparia. Stura, Oreo, Dora Baltea, Scsia, Agogna : in Lombardy — the Tieino, Olona, Larabro, Adda, Oglio, Mincio; on the right, in Piedmont — the Bronda, Rivotorto, Vraita, Macra, Stellone, Tanaro, Scri- via, Carone, Stafl'ora; in the Parmesan territory — the Tidone, Trcbbia. Nure. Arda. Ongina. Taro, Parma, and Enza: in the Modenese — tho Crostolo, Secchia, Panaro; in the ex-pontifical provinces — the Reno. Idice, Sillaro, Lan- ternio, Senio. Other smaller tributaries of the Adriatic are — the Laraonc, Montone, Ronco. 8avio. Rnbiconc, Ma- recchia, Marauo, f'onea, Foglia. Metauro, Cesano, Misa. Esino, Musone, Potenza, Chionti. Tena, Tesino, Tronto, Vomano, Pcscara, Sangro, Bifermo, Fortore, Ofanto. 11. Trifmturiei of the Ltuinn fi^ea. — These arc the small streams of the aneient Lucania, tho Bradano, the Vascnte, tho Sa- landrella. the Agri, and tho Sinno : and of Calabria, tho Crati and the Neto. III. Tn'butarirs o/thr Mrditcrranran. — Beginning from the W.. the Var (swollen by the Tinea and by the Vcsubia), the PagUoue, tho Roja, tho Norvia, the Tag^ia, the Impero. the An<lora, the Letimbro, tho Polcpvera, the Bisagno, the Kntella, tho Magra. the Ser- chio, the Arno (swollen by tho Chiana, by the Sieve, by the (trcve, by the Orabrono of Pistoja, by the Xievale, by the Pcsa, by the Elsa. and by tho Era), tho Cecina, the Ombrone of Siena, the Tiber, the Liri or (^ariffliano, the Volturno, and other smaller ones. The rivers of tho islands are — in Sicily, tho Alcantara, Oiaretta. Palso. Platani, Beliei, Termini, Fiumegrande. PoUina: in Sardinia — the Tirso, Coshinas. Flumcndosa, Mannu : in Corsica — tho Golo, Tavignano, Lamone, (Jravono, Valinco. Grnfnjif and Mhtrraifitj//. — ^Few countries in tho world pre!*ent such interest and variety to tho student of geology as Italy. The centre of tho Alpino reirion is generally of granite rock, often intermixed with schi?to-micaceous. tal- cose, and ampliibological formations, or with calcareous formation*!, most frequently saccharoidal. with Btra^vs or flakes of mica. The slopes are covered with Tertiary strata. The Apennines, as far as Calabria, arc a huge mass of calcareous and serpentine rock and of graywackc, upon which lie deposits, of considerable thickness, from the Jurassic period, composed of gypsum, with beds of sulphur. Farther from the central axis of the chain, upon tho opposite slopes, rest vast Tertiary deposits containing many fossil shells, somo nf which arc identical or similar to those now living in the Italian seas. The more southern of the Apennines are composed of granite rock, covered with secondary deposits. The most noteworthy geological f''ature of Italy is its volcanic system. In the eastern part of tho plain of the Po, between the Adije and the Brentn, rises the group of tho Euganeau hills which, at Monte Berici, reunites itself to one of the principal spurs of tho Aljis ; its highest peak is Monte Venda, 1920 tVct. In tho S. of Tuscany is the group of Santa Fiora ; then that of Viterbo and of Rome : afterwards those of Sant' Agata, of Rocca Morfina. and of Naples. Here towers Vesuvius with its Campi Flegrei ( Phlegra'ian Fields), tb.e only active vol- cano on tho European continent. But the giant of the Italian volcanoes is Etna in Sicily, lO.S.TO feet in height, with a base 112 miles in circumference. The Lipari or Eolian Islands .arc also volcanic: among these Strombnii is in perpetual cru])tion, intermitting once in fifteen min- utes. Ancient craters are found throughout the whole chain of the Apennines, and the territories of Arezzo, Peru- gia. Spoleto. etc. form one of the most notable examples of broken surface which volcanic action ha^ impressed upon the face of our planet. Gaseous, saline, ami limous erup- tions also abound in Italy, as well as thermal springs. The calcareous and metaraorphic rocks of the Alps and Apen- nines furnish the most beautiful marbles; among these we may mention those of the Viccntino. (he sea-green of the Bocchetta, the gold-veined of Porfo Vcnere, the statuary marble of Carrara, the jasper of Barga, the green marbles of Tuscany, the black of Pistoja, the lajiis-lazuli and the giallo of Siena, nnd the broccatello of Piombino. Wc should notice also the alabaster of Volterra. the porphyries and rock-crystals of Aosta. the agates and chalcedonies of Tuscany, the lavas and basalts of tho volcanic districts, tho sulphur and tlie alum. Unfortunately, tho best quali- ties of fossil combustibles arc wanting, but lignite and peat are abundant. Pozzolaua ig foun<l in great quantities near Rome and Naples: iron also in many places, and especially in the island of Elba; lead and galena in Sardinia: fossil salt in various places; also thin veins of gold, silver, mer- cury, zinc, antimony, etc. Climnte. — Local conditions with regard to altitude, posi- tion, and proximity to the sea have more influence than latitude in determining the annual isothermal lines and the range of the monthly means of temperature in Italy. In gener.al. the coldest month is January — tho thermometer sometimes falling to .3.2° above zero of Fahrenheit at Mon- calieri near Turin, and to zero F. at that city, to 14° above zero atUrbino, to 15. s*' at Perugia, to 26.6° at Catanzaro — and the warmest month is July, tho thermometer rising to 97° F. at Lugano, to 90° at Moncalicri, to 92° at Urbino, and to 93° at Catanzaro. In Northern Italy the mean temperature of the month of April is a little above the an- nual mean, and in October a little below, while in Central and Southern Italy tho case is reversed — that is, the mean of October is a little above, and the mean of April a little below, the annual mean. If wc compare certain extreme points, we shall find at Udino (lat. 46° 3') the annual mean is about 56° F. : at Syracuse (hit. 39° 3'1, about 65°. Observing certain middle stations, wo find at Genoa (lat. 44° 25'), as annual mean, 61°: at Florence (lat. 43° 16'), annual mean, 59^°; at Bologna (lat. 44° 30'), annual mean, d'A^. At intermediate stations between the means and tho extremes we have, at Milan (lat. 45° 28'), an annual mean of 56.6°; at Venice (lat. 45° 25'). an an- nual mean of 56°: at Rome (lat. 41° 53'). annual mean, 60°: at Naples (hit. 40° 52'), annual mean, 61.5°. Tho isochimenal lines of those stations which, like Alexandria, Turin, Pavia, Milan, (luastalla, and Modena. are situated near tho longitudinal axis, and at the bottom of the valley of the po. are mueli more depressed than the more northern but better sheltered positions of Aosta, Biella, Lugano, and Udiue. Although (liffcring widely in latitude, there is a close approximation in the mean winter temperature be- tween Chiogiria and Urbino, betweert Rome and Leghorn, (icnoa and Naples, San Remo and Catanzaro. The iso- thermal lines of the above-mentioned places, lying along the axis of tho valley of the Po, are more elevated than thoso of the maritime districts of Liguria and Tuscany; Genoa has the summer mean of Naples, Palermo that of Anc(ma. The barometric pressure is in direct ratio with the latitude. It is at its maximum in winter, at its mini- mum in tho spring, being in summer a little below the an- nual mean, and in the autumn above it. The maximum of tho raean monthly pressure falls in February, and tho minimum suddenly follows in March. Except in cases of violent perturbations tho prespuro continues to diminish from nine in the morning till three in tho afternoon: tho difference is less in winter than in summer, less in the N. than in the S., less near the sea than inland. The quantity of water falling in the form of rain and snow is greatest iu the Priralpine districts — Biclla, 41.11 inches; Lugano. 63.2 inches: Udine. 50.78 inches. At tho more elevated stations — Urbino, 39.8 inches; Pcrutjia. 39 inches; Mon- dovi, 34.9 inches: and in some of the bays formed by tho lofty chains, where the sea-winds meet and discharge them- selves of their vapiprs — Genoa, 52.8; Florence, 49.2; at Naples, 34.7. The most rainy season is the autumn, espc- ITALY. 1341 cially October. The driest months are, in winter, January and February; in summer, Jtilv. In the X. nnd in tlic in- terior it niius more in tlie jfumnier than in the winter: the reverse is true on the sea-coa^;t and in the S. In the moun- tainous regions during October and Noven)i)cr heavy ruins sometimes fall in the course of a tew days, producinij disastrous inundations. In Oct., 1S72. there was a rainfall at Domodossola of .^4.2 inches: at liiella, of 2J.5 inches ; at Genoa, 2s inches; at I'lorence. 10 inclies. In January, and in the winter ;;pnerully. the sky is stunewhat more cov- ered than in the other months, especially in the valley of the Po nnd in most of tlie .Apennine valleys. 'I'lie jircvail- ing direction of the wind, although very varialile. is from the seashores toward the interior of the Peninsula. In July, and in the summer generally, the sky is clearer than during the rest of the year; the prevailing winds, always changeable, blow from inland toward the sea-coasts. In April the clearness of the sky is somewhat less than the annual mean, and is still less in the month of October, es- jieeially in the great valley of the Po. The direction of the wind is most variable in the spring and in the autumn. Pi'Bi.ic E(>iNi»MV. A. Affrirultiirc. — There are three great distinctive agricultural districts in Italy: (1) The plain of (he Po — very fertile, with regular au'l systematic culti- vation ; (2) the declivities and valleys of the .Aponnines, on the two slopes of the Peninsula — tho region of the olive ; (;t) the pasture-lands, which, in their turn, arc subdivided into alpine pastures and the pastures of tho plains; in the latter the grass-binds are often interspersed with rice-fields an<i marshes, tho malaria from which depopuhifes tho country. This is especially true of the rich lands of Lom- hardy, of the Roman Campagnn. the Pimtino Marshes, and of Sardinia. The productivity of the soil might be greatly increased if the agricultural methods and tools em])loyed were less antiquated, aixl if the whole country would keep pace with the |)rogrcss already made in l,oml)ardy and Piedmont. Of tho ri,(j:)0,OUO acres which form the king- dom of Italy, .19,280,000 are classed as productive, the rest as barren. Two-fifths, or 27,170,0(10 acres, consist of arable land, with or without the vine; o,40f<,000 of natural or arlilicial meadow; 420, 000 of rice-lands; l,2:i.'i,000 of thp olivo; 1.2:i.0,OnO of the chestnut; 12,350,000 of forest ; and more than 1 2, 3.>O,O0O of pasture-ground. The annual pro- duce of cereals is about 21O,Ui0,OO0 bushels — wheat, lon.7S4,0O0: maize. ■10,700.000; rye. 7,052,000 ; barley and oats, 23,004,000 ; rice, 4,144.000, ' In abundant year's tho supply exceeds the consumption, in average years it is hardly equal to it, and in years of scarcity falls short by aliout one tenth. To this, however, should be adilcd 15,:i,'iC,000 bushels of chestnuts, 27,224,000 bufbels of potatoes, and 1 l,92S,0O0 bushels of vegetables. The products which have the most commercial importance arc — silk, valued at aliout .$i!l!,000,000 ; wine, amounting to about 7SO,noo,000 gal- lons (in .'^icily to 20.s,000,000 ; in Emilia, i:iO,IIOO,000 ; in Piedmont, 130,000,000; in Venice, 52,000,000; in I'mliria, .■.2,000,000; in .\aplcs, 52,000,000: in Lombardv and tho Marches. 05,000,000; in Tuscany, ,",0,000,0110 ; i|, the Ilo- magna, 20,000,000; in Sardinia,'2O,OOO,0O0) ; oil amount- ing to more than :;0,50O,nO0 gallons (12.224,000 in S, con- tinental Italy: in Sicily, 0,112,000; in Ligurin, 5,34R,000 ; in Tuscany, 3.050,000; in tho Kmilia and tho Marches, 1,52S,000; in I.ombar.ly, 1,1 10,000; in .Sardinia, 1, 140,000]. Tho hemp produced amounts to about 50,000 tons. Dur- ing the .\merican war of secession the high price of cotton led to its cultivation, and about 325,000 metric quintals were annually produced, but it proved an unsuccessful speculation, T<»bacco, cultivated in .Sardinia, Sicily, tho .Marches, and in tho neigbburhooil of Vieen/.a, yields about 150,000 metric quintals. Oranges, lemons, citrons, and other fruits, both dried nncl fresh, arc exported. Among tho animal products, besides tho Bilkvvurm, the butter and cheese arc valueil at not less than S15.0»0,000. Caitlo do not abouncl in Italy. The sh<;ep and goats are rcek.mcd at 12,000,000; tho I'dack cattle or oxen at 3,700.000 ; horses, mules, etc., at 1,400,000 ; and tho swine at 4,000,000. B. Mtitiii/ticiiirrt, — ^Tn Northern Italy noteworthy prog- ress has been mnd<' ill mtiliufacttircs during the last twenty- five years. The great imluslries are — (I) silk, which rep- resents a production of $20,000,000 lor spun silk alone, in- dependently of tissues, among which velvet Is conspicuous, that of (ienoa being very celebrated: (2| woolUn manu- factures, of which lliero are important establishments in Piedmont (.'specially at liiellai nii.l in Venetian I.oinbardy (ohiefly at .Scliio) to an annual amount of $13,200,000; (3) cotton maniifacttires, very nourishing in Liguria, Piedmont, I.oinbardy, an. I Friuli, producing spun cotton t.i the amount of $7, 000,000. andcotlimeloth to thoamount of $10,000,000, The straw industry (chietly straw hats) is very prosperous in Tuscany. The agricultural manufactures, tho wines above all, admit of much further improvoinent, Tho artistic or losthotic manufactures arc thosofor irbich Italy is espe- cially distinguished abroad— the filigree of Genoa, the glass and beads of Venice, the coral of Naples and of Leg- horn, the wrought marbles of Carrara andof Lucca, the per- fumery of Tuscany, paper, h:its, gloves, etc. One of the most nourishing indusiries is that of uaval constructiciii, particularly in Liguria. where the traditional skill of Ilie fhipbuihlers is now aided and improved by gooil special schools, and above all by the Technical and Nauticol In- stitute of Genoa and the excellent high school of the same city. Tho number of ships launched in 1800 was 198; in 1870, 803; in 1S72. 724; and the average tonnage, which was 99 in ISGO, rose to 142 in 1S72. There are now (1874 -75) in process of construction at 15 shijiyards in Liguria 103 large vessels — .some for English, French, nnd Nor- wegian traders — of a total tonnage of 107,900, the average per ship being ltl57 tons, C, Cnmmcrce tiiid Knviiiation.—lhc balance of trade in Italy, though improving, is not yet what it may and ought to be. With an importation of $187,200.1100 in 1809. the exportation was only $174,800,000. Increasing gradually, the exports in 1872 (the date of the latest official statistics) had risen to $281,220,223, but the iniportatiim amounted to $237,802,205. Tho commercial marine in ISOS consisted of 17,845 sailing vessels of all dimensions, with a tonnage of 859,387; 101 steamboats of 23,437 tonnage— total ton- nage, 884,814, of which onc-h;ilf was the property of Li- guria, Now (1874-75) Italy numbers 4220 sailing vessels, averaging more than 50 tons each, with a total of 1.120,032 tons, and occupying in this respect the fourth rank, being surpassed only by England, the U, S,, and Norway, and being superior to France, who.so sailing tonnngo is only 868,659, Italy has at present 103 steamers (85,045 tons), occupying the sixth rank. D. Ciinah and Rnadn. — Tho canals of Italy, navigable as well as for irrigation, have been her boast from ancient times. Tho [.rincijial of these are in tho valley of the Po. Tho total length ot the navigable canals is 435 miles, Tho most important are — the Canal Cavour, in Piedmont, which, supplied from tho Po, begins at Chivasso and terminates at Turbiga, a distance of 52 miles ; in Lombardy, the Grand Canal, supplied from tho Tic-ino near Tornavento, and passing through Abbiategrasso; tho canal of Pavia. also supplied from tho Ticino. nnd passing through liiiiasco; the canal of Martcsana, which, from Milan through Gor- gonzola, leads to Cassano on the Adda. The province of Polesina in Venice, and that of Padua, have an excellent canal system. The Emilia, too, is well eupjilicd wiili tbcni. The canal of Pesein, that of Pisa, ami tho canal of Ombrono arc in Tuscany. In Southern Italy the emissary, executed by Prince Torlonia, for draining the Lake Fucino or Cc- Inno, and thus restoring to cultivation 42,000 acres of land, is most noteworthy. (See article Fl cixn.) The coinmuiial high-roads have a total length of 01.221 miles: the pro- vincial roads, 12,373 miles; the national roads, 3970 miles. The t.dul length is 77,590 miles. Jtriilwitijs. — In 1873 there wcro in operation 4154 miles of railroad, thus divided: Piedmont. Liguria, Lombardy, and Venice 15.">n miles. Tuscany, Emilia, the Marches, I'lnbria, and the Ro- nmn jirovinces i3n:{ " Neapolitan provinces 903 " Sicilv 206 " Sardinia 82 •< In tho year 1874 tho number of miles of railway ha.l in- creased to 4372. Pont-Officcf nnd Ttlci/raplia. — Postal activity, a convin- cing ovirlenco of advance in public instruction, is constantly on tho increase. It has more than doublcii in ten years. In I8G2 the corrcspon.l.'nco whi.di circulated in the country amounteil to 111,733,319 Icttirs; in 1872, to 232,242.072, an increase of 120,509,.I58. In the lirst nine months of tho year 1874 tho tclcgraphio despatches numbered 14,005,000, GoiH-rnriicnt find /*nf>fio /nititufinni*. — Till' government of Italy is a const ititti.inal monarchy, with a senate iijipoiiited for life, nn.l a chamber of 508 deputies, elcctiil by a free anil bniail siilTrage. Tho most entire freedom of tiic press and the right of association is secured. The prefects or governors of the |>rovinces. and the syn.lics or mayors of tho towns, are goviriiiiicnt appointees: otherwise the ebct- ive system generally prevails in all the institutions of the adlninistrativo hiernrehy. commiiiinl ns well as provincial, Tlio only hiiideranco to the perfect working of the political organisation has been, thus far. the linniieial dclleit pro- duced by the vicissitudes of the revolution, bv military ex- penses, and by the construction of tho railways, "liut, thanks to the praiseworthy cITorls of tho government and tho country, even this evil is in tho way of a speedy cure, and the deficit, which had already amounted to mot-c than $92,000,000, is reduced in tho balance for 1875 to about $0,000,000. AJmimtlralion of Jiittiee At tho foot of tho Italian 1342 ITALY. magistracy stand the conciliatory judf^es, who perform the double office ol" conciliating litigants and of deciding small disputes involving an nmount not exceeding ?6. In l'^72 thoy settled more than 700,0(10 controvcreies. The prwtor?, 1811 in nuiu'ier. have jurisdiction of offences pnnishahle with imprisonment not exceeding three months imd l>y fines not exceeding $nO. In 1872 tht-y tried 29iMM2 in- dividuals. The priotors also decide civil questions not involving more than $;J00, and in 1S72 they gave IfiO.fiHt judgments of this kind. The tribunals take cognizance, on appeal, of questions civil, commercial, and penal dc- ciilod by the prajtors, and they have original juris<liftion of all matters not belonging to the conciliatory judges and to (he prwtors (they have, however, no authority in com- mercial questions in those towns where there is a proper tribunal of commerce), and they also decide questions of C'lrrectional police. There are lfi2 tribunals, which in 1S72 pronotiniMMi 2U*> judgments. From the sentence of the tribunals appeal may be made to the courts of appeal. and from these, when it is a question of law, to the courts of cassation. The system of juries before the courts of assize has not thus far given satisfactory results. E'/iirntiun nnfi fnttnicfjnn. — The ministry of public in- struction appropriates, for the expenses of the central ad- ministration, for university education, for secondary, clas- sical, and technical instruction, for normal schools, and as subsidy for the elementary instruction about S.".,r)00,flOO ; the communes provide for the primary teachin-jr, the min- istry of agriculture ami commerce for the higher technical instruction, and the various bureaux for special instruction. The municipal elomcntarv day schools aro .3-^,2! II in num- ber (18.24:i for boys, 12,7:^2 for girls, 3238 mixed). Add- ing 91 fi7 private schools, we have a total of 43,380, or of one school to 020 inhabitants. But though that is the general mean, the distribution of the schools is very unequal, they being much more numerous in the N. than in the S. Thus, in the province of Turin there is one school for every Zbo inhabitants; in Calabria, only one for 1400. Elementary instruction is obliiratorv and gratuitous. The pupils in- scribed were— in is61-62, 1,008,074; 1SG3-64. 1,178,743; ISfi.S-riG. 1.217,870; 1807-08.1.329,307: 1800-70,1.577,654; 1871-72, 1,745,467, or 0.00 per 100 inhabitants. To these numbers should be added 375,917 attou'lants on the night schools, and 153,522 on holidays. The proportion of the population, without distinction of age. who could not read, was in ISGl, 7!*.29 ; at the last census (1S71) the proportion was 73.20. The normal schools train, in a course of three years, the masters and mistresses; they aro frequented by more than 0(H)0 pupils. The largo towns have female high schools, not gratuitous, for the superior education of girls. National lioanling c<tlleges, several female conservatories, many private, and not a few clerical establishments, receive boarding pupils. The preparatory classical instruction is given in gymnasiums and lyceuras. There are HU national gymnasiums, with 8208 students; 79 royal lyceums, with 3773 students : besides various communal and private gym- nasiums. The government technical schools, in which pre- paratory professional instruction is given, arc G3. with 6188 pupils. Technical instruction of the second grade is ac- quired in 72 technical institutes, with 1 171 pupils. In these, after a biennial course of general culture, there are f(uir sec- tions^thc physico-mathematical, the commercial, the agro- nomical, and t!ie industrial. There arc also schools for the arts and trades (designed for the operatives ancl overseers in manufactories), 10 royal mercantile marine institutes (in which ship-captains, naval const mentors, and steam -en - ginccra are trained), and 14 nautical schools. Five high schools — a naval school at (Jcnoa, very flourishing; a com- mercial schocd at Venice ; an industrial school at Turin ; and two agricultural schools, one at ]\Iilan and one at Por- tici — complete the technical instruction. There ore 17 uni- versities (not including three free universities), with 6423 students; 3 superior practical institutions for engineers, and 2 for other branches of literary and scientific etilture. Besides many town collections, theri' are 33 public libraries, the most valuable of which is the Magliabccchiana at Flor- ence, with 280,000 printed volumes and 1 1,000 manuscripts. We have not space to speak of the archives, of the musical institutes, of the academies and galleries of art, so justly cclcbraled throughout the world. Chnri(nUr f»xti(>,tiui,>i.^Thorc arc in Italy 20.123 char- itable institutions, representing a total annual expenditure of $17,175,088. Among these are 055 hospitals, which re- ceive 199,000 persons, at an annual expense of $5,054,169. The other charitable institutions are — -asylums and ponr- hous^s, expending $5,762,945 : loaning institutions, advan- cing $831,655 ; other modes of relief require an annual out- lay of $2,804,882. For religious worship, etc., .*1, 822,037, Armi/ and Xavi/. — The Italian army, according to the nPRcial tables, is composed of 670,877 men, and is thus divided ; (1) The standing armv: Line infantry .". 199,886 District militia 18S.774 Bcrsaglieri 30,758 Cavalry 24.:i5.5 Artillery 49fifi7 Engineers 6.280 Carabinieri 20,071 Special corps and organizations 9,484 Officers in active service 11.488 " stationary " 2,080 " waitintr orders or retired 419 — .543,432 (2) Provincial militia: District militia 131,121 Rersaglicvi 3,5.tI Emrineers 1,033 Officers 740—130.44.5 Total 679.877 The navy is in process of transformation, and the present able minister, Saint Bon, has made a proposal to Parlia- ment (which will be probably acceded to) to sell a large number of ships of war now become unserviceable. The navy at present consists of 14 iron-clads, 8 of which aro small vessels, altogether of 200 guns and 5700 horse- power; 22 screw steamers; 25 side-whoel steamers; 8 sail- ing ships and other smaller vessels ; the total number being 91, with an armament of 1139 guns. According to the new plan, the naval force will be regulated as follows : Ships j'12 large iron-clads to serve to form squadrons; of •< 6 iron-clad steamers for coast defence; war. i 12 screw gunboats. Vessels for the protec- ( 10 station corvettes (also screw) ; tion of trade and < 4 cruising vessels; other services. ( S smaller vessels. ( 7 lookout and despatch steamers; Accessories. ■< 6 transport-steamers ; [ 8 tugs. IfiSTonY. — Of all histories, that of Italy is perhaps the most difficult to compress, every city having its own special and illustrious story, and the histories of all the nations of Europe converging into that of this peninsula. It may be divided into four great periods : I. Cojiqitfut anrf F*nda/i8ni. — The barbarians, having passed the confines of the empire, had entered into Italy: under Alaric they had sacked Bomc : under Attila they had destroyed Aquilcia. the fugi- tives from which founded Venice ; under Odoacer they had put an end to the empire (476), but Theodorie, king of the Ostrogoths, came from the Danube (489), vanquished Odo- acer in thelsonzo, then at ^Vrona. slew him at Ravenna, and founded (493) a glorious monarchy, although it was stained by the blood of Boctius and Pymmnchus. and soon broken up by the Orccks umlcr Beiisarius and Xarsetes (553). I'nder Alboin the Lombards descendecl from Pan- nonia (Hungary), and established the most lasting govern- ment which had existed in Italy (568-774). But coming in contact with papal pride, they in vain sought to appease it by concession an<l largess. Piiinmoncd first by Gregory in., then by Ptcphen II.. the French came intfi Italy under Pepin, who founded the State of the Church (754) ; then, invited by Adrian I., Charlemagne made war upon the Tiombnrds under Desiderius, and put an end to their king- rbimf771l. In 800. Charlemagne was elected emjieror of thn Bonians and crowned by the pope. But this restoration of the Roman empire was only apparent, as the vitality of the new Civsarism was not Roman, but Oerman and theo- cratic, and, to use the expression of (iregorovius. the Church was tho real "kingdom of God upon earth'* — tlic cmi'irc was but the civil form; that was the soul, this but the Catholic body. It was no longer Roman laws, but the in- stitutions of the Church, which formed the solid structure and the bond of union between the Western nutiuns. and which constituted them into so many Christian communi- ties, at tho bcatl of which there was one mind — that of a single pope ; and one sword — that of a single emperor. Tho idea could not be realized, because the two elements which were to carry it out soon fell into discord. Charle- magne being dead (814). his weak successors were unable to restrain the nobles and the clcriry. and the feudal system was allowed to develop itself. Italy was first under the rule of Rernnrd. nephew of the great emperor, then of I.nuis. then of Lothair, then of Louis II.. then of Charles 11. the Bald, then of Carlomnn. and finally of Charles the Fat f 870-888). On the dethronement of this last sovereign five or six Italian feudal lords laid claim to the power, but Berengarius I., marquis of Friuli. prevailed over the rest (894), Under bis reign, that of Hugh, duke of Provence (926), and that of Berengarius TI.. bud of Ivrea, Italy passed through one of the most unhappy periods of her history, being desolated by civil wars, by invasions from Tlnngary and from the Saracens, by corruption, and by barbarism. II. Thr CnvimuveH nnd the lirpuUim. — Otho I. came to the throne (962) with three great ideas, all favor- able to Italy: to reduce the number and the authority of ITALY. 1343 the vassal nobles; (o favor tho growth of tho ciiies, the towns, and the municipnl mitliority : to diminish the papal power — not, imleej (n». unhappily, the later I, dinhnrtls had done), by usurpiii;^ the territory, but by underniiuin^^ its moral influence, and by taking part biniself in the pontif- ical cleetions. The conininncs profited by this disposition. and first of all (he maritime towns (Amalli. Pisa. Genoa, Venice), to or^janize a free government. The liitter con- flicts between the ])apaey anti the empire having reached their height under (Jregory VII. and Henry IV. (107^5-85), broii'^ht upon Italy the curse of the (fuelph and (Thibellino faetitins. the White and the iJIaek, ote. ; as a last conse- quence, however, they proved favorable to the development of that republican spirit which tlie two principal rivals couM not suc'-eed in dominatin;;. Among other po^verful causes of tho aggrandizement of tho free communes were the Crusades, which, unsucce>^sful as religious an<l political enterprises, excited immense maritime and commercial ac- tivity. Representing the imperial principle against repub- licanism, Frederick Barbarossa descended into Italy (1 ITjI). besieged and took Tortona, was crowned king of Italy in Pavia, assisted Pope Adrian to eru-^h Arnobl of lirescia, received in reward the imperial erown, and rcturiifl into Germany. Itut tho pope soon broke away t'rom the im- perial alliance, and Frederick crossed the Alps again ( 1 158), took Brescia, besieged Milan for the first time, established his authority under tho name of pofictil in every province, treated Crema with great severity, and besieged Milan anew and razed it to the ground (\ic>2). Against this bar- barity the (luelph cities solemnly eonclnded, at Pontida, the Lombar'l League. Frederick, returning, assaulted Alexandria, and met the confederates at Tiignano, where tho Italians (chiefly through the valor of tlie Milanese, hearlcd by their carrorn'o, or great war-chariot) defeated the imperial host in a great battle. The peace of Constance (June 25, Ils^t) confirmed the triumph of the free cities, which were thereafter governed by two consuls, who were to receive (heir investiture fr')m the emperor, and render him feudal hnmage. But in Southern Italy the republican spirit was overshailowed. first by the Xorman luonarcliy founded by tho brave Roger, and then by the Pwabian. An illustrious and heroic desr-endant of this latter house. Frederick II., with the help of !*opo Innoc-nt III., wrenehrd the imperial crown from Otho IV. : but tho ambitious pontilT. the fcninder of the Holy Inquisition, soon nft'-r turneil a^rainst him. At CarloDova, Frederick defeated thoneiv I-ombard Lea-ruo formed against him at the instigation of the pope (12rJ!)). Fred«*rick dying in 12.j0, the papal hatred followed liisracc, nnd was never appeasncl until Charles of Anjou, at the in- vitation of Pope i'rban IV., by the battles of Benevento and Tagliacoz.za, and by the death of Manfn-d nnd of Conra line, put an end to the Swabian dominion in Italy fl2C(i-fi.S). The new Freneh rule, luiwever, was of short duration, and was overthrown partly by an insurrection headed by .Tobn of Proeida, ami y<'t more by tho insolence of the soldiers of Charles, who ]irovoI:r(l nt Palermo the revolution of tho Si<'ilian Vespers ( I2:J2). Meanwhile, in- ternal discords were bringing ruin upon tho republics in other parts of Italy: and the houses of tho Delia Torre. and afterwards of the Visconti of Milan, of the Kzzelini at Padua, of lh '■ Sealigeri nt Verona, of the Pallavieini in other parts of Lombardy, Imd aerinired great power. At Florence, the Buondelmonti and the Auiedei. at B(dogna Ihi' (lerernei and the Lambertnzzi. at (ienoa the (Irimaldi and the Fiesebi on one si'Je, the I»oria and tin- ."^pinola on the other, w*rc in continual quarrels, and rivalled each Other in their efforls to destroy tho liberty of their fellow- oitizenji. The maritime towns, in their disputes for tho dominion of the f<ea and fur commercial superiority, ruined each other by turns. Pisa wasted Ainalfi. and in barium, after the battle rjf Meh)ria ( I2SM, wa-s crushed by Genoa; but Genoa atoned for it by her long struggle with Venice, until the war of Chiotrgia (l.'itUI-S") left tho two republics completely exhausted. Florence, always torn by factions. was imperilled by the revolution of the Ciompi, headed by the wool-comber Michael di Lando, the precursor of mod- ern Socialism (l.tTH). Everything, in short, wiis on the | decline in Italy; the papacy, which had transferred its seat from Rome to Avignon ( 1307), the lihibelline party, henrled at first by Matfeo Vise.mti, and tlien by Castrucrio Ciistra<'ani, wa* loMinj; its power. Scourged, now by the ' tniops of Philip tho Fair, now by those of Louis of Ba- ' varin, Italy had become the Itatlle-ficld in which foreign I ambition cxi'reised its worst passions. In vain Coin da ! Ricnzi struggled fr>r a momi'nt ( l-'M? ) to rekindle the spirit of a dying civilization. HI. Tfi- Ih-failmrr. — The eause and at the same time (he consequtMiee of the civil debase- I ment of Italy was the lack of a military syririt in her peo- ple, so that she was completely at the mercy i>f domestic and forciKn ambition. Hence the origin of the companies ! which overran and plundered tho country with impunity under the banners of Ladrisio Visconti, of Fra Morialc. of Raimondo da Cordova, of Sir John Hawkwood, of Ani- chino Baumgarten. of Braccio da Montone. of Giovanni d'OIeggio, of Carmaijnola, of I'ieciuino. of Sforza, etc. The house of Savoy alone, in tho midst of all this corrup- tion, maintained itself nncontaininated, and by the valor- ous enterprises of Amadeus VI. (il Conte Verde) and by those of Amadeus VIII. foreshadowed the glorious days of Emmanuel Philiberto ami the three glorious Charles Emmanuels, worthy preeursors of tinit monarchy which in our day has redeemed Italy. It was also a great misfor- tune that while the Western and Northern nations were shaking off the yoke of the Il(uni.--h (Muireh by a great reformation, Italy being not yet prepared, suffrred tlie great movement of Savonarola and tliat of Burlaniaehi to fail, thus postponing for three centuries that moral re- generation which is the basis of political progress. Tho most cultivatetl people in Italy, the Florentines, preferred the splendor of the court of Lorenzo the Magnificent to the austere doctrines of the Reformers, and tliey allowed tho merchant-monarchy of the Mcdicis — vainly threatened for a moment by the eonspiraey of the Pazzi — to take root anrl thrive until it extinguished in their souls even the very desire of liberty. The old Cosimo nssumed the title of " father of his country " (1429). In the mean time, the power of the Turks was increasing in the East, to tho injury not only of Italy, but of the civilization of all Europe. Ain- urat I. threatened Constnntinople (13fi0): Biija/.et would have taken it had be not iiccn arrested by the wild meteor Tamerlane and bis army (1102). But Amurat II.. and then Mahomet If., returned with renewed energy to tho enterprise, and (ho fall of Byzantium (l-15.'l) sealed the ruin of the colonial power of the Italians. Not long after, tho discovery of tho New World, made by the Genoese Colum- bus (1 Ii52'l. and that of the East India passage round tho Capo of Good Hope by the Portuguese Vasco da (iama (1107), then tho conquests of Corfez. Pizarro, Almagro, Vasco, Nunez de Balboa, of Cabot, Verazzani, ami of \'es- puei'i in America, together with those of Almeyda and of Albuquerque in India, diverted commerce from its old channels, depriving Italinn navigators of the palm, and bestowing it upon more Western nations. Nothing now remained to Italy but tlie glory of letters, of arts, and of scionce, but in these she shone without a rival. Mean- while, the crooked ])olicy of Ludovico il Moro again brought a foreign power into Italy. Charles VIII.. king of France, overran tiic Peninsula from one end to the other (MO.'i). Tho French under Louis XII., and the Sjianish under Ferdinand the Catholic, disputed the dominion of Italy, The pn])al throne was made infamous by Alexancler VI., and (^lesar Borgia, his son.ua.s tho complete personi- fication of that base policy which i\Iaechiavelli systematized in II Principe, .\lmo3t all Europe uniterl in the League of Cambray against the repiiblie of Venice (l.'iOS), whoso forces were defeated in the battle of Ghiara d'Adda (1500), and Julius II., who bad been the aoul of the League, turned against tho foreigners with tho cry, I'nnri i itur- bnri ! and formed tho Holy League in order to drive out tho French f 1.^11), who, in spite of the prowess and the ferocity of Gaston de Foix and tho valor of bis Bayards, La Tremouille and Trivulzi, were obliged to abandon Italy. But soon after Francis I. descended the .\lps, was victor- ious at Marignano(I5L"i), was defeated and taken nrisimer at Pavia f 1 *>2.'i). Then folio werl the great conflicts between this king and Charles V.. of which Italy unfortunately was the principal theatre; the pontifi(;atcs of Leo X. and of Clem- ent VII., the siege of Florence, the valorous enterprises nf Giovanni dalle Bando Nere. the exploits and the death of I'VanccHco Ferruccio, the siege and sack of Rome by the imperialists under the constable de Bourbon, who there lost his life ( l.'^i27) ; the expedition against Algeria, con- ducted by Andrea Doria; the Peace of Crcspy (ir>Il); then that of Cateau Cambresis, which established despot- ism rather than jieaco in Itnly and in all Europe (I.k'jO); the glorious enterprise of I%mmanuel Philiberl ; the bat- tle of Lepanto (Ij7I1, in which tin' Italian navy shone brilliantly for the last time, and by whi(di the final bh)W wa« given to Turkish prtwer. During the seventeenth cen- tury, while all tlif aneient states of Italy were fallen to the lowest point, the boiHe of Sji^'oy arose with new splendor through the dieds of lii-r three Charles Emmanuels and of Victor Amadeus. IV. Thv /{fynirmlion. — To llieso crowned hemes, as well as to the popular heroes Pietro Micca and Picasso (called Balliria). who in tho wars of succession. an<l especially in thiit of the Austrian succes- sion, sustained nobly the honor of Italy, belongs the boast of having given the signal f<fr the uprising of a nation which so many centuries of misfortune had made abject. But a long and stormy period was still to be pa-s^ed through —the wiirs of the republic and of (be first Fr-neh empire Uhe battle of Montenotte ( 17'.M'.), the Treaty of Cherasio, 1344 ITALY— ITURBIDE, DE. the battlis of Caldicra and of Arcolc. the Treaty of To- lentino, the fall of Venice (1797), the battle of Xovi, the block:ule of (icuoa, thi- battle of JIarengu (l.sl)O), etc.). anil then Iho Peaccof Vienna ( ISlo). which sacrificed Italy to the Holy Alliance. Frequent insurrections, and espe- cially those of 1S21 and of ls:!l, were the forerunners of that j;nat and happy revolntion which, begun in 1S4S, when King Charles Albert granted the constitulicin, was (Mimph-ted in 1870, when united Italy made Rome the cap- ital of the kingdom. G. BoccARUO. Italy, tp. "fVatosco., N.y. It has 6 churches. P.1.341. Itamarati' ^Brazilian, "white rock"], a celebrated casi-adi' near Metropolis, the summer capital of Brazil, about .'lO miles N. W. from Rio Janeiro. Its height is va- riously calculated, but is not less than 250 feet, nearly per- ])endicular. Hard' (Jean Marie Gaspard), b. at Oraison in the S. of France in 1775; after studying at Riez and iMarseilles entered a banking-house in the latter place, where he re- mained until 179:!, when he eluded the requisition for mil- itary service iiy representing himself as a medical student, though in fact he had never given the least attention to medicine. Nevertheless, ho was assigned by the revolu- tionary eominittee to a military hospital as assistant sur- geon, and by dint of careful observation and study soon became so skilful an operator that he obtained an ap|>oint- mcnt by competitive examination in the ^'al-de-(irace Hos- pital at Paris. Three years later he was appointed phy- sician to the deaf-mutes' institution, where he umdo a spe- cialty of diseases aifecting the organs of hearing, in which department he speedily acquired a European reputation. His experiments in the education of " the wild man of .'Vveyron," a boy twelve years old captured in the woods, were described by him in two works published in 1S07, which excited great interest. Itard wrote an imiiortant work on Disfnttcs nf the Ear and the Oi-ijann of lleariwj (1S21). D,.at l'aris.july 0,1838, leaving largo bequests to the institution fur deaf mutes and the Academy of Medicine. Itas'ca, an unorganized county of Slinnesota, bounded on the N. by the Rainy Lake and Rainy L.ake River, which separate it from C'anad.a. Area, about 52(111 square miles. It is in part reserved for the Indians. It contains much pine and larch timber, and many lakes and marshes, pro- ducing wild rice (Zlzanla aqiintica), the seed of which is employed as food by the Indians. Pop. AG. Itasca Lake, in Beltrami and Cass cos.. Minn., is regarded as the source of the Mississi]ipi. It receives, however, several streams, one of which is several miles in length. Its elevation is 1575 feet. It is surrounded with pine-clad hills some lOn feet higher than the lake, which is very beautiful. The Mississippi leaves the lake with a breadth of some 12 feet, and is ordinarily less than 2 feet deep at this ]ioint. Itauam'ba, county of N. E. Mississippi, bounded on the E. by Alabama. .\rea. about 500 square miles. It is a level liliiestone region, with a rich soil, and not much tim- ber. Torn and cotton arc staple products. Cap. Fulton. Pop. 7S12. Itch. See SrABiES, by E. Darwix Hudson-, Jr., M. D. KkVISKO by WiLLAIUl Paiiker, M.I). Itli'aca, or Thca'ki, one of the smallest of the Ionian Islands. Area, 11 square miles. Pop. 11,940. It is mountainous, but fertile, producing olive oil, wine, and currants of a superior !--ind. It is famous as the dominion and home of Ulysses, and contains some cyelopean ruins, which still arc called the ea.stle of Ulysses. The principal town is Vathi, with a good harbor and 2500 inhabitants. Ithaca, post-v., cap. of (Jratiot co., Mich., handsomely situated at the geographical centre of the county, in a fine agricultural region ; has a foundry, furniture-factory, saw-mill, planing-mill, a weekly newspaper, 4 churches, 2 hotels, etc. Prineijjal business, farming. Robert .Smith, Ed. '' Gratiot Co. Journal." Ithaca, tp. and post-v., cap. of Toni)ikins co., N. V., near I lie head of Cayuga Lake, on the Delaware Lacka- wanna and Western, the Ithaca and Athens, the Ithaca and Cortland, the Ithaca and (Jcneva, and the Cayuga Lake R. Rs. It is an important centre of the Pennsylvania an- thracite coal-trade: has 9 churches. I daily and ,'l weekly newspapers, 2 national ancl 1 savings bank (aggregate cap- ital and deposits, $750,000), and large manufacturing in- terests. Calendar clocks, horse-rakes, spokes and hahs, paper, glass, leather, and machinery are manufactured. Ithaca is the seat of Corseli. Univeksitv ( which see) and of Sago College for ladies. Ithaca has gas and water works, and a public library costing, with its building, $li(;,Oon, the gift of -Mr. Ezra Cornell. The scenery hero is very fine. Pop. S4G2 ; of tp. 10,107. J. II. Selkreo, Ed. •' Ithaca Journal." Ithaca, post-v. of Twin t]>., Darke co., O., 3 miles from Gordon, a station on the Dayton and Union R. R. Pop. 150. Ith'ica, post-tp. of Richland co.. Wis. Pop. I2nC. Itho'me, a mountain-fortress in Messenia, raemorablo for the defence there made for many years against the Spartans in the first Mcssenian war. It was afterward Iho citadel of Messeno when that city was founded by Epam- inondas. — There is another town of Ithome in HistiaMitis, Thcssaly, described by Homer as the " rocky Ithome," and placed by Strabo within a quadrangle formed by the four cities of Tricea', Metropolis, Pelinnieuin. and tiomphi. It jirobably occupied the site of the castle which stands on the summit above Fanari. It'ius Por'tus, the port on the present French coast, nearly op]iositc Dover, from which Ca?sar sailed on his second exjiedition to Britain. Its position has been a mat- ter of much controversy ; the majority of geographers, however, identify it with Wissant. I'tri,town of Southern Italy, in the province of Caserin, near Gaeta. Very interesting antiquities abound in tho neighborhood. A modern sanctuary on a high ]joint com- mands a superb view of the sea. Pop. in 1874, l»5.S2. Itti'ri, town of Southern Italy, in the province of Sas- sari. Pop. in 1874, 5055. Itu. Sec IIvtu. Iturx'a [Gr. 'iToupaia], a small district in the N. E. of Palestine, which in tlic time of Christ formed, along with Trachonitis, the tetrarchy or government of Philip, son of Herod the Great, and brother of Ilerod, tetrarch of Gal- ilee (Luke iii. 1). Tho name is supposed to have been de- rived from .Jctur, one of the sons of Ishmael. It was N. of Bashan, and ailjoined Auranitis, tho modern Ilauran, with which it has often been confounded. It is now called Jedur, and eontaius 38 towns and villages. (See Porter's Five Ycara in Damaecus and Robinson's Jiiblical Jie- eearehex.) Iturbi'de, de (Agcstin), b. at Valladolid (now Mor- elia), Mexico. Sept. 27, 178.3: took a dislingui.shed part as an officer of the Spanish army in the war against the Mex- ican revolutionists of ISIO and subsequent years, rising to the rank of colonel: but in 1820, in consequence of the constitutional revolution which took place in Spain in that year, he decided to make an attempt for the indepemlenco of Mexico under a monarchy. Obtaining command of the Spanish forces in the S. of the province of Mexico, he pro- mulgated Feb. 24, 1821, the " Plan of Iguala" at the town of the same name. The essential features of this celebrated plan were known as the ** three guaranties" — i. e. the maintenance of tho Catholic religion: union of Mexicans and Spaniards : independence with a monarchy under a prince of the Spanish Bourbon dynasty. The plan of Iguala liad immediate success : it was aceejited with enthusiasm not only by the native Mexicans, but by the greater part of the Spivnish forces in the country. After several months of nominal hostilities. Iturbide concluded a treaty at C6r- doba (.\ug. 24. 1821) with the new Spanish viceroy, O'Dcmoju. by which his "plan" was virtually accepted, and he thereupon made a triumphal entry -nto the city of Mexico Sept. 27 of the same year. A fttnta of fjarmiment, and afterwards a regency, was established under the pres- idency of Iturbide, a constituent assembly was chosen, and negotiations were at once begun .with Spain for obtaining a prince who should be crowned emperor of .Mexico. Through tho fatuity of Ferdinand VII., the treaty of C<ir- doba was rejected by the Spanish government, and the successful movement for independence was treated as re- bellion. .\ftcr some vacillation ami quarrels with the con- stituent assembly he had convoked, Iturbide, favored by his army, was proclaimed emperor May 18, 1822, and was reluctantly recognized by the assembly. He was crowned July 21, but experienced great opposition, being eompellcd sor,n after to dissolve the assembly and imprison fifteen of the deputies. In Decemhcr>-<'eii. iSaaja Aii"a,-Uieil a YCCJf. young man, and lately a warm parti.san of Iturbide, pro- claimed the republic in Vera Cruz, and by Apr., 182,3, the situation had become so hopeless that Iturbide resigned the crown and made terms with the restored assembly, by which he was .allowed to embark for Europe and enjoy a pension of S25.000. He sailed for Italy .May 11, resided several months in Leghorn, thence went to England, and in May, 1824, chartered a vessel in which he returned to Mexico, ostensibly to tender his services as general against an anticipated invasion by Spanish forces, but doubtless with the expectation of recovering his throne. Meanwhile, a republican j^vernment had been formed in Mexico, which, thrown into alarm by a rumor of Iturbide's intend- ed return, issued a decree that he should be treated as an outlaw should he set foot within the territory of the re- ITZA INDIANS— IV(^J;V. i;u5 public. If^Dorant of this decree, Iturbide secretly landed at Soto la MurinaJuIy H, was recognized iiud taken befurc the statu legislature, by whoso orders he wiis shot at I*a- dilla, Tamaulipa.-', July 19, 1824. Jlis family estuhlishcd itsi'If at PhiladelphiH, where the ex-empress d. Mar. 2., IS61. Several *>i' the suns of Iturbide wero afierwards honored with dijilomatic or military posts by the Mexican government, und during the ephcmerni empire of Maxi- milian the survivors were reeognized as princes. The elder, Angel dc Iturbide, d. in the city of Mexico July 21, 1S72; the younger. .Agustin, d. in Purls in May, 1S73. Prince Agustin. son of Angel, recognized by Maximilian as heir-presumptive, was b- inl.'^C I, J»nd now(IS7.'v) re- Bidc^i with his mother, an American lady, at (leorgelown, D. ('. PouTiiR C. Bliss. Itza' Indians of Central America are of undoubted Maya stoek. and by their own traditions must have loft Yucatan in the firteenth century. They were visited in 1.^25 by Cortez, whom they treated kinrlly. They valiantly maintained their indepon<lence until IfifS. They had pre- viously attained pome degree of civilizatiou. They are chiefly found in the vicinity and on tlie islands of Lake I'7.i, on the boundary between Guatemala and Mexico. They arc in name, at least, of the Roman Catholic faith. It'zchoe, town of Prussia, in the duchy of Ilolstein, on the Stor. It has distilleries, sugar-refineries, manufac- tures of chicory luid tobacco, and carries on a considerable general trade. Pop. 9111. lu'ka^ post-v., cap. of Tishomingo CO., Miss., on the Mem- phis and Charleston IX. R., II j miles from Memphis, Tenn., and S miles from Tennessee River; has a female institute, a male academy, a planing-mill. a weekly newspaper, and valuable mineral springs. .T. S. Davis, Ed. *' IIf.rald." Ivan' the Terrible, the fourth grand duke of Russia having tlie name Ivan (John), and the first czar of that country (though reckoned as Ivan IV.), b. in I.>2y; suc- ceeded his father Rasil in \y.y.\; put to death in 1.j4^ the triumvirate of regents, an<l soon after assumed the title of czar; published a new code IJjO; carried on wars with the Tartar?, eapturing Astrakhnn, Kasan.and parts of Siberia, but io I.JfiS acknowledged the sovereignty of .Tediguer tbo Tartar; carried on long and undecisive wars with the Poles and Swedes; introduced civilization and the art of print- ing in Russin. but ruled with great cruelty and harshness. D. Mar. I'J, U8I. Ivano'vo, town of Russia, in the government of Vladi- mir, has important eolton spinning and weaving factories and manufactures of chemicals. Its cotton manufactures cmii'.oy a con-iiderable part of tho population of tho vi- cinity and are steadily increasing. Pop. SOOO. I'verMon fAi.FnKD), b. in Burke co.. Go,., Dec. 3, 1798; graduated at Princeton in 1^20; was admitted to tho bar and attained tlistinction in his profcs^irtn ; was three years mem'ior of the House in the St:ite legislature, and one year of the Senate; was elevated to tho bench of his judicial circuit, which he fille<l for seven years: was one of the electors at largo for the .'^tate on the Democratic ticket io the Presidential election in ISit; was a member of Con- press 1817-19, nnd V. S. Senator from Georgia 18.^)5-01. This position he resigned on the passage of tho ordinance of secession by the State convention in Jan., IRllI, which measure he ardently ndvoeated. He raiserl a regiment for the Confederat-? army, and became colonel and brigadier- general. D. in Macon, Oa., Mar. 1, 1873. A. II.Stkimiens. Ives (DwifiHT). D. D., b. at Ilolyoke, Mass.. Sent. 20, ISO."!; graduated at Brown University 18.15; was ordained to the Baptist niini?<try in 1830, and preached in Lower Al'on, III. ; .su|tposed to have been the first Baptist preacher in llic Srato who gave his entire services to one church, re- ceiving from them a salary competent for support. Ho was settleil also at Suftield, Conn., being both secretary and president of the boaril of trustees in the Connecticut Lit- erary Institution (Baptist) in that place. D. Dec. 22, I87.'i. Ivcs (Ei.i), .M. I)., b. at New Haven, Conn., Feb. 7, 1779; graduated at Yale 1799; studied medicine with his father. Dr. Levi Ives; and with Prof. B. Silliman founded in 1813 the medieiil department of Vale College, in which ho was professor of materia meilica until 1H29, and then until 18:):s professor of the theory and practice of merlieine. Ho was at one time president of the National Medienl ,\s- pocia'ion ; was an advocate of temperance, education, and the abolition of slavery. P. at New Haven Oet. 8, 1801, Ives (Rt. Rev. Lrvi Sii.i.iman), D. D.. LL.l).. b. at M'.'riden, Conn.. Sept. Irt. 1797; worked on his father's farm at Turin, N. Y. ; served a year in the war with Oreat Britain 1*^12-1.^. ami was eilucated at Lowville Academy nnd Hamilton Ccdb-ge. Ho was at first a Presbyterian. In I '^?.?- he received dcnenn's orders in the Protestant Epis- copal Church, nnd in 182.') married a daughter of Bishop Vol,. II.— 8.-) Hobart. Ho held pastoral charges in Philadelphia, in Lan- caster, Pa., and in New York, and in 1831 was consecrated bishop of North ('ardlina. In bis diocese he labored much for the good of the ^Iaves nn<l for the cause of education. In 1852, his diocese being alienated from him on account of differing views in regard to questions of doctrine nnd church polity, he visited Rome, where he joined the Roman Catholic Church. Tie was al'teiwards professor In the theo- ftywTcal ycmhinry at Fordham. N. V. He afterwards de- voted much attention to the founding of an asvlum for des- titute children at Manhattanville. New York Citv, wliere he d. Oct. 13. 18G7. He wrote Triah of a Mind in itti PnnjrcHH fo Oitkuliviam { 1854), and several devotional and other works. Ivi'za, or Ivi'ca, the smallest and westernmost of the Balearic Islands, in the Medilerrancnn. and belonging to Spain. It is 23 miles long. 12 miles broad. an<l has 1 1,000 inhabitants. It is mountainous, but has several fertile val- leys producing good wine and olive oil. Timber and salt are the main exports. The principal towns arc Iviza nnd San Antonio. I'vory [Old Eng. imric, from the French ivoirc ; I\Iid- dle Lat. f:hor ; Lat. ehnr]. The derivation of the Latin from barruH, an elephant, so-called from ^apir?, '■ heavy," on account of its great weight, is very doubtful, since there is in Sanscrit iblio, in Coptic ohhc, a "tooth," and in an- cient Egyptian fhon. Perhaps, says Lamusse, this latter had a eommon origin with the Semitic halihiw. Ivory has generally been defined as simply the tooth of the ele|tiiunt, but it is in reality a substance between bone and horn from the teeth or tusks of many animals. Its chemical composition is — Phosphate of lime GI.OO Organic matter 24.00 Water 11.1.5 Carbonate of lime 0.10 Ivory is for the most part, however, the material of the tusks of tho elephant. The teeth of tlio hippopotamus give a finer and harder variety, but owing to iheir hollowncss they can only be employed for small objects. The largo marine animals, such as the walrus, narwhal, and sper- maceti whale, also yield varieties of ivory. That of the wal- rus was formerly much used by the old Norsemen for mak- ing pieces for the game of draughts ; several of these, beau- tifully carved, are in the British Museum. The material is extremely hard, of a dead pearly white, which becomes black, not yellow, with age. The fossil ivory of Siberia, dug from the ground, consists of the tusks of mammoths and elepbant.s of extinct species. It is found in the Laieho- vian Isles and by the Frozen Sea. The elephant ivory of the present time comes from Africa and Asia: the latter being, with the exception of the small tusks from Ceylon, mucli inferior to the former, its faults being a tendency to split, an inferior color, and the more rapid deterioration towards yellow. Ivory is difficult to cut. requiring ex- tremely sharp and very hard tools, but yields readily to the saw, lathe, and rasping tools or files, a great variety of which are used to reduce the block to form. Owing to tho value of ivory — which is so rapidly increasing that it now ranks as a precious substance — the greatest care is taken to avoid waste, the division into pieces or veneers being effected with thin saws. AVIien finished it is jtolisbed with different powders. Its natural whiteness is ex(|uisitely deli- cate, bearing a great rescmblanco to tho brightest tint of the human skin, which latter presents the most beautiful hue in nature. But it soon assumes a yellow tone. Spangler, a celebrated wnrkman in ivory at Copenhagen, discovered that ivory kept from the air. but not trom the light, under a glass, will retain its whiteness for an intlelinite time. The yellow tint of old ivory may be removed with finely levi- gated pumice-stone. It should then be put while wet under a glass and exposed every day to the sun. Ivory is used for piano-keys, knife-handles, billiard-balls, book-covers, combs, and for an indefinite variety of ornaments nnd works of art. its " fashif)nableness " and the variety of Its appli- cation having increased of late years with its vulue. The drying uji and crumbling of ivory is (»wing to Ihe ex- haustion of its gelatine. When the works of ivory dug by Mr. Layard from Nineveh were brought to Engbind. and found to be in a state of rapid flecomposilion. Prof. Owen suggested that they should lie boiled in a s<dution of gela- tine. I'nder this process they bccamo hard and firm. Elephant ivory in plates presents delicate lines resembling wh:it is called in ilrawing eross-hatehing or cancellation; and this, which disqualifies it for making artificial teeth, adapts it for miniature painting, and in fact increases the beauty of its tone in all works uf art. Ivory was extensively used by Egyptian!", Assyrians, nnd ancient Greeks. Solomon had a llirone of ivory inlaid with gold, and the throne of Penelope is described as of ivory and silver. The later Greeks carried this work in 1346 IVORY— IXMIQUILPAN. goUi and ivory to a degree of splendor which seems in- credible. From their extended traffic with Persia and Egypt they obtained immense quantities of both Asiatic and African ivory. l>iopcne and Seillis. Cretan artists established at Sieyone, wen- the first to makr.' statues of gold and ivory. The temple of Juno at Olympia contained, amonj; many great works in ivory, the cofl'cr of Cyitselus, the taMo of ivory and gold of the Olym])ic games, the bed of Ilippodamia, the discus of Ipiiitus. and statues of Juno, till' Hours, the llesperides, and Minervn. Under the in- Ihu-ncc <if I'hidias the toreutic or <-hn/srirfihnuthir, or gold- and-i\<>ry sculpture, became, as befitted its name, colossal. The Minerva of the Parthenon and the Olympic Jupiter evidently surpassed any works of the kinrl known to the ninderns, as may be inferred from this, (hat the Minerva bore in her hand a Victory 2 metres in hciirht. The scholars of Phidias made a great number of these giganlie images, in which the nude portions of tiie human figure were in ivory and the drapery of gold. But the quantity of ivory used in Home was prodigious. The gates of the temple of Apollo, built by Augustus as a votive ofiering for the vic- tory of Actium, were of this costly material. It is said that the Romans knew how to soften ivory and mould it as horn is now miinipulati'd. According to Dioscorides, this was cficeted by boiling in the juice of mandragora- roots ; according to Plutarch, in fermented barley. This is now done by immersing articles of ivory in a solution of pure phosphoric acid of specific gravity 1.1.10, and leaving them there till they lose their opacity. Byzanlinc art. however, went even beyond Roman in the profuse use of ivory, and there is not a museum of Europe which does not contain diptychs and triptychs (f(dding tablets with relig- ious images), cups, reliquaries, crucifixes, and arms of this era. Magnificent coffers, many of great size, also abounded. Charlemagne had two fftttcs in ivory of Byzantine execu- tion. The episcopal chair of St. Vitalis, a work of the sixth century, now in Ravenna, is a fine specimen of this style. Ivory becoming very scarce in the twelfth century, caskets were made of segments of bone, carved. During the 3Iid- dlo Ages it became again plentiful, and with the Re- naissance the art of carving it reached perfection. Florence at first, and subsequently Flanders ami (Jermany, were the great centres of the manufacture. Bcnvenulo Cellini, Michael Angelo, Diirer, John of Bologna, and Algardi dis- tinguished themselves by their work. In the seventeenth century the most eminent ivm-intft were Cope, Zcller. A«- germaycr, Du<|U(snoy. Van Obsfal. Kcm of Nuremberg, Faidherbc of Mechlin, Bossint, Zich, Berger of Norway, and Troj'er. Many others, however, had as great a repu- tation. Monks in cloisters not unfrequently devoted a life to carving a crucifix: one of the best of these is now pre- served at Avignon. Ivory was extensively used in the preparation of arms. Picppo is regarded at the present day as the most extensive ivory-factory in Europe, but work quite as artistic as any produced in this city is made in Germany, not a little of it consisting of imitations of old goblets, oliphants {or bunting-horns), etc.. which are sold as antique. Ivory is imitated by eoml)inations of gelatine and baryta, and it is stated that billiard- balls arc made of paper-pulp and gclalino which ex- actly resemble the ordinary kind, and which may be used to play with. Plaster of Paris in powder, combined with chrome, cast and boiled in milk, stearine, oil, or wax, will in time, if occasionally polished, exactly resemble yellowish ivory. The artificial meerschaum, matlc of egg- shell and gypsum, with probably some intermixture of magnesia, bears at times a great resemblance to ivory, hut is brittle. Considering the near approach which has been made by art to imitating ivory, it does not seem incredible that at some future day it may supply a comparatively per- fect substitute for what we arc now indebted to nature. In a few years the African supply, and in fact all others, will be exhausted, as every traveller in the country bears wit- ness that the elephants arc constantly disappearing before the hunter. It is supposed that at present at least 20,000 cwt. of ivory of different kinds are made up annually iu Europe. (Sec Vix.nTABLK Ivouv.) Ciias. G. Lkland. Ivory ( Jamfr), F. R. S., b. at Dundee, Scotland, in 176.') ; cdiicatcii at the University of St*. Andrew's, along with Sir John Leslie. For many years ho superintended a flax- spinning factory, and in ISflt was appointed professor of mathematics in the Royal Military College of Marlow (now at Sandhurst), lie was a self-taught mathematician, and spent much of his time in retirement, fathoming the pro- foundest writings of the most learned continental mathe- maticians, and adding to their value by original analytical contributions. His most celebrated paper, in which he eoinpletoly and definitively resolved (he problem of attrac- tion for everv c!na« of ellipsoidal bodies, was published in the Ph;iu>i:pl,!rn! rr«i(*-.rri\.»« for 1 SOO. Resides this paper. Mr. Ivory contributed many others ou the subject of the attraction of spheroids and the theory of the figure of the earth, during a period of nearly thirty years; one of the last subjects which occupiecl his attention wa« the possible equilibrium of a spheroid with three unequal axe*, which Jaeobi had discovered. Next to the theory of attractions, that of atmospheric refractiun most seriously engaged his attention, its great importance in astronomy, and tiie curi- ous mathematical diUiculties which it presents, rendering it of great interest to analysts. D. Sept. 21, 1842. Ivory Black. See Bone Black, by Pkoi*. C, F. Chamd- LEH, Pn. D.. M. D., LL.D. Ivory Coast, a part of the const of Upper Gninea, "West Africa, between the so-called Grain Coast and Gold Coast. It extends from Cape Palmas to the river Assinie, and has several towns along the coast, which traffic in ivory, gold-dust, and palm oil. Ivre'a, town of N. Italy, in the province of Turin, pic- turesquely situated at the mouth of the beautiful valley of Aoata, on the right bank of tlio Dora Baltca. It was a Roman possession as early as 'JO b. v., and many vestiges of that period, such as foundations of theatres Hiid portions of aqueducts, still exist. Ivrca played no inconsiderable part in the Dicdifcval history of Northern Italy, and a ras- tle of the thirteenth century is nov.' used as a penitentiary. TbeCarnival festivitiesof Ivrca still eommemorate a popu- lar uprising of the city against the marquis of Monferrato in the thirteenth century. The cathedral is reported to have been an ancient tenip!c of Apollo, consecrated for Christian worship early in the fifth century. This (own has soniG luanufactorics. but the great water-power of (he Dora Baltca is but partially employed. Pep. in IST'l, 1)123. Ivry'^, town of France, in the department of Seine sur- Seine, 4\ miles from Paris. It has manufactures of iron and glass, and a considerable trade in wine. Pop. 71156. Ivry'-la-Bataille', a v. of France, 40 miles W. of Paris, on the river Euro. Pop. about 1-00. It is nottd for the decisive victory gained hero by Iltnry IV. of Navarre (Mar. 1-1, 1000) against the forces of the League under the duke of Mayenne. An obelisk to eommemorate this victory was removed during the French Revolution, but renewed by Napoleon in 1S09. I'vy [A. S. ///'/]• *^^ Hcdera helix, a climbing, shrubby Old-World plant, sparingly cultivated in the I'. S., wliere it nowhere thrives as in Europe, being impatient of the cold of winter and the dryness and heat uf summer. It succeeds best in the Middle Atlantic States. It belongs to the order Araliacea). It abounds in Europe, growing upon bouses, churches, walls, castles, and trees. There aie sev- eral varieties. The so-called "German ivy." coninion in house cultiu'c, is not an ivy at all. but a Scnccio frem Sc.ulh Africa. ( For the '■ poison ivy " of the U. S. Bco RuL'S.) Iwakara Toinomi. Sco Appkndix. I\caqilix''tla9 town in the southern part of the ftafc of Puebla, Mexico, U{\ miles S. E. of the city of Pucbla. Pop. about 5000. It is the chief town of the Pnpoloca or Chuehon Indians, who occujiy the table -land between Tept^ji do la Seda and the frontier of Oaxaca, an indige- nous race which formerly extended over much of Southcro Mexico, but was conquered and driven into fastnesses, first by the Mixtceas, and afterwards by the Aztecs, remnants of them being found under distinct names in the states of Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Vera Cruz, as well as in Guatemala. Ixcaquixtla is noted in Mexican history as the scene of a sharp battle fought Jan. 1. 1817, between iMexican in- surgents under Gen. Mier of Teran and Spanish troops under Ba Madrid. AVilhin a space of two or (luce leagues around Ixcaquixtla there still exist hundreds of artificial mounds, mosdy of earth, but some of small squared stones, the latter of pyramidal form: they are still used by (he Indians, though nominally Christians, as altars on which offerings are jilaced to the deified Montezuma. I\i'on, a mythical character, supposed to have been a Thessalian prince and king of the Lapilha^. He wascsi»oused to Dia, daughter of llesioncus (or Deioncus). but on his 1 bridal day treacherously murdered his father-in- Taw, in j order to avoid the performance of his contract. Jupiter ' (or Zeus), however, magnanimously forgave him, but Ixion I rewarded his clemency by attempting (o seduce Here for ' .Tun(0, which attempt was frustrated by Jupitrr's substi- tution of a phantom resembling her. and resulted in Ixion becoming the father of the Centaurs. He was ultimately condemned, as a punishment for his treachery, to be chained to a fiery wheel pi-rpetually revolving and consisting of ! four spokes in the form of a cross. I ' I Ixiniqiiil'pan^ town and district in the state of ' Ilidal'^o. J^Iexieo, about 80 miles N. of the city of Mexico, 1 on the river Montezuma. Pop. about 10,000. In its vi- ' cinity arc several silver-mines, owned by English com- I panics. It was for some mouths in ISfil the head-quarters IXONJA— IZUCAB. 1347 of Gen. Zulgaga, wbo claimed to b« President uf the re- public; he hud with hitu two or tbree cabinet ofiicers aud some of the ordinary machiucry of a government. Tho people of tho di:jtrict are mostly Indians of the Otomi race. Ixo'niay posr-(p. of JifTcrson co., Wis,, on tho Milwau- kee iiiid St. P;iui U. R., 'sj7 miles W. of Aliluuukeo. P. 1777. Ixtacci'huatI [Moxiran. »>/"<', '• whitr," and c("Au«//, '* woHKiii '■], ;i iiiountaiD in Mexico, once a volcano, 1j,70j feet hij^h, adjoining that of Popocatepetl, from which its summit is distant al>out 16 miles K. It forms part of tho miiunlain-ran;^ gcpaniting tlic valleys of Mexico and PucUla, from both of which cities it is visible. It is cov- erri with perpetual snnw, and derives its D:imo from tho re3cml)laucQ of its summit to tho reclining figure of a woraiin. Ixtapala'pa, town in Mexico, 10 miles S. E. of tho cajtital, witbiu the federal district. Pop. about 6000. At the time of the comjuost of Mexico it was a largo city on the cnnal between lakes Texcocu and Cbalco, cekbratcdfor it« splendid garden', which belonged to tho Aztec eui- pcrors. It was the resideuee of a powerful va^^'al chieftain, a brother of Montezuma, and was the scene of many of tho important incidents of tho siege of tho capital. Few traces of its former impnrtanco now remain. A faill adjoining Ix- tapalapa to tho S. W., called the Cerro dc la Ertrclfay or Star Hill, was the most sacred spot known to tho Aztec* religion. At the expiration of each century of 52 years a'l the fires througliout tho empire were extinguished, and the now lire was n')t;i.incd by the chief priest by friction of pieces of wood over tho body of a bniiian victim placed Bpoa tho altar on the summit of this hill. All the Aztec priests and magnates set out from Tenochtitlan (Mexico) at midnight, going in procession to tho sacred hill, whicli thoT reached before daybreak, and tho now fire was carried in every direction (hrnughout the empire by hun<lrcds of awifl messengers. Some remnins of tho ancient altar and temple may still bo traced on tho summit of the hi!l. Ponxtii C. Bliss. Ixtlahna'ca, town and district in Mexico, near the N. \V. extremity of tho state of tho same name, CO miles from the federal capital. There aro in tho district several silver-mines, most of which, however, have been abandoned in con^wqueneo of revolutions or lack of capital to introduce proper machinery f'jr reducing the ores. This region was that inhabited by the Mazahua race of Indians, once so numerous as to have had grammars and catechisms printed in their language in (ho sixteenth and seventeenth cen- turies. The laagiiage is now fa=t expiring, but is sliil spoken in a few villages of tho district. Ixtlaiif town and district in Afcxico, etato of Oaxaca, 40 miles N, E. o( tho state capital. It is rich in silver- mines ; tho inhabitants are Indians of the Zapoteoo race. One mile from Ixtlan i? tho villa'^o of San Pablo Guelatno, memorable »-( the birthplace of Benito Juarez, President of M>'xieo fpiui 1 -^.'tS to his dealh in ls72. Ixtlilxo'chitI (Fp.RHANno dp, Alva), b. in Mexico or Texcocu abi>ut IJ(iS, waa a lineal descemlunt of tho an- cient emperor.'* of Toxeoco, and devoted himself to tho col- lection and translation of hieroglyphical records concerning bis ance^turii. Scarcely anything is known of his personal history, except that ho was interpreter to several viceroys, and in 1002 received from the Spanish king a grant of lanils as ropre.-entativo of tho former Aztec dynasty, lie left numerous writings, whieh arc preserved in the national archives in Mexico, only a portion of which have been printed, though copies wore usetl by Mr. Prescott in V\* HUtnrjf nf Mrrim. His /fiitnrtf n/ the Cfnehimecit wa.H published by Lord Kingsborough iu his Mexican Antiqui- titm. vol. ii.' I), in IGI8. IzabaS'f ascaportof Ouatcmala. on the Oolf> T>olc?, 12fl mib'9 N. N. K. from tho capital. It is t!i<3 only Atlantic rinrt of that republie, and is accessible only to vessels of ight draught, fur whieh reason largo vessels unlade at Ttalizo and ship their cargo to Izabal by coasting-vessels. I*op. about lOOO. l/aTco, 1<ia1co, or Vfiaico, town of Central America, stale uf San Salvador, aud situate about 10 miles W. by S. of tho city of that name, nnd ot the base of tho celebrated volcano fmni which it takes its name. It is chiefly inhab- ited by In<1ian«, tho population numbering between ^000 and .")()00; is possessed of a fertile and plentifully watered soil, but since tho earthquake of IS.'jft ha^t mnterinlly di- mini:Hh"d in eominereini importance nnd proKperity. Izaico, Monnt, ealh-d the "liehthouse of San Sal- vador," a \oIeano whiih bur^t forth I-'eb. 2.T. 1770. in what is now the republic of San Salvador, (""entral Anteriea. It stands very near a lari;e group of exf inel volciinoi-j. and has an eruption every sixteen minutes. It burst out iti the midst of a eattle-esta!e during a great earthquake, and Las since grown to a height exceeding 4000 feet. Its light is visible far at sea. It is near lat. l.t" la' N., Ion, 89° 44' W. IzamalScity in Yucatan. Mexico, 40 miles E.of M€rida, notable for the ruins of an ancient city, which are fullv described by Stephens in his Travtla in Yucatan. The celebrated bishop of Yucatan, Fray Diego de Landa, built a church and a vast convent in ljj3 upon the summit of an artificial pyramid on which was an idol temple; an imago of tho Virgin Mother was brought from Guatemala, and for its miracles acquired a great oclcbrity throughout Y'ucatan, which it still retains. Iz'ard, county of the N. of Arkansas. Area. 864 square miles. It is traversed by the White River. It is partly mountainous, but is in general fertile and well timbered. Tobacco, cotton, and live-stock are staple products. Lead and other minerals are found. Cap. Mount Olive. Pop. CSOG. Izard (trEoRGK). b. in South Carolina in 1777; ap- pointed lieutenant of engineers June 2, 1794; visited Eu- rope and was lieutenant in the French engineers 1796-97; in charge of fortifications in Charleston harbor 1798: pro- moted to be captain 1799, and t^ervcd as aide to Gen. Ham- ilton : resigned 1803; on the outbreak of war with Great Britain he was appointed colonel of artillery; brigadier- general 1813, and major-general 1814; disbanded 1815. In 182.> he was appointed governor of Arkansas territory, which position he held till his death, Nov. 22, 1828. Izard (Ralph), b.near Charleston, S. C, in 1742. and graduated at the University of Cambridge, Eng. He was a wealthy planter,and after the outbreak of the Revolution was appointed by Congress as commissioner to Tuscany, but he fixed his residence at Paris, where he opposed the policy of Franklin and Silas Dean nnd favored tbat of Arthur Lee. Ho pledged his estate to purchase ships of war; was delegate to Congress 1781-S3, and U. S. Senator 1789-95. V>. May 30. 1SU4. IzcoatI, fourth king of Mexico, and by his superior military and political talents substantially the founder of the Aztcean empire. A natural brother of his predecessor, he reigned from 1425 to 143**1, during which he conquered many neighboring states and embellished and fortified the cnpital. It was he who built the temple to the g()d iluit- zilupochtli and the goddess CihnacoatI : he also framed a constitution that materially changed and improved the political system. Thomas Jouhas. Izdubar'f a mythical or semi-mythical king and hero of tho earliest Babylonian annals, who is placed nearly upon the division-line which separates the age of ro- mance from the historical period. His name has become widLly known and celebrated since the discovery, made in 1872 by Mr. George Smith of the British Museum, of some fragments of the Chalda'an traditional account of the Del- uge, embodied in one of a scries of twelve "Legends of Izdubar," So-called from the hero who plays the principal part in them all. By Sir Henry Rawlinsun, and the nu- merous school of conj^iarative mythologists who take their cue from Prof. Max Muller and Mr. G. \V. Cox, the Izdu- bar legends were at once set down as a magnificent t^peci- mcn of tho solar myths — as being, in fact, the prototype of tho twelve labors of Hercules. Mr. G. Smith, the tlis- coverer and chief interpreter of these legends, strongly ob- jects to this view, and argues for the historical existeneo of Izdubar as a Chaldtean monarch (whom he identifies with tho biblical Kimrodl. bis best evidence being the oc- currence of the name in a fragmentary canon of the early Babylonian kings, whieh he believes to be a copy of one of tho original authorities used by Berosus. Izdubar appeais in tho cycle of legends as a giant residing in the country of Accad, a subduer of great aninmis in the times after the P-'lugc, n mighty conqueror who acquired the sovereignly, which ho exercised in the city of Erech or I'ruk, the earli- est capital of Babylonia. lie was deified after his death, as is shown by the existence in one of the tablets of a form of prayer nddrcfscd to him: and in an«)ther, relating to witchcraft, he appears ns a guardian who watches over the country. (Pee articles NiHunn, Noah, and CtspiionM In- ficniPTmss: ami for the text nnd translations of the Izdu- bar legends, fl. I'^milh's A'fifrirtn ni'vn-rriet (1875) ami Trnmtnrf'nji^ ff'tfir .SWi'rfy n/ DihUcaf Airhtrttfutfif, vol. iii.. TiOndon, l>'7f.) Poiirrn C. Bi.is.s. Izu'car, or Matamo'ros Izucar, city antl district of the state of Pu'dila. Mexico, about 90 miles S. E. of tho federal capital. It is situated nearly at the base of the volcano of Popoeiiitpetl, nnd is tbeci-nfre of ft rich sugar- region extemling along tho valley of the river Me'-eida. It is a well-l>ullt and pronperous eily of about 12,0ii0 iu- habijnnts. an*i is the soufhrrn terminus of a railrond now (1875^ being onnstrucled whieh will unite it with Puebla. It derive* it« olTirial name from G^n. Manuel Matamnrn«i, one of the heroen of Mexican indepm-'cnee. who gained here (Feb. 24, ]X\'l) a great vietorv over the Spaniards. 1348 J— JACKSON. J. J, a consonant, another form of /, with nbich it was onco intiTchangcablo. /, originally and pi0])crly a vowel, camo in time to stand sometimes for the hall' vuwel, half-conso- nant S(mnd of initial >', as now in German. Afterwards it aeqnired the zli sound it possesses in French, and event- ually the power it ordinarily ]iossesses in English. In S|ianish it is a gnttural aspirate, interchangeable with X. Jaafar, one of the liAinrRriDKS (which see), grandson of the vizier Khaled, son of Ihc vizier Y.ihya. and himself a favorite of tho caliph llaroun-al-Raschid. who gave him his sister Abbasa in marriage, on condition that the con- nection should be merely nominal. Abbasa having borne a son to .laafar, the caliph put both him and bis father to death, about A. n. Sn2. It is probable that this account is derived rather from poetry than authentic history. Jabirn [Brazilian], the name of several birds of the stork family, and of the genus Mifcteria, found in Australia, Af- rica, and South America. The spe- cies are few. .1/. Anetrnfin is the best known. These birds, unlike the storks, have an upturned bill, and one species found in South America lias the head and neck bare; those of the Old World have these parts of tho body clothed with feathers. Jablon'ski (Daniel Enxsr), D. D., b. near Dantzic Nov. 26, IGCO ; was educated at the Uni- versity of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he distinguished himself in philosophy, theology, and Oriental languages. In IBSO he visited the universities and libra- ries of Holland and England, remaining a year or two at Oxford. On his return to Germany he soon liecame famous as a pulpit-orator, and was ultimately appointed court- preacher — at first at Klinigsberg, and afterwards at Ber- lin. By request of King Frederick I. he labored earnestly for a union of all tho Protestant churches. Dr. Jablon- ski became a bishop among the Moravians in 16'J8. In 17:'.:) he was elected ]iresident of the Koyal Academy of Sciences at Berlin. Among his numerous literary labors he translated into Latin some of tho English works of U. Bentlcy, and published editions of the Talmud and of the Ilclircw Bible ( inyo), tho latter being especially valuable for its critical apparatus. I), at Berlin May 25, 1741. Jablonski ( P.\ul Ernst), son of tho above, b. at Berlin in 16y.i. He was still more distinguished than his lather for his knowledge of Oriental languages, in which he surpassed all the German scholars of his time, his nu- merous philological works being still quoted with respect. In Oriental history, mythology, and antiquities his writings are equally esteemed, especially the treatises on tho gods Ki-mphon (17:i;>) and Memnon (176:!). The two most val- uable of Jablonski's writings are undoubtedly an Egyptian glossary, not printed until the present century (Leyden, 1804), and the I'aiillirm, ^Ei/i/ptiurum aire lie dii» enrum commeiitariua,elc. (Berlin, 17JU-52, :i vols.). The complete works of Jablonski number about fifty. He was long a pro- fessor of theology at tho University of Frankfort-on-the- Oder, at which place he d. in Sept. (or Dec), 1757. Jaborantli' [Brazilian Guarani], a drug recently intro- duced into medicinal use, consists of tho leaves and twigs of I'H'icarput i>uinuliia, a tree (?) of Brazil, and of the order Kutaccic. Four or live grammes of tho bruised drug arc infused in boiling water. Soon after this is swallowed, whether warm or cold, a most powerful sialagoguc and diaphoretic effect is produced. Streams of perspiration flow from the patient, and so much saliva anil mucus are produced in the intmtb and air-passages that speech is ditTicult. It is reported to bo useful iu tho treatment of several diseases. Ja'ca, or Xaca, town of Spain, province of Aragon, at the foot of the Pyrenees. It is situated in a fertile valley, is strongly fortitied, and contains a cathedral, a castle, and several convents. Tho inhabitants are eini)loyed in agri- culture and woollen weaving; tho soil is highly productive of grain, but too cold for tho fruits peculiar to Southern Europe. During the Unman empire Jaea was a placo of some importance, capital of tho ri-f/io Jucnhniia. P. 3500. Jacainar' [Braz. jacamaricH], a name applied to a number of South American and West Indian birds, of the genera Onthiifa, Jacanuirntci/on, and Jacamcropn, and approximating the character of the trogons and the bee-eaters. They are small, and mostly of bright and quaint but not very handsome plumage. The red-tailed jacamar (Galbtila rujicnudis) is i'ouiul in Trinidad, AV. I. Jacanu, the Pan-a Jucaua, an abundant South Amer- ican bird of the rail family, is remarkable for its very long toes, which enable it to walk with ease upon floating water- plants. Other species are found in Asia, Africa, and Aus- tralia. Jacar^^ a genus of South American loricate reptiles, resemliling the alligator and cayman. The Jamr^ Btlcrojtit (spectacled cayman, common jacare) is one of the largest of .Vmerican L'rocodilida;, but though very voracious ho rarely attacks man. Four or hvc other s])ccies are reported. Jach'mann (Em ard Kari. Emakm;ki,), h. at Dantzic JIar. 2, 1S22. He made hia first trip as cabin-boy and sailor 1839-14 ; served four years on boaid the corvette Amazone ; was created a marine lieutenant in 1845; ap- pointed commander of a gunbcat squadron in 18-19, • made in 1853-54, as first lieutenant on board the Gefion, a trip to the West Indies, South and North America; was for three years director of the wharves of Dantzic; became captain in 1855, and made in 1850-G2 an important expedition, as commander of the frigate Thetis, to Eastern Asia and China, in order to establish commercial connections between Germany and those regions. On his return received tho command of tlie Prussian fleet in tho Baltic, fought, in tho war with Denmark, off the island of Riigcn Mar. 17, 18ti-J, and was created rear-ailmiral tho next day. In 1864-f»7 was chief of the naval station of Kiel. In 1867 was ap- pointed president of the naval department, and in U6S was made vice-admiral. In the war with France was commander-in-chief of tho whole naval force. Asjiresidcnt of the naval department he has accomjilishcd much, and in many directions, for the development of the tierman navy. Retired from this office in 1872. AtrousT Niemann. Jacitara' Palm [Brazilian], a South American rattan- pului of tho lower Amazon Valley, Vtmnoticug nurcracaiillnt-^, a slender climber, armed with strong thorns. It is used to some extent as tho true rattans are used. It is often seventy feet long. Jack, county of N. Texas. Area, 870 square miles. It is heavily timbered, and contains a great variety of land, chiefly adapted to pasturage. The valleys are very fertile. Cap. Jaeksborough. Pop. 694. Jack^al [Sp. chacnf; Pcrs. shnca!]. the Cam's aiirciw, a wild dog of Asia, South-eastern Europe, and Africa, which hunts in troops, is a carrion-eater, and is easily domesli- cated. It is regarded l\v some authorities as specifically identical with tho dog and the wolf. It may not improb- ably be one of the originals wbenci' the domestic dog has sprung, as the two breed freely together. Jackdaw. Sec Dmv. Jack'mnntown Plantation, tp. of Somerset oo., Mo. Pop. 65. Jack's, tp. of Laurens co., S. C. Pop. 2720. Jacks'boroHgh, posl-v.. county-seat of Campbell co., Tcnn., a miles E. of Carcvvillc Station on tho Knoxvillo and Ohio R. K. Pop. 178. Jaeksborough, post-v-. county-seat of Jackco., Te.^., 85 miles W. N. W. ot Dallas. Jack's Creek, tp. of Yancy co., N. C. Pop. 946. Jack'screw, an apparatus for raising heavy buildings and other great weights by means of the screw. The name is, however, sometimes applied to devices for the same pur- pose which contain no screw. The principle of the hy- draulic press is sometimes employed. There arc numer- ous machines of this character. Jack'son, county of N. E. Alabama, bounded on the N, by Tennessee, and for a short distance on the E. by Georgia. .\rea, 1150 square miles. It is traversed by the Tennessee River and the .Memphis and Charleston R. R. The surface is broken by low mountains. Tho soil is fertile. Cattle, tiibacco, wool, corn, and cotton aro staple products. Cap. Scottsborough. Pop. 19,410. Jackson, county of N. E. .\rknnsas. Area, 61 2 square miles. It is traversed by While River and the Cairo and JACKSON. lo4!J Fultnn R. R. It is vorT level, except in the N., and is fertile and well limbired. Cotton, corn, hav, fruit, and timber arc (ho chief products. Cap. Jacksonport. I'op. 72BS. Jackson, connlv of Florida, bounded on the N. by Ala- bama, and on the K. principally by Georgia. Area. 'JOO square miles. The navigable Chattahoochee River flows along the E. side, and the Chipola intersects the county. The cnnntv is a heavily limbereil limestone region, one of the best agricultural sections of Ihe Slate. Tobacco, cotton, sugar cane. rice, and corn are largely produced. There are several caves and other natural curiosities. Cap. Marlanna. Pop. 9528. Jackson, county of N. E. Georgia. Area, about 4.S0 niuare miles. The surface is broiicn. The county abounds in mineral wealth, as yet undeveloped. Tobacco, cotton, and corn are staple products. Cap. Jefferson. Pop. ll,li<l. Jnckson, county of S. Illinois, bounded on the W. by the .Misiissippi River. Area, .'JTG square miles. It is in- tersected by the Rig .MuilJy River aud the Illinois Central and the (Vrand Tower and Carbondale R. Rs. Excellent coal is mined. There are productive salt-wells. A part of the county has a hillv surface, and is known as the fruit- region of .^cuilliLMn Illinois. The soil is very fertile. Cattle, ■grain, fruit, tobacco, limber, and wn<d are staple products. Cap. Murpliysborough. I'op. 19,lili4. Jackson, county of S. Indiana. .\rca, 544 square miles. It is traver.^ed by the Driftwood fork of AVhitc River and by the Ohio anil .Mississippi R. R. The surface is varied, the soil generally fertile. Iron ore is found. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. Lumber and carriages arc leading articles of manufacture. Cap. Browns- town. Pop. 1S,974. Jackson, county of Iowa, bounded on tho N. E. by the Mississippi River. Area, 0:iO square miles. The surface is broken, the soil fertile. Lead and iron ores are found. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. Carriages, cooperage, lumber, saddlery, etc. arc among the leading articles of manufacture. The county is traversed by Maquo- keta River and the Sabula Ackley and Dakota R. R. Cap. Andrew. Pop. 22,019. Jackson, county of N. E. Kansas. Area, 6S4 square miles. It is I'erlilo and diversified. I^oal has been found. Live-stock and grain arc staple products. The eouuly is traversed by the Kansas Central R. R. Cap. Ilollon. I'op. 605:".. Jackson, county of E. Central Kentucky. Area, 42.0 square miles. It is broken by mounlain-rangcs, but has fertile valleys, and is bclievecl to contain much coal. Corn is the staple product. Cap. McKce. Pop. 4547. Jackson, parish of N. Louisiana. Area, about 780 square miles. Cotton, pork, an'l corn are staple products. It is mostly undulating and fertile land. Cap. Vernon. P.ip. 764fi. Jackson, county of S. Michigan. .\rea, 720 sqimro miles. It is a rich, level region, having limestone, sand- stone, and some coal and iron ore. Cattle, wool, butter, and grain arc staple products. Bricks, carriages, and (lour are leading articles of munufaeture. The county is trav- ersed by numerous railroads, centring at Jackson, tho cap- ital. Pop. :!t'>,ll47. Jackson, county of i^. W. Minnesota, bounded on tho S. by Iowa. Area, "20 square miles. It is unrlulatiug, fertile, and abounds in small lakes. It is traversed by iho Des .Moines River. Grain is the staple product. Cap. Jackson. Pop. 1S25. Jackson, county of S. E. Mississippi. Area, about 1050 square miles. It is traversed by tlie navigable Pas- cagoula River, and bounded on tho E. by .Vlabamn.and on the R. by tho (lulf of Mexico. It is level, and is a part of tho great pine-region. Rice is a staple product, and large quantities of lumber arc exported to New Orleans. It is traversed by the New Orleans Mobile and Te.\a8 R. U. Cap. Scranton. Pop. 4:!02. Jackson, edunly of .Missouri, bounded on tho W. by Kansas and on Iho N. by Iho Missouri River. Area. 580 square miles. It is a very fertile, rolling country, with a limestone soil. Callle, grain, tobacco, and w«)oI are staple ])rot|ucts. The raauufaetures include mel.'illic wares, ear- riag''S. clothing, saddlery, furniture, (lour, cigars, etc. It is traversed by tho Atlantic and Pacific H. R. ('ap. Inde- pendence. Pop. 55,041. Jackson, a former county of Nebraska, abolished since the census of ISTO. Pop. in 1M70, 9. Jackson, county of W. North Carolina. .\rea, about 700 s«(uare miles. It is very niounlainous. but has a fer- tile soil, beautiful ami sublime scenery, ami great mineral wealth. Iron, gold, and niarblc arc known to exist. Cat- tle, corn, tobacco, and wool aro staple products. Cap. Webster. I'op. G6S.J. Jackson, county in S. Ohio. Area, :i~S square miles. It is somewhat hilly, very fertile, and abounds in coal, salt, iron, and marble. Cattle, wool, and grain arc staple prod- ucts. Pig iron is a leading article of manufacture. The countv is traversed by a branch of the Marietta and Cin- cinnati R. R. Cap. Jackson. Pop. 21,759. Jackson, county of Oregon, bounded on the S. by Cal- ifornia. Area, estimated at 11.000 square miles. It is traversed by the Cascade Mountains and oilier ranges. Tho soil and climate arc varied. The W. part is in the Rogue River Valley, tho middle in Klamath Valley, the E. in a basin wliich does not communieale with Ihe sea. Gold, iron, and lignite are found. Cap. Jacksonville. Pop. 477S. Jackson, county of Tennessee, traversed by the Cum- berland River. Area, about 180 square miles. II has a diversitied surface and a productive soil. Tobacco, cattle, corn, and wool are staple products. Cap. Gaiucsborough. Pop. (in K170), 12,583, since which time its area has been much reduced. Jackson, county of Texas, traversed by Lavacca River and its lirauchcs, and on the S. \V. touching Matugiuda Bay. Area, Sfl2 square miles. It is mostly a rolling prairie, with stiff clay soil, but very productive. Cattle, corn, and cotton arc staple products. Cap. Tcxana. Pop. 227S. Jackson, county of West Virginia, bounded on the W. by Ibc Ohio River. -Area. 405 square miles. It is gen- erally hilly and rolling, with a rich soil and abundant pas- turage. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are staiilo prod- ucts. Cap. Ripley. Pop. 10.:iOO. Jackson, county of W. Central Wisconsin. Area, 030 square miles. It has a diversified surface and is heavily timlK-red. The soil is good. (Jrain is tho staple crop. Lumber is extensively manufactured. It is traversed by the West Wisconsin R. R. Cap. Black River Falls. Pop. 7GS7. Jackson, tp. and post-v. of Clarke co., Ala., on the Tombigbcc River. Po]). 13G0. Jackson, tp. of Boone eo., Ark. Pop. .320. Jackson, tp. of Calhoun co.. Ark. Pop. .SOS. Jackson, t\>. of Crittenden co.. Ark. Pop. .116. Jackson, tp. of Dallas eo.. Ark. Pop. 6S7. Jackson, I p. of Little River co., Ark. Pop. 820. Jackson, tp. of Monroe eo.. Ark. Pop. 784. Jackson, tp. of Newton co.. Ark. Pop. 850. Jackson, (p. of Ouachita co.. Ark. Pop. 580. Jackson, Ip. of Sharpe co.. Ark. Pop. 275. Jackson, Ip. of Inion co.. Ark. Pop. 814. Jackson, Ip. of White co.. Ark. I'op. .355. Jackson, post-v.. cap. of Amador co., Cal., at iho junction of Ihe N.. Middle, and .S. forks of Jackson Creek, 55 miles S. E. of Sacramento; has 2 weekly newspapers, large qiiiirlz-mills, 2 churches, 2 hotels, etc. I'armiug, gardining, fruit-culture, aii.l quartz and placer mining aro carried on. Pop. of Ip. 2408. R. .M. linincs. En. "AjiAnon Weeki.v LEnoF.n." Jackson, posl-v., county-sent of Butts co., Ga., 18 miles K. Inim (iriflin. Jackson, tp. of Efriugham eo.. III. Pop. 1028. Jackson, tp. of Will eu.. 111. Pop. MS... Jackson, tp. of Allen co.. Ind. Pop. 202. Jackson, Ip. of Bartholomew co., Ind. Pop. 618. Jackson, Ip. of Blackford co., Ind. Pop. 1.399. Jackson, Ip. of Boone co„ Ind. Pop. 2453. Jackson, Ip. of Brown eo., Ind. Pup. 1750. Jackson, Ip. of Carroll co., Ind. Pop. 1.301. Jackson, Ip. of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 1519. Jackson, tp. of Clay eo., Ind. Pop. 1711. Jackson, l]>. of Clinton CO., Ind. Pop. 39.32. Jackson, Ip. of Dearborn co., Ind. Pop. 1.306.. Jackson, tp. of Decninr co., Ind. Pop. 1740. Jackson, Ip. "f I)c Kalb eo., Ind. Pop. 1141. Jackson, Ip. of Elkhart co., Ind. Pop. 1289. Jackson, Ip. of Faycllc eo.. Ind. Pop. 10.37. JiK'kson, tp. of Fountain eo., Ind. Poi). 1.321. .la<'kson, Ip. of Greene co., Ind. Pop. 1909. JiK'ksoii, Ip. of Hamilton co., Ind. Pop. :t72l. Jackson, tp. of Hancock co.. Ind. Pop. 1849. ISoO JACKSON. Jackson, tp. of Harrison oo., lad. Pop. 1400, Jackson, tp. of Howanl CO., Ind. Pop. 1000. Jackson, tp. of Huutiugton co., Ind. Pop. 2257. Jackson, tp. of Jackson co., Ind. Pop. 1137. Jackson, tp. of Jay co., Ind. Pop. 9S9. Jackson, tp. of Kosciusko co., Ind. Pop. 1043. Jackson, tp. of Madison co., Ind. Pop. 1344. Jackson, tp. of ^liami co., Ind. Pop. 1G45. Jaclison, tp. of Morgan co., Ind. Pop. 1723. Jackson, tp. of Newton co., Ind. Pop. VCG. Jackson, tp. of Orange co., lud. Pop. 1148. Jackson, tp. of Owen co., Ind. Pop. 757. Jackson, tp. of Parke co., Ind. Pop. 1377. Jackson, tp. of Porter co., Ind. Pop. 1072. Jackson, tp. of Putnam co., Ind. Pop. 149S. Jackson, tp. of Randolph co., Ind. Pop. 1349. Jackson, tp. of Ripley co., Ind. Pop. 1401. Jackson, Iji. of Rush co., Ind. Pop. 770. Jackson, tp. of Shelby co., Ind. Pop. 1305. Jackson, tp. of Spencer co.. Ind. Pop. 920. Jackson, tp. of Starke co., Ind. Pop. 125. Jackson, tp. of Steuben co., Ind. Pop. 1122. Jackson, tp. of Sullivan co., Ind. Pop. 1732. Jackson, tp. of Tippecanoe co., Ind. Pop. lOSl. Jackson, tp. of Washington co., Ind. Pop. 779. Jackson, tp. of Wayne co., Ind. Pop. 4949. Jackson, tp. of Wells co., Ind. Pop. 1140. Jackson, tp. of White co., Ind. Pop. 135S. Jackson, post-tp. of Adair co., la. Pop. 339. Jackson, tp. of Benton co., la. Pop. 963. Jackson, tp. of Boone co., la. Pop. 798. Jackson, tp. of Bremer co., la. Pop. 1131. Jackson, tp. of Butler co., la. Pop. 5G9. Jackson, tp. of Calhoun co., la. Pop. 367. Jackson, tp. of Clarke co., la. Pop. 798. Jackson, tp. of Crawford co., la. Pop. 246. Jackson, tp. of Des Moines co., la. Pop. 103. Jackson, tp. of Guthrie co., la. Pop. 875. Jackson, tp. of Hardin co., la. Pop. 867. Jackson, tp. of Harrison co., la. Fop. 20C. Jackson, tp. of Henry co., la. Pop. 1202. Jackson, tp. of Jackson co., la. Pop. 862. Jackson, tp. of Jones co., la. Pop. 899. Jackson, tp. of Keokuk co., la. Pop. 1528. Jackson, tp. of Leo co., la. Pop. 1460, Jackson, tp. of Linn co., la. Pop. 99G. Jackson, tp. of Lucas co., la. Pop. 460. Jackson, tp. of Madison co., la. Pop. 5,34. Jackson, tp. of Monroe co., la. Pop. 942. Jackson, tp. of Montgomery co., la. Pop. 1109. Jackson, tp. of Poweshiek co., la. Pop. 1629. Jackson, tp. of Sac co.. la. Pop. 469. Jackson, tp. of Shelby co., la. Pop. 4S6. Jackson, tp. of Taylor co., la. Pop. 351. Jackson, tp. of Van Burcn co., la. Pop. 1292. Jackson, tp. of Warren co., la. Pop. 639. Jackson, tp, of Washington CO., la. Pop. 879, Jackson, tp. of Wayne co,, la. Pop, 356. Jackson, tp, of Webster co., la. Pop. 380. Jackson, tp. of Winneshiek co., la. Pop. 6G8. Jackson, tp. of Anderson co., Kan. Pop. 539. Jackson, tp. of Lyon co., Kan. Pop. 1079. Jackson, tp. of Riley co., Kan. Pop. 1249. Jackson, post-v,, county-seat of Breathitt co., Ky., on ILe Kentucky River, 55 miles E. by S, from Richmond, Ky. Pop. 54. Jackson, a v, of East Feliciana parish, La, It has 1 weekly ncnjpapcr. Pop. 934, Jackson, post-tp. of Waldo co,, Me. It has manufac- tures of lumber, and is 8 miles N. of Brooks Station on the Maine Central R. R. Pop. 707. Jackson, tp. of Frederick co,, Md, Pop, 1699, Jackson, city, cap.of .Fack.«on co., Mich., on the Mich- igan Central R. R. (main line), 7G miles W, of Detroit, at the junction of a branch of the Michigan Southern R, K,, the Fort Wayne Jackson and Saginaw, and the Grand River Valley R. Rs„ and the air-lino division of the tirst- namcd road; has productive coal-mines, large manufac- tures of sai-.'*oda, the main shops of the Central R. R., ex- tensive foundries, engine-works, flouring and j>lauing mills, fire-clay works, and other important manufacturing in- terests. It has extensive commercial interests, and is in a prosperous farming region. The city (incorporated 1857) has 5 banks, 13 churches, 2 daily and 2 weekly newspa- pers, a fine system of pulilic schools, Holly water-works, a trotting park, omnibus lines, a tine passenger depOt, good water-power, and is the site of the Michigan State prison, a large establishment, carrying on extensive manufactures. Pop. 1 1,447. Caulto.v *fe V'a.n ANxWErtr, Kns. *• Patriot." Jackson, post-v., cap. of Jackson co., Minn,, at tlie prospective junction of the Southern Minnesota and the Dcs Moines Valley R, Rs,, not yet finished to this point. It is on the Des Moines River, 8 miles N. of the Iowa line, in a fertile and well-timbered region : has large grist-mills, great water-power, a weekly newspaper, a church, 2 hotels, a fine court-house, and other public buildings. It is rap- idly growing. H. M. Avery, Kd. '■ Repi'blic," Jack'son, city, cap. of Mississippi, and shire-town of Hinds CO., on the New Orleans .lackson and (ireat North- ern R. R., 183 miles N. of New Orleans, on the Vicksbnrg and ^leridian R. R., 45 miles E. of Vieksburg, and on the W. side of Pearl River, Among its public buildings are the State capitol and State penitentiary, while within the city limits are institutions for the blind and for the deaf and dumb; and one mile to the N, stands the lunatic asy- lum. Other institutions are 2 large public schools, a boys' high school, a young ladies' institute, and various other private schools; a large State library, 1 monthly, 1 daily, and 3 weekly newspapers, 10 churches (3 for the colored citizens), 2 foundries, 2 sasb, door, and blind factories, 3 banking-houses, 2 hotels, a city-hall, a street railroad, and an efficient fire department with steam and hand engines. During the late war a large part of the city was destroyed, but it has been rebuilt in a sulistnntial manner. Jackson is the place of meeting of the V. S. courts and of the circuit and chancery courts for a portion of the county ; and the •State supreme court sits here about nine months of the year. Jackson has a good trade in cotton and other com- modities. Its population is now ( 1^74) about one-half col- ored. It is a pleasant and well-built town. Pop, 4234. J, L, Power, Asso. Ptb. " Clarios." Jackson, tp. of .\ndrow co,. Mo. Pop. 2401. Jackson, tp. of Buchanan co.. Mo. Pop. 890. Jackson, tp. of Camden co., Mo. Pop, 810. Jackson, post-v,, cap. of Cape Girardeau co.. Mo., 10 miles N, W. of Cape Girardeau, has a high school, public s,;hool, seminary, weekly newspaper, 6 churches, 2 hotels, a flouring-mill, and 6 dry-goofls stores. Pop. 459. Mai,i>\e it JoH.v'soN', Eds. "Cash-Book," Jackson, tp. of Carter co.. Mo. Pop. 095, Jackson, tp, of Clarke co,. Mo, Pop. 1472. Jackson, tp. of Clinton co,. Mo. Pop. 1752. Jackson, tp. of Dallas co.. Mo, Pop, 1432. Jackson, tp, of Daviess co,. Mo. Pop. 1059. Jackson, tp. of Douglas co.. Mo. Pop. ,330, Jackson, tp. of Gentry co,. Mo. Pop, 1037. Jackson, Ip. of Greene co,. Mo. Pop. 1759, Jackson, tp. of Jasper co.. Mo. Pop, 1238. Jackson, tp. of Johnson co.. Mo, Pop. 2200. Jackson, tp. of Linn co.. Mo. Pop. 948. Jackson, tp. of Livingston co.. Mo. Pop. 2603. Jackson, tp. of Macon co.. Mo, Pop. 1755. Jackson, Ip. of .Maries co., Mo. Pop. 1419. Jackson, tp. of Monroe co.. Mo. Pop. 4367. Jackson, tp. of Nodaway co., Mo. Pop. 895. Jackson, tp. of Osage co., Mo, Pop, 1104, Jackson, tp. of Ozark co.. Mo. Pop, 353. Jackson, tp. of Polk co,. Mo, Pop, 1483, Jackson, tp, of Putnam co.. Mo. Pop. 799. Jackson, tp, of Randolph co., Mo. Pop. 1175. Jackson, tp. of Reynolds co.. Mo. Pop. ,327. Jackson, tp, of Shannon co,. Mo, Pop. 370. Jackson, tp. of Shelby co.. Mo, Pop, 1416. Jackson, tp. of St. Clair co.. Mo. Pop, 411, Jackson, tp. of St. Genevieve co., Mo. Pop, 1112. Jackson, tp. of Sullivan co,. Mo, Pop. 902. Jackson, l|i. of Texas co,. Mo. Pop, 537, Jackson, post-tp. of Dakota co,, Neb, Pop, 668. JACKSON. l.J.)l Jackson, post-lp. of Carroll co., N. H., 90 miles N. by E. of Concord, among the Wbito Mountaius. Pop. 474. Jackson, tp. of Ocean co., N. J. Pop. 17 J5. Jackson, tp. of Wn?liin!»ton co.. N. Y., alroumling in Btft-p mountains, licnutifiil lakce, and forests and >ycll-cul- tivatcd farms. Pop. 1GG2. Jackson, pnst-v,, county-scat of Northampton co., N. ('., S miles from Seahoard "ptation, on tho Seaboard and Eoanokc R. 11. Pop. 181 ; of tp. 523. Jackson, tp. of Union oo., N. C. Pop. 1010. Jauksun, tp. of Allen co.,<0. Pop. ISOl. Jackson, tp. of Ashland co., 0. Pop. 1409. Jackson, tp. of AngIai7.o co., 0. Pop. 1502. Jackson, tp, of Crown co., 0. Pop. 995. Jackson, tp. of Chamjiaign co., 0. Pop. 1S31. Jackson, tp. of Clermont co., 0. Pop. 1GJ8. Jackson, Ip. of Coshocton co., 0. Pop. 1767. Jackson, tp. of Crawford co., 0. Pop. 4021. Jackson, tp. of Darko co., 0. Pop. 20SS. Jackson, tp. of Franklin co., 0. Pop. 192.0. Jackson, Ip. of Guernsey co., 0. Pop. SO". Jackson, tp. of Ilaucoeli co., 0. Pop. 1209. Jackson, tp. of Hardin co., 0. Pop. 1412. Jackson, tp. of Highland co., 0. Pop. 905. Jackson, tp. of Jackson co., 0. Pop. 1532. Jackson, or Jackson Court-house, post-v., cap. of .lacksou CO., 0., on the Marietta and Cincinnati 11. K., Portsmouth l>raneli, 7 miles fiom ll.auden Junction. It has 6 churches, a largo school building, 2 weekly news- papers, and 6 pig-iion furnaces; has important coal-mines, and a largo trade in coal and iron, both of fine quality. Tho town is rapidly inercasing in population. Pop. 21J16. Davis Maiki.lv, Prop. "Jackson Standaiid." Jncksun, tp. of Knox co., 0. Pop. 818. Jackson (Jacksomtowx P. O.), a v. of Licking tp.. Licking CO., 0., on tbo Newark Somerset and Siraitsvillo 11. 11. Pop. 438. Jackson, tp. of Mahoning Co., 0. Pop. 909. Jackson, tp. of Monroe CO., 0. Pop. 1354. Jackson, Ip. of Montgomery co., 0. Pop. 2170. Jackson, tp. of JIuskingum co., 0. Pop. 1174. Jackson, a v. of AVashington tp., Muskingum co., 0., 5 miles from Zauesville. Pop. 5(5. Jackson, tp. of Noble co., 0. Pop. 1190. Jackson, tp. of Paulding co., 0. Pop. 55C. Jackson, ip. of Perry co., 0. Pop. 1539. Jackson, ip. of Pickaway co., 0. Pop. 1202. Jackson, tp. of Pike eo., 0. Pop. 1840. Jackson, ip. of Preblo co., 0. Pop. 1430. Jackson, ip. of Putnam co., 0. Pop. 737. Jackson, tp. of Uichland CO., 0. Pop. 931. Jncksiin, tp. of Sandusky co., 0. Pop. 1350. Jackson, tp. of Seneca co., 0. Pop. 1131. Jackson, tp. of Shelby co., 0. Pop. 1101. Jackson, tp. of Stark co., 0. Pop. lOlfl. Jackson, tp. of Union co., 0. Pop. 035. Jiii-kson, Ip. of Van Wert eo., 0. Pop. 249. Jackson, ip. of Vinlon co., 0. Pop. 1294. Jiii'ksou, Ip. of Wood CO., 0. Pop. .347. Jackson, tp. of Wyandot cc, 0. Pop. 771. Jackson, tp. of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 1137. Jackson, tp. of Cambria co., Pa. Pop. 90S. Jackson, tp. of Columbia co., Pa. Pop. 565, Jackson, tp. of Dauphin co., Pa. Pop. 1030. Jiirkson, tp. of (Ireenc eo., Pa. Pop. 9111. Jiickson, l|i. of Huntingdon co., Pa. Pop. 1662. Jiick'<on, Ip. of Lebanon co., Pa. Pop. 3437. .lacUson, Ip. of Luzerne co., Pn. Pop. 624. .laokson, tp. of Lycoming co., Pn. Pop. 512, .lackson, tp. of Mercer co., Pa. Pop. 752. Jackson, tp of Monroe co.. Pa. Pop. 851. .lackson, ip. of Northumberland co., Pa. Pop. 8SC. Jackson, tp. of Perry co., Pa. Pop. 1103. .lackson, tp. t>f Poller co., Pa. Pop. 49. Jiicksnn, tp. of Snyiler co.. Pa. Pop. 712. Jackson, tp. of Susquehanna co.. Pa. Pop. 1175. Jackson, tp. of Tioga co.. Pa. Pop. 1531. Jackson, tp. of Venango co.. Pa. Pop. "20. Jackson, ip. of York co., Pa. Pop. 1499. Jackson, eily. cap. of Madison co., Tenn., is near tho centre of West Tennessee, at the junction of the Mississippi Central and tho Mobile and Ohio U. Rs., 72 miles N. K. of Memphis: has 125 business-houses. 2 banks, 5 hotels, 3 halls, 11 churches, 2 daily and 5 weekly newspapers. 2 rail- road machine-shops, 3 planing and 3 flouring mills, 1 foun- dry, 2 carriage manufactories, besides many small manu- facturing interests of various kinds. It has a very im- portant cntton-lrade, is the seat of West Tennessee Col- Ice, and has 2 ladies' seminaries and other schools. Pop. 4119, much increased since the census. D. M. WisiwM & Co., Props. " Wiiio Axn TiuBt.XE." Jackson, ip. of Amelia eo., Va. Pop. 2S27. Jackson, post-tp. of Louisa co., Va. Pop. 1525. Jackson, Ip. of RappahanoeU co., Vn. Pop. 15C8. Jackson, tp. of Adams eo.. Wis. Pop. 4S1. Jackson, post-tp. of Washington co.. Wis. Pop. 1978. Jackson (Ansr.n), D. D., LL.D., b. about 1811 ; grad- uated at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., in 1837; was appointed tutor there, and afterwards professor of ethics and metaphysics. In 1S58 he became president of Hobart College, and in 1S07 president of Trinity College. D. at Harliord, Conn., Apr. 19, 1S74. Jackson (.AnnAnAM Reeves), A. M., M. D., b. in Phila- delphia June 17, 1827; educated in the public sehools of Philadelphia, and graduated in the spring of 1811) at tho Philadelphia Central High School, from which institution he subsequently received the degree of master of arts; studied medicine under Prof. John Wiltbank, and received I be degree of doctor of medicine from the medical department of Penn- sylvania Medical College at Philadeli)hia in 1S4S; prac- tised his profession at Stroudsbnrg, Pa., until May. 1870, when he removed to Chicago. 111.; founded the Woman's Hospital of the Slate of Illinois, of which he became sur- geon-inehief. In the winter of 1872 he was elecled to the chair of diseases of women by the faculty of Rush iMidieal College, who, in the following spring, conferred upon bim the honorary degree of M. D. ; in the spring of 1874 elected editor of the Chii-niio Mcdicnl IbijiKt'-r by tho Chicago Medico-Historical Society; member of Illinois State Medi- cal Society, Academy of Science, Chicago, Chicago Medical Society, Chicago Society of Physicians and Surgeons. Chi- cago Medico-lIistoricarSociety ; corresponding member of tho Oynreeologieal Society of Hoston. Author of papers— llcmn'valuf I.tirije Urelhro-rcniriil CnlniliiK (\ii:)fi). A,'j-«cc(l'on of Entire Flbilia, etc. (1858), Obnlhiiilr llirmorrhnfie from the Frrcnim Lin;inir(\Sad), On the Kjjlicnctinf Cold Affiininn in Narcnlhm (1859). Ifi/droccle of tlir Sirl; nnil /(» '/'retit- menl hij Ercisian (1801 ), Snrrrnnfut linnitrnl of both ()i-arira (1866), Uterine Fibroid of Pfinterior W'liH Siicrrmfnili/ llr- tnoved (1870), FibrouK Tnmnr of Ulitddcr .S'iiccr«»/'n//i/ lie- moved (1870), A'oii-orarHin Menslniotion. etc. (1870), Some /{emnrtt tipon CuKm of Obntrnrtion of the Itoirela, etc. (1871). Veiico-vitriimd Fistnln, etc. (1871), Hemoial of Fi- hroiin Tumor of I'tcrns (1872), Unnnecemfnl Attempt to Re- move Fibront fnmor of Womb (1873), Treatment of Uterine Fibroidn loj the Use of Ertjotine (1874). Jackson (Andiiew), LL.D., tho seventh President of the U. S., b. at the Waxhaw Settlemcnl, Union eo., N. C._(at that time supposed to be in South Carolina), Mar. 15, 1767, His parents were Scotch-Irish, natives of Carriekfergns, who came to America in 1705 and settled on Twelve Milo Creek, a tributary of the Catawba. His fallier, who was a poor farm-laborer, died shortly before Andrew's birth, when his mother removed to Waxliaw, where some relatives re- sided. Few jinrtieulars of the ehiblhood of JaeUson have been prescrveil ; his e lueation was of the mo«l limited kind, and ho showed no fondness for books. In 1780, at the ago of thirteen, he with his brother Robert volunteered to servo in tho Revidutinnary forces under C.en. Sumter, and was a witness of the hitter's defeat nt Hanging Hock. In the fol- lowing year Iho brothers were made prisoners, and eoiifined at Camden, e.vperiencing brutal treatment from their cap- tors, and being speelnlors of Cien. Greene's defeat at Iloli- kirk's Hill. Through Iheir mother's exertions the bfiys were exchanged while suHering from small|iox. Robert soon dieil at Waxbaw, anil Mrs. Jackson died not long after at Charleston of ship fever, contracted in attending tho .Aiiierienn prisoners. Young Jackson, left destitute, worked for some time in a saddler's shop, afterwards taught school, and at the age of eighteen eomnnneed the study of law at Salisbury, N. C. In 1786 he was admitled to Iho bar, and removed in 1788 to Nashville, in what was then tho western district of North Carolina, with the appoint- ment of tollciior or public prosecutor. Two years later 1352 JACKSON. Tennessee became a Territory, ami Jackson was appointed by Pres. Washington I'. 8. attorney for the new tiistrict. In 1701 be married Mrs. Kachel Kobards (daughter of Col. John Duuulson), whom hv supposed to have been divorced in that year by an ad uf tlic ii-gislature of A'irgiuia. It afterwards appeared that the divorce liad not become legal until K'.'.'l, whrn it was formally granted l>y ajury in Mer- cer CO.. Ky.. al the application of the husband, who was a resident of that State, and it was not until Jan., 171'4, that Mr. and Mrs. Jacks<in were legally married by a second ceremony at Xushville. I'ndcr the circumstances it was not unnatural that the factn of the case were so misrepre- sented by opponents in the political campaigns a quarter of a century hiter as to become the basis of serious charges against Jackson's morality ; which, however, has been sat- isfactorily attested by abundant evidence. Jackson was untiring in the exercise of his duties as U. S. attorney, which demanded frequent journeys through the wilderness ancl exposure to Indian hostilities; he acquired consider- able property in land, and obtained such influence as to be chosen a member of the convention which framed the con- stitution of the new State of Tennessee (1796), and was elected in that year its first representative in Congress. The following year (1797) he was chosen to the U. S. Sen- ate, but resigned in 1798 to accept a seat on the bench of the supreme court of Tennessee, which he held till 1804. He was elected a major-general of the State militia in 1801, and on the acquisition of Louisiana (l^tKi) was an unsuccessful candidate for appointment as governor of the new Territory. In 1804 he withdrew from poli- tics, settled on the plantation which he called the •• Her- mitage" near Nashville, set up a cotton-gin, formed a partnership, and traded to New Orleans, making the voy- ages on flatboats. Through his hot temper Jackson was involved in several quarrels and ''affairs of honor" during this period, in one of which ( 1806) he was severely wounded, but had the misfortune to kill his opponent, Mr. Charles Dickinson. In 1805, Aaron Burr had visited Nashville and been a guest of Jackson, with whom he corresponded on the subject of a war with Spain, which w.is anticipated and desired by them, as well as by the people of the South- west generally. Burr repeated his visit in Sept., 1806, when he engaged in the celebrated combinations which led to his trial for treason; he was warmly received by Jack- son, at whose instance a public ball was given in his honor at Nashville, and contracted with the latter for boats and provisions. Earh' in 1807, when Burr had been proclaimed a traitor by l*res. Jefferson, volunteer forces for the Federal service were organized at Nashville under Jackson's com- mand, but his energy and activity did not shield him from suspicions of connivance in the supposed treason. Ho was summoned to Richmond as a witness in Burr's trial, but was not called to the stand, probaldy because he was out- spoken in his partisausliip. On the outbreak of war with Great Britain in ISI2, Jackson tendered his services, and in Jan., IHI.'i, embarked for New Orleans at the head of the Tennessee contingent. In March ho received an order to disband his forces, but in September he again took the field in the Creek war. and in conjunction with his former part- ner, Col. Coffee, inflit-ted upon the Indians the memorable defeats at Talladega. I'^muckfaw, and Tallapoosa. In May, 1814, Jackson, who had now acquired a national reputation, was appointed a major-genera! of the U. S. army, and commenced a campaign against the British in Florida, con- ducted the defence of Mobile (Sept. 15), seized upon Pen- sacola (Nov. 6), and immediately transported the bulk of his troops to New Orleans, then threatened by a powerful naval force. Martial law was declared in Louisiana, the State militia was called to arms, engagements with tho British were fought Dec. So and 28, and after reinforcements had been received on both sides the famous victory of Jan. 8, 1815, crowned Jackson's fame as a soldier, and made him the typical American hero of the first half of the nineteenth century. In 1S17-1S he conducted the first war against the Seminoles of Florida, during which he seized upon Pensacola and executed by court-martial two British subjects (Arbuthnot and AmVjrietcr) — acts which might easily have involved the IT. S. in war both with Spain and Great Britain. Fortunately, the peril was averted (1819) by the cession of Florida to the V. S.. and Jackson, who had escaped a trial for the irregularity of bis conduct only through a division of opinion in Monroe's cabinet, was appointed (1821) governor of the new Terri- tory. Soon afterward he deeiined the appointment of minister to Mexico. In 182r>. Jackson was elected to the U. S. Senate, and nominated by the Tennessee legislature for tho Presidency. This candidacy, though at first a matter of surprise, and even merriment, speedily became popular, and in 1824 the hero of New Orleons received the largest popular vote among tho four candidates, though J. Q. Adams was elected by the House of Representatives through the iufluenoe of Henry Clay. lu 1828, Jackeon was triumphantly elected President over Adams after a campaign of unequalled bitterness, which may be considered the point ot" departure of the modern Democratic parfy. In- augurated on ^Iar. 4. 1S29, he at once removed from office all the incumbents Vtelonging to the opposite party — a pro- cedure new to American politics, but which naturally be- came a precedent. The first term of Jackson was cha- racterized by quarrels between the Vice-President, Cal- houn, and the secretary of state, Van Buren, attended by a cabinet crisis originating in scandals connected with the name of Mrs. General Eaton (wife of the secretary of war) ; by the beginning of his war upon the U. S. Bank, and by his vigorous action against the partisans of Calhoun, who in South Carolina (T8;i2) threatened to nullify the acts of Congress establishing a protective tariff. In tho Presidential campaign of I 8;j2, Jackson received 219 out of 2SS electoral votes, his competitor being Jlr. Chiy, while Mr. Wirt, on an '• Anti-Masonic " platform, received the vote of Vermont alone. In I83.'i, President Jackson removed the govern- ment deposits from tho V. S. Bank, thereby incurring a vote of censure from the Senate, which was, however, ex- punged ftnir years later. During (his second term of office the Cherokces, Choctaws, and Creeks were remov- ed, not without difhculty, from Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the Indian Territory; the national debt was extinguished. Arkansas and Michigan were admitted as States into the I'nion, the Seminole war was renewed, the anti-slavery agitation first acquired importance, the Mormon dcUision, which had originated in 1829, attained considerable proportions in Ohio and Missouri, and the country experienced (18.17) its greatest pecuniary panic. Railroads with locomotive propulsion were introduced into America during Jackson's first term ( 1829), and had become an important element of national life before the close of his second term. For many reasons, therefore, the admin- istration of Pre?. Jackson formed an era in American his- tory, political, social, and industrial. He succeeded in ef- fecting the election of his friend Van iJuren as his successor, retired from the Presidency Mar. 4, lS."i7, and led a tranquil life at the Hermitage until his death, June 8, 1845. During his closing years he was a professed Christian and a mem- ber of the Presbyterian (.'hurch. No American of this cen- tury has been the subject of such opposite judgments ; he was loved and hated with equal vehemence during his life, but at the present (1875) distance of time from his career, while opinions still vary as to the merits of most of his jiuldic acts, few of his countrymen will question that he was a warm-hearted, brave, patriotic, honest, and sincere man. If his distinguishing qualities were not such as con- stitute statesmanship in the highest sense, he at least never pretended to other merits than such as were written to his credit on the page of American history — not attempting to disguise the demerits, which were equally legible. Tho m.ijority of his countrymen accepted and honored him in spite of all that calumny as well as truth could allege against him. His faults may therefore be truly said to have been those of his time; his magnificent virtues may al;:o, with the same justice, be considered as typical of a state of society which has nearly passed away. Jackson's life has been many times written: bv Eaton (1824), "Wil- liam Cobbcft(lS;U), Amos Kendall (1844), Jenkins (1850), Headley (I852j. and with great fulness and completeness by .lames Parlon (New York, 3 vols.. 1859 »(■</.), Sec also Thomas H. Benton's Thirty Years' Vuir (1854) for tho po- litical history of his administration. Porti^r C. Bliss. Jackson (CiiAnLr.s). LL.D.,b.at Ncwburyport, Mass., Mav .*il. 1775, son of Hon. Jonathan .Jackson: graduated at ILirvard College in I79;i: studied law in the office of Chief- Justice Parsons, ami, removing to Boston in iSO^.soctn attained an eminent position at the bar; was judge of the Massachusetts supremo court 18111-24. member of the con- stitutional convention in 1820. and chairman of a com mission to codify tho State laws in IS.tS. Thr-jugh his labors sev- eral important reforms were introduceil into Massachusetts legislation, especially in reference to debit and credit. He published a treatise on PUfniitvjH ami Prurtivf in liml Ac- tioun (1828), which is a recognized authority upon the law of property. D. at Boston Dec. 13, 1855. Jackson (CuAni.rs Davis). D. D., b. in Salem, Mass.. Dec. 15, 1811; graduated at Dartmouth in 18.1.3, and at Andover in 18.18; was for a time professor in Lane Semi- nary and a teacher in Petersburg, Va., and afterwards in Flushing, N. Y. : in 1842 took priest's orders in the Prot- estant Episcopal Church ; has since held the rectorships of St. Stephen's, N. Y., St. Luke's, Staten Island, and St. Peter's, Westchester, N. Y. He is the author of several volumes of sermons and of works on education. D. at Westchester, N. Y., June 28, 1871. Jackson (Charles Thomas), M. D., b, at Plymouth, JACKSON. 1353 Mass., June 21, ISOo: studied medicine in Boston; took part in 1S27-29 with Francis Al;jer in the geological sur- vey of Nova Scotia ; studied medicine and geoIo;ry in Ku- ropc 1S29-32, assisting in more than 200 nutupsics of cholera victim.-* in Vienna; in IS36 became Stfito geologist of Maine (published three annual reports); in Is;;* had a controversy with Prof. Morse regarding the invention of the telegraph, to which he had some claims; in 18.'J0 State geologist of Rhode Inland (I vol. of reports) : in ISIO Plate geologist of New Hampshire (1 report 1S44): was 1^17- 4i) IT. .S. surveyor of mineral lands in Michigan (report 1850). He has also received numerous honors ns the dis- coverer of anaesthetics — a ilistinction which has found sev- eral other claimants, lie has published various chemical reports for the U. S. patent-office and a Manual of Etkeri' zalion (1861). Jackson (Ci.AiBonvK F.), b. in Fleming co., Ky., Apr. 4, ISOT: removed in IS22 to Missouri; was a captain in the Black Hawk war, and was one year Speaker of the House in Missouri. In 1861 ho was chosen governor, but was deposed by the State convention in the same year. Ho became a Confederate general, and d. at Little Rock, Ark., Dec. 6, 1862. Jackson fCoNRAn Feger), b. in Pennsylvania; pre- vious to ISOl was engaged in railroad business with the Philadelphia and Reading R. R. ; appointed colonel 9th Pennsylvania Volunteers at the outi>reak of the civil war, and served in McCall's division of Pennsylvania Reserves at Dranesville, Va., and throughout the Va. Peninsula campaign 18(12; appointed brigadier-genera! of volunteers July, 1862, and commanded a brigade at South Mountain, Antietam, and Fredericksburg, where he was killed, Dec. 13, 18G2. G. C. SiMsiovs. Jackson f IIe\rv). M. D., LL.D., b. in Moreton-IIemp- stead. Devonshire. Kngland. .Tuly 7, 1778; brought to this country in the twelfth year of his age by his brother, Gov. .Tames Jackson of (Jeorgia; thoroughly educated at the Pennsylvania University in Philadelphia, where ho first look the degree of M. D., and commenced the practice of medicine in association with Dr. (Irimes of that city, then one of the most eminent physieians in the U. S. From this lucrative pursuit he was called to the professorship of natural philosophy in the University of Georgia in 1811. Having more taste for acience than desire for the acquisi- tion nf fortune, he accepted the tendered position. When AVilliam II. Crawford was sent minister to France in 18H, Dr. Jackson accompanied him as secretary of legation. This position he aecepted, partly with a view of recruiting his health, but mainly with the view of extending the circle of Ilia knowledge. When Mr. Crawford returned ho re- mained at Paris as .\merican cknn/r d'aff'nirc* until 1818. On his return he resumed the duties of his professorship with renewed energy and power of usefulness, but from duraestic affliction was compelled to resign in 1827. D. near Athens, Ga., in 1840. A. H. Stki-he-VS. Jackson (Hknrv R.). b. in Athens, Ga., June 24, 1820; was educated partly at Princeton and partly at Vale Col- lege. He entered the latter in 18:jj, aud graduated there in is'AQ with the first honor of his class: studied law, and wa:^ admitted to the bar in Georgia in 1840; first opened an office in Columbus, but finally located in Savannah ; was appointed U.S. district attorney for the State in 1K43; served as colonel in the Mexican war in iHK'i; after that war (in whieh he gained distinction ) he was elevated to the circuit court bench of the State, whieh ]>0!-ilion he held I8l9-5;i, when he resigned it to acc.'pt tlio appointment of chargi iVaffnirm to Au!«tria. This mission was raised to the grade of minister resident in |8.i4, and he was con- tinned in it until !8j8. It was while he held this position the interesting 'ptttni imbroglio took place between the Aus- trian empire and the U. S., growing out of the then late Hungarian war and the Khosta affair. His contluct in all thcHc matters received the warmest approval by the au- thr)riiiefl ai Washington. He, however, resigneil tlie posi- tion in 1868, and resumed the praetieo of law in Sa\ nnnah. In 1859 ho was employed by the Federal government au- thorities to prosecute the Wanderer, a celebrated slave- ship which had recently landed on the eoa'^t nf (leorgia a careo of Africans. This high duty he performed with unflinching fidelity and distinguished ability. In the winter of I8.'»0 ho was unanimously chosen chancellor of the Stale University, but declined to accept it, ex- cept on certain conditions which were not complied with. He was a delegate to the famous Democratic Presidential convention at Tharleston in 186)1, and though he opposed the extreme views of Mr. Yancey, yet when the delei^ulions from all the other cotttm States withdrew, he also with- drew, Vielieving a division of the South under the circum- stances wouhl be the greater of two evils. He was after- wards one of the Presidential electors at large for the State on the Breckenridge and Lane ticket put forth in Baltimore after the rupture at Charleston. Soon after the passage of the ordinance of secession by Georgia the governor was authorized to appoint two major-generals to command the military forces of the State. The senior position of theso commands was conferred on Col. Jackson, and accepted by him, but was soon after resigned by him, with a rn<i»est that it should be conferred upon William Henry Walker, a gallant and distinguished officer of the Federal army who had resigned his position in that army with a deter- mination to cast his fortunes with the people of his native State (Georgia), and who was at the time out of service. Col, Jackson's request was complied with. Upon the or- ganization of the provisional government at Montgomery for the Confederate States (1861) be was tendered the office of Confederate judge for the State of Georgia. This posi- tion at first he declined, but afterward, by earnest entreaties from all quarters, was iutlueed to accept. He, however, held it for a few months only, when he entered the pro- visional army cf the Confederate States as brigadier-gene- ral, and was ordered to report to Gen. Garnett, then in North-western Virginia. Before reaching his appointed destination the news of the disaster whieh had befallen that commander met him, with a portion of Garnett's army in rapid retreat. By order of Gen. Lee he assumed the command of the shattered forces at Monterey. With these and his own two regiments he organized a force that prevented any further advance of the Federals from that quarter. On Oct. 3 he was attacked by Gen. Reynolds on Greenbrier River, but heM his position. For winter-quarters betook position on the Alleghany. He was again appointed by Gov. Brown of (reorgia major-general, to coinnninil a division of State troops called to the field for the defence of the Georgia coast. This position he accepted, but in doing it was compelled to resign his commission in the Confederate army, and after the passage of the Confederate conscript law in 1862 he resigned his commission as major- general of State forces, as by that law most of his forces were transferred to other branches of the service. He was again appointetl Itrigadier-general in the Ctmfederate army, and assigned to duty in t!ie West. He was under Hood in his famous expedition to Tennessee in the fall of isiu, and acted a conspicuous part in the battles of Franklin and Nashville; in the latter, his entire command, thinned in its ranks to only a few hundred, was surrounded and cap- tured on the field. As a prisoner of war he was first taken to Johnson's Island, then transferred to Fort Warren, where ho remained till the clo«c of the terrible conllict of arms. The subject of this sketch, amidst all his various vocations. h.as ever had a fondness for letters. Early in life he was a valued contributor to the Orion, the Ai*<iuiitti Mln-nr, the Sniithr.ni Quarterly Rrrieir, xind other iieriodieal publications of like character. A volume of his poetic writings wa? pub- lished in 18.j0. It was entitled Ttitfufah, and nther PoanH^ which met with general popular favrtr. Since the war ho has taken no active part in public affairs, but has confined himself closely to thepracticc of his profession in Savannah, and is also at this time (May, lS75j president of the Geor- gia Historical Society. A. H. Sticphens. Jackson (Isaac W.), LL.D., b. at Cornwall, Orange CO., .\. v., in 1804 ; graduated at Albany Academy in 1824, and from Union College in 1826; was nppointei) tutor ia mathematics at Union College in the same year, and short- ly after professor. D. at Schenectady July 28, 1877. Ho was a very sueeesuful teacher, and his mathematical schuul- bo^iks are widely used. Jackson (.Iamks), b. in Moreton-Hempstcad, Devon- shire, Kngland, in I7J8, and migrated to Georgia in 1772; took an active and zealous part in the war for independ- ence; was made brigade-uiajor in 1778, and in 1781 eoni- manded the legionary corps of the State of tieorgia. Upon the cvaeuatioii of Savannah by the British (-luly 12, 1782) ho received the keys. In consideration of his many gal- lant and valuable sorviees during the war. the general as- sembly of the State purchased and ]>resented him with a commodious house ami lot in the city of Savannah. After the war was over ho engaged in the practice of law, nnd pursueil it with success. Ho was elected a member of the first Congress of the U. .S., whieh assembled under the new Constitution in 1780. Ho was .-toon after chosen one of ihe Senators from Gorgia. whieh position ho held until I70j, anil then resigned upi»n the passage of the famous Yazoo bill, as it was ealleil, by Iho legislature of his Slate; which bill he succeeded in getting omdenined and finally repeal- ed. In 1708 ho was elected govern<ir of the State, which position he held until 18i)I, when he \vi\^ again returned to the U. S. Senate. D. Mar. 10, 18(16, in the zenith of his power and influence. In politics he was of the .leflersoninn scliJul, and ho made an impress upon the popular mind in Georgia of his principles unequalled by any man of his day and limes. A. U. STKPiir.NS. 1354 JACK80N. Jackson ( Jamks), b. in Jefferson co., Gft., 1819 ; grad- uateil ut the State Uuivcrsity in 18;17 ; studied law. aud ad- naittcd to tho bar in 1840: was elected seoretary of the State senate in 1H42, and was a member of tbo State legis- lature lS-15-47; l.S4y-j7 was on the circuit court bench of the State. This position ho resigned to become a member of the .'ijth Congress. IIo was again elected to the 3Gth Congress, and resigned his seat in the House when (leorgia pastscd her ordinance of secession in 18G1. Since the war he has taken no active part in politics, but confined him- self to the practice of law at JNIacon, Ga. For many years he has been a trustee of tho university of tho State. A. II. Stephens. Jackson (James). M. D., LL.T).. b. at Ncwburyport, Mass., Oct. ?>, 1777; graduated at Harvard in 179(i;'stud- ied medicine in Europe, and began practice in But=fon in ISOfl. He was tho first physician of tho Massachusetts General Hospital, in ISIO became a professor of clinical molioine in tho Ma.^snchnsetts Medical School, and in 1S12 professor of theory and practice. Ho wrote On the Dru- «ont*art Syatf-ni (1SU9), 0>i the Effects of Dcntitioyi (1S12), Syllahai of Lccturcn (ISIG), Letters to a Touny Phy.tician (1855), and several other works. D. at Boston, Mass., Aug. 27^ 1SC7. Jackson (James S.), b. in Madison co., Ky. ; educated at Ceatre College; studied and practised lawj in the war with Mexico he served with a regiment of Kcntuchy vol- unteers, returned to his native State at its close, and re- sumed his profession; elected to tho 37th Congress, he re- signed his scat in ISGl, organized the 3d Kentucky Cavalry (Union), of which ho became colonel, and with which he was actively engaged during the winter and spring of 1SG1-C2; was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers July, 1SG2, and commanded a division at tho battle of Porryville, where, while endeavoring to rally a wavering body of his command, he was killed, Oct. 8, isC2. G. C. Simmons. Jackson (John), b. at Lcnscy. Yorkshire, in 168G; was educatL'd at CambridG;o; became rector of Rossington, and in 1729 master of Wigton Hospital. His success in ob- taining rank and dignity in tho English Church was seri- ously impeded by tho Unitarian (then called Arian) prin- ciples which ho set forth in many treatises, and defended against such antagonists as Warburton, Whiston. and Mid- dlcton. ile was also distinguished for his writings against the deists Collins and Tindal, and produced a valuable work on biblical chronology (1762). 1). in 17G3. Jackson (John), D. D., b. at London Feb. 22, 1811; was educated at Pembroke College. Oxford, graduating in IS3.'1 with first-class honors. In is;;6 he became head-mas- ter of the proprietary grammar school at Islington; in 1846 rector of St. James's, Piccadilly; in 1847 chapl.iin to the queen ; in 1$32 canon of Bristol; and in 1853 bishop of Lincoln. Dr. Jackson was a select preacher before the University of Oxford in 1845, 1850, 1862, and 18GG, and delivered the Buyle Lectures in 1853. He was promoted in 1869 to the bishopric of London. Jackson (Jor?j Dwif.s), A. M.. M. D,, b. at Danville, Ky., Dec. 12, 1834; graduated from Centre CuUege in 1854; received his medical degree from tho University of Penn- sylvania 1857 ; and settled to practise in his native place. In the war between tho States ho served as a surgeon in the Confederate army. His contributions to medical liter- ature are to be found chiefly in tho leading medical jour- nals and in translations — An Operative Manual, Li<jatlon o/' Arten'ef^hy Dr. L. H. Farabeuf (1874), Tnchiniafis in tho Jnurnal of A. Af. Sc'rnce (18G9). The Bfaek Arts in Medi- cine. Medical Office Pupilarje, Floaling Cartilnffe in Knee- joint, (7unithot \yound<i m /itadder, etc. J. M. To.VEIi. Jackson (Jonathan), b. at Boston June 4, 1743; grad- uated at Harvard College 17G1 ; and became a wealthy merchant at Xcwburyport. He served as a member of tho Provincial Congress of Massachusetts in 1775, as a repre- sentative in 1777, a member of Congress in 1782. and State senator in 17S9. He was tho author of Thoufhtu upon the Political Situation of the U.S. (1788). Three of his sons became men of distinction — Charlks (Dr.). James, and Patiuck T. (which see). D. at Boston Mar. 5, 1810. Jackson (Xatoaniel J.), b. at Ncwlmryport, Mass.; took part in the American civil war as colonel of tho 1st and Jth regiments Maine volunteers; appointed brigadier- general volunteers Sept. 24. 1>*G2: eomman.lcd a brigade in tho 12th army corps during the McCIcIIan and Pope campaigns in Virffinia; was wounded at Gaines's Mill; commanded l:*t divisiaa 20th corps in Sherman's march to the sea. and wa^ made brevet major-general of volunteers Jackson (PAxmrK Tracv), a brother of Dr. James Jaekson, b. at Newburyport. Maps.. Aug. 14. 17S0 : early acquired a largo fortune in the East India trade, nnd with F. C. LowcU, hia brother-in-law, engaged in tho cotton | manufacture, building their first mill in 1813 at Waltham, Mass. In 1S21 thty establisheil what jtroved to be the germ of the city of Lowell. In L'^37, alter severe pecuniary losses, he removed to Lowell, aud afterwards to Somcrs- worth, N. H., and was engaged in manufacturing and in zealous and successful labors for the mora! and intellectual good of his operatives. D. at Beverly, Mass., Sept. 12, 1847. Jackson (PiObeut M. S. l. a native of Pennsylvania, distinguished for a knowledge of natural science, rendered great service to tho Pcunsylvauia geological commission, aud was thoroughly acquainted with all tho aspects of na- ture in tho Alleghanicp, having published a remarkable work called The Mountain, in which ho enunciated bold but reverent ideas in natural theology. Ho served in the civil war as medical inspector of the 2nd army corps and acting medical director of the department of tho Ohio. D. at Chattanooga, Tenn., Jan. 28, 1SG5. Jackson (Samuel). M. D., b. in Philadelphia Mar. 22, 1787; received his degree from Rutgers College in 1812 j was 18;35-63 professor of tho institutes of medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, and enjoyed a wide reputa- tion as a physician, lecturer, and medical writer. lUc. chief work was the Principles of Medicine (1832). D. at Phila- delphia Apr. 5, 1872. Jackson (Thomas), D. D., b. at Willowing, Durham, England, in 1579; was educated at Oxford; became presi- dent of Corpus Christi College in IGCO, prebendary of Win- chester in 1G35, and dean of Pelerboroi^^h in lGo8. Dean Jackson was a voluminous and learned writer upon Angli- can theology, and ranks high in the roll of the famous di- vines of the seventeenth century. His Commentari/ on the Apostles' Creed is still highly valued, and his whole works were republished at Oxford in 1S44 (12 vols.). D. in 1640. Jackson (Tmomas), D. D.. b. at Sancton, Yorkshire, Dec. 12, 17t^3; was editor of The JVcslcf/an Maf/azine for twenty years; then theological tutor in the Wesley an col- lege at Richmond, being twice the president of the Wes- Icyan conference. His works are standard among Meth- odists, The Institutiouit of Christianiti/ (3 vols.). Life of Charles Wesley, aud Tho Ccutcnary of Methodism being among them. D. at Richmond Mar. 11, 1873. Jackson (Thomas), M. A., b. at Preston, England, in 1S12; graduated at St. Mary's Hall, Oxford, in \i^:U; took holy orders, and after holding several parochial appoint- incnts became principal of the Normal College at Bnttersea nnd can(m of St. Paul's. In 1819 ho was appointed bishop of New Zealand, and went thither, but returned without having been consecrated, in consequence of diftieulties with Bishop Schvyn. Being preferred to the rectory of St. Mary, Stoke Newington (a district of London), he has built up there ono of the most splendid churches in the British me- tropolis. His educational publications have been numerous and valuable. Jackson (Thomas JoyATHAN). ("Stonewall"), b. at Clarksburg, Harrison co., West Va.. Jan. 21, 1824. At- tracted toward tho profession of arms, young Jackson walked from tho mountains of Virginia to Washington, invoked the aid of his Congressman, and got the appoint- ment of cadet at tho U. S. iMilitary Academy at West Point, where ho was entered in the summer of 1842. and was graduated in LSIG. Attached to the army as brevet second lieutenant of tho 1st Artillery, his first service was as a subaltern with Mngruder's battery of light artillery. Prei^ent at the reduction of Vera Cruz, and noticed for gal- lantry in the battles of <?orro (iordo, Contreras, Molino del Rey. Chapultepec, and the assault and capture of the city of Mexico, ho received tho brevets of captain for conduct at Contreras and Churubusco. and of major for the storra- iTig of Chapultepec. Meanwhile, ho had been advanced by regular promotion to be first lieutenant on tho 20th of Aug., 1847. After (ho war, on the 29th of Feb.. 1852, he resigned from tho regular army, having been previously appointed to the chair of natural and experimental philosophy and ar- tillery instructor at the Virginia Stale Military Institute at Lcxinfl;fon, Rockbridge co.. Va., a position which he still fill-^dfApr. 17, 18G1) when Virginia declared for secession, and in which he was chiefly notable for intense religious sen- timent, coupled with personal eccentricities. But Letcher, governor of Virginia, a resident of Lexington, had no- ticed somewhat of the merits of the eccentric professor, and making him colonel placed him in command of a force sent to seize and occupy the U. S. arsenal at Harper's Fer- ry — which Jnekson accomplished on May 3, ISGI. Relieved by (Jen. J. E.Johnston { iMay 2.'t), he fell in command of tho briga<lo of Valley Virginians, whom he moulded into that redotibtable corps, baptized at the first Manassas, and ever nf^er famous, as tho "Stonewall hrigade." In bis very first detached service the martial character of the man be- JACKSOX— JACKSON BUKG 1355 cime apparent in the affair at Falling Waters. The June- 1 Here he TTa» detached for a special operation ''f""'^ " ioTonL force, of Johnston and Beauregard having taken hi, hal.itual .nanner so that he l'^l'°°^^XX^frZn place in the rear of Bull Run. Jackson, previously made a ; to Ins super.or that the f»' ■«'^^J P7J^^"° " '/"'ouO ,«en "n brigadier-general, came prominently into public view with had been surrendered into h,s hand., "''>' '•''"0 '^^■. ' The battle of Manassas where he acquired the sobriquet of equal number of small-arms, , ., pieces of art Uerj , and -IHJ " a. "Made a n^^^^^ (.^ep.ember.'lsfil ,, ,vl.gons," wi.h large stores of camp and g»--«l'^q;',' -f^ he was foonplaced in command of the Confederate forces i But this success was dearly gamed, for it enlaikd the ,n- in the lower Shenandoah Vnllev, then menaced with occu- pation bv a Federal army. Some apparently profitless, if not cccenlric, marches and movements in that quarter dur- ing the next five months brought no malerial military re- sults, but severelv testing the mettle of his troops, some- what impaired his popularity with them. Confronted finallv. early in March, at Winchester, with a largely su- perior Union force, Jackson fell back with his small corps (,1400 men of all arms, with 18 gunsl towards Staunton, pursued as far as Strasburg. As his adversary retrograded in turn, the Confederate general swiftly took the oflensive and fought the battle of Kernstown (Mar. 2:5, l.sr.2) in characteristic fashion, after a forced march the same day of from 14 to 2J miles. Wor.-ted. however, in this action, he was forced to retire up the Valley again to a position of observation near Swift Run Gap in the Blue Ridge, on the S fork of the Shenandoah River, about the 9lh of April. Meanwhile, a fresh adversary. Gen. Milroy, was marching across the mountains from the West to unite with Banks, then at Harrisonburg, and Jackson's situation was critical. Kcinforccments, however, under Ewcll, were approaching,, and another Confederate force under Gen. Edward Johnson was at liulTalo Gap, just W. of .Staunton. Giving orders to Ewell to hold Banks in cheek while he, forming a junction with Johnson, should take the offensive against Milroy, Jackson encountered and defeated that officer in a severe action of four hours at McUowell (.May 8, 1802), forcing him to retreat with heavy loss in supplies. This achieved, J,ackson, retracing his steps, effected a junction with Ewell, and throwing himself into the Luray Valley, by a forced march day and night stole upon the flank and rear of Gen. Banks, capturing detached bodies of Lnion troops, artillcrv. and wagon-trains at Winchester, where some sharp fighting ensued, with the result that Banks re- treated precipitately across the Potomac into Maryland. This brought the immediate concentration of several strong Federal columns from different quarters in the upper She- nandoah Valley upon Jackson's rear for his destruction. Thus mcnaced.'delaching Kwell to meet Fremont iipproach- in* from the N. E., with his own division Jackson took po- sitlcm about the 1st of June to observe lien. Shields's force, diverted from McDowell's corps at Fredericksburg, and then in the Luray Vallev. Encumbered at the time with 2.'100 pris- oners and more than 90U0 stands of captured arms, with other valuable stores, but never embarrassed by obstacles nor losing opportunities for strokes, he promptly threaded the Luray Valley to the White House, burned the bridge there, crossed over to the main valley, and passing around Shields took position near Ewell at Port Republic, equidis- tant between Shields and Banks. On the Sth of June, Ewell became engaged with and beat the latter at Cross Keys, and on the «th. Shields having advanced to Port Repub- lic, Jackson, after a sharp, well-contested action, defeated hiin, inflicting the loss of seven guns with other casual- ties. In this campaign was made manifest his high rare talent for the business of war. Here he gave. to a comparativelv petty force that astonishing mobility which enabled him' to deliver so many opportune blows, with the effect to neutralize an aggregate of nearly "0,000 Fed- eral soldiers, with a highly adverse influence upon Mc- Clellan'a general plan of campaign, added to the gravest ap- prehension excited at Washingi.m and throughout the whole Union for the safety of the national eiipilal. Fresh from such successes, Jackson was now called to add bis corps to the main Confederate army at the moment crowded back upnn Richmond. Then was made that notable flank movc- nitnt which ended in the decisive stroke upim McClellan's right at Cold Harhor(Junc2", !sr.2).a movement executed under orders, but in its manner Jackson's own. (ien. Pope having been called from the West and placed in command of a large force. which he pushed along the Piedmont region to the Rapiilan, while .MeClellan still threatened Richmond opportune absence of two-thirds of Lee's best troops so much longer than was anticipated, that, thrown meanwhile upon thellefcnsive, his offensive plan of campaign was virtually foiled, while his adversary was enabled to assemble his strength, and force battle at Antietam with the Confi'de- rates^unready, and therefore unable to push lo a decisive close the advantage which they had gaincil at the end of that day, and their subsequent enforced retreat before their re- inf^o'rced enemv. In that action, however. Jackson was pres- ent with two of his divisions, and his part of the field, the Confederate left near the Dunkers' church, was deeply im- pressed with his peculiar gift to develop the utmost fighting power of men. both ofl"ensively and defensively. In Barn- side's attack on Lee at Fredericksburg (Dec. 11, lSfi2), Jack- son held the Confederate right, with no marked opportu- nity for the display of his always ripening cnp.acity lor war. Wlien. on the eve of the operations that ended at Chancel- lorsville. Gen. Hooker made the strong feint (Apr. 2S, 180.3) of passing the Rappahannock below Fredericksburg, the movement was confronted by Jackson, but as there was no prompt advance, Lee, forecasting Hookers real plan, detached Jackson the next night with three divis- ions in the direction of Chancellorsvillc. In movement by midnight he found Hooker in a strongly fortified po- si'tion. At Jackson's own suggestion, he was now entrusted with his last flank operation— a swift march around, and descent upon, the Thiion right and rear. Executing the operation in his habitual m.anner, he fell suddenly upon the 11 th Federal corps on the afternoon of May 2, and completely routed it. Pressing the advantage as fast as the nature of the densely wooded country would admit, in his martial ardor he was carried far in advsince of his men. until urged hy his staff to return. Doing so, after nightfall, he and his suite, mistaken for Federal cavalry, received the fire of several Confederate regiments, and Jackson fell with three wounds, one ball having shattered his left arm two inches below the shoulder, another passing through the same arm below the elbow, and the other entering the palm of Ins right hand; several of his suite were killed outright, ami several wounded. These volleys drew an immediate an- swer from a Federal force in the vicinity, and a sharp con- flict was engaged, in the course of which the hitter charged over the very body of the Confederate leader. Jackson recovered, however, in a countercharge, was carried off the field on a litter under a terrible fire, from which one of the litter-bearers was slain, and by the fall of the litter Jackson was grievously contused. Meanwhile, his charge to the surgeon in attendance was. " Do not tell the troops I am wounded." The doubly wounded arm having been amputated, he was left serene, cheerful, and hopeful, talk- ing freely of the battles, of the bravery and deserts of his subordinates, and of his old " St..newall brigade." But pneumonia supervened, and in his wenUened state from great loss of blood. Jackson died (May 10, 180:1). An in- comparable lieutenant, sure to execute any operation en- trusted to him with marvellous precision, judgment, and eonrace. all his individual campaigns and combats bore the stamp of a masleily capacity for war. The more h.s ope- rations in the Shenandoah Valley in the spring, summer, and fall of I.s62are studied, the more striking must the merits of this almost uniformly successful soldier appear, with all his intense perception of the value as well as right method of the nclive ,lr/rm!vr. of which Jackson may in- deed bo rightly regarded as the very incarnation TnoMAS JonnAN. Jackson (William), b. in Cumherland co., Eng.. Mar. !) 17.-,!l- ciiuic to Charleston, S. C, in boyhood: was liber- ally educated, an.l served creditably in the Revolution, at- taining the rank of major as aide-de-camp to Washington. In 1781 he was secretary to Laurens in Ins mission_to France; in 1782-83 assistant secretary of war; in 1787 secretary to the U.S. constitutional convention; private from James River. Jackson was detached by Lee to confront i secretary to Washington during h.s first presidency; sur^ the fresh menace with three divisions. Always bent on the I v„v„r of tbo nort of Pbila.lclpbia I7!lti-lS(ll. and secretary offensive. Jackson immediately resolved upon attack, and encountered Pope's advance corps on the afternoon of Aug. vevor of tho port of Pbila.lclpbia I7!lli-1 of the Society of Cincinnati from 180 U, within or s'milcsof Culpeper Court-house. In this ac- tion of Cedar Run he was victor at all points. Gen Lee dceidiu" to take the oflensive in the same direction, Jack- son was^charged with the lead in the operation, which, im- pressed with bis genius, resulted in one of the most bril- liant feats of the war, an.l he was the conspicuous figure 1 the actions of Aug. 2'.»-:i0. 1802. In the invasion of Maryland that followed, his troops led the van to Frederick. Pop. lUU. 00 until his death, which occurred at Philadelphia Dec. 17. 1828. HM'™- nouneed the funeral oration upon Washington at Philadcl- lin, where in 1801 be started one of the first daily papers .\merica, 7'//'- /'■•lilicnl tiii-l Cfimmricial Hf'/iKltr. Jnrksnn Hrook PlaiHnCion, tp. of Washington ., Me. Pop. 200. Jiirk'sonburg, post-v. of Jackson tp., Wayne co., Ind. I'l 1356 JACKSONBURG— JACOB. Jacksonburgr, post-v. of Wayne tp., Butler co., 0. Pop. 127. Jackson Centre, post-v. of Jackson tp., Shelbv co., 0. I»op. Oil. Jackson Conrt-house, post-v., cap. of Jackson co.. V>'. Va. It is oallrd Ripi.f.v also, and is IG miles from Uiploy Landing on the Ohio River. Jackson Creek, tp. of Clarke co., Ala. Pop. 393. Jack'souport, post-v., cap. of Jackson co.. Ark.. 80 miles N. E. of Litllo Kock, at the junction of White and IJlack rivers, and within 2 miles of the Cairo and Fulton R. R. It has a nfw?paper, 5 churche?, free and sehct pchools. Knights of Pythias, Knights of the Silver Rin;:, Odd Fellows, and Masonio lodges, and a $40,000 court- house. CottoQ is extensively shipped from this point. Pop. 7fi9. John P. Fagin, Ed. *' Statesman." Jacksonport^ tp. and post-v. of Door co., Wis., on Lake Michigan. Pop. 139. Jacksou^s Hill, post-tp. of D.ividson co.. N. C. P. 637. Jackson Springs, tp. of Moore co., N. C. Pop. 537. Jaek'sonville, post-v. and tp., cap. of Calhoun co., Ala., on the Selma Rome and Dalton R. R. It contains 1 newspaper, a male college, a female school, fine waterworks. 1 mill, an extensive tannery, 2 hotels, a livery stable, a namber of stores, etc. It has a good trade with the sur- rounding valleys, beautiful mountain sccnerv, and a de- lightful climate*. Pop. of v. 9:>S; of tp. 1840'. I. F. & L. W. Graxt, Eds. " Republicax." Jacksonville, city. cnp. of Duval co.. Fla., on the river St. Johns, 25 miles from its mouth ; is the eastern terminus of the Jacksonville Pcnsacola and Mobile R. R. It ships annually some fjO.OOO.OOO feet of lumber, besides naval stores, cotton, and other eommoditicp. and is the cen- tre of business and travel for this section of the State, many thousands of tourists and others arriving here yearly by rail and river. It has a savings bank, 2 private bank- ing-houses, 1 semiweekly, 1 triweekly, and 2 weekly news- papers, good graded schools, a hospital, 10 churches, a Roman Catholic academy for ladies, etc. It is well laid out, and is a very popular resort for invalids and pleasure- seekers. Pop. C912, very largely increased since the XJ. S. census. N. K. Sawver, En. *' Union." Jacksonville, post-v. of Telfair co., Ga.^ IS miles from McVillc, a station on tho Hacou and Brunswick R. R. Pop. 40. Jacksonville, city and tp., cap. of Morgan co., III., is favorably situatc-d in Central Illinois in tho midrtof a fertile prairie, near Mauvaiseterre Creek, an affluent of tho Illinois River, 30 miles W. of Springfield, and at tho inter- section of tho Jacksonville division of the Chicago and Alton with the Toledo Wabash an<l Western, tho Peoria Pekin and .laeksonville. and the Jacksonville Norlh-west- ern and South-eastern R. Rs. The streets are wide and adorned with shade trees, cars run on the principal ave- nues, and tho city is provided with gas and a complete sys- tem of waterworks and sewerage, all the city improvements being nf a substantial character. It has a fine court-house, opera-house, 2 national banks, 2 private banks, a savings bank, 3 hotels, and 22 churches, the architecture of which is generally rich. It is known as "the Athens of the M''est," and well sustains tho title, having State institutions for the insane, deaf and dumb, feeble-minded children, and the blind; of incorporated institutions, the Illinois Col- lege (Congregational), Illinois Fcmalo College (Jlethodist), Jacksonville Female Academy, Voung Ladies' Athenoeum, Illinois Conservatory of i^Iusic, and acombined academy and business college; of private institutions, tho Lutheran or- phan asylum, a retreat for the insane, and a surgical in- firmary; and 1 high school, 7 public schools, 1 Roman Catholic parochial school, a free reading-room, and public library of IGOO volumes, all in separate, well-appointed buildings. Its manufacturing interests aro rapidly devel- oping, there licing 4 flour-mills, woollen-factory, carworks, several foundries and machine-shops, carriage-faetories, planing-mills, soap-faetorics, and gasworks. It has 1 d;:ily and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. of city, 9203; of tp. 3?96. L. B. Glover, Ed. *' Daily JorRNAL." Jacksonville, post-tp. of Chickasaw co., la. Pon. 82S. Jacksonville, jiost-v. (P. O. name of Onslow Court- iMi sKt and tp., cap. of Onslow co., N. C. Pop. of v. (jO; of tp. ih',0. Jacksonville, post-v., cap. of Jackson co.. Dr.. on Rogue River, in a good agricultural and mining region, has i bank, 2 churches, 2 hotels, a public school, 2 news- papers. H. Kellv. Ei>. •■Oregon Sentinel." Jacksonville^ a v. of Young tp., Indiana co., Pa. Pop. 14L I Jacksonville, post-v. of Cherokee co., Tex., on the Tntcrnatiouat and Great Northern R. R., 28 miles N. E. of Palestine. It has 1 weekly newspaper. Jacksonville, post-v. of Whilingham tp., Windham I CO., Vt., 25 miles W. by S. of Brattloboro', has manufactures of leather, etc. I Jacksonville, or Floyd Court-House, post-v., cap. of Floyd co.. Va.. 22 miks S. of the Virginia and Ten- I nessee R. R., has 2 churches, fi stores. 3 hotels. 1 foundry, j 1 weekly newspaper, and a graded school. Pop. 321 : of I tp. 2773. John Sower, Ed. "Floyd Reporter." Jack's Springs, tp. of Escambia co., Ala. Pop. 196. Jack's Valley, tp. of Douglas co., Nov. Pop. 140. Jack Tree, tho Artocnrpus iutpijrt/oh'n, a tree which ori'^inatcd in the East Indies, and is now naturalized throughout a large part of the tropical world. It produces abundantly a fruit resembling, but much larger than, the bread-fruit, to which it is very nearly related. Though its taste is far from being pleasant, thousands of the lower classes of India eat it as food. Its wood is excellent for many uses, and is extensively employed in Europe for in- laying, carving, and fancy joinery. (See Artocarpace.e.) Jacme (Jayme or Jaumel En I., king of Aragon and count of Barcelona, b. in 1207 or 1208 at Montpcllier, then belonging to the counts of Barcelona, and d. at Xa- tiva in 127G. To his inherited states he added by conquest the Moorish kingdoms of Majorca, Valencia, and Murcia, and he imposed tribute on those of Grenada. Tunis, and TIemcen. Hence he is generally styled fhc Conqueror. The title en corresponds in signification to the more mod- ern don, and though its origin is not clear, it is probably derived from the Latin sr.yiof, as in the Castilian srftor. The life and exploits of En Jacme are recorded in the cu- rious Lihre dels Fcyts esdcveiifjtrfs en la vidtt del maft alt Senior Ucif En Jacme lo cnnqxicridor. This work is pro- fessedly autobiographic, though its aulhentieity is dis- puted ; but there exists a manuscript copy of it of the year 13 !3, and it is probably as trustworthy as any of the me- diaeval annals. It is, both historically and jihilologically, among the most valuable and attractive of the old Hispanic chronicles. The portion of it which describes tho conquest of Valencia was printed in 1515 in the Aurrum oput Pn'vi- Icfjtorum licjni Vnleufi'a, and the entire work in 1557. A beautiful edition is now in course of publication at Barce- lona in tho BihUoteca Catalana. A Castilian translation by Flotato and Bofarull appeared at Barcelona in 1S48, (See article Catalan Langlage and Literatlre, in Ap- pendix.) George P. Marsh. Jacme (or Jayme) II., called the Ji-st, king of .Ara- gon and count of Barcelona, b. about 1259. was grandson of the preceding, and second son of Pedro III., on whose death, in Nov., 1285, ho became king of Sicily, and on tho death of his brother, Alfonso III., in June. 1291, succeeded him on the throne of Aragon. leaving the government of Sicily to his brother Frederic. lie maintained wars with Naples, Genoa, and Pisa fconqnering the islands of Sardinia and Corsica), as well as with the Moors of Granada and Tripoli: f(mndrd the University of L^rida ; expelled the Knights Templar from the kingdom: and d. at Barcelona in 1327, leaving the throne to his son, Alfonso IV. Jac'mel, or Jacquomel, a port and city of Ilayti, on thtf S. coast, 30 miles S. W. of Port-au-Prince, at the head of a bay of tho samo name. The city is ill built and unhealthy, but tho harbor is deep and commodious. Com- merce with the V. S. has been carried on for some years, and it is a port of call for mail-steamers. Pop. about 6000. Ja'cob, or Israel, in biblical history the immediate ancestor of tho Hebrew nation, being the son of Is.iie. grandson of Abraham, and father of the twelve patriarchs from whom tho tribes of Israel deduced their origin. The place of Jacob's birth cannot bo ascertained from the nar- rative in Gon. xxv.. except that it was in the Netjeh or "south country" of the land of Canaan, probably near the Well Lahai-roi (verse 11), which site has not been identi- fied by modern travellers. In consequence of a quarrel vith his twin-brother Esau about the supremacy in the household, Jacob was sent in his early manhood by his parents to his uncle Laban, at Haran in Padan aram (a region variously located by some to the N. E. of the Eu- phrates, by others in the vicinity of Damascus), where he married his cousins Leah and Rachel, and resided twenty years, becoming wealthv in flocks and herds. Jacob then returned to Canaan with his family and his riches, not without a serious controversy with Laban. Arriving near home, he became reconciled with his brother Esau in a dramatic personal interview. Both on his journey to Haran and on his return .Jacob had had visions (Gen. xxviii. and xxxii.) in which the greatness of his des^-cndants was di- vinely announced to him, and tho later sanctuaries at JACOB— JACOBI. 1357 nothcl and Peniiol commemorated the?c events. Jacob's | old a;.;c was emWitlercil by tlie conduct of his ?on?, who I sold liis favorite, .Iose|ib. as a slave to the Mitiinniti s. who took him to K^'vpt. Many years later, when .Io?().li bad become viceroy of Egypt (tJen. xli.). tho whole family of Jacob, after a wonderfn! series of events, recorded in the last ten eliajiters of tiencsis, was established in Kgypt, where the patriarch died seventeen years later at tho a);o of 1 17 years. On his deathbed ho pronounced a blessing npon each of his sons (Ocn. .ilix.), and commande<l them to bury him with his fathers in tho cave of Macbpelah in the land of C";inann, which was accordingly done. The locality of this cave has been much disputed ;■ the present te.xl of (Jcnesis assigns it to Hebron, in Southern Canaan, but as this is difficult to reconcile with the route taken bv the funeral procession in crossing the Jordan ftien. l.Ul and with the express languago of the martyr Sle|ihen (.\cts vii. lOt, placing the tomb of the patriarchs at •■Jhccbem or .'^ychem. it has been concluded by some ex- positors that llrlrnn is a gloss which has erroneously crept into the te\t of Genesis. The chronology of Jacob's life is ono of the most perple.xing problems of biblical criti- cism. Kitto and others date his birth about B.C. I'.ISa, and hi9>death D. <•. l!<J7. (See Ewald's Ifttlon/ of hi-nil, trans- lated by Martincau, vol. i., and Dean Stanley 's./<:i(i<i/i CInin-h, vol. i.) PoKTEn C. Bliss. Jncub (Ilil>lio))liilc). See Lachoi.v (Pai'i,). Jacub (JoiiS). (iKXEKAL, b. at AVoolavington, near liridgcwater, Knglaurl, in Jan., 1812; was distinguished for his gallantry in India as commander of the Scindo cavalry, for the influence he acquired over tho natives of the X. W . frontier, whom he |irevented from joining the mutiny of 1SJ7, ami for the invention of the Jacob rille, a very popular cavalry arm in India, where it is the rival of the Knficld. I), at .lacobabad, a town founded by him in Scinde, Dee. J, 1S,")S. His Vinm and Opinions on Indian subjects were published after his death. Jacob de Vorasine, b. at Viraggio. near Genoa, in l'.':;il; was arehl>ishop of Genoa in 1292. and d, there in 12U.'<. lie was the author of the very famous Legenda Aurcu, or Gulden Lrijenil, a collection of fanciful and fab- ulous lives of saints, widely read in the Middle Ages. Jacob of Kdessa, one of the most celebrated Syrian theologians, flourishe<l in the second half of the seventh cen- tury. About ll.'il A. I), he became bishop of Edessa, and devoted him.sclf to sacred and classical studies. Ills an- notations u])on the .Syriac version of the Old Testament, of which some fragments are extant, are considered valu- able, while his translations of Greek works into Syriac pro- cured him the honorable title of '• interpreter of the books." L). June :>, 70.S. Jacob of IIiingaTy, called rnt! MAsrisn.was a relig- ious fanatic who played an important part in French his- tory in the time of the seventh f'rusadc. In his youth ho was reported to have been a Tistcrcian friar, to have learned magical arts from the Spanish Moors, and even to have embraced Islamism ; these statements, however, are of diMibtful authority. When the news of the surrender of St. Louis to the .Mussulmans of Kgypt became known in Europe, the " Master of Hungary " went through the prov- inces of France preaching a crusade for the liberation of the king. He laid claim loilivino inspiration, and, appeal- ing only to the poor and lowly, soon gathered about him in Flanders some Hfl.llOII shepherds and peasants, eallcil /'<i«- totirfU or I'tmlinirrnnr, at whose head he started for Paris. At Amiens the mob obtained arms and recruits, and it numbered 1110, OOO wln-n it presented itself before the walls of Paris. The Pastourels when admitted into Paris began to commit depredatiims ami to murder monks, while Jacob assumed priestly faculties ancl officiated publicly in tho church of St. Eustache. He divide d his followers into several bands, and sent them by different routes towards the Holy I, ami. .\t OrK-ans they niasiacred the priests, at Itourges the .lews. These? excesses caused the Sfn fJit^nU, who ha(| at first been favored by the queen and the magis- trates, to be excommunicated, and Jacob their leader was killed by the ipiecn's order while preaching in the midst of his followers, who were then easily annibilatetl or dis- persed. iSeetbe r/iioiiiV/.« cd' Mailbew Paris and Matthew of Westminster, and .Milman's f.nlin Chrinlianlli/.) Jacob of Vilry, b. at Vitry, in France, in tho scoond half of the twelfth century; was first a parish priest at Argenleuil, then became a /.enlous apostle of Maria of Oignies. a woman who was supposed to possess supernatu- ral gifts. Led by his enlbiisiasm, he undertook to preach a crusade against the Albigenses, and finally devoted him- self to the interests of the Holy Sepulchre at ,Ierusalein, travelling through France to collect alms. He was ap- pointed by Popo Honoriua III. 021?) biibop of Aoro in Palestine, where ho effected great conversions of Saracen children. He resigned that bishopric in 122.5; was ap- pointed by Pope Gregory IX., in 122'.!, cardinal-bishop of Tusculnm, and papal legate of France, Brabant, and tho Holy Land, and d. at Koine Apr. .11) (or May I). 12.",n. He was the most eloquent preacher of the time, but his famo now rests upon his Hinlorin Oricntall«, generally called /Union/ of J'-runaUm, which is a valuable source of infor- mation upon the Crusades, He also wrote a IliHtoria Ovci- dentniift, a Lifr of the iilesHed Mary of Oiijnies, and left an interesting collection of letters. Jacobtr'an Lil'y ( Aman/llift formoHlmtimn)^ a beauti- ful South American flower which has been acclimated in the U.S. its bulb is large, dark-colored, and long-neeked, protruding above tho surface of the ground: the flowers, which appear before the leaves, arc large, irregular, and of a brilliant crimson color. (See Lily.) Jaco'bi (AauAnAJt), M. D., b. at Ilartuni, in West- phalia. ;\Iay t>. 1>*;^1I : graduated at Bonn in IS.'il. and came to thv, {'. S. in ISj.'J in consequence of political persecu- tions in Gerniany. Br. Jncobi has become a leading au- thority among the medical profession of .America npon tho subjects of obstetrics and diseases of women and ehililron. having been professor of these branches at tlie New York Medical College (ISCO-fiit) and the College of Physicians and Surgeons. lie has published Dniiltion mid iln Itr- rangemcnte (1862) and other works, and edited 18C8-7I the American Journal of Obstetrica and Uiscaeet of Women and Children. Jacobi (FniEDniCH HeinrichI, b. at Diisseldorf Jan. 25, 174.'), and received a commercial education at Frankfort and Geneva, in which latter city he .^pcnt three years. In 1763 he was placed at the head of the paternal firm, and conducted the business of the house for seven years with great conscientiousness and with success. In 1770 he re- tired from niorcantilc afl'airs. having been appointed a councillor of finance f<ir the duchies of .lulich and Berg. This office gave him leisure and a superior social position ; he was possessed of a largo fortune, and had married a spirited and intelligent woman, and soon his literary taste, his philosophical spirit, his talents, and his studies bronght him into intimate connection with many of the leaders of the Gorman civilization — Goethe, WielamI, Lavater, Haniann, etc. His country-seat. Pcm])elfort, near Diisseblorf, was fur several years a centre of literary life in Germany. In 17!>1, on the "invasion of the French, he removed to Norlhern Germany, and lived for ten years mostly in Kuliu. In lSfl4 ho was called to Munich as a member of the ncwiy-crectcd Academy of Science, of which he became president in 1807. In I81.f he resigned this position, and d. Mar. 10, 1SI9. His talent as a writer was half poetical, half philosophical, and as such it was eminently well suited to the standpoint which ho occupied, and from which he exercised no small influenco on the course of German civilization. His two romances, Edimrd Allwill (1702) and H'.-Wcmor (I7Hfl), arc now out of date; the exquisite dclicatencss of Wcddcniar's feelings is aff'ected, and the subtle analysi.s to which they arc subjected is a mental disease. But in an age whose task was to break through o jictrifieil intellectuality and vindi- cate the right of the imagination and feeling in human life, the book was of great importance and very beneficial. Of more lasting interest ore his I'rhrr die I.rhre dcit Spi- tioza (1785), Darld Hume Vtbrr den Olnnhen (1787). ifend- nehrciben an Fiehle (179y), l'"" den rfiilllirhen Dinyen il»d Hirer Offenbarmi'i (1811). Reason, the vital eenlrc of the human mind, is with Jacobi the source of imiueiliale know- ledge, of an instinctive intuitiiin, of a kind of revelation divinclv safe; while the knowledge with which the under- standing furni.shes us. and which is derived from the senses by a train <pf reasoning, always is more or less exposed to mistakes and errors. Furllo rmore. the organ of this eenlrti of the mind, the foundation on Mhieb the reason rests, is with Jacobi the feelings ; the fi'clinga stand in the same re- lation to reason as the senses to tho understanding, only they err not. This standnoint, the jihilosophy of feel- ings, is not and could hardly be ))resenled in systematic form. It is developed polemically against Spinozii, Ilunw, Kant. Fichtc. and Sebelling. and in an aphoristic manner. But tile criticism is often very acute and the positive rep- resentation always clear and eloquent. His collected lti.r*» appeared in « vols., 1812-24; heiiem, 2 vols., 182.')-27 ; Corret. leilh (Inellie, 1846. (SoO Kuhn. JaeuUi »nd die I'ki- loHO/dlle „einer Zril, 18:14.) Cl.EMENS PlMMllSEV. Jiicobi (Kaiii. Gt stav Jakor), b. at Potsdam Deo. 10, 1804 ; studied maibeinaties and philosophy in Berlin ; was appointed adjunct in 182.^, auti jirofessor in 1827 in math- ematics at Krinigsberg; travelled in 1S4S in Italy for his heallli. and lived in Berlin, wbero ho d. Feb. 18, IS51. His principal works are Fnndttmenht m»eo tli'^iritr fmtchoHuni ttliptiaarum (1S29), Cunon Arilhmtlicut (IS'M). 1358 JACOB!— JACOTOT. Jacobi (MoRiTR Hermann), brother of the preceding, b. at Potsdam Sept. 21, 1801; became professor in rivll engineering at the University of Dorpnt in I8;i,>, member of the Academy of Science in St. Petersburg in 1847, and re- ceived the title of councillor of state. D. iu St. Petersluirg Mar. 10. 1S74. Ue i.-* the inventor of the galvaiioplastic art, on which he wrote an essay in 1S40. Die Ualvanopfastik. Jac'obins [Lat. Jacohux, *•. Tames"], members of a po- litical society founded 1789 by some deputies from Brittany during the session of the States General at Versailles. This society was at first called the " Breton Club," which name. being regarded as too exclusive, was soon changed to *'SocJ6t6 des amis de la Constitution." The king and the Assembly went to Paris Oct., 1789; the club followed, and established itself in an old Dominican monastery in the Ruo St. Honorfi. The French Dominicans were com- monly called Jacobins, from the fact that a church dcdi- oated to St. James bad been given to them shortly after their settlement in Paris in the thirteenth century: and bcforo long the name was adopted by the new club. Many distinguished persons were among its members ; for instance, Lft Fayette, Talleyrand. .Mirabeau, Robespierre, the duke of Orleans, the poet Chenier. the actor Talma. Its power increased rapidly. Its opinions were disseminated by the Journal rfe« amis de la Consfitittiou, which was industri- ously circulated through the whole country. As its in- fluence spread, its principles became more democratic, so that in Apr, 1790, Talleyrand, La Fayette, and many other moderate members withdrew nnd founded the *• Club of 1789," afterward:? styled '* les Feuillauts." Revolutionary Bocieties on the Ja:-obin model were established in nearly every town and village of France, and affiliated to the orig- inal club, whose orders they implicitly obeyed. The Jaco- bins dictated every government measure. '* They are' Lords of the Articles,' " says Carlyle, '• they originate debates for the legislative; discuss peace and war; settle beforehand what the legislative is to do." Robespierre was their most influential member; through him they ruled during the Reign of Terror, and after his downfall in 1704 they also were overthrown. In Oct., 1794, the affiliation of societies was forbidden by the Convention; in November, the Jaco- bin club was suspended, and the hall where it had met was clos:;d. Some of its members joined the Electoral Club; others, the section "des Quinze-Vingts," in the Faubourg St. Antoine. Soon afterwards the monastery was destroyed, and upon its site was built the '* Mnrche St. Honort^." Much Jacobin and anti-.Tacobin literature exists in the form of plays, poems, and pamphlets, mofft of which are rather curious than edifying; for example. Lc Srcrct des Jiirohins, La Jacobnuadc. Lv8 Crimes dpM Jnfohins, pub- lished in Paris between 1790 and 179.">. The poetry of the Anft-Jarotiin. a journal edited by George Canning, is, how- ever, one of the best works of humor in the English lan- guage. In this collection are to be found the well-known " Knife-grinder," and the burlesque of the "Rovers," in which occurs the song of the " University of Gottingen." The term Jnrobin is still sometimes applied to persons of extreme revolutionary principles. Jaxkt Tuckey. Jac'obites. I. An Oriental Christian sect, mono- physitic in doctrine, deriving their name from Jacob Bara- dai. " the ragged." originally a monk an<l presbyter near Ni.'^ibia in Mesopotamia, who became bishop of Kdessa 541 A. D., aud d. 578. He took upon himself the general super- intendence of Monophysites in the East, and brought their number up to about 100,000, mninly in Mesopotamia and Syria. In the time of Gregory XtIL (1572-85) they num- bered only 50,000 in Syria. Mesopotamia, and IJabylonia. They are now still more reduced. In Syria thev are a mere handful in a few villages, and very poor. They are under a patriarch who resides in a monastery near Mardin. In public worship use is made of the ancient Syriac lan- guasje, which the people do not understand. There are said to be 200,000 Jaeobites in India (Malabar and Trav- ancore). Of the United or Roman Catholic Jacobites in Syria we have no statistics. Attemi)ts were made to Ro- manize tbein as early as the fourteenth century, but with no considerable success till the seventeenth. About 90.000 Roman Catholic Jacobites are claimed in Imlia. — II. In Great Britain, partisans of King .lame^* H.. dethroned in 1688. They were strongest in Scotland, rebelling twice (in 1715 :ind in 1745), and were not wholly extinct us a party till after the death of Charles Edward, the Pretender, in 17S8. R^ D^ IIiTcnrocK. Ja'cobs (MirnAEi.). T>. P.,onenf the founders of Penn- sylvania Collecre at Gettyehurjr, professor of mnlhematics nnd of the phvsienl and natural sciences in it: b. near Waynesboro', Franklin co.. Pa., Jan. 18, ISOS. In early boyhood h»' was left an orphan: entered the preparatory depnrtment of .Tefferson College. Canonsbiir^. Pee., 1824; graduated with the valedictory 1S28; taught for five months in a Presbyterian school at Belle-Air, Md. ; came to Get- tysburg to assist his brother. Rev. D, J.acobs, Apr., 1820; was professor 1832-71; was licensed by the West Pennsylvania synod at Hanover Oct, 11. 18;;2 ; ordained at Sonnnset 1S.34; president of synod IS 19-51 : secretary of general synod 1S45; i received the title of D. D. simultaneously from Jefferson and Wittenberg colleges 1S59. D. July 22, 1871. His very val- uable .Vote* on the Rrb*.l Inia»ifni, quoted by Everett as (he best sketch of the buttle: some eight articles in the AV. Review, two in IJ. S. Sen-ice Mtit/nziue, and a number in Linumtn Record and Journal (of whieb he was for two years editor), comprise all his publications. Among the most.important manuscripts left by him are his Lecturefton Mrteoroloffjf. In this department he was one of the closest and most reliable observers of bis day. His qualities as a man and an instrnctor were of a very hij^h order. His ehar.acter was of transparent Christian purity, his min*! clear, his scholarship accurate, and his modesty great, almost to a fault. C. P. KnAurn. Jacobs (Pai'I, Emh,), b. at Gotha in 1802; studied at the Ai-ademy of Munich 1818-25. and in Rorno 1825-28; lived in St. Petersburg 18^0-^4: settled in ISIO in his na- tive city, where he d. Jan. fi. ISfiG. Several of his pietures. such fys Adam and Eve, Judith and Holof ernes, Samson irttd Delilah, became very popular. Ja'cobsburg, post-v. of Smith tp., Belmoct co., 0. Pop. 89. Jacob's Fork, post-tp., Catawba co., N. C. Pop. 1 1 OG. Ja'cobson (John Ciihistian). b. about 1785. a bishop of the I^Ioraviun Church. After a ministerial service of over fifty years he d. at Bethlehem, Pa., Nov. 24, 1870. Jacobson (Wn.i.iAM\ D. I>.. b. in Norfolk in ISO.*?; graduated at Lincoln Cullct^e. Oxford, in 1827, with hif;h honors; obtained a fellowship at Exeter College in 1829; was vice-principal of Magdalen Hall from 18:J2-I8. when he became regius professor of divinity. In 18()5, Dr. .Ta- cobson was appointed bishop of Chester. While at Oxfr)rd he edited for the University press the Remaius of the Apos- toh'c Fathers (2 vols., 1840), Nowell's Catechiim' {1S44), the Odlecfcd Worhfi of Bishop Sanderson (6 vols., 1854), and other works, besides publishing two volumes of bis own sermons (1840-40). Jaco'bus (Melan'cthon Williams), D. D.. LL.I)., b. at Newark. N. J., Sept. 10. ISlfi : graduated at the College of New Jersey in 1834, and in 18.38 at Princeton Theological Seminary, where he was assistant teacher in Hebrew ISH8 -39. In 18.^9 he was settled in Brooklyn, N. Y. : in 1850 -51 traveUed in Europe and the East: and in 1851 \ras made professor of Oriental and biblical litfraturo in the theological seminary at Allegheny, Pa., which offiee he still held in 1875. He received the degree of D. D. from Jefferson College in 1S52. nnd of LL.D. from tho College of New Jersey in 18r)7. In 1809 he was modoratur of the General Assembly. He published Xotcs on the Xcw Tcstn- uicnt—}fatthvw i'lSiS), Mark and Luke {\So'^), Ji>hn (1850), Acts (1859); also two volumes ou OcHctfin (18C1-C5). 1>. Oct. 28, 1876. R. D. Hitcocock. Jaco'by (Johann), b. at Kdnigsberg May 1, 1805; studieil medicine at Berlin and Heidelherg, and settled in 1830 in his native city as a physician. It was his political activity, however, whieh made bim famous. Four times ho was accused of high treason — in 1841, on account of his I'i'er Fraffen; in 1845, on account of his />«» l-'finif/h'eJie Wort Fritdrich WUhelm /If.; in 1849 and in 1866. Tho three first times he was acquitted, but the last time he was sentenced to imprisonment. Hu was a member of the (lor- ntan Parliament in 184S, and at difTerent periotls of tho Prussian Diet. Ho also wrote Die GrundsUtze tier preus- ' »ieh Demol-vatik {lSb9). D. Mar, 7. 1877. Jacoby (Lcnwir. Sir.rsMrst)), D. D.. b. at Alt Strolitz, Mecklenburg, Oct. 21, 18] 1, of Jewish parents. Converted to Christianity when about twenty-one years of age. he came to America some years later and joincil the Methodist ' Episcopal Church, in which he became a preacher about I 1840. After being for several years presiding elder of (»cr- raan districts in the Western Slates, he returned to Ger- many in 1849 to introduce Melhodis^m in that country. Through his labors missions were established in many places, ns well as a publishing-house and a theological seminary at Bremen under his own superintendence. In ! 1S72 he returned to America, and is now (1875) pastor of a church in St. Louis, Mo. Among his writings are a C'at- I enrdance of the Bible and a History of Methodism in the Whole World doicn to 1SG9. \ Jacotot' (Jkan Joskph), b. at Dijon, France. Mar. 4, I 1770; was appointed professor of Latin and Oreek litera- ture at his native jilnee when barely nineteen years td age: entereil the army in 1792, becoming captain of arlil- I lery in the invasion of Belgium, and assisted tho celebrated JACQUARD-JADE. 1359 boanl established nt Paris for the mnnufactnrc of gun- powder by extraordinary methods at a time when the sup- ply of ini;redients seemed exhausted. Jacotot soon after- ward'* was maiie professor of mathematics at the P-colc Normale: then of Roman law; a director of the Polytech- nic, and filled at Dijon the ehair of scientific nH-thod. in whii'h he introduei'd an original system of instruftion with which his name has become identified. Exiled in ISlii for having supported Xapolcon in the Chamber of l>eputies during the " Hundred Days," J.acotot retired to IJi'lgium. where he became professor of French at (be University of Louvain and director of the military school, introducing and popularising his new ?ystera, which exercised a great inBuenco upon education throughout Europe, it being the precursor of the methods of Hamilton and Ollendorff. Jaco- tot returned to Franco in IS.'iO, and d. at Paris July 30, ISiO. Jacquard' f Joseph Martk), b. in Lyons. France, July 7. 17.V2. of poor parents, by whom lie was first brought up as a weaver, and successively apprenticed to a bookbinder, a cutler, and a typefounder. At the age of twenty he in- herited from his father a worksboji containing two weavers' looms, but was obliged to sell all his pr()perly to meet the expenses he contracted in experiments for improving looms. After a long period of poverty and obscuritj', during which he participated in some of the canipsiigns of the Revolu- tion, he succeeded iu inventing the Loom (which see) wbieli has made bis name a household word in both continents. He experienced an ill-fortune not unusuni in the history of inventors in being mobbed by the operatives of Lyons in isn i, acting under the erroneous belief tliat the new loom would be ruinous to their cbiss. Tins eircumstnnee led to the purchase of the invention by the imperial government, and Nnpoleon, by a decree dated at IJeilin Oct. 27, LSOft, declared it public property. As a result, the subsequent prosperity of Lyons was largely attributable to the genius of Ja:^quard. who received during his lifetime the cross of the Legion of Honor, and since his death bis statue has been erected MHIO) in his native city. D. Aug. 7, 1S;^4, at OuUins. a vilhi^e near Lyons. Jacqiiard Loom* See Loow. by W. E. A. Axov. Jacqueline' of Ravaria, b. in MOO, was the only dnu'^hter and heir of William VL of Bavaria, count of Holland nnd H:iinault. :ind of his wife. Margaret of Bur- gundy. In ehildbood she was betrothed to Prince John of France, who. however, d. by poison in 1417, in which year Jacqueline succeeded to her father's estates. The hand of the iieiress was n prize destined to bo fiercely dis- puted by (he princes of (hat rude age. After refusing to marry the duke of Bedford, brother of Henry V. of Eng- land. Jacqueline wedded her eousin, .Tobn IV„ duke of Brabant, but soon abandoned bim, and in M20 went to Eu'^Iand, where Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, another brother of the king, soughi her hanrj. treating her former marriage a« null. After the death of Henry, the antipope. Benedict XIII. annulled Jacqueline's first marriage, and in 1123 Gloucester obtained the coveted prize. He there- upon sailed for Hainault with 5000 troops to reconquer his wife'^ estates, whieh had been seized by the dukes of Bur- gundy nnd Bra'iant. After many vieissitn<les of fortune, .Tncqtieline was imprisoned at Ghent, escaped to Holland, repudiated her husband, made war on her own account, and finally ee led her estates to the duke of Burgundv to purchase the liberation of her new husband, Francis of Bjrselen. D. in 1 T'.fi, witlinut issue. Jacqiicmnrt' (At-ni-nx), b. at Paris in 180fl; filled im- porlant financial post^ under the Freneh government, nnd took a leading part in the Universal Kxpoyition of 1807. ebiefly in regard to the processes of the arts applied to in- dustry — a subject wbieh be illustrated in bis learned works, Jfintoiff nntifjHf iutht^tritHe rt cnntmrrrinlfi df la pi»rrrhtiur. (Lvons. 1S0L.02). Mmriffr^ ifr iff rrni„n'(f„r (ISr.r,). an<l IliMlinrr tie lit (Vrnnntfiir (IS72^. the latter of which has npprared in English uu'ier the title of /fiMlortf nf Crrnmic Art, translated by Mrs. Bury Palliscr, with 1000 illustra- tions (London. 1S7:J). Jncqiiemont' (Virrnn), b. in Paris Aug. 8, 1801; studied hotany under Adricn de Jussieu, nnd after visit- ing the U. S. aufl the Weal Indies was appointed by the Museum of Natural History in Paris to c<mduet a scien- tific expcilition In Eastern Asia. He arrived at Calcutta in I«2i), travelled in Briti-h India, studying the native languages, crossed the Hinmtayns into Thibet, nnd reached rbineso Tarlary, returning by liahore, where Ruiij*'et Singh showed him great favor. .laequeinont «L preuiaturoly at Bombay Dec. 7, isr,2. His correspondence and travela have been publishc<I. nnd are very entertainint;, as well as valuable for their wenllb of seientifie observation. Jnrqneric% liisiirrortion of the^ a war of the Freneh peasantry again:*t the nobles which broke out iMay 12, l.TSS, during the imprisonment of John II. the Good in England. The oppressions of Charles the Bad of Na- varre and the long and grinding tyranny of the nobles were the causes. For some three weeks the peasants were rapidly successful, nnd were guilty of every enormity. But on June 9 the count de Foix nnd Captal de Buch gave them a terrible and final ovcrilirow at Mcaux. The name "Jacquerie" signifies the ** Jacks" or clowns. Jacques f Amkukk Fi.onnNx), b. at Paris July 1, T.S13, studied at the College de Bourbon, and entered the Ecolo Normale in 1S32. After teaching j)hiIosnphy at the col- leges of Douay, Amiens, Versailles, and that of Louis-lc- Grand at Paris, 1\I. Jacques became in ISI2 professor of his favorite branch of study at the fieolc Normale. Brought inti> intimate association with Mieliclet, Quinot, and the leaders of the " Young France " of that jieriotl, he was one of the founders and the chief editor of Ln Lihcrt/' tic Pcnser, the organ of the philosophers. He conducted this publi- cation through the stormy years of the Second Repub!ic (1S4S-51), contributing many remarkable arti<;les to its columns, until the ouji d'vtat of Napoleon III. silenced free thought in Fiance, when he was ejected from his pro- fessorship. He had published in 1847, along with liis col- leagues, Saissct and Jules Simon, a Mnuttcl d*: Philonn-pliief edited the works of Fenelon and Leibnitz, and contributed to the Dictionudirc den .SViV-HefJ! Philostiphiqufi*. In LS;')2, M. Jacques went to Montevideo in the republic of Uru- guay, bearing the reeoinnundation of Alexander Humboldt, and was appointed by the government to preside over a projected university. But political disturbances nnd the limited resources of that state interfered with the success of the project, and M. .Taeques was then engaged to direct the government land-surveys. After some years, during which be made numerous scientific explorations. M. Jacques removecl to Buenos Ayrcs, where he was entrusted with the management of one of the national colleges, in which ca- pacity he rendered eminent services (o the cause of educa- tion, being universally esteemed for his profound attain- ments and his readiness to promote every scientific object. He was a member of the leading learned societies of Franco and of South America. D, at Buenos .Ayrcs in ISfi.'i, PORTFR C. Bl,(J-'S. Jacqties-Cartier', county of Queliec, Canada, inchid- inir the W. part of the island of Montreal. Cap. Poinlo Claire. Pop. 11.179. Jacqiiin% von fNrcoi.AS Joseph), Barox, b. at Ley- den, Holland, Feb. Hi, 1727; studied botany under Jussieu at Paris, and settled at Vienna, where in 17i>.*i he was en- gaged to sujterintend the planting of the garden at Schfin- brunn. Soon aflei wards he undertook a voyage of several j'cars' duration in tro[)ical .America, collecting r:ire species of plants, in whieh he was so fortunate as to discover about fifty new genera. Returning to Europe. (lie remainder of his long life was devoted to the publication of Ins numerous researches, and in lecturing iijion botany and chemistry iit the University of Vienna, at which place be d. Oct. 24, 1817. His son, Josejdi Franz, succeeded him iu his pro- fessional posts; b. 17(>7, d. 1839. Jade^ a hard green stone, highly prized in the East and bv ancient races for ornaments. (See Ni:rMiitiTC, by Pnoi-.W. P. Bi.AKi:. A. M.. Pit. B.) Ja'do, or .falide, a small river and als:o a bay in Ger- many S. W. of the month of the AVeser. It formerly be- longed to the grand duchy of Oldenburg, hut was purchased by Prussia in 1S.VI, ft)r the purpose ol' forming a war-port on tlio German Ocean. The Bay of .lade covers an area of 71 square miles, wbieh was formerly dry land, but in- undated in IJII. {See iNi'snATioNs, JIakitimk.) Jado^ a fortified seaport of Germany, on the N<trtb Sea, was formed since 185)3, At that tiruf Prussia bought the coast district from Oldenburg for 500. mm thalern, ami it has since spent much labor and great expense in order to transform tiie Bay of Jade into a good naval harbor. Since 18C9 the place is called Wilbelnishavcn. Basins, of whieh the largest is 120 metres long and 200 mCtrcs broad, have been dug in the muddy ground of Iho marsh. These basins were then separated from the Bay of Jade by a dam, nnd in the beginning of the war with France the dam wiis finished and (bo barlior taken into use by the navy. On the western side of the principal basin lliree parallel dry docks, 100 nu'trcs long, are situated, nnd the dotdis as well a8 the basin are walled with granite. Besides the docks are (bo wharves. To (he E. this basin is connected witli tbo Bay of Jade by a caiml walled wifli crrnnite nnd ]>ro- vided with sluices. Besides tlio naval hnrI)or is the coru- meroial hnrltor, wliicb, however, is rather insii;nifieaiit : it is not walled, has no sliiieed cnnal, and is separated fmm the bay only by an eartlion dam. Tho whole hnrlior is surrounded with forlifirii(ir)ns, slrons^est where tliey face tbo Kca. and provided with ordnances of the heaviest cnl- 13G0 JAEX-JAHX. ibre in order to prevent any hostile vessel from approach- injf. Since the French war ininicnsc sums have been spent on the building of these lortitications. The town of \Vil- helnijihiiven has grown up here since the harbor has been built: it is chiefly a military colony, and has excellent barracks. ArcrsT Niemann. Jacu'f in the times of the Moors, was an independent kingdom, hut in 12.'U it was conquered by Ferdinand III. and added to the kingdom of Castile. Now it forms a separate province of Spain. Area, 51 84 srjuare miles. Pop. 392,100. It is rich in metals and fertile, but thinly Jiieilf town of Spain, the capital of the province of Jaen. on the Jaen, a tributary of the (luadaUjuivir. Its walls, surmounted by turrets and pinnacles, and its eastle, which still is used as a fortress, were built hy the Jloors. It has two cathedrals of the sixteenth century, and beauti- ful promenades, but its silk manufactures, which once made it famous, are now entirely lost. Pop. 22.933. JaTfa, Yal'a, or Joppa, town of Asiatic Turkey, in the province of Syria, on the Mediterranean, 33 miles N. W, of Jerusalem. In the times of David and Solomon it was the port of .Teru^alcm, and the cedars of Lebanon of which the temple was built were brought from Tyre to its harbor. During the Crusades it was the hindiug-place of the Christian armies. Now its harbor is nearly sanded up. Pop. 5000. Jairiinpatam', town of Ceylon, situated on the north- ern extremity of the island. It was originally a Dutch settlement, but most of the Dutch inhabitants have now left for Batavia. Pop. 8000. JaTfrey, post-tp. of Cheshire co., N. H., 4G miles W. S. W. of Concord. It has two principal post-villages, JaiTrcy and East Jaffrey. The latter is on the Monadnock K. K., has a national bank and a savings bank, and manu- factures of cotton drillings, shoes, wooden ware, boxes, etc. Jaffrey Village has a high school and manufactures of chairs, leather, etc. The town has 4 churches and con- tains the Grand Monadnock Mountains. Pop. 1256. Jaffrey (tir:oiiGEi, h. at New Castle. N. II., Nov. 22, 16S2; graduated at Harvard College 1702: became suc- cessively couni;illor, judge, treasurer, and chief-justico of New Hampshire. D. at Portsmouth May 8, 174'J. Jas;anatha. Sec Jaggernalt. Ja^eTIons, the name of a dynasty which reigned from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century in Poland, and during much of the time in Lithuania. Hungary, and Bo- hemia. The founder of the family was Jagellon or Jagi- ello, h. about I35t, grand duke of Lithuania, who was a pagan until his marriage (Feb. 17, 13S6) with Hedwig, daughter of Louis the Great, king of Poland and Hungary. To this alliance Jagellon owed his election to the throne of Poland as successor tu his father-in-law, under the name of Ladislas II. (Uladislas or Wladislas). The sovereigns of this dynasty were the most illustrious of Polish rulers. Sigismund Augustus, who d. in 1572, was the last Jagellon king of P<)lnnd in direct succession, but through the female line the family retained the throne until the abdication of John Casimir in 10G8. Most of the existing royal houses of Europe (1875) are descended from the Jngollous. JU'ger (GrsTAv), b. at Leipsic July 12, 1S08; studied at Dresden, jMuiiich,and Home; settled in 1837 at Alunich, but removed in 1847. as director of the academy, to Leipsic, where he d. Apr. 29, I87I. His fresco paintings in Munich and Weimar are his principal works. Jtk'grrndorffy town of Austria, in the province of Silesia. It has four well-frequented cattle-fairs. P. OfilS. Jag'gar (Thomas Aifiisirs), D. D., b. in New York City June 2, LS3il ; was eriucated hy a private tutor; grad- uated at the General Theological Seminary of the Episco- pal Church: was ordained doncon in 18fi0 and presbyter in 18t>3: became rector of Trinity, Bergen Point, in 1862, of Anthon .Memorial chureh. New York, in 18ri4, of St. John's, Yonkers. in 18t'.8 (founding there the St. John's Riverside Hospital), and of Holy Trinity in Philadelphia in 1870. He was made a doctor of divinity hy the University of Pennsylvania in 1874: was cloetcd bishop of Southern Ohio Jan. 14, IH7o, and was consecrated to that office in May. 1875. Jas?crnaut% or Piiri, town of Oris.-fa.on the Bay of Bengal, in lat. 10° 45' N. and Ion. 85° 54' E. It is nn l ngroeablc and healthy place, as the air is kept fresh by the south-western monsoon. Its name is a corruption of the ' Sanskrit word J-i.j.ni.tthn, -Mting of the w..rltl." which it received from an idol of Krislina.the lord of the universe, which it possesses — a wooden block in the shape of a eu- ] cumber, whose upper extremity represents a human face of utter bidcousDcss. Around this idol has been erected a most magnificent temple, or rather a city of temples, and hundreds of thousandi of pilgrims visit the place every year. On great days of festival the idol is placed on a huge chariot, to which the faithful harness themselves in order to draw the id(»l from one place to another, and in the enthusiasm of the moment —we arc told — they some- times throw themselves under the wheels of the chariot. The gorgeousness and the peculiar beauty of this templo of Jaganatha are described as something uni((ue, and, to increase the wonderfulness of the place, all columns, pin- nacles, turrets, and other architectural ornaments are made of the most costl}' materials and have required centuries of labor to be worked out. Pop. 19,825. Jast'gery [Hind.y«/.'r/; Prakrit, gakkttrn; Lat. eaccaha- riitii ; Eng. Mf'/fi/], the sugar obtained in Inrlia from va- rious palm trees, notably the cocoanut palm {Cnnts ntici- J'crn), the toddy palm {P/i(cnix sy/rrgtris}, and the jaggery palm {Cart/Ota iireng). The tapping of the trees and the boiling of the sap are carried on by a special caste. The quality of the sugar is very poor, but its quantity is be- coming very great, and it is now exported to England, and there refined more easily and ehenply than ordinary sugar. After reiining the sugar is identical with cane and beet- root sugar. The Aijnt /niticixuii is another valuable sugar- palm. Ja'guar [Braz.jVf^'/"^'""]* the largest of the cat family of America, found Irom Texas to Patagonia, generally in- habiting forests by preference, and being quite arboreal in its habits. It is exceeded in size by the lion and tiger. Its hide is often of a rich yellow, spotted and ringed with black. The skins are of considerable conmiereial value. The animal is lierce, and can conquer all the beasts of its native wilds except the great boas of the Brazilian selvn. Jahn (FniEPRicH Lrnwio), generally known under the name of Tururater Jahn^ b. Aug. 11, 1778, at Lanz, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg; studied theology at Halle and Gottingen : lived for some time as tutor in a private family at Greifswald, where he made the acquaint- ance of E. M. Arndt ; went in 1805 to Jena to continue his studies, but preferred to enlist in the Prussian army as a soldier. After the battle of Jena, in which he did nivt par- take, however, he fled to LUbeck, but returned in 1809 to Berlin, where ho became teacher in a gymnasium in ISIO, published his />«« Deutsche Volksthum. and opened the first turn-establishment in 1811. His ideas of preparing a tre- mendous uprising of the German nation by a return to tho old, genuine German civilization of the times of Hermann, and by a perfect physical training, were utterly fantastic, and his language, cojlume. and general behavior ludicrous- ly eccentric. But his '* turn-art " was. nevertheless, a good thing. It formed immediately numerous centres around which the German patriotism gathered and developed, and later it exercised a salutary influence on the whole system of education. In the war of 1814 he commnnded a corps of volunteers, at the head of wliich ho entered Paris, and in tho same year he published his RunenhliHtcr. But after tho war the " turn-places " became the field of demagogical ma- chinations an<l riots, and in 1818 Jahn was seized by the Prussian government and imprisoned. In 1825 he was liberated, but not allowed to reside in any university town. He settled in Freiburg; became more and more fantastic and eccentric: wxoXfi Nene HuncuhVdttcr (1828), and A/«r- ktn zum DciitHchen Vttfksthiim (1833) ; was elected a mem- ber of the national assembly of 1K4S. but his appearance here was only a great disappointment to himself and to bis former turn-pupils, who loved him passionately. D. at Freiburg Oct. 15, 1852, In ISlC he published, together with Eiselen, Die Dnituch^ Tiirnkunst. A biography of him was written in 1S55 by Priihlc. Clemens Petersen. Jahn (JoHANN), b. at Taswitz, Moravia, June 18,1750; . studied at Znaim and at Olmutz, and in 1772 entered a convent at Bruek, where he soon became profissor of Oriental languages and of biblical criticism. Wlien (in 1784) this convent was suppressed, Jahn obtained a pro- fessorship first at Olmutz. and afterward at Vienna, where he also ga^ c instruction in dogmatic theology. Jahn was tho most distinguished representative in his time of Roman Catholic learning and criticism, and his numerous works enjoyed a well-merited rejuitution. He nevertheless in- curred the disfavor of the ecclesiastical authorities for tho boldness of some of his opinions. an<l in 1803 was separated from his professorial chair under pretext of a promotion to a canonry of St. Stephen's. Jahn published grammars, lexicons, and elementary works on the Hebrew, Syriae, Chaldaic, and Arabic languages, an Introdurtiou tn ihe Old T'st.tment i\792\, BiUlrn/ Arch}>'ofofj>/ (5 vols.. 1797-1805), a Mnnufil of Grutrul Hfirmeufuticx (1812), an edition of the Hebrew Bible (180fi), and other works. His Arclm- ofofjif has hccn translated into English and reprinted in America. D. at Vienna Aug. 16, 1816. JAIIN— JAINAS. i:un Jahn (Otto), b. at Kiel June 16. 1S13; studied in his native city, at Leipsic. Berlin, and Copenhagen ; travelled with a stipend from the Oanish governnicut in France and Italv ; hceame prolV^yor of archreolugy at (Jrcifswiild in HI2, and at Leipsic in 1S47. On account of his ])artieipa- tion in the revolntionary movements of 1S4S and l.S4'J he was dismissed in ISJU, but received in ISJj a chair in an- cient literature and archaeology at Bonn. 1). .Sept. It, 18G9. Besides his e litions of Latin authors, a numhcr of essays on variou'' philolo;;ical and archieoloKical subjects, especi- ally on anlifjuc vases, lie wrote a popular hiuj^raphy of Mo- zart ( t vols., 18jG) and other papers relating to music. Jail. The words /fr»7 and priann arc employed in com- mon ii!^a.;;e with hut little if any distinction of mcauing, and even as applied in law arc not infrequently used as synonyntous terms. But jnil had originally a somewhat dilTerent sense from ;>ft«oii in legal usage, and is sometimes employed technically at the present day with the same dis- tinctive interpretation. In this special meaning it is a place for the confinement of persons arrested for debt or for the commission of minor offences and in the custody of the sheriflT, or for the temporary confinement of witnesses or persons awaiting trial. A prison is. on the other hand. a place of permanent confinement and of punishment for crime. A jailer is at common law the servant or deputy of the sheriff of the county, ami for any wrongful arts which the jailercommits in thejicrformancoof his rUity the sheriff is responsible on orciinary princi[)lfs of agency. Thus, if a person in custody bo suffered to escape, the sheriff will ho liable, (i^eo Escape.) (For the regulation of jails and tho methods of prison management see Piiisov, Prison Ois- ciPi.iNK.) (ir.oiioi: CuAsn. Ukvisf.d bv T. W. Dwifinr. Jail Delivery, Commission of. See Courts. Jail Fever, a form of Tvpnrs (which see). Jai^nas, a Hindu religious sect. Thcro aro not at tho present time many Iliiuhis professing the Jaina faith, as compared with those professing such creeds as tho Vaish- nuva and Saiva, but tlio Jainas now in India aro remark- able for their respectability, influence, and o[nilcnco as a class. They aro chiefly to be met with in tho N. and W. of the peninsula, although even in the S. groups of Jaina families are not uncommon. AVhilst the characteristics of the Jaina religion aro thoroughly well known, tho dalo of the origin of the pcct and the causes which led Xo its rise are hotly cnntrovcrtcrl points. The writer believes tho true cx])lanation to be as follows: It is generally* allowed that Gfttama Buddha (S;ikyamuni) died at Gya in Southern Behar in .>I3 n. c. After this Buddhism quickly sprang up, and overran Hindustan. Brahminism itself was eru^^hcd and kept under for ten centuries by that ghastly religion of atheism, nihilism, and despair. But in the fifth cen- tury after Christ tho old Vodic creed began to revive and Bn^ldhism to fail. Ardent Buddhists noticed the change in the tide of Hindu opinion, and began to tremble at the consequences of a loss of prestige. Tlio Bralimins were still numerous in the land, and the old reverence for their priestly character was regaining ground rapidly in tho minds of tho multitude. Caste, too, ignored as a re- ligious institution by Buddhism, was beginning more and more to l)e regarded under its old aspect of an absolutely ni'C('S.*ary institution Ibr Hindus. So some of tho shrewdest of the Buddhists detcnnined on a compromise. They re- solve) to invent a religion which would unite in it several of the most important elements of Buddhism and of Brah- minism. Thu-*, aliout tho beginning of tho sixth century A. !>. Jaina doctrines began to bo actively and successfully promulgated. Such, the writer believes, is tUo true history in brief of the origin of Jainisni in India. Tho Jainas rcvcreneed certain holy mortals who had. they held, ac- quired by practices of self-denial ancl mnrtificatiim a sta- tion superior even to (he gods worshipped by tin; Brahmins ; and thus they conciliated the Buddhists, iiotama Buddha him-tetf finds a place in Jaina mythology. On the other hand, the Jainas wore extremely strict in avoiding the de- struction of any animal life whatsoever, and lli'-y recog- nized caste ; and thus they c<mciliated the Brahmins. In the matter of tho Vedas, the Jainas tried to steer a mifldle course. Parts they rejected and parts they accepted as auiiiority. For in»tance, those parts of (he Verlas in which animal sacrifice is enjoined they treated wiihout respect, and tlioy refused to celebrate the hnmn, or burnt -offering, lest insects crawling amongst Ihe fuel, bred by the fer- mented hutter, or falling into the fire, might be accident- ally destroyed. But to tho parts of ihe Vedas which could in any way he regarded as favorahle to Budiihif*tic tenets tho Jainas paid tho greatest reverence, and frequently (jiioted in their discourses and writings. Beside«. the .Tainas, whilst doing homage to Buddhas. employed Brahmin priests in their service as the solo ministrants in their tem- ples or ptmAlun. V,,,.. ii._sr, The term Jaina is derived from the Sanskrit Jina. signi- fying '* one who is a victor." The saints worshipped by (he Jainas were Jinas — those who had conquere<I all hu- man passions, desires, aspirations, and infirmities, and had attained to a state of perfect apathy. Such a saint was regarded as Jaf/nt pratfm, "lord of the world;" .Var- vftjna, "all wise;" Kflntia lea runt, "one to whom ceremo- nial acts were not requisite ;" Aff/ii>ihv(ira, " supreme lord ;" and Dcr&dhiileva, "god of gods." He was one who had crossed the ocean of births ( Tirthahftra), be was the pos- sessor of a spiritual nature {Kcvali), and he was venerable and worthy of ail homage {Arhnf). 'J'hc Buddhists, though they iiad innumerable earthly Buddhas, confined their homage practically to seven ; the Jainas venerated seventy- two saints. Twenty-four were of a past age. twenty-tour of a present, and twenty-four were to come. The worship, however, of the last two of the " present "' era. PdrHvnnuth and Mnhdririij eclipsed tho veneration paid to all other Jinas in Hindustan. As a whole, the Jinas appear to have posseted wonderful attributes. They were all beautiful of form; their bodies were all fragrant: their hair, always the same, curled gracefully; and their blood ran white in all their veins. They knew no hunger or thirst, no in- firmity or deeay. "He can collect around him." tays Wil- son, describing the perfect Jina, *■ millions of beings — gods, men. and animals — in a comparatively small space; his voice is audible to a great distance: and his language, which is Arddhn .Vaf/adhi, is intelligible to animals, men, and gods; the back of his head is surrounded with a halo of light brighter than the disk of the sun : and of an im- mense interval around him, wherever he moves, there is neither sickness nor enmity, storm nor dearth, neither plague-portents nor war." (H. TI. Wilson, WorL->i, vol. i. p. 289.) But in some points Jinas differed from each other — namely in color, size, and longevity. For exam])Ie, some were represented as white, some red, some blue, some black, and a largo number saffron. Then, as to the height and longevity of the Jinas, the first of the "present" era, Hiskaba, was" 500 poles tall, and lived S, UIO.OOO years ; the last of that era had only the height of a man, and lived no longer than 40 years. From this fact the great Oriental scholar Colobrooke considered that probably of tho Jinas the last two only were historical personages. Jaina le- gends, with reference to the decreasing longevity and stature of saints, are extremely similar to Buddhist accounts of their Buddhas. For instance, Gotania Buddha is supposed to have lived only 100 years, whilst his predecessor lived 20.000 years. The Jainas were divided into laymen and clerics — viz. Srnvakas and Yatin. The Yatis received alms from the Sravakas, who assembled in tho .Taina temples to worsliip the Tirtha Kitnis, or perfected Jinan. It Wiis the duty oi* Sravakas to be gentle, pious, honest, chaste, liheral, and, as far as tbey were able, to practise penitential acts, espe- cially such as fasting at stated times from particular Iu.\- uries. In tho temples tbey were enjoined to walk nrnnnd the images, repeating certain humlilc salutations to all tho saints, and especially to the saint whose image lliey were encircling. They were also oxhorled to observe several stated festivals. Tiio Yatis never actually oflicialcd as priests. That was left to the Brahmins, whom dainns nck- nowledged to be the orthodox jtricstly caste; thereby con- ciliating Hindus. But the Yati« cither congrcgatcil to- gether in semi-conventual establishments or engaged in several money-making pursuits. For instance, all over India, even at tho present time, they enjoy the re])utalion of being capital jugglers, necromancers, piilnijtrophets, and magicians. Many of them are arrant kimves, and earn their livelihood by selling quack medicines and dab- bling in alchemy. Others deal in merchandise, ami many have been known to amass a good deal of wealth. But one and all, with verv few exceptions, pride themselves on their extreme sanctity, ami espeeially evince their holiness outwardly by the absurd length to which they iistcntatiously carry their regard for life in all its phases. Wilson, Ihe great authority on the subject of the Hindu seels, thus speaks of the .laina Yatis: " According to the greater or less degree of sanctity to which they jiretend are their seeming purity and out- ward precision, shown especially in Iheireare of aninml life ; they carry a brush to swceji the ground before they tread upon it : never cut nor tlrink in tlie dark, lest they shoubl inadvertently swallow an insect; and sometimes wear a thin eloth over their mouths, lest their breath should de- molish some of the atomic ephemera that frolic in the sun- beams ; they wear their hair cut short — strictly they should pluck it out by the ro()ts : they profess continence and pov- erty, and pretend to observe frequent fasts and excrciso profound abstraction." There arc two chief divisions of .Tainas — namely, tho Dujamharan and the Sirrtamharan. The I>igambaras appear to bo the larger as well as the uiorc ancient division of the 13G2 JAKUTSK— JALISCO. two. Their name signifies " sky-clad " — that is, naked. At the present time, however, they do not go about naked, but merely cast oil" their clothes during tlieir meal-tiines. The Swetanibaras arc those who arc " clad iu white." Not only in matter? of dress do these two divisions of Jainas differ, but also in seven hundred points of doctrine and ceremonial observance, eighty-four of wliicli are re;^ardcd as of para- mount importance. For instance, Swetambaras adorn their im;ii;cs of "saints with earrings, necklets, armlets, and tiaras of gold and precious stones — a practice which the Digam- baras set their faces against. Swctambaras aver that there are twelve heavens nndcr the rule of i^ixty-four Indras : the Di;;ambarns assert tliat there are sixteen iK-avcus and one hundred Indras. Swctambaras allow their Yatis to eat out of vessels ; Digarabaras use only the hand. Swctambaras make their ascetics carry about, with them brushes, watcr- pofs, etc. as essential tHsj'yHm of their vocation : butDigam- baras do not. Digambaras assert that no woman can enter ]\'is-rdna i the more gnllant SwctamViaras, however, hold the doctrine whieh, as Wilson humorously puts it, *' admits the fair sex to the enjoyment of iinal annihilation." Be- sides these twogrcatdivisions of Jainas. there exist several minor schisms, sonic of which date back to the very davrn of the faith. These are the sects of Jama I i and of Ooanla. The Drnvida or southern sect of Jainas sprang up in all probability about the seventh century after Christ. There is the MnkfintHilha sect and the Lamjiaka ; whicl^ latter discard the use of images. The Mula Saufjis dress in red, and use brushes of peacock's feathers, while the Kaahta Snu'i's use yak-tail brushes and venerate wooden images. There are also the Tcrah Pauthis, "followers of thirteen,"' and (he His Panthts, "followers of twenty." It may here he remarked that the influence of the Digambaras seems to have been very powerful over Jaina art, as the majority of Jaina Buddhas are represented as gtark naked. Buddh- ist Buddhas are nearly always well clothed. The po~ sdtiiH, or mathsj of Jainas are frequently of considerable architectural beauty. The humblest are so constructed as to be as roomy as possible, in order that the votaries, if numerous, may not be unnecessarily inconvenienced. Jaina doctrines arrange themselves under nine Tattwas — namely, first principles, or necessary verities of the faith. Briefiy they are — (!) Jtvftj life: (2) Ajha, lifeless; (3) Pnniffi, good, or merit; (4) Pdpa, ill, or demerit; (6) Aa- riivri, source of acts; (fi) Samrtttm, that by which acts are collected or impeded; (7) Nirjnrn, sin-destroying religious practice; (8) finudak, association of life with acts; and (•J) Muhnka, final spiritual liberation from the bonds of action, exemption from the incidents of existence, and freedom from the necessity of being born again. We cannot in a brief space discuss the very vexed question as to the precise opinion held by the Jainas as to this state of Moksha. Was simple liberation, ceaseless and boundless apathy, or utter annihilation the final goal of Jaina belief? Jainas seem to have believed in the reality of elementary matter; in gods, demons, heaven, and hell ; and, whatever else, at least in the final release of the vital sentient prin- ciple in man from all suffering. As time passed on, Jainism became, especially in parts of India, grossly corrupted, chiefly because probably of the influence the Brahmin priests must have gradually acquired over those for whom they ministered. Forexample, in Northern India the most vuli^ar and repulsive Saivism became gradually mixed up with the observances of Jaina worship. The Jainas then he;i;an to worship Devi and Saraswati, and to erect the images of the BhairovaH and lihaimriK, the cruel attend- ants of Siva and Kuli, in their temples. In conclusion, a word or two may he said of Jaina liter- ature. It consists of Pitrdnaa, histories, legends, books of prayer and ritual, and treatises on medicine, astronomy, arithmetic, anti grammar. The chief Pitrdmis were prob- ably composed by .lina Sena Acharya tn the tenth century after Christ. One of the greatest .Jaina writers wasHcnm- chamlra, who may have fliurishod at the end of the twelfth century, about which time the Ktdpn Sutra is believed to have been written. The earliest Jaina writing of any nolo cannot probably be assigned an earlier date than the begin- nin;; of the tenth century a. d. R. C. Caldwell. Jakutsk. Sec Yakutsk. Jal (ArfitSTR), b. at Lyons. France, Apr. 12. 1795, studied at the marine scliool at Brest, and formed at Lyons in Mar., ISl.'i, a company of cadets who hastened to the defence of Paris against Napoleon on his return from Klba. lie afterwards devoted himself to literary and artistic crit- icism, accompanied as newspaper correspondent the army which in ISilO conquered .\lgoria, and on his return was plat'orl in charge of the archives of tl>e ministry of marine. M. Ja! made several journeys for discovering manuscripts in Italy, (ircecc, and Turkey, and wrote numerous works of art-criticism, oaval and general history, avcbseotogy (efip. Archeototfic NftvaU^ Paris. 1840, 2 vols.), and biog- raphy, of which the most important was the DU-tuiunaire Vi-iti<iu€ de JJini/riiphie f.t d'HUUnrc, a vast repertory of documents and bio;^raphical materials intended to rectify and supplement all previous works of tho kind. D. lS7;i. Jalabert^ (CnAiii,i:s Francois), b. at Nimes in 1819; studied under Delarochc and in Italy, and exhibited in IS 17 Virtjll readiuff his (Jcun/ia to Mrccenan, which is now in the Luxemburg. Among his other pictures, Romeo and Juliet and liiiphacl painting the Madonna di San Siato have be- come very popular. Jarap [Sp. Jafapa, from a city of that name, or Xn- lapa. whence first imported in 1010], a cathartic drug, the dried root of Sxofjonium purtja { Ipomacn Jainpa of llaync), natural order Convolvulacea;. This is a climbing plant with large lilac-purple flowers, growing in the mountains above the city of Jalapa, state of Vera Cruz, Mexico. The root is turnip-shaped or radish-shaped, blackish without, gray within, varying in size from that of a walnut to that of a good-sized pear. It dries into a hard brittle mass, and is exported from Vera Cru/, in large bags, either whole or cut into slices or pieces. Its active principle is a resin, con- sisting of a hard and a soft portion, both upparently equally effective medicinally. The percentage amount of the resin varies in different specimens, and since the worms that arc apt to attack jalap do not touch this ingredient, worm-eaten roots contain more of it in proportion than tho sound. Jalap is one of the milder of the drastic or actively irritating cathartics. It produces watery dis- charges, gripes, and in overdose may cause dangerous in- flammation of the bowels. It is one of the most frequently used of this class of purgatives, but, like other drastics, is generally given in combination to reduce its harshness. The "compound jalap powder" is a mixture of jalap and cream of tartar. Jalap is an ingredient of the "compound cathartic pill" of the Pharmacopceia. Edwarr Ctrtis. Jala'pa^ city of Mexico, one of tho two capitals of the state of Vera Cruz, is situated on the slopes of the Cordil- leras at a height of I jOO feet above the sea, 00 miles N. W. of the port of Vera Cruz and 140 E. of the city of Mexico. Situated within a few miles of the snow-capped Orizaba and the peak of Perote, halfway between the tJen-a caltmte of the sea-coast and the tirrra tcntpl(i(fa of the central table- land, Jalapa enjoys one of the finest clirautcs in the world. It is the residence of the wealthiest merchants, native and foreign, of Vera Cruz, with which city it will shortly be connected by a railway, now (1875) nearly completed. Ja- lapa is celebrated for the culture of its inhabitants an<l the beauty of its females; it is the native place of Presidents Santa Anna and Lerdo de Tejada, and has played a prom- inent part in Mexican polities. It was founded in the time of Cortes, who had extensive estates in the vicinity, and was occupied in 1817-48 by American troops, at which time a newspaper in English was printed there. The moislness of the climate is favorable to a superabundant vegetation : few spots in the world can more truly be called the botanist's paradise. Sugar-cane and tobacco are cul- tivated with great success, the silkworm is reared, wild honey, vanilla beans, and the jalap root arc found in abundance in the forests. There arc several cotton and cigar factories, tanneries and potteries, government build- ings and fine educational institutions, with a bishopric and :i newspapers. It is gradually becoming known as a de- lightful winter residence for American visitors. Pop. about lo.OllO. (Sec Rivera's Historia drjafapa, 5 Vids., 1870-71.) Jaley'(LEOS Louis Nicolas), b. at Paris Jan. 27, 1802, being the son of an engraver of medals, by who m^ he was guided in the study of sculpture. Entering the Kcole dcs Beaux Arts in 1820, he twice gained prizes for statuary. Returning in 1833 from a long sojourn in Home, his works, exhibited in successive annual expositions, were much ad- mired, and ho was employed to execute commissions for the Museum of Luxembourg, the (hambcr of Peers, tho Opera Comique, the Museum of Versailles, ami the Palace of Justice. He was a member of the Academy of Fine Arts and of the Institute. \). in I8GC. Jalis'co, the most populous stale of Mexico, is bounded by Sinaloa, Durango, Zacatecas, ami Aguas Calientes on the N., (luanajuato and Michoaenn on the E., Colima on the S.. and the Pacific on tho S. W. Area, about 60,000 square miles. Pop. 1,000,000. Jalisi-o was known as the kingdom of Xueva Galicia during the period of Spanish dominion, and was governed by the audiencia of Guadala- jara as a province <lis(inct from New Spain or Mexico. It was settled soon after the conquest of Mexico by Nuno de (luzman, and was explored by Cortes and Alvarado. Il is traversed by the large river fololotlan or Santiago, and in- cludes the picturesque lake of Chapala and the volcano of Colima. 12,000 feet high. The surface is diversified by rugged mountains, with vast ravines or banancaa, the JALXA— JAMES. i:;g;] river-beds sometimes lyin^ between perpendicular walls of nearly 1000 feet in hti^^ht. The climate varies accord- ing^ to situatiun. but is adapted tu the cultivatiou of mo5:t tropical product*, especially the sugar-cane. The harbors are not commodious. Chief towns. Guadalajara, Lagos, Zapotlan el Grande, and Tepic. Precious metals nrc abun- dant, but are mined upon a comparatively j^mall scale. The inhabitants arc in great part Indians of several dis- tinct tribes. Ja1na% town of Hindostan, in tbe dominion of tbe nizani. has a strongly built fort and some manufactures of silk, anrl produces large quantities of excellent vegetables. Pop. 10.000. Jainni'ca, an island of the West Indies, one of the Cn-.a Antilles, belonging to England, and lying off the IJav of Honduras, between the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, between lat. 17° 40' and 1S° ."iC X., and be- tween Ion. 76° \y and 7S° 25' E.. 'JO miles S. of Cuba. Area. -UT.t square miles. Pop. .'>no,l'ol. of whom l.S.lOl arc white, 101,346 mulattoes. and .".91.707 black. The island is traversed from E. to W. by the Blue Mountains, from 7000 to 8000 feet high, which to the N. slope quite gently down towards the coast, while to the S. they present a range of wild and precipitous cliffs along the shore: they send a great number of small, rapid rivers down both sides, of which only one. the Black River, is navigable. The scenery is everywhere beautiful, the slopes of the moun- tains being covered with pimento groves or immense for- ests. The south-eastern part of the island is lower and more level, and here arc the principal plains, which are mostly occupied with sugar-plantations. Tbe climate of Jamaica is hot and unbi-allhy along the shores and in the depths of the valleys; yellow fever visits these regions every year. The rainy seasons occur in April and May, anrl in Septemlier. October, and Novcmlier. They are generally preceded by a stagnation of the atmosphere which is very oppressive, and thon ushered in by heavy thtmderstorms and hurricanes. Karlhquakcs are also fre- quent, and have sometimes been very destructive, as, for instance, in 1692 and 17S0. But at an elevation of 1500 feet the climate is healthfid and very agreeable. It is so mild that coffee can be cultivated at an elevation of 5000 feet, and sugar, indigo, and other tropical jdaiits flour- ish in the valleys. The forests are rich in bread-fruit trees, mahogany, and cedar; the principal palms are the cabbage-palm and the coconnut tree. Of wild animals only the agoutis, iguanas, some species of monkeys, and alligators are numerous. Hut the domesticated animals of Europe, which have been introduced, thrive well. Since the emancipation of the slaves the productiveness of Ja- maica has docreased, and it will probably take many years before the rich resources of (his island become fully de- veloped. The following table sliows the development of Ihc productiveness of the island, and tbe influence which the emancipation of the slaves exercised on it in 1833 : CofTec, 1797.. 180.x. 1.<11«.. 18,32.. IftW G9.613.. IRU MAM.. IH-V :io,-ir,o.. Sagnr. Ram, bogvheKdii. punchcona. ... S-i.lM 2«,746 ...|">0,3.->2 53,950 ..121.7.%8 ..n9r>6« .'50,827 9V'8G :W,68.^ tba. .. 7.809,133 ..24,i:{7,393 ..2.^..329.4.'iG ..1f>,S19.7«i ..19,8I.''i,010 ..i:iA".1.79.5 .. 7,I»«.775 .. 7.09*>,(i2;i ...11.631 ...l.'i,992 While tho exportation decreases, the importation, par- ticularly of food, increases. In 1870 tho value of ex- ports was £I,2S3,000. and the value of imports £1,340,000. Jamaica was dis^covered by Cidumbus May 3, 1494, and the first Spanish settlement was made there in 1509. In 16.'>5 it was taken by the English, who retained it by the treaty of Madrid in Ifi7if. In ISO" the slave-trade was abolished, and in 1833 the slaves were emancipated. Tho immecliatc results of this act were not good: several hundred sugar and coffee plantations were left without labor, and went to ruin, and in course of time the gen- eral agitation threatened a serious revolt in I S6.'i, wliieh was suh'lucd with severity. Immediately after the eman- oipiition was completed (Aug. I. 1S3S) the planters asso- i-iatrd antl put down the wages to the very lowest, while they increiised the rent which the negroes had to pay for their huts as much as possible. Tbe result was that the nei^roes dcHcrteii the plantations and setlb'd in the moun- tains. Chinese workmen were (hen imported, but without success. In iSIC tho principles of free trade became vic- torious in tho Tnilod Kingdom, and in the English sugar and coffee market tree Inhor from .lamaiea had to compete with slave labor from Cuba and Brazil. At last a series of bad harvests briMighl the miseries of the ifbiud to their culmination, and a wild race-war began, which was put down by the English governor with great cruelty. Kovcr- theless, since the emancipation the various missions, for- merly annoyed by the planters, have had free scope for their activity, and their exertions have been crowned with great success. Between the old slaves and masters grows up a new population of free citizens, through the agency of the missions and their schools. The island is divided into three counties; its capital is Kingston. It is governed by a captain-general, appointed by the Crown, and an as- sembly of 47 members, elected by the people. Ci.nMENs Petersen. Jamaica, post-v, of Queen's co., N. Y., on the Long Island. South Side, and Brooklyn Central R. Rs., 10 miles E. of New York. It has extensive farming and market- gardening interests, and manufactures of carriages and small wares. Many of its citizens do business in Now York and Brooklyn. It has churehcs. an academy and good public and private schools, gasworks, a public library, a savings bank, 4 weekly newspapers, a firo department, and fine public buildings. The township contains several other villages, has S churches, and considerable manufactures. Pop. 3791 ; of tp. 7745. John O'Donneij,, En. "Jamaica Stanoaiid." Jamaica, post-v. and tp. of Windham co.. Vt.. is miles E. of Manchester, has a national bank and manufactures of leather, boots, shoes, chairs, etc. Pop. 1223. Jamaica, post-tp. of Middlesex co., Va. Pop, 1298. Jamaica Plain, post-v., formerly in the town of West Ro.\I>ury, Nurf»ilk co., Mass.. but now, with the rest of that town, included in the 17th ward of Boston. It is on the Boston and Providence R. R..3 miles frjini the city proper, to which it w:is united Jan. I. IS7). Tho ward has 1 1 churches, a savings bank, public library, a weekly newspaper, 2 rubber-mills, 2 carriage-factories, a paid firo department, fire-alarm telegraph, and is connected by horse raiIroa(l with the city proper. Mo^t (tf the inhiibitants do business in Boston. C.A.J. Fakrar, Ed. " Wi:st Koxbiuy Gazkttc.'* Jamalti'ca, an ancient city of Honduras, 20 miles N. of Comayaguii. now consisting of ruins simihir in character to those of Copan. Many rectangular mounds, like the Mexican teocaitis, arc surmounted by the remains of edi- fices, and throughout the adjacent valley fragments of sculj>turo and well-painted vases are found. James, count V of Nebraska, organized since the census of 1870. James, county of East Tennessee, having the Tennessee River on the N. W. and Georgia on the S. Area, about 200 square miles. It has a fertile soil, well adapted to grain. It is traversed by the East Tennessee \'irginia and Georgia R. R. Cap. Ooltcwah. It has been organized since tho census of 1S70. James, (p. of Bibb co., Ala. Pop. 859. James, tp. of Pottawattamie co., la. Pop. .109, James, tp. of Stone co., Mo. Pop. 447. James, tlic son of Zel)cdce [Lut. Jacobus: Gr. *Io»cu^^o?], called THK GitEATi;i{,oneof the twelve apostles, and brotlier of John. He was a fisherman on tho Lake of Galilee when called to follow Jesus, and with Peter and John formed a group distinguished from the other apostles by being tho chosen witnesses of several of tho chief ineidi-nis in tho ministry of Christ. Such wore (ho transfiguration, the re- storation to life of .Tairus's daughter, and the agony at Gothsemane. Jnmcs and J<din, with their mother Salome, appear at one time to have oiilortaincd false views of tho nature of Christ's kingdom, and to have aspired to a sort of primacy, which was rebuked by Jesus; who on another occasion gave the brothers the appellation of Boanerges ("s(!ns of thunder"), perhaps at the time when (hey raslilv invoked fire from heaven upon a Samaritan \illnge (Mark iii. 17: see also Luke ix. .'>'_*). ,?amcs was the tir>t martyr among tho twelve, having been killed by (he sword of King Herorl Agrippa, A. n. 44 (Acts xii. 1 ). He is commemorated in the calendar of saints by the Roiniin Catholic Church on tho 2.'ith of July, and by the Eastern Church rm the 2.".d of October. Cnder the name of Santiago (St. Jago) m-; Com- posTEi.i.A he was venerated from an early day iu Spain as the patron of tho kingdom. James, tho son of AlphaMis, called rni: Less, one of tho twelve iiposlles. His mother's name was Mary (Matt, xxvii. .'»6; .Murk xv. 10), who is called (John xix. 2.'») •■ tho wife of Cleoidias."aud is referred to in (ho same verso as a " sister" of Mary, the mother of Jesus. Whether this Janios is the same as " James the Lord's brother '* .spoken of by Piiul in Gal. i. 19, has been much discussed, but the title of npnuth' given to him in tho passage in question seems decisive. N'everiheless, this view involves grave difficulties, and I>r. Neandor (quoted in Mct^linlock & Strong's Ci/rfoptrdin, vol. iv. 7.VI) pronounces this question to be " the most diflicult in the apostolic history." Assuming the affirmative answer, the must consistent solution of the apparent discrepancies 1364 JAMES, EPISTLE OF-JAMES II. OF SCOTLAND. in the New Testament references seems to be that advocated in a. learned article in the Ci/rlopmilia quoted above— namely, that the two Marvs. the mothers of Jesus and of .lames, are called «,«(.'■» in John xix. 2.'> by virtue of their marriage with t%yo l.rnf lu-rs. Jos.|.h and Cleopbas. If. then, Cleopbas (otherwise Alpba-us) had died without issue, it became the dutv of Joseph (according to the law found in Deut. xxv. 5) to marry his brother's widow, and the eldest son by such marriage would be the legal representative of fleophas or Alphwus, whose name he would bear. James the Less he- eame the head of the Church at Jerusalem, and (according to the above Iheorv) wrote the Epistle known by his name. Early Christian writers (as Hegesippus) give hiin the name of James Ihe Jmi. and a well-known passage ol Joscphus ( lMf/./iii'(i.«, XN. !l. 1 ) describes his martyrdom, to which he attributes the downfall of the Jewish power; but most critics reject this account as an interpolation, ^otblng, therefore, can be anirmed of the life of James posterior to the scriptural references. Several apocryphal writings have been attributed to James, of which one only, the Pioleriiiiiii/iiiiii, derives some importance from having been early known in the t'hurch. It is a mere parody of the first two chapters of Luke, transferring, however, the events to the nalivily of Mary. From this source the modern doctrine of the immacuiate conception of the Virgin Mary appears to have been ultimately derived. Ja:iiCS, Epistle of, one of the canonical books of tho New Tcslamcnt, the first of the so-called catholic Epistles. It is ascribed to ■■James, the Lord's brother," who is gen- erally identified with James tiik Lf.ss (which sec), though many commentators contend that he was distinct Ironi both the apostles bearing the same name. The Epistle is be- lieved by the majority of critics to have been written sev- eral Tears before the destruction of Jerusalem by the head of tlic Jewish Church, and addressed to the Christians of -isia .Minor. The style is elegant, and the Greek better than that of any other portion of the New Testament. Tho " doelrine of works," which forms its chief topic, has occa- sioned more contniversv upon this Epistle than upon almost any other book of the canon, it being regarded by soino as irreconcilable with Paul's doctrine of faith. Though T.utlier and his immediate followers rejected this Epistle, modern Protest ants think it represents faithfully the practical teach- in" of Christ, and find many analogies with the Sermon on the Mount. The distinctive doctrines of Christianity arc not alluded to, except by implication. The literature of tho subject, which is very extensive, is reviewed by Prof. Borsohlag in SluUten nnd Krilikcn, Jan., 1S74. James I. of Croat Britain (VI. of Scotland), h. at Edinbur-h Castle Juno 1',), 1 JOfl, was the only son of Mary, queen of'Scots, bv her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Dirnley. In tho" following year, soon after Darnley was assassinated (Feb. 10), Mary was abducted by Bothwell, whom she married May 15; was imprisoned at Lochleyen Castle in June bv her insurgent nobles, and forced to resign the crown (July '24) to the infant James, who was accordingly crowned at Stirling on July 20. During the stormy years of James's ehildhocnl, passed at Stirling Castle, the regency was suecessivciv in the hands of the powerful nobles the earls of Murray, Lennox, Mar, and Morton, until, on the overthrow of tlie latter in 1577, James nominally took the government into his own hands, which was confirmed by Parliament in I.^7S. His early education had been care- fully directed by the famous historian and classical schol- ar Georgo Buciianan, from whom he jirobably derived a taste for learning which degenerated into a ridiculous pedantry. Earl Morton regained power for a short time, but wns beheaded in l.iSI on a charge of complicity in tho murder of Dariilev, after which Arran and tho French fa- vorite whom James had created duke of Lennox ruled until Aug., 1 J82, when a party of the nobles sei-/.ed the king at Uu7hven Castle, imprisoned Lennox, and banished Arran. Tho civil war and court intrigues went on with a wearying iteration of similar events for several years, during which James made a treaty with Elizabeth, receiving from her a pension (1585), unsuccessfully interceded for his mothers life (15X7). co-operated with England in preparations against the Spanish Armada llJSS), went to Denmark, where he married the princess Anne (Nov. 24. loSfl). car- ried on war with varying success against several Catholic lords from 1590 to 1597. and bv the death of Eli/.abeth in ir,0:i succeeded to Ihe throne of England, being proclaimed Mar. 2 1 and crowned at Westminster July 25. lie presided at the Hampton Court Conferences in Jan., 1G04: exiled Jesuits and seminary priests; assumed the title of "king of Great Britain, France, and Ireland" Oct. 24, 1004; dis- covered tho " Gunpowder Plot" Nov. 5, 1R05; instituted tb» order of baronets in Kill ; and lavisheil honors upon tho unworthy favorites by whom he was directed, such .as Carr made carl of Somerset io 161:!, and Villiers, raised I through all the stages of tho peerage, from baron in lGlf> to duke of Buckingham in 162:!. His son Henry, prince of Wales, died in Uil2 : his daughter Eliiabeth. lium whom the house of Hanover descended, was married in 161.1 to the elector p'alatine, who became king of Bohemia, but lost bis estates in 1620, at the outbreak of the Thirty Years' war, through the failure of James to render his promised assistance. Great efi'orts were made by James to obtain the alliance of Spain through the marriage of Prince Charles with a Spanish princess, and on the failure of negotiations in 1624, declared war against that power, but d. shortly after at the palace of Theobalds -Mar. 27, 1625. The reign of .lames in England was distinguished by many memorable events; it witnessed the literary and political careers of Bacon and Raleigh, the disgrace of both, and execution of the latter; the dramatic activity of Shak- speare and Ben Jonson : the iranslation of the English Bible; the colonization of Virginia and New England: tho formation of two well-defined schools of English Prot- estantism; and the genesis of the struggle between king nnd commons which brought the head of his successor to the block. James was despicable in his personal iiualitics; was weak, cowardly, passionate, vindiclivc, cruel, super- stitious, fanatical, and prone to fall under the influence of worthless favorites. His learning was varied, though not scholarly ; he published several books, which were niiic.h praised by his fl.atterers, but have now only an historical in- terest ; Essnya of n 'Prentice in the Dirine Art of Pite^j (15S4) ATm'oilo/oi/i'c(1597), Trnr Line of Free Mmmrchics (1598), naailihon Dnrcm (1599), Trtj.liei N.,(ln Triplex Cn- nem (1605), Remonstrance for the liicjUt of KimjH (1615), and CmmterblMt to Tobacco (1G16). (See S. K. Gardiner's able histories of this reign, 1875.) Poutkr C. Bliss. James II. of Great Britain, a son of Charles I., b. in London Oct. 15, li;:;:',; becaino duke of York; escaped in 1648 from tho Parliamentarians and fle.l to the Low Coun- tries; served with distinction under Tuiennc and Cond6 ; was appointed bv Mazarin captain-general in Italy 1656, in which year he entered the Spanish service and fought an-ainst Turenne: was appointed in 1600 Ion! high admiral of England and lord warden of the Cinque Ports; married Anne Hyde, daugliter of Lord Clarendon, 1660; command- ed. against the Dutch 1605-72; avowe.l himself a Roman Catliolio 1669; married Mary of Este 167:i ; retired to tho Low Countries during the unsuccessful agitation for ex- cluding him from the throne; as lord high commissioner for S-otland iiersecuted tho Covenanters 1679, and suc- ceeded Charles II. 16S5. The great events of his reign wore the insurrections of Argylo and Monmonlh (16S.i) ; tho persistent attempts of tho king to overthrow constitu- tional government and to establish arbitrary royal jiowcr and tho Roman Catholic religion; tho declaration of free- dom of eonscicnce as a moans to that end; the violation of the privileges of tho universities: the imprisonment of tho bishops for potilioiiiug to be excused Iroiu reading a royal iiroclamntioii : Ihe establishment of new an.l illegal tribunals; and the maintenance of a standing army with- out leoal warrant. The whole nation became aroused; William, prince of Orange, a cousin of the king, and Mary, iirineess of Orange, the king's eldest daughter, were called by common consent to tho throne; James abdicated Dec. 11, 16SS, and Hcd to France, but iii 1689 invaded Ireland, bc'«ie.'ed Londonderry without success, and July 1, 1600, was defeated at the Boync; retired to France, and qienl the rest of his life in futile schemes for restoration to the throne. D. at St. Germain's Sept. 16, 1701. James I. of Scotland, son of Robert III., b. in 1394 at Dunfermline; was captured by the English while on liis way to France 1406, and imprisoned in Ihe Tower and in Windsor Castle, and wrote the Kin,f« Quhoir and other poems while in confinement; went in 1417 to France with Ilenry V.; married Joanna Beaulort, granddaughter ol John"of Gaunt, 1424 ; was liberated, proclaimed king, and crowned at Scone 1424; restored order to Scotland, and used so much rigor towards tho turbulent nobles that he was murdered by their emissaries at Perth leb. 21, )4.i7. James was celebrated for his courtly graces, his literary aceomplishmcnts, and his excellence in athletic exercises. Jamcf II. of Scotland, son of James I. and Queen Jo- anna Beaufort, b. in 14:10, was crowned at Edinburgh when but six years of ago ( 14:!7). During his minority the king- dom was distracted by struggles for power between his tu- tors Criehton and Livingston and the ■■ bouse of Douglas, represented by three successive earls of that title. James assumed the government in 1444 : made war w.tli England 144S; married Mary of Giieblres 1449: murdered William eighth earl of Douglas, with his own band 1452: defeated anowerful insurrection headed by the ninth earl; made a treaty with Henry VI. of England in 14.^0, by w i.ch be acquired tho counties of Durham and Northumberland, in JAMES III. OF SCOTLAND— JAMES. 13G5 considcratiou of supporttn;; the ho\i?c of Lanrasler in tho "war of ihi' Ro?<s." nnj wns killed by the bursting of a gun at the n'w^c of Koxburgh, Aug. 3, 1460. James III. of Seodund, son of James IT. and Queen Mary of rjuehlrc?. 1>. June 1, 1452. was crowned at KoNo monastery on hi? father's death fllOOl. The government. after the death of the queen mother (IIO.T) and of Risliop Kennedy (1 Ififi). fell into the hands of the Boyd family, one of whom married the king's sister in 1 Ifw. and was at the same time created earl of Arran. Henry VT. of Eng- land had taken refuge in Scotland in llfil, and involved the Scolrli in the war of the Roses, which led to a league between Kdwnrd IV.. the new Yorkist kini:. and the carls of Douglas and Ross and the Lord of tl»o Isles for the par- tition of Setdland, but the plan proved abortive, and in 1464 n fifteen years' truce was con-duded. James married the princess Margaret of Denmark in MG'J. thereby acquir- ing the Orkney and Shetland islands, dismissed the Royds from power Ihe same year, and came under the influence of the Hamiltnns: experienced several insurrections; im- prisoned on ft charffc of witchcraft his brother, tho earl of Slar. who soon died (14Sn) ; maintained a war with another brother, Ihe earl of Albany, who lai<l claim to the crown and was supported by Kdward IV.; was besieged in Kdin- burgh Cattle, and reconciled to his brother (14S2); had to waso another war against the nobles, who had pl.iced at their head his son. Prince James (1487), and was cither killeil in battle or murdered thereafter at Sanchie, near Banoockliurn, in June, 148S, James IV. of Scotland, son of .Tames TIT. and Mar- garet of Ocnmark, b. Mnr. 17. 1472; joined the rebel- lious nobles against his father in 14^7; was crowned at Scono in June, 14SS; suppressed an insurrection headed by Lords Forbes and Lyio IISO; favored the impostor Perkin Warbeck, whom lie received at his court as king of Encrlaml (1102). on whose l)ehalf be made war upon England (1406- 071. but finally concluded a truce for seven vcars, and in l.')Oll married Margaret, daughter of the English king, ILnry VII. In 151:'. he took offence at a supposed insult from his brother-in-law, Ilonry VIII., invadcrl England, and was defeated and slain at Flodden Field. Sept. 0, L'iKJ. Jnmcs V. of Scotland, son of James IV, and Mar- garet of England, h. at, Linlithgow Apr. 10. 1512 ; succeeded to (ho throno under his mother's regency Sept. fl, 151^ ; as- sumed the government ir)28: married Mndideine of France ir>,''.7, and on her death Mury of Lorraine, dau^htrr of tho duko of Guise, 15:jS ; met with sienal defeat from the Eng- lish at Solway Moss Nov. 25. 1542; d. at Falkland Pnlaco Dec. 14, 1542, and was succeeded by his infant daughter, Mary, qu'-cn of Scots. Jamps (Cn.\ni.ns T.), A. M.. b. at West flreenwich, R. I., in I'^OI : stiulii'd mechanics while working as a car- penter, an<l became an expert constructor of machinery for cotton mills, of whifh ho erectr-d many in New England ami (he Middle and Southern States. Ho was XJ. S. Sen- ator fr(uu Rhrtde I-Iaml 1851-57, after which time he devoted him^i'df (o invenlint: firearms, and wa-^ killed at Sag Har- bor. L. I.. Oct. 17. ISC2, by the bursting of a shell. James Francis Edward Stuart, b. in London Juno 1ft, I68S. being the son of King James IT. by Queen Mary of Modena, and nutiiral heir to tho throne. In thn year of his birth James II. was driven from power, and the rights of (he infant prince were ignored by liis sif^ters Mary and Anne, who successively occupied tho throne. Tho exiled family fnind hoipitablo asylum at tho court of Louis XIV., wlio. (in tho death of (he ex-kin'.r. immediately recognized the prince as king of Oreat Rritnin under the title of James Til. In 1708, Prince James sailed from Dunkirk in a French flret, intruding to effect a landing in Scotland, but did not execute that intenti<in. Under the ttoni-dr-ffiirrrc of tho rhevalier of St. fJcorpc Ihe youthful "Pretender " fashc wa8 called in England) timk part in tho French campaigns of 17ft8-0fl aifainsi (he Enijlish in Flanders, for which reason Parliament set a price of 100.000 crowns upon Ins head. The prince's sister. Anne, designed to restore hini to th'^ order of succrpsiou. ami niimorous statesmen of England, among whom were Bolinghroko nncl Rishop Atterhury, fa- vored Itis cause, hut his refusal to renounce ratholicism was fatal to his profpeets. In 1715 (he Prftcndor wa-* in- vite I to Scotlan'l by th" earl of Mar, landrd at Peterhead in l>eceuO)er, passeil (hroutih Aberdeen, made a public en- try into Dundee, au'l occupied (ho royal palace at Seone. The enterprise, however, failed ignominiously. and the next month (be Pretender retreafetl (o Franee, The rrminurler of his life wa-< pa«^ed chiefly in Italy, he haviut; married in 1710 a princesf« Sobieski of Pobmd. by whom he bad a son, Charles Edward, h. 1720. tho "Young Pretender" of 174.'>. Prince Jame?. after \\'\n second fnihire, declined to make nny further armed attempt upon tho throne of Rrit- ftin, ceding his rights to his son when tho latter reached maturity : he passed his closing years in pious retirement^ at Rome, where he d. Jan. 2, 1706. James ((ikorgf, Pavnk RAiNSF0Rn),b. in London, Eng- land, in 1801, became in early life, partly through the ad- vice of Washington Irving, a writer of romances ; was his- toriograjdier of England under William I \\ ; became Brit- ish consul at Norfolk, Va., in 1S52; Rritif-h consul for the Austrian ports 1850; d. at Venice isfifl. Of his many nov- els and other works, which once had great popularity, the best arc liirhrficu (1825), Daruhif (LSItO), MtDinint of Great Commnndern (18:i2), life oud Times of Louift A'/K'( 18^8). James (Sir Hkvry). F. R. S., b. at Rose-in-Vale. near St. ,'\gncs, Cornwall, in 180.1: was educated at tho Royal Military Academy at Woolwich ; entered the army as lieu- tenant of engineers; became colonel in 1857, and major- general in ]8fiS. After directing the geological survey of Ireland (1844). and the admiralty engineering works at Portsmouth (1840^. he was appointed in 1852 superinten- dent of the ordnance survev of the United Kingdom, and in 1857 chief of the topogra])lncal and statistical depart- ments of the war office. He was knighted in 18G0. Sir Henry is principally known for his successful efforts to in- troduce various applications of photograjdiy into ihe ser- vice of the exact sciences. As early as 1855 he reduced the ordnance maps h.v photography: in 1800 he availed himself of (he experiments of M. Poitevin, of Mr. J. W. Osborne of Melbourne, and of Mr. Asscr of Amsterdam for applying the new processes of PnoTOi.iTiiofjitAPiiY (see (hat article) to the reproduction of impntved ordnance sur- veys. Oen. James has Fince invented a modification of this process, known as photozincograjdiy. and by its means has made a complete fac-simile in 32 volumes of tlie celebrated Domesday /inolr, as well as of other rare and ancient manu- .eeripts. The principal writings of Gen. James have been On the Firjnrc, Dimeuniont^ and }frau Sprrifir Gravity of the Earth, ns drrivfd from the Ordiiaiirr Tn'f/onomctricnl Sarrri/ of Great Britain (in Phihm. Trans., 1 850) : Ordvanrr Survrt/ ]'n Ireland (1855), in Seoffatid (1801). in Encf/aiid and WaicH (1801); On Photoziurorjrapht/ and other Photo- qraphic ProreHftfH (1802) : ^cco»n/ (f the Principal Trian- qulation of the United Kinrfdom (1864); and Record of the Ejrpedition to Abi/isinia (1870). James (IlnNRv), b. at Albany, N. Y., June 3, 1811. When twelve years of ago he suffered amputation of a leg in consequence of an accident. lie studied in T'nion Tol- legc and Princeton Theological Seminary ; went to Euro])e, where he acquired Sandcmanian and afterwards Swcden- bor^ian views. He resides a( Tambridfre, Mass., and has published What in thr State? (1845), Irft^r to a Snrdeji- borriian (1847), Moralism and Chrihtianiti/ (1852). Lreturet* ami MiHcenanies (\^h1\ The Chnrrh of Christ (1854). The Nature of Evil (1855). Christianity the I.ofjic of Creation (1857), Snhntance and Shadow {\^<Si), The Secret of Sweden- horff (1809), and other works. James (IIouAcr). A. M., b. at Medford. Mass., May 0. 1818; graduated at Yale 1840; studied divinity at New Haven; held pastorates (Congregational) in M'reutham and Worcester, Mass., 1843-0:t ; chaplain 25th Massa- chusetts Infantry 1801-04 : captain and A. Q. M. and com- missioner of froedmen in North Carolina 1804-00; luistor of First church, Lowell, Mass., 1807-711 : Second churcn.tircen- wieh, Conn., 1871 ; also, since 18(i7, one of the proprietors and editors of tho ContjreijationaliHt. D. June 0, 1875. James (Jons Angem.). h. at Rlandford, Dorset, Eng- land, Juno 0, 1785. was educated at (iosporl College, en- tered tho ministry when seventeen years old, and was (1805-50) pastor of the Congregational cliapel, Carr's lane, Birmingham : was an able preacher and writer, and exer- cised a wide influence in Europe and America by hi.-: nu- merous religions works, of which (he best known are The Anxioun Inqninr (I8:i4). Chrintian Frltoirnhip. and Chriit- tian PrnfrsHur. D. at Birmingham Oct. 1, 1859. James (Rorhrt). M. D..b. at Kinvor.«<ton. Staffordshire. England, in 170:1; was educated at Oxford; practised as a physician at Sheffield, Lichfield. Rirmingham. and Lomlon : published, with tho aid of Dr. Samuel Johnson, a Mrdiral Dirtiou'fry (J! vols. fo|.. London, 174:i-L'«), an<l invented tho cebd>rated fever-powder known by his name, now called antimonial powder, composed of o.xido of antimony and phosphate of lime. "James's powder" xvas ono of the earliest and mo«t successful prototypes of tho so-called patent medirineM which have since acquired 80 great vogue. D. 1770. Jnmrs (Thomas), an English navicntoi* who in lOHl was f-wi by a companv of merchants of Bristol to search for a X.W. passage. Me explored Hudson's Ray. and from him (he sou(hern portion is still called James's Ray. Capt. James reachod lat. 05° .10' N., when his further progresi being stopped by ice, ho returned to England. In 1CC3 be 13G6 JAMES— JAMES KIVER AXD KANAWHA CANAL. > published a quarto voliimp entitled The Strnniic and Oun- i/ei-oui Vfn/ftf/c of Cttpt. TlttimtiH JamcH for the J)Ucovcrif of a Xoflh-irest Pa9»(tije to tht South tSVrt. James (Thomas Chai.ki.ey), b. at PbiladclphiainlTefi; sluiliol iiHMlieine at the llniversity of Pennsylvania. After taking a trip lu the ('ape of l!ooJ Hope as surgeon, he stuilieil at Edinburgh anil London from IT'.Ml-'j:;. and founded after his return a sehool of uiidwifery in Philadel- phia; was physician at the Pennsylvania Hospital for tiventy-five years, and professor of midwifery at tlic Uni- versity of Pennsylvania from ISll to 1S:W. He enjoyed a great rejiulation both as practitioner and as teacher. D. July 2:>, \m:,. James Bayou,po8t-tp. of Mississippi CO., Mo. P.fiGl. James City, county of the peninsula of Virginia, hav- ing James Kiver on the S., York River on the N., and the Chiekahominy on the .S. W. It is unduhiting, and has a soil adapted to raising grain and garden products. Area, 1S4 square miles. Cap. Williamsburg. Pop. 4426. James Creek, post-v. of Huntingdon co.. Pa., on the Huntingdon .Tn<l liroad To|i K. R.. 12 miles S. of Hunting- don. It derives its |irineipal support from the mining of iron ore. H. R. RiujiBAiGH, Ed. "Weekly Pilcrim." James Island, one of the s;a islands of Charleston CO., S. C, having Charleston harbor and .\shley River on the X. The battle of Seeessionvillc (June 11, ISfi:!) and several other spirited engagements occurred upon this islanil during the late civil war. Pop. ISOS. Jame'son (.Vwa). h. at Dublin Jlay 19, 1797, was the daughter of Mr. Murphy, an artist of merit; was married in 1823 to Robert Jameson, a barrister, from whom she soon separated. Her writings upon Christian art and ar- cha;oIogy are of a high order. D. Mar. 17. ISGO. Her principal works are Dian/ of an EnniufCe (1S20), Lovch of the Pods (i»29), Lives of Female Sovereigns (ISiil), Chnrae- teristivs of Women (1S32|, Beauties of the Cnnrt of Charles II. (18:i:i), Visits and SIcetehes (IS.'U), Tales and Miscel- lanies (1S3S), Studies and Ilambles in Canada (IR.jS), Pic- Inres of Social Life in llermani/ (1S40), a translation of Waagen's Unbent (1840), Handbook to the Public Galleries of Art (l.'<42). Conijuinlon to Priialc Galleries (1844), Me- moirs of Early Italian Painters (184S). Memoirs and Es- says (184()), S'li-rcd and Ler/cndari/ Art (1818). Leijends of the Monastic Orders (ISoO), Lerjcnils of the Madonna (1852), Commonplace Ilool; ( 18r)4), Sisters of Chariti/. Catholic and Protestant (18jj), The Communion of Labor (1S6G). Jameson (Charles Davis), b. at Gorham, Me., Feb. 24, 1827; removed to Oldtown at an early age, where he subsequently engaged in the lumber business, which he largely extended, and in ISfil was one of the most largely interested dealers in the .State. A Democrat in polities, and a Douglas delegate to the Cliarleston convention in 1860, he volunteered bis services in support of the national governuunt on the outbreak of civil war, and was ap- pointeil colonel of the 2d Maine Vols., the first to leave the Slate, which he commanded at the first battle of Dull Run with distinction, leading to his appointment in September as brigadier-general of volunteers. In the Peninsular cam- paign in Virginia. 1802, he commanded a brigade with great ability, where he contracted the disease which ter- minated his life at Oldtown, Me., Nov. C, 1SG2. 0. C. Simmons. Jameson (Jonx Alexander), LL.D., b. at Irasburg, Vt., Jan. 2j, 1S24; graduated at the University of Vermont in 1840; was tutor there 1850-5.!, after which he removed to Illinois; practised law, and became in 18G5 judge of su- perior court in Chicago. He has published several legal works. Jameson (Robert), b. at Leith .July 11, 1774; was educated for the medical profession at the University of Edinburgh, but, devoting himself entirely to natural his- tory, explored the Scottish islands as a mineralogist, and published his discoveries in two volumes in 1798 and ISDO. Dr. Jameson then studied for two years at Freiberg, under the celeluated Werner, whose geological theories he warmly espoused, and taught for many years from the chair of nat- ural history in Edinburgh University, to wiiich ho was elected in ISO I, having even founded a Wernerian .Society. Later in life he abandoned his favorite dogmas as untena- ble, and adopted instead those of Hutton. He wrote a Siislem <f Mlncralof/i/ (.1 vols., 1804-08), which has passed through many editions ; n Manual of Mincralot/)/ (1821); numerous paper? published by the scientific societies to which he belonged ; edited the geological department of the Encijclopirdin llrilannica (4th ed.. 1819 seq.) ; founded in 1819, anil conducted through life, the Edinburgh AVir Phil- osophicaljonrnal; and assisted Sir 1). Brewster anil Hugh Murray in the preparation of many scientific treatises of a popul.ir character. D. at Edinburgh Apr. 19, 1864. Jame'sone (George), b. at Aberdeen, Scotland, in ]58fi; went to Antwerp in 1G16, and studied painting un- der Rubens. Vandyek was his lellow-pujol. and .lamesono has been called the "Vandyek of Scotland" from the deli- cacy, softness, and clearness of his coloring, though some- what dclicient in vigor. Charles I. sat to .lamesone in Ifi.'iH^ and he was largely patronized by the Scotch nobility, of whom numerous portraits by this artist arc preserved. D. at Edinburgh in 1CI4. James'port, post-v. of Riverhead Ip., Suffolk co., N. Y.,on the Tiong Island R. R., 78 miles E. of Kew York, and on Great Peconic Bay. Pop. o23. James River of Virginia, one of the noblest of Ameri- enn rivers, is formed in Alleghany co., by the union of the Jackson and Cowpasturc rivers. It passes through the Blue Ridge, and jmrsucs a devious course as far as Scotts- ville, whence its direction is about E. S. E. At Richmond it falls 100 feet in fi miles. afl"ording a grand water-power. Above this point the James River and Kanawiia Caxal (which see) extemls, following the course of the river, and embracing extensive reaches of wbit-h as slack-water navi- gation to Buchanan. 190 miles. The tide comes up to the Roeketts, just below Richmond. This is the head of navi- g.ation for steamboats and schooners of 130 tons. Shipping of the first class comes up to City Point, 40 miles below, at the mouth of the Appomattox. Below City Point the river is a broad, deep, ami never-failing tidal estuary, 06 miles long, and inferior to the lower Columbia and the Po- tomac only among the rivers of the U. S. in the majesty of its flow. The James River, with the Elizabeth and the Nansemond, flows into Chesapeake Bay through Hampton Roads, the grandest harbor upon our Atlantic coast. The entire length from Covington, Va., to Old Point Comfort is some 450 miles. James River, tp. of Buckingham eo., Va. Pop. 303.1. James River and KanaAvha Canal. This route is a project contemplating, besides the existing canal, a continuous line of water-communication from the waters of the Ohio River, at the mouth of the Kanawha River, Vi'. Va., to the w.aters of the Chesapeake Bay and the At- lantic Ocean at the mouth of the .lamrs River. The idea of a water-communication between the valley of the Ohio River and the valley of the .Tames River has for its author no less a distinguished person than George Washington himself, though it is popularly supposed to have originated with Gen. Spotswood. when on -Aug. 20, I 716, he set out from Williamsburg on bis expedition over the Blue Ridge. Upon the conclusion of the Revolutionary war. Gen. Wash- ington was so impressed with the importance of a water- line across the .Mleglianics that during the year 1784 he made a personal exploration of the country, travelling for that ]nirpose many hundreds of miles. It was largely ow- ing to his influence and instrumentality that the legisla- ture of \"irginia. on Jan. 5, 17S5, passed " an act for clear- ing and improving the navigation of the .lames River." By this act the first or old .Tames River Company was in- corporated. This company was organized Aug. 25. 1785. ami on the next day Gen. Washington was elected its first president, which position he held for some years. Several amendatory acts have since been passed ; and the present company was incorporated in May, 1832, and organized in 1S35. This company commenced the eonslruction of the present canal from Richmond to Lynchburg in 1S3G, and the work was completed about Dec. I, 1840. The part known as the second division of the canal, extending from Lynchburg to Buchanan, was commenced in the mean time, and completed in Nov.. 1851. An extension of 47 miles to Covington on Jackson River, a few miles above the junction of Coivpasture River, was commenced in 1853. but I remains yet incomplete. As the "central water-line " this routceomes prominently before the public as one of the four or five great lines of transportation by which the products of the great West may reach the sea. This, indeed, was a fundamental idea from the beginning, and as early as 1S2C-2S, Capl. McNeil of the U. S. engineers surveyed pas- sages of the Alleghanies and the western extreme rlH the tlreenbrier. New. and Great Kanawha rivers, and found a location by which the siinimit was surmounted at a level 1916 feet above tide by a tunnel 2.0 miles long. In 1868. .Mr. E. Lorraine, then the engineer of the company, advised the adoption of a iicir location, which was about the same as Capt. McNeil's, except that it pierced the mountains by a tunnel about (estimated) 9 milesdn length, and rrducd the elevation of the summit-level to 1700 feel, thereby saving 34 miles in actual length of canal, and 2flJ of equated I length, considering the saving of time in lockages and cost i of working and repairs. The creation by this route of a central water-line involved, besides the mere connection I with the great fluvial navigation-system of the Mississippi I Valley, an enlargement of the actually constructed portions JAMKS'S BAY— JANKSVILLK. laiiT of Ihia line. Ifcncc tho project involves — 1st, the en- larj^omcnt of the existing ciinal from Richmtintl to Bu- chanan : lid. the construction of tho projected and defi- nitely-located portion nf the canal frorn Buchanan to tho mouth of Fork Uuu ; 3d, the construction of t!ie canal up Fork Run to the summit-level, 1700 feet above tide, under tho Tuckahoe and Katis mountains, hy a tunnel 7. miles Ions, and thence down the valley of Howard's Creek to the Oreenhrior Hivcr; 4th. tho slack-water improvement of tho (irconhricr. New, and Kanawha rivers to Paint Crock Shuals (with occasional short can.ils to avoid expensive location nf dams) : ;»th. the open slniccdam improvement of the Kanawha Hivcr from the Paint Creek Shoals to its junc^tion with the Ohio River. This project was suhinilted Jan., 1874. by tho secretary of war to a hoard of engineers consisting of ]\Ir. B. II. Latroho, civil engineer, and J. G. Darnard. Q. A. (iillmore, W. P. Craishill, it. Wcitzel, officers of U. S. engineers, who reported favorahly as to practicability. Further surveys were sugjif^sted, however, heforo the definite location of the tunnel and the (ixing of the plans of utilizing the Green- brier and New rivers as parts of the line. It Is probable that those surveys will, besides determining an improved location of the groiit tunnel, result In showing that an '* in- dependent canal," instead of a *' lock-and-dam " naviga- tion, must he resorted to along the (Trccnbrier and New rivers. The hoard estimated the cost at $50,000,000. (Sec E-r. One. S19. H. II. 1st scss. 4:ld Cong.; also Annual Re- port of fliief ftf Entjineers for 1S74.) J. G. BAiiNARn. James's llay^ the southern part of Hudson's Bay. lat. b\°-U:>° N., Ion. 79°-82° 'MV W. It was named fn.m'Capt. Thomas. lames, who wintereil here in 10:!I-;V2 while attempt- ing to liuil the N. \V. passage It abounds in shoals and islands. On its S. shores there are extensive marshy plains. Jamos's Creek, tp. of Marion co., Ark. Pop. IS.*!. Jamcs'town, post-v. of Clinton co., III. Pop. 120. Jamestown, post-v. of Boono co., Ind.. on the Indi- anapolis Bloomiugton and \Vcstern R. R., 23 miles N. W. of ludinnapolis, lias -1 churches, an academy, benevolent societies and Iodge«j, 22 stores, 2 flouring-mills, 4 manufac- torii's, ami a weekly newspaper. It is in a fertile grain- regtfm. Pop. 00:1. Francis B. Rask, En. " Commkucial." Jamestown, tp. of Steuben co., Ind. Pop. 779. Jamestown, ip. of Howard co., la. Pop. 312. Jamestown, post-v., cap. of Russell co., Ky., ,0 miles from Horseshoe Bottom, on Cumberland River. Pop. 1.18. Jamestown, post tp. of Ottawa co., Mich. Pop. 1CI2. Jamestown, tp. of Blue Earth co., Minn. Pop. 2114. Jamestown, post-v. of Chautauqua co., N. Y., on tho Atlantic and Groat Western R. R., 2A miles from the Dun- kirk Allegheny Valley and Pittsburg R. R. It is on the outlet of ("hatitauqua Lake, ou wlilch three steamboats ply houi-e to May ville The outlet affords constant an<l exten- sive water-]iower, which is well utilized. It has lOciiurclies, 2 werkly and 2 daily newspapers, .1 national banks, a union school with a fine building and a colle;;iato department. extensive manufactories of alpaca goods and woollens, .'i of chairs and ;t of furniture, 1 saw and 2 grist mills,:! fur- naces, .'> largo hotels, besides many smaller manufactories and numerous stores. Manufacturing is the chief pursuit, anrl flalrv business Is cxtcnsivciv carried on in the vicinity. Pop. .■>:i:!'fi. D. H. Waiti:, En. " JoritNAi.." Jamestown, post-(p. of (luilford CO.. N.C. Pop. 1539. Jamestown, tp. of McDowell co., N. C. Pop. 412. Jamestown, post-v. (»f Silver Crock tp., Grecno co., 0.. 10 inile.^ tVota Xenia. Pop. :)32. Jamestown, post-b. of Mercer co,. Pa., at (ho junction of the Eric and Pittsburg with tho .Vshtubula and Oil City branch of the Lake .^horo U. R., 30 miles from Lake Erie, has 2 banking-houses, a seminary, 2 hotels, u newspaper, j elmrches, 1 foundry, 1 machine-shop. 1 (louring and 2 planing milli-, shops, largo stores, etc. Piip. .'i72. D. L. Cai-kins, En. "SeN." Jamestown, post-tp. of Newport eo., R. I., consisting of the island of Cano.vicut (which seo), in NurragansoU Bay. Pop. 378. Jamestown, post-v.. cap. of Fentress eo., Tonn.. on (he Cmnlterlaud Mountain. 4:'. mlh-s \\ . of Clinton, a station on the Knowilleand Kentucky It. K. Jamestown, tp. of .Tamos City eo.. Va. ft was tho first permau'Mit English sotilemeni within the limits of tho V. S. : was founded in 1007 on a peninsula 32 miles from tho mouth of .Tames River. Va. ; it has now brcome nn inland by the action of (ho current, wliich has oiirried away a pttrtion of tlu- site of tho ancient town. Only the ruins of the church, (ho fort, and of two or three houses mark the spot which was first occupied by tho cclebvatcd band of 107 colonists under Wingfield, Ciiristopher Newport, and Bar- tholomew Gosnold. Entering the Chesapeake wiih three vessels Apr. 20, they sailed up the river, to which they gave the name of the reigning sovereign, and on May 13 began to build tho town, which also bore his name. Great priva- tions were suflorcd during tho first season, and the settlers were largely intlebtcd lor their preservation to the energy and talents of the famous Capt. John Smith, who explored the neighboring country, was captured by tiie Indians, and saved by the intervention of Pocahtnitas. conciliated tho savage cliicftains, ami obtained from ihem supplies of pro- visions. (See Smith, .Tons'.) A second company of colonists arrived in IfiOS, a still larger number under Sir Tliomas Gates and Sir Gcf)rgc Somers iu 1G09, tho charter governor, Lord Delaware, arrived with reinforcements in 1010, Sir Thomas Dale brought 300 settlers and some cattle in the same year, and in 1011, Sir Thomas Gates brought still an- other company of 3;')0. By this time other settlemonts be- gan to bo aiade. Jamestown soon became the capital of an extensive colony, and in lOllt (.Tune 21)) a house of bur- gesses, the first legislative assembly ever convened in lirit- ish America, met iiere. In tho same year 1200 uott settlers arrived, and a Dutch trading-vessel brought to Jamestown 20 negroes, who were sold as slaves. After the scat of gov- ernment was removed to Williamsburg, Jamestown began to decline; it was burned by Nathaniel Bacon during tho rebellion of 1070, and never rebuilt. It was the scene of an engagement between the forces of AVaync and those of Lord Cornwailis in 1781. Pop. of tp. 1088. Jamestown, post-tp. of Grant co., Wis. Pop. 1114. Jamcs'viIle,]K)st-v. of Dewitt tp., Onondaga co.,N. Y., on the Syracuse IJinghamton and New York R. R., has 3 churches and a number of manufactories. Pop. 402. Jamcsville (Minni.F. Grovk P. 0.1, a v. of (Jrcoufield tp., Saratoga eo.. N. Y. It has 2 paper-mills, and is U miles from Ballston. Jamesville, post-v. of Martin co., N. C, on the Roan- oke River. Pop. IJO; of tp. 2530. Ja'mi (ADDnnnAiniAN-BKN-.AnMnn), one of the most celebrated of the Persian poets, b. early in the fifteenth century at Jami in Khorussan, from wliich place he derived the name by wliich he is best known. Jami belonged to the mystical school of poetry, was a favorite with two or three of (he sultans of Herat, where he resided and taught, and wrote a large num.ber of learned works in prose and verse, some of which have been so IVn'Innato as to be trans- lated orcdited by recent European scholars. D. about Ml'2. Ja'mieson (John), D. D.,b. in Glasgow Mar. 3, 17ol'; was cilucated at the university of that city ; became a min- ister (»f the Secession Church in Forfar, and was called to Edinburgh in 1707. Besides many theological treatises and several poems, he published a valuable Etj/inotiifflvnt Dictionttrif of tfir Srotfi»h Ltnif/xof/f' (1808-09, 2 vols.) and Siip/ifrtut:nt ( tft2;>), and other smaller works of philology and belles-lettres. The doctorate of divinity was conferred upon him bv Princeton College, N. J. D. in Edinburgh July 12. 18.38. Jananscliek' (Fanny), b. in Prague. Bohemia, .Tuly 20, 1830; was brought up to the stage, and from an early age began to show a taleut for tragic rOles, which she un- dertook, first at Cologne, then for many years (18(8-00) at Frankfort, and later at Dresden and (he principal theatres of Germany. i^Illc. Januuschek eanie to the U. .'^. iu 1807, and acquired great popularity, though perfurniing in Ger- man only. Returning ti» (Jerrnany in IS71,sho devoted herself to tho study of English, and iu IS73 captivated tho American public i)y successfully representing in English tho mo^t di(rieult rflles of Shnkspearian tragedy. Jane Lew, post-tp. of Lewis co., W. Va. Pop, 2171. Janes (KnMiNU Smnrn), b, in Sheffield, Mass.. ,\pr.27, 1^07. His family early removed with him to Salisbury. Conn. Having received the usiml common -school education of Connecticut, he spent about six years (1S21-30) in teach- ing. Mo studied law during three of tlieso years, and was about to begin Its practice wln-n his fiilher died — nu ev<Mit which led to a change of his whole life. He joined tho Methodist itinerant ministry, taking his first ap)>ointmont in the Philadelphia conference in 1830. Ho rose rapidly in his new work, and occupied important ptitpits iu the Philadelphia auil Now York conferences till IS 10. when ho was elected financial secretary of the American Bible So- ciety. In which oftioo he distinguished himself by extra- ordinary energy and success. In IS It ho was elected bishop of tho Mothoilisi Episcopsil (Miurch. He has l>een pro-eminent for his episcopal labors and travels, and has eontributeil much to tho renuirkublo success of his den<un- ina(ion during the period of his episcopate. He resided (187:)) in New York. D. in New York City Sept. IS, 1870. Janes'ville, post tp. of Lassen co., Cnl., iu Honey i:368 JANESVILLE— JANSENISM. Liikc Valley, 12 miles from Susanville, the county-scat. Pop. -J 11. Janesvilley tp. of Greenwood co., Kan. Pop. 259. JaiiesvillC, post-v. of Waseca co., Minn., on the AVin- ona iiii'l St. Peter U. K., lliJ miles W. nf AVinona, in tlie '* iJig Woods;'' has 2 flour and '.I siiw mills, 1 clmir nnd 2 steam stave factorie.s, .'i hotel?, 3 churches, ji weekly news- paper, and a graded school. It is in a fine wheat-region. Pop. lit Ip. y47, C. E. GitAHAM. En. •* Aufiis." .Inncsville, city, cap. of Rock co.. Wis., on both sides of I'.iM-k Uivcr. and on the Chicago and North-western and the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. Rw., 70 miles W. S. W. of Milwaukee; has a daily, a monthly, a semi-weekly, and 3 weekly periodicals, 7 churches, a very large reaper-factory, machine-shops, fine public schools, and a very large water- power, utilized to a great degree. Boots, shoes, carriages, etc. arc among the manufactures. The town, which is well built, is the seat of the State institute for the blind, and has excellent musical schools, 2 national and 1 savings bank, and fine hotels. The I>reeding and dealing in horses is an important interest. Pop. S7S9 ; of tp., excluding part, of the city, 1)2G. A. H. Seymour, " (iAZETTE." Jauet-Lansre' f Antoixr Lons), b. in Paris Nov. 19, l.**18; studied painting under Collin, Ingres, and Horace Vernet, adopting the style of the latter, with whom he was associated in producing a series of designs illustrating the history of Xapolcon I. He was from about 1816 the ar- tistic editor of 1/ ffhistration Frnnrfn'se, and successfully executed many battle-pieces. D. nt Paris Nov. 23, 1872. JaneJ' (PAir.). b. in Paris Apr. 30, 1823; was educated at the Kcole Normalc, graduating as doctor in letters in 1818; taught philosophy at Bourges and Strasburg; was appointctl profes-;or of logic in 1S57 at the lyccum of Louis- le-<!rand, nf history of philosophy at the Sorbonne in 1S64; and was chosen member of the Institute in the same year. M. Janet is a leading representative of modern French philosophy, his doctrine being a reconciliation of the offi- cial system of Cousin with that entire liberty of research demanded by the most recent scientific school of psychol- ogy. His writings are numerous and learned. Jane'way (JAron J,), D. D., b. in New York City in 1770: graduated at Cidumbia College in 17U4; was or- dained a minister of the Presbyterian Church in Philadel- phia in 1799; was for some time president of the Western Theological Seminary at Allegheny City ; afterwards set- tled at New Brunswick, N. .)., as pastor of the Reformed (Dutch) church and vice-president of Rutgers College, Dr. .Taneway was one of the early promoters of Princeton Theological Seminary, of which he was for forty years a director. He wrote several esteemed theological works, among which are the ApoHtodc Age^ E.rpottitlim of the Ada nnd of the Epistlcit to the Romnun and the Hebrewa, In- t'-nml Eridfnce of the Bible, and The Abrahamic Covenant, D. at New Brunswick June 27, 1858. Janin' (Jltles Gabriel), b. at St. Kticnne, Loire, France, Dec. 21, 1S04; was educated at the college of Louis-lc (Jrand, Paris; became a private tutor in fhcQuar- tier Latin, and finally became a journalist, feuilletonist, editor, novelist, and critic. He was at one time connected with Fifjni'n, and afterwards with the Quotiflfcune ; was one of the founders of the Remits de Paris and the Jour- nal rh'H ICnfantH. D. June 20, 1874. Ja'liiiin^ or Joriiinina^ town of European Turkey, capital of the eyalet of the same name (the ancient prov- ince of Epirus). It has important manufactures of mo- rocco, leather, silk gooils, and gold-lace. On the opposite shore of the Lake of Janina, whieh has received its name from the town, lay the ancient Dodonn with its famous temple. Pop. 25.000. mi>stly Greeks and Jews. Jan'izaries [Turk., ''new troops"], a former corps of Turkish foot-soldiers, first organized in 1329 by Orkhan from young Christian captives, wlio were compelled to em- brace Mohammedanism. For more than three centuries the corps was forcibly recruited from Christian subjects, though many Turks voluntarily joined it on account of the privileges it enjoyed. The Janizaries at first numbered 1000; in 1362, Amurath I. increased them to 10.000, and in the seventeenth century there were about 100.000 of them serving in the line, besides nearly 400.000 Jamaks. or irregular troops, attached to the corps. Tlie number of regular Janizaries was afterwards much reduced. Endowed by Amurath I. with remarkable privileges, they beeamo at one timt: virtual masters of the empire. In 1;''12 thfv de- jMised Bajazet II.; thev procured the death of Amurath III. in 1595, of Osman II. in 1022. of Mustapha T. in ir.23, <«f Ibrahim in 1019; deposed Mustapha II. in 1703, Ach- met III. in 1720; slew Scllm III. in ISOT; deposed Mus- tapha IV. in 1808. In 1820, Mahm-uid II., displaying the banner of the Prophet, led the rest of his army to the attack of the Janizaries. The latter were defeated, 8000 of them were burned in their barracks, and some 15,000 were killed in the streets. Their defence was brave, but fruitless. Over 20.000 were banished during the next few months, and the force was formally dissolved. This force. long the terror of Europe, and under Solynmn the i^Iaguifiecnt the best infantry in the world, had so changci] as to bo terrible only to its own m.asters and to society at home, and its final overthrow was a blessing to Turkey-. Jankovacz', town of Austria, in the Temesvar banat, has lu,070 inhabitants, mostly engaged in agriculture. Much wheat, oats, and wine is produced. Jan May'en's Land, an island in the Arctic Ocean, situated between Iceland and Spit/.bergen, in lat. 70° 29' N. and Ion. 7° 31' W. It is voI<;anic. Both its two high- est points, Bcerenberg, 0040 feet high, and Esk, 1500 feet high, are occasionally active. It was discovered in 1611 by a Dutch navigator, after whom it is named. Jan'ney (Sami'el M.). a philanthropist nnd Hicksite Friend, b. in Loudon co.. Va., Jan. 1 1, 1801. He has pub- lished The Conntrif Schoolhnnne (poem.lS25), Conrersatioiis on RelitfioHd Snhjectn (1835), fliatoriml Slcrtch nf the Chria^ tian Churrh { 1 817). L ifc of Pcnn ( 1 852), Lift- of Fox ( 1 855), Hiatori/ of the Friends {4 vols., ISO"), and other works, both in prose and verse. In 1809 he was appointed one of the superintendents of Indian affairs by Pres. Grant. Jan'sen, or Janseniiis (Corvei.us), b. at Aequoi, near Leerdam, Holland. Oct. 28, 1585, of liumble parent- age; received a classical education at the University of Utrecht; studied Catholic theology at Louvain in Flan- ders; went to Paris in 1004 or 1005, where he formed a close intimacy with Jean Duvergier de Ilauranne, after- wards abbot of St. Cyran, whom ho accompanied to Bay- onne, becoming the head of a college recently founded there. In 1617, Jansen returned to Louvain: was made principal of a college, and subsequently, in 1030. professor of scriptural interpretation. At Louvain. Junsen speedily became (1021) the chief exponent of a system of doctrine which after his death received the name of Jansmnism (which sec), and became famous in the religious annals of Christendom; but during his life he was chiefly remarkable for polemics and contests, not altogether devoid of worldly rivalry, with the Jesuits, whom lie succeeiled in expelling from their position as teachers of philosophy in the uni- versity. In connection with this quarrel Jansen twice went to Spain (in 1024 and 1625), where he obtained the favor of the Spanish monarch, then the sovereign of Flan- ders. In 1035 he published a work entitled .l/«»« <!<tlllru», in defence of the rights of Spain against France in the then impeniling war, and was rewarded by the bishopric of Ypres. at which place he d. of the plague. May 6, 1038. The last ten years of his life were devoted to the prepara- tion of the work by which he is best known to posterity — an exposition of the doctrine of St. Augustine upon grace, free-will, and predestination — whieh was published at Lou- vain as a posthumous production in 1040 under the title AnquHtinns, ffu Doitriita AuffUNtinl de Uiimnnte Xaturie Snnitnfr, j-EijritndinP rt yfrdicinn, nd versus Pflnffiniintt ft .\faiifiilir,>Kra, and was reprinted at Paris (10-11) and at Rouen (1043). Porter C. Bliss. Jan'scnisin, the name of a school in the French Church, so called from Cornelius Jansen, who flourished in the early part of the seventeenth century. It represents a cfmtroversy the most important occurring in the Romish Chureh since the Reformation — a controversy whit-li began not with Jansen. but whieh. existing in its elements and showing tokens of itself at intervals from the time of Augustine, broke out more openly near the middle of the sixteenth centurv, and continued for a century and a half to agitate the Romish Church ; arraying the Augastinians, Dominicans, and the liberals of the (lallicaii Churcli on the one side, and the Jesuits, Franciscans, nnd Ultramontanes on the other. It arose from the diflieulty of harmonizing Augustine's doctrine of grace with Ihc Romish and monkish scheme of work-righteousness, and had manift-sted itself even in the times of the ancient Church. But in 1507 a defence of Augustine by Micliael Baius, professor at Lou- vain, was assailed by the Franciscans and Jesuits, and through their instigation seventy-six propositions gathered from it were condemned by Pius V. as heretical, and Baius was compelle.l to abjure.' In 1583 the agitation was re- newed by Louis Midiua, a Jesuit in Portugal, who published Semi-Pidagian views on the doctrines in controversy, for which he was assailed by the Dominicans, but defended by tlje whole Jesuit ordf-r". In the following century this eontroversy culniitmted in the school of Jansen. A lecturer on Seripture. devout with a tinge of mysticism, addicted to patristic literature, and especially to iho study of Au- gustine, he wrote a work, which was published after his JANSSENS— JANVIER. i:;(;y death, distinctly setting forth the doctrines of Augus- tine nod Pclagiu.<4 from their own writingiii, by which it np- pearcd that certain honored scholastic writersi and popes approuched nearer the heretic than the saint. The Jesuits, oiurtneil. iinineiiiately a^suik-d the work, and t^ccured its prohibition by Pope Urban VIII. (1040)- It founti, how- ever, many deicuders, amnn<; whvu, distinguished for learn- ing and piety, werv Jean Duvergicr Ilauranne, abbot of the IJenedietine monastery of .St. Cyran, and Anthony Ar- naiild.an able teacher in the Surbonne. The bitter soon be- came involved in an open controversy witti the Jet-uil.f, who Ecrsuaded Innocent X. to condemn five Jansenisl theses as eretical and dangerous. The defenders of Jansenism did not assail the pope's decision, but denied that the theses condemned were found in bis book in the sense in which they were condemned. Arnauld was now e.vpellud from the Sorbonne at the in>tigation of the priests, and took refugo with his sister Angelica, abbess of the Cistercian nunnery of Port Uoyal, near Paris, a gifted and attractive woman, of gentle spirit antl earnest and spirilnul piety, and do- voted to the monastic life. Through her inllucnce Port Koyal became eminently a centre of religious life and thouglit for France, and gathered at this time around itself a corps- — living something in the manner of the old an- chorites — of talented and devout young men, who admired Augustine, detested the lax morals of the Jesuits, and were enthusiastically devoted to tho liberties of the Gallican Church. Id sympathy with these men the profound, witty, and brilliant Blaise Pascal published in 106(> his celebrated Pioihirial Lettern, In ivhich, with authentic proofs and with equal earnestness, logic, and wit, he exposed the pernicious moral casuistries and thcologic sophisms and infamous con- fessional of the Jesuits, to tho derision and abhorrence of the French public, Thry avenged themselves by procuring a papal bull declaring that the propositions condemned were found in the sense in which they were condemned in the book of Janscnius. The Jansenists contended in reply that the pope, hotvever rightly authoritative in matters of doc- trine, was not infallible in decisions of questions of fact. But Louis XJV. an4l ihc pope insisted that all ecclesiastics, monks, and nuns should take the oalh of acknowledgment of tho bull and of condemnation of the Janscnist heresy (IGCJ). Those refusing were banished, and though sub- sequently n milder subscription was allowed, the vengeance of I ho Jesuits pursued Port Royal till in 1701) the institu- tion was abolishoil, its edifices demolished, and its very graves rifled. Meantime, tho Jansenisls. though in the Augii::tinian doctrines of grace in Calvinistic theology ami in earnest spiritual piety, manifesting an afhnity with the Protestant reform, were ever the more strenuous in re- pelling all suspicion of union with Protestants, denouncing them for persecution, and asserting their own loyalty to the Catholic Church. A new measuro of violence proceeding from tho papal court, hut instigated by French influence and the; Jesu- its, renewed the Jansenist controversy in l/I^i. This meas- ure was iliretrtcd against an edition of the New Testament publishvd by Paschasius t^uesnel, a man of learning and piety, and accompanying it with evangelical comment — a work much beloved by the people and approved by many bishops; among them commended by Cardinal Noailles, archbishop of Paris, v%ith the approbation of Hossuct. The Jesuits, haling alike the Jansenisl book and its commender, contriveil to obtain, through the Jesuit confetisor of the king, P(>re la Chaise, a bull from Clement XI. — the so- calh'd constitution " L'nigenitus" — condemning as heretical 101 propositions from Quesuf-l's brtok. The issuing of this bull, by which Augustine was virtually made a heretic, divided the French Church into two parts — tho*'Accept- anta." or receivers of this "constitution," and tho " Appel- lan's." who appealed from it to a general council. Louis an'i tin- pope deleriniued on its enforcement and the 4rxter- niination of the Janscnists ; but Louis died in the midst of the attempt. Tho <h'ath of Loni? and the inililTereuee of the regi'Ut. the prolligatc and brilliantly gifted duke of Orleans, gave the Appellants free scope for tho time, and the bull of cxcouiUKinication issued against thrm in 1718 was without effect. Subsequently, however, tho duke, under the influence of tho infamous I>n>iois, who sought a cardinarn lint, and afterwards Louis XV., under tho insti- gattou of his teacher. Cardinal Fleury, were led to perse- cute the Appellants and in every way to oppress thorn. Noaittis w.u* compelled to submit, and in 17.10 the "consti- tution " was registered by Parliament as a law of the nation. Under these persistent perseculionM a fanatical tendency manifested ifself among Iho Jansenisls. A young Jansenist clergyman, Francis, an abli^- of Paris, died in 17-7, a vic- tim of volunlnry penance, hoMing " appellation " doou- ments in bin bund. He was boni»retl by his I'ojlowers as a saint, and numer(»ns miracles were reported lo be effected at his tomb in tho graveyard of Medardus near Paris, which became in consequence the resort of a multitudo of pil- grims. These were wrought to a wild fanaticism, mani- festing itself in convulsions and contortions of the body and in raving prophecies against the Church and State. The contagion seized on even the frivolous and unbeliev- ing. In vain the govcrnn»ent in 17;>2 walled up the church- yard; the earth stolen from (he grave of the saint still wrought miracles and convulsions. Thousands of coinul- aioiinatrcs were then thrown into prison, and the sacra- ments were refused to the dying who were not *• accept ants" of the constitution. Vnder these severities Jansenism, which had passed from a thcologic system to a popular fanaticism, gradually declined. The controversy meantime broke out atVesh when the archbishop of Paris refused the sacrament to the dying regent as a non-acceptant ; but peace was finally mediated by a mild letter of Benedict XIV. (17o6). Since then Jansenism has disappeared as a distinct school or sect in France, though it ha<l many adherents down to the Revolution, and has left jicrmanent results in the French mind, which it has largely imbued. It has propagated itself in a peculiar ecclesiastic organization in tho Netherlands in tho archbishopric of Utreclit, which embraces some Iweti(y-five congregations, and has lately coalesced with the "Old Catholic" movement in Kurope. The element of earnest spirituality in Jansenism has ex- tended widely through various mystical writers and schools, and its freer ecclesiastic ami thcologic spirit has diffused ftself as a liberalizing influence through the clergy of Italy, Germany, and the (lallican Church. T. M. Post. Jans'sens fABR\nAM). b. at Antwerp in 1567 or 15^9; was a pupil of the painter Jan Snellinck; studied in Italy, anil enjoyed eonsideralile reputation at Antwerp for his skill as a eolorist, in which he rivalled Rubens. Many of Jansscns* works arc to be seen in the churches of Flanders and the galleries of Antwcr|) and Vienna. The torchlight scenes arc especially famous. D. about 1631. Janun'rius, Saint, b. at Naples or Bcncvento Apr. 21^ 272 ; was made bishop of Bcncvento about .103, and during the jierscciition by Diocletian was beheaded as a martyr at Pozzuoli Sept. I'J, ,305. Two phials filled with his blood were preserved, and tho body was ultimately brought to Naples, whore these relics arc stiU shown in the church of Santa Cbiara. St. Januarius is the patron saint of Naples. On his anniversary (Sept. 19J tho relics are brought out, when the blood in the phials suddenly becomes litjuid and bubbles up. This is of course esteemed a miracle by the populace, and cUiimcd as such by tho clergy, though it has never been formally sanctioned by tho Church. I^Iuch speculation has been exorcised in devising scientific hy- potheses to account for the phenomena in question. Jan'uary [Lat. Januayius, from Jaum, tho god who presided over the origin of things], tho firsi month of tho year in the tircgorian calendar; according to lir)man tra- dition, first added to the calendar by Numa, along with February. It had originally 21) days, to which two more were added by Julius Ciesar when he refornicil tho conipu- tation of time. It corresponded in the (IrceU calendar to the latter half of Poscideon and the first half of (lamelion ; was known by the Scandinavians as the month of Thor, and in tho French Revolutionary calendar it formed part of A7ro«c and Plun'osc. In England. January was mado the first month of tho year by act of Parlianitnt of 1751. Ja'nus [for Ditinun, from '/iV". "day '*]. and Ja'na [for /)iVrji«*]. two gods of ancient Rome, were originally per- sonifications of Iho sun ami moon. The nnnie./ntMr is sel- dom seen, tho form J)inun being much more common. Janus was early identified with tho Ktrusean two-faced god. Hence Jtiints ffi/roii», " the two-faced Janus," which Nicbuhr thinks at first symbolized the union of the Ro- mans and Sabines. Janus presided over the beginninir of all things, and was one of the most important of the Ro- man divinities. There was a famous gateway containing a statue of Janus Rifrons, and leading from the Palatine to iho Quirinal Hill. This passage was closed only in limes when Rome was at peace with all nations. This closure occurred, wo arc tohl, but four times in all the Ro- man history. First it was closed in Numa's titne; next, at the end of the First Punic war: again in the days of Augustus C«?snr; and lastly under Vespasian. Janvier' (Lkvi), I>. D.. b. at Pillsgrove. N. J.. Apr. 25, Islii; was educated at Laliiyetlennd Princeton colleges and Princeton The<ilogieal Seminary; went to India as a mis- sionary <»f the Presbyterian Hoanl in l^^ll : sellled in Lo- <liana in Northern India : soon acquired tho Trdu language, ami translated books and (racis into it. With I'r. Newton he eoinpilo<l a Panjauhi dictionary, printed in ISJI.and Imrsueil a career of eminent activity and usefulness until 10 was assassiuatod, Mar. 25, 18G4, by a fanatic Sikh. 1370 JAPAN. Japan. As the marvellous story of the empire of Japan mav be traceJ thioHgh more than twenty-five cen- turies, all that can be done in a single article is to toneh upon the more iniporlant points of its geography and his- tory WhiHt »e look with amazement upon tiio recent developm.'nts in thai highly favored land of the Orient, wc shall ilso find that there has always been something allied to" the wonderful in its career, whether we consider its physical characteristics, its people, or its government. This empire lies in the north-western part of the 1 aciho Ocean, and consists of four large i.slands ami a gnat num- ber of smaller ones. It is separated on the \\ . from f orea by a strait which is about 100 miles wide: at its iiorth- wV^tern e.Nlremitv is the island of Tisima. or "the Thou- sand Mauds:" ind at the N. is the island of krafto or Si^halien, which has long been held jointly by the Japan- e^e^and Russian governments, but now. according to a re- cent agreement, is held by Russia alone. The UrtfQSt o{ the islands which compose the empire is commonly called A'/«m. or X/)/-.-.!— which name in reality belongs to the whole country— and contains about ;).'..nOO square miles. The second is rc«..o. with about SO.OOO square miles; the third K!ii«hi, with 16,000 square miles; and the fourth is S:/.-',!.: with an area of 10,000 square miles. The total length of the empire is 1000 English miles, its greatest breadth a little more than L'OO. the number of islands .38.)0, and the entire area is estimated at about 130.000 square miles— all these figures being gathered from the latest of- ficial statistics. The sea-coasts are generally bold and rocky, and indented with very numerous bays forming spa- cious and secure harbors. The poetical title by which the .Tapan^se designate their country is "The Land of the Risin" Sun." which well describes its location as the most eastern of all the Asiatic empires, and their national cm- Tho theory blem th em represents the sun rising out of the sea. The theory at .America was originally peopled by .J.apanesc. who were driven by stress of weather across the Pacific Ocean, is not only interesting, but ehiimed by many to bo sus- tained by historical facts and traditions. That much of what parses as authentic history among the Japanese is mythical cannot be questioned, but there seems to be no reason to question the truthfulness of the statements which, with the help of Japanese scholars, the present writer has been able to cull from their history. The empire is partitioned into five ki'cs, or departments, which surround the imperial capital, and eight *;» orlarge divisions. The names of the former are Vtimnmo, ) ninn- to, KawK-h!. Miiiiir. and Scll«i, : while the latter, with the five kies, comprise i*l provinces, and the names of the dos are Tohuiln. w\lh 15 provinces: ro.niir/o, with 13; Ho- hnnrnl-iU,. with 7; Siuiiixln, with S: SiuiifofU. with 8; jV,iii/,n/./o, with fi; S,i:i:„:dn. v\t\\ 9; and //.,/.-., Wo. with 11 provinces. In the vicinity of Saikaido are also two islands, each of which constitutes a province. The divis- ions which in this country are called counties number Kilo. In ISrtS the empire was divided into 3 political departments, the first of which enibraccd three /"os— viz. Saikeo, or the wes'ern capital : Tokci or Yedo, the eastern capital, and Oi-xVa.: the second consisted of 38 kem ; and the third of 350 hiiiif. Extending from one extremity of Japan to the other, across all its prominent islands, are mountains, many of them of volcanic origin and of great elevation. The highest of these, called Fusiyama, is about SO miles from >edo, is 1 1,170 feet high, and has a summit covered with perpet- ual snow. It is an extinct volcano, the last eruption hav- in" taken place in 1707. There are also thirteen other lofiy peaks, bearing the n.ames of Tookiyama. or " Moon Mountains;" O.laki : Xicquozan. or" .Sunbeam Mountain ;" Online, or " Crcat Peak;" Sirayama. or "White .Moun- tain;" Totevaina, or "Standing Mountain;" Kirisima, or "Fog Island;" .\so7.an ; Taukooh.ayama; Onsendaki, or "Hoi Spring:" Asaw.ayama : Tourimiyamn: and Iwakc- yama. The most extensive range, known as the Ilaknni, attains an elcva'.ion of OOOO feet, and traverses the island of Nipon from E. to W. There are many volcanoes, and earthquakes are of frequent occurrence, but chielly in the uorlh-easfcrn parts. The mountains of Ycsso rise to a height of SOOO feet, and a large part of the country is un- explored and covered with forests. The rivers of Japan arc numerous, but short, on account of the mountains which send the waters in different directions. They arc generally shallow, subject to great freshets during the rainy season, and their mouths are frequently obstructed by sand- bars. The three largest are Torregawa, Sinanogawa, and Kisogawn; and next to these come Oypegawa, Fouzigawa, .-^akagawa, and Okumagawa. The only fresh-water lake in the empire of any size or importance is near the city of Miako. It is 10 geographical miles wide and ^5 miles long, and is called liiwako or Lake Omi. Small lakes or ponds abound, and hot springs are to be found in various parts of the island of Nipon. The cities of Japan are numefons Two of them have become famous because selected as cap- itals— Miako or Saikio. the western capital, and Tokei, commonly called Yedo, the eastern capital. The first, which has never been open to foreigners, lies in lat. iii" 05' N. and Ion. 1° 10' W.. and was the ancient seat of govern- ment, dating its origin from A. n. 7»4. It stands on a plain, is surrounded with mountains, and directly through the centre runs the river Kano, noted for the purity of its water. It contains :17J.000 inhabitants, and. though small when compared with the modern capital, is a place of great interest. It is entered by six principal roads. Its streets are clean, its temples, which may be counted by the hun- dred, arc beautiful, and its silk-factories have a wide repu- tation. The city of Tokei lies in lat. ".5° 36' N, and Ion. 1.19° 40' E., and in nuignitude ranks next to Pekin in China. In ISOl it claimed to have about 1.500,000 inhab- itants, but the population is now considerably less. While it has decreased in numbers, it has increased in commerce. Its "ardens and open spaces are numerous, and give it an air of comfort and freedom which is unusual. It is inter- sected by many canals, and its bridges are nnmerous. .•\s the present capital and residence of the imperial court, it is the meeting-place of the national legislature, called a Parliament : it also has a well-endowed college, a governor and police force of 3000, is supplied with hospitals and asylums for infants and paupers, and by means of railroads and telegraph-lines is daily facilitating its communication with the'cnlire country. It became an open port in 1SB9. The second largest city in Japan is Osaca, on the island of Nipon. It is both an open port and the one through which Miako communicates with the ocean, from which it is dis- tant "3 miles. Its canals and bridges arc very nnmerous, the latter often very handsome. It has an extensive trade and is well fortified. The next city in size is Yokohama, and is the successful rival of an older place in the imme- diate vicinity known as Kanagawa. It is on the Ray of Y'edo. 20 miics from the capital, and within the last few years' has become the most important seaport in the em- pire. The harbor is spacious and secure. an4 is supplied with commodious piers, the accommodations being exten- sive, and the prevailing modes of living and of business giving to it the aspect of a port of the Western World. The next city of importance is Nagasaki, located on the island of Kiusiu. Its harbor is very large and perfectly secure. This was the first port ever opened to foreigners in Japan, and a large trade has been carried on there by the mer- chants of China and of Holland, where they have for a long time been permitted to locate factories. The other principal cities of Japan are Ncigata. nn open port, on the N. E. coast of Nipon ; Kobe, also an open port, near Osnca ; HokodaiC'. the open port of the island of Yesso : and .^taki, formerly a pl.acc of importance and open to foreigners, hut now holding no commercial intercourse with the outside world. The climate of Jap.an is unequal, but as a general rule the central and most densely populated portion is mild and agreeable. In the extreme S.. however, the heat is often op- pressive, while in the island of Ycsso the mercury occasion- ally sinks far below zero, and snow falls to a great depth on'the mountains and in the valleys. The sun during the hottest days is much less debilitating than on the coast of China or in India, and as to the general conditions of salu- brity, the empire is highly favored. The autumn is a kind of second summer, the months of October and November bein" the most pleasant and genial of the entire year, and ampfy compensating for the heat and frequent rains of May and June. A marked difTercnee is said to exist be- tween the climates of the eastern and western coasts of Nipon. the latter being much colder, and receiving a greater fall of snow, than the former; and this is attributed to the fact that on the E. there is a broad belt of warm water flowing constantly to the N. E., while the Japan Sea has a cold current constantly setting towards the S. W. from the Sea of Okhotsk. The month of September usually brings with it rouHi weather and those fearful hurricanes, called ty- phoons, which do the greatest damage along the eastern coast of the empire; and. as Japan is a land of earth- quakes, it is said that they have had a palpable influence on the climate of the empire. The most ancient name by which the empire was known was Y„m,ti't7Amn. meaning "east of the mountains." Its present name is a corruption of Jipunquo. which is of Chinese origin, an.l means, as we have already stated the " Country at the Root of the Sun." or the " Land of the because, when so named, it was the most used in Sun,' Rising , ^^. eastern in the known world; and Nipon. now Oriental countries, is the Chinese pronunciation ol the samo name. The true origin of its people i« h.sl in tradi- tion or fable— it is claimed that prior to the first emperor it had existed 2479 years— but it dates its chronological JAPAN. i:J71 history back to (ho year 667 before tho Christian era. The first man of note connected with the empire of whom any- thing; is actually known was Zinmii, who^ after a career of conquest, estuUlislRnl himself at the foot of the vulcanic niounLain called Kercsomi in the province of Fui;a. From that point he extende«l his explorations and sway through the entire lent^th of tho Japanese territory, and is repre- sented as civilizin'; the nation and reforming the existing laws and povcrnnu-nt. The credit is also awarded to him of having divided time into months and years, and in his SersoD WHS vested the office of high priest, representative of [enven. and emperor or mikado, lie established his cap- ital at Kasiwabara in Yaraato, but tho location of the cap- ital was frequently changed by (he succeeding emperors (o the various provinces of Vamato. Omi, Setten, Nagato. and Kawadi, and after NiU years from the time of Zinmu it was fixed at Saikio, or Miako, in tho province of Yamaciro; but after the revolution of 1867 it was located at Tokei or Vcdo. The total numl»cr of emperors who have reigned over Japan in an nniiroken line is 124. From tho earliest times down to the present they were called mikados, al- though for about 600 years the men who actually admin- istered the government were culled shiogoons or tycoons; and it was in the year IS6r that tho mikado or tenno re- sumed his ancient privileges. To give a minute account of all the emperors and shiogoons of Japan, and of tho deeds which charaeterizcd their several reigns, is quite impossi- ble; all that can be done in these pages is to present a Bumnmry of the most distinguished persons of tho empire, together with a passing notice of tho more important events with which their names are associated. One fact which the reader should bear in mind is this — that tho position of emperor of Japan has always been hereditary and his persjQ venerated, and while many sovereigns may have been comparatively powerless, the lino of descent has been unbroken. In tho person of the mikado Zinmu, tho founder of the line, vested the oflieo of high priest, representative of Heaven, and ouiperor, and hence (ho modern idea of calling him the spiritual head of the nation. Another im- portant fact to bo remembered has reference to the title of shiogoon or tycoon. The possessors of this dignity were merely military chieftains who by intrigue or personal prowess acquired sway over the people. Tliey belonged to various families, and tho rivalries which naturally existed among them were the cause of tho bitter wars which pre- vailed in Japan for Iiundrcds of years. They never failed, with the jteople, to respect the ofiice or position of tho hcreilitary monarch, but while they wielded power they in- spired fear rather than veneration. From the earliest period in the history of tho empire mention is mado of three things which necessarily appertained to the person who sat upon the throne — viz. a sword, a mirror, and a ball of crystal. These are known by tho nauio of Saiijioo •»" )'"]'* "■"*! considered as symbols of the imperial power. Tho emperor Su-jin-tenno, who lived in b. r. 97, was the la:*t ruler of Japan prior to the commencement of tho Christian era. He built a Sinlu temple in Isse, establicshed an army over which ho placed four generalissimos, ordered tho first census of Nipon and Kiusiu. levied taxes for the fmrposo nf building hirge ships, ordered tho draining of ftkcs for irrigation, and was tho first ruler to open iuter- courso with Corca. His successor was Sui-nin-tenno. who aacended tho throne in A. n. 6. Hn acquired distinction by aboltsliing tho barhnntus custom wliich required that on the death of tho emperor the empress and all her court should commit suicide by hara-kiri. Although tho empress of Sui-nin cnme to a natural death, the highest of tier lady attendants killed Iheuiselvefl by cutting their throats, and then tho emperor decreed that this cuHfom should also bo abolished. This ruler devoted his attention to agii'mlture, and during his reign SOO canals and ponds were built in difTerent parts of Japan for irrigation. Tho next nmn of note was Keko-tenno, who reigned between the years 71 and IwO A. D. After quelling obstinate rebellions in Kiusiu an<l the northern part nf N'ipon, ho caused (be arable lands of the empire to be surveyed, and, with a view of guarding against famine, caused tho estublishmcnt «if granaries in all the larger towns of the empire. The emperor Senmu- tenno reigned from A. D. l.'U to litO, creating the ofiico of daijin. the second position of honor and power in the realm ; and the first dignitary of that rank who ever left Japan na an ambassador was Tomomi IwaUura. who visited America anrl Europe in the year IS72. Among the men who distinguished themselves during tlm reign of .Senmu was Yamato l>aki : he held the offieeot commander in chief of the army, and wns called the" prince of warriors. " H in conquests extended as far as tho island of Yesso; and beeauBO his wife Adzuma threw hertn-lf into tho sea to appease a terri- ble storm, her natiie wns given (o tho region of country which her iiusl>nnd had subriued. Chinai-tenno, who was tho son of Yamato Daki, reigned for eight years, from A. d. 192 to 200, and tho principal fact recorded of him was that he died from disappointment caused by being defeated in an expedition conducted by himself in person against the rebellion of a tributary prince of i he empire named Kuniaoso of Kiusiu. The next ruler of Japan was an empress, Jingu Kogu, the wile of Chinai-tenno. She accompanied Iier husband in his unsuccessful expedition, and after his death assumed tho reins of power. She distinguished herself by leading an inva<ling army against the kingdom of Corca, compelling the inhabi(ants lo give up their treasures and to promise an annual tribute to Japan. 81ie had several children, one of whom became a very distinguished em- peror. Ilcr various conquests gave her a fame which sur- passed all her predecessors, and her life and deeds of heroism are widely commemorated by the painters of Japan and in the jjopular literature of the country. Osin-(enno, tho son of Jingu Kogu, ascended tho throne in a. d. 270, and reigned about forty-three years. Although not born when his mother conquered (~'orea, the honor of that con- quest has been given to him. In the second year of his reign the islands of Y'esso and Saghalien voluntarily submitted to his rule, and tiiree of the kingdoms of Corca continued to pay him an annual tribute. In 2$'^ he brought a woman from Corca to teach his jicople the art of working in silk ; in 284 an improved breed of Itorses was also introduced from the same country; in 2S;j a philosopher from Cliina, named Wonin, introduced Chinese letters info Japan, from which time (he works of Confucius became generally known ; and in 300 from (he wood of an old war-vessel a musical ins(rument called the koto was made, and has been in use down to tlie present time. In .*i06. Osin sent an embassy to China for (he purpose of obtaining further information in regard (o the pioduction and the manufacture of silk. It is related of this emperor (hat, having been advised by tho brother of his prime minister (ha( (he latter was con- spiring against tho (brone^ he caused them both (o plunge their arms into boiling water, when, tho ordeal proving favorable to (ho minister, (he informer was executed. After his death tho largest temples were erected lo his memory, and he received the title of Iiatchiviavf/, or tho ** god of war." and his reign has always been looked upon with na- tional ]>rido by tlie Japanese. Tho next man of nitte was Jin(oku-(enno. During his reign (.11 H-^VjO) extensive in- Tindations led (o tho construetion of dikes along the river?, and rice-houses and mills for cleaning rice were for the first tim*' built. lie also sent iin expedition to put down a re- bellion in tho island of Yesso. Liehu-tenno came to tho throne in 4110, and was the first lo provide for (he writing of a history of the empire, for which duty ho appointed two scholars ; and under the jtatronage of Yuriyaku-tenno (471)) mulberry trees were planted throughout the empire, and special attention was first given to (he manufacture of silk. Altoutthis time also skilful carpenters were induced to im- migrate from Corea, and an embassy was sent to that coun- try lo make certain collections of Chinese literature. Tho first event of importance connected with (be era beginning with (he year .'iOll was (he iritrodue(ion of (he Eooddhis( re- ligion in(o Japan, which wns des(ined (o fake (he place, to a grea( extent, of the Sintu religion and the moral instruc- tions of Confucius. This occurred in 552, whvu an embassy wns sent over from Corea, and presented (o the Japanese emperor a collection of books accompanied by an image of Booddha Sakya, tho leading idea of tiie boolts being that a pure life was desirable, and that it could only be secured through self-denial. One of the most active converts to the new religion was Mouniaya-do-no-wosi, s<in of the emperor Kakatomi : he was a gentle character and devoted to the new faith, and at the time of his death there were 46 Hooddh- isl temples, HI6 priests, and ;'>69 rrliijii-usrH in the empire. The introduction of Booddhism through China and Cnrea brought with it some of the customs of tluise countries — the use of tho iirufjn, or year-name, for marking events and dates, and also abdication by (lie eujperors af(er very short reigns, which was followed by the elevation of mere chil- dren, when-by the sovereignty was U>r a time reduced to a name and (bo power of tho nation given into the hands of the ministers. Among these child-rulers wore the empros Seiwa, wlio began her reign a( the age nf nine; the i nipe- rors Ynrei. at eight ; Oaigo. at thir(een : Hci/an. a( eighteen ; Yenwoii, at eleven; tloitsi, at nine: Konve, at three: and Uokusio, at two years of age. About tins time a man named Nakat omi- Kama tnri-ko obtaineil great influence, and is still remembered as tho founder nf the laws of Japan. In the miiMIe of the seventh century Ten-si. a re;il emperor, as- cended the throne, an<l dtstinguisheil himself in warlike exploits against Corea and Tartary. and then it was (hat Yesso was cubingoted. Tn 70 t, the general government hav- ing been divided into eight boards after tho manner of tho (Miinese. the central power nf the ernpirr was lixed at Mia- ko; and about this time was published the fiitn ftf'ti, a codo of laws which are partly in force at tho present time. An- 1:^72 JAPAN. other notable event of this period was the introduction of an alphiibct. called the Ilirii Kana. to facilitate the reading of Chinese, the naineof the scholar and venerated man who 'orought about this change being Kobo-dai-si. IL now be- came a custom with the emperors, on abdicating the throne, to adopt the garb and religious life of the Booddhist priests. wl»i;-h did much to perpetuate the prevailing religion. Dur- ing the reign of the emperor Itsisio {0S7-1U12) two terrible plagues visited the empire. His successor, Oo-ri-sen, be- came famous for his heroism in putting down a rebellion in the northern part of Nipon. The 500 years which follow a. d. 1000. and now come under consideration, are of greater importance than the preceding era, and may bo written in the eueeessivo riso to power of individuals connected with the peerage of the re:iim, and c'.<pcei.ally the families of Fusiwara, Sungawara, Minnamoto. Tatchibanna, and other names regarded as il- lustrious and held in veneration to the present day. Among tlicse may ho mentioned Ten-mang, the greatest literary cliaracter of his country and an ablo man, who through a rival was banished to the island of Kiusiu, where he was starved to death, and to whose memory many splendid temples were subsequently erected in Miako and Ycdo. Another f.imoiis personage was Yoshi-iyc-, who, as com- manilcr-in-ehief. subdued thn rebellious provinces of Mootz and Kwauto, and because of his bravery and other qualifi- cations was called ''the cldcrt son of the god of war,*'* and still another celebrity was Kio Mori, descended from the emperor Kwan-mu, who was a prominent actor in the af- fairs of the nation, and is remembered as the ablest and mo^t unscrupulous minister of his time, when tho whole empire was devastated by war, but who at tho age of fifty- one shaved iiis head and nominally became a priest. One of his daughters became an empress, and a grandson an emperor. The opening of tlic twelfth century was marhcd by many deeds of rare valor atid of cruelty, and tho conflicts between rival families were contiuuous and desperate. In 1 1 IH the cx-emperor Sho-toku was banished to the province of Sanuki, where he wrote a letter to the rcigniug emperor on a piece of his shirt with his blood, and thou died of starvation. In 1170, Tame-tomo bc:;amo famous for bis power in drawing the bow and as a rover on tho South seas, ami, because ho was tho ori rinal occupier of the Liookioo Inlands, came to be considered as a sacred personage. The m!ist famous emperor who rei^-ned during this e.\ciling pe- riml was Uozira-kawa, who died in 1102 at the agoof sixty- scvcn. lie had taken an active part in tho working of tho government for forty years, and after abdicating the throno witnessed a part of tho reigns of five emperors, his eons and grandsons, and finally died in tranquillity. Two men who are generally regarded as among the greatest of their era were Yoritomo and Yoshitzun^. They were brothers, both attained the position of shiogoon, and were desperate jn their rivalry of each other. The first is generally regarded as the greatest hero in Japanese history, and the first shio- goon of the dynasty which ended in ICG?. Ho died in 1109, at the age of fifty-three, from tho eficcts of a fall from his horse. The second man just named is looked upon as tho mirror of chivalry, and his conduct is held up for tho imi- tation of the youth of his country. Tho former conspired to take the life of the latter, and when reduced to an extremity destroyed himself after killing his wife and chil- dren. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the em- pire of Japan was almost continually engaged in intestine wars: severe contests occurred between the shiogoous of the Xorth and South: and among tho families which now rose to power were Hojio, Ashikanga, Nitta, Ilossokawa, and others who occupied prominent positions, and it was during the period in which thcv lived that the following events occurred: In 1260 tho Nitsiren sect of Booddliists was introduced, and it was one of the saints connected with this order, named Sayslio-gosama, who subsequently be- came famous as a persecutor of Christians. In 127fi. Corea became tributary to Japan, and an embassy was sent from China to obtain tribute-money from the Chinese. In 1281 the Chinese despatehed a naval expedition, with amhas- sailors, to Japan, xvhen liO.OOO of the invaders were taken prisoners and killed, and one of the ambassadors was ho- hcadeiL In l;i21 the office known as the h'ind'ush**. or " recorder of facts," was established at Miako, and twenty years afterwards an influential minister published a work ealled The lied Hook of the Court of Afiako. About the year I3G7 there was an extensive war on the island of Kiu- siu, when the Satsuma family largely increased its power at the expense of Kikootchi. In that year also Ashikanga, when ten years of ago, was appointed shiogoon ; he died in 1 108. He was a man of great ability and influence, was styled by the Chinese Nippon-wo, or king of Japan, and from the reigning emperor received the title of kubnsama. having been the first person thus honored. Tho ofiiee of shiogoon became hereditary in bis family, and the seat of their power was Karaakura. In 1415 an arbitrary law was passed by whieh all mercantile engagements were at once ended and all debts cancelled, which was tho cause of much trouble and anxiety among the people. In MHO com- menced the war known in history as the *'Onin." which lasted more than ten years, and was followed by a famine in 1 172, and an earthquake in 1476 destroyed a large ])art of the city of Osaka. A severe drought oceurred in l-lPfi, which was succeeded by another famine and a destructive disease among the forest trees. From this time forward the leading events in Japanese history multiplied with increased rapidity, and hence, for the sake of convenience, wo shall divide the remainder of our chronological record into centuries. The si.\teenth century brought no cessation from intestine war and assas- sination. The year lolO was signalized by the fact that Nango, a servant and relative of the minister at Kama- kura, Ooyay Poongi, rebelled against his master, and took possession of his casflo and territory in the province of Etsingo, and became a man of great power. In 1.^21, for the first time iu many years, tho emperor made his appear- ance in public, and his court became impoverished. This condition of affairs lasted for at least fifteen years, when the emperor Go Tsutchi died in such po\ crty that his body lay unburied for several days for want of money. Two years afterwards an attempt was made to trade with China, but it was unsuccessful, because the Chinese coasts were infested with Japanese pirates. In Nov., 1533, there was observed an extraordinary number of falling stars, and in the following year tho country was visited by a fatal epi- demic. Three years afterwards there was a bitter quarrel between difTcrcnt sects of the Booddhist priests, one of tho results of which was the burning of one-half of the city of Miako. In 1541, according to the best authorities, An- tony Mora, Francis Zaimor, and Anthony Pexot, three Por- tuguese merchants, in their voyage from Siam to China, were wrecked upon the coast of Kiusiu, and the firearms which they had with them caused a profound sensation through- out the empire, and the fact was noted In the national cal- endars. In 1j 13 the Portuguese merchants came baek again, briniing with them Jesuit missionaries, and from that time the history of the empire was chronicled in the literature of Europe. Francis Xavicr visited the country in 1540, and after remaining there two years left it. disheartened with tho realities of missiona^y-^vork. About 1557 tho military chieftain named Nobu Nauga made his appear- ance on the stage of public afiairs. and for more than twenty years was the master-spirit of the empire, wielding the power of a shiogoon. He was descended from Kio- Mori, andbis rule was quite as grasping and severe as that of any of his predecessors. In 1557 he put to death, for private reasons, his youngest brother, and .^even years af- terwards he killed his father-in-law. the lord «f Mino, nnd took all his possessions. He began in 1569 a crusade against the Booddhists, and in a few years succeeded in destroying a largo number of their temples and massacred many of their priests; at the same time, for selfish pur- poses, ho encouraged the Jesuits. In 1572 he had n diffi- culty with tho shiogoon, Yosbi-aki, whom ho arrested and put in prison, thus bringing to an end the real power of the Ashikanga family. Ho had many able generals in league with him, the three most famous of whom were llideyoshi, Akitchi-mitsu-hide. and lyeyas. Under his encouragement the Jesuits rose to favor and power at court, and in 1581 they claimed to have in Japan 200 churches and not less than 150,000 Christians. lie wa? reputed a brave, ambitiou.*!, and able man. and not without many moral virtues, and he laughed at the worship of tho gods and considered tho bonzes as impostors. In 1582 ho was gradually overrunning all .Tapan. and was liberal in giving to his kindred the property he had acquired by con- quest. Ho built a temple in whieh he eollceted idols of all the gods of Japan, and placing in the midst of it a statue of himself called Xantbi.or " supreme ruler." he issued an edict commanding all men to worship that image and no other. The first to obey this order was his oldest son. and the example was followed by the gentry and people in their course. His end was in keeping with Ins life; after being surrounded in his castle at Miako. he was woumled with an arrow, and then consumed in the buihiing where he was sheltered, in the forty-ninth year of his nsc. When he died tho tide of prosperily'turncil and ebbed until it grad- ually swoiit the whole Jesuit priesthood from the shores of Japan. The immense treasures \Thich he had accumulated in the course of many years in the city of Azutchi-yaina were given away and sf|uandered in three days by his late confederate, Akitchi-milsu-hide. After the death of Nobu Nanga, the man who had once been his servant, and after- wards his chief military assistant, and who had acquired a great reputation as a leader, became the military ruler or shiogoon. His name, which was originally Hideyoshi, was JAPAN. 1 37:5 ohaDgcd a number of times until ho becftme known as Tai- kosama. He was of low origin and insigniricunt in ap- pearance. !Ii3 chief castle was at O^aku, which he did much to improve hy digging canals ami porrcctin^ its ibr- tificatioiis. He hail six wives. In 158.'!, with hi» perniiB- sion, the Jesuit fathers induced four young nohlcuien to visit the pope in Homo, whioli expedition lasted for eight years. In I.'is.'i he nveived from the emperor the family name of Toyotomi. Al)out that time ho beeamc an earnest supporter of the Jesuits, although he would not accept their religion for himself; but when his ])lnns had ripcne<J, and the Jesuits were confident of increasing success, he gu'idcnly gave them notice to quit the country within twenty days, forbidding tliera to preacli their religion on pain of (ieath. In 1586 ho took forcible possession of Nagasaki, and made it a government port and propcrtj*, declaring it to ho the only place whore foreign trade should bo permitted. The threat made by Taikosama was not carrio'l out, and the Jesuits continued in the country, and ho was charged with changing his policy because he de- sired to use their ships in a project to invade Corca. Ho Icil an army of .'100. 000 men against that country, one-half of \Thom were destroyed, when ambassadors were gent to Japan and the folluwing demands were made: (I) That eight provinces ot Corca be handed over to Ja])an; (2) that the emperor of China give one of his daughters to Taikosnma; (3) that there should be free trade between the two countries; and Ml that China and Corca should pay Japan a yearly tribute. In l.')l»2 and the following year two envoys from .Manila and the Philippines were re- ceived byTaikosama. (ho first of which brought with them four Kecollot? of St. Francis to enter the missionary ser- vice. Among their presents was a Spanish horse, whoso blood has proliably atrccted the breed now known in Japan. About this tiino events occurred which led Taiko to belicvo that his nephew intended to usurp hit» place, whereupon, after many intrigues, ho caused him to be put to death, as well as thirty-one women and cliildren, ail members of his family. In loVMia comet was visible in the empire, and on its disappearance a lorriblo eariiiquako occurred, which seemed to prognosticate the death of the shiogoon. While winking at the stealthy operatirins of tho .Jesuits, ho caused twenty-five of them to ho puni-ihod by the death of tho cross. This act, as if in self-d<rfence, ho followed up with an order that all the Roman Catholics residing in Naga- saki should b** at once sent home in their ships, ilut not- withstamling this hostility, when he became sick in 1.5'JS he admitted a Romish priest to his bedside, and then died, all his nobility, accoriling to tin: Fathers, "being much belter pleased to see him on tlic list of dead gods than in the land of living men." In (he annals of Japan the year l.i'JK is given as that in which tho English and Dutch ships visited the country, and they are said to have come to tho town c)f Saccai, near Osaka. Dutch pilots hacl already for apvcral years been navigating the surrounding seas, and William Adatns, the English pilot of the Dutch fleet of five sail which left Toxcl in June, 15i)S, rlid not reach Itoongo until Apr., IfiOO, when his crew was found to be re- duced to nine or ten men. Tho groat event which characterized tiio beginning of tho seventeenth century was the accression to power of lyoyas iMikawa-no-kami. He was born of a good family, but had sueeerdod as a military man by depending upon hiin'*elf. At this (leriod the emperor was a mere boy, and although the grandson by marriage of lyeyas, that man claimed, and for a long time wicldet], tho sceptre of power. As tho friend of the regont-emperor quite a number of the provincial governors formed a league against him ; ami in Oct., lt)00, ne.ar Lake t)womi, a battle was fought which has ever been considered one of tho most important and decisive connected with Japanese history, and lyeyas was tho victor. His opponents were scattered am) he became at once master of public atTdirs. The most important of his many captives in the late battle was a noted chieftain named Konishi Setsu, who had hiMm viceroy of Kiusiuand commandcr-in-rdtief both of (he naval and military forces in tho Corean \Tar, who was beheaded. Hut, notwithstand- ing this act of severity, lyeyas treated his late enemies with kindness and granted a general amnesty. He ac- quired great power, one secret of which seenis to have been that wheti he once made a jiromise he never broke it, the most perfi'ct reliance being therefore placed upon his word. The portion of .Tapan which held nut the longest against the new conqueror was the island of Kiusiu, btil its prin- cipal ruler, Sat-^uina, was obliged to yield. Prior to the crowning military achievement of lyeyas the imperial, co- elesiastieal, and commercial capitals of the empire had been Miako, Narra, and Osaka; but he removed tin* government In Ycdo, which at that time was an insignificant place, with only one street, known then and now as Koji Matchi. He was reputed a true lover of his country, and was never I accused of being personally ambitiouB. Ho was a friend to all kinds of internal improvements, ruled with wisdom ! and discretion, and was honored with the title of Sc-i-tfni- j Shiof/oon, or " tranquillizer of barbarians an<i ctmimander- in-chief," The most important event of his reign was the I promulgation of a code of laws, 100 in number, which he ■ oequeaf herl to his descendants in power as a guide to them ! in the oflice he hoped would be hereditary in his family. I These laws have had a paramount influence with the rulers : of Japan ever since the death of lyeyas, and to a very ! great extent his ambitious hopes have been realized by the I subsequent fame ami power of his immediate family. Bc- I twcen these laws and the writings of Confucius and Men- cius the similarity is manifest. Whatever their intrinsio i merits, it is certain that their efl'cct upon the nation was most salutary, for it was blessed with an uninterrupted ' peace for more than 200 years after the death of lyeyas. So impressed with this fact were the notdes and the people , of Japan at a later day that in l^OGthey inaugurated a I national festival for the sole purpose of conimcmornting this unprecedented fact. For about twenty years prior to tlic year lfil4 the Jesuits bad obtained such a footing in Japan that they claimed to have visited the whole empire, and to have made more than 100,000 converts. Allhongh they entered the country as missionaries, they were subse- quently denounced ns preachers of sedition and organizers of rebellion. Tho opposition which they called forth soon became so bitter that in ]()'ACt the government issued an order that the image of the Saviour as it appeared on the copper mc'lals should be periodically desecrnfcd by being tramjtled under foot ; an(I those orders remained in force until the conclusion of treaties with Christinn nations in recent times. After such demonstrations it cannot ho thought strange that when the time enmo for driving the Jesuits out of the country the cxjinI.«ion should have been attended with many acts of cruelty. The fust decree of banishment was issued by lyeyas in ! Oil. but some fifteen years elapsed before the movement was in any degree suc- cessful. A new edict against the Roman Catholic Church was issued in IfiOO, and two years afterwards an order was promulgated prohibiting the erection of Booddhist temples, which has remained in force to the present time. In 1720 the Booddhist priesthood held a festival throughout the em- pire, by which (hey commemorated the eleventh centenary of tho evtablishment of their rcliginn. Tn 1H;!'J the Portuguese and Spnnish were finally ex- pelled, but a single Dutch factory was permitted to remain at the island llirado. In 1700 another attempt was made to regain .Tapan to the Church of Rome, but it was unsuc- cessful. Various attempts, at long intervals, were made by diff"ercnt foreign nations to reopen a trade with tho country. The Dutch, as well as the Japanese, bitterly op- poscrl all su'-h measures — the former from cupidity, and the latter from a motive of self-defence. According to the native annals, tho coast of ,Tiij>an wns visited bv foreign vessels in K'.:'.", IfiT.'J, 1768. 1701. 1703, 1790, ISO:^, IROS, 181.^, and 1820. American ships first arrived at Nagasaki in ISKJ under Com. Biddle, and Com. M.C. Perry made his visit in 18 J.I, made memorable by resulting in a treaty with the U. ^. In is;> (, .Sir .lames Stirling, an English admiral, visited Nagasaki, and also concluded a treaty with.Tnpan; and in lf*58 it was proclaimed by tho .Japanese that they ha<l concluded treaties with the American, English, Dutch, Russian, and Portuguese nations. The last of the shio- goons wlio really held tho reins of power was lyay- mutchi; ho reigned from IS'iO to ISfiO, when he died, hav- ing been the leading figure in the late rebellion, which re- sulted in dissolving the dual government which had existed for fiOO years, ond in restoring to his proper jiosition tho true emperor of Japan. Tn 1S07 an eflTort was nmdo by Yoshi-hisa to be recognized as th<' legitimate successor of Shiogoon lyaymntchi. but it was unsuccessful; and before (he close of that year the spiritual emperor, who hud just found himself rceived as tho (rue and only ruler of the empire, died in the thirty-eighth year of his age, and h-ft upon (he (hrone his sou, a boy of fifteen years, who is the jircsent emperi>r of .Tapan. As to (be events which have taken place in that empire during tho last twenty years, they resemble the stories of romnnco and are among the marvels of the age. Into that subject we cannot fully enter nt present, but the following particulars may he mmtioncil for purposes of reference, and those who may desire more elaborate inforumtion will fiml it admirably set forth in a volume entitled jXrw Jupnu, from tho pen of an English diplomat. Samuel :Mossman. The treaty with Com. Perry was ratified in ISfil at Kana- gawa. and (he ports of llakodadi and Simoda were opened to fr)reign eoiumeree ; in lS;'i5 the Russian government, through Admiral Poutiatine. visited Simoda and secured the ratification of a treaty, which fact was strangely com- memorated by the destruction of Simoda by an earthquake ; lo74 JAPAN. in 1S5S treaties were also concluded by England and France, and the porrs opened lo them were Kanagawa, Nasasaki, Hakodadi, lliogo, Osaka, and Neigata; in 1S59, British and American legations were cstaWished at Yedo; in IStiO, Dutch and Prussian treaties were signed at Yedo, and several assassinations occurred in that .year, as well as in the {ireceding and succeeding .years; in 18G2 a diplomatic mission of about thirty-five members was sent to Europe by way of America, having sailed in an English frigate called thc'Odin.and the envoy was Takeno Votschio Shemodje ; in ISflli the British and American legation build- ings were destroyed at Yedo, and a retrograde policy was inaugurated by the Japanese officials, one of the results of whos'c hostile action was the payment of an indemnity to America and the leading powers of Europe: in ISOo the allied envoys received the consent of the mikado to the treaties; in" ISfiC and 1SC7, as already intimated, the im- perial government was changed from the old to the new form ; in ISfiS was commenced the civil war in .Japan, and the mikado became the sole monarch: in 1S70 the Japan- ese government resumed with great ardor its work ot re- form", the promineut ideas being the education of Japanese students in foreign countries and the establishment of dip- lomatic relations wifh .\mcrica, England, Russia, Ger- many, Austria, and France; and in 1S72 the great embassy, headed bv Tomomi Iwakura, visited the U. S. and Europe, the calendar of the Western nations was substituted for that of old Japan, and the empire found itself r.apidly be- coming an important member of the family of nations. And now for a few remarks respecting the people of Japan as they existed just prior to their new birth. They are divided into eight classes, as follows: the Koongays. or Mikado nobility; the Daimios. or Yedo nobility; the Hattamotos. or lower daimios; the Hiakshos. or farmers without rank or title ; the Shokonoris, who arc artisans ; the Akindos, or merchants; the Kivciamonos, or actors and beggars; and the Y.aytas, who arc turners, shoemakers, and manufacturers or dealers in leather. In the island of Yesso are to be found a people called Ainos, who closely re- semble the Iniliansof North America. The religions of the empire are two. Sintuism and Booddhism, while the higher classes seem to be partial to the moral teachings of Confu- cius. The Japanese language is one of letters, and not of characters like the Chinese, but because of the very fre- quent use of the latter by people in every sphere a great many difficuUies arise both in speaking and writing. The literature of the country is quite extensive, cheap books and instructive art-productions are always in great demand, and a very large proportion of the people are able to read and write, and a love of drawing and painting is very com- mon. The food upon which they subsist is rice, the chief production fish and a great variety of vegetables; and among their leading productions may be mentioned silk, tea, cotton, hemp, salt, gold, silver, iron, copper, coal, and lead. Opium, which is the banc of China, they do not use, but they substitute for it a good quality of tobacco, which tlicy grow and manufacture in largo quantities. Their fruits arc numerous, and their knowledge of horticulture and the secrets of the soil is so extensive that many of the Japanese in this country have looked upon the agricultural mission of Mr. Horace Capron, who was invited to teach them the science of agriculture, as a most useless enterprise. Their skill in manufacturing is of the highest order, and when they shall have learned the importance of increasing the number of useful articles in every department of labor under the influence of nu)ilern improvements, it is likely they will liardly be equalled by any of the nations of the world. It has already passed into history that their dis- play at the great Vienna I-jxposition was wonderful, and superior to th.at of any of the Asiatic nations. One of Ihe most striking illustrations of intellcclual activity among the Japanese is found in the use they arc making of the ?ress ; books and newspapers, both in the Japanese and Inglish languages, are multiplying every day, and are uni- versally becoming modelled upon Ihe literary plans of the Western nations. In speaking of the jiress of .Japan, one of Iho Yokohama papers lately made this remark : " It is now but three or four years since the press sprang into ex- istence in Japan, yet it is already being used for the seri- ous discussion of weighty questions, and certainly by its vigor and earnestness, its candor, fearlessness, and cour- tesy, puts to shame a large section of the local European press, which seems only to exist to prove how litlJc salt is worth which has lost its savor." In literature and religion, in commerce and education, very great changes have taken ydaee within the last four years ; and from a chart of Japan, recently published by authority, we gather the following items of information : The total number of temples in the empire devoted to the Sintu religion was 97. of which 3.5 were supported by the general government, and the rest by the provincial authorities j the Booddliist temples numbered 296,900, to which were attached lCS,fio4 priests, divided into eleven sects ; but all this religious machinery has since been abolished by im]ierial decree; the population of the metropolis of Yedo had been rcdu<:ed to l.J94,:iyO; thetwo colleges in that city contained 5lj3 pupils, but have greatly increased since 1872; there were also thirteen hospitals and almshouses; the imperial army consisted of seven bat- talions of infantry, four of artillery, and two companies of cavalry; regular army, twenty battalions of infantry; ca- dets in military schools. 72fi ; ships of war, Hi, including one iron clad, officered by l:)07 men; steamships, 69, in- cluding 22 iron ships, and the large sailing vessels nnm- bcred 18; lighthouses, IG; dockyards, 2 — at Yokohama and Nagasaki ; mines worked by government, 'i ; it was also stated that manufacturing es(abli.«hnieiits were on Ihe increase in Yedo, Yokohama, and lliogo. and two railroads, between Yedo and Yokcdiama. and between Osaka and Kobi. were both in partial operation. The working gov- crnmenfof Japan, as now organized under the supreme control of the emperor, is divided into ten departments — executive, with 237 officials ; public works, 375 ; dejiartment of religion, 138; judicial department. Ifi9; foreign affairs, 116; treasury department, .039 ; agricultural department, 192; war and navy departments, 891 ; educational depart- ment, 221 : and the imperial court consists of 210 officials. The name of the reigning emperor or mikado is Mutsuhito, born in 1852, and recognized as heir in 1800. and he came to the throne in 1867. He is married, the empress being his senior by two years. His six uncles and great-uncles (one of whom was' recently in Prussia and another in Eng- land), and sister in Yedo,'aIso three brothers (one of whom has been a student at Annapolis), with an aunt in Yedo, constitute the royal family of Japan. The thinking men of Japan now claim— and the facts support them in their views — that the revolution now going on is needed, stands upon a firm foundation, and will be triumphant. All the officials and the higher classes, and a large proportion of the masses, are anxious lo throw aside'evcry impediment calculated to retard their progress in the career upon which Ihey have entered. They would be loyal to the mikado and the empire, but they want more civil "if not religious liberty than they have hitherto en- joyed, protection in their commercial interests, and all Ihe advantages resulting from a high order of education. That thev are thoroughly in earnest is proven mo.>t conclu- sively by Ihe truly wonderful changes that Ihey themselves have carried out during the last twenty years. The bar- riers of exclusiveness have been removed, and many sea- ports, as already stated, opened to the trade of foreign countries; the imperial ruler has thrown aside all the mys- tery and seclusion which have been held sacred for 1000 years, and with his dynasty has entered the comity of na- tions; Ihe feudal system has given place lo a government allied in character to the enlighlened nations of the earth, and the daimios have given up their estates for the benefit of the whole country ; foreigners, who were (rented as ene- are now welcomed as friends ; customs like those of words and commilling enforced suicide have been abolished : money has been liberally expended by the central government in sending its youlh to be educated in foreign lands; schools, seminaries of learning, scientific and benevolent institutions, all founded upon the models of the Western nations, have been established, and are daily becoming grounded in the elements of prosperity ; a free press, as we have seen, has been established and is respect- ed; also a new postal system ; the sea and land forces have been reorganized, and placed upon a basis of such stability as lo mtike Japan the most invulnerable nation in the Ori- ent; all the modern helps to a safe navigation of the ex- tensive coasts of the empire have been introduced ; the old Japanese calendar has been superseded by that of the West- ern nations excepting Russia ; talented men in literature and science and diplomacy have been invited lo take office in the empire for Ihe benefit of their experience; a gold and silver currency similar to that of Ihe U. S. has been estab- lished ; a system of railroads has been organized and partly completed, which has already added wonderful facilities to travel and commerce; and by a line of telegraph news may now be transmitted from Yedo to London in less than fifty hours. Puch are some of the marvels Ihal have actually been accomplished, and they surely prove that the Japan- ese are not only in earnest in all thai they are doing, but that their genius for going ahead is allied to that of the "universal Yankee nation." What they have accomplished in less than one generation has not in any part of Europe been secured in less than a century. But there is another wonder connected with this great Japanese revolution; which is. that the nation is marching upward and onward without casting a thought upon what Ihe great empires of India and China may think or desire. The nation, like the individuals who have come to the mies. wearing two i JAPAN. i:J7o front, is fearless, proud, delicately strung, nnrl in<Ippendcnt. Where can be fuuiid a lietter illustration of loOv courage than was presented hy Japan in her recent diftioulty with China about Kormosa ? Shu felt that she hfid justice on her side, and looking upon the .'t5, 000,(100 of her united and loval pt-nplc with perfect contidcnoe, she said, ** The 500.00(1.0011 of Chitia "hall not fri^^htcn us from the path of duty and ri;;lit." China did thr proper thiiif^ in submit- ting, and ought to be applauded for iier course; but when the fubjcct of indemnity came up, Japan ^unlike certain so-called civilized nations), true to her lofty instinct?, asked only tiiat the necessary expenses should bcpaiil. and scorned to manifest a grasping love of gain. The only great ques- tions connected with the jirospcrity of Japan which arc not yet settled arc those having reference to taxation and revenue, and the opening of the entire country to foreign- ers and to religion. Thediflicultiesattendingeach of them cannot be fully understood by people in other countries; and yet there is nothing singular about them, if we re- member that even in the V. S. we have never been fi^cc from pome sort of excitement growing out of thcj^o identi- cal questions. (Jood men and true are to-day working hnnl in Jniinn to perfect a system of taxation and revenue which will nelp the public purse an<l make the financial re- sources of the empire equal to its natural jtrogrcss ; when the European powers, headed by England, shall stop their domineering demands to have the empire thrown open at all hazards, then perhaps the imperial government may listen to reasonable appeals; and when the Japanese arc convinced that religious fiinaticism is a blessing, even in such countries as Kngland and America, and that by giving the largest liberty they will not he made wretched by the intrigues of the Romish Church, then they may consider the jioliey of opening wide the gates to all dcnominaticms of Christians. With regard to the question of allowing foreigners to trade in all parts of the interior of Japan, a leading Japanese newspaper of Yedo recently made tliis remark: "The ehief reasons why this measure cannot bo carried out to-day are — firstly, that we cannot make for- eigners submit to our laws; secondly, that the Japanese government is unable to alter the tariff by its sole nuthor- ity ; and, thirdly, that we cannot make them obey the reg- ulations agreed to by the localities." Of the signboards proscribing Christianity which were formerly seen in Yedo, there if) not one remaining at this day. But the fact is, that in Yedo and other large towns there are ministers of the gospel representing a number of sects who hold re- ligious meetings regularly, antl whose teachings are thatik- fully received by many of the native inhabitants. The prevailing sentiment towards the missionaries seems to bo — " Wo have no objection to your instructing those who come to you for information, but we must not have any compulsory appeals;" and so wc perceive that (he hostil- ity to the Christinn religion is not by any means as active as it was in former years. Indeed, there is much lalk among the Japanese about organizing a ''new religion," which would of course be a long step towards recognizing Christianity in all its borders. And now for a frw words upon the prominent character- istiefl i>f the JapiinrBc. They do not bestow the same honor upon women that is theoretically shown by the Western nations, but in that particular they are in advance of tho other Asiatic nations. As already stated, several of their rulers have been females — 8 out of 124. and one of them was the conqueror of Corea— and to-day let any woiiiiin manifest a superior mind and she will command the highest respect of her associates. Much has already been done to emancipate woman from her former degraded condition, and the last two ministers accreditol to this country harl the manliness and gooii sense to bring their wives with (hem. The .Fapanese, like human beings generally, may be fi)nd of indulging their appetites, but drunkenness is not as common as it is in this country, and against the use of opium the most rigid regulations have been established. Although wi'dded to all kinds of aristocratic notions, they admire ami foster intellect wherever found, and in their public offices always cmleavor to find the best man for every position to bo filled. They are aiso remarkable for their unsordid idens of life and duty. They are an intel- lectiiiil r.K-e, and their native education is wellnigh uni- versal; the commonest people, wc repeat, can read and write the Japanese language, nnd all who make any pre- tension to culture are well ft>unde'l in (he Chinese lan- guage, which to them is like Littln to tin- Kni^liMh scholar. All (ht^ writers who hnvc associatt-d with the Jiipancfe in their own country, or while sojourning in Ameri<'a or Ku- ropo, coincide in the opinion that they are n-markable for their amiable ami agreeable manners ; and in this respect the great Iwnkura embassy was most conspicuous— to such an extent, indeed, as to have bfcn frequently conimetilcd upon both in this ec>untry iin<l England. The porcelain, lacquer-work, paper and silk, and the bronzes of Japan have never been surpassed, and in some particulars n(d equalled, in any other part of the world ; and with regard to their pictorial art, their genius has been misapprehended. Contrary to thecnmmon ojiiuiou. they understand and prac- tise the rules ctf jicrspcctivc. and foreiiners have made a mistake in judging of their skill as artists by the pictures which in Yedo arc sold by the million for the tenth part of a penny. A large proportion of the books arc regularly illustrated, and tho writer uf this ]inper has in his posses- sion many pictures whieh disphiy abilities of the highest order for correctness and freedom of hamlling. The relations existing between Japan and the U. S. have been, and are now. of the most friendly character. There is not a bone of contention between them, but there is one great fact on the side of the latter which is humiliating to our national honor and pride. We nlludc to wh.-it is called the indemnity fund. In ISG4 a noted <lniniio, who hated the new order of things in Japan, fired up(m a foreign vessel in the employ of iinother daimio. The allied powers thought themselves insulted, and brought the matter to the attention of the imperial gnvrrnment. which disclaimed all intention of doing wrong, and confessed that it could not control the rebel daimlo. The powers in (j nest ion. the British, Dutch, French, and Americnns. then formed a little fleet, and inflicted severe punishment on the oflcnd- ing daimio. That done, a convention was called, and Japan wns mode to promise liiut she would pay an indem- nity of $rj,000,(lO(i. The sum-totnl of that indemnity pay- able to the U. S. is nearly $1,200,000. When more than one-half of the amount due the U. S. had been paid, and which our government was ashamecl to put In the treasury, Prof. Joseph Plenry took the lead and suggested to Con- gress that it should be appropriated to educational pur- poses in Japan. The President was in favor of the prop- osition, but Congress did not act; and so the question rested for a while. In the mean time, the interested Eu- ropean powers were trying to force the mikado to open his empire to the trade of all nations. Ilis Mjtj( sty objected. '• Then," said the powers, "you must pay us the money you owe." The Japanese government paid the balance of their debt to the three Eurojiean powers, an'l there was another pause. It was soon found, however, not to be diplomatic for the U. S. to refuse the unpaid balance dm* our government. Tho arguments were successful, and the American minister bad to go up and present bis bill, whieh was instantly paid. For a moment the friendly feelings of the .Japanese towards Ameriea weio slightly abated, but when they saw the diplo- matic necessity, and thought of what Prof. Henry and tho President had tried to do. the former kindly feelings were restored. And now there is a great — and in sonic par- ticulars a disgraeeful — squabble g'ting on in the V. S. over this pile of ill-gotten gain. One of two things on this sub- ject is true — either that it wns right for the V. S. to take that money from a country like .r:ipan when in a state of revolution, or that it was not. If tiie U. S. have no rigiit to tho money in question, then every dollar of it should bo returned without any conditions. If. however, there is a bill for actual expenses, that amount (perhaps less than §20,000) ought to be paid, and the very large balance should bo rcturneil. But what do we see now going on in the way of schemes for handling this money ? ( 1 ) The very pro]»cr an<l most wise idea of Prof. Henry, to appropriate tho money for educational purposes in Japan under the aus- pices of the Japanese themselves ; (2t a proposition to divide the money among the American olTicers and sailors who on ono steamer did such wonderful work at Simonoseki; {'.'>) tlio foun<ling of a college in Japan, to be wholly officered and controlled by Americans; (I) to build an American legiition in Yedo ; and (;')) to educate a few dozen boy? in tho Japanese language for service at the American consulates in that country. Indeed, the prcpostcrouR proposltiiins may be counted by the do/en, and tho public will he sur- prised to learn that there wiis once a scheme suggested for taking this .Inpjinesc ninney to build a new slate depart- ment in Wa.'-liinglon. What will finally be ilone is doubt- ful, and wc cannot but enrnrstly hnjie that the rcputntion of tho V. S. for liberality and fair play will not he tarnished by the selfishness and cupidity of educational leaders or Congres--ii»nal demagogues. And now, by way of being a liltlo more explicit on some of the points to which wo have heretofore alluded, wo submit under appropriate headings tho subjoined infor- mation. Coiitnirrrf. n/ Jnpnn. — The latest complete ncoounts that have been received in tho U. S. respecting tho trade of Ja- pan are for (ho year 1873. The total amount of trade was 50.:{22.f.39 yens (/. c. fMtnr»); exports. 21,2I7,-18| yens; imports, 2l^.I0.^,0.'^7 yens; and tho business of tho several ports open to foreign trade was as follows, in vens: 1370 JAPAN. Exports. ImporW. Yokohama 15,:m,2-19 20,742,994 Kobe 2,459,8G9 6,030,988 Osaka 92^71 402,19;i Natiasaki 2,3^17.Sir> 1.888.862 Hakodate 447.G10 82.819 Nei^ata 565.000 7,200 The total amount of duties collected was l.T-'iS^Slo yens, of which 1,223.021 yens were paid at Yokoliania. and the hnlance at the five other ports. The imports of gold and silver for the year lS7-t amounted to 1, 020. Oil.'i yens ; ex- ports of the same, Kl, 3^2,702 yens. Imports of corn for same period. .'^;>,120 yens ; and exports, 412, si<). Amount of total imports, 22,811.166 yens ; amount of total exports,- ISj.lfiT.So'J. Duties collected, 1,584.870 vens. Exports to U. S., 7.461.S43 yens: China, a.^JfLOlO : tJrcjit Britain. 3,2.12.r.r)5 ; France, 2.7Ji»,40(); Italy. 04:.r.J7; Germany, 62.718 ; andother countries. 131.774. Imports from China, 8.3ri0,.154vens;GreatBritain,ll).149.8SS;Franco.l,()83,7r>3; l^ S.. 1.010,359; Germany, 703,074; Indies, 28,753; and othor countries. 180,742.2110. Kxpnftri <tud Imports t'n ISTS. — SiUc. — Thcmostimportant export staple of Japan is raw .=iilk. and for several years," in-decd since 1865, a large business has been done in sup- plying Frant^eand Italy with silkworms* eggs to regenerate the diseased breeds of those countries. Tiie etfnct of this latter trade has been to injure the quality of- Japanese silk, and measures have been taken to stop the trade; but these are likely to be futile, for a short timo at least, on account of existing treaties. It is claimed that the remedy is in reality with the people of Japan. In Jnn.. 1875, the prices of silk in Yokohama ranged from $420 to 8570 per piciif, or 120 pounds. Tiie siik exports for 1873 amounted to nearly 11,000,000 yens, yc.i.— With regard to tlio tea- trade, it is almost exclusively confined to the U. S., and has been wonderfully developed within the last four years,' and there is a prospect of greater extension in tlie imme- diate future. Of course. Japan has an imposing rival in China, but the former empire, with jts popular brands and reasonable prices, is likely to bo eminently suceespful. The tea exports for 1873 amounted to about 3,400,000 yens. By way of giving an insight into the character of Japanese productions wo append the following items: The exports of tobacco amounted to 62,000 yens ; of seaweed to 175,000 yens; mushrooms, 33.284 yens; euttlc-lish. 10,000 yens; laekerwarc, 126,270 yens; earthenware, 48,000 yens; bronze and copper ware, 82,000 yens ; copper in ore, slabs, and wire, 200.000 yens; ginseng, 63,611 yens; sun- shades :tnd fans, 2;i.000 yens; screens, 31O0 yens; silk clothing, 0000 yens: and chona-root, 3433 yens. The im- ports from for'^ign countries have hitherto far excelled the exports, and the articles are too numerous to mention in this place, but the more imjiortant articles have recently been as follows: Wuollen cloths, cotton satins.de laines, blankets, woollen and cotton mixtures, cotton fabrics, linens, manufactures of iron, sapan-wood. window-glass, cordage, sugars, cigars, paint, oils, steam-engines, printing-machines, maehinery, glassware, ironware, copper roofing and sheathing, drugs, dye-powders, tapestry, carpets, tortoise- shells, boots and shoes, watches, clocks, soaps, furniture, stationery, wine, beer ami brandy, mirrors, beans, coal, matches, coral, and coal oil. During the lato difficulties with China the exportation of rice, the most vital com- modity of .Japan, was prohibited by the government, but that prohibition was removed early in 1875. LitfJifliniiftcf). — As a matter of interest to the commercial world, (he following list of lighthouses, lightships, etc. is submitted : Li'jhthtutHes. — Sinagawa, Yedo anchorage ; Yo- kohama Ilatoba; Kanonsaki, entrance to Gulf of Yedo; Tsurugi-saki, do. ; Nosima-saki, province of Awn ; Tnu- boy-e-saki. province of .Simosa; lokasinm, province of Sagnmi : Mikomoto, province of Idsu : Tro-o-gaki, do. ; Omaisaki, Suruga Gulf; Toha, Toba Harbor; Matoya, Southern Head; Kashinosaka. province of Kii ; Siworni- saki, do. ; Tomangnisima, Isumi Strait ; Temposan, Osaka; Wada-no-misaki, Kobe anchorage : Yesaki, entrance to the Inland Sea: Nabacsima, Inland Sua; Tsurisima, Inland Sea; Isaki. entrance to Simonoseki Straits: Rokuren, do.; Iwosiraa, Nagasaki Harbor: Satanomisaki. island of Kiusiu ; Awomori. province of Mutsn; Isbinomaki. prov- ince of Uikuzen ; Noshiaf-saki, island of Yesso ; Nonicro. island of Yesso — numbering in all 20. The Li.jhfHhipH are two— in Yokohama Bay and the harbor of Hakodate ; and the great buoys and be.acons number U. All the light- houses here mentioned are built and conducted according to the most approved ideas of modern times. Notwith- standing the necessarily heavy cost of maintenance of the lighthouse establishment, no dues are levied on vessels visiting the ports of the empire. Imprrial Afi'nt. — Tile coinaire of gold, silver, and copper, founded on the plan of the V. S., was commenced in 1871, since which time the old and various styles of Japanese money have gone out of existence. The coin called a yen is equivalent to the American dollar, and is made of both gold and silver ; the sen is equal to the American cent ; and the rt'»i is the same as the American mill. The gold yens are divided into the following denominations: twenty, ten, five, two, and one; the silver coins are f'.r one yen, fifty sen, twenty sen, ten sen, and five sen: and the copper money is for two sen, one sen. half sen, and one rin. Down to Feb., 1875, the number of ])ieees coined at the imperial mint amounted to 136.n85.541. and their value in yens was 61,421,744, or of gold 40.502.1'.12. silver 14.110.411, and co])per 400,841. In Mar.. 1S75. it was stated in the public prints of Yedo that coin to the value of 20.000.000 yens had been exported from Japan. In their general cliaractcristica the coins of Japan are quite equal to those of the U.S. Tho Japanese historians claim thai copper was melted in Japan as far back as a. n. 698 in the province of Suwo, whilst ten years later — in 708 — they coined their first copper money. It was called wa-do-kai-zeni, and was cast in the province of Musashi. Prior to that period, however, there bad been a silver coin in use, which was prohibited on the appearance of tho copper coin ; and the first gold used as money was coined about twenty years after the appearanco of the copper coin. Minerals. — The Pulijoined items of information will illus- trate the fact tiiat the mineral wealth of Jajian has liittierto been very extensive, and will naturally suggest the idea that the future dcyelopments, conducted by modern inven- tions connected with mining, are likely greatly to increase the wealth of that empire. Copper has been found and smelted in not less than forty provinces. Copper, silver, and gold have been exported on a large scale ever since 1545. There is no mention in any of the .Japanese records that any of these minerals had ever been impctrted, but they do state that williin the space of 240 years the copper exported, chiefly through the Dutch merchants, amounted to 4,209,500 piculs. Of this copper there are many kinds, but bar copper is tho most valuu!)le. The gold and silver ex|)orted by the Portuguese bet%veen the years 1550 and 1639 (89 years) amounted in value to £59,500.000 sterling. In 1671 the exportation of silver was prohibited for a time. The Dutch were also large exporters of the same minerals. Pri.ir and subsequent to the year 1830. from 50,000 to 60,000 piculs were exported annually ; since then the exportation has reached a total of 40.000,000 piculs. Silver ore was discovered in 667. and in that century the first gold was coined; silver mcfal hist ]>roduced in 671. Between the years 1-100 and IfiOO much larger amounts of the precious metals were smclled tlian in modern times. Lead ores are abundant, but that mineral has never been popular among the Japanese. Iron ores of many kinds are also found in large quantities ; also superi<ir varieties of coal ; and wiliiin the last few years special attention has been given to the development of these important sources of wealth. Hitherto, the metallurgy of Japan has not been fully described by any author. The work of Yon Siebold, Nipun Arcfu'r, was never finished, and its informatif>n is meagre, and the work of Ka^mpfer is not considered authentic. The leading works on this subject by Japanese authors are as follows : (1) Sini'fcai-mei-(lzH-kuicat\ in 5 vols.; (2) Ifint-zo-l-o- Moku'Kri-mo, 1 large vol.; (3) Ko-do-Shu-ruku, a manual for the metallurgy of copper, a small volume. Popnlntion. — The last census of Jajjan was taken in 1872, or the fifth year of Meiji, the 2532il year from (he accession of Jimmu Tenno. The number of colonies is I ; organized cities, 3; kens, 73; provinces. ^C); koris or departments, 717: kus or city parishes. 6862; muras or rural parishes, 70.413: towns. 12,535; Sintu shrines. 128.123; Booddhist temples, 08,914 ; and houses, 7,107,841. Total ])opulation, 33,110,825: males, 16,796,158; females, 10,314,667. Acps. Mfilo*. Fomalc«i. 14 and under 4..'".90.91.^ 4,4tV),39.'J 15-21 2.030.0.11) Rrtaari 21-40 r),005.747r 6.G38.0G3 GO-SO 1,4.T,'5,.^(I7 } 5,091,070 80 and above "S.-I-IO I1S,24S Age unknown 1,844 1.K90 16,796,158 16^^14,687 Number of maimed, blind, deaf and dumb: males, 63,759; females, 37,828. Criminals in prison: males. 2311; fe- males. 119; in penal settlements, males, 962; females, 26; criminals at hard labor, males, 272G ; females. 320. Tntdca and Cla»9rH. — Farmers, 14.870.426; artisans. 701,416; mer- chants, 1,300.191; miscellaneous occupations, 2,129.522; total. 10,010,555. Princes and princesses. 29 : nobles, 2666 ; shizoku (armed class, upper grade), 1.282.167 ; sotsu (armed class, lower grade), 650,074; chishi (still lower grade), 5316; priests, 211.846; Sintu officials, 102.477: nuns, 9621 ; common people. 30.857,271 ; in Saghalien. 2358, Letfiffativ* In farm nt inn. — National or provincial legisla- tures, according to the acceptc<l plan of the AVestern na- JAPAN. 1377 tions, are not known in Japan. What has hitherto been called a parliauient was di-liberative in its character, but its mciiibcra were appuiuted by Iho government, and not elected by the people. The native press of Jiipiui, however, has lately been discussing the propriety of h;iving a na- tional deliberative assembly, whose uiemliers should ac- tually represent the people : and, :i? a promising beginning in this direction, it was announced in ^lar., ISTo, that sub- ordinate assemblies had already been established in the kens of Yamaguchi and lliogo — that they had been unex- pectedly successful, and mot with the cordial npjirobation of the people. It was also announced that the members of the council of state had taken a friendly interest in these assemblies, and that the prospect was really encourag- ing that it would not be long before Japan would have what the natives designate a great house of assembly. Indeed, just as this paper is going to press intelligeneo has been received that a regular parliament, founded on the model of the British Parliament, has been partially decided upon by the imperial governnionf, and that the propfc of Japan are likidy to be heard in a house of commons. Japftnrne Literature. — The subjoined summary of tho literature of Japan is compiled from a native author, and is reliable. The Japanese possess a copious literature, have a fondness for reading, and indulge themselves in study to a remarkable degree. Their catalogues of published works are numerous and voluminous, and the native books are divided into three general classes, as follows : Kantfahu, or Chinese classical literature and works on tho subject. In this class may bo included works on iJooildhism, written in Chinese, as well as the commentaries on these, and the form of verse known as Shi by native authors; Wa-gakUf or native books upon exclusively Japanese subjects, such as history, geography, books upon subjects of local interest, art, and ancient legends written in verse; an»l Krufthn, or novels, tales, and historical events worked up into romances. Of this class they possess an immense variety, and many of the circulating libraries are chiefly composed of these productions. Among tho more noted of the older writers may bo mentioned Kiosan, Kioden, SekUu, Samba, and II ikuba, who:<c productions range from romantic history to very romantic fiction. Some of tho more popular writers of later limes are Bakkin, whose tales embodicl real names and des Tiptions; Tanehiko, who described his own times, just before tho advent of Europeans: Tnmcnaga, a very popular novelist; Rei Sanyow, noted for his histories; Scigan, a poet, writing in Chinese; Motoori, a writer on language; Atstane, an essayist; Oguni Takamasa, a poet; and Nakamura and Fiikugawa, both of whom are English scholars, but stand at tho head of tho moro useful writers of the present day, and who have translated into their language selections from tho writings of very many of tho modern writers of America and Europe. The writers of !ogon<ls, travels, antl romantic tales swell the list <>f modern Japanese authors to a large number. Unhappily, many of tho books of Japan do but little to edify or improve the morals of tho people. With regard to poetry tho Japanese are by no means de- ficient in tho true sentiment, but their ideas of metro and melody are peculiar. What is called long poetry is formed of sentences of seven and five syllables alternately. Short poetry consists of thirty-one syllables only — the first sen- tence comprising fivo, the second seven, the third five, and the fourth and fifth seven syllables each. These poems are generally written on long and narrow strips of orna- mcntod cardboard, measuring fourteen by about thrco inches, which arc called Tnnz'ihu. In tho Il'niha poetry tho syllables follow in the same order, but are read differ- ently. Tho Znotohn has tho same number of syllables, but so formed as to demand a. poetical reply of the same order. Si-i'l'tolcu possesses a similar syllabic order and for- mati in, but tho beginning and ending consist of words or characters of like meaning. The Kioka is tho ordinary poem of thirty syllables in tho same order. The Omit- ijntjnnhi is similar to the X>mtokn, with tho exception that the two verses, question and rciily, have only one of tho thirty one syllables different. In the change of this the mr-rit of the performance consists. The (iriku is an acrostic of thirty-one syllables, divided into lines of five and seven syllables, twice alternating in one of seven syllables. Tho first syllable or character of each lino is given arbitrarily. Tho ffttiktiikn is of tho same number and order of sylla- bles, but is simply a poetical play on wordn <ir a proverb. Th"* Ilriifjn is the linminnku or verse of five, seven, and five syllables, answered by the Sftimnuokn, of seven and seven syllables, the whole forming a poem of thirly-one. Tho /fm'kfii is similar to the fieut/n, though commonly employed upon moro trivial subjects. Both are called Tznkrni or "joining." The Hokku is the five, seven, and five, or poem of seventeen syllables. The.S'fiir/ii has five, seven, and fivo syllables, and is a jeu-de-mota. It only remains to bo add- Voi.. II.— S7 ed that a people who have such a variety of styles in ex- pressing their thoughts cannot but be gifted in the utter- ance of the most noble and beautiful and inspiring of sen- timents and poetical reflections. 7'he Japaucne Lnnffutuje. — Without going into a learned disquisition on this subject, the subjoined general state- ments may be accepted as correct. Prior to tho period, nearly 1200 years ago, when the Japanese imbibed certain ideas from the Chinese in regard to languairc, their own tongue does not appear to have been reducecl to writing. In the earliest known writings, in prose as well as poetry, the square and unabbreviated form of the Chinese charac- ters is used ])honeticalIy to represent the sounds of the Japanese syllables. These characters were called Karinay or borrowed names, and subsequently contracted into what is now called the Knua, which is syllabary, and consists of forty-eight letters ; and when more or less abbreviated and simplified in form these characters arc called Hirn- kana, or plain letters, and aro at the present time the com- mon symbols used in writing the native Japanese. An- other class of characters is called A'tita-kntm, or side let- ters, which arc also derived from tho Chinese, but in which only a part of tho character is used. These are more an- cient than tho I/ira-kaua. and aro commonly only used by scholars or in dictionaries. Another form of the h'awi was invented by a Booddhist priest about 1000 years ago, for the purpose of assimilating it to the letters used in the sa- cred books of tho Booddhists throughout the great countries of Asia. Tho syllables of the Japanese language ntimbcr 72, and from tho fact that the greatest care has to ho taken not to writo them indiscriminately, and thereby infringe upon ancient usage, the difiiculties of uttering and writing them are very great, and not often fully surmounted by English- speaking people. In its sound tho Japanese language is soft, and allieil to tho Italian. The books that have latterly been published upon it are not numerous, but by far tho most important and valuable is the JnpaurKc and English Dirtionarif, prepared in 1SC7 by J. C. Hepburn, and in which that indefatigable scholar has defined not less than 20,000 words. The only works of this character, and of special value, which preceded that of Dr. Hepburn, were published by W. II. Mcdhurst in Batavia in 1S30, and by the Jesuit missionaries to .Japan in 1(^0^!. In writing, the Japanese begin on tho right side of the page, prccccd in vertical columns, and make free use of diacritic and punctuating signs. As no adequate idea of tho sound of Japanese words can be obtained without first understanding tho alphabet, we submit it to tho reader, as follows: i-, ro-, ha-, ni'-, ho-, he-, to-, chi-, ri~, ntt-f ru-, wo-, wa-, ka-j yo-, ta-, re-, no-, tar.-, UC-, na-, ra-, ?»?/-, u-, i-, no-, o-, kii-, J/a-, ma-, kc-, _/*«-, ko-, yc-, tc-, a-, sa-, kt-, ffi-, 7»c-, »i(' , ahi-, ye-, hi-, HIO-, He-, ez-, and n- ; in all. forty-eight syllabary letters. Tho characters represented by tho above are written in two ways, and occasional!}' an extra meaning is given by tho addition of marks and signs. In expressing the si>uncl of tho Japanese vowels tho continental pronunciation has been followed, because of its being more dcnnite than the English ; tho .lapanese have been accustomerl to it for two or moro centuries, and in all the books written by Europeans it has been regularly adopt<'d. Dialectic variations aro numerous anrl depend chicfiy on modifications of sound. In the Japanese grannnar there is no gender, the nutle sex being indicate*! by ro and tho female by mr; substantives aro nearly allied to adjectives; there is no ])ro])er article; cases aro indicated by Fufiixes; tho plural is formed by suflixes, which signify all, innvh, many: the genitive precedes; the numerals aro various; of figures there are thrco sets of numbers; of pronouns, those of tho first and second person have been lost in the words of etif|uctte; demonstratives are numerous; relatives are wanting: verbs are jierfect ; certain particles denote tho moods; tho participles are of extensive application; ad- verbs are similar to adjectives; tho syntax adheres to a strict order; compounds and derivatives arc easy and fre- quent; and many simple w(»rds have significations which are discriminated by sinograms. By way of giving the reatler an idea of .Tapancso when spoken, wo submit the following specimens from a standard vocabulary: (^od, Kami, Shin, Kntitkr; man, h'to, uin, in'n- grn otoko; woman, ouiia, fujio, jo: husband, ntto Irishn, tntik't, tHzma, tonnijn; wife, tazma, kanai niynhn, nai'ji ka- minnn, okniantn, »ni*; world, nrkai, rhikin, trurhi trnka, «r- /rcti, yo nrj'i, nrji; country, kuui, kokn, tnchi, inaka, zaitjn, knkka; rice, momi: silk, kinit, tto; porcelain, neinmono; enemy, tcki, kafnki ada; friend, tomodnrhi, hi'yn, h'-hai, miknta, yoruhr taynri: and religion, onhiyr, nitrhi ho li't. It will thus be seen that there are often many ways of ex- pressing tho same idea, and that it is not to be wondered at that tho natives of one province of the Jnpaneso empire aro often unable to understand those of another. 1378 JAPAN CLOVEBr-JAPANNING. Japan,,. Slnde«t, in Foreion £<,«rf,.--Among the many remarUaWc events which marked the advent to power ot the present emperor of Japan was that of sendmg prom.s- in" young men to foreign countries to be educated. Jhu- was done at the expense of the general government n,,d the idea was, that the persons thus honored ehould even- „"llv give their services to their country. The larges proportion of these students were sent '"America, but manv of them went to England, France, and Germany The "otal'nuraV.er who came to the U. S. was about 600. Many of them, after their return to Japan, entered the pub ic de- partments, and all the men who are in 1875 m ofiicial posi- tions in the II. S. were formerly government ^tudcnts. In lS73the Japanese government, for reasons that have not been publicly explained, recalled nearly all the students, o that those who are now studying in forcgn lands arc, with few exceptions, receiving their foreign education as private individuals. Among the Japanese students sent abroad have been manv who displayed very remarkable ab.lit.es, and some of their writings, published in 18,2, were highly praised both in the U. S. and in England. Among the Students who cumc to America in 18T1 were five young ladies, and as thev were the first who ever left the emp.re of Japan for purposes of foreign study, we append their names, as follows: Rio Yoshimas, aged fifteen years ; Tei AVooveda, aged fifteen; Stematz Yamagawa. aged twelve; Shin-e Na-ai, aged ten: and Ume Tsuda, between s<3ven and ci-ht years of age.' The first two, for consider.ations of a personal nature, were oliliged to return to Japan m 187'' but the three others are still in the U. S., and all ot them prosecuting their studies in a manner that is consid- ered quite remarkable, even the youngest of them being now able to write a correct and handsome letter m the En.'lish language. The Japan Mail in an article on the Japanese students made the following observations : ' The Japanese students abroad were so earnest, diligent, polite, Quick, and eager to learn that they won plaudits even from those unused to praise. The president of a Massachusetts coUe.'c said he wished to have a .Tapanese in every college in A°merica to teach the undergraduates good manners. The principal of a Connecticut high school saul publicly that a body of young men of such powers of observation as the Japanese students exhibited could not be found in America. The journals of England and Germany, as well as of America, stinted no praise of the graceful Orientals in their schools. Several of the .Japanese students won distinctions at English, German, and French un.versit.es and at American colleges, and others would have assuredly done so hiid not the grave come between them and the goal All these things tended to produce the opinion held by some that the average Japanese is even superior to the average American or European student." _ School SlathHcs.—Tha following figures arc given to represent the educational interests in Japan in 1874: gov- ernment schools, 7; teachers, 95; Japanese teachers, 51 ; forci-n teachers, 45 ; public and private schools in the vario°i9 fus and kens, 0261; teachers, 5856 ; studen s, 47'' 017. To these should be added 3 normal schools. The=e were all under the immediate control of the educa- tional department, the head of which is the vice-minister of public instruction— a most earnest and competent gen- tleman— Tanaka Fujmaro. In 1872 a law was promulgated by the imperial government which decreed the establish- ment of 53,760 schools in Japan, and while some progress has been made, it will be years, probably, before it can bo fully consummated. Some of the provisions of the afore- said law are as follows : Eventually the people will pay all expenses, but for the present the government will as^s.st by paving salaries and expenses of foreign teachers, the cost of 'building high schools, and providing books and instru- ments and allowances to foreign students The annua appropriation for these objects has thus far been about $300,000. The educational eslablishmcnts which are now in sueccssful operation in Yedo are as follows : The Dai Gakko, or universitv, which includes several separate col- leges for the study of medicine, jurisprudence, philosophy, and mining, as also a polvtechnio college. The veterinary, commercial, and agricultural colleges, as likewise the col- logo of arts, hare not as yet been opened. The Go Oakko, a school for instruction in foreign languages; several pri- vate schools, designed likewise for imparting instruction in foreign languages; the Shi Han Gakko, or normal school for the instruction of Japanese teachers ; a princi- pal female school; several preparatory schools; and cer- tain establishments in connection with some of the public departments, which arc designed for imparting knowledge of special subjects. The most competent observers agree in the opinion that Japan is in no sense an illiterate na- tion. The number of persons who cannot read and write is a' small minority. Even the more common classes can read the ordinary Kana. Charles Lanman. Japan Clover (Lcspedeza atriala), a plant introduced in some unknown manner into the Southern States of the tJ S before 1845 from Eastern Asia, and which has spread Avith wonderful rapidity. It is a low annual, growing to the height of little over a foot on the poorest soils, is readily eaten by cattle, and has become popular with stock-raisers. Japan'ning. The art of applying a peculiarly dura- ble and beautiful varnish as practised in Japan, from which countrv the name is derived. The original process in its hi'^hcst form is very difficult and complicated. It applied to wood, great care is taken to prepare the latter, it being baked for many days and tested to ensure it Irom cracking. The varnish itself is the resinous product of a bush called the onrosi no ?.■!, or varnish-plant (Ehut re-mi r) The Chinese make it, but of inferior quality, from theiimia Sinensis or the tsirlwn and tsaU-hon ((:aiiton dia- lect) According to Fisscher and Tomlinson, the lacker is obtained by incision. It ia at first ercam-like, but becomes black by exposure. A fine powder of charred wood i8 added after it has become black, and this being very evenly applied, it is dried in the sun, the charred wood giving " a peculiar body and preparing it for polishing. The re- duction of the varnish and tho mixing with the powder are very carefully executed by very tedious processes, iivc coats of varnish are applied, each being dried with ho greatest care. It becomes glass-like in its hardness, and .9 extremely tough, so as to resist the action of boiling water. It is then polished with a smooth stone and water (accord- ing to Fisscher, with reeds or a bamboo, as De Jancigry understands him, hut Fisscher probably means with f^u.j- elwn or Dutch rush). When applied to pap.er-machS boxes or cups the varnish forms a bindin;, like an enamel, and la no inconsiderable part of the object. Figures are painted on the polished surface with turpentine, or gilding is np- nlied lifter which the whole is finished with another coat of varnish. Mother-of-pearl is often set in the varn.sh Different methods of priming the objects to be varni.-hed are followed; a common one is to apply rotten-stone and ox-gall Of course the excellence of the coating is im- proved by multiplying the coats, and in some eases twenty or more are applied. This is the true .lapanningof the East In Europe and America tho so-called japanning so frequently seen on a.tieles of sheet metal, and which has a rich and'peculiar lustre, generally of a warm semi-trans- parent kind, is efi-ectcd by applying different varnishes eopal or anime, by the agency of heat. The varnish is colored or qualified with lampblack, asphaltum, white, green, or any other color required. Gold and silver or bronze arc also applied with size and powder, and subse- quently varnished and polished by a variety of processes. In general, the color is laid on first, and the japanning is effected by laving on several coats of varnish, the lustre and quality o'f which are increased by their being made without drving-matter. When only a single coat of var- nish is used, tho object being rather to imitate japanning in its best form, tho process liecomcs lackering (see J-AC- keb) • while on tho other hand lackering, when very fine varnish is used, and heat ia applied, is inferior japanning. Ovens of different patterns arc specially constructed lor drving in japanning. Japanned or patent leather is made in' the greatest perfection in Japan, and next in I- ranee. It is effected bv applying to good, dry, thin leather a com- position of linseed oil and turpentine colored with burnt umber and ivory or lampblack. Several coats arc laid on, and each thoroughly dried, the outer or last coats being made quite black. The thinner the eont applied and the more thoroughly it is dried, tho more pliable will the leather be, and thS m'ore dnrable the coating. The varn..4i ,s made with Prussian blue, or any color deemed suitable to g.ye the tone required, and oil. It is reduced or rendered fluid with turpentine. After several coats are appliedand dried, it is scraped and polished with pumico-stonc. (.rca pains should be taken to prevent dust from falling on the leather during the process. ,• , . „„i„ »„ The term japanning is improperly applied not only to simple lackering and varnishing, but also to difierent kinds of mineral and glass or porcelain glazing, or in fae to vit- rification. True japanning consists of the application ol several coats of varLisb. andof drying and polishing these so as to ensure the peculiar durability and gloss character- istic of the Oriental processes, and not in a ^"Vl^f'''"-]'"}; itation of it, much less in effecting results of »" J« ''.y different nature, which, as in the case of glazing and Mtri- fieation, have already received much better and far more charaet;ristic names. It is to be des red that writers on technology should be more careful in this as in many other oaserand not adopt the errors of merely practical men. We inav observe with Tomlinson that in japanning every workman has his own favorite method of preparation and of mHing his varnishes, since the differences of climate. JAPHETH— JASHEE, BOOK OF. 1379 temperature, and maCerialfl in dtffereot countries will inev- itably compel tbo iululligcnt wurkman to depart raoro or Ie?a from auy csta.l)iishcil formula. Japauniug as applied to many fancy articles is a truly elegant art, ami so far from being merely mechanical that there is perhaps none in which the results arc more indicative of individual skill and intelligence. Ciiaiiles G. Leland. Ja'pheth [Heb. r\D\ Yc'pheth, " widesprcading" or "fair'*], one of the three sons of Xoah, mentioned last in order, but held by critics (see Gen. x. 21) to have been tho eldest — one of the eight persons preserved in the ark, and the progenitor to whom is ascribed (Gen. i.) the peo- pling of tho northern portion of Asia Minor, and perhaps Thrace. Most of the nations of Europe are usually de- duced from Japheth. who is supposed to be identical with the (ireek lapctos. tho father of Prometheus. The only specific act of Japheth recorded in the Bible is one of filial piety to his fjither when drunken (Gen. ix. 20-27), which obtained for him the prophecy, *' God shall enlarge Japheth, and he shall dwell in the tents ofShem; and Canaan sliall be his servant." Japheth seems to have been born 100 years before the Flood (Gen. v. 32) : the length of his life is not mentioned, but his brother Shem lived 502 years after the Flood (Gen. xi. 11 ). which may be conjectured to have been (he averatre period allotted to the sons of Xoah. It is noticeable that tho Greek mythology makes lapetos the ancestor of the human race. Nothiug is known as to the locality inhabited I>y Japheth after the Flood, but gene- alogical reasons would favor the immediate vicinity of Mount Ararat. Japa'ra, Ilyapnra, or Caqiict'a, a river of South America, risfs in the Andes of Kcuador, in lat. 1° 20' N. and Ion. 76** JO' \\'., runs first between Ecuador and New Granada, then through Brazil, and enters the Amazon at lat. 1° 20' S. and Ion, 72° 20' W., after a course of about 1000 miles. It« navigation is much impeded by rapids and cataracts. Japy'eiay the name given by the Greeks to Apclia (which see). Jarclin (Kakel or). See DnjAnnix. Jar'dine (Gkorgk), h. at Wandal, Lanarkshire, Scot- land, in 1742; was educated at Glasgow University; be- came a licentiate of the Church of Scotland, and in 1774 professor of logic an'l rhetoric. In this chair he was an able exponent of the characteristic doctrines of tho " Scotch philosophy," distinguishing himself by his successful efforts to popularize that stu<ly, and publishing in 1818 his Ont- UntM of Phitonuphical Education, Ulitstrated by the Method of Tenchivfj the Loffic CtnuH in the Unt'rersittf of Glangow. Prof. Jardine's efforts were mainly directed to the encour- agement of accurate investigation upon any given tojuc, drawing abundant inferences from seemingly isolated facts. He retired from his post in 1824. and d. in 1S27. Jardinc (?ir Wim.iam), Bart., b. at Applegarth. Dum- friess-shire, Scotland, Feb. 2.3, 1800; succeeded to the baron- etcy in I32I ; gave his attention chiefly to ornithology, though a voluminous writer upon nil the vertebrate ani- mals. Ho edited White's Xaturftf f /ifttory of Scl home thvco times; established the \fngnzine of Zoohxjif and /totmn/; assisted in conducting the Aiinn/« of Xatitral Ifintortf and the Philonophirn! Jouniai, besides publishing a Calendar of Ornithohujjf (1S40). D. in 1S74. Jaruac'« town of France, in tho department of Cha- rente, 16 miles X. W. from Angouleme. Pop. in 1806, 4241?. A battle was fmight hero Mar. 1'*., l.*>69, between tho IIu- guonols under the prince of Conde and the Catholics under tho duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III., in which tho former were defeated and Cond6 lost his life. Jarnno has given the title of barim or count to several celebrated per- sons, one of whom died in the current year (1875) as French minister to I^ngland. It popsesscs a suspension bridge, and enjoys an active trade in wine and brandy, being only 11 kilonit^tres from Cognac, where tho finest quality of tho latter article is produecd. JaroNlav. See Yaroslav. Jar'row, or VarrOW, town of Kngland. in the county of Durham, is situated on tho Tynr. and has extensive shipbuilding yards, manufactures of <'heniienls. antl. in the ncighborhooil, large collieries. In (he church of St. Paul is an oaken chair which is said to havo belonged to the Venerable Hede. whtt wan horn in tho parish and buried in this churcli. Pop. 18,170. Jar'ves (Jamps JArKRnN),b. in Boston, Mass., Aug. 20, 1818. Weakness of the eyes compelling him to desist from study, ho travelled extensively on this continent, visiting California, Mcxiert, anrl Central America, and resided for some years at Honolulu, where he published the Pidi/ne- aianf tbo flrst newspaper printed there. Soon after his re- turn from these journcyings he went to Europe, where he has since made his chief residence, mostly in Paris and Florence, devoting himself to the study of art and to the collection of a giLJlcry of pictures illustrating tho difi'crent schools of painting. The collection, a large and interest- ing one, was exhibited in New York, and after various for- tunes (the owner being unable to dispose of it at what he considered a fair valuation) it found temporary refuge in the Fine-Art Gallery of Yale College at New Haven, Conn. It is not, however, what it was, many of the best pieces having been sold to private purchasers. Mr. Jarves has written several books: A History of the Saudirich hlandit. Scenes and Scenery of the Satidtrtch hland», Sccnen and Scenery in Cnlifornin — all in 1843-44. Since residing in Europe he has written mainly on European and art themes — Parisian Sif/hts and French Principles (ISitb-bG), Italian Sifjhts and Papal Principles, Confessions of an Inquirer (18j7), Art Hints, Art Studies, The Art Idea, Art ThonfjhtH (1S70) — works of a blended historical, biographical, crit- ical, and philosophical character. showing a cultivated and thoughtful mind. Mr. Jarves is well known in Itaiy as a connoisseur, is an honorary member of the Academy of Fine Arts in Florence, and has received other similar marks of respect. 0. B. Frothixgham. Jar'vis (.\braham), B. D., b. at Norwalk. Conn., May 5, 173'J: graduated at Yalo College in 1761 ; was ordnineil deacon and priest in the Protestant Episcopal Church in London in 17G4, in which year ho became rector of Christ church, Middletown. In i7*.'7 he was consecrated bishop of Connecticut to succeed Scabury. and settled (1803) at New Haven, where he d. Maj' 3, 1813. Jarvis (Edward). A. B., A. M.. M. D., b. Jan. 0, 1803, at Concord, Mass.; graduated in 182G from Harvard Univer- sity, and from the med. college of same institution in 1830; practised in Nnrthfield nnd Concord, Mass., Louisville, Ky., and thirty-two years in Dorchester, Mass. : devoted himself to the study of vital statistics, the laws of life and health, insanity, etc., to which branches of science he has made many and important contributions. His principal writings arc — Physitilof/y and Health, Elementary Physiology, Re- port on the Nnmlier and Condition if the Insane and Idiots of Massnchnsetfs, Report on the Mortality of the U. S. in the Ctnnus of 1S70, besides essays in journals and magazines, among which many attracted great attention, such ns The Increase of Human Life, Infant Mortality, Effect of Mmili- rectcd Education in the Production of Insanity, Political Economy of Health. Since 1852, Dr. Jarvis has been pres- ident of the American Statistical Association. Jarvis (Jons Wesley), b. at South Shields, on tho Tyne, England. 1780: passed his infancy with his uncle, the celebrated John AVeslcy ; came to America at the age of five ; his father, a seafaring man, left the lad in Phila- delphia, where he obtained such instruction as he could. Stuart discouraged, but Malbone eneouraged him ; he came to New York as an engraver: exeeuted profiles on glass in black and gold leaf: painted miniatures, but soon under- took portraits in oil, and rapidly rose to eminence by the felicity of his likenesses, the strength of his drawing, and the truth of his color. His rapi'lity of work was remark- able, but it was based on study and observation. Jarvis painted admirable portraits of the heroes of (he war of 1812. His portraits of Hull, Perry, Bainbridge, Swift, Brown, and McDonough iire in the City Hall. New York ; those of John Randolph, Robert Morris, Daniel Tompkins, ond Egbert Benson are in the gallery of tho New York Historical Society. Jarvis painted with success in Balti- more, Charleston. Richmond, and New Orleans, where some of his best work is to he seen. His genius was recognized bv men like Henry Clay, but he would havo d(uie better things had he been less addicted to social entertainment. D. Jan. 12, 1840. 0. B. FuoTUiNOnAM. Jarvis (Samfel Farmer), D. D.. LL.D.. b. at Middle- town, Conn., .Fan. 20,1780. being a son of Rishop Abraham Jarvis. He graduated at Yale College in 1803; entered the Episcopalian ministry in ISIO; was professor of biblical criticism (18I'.t) in tho General Theological Seminary; rector of St. Paul's. Boston, 1820-26, when he went lo Eu- rope, and remained there ten years, six of whieh were spent in Italy. Returning to America in 1835, Dr. Jarvis became professor of Oriental literature in Trinity College at Hartford, and in I8:iS was appointed historiographer to tho Americnn Episcopal Church. In Ibis capacity he pub- lished in 1844 a Chronnlofjical Introduction to the Hintm-y of the Church. Other works were — A Discnurse on the Rr- lifjion of the Indian Trihes of Xnrth America (1820). Ser- mons on Prophecy (1843), Xo Union \eitU Rome (1843), and The Church of the Redeemed (1850). D. at Middletown Mar. 26, 1851! Ja'uherf Book of* a Hebrew vork twice cited in the 1380 JASMIN -JASPER. Old Testament (Josh. x. 13 nnd 2 Sam. 1. 18), but no onger oxtaot The former citation is the well-known apostrophe of Joihua to the sun and moon, the latter the bcnutilul ele^v of David upon Saul and Jonathan. The nature and conTonts of the hook of Jashcr have been a frequent topic for the in-'cnuilv of biblical commentators, (iesenius con- ieetured That it was a poetical anthology formed or c.wn- nleted in the time of David or Solomon, and containing the favorite national songs, especially those conimemorating the e-cploits of renowned heroes. The Hebrew name, .S-p/ier H.„lJh„r. is interpreted to mean " Book of the Ji.st Many for-eries have been produced purporting to be the los book of Jasher, the most notable of which was one brought out in Hebrew in Italy and Poland, and also in Gerninn. during the seventeenth century, and was published in Knglisfa by M M Noah (Xew York, 1810). Dr. J. W. Donaldson, an eminent English classical scholar, made an elaborate at- tempt lo reconstruct the bonk of Jashcr from the IVntateiich ( /.,./,.!/• frrqmeiita ArckHi/pn C-_,r,ni<iHm Hchrnirornm.Hc, lfi)4) but his results were received with general incredulity. (Sec an essay on Jashcr in E. Deutsch's lUmiun^, ISi*-) Jasmin'" (Jac«ites), b. at Agon, in Southern France, Mar 17'.)S, was the son of a tailor, and brought up in utter poverty until his twclflh year, when he was admitted into a priests' seminary ; but being expelled two or three years later for some misconduct, he was apprenticed to a barber in his native town. At the ago of eighteen he married and comincuced business as a barber and hair- dresser hut nevertheless allowed his literary instincts such development that he soon became widely famous as a troubadour. His earliest poem was printed lu 1826, his masterpiece (translated by Longfellow as the Bhud Girl „/■ C„.,icl CuilU) appeared in 1S:!G, and set the seal to his popularity. He was now patronized by king and nobles. but retained his simple mode of life until his death. Oct. 4 1861 Jasmin received a pompous funeral, and his auto- biographical sketches have been frequently reprinted. j'as'mine. Yellow, an indigenous twining plant iGrheiiaum scmpervln-n,, natural order Loganiacea.0 gioiy- in- in rich damp soil in the coast-distriets from \ irginia to'thc Ouir It is a beautiful plant, with large, deep-yellow, sweet-smellin'' flowers, and climbs trees in the Southern forests The root is used in medicine under the name ycY- scminm, and contains as its active principle an alkaloid, mhrmi.i. It is a nerve-poison, causing motor and sensory paralysis, and may bo fatal in overdose through paralysis [{ respiration. Edwaud Curtis. Ja'son [Or. limoi.. "healer" or "atoner"], a fabulous hero of the earliest (irecian mythology, whose exploits in the expedition of the ship Argo (see AncoNAtiT.f:) to Col- chis for the recovery of the Golden Fleece were recounted at great length and with infinite variety of advenlure by the Greek cvelio poets, and by some of their Latin imi- tator' .Modern inquirers into the origin of this myth have been led to class it as one of the numerous solar myths. (See Cox's Miillioln>j!l "/ the An/nn A'allom, ISf,'.).) Ja«on, a tyrant of Pheraj in Thessaly, probably the son of Lycophron, came into power about B. 0. 395, and undcr- took'to reduce all Thessaly under his dominion. In u. r .!, S he had succeeded in conquering all the cities except 1 har- salus, which was supported by Sparta. Soon afterwards he was chosen dictator of Thessaly, took a prominent part in the wars between the states of Greece, and would prob- ably have anticipated the carecT of Philip of Macedon had he not been assassinated, B. c. .".70. Jas'pcr [(;r.:a<7^«l. a mineral, of the quartz f»'";'y; "«- cu.rin- in abundance in veins and large masses, imbedded in rocks, sometimes as a rock itself, and ollen in the shape of pebbles. It is characterized by opacity an.l by numer- ous colors— red, yellow, green, white, blue, black, or brown-- generallv arranged in stripes and spots, apparently due o iron oxides. It is exceedingly hard, takes a fine polish, and is in request for ornamental objects, such as cameos, rin^s. and seals. Among the varieties are A>//j(..ni ,n»;>rr, vellow mixed with brown ; rihhnn jaipcr. so called trom the distinclness of the stripes: pnml„m >.»/)er, full of small holes and much cracke.l ; L,,rli»„ tlour, flinty and black, used as a test of the purity of the alloys of gold ; and hl.mil- tlonr or hrlloirnpr. deep-green with blood-red spots J he lar-'cst mines of jasper arc those of the upper Ural in Siberia, especially the Korgon gorge, where this stone is cut out in enormous blocks. Jasper was highly prized by the ancients. It was the twelfth stone inserted in the breast- plate of the Jewish high priest (Ex. xxviii. 20). and the first of the twelve used in the fonn.lation of the New ■leru- saleni; it was also the material of the' wall (Rev. xxii. 18, 19), and the glory of the Divine Being is described (Rev. iv. S) by comparison with a jasper. (Smith, Diet, of Bible.) Jasper, county of N. Central Georgia. Area, !it>& square miles. It is hilly, but fertile, producing cotton, to- bacco, and corn. It contains iron, gold, and other mineral wealth. Cap. Monticello. Pop. 10,439. Jasper, county of S. E. Illinoia. Area, 4S4 sq. m. It is a level and very fertile region. Cattle, grain, wool, and tobacco arc staple products. Cap. Newton. Pop. 11,2.M. Jasper, county of N. W. Indiana. Area, 550 square miles. Its surface is mostly prairie, and a part is marsh- land. Much of its surface afl'ords excellent pasturage. Live-stock, grain, and wool are largely produced. Cap. Rensselaer. Pop. 0:!j4. Jasper, eonnty of Central Iowa. Area, 720 square miles. It is largely prairie-land, is very fertile, and yields abun- dance of coal. Cattle, grain, wool, and butter are staple products. Carriages, wagons, and harnesses are leading articles of manufacture. The county is traversed by the Des Moines Valley and the Chicago Rock Island and 1 a- cific R. Rs. Cap! Newton. Pop. 22,116. Jasper, county of S. E. Central Mississippi. Area, 650 square miles. It is n fertile and undulating region. Cotton, pork, and corn arc staple products. Cap. Paul- dim'. Pop. 10,884. Jasper, county of S. W. Missouri, hounded on the W. by Kansas. Area, COO square miles. It is diversified and fertile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are staple prod- ucts ' It is traversed by the Memphis Carthage and North- western R. R. Cap. Carthage. Pop. 14,928. Jasper, county of E. Texas. Area, 918 square miles. It is heavily timbered, and has coal, iron ore, petroleum, and valuable salt-wells. The soil is productive. Cotton, corn tobacco, pork, rice, and lumber are produced the latter very extensively. The navigable Ncehes River flows along tho"W. border. Cap. Jasper. Pop. 4218. Jasper, post-v., cap. of Walker eo., Ala., 50 miles N. E. of Tuscaloosa, in a fertile and healthful region abounding in coal It was twice burned during the war ; has a good court-house, jail, church. Masonic hall, and a high school capable of accommodating HOO pupils. It has 6 dry-goods and 4 grocery stores, etc., and is steadily growing, bix miles N lies the new city of S. Lowell. It has 1 weekly paper. Antmonv & Sox, Eds. " Mointain Eagle. Jasper, tp. of Crawford eo.. Ark. Pop. 688. Jasper, tp. of Crittenden eo., Ark. Pop. 1416. Jasper, post-v., cap. of Newton CO., Ark., 70 miles N. N. \V. of Little Rock. Pop. 72. Jasper, post-v., cap. of Ilamillon co., Fla., on the At- lantic and Gulf R. R., 100 miles by rail from Jaeksonvillo and from TalLahassee. Pop. 1.18. Jasper, post-v., cap. of Piekens co.. Ga., 30 miles from Rcsaca, on the Atlantic and 'Western R. R. Jasper, tp. of Wayne co., 111. Pop. 1016. Jasper, post-v., cap of Dubois co., Ind., on the Patoka River, at the junction of the Mt. Vernon and Rockport divisions of the Cincinnati and South-western R. R., in ' the centre of an important block-coal region. It has I churches, a weekly newspaper, 5 hotels, 3 lumber and 2 flour mills, manufaclures of carriages, agricultural imple- ments, etc. The lumber, coal, and tobacco trade, and the manufaclures above indicated, are the leading ]>ursuit8. Pnp. :, 17. Cl.KMF.XT DOANE, En. " CotRIEK. Jasper, tp. of Adams co., la. Pop. 438. Jasper, tp. of Carroll co., la. Pop. 157. Jasper, tp. of Midland co., Mich. Pop. 139. Jasper, tp. of Camden co.. Mo. Pop. 292. Jasper, tp. of Dallas co.. Mo. Pop. 933. Jasper, post-tp. of Jasper co., Mo. Pop. 758. Jasper, Ip. of Ozark co.. Mo. Pop. CIS. Jasper, tp. of Ralls co.. Mo. Pop. 1391. Jasper, tp. of Shannon co., Mo. Pop. 93. Jasper, tp. of Taney eo.. Mo. Pop. 615. Jasper, post-tp. of Steuben eo., N. Y., has 6 churches and some manufactures. Pop. 1CS3. Jasper, tp. of Fayette co., 0. Pop. 1992. Jasper, post-v. of Newton tp., Pike co., 0., 25 iniles from Portsmouth, on the Ohio Canal and tho Scioto River. Pop. 181. Jasper, post-v., cap. of Marion eo.. Tenn., the N. ter- minus of the Jasper branch of the Nashville Chattanooga and St Louis R. R.. in the fertile Sequatchie Valley, which is well watered, linclv timbered, and abounds in water- power coal, iron ore, limestone, and sandstone. The town has 2 weekly newspapers, 3 churches, good .schools, stores, etc. Pop. 375. A. L. GuiiFiTH, En. "rxio.x. Jasper, posl-v., cap. of Jasper co.. Tex., on a creek near the Neches River, has 2 churches. 3 day and 2 Sunday schools, 3 weekly newspapers, and 3 hotels, and is an im- JASPER— JAVA. ];;m portant buBioees-ocntro for Soutb-cactero Texas. Agricul- tard aud racrcantilo busiDcss are the chief pursuits. It has joarly couuty fair:*. T. J. Carrawav, Ed. " NKwsiiov." Jasper (W**'i-'AH), b. io South Caruliua about 1750; enlisted in tho 2d South Caroliua regimeut at the oom- nienccmcnt uf tho Ucvulutiou ; became a scrgcuiit, and dis- tiDgui<<hcd himself in the attack upun Kurt .Muultrie by a British fleet, Juuo 28, 1770, by leaping through an em- brasure under a galling cannunade to recover the flag of the Stale, just ghot off. In recognition of this act or" heroism Gov. Rutledge ga\-e Sergeant Jasper his own suord, offered bim a cunimib'siun as lieutenant, which he declined, and employed him thereafter upon oulpo^t and picket duty, in which he frequently distinguished himself by deeds of eccentric daring. In the assault upon Savannah (Oct. 9, 177'**) Sergeant Jasper accompanied D'Estaing and Lincoln in their attack upon the Spring Ilill redoubt, and was killed while attempting to fasten to the parapet the colors of his regiment, presented by Mrs. Elliott. A square in the city of Savannah aud :i county in Georgia bear his name. Jasper Four-Corners (P. O.Jasper), a v. of Jasper tp., Steuben co., N. Y. It has 'S churches and manufac- tures of lumber. Pop. 200. Jas'sy, tho capital of Moldavia, which since 1 SGI forms a part of Uoumania, situated on a tributary of the Pruth. It is a largo but poorly built aud dirty city, in which fino ecclesiastical buildings and splendid palaces belonging to the nobility alternate with the miserable huts of tho .Jews and tho lower population. It has important trade in grain. Pop. 90,ono. JasZ"Bcrcny', town of Western Hungary, in the dis- trict of Jazygiu. *jn bnth sides of liic Zagyva. It has a considerable trade in corn, cattle, and wine. In tho middle of the city stands a monument said to indicate the tomb of Atiiia. Pop. 17,:.;;-*. Ja'Uva, or San Fcli'pe de Ja'tiva, tho ancient Sct'tftig, town of Spain, in the province uf Valencia. It is a handsome and well-built town, with several monuments from the ttmts of the Moors. Pop. 15,Cm1. Jats, or Jauts, a singular race inliabitingXorth-west- crn India between tho Indus and tho upper waters of the Ganges, variously considered by ethnologists as descend- ants of (leta», Dacians, Iluns. Avars, or other ancient races. They have also been treated as the aucestors of the gypsies. The Jats arc tall, well-formed men, addicted to war, but good agriculturists, and are divided in religion between Mohammedanism, Brahmanisra, aud tho Sikh doctrines. Jaubert' (CnKVAi.inn Pn:RRF. Amtdek), b. ot Aix, in Provence. Southern France, Juno 3, 1779; studied Oriental Inngunges under Sylvestre do Sacy, and at tho age of nine- teen accompanied the French expedition to Egypt as in- terpreter, in which capa-ity he rendered great services to and gained the friendship of Napoleon. Employed in vari- ous ofTicial posts in the East, Jaubert was sent to Persia in IMOi. WHS imprisoned several months by the pasha of Ba- jazid, and became in 1815 charrjfi d'nff<iirt:8 at Constnnti- nonlp. In IS|S, Jnuliort travelled to India with tho object of bringing to France a herd of Cashmere or Thibetan goats, of which bo sueceeded in intmducing '100. After this ho became a professor of Oriental languages at tho Collego of France, member of tho .Academy of Inscriptions in 18110, peer of Frnn'-e and councillor of state in IHU. Jaubert puhlt»(hed his travels in Armenia and Persia (1821), a Turkish grammar f |S2^), a Berber grammar and diction- ary (lS4-n, and ii French translation of the famous Arabinn geogrnphcr Edrisi (2 vols., 18:jC-40). D. at Paris Jan, 28, 1817. Jaa'CTy town of Prussia, in the province of Silesia, on the N'eidse. It has large miiuufucturcs of liuen and gloves, and carries on a very active trade in corn. Pop. 7887, Janja, town of Peru, department of Juuin, 108 miles N.E. from Lima. It is beautifully situated on one of tho streams tributary Io the Apuriuiac. was the firsc eiipilal of Peru under tho viceroyalty until lj;Ji>, and its ninno has become a synonym in Spanish America for "Arcadia" or*' Utopia." Pop. about 1.0,000. Jaiin'dice* This is a greenish-yellow colorof the skin whieh is produced by the preneneo of the culuriiig-matter of the bile iu the blood. It i^i not a specific diseiiMe, as is generally supposed by the laity, but a symptom which, taken in connection with other symptoms, points to the affection which gives rise to it. We might as well dpeak of vomiting, heudaehe, olc. as disetLSes : they are not. but merely prominent symptoms of many varied morbid pro- cesses. If jaundice occurs in any great abuudauce. or per- sists for a length of linn-, wo find all the secretions tinged with the bile, the urine becomes saffron-cidorcd. nnd the stools, being deprived of their coloring-matter, are whitisli. We iii!H- I':' V j|i)..,!i,... |.r..Hi!.<<-| i;, f ,,<, ,r;t • - - ^.i; her fl<iin suppression or retention of bile; the former is due tu some disease of tho liver which incapacitates it for performing its function; therefore the bile, which iu the healthy state of tho organ is constantly being hitered from tho blood, accumulates in it. Jauudicu from retention uf bile is pro- duced in this way; The bile, having been already formed, is jirevented from making its way iuto the intestines by some obstruction in the bile-ducts: it is therefore reabsorbed, and again makes its appearance in the blood. The ob- struction to the ducts may bo either external or interual. E.xtcrnally, we may have tumors of various kinds pressing on the ducts, as cancer of the ]>yloric end of the stomach, of tho duodenum or the end of Ihepancrcas.or a colon im- pacted with ficccs. Internally the gall-duct may be plugged up by mucus, or, what is far more common, by a biliary calculus passing through it; this is accompanied by a great deal of pain ; indeed, it is said to be the most severe pain that could be felt. Some idea of it may be had from a knowledge of the fact that the common bile-duct is very seldom larger than a goose-quill, and the stones which pass through it are seldom smaller in diameter — sometimes at- taining the size of a pigeon's egg. Accompanying the jaundice and pain in these eases wo have nausea, vomiting, hiccough, flatulence, aud in the intervals between the in- tensity of tho pain the patient is exhausted and drowsy. There is generally much more pain felt by the passage of a calculus for the first time than subsequently, as the duets arc generally left dit^tended for its successors. Besides the above forms of jaundice there is also a malignant form, which is analogous to typhoid, yellow, or remittent fever, and is marked by typho:dsymptoms from the beginning of tho attack, and is accompanied by hemorrhages from the mucous membranes and skin. It almost always ends fatally. In jaundice from suppression tho urine only contains those ingredients of tho bile which pre-exist in the blood — viz. tho bile coloring-matter and cholesterine ; in that from re- tention we also have the bile-salts which have been formed in tho liver, and ai"rerwards absorbed and eliminated by the kidneys. To determine the former, nitric aci<l is generally added; it produces a bright grass-green color with the coloring-matter of tho bile. The bile-salts, however, can only bo detected by Pettenkofcr's test, which is as follows : To tho suspected liquid add a few drops of a solution of cane-sugar, and then slowly, drop by droji, sulphuric acid ; at first a red color will be produced, which will afterwards change to a lake, and then to a deep jiurplc. The technical name of jaundice is ictcruH, from the Greek name of tho golden thrush, which, according to Pliny, when seen by a jaundiced person would die and the patient recover. \ow, however, wo treat the affection lutjre scien- tifically, looking to its origin. Where it is due to suppres- sion little can bo done except in cases of acute inflamma- tion of tho liver, but in those cases due to obstruction there is more success with it. The indications are to improve the patient's general condition by a ])roper and nutritious diet. Fata of all kinds should be avoided, as they cannot be di- gested without tho assistance of the bile. Next, we should attend to tho constipation from which these patients almost invariably suffer; for this rhubarb, scnnn.and aloes are the favorites. Opium should be given to relieve the intense pain. After the removal of tho obstruction we may hasten the disappearance of tho jaundice, and the annoying itch- ing which accompanies it, by 8te::ni and alkaline baths. Er)WARi) J. Bi:hmingiiam. Ja'va^ an island in tho Malay Archipelago, the third largest of the Sunda group, belonging to the Netherlands, and bounded N. by the Sea of Java. E. by the Strait of Bali, S. by tho Indian Ocean, and W. by the Strait of Sunda, which separates it from (ho island of Sumatra, Area, 49,7.'{0 square miles. Iu tho northern part of the island lie some tracts of low, level land, mostly cunstsling of mangrovc-stvanips. aud presenting a et>ast uuMite for navigation, and containing very few landlocked harbors, such as those of Batavia aud Surabaya, though atlbrding several good ruarl^teads, wliere ships nnty anchor with safety, as the waters of the Java Sea are calm, hurricanes unknown, and storms rare except ot tlie change of the monsoons. Otherwise, tho whulo island is mountainous, traversed from E. to W. by several ranges of mountains, of which the southernmost forms a rough and broken coast- line, washed by a heavy surf. The highest jtoints are Semiru, I2.2.'»0 i'l^ct, and Slamat, ll,:{20 feel. Tiieso ranges are in geological respects of vulcanic formation; active vuleanocs and violent eruptions are of frequent occurrence, especially in the south-onsteni diHtriets. Ilere the volcano Papandavangcovered in one night in I 772 an nn-a of 7 miles radius with a layer of ashofl.^0 feet (liiek; and in ISL'L', (Jab unggongcauBi'd still greater destruction hy a sin l'I«' eruption : 20,UII0 pcrflons are said to have been killed. The mountains are generally clad Io their very tops with splendid forests. and eneloso beautiful, exceedingly fertile, and well-watered 1382 JAVA— JAY. valleys, numcrons rivers flowing down to the sea from both sides gcnerallv rapid and shallow, but sometimes navigable ; as, for instance, the Solo, Kediri, and Tjimanock. Although gold-dust is found in several rivers and coal and rock-salt in =ome mountain-tracts, and although mineral springs of different kinds abound all over the island, yet the .Javanese mountains arc devoid of minerals suitable for mining. The volcanoes, however, are remarkable for the amount of sul- phur and .sulphurous ga.ses they discharge. In a lake near the crater of Taschem, at the E. end of the island, the water is so strongly impregnated with sulphuric acid that fish cannot live in the sea near the mouth of the stream which issues from it; and near Batar, in the \ ale of Poi- son, the exhalations of carbonic acid gas are so strong that birds drop down from the air. killed by them and the ground is strewed with carcasses of .animals which entered the vale unaware of the diinger. The climate of Java is unhealthv in the northern marshes, but at a little elevation it is not only healthful, but agreeable. The wet season, with its westerly winds, lasts from October to March, but even durin" this time dry periods with fair weather occur. At the enuinoxes the wcaihcr is generally very changeable, with heavy gusts of wind and thunderstorms. But the temperature is remarkably equable: in the lowlands ^the thermometer seldom rises above 90° or falls below ,0 . Ve-'ctalile life is developed to an astonishing degree. Kice is The principal cereal, and in places where irrigi^ion can be effected it is raised in two crops annually. Coffee is the staple product of the country, and is cultivated under the supervision of the government in plantations situated at an elevation of 2000 feet. Sugar and spices of superior quality are rais-d without diflicultv. In 1ST2 the value of the ex- ports of coffee was 38.-^24,000 florins; of sugar, 4.3,893,000 florins : and of spices 1,029,000 florins. Cotton is also grown, from which a coarse fabric is made. The largest part of the island is covered with vast forests of the most val- uable trees —the fig tree, the dammar pine, and, first among all, the teak tree, which yields the best timber known. Equally abundant is animal life. Bufi'aloes are generally used in agricultural labor, and are more numerous than oxen and horses. The wild ox and two kinds of wild hogs are common ; also the royal tiger, the one-horned rhino- ceros, numerous kinds of apes, immense bats D>-e feet across the wings, the peacock, and a great variety of fish. The inhabitants number 17,298,200, of whom 28,926 are Europeans, 185, VoS Chinese, 22,032 Arabs, and the rest natives; the island is thus one of the most densely popu- lated countries in the world. The natives belong to the iMalayan race, but in capacity for civilization they surpass all other branches of this family. They arc small, yellow, and not very energetic, but patient, cheerful, and endowed with fine sensibilities. They are good agriculturists, prob- ably surpassing all other Asiatic peoples in this branch of industry. They are also skilled in the manufacture of dif- ferent articles o'f metal, such as their national weapons and their national musical instruments, being very fond of music. In the fifteenth century they embraced Mohammedanism; before that time Booddhism was their religion, and many Booddhist temples are found in the island, as, for instance, the Bono BunnoR (which see). In 1511 the Portuguese first visited Java, and in IhOb the Dutch made the first settle- ments here. In lfi77 the whole island became a Dutch colony, and since 1830 it has been governed as a province of the kingdom of the Netherlands. At the head of the government is a governor-general, residing at Batavia and rulino' all the Dutch colonics in the East Indies. The a, post-tp. of Wyoming co., N. Y., has 5 churches, aills, and quarries of fine building-stone. Pop. ISafi. ch, how- ruling all the island is divided into 24 residencies, two of wli ever. Jokjnkerta and Surakerta, have been allowed to retain their native princes, though under Dutch supremacy. The revenues of this island bring annually a surplus of $.5,000,000 into the treasury of the Netherlands. The language spoken I in the largest part of Java and on some adjacent islands (the Javanese) belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian group of languages, but it is distinguished from the Malay proper and from the Sundese, spoken in the western part of the island. It consists of 20 consonant and 6 vowel sounds, of which latter the o is predominant. Its numer- ous foreign elements, Arabic, Sanskrit, and others, are very freely modified. Its development is rich, but one-sided. It possesses numerous and fine distinctions for real objects, processes, and phenomena, but it has no significations for general or abstract ideas. It has different sets of words, forms, and phrases when used by a superior to an inferior, or by an inferior to a superior, but it has no difference of tone in prose and in poetry. The literature consists of chronicles, religious works, and remodellings of Hindoo poetical creations, but it belongs mostly to a much earlier period, and can be traced back to the first centuries of our era. (See W. von Humboldt, Trier die Knin'^pmi-he, Sir Stamford Raflles, Hittonj of Java, and R. Wallace, The Malay ArehipelnjoA Clemens Petersen. Java some mills, and quarries Jav'elin [Pr. jai-cliiie], a short, heavy spear used for throwing with the hand at an enemy. The Roman plliim was essentially a javelin, and was the most formidable of- fensive weapon of those times. Jaw'orow, town of Austria, in G.alicia, on the Kra- howska, has large paper-mills, valuable fisheries, and in the vicinity some mineral springs which are much resorted to for their medicinal powers. Pop. 7209. Jaxar'tes, or Sir Uarya, a river of Toorkistan, rises in the Thian Shan Mountains, flows through the valley of Khokan and the Khirgheez dominions, and divides at Otrar into two branches, of which the northern and largest, forming the boundary between Russia and Tuorkjstan. falls into the Sea of Aral, while the southern loses itself in some small lakes in the steppes. Jay, a name given to many birds of the family Corvidx, sub-family Garrulinffi. The typical species is the Garndm qlmdarius, or common jay of Europe. The blue jay of the Eastern U. S. (Cijnmira crhlala) is a beautiful bird, whose harsh screaming voice is well known. The U. S. have m.any species representing the genera Gi/miiocilla, Ct/aimcilta. Xaiithiirti, Pcrisoiem, Paitorrhinus, etc. Many of them are very beautiful birds. Jay, county in E. Indiana, bounded on the E. by Ohio. Area, 370 square miles. The surface is somewhat varied, the soil productive, but in part rather heavy. Cattle, grain wool, and maple-sugar are leading products. It is traversed by the Cincinnati Richmond and Fort Wayne R. K. Cap. Portland. Pop. 15,000. Jay, post-tp. of Franklin co.. Me., on the Androscoggin R. R., 15 miles N. of Auburn. It has 4 churches, 2 free libraries, and some manufactures. Pop. 1490. Jay, post-tp. of Essex CO., N. Y., in the Adirondack region. It has many loflv mountains, large beds of iron ore and small ones of graphite. Iron, nails, and lumber are extensively manufactured. Pop. 249G. Jay, tp. of Elk co.. Pa. Pop. 534. Jay, post-tp. of Orleans co., Vt., on the Canada line, 55 miles N. of Montpciior. It has 3 churches and manufac- tures of lumber, leather, etc. Pop. 553. Jay (John), LL.D.. b. in New York City Dec. 12, 1V45, of Huguenot stock; graduated at King's (now Columbia) Collei^e in 1764; was admitted to the bar in 1768; became law-partnerwith Robert R. Livingston, and married (17741 a daughter of William Livingston. In the agitations caused by the successive encroachments of the British cabinet upon A'merican liberty, J.ay fir.st became conspicuous as a mem- ber of the "com'niittee of correspondence" appointed May 16, 1774, by the citizens of New York to represent their views upon the questions growing out of the Boston Port bill; was the supposed author of Ihc suggestion emanating from that committee for the convocation of a Continental Congress : was elected a member of that body, and took a prominent part in its proceedings. He was the author of the address to thepeople of Great Britain adopted by the first Con<'ress (Oct., 1774), and of that to the people of Canada adopted by the second Congress ( May, 1775 ) ; was a member of the committee of correspondence " with European friends of American liberty," in which capacity he became the chan- nel of secret negotiations with France; was commissioned colonel of the 2d regiment raised in New York City, and in Apr., 1776. was chosen a member of the Provincial Congress of New York, retiring from the Continental Congress in order to lend his counsels to his native State in that crit- ical juncture. Jay was the leading member of the New York Congress; was author of its chief public documents, including- "the constitution of 1777; and on its dissolution was appointed chief-justice, which office was confirmed to him by the new State legislature. In 1778 he was again elected to the Continental Congress, became president of that body (Dec. 10), and was appointed in the following year minister to Spain, where he arrived in 1780. He re- mained at Madrid two years, obtaining from the Spanish government some material and moral aid for American in- dependence; was a colleague with Franklin and Adams in the commission which negotiated peace with Great ^Brilam (Nov. 30, 1782), and on returning to America in 1784 was chosen by Congress secretary for foreign affairs— a post which he' held for five years, until the establishment of the Federal government under the Constitution (17S9). .Tiiy was one of the writers in the FMhrahSt in defence of the Constitution, took a loading part in the New -J ork State convention, which, after much opposition, gave its adhesion to the Constitution (1788), and was appointed hv " »sh- ington (1789) the first chief-jusliee of the V. S. In 1792 he was the candidate of the Federalists for governor of JAY— JKKFERS. 1383 Kew York; was sent as minister to England in 1704, and Bignetl {Nov. 19) the instrument known iis ".Tn_v'? treaty." By its provisions the eastern boundary of Maine ^vasdeter- Diined, American citizens recovered above $10.0110. 1)00 for illegal captures by British cruisers, and the western posts held by British garrisons were surrendered: but in con- sequence of the exclusion of American vessels from Can- adian ports, the restriction placed upon the West India trade, and the rcf;ulations upon neutrality as between Eng- lish and French privateers, an unprecedented a;;itation ensued, and the treaty wns violently denounced, but was ratified by Washin;;ton, with the approval of the Sen- ate, Aug. 14, 179o. During his absence in England, Jay was elected governor of New York — an ofTu-e which he held for six years — and in isOl withdrew from pub- lic life, declining a second appointment as chief-justico of tho U. S. Supreme Court, for which he was nomi- nated by Pres. Ailanis and confirmed by the Senate. For the remainder of his life, which extended over more than a q-nrterof the proseiit century. Jay resided upon his an- cestral estate at Bciford, Westchester co., holding aloof from political contests, but taking a lively interest in re- ligious and philanthropic movements. As early as 1785 ho had been president of a society in XcwYork for promoting tho emancipation of slaves, and it was un<ler hi:* auspices that slavery was abolished in Xcw York in 171*9. lie was a member of tho Episcopal Church, and was widely re- nowned for strict moral purity, a vigorous and logical in- tellect, a lofty sense of justice and humanity, disinterested patriotism, and unyielding integrity. D. at Bedford, N. Y., May 17, 1829. (See his Li/e^ by his son, William Jay, 1333.) PoKTER C. Bliss. Jay (Jons), a son of William Jay, b. in New York City Juno 23, 1817; graduated in 18i;G at Columbia (.'ollege ; became a lawyer in IS;*»9. Ho is a prominent member of the Protestant Episcopal Church, tho Union League, and various historical and other learned societies. Author of many anti-slavery, legal, jtolilical, ecclesiastical, and other pamphlets and reports. In ISGll ho was appointed U. S. minister to Austria. Beturncd in l$7i>. Jay (WiLMAM), b. at Tisbury, England, May S, 1709. Willi slight previous education ho c^imracnceil preaching at tho age of sixteen, and before attaining liis majority had delivered more than 1000 sermons. When twenty- two years old he bei^amc minister of Argylc cha])el, Bath, and hold that position sixty-one years, until the year of his death. Mr. .lay was a wonderfully eloquent pulpit- orator. His voluminous writings have been eolK-cted in 12 vols. {Bath, 1M12-Ui. and reprinted in America in 3 vols. Of these, the Monihttj and Ercniwj E.rf:rciH<:» have enjoyed a wide popularity. He left an Aiifohiu'jraphif^ published since his di-ath, which occurred at Bath Dec. 27, 18J3. (See Wilson's Mcmuir of Jaif, ISJI.) Jay {William), LL.D., a son of John Jay (1745-1829), b. in New York City June 10, 1781); graduated at Yale in IM07, and studied law, which he never actively practised. He was prominent in the temperance, anti-slavery, peace, and Bible societies ; beeumcin iSI8 a judge of tho common pleas, and was lS20-(2 first judge of Wo^tchcstcrco., N. Y., but lost tho place because of his anti-slavery views. Ho published a Lt/c of John Jujf (2 vols., 1833), An Inqitiri/ into the Chnrurtrr of the Amrrican Cotvnizntion and And' Hinrrry SorifJirn (IS3.'>), n. Virw of the Action uf the Fed- eral Ooverninent tn Itfhnlf uf Slavery ( 1S:J8), a licvicto of the CatmeM, etc. of the Mexican War (1819), B'rir and Peace (1818), nnd numerous minor publicatious. D. at Bedford, N. Y., Oct. U, 1858. JnyiK'!, an unorganized county of Dakota. JayiirK'vino, post-v. of Bremer co., la., on tho Cedar Falls and Minnesota U. K. Jeallrrson (Joiis Coanv), b. at Fralingham, Suffolk, England, in IS.'M ; graduati'd at Oxford; entered Lincoln's Inn in I8.'>2 as a law-student, and was admitted to tho bar in IS59. Beside* a number of novels, he wrote A fiuok ahnut Dortoni (1800). .4 ttu;k about /,«irycr« (1806), and A Ii"i'k about the Clenrj (IS70), Irnniicrclt', post-v. of Iberia parish, La., on tho Buvm Tecln-, 12 miles from New Iberia. Jraiiiiill' (Pir:nni:K b. at Autun. France, in 1510 ; stud- ied liiw nndiT ("ujas : was counsellor under Charles IX, and Henry 1 1 f.. prejsidrnt of (he Parliament uf Burgundy in l.')7'.', nnd of that of Paris nnd<'r ILnry I\'. ; was the nego- tiator of the treatv of 1009, which assured the independ- ence of Holland, "p. in 1022. J«*nnron' ( Piimippk Aimm ste). b. at Boulogno May 10, ISOO; studied painting almost without any guiilance ; ob- tained a medal in is;;;t; altraeted groat attention by his half-tuuobing, half-humorous gonro pictures of low lifo; and was mado director of the national museums in 1848. Though he held this office only ono year, ho mado great improvements in the arrangements of tho museum of the Louvre. Of his later works is The Abandoned Port of Ambfctctme, now in tho Luxembourg. D. Apr. 23, 1877. Jcans'villc, po^t-v. of Hazel tp., Luzerne co.. Pa., on the Lehigh Valley R. R. Has mines of anthracite coal. JebaiTfUr Jiibeil, tho modern name of Gcbal or Byb- los, ono of the most ancient cities of Plicenicia, noted in my- thology for the birth of Adonis, and in biblical history for having furnished the artiflecrs (Uiblites) of Solomon's tem- ple. Uobal is thought to have been tho metropolis of tho Phooniciana before the rise of Sidon.to have taken an im- portant part in tho earliest operations of shipbuilding, navigation, and colonization, having founded commercial and mining settlements throughout the /Tlgean Islands and the coasts of the Black Sea, as also to have introduced into Grcceo a knowled-^o of tho alphabet. Tho Greek name PjhloH is derived from tho E^;yptian word for papyrus, and perhaps alludes to tho earliest cultivation of writing. Tho Egyptian myths of Ii^is, Osiris, and Typhon were partially of Pliccnician (»rigin. and pome of tho incidents arc located at Byblos. Jcbail is now a small village of 000 inhabit- ants, on the sea-coast 20 miles N. of Bcyroot ; it contains a castle which was noted in the annals of tho Crusades. Jebb (John), b. at Droghcda, Ireland, Sept. 27, 1775; studied at Dublin University; entered the Church of Eng- land, and became bishop of Limerick in 1S23. Residing in a district ciiiefly inhabited by Catholics, liishop Jebb was noted for his liberal spirit towards them nnd his main- tenance of their rights. Ho wroto several works on doc- trinal theology, but is now remembered chiefly by his .S'a- cred Ltierfttiire (1820). in which he combated some of the views of Dr. Lowth about Hebrew poetry, and elucidated many obscure or difficult biblical topics. D. at Limerick Dec. 7, 1833. Jebb (Sir Joshta), R. E., K. C. B., b. in England about 1793; entered tiie British army at an early age. and was brought into public notice when serving with his regiment in Australia through being employed to superintenil some of Captain McConochie's celebrated experiments for tho amelioration of the condition of convicts, by offering them a shortening of their terms of sentence as a premium upon good behavior. Jebb was so reliable aiul' eflJcicnt in tho cxceulittn of this delicate commission that he was requested to prepare plans fur the construction and management of convict prisons which might obviato the practical difficul- ties encountered under the then existing system. In 1810 the Pentonvillc prison was built according to the plans of Col. Jebb, thus inaugurating in England tho Hulifnr}/ or tfeparatc system of imprisonment. As inspeeior-gcneral of prisons, enjoying the rank of major-general and the honor of knighthood. Sir .losbua Jebb devoted the remainder of his life to devising im])roveinonts in pciml law and prison disci])line, and tl. in London June 20. 1S03. Jebb (Samukl), M. D.. b. at Nottingham, England, in 1(590; studied at Cambridge, and practised medicine at Stratford. Ho published an edition of .lustin Martyr (1719), a Latin collection of writings on Mary, queen of Scots (1725). edited tho Ojiuh Majnii ol' Roger Bacon (1727), and. founded the IHbllothera Litcraria (1722-2^), a learned niaga7.ino to which many eminent classical scholars con- tributed. 1>. in 1772. JeU'biir^h, town of Scotland, in Roxburghshire, on tho Jed, contains sonic very interesting ruins of a magnifi- cent abbey erected in tho twelfth century and destroyed ia tho sixteenth, and of a castle which was onco tho residence of the Scottish kings. Pop, about 40U0. Jeddo. See Ykiw). Jed'do, tp. of Knox co., Mo. Pop. 1134. JoddOy post-v. of Orleans co., N. Y. Pop. 124. Jeddo, jtosi V. of Foster tp., Luzerne co., Pa., on a branch of tho Lehigh Yulley R. R. It has splendid beds of anthracite coal. Jerfers (William N.), IT. S. N., b. in Now Jersey Oct. n, 1821; entered the navy as a midshipinau Sejit. 2.0, 1810 ; became a pasr-ed miil-^hipman in IS 10, a lieutenant in lSj6, a lientenant-eommaiider in isiii^, a comuuuidor in ISO^), a captain in 1S70; served (ni tho E. coast of Mexieo during our war with that (Country, and parlicipalcil in the capture of Vera Qrwi., Aharado, Tu\pan, and Tampieo ; eoin- mandc'l tho I'nderwritcr during the brilliant operations in the so'iiids of North (*aroliiiu in Jan. ami Feb., 1802. and tho Monitor in the atition with Fort Darling on May lA of that year. Early in IH73 ho received the appointment of chief of tho bureau of ordnance — an appointment, it may be Maid, sealed with tho njiprobation of the whole navy, wbioh had long rooognizcd his marked ability in every 1384 JEFFERSON. branch of his profession, and particularly in ordnance matters, to which Jcffers had given, for many .years, espe- cial alteutiun. I'oxiiALL A. Paukku. JerfcrsOlI, county of N. Central Alabama. Area, ySO square miles. It is in the lilack Warrior coal-tield, and will probably become a very important coal and iron re- gion, for excellent hematite ores abound. The surface is hilly and rough, with fertile valleys. Cattle, corn, cotton, and wool are staple products. Iron is manufactured. The eountv is traversed by the Alabama and Chattanooga R. R. Cap. Klyton. Pop. 12,345. JelTerson, county of S. E. Central Arkansns. Area, 900 square miles. It is traversed by the Arkansns River. It is a level and very fertile alluvial plain, well timbered. Live-stock, corn, and cotton arc staple products. Cap. Pine Bluff. Pop. 15,733. JcfTerson, county of N. Central Colorado, in the foot- hills of the Rocky Mountains. Area, about SOO square miles. It ha? excellent farm and grazing land, but needs irrigation. Good lignitic coal, bog iron, and fire-clay abound. It is intersected by the Colorado Central and other railroad--!. C;ip. (jolden. Pop. I.*3y0. Jeflerson, county of Florida, extending from the Georgia line on the N. to the Gulf of Mexico. Area, 470 square miles. It is well timbered, and has a generous, though varied, soil. Cotton, sugar-c:uic. corn, rice, and fruit are staple products. The Jacksonville PcnFacola and Mobile R. R. intersects the county. Cap. Monticello. Pop. I3.;iys. Jetferson, county of E. Georgia. Area, 634 square miles. It is level and fertile, and is traversed by the river Ogecchee and the Central R. R. of Georgia. Corn and cottun are staple products. Cap. Louisville. Pop. 12,11)0. Jefferson, county of S. Illinois. Area, 570 square miles. It is partly prairie and partly forest. The soil is productive. Live stock, grain, tobacco, and wool aro sta- ple products. The county is traversed by the St. Louis and South-eastern R, R. Cap. Mt. Vernon. Pop. I7,S64. Jefferson^ county of S. E. Indiana. Area, 362 pquaro miles. It has the Ohio River on the S. The country near the river is broken by bluffs, but the remainder is quite level. The soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool arc sta- ple products. Tlie manufactures include cooperage, car- riages, flour, etc. The Madison and Indianapolis R. R. traverses the county. Cap. Madison. Pop. 29,74^1. Jefferson, county of S. E. Iowa. Area, 432 square miles. It has a very fertile soil, is undulating, and abounds in coal and timber. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. It is traversed by the Chieago Roek Island and Pacific and the IJurlington and Missouri River R. Rs. Cap. Fairfield. Pop. 17,839. Jefferson, county of X. E. Kansas. Area, 5j0 square miles. It is a very fertile, high-rolling prairie region, with considerable timlxT, abundance of limestone, and some coal. Cattle, grain, and wool aro staple products. The Atchison Topcka and Santa Fe, the Kansas Central, and other railroads intersect the county. Cap. Oskaloosa. l*op. 12.:»2fi. Jefferson^ county of Kentucky, bounded on the N. W. by the Ohio River. Area, OdU square miles. It has a va- ried surface and a fertile and biglily cultivated soil. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. The manufactures and commerce of Louisville, the principal city of this county and State, are very extensive. They are treated of under the head of Loi:isvii,i.K (which see). The county is trav- ersed by various railroads centring at Louisville, the cap- ital. Pop. llS,yi3. Jefferson, parish of Louisiana, extending from Lake Pontchartraiu, near New Orleans, southward to Barataria Uay. Area, ab(mt 2J0 square miles. It is intersected by the Mississippi Uiver, and contain.'* numerous lakes, bayous, and swamps. Rice, corn, and sugar-cane are the staple products. It is traversed by Morgan's Louisiana and Texas R. R. (^ap. Carrollton. Pop. 17,767. Jefferson, county of Mississipjd, having the Missi?- sip]>i River for a part of its western boundary, separating it from Louisiana. Area, 500 square miles. It ha? a fer- tile soil. Cotton and corn are staple products. Cap. Fa- yette. Pop. 13.848. Jefferson, county of Missouri, bounded on the E. by the Mississippi River. Area. 504 square miles. It is very fertile, excepting some tracts in the western part. It abounds in metallic wealth. Lead is found here exten- sively. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are staple prod- ucts. The county is traversed hy the St. Louis and Iron Mountain R. R. Cap. Hillsborough. Pop, 15,330, Jefferson, county in Montana, W. of the Missouri River. Area, 2720 square miles. It contains rich agrioul- tural and pastoral resources, and gold-mines arc fouud on the tributaries of the Missouri and Jetferson rivers. Cattle, grain, butter, and lumber are staple products. Cap. Ra- dcrsburg. Pop. 1531, Jefferson, county of Nebraska, bounded on the S. by Kansas. Area, 570 square miles. The county is partly flat and partly high rolling prairie. The soil ie fertile, es- pecially along the stre.ims. It is well mlaptcd to wheat and to pasturage. Iron ore is found. Timber is not abun- dant. The county is traversed by the St. Joseph and Denver City R. R. Cap'. Fairbury. Poj). 2440. Jefferson, county of New Y»trk, having Lake Ontario on the W. and the St. Lawrence River on the N, W. It in- cludes a part of the Thousand Islands in that stream. Area, 1808 square miles. Its surface is quite level nejir the lake and river, but much higher in the eastern part. Much of its diversified surface is very fertile. Cattle, wool, hay, grain, and dairy products are the great staples. Iron ore abounds. Tbc manufactures include iron, machinery, castings, agricultural and olhcr tools, leather, paper, cotton and woollen goods, Hour, lumber, malt, cooperage, and many other articles. The fisheries arc imjtortant. The county is traversed by the Rome Watertown and Ogdensburg. the Utica and Black River, and other railroads. Cap. AVater- town. Poj). 05,415. Jefferson, county of Ohio, bounded on the E. by the Ohio River, which sej)arates it from AVest Virginia. Area, 350 square miles. It is a pleasant, hilly, and very fertile region, abounding in coal. Cattle, wool, and grain arc staple products. Carriages, wagons, clothing, and a great variety of other goods are manufactured. The county is traversed by the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis R. R. Cap. Steubenville. Pop. 20,188. Jefferson, county of W. Central Pennsylvania. Area, 500 square miles. It is quite rough and hilly, and abounds in bituminous coal and iron ores. The soil is fertile, espe- cially in the valleys. Timber is abundant. Cattle, grain, and wool arc staple products. Lumber and leather arc ex- tensively manufactured. Caji. Urookville. Pop. 21,656. Jefferson, county of E. Tennessee, having the IIol- ston River on the N. W. Area, about 225 square miles. It is traversed by French Broad River and the Virginia and East Tennessee R. R. Iron ore abounds. It is moun- tainous, with fertile valleys and picturesque scenery. Cat- tle, grain, wool, and toliacco are staple products. Cap. Bandridge. Pop. 19,476 in 1870, since which time its area has been reduced. Jefferson, county of S. E. Texas, having Sabine Lake and river ou the E. and N. E., and the Gulf of Jlexico on the S. Area, 'JOO square miles. The surface near the coast is open prairie, atl'ording fine pasturage. The rest of the county is in the main heavily timbered. Live-stock, cot- ton, rice, lumber, and some tobacco are exported. Tbo county is traversed by the Texas and New Orleans R. R. Caj). Beaumont. Poj). I'JOO. Jefferson, county of N. AV. Washington Territory, hav- ing the Pacific Ocean on the W. and Hood's Canal and Puget Sound on the E. Area, some 1500 square miles. It is partly mountainous, and is covered with enormous trees. Lignitic coal is found. Mount Olympus is 8138 feet high. Much of the soil is very fertile. Lunibering and limbing are at present the chief interests. Cap. Port Towuscud. Pop. 1 208. Jefferson, county of E. West Virginia, having the Potomac River on the N. E., and bounded on the S. E. and S. W. by Virginia. Area, 200 square miles. It is a part of the Shenandoah Valley, and is a fertile, rolling limestone region. Cattle, grain, aufi wool are staple prod- ucts. The county is traversed by the Baltimore and Ohio and the Winchester and Strasburg R. Rs. Cap. Shephcrds- towu. Pop. 13,219. Jefferson, county of S. E. Wisconsin. Area, 576 square miles. It has a fertile limestone soil. Cattle, grain, wool, and tobacco arc staple products. The manufactures in- clude carriages, cooperage, flour, malt liquors, furniture, lumber, saddlery, etc. The county is traversed by the Chi- cago and North-western and the La Crosse aud Milwaukee R. Rs. Cap. Jefferson. Pop. 34,040. Jeffersony a v. and tp. of Marengo co., Ala., S miles N. W. of Linden. Pop. 233; of tp. 2445. Jefferson, tp. of Boone co., Ark. Pop. 1649. Jcllerson, tp. of Calhoun co.. Ark. Pop. 194, Jefferson, tp. of Desha co.. Ark. Pop. 773. Jefferson, tp. of Independence co.. Ark. Pop. 777. Jefferson, tp. of Jackson co., Ark. Pop. 1976. Jefferson, tp. of Newton oo.. Ark. Pop. 3.^4. JcffersoUf tp. of Ouachita co., Ark. Pop. 782. JEFFERSON. 1385 Jeflerson, tp. of Salino co., Ark. Pop. 169. Jcirerson, tp. of Sevior co., Ark. Pop. 317. Jellorson, post-v., cap. of Jackson co., Cia., IS miles N. W. of Alliens. Jeflerson, post-v. and tp. of Cook CO., III.. 7 miles ] N. W. of C'liicaRo, on the Chicago and Norlh-weslern U. R. Pop. of Ip. ISlli. 1 jefTcrson, tp. of Stephenson co., III. Pop. 546. I Jcfl'crsiin, Ip. of Adams co., Ind. Pop. 194. Jctlersun, tp. of Allen co., Ind. Pop. 1445. Jcirerson, tp. of Boone co., Ind. Pop. 1675. Jeirerson, tp. of Carroll co., Ind. Pop. 947. JcliiTson, tp. of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 1285. JctTcr.sun, post-v. of Clinton co., Ind. (Washington tp.). Pop. 25.!. JctTerson, tp. of Elkhart co., Ind. Pop. 982. Jeflerson, tp. of Grant eo., Ind. Pop. l:;98. Jeflerson, tp. of Greene co., Ind. Pop. 1348. Jeflerson, tp. of Henry co., Ind. Pop. 1234. Jeflerson, tp. of Huntington eo., Ind. Pop. 1227. Jelferson, tp. of Jay co., Ind. Pop. 1640. Jcirerson, tp. of Kosciusko eo., Ind. Pop. 711. JelFcrsou, tp. of Miami co., Ind. Pop. 1370. Jefferson, tp. of iMorgan CO., Ind. Pop. 1081. Jeflerson, tp. of Newton co., Ind. Pop. 1600. Jeflerson, fp. of Noble co., Ind. Pop. 1293. Jelferson, tp. of Owen co., Ind. Pop. 2018. Jeflerson, tp. of Pike CO., Ind. Pop. 2188. Jeflerson, ip. of Pulaski co., Ind. Pop. 171. Jefferson, Ip. of Putnam co., Ind. Pop. 990. Jefferson, tp. of Sullivan co., Ind. Pop. 1251. Jellersun, Ip. of Switzerland co., Ind. Pop. 3208. Jeflerson, ip. of Tipton eo., Ind. Pop. 1738. Jeflerson, ip. of Washington eo., Ind. Pop. 1532. Jellorson, Ip. of Wayne co., Ind. Pop. 1785. Jefferson, Ip. of Wells co., Ind. Pop. 1773. Jeflerson, tp. of Whitley co., Ind. Pop. 1203. Jefferson, tp. of .\dair co., la. Pop. 362. Jeflerson, tp. of Allamakee eo., la. Pop. 1015. Jefferson, tp. of Bremer co., la. Pop. 760. Jefferson, tp. of Buchanan co., la. Pop. 918. Jeflerson, ip. of Butler co., la. Pop. 613. Jefferson, tp. of Clayton co., la. Pop. 2245. Jefferson, tp. of Dubuque co., la. Pop. 1550. Jefferson, Ip. of Fayette co.. la. Pop. 039. Jeirersoii, fiont-v. atid tp., cap. of tlrcene co., la., 50 mib'.'i N. W. of l>e3 Moines, on the Coon Kivor and tlio Norlh-western R. R. ; has a bank, 22' stores, 4 ehurehes, a fine court-house, a g<Kiil graded seliool, and a weekly news- paper. Pop. of v. 779; of tp. 1S2S. SwAi.M & RiioAD!). Ens. "Bee." Jefferson, tp. of Harrison co., la. Pop. 694. Jeflerson, t|i. of Henry co., la. Pop. 1438. Jelferson, tp. of Johnson co., la. Pop. 900, Jelferson, ip. of Leo co., la. Pop. 1059. Jelferson, tp. of Louisa co.. In. Pop. 840. Jelferson, Ip. of Madison co., la. Pop. 055. Jelferson, Ip. of Mahaska co., la. Pop. 1174. Jelferson, Ip. of Mnr^^hall co., la. Pop. 001. Jelferson, ip. of P..lk co., la. Pop. 832. Jelferson, tp. of Poweshiek co., la. Pop. 000. Jelferson, Ip. of Ringgold co., la. Pop. 527. Jefferson, Ip. of Taylor co., la. Pop. 542. Jeflerson, tp. of AVarren co., la. Pop. 1012. Jelferson, tp. of Wayne co., I». Pop. 704. Jelferson, ip. of Jackson co., Kan. Pop. 1542. Jelferson, tp. of JefTcrson co., Kan. Pop. IflSO. Jellerson, post-tp. of Lincoln co., Mc., 18 miles N. N. i:. i.r Wis.asscl. Pop. isai. Jelferson, post v. and tp. of Frederick co., Md.. 8 miles S. W. of Frederick ('ity. Pop. of v. 257 ; of tp. 1491. Jefferson, tp. of Cass co., Mich. Pop. 1047. Jelferson, post.lp. of Hillsdale Co., Mich. Pop. 1973. Jellerson, ip. of Houston co., .Minn. Pop. 372. Jelferson, tp. of Winona co., Minn. Pop. 640. Jelferson, Ip. of Andrew co., Mo. Pop. 1605. Jefferson, tp. of Cedar co.. Mo. Pop. 1040. Jeflerson, tp. of Clarke eo.. Mo. Pop. 843. Jelferson, ip. of Colo co.. Mo. Pop. 1839. Jeflerson, tp. of Diiviess co.. Mo. Pop. 1059. Jelferson, tp, of Grundy co., Mo. Pop. 874. Jeflerson, ip. of Linn co.. Mo. Pop. 1810. Jelferson, tp. of Maries eo.. Mo. Pop. 1123. Jelferson, tp. of Monroe co.. Mo. Pop. 2147. Jelferson, tp. of Osage co., Mo. Pop. 1390. Jefferson, tp. of Polk co.. Mo. Pop. 480. Jeflerson, tp. of Saline co.. Mo. Pop. 3002. Jeflerson, tp. of Scotland co.. Mo. Pop. 3297. Jefferson, tp. of Shelby co., Mo. Pop. 867. Jefferson, tp. of AVayne co.. Mo. Pop. 371. Jefferson, post-tp. of Coos co., N. H.. in the White Mountain region. It has e.\tensive inanufaclures of lum- ber and slareh. It is a place of summer resort. Pop. 826. Jefferson, tp. of Morris co., N. J. Pop. 1430. Jefferson, post-v. and tp. of .Schoharie co.. N. Y., 5 miles N. of Stamford, the nearest railroail station. Tho town of Jefferson is hilly, has 2 churches, a weekly news- paper, various stores, and manufactures of shoes, cabinet- wares, etc. Principiil business, farming and dairying. Pop. 1712. A. W. Clark, En. " Ji:FiKiisoNrAN." Jefferson, post-v. and tp.. cap. of Ashe co., N. C, near New River, 45 miles S. of Marion, Va. Chief business, agriculture and mining. It has 1 hotel, 2 academies (male and female), a weekly newspaper, stores, shops, etc. Pop. 1228. R. M. DicKKV. En. •■ Moixtaix Mkssesgeb." Jefferson, tp. of Guilford co., N. C. Pop. 1045. Jefferson, tp. of Adams co., 0. Pop. 2268. Jefferson, post-v. and tp., cap. of Ashtabula co.. 0., 13 miles S. of Lake Erie, on the Oil City branch of tho Lake Shore R. R., in a rich grazing and dairy country ; has 2 banks, 16 stores, 2 foundries, various shops, a weekly newspaper, 6 public schools, and 2 hotels; was the homo of J. R. Giddings, and is (1874) that of B. F. AVade. Pop. of V. 809; of tp. 1712. W. C. HowELi.s, En. ".■\siiTABtI,A Sentinei.." Jefferson, tp. of Brown co., O. Pop. 1267. Jeflerson, ip. of Clinton co., 0. Pop. 1445. Jefferson, tp. of Coshocton co., 0. Pop. 1059. Jefferson, v. of Neave tp., Parke co., 0. Pop. 107. Jefferson, v. of Bloom tp., Fairfield CO., 0. Pop. TO. Jefferson, tp. of Fayette co., 0. Pop. 2532. Jefferson, tp. of Franklin co.. 0. Pop. 1405. Jelferson, tp. of Greene co., 0. Pop. 1277. Jefferson, tp. of Guernsey co., 0. Pop. 904. Jelferson, tp. of .Tackson co., 0. Pop. 3002. Jeflerson, tp. of Kuo.x co., 0. Pop. 1308. Jeflerson, tp. of Logan co., 0. Pop. 1634. Jefferson, a v. and Ip. ( W. JnFFEnsos P. 0.) of Mad- ison CO., I)., on tho Little Miami R. R. Pop. 577 ; of tp. IS-S,"*. Jefferson, tp. of Mercer co., 0. Pop. 1557. Jefferson, Ip. of Montgomery co., 0. Pop. 3350. Jelferson, tp. of Noble co., 0. Pop. 1278. Jelferson, tp. of Preble co., 0. Pop. 1953. Jeflerson, tp. of Richland oo., 0. Pop. 2251. Jelferson, tp. of Ross co., 0. Pop. 1013. Jelferson, tp. of Scioto co., 0. Pop. 659. Jelferson, tp. of Tuscarawas CO., 0. Pop. 1058. Jeflerson, tp. of Williams co., 0. Pop. 1504. Jelferson, Ip. of Allegheny eo., Pa. Pop. 2006. Jelferson, Ip. of Berks co., Pn. Pop. 1133. Jellerson, Ip. of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 1234. Jelferson, Ip. of Iiaiiphiii co.. Pa. Pop. .<!43. Jellerson, 1]). of Fayette eo., Pn. Pop. 13S1. Jellerson, post-lp. of Greene oo., Pn. Pop. 1322. Ji'lferson, tp. of Luzerne co.. Pa. Pop. 770. Jelferson, Ip. of .Mercer Co., Pa, Pop, 1292. .lelferson, Ip. of Sonierset eo.. Pa. Pop. 706. JelliTson, Ip. of Washington co.. Pa. Pop. 889. Jelferson, a b. of Soulli Codorus tp. (Conoiiis P. 0.), York CO., Pa., i a mile .^. of .lelTerson Station, a post-v. on the Hanover branch of the Northern Central U. R. P. •'!27. Jelferson, post-tp. of Che.tcrficld co., S. C. Pop. IIOI. Jelferson, city. cap. of Marion eo., Tejc., situated at 1386 JEFFERSON. the head of navij^ation on the Big Cypress Bajou, which connects with Rt-d River, on a section of the Texas and Pacific R. R., which also forms part of the direct line of the Intfrnational R. R.,wiiich was completed in 1.S74 from Cairo, III., to Iloarne in Central Texas. Jefferson is the largest town in Xorth-eastcrn Tcxa?, bcinsr the centre of a river commerce which has acquired conpiderahle import- ance since the civil war. It now sends to New Orleans 273,000 bales of cotton annually, bcsifies large quantities of hides, cattle, beef in barrels, tallow, wnol, and bois d'arc seed. Twenty thousand waijons annually arrive at Jeffer- son from the interior counties, with which the commerce amounts to more than $10,000,000. Vast beds of iron and coal are found in the vicinity. Jefferson was settled in lS4o. It has 7 churches, ."► newspnpers. 1 national bank, and numerous manufactories. Pop. 411)0 (1870), since largely iucrcased. Jefferson, tp. of Alexandria co., Vn. Pop. 125G. Jefferson, tp. of Loudon co., Va. Pop. 3355. Jefferson, tp. of Kanawha co., West Va. Pop. 1635. Jefferson, tp. of Lincoln co., West Va. Pop. 508. Jefferson, tp. of Nicholas co., West Vn. Pop. 649. Jeflerson, tp. of Pleasants co., West Va. Pop. 407. Jeflerson, tp. of Green co.. Wis. Pop. 1673. Jefferson, post-v. and tp., cap. of Jefferson co.. Wis., on the Ciiica'j;o and North-western R. R., Wisconsin di- vision, 26 miles X. N. E. of Janesville, at the junction of Rock and Crawfish rivers. It has 1 manvifactory of fur- niture, 3 of brick, 1 of woollens, and 1 of flour; 1 weekly newspaper, 2 graded-school houses, 4 hotels, a national bank, a savings bank, a fire department with steam fire- engine, and is the seat of Jefferson Liberal Institute. The town is mainly built of cream brick, made here. It is in a very fertile region. Pop. 2176; of tp. 4408. A. Savborn, Pub. ^'Baxneh." Jefferson, tp. of Monroe co.. Wis. Pop. 764. Jefferson, tp. of Vernon co., Wis. Pop. IIOS. Jefferson (JosErn). b. at Philadelphia Feb. 20, 1829, descended from several generations of actors; appeared on the stage in his boyhood iu comic parts : has acted in Eng- land and Australia with great success. Jefferson produced at the Ad"lphi Theatre. London, in 1865, his celebrated play of Rip Van Wiulh, which has kept the stage ever since, and procured him a wide reputation. Jefferson (Thomas), LL.D.. third President of the U.S., h. in Albemarle co., Va., Apr. 13 (n. s.), 1743. His family, of Weli'h extraction, was settled iu Virginia before 1610, iu whie,h year his ancestor was a member of the assembly, the fir.-*t legislative body ever convened in America. His father, Peter Jefferson, a surveyor and planter, was a man of extraordinary jihysical strength, and sound intelligence, a publiir spirited citizen and valuable man. who served his covmty as public surveyor, as colonel, and as a member of the legislature. Peter .lefferson married, in 1738, Jane, daughter of Isham Ran<b>lph, and granddaughter of the founder of the Virginia Randolphs, by whom he had nine children, Thomas being hia third child and eldest son. Iu 1757. Peter ilied, leaving a widow and eight children, the oldest seventeen years, the youngest twenty-two months, Thomas being a schoolboy of fourteen. The family inher- ited 1000 acres and 30 slaves. fr<)m the product of which Thomas was enabled to attend AVilliam and Mary College and study law, thus fulfilling the fondest wish of his father and obeying one of his last injunctions. lie loved to think that this was his father's dying eommaml. an<i he used to say in his old age that if he had had to choose between the estate or the education his father had given him, ho would have chosen the education. He entered college in 17^0. remiiined two years, began the study of the law at Wil- liamsburg under George AVytho in 1763, and in 1767, being twenty-four years of age. he was admitted to the bar. As a student he was industrious, resolute, moral, and intelli- gent, lie was fortunate in his mathematical ]>rofessor, Small, a friend of Erasmus Darwin: also in the learned George Wylhe. who directed the legal studies of Chief- Justice Marshall and Henry Clay. Tudcr the influence of these liberal minds he investigated the sources of law, the origin of liberty, and the gradual establishment of equal rights, extending his resenrehcs into remote an- tiquity, iind becoming one of the most accomplished young men of his time. Ho actiuired skill upon the violin, some- times practising three hours a day. and was a close observer and student of nature. He obtained at once a large and profitable practice at the bar, which he held for eight years, until he wax drawn into public life by the conflict between the colonies and (ireat Britain. From 6S cases in his first year, he was employed in 430 cases in his fourth, and his incomo at tbo bar is estimated at £500 sterling per annum, by which he increased his estate to 5000 acres of land. He married, Jan. 1, 1772, Martha Skelton. a young, beautiful, and childless widow, daughter and heiress of a leading lawyer of Virginia, John Wayles, whose death the next year doubled Jefferson's es- tate. Elected a member of the house of burgesses in 1769, he served iu that boily til! the Revolution, a firm supporter of liberal measures, and noted for his disapproval of slavery. With Patrick Henry and the Lees he was a leader of the party in opposition to the British king, though strongly attached to the mother-countr}'. He took his scat as a member of the Continental Congress June 21, 177.'>, the day on which the news of the battle of Bunker Iiitl reached Philadelphia and AVashinglon left that city to take com- mand ot' the army at (.'ambridge. Seldom joining in de- bate, for he wns no orator, he acquired great influence by his courtesy, his readiness in composition, his knowledge of law and usage, his general information, his moderation of tone, and his warm devotion to the country's cause. After serving on several leading c(»nnniftees and drawing important papers, he was chosen to ilraft the Declaration of Independence, which, after three days' debate and ex- tensive amendment, was adopted and signed on Thursday afternoon, July 4, 1770. In September of the same year he resumed his sent in the Virginia legislature, where, in conjunction with George Wythe and James Madisnn, he spent three years in adapting the laws of A'irginia to the new order of things, and in other patriotic labors. He effected the abolition of entail and primogeniture, and drew the law — the first ever passed by a legislature or adopted by a government — which secured perfect religious freedom. His scheme for the establishment of common schools and for the abolition of slavery, though warmly supported by the liberal members, failed. June 1, 1779, he succeeded Patrick Henry as governor of Virginia, an ofnee whicli he resigned after holding it two years, dur- ing which he ably co-operated with AVashington in de- fending the country. One of his own estates was rav- aged and plundered by Cornwallis, and his house at Mon- ticello was held for some days by Tarleton's cavalry. Jeffer- son himself narrowly escaping capture. Sejit. 6, 1782, his wife died, leaving three children of six to which she had given birth. Distracted with grief, he now accepted an apjioint- ment as plenipotentiary to France, which he had declined in 1776. Before sailing he served for some weeks in Con- gress at Annapolis, where he succeeded in carrying a bill establishing our jiresent system of decimal currency — one of the most useful of his public services. Reaching Paris in June. 1784, ho remained until October, 1789. " Vou replace Dr. Franklin," said the Count dc Vcrgennes to the new minister. '' I /tucrcd," was Mr. .Tefferson's reply ; "no one can replace him." He was filled with horror at the .condition of France, and declared that a government of nobles and priests was a government of wolves over sheep. The most miserable person in the U. S. be thought bapjtier than nineteen out of twenty Frenchmen, and he attributed the general misery chiefly to the bad govern- ment. He was an active and vigilant minister. Besides per- forming the usual duties of his place, he published his \»itrn on Virf/iiiia, sent to the U. S. seeds, jilants, and shrubs, enriched Buffon's collection with American speci- mens, forwarded literary and scientific news, and gave use- ful advice to La Fayette and the other revolutionary lead- ers. Nov. 18. 1789. he landed in Virginia, having obtained a six months' leave for the purpose of bringing his dnushtcra home, one of whom was engaged to be married to Thomas Mann Randolph, afterwards governor of Virginia. Jeffer- son was met soon after his arrival by a letter from Pres. Washington appointing him secretary of state. He ac- cepted the place, and entered u])on its duties at New York in Mar., 1791. residing at .')7 Maiden lune, and held the office until Jan. 1, 1794, when he resigned. During his tenure of this office the two political parties became sharply defined, and Jefferson, who was in the warmest sympathy with the French revolution and strongly democnitie in his feelings, was recognized as the leailer and candidate of the Republican party. His colleague. Alexander Hamilton, beeame his decided and aggressive political opponent. " We were pitted against each other," Jefferson once wrote, "every day in the cabinet like two fighting-eoeks." In 1706 he was elected Vice-President of the V. S., and was sworn in Mar. 4. 1797. In 18110 he was elected to the Presidency, and bcinir inaugurated Mar. 4. ISOl, he entered upon a part of his career whieh will ever he regarded with interest by republieans of every land. He selected an able and aeeoinplished cabinet: .Tames Madison of A'irginia, state; Albert Gallatin of Pennsylvania, treasury: Henry Dearborn of Maine, war; Robert Smith of Maryland, navy; Gideon Granger of New York, post-office. Admin- istering the government in unbroken harmony with bis JEFFERSON BARRACKS— JEHOVAH. 1387 mioistcrs. he grinlually won to his support n majority of the people so groat that he deemed the opposition scarcely strong enough to adequately criticise and admonish the party in power. He wagod a sucecssfal war agiiinst the piratical Algcrincs, in which the navy of the V. S. won gruat dibitinciion and formed the gallant officers ^Those ex- ploits in the war of 1^12 were so remarkable; Louisiana was purchased of Xapoleon ; the puhlic debt was greatly reduced: the wesfern country was explored by Lewis and Clark and by Pike: the system of precedence was abol- i«hecl, and a rational etiquette substituted. He attempted by the embargo to introduce a better method than that of war to enforce the national rights. Having dcrlined urg- ent solicitations to accept a nomination fur a third term, he retired to private life Mar. 4, ISOlt, and spent the re- mainder of his days at his beautiful seat. Monlicollo. cheered by the soc-iety of hia eldest daughter and a large number of affectionate grandchildren. Many of his later years were employed in fuundiug the University of Vir- ginia, now an important institution. He died on the fif- tieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, a few hours before his contemporary and friend, John Adams. Mr. JffTerson was tall, well-formed, straight, and uncom- monly strong. He had sandy hair, a ruddy cumplexion, and a tranquil, benevolent expression of countenance. His temper was perfect; his manners were natural and easy. He loved his country and his kind, and spent a long life in honorable and useful labors, public and private, beloved by all who knew him as ho was. He was one of the best- informed men of his day, and all his habits an<l instincts were those of a student and observer. (For fuller infor- mation, sec his W'orl.-^, 9 vols. Svo ; MfnuoSts and CtnTf;- *f)'HKlcncc, by his grandson, T. J. Randolph, 4 vols., 1S29; UitHjrnphivH Ity (ieorge Tucker, 2 vols., IS.'JT, by H. (1. Randall, .1 vols. Svo. ISiS, by his granddaughter, Sarah N. Randolph, 1 vol., 1871, and by James Parton, 1 vol., 1S7I.) James Pauton. JcfTorson Barracks, post-r. of St. Louis co., Mo., on the Mississippi River. U miles below St. Louis, and on the St. Louis and Iron Mountain R. R., is the site of ex- tensive l*^. S. barracks. Jefferson City, cap. of Missouri and seat of justice of (*f»le cf>.. on the S. bank of the .Missouri River, 125 miles ^V^ of St. Louis, and near the geographical centre of the State. It is on the Missouri Paeiiic U. R.. and by ferry transfer with Cedar City, on tlie opposite side of the river, it is the S. W. terminus of the Chicago and Alton R. R. Its site is elevated and pleasant, and the town is well built. Am'ing the public buildings are the State capitol, the ex- ecutive mansion, State armory, penitentiary, 8 churches. 2 public-school building-", Lincoln Institute, a normal school for colored youth, and a female seminary. There aro 2 large flouring-mills, manufaetory of farm-implements, a foun<lrv, and many minor industrial interests, 1 State and 2 national banks, weekly newspaper, and a State library. It is the seat of Jefl"er>on City College (Protestant Episco- pal). It is in a healthful region, which has great mineral and agricultural wealth, coal, iron, and ghisssand abound- ing. Pop, 4420, much increased since the U. S. census. P. T. Mii.LKR, En. " Pkoim.k's Tkibit.vk." JpflTerson CoUegc. See Wasuisgton a.nd JiiFFEiisoN Goi,i,K«;i:. Jctrcrso'nin (J. diphjflln), a vernal plant of the order Bcrberidaceip, popularly known as twin-loaf, from its two- parted leaves, which rise in a tuft from the roots. The tlowers aro white, resemble those of blood-root, and appear in early spring. Thc./'7?>r«oji/ri is indigenous to the North- ern Central .*^ta(c8 of the U. S.. but is cultivated in Eng- land. The root has been reeommendcd as a specific for rheumatism, but the medicinal quality is somewhat doubtful. Jerfersonton, post-v. and ip. of Culpcper co., Va., lO.i miles .\. W. ol" Richmond, on the HajtpahanDook. I'np. 4110; of Ip. 2'JJ.t. JcPforsonville, post-v., cop. of Twigga co., Go., 15 miles S. from <iordon. JofTersonvillc, post-v. of Lamard tp., Wayne co., III., on the Springfield and Illinois South-eastern R. R., G niiles N. by W. of Fairfield ; founded 1H.'.2 in the fertile Lii Mard Prairie; has 2 churches, a park, a weekly neuspnper, 2 hotels, flour and saw mtMs, etc. R. A. Moss, Ei). " Watne Co. Ckntral." JcfTcrsonville, city nn<l tp. of Clnrke eo.. Ind., on tho Oliio River, opposite Ijonissille, Ky.. with which it is con- nected by a fine rnilroa^l bridge. It \» (he terminus of the Jefferson Madison and Indinniipolis R. R.. and is on the Ohio and Mississippi R. R., I^ouisville divittion; a branch of the former road extemU thence to New Albany. The falU of the Ohio hfr<' afi'ord a noble water power. Tho town has good shipping facilities, 2 largo shipyards, II churches, locomotive and car works, and the machine-5hops of the first-mentioned railroad. It contains tho Southern State penitentiary, is the seat of an extensive government d^pOt of supplies which cost $200,000, has 2 national banks, 2 largo flour-mills, a fine high-school building, a weekly and a daily newspaper. Pop. of city, 7254; of tp. outside city limits, .'^042. R. Daily, En. "News and Deuwrat." Jettersouvillc, N. Y. See Callicoo.v. Jctfer^oitvillef post-v. of Jefferson tp., Fayette co., 0. Pop. 212. JefTersonville, or Tazewell Court-lionse, a v. and tp., cop. of Tazewell co., Va., in a mountain-region, 28 miles N. of Marion, has 3 churches, a high school, a weekly newspaper, 2 hotels; is in a fine blue-gnif;s region. Chief business, cattle-raising and farming. Pop. ;^6.S2. J. C. NirTTV, En. "News." Jerfrey (Frascis), Lori>, b. at Edinburgh Oct. 2.3, 177.'J; was educated at Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Oxford, and in 1704 was passed an advocate at Edinburgh, but his literary tastes and Whig principles rendered his progress in his profession slow. In isn2 he was one of the founders of the Edhihurijh licvitw, of which he became the leading spirit, and w.is for twenty-six years the principal editor; in IS13 visited New York and mrirricd Miss Charlotte ^Vilkes, his second wife; won wide fame by the ability and severity with which he opposed the new schools of poetry which sprang up in Great Britain. Acquiring a brilliant though tardy reputation at the bar, he was made dean of tho Faculty of Advocates 1829; lonl advocnte, with the title of Lord Jeffrey, 1830; sat in Parliament for Perth IS.'tO, for Mallon 1831, for Edinburgh 1832. Regarding Jeffrey's work as a critic, the sentence of time has been adverse; for, though his abilities were undeniable, his judgment was often overmnstered by prejudice; but a£ a jurist he was just and able ; us a man ho was beloved even by his literar}' adversaries. D. at Craigcrook Jan. 26, 1850. Jeffreys, tp. of Marion co., S. C. Pop. 2005. Jeffreys (George), Bahox, b. at Aeton, Denbigh, Wales, in 161S; studied law in the Middle Temple; was culled to the bar in IGfiO; and practised chiefly at the Old Bailey, where he acquired the ferocious brutality which (hen distinguished that court, and which characterized him through life; was common sergeant of London 1G7I; af- fected Puritanism, but was knighted in 1(»77 and made solicitor to the duke of York; recorder of London IfiTS- 80; king's sergeant and chief-justice of Chester IC80; bar- onet 1G8I ; was crown counsel against Lord Russell, and became chief-justice of the king's bench 1683; sentenced Algernon Sidney 1083; tried Baxter and Titus Gates 1CS5; received a peerage 1C85. in which year he held the Blootly Assize for the trial of Monmouth's adherents, of whom ho caused 320 to be hung and 841 to be solJ into slavery in tho colonies, for which service he was. made lord chnn- cellor; was a party in nearly all the misdeeds of James II. ; was seized bv a mob and confined in the Tower 1688, audd. there Apr.'l8, 1689. Jeffries (John), M. D., b. at Boston, Mass., Feb. 5, 1744; graduated at Harvard in 1763; studied medicine at London and Aberdeen; returned to Boston to practise his profes.sion ; and. aeconipun.viT)g the Briiish forces on their withilrawal to Halifax in 177'i, he was iippointcd surgeon- general by Gen. Howe. In 1779, Dr. Jeffries became sur- geon-major to all the British forces in America, but goon retired to EnglnncI, where ho devoted much attention to scientific experiment, especially upon atmospheric phe- nomena. In 178J he crossed the Channel from Dover into France in a balloon, a feat which attracted much attention from the learned societies of Paris. In 17S9, Dr. Jefirics returned to Boston, where he resided until his death, Sept. 16, 1SH», Dr. Jeffries delivered in 1789 tho first public- anatomical lecture ever given in New England, but a great popular sentiment existing against dissections, he was enni- pelled by mob violcouo to discontinue bis course of in- struction. Jehosli'nphnt, tho fourth king of Judnh, was the snn of Asa, wboMi be siieeeedc'l in 912 n. c. and reigned (o S<7 n. r. .'Mlhoiigb he was utterly di fenled by the Syrians in the battle of Ranioth-gllend. and although his first expe- dition to Ophir v(\i» foiU'd by the wreck of his whole fl«et, his reign was ne\ ertlnless generally very fortunate. Ho workcil encrcetieally ami sueee-isfnjly to extirpate idolatry, he kept the ntttionit on the borders in awe, nnd HgrieuUuro and commerce prospered under his rule. The name of Jc- hoshnphat meann "Jehovah's judgment;" hence the flgn- ralivo expression of tho prophet Joel, 'Mho valley of Jo- hoshaphat." Jetio'vah [Heh.] occurs only fonr times in the Autho- rized Version of the Bible, but the Hebrew word (71171') for which it stands is used hundreds of times, being usu- 1388 JEHU— JENKINS. ally represented in our Bible by "Lord," or "the Lohd." priatc'l in small capitals, to distinguish it from other words similarly translated. This singular jihenomcnon arises from the fact (hat while the consonants of the name (the Hebrew alphabet having originally had no signs for vowels) have been faitlifully preserved by transcription, the Jews for ages have refrained from prononncinrj the name on account of its sacredncss; so that the original pronunciation has been lost. Whenever the word occurs they suhstilute for it, in reading, ^31X (.4(Mo»«(*) ; and to indicate this the Masoretic puncfators connected with the conttonnuts TWTV the rmvch of ''31X. But when these two words are found together, 71171^ is punctuated with the vowel-points of DTi^X (God). This practice must be one of long standing, inasmuch as wo find in the Septuagint (the Greek transla- tion of the Old Testament dating from the second or tliird century b. c). «vpto? uniformly put for niiT. Tins example ha3 been followed in most of the versions. There are now no rcspcctablo si;hoIars who suppose that the form TV^TV^ (*' Jehovah") represents the original sound of the name. From Exodus lii. H, lu, where ri'.nsi, the first person im- perfect of rrri. **to be," is identified with nilT' ; from the form which the word assumes in proper names compounded with it (especially ^iTV at the end of such names) ; and from ancient testimony respecting the pronunciation, it is now generally conceded by scholars that jirobably the verb had originally 1 (vav) instead of ** (yodh) for its second radical, and that the third person singular imperfect was T\)7\\ (Yahveh or Yahweh), and that this is the proper form of the sacred name. As to its significance, since it expresses existence emphatically as the characteristic of God, we may say that it denotes iha perfection of exintcnec. Hence, eter- nity, self-existenee, sovereignt}', unchangeablcness, and es- pecially personality, are conceptions fairly to be inferred as cmboclied in the name. In the Old Testament generally mn' is the term used when God's personal relation to his people is emphasized. Jehovah, rather than Elohim, is God as rcrpa?/?!'/ himself, as a lairgiier, as inspiring ^)ro^>/i- ccy/^ as i\\(s faithful one, as the object of xrorship, as the liriiiff God, as the rcwanlcr of good and punishcr of evil. In general. Elohim may bo called the God of nature, and Jehovah (Yahveh) the God of revelation. (On this subject the principal writers are Hongstenborg, Anthcnticitif of the Pcntntcurh ; Reinkc, PhiloHophisch-historischc Abluindlumj fiber tlcn Gattcimumcn Jchova : Tholuck, in the LiternrtKchc Anzeitjcr {l^'il) x Ucland's collection of essays entitled /^crns Exrrrittitionum Philfilof/irnnim de vera Proniinciatione uom- inia Jchova ; E. Ballantine, on the Import of the name Jc- Iiorahj in the Biblical Pepositori/, vol. iii.) C. M. Mead. Je'hu [Heb. Ychti; meaning uncertain], the eleventh king ol Israel, and founder of tlie fourth dynasty in the northern kingdom; reigned 28 years, from B. <\ 8S.*t to 8.'),'). In his youth, .Iciiu was one of the guards of Ahab, and in the reigns of Ahaziah and Jchoram had become one of the j chief military leaders. In the account of the vision which 1 appeared to Elijah at Horcb in the time of Ahab, that prophet was commanded to anoint Jeliu king of Israel as | instrument of the divine vengeance upon idolatrous Israel I (I Kings xix. 11), 17). This commaml was disobeyed, and [ .Tehudidnot corae to the throne until nearly or quite twenty , years later, when he was anointed by one of the prophets i under EUsha's directions, and proceeded to the massacre I of King Joram, his mother Jezebel, his guest Ahaziah, Icing of Judah, seventy brothers of Joram, forty-two brothers of Ahaziah, and, in general, of all the prophets, priest:*, and worshippers of Baal. The reign of .Ichu was | not marked by any further remarkable events, so far as can j be learned from the biblical record, hut the name occurs on the black obelisk from Xinevch, now in the British Museum, ' as one of the tributaries to the Assyrian empire. Thetly- uasty of Jehu occupied the throne of Samaria for four gen- , cration?. Jeisk, or Eisk, town of Russia, in the territory of the . Kuban Cossacks, on the Sea of Azof, was founded in 18J8 as a port for the rich produce of the surrounding country, i aud has grown very rapidly since. Pop. 10.747. Jcjpeblioy' (Sir Jamsktjke), Baiit,. b. at Bombay. In- dia, July l."», 178;!, belonged to that Parsee race which is j the present representative of the ancient Zoronstrians and Firc-worsliippers of Persia, He commenced life in poverty, I made several eommcreini voyages to Cliina, and succeeded I 60 well as to be able in 1S22 to release all the di'l)tors held | in prison in Bombay by paying their debts. In recogni- tion of his princely benefactions he was knighted by Queen A^ietoria in 1842, and made a baronet in 1857. In ISofi a statue was voted tn him by the citizens of Bombay. Sir Jamsetjoo d. at that phi'-o Apr. 14, ISJ9, au'l on Aug. 1 after his death the statue was placed in the town-hall. His estate was valued at $4,000,000; his charitable foun- dations, widely distributed through Western India, were estimated to have cost $1,500,000, most of them set in operation during his life. Jeknterinbiirg. See Yekaterindoorg. Jekaterinodar. Sec Yekaterinodar. Jeknterinoslav. See YEKAXEniNosLAv. JclaUibad'f town of Afghanistan, is situated near the Cabool, on a fertile plain 2200 feet above the sea, in lat. .^4° 2o' N. It is poorly built ; its trade is entirely in the hands of the Hindoos; its population varies according to the season from .'iOOO to 10.000. A single English brigade under Sir Robert Sale defeated here a large Afghan force in Mar.. 18-12. Jelatma, or Jelatom. Sec Yelatom. Jcletz. Sec Yelktz. Jel'lachich von Buzim (Count Josi-pn). b. at Peter- waradin,on the so-called military frontier of Ilunirarv. Oct. 10, 1801, was a son of Baron Franz .lellachirli, a field-mnr- shal in the Napoleonic wars: entered the army at an early age; spent many years on the Turkish border in military service; became in 1842 colonel of the first Banat border regiment, and when the Magyar revolution broke out in 1848 threw his great influence with the Slavic popul.Ttions into the scale in favor of the Austrian empire. At the re- quest of a Slavic committee. Jellaehich was app(»infeil to the chief coniman<l of the southern districts of the emj)ire, under the mfdianal title of ban of Croatia. Slavonia. and Dalmatia. Tliis title theoretically gave him an almost in- dependent sovereignty, which he hastened to use by assem- bling a Slavic diet, being consecrated in the hanatt- by the bishop, and organizing the southern Slavonians against the Hungarians. The emperor became alarmed at his proceed- ings, and at the instance of the Hungarian cabinet, which he was still trying to propitiate, issued a decree depriving Jellaehich of his new rank, and summoning him to answer for his conduct. But the sagacious ban of Croatia under- stood the situation ; he not only disregarded all inconve- nient orders from Vienna, but after a personal visit to the imperial family invaded Hungary in September, effected a junction with Windi^chgrUtz, aided in the reconquest of Vienna, and participated in the important campaigns of the ensuing year. (See Hungary and Kossith.) Jella- ehich gave no proof of great tactical ability, but the weighty influence he exerted upon the events of the time was rather political than military. He was well educated, aud had a profound knowledge of the tendencies and aspi- rations of the heterogeneous mass of nationalities compos- ing the Austrian emjiire. In 18J0. .Teilaehich published a volume of jiocms ; commanded in 18.').'i an army of obser- vation on the Bosnian frontier; received the rank of count in 185j; and d. ot Agram May 20, ISJS. JoHy-Fish. See Acaleph.*;. Jemappes', town of Belgium, in the province of Hai- naut. Here the raw levies of the first French republic under Bumouriez won a decisive victory over the Austrian army, Nov. G, 1702. It has extensive manufactures and large coal-mines in the vicinity. Pop. Il,lfi4. Jcm'ison (Robert, Jr.). a son of M'illiam Jemison, a wealtliy planter, b. and bred in Georgia ; in early life re- moved to Alabama, where lie was long a prominent M''hi^ member of the legislature. He was made president of the State senate in 1803, and soon after entered the Confed- erate Senate, though a strong anti-secessionist ; was the founder of the financial system of Alabama (1817), of the State insane asylum, and of the Alabama and Chattanooga R. R. ; resided in Tuscaloosa, and d. Oct. 16, IS71. Jc^na^ town of Germany, in the grand duehy of Saxc- Wi'imar-Eisenaeh, on the Saale. Its university, founded in 1558, was 1787-1800 the most celebrated scientific insti- tution of Germany. Schiller, Schlcgel, Oken, Schelling, and Fichto were professors here, and more than lOUO stu- dents heard their lectures. On Oct. 14, 1806, Napoleon totally defeated the Prussian army on the height? outside of Jena, which battle for many years decided the fate of. Northern Germany. Pop. 69S4. Jengis Khan* See Genghis Khan. Jonisoi. See Yenisei. JeirUins, tp. of Mitchell co., la. Pop. 587. Jenkins^ tp. of Jefferson co.. Neb. Pop. 442. .InikinSy tp. of Luzerne co., Pa. It has mines of an- thracite coal. Pop. 2505. Jenkins (Albert G.), b. in Cabell co., Va., Nov. 10, 18:50; educated at Jefferson College. Pa., and at the Law Scho(»l. Cambridge, but without entering upon (he jiraetice of his profession direeU-rl his attention to agriculture : mem- ber of Ciacinnati national convention 1S56, and member JENKINS— JENNINGS. 13S9 of the 35th and 36th Congresses : nppt.inlcd lingadior- Kcncral in the Confclcratc army in IfOl. ho fervid with The division of A. P. Hill; sul.Fequcnily in cominnnd of cavnirv bricadc in tho Gctlvs-burg cainim.pn. in the Shenandoah Vallev. and West Virginia; in the campaign of 1804 was killed" at Dublio, Va., iMay 7. I.Mi4. G. C. Simmons. Jenkins (Chaih-ES J.), b- '■> the district (now county) of Beaufort, P. C, Jan. fi, 1S05. Uis father moved to Jef- ferson CO Ga., ISI6, and Cliarles, the son, was educated partly at the Georgia University and partly at I ni"" Col- lege, Schenectady, N. Y., where ho graduated in 1821; studied law, and opened an office in the city of Augusta, Ga In is:i0 was elected to the legislature; in 18.,1 was elected ntlorney-general of the State, which position ho re- signed before the expiration of his term of office, and was a"-iin returned to the legislature in ls:'.ti. which position ho continuously held from IS.lfi to ISoO, ranking amongst the ablest and most eloquent of the House during all that pe- riod and being Speaker thereof whenever his parly was in tho inaioritT. In politics he was reared in the Jeffersoman State's Rights school, but supported Harrison for President in 1840, and Clav in 1S44. lie was a member of the Union convention of the Slate in ISoO. and as chairman of the committee on resolutions was tho author of the celebrated Georgia platform adopted by that body. In ISCO ho was appointed one of the judges of the supreme court of tho Slate to fill the vacancy occasioned by tho resignation of Hon. Linton Stephens. This position he held until the close of tho war. He was a member of the constitutional convention of the State called under the proclamation of Pros Johnson in 18G5. in which body be acted a prominent part, and in the same Tear was elected governor of tho State without opposition under tho new constitution so formed. This position he held until he was superseded by Gen Thos. 11. Kuger of tho U. S. army, who was appointed provisional governor of Georgia in IStiS under the recon- struction acts of Congress. Ue also has been one of the most active and inftucntial members of the board of trus- tees of the State University since IS.'.U. A. 11. Stephens. Jenkins iThokston A.), U. S. X., b. Dee 11, 1811 in Virginia; entered the navy as a midshipman ^ov. 1, IWb; became a passed midshipman in IS.U, a lieutenant in 18u9, and was employed in the office of the Coast Survey from Oct 1834, to Apr., 1842; promoted to be commander in ISo'd, a captain in 18C2, a commodore in 18G6, and rear- admiral in IS-0; retired from active service Dec. 11, 18. J. Served at sea in the Mediterranean, N. and S. Atlantic, and eoaatof Africa lS42-4o; sent to Europe m I84o, under instructions of tho secretary of tho treasury, to examine the systems of lighthouse illumination, and the general management of the aids to navigation service in the dif- ferent commercial nations of Europe; returned in 184G and submitted an elaborate report ; served on the L. coast of Me.tico during our war with that country and took iiart in the capture of Tuspau and hydrogrnpbical party of tho Co to its end, Tabasco. Commanding a hyrtrograpbical party oi me Coast Sur- vey 184H-JI, ho framed the organic law which was nassed in 1852 under which the present lighlliuuac establishment has been created and is now administered; Sejit., lSi8, commanded tho sloop-of-war Preble in our expedition against Paraguay, and subsequently (ISS'J-fiU) on the coasts of Central America and the fc. coast of Mexico; commanded eloop-of-war Wnchusett in James and I o- tomac rivers 1862; sloop-of-war OnL..da and 8«nn'J <!>- vision of Admiral Farrnguts fleet off Mobile 18fi2-nJ; fleet-captain and chief of staff to Admiral I arragut 1803- 64 ; commanded. temporarily,8loop-of-war Richmond under the gunsof Port Hudson, and senior naval officer in command at tho surrender of tli:it place to Mio army and navy July, 1863; wounded on board the sloop-of-war Monongahela in action with the enemy's land forces on the right bank of the Mississippi at College Point, below Fort D.mclson ; com- manded the sloop of-war Kichmond and the second division of Admiral Farragufs fleet blockading Mobile 18f,.,-Ca ; from l'<fio to 1869 clii-f of the bureau of navigation ; in 1S50-58 lS6l)-fi2, and IMl'J-Tl. naval secretary of the light- house board; from IS7I to the date of his retirement in command of our fleet in the East Indies. The eharaeter and services of this eminent officer are best shown by the following extract from Rear-admiral Farragufs oflieial re- port of the battle of Mobile Pay, dated Aug. 12, 1^04 : " lieforc closing this report there is one other ofhi'cr of my squadron of whom I feel bound to speak, Capt T A Jen- kins of the Richmond, who was formerly my chief of staff, not because of his having held that position, but because he never f .rgets to do his duty to the government, and takes now tho same interest in tho fleet as when he stood in that relation to me. He is also the comm:.nding officer of the second division of my squadron and as siieh has shown ability and tho most untiring real. He carries out the spirit of one of Lord Collingivood's best sayings : ' ^ot to be afraid of doing too much; those who arc, seldom do as much as they ought.'" Foxiiall A. PAiiKEit. Jenks, tp. of Forest CO., Pa. Pop. 118. Jenks (Joseph), b. at Haminersniilh, near London, came to Lynn, Mass., about 104 J; was the first founder who worked in brass and iron in America, and probably the first inventor. He received from the Mussaehusctis general court, May 6, 1646, a patent " for the making of engines for mills to go by water," and for making scythes and other edged tools, with a new-invented saw-mill, of which latter process he patented an improvement in May, 1655. Jenks is said to have made the dies for the silver coinage of the colony in 1052; he contracted in 1654 wilh the selectmen of lioston - for an engine to carry water in caseof firo;" and in 1667 asked the general court for aid in wire-drawing. Jcnks's works were on the river Saugus at Lynn, where he d. in 16S3. Jenks (William), D. D., LL.D., b. at Newton. Mass., Nov. 25, 1778, graduated at Harvard in 1797. and became a teacher: was pastor of a Congregational church at Bath, Me 1805-23; professor of English and Oriental literature in Bowdoin College 1815-18; and afterwards became a teacher in Boston, where he founded the Seamen s Betlicl ; was pastor of the Green Street church, Boston, 1826-4o. D Nov 13,1866. Ue was a member of many learned and benevolent societies, and the author of several works, among which is a Comprehauhe Commentary, once highly popular. Jen'ner, tp. of Somerset co.. Pa. Pop. 1703. Jen'ner (Edward), M. D., F. R. S., b. at Berkeley, Gloucester, Eng., May 17, 1749, the son of a vicar ; studied surgery at Sudbury and London, where he was a pupil of John Hunter, 1771-73; acquired the friendship of Sir Jo- sejdi Banks, who procuretl him the appointment of natu- ralist on Cook's second expedition ; but he retired to his native town in 177.3, and became a surgeon-npotliecary : received in 1792 his degree from St. Andrew's. Scotland; sent to the Royal Society a paper on the euckoo, which gained him a fellowship in the society. In 1796 ho made his first successful arm-to-arm inoculation with the virus of cowpox as a preventive to infection with smallpox. The first idea of this measure had been conceived by biin some twenty years before, when he learned ihat the Gloucester- shirc peasants considered accidental cowpox (acquired in milking cows) a preventive of smallpox. Observation having convinced him of the truth of the popular belief, in 1770 he communicated his opinion to Hunter, who ad- vised him to continue his observations. In 1798 he an- nounced his discovery, now established by abundant obser- vations, but was almost universally denounced by physi- cians and clergy, often in the severest language. He pub- lished a series' of Inqidrh, (1798. 1799, ISOO) upon the subject. The importance of his discovery was finally con- ceded, and he received in all some £37,000 in grants from Parliament and other sources as testimonials to the value of his labors. Personally, he was kindly, unselfish, and philanthropic. D. at Berkeley Jan. 20, 1823. Jen'ner (Sir William), Baiit., F. R. S., b. at Chatham in IHId; was educated at llniversity College, London, in which he became in 1848 professorof pathological anatomy, and in 1857 of chemical medicine. In ISOI. I>r. . enner was appointed physician to the queen, and attended 1 rince Albert in his last illness. He is a member of mimerous scientific societies, has contributed largely to medica lit- erature, and was the first to establish the difference in kind between typhus and typhoi.l fevers. He was created a baronet in 1868, and a knight commander of the Bath in 1K72, in recognition of his services to the prince of Wales during a dangerous illness. Jen'ninK«, county of S. E. Indiana. Area, 375 square miles. It is hilly and well timbered, but has a produeluo soil Cattle grain, wool, and lumber are staple products. The county 'is traversed by the Ohio and Mississippi, tho Madison and Indianapolis, and other railroads. Cap. ^ er- non. Pnp. 16,218. Jennings, Ip. of Crawford co., Ind. Pop. 2081. Jennings, tp. of Fayette co., Ind. Pop. 836. Jennings, tp- of Owen co., Ind. Pop. 801. Jennings, tp. of Scott oo., Ind. Pop. 127S. Jennings, tp. of Putnam co., 0. Pop. 1059. Jennings, tp. of Van Wert eo., 0. Pop. 914. Jennings (Thomas Rrrn), M. D., h. in Stcubenvillc. 0., 1805; graduated at Washington College, Pa., and in med- icine in Baltimore. Ho came to Tennessee in 1828 where, during the invasion of Asiatic cholera in 1S33. he obtained a largo practice, which ho retained till the late war. Ho opened dissecting-rooms in Nashville I S3S, and was tho 1390 JENNY— JERICHO, ROSE OF. 0rst who t:iu<;ht anatomy in Tennessee. For three years he was a senator in the legislature of Tennessee, and de- olioed a nomination to Congress. In lS5-t he was elected professor of the institutes of medicine and clinical medicine in the University of Nushville, and in 1^66 filled the chair of anatomy. The chiss then increased from 220 to 419, and in 1S.>9 reached to -IJC. being the largest class ever as- somhled W. of tho mountains. D. suddenly at \arragan- sett, R. I., July 7, 1S74. Dr. Jenninj^s possessed a fine taste for literature; yet ho was devoted to his profession, in which few succeeded better. Coming to Nashville a poor boy, he not only kept iip an elegant establishment and liberally assisted his immediate relatives, but accumulated a lar;;Q fortune by his practice. As a physician he had no Euporior in Tennessee. Paul F. Eve. Jen'ny, post-tp. of Marathon co., "SVis. Pop. 215. Jen'yns (Soamf.), b. in London in 1704 j was educated at Cambridge; entered Parliament for Cambridgeshire in 1742, and was appointed in 1755 one of the commissioners of the board of trade and plantations. Jenyns was a poet, a wit, and a politician, but is now chiefly remembered for his work on the Evidences of Christianity^ published in 1776. which has been often reprinted, has elicited an un- usual amount of criticism, and exerted a considerable in- fluence. Thou2;h now obsolete, Jenyns's little work was long reputed tho best argumentativs presentation of tho Christian evidences. D. at London Dec. IS, I7S7. Jeph'thah, the ninth judge of the Israelites, -was a na- tural son of Gilcad of tho tribe of Manassch. After the dca*h of his father he was expelled from his home by his brothers on account of his illegitimate birth, and ho with- drew to the land of Tob, where ho became the chief of a band of brigands. Later on, when the tribes beyond the Jordan resolved to oppose the Ammonite?, they invited Jephthah to become their commander, and ho received the invitation on tho condition that he should remain their ruler if he defeated the Ammonites. The victory over the Ammonites was complete, and hence ho ruled tho country for the rest of his life — from 1256 to 1250 B.C. But a great sorrow came over his house. When setting forth against the enemy he made a solemn vow to the Lord that if he re- turned home victorious he would ofl"er up for a burnt-offer- ing whatsoever first "came forth from the doors of his house*' to meet him. On his return his daughter, an only child, "came first out of the doors of his house" with her companions to greet him with timbrels and dances. At this sight he rent his robes and cried out loudly in despair, but his daughter, when she heard about his vow. encour- aged him "to do with her according to this vow," and so he did. Up to the twelfth century of our era it was uni- versally understood, both by Jewish and Christian com- mentators, that Jephthah actually sacrificed his daughter, and there was among all readers only one feeling of admi- ration for the daughter and of horror at the conduct of the father. But since tho twelfth century several commenta- tors have attem]>ted to mitigate the tragical impression of the narrative by proving that Jephthah only condemned his daughter to celibacy and perpetual service at tho taber- nacle of Shiloh. Thus interpreted, however, the narrative does not read quite naturally. Jequitinhon'ha»ariver of Brazil, rises in the province of Minas Geracs, enters tho province of Bahia. and falls after a course of about 750 miles, first northern, then north- eastern, into the Atlantic in lat. 15° 60' S., near the town of Belmonte. Its upper course runs through a mountain- ous region, and its rocky bed is here embarrassed by rapids and catara-'ts, of which that called Salto Grande, on tho boundary of Minas Geraes and Bahia, is one of tho most magnificent falls of Brazil. Its lower course is broad and smooth, but rather shallow, and its mouth is obstructed by sandbars. Xovcrtholess. as the whole lower course from the mouth to Salto Grande is navigable for small steamers, and as one of its arms, the Poassu, commuuicates by a navigable channel with the river Pardo, the Jcquitinhonha will probably become of great importance for tho exporta- tion of the rich products of Minas Geraes, Jer'boa [Arab.], a name of numerous small rodent mammaU of the rat family (by many referred to a smaller family, the Dipodidic). aud remarkable for their progres- sion, which is accomplished by long leaps in tho air, after tho manner of kangaroos. They are all Old-World species, and some of them are very destructive to crops. Tho Egyptian jerboa {Dlpun mngitta) is the typical species. Jer'dan {Wiu.iam). F. S. A., b. at Kelso. Scotland, in 1782; studied law, eame to London in 1S04, and became a writer for the ^fon}i»ff Post and other newspapers. On May 11, 1812. he was instrumental ip arresting Rellingham, the murderer of the prime minister Spencer Percival. In 1S17 he became editor of the Litcvarif Gazette, and re- mained in charge of that intiuential journal for thirty-four years. In 1S21 he was one of the founders of the Royal Society of Literature. On his retirement from editorship a pension of £100 was granted him. aud a flattering testi- monial was signed by many of the leading public men of the day. Mr. Jerdau wrote four volumes of biographical sketches ior Eitihcr' a A'attondf Portrait GaUcry of Eminent Personngca of the Nineteenth Century, wrote for the annuals, reviews, and magazines, published his Antofnorjraphy (4 vols.) in lS52-5o, and a supplement entitled Men S have Knoivn in 18C6. A judicious selection from his memoirs was edited by Mr, R. S. Stoddard in the Bric'd-brac Se- ries (New York, 1874). D. at Bushey Heath, Hertford- shire, July 11, 1S69. Jeremi'ah [Ilcb., "raised up by the Lord"], the sec- ond of the greater prophets of the Hebrew canon, began his work in the thirteenth year of King Josiah (eh. i. 2); {. e. about 628 B.C. He survived the fall of Jerusalem (5S8), so that his work lasted for over forty years. He was b. at Anathoth in Benjamin fch. i. 1 ; xxix. 27). His father was a priest. During Josiah'a reign occurred the invasion of the Scyths (Herod, i. 10:;-10G; see Jer. v. 6. 8, 9). This prophet's life, therefore, covered the catastrophe of the his- tory of Judah. He had to contend against bigotry, obsti- nacy, and dogmatism, and to cnduro persecution. He was iziprisoned for speaking words of warning and opposition to the prevailing policy. Ilis warnings fell on ears deaf- ened by fanaticism, and when all was lost, even the hope of retaining some native authority, though under Chaldean supremacy, he fled to Egypt, where he died. The version of his book which appears in the Scptuagint differs very much from tho Masorctic text. The Hebrew contains one- eighth more than tho Greek, and tho order of the chapters varies. This fact has excited the interest of biblical scholars, but no explanation has yet been suggested. Jeremiah also wrote the book of Lauextations (which see). Jer'emie (James Amiraux),D. D.,b. in 1800 in Eng- land; graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1S24, having obtained tho Norrisian, the Hulsean, and the Mem- bers' prizes; became a fellow of Trinity ; took holy orders in ISoO, and was soon appointed professor of classical lit- erature in the East India College at Haileybury, holding that post twenty years. In IS.l;) he was chosen Christian advocate for the University of Cambridge, in 1849 regius professor of divinity, and in 1864 dean of Lincoln. Dr. Jcremie was considered to be one of the most learned di- vines of his time. Ho published a History of Rome fr on Constantine to the Death of Julian, and a History of the Cliureh in the Second and Third Centuries, both in the En- et/elopiedia Metropoltfana/ Christianity in the ^fiddle Ancs (1857), and many other occasional productions, besides editing the sermons of tho Rev. Prof. \Viiliam Archer But- ler (lt;55). Dr. Jcremie preached Latin sermons in St. Paul's in 1852 and 1863 before tho convocation of tho province of Canterbury; also in French in Westminster Abbey in 1862, during the Exposition of that year. Ho resigned his professorship in L'^70, and in the same year gave £1000 to tho University of Cambridge to found two annual prizes for the study of biblical Greek. Jerez' dc la Fronte'ra, generally called simply Jerez or Xercs, is a large, rich, and elegant town of Spain, in the province of Cadiz, on the Guadalete. The plain in which it stands is hilly, extremely fertile, densely pco))led, and very carefully cultiv.atcd; it produces the celebrated Xcres wine (sherry). Tho town itself is old and surrounded with walls, but its streets arc wide and lined with handsome houses; its public buildings are ele- gant, and it contains many educational and bcncvolcn' in- stitutions. Its trade in wheat and wine is very important, about 16.000 quarters of wheat and 2.000.000 gallon? of wine being exported annually. Pop. .^8,898. Jcrfalcon* See Gyrfalcon. Jer'icho, one of the most flourishing towns of ancient Palestine, was situated a few miles N. E. of Jerusalem. Its capture and destruction by the Israelites on their con- quest of Canaan is related in Joshua vi.. and its rebuilding and rapid progress in 1 Kings xvi, .'i4 and 2 Kings ji. 4. At the time of Christ it was a splendid city, the residence of Herod the Great, but during the Crusades it was completely destroyed, and it was never rebuilt. Its site is now occupied by a small and miserable village. Jericho, post-tp. of Chittenden co.. Vt., 26 miles N. W. of Montpelier, It has 5 churches, and manufactures of pumps, boxes, castings, agricultural tools, and other goods. Pop. 1757. Jericho, Rose of {Annstatica Hierocltuntina), a pros- trate, branching annual, of tho cruciferous family, inhahit- iuc the deserts of Egypt and Palestine. After death tho softer green parts disappear, leaving the ligneous frame- JERKED BEEF— JERSEY. 1391 work; this rolls up into a ball in drying, is uprooted by the nin^ls, and roll? away. Wben welled the branches ex- pand hygronictric;ilIy, so that Iho plant seems to revive j ncDco its name, derived from the Greek ava(rra<jii, " resur- rection." Jerked Beef [Chilian, charqui], a form of dried beef prepare"! quite extensively in the pastoral regions of North and South America and Australia. The flesh of the ox is taken off in thin strips and dried, either with or without ealt. It will keep, when well prepared, for a very great length of time, and if well cooked is very palatable. Cuba is the principiii market for jerked beef or tnanjo, Jerobo'am, the name of two kinga of Israel. Jrno- noAM !.» the fiiunder of the kingdom, was a son of Nebat. By Solomon he was made superintendent of public works, but having been informed by the prophet Ahijali that ac- cordinj; to divine appointment ho should become king over the ten tribes, ho entered into conspiracies, and was compelled to floe to Kgypt {9S0 n. r.)* When Solomon died (97li b. c.) he returned and headed the deputation apjtcaring before Kchoboara : and when the <lemaiids of the deputation were refused tho ten tribes separated from Judah and Tlenjamin nnd chose him for their king, lie took up his rei^idenecat Shochem, and the most prominent tendency of his govcru- mcnt was to mako the breach between the two kingdoms as wide and deep as possible. For this reason ho forbade his subicots to resort to the temple at Jerusalem, and cstah- lishc 1 shrines at Dan and Bethel, where "golden calves" were set up as symbols of Jehovah. I). 9.')l n. c. — Ji:iio- BOAX II. was the fourteenth king of Israel, (ho son and suc- cessor of Jchonsh, and reigned 823-782 u. v. He carried on successful war against the Syrians, from wliom ho took the cities of Damascus and Ilamatli ; Atnmon :md Moab were also conquered. But ho kept up the idolatry of the golilen calves. Jerome', tp. of Midland co., Mich. Pop. ooS. Jerome, post-tp. of Union co., 0. Pop. MC2. Jerome of Prague, b. about 1375, was descended frum a noble Bohemian family of the name of F.VLLPiscn; studieil in his native city, in I'aris, Cologne, Heidelberg, and Oxfurd, and attracted everywhere great attention by his learning and brilliant gifts. While at Oxford hebecamo acquainted with the writings of Wycliffe, nnd he espoused iho ideas of the English Ueformer with his whole heart. On his return to Prague he found that these ideas were well known thcre,^and be immediately allic<l himself to the Bo- hemian reform party under the leadership of lh"ss (whieli foe). In learning and eloquence he surpassed Ihiss, but ho lacked his wisd<im : he was violent, and even rude. Tlio relics he threw down to the ground and trod on them, and in a dispute with a monk hoonco threw his adversary into (ho Moldau. When ho heard that IIuss had been impris- oned in Constance he immediately hastened to the rescu<! of his friend. But having failed in procuring a safeguard, and finding himself unable (o (lo anything to aid Huss, bo determineii to return home, when (Apr. 25, 1 M.'i) ho was seizerl at Ilirschau in Suabia. put in chains, nnd delivered over to the council. The great indignation which the ex- ecution of Huss (.luly C, 1115) excited made the council hesitate in the case of Jerome. Ho was kept in a mean dungeon, ami received for a long time no other food than bread and water. Thua, worn out both in body and mind, he recanted his opinions on the doctrine of transubstanti- ation (Sc'pt. 11, M15); hut this did not satisfy tho council. Ho was subjected to new examinations on still moro serious accusations, and he declared himself ready to answer any questions on the condition that the hearing should beputi- lic. On May 23 and 20, 1110, tho examination toidt place, and be cndecl by rlisclniming in a most passionate manner his former recantation, dc'jlaring it (ho greatest sin ho had committed in his life. His condemnation was now sure (o follow. On May 30 ho was sentenced and burned at the sta!{e. and his ashes were strewn on the Rhine. (See Krum- mf\, (ifKrhif-hlr (ti'r linl^mtHrhen Rr/ttrmnfion (1807); and Czerwenka, Gcncltichtc der Kvaiigei lacfien Kirrhe in liohmen (isr.'n.) Jerome, Saint (SonnnoNius EtsEnirs niFnoNVMrs), b. about 315 at Stridon, a town on tho confines of Dalmatia and Pannonia ; received a very eareful education ; (ravelled in Gaul ; was baptized, nnd lived for somo yoarfl at Treves and Aouiloia; went in 373 (o the East, where ho visited Antincliia, and retired in 371 to the desert of Chnlcis, where ho snent four years in nsceticpraot ices nnd studies, especially of llio Hebrew language. Having been ordained a pros- hytcr by Bishop Paulinus of .Andoeh, he repnired to Con- stanlinoplo in '.\70 to hear (he celebrated (iregnry Nar.lanzen, and while here ho translated into La(in the elironie'e of Eusobius and Iho homilies of Origen on Jeremiah nnd Kt.c- kiel. In 3S2 ho returned (o Home, wliere he lived in in- timato connection with Bishop Damusus until Damasus's death in 38-1. In Rome he made a great impression by bis passionate praise of asceticism and monastic life. Many became his enemies, but many others, especially among the rich and noble ladies, became his firm adherents; and one of these, Paula, followed him in 381 to Bcihlthcm, where she built four convents — three for nuns and one for monks, over which latter she placed St. Jerome; he d.herc about 420. During his residence in Rome he commenced, at the instigation of Damasus. a critical revision of (ho Latin translation of the Bible, (lie Vulgate; and this work, which he finished in Bethlehem, is his chief work nnd tho foundation of his great fame. But besides he wrote a great number of controversial papers against Helvidlus, Jovi- niauus, Vigilantius, Rufinus, and the Pelagians, and several exegctieal relating to the Old Testament. The best edition of his works is that by Vallarsi (11 vols., Verona, 1731—12). (See Ziiekler, f/itrouymuti, dcih Lehai itnd Wirkcn, ISdb.) Jerome nuoiiiiparte. See Bonapakte (Jkuome). Jerome'ville, post-v. of Mohican tp., Ashland co., 0. Pop. 328. Jer'rold (Dorni-As Wii.mam), b, in London .Tan. 3, 1803, (he Ron of (ho manager of a theatre ; became midship- man in the navy 1813-15. and was apprenticed in ISIO (o a printer. His first \>\ay. More Fn'yfitened thttn //«//(lS!S), after some years of neglect, was very successful. Ho wroto lyrics and criticisms for (he journals which attracted much attention. Tho eomedy Jilav/:-Ki/cd Sttgnn (1822) e.stab- lisbed his reputation. Jimt Dny (1830), Meu uf Cfmractp.r (a collection of republished talcs. 1838), /?»/>/>//« o/" Me Day (18-12, a comedy). Thuc irorkn Wimfhrs (ISIJ). The Candle Lcctnrea (first publisherl in Ptmrli, with which he became connected in 18(1), and numerous other plays, sketches, and tales, widely extended his fame as a humorist and a powerful delineator of character. He twice failed as a pub- lisher of newspapers, and once as a theatrical manager, but his connection (1852-57) with Lloyjd'fi Wet /.-/>/ was very successful. Mr. .Tcrrold was a man of great kindliness and generosity, but y)0SFessed a gift of repartee which often be- came terribly caustic. D. iu London June 8, IS57. Jerrold (William Blanciiard), eldest son of Douglas Jcrrold, b. in London, England, in 1820; studied for an artist, and illustrated some of bis father's articles, but later gave his attention (o literature. In 1S19 he married a daughter of Laman Blanehard ; has long been prominently connected with the London press. Among his works arc several comedies and farces, T/ic Difif/rtice of the Famihf (1817, a novel), Swedish Sketches (1852), fmpcn'al Pan's (1855), Life of Doufjlaa Jerrnld (1858), At Home in Paris (1804), the CoeknyneB (1871), and other works. Also London (1872), illustrated by Dore, and Life of Napoleon III. (1874-75). He bus given special attention to the con- dition of the poor in Paris and iiondon. Jerry (Rev. John L.),b. in North Carolina May 11, 1793, the son of a Revolutionary scdrlicr who served under La Fayette, and imbiljed his father's spirit. When a mission- ary in St. Augustine, a priest thrcatcnecl him with punish- ment if ho di(l not desist preaching; pointing to tiie Ameri- can flag, \\i- said, " Xo Inquisition where lliat flag waves!'* At one lime, when he had no nmney to pay his fiire. he re- tired for jirayer, and (m returning to mount his horse and pursue bis journey, ho found a doubloon, which kept him going till he obtained relief. Ho entered the South Caro- lina conference in 1818, and was a revered member of (ho Florida conferenoo at the timo of death, July 1 1. 1859. T. 0. SrMMKits. Jer'sey, tho largest of tho Channel Islands, si(uated ia the English Channel. 13 miles W. of the coast of Franco and 35 miles S. of tho coast of England. Area. 30.580 acres, of which 25,000 acres arc umhr eullivulion. Pop. 50.078, of whom 13,000 are English and 200U French; tho natives speak a kind of Norman French, as the island originally belonged to tho French province of Normandy, Tho ground is high nnd n»cky. but presents many fertile vallevs, which on acetuint of the fine, mild, and cfpiablo climate are well adapted for (ho cultivation of fruits. I^argo quantities of peaches, apricots, apples, pears, grapes, and melons are annually exported to London. The oyster fish- erica form another extensive branch of industry. Ship- building is nls'i important. The island, on m-count of its climate, is a great resort for people of delicate health. Principal towns, St. Helier nnd St. Aubin. Jersey, county of S. W. Illinois, having the Mississippi River on tho S. and tho Illinois on tho W. Area. 350 square miles. It is partly timbered antl partly prairie; cnnl is mined. The soil is fertile; cattle, grain, and wool are staple produeto. The county is traversed by the Chica- go and Alton R. R. Cap. Jerseyville. Poj). 15.051. Jersey, po^t-v. and tp. of Licking co,, 0, Pop. of v. 101 ; of tp. 1253. 1392 JERSEY CITY— JERUSALEM. Jersey City, cap. of Hudson oc, N. J., on the right or W. bank of the Hudson River, at its entrance into New York li;i.v, and opposite the sonthern portion of New York Citv, with which it is connected by six ferries. Jer- sey City is the terminus of thirteen railroads— the Eric, the Pennsylvania, the Central of Now .Jersey, etc. The Mor- ris Canal connects it with Eastern Pennsylvania. It is the terminus of the Antwerp, Rotterdam, and Cardiff steamship lines, and the seat of considerable foreip;n commerce, but owin); to its being a part of the New York customs dis- trict, no separate returns are obtainable. At .Jersey City arc located largo stockyards and sl.xughter-liouscs for the daily supply of tlic New Y'ork City market; this business, formerly at Communipaw, is now carried on in the N. part of the city, near the river front, where a very extensive abattoir was rejently built, and opened in JS7t; it is sup- plied by branches from the Pennsylvania and the Eiie rail- roads. " Manufacturing establishments are very numerous, the most important being the Jjorillards' tobacco-works, U. S. Watch Co., glass, crucible, graphite pencils, iron, steel, zinc, tin, and copper, and boiler works, foundries, machine-shops, and locomotive-works, potteries, oakum, and a large business in soap and candles and refining mo- lasses and syrup. The city is well supplied with water from tho Passaic River at Rellevillc. There are 2 gas companies, 3 national banks, 2 State and 8 savings banks, 4 insurance companies, 7 newspapers (2 tierman), 44 schools, about fiO churches, and a fair nuuibcr of religious and benevolent societies and institutions. Jersey City is in reality a suburb of New Y'ork City, its population eon- sistin" largely of tho overflow from that vast metropolis. At the bcgTniiing of tho century there was no settlement on Paulus^IIook, as the locality was then called. A com- pany was chartered in IS04 which laid out tho grounds of Paulus Hook into streets and squares, but the growth of the place was insignificant until half a century later. It was but a village in IS20, when it was incorporated as the '• City of Jersey," and it was still only a village when it was reincorporated in ISliS as " Jersey City " and provided with the machinery of a mayor and common council. Even in 1850 the popuhvtion wasbut 6856. By the annexation of the township of Van Vorst (18511, of the cities of Hud- son and Bergen (1870), and of the village of Greenville (1872), the growth of Jersey City during the third quarter of the centurv (1850-75) was largely assisted. Pop. in IShO, 29.227; in 1870. 82..i4S. Z. K. P.\SGBORs. Ed. "Jersey City Evening Joi'unal. Jersey Shore, post-b. of Lycoming co., Pa., beauti- fully situated on tho left bank of the W. branch of tho Susquehanna, near tho Philadelphia and Erie R. R. It has sceucry of great attractiveness, is in a fertile region, has 5 churches, graded public schools, a high school, bank, and weekly newspaper. Chief industries, farming, lumber- trade, and tobacco business. Pop. 1394. S. S. Seeley, Ed. "HERALn." Jer'seyville, city, cap. of Jersey en.. 111., on the Chi- caw anil Alton R. R., J.acksonville branch, 50 miles N. of Slf I.ouis. It has 4 large flour-mills running day and niWit, 2 foundries, 2 hotels, a large manufactory of ploughs and reapers, besides manufactures of carriages and other goods, 8 churches, and a fine public-school building. The citv stands on elevated ground, is handsomely built, and has wide and finely shaded streets. It has much cnter- briso. It has 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. 257fi. W. H. Edgah, En. " Repiiiiuc.\n." Jeru'snlem. I. The Name.— The name Jrrmalfm* is the r.rcck form ClepoucraA^^), as found in the Septuagint, of tho Chaldee Jn-uah'lem. In the New Testament it is written both as in the Septuagint and also Jernimli/ma (•I,po(jdAvM<i), the evangelists, with tho exception of Luke, using almost exclusively this latter form, while in Luke (including the Acts) and in the Epistles the former form is generally preferred. The Hebrew name is h-niKhdhiim, Ycriisli'ihiini, or Yeriuhalai/im (the full form is a'7C''T). The dual termination seems to indicate some ancient twofold division of tho city, and, from the difiiculty in determining any Hebrew root for the word, we may sup]io.se that the name was Canaanilish, or even belonging to a race ante- rior to the Canaanites, to which the Hebrews added the dual eniliug for topographical reasons. Wc may otherwise conjecture that the dual ending is an accident, brought for verses 18, 19, 20 seem to be a poetic insertion between verses 17 and 21. This poetic use of the word can be no argument for the word Salem or " peace" as belonging to the original name, any more than the fact of the (Jreek word itpdt being found" in its Greek translations is an ar- gument for the later idea that Hierosolyma meant tho " holy Solvnia." II. The HisTonv.- Fii!'' Period (b. r. 1450-b. c. 104>-). The first appearance of the place in history (if we leave out the Salem of Mclcbizedek) is in Joshua xv. R, where it is called the "shoulder" (hclhrph) of tho Jebusites (as in ch. xviii. Kil, an adniir;ible description of the projection of Mount Zion. as it appears from the boundary-line of Judah and Benjamin, there described as runningalong the S. side of the city. The Jebusites held it as their special stronMiold. and hence the name Jcbus (/. f. the Jebusite city)i3 given it in Judges xix.lO, II, and 1 Chron. xi. 4, j. The Jebusites seem to have been territorially one of tho smallest of the Canaanitish nations, hut from their position one of tho strongest. Tbeir king, Adcmizcdek, was slain bv Joshua at Makkeduh after the battle of Belh-horon (josh. X ). After Joshua's death the Israelites made their first assault upon the citv. The tribes of Ju<lah and Sim- eon succeeded in taking it and setting it on fire (Judges i. 8) when on their way to complete the settlement of their lot This capture of the city must have been but iiartial (as Josephus says), for the tribe of Benjamin, to which it was assigned, left the Jebusites in quiet possession of a. part of the city, the upper city (i, ita^Oirtpde^) on /.ion (Judg i 21) For nearly four centuries the citadel of Jeru- salem 'remained in the possession of the Jebusites, during which time wc may well believe that its Canaanitish in- habitants thoroughly fortified it, adding to its natural stren-'th all that the art of that day could suggest. Dur- ing those centuries we cannot suppose a state of war to have continued between the Jebusites and the Israelites, but that some sort of peaceful intercourse was maintained, in which Jerusalem, or the chief part of it, was hicitly un- derstood to belong to the Canaanitish tribe During all this long period the central capital was at Sliiloh except, as in SauVs reign, Gibeah, his residence, may chura tho nreeedcncc. It may be that the fact of Saul s capital, (.ib- lah, being only 4 miles N. of Jerusalem was one induce- ment to David to seek to set up his throne in the Jebusite slron-rhold. It would be more central than Hebron, where he bad begun his reign, and it would also be m the tribe of Benjamin, which had under Saul been the roy-a tr.be, while its strength w..uld make it far more desirable than Gibeah or than Shiluh. Indeed, the latter city was prob- ably already destroyed by the Philistine invasion. (See Jcr vii. 12.) Whatever the motive may have been, David in the eighth year of bis reign organized an attack upon .Jerus;vlem when the enthusiastic adhesion of all I^r^icl to his ■'overnment rendered success most probable. The di- version in the direction of tho house of Saul would have seriously interfered with such a project earlier in Davids rei.'n. Joab. David's chief captain, took a conspicuous part in the siego (1 Chron. xi. fi). which was inarkeil by self-confidence on the part of the Jebusites an.l daring valor on the part of Israel. The strong citadel was taken, and called afterward " the city of David." We may be very sure that this citadel was Zion. and that " .Millo was its bluff front on the valhy of the Son of llinnom. From Da- vid's conquest of Jerusalem dales its fame. Before that time wc have no reason to suppose it of any more conse- quence than any well-placed stronghold, hut now the con- eentrated royalty of the twelve tribes mad; it the seat of power and glory, and for 400 years, until Iscbuchadne7.7.ar destroyed it, it stood for'' tals of the world, vying Nineveh, Babylon. Tyre, and Thebes. Seco,,d /"cnWdOlS B.C. to 58B B. cV-Divvid imrae- diatcly turned his attention to the reconstruction and strengthening of his new city, and when this work was accomplished had the ark of God, which l^^d'-een fo a century at Kirjath-jearim (ever since the great Phil.sne invasion of Eli's time and most probably the de.«truct,on of Shiloh), conducted with great pomp and ,,ubilation the roval city an.l placed in a new tabernacle especially epared for it, the 'id Shiloh tabernace being at G.beon 5 miles N. of Jerusalem (2 Chron. i. ?., 41. David may have already had in his mind the construction of a grand it stood forth as one of the conspicuous capi- at one time, in some respects, with old tabernacle, and therefore have " ' re Id about by the resemblance of the original word to a Hebrew tomide in place of the ^ , e,,,,,rr- dual, or that the old language had a dual like the Hebrew, j preferred to bring the ark to Jerusalem, w-I.ere^ t^hc^^n.turc That the name should be changed to Sluth-m (Salem in poetry, Ps. Ixxvi. 2) is in accordance with the Hebrew love of paronomasia. If Salem in Gen. xiv. 18 be Jerusalem, we may account for the word Salem there in the same way. • The ,7 represents the Greek aspirated /. It might be repre- sented by Hi; e. g. merusalem, Ilierosolijma. structure would he re;,'ied, rather than carry it '» ""l '' tabernacle at Gibcon. The rest of the tabernacle lurniturc was doubtless at Gibeon. The bra.en altar, we are ex^ pressly told, was there. This position of the ark on the farge citadel-hill (Zionl continued for forty years, making the name Zion a favvite name for the city, espec.ally when viewed as a holy city, a centre of worship. Ihe consoli- JERUSALEM. 1393 dation and t>trcn^theninf; of the whulo Israelitish common- wealth in David attracted the attention of hi;^ powerful nei<^hbor, the king of Tyre, who did him the lii^h honor of building the royal palace in Jerusalem with material and workmen from the Phu?nician kin<;d(>in (2 Sam. v. 1 1 ). Ouvid's conquests over the Syrians, Moabite^, AmmoDitcs, Philistines, Amalckitcs, and Edomitcs extended the terri- tory of his empire to the Euphrates on the X. E. and to the Red Se.i and Mediterranean on the S. and W., making his dominion the most conspicuous of tlio world at a time when the Assyrian empire iiad fallen into feebleness be- tween its exaltation under the first Tij^lath-pileser and its renewed plory under Asshur-izir-pal. During this period of David and Solomon, Egypt, the other preat monarchy, gccms to have been in a like low plight with Assyria, pre- vious to the accession of the new and powerful dynasty of Shi«hak. From Hiram's conduct wc may readily see that the Israeliti*h kingdom out-topped Tyre, so that the throne of David and Solomon must have represented the grandest empire then existing on the earth. Of this empire Jeru- salem was the central scat, which naturally, under such influences, began to assume an extent and grandeur corre- sponding with its important positiun. Especially under Solomon, in his peaceful reign, did the city grow into mag- nificence. What war had before done, commerce now ac- complished, and Jerusalem received a vast stream of wealth from its active relations with many rich and distant coun- tries. Egypt, Arabia, Tyre, Opliir (India?), and perhaps Tarshish (Spain?), are especially spoken of as connected with Jerusalem by important commercial lies at this time, by which this capital l»ecamo an entrepot of trade for nil the subject kingdoms of Syria (1 Kings x. 29). AVith the enormous wealth thus acquired, and that laid up by )iis father, Solomon erected the temple on the rocky height opposite Zion, which David had prepared for the purpose, having purchased tho site from Araunah the Jebusite.* The sharp ridgo of tho bright was taken off and the sur- face levelled, vast vaults being erected to support exten- sions of tho level, and on this grand, conspicuous area of nearly 1000 feet square one of tho most costly shrines the world has ever seen was erected by tho magnificent mon- nr.'h. With both men and materials from Tyre (tho centre of meohanical art) he raised tho massive structure (whose wall-stones, still bearing tho Tyrian marks, astonish the exjdorcr), completing the work in seven years. He also erected a palace of corresptmding grandeur for himself, which oocupied thirteen years in its Cftnstructiou. Another superb edifice, erected for state occasions and called tho House of tho Forest of licbanon (perhaps because of its many cedar pillars), wns constructed at tho same time. The walls of the city also received his attention. These were extended around suburbs, increased in height, ptrcngthened with towers, and probably increased into fortressf's at such points as Millo and Ophcl, where al- reudy fortrennes existed. A palace was built for SoUtmon's queen, tho daughter of the Egyptian monarch, and doubt- less his thousand wives and concubines called for an enor- mous outlay in architecture. Tho whole apparatus of tho Solomonian court was on a style of unparalleled exlrava- gtin 'P and spk-nilor. This praudi-ur of Ji>ruHalem seems to have been in atreordanco with man's wish, and not (Jod's appointment, except as Ood yielded to man. It was man who insisted on the monarchy instead of a theocratic rc- puMie, and it was man whr) conceived tho idea of tho gor- gcniis tem(»le. (loil ftn-miitrtl both, but they sediiced Is- rael from its sim|dicity and destroyed its separalenoss from the nations, so important for its great spiritual mission. Commercial intercourse with tho nations, by which tho wealth was S'-ciired, and royal pomp which sought the wealth, brought into the country the irlolatry and immor- ality of oth<T lands, with all the recklessness and oppres- sion that follow human aggrandi'/oraent, so that just when the nation Boomed to be most exalted it was preparing its ruin. Ft is remarkable that (in aecordance with tho pro- ]dietio deelaration. that the Babylonian captivity should ia^t lung enough for the land to make up its lost sabbatical years — Lev. xxvi. .34. eompareil with 2 Chron. xxxvi. 21), if wo count backward from the year n. c .Olft (tho end of th" seventy years), tho seventy sabbatical years, or (00 years, we reach It. c. IrtO«, tho period of Solomon's top of glory. Hero we see that in the worldliness of this magnif- icent reign tho keeping of tho sabbatical year began to he disregarded. Solomon was succeeded by Ilehoboam, a" foolinh fKH-jt/itfrtijimitini, who sonn bi-gan (o experience tho evil results of his father's extrnvagnnt policy. Tho king- dom was divided. Jeroboam, returning from Egypt, where * He was probably tho Ti»rf .Tebnslfr king whom DavUI had rnnf|uer('d thirty years liefnre. The llr>>ri-w word-* of '2 S«iu. xxW. 2:^. literally translated, arc, " Araunah the kln^ gave the whole to the kini;." Vol.. II.-SH ho had been an oxilo protected by Sblshak, the Pharaoh during tho later years of Solomon, became king of tho northern realm, and Jerusalem was left tho metropolis of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin only, and of the subject countries at the S. and E. This fearful schism in the na- tion and the tempting treasures of Jerusalem brought Shi- shak (perhaps through Jeroboam's infiuence) from Egypt against the Holy City. This enterprising and illustrious monarch made his attack upon the kingdom of Judah in the fifth year of Rehoboam with an enormous host of Egyptians and foreign auxiliaries. The gl(»ry of Jerusa- lem had for two generations eclipsed that of Egypt ; Egypt would now have its revenge. The fortified cities of the ,Iud:ean kingdom fell one after another. Although they are not specified, we may readily suppose that Oath, Mare- shah, Lachish.and Bethlehem, among those places which Uehoboara had lately fortified against Egyptian attack (2 Chron. xi. fi-lOi. were overcome by Sliishak to clear his way to Jerusalem. In the city had assembled all the dig- nitaries of the realm, who, at the word of the prophet She- mainh, humbled themselves with the king before (jiod, and so averted the evil. The Egyptian seems not to have entered tho eity.f but a treaty was made, most humiliating to .Tudah, by which the kingdom became tributary to Egypt, and tho treasure accumulated in tho (emple and royal palace was delivered up to Sliishak, who also carried off the 600 shields overlaid with gold which Solomon had placed as ornaments in his stately House of the Forest of Lebanon. The gold of these shields alone represented a sum of $720.000 — a sura of vast magnitude in those days. Abijali, the suc- cessor of Kehoboam, by his great victory over the kingdom of Israel, helped Jerusalem to recover from this blow, but it was not till the year n.c. 1)1 1, more than thirty years after Shishuk's disastrous raid, that Jerusalem regained her independence and dignity by tho complete overthrow of the Ethiopian Zcrah (supposed to be Pharaoh Usarken I.) at the battle of Mareshah. as far as which point he had penetrated, with an array like that of Shishuk's. against Asa, Bchoboani'a grandson. This great victory filled the kingdora with joy, restored treasure to Jerusalem, drew many Israelites of the northern kingdom t<t the city, anci caused a reform in the religious condition of the peojile. \vh<» had been U*<1 astray from Soiom(m's day. It is sad to see how soon afterward Asa took tlic new treasure, which ho had placed in tho teraplo in lieu of that which Sliishak had seized, and gave it as a bribe to Benhadad, king of Syria, that ho might attack Baasha, king of Israel. The prosperity which Asa brought to Jerusalem continued for fifty years — a period of national power and dignity that was to be followed by tho evils of a close alliance with idolatrous Israel in tho union of Jehoshapliat's family with the corrupt family of Aluih and tho Tyrian Jezebel. Jchoram, Jehoshaphat's stm and Asa's grandson, married Athaliah. daughter of Ahab and Jezebel. Through her tho abominations of idolatry again filled the royal eily. Je- horam began his reign by murdering his six brothers. Ho ended it with the successful revolt of Judah's dependencies, and a fearful onslaught of tho Philistines and Arabians upon Judah itself, in which the enemy carrieil off many of tho king's wives ond all his sons but one. with all the treas- ure which they found in imii' <if his country palaces. | When Jehoram harl died, and his son Ahaziuli hud been slain by Jehu, Athaliah immediately slew her grandchildren (one only. Joash, escaping the masKaere), and for six years wielded her usurped authority. Thus, for fifteen years the prevalence of Baal-worship in Jerusalem caused the temple to fall into decay, rndeed, Athaliah's family had even do- faced tho holy shrine and carried ofi' the sacred vessels for use in the service of Baal's temples. Tin- piety and patri- otism of Jihoia<hi, who had ]ireser\ ed the itilaiit prince Joash, put an end to the^^e enormilios by slaying the guilty queen and tho priests of Baal, and restiiring the worship of Jehovah. But when the old Jehoiuda died at the re- markable ago of 130 years, and was honored by a burial amimg the kings, a state poliry led King Jua>Ii to restore idolatry and toslay Jehoiada's sons(among them Ziehariah, the high priest) in the very court of the temple while they were protesting against this fearful apostasy. This event shows how deeply seated in the public regard was tho idolatry nhieh fir><t Sidoinon and then Jehoram had fos- tered, and whieh the people doubtless connected with their grandeur before the nations. Not long after, Hnzael, the energelio king of Syria, besieged and took (lalh, and then turned toward Jerusalem, defeating tho Ju- t Joiephu* ways thai Shfshak enterH the e(tv without n bat- tle, but If Ibt^'lmd been the ease we should have ex[ni'ied a more thorout;)) ruin of the city. Where .Tosenbus enlarges on the snered narrative lie h ofi.-u nsluij hU imairinallnn. tNo mention Is ma<le nf their enlerinc .T.Tii'*alem (2f"brnn, Txf. }~). Hence, WC may suppose the royal family were sojourn- ing cliewherc. 1894 JERUSALEM. d»an army on the way and making havoc everywhere, when .loash purchased deliverance for the royal city only by giving up to Hazael all the sacred vessels which had been accumulated since Asa's day. 100 years before, to- gether with all the ecclesiastical and royal treasure in the city. Although this invasion of Judah was most disas- trous to the country, involving immense loss of treasure and the de:i,th of alHho prominent nobles who attempted to stop the progress of the .Syrian king, yet the record gives no countenance to the idea that Jerusalem was captured either by him, by the Philistines in Jehoram's day. or by Shishak'in Rehoboam's day. Its capture from the Jebus- ites by King David was thus far the only seizure of the famous stronghold. The first actual capture of the city after David's conquest was made by the Israelltish mon- arch Joash, who had been provoked to wiir by Amaziah. king of Judah, son of the Jerusalem Joash. The king of Israel, after defeating Amaziah at Bethshemesh, appeared before Jerusalem, and probably through the Jewish king, whom he held as prisoner, obtained entrance into the city, which he plundered, and 400 cubits length of whoso wall he levelled. This was about the year 826 B. c, more than two centuries after David's conquest of the Jebusito strong- hold. Uzziah, Amaziah's successor, in his long and pros- perous reign repaired the injury done to the walls of the city and added to its fortifications. It was in this reign that the great earthquake occurred which is referred to as a memorable epoch by the prophets Amos (i. 1) and Zeoha- riah (xiv. 5), and which is by Josephus connected with the king's sacrilege (Ant., 9. 10. 4). If we disregard the state- ment of Josephus, we may believe that this extensive building of the walls and fortifications may have been suggested by the ruin caused through this grievous visita- tio1i! In the reign of Jotham, Uzziah's son, the " high gate" of the temple was built (perhaps the predecessor of the "beautiful gate" of Herod), and the wall of Ophel was erected. If Ophel was the southern spur of Moriah, as seems quite proven, it is hardly possible that it was not fortified to some extent from Solomon's day. Jotham probably added to its fortifications or rebuilt those that had been destroyed. This enterprising king also erected fortresses throughout the kingdom. Ahaz, Jotham's son, sustained fearful defeats from Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah, king of Israel, so that he called upon Tiglath-pile- ser, king of Assyria, to come to his aid. This alliance was purchas'ed by despoiling the temple and royal palace in a far more wholesale manner than it had been done by Reho- hoam, Asa, or Joash. Ahaz. in his infatuation with the Assyrian alliance, removed the brazen altar, built a new one'of heathen pattern in its place, and defiled the temple itself with idolatrous rites. Hezekiah, succeeding his father Ahaz, immediately restored everything to its original service, purified the temple, and celebrated the Passover with unusual solemnity. During Ilezekiah's reign occurred the formidable invasion of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, against which Hezekiah prepared the city with wonderful industry and in the most thorough manner. Although the kingdom was devastated, the city was saved, yet with a. new'stripping of temple and palace as a tribute to the great conqueror. (See Sennacherib's own account in the Nineveh records.) This was the sixth time within three centuries that the treasures of Jerusalem had been seized. Maiiassch, Hezekiah's son, had a long and eventful reign. Ho brought back all the idolatries which his father had romovedreven putting an image of Baal in the temple itself. Esar-haddon, king of .\ssyria, who reigned in Babylon, subjected the kingdom of Judah, as his father Senoacherib had done, and managed to seize the person of Manasseh and carry him captive to Babylon. On hum- bling himself before God, he was released from his captiv- ity, returned to Jerusalem, and added to the fortifications of the city on the X. W. and S. E. But it was not till the reign of josiah, Manasseh's grandson, that the idolatrous objects in and around Jerusalem were thoroughly removed. Under an impulse caused by the di.scovery of a copy of the .Mosaic Law (a discovery which shows the lamentable con- dition of the nation during the preceding reigns), Josiah not only purified the temple precincts, which were filled with vessels consecrated to Baal and Ashtoreth and to the heavenly bodies, and where houses of al)omination had been erected, but he also defiled Tophet in the valley of the Son of Ilinnoiu, where the Moloch-worship had been held, destroyed the altars which had been erected in the royal quarters, and made utter havoc of all the idolatrous shrines in the vicinity of Jerusalem which Solomon had erected, and which had been allowed to stand for 400 years, perhaps because of their architectural beauty. At the end of a thirty-one years' reign the body of Josiah was brought from the fatal battle-field of Megiddo (where the king had foolishly met Pharaoh-nccho in his march against the Ori- ental empire), and buried in Jerusalem amid the lamenta- tions of all the nation. Then followed the sad reigns of Josiah's three sons and one grandson. Jehoahaz, the first (though not the oldest), succeeded his father, taking prece- dence of Jehoiakim, perhaps because of the latler's incli- nation to an Egyptian alliance. In three months the vic- torious Necho dethroned him and carried him captive to Egypt, putting Eliakim or Jehoiakim in his place. A few years after, the Oriental empire of Nebuchadnezzar asserted its supremacy over Egypt, and Jehoiakim was obliged to become a vassal to that distinguished monarch. Three years later he rebelled against the Babylonian, and brought iipon him the full force of Nebuchadnezzar's fury. The conqueror seems to have seized the person of the king to carry him to Babylon, and then to have permitted him to ransom himself by the delivery of much of the treasure of the temple. -\t j'ehoiakim's death a new siege of the city by Nebuchadnezzar occurred, and the city was saved only by the delivery to Nebuchadnezzar of the young king, Je- hoiachin, Jchoiakim's son. with his mother, wives, and court, and all the treasure that could be gleaned from the temple and the palace. At this time also the Babylonian monarch made a vast deportation of the higher classes, as well as the craftsmen, to Babylon. The manner m which this is narrated in the sacred story seems to show that the city was not entered by the victorious monarch. Nebu- chadnezzar placed Mattaniah, Josiah's youngest son. on the throne, changing his name to Zedekiah. This weak and foolish king, trusting in an Egyptian alliance, dared to rebel against Babylon, and brought upon Jerusalem its destruction by Nebuchadnezzar in the year B. c. 586. After a sice of eighteen months, famine and superior numbers conquered the holy citv. The walls were levelled, the tem- ple and royal palace and the whole city were burned, and everything" worth carrying off became plunder to the exas- pera'ted Nebuchadnezzar. Zedekiah's sons were slain before his face at Riblah on the Orontes, and then his own eyes were put out, and he was carried away to Babylon to adorn the monarch's triumph. Another deportation marked this epoch, so that only some of the poor of the land were left to be vine-dressers and husbandmen. Third Prriod (586 B. C.-70 A. D.).— Jerusalem lay waste until the Persian monarchy absorbed the Babylonian, and the Persian hostility to idolatry produced a friendship be- tween the new empire and the monotheistic Jews. One of Cyrus's first acts was to send back all the Jews who wished to Jerusalem with riches and honor. Less than 50,000 re- turned, however, an exile of from fifty to seventy years from Palestine having rooted the vast majority to their Oriental homes. This return, under Zerubbabel of the royal house (but not as king) and Jeshua the high priest, occurred probably in the year B. o. 536. and had largely a religious character. The rebuilding of the temple was the first object sought, and the work weut on whilst Cyrus reigned. But during the reigns of Cambyses and Smerdis the enemies of the jews succeeded in obtaining a royal veto on their enterprise. Darius Hvstaspis, in his vigorous restoration of the policy of Cyrus throughout the empire, permitted the Jews to fini.sh their temple, and in the sixth year of his reign (b. c. 516) the new structure was com- pleted and dedicated.* It was the Holy City once more. The new temple, somewhat smaller than its predecessor, was also inferior in costly adorning to the structure of Solomon, but still it was a rallyingpoint for the scattered Jews We may suppose that many found their way from year to year from their distant places of exile to dwell 'again by'the hallowed precinct, themselves and their city now for"ever purged from idolatry. In the year B. c. 4.,7, Ezra the priest brought a train of 5000 Jews (nearly 2000 males) from the land of exile to Jerusalem, and acted as guide and teacher to the feeble restoration In B. c. 443 Nehcmiah visited Jerusalem and aroused the despondent people to build the walls of the city, which had been pros- trate for 140 years. With wonderful enthusiasm and ra- pidity, in the face of threats from the neighboring hostile tribes, the people went to work, and in fifty-two d.iys fin- ished the great undertaking. Nehemiah acted as the Persian governor, and by his earnest piety and fearless con- duct did much to establish the purity of the Jewish com- monwcalth.t The first Persian interference with the Jewish province (for such it now «ns) arose from the murder of .Joshua by his brother Johanan, the high priest, m the temple, in the year b. c. 366. These two were grandsons ♦Josephus makes a second return from Babylon under Par us Hvstaspis with Zerubbabel as leader. This return (he sa) ») numboml 4,677,890 souls. He of course considers the Sheshbaz- zar of Ezra 1. 11 as a dilTereiit man from Zerubbabel. + Josephus pots both Kzra and Nehemiah in Xerxes tin e (n f 4.S.il Bui the Artaxerxesof E^rra and Nehenuah eon d mit havrbeen the Xnrxes of history, for Xer.xes reiened only wenty years, but in Neli. v. 14 we find ..irtaxerxes'thirty-second ylar mentioned. Artaxerxes Longimauus reigned forty years. JERUSALEM. 1395 of Eliashib, the high priest, whom Nchemiah wng obliged to rebuke (Xeh. xiii. 7), and .lohanan."' the murJerer, was son-in-law of Sanhullat, the Samaritan pnvcrnor (Neh. xiii. 2S). Biigoses (Baj^oas), the Persian gi*ncral. by rea- son of this tearful niurJer dcfilt'd the temple by entering it, and laid a tax for Jobanan's lifottme (which proved to be seven years longer) of fifty drachmas for each hnnb used in tho daily sacrifice. Johanan's two jions, .Taddua and Manasseh, held jointly the high priesthood alter their father's death, until Manassch was tempted to go off to the Samaritans, who, under Alexander's sanction, ereetcd their own temple on Mount (ierizim, and made Munasseh their high priest. I>uring Jaddua's high priesthood Alexander overthrew the Persian monarchy. His remarkable recep- tion at Jerusalem by the high priest, his entrance into the tempio to attend the offering of sacrifices, his delight at finding the record of Daniel predicting the overthrow of Persia by the (freeks. and his conlirmation of the Jews in their own peculiar laws, are all graphically recited by Josophus. Alexander's visit was in B. c. 332. and the Sc- leucian empire dates from b. c. 312. The period between Alexander's death and the settlement of the empires of Syria and Egypt was a chaotic and stormy one. Plolemy Lagi acquired possession of Jerusalem by a trick, and en- phived many tliousands of the .Tews, carrying them into Egypt. For more than a century Judiua was a tributary province of Egypt under tho high priesthood of Onias. Simon the Just (who extensively repaired and enlarged the tempio and tho walls). Eleazar, Manassch, Onias III. and Simon II. In the time of Siraon tho Just large donations were bestowed upon the temple by Ptcdemy Philadclphus, in whose reign and by whoso order (accord- ing to the received story) tho Greek (Septuagint) trans- lation of the Hebrew Scriptures was made for tho Alex- andrian library. After the battle of RaphJa (n. r. 217). Ptolemy Philopator, who had there defeated Antiocbus the Great, attempted to enter tho imon of the temple, but was opposed by Simon IF., the high priest ; eighteen years after which Antiocbus wrested Jerusalem from the Egyp- tian empire. With a brief exception of a year, in which th« Egyptians again held tho city, Jerusalem remained a province of Syria until tho Maccabeau revolt. During these thirty-five years Sinmn H. (who was grandson of Simon the Just) died, and Onias III. became high-priest, in whoso administration the city was greatly disturbed by the quarrels of the Josephine family, a priestly family that had become rich through political favors received from Egypt. In B. c. 175, Antiocbus IV. (Epiphanes) succeeded to the throne of Syria, and began deliberately to plan tho extinguishment of all the jieculiarities of the .lewlsh peo- ple. He was <Ieterinine<l to make Jerusalem a Greek town. On tho death of Onias ho put Onias's brother, Joshua, into tho high priest boo. I, changed his name to tho Greek '• .Jason," introduced (ireek gamcM, put tlio tenijdo pervice into relation with that of iilolatrous shrines, and in every way undermined the integrity of the Jewisli character and religion. At length a younger brother, also named Onias, changed in his turn his name to "Menelaus," and per- suaded Antiocbus (who was ready to sow dissensions) to make him high priest in place of Jason. Dissensions con- tinued between tne two Hcllouizing brothers till Jason died. Antiocbus now came to the city and stripped it of all its treasures and carried away a multitude of captives. In D. r. 1 (>H he followerl this by sending an army to Jeru- salem, which entered on tho sabbath ('.ay. made havoc of the inhabitants, and levelled the city walls. Tin* temple was dedicated to the Olympian Jupiter, swine's flesh was ollVred upon tho altar, an<l the dotilement of the temple made complete. All tlie.Tewi'*h ritual was forbidden, and fearful punijthments were vii^ited on those who dared to up- bold their ancient faith. This extreme policy of tho Syrian monarch served to defeat its object. T'ndi-r the guidance of the Asmonean family (so called from tho priest Chash- inon, an ancestor) the .Tews organized a general revolt. In B. r. Irt.i they entered Jcru»<alem and dedicatecl the temple anew, tho citadel being still held by the Syrians. The next year tho monster Antiocbus died <if a loathsome disease. Under his successor fortune wavered bolwet-n the Jews and the Syrians (ill the death of Jiidas called Maeeahirus (the " Hammer") in b. r. MU. Alcimu:». high priest, was a tool of the Grivfo-Syrian monareh. ami strengthened himself in tho citadrl of Jerusalem until bis death. JoMatban and Simon, brother" of Juclas. were nr>w the Iradcm of the re- volt, and, taking advantage of a disputed sueee»o«ion to the Syrian throne on tho part of Drrnetrius nml Alexander lialafl, Jonathan becamo high priest by Alexander's ap- • JonephusRnys Ihnt .T<)hftnnn'ii non. Maniwsi'li. wniSnnbnllnt'ii Ron-tn-law. tint tltU Ih liliftily tiniir<ilm)>))>. Ih- iiNo ninkc* Snn- ballat to }»• llvintt at Alexander's Invasion, IVi year-* after he 0|)|)ii><ed Nelirniiiib ! pointment, and then received for Jerusalem extraordinary gifts and privileges, including its thorough fortification. After Jonathan's death Simon became high priest, and cap- tured the citadel (B. c. 142). which had held out against the Jews for more than twenty years. Tho citadel was razed and its hill lowered, and a new fortress, the Baris, built to command its site. Tho enterprising Asmonean then entered into alliance with the spreading power of tho Romans, which bad already overwhelmed Macedonia. John Hyrcauus succeeded bis father Simon in the high priesthood, and successfully resisted an elaborate siege of tho city by Antiocbus Sidetcs. who was compelled to grant him honorable terms and withdraw his army. Hyrcanus afterward accompanied Antiocbus in his war with the Par- thians. In b. c. 107, Hyrcanus died, and was succeeded by his son Aristobulus, who assumed tho title of king. Tho history now becomes a series of fierce and bUiody strifes. Aristobulus kills his brother. Another brother. Alexander Jannanis. who succeeds .Aristobulus. is a cruel tyrant, and reigns for a quarter of a century, engaged equally in fight- ing the Syrians and destroying the Jews of the Pbarisean party. His two sons quarrel for the throne, and this quar- rel brings Pompoy, tho R<unan general, into the Jewish history. Ho takes the part of Hyrcanus against Aristobu- lus. The latter holds the temple, and Pctinpey besieges it, capturing it at last by assault and the slaughter of 12.000 Jews. The R()man victor made Hyrcanus high priest (but no longer was the title <if king alhiwed), destroyed the city walls, and carried off Aristobulus to Rome. This occurred in tho year B. r. fi3. Antipater, an Idumiean, became the chief adviser of Hyrcanus. and this crafty foreigner made such interest with .lulius Ciesar that ho received tho pro- curatorsbip of Judioa, while Hyrcanus was allowed to as- sume tho title of ethnarch. In ii. r. 43, Antipater was mur- dered, and great disturbances arose. Antigonus, son of Aristobulus and nephew of Hyrcanus. came to .Jerusa- lem with a Parthian force, and by stratagem brought the Parthians into tho city, seized Hyrcanus. cut off his ears that ho might be no longer high priest, and imprisoned Pbnsaelns, Aniipaler's son. who couimitted suicide in bis prison. Herod, anotlier son of Antipater, who hatl en- deavored to resist the attack of Antigonus, escaped, and soon organized a Roman attack ujion the usurper. At this time Herod married Mariamne. Hyrcanus's granddaughter. Herod's siogo of .Jerusalem lasted five months, when the city was stormed and a fearful slaughter followed : Antigonus was slain. Herod now determined to hold all power in his own hands, his marriage with Mariatnno furnishing a slim claim to tho Asmonean succession. He ])ut out of tho way all Asmoneans who might be claimants of the throne, his own wife Mariamne and her old grandtather falling victims at length to his cruelty; he cultivated the friend- ship of tho Romans, enlarged the Baris into the grand for- tress of Antoiiia. construoteil a niagnitieent palace, built a theatre, ami instituted games in hr>nor of Civsar. He then sought to win tho esteem of tho Jews themselves by build- ing a new temple, rivalling tho original edifice of Solomon in its richness and grandeur. For thirty-two years this extraordinary despot, plausible and jiolitic, though ro- morsclcssly cruel, held firm sway over JudaMi as king, beautifying the city and restoring its imjxirtance — loved by none, feared by all — maintaining peace ami thrift in his kingdom, and showing a boldness an<l strength in his ad- ministration sebiom e<|U»llcd. In the year B. r. 4 of tho common reckoning Herod died, a few months after tho Itirth of our Lor<l in Hethlehcni. Ten years later his son and successor, Arcbelaus, was deposed and .Tiidioa maile a Roman province. Pontius Pilate was the fifth Roman pro- curator of the province, undrr whose administration our liord was crucified. The Roman government of Judn'awas strong, and on tho whole peaceful, for many years, except as the Jewish horror of Gentile defilement of the temple and Holy Tily produi-t'd from time to time collisions be- tween the citizens and soldiers. These troubles were gen- erally end'-d by a prudent yii-lding on the part of the Ro- mans, until in A. n. 41. Herod Agrippa. grandson of Herod the Great, wiib made king of all Palestine by the einprri'r riaudius. This last Jewish nn march I built a strong wall to enclose the suburbt on the N. of Jerusalem, thus moro than doubling th«> size of tho city. On bis death at (Vsarea (a visitation for bin blasphemy 1. Rome again made Judiea a provini-e. and a list of reckless procurators f(dlow<'d till the final tall uf the Holy City. Cumanus. Felix, Albinns, and FloruH were eont«picuous for their utter disregard of Jewish customs and prejudices. Indignant outbursts, de- veloping into riots and insurrections, occurred constantly, the nation meanwhile becoming thoroughly demoralized, + m« son Agrippa. although made king of Chalels and the O' rlhern tetrnrcbles. nod thouirh exercfMlnir Influenee in Jeru- Halom, seems never to have used royal power In Judica. 139G JKRUSALEM. uutilrin the year 6G. Cestius Gallus, the prefect of Syria, was obliged to interfere and attempt, with the aid of the high priest and a peace party, to juit dowu the insurj^euts. Gallus was severely beateu, and Home now began tlie war in earnest. First, \'espasiau, and afterwards his son Titus (both becoming emperors at length), conducted the war. The terrible dissensions among the Jews, the un- speakable sufferings of the besieged, the agony of the na- tion shut up within the walls of Jerusalem, the destruction of more than 1,000,000 Jews (including all the sick and old), the enslaving of all the j-outh. the entire demolition of the city, so as to leave no sign of its former occupancy, — all this forms one of the gloomiest pages in the annals of man. Fourth Period (70 A. D. to this time). — In Hadrian's reign (a. d. 11S-13S) we next hear of Judtea in an attempt of formidable dimensions to rebuild the city of Jerusalem and establi^^h the Jewish polity. Of this attempt liar Cuchba was the enterprising leader, who for three years kept the power of Rome at bay, until the insurrection was entirely quenched in the blood of hundreds of thousands. Hadrian's exasperation at this event made him first raze everything he eould find on the site of Jerusalem, and then build a new city on the spot, which he peopled with Ro- mans and called /Elia Capitolina. On the old temple site he erected a temple to Jupiter CapitoUnus, and placed his own statue on the site of the holy of holies. Ko Jew was allowed to enter the new city, and this prohibition con- tinued in effect till the empire became Christian, when per- mission was given them to weep by the W. tempk'-wall (where probably, in spite of the frequent and wholesale de- structions, some few stones occupied their old place) — a cus- tom continued until this very day. Constantiue restored the old name. Jtrmahm, although the liadrianic name of MWn is found in use for centuries afterward. His mother, Helena, devoted herself to recovering the lost sites of Chris- tian importance in Jerusalem and elsewhere in the Holy Land, and erected costly churches on these supposed sites. I Julian (a. d. 36>'i) attempted to rebuild the Jewish templo and restore the Jewish worship as a part of his design ' against Christianity, but the work was hindered and stop- jtcd by subterraneous fires breaking out among the work- j men, as Ammiauus, an unprejudiced witness, asserts. For the first Christian centuries of the empire Jerusalem occu- j pied the position of a venerable and sacred relic, to which j pilgrims constantly found th«.-ir way. Bishops presided over the Church there, and emperors from time to time built or repaired the holy edifices. The first disturbance of this peaceful condition was when the Persian monarch, Chosroes II., took the city by storm in 614, destroyed the churches, and slew the ecclesiastics. Fourteen years aftcr- . ward the Greek emperor Heraclius, victorious over the Per- I sians, restored the churches and re-established the Chris- I tian dominion in Jerusalem. But it was only for a short ; period. In GOT, Oraar made Jerusalem the first grand con- I quest of the rising Mobammedau power. From that day to this Jerusalem has been a Mohammedan city, except during the brief interval in which the crusaders held it. Ommiades, Abbassides, and Fatimites took their turns in ruling it from Damascu?, Bagdad, and Cairo as their cap- itals; Christians were more or less persecuted from time to time, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt ; but Christian pilgrims continued to visit the Holy City, paying tribute to the Moslem rulers for the privilege. In 1090, after a Turkish tribe had had a brief possession of the city, and had shown unusual se- verity to the Christians, but had now been supplanted by the Egyptian khalif, the crusaders appeared before Jeru- salem. In six weeks the city was in their hands and God- frey of Bouillon elected its king. It remained in the hands of the Christians till Salah-ed-din (Saladin), the sultan of Egypt, reconquered it in 1187. Thrice afterward the city was for a short time in Christian hands. In 1617 it fell into the hands of Selim, the Turkish conqueror of Egypt, and remains in possession of his successor, the sultan, to this dav. III. Toi'uiinAi'HY. — From thchistory of Jerusalem, brietly given above, it may readily be seen that its internal topog- raphy cannot be very accurately determined. Especially were the demolitions by Titus and Hadrian so complete that all traces of detail, even in the general surface of the ground, must be well nigh impossible. Hills were lowered and valleys filled up. ancl buildings reared upon ruins and of material afiurded by other ruins. This, with the ordinary changes and decays of iiOOO years, must make the internal topography of the city a puzzling problem. With the outer topograjihy of the city the conditions are different. The eastern, southern, and western limits are accurately defined by the deep ravines of the Kedr4in and the Bene-Hinnom, and beyond these the Mount of Olives, the Hill of Evil Council, and the western heights remain as David must have seen them, so far as their natural features go. On the X. there are no such marked topographical features. From Scopus the descent to the city is gradual, and it was in this direction that the suburb existed which Herod Agrippa en- closed with a wall. The modern city walls, built only ilOO years ago by Suleiman (Sol^vman the Magnificent), prob- ably enclose the area of the ancient city of David's day, with the exception of the southern jiortion of Zum and Ophel. which arc now without the walls. The positions of Zion and Moriah (of which latter Ophel is the southern ex- tension) seem to be thoroughly determined. Mr. Fergus- son's startling and ingenious theory that the ancient Zion was the temple hill, where the temple, the city of David, liaris, Aera, and Antonia stood, has too much to contend with it in uniform tradition, in spite of the few problems that this theory solves.* Joscphus tells us {Ant., 13. 6. 7) * The name Zion carae in use as the sacred name of Jerusalem in David's day, when tlv ark was und<T a lent on Mount Zion, making it the "holy hill," before Moriah received the temple and the title. JERUSALEM. l:!i)7 that Simon the Asmoncan destroyed the citadel {-ntv uKpav) to (ho fuuudutiou. and then lowered the hill on which it liad stood, so that the ti>in|>U> could be higher th:in it ; niut this work, he tells u,-'. occupied three years. As the hill gener- ally known as Zion is nigher than the temple liill. this fact recorded by Joscjihus doe.-' nnt prove thattbo modern Zion is not the ancient Zion. but that Iho axpa of Simon was not upon Zion. The citadel, and indeed the main city, when David conquercfl Jerusalem, was certainly the modern Zion. In later days a new citadel was formed on the north- ern hill or lower city f.Aora), then much higher than now, which was afterwards superseded (when Simon had reduced its hill) by the Barip, f>nd afterwards Antonia, nearer to the temple. Josephus calls the new part of the city enclosed by A:;jrippa's wall " Hezelha" r<Vi x«piw« 5-^ rKKrjSrf Bc^t fli rb vtoKTiiTTov fitpiK), and yet speak? of it as aA6<,!)0T (crest). As a Ao^o? we should suppose the bill N. of tho temple bill was intended — a bill which is liigh and well defined ; but from tho other words of Josephus, and the meaning of tho word Bezetha (now town), we should suppose all that was en- circled by Agrippa's wall from Hippicus to tho ICedron ^Ya9 meant. Probably tho name Bezctha wa*? given to the whole, and the hill, as being contained within it, was also known by (he name. Such is our best arrangement of tho general divisions of tho city. Let us now follow the ancient walls. Wo may suppose that Xebeiniah, iu restoring tho walls, followed tho old foundations and rowalled the same area which consti- tuted the city in David's day. In tho rebuilding, as re- corded by Xchemiah (chap, iii.), Kliasliih tho high priest is first mentioned as leading tho workers at tho shccp-gate, and at the wall as far as tho Tower of tho Hundred (Ha Mcah) and the Tower of ilananecl. These places wo must, of course, find in tho temple region, for there the high priest would be set. Moreover, tho passage in Jeremiah (xxxi. :i8-4M) seems to bo a reference to the temple precincts rather than to tho whole city, and tho Tower of llananeel is there prominent. The description in Nohcraiah f«»llows the wall from tho centre of th^ E. side of tho city, northward. The sheep-gate must have been in the centre of the teiiiplc-pro- einct wall, and perhaps derived its name from tho sheep brought in by that gate for sacrifice. If the irpo^aTi<»7 of John V. 2 be the sheep-gate, and the Pool of Bethesda bo the Fountain of the Virgin with its intermittent flow, then wo should sup(iuao tho ^heep-gate to ho farther S., but tho po<d of Bethes la may have boon within tho temple-precinct, and the present Fountain of (ho Virgin may receive to-day the intertnittent effects which in former times showed them- selves in another pool, now filled up. Wo are inclined to think that this " sheep-gate" is the same as theMishnehor "second (gate)" of Zeph. i. 10 and the "college" of 2 Kings xxii. 14, whoro the prophetess lluldah lived. In this case the *' fish-gate " wouUI be Iho first gate (see Zeph, I. c), ami would repreHont the N. E. corner of tho city, opposite the Mount of Olives. Between tho *Mish-gato " and the ''sheep-gate" would stand the Tower of llananeel and tho Tower of .Meah (or the II ii ml red i. The " old gate " would he found next, as we follow the N. wall north-westward. The course would be along tlio " second wall " of Josophus, for the first or old wall seems to have been the northern fortification of Zion. The " old gato " may bo really the " .leshanah gate" (by leaving the adjentivo untranslated), and may bo tho gate leading to .Ti-shanah (2 ('hron. xiii. lit, and Joseph. Ant., U. !;>. 12), a town near Bethel. Tho " gate of Ephraim " comes next in Nehomiah (not in his account of the building, but in his record of tho dedication xii. 311), and may have oocupied the site of tho present Damascus gate. Then follows " the broad wall " (somo local peculiarities of (he wall, perhaps for defence' 9akc), and then we reai^h tho " tower of the furnaces," which may have stood over (he western valley as tho towers of Ha- naneel and the Hundred overlooked tho eastern. The " valley-gate " would correspond with tho present Jaffa gale. Near this was the dragon-well (Nch. ii. I:)). Tho ** dung-gate" (if our snppr»si(ions above are correct) would he a thousanrl cubitn .'^. of the ,Tiifra gate (Neb. iii. l.T) ; that is, on the south-western part of Zion over against tho Bir- ket-cs Sultan. The " fountain-gate " would lie on tho op- posite siile of Zion, facing the Pool of .^iloam. Tho "stairs (hat go down from tho city of Oavid " would bo found be- tween the fountnin-gttto and ibe.*^. W. temple-corner. They were probably an ascent from the king's cardenH to tho Davidian palace on Zion. The " sepulchres of David." tho *' uuhIc pool " (" king's pool "in Xeb. ii. 14), and (he " house of tho mighty " were probably at the corner of Zion over against the S. W. temple-corner, where the wall crossed Iho TyropiTon. The •* armory " is in this neighlmrhood, at tho very corner where the wall turns abru[ftty southward to en- cirolo Opliel, The "house of tho high priest*' an'l tho "house of Azariah " are near (his. Al^er turning the ox- trerae corner of (Iphel south\Tard wo reach" tho tower which lioth out from tho king's high house," which may bo the extra tower discovered by Capt. Warren's subterranean ex- j)loratiou3 {/icrot-crt/ of JcruHnlemy p. 229), as ho himself suggests. It nmy have been built out in order to guard the " Fountain of tho Virgin." Tho " water-gate " would be so called in relation to this fountain. By this water-gate on Ophel was a broad street or square where assemblies couhl be held in the immediate vicinity of the templo (Neh. viii. I, 3, Ifi). Near by was tho "horse-gate." famous as the spot where Athaliah was put to death. This gate was prob- ably at this division between tho Solomonian palace (S. E. of the temple) and the precinct of the temple itself. Tho gate " Miphkad" may mark some angle of the walls con- nected with tho division, as a special corner is hero men- tioned (iii. .12) before wc reach the slieep-gatc again. This view of tho walls of Nehemiah's time will help us in our survey of the city in our Lord's day. Between those periods there had been much demolition and rebuild- ing in tho city, as a glance at the brief history above will indicate, but wo may believe that until the destruction of tho city by Titus tha general outline of the fortifications was the same. It will be seen by our sketch of the walls, as described by Nehemiab, that we find no difficulty in liaving tho " stairs from the city of David " and " the sep- ulchres of David" mentioned after "Siloani;" an order which Mr. Fergusson thinks quite stag*!;ering to the old hypothesis of Zion and tho city of David. The diiliculty that Mr, Fergusson finds with the places enumerated in the last sixteen verses of the third ehai»ter of Nchcniiah arises from his ovcrlnokin;r tho wall around Ophel. His own explanation, that tho fir.st sixteen verses retVr to tlie city of Jerusalem, and tho last sixteen to the city of David (his Zion or the temple-mount), is by no means natural. The late researches of Tapt. Wilson and ('apt. Warren have thrown much light upon tho question of tlie original temple-area. Tho discovery by tiic latter oflicer of im- mense stones in situ at tho base of the S. E. corner of the ])resent Harani wall, lying in tho rocky foundation scarped to receive them, 80 feet below the present surface, and marked with the Phcenician ((uarry -marks in paint, de- stroys Mr. Forgusson's theory that the temple-are.a ex- tended from the present S. W. corner of the Haram but (JOO feet E.. this S. E. corner being llflO feet E. The vaults under this south-eastern portion of the area seemed to him too slight to have supported the stoa, and Josopbus's as- sertion that tho temple-urea was only a stade square, and thirdly tho apparently unchanged position of tho stones at the south-western corner, confirmed his view. But Capts. Wilson and Warren have proved that the south-eastern corner is unehanged, while the south-western has undoubt- edly been added, as the real bed uf the Tyropn^on valley lies nearly 100 feet E. of the 8. W. corner ami uniler tho Harani, whilo a new bed for that valley has been cut out of the rock, to prevent the moisture passing under the temple-area. This doubtless was the new portion enclosed by Herod. (Jos. /?. J., i. 21. 1.) About GOO feet N. of (ho S. W. corner is Wilson's arch, the beginning of the cause- way across the Tyropwim, and for twenty-three feet S. of this Tapt. Warren found the old Haram wall in situ. Tho inference from these discoveries is that (ho S. W. angle of the Haram wall was built by Herod in bis reconstruction of the temple. The temple of Solomon, therefore, in nil probability, occupied the site of the mosque uf <linar (Kub- bet-cs-Sukhrah). while the palace of Solomon occupied the south-eastern portion of tho Haram, from which was com- munication by road and bridge ( Robinson's arch, or rather beneath Robinson's arch, the valley having been filleil uji with rubbish twenty feet deep before the new jiavcment and Robinson's arch were constructed by Herod) to (he lower city on the plateau below ond E. of tho upper city. The causcwav over Wilson's arch was of a later date, but iloubt- less markeil the old an«l direct coiumunicatii'n between temple and city. Herod's Stoa Basilica ran along the southern wall, but whether it extended to tho S. E. corner of the Haram is uncertain. Perhaps Fergusson's argu- ment is correct theic. antl the vaults beneath could not have supjjorted it at (hat corner. However, as ('apt. \\'aneii shows, all the vaults known as Solomon's stables at the .'^. E. of the Haram are of moclern construction, and there may have been in Herod's day a substruction quite sufficient for the support of Herod's stoa, so that the "pinnacle" (irrtpvyiot) of the temple may have been exai'tly at the S, E. corner overhanging the Kedrnn. Beneath tho present Haram surfaeo are tanks and subterranean passages and I aqueducts in great numbers (see ffrrorenf of Jrruitaffn}, I ch. vii,, and accompanying plan from Wilson and Warren), which at least seem to prove that the present areii very largely coincided with tho oM temple-area;' but a eom- •The fortress of BarU, afterward enlarged to Aulonia. stood probalily In the north-western iwition uf tho liarain, oeeup\dnjf perhap!* about fjOO feet square. 139» JERUSALEM. plele survey when Moslem fanaticism shall no longer be a hindrance will be necessary for any satisfactory arrange- ment of details. The next point of special interest in the topography of Jerusalem is the site of the Holy Sepulchre and Cal- vary. The commonly received site lies about 400 feet N. of a Hue running from the Jaffa gate to the mosque of Omar ( Kubbet-es-Sukhrah or "Dome of the Rock"), and about SOO feet W. of the street leading N. to the Damas- cus gate. That this site is the same selected by the em- press Helena, although the edifices on the site have been many, is pretty clear, but whether Helena selected the true" site three centuries after the crucifixion, and after Jerusalem had been so completely reduced to chaos by Tilus, and then by Hadrian, is by no means so clear. The chief objection is, that the site must have been withm the walls of the city in our Lord's d.ay. The controversy here depends greatly on fixing the position of the gate ticnuath in the first wall (which ran from the neighl)or- hood of the Jaffa gate to the \V. wall of the temple), from which gate the second wall (the main city wall) took its course northward. Now, the old arch near the S. end of the bazaars, which has been called the gate (ienuath, is proved to be a comparatively recent structure, and the ruins near the present church of the Holy Sepulchre, which have been called fragments of the second wall, are proved to be portions of a church. (See Recovery of Jcrmalem, pp. 9. 213.) If the Kasr Jalnd, which stands on the highest point of the city, and is built of huge bevelled stones, like those of the foundations of the temple, be the ancient Hip- picus, then the present site of the Holy .Sepalchre is alto- gether wrongly fixed. But the Kasr Jalud may he Pse- phinus in the Agrippa wall, built after our Lord's day to include the northern suburbs. Another argument against , the common theory is the necessity of extending the area of the city as much as possible to give it the size of so ; renowned a capital. Even by putting the Kasr Jalud in the i original wall, we can only make the city to include about 200° acres. Its circumference would be only 2i miles, and I the population of ft city of this size could not have been more than 25,000. (Ferguason.) The great suburb included in Agrippa's wall was twice the area of the old city, and if we crowd that as much as the old city, we shall have only 75,000 for the population of Jerusalem at its destruc- tion by Titus. These numbers are extreme numbers, and we should probably reduce them largely to reach the truth. They certainly form a strong argument against still further contracting the " second watl " and putting the present site of the Holy Sepulchre outside of the city. And yet the Xrlyai Jerusalem at the time of Kiui? Herod. (Sketch showiuu approx- imately the lie of rock, l 1, Temple of Solomon ; 2, Palace of Solomon ; :l, Added on by Herod; 4, Exhedra (the tower Bans or Antooia); 5, Antonla (the Caslle); 6, Tlolsters joininR An- tonia to Temple ; 7, Xyslus; 8, Agrippa's Palace; 9, Zion and Acra; 10, Lower Pool of Ciihon. or .^mycdalon; 11, Herod's Palace; 12, Bethesda,or .'^truthion ; 13, BridKC built by Herod ; 14, t he lyower City, called sometimes Akre ; 15, British cemetery, a.'d. 1870. arcuments are far from conclusive. If we knew where the gate Genuath was, all would ho known. If the present site is erroneously fixed, where are we to find the true site? An ingenious but not convincing argument has been put forth by the late Mr. Fisher Howe of Brooklyn in favor of the remarkable hillock over the grotto of Jeremiah, N. E. of the Damascus gate. The probabilities seem to point to sonic location on the ledge overhanging the Kedron, outside the St. Stepheu's gate, for this has always been a place of graves, is close to the city walls, and is near to the pra>to- rium of Pilate, which was in the fortress of Antonia at the N. of the temple. We have to leave the discussion in this state of incertitude. The other points of topographical interest are Zion, the Tyropoeou, the towers, and the pools. Zion (i ivm ir6A« of Josephus) is the high broad hill which lifts itself by an abrupt front 400 feet above the southern valley, its plateau extending from this brow 2400 feet to the Jaffa gate road, where a valley ran eastward from the gate to the Tyropoeon. Along this northern brow the ■' first wall " was built. The width of this plateau at its broadest is about 1600 feet from the western valley to the Tyropoi'on. This height embraced nearly one-half of the ancient city. On the E. of it, beyond the Tyropoeon, was the temple mount, 100 feet lower, and on the X. was the part of the city called Acra, which (some think) extended to the N. W. as far as the present Kasr Jalud. where the ground rises to a height of 73 feet above the top of Zion. Although, in that case, this one point of Acra was higher than any other point in the city, yet the main portion of Acra was lower than either Zion or the temple mount (after Simon had reduced its height), and was the "lower city" of ancient times; this latter appellation also including the valley of the Tyro- pcKon. Zion was the seat of the citadel which David stormed, and its broad, elevated summit beeame the "city of David." Here were the royal palaces and tombs of David's line, connected by a bridge with the Solomonian palace (1 Kings vii. 1) and'the temple on Moriah. Here also Herod built his palace, including the magnificent buildings called in honor of his friends Ca-sar and Agrippa. On its north-eastern corner was the Xystus, or gynuiasium, con- nected with the temple by another bridge, probably where Wilson's arch now is. the southern bridge being now mark- ed by Robinson's arch. The height of Zion above the Mcil- iterranean is 2537 feet. The Mount of Olives rises only 200 feet higher. The Tyropoeon (" valley of the cheesemongers ) ran be- tween Zion and Moriah southward into (he Hinnom valley and the Kedron valley at their junction, the junction ol the three forming the rich soil of the "king's garden" (Neh. iii. 15: Joseph., Aj,!., 7. 14. 4). The Tyropoeon continued in two branches northward, one toward the present Da- mascus gate, and the other toward the Jaffa gate. The latter seems to have been the recognized continuation of the Tyropoeon. The depth of the valley increased rapidly as it reached southward, and at the south-western corner of the temple-area the bed of the valley was UO feet below the present surface. One of the most prominent objects in Jerusalem is the old tower in the midst of the citadel near the Jaffa gate, 56 feet 6 inches on one face, and 70 feet 3 inches on the other. It has been generally supposed to be Hippicus (Joseph., B. J., 5. 4. 3). Whichever one of the Herodian towers this was. its style of building tempts us to believe that Herod only rebuilt an ancient tower, and that we may have here "the tower of David builded for an armory" (Cant. iv. 4). If this be Hippicus, we may suppose Pha- saelus and Mariamne lay to the E., and that the Kasr Jalud, 1200 feet to the N., is Psephiuus. The pools (so called) in and by Jerusalem which now attract attention arc Birkct Mamilla, liirket Sultan, the Pool of Siloam, and the Fountain of the A irgin without the walls, and Birkct Israil (or Esi^erain ) and the Pool of Hezckiah within the walls. The Birket Mamilla is sup- posed to be the "upper pool" (Isa. vii. 3; 2 Kings xviii. 17). It lies 2000 feet W. of the Jaffa gate. The Birket Sultan is a section of the great western valley dammed up for more than 600 feet. The Pool of Siloam (Nch. m. 15; John ix. 7) is in the mouth of the Tyropa-on at its junc- tion with the Hinnom and Kedron. It was probably used to irrigate the " king's garden." It is connected by a long, rude, and crooked subterranean passage with the Fountain of the Virgin on the other side of Ophel, from which the water flows "softly" (Isa. viii. C). This subterraneous aqueduct is connected with extensive rock-hewn caverns, which were doubtless part of the fortifications of Ophel. (See the deeply interesting account of their discovery hy Capt. Warren in his litcurery of J,r,unhm, pp. iyo-lJ>. ) The Fountain of the Virgin is a pool on the eastern side of the Ophel rock, to which is a descent of twenty-eight steps The pool is lower than the bottom of the valley without, and is excavated deeply within the rocky wall. The water comes into it from the direction of the temple, but has never been traced. It has a periodic and sudden JERUSALEM— JESSE. 13i)9 rise of a foot in height, the periods varying from two or three times a day to once in two or three days. This pe- riodic troubliug of the water seems to mark the Fountain of the Virgin us the Pool of Ucthosda^ unices we may the rather suppose u jiool further up on the tompio mount formerly re^Tivcd this intermittent flow. The rt<juircments of the ijheep-gatc (as we have seen) ^eem to put Ijetliesda forthcr N. The Birkct li>rai), just inside of tho St. Steph- en's gate and N. of the Haram (supposed hy Dr. Hobinson to he the trench of Antonia), is the damming up of the val- ley that runs E. of Uczetha in a south-eastern direction, originally under the north-eastern corner of the llaram^ into the Kedron. It is '.\CtO feet long, l.'JO feet broad, and 7 J feet deep. The I'ool of Uezekiiih ( Ami/ffda/im of Jo- sephus) is N. of the Jaffa gate street and to the S. \V. of the rhurch of the Holy Sepulrhre. It is supplied by an aqueduct from the Birket Mamilla. It lies among tlu- hou^i'S of the Christian quarter. It is 210 feet long and 144 tect wide. It seems to be properly designated. (See 2 Kings XX. 20; 2 Chron. xxxii. 'MK) A system of wells and aqueducts in the Kcdron ravine below Jerusalem (the £u-Rogel of antiquity) presents features of peculiar inter- est. One of several ancient aqueducts still conducts the water from Solomon's Pools beyond Bethlehem to the city. For further details of modern discovery in the topogra- phy of the city wo refer to the reports of Capts. Wilson and AVarren, which have settled so many questions and so greatly escitecl public interest and expectation. Jerusalem is in hit. :i\° 4tJ' lio" X. and Ion. 3i*= 18' 30" E., lying on the very summit of the great mouutaiu-ridgo Trhich extends from the plain of Ksdraelon to the southern desert, the ridge itself being higher farther S. near Hebron, where it reaches an elevation of .'iOOO feet above the Med- iterranean Sea. At Jerusalem (Mount of OUvcs) the ele- vation is 2700 feet. The highest part of the city itself is 2600 feet (Kasr Jalud). From the Mount of Olives the de- scent is rapid to the Jordan valley. In lU miles one ilescends 3700 feet. Westward the descent is more gradual to the plain along the Mediterranean coast, about 2J00 feet in 16 miles. Howard Cnosar. Jernsalenif tp. of Yates co., N. Y., on Keuka or Crooked I/nke. It contain? ."i churches and several villages. It was first settled by Jemima Wilkinson and her followers, callecl Wilkinsonians, or Friends, the latter name being eni])loycd by tht'm?elves. The sect is now extinct. Pop. 2G12. JerU8alenif post-tp. of Davie co., N. C. Pop. 1544, Jerusalem, post-r. of Malaga tp., Monroe co., 0. Pop. yi. Jerusalem, post-v., cap. of Southampton co., Va., 75 miles S. S. K. of Kichmond and 7 miles from Newsom's D-'^pflt, on the Seaboard and Uoanoko K. K. It is on the Nottoway River. Pop. of ip. 2061. JerUNalcm Artichoke, a species of sunflower ( /7e/»'- nnthmi tuhrronnH of Linnieus, order Compos i tie), which bears subterranean tubers of the same nature us potatoes. The tubers got the name of artichokes from a resemblance in taste to the true Artichokk (which see), while the name "Jerusalem" is a curious English corruption of yiritaoltt, Italian for " sunflower." The plant jirobably reached England by way of Italy or Spain. The French name is tttpiunnihniir. It has been cultivated in Europe ever since the beginning of the seventeenth century, and doubtle^j^ carao from America, the native country of the whole sunflower geinn. It is generally said to be of Ura/ilian origin, but there is no historical evidence of it ; it is not known to occur either there or in any part of South .America, and it has all the characters of a plant of a warm temperate climate. Moreover, it is so much like a species of ^lunflower {H.iloromcniilm) indigenous to the V;illey of the .Mississippi, which bears long and narrow tubers, that it may well bo regarded as a probable variety of this species, altered and fixed by cultivation. The tubers, boiled or slewed, are of delicate flavor and ore much esteemed in Europe. In the r. S. they are more commonly pickled or used as food for swine. \. Ohay. JerUHali'in Chrrry, the jxqtular name of twoepecies of Sofftiiiiin .'ultivuteil as ornamental house-plants {pHPutln- ciipnicnm and ('iifmirtiHtrum), first introduced into England from the island of Madeira about the close of the sixteenth century. It may be propagated either from seeds or cut- tings, grows only two or three feet high, and bears berries about the sl/.c of cherries. It is uncertain how it came by the name Jerusalem. Jerusalem Plantation, tp. of Franklin co., Mo. Pop. :J2. Jer'vis (Sir John), b. at Meaford, England. Jan. 9, 17.'M ; entered the niivy at ten years of ago : became ))ost-eaptain in Kno. renr-adiiiiriil in 17^7, an<t admiral of the blue in 17'.1'). 11" dislinguislif'd bitiiself in several niival engngi'- ments, chief among which was the celebrated action in which he defeated a Spanish squadron of twice his strength (Feb. 14, 1797) off Cape St. \ incent, in reward of which Jervis was created earl of St. Vincent and received a pen- sion of £.'{000. Ho was first lord of the admiralty 1801- 04, and d. Mar. 15, 1823. Jer'vois (Col. Sir AVii.liam F. D.), R. E.. K. C. M. G.. b. in IS21 ; educated at the Koyal Military Academy at W'oohvich. After receiving his commission in the royal engineers in 1839, ho served in Africa (lSH-48), in the Kaffer war (184(1—17), receiving from Sir Harry Smith, governor and commander-in-chief of South Africa, his commendation as **ono of tlie most able, energetic, and 2eal<)us officers lie had ever exacted more than his share of duty from." Made captain in 1S47, he received the brevet of mnjor in 1S54; in 1S56 ho was appointed assistant in- spector-general of fortifications, and subsequently deputy director of fortifications. In this capacity lie jirepared in IS58, by direction t)f the secretary of state for war, a me- moir relating to the general defence of the country, in which a system of fortifications for the security of the vital points was proposed in detail, and a plan for the defence of London was suggested. Tho commission appointccl in 1859, of which Mnj. Jervois was secretary, adopted tho arguments nnd principles contained in tho memorandum submitted by him to tho secretary of state for war in the previous year. The report of the royal eommissitm re- ferred to, and approved by. tho permanent defence com- mittee, has since been carriccl into effect. This report, tho first formulated expression in England of principles gov- erning 8/-(t-ri>nst il'/<ncc, is not only in its governing prin- ciples and details of application, but in the arguments by which they are sustained, in striking harmony with the re- ports of our own board of engineers which inaugurated our system of defence against maritime invasion. The English discussion was, liowever, coeval with the introduc- tion of rifled ordnance, tho application of iron for defen- sive purposes both in ships and fortifications, and the sub- sequent advance in size and power of ortillcry. The event- ful combat between the Monitor ami Merrimack in Hamp- ton Uoa<Is, Mar. 8, 18(12, shook tho public confidence in England, and the royal commission was renssembled to re- port on the defences of Spithead, to which Parliament had made heavy grants of money; and a special committee on the same subject, of which Muj. Jervois was also secre- tary, reported in 18(54. The result of these reports was the adhesion of tho Itritisli government to the principles con- taineil in the first report. Promoted to be lieutenant-col- onel in 1862, he became a full colonel in lst)7. As a mem- ber of the special committee on tho application of iron to defensive purposes ( I8()I-C4 ), be has taken a prominent part in these important questions, and has been active in designing and superintending the execution of works of fortification botli at liome and al)roa<I. In l8(i.H he was nominated a eonti)aninii of the Path, and appointed knight commander of the order of St. Michael ami St. tJeorge. In 1875 ho succeeded Sir Andrew Clarke, Col. H. E., as gov- ernor of the Straits Settlements, comprising Singapore, Penang, and Malacca. J. G. Bahnahd. Jesi, a town of Italy. Sec Iesi. JeN'samiiie, the common English name for species 9f Jiismiiiuiii. a genus of erect or climbing shrubby plants, natives of the OU World, of which several species are cul- tivate<l for ornament, the flowers being both beautiful and fragrant. The common species are Jaitnii'niini i>j}ic{intfr (white jessamine) and ./. nJ<,riifinH\mum (yellow jessamine), and in conservatories ./. Sniiilmr of tropical India, which exhales a powerful fragrance at evening. The jessamine family is now regarded as a tribe of the olive family (order Oleacea?), and is ilistinguisljcd from the other regular mono- polalous flowers by having stamens fewer than the lubes of the corolla. Tho so-called jessamine of the Southern U. S. is of another order. (See Jasmink, Yki.i.ow.) A. Urav. JesHnmine, county of E. Central Kentucky. Area, 250 square miles. It is a beautiful, undulating region, with a goorl soil, based upon cavernous limestone, (irain and live-stock are staple products. It is traversed by the Kentucky Central 11. K. Cap. Nicholasville. Pop. 8tj;{s. Jes'se (EnwARo), b. at Hutton Cranswiek. Yorkshire, England, Jan. 14, 17S0: was deputy surveyor of the royal parks and palaces at Windsor, Kichmond, and Hampton Court. His fondness for outdoor e,\ercisefl and for aniniiil lifn was strongly fostered by the nature of his occupations, and eauf»ed bim to observe anci record many curious facts in natural history. He published a number of very enter- taining and popular works, among which were (i/muingit IN \ittttrnl Hintfirif (3 vols., 1 8.H2-lt5). Ati Atiq/fr'it litimhfeM (IHilfil, Anrt-itnleti nf Dih/h (184(>). and Lrctuirn on Xaturnl ll\Ht4,rti [X^iVA). lie also published several topographical handbooks upon Windsor and the royal palaces, besides 1400 JESSE— JESUITS. editing Izaak Walton's Angler and Gilbert White's Sel- borne. Mr. Je?se removed to Bri^^htou in 1S*)2, where he became so useful a citizen that his bust was plnceil in tht; Pavilion bv popular subscription in 1SG5. D. at Brighton Mar. 2S, 18fiS. Jesse (John Heneagk), b. in England about 1815, was a ?on of Edward, noticed above; wrote nuineroup volumes of memoirs illustrating English history during the eight- eenth century. D. in July, 1874. Jesso. Sec Yesso. Jessore', town of British Indiu, the capital of a dis- trict of the same name in the presidency of Bengal. The district comprises 3512 square miles of the centre of the (Jiinges delta, and is as fertile as unhealthy. Ita capital is situated 6(5 miles N. E. of Calcutta, and has a college in which botii Entjiish and Hindoo literature are taught. Top. of district. 400,0(10. Jes'son Land, tp. ai Sibley co., Minn. Pop. 7^9. Jcssulineer% or Jaysiilmir, one of the Kajpoot states under English ]»rotci*tinn. in Western Hindostan, sit- uated between 2l'|0 and 2S° X. lat. and C9° and 72° E. Ion. It comprises 9700 square miles of very poor soil, and has 74,100 inhabitants. lis capital, of the same name, is a well-built city with .'ki.OOO inhabitants. Water is very scarce in its vicinity, and must be provided for by immense tanks. The fortress contains the palace, G temples, 8 wells, and its walls are ornamented with gilded towers and pin- nacles. Jes'sup, post-v. of Buchanan co., In., on the Iowa di- vision of the Illinois Central R. R. Jessup, tp. of Susquehanna co., Pa. Pop. 804. Jessiip (William), LL.D., b. in Southampton, SuflFolk CO., N. Y., June 21, 1797; graduated at Yale in 1815 ; re- moved to Montrose, Pa., in 181S ; was admitted to the bar in 1820; was strongly interesteTl in the missionary and temperance causes and in popular education ; was presid- ing judge of the eleventh judicial district of Pennsylvania lSnS-51. D. at Montrose, Pa., Sept. 11, 18G8. Jessup Lake, in Orange co., Fla., 12 miles S. of En- terprise, communicates with St. John's River by a naviga- ble outlet. The lake is clear, has a sandy bottom, and abounds in fish and game birds. Tlie shores arc high bluffs. There are good wharves constructed here. It is the seat of Lake Jessup colony*. The surrounding region is beau- tiful, well-timbered, and fertile. There are several medi- 3inal springs in the neighborhood. Jes^uits, or The Society of Jesus, a religious or- der of ttie Roman Catholic (.'hurch, which, although en- tirely destitute of any original religious idea, and merely contining itself to practical ]>urposes — missionary, educa- tional, political, commercial, always of a subordinate, often of a doubtful nature — has played a more conspicuous part in the history of the Christian Church than any other re- ligious order, and exercised a most powerful, though only in some cases a beneficial, influence. It was founded by Iti- NATirs Loyola (which see), and established by Pope Paul III. Sept. 27, IJIO. Its organization it recei\ed from its founder and first general, but its true character from his successor. It was Loyola's idea to form a monastic order with a definite practical purpose. To the vows, common to all religious orders, of chastity, poverty, and obedience, he added that of missionary activity; and as ho was a military man by profession, and entirely without originality or spontaneity, he conferred ujjon the religious order he founded his military ideas of organization, of training, subordination, and implicit obedience. But under its second general, James Laynez (1558-()5), the order freed itself to a great extent from its monkish apparel. Its mis- sionary task retreated to the background, aud its principal objeet became the maintenance of the absolute dominion of the pope against Protestantism, kingdoms, universities, recumeuical councils, bishops, or anything which showed an independent tendency. Its position was most cxeep- tional. It enjoyed at once all the privileges of the mendi- cant orders and the secular clergy. It held its property free of taxes either to king or Church, and its members were independent not only of the jurisdiction of the slate, but also of that of the bishops; thoy acknowledged no other authority than that which emanated from their general. The priestly office was conferred upon them in full, as far as regards its power, but not with all its duties and restric- tions. They had unlimited power of dispensation and in- dulgence, and they eould administer the sacraments even in a period of interdict. At the same time, they were not separated very conspicuously from the world either in dress or manners. They ha<l the education of the world, and they took part very freely in the enjoyments of the world ; prayer and fasting wore not the most striking character- istics of a Jesuit. With this most favorable position with respect to the outside world, the society oombiued a most rigorous internal organization. The authority of the gen- era! was absolute, and the training of the member? such as to make the enforcement of this authority unfailing. They were divided into four classes — novices, scholastics, coad- jutors, and professed. After a short preparation the novice spends two years in spiritual exercises, in prayers, medita- tions, fasts, and ascetic ])raclices, in serving the sick and the poor, living all the while under the closest supervision. If after the lapse of these two years he finds himself, and is found by the elder members of the order, capable of be- coming a suitable instrument — that is, capable of givin-; up all individuality of will and all independence of intel- lect — ho enters the class of scholastics, where ho undergoes a long and severe training in theology, ])hilosophy. phi- lology, and science. Every advancement from one class to another is exceedingly ditficnlt. Only men of decided talents and rare energy are able to reach the highest class. that of professed, whose members elect the general among themselves. But even with the humblest and least gifted members of the society the moral training is perfect. It is in some respects very simple. It consists in nothing but implicit obedience to the rules of the order and the au- thority of the general. But it must be perfect or else no membership is granted. Every passion, every sympathy, every talent, every tendency, which possibly coirid come into collision with the purposes of the society is crushed or burnt out of the soul. The order was thus able to work with the unfailing certainty of a machine, and in a loose and rather disorderly state of society, like that of Europe in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, its power could not but bo immense. At the death of Loyola the society numbered 1000 mem- bers in 12 provinces; at the celebration of its first centen- nial jubilee, 13.112 members in 32 provinces; at the time of its suppression, one century later, 22,589 members, 24 professed houses, (jfi9 colleges, 176 seminaries, 61 novitiates, 335 residences, and 275 missionary stations in heathen or Protestant countries. In Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Aus- tria the order took root immediately. To the higher classes of society the Franciscans had become offensive by their coarseness and vulgarity, and the Dominicans troublesome by their bluntness and rigorousness. The easy and elegant Jesuit was just what was wanted. His eloquent casuistry threw a veil over any vice or crime, and very soon every monarch, jirincc. and nobleman had a Jesuit for confessor ; which circumstance gave the order an enormous social and political influence. In the Thirty Years* war It was Father Lamormain, the confessor of Ferdinand II., who delValcd Wallcnstein, and it was the Jesuits who kept alive the league between Austria and Bavaria. To the middle classes they recommended themselves by their excellent schools and their learning. In many countries they actually con- trolled all education ; at the Roman Catholic universities of (icrmany — Cologne, Miinich, Treves, Augsburg, etc. — ■ they held chairs a few years after the establishment of the order. Still more decided was their success as mission- aries to the pagans. They penetrated into Japan in 1549, and into China in 1584; in the former country they pos- sessed 3 colleges, S residences, and 3 professed houses in 1013, and in 1092 the number of their converts in the Chinese jjrovince of Kiangsu is said to have been more than 100,000. They had flourishing stations in Cochin- China, Tonquin, Hindostan, Ceylon, Madagascar, and on the coast of Africa. In Paraguay they christianized the whole nation, and formed a civilized society whose pros- perity ami rapid progress excited general admiration. Brazil, Mexico, and North America are also in debt to them, for they carried civilixatiou with them wherever they went. In the Protestant countries, however, they never got a foothold, though they tried very hard in Enj;- laud and Sweden. In France their situation was generally precarious. The Sorbonne, the bishops, and even the Par- liament, were opjiosed to them, and very slow in admitting them. After the attempt of Chatel, a former pupil of theirs, on the life of Henry IV. in 1591, they were even expelled, though only for a short time: iu 1003 they were allowed to return. Richelieu and Mazarin showed them considerable favor, and under the reign of Louis XIV. they gradually grew in power. But just at this time they met with their lirst heavy reverse of fortune. In their contest with Jan- senius they were the losers iu spite of their great dexterity in theological dispute, and when, in 1056, Pascal published his Lcttrt'it Provincialen, a blow was inflicted ou them from which they never recovered. The looseness of their morals, the egotism of their aims, the falseness of their actions, were thoroughly unmasked hy this book. They bc-ame odious and subjects of general suspicion. Under these un- favorable circumstances, and while driven onward in an opposite direction by their own antecedents, they clashed against the general enlightenment of the eighteenth ccn- JESUITS' BARK— JESUS CHRIST. 1401 tory, which they could neither adopt nor 8up]ire9s ; and this became (heir ruin. An insurrection in Paraf^uay a<raiu9t Portugal, ID which the Jesuits were implicnteil. ^ave Potn- batanonportoDity in ITjSof hringinfj them before the courts. While tne trial was r;oinr; on an attempt was made to as^afl- sinate the king, and (Sept. ^t, ITJit) a royal decree t-xpelled the pocicty from the Portuguese dominions and contiscated their property. In France not only public opinion, but also the court, espceially Madamo do Pompadour and the prime minister, rhoi-Jcul, were against them, and a scandalous law- suit ID which they became entangled caused a general out- burst of indignation. They had a missionary and com- mercial station on the island of Martinique. Thence their procurator. Father Lavalctte. consigned two vessels to a house in Marseilles. The vessels were captured by the Knglixh. and when Father Lavalette was unable to meet the bills which he had draxvn on the credit of the delivery of (he costly enrgo. ft cnsc wa-? brought into the courts uf Marseilles against the order, and de<'ided in favor of the plaintiff. The order tried to escape from paying the debt by appealing to the Parliament of Paris, and pleading that Father Lavaletie hail acted without orders from the gene- ral antl against bis instructions. In the course of the trial other scandalous aftairs became known, and in 1764 a royal decree expelled the society from Franco. Apr. 2, 1767, all the Jesuits in Spain nnd in the Spanish colonies were ar- rested at the same hour and sent to the papal dominions: and July 21, 177^. a papal bull dissolving the whole order, on the re«|ue?t of France, Spain, Portugal, Parma. Naples, and Austria, was issued. Its property was confiscated, but in most countries its members recciveti nnnuitics and were allowed to live as private persons. Frederick II. of Prussia showed them much kindness, and Catherine II. even permitted them to exist as a society in Russia under the head of a vicar-general. In ISOl, Pope Pins VII. con- firmed this branch of the order, and immediately after the fall of N.ipoleon ( Aug. 7, 11:514) he re-established the society in its old form. l)uring the exhaustion and reaction which prevailed throughout Europe between IKI,) and 184S the .lepuits succeeded in penetrating into all countries, with or without the acknowledgment of the governments; but the general conditions of civilized life have so entirely changed character in the last century the order has been compelled to alter its method of proceeding. Science was once its weapon — it now appeals to ignorance: court intrigue was formerly its arena — it now mixes in political party machi- nations. But although the means are changed, tlio aim is still the same — to stop the progress of civilization and en- slave mankind under the sceptre of tho pope; and the Syllabus and tho dogma of infallibility arc among its latest achievements. Clemens Pkterse.n. Jesuits* Bark. See Cinciioxa. Jes'up, post-v. and cap. of Wayne co., Ga., at tho in- tersection of tho Macon and Brunswick and the Atlantic and Gulf R. Rs. Pop. about 260. W. 0. McAdoo. Jcsop (Mourns Kktciii'M), b. at Hartford, Conn.. June 21, l^itO; locating ill New York City, became member of tho Chamber of Cummcrco in Feb., Ibti.'S ; |>rcEident of the Five Points House of Industry since 1870; was president of the Young Men's Christian Ai^sociation 1871-76; is treas- urer of the university and o:io of its council ; vice-president and treasurer of the City Mission, and uianager of the Pres- byterian Hospital. Jesup (Thomas SroNKv), b. in Virginia in 1788 ; entered the army in I SOS; served as acting adjutant-general to Brig.-tien. Hull 1812; brevetted colonel for gallantry at Chippewa and Niagara, rose to quartermaster-general, with rank of brigadier-general. May, 1S18; took command of the army in tho (*reek nation, Ala., and in Florida IHIIG; wounded in action with Scminoles Jan., 18;j8, and returned to duty in his department. \). June 10, 1860. Je'sus Christ. This name is not compound, hut con- sists of the proper name Jesus, and the ofhcial designation Christ — Jesus the Christ. Je-ius is the Greek form of the Hebrew Joshua or .lehoshua, and means Jehovah his sal- vation, or the salvation of Jehovah. Christ is equivalent to tho Hebrew Messiah, and means tho Anointed. The name Jesus is applied to several persons in the Scriptures, and was probably not an uneotnnioi) one. Into tho tlieobtgicut questions connected with the person of Jesus Christ wo do not enter, nor do wo attempt any in- terpretations of his words, nor discuss any disputed points in reganl to the relative authority of the several Kvangelists. Those seeking information on these points are referred to tho special works named at the end of this article. There island doubtless will continue to be. much differeneo of opinion among harmonists in regard to the chronological order of evenrs in his life, but there is general agreement as to tho most important fatils. Jesus was born in Itelhle- hein, a small .lud;ean town already famous as the birth- place of King David, and about 6 miles S. of Jerusalem. The home of his mother, Mary, was Nazareth in Galilee, but she had come to Bethlehem with her husband, Joseph, a dcsL-endant ot David, in obedience to a decree of enroll- ment and taxation which seems to have required Joseph's presence at the original home of his tamily. Mary is thought to have been, like .Joseph, descended from the royal house of Judah. The date of the Nativity is uncer- tain. (See CniiiSTMAS.) Jesus was born miraculously of a virgin mother by the power of the Holy (ihost. On the eighth day after his birth Ho was circumcised, and on tho fortieth day ho was taken to the temple, when tho custom- ary offerings of purification were made by his mother. The visit of certain " wise men," or magians. who came prob- ably from Persia, to the infant at Bethlehem with gifts proper for a king, and the inquiries made by them pre- viously at Jerusalem for a newly-born king of the Jews, excited tho jealousy of Herod, then ruling over Juda;a and the neighboring territories under the protection of the Ro- mans, and he issued orders for a massacre of young chil- dren at Bethlehem. Jesus was taken by divine direction to Egypt in time to escape the destruction which threatened him, and the holy family remained out of Herod's juris- diction until his death a short time after. Joseph seems to have intended to rear tho child at Belhk'hcm,as ihe city of David, but another warning from Heaven caused him to return to Nazareth. Twelve years later .loscph and Mary took Jesus with them to Jerusalem to keep the Passover, and he then showed that he was already conscious of a di- vine mission. He lived at Nazareth, however, for eighteen years longer, and probably assisted Joseph at his trade, that of a carpenter. Joseph is not mentioned again in tho Gospels, and is supposed to have died before Christ entered on his public labors. When Jesus was about thirty years old his kinsman, John, tho son of Zacharias. began to announce the near approach of the kingdom of God. and to call bis countrymen to prepare for it by a moral reformation, and by accepting baptism at his bands as a sign of the remission of sin. •Tesus appeared among the throngs which gathered about John the Baptist at tho Jordan, and insisted on being bap- tized by him. After Jf)hn bad reluctantly administered tho rite to one \vhom he felt by a kind (»f prophetic instinct, as it would seem, to be holier than hiinseU". he was shown that ,Iesu3 was the ^lessiab, the Son ot (Jod. Ho announced him as such to those about him, among whom were prob- ably some representatives of tho Sanhedrim, or ecclesiastical senate of the Hebrews, sent from Jerusalem to inquire into John's own work and claims. After his baptism Jesus withdrew, under a divine impulse, into the wilderness, where ho encountered and overcame a series of temptalions addressed to him by Satan. A few of John's disciples now attached themselves to Jesus, and accompanied liim to Gal- ilee. The first of his miracles was wrought at Cana. a few miles from Nazareth, where water was changed into wine. Soon after he bt*gan his public ministry, in the proper sense, in Jerusalem, at tho Passover. Ho announced himself to tho heads of tho nation there as a messenger of Heaven by expelling from tho temple-court those who had been allowed to carry on traflic in it for the convonienco of worshippers. One member of tho Sanhedrim. Nicodemus, became at this time a secret adherent of tho new prophet. For a few months Jesus carried on a work in Judaea similar to that in whicli John tho Baptist was engageil. and seemed to bo co-operating with the laller in the effort to bring about a national repenraiice. Attempts being made to create dis- sensions between his followers and those of John he retired to (Jalileo. It is probable that some time was now passed by Christ in comparative seclusion, and that his disciples were for a while dismissed. The hitter an* not said to have been with bim when ho next presented himself at Jerusalem, on the occafion of a feast. If, ns is probable, though many think otherwise, this feast were tho Passover, it marked tho close of tho first year uf Christ's ministry, during wliirh ho had eonslanlly in view an impression to bo made on tlo- men of infiucnco and authority at Jerusalem. Al this visit Jesus raised an is^uo with tho Jewish hierarchy by disre- garding tho traditional interpretation of tho fourth com- mamlment. and offended them still more by the way in which he spoke id' his own n-|alion to tintl. From this time, at any rale, ho had a body of powerful nnd implaca- ble enemies in Judnja, who never ocnsod to watch und op- pose him. Near the time of this second Passover, John the Baptist was imprisoned by Ileiod Antipas, whtim ho had rebahcd for his ndullerous marriugo with his brother's wife Hero<lias, and John's effort to bring Israel to repentance wiin at an end. Jesus now entore<l on a new slago of his work, to be carried on in Galilee. After meeting a repulse at Nii7.a''cth, he fixed his losidenee at <'apernauni, on the Lako oi Ti- berias, and from that point innd" a series of einuit'i lliruu"!! 1402 JESUS CHRIST. Galilee. His old followers rejoined him, and he at once began to add to their number, while by his discourses and miracles he speedily attracted crowds of more or less ap- preciative hcjirers. In close connection with the uio^t famous of the Galilean discourses, the Sermon ou the Mount, Jesus chose twelve of his disciples to be, under the name of apostles, his constant companions, and by degrees his associates in labor. Proofs were multiplying of the indis- posifion of Israel as a whole to profit by the mission of Jesus of Nazareth. Emissaries of the Judiean priesthood were busy iu (Talilcc, and gradually formed a hostile party tliere. Jewish beliefs and prejudices were also operative in the minds of those who were attached to his person. His own relatives misapprehended him, aud even John the liaptist sent a message from his prison which expressed his perplexity at the course whic^h Jesus was pursuing. Nevertheless, the cud of his work in Galilee was practically secured. He had a body of faithful adherents, who loved and trusted if they did not undiTStand him, and whom he was educating for future service. As the next Passover drew near, John the Baptist was put to death by Herod at the instigation of his wife. From this time Jesus began to withdraw as much as possible from public notice in (Jalilee, aud to devote himself to the in- struction of the twelve apostles. Entire seclusion was out of the question, and some great miracles were wrought during (bis period. In th« month of October, or about si.x months after the death of John the Baptist, Jesus began his second and tiual attempt to gain a hearing from the representatives of the nation at Jerusalem. He appeared somewhat suddenly at the Feast of Tabernacles, and by miracles and discourses, as well as by the angry opposition which he excited, he at least succeeded in awakening new interest in his movements, and in lixing the attention of the nation upon himself during the rest of his career. It may bo inferred that bo then returned to Galilee, and set about arranging what had in some sense the air of a roya! progress to Jerusalem. Seventy disciples were sent, two by two, to the various towns which he designed to visit, and he folluwed them, preaching and working miracles, as he harl l>een accustomed to do in Galilee. The scene of these new labors must have been Periea, the country E. of the Ji»rdan, through which lay the longer but safer routo from (Jalilee to Judica. It bordered on the latter province for a considerable distance, and whatever excited general in- terest in Pernea would soon be known across the river. That intense excitement did follow Christ's appearance in a region which hitherto, so far as we know, he had scarcely visiteii, is clearly indicated iu the Gospels. In December, at the Feast of the Dedication, Jesus was again at Jerusa- lem. He was met by questions about his Messiahship, wliich show that his claims were undergoing eager discus- sion, but his answers only provoked fresh hostility, and he nurrowly escaped being stoned as a blasphemer. His homo during these visits to the ecclesiastical cajiital was probably the house of Lazarus at Bethany, 2 miles E. of the city. Lazarus and his sisters, Mary and Martha, must before this time have become disciples and intimate friends of Christ. On his return to Pera-a. Ciirist, instead of going from place to place as before, fixed his abode at liothabara (or Beth- any), near the scene of his baptism. Hence ho was sum- moned to Bethany in Judiua by the dangerous illness of Lazarus, and arriving after the latter had been four days dead, he wrought the greatest of his recorded miracles by restoring his friend to life. This act led the Jirbrew coun- cil, or such of them as were under the influence of the high priest Caiaphas, to resolve formally and finally ou tho de- struction of the Galilean prophet. Whatever ho was, ho could not bo (he Messiah, and he might bec<tmo tho occa- sion of popular tumults which would draw upon the nation tho vengeance of their Roman masters. Jesus now for a time concealed himself, taking refuge in a town called Ej)hraim. 20 miles N. E. of Jerusalem. Another Pas.-'ovcr approached, and Jesus prepared to attend it in such a way as to terminate his royal ]irogrcss royally. He seems to have gone northward and joined one of the companies of Galilean pilgrims then moving east- wanl near the Samaritan border in order to go to the feast by the (trdinary I*eraMin route. The suburbs of Jerusalem were reached, probably, on tho evening before the sabbalh. Christ and his f(dlowcrs stopped at Bethany, where more thnn one houso was open to them. On the first day of the week, and evidently in pursuance of arrangements pre- viously made, Jesus entered the Holy City, riding on an ass never before used, and surrounded by nn intensely ex- cited throng, composed largely, no doubt, of pilgrims from tho N. and E. The multitude hiiilc-d him as " Son of Da- vid" nnd "King of Israel." and he distinctly sanctioned their acclamations. On tho following day ho went to the city again, and repeated the act by which he had an- nounced himself and his mission three years before — tho cleansing of the temple. The third day, Tuesday, was also spent in the temple, but was devoted to teaching. As Jesus aud his apostles returned t-ach evening to Bethany, they may be supposed to have paused for prayer in the garden of Gethsemane, at the western base of the Mount of Olives. The next day seems to have been passed in retirement. Meanwhile. Christ's enemies, not daring publicly to arrest one who was for the time so popular, resolved to get him into their power in some clandestine manner, and after the feast should be over. An apostle prepared the way for the accomplishment of (heir purpose. Judas Iscariot bargained with them for the possession of his Master's person, and watched for the opportunity to c<unplete his treachery. On the evening of Thursday, Jesns kept the Passover with his disciples, coming onco more to Jerusalem for the purpose. While they were at the table he indicated to Judas, as also to .lohn and Peter, his knowledge of the intended betrayal, and Judas hastened to the priests to bid them act at once. At the close of the paschal supper Jesus instituted (he Christian feast of bread and wine commemorative of his own impending death, and the company set out on their return to Bethany. Ou the way they turned aside to the garden of (iethsemane. where Jesus passed thrr)ugh a fear- ful inward struggle in view of the sorrows before him. The struggle was scarcely over when the sorrows began. Judus entered the garden, guiding a band of armed men, with some members of the council, and probably a crowd of mid- night revellers from the streets of Jerusalem. .Icsus was arrested and led back to tho city for trial before the Sanhe- drim. The charge was blasphemy, but in the absence of trustworthy witnesses, owing, no doubt, to the haste with which the proceedings were conducted, no evidence was produced on which the party of the high priest, themselves wholly unscrupulous, could call for an uutavorable verdict from the majority of the council. The prisoner was then virtually put under oath and required to criminate liimself. When solemnly appealed to by the high priest, he not only avowed his Messiahship. but tisserted that he was the Son of God and the future judge of the world. The Sanhedrim then unanimously condemned him as a blasphemer, (hough two members of it, at any rate, Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, were no doubt absent. After the formality of a fresh trial at daybreak, had iu order to make the proceed- ings legal, the priests led Jesus to the Roman procurator, Pontius Pilate, to obtain authority for the execution. Pi- late resided at Cagsarca, the political capital of the prov- ince, but was now at Jerusalem for the sake of maintaining order at the feast. The procurator made several efforts to rescue Jesus without exasperating the Jews, but he was at last intimidated by the danger of a riot, and the im- plied threat of accusing him to the emperor as in disloyal sympathy with a pretender to the Hebrew throne. He then gave the order for (he death of .Jesus by crucifixion, having previously subjected him to scourging. The sentence was jiromptly executcil. and for six hours, or from about nine in the morning until three in (he afternoon. Jesus endured the punishment allotted to the worst and basest criminals, and with a convicted felon on either side of him. From (imo to time he s]iokc briefly, uttering first his feelings in behalf of others, then his consciousness of his own bodily and spiritual anguish. He died in the act of commending his soul to God. Tho body was given by Pilate to .loseph of Arimathea, and, aided by Nicodemus, he wrapped it in spices and laid it in a tomb prepare<l for himself in a gar- den which he owned outside the walls. On the day but one succeeding, or Sunday, some of (he Galilean women went to Joseph's garden to do (heir part in honoring tho body of their Master. As they approached they saw that the tomb had been (q>ened. ami one of them, ALary Magdalene, hurried away to tell .Tohu and Peter. These two ajiostles had probably taken lodgings in Jeru- salem, where .lohn had friends. In the mean time, tho other women saw a vision of angels, who told them that the Lord was risen, and bade them instruct his friends to meet him in Galilee. It is reasonable to infer that nu»st of the ajiostles eoutinue<l to lodge at Bethany, where they would feel far safer than in .lerusalem. While the mes.sage was on its way across the Mount of Olives, Mary came with John and Peter. They carefully examined the tomb, and returned, leaving Mary behind them. There the Lord "appeared first" to her, and entrusted her with a message respecting his a.scension. As she went to deliver it, her late companions, still ou their way to the place where the greater part of the Galilean disciples were to be found, saw their Lord coming towards them. He renewed tho charge which the angels had given them. Five distinct appear- ances are recordeil as occurring on this day. .Jewish theo- ries about the Messiah had mailo no provision for what had actually taken place, and the disciples were so far under the influence of those theories as to be hard to convince. The unbelief of the apostle Thomas delayed for a week their JET— JETTY. 1403 return to Galilee. They did return at last, and there saw their Master more than once. His principal appearance, and that for the .«ake of which he had summoned them to Galilee, Is suppusi-d to have taken place iu (lie presence of the whole burly of disciples, more than 60U in number. After a few weeks the apostles went again to Jerusalem, and on the fi)r(ieth day after his resurrection, the Lord Je:«us, having led tlieni forth, as if for another visit to Uethany, left them fur the last time, not vanishing, as be- fore, but passing visibly upward till a cloud concealed him from their sight. While they looked after him, two angels brought them another mc8:*agc — that he should "so come in like manner." Among the recent works on the life of Christ accessible in English, are those of Neander, The Li/e of Jemai Chrint; Lange, Life of Je»ti»: Strauss, Life of Jesus, and A Xew Life of Jeaug; Renan, Life of Jenng (all translations, and the last three by unbolieversl ; Kllicntt, //igtnrirn/ L'^^tur*- oti the Life uf unr Lord Jrmiii Chrint; llannn, Lif'r <tf JtnuM; Farrar. TA^ /,(/> o/" (^Atm/ (the most recent) ; and(by Amer- ican authors) those of Crosby, Life of Jemnti ; Eddy, Im- vinuHri ; Beecher, Ai7V of' Jemtg the Chrint, vol. i. ; .Andrews. Life nf our Lord. In the las^t-named work will be found the reasons for the chronological order followed in the fore- going article. S. J. .Andrews. Jet* a perfectly black mineral, capable of high polish, is sometimes a kind of pitch-coal or albertite, and some- times a very black lignite. It comet* from various getdog- ical strata in the Asturias, Spain, in Aude, France, from Whitby, Yorkshire, from the Baltic regions, etc. It is ex- tensively empl«iye<l for mourning ornaments for ladies' use. Je'ter ( Jkremiah Bell;, D. D., b. in Bedford co., Va., July 18. 1802: entered the ministry in \^2'1, and removed to the "northern neck " of Virginia in 1827: 18;'6-4lt was pnstor of the First Baptist church iu Richmond. Va. ; in 1SJ9 of the Second Baptist church in St. Louis. Mo.; 1852-70 of the Grace Street Baptist church in Richmond, Va. Since I^Oo he edited the licUtjiouit J/rrntd at Rich- mond, Va. He publi-'-hed \femoir of liev. .V. W. Cloftouy Lit' of Mrs. flritriettn ShttcK; CampbeHitm Ejcumiiiedf etc. I>.' Feb. IS, ISSO. Jet'}* Am [Fr.Jrter, to "throw"], goods which are thrown into the sea in order to gave a vessel and the residue of the cargo from wreck or loss in case of imminent danger, and which sink and remain under water without coming to land. If articles thus thrown c)verboard float upon the surface of the sea. they arc termed flotsam. (Sec Flotsam.) The owner of such goods does not lope his title to them, and may claim them if they are subpcquently found. If no owner ever appears to assert his right to the property, it belongs by the English common law to the Crown. (Sec Li(;\N, Jettison.) (JEotuJE Chase. Revisep bv T. \V. Dwight. Jet'tiAon [Fr.j>/cr. to "throw"], the voluntary throw- ing overboard of goods belonging to the cargo of a vessel in order to save the vessel and the residue of the cargo from wreck, capture, or loss in case of imminent peril. If by reason of such sacrifice the threatened disaster is averted and the vessel <iaved, the owner of the goods btst by jetti- son has a claim against the owners of the ship, freight, and cargo for conlributifm, in proportion to the value of their respective interests, to reimburse him for the loss he has sustained, on the theory of general average. (See Av- eua(jk.) But in order that he may have this claim the sacrifice must have been made by reason of extreme emer- gency and necessity. If tho master makes a jettison in a ease of false alarm, there is no contribution. It is not ne- cessary, however, that the anticipated peril should always be proveil to have been real. It rests with the master of the vessel to determine whether there is a necessity for jettison ; and though it should afterwards appear that the vessel might have been saved without incurring such loss, yet if he acte»| with prudence and caution in the exercise of a rea-onable <liserrtion, anrl with the intention of per- forming hi-" duty faithfully, the same results will follow as if there hatl been an actual necessity for the sacrifice, and a claim for contribution by tho owner of the goods will be stistainerl. The crew have no authority to make a jettison of tlie cargo without the order of the master, even in a case of actual distress. By tho law of England and the V. S. it is not required that the master should consult with the officers of the vessel or tho seamen in determining whether a necessity for jettison actually exists, but in cases of doubtful emergency proof that such constiltation occurred woubl be of importance as indicating that the nta«ter acted with careful (leliberation. The laws of most European nations recjuire that, if practicable, the officers should be consulted, unless the vessel is unmistakably in a situation of great peril. In making the jettison those goods should first be mieritii'C'l which an* the leii"! neecx^sirv. the mo«t bulky, and the least valuable, if sufficient opportunity is afforded for making the selection. But where there is an immediate necessity for lightening the vessel, any part of the cargo may be thrown overboard as may be nn'st con- venient. If goods shipped on deck be taken for this pur- pose, their owner must bear the loss without contribution, unless there is a general usage to carry such articles on deck, for they render the navigation more diflicult. and arc particularly exposed to peril. But if the goods were placed on deck without tho consent or knowledge of the owner, the carrier will be responsible in such a case for their value. If any injury be done to tho vessel or to the por- tion of the cargo -which is saved by reason of the jettison, as if the deck should be cut open to get out the goods which are sacrificed, the loss thus occasioned will also be a subject of general average. If the article sacrificed is tho direct cause of the danger, as in the case of cotton taking fire by spontaneous combustion, there will be no claim for contribution t<i recover its value. The sacrifice must bo voluntary in order that it may be a case of jettison, for if goods be swept away by the violence of the sea, the lo«s falls upon the owner or his insurer. So it must appear that as the result of the sacrifice other property at ri<k was saved. It is only necessary in order to found a claim for contributirm upon general average that there be a res- cue from the immediate peril in which the jettison occurred : if the ship is subsecjuently lost in another disaster, the property saved from this second disaster must contribute to the original loss. (See Parsons on Maritime Late : Abbott on Shippinff: Kent's Commcntariefi.) George Chase. Revised bv T. W. Dwight. Jet'ty [Fr.jrt^r, from Lat. jarere, to "throw," and im- plying " projecting" or "jutting"], a dike, pier, or embank- ment projecting into the sea, wbelhcr constructed of tim- ber, earth, fascines, stone, etc.. or a combination thereof. The roost common ajjpUcation is to tho mouths of rivers or at the entrance to tidal harbors, whereby to narrow the channel, concentrate the current, and thus increase Ilic depth over the entrance bars.-- Most of the IIaiibors or Amerk'AN Lakes (see that head) are the mouths of rivers or "creeks" thus treated. In Great Britain the mouths iif tho LiflTey, Blyth (Ireland), Esk, Wear, Dee. Slaney, Ayr, arc so made, and the tidal harbors of Howth, Kingston. Leith, Donaghadee, and Ramsgate so improved. Also the tidal harbors of Gravelini s, Dunkirk. Calais, Boulogne. Dieppe, Fecamp, etc. (France), of Ostende (Belgium), and many others owe their existence to jetties. To the (►der, the Vistula, and many river-mouths of the Baltic, jetties have been applied with more or less success. f The nu'St noted instance, however, is the Sulina mouth of the I>an- ube, which, a permanent depth of 20 feet having been at- tained where was but an average of 9 feet, instead of being the worst harbor, at once took rank among the )>est harbors in the Black Sea. Another instance of signal suc- cess is tlie improvement of ship-navigation to Rt)ttprdani by making a new mouth to the Maas through the Hook of Holland, and prolonging the new outlet into the sea by jetties. (See IIarboU; also f'rof. Papers Corpt of Eugi- ti'-rrs U. S. A.^ No. 22.) This great work is a double suc- cess, inasmuch not only that the jettied entrance has thus far fulfilled expectations, but that the uuthud of countrtir- tiou of fascines and stone, for the first time npjdied to onen sea-exposures, has rcalizerl all anticipations and establisneil a certain and economical way of constructing these sea- works on sand-coasts. (See Harbor.) A cross-section of one of these jetties is given in Fig. 1. Tho body of tho structure is made up of successirc layers •In this application the term "parallel piers" Is commonly used tu IjiKliind for iellies. t Mr. .lames It. 1-Jids has furnished, as compiled from authentic wiurces. the fo]luwiiti; table of eighteen rivers in KuniiK' where jetties have been elTeetive. ,\t some of the rivers named the jelties, IhouKh not yet entirely completed, have already been of great benefit to navigation: ' Ori|(lD«l Prmrnt Namci of riven. Coiintrjr. dt'iiih. dcpili. fct-l. fivt, panulw Roumanln. Turkev 7 to 11 20i to 2U Maas Holland (new mouth).. 00 17 to I« Trave Prusnio 7 18 Oder '• 7 23 to 21 AVarne or Warnow... " 6 13 Persante " 4 IS WIpp-r " 4 13 Pn-cel " 12 20 SloliH* " 4 14 Nlemcn " 10 2^1 to 21 Mbau Russia „ fi IC Dwlna " fl 18 WIndftu " 4 9 i»ernau " 3 12 Nissa Sweden 5 12 Konne " 6 9 All ran " 6 9 <irenane Denniark fi 13 1404 JETTY, of mattreasex (Dutch, Zink-stukken), each overspread by a layer of smatl quarry-stone. The ground-plan of a mat- tress is shown in Fig. 2, by which it will be seen to be made I-'IG. 1. a.50 MUW with a top and bottom yn'llage of faacines, the interstices between the fascines and filling (second layer) between the grillages being bundles or layers of osier. A cross-section Cross-section. of the completed mattress is shown in Fig. 3. On the top, I retained. Full details of this kind of construction are partitions of hurdle-work, n, a, divide the surface into given in works cited ; the following brief notes and above square />(■»«, so that the stone thrown on for sinking may be ■ diagrams were kindly furnished the writer by the dislin- Tic. 2. li-rnmn-m fTTTTff 'TrrrTi^iTrrir^ Details uf a Mattress. guished engineer (P. Caland, inspector of the Waterstaat) under whose direction the work at the Maas entrance has been executed: Fio. 3. L iub6-sc(.liuii uT a Mattress, "The thickness of a mattress varies from 0.40" to 0.50™ (lG-20 inches); length and breadth varying according to circumstances. Their breadth is limited to 25 metres, since otherwise their transportation, .linking, and ballasting would offer too great difficulties. Their length is unlimited. However, as mattresses destined to be sunk at sea must be ballasted with great speed, too great lengtli would bo un- advisablc. The largest piece sunk at the jetties of the new outlet for the improvement of the navigation from Rotter- dam to the sea had a length of 50 metres and a breadth of 28 miitrcs, or a superlicial area of 1 100 square metres. The courses of mattresses must overlaji joints — i.e. they ought to bo sunk so that the joints of the under course are covered by the ujiper cour.«5e. The mattress is made on the sea-beach near the jetty, between high and low water, and when con- sfrueted floated to the sinking-place, where it is fastened by anchors and ropes, and placed as exactly as possible above the chosen spot. Then the ballast-stone, weighing onanaveragc 10 to 50 kilogrammes (01) to 112 pounds), from boats or small vessels surrounding the mattress, is to be laid on, first chiefly on the middle and then also propor- tionally divided over the whole surface, till the mattress iinmerges. The sinking-lines (with which the mattress is attached to the vessels ) are then payed nut, at last detached, and in the mean time still more ballast is cast on the mat- tress: the total ([uantity amounting to about 700 kilo- grammes (1600 pounds) per cubic metre (14 cubic yards) of total volume. When the fascine-work of the jetty is raised above low water, the oak piles are driven through, as inclioatcd in Fig. 1. The rows of oak pilos rcaciiing two metres above the water-line, and driven into the bottom, consolidate the jetty. I'nder tlie track of Iho rails. laid for conveyance of stone and other material, rows of piles arc dri\"en through all the layers into tho bottom of the sea. The stakes of the other rows are shorter, and only serve to secure the stone revetment. Between the rows of piles around the jetty forming the fore-berni, and outside this berm, heavier stone is jilacod, weighing on an average 500 kilogrammes (1125 pounds). "From low-water line to the t()]) line the jetty is formed of osier, laid down in layers of 0.25'" thickness, secured by huriiles placed at a distance of O.GU'". The space be- tween these hurdles is filled up to the top with rubbish or waste stone; the entire top surface of the jetty mutt be covered with stone weighing on an average 50 kilogrammes. In order to get well-eouncctcd joints, stones of a nioro regular appearance are employed for this pavement. As already stated, experience has proved the stability of this construction, neither heavy storms nor strong currents being able to datuage the jetties. Should the bottom along the head and the edges be abraded, those parts of the mat- tresses protruding from tho jetties will by their flexibility conform to the inequalities thus produced, and protect tho work from undermining. On a movable bottom the fore- going method of construction otl'crs guaranties of solidity which recommend its employment wherever tho materials for fascines can bo readily had." The question of an ndnfuutc mivitfnhle outfrt to the Mis- sissippi Piriver has turned attention to the feasibility of an optn river-month by the use of jetties. The recent board of engineers which visited Europe for the purpose of in- vestigating tho use and success of the method, recommend "parallel dikes or jetties, constructed of brush, fasciiits, and stone, in the same general way as used by Mr. ("alantl at the mouth of the Maas," to be applied to tho South Pass of the Mississippi; and in contormity thereto Cougres.s, iMar. 4, 1875, authorized "James B. Eads of St. Louis, Mo., with such others as may bo associated with him, (j construct such permanent and sufficient jetties, and such auxiliary works as are necessary to create and perm.inenily .lEVONS— JEWELKY: ITS MANUFACTURE IX AMERICA. 1400 mainlniD, as hereinafter set forth, a wide aod deep channel grant, construction must be '' substantially commenced" between tbo South Pass of the Mississippi Kiver uud the within eight month:^, a navigable depth of 20 feel secured Gnlf of Afoxico/* etc. etc. Under th& stipulations of this | within thirty months, from the approval of the act (Mar. Fio. 4. lutermediate section of jetties. 4, IBTft). Moreover, an additionnl depth of two feet per annum is stipulated for until a total depth of .10 feet is at- tained. Fig. 4 represents a medium section (a mndificalion of Mr. Caland's, Fig. 1 ) of the jetties |>roposcd by the board already referred to. At the outer ends, where the water is 30 feet deep, the section attains very great magiiiludc. Other methods of jetty construction are comprised in what has been said under the other heads. (Sec Hakbor, Hakdors of tub American Lakes, and Brkakwater.) J. G. Barnard. Jev'ons (William PtanlevK b, at Liverpool, England, in I8;j.'». is a grandson of William Roscoe, the historian: was educated at University College. London ; held an aj>- pointment in the Australian royal mint at Sydney I8o4-.V.l ; returned to England vid the V. S. ; became follow of his college in 1864, and was appointed in ISfdJ professor of logic, mental and moral philosophy, and Cobden lecturer on political economy in Owens College, Manchester. Ho has published a pamphlet on the Vnhte o/ (Jofd (I8(k'.). showing the depreciation of the precious metals; Tfip Cimt Qnegtion (18tf;>), showing the probable impending exhaus- tion of the English coal-fields, and the expediency of liquidating the national debt in lime; Efftncntnrif Lcshohh in Lof/tc i I H70 ) : Theortf of Pttftttrnt Economy ( IS"! ). and an elaborate treatise on Tlu^ Prinr-iplca of Science (1874), in which numerous original ideas concerning processes of reasoning are propounded. Jcw'el, or Jewell (Jons), D. D., b. at Budcn, Devon- shire. England, May 2 J, Io22: studied at Oxford, and during the reign of Eilivar<l VI. became a Protestant min- ister. In the reign of Miiry be was expelled from Oxforcl by the Uomanists ; went to Strasburg at tbo invitation of Peter Martyr, and engaged in teaching. Returning to England after the accession of Elimbeth, he aided in all the measures for the ro-establislunent of Protestantism, was made bishop of Salisbury in I.ififl, and was the most eloquent defender both in the pulpit and witli the pen of the accumplished Reformation. Resides many cc>ntrover- sial pamphlets against the Catholic champion. Dr. Thomas Har ling, ho wrote in Latin his famous Apolofjin EcrlcHiir AnijUninx (1 j62), ever since esteemeil a elaiisic of the An- glican Church, a coriy of which was placed by order of Kli/.abeth in every English church. D, at Monkton-Far- leigh Sept. 22, 1571. Jew'ellf county of Kansas, hounclcd on the \. by Xe- braska. Area, 'JUO t<quare miles. It is a high rolling prairie retina, with a good srdl, especially near the streams. It alfords good pusturitge. Cap. Jewell City, Pop. 207. Jewell ( Marshall), b. Oct. 20. 1825. at Winchester, X. II. ; was bred a tanner, and afferwanls was extensively cngageil in tilegrapli const ruction in the Suuth- western •Slateit. In 18.50 he began a successful business at Hart- ford, Conn., where ho manufactured leather belting. Ho supported the Union vigorously during the late civil war; was chosen governor of Cunneeticut in 18(50, IS7I, and 1872: U. S. minister to Russia ls7.'J-7 I ; postmaster-gen- eral in 1^71. Jewell Centre, post-v, of Centre tp., Jewell co., Kan. Jewell City jJewkll P. 0.), a v. of Buffalo tp., cap. of Jewell CO., Kan., built on a beautiful plain surrounded with timber : has a weekly newspaper, large .-ebool-house, (1 ■•trres, \ churches, large nurseries, various shops, etc. Coal is t'otind in the vicinity. M. Winsor, Eh. "Diamond." Jew'elry and Jewelfl, terms used in a oonflncd seniic for pr<-einus stones sot in goM or silver and worn as per- sonal urnamenis, but more generally applied to ornaments made only of the precious uioluls. Paris is in tliis branch of iniluslry (he great factory fur the world, and sells to It annually jewelry to the value of nearly tlO.IMtil.OOi) francs, of wliich about one-half is for gnld-w(»rk, the other for precious stones. (Jreat pains aro taken in Paris to protect purcbaxers froni boinj; deceived ! in any way. Only three grades of gold aro allowed, and i these aro set forth by olhciul stamps ip»int;oum). In every | \ largo French city there is a so-called bureau of guaranty, where all new jewelry is chemically tested with great care. The English also endeavor to secure a standard nf value for their jewelry, but recent revelations have shown that the "Hall mark" is not to be depended upon, the evasion^ having been both flagrant and extensive. For the U. S. the only rule is Cuvcnt emptor — " Let the purchaser be- ware," or look out for himself. Tliere are in Paris 900 manufacturing jewellers (masters), S26 shops, and 77 dia- mond and gem merchants. In London there are 512 jew- ellers, 4 wedding-ring makers, 29 gold-chain makers, II j gold cutters, 2 mourning-ring makers, :i9 diamond cutters and setters, 109 diamond merchants, ^J dealers in rough ! diamonds only, S jewel merchants, 25 pearl merchants, 7 I dealers in jewellers' requisites, and 3.'i jewelry-case makers. I The boast, however, which a French writer makes of tho great cheapnens with which jewelry is now made, and "the extraordinary degree to which an immense number of tools I ingeniously perfected has wonderfully diminished all tho I difficulty of workmanship," is a proof that in France it has j been reduced from an art to a mere manufacture. t Silver jewelry has become of late years a very exten- I sive branch of industry. That of London is the most I elegant in the world, being in exquisite taste, simple, and j extremely cheap. There are only ^o manufacturers spe- cially devoted to this branch (silversmiths not included), but tho quantity which they produce is immense. Moat of their work is in strictly antique fashion. Elegant sil- ver jewelry is also made in Scotland, Ireland, Normandy; and that of Russia (inlaid with enamel and chased) is of remarkable beauty. There aro in Paris 141 manufac- turers of silver ornaments, of whom only 97 make what is strictly jewelry. Two grades of silver only are permitted. Steel jewelry is extensively made both in France and Germany. For this soft or malleable iron is at first em- ])loyed, tho surface of whieh is ease-hardened — ('. e. tho object is worked or filed while red. an<l steeled after the form is given. Many piccfcs aro made by passing soft iron while red hot between steel rollers in which the pattern is cut in intoffUit. Polishing is efiected by means of wheels of wood or tin with emery and English plate-powder for tho portions in relief, and with brushes for the in<lentalions. There aro in Paris over 100 manufacturers of steel orna- ments, employing 1500 workmen. Ivory jewelry, which was almost unknown till within a few years, is now made in immense quantities in France, (Jcrmany, and England. It may be remarked that the raw material has increased in value; the demand for ornaments made from it has also iiugmentcd. There aro at present in London ItO ivory- carvers, nil of whom, in addition to other ribjccts, mako brooches and earrings. Tortoise-shell jewelry is gener- ally set off with spots and small plates of gold. Thirty years ago tho manufacture was eonlined to Rome and Na- ples, and in Lsri8 there were only six men who made it in Paris; at jiresent Ihero aro in that city 12 establishments devoted to this jewelry alone. A singular specialty In personal ornaments is the so-eiilIe«l mourning jewelry, some of which consists of gold and black enamel, the greater part, liiiwever, being mado of jet, human hair, and vulcan- ite — the latter an .Vmeriean invention. There an- in Paris 60 manufiieturers of mourning jewelry, and al>out ItO more who nuinufaelure hair ornaments only; in London tliere or© 25 of the latter and Li jet-workers. Jet is. however, made extensively in all tho cities of (ireal Britain, that of Whitby being preferred. This kind of jewelry was verv well made in Enghiiid during the pre-historic Stone A^e, and tbo jet of England was priited of old by tlie Romans. An old British jet neeklaoe is engraved in Wilson's i'rc- hiatoric Srotlumi. Amber hu* of late, in oommon with jet, become a fashionable material for personal ornaments. It is principally nmnufaclured in (Jcrmany. Old aiiil)er beads which have become rich deep brown in color bring a very high priee. Ciiarlkh ti. Lklanu. Jewelry: ItN Mauuftictiirc in Americii. In the cob>Mial period the wearing of jewelry was at fir.-t discour- aged in tho New Englan<l colonies; it was regarded aa one of tho "devices of Satan;" and aside from what was 140(3 JEWETT. brought over hv the wealthier immigrants there was vtry Uttle^demand for it. (ioU beads were handed f'"- f ™ mo her to daughter as heirlooms, and as the colon.sts be- came prosperous an order was occasionally guen to the no over-s'l^ilful goldsmiths of the time to make up some o he nVPr ski till COHlSUlllilSWl im.^ mn- ." . -I- carefullv hoarded guineas or doubloons into beads or mas- "ve gold rings or chains. In New York, Maryland, and V rginia therf was a greater demand for gold ornaments: gold rings, beads, earrings, watch-seals, and eha.ns we e ^,ore worn-not that the colonists possessed '"o™ 7™ than those of New England or of Pennsylvan.a "»;>•;" Jersey, but because there were not so many of " -^ "' "^° or ascetic ideas controlling their m.nds Mo.t of •' « J" ; eiryused in these colonies was imported, the fine arts being no more cultivated there than in New England. The •■watchmakers." or more properly the dealers m and re- pairers of watches (for no watches were made in the colo- nies), were also importers of jewelry to a limitcl oxten "„d ma,le in many eases the simpler articles mentioned above ; but there is good reason for believing earrings, Pins bracelets, watch-seals, and the finer qualities of neck- Le and chains were not manufactured in this country and that the setting of the precious stones for ornamental pun-o cs was not attempted'before the Revolutionary war Z? indeed, till some years after it. The country wa left °o much impoverished by the war that there was very little denTand for luxuries for some years, and the currency was "n «uch a deplorable condition that its purchasing ower was almost e'n.irely gone. The firs. >nanufac urer o. jew^ elry of whom we can fin.l any account was Mr Epaphras Hinsdale of Newark, N. J., a man of great mechanical in- eenuity and remarkable skill as a workman. He estab- fished a manufactory of jewelry in that town, on a small cale. somewhere between IVyO and 79o, ''"^ gradi ally increk.ed it. Mr. Hinsdale died in ISIO. but a Mr. Taylor, , wh" had been one of his employes, and perhaps a partner, succeeded him and enlarged the business greatly. -Mr. lay- or w's a man of genius in the mechanical arts, anJ .uvent^ ed numerous machines to perfect the manutaeture. Both Mr. Hinsdale and Mr. Taylor made earrings, V'"^' ' ^^^T let.,, chains, and necklaces, all of hue K""'- "^'"j^' f ' '^^^^ time gold of not less than 111 carats fineness. Their work rs 111 solid, in distinction from the filled work of which ITsLn speak presently. It was f '^" ^^''^^ '^ f '^^l^; Mr Hinsdale's beginning at Newark, but not after 1800 fhat two or ,hrce° manufacturers of jewelry commenced liisnoT, in Providence, R. I. Vcr.V ^oon, and perhaps from the first, they began to make what has ever since been k™ovn to the trade as "filled work"-,', e. the dj-sign or paUern of the jewel, whether earring, pin, or bracelet, was stamped out from very thin ribbons of gold, usually r 18 carets fine, and this shell was filled with a solder o pewter or lead and tin, and a back soldered o° <> g°>^ "f inferior quality. The thin shell, under well-cut dies, took very beautifufforms, and the fineness of the g.dd caused t to eceive a high polish : and this filled jewelry which couM be offered a' lo'ver prices than the solid. f-n1 «;-"l° and speedy market. The business has expanded until it h" ' n'ow reached an immense extent. In 1812, Mr. .eorgo F Downing commenced the manufacture of watch-seals at Newa k" to^hieh he subsequently ad.led other articles o iewelrv and removed to New York nty.n 1821 A French iianufaiturer named I,a (luerre had e^'ab ished in New 1 York City in 1S12 a factory for the production of filigree ] wclry and had brought over several J'-'-^n/'h workmen o remarkable skill. He carried on the business for many yc™rs. Mr. Downing, who is still living at the nge^ot ciglt --five years, thinks that at the time he came to New York-in 1821 <here were no other manubudij^rers of je„c^^^^ in that city except La Guerre an.l hiii.self. The \ ankees he says, aooded thl whole country with their ' A''"'^ work. Very soon after 1820 other manufacturers entered the field and from ISliO to 18:t7 the demand increased beyond the power of producers to supply it. Largo amounts of jew- Tlry were Lported at that time. The terrible hnaucial disaster of 18;',7 checked for some years the progress ot this as it did the production of all other articles of luxury, but with the return of prosperity the demand was renewed „„,! constantly increased for many years the discovery ot cold in California and .\uslralia adding largely to it. 1 He disasters of 1857 and the severe pressure of the first years of the war .liminished the business for a time, but the great abundance of paper money which followed the large for- tunes acquired by contractors and in the shoddy and pe- troleum speculations, and the reckless extravagance ot those who had sud.lenly acquired fortunes, gave to the iewelry trade a vastly greater impulse than it had ever l.e- fore received. The use of diamonds as jewelry, previously confined to a vcrv few, beoamo common, and, though un- aueslionably many spurioui gems were sold as diamonds. the demand for genuine etones became so great that a class of diamond-brokers found constant employment, and the cutting and setting of these precious gems, which had pre- viously been carried on mostly in Holland, became a rec- o..nized branch of the business here. Hut this almost insane rage for jewelry had another result ; servants and the lower classes of society were infected by it, and as their means were insufficient to purchase the genuine arti- cles, there sprang up a great trade in gilt and imitation gold icwelry-paltry stufi-, ma.le often in fine patterns, of brass iopperf or'" oroide of gold," and covered with the thiiines possible film of gold by the electro-platmg process. This ra,h was and is sold to the poorer classes, at an enormous profit, to the amount of millions of dollars, /"regard to he originality of the designs of jewelry manufactured here there is not much to be said : there have been combinationp of the fragments of antique designs, good, bad, and indif- ferent, occasionally a gleam of something new 'ntermin- gling with the old : but for the most part the rococo, the fi - ierce,and the Etruscan patterns have been more or less slavishly followed; and it must be confessed that in jew- elry, as" in furniture and architecture, there are not even 1 the germs of an original American style. The Mexican 1 and the ancient Aztec and Toltec ornaments of gold ha e Tore claims to originality, though not to beauty, the gold ornaments taken from the graves of '^c Chiriqui ndians ' on the Isthmus of Panama, as well as those found in the pueblos of the Moquis and other remnants of those races, being far from elegant or even graceful in form. The following statistics will show the progress of th.8 manufacture in^his country within the last three decades. ?n 1850 the manufacture was but moderately developed. The entire production of the year was reported as only about S2.750 000, and this included watch-eascs hair jew- elry! and lapidaries' work. In 18C0 there were 4b.i estab- isLents for the manufacture of jewelry f "'; -'P';;^-;^ a capital of SJ,180,T23, using raw matenal of the ^ alue ot 95,162,500, employing 5947 persons (.:!03 males and 584 females), paying wages to the '^""X"". »/.. ^2,W5,056, and producing goods to the annual value of 5.10,41^.811. llio Manufacture of hair jewelry was conducted m 8 establish- ments having a capital of S27,000. and using raw mater al "the amount of S15,.'!00; it employed 42 persons U' niales and 25 females), the'wages paid were $10,620, and the an- nual product ?45,C0O. Lapidaries' work occupied 7 estab- H^hL'ents, and produced $^6,850 annually. The ota pro- duction of jewJlry under these three heads was *1 0,498, (.1. 1 l" 870 inihe manufacture of jewelry alone there were 681 e tablUiments. employing 10,091 hands (8141 men, lo45 women, 405 children), using capital to the estimated amount ; Ts 1.787.956, paying for wages $4,4.1.'!,235, iis.ng raw ma^ terial -alued at '$9,187,364, and producing goods annually to he value of $22,104,032. In addition, lapidary-work was : conducted in 13 establishments, employing 88 persons to "he annual amount of $107,300. Hair jewelry is included under the general heading of " "----"f,' ' ->» '',%'',7,T2 cannot he ascertained. Theaggrega c, then,,s $ 11 332 not ne asceriameu. iii>- ogs.^i,. -, - ■ ^f ,u. The annual product of some of the great centres of the trade in 1870 may he added. Providence produced ,n ,4 establ hments $3,086,846; New York City m 198 estab- lishments $9,595,700 ; Philadelphia in 53 establishment , *1 ,8.3741: Spnngfiel'l. Boston, and Cincinnati respect- ivdy, $370 O00..$338,000, and $338,000; Sau Fra«"Sco 18 establishments, producing $475,562; Bristol eo., Mass.(m- Hmling AttleboLugh, etc.), 33 establishment. produc,„g $1,510,925. ^- ^' B«<«^'"-TT- Jew'ctt, post-T. and tp. of Greene co., N. Y., m the Catskill Mountains. Pop. 1105. i„.....«i (TinRiFS CoFFisl, b. at Lebanon, Me., Aug. 1. f8 fi gaXt d'lt Brown Iniversity in 1835; was for a'lime student and librarian of the Andover Theological 5e inary i 1843 catalogued the library of Brown! n.ver- ;u; ^here he rcnained as ^;J^^^;^V^Z^ ^^^ Tnt'Sfrrof he''Li!tnian Institution and was iSssTs superintendent of the Boston Public Library. 1>. 1 Br^hitre'^e. Mass., Jan. 9, 18.j^. He «r..te a v , ,„,, report on the public libraries of the 1 . P. 18dO). and in [ho sinne year brought forward an improved plan of cata- loguing books, on lao'- JPWPtt (Uey. Charles Ratmokd), b. July 29, 182s . ^li^nTt^peraleM'': e\erful,''.talous. and eminently fi X mrnlter. He was distinguished as a ■"odcl presol^ uff older and earnest, bold, eloquent, as a preacher. He -^^;^:„^erof the South Georgia con^eneei.,^.he time of his death, July 10. 18,.. ^ y^ „ 0. Jewett (L.THP.ni. b. at Canterbury, Conn., Pee. 24 177^!^; graduated at Dartmouth in 1795 ; was » ph"';'»" li Putney and St. Johnsbury, Vt.; member of Congress JKWKTT— JKWISII LITERATURE. 1407 1816-17: pastor of n Congregational church at Newbury, Vt., 1821-2S; publiBhcd newiipnpcrs at Si. Johnsburv, Vt., lH2S-.'i2: and d. in that town Mar. 8. ISfiO. Jewett (Mm.o Pakkkr), LI..I>., b. at St. Johnsburv, Vl., ID 180S; graduated at Dartmouth in 182;^, and at AndoTcr Theological Seminary in 1830; was a professor in Marietta rollcge. 0., 18:^5-3*8 : left the Presbyterian and joined the Da|itist denomination. an<( bneame president of Vassar TulK-ge, Poughkccpsic, N. Y. Uo is author of a work on ba]>ti?m. Jewett City, post-v. of Griswold tp., New London co., Conn., un the Quinebaug River and Norwich and Worces- ter H. K., 10 miles N. K. of Norwich. It has cottou man- ufactures and several churches. Jew^fish, a nuuie given to several fishes of the family Serranidie, attaining a weight of several hundred pounds; that of Florida is the /^roiuirropM i/iionn, of whieli a speci- men iu the Smithfionian Institution weiglied 700 pounds; that of California is StereolepU ifiyns. Jewish liiteraturc. Wliilo Europe claims pre-em- inence in the arts and sciences, Asia has been the niotlier of religions. Among all the religious systems of Asia, that which originated among the Hebrews excels in purity and loftiness. In them the profound subjectivcness of the Semitic character found its noblest expression. Lacking that calmness of spirit which led the (Jrceks to ol)servo nature and to cultivate the plastic arts, they looked upon the world of phenomena with a human interest, and re- garded it solely in its relations to their own consciousness. The external was to them no more than symbol. This itlea dominated their history and literature. It made them a people. Being in solo j)ossession of monotheism, they became at once united among themselves and exclu- sive toward their polytheistic surroundings. And since a religious idea was at the very root of their existence as a nation, it is not strange that the interest? of religion maintained their supremacy during the whole course of their history. In tlio Middle Ages, indeed, the Jews, in conjunction with the Arabs, hccamo the mediators of tho sciences. Ilut oven then those of their productions for which originiilily can bo claimed were more or less inti- mately connected with the discussion of religious eultjccts. Tho most ancient monuments of Hebrew literature aro contained in the liible. Much, however, that would now bo considered valuable was ncit preserved iu tho saere<l canon, and has been lost in consequence. The nature of tho biblical writings at once illustrates the above remarks. Their lii^torical portions arc designed to show tho work- ings of Divine Providence in the destinies of men in gen- eral, and particularly of tlie chosen people. Uhetoric be- comes in them a vehicle of inspiration. Poetry is devoted to the glorification of (Jod, with the exception of the Song of Songs, perhaps, and is chiefly inteniled to bo sung by sacred choirs. Philosophy, disregarding tho prob- lems of the material wnrld, is busy nn the questions of good and evil, and labors to reconcile tho ])rcsenco of the latter with the goodness of tho Creator, os in Job and Ecelesiastes. The influenco of Persinn ideas is Tisiblo in several of the later writings of the Old Testa- ment. To it has been ascribed tho introduction of the namei of angels ami the doctrine of a resurrection in tho body. The contact of tho Hel)rew and ({reek spirit is of pmfounder interest. It took place both in Palestine and in Alexandria. In Alexandria philo-<o]>hy and in- sptriition joineil forces on the basis of a modified system of Platonism. A rich crop of apocryphal works in proso and poetry sprang up, tho words of the Bible were inter- ; preted so as to express metaphysical tenets, and those an- thropomorpiiisms whi4'h it cf»nluins, and which hud at first I sight awakened considerable suspicion, became, in tho ! new light that Philo (tho originator of the theory of tho i Logos) anrl others shed upon them, transparent to a ' deeper wisdom. There, also, tho first translation of tho ; Ililile intn (ireek, known a^ the Septuagint, was efTeetetL I Iu Palestine the attitude Judaism nsHumed against Hel- lenism was hostile to tho last degree. Tho Hebrew has ' ever found it a com]iaralively easy matter to absorb the philosophical teachings of the age in which ho lives, from the ai)senee of fixed dognias in his «)wn religion, but he resists to the utmost any attempt to interfere with the observance of those practical c'lmmandmenta I of his faith which he regarils as its essential feature. | Such an attempt was macle by tho degenerate (Greeks who ruled in Syria in the time of .\nti<>chus Kpiphanrs. Tho consequence was that Ju'laism retired upon itself, ^ that tireek culture and heterodoxy came to bo synony- ' mous terms, that the authority of Scripture was more than ever secured in the afiections of the people. From that time forth it hecame the centre of their existence. All their energies seem to proceed from it, all their thoughts return | to it. None the less, innovation became a necessity. All the biblical laws were no longer applicable to the altered conditions of a new age. I'navoiduble changes were grad- ually introduced, liut such was the reverence now paid to tho Holy Writ that no oriiinanco, however salutary, could enforce obedience unless it had previously received at least the nominal sanction of tho great " Hook." Tho teachers of the people thus becamo doctors of the law. By an in- genious method, which left them tho widest latitude of in- terpretation, they were enabled to read from the letter of the Hebrew Bible whatever meaning they desired to read into it, and to fortify their own injunctions by referring thorn to a divine origin. The inferences they drew, the analogies thev insisted upon, wore in a philological sense absolutely reckless. Every letter ond word that seemed superfluous, every un- usual form of construction, was tortured into some unheard- of signification : nay, they proceeded in defiance of all grammatical construction. Tho principles of jurispru- dence, tho ritual and ceremonial laws, even the rules of decorum, were deduced from biblical sentences. Finally, j the liction that an oral law was revealed to Moses on Sinai, ' which from him had been transmitted to succeeding gen- I orations, aided tliem in establishing the celestial origin of their teachings where they might otherwise have been j at fault. A few of tho leading rabbins were llillel, shortly ' before the birth of Christ. .Tochanan b. Sakkai. at the time ' of tho destruction of tho temple, Akiba, in the days of ; Hiulrian, Juda tho Holy, tho compiler of the Misbna. R. Meir, Aba Areka. called Kab, Raba. Rabbah, and others. Of tho three i^rcck translations undertaken in the second and third centuries of our era. those of Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus. tho first in particular shows signs of having been largely influenced by the rablijnical mode of exegesis. The elaboration of the Talmud continued down to tho sixth century. J For nn account of that great work SCO the article TAi.Mrn.) The existing stock of tradition was classified at the end of the second century in the six divisions of the Mishna. The bulky commentaries grounded on them aro known as tho Gcmaras of Palcstiuo and Babylon. The liturgical compositions of tho Jews dcscrTo at least a passing notice. Prayer, as distinguislied from mere sup- plication, was tho only adequate form of worship which a monotheistic religion could accept. Tho hoathon gods, being dependent on the gifts of their votaries, demanded sacrifice ; tho Ood of tho prophets was exalted a>)0ve all human fail- ings anrl needs. There was nothing which nmn could do for him. To 8or\o him was to become like him. '' Holy shall yo bo, for I, tho Eternal, your God. am holy." The desiro to imitate (Jod, therefore, heoamo tho keynote of Hebrew worship. In onler to imitate, it is in the first place necessary to reganl tho object to bo imitated with interest and attention. And thus an endless dwelling on tho attributes of tho Deity became a leading characteristic of Hebrew prayer — a ceaseless heaping of epithets, as if (lie soul struggled to exhaust an infinite theme. It has been remarked that"tl:o Jews pray motapliysics." The cause of this peculiarity is thus made plain. That admiration of tho lHvine Being should fincl vent in praise is natural. Tho All'iood is tho dispenser of all bounties, and has or- dained oven tiio seeming ills of life for a wise end. Hence tho countless blessings which are interspersed in tho Hehrew service, and which accompany even the most trivial occur- rences of daily life. Lastly, a comparison between human imperfection and the grandeur <d" Him whom he is called upon to imitate leads the mind of man to expect only from tho mercy of (rod that jmwer which ho lacks to become god-like, and be implores for divine assistance : " I flv from Thee to Thee." When the Arabs received, through Syrian channels, the treasures of ancient Greek thought, a new spirit of intiuiry was awakened among them, and wos soon oommunioafod to tho Jows. As early as tho seventh century works on mathematics, astronomy, and astrology began to appear among them. Exegetical studies received a jiowerful im- petus from tho new soot of Ananites or Karaites, founded about 7'»0 A. n. (see Kahaitks), who, rejecting the oulhority of tradition as represented by the rabbins, professed to re- turn to the letter of tho Hebrew Bible as the sole standard of faith. Thev did not. it is true, remain faithful to lluir professions, adopting many principles anil practict-a of post-biblical origin ; and it has been conjeetured that tlu'V ought to be considered the successors of the ancient Sad- dueees. .Anaii himself, Benjamin Xahawemli, and Nissi b. Noaoh may he mentioneil among the earliest authors of their ("cet. The introdnction of vowel-signs into the loxt of . Scripture was a result of tho inen-asod attention paifl to philological pursuits. Two systems were in\'onlcd. The ono originated in Pnbylonia, the other in Piilcstine. The latter in the one in common u"e. The mysHenl tendencies of thii period found expression, notably, in tho so-oalled 1408 JEWISH LITERATURE. Book of Creation, a work of small compass, but of great influeiiee, which is held to be a production of the eighth or ninth century. It cniploya the method of the Neo-l*yth;i- gorcans, seeking to solve the problem of creation with the help of numbers and letters. In the same epoch arose the poutanic school of writers, with Etasiir b. Kalir at their head. Their verses wore designed for use in the synagogue. iJut though the Pitifim multiplied excessively during the succeeding centurie?, there arc but few of these prayers in rhyme that possess any real poetic value. A remarkable instance is on record of the liberal spirit fostered I»y the encouragement critical investigation received at this time. The exphmation of miracles proposed by a Persian scholar named Chiwi, certainly reminds one strongly ot" Eich- horn and the nationalists. In the first half of tlio tenth century arose the Gaon (a title signifying " liis Ex- cellency") Saadias. born in Faium, Egypt. lie engaged in bitter conflict with the Karaites, among whom Solomon b. .Terucham was his chief adversary. Saadias's main work is a philosophical treatise entitled Emunoth wc Dcoth — "Faith and Knowledge." In it ho seeks to reconcile the commandments of the Bible and the injunctions of tradi- tion with the dictates of reason. He places great emphasis on the doctrine of free-wili in opposition to a tendency to- ward fatalism which had been encouraged by the spread of Islam. He was also the authorof a translation of the Old Testament into Arabic, and a commentary on the Book of Creation, above mentioned, is said to be from his pen. An- other commentary on the same book is ascribed to his con- temporary, the celebrated astronomer and writer on med- icine, Is:iac Israeli of Cairoan. Judab. Coraish, residing, like Israeli, in the N. of Africa, is distinguished as having been the first to introduce a comparative study of tho Chal- dican. Hebrew, and Arabic languages. In the latter half of the tenth century the supremacy which the high schools of Babylonia were too feeble to maintain longer was assumed by Spain. Moses, a captive Talmudist, having been sold as a slave to Cordova, was raiisomt-d by the Jews of that citv, and placed at the head of their Talniudical sclujol. Under the patronage of Chasdai Shaprut, the trusted adviser of Abderrahman III., letters nourished. Alcnahem b. Saruk was the first of tiie rab- binist Jews to attempt tho preparation of a Hebrew lex- icon, and his work shows signs of considerable learning and freedom from prejudice. Hi?^ opponent, Dunash b. Librat, was among the tirst to apply the metrical forms current Jimong the Arabs to Hebrew poetry. Chajug, a pupil of iMenahem. disctivered the system of triliteral rad- icals which forms the basis of ilebrcw grammar, while his successor, Abulwalid, elaborated a complete Hebrew gram- mar and a lexicon, which is now ( ISTO) being puiilishcd in the original Arabic. The eleventh century is illustrated by such men as Bachia h. Joseph, whose noble \Tork on the DiitifjH of the Heart exalts the claims of the spiritual, moral nature of man at the expense of mere outward formalism; also by the poetic vezir of tiranada. Samuel haNagid ('* tho prince ") ; and, above all, by tfie profound ])hilosopher and poet, Solomon tlabirol. His system is based on the theory of emanation, and is tiie i)roduct rather of an ardent im- njjination, thrilling with enthusiasm, than of exact study. His muse is melancholy, and dwells chieily on the pain and sorrow of existence. Yet his verso is not lacking in power and grandeur of expression. It has been well said of his compositions that the 5()irit of Faust seenjs to pervade them. (For an account of his ])hilosophical work, /'oji« Vitie, SCO Munk's McianycH dc Philomphie. etc.) While Hai, the last of tho Gaons whose name is of note (d. lO.'iS), assumed an attitude hostile to all liberal culture, the Tal- niudists of Moorish Spain were content to pursue their path, without caring to molest those who inclined to studies ditVering from their own. This is noticeable in the case of Isaac Alfasi, the far-famed bead of the Academy of Lucena, whose labors to extract from the interminable mass of dis- oussions contained in the Gemara a clear statement of their tinal results have secured him high consideration as an au- thority in his branch down to modern times. In Christian Spain a poet arose in the beginning of tho twelfth century (Jehuda lia Levi, b. in Castile 1080 A. n.), whose verse in- deed is tender, sweet, full of pathos, but whose thoughts and sympathies are far narrower than those of (Jabirol. His philosophical work, the Cusari, is written in the form of a dialogue between tho king of the Chazarcs previous to his conversion (tho king and his people adopted Juda- ism in the eighth century) and tho representatives of the three groat religions, Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. Tho first two being compi-Ued to own that their religious records arc based on the Hebrew Bible, tho king confines his» conversation to the Ji-w. In the (-xposition of his j)hilo- sophical icleas Jehmia ha Levi makes frequent use of tho term M*i/iif/afi. which ni.iy b-? rendered " herita-jo of tho Divine Spirit." Though no human being is excluded from tho grace of God, there are certain men and places that have betn gifted from the beginning with the faculty of becoming peculiar vehicles of his spirit. Adam trans- mitted this gift to the patriarchs, thence it was obtained by Isr.ael, and among them was accorded in its highest potency to tho prophets. Tiic places so selected are the cities and villages of the Holy Land. In accordance with these convictions the poems of Ila Levi are inspired by an intense yearning for Jerusalem and the ruins of its temple, and tho "songs of Zion " arc the most eloquent produc- tions of his Muse. Geigcr, in his lectures on Jewish his- tory (ii. p. HS). has pointed out the connection between the sentimentalism of Ha Levi and the direction given to men's minds by the prevailing doctrines of the Church in his native country. A contemporary of the above was Abraham Abeu Esra, born in Toledo in 1093. In the course of his restless life his travels led him to Egypt, Italy, the S. and N. of France, and to England. He d. in Rome in 1107. He wrote several works on Hebrew gram- mar, of which that entitled The ScafcH is of considerable historical value. His great renown is due to his commen- taries on the books of the Bible. His style is brilliant, his observations profound, and often pointed with bitter, cut- ting sarcasm. In his commentary on the Pentateuch he refers to those passages which appear to preclude the idea of Mosaic authorship; in that on Isaiah he anticipates modern criticism by indicating the distinction between an earlier and later prriphet of that name. He believed with the astrologists in the influence of the stars on human destinies, and is supposed to have entertained pantheistical notions concerning the Deity. But he loves to assume the mask of simple credulity, and is fond of displaying an ostenta- tious deference for the views of the ancients, so tliat it is a matter of no little difficulty to extract his true opinions. The high-water mark of Jewish literature in the Middle Ages was reached in the writings of Maimonides, born in Cordova in ll-'io. He fled with his father from the perse- cutions of the Almohades. and at last found protection and security in Egypt under tiie mild sway of Saladin. Among his chief works we mention his commentary on the Mishua and the Miahnch Thorah ("Repetition of the Law "), in which it is his purpose to present a complete and system- atic code of ral)binic law, and by this summary to sup- plant the Talmud itself; for he was aware that (hat work requires a life-study to master, and leaves little or no room for the pursuits of science. The More Nchmhim { Dhalalath al ffajirin is its title in the original Arabic — ''The Guide of Those that are Gone Astray ") embodies the philosophical system of its author. In it Maimon- ides proposes to liarmoniae the principles of religion as laid down in the Bible with those metaj>hysical con- ceptions which the age inaccurately ascribed to Aris- totle. Tho anthropomorphic expressions of Scripture arc pregnant with a deeper meaning: the ceremonial ob- servances which it enjoins were largely instituted as a safeguard against heathen practices. The Deity him- self can bo described by none but negative attributes. Revelation is a union of the individual soul with the Ac- tive Intellect. The reward of virtue lies in the high spirit- ual development which it leads us to obtain. The tendency to systematize which is thus apjjarent in the works of Maimonides induced him. in one of his earlier writings, to set up thirteen articles of faith, a step which was equally unprecedented and dangerous. The free, pure-minded phi- tusopher might have become the author of mental slavery for his people had not tho spirit of Judaism been such from the beginning as to resist all attempts to hamper it with dogma. .\moug the .Tewish authorities of note at this period in Germany nniy be mentioned Gershom. surnam».il "the Light of the Exile" (end of the tenth and beginning of the eleventh century). He eradicated the last vestiges of polygamy among the Jews, and declared the consent of the wife a necessary condition of divorce. In the second half of the eleventh century lived in Troyes R. Solomon b. Isaac, commonly known as Rashi, a man whose name is familiar to every student of Hebrew literature. His com- mentaries on tho Bible may still be read with interest and advantage. But to the brief exjflanatory notes with which lie has elucidated all the voluminous works of the Talmud we owe in a great measure the possibility of still compre- hending tho intricate discussions of that difficult work. Samuel b. Meir (Rashbam) followed in the footsteps of llashi, his grandfather and teacher, and is distinguished for the simplicity and straightforwardness which mark his interpretation of Scriptures. His brother, Jacob Tliam, was among the earliest of tho so-called Tossafists, a school of casuists who exhanstecl the power of dialectics in fine- spun subtleties of little real value, that tended only to make the study of the Talmud still more complex and la- borious. Simon Darshan deserves mention as the author JEWISH LITERATURE. ijoy of an oft-quoted coinpilatioD, known as the Jalkut, In Italy. Shabtbai I>uiiulu gained distinction a^ a physician. He was the author of a new commentary on the Hook of Creation. At tlie end of the eleventh century U. Nathan b. Jechiel of Ituiue prepared a lexicon of the Talmud, Tar- gum, and MidraKh, which is still considered a valuable auxiliary to the studies it was designed to facilitntc. In the S. of France, the land of heresy and free thought, wo find in the twelfth century, besides a number of distin- guished Talmudiats. such scholars as Abraham b. Chija, the mathematician^ the Kimchis, and Thibbons. .Joseph Kimchl introduced the current classification of Hebrew vowels. Of his suns, David Kiinchi bears a high reputa- tion as a grammarian, lexicographer, and comnientntor on the Bible. Juda Thibbon translated intoilcbrtw the philo- sophical works of Saadias, of liechai. and of Juda ha Levi. His son Samuel is the translator of the .\fore Xrhurhim. The devoted industry of these men opened the rich mine of Arabico-.Iewish literature to the countries of Christian Europe. Conversely, the Latin works of scholastic authors were now being renilered into Hebrew, and new channels for the exchange of thought were thus opened. In the tliir- tcenth century lluurished the poet Charisi, whose spirited im- itations of the Arabian Hariri are justly esteemcil. Joseph Ibn Aknin, (ho favorite pupil of Maimonides, did not exert that wide Jnlluenee which one would suppose his relations to the great master might have given hin*. At this time the writings of Maimonides became tlio apple of discord between the friends of liberal culture and the conservatives. The opinions of this philosopher concerning the resurrec- tion, and the doubts he seemed to cast on the *' creation out of nothing," proved peculiarly objectionable. Abraham h. l>avid of PosquiC'res and Meir ha Lc^ i of Tulcilo hiid already raised their voices against the new opinirm during the lifelimo of its author. After his death the struggle broke out violently. Solomon of Montpellier. the leader of the anti-philosophical party, went so far as to call in the aid of the Dominicans to crush his opponents. The Spaniard Juda Alfachar took sides with the Provencal rabbi, though urged by David Kimchi to declare in favor of Afaimonidcs. Passions ran bi^h in either camp. A settlement of the questions under discu.ssion could not, however, be reached. The tendency to rationalism as exhibited in the exegesis of the period, continued to grow, until at the beginning of the fourteenth century a new outbreak occurred. The learned, pious, and polished Adereth, the stern and unbending German exile, .lacob h. A^her, were at that time the chief rabbinical authorities of Spain. The authority of the former was invoked by tho fanatics of Mr)ntppllier to anathematize the ]iarly of prog- ress, and, after offering a vain resistance for some time, ho was forced to yield to their importunities. IJut the right of free investigation was too socred a tradition within tho pale of Judaism to give way before the decrees of orthodoxy. The Milrhfimoth A'lniifii (" liattlcs of tho Lord") by (Jer- 8onidi>s, the commentaries of Kaspi and Maestro \'idal on tho .\fnre Xrhiicftiin, show plainly that tho spirit of phi- losophy would not Huccuml> without a struggle. Nay. in tho fearless assertion of conviction these works transcenfl even the speculations of Maimonides. The coeternity of matter with (Jod is boldly asserted, tho testimony of miracles de- nied, etc. For all that, tho decline of metaphysical studies could not bo arrested. It was brought on not by the machi- nations of a Jewish priesthood — for nothing of the kinci exir-tefl — but by tho force fif adversity ami perseculirjn. Philosophy goes out, mysticism steps into its place. Nach- manitles, the profound thinker, one of tho most esteemed oommcntators of tho Bible, contributed largely to ensure it a favorable reception. It was crystallized into a system by Mose r|o Leon in thu latter half of tho thirteenth century. His chief book, the Suhnr (*' Radiance "), is written in Chablaic. or rather Syriac, and has remained the standard work of the Mystics down to (he present day. Ho nsoribes its authorship to .^imon b. .Joebai. tho hero of many Iegen<ls in the early Talmudie age, Heneo the name of Cabbala, or tradition, which is falsely applied to this and similar productions. Though tho forgery is sufficienllv palpable, it escaped detection. Form and contents of tliis strange composition equally attest its lute origin. The doctrine it inculcates rests on the theory of emanation. (lod is tho Ennut', the Fndless. From him. in successive gradation, tho higher antl lower worlds have come, until the world of matter and of evil appeared os the last modiri<'iLti<m of his Spirit. The sefiroth (originall)* "numbers," then spheres, then the presiding spirits of (he sjiheres) form the ehannels between the celestial and the terrestrial. By skilful manipu- lation of the words of Scripture, espeeially the |et(ers of tho ineffable name of (tod, man is able to exert a macieal in- fluence upon (he workings of (he Divine. The prrnicious tc'idency of theye iilens did not become widely manifest nnlil a (Vw centuries after the S->hnr'ii nppearunee. V..1.. 11, — S!( In the mean time, it is refreshing to olvservo how vigor- ously Jewish writers took part in the popular literature of the different countries to which they belonged wherever their oppressors allowed them a brief repose. We refer to 11. u Sahal. whoso erotic poetry wa.s the delight of the Arabs : to Santob do Carrion, the Castilian ; to Siisskind of Trimberg, the German Minnesanger; and to Manoello, or Immanuel, who was admitted to the intimate circle of Dante's friends. In the vision of heaven ancl hell contained in the Ditnn of Manoello, a marked contrast appears between him and his great contemporary. The Jew hails the great and good men of the heathen world, regardless of their belief or un- belief, among tho dwellers of paradise. In the beginning of the fifteenth century Chasdai Crescas wrote a philosophi- cal treatise entitled Or Adomti ('• Light of God"), in which he seeks to show that all human actions arc controlled by law, each effect being conditioned by an antecedent cause. He does not, however, deny the freedom of the will. His pupil, Joseph Albo, is the author of Jemrim ("Funda- mental Principles"). In this work tho salvation of tho eoul is represented as tho aim of human existence, and the doctrine of Maimonides that wc arc to regard a progressive advance toward ])erfection as tho end of our being, ile- clared insufficient. Ibn Sheintob's views, laid down in his Kchod Elohim ("Glory of God"), are equally worthy of attention. Among tho polemical writers of (ho Midcllo Ages. Profiat Duran. called liiodi, takes rank with tho highest. Tho atteni]^t of converted Jews. like Paulus de Santa Maria, Geronimo, and others, to destroy the faith of their brethren, provoked sharp and frequent discussions. The satirical letter of Efodi, addressed to a former friend and coreligioni.s(. is a model of its kind. His most pointed and telling arguments are wrapped in the forms of conces- sion. Simon Duran met the doctors of the Church on their own ground, and endeavored to prove from passages of the New Testament that Christ himself was unwilling to be considered more than man. Toward the end of the liftccnth century, Abrabanel, the exiled minister of King Ferdinand of Spain, wrote his commentaries on tho Pentateuch, the books of Joshua, Judges, and Samuel, which contain much valuable information of interest to the historian. Tho pro{luctions of .Jewish literature were at this time more quickly and widely disseminated by means of the new art of printing. The Jew Jerome Si»ncino is prominent among tho early Italian printers for the excellence of his Hebrew and classical publications. It is in Italy, indeed, that the interest of Jewish literature in the sixteenth cen- tury mainly lies. Tho Cabbala, it is true, found devotetl adherents in that country, but rather among cardinal? and princes than among Hebrew scholars. The two counts of Mirandola are instances in point. It is well known that even Keueblin, the defender of the Talmud. sutTered him- self to be Iriekcil by cabbalistic mummery. (M' Klias Levita, on the other hand, wc know that he devoted his energies to fioli'l study and investigalion. He callecl attention to tho fact that the vowel-signs of the Hebrew Itiljle were added at a comparatively modern period, and that we are free to disregard them in the criticism ot the text. Again, Asaria dci Uossi showed that the current chronology of the Jews, dating from the Creation, is utterly untrustworthy and contradicts well-established hi'itorical facts. He was also tho first to avail himself of the Scptuagint as a critical instrument. In other European countries no literary work of any great impi>r(anco was going on. In Prague, David (lans, himself an nstronomer, who correspondeil with Kepler and enjoyed the soeiety of Tycho Brahe, wrote tho annals of Jewish aruX universal history. OiIkt books on history aj)pcarcil about the same time. In the middle of tho century the influence of the Cabbala nninng tho Jews was revived by Isaac Luria, the di\ ine Kabbi Imuic (Ari), who closed bis brief life in .Jerusalem. To Palestine we are also indebted for that renowned code (compiled by Jos. Kara) known n« (he Shuhhmi Artirh, whieh, entbracing in its provisions the entire life, public and private, of the Israelites, has maintained an infallible authority down almost to the present day. In tho Seventeenth century free Holland afforded nn asylum to the Jews. But the literature of the German and Portuguese settlers that soon arrived in great numbers, so far as it is distinctively Jewish, is not ot any high order of merit. The wri(inK8 of Mannssc b. I^rael, his Addrma to thr /^rotrrlitr, lus Enprrmtra dc fitrttef. Ins Viiidicattim Iff t/ir Jrtm, aro notieeal)lo chiefly for (heir practical bear- ings. The e(uigrega(ion of Anisterd;iin was infected with the spirit of the lnqui^ition, from whieh they bad suflVred so cruelly in (heir former home. They had become narrow and bignled. and the best men (hat arose in their midst, Z'riel <la Costa, Benedict Spinrtza, were bi((erly and per- si-itendy perseeu(e(|. In odicr countries the interes(s of cnhure faretl no l»etter. In Poland the a((ention of schol- ars was absorbed in fruitless discussions on barren themes, 1410 JEWISH SECTS. and high intellectual gifts were wasted on abstruse ques- tions of Tiilinudic:il casuistry. Germany was inundated with Polish rabbis, and seemed to have lost all |irodiictivc power of its own. As a rttrn ana in liv day may be men- tioned tlie commentary of iJpman Heller on the Ali.^htia, which, with that of Ins predecessor, Obadiah di Bcrtinoru, is curainonly printed alon^^sidc of the text in the standard editions. Italy alone enntinucs to contrast favorably with the j^eneral gloom that had settled on the Jewish world. There we find the forerunners of the reform movement of our own time. Leon Modena attacked the prcvailinj!; sys- tem of rabbinical Jnd;iism, called for a purification of public worship, and demanded the abolition of the cere- monial observances wliich the Talmud had enjoined. Jo- seph Delmedif^o, a man of profound and varied Ie:irning, the pupil of (iaiileo, was no less exalted above the bigotry of his age. The end of the seventeenth century was marked by the great Messianic movement, instituted under the auspices of the Cabbala, with the impostor S. Zewi. as its aeknowleilged leader. The fever spread from tlic Kast to the West, and left deep traces in the writings of the time. In the eighteenth century the young poet Ch. T>. Luzzato caught the prevailing contagion, and ruined a promising career by his devotion to mysticism. Those dreams of a great glory near at hand not only tended to sow discord in the congregations, as may readily be seen by referring to the controversial writings of Eibeschutz and Jacob Emden (see the article Jews), but they niso loosened the bonds of social order, and, especially in Poland, where they were much encouraged, brought about the complete demoraliza- tion of the common people. The evil was at its worst when the time of change was already near. Already, at the be- ginning of the century, Jcchiel Heilprln had written his Sccle?- ha Doroth (*' Order of Generations "), which showed an awakening desire for the cultivation of historical pur- suits. The I'rotestant Basnage wrote his history of the Jews, which served to give the Christian world some, though indeed a very inaccurate, knowledge of the great theme which it sought to illustrate. Prof. Wolf of Ham- burg undertook to do for Hebrew bibiiograjihy what the Buxtorfs had done for Hebrew lexicography. At last, with Moses Mendelssohn, the new era fairly began. A transla- tion of the Old Testament in the corrupt idiom then cur- rent among the Jews liad been attempted before by Jos. Witzenhausen. Mendelssohn, however, was the first to render the Pentateuch into pure German, and thereby, like Luther in his day, created a powerful desire for change among his brethren. Under the influence of his disciples, the " Meas'fim " (so-called from the Mcate/ or *' Gatherer," a periodical published under their auspices, and of N. Wessely in particular), Hebrew poetry revived, and a duo regard for grace and polish of form was inculcated. But the great benclit which the modern reform movement hns conferred on Jewish literature lies in the application of scientific methods to its study. Germany has in our day broken its long silence, and the labors of its scholars have brouglit order into the chaotic mingling of confused elements which the literature of the Jews presented to the scholar fifty years ago. The true succession of generations has now been, to a great extent, restored, many works that were considered lost have been redeetncd. and the past is being reconstructed before our very eyes. Among the illustrious men who imvodone this work we mention Zunz, the pioneer, .Tost, Geiger. Rappoport, Munk. .S. 1). Luzzato, Steinschncider, Derenburg, Graetz. Frankel. As it was intended in the above summary to indicate merely tlio di- rection of the great current of .Jewish literature, many n:unes nf authors otherwise deserving attention have not I'cen noticed. The reader is referred for full information to the works quoted in the article on .Tkwisii Histouy, and to the excellent treatise of Dr. Steinsehneider first pub- lished in Krseh and (Jrubcr's Alhjviu. Knri/hf., iind since translated into English under the title of Jcwinh Litera- tnre. Fklix Adler. Jewish Sects. Sttdtinreci and Phnrigees. — Until within a very recent period the character of these sects or parties, which divided the .Jewish state in the last two cen- turies preceding its downfall, was strangely misconceived. The Pharisees were represented as having been hypocrites — the Sadducees, libertines. We are chiefly indebted tt) the brilliant researches of Geiger for n more truthful, if not yet complete, understanding of their principles and tend- encies. The Syrian king having attempted to introduce the worship of images in Judjea by force of arms, the Jews heeamo more closely attached to the religion of their fathers, and the »Scriptnre in which it was hiicl down, by reason of the long struggle through which they were com- pelled to pass for its preservation. Even before the Mac- eabean war a party had been formed among them who, to ensure a stricter observance of the iMosaic law, withdrew from th? society of the surrounding j)coples and their own less scrupulous brethren. These were known as "Nibda- !im " (separatists), or, in the Aramaic dialect. Perishin, whence Geiger derives the name Pharisees. In the war of independence the reigning family of priests had lost the confidence of the nation by their subserviency to the in- vaders, and a new dynasty, that of the Hasmoneons, as- sumed the tiara, and soon alter the crown. The power of the jiriesthood, however, had been sadly shaken. It was regarded with fear and suspicion. The Hasraoncans. it is true, had headed the war against Antiochus and his suc- cessors. But no sooner were they seated on the throne than they allied themselves with the enemies of the sep- aratist party, and incurred its tlispleasure. This party had in the mean time identified its interests with those of the people, and in opposition to the class-rule of a favored hier.archy began to develop strongly dciuncmtic tendencies. The whole i»eopIe arc priests, they said, and they attempted to extend the character of sanctify to every member of the community. In this undertaking they were much hampered by that book which they regarded as the very foundation of their faith. The Pentateuch distinctly recognizes the prerogatives of the priesthood. Powerless to abolish them, therefore, they copied the peculiar rites and ceremonies of the priests, and enjoined their observance on all. They could not level the law of Moses; they built up new ordi- nances of their own of equal height. Like the besiegers in olden times, they raised wall against wall. Thus, if the priests were commanded to perform certain ablutions before an ofl"ering, every Israelite was now to do the same befttre sitting down to his meals; the laws of purity, hitherto in- cumbent on the servants of the temple only, were declared universally obligatory. The blessing over the wine sancti- fied it so as to replace the libation ; even a substitute for the offering of frankincense was not wanting. The repasts which the Pharisees held in common are in like manner explained as imitations of the customs of the priestly />«- trxa. Every house was designed to be a temple, every hearth an altar. The religious equality of all was the watch- word of the Pharisaic party. This would aid in explaining the origin of the elaborate code of cercnuinies embodic<l in the Talmud. In the course of time, when the meaning which had inspired them at their inception was lost, they became a heavy burden. We may observe, in passing, that a desire to do .away with temple and sacrifice is distinctly expressed in the later proplietic writings of the Bible. Also, a friendly spirit toward the Gentile world, and an effort to establish more intimate relations with them, which was, however, speedily checked. In the priestly party, iu opposition^o which Phariseeism arose, Geiger recognizes the Sadducees. Their name he derives from Sadok, a distinguished ])riest of the first tem- ple. Nor can it be denied that we find the Zadokiles in liigli honor later on, as testified by Ezechiel and Nehemiah. The Sadducees an aristocracy ; the Pharisees the champions of popular rights: the former the party of conservatism. the latter that of religious reform — this is, in brief, a statement of the opinion which at the present day largely prevails concerning them. That the leaders of the Pharisees were men of high aims and noble purposes no one can reasonably question, though the means by which they sought to attain their ends were not always wisely chosen. Concerning the Sadducees and their true character, thero will still be much discussion. It may bo urged that the well-known conservative spirit of (ho sect is cause sufllicient to explain the peculiarities of their doctrines. AVithout denying the right of " tradition " to amplify the provisions of the Mosaic code, they resisted all far-reaching innovation, preferring to adhere as closely as circumstances would permit to the beaten track. The Pentateuch — and this is of great importance — exalts the descendants of Aaron and T^cvi above the rest of Israel. A desire to remain loyal to its evident prescriptions may have been the sole motive which impelled them to lean toward tlic priesthood and watch over its rights. Wo need not. therefore, charge them with hierarehal tend- encies. As to the points of difference between Sadtlueces and Pharisees, the information wo ]u»sse8S is scanty and in- sufticient. M'c know that the Sadchieees rejected the doc- trine of the resurrection in the body. This will hardly sur- ; prise us when we recollect that the books of Moses contain no allusion to any such doctrine. It was, moreover, a for- ; cign importation, having probably been carried to Juda'a from Persia. The Sadducees declare that holy things com- municate their character of sanctity l)y contact ; the Phari- j sees assert that their touch makes unclean — a declaration I which was designed to prevent profane handling. If this I is the case, say the Sadducees. then the Bible would cause 1 unclcanness, wliilc the Homeric poems would not. False witnesses are to be punished, according to the Sadducees, only when they have caused the punishment of the accused : according to the Pharisees, as soon as the judge has pro- JEWS. 1411 nounccd sentence. The former seems more equitable. The SadJucecs arc of opinion that the high priest i^hould kindle the frankincense in his censer before entering; the Holy of Ho- lies ; the Pharii^C'L-s command him to desist til! he hns passed the curtain. The exegesis of Lev. xvi. 2, on which the dis- cussion hinges, is, if anything, favorable to the former. (For an extended account of the differences between the two sects, see Geigcr's Urschri/t and Judinchc Zeitschn/t fiir ]\'i894rn/irhn/t uud Lchen, 1863.) The Pharisees explain the word " sabbath " in Lev. xxiii. 11 as moaning, in this connection, fea«t-'lay in general. The B(cthusinns, whom Oeigcr considers a subdivision of the party of the Sadducees, and identifies with the Ilerodians of the New Testament, retain it in its original signification. In this way, counting from "the day after the sabbath," they bring it about that the fiftieth day, the Feast of Weeks, shall always fall on a Sunday. The writer of this article has elsewhere attempted to show that it is erroneous to attribute such an opinion to the Bfethupians or Sadducecs. It is well known that the n:irae Ba>lhusians or Sadducecs is frfquently used in the Talmud where Christians are really meant. The Sadducees had no motive to prefer the Sunday, but many against such firprerence. On tno other hand, it was of great importance to the Christians that the Feast of Weeks, (he Pentecost, the close of the rcsurreelion-perind, should fall on the day of the resurrection. AVe have before us here a conflict not between the Pharisees and Sadduceos, but between the Pharisaic Synagogue and the primitive Church. The im- portant bearings of this controversy on the development of early Christianity cannot hero be shown. (For a brief statement of th» main argument in support of the above theory, see the Proreedinff* of the American Oriental Soci- ettf foV 1874.) That the first book of Maccabees was written by a Sad- ducee. the second by a Pliari?-ee. is one of the many in- ti-resting points which Geiger has labored to prove in his VrMrkrf/t. In how far Jesus himself adopted the principles of the Pharisees, made use of their mctbodf, and even of their very words, may best be seen by studying their writ- ings. The necessity of doing this in order to penetrate the obscurity which covers the first century of Christian his- tory, has been forcibly urged by Ilausrath in the Proteat- aniinehe Kirchcnzf^itnng (ISC'?, No. 44). Enneneit. — Little is known of this mysterions Feet save the few stray data which Joseplms has preserved. They lived in communistic societies, led a quiet and secluded life, en- joined celibacy, observed moderation in speech and action, wore garments of spotless white. They shut themselves off from the society of the world, finding it impossible to maintain that scrupulous purity which they aspired to in the mirlst of social influences that exposed them to con- stant contamination. They have been considered the ex- treme right wing of Phariseeism. Popular superstition clothed them with magical powers. It is diflicult to ar- rive at the truth concerning them at the present day. The Talmud does not mention them. (For an account of the K 1R\ITPS see the article under that head.) The Chnnidim, a modern sect, arose in the last century. It has numerous adherents among the tJews of Poland, Uussia, and Hungary at the pre(«ent day. Their religious practices are said to re-temble those of tlie Shakers. The authority of their rabbis is supreme, the honors paid them amounting almost to worship. They delight in ecstasy and vision: an'l my^'tieism, as is everywhere the case, not unfreqnently leads to immorality. This sect is an offspring of the Cabbala — a sad sign of the utter demoralization which long oppression has produced in the countries where it prevails. Ffei.ix Ani.Jtii. •lews, a people of Semitic origin, known also as He* lirrws or IsraoliU'S. The former name is probably do- rivrd from their early seats bey<»n<I the Kuphrutes, whenoo they migrated to Palestine (the word IChT, whence Ihrim or /hhrricH, meaning " beyond ") ; the latter is taken from tho surname of (he third patriareh, Jacob. With the waning fortunes of the kingdom of the ten tribeH and the consum- mation of it." fate Judali became the centre arounc] which the remnanlH (»f the people crystallized. It waH the found- ation on which the polity of the second temple was raistid after tho exiles* return from Habylon ; and from that timo to our own day the scattered members of the nation havo been knoivn In common l>y tho name of .f udah ( Jehu- dim, JudiitHts, .lews), A complete history ofth.' .Fcwn has not yet been written, and tlie bej-t attempts that have been rande to supply this deficiency only prove by their failure the ftrematureness of tho undertaking. Nor is it likely that a tetter result will soon be achieved. The variou«i fortunes which the .lews have met iTith on their journey of ;tflOO years, the persecutions they have undergone, the iiIl-ab«orb- ing devotion with which they have clung to thn religiomi ideal of their pa«t, and which eouM not but parjlyz*' their interest in the present — their want of appreciation, too, of the importanco of historical research, joined to the wanton destruction of precious relies of their literature by the fanaticism of their adversaries — have conspired to m:ike their annals like the torsos of some gigantic group, which the genius of a later age in vain exhausts itself to recon- struct. It is with good reason that this people has been termed a mystery to the nations. It is almost an enigma to itself. In view of these facts we shall do well to content ourselves with directing the attention of the reader to the main events of Jewish history only, which can be estab- lished by the records. At tho very outset of our undertaking we arc distressed by the almost complete want of contemporaneous accounts. Setting aside for tlie moment the aid which Egyptologists proffer, and concerning whose value prudence warns us to suspend our judgment, we are dependent exclusively on the scriptural narrative for the source of our information. For, although continued research in Egyptian tombs and .^ssyrian palaces may reasonably be expected to bring to light some day much that will add to our knowledge, wo need have no scruple in at once rejecting the fables of Hecaticus of Abdera and his like. Concerning the manner in which the biblical account itself is to be received, the opinions not only of philosophers and historians, but even of many eminent divines, go far asunder. To us it .ceems that of all the views that have been advanced on this sub- ject there arc only two which can claim the merit of con- sistency. The one embraces the inspirational theory, and looks upon the sacred writings of the Hebrews ns the direct work of Gofl through his instruments the prophets. The other simply regards them ns the joint product of many generations of ancient Israel, and, while asserting for them certain distinctive excellences of their own. throws them entirely into the chain of human development, and aban- dons them, no less than the hymns of the Vedns, the books of Homer, or the narrations of Herodotus, to the analysis of the critic. We think it wisest in what follows to adhere ns closely as may be to the very words of Scripture, nor shall \vc only select from them what, measured by a modern standard, may seem more or less adequate to the demands of reason. The narrowness of our space will excuse the briefness of the sketch. The Hebrews, inhabitants of Palestine, did not assert the natural claim of being aboriginal. They were tho bearers of tho monotheistic idea. In the light of thut idea their history began with the Creation, their destiny was to em- brace the world. They were not to seek others; their duty was to remain true to themselves. In good lime all natitms would gather to their '" holy mountain."' Their roots reached backward into ante<liluvian soil ; they had no need of coveting the doubtful honor of having sprung from the soil of Canaan. Abraham came from Ur, in Cbaldea, with his wife a;id nephew. On reaching I'aicsline he trav- ersed tho country in every direction, and. what is worthy of note, erected altars on those spots which in later times became the principal seats of cults not always pure or re- garded with favor by the prophets. (See Hosea on Uethel.) A famine drove him to Kgypt. where his beautiful wife, Sarah, was taken into the royal harem. This was a con- sequence of Abraham's previfuis agreement with her that she should pass as his sister, he fearing that the lust of Pharaoh might otherwise endanger his life, niicl trusting that I>i\ irie Providence would allow no evil to result. In- deed, ho does not seem to have explained the true state of things oven after the royal order had been executed. Put his confidence was justified. Pharaoh was warned by the plague of his misdeeds, and dismissed the jiious prophet with many gifts. Almost the very same traits occur in the narrative of Abraham's visit to Abimeleeh, king of (Jernr, in Phillstin. and again in the account of Isaac's sojourn at the same court : he likewise introflucrd lU-bccca as his sister to the Philistine. Abraham on his return to Piiles- ti?ic separale«l from his nephew, aihuving him to take tho richer fields near Sodnm for his share. In a war under- taken by tho Sodomites against Chedorlnortier and his allies, Lot was ciiptnred, and boldly reseue<l by Abrahiim. In a vision, accompanied by fearful signs. Gnil nssun-d the piilri arch that his descendants hliouM possess the laud in whirli ho dwelt, and these visions and promises were frequently repealed, the whole country from the Nile to the Kuphnites being as-lirned as their future possession. Rut a« yet Abraham i-* unble»se<| with offspring. His union with Hagar results in the birth of Ishmnel. Hef<tre the 'diild has seen the light the Egyptian woman is driven into the dosort by Sarah. There nn angel finds her by a well, fore- tells the future greatness nf lier son, and commands her to return to h«r mi»ilres». The cireumslances of Hagar's flight are relnted without reference to the first account, and with some divergeneo in the narrative, in Gen. xxi. To avenge the misdeeds of the Sodomites, God descends to earth. Three men appear to Abraham to acquaint him with tho 1412 JEWS. approaching judgment, and at the same time wilh the ful- filment of bis own darling wish. Sarah will bear him a child who shall be the inheritor of his fortune and his mission. The name Isaac is variouslj' explained in Gen. xvii. 17, xviii. 11', and xxi. 6. After tJod has left Abraham, and the' touching intercession of the prophet in behalf of the doomed city has proved vain, for there are not ten ri.'htcous men 'in its midst, the direful work proceeds. From the ruins of Sodom and Gomorrah, Lot and his two daughters are saved. To one interested in such inquiries it is" instructive to compare the manner in which an event somewhat similar to the destruction of Sodom is treated by pa^an writers. (See Ovid's Mdanwrpli., .\., "Baucis and I'liTlemon.") We would also draw the attention of philol- o"ists to the curious coincidence between Gen. xix. 4-9 and Judg. xi.'i. 22-25. In the one hundredth year of the patriarch Isaac is born. Being commanded to sacrifice his son, the father complies without a niurmur, but before he can' consummate the terrible deed a voice from Heaven chcuks his hand, and announces to him the reward of God fi>r the steadfast trust which he has exhibited. On the occasion of Sarah's death he purchases a burying-place for his family, and thus secures the right of possession to the land. The exquisite story of Isaac's wooing through his father's faithful servant, the meeting of the gray-haired steward and the bright young girl at the well, his enter- tainmcnt and departure, is one of the choicest bits of description which the history of the ancients has preserved to us. His favorite son being wedded to his kinswoman, and the danger of intermarriage with idolaters being warded off, Abraham " is gathered to bis people," having reached the good old ago of 175 years. The life of the second patriarch is less erentful. After his departure from Gerar, to which wo have already re- ferred, Isaac concludes a treaty with Abimclech, on which occasion Beer-Sbebareceivesits name. (Compare Gen. xxvi. 31 with xxi. 31, .32, where the name seems to be referred now to the word shaba, to '-swear," now to eheba, the numeral 7.) The birth of Jacob and Esau introduces a permanent element of discord into the family of their parents. Their strife begins even in their mother's womb, and, increased by differences of temper and occupation, con- tinues a source of mutual vexation till late in life. Jacob, although a peaceful shepherd, seems to have given the first occasion of their quarrel. It is he who, taking undue ad- vantage of the exhausted hunter, betrays him into bartering away his birthright. It is ho who, at the instigation of Re- becca, imposes on his blind old father, and deprives Esau of the blessing which was intended for him. The fond reliance with which the decrepit patriarch leans on his strong elder son, the tender filial love which the rude, generous-hearted Esau returns, the pains he takes to procure his father's favor- ite delicacies, the eagerness with which he endeavors to make good his faults— above all, the deep pathos' of the meeting between parent and son when they find that they have both been overreached by the "man of wiles"— enlists all our sympathy in behalf of Israel's disinherited brother. Jacob fl'ces to Mesopotamia, finding his home no longer a safe place to dwell in, and remains for twenty years in the em- ploy of his uncle Laban. Ho marries both his cousins, though the first fourteen years of his service were devoted to Rachel alone, and then continues for six years longer to undertake the care of Baban's herds. The manner in which he gains his great wealth during this period reminds us of his earlier dealings in his father's house (Gen. xxx.). In the mean time, his family having largely increased, and his relations with his father-in-law ceasing to bo friendly, he determines secretly to depart. Being pursued by Laban, ho ccmcludos a covenant of peace with him, and both par- ties combine in erecting a stone mound as a memorial ot their league. On his return to Palestine, Jacob wrestles in the night with a divine being at Penuel (compare Judg. viii. 8 and 1 Kings xii. 25), and there receives the surname by which his descendants prefer to be known. Fearing the wrath of Esau, he now prepares to conciliate his favor, and with every token of submission and humility approaches him. Esau, true to his nature, discards the proffered gifts, embraces and kisses the brother who has so bitterly wronged him, and forgetting the past dismisses him on his way with kind words and offers of protection. Wc cannot sufficiently admire the truthfulness with which Scripture has drawn the character of Esau, and the unsparing justice with which it exposes the vices of him who is cherished as the father of the chosen people. As Abraham makes the future capital of the prince of Judah his favorite abode, and acquires landed property at Hebron, so Israel chooses the future residence of the kings of Israel, raises an altar, and buys land at Shechem. On reaching Bethel, w'.ierc he had previously seen the vision of the heavenly ladder on his flight to Haran. the promises then made are repeated, and the name Israel is a second time bestowed on him. Removing thence, his beloved wife Rachel presents him with a son, Benjamin, and dies by the wayside. Jacob has now twelve sons, like Isbiuacl, and one daughter, iJinah. On account of an indignity offered to her, the two brothers Simeon and Levi take fearful vengeance on the people of Shechem, killing all the males, leading the women and children away captive, and jjlundering the town. Joseph, the eldest son of Rachel, was the favorite of his father, who presented him with a tunic of many colors. This and the boy's ambitious dreams arouse the envy of his brothers, and they determine to slay him. Saved from death through the intercession of Reuben, he is sold as a slave to Egypt by the advice of Judah. There, entering the house of Poti'phar (the same name occurs Gen. xli. 45, where he is called a priest of Heliopolis, and Joseph mar- ries his daughter), and exciting the passion of his mistress, he saves his virtue at the expense of his liberty. After two years he is taken from prison, and his skill in inter- preting the dreams of Pharaoh raises him to the dignity of viceroy of Egypt. His prophecy proves true. The seven years of plenty arc devoured by seven of famine, and the wise precautionary measures of the Hebrew ruler alone save the land from overwhelming disaster. Among others who come up at this time from the surrounding districts to avail themselves of the rich granaries of Pharaoh are (he sons of Jacob. They are confronted with Joseph, who at once recognizes his brothers, and exposes them to a long series of trials to test their honesty and mutual affection. He dismisses them, with the money they have paid him se- cretly restored to their sacks, detains Simeon, and commands that their youngest brother be brought before him ; then on their return so contrives that Benjamin appears guilty of theft, and claims him for his bondsman. It is at this juncture that Judah, with words of eloquent tenderness, appeals to the seeming tyrant's heart, and offers himself to slavery in his brother's stead. Joseph reveals his true character, sends messages to his father which induce him, though already far advanced in years, to remove his family (about seventy souls) to the district of Goshen, which the bounty of the" king has provided for him and his. In reviewing the lives of Jacob and his sons we cannot but note how the fortunes and rival claims of their posterity are, as it were, yisibly foreshadowed in the acts, and even the affections, of these fathers of the tribes. While the birth- right incontestably belongs to the son of Leah, the love of Is'rael goes out to' Rachel, and her eldest born, Joseph, is called the "prince of his brothers," a character which he plainly assumes in his dreams (Gen. xxxvii.). Wc know that later on the tribes that sprang from Jose]ih did. indeed, assume the sovereignty of the kingdom of the north in op- position to Judah ; and if it was the latter, the fourth of Leah's sons, who reigned in the person of David and his house, we find the prior claims of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi already disposed of in the days of their father. The rights of these three were forfeited by their passions. The first was guilty of incest with one of Jacob's concubines; the other two were bitterly denounced for their cruelty to the Shechemites (Gen. xlix.). The prophetic lips of the dying patriarch here curse the wrath of Levi, which proved so valuable in the time of Moses, and the dispersion of that tribe, which is elsewhere characterized as a divine preroga- tive, is here foretold as the punishment of their guilt. We may also call to mind that as in later times the tribe of Benjamin alone became permanently attached to Judah, so even in the history of their ancestors we find Judah at once the affectiouato brother and the bold protector of Israel's youngest son in Joseph's presence. After Jacob had passed away, and with the death of Joseph the guardian of their interests was removed, the sons of Israel, who had largely increased in the mean time, became the slaves of the Egyptians. Four hundred and thirty years they served their pitiless taskmasters (accord- in" to Ex. xii. 40 : Gen. xv. 13 gives the somewhat lower csUmate of 400 years, while from Ex. vi. 10 it would ap- pear that only three generations, Levi, Kohath, and Am- ram, the father of Moses, had passed between the first set- tlement of the Israelites in Goshen and their final deliver- ance). At length the period of their bondage drew to a close. After Egypt had been visited with nine plagues without the rigor of the king and people being softened— for God had hardened the heart of Pharaoh, that his great miracles might be displayed in the sight of the Egyptians (Ex. vii. 3) the work of emancipation was consummated. The'children of Israel prepared the Passover sacrifice, and in the night, while all the first-born of the land perished, they marched forth laden with silver and gold, and under Moses' guidance turned in the direction of the Red Sea. Pharaoh followed, but was overwhelmed with all his host in the floods that had opened to let Israel pass. Instead of taking the shortest road to Palestine, by way of Phil- istia. Moses now led the people about in the desert tor JEWS. 141.3 about forty years. Concerning tho first two yenrs of this period our accounts aro tolerably complete. The people were weak in luith. and on every occasion when their obe- dience was tried, failed utterly to meet the emergency. They cried for water — Moses miraculously procured it for them; they demanded bread — the heavens rained it down upon them. The scriptural etymology of the word nianua is peculiar. Tho dejicription of its appearance and taste re- mind u?f of the virtues of tho white and pearly haoma of the Persian?. Mnses had ample reason to say that the load was too heavy for him to bear. The crowning event of tho Exodus \va3 tho revelation of tho Law on Sinai. There Jehovah had appeared in a flaming hush to the fugitive shepherd while tenilinj? the flocks of the Mi<iiiinite priest, and now again. luni'i the sublime phenomena of tho thun- derstorm, the " majesty of God " descended in fire ( Ex. six. IS) to the pinnacle of the pmoke-envcloped cliff. Concern- ing the attending circumstances of the revelation, the scrip- tural account seems open to various constructions. From Ex. xxiv. 2 it would appear that Moses alone was to ap- proach the Divine Presence; in xix. 24, Aaron is command- ed to a-'company his brother; while in xxiv. 13 tho person of Joshua is substituted for that of the high priest. And agnin, while in Ex. xxxiii. 20 we learn ** thou canst not be- hold my countenance and live," we are informed in xxiv. 9, in, 11, ''and Mosfs, Aaron. Narlab, and Abihu ascended, and they saw tho Ood of Israel, and I>eneath his feet; . . . . and they saw (iod, and they ate and drank." In like man- ner, Ex. xxiv. 3, 7, would lead us to suppose that Moses himself wrote down the words of revelation in "a book of tho covenant," while in xxxi. 18 two tables of stone are spoken of, "inscribed by tho finger of (Jod." Let us add that in Ex. xx. tho fourth commandment of tho Decalogue is referred for its origin to tho repose which the Maker of heaven and earth instituted on the sabbath of the Creation, while Dent. v. l/i regards it as a memorial of Israel's re- demption from tho p-'rvitudo of Egypt. Tho new covenant into which they had entered with Jehovah was quickly broken by the people. In Moses's absence they worshipped a golden calf, and Aaron himself was rebuked by the in- dignant prophet for the readiness with which he had yielded to (ho popular clamor. Directions were now given for tho construction of a tabernacle in wliich the priests and Moses were henceforth to receive the communings of God. Tho details of thn erection of tho sacred tent are twice enumer- ated at considerable length toward the end of the second book of Moses. There aro certain differences in the ar- rangement of material and the choice of language in the two accounts. (For a learned diPcns?ion of the whole sub- ject tho curious reader is referred to the excellent treatise of Dr. Popper, I*'>pprr'8 Sd/fithiittc, Leipsic, 1S02.) The sncrillces and feasts, the various rites and ceremonies con- nected with tho new sanctuary and its priesthood, are re- hearsed in the book of Leviticus. Wo may claim the read- er's indulgence if we forbear to discuss them. With the elevation of Aaron's family to the ministry of the taber- nacle the contentious spirit of the people found new cause for discontent. A conspiracy was formed, with Korah, a cousin of Moses, at its head, for tho purpose of resisting the divine cominmid that had preferred the Auronites to thi* priesthood. IJut thi-ir ambitious designs were thwarted. The earth opmefl and swallowed up tho whole baml of con- spirators, Korah au'l his friends, their wives an<l children, anrl all that belonged to them (Xum. xvi. 27, 32). With regard to tho distinguished honors which tho descendants of Korah bore in the service of tho temple at Jerusalem, see Xum. xxvi. II : "the sons of Korah did not perish." lLivingap[iroached the confines of Palestine, Mosos sends out twelve spies to tho Promised liand to report upon tho condition of tho country and the strenelh of its defences. The news they bring so alarms (ho fears of the people that they dcire to bo let! back (o Egypt, and arc in consequence declared unworthy of the prize they had scorncil, and uro doomed to perish in the wilderness. Tho events of tho succeeding thirty-eight years of their wanderings arc wrapped in obscurity. Wo may marvel how so vast a con- course of human beings — r»(KI,(lOi) fight int^-men ahme, be- sides tho women and children — could support life for so loTi'^ a period in the barren desert ; wo may invent plausi- ble theories concerning the manner in which they spent the dre:iry days of that joyless interval ; but Scripture gives us no clue to aid our aspiring fancy. AVhen at Inst a new generation had grown up, tho Israelites on'M^ nn»ro direct their march towards tho Jordan. With Moses as their leader, and under the protection of their (tod, they defeat the armies "f Sihon ond Os. subjugate som^^ of the most fertile pasture lands E. of the river, and spread far and wi"le the terror c)f their name. Tho king of Moab (tho etymology (»f the name is curious: his own means "light- ning," (hot of his father, "bird "), alarmed by the advance of so formidable a foe, calls id a Borccror from (ho East to blight the fortunes of Israel. (Those who are fond of drawing parallels may compare the incident of Balaam and the ass with the account of the ass who startled Dionysos when he fought with the Titans, of the ass who foretold his imperial honors to Augustus, also of the ass in the story of Priapus, to whom St. Jerome has likened the Baal-Pcor of our text.) In the plains of Moab the assembled people receive the parting monitions of Moses. The penalties of disobedience are painted in colors so vivid as to seem tho very reflex of present vision, and the rewards of a glo- rious future arc promised if they will be true to the law of which they are the bearers. That law is familiarly known, and the " Book of books" in which it is contained is easily accessible to all. Its provisions are mainly laid down in Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy, and all of these threo must be carefully consulted in order to arrive at correct conclusions concerning the intentions of the lawgiver. This is not always so easy a task as might be wished, as serious difficulties are apt to complicate a harmonious interpretation. Lev. xviii. Ifi-Deut. xxv. 5 may be men- tioned as an instance in point. (The difference in legisla- tion which is here cited has been ingeniously referred by Dr. Geiger to the discrepant needs and interests of tho kingdomsof Judah and Israel. The writings of this distin- guished scholar are stored with erudition and masterly research on this and kindred subjects. His Urschrift, in particular, should be in the bands of every historian who treats of tho rise and development of the monotheistic idea.) In passing, we cannot refrain from expressing a just surprise that the law of Moses should have been charged with neglecting the sanctification of the spirit, and placing the religious life of mnn on a merely legal basis — a law which proclaimed the childhood of man and the father- hood of God : a law which took for its principle the sanc- tification of all the peojilo ; which devised such tender meas- ures to ensure respect for the feelings of the poor; which commanded the creditor to return the pledge of the debtor before nightfall ; which prevented the seducer, in an ago when tho marriage tie was but loosely knit, from divorcing the victim of his passion ! As Moses was not to enjoy t!te fruition of his work, the beginning of the conquest of the Promised Land set a period to his life. From afar off he was permitted to view the future home of the tribes. Then he died. Tho circumstances of bis life, indeed, are calcu- lated to awaken an interest even in the minds of the skep- tical. Cradled amid tho waters, a shepherd serving a for- eign master, a man of miracles, whoso staff changes into a serpent, divides the sea, cleaves the rock, and calls forth the living water — the favored of Heaven, from whose counte- nance beams of light are shot forth that dnzzle the beholder, tho bright-eyed prophetic hero who sinks to rest among the mountain-peaks, his history awakens many reminiscences in the minds of those conversant with the early lore of ancient nations. Tho work which Moses had left unfinished was taken up by his successor, Joshua. Ho led the people across the Jordan, and erected a monument of twelve stones in commemora- tion of their safe passage. {For the locality which was thus distinguished we may choose between Jr>sh. iv. K, " in tho midst of the Jordan,"" and iv. 20, "at Gil.cal.'*) The narrative of tiie first victories of the new leader is inter- spersed with the most marvellous events — tho failing of (ho walls of Jericho, tho phenomena at Ajalon. tho atTair of Achan. In some points we notice a marked resemblance between tho incidents of Joshua's life nnd that of his pro- doccssor and teacher. (Compare, c .7., Ex. iii. b and Josh. v. 15.) Before his <ica(h, Jot^hua distributed the conqutTcd and unconquered territory among the tribes, and exhorted (he people to choose between Jehovah and the idols. They willingly declared their readiness to follow the pious exam- ple of their cliief. In tho succeeding period, however, wo arc surprised to find no trace of the fullilment of so fair a promise. Disorder and distrust prevail. Mutual jealousies excite fierce conrtiets among related clans ; almost the whole tribe of Benjamin is extirpated; Abiinelech kills seventy princes on one stone; lust nnd treachery run riot. Tho general darkness is at times illumined by the patriotism of heroic women and herculean men. but (he liglw it sprea<ls is fitful and uncertain. What most distresses us in the nceonnt wo have of this evil time is the conduct of those whom we are taught to revere as (ho chosen messengers of Jcho\ nh. Gideon after his victory proceeds to make a goMen idol, which he worships (Judg. viii. 27): Jephtbah sacrifices his own daughter (Judg. xi. 35) ; Samson marries a heathen woman (xiv. 1); while a Levite, contrary to both (he letter and spirit of the Law. consents to become the priest of an indlviclual and to superintend the worship of imnges (Judg. xvii. and xviii.). To (be question, What had become of the rcmembrancQ of Moses and his law in tho mean time? wo look in vain for a satrsfactriry answer. Tho last of the judges marks an important cpooh in Is- 1414 JEWS. racl's history. Samuel was born of pious parents, and early dedicated to the service of God. (The etymology of the name, given in 1 Sam. i., seems to belong rather to Saul.) Eli and his sons were at that time in charge of the sanctuary at Shiloh. The weakness of the one, the wick- edness of the others, brought destruction upon themselves, defeat upon the people. The Israelitish army was routed by the Philistines, and the ark of the covenant became the spoil of the victors. It proved a dangerous possession, and after having brought plague and pestilence in its train wherever it was transported it was finally returned, along with certain strange ofTerings, to appease " the God of Is- rael." Samuel now became the acknowledged loader of the people, and during all his lifetime is said to h.ave overawed the Philistines and secured the peace of the land (1 Sam. vii.). The books of S.amuel, however, continue to recount renewed conflicts between Israel and Philisti.a. The sons of Samuel were unworthy to succeed their father, and the people clamored for a king. The political tendencies of monotheism were republican. Samuel resisted their per- sistent demands to the utmost, but at last gave way, and anointed Saul of Benj.amin. (.\ccording to 1 Sam. viii., is., X., it would appear that the elevation of Saul was due to the gener.al desire of the people for a stronger govern- ment. Chapters .ti. and xii., however, speak of it as occa- sioned by the attack of the Ammonites, on which occasion Saul, as yet a simple farmer's lad, is suddenly seized by the Divine Spirit, and succeeds in effecting the rescue of Jabesh-Gilead.) The connection between Saul and the prophets gives rise to a popular saying, which is variously explained in 1 Sam. X. 11 and 1 Sam. six. 24. Saul's hope of founding a dynasty of kings was not to be fullillcd. He was rejected of God (1 Sam. xiii. 13) because he had an- ticipated the coming of Samuel in an hour of great need, and himself brought the sacriBce before b.attlo; or (1 Sam. XV. 26) because he bad failed wholly to extirpate the hated race of Amalek. A new king was now to be chosen. Sam- uel selected a shepherd-boy, David, the son of Jishai. The manner of the future ruler's introduction to Saul is related in 1 Sam. xvi. 2,'5 and xvii. 57. It is the fame of bis skill on the harp which brings him to court, in the former narrative, to soothe the gloomy spirit of the king ; in the latter, the attention of Saul is first directed to the young hero after he has slain the Philistine giant (in 2 'Sam.°xxi. 19, Elchanan is mentioned as the vanquisher of Goliath). The suspicions of Saul were soon aroused against David, but the prowess of the latter repeatedly defeated the schemes that were laid for his destruction. Saul was even compelled to give him his daughter in marriage and to witness the close alliance subsisting between his son and his hated rival. David was at last compelled to flee the court, and theuceforth led the roving life of a fugitive. The jealousy of the king followed him wherever he went, and the repeated proofs which he gave of his respect for the person of " the Lord's anointed " served only to secure an occasional interval of repose. A lasting reconciliation was not brought about. The records of that dismal age are frequently stained with deeds of bloodshed. Eighty- five of the priests of Nob are butchered by command of Saul, and the city itself utterly destroyed. D.avid, to save his lil'e, plays the fool at the court of Achish (1 Sam. xxi.), enters into relations of close intimacy with Ammonites and Moabites— he was himself the descendant of Kuth, a Moabitish woman — and serves in the army of the Philis- tines (1 Sam. xxix. 2). In the mean time the incursions of the Philistine forces continue to endanger the political existence of Israel. Saul is reduced to utter despair. The weird scene in the house of the Witch of Endor. described in eh. xxviii., whore the spirit of him who is "shrouded in a mantle" (comp. xxviii. 11 with ii. 19) rises out of the earth to announce impending doom to the weary king, is a filling prelude to the Irajic close. In a great battle the hosts^f Israel are routed by the Philistines, Saul falls on his sword, and his sons perish with him. David was now recognized asking, at first by his own tribe, then, after Ish- bosheth's death, by the whole people. He delivered seven sons of Saul into the hands of the Gibeonites that they might kill them, while he supported the son of his friend .Jonathan, a poor cripple who was content to live on the king's bounty. The peace of his house, however, was continually disturbed by the misconduct of his own children. The incestuous passion of the one. the boundless ambition of the other, distressed the father's heart, lie was forced to flee, an exile, from Jerusalem, the city which he had himself con- quered and made the capital of the country. And his vic- tory over the insurgent chief was but n new source of grief, involving as it did the destruction of his beautiful if un- worthv son. His victorious arms had, indeed, extended the boundaries of the lan<l and secured its safety. But domestic discord and the rankling consciousness of his own deep guilt clouded the happiness of David's declining years. After a reign of forty years he died. Solomon, the son of Bathsheba, whose husband had been treacherously slain by David, succeeded to the throne. He executed the design which his father had formed, but had not been permitted to accomplish. With the aid of his ally, the Phoenician king, he reared the splendid temple on Mount Moriah, and dcdTcated it with imposing ceremonies to the service of the God of Israel and of the stranger. Renowned from child- hood for extraordinary wisdom, ho illustrated his reign with the magnificence of regal display rather than the glory of victorious arms. Trade flourished, his ships re- turned laden with the treasures of the distant East, and Jerusalem was adorned with palaces. But the people wcro burdened with taxes, the royal harem was enlarged beyond all precedent, and the heart of the uxorious king was won for foreign gods by the foreign princesses whom ho had es- poused. Hardly had Solomon breathed his last when the people rose in open revolt. His son, Kehoboam. unwisely provoked the resentment which justice and policy called upon him to allay. Ten tribes under the leadership of Jeroboam seceded from his dominion ; Josejjh and Judah were thcne"forth separated. Jerusalem remained the cap- ital of Judah; Shechem, Tirzah, Samaria became in turn the residence of the kings of Israel. To prevent a return of the people to their old allegiance Jeroboam established new seats of worship, introduced innovations in the celebra- tion of tho festivals, and created a new priesthood. His rule was the inauspicious beginning of a long scries of disastrous reigns. His son Nadab was slain while besicg- in" Gibthon of the Pliilistincs. Baasha, a successful con- spTrator, aseondcd the throne, and ruled twenty-four years. Then followed his son Elah, who was murdered by Zimri. This seven-day king kindled the royal palace above his head when be learned that tho army around Gibthon (comp. 1 Kings XV. 27 with xvi. IJ) had raised their captain, Omri, to the throne, and were already entering the gates of Tirzah. An unholy distinction belongs to tho reign of Ahab, Omri's son. HaVing wedded the Phtenieian princess Jezebel, he introduced the lascivious worship of Baal (tho cult of the phallus) into Israel. Tho bonds of law were loosened, the service of tho Deity was degraded to sensual orgies, and the example of the court corrupted the manners of the people. The better and purer spirits reacted against the inroads of a foreign worship which outraged alike their feelings of piety and of patriotism. A more profound con- ception of the Divine Being was gradually evolved, and the inward and outward struggles of infant prophecy may still he traced in the lives of Elijah and Elisha as they are transcribed in the chronicles of the Kings. The victory of Ahab over the Syrian Benhadad was sullied by the un- timely clemency wliich ho extended to his vanquished foe. Soon after, in a war undertaken with Jehoshapbat, king of Judah, for the purpose of wresting Ramoth-Gilead from the power of Aram, Ahab lost his life, and, as Elijah had prophesied, his blood was licked by dogs in the vineyard of Naboth, the stime whom he had treacherously murdered. The house of Ahab was utterly rooted out by command of Jehu, whom Elisha bad anointed king over Israel. The 70 sons of the Baal worshipper were slain, and bis wife, Jezebel, audacious to the last, was cast from the window of her palace by her attendants. The successors of Jehu con- tinued in tho evil courses of their predecessors. Jehoash captured Jerusalem and destroyed part of its wall. Jero- boam II. extended the boundaries of his kingdom, but the lustre of bis successors was but the last glow of an expiring flame. A new and warlike dynasty possessed the throne of Assvria. Menahem bought a transient peace by the pavmc'nt of a heavy tribute to the Assyrian king Phul. In'ihe rei^n of Pekah. however, the whole land of Naph- tali was o'verrun by Tiglatb-pilescr. and its inhabitants carried awav into captivity. It was in vain that the king of Israel united his forces with those of his old enemy, tho king of Syria, for mutual protection against the common danger that approached from beyond the Euphrates. Tho finafblow could no longer be averted. Too late his succes- sor Hosea, implored the aid of the Egyptian Pharaoh. The army of Salmanasar attacked Samaria. A fruitless siecc of three years ended in the capture of the capital and the°coniplete downfall of the kingdom of Israel (a. r. 721). Tho ten tribes wore settled in distant districts of the As- syrian empire, and soon lost among its inhabitants. The once mighty people of the N. of Palestine left a lasting monument if its greatness in the inspired writings of its noble prophets, but of the subsequent fortunes of the scat- tered tribes nothing became known, save to the idle dream- ers of a later age. , . , i, j For more than a century after her sister kingdom had been swept away Judah continued to brave the storms that 1 threatened her own existence. In the reign of Rehoboam, 1 Shishak, king of Egypt, plundered the temple and palaco I of Jerusalem. (Tho biblical account is corroborated by JEWS. 1415 the testimony of the Ej^yptian monuments.) His sucoes- purs (comp. 1 Kinirs xv. 2 and lU) proved little better tlian the neij;hboriii;; rulers of Isnicl. Eveu the more God-fearing aiuun;; tlieni would not or could not ubulish the idotatroui? custom of sacrilicing on hi<;h places. Jo- huf^hnphat and Ahaziah furmed au alliance with the house of Aliab, for whirh the latter paid dearly with his life. Athaliah, a daughter uf Omri. tliuu usurped the sovereign power, and comuianded a prouiiscuous slaughter uf the royal family to secure her throne. Juash, a suckling in- fant, alone escaped. In the seventh year of her rcicn Athaliah fell before a conspiracy of the priests and cap- tains, with JL'hoiada at its head, and Joash was proclaimed king. He was succeeded by his son Aniaziah, who de- feated Edom. but was himself severely chastised by the king of Israel. Azariah, the son of Amaziah, was aftlicted with leprosy, and was forced to leave the care of the state in [he hands <>f his son Jothain. .Jotliani, in turu, was fol- lowed by Ahaz. This king was attacked by the combined armies of Israel and Syria. To save his power he was compelled to call in the doubtful aid of the Assyrian Tig- lath-pileser, and purchased his security at the expense of his independence. His son, Hczckiah, iscclebrated in his- tory as a prince of distinguished ])iety, whose virtues ar- rested for a time the down\vard course of Judah's fortunes. His court was adorned by the presence of the most mag- nillcent of the prophets, and the king had the rare fortune of listening to the counsels of Isaiah, and the rare merit of deferring to his monitions. The armies of Assyria, which had extingui-^hed the national existence of Israel, passed harmlessly by Jerusalem. The vast host of Sennacherib was struck with a sudden blight; an angel of Jehovah passed through tlto camp, and in the morning 185,000 corpses covered the field. After the death of Hczckiah, Manassch and ,\mon brought back the evil practices of former days. Then camo Josiah, celebrated as the restorer of the law. In his day Hilkiah, tlio high priest, found a scroll in tho temple which ho sent to the king (this scroll is by many critics supposed to have been tho book of Deuter- onomy). Josiah, terrified by tho announcement of ap- proaching doom contained in it, projected a complete re- form in tho religious life of iho people. Ho ordered the temple to bo purged of its idols, tho Passover to bo cele- brated, and concluded anew tho broken covenant with (lod. Wheu Pharaoh-nccho advanced against Assyria, Josiah, true to his allegiance, marched out against him, but was slain ut Mi-giddo. In tho reign of his son Joia- kim, whom Pharaoh had appointed king in place of Joa- liash. a change look (itace in tho complexion of the po- litical world. (Ireat jsincveh fell. L'[)on her ruins rose tho empire of tho Chaldicans, and as Egypt's strength was paralyzed, tho armies of Babylon nswcrtcd her undisputed sway over the surrounding nations and cities. Bcf:)rothi3 new power tho kingdom of Judali at last sucoumbed. Joiukin, a youth of eighteen years, who succeeded his father, was hardly fitted to guido tho helm of statu at so critical a period. Nebuchadnezzar came upon Jerusalem. Tho king was carried captive to Babylon, und Zedekiah ap- pointed in his stead. Zedekiah rebelled. For two y(furs .Jerusalem withstood the siegeof the Babylonians. At las!, driven by famine, tho besieged endeavored to cut through the lines of tho besiegers. Zedekiah was overtaken, brought before Nebuchadnezzar, his children slain before his eyes, anri, blinded, ho was carried in chains to the capital of tho coiii|Uoror. Jerusalem wa^ in ash<-s, its temple a smoulder- ing ruin, and " tlio paths of Zion were in mourning." Tho prophecies of Jeremiah had foretold iho calamity which ho was powerless to avert: his Lamentations sing tho dirge of Judah's fallen greiitne.s.«. A remnant of the pcopio was left in Piili-stino under (Jedaliah as governor. Asi^assiualion put an eml to his brief reign, and tho others, fearing tho ven- geance of the Chaldioans, fled to Egypt, with Jeremiah us their unwilling companion. The great nnijority of the peo- ple, however, had been led into exile, to recall *' by Babel's streams" the sad memories of tlieir native land. (It is worthy of remark that tho mother's namo of tho ruling prince is invariably mentioned in the annals of the Judiean Kings, while it is omitted in (hi)se of Israel. Tho high power of the kitig's mr>ther is also attested by tho sov- ereignty which Athaliah exercised during seven years, and by 2 KingH xxiv. 12, where tho inolhor of Joiukin is nion- tit>iu<d as the most eon"lderable personage of his court.) Babylonia proved for the Jews tho erucible from which they came forth for tho first time wholly aglow with tho spirit of monollieism. In the year .VIS, Cyrus, having overturned the empire of the ChaldiranN, permitted them tn return to their country. About .')(>, 01)0. wilh .lefhua, tho high priest, and Zerubbabol, of Iho seed of David, tit their heati, availed themselves of this permisNion. Spurred on by the ehirpwnt monitions of sueh prophi-ts as llaggai and Zcehariah, they proceeded to re-erect tho fallen temple, though frequently interrupted in their work by tho en- mity or jealousy of tho surrounding nations. Prominent among these were the Samaritans, with Sanballat their chief. These people had been transplanted by the As- syrian monarch to occupy tho vacant seats of the ten tribes, and had adopted the religion of Israel. But being still tainted with idolatry, they were not admitted to the share they claimed in the new sanctuary of Jehovah. Their calumnies at the Persian court for a time caused the com- plete suspension of the work. In the year il.'i the build- ing of the second temple was finishccl. The religious basis of the infant state was fixed by the scribe Ezra, ** the sec- ond Mo.-^es," who, coming from the court of Artaxcrxcs armed with great powers, used them to secure the general observance of tho Law and to purge the people of tho hea- then elements which had crept into their midst. His mea- sures do not appear to have been <juite as effective as they were stern. Nehemiali, the cupbearer of Artaxerxes, fol- lowed in his footsteps, forbad": the desecration of the sab- bath, rebuked the wealthy for their greed and their oppres- sion of the poor, and strengthened the defences of Jerusalem by tho erection of a wall. The succeeding period until after the death of Alexander the (Jrcat is wra])ped in obscurity. Juda)a, remaining tributary to the Persian ruler, had no history, and may therefore be supposed to have been happy. After tho death of tho Macedonian conqueror, Ptolemy Dagi captured Jerusalem, and for almost a century Palestine was held in subjection by the Ptolemies, whose yoke was not, at first, a heavy one. Many of the Jews had settled in Al- exandria, where their industry, enterprise, and wide con- nections soon raised them to tho position of merchant princes. A rich, manifold, and widely influential literature arose in Iho mi<lst of this Egyptian colony, and under the fostering care of scholarly kings a new philosophy was cultivated, destined thereafter in Christijin garb to spread over tho world. Tho Septuagint f the Greek translation of the Old Testament) was composed, and a temple, built after the pattern of the one on Moriah, at Heliopolis, became at once a source of pride and distrust to tho patriots of Jeru- salem. With tho decline of Egypt's power and the grow- ing strength of the Seleueidjc. a new danger threatened the existeuco of the Jewish stale and religion. In tho begin- ning of the second century ii. c. Judaea had transferred its allegiance to Syria. In return, Antiochus Epiphancs barely three decades after conimande<i them to abjure their relig- ion, defiled their sanctuary, and erected tlie statue of the Olympian Jove, to which they were ordered to pay divine honors. Thia outrage provoked a disastrous '' thirty years' war." Antioehus was aided by the party of the Hellenists, friends of tho Greeks, at whose head stood the infamous priests Jason and Menehius. The cause of the people was espoused liy tho family of tho Uasmoneans, or Maccabees, so called from its most valiant member, Judah the Ham- mer (Maccab). Tho Maccabean brothers were tho main stay of tho revolution. Equally great in defeat and suc- cess, they achieved victories over Syrian armies that were superior to their own in numbers, equipments, prestige, in everything but devotion to their cause, while they never allowed their courage to sink under the most crushing ad- versity. Tlieir heroic deeds are rclateil in the works of Josephus and tho books of tho Maccabees. ( For an inge- nious argument to prove the Sadducean origin of tho first book, tho Plmriscan of tho second, seo Geiger's UrgrhH/t, p. 200.) Tiio Talmud, strange to way, almost ignores them. Judas Maecabce succeeded in cleansing tho temple. Ho died a soldier's ileath in a decisive battle fought witli tho Syrian general Bacchides. Jonathan, his brother, profiting by tho disorders that had broken out in the enemy's coun- try, secured his recognition as high jiricst and elhnarch by the posscs8i»rs of or i)reten<lers to the throne of Syria, but was finally ensnared by the wily Tryplion, and treacher- ously slain. Tho commanct notv devolved upon Simon, to wh<»sa ]>rudent counsels tho father of the Alaccabees had on his deathbed referred the brothers for their guidance. Ho ended Iho long war suceescfully in the year li:J n. r., established tho indopendonco of Judira, and was invented by a grateful people with the chief nmgii^tracy. It in pndj- ablo tinit in his day the Sanlu'drin, the highest tribunal of thestate.compoBcdof eminent doctors of I he I aw. first entered upon its duties, though a more ancient origin is ascribed to it by some. Simon was assassinateil by his son-in-law Ptolemy, who betrayed at once the sacred trust of hospital- ity and the eonlidenee of paternal nffeelion. His son, John Ilyrcanus, sueeeedc*! him. This prince subjugated tho Idunuenns, and forced Ihem to accept the religion of Moses — a fatal step for liis people and Ins dynasty. During a reign of thirty years ( l-'if^-lO-'i), which was signalized by many warlike nehievemenls. ho incurred the hatred of tho ptipular party of Iho Pharisees by his ill-concealed prefer- enoo for their Sadducean opponent!*. His son, Aristobulus, who followed him, added tho kingly purple to tho high UltJ JEWS. priest's robe. The brother of Aristobulus, Alexander Jan- nffius, is remarkable for the rapid succession of his military exploits and the general bad fortune which attended them. On one occasion he was only saved from utter destruction by the intervention of Cleopatra and the Jewish generals that commanded her army. In his lifetime he bitterly Sorsecutcd the Pharisees, but on his deathbed he advised is wife, Salome Alexandra, to make her peace with a party whoso hostility might ensure her destruction. The bloody feud which began to rage after the death of Jannajus be- tween his sons, Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, was the fatal beginning of a loiig struggle that ended in the final dis- me'inberment of the Jewish state. The friendship of the Romans had proved valuable in the war of independence. The Roman eagle was now called in, like the fox in the fable, to judge between the hostile brothers. Scaurus at first decided in favor of Aristobulus. but (60 B.C.) Pompey reversed his decision. The temple was stormed, Hyrcanus reinstated, and Aristobulus with his sons carried captive to Rome. The independence of Palestine was thus for ever lost. A native prince was. indeed, still permitted to assume the vain shadow of authority, but the policy or caprice of the Romans thenceforth appointed or dismissed the rulers of the Holy Land. The counsels of the feeble Hyrcanus were directed by Antipater, a statesman of un- usual sagacity, an Iduma;an by birth. While we cannot but abhor their treachery, we are compelled to admire the subtle craft by which this Antipater and his son Herod contrived to .secure the favor of all the great captains who at that time successively swayed the destinies of the Roman world. When the star of Pompey was about to decline, Antipater earned the gratitude of C«sar by the powerful support which he lent him in the conquest of Egypt. Herod, ruling in Galilee, strengthened the hands of°'Cassius by the prompt despatch of supplies collected in his district. He enlisted the sympathies of Mark Antony so completely in his behalf that his cause was introduced into the Roman senate by both Antony and his colleague Augustus. Through their efforts the usurper was proclaimed king. Meantime, Antigonus, the son of that Aristobulus whom Pompey had sent to Rome, obtained the aid of the Parthians in an attempt to regain bis throne. Jerusalem was taken, Hyrcanus sent captive to Babylon, and Herod forced to flee to Idumasa. With the help of his Roman friends, however, he succeeded in turning the fortunes of the war. After a most sanguinary conflict the capital was retaken (b. c. .37), and Antigonus, at his instigation, shamefully executed. King Herod "did his days in stone." He rebuilt the temple on a scale of great magnificence, erected spacious amphitheatres, and in- troduced the games of the arena. But this outward splen- dor could not conceal the real misery of his disastrous reign. The tyrant's fierce passions were quickly roused, and ho possessed the fatal power of fulfilling his desires. Among those whom he slew may be named — Hyrcanus. to whom his family owed its elevation ; the grandchild of the former, his own beautiful wife Mariamne ; her brother, the young high priest Aristobulus; two husbands of his sister Salome ; three of his own sous, and others too numerous to mention. After his death the kingdom was divided among his sons, Archelaus, Antipas, and Philippus. By the favor of the emperor Claudius his grandson. Herod Agrippa, onco more for a brief time united the divided principalities under ono sceptre. But in the days of Agrippa II., in whose reign the destruction of the state was accomplished, the power of the last Jewish dynasty had lost all substance. The extortions of such Roman governors as Antonius Felix and Gessius I'lorus urged the people to the very verge of despair. A republican party long since subsisted among them, as appears from Josephus (Antiq., xiv. 3), and the Zealots under the leadership of Judah of Gaulonitis were impatient of the Roman yoke. Encouraged by the destruc- tion of the army of Cest'ius Uallus {\. n. GO), the patriots at last dared to raise their head. The gauntlet was thrown down to Rome, the revolution began, and Josephus, the future historian of the war, was sent to organize the de- fence of Galilee. The disciplined legions, advancing under Vespasian, the ablest general of the age, were met by rude bands of guerillas, and the arts of war baffled by the ob- stacles of nature and tho frantic courage of despair. The strong fortress of Jotapata successfully resisted every effort of the besiegers, until, covered by the mist of early morn- ing and led on by a traitor, the Romans succeeded in sur- prising the guards, and the place fell into their hands. Josephus, who commanded in person, was taken prisoner; 40,000 men are said to have fallen in tho siege. On Ves- pasian's departure the completion of the w.ar was entrusted to his son, Titus. In the spring of a. d. 70, Titus opened his works against Jerusalem. The city was torn by dis- sensions. Famine soon made its appearance, the houses were filled with the dead and the dying, mothers are said to have devoured their own children in the frenzy of hunger. After two weeks the outworks were taken. Upon this the attack was directed against the strong castle Antonia, which was connected by cloisters with the temple. Not- withstanding the repeated sallies of the besieged under their heroic chief, John of liiscala, the castle was captured. Then began, under the eye of the Ca;sar, the last desperate struggle of the defenders for the palladium of the state, the sanctuary itself Again and again the imperial soldiers were beaten ofi' and dashed from the walls. At last a Ro- man soldier, rising on the shoulder of his fellow, threw a firebrand through an open casement into the outer halls of the temple. The woodwork caiight, the temple stood in flames. The infuriated troops rushed into the holy places, murdering and pillaging, and the arm of Titus himself was powerless to stay the carnage or save the great edifice. Many of those whom the sword spared were carried to distant countries as slaves or saved for the sports of the arena. Jerusalem was an utter ruin ; the Jewish state had fallen to rise no more. With the loss of its political existence the integrity of Judaism as a religion remained unimpaired. The founda- tions for a new order of things had already been laid. Prayer took the place of sacrifice, the synagogues replaced the temple, and the Beth-Din, noiselessly founded by Rabbi Jochanan ben Sakkai in Jamnia, became a centre of au- thority to reunite the scattered people. The Beth-Din was presided over by a nasi (prince), a descendant of Hillcl, the great master of the law, and two other oflicers (ab-bcth- din and chaeham). It was composed in the first place of seventy academic members ; secondly, of such as had been ordained to act as teachers: and of their disciples, in the third place. The sittings were open to the public. Tlie questions discussed in this and the similar academies at Sepphoris, Tiberias, and elsewhere afi'ected the entire re- ligious, political, and social life of the Jews. Through the agency of such schools the work of extending and modify- ing the provisions of the law and of ancient tradition (Cabbala) to suit the altered eircumstanees of the time was successfully carried on. The political position of the Jewish citizens of" the Roman empire (they had been admitted to the rights of citizenship by the emperor Claudius) varied with tiie chiiracter of the reigning sovereign. Vespasian seized the tax which the Jews had hitherto remitted to the temple for his own treasury, and thereby set an example to his real or pretended successors down almost to our own day. Domitian displayed his animosity chiefiy by the severe treatment of proselytes. The mild rule of Nerva was suc- ceeded by a period of wild disorder in the reign of Trajan. The Jew's of Eivpt, Cyrene, and the isle of Cyprus rose in open revolt. The barbarous conflicts that ensued have left few traces in history save in the increased legacy of mutual hate between the parties engaged in them, which they trans- mitted to succeeding generations. . At this time the great Proseuehc of Alexandria was destroyed. The last powerful insurrection of Judsea followed in the days of Hadrian, and was quelled by Julius Severus. Their Messianic prince, Bar-Cochba, led the insurgents in more than fifty battles against tho Romans; h.alf a million of Jews are reported to have fallen in them. With tlie taking of Betar the war came to an end. Bar-Cochba himself is said to have been found among the dead enveloped in the folds of a serpent. Jerusalem now became a Roman town, under the name of M\ia. Capilolina, in honor of iElius Hadrianus and the Capitoline Jove; the Jews were forbidden to enter its pre- cincts. They were, moreover, disturbed in the practice of their religious rites, and the vital point of their faith was attacked when tho teaching of the Law was interdicted. Tho stubborn resistance of the people must have impeded the execution of these commands, and (ho more obnoxious of them were soon after abrogated by Antoninus Pius. Tho eloso of tho second century is rendered memoriible by the compilation of the Mishna (.see Talmud) under tho auspices of tho patriarch R. Jcliuda, who is called Ha- Kadosh ("the saintly"). This work was intended tu present in au authentic and codified form tho decisions of the Beth- Din, which ha.l accumulated during several centuries. Its bulky commentaries, the Gemaras of Babylon and Pales- tine," explain or amplify its provisions. The successful completion of so diflicult a task bears witness to the high authority which the patriarch or nasi must have wielded in the academy, while the willingness of the people to ac- cept the code which tho doctors of the Law recommended evinces the respect in which these chaberim or chaehamiin, this "brotherhood of the Learned." were held. At the same time, the deposition of Gamaliel shows us the lirm determination of the Beth-Din to resist all undue exercise of power on the part of its chief officer. The members of the collco themselves never aspired to other prerogatives than those which superior wisdom and purity might justly claim A privileged caste could not arise where merit JEWS. I4i; was the solo measure of worth. The Pharisaic doctrine that the priesthood hclon^a to all the people was rigorously tnaiDtaiucd, and hoth iu the syuagoguc and without it the democratic prineiplo of the equality of all was religiously adhered to. This state of things was largely duo to the happy example set by the rabbins themselves. Of gomo of the most distinguished of their number wo know that they followed some humble calliug to earu their bread, thinking it Hhameful to coin their teachings into gold, A similar sentiment is echoed in the twelfth century by Moses Maimonides. In paying a passing tribute to the singular disinterestedness of the ancient rabbins, we would briefly advert to the legends with which the stories of their lives are intertwined. These legends are not, as has been sup- posed, mere fanciful embellishment or exaggeration of his- torical fact. In the accounts of Oni Ha-Me'aggel. the man of the wheel who was able to produce rain, of Simon b. Joehai, whose fiery glance spread desolation in the fields when he left (ho cave where ho had d^velt concealed, of R. Jochanan (the fabled compiler of the Geinara of Palestine), whose arm emitted a wondrous rosy light, we recognize distinct mvthologieal tniits. These legends are contained in the liagada (the historical and poetical part of the Talmud as distinguished from the Ilalucha, the discussions and disqui- sitions on points of religious theory and jiractiee). A care- ful scrutiny of the legends of the Talmud and its supple- mentary works would, we doubt not, richly repay tho labors of the student of comparative mythology. In the reign of Diocletian the Jews seem to have been exempt from persecution. Their general condition in the Roman empire at this time was at least tolerable. Their peculiar customs, the dietary laws which prevented them from joining in tho festivities of their neighbors, provoked the ridicule or the scorn of the pagans. But their legal status was not thereby affected. All this changed when Christianity in tho jicrson of Constantino ascended the throne. The harsh spirit which he infused into the legis- lation of tho empire with regard to the theological op- ponents of tho reigning faith was still further developed by his successor, Constantius. whoso measures called forth an unsuccessful revolt in Judu^a. The philosophic Julian (;16I ) granted them the full blessings of his favor, but they failed to second his efforts for the restoration of the temple. Thcodosius I. was just in his dealings with an oppressed people, in dctiunco of tho vehement reproaches of Am- brosius, the bishop of Milan. In the reign of Thcodosius II., Cyril of Alexandria, who has earned an unenviable fame for permitting the murder of the noble Hypatia, ex- pelled the Jews fronj that city. The emperor himself de- prived them of valuable rights, such as the rebuilding of synagogues, the exercise of judicial functions, and the like. Tho Jewish patriarchate, though its incumbent had but lately been numbered among the ** lUustres," about this time (the beginning of the fifth century) expired. In tho following century the code of Justinian excluded them from all honorable offices, imposing upon them tho duties while depriving them of the privileges of tho citizen. Meantime, the centre of authority in tvhat concerned the internal alVairs of the Jews ha<l been gradually transferred from Palestine to Babylon, and tho latter ultimately assumed many of tho peculiar prerogatives of tho former. About the time of thi) compilation (»f the Mishna. Abba Arcka (Rait) and Mar Samuel removed from the land of Israel, and founded schools of learning on the banks of tho Kuphrates and tho Tigris. Tho most important of the schools that flourished in those regions were t hose of Xohardea, Suna, Pumbcditha, and Miichuza. In them the (iemara of Babylon (compiled about .^Ofl) was elaborated. The politieal represent:itivoof tho Babylonish .Jews was known under tho name of " prince of the Captivity '* (Resh Oeluiha), Ho waa accustomed io livo in great slate. The offiee continued to bo fille*| until the tenth century. When in the third century tho religion of Zoroaster celebrated a great triumph in tlio accession of tho house of Sassan to tho throne of Persia, tho position of the Jews remained, on tho whole, unaltered. IVrsecutiona wore indeed more frecpient than Ihoy had been, but tho yoke of tho Magi was light when cimpared with that of tho priests in Christian countries. Shabur 11. (-Tl^) trans- plnnted a consiflerablo number of the Armenian Jews to Ispahan. Jesdigerd IT. forbade tho observance of tho Bab- bath and tho public reading of the Phema (tho proclamation of the unity of (lofl) -i-'.^-iOO. Mis -on Firn7. slaughtered many of the Jewish inhabitants of Ispahan, and further extended tho stringent measures of his father ( 171— tS^). About this timo a colony of Jews is said to have landed on the coast of Malabar, a part of whom nfterwiirdf settled In Cochin-China. The ripo of the pect nftho y.onA'ic" involved tho Persian .lews in the general disiisti-rs tbiit then befel tho renlm. Horuiisdas f 5H1 ), discarding the example of the great Chnsrn, pursuetl tho cruel policy of Kiruz : and it was but natural that the Jews should take sides with his enemy, the usurper Bahram, in tho conflict that ensued between tho rival aspirants to the throne. Under Chosru II. they joined the Persian troops which invaded Palestine, and avenged tho injuries of tlicir brethren by expelling the Romans from tho land. While the power of the Sassauida} visibly de- clined in the country which wo have heretofore designated by tho ancient name of Babylon, a now faith rose on the Arabian peninsula whose conquering arms were soon carried over a great part of tbocivilized world. From a very early timo Jews had settled in Arabia, and had assumed tho lan- guage and manners of its inhabitants, differing from them only in their religion. Tho Jewish prince Samoe! b. Adija is still celebrated as tho greatest of all the poets that flour- ished before the coming of Mohammed; while the Jewi^h king, Jussuf b. Xowas, became a byword to the credulous superstition of a later age. Powerful Jewish tribes, settled in tho neighborhood of Yathrib (Medina), prepared tho minds of tho Arabs to receive tho doctrines of the Prophet, and to Jewish learning be owed the bctterpart of his teach- ings. (Compare Gcigcr's prize-essay, W'/irtt f./i>l Mohamnwd Borrow from Judaism ?) When .^luhummed found tho Jews as stubborn to resist his own pretensions as they wero ready to aid him in exposing the shams of idolatry, the frieniUy spirit of his earlier policy toward them changed into bitter animosity. Yet he ever exempted the "scrip- tural people " from the edicts of proscription with which he pursued the worshippers of images, and the rule of tol- eration which (he founder introduced became a law for his successors. Tho Persian empire succumbed before Omar, the second of the caliphs. To him are ascribed those well- known enactments which define the status of Jews and Christians in countries subject to Mohammedan rule. They may be compared to the canonical laws of the Christian Church, only that they have less of that spirit of intoler- ance which is characteristic of tho latter. They were, moreover, less frequently and less stringently enforced. By them it is provided that Jews and Christians are not to build new houses of worship, nor repair such as are decayed; they aro to prevent no one from conversion to Islam ; they are not to sell wino nor wear their liair long; they arc not to bo considered eligible for ofllce. A Moslem who mal- treats an ijfidcl is to pay a fine, etc. etc. The political head of tho Jews was treated with sufficient respect by tho first caliphs, and Bostanai, the *' prince of the t^aptivity," seems to have been the recipient of the highest royal favnrs. But a new power, that of tho CJaons, gradually eclipsed tho importance of these so-called princes. The Gaons were the presiding ofticersof the learned academies. They succeeded in drawing to their own persons the umliviiled attachment of the Jewish community, and continued during several centuries to extend their influence to the most distant con- gregations. Tho revival of letters that followed in the train of Arabian conquest was felt and hailed with eager joy among the Jews. The critical attention of scholars was turned to tho text of tho Bible. A simpler method of in- terpretation obtained. A new sect (see Kauaitks) was formed under the leadership of Anan, called from their closer ndhcrenco to tho letter of Scripture (Mikra) Karaites. Philosophy found an eloquent exponent in the t»aon Saadia (tenth century) ; and toSherira (Jaon (d. 1000 a. n.) weowo a document of the very highest historical value. When tho caliphate of Bagdad succumbed before the advaneing Mon- gols, tho Jews shared the general fate of their countrymen. But tho religious tolerance or imlifi'erenee of tho conquerors protected them from special acts of hostility. In tho year 12'if^ a Jewish physician, having gained the jiarticular favor of thekluin Argim, was nppointed minister of finance for the whfde Persian empire. Tlio fanaticisnHU- jealousy of the no- bility procured his assasf'ination, and bin death was the sig- nal of persecution for his brethren. Tho condition of tlio Jews in Asia has remained with little variation down Io tho present day one of utter misery. In the N. of Africa, under tho rule of the Fatiniites. their position was on the whole hardly more favorable. Turning to Kuropo. wo find, on entering tho period of tho Middle Ages, that the more or less friendly relations which until then subsiste<l between tho .lews nnd (heir neighbors were gradually disturbed by the inerenved bitterness of religious hate. In Franee tho attempted conversion by CJrogory of Tours of King Chilperie's jeweller, tho Jew Priscus, and his assassination by a renegade r)f his own nme, give eviflence at onee of the high consi<leratiim which Israelites still enjoyc'l. ami the growing ehnnge for the worse that began to appear in tlnir fortunes toward tho end of the sixth century. In the be- ginning of tho seventh, Dagohert issued an edict com- muinling them to choose between biiptism nnd death. In Spiiin. under ihn rule of Arian kings. .lews and Christians nn-l nmienbly in social gatherings, and the bond of friend- phip between them wiis strengthened bv frequent inter- marringe. But when Reeeared embraced Catholicism this peaceful stalo of things camo to an end. Ho was a con- 1418 JEWS. vert, it is believed, from motives of policy, and, relying on the aid of the clergy, desired to invest the royal office with greater power than the constitution of the Visigoths was calculated to allow. The same motive may have im- pelled him to curry favor with the clergy by persecuting the Jews. (On this subject see the admirable article on Jew- ish history by Selig Casscl, in Ersch and (iruber'a Ath/em. Eiici/klupiidie.) About 012, .Sisebut banished the Jews from his kintrdom. In the ne.xt reign, however, they were al- lowed to return. In e:j:! the Council of Toledo condemned the system of enforcing their conversion which had been lately inaugurated by the king. Bui its decrees were very stringent against those who returned to Judaism after they had been nominally received into the Church. An extra- ordinary severity toward men of this class continued to be a peculiar feature of Spanish legislation in later times._ In fi:i8 the Jews were again driven from the realm by King Chintila, and again admitted under his successor. In the reio-n of Keceswinth and of Erwig new laws were enacted to "ensure their humiliation. They were entirely deprived of the right of holding office, their testimony was no longer accepted^in court, while those who had made the outward profession of Christianity were placed under the strict sur- veillance of the priesthood to secure their allegiance. The progressive advance of intolerance which marks the seventh century reached its climax when in CU4 the Jews of Spain were deprived of the liberty of person and declai-ed slaves. Such being the condition to which Spanish bigotry had reduced tliem. it is not surprising that Taric on his ap- proach was h.ailed as a deliverer, and that the Jews became the friends and allies of the Arabs in their conquest of Spain. Under the benign light of the Crescent they en- tered upon the brightest period of their history since the destruction of Jerusalem. While Christian Europe was sunk in barbarism they joined the Moors in keeping alivo the Hame of science, and became the mediators between ancient and modern culture. Philosophy, poetry, mathe- matics, astronomy, medicine, received their attention, and their skill in the arts of diplomacy introduced them to the favor of kings. In the tenth century, Hasdai Ibn Shaprut became the trusted agent of .\bderrahman III. at Cordova. He received the ambassadors of foreign monarchs. His knowledge of the Latin language, a rare accomplishment at the court of his master, proved peculiarly serviceable. It is reported that he even corresponded with the chief of the Chazares, an independent Jewish prince, whose country could only be roaohed by a fifteen days' journey from Con- stantinople. Jacob Ibn Gau was the recipient of high hon- ors at the hands of the caliph about 985. (See (Jractz, Ge- Hchirhie der Jiulrn, V. 39S.) In the eleventh century Samuel (called Ila Nagid, " the prince ") was raised to the dignity of vczir. His calligraphieal skill paved the way to his greatness. But, far from being a mere writer, he was fully conversant with the literature of tho age, and himself an author. The friend of the poet and philosopher Gebirol, he showed himself tho liberal protector of art and science. Ilis son Joseph succeeded him in his honors, but was mur- dered in a furious assault of the mob on his palace, which had been instigated by his enemies. Contemporary with S;unuel ha Nagid at Granada, Ibn Hassan was raised to high office at the court of Saragossa, and again in Seville Ibn Albaliawas appointed astrologer to tho king. But the same kindly policy which guided the Arabs in their con- duct toward the Jews was now adopted by the rulers of Cliristian Spain. In Castile they were placed on iiuito tho siiiue level with the nobility and the clergy. They were devoted to their country, and prepared to risk lile and fortune in its defence. Alfonso VI. employed them as am- bassadors to Moorish princes, and they served with equal distinction in his army and at his court. In ICSo he suc- ceeded in taking Toledo, but soon after was himself totally routed by the Moslems under the leadership of the Almo- ravidc Jussuf. The success of the latter seemed at first likely to bring ruin on tho Jews of Moorish Spain. A fab- ulous story gained credit to tho effect that their ancestors had bound themselves to embrace Islam if at the end of the year 500 of tho Hodjr.ah their own expected Messiah had not yet come. Referring to this legend, Jussuf called upon them to fulfil what had been promised. But it was not until tho middle of the twelfth century that this de- mand was seriously pressed. The Almohades, conquering Northern Africa, crossed over into Spain. The power of the Almoravides was broken, and Cordova fell into the hands of the victors. The Jews of Andalusia were forced to follow the example of their African brethren, and cither fled tho country or acknowledged with the lips the pro- phetic mission of Mohammed and the inspiration of the Koran. Toledo, the new Christian capital of Castile, now became a refuge to large numbers of the fugitives. Here they increased rapidly in wealth and power, and monuments of both are still extant. Jews occupied high positions at the court of Alfonso VIII. Alfonso X. (1252), it is said, en- trusted the work of preparing the celebrated astronomical tables which bear his name to a certain Don Zag, a reader in the synjigoguc. Nor is he tho only Israelite mentioned among the scientists who illustrated Alfonso's reign. The harsh restrictions which this king imposed upon the inter- course between Jews and Christians were not fully observed, even by himself In Aragon the influence of the Domini- can Raymond de Ponjaforto was directed to the conversion of "the lost sheep." But the famous disputation of Bar- celona between Pablo Christiana and Nachmunides (12fi;!), held in the presence of James I. and his chief dignitaries, did not serve to advance the project. At the opening of the fourteenth century a great danger threatened the Jews of Castile in the person of Gonzalo Martinez, the all-pow- erful minister of Alfonso XI. He succeeded iu bringing about the fall of two of their number who had hitherto enjoyed tho favor of the monarch. But his further plans were frustrated in time, and he fell a victim to his own treachery. The civil war between the adherents of Pedro and Henry entailed bitter sufl'erings on many of the largest congregations of the land. The Jews took the part of Pedro, and were in the main sure of his protection as far as be had the power to extend it. But even the victor- ious Henry could not entirely dispense with their services. They were in great request as physicians, and the manage- ment of the finances of the kingdom continued to be en- trusted to their care down to the time of their final banish- ment. In the me.an time, the seeds of hatred, which the Church had long been busily disseminating, took root. Toward the end of the fourteenth and at the beginning of the fifteenth century outbreaks of fanaticism, which had hitherto occurred only at far intervals, became alarmingly frequent. The Jews were henceforth to be confined to narrow Judorias, were to put off their costly robes and wear none but garments of the coarsest kind, on which a patch of red cloth served as a badge of degradation to mark them as fit objects for insult. This latter device owed its origin to the inventive genius of Mohammedan despots, and was borrowed from them at second hand by tho popes. A mas- sacre of peaceful Jews had by this time ceased to be regarded as an event of extraordinary interest or importance. Tho great disputation of Tortosa, held (I41S-14) under the au- spices of the so-called Pope Benedict XIII., tailed entirely to secure its avowed object — the conversion of the Jews cii mmw. and served only to embitter the feelings of mu- tual dislike that were already sufficiently strong. The sin- ister influence of the Dominicans and Franciscans, of such men as Vincente Ferrer and Alfonso de Spina, was aided by renegade Jews like Paulus de Santa Maria and Gcronimo de Santa Fe. The marriage-bells of Ferdinand and Isabella rang out a funeral dirge for the liberty of the Jews of Spain- In 1480 the tribunal of the Inquisition was established at Seville. Notwithstanding the strenuous opposition of the people in many districts, its power increased with fearful rapidity. Those nominal Christians who still secretly ad- hered to Judaism were the special objects of its pious zeal, and those who perished in the flames on the Quemadcro of Seville and in other towns were soon numbered by thou- sands. In 148:'., Torquemada was appointed grand inquis- itor. When Granada fell into the hands of " the Catholic king" the doom of the Spanish Jews was sealed. From the palace of the Alhambra the irrevocable decree of their exile went forth. On Aug. 2, 1492, they left the inhospit- able land which yet they had so dearly loved, and while Co- lumbus sailed westward to discover a new home of freedom, they, robbed of their fortunes and east adrift upon tho world, knew not whither to turn for shcKer. For a time, indeed, many of them found refuge in Portugal. There the position of their brethren bad bmg been exceptionally favorable. Their chief rabbi ( Rabbi Mor) received his ap- pointment directly from the king, and their affairs pros- pered under the kindly influence of long-continued royal favor. But in the days of Joiio II. all this changed. The brief breathing-spell which the exiles enjoyed in his domin- ions was quickly at an end. He broke the promises he had made them, and many of them were sold as slaves. His suc- cessor, Mnnoel, at first seemed inclined to adopt a more lib- eral policy, but the influence of Spain altered his purpose. Amid heartrending scenes of despair Jewish children were torn from the arms of their parents and dragged into tho churches; the aid of tho rack was called in to enforce the conversion of the adults : ami with the close of the fifteenth century the last remnant of the ,Iews, being at length per- mitted' to escape their oppressors, had disappeared from the soil of Portugal. The comparative quiet which the Jews of France and Germany enjoyed in the earlier part of tho Middle Ages was rudely broken in upon by the Crusades. The spirit of absolute intolerance which tho Catholic priesthood in- culcated had at last taken firm hold of men's minds, and JEWS. 1419 while Id tbis period we frequently see the princes and the higher clajtscs — iiuy, even the pupes ihem8i.*Ive.s — anxious to preserve the Juws t"ntm the last applicatiun of their own previous example and teachings, it is the frenzitd populace which with prcater consistency now hounds them with re- lentless furj- in every cily and village. In the first Cru- sade the banks of the Moselle and the Uhine were the chief theatres of persecution. The congregation of Treves con- Gented to cmbraeo Christianity in the hope of warding oflf the calamities that threatened them, and of returning to their faith when the danger had passed off. But instances of such complacency were extremely rare. A tumult oc- curred in Spires in which a considerable number of the Jews lost their lives. In Worms many of them perished by their own hand. In Mayence the archbishop harbored them in his palace, then opened tlte gates and gave them over to slaughter at the hands of their enemies. The citi- zens of Cologne facilitated their flight from that city, where the rabble bad already determined on their destruction, but they escaped only to perish miserably elsewhere. The arm of the emperor. Henry IV., was powerless to protect them. In the second Crusade, Peter Vcnerabilis in Franco was instrumental in causing the plundering, and in some cases the massacre, of the Jews. In Germany, taught by recent experience, they acquired the protection of strongly- fortified castles by the payment of heavj- sums. Those who were not fortunato enough to gain such places of security in timo wore exposed as before to the fury of the mob. A certain monk, Rudolph, kindled the popular fanaticism by his intlammatory speeches. "You go to Palestine," ho said, *' to slay the unbelievers ; why not begin with the in- fidel Jews in your own midst?'* After incalculnblo mis- chi'.^f had been done, Bernard do Clairvaux at last suc- ceeded in silencing the dangerous preacher. The third Crusade proved disastrous to tlio Jews of England. The coronation of Richard Coeur dc Lion was the occasion of a terrible outbreak against them in London and other large towns. The fate of the Jews of York was of a peculiarly tragic character. (The reader will fiinl an easily acecssiblo account of this mournful occurrence in Disraeli's Cun'ost' tifs of Literature, ii. p. 210.) In Italy and in the S. of Franco the Jewish congregations prospered in the enjoy- ment of an undisturbed tranquillity. In tho N. of France Philip .Augustus, the fcllow-crusr-dcr of Richard, drovo them from his dominions. In 1103 he reconsidered his decree au'l sulTered them to return. To Frederick Barba- rossa, tho leader of tlio German forces in tho third Crusade, is ascribed the institution of tho Kammerhncchtechaft of the Jews of the empire. As $crvi camera: they were sup- posed to enjoy tlie inviolateeharactcrattaching to imperial property, but tho protection which this aflorded them proved sadly inefficient when it was most needed. Tho sovereign claimed, on the other hand, tho supremo right of disposing of their persons and possessions. A threefold tax of the most oppressive kind, which they were forced to pay into his treasury, shows how the right was used. Tho German emperors delighted in the double attribute of the Holy and the Roman. As tho successors of the R-jiuau impt-rator they referred their right of taxation to tho ex- ample of Vef^pasian, who appropriated tho tax for the temple at Jerusalem to his uwn liseus. As thu temi>oral representatives of the Christian faith their good pleasure was held to be absolute in deciding the fate of their Jewish subjects. Tho Jews having forfeited the right of existence in Christian states by the crucifixion of Jesus — such was tho theory propounded by tho Church — could find noplace within tho pale of the feudal system. As foreigners they 9tood in direct relationship with tho head of that system only, and, being themselves utterly powerless, his will waa their law. This theory continued to prevail down to tho beginning of tho present century. In tho thirteenth cen- tury tho war of exierininalion waged against tho Albi- gensi'S brought disaster to the Jewish congregations of tho Provence. In I2I3 the fourth Lateran Council, held under Popo Innocent III., besides repeating former provisionsof a hostilo character, enacted that no Jew shouhl appear in public without a conspicuous bndgo attached to his gar- ments. From that timo the wearing of the .lew's badge was generally enforced in Christian countries. Kven Fred- eriek 1 1., the protector of science, an emperor whoso ortho- doxy was more than doubtful, did not hesitate to compel obedience to lljis decree, althongb among ttx' scholars who graced his court the names of Jew-* aro mentioned with dis- tinction. In tho reign of Louis IX. (St. Louis) of France, aflnr a great disputation held under royal nuspiees, it was decided that tlie Talmud he condemned for certain blas- phemous expressions against the author of Christianity which it was supposed tn contain, nnd copie>< of the work were publicly burnt by cartloads. St. Louis once more drove the Jews of his realm into exile, but their banishment proved, OS heretofore, tomporary. In tho days of tho em- peror Rudolph of Ilapsburg the Jews of Germany found their condition become so intolerable that numbers of them determined to leave the Fatherland, at their head the cele- brated rabbi, Meir of Rothenburg. Meir was, however, arrested, and ended his days in prison. King John of England employed the Jews us a convenient instrument for replenishing his exhausted treasury. Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, insistcil on their wearing the badge. Under Henry III. a chief rabbi, appointed by the king, was allowed to exercise considerable power over his people, and a Jewish parliament was convened at AVor- cester. But they were summoned for no higher purpose than to raise funds for their royal master's benefit. Tho monks of the Domiuiciin order %Tere here, as every- where, active in fanning the flame of popular prejudice. The charge of counterfeiting the coinage contributed to increnso the suspicions of the king and the hatred of tho citizens, and at last, in 1290, Edward I. banislicd the .Jews from English soil. In Germany the end of the thirteenth century is marked by a bloody persecution of the Jews. One Rindfleisch and his followers preferred the ridiculous charge that the Jews had pierced a consecrated wafer until tho blootl of Christ flowed forth; 100,000 of them arc re- ported to have perished in consequence. In 1306, Philip the Fair decreed the exile of the Jews of France. In 13LMI, having previously returned to their homes, they suffered from the fury of the Pastoureux. In Italy alone they still enjoyed repose. King Robert of Naples extended his favor to tbein for their devotion to science, and the great Danto received the poet Immanuel into the circle of his friends. About this time the belief had become general that the Jews not only delighted in profaning tho sacraments of the Church, but were commanded by their religion to drink tho blood of Christian children, in order properly to celebrate tho festival of tlic Passover. Tho ignorant clergy were not aware that the same charge of bloodshed in connection with the observance of their religious rites had been brought against the early Christians — nay, thnt they were only re- peating, almost verbatim, tho legends which had been in- vented to bring their own faith into disrepute. Yet wo find this preposterous accusation again and again repeated during more than live centuries, and it never failed to bring tlio most terrible misfortunes in its train. In Ll^fi, 5000 peasants, under the leadership of Armledcr, began tho sacred work of destroying 'Mho children of Satan" (the Jews) in Alsaeo and along the Rhine. In 1337 the town of Deckendorf in Bavaria witnessed the massacre of its Jewish inhabitants, and a church built in honor of tho event may still be seen at the present d:iy. In the middle of tho fourteenth century the Black Death traversed the con- tinent of Europe; 25,000,000 of its inhabitants, it is esti- mated by Ilecker, were carried off by the plague. In addi- tion to tho sufferings which they shared with the rest of man- kind, a new anti more fearful visitation awaited the Jews. They were made responsible for tho ravages of the scourge. From Toledo, it was said, a horrid concoction had been distributed among them, with which they were ordered to poison tho wells in every county of their abode. At Chil- lon, on Lake Geneva, tJie outrageous persecutions conse- quent on this cliarge commenced, and soon spread to Berne, Bale, Freiburg, Worms, and Straaburg. The bravery of the citizens in the town last mentioned, who resisted the frantic mob, only served to secure their own destruction. It was of no avail that the pope himself refuted the cruel and baseless accusation. Tho fire and the executioner'.s axe could no longer be checked. It would fill pages to give an account of all they endured. In 1300 the Jews who had been expelled liom Franco received oflieial permission to return. But as they were compelled to resort to usury in order to satisfy tho avarice of their rulers, the ponulaee rose against them in l.JSO. Their houses were plundered, and many of them killed. On Easter Sunday, 1380, in the reign of the emperor Wenzel. the Jews of Prague and the neighboring places were butchered by thousands. Two children had been playing in the Ghetto, throwing sand at each other. I A few grains happening to strike a priest who was passing I by a tumult ensued with the usual result. In 1391 a gen- , eral decree of banishment was once more issued by Charles I VI. against the French Jews. But tlie timo had now passed ! by when they could hope for a speedy recall, and they were ' no more ]iermitted to return. ! Whenever Catholicism was forced to contend against tho rise of a great heresy in its own midst, tho Jews were made . to suffer from tho religious fervorwlnch the struggle evoked. ' This was shown in tho time of the crusade against the AI- bigenses. We find it again illustrated in the beginning of the filteenth ceiiturv. when the Church mustered her forcofl I to meet tho arms and arguments of the followers of lluss. I In IC-'O the Jews of Vienna were imprisoned ; in the next I year numbers of them were consigned to the flames. Tho I wild eloquence of the Dominicans did not fail to embroeo 1420 JEWS. the infidel Jews in its denunciations of heretics. The Franciscan monk Capistrano, too, was no less active in using his immense influence for their destruction. In 1454 llie bishop of Wiirzburg expelled them from his diocese. In Brcslau they were burnt at the stake. In Poland, Casi- mir IV. was induced to revoke the humane enactments whirh he had but lately passed in their favor. Capistrano merited the name which his admirers bestowed on him, " the scourge of the Hebrews." In Italy the bright fortunes of the Israelites had not yet been darkened. There were too many counter-currents in that land to permit the monks to obtain the same absolute power which they did not scruple to assert in other countries. How wretchedly did the position of the German .Tews contrast with that of their Italian brethren! In 147G the rabbi of the oldest congregation in German)', that of Rcgensburg. was accused of sacrificing a Christian child, and it required all the influence of the emperor and of the king of Bohemia to ward off from his brethren in that town the terrible fate with which they were long threatened. In the beginning of the sixteenth century we find the Jews of Italy an influential body in many of the lar^e towns, and some of their number occupying positions of 'trust, especially at the papal court. In Germany they were expelled from Nuremberg and several provinces of Austri.a. In Greece their numbers had considerably in- creased, and they appear to have remained, on the whole, unmolested. It was in Turkey, however, that they at this time enjoyed to the full that liberty and security which the bigotry of the Christian nations denied them. In that country many of the exiles of Spain and Portugal had at last found an" asylum ; they quickly increased in wealth and power, and flourishing congregations grew up in the large cities of Constantinople and Salonichi. In the reign of Selim II., Joseph Nassi was .appointed duke of Naxos, and exercised the rights of sovereignty over Andros. Pares, and some ten other islands. His influence in the councils of the sultan was so great that the ambassadors of foreign powers were forced to conciliate his favor. Nor was he the only one of his coreligionists in the diplomatic service of Turkey whose word was powerful in shaping the political affiiirs of Europe. The main interest of Jewish history at the commence- ment of the sixteenth century concentrates upon the great Reuchlin-Pfeflerkorn controversy in Germany. John Pfef- ferkorn, a converted Jew. a willing tool in the hands of the Dominicans of Cologne, declared the Talmud to bo the main obstacle to the general conversion of the Jews, on account of the blasphemous utterances contained in it against the Christian religion and its founder. He won the ear of Kunigundc, the sister of the emperor Maximilian, and through her that of the emperor himself for the time being. John Reuchlin, the famous and universally esteemed scholar, was called upon by JIaximilian to examine and pronounce ujion the charges. An ardent admirer of the Hebrew and of .lewish literature, he declared the accusations groundless, and severely rebuked the accuser. This roused the fury of Pfrfforkorn and his supporters against him. A number of inllammatorv pamphlets, '•mirrors," denouncing Reuchlin and the Jews were issued under Dominican auspices. Reuchlin answered with his Auf/empiegel. A Urandspicgel followed on the ])art of the fanatical monks of Cologne. They desired every copy of the Talmud and similar "heretical" books" to be confiscated and secured with chains in the great libraries, lest the Jews should steal them back. Even the Hebrew Bible was threatened with destruction to make way for the solo supremacy of the Vul- gate. Dangers thickened around the bold humanist who had taken up the cause of learning against bigotry. The emperor's protection was not to be relied on, and, indeed, he repeatedly changed sides in the conflict that ensued. At last, Hochstralen, the inquisitor of Cologne, ordered Keuohlin to appear before him in Mayence for trial, or rather for condemnation. The plans of the. Dominicans, deeply laid though they were, were foiled at the very last moment by the sudden intervention of Archbishop Uriel. The question of Reuchlin's heresy in defending the Talmud was next referred by the pope to a commission that met at Spires. Their verdict was in favor of Reuchlin, and Hoeh- stratcn was condemned to pay costs. Its effect was some- what weakened by the adverse decision of the University of Paris, which had tried the case of its own accord, witliout any authority from the pope. A new tribunal, created in Home, took the part of Reuchlin with such decision that the monks of Cologne were forced with bad grace to give way. In the mean time the Epintolir OhHcummm F'/rorr/m, which appeared in two series, had made them the laughing-stock of all Gerraony. The interest which the controversy ex- cited in Jewish literature proved in the highest degree beneficial to its correct preservation and culture. In 1620, Daniel Bomberg began the publication of the Talmud in an edition which for accuracy has not been equalled. Im- mense sums were expended on this and other Hebrew works. In several "[ironuneot universities profcs.sorships for the Hebrew language were founded. The Reformation, though largely indebted to the writings of Jews for its weapons of attack", did not at first lighten the load of their sufl'erings, and the intolerance of Protestants did not prove less op- pressive than that of Catholics. With the loss of the mind's creative power entailed by so many bitter persecutions a tendency toward centralization became apparent among the Jews. In 156", Joseph Kara, a rabbi of Safet in Pal- estine, published a digest of the rabbinical laws, which soon came to be looked upon as supreme authority in mat- ters of religion. The same tendency appears in the synods of Poland which began to be held toward the end of this century, and it is further illustrated by the history of the great congregations of Amsterdam and Hamburg in the next. In Spain and Portugal many of the more faint- hearted of the Jews had assumed the mask of Christianity to escape the necessity of leaving their country, while in secret they still preserved an unfaltering allegiance to their ancient creed. The position of these miserable ones was trulv deplorable. Frequently discovered in the exercise of forbidden rites, they fed the flames of the Inquisition, and, despairing of mortal oid, sought refuge in the illusory promises of mysticism in the vain hope of release. Solo- mon Molcho, a youth whose fancy was fired by the Cab- bala, which for several centuries had slowly been increas- ing the number of its adherents, created a great commotion among them by earnestly predicting the near approach of the Messianic "age. Hcwas burnt at the stake in Mantua (.15.12) by order of Charles V. The successful revolution of the Netherlands, which Spanish bigotry had provoked, at last opened to them a haven of security. Free Holland invited them to its shores. The city of Amsterdam availed itself of the wealth and industry of the "Judaizing" Chris- tians of Portugal, and to their efforts the rapid extension of the city's commerce was in no small measure due. The Jewish congregation of Amsterdam soon became one of the most influential of all Europe. They cultivated letters and erected an institute (T.almud Tora) for the instruction of the young in Hebrew literature. From their midst Spinoza went forth. Elsewhere their brethren were not so fortunate. In 1614 the guilds of Frankfort, with Vincent Fettmilch at their head, expelled the Jews from their town. In the next year the example of Frankfort was followed by Worms. Bothcities were compelled by the emperor to receive the fugitives back into their walls. In the middle of the sev- enteenth century the Jews pf Poland were visited with a calamity from which they have never recovered. The Cos- sacks, led on by the fierce Chmielnicki, succeeded if not in ex- terminating, as they intended, yet at least in reducing them to a condition of iittcr and abject degradation. Chmiel- nicki and his soUlicrv are reported to have slain between the years 164S and 16"5S about 250,000 Polish Jews. Those that were spared emigrated in great numbers, and inundat- ed the countries of Central and Southern Europe. They were everywhere kindly received. But from being guests they soon rose to he masters. AVith great powers of intel- lect" they united, as a body, certain faults of character, whoso influence on their new surroundings proved vicious in tho extreme. In England the Jews were readmitted after having been banished the country since 1290, main- ly through the exertions of Manasseh b. Israel, a rabbi of Amsterdam. lu 1655, Cromwell invited him to visit Eng- land, and ho there found active sympathy among many of the Puritan leaders. Their love for the Old Testament inclined them to look favorably upon the remnant of an- cient Israel. Moreover, were not these the people from whom Jesus had sprung? In 1065 a strange drama was enacted in Smyrna. A native of that town, Sahbathai Zewi. was solemnly pro- claimed the Messiah of the Jews. The Cabbala had in- spired him— the Cabbala paved the way for his astonish- ing success. The tidings spread from the Orumt to the Occident, and evervwherc the new evangilc found ardent believers. S. Zewi "taught that in him the " God of Israel, the Third Person of the Godhead, had become flesh and blood He inculcated the doctrine of the transmigratmn of souls, and, like all mvsticism, his teachings were strongly colored with sensualism. He ended his Messmnie career by assuming the turban in Constantinople for fear of being put to death. But this did not remove the evils of which he had been the occasion. The contagion of his views spread throughout Europe, and while the outward position of the Jews was now very slowly improving, their mental comii- tion was far inferior to what it had been in the JUdille A"-es The great elector of Brandenburg received a nuni- he'r of those Jewish families whom the emperor Leopold had driven from Vienna. In 1700 the Jews succeeded in causing an imperial injunction to be laid on the publication of Eisenmenger's infamous attack on their religion and JEWSBURY— JOACHIM. 1421 thooieelres. In ILimburg a coloDj of the mother-coDgre- gation of AinNter<ltim began (o rival the gloriea of its pa- rent, notwitli!jtandiug the determined resistanec which hud at fir:*! opposed its progress. In 17J1 a conlliot arose be- tween Juiiathan Kibi'Schutz, the rabbi of Hamburg, and Jacob Emden. in which the former was char-fed with Cab- balistic practice", especially the writing of tnaL^io talismans in the name of the Mesjijah, Sabl)atliai Zewi. Soon after the sect of the Frankists arose in Poland. Frank, their leader, pretended to be the successor of S. Zewi, and, like his mod**!, ended by abjuring his religion. The soot of the Chasidim, which still exists at the present day, may bo regarded as the last outgrowth of this deplorable move- ment. The modern epoch is marked by the name of Mendels- sohn. His Gorman version of the Pentateuch became, like Luther's translation of the Bible, the groundwork of reform. hvs»\n):;'e Xatfiuu thn HV^r rebuked the time-worn prejudice of the Christian world. Dohm laimrcd to secure the civil emancipation of the Jews. The I'rench Revolution broke down the walls of their ghettos. On Sept. 28, 1791, tho National Assembly decreed the complete enfranchisement of the Israelite citizens of France. In the hour of need, when the great struggle with Xapoloon was impending, Frederick William HI. ff^lt himself constrained to liberate the Jews of Prussia. Other states and cities slowly fol- lowed. It cost many a bitter struggle until civil and re- ligious freedom was finally secured. The '* Hep, hep" cry raii^od in (rermany in ISll), the bloody persecution in Damascus some thirty years ago, in which French diplo- macy was seriously implicated, the Mortara affair in 1858, and recent events in Itoumania, have shown that the em- bers of bigotry have not yet completely died out. Tint a general conflagration need no longer be feared. Under the benign influence of liberty the Jews have everywhere shown themselves ready and able to advance tlio interests of civilization. Kot only has their own literature been opened to scicntiflc study by such men as Zunz, Geiger, Munk, Uapoport, Luzzato, and others, but they have rendered signal service in almost every department of science and art. I mention among the philosophers M. Mendelssohn, Maimon, Herz ; in political economy, Uicardo and Lasallo ; in literature, Hiime, Ileino. Aucrbach, Grace Aguilar ; in music, Mendelssohn- Rariholdy, Meyerbeer, Halevy ; among the jtrominent statesmen of the day, Dis- raeli, Lasker, Cn'mieux. In this country the Jewish popu- lation has largely increased during the last three decades. In New York City alone it is now estimated at between .Sn.OiiO and t;0,nno"souls. For 2000 years the world has en- deavored to crush out the Jewish race. That spirit of cx- chi^iveness with which it is charged was but the natural result of such relentless hostility. It vanishes wherever con- fidence is inspired by security. The majority of intelligent Israelites in the present have long since abandoned the w'lAx of building up an indepenclcnt national existence of their own. Their patriotism has been illustrated on all iho great battlefields of this century. The achievement of higher conditions of human life they are disposed to regard as the fulfilment nf Messianic jiropheey, and the furthering this end in intimate union with their fellow-men as the higliest dictate of their religion. Fkmx Adlkr, JeW8'bury(GKiiAi.niNF, ENDSOR),b. inManehester.Eng., in 1821, sister of Maria Jane, wrote a numbcrof novels con- cerning society life, among which are Zof^, the //iVon/ of Two Lxvri, (1815). Thr Ifuff-Shtem (184S), The Sorrow* of Grntifitif f|8.'>fl), and also minor works for ehiblrcn. Jcwslmry (Maria Janr), b. in Warwickshire, Eng- land, about 1800 ; resideil in Manchester mr)St of her life; was a frequent contributor to the English magazines and to the London Athrnirum. Wordsworth pronounced her unsurpassed by any writer of her time for the " quickness of tlie motions of her iniinl." while the Alhrnn^um parsed a similar eulogy upon her play of imagination, thirst for knowledge, and elevated purposes. In IH.*!;!, Miss Jews- bury married Hov. William Fletcher, a missionary t<t India, and d. at Bombay in the same year. Her collected works embrace I*liiiutn<imatfor{ft, IjvUrrn in thr Yoinnf, Kaifit of Lrjtnrf flnurn^ and Thrrr HiHturirn. the lii^t of which wa0 very popular and has been frequently reprinted. Jcypoor', one of the Uajpoot states utider English pro- tection in Western Ilindostan. /\rea, 15,251 square miles. Pop. 1,801,121. Its soil is in most places poor, often bar- ren sand, and its climate is intolerably hot. Its capital of the same name is situated in 20'^ 50' N. lat. and 75*' 55' E, Inn., nn<i is ci»nsidered the finest city the Ilindni.s ever built. It forms a ]iaraIIelogram divided by straight streetn inter- secting each other at right angles. It is surrounded by a wall surmounted by towers, and contains a largo and mag- nificent palace. Jr/'ohol [Heb. hrhr^, daughter of Ethbaal. king of Tyro and Sidon, and wife of Ahab, king of Israel, exer- cised a great influence upon her husband, leading him into idolatrous worship of Baal, a Phoenician deity, long a for- midable rival, especially in the northern kingdom, to the Jehovah-worshij) established at Jerusalem. Many acts of persecution against the prophets and priests of Jehovah are attributed to Jezebel, and were so successful that at one time there were but 70U0 persons in Israel who ha<l not bowed the knee to Baal. The narrative of this momentous controversy is found at length in I Kings. Jezebel was murdered by Jehu about 883 a. c, at the same time as her son. King Jchnram. Her daughter, Athaliah, married Jc- horam. king of Judah. Jczi'rah [lleb. Srphrr y<>tiiirnh'\, or Book of Cre- ation, one of the two chief cabbalistic works of the Jews. Its date is variously assigned to the first and tiie eighth or ninth century. It was printed in I5G2, 1642, and 1830. Jez'reel, town in Northern Palestine, which was the capital of the kingdom of Israel under several reigns. Jhy'luuif or Behut, river of Ilindostan, the western- most of the Punjaub. It rises in the valley of Cashmere, and after emerging from the Ilimalavas it joins the Chc- naub and forms the Trimah. (See Hvdasi'KS.) JidMah, town of Arabia, on tlio Red Sea. in 21° 28' N. lat. and :\'.)° 13' E. Ion.. GO miles W. of Mecca. It is surrounded by a barren desert, so destitute of water that rain-water must be gathered and carefully preserved in cisterns. But it carries on a most important trade, pro- visions from Egypt, cofl'eo from Arabia, and manufactured goods from India being brought in largo quantities to its warehouses and exchanged. • Thousands of pilgrims visit yearly the town on their way to Mecca. A curious little building within the walls contains a monument called the tomb of Eve. Pop. variously estimated at from 10,000 to 20.000. Jika'daze^ or Shikatzc, town of Thibet, the capital of tbo district of Zang, is in an elevated and very dry plain, encircled by lofty but barren mountains, and contains an immense palace or monastery, in which reside one of the chief lan)as and Ins suite, consisting of above 4000 per- sons. It consists of a number of palaces, temples, and tombs of a most striking architecture and profusely orna- mented with gold and precious stones. Pop. 100,000. Jime'^na, town of Spain, in tho province of Cadiz, on the .Jogergante. has 0577 inhabitauts, mostly engaged in agriculfnre and liorticulture. Jim Henry, tp. of Miller co.. Mo. Pop. 542. Jinn [Arabic, plural of Jinn! , tho " invisible," cognate with the Lat. Gkmis (which see)], among Arabian and other Moliammedan peoples a race of imaginary beings made out of fire and capable of assuming any form at will. Tiiey inhabited the earth long before man was created, but for rebellious conduct were finally expelled. They inhabit a world called Jinnistan. but often visit the earth in storms, tornadoes, and earthquakes. Many of their exploits are narrated in the Amhinn Ait/htn. The good jinn are called peri (fairy). Mohammed came to instruct and redeem jinn as well as men. Men arc superior iu dignity to jinn, but far less powerful. Jiquili'tCy the native indigo of Central America, ludi- ffo/rrn (Itspeniiti, which produces large quantities of excel- lent indigo. (Pen iNimio.) Jitomir% or Zytomirrz, town of Russia, tho capital of tho government of Voiliynia, on the Kanirnka. which here joins the Teterev and tl'>ws to the Dnieper. It is the seat of the governor, cd" a (Ireck arid»bi>bop, and a R'uniin Calholio bishop. It has some inm and glass works, four annual fairs, and a considerable trade. Pop. 17,131. Jo'ab, a son of Zeruiah. the sister of David, distin- guished himself as a warrior under the reign of Saul, and was made commander of the wb<de Hebrew army by David. He was a valiant, talented, and inlluential man. but virdcnt and unscrupulous. When David tri<'d to rid himself of him by giving the command to Amasa. Jnab jdunged his sword into Amasa's heart while embracing him. He took part in the unsiicce^tsful demonstration in favor of Adoni- jah. and altlniugh he fled to the tabrrnacle for refuge, Sol- omon seized him and put him to death. Jo'achim, called the PnopiiKT, b. at Celico, in Italy, about 1 115. After being employed at the court of Roger, king of Sicily. an*i maki?ig a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, he became a Cistercian monk, abbot of Corace in Calabria. and finally founder of Iho monastery of Floris near Co- senzft, where he d. Mar. 30, 1202. Ho left a rejtutation as a saint and miracle-worker, nnti his followers made an un- Huecrssful attempt tn cnnonize him in 13(0. He taught a peculiar mystic doctrine, of which the chief tenet was that the Christian era would close A. n. 1200. afff^r wbifh n ww 1422 JOACHIM— JOBERT DE LAMBALLE. providential dispensation would begin. This doctrine was emboflicd in his treatise called the Everlnstiuq Gospel, which was corKlemned by the Council of the Latcran in 1'21 J, and by that of Aries' in 12fi0. lie left many writings, chictly commentaries, and prophesied the downfall of the piipacy. Hi? followers, called Joachimitca, were numerous iu tlio thirteenth century. Joachim, tp. of Jefferson co., Mo. Pop. 1SG5. Jo'acliimsthal, town of Bohemia, near the frontier of S.ixony, is situated in a valley in the Krzegebirge, 2:U>0 feet above the level of the sea, and has 5Cn inhabitants, mostly engaged in the working of the neighboring iron, silver, lead, and tin mines. Joaily Pope, a fabulous personage who was long be- lieved to have occupied the papal chair (So3-8o(>) as John VIII., succeeding Leo IV. and preceding Benedict III. The report was that Joan was born in Germany, the daughter of an English priest; falling in love with a monk, she entered a convent in male attire at Fulda, and then went with her paramour to Athens and Rome, where slie acquired a high reputation for piety and learning, and was unanimously chosen popo when a vacancy occurred. One day in the street, at the head of a procession, it is said that the pope was unexpectedly delivered of a child, soon after which she died. There has been much specula- tion as to the origin of this fiction, which acquired universal credence in the Middle Ages; and in the cathedral of Siena a statue of Popo Joan was for a long time to be seen. The fable still occasionally finds a literary defender, but is utterly lyithout historical foundation, its fictitious character having been first conclusively demonstrated by David Blomlel, a Protestant, in 16i9. Joan of Arc [Fr. Jeanne d'Arc, or, more correctly, Durr], the Maid of Orleans, b. Jan. 0, 1412. at Domrcmy, in Lorraine (now a part of Germany), of parents who, though sprung of wealthy and ancient stock, were reduced to the state of serfdom. The youthful Joanne was distin- guished for a sweet simplicity, piety, and industry in child- hood. Her patriotism was early inflamed by the fact that Dnmremy was of the Armagnac or French faction, rather thm of the Burgundian party of those times. When she wa? thirteen years old France was overrun by the Anglo- Pieard troops of the duke of Bedford, regent of Henry VI., and by the forces of Burgundy. Jeanne, impressed by the distressed state of France, conceived that she heard voices from Heaven and saw visions of Sts. Michael. Margaret, and Catharine, calling her to deliver France. Four or five years later (1428) she announced her vision to Baudricourt, governor of Vaucouleurs, and in 1429 gained an audience \vith the dauphin, who iu April gave her command of the French troops, who by this time were fully inspired with belief in her heavenly mission. She assumed male attire, a sword, and a white banner, threw herself boldly into Or- leans, of which she quickly raised the siege ; beat the Eng- lish at Meun, Jergcau, Beaugency, and Patay; caused the dauphin to be crowned at Ilheinis in less tlian three months after she took the field. She now demanded to bo released from further service, the heavenly voices having ceased to be heard, and a dread foreboding taking their place; but the king would not consent. In the subsequent attack on Paris she was badly wounded, and soon after she and her family were ennobled. On May 2.'i, 14o0, after having taken part in nmny successful combats, she was captured by the FJurgundians while heading a sortie from Compit^gne, and was sold to the English (who feared her as a witch) for l(j,i)Ott francs. The University of Paris having pronounced her guilty of witchcraft after a protracted and most unjust trial, she was burned at the stake with every circumstance <if indignity and cruelty. May .'JO, 1431. It may be added that Delapierre and others question, with some show of reason, the story of her death, and state that she married and was alive in 1441, some other woman having, us it is asserted, been tried. Joa'nes (Viscknte). b. in Spain in 1523, and d. in 1579. He studied in Rome, imitated Raphael, and became the fiiuntler of a Spanish-Italian school of painters, whose seat was Valencia. He was deeply religious. ]ire]iared himself, before he commenced a ncvT picture, by taking the sacra- ment, and treated exclusively religious subjects. There is a charming expression of innocence and sweetness in his pictures, but not the intellectuality and lofty purity which dislinguisli Raphael. Joan'na I., queen of Naples from 1.343 to 1382, b. in ]'V17. a daughter of Charles and granddaughter of Robert of .\njou, was married when seven years oM to Andrew of Hungary, her second cousin. The idea of this marriage was to ally the two branches of the family of Anjou together. hut the purpose failed, and the contest between the two political parties represented by the two branches of the royal family became only fiercer. In i;U5, Joanna had her husband strangled, and when his brother, Louis the Great of Hungary, invaded Na])lcs to avenge him, she had to tiee. By the mediation of the pope, to whom she gave Avignon and the sum of SO, DUO Horius, she returned soon after, and married successively Louis of Taranto, James of Aiagon, anil Otho of Brunswick. But in the papal schism het^vecn Clement VII. and Urban VI., Joanna sided with Clement, antl at the instigation of Urban VI. a rebellion took place in Naples. Joanna was seized, imprisoned in Muro, and delivered over to the king of Hungary, who immediately had her put to death. — Her grand-niece, Joanna II., queen of Naples from 1414 to I4;i5, b. in lo7t\ was married first to William of Austria, and after his death to .Taeques do Bourbon. She was notorious for her dissolute lilc. and her government was utterly distracted by the feuds and intrigues between her different favorites. Jo^ash, or Jcho'ash [Ileb. Yonsh or Ychnash, "given by Jehovah"], the name of two kings. I. A king of Jud-ah, son of Ahaziah by Libnah of Bcersheba, b. about B. c. SS4. His father having died iu his infancy, all his brothers were massacred by his grandmother Athaliah, who usurped the throne, but Joash was secretly saved by his aunt, the wife of the high priest Jehoiada, who brought him up within the temple until his eighth year, when a successful revolution was made. Athaliah was killed, and the young prince, the last scion of the house of David, was placed on the throne. During his minority, and for many years thereafter, his government was approved by the biblical writer, but at length he fell into idolatry, when his kingdom was ravaged by IlazacI of Damascus, and he was besieged in Jerusalem, giving up the treasures of the temple to tho enemy. He was murdered in his bed by his servants about n. r. S.T7, after a reign of forty years.- — II. A king of Israel, son and successor of Jehoahaz, and grand- son of Jehu, became king about B. c. 8r.8, successfully re- sisted the Syrians, and defeated Amaziah, king of Judah. Joash is esteemed one of the best of tho kings of Israel. D. after sixteen years' reign, about B. c. 823. Job, The Book of, one of the books of the Old Tes- tament, narrating tin: story of Job, a wealthy Arabian sheik or patriarch who dwelt in the land of Uz. and a man of benevolent, devout, and Idaraeless life. At an advanced age ho is visited with loss of estate, of family, and of health ; his wife breaks down under the load of trials, but Job re- mains true to God, and endures all without a sinful word of complaint, to tho discomfiture of Satan, his accuser. And at last his faithfulness receives an ample reward. Tho doctrine of retribution held a prominent place in Jewish theology. As a popular dogma it amounted to this — that God balances men's sins by adversity in this life with a perfect and inexorable justice. Thus, affliction and adver- sity came to be regarded as the indices of sin. Nothing less than this dogma is at stake in the poem — or tragedy, as we may well call it, from the intensity of the interests and feelings involved. Job's wife represents the evil spirit of rcbellioQ against God. His friends represent the various shades of tho popular dogma. They insist that his adver- sity is proof of sin, either specifically or in general, and blandly exhort him to humility and submission. Against them ho defends bis integrity, and it seems to be rather vexation at their platitudes than the actual effect of Satan's machinations which drives Job from his patience and leads him to fail, so far as he does fail, under the test. Finally, this vexation passes away. He turns to God in unaffected humility, which he is able to reach without doing violence to his consciousness of his own integrity, but out of his spontaneous and loving trust in God. Then he wins a new revelation of (lod. such as he had never had before. He sees that man cannot pretend to fathom or compass or fol- - low the plan and purpose of God. Man's mind would fail if God should make known to him even a part of the many i things which must be taken into account in the divine plan. He cannot, therefore, know Go.l's purpose in sending ad- versity on this man or on that : and. in short, nothing can be more absurd or impious than for man to frame little dogmas by which to pretend to interpret the dispensations of Providence. This poem is a wonderful specimen of literary art. The characters sustain the parts allotted to them perfectly. The time assigned to the incident is that of Moses and Joshua, and the '' historic sense" is admirably displayed. Prol)- ably a historical fact lay at the basis, but the writer has used it so independently that it has disappeared. The lan- guage is peculiar, and ]iresents numerous diflicultios. and the thought is so subtle as to tax the utmost skill of tho interpreter. It is almost unanimously assigned to a very early but unknown date. Jobe, post-tp. of Oregon co., Mo. Pop. R4.S. Joberl'Uc LainbaUc' (Antoine Joseph), b. at Lam- JOB'S CABIX— JOHN THE KVANGELIST. 14-i:} bulle in 1799; studied medicine in Paris 1819; took bis degree in 1828: and becnnic surgeon at the lloiipital of Pi. Louis in 18110 ; yuriJieon to the emperor in 1^J4, and member of the Academy in 1850. llis principal writings arc — Traitf thftriifue it pratique dca malatlirs cfiirurgicatca (iu cnnai intestinttf (1829), TraitS de chirnryic plnatiquc (1819), Traitemcut des Jiatule9 veaicO'VaginalcH (1852). I>. Apr. 22, IS67. Job's Cabin, tp. of Wilkes co., N. C. Pop. 60C. Job's Tears {Coix tachr^ma), & grass, a native of In- dia, where it often grows to the height of eight feet; it re- sembles somewhat maize both in appearance and habits. Its name i.-* derived from its "geed:^,''or rather indurated biiskn, which are bony, shining, bluish-white globule?. In India the seeds are used as an article of food, but outside of India they are used only as ornament?, made into bracc- Icis and necklaces, or as beads for rosaries. Job''to\vn« former village of Cass CO., Ind., now included in the city of Logansport. Pop. 349. Jo Da'vicss, county of N. W. Illinois. Area, (150 SfjUiire miles. It has Wisconsin on the X. and tiic Missis- sippi Hiver on the S. W. It has mines of copper and lead, the latter especially important. Its surface is varieil. its soil productive. Cattle, grain, wool, and tobacco arc staple products. Carriages and saddlery arc among the leading articles of manufacture. The county is traversed by the Illinois Central II. R. Cap. Galena. Pop. 27,820. Jo Daviess, tp. of Faribault co., Ulinn. Pop. 477. Joilelle' (Kricx\t:).b. at Paris in 15.12, and d. there in 157;;. He took part very successfully In that movement in the French literature which was started by Ilonsard. and by which imitation of the classical models was adopted as an artistic principle. The common tut/tttcrics and moralitUa he supplanted by regular tragedies, and his Ctcopatre and Didun created a general enthusiasm. Jo'el [Hob., "The Lord is his God"], one of the minor Hebrew prophet?, concerning whom little is with certainty known. He lived at Jerusalem, and his prophecies relate to Judah. The date of his life is very uncertain. He was undoubtedly one of the earliest of the prophets whoso works remain to us. Ewald, Hil7.ig, and Keil think that he lived before 800 a. c. One of the visitations of locusts which oc- cur from time to time in the Orient (see Lepsius, lin'f/c ant yfi^'/y/jfc/i) occurred in his time, and proved a great national calamity. The prophet called the people trt penitence, pub- lic fasting, prayer, and righteousness, and turned their at- tention to (iod's great day of visitation and judgment. Jo^^ues (Isaac), b. at Orleans, France, Jan. 10, 1607. became a Jesuit at Rouen in 1021, and came to Canada as a missionary in 1630. After preaching to the llurons. ho founded in 1012 a mission among the Chippewas in Michi- gan. On a journey to Quebec he was captured by the Mohawks and ma<le a slave, but escaped to the Dutch at Albany, and went to France, whence he soon returned to t'anada. In May, \i'y\i\, he concluded a treaty between the French anci the Slohawks, remained among them as a mis- sionary, and was put to death by them as a sorcerer at (^au;;hnawaga Oct. IS of the same year. His Lrtters were published in the New York Historical Society's Collection, au'l his description of (he New Nefherlanrls was reprinted in New York in IS62, with a memoir bv J. G. Shea. (Sec hx* Lif'-. by Rev. Felix Martin, S. J., Paris. I8":t.) Jo'hann (Nktomik Maria Joski-ii). king of Saxony, b. Dec. 12, IHOI, and d. Oct. 2l>, 187:t. He was iin erudite'and finely educated man, whose inclinations turned towards literary and scientific uceupations, but who. nevertheless, devoted himself with conscientiousness to his royal duties. The graver qualities, however, of a ruler, lie waiifid. and ho never became very popular. His youth was wh<illy <le- voted to art and science, cflpecially to the study of Italian language and literature ; from I8:i9 to IS49 he published at I.eipsic, under the pseudonym of ' Philaletes," a transla- tion of Dante with critieal and historical notes. His older brother having become eo regent iu IS.'iO,. Prince Johann t"'»k part very actively in public life as a member of (ho privy council, as president of the council of finances, in the di<I. in military matters, and acqnir4'd thorough knowledge of all branches of the administratitm. At the death of liis hrnther he became king of Saxony, Aug. 9, 1H5I. He was active and suceessful in measures referring to the internal development of his country, especially in the introduction of trade frt'cdom, in the extension of railway lines, and in the conclusion of commereinl treaties between Germany and other countries. Bu( in the prea( political questi'ms he whs unfortunate. Probably ruled by ecclesiastical and Roman Catholic influences, he showeil himself an unconditional adherent of Austria and nn adversary of the Proteptant and progressive Prussia. This tendency became apparent al- r-adv 'lurln:: the ruiii].lic;i1inn'^ with I)onn,ai!! run'-eriMng Sleswick-Holstcin, and at a later period his stubbornness all but cost him his throne. The war of 186G between Austria and I'russia was brought about, at least to some extent, by King Johann nn<l his minister, Bcust. The idea was (hat by a decisive participation in the humiliation of Prussia, Saxony should further the Roman Catholic Church and extend its own circumscribed sphere of power. Hut after the defeat of the Auslriau-Saxon army the sovereign- ty of King Jcjhann was saved only by the intervention of Napoleon III. Nevortlieless, having concluded peace with Prussia and returned to his country, he was perfectly loyal, and showed himself capable of sacrificing his per- sonal feelings to his political insight. In the ditlicult time of the war with France, Saxony acteil as a true and reliable member of the North German Confederation. King Johann in 1822 married Amalia, a daughter of King Maximilian of Bavaria, who bore him three children. His son Albert succeeded him as king. August Niemann. Johanna. Sec Comoro Islands. Johan'nes Secun'dus, whoi;e true name was Jas EvKUAiti), 1). at the Hague N<»v, 14, l.'il 1 ; acquired a great fame for learning and genius by his Latin poems; accom- panied Charles \ . on his expedition to Tunis, and d. at Utrecht Sept. 24, I j;>G. His Opcru Puetica were published by his brothers in \h\\ ; some of them — as, for instance, Bn»!a — have been translated into nearly all European lan- guages. Johan'nesberg, post-v. of Washington co.. III. Pop. 101. Johan'nisbergy village of Germany, in the duchy of Nassau, contains a beautifully situated castle, which in 1814 was given to Prince Mettornich by the allies. The vineyards of this estate produce the best of all Rhenish wines, the celebrated Johannisberger. Johannot' (CeiaulI'S Hknui Alfrko), b. at Offenbach, Hesse-Darmstadt, Mar. 21, 1800; removed in ISOG to Paris, where he received his education, and d. there Dec. 7, 18.'i7, He attracted greal. attention Jn 1821 by his engravings after Schcffer and Gerard; in 1827 by his illustrations of Walter Scott. Cooper, and IJyron ; and since is;il by his pictures, of \vhich the two most celebrated, Mndemniitcfte dfj Mimtppmier (1833) and Thr liattlc uf Tinitt^lrn (1837), are at Versailles. — Ilis brother, Toxv, well known from his illustrations to Moliere, \Wrfher, Lamiirtine, and others, was b. at Offenbach Nov. 9, 1803, and d. at Paris Aug. 4, 18;>2. John the Baptist was a son of the priest Zacharias and Elisabeth, a cousin of the mother of Jesus, and was born six months before him. In the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius ho began to preach in the deserts of Judiea, announcing the coming of the Messiah, admon- ishing to repentance, and baptizing as a symbol of purifica- tion from sin. Tho wonderful circumstances accompany- ing his birth and his baptism of Jesus, as well as his rela- tions to Clirist and his deatli, are recorded in the Gospels, and very little is known of him frnni other S(»urces. Ho was imprisoned and put to death by Herod Aniipas, but his disciples continued to form a separate body long iifter the rise of Christianity. In the Christian Church the 21th of June is celebrated as the day of tho commemoration of his birth. John the Evangelist. Jesus had parents, brothers, and sisters, disciples, fellow-citizens, but to St. J<din alone was granted the privilege of being his ''friend." 1. Life. — .lohn was born on tho shores of the Lake of Gennesaret, in (Jalilee, and probably at Bethsaida (com- pare Mark i. Id. IU and John i. 44). According to the first text, he fulj.iwed the occupation of a fisher, tup-fher with his father Zebedce. his brother James, and his (wo friends and associates Simon (Peter) and Andrew. His mother, whose name was Salome (according to Mott. xxvii. .'ifi, which eom|)are with Mark xv. 4t»). must have been n pious woman, ardent iiiid filled with the Messianic expectations, though under their most earthly form {Matt. xx. 20 nrif.). She no doubt poured her own faith, including this alloy, into tho hearts of her sons. As soon as John (he Ba|>li:^t, the new prophet who announced the niiproach of the king- dom of (io<l, callc'l people to prepare tlicmselves by repent- ance and baptism, John ami James hastened to him and remained with him ns his disciples; and it was here ihnt Jesus first met with them on his return from the temptalinn in the desert. The aclmirablo picture drawn in the first chap- ter of the 4!ospel Iiy John embodies in trnilH full of fresti- ness Ihe remenibrance of this meeting, which became deci- sive for the life of John. Having found his first disciples among the followers of his Preciirs<ir, Jesus took them back with him to (Jalilee; and as ho himself hafl not yet separated from his family (John ii. 1-12), he setit them al^'i b:i''k to fheir'^; but on the approach of the next Pass- 1424 JOHN THE EVANGELIST. over feast he called them definitivclj to follow him perma- Dently as his disciples, and repaired with them to Jerusa- lem, where he inaugurated his jmhlio ministration by ex- pelling; the venders from the temple (Mjitt. iv. IS f^eq.; John ii. 14 sc/.)* I'rom tliis moment Jchn accompanied him through all the incidents of his earthly life, which he has described so dramatically in his tIos|)el. Together with Peter and James he formed a closer circle around Jesus, and he was present af the most st'cluded scenes of his life (the resurrection of the daughter of Jairus, the transfigurn- tion. Gethseraane) ; but of the three he was the friend of the heart of the Lord. It is indeed impossible to doubt that the " disciple whom Jesus loved," which is the expreg- sion used in the fourth (iospcl, means John himself. It is the phrase which he substitutes for his own name, embracing the gentlest remembrances which ever thrilled through the heart of man. Modern criticism has raised the supposition that either Nathanael or Andrew could have been meant, or even a purely ideal being which never existed in reality. But those two disciples arc designated by name in several passagesof the Gospel (i. 40: vi.S; xit.22; i. 45 aej.,* xxi. 2). and how could the disciple whom Jesus loved be any other than one of the three intimates with whom he liked best to associate? As for an ideal being, how could the evangelist place him among the twelve, and ascribe to him a decisive part in the scene which brought about the de- parture of Judas from the La?t Supjtcr (John xiii.) ? How could an ideal being be tlic fiicnd to whom Jesus from the cross liequeathed his mother, and who took her into his home from that moment (John xix. 29)? Such traits can be applied only to a being of flesh and bones. Up to the time of the death of Jesus. John lulled himself in the most glorious earthly expectations (Mark x. 35 «cq.), but the resurrection of Christ then opened his eyes, and at the same time he understood the whole Scripture, and he " be- lieved '* (John XX. 8). The New Testament does not men- tion that there was grnntcd to John, like Peter and James (Luke xxiv. 34 ; 1 Cor. xv. 5, 7), anj' appearance of the Lord after his resurrection ; but if those appearances of Jesus which are recorded were fictitious, the very first would certainly have been attributed to John. Pentecost accomplished the work commenced by the resurrection. Jolin makes us understand what took place within him on that <lay, recalling with predilection in his Gospel those promises of Jesus, '* When the Spirit of truth is come, he shall glorify me;" "At that day yc shall know that I am in my Father, aud yo in me, and I in you" (John xvi. l.'J and xiv. 20). In spite of the very particular privilege with which he had been honored, John performed only a sec- ondary part in the foundation of the Church, compared with his associates, I*cter and James. Peter was the great in- strument for the establishment of the Church ia Israel (Acts i.-v.). James died in 44 as the first martyr, a fact which by itself proves the power of his influence on the Jewish people (Acts xii. 2). Of the activity of John we know nothing except the two traits of little importance re- conled in Acts iii. 1 aeq. and viii. 14; and we should have considered his influence on the apostolic Church as very small but for the words of St. Paul (Gal. ii. 9), who ranks him among the three ** pillars " of the Church. A modern school has attempted to establish, by the aid of this and some other texts, that John and the other apostles be- longed, even after Pentecost, to that narrow Jewish- Christian party which would impose the circumcision and the Mosaic law on the Gentiles as a condition of their entering the Church. ]Jut the above text proves exactly , the opposite, since Paul here expressly distinguishes be- j tween the representatives of the apostolate, James (''the brother of the Lord"), Peter, and John, who would not improve the law (v. 9), and the " false brethren " who had ; come in privity into the Church in order to establish the principle of the law (v. 4). (1) Compare the "But of these* (v. 6), which plainly indicates an opposition. John himself, no doubt, observed the law, as did his associates, but only from a feeling of national piety and Israelitish , fellow-^hip ; he would not impose it on the Gentiles who I believed, for if so he could not have given " the right hand | of fellowship " to St. Paul (v. 9). It was not until after ! the death of Peter (about 04) and Paul (about CO), and I after the destruclion of Jerusalem, that the activity of ] John assumed its grand proportions. According to a ! unanimous tradition in the churches of the second century, ' he went to Asia Minor, where Paul had founded a mag- nificent circle of churches. The truth of this tradition has been disputed, however, quite recently. It has been said that the Church fell into this error by attributing falsely the Revelation to John the apostle, and then inferring that ho lived in the centre of the .\siatic churches (Rev. ' i.-iii.). But the historical testimonies are with respect to ; this fact so old and so authoritative that to deny it would be to overthniw all history. In his great work, Ayainst the Jfcretica (about 185), Iren^us, who in his youth had been a disciple of Polycarp, speaks frequently of the relations of Polycarp to thu apostle during the sojourn of the latter in Asia. He refers to what the presbyters of Ephcsus and Polycarp have heard John record of the Lord; aud he adds, " There are people who have heard from the mouth of Polycarp how John, the disciple of the Lord, once went to take a bath in Ephesus. but suddenly, on seeing Cerin- thus, left the house without taking any bath, exclaiming, * Let us flee before the house falls down on us, for Ceriu- thus, the enemy of truth, is here.' " In a celebrated letter ho refers to his old friend Plorinus, and the time which they, while young people, spent together in the presence of Poly- carp, recalling how this bishop taught people and told them of his " connections with John and others who had seen the Lord." In another letter, addressed to Victor, bishop of Rome, he reminds him of his predecessor, Ani- eetus — how, in sjiite of certain ritualistic diff"erenees, he had celebrated Easter together with i*oIycarp, and how this latter had defended his form of the celebration by the fact that in this manner he had always commemorated the event witli *' John, the disciple of our Lord, us well as with the other apostles with whom he had been together." Besides this decisive testimony by Irena'us we have another by ApoJlonius, a writerfrom Asia Minor, living about 175, who attributes to John the resurrection of one dead at Kphcsus ; and a third by Clement of Alexandria, who in his essay. Who is the lHvh that shall be Snvcd f (par. 195), records the interesting story of the young Christian from Asia who had become the chief of a band of robbers, but was re- claimed by John, on which occasion he represents the apostle as visiting the churches of Asia Minor for the pur- pose of appointing bishops and regulating their affairs. .\nd last wc have the testimony of Polyeratus, seventh bishop of Ephesus, in whose family this oflice had been, so to speak, hereditary since the times of the apostles, and who in the name of the bishops of Asia reminds A'ictor of the incontestable fact that among the fouuders of the Church of Ephesus was John, the disciple ** who had leaned on the bosom of the Lord, and that he was buried at Ephe- sus." Before such testimonies the criticism which denies accuses itself of partiality. Jerome represents how the old apostle, in the last days of his life, was carried into the as- semblies of the Church, but confined himself to the repetition of the command, *' Little children, love one another;" and how, when asked " Why do you never say anything more?" he answered, " Because when this is done, enough is done," Irenieus states that .lohn lived in Asia in the time of Tra- jan {97-117), and Jerome adds that he died in extreme old age " in the sixty-eighth year after the death of the Lord " (which, if Jesus died in ;iO, brings us down to 9S). aud that he was " buried in Ephesus." These authors ignore en- tirely a strange story contained in a newly discovered frag- ment of a chronicle written in the ninth century by a cer- tain Georgius Haumartolos, who says that he has read in a work of Papias, written in the second century, but now lost, that John was ''put to death by the Jews." This legend has been used as an argument against the residence of John in Asia, as if there had been no Jews in Ephesus I Even this very day those who visit the tomb of Polycarp at Smyrna, and pass through the Jewish quarter, know what such a boldness may cost. At all events, we attach no importance to this story, since it has never been mentioned by Irenseus, Eusebius, and the many others who were pos- sessed of the work of Papias. 2. UViVim/s. — Of the twenty-seven writings of the New. Testament, five are attributed to the apostle John by the more or less unanimous tradition of the primitive Church — the fourth Gospel, one large aud two smaller epistles, and the Revelation. In the evangelical colh-ction the fourth Gospel shows a character of its own. It is a work com- posed in one train of inspiration, and not a redaction of a tradition already circulating in the Church, such as are the three others, at least to some extent. It opens with an in- troduction in which is given the essence of the history that follows: (1) The glory of the creative M'ord ; (2) the crime and misery of the Jews who have rejected it in its humili- ation : and (3) the fortune of the Church which has received in faith the incarnate Son of God. These three ideas of the introduction are also the fundamental ideas of the whole Gospel : Jesus makes his glory manifest by his words and acts ; presently the world is divided, some taking part against him, others for him. Thus, the <jlorjf o/Jtsun, the unhflier', and the faith are the three facts on which the whole narrative rests. (1) Chs. i.-iv., first revelations of Jesus, and first impressions of unbelief and faith, as yet intermingled; (2) chs. v.-xii., special development of the constant progress of unbelief, both with the chiefs and the mass of the people, as each appearance of Jesus at Jerusa- lem mi the festivals is the signal to a new outburst of hatrcl : {?>) chs. xiii.-xvii., special devel'-pment of the faith wi;li JOHN. 1425 thr <li?cipleB during the last times preccdini; tho dciith of Jes-us ; (I) chs. Jtviii. iiinl xix., the exU'rniil flcfciit of Jesus by the Jewi«jh incredulity (his jiulj;inent and punishment) ; (5) chs. XX. and xxi.. the glorious victory of Jej^ns over death hy his resurrection, and the consuninintion of faith with his discipU-s hy his appearances. Such is the pinn of this luarvcllons work: and tljus on a beautiful day in sprinjf, when the sun rises radiant and sendinj; his warm rays to the earth, the last snow melts, life awakens, and nature sets to work. But after a few hours the vapors of the humid soil arise and form <iense clouds; the sun hides, the storm threatens, and when the day is at its highest the tempest hursts on the earth and nature seems deiiverril up to its destructive forces, liavinj; lofit its life- star. Nevertheless, when eveninjj comes the clouds float away, calm reigns, and, more resplendent and more mag- nificent than when rising, the setling sun sends a last happy smile to nature before disappearinfj. Hut who has com- po»cd this work, this unique work ? The f'hureh has never nesitated in answering, ^o other name than that <tf .Tohn has CTcr been inscribed in the title of this work. It bears a formal testimony of itself in the last, words of chapter xxi.. affixed by the editors of the !)ook, according to which the author was the disciple wh<im .Jesus loved, and who was still living at the time when the publication took place: "This is the disciple which te-^tifieth of these things and wrote lhe«othings' (xxi. 241. The author himself declares that he ha? been an eyewitness of the events ho records (i. 11; xix. .''..')). Moreover, the whole narrative has an autobiographical character. If does not commence with the hist»)ry of the ministration of .lesus, but with tlio first meet- ing between Jesus and the author — for the second disciple (i. '.'.i urtf.) must be the author himself: the anonymity guarded with respect to this disciple, and the picturesque- ness of the narrative, prove it sufiieicntly ; and it does not extend to the ascension, but ends at the moment when tho author's laith becomes fidl. when he can exclaim from tho depth of his h<'art. with Tlmniai^ after his conviction, '' My Lord and my (iod !'* This hist word of the Gospel corre- sponds with its first. " The Word was C.mV The faith of the dii«ciplc8 has at last reacherl the height of its otiject. In our days the authenticity of this liook is attacked with particular eagerness; and this is quite natural. If tho divinity of th« Lord is the palladium <tf tlie (Miurch. tho Gospel of John is tho palladium of this truth. Matthew has demonstrated the Messianic nffifr of .Tesus ; Mark has described his powerful daily artiritt/ ; Luke has traced the priigress of his work of salvation from ncthlelicm to .L-ru- palem, and from .lerusalem to Hume: but it is .John who has utivt'iled the eternal divinity of his person, thus otfer- ing at tlio same lime to the Church its most perfect food and to unbelief the heaviest stone of oflVnec. Hut to whom could such a \Tork bo attributed if it were not written by St. -John ? A great unknown, it is answered, composed it in the first half or in the miildlo of the secoiwl century. But we ku'tw tho great authors of the second century — Ignatius, Papias. Polycarp, men of deep ])iety certainly, but of mediocre talent. And this superior genius who should have c<»mpr»sed the fourth (iospel, ami who surpasses all the known aulhors. be should have remaineil completely unknown himself, and ](assed llirough the Church of tho second century without leaving the smallest vestige of his personal existence! No; hero ui, belief demands too much belief, Ilenan himself acknowledges that it is not possi- ble to trat'c a probable place in the ministration of .Jesus without the dates of the fourth tJospel, He points out in this honk a mullitutle of "precise" traits "which necessarily indicate an eyewitness. Creduer, a critic who by no means belongs to the orthodox sehoid, ends his essay on the fourth Gospel by saying, " If we had no hislnrical dates at all re- ferring to the author of the fourth (tospet, . . . the nature of the language, the freshne.is and vividness of the narra- tive, the precision of the dates, . . , the author's love and tenderness towards the person of Jesus, tho irresistible charm didused throughout the whole narrative. . . . would h'ad us to infer that the author could be no other person than a tmfirf uf I'ufmthkr, an rifrtrifurHn, an apimflr, one brfurrd hif ./muM — .fn/in, indeed, whom the Lord had per- sonally captivated by tho celestial charm of his ten(;hing, . . . and who. during his reAidence in a city like that of Kphesus, had become able to vindicate his phice among tho Greeks, so difltinguislied for their literary culture." ( Intro- durtivn tit tkr Srw Tmlummf, ^ !l.t.) It seems, indeed, that John wrote the Gospel in Ephesus, nnd between 80 and 00. This is suOiciently pn.vid by the only contradic- tions worth ?ueniioning. Tin- Alogiuns, a small Phrygian set't formed towards the end of the second cr-ntury, at- tributed this Gospel to Cerinthus. the adversary of John in Ephesns, and thus they testify themselves to (he great antiquity and to the birthplace of tlie book. The larger Kpislle bearing tho name of John is evidently Vol.. II.^'JO by the same author as the Gospel. Here too ho represents himself as an eyewitness to the life of Jesus (i. 1 grtf.). From the beginning of the second century it has been useil by Ignatius, Papias. and Polycarp. It contains the celestial philosophy which the author has drawn from the teaching, the labor, ami the person of .Jesus. This he opposes to tho heresy already breaking in, and he offers it to the Church as tho ideal of Christian life: not that he considers this ideal as perfection, as something inaccessible; on the con- trary, it is a holiness wliieh the presence of Jesus in the believing soul realizes every moment. The tw(i small Epistles seem to have spread very slowly in the Chnreb. on account of their smaller importance. This explains also why they have not as many testimonies in their favor ns the two preceding writings, to which they form a beautiful contrast. In the first. .John praises the firmness of a Chris- tian lady called Ki/rt'n in breaking with the preachers of heresy ; in the seconcl he praises the charity of his beloved Gaius, whose house is always open to the preachers of tho gospel. It is on the one pide the holy excliisiveness, on tho other the generous broadness, of the Christian faith. Of the Revelation we do not speak here, us a special article will bo given to it. .1. Charncfcr nnd Iiiftuence. — John scems not to have possessed either the hold initiative of Peter or the pene- trating dialectical power of Paul. The part, little con- spicuous, which he plays before and after Pentecost, and up to his residence in Asia Minor, indicates a character discreet, reserved, even timid, and which must arrive at a sure feeling of its own maturity before it can act in the ex- ternal world. But this trait reveals a profound nature, meditative, well balanced, and capable of receiving much. Hy giving to John and James the surname of " Boanerges " (that is. " the sons of thunder ") Jesus has unveiled the mystery of their characters. AVe understand at once those rare and passionate manifestations. It is they who will command fire to come down from heaven on the Samaritan village which did not receive Jesus (Luke ix. 51' neij.). It is also J<phn who silences the disciple who, without follow- ing with him. casts out devils in the name of Jesus (Luke ix. 49). Like the electric cloud which gathers silently the lightning within its bosom, and then suddenly lets it tln^h forth with a crash, the sons of Zelie<lec accompany Jesus, deeply touche<l, but generally silent and composed; bnt suddenlv they give utterance to their impressions by an explosion, unforeseen like the lightning and terrible like the thunderclap. We also understand how the John of the Gospel can be the John of the Revelation. Nothing is falser, indeed, than the idea which is generally entertained of the sweet tenderness and feminine softness of John. Such natures generally attach themselves passionately to tho object of their love: there is something absolute in their feeling. From the moment St. John met Jcpus he be- longed to him entirely. Never a soul more longing after the ideal met with an object more capable of satisfying it. The first glance melted tho two characters, one in the other. While the other apostles admired the miracles of Jesus, and more especially retained his moral precepts. John eontem- plateil his person, and pondered in his heart over those mysterious testimonies emanating from the consciousness of Jesus concerning his relation to (he Father — testimonies which escaped all tho others. Renan has said that tho Semite proceeds by intuition, not by deduction. This re- mark is in tho highest <legree applicable to the intellectual tendency of John. He does not dissect tho argument of his arlversarv. as docs St. Paul, dissolving it with bis irre- sistible dialectical power: he crushes it with one blow. Ho sees the light on the one side, and on tho other (he dark- ness, and when be has given each of them its true name, ho has said his all. The upright soul cannot hesitate, accord- incT to him. Having seen this vision, he who still searches after the wav is lost. Thus constituted. St. John was not charged either with the foundation of the Church among tho Jews and the Gentiles, such as were the missionary apostles, or, such as Paul, with the emancipation of tho New Testament from the Old through a ].rnfound and penetrating study. His mission was to place the crown on the work of his two etdleagues. He gave to the Church of Asia Minor that powerful organization which enabled it to stand against the floods of heresy in the beginning of the scccmii century, and made this Church the centre of the whole ("hurch iluring this epoch, on account of the power of its spiritual life. By his writings, more espe- cially, bo led the Church to a perfect understanding of tho palvation which is in Clirist. developing in bis (Jospel tho idea of the /I'dmnrr; in his E|)istlc. that of the Chn'atinn; and in the Revelation, that of the rimrrh. In him tho Church of the first century finished its cycle, which is Iho type of the history of the whole Church. FnJ^;»Kiin tloni:?. John 1., Saint, Poi-f, a Tuscan, was chosen pope in 523, and in l'^:* was compelled by Theodoric the ftstrogoth to 1426 JOHN I. OF ABAGOX— JOHN OF EyGLAXD. visit Constantinople and intercede for the Arians. On hia return he was imprifoued, and d. at Ravenna May 26, a.6. joHV 1 1., a Homan, was chosen pope by siiuoniacal means in 5'i'' and was aclinowlcdged bv Justinian as the head of the Church. V. May 20, d.;5.— Joiix III., a Roman, be- came pope in iOO, and d. July i:i. 5::;.— Jons I\ .. a Dal- mitian, became pope in GUI, was distinguished tor seal and do-trinal strictness, and d. Oct. 11, 6t2.— John \ ., a l^yr- ian. became pope in 0S5. D. Aug. 1, 6S7.— John M., a , Greek, became pope in 701. and d. Jan. 9. , Oo.— .louN \ U., j a Greek, became pope in 705; d. Oct. 18, 707.— .John \ 111., a Roman, became pope in S72, was zealous lor the papal ■irimacy and the CNtension of the temporal authority of the holy sec. His reign was vexed by the incursmns ot the Saracens into Italy. Was murdered Dec. 15, SS2.— John IX., b. at Tibur, became a Benedictine, and was chosen pope in S98, and strove for the reform of many aliuscs. D. Nov. 30, 900.— John X., bishop of Bologna anil archbishop of Ravenna, became pope in OU, and though reputed a man of impure life, was an able prelate. Ho led in person the armies which routed the Saracens and c-;pcllcd them from Italy, but was imprisoned by the in- famous Marosia, and d. in 929.— John XI., natural son of Marosia. probably by Pope Scrgius III., was made pope in 9"! by his mother, and is supposed to have d. by jioisoa in Olifi.— Jons XII., son of Albcric and grandson of Maro- sia became pope in 956 when si.\teen years old. His name was Oclavian. and he is regarded as the first pope to as- sume a new name on consecration. He was a man of ex- treme liccntiousnesi!, and was condemned by a council called bv Otho I. at Rome for murder, incest, sacrilege, idolatry,' and witchcraft. D. May U, 9G1. The most im- portant event of his reign was his coronation of Otho I., regarded as the first German emperor.— John XIII.. a Roman bishop of Narni, became pope in 965. and after a disturbed pontificate d. Sept. 5,972.— John XIV. {Pclcr, h\'hoT< of Pavia), a native of Pavia, was arch-chancellor to Otho II., who made him pope in 984 in place of Boniface VII., who returned soon after, and John d. in prison, prob- ably of starvation.- John XV. became pope in "^6, and was chiefly remarkable for avarice and nepotism. D. Apr., 9<);).— John X\'1. {miayatlim), a. Greek, and bishop of Piacenza, became pope in 997 in opposition to Gregory V., who mutilated and killed him.— Jons XVIt. {Sk-co), b. at /ti,,', . fa II i, in the March of ."incona, of noble family: after a pontificate of four and a half months d. June 9, lOCi. juiiN XVIII. { I'linHuniiis) became pope in inilli. and aban- doned the papal chair for a monk's cell in May, 1009.-— John XIX.. a son of the count of Tuscany, succeeded his brother, Benedict VIII., having obtained the election by force and bribes, in 1021: was chiefly remarkable for ava- ri'^e D. Nov. 8, 10:!8.— John XX.. usually omitted from the list of popes, was a rival of Gregory VI., Benedict IX., and Sylvester III. There were at one time (lO-lo) three reigning popes at Rome, who divided the -revenues and cxpended'them in excesses.— John XXI. ( f'cdm), b. at Lisbon, stu.lied at Paris, and won great applause by his learnin". He became cardinal-priest, archbishop of Braga, and fiist phvsieian to Gregory X.: became pope in 127G. I) Mav lli, 1277, at Viterbo. — John XXII. {Juiqiica ifEmc) b. at Cahors about 1244, became in KJOO bishop of FrfOus, archbishop of Avignon l:!10. in l.-!12 cardinal- bishop, and in 1316 pope at Avignon. He was learned in the canon law, and was remarkable for avarice. — John XXIII. (/!<ililinzar Cossa). h. at Naples, became cardinal in 1402, and succeeded Alexander V. in 1410; convoked the Council of Constance 1413; was deposed in 1115, and d. Nov. 22, 1419. Cn.inLKS \\ . Guei;xi:. John I. (Juan), king of Aragon, b. Dec. 27, ISaO; married in 1384 Yolande. daughter of the duke of Ear, granddaughter of John II. the Good of France: succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, Peter IV., Jan. 5, 1387: imprisoned Sibylle, his wife's mother, on the charge of having poisoned the late king, and seized upon her properly: recognized Clement VII. as pope at .\vignon, and d-jvoted himself to literature and pleasure, leaving the cares of state to his queen. He sent a formal deputation to France to enlist the most famous troubadours, with whose aid he founded at Barcelona an academy of poetry on the model of the Floral Games of Toulouse, much to the disgust of the rude Aragonese. He successfully repelled the invasion of the count of Armagnae. a pretender to the throne, 1390: reconquered the island of Sardinia 1392: and d. May 19, 1395. John II. (Ji-anI. king of Aragon and Navarre, b. June 29, 1397, son of Ferdinand the Just: married in 1419 Blanche, daughter of Charles III. of Xavarrc. and suc- ceeded to the throne of that kingdom in right of his queen Sept. 1425; took an active ]»art in intrigues at the court of Castile against Alvaro do Luna; in 1428 aided hia brother, Alfonso V. of Aragon, in a war against Castile, and accompanied him in an expedition against Naples, in which both kings were taken prisoners by the Milanese in the celebrated naval battle of Ponza, near Gacta, Aug. 5, 1434. Released sbortlv after, he administered the govern- ment of Aragon for many years in his brother's absence, and renewed his attempts to obtain supreme influence in C:vstile. Queen Blanche having died Apr. 3, 1441, Carlos, prince of Viana, claimed the throne of Navarre m his mother's right, but John refused to surrender it to his son, thereby giving rise to a long and lamentable family feud. John invaded Castile in 1445, and was defeated atOlmedo; married in 1447 Joanna llenriquez, daughter of the ndiiii- ral of Castile ; suppressed a revolt in Navarre in 14o2, taking prisoner hia son, Prince Carlos; disinherited that prince in 1455 on account of a second rebellion, and de- feated him at F.stellain 1456 : John succeeded to the throne of Aragon Julv 5, 1458: declared Sicily and Sardinia an- nexed to Aragon. and soon had new troubles with Ins son, whom he unwillingly recognized as heir, but afterwarda threw into pri.«on (1400), and whose sudden death (1461), attributed to poison, was the pretext for a formidable re- volt in Catalonia, lasting eleven years. He had similar troubles with his daughter Blanche, who died m prison at Orthes Dec. 2, 14G4: took Barcelona in 1472; made war in Roussillon against Louis XI. of France in 1473; and d. at Barcelona Jan. 19, 1479. being succeeded by his son Ferdinand, known as the Culholic. (Sec Prcscotts lerdi- 7iaiicl and hilhctUl.) John I. (Jf AN), king of Castile and Leon, b. at Epila Aug 20, 1358; married Leonora of Aragon in 1375, and succeeded to the throne on the death of his father. Henry II. {of Trastamaral, being crowned July 2a, 13i9. Ho immediately convoked the Cortes, who after long deliber- ation recognized the Avignon claimant to the papacy (Clement VII.). John of Gaint, duke of Lancaster (which see\ having assumed the title of king of Castile m rin-ht of his wife, a daughter of Peter the Cruel, and Fer- dinand of Portugal having entered into a secret alliance with the English duke. John attacked Portugal by sea and land, obtaining several victories, but concluded peace by marrying Beatrice, then aged ten years, only child and heir "of the Portuguese monarch. Ferdinand, however, dyin" in 1383. John of Castile had to wage another war in smiport of the rights of Beatrice against the claim of the grand master of Avis fsee John I. thf. Great, king of. Portnt'al), and would have captured Lisbon (1384) had not the yellow fever driven him away. His deleat next year at Aljubarrota was fatal to the claims of B.anehe. After several years' delay the duke of Lancaster invaded Castile in 1386, but peace was made the following year by the marriage of Prince Henry to the daughter of the Eng- lish duke, who also received an indemnity in money. John created his son prince of Asturias (13SS), convoked Cortes, which settled many important constitutional questions (1390). and d. Oct. 9, 1390. John II. Mian), king of Castile and Leon, b. Mar. 6, 1405, succeeded his father, Henry III., in Dec, 1406. uri- der the regency of his mother and his uncle Ferdinand, afterward king of Arngon. The infant monarch was crowned at Segovia Jan. 15, 1407: married his cousin, Mary of Aragon, in 1418 or 1420. and fell under the mllu- encc of Ai.vARO de Lina (which see), formerly a p.age, whom in 1423 he crctited constable of Castile. Prince Ilenrv of Vra-'on. grand master of Santiago, brother of the queen, endeavored to gain possession of supreme power (1420) by seizing upon the persons of the king and the fivoritc After many alternations of fortune in o struggle for power between Luna and the i»f^""'\"' ■■^™.""°' .'"f.': in" for many years, the former was beheaded at\ alladolid ' lime 7 1453 John meanwhile had made two wars against the Moors (N.^l and 1435). and several against the intru- sive princes of Aragon and Navarre, who were constantly ineitin" the nobles of Castile to revolt. John was a feeble prince."but possessed some literary ability, and lus reign was a notable one in the intellectual history of Spain. V. Julv 21, 1154. John, king of England, surnamed Lackland {Sam T,r,c) either as a younger and portionless son, or on ac- count of bis loss of a large part of his French pos3ess;ons iu l'>03 b. at Oxford Dec. 24, 1106, the son of Henry U.; declared lord of Ireland by papal authority, his short-lived government of that country was an utter failure; ami dur- ing the reign of his brother, Richard Lionhcart. who inado him feudal lord of almost one-third of England, he was guilty of treason and ingratitude. Nevertheless. Richard annointed him his successor, ignoring the claims of hia nephew Arthur, the rightful heir. John became king in 1199 and an expensive war with Arthur and I lulip Au- gustus of France ensued, in which John lost the best part JOHN II. OF FRANCE— JOHX OF GAUNT. 1427 of hi? French territories. The talc of the kin-;'!" rrucUies ; to Arthur has been called in question. Soon nttcr folloHecl the controversy cnnecrning investitures witli Innocent III., ' the most powerful of the popes, who excommuuieated and deposed John, laid an interdict on Englanil. and let loose I the armies of Krancc upon the kinj^, who retaliated, we are ' told, hy an alliance with the Moors of Spain ( IlilH), prom- ising to turn Mussulman. But John, not sustained by his ; own people, was compelled to yield and become the vassal I of the pope, greatly to the indignation of the Enj;lish. In i Wales. Scotland, and Ireland his arms were successful. A [ rising of his barons compelled him to sign Magna Charta ; (1216); the aid of the pope and an army of mercenaries enabled him to repudiate that charter and make head against the barons; but during the war he d. at Newark Oct. Mt, \'2\t). John's rapacity and cruelty to Jews and Kngtishmcn alike, his partiality for liis Aquitauian and Pi>itevin subjects, bis punishments by mutilation and ; starvation, his cowardice and impiety, rendered his name i odious, but his memory has found recent defenders, and it j is certain that nearly all our knowledge of him has been i derived from his bitter enemies. John II., kingof France, snrnamed the ("!oon fi.EBoN). | b. Apr. -*>, i;il9, was son of Philip VI., the founder of the i Valois line; succeeded to the throne Aug. 22, and was i crownol at Uheims Sept. 26, IojO. The chief event of his i reign was tlic war with Kngland.in which he was defeated and taken prisoner by the Black Prince at Pciiliers, Sept. PJ. l.^JO. Ills captivity in Bordeaux and London (l.'i.'jf>-('»0) : was brought to an end by tl»c humiliating pence of Br6- tigny (May, HOO), which surrendered several provinces to the English, in addition to a ransom of .S. 000. 000 crowns. His son. the duke of Anjou. was left in Lundon as a host- age for the fulfilment of tlio treaty, but it was rejected by j the Slates (Jeneral. The prince having escaneil from Lon- don in violation of his parole. John rcturnetl to London as I a prisoner early in LiGI, and d. there Apr. 8 of the same , yenr. j John II., Casimir, king of Poland from IHIS to I KifpS. b. Mar. 21. lOO'.t, the second son of Sigismund III. i After a pomewlial a<lventurous life ho entered in 10-10 the i order of the Jesuits, and was made a cardinal soon after. Nevertheless, on the death of his elder brother, Ladislas | (Nov. 20, 1648), he succeeded to the throne, and married i his widow, Maria Gonzaga. His reign was very unhappy. To Sweden he lost, by the Peace of Oliva (May ^'>. HWiO). Ksthonia and Livonia, and to Russia, by the Peace of An- drupBov (Jan. 14, 1667), White and Bed Uussia. In the I interior his government was utterly distracted by the fcurls , and intrigues of the nobles: and, entirely unable to master I the situation, he abdicated Sept. 16, IfiOS, went to France, I and lived in rclirmient. I>. at Nevers I>cc. 16, 1672. I John III., Sohioski, king of Poland from 1074 to lO'.Mij I). .June 2, 1621, at Olesko in flalicia ; received an J excellent education at home and in foreign countries, and ' distinguished himself so much in the wars against the ! Swedes, Russians, and Transylvanians that in 1667 he was ! made commander-in chief of the whole Piftish army. The ! successor of Jolin II.,Casirair, Michael Korybut, having made a humiliating treaty with the Turks. SoMcski had it rejected by the Polish diet, hastened at the head of his army to meet the Turks, and routed them completely at Khotin (Nov. 11, 167;i). Shortly aftrr Mirhael Korybut dierl, and Sobieski was unanimously electee! king of Poland (May 21, 1671). In 1083 the Turks besieged Vienna with an army of .100,000 men. The emperor had fled, and not only was Austria on the very verge of ruin, but Europe was in danger. With an army of hanlly .''»0,0(iO men So- bii'ski attacked the Turks Sept. 12, 168.1, and after a fright- ful contest he utterly defeated them and pursued them into Hungary. As a ruler, however, Jolm III. was much |i-ss forlunate than as a general, ami the latter |)art of his life wai much disturbed by civil and dumestio troubles. D. June 17, 1696. John (Joam), the name of six kings of Portugal, four of whom require mention. — John I. riir. (ikkat, b. at Lis- bon Apr., LiJ7, was a natural son of Peter I. and brother of Ferdinand, at whoso death, in I.'IS.I, ho became regent and seized upon the throne, in violation of Ihi' rights of the infanta Bialrice, nmrried to John I. (»f ('ai<tile. The war which en-ued was decided by the victory of Aljubarolta (.Aug. M, i;i8.'i) in fiivor of the former. He nrnde an expe- dition into Africa, and took Centn (1415) from the Moors. Under his reign the islands of Madeira, f'ape Verde, the Canaries, and .Azores wero discovered, and the coasts of Africa explored as far as the (tidf of Guinea. P. Aug. 14, 143:i._,Toits n. TiiK PFHFKrr. b. at Lisbon May 1, lUtb; married Leonora of Lancaster in 1471 ; took part in nn Af- rican campaign the same year; was conspicuous for bravery at the battle of Toro (1 176) ; succeeded his father, Alfonso v., Aug. 29, 14S1 ; put to death the duke of Braganza and his own brother-in-law. the <luko of Viseo, for conspiracy (1483-Si). Under his auspices a series of great navigators explored the coasts of Africa, B. Diaz discovered the Capo of Good Hope, and Da Gama visited India. lie was un- wise enough to refuse the services of Columbus. l)ut after the discovery of America he sent a fleet thither ( I40S). The conflicting claims of the crowns of Porttrgal and Castile were decided by Pope Alexander VI. (149^^) by establish- ing the famous meridian line. D. 1496. — John IV., b. at Villaviciosa Mar. 10, 1604, was duke of Braganza, and by a successful revolution overthrew the Spanish usurpation in Portugal (1640), which had lasted sixty years, placing himself on the throne of his ancestors. His reign of four- teen years was entirely passed in hostilities with Spain. D. in Lisbon in ICoG. — John VI., b. at Lisbon May 13, 1767: married Ciiarlotte (Carlota). infanta of Spain 1785; was named prince of Brazil 17bS; governed the kingdom in consequence of bis mother's illness 1789; assumed the title of regent 1799, and after a scries of wars with Spain and Franco removed with bis court to Brazil in Nov., 1SU7. on the approach of the French army of occupation ; became king on the death of his mother, Mar. 16, 1S16; returned to Portugal 1821; modified the constitution 1S23; recog- nized the independence of Brazil 1825, and d. Mar. 10. 1826. John of Austria, generally known under the name of Dos JiAN DE ArsTuiA. was a son of Charles V. and the beautiful Barbara Blomberg. a daughter of a wealthy citi- zen of Ilatisbon, where he was b. Feb. 2i, 1545, but was taken to Spain soon after his birth, and his parentage was kept a secret for many years. He received an excellent education, however, in the iiousc of the imperial steward. Don Luis Jlendez t^uixada. and after the death of Charles V. in 1559, Philip II. publicly acknowledged him as a brother, and established a princely household for him. first in Valladolid and then in Madrid, lie was a brilliant per- son, gifted with great talents both as a general and as a statesman, beautiful, commanding, chivalrous, and mag- nanimous. In 1508 he led with great success an expedi- tion against the African pirates. In 15G9 he subdued the Moori.-'h rebellion in Granada, and gave striking proofs not only of personal valor, but also of tactical skill. In 1571 hocommaudtMl the magnificent Spanish-Italian arma- ment against the Turks, and routed their fleet completely in the battle of Lepanto (Oct. 7, 1571), the greatest mili- tary exploit of the century. In 157;i ho conquered Tunis, and in 1576 he was made viccregeut in the Netherlands. Here he did not succeed in managing the prince of Orange, William the Silent. Ho was foiled by him in liis political measures, but when it came to an open rupture he defeated him at (Jemblours (Jan. ol, 157S). In spite of all these brilliant achievements, the final result of his life was nev- ertheless only a ntmantic apparition, a poetical dream. Ho passed through iiistory like a meteor. UU half-brother, Philip II., loved him, but was too despotic to allow him an independent career. He used him very freely, but was too suspicious to place full confidence in him. In this ambiguity his own character seems to have suffered. His earlier plans of founding a kingdom in Greece or in Tunis wero sensil)Ie, but were opposed by Philip. His later plans of rescuing Mary Stuart and becoming king of Scotland were rather fantastical, and the pi>liey which he purt^ued in the Netherlands was so singularly many-sided that his sud- den death in his camp at Naniur (Oct. I. 1578) gave rise to a quite general suspicion of his having been poisoned hy the Spaniards. Interesting accounts of his life may bo found io Knnke, Fiiiaten umi VHihcr nnx StuZ-Europua fit XVI. uiul XVU. Jahthnndcrl, and in Prcscott, /'hliip //. Cl.KMKNS PKTKllSKN. John (JPAN) of Aiistrinf b. at Madrid in 1629, waa a natural son of Philip IV. of Spain. He became a distin- guished general, having command* d the Spanish army in Naples in 1618, in Catalonia in 1652, in Flanders in 1656, and in Portugal in 1660. He was defeated by Turenne at the Dunes. June 14, 1658; was afterwards viceroy of Ara- gon and minister under Charles II. D. at Madrid Sept. 17. 1679. Johnoff^nunt (^Arn/). duke of Lancaster and Aqui- taine, and titular king of Castile, was the fourth son of I'M- ward III., and was b. at (ihent in lliity; married Blaufhe. daughter of the duke of Lancaster. 1."'59; became duke ot Lancaster l.'!62: served with honor under the Black Prifii'e. ftnd in 1.170 married the daughter of Peter the Cruel of Castile; served with distinction in various wars In Scot- land and France; invaded Castile in 1.186 in j)ursuancc of his rlaim to that kingdom: married iii.s <laughter to Henry of Cn-ttilo 1.1SS: was the frieml ami defen<ler of Wi<'kliffe. and the ancestor of the Lancastrian and Tudor families of Knglish kings. His mistress and third wife, Catharine Pwvnford, was the ancestress of the Bcauforts and Xudors. D. Feb. 3, 1399. 1428 JOHN OF LEYDEN-JOHNSON. John of I-eyden, whose true name was Jobans Bo.K x"o" b. at Loyden in 1510. was a ta.lor by profes- | ^o , Wt a poet and actor by talon., and b«.,ness. Hav.ng come in contact with the Anabaptists, he was caugh by Xious fanaticism, and started as a strolLnj; preacher In r.i3 he camo to JUins.er, and so preat was b.s power iver the minds of people that in liSl he .succeeded .., ovcr- °h ow n" he con tilution of the city and e. abhsh.ng a new onL"of his own make. Ho was crowned as k,ng of zir appointed ministers, coined money, ■ntvodnced po- fVu'ny married lifteca wives, lived in royal -pl<--";l°7"'' luxury nn<l for more than a year the city was the stage lor the n^st frightful scenes of fanatical cruelty and sensual d ".i nation In 15:13 it was conquered by the neighboring nr cc« and a-ain reduced lo order. John was tortured [o eathb hor,,incers,and his body was hung .n a cage on he tower of St. Latnberfs church ; many of b,s follow- ers ere als. severely punished. John of Leyden lurn.shc 'he h^^orical subject of Meyerbeer's well-known opera Lc ^'Tohn of Walisbnry, b. at Salisbury about 1110 ; went ,„ France in u'f.; studied under Abelard ; returned ,n IMbcae secretary to Thomas a Becke. and was ap- nointed in UTfi bishop of Cbartres, where he <!_ Oct 24, ""is theological system ho developed .n h,s /W.- :■ , nnd \U„,l:nlr,„, but the uiost interesting of his -■'■':".•"• ■""' {:',','' Jpumio S. Thorn,., and his letters, "wal.ia and a grandson of Rudolph of Hapsburg. ^V hen tie enneror (.May 1, 1^08) at \Vi:.disch on the Rcuss in " iUeXnd, and murdered him. The impression winch erUe produced on the German people was one of liorro ami revenge. The conspirators themselves escaped, but ?h r fan me and friends 'suftered severely. John vanished, Ind nothing certain is known of his Ufe afterwards. lohn I'restcr C Priest .John "), a semi-mythical cha- ric.or "b. figured largely in the geographical romances ^' lie M Idle Ages, whSse true country and perio.l are d.tfi- : 1 to b ised with certainty. According to genera be lef there was somewhere in the interior ot Asia or 'Ur.ca a kingdom which had been converted <™"' l^-;- '^^h;- tianitv, governed by a priest-king named .lobn, « "J "as exceed n--lv anxious to open friendly intercourse with the Oliurch'd- Rome. Numerous embassies were during two een uries =ent to Central Asia, and even lo Abyssinia ( 1181- 95^" scare 1 of the lost Thristian nation, but the search nrov d ruitlss. The origin of the legend appears o date From the Nestorian missions which in the eleventh and wf.h centuries penetrated to Karakorum in Toorkis in and converted tb'- kban of that distne. naine^d r ,. , who was overthrown and killed by (lenghis hhan in 1202 Ho j Zears to have authorized the Ncstorians '"■".^'^e in his ^^ame certain reci«ests of the pope, and o ";-; s'";'"! ^r:":;d-:^::thSrw^;nn^e:^-Vi^- rts^^ttrKui!^;:^!^"r^^i:>""tng lf''7r.n '^^), in se-eh of f'rester .John, penetrated lo tIrS~ (See his interesling narrative .n Purchas s Pibjrimn. ) John Scotiis. See Ebioena. John the Constant, elector of «"""{•.''■ -l'""^"' 14.57 : sMcceeded bis brother, Frederick the Wise, in May , 152!.; took part in a war against the Hungarians, and lut an end to the Peasants' war in his own ''"";;,"!""'• /"'^ he formed an alliance with the landgrave, >''"' P/f, '•^f.",^' „„d with other slates and free ci.ies, in support «f •' <= "- eiples of the Uelormalion. lately inaugurated b> Luther ^ He protested in 1529 ag.ainst the decision of the Die of Spires mlver.se to the Reformation, and was influential 1 causing Ihe proclamation of the Augsburg ronfession.Slil later, he helped to form the " League of hchmalkald, and d. Aug. 1.1, 15;!2. John Frederick, the Mnsnaniinons, elector ol Saxony b. at Torgau .Tune 30, 150;i, son of John the Lon- stan! on whose death, in 15:i2, be became administrator of the government in Ibc joint name of himself and his vonn-'er brother, John Ernest ; gave official sanction to the Reformation throughout his states 1533; was recognized as elector bv the emperor at Vienna in 1531, and in 1346 was at the he'ad of the armies of the Schmalkaldic League in the contest with Charles V., by whom he was put under the ban of the empire in l.«7, and defeated at ^'f'^g ^pr 24 of the same year, being taken prisoner ^"^ '•'"";» to death (May W). but his life was spared on condition ot renom ci ilhis claims to the decorate. He was liberated [ri5"'>thmi.'h the vigorous interposition of his cousin. Maurice fkxonv, who had formerly been his rival for The ectoral domains. John Frederick ^»;ee«ded 'o 'ho full title by the death of his brother, John Ernest, .n lo53, and d. at Weimar Mar. 3, lo54. r^■^<i^■ lohn George I., elector of Saxony, b. Mar. 5, IoRd , , s„ec".l"dM°n,.her Christian 11.. in UHl ^.supported .1.0 e nncr r Ferdinand against the Bohemians in .-20, a. .he ] oXtof the Thirty Years' war; formed an alliance wlh Guslavus Adolphns. king of Sweden ( 1631 ; con ributed the victory of Leipsic. and took Prague (Nov. U). but ^st it with'all Bohemia, to Wallenstein in 1632; made peace w he emperor at Prague (May 10, ]63o). and de- clared, ar a..ains. Sweden ; was defeated by the Swedes at Tom itVand'at Wi. stock (16:!6) ; aided the imperialists agaTst Franco in the battle of Dutlingen (1643), and d. ^1o'hi'(Jo..ANN B.vPT.sT .TosFPn Fab.ajc Sebast,an), archduke of Austria, b. at Florence J""' ;«•,,' 'u' and thirteenth child and the ninth son of Leopold II. and Mai^ Louisa of Spain. When he was very young he wa generally bclieved'by bis family to be possessed of gre. t military .alenls, and he consequently com.nanded the Au^- f an armies in ISOO. 1^03. IS05. and 1SI19. Bu he was always 1 eaten and when a, the battle of Wagram he failed for reasons not well understood, to bring his brother, the eommander-in-cbief, .he proper support, he resigned his nmand and lived dunn'g '"V"''"'*"%"uh' which he wa^ ment in GiUtz. The ill favor, however, with wbah h. was eons dered by .he court made bim very popular, and m 1S43 be was generally believed by the people .0 be possessed of great polftical virtues. He was chosen R-chsverweser by fhe Parliament of Frankfort. But once more he had the misfortune of disappointing his admirers He was a mos o stinate defender of the interests of the houso f Austria and as these did not always coincide with the U :'«"; of -he German people, he resigned his Reiehsver- weserschaft Dec. 29, 1S4U. D. Mar. 10, lbo9. SSreom^rnth^^tiSrKa;:"/":!.^:;^ ^ ehief of stall' of the southern army under Arch- 1 ruellb ht »n'l "oa-ed a lield-marshal-lieutenant on John became fh.ef of his s , H. A. ^_^ ^^ .^ ^^^^^ -vv'THrfiri?--'^S;^ ''^j\;h«Quincy';i:dams';tp..^V-reneo..Ind.Pop.809. Johns . p. of Appanoose eo. la Pop^ 8«o. ^^ ^^^^ lrthn<i burs* P"st-ip. o> warren cu., it. . . ei^'^,Tthe"Adlr'ondae'k R. R. ; is very mountainous; has iron orJs and several tanneries. Pop. 2jJJ. John's Island, one of the sea islands of Charleston "°'iohnson',''countv of N. W. Arkansas, bounded on the S by " kansas River. Area, about 550 square miles T'l ■= . is nartlv hilly and partly bollom-land. It is well The S..1I IS partly " 'J ^ T' f , , live slock, cotton, Johnson, counly of E Centr^ Oeor^a. ^Area, 250 , :2;';: are'st aple piollrts!' 'cap. Wrigb.sville. Pop. 2964. corn are -I. 1 1 f o Tlll^nU Area 340 square miles. 1 Johnson, •■7"' V J;.?"'" T^'i^t: 'g rain.^at.le. and It is quite level ^"'' f"''''=- ./"J'^^^'ersed 1 v the Cairo wood are staple products. It is ira,Lrs.. rdVincennerR.'K Cap.™ P" ' --^ ^^^ ,^r^ Ti:\.:dlti;:^'^very,.rtile. Cattle, JOHNSON. 1429 ^aio, and wool are staple products. Lumber, carriages, fluur. and brick arc leading articles of manufacture. The county i.s traversed by the Jcffersonvillo Ma<lisnn and In- dianapoli.H and tlie Cincinnati and Martinsville K. Ks. Cap. Franklin. Pop. 18,.''.6e. Johnsoil« county of S. E. Iowa. Area. BIR square miles. Its surface is varied, its soil rcinarkabh- fertile. Cattle, grain, hay. and wool are staple products. The county is traversed bv the Chicago Rock Island ancl Pacific and the Iowa Central R. Rs. Cap. Iowa City. P. 24.S98. John§on, county of Kans.as. having the Kansas River on the X. and Missouri on the E. Area. 472 square miles. It isivell timbered, and has coal and limestone and a deep, fertile soil. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. The county is traversed by various railroads centring at Olalhe. the capital. Pop. i.1,GSI. John<ion, county of E. Kentucky, traversed by the W. fork of liig Sandy River. Area, about 'i75 square uiilcs. It is mountainous, and abounds in bituminous coal. The fertile valleys produce live-stock, grain, tobacco, and wool. Cap. Paintvillc. Pop. 749-1. Johnson^ county of W. Missouri. Area, 700 square miles. It is partly forest and partly prairie, having a good soil, with abundant coal and water-power, (^attlc, grain, tobacco, and wool are staple products. It is traversed by • the Missouri Pacific R. R. Cap. Warrcnsburg. Pop. 24,048. ! Johnson, county of P. E. Nebraska. Area, 378 square miles. It is traversed by thetireat Xemaha River anfltho Atchison and Nebraska R. R. It has an e.xcellent soil, but is deficient in timber and buildintj-stone. AVhcat and corn are staple products. Some coal is found. Cap. Tecumsch. Pop. .1429. Johnson, county of N. E. Tennessee, bounded on the N. by Virginia and on the S. E. by North Carolina. Area, about 200 square miles. It is mountainous, heavily tim- bered, and has iron and other mineral wealth. Cattle, wool, and tobacco are staple products. Cap. Taylorsvillc. Pop. .'.s.-.o. Johnson, county of N. Texas, bounded on the W. chiefly by Brazos River. Area. 594 square miles. The soil is excellent. Live-stock, cotton, and grain arc staple products. Timber and limestone arc abundant. Cap. Ckburn. Pop. 492.'5. Johnson, tp. of Greene co., Ark. Pop. (58.3. Johnson, tp. of Little River co.. Ark. Pop. 274. Johnson, tp. of St. Francis co., Ark. Pop. 788. Johnson, tp. of Union co., Ark. Pop. 1.309. Johnson, a v. of Henry co., Ga. Pop. 6C2. Johnson, tp. of Christian co.. III. Pop. 640. Johnson, tp. of Clark co.. 111. Pop. 82.3. Johnson, tp. of Brown co., Ind. Pop. 685. Johnson, tp. of Clinton co., Ind. Pop. I6G6. Johnson, tp. of Crawford co., Ind. Pop. 652. Johnson, tp. of Gibson co., Ind. Pop. 2616. Johnson, Ip. of Knox co., Ind. Pop. 1543. Johnson, Ip. of I.a Grange co., Ind. Pop. 1.322. Johnson, Ip. of La Porte eo., Ind. Pop. 170. Johnson, tp. of Ripley co., Ind. Pop. 2409. Johnson, Ip. of Scott co., Ind. Pop. 1454. Johnson, Ip. of Plymouth co., la. Pop. 80. Johnson, Ip. of Webster Co., la. Pop. 402. Johnson, Ip. of .Maries co.. Mo. Pop. 1257. Johnson, Ip. of Polk co.. Mo. Pop. 898. Johnson, Ip. of Ripley Co., Mo. Pop. 280. Johnson, tp. of Scotland co., Mo. Pop. 1219. .lolinson, tp. of Washington co.. Mo. Pop. 717. Johnson, Ip. of Champaign eo., 0. Pop. 2297. Johnson (.ImissTows P. 0.), a v. of Monroe tp., Lick- ing CO.. '1. Pop. 241. Johnson, Ip. of Williamsburg co., R. C. Pop. I2I8. Johnson, post-v. and tp. of Lamoille co., Vt.,32 miles N. by W. of Montpclicr. It has a .*stato normal school, 4 churches, and inanufaeturcfl of furniture, lumber, starch, and wotillen goods. Pop. 1558. Johnson (Alkxanhkii IlnvAs), b. at Gosport, England, May 29. 17.^0; came to the V. S. in 1801. ami established himself as a banker at I'tiea, N. Y. lie wrul*' several works on political economy, language, and education, which have reci'ived high commendation, li. at I'lica in 1S57. Johnson (Andrf.w), LL.I)., tho seventeenth president of tbo V. S., b. at Raleigh, N. C, Dec. 29, 18U8. Uis father died when hewas four years old, and in his eleventh year ho was apprenticed to a tailor. He never attended school, and did not learn to read until late in his appren- ticeship, when ho suddenly acquired a passion for obtaining knowledge, and devoted all his spare time to reading. After working two years as a journeyman tailor at Laurens Court-house, S.C., he removed in 1826 to Grceneville.Tenn., where ho worked at his trade and married. Vnder his wife's instructions he made rapid progress in his education, passing from writing and arithmetic to the higher branches, and manifested such an intelligent interest in local politics as to be elected as " workingmcn's candidate" alderman (1828-30) and mayor (1830-a2), being twice re-elected to each office. During this period ho cultivated his talents OS a public speaker by taking part in a debating-society consisting largely of students of (Jreeneville College. In 1835, and again in 1839, he was chosen to the lower house of the legislature as a Democrat ; was a canflidate for elector at large in 1840, when he canvassed tho Stale for Van Buron ; was elected State senator in 1841, and Rcpresenlalive in Congress in 1843, being re-elected for four successive periods until 1853, when he was chosen governor of Tennessee. In Congress he supported the ad- ministrations of Tyler and Polk in their chief measures, especially the annexation of Te.\as, the adjustment of tho Oregon boun<lary. the Mexican war, and the tariff of 1846. He was re-elected governor in 1855. after an exciting con- test with the combined Whigs and " Know-nothings," and in 1857 entered the I'. S. Senate, where he was conspicuous as an advocate of retrenchment andof tlie llnmcslcad bill. and as an opponent of the Pacific R. U. Ho was s ujtportcd bv the Tennessee delegation to the Democratic con vent ion of 1860 for the Presidential nomination, and lent his influence to the Brcckenridge wing of the party. When the election of Lincoln had brought about the first attempts at seces- sion in Dee.. 1860, Johnson took in the Senate a firm atti- tude for the Union, and in May. 1861. on returning to Ten- nessee, he was in imminent peril of suffering from po(nilar violence for his loyally to the "old flag." He was the leader of the Loyalists' Convention of East Tennessee (.May and June), and was very active during the following winter in organizing relief for the destitute loyal refugees from that region, his own family being among those com- pelled to leave. By his course in this crisis .T<dinson camo prominently before the Northern public, and when in Mar., 1862. ho was ap]>ointed by Prcs. Lincoln military governor of Tennessee, with the rank of brigadier-general, he vastly increased his popularity by the vigorous and successful manner in which he labored to restore onler. protect Union men. anri punish marauders. On the api>roach of the Presidential campaign in 1864, the termination of the war being then plainly foreseen, and several Southern Slates being partially reconstructed, it was felt that the Vice- Presidency should properly be given to a Southern man of conspicuous loyalty. For no candidate could a jusler title be alleged than for Gov. Johnson, who was accor<lingly elected on the same platform and ticket with Lincoln, and on his assassination succeeded to the Presidency, Apr. 15, 1865. That Pres. Johnson should very soon be in- volved in bitter feud with the Republican majority in Con- gress was certainly a surprising and deplorable inci<lent; yet in reviewing the eireuinslances after a lapse of ten years, it is easy to find ample room for a charitable juilg- ment of both the parlies to the heated controversy, since it cannot he doubted that any President, even Lincoln himself had he lived, must have "sacrificed a large portion of his popularity in carrying ont any possible scheme of reecm- struction. Pres. .Tohnson retained the cabinet of Lincoln, and exhibited considerable severity towards "traitors" in his earlier acts and speeches, hut soon inaugurated a pol- icy of reeonslruclion. proclaiming a general amnesty to the late Confi'dcralcs. and successively establishing pro- visional governments in the i^nulhern Slates. These .States ace<irdingly claimed representation in Congress in the fol- lowing December, and the momentous question of what should be the policy of the victorious T'nioii towards its late armed opponents was forced upon thai body. Two considerations impelled the Republican majority to reject tho policy of Pres. .I»diuson : first, an ayiprehension, cer- tainly exaggerated but sulfieienlly plausible at the time, that tho chief magistrate intended to undo the results of the war in regard tn slavery: and secnnd, the sullen atti- tudo of the .^outh. which seemed to bo ]d<)lling to regain by policy what arms had lost. Tho credentials of tho Southern members-elect were laid on the table, a civil rights bill and a l)ill extending the sphere of the Frced- inau's lliireau wero passed over the executive velo. and tho two highest branches of the government were soon in open antagonism. Tho notion of Congress was eharacteriRcd by tho President in a popular haranguo (Fob. 22, 1866) aa a " now robollioD ;" the onbinet was rcoonstructcd in July, r 1430 JOHNSON. Messrs. Ranilall. Stanbcry, and Browning taking the places of Messrs. Dcnison, Speed, and Harlan, and an unsueccss- fiil attempt was made by means of a general convention at Philadrlphia (Aug. 14) to form a new party on the basis of the administration policy. In an excursion to Chicago for the purpose of laying the corner-stone of a monument to Pleiihen A. Douglas (Aug. 28), Pres. Johnsou, accompa- nied by several members of the cabinet, passed through Pliiladelphia, Now York, and Albany, in each of which cities, and at many other places on the route, ho made speeches justifying and explaining his own policy and vio- lently denouncing the action of Congress. In the ensuing winter session Congress enacted over the President's veto a series of measures for extending the right of suffrage to the frcedmen, dividing the Southern States into military districts, and excluding them from self-government until thev should have ratified the late amendments to the Fed- eral Constitution and adopted State constitutions in ac- cordance therewith. An opinion of tho attorney-general against tho validity of this legislation led to conflicts be- tween the military commanders and the now State govern- ments, and to ne-.T acts of Congress defining the powers of j the former, making them independent of the President's i authority. On Aug. \2, ISfi", Pres. Johnson removed tho secretary of war, replacing him by Gen. Grant. Secretary Stanton retired under protest, based upon the Tenure-of- offiee act, which had been passed in the preceding March, j The President then issued a proclamation (.\ug. 20) de- claring the insurrection at an end. and that "peace, order, tranquillity, and civil authority existed in and throughout [ the whole of the U. S." Another proclamation (Sept. S) | enjoined obedience to the Constitution and laws, and an amnesty was published Sept. 7. relieving nearly all the participants in "the late rebellion " from tho disabilities iliereby incurred, on condition of taking an oath to sup- port the Constitution and laws. In December, Congress refused to confirm the removal of Secretary Stanton, who thereupon resumed the exercise of his office, but on Feb. 21, ISti8, Pres. .lohnson again attempted to remove him, appointing Gen. Lorenzo Thomas in his place. Stanton refused to vacate his post, and \yas sustained by the Sen- ate. On Pel). 24, the House of Representatives voted to impeach the President for " high crimes and misdemean- ors" (yeas 12G, nays 47, not voting 17). and presented (Mar. o) eleven articles of impeachment, on the ground of ills resistance to the execution of the acts of Congress, al- Icfin*, in addition to the offence lately committed, his public expressions of contempt for Congress in "certain intemperate, inflammatory, and scandalous harangues" pronounced in Ang. and Sept., l^lii'i. and thereafter, de- claring that tho 39th Congress of the U. S. was not a com- petent legislative body, and denying its power to propose constitutional amendments. The impeachment trial began Mar. 2.1, tho President appearing by counsel, and resulted in acquittal May Ifiand 2t'>. the votes on the two leading arti- cles standing :i5 guilty to 19 not guilty, thus lacking one of the two-thirds required for conviction. The remainder of Pres, Johnson's term of office was passed without any such conflicts as might have been anticipated. Ho failed to ob- tain a nomination for re-election by the Democratic party, though receiving fiS votes on the first ballot. Now procla- mations of pardon to the participants in the rebellion were issued July 4 and Dec. 2.7, tmt were of little effect. On the afcession of Pres. Grant. Mar. 4, 1809, Johnson returned to Grecneville, Tenn. Unsuccessful in 1870 and 1.S72 as a candidate respectively for U. S. Senator and Representa- tive, he was finally elected to the Senate in lS7.i, and took his seat in the extra session of March, in which his speeches were comparatively temperate. D. July .''1, l.s7.>, and was buried at Grecneville. Several biographies of Pres. Jcdinson have l)ecn imblishcd, generally with a selection of his speeches, among which may be mentioned those of Sav- age (ISO.i). Frank Moore (ISCi), and Foster (I.SCti), (See also the official record of Proceedings in the Trial nf Andreie JohuKon, Washington, 1868.) PonxER C. Bliss. Johnson (I.ady Arbei.i.a), daughter of Thomas, four- teenth earl of Lincoln, married l&aac Johnson, one of tho principal founders of New England, and accompanied him to .Massachusetts, In her honor Winthrop changed the name of the Eagle, the princijial ship of the emigrant squadron, to Arbella. D. at Salem about Aug. 30, 1030, Johnson (Brsiiaon R.),b.in Ohio Sept. 6,1817; grad- uated at West Point in 1840; served in tho Florida and Mexican wars; resigned in 1817, and at the outbreak of the civil war was professor in the Nashville Military Uni- versity. He became a brigadier-general in the Confederate army: was captured at Fort Donclson, but soon escaped ; was severely woundeii at Shiloh; became major-general in 1804, and commanded a division under Leo at the time of the eurroader at Appomattox Court-house. Johnson (Cave), b. in Robertson co., Tenn., Jan. 11, 1793; became a lawyer and a circuit judge; was a member of Congress 1829-37 and 1839-45; was poslmaster-gcnernl during Mr. Polk's Presidency: president of the Bank of Tennessee IS50-j9: and tluring the civil war was elected to tho State senate as a Unionist, but on account of feeble health he never took his seat. D. at Clarksville, Tennes- see, Nov. 23, ISOI). Johnson (Ea.stmax), b. in Lovell. Me., July 29, 1824. Took up drawing regularly at about eighteen ; in 1845 went to Washington, had a room in the Capitol, and made many portraits of distingui.'heil men. In 184G established him- self in Boston, and made crayon portraits of Longfellow and his family, .^umner. Felton. Hawthorne, and Emerson. In 1849 went to Diisseldorf ; studied a year in the Royal ,\eademy : occupied for a time a studio with Leutze. In 1851 spent a few weeks in London; thence to the Hague fo copy a head by Rembrandt : stayed there four years, and sent thence his first pictures of consequence. The Cftrd- Playern and The Savni/nrd. Went to Paris, but Was unex- peetedty called home, after six years of absence. Spent two winters in Washington and two summers on Lake Su- perior among the Indians. Came to New York in the fall of 1S5S, with his picture Thf Old Keiiliict,/ JInmr, and still resides in New York. Mr. Johnson is a painter of f/enre pictures, but in a broader style than that term indi- cates. His pieces are all figure pieces, but with a wide range of subject. He views lit'c on the pathetic, humorous, tender, heroic, and even on the comic side, always with keen perception and honest intent. He is a master of drawing and color, and rarely fails to convey effectively his whole thought. He has also been successful in por- traits. The civil war furni.^'hed him subjects for his best- known works — The Dnimmer-Iioi/, The Peiision Cliiim- A'jent, The lini/hfmd a/ Lincoln. The Old Kcnluekif Home depicts the South as it was before the abolition of slavcrv. The Kilchai nl Ml. Vernon is another reminiscence of o!d times in America. The Statje-eoaeh, S<irnt/nrd Boy, Drop on Ihe Sli/. The llllle Sinreleeper, The Chlmncy-Bieeep, The Chimnelj Corner, Posl-hoy. Ori/nn-boy, Lady at Prnijer, Mntinfi, illustrate the variety of his themes. Mr. Johnson belongs to no school, native or foreign. His works are numerous, and. though of unequal merit, are highly prized. The Old Kenlnekti Home was sent to the Paris Exhibition in 1867. As a painter of human life as it is before him Mr. Johnson stands foremost among American arlists. 0. B. Frothixkham. Johnson (EnwARn), b. at Heme Hill. Kent. England, in 1599. came to New England about 1030, settled at Wo- burn, and for many years represented that town in general court, of which body he was Speaker in 1655. He is chiefly known as the author of the curious and valuable historical work, Wonder-irorkimi Providenee of Sion's Sfiriour in .Vcw England, printed at London in 1654, reprinted by the Mas- sachusetts Historical Society, and again edited, with notes, by W. F. Poole in 1807. D. at Woburn Apr. 23, 1672. Johnson (EnwARn).b. in Chesterfield co., Va.. Apr. 16, 1816; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy in 1838, and entered the army as second lieutenant; brcvetted cap- lain in 1847 for meritorious services in Florida, and major in 1818 for gallantry at Chapultepec and the city of ^lexico : also presented with swords of honor by his native State and native county; commissioned captain in 1851 ; resigned from the army jnne, 1861, to join the Confederacy, and was at once appointed colonel of the 12th Georgia Vols.; brigadier-general 1862, and miijor-general the fid- lowing year; commanded a division at Gettysburg, and in the Richmond campaisn of 1864 taken prisoner, with his entire division, at Spotlsylvania Court-house, May 12, as also subsequently at Nashville, Dec.. 1864; retired to his farm in Chesterfield co.. Va., at tho close of the war. D. at Richmond, Va.. Feb. 22. 1873. G. C. Simmons. Johnson (Heuman Merrills), D. D.. LL.D., b. Nov. 25, 1815. at Butternuts, Otsego co., N. Y. ; graduated at the Wesleyan University in 1339; was 18.39-42 professor of ancient languages in St. Charles College, Mo.: in 1842 was called to the same chair in .\ugusta College, Ky. ; held the professorship of ancient languages and literature in tho Ohio Wesleyan University. Delaware, 0., 184 1-50, and was for a part of the time its acting president ; in 1850 became professor of English literature in Dickinson College, and was its president 1860-68. D. at Carlisle Apr. 5, 1868. Dr. Johnson was an able scholar, and a student of modern Greek, Hebrew, Anglo-Saxon, Gaelic, Irish, Welsh, Ethi- opic. Syriac, Arabic, and other tongues. He was an in- structive preacher and a careful writer; edited Orirnlalia Anli'innrta Uerodoil ; also an edition of the Clio of Herod- otus, with notes ( 1850), and wrote much for periodicals. Johnson ( llEiisruEL V.), b. in Burke co., Ga.. Sept. IS, 1812; graduated at Ihe State University 1834; adopted tho JOHNSON'. 1431 profension of law, and in 1840 entered the political arena | as the advocate of the principles of JctTcrsmiiHii Ileinoc- raev; was a Prc«idcntiiil elcclor on the Pinic Democratic tir-ket in ISM, and was appointed in 1S18 lo fill a vacancy , in the I'. S. Pcnntc; was elected to the bench in hisjudi- [ cial circuit in 1S49; in Is.Vj was elected poveruor of the ; State, and reelected to the fame office in 1850. In 18G0 ; he was run for Vice-I'rc«idenl of the V. S. on the ticket | which was he;>dcd by .'^lephcn A. Douglas for the Presi- dency ; he was in the Stale secession convention of ISfil, and took an active and prominent part against the policy adopted by that body; he voteil against the ordinance of ( secession, Init afterwards, when it was ]>asped by a majority of the convention, ho resolved to go with his Stale and ' sustain her in the course she had in her sovereign charac- j ter adopted. Brought up in the State Rights school in polities, he believed his ultimate allegiance was due to his State. In IS6:S he was elccteil to the ronfederatc States i Senate, where he took and held a high position until the close of the war. He was president of the constitutional convention of the State in 1. •<(').">. After the removal of the disabilities imposed by the fourteenth amendment to the , Constitution of the U. S., he was again, in ISV:'.. placed on i the circuit bench for a term of eight years. In the mean lime (that is. from the close of the war to the removal of the disabilities referred to) he had resumed the practice of law, which ho prosecuted with great success. In Jan., [ isfin, on the restoration of the State to the Union under the proclamation of Pres. .Johnson, he was chosen as one of the two U. S. Senators to which (icorgia was entitled under the Constitution. The duties of this office, however, he was not permitted lo enter upon ; his seat was denied him by the reconstruction a«ls of Congress. As an orator, constitutional lawyer, and jurist Mr. Johnson has few supe- riors in the V. S. A. II. Steimikxs. j Johnson (IsaacI, b. at Clipsham, Rutlandshire, Kng- land. about the close of the sixteenth century : married the Lady Arliella. daughter of the earl of Lincoln, and asso- ciated himself with Winllirop in the settlement of New En"land, being the wealthiest of the colonists and much respited. He is consi<lcn-d one of the chief founders of Boston, where he d. Sept. :W, IG.'iO. Johnson (James), b. in Robinson Co., N. C, in ISll. His father moved to Georgia and settled in Macdonough when lie was but a boy. After an academic course in this village he graduatcil willi high honor at the State Univer- sity in 18^2, taught school for a short time, and then com- menced the practice of law as a profession, in which he soon attained high eminence; was a member of Congress from Ueorgia from 18jl to ISJ.3. lieing a strong Union man, and opposed to secession, though he went with liis Stale during the war, at its close, in 180.'), Pres. Jolinson chose and appointed him as provisional governor of (icor- gia under what was known as tl»> President's policy. This position Mr. Jcdinsou held, and discbnrgeil the duties inci- dent to it to the general satisfaction of the ]icoplc, until the State was restored to the Union on the eondilioos anil rc<|uircmcnts then prescribed. In 180(1 he was appointed collector of the customs at Savannah, which office he re- signed in I86fl. Soon after ho was placed on the circuit court bench of the State, which position he still (Apr., 187i) holds. A. II. Stki'IIkns. Johnson (Sit" Jons), h. in 1712, was a son of Sir Williiim Jolinson ; wa.s knighted in ITO.^i, and siu'cecdod ill IV7I lo bis father's great estates and influence in the Mohawk Valley. In 1770 he fled to Canada with 7U0 fol- hiwers, raised two battalions called the Royal (ireens, was commissioned a colonel, invested Fort Stanwix in .\ng., 1777, dofeated lien. llcrUimer, and ivas himself defeated in Oct., 1780. His property was conliscated l>y the U. S., but llio British government made him scvcrnl grants of lands in Canada, where he became a membir of the colo- nial council and superintendent of Indian nffnirs until his death at Montreal Jan. 1. 18:(U. Johnson ( J.iski'II). M. I'., b. at Charleston. S. C, Juno .■>. 1770; Btudieil medicine at the University of Pennsyl- vania, and practised at Charleston with Dr. Elislia Poin- sclt. Krom 1818 to ISIli was president of the U. S. branch bank at Charleston, was active in literary, professional, and political associations, prcsiilcnt of the South Carolina M<'dieal Society from 18(17 for many years: long mayor of Charleston, coiiimissioner of S'-hools, and leader of llio Union parly in the nullilicalion troubles. He published in 18.'>1 a valuable work, TraUilitnm ami JCeminitccncet i>f the J!.,„l„li„n. Johnson (Joskpii Taber), M. D., h. at Lowell, Mass., .Tunc .'10, I8l.i: gradiyitei! A. M. al Coluinbiiin University, D. (',, in 1801: look his ilegree at Bellevne Medical College, N. Y., in 1807. and compleled his medical studies in Ku- ropo in 1871; was professor of obatolrios in the modioal department of Howard University, surgeon to tho Frecd- men's Hospital and St. John's Hospital, and in 1S74 be- came lecturer on midwifery at (be medical department of the University of tieurgetown, D. C. : wrote I'tcullitriiits of Parturition in thr Xetjro Jittrr, and .'iliji/io p€Ctori«f illustrated by the case of Hon. C. Sumner. Johnson (Masiel Jons). F. R. S., b. in England in May, 180ri : studied at .Addiscomlic Military School: joined the East India Company's artillery at St. Helena in 1821, and remained there eleven years, during which ho culti- vated astronomy and prepared a catalogue of lil^O stars of the southern hemisphere ; returning to Englaml, he entered Magdalen College, O.xford, at the mature age of twenty- eight, and graduated in ISHO, when he was immediately appointed Railclilfc astronomer. In that capacUy he greatly extended the lists of stars by his annual catalogues, and introduced improved astronomical instruments. His ob- servations of double stars with the great heliometcr. and his photographic registration of stars, were especially im- portant. Prof. Johnson was president of the Royal As- tronomical Society in 1S57 and 1858. D. at Oxford Feb. 28, 1869. Johnson (Mary Axxe), first wife of Oliver John- son, and daughter of Rev. nrr.ugbton AVhite. b. in West- moreland, N. II.. Aug. 21, 181)8: d. in New "i'ork June 8, 1872. For three years ( IS44-t7! she was associated as as- sistant matron with Mrs. Eliza W. Farnham in the mem- orable efl'nrt to reform the State prison for females at Sing Sing. She subsequently became a lecturer to her own sex upon anatomy, physiology, and the laws of health, travel- ling extensively iii the pursuit of that object in different parts of the U.'S. Johnson (Oliver), b. in Pcacham, Vt., Dec. 27, 1809: served an apprenticeship to the printing business in the ir(i('7i»inii office. Montpclier, Vt. ; Jan. 1, ISHl, became the editor of a new paper, the Chriminn Suhlicr, and was from this time, and up to the year of 180.'), busily engaged in the service of the anti-slavery cause as a lecturer and as an editor, manager, and contributor to newspapers. During the next five years and a half he was the managing editor of the hiilrjKndcnl, resigning at the end of 1870 to become editor of the WcMii Trihiuir. Alter two years' service at this post be resigned at the end of 1872 to become man- aging cditt»r of the Christian Union, Johnson (PEnnvAL Norton), F. R. S., h. in England about I7'.i:i. was (be son of a London assayi^r, and early ac- quired great skill in the same profession. He was the tirst to determine with accuracy the exact proportions of gold and silver in bullion. He' inlroiluced into England from Germany the alloy known as (iernian silver. cx(rac(cd pal- ladium and platinum from gold bullion, nnil inanufaelured them for commercial ]>urposes. He invented seycralpot- tcrv colors, espceially the mncli-admired " rose-pink. " His services were in great request as a consulting metallurgist at the great English mines, and he introduced numerous improvements into the machinery of the Cornish mines. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in ISJO, and d. in London June 1, 1800. Johnson (Ueverpv). b. at Annapolis, Md.. May 21, 1790. son of Chancellor John Johnson of that Stale: edu- cated at St. John's College: studied law in bis father's office, and adinitlcd to (be bar in 181.^; removed to Baltimore in 1817, anil was shortly after appointed deputy attorney-gen- eral of .Marvland: was a State senator 1821-2:'), resigning in the latter yciir to attend lo the increasing duties of his profession, in which he gained a leading position in his native Slate, as well as at the bar of (he Suineme Court of the U. S. In 1815 he was elccteil lo the U. S. Senate from Maryland, and in 1849, Pres. Taylor appointed him at- torney-general of (he U. S.. which office be held utitil the death of Pns. Taylor, when he retired and resumed tho practice of his prdfession : was member of the pence com- mission in 1801; U. S. Senator IS0:i-08; succeeded Mr. Charles Francis Adams as U. S. minister lo England in 1808, anil negotiated a treaty for tho settlement «l' the Alabama claims, which was rejeeled. however, by the U. S. Senate. Reialled in 1809. I). Feb. 9, 1870. Johnson (RicHARn Mi:vtoiO, b. in Kentucky Oct. 17, 1780: was educated at Transylvania University: studied law an.l was admitted to (he bar; in 182:t was elecled (o the bgisbilMre, and was a member of Congress 1807-19: in I 1812, after the de.laration of war by Great Britain, bo I raised a regiment of Kentucky iiiounle.l riflemen, which ho i commanded on (be Canadian fronder during di.' tall of that I year. Alter the ailjournment of Congress. Mar.. 181.'!, ho I raised anolber inounted regiment of volunteers, with which ] he guarded the Indian frontier during the summer months, and ioiniil (Icn. Harrison in (imo to render brilliant ser- vice in tho battle of the Thames on Oct. 5. It was by his I hand the celebrated Indian warrior Tcoumsoh is reported 1432 JOHNSON. to have fallen. lu this engagement Col. Johnson was des- perately wounjetl. He was, however, able to resume his seat in Congress in February ensuing ; in ISli) was elceted to the U. t*. Senate, and remained a member of that body until 1829 : after this he was again a member of tlio House 182y-37 ; in JS^iO was run for the Vice-Presidency of the U. S. in most of the States, on the same ticket which sup- ported Mr. Van Buren for the Presidency. lie received 147 of the electoral votes, but this was a few votes short of a majority of the whole, though largely above the number received by any other one of the candidates voted for. In this state of things the choice for Vice-President devolved on the Senate under the Constitution of the U. S. In the discliargc of this duty the Senate in Mar., 1S;J7, made clioicc of Col. Johnson fnr the office of Vice-President for the four years ensuing. In Mar., 18(1. lie returned to his home in Kentucky, after having devoted thirty years of his life continuously to the public service. Perfect retirement, however, was not allowed him. He was again returned a member to the State legislature, and while holding this positon d. at Frankfort, Ky., Nov. 19, ISjO, at the ad- vanced age uf a little over eighty jTars. He was distin- guished throughout his life for kindliness of heart and ur- banity of manners. He was the author of the law abolish- ing imprisonment for debt in Kentucky. A. H. Stephens. Johnson {Rkhard W.). A. B., A. M.. b. in Livingston CO., Ky., Feb. 7. 1827; graduated from the U. S. Military Academy in ISJU. and entered the army as brevet second lieutenant of infantry; transferred to the cavalry 1S55 as 0rst lieutenant: promoted to be captain 1S.t7, major 1862; engaged in campaigns against Indians in Texas 1S49-6I ; appointed brigadier-general of volunteers Oct.. 18G1, and in command of a division of infantry at Stone Ri\er, Lib- erty Gap, Chiekamauga, Missionary Ridge, and all the bat- tles on the line of march from Nashville to New Hope church, near Atlanta, Ga., where he was severely wounded ; subsequently commanded a division of cavalry at the battle of Nashville and the pursuit of the enemy through Tennes- see. Received successive brevets from lieutenant-colonel to major-general U. S. A. for gallant conduct ; retired on the full rank of major-genera! Oct., 1867, on account of wounds received at New Hope church : reduced to the rank of brigadier-general under a subsequent law of Congress re- tiring officers on rank actually held at the time when dis- abled. Military professor in the Cniversity of Missouri 1S68-G9, University of Minnesota 1869-70. G.C.Simmons. Johnson (Robkrt W.), b. in Kentucky in 1S14; moved to .Arkansas, and was a member of Congress from that State 1847-53 ; he was then elected to the V. S. Senate, in which body he was an active and distiuguisheil member until Ar- kansas passed her ordinance of secession in 18fil : he was then elected a member to the jirovisional Congress of the Confederate States: in 1862 he was elected Senator from Arkansas to the Confederate States Senate. He was a lead- ing member of that body to the close of the war, when he pursue<l the practice of his profession, the law, in the city uf Washington. D. July 26, 1879. A. H. Stephens. Johnson (SAMrEi,), D. D., b. in Guilford, Conn.. Oct. 1 (. ItilH), was the son of Samuel and Mary (Sage) Johnson. JIis grandfather, William Johnson, who was twelve years old when the family emigrated from England to this country, married. July 2, I6.")l, at the age of twenty-two. a daughter of Francis Bushnell of Saybrook, whose sister. Sarah Rush- nell, was the grandmother of Benjamin Hoadlcy, the cele- brated bishop of Rangor and Winchester. The subject of this notice was in early ehildhoud very much under the training of his grandfather M'illiam, a leading man in (iuil- ford, who held, as did his son after him. the office of dea- con in the Congregational church. He taught him to read, j and stimulated his desire for learning. At fourteen young Samuel joined the infant college at Saybrook, and gradu- ated after a course of four years. He subsequently became a tutor in the institution, and was connected with it in its transition period, and a chief agent in securing its estal*- lishment at New Haven as Yale College. He resigned his tutorship in 1719, and was ordained the next year as jtastor i of the Congregational ehureh at West Haven, a village so i near the college that he continued to associate intimately with its officers and to avail himself of a free use of the library. Here he frequently met his literary friends, among them several of the neighboring ministers, and discussed and examined with (hem the doctrines and practices of the primitive Church, and the form and authority of their own government and wnrship. The result was tliat he and Rec- tor Cutler and Tutor Rrown declared for episcopacy, and, relinquishing their positions, sailed from Boston Nov. 5. 1722, to obtain holy orders in the Church of England. He returned to Connecticut after a year's absence, and was settled at Stratfnrtl as a missionary of tlio Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. For a long time he was the only Episcopal clergyman in the colony, and had i^trong adversaries around him in those from whose fellowship he had withdrawn. He married, Sej)t. 26, 1725, Mrs. Charity NicoU, widow of Benjamin Nicoll, Esq., of Rrookhaven. L. I., by whom he had two sons, whose pre- liminary education, and that of his step-sous as well, he personally superintended. His inquiring mind led him to seek the society of scholars and to read all the philosophi- cal works that came in his way. The residence of Dean Berkeley at Newport, R. I. (1729-1!!), was an interesting episode in his life. Before that dignitary came to America he had read his Pi'tnriphs of Humiux Knotchdifc, and was in a measure a convert to his metaphysical opinions. Ho corresponded with him, visited him at his Whitehall palace, and when the dean was about to return to England, dis- heartened by the failure of his great scheme, J(dinson in- tcres^ted him in American education, and secured from him for Yale College the donation of many valuable books, and a deed of his farm atNciTport for the founding <tf scholarships. He maintained a steady correspondence with Seeker and other bishops and divines of the Church of England, and was a profound philosopher fur his day, comjirehending Berkeley and going deeply into Hutchinsonianism. Ho wrote numerous controversial pamj>hlets, and labored earnestly to secure the establishment of an American epis- copate. The University of Oxford conferred upon him in 1743 the degree of D. D., and three years later he jiublishcd a Si/-'itcm of Morality, in two parts — one treating of ethics in a speculative aspect, and the other of the practical duties that result from established truths. This, again, appeared with additions under the title of Efemciita Pliifosojthicn, which was dedicated to Berkeley and printed by Benjamin Franklin. 'When the project was entered upon to found a college in Philadelphia, Franklin, one of the gentlemen most interested in it, urged him to assume the presidency, but he finally declined it, and accepted shortly after the oversight of King's (now Columbia) College, N. Y. Ho guided this institution through its early troubles, and gave shape to its policy and course of study. Subscriptions toward the endowment were obtained at home and aliroad through his instrumentality, and when things had been well settled he intimated his desire for retirement, and ap- plied to Archbishop Seeker for a suitable person to take his office. The Rev. Myles Cooper, an Oxford graduate, was sent over, and. sooner than he himself expected, John- son, crushed by the death of his second wife from smallpox — a disease which had been the great bane and terror of his whole life — resigned the presidency of the college Feb., 176.1, and retired to Stratford. Here he passed the re- mainder of his days, resuming the charge of his old parish, and continuing his correspondence upon the affairs of the Church in America. It was in this retirement that he composed an English and Hebrew grammar, the structure of tlic two languages bearing in his view a close resem- blance. A second and revised edition of the work, which was first jirinted in London, was riqiublished there, and at- tracted tlio altontion of several Hebrew scholars, among them Bishop Lowth. Dr. Johnson never ceased to jilead that one or more bishops might be sent to the colonies, but he did not live to sec his desire fulfilled. He had expressed the wish that his death might resemble that of his good friend Bishop Berkeley, and Heaven granted it, for ho sank to rest tranquillv, sitting in his ehair. on the morn- ing of Jan. 6, 1772. * E. E. Beardsley. Johnson (SAMfEi.), LL.D.. b. at Lichfield, Eug., Sept. 18, Uti'.i, the son of a bookseller of limited means; com- menced the study of the classics at the age of ten at the Lichfield free school, making great proficiency; spent a year at a private academy at Stourbridge, and two years in his father's shop, during which, by desultory reading, ho laid the foundation of that immense store of miscellaneous knowledge for which he was distinguished. His father's poverty seemed to forbid all hopes of a university education, but when nineteen years of age he found an opportunity tn enter Pembroke College, Oxford (1728), supporting him- self bv assisting the studies of a former companion at Lichfield school. He became noted for his proficiency in the classics, and produced a Latin translation of Pope's Afrtfiiah, which won a high encomium from that poet. In ]7;n. after three years of assiduous study, he was compelled by want of resources to leave O.xford ; was employed for some timeae usher in a school at Market Bosworth. Leices- tershire, and afterwards lived some time at Birmingham, writing for a newspaper and publishing one or two books translated from the Latin. In 17.'H'> he improved his cir- cumstances by marrying a widow lady nearly double his age who had £81i0 in the funds, and opened a private academy near Lichfield. After a brief and unsatisfactory experience in teaching, Johnson wcm to London in 1737, accompanied by his pupil (jarrick, and thenceforward de- voted himself to literature as a profession. His first JOHNSON. 1433 serious employment was on Cave's GentUmann Marjazine, for which he continued to write until 1731. The publica- tion of London, a satire iraitutcd from Juvenal { 17 '•'>>• K and of two or three political pamphlets, brouj;ht him iuto public notice, and procured him the friendship of Pope. Richard- son, and other leading authors. In 1740. John.-'on under- took to report the debates in Parliament for the Gtutlemana Matftizine, and acquired considerable celebrity by his prac- tice of inipro\ iiiff upon the real utterances of the speaker!? ; ID 1744 appeared his /.i/c «/A'(ifrtf/c ; in 1749, his poem, The. Yunity of Hiinmn Winficn, and a drama, Irene ; aud in 1750- 52 he wrote the Hnmhler, a semi-wcckly series of literary essays which extended to 208 numbers and had great si^- cess. From 1747 to 17oj he was chiefly occupied upon his groat work, the /Jivtionortf of the Enr/fiiih Lanffumje. His wife had died in 1752, his mother in I751», and it was to pay the expenses of the lattcr's funeral that John^^on wrote lifttMcl'ts within a single week. The fdUr. an imitation of the IlnniUer. appeared in 1758 to ITHO. It was not until about 1702 that Johnson aequire«l that settled position in the republic of letters which is so familiar to the world in the pages of Boswcll — a position apparently dating from the receipt of a pension of £.'.00. He now became an author- ity on all points of erudition, and his wonderful conversa- tional powers" began to attract the attention of an admiring circle, which in I'tU formed the nucleus of the famous Lit- erary Club. It was in 1 703 that he first met his future biographer, James Bo^well. and in 1705 that he made the acquaintance of the Thralc family. In 1773 ho visited Scotland and the Hebrides, accompanied by Boswell, pub- lishing in 1775 tlio Jonrmtf to the U'cw/tii hiauds, and a pamphlet against the American rebellion, entitled Taxa- tion no 7)/ranni/. His last literary work of any importance was the tivtt of the Poetu fl77!l-Sl i. I), in London Dec. l;j, 17S4, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. It is scarcely necessary to say that the character and career of Dr. Johnson are, or may be, better known than those of any otlier author that over lived through the incomparable biography in which Boswell has edited his conversations [ for a scries of years. The only complete edition of his works is that in 11 volumes (Oxford, 1825). Johnson's character was pure and devout, but his mind was not frco from an unhealthy gloom bre<l of poverty. Ho had strange superstitions, inlierited from infancy, which colored his life. He was a man of vast learning and of masculine grasp of thought, but his judgment was warped by prejudices. In some respects his taste was singularly unrefined. A pleas- ing trait in his character was kinduess towards the poor and suffering. Porter C. Bliss. Johnson fSAMirKl.), b. at v=!alem. Mass.. Oct. 10, 1822 ; graduated at Harvard in 1842 and at the Divinity School in lS4:i; became in 185.1 pastor of a "Free" church at Lynn. A deep thinker, brilliant writer, and eloquent speaker, Mr. J. has written much on subjects of philosophy, religion, and reform. He was prominent in tho anti- slavery movement. In lS4fi he compiled, in connection with Samuel Longfellow, A Itoitk of Hifmns, sorao of tho finest of which were his own. In ISOS he published The Worship of Jixnn. Of his great work, Orieitinf Religiontf only the first volumo has appeared (Boston, 1872). Johnson (Samit.i, WiiliahI. A. .M., b. at Kingsboro*, Fulion CO., X. v.. .luly •\. I>*;-0 : studied in the Yale Sficniifio ) School and at the universities of Leipsic and Munich. In 1850 he became professor of analytical and agricultural chemistry in the Sheflield Scientific School at Yale College, New Haven. Conn. He is a member of the National Acad- emy of Sciences and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and has published HnmnfH on Mitnitrfs (I85D), Peat and itn Cntit {\Si'tCt), lluw Critftn Grow (1808, repub- lished in England in ISO'J). etc., besides translating Frese- nius's Qnalitatirr Chenn'cai Annfi/nit, and tho samc author's Quantitative Chemical Analynit. Johnnon (Rev. Thomas), b. in Virginia July 11, 1802: began his ministry in Missuuri in |K25. His greatest and most successful labors were perrorined as missionary to tho Indians, by whom ho was much beloved and revered. He belonged to the Si. Louis conference of the Methodint Kpisconal Church. South, at the time of his dcatli. He was killed by men who hated the cause ho was laboring so aealously to promote, .Ian. 3, 1805. T. 0. Si mmkiis. Johnson ( Wai.tku BoriKits). b. at Leominster, Mass., June 21, 17VII; graduated at Harvard in ISIU; was for many years a teacher in Framingham and Salem. Mass., and in German town. Pa., and the Philadelphia High School: was l8?,9-4;i professor of physics and chemistry in the I'niversity of Pennsylvania. Ho made important researches in physics; made an official report (1814) to Congress on the character of tho varieties of coal ; was en- gaged (I!*45) in examining the proposed sources of water- supply for Boston, Mass.; was tho first secretary of the Association for the Advancement of Science; became in 1848 connected with the Smithsonian Institution, and in 1S51 with the World's Fair, London. D. Apr. 20. 1S52. His principal works arc Vne of Anthracite {\>i\\), Report on Cuah (1844). Memoir of L. I), von Schweinitz (1835), Coal Trade of British America (1850). Johnson (Sir William), Baut., b. at Warrentown. co. Down, Ireland, in 1715 ; came in 1738 to America to manage some landed estates belonging to his uncle. Admiral Sir Peter Warren, and settled among tlie Mohawk Indians, being the earliest white resident of that immense and fer- tile region, and by his prudence in dealing with the Indians acquired their confidence and esteem. He learned the Mohawk language, and was made an honorary chieftain of that tribe. In 1743 he was appointed superintendent of Indian affairs for the province, and held this post under different titles for the remainder of his life. In the French war of 1755. .Tohnson was commissioned a major-general and commander-in-ciiief of the provincial forces in the ex- pedition against Crown Point, in which he defeated Baron Dicskau at Lake George (so named by him), and destroyed his army in Sept., 1755. Johnson was severely wounded in this engagement, which was considered so important that it procured him the thanks of Parliament, a grant of £5000, and a baronetcy. In 1750-57, Sir William was engaged in tho expeditions for the relief of Oswego and Fort Wil- liam Henry, was with Abercrombie at Ticonderoga in 1758, and \vns second in command under Gen. Priileaux in tho expedition against Fort Niagara in 1759. On the death of Pridcaux. who was killed before that fort. Sir William prosecuted the siege with great vigor, aided by 1000 Indian allies, defeated a French force sent to relieve the fort, and received its unconditional surrender. In 1700 he partici- pated in Amherst's expedition to Montreal. For all these services Sir William received from the king a grant of lOO.OltO acres of land N. of the Mohawk, long known ns •' Kingsland " or the *• Royal Grant," and in 1704 he built Johnson Hall, around which soon sprang up the village of Johnstown, the capital of Tryon eo., which then embraced ail Central and Western New York. Here Sir William passed the remainder of his life, exercising a baronial hos- pitality to Indians and backwoodsmen, giving great atten- tion to improvements in agriculture, and introducing tho first sheep and blood-horses into the Mohawk Valley. Ho made the Indian treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1708. and d. Julv 11, 1774. (See his Z//V, by W. L. Stone, 2 vols., 1805.) Johnson (William), LL.D., b. at Charleston, S. C, Dec. 27. 1771, was brother of Joseph ; graduated at Prince- ton in 1700: stuclicd law at Charleston umlcr 0. C. Pinck- ncv ; was a member of the legislature for three terms, being Speaker the last term : was elected judge of circuit courts, and appointed by Jefferson a justice of the Supreme Court, with jurisdiction in South Carolina and Georgia. He edited for the family of that officer the I.i/e and Corre»pondence of Mnj.-Cfu! Saihoniel Grrrue (1S22), with copious and learned annotations. Ho inclined to support tho Federal government in the nullification question (1832), and d. in New York Aug. 4, 1S;J4. Johnson (William Samuel), LL.D., tho elder son of the Rev. Dr. Samuel Johnson, b. in Stratford, Conn., Oct. 7, 1727; graduated at Yale College with great distinction in 1710: studied law. and rose at once, when admitted to the bar. (o the highest rank in his profession. He was an eager student of English politics and English literature, and early took an active interest in the relations of tho American colonies to the home government. In 1701 ho was chosen to represent the town of Stratford iu the lower house of the general assembly, and was one of (he council or upper house when he was selected to atteiiti the first Colonial Congress, that met at New York in 1705 to con- sider tho Stamp Act. He drew up the petitions and re- monstrances which were sent to the king and two houses of Parliament. At the October session of the general as- sembly of Connecticut in 1700. Dr. Johnson — for by this time the I'niversity of Oxford had honored him with tho degree of doctor of laws — was appointed to proceed to England and defend in a cause pending ben)re the king and lords in council concerning the title to a large tract of land olitained for the colony from the Mohegaii Indians: and those who heard him speak on this occasion were not only astonished but charme<l by his eloquence. After the battle of Lexington he and another gentleman were deputed to wait on Gen. Gage, then in commaml of the British forces at Boston, with a letter from tho governor of Connecticut, the object of which was to stay hostile prucccilings, and inquire if means could not be adopted to secure peace. Tho embassy was unsuccessful, tho progress of events hurrying on tho war. Retiring from the council after the Declara- tion of Independence, JohnsoQ set himself quietly down to 1434 JOHNSON CITY— JOHNSTON. his studies at Stratford, but when the independence of the colonies was established he resumed the practice of his profession, and was reinstated in his old office as a member of the upper house of the general assembly. He was a delegate from Connecticut to the convention wliich framed the Federal Constitution, and president of the committee of five apjioiutcd to revise the style of the instrument and arrange its articles. He proposed the organization of the Senate as a separate body, and was elected the lirst Senator from Connecticut, and in concert with his collcajjue. Oliver Ellsworth, drew up the bill to organize the judiciary. After King's College, N. Y., became Columbia under the new organization of trustees established in 17^7, he was chosen to the presidency — an office which his father bad filled under the royal charter. Afler 1800 he lived in re- tirement at Stratford, and d. there Xov. 11. 1819. . E. E. Beardsley. Johnson City, post-v. of Washington co., Tenn., on tiie East Tennessee Virginia and ijeorgia R. II., 25 miles S. \y. of Bristol, Tcnn. Johnson's, tp. of Shelby co., Ala. Pop. 729. Johnson's Creek, post-v. of Jefferson co., Wis., on Chicago and North-western R. R., 8 m. S. of AVatertown. John'sonville, post-v., cap. of Sunflower co.. Miss. John'sonville, post-v. of Pittstown tp., Rensselaer CO., X. Y., at the junction of the Troy and Boston and Johnsonville and Greenwich R. Rs., 17 miles N. E. of Troy. Pop. 500. Johnsonville, tp. of Harnett co., N. C. Pop. 483. Johnsonville, post-v. of Humphreys co., Tenn., on the Tennessee River and the Nashville and North-western R. R., 78 miles W. of Nashville. John's River, tp. of Caldwell co., N. C. Pop, SS3. John'ston (formerly Johnson), county of E. Central North Carolina. Area, 670 square miles. It has a varied surface, a good soil, and is reported to contain ores of iron, lead, gold, silver, zinc, etc. Live-stock, corn, and cotton are staple products. It is traversed by Xeuse River and the Atlantic and North Carolina R. R. Cap. Smithfield. Pop. t(vS97. Johnston, tp. of Trumbull co., O. Pop. 893. Johnston, tp. of Providence co., R. I, It contains several manufacturing villages. Pop. 4192. Johnston, tp. of Scott co., Va. Pop. 1S70. Johnston, tp. of Shenandoah co., Va. Pop. 1889. Johnston (Albert Sidnevj. b. in Kentucky in 1803; graduated at the U. S. .Military Academy July I," ISIIG. and entered the army as second lieutenant llth Infantry; after serving in the Black Hawk war. he resigneil from the army, and, in 1836, emigrated to Texas, arriving there shortly after the battle of San .lacinto. Entering the Texan army as a private, he was soon promoted to succeed Gen. Felix Hous- ton in chief command, in consequence of whieh a duel oe- cnrred in whicli .lohnston was wounded. Ho held the ofliee of senior brigadier-general till IS.'JS, when he was appointed secretary of war of Texas, and in 1839 organized an expe- dition against the Chcrokees, who were totally routed in an engagement on the Ncches. In 1810 he retired from pub- lic life and settled upon a plantation. He was an ardent advocate for the annexation of Texas to the U. S., and in 1846, at the request of Gen. Tnylor, he took the field against Mexico as commander of the Texan volunteer rifle regiment. Subsequently he served as inspeetor-gcuerul on the staff of Gen. W. 0. Butler, and distinguished himself at tlie battle of Monterey. In 1849. IVesident Taylor re- appointed him in the army as paymaster, with the rank of major, in whieh capacity he served until 18.}5, when he was appointed colonel l.'d l". S. Cavalry. In 1857 he com- manded the U. S. forces sent to coerce the Mormons into obedience to Federal authority, conducting the expedition in safety to Salt Lake City, and commanded the depart- ment of Utah. For energy, zeal, and prudence displnyed in his conduct of this expedition he was brevctted brigadier- general. In l.^tJO he was removed to the command of the department of the Pacific. In May, 1861, he resigned from the service and travelled overla'nd to the seat of the Confederate government. He was at once appointed a general in the Confederate army, and assigned to an im- portant cummaud in the West. "At the battle of Shiloh he i was commander-in-chief, and on the first dav of that battle was killed. Apr. 0, 1862. G.*C. Simmons. ] Johnston (Ai.EXAxnEn Kp.iTn), b, at Kirkhill, Scot- ! land, Dec. 28, 1804; travelled extensively, and studied the ■ principal modern languages to avail himself of their re- I sources in peogrftphical data, and ]»ublished in 1843 a X'ltioiinf Atlat, which gained him extensive reputation. \ His Phjftical Atlaa of Natural Phenomena (1847-49; 2d ed. 1854-56) contained important contributions from Sir R. Murchison, Sir David Brewster, Prof, Rogers of Boston, and other eminent scientists. Mr. .Johnston was chosen a member of the eeograpiiieal societies of Paris and Berlin, received the appointment of geographer to t!ie queen for Scotland, and issued numerous educational, manual, nnci special atlases. D. at Ben Rhydding July 9, 1871. His son, hearing tho same name, has succeeded him la his geo- graphical enterprises. Johnston (Gabkiel), b. in Scotland about the end of the seventeenth century : was educated at the I'^nivcrsity of St. .Vndrew's, and became profcsi^or of Oriental languages in the same institution. He was n])pointcd governor of North Carolina in 1734, and hchl that office till his death in Aug., 1752. He was esteemed tho ablest of the colonial governors, and successfully cultivated literature. He gave the narac of Wilmington to the jdacc of that name in North Carolina, in honor of his chief patron at court, the earl of Wilmington. Johnston (GronflEl. b. at Simprin in 1798; graduated at the University of Edinburgh in 1S19, after serving a medical apprenticeship with Dr. Abercrombie, and became a physician at Bcrwick-on-Twecd. He j>ursued the study of natural history with great enthusiasm and success, and was one of the founders of the Ray Society. He puhlished important works on the ffhtori/ of Jirltish Zoopfiiftts ( 1838), Hiatorif of British Sponga and Lithophi/tr/i ( 1 842 J, fntroduc- tion to Concliolofj}f (1850). and Natural Hiatory of the East- ern Borders (1854). D. July 3, 1855. Johnston (James F. W.), b. at Paisley, Scotland, about 1790; was for many years a classical and scientific teacher at Glasgow and Durham ; went to Sweden in 1830; studied chemistry under Bcrzelius; became professor of chemistry and mineralogy at the University of Durham, and prepared numerous treatises on agricultural chemistry-, most of which have enjoyed a wide circulation in America. Prof. Johnston visitod the U. S. about 1848. Among his works are Elements of At/ricultnral Chemisln/ and Geolof/y ( 1842), Catechinm and Lectnres (1844) on the same sciences, Notesnn North America (1849), and Chemistry of Common Lift- (1854-55). D. at Durham Sept. 18, 1855. Johnston (John). LL.D.. b. Aug. 22, 1806, in Bristol, Me.; graduated at Bowdoin College in 1832; after being principal of a seminary at Cazcnnvia. N. Y., he be<'ame connected in 1835 with the Wesleyan University at Middle- town, Conn., first as assistant, and subsequently as professor of natural science, where be has (1875) since remained. Ho published several textbooks on chemistry and natural phi- losophy, most of which have undergone several thorough revisions, and been extensively used in the colleges and schools of tho country. A history of Bristol (his native town) and the adjoining town of Bremen, from his pen. m.ade its appearance in 1873. This work is the result of extended and thorough research, embracing a critical in- vestigation of several important (juestions relating to the early history of Maine; and is justly regarded as one of the most valuable contributions that have been made to American local history. He was a frequent contributor to various periodicals, as the Amrrimn Journal of Scienrt. tho National Miujaziufi^ Mftlunli^t Qnnrterlif Jicriar, and the AViF Eufjland Historical and O'anraloffiral Itcf/iHt<r, and was a member of the historical societies of several of the States and of various scientific associations. D. ut Clif- ton, Staten Island, N. Y., Dec. 1, 1879. Johnston (John TAVi.on'), b. in New York City Apr. 8, 18'_M); was educated partly in N^cw Yoik and partly in Ivlinburgh: graduated at the University of tlie City of New York in 1839 ; was admitted to the bar in 1843, and became interested soon after in the control of railroads. He was electe<l ]i resident of the Central Railroad of New Jersey in 1848. which jiosition he now holds. He is pres- ident of the council of the University of the City of New York, and also president of tho Metropolitan Museum of Art in the same city. .1. B. Bisnop. Johnston (Joseph Em,EST0N>. h. in Prince Edward CO., Va., Feb., 1807 : graduated at West Point, and entered the army as second lieutenant of artillery July, 1829, From the date of gradiiation until 1837 he served mainly on gar- rison duty, being, however, actively engaged for some two years in Florida against Seminole Indians, a portion of which time on the staff" of Gen. Winfield Scott. In 1837 he resigned his commission to follow the profession of civil engineer, but re-entered the service on July 7, 1838, as first lieutenant of topographical engineers, and for former gallantry in Florida was n<iw brevctted captain. From this time until the outbreak of the war with ]\Iexico ho was engaged upon river and harbor improvements, surveys of Texas boundary-line and that between the U. S. and tho British i>roviuccs, etc. At the siege of Vera Cruz .loil.NSTON— JOINDKR OV PAKTIKS IX LAW. 14:i: (Mar., 1847) he served on cnginoer duty; was appointed Apr. 9 lieutenant-euloncl of voltigeurs. and at Ocno Gordo on iho 12tli rt'ccivc"! severe wouiuls while engafjcd in recon- noitring tho enemy's position, nnd breretted iiuijor and colonel. In the suh^equeut battles of Contreru^^, Cliuru- busco, Molino del Ue\\ Chapultepcc, and the final assault of the city of Mexico he participated, and was wounded at the latter as.'^ault. I'pon the disbandment of the volti- gcnr?< in 1S48, Johnston, by act of Congress restorinj; officers of tho old army to their former positions, returned to duty as captain of topographical engineers, serving as such until ISiD, when he was ajtpointed lientenant-colouel of cavalry, and was engaged in frontier duty and on tho Vtah expe- dition as inspector-general. On June 2^, ISOO, ho was appointed quartermaster-general with tho rank of brig- adier-general, which position he resigned Apr. 22, ISGl, to follow the fortunes of his native State. At onoo appointed major-general in tho Tonfedorate army, be eomniaii'led the force which occupied Harper's Ferry. May. \S<\\, and which subsequently, in the vicinity of Winchester, held in cheek the Union force under Gen. Robert Patterson, and whieh still later reinforced (ten. Beauregard in his p<)sition about Manassas. At tho battle of Bull Run, Gen. Johnston waived his right to command in favor of Beauregard, the latter being familiar with tho ground and troops, while the former was not. In the Peninsular campaign ho was in command of the Confederate army, and at the close of tho first day's fighting at Fair Oaks (May31,lSC2) was severely wounded anj disabled for several months, being suocct-iled by (icn. K. K. Lee. T'|>on his recovery he was assigned to com- mand the S. W. department, with tho rank of lieutenant- general, and during tho eicgo of Vicksburg made several ineifectual attempts to relievo that place, being finally de- feated at and driven beyond Jackson, Miss. In Dec, 186,1, Johnston, now a general, succeeded Gon. Bragg in command of tho Confederate army of Tennessee: but failing to prevent tho invasion of Georgia the following spring by the Union forces of Gen. Sherman, be wassupcr- sedeil (July 17, 18CI) by Gen. J. B. Hood, after having been forced to retire from the strong positions at l>altou. Ilesaea, Kenesaw, etc., and beyond tho Chattahoochee. In 1805 Johnston was restored to command in the Carolinas to collect and command an army to oppose the advance of Gon. Sherman, but was defeated at Fayctleville, Bcnton- ville, etc., and upon recci\ing intclligeneo of tho surrender of Lee entered into correspondence with Gen. Sherman, which led to the surrender of his army at Durham Station, N. C, Apr. 26, ISfij. In 1874 he published a Xarrative of Militnrtf OfH'ntlions. G. C. SlMMoXS. JohnHton ^Ricmaiid M.), b. in Hancock co., fla., Mar. ft, IS22; graduated at ]\Iereer University with tho lirst honor of his class in ISIl; studiecl law and was ailmittcd to the bar, and entered upon the praclieo atSpartain 18ilJ. The presidency of Mercer University was unanimously ten- dered him by the board of trustees in 1SJ7; this ho dc- clineil. preferring to aecrpt a proi'essorsbip of brlfev-/ct(rtn in the State Univert^ily tendered him at tho same time. This position ho held until istU, after the war broke out; ho then established a sclcot classical school at Roekby in his native county, which became famous in the Southern States; in I8ft7, after the ad'tption of the reconstruction poliey by Congress, he moved his school to Cbcstniit Hill, 2 miles N. . of Raltimore, M*l., where it is now known as Pen-Lucy Institute. Hundreds of young men have gone forth into active useful life from the trainlngof this eminent instructor. The labors of Prof. Johnston have not been confined to teaching only; by his pen he has ef>ntributed extensively to the literature of tho country, liis most noted works of this character being hts EngliaK CVa««iV« (18.'>'.)), nnd tho J)iikr»t,nrottf/h TidvH (1872). A. II. Stkimikns. Johnston (Samiti,), LL.D., b. at Dundee, Scotland, Dec. |j, \~'.V.\, nephew of (iov. Gabriel Johnston, was brought in infancy to North Carolina, whern his father be- conio surveyor-general nnd acquired largo landed estates. Samuel was admitte<l to the bar, wns chosen to the aHsnmbly in 1760, and espoused the cause of resistance to tho British cabinet ; was an active member of the first two provincial Congresses, and presideil over the third nnd fourth. In I77i> he was chairman of tho provincial council, was a member of the Conlinenlnl Congress in I78I-S2, governor of North Cartdina 178S-S9, presiding over the Siato con- vention which a'lopled the Federal Constitution; was XT. S. Senator 178y-ii;i. and justice of tho Supremo Court 1800- 03. 1). near Edenton, N. C, Aug. I«, 1816. Johnston (Wh.i.iam FnKAMr). b. at Oreensburg, West- moreland CO., Pa.. Nov, 2'.*. 18)IH, of Scotch- Irish paternity. His father was a prominent iron manufaelurer and mer- chant. W. F. Johnston became a siieeessfnl lawyer of Armstrong eo.. Ph., having been admitted to the bar in 1S29. la the State legislature bo early woo distinetioQ by bis financial ability. In 1S47 be became president of the Senate. On July 9. ISJS. Gov. Shunk died, Mr. Johnston becoming governor €x-ojfit:io; but llie statutes and the State constitution being in apjtarcnt confiict, he ordered a new election, and was himseli" chosen governor for tlirec years. lie afterwards was an iron and salt manufacturer and oil- refiner of Pittsburg, and was for a time collector of tho port of Philadelphia. D. at Pittsburg Oct, 25, 1872. John'stonet town of Scotland, in the county of Ren- frew, has large manufactures of cotton fabrics and of arti- cles of iron and brass. The vicinity contains rich coal- mines, pop. 6104. John'stown for Lanci Rin). post-tp. of Garrett co., Md. (formerly in Allegany co.). Pop. 673. Johnstown, post-tp. of Barry co., Mich. Pop. 1296. Johnstown, post-v.. cap. of Fulton co., N. Y., on the Fonda Johnstown and Gloversvillc H. K., 4 miles N. of Fonda, and on the Cayadutta Creek; has 2 banking- houses, 10 churches, 3 weekly newspapers, an academy, county buildings, good hotels, gasworks, and various man- ufactures, ]»roniinent among which is that of gloves nnd mittens. The township of Johnstown includes Glovcrsville and other vilhi-es. Pop. of v. ;i282 ; of tp. 12,27:i. W. II. ll<M lU.KDAY, FOR Ed. "FlLTON Co. DEMOfttAT." Johnstown, post-b. of Cambria co., Pa., on the Penn- sylvania Canal and R. R., 79 miles E. of Pittsburg; has a rolling-mill and Bessemer steel works (employing 6000 men), a woollen-mill, tannery, meehanieal works, cement- works, and other industries, gas and water supply, 1 daily and b weekly newspapers, n national and a savings bank. The surrounding mountains are rich in iron, bituminous coal, limestone, cement, and fireclay. The Concmaugh River flows on the N. and Stony Creek on the S. of tho town. Pop. G028, greatly increased since the census. G. T. Swank, En. " TrtiBi .nk." Johnstown, a v. of Porter tp., Schuylkill co., Pa. Pop. 70. Johnstown, post-tp. of Rock co., Wis. Pop. 1299. John'sviMc, post-v. of Frederick co., Md., 1.1 miles N. E. of Frederick City. Pop. of tp. 1642. Johnsville, v. of Ferry tp., Morrow co., 0. Pop. 159. John'ton, po8t-v. of Marion co., W. Va. Pop. 55. Joignoanx' (PiEnnK), b. at Varennes, department of Cfitc d'Or, France, in 1815, agronomist, agrii'ulfural writer, and representative. He passed through the Paris Kcnic Centrale des Arts ct Manufactures, nnd launched himself in politics, writing for t!io opposition papers. He was sentenced to jirison under tho Louis Philip])o government, nnd elected in 18IS representative to the National Assem- bly, where ho look his scat on the extreme Left. After tho roup (Vtfatui Dec, 1S.')1, .Toigneaux was exiled to Belgium, from whence he returned after the proclamation of amnesty to devote himself exclusively to his former agricultural writings. He publishecl many articles, founded agricul- tural journaN, and wrote Thr /*fa*ntntn iiii'ler lioifalty, iJiC' tionnvy o/' i'rurtiofil Ai/n'rit/ftir<^, CoiiuHcfn to the Yoittiff Fnrminff-womnn, Cnlturr aufl Fabrirntinu of Wine in lid- ffiutn, Tirfitise of the Seetl» of the Siiinfl and Larffe Hu»- I'tnifri/, etc. Fkmx ArCAlONE. Joipny', town of Franco, in tho department of Yonne, on tho Yonne, noted for its fine claret wines. Pop. 5971. Join'tlcr of Actions in Law is the union of two or more causes of action in tho same declaration or complaint. A plaintilf may have several distinct claims against tho same defendant, either wholly or partly arising out of con- tract, or wholly or partly foumled upon tort, and in such cases it becomes an important qu»-lion whether he can unite all these claims and obtain the remedy appropriate to each in a single action, or whether several actions must be brought. At common law tho rule was in civil cases that when the same plea might be pleaded and the same judgment given on all the eiiunts of the declaration, or when tho counts were of the same nature and the same judgment was to be given on them all, several causes of ac- tion might bo joineil. Thus, in an Action on contract, a count tor debt upon a bonil might he united with a count for debt up(»n sintpio eontract. So in an actiitn of tort sev- eral claims tor trespasses might be joined. But a demand upon contract could not be uniterl with a claim grounded in tort. The subject of joinder of actions, particularly in civil eases, is now frequently regulated by statute. There are also special rules as to joinder in criminal cases. Gkomor CtiAsr. RrvisFn av T. W. Dwionr. Joinilor oT Parties in Law. By this expression is meant the eollection of rules requiring that persons hav- ing a common intere-^t or subject to n ennimon liability shouhl bt> joined together in an action at law or other legal proceeding. The details of this subject, being of a tooh- 1436 JOINERY— JOINT AND SEVERAL. nical character, should be sought in the books of legal practice. The subject is one of great consequence to the legal practilioner. and should be carefully understood, as a failure to join the necessary parties is frequently fatal in its consequences. In contrasting the rules prevailing in courts of law with tho«e adopted in courts of equity upon this subject, it will be found that the latter are much the more liberal. The former arc frequently in a high degree technical : the latter, on the other hand, are so framed as to make it proper to bring in all persona whose presence is necessary to a com- plete determination of the matter in controversy. There is alsoan important and salutary rale, that when the parties are numerous, and it is impracticable to bring them all before the court, one or more may sue for the benefit of the whole. An illustration of it is found in the case where an admin- istrator is called upon to account in respect to the assets of an estate in his hands. One or more of a numerous body of creditors may sue. not only for himself, but also for the other creditors. Keeurring to the rules of the com- mon-law courts, it may be useful to state that the question as to uniting parties arises in the main out of joint con- tract, ownership, or wrong (tort). It is a general rule that when the interest in a contract is joint the cause of action is of the same nature, and all the parties should be united. A like rule prevails in the case of a joint liability. A dis- tinction must here be made between a ''joint " liability and one that is "joint and several." (See Joint and Several.) This rule gives way when one of two joint parties dies. The action is then prosecuted by or against the survivor. In a court of equity the representatives of the deceased will still bo liable in some instances to the survivor for contribution. {See Contribition.) In the case of wrongs it is not necessary, though proper, to join all the wrong- do_'r3. a wrong being regarded in its nature as joint and stncral. Where two or more persons are jointly injured, they should be united as plaintiffs. Special rules exist in the case of husband and wife, growing out of the technical rule that the legal existence of the wife is merged in that of the husband. These rules, requiring them to be united a« parties to actions, give way when one of them dies, Tlic fiction of a merger is then abandoned, and the true owner of the claim or the author of the wrong is recog- nized as the proper person to sue or to be sued. There is a tendency in modern law to abandon this tiction in many respects. Thus, under the New York code of proctiduro the wife may sue alone concerning her separate property, and by other statutes to recover for her services or for in- juries that she has sustained, or for her profits in trade, etc. A siiuilar rule prevails in many other States. A like tend- ency is observable in England. It cannot be said that the common-law rule bos been wholly abandoned, but only uiolified. The penalty in the common-law courts for failure to make the proper i>ersons ]jarties is very severe. Error in this re- pppct is in some instances fatal in every stage of the cause. By modern legislation in some States of this country the general course of the action is unaffected by the presence of too m.any plaintiffs or defendants. Thus, in Xe\v York, wlicre there are defendants in excess the question can only be raised by them, and they may claim that as far as they are concerned there is no cause of action. Oa this theory, the cause proceeds against those who are properly made defendants. This, it can scarcely be denied, is a very sal- utary reform. AVhere the parties are too few, the objection must be raised at an early stage in the cause, or it will bo d 'cmod to be abandoned. So now in England errors of this kind may be amended before or at the trial by force of the "common law procedure act" of is;»2 and later statutes. (Reference may he made for further information to Dicey on PartUit; Barbour on PnrtuH; lirown,do. ; Cal- vert, do.; and to general works on Practice.) T. W. DWIGRT. Join'ery differs from Oarpestrt (which see) in the nicer and more exact \vorkmanship required. The house- joiner finishes the work which the carpenter and builder have left. So of the shipjoiner, whose work is sometimes almost a work of art rather than one of artisanship. The making of nice wooden-wares, ornamental boxes, and the like is a still more delicate kind of joinery. Jointf in anatomy, an articulation, or the connection existing between the several bones of the skeleton. The tissues entering into its formation are bones, the ends of which are covered by cartilage, and bound together by lig- aments; in the more movable a membranous sac is inter- posed, which secretes a lubricating fluid called synovia. The constrnction of joints differs in various parts of the body, according to the function which they have to per- form ; and in consequence of this they have been divided into three classes — viz., synarthrosis, nmphiarthrosis, and diarthrosie, which have been subdivided as follows : I. Synarthroitig, an immovable articulation : (a) Stituro, in which the bones are dovetailed into each other, as in the skull, (b) Harmoiiin. in which the joints are but slightly marked, as union of superior raaxilhe. (c) GompkoaiM, in which a conical point fits into a socket, as the teeth into the alveoli. (</) ^'chimit/icsis, an articulation by furrow- ing, as it were — vomer. II. Aiifphinrthronia, an articulation permitting limited motion: («) .S[yiif/''*mo«f'*i, the articulation of two or more bones by means of ligaments, as radius and ulna, (h) Si/n- ckonfiroHtu, the articulation of bones by means of cartilage, as that of the ribs with the sternum, (c) Si/iiiphysi», the union of bones by fibro-eartilage. as the pubes. III. Dinrthi'oais, a movable articulation : (a) Arthrodia, a gliding joint, as sterno-clavieular. (A) Enm'th rosin, a ball-and-socket joint, as the shoulder and hip joints, (c) Giiit/(tfmm, a hinge-like articulation, as at the elbow and knee, (d) Diartfirosis rutfitorimt, as the atlo-axoid joint. The diseases to which the joints arc most li.able arc Syno- vitis, Chondritis, and Osteitis. EnwARn .1. Berminghah. Joint and Several, a legal phrase used to denote that the liability of two or more debtors is of such a kind that they may be sued either collectively or individually. If any one of them, when the liability rests upon con- tract, is sued and compelled to discharge the entire debt, he has a claim for contribution against the others upon an implied contract, and may re'_^over from them such a por- tion of the whole amount as they ought justly to pay. And if the debt be a valid antl subsisting obligation, a single debtor may pay it in full, even though no suit is brought against him, and will still have a valid claim for contribution. So, if the ]>ayment made by one be less than the entire debt, but larger than his own proper share, he will be entitled to receive from the others a proportionate part of the excess according to the extent of their respective liabilities upon the contract. If one or more of the other debtors be insolvent, the one who pays the whole, or more than his share, can recover at la\v from those who remain solvent only such suras as they would be obliged to pay if all were solvent. In equity, however, those who remain solvent must contribute equally towards the discharge of the entire indebtedness, in accordance with the maxim that "equality is equity." A joint and several obligation may bo created by the express language of the agreement, or may arise by implication from its terms. Usually, the words are employed, "We jointly and severally promise (or covenant)." but a contract by two or more persons, in which they agree '* for ourselves and each of us " or " for ourselves and every of us," is also an express joint and sev- eral contract. A joint and several liability is implied when several persons sign a contract in the obligatory part of which the pronoun / is used instead of tee. Moreover, a joint and several obligation may sometimes arise by reason of the legal relatiuns of the parties by whom a contract is entered into. Thus. Jn England the liability of the mem- bers of an ordinary partnership in regard to the debts and engagements of the firm is joint and several in courts of equity (though not in courts of law), except under special circumstances. If one of several co-contractors upon a joint and several agreement dies, the action may, at common law, be brought either against his personal representative (executor or administrator) or against the survivors. The rule is different, however, in regard to parties who are jointly liable; and if one of them dies the action must be brought against the survivors. When the joint and sev- eral contract is for the performance of a single act or duty, a release under seal to one will operate as a release to all. But a judgment recovered against one. if not satisded, will be no bar to an action against either of the others. A joint and several obligation cannot be treated as several in ref- erence to some of the obligors and jjiut as to the rest. The creditor must proceed either jointly against all or severally against each. This rule, however, has in some of the States been changed by statute. The phrase '"joint and several" is only applied "to the liability of debtors, and not to the claims of creditors. There can be no form of contract by which the obligees arc entitled to sue either collectively or singly. Their claim can be only joint or only several. There may also be a joint and several liability in cases of tort, as well as in cases of contract. Thus, if two or more persons unite in the commission of a tortious offence, one, any, or all of them may be sued by the party suffering the injury. Full damages may bo recovered from the party sued, and there will not, in general, be any claim for contribution against the other wrongdoers. In some cases, however, where the person who is compelled to make full payment was not wilfully nor intentionally a participant in the wrong committed, he will be entitled to recover a propor- tional amount of the damages from the others. (For an illustration of this kind, see CoNTHiBrrroN.) George Chase. Rkviseh by T. W. Dwight. JOINT FIRS— JOINT OWNERSHIP. 1437 Joint Firs (Gnctaccip), a small natural order of exog- enous jjlanls (cyninogens) closely allied to llic Conifcraj. They arc small trees and shrubs of the genera (liifium and Ephcdrn, found in tropical and warm countries. Their steins arc jointed, their juices not nsinous. hut very wa- tery, or sometimes even gummy. Several grow in the far \Vc?t. Joint Own'crship. As employed in a comprehensive sense in law, joint ownership denotes the ownership of properlv, whether real or personal, by two or more persons. But it is more appropriately applied to personal property, and is, by this restriction of meaning, distinguished from joint tcnancv. which is customarily used with reference to real estate, of which only can tenure be properly predicated. Both these phrases arc, however, sometimes loosely cm- ployed as avnonymous. By a still further qualification of meaning, joint ownership is distinguished from ownership in comrnon, and joint tenancy from tenancy in common, in the accurate technical application of these various terms, the interest of a number of owners being characterized strictly as joint when the property, whether real or per- sonal, is hold by them with a unity of interest, of title, of time, and of possession, and with a right of survivorship ; while it is termed common when the only unity is that of possession, and there is no survivorship. In this article ownership of personal property will only be considered ; that of real property will be considered under the topics Joist Tenascv and Tknaniv in Common: ownership by several persons who stand in the relation of partners will be discussed under PARTNKnsnip. (For ownership by sev- eral who form the members of a corporation see Corpora- tion.) There are four unities which, as has just been stated, are necessary to constitute joint ownership. By unity of in- terest is meant that the interest of each owner in the prop- erty should be, by its original limitation, for the same du- ration and of the same nature and quanlity. Tnity of title exists when the title of each is derived from the same in- strument or from the same act of transfer of interest. That there may be unity of time the interest of each should vest at the same moment : while unity of possession requires that each owner should be entitled to the possession of the whole property and every parcel, and that it should not bo divided in separate portions between them. There is an exception, however, to the rule requiring unity of time when the joint ownership is created by will. Thus, if a bequest be made to ,A for life, and after his death to tho children of B, all the children born in \'a lifetime will be- come entitled jointly, Ihoui,'h some may not be living when the interests of the others become vested. All property held in joint ownership is subject to the right of survivor- ship. In the apjdication of this doctrine, whenever one of the owners dies, the survivors take the entire interest, to the ex(dusion of his personal representatives. Joint ownership always arises by the act of parties, and not by the operation of law. Hence, though it might he created by a transfer of property by deed or by gift, it would not (lubsist in relation to properly which pnsse.l after the de- cease of the previous owner to the next of kin. The crea- tion of a joint interest in personal property may either bo by the use of express language to that elTect in tho instru- ment of transfer, or it may result from necessary imi)lica- tion, as where chattels are given to two or more persons without the use of any words indicating a severance of in- terest. But this implication »vill not be made in relation to stock used in joint undertakings of trade or agriculture. A limitation of this to two or more persons will be held generally to create a tenancy in common. This excep- tion to the general doctrine bus been establishrd on account of the effect of the rule of survivorship in interfering with the unrestricted management of property, and with the usual mode of distribution after the owner's death. In C'Hirts of cquil; except in the ept in the case of property given in trust, and will not, as a rule, be held to exist unless that bo the ex- pressed or clearly presumable intention of the parties. In this country, also, the tendency of legislation is to do away with the incirlent of survivorship, except in the ease of lega- cies and where persona are appointed co-exeeulnrs or eo- trustcca. In regard to legacies limited to several persons, it is a general rule that they take a joint interest. When several executors or trustees are appointed, they are usually deemctl to holil in joint ownership, sine these cases it is desirable that the principle of survivorship should apply, and that the property should pass to the remaining execu- tors or trustees to be managed for the pui]\oscs designated in the will or in the instrument creating the tru^t, rather than that others should interfere with its disposition. Kvery kind of personal properly may be held in joint ownership, whether it be property in possession or properly in action. (Seo Chose ix Actios.) Thus, there may be joint owners of stock, of a legacy, of a promissory note, of a patent right, or of a lease for years, which is termed a chattel real, as well as of a horse, furniture, etc. Tho interest of any owner cannot be disposed of by will, but will pass to the survivor unaffected by the bequest. Joint ownership in chattels, like a joint tenancy in lands, may be terminated by destroying any one of the four requisite unities, except that of time, and may thus be changed into an ownership in severalty or in common. Then the owners may, by mutual agreement, divide the property among them- selves, or sell it and divide the proceeds, thus becoming in- dependent owners of distinct shares. Or the interest of any one may bo assigned or transferred to a third person, who will thereupon become tenant in common with the others. In ownership in common of chattels, as in tenancy in common of real property, there is but a single unity, that of possession, and there is no right of survivorship. Each owner has an undivided share, and u)>on his death this passes to his executor or administrator, to be administered in the same way as the rest of his personal estate. Owner- ship in common may arise by a gift or transfer of chattels, which by the terms of the limitation are to be held in com- mon ; or, as has been already seen, it may result from the disposal of his interest to a third person by one of several joint owners. By common -law rules, however, the interest of a joint owner in a chose in action cannot be transferred so as to effect an ownership in common, since choscs in action are not assignable. But in equity a difl'erent rule prevails, and an assignment will be deemed valid. In some of the States, also.choses in action have been made assignable by statute, so that the common-law rules would no longer be applicable. A number of persons may also become owners in common by an innocent admixture of their chattels, which are of such a kind that it becomes impofsible to distinguish the particular property of each, as where quantities of grain belonging to different persons are mingled together acci- dentally, or arc mixed in elevators in the cour.sc of trans- portation ; so several owners may agree to hold their prop- erty in common. This form of ownership may arise by operation of law as well as by the act of jMirties. Thus, tho next of kin of a deceased person, among whom his personal property is distributed, may be said to stand in relation to one another like tenants in common until a distribution is made, since if one of them should die in the intervening time, his personal representatives, and not the survivors, would be entitled to his share. An owner in common may dispose of his interest as freely as an owner in severalty. The purchaser becomes an owner in common with the other owners. Ownership in common may be destroyed by a division of the property among the various owners accord- ing to tho extent of their respective shares. There are certain principles ap))licable to joint and to common ownership which are quite similar, and may there- fore be considered together. Thus, both joint and common owners have a right to dispose of their own interests, but not of the shares of their I'ellowowners. If they nttrmpt to transfer a Inrirer jiortion of the ).ropcrly than they arc rightfully entitled to, the transaction will only be valid to tlio extent of their own interests. The share of each owner may also bo sold on execution against him by the sheriff. If the sheriff sell the entire chattel, the other co-owners, who arc thereby deprived of their property, may sue him for conversion. Kacli joint or cominiui owner is entilled to tho possession of the property, and his possession is deemed to be the possession of all. One co-owner in actual possession even has the right to maintain that possession against tho others. The lei;al remedy of the other co-owners is to take tho chattel wherever an 'opportunity is afforded, but they cannot bring an action for conversion simply on this ground. As a general rule, joint owners and owners in common must unite in all actions foriiijuries to the general property by third persons, as in actions of trespass and trover. In .some instances one co-owner may maintain an action against another for a misuse of, or wrongful inter- ference with, the joint or common properly. An intentional destruction or spoliation of the chattel by one will amount to a conversion, for which he will be responsible. In some Stales it is held that a sale by one owner of more than his share will render him liable to an action of trover. In a few Slates, also, statutes have been enacted permitting an action to be brought by one co-owner against another merely for the exercise of an exclusive control over tho property. .\ change in the identity of the article which forms the general |tro)>erty, as where iron owned in com- mon is melted together and manufactured into various utensils, would constitute a conversion. A partition of tho property held in common cannot bo obtained by any form of proceeding at law, though sometimes courts of equity will decree that a division be made. When the properly is ; severable in its nature, and of tho same common quality, I any owner may separate a portion equal to his share, if it 1438 JOINT-STOCK COMPANY. can be ascertained by weight or measurement, and appro- priate it to himself. Tiicre is no necessity of obtainin<; the consent of the other owners \u such a case in order tliat a eeveranoe may iic made. But when the property is indi- visible, as a horse, a partition can only be made at law by obtaining the consent of all the owners to a sale and a divis- ion of the proceeds. (For the rules of law relating to part ownership of vessels see Part Owxkus.) Gkoucp. Chask, Revised by T. W. Dwight. Joint-Stock Company, an association of individuals forinetl for the purpose of carrying on some mercantile, in- dustrial, or other lawful unclertaking, and havini; a capital divided into shares which are transferable by the respective shiueholdors at their own option, and the ownership of which is a condition of membership. As formed in ac- cordance with common-law rules governing their organiza- tion and defining their powers, such associations arc unin- corpnrated and constitute a sjiecies of partnership. In recent times, however, it has been the tendency of legisla- tion to invest them with corporate powers which they did not possess at common law. and in England statutes have been enacted, the effect of which is to render them actual corporations, provided certain formalities prescribed by the statute? are complied with in the mode of organization. The term joint-stock company, therefore, as frequently em- ployed at the present day. particularly in English practice, wouM include lioth incorpor.atcd and imincorporated asso- ciations. It will be most convenient, however, to employ it in the present article in the restricted distinctive sense prevailing at common law. irrespective of statutory modi- fications of its extent of application, except when the character and effect of such statutes are specifically con- sidered. In this view a joint-stock company is in the na- ture of a partnership, though it is attended with different incidents and liabilities, in many respects, from an ordi- nary partnership. In the early history of the common law the only forms of association of individuals for the accom- plishment of any object by a combination of capital and effort, which were known, were partnerships and corpora- tions. Joint-stock companies, as subsequently introduced in mercantile communities and recognized by the law, were intermediate between these modes of association, which had been of earlier origin, and partook to a considerable extent of the peculiarities of both. Like common partnerships, they are formed solely by a voluntary union of individuals, who combine for purposes of mutual profit and benefit, and are not created by legislative authority, nor endowed by legislative act with the powers and functions which they possess and exercise. Po a joint-stock company, like a partnership, is not a fictitious person capable of suing and being sued, and of acting generally in legal transactions like a natural person, as is true with regard to a corpora- tion, nor is it regarded as having any distinct legal exist- ence independently of the members who compose it. The members, like partners, must sue and be sued in the same way as all individuals who liave engaged in a joint enter- prise and have acquired joint rights and incurred joint lia- bilities. All must regularly be joined as plaintiffs or as de- fendants, and suit cannot be brought in the name of tho company. One or more members of tlie company may rep- resent it and act in its interests if they are specially ap- pointed as agents, managers, or directors, in much the same way as one or more partners may represent the firm; but in such a case they represent (he whole body of the mem- bers, not as forming a collective whole and constituting a legal individuality, but merely as a number of persons hav- ing common interests. A'^ain, it is a fundamental peculiarity of a partnership that each one of the partners is responsible individually for the full amount of the indebtedness incurred by the firm in the course of its legitimate business. This is also true of a joint-stock company, however great may be the number of its members. Even though it be stipulated in the articles of association that the members shall only be subject to a limited liability, a creditor who enters into dealings with the company without knowledge of the stipu- lation may enforce the payment of his entire claim against any one of the associates, leaving him to reimburse him- self by contribution from the others. It is, however, com- petent for any one transacting business with the company, as with a firm, to contract not to hold the partners to an unlimited extent of liability, and he will then be bound by the terms of his contract. But a joint-stock company differs from an ordinary part- nership in several important respects. It is usually com- posed of a much larger number of members, though this is not an essential diversity, since there is no necessary limit in either form of association as to the number of indi- viduals who may combine. A company also, as a general rule, receives some specific name by which it is known, and is not, like a partnership, designated merely by the names of the members. This is, however, only a nominal and not a substantial difference, since a company cannot sue nor be sued nor be designated in legal proceedings involving its interests by the name which it has assumed, but must in such instances btr regarded as simply a partnership, in ref- erence to which proceedings must l)e instituted in the names of all the partners. The important principle in relation to partnerships, that each partner is the agent of the firm as regards transactions with third persons, and can bind the firm by any contracts into which he enters appertaining to the partnership business, does not prevail to the same extent in respect to companies. If each shareholder in such large associations, into which new members arc in- troduced not by the consent of tho others, but by pur- chasing or otherwise acquiring shares, were allowed to bind the company by any contracts into which he might enter within tho scope of the company's business, tho continued existence of such societies would be hardly prac- ticable. Men would hesitate to contribute capital to- wards the support of such organizations when it might be squandered at the pleasure of any shareholder. It is therefore the almost invariable practice to commit the management and direction of tho company's business to a board of directors or agents chosen by the votes of the stockholders, and every person who has dealings with the company is presumed to know that the managers appointed alone have power to make binding contracts. A claim against the company on the ground of dealings with an unauthorized member will not be enforceable. It is like the case of a partnership in which a stipulation between the partners limiting each one's capacity to bind the firm has been made known to a person, who transacts business with anyone of them upon that understanding. Moreover, in the modes of conducting business and managing the affairs of the association there is an important difference between a partnership and a company. Tho stockholders, as has just been seen, are excluded from the ordinary man- agement of business, but they control the election of direc- tors, and generally regulate and define to a considerable extent the powers which these agents are permitted to ex- ercise by the adoption of by-laws or the passage of resolu- tions. In the same way they may appoint the times at which meetings shall be held, determine the manner in which they shall be conducted, provide for the investment of the profits of the business or the declaration of dividends, and adopt various regulations of the same general nature for conducting the affairs of the company, provided these aro not repugnant to general principles of law. Each mem- ber is entitled to as many votes as he has shares. The general nature of the association and the object of its formation, together with many provisions for its man- agement, are, however, usually stated in the articles of association which are agreed upon at the time the com- pany is organized. These correspond with the articles of copartnership into which partners enter, and contain stip- ulations of a similar character. A covenant of this kind is commonly known in England as a " deed of settlement." The articles usually define the amount of the capital stock, and the number of shares into which it Is to be divided, state the number of directors or trustees who are to be ap- pointed, regulate to a greater or less degree the assignment and disposal of tho shares, provide for assessments upon the shareholders, declare sometimes the way in which they shall bo sued by the directors upon their respective obli- gations to the company, and provide in a comprehensive way for the general direction and control of tho interests of tho association. Such an instrument is not required to bo in any general form, and may contain any stipulations upon wliieh the parties may agree, jirovided these are not in contravention of established legal rules determining the capacity and liabilities of the shareholders, or do not pro- vide for the, prosecution of an unlawful enterprise. But the chief diversity between a partnership and a joint-stock company, and the one upon which the others mainly de- pend, lies in the fact that the capital stock of a company is divicled into transferable shares. As a result of this, the doctrine oi (irlcrtiifi persona rum (Lat., *' choice of persons"), which prevails in regard to all partnerships, has no appli- cation to a stock company. No partner and no number of partners can introduce a new member into the firm without the consent of the others. If one partner sells out his in- terest, the purchaser does not become a member of the firm, but the partnership is immediately dissolved. But in a com- pany the purchase of shares makes a person a member ir- respective of the consent of the previous shareholders, and tho membership may be constantly changing without de- stroying the existence of the company or interrupting the exercise of its usual functions. Therefore, while a partner- ship usually consists of a small number of persons familiarly known to one another, and associated in business relations on account of mutual trust and confidence, and taking scv- JOINT TENANCY. 1439 crallj an active part in tho manageinent of the afTairs of the linn, a company i^ generally composed of a large num- ber of individuiil?. who arc. a-* a rule, little known to each other or entirely unknown, and whose business connection depends upon tho circumstance that they have become without ai^roenient owners of 9tock in the i^iiino afsociatiou. In an ordinary partnership tho death, lunacy, or bank- ruptcy of one nf the partners, or an assii^nment or transfer of his interest to anotlicr. effects a dif-solution of tho firm. If the rrmainin*; partners continue their busiucss connec- tion, it id only by forniing a new partnership, liut in a stock company these are not causes of dissolution. The per.'ion to whom tho ownership of the shares passes be- comes thereby a member of the company, whose existence is continued as l«<ng as the stock is held by shareholders, unless it be terminated by a decree of tho proper court for the usurpation of illegal powers or other like reasons, or by the mutual agreement of the members. A joint-stock com- pany therefore possesses the attribute of perpetual succes- sion by reason of the transferable nature of its shares, and in thi-f respect resembles a corporation. The other features of similarity to a corporation which it possesses are those already mentioned — the use of a common name other than the names of the members, the app()intment of directors or m:inngers to whom tho business affairs of the company are entrusted, the power to adopt by-laws and resolutions, the right to vote upon stock, and a large membership. A com- pany therefore possesses sonic of the attributes of an ordi- nary partnersliip and some of those pertaining to corpora- tions. It is sonielimes not inappropriately termed a (pittsi corporation. (Sec Coni'oitATioN.) Before the year 17011 the formation of joint-stock com- panies was hardly known in England, liut within a few yc:\rn subscijuenl to 1711, when the .South Sea Company wns formed, iind liirgely as a result of its speculative enter- prises, a feverish spirit of sjieeulation and adventure was widely prevalent throughout the kingdom, and gave rise to large numbers of private commercial companies for the pro- secution of various visionary undertakings. .Some of tlieso companies were founded upon obsolete charters, while tho larger number were organized without any pretensions of such a nature. These were commonly denominated " bub- bles," and were deemed so detrimental to the public wel- fare that in 1720 an act of Parliament (known as tho "Bubble Act") was passed for their repression. This de- clared such companies illegal and voi<l, and to be public nuisances, principally on the following grounds: the acting or presuming to act as a corporate body; tho raising or pretending to raise transferable stock : tho transferring or protending to transfer or assign the shares in such stock without legal authority. This act was not repealed until lS2fi, so that for more than a hundred years such com- panies were illegal in England. J^ince the time of this re- peal the tendency of English legislation has been to favor such associations, and to render them more efficient and beneficial by remedying the defects in their organization at common law. The chief legal disadvantages under which those companies labored were the necessity that in actions at law all tho members should be joined "as plain- tiffs or defendants, and tho responsibility of each member for the entire indebtctlness of the association. Tho earliest modification of common-law rules was by the enactment of statutes empowering companies of a specified character to (luc an<l be sued by a public officer. Subsequently, tho forma*ion of companies was authorized in which the share- holders sliould only be hebl to a limited liability, and fmiil- ly many pfirticular kinds of conip:inies were actually incor- porated, though not receiving full corporate powers. The Kngli-h statutes which now govern this subject arc the Companies' act, passed in 1Mfi2 (2.') and 20 Vict., cb. 89), with the amend;itory acts, 30 ;ind :U Vi<t., ch. 29 (ISC7), and ;i:i and .'U Vict., eb. Il)4 (IS70). The provisions of these acts are applicable to the formation and incorporation nf all joint-slock companies, require their registration in proper offices, and permit the shareholders to agree tluit their liability shall tie limited either to the amount unpaid on their shares or tr) such amount as they may respectively undertake to contribute to the assets of the company in the event of it.^ being wound up. Any seven or more persons associated for any lawful purpose may form such a com- pany, and arc required to subseribe a memorandum of as- sociation stating the name of the company, (he amount of capital, the object of tho association, tho place of business, and the limit of liability, if any is agreed upon. If there is no declaration that the liability shall bo limited, the com(tany is calleil an unlimited one, and each shareholder is responsible for the entire debt of the company, as at common law. There are also provisions in the act relating to the management and administration of companies, their inspection by boards of examiners, and Ilic method of winding them up. The effect of this legislation has not been, however, to confer upon companies the entire powers which corporations regularly possess, since there i& still retained the principle of ibe individual liability of the members* even though this may be limited in extent. In a true corporation legal responsibility does not attach to the individual corporators as separate persons, but only appertains tu the tictitious person or body corporate which they have united to form. In some of the V. S. joint-stock companies have at cer- tain periods been formed in accordance with common-law rules, but generally at the present day their organization is governed by statutory provisions. Thus, in New York it is enacted that such associations may provide by their articles of association that the death of any stockholder or the assignment of his stock shall not work a dissolution of the association, and may commit to any three or more of the shareholders the solo management of the business; such companies are not to be dissolved except by judgment of a court for fraud or other good cause. They may pur- chase, hold, and convey real estate for certain specified purposes. If the association consists of seven or more shareholders, it may sue or be sued in the name of the president or treasurer for the time being. If judgment be recovered against the conipnny upon a suit thus instituted, and execution thereon shull be returned unsatisfied, suits may bo brouglit against any or all of the shareholders in- dividually, as at e4>mmon law. It has been decided that one of tho shareholders may, in certain instances, bring an action against the president as representing the company. But such companies arc not incorporated, and possess only tho corporate powers specially conferred. They are still to bo considered a species of partnership. In a number of tho States there are no such associations as joint-stock companies distinct from corporations. Provision has been made by statute for the formation of associations of a simi- lar character by modifying the general principles relating to corporations in regard to the personal liability of the tncm- bers. The practice has been, not as in England to assimi- late partnerslii])s to corporations, and to designate the new form of association as a joint-stock company, but to assimi- late corporations to partnerships by making the associates personally responsible to a greater or less degree for tho common indebtedness, while the associations formed in accordance with such statutory regulations have been still designated as corporations. It is evident, however, that they arc in important respects distinguishable from regular an»l true corporations, anil bear a close resemblance to joint- stock companies. (See Wordsworth on Joini-Sfock Com- paniegy and tho works of Lindlcy, Collyer, Parsons, and Story on Partnership.) (Jr.oitGK CiiAPE. Revised dy T. W. Dwigiit. Joint Teii'aiicy, the tenure or ownership of an estate in rciil projx-rty l>y two or more persons, with the incidents of unity of interest, unity of time, unity of title, and unity of possession, (See these unities explained in the article Joint Owneushii'.) Tho estate held by joint tenants may bo eitlier a fee simple, an estate for life, for years, or at will, but each must havo the same quantity of interest. Ono cannot bo tenant for life and the other tenant for years. This rule, however, does not prevent a remainder from being limited to one joint tenant to be vested in pos- session at the expiration ot his joint interest, as where an estate is granted to two persons to be held by them jointly for life, with remaimler to one of them in fee. To tho rulo requiring unity of time there are important exceptions. Thus, it does not apply to estates given to a person's use in accordance with ihf doctrine of uses (see l^'^^:s), nor to provisions in a will known as executory devises. An es- tate granteil to the use of a man and such wife as he shall afterwards marry, for the term of Ihcir lives, has been held to be a joint estate. The estate of the wife is in abeyaneo until (lie marriage, and (hen it rrlates back, and is deemed to take cfTect from the original time of creation. In con- sequence of tho unity of interest and of possession, joint tenants are said lo be seized pri- mif ct prr tout — "by the half au'l by the whole;" t\ r. each of them is regarded as having tho possession as well of every parcel us of the en- tiro e.state. By this, however, it is not to be understood that oat^h joint tenant owns tho wliolc estate for every pur- pose, lie is the owner of tho whole for purposes of tenure and survivorship, but has only liis own particular share for the purpose of alienation or partition. This share to wbiih each co-(enant is speeifically entitled separately from his co-tenants is an equal undivided portion of the entire es- tate. If, therefore, there are two joint tenants, each may convey an undivided half— if three, an undivided third. From the doctrine of union and entirety of interest and possession, tlie principle of survivorship, which is a dis- tinguishing characteristic of joint tenancy, is a natural consequence. As one of two joint tenants has a concur- rent intcrcat in the whole estate, the extinguishment of tho 1440 JOINTURE. co-existing claim of the other tenant by the death of the latter must necessarily result in leaving the survivor in undisputed ownership of the entire premises as proprietor in severalty, merely by the continuance of his original in- terest. So, if there are more than two co-tenants, upon the death of each in succession the estate will pass to those who remain until it vests in the hist survivor of all. I'pon his ihatli the estate would pass, like any estate held in sev- eralty, to his heirs or personal representatives. It is an important result of this theory of survivorship that a joint tenant cannot devise his interest in the h»nd, for the devise does not take effect until after the death of the devisor, while the interest of the surviving tenant is hut a coclin- uation of his previous ownership, and suffers no interrup- tion by reason of the death of his co-tetiant. The estate passes to 'the survivor exempt from all charges made by tlie deceased co-tenant, and is not subject to any claim of I courtesy or dower. An estate in joint tenancy can only be created by purchase or the act of the parties, and not by descent or the operation of law. Thildren of a deceased person who inherit the land of which he was seized in fee are tenants in common, and not joint tenants. (See Ten- ancy IN Common.) The mode of creation of an estate in joint tenancy at common law is either by the use of ex- press words in the instrument of conveyance, declaring that the grantees or devisees are to hold by a joint title, or simply by naming two or more persons as those to whom the property is to be transferred. In the latter case it was a presumption of law that the parties intended to create a joint tenancy: and this construction was also ])refcrred because this mode of tenure was favored on account of the right of survivorship. This was a result of the feudal doc- trine that the services due to the lord should be kept en- tire. But in this country it has been the policy of the law to convert estates which in England would by construction of law be deemed joint tenancies, into tenancies in com- mon. In New York estates granted or devised to two or more persons were as early as 17Sfi declared to be tenan- cies in common, except when limited to joint trustees or joint executors, unless the estate was expressly declared, in the deed or will creating it, to be in joint tenancy. Similar legislation exists in a large number of the States. In some States the mode resorted to has been to abolish the right of survivorship. In courts of equity also joint tenancies are not favored except when granted to co-trus- tees, and a limitation to two or more will sometimes be held to create a tenancy in common. Thus, when two persons purchase an estate, advancing the purchase-money in «ji- equnl portions, equity regards them as tenants in common. Such is not the case, however, when the money is advanced in eqiinf portions. From the principle of identity of title and interest in joint tenants, it results that they all consti- tute a single owner as to third persons, and that all must be united as parties in suits by or against them in respect to their joint estate. If one tenant purchases in an out- standing adverse claim to the projierty, it enures to the benefit of his co-tenants if they will eontributo towards discharging the expense incurred. For tliis and other pur- poses each is deemed to be a trustee for the other. Pos- session of the premises by one tenant is deemed the pos- session of all, and no action can be brought against him by the others merely on tlie ground of such exclusive posses- sion. One tenant, however, may by express and \inequiv- ocal acts hold adversely to the other, so as to gain a title in severalty by force of the statute of limitations. (See I^imi- tations, Statite of.) Flntry by one joint tenant upon land is deemed the entry of all, and a conveyance to one is a conveyance to all. If one receive the rents and profits of the estate, he may be compelled to account to the others, and pay to them their proportionate shares. One tenant is responsible to the others for the c(nnmission of waste upon the estate. If he will not join with them in making neces- sary repairs to the premises, after having been duly re- quested to contribute, an action may be maintained against him. At common law the remedy in this case was by a spe- cial writ, <fe repnratlone /ariiiuin. AH persons may be made joint tenants who arc qualified severally to receive a grant of lamls. As husband and wife, however, are con- sidered in law as a single person, an estate limited to them is not a joint estate, but an "estate by the entirety," hav- ing peculiar and special characteristics. Two corporations cannot be joint tenants with each other, nor can an in- dividual be a joint tenant with n corporation. A joint estate may be terminated or dissevered by a transfer of the property to one tenant by the application of the doctrine of survivorship or hy release, by n, destruction of any one of the various unities (except that of time) which are in- cident to such a tenure, or by ]iariition. If one of two co- tenants conveys his undivided share to a third person, the grantee will become a tenant in common with the other co-tenant. If there bo more than two co-tenants, the pur- chaser would be tenant in common as to the share which ho had acquired, while the remaining tenants would still hold the remaining shares in joint tenancy as between themselves. In transferring his interest to a third person a joint tenant must use an ordinary conveyance, but when the transfer is to a co-tenant a release is proper, since the grantee is already seized of the estate as a wliole. (For the rules of pjirtition see the topic Pautition. See also Es- tates.) (The following works may be consulted: Wash- burn on /ftal Prnpfrty; Kent's Commcntaneg; Cruise's /)»- ffest; Hilliard on Jlenl ICifatr.) George Chase. REVisEn nv T. W. Dwiciit. Joint'ure, an estate or property settled upon a wife in lieu or satisfaction of dower, to be enjoyefl after her hus- band's death. The origin of the modern English doctrine of jointure is referable to a statute, known as the Statute of t^ses, enacted in the reign of Henry VIII. (27 Hen. VIII. eh. 10). Before this period there was no method by which a wife's right of dower could be harred, except by a con- veyance of the husband's lands in which dower might be claimed to some third jtcrson, to be lield for the husband's use. The husband in such a case would retain merely a beneficial interest in the property, and this was a species of equitable estate, in which, by the law of uses, neither courtesy nor dower could be given. (See Uses. Doweh.) It had therefore become a common practiee for hushands wlio wished to remove the incumbrance of a claim of dower from their estates, to convey their lands to be held to their own use; and the result had been that most of the lands in the kingdom were held under this form <»f equitable ownership. In order, however, that a wife might not be left entirely without provision for her support after her husband's death, it became customary to settle lands before marriage to the u=e of the husband and his intended wife for the term of their lives in joint tenancy. If the wife outlived the husband, the entire estate would be vested in her for life by the right of survivorship. (See Joint Ten- ancy.) Such an estate was termed a **jointnre," on ac- count of the joint nature of the interest created. The statute of uses had the effect to render wives dowablo in lands conveyed to uses by uniting the legal and the bene- ficial ownership in the same person : but in order that some method of barring dower might still exist, and that wives upon whom jointures had already been settled might not receive both dower and jointure, it furthermore provided that if estates had been or should be conveyed hy way of jointure, the right to demand dower should, under certain conditions, he extinguished. In pursuance of these pro- visions, settlements in jointure were frequent in English j>ractiee until the enactment of the so-called Dower act in 1S;;.(, which introduced other methocls of barring dower, which are now more commonly resorted to. The condi- tions or requisites which must be observed untler the statute of uses in order that the settlement in lieu of dower may be valid arc the fcdlowing : (1) The estate must vest in possession immediately after the death of the huphnn<l ; (2) it must be for the life of the wife at least, though it may bo a greater estate, as an estate in fee; (3) it must be given to the wife herself, and not to another in trust for her; (4) it must be given and expressed in the deed to he in full sat- isfaction of her dower. It is not necessary that the estate should be limited to both hushand and wife, in conformity to the mode of convevance adopted heforc the statute, but it may be given to the wife alone. The settlement may bo made not only by the husband, but by the wife's parents, relatives, or friends, or any third person. The provision must always be an estate in lands in order to be a valid legal jointure, and not a chattel interest or a pecuniary gift. If the settlement be made before marriage, the con- sent of the wife to accept it in lieu of dower need not be obtained, and whether the estate be of great or little value, the right to demand dower will be extinguished. Even though the wife be a minor, a jointure settled upon her before marriage will be an absolute bar to dower, though neither her assent be given nor that of parents or guardian. It was said by Lord Coke that "the jointure must be a competent livelihood of freehold for the wife," but the law provi<ies no test of competency, nor will the jointure be invalid even though it be insufiieient for the wife's support. If the jointure be settled upon (he wife after marriage, she has a right of election after the husband's death between this provision and her (hnver, and may accept either as she may prefer. But after having oneeniade her election and ])roperlv signified her choice, she cannot again exercise the privilege, but is obliged to retain the estate which she has determined to accept. Iler acceptance of the jointure might he indicated by entry upon the lands given by the settle- ment and receipt of "the rents. Her refusal of it would be .'^hown hy accepting; the lands assigned in dower, or by bringing an action to have them assigned. If, however, after an acceptance of the jointure, the widow is evicted JOINVILLE. 1441 from the whole or nny portion of the property, she will be rcinitteil to liur ri;;hl of dower pro tatito — i*. e, to an extent equivalent to (tic lo5s she has i^ustaincil. No act answering to assi^uaicnt in the ca.«c of dower (sec Dowkr) is neces- sary in order to plaoe the widow in possession of the joint- ure-land;! after the death of her hu^hnnd. but she may enter upon them immediately. I'nder the Kn;;litih law. aclultery causes no forfeiture of jointure, though it is a bar to dower. In courts of law there is a strict adherence to the pro- visions of the statute of uses, and gcttlcmcnt? not made in accordance with its requirements will not be valid in cxtinsuif'hment of dower. But courts of equity exercise an independent jurisdiction not derivcil from the statute, and apply difTi-rent rules in regard to Iht- nature of the provision which may be made and (be manner in which it may be conferred upon the wife. A distinction is there- fore made l^ctween legal jointure and equitable jointure. The doctrines of equitable jointure arc only applicable when the ftirm? of legal jointure have not been complied with, and a court of equity is striving to effectuate the in- tent of the parties. In equity it is not necessary that an estate or provision in jointure should be actually ercated or conferred upon the wife, but an executory agreement to make such a setrlement or provision will be sufficient, an<l will he earrictl into cfTeet according to i's terms. It is not requisite, mnrcover, that the provision should be a freehold estate in lands. Any inferior estate, as an estate for years or at will, will bo sufficient, or even an interest in personal properly or a pecuniary provision. The provision need not be conferred directly upon the wife, but may bo given to another in trust f<»r her hcnefit. It is not pos:«ible, more- over, in e(|uity to make a prinision fur the wife which shall deprive her of her right of dower without her own consent. If i*he assents to a provision made before marriage, this will bar h-*r dower, but if she docs not assent, she will have a right of election between the ]>rovision and dower, unless the requisites necessary to constitute u legal jointure have been complied with. If the settlement is made after mar- riage, sho will always have a right of election. If the wife be an infant, the rule in equity is that the consent of pa- rents or guardian must be obtained. But in einiity, as at law, the intcntinn (hat the provision shall be in lieu of dower must be clearly expressed in making the settlement, or it must appear manifestly inconsistent with the inten- tion of the grantor (bat \h^ wife should have both jointure and d'twer. If the value of the jirovision be wholly or par- tially destroyed, the right of dower will revive so far as is necessary to aflurd compensation for the loss sho has sus- tained. In this country the English law in regard to jointures is substantially in furco in most of the Slates, though it has been to a considerable extent modified by statute. The tendency of legislation has been to ansimiiato the rules in relation lo legal jointure to those prevailing in equity. In some of the States the distinction between legal and equi- table jrflnturc has been entirely abolished, and the entire 8ulij;'ct is regulated hy express statutory provisions. Thus, in Now Vork it is provided that cither an estate in lands or a pecuniary provision may bo given in lieu of dower, and that if the jointure be created before marriage it must be cousi'nted (o by the intended wile in order trt be a bar of dower. Ilor cinsent may be evidenced, if she be of full age. by her becoming a jiarty to the conveyance by which the jointure shall be settled— if she is a minor, by her join- ing with her father or guardian in such conveyance. If (he settlement bo made after marriage, she will have her choice between j(»inture and dower. The election is to be made within one year after the husband's death, or sho will be deemed to have accepted the jointure. Jointure may, it is also provided, bo barred by the same causes as dower. Another mode by which a wife's right of dower is some- times barred is by a tes(amen(nry provision in the bus- band's will, whicli is either expressed to be in Hatisfac- (ion or lieu of (lower, or which cannot, consistently with the other provisions of the will, bo recrivcd by (he wife in addition to her dower. A provision of this kind is not properly a jointure, but is governed hy substimtially the sanu- principles. The effect of such provisions is usually regnliited by sfatute. The general rule is that the inten- tion (o bar the right of dower must be rlejirly ascertainable front the terms of (he will, or the widow shall receive bolh the devise or hequest and her dower. Anil even when smdi intention is apparent, (be proviriion does not bur her right of dower absdiutely without her consent, but she hufi nn election between her dower and (he provision. When it is expressly declared in the will that (he provision shall be '* in lieu of dower." an election will un<|Uestionaldy have to bo made. Tnless some positive expression of the same purport be used, the inquiry will be coocKsary whether tho V„r. U— •»! receipt of both dower and ^he testamentary provision would be inconsistent with a reasonable construction of the entire will, or prevent its appropriate and complete legal eff"ect and operation. If there be such on inconsistency, an elec- tion between dower and the provision will in this case also be requisite. But the law favors (lower, and it will not be readily inferred that a devise is intended to be in lieu of dower if no express declaration to that effect irf contained in the will. It has been held that if a provision for tho wife is embodied in the will, and a clause is also inserted that tho residue of the estate shall pass to a residuary dc- viscoor legatee, the right of dower will not be extinguished, for the phrase " residue of the estate " means the remainder of tho estate subject to all legal claims or incumbrances, among which the right of dower would be inclutlcd. If, however, it bo declared that tho property shall be vested in trustees to receive the rents and ])rofits and pay a cer- tain portion over to the wife, she will not be entitled to re- ceive the bequest without relinquishing her dower. Iler possession of a life estate by her right of dower would be inconsistent with the control and management of the entire property by the trustees. Any kind of property may be given to tho wife by will in lieu of dower. In many of the States it is provided that the wife shall signify her election between a devise and her dower within a certain time. If dower be not claimed within that period, it will be pre- sumed that she has chosen the provision in the will. Tho statutes of the several States must be specially consulted on this subject. (See Washburn on Heal Pmpcrtt/ ,- Cruise's Digest.) Geohge Chase. Revised by T. W. Dwicfit. Joinville'9 town of France, in tho department of Ilaute- Murne. In its vicinity the ancient castle of the dukes of Guise was situated. The title of prince of .loinville is derived from a baronial fief, erected into a principality by Henri II., of which .loinville was the capital. The title is now hcM by the third son of tho late king. Louis Phi- lippe. Pop. about 4000. ArctST Niemann. Joinville (FnANrois pERDiNAsn Phimppe Loiis Ma- tie d'Ouleans), Puixce oe, the third son of Louis Phi- lippe, tho last king of the French, b. at Xcuilly Oct. 1 t, ISIS. At the age of thirteen he commenced his naval ca- reer as pupil on board the frigate .'Xrleuiise : was appointed a lieutenant in 18:;G.and in is:iH comman<U'd the corvette La Crf'olc of the fleet of Admiral Baudin before Vera Cruz. In the attack upon Fort San .Tuan dTIoa and the city of Vera Cruz ho distinguished himself in a shore-expedition against the city, in which in a hand-to-hand combat ho captured the Mexiean general Arista, for which he was made chevalier of the Legion of Honor and mpitaiur ffe vaisHran. In 1S40 he. in command of the frigate La Belle Poule, was charged with conveying the remains of Napo- leon from St. Helena to France. Tn tiie same frigate he visited America, and was warmly received in Philadelphia and Boston. In 184:1 he married the princess Franeesca di Braganza, daughter of Pedro I. and sister of the present emperor of lirazil. Made at the same epoch (ISIH) co?i- tre-timirnl (rear-admiral), he in ISM commanded t!ie fleet whicli bombarded Tangiers and seized Mogador, displaying on the hitter occasion conspicuous personal gallantry. The rcvfdution of 1818 found tho prince still commanding tho fleet ufT Algiers, near his brother, the due d'Auinale. gov- ernor of the Afririin possessions and commander of the military forces in Africa, numbering SO.OtlO men. Yielding to what purported to be the jiopular will, the two brothers nlinquishi'd their commands (which mi;/fit, perhaps, had the word been said, have escorteil them to Purist, and in company embarked for Gibraltar. For tho next thirteen years tho ]>rince, banished from France, was an incessant traveller, filling the intervals of time with the occupations of an author or artist. On the breaking out of the Ameri- can civil war in IHfil, he embarked for New York, bringing with him his son. the due do Penthievre (who entered ns a ea<lot tho U. S. Naval School, then at Newport), nnd ne- eompanied by his nephews, the comte de I^iris and the duo do Chartres. The latter received military commissions from the government, and were nieiiibers of the personal staff (A. I>. C.I of tien. McClellan during the latter j»art of the year, and during what is known ns tho Virginia Pen- insular campaign o«ainst Iliehmond (Apr.. May, .Tune, lsr»2*, showing (Ml various occasions, nnd especially at the battle of (laines's Mill, great efficiency nnd personal gal- lantry. The prince himself accompanied (he head-quar- ters of Gen. McClellan, who appreeiateil nnd gladly availed himself of his military experience, sound judgment, and statesnmnlike qualities. Immediately on his return to Franco he communicated to the lirvur tfr I)i\i.r-M>fuiU», under the uum-th -plnmr of " A. Trognon," an able sketch of (he events of the campaign under the litle of I.'Artn/r tin Potoinnr, etc. Suitsequeotly he collected and published in Iwo volumes, outilled £inde» tur la marine et rictU tU 1442 JOINVILLE, DE— JONAS. ffuerre, his various contributions to that periodical, amon» which may be uicntionctl the one just referred to and Ln marine en Frrtnce ef atix Efuta Cni» en 2i^(t5. With otlier inemhrrs of his family ho made ur;xent hut vain appe:\l3 to the French govtrument to be permitted to serve France in the war with Germany which broke out in 1870. When the French armies had been almost annibilated, and disas- ter overwhelmed their native land, the ])riiice and his nephew, the due de Chartre^, disuppeared from the family reunion at Claremont to find their way to serve their coun- try. Repelled by the f^ovcrnmcnt, whieh regarded his presence as dangerous, and dcnieit permission to serve even under a i>orrowod name, he was finally compelled to return to Kngland, where he remained until the edict of banish- ment resting upon his family was abrogated by decree of the French assembly (IsTI !. By hi^ marriage with the princess of Brazil the prince de.Toinville has two children — Pierre Philippe Jean Mario d'Orb'ans, due de Penthi&vre (b. Nov. 4. lHl.'>).and a daughter. Fran^oise Mario Am61ie {b. Aug. 14, 1844), who married (June II. 1863) her cousin, the due de Chartres. J. G. Barnard. Joinville, de (Jean\ Pire. b. at the chsLteau of Join- ville in Champagne about 1224; was at an early age at- tached as seneschal to the court of the count of Champagne, and afterwards to that of the king of Navarre. In 1248 ho took part with St. Louis, king of France, in his first crusade, having in his train 700 men-at-arms; was a com- panion of tlie king in his battles and his captivity, becom- ing his intimate friend and counsellor. Returning to France in 12.')4. he was for many years employed at court, but declined to take part in the second crusade (1270), which was directed against Tunis, and proved fatal to that monarch. Joinville was one of the principal witnesses in behalf of the sanctity of Louis in the inquest (Aug., 12S2) preliminary to his canonization, and his closing years were employed, at the request of Queen Jeanne of Navarre (1309), in writing his celebrated Mcmoires, whieh have ever since been a favorite French classic. He lived to a great age, and d. probably in 1318. The best edition of his Meinnircs is that of Natalis de Wailly (Paris, 1S73). Jokjoker'ta, the name of a former kingdom of Java, now a Dutch presidencv. Its capital, Jokjokorta or Mata- rara, situated in hit. 7^ 47' S., Ion. 10° 21' E., has 50,000 inhabitants, many European settlers and European insti- tutions, and a most curious palace of tha sultan. It is built on a terraecii island with entrances under the water, and the heavy gilding of its lowers and windows shows that it was once a gorgeous building, though it now is fall- ing rapidly into decay. Joliba. See Niger. Jo'lict^ city, cap. of Will co., Til., on the Aux des Plaines River, and the Illinois and Michigan Canal, ;i6 miles S. W. of Chicago, on tho Chicago Rock Island and Pacific and the Chicago and Alton R. Rs.. at the terminus of the Michi- gan Central II. R. It is also on tlie Chicago and Illinois River R. R. The town i? built mainly in the river-valley, but partly on bluffs on either side. Very fine calcareous building-stone underlies the whole city and vicinity, and is extensively quarried. Cement, gravel, and fireclay are largely obtained, the latter being found in a great mound. Firebrick and ilrain-tile are madr from it. Near the city is the State penitentiary, built of stone. Its wall, averaging ;i5 feet in height, encloses 16| acres. The usual number of convicts is some 1;I00, employed in making, on contract, boots, shoes, stone-work, cooperage, butts, hinges, harnesses, cigars, etc. It has been pronounced the largest and best conducted institution of the kind in the country. Joliet has a manufactory of iron and steel, built at on estimated cost of $:i,000.00n : it employs from 2000 to 2500 men. and turns out steel, steel and iron rails, machinery, castings, and the varied products of the blast furnace, converter, puddling-mill, machine-shop, and foundry. Joliet has 12 churches, 2 national au<l 2 private banks, a public library. 2 convents. 1 semi-weekly and 4 weekly newspapers, a paid fire department, Ifi artesian welJs, ami varied minor indus- tries. Its water-power and the proximity of the Wilming- ton coal-fields give it great advantages as a manufacturing centre. Pop. 720.1: of tp. 2940, greatly increased since the census. James GivomPEKD, En. " Rr;pi bi.ican." Joliet (CnARr,Ks),b. at Saint Ilippolyte. in the depart- ment of Doubs, Aug. 8. ^H.^2 : entered literature as a jour- nalist and miscellaneous writer, and attracted great atten- tion both by his Lc roman de denj- jruncH mnrUs { 180C) and MademniHrlh Chrytddn (1S70), and by his novels treating of subjects from the Franco-German war of 1870-71. Joliet (Loris), b. at Quebec in 10^5; was educated in the Jesuits' college in that town, but engaged in the West- ern fur-(rade. Commissioned by Frontenao to explore the Mississippi River, he started in 1C73 up the Fos River and down the Wisconsin and Mississippi rivers to a point below the mouth of the Arkansas, returning to Green Bay n'cl the Illinois River. Thence he proceeded alone to i^Hiebec. los- ing his MSS. on the way : but he ])rcpared a map and nar- rative of the expedition from memory. He was appointed royal hydrographcr. and received tlie island of Anlicosti, of which he was dispossessed by the British. In K1H7 the seigniory of .Toilet in Canada was granted to him, D. 1700. Jo'liette, county of Quebec, Canada, extending N. W. from the St. Lawrence River. It has much timber, mines of iron, and stone-quarries; much of the soil is very fertile. It is intersected bv the St. Lawrence and Industry Railway. Cap. Joliette. Pop. 23.075. Joliette, a large town, the capital of Jollelte co., Que- bec, Canada, has fine water power, excellent building-stone, large manufactures of lumber. leather, and castings. It has a benevolent society, college, hospital, convent, mechanics* institute, court-house and jail, and 1 semi-weekly news- paper. It has an important trade, and is the N. W. ter- minus of the St. Lawrence and Industry Railway. Pop. of sub-district, 3047. Jollivet' (PiF.RRc Jules), b. at Paris June 27, 1803; studied first architecture, then painting: lived 1822-25 in Madrid; and gained the great medal in 1835. lie has painted a great number of subjects of Spanish life and history: Lam, in the Luxemburg; Battfe of Aicha, at Versailles : Lc MasHneie des fniiocents, at KoucD. The Time o/ Pericles Is one of his latest works. Jol'ly Boat [J'dfi/ is kindred to the word i/nirl], a small boat carried on board ships, and used for communicating with shore or with other ships. It is usually propelled by oars, but sometimes a mast and sail arc set up. The jolly boat is often short, wide, and capacious, and is particularly adapted to the steward's use. Jomard' (Edme ^Fran);ois), b. at Versailles Nov. IT, 1777 : stuilied in the Ecole Polyteehnique, and accompanied the expedition to Egypt as a member of the scientific com- mittee. After his return to Paris in 1802 he was employed for more than twenty years in the redaction and^ publica- tion of the celebrated work. Dcscri/tfion de VE'jifpte, of which he wrote 6 volumes himself. In 1821 he took part in the f lunding of the Geographical Society of Paris, and from 1S2S he held a position in the geographical depart- ment of the Royal Library. He has aided in the publica- tion of many valuable works concerning Egypt and Africa, and wrote a number of minor essays on different geograph- ical, archcological, and educational subjects, D. Sept, 22, 18G2, at Paris. }~i ^^' / i Jomini' (Henri), Baron, b. at Pa'yernc, canton of Vnu-I. Switze.land, Mar. fi. 177'J : entered the French army in I^Ot with tho rank of major; served as aide-de-camp to Mar- shal Ney in Germany and Spain; was made a brigadier- general in 1808, and distinguished himself on the retreat from Moscow in 1812. But when Napoleon, instigated by Berthier, refused to promrite him after the victory at Baut- zen, Jomini left the French army and entered the service of the emperor Alexander, who made him liis aide-de-camp ; ho took, however, no part in the campaign against France, and the rumor that he had revealed the French plans of operation to the allies was denounced by Napoleon himself. In the Russian service he distinguished himself in the war against the Turks in 1828, and was very active in the foundation of tho Military Academy of St. Petersburg. During the latter part of his life he devoted himself wholly to literary pursuits. D. at Passv. near Paris, Mar. 24, 1S(»0. Ilis principal works are — -Traiten den Granden Ope- rations inilittiircH, on llistoire critit/ne den Gnerrca dc Frf- deric le. Ornnd, canipnr^e9 aii Si/sti':mc Moderns; Hiitioire critique ct rnififftire del rompagneg dc In Revolutinu (5 vols., Paris. 180ft), Vic pnlititfue et tnifitaire de NuptdSim (4 vols., Paris, 1827), Pierin dc Vnrt de la (/ttcrrc (Paris, I83S, 2 vols.; with an appendix, Paris, 1849). Jo'nati [Ilcb.. a "dove"], a Hebrew prophet, b. at Gath-hepher in the tribe of Zebuluu. He was no doubt the "Jonah, son of Amittai," who is mentioned in 2 Kings xiv. 25, so that he lived about 800 b. c. The book whieh bears his name does not contain his prophecies, but a story about him, an incident from his career. Some assert tliat the story is purely mythical, others that it has a histori- cal foundation, but has undergone the influence of popular tradition; others that it is a poetical invention with a di- dactic purpose. In any view its didaetie j)urpose is evident. It teaches ih.at man cannot escape from God by flight ; that man has only to do what he is called to do, and leave re- sults to God : and that Ciod does not. when he employs a human agent to tlireaten judgment, bind himself not to show mercy lest he should bring his agent to shame. Jo'nas (Ji'STfs), b. June 5, 1493. at Nordhausen, in the Prussian provinso of Saxony; studied law, and was pro- J U.N ATll AN^JON ES. 1443 fcssor uT jurispruilcncc, first at Erfurt, and then at Wittcn- bcrj;, wht're in 1 J21 he changed his chair for that of theol- og;y : hecaiiie ecclesiastical superintendent at Halle in I;HI, and at Coburg in 1 J46; and d. at Eisfeld Oct. 9. I.jj5. He Has an intimate friend of Luther and Melanehthon, and one of the most )injriiincnt anion;; the (icrinan Urformers. Ho accomjianicil Luther to Worms, aided him in the trans- lation of the Old Testament, and conlriljuted much to the furthering of the Heformation by his preaching aud by his powerful translations into German of the Latin writings of Luther and Melanehthon. Jon'athan [Ileb. Ynnnihnn'], a son of Saul, king of Israel, b. near the close of the twelfth century B. c. ; be- came, on the establishment of the kingdom, a conspicuous leader in the war against the I'hilistincs, which owed its origin to his daring exploit in killing a Philistine general at Geha (1 Sam. xiii. 3, 4). His attachment lo David, whom he defended against the jealousy and murderous de- signs of his father, is the best known feature of Jonathan's career, and has made his name a synonym for disinterested frienilship. .lonathan was killed in battle against the I'hilistincs at Mount liilboa, about D. c. 1053, together with his father and two brothers, and his body was exposed upon the walls of Ueth-shan until it was secretly carried away and buried by the men of .labesh-Gilead, and his re- mains were ultimately placed in the family sepulchre at Zelah. On the death of ,Jonathan, David penned an elegy (2 Sam. i. 22 acq.) which is one of the most beautiful pro- ductions of its kind. Jonathan ben Vzziel, b. in Palestine in the first century d. r. : was a pupil of Ilillel. and became one of the most celebrated expositors of the books of the (Jld Testa- ment. He was the author of a t'hahlee paraphrase or trans- lation of the prophets, and to him is also attributed tho authonihip of a Targuin known by his name, and another called the Fire Mr^iiltnlh. The Targum of Jonathan was first printed at \'eniec in 151*0-91, an<i afterwards at Bi\lo (IrtOZI, Ilanau (1814), Amsterdam (KUO), Prague (IfilO), and Vienna (IS59), A Latin translation was given in Wal- ton's Polyiil.t, anil an Knglish one by Rev. J. W. Elheridge (London, 1802). But recent criticism has decided this Tar- gum to be several centuries posterior to the Christian era, anil the genuine works of .Jonathan are reduced to the Par- nphrttre on thf PropfirU (embracing also ,Toghun, Judges, Samuel, and Kings), first published atA'enice in 1491, now found in all rabbinic Hibics, also in Walton's Pnlt/f/lnt and liuxlorf's Hebrew Bible. It is especially valuable for its expositions of the minor prophets. Jonathan Creek, tp. of Moultrie co., III. Pop. 1001. Jonathan's Creek, Ip., Haywood co., N. C. Pop. 987. Jones, county of Central ticorgin. Area, .178 square miles. The Ocmulgee washes its S. W. border. It is hilly and fertile. Iron ore ami granite exist here. Cotton and corn arc staple crops. The .''. part is traversed by tho Georgia Central R. R. Cap. Clinton. Pop. 9430. Jones, county of the E. of Iowa. Area, 57fl square miles. It is partly forest and partly prairie. It is well watered, and has a fertile calcareous soil. Cattle, grain, wool, butter, and hay are extensively produced. Carriages, wa- gons, and briek are leading articles of manufacture. Tho county is traversed by the Iowa Miilland, the D.'ivenport and .St. Paul, the .Sabula Aekloy and Dakota, and other railroads. Cap. .\nainosa. Pop. 19,731. Jones, county of (he P. R. of Mississippi, drained by the head-streams of the !*;uicagoula River. Area, (»,'tO square miles. It is partly light pine-land, anil has denso forests. It produces some rice, corn, and sweet potatoes. Cap. Ellisville. Pop. 3313. Jones, cnunly of the E. of North Carolina, trnversed by the river Trent. Area, about 425 square miles. It has much pine forest and swamp-land, and is generally level and snndv. Cotton and tobacco are staple products. Cap. Ticn:on.' Pop. .'iOII2. Jones, an unorganized county of N. Central Texas. Area, about 1200 square miles. It is drained by the head- streams of Brazos River, and is generally a fertile prairie- land adapted to stock-rnising. lis principal place is Anson. The county receives its name from Anson .Tones, the presi- dent of the republic when Texas was admitted to the I'niun. Jones, Ip. of Winslon co., .Ma. Pop. 299. Jones, Ip. of Union co., la. Pop. 810. Jones, tp. iif Elk co.. Pa. Pup. 1091. Jones (Anson), h. in Mnssnchuselts Jan. 20, 1798; com- menced the praclicc of medicine in 1820. Being of a mi- gratory disposition, he subsequently resided for a while in Philadelphia and New Orleans : he then visited .'^oulh Aincr ica. and finally (in 1833) settled at Braioria, Tex, When the troubles between Texas and Mexico broke out in 1835, ho was a zealous advocate of the independence of the colony. In the war that ensued he acted as a private soldier as well as a surgeon in the Texan army. After independence was achieved he was a member of the Texas Congress. In 1838 he was minister from that republic to the U. S. Sub- sequently he was senator in the Texas Congress, and thru for three years secretary of state. In Sept., 1844, be was elected president of Texas, which office he held until Texas became one of the States of the Union. He was a man of great and varied abilities, and left his impress upon the history of the times. His death, by his own hand, Jan. 7, 1858, was deeply lamented. A. H. Stkphkxs. Jones (CnAiiLES Colcock), D. D., b. at Liberty Hall, fia., Dec. 20, 1804 : studied at Andover and Princeton theo- logical seminaries: was ordained in 1S30, and went as a missionary to the negroes in his native county in (Tcorgia. From 1830 to 1838 and from IS 17 to IS.-.O he was professor of church history in the seminary at Columbia. S. C, hav- ing in the interval returned to his labors among the negroes. In 1850 he rcmoveil to Philadelphia, and became secretary of the Presbyterian Board of Domestic Missions: retvirned in 1853 to Georgia, where he d. Mar. IG, 18(13. He pub- lished several catechisms, one of which, on Srriphirr f)oc- liluc anil Praclicc, was translated into several languages as a manual for tho instruction of heathen : several pamph- lets on the lirliijiuufi lnntntctiiin uf the Ncifrn, and a Historif of the Church of God, left unfinished at his death, Jones (Charles Coi-cock, Jr.), b. in Savannah. Oa., Oct. 28, 1831. His early education was under the instruc- tion of private tutors at Montevideo and Maybank (plan- tation residences of his father in Liberty co., (la.): his freshman and sophomore years were spent at South Caro- lina College, Columbia, where his father, Ucv. Charles Col- cock Jones, Sr.. I). D. (a man of great eloquence), was then one of the professors in the Presbyterian Theological Sem- inary of that city. The junior and senior years of his collegiate course were passed at Nassau ,Hall. Princeton, N. ,1., where he graduated with high distinction in 1852. After this he studied law in Philadelphia one year, and th' ■ went to Dane Law School, Harvard University, Cam- bridge, Mass.. where he remained two years more, and took the regular degree in the law department of that institution in 1855. Returning to his native State, he was admitted to the bar at Savannah, Oa., in 1856, and with his nalural ability and thorough training rose rapidly to the first rank in his profession. In ISlUl he was elecled mayor of the citv — a position seldom if ever before conferred on one so young by a corporation possessing the amount of wealth, population, and extent of commercial and navigating in- terests that the city of Savannah then did. Soon after the passage by (leorgia of her ordinance of secession in 18fil, and the beginning of the late war, he entered the Confed- erate States military service and became lieutenant-colonel of artillery. This position he held until the end of tho war. He was under Gen. .Toscpb Y.. .lohnston at his sur- render in Apr., isfi5. .After the war Mr. .lones moved lo tho city of New York, where he resumed the practice of law, and has continued to prosecute it with great success, lie has not permitted tho calls of his profession, however, to absorb all his lime or energy. By a methodical econ- fmy in the arrangement of business peculiar to himself, he has, even under the greatest pressure of oflicc dulies, found leisure In contribute largely lo the literature as well as science of the connlry by his pen. Several works of nniisiml merit have been published by him. Among Iheso mav be named— his lli»lftrlr,it Sketch of the Clmtham Ar- ti/fcri/ fhiriiif/ the Conftilcrntr Strtirff/fr for fiitfrpeiiffnice (1867), Hintoricnl Sketch of Tomochi-chi-mieo of the Yum- ocinir«(IS68). ,4iicr'eiif Tumuli on the Snraunah Wi'ici(I8fi8), Aueieiil Tumuli lu flcnniin (1869), Antiquities of the South- ern lnilian»,particularht of the Cfrorifia Tribes {X^l^). Tho latter is a work of great interest, and exhibits a vast amount of menial labor and historical research. His published work", already ten in number, place him in style and mat- ter high among American authors. A. II. Stki'IIESS. Jones (flEoniit^ W.), b. in King and Queen en., Va., Mar. 15. 1806; was a member of the legislafure of Tennes- see (in the bouse or senate) from 1835 lo 1SI2, and was a member of Congress from 1843 lo 1861. Though a Union man of the .Jackson school, after the secession of Ten- nessee he )Tent with his State, and was n member of the Confederate Congress. Since the war he has acted no prominent part in polities. Mr. .Jones is a remark- able instance of a self-made man under American free institutions. A poor boy with scanty education, he was \ brought up to the saddler's trade, but by dint of opplica- ' tion and study be acquired extensive knowledge, and during his entire Cotigressional career was one of the most , marked men of the House. \. H. Stkimiess. I Jones (Sir llAimr DAVin), Q. C. B., b, 1792; commis- 1444 JONES. sioned second lieutenant royal engineers 1808; served in the expedition to Walcheren ISOD; in the Peninsula cam- paigns 1810-14 ; on special duty in /Vmerica 181 i ; engint'cr in charge of iortifications on iMontmurtre after the entrance of the British troops into Paris 1815. and coiuinisaioner to the Prussian army of occupation 181G; brigadier-gen- eral .July, 1854, and conducted the giege o|)erations against Bomarsund; promoted to bo major-general Dec. 1864; ap- puinfcil to and continued in command of the royal engineers in Kastern campaign ( is.'i j) to fall of Scbastopol : lieutenant- general July 0, ISfJO, and colonel-commandant of royal en- gineers Aug. 2, 1860. In 1S66 he succeeded to tlie governor- ship of the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, where he remained until his death, which occurred at that place Aug. 2, 1801). G. C. Simmons. Jones (IIenuv Bencf;), M. D., F. K. S., an English jdiysician, b. in 1SI4, was educated at Harrow and Trinity Coiloge, Cambridge, studied medicine in London, and in 1840 became physician of St. George's Hospital. London. Has published Gravrf, OttlcnhtSj and (lont, Animnl Chcm- intri/, Ain'inaf Elrrtrii-lti/, Life of Fararhnf (1SC9), The lioiful fnetitution (187 I), and many scientific papers; was a member of many learned societies. B. Apr. 20, 1873. Jones fIsiGo), b. in London in 1572; d. there July 21, 1G.')2. Of humble parentage and poor, he owed to tho earl of Pembroke, who was attracted by his taste for drawing, the advantage of travel and study in Europe. Ho spent several years in Germany, France, and Italy, and received his chief impulse from the works of Palladio in Venice. In 1604 he passed a year in Copenhagen, under the patron- age of King Christian IV.; in 1605 returned to England, recommended by the king to his brother-in-lav.-, James I.; in Ben Jonson's prime as poet-laureate was court architect and decorator ; showed a talent for mechanical invention and the production of scenic effects; became, in short, a person of importance, a favorite with tho court, but not equally popular with artists and men of letters. He main- tained his positi*on under Charles I.; was made superin- tendent of the royal buildings, designed works of import- ance, and held a high rank among the architects of his generation. The river front of Somerset House, Shaftesbury House, Ashburnham House, the W. front of old St. Paul's, and Coveut Garden, were admired examples of his skill. His designs fur the palace of Whitehall, the bauqueting- house of which only was built, are regarded as his master- pieces. Jones owed his celebrity less to his genius than to the style of building that he introduced into England from Italy. When that style became obsolete his fame passed away. He was an author as well as a builder and designer, an excellent mathematician, a good classical scholar. He wrote an essay on Stouchenffe, ingenious, but of no value; notes on tho architecture of Palladio, essays on miscella- neous siilijects, and verses. Volumes of his architectural designs were publi:-hed by AYiJIiam Kent and Isaac Ware. His biography has been prepared by Peter Cunningham (London. 1848). The fortunes of Inigo Jones were impli- cated in those of the royal family. The execution of Charles I. crushed him, and he d. j)')or and wretched. 0. B. FRoTrMNanA,M. Jones (Jacob), b. near Smyrna. Del., in 1770; entered the U. S. navy as midshipman in 1709; was captured in frigate Philadelphia in 180.{ near Tripoli, where he was held a prisoner twenty months; commanded the U. S. sloop of war Wasp in 1812. in its celebrated capture of the British sloop Frolic, and was himself captured the same day with both those vessels by the British ship Poietiers of 74 guns. Released on parole at Bermuda. Jones received distin- guished honors for his bravery, was voted a gold medal by Congress, was promoted to post-captain in the squailron under Com. Decatur. After the war Com. J<mes commamled squadrons in the Mediterranean and Pacific. D. at Phila- delphia Aug. 3, 1S50. Jones (Jamts). M. D„ b. in Georgetown, D. C. 1806; d. in 187;'. in North (-arolina, of paralysis. Ho received M. D. from tho University of l*ennsylvania, and beenino resident physician in tho Philadel]>hia almshouse. Was editor of (ho N. 0. Mt<f. nud Sut-fj. Journal in 1857; pro- fessor of obstetrics and diseases of women and children ; and then professor of practical medicine and tlcan of tiie faculty in the University of Louisiana 1857-60. Pai i. F. Eve. Jones (JAMKsCnAMnniiLAiN),h. in Davidson co..Tenn., Apr. 20. ISOi) ; was elected governor of the State over James K. Polk in 1841 and 1843, and was one of the U. S. Sen- ators from Tennessee from 1851 to 1857. D. at Memphis Oct. 211, 1859. A. H. SrKrHKNS. Jones (J. Glancy), h. in the valley of the Conestog.a. Pa., Oct. 7, 1811 ; was educated for the ministry, but be- came a suecessful lawyer ami for a time was deputy nttorncy- goner.il of Pennsylvania. He was three times smt to Con- gress between 1S50 and IS^o; w-.s the founder of tho court of claims, and for a time chairman of tho committee of ways and means. In 1858 he became U.S. minister to Austria. D. at Heading, Pa., Mar. 24, 1878. Jones (JoRL), LL.D., b. at Coventry. Conn., Oct. 25, 1795 ; graduated at Yale in 1817 ; was a lawyer of Easton, Pa. In l8.';j he became judge, and afterwards presiding judge, of the Philadelphia district court. Ho was (1847- 49) the first presitlent of Girard College, and in 1849 was mayor of Philadelphia. He published reports of the re- vision of the civil code of Pennsylvania, I'lnnst/lrania Laud Lfur, and Jvshh nud thr Cinniufj (ilnry, a work in favor of tho doctrine of the speedy second advent of the Lord. He was perfectly familiar with several living and dead lan- guages, was an earnest student of th('o]()gy, and wrote much for the religious press. D. in Philadelphia Feb. 3, 1860. Jones (John), M. D., b. at Jamaica, L. I., in 1729; studied medicine at Rheims ami Leyden ; was surgeon to Sir W^illiam Johnson's cxpcclition against Crown Point in 1755, and attended the wounded French commander, Baron Dieskau; was professor of surgery at tho medical school of the College of New York 17G7; published J'lu'ni Ufjimrks upon H'oKjir/.? n}}d Fraptnrcit in 177l>: retired from New York City during tho British occupation ; was elected to the State senate; served for a short time in the medical de- partment of the army in 1780, where he was chosen ])hysi- cian to the Pennsylvania Hospital, and in 1787 vice-presi- dent of the College of Physicians. He was the friend and family physician of Franklin and Washington, ami stood at tho head of his profession in America. D. at Philadel- phia June 2:1, 1791. A volume of his medical writings was published, with a memoir, by his pupil. Dr. Mease, in 1795. Jones (Jon\ B.), b. at Baltimore, Md., in 1810; wrote a number of descriptive books and charncter sketches, which have been very popular. Wild Weatcnt Scenes (1849) had a sale of 50,000 co|)ies. Mr. Jones established in 1857 at Philadelphia a weekly paper, the Southern J/on- ttury devoted to the advocacy of Southern interests. Jones (John M.'). b. in Virginia in 1821 ; graduated at West Point 1841, and entered the infantry as brevet second lieutenant, second lieutenant 1845, first lieutenant 1847, and captain 1855; served on frontier duty until ISftl, and resigned May 27, 1861, to join the cause of the Coufed- eracy ; was appointed colonel of Virginia volunteers, and advanced to the grade of brigadier-general; served with Longstrect's corps in Virginia; wounded nt Malvern Hill, and severely at Gettysburg ; and served in operations about Knoxville, Tenn. ; in the Virginia campaign of 18C1 was killed at Spottsylvania, May 10. 18ri4. G. C. Simmons. Jones (John Pat l), whose true patronymic was John Paul, b. at Arbigland on the Firth of Sulway July fi, 1747. His father followed the peaceful pursuit of a gardener. Tho youth became early imbued with the spirit of adven- ture and desire for a seafaring life, which tho scenes of his childhood were calculated to inspire. Accordingly, wcfind him at the age of twelve apprenticed to a shipmaster en- gag'd in the American trade. His first voyage took him to Virginia, where liis brother William had settled and prospered, and under whoso care our hero <liligently im- proved his leisure moments, particularly in the study of iiis newly-adopted profession. The failure of his master liberating him from his indentures, Paul was almost at once engaged as third mate of a slaver, in which traffic he con- tinued until his own sense of the disgrace attaching to such a career induced him to abandon it. Taking passage from Jamaica for Kirkcudbright in 1768, the death of both mas- ter and mate occurred on the passage, and Paul was forced to assume command of the vessel, bringing lior safely to her I destination, and subsequently becoming her master, mak- : in-;; several voyages to the West Indies. In 1773 ho camo to Viri^inia to arrange the affairs of his brother, who had died childless and intestate. Here lie adrled the name of j Jones to his own, and apparently determined to aliandon I his profession and devote himself to agriculture. The out- break of hostilities in 1775, however, recalled him to the sea, and his offer of services to Congress being accepted, he was on Dec. 22, 1775, appointed senior lieutenant in the navy, and assigned to the flagship Alfred. On the arrival of tho commanding ofiicer on board, Jones witii liis own hands hoisted the American flag, the occasion being the first nn which it was ever displayed. His first engagement was wilh the Glasgow, soon :ift<'r winch action he stn'cee<led lo the command of the sloop Providence (12). in which, dur- ing a cruise of little more than six weeks, he captured six- teen prizes, besides doing much damage to tho fishery and shipping at Cnnso and Isle Madam. Appointed to com- mand the Alfred on the completion of this successful cruise, he led an expediti(m, which sailed Nov. 2. 1776. to break up the Cape Breton fishery and capture tho coal fleet, in which he was partially successful, arriving in Boston Dec. 15 with four prizes, lie was in Jan., 1777, ordered back to J ONES. 144.) the Providence. Tbough in the list of original appoiutincnts in the colonial navv he stood sixth from the head, and sub- sequently received his commission as captain, dated Aug. 8, 1770, a resolution of Congress was passed Oct. 10, 1776, declaring the order in which captains in tlic navy should take rank, in which list Jones's name was the eighteenth. This supersedure was a constant source of annoyance to Jones, the injustice of which bo continued to represent, but without efTect. In June. 1777, Congress appoiuted Jones to the comnmnd of the Hanger (IS), a new ship, in which he sailed from Portsmouth Nov. I, arriving at Nantes Dec. 2, 1777. In .^iir.. 177.'*, he sailed from lircst in the Uauger, and ofler burning a brig off Cape Clear made a daring ile- sccnt upon the town and shipping of Whitehaven, in which he displayed great personal ilnriug; he then conceived the idea of capturing the earl of Selkirk, hoping to make him the instrument of obliging England to agree to a system of exchanges. The absence of the earl from his estate near Kirkcudbright caused the scheme to fail. A quantity of silver plate which was seized on this occasion was subse- quently recovereii and returned to the earl at Jones's ex- pense. During this cruise he fell in with the Drake, a vessel superior in crew and armament, which be captured and took into the harbor at Brest. The Ranger subse- quently returned to .\merica, Jones being retained in France by our commissioners at the request of the French minister of the marine, who made several very gratifying propositions to hira, all of which, however, failed of execution, greatly to the disapi)Ointmenl and annoyance of Jones, who was thus without a command until Feb., 177'J, when by his urgent applications the French minister appointed him to the command of the Duras. an old merchantman converted into a war-vessel, and which Jones obtained permission to name Bon Ilommc Richard in honor of Dr. Franklin, whom ho greatly res]>ected and by whom he was held in high esteem. The Richard when eomjiletcd mounted 42 guns, and on the 1 Ith of Aug., 177'J, Jones departed from Lorient in com- mand of a squadron of seven vessels, including two pri- vateers. In a month's time they had captured or destroyed twenty-six vessels, this intelligence sprea<ling consternation along the English coast. On .Sept. 23 the squadron, con- sisting of the Kichard. the Alliance, the Pallas, and the Vengeance, when oiT Flamborough Head sighted a fleet of forty-one s:iil. which proved to be the Baltic fleet under convoy of the Serapis ( jOJjind the Countess of Scarborough (*J0). Chase was at once given by the squadron, the Al- liance, disregarding signals to form in lino of battle, at once taking the lead, but after approaching near to Iho Scrapis, stood off again from land. About TJ i". m. the Kichard came up ivilh the .Scrapis, and a terrible engage- ment, lasting upwards of three hours, ensued, during all of which time the vessels were in close proximity, and during the latter part of the fight in actual contact. At the commencement of the action two of the Richard's guns burst, disabling their crews and causing the abandonment of the battery. The Countess of Scarborough surrendered to the Palliis aller a short nelioii, and Iho Alliance now ap- proached the scene of conflict between the Richard an<l t?erapi«, hut, instead of supporting the Richard, her com- mander, Caiit. Landais, an envious Frenchman, actually opened a raking fire on the Hiebard. which was continued too long to admit of doubt of tlie Frenchinan's intention. Notwiihstaii'ling this discouraging circumstance, and the fact that the Richard was in a sinking condition and sur- render counselled by many, Jones maintained the conflict until shortly after II) o'clock, when the .Scrapis struck. The Kichard being on fire in two places and in a hopeless con- dition, she was abandoned after removing the wounded, and about lU A. ». of the '25tli she went down, bows first. The Serapis was taken info the Texel, and Jones was re- ceived in Paris and throughout France with the greatest honors, the king bestowing upon him an elegant sword and the cross of the order of Military .Merit, which latter Con- gress permitted him to accept, and with which he was dec- orated by the French iiiinisier al Philadel|ihia, where Jones had arrived on Feb. l.s, 17H1. Congress also gave him a vore of thanks, and by resolution Ihe eommand of the new frigate America (71) ; but as this fine ship was subsequently pres.-nted to France to replace the Magnifique, ,lones never saw active service at sea again. Me was subsequently (I7'S:i) sent to Paris as agent to recover the moneys due in Europe fur prizes taken under his eommand. In 17^7, Jones came to .America, and while here Congress voted him a gold medal. He soon after returned to Europe, and in 17SS ac- cepted the ajqutiutment of rear-admiral in the service of Russia, and reuilered important service against the Turks. He became the object of personal enmity among favoriles at court, and was allowed to retire on a pension, which, however, was not paid. IIo removed to Paris, where ho died Jnly IS, I7'J2. O. C. .«im«on9. Jones (JoiiM TxTLon), D. D., b.kt New Ipswich, N. H., July 16, 1802; graduated at Amherst in 1825, and studied theology at Andover and Newton, Mass. ; became a Bap- tist in 1828 ; went in 1S30 as a missionary to Burmah : was transferred in 18;i3 to .Siam. where be was a successful mis- sionary. He published a Siamese New Testament (1843) and several tracts. D. at Bangkok Sept. 13, 1851. Jones (Joiis W.). b. in Montgomery eo., Md., in 1806; studied medicine, took his degree at Jefferson College, Philadelphia, and moved to (xeorgia, where, after serving in the State legislature, he was elected to Congress 1847-49 ; subsequently he became one of the professors in the medi- cal college of Atlanta. D. in 1872. A. H. Stkphexs. Jones (Joiiv W.), b. in Chesterfield, Va. ; graduated at William and Mary College in IKU.'i; represented Virginia in Congress 1835-45, and was Speaker during his last term. D. Jan. 29, 1848. A. H. Stkphi:.n3. Jones (Jons AVister), F. S. A., b. at Lambeth, Eng- land, early in the present century; was educated at St. Paul's School ; studied law, and entered the civil service in 1S.'57. He became assistant keeper of the printed books at the British Museum in l.^SO, keeper in IS.M'., anrl principal librarian on the retirement of Mr. A. Panizzi in IMiG. .Mr. Jones has edited for the llakluyt Society several republi- cations of rare works of early travels, has written a guide to the printed books in the (irenville and King's Library, has contributed to the A'cic liiogmpliirnt lUcliuiiari/ of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and to the quarterly reviews. Jones (Joseph), M. D., b. in Liberty co.. Ga., Sept. G, is:;:',; graduated at Princeton College, N. J., and at the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania. His great-grandfaihcr was killed in storming the British works at Savannah when an aide to lien. Mcintosh, Ort. 9, 1779; his grandfather served through the war of I.''l2: and his father was the distinguished clergyman and pro- fessor, Charles Colcock Jones. Joseph Jones was profes^sor of ehcmistry in the Medical College, Savannah, Ga., 1S5S-59; professor natural sciences University of Georgia, Athens, 1858-59; professor in the Jledical College, Au- gusta, 1869-00 : chemist to cotton-planters' convention, Georgia. ISCO; surgeon army Confederate Slates 1802-05; professor chemistry ami clinical medicine Nashville Uni- versity, Tenn., 1808-69 : and at present professor chemistry and clinical medicine University of Louisiana, and visit- ing physician to its charily hospital. He is the author of several valuable contributions to medical science and its kindred subjects. Pali. F. Eve. Jones (Noble WiMBERi.Yl, M. D..b.near London, Eng., 1724; emigrated to Georgia; a mcniberof the colonial leg- islature in 1701 ; was a leading revolutionist in 1774, and was a member of the second Congress of the colonies 1775; afterwards became connected with the army, and was made prisoner at the capture of Charleston in 1780. Afler being exchanged he was again relumed to Congress. He prac- tised medicine during the intervals of public life; was pres- ident of the State convention of (Jeorgia by which the con- stitution was amended iu 1795. D. in Savannah, Ga., Jan. y lfl05. A. H. Stepiie.vs. Jones (Owes), b. in Wales, 1809; best known by his studies of the Alhambra in Granada, to which he devoted much time and labor. He decorated the interior of the Exhibition building in Hyde Park (ISJl) and of the Crys- tal Palace at Sydenham, where the Egyptian, Greek, Ro- man, and Alhambra courts were of his design. In 1852 be was made director of decorations for the Crystal Palace Companv. SI. James's Hall. Piccadilly, was erected by him. lie was the author of Dciiiiim fur ,Vo»iiiV <iii(/ '/'<««<■/- liileil I'itremrnls (1842). /'/iiii«, A7rr<i(i'oii», and Scrlmnt of llic Alhiimbni (1848), An AlUmpI lo tirfiiir tht J'rimiplet irlilcli kIiuiiIiI /Irr/iilnh III'- /Cmiilni/iiiriil i,/ Cuhiit ill Dniiin- liic ^/-M(I851), Tlie (Iriimmm- uf Oinomcilf ( 1856). He wrote much on the art of illumination, and dcsigne<l the illuminations of the Book of Common Prayer. To il- lustrate his doctrine that ancient sculpture was commonly painted, and the exterior of marble buildings embellisbed with color, Jlr. Jones toucl-.ed wilh color statues in the Greek Court at .Sydenham, including some of the easts from the Elgin marbles there. His work is familiar through the ornamental title-pages of illustrateil books. I). Apr. 19, 1(J7|. 0. B. FlIOTIIINdHAM. Jones (Gen. RorEnV b. in Westmoreland eo., Va., 1789 ; appointed second lieulenaul in the marine corps in 1809; transferred lo the artillery in 1812, wilh rank of captain ; and assistant ndjulnntgenernl, wilh rank of major, 18i:t; served with dislinetiim during the war with Great llriliiin, winning brevet of major for Chippewa and of lieutenant- colonel for gallantry at sortie from Fort Erie: ajipointed adjntant-gencral. rank of colonel, Aug.. 1818, and retained iu the nrtillory io 1821. In 1825 was appointed adjutant- 1446 JONES— JONKOPING. general of the arrav. which position he held until ho d. at Washington, D. C./July 15, 1SJ2. In lS:t2 he was brc- vetted brigadier-gcneralj and in 1S49 major-general. G. C. SlSIMONS. Jones (Pamuei-), LL-O., h. iu 17r>0, was a son of Chicf- Jaslicc Samuel Jones; graduated at Yale in 1700; studied law in his father's office, along with De \Vitt Clinton; was a member of the New York assembly 1812-14; recorder of Kevv York City 182:5; ciiaucellor of the Slate I82G; chief- justice of the superior court in New York City 1S2S, and judge of the supreme court of the State lB-47-4y. D. at Cold Spring, L. I., Aug. S, ISao. Jones {Gen. Samiel), b. in Virginia in 1S20; graduated at AVest Point. July, ISU, and ii|i]>ointed brevet second lieu- tenant of artillery, receiving iiis fall commission the fol- lowing September; promoted to bo first lieutenant 1847, and captain 1853; 18H-45 was on frontier duty and in garrison; 1845-51 at West Point as profoFsor and instruc- tor; again on garrison and frontier duty 1S51~5S, when ho was assigned to duty in AVashingtrm as assistant to the judgc-advoeate: resigned Apr. 27, 1861. and entered the Confederate service as eolonel, rising to the grade of major- general 1802, aud in 18G4 commanded the department of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. G. C. Simmons. Jones (Seaborn), b. in Augusta, Ga., 17SS, and was sent to Princeton College for education, but returned before graduation in consec|uenee of the failure of his father in mercantile business; studied law, and was admitted to the bar by special act of the legislature before he was twenty- one years of age; was solicitor-general of bis judicial circuit in 182;^; was a member of Congress IS^-'J-.To and 1845-47. D. in Columbus. Ga.. in 1874. lie was a lawyer of great distinction in the State for half a century. A. H. Stephens. Jones (TnOMAS ap Catfsbv), b. in Virginia in 17P0, was a brother of Gen. Roger Jones; entered the U. S. nnvy in 1805; was from ISOS to 1812 in the Gulf of Mex- ico, engaged iu suppressing piracy, smuggling, and the slave-trade; was captured with his flotilla by a British na- val expedition against New Orleans in 1814; commanded the Pacific squadron in 1842, when he took possession of Monterey in California, upon erroneous information of war existing between the U. S. and Mexico, tor which he was temporarily suspended from the service. D. at Georgetown, 0. C, May 30, 1858. Jones (Thomas Rymeu), F. R. S., b. about 1810; ed- ucated at London and Paris, and entered on his profession as a surgeon in 1833, but Ijy reason of deafness did not long practise; became in 1831 ])r(>fcssor of comparative an- atomy in King's College, London, and in 1840 Fullerian professor of physiology in the Royal Institution, and ac- quired fame as an eloquent lecturer. .Author of .4 Gruerol Outline of the Animal Kiitffdum 0838), of napers in the Ct/clopscdiu of Anatomy and Physiology^ and various mon- ographs. Jones (Thomas Wharton). F. R. S., F. R. C. S.. b. at St. Andrew's, Scotland, in 18lt8; was educated at Kdin- burgh : became in 1838 a surgeon of London ; was professor of ophthalmic medicine and >urgery in I'nivcrsity College, London; and wrote Ophthulmic Medicine and Snrgcry, the Astley-Cooper prize essay on Inftammntinn (1S50), the Actonian prize essay of 1851, /*hy»iolotfy of Body, Sense, and Mind, Failnrc of Siyht from Railway Accidents (1869), etc. Jones (Sir William), M. A.. F. R. S., b. in London Sopt. 28, 1740; was educated at Harrow and Oxfurd ; was tutor to Lord Althorp 1705-70 ; published a French trans- lation of the (Persian) Life of :Xadir Shah (1770), a Per- sian Grammar (1771); was made F. R. S. 1772; in 1774 was called to the bar and published Commentarirn on Asiatic Poetry ; became commis-;ioner of bankrupts 1776; translated in 1780 the ModllaK-ut, from the Arabic, and ])ublishcd some legal writings ; became in 17S3 a knight and judge of the auprcmc court of judicature of Bengal; founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta: wrote largely for the Aniatic /Researches; published the Enchanted /^■|if/, a poem, translations of the ^'^Z-miM^a (17S9), a trans- lation of the hiHtitntes of Mann (1704), a translation of Isa^ua; extracts from the Vedas, and tales, poems. legal works, etc. from the Indian languages, A devout Christian, a steady friend of constitutional liberty, a profound jurist and linguist, an elegant poet, Sir William's name is one of the brightest ornaments of English literary history. D. at Calcutta Apr. 27, 171*4. (See his Life, by Lord Tcign- uuiuth, 1804.) Jones (William), F. R. S., generally called of Nav- LANn. b. at Lowiok, Frig.. .Tnly 30. 1726; was educated at the Charterhouse and at Oxford, where he became a eon- vert to the liut^hlnsoniun jiliilysoj^hy (sec IIuTcriiNSOs, I John); was ordained in 1749; became successively curate ! of Fiucdun, vicar of Bethersden, rector of Pluckley, of Paston, and of Hullingbourn, and perpetual curate of Nay- land in Suffolk. In 1780 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. For many years he labored upon a general system of philosophy, based upon the works of llulcbin- son, and he exercised considerable influence by his writing?, being endowed with great learning, piety-, and versatility, as well as- an excellent style. D. Feb. fi, 1800. lie wrote, among other works. The (.'uthoHr Doctrine of the Trinity (1753), Physiolofficnl Disijnisitions (1781), Art of Mnnxe (1784), Fi;ptrativc Lanrfmiffc of Scriptnre (1787), Life of Bishop //o)-iie(l79J), and founded the British Critic {\79Z), Jones (William Alfreo^. b. in New Y'ork June 26, 1817 ; graduated in 1830 at Columbia College, of wliich he was (1851-65) librarian. He is the author of many con- tributions to periodical literature, and has published The Aualyftt (ISIO). Literary Studies (1847), Kn^nyK (1849), Charactern and Criticisms (2 vols., 1857), and other works. Jones's Bluff, post-v. of Sumter oo., Ala., on the Ala- bama and Chattanooga R. R., 10 miles from Livingston. Pop. of tp. 2134. Joncs'boro', tp. of Lawrence co., Ala. Pop. 1087. Jonesboro', post-v, and tp., cap. of Craighead co.. Ark., 49 miles N. W. of Memphis, Tcnn. Pop. of v. 155 ; of tp. 21)9 4. Jonesboro', post-v., cap. of Clayton co., Ga., on the Macon and Western R. R., 20 miles S. of Atlanta: has manufactures of flour, furniture, etc., an academy, a weekly newspaper, 2 churches, sumo 35 business-houses, 2 hotels, and considerable cotton trade. Pop. 531. C. P. Vaighn &. Co., Pi'BS. "News." Jonesboro^, city, cap. of Union co.. III., on the Illi- nois Central and the Cairo and St. Louis R. Rs.. 3G miles N. of Cairo, in an elevated, well-timbered and watered re- gion, abounding in good building-stone, and celebrated for its excellent and abundant fruit. It has a bank, I weekly newspaper, 3 churches, 2 hotels, stores, mills, and manufac- tories. Two miles to the N. E. there is a State insane asy- lum. Pop. IIOS: of tp. 1577. T. F. BocTON, En. and Prop. "Gazette." Jonesboro', post-v. of Grant co., Ind., on the Pitts- burg Chicago and St. Louis It. R., 5 miles S. E. of Marion, has 4 churches, 2 hotels, a newspaper, etc. thief business, agriculture, general trade, milling, and lumber-dealing. Pop. 581. N. W. Wi:nniNCTox, En. "Herald." Jones'boroiigh, post-tp. of Washington co.. Me.. 7 miles W. of Machias, at the head of Englishman's Bay. Pop. 522. Jonesborous^h^ po<:t-v..cop. of Washington eo., Tcnn., the oldest town in the State, and the first State capital, has 5 churches, a fine court-house, 2 hotels. 3 newspapers, a female college, and a male institute, and is pleasantlv sit- uated on the East Tennessee A'irginia and Georgia R. R. 100 miles E. bv N. of Knoxville. S. A. Brf:LL. lou Pens. " E. Tkxn. Echo." Jones'bur?, post-v. of Montgomery co., Mo., on the North Missouri R. U. Jones'port, tp. of AVashington co.. Me.. 18 miles S. W. of Matdiias. on the W. side of Englishman's Bay. It has shipbuilding and lobster fisheries. Pop. 1305. Joncs'town, post-b. of Swatara tp., Lebanon co., Pa., 5 miles N. of Lebanon. Joiios'villc, a V. of Mcintosh co., Ga. Pop. 99. Joncsville^ post-v. of Wayne tp.. Bartholomew co., Ind., oil the JetVersonvillo Madison and Indianapolis R. R. Pop. 2Ul'>. Jonesville, vostv. of Hillsdale co.. Mich., on the Mich- igan Southern R. R., at the junclinn of the Lansing di- vision with the main line, and on the Fort Wayne Jackson and Saginaw R. R. It has a wei kly newspaper, largo woollen and cotton mills in successful operation, and im- portant manufactures of carriages. Its mercantile inter- ests arc flourishing. It is 4i miles N. W. of Hillsdale, the county-seat. Jamrs I. Dknnis, Pro. " IxDEi'ENnnsT." Joncsville^ post-v. of Clifton Park tp.. Saratoga co., N. V. It is the sent of an academy. It is 3 miles from South Ballston Station on the Saratoga and Schenectady R. n. Joncsvillev post-tp. of Union co., S. C. Pop. 1809. Joncsville^ post-v., cap. of Leo co., Va., 28 miles N, of Rojcrsville, Tcnn., has a flour-uiill, steam saw-mil'. 2 churches, a weekly newspaper, a male aead,emy, 2 ho'els. besides stores an<l shops. Chief industry, farming and mercantile pursuits. Pop. 274: of tp. 3369. J. B. Wkst. En. " hr.p. Co. SpxTiNrL." Jon'Koping, town of Sweden, beautifully situated at JONQUI L— J OK DA X. 1447 the southern extremity of Lake Wetter, and surrounded by pine-clad hills. It hn8 large manufocturcs of arms and miiskots. Pop. II,7.>1. Jon'quil [Vr.JunqiiiHe, a dim. of I,at.jiiiiriis, a '• rush "], a nami- given to .Vii/<i«»in Joii'/rnV/n iiud udunia (order .Vnia- rvllidatciiM. jrarJ.n |iluiils klouniing in spring. They are natives of the ?. of Europe. The Oowers of the fragrant eorls arc emploved in perfumery. Jon'son (Iti:xjA)iis1, generally known as Bkn Joxson. b. at Wesltninster, probably Judo II, 1571, a short time after the dcalh of his father. The details of his life before l.iSK! are uncertain, but ihoy seem to have t)ccn very varied, like his faculties, and somewhat violent, like bis passions. liis mother married a master bricklayer, and for some time he worked with his stepfather as a mason. Later on ho enlisted in the army, and made a cam)Kiifrn in the Low Countries. On his return he entered St. .lohn's College, Cambridge, and studied classical lansuagcs and literature. In his twentieth year ho went upon the .-itngc, and tried to become an actor." At last hi,s talent found its proper field. In I J'Ji) appeared his r.imc/i/ o/ J/iir/inrn, and in IJUS it was recast, and brought out with great Success in tho Globe Theatre under tho title Ei-rri/ Mnn in Am tliimnr. Then followed in 1599 Eren/ Man Out nf hit Humor; in lliOfl, Ci/uthi'n'» llrreh; in 11102, the /'ur-limli-r. which in- volved him in a very sharp controversy with Decker; in 1CU:I, .V'jniiin, a tragedy : in 100 1, y?'i«^crti(/ //.<c, written in connection with Chapman and Marston, for which ho was imprisoned and threatened with having his noso and cars cut off; in IliOJ, yol/mui:: in 1009, Epiarne, ur ihe Siliut Womnu; in 1010, Thi- Alrlii/minl; in 1011, (yiiliue, a tragedy: in 1010. 77ic Deiil i« <im A"; in 1G2U. A'cio Inn, or Ihe l.i-jhi Hmri; but the last-mcnliimcd comedy belongs to that part of his works which Dryden called his dotages. After his appearance in literature the life of Ben .lonson is tolerably well known, both in the inns and at court — his tour- naments with .'^hakspeare and tho other wits of his ago in tho .Mermaid Tavern in lircad street, where Sir Walter Ra- leigh had founded the .Mermaid Club; his throne speeches on literary taste delivered at Ihe lircsiile of tho Devil's Tavern in Fleet street, where later on he himself founded tho Apollo Club ; and his " entertainments " or " masques," a kind of dramatic arrangement interspersed with songs an^l ballets which he wrote for tho court festivals. In Ifil'.l. .James I. made him poct-huire.ate, with a pension of 100 marks, and Charles I. increased tho pension to £100, and added a tierce of canary. The last years of his life were nevertheless very clouded. IIo was poor — not be- cause ho had less than he needed, but because ho used more than he had. lie became bitter in spite of the great •uccess he had achieved. He felt wretched. IIo d. Aug. 8, 18.17, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where his tombstone bears this rather queer inscription, " raro Ben Jonson!" The S<nl S^fphml, a jioem which he left unfin- ished, as well as much in his " masriues," seems to inclicato that in its foumlaiion his genius was not so very difTerciit from that of Shakspeare. But its development was nii- otber, and thereby it assumed almost an opposite character. While Shakspeare was a man with sporadical and incidental knowledge, but with wonderfully large and striking views, Ben Jonson appears to have possessed a compact mass of systematic knowledge, which led him to rather narrow views. .Shaksneart-'s taste was the natural result of his genius ; Ben .lonson's was tho product of his learning. llcnco tho difference between them. It is singularly wrong to say that Krfrif .l/oii in lih llnmor was the first regular comedy in tho Knglish lileraluro — exactly ns wrong as if anybody would say that .SVyVimn was tho first regular trageily. But it is true that in the Knglisb lite- rature Ben .Jonson was the first wlio a'lopted tho idi-als of the classical literature with full ronsciousncss of what ho was doing, and carried tbein llirough with adequato talent. This his standpoint procured for him a great authority in the literary lil'e of his age, but it made bis genius declam- atory in tragedy and satirical in comedy, thereby vastly diminishing its importance for coming ages. ,Soon after his death his works ceased to bo a living infiuence ; they became literary monuments, historical phenoineim, and nothing more. Ci,i;mi;vs I'ktkiishs. Jonsson (I"ivv\ b. at llitnrdal. Ieehind,,Jan. 10, 1701 ; stuilied at the rui\ersily of Copenhagen, and was appointed in 17.J1 bishop of Skalliolt, where he d. ,Iuly L':l, 17S!I. His liinlnrin EfflmiuHlirn fiilaiitlirn (4 vols., ('openhagen, 1772- 79) is a principal source of tho history of tho island, .lootlpoiir', Jniitlpoiir, or .Unrwar, a tributary stale r.r India, the largest of It nipoiilana. «iri(ated in the N. W. Provinces, belwe.-n hit. 21° and 2S° N. and Ion. 70° and 75° E. Area. :'..'i.0"2 square miles. It is diviiled into two unequal parts by the river Loonee, which flows into tho , Great Western Run of Cutoh. Tho larger portion of Jood- poor, N. W. of the Lnonce, is chiefly waste, being an ex- tension of tho desert of Scinde ; the smaller portion, S. E. of that river, is fertile, well irrigated by torrents from tho Mairwnr Mountains, and produces excellent grain and cot- ton. Wild beasts and serpents abound: iron, salt, and mar- ble arc plentiful. The natives, mostly of the .Iaixa sect (which see), are skillul in the woollen manufacture and active in trade. Joodpoor is under the government of a native prince called ninftftyajah, who pays a coiisideraljle annual tribute to the British government, which is virtually tho ruler through the agent residing at tho court. Tho population is about I.SOO.OOt); the caiiilal, also called .Tood- poor, has a po|iuiation variously stated at from .SO,(IUO to 150.000. Pallcc, 40 miles S. E. of Jondpoor, is tho com- mercial metropolis, tho seat of an active trade in opium. There are in .Joodpoor several thousand villages of from 5U0 to 1000 houses each. Jop'lillf city of .Jasper eo., j\ro., near the S. W. corner of the county, has 2 banks. 2 weekly iicwspaper.s, graded schools, 20 smelting furnaces, :tMd ]iroiluees iibout 15,000,000 poumls of pig lead and 10,000,000 pounds of pig 7,inc annually. It is a thriving town ; esliiuatcd pop., 8500 in 1874. G. D. Jackso.v, I*i;b. "Bullktin." Joppn. See Jaffa. Jor'daons (Jacob'), b. at /Vntwerp May 19, 1594, was a pupil of Ailam van Oort. His style, however, he formed ]irincipally alter tho Italians Paul Veronese and Caravag- gio, though he never visited Italy, and after Rubens, with whom he is often compared. He liked to fill a large can- vas with mythological and bacchanalian scenes, but his pictures arc always less powerful in conception, less vigor- ous in design, and less brilliant in coloring than those of Rubens, and sometimes they arc rather trivial. He worked with astonishing rapidity, and .lebieved a great fame ; be is abundantly represented in all European galleries. D. at Antwerp (jt-t. 10, 1078. Jordan [Ileb. Varden: Gr. 'lopSoi-iii ; called by the .Ara- bian geograjihers E/~ Vrdnu, and more commonly Knh-nhe- riah — (". c. '* the watering-place "]. Ihe principal river of Palestine and the most celebrated in biblical geography, takes its rise from the snows of Mount Hennon at the N. extremity of the Holy Land, ami flows nearly due S. through tho centre of that country to the Dead Sea. It has three jirineipal sources: I. the Lcddan, e:illed by Jose])hus tho Little ,Iordan, rising from a great fountain, the largest in Syria, at the base of the hill 7'cll-rl-h'uili/, on which are the ruins of Ihe ancient city Dan; II. the //<iiim»i/, rising at Banias (the ancient Cscsarea Pliili))pi), 4 miles E. of Tell-cl-Kildy, frcmi a vast cave now coni-c;iIed by tho ruins of a temiile built by Herod: III. the IIiikIjiui;/. rising at Ilasbeiya, 12 miles N. of Tell-el-K.ldy, from a pool at tho foot of' a basalt clill'. The latter is Ihe smallest of tho streams, but is Ihe longest ami rises from tho highest per- ennial source, 1700 feet above the level of the sea, while the fountain at Banias is 1147, and tbiil at Tell-el-Kady but 017 feet above that level. The two higher tonenls burst through narrow rocky ravines, and unite with the Leddan 4 or 5 miles below its source, forming the Jordan proper, wbiell, miles below, falls into Lake Huleb, called in the Bible the ''waters of Merom." From Lake Hulch tho Jordan descends with rapiility and violence in a tortu- ous channel, over a roeky bed with many cataracts, and falling nearly 800 feet witliin a eom|uus of 1 1 miles of lati- tude, enters tho Sen of Galilee, otherwise calleil Genncs- aret and Tiberias, now Dnhr-cl- Tiihuri;/rl,. The former lake is 120 feet almrr the level of the sea! Ihe latter 050 feet hrliitr. In its remaining course from Ihe Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea the Jordan falls nearly 700 feet more — a strange and almost incredible fact had it not been eslab- lished by careful measurement, the explannliou of which is to bo fiMind in the extremely tortuous course of the river, wbiell within 00 miles of latitude traverses at least 200 miles and has 27 considerable riipids. The whoh- lower stream, or .lordan proper, then, is many hundred feet below tho sea-level, which fact alone woubl make this region unique ns a geograpbieal and ge<dogieal phenotni'non. The val- ley, now called El-fHtnr, is about miles wiile at the norlh- ern end, expnncling to 12 miles at the soiilhern, is generally level an'l shut in between sleep parallel chains of niountains from .1000 to 5000 feet high. Small (mrtions in the N. are alone eullivaled. the ri'Sl is desert, ''in spring covered wilh rank grass and thistles, hut in summer parched and bare. The southern section, known as the Plain of ,Jerieho, is covered with a white nitrous crust, like hoar-frost, through wbieh not H blade of grass nor green herb springs." In the midst of this )>laiu the .lordan has cut Ihrough Ihe chalky strata a winding ravine varying from 200 yarils to half II mile in breadth ami from 40 to 150 itivi in depth. Fivo miles below the Sea of tialilee it receives its largest tributary, tho Skerial-tl-Mandhur (Ilicrumax of tho Qrcek 1448 JORDAN— JORTIN. geographers^ a stream from the E. scarcely inferior to the Jordan, I'M) feet wide at its mouth ; and about halfway be- tween the lakes the Jabhok fWady Zcrka) enters from the mountains <»f (Jilead "u the E., being the only other con- siderable tributary. There are only two bridges over the Jordan now in existence: one. 2 miles S. of Lake Huleh, of the time of the Crusades, called Jiar Hcnnt Yu/cub, " tho bridge of Jacob's daughters," has been from time immemo- rial the leading pass from Western Palestine to Damascus ; the other, Jisr-el-MrJumia, a quaint Saracenic structure, is 2 miU's below the mouth of the llieromax, and formerly connected the great, city of Pevthopolis (Ilethshean, now Jhinati) with the Decaptdis. The ])rineipal fords above tho Zerka are one just below the Lake of Galilee, which must have been traversed by Christ, and that of Suecoth, 13 miles below the lower bridge. The latter was undoubtedly the ford by which Abraham and Jjvcob crossed; it was also probably the lUilnibnm of John's bapti>-m and of the slaugh- ter of the Midianitcs and tho Ephraimitos (Judg. vii. and xii.). Ten miles below the Zerka is a noted ford on the road from Xabhui? (Sheehera) to Es-Salt, and there aro two others near the " pilgrims' bathing-plaeo" in tho Plain of Jericho. One of tho latter must havo been the scene of tho miraculous crossing of the Israelites under Joshua and of the similar miracles recorded of Elijah and Elisha (2 Kings ii. S, 14), and tho same spot is traditionallv regarded as the scene of Christ's baptism. At its montli the Jordan is 540 feet wide and l;UO icet below the level of the sea. The val- ley of tho lower .Jordan abounds in slime-pils, and thermal springs are frequent, with many other indications of former volcanic or igneous action. Dark basalt is the principal rock in the upper region — trap, limestone, sandstone, and conglomerate in the lower. Cane, oleanders, willows, tam- arisks, hollyhocks, and thistles form tho most noticeable trees nnd plants; ii<tns, tigers, and wild-boars formerly made their haunts in the thickets along the river's edge. The course of the Jordan was in 1847 partially explored by Lieut. Molyneux of the British navy (Journal itoi/. Geoff. Sor., vol. xviii.). more thoroughly by Lieut. Lynch of the IT. S. navy in 1S48 (sec his Official lieport), and later by MacGregor (1868-60) in his Rob Roy canoe. (The best sources of information are Robinson's liihUntl RcHcnrchea, the geograjdiical works of Von Raumer. Ritter. and Peter- mann, Stanley's Sluni and Palestine, and the recent publi- cations of the British Palestine Exploration Society. See also able articles in Kitto's, Smith's, and MeClintock and Strong's liiblical Ci^clopsEdiaa, and article Pai.fstixe in this work.) Poutcr C. Bliss. Jordan, tp. of Whitcsides co., III. Pop. 1190. Jordfiil, tp. of Jas])er co., Ind. Pop, 327. Jordan, tp. of Warren co., Ind. Pop. 448. Jordan, tp. uf Fillmore co., Minn. Pop. 68.3. Jordan, post-v. of Scott co.. Minn., on the St. Paul and Sioux City R. R., 8 miles S. W. of Shakopce. It has 1 weekly newspaper. Jordan^ a v. of Croghan tp., Lewis co., N. V., on Os- wegatchie River; has manufactures of leather. Jordan, incorporated v. of Onondaga co., N. Y., on the Erie Canal and New York Central R. R., N. branch, 17 miU's W. of Syracuse, in the N. W. corner of the town of Elhridge ; has a weekly newspaper, a banking-house, acad- emy, 4 churches, 13 stores, flnuring-mill. 2 manufactories which turn out yearly 30,(100 wheelbarrows and ]'),000 hand-sleds, a straw-board mill, furnace, machine-shop, 2 cooper-shops, pump-faL-tory. 2 wagon manufactories, fine water-power, etc. Pop. 1263. 11. P. AViN'soR, Ed. "TnANScniPT." Jordan, tp. of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 561. Jordan, tp. of Lycoming eo., Pa. Pop. 47.1. Jordan, tp. of Northumberland co., Pa. Pop. 924. Jordan, post-tp. of Green co., Wis. Pop. 1083. Jordan (Camii.le), b. at Lyons Jan. 11, 1771. and phiyed a very conspicuous part in French politics during the Revolution and the Restoration. He was a decided enemy of the republican government, and one of tho most active jiromotcrs of the insurrection of Lyons. After the fall of that city (Oct. 9, 1793) he tied to Switzerlnnd, whence he went to London. Having returneil to Lyons in 1796. he was elected a member of the Council of Five Hun- dred, but had to flee a second time after tlie revolution of Sept. 4, 1797. He went to (Jermany. and lived in Weim.ar. In IfSOO he was recalled, and showed himself strongly op- posed to the measures of the First Cnnsiil. But Napoleon chose not to notice him, and during the Empire he lived in retirement, engaged in literary pursuits. After the resto- ration of the Bourbons he at first sided with the govern- ment, but when in 1S20, after the assassination of the duke of Berry, au attempt was mado by tho ministry to suspend the liberty of the person, to suppress the freedom of the press, and to change the elective system, Jordan became the parliamentary leader of the opposition. He died, how- ever, soon after (May 19, 1;S2I). His writings consist mostly of pamphlets written with great courat^c and elo- quence, and illustrative of the situation uf the moment. (See Saiut-Beuvc, Camillc Jordan ct Madame Stafl, 1S6S.) Jordan (Chaki-ks Ktibxxe), b. at Berlin Aug. 27, 1700, of a French family; studied at Magdeburg and (icneva: was appointed minister to the French Reformed church of Potzlow in 1725, but resigned his office in 1732. after tho d"ath of his wife ; made a literary journey in Holland and France; accompanied tho Prussian crown prince in his exile at Rhciiisberg: and continued from that time to his death (May 14, 174."») to be the friend and companion of Frederick II. From this circumstance his J/iHtoiie d'lin rnj/o/jc Itftentire and his Corrotpoiidanvc avcc Fridiric II. derive some interest. Jordan (Dora), b. near Waterford, Ireland. about 1762, was an act re?? in Lontlun towards the clo.-c of the eighlccnih century, when she became the mistrci^s of the duke of Clar- ence, afterwarils King William IV. By hira she had ten children, but tho connection ceased some time before hor death, which occurred at St. Cloud. France. .Inly 3, JS16. ller Memoii'n were ]inblishcd by J. Boiiden in 1S3I. It has been asserted that Mrs. Jordan did not die in France at the .above date, but resided for several years under an assumed name in England. Jordan (Ri'oorpn), b. at Berlin in 1810, nnd began his artistic studios in tliat city, but received his stylo in tho school of Diisscldorf. He has painted scenes from tho coasts of Normandy, the Dutch islantls. Heligoland, Riizen. etc., and one of his pictures. Afarriof/c Proposal in Hclitjo- land (1S34), has become widely known. Jordan (Thomas), b. in tho Luray Valley, Va., Sept. 30, 1819; graduated at West Point, and entered the army as brevet sccoml lieutenant of infantry .July 1. IS^O; sec- ond lieutenant Dee., IS40 ; in the war with the Seminoles (1842) captured their leading chief. Tiger Tail ; in the war with Mexico engaged at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma ; appointed captain and quartermaster Mar. 3, 1S47, serving as such on the Pneific co.ist lSo2-60. Resigned May, 1861. to follow the fortunes of his native State, entering lier ser- vice as lieutenant-colonel, and at once assigned as adjutant- general of Confederate forces assembling at Manassas Junction. As chief of staff accompanied (Jon. Beauregard to Tennessee, and was apjjointed brigadier-general from date of the battle of Shiloh: temporarily on stafT of (len. Bragg, but resumed his position with Beauregard during the defence of Charleston, 1862-64. Immediately after the war publislied in Harper's Mnr/azlue a critical review of Confederate operations and administration ; subsequently (1S6G) was editor of the Memphis Appeal. Invited to or- ganize the military resources of the Cuban revolution, was made chief of general staff of that army, and second in command (IS69), succeeding to chief command Dec.. 1869, and fouglit a largely sujicrior force .Tan. 1, IS70, inlHcting heavy loss. Seeing ni> proliability of being able to organ- ize an effective force, and the supply of arms and ammu- nition running low, he resigned Feb., 1S70, and returned to tho IT. S., where he is mostly engaged in literary pur- suits. Author of Cainpnif/na of Lieut, -Oeu. Forrcut (1867). Jordan Ilivo**, in Utah, flows from X'tah Lnke, some 45 miles, in a northward course into the (Jrent Salt Lake. It is small and not navigable, but is capable of irrigating a largo extent of country. Its waters contain numerous species of small fish. Jordan's, tp. of Coosn co., Ala. Pop. 568. Jornan\les, or Jordanes, the historiographer of the Goths, was himself a tioth by birth, and lived in the mid- dleof tho sixth century. Having been converted to Chris- tianity, ho became a monk, and trailition mnkcs him bi.=hop of Crotona. He wrote two historical wurks which have come down to us — /A' retfunnnn ar tntipnrtiin ni(rrrgfiiouc,a.H outline of tlio history of tho world to the time of Justinian ; and De ffetaniin sire Ootlionim orif/itie ct vchns f/rntis, a his- tory of tho <"ioths from the origin of t!ie jieople to the fall of the Oj*trogothic empire in Italy. The former is of very little interest, but the latter is invaluable. It is the prin- cipal, nearly the only, source of the liistory of tho Goths ond of the great migration of the nations. The history of the (loths had been written before by Cassiodorus. Ablavius, and l>ion Cassius, but these works are lost, and we know them only from extracts made by .lornandes. The best crit- ical edition of his works is that by Closs (.Stuttgart, 1861). Jortin (Jons), D. D.. b. in London Oct. 23, 1698; stud- ied at the Charter house and at Jesus College. Cambridge, of which ho became a fellow after gradunling in 1719, W'hilo at college ho made extracts from EudLathius for the JORULLO-JOSEPHUS. 1449 use of I'ope in hi? translation of Homor. and bccnmo noted for hi? facilily in liiitin verse, of which lie puhlishej a vol- ume i LnnnH i*.,rtir{, 1722). Takin;? onU-rs in the Church of Enf;Iand he was presented to the Mvin;; of Swavesey near Cambridge (1720), hut soon after removed to London, and became a much-admirod pulpit-orat(»r, beinj;; succes- sively rector of Eastwtll (Kent), of St. Dun.stan's-in-the- j East, domr-stic chaplain to tlic bishop of London (1762), j prebend of St. Paul's, rector of Kensington, and archdca- | con of London (1764). IIo was author of numerous learned phiIoIogii*;ib critical, and theological works which have niaintainnl u hiffh reputation, among which were Truth of the ChrUtinn J{, luji'nn (1746), Li'/e of ErnHinuH {175S-6()"). Srrmonn (4 vol?.. 1771), Six Itisstirtutious tipon Different Siihjfrtn (1772), Kemarktt upon Authors Ancimt nnd Modern n7.'U-;i2), firmnrkn on EcclrHinntivaf Ifiilori/ (5 vols., 1751-7.t), and Trad". Philofoffico/, Critical, and Miaceita- r.corit (17y0). I>. at Kensington Sept. o, 1770. Jorurio,a volcanoof Mexi(*. in the state of Michoacan. in lat. 19° 10' X. and Ion. 101° 1' \V. From a plain having an elevation of 2S90 feet it was suddenly lifted to a height of 42B.> feet on Sept. 28. 1759. Several of its cones soon subsided, however, and it is now nearly extinct, discharg- ing only a little vapor, and is nearly covered with forests. Jo'scph [Heb. Yoffph, *' increascr *'], one of the twelve patriarch.s. the elder son of .Jacob an<l Hachel, b. at Haran, ko Syria (Padan-Arain), about b. c 1'J13; was the favorite son of hi* father, and envied by his brethren on that ac- count. Their enmity was further excited by two dreams which Joseph related when about seventeen years of age, in which his future greatness was furesiiadowed, and this led them to sell him as a slave to some Midianite traders, by whom he was carried into E[;ypt antl sold to Potiphar, an officer of the king. He acquired the confidence of his mas- ter, who set him as overseer over all his property, but hav- ing repelled dishonorable proposals made to him by his mistress, she accused him falsely to her husband, and caused him to be thrown into |)ri?un. Here he interpreted the dreams of two of his fellow-prisoners, the chief baker and 1 chief bu'Ier of Pharaoh, and when his predictions had been justified by the result, he was summoned by King Pharaoh, at the instance of the butler, to interpret (wo <lreams which portended seven years of prosperity followed by seven of I famine. The king was so much struck by the wisdom of i the advice given by the young Hebrew that he adopted all his suggestions for making preparations for the time of famine, and appointed him ruler over the whole land. The measures taken by .Foseph as vizier or viceroy resulted great- ly to the advantage of the king ami of his people, securing an abundant provision for the time of famine. This calamity ext'-iiled also to the adjoining countrie:^, and led to tho bretliren of Joseph being sent into Egypt to buy corn. Joseph rccognizc<l his unnatural brethren, and after a scries of stratagems, by which he reminded themofand punished them for their crime, the whole family was brought into Etrypt anil eslabli-'heil in the land of (loshen. .Joseph mar- ried a claiighter of the high priest of On ( Iloliopolis), and ha»l two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, who became tho progenitors of tho tribes bearing those names, tho mn-t powerful of the future king«loin of Israel. Joseph pre- served his authority until his death, which occurred n. c. I?*fl2, at the age of 1 in. His body was embalmed, and at the time of the Kxodus was carried to Palestine and buried at Shecliein, where his tomb is still shown. Josrphf the husband of Mary and reputed or legal fathr-r of .L'siis, was a resident of Nazareth in Galilee, though a .icBcmdant of David, and eonncoted by his im- meitiute ancestry, perhaps by birth, with Bethlehem in Ju'lah. His gt-nealogy is given both by Matthew and by liukc. but in tho former (lospel ho is called tho son of Jacob, nnd in tho lattertheson of Heli, Various hypotheses have been proposed to re-oneile this dis;.'repancy. the most general being that one of tho genealogies is really that of Mary. .Joseph was a e:irpenter, and is supposed to havo educated Jesus to his own trade, Jjittlecan be nterrtnincd «f hid eharacter or personal history beyou'l the well-known circumstances of tho announcement made to him by an angel in adr<"ain of tb^ miraculous conception of the Christ, his jcmrney to Ib'thbdiem. flight into Egypt, and return to Nazare'h. The last glimpse of Joseph is found in tho incident (Luke ii. 42-.^2| of .fesus when twelve years of ago being found with the doctors in the temple. He is repre- sented by early trnditiim lo have been an old man at tho birth of .Tesu". nnd apparently had died before the publio ministry of Christ began, JoApphf king of Naples and of .Spain. See lioNAPARTE (JosKi-n >. rfoseph (FATnnnl.b. in Paris, Frnncc, Nov. 4. If)77, hit oricinat name being FnAN^'Ois liKci.KKc ni' THtnrni.A V. Ho belonged to a distinguished family, travelled much in his youth, and served in the array under an assumed name, ofter which he took holy orders and attained a high posi- tion a? a Capuchin friar. Attracting the attention of Car- dinal Richelieu, that statesman made Ealhcr Joseph his secretary and confidential adviser. In this capacity he wielded immense intluence and power for many years. He despatched missionaries to Canada and the East, advocated in a Latin poem a crusade against the Turks, and left sev- eral volumes of memoirs, which arc still in manuscript in the National Library of Paris. A cardinal's hat was soli- cited and obtained for him by Richelieu, Imf before it was actually conferred he d. at Rueil Dec. IS, IG.'iS, Joseph I.f German emperor, b. at Vienna July 26, 167S; was crowned king of Hungary I6S7; king of tho Romans 1690; succeeded to his father, Leopold I., 1705. The great events of his reign were the putting of the elec- tors of Cologne and Bavaria under the ban (1706) and the seizure of their states : the conquest of Naples under I'ann, the successful revival (1707-08) of the imperial claims to the great fiefs of Italy, and the victories of Marlhorongh and Eugene in the war of the Spanish succession. D. Apr. 17, 1711. Joseph II. of Germany, b. Mar. 13, 1741, was the son of Francis I. and ^laria Theresa: was fond of learning, nnd became a professed philanthropist ; succeeded his father in 1765; took part in the first partition of Poland 1772; succeeded his mother in Hungary and iJohcmia 1780 j attempted the wholesale reformation of all the empire and his kingdom by edicts abolishing serfdom, declaring for religious liberty, the reform of jurisprudence, the abolition of monasteries, etc.; but as the means employed were vio- lent and unusual, and the changes but ill adapted to the state and feelings of the people, nearly all classes, led by notiles an<l priests, joined in the opposition, and the em- peror (who, though theoretically a friend of reform, was not a just man) was compelled to yield (1700) and with- draw his novel measures. D. Feb. 20. 1790. Josephine', county of theS. W. of Oregon, bounded on the S. by Calitornia. Area, about 1100 square miles. Much of its surface is mountainous. The Rogue River Valley is verv fertile. Gold, iron, and copper are found. Cap. Kerby. Pop. 1204, Josephine^ empress, first wife of Napoleon I., origin- ally named .Makie Joskpii Rose he T-vsrwEn de la Pa- CEiiii:. b. at Trois Islets, in Martinique, West Indies. .June 24, 176:t; was married in 1770 in France to the Vieointe dc Reauharniiis. in consequence of an early betrothal by her father. The union wns not a very congenial one. 8ho became tlie mother of Eufrene IJeanharnais and of Hor- tense, the mother of Napoleon III. The vieomto was ex- ecuted by the Jacobins in 171M. and Josephine's life was saved with some difficulty by Madnmc Tallien. who res- cued her from prison in 1701. In 17iH) she ninrricd Gen. Napoleon Bonaparte, then a rising officer, afterwiirds ap- ]»ointcd to the chief coniman*! in Italy. The match was {)rompted by mutual love, and was long a union of great lappincps to lioth. In ISQI she was crowned em]>ress, and both before and after that event .Josephine's wisdom nnd talents, and the nfVection with which she was popularly re- garded, did much to strengthen Napoleon's position in France. But tho fact that the union was childless was likely to bo fatal to Napoleon's nmhition to lieenme the founder of an imperial line; and in ISOO she was divorced, ami retired to Mahnaison, where she d. May 20. 1814. Jose'phHS (Fr.AVirs), b. at Jerusalem in .'i7 a. n.. of a noble and wealthv family: after passing through the schools of the three different .Jewish seels, nnd spending three years in tho desert with the hermit Bnnus, he adopted the views of the Pharisees ns most congenial to his shrewd, ambitious, and worldly character, nnd he soon attained n prominent position in .Jewish society. In fi.*! A. n. ho wns sent to Rome on a diplonmtic errond, nnd wns introduced to tho empress Poppiun, who favored the .lews, by n Jew- ish actor belonging to (he troupe of Nero. He accomplished his mission with success, nnd returned with great honor to .Jerusalem. During the .Jewish revolution he eommamled in Galilee, and e>;eaped the massacre lifter the capture of .Jolapntn. He fell, nevertheless, into the hands of the Ro- mans, but saved himself by predicting the future elevation of Venpa-fian to the imperial throne. He was present in tho Roman army at the destruction of .Jerusnlem. and nc- companied Titus to Rome, where he rcsiileil for the re-it of his life. As long ns the Flavian family, in honor of which ho a<lopled the name of Flavins, occupied the throne, ho lived in grent splendor. Of his life after the denth of Do- mitian (06 a, n. ) very little is known, and the dale of his own death is uncertain, though it is probable that he was still living in ^0'^ A. n. Of his works the following have come down to us: TltpX tow 'lovJSaiKoC »roA«Moi', a history of the Jewish war from 170 u. c. to tho destruction of Jeru- 1450 JOSH BELL— JOSIAH. saleni, originally written in Syro-ChaldEean, which version is lost, liiit translateil into Greek by himself: "lovSatKij 'Ap\aio\oyia. :i history of (he Jews from the Creation to (IG A. P.: Bio5. an autobiography ; and a work against Apion. The best editions arc those by Dindorf (Paris, lS4o) and llckkcr (Leipsic. ISo5). and of the Jewish War separately by Ciir.lwell {Oxford, lS;i7). Complete translations info En2li:?h have been given by liodge (1C02), L'Estrangc (1702 i.Whiston (17H7);audof the Jewish H*«r separately bv Robert Traill (1817). •fosh Dcllj south-easternmost county of Kentueky, having Virginia on the E. and Tennessee on ihe S. Area, about ISO square miles. It is a rucged mountain-region. The valleys proilucc corn and tobacco. The county is traveri-ed by the Cumberland River, and contains coal and iron. Cap. Pinevillc. Pop. 37:51. Josh'ua [Ileb. Yehohhua, "Jehovah his helper"], orig- inally called Honhcn. :t Hebrew general, the successor of Moses in the leadership of the chosen people and the con- queror and ruler of Palestine. He was the son of Nun. of the tribe of Ephraim, b. in Egvpt not far from B. c. Ui98, as he was about forty yeurs old at the time of the E.xodus. He first appears in the biblical record as commander of the Israeliirs in their victorious engagements with the Amalek- ites at Rophidim (b. r. IfijS). In the account of iMoses' ascent of Sinai for the tables of the law. Joshua appears as his "servant "or "minister." accompanying him in apart of the ascent, and first meeting him on the descent. He was one of the twelve "spies" sent to explore the land of Canaan, and one of the two (the other being Caleb) who reported favorably upon the country, for which reason tlu-y alone of all the adult Israelites were spared to enter the Promised Land. Mosi-s was divinely ilireeted shortly before his death to cooler upon Joshua the chief authority over the people, and a solemn charge from Jehovah was addressed to bim from the lips of the dying founder of the Hebrew com- mon\7eaIth. In his oighty-iifth year .Toshua led the chosen people dry-shod through Jordan (Josh. iii. 17) ; fortified a camp at Gilgal, where he set up twelve stones from the midst of Jordan as a memorial of miraculous assistance; kept a solemn Passover, on which occasion the daily fall of manna ceased : and received a visit (Josh. v. 13) from a loysterious personage called the ** captain of the host of Ji*liov;ih," wlio pronounced the ground whereon he stood holy. Who was this " captain " lias been greatly disputed, the most orthodox commentators often identifying him with the second person of the Trinity. Joshua led the Israelites in the taking of Jericho and of Ai. miraculously assisted in both cases, as he was some time later in the celebrated battle with the five kings of the .\moritcs. \vhen, in the language of the author of the poetical book of Jasher. he commandc<I, " Sun. stand thou still upon Gibeon. and thou. Moon, in the valley of Ajalon." an<l was obeyed, giving liim time to finish the destruction of his enemies. No miracle recorded in the Bible has occasioned greater iliversity of opinion or has been rcci-ived with greater ineredulity. Many modern orthodox writers conclude that it is unnecessary to suppose an actual stopping of the sun's course, and find a suftieient explanation in (he fact that the account is quoted from a poetical work not now preserved, and therefore presumably neither inspired nor infallible in matters of fact, even sup- posing the intention to have been to chronicle an actual occurrence. Joshua inscribed the Law upon Mount Ebal; in six years overran Canaan in its whole length from S. to N., destroying thirty-one kings, but leaving many isolated strongholds in the hands of the Canaaniles; divided the hind among the tribes; appointed six cities of refuge and forty-eight Lovitical cities: set up the tabornai.*le at Shiloh, and dismissed the trans-Jordanic tribes to their homes. He fixed his own residence at Timnath-Sorah in .Mount Ephraim, and after judging the people twentv-two years convoked an assembly of the elders at Shechem, delivered two solcnm addresses, and caused tlum to renew their cove- nant with Jehovah, after which he d. at the age of 110 years (n. r. 150.1), and was buried in Tininnlh-Serah f Tih- uck), where M. de Saulcy an<l M. de (iut-rin have, as Ihcy believe, recently discovered his tomb. The career of Joshua has been noticed by many biblical commentators as one of the few recorded in some detail without any blemish being imputed, .Many are loath to justifv his wholesale slaughter of the C.-inaanites. but if they believe such action to have been commanded by Jehovah, they cannot logically con- demn him for the execution of divine vengeance. Others, disbelieving the reality of such command, mny, and per- haps do. upon their own principles, doubt the reality of the acts of extermination imputeil to him. The name Joshua is in Hebrew the same as J,n„n in Greek; in one passage in the New Testament ( Heb. iv. S) ho is alluded to by that name, and evidently regarded as a type of Christ. PoKTEK C. Buss. Joshua, tp. of Fulton cc, lU. Pop. 1175. Joshua, Book of, the sixth canonical book of tho Old Testa in tut. immediately following Deuteronomy, so called because it is devote<l to the history of the conquest j and division of Canaan under the auspices of Joshua, and closes with his death. It may be divided into two equal parts, called respectively the historical and the geographi- cal — the first (chaps, i.-xii.) containing the record of tho conquest ; the second (chaps, xiii.-xxiv.) the division of tho land among the tribes. Tiie second part has been com- pared to the Doomsday Pook of England, from the minute- ness of the boundaries laid down, thus affording so exact an account of the princi}tal cities, towns, and villages of Canaan, fifteen centuries b. c, that the researches of the Palestine Exploration Society, now (1875) engaged in a to- pographical survey of Palestine, are largely and success- fully dirccterl to the verification of the data of the book of Joshua. The authorship and date of the book cannot bo considered as settled, nor is it probable that Ihey can ever be accurately ascertained. Early commentators, patristic, Catholic, and Protestant, usually assigned the book to Joshua himself, except the last chapter, which records his death, but apparently for no better reason than because no other authorcould be designated by name and date. By mod- ern orthodox critics it is generally assigned to an unknown writer of a ])eriod immediately subsequent to the death of Joshua. The school of De Wette and Ewald is much di- vided upon the questions affecting the unity and integrity of the book, and a great variety of opinions is still main- tained : roost of them, however, allege passages which they reganl as contradictory, or at least as betraying diversity of authorship. The chief English represent.ativc of this view is Dr. Samuel Davidson in h'm Jutrodnrtion to f/ie Of'i TeHtnmvnt. who assigns the chief authorship to a writer of the age of Saul. The commentaries on Joshua are numer- ous ; it will be sufficient to name as of special value for geograpliical rlata those of Keil (1847, Edinburgh transla- tion 1857^ Knobcl (ISOl). and Dr. H. Crosby (New York, 1874) in Lange's series, edited by Dr. Schaff. There is a so-called Samaritan book of Joshua, written in .Arabic dur- ing the Middle Ages, consisting of a compilation from tho canonical book, interwoven with strange legends having Joshua for their hero, forming part of a chronicle of Sa- maritan history down to the Jewish war of Adrian. It was edited with a Latin translation from Ihe only known manuscript (which once belonged to Joseph Scallgcr) by G. J. Juynboll, Liber JtisitiF : Cliroiiiviim ASamnritnnum (Leyden. 18(8). The modern Samaritans are entirely ig- norant of this compilation, though it was evidently written in the interest of their religions ceremonials and traditions as opposed to those of tho Jews. Josi'ah [Heb. yo«ft/'j/aA, "healed by Jehovah"], tho sixteenth king of Judah after its separation from the king- dom of Israel, the son and successor of Anion. He began to reign at the ago of eight years, about b. c. 040, and, re- versing the conduct of his father, "did that which was right in the sight of the Lord." The reign of Josiah was at a critical period in the history of Judaea, and be is ex- pressly said to have attained a higher standard of religion than any of his predecessors or successors. In this he was aided by several prophets, who exercised great influence upon the measures of his government during his minority. At twenty years of age Josiah began to take vigorous measures against idolatry, then very prevalent in the land, breaking down altars, temples, and images. Especiiilly the ancient idolatrous temple at llcth-EI, in t!ie nnrthcrn kingdom, was thus purified, burning upon the altar the bones of the recreant priests of former gc ncrations found there in tho sepulchres, in accordance with a prophecy de- livered "4j years before (1 Kings xiii. 2). How Josiah came to exercise jurisdiction in the northern kingdom at this time is not known; it has been thouglit that the As- syrian king, his feudal lord, may have conferred the gov- ernment of Samaria upon him. Six years Inter, Josiah undertook the repair and renovation of the temple, which had been so long neglected that ihe holy books bad fallen into oblivion. The high priest Hilkiah (according to some, the father of the prophet Jeremiah) found in the sanctuary the " Book of the Law *' — j'. e. cither the whole Pentateuch or the book of Deuteronomy — and the people were con- voked to hear it read in the temple, after which the ancient covenant vows were renewed, aiul a Passover celebrated with such pomp ami precision ns had not been seen for centuries. During the reign of Josiah a horde of Scyth- ians conquered the Assyrian empire, and a column of their forces penetrated through Palestine on their way to Egypt. In the historical books of the Old Testament no mention is made of this circumstance, but the prophecy of Zephaniah alludes to it. and Ewald thinks the fifty-ninth Psalm to have been written by Josiah during a siege of Je- JOSIKA— JOULK. i-;.3i riisaleni by Ihe Sc.vtbians. In Iho thirty-first year of Jo- siah. Pharaoh-necho, king of Egypt, liuulo*! an army in Northern Palestine to make war against the Assyrian em- pire on the Euphrates. Ju:^iuh rashly altacUeil hiiii at >Me- gi<lilo, was dcrealed with great slaughter. au<l wa^ liimself mortally woiuulcJ. 1>. at Jerusalem about ii. c. llO'J. Jo'sikn (MiKi-us) was b. at Torda, Transylvania, Sept. 2S, 17yi>; studied law; eervcd ISll-lS in the Aus- trian army; lived then on his estates, engaged in agricul- tural, political, and literary pursuits; took part very actively lu the Hungarian rising in IS-IS; fled in 1 850 to Brussels, and lived afterwards in I>resden, where bo d. Feb. 27, ISfia. Inspired by Walter Seott, he wrote a great number of novels treating Hungarian life and history, most of which have been successfully translated into Ger- man. Four volumes of memoirs appeared at Pcsth shortly before his death. Josquin' Uesprcz' (.Tonocis Pratenris). b. about 1450; serve<l from 1471 to 1-4.S4 in the choir of Sixtus IV. at Rome and then in the choir of Louis XII. at Paris ; re- ceived a benefice, and d. in 1 J'Jl in bis n:i:ive town, Cond6. He wrote a great number of ma?scs, motets, and songs, which were highly appreciated, not only at the court, of Louis XII., but in the circles of Luther, and lie is gener- ally considered as the greatest composer before Palcstrina. Jos'sclyn (John), a native of Kent, England, visited Xew England in IGilS, and again IfiOo, remaining there eight years. Ileturning to England in 107 1, he published three works on America: X'lc Eiif/iitiifi'n litnitiet Dixcuv- ered {\iu2). An Accuunt of Tico Vojfaf/cti to Ncic Emjluml (1074), and a Chroutttot/ical Table of the most Rcmtifkdhfe PtiKiKi'iet from the First DiKCovcry of the Contuicnt of America to 107S, appende<l to the above. Tho first of these works gives a picture of Boston in ICfi.T ; it was reprinted in this country in ISCj, with notes by Edward Tuckerman. Jost (TsAAK Markl's), b. at Burnburg, in the duchy of Anbalt, Feb. 22. ITIKI, of Jewish parentage; studied at Qiittingen and Berlin ; became teacher at a Jewish school in the latter town in 1810. and removed to Frankfort in 18.15. D. Nov. 25, ISGO. He translated tho Mi.bna into German {6 vols., 18.'J2), and wrote Oc>t»-hirht€ drr hvarlitrn (9 vols., IS20), besides several other works relating to tho history of the Jews. Jo'tuns, or JfcttCDf form one of the most pcculiarbut also one of the most interesting elements of the Scandi- navian mythology; they were the evil principle. Some of the traits under whieb they were imagined seem to have a historical origin, and refer to tho oldest inhabitants of tho Scandinavian countries, the Finns and Lapps, who were driven back by the Teutonic invaders to tho norlberumost parts of Norway and Sweden. In other respects the Jotuns appear to bo mere creations uf tho imagination, symboliz- ing in a vague, general way, and under a most fantastic iuKigery, the dumb powers of nature. Tbcy v;crc giants, and immensely strong, yet they could bo conquered even by men. for they were only half intelligent. Their intelli- gence arose from their native malignity, and assumed gen- erally the fonn of witchcraft. From Jotunhcim or Nid- hciui, tho home of darkness and dulness, they waged per- petual war against the .E-^ir, the brigbt gods of Valhalla; and although they always were defeated, great calamities to the human race ensued from this warfare. Their part is mo.^t couspieuous. however, ut the opening and at tho close of the worMN drauia. lin slew Vmer, the first Jotuu, and built the world from his body — the mountains and roeksof his bones, the earth (d'lns llesh, the OLrean of bis blood, tho hky of his skull, and the. clouds of bis brain. At tho end of time Vmer's odspring will take revenge, slay all tho .'Esir, burn Valhalla, and destroy the earth; after which event the Albfather will restore the universe an<l establish a higher and nobler rule. Ci.kmkns Pktkuskn. Joiibert' (lUiiTHhi.i:MY-rATi!RRiM:), b. nt Punt-de- V.Mix, department of Ain. in 17G'J; signalized himself by his republiean eonvielion", ami was considered as the only man nblo to eiiunleraet Bonaparte's anibititm, and to be- come the chief of a definitely oliibli^bed republic of Franeo. But he WHS killed at the age of thirty, at tho buttle of Nov), where bis army was defeated by Suuvarow. Joubcrt bad enlisted in 17'.il as a voluntier, and was promoted on the batttetield, in 17'.'5. t<» the rank of geneial <d brigade. When bo bad llie command in chief in Northern Italy be hastened to proclaim tho revolution in Piedmont. He contributed largely to tho succcs}< of Bonaparte in the battles of .Montc- nulte.Mondori, and Uivoli. FhUX AmAiosK. Juiidpiir% town <d' Biillsh India, the capital id' a dis- trict of tho samo name, in the provinee of Agra, on b'lth sides of the (iumti, whieh here is crossed by a tUnw bridge resting on lifleen arehes, built in the fifteenth eeiitury, nud remarkable fur its strength. Pop. 27,1'''". Jou'ett (James E.), U. S. N., b. in 1S26 in Kentucky; entered tho navy as a midshipman Sept. 10, 1S41 ; bccamo a passed mid^b)pu)an in 1847, a lieutenant in 1855, a licu- teuuut-eommandcr in lStj2, a eommantler in 1800, a captain in 1874. Un the night of Nov. 7, 1801, Lieut. Jouctt, in command of the first and second launches of the U. S. frig- otc Santee, carried, by boarding, the armed schooner Royal Yacht in the harbor of Galveston, Tex., after a very obsti- nate light, in whieb he was twice severely wounded. At Iho battle of Mobile Bay he commanded the steamer Meta- comet, and distinguished himself by his coolness and in- trepidity. Rear-admiral Farragut, in bis oflicial report of tho battle, says: "Our little consort, the Jlelacomet, was also under my immediate eye during the whole action up to the moment T ordered her to cast off in pursuit of the Sclina. Tho coolness and promptness of Lieut. -Com. Jouctt throughout merit high praise; his whole conduct was worthy of his rei>utation." Foxiiali. A. Parker. Jouffroy' (TniroDOUK Simon), b. at Lcs Pontots, depart- ment of Doubs, France, in 1790; educated at the Oollcgo of Dij<m ; initiated into the study of philosophy by Victor Cousin, and held different positions as teiieher of jdiilos- ophy at difVorcnt educational and scientific institutions of Paris, where he d. Feb. 4, 1842. He translated Dugald Stewart's Outlines of Aforaf Philosophy and all the writings of Dr. Reid into Froneh. and thereby became the medium of a lively intercoumiunieation I>etwcen the Scotch and the French philosophy. Of bis own numerous works, nil of whieh arc without any striking originality, but clear and instructive, the CnurtKfr droit tiatiirel and some essays bavo been translated info English. JoiilTroy d'Arbans, de (CLAimK FnANt^ors Doro- Tiiti:), MAityris, b. in Franchc- Conit6, France, about 1751; was in his early luiinbood (1772) a captain of in- fantry. Inuring an exile of two years in Provence he stud- ied tho navigation of sailing vessels, and prepared notes for a work on that subject. The sight of Cliaillot's fire- engine (1775) suggested to him the applieatictn of steam to navigation. He developed bis idea by consultation with Pcricr and other men of science, and with the assistance of a village coppersmith made a small steam-propeller, which he placed on tho river Doubs in June. 1776, but the experi- ment had only partial success. Continuing his mechanical studies in Sjiito of ridicule. Marquis tloun'roy rnustructed another vessel, whieb had better success, in 1780, and in 178U ho had so far perfected the invention as to place upon tho river Saonc at Lyons a small steamboat which on July 15, 178;>, stemmed tho current of the river in (he presence of tho members of the Lyons Academy, f^till. the vessel was loo defective to be available for purposes of actual navigation. The inventor solieited a juileiit, which was refused by the l-'rcnch government (Jan. IJl, 1784), in eon- pcqucuco of an adverse rcjiort made by tho Academy of Sciences after an examination of Ihe vessel. At ihc out- break of the French revolution Jouffroy emigrated to Kng- Inml, served in the army of Cond6, and took part in polit- ical intrigues in favor of the Bourbons. Keturning to Franco under the Consulate, he became acquainted with Fulfon, who after some controversy acknowledged tho merits of the experiments made in 17S:i, claiming for him- self only an improvement in the engine. In 1 Sli>, .ToufTroy obtained a patent, formed a com|iany under the auspices of tlic count of Artois, publL^^hed his book, Len Imtenux-tk- vapciir, and addr* sscd a memoir to the .Airademy. On Aug. 20 of that year ho hiunehed on tho Seine a steamer, the Charles Philippe, but it could not c<)mpete witii rival enter- prises of the same kind. After this Ihe marquis passed. tho remainder of his life in complete oblivicui. dying of cholera at tho Hotel des Invalides, Paris, in 18:;2. — His son AcHii.M;. b. about 171)0. was a voluminous politieal and historieal writer (d' the I'ltramontaue school. He wrote an aceount of bis father's inventions ( 18:!!)), and devoted liim- self to cx]ieriments on steamboat and railway propulsion, without pnietical sueces?. J01IS8, Josps, or Ju^f;<i, an instrument of jtunish- ment ftrnn-rly employed in Scolbnid, the Nrtherbinds, etc., was sim])ly an iron collar placed around the culprit's neck and fasteneci by a padlock. A short chain ran from the collar to a staple in a tree, wall, or building — often tho parish church. The punishment was substantially that of the pillory. Tho term is allied to the word ^oXe and tho Lnt.Jiofum. Joule Mamfs Prfscott), P. C. L.. LL.n.,b. nt Sulford, England, I»eo. 24. 1818, tho son of n brewer, and was as- soeiated with bis father in business until 1854. His seien- lilie eilneation was entirely conducted by himself nt homo, with the exception of a eonrse td jirivate lessons in physios bo received Ihricy a week lor three or four years from l>r. John Uallun, tho celebrated author nt the atomic theory. Uo bcoamo ontbusiastioally funUuf original rcsearoh, and at 1452 JOURDAN— JOL'KNAUSM. the age of nineteen had manufactured an electromagnetic engine, a description of which he published in the AmmlH of Effvlfiriti/ for Jan., ISSS. Further research into the phenomena of heat evolved by electricity showed that his engine couUi not advantageously replace the steam-engine ns a motor. an<l led to the discovery of the laws of tlie evo- lution of heat by electric currents, the relations between hoat and chemical uftinity. and tlie meolianioal nature of the origin of heat. In ISII he gave in a lecture at Man- chester the result? of the important experiments made by himself and Jacobi of St. Petersburg into the magnetic forces as a motive-power. These experiments were con- tinued by Joule and by Mr. Scoresby, and led in 1843 to ascertaining the exact proportion between the mechanical powers of steam and electro-magnetism, and the equiva- lency of heat with mechanical force, ultimately fixed by him. after fiirlher experiments with various fluids, at 772 fijiit-jiounds pt-r unit of heat. The scientific a}>pIieations of this principle were numerous, and Joule soon accumulated data for his important communication to the Royal So- ciety Oil the Chuntjc of Tciujifrntiire produced hi/ the Rare- faction and ('uiideusation of Air, which brought him into prominence as an investigator, and led to his association in further experiments with other eminent scientist?, especi- ally Prof, (now Sir William) Thomson of Glasgow and Dr. Lyon Playfnir. With thi- former he commenced in 1S52 a ecries of researches upon the thermal etfeets of fluids in motion, which were continued for many years, the results of v/hicli were communicated to the Royal Society in four memoirs (I85;i-G2) printed in the PhHo>n>}jhicai Trnn»ac- tiotift. With Dr. Playfair he made a careful investigation of the volumes of space occupied by the same bodies in a solid and in a liquid state, the results leading to important modifi'3atujns of the theories of molecular physics. The discoveries of Dr. Joule have been intimately related to the remarkable theories of the correlation of forces developed by Dr. Meyer and Helmholtz of Germany, Scguin of France, Faraday and Grove of England. In recognition of his important services to science, Dr. Joule received the royal medal of the Royal Society in 1Sj2, and in 18Cl) the Copley medal, besides all the honors which could be conferred by decrees from Oxford, Dulilin, and Edinburgh universities, membcrsliip of the lustilnte of France and all the chief scientific corporations throughout the world, ami thcprcsi- dL'Ucy of the iJritish Association for the Advancement of Science in 187;i. His miscellaneous experiments have been very numerous, and he has invented many scientific pro- cesses and instruments, especially in relation to a more ac- curate measurement of forces. Jour'dan (Jean Battiste), b. at Limoges Apr. 20. 17fi2: after the death of his father was ))laecd in his uncle's silk gture in Lyons. In 177S he left this employment, entered a regiment of infantry, and fought in America under D'Eslaing. Having returned in 17H4, he settled in his na- tive city, married, and opened a milliner's store, but at the outbreak of the Revolution he became captain of the na- tional guard of Limoges, and thus began his very active and even brilliant military career. As chief of a battalion he distinguished himself under Dumouriez; was made a brigadier-general in 1 7'.):t, a general of division in the same year, and commander-in-chief of the army of the North. Oct. 16, 17'.)."n he defeated the Austrians at Wattignies, and June 21, I7!U, at Fleurus, driving them back to the other side of the Rhine. In the campaigns of 1795 and 1790 he was less successful. On Sept. 6. 1795, he crosscil the Rhine at Diisseldorf, hut on Oct. 1 1 he was defeated at Iliichst by Clcrfayt. In June, 17'.Mi, he crossed the Rhine a second time, and jjcnetrated with n victorious and wcll-eqnipped army into the Upper Palatinate; but having been defeat- I cd by An-hduke Charles at Wiirzburg, Sept. .^, 1791), he resigned bis command. Elected a member of the Coun- cil of Five Hundred, he was twice chosen its president, and planned and cstablif-hed the .system of military con- scription. Napoleon ne\er gave him an active independ- ent commanrl, but appointed him governor of Piedmont in 1800, and made liim a marbhal in 1801, He accom- panied Josi'ph to Naples and Spain, and was a fiitnd of liis. Louis XVril. made him a count in 1815, chief of the seventh military division, and peer of France in 1819. During the July revolution he was charged with the ministry of foreign affairs, but only for a very short time. D. Nov. 2:!, 18;'..'!, ns governor of the Hotel des Invalidca. He published OpSralioufi dc I'Anntc dit JJauitbe (17'Jif) and Mrmoireii pour sercir a VUtstoire de la Cam- pmjuede 1796 {U\9). Jourdan ( Matiiieu Joi:vk1, called Coupr-TftTF. (*' head- cutter "), b. at St. Just, near Puy. France, in 1749, and was guillotineil May 27. 1794. by the order of the Committee of Public Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal as throw- ing diflcredit on tho RevohniuM I'v his excesses. Ho was keeping a wine-shop in Paris when the Bastilc was taken, and he pridcl himself as having killecl the governor of the prison. On Oct. 0, 1789, he murdered the two body-guards accompanying the royal family iu their memorable ride from Versailles to Paris. Jourdan is historically known as the organizer and leader of the massacre perpetrated in 1793, called the ** Massacre of La Glacierc,'' at Avignon. Femx Aucaigsk. Jour'lialism is one of the prime necessities of modern civilized life. There are now 14,990 jieriodicals printed in the world. More than 09UO are published in the U. S., and they annually circulate over 1, 511(1, 999, 000 copies. It is a close approximation to the truth to say that each copy is- sued averages five readers. If these publications annually circulate l,500,(HtO,900 copies, the periodicals of the Union are read 7,599,(100,090 times. Such is the fact in the U. S., as shown by tiie census returns; and it is perhaps fair to assume an equal circulation for the jieriodicals of the rest of the world. It is manifest, thercft)rc, that journalism is a necessity of tho age. It is the letter, the pamphlet, the book of the million. Newspapers are read when nothing else is read : newspapers are sent by the thousands through the mails instead of letters, and they are with many, very many in^lividuals. the only medium of intercommunica- tion. Ideas bj- means of journalism becomo cosmopolitan. It enables all nations to interchange with each other in a free, easy, cheap, and intelligent manner. None are too poor to obtain a new>pai)er: none arc too poor to know each morning the daily occurrences of the world. News- papers of to-day, by means of the telegraph, are the reflex of tho events of yesterday. What transpires in Paris or New York, London or Washington. St. Petersburg or San Francisco. Berlin or Boston, Vienna or Philadelphia, Liv- erpool or New Orleans, Canton or Chicago, is known within twenty-four hours to millions of people of all nations and tongues through the press. Na]ioUon is overthrown at Sedan, and the startling fact is the talk at every breakfiist- tablc the next morning. Some imj)ortant discovery in science or art is made to-day iu Boston or Berlin. an<l it is practically ajiplied to the business of life to-morrow through the same channel of communication. On all the great sub- jects that agitate the public miml governments are advised of tho public sentiment, and cabint ts are guided by public opinion expressed in the public journals. Through this source the vo.r populi has become the voice of warning and influence in the councils of nations, and in the practical details of life everywhere the newspaper is the necessity. All kinds of business, all inventions and improvements in machinery, all changes in trad.e and finance, all facts and movements affecting the weal or wou of mankind, are daily spread throughout the universe by means of juurtmlism. Whatever is to be bought or sold is advi-rtiscd : movrmenls of railway-trains and steamships, conveying hither and thither the inhabitants and annual produce of the world, are chronicled. Servants, artisans, the emjtloyed and tho employers, have their needs made jmblic for a trifling sura in the pages of the daily papers. If a mechanic or a monarch is dead, the fact is announced through the same ubiquitous means. Is it too much to say, therefore, that society is regulated by this great ])Ower. and that journal- ism is one of the prime necessities of the world? Stop all tho presses throughout Christendom for one week, or even for one day, and what would be the result ? How did this institution originate? When and where? AVhal is it now ? There were news-sheets long anterior to tho discovery of printing in Europe. They were in circulation in China and Rome and Venice, and it is asserted by arehicologists that those in China were printed on rude wooden type sev- eral centuries before the days of Gutenberg, Cosier, and Sehoffer; but in Euro])e tiie earliest news-sheets were manuscript papers prepared with some regularity, and known in Rome as the ^Icm Diuimt and in Venice as tho Gdzzctta. These sheets arc interesting to us as indicative of the fact that newspapers were indispensable ages before types were invented in Europe. But we will leave the ago of manuscripts and begin with the age of printed news- papers. According to tradition, the first printed news- sheet appeared in Nuremberg in 1457, and was called tho Gazette. We have no knowledge of the existence in any collection of a copy of that publication. If published, not a copy has been preserved. In 15;i4 a newspai)cr was printed in that famous city of which there is a record. There was a copy in the Libri collection, and a description of it appeared in the catalogue of that collection. This sl:oet was entitled the AVue Zeituuf) miM Hifpnuint uud tttilieu. When we consider the wonderful enterprise of the inhabitants of that town, it is not improljiible that the lat- ter publication was a continuation of the former. Wooden Ivpe wore invented in I4;>8— 19, and Peter Sehoffer first oast metal typo in 1452. It is therefore within tho range of JOURNALISM. 1453 probabiliry that, in brinpin^^lhosc type intou.<:e, it was easier to print iiK'iigre news-sheets th«n books, an<l that the *in- zrttr was printed in the very infancy of typi)j;raphy. But he that as it may, it is pretty well ascertained that Ulric Zell printeil a newspaper in Cologne as early as 140',t. called the Chroiiirtr : and wc abo have the fnct that in lol)S the MrrcMriHii (Jn/fo-fieftfituH was printed there. In IClJ Die Frankfurter Oberpntttniufn Zritunij, believed to have been the first daily paper in the world, was cstablisheil by Ege- noir Knimi'l, antl Frankfort claims him as the father of jonrnalisni. These are the bc;;innin;;s. and to (iernmny the world is indebted not only for the invention of print- ing, but for the first use of types for the dissemination of news ainonj the people. Now, Germany is full of news- papers of all sorts anil shades, and many are of a superior order and ability; and some of those in existence to-day have been continuously ]>uhlished 100 and 200 years, and one even fur a longer period. Knglaud followecl Germany in journalism. Nathaniel Butters wa5 a writer of news-circulars in London in the early part of the seventeenth century. He is mentioned as early as 161 1, occasionally printini; a news-slip, and in lfi2I he published one or two numbers of The f'tntmnt or Wefkfeif X^trfnt from Forain i'ltrtn ; and dnrinf^ this in- teresting period ho was in the employment of several of the nobility and gentry as a gatherer of news, whii^h he regu- larly despatched in written cnmmnnieatinns to his patrons in the country. It was nut till l(i22 that he permanently resorted to the printing-pre?:s. With Nicholas Bourne and throe or fnur others, probably printers, ho issued the first regularly printeti newspaper— the WeekUif Nanen — in the Knglish laniruage. It made its appearance in London on the 2;>d of May. This was eighty tour years afrer the dis- covery of printing, and fifty-one years after William Cax- lon had established the first printing-office in Westminster. Meanwhile, tho manuscrt]>t news-circulars ami the gossips at the eoff"cc-house3 sup)ilied the public with their daily talk. Strange as it niiiy appear t^i the present age, tho playwrights in the infancy of journalism were the in- fluential writers of the time, the men who largely guided the popular mind, the censors of manners and morals. Fletcher and Ben Jonson and .Shirley made fun of tho newspaper-men on the stage in The Fair Mniif of thr [nn, tho tSi'tpte uf AV(p.«, and oilier plays; and it was even deemed a piece of journalistic enterprise to obtain the first playbill and other intelMgcnco of theatrical movements. All this, however, has since been changed, and in Kngland f hi- present examiner of plays is a journalist named Pigott. Tiic first daily paper in Fngland, the Dnihf Conrant. was issued in 17t*2; and the first penny or one-cent paper, tho (Jmiiff} PoHtnimt, was started in ITlli'. Now, there are 15(10 newspapers and periodicals published in Great Britain, with such papers as the Timm, the Tefcfjrnph, the I/itintrateif AVjr*. and Funrh as re]jresentativo papers. The newspajicr press of Kngland has long been considered the fourth estate in that kingdom; but us the lea<ling minds of the nation for the last 200 years — Milton, Johnson, Do Foe, Swift, Coleridge, Macaulay. ralmerston, Brougham. Disraeli- have written for the jouritals. and as the daily and weekly papers now represent in various ways the intellert of the •'ountry, it lakes higher rank than Hunt in his modesty chose to assign to the profession. Franco followed Enirland. and established her first news- paper in inill. Th^'ophras'e Kenaudot issued tho Onzctir »U Frnnor on the .'tOth of May of that year. Official bul- letins of the military oper.illons of Charles VIII. in Italy in 1 lUI-DJ were printed, uml wero tho conception of /,*• .\fiiiiifrtir Univrrtrl, tile oflTicial organ of Franco in after years; but these were mere bulletins of tho army, not otten issuetl. and there was a sheet called the Mrrfiire FrniirniH, j>rinte<l in Pariw in KiLI; yet Kenaudol and his Gaxrttr df Frnnrc have always been considered tho pioneers of tho newspaper press of that country. The tinxrttr, with nn oe- easionai interruption, has been published from H\^} to the present day. and is one of the two oldest papers in the world. Itetiaudot was a remarkable man and a remarkable journalist. He tvas a physician and n gossip, and in his intereourso with people became one of tho best-informed men of his tlay. Like Butters in Knijlnnd. he wrote news- eireular-* prior to the establiithment of the (inzrth-, and. like Butters, he sold his papers in the streets by ne\Ts boys and news-women, who were known a« " hawkers "and" Mercury- women." Such men as Hiehelieu, Mazarin. ami Louis XII \. wrote for the fimrtir, as Guizot. Thiers. Lamartine, and Na- poleon have since written for the modern Frenidi [>ress. The pioneer daily paper in France, the .Aoinio/ */»■ Pnrin ini PoHie ntt Sinr, di<l not make its appearance till 1777. The Jniirnnl lir /n Vitfr t/f Pnria was published a ^entnry earlier, but only appeared once a week, with the daily oc- i-urrenceB recorded in the stylo of a diary of e\ents, and heni-e its name. Now, Franco con boast of lOUiJ periodi- cals, full of ability, but very deficient in enterprise. The French journals depend largely upon their able editorial articles, brilliant reviews, and sensational /citiliitoiia for their su]»port. Their advertisements are inserted mostly like handbills, and their columns for business notices arc generally farmed our. Newspapers continued to increase in Europe after these early publications had opened the way. The i^mtvtrh [nriketi Tidniuff was founded in 1044 as the official organ of Swcilen. The Honrlcmm Cournut appeared in 165fi. The iSV. I'etrrshnrff f/fizetle was established in 1701?, and printed under tho authority of Peter tho Great, who took an nctivQ interest in its management. Tiic pioneer paper of Spain, the Gaceta dc Madrid, made its appearance in 1704. There were a Onzcttc and also a Cnumut in Amster- dam in 170j. Thetirst paper in India was issued in 1781, and the first in Turkey was printed in Smyrna in 1S27 by M. Blecque, just .a century at"ter the inf rodui.'ti()n of jirinting in tho Ottoman empire. It was called the Sprcfritor of the ErtHt. Now. there are over 8000 newspapers and periodicals printed in Kurope. Asia, and Africa. Those in Australia are as large, as ably conducted, and nearly as well filled with advertisements as those in London. There are several papers printed in FiUglish in the seaports of China, and our journalists have frequently been indel>tecl to the Chiun Mfiil and the Chinn licfftHter for news from the interior of the Celestial Empire, and entertained with the repultlication of the vermilion edicts from tho /V/,/»7 (r'azelfe, which is claimed to be the oldest government organ in the world. Annexed arc the statistics of the periodical literature of Europe, Asia, and Africa, which, if not strictly accurate, are very near tho actual numbers : yeictpnpcrfi and Pcriodicnh in Europe, Asia, and Africa in 1874. Great Britain 14-'jfi France 1G68 Prussia 809 Austria and Hungary 1016 Other (iernian states 4G7 Russia :W7 Italy 723 | Asia. Spain 306 [Turkey Denmark 96 Norway and Sweden 184 Netherlands ,343 Switzerland 394 Kjiypt 7 Africa 14 30 S3 Il'-lcium 194 I Elsewhere 150 Portugal 26 | __ Total 8253 All interests and clnspcs. professions and trades, literature and art, politics and religion, are represented in these pub- lications — illustrated, comic, financial, commercial, marine, sporting, dramatic, scientific — a variety the sight of which would fairly stagger Butters and Renaudot were they to reappear on earth and (Miter into the office of the London TinuH or tiiat of the Printrrtt' Hrffisfrr. There are several newspapers printed in Europe which have lived a great many years, and the files of which, not- withstanding the restrictions of censors, are filled with in- tensely interesting details of the great events af the last two centuries, of the rise and fall of empires, of national changes and re\(tlritions that were startling to mankind wlien they occurred. Here are their names: Numos. When c<tnltli-lied. Frankfort Oazetto 1G1."> Cazcttede France J''31 L«'i|)sic Gazette 1''6l) London fiazelte 1(>6J5 Stamford (Euk.) Mercury l'^it."> r/linlMiruh Couranl I7n.'> Ri.stoek r.azette 1710 Newcastle (Knir.l Courant 1711 Lecdi (Enn) Mercury 1718 Bi-rlin (iazptte 1722 Lejeestt-r (En if.) .lournal 17 ">2 I>ublin Friruniau's Journal IT.m All the governments of Europe wero early represented by newspaper organs. They are an easy moans of com- municating orders in council, *;pecial edicts, prochimations, and laws to the people. The !,n»d<m fttixrtfr was the first of these, mid wa-^ rstablished in KiOa, and is still published. It was originally the Oxford Guzettr, Lr Mimitrnr Fni- ver»ef, Jottrnnt Offidvl de V Empire Frnnt:tn'ii, was slarteil in I7SI1; hut Louis Napoleon aliandoned the paper in IsfMt, beenuse it was owned by private individuals, ami estahlivhcd another with the simple title of Journal Offtvirt dv I' Em- pire Frtinrain, Italy is represented by the dazzrtti Offi- cintr ; Spain, by tho finrefa dr Madrid, and Russia by tlie Prnnitrlztnennii Vtfulaik. The InvnUdr- /^if«*rof St. Peters- burg was the organ of tho Russian government for many years. It was establi'^hed in isl.'j to raise a fund for ;ho relief of woundeil soldiers. It was superseded in IS6S by the new organ. Russia is also represented in Brussels by I.p Xord, the utteranees of which are semi-oflieial, and aro intended to explain to Europe any political problem in which the government of the ezir may be interested. Austria is officially heard through tin ..r V. 1454 JOURNALISM. Of nil the newspapers now printed in Europe, the London Timm is the most perfect. It is ninety years old, and has been owned and manajtcd durinj; that time liy tliroc gene- rations (if one family — the Walters. lis intellectual ability and business enterprise have been remarkable since ISOU, when it became the property of John Waller, the father of the present proprietor. He conducted (he pajier for forty years, and it has a great power in the land; and in order to be entirely independent of government inlUience the second Waller ran his own special expresses with the news of the battles of Napoleon I., often anticipating the government couriers and olIici.Tl despatches. The Times was the first paper prinlid by steam-power, which was introduced into its ]ire?s-ronm in 1S14, The number of daily papers published in Great Britain in 1S74 was l.Tl, of which 'H were printed in London. Of the total number, 23 are represented as independent in poli- tic. ; M as liberal: 22 as neutral: 26 as conservative; and 1, the Mornin;/ Post, the organ of fashion, as High Church. The TimeH is 'set down as liberal. The prices of these jour- nals range from one farthing, or half a cent, to five pence, or ten cents, per copy. Tlic London S^nn is sold for a far- thing, the lowest-priced paper in the English language, and (he Lonihin Tiini-s for three pence for each copy. The price of (he hnniinn Trhqrnph is one penny, or (wo ceu(s. I(s circulation is said to be 160.000 copies daily, while that of the Tiincf is about 40,000. It is perhaps only necessary to mention three or four of (he most prominent on tlio conti- nent of Europe. The Gazelle ile Mosron, edited by M. de Kalhof. is one. M. Thiers, in speaking of the press in the Corps L^gislatif in 1868, said that to have an e.iact idea of what passes in Russia, of (he movemen(s and tendencies of that great power, it was necessary to combine (he utter- ances of the government with (he language of (he Guzctle tic Mnirou. The Aufisbnrij Gnzetle has always been an authority in (iermany. It is prinled every d.ay in the year, like the New York Herald. The .lourntil dca Dchiils is (irobably the ablest paper in France, and has always given the debates of (he Corps Lfigislalif in full, as (ho London Timen docs (hose of Parlia(nen(. Of course there are o(hers, like Le Nord and (he Memoritd Dlplomntiquey but space will not tolerate a complete list of (hem. The most remarkable field for newspaper cnlerprise and newspaper litcra(urc has been (he U. .S. : and in giving a siictch of (he journals of (his country it will be necessary to embrace those that appeared before the colonies became independent of the mother-country, as well as those tliat appeared subsequendy, in order to show the progress of jijurnalism on this continent. In a country where, after ITb.t, industry and intellect became (ho most ac(ivo in (ho world, (he increase and growlh of newspapers have been wonderfully great, surpassing every other single nation, and where the aggrcga(e number of journals and (beir cir- eululion havcatniost reached in 1874 the number and circu- lation of those printed in all oihcr i)arls of the worM. There arc eras in the history of the periodical press of ] North America which do not exist in the history of (ho j newspaper press in other par(s of the world. This is duo j to our peculiar pidi'lcal status as a people — first, as a j colonial, and, secimil, as an independent government. Our journals, largely entering in(o (ho polideal con(roversies of (he people, passed (hrough the changes that the coun- try experienced from utter subserviency to the English monarchy to complete independence, and then through (he changes growing out of the marvellous ])rogress of (ho nation. These eras were five in number — namely, firs(, the cobmial press; second, the Revolutionary jiress ; (bird, the polilical party press; fourth, the cheap press; fifth, the indi'pcndcnt ptrcss. The roi.os[Ai. Press first appeared in Boston, Mass., in Ifi'.IO. On Sept. 25 of that year Benjamin Harris published a sheet with the tide of f'libh'rk Oemrrrnren holh Foreir/n and Domrtilcle. It was the intention of (he publisher to issue (his paper once a mon(h,and the annexed prospectus gives, in the quaintest manner, what the ]ii(»neer journalist of America believed to be the duties of an editor; PUBLICK OCCURRENCE.'', Roth X'oreign and I>omi:st(CK. Boston. Thchsday. .Srpr. 2.'i, 160O. II is designed that the Coun(rey shall be furnished once a month (or if any f;lu( of Occ\irrences happen oftcner) with an Account of such' considerable things as have arrive*! unto our Nodce. In order here unto, Ihe Publisher will (ake what pains be can (o obtain a l-'aithful Relation of all such tilings: and will par- ticularly niakehiinsi'il' beholden to such I*ersonsin Itoston whom lie knows to have been for their own use the dili>,'ent Observers of such matters. That wliicli is herein proposed, is. First, That Memorable Oc- cur rents of Divine Providence may not be ncclcctedor forjiotten. as they too often are. Sccoiully, That petiplc everywhere may betterunderstand the Circumstances of l*iibliquc Affairs, both abroad and at home; which may not only direct their Thoughts at all times, but at some times also to assist their Business and Necoccations. Thirdly That some thing mav be done towards the Curing, or at least the Charming of that Spirit of I.yina, which prevails among us. wbercforc nothing shall he entered, bu( wha( we have reason to believe is true, repairing to the best fountains for our Information. And when llicre appears any material mistake in anvthiug (ba( is collcclcd. it shall be correc(ed in (he next. Moreover, the Publisher of these Occurrences is willing In eni.'agc,that whereas, (here are many False Repor(s, maliciously made, and spread among us, if any well minded person will be a( (he pains to trace anv such false IJeport. so far as to find out and Convic( the First ijaiscr of it, be will in this Paper (unless first Advice be given to the contrary't expose (lie Name of such person, as A malicious Raiser of a False Report. II is supposed that none will dislike (bis Proposal, but such as intend to be guilty of so villainous a Crime. On (his basis of trulh and justice and conscience was issued the first newspaper on (his side of (he Atlantic. Its size was three pages of a folded sheet, leaving one p.ngc blank, with (wo columns (o a page, and each page was about eleven by seven inches. lint the efl"ort of Benjamin Harris failed, in consequence of (he opposidon of the pro- vincial authorities, who forbade "any(hing in print with- out license first oblained from those appoin(ed by the gov- crnmen( (o grant (he same;*' and as (he first nnmlier of Pnhlick Occnrrenres eonlained '* rcficcdons of a very high na(urc,'' a second number did not appear. Some ha\e doubted (he exis(encc of (his publicadon, but the fact (hat a copy, and (he only one ex(an(. is on file in (he stale paper office in London is sufficienl proof that such a pajier was issued. Harris's news-sbcet was a veritable newspaper, but there was a reprint of the London Gazette in New Yovk in 1696 which gave the news of an important batdc in Europe leading to the Peace of Ryswick. This was issued by William Bradford by order of Gov. Fle(eher. as an easy mode of reproducing an official account of an jiffairof ranch moment to (he colonics for (he informadon of the people. It was no( iniended as a regular newspaper. These two publicadons were (he only a(temp(s of (he kind (ill 1704. Meanwhile, the colonists relied upon a few London papers, received by (be few vessels arriving from England, for news from Europe, and on (he gossips a( (he cofl"ee-housPS for local inielligenee ; bu( meanwhile, also, .John Campbell, the poslmasler of Boston, became a news-galhcrer, and fur- nished (he New Englanil governors and a few friends with periodical news-Ieders or cireuhirs. Nine of (hese letters. wri((en (o Uov. l"i(z John Winibrop of Conneelieu(, and bearing dates from April to October, 1703, now belong to the Massachusetts Historical ,Socie(y. These circulars led to the issue of a newspaper by their writer. On Apr. 21, 1704, John Campbell commenced (he publicadon of (he Xrirs-Lrftrr, and it has since been incorrectly stated that (his was (he first newspaper)irinted in America. Campbell's prospecdis was a brief one. Harris promised (o issue his paper once a mon(h. The interim ol^ four(cen years less- ened (he dmc (o weekly publication. This is Campbell's prospeelus ; Advert(semint. This News-T.e((cr is (o be con(inued weekly ; and all persons wiio liave any Houses. Lands, Tenements, Farms, Ships. Vessels, Coods, Wares or Merchandizes. Ac. to be sold or let ; or Servants liun-awav, or Ooods Stole or Lost ; may have (he same inser[ed at a Reasonable Rate, from Twelve Priice to Five Shillings and not exceed; Who may agree with John Campbell Post Mas(er of Ros(on. , All persons in Town or Counlv may have said Ncws-LeKer every Week, Yearly, upon reasonable terms, agreeing willi John Campbell, Pos(-U]a's(er for the same. Harris, it will be seen, did nol ask for an advertisement. His adcndon was wholly dircclcd (o in(elligence and the tru(h of public rcporls. Campbell, on (he eon(rary, was wholly devoted to business, and calcubalcd largely on nd- ver(isemcn(s. He docs not allude to news in any way. But very few business notices appeared in the Xcim- Leiier. It was a novel enterprise, and the merchants and meehanies of Boston did not fully comprehend (he advantages of (his new mode of making (heir business known (o (he public. The Krics- Letter, in its early days, was someduies printeii on a single sheet, foolscap size, but oflener on a half sheet, with two columns on each side. I( lived for .scvenly-two years, and went out of existence when the British (roops evacuated l!os(ou in I77G. The Xeies-Leitir enjoyed a monopoly of journalism in America for fifteen years, and yet had a eireuladon of only 300 copies. In 171il, William Brookcr was appointed postmaster of Boston in the place of Campbell, and in consequence of some diflieuKy about (he Xrien- Letter and (he mails (he new postmaster (bought it expedient (o establish another newspaper. On Dee. 21 of that year he issued the «o«(on Gazette. The appearance i of this "sheet, added (o (he loss of office, fired the indigna- tion of Campbell, and (hereupon commenced the " war of editors "on (his condnent, which has never ceased. In speaking of the Gazette, thi: editor of (he .\>ir«-i<(fpr said, "I pit/the readers of the new paper; its sheets smell JOURNALISM. 1455 8tron;;er of beer than nf niidniglit oil. It is not reading fit for tho people I " It appears that Hiooker was not inclined to oarry on the war tt) tUe bitter end. for in n-ply he wislicd Campbell "all dcsinible success in his agreeable Aeir9-Lft- tety assuring him" that he had "ni'ither capacity nor in- clination to answer any more of his like ndvertiseraents." On Dec. 22, I71H, the day after the (Jnzfittc appeared, the ioilial paper In Philadelphia, the American U'cchfi/ Mcr- curt/, was issued by Andrew Bradford, a son of the iirst printer in Pennsylvania — a paper that Benjamin Franklin subsequently characterized ns '* a paltry thinj^. wretchedly mana>;ed, no way entertaining, and yet was profitable." Hut tho pa]>cr that attracted the most attention in the cohjuies at that early period was the A'ac Eiufhtnd Con- rant, established by James Franklin Aug. 7, 1721. Ben- jamin Franklin commenced his career ns a printcr*s ap- prentice on this paper. It is stated in the nufobiogrnphy of the hitter that the Cournut was the second newspaper Started in America. It was the tittii. But tho Ctntraut cre- ated a sensation which the others did not do. and its pub- lisher was soon in difficulty. It first had a wurdy war with the Xtipa-Lviter. Then .lames Franklin had a prcat deal of trouble with the elergy. especially with Cutton and Increaso Mather, and finally the j(>nrnalist and the governnu-nt offi- cials had their differences. The communications in xhcGazftfc produced so much talk and scandal in the quiet town of Bos- ton that its publisher ivas forbidden to issue his paper except untler very arbitrary restrict inns, and tor iittt ni]>tingto cvado these ho was thrown into prison. On Feb. II, 1722. Ben- jamin Franklin, then only sixteen years of age, was placed in charge of the paper as its editor and publisher, and ho remained for several months in this position. There con- tinued to be the same independent spirit in tho management of the paper, and its troubles finally induce<l James Frank- lin to abandon its publication. He went to Newport. R. I., where ho established the Gazette in 1732, aud where he dice! three years later. The next paper that appeared in America was the New Yitrk Gazctt*', th" first in tlint province. It was published bv William Bradford, and the first number was issued on Oct. 2:i, 1725. In 1727 i\\(i Nfiw Ett'jlnnd W'cc/chf Joitrnnl was published by .*^anuicl Kneeland, and he made brilliant promises to his readers. On Apr. S, 1 728, he said : '* There are .Measures concerting for ren<lering this Paper yet more universally esteemed, and useful, in which 'tis hop'd tho Pnliliek will be gratifi'd, and by which those (icntleiuen who desire to be improv'd in History. Philosophy. Poetry, An. will be greatly advantaged.'* The Maryland Gazttte also appeari'cl in 1727, the first in that cobmy. It was pub- lishetl till K^'l), and revived in 17^1*. In 172S. Benjamin Franklin made his reappearance as a journalist. Samuel Keimer had stiirted a paper in that year in Philadelphia, which he named the Universal Inntrurtor in all the Arts nutl Srifnrrn, and Penn/it/frania Onzrttr. Franklin had con- teuiptated sueh an enterprise, and had confided bis iu- lention to n fellow-printer, who treacherously informed Keimer of the plan, and the Jnsfmctor was tho result. Franklin, in order to prevent the success of Keimer's jour- nal, immediately commenced writing "several amusing pieces for Brndf^ord's piiper [the Mprrnri/'], nn<ler tho title of Busy Itody." In loss than a year Keimer sold bis paper with it8 ninety subsoirihers to Franklin, who condensed its name to PninHiffrnnin Gazette, and made it a success. In mentioning this circumstance Franklin said: "Our first papers made (juite a cliffercnt appearance from any before in the province ; a belter type, au'l b.'tter printed : but some remarks of my writing, on the dispute then going on be- tween (lovcrnor Burnet and the Massachusetts Assembly, struck the principal people, occasioned the paper and tho manager of it to be mu'.-li talked of, and in ii few weeks brought them all to be our subscribers." On Jan. H. 17.tl, tho .SV*»//i Carolina G-tzrtte was issued, the first in that prov- ince. It was prlnlid in Charleston, and lived a year, but wa-* revived in 17^14. But the most important newspaper, polilienlly, in early colonial times was started in New York in K^M. On Nov. .'» of that year Jolin Peter Zenger issued the first number of the AV»r Y'nrlc UVf/,7»/ Jonrnal. It was a rival of Brarl- f'ird'a Gaz'fir professionally and polili<'alIy, and Zenger was a fearless journalist. Tho Journal made war on the administration of (iov. Cosby, and in M'.W its editor was arrested for libel on the government and thrown intr» ]irison, and in the hope of crushing the paper the authorities kept him nine months in confinement. This created a trreat deal of popular sympalliy for the newspaper, and neither Zen- ger nor bis friends were to be put down. In spite of the im- prisonment of its editor, the Journal con(inu'>d to appear regularly ; and finally the case was brought before the court for trial. It was the first action for newspaper lihcl (m tho American continent. The court met on Aug. '*. I7'l.'>, and Andrew Hamilton of Philadelphia appeared for Zenger. The publication of the alleged libel was admitted, and Mr. Hamilton olVcred to prove the truth of the statements made. This the court relused to permit. All evidence being thus shut out, it became necessary for Mr. Hamilton to midress the jury, which he ditl witli great jiower. Zenger was ac- quitted, and the verdict was greeted wifh the utmost i-n- Inusiasm by an immense audience. Mr. Hamilton was con- ducted in triumph to a splendid entertainment, a salute was fired on his departure for Inune, and the freedom of tho oily was prcscnteii to him by the common council for *' the re- markable service done by him to the city and colony by his learned and generous dcfonco of the rights of mankind and the liberty of the press." In tho opinion of Gouvcrneur Morris the resultol this case was *' the dawn of that liberty which afterwards revnlulionize<i America." Other papers made their apjicarancc in Boston and Phil- adelphia ; tho Virffiiiia Gazrtte, the first in that province, made its (/i-Vmi/ in AVilliamsbnrg in 17.".fi; and two news- papers printdl in German, tho pioneers in any foreign lan- guage in America, appeared— one in (ierinantown, l*a., in II'.jV^, and the otlicr in Philadelphia in 174:1. These were tho beginnings in America. Kevrspapers were published in 174.') in Boston. Philadelphia. New York, Annapolis, AVilliamsburg, and Cliarleslon. Most of thcso colonial papers confined themselves strictly to the merest mention of the news of tho day. If any o])inion3 wero uttered, they wcro subservient to tho aiitbonlies. Tho Franklins and Zenger wcro tho exceptions, and tlicy origi- nated and practised that independent spirit whieli was in- fused in a new class of papers that appeared suliscquent to 1745. This new class was the KKVoi.rTioNAnv Piikss, It was still of the colonial stamp, because tlio country was yet composed of colonics, with governments njipointed to "rule over them by England, but the people and tho press had become revolutionary, more self-reliant, and more in- dependent of the colonial authorities. The pioneer of this class of journals was the Inthprnilnit ArfrrrliKcr, issued in Boston on Jan. 4. 1748, unrh-r the inspiration of that ardent patriot. Samuel Adams. One of its t-ontributors was Jona- than Maybcw. who preached a sermon on the occasion of an election strongly advocating the republican form of government. David Fowle. the printer (d' the paper, having issued n pamphlet which severely diiumneed the legislature for certain acts, he was arrested and imprisoned. On his release he quitted Boston and went to Portsmouth. N. II.. where he started tho A^cw //'iin/>Hh{rr Gastitr in I7.''il. and the young ^latriots of the A<lvrriii'rr bad to bide their time. One or two new papers appeared in Boston and New York, and pamphlets were issued by the opponents of the govern- ment in the next year; but tlie real organ of the Kevoln- tionary party maclc its appearance on A])r. 7. 17;'';'). It was published by Kdcs & Gill, and named tho lionton Gazette aud Conntrtf Grntlcnian. All the vigorous writers for tho Jitdr/trndrnt Adrerti>icv, with otliers - Samuel Adams. Jona- than Mayliew. John Ailauis. James Otis, Joseph M'arren, Thomas Cushing, Samuel Dexter, Benjamin Austin, Jr., and Samuel Cooper — contributed to the columns of tlio Gazette. It was n fearless denunciator of the wrongs of the government. The sjiirit of the paper was indicated in its devices on its title-page. On its first number were two eiits — one representing an Indian with bow and arrow, tho other represented Britannia liberating a bird confined by a cord to the arms of France. Five years later! 1700) Ihero was anew device: this rejirescnted Minerva, in jilaet^ of Britannia, seated at a pedestal on whii-b was a cage, bidd- ing a spear surmounted with the cap of liberty in her left hand. With her right hancl she opens the cage and lib- orates a bird, which is depicted flying towards the tree of liberty. This was fifteen years before llie fight at Concord. Il is not to beexpected that in an artiide as cireumseribed as this must be all the newspapers springing into life from time to time can be mentioned. Only those that made their mark on the age or were representative in their rhnraeter can be notieed. All others will hi- inehnled \\\ the general statistics of journalism. It is ne.-cssary to mention the Nrtrpnrt (K. I.) Mrrrnn/, not only because if is still nub- lished. but beeause it enjoys the reputation of having lieen started on its career by Benjamin Franklin. He had noth- ing to do with its origin, ft was <'Stablislii'd mi June I'J, 17.')8. bv James Franklin, a nephew ; and all Benjamin bad to ilo with the paper was to present to his nephew, after the Merrnry had bi*en some time in existence, a font of new type, "ns ample amends " to his brother James " for the service he had tleprived him of by leaving him so early " — in other wnj-tls, for having run awav before bis a]>prenlice- ship bad expired. The press on which Ibetdder.faines Frank- lin and bis lirotber Benjamin so often worked in Boston re- mained in the J/f-m/ri/ ofiieo for IIM) years. Il was then presented to the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanies' As- sociation. On Feb. Ifi, I7.'>'.», the (dd Gazrttr of William Bradford was revived, and afterwards immortalized by Freneau. On Oct. 29. 1764, the Connecticut Courant was issuctl in Hartfonl. and is still published there. Its paf^es have been of jrcat vahie to the historian? of the U. S. In- deed, all the old papers have been a mine of wealth to these writers ;ind conipiiers. The s;reat event which alarmed the colonists, aroused the patriotic indignation of the journalists, and which threw the political cluV>iJ into commotion, nnd did more to precipi- tate lite Revolution th:in any other single act of the home povernnient. occnrred in the following year. It was tlie Stamp Act of ITfiJ, which required that all instruments in writing be executed on stamped paper to be purchased of government a^on;? only, and all olTences against the act were to be tried in any royal marine or admiralty court in any pnrt of the colonies, no matter how distant from the place of offenee : thus intcrferins with the right of trial by jury. The colonists were at once arou.^ed to a sense of the danger impending over them. In May the subject came up in the house of burge>ises in Virginia, of which Wash- ington was a member. Patrick Henry introduced his cele- brated resolutions that the assembly of that province had the exclusive right and power to lay taxes and impositions upon the people of that commonwealth, and whoever maintained the contrary of this doctrine was an enemy of the colony. It was on this occasion that he exclaimed, *• Caesir had his Brutus. Charles his Cromwell, and George III. [cries of " treason !'' ** treason I"] may profit by their example. Sir" (bowing to the Speaker), "if this be trea- son, make the most of it I" The resolutions, with some slight modifications, were .adopted. They were immediately published in the ^fflr^/lan(i (iitzettr^viith an article strongly endorsing them written by Charles Carroll. They were also printed in tiro Pviniiifh-nind fiazette and the Xetcport ( R. I.) Mereuri/, and the number of the latter containing them was immediately suppressed as a traitorous publication. The Soirth Carolina Gazrttc, the American General Gazette, and the Gazeffe and Conutri/ Journal, all published in Charles- ton, printed them. They were endorsed by the Sons of Liberty in New York .and Massachusetts, and were pub- lished in the /lostoii G'izettr with comments by John Adams, which were subsequently printed in pamphlet form in Lon- don. They were deemed traitorous and seditious there, and an unsuccessful effort made in Parliament to have the pa-mphlct suppressed. The Stamp Act was repealed in 170t», but the effect produced on the minds of the colonists by these few newspapers was prodigious. This act, which created so mvieh enmity to the mother-country, was origi- nally recommended to the authorities as an excellent uiea- snrc by n journalist, Ellis Huske. postmaster of Boston, wlio in \7'M s'arled the finitton Werhlif Post /inif. Several of the publishers suspended the publication of their papers in consequence of this act. On Oct. 31, the day before it was to take effect, the pages of the Peuntt/lvauia Journul and Wiehlif /I (/cei/i'^rr, published by a grandson of Wil- liam Bradford, were enclosed in black lines, with (he pic- ture of a skull and cross-bones over the title, with the words. "Expiring: In Hoiies of a Resurrection to Life again." On the border of the first page were printed, *" Adieu, ndien. to the Liberty of the Press." On the last column of the third page were the words, *' Farewell, Liberty." On the fourth page was a cut of a coffin, with this epitaph: "The last Remains of The Pennsvlvaiiia .Inurnal. Which depariv.i this Life, the Hist of October, 1765, Of a Stamp in her Vitals, Aged 23 years." Such was the spirit of journalism in America ten years before the commencement of the Revolution. Of course the government had its organs. Several of the papers ''printed i>y authority " endeavored to counteract the in- fluence of the patriotic sheets, but where these made any sign others were established in the interest of the people. Such was the case in Virginia. In ITOfi a second Gazrtte I appeared in Williamsburg, printed by William Kind. In I mentioning this paper. Thomas .Teflferson said, " Till the beginning of our Revolutionary disputes we had hut one press, ami that, having the whole business of the govern- ment, and no competitor for public favor, nothing dis- agreeable to the governor could lind its way into it. We procured Hin<l to come from M:iryland to "publish a free paper." The first printed statement of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence on the 4th of .July, 1776, was made in the Oaztttr on the lyih of ihat month, and the document in full appeared in the same paper on the 2iith. While this was being done in Virginia, the patriots in other provinces were doing what tbev could in the same direction. On May 29, ITfiT, the Xdr Vorl- Journal, or Gcueral Adrertiter, was brought out under the inspiration of t^eorge Clinton anil Philip Schuyler. It was a revival of Zenger's paper, and was edited by Alexander McOougall. Alexander Hamilton, when only sixteen years of a^-e \t.i5 I a smart contributor to it? columns. It was McDougall who I issued a pam])hlet in New York in the interest of the Sons I of Liberty in 1770, charging the assembly with a betrayal of its trust in its favorable action on the Mutiny Act of 1 I7(JS~fi9. for which he was thrown into prison. The ns- ! sembly voted the pamphlet libellous, and the proceedings I were printed on the 4oth page of the records cf that body. " I'orty-five " thereupon became the countersign of Iho Sons of Liberty. McDougall received many visitors while in jail, and in connection therewith the Joiinial of Feb. 16, j 1770. gave the following paragraph : " Yesterday, the forty- fiftli day of the year, furty-five gentlemen, real enemies to > internal taxation by. or in obedience to, external authority, '' and cordial friends to Captain McDougall and the glorious I cause of American liberty, went in decent procession to the New (*aol; and dined with him on forty-five pounds of I beef stakes, cut from a bullock of forty-five months old, I and with a number of other friends, who joined them in 1 the afternoon, drank a variety of toasts, expressive not only of the most undissembled loyalty, but of the warmest attachment to Liberty, its renowned advocates in Great i Britain and America, and the freedom of the jtress. Before ! the evening the company, who conducted themselves with ! great decency, separated in the most cordial manner, but not without the firmest resolution to continue united in the glorious cause." Opposite in political sentiment to these patriot journals was the Ixi'ifttl Gttzftfnr, which was estaltlished in New I York in 1762 by James Uivington. The leading conthb- ! utors to the Gazetteer were Attorney-general Scabury, 1 Myles Cooper, president of Columbia College, the Rev. ; John Vardill. and the Rev. Samuel Chandler. Major An- ! dre also wrote for the paper, and his well-known satire, the ■ Vnic C'Afwc, appeared in the Gazetteer on the very day of ' his capture: "And now I've elos*d my epic strain, I tremble as I show it. Lest this same warrior-drover Wayne Should ever catch the poet." j Tt was subsequently called Iiivinf/tou8 lioyal Gazette, with I the royal arms over the off.cedoor. It was an ably con- I ducted newspaper. Its office was twice mobbed for its zeal I for the Crown — once by the Sons of Liberty, and once by a party of Connecticut militia. After enjoying royal favor for many years. Kivington in 17S2, who then saw the '*end of things,'" shaped his course to meet coming events. Several years previously Freneau predicted this in some verses which he published in a Pliiladelphia paper: I "Says Satan to Jemmy, ' I bold you a bet, I That you mean to abandon our Royal Gazrtley* On July 10. 17S2. the following appeared in the Gazette: 1 ** The publisher of this paper, sensible that his zeal for the i success of His Majesty's arms, bis sanguine wishes for the good of his country, and his friendship for individual?, I have at times led him to credit and circulate paragraphs, I without investigating the facts so closely as his duty to the I pul>Iic demanded, trusting to their feelings, and depending on their generosity, he begs them to look over past errors, I and depend on future correctness. From henceforth he will neither expect nor solicit their favours longer than his endeavours shall stam]> the same degree of authenticity and credit on the Pin/al Gazcftruf New York, as all Europe allow to the Poi/ttl Gazette of London." The title Royal was dropped, and the paper was afterwards known as Iliv- iiujtan'ti Kcic York Gazette and diirrrsal AdrertiHcr, and the ntyal arms were removed from over the door of the of- fice. The eirculatitm of the Gazitte reached, in its best days, the large number of .^000. Another organ of the Crown was started in Boston in 17r>7. It was the Ckmui- c/e, and the handsomest journal, typographically, publii^hed in the colonies. It exhibited great pretensions to litera- ture. John Mcin. one of its publishers, was a bookseller, and would sometimes fill a page of the Chronicle with ad- vertisements of his books for sale. Mein, assisted by a pre-Revolulionary wit of Boston named Joseph Green, and a few others, was very severe on the Whigs of those days. On \ov. b, 17n9. in a public procession, among the effigies displayed was one of Mein, to which was attached the fol- lowing acrostic: '*I-nsulting wretch, we'll him expose— O-'er the whole worM bis deeds disclose; H-ell now trapes wMe to take bini in; N-ow he is ripe — *> lump of Sin ! M-can is the man— ^fein his name; E-nonirb hf'.s spread bis hellish fame; I-nfernal fnrii-s hurl his soul. N-ine million times, from jwle to polcl" So inimical to Mein had the popular sentiment become thnt he was compelled to stop the publication of the Chronicle and leave the country. Tlic Mc^iadiitHctr.-i Spy, "calculated on an entire new JOURNALISM. 1457 plan," was the next influentinlly patriotic paper started in the colonics. lis first numhc'r came out in July, 1770. un- der the auspices of Isainh Thomas, the author of the His- tory of Prinduff in the Cnitrfi Stntc^. ^Vith the Gfizelte, the Spy was a power with tho penple. and did its full share ID bringing on the rupture with the mother-country. The office of the paper was styled " the sedition foundry." Early in 1771 it urged a recourse to arms, and on Oct. S, 1772, it closed an article in this fearless manner: '* Should the liberty of thepre?9 he once destroyed, farewell the remainder of our invaluable rights and privileges ! AVc may next expect pad- locks on our lips, fetters on our legs, and only our hands left at liberty to slave for our worse than Egyptian task- masters, or — or — Fight our way to constitutional Freedom." In denouncing (iov. Hutchinson as '*an usurper," and showing I.ieut.-fiov. Oliver as a ** recorded perjured trai- tor," an effort was made by Attorney-iJen. Sewall to have Thomas indicted for libel, but the grand jury refused to find a bill. More Briti^'h trnnps having reached liostou, /that city became ton warm fnr Thomas. On the night pre- ceding the eventful day at Coneord the material of the -S'/^/y was conveycii across the Charles River and earried to Wor- cester, where the paper was ever afterwards printed, and where it is now known as the }\'oiTeHtr:r Sf)i/. On May 3, 1775, it first appeared there with the motto in largo type: "Americans! Liberty or Death I .Join or Die!" Thomas ! was famous fur these newspaper laconics. He had a fresh | one for every new phase and every new movement in the Revolutionary conflict. Tho government, to stem this Revolutionary tide after the suspension of the Chronicle, , resorted to the (dd XrirR-Ldtfr, which was then known as , tho MnttttnchnHrttK Gtizrttr and Wi'^khf Nctrft-Lritrr. All ■ the Tory writers of note — Oliver. Brattle. Ijconard. and Sewall — concentrated their power on this paper. There , was a sharp contest between Sewall and Leonard as ** Mas- | Bnchusettensis " in the MaHsnrfnisrtfH Gazette, and John I Adams as "Xovanglus" in the fioufnn Gnzrtfr. After the fight at the Old North Bridge in Concord, Mass., i Apr. 10, 177.i. there was open war for eight years. In the l first year of the Revolution eight newspapers were started ; —four in Philadelphia, where Thomas Paine and Philip i Freneau lived and wrote. The first newspaper in New Jen^ey, the fiaz' ttr.was issued on Dee. ?,, 1777; the first in i Mississippi Territory appeared in 1770, a pioneer among I the pioneers; and in 17S1 tho first, the Guzetfp or Green i Mountain I'nnt //oj/, was published in Vermont. Forty-nine newspapers were established in the colonies from IT-lo to K^t-I, the Revolutionary perioil of our history, but of all those publications not one was really a journal — not ono appeared daily. While Now York was occupied by the British troops four papers were published there, and an arrangement was made in their days of publication by which the fiublie had a newspaper caeh day. This was tho nearest approach to this luxury in that period. The tirst daily paper in America was not is;^ucd till 17S1. It was tho American IhtHtf AffrrrtiMrr, and was published in Phila- delphia by Claypoole, who was tho first to introduce report- ing on the continent. Tho initial newspapers in tho colonics made their ap- pearance in the following chronological order : K»mA Where Wlicn ^■'"'^" publlibed. published. 1. Publick Occurrences Boston K.OO 2. NewR-l^'tUT Boston 1704 3. Anierlean Mereury Philndelphia 1719 4. New York (iaz'-tte New York ]"1'5 fi. Maryland tliizetic Annnpoll't 1727 fi. South Carolina (iazclle Charlfston 17:U 7. Rhoile Islanrl Uazclte Newport 1732 8. VirKiniatJazette Williamsburg 17;m 9. North Carolina (iazxittc Ncwliernc 115^ 10. Nfw Hampshire Gazette rortsmoiith 17r>6 11. Summary N<*w lx>ndon 1758 12. IHawarc Couranl Wilmincton 1761 l;f. (ioor^rla Cazi-tte Savannah 1763 14. Ni'W Jersey Cazette 1777 15. Vt-rmont Gazelle Westminster 1781 Of Iho fi.T newspapers which had been started in America from IfiOO to 178;t, only A'\ were in existence on tho conclu- sion of peaco with (Jroal Britain. Tlic third era of tin? newspaper in America, embracing the PoMTic.u. PiiiTV Pi(f:ss, began in 17S.",. On tho ac- knowli'dgnieut of the indepemlence of (he r.S., 3,000,000 of people found it necessary to organize a government on a now basis. All sorts of opinions, notions, and theories pre- vailed as to the best mode of aceomplisliing this great end. Ail thoughts wen- naturally turncil to Iho sul-ject. and it was very soon npjiarcnt that there were two sides to every question, even in a nation which as n unity had just achieved its independence; and these sides became great political parties in (ho V. S. Alexander Hamilton was tho recognized leader of ono of these divisions, tho Feileral parly, and Thomas Jefferson tho chief of tho other, tho Ro- Vor.. II.— !t2 publican or Democratic party. Without any exception tho 4'A newppajiers published in 17S:t arrayed their columns on cither side in the momentous political contests which followed tho conclusion of peace. Of this number, the MnKHftrhuHettH Spy, the itfizriie, and Intlrpendent ChronirU of Boston, the Virf/iriin GnzcUc, the Marylnnd GoztKr, ihc Jtnirnnf, and the ParK-tt of New York, the Seic Hmnpshire Gazette, the Safeni Gazette, the Connecticut Co«roii(, the Xeicport {li. I.) Mercury, the Pennnylvanin Gazette, and the J*rnnmflrauin Journal were the most prominent. The failure of the Articles of Confederation as a perfect system of government for the U. 8. brought on the first great political conflict; and when the legislature of Virginia, in Jan., 17S(>, proposed a convention of delegates from each State for tiie purpose (»f revising the Fedeial system, tho real contest i)egan. Out of this convention, which finally met in Philadelphia in 17S7, came the Federal Constitution ; and in the adoption of this instrument by the several States tho most intense excitement prevailed throughout the na- tion. In the great controversy the newspapers played an important part. The Parkrt in New York strongly advo- cated the adoption of the Cons-titution, in opposition to the Jiiurna/. Ih Boston the ManaarhuxrtfH Criitincl, which was started in 17.S4, and edited by Major Benjamin Russell, was the leading Federal organ, and from the adoption of the Constitution in the national convention till its accept- onco by the State conventions the (\utincl kejtt up a vig- orous fire in its favor; and there were one or more personal collisions, growing out of the bitterness of Ihc contest, be- tween Major Itussell and Benjamin Austin, a writer for the Judepcndcut C/ironicfe, wliich was the organ of the Demo- cratic party. The Centinel was (uu' of tho most enterpris- ing journals of its day. It did not eontinc itself wholly to politics, but intelligently gave the fullest marine and com- mercial reports, and its summary of foreign news was al- ways excellent, especially during the wars of Napoleon. The proceedings of the constitutional convention in Massa- chusetts were reported by I^Iajor Russell, almost the first reporting attempted in America, and he thus described his labors and a scene iu the convention : *' 1 had never studied stenography, nor was there any person then in Boston that understood reporting. The presiding officer of the conven- tion sal iu the deacon's seat, under the pulpit. I took the pulpit for my reporting-desk, and a very gooil one it was. I succeeded well enough in this my first effort to give a tolerably fair report in my next paper; but the Puritanical notions had not entirely faded away, and T was voted out of tlio pulpit. A stand was fitted up f<U" me in another place, and I jirocccdcd with my reports, generally to the acceptance of tho convention. The doubts that still ex- isted as to whether enough of the .States would como into tho compact as to make the Constitution binding, made the pro('ee<|ings of tho convention intensely interesting. When the news arrived of the acceptance of it by tho State of Virginia, there was an extraordinary outbreak of rejoicing. It seemed as if the meeting-house would burst with the acclamation." On the final adoption of the Constitution there were celebrations everywhere. There was one in New York in 178S, made up of ail the trades. The press-section was bea<ied by two marshals — Hugh (Jaine of tho Gazette and Samuel Loudon of tlie P'ffiitrr. In the procession was a stage drawn by ftmrhorjSes. On this stage was a printing- oflicc — cases and other typographical implements, with compositors and pressmen at work. Many hundred copies of a song and an ode were struek off and distributed along tho route. There was a snuill flag on top of the jircss bear- ing tho inscription of '* Publius " in gold letters. John Loudon, as a hcralil, was niounte<l on the back of the press, dressed in a flowing robe, and a eaj) on whieh were written tho words. "The Lilierty of the Press." He earried a trumpet in his right haml. with wliich he jiroelaimed, " Tho epocha of Liberty and .luslice." In the lelt hand lie held n parchment scroll representing the new Constitution. M'ith the adoption of the Constitution the Federal party eon- sidered itself fully anri firmly established; and of ecuirso tho Repul)liean or Demoeratic party was also established, although, on tho inauguration of Washington and Adams, tho /toMton ('entinr/ formally announced the death of tho lotler; but on Mar. 4, ISdI. on Ihe inauguration of .leffcr- son ami Burr, tho Ciulin* / pul)Iislud a eliaraetcristie monu- mental inscription, the first part of which was as follows : Vcsferdny Expired, Deeply regretted by Millions of grateful Americans, And liy nil i;o(h1 nu-n, TiiF. Fi:i>i:kai, Ai»MiNisntATioN of the Government of the Cn|(,^ Stotes; AnlniHtecl hv A Washjiiiiton. an Adams, a llnmflton, Knox, Pickering. Wuleotl, MeHenry, Marshall, Sloddiirt. and Dexter. A'.l. rj years. 1458 JOUBNALISM. When the Constitution went into °P"'''l»";° "^'i^^"" were printed in each week, in the Ij. S.. ,0.438 ="P"^» » newsL per., or 3.974,77r, copies during the year.f.l ed w. Z .oi iea excitement of that interestrng period ot our ex^rnee somewhat of the spirit which annna.cd M.jor Ru e°l of the /Won Ca.lM. Newspapers continued to rncrea-.e Manv foreign wr.ters of ability and smartness were emplovedbv both parties on the press, and many of The pot^a[ chiefs wrote for the journals. There were few or no regular editorial artieles-or leaders, as they are now "Xd-hut the topics of the day were warmly ^;-'";^7<> m communications oler all sorts of signatures. Most of the fore gn writers were political exiles, and ihey naturally fell in o ?he ranks of the Democrats and wrote for he pape. poet of he Revolution, and accomplished as much with h ?h me .as with his prose. In regard ^-^-'"^^^^t . ■ 1-- A fi.-^t ^^\ a o-iliiuct council Wusnin^ion re mattd " Tha rascl Freneau sent hi,n three copies of his nancrcVervlav. as if he thought he (Washington) would Kme the distributer of them ; that he ™" f_^-;;°;,'>- nothiu" but an impudent design '« >"^ '" ''' \ „" ''^e Tn a hi"h tone." Jefferson placed a high estimate on the service" o Freneau as a journalist. On another occasion JetTerson said, in speaking of Washington. "He adverted to an^ece in Freneau's paper of yesterday: he said he de- Bpised their attacks on hiin personally, but that there had Tver been an act of the government, not meaning in the exeeui e Mne onlv, but in every line, which that paper hid not abused. He was evidently sore and warm, and I tool his intention to be that I should interpose in some way with Freneau, perhaps withdraw his appointment as traus- Jl.in *,-Wk in mv office. But I shall not do it. His paper hTsi- d our "on^tTtu.ion. which was galloping fast into mona^chv and has been checked by no one means so pow- "?u" W as'L.: that paper. It is well and nn,vers.any known that i't has been that paper which has "checked the career of the monocrats." The GazMe was published till 1. .M. In mf Freneau started the Time Piece in New \ork which was afterwards edited by Matthew L, »»''■'• l^""! ub cquentlv by ,Iohn Daly Burk. one of the Xn.ted ri h- men Twoinfiuential journals were established in 1,1)3: Te V-,' K."/'"'"' P-lMium in Boston, and ho ,l/.a»r..a af.erwar.lsand still known as the &mme,-e,,,( .•l,/.'er(.«.j-) n Xe York Noah Webster, the lexicographer, previously a lawyer iu Hartford, was induce.! to migrate t„ New \ork ^o tTke el arc-e of the Mi^errn. and thereby strengthen the Federal arty. William L. 8tone was subsequently an,l ^,r n a iv vears its editor. It is now, as the <""'"<•;•"'; ^^•""/-Qewv:;!k'^^.^c^"!::;^:"rrt;ge^-:i;t^:: "^Z^J^^t:^- B^the newspapers that^attrac^djic ^:^:;;a:^:Xdtl^n;r:F;^i;^^-".'£ Srl'^vSnt^^v-^^lir^ntl^del-t:^ Washington for Mount Vernon after the inauguration of loh^ \,Hms It was .lisowne.l by Bache.who wa^ absent .John \a.»ms. ii ^ written by a ::XbUern: ionary" and rdi'stinguished member of the puiiue luncuoiiaij' Bachc the Aui-',ra "rd"rd\r''rh'';ditoriattrforWi.liamDua,,e,whohad Home" ery much embittered against Kngland in eonse- ' :^:S'wi,;^r?:^r^^/e-ti:r:i::;i;:^.r3 ?emainc,l for nearly thirty years and "»VThe la er 7s William l.c.'ett and William Tullcn Bryant : the latter is MuXef editor. It was Demoeratic i" po ..« or over forty years, and is now independent Republican 1 he ' AJrLn Citizen was a continuation of the A .m > .rk ./,,,,- „a( «..</. 4.'/"». .Tames Cheetham became Us ed. or in SOI. and acted with that portion of the Demoeratic party of wh eh the Clintons weV leaders. Violent altercations be- rween '»»>e of the lea.lers of the two s«et;<.n^ "f that party S place, and the duelling ground '^t ""twl Dav™ the scene of several affairs of honor. Matthew L. Davis, armed Id equipped, went forth in Wall street one time to Zot Cheetham^at sight. The bitterness of these three ,k\,V,iriournals kept up the political excitement in Tw Yortto a high pitih aL for I long time. Coleman Once he discharged a double shot at his opponents: " Lie on, Diiane— lie on for pay, And iheethani. lie thou loo; More against truth you cannot say, Than truth can say "gainst you. Another Democratic paperwas issued in New York in 1S02 U Uie riends of Aaron Burr, in opposition to the Cl.za^ It was the itorninc, Cl.rouiele, an,l edited by Dr. Peter Iryrng. Washington Irving made his first appearane as a wrifer in the droulcU. over the signature of Jonathan Old vie ° Matthew L. Davis was a eontr.lmtor to its noliticat columns. U was no match for the C,(,.™. and ea ed to e^^st in 1805, the year after the kill ng of Ham- Utm, by Burr. But before all these papcrsMiad commen ed leir career the violence of several of the organs of he Democratic party, edited largely by f"-'?""^' """J'^;,^" ?h ' Hb : vf .": prel; and'of speech, especially aroused he Democrats, and caused great indignation in most <.t he newfpaper-offices, and the journals opposed "" - f n^^" i^tratiou of John Adams became more violent than e»er. The eco°d clause of this act stated that "if any person Jhonld write or publish, or cause to he written or publish d any libel against the government of the U. i^. or eUlior house of Congress, or against the Pres'den. he siou d be punished by a fine not exceeding *X' "oO nane s "^'^Zu^siT i:'^h:''u:i It ti;::;7:me,tnd"fXj::r;; 20 :r'wcre^ditcd wholly or partly by aliens. Near^ all of the'e were opposed to the leading measures of the iH';:c:iS-;i:mD^::^ri;^B:^!:^ W nrcob-bctl and a,l but the '^-ter were in t e in eres of the Demoeratic party and encouraged and ^"^ta ned by lefferson and Madison, especially by the former, tobbett 1 edUed the /■..-■<■„,.,■..<■ in Philadelphia. There were many prosecutions under the Sedition law-of natives as well as iE;:;f-.^^i:^tv^^ii^Sc^n=fi^ tJ=^h:v^;:r:r^^i:s;^^7Th:^.r: £r^i=^:";e^^^;^^-^rF^^5^ vet occurred. Vpon the conviction of Cooper, Stephen Thompson Mason, a Senator from Virginia shook hands with the culprit in the very face of justice." The ^uro.n he next mo'rniug contained the following reply, prepared by t^en. Mahlou Dickinson of New Jersey t U is to be borno in mind that Judge Chase who presided at the trial was a ncrTon of otundity and of a florid complexion ) : "Mr. Fenno [s eve more committing great mistakes, but of al the erroi-3 nto wMch he has yet fallen, that in his paper of yesterday s the g eatcst. He states that Stephen Thompson Mason a Senfto from Virginia, shook hands with the eulprit n Hie yerv face of justice, mistaking the bacon-face of old Chase for the fac'e of justice." Col. Mat. hew Ly-' l'^ renresented Vermont in Congress from 1,'.), to IS"', '^"s pro ecn"ed for letters written from A\ ashington to Allen President exhibited a fondness for " ridiculous potnp idle l-rcsiaent I X avarice." It was also charged that Col. „/■ mine" and Dr. James Smith, editors of the ^ '"'"""'' ■• V r V^rk were also arreste.i under this law, but the :.':sf::yeV;'mr?rtrial! Burk left the country for a t.me 1 ,.,, returned -a was killed in ad u^^^^^^^ _^Charles ; in ISOS established the Columbian in >ew York as the JOURNALISM. 145» orgftD of the Clintonians, and was always an ardeat sup- porter of JtiS'orsoQ and Madison. These were sorao of the troubles of the journalists in the cariy days of the republic: and while those papers and edilorij were having; their joys and sorrows iu the cities un the Atlantic coa.-^t, the tide ol'cuiis;rati(in was setting west- ward and the Xorth-west Territory loomed up before the eyes of the world. With tho increase of population in that region, tho necessity of newspapers became evident, and on Nov. 9, 17'J.I, tho Ceiithul tt/ the \o/tli-tctHtcrn Ttr- ritnnj was founded in Cincinnati by William Maxwell, tho first newspaper and the first priiitiug-oilicd beyond tho Ohio. Nathaniel Willis, an old Dustun printer, started the Scioto Gnzcfte in Chillicotho in 171(0, and in ITHy the UVweri* Spu ami IlnmUton Gazette was issued. So the North-western Territory, as it was called, was not without its journals to keep its hardy people posted in the aifairs of tiic rest of the world; and now that Territory and the entire West to tho Pacific is covered witlwuimerous States, OL'Cupied by millions of eutcrprisin}; men and women, and supplied with thousands of first-chi5s newspapers — such pupers as the lirpnblican and Ocmocrttt in St. Louis, where the first paper, the licptiblivau, \va8 established in hSUS, when that city was a mere trading-post ; as the Tribune, Time9, Jourimf, and Pont, lar<;e flourishing sheets in Chi- cago, where the first journal was founded as lute as Nov., ls;(;i, anil in a Slate where the tirst newspaper did not ap- pear till ISI 1 ; as the Afta Ctifi/ornia, Unllrdn, and Morn- imj Cull of San Francisco, enjoying cireulutions from GOOO to 25,000 daily, where tho first journal was issued by our soldiers in camp in IStfJ— 17 ; and as tho Unflrtin and Ifcr- al'i in Portland, and over .'iO other papers in Oregon, make money and fame where no piipcr existed in 1840. So. too, in the South as far as Texas, where tho CirHian, TinlUtin, ami SfWH nourish in Galveston, and more than 100 other newspapers look after the growth of that great border State, deijtined to be cut up into half a dozen smaller States as the population increases. Singular as it may seem, journalism made its appearance in the North-west even before it did in the interior of New Vork. The Otsetjo /femfd, or Wcntern Advertiser was the first newspaper printed in Western (now known as Cen- tral) New Vork. _ It appeared ( IH by l!l inches in size, each of tho four printed pages being 9 by IjA inches) at Coop- erstown Apr. 3, KD-J, and was continued until 1S21. Elihu Phinney was its tounder, editor, and the pioneer journalist in ihat section of tlie country. In announcing his enter- pri^e he lult tho "highest satisfaction in being honored as the conductor of the first public paper jirinted in the rc- s-pectablo county of Olscgo." William L. Stone, Thurlow Weed, and other distin'juislied journalists, worked at the case in iiis office. and .1. Keiiiuinre Cooper often " set type" there fur amusotnent, and he thus described tho ]>rinting- establishinent of the ficntld in its days of infani-v, in his charming novel, T/ir /'ioncrr*. Speaking of the laying out of the vdlage, aii'l of an effort of the early settlers to stnrt an academy, he said: ".Meeting after meeting was held f'jr this purpose year after year. The resolutions of thcso assemblages appeared in the most conspicuous columns of a little, blue-looking newspaper, that was already issued weekly from the garret of a dwelling-house in tho village, nud which the traveller might as often see stuck into tho fissure of a stake that hail been erected at tho point where tho footpath from the |>g cabin of some settler entered tho liii;hway, as a post-otfice for an imliviilual. Sometimes tho stake Ftupported a small box. and a whole neighborhood received a weekly supply f<)r their literary wants at this point, whore tlie man who * riiles post' regularly deposited a bundle of the precious eonimodity." This description of the printing otTii-e and tho mode of delivery of the Ol- iteifo Herniil in I 7**."> was true ()f nearly all the journals of a century ago; and even now the 8mall box on a stake is tieoii at some cross-roads in tho interior of Massachusetts, Vermont, and elsewhere. Itiit to return to <»ur chronological order. Tho Alien and Sedition laws led to tho famous Virginia and Kentucky resolutions of 1798-91). Those became the chief plank in the Democratic platform, and were tlic basis of many of the Democratic jtiurnals uhieh were subscrpiently estab- lished : and those in exisleriee sustained (he jtcinocrittic doctrine thus enunciated by Jefferson and Madison. Tho Itichmond Knqutrcr, edited for forty years by Thomas Ritchie, started on May 9, IHOt, was among the first estab- lished on this platform, an'l became a leading and power- ful organ of public opinion for half a century. Among other prominent journals that appeared at that time was the A/btttitf /^effiMtrr, established in IH03 or IhOl, an influ- ential paper, especially under tho care of .Solomon South- wiek, who was its chief oilitcir in 180S. But, like all po- litical journals, it had, in the overthrow of fictions, to sui'cumb to the Afhmijf Arr/it"* which was started in 1813, and managed with great ability and skill by Edwin Cros- wcll till the delcat of Martin Van Bureu iu 1S40, and even maintained much of its power till the election of Abraham Lincoln. It was tho mouthpiece of the Albany Kcgency, as the Enquirer was of the Kichmond Junta. Another paper of note was the //udion liniauce, a lead- ing Federal paper in 1804, and edited by Harry Croswell. It had to carry on the contest against the Democratic or- gans with tho Conimcrciul Advertiner and Eceniuff J*o$t of New York. The liuhtme was made famous in journalism by a libel on Thomas Jefferson, for which Croswell was tried and convicted. On the trial the editor offered to prove the truth of the charges, but such evidence was ruled out as inadmissible. This case changed the law of libel in New Vork, for in consequence the legislature in ISOi passed an act authorizing the truth to be given in evidence when pulilislied with good motives and for jus- tifiable ends ; and this principle afterwards became the fundamental law of the land. New party papers contin- ued to make their appearance, and were at tliat time mostly Democratic. They grew out of the troubles and jealousies of the party-leaders. After the death of Cheet- ham, the Tammany Hall Democrats, dissalislted with the course of the Cu/mnbinn, set uji a paper to take the place of the Citizen. This journal was nnmed the yati<iHii/ Ad- vocate. Henry Wheaton was its editor for a number of years. It then passed into the hands of Mordecai Manasseh Noah; James Gordon Bennett was also one of its editors; Henry Eckford, the famous shipbuilder, was one of its principal owners. The party press reached its greatest power and influence with tho establishment of these papers and others, such as the Portland (Me.) Ar(jn« in 18U3, the New Hampshire Pxtriot in Concord in ISOS, the Hartford (Conn.) TimeH in Isl", the Vharlevtou {S. C.) Mcrcnri/ in 1822, tho Globe in Washington, and the Post in Boston in 18lii, the Nanlirille (Tenn.) Union, and the Colmnbna (0.) StatcHmtiu. These journals wielded the destinies of tho iJcmoeratie party from the days of Jcfl'crsoii to the inau- guration of Lincoln. They gave the keynote on all im- jiortant public questions to the lesser organs scattered over the country. The newspapers in opposition a large por- tion of this time, although some of these were originally Democratic, were the Aational Intf flli/enrer^ issued in Washington in 1799-1800; the Prorid.Hre {R. I.) Journal, established in 1820; the Jioston Courier, started by Jo- seph Tinker Buckingham in 1824; the IHelnnond (Va.) Whi'j, in 1820; the New York Courier and Enquirfr, in 1827; the Albamj Evcniiif/ ,A>Hnirf/, originally established by Thurlow Weed as an Anti-Masonic organ in I8;J0; tho Louinvi/fc (Ky.) Journal, first issued in 1831, and edited fur thirty years by George D. Prentice; tho lioaton Atlat, started by John H. Eastburn and tho Webster Whigs iu 18:{2; and the A>ic Yorlc E-r/trest, set up by the Clay Whigs in 183(1. These journals, with their assistants in tho cities and towtis of the I'nion, represented the National Republican and Whig parlies, and made their mark on tho pages of political history. But these journals were not confined wholly to politics. Willi the progress of the coun- try, and with the discussions of the great questions that i camo up before tho jieople, they expanded their usefulness and showed some enterprise. Especially in New Vork, in order to obtain large circulations, efforts were made to ac- quire tho earliest news in advance of each other. This led to improvement in tho columns generally of tho chief organs of public opinion. More allcnticin was devoted to commercial and foreign inlelligeuce. ami they became largo advertising mediums. Other papers were established dur- ing this long period which were not strictly party papers, but the number of these was \cry small indeed. One of tho most valuable of these publications was AV/.s' W'tr/clij J{e(/i»ter. which was brought out in Baltimore in 1811. and continued till 1848; and a set of this paper contains tho fullest and best history of the country during the thirty- seven years of its existence. • While tho parly press reigned in journalism, a class of i papers existed which were deemed, till quite recently, a necessity of tho time — an imperium in iniperio. Theso were the organs in Washington. The first of this class was the Xntlouitl Intf llit/rucrr and Wiif/iintftou Adrrrtiiier. This paper had been removed from Philadelphia, where it was known as the ludrfuudvut Gnzrtlrrr,m\ the removal of the seat of government from that city. This was in 1799- ISOO. The intrllifjrucer, then owned by Samuel Harrison Smith, became the organ of Jefferson. In 1810-12 it passed into the hands of (ialos & Seaton, and theso journalists in- troduced the full reports of the debates in Congress. On tho advent of Jackson on Mar. 4, 1829, tho Intflligencrr ceased to bo (he organ of the government, and became that of the Whig party, aii>l the Vnitrd Statnt 7'rlef/rafdi, edited by Duff itreen, was accepted as the organ of Jackson's ad- ministration. But a rupture between Pres. Jackson and 1460 JOURNALISM. Vice-Pres. Calhoun caused the establishment (in 1S31) of the Glohr, with Francis P. Blair and Araos Kendall as ed- itors, and this Journal hccame the thundcrer of the Demo- cratic partv. It continued to lie the organ till the a'lvent of Harrison in 1S4I, when the 7ntc/fi«/fnrf:r resumed its old position, hut the early death of Harrison, thro\ving the \vhig party into confusion, led John Tyler to select the Maditonifin, started in 1841. to be his organ. On the elec- tion of James K. Polk in 1S44, the Glob*: did not return to power with its party, hut a new paper, called tlie Cnion, was established, with Thomas Ritchie as editor, and that ionrnal became the official organ. On the election of Gen. Taylor in 181S. a new pnper was starte<l for his organ, as the lutrllhfruprr favored the AVehster wing of the Whig party. The new paper, the Hepuhhc, was edited by Alex- der Bullitt and John 0. 8argeant. The Natiottof Era acted in the national capital for the Abolition party from 1847. When Franklin Pierce came into power in 1852-63, the Vuioit resumed its position with the government, hut with fJen. Robert Armstrong as editor and Caleb Cushing and A. 0. P. Nicholson as contributors; and continued, with John Appleton {previously editor of the Portlnud Arffun) as contluctor, through the administration of James Bu- chanan. The Union was the last of the official organs at the national capital. Neither Pres. Lincoln nor Johnson indulged in the luxury of one, and Pres. Grant follows in their footsteps in having no special journal to speak for his administration. Several newspapers published in Wash- ington have pretended to be such, but have not been offi- cially recognized. While party spirit prevailed in journalism, class-papers began to show themselves. The pioneers of these were the religious press, and the first appeared in 1814-Ui. The Rev. John Andrews established in ChilUcothe. 0., the first relig- ious newspaper in America. It was entitled the Recorder, and the initial number was issued in 1S14. Nathaniel Wil- lis thought and talked of such an enterprise in Portland, Me., in 1808, but did not receive sufficient encouragement to carry out his plans till 1816. On Jan. .3 of that year he issued the first number of the Boston Recorder: and now the nation is full of religious newspapers, many of which are very ably conducted and reach larger au<Hences than sermons from pulpits can possibly reach. Three or four years afterwards another important class of newspapers was initiated. The American Fanner was the first of the agricultural press. It was published in Baltimore by John S. Skinner, and the first number appeared on Apr. 2, 1S18. The Pfouf)hbo}f, managed by Solomon Southwick, followed in 1821, and was published in Albany. The New Enifland Farnur next appeared in Aug., 1^22. These wore the pio- neers of the hundred useful and valuable publications now in circulation for the benefit of the farmer and stock-breeder. Other class newspapers appeared. Special interests are rep- resented in journalism. The commercial classes were not overlooked. Indeed, as far back as 179.i the fionton Prices Cnrreiit and Marine Intefh'fjencer was published, but in a few years it became a political newspaper. The first suc- cessful commercial paper was the Xew Orleans Prices Cur- rent, established in 1822. Every city has now one or nioro commercial and shipping lists. Besides these, all trades, avocations, interests, occupations, professions, amusements, have their organs, in the U. S. as well as in Europe. The Nantieal Gazette, the Paper-Trade Circular, the Tobacco Lea/, the Cotton- Planter, the Telefjraplier, the Railroad .Ionrnal, the Medical Tiinen, the Scientific American, are names frequently seen, and these publications arc a credit to their conductors for the ability and research shown in their management, as well as for the beauty of their typo- graphical appearance. Then, there arc the illustrated pa- pers, such as Ifarpcr'ft W'cf l.di/. Fr<inh Lculic's Illnstratcd Paper, Harper s Razar, the Aldine, and Applftons' Jonrnal, that favorably compare with anything published in Eu- rope. And comic iournalism, what can he said of that ? Not much for the U. S., for comic papers have been a failure on this side of the Atlantic. They are a great success in England. France, (Jermany. Italy, and Spain, and are full of wit and humor, but here not one attempt has been suc- cessful. Why? Because there is not a paper of any sort issued in the U.S. — political, religious, commercial, marine, scientific — but what has its joke. Most of the papers in- dulge in regular departments of wit and fun. There is a daily effervescence of bonmntn from Canada to Mexico and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The U. S. are a Vesuvius of wit and humor in a constant state of eruption, and the lava is in perpetual motion down the sides of its mountains. Hence the failure of the two or three dozen or more publi- cations which have from time to time made a specialty of the comic side of human nature on this side of the Atlantic. Wliilo the party papers of the old school, such as we have brioflv described, covered with the dust of battle, of the Federal Constitution, the French war, the war of 1812, the old tariff, the U. S. Bank, the Mexican war, and the slavery question, and the class of papers with their specialties were passing on, some to continued prosperity and others to the grave, a more vigorous set of newspapers was coming into existence— namely, the Chkap Piti;ss. Those papers were the great journalistic event in America. The old order of journals were subscription papers, and, considering size and amount of reading matter given, they were high-priced. The only part really cheap about them were the advertise- ments in their columns. It was only by becoming annual subscribers that copies could be obtained for less than six cents each; none were sold in the streets, none at ne\vs- stands or news-agencies, now so numerous, and very few were disposed of over their own counters. None of these journals had largo circulations, none printed as late even as 1835-40 circulatc'l over 5000 copies, and very few over half that number. With all the entf-rprise that James AVat- son Webb of the Conrier and A'nf/nirrr. and Hufe and Hallock of the Journal of Cotmnrrre of New York, and Richard Houghton of the Roston Atlas, displayed between the years 1S30 and 1840 in news-schooners and pony ex- presses, not one of these journals could boast of a subscrip- tion-list of over 5000 names. But with the establishment of the cheap press all this has been gradually and wonder- fully changed. Newsboys were introduced in our streets, news-agencies started in all the cities of the cotintry. par- cels of city journals were daily sent along the railroad and steamboat routes by express, and the modern newspapers soon had circulations ranging from 10,000 to 100,000, and now as high as 125,000, with an occasional spurt to 150,000 copies. The penny press was established in New York in 1833. The Mttrninrf Postwar started on the first day of that year. Horatio David Shepard was the editor, and Horace Greeley and Francis \. Storey the printers. It was first sold for two cents, and then for one cent. In three weeks it was dead. On Sept. 3. 1833, the New y'ork Sun was issued by Benjamin Bay. and sold at one cent per copy. Its prospectus was as follows: "The object of this paper is to lay before the public, at a price within the means of every one, oil the news of the day, and at the same time aflord an advantageous medium for advertising. The sheet will be enlarged as soon as the increase of ailver- tisements requires it, the price remaining the same. Yearly advertisers (without tlie paper\. thirty dollars per annum. Casual advertising, at the usual prices charged by the city papers. Subscriptions will be received, if paid in advance, at the rate of three dollars per annum." This was the origin of the cheap press in America, and the Sun is still published, and is still one of the cheap papers, although not a penny paper. The new class of journals, be- ginning thus in 1 s;t3. has gradually worked a complete rev- olution in the profession. Most of the cheap papers wore established independently of political parties, but politicians were not disposed to lose such an opportunity for publicity, and while the Transcript in New York, the /'iiblie Ledt/er in Philadelphia, the Sun in Baltimore, and the Herald and Mail in Boston were established as mere local news-sheets, and owned and published by printers, the New Era and Tribune in New York were started in the interests of poli- tics — the first as a Democratic organ, ond the latter as a Whig organ — and the increase of cheap political f^heets continued for several years. The conductors of these cheap ]>apcrs in the early days of their publication confined themselves to local news only. Their means were limited, and they were governed by circumstances. They did not indulge in opinions. But in 1835 the cheap press with opinions was inaugurated. On May 6 of that year the Herald was established in New York by James Gordon Bennett with a more comprehensive plan in view. Its founder had been ten or twelve years previously actively engaged as a reporter, a correspondent, and an editorial writer on leading political journals, and he therefore entered on iiis new duties with considerable ability and experience as a journalist. With these qualities he combined that of great energy and enterprise, and he started on his new career entirely independent of party affiliations. The re- sult is known, and with the issue of the first number of the Hrrtild the Indki'KNDKNT Pufs:s had its origin. With the success of the Sun, Herald, and Public Lrdijer and their contemporaries of the cheap ])ress, the old class of papers began to pass out of existence, and even the new political journals were subsequently established on the new plan as more etfectivo with the masses and more successful in a business point of view. On Apr. 10. 1841. Horace Greeley started the Neto York Tribune, and by his ability, indom- itable industry, and experience as a printer and political writer, as had been illustrated on tht'JrJfersonian, Lnr/ Cabin, and A'* IP Yorker, he made that journal the chief Whig and liepublican organ, and a power in the politics of the T'nion. On Sept. 18, 1851. the AVic York Times was founded by Henry J. Raymond, who bad graduated in the offices of JOIKXALISM. 1461 the Tribitnt and Conrier and Enquirer. It was organ- ized as a political journal, and was a Republican or;;an, but Us editor was under the control ot" no party, altbou^^h he always acted with the Kcpublicans. On, June 1,1>(»0, the-Wjo York ]VorlU was established by a number of religious gen- tlemen for the purpose of having a newspaper in the me- tropolis without the prurient police reports and the theat- rical advurtiscmeuts and notices that occupied so much space in the other city journals. After spending a largo Bum of money the enterprise was abaudoued, and the Uor/f/ pas.-^ed into the hands of more setular journalists. On July 1, ISI'il, the ll'urW and Courier <tii(l Eiiijiiircr were united. The W'urtti fur the last ten or twelve years has been edited as an independent organ of the Democracy. These journals are thus particularly mentioned because they fully represent the modern class of papers that now come under the head of the independent press. Others in other cities belong to the same category, such as the fJlulte, started in Ho.ston in Mar., 1S72. These papers are quarto or double-sheets : which style is rapidly taking the place of the old folio sheet. Many of the older papers, like the /lu^tint Transcript and .SV. Louis lirpitblicau, have adopted the modern plan, and are now eight-paged instead of four- paged journals. This is a brief sketch of journalism in the IT. S. progress may be indicated by a few facts, as follows: Its Slaliilio of tie Daily and Weekly Neiotpapcrt in the V. S. First printing-office in America First news|)aper First notitieal newspaper First libel suit Fi^^t (teruian newspaper First daily newspaper First relii;irtHs newspaper , >'irsla'.;ricullural newspaper... First prices current F'irsl penny newspaper First independent newspaper. First illustrated newspaper Firit comic newspaper A. D. 11)39 1G90 ITS.'! IT.I.'i 17.TJ i;S4 18U I8I8 1822 IIB3 ISM 185:) 1839 But statistics will exhibit more comprehensively, perhaps, the growth of journalism on this side of the .\tlantic, and the figures develop a marvellous result. The census returns, a5 given in Journalism in the United States, show the fol- lowing as the NuuBER OF Pi:bi,icatioxs, with THEin CrnciLATios ASD An.mal Issi:ii, IX THE U. S. l.N 1S70. Periods of Issue. Daily Three tiine-s a week.. Semi-weekly Weekly .S^'mi-nmntlily Monlhly Hi-monthly Quarterly . Total.. Number. '^'"''IJ.*".^"*"^ Cireulalio.. 574 107 11.5 429.1 93 622 13 49 S871 806,479,.'i70 24,l9ii,:i8n 25,708,488 550,921,438 32,.'i95,G80 67,810,110 189,900 84R,C80 1,508,548,250 20, ,.547 105 .197 ,G13 820 843 ,6.50 ,li70 1,473 Classes of Publications. Adverdsinj; Aerlciiliural and hortieul lural B.-ni'volent and secret so- cieties roniinercial and finaneiaf Illiislraled. literary ,nnd mis- eellaneiHiH Natinniility, devoted to I'.ililieal ItellKlons Sp<irtinK Technical and professioDal... Total Number. '^"'^J.',*^.""'' Clreul.Uoo. 4,689,800 21,541,904 n,518,.560 31,120,600 160,061.408 4,671,000 1,I34,7«9,0S2 12.5.959,496 .3.222,000 15.974.400^ l,.5O8.548,2S0 293,4.50 770,752 -237,080 690,200 4,422.2-%5 45,1.50 8,781,220 4,761.358 7.1,.50fl •M.hM 20,812,475 What an astounding exhibition ! Now let us look at the comparative results since 1701: Newspaper and Periodical Circnlatiou in the U. S. 1840. 1890. 1 ""■ 1 ie;o. SUtcs aod Territories. "a a 3 25 9 a 6 1 53 9 a 9 if 82 36 1 12 3 1 is 75 43 162 53 13 13 11 2 23 77 378 234 201 7 55 74 80 59 93 162 152 76 211 68 8 48 24 39 12 5 81i 535 320 26 406 17 4 7 3 34 22 14 74 33 27 17 9 I 8 'i'i 26 22 18 '"i'6 5 10 6 6 19 12 20 7 1 12 1 7 4 "21 77 33 7 49 5 4 2 31 6 11 ■"i'6 29 40 73 4 '■■■5 ' "5 8 9 10 13 "16 40 88 97 27 ■""5 'i'2 23 13 9 ""3 4 4 7 6 17 8 4 15 5 9 4 17 GO 239 160 107 '21 62 64 43 49 109 100 44 133 63 District of Columbia.... Dakota Florida • 3 """5 3 Miilio 5 'I 7 10 6 33 23 33 35 81 26 9 11 4 6 22 3 45 43 44 58 141 49 6 2 29 29 5 49 SO 27 "27 . 43 "S5 8 53 12 18 Nebraska New Hampshire New Mexico - ■"■■4 34 9 ■"32 211 114 '"e 1 "i's 68 22 2 28 5 I 3 2 65 33G 256 12 28.5 12 30 61 69 New York 51 329 26' 211 Ohio 2 964 12 2 3 2 175 14 14 44 24 Uhdde Island 51 14 7 32 g! 38 6? Tennessee 14 73 10 102 1 2 6 44 14 79 Texas 34 Utah . . 2 4 28 47 " "is r266 li ~254 31 67 "39 2048 2 15 "l4 I72 28 98 128 4 2971 Virginia West Virginia Wisconsin 4 14 542 46 146 14 4425 Washington Total l38 It is an interesting fact to note that of all the newspapers published in the world in 1874, there were printed, in round numbers — In the English language 7500 In all other languages 6600 English over foreign periodicals 900 If wo make an cslimnle, based on the returns since 1870, wo find the relative position of the V. S. to the rest of the world in periodical literature in 1874, to he us follows: Periodicals published outside of the U. S 8250 Periodicals published in the U. S jGSOO Against the U. S 1750 It is safe to say that the number of copies annually printed in the U. S. is fully equal to those annually issued in all the other nations of the world. The highest circulation of any daily paper in London is IfiO.HOO, which is that of the TiUi/rn/'ili. The hi^rhcst ever reached in .New York has been ISIi.OOO. which number has been printed by the Herald. The average daily circulation of tho A'titi York Snn is 120.000 : that of the I'hitadilphiir Ledijer, 8o,000 ; of the Ilosinn .lourmil and «..»(..ii Herald, in the neighborhood of 60,000. Some of the leading papers in Cliicngo and Cin- cinnati range frnin Id. 000 to 50,000. The price of the journals affects the circnhilion as a matter of course. Tho Telegraph in London sells for two cents, tho Times for six cents ; the Ihrald in New York sells for four cents, and the .S'ldi for two cents. The .\Vir« in New York is now tho "penny paper" of the American metropolis, which is as low Rs a paper can be conveniently sold on this side of the Atlantic, while in London the *'iim is sold for half a cent, or a farthini;, whicdi is as low as a paper can be sold in the English Tnelr.ipiilis. If the old-lajhioned half cents were now in circulation in the I'.J^., no doubt a paper would bo issued for tlnit price, although of course it could not com- pete with tho higher-priced papers in news and other read- ing matter. The newspaper press of tho U. S. has reached as great perfection as that of any other nation ; and in enterprise it far surpasses tho journalism of England or of tlie Old World. There is very little enterprise in newspapers on tho continent of Europe. There is almost a superabundance of it in America, and especially in New York. There is no danger too great, no expedition too remote, too costly, or 1462 JOUST— JUAN Y SANTACILTA. too extensive, no undertaking too vast, for the American journalist. If it be to the heart of Africa, or to Khiva, or to the North Pole, or in the thickest of the battle in the rebellion, iu Cuba, in Spain, in Asia, or in Germany, cor- respondents are .sure to be present preparing history for all time to come; and now these journalistic deeds of daring are rewarded by the Iron Cross from the emperor of Ger- many, the gold medal from the Royal Geographical Society of England, the order of St. Stanislaus from the czar of Russia, and larger checks on the bankers of the news- paper proprietors. Frederic IIitdson. Joust, or Just [Fr. joule, jonsi, Jiislc, from the I.ato I.at.y.ij-f.iiv. to '-join" in a fight], in the knightly e.vercises of the Middle Ages a contest with arms, especially between two single combatants. The joust was cil-hor on foot or horse; the pole-axe and sword, but more commonly the lance, was the weapon used. The joust, as a rule, was a friendly contest, and was regulated by very minute and punctilious rules. When more than two engaged in such a contest, it was properly a tnnrni-ij. Joutel' (Hesri), the author of Journal hialorique rfii tieiuier rni/iifie que feu .V. de la Sale Jit dnut le gol/e He Mfsique. which appeared at Paris in 171.3. He accom- panied La Salle on his expedition in 1684 to the mouth of the Mississippi : was left in command of the fort of St. Louis in lOSa, but joined La Salle again in IfiST, and was present in the eamp when La Salle was assassinated. He returned through Canada to France in 16SS. and lived in his native city, Rouen. Very little is known about him before and afler'his participation in the exploring expedition of La S.alle. Jouy' (Victor Joseph Etiense), b. in 1764 at Jouy, near Versailles; entered the army very early, fought in South America, East Indies, and the campaigns of the Revolution, but gave up his military career in 1797, and devoted himself exclusively to literature. He wrote novels, vaudevilles, and opora-texts, of which La Vetlitle, com- posed by Spontini lls>ll"). ws the first, and GuHlaume Tell, composed bv Rossini (1S28), the last. He also wrote trag- edies— T-^/oo S'lih (1812) and Si,Ua (1822); and in 1815 he was chosen a member of the Academy. But his sketches attracted most attention : L'Hcnnite de la Chaussee d'Anlin (+ vols., I,'il2-14), L'Hermile en Province (U vols., ISIS- 27). /-e« Hermitcn en Piisnn (2 vols.. 182.3), and Lei Her- miieo en LiberU {\S2i). They were written in a liber.-vl spirit, and brought him for a short time to prison, a fact which increased his popularity. Louis Philippe made him librarian at the Louvre. D. Sept. 4, 1S46. Jovolla'nos, de ( Gaspar MEi.cnoR), b. at Gijon, Spain, Jan. 5, 1744, of noble parentage ; studied at the universities of Oviedo and Alcal.'i, and became distinguished for his researches in natural, moral, and political science, .^fter acting for some years as a magistrate at Seville. Jovellanos was successively appointed to several high posts at court, until his friendship for Cabarrus incurred for him the enmity of Godoy. resulting in his banishment from Madrid under pretext of a commission to explore the mineral re- sources of the province of Asturias. Ho had previously written for the stage a comedy. El Detincuente Hourado, and a tragedy. Pelai/n. both of which were successful and made hiiu prominent as an author, and had published an important work on the agricultural condition and the property laws of Spain. In 1797 he was for a short time minister of justice, but. again incurring the displeasure of Godoy, was imprisoned in Majorca for eight years (ISOl- OS), only recovering his liberty in consequence of the French invasion of Spain, lie became one of the leading members of the central junta which organized resistance against the French, and of the regency, exercised immense influence by his writings for the same purpose, and d. at Vega Nov. II, ISU. Jovia'nus (Flavips CLArnirs),a Roman emperor, son of Varronianus. a distinguished general. Jovianus was captain of the life-guards of the emperor .Tulian in the Per- sian campaign, in which the latter was killed (.lone 2fi, A. n. 363), ami was proclaimed as his successor the fallow- ing day by the choice of the generals. He declared him- self a Christian, and extricated himself from a position of great peril in the midst of a hostile country by surrender- ing to the Persian king Sapor all the provinces beyond the Tigris. During his slow retreat towards Constantinople, Jovianus promulgated edicts re-establishing Christianity as the dominant religion, but protecting the pagans. Ho restored Athanasius to the see of Alexandria, abandoned Nisibis to the Persians, and admitted his infant son Var- ronianus as a colleague in the imperial rank. During his journey he was found dead in his bed at Dadastana, a small village in Galatia. Feb. 17, 364. Whether he was the vic- tim of poison or of accidental suffocation by the fumes of charcoal is disputed. His successor was Valentinianus I. Jow'ett (Besjamis). D. D..b. at Camherwell, England, in 1817; was educated at Oxford, where he became a fellow in 1838, while still an undergraduate; tutor in 1842, and rcgius professor of Greek in 18.i5. He was ordained in 1S42; became in 1S49. and again in 1 S."i3. examiner of clas- sical schools, and in lS.'i4 a member of the commission on examinations for the Imlian civil service, along with Macaulay and Lord Ashburton. Their elaborate report, published in 1855. was written by him. In the same year Prof. Jowett published a commentary on Paul's Epistles to the Thessnionians, Galatians. and Romans, and in ISCOho contributed to the EnKajjs and Urvicim an article On the. In- lerprrictiiin of Scripture, for which ho was tried and ac- quitted before the chancellor's court of the University of Oxford on a charge of heresy. His most important work is Tlie Dinloques of Pinto tranalatcd into Eufilinh, leith Auuli/see and rnlrndueiinun (4 vols., 1871). Prof. Jowett became master of Balliol College in 1870. Jowf, or Djowf, province of Jebel Shomer, Arabia, is situated between lal. 29° aud 30° N. and Ion. 39° and 41° E., and forms a deep depression iu the surrounding desert. It is irrigated by running streams, very fertile, and has a temperate climate. The date-palm is largely cultivated, also several kinds of cereals and leguminous plants, and all sorts of fine fruit, especially peaches, figs, grapes, and melons. The whole oasis is about 70 miles long and 10 to 12 miles broad, and is inhabited by about 40,000 souls, belonging to the finest Arabian type, and ex- hibiting all the best characteristics of the race. The prin- cipal towns are Jowf and SeUakab. Joy, post-v. of Sodus tp., Wayne co., N. Y. Pop. 122. Joy (Charles A.). Ph. D.. b. Oct. 8. 1823. at Ludlow- ville, Tompkins CO.. N. Y. ; eraduated at Union College 1S44: received the degree of LL.B. at Harvard University Law School 1847; appointed in 1.847 on the first govern- ment survev of the copper-region of Lake Superior; at- tended the University of Berlin 1849; received the degree of Ph. I), at Gcitting'en 1852 : attended lectures at the Sor- bonne. Paris. 1853: appointed same year professor of chemistry in Union College, and in 1857 to the same chair in Columbia College. New York City, where ho still re- mains. His principal contributions to chemistry have been analyses of minerals and meteoric iron, researches into the compounds of glucinum, and papers on the com- bination of alcohol radicals with selenium. He has con- tributed largely (o scientific journals and newspapers, having been for two years an editor of the Scientific AmerFcan and Jnurnnl of Applied Cliemintrii, and the edi- tor of all chemical articles in Applelnua' Xcir American Ciicloprrdin. Has been president of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York City, president of the American \ Photographic Society, and chairman of the Polytechnic ' Association of the American Institute. ' Joy (James F.I. b. in Durham. N. H.. in 1810; grad- uated at Dartmouth College in 1833; moved to Detroit, Mich., in 1836; was an industrious and very successful lawver: organized the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R. about 1850; became president of the Michigan Cen- tral and its connections in 1866. He organized the com- pany which constructed the St. Mary's Falls ship-canal, and has been a verv energetic railroad builder and manager in the Western States. W. S. Georue. Joy'fiPid, post-tp. of Benzie co., Mich. Pop. 130. Joyncs'touii, tp. of Wilson co., N. C. Pop. 1271. Ju'ab, county of Central Utah. Area, about 650 square miles. It is in part mountainous. It is partly iu the Salt Lake Valley and partly in tho Sevier 13asin. Lig- nitio coal of excellent quality is found. Cap. Salt Creek. Pop. 2034. Juan'Fcrnan'dez, orMas-a-Tierra.an island in the Pacific Ocean, in lat. 33° 37' S. aud Ion. 78° 53' W.. 400 miles oflr the coast of Chili, to which it belongs. It is 18 miles long. 6 miles broad, mountainous, with steep shores, but fertile, producing samlal-wood and other .sorts of tim- ber, figs, grapes, and many different kinds of fruit. It is inhabited hv a few settlers from the U. S. and Tahiti. The story of Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch sailor who was at his own desire put ashore on this island, and lived there four years in solitude, is supposed to have suggested the idea of De Foe's tale of Robinmn Crunnc. The island upon which De Foe places his hero is off the coast of Venezuela, near the mouth of the Orinoco. Juan' y Santaci'lia Morok), b. at Nobelda, Spain, Jan. 5. 1713; studied at Malta and at the marine college of Cadiz, distiniruishing himself in mathematics and as- tronomy; in 1733 commanded a small exploring vessel sentto'the coast of America, and in 1734 was associated with Don Antonio Ulloa in the command of a scientific corps sent to South America to measure a degree of the JUAREZ. 1463 meridian at the equator in onlcr to dclcrmino the true size nnil figure of the earth. The French academicians La Condaraino and BouRucr participated in the expedition, which was completely successful. Juan and Ulloa remained in Peru several years, and accumulated a vast store of ob- servations in geography ami physii-.«, which they published in 174S in 5 folio vols. The work has since becij a standard one upon that portion of .America. Juan wrote otherworks on nautical science; was an efficient officer of the Spanish navy, in which he attained the rank of vice-aduiiral : was elected a menihcr of the chief scientific corporations of Eu- rope, and .1. at Madrid June 21, ITT.'i. Jua'rcz (Besito Pabi.oK b. of pure Indian parentage at Ixtlan, near Oaxaca, Mexico, Mar. 21, ISUG. Left an orphan at the age of three years, he received no early in- struction, and spoke only tli'e Zapolcco language until his twelfth year, when, taking refuge in Oaxaca from ill-treat- ment by his guardian, the lad found favor with a Francis- can lay brother, who taught bim to read and write, and afterward placed him for several years at an ecclesiastical seminary, where he studied Latin, with a view to the priest- hood. But there had been founded meanwhile at Oaxaca an Institute of Arts and .Sciences, which .Juarez was attracted to enter in 1827. Taking the degree of bachelor of laws, ho also became the professor of physics of the school, and in IH'M was licensed to practise law. Having espoused libe- ralism, he had previously (1S31 ) been elected a member of the city council of Oaxaca. and a deputy (1S?,2) to the slate legislature. Chiirged with revolutionary affiliations, he was imprisoned for some months in ISiiC, but in IS42 was appointed a judge of the civil court of Oaxaca. When bis party triumphed, .luarcz in IS4.i became secretary to the governor, but soon exchanged the place for that of fiscal (attorney-general) of the superior court, as the gov- ernor's views did not square with his own more advanced ideas. In Aug.. lS4fi, Oaxaca resuming its sovereignty, the legislature delegnlcd [be executive powers to a trium- viraterof which .Juarez was Iho most relied on. But his party having also gained possession of political power at Mexico, be was soon elected a deputy to the federal con- gress called to reorganize the government under the con- stitution of 1824, and to provide ways and means for the war with the V. S. He earnestly supported the measure of fiomez Farias to raise $14.nnn,(100 by sale or loan upon the Church properly, which, though carried, was successfully set aside by tbc aid of Santa .'^nna. Oaxaca !ig!iin in revolt. .Juarez' became governor for several years, milking reputation throughout Mexico for administrative capacify. By another turn of the wheel of revolution Santa Anna rose again to power, an.l .Juarez was arrested, im- prisoned for a time, and banished. From New Orleans, however, he soon found bis way by Panama to Gen. Al- varez, then in revolt at Acapuico ; and when .Alvarez was proclaimeil President (Oct., ISSo), .Juarez wns appointed minister of justice antl ecclesiastical affairs. His sweeping measures of reform diil not suit Oen. f'oinonfort. the ruling spirit of the cabinet, to whom the aged Alvarez soon yielded his office; therefore .Juarez preferred to re- turn to Oaxaca as governor once more. Again distin- guished forexecutivcaiiilily.by his influence the democratic principle was greatly developed in the state, including the direct election of governor by the people, and in 1857 ho was the first governor thus chosen. But at the same gen- eral election he was also elected president (chief-justice) of the federal supreme court, and in Nov., 1857, was appointed minister of gobernaeion. His presence in that cabinet led con"resa to invest Comonfort with extraordinary powers, which were speedily abused by the President's complicity with the conspiracy of Ziiloaga. Again .Juarez was im- prisoned, but as Comonfort's intrigues fell through, he bad the grace to release .Juarez before quitting the capital, and the latter retired at onco to Oaxaca, whence he was soon summoned to (luanajuato to head Iho movement of the stales against the military i)arty. nn^l under the constitu- tion, as president judge, was proehiimed President .Jan., ]s5ft. For lack of resources be bad lo retire to (luadalajara. There the garrison was divided : Lient.-col. Landa, with a party of his battalion, pronouncing for reaction, seized and imprisoned Juarez and bis cabinet in the palaie, menacing them with death— a throat not executed, simply because of the energy with which anotlier fiehl-officer rallied a small force of regulars, the national guards, and peiq)le, invested their prison, and forced their captors to surrender them. Meanwhile the liberal army umler (lens. Parrodi and I)e- gollado, defeated at Salamanca, had fallen back upon Ouailalujara. and Parrodi was made minister of war and general-in-chief. Juarez then retire.l with the government to Colima. leaving Parrodi toilelend liuaduliijiira. where ho soon capitulated. Ueplacing bim by Degolhi.lo. .luarez now iletermined to take ])osition at Vera Cruz, which he readied (Mav 4, 1858) bv way of Manzauillo, Panama, ami Havana at an extremely critical juncture, when, with com- merce virtually at an end, the whole interior was domi- nated by bis adversaries. But Juarez never lost heart. Ably assisted by some resolute partisans in the field, he pub- lished (June, 1859) plans for reform which gave such strength to liberalism in the country that the conservatives invoked foreign aid (France, England, and Spain 1, upon the basis of a government which should secure reform with conservative rule; and to this scheme they secured the as- sent of Uegollado, whose army, however, repuiliated his course. Juarez, resolutely refusing to countenance Euro- pean intervention, called a general election for President and deputies to congress. Then came the successful battle (Dec. 22, ISCO), near Mexico, of Calpulalpam, and imme- diate entrance of the liberal army into that city, from which Miramon narrowly escaped at night. Juarez, following thither (Jan. 11, 1S61), re-established his government, and at an election held in March was chosen President of the republic. Fifty-one deputies in Congres.s, however, de- manded his resignation in favor of Gonzales Ortega, who had been chosen chief-justice (May). But, supported by the state legislatures, the governors, and a majority of the press, Juarez continueil in the executive office. At his sug- gestion, congress having (July 17) suspended payment for two years of all (including exterior) public obligations, a pretext was given for the tripartite alliance, under which an Anglo-l'"rench-Spanish force was landed (Dec. 8, IS(il) at Vera Cruz. Weakened by more than forty years of civil war and an impoverished exchequer, with aught less than his supreme faith and constancy of purpose, Juarez must have succumbed. But the fortunate early withdrawal of the English and Spanish forces encouraged the states to the most resolute resistance to the French, who were re- pulsed (May 5, 1S()2) in their first attempt upon Puebla. With tho rich, the clergy, and the remains of the old army in sympathy with intervention, however, Puebla was taken in May, 1803, and in June tho French entered Mexico. Retiring to San Luis Potosi, Juarez found himself deserted by many who bad hitlierto stood steadfast; he therefore proceeded to Saltillo, there to learn that Vidaurri, governor of Nuevo Leon and Coahuila, had already gone over to tho French. Deposing him, with the aid of tho people ho soon forced him to seek refuge in Mexico. But a hostile force under Gen. (Juiroga afterwards made him retire to Chihuahua, where the people gave a cordial welcome, and ho organized an army under Gens. Ortega, and Patoni, which, being poorly equipped and unskilfully commanded, was soon beaten. With other forces, raised in that quarter and Du- rnngo, however, Negrete, now minister of war and geucral- in-chief, recovering Saltillo. Monterey, and Parras (spring of 1805), an unsuccessful effort was made to recover Mata- nioros, which was soon followed by a counter-French inva- sion of Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and even Chihuahua, beloro wllich Juarez was forced (.\ug., ]8()5| to recede to tho very border at Paso del Norte. It was now that Gen. Ortega, ohief-justice of Mexico, claimed that Juarez's terin of office having cx]iired, the executive power constitutionally lapsed to bim. Juarez, however, determined to hold over until there could bo a general election, but for the next year had to remain near the northern frontier of Mexico, exercising little aolual influence upon tho struggle maintained in tho interior by military chiefs with Maxiuiiliau and the I'Vench. In ,Ian., 1807, as Iho French were jireparing to quit Mexico, ho ]icoetrated to Zueatecas, but after a narrow escape from capture by Miiauion, had lo retire. But Kscobedo, ap- parently the soul of the military resiBtanoe to JIaximiliau, attacked Miniiuon in turn, and routed him in several ac- tions (decisively at San Jacinto), and Juarez followed to San Luis Potosi', to hear there of the capture of Maximilian at (Juerelaro (May IV, 1807), soon after which lie repaired to the capital. Maximilian, Miramon, and Mejiawcru shot, after a protraeleil trial by court-martial, Juno 19, 1807, notwitbslamliug all the efforts of their able counsel, the friendly intervention of the V. S. government, and the ap- peals of many personal friends of Juarez, A general elec- tion was helil. and ccuigress meeting Aug., 1807, declared his rc-eleelion lo the Presidency. He set about the eslab- lishmeut of iIm^ government, but was enenunlered by vifd'-nt opposition from auibilious or dissalislicd chieftains of his own party, who excited many insurrections, and during this whole term of office (1807-71) he was able to retain power merely because of tho utter lack of hiiruiony and concert among his military opponents. Willi cluiracterislio intlexibilily ttf purpose he pursued bis object of consolida- ting the inslilulions resulting from the " war of reform," iniliffereiit alike to (lattery ami tonienaco. One of tho events of bis adminislralion was the triiiuiphal jirocession made by ex-Secretary Sewanl through .Mexico hite in 1809. At tho general election cd' 1871, again a eandidale, ho had a plu- rality, not an absolute majority, of votes, but was elected by congress. The result was the revolution headed by Gens. 1464 JUARROS— JUDAS ISCAKKVr. Diaz and Trevino. by whose successes the central power seemed more than once tottering to its fall. The tide was turned in favor of Juarez by the victory of Gen. Rocha at Zacatccas (Mar. 2). but the northern states were still un- subdued when he d. of apoplexy. July IS. 1S72. Pcrsun- allv, Juarez was taciturn, self-reliant, and hope! ui. btit unexcitable, confident in his own resources nncl of the ulti- mate triumph of his plans. Unquestionably, ho^vever, tho downfall of Maximilian was due to the oppos^ition made by military leaders remote from Juarez, and to the immense moral force of the position of tho V. S. government at the time, rather than to the positive influence of the Indian statesman upon affairs. Thomas Jordan. Juar'ros ( Domingo), b. in Guatemala about the middle of the eighteenth century, was an ecclesiastic, who is known only as the author of a learned historical work upon Cen- tral America, which is one of the chief sources of informa- tion upon the suhjeet — Comiycndio <le la J/istnria de fn Cindnd dr Onnttmuln, etc. (2 vols., 1809-18). lie is said to have died about 1820. Ju'baf kiu;j of Numidia, succeeded his father Iliempsal after 02 u. c. The tribune Curio having proposed to make Numidia a Roman province. Pnmpey opposed the plan, and thus secured the good-will of Juba. In 40 B. c, Juba de- feated and killed Curio on the Bagradas, took part in the African war against C;vsar (47), and after the battle of Tha])sus took his own life (Feb. 4, 40 n. c). — His son, Ji'BA, graced Caesar's triumph at Rome, 40 b. c. ; was well educated, and became the friend of Augustus, who gave him in marriage a daughter of Antony and Cleopatra, and restored him to his kingdom .10 b. c. In 2o he exchanged Numidia for Mauritania, and the former became a Roman province. Mauritania under his tranquil sway, supported by the Roman arms, rose to great prosperity. He wrote grammatical works, histories of Africa, Arabia, and Rome, treatises on painting and the theatre, on certain plants, etc. Fragments of his works are extant, but only as cita- tions in other writers, collected in JMUller's Fragin. Illsi. Gr^c. (iii. 4GJ— 184j. His death is placed about a. d. IS. Ju'bilee [Heb. yoic^, a " glad sound:" Lat. /(/6t7o, to "rejoice"], among the ancient Hebrews in Palestine, the fiftieth year, the year succeeding every seventh sabbatical year. During this year all lands lay fallow, all Hebrew slaves were set at liberty, and all lands reverted to the heirs of the original owners, to wjiom the lands had been par- celled out in Joshua's time. In the Roman Catholic Church, Boniface VIII. in I.'IOO established a jubileeto beheld once a century ; Clement VI. (1.3 jO) ordered it to be held once in fifty years: Urban VI. (in 13S9), onco in thirty-fivo years ; Sixtus IV, (in 1475J fixed the interval at twenty-five years. Jubilee, tp, of Peoria co., HI, Pop. 837. Jubilees, Book of, an important pseudepigraphical book, originally written in Hebrew, probably beforo (but not very long before) the birth of Christ. It was translated at an early date into Greek, was prized by tho early Chris- tian Church, but both Hebrew and Greek texts were lost (except fragments of earh) before the thirteenth century. In 1S44, Dr. Krapf discovered in Abyssinia an Ethiopic version from the Greek. Of this Dillmann published a German translation (1849-51 ) and the Ethiopic text (1850). This book is regarded as canonical by the Abyssinian Church. It pretends to be a revelation made to Moses. It is named from the faet that it treats of biblical history in j'nbiltjcH, or periods of fifty years. The unknown author's design was to furnish a commentary upon Genesis and Exodus. He has borrowed freely from the Hagadah. Tho critical value of the work is very considerable. It may bo regarded as a part of the Hagadah. Ju'da« post-v. of Green co., AVis., on tho Monroe branch of the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R. Judx'a, or Judea, w.as first us^-d in ancient geography as tho name of the kingdom of Judah, in contradistinction to the kingdom of Israel, but after the return from the Captivity, and up to the times of (he Romans, it denoted the whole of Palestine. The Romans used it partly in a general sense, signifying the land of the Jews ; thus, Herod was styled king of .Iuda?a, though ho ruled over countries not belonging to Palestine; partly in a restricted sense. denoting the sonthernmost province of Palestine, bounded N. by Samarii. K. by the Jordan and the Dead Sea, S. by ldum:ea. and \V. by the Mediterranean. Ju'dah [ Heb. Yehnd'ih, " celebrated "1, one of the twelve patriarchs, the fourth son of .laeob by Leah, b. at Haran fPadan-Aram) in Syria, about b. c. lOlfi ; was esteemed the progenitor of the tribe of the same name, which became BO yiredominant in Palestine as (o give its name to the kingdom of Judaea, and ultimately to the whole race of the descendants of Abraham (Jews). Judah appears to have exercised a kind of leadership among his brothers; it was he who persuaded them not to kilt Joseph, but to sell him to the Midianites, and on the journey to Egypt to buy corn it was Judah who acted as spokesman for tho whole company. As such, he otfered himself to Joseph as a slave to ransom his half-brother Benjamin. He had married a Canaanite woman, and left three sons, Shehih, Pharez, and Zerah, from the second of whom David, and ultimately Christ, were descended. Of the life of .Tudah in Egypt nothing is known except that he was still living at the time of his father's death, and received that splendid blessing (Gen. xlix. 8-12) which foretold the glory of his lineage. Judah ben Samuel, called H \ Levi, or " The Lcvite," and known among Arabic writers as Abi'i, Hassan, b. in Castile about lOSO. was one of the most distinguished mediaeval Hebrew writers. He excelled as a physician, a theologian, and a poet, his Hebrew sacred songs having been several times translated into German within the pres- ent century. His principal work, however, was in Arabic, Kiizari, being discourses on religion between a king of the Khazars, a race of the Crimea, and a .Jewish rabbi. It was translated into Hebrew. Latin (by liuxtorf), Spanish, and German. Rabbi Judah made a pilgrimage to .ferusa- lem, and, according to tradition, was assassinated by a Mohammedan in the Holy Land about 1140. Judah fTlKNRY Moses), b. at Snow Hill, Md.. June 12, 1821 ; graduated at West Point in 184.", served in the Mex- ican war, and for nine years in Indian campaigns on the Pacific coast: was appointed colonel of volunteers in ISCil, brigadier-general in 1802, and inspector-general of Gen. Halieck's army of the Tennessee: was actively engaged in pursuit of Morgan during his raid into Ohio and Indiana, and commanded a division under Gen. W. T. Sherman in tho Atlanta campaign. D. at Plattsburg, N. Y., Jan. 14, 186G. Ju'das Iscar'iot [Gr. 'lo-Kapiwrii?], one of the twelve apostles, and the betrayer of his Master, was a son of Si- mon, who is by some supposed to be Simon Zelotes, or the Canaanite. who was also an apostle. The surname Iscariot has given rise to many interpretations, bnt the most usual is "man of Kerioth," a village in Judiea. He was the treasurer of the apostles, participated with the others in tho missix)n to preach the gospel and in receiving power to work miracles, was a witness of the whole career of Jesus up to the Last Supper, in which he took part, and be- trayed Christ to the chief priests for thirty pieces of silver, with whieh he purchased a field, but shortly after hanged himself in remorse for his crime. Opinions have diflfered for centuries as to the precise nature and motives of the crime of .ludas. It is evident that it could not have consisted simply in identifying the person of his Master, whieh was well known in Jerusalem ; the better opinion seems to bo that he revealed, or perhaps falsified, some portion of the teachings of Jesus intended only for the im- mediate circle of the disciples, but which enabled the chief priests, with the aid of hired witnesses, to fasten upon him the charge of blasphemy. As to his motives, the plain in- ference from the language of (he (Jospcls and the Acts seems to be that he was actuated by avarice, jealousy, and perhaps disappointed ambition. Yet there have not been wanting theologians who have attempted some defence of, or at least apology for. his conduct. An early Christian sect, the Cainites. remarkable fur the Antinomian inver- sions of Scripture which led them to worship Cain and the Serpent, while refusing to worship the Jehovah of the Old Testament, honored Judas as the only true apostle, alleging that he alone perceived the necessity of taking steps for tho fulfilment of prophecy and the salvation of mankind by the death of the Messiah. Modern apologists, without going to this extreme, argue that Judas's object was to place his Master in sucdi a confiiet with the authorities as would lead him to exert his miraeulous powers and establish the " king- dom of the Messiah," in whieh he of course looked for per- sonal advancement, in accordance with the promise that the apostles should "sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Judah." It is even alleged that by virtue of name and descent (being the only apostle not a Galilean), as well as in reward of his political sagacity, he expected a kind of premiership as judge over the royal tribe of Ju- dah. On this theory his remorse and suicide simply imply that the result of his action, so contrary to his expectations, first opened his eyes to the enormity of his ofTencc. Arch- bishop Whately has presented a view similar to this in one of his fJstiat/s on anme of the Dnitt/firj* tit Cfifistinu Fmth (1839). But it must be admitted that this view is difficult to reconcile with the text of the biblical narrative. One of the numerous npoeryi)hal writings of the second century was a *• Gospel of Judas," which tho Cainites adduced in support of their opinions. JUDAS MACCABiEUS-JUDGE ADVOCATE. 1465 Judas Maccaba^us* See Maccabees. Judas Tree, of Europe and Asia, is the Ccych Siti- ^unmtnitn, a ?iikiI1 tree of the order Lcguniinosir. having rosc-colorcd flowt-rs and handsome wood used in joinery. There was anciently a dispute as to whether Judas Isoariot hanged himself on this or on the elder tree. The Judas tree or red Itud of the V. S. (Ct-rcia Cunfttlcusis) resembles the above, but has pointed while the other has round leaves. Its abundant flowers, of a peach-blo^snin color, are very beautiful in spring. The wood is soft and brittle, but hand- some. Judd (0. P.). M. D., b. Apr. 23, ISO.'J. at Paris, Oneida CO., N. Y. ; studied medicine, and went in 1828 to Hono- lulu as physician in the service of the American foreign xni.-'sion. In 1842 he dissolved his connection wiih the mission, and became interpreter to the p;overnmenl of Kumchameha Til. In 1843 ho organized the first ministry which had ever been formed in the state, and be held him- self the office as minister of finance, which he filled with great prudence and sagacity till his deatb, July 12, 1873. Judd (XoRMAS B.), b. at Rome, X. Y., Jan. 10, 1815; was admitted to the bar in 1836, and engaged in successful fractico of law in Chicago; was a prominent politician of Uinois, in which State he held many important public oQiees. lie was U. S. minister to Prussia ISGl-fiJ, mem- ber of Congress I8C7-71, and became a railroad president. D. at Chi.ago, III., Nov. 11, 187S. Jndd (OuANOC), b. near Niagara Falls, N. Y.. July 26, 1822; graduated at the Wcsleyan University. Middletown, Conn., in 1S47; was for some years successfully engaged as a teacher and lecturer: studied chemistry 18J0-63 at Yale; became in 1853 editor of the Ai'ifrican Afjricid- /iiri«/, which under his supervision has become one of the leading agricultural journals of the U. S. In 1 860 be be- came Bole proprietor of the same, and engaged in the pub- lication of books. In 1869 the firm-name was changed to Orange Judd A Co. Mr. Judd has also been a railroad president, and was 1855-63 agricultural editor of the Sew Yurk Ti/iirH. lie was the compiler of the first Alumni Urcord of his ulmn mater (1S6S aeq.), and for a time was publisher of the Hearth aud Ifomc, a periodical. Ho has been a liberal benefactor of the Wcslcyan University. Judd (Svi.vfstkr), b. in Westhampton, Mass.. July 23, 18i:; ; graduated at Yale in 1836; studied at the Cambridge Divinity School, Mass., and was 1840-5:; pastor of a Uni- tarian church in Augusta. Me., where he d. Jan. 20, 1853. Ho is best known by his powerful romance Marijftret (1S45), one of the most noteworthy works of fiction ever written in the U. S. His /Vii7«, a poem (1850), Jiichard Effufif, a romance (1850), and a volume of di.'^courses on The Churrh (1854), all illustrate the strong purposes of their author's life. He was a hearty opponent of war, capital pifiiisb- mcnt. intemperance, and slavery. He left a MS. <lrama, The White Hilh. (See his Life, by Mrs. A. Hall, 1854.) JudCfOr Judas (with the surname TiiAnn.Eis or Ur.B- n*:rs), one ftf the twelve ap<isHes. but it is not agreed whether he is the same as .Tudas, the brother of the Lord, nor whether ho is the author of the Kpisllo of Jude. one of the canonieal books of the New Testament. Of bis life nothing is known with certainty; different traditions men- tion dilTerent places in which ho is said to have preached and died. Jude^ The Kpistic General of St., was written by Juda" (Jiidali). I'lilU-d also Lebba-us and Thaddieus, one of the twelve apostles. It is directed against heretics and false teachers. It is written in impassioned language, recalling that of St. Peter's second Kpistle. Its date is quite uncertain. The authority of this Epistle was con- tested in the early times of the Christian Church, because it contains citations of apocryphal writings, and recent critics have doubted its genuineness. Most commentators, however, maintain that, it was written by Judas Thaddieus, ami thai Judas Thuddunis was the brother of the Lord. Judge, a public officer who is invested with authority to hear and determine litigated causes, and to administer justice between parties according to law. The term /rir/yc is sometimes employed to designate any officer or person who exercises a discretion of a judicial nature in the per- formiince of his official dutirs, as a juror, an arbitrator, or a public inspector, but in ordinary legal and popular ut^ago it bears the sense expressed by the above definition. The judges of the superior courts of England arc rarely desig- nated by thi.s name, l.ut receive particular titles accc»rding to the court in which they sit. Thus, the Judges of the court of exchequer are styled Imrons, and the principal one is known as chief baron. The chief judge of the king's bench is calle<l tlie lord ehiefjustice of Knglnuil. while the corresponding judge in the court of common ]deiis is stylecl the chief-justice of the common picas. Tho other judges of these two courts are termed justices, as, e. 3., Mr. Justice Blackslone. The highest equity judge is designated lord chancellor. In the U, S. it is usual to apply the epithet "judge " to ail officials of this kind, in whatever court they may sit. But the highest judge among the Federal ju- diciary is kntiwn us the chief-justice of the supreme court, as Chief-Justice I^Iarshall, Tho methods by which judges are chosen, their tenure of oflice, the rules of law relating to tho payment of their salaries, the extent of their legal responsibility, etc. are fully <M)nsidered in the article ju- niciAuv (which see). It will only be necessary to refer hero to one or two additional i)oints. It is a maxim of the common law that " no one can be a judge in his own cause.'* Impartiality in tho administration of justice requires ne- cessarily that the judge should be an entirely disinterested part}'. This disqualification applies not only in regard to cases in which the judge is a party of record, but as well to causes in which he has some private or ])ecuniary inter- est. For instance, a judge who is a stoekliolder in a cor- poration cannot do any judicial act in a cause in wliich that corporation is a party. A judgment or decree ren- dered in a suit in which the judge was interested would be voidable without any proof that he had been jircjudiced or misled by considerations of his own advantage. A juilgo cannot sit under such circumstances, even with the consent of all the parties. In some of the States statutes have been passed embodying this common-law prohibition, and extending the same principle to other analogous cases in which a judge's personal interest in a cause is likely to be aroused. Thus, in New York it is provided that no judge can sit as such in any cause in which he is a party, or in which he is interested, or in which he would be excluded from being a juror by reason of consanguinity or affinity to cither of the parties : nor can any judge take jiart in the decision of any question which shall have been argued in tho court when he was not present and sitting as a judge. Moreover, it is declared that no judge shall have any partner practising in his ciuirt, and that no ju<lge shall have any voice in the decision of any cause in which ho has been counsel or attorney. So no judge of an appellate court is to take part in deciding a cause determiucd by him in the court from which the a))peal is taken. It is further provideil that no judge shall act as a counsellor, solicitor, or attorney in the court of which he is a judge, except in those suits in which he shall be a ]iarty or in tho suliject -matter of which he .ehall be interested. There is also a law of Congress prohibiting any jutlge of the U. S, courts from engaging in the practice uf the law. Any person violating this prohibition is declared to be guilty of a higli misdemeanor. In the trial of a cause it is the province and duty of tho judge to decide upon the admissibility of evidence. If his rulings arc deemed erroneous, objection may be made to them by counsel, and exc<i)tions taken, upon which a motion for a new trial or an appeal may subsequently bo based. Tho credibility of the testimony is to be determined by the jury. So the judge decides upon the competency of witnesses offered to bo sworn. The interpretation and con- struction of written instruments is also, as a general rule, for tho court, and not for the jury. A judge cannot be called as a witness to testify as to what took place before him in the trial of another cause, tlinugh he may testify to foreign and collateral matters which happened in his presence while the trial was pending or alter it was ended. More- over, tho samo person canind be both w itness and judge in a cause which is on trial before him, whether he sits alone or with associate judges. In some eases, however, when a witness who testified in a former trial has since died, tho testimony which he then rendered may be proved in a sub- sequent suit by ihe juclge's notes t)r minutes when botli actions are tried before the same judge. (See KviUKNti:, CouiiT,) There are some forms of legal busines.s which maybe transacted only before a court acting as such, while others may take place out of court, anil belore an ofticcr acting as a judge. A disliuetion is that ilrawn between a cnnrt and a jM^/'/f, the latter word being used to indicate that business before the officer is trausactcd out of court. (Sec ClIAMHKUS.) C.KoiiGK Chase. Revised bv T. W. Uwigiit. Judpe (Col. Thomas J.), a native of Alabama, entered public life in 1843 as a solicitor in a Stale circuit court, and afterwards became a pr<uninent lawyer and \\'hig politician ; in 1861 was commissioner from Alabama to the V. S. gov- ernment, but was not received as such by Mr. Buchanan ; served in tho civil war as a private, then as colonel, of tho I4th Alabama, and afterwards as judge of a military court 1862-65: was ju.lge of the StateSupreme curt 1865-68, and practised law at tireenville, Ala. 1>. .Mar. 4, 1876. Jud^e .Vdvocate, as the name is most frequently used in the 11. S., designates tho person ta military nflicor save 1406 JUDGE ADVOCATE-GENERAL— JUDGMENT. very exceptional cases) who prosecutes before a general irt-martial or military oomuiission in the name of the in V court-iu.^. v.«. .-. - --., - . . .1 U. S. Ho is ilclailcd liy the authority which appoints the court. Sonic i>l' liis pri'ucipal duties arc to prepare the case for trial, summoning the necessary witnesses; to sec that the accused has the opportunity to exercise his ri^ht ol challenge: to administer to the members of the court, in the presence of the accused, the oath prescribed by the SUh Article of War; himself to take that prescribed by the 85th: to see that the charges are technically accurate; to arrai-n the prisoner; to administer the oath to witnesses, and to present the evidence for the prosecution; to con- sider himself counsel for the prisoner so far as to object to anv leading questions, or to any question to the pris- oner 'the answer to which mi.sht tend to crimniale him- self (Art. 90) ; to give legal advice to the court when called on; to keep an accurate record of the proceedings, and to forward the same, properly authenticate.!, to the convening authoritv. The judge advocate has power to comjiel wit- nesses to appear and testify, and ho may employ a reporter to record the proceedings and testimony. There is also, in the U. S. army, a corps of judge advo- cates (reiluced to four in number by act ol Congress of Juno 2:!, 1S74). They hold the rank of miijor. and are re- quired l»y law to perform their duties under the direction of the judge advocate-general. They are, however, gene- rallv stationed at department head-quarters as legal ad- visers to the department commanders, but are subject to detail bv him for court-martial duty. In the English service the judge advocate has not, since 182'J, performed the duties of prosecutor. These devolve upon a staff officer ordered to perform them, or upon the prisoner's commanding otTieer. or at minor eourts-raartial upon the adjutant. The principal duties of the judge ad- vocate under the English system are those of the judge or assessor called in (wlrocutiis) to advise the court, and that of the clerk or notary who takes down the proceedings in writing. Judge .Vdvocate-Cieneral, in the U. S. army an officer at the head of the bureau of military justice at Washington, with the rank of brigadier-general, whose duties, as defined bv sec. 1199 of the Revised Statutes, are to receive, revise, and cause to be recorded the proceedings of all courts-martial, courts of inquiry, and military com- missions, and such other duties as heretofore performed by that onicer in the U. S. army. The office of judge ad- vocate-general has existe.l in England since the days of the Stuarts. The Articles of War of James II. prescribed that in all criminal causes which concerned the Crown, His Majesty's advocate-general or judge advocate of the army should inform the court and prosecute on His Maj- esty's behalf, lie is now the legal advisor to the Crown in all cases requiring the .sovereign's action as eonfirmiug officer of the proceedings of general courts-martial. He exercises the power of a supreme court of review as regards the proceedings of inferior courts. Ho is the supremo legal authoritv for the army, except as to questions arising under martial law, with which he has nothing to do. He has the right to appoint deputies, and is responsiiilo for them. He is conservator of the proceedings of military courts, other than those held under martial law, and he is a subonlinate member of the administration, and quits office with it. Jud'ges, The Book of the, a historical book of the Old Testament, the seventh in order of the canonical books It derives its name from a class of rulers or ehiels who ruled in Israel during the period which its record covers. The twelve tribes after entering C;inaan formed only a loose confederation, without unity or natmnal feel- in- or dignity. They had no lie:id. They were at the same time engaged in such wars as all conquerors must maintain with those whom they displace, and they were also harassed by foreign foes. In emergencies men (or women) of talent and energy took the Icail, their only au- thoritv being their ability. They were regarded as •' raised up " or divinely sent, the name given to them is the same which we mcctwith in the Phoenician, " suffetcs." When one had gained authority by displaying ability in a crisis, ho becanio a "judge" in our forensic use ol the term. This time was not one to awaken the national pride out of which history is born, or to produce historical records. In some oases, ns in that of Samson, the judge became a popular hero and the subject of song and poetry. Such records of this tiino as remained aro collected in the book of Jude-es. They are fragmentary and imperfeel, as is abundantlv shown by the lack of chronology. The book is said, in the Talmud, to have been written by Samuel, lie certainly was not the original author of any of the parts, and it is more than doubtful if he was the collector. Some writers refer the authorship to Ezra. Jiidg'ineiit, in law, a determination by a court of the rights of tlie parties in an action. This term is usually applied to the decision rendered upon a question in litiga- tion in a common-law action, while the corresponding term, "decree," is ordinarily employed to denote the decision civeu in a court (,( equity. Both names are, however, sometimes used indistinguishably. In those Slates where the distinctions between common-law and equitable pro- cedure have been abolished, the term "judgment" is alone generally employed for every form of decision in a civil action, "a indgiiient dilTcrs from an or.ler or rule in being the result of an action, while an order or rule is obtained by an a|q>lieation to the court in the nature of a motion. Judgments at common law may be rendered at different stages in the progress of the cause, and arc hence distin- guished as interlocutory or lin:d. Interlocutory, in legal usage, means intermediate, and judgments of this kind aro those which arc rendered before the termination of the action upon some issue or litigated point distinct from the principal issue, but collateral or incidental to it, and which therefore do not wholly determine or complete the suit. Of this nature are judgments for the plaintiff given upon pleas in abatement, for they require the defendant merely to "answer over" — i. e. to furnish a better |ilea or answer, free from certain specified objections, and further j)roeecd- ings are necessary before the final determination of the cause. (See Abatement.) But, as Blackstone says, the interlocutory judgments most usually spoken of are those incomplete judgments whereby the right of the plaintiff is established by a decision upon the entire cause, and not merely upon some collateral point, hut the amount of dam- ages to be awarded is not ascertained. The damages payable arc subsequently determined by a special jury of twelve men summoned and presided over by the sherifl, and there- fore termed a " sheriff's jury." This process is known as a "writ of inquiry," and is necessarily resorted to because these interlocutory iudgmentsare rendered without the in- tervention of a jury. Examples of such judgments will be given herealter. A final judgment is one rendered upon the princiiial issue or entire cause, which determines finally and completely the rights of the parties engaged in tho action, as where judgment is entered upon the verdict of a jury, awarding a certain amount of ilamagcs to the plain- tiff 'or discharging the defendant. Judgments at common law, whether interlocutory or final, arc of different forms, according to the nature of the action, the plea, the issue, and the manner and result of the decision. Thus, there may be a judgment upon demurrer, either sustaining or overrulin" the demurrer (see Demi-rreu): or a judgment by uU dicit ("he says nothing"), which is given against a defendant for a failure to plead or continue his pleading until issue is joined; or a judgment by confession, which is given against a defendant when he acknowledges tho justice of tlie plaintiff's claim and agrees to comply with his demand, as bv restoring certain property or by jiaying a certain debt, etc. If any of these various forms of d.'uient be given for the plaintiff, and the action be giv^ -- I brought for unliquidiitcd (or unascertained) damages, th^ judcnient is interlocutory, since the cause has not been re- ferred to a jury, and a writ of inquiry is necessary. If tho action be brought for a specific sum of money which is due, as a particular debt, or for the recovery of certain chattels, the judgment is final, since there is no need ol ascertaining dama-«, and the extent of the plaintiff's recovery is de- termined exactly and completely. Particular forms ot iud"mcnt at common law against the plaintiff aro the ■iudSment of .loa ;>,-o»^7,„'t,.r (" he docs not prosecute ), whic'h is rendere.l against him for a failure to plead ; Ibo judgment „i v.llc ;,ro,r,„.' ("unwilling to prosecute ), given when he avers that " he will not further prosccuta his suit ■" the judgment of nonsuit, which is rendered when he abandons his cause or fails to make out a pnma fane case against the defendant. Judgments ren.lcrcd in lavor of a defendant arc always final. Judgments entered upon the verdict of a iurv are also final, since the jurj-, at the same time when they try the issue, also assess tho damages. A judgment rendered in favor of the plaintiff, exeep upon a dilatory plea (.see Pleadinc). is in the form ,,nnd rcn,- „rr<-l (" that he do recover") certain chattels, or a certain debt or the amount of his damages. A judgment tor the de- fendant (with the same exception) is. in general, in the lorm ,„l r„,,,-o((" that the pUintiff take nothing ). J" '>""'« States where the common-law practice has been ahol. shed by codes of procedure, these various forms of judgmen no louKcr exist, but forms analogous to the most important ol them have still been retained, as. e. ,,.. judgment upon con es- sion, upon default, or by way of nonsuit. There are no inter- locutorv indgments in these States, but only final judg- ments ■ Orders take the place of interlocutory judgments. i Judgments wer.^ ('..rinerly pronounced in open court, and are still always supposed to be so, but tho regular eomn>on- JUDICIAL COMMITTEE OF THE PRIVY COUNCIL— JUDICIARY. 1467 law practice has been for a long period for tbe party enti- tled to judgment to obtain tbe signature or allowance of the proper officer of the court, expressing geMerallv that judgment is given in his favor. This is called "signing judgment," and stands in place of its actual delivery by the judges themselves. The judgment is afterwards entered on record. In some cases, when a verdict has been rcn<lercd bv a jury, judgment is entered in (tpposition to it. This is called a judgment nou obstante rerrtiirto {•• notwithstanding the verdict"), and may be obtained by tiie phiintiff upon motion, when it appears that the defendant, for whom the verdict was given, pleaded in confession and avoidance, ! and the avoidance is bad in law, though sustained by the jury in point of fact. The confesgion is therefore left un- qualified, and entitles the plaintiff to judgment. After juilgment has been entered, proceedings may be instituted in an appellate court for its reversal, if exceptions have been duly taken in the course of tho trial, by an appenl or writ of error. fSec Ai-pf.al.) If this bo not done, and the judgment be for the payment of money or the recovery of specific real or personal property, it will bo carried into effect by exerution. (See Execition.) A final judgment requiring the performance of a specific act or the payment of a specific sum of money is a peculiar species of contract, termed a contract of record. (Sec Cox- TRAtT. ) If the judgment bo not satisfied or discharged, it may itself be made the foundation of a subsequent action in the same way as a claim upon simple contract. It is, however, sometimes provided by statute that tlio leave of tho court in which tho judgment was rendered, must bo ob- tained before action can be brought upon it between the same parties; and the provisions of statutes of limitation applying to contracts of record usually specify the same limit of time within which a^-tions upon such contracts must be brought as with reference to contracts under seal, such as bonds. This period is generally twenty years as regards the judgments of the higher courts. In gome States, however, domestic judgments are not barred by tho statute. Such is the case in England, but actions upon them are not favored there. It is a peculiarity of a con- tract of rer'ord that if it bo disputed, its existence must be tried by inspection of tho record, and not by a jury. In order that a judgment may bo valid, it must bo rendered by a competent court, liaving jurisdiction of the particular cause of action and of the person of tho defendant. It matters not what the general powers and jurisdiction of a court may be, if it act without authority in tlio particular instance, its judgments and orders are regarded as nul- lities, and all persons concerned in executing tbeni are considered in law a? trespassers. They aro not voidable, but entirely void, and form no bar to a recovery sought (even prior to a reversal) in opposition to them. The jurisdiction of any court exercising authority over a sub- ject may be inquired into in every court wlicro liio pro- ceedings of the former are relied on, and l>rougbt bribro the latter by tho party claiming tho benefit of such pro- ceedings. There is, however, a difference between courts of general and those of limit(*tl jurisdiction — that tho juris- diction of tho former is jircsumed, while that of tho latter must bo pro\ed. But tho presumption in tho former case is not conclusive, but open to rebuttal. But where a court has acquired jurisdiction of a cause of action, it has au- thority to render judgment, and if error bo committed, or the judgment bo frau'lulcnlly obtained, or the proper and legal forms of proccduro be disregarded, tho judgment is voidable, and not void, and will bo binding until vacated on motion to tho proper court or reversed on appeal. A juilgmcnt rendered by a competent court, and not reversed, operates to extinguish tho original cause of action, in ac- cordance with tho doctrine of merger (see Mcrokr), and is absolutely binding upon the parlies to tho action and all who represent them, determining their mutual rights and obligations, upon tho principle of estoppel. A caufc once decided issaitf to be rtia udjuflirtttn (**ii matter adjuilieatcd or determined "), and cannot therefore bo again made a subject of litigation. (This point is considered more fully under tho topics Esioi-i-Kr and Kvini:x('»:. The rules as to i estoppel in relation to I''oni:i<;N Jt-nuMiiNTsaro stated under that head.) Judgments requiring in whole or in part tho payment of money by a debtor are generally at tho present day made to constitute a li<'n upon the debtor's hnuls by the f(treo of express statutoi", which prescribe certain penalties which must be complied with in order that the lien may attach and bo enforcctl. As this subject is wholly statutory, tho provisions in different States must be sought in their [ various statute-books. In New York the judgment must be d'K'ketcd — i. r. registered in a particular b()ok l>y the county clerk, known as the " doeket-hook " — and it then becomes a lien upon all the debtor's real property situated within thkl county, and upon all that ho may acquire within ten years from tho time of docketing. A transcript of the judgment may be tiled in the clerk's offices of other coun- ties where the debtor has lands, and it will then become a lien on these lands also. Judgments obtained by several creditors take effect according to the time of docketing. The lien may be extinguished by a payment of the amount of the judgment. After tho debtor's personal property has been exhausted to s.-itisfy the execution, if tho judgment remains unsatisfie<l, his lands may be sold by the sheriff at any time while the lien continues, in accordance with cer- tain prescribed forms. (See Likn.) An interesting question has come before the courts for adjudication as to the cfi'cct of a judgment for the plaintiff in actions of trespass or trover for the conversion of chat- tels, in transferring the property in the goods to the de- fendant. Some decisions have held that the mere render- ing of the judgment has this effect, but the generally prevalent doctrine now is that the property docs not pass until tho judgment is satisfied. The diflerencc betw^een judgments in rein and judgments in perftonam is stated under the topic Ix Rem. Only do- mestic judgments have been considered in this article, and the distinctions between these and foreign judgments will be found under tho title FintKif;s JrnoMrNT. GLOitci: CnASK. Ukvisim) bv T. W, Pwkiht. Judicial Committee of the Privy C'ounciK See Coi-RTS. I. 5 (U). Judic'iary^ that branch of government or collective body of public officials which is invested with the power of hearing and determining litigated causes, of administering justice, and of interpreting nn<l enforcing tbe laws. In all civilized countries the importance of securing an a>)le. up- right, and impartial judiciary, composed of men learned in the law, faithful and disinterested in the performance of duty, and under no subservience to governmental authority by which tlieir decisions may be controlled or infiuenced, has been recognized; and for the attainment of these ends the judicial dep.artmcnt of the government has been sepa- rated from the executive and legislative departments, each having mainly, if not entirely, exclusive powers and func- tions, and its mode of organization, the tenure of oflice by the judges, tho extent of their authority, and their legal rcsponsil)ility have been, as a general rule, so defined and regulated that judicial independence and integrity may ho cflcctually promoted. In an especial sense is this true of England and the V . S., where the attainment and continued maintenance of civil and political liberty, in which these nations have made tho greatest progress, have been rec- ognized as de])ending fundamentally upon the just admin- istration of tlie laws, of which the independence and un- swerving rectitude of the judiciary alunc aflord a sufficient guaranty. "There is no liberty," says Montesquieu, ** if the judiciary power bo not separated from the legislative and executive. Were it joined with tlie legislative, the life and liherty of tho subject would bo exposed to arbitrary control, for the judge would then bo the legislator. Were it joined to tho executive power, tho judge might behave with violence and oppression." {Spirit of Lnics, hk. 11. eh. 0.) Tn England, as tho liberty of the citizen increased, this division of power became more and more coui[tIete; and in tho U. S., whoso political system was, in large mea- sure, a bcritago from England, tho judicial department of tho Federal government was organized from the outset, in pursuance of i)r<Jvi8ion3 expressly embodied for this pur- pose in the U.S. Constitution, with entirely distinct powers from any other branch of the government. The judges cannot occupy any other ofiicial position — have no share in legislation or in tho execution of tho laws. Their func- tions are exclusively judicial, and are confined entirely to the exercise of tiie jurisdiction conferred upon tho Fed- eral courts by tho Constitution or by the laws of Congress uutiiorized by tho Constitution. In tho several States also simitar exclusive functions nro conferred upon the judiciary, though with a different extent of jurisdiction. The com- pleteness of tho separation between the judicial and the other branches of tho government which has been effeetcd in this country has not yet been attained in Engtan<l. This diversity is attributable to tlie peculiar historical origin and dovehqiinent of the ])resent system of English courts. In tho early periods of .^axon and Norman rule, both legis- lative antl juilicial powers were vested in the same pub- lic body or assemldy — under tho Saxons, in the great coun- cil or parliament of tlie kingilom known as the M''itena- gemoto (Sax., "meeting of wise men"), und under tho Normans, in a similar assembly, the Aula Regis, or "king's couneil," The jiuliciat powers exercised by this national assembly were eonferrecl upon the various courts ns they were successively formetl in later Norman reigns, while the council itself was gradually developed into (he modern Parliament, whose powers are olmost entirely lecislative. But judicial prerogatives have never been wholly trans- 1468 JUDICIARY. forrcd from the legislature to tbe courts, and the highest appellate tribunal in the realm at the present day is the llouse of Lords, which is also the highest branch of Par- liament. It has. however, been provided by a recent statute, known as the "Supreme Court of Judicature Act,'' which is to go into effect in Nov., 1875. that a new court shall be formed, to bo designated *' Her Majesty's Court of Appeal," in which the highest appellate jurisdiction shall be vested, and that no appeal shall afterwards be taken to the House of Lords except from Judgments rendered prior to that time. The separation between the leg- islative and judicial departments will thus bo made sub- stantially onin]>lete, though it is true (hat some of the judi^es of this new court may be members of the House of Lords. (The provisions of the judicature act are stated in the article Cohhts.) A union of judicial and administra- tive or political functions also jirevails at jircscnt in a few other instances. Thus, the lord chancellor, who is the highest judicial officer in the kingdom, is also a member of the ministry in office for the time being, and loses his posi- tion by a change of ministry. He is the prolocutor (or Speaker) of the House of Lords, has the appointment of all justices of the peace throughout the kingdom, and exer- cises various other powers more distinctively political than judicial. The master of the rolls, also, who is a judge in equity, may be elected to represent a constituency in the House of Commons. But even in these exceptional in- stances the union of judicial with other diverse functions is but meagre in extent. The jurisdiction of the House of Lords, though in theory vested in the whole body of peers collectively, is in reality exercised by a small number of them, who are designated distinctively the "law lords." The administrative functions of the lord chancellor also appertain, in a largo measure, to the performance of his judicial duties. As a result of the division of power among several branches of government, the judiciary occupy a distinct position, are entrusted with duties of a dciinite and uniform character, are removed to a great degree from political infiuenccs which might engender a partisan spirit, and the entire tendency of their official labors is to produce a habit of impartiality in the administration of justice and an especial capacity for judicial investigation. Reference has already been made to the establishment of methods of court organization, and the deBning and limitation of the functions and responsibility of the judi- ciary as a means of preserving their indejjcndence. The moxt important constitutional or legislative measures of this kind have reference to the methods of choosing judges, the nature and duration of their tenure of office, the pay- ment of their salary, and their liability for judicial or extra-judicial acts. In England — and in the U. S. so far as relates to the Federal courts — judges receive their posi- tions by appointment. In the former country the superior juilges are all appointed by the Crown, while certain in- ferior magistrates are appointed by the lord chancellor or other high officials. In the latter, the Federal judges are ap])ointed by the President "by and with the advice and consent of the Senate" — i'. e. the Senate may confirm or reject his nominations. In the several States of the Union constitutional provisions of a similar nature were adopted at an early period, and it was declared in many of them that the appointment should be made by the governor, subject to the confirmation of the State senate, while in others power was given to the legislature to elect the judges. But within a comparatively recent period a largo number of the States have m.ade the judges elective officers, chosen directly by popular suffrage, in the same way as the members of the legislature or the governor. In Missis- sippi this change was made in is;t;{. But it was not till a similar example was set by Xew York, which adopted a constitution in 18(0 providing for the election of judges, that any considerable number of States discarded their pre- vious practice for a system of election. An elective judi- ciary is now ?aid to exist in a majority of the States. The tenure of office of the English judiciary was anciently at the pleasure of the Crown, but in the time of Lord Coke (about IfiOO) it became customary to insert in the commis- sions of the common law judges that they shoubl h.dd of- fice during good behavior. It lay. however, in the pleasure of the Crown lo determine the form of the commissions un- til the Act of vSettkment in the reign of William III. (1701). by which it was provided that (he judiciary should retain their positions during good behavior, though the>y might still be removed on the address of both houses of Parliament. By an act passed in the reign of George TIT. (17SI) they continue in ofl^ce notwithstanding the demise of the Crown. These laws apply to all the superior judges, except the lord chancellor, and the (enure of office with this exception is practically for life. In the II. S. it is expressly deelared in the Federal Constitution that "the judges both of the Supreme and inferior courts are to hold their office during good behavior.** Bat by a receot act of Congress any judge who has held his commission for at least ten years, and has reached the age of seventy, may resign, and his salary will be continued as a retiring pension during the remainder of his life. In most of the States the tenure of office was originally establisheil as continuing during "life or good behavior," or until the attainment of a cer- tain advanced age, as sixty or seventy years. In New York, for instance, Chancellor Kent was obliged to retire from office in 182^ on reaching the age of sixty, which was the constitutional limit. In those States, however, in which an elective judiciary has been established, the duration of the term of office is generally limited to a few years. Thus, in New York it was declared by the constitution of 184C that the term of office of the jirincipal judges should be eight years. In 1SG9, however, it was extended to fourteen years, with the qualification that the term should terminate when a judge reached the age of seventy. This funda- mental change in the mode of selecting the judges and in the length of their terms of office whicii fans taken place in so many of the States has given rise to no little controversy between the advocates of the old and those of the new sys- tem as to its effect in impairing, or tending to impair, the independence of the judiciary. The natural tendency of the system of appointment and a tenure of office during good behavior is manifestly to relieve the judiciary trom all apprehension of losing their positions by failing to con- sult the interests or favor the wishes of the appointing power or by reason of any fluctuations of party politics. The faith- ful performance of duty, without regani to ulterior consider- ations of future advantage, is therefore more likely to be se- cured. Pre-eminent legal ability is more apt (o be regarded thanpoliticalservicesorparty fealty as the cliief qualification in a judge, and the responsibility of a bad appointment is readily fixed upon the appointing power, so that care and deliberation are likely to characterize the selection of the judiciary. The temptation to court popular applause and support, even by a sacrifice of judicial fairness and integ- rity, the influence of which would naturally be most pow- erful where an elective system prevailed, is much dimin- ished when the judges feel no dependence upon the people for a continuance of their official position. On the other hand, the adoption of a system of election by so many of the States of this country is but a further extension of democratic principles uj>on which the structure of the gov- ernment is founded, and it is mainly upon this ground that its advisability as a matter of public policy has been based. It is urged, moreover, that the uprightness and independ- ence of the judges will be promoted by making them amenable to the popular will, and subject to public dis- approbation and a forfeiture of their positions by corrupt conduct. But whatever mode may he established for the selection of the judiciary, only its tendencies can be spoken of with assurance, and not its necessary results. The in- fluence of a healthy public opinion demanding integrity, ability, and a true judicial spirit upon the bench — a public opinion which is sure to prevail in the long run in this country — will be particularly effective in counteracting the evil tendencies which may exist in a system of election. In some of the States, moreover, there has been a return, in gome measure, to the former practice by increasing the length of the tenure of office, and it is not improbable that a change of this kind will be generally adopted. But by no system of appointment or election can the absolute purity and im- partiality of the judiciary be ensured. The remarks of Jlallam upon this point in regard to the English judges are very suggestive : " It is always to be kept in mind that they are still accessible to the hope of further promotion, to the zeal of political attachment, to the flattery of princes and ministers: that the bias of their prejudices, as elderly anil peaceable men. will, in the plurality of cases, be on the side of power: that they have frequently been trained ns advocates to vindicate every proceeding of the Crown. From all which wo should look on them with some little vigilance, and not come hastily to the conclusion that be- cause their commissions cannot be vacated by the Crown's authority they are wholly out of the reach of its influence." {Connt. 7/iW.,"eh. 15.) The subject of the salaries of judges is generally regu- lated by constitutional provisions, in order that they may not be subject to coercion or wrongly influenced in (heir discharge of duty by a reduction or deprivation of their means of livelihood. By the English Act of Settlement it was declared that the salaries of the judges should be as- certained and established, and by act passed in the reign of George III. it was provided that their salaries should be absolutely secured to them during their continuance in of- fice. The Vi . S. Constitution jirovides that the judges *' are at stated times to receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their oontinuanoe in office.*' In Eome of the States this provision is copied, JUDICIUM POPULI, 1469 while in others fhcro is a constitutionnl rule that judicial salaries shall neither bo increased nur diuiinishoit during the term of office. The determination of the amount of salary to be paid bclonj^s to the le;];islftture, pubject to these con- stitutional restriction?. The tluctuatiomt in the value of money and in the cost of living render it inexpedient to specify a fixed salary in the constitution. The American constitutional provisions are more efticiioinus and salutary in relieving the jmiiciary from all subordination to the legislature than the laws of Enj^Iand upon the subject, since there the compensation is at all times subject to alteration by an net of Parliament. There has. moreover, been in recent times a growing appreciation of the necessity of pro- viding for the judges sufficiently ample salaries to enable the state to secure the services of the ablest lawyers and jurists upon the bench. In many of the V. 8. the salaries have hitherto been so meagre that the tendency has been for men of the highest legal attainments to remain in their hicrative practice at the bar rather than to seek or to ac- cept judicial positions. In some of them, as in New York, the amount of compensation has recently been made more liberal and adecjuate. An ample salary, whose amount and time of payment arc not liable to legislative or executive interference or control, is evidently an important safeguard to judicial independence, since a powerful means of intimi- dation which would otherwise be afTordcd is rendered un- available. The fearlessness and independence of the judiciary are further promoted by limiting their legal responsibility. It is a principle which has been said to have a ''deep root in the common law " that judicial officers shall never be liable to a civil action for acts done in the perform- ance of their legal duties and within the province of their legitimate jurisdiction, even though they act cor- ruptly and opprossi^'ely. Nor are they liable, under sim- ilar circumstances, to a criminal prosecution. The im- partial administration of justice requires that those who dispense it should not bo exposed to any inlhienees which would make them timid, hesitating, and over-cautious. " It is better." says an able ilnglish judge, *' that an indi- vidual should occasionally suffer a wrong than Miat the course of justice should be impeded aud fettered by con- stant restraints and apprehension on the part of those who are to administer it." The regular remedy against a judge who is guilty of criminal disregard or violation of duty or perversion of justice is impeachment. (See Imi*i-:a('Hmi:nt.) As this is an inconvenient mode of trial, never resorted to except in the case of grave and flagrant oflfences. the judi- ciary are in a very exceptional degree freed from legal ac- countability. The constitutions of some of the iSlates pro- vide for a removal of judges by concurrent resolution of both houses of the legislature passed by a specified vote, the cause being entered on the journals, an<i a hearing hav- ing been accorded to the party coui]dained of. There are various other important ami interesting ques- tions in regard to the judiciary whir-h might ije considered in this conneclion, but these have been treated of under other topics. Such, for example, are inquiries relating to the position wliiidi a judge occupies and the functions lie perform;' in different civilized countries in the conduct of a trial or the decision of causes ; to the extent and nature of the jurisdiction which is conferred upon him in different courts; to the diverse character of the proceerlings which raav come before him for adjudic^ation ; to the important jurisdiction which is eonferrecl upon the judiciary in this country of determining the constitutionality of legislative acts, etc. For a discussion of these and analogous topics see TorRTS, JrnriF, .IiTHmniiTKiN, Law. EgcuTv, Admirai-ty, CoNsTiTrnoN, TiiiAi-, CiiAMFiKRS, .A PPKAI/, J tritisrRiinKNrE. (As to the indepeiidenee of (he judiciary, see Story on the ConHlitntion ; Kent's Commentaries, vol, i.; lAchcr's Civil Librrti/.) (ii:oR(;r, ('mask. Ukvisrh nv T. W. Owigiit. Jlltlic'ilim l*0|>'llli [Lat., "judgment by the people "], in Roman law, an early form of submitting to the decision of a popular vote the ilifferences between high functionaries, accusations against magistrates, and other simiIar_concerns in which the people as a whole was conceived not merely to be deeply interested, but to have a right to pronounce its sentence after due formalities. The jmliria pnhticn of the later republican period are considero<l by the text- writers to bo substitutes for the Jtufirin pnpuH, and indeed it is probable (hat among all the Indo-Kuropean nations the powers of ju>lge? and courts of law liave been derived from an earlier jurisdiction exercised by the jieoplo as judge, by the gradual elimination of those who were less able or less willing to net in such capacity, in the same manner that the powers of a supreme court of appeals, still nominally vested in the English H'»use of Lords, have long been practically exercised only by the half dozen "law- lords." who owe their seats in that house to previous experi- ence on the Iiineh. The same theory will probably account for the formation of all representative legislative bodies, and, still more obviously, for the origin of the modern jury, both these institutions being peculiar to the Aryan or In- do-European family of mankind. Indeed, it is so certain that the ]iowers and lacnities of early Greek and Roman judges differed in no degree from those which might bo exercised by a popular assembly, that when for convenience it became necessary to entrust special judicial functions to individuals, the latter were neither elected nor otherwise designated with any view to greater individual compe- tency, but were chosen by lot, all the citizens being equatly liable to perform this service. As above noticed, it is prob- able that in the shadowy oriijinca of Aryan law all ques- tions affecting either pui)lic interests or jirivate rights were equally decided by tlic pojmlar assembly, from which all forms of authority excepting tliosc resting upon brute force or the religious sanction have been gradually evolved. At the earliest period of which any clear evidence remains, actions brought by individuals in defence of their private rights {JHilicia pn'ratn), and resting upon special laws {priritcf/ia), had been discriminated from the judicia popufi, and were determined by special magistrates, white matters of ])ublic interest { Judicia pnhlii-a or popiilaria) were still decided by the popular asscml)ly. The tendency of all things to jirogress from tlie general to the particular is well illustrated I)y the gradual accumulation of statute law, which had tt) be interpretcfJ by this assembly, leading to the withdrawal to private tribunals of other large classes of actions, to the substitution of the term Judicia pubiica for Judicia popufi, and the final extinction under the em- pire of this ancient tribunal. In the mythical times of the Roman kings it is alleged that those monarehs presided over tho assemblies of the jicoplo convened as a tribunal. They were naturally replaced in this prerogative by tho consuls; until in b. c. 508 tho Lex X'aUria de Provocatione established magistrates called quiesitorcs or qug:etorcii rerum capiUilinm, who were at first popularly chosen for special occasions, but so<)n exercised a more lasting authorily {ijuiEatorrs pcrpvtui). By the Lex Cnlpurnia de J'eriniiia Jhpetnudia fn. c. 149) tho pnvtor became cj officio the president of tho popular assembly. Other praetors were from time to time added, until in tho time of Sulla they numbered nine, each exercising jurisdiction over a distinct class of offences; and this became tho origin of the crimi- nal courts, wliieh existed until the fall of the empire. In the normal judirium popnli any citizen might act as an accuser, while tho Jtidiccn (judges) were chosen by lot from among the people. Roth accuser and accused had a limited right of challenging the judges so designated. Tho prsotor presided, and, as he was not necessarily ac- quainted with tlie technicalities of law, was assisted by one or more assessors or jurisconsults. \Vhcn a magistrate was accused, the trial could not take place until his term of office expired, but meanwhile he was bound to give security for his appearance. The verdict was given by ballots in- scribed upon tablets; they bore the tra<Iitional name of letjcH (laws), and were theoretically binding in future cases of tho same kiml, though the mobility of the Roman people, and their strongly developed fondness for jiublic alViiirs, made them averse to surrender any real power to the force of precedents. ^Vllcn at length tlie jiowtM's of the popular assembly were lodged in a special body ofjiidicre, the name and general regulations of tho earlier assembly were re- tained, but a series of conflicts arose as to the designation of the JudircH. Ry the /.ex (\i{purui>i a body of IIM) per- sons was inscribe<i in tablets (afhum), and from them tho jiidicru were to be selected by lot as occasion demanded. Before this time they were generally taken from the sen- atorial class, but during the popular struggle the senators gradually h>st their prerogative, and were excluded by (ho Lrx Scmproiiia, enacted H. t\ \2'.\, (ui motion of Cains (irac- chus. which limited tho ehoico to the class of ci/iiiten or knights. The Lex Sfrvi/ia of n. r. 104 first defined with some minutiMiess the personal disqualifications which should i exclude a citizen from the exercise of the judicial funclion. No one who had ever been tril)Une, qnirstor, or triumvir, no senator or near relative of a senator, no non-resident in tho city or suburbs, and no person under thirty or over sixty years of age, was eligible. The prietor. at the com- mencement of each term, was to choose -(.'(O Judicrt, from whom tho judges in each particular case were taken by lot. There were many subsequent alternations in this re- gard, and tho nature of some of the changes is involved in great doubt. \iy tho Lrx f'/nulia (n. r. S!)) the judiees j were to be chosen from the triltm without distinclimi of ! class; by the /,r.r AurcHn (u. r. 70) they were restricted to tho three classes (called drrttritr) of senators, equites, and tribuni irrarii : another dccuria was addeil by Augustus. At this time the whole ntimbcr registered in tho Alhum Judiriim was near 4(HM». and the ordinary number of judges in each given case was seventy. PoRTEn C. Rljss. 1470 JUDITH— JUGGLING. Ju'ilith [Hcb. Yehndith, feminine form of "Judah"], the heroine ol' one of the apocryphal books of the Old Tes- tament, in whieh phe is represented as inhabitinp; Bethu- lia, a town u\' '-^aniiiria. when it was besieged by an A?:*yr- ian armv under Ilolofernej:, and as having by slratagcni eutoff the head of that general and thus delivered her peo- ple from destruction. That the book of Judith is historical in its character is maintained by the ('athollc Cliureh. it being included in their biblical canon, hut has been denied by most Protestant critics, chiefly, it would seem, from tlie difficulty of making its statements harmonize with any sclieme of chronology. The Assyrian king called Nebu- chadnezzar in the book of Judith has been identified in turn with almost every one of the Persian monarchs from Cam- bvses to Avtaxerxes Ot-hus, but there are insuperable objec- tions to each which have taxed the utmost ingenuity of the historical school of commentators. On the alternative hy- pothesis, that the book is a kind of rcligio-patriotic ro- mance, intended to raise the courage of the chosen people at some period of grievous oppression by a foreign tyrant, there are two leading views — one, represented by Luther and Grotius. looks upon tlie Imok as an allegorical accouutof the Jewish sufferings under Antiochus Epiphancs. The Tlibjn- f^en school of criticism and other recent (Jerman authorities (Volkmar. IJaur. Hitzig) generally regard it as a produc- tion of the second century A. n., making Nebuchadnezzar stand for Trajan, Nineveh for Antioch. Assyria for Syria, Arphaxad for the Parthians. Eebatana for Nisibis, Holo- fernos for th** Roman general Lucius Quietus, and Judith for Judiea. The occasion is assigned to 1 17-118 a. d., when the Jews antl Parthians obtained a victory over Quietus. The book of Judith is not a part of the Jewish canon of Scripture. Lessons from it are read in the service of the Church of England. (See Volkmar, Dnn Buck Judith (Tii- bingcn. IS(iO) : Wolff, same title {Leipsic, 1861).) Jiid'kins, tp. of Warren co., N. C. Pop. 1432. Jud'son, post-tp. of Blue Earth co., Minn. Pop. 661. Jiidson (Adoniram), D. D., b. at Maiden, Mass., Aug. 9. 1788; graduated at Brown University, R. L, in 1807, and at Andover Theological Seminary, Mas§., in 1810. Teaching a private school in Plymouth, Mass., he pub- lislied in 1808 and 1801* his Elements of En<j(ish Grammar and YotuKj Ladies' Arithmetic. Feb. 6, 1812, he was or- dained as a missionary to ISurniah. under the auspices of the A. B. C. F. j\I. He married Ann HassLdtine, teacher in the academy at Bradford, Mass., and with her sailed for C.ilculta Feb. PJ, lf>12. On the voyage his views regard- ing the ordinance of baptism underwent a change, and reaching Calcutta he identified himself with the Baptist d"nomination. giving reasons for his action in Jndnon on l{'}pti>im. which was republished in the U. S. This led American Baptists to interest themselves in foreign mis- sions, and to the formation of the society now known as the American Baptist iMissionary Union. L'nder the au- spices of this society he became the founder in Burmah of one of the most successful missionary enterprises of modern times. Settling first at Rangoon, Judson labored for nearly forty years in Burraali, two of which he spent in pristm, manacled and daily expecting execution. He translated the liible into Burmese, and at his death had nearly com- pleted a dictionary of that language in two volumes. Be- fore his death he was surrounded by thousands of native converts and by many missionaries, American and Bur- mese. Mrs. Judson d! O.-t. 21, 1820, and in Apr., 1834, he married Mrs. Sarah H. Boardman, who d. Sept. 1, 184j. In June, 1846, he married Miss Emily Chubbuck. who d. June 1, 1854. He d. at sea Apr. 12, 1S50. .Memoirs of Judson were published by W. Hague(18.'>U. by J. Clem- ent (1852). by K. Wavland (ISoii), by D. T. Middleditch (1854), and by Mrs. H. C. Conant (1856). (See also the Mf.moir of Ann //. Jiidson, by Prof. J. D. Knowles — an in- teresting sketch of an able and devoted woman, which in- cidentally illustrates, pretty fully, the origin and early growth of American Baptist missious in India; the Me- vioir of S'trah //. Jiidnoii, by Mrs. Kmily C. Juils<m ; and the Life of Emily C. Judson,'hy Prof. A. C. Kendrick. D. D. Of these three gifted women, the last mentioned (Emily Chubbuck Jurlson — better known under the iio/n de plnmr of "Funny Forrester") attained to considerable literary reputation by a two-volume collection of essays and gketches bearing the name of Afderhrook, by a volume of domestic poems called The Olio, and by a volume of papers suggested by missionary-life, entitled The Knthnjfau Slave.) M. B. Anderson. Judso'niav post-v. of White co- Ark., on the N. bank of Little Red River and on the Cairo and Fulton R. R., 5;i miles N. E. of Little Rock. It is occupied by a colony of Baptists from the Northern States. Jn'el (Niels), b. May 8. 1629; entered early into the Dutch service, and commanded on several occasions under Tromp and Rnyter. Having been placed at the head of the Banish navy, he gave it a new and thorough organiza- tion, and by his brilliant victories over the Swedish fleets in 1677 at Kolbergheide and Kjoge, and by his conquest of Gothland in 1676 and Riigen in 1678, made the Baltic a Danish water. In reward fur his great services he received the island of Taasingc as a lief. D. at Copenhagen Apr. 8, 1697, Juggernaut. See JAGniciEs-AiT. Jiig'gling and Juff'gler [from the Old TT.^jonglPre; Middle Lat. (Ducangei, J".'/'"''>'' or joculntor, literally, a "jester:" also, j>>ijal<iur ((.Miauccr). jnrnhir (J. Leland, Collectana, vol. i. p. 2.35). But it is probable that the word owes as much to an independent Teutonic source as to the Latin joeus, as may he seen in the German Gan- chcln-Jiicheln, probably from ffe-irii/lian, to *' beguile." Ac- cording to Larousse, JontfUr means, accurately, "to throw in the air objects which as fast as caught are thrown again." This he illustrates by quoting from Expilly : "The African Psylli jonf/laieut or juggled with serpents." This agrees singularly with the Sanskrit j"n»yi(/i', '*a snake- catcher, a conjurer." The Teutonic source has its affinity at least in the Sanskrit ya^^o/a, "fraudulent," "knavish"]. Juggling, which in the early ages of the world was, under the name of thaumaturgia or wonder-working, the princi- pal aid to priests in performing their false miracles, has in modern times dejrenerated into a source of mere amuse- ment, or one which only provides marvels to mislead the superstitious and ignorant. The principal art in juggling is legerdemain or sleight-of-hand and substitution, tech- nically called among its professors hanki-panKi, from two gypsy words, which are in the original Ilindostani, hokkn bazi, pronounced " honky bosee," meaning precisely the same thing (in Persian, 7/o/.-o haz). As tlic gypsies also call theft by substitution honhi-pokl or Uukkni-pokx, it is possible that we have in this the origin of huviis-pocus. Many distinguished jugglers have been gypsies, and the Nats or true gypsies of India are all jugglers, acrobats, or dancers. The juggler among the Romans was called jar/rs- tiffiator; with the Greeks he was a thaumafopoios. Athe- nfcus in his Deipiiosophtfta' describes an entertainment where naked girls vomited fire and jumped or rolled among swords, and he gives the names of the most celebrated jug- glers of his time. From his account it appears that among the ancients, as at the present day in Egypt, drollery and dramatic art formed an important element in such conjur- ing. The writer has seen in and near Cairo native jug- glers who by acting and humorously affecting to be aided by evil spirits very much enhanced the effect of their tricks. Trickery with cups, or thimble-rig, was known to the ancient Egyptians. The old-fashioned thimble-rig, so generally practised at races, wliieh was performed by adroitly taking away the pea witli the fingers of the same hand which held tlie cup. has of late been modified by an improved style of French thimble of vulcanite. The ordi- nary juggling tricks were common among the Anglo-Sax- ons. Strutt gives an interesting chapter on the joculator or jimtjifhtwr of England in the Middle Ages. From ])as- sages in Chnucer, Sir John Mundcvillc, Froissart, and Ben- venuto Cellini it is evident that the jugglers of the four- teenth and fifteenth centuries were familiar with the magic lantern, and were in fact far in advance of the science of the learned of their days. " Sometimes," says Chaucer, " in a large hall they will produce water, with i)oats rowed up and down upon it. Sometimes they will bring in the sim- ilitude of a grim lyon or make flowers spring up as in a meadow; .sometimes they cause a vino to flourish bearing red and white grapes; or they show a castle built with stone: and when they jdeasc they cause the whole to dis- appear." The jugglers of old — whether priests or treija- fonrn, as they were called in England, or /oyr^onrs — formed a very close corporation and kejit their secrets well. Even King James I. believed that they were aided by the devil. All of the ordinary miracles related of ancient wonder-work- ers, such as making heads speak, showing men whom no ropes could bind, and the like, are now performed with great ease. Among the Babylonians and Aralis it was usual to mako arrow.-; leap up and indicate the direction in which the king should advance against an enemy. " For the king of Baby- lon stctod at the jiarting of the way, at the head of the two ways, to use divination ; he made his arrows bright" (Ezek. xxi. 21). This was done by means of a hair: the Japanese juggler of the present day makes a butterfly flit around him by attaching to it a perfectly invisible silkworm's thread. From the earliest ages to the present day the world has seen pretenders to magic power or to intercourse with spirits performing miracles which after a few years have been retailed by jugglers. The great basis of false mir- acles, as well as the popularity of juggling itself, consists in tho truth of the saying : " J'opulua vult dtcipi " — " Peo- JDGDRTHA— JULIAN. 1471 pie wish to be deceived." Not many years ago a notorious 1 thaiimaturgist proposed to exhibit before a certain royal family a new miracle — a piiino should play of itself. The i royal family \vi*re delighted at the treat in prospect. Un- | fortunately, a tlay or two before the proposed miracle was performed a celebrated man of seience, having been t«ld j what was (o he done, did the deed himself very perfectly, and expl. lined the process, the only result being manifest disappointment and annoyance on the part of the distin- guished and crctlulous auditors. There is less novelty in jugglers* feats than is supposed. The sphinx is a very old invention ; the feat of the rinffs. which in IS;')*) astonished New York, and wliieh was supposed to be entirely new. had been explained years before in a very common little handbook of legerdemain. A great principle in juggling is to attract the attention of the audience by some trifling movement, and thereby at that instant dinfract It from the hanky-panky or adroit substitution of one article for another. In India a unkcd juggler will produce fr()m a cup or bag several objects. These he has hidden under a false pkin, his own having been gradually peeled away, and then laid on in a flap. By snapping bis fingers or by pointing to anything the attention even of those forewarned is drawn away. A very trifling deviation of sight suffices for this, and by its aid an object may be brought out and then concealed before the audience perceives it. Cool audacity thus effects incredible marvels. The different juggling devices by which the face of a future husband is shown in a crystal or mirror, in liquils. as an apparition or in other ways, the manufacture of spiritual photographs, and all miracles performed in tho dark, have i»een explained many times, and pi rforraed by professional jugglers without apparently making Ihe million much wiser. One of the best jugi:Iing feats is that of tho go-called second sight, popularized by the late Robert Hou- din. Tho writer, having seen him play it, can testify to the adroitness with which it was done. It consists in one or more persons bliudfoMed or isolated telling the names of manv objects supposed to bo concealed from them, or else what is written on a paper. It is varied in many ways, and there are as many methods of performing it, the best consisting of wires with a galvanic battery and plates, by means of which signals are transmitted through the feet of the accomplices. This ingenious device is also used in gambling-houses. Many persons believe that gypsies pos- sess secret arts and can leM fortunes. Among themselves they ridicule the idea of their being able to do anything of the kind, but at the same time no people are more super- slifious or more easily imposed upon by the higher class of conjurers who employ mechanical tricks. It is to be desired that a few of the best works on juggling could be read by every one as a means of dissipating superstition, and of setting people on their guard against every variety of practical trickery. AVhen Reginald Scot wrote his celehrated IHtrnvrrie of Witrhcraft, :i work which marks an era in humanity, he found it necessary to explain how the juggling tricks were done by which so-called diabolical deeds were effected. Of late years science has not disilained to assist this art, and many of the illusions now shown arc reallv interesting, both as to skill and their association with tho pretended miracles of a higher class of wonder- workers. In ancient limes a number of philosophers wrote against the thaumatnr'.:v of Ihe pries'lhood. and exposed their jug- gling tricks. I'nfortunatcly. all their books are lost. The principal of these was by (Vlsus. whose work against the Magi is believed to have been a very able exposure of all the tricks of tho ancient conjurers. Other writers of this kiini arc mentioned by Diogenes Ijaertius. and Suidas quotes the Mnifi/,"ii of Aniisthenes. Among Ihe many modern works which treat of juggling and wonder-working of every kind ono of Ihe best is Aa Afntfie bltiurlic divoilte, mi crpticatittn (fm 7oin-« Surprriinnt», f fc, par M. Decrcmps (Paris, 17SSK This was followed by a SupftUmfnt — tho Tritfimrnt <Ip Jvi'omr Shnrp, the dxiirilr tlr .frronte Sharp, and // K.rpficfititni (h-n Toiin* Extfaordinairrny by tho same author. Dccremps was a gentleman, a scholar, and a diplo- matist : his works abound in quaint quotations, and are well written in a pleasant lively style. To these may be atlded Ihe lii'ri-t'atinuH inatfi/inatif/iir* rt phifMifpttn t/'Oza- iinin (4 vols. Hvo, Paris, ITi!.')) ; A**" JUrr/ntinuH mnlhftiut- tiqiim rt phifHitfurit *h (iiif/nt (It vids., 17!lO). In 1S.')S Prof, J, N. Ponsin published among the }fnntiah of Rorel Afi Sorceifri'lr iiiirifunr rt mtuhrur rrpliqurr, a XQvy excellent work, contemporary with tho Mmjir Nuturrlh. par M. Vcrgniaucl, the !']nfitiqur rivnt»ft>itr, par Julia de Fonlenelle and Madame Malepeyre, and Snrct'rrti, ou ht Muffir hftmrhr d/roil/^r pftr Iff (h'ruHvrrtrn dr la Ckimir, dr fn Phi/HH/itr, rt dr III Mrrfianiifitr, par MM. Comte et ,rulia de Fontenelle. Reginald Scot's PiKvuvrrir o/ Witrhrra/t (London. 1.'>HI) may also bo studied, au-l the Lihrettn dc Srcnti XnbilUshni (Milan, 168i>) ; also /irmfnw'H Lnnt Lrfptct/, or the Mfifftcal Companion (London, 17S4); A'*rO/m/ Moffic, by Philip Astley, riding-master (1785) ; Mn;,ic, by J. S. Halle (Ber- lin, 17831: NutHilirhe Mn;/ic, by Funk: K. 0. Eckharts- hausen. VrUrr die Znuber/crli/te d*r .Va/Mr ( Munich. 1819) : The Fn»hi<'>i<ih/r Sririicc of Parlor Miiffir, by .7. H. Ander- son, a clever and lively work, which, in addition to ex- posing the secrets of gamblers, is accompanied in Ihe later editions by a supplement on the magic of spirit-rapping, writing-mediums, and table-turning: fIniil,->/-Patil-i/, the fo(y((/'»w (London, IS.V.I): Mnifir and Prrfrndcd Miracles (London, 1S48) ; and the t'oiiJiirrr'n Guide (Glasgow, 1850). CiiAiti.KS (J. Leland. Jugur'tha^kingof Numidia, was an illegitimate grand- son of Masinissa; was adopted by his uncle, King Micip- sa, in 149 d. c, and attracted much attention from the peo- ple by his popular qualities. Sent with a Kumidian force into the Uiituan service (Li4). lie gained fresh distinctions, and after the death of Micipsa murdered Hiempsal, the king's oldest son, and put Adhcrbai, a younger son, to flight. Adherhal appealed to tho Roman senate; but the bribes of .Tugurtlia secured (117) for him the larger and better part of the kingdom. In 11'-' he captured Cirta and basely murdered his rival. The consul ('al)iurnins Bestia was sent to attack Jugurtba. who bribed the consul to grant a peace (111 B. c). Summoned in the same year to Rome under a safeguard, he there murdered Massiva. his enemy, and was expelled from Italy. AVnr with Rome followed; in llfl, Jugurtba defeated Auhis Postumius at Suthul, and sent his armv under tho yoke: in lOD was badly beaten by Ca'cilius Mctellus : was again defeated by Marius in 107 ; was taken prisoner by tho craft of Sulla 107 : was carried to Rome to adnrn the triumjdi of Marius (104), where ho was starved to death in prison. Jll'jubo, the fruit of Zizfiphvn rtilfjaria, order Rham- naceie, a small tree of Southern Europe and Africa. Its fruit was formerly used for making "jujube paste," a pleas- ant confection, but the jujube paste of tho shojis is now made of gum-arabic, sugar, water, an<l egg-albumen, with- out jujubes. Jujube syrup ami dried jujubes have useful pectoral qualities, and make a pleasant drink for Ihe sick. Z. uitida, Z. Jujuha, Z. LotoR, and Z. Spittn-Chri/ifi are among the species of this genus which bear pleasant fruits. The jujube is occasionally grown in the Southern IT. S. Jlljiiy', town of the Argentine Republic. South America, the capital of a province of tho same name, has about 7000 inhabitants, who are mostly engaged in agriculture and tho rearing of cattle. Jukes (JosFiPii Bretk), F. R. S., b. near Birminghnm. England. Oct. 10. 1811; graduated at St. .Tohn's Col- lege, Cambridge, in 18;10, and devoted himself to geol- ogy. In 1830 he was appointed geological surveyor of Newfoundland, and from 1S42 to ISlfi he Avas naturalist on board II. M. S. Fly. engagcil in the survey of the great liarrier-reef along the K. coast of Australia. He ])ublishcd volumes giving the results of these explorations. Having joined in 1S46 the geological survey of Great Britain, he wrote for it im])ortant memoirs on several districts, espe- cially one on Th.- S<nilh Staff', rdnhirr (\ml-Field (1853). In 1850. Prof. Jukes became director of the geological sur- vey of Ireland, and he was for many years professor of geology to Ihe Royal Dublin Society and Ihe Royal College of Science at Dublin. His investigations on coral reefs, the distribution of m<dlusea, and the formation of river- beds were important contributions to science. He wrote several elementary works on geology, as well as the elabo- rate article in the f^nrifrlitpinfia firitainn'ca (8th ed.), and contributed Inrgelv to the journals of learned societies. D. July I'O. 180il. Jll'lin« daughter of Augustus by his second wife, Scn- bonia. an«l his only child, b. in .10 D. r. She was distin- guished as much for her intelligence as for her beiuity. ami was married to Mareellus in 25 b. r., after his death to Agrippa in 22 n. r.. and after his death to Tiberius in 12 n. r. But her dissipation and profligacy by degrees as- sumed such a character and siudi a ]>ublieily that her mar- riase was dissolved, ancl she was banished in 2 n. <"., first to Pandataria. an island near Naples, and then loRheginm. where she d. in 14 a. i>. in want. It is probable that hev hard fortuTic was due. nt Icft^t in some degree, to the hatred of her step-mother. Livia. who strutdc successively every member of the emperor's family in order t(» make room for her own son. Tiberius. Of the five children whom Julia bore to Agrippa, only Ihe two daughters survived her; of Ihe three sons, two died young, and tho third was put to death by Tiberius. Jii'liiin, post-tp.of San Diego co., Cal., 37 miles N. E. of Siiu Diego. Pop. 534. Jiiliilii, Ip. of Dubuque CO., la. Pop. 1415. 1472 JULIAN— JUNE-BERRY. Julian (GEonr.E Washington), b. in Centreville, Ind., May i>, 1817; receivcil a coinnion-EichooI education; was several years a teacher; admitted to the bar ISIO ; elected to the legislature in 1S45 ; delegate to (he Buflfulo Free-Soil convention of 1S4S; Kepresentutivo in Congress 1S49-51. and nominated for Vice-President by the Pittsburg ronven- tiun of " Free T)omo('rats " on the ticket headed by .lohn P. Hale. ]Ie wa? in IS.JO prominent as a founder of the Re- publican party, and was again a member of Congress from ISGl to IStii), being during the last two terms chairman of the committee on public lands. He lias been one of the most strenuous supporters of female suffrage. Julian the Apostate ( Flavh s Ci,Arims.TrLiANrs), Roman emperor, b. at Constantinople Nov. 17, 331 A. !>., was the son of Julius Constantiu?. In infancy he was im- prisoned by Constantius IF., but was well educated and trained in the Christian faith : was allowed in ."ijo to reside at Athens unconlined. and in the same year was proclaimed Cxsar, married to Helena, daughter of Constantino the Great, and was sent to govern Gaul, where he showed him- self a just and wise ruler, an able general, and a virtuous man. In 360 his troops saluted him emperor at Paris: and Constantius beginning to interfere unduly in the atTairs of Gaut, Julian marched with strong armies across Kuropc to- wards Constantinojde. Constantius d. in 361, and Julian was hailed with universal joy as emperor, and soon after this avowed himself a pagan. He did not persecute Chris- tianity, but tolerated all the sects, at the same time de- cidedly favoring paganism by his edicts and closing the Christian schools. In Mar., 363, he set out upon his Per- sian expeilition. ancl after defeating the enemy in many engagements was mortally wounded in battle, and d. June 26, 363. This able ruler was in supreme authority only eighteen months, and yet his reign Avas one of the most memorable of antiquity. Julian was a writer of great talent, and left many writings in the Greek language, in- cluding a number of extant letters and orations, valuable to the historian; a satirical work of decided merit called the (\TS(irn ; .l/i'so/jo»/o», a satire u]>on the people of An- tiocli ; some unimportant epigrams ; and a celebrated work A'f'ttniit the Christinns (Kara Xpioriavoii'), of which Theo- dosius II. destroyed all accessible copies, so that the work is lost, excepting some fragments preserved by Cyril and others. Jii'lichf town of Rhenish Prussia, at the influx of the Ette into the Roer, has some manufactures of leather, soap, and vinegar. Pop. o'2 U. The districts of Jiilieh formed an independent dukedom in the lourtcenth century, which was united to Berg and Cleves in 1511. In 16Ul> the ducal line became extiuL-t. and succession disputes began between Brandenburg and Xeuburg, which, although settled in 1666 by a division of the country, \vere not brouglit to a final conclusion until 1814, when the whole territory was given to Prussia. Julien' (Stanislas), b. at Orleans, France. Sept. 20. 170',) ; studied first modern European languages, Latin, and Greek, but was attracted to the study of Chinese by the lectures of Abel Reniusat, whom he succeeded in 1S;(2 as professor in Chinese at the College de France at Paris. Besides several grammatical works on Chinese, destined to aid the student of the language, he has translated a great number of Chinese novels, dramas, historical, philosophical, and scientific writings. D. Feb. II, 1873. Ju'liiis (Nikolais Hkinrich), b. in Altona. Denmark, Oct. 3, 17S3: studied medicine, and jiractised in Hamburg. In 182 j he travelled through England, in 1831-;;6 tlirough the I'. S.. and later on through Germany, Poland, Belgium, and France, to study the conditions and management of prisons, on which subject he lectured in licrlin in 1S27, jiublished a periodical, Jahrbnvhvr ilrr •^froj- tiiid lirstc- riiinjHituHiaffcn (Berlin, 1.S28-4S), and wrote several works: \ orlrnutiffcH iiber (jffii»tjti!nHknuUc (1S2S), Nurdnnirrikos sitdirhe. XuHt'dnde (1839), ficitrnge znv bn'ttiitchen Irrcnhcil- knude (ISM), etc. D. in Hamburg Aug. 20, 1862. Julius I.f Saint, bishop of Rome, was consecrated in 337, and took part with Athanasius in his .struggle for the Alexandrian bishopric. D. Apr. 12, 352.— J[:lm s II., PocE {Giid'unio delta Jiorere), b. at Albezzola in 1441, be- came a cardinal in 1471, and succeeiled by simoniaca! means to the pontificate in 1503. His career henceforth was chiefly military, his principal aim being to drive the foreigners out of Italy and free the Holy See from the domination of the great secular powers. The ambitious pontiff was a liberal patron of Raphael. :Mifhael Angelo, and thcother great artists of his time, and laid the cnrner- stone of St. Peter's church at Rome. I). Feb. 21. 1513.— Ji'Lirs III. {Oiovanni }faria dvl Afontf), b. at ArezzoSept. 10. I4S7, became a cardinal in iJiiG; went as papal legate to the Council of Trent 1545: was chosen pope 1550, and was thenceforth chiefly remarkable for luxurious habits. D. Mar. 23, 1555. Jul'lunder, town of the Puniaub, in the plain between the Sutlej and the Beas. in lat. 31° 21' N. and Ion. 75° 31' E. It w.as formerly the capital of a powerful Afghan prin- cipality, and has many magnificent monuments. Pop. estim.ated at 40.000, JuMus, the typical genus of the family Julida:', myria- potls of the division Chilognatha, including the millipeds or thousand-legs and many other organisms. The true Jid! are seldom more than three inches long, have numer- ous small feet, inhabit moist and d.ark places, such as holes in rotten wood, and arc never, like the centipedes, truly venomous. July' [Lat. Juh'nx, named by Mark Antony in honor of Julius Ca?S!ir]. the seventh nmnth of the Gregorian, and the fifth of the old, calendar. The ancient Romans called it Qidiitilis — that is, the fifth month. Jumbuser% town of British India, in the presidency of Bengal. It has a considerable trade in rice and cotton. Pop'. 10.100. Jumet% town of Belgium, in the province of Halnant, has extensive breweries, glass-works, and manufactures of tiles and nails. Pop. 14.244. Jumiria, town of Spain, in the province of Murcia, carrying on important manufactures of earthenware and fireovens. Pop. 9613. Jum^na, a riverof Hindostan.and the principal affluent of the Ganges, rises in lat. 31° N. and Ion. 7S° :{2' E.. at an elevation of 10.S49 feet. It flows first S., and then S. E., and after a course of 680 miles joins the Ganges at Allah- abad. It is shallow and unfit for navigation, but by arti- ficial means it has in many ways been made available both for agriculture and commerce. Delhi and Agra are situated on its banks. Jump'ing Branch, post-tp. of Mercer co., W. Va. Pop. 1441. JuncK'er (Henry Damian), B. D..b. in Lorraine (then a part of France) 1810 ; came in youth to the U.S. ; studied at Cincinnati, and in 1834 took priest's orders in the Ro- man Catholic Church; served chiefly among the <Jerraan population of Ohio; became in 1S57 bishop of Alton, 111. D. at Alton Oct. 2, 1868. Junc'tion, post-v. of Carlton co., Minn., at the junc- tion of the Northern Pacific and the Lake Superior and Mississippi R. R. Junction* post-v. of Hunterdon co., N. J., at the junc- tion of the Delaware Lackawanna and Western and the Central R. R. of New Jersey. Junction t'ity, post-v. and tp. of Trinity co., Cal., 8 miles AV. of Weaverville, the count^'-scat. Pop. of v. 440 ; of tp. 570. Junction City, post-v. and tp., cap. of Davis co., Kan., situated <in the erown of a low bluff at the confluence of the Smoky Hill and Republican rivers, which unite to form the Kansas River, and on the Kansas Pacific and the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. Rs. It has many churches and schools. 7 hotels, 1 national and 1 savings bank, 2 flouring mills, manufactories of carriages, agricultural implements, etc., and excellent water-power. There are extensive quarries of magnesian limestone, easily worked and largely used in building. Clark's Creek, in the vi- cinity of the town, is crossed by tlircc Howe-truss bridges. It is an active business-centre for (lie surrounding country, and has 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. 2778. Jnne [Lat. Juttitii, for Jtiuouhit, because it was sacred to Juno], the sixth month in the Gregorian year; in the old style, the fourth month. During this month the sun reaches the northern solstice, which is marked by the first point of the sign Cancer. Hence the tropic is called the tro])ic of Cancer. Juneau% county of S. Central Wisconsin. Area, 325 square miles. The Wisconsin River washes its E. border, and it is traversed by the La Crosse and Milwaukee R. R. It has an undulating surface, a very fertile soil, with abundant timber and water-power. Cattle, grain, wool, and lumber are st;iple products. Cap. Mauston. Pop. 12 :j72. Juneau, post-v., cap. of Dodge co.. Wis., on the Chi- cago and North-western R. R., 145 miles from Chicago. It lias 2 weekly newspapers, a grain-drill factory, 2 cheese- factories, churches, stores, hotels, etc. It was founded in 1S15, and first named Victory, and then Dodge Centre. The court-house was built in 1848, and the first newspaper started in 1852. Pop. 300. E. B. Boi.ess, En. ano Pkop. " Democrat and Granger." June'-berry (Amcfanchier Cnuadenitiv), a wild shrub or small tree found throughout the V. S. and in runada, with many varieties, oflferiug considerable differences. It JUNG— JUNIUS. 147;^ bears a considerable resomblnDce in its characteristics to the apple and pcur. The june-bcrry has been cultivated on a small scale for its rriiir, which is of purplo color. «wcet, and ahout llie size of the- largest currnuts. The size of the tree differs greatly in the varieties, from thirty feet high {fintnfnpitiiu) dovin to three or four. Various names arc given to the juiK'-bcrry in different localities, such as shad- bush, service-berry, and niounlaiii whorilcbrrry. The tlow- crs are white, early, and abnudunt, on which account it is valued as an ornamental tree. Jun^ (JoArimi), b. at I/ubcck. Germany. Oct. 22, 15S7; was professor of mathematics at Gicssen IOO'J-14 ; studied medicine at P.adua. graflualing in 1(118: settled at Rostock as a physician, becoming a professor there in 102-1, and rector of the .Tohanncuin at I!unil>urg in 162U. He was a very distinguished naturalist, ranked by Leibnitz in the same class of philosophers with Copernicus, Galileo, and Descartes, His researches in physical science incurred for him persecutions, on the supposition that he belonged to tlie Rosicrucian fraternity. I)r. Jung anticipated Lin- nirus in proposing a binomial nomenelature for plants, and wrote largely on philosophy, mathematics, mineralogy, in- vertebrates, an<l botany, but many of his works were de- stroyed or rendered extremely scarce by a fire. Those which remained were edited by Albreelit under the title Opnurufn Phtf^irn Bntuiiica (Coburg, 1717). Ilis life has been written by Guhraucr (Stuttgart, 1851) and by Av6- Lallemant ( Liibeck. IS63). JiJli]?-Buns'lau, town of Bohemia, on the Iser, has some manufactures of woollens. Pop. StlDj. Jungcrinan'nia [in honor of Prof. Ludwig Junger- mann ( 1 J72-!r>.»;i ,. a German botanist], a large and im- portant genua of LiVKRWoitTj; (which Pee). It gives name to the important sub-order Jungermanniaecie (scale-mosses), which to the essential characters of the liverworts (Hcpa- t)ca>)join a moss-liko habit. The U. S. ha\e numerous species, Jan(?Trau [Ger. '* maiden"], one of the highest peaks of the IJernese AI[>s, and. on act'onnt of the beauty of its outline and the rlazzlin^ brightness of the everlasting snow which covers its top, one of the most remarkable moun- tains of Switzerland. Its height is I3,fi70 feet. Its top has been reached only by half a dozen persons; among them by Agassi/, in ISII. Jling'hnhn (Fhan/ Wimiki.u), b. at Mansfeld, Prussian Saxony. ()^;t. 2(t, 1812; sfudiel medicine and botany at Halle and Uerlin ; served as a physician in the Prussian army, then in the French army in Algeria, and since 1835 in the Dutch colonics of .lava. Here ho made very exten- sive s'udies of tho gcogrnpliical. gcologieal. botanical, and ethnological relations of the country, and his works on these subjects attracted great attention. In IS 19 he visited Europe, but returned to Ratavla in 1S5.7, and d. at Lemberg Apr. 21, 1861. His chief work is.Airn, ^/-mr Gentnh^ FJfnn- sriidcrhf Hitd iiiiicrf Bunnit (IS.VJ) ; besides this ho wroto Die Fi'ittitfoiiiln' in Snniatrn (1817), Lantin'hti/tsnuslchtcn ron Jam (18511). and in 1851 was commenced a description of the plants and fossils of Java, entitled /'ittut;e Jiiny- finhiit'iiii^r. Jun'gic [Sanskrit. yrtii'/«/al, in the East Indies, a name applied to those tracts of land, fre(iiienlly very extensive, where the vegetation ii* rank,an<l olten impenetrable. The jungles abuiind in tigers, elephants, monkeys, serpents, deer, boars, wild cattle, and other creatures, and are often very unhealthy. In the East they speak of "jungle-fowl," '*jun;;le <'ows," "junglo fevers," etc. The term juuijU is uvt'd vvith l:i(itiid<', ami nineli country which is sparsely .-■tllid, but by no means a wilderness, is thus designated. JiiiiK'inniin (.Io.hkp J.\Kon), b. at Hadlitz, Itobomin, July Hi, 177^1; studied at the University of Prague; became teaclier at the gymnasium of Leibmerilz in 170'.). anr| pro- lessor in 1815 at Pruicue, where he d. Nov. II, IKIT. In IS25 he published a history t.f rhe Holiemian language and literature, and iu 18;t5 a complete liohemlan-German dic- tionary. Junc-Stiriin? (Joiiasv Hi^tNRicn). b. nt Orund. in He.-ise Nassau. Sept. 12, 1710. of a poor family, had to fight his way onward through many hardships. He was succes- sively achareoal-burner, srhoolmaster, tailor, private tutor, ete. A Roman Catholic priest gave him a seeret remedy f«ir eertuin eye-ili^ea'^es. and in 1771 he sueceedeil in g"ing to Strasbourg to study medieine and get a diploma. Here he made the acquaintanee of Goethe, who has given a charm- ing picture of him in Aun mrinrin Lrhru. He now settled in I^Mierfeld as an eye-physician. » business he never gave up : he always carrieil bift instruments along with him, and lie undertook more than 2000 operations. From 1787 to iSOTi he held a chair in political economy at the universi- ties of Marburg and Heidelberg, but this part of his activ- Voi.. H.— y:i I ity wna not very influential; he had at last no pupils at I all. The last part of his life he spent at Carlsrube, at the I court of the grand duke of Itaden. who gave him a pen- sion, and thus enabled him to devote himself exclusively to literature. His writings have all a mystic, religious, half- apocalyptic character, even his romances, Geschivhtp lieti fferni nm }forff(}ithnu (2 vols.. 1770), Floreittiii t-on Fnfi- friidorii {'.i vols.. I7SH, but still more his directly religions writings, Thf:i>h<ihi, Dnn H:imn-eh, T/iron'v der Gciftfrrl-iindc (I8t)8), etc. The most interesting of his works is his au- tobiography, of which the first part, ffiinn'rh StiUiu>/ti Jntfcnd (1777), is a wonderful book. He was three times married, and d. ;\pr. 2. ISI7. His collected works were published in Stuttgart in 14 vols, in is;i8. Junia'ta, county of S. E. Central Pennsylvania. Area, 350 square miles. It consists, in general, of a long vallev, subdivided more or le?s into minor valleys, and having tho Blue Ridge on the N. W. and Tuscarora Mountain on tho S. E. It is crossed by t!ie Juniata River and the Pennsvl- vania R. R. It contiiins iron and limestone. The soil is very fertile, especially in tiio valleys. Cattle, grain, and wool are stnjilc produets. Carriages, wagons, and Ie:illicr are leading articles of manufacture. Cap. Miftlintown. Pop. 17,3!m. Jiiniala. tp. of Tuscola co., Mich. Pop. 1042. Juniata, post-v.. cap. of Adams co.. Neb., on the Bur- lington ami iVIissouri River R. R., 24 miles E. of Fort Kearney, in a fine agricultural and grazing region; has some manufactures, a bank, a weekly newspaper, a fine high school, etc. C. C. A R. 1>. TUnroric, Pubs. *■' Adams Co. Gazette." Juniata, tp. of Bedford co., Pa. Pop. 1437. Juniata, tp. of Blair co.. Pa, Pop. G21. Juniata, fp. of Huntingdon co., Pa. Pop. 393. Juniata, ]iost-tp. of Perry co., Pa. Pop. 983. Juniata River, in Pennsylvania, rises near .Altoona, 1155 feet above sea-level, an<l flows some 150 miles through the parallel-ridged mountains of Southern Central Pennsyl- vania, which rise from SOO to 1500 feet above the valleys (the latter often from 200 to 4011 feet above the stream ). It flows into the Sus:r|uehanna at Duneannon, 345 feet above the sea. Its principal affluent, the Raystown branch, is a beautiful and very tortuous stream. Ju'nipcr, a genus of Conifene, sub-order Cupressinea; (cypress family), characterized by having its small cone transformer! into a berry. The common juniper (./inn'^jcn/* commuuix) is a small evergreen sbrub, native of Europe and the C S., where it grows on dry, sterile, hilly ground from New Jersey to Maine and along the great lakes. It is important for its fruit, which is used in medicine and in making gin. This fruit is a bluish-purple berry about the sizo of a ]>e:i, of a pleasant aromatic odor and sweetish terebinthinate taste, due lo Ihc presence of a volatile oil, in which also reside the niedirinal virtues. Juniper is a gen- tle irritant, being in proper dose cordial to the stomach, and specially exciting to the function of the kidneys. It is accordingly user! us a diuretic, but generally only to assist tho aetlon of more potent drugs of that class. In overdose it may cause great irritation of the urinary or- gans, with strangury and suppression of secretion. Juni- per-bcrries are largely used in the mannfaeture of gin, to which spirit they give the peculiar flavor and diuretic ac- tion. .iiiuSfu-niH Viif/iniaiift, or rcil cedar, is an indigenous and im])ortant evergr<?cn tree growing on dry rocky hills in all latitudes of the V. .S. Edwaiid Ci ktis, Ju'niUfi. From the middle of the year 17fi7 to the mid- dle of 1772 the British public was delltjlitcd or exasperafeil by a series of letters on politieal affairs in tho Piildi'r Ati- rrrtiirr newspaper, displaying a pungency, a vehemence, an intrepidity, and a power of Invcetive sueh as had never before been shown by any English politieal writer. Tho first of these letters (Apr. 2?^, 1707) a(ipeared under the sig- nature of " Poplirola." *' Memnon," " liUeius." " .lunius," " Philo .Tunius." " Brutus." and other sij;naturcs were sub- serjuently res<»rted to. hut the celebrity of the ccdiectlon is concentrated upon the name of ''Junius," nftixed to tho most remarkable letters, and to those which alone (the let- ters sii^ned " Pbilo Junius " exeeplecl ) the writer auth-'ntl- eatrd liy himself giving them to the world. The identity of the authorship of the rest is in<b'ed a matter of infer- ence, though of inference so irresistible as to be now not disputed by anyone. In 1772 tho correspondence suddenly ceased. Sithjrct of thr Juniun f.rttfrt. — This may be briefly do- fined as the vindication of tho public liberties. ''The sub- ml<>sion of a free people," so Iiegins tho first letter pub- lished under this celebrated signature, "to the executivo authority of govornmont is no more than a compliance with 1474 JUNIUS. laws which they themselves have enacted." This strikes the kcvnotc of' the whole. Every leading political occur- rence o'f the (lay is turned to a vindication ol popular lib- ertv It would" be impossible in our space lu enumerate the whole. It may truly be said that the British constitu- tion never had a bolder champion than Junius, nor in the inaioritv of cases a more learned or discriminating advo- cate the amount of his legal and constitutional kuow- lcd<re is extraordinary, especially if, as there is every reason to believe, he was not a lawyer. The characteristics of his stvlc are energy, brevity, impetuosity, and the striking t-in- nloymcnt of metaphor. The principal drawback to the cnioyment of such talents applied in so good a cause is the writer's rancor and ferocity, and his incessant asper- sions on private character. Yet this indignation, if exces- sive mav still have been honest. This question, however, dcpends"partly on the solution of another enigma, which more even than their literary cNcellcnce, has contributed to maintain the popularity of the letters. This is the mys- tcrv of their authorship. c , ,„ tii<, A„lh„rili!p.—3nnius had apparently no confidants. His visor is never raised. He preserves throughout the same air of haughtv superiority and profound, impenetniljlo seerci-v " -Mv secret." he savs, " shall die with me. The only person with whom ho entered into anything like confidential relationship was Woodfall, the printer of the f'Mic Ad,-erl!ser. To him he wrote frequently in amicable and condescending terms, but always in the same feigned hand. Woodfall may have guessed the secret; it ■almost certainly was not entrusted to him. According to one aeeount, the truth eventually became known to the government. " We know," George III. is reputed to have said "who Junius is. He will write no more. The anecdote, however, is probably apocryphal. The mystery naturally excited intense curiosity m the public mind, and .abundant pains have from that time to this been bestowed on unravelling it. The letters have been attrib- uted, among others, to Burke. Dunning, W. G. Hamilton, Lord Geor.'e Sackville, Dr. Butler, bishop of Hereford, AVilkcs H. M. Bovd. Philip Rosenhagen, Lord Temple, and Gen Lee. Out of the whole of this list, Burke, Dun- iiini' Lord Temple, and Wilkes are the only persons that can''bc credited with sufficient intellectual power to have produced the letters of Junius, and the evidence of place and circumstance, of sentiments and opinions, of political connections and of handwriting, seems decisive against thein all. It is now generally admitted that cither the authorship remains an impenetrable enigma, or that it bclont'S to one whose name was not mentioned m connection with It for forty years subsequently— Sir Philip Francis. Philip Francis, the son of a clergyman and schoolmaster of some literary repute, was b. in Dublin in 1740, and when the publication of the Junius letters commcneed had for some years been a clerk in the war office. This circumstance supplied the clue to the discovery originally announced by Mr John Tavlor in his Jm"iii« Wc.it//icrf, publi.shed in 1814, durin" Francis's lifetime, and never contradicted by him. So accurate is the knowledge of war-office business betrayed bv the writer that the conviction of his having been con- cerned in that department appears irresistible; nor can any other person in a similar position capable of having written the letters of Junius be iiointcd out. Many of the letters, in fact, arc written on war-office paper. The hand, of course, is feigned; and before Francis's claims can be unreservedly admitted it is necessary to inquire whether the simulated hand can be identified with his. This inves- ti.rati<m has been made in the most painstaking manner by M"r Chabot, the eminent expert in handwriting, who, at the instance of the Hon. Mr. Twisleton, has compared no merely the acknowledged handwriting of Francis, but that of every other claimant of mark, with the hand of Junius. His results, with cojiious plates, have been published uy Mr. Twisleton, and will leave little doubt that, so far as the evidence of handwriting is concerned, the identification of Junius with Francis is tolerably complete. The argument has also received unexpected strength from the discovery that a letter which occurs accompanying a copy of verses in the feigned hand of Junius, sent to a young lady at Bath, is itself in the hand of Francis's cousin and intimate friend, Tilghman, with whom Francis is known to have been staving at Bath at the very time. The external evidence for the Franciscan authorship of Junius, then, appears on the whole as strong as could be reasonably expected. The impression left by the whole in- vestigation cannot be better summed up than in the words of Mr. Merivalc : " .•Ml the lines of investigation which have been followed in order to trace the authorship of this or that known individual, except Francis, fail at a certain point. They end in impossibilities. The remaining path, to which one clue only leads us, becomes plainer and plainer the farther the investigation is conducted." The ingenuity of most formidable opponents has been exerted to discover some demonstrable incompalibility between the circum- stances attending the production of the letters and the authorship of Francis. None such has been adduced. Francis, as was said of Goilolphin, is never in the way and never out of the way. The one argument against hiln is derived from the evidence of style. But the distinction established is rather one of degree than of kind. There is no such incompatibility between the style of his acknow- ledged writings and that of the Junius letters as to render it morally impossible to attribute them to the same wriler. It is not as though a pamphlet attributed to Swift should bear the impress of Bolingbroke. The admitted produc- tions of Francis might pass for the work of a disciple of Junius. The real difficulty is, that Francis should never I have equalled himself. This certainly is a difficulty, and I is hardly obviated by Lord Macaulay's sensible but sonic- ■ what superficial replv, that every work of the same author cannot be the best. It can hardly, however, be held to count for much against the weight of external testimony, especially when the extraordinary moral resemblance be- tween riancis and Junius is taken into account. AVhocver Junius was, he must have been in temperament very much such a man as Francis is known to have been— vehement, combative, opinionated, disdainful, sarcastic, enthusiastic- ally and disinterestedly devoted to the public good as he conceived it, but capable of the most unrelenting and un- scrupulous animosity to all who crossed his path. To ap- preciate these characteristics it is essential to follow the next episode in his career. Appointed to a magnificent employment, a seat at the council of the governor-general of India, with a suddenness which certainly suggests the suspicion that his secret had become known, he quitted En-land for Calcutta in 1774. His official career was a eoifstant series of disputes with the governor-general, War- ren Hastings, culminating in a duel, in which he was seriously wounded. It is difficult to pronounce positively as to the merits of the controversy. Infinitely inferior to Hastin<'S in administrative capacity, Francis does appear to have possessed more enlightened views as to the duties of government, and to have wished to introduce a spirit of equity and clemency into the administration of Benga which would have greatly benefited it. Unable to contend with the genius and fortune of his rival, he forsook India in disgust, retiring, however, with a large fortune, said to have been partly Acquired by high play. On the return of Hastings he became the life and soul of the memorable im- peachment directed against him. his whole behavior during which, both as regards his unmitigated virulence and his underhand method of action, tends as strongly as any other proof to confirm his identity with Junius. •V\ hen in his extreme old age the authorship was first publicly imputed to him, he neither denied nor admitted it, but his demeanor showed that he wished it to be believed. D. in 1818. As the impersonality of Junius added much to his celeb- rity so it must be admitted that the moral authority of his letters is impaired by their association with Francis. Much that mi"-ht otherwise have passed for honest indignation is thus shown to have been prompted by personal rancor. With every deduction on this ground, the letters remain substantially the work of a patriot entitled to the gratitude of his countrymen for his spirited vindication of their liberties and haws. Their rank as a British classic is secure, although, as need hardly bo said, their fame is in a great measure duo to the scarcity of good political writing m their day With a multitude of similar productions now forgotten thev supplied the place of regular leaders in the news- p.apcrs, and would excite comparatively little attention in ana.'e like ours, when so large a proportion of the literary abili'ty of the day is absorbed by the public press. The best authorities on the question of Junius are Mr. i Taylor's ./»i.;i.«Wei.t;/;«/; Dr. Mason Good's essay, pre- fixed to most recent editions : Mr. Twisleton s elaborate in- vcsti.'ation of the handwritings of the various candulatcs ; and the excellent l.i/c of Sir Philip Fr.incis commenced by Mr Joseph Parkes and completed by Mr. Herman Merivalc Mr. Parkes leaves no stone unturned to establish Francis's authorship, but attributes to his hero numerous letters and pamphlets which he certainly did nut write, in- cluding one pamphlet signed '• Irenarch," which was in fact written by a connection of the author ol this notice. Sir Alexander Cockburn is understood to be preparing a work on the subject. (For the theory which idcntihes Junius with Lord Lyttclton, sec Lvttelto.v (liioMAS).) R. G.MiM-.rT. Junius, post-tp. of Seneca co., N. Y. Pop. 1420. Junius (Francis), b. at Heidelberg in 1589, a son of Franeiseus Junius, went to England iu 1620, and became librarian to the earl of Arun.lel, in whose house he lived for thirty years. He was an enthusiastic student of the Teutonic" iud Anglo-Sa.xon dialects, on which ho wrote JUNIUS— JUPITER. 1475 learned nod valuable works. D. at AVindsor Nov. 19, 1677. l[o publii'hcd an edition of Vltilas'p translation of the (fospcis into Guthic, and n Glosnarinm Gothiruin in five l:in;»uages, of which the Engli:»h part was reprinted at Ox- f«irJ in 174.t with the title Etymotngicum AiiifhCaiiiim, and wag the chief authority on etymology used by I>r. Johnson in his dictionary. Junius was an uncle of Isaac Vossius, and bequeathed his MSS. to the Bodleian Library at Ox- ford. Junius (FRANciscrs), otherwise called Francois Du Jus, b. at Bourgcs, France, in 1545 ; studied classical philology and Protestant theology at Geneva; was pastor uf a Walloon congregation nt Antwerp, and became in liiCS cliaplain to the prince of Orange. In 1573 he was called to Heidelberg by the elector to aid in a translation of the Old Testament : he was also professor of theology at Heidel- berg, and afterwards at I^eyden, where he d. in 1(>(>2. His principal work was the translation of the Old Testament into Latin in conjunction with Tremellius (Frankfort, 5 parts, 1575-79), which passed through twenty editions, the best being that of 1724. The other works of .Tunius were collected at Geneva in 16ir. — Oprrn Thm/orftrft, with an autobiography written in 1595. (See Haag. La I'rauce Protrgttintc, and Herzog, Real-Enctfkl'tp.y s. v.) Junk, a sea-going vessel, such as is built in Japan, China, Corea, Tonquin, and Siam. It has three masts, a high poop and forecastle, a wooden anchor, and usually has a wooden or painted eye on each bow. as if to enable it to sec its way. The sails arc ordinarily of matting. Junks, though slow and clumsy, are often surprisingly sea- worthy. The amount of commerce carried on in them is very great, but vessels built on the European models arc grailually taking their places. Junk-Ceylon% or Salang, an island in the Indian Ocean, belonging to Siam, in lal. 7° 40' X., Ion. 98*^ IS' E. It is 20 miles long and 10 miles broad, and exports tin, edible birds' nests and sapan-wood to the British settle- uicnts in ihe Strait of Malacca. Jun'kin (Georgk), D. D., LL.T)., b. near Kingston, Pa., Nov. 1, 17110; graduated at Jefferson College in 1813; studied theology in New York City, anrl was for niany years pastor of churches at Milton and .McEwensville, Pa. ; was president of Lafayette College 18;i2-U. and again IS44-48; of Miami University 1841-44, anci of AVashington ('ollege, Lexington, Va., 1S4S-61, leaving the latter post at the outbreak of the war on account of his loyalty to the Union. Dr. Junkin was a prominent champion of "Old School" Presbyteriauism. and wrote several theo- logical and controversial treatises, D. at Philadelphia, May 20, 18C8. Ju'no, the third in order of discovery of the asteroids. Tr was found by Harding ntthc Lilieuthal observatory, near Uri'incn, Sipt. 1, Isoi. It shines as a star of the eighth or ninth magnitude, and is of a whitish color, and .not nebu- lous. Its sidereal revolution is performed in 1592.00 mean sular days. Itp orbit is inclined to the ecliptic \'i^ V 20". Its diameter and magnitude arc not well known. Juno [Lat., gen. ./r/»ioNM], in the Roman mythology, (he qui-en of heaven and the wife of Jiipiirr, identified with tbo Copra of the Ktruscans, and lutor with the Ilcra of the (Jret-ka. She presided over wom:»nhood, the ni;trriagi'.bcd, maternity, and chaste wedlock, and over new-born children ; and in public affairs she guarded the finaDccs and public justice. Jnnot' (Andothr), duke of Abrantcs, b. at Bussy-le- Grand Oct. 23, 1771 ; studied first law, but entered in 1792 a battalion of volunteers ; distinguished himself at the siego of Toulon ; accompanied Napoleon as aide-de-camp in Italy and Kgvpt, and was made general of division and com- miinder-gt'oeral of Paris in ISOO. Somewhat displeased at the proiligality and lack of discretion which he (and es- pecially his wife) showed, the emperor sent him in 1805 as ambassador to Lisbon ; but he very soon left his post, re- paired (o the army in Germany, and distinguished himself in the h.attle of Austerlitz. In iSOi; ho was oneo more I ni;ide commander-general of Paris, but in the next year Napoleon was compelled to send him and hi-* wife awiiy a^iiin. lie was placed at the head of a small army corps ! destined to invade Portugal, and his success was so brilliant j in this undertaking that Napoleon made him duke of Abrantes. Having been defeated nt Vimeiro by Wellington, he concluderl the convention of (^intra with (he English, which highly displeasecl Napoleon, and during tlie cam- paign of 1S12 he was mentioned as "wanting energy" in 1 one of the emperor's reports. In 1813 he was made gov- ] ernor of lllyria. and his mental derangement now bef-ame ' apparent. He was broucbt to France, iind at Montbard i he threw himself out of a window, and d. a few days after, I July 22, 1813. 1 Junot (Lai'rf), duchess of Abrantes, b. Nov. 6, 1784, at Moutpcllier. France, of a rich merchant family of the name of Permon. Having married Gen. Junot in ISUO, she became one of the most brilliant ladies of the French court. She was beautiful, witty, with a great talent for intrigue, and her audacity was as boundless as her prodigality. Napo- leon called her La petite pcate. After the death of her hus- band and the fall of Napoleon, she still maintained her social position in Paris and Home, and made in 1831 a great sensation by her MimitireH gur Sapohtm (18 vols.), which wore followed by Mrmoivrn «nr Ut licHtunration (0 vols., lS3fi) and Sonvcnirn d'niic AmbttHiinde en J*orturjaf (2 vols., 1837). But she was now poor and eick, and d. in a house of charity in Paris June 7, 18.'i8. Jupati' Palm, the curious liaphia trrrliffrm of the lower Amazon valley. Its trunk is barely eight to ten feet high, but it puts up a magnificent crown of pinnatcly com- pounil leaves, some of which are often sixty feet long. The dried leaf-stalks contain a \ni\\ which is used instead of cork, and the hard and light outer crust is very useful in joinery. Ju'piter, the fifth planet in order of distance from iho sun, and far the largest and most massive of all the mem- bers of the solar system. .lupiter travels at a mean dis- tance from the sun of 475.092,000 miles. The eccentricity of his orbit is 0.048239. so that the distance of the centre of his orbit from the sun is equal to 0.048239 X 475,092,000 miles, or 22,947.000 miles, and bis greatest and least dis- tances from the sun are respectively 498,639.000 miles and 452,745.000 miles. The longitude "of the perihelion is 11° 55'. so that the centre of the orbit is in Ion. 191° 55'; and in any true delineation of tlie orbit a distance correspond- ing to 22,947,000 miles, on the scale adopted, must be set off in this longitude, and a circle struck with this point as centre, and a distance corresponding to 475.002,000 as ra- dius will represent the orbit of Jupiter with sutTieient ap- proximation; for, though the eccentricity of the orbit is considerable, the ellipticity is very slight indeed, and on any ordinary scale for drawing the orbits may be left out of consideration. (The semi-minor axis is less than the semi-major axis in the ratio of v/ 1 — (0.048230)^ to \, or approximately as V 1 — 0.0025 : 1, or about 99S8 to 10.000; feo that the excess of tlie semi-major over the semi-minor axis is less than the 830th part of either semi-axis.) It is worth noticing that the earth's mean distance from the sun being 91,430.000 miles, its fourth part, or 22.857.500 miles, differs very little from the eccentricity of Jupiter's orbit measured in miles. The plane of Jupiter's path is inclined 1° IS' 40". 3 to the ecliptic, tbo rising node lying in Ion. 98*^ 55^'. The rea<ior must not fall into the mistiike. how- ever, of supposing that the most massive planet of tho solar system moves in a plane inclined even at this small angle (less than 1^°) to Iho medial plane of tho system; for the phme of the ecli]itic to which we refer the others is itself inclined to tho medial or invariable plane. As tho rising n<ide of the invariable plane is in Ion. 102° 57A', less than 5° from Jupiter's rising node, ami its inclination \° 35i'. <liffcriiig less than 17' from Jtipitcr's, wo see that the plane of Jupiter's orbit very nearly coincides with the invariable plan of the solar system. Jupiter completes tho circuit of his orbit in a mean sidereal period of 4332.5848 days, or 1 1 years (tropical) 314.02 days, or roughly 1 1 years 10 months 9 days (counting 304 days for the month). His mean daily motion in his orbit is 299". 120; and as tho earth's mean daily motion is 3548". 193, it follows that his mean daily loss in heliocentric longitude as compared with tho earth amounts to 3249". 004 ; hence, the mean interval between successive conjunctions of tho earth and Jupiter fftmounting to as many days as this arc is contained in 300°) is equal to 39H.807 days — in other words, this is Ju- piter's mean synodieal periocL Jupiter's mean diameter = 85,000 miles : his greatest about ^V'' more; his least aboiit ^^th less: his polur compression being about ^t^. Thus, his equatorial diameter - 87.S00 miles and bis polar diameter - 82,200 miles. His volume exceeds the earth's 1233 ^imes, but the mean density of his substance being only equal to about one fourth the earth's, his mass dttes not exceed hers more Ihitn 301 times. As compared with tho sun's mass (regarded as unity), .Jupiter's has thus been estimated by various astronomers: by L:iplace, \^w: by Nicobiy, i^^: by Airy, ynjcs^ ''V Pantini, yn*5o = *'> ^*^^' *"■'• loi? fi • ^*y Eriigcr, m]* 3. Taking yo'ijt as a fair mean of the latest anil best values, we see that .lupiter's mass is but a small fraction of the sun's. Nevertheless, as com- pared with all tho other planets. Jupiter is not merely first in mass, hut he more than outweighs them taken all together. This will be seen from the following table, representing the masses of the various known members of Iho solar system, the earth's mass being represented as 1000 : 1476 JUrXTER-JURASSIC, THE. Smaller piftoots. Mercury Veiuis Earth Mars Asteroids together less than JO" Lurger planeto. 05 Jupiter 300,860 8S5 iSalurn 89,092 lOOU Uranus 12.050 118 Neptune ^l?.'*' Total ... 419,036 2,108 Sun's ina-ss on the same .scale = 315,000,000. Total 2108 Orandtotal. 4-22,103 Jupiter's mass. 3(10,800 Mass of all the planets except Jupiter. 121,2-13 Thus wo see that Jupiter's mass bears to the mass of all the other planets taken together a ratio of nearly ;) to 2 : and in nas^inc we niav notice that three-fourths of the remaining mass, after Jupiter is removed, uppcrtams to one planet— viz. to .Saturn. . Jupiter is surrounded by a system of four satellites. These were discovered by Galileo in the year l(>in. Iheir distances from Jupiter's centre are equnl. respectively, to 6 05 9.62, 15.:i5, and 20.99 radii of Jupiter, and their sidereal periods of revolution aro ■■"l'«'^''^'^''y, ' ''' ',f''- ■'Om .3(/. n'l. ■!,«., 'd. 3i. 43m., and ml. 16/i. 32m. Their diameters have been estimated at 2:152, 2009, .4.,r., and ''9''6 t.akin;' them in the order of their distance from Juiiit'er": so thatlho third is far the largest, exceeding even the planet Mercury in size. But in mass these bodies arc not «o great, relatively, as we should judge from their di- mensions, at least comparing them with the smaller planets and our moon. The following table presents their masses and densities. (It is to be noticed that the values given in many handbooks of astronomy aro incorrect) : The motions of the satellites of Jupiter have affordc-d an interesting subject of study to astronomers, and a subject which has been fruitful of instructive results ^V hen they were first discovered it was supposed that by observing their eclipses and oceultations astronomers could determine the longitude, and it was even hoped that the difficult problem of determining the longitude at sea might thus be solved. This hope, however, soon pruved to be unfounded, since even when observed on land an eclipse or oceultatioii is not found to occur (apparently) at precMscly the same instant when observed with telescopes of different powers ; and the determination of longitude requires that the exact ilistant of the occurrence of a celestial phenomenon should be as- certained. But before long a discovery of great importanco rewarded the observation of the eclipses of Jupiter s satel- lites, origiuallv carried on in order to form tables of the motions of these bodies. It was found that an eclipse or reappearance occurred sooner than the predicted time when the planet was in opposition or nearly so, and later when the planet was approaching conjunction with the sun, or had recently reappeared in the twilight skies alter conjunc- tion The'explanation of these peculiarities was lirst per- ceived by Roemer, who showed that they arc due to the motion of li"ht with finite velocity. The light message convcyin" tons the news of an eclipse or occultation or re- appearance of one of Jupiter's satellites thus lakes a longer or shorter time in reaching the earth according as Jupiter is vt a srcatcr or less distance. It was thus found that licrht travels at the rate of about 192.000 miles per second. Another interesting fact revealed by the study of the moons of Jupiter is the relation between the motions of the three inner moons. From the values given above for the sidereal revolution it is easily calculated that the sidereal motions of the three inner satellites respeclivcly arc 8".4.^.06, 4"2'':i9l7 and2".0905n7. The sidereal motion of the inner- most'is not, it will be observed, e.tactly double that of the second, though nearly so ; nor again is the sidereal motion of the second exactly double that of the first. But this relation holds erucih,: the sidereal motion of the first added to twice the sidereal motion of the third is equal to three limes the sidereal motion of the second: or thus: .4-8-00 a- 2 (2".09fi507) = 12".r>ri840 = 3 (4".223947). Add to this the observed fact that when the first and third satellites are in conjunction, the second is in opposition to them, and we perceive that I'm- nil lime these three satellites circle under the following conditions : starting from the case just described, we have, first. I. and III. in conjunc- tion, II. in opposition to them ; when I. has gained three- quarters of a revolution on III., we have Sid, mot. of I. -^ 2 sid. mot, of III. = Sid. mot. of I. -(- 2 (sid. mot. of I. - y ) = 3 sid. mot. of I. - 3ir = 3 sid. mot. of II. (because of the relation stated above). Hence, sid. mot. of I. ^ sid. mot. of II. -^^^; ,• r when I. has gained three-quarters of a revolution on III it has gained half a revolution on II. : but it was in opposition to II. at starting, it must therefore now he in conjunction with II., and III. is in quadrature to boih Proceeding similarly, wo perceive that when I. has gained three-fourths of a rcvolulion once again on III., I. is in opposition both to II. and III. Another of these intervals brings I. and II. iuto conjunction, nn.l III. in quadrature to both. A fourth such interval brings about the same arrangement as at first— viz. I. and III. in conjunction, and II in opposition to both. It is clear, Iheretore, that 1., II and ill can never be in conjunction at the same time. The telescopic study of Jupiter has led to results of con- siderable interest. It" has been found that his globe is sur- rounded by bells variable in width and color. I'sualy the equatorial region is occupied by a yellowishwhile belt, the bands bordering this belt on either side being darker and usually tinged with brown. Towards the polc-s 'he IjcIis are commonly less marked in cob.r, and slightly tinged with a bluish hue. From the movements of spots on these belts it is inferred that the planet rotates on an axis in- clined only about three degrees from perpen.lieularity to the plane of Jupiter's orbit, and that his rotation period is 97, o5m ''0«. But the marks from which this rotation has been'in'fcrred manifestly do not belong to the solid fr.ame of the planet, since they have been found to have a proper motion, resembling that which Carrington discovered in the case of the solar spots. The great dei.th of the Jovian cloud-lavers, their variability in shape and color, the rapid motions' implied by their change of aspect, an.l the smal density of Jupiter's vast orb, all suggest the belief that his condition resembles rather that of the sun than that of the earth Apart from these considerations, it seems impos- sible to believe that the sun, which pours but one-twenty- seventh part of the heat on Jupiter which he pours on the earth, c;in be the originating cause of atmospheric disturb- ance= in Jupiler, which manifestly exceed greally in inten- sity those which take place in our own air. Prof. Benjamin Peirce has also shown that on the nebular hypothesis bo h the planets Jupiter and Saturn must still be in an intensely heated condition, .and are probably in large part sliU va- R. A. PllOCTOR. porous. Jupiter, Juppiter, or Diespiter (gen Jo>,-,), in the Italian uivthology, the king and lather ol lie gods and the iust ruler of men : later identified with that far less noble conception, the (_ireek Zens. Jupiter gave the rain, the thunder and lightning, the storm and calm, lie w.as the protector of public justice and private virtue, the eailer of armies, and the sender of instructive portents. He was the god of air and light, and the especial patron of Home ; and her ]>eople. Jupiter .\ramon. Sec Ammon. Ju'ra, one of the Inner Hebrides, belonging to the county of Argyle, Scotland. Area. S4 square miles. Pop. 844. The western coast is rugged and precipitous: the eastern, sloping and pleasant. Oats, barl.y, and flax aro raised and black cattle reared. Between Jura and Searva is the whirljiool of Corrievrekin. Jura, a department of France, on the frontier of Switzer- land. .Vrea, UM:( square miles. Pop. 287,634 The largest part is occupied bv the Jura Mountains, wliieh yield excel- lent timber and extensive pastures, on which large herds of cattle and sheep are raised. The reuiaining lowlands and the valleys have rich soil, well adapted to agriculture and the eultivaiiou of vines. Iron-mining is the principal industry of the department; wine, cheese, and timber its main products. The inhabitants are Ihrilty and well edu- cated. Cap. Lonsle-Saulnier. Jura, the name of a system of mountain-ranges, gene- rally from 51100 to 0000 feet high, which cover parts ol Fraiiec, Switzerland, and Germany. They consist of a peculiar kind of limestone, called the Jura limes one and are generally covered with fine pine forests. In the Swiss Jura many stalaetilic grottoes are found, and eaves abound- ing in bones of extinct animals. In several places largo rivers, as the Orbe, the Doubs, and the Oreuse, are lost in the ground an.l their course concealed for some distance The highest peaks are Molesson, 0588 feet, and Reculet de Toiry. 5lit3 feel Juras'sic, The, is the " Period " in the earth's history that inlervems between the Triassic and the Cretaceous, and thus the second or middle division of the Mesozoic Age. The term is also applied to the group of rocks that were formed during this period, and is derived f^rom the Jura Mountains, between France and fewitzerland, in which an extensive series of these rocks occurs and has JLKIKN DE LA GKAVIEKK— JUKISDICTIOX. 147 been carefully studied by many distinguished observers. Tho term Oolitic iiltoy, na " e^g." and MBo<;. a "stone," in allu>ion to certain linicstoiies that in texture present the appearuncc uf the rue of a fish) is 8onictiuiee used as synonymous with Juras^^ic, but it is more appropriately restricted to one of the subordinate epochs of the period. Where best developed the rocks of the .lurasisic indicate to lis repeated recurrences of similar conilitioris of deposit, accompanied by closely related faunas. Each such group of rocks \?ith its associated fauna forms a natural *• forma- tion," and is defined above and below by a " break " in the series, the break being evidenced by an unconformable arrangement uf the contiguous strata due to an interval of upheaval and denudation. Such a formation is in fact built up of the successive deposits of one sea or delta, and th: entire series represents to us the successive movements of ujiheaval and depression, and records the accompanying migrations of life that in that area constituted the great geological events of the Jurassic period. In the accom- panying table wo give the classification of the subdivisions of tho Jurassic and it.s formations, as found developed in Western Europe and (Jreat Britain : A Tabic of the Cfiiitifirrttiou of the Subdivisions and For- mations of the Jurassic Period.* Cbgtaceous. Fresh water. Purbock beds. ^ Third Oolitic Sea. Upper Oolite. ^ .Second OoHlic Sea. ! First Oolitic Sea. ISceoDd LiassicSea. First Liassic Sea. Middle Oolite. Lower Oolite. Middle and Lower Lias. TBU88IC The detailed history of geological progress thus recorded is, hf»wever, due to tho [leeuJiar geographical conditic»n, during that period, of the region referred to. During times of upheaval it was a valley bordering the widespread Jurassic seaa, and iluring intervals of de]ire8sion it became a gulf or limited marine area, overwhelmed by the tem- porarily advancing waters of the ocean and peoplecl by successive faunas, each in turn derived from the common source, and each in turn more or less completely cut off from its successor bv the recurring movements of upheaval. Outside of this limited area the conditions of the general Jurassic ocean seem not to have been notably affected by the undulations of its bcl, and eouscfiucntly events that were strongly marked in Western Euntpc were not clfo- where recorded by alternations of Iho strata or subdivisions of Ihe fauna. Hence, whilst we recognize Jurassic strata by .lurnHsic fosfils in Uus«;ia, widely spread over Asia to Iii'i-a, in the Uocky Mountains of the U. S., in the Andes of South America, in the Arctic regions, and in Australia, yet we can hardly expect to be able to subdivide the rocks accurately according to the above classification, or to as- sign the fo)<j»iN with any certainty to the Pubordinate<livis- iniis of the period. In the U. S., in addition to strata doubtfully assigned to this period on Iho Atlantic border, there occur " true Jurassic strata full of eharacleristic fos- sils about tho Ulack Hills ami the Laramie Mountains, and also at the base of other ridges in the Ilocky Mountains." (/Mjt.i.) Tho palioontology of the .Turassio is of exceeding inter- est to the student, who hero lin<ls himself on a border-land, with tho paIirr)/,oie typos of fossils, rapidly ilisuppearing on Ihe one haml, and on the other forms appearing wliieh usher in existing life, and amidst all a fauna thoroughly oharaoteristio of Mesozoic times. Every great group of •As recorded In Western ICurope auJ Great Britain. Portland stone. Portland sand. Kimmeridge clay. Coral rag and Cal- careous grit. Oxford clay. Keiloway rock. Cornbrash and Forest marble. Great Oolite and . Stonesfield slate. Fuller's earth. Inferior Oolite limestone. Upper Lias saml. TT , . lUpner Lias elav. Upper L.as. u|^|,g^ ^^j^ ,i,„^.. Stones. Marlstone. Middle Lias sands. Middle and bower Lias marls. Lower Lias lime- stones. (Wldte Lias lime- stone)? the animal kingdom is represented — marsupials (in the Stonesfield slate and Purbeck IJeds) ; birds (krc/i;ro;j/cT^x from iMidillo doliii-i; whilst reptiles at this time attain to their maximum development, Deinosaurians (^'c(YiV/o*rt»ri(« and -V^f/nAMrtid-H**) on the Jurassic lands; Enaliosaurians { IrhthffnHnnrus, PUsittsaitrns, and Pliosaurus), with croco- diles { Tffcosatirus) in its \vaters; pterodaetyles flitting through the air. Fishes, too, are abundantly represente(i by sharks {//i/bodus, Amtdtis, and Chiiufi-oidn), sturgeons (Chondrosteiitf) and a host of sauroiil and other ganoid forms. Amongst Mollusen, the cephalopodous Ammout'tcs and iiclefniiifCH are most abundant, as are also the genera Trrehratulfi and /i/ii/nrhourifd amongst brachiopods. Echi- noderms abound. Eneriuites amongst the crinoids have all but pnssed away, but their place is well filled by multi- tudes of Prntficrinitm, and in certain strata corals arc well represented. The most characteristic forms of the period are perhaps to be found in the Ainmonitida', litdenmilida?, and Pentucrinites. I'pon the whole, the Jurassic fauna would appear to have its nearest existing representative in that of our Australasian lands and seas; such forms as the marsupials, as Ventrarion and CftlliirhifticitH, as Triffonia and W'a/dhcinn'it. etc., appearing like the last descendants of Jurassic prototypes. EiiWAiin C. H. Day. Jurien ile la Gravi^re (Jean Uaptiste EnsroNn), b. in France Nov. I'J, islli; entered the navy in 1828; be- came captain of a corvette in 1841; was engaged in the Chinese war in command of the Bayonnaise ; was promoted to a full captaincy in ISoO : served in the IJlack Sea during the Crimean war ; was made rear-admiral Dec. 1, 1S55, and placed atthe head of a squadron in the Adriatic. In Oct.. 1861, he received the command of the squadron sent against Mexico in pursuance of the triple alliance between France, Englaml, and Spain, and as imperial commissioner adjusted with the government of President Juarez the famous treaty- of Soledad, which was repucliated by Napoleon ILL Ilo became vice-admiral in 1 S(il?. and has written several works, tho most esteemed of which is the Voymje en Chine (1854). Jlirieu'{PiEimi;),b. atMer, in Orleanais, Dec. 24, 16;i7 ; studied theology at Redan : visited Holland and England, and succeeded his father as pastor of the Reformed church of his native city. In 1071 he was appointed professor of Hebrew and theology at the academy of Sedan, but when this institution was broken up in H)8I by the Jesuits, and ho himself put uncler persecution for his Ln Ptilltique dn CUrifi' de France^ he si)ught refuge in Holland, and was elected pastor of the Walhton chureli in Uotterdam, where ho d. Jan. II, 17i-t. In spite of his restless and irritable spirit, which drove him from one controversy into another, ho was of groat aid ami ciimfort to the Protestant (?hurch in France, and among his numerous writings there arc many of great value, as, for instance, liintnirv, Crltiqut: den Doifvim rt dm Ciifita {IHH) and Uintoirc du Culvinismc et duPnpi^iiic (iOSL'). JuriNdic'tion [Lat.], in law, is tho power possessed by a person or body of men to dispose of a cause or question judicially. It may originate, as it has often done in Eng- land, from long usage, or it may be cimferred, as it usually is in this country, by statute or by constitutional provision. Jurisdiction may bo either convurmnt or crclit*iiie. By this distinction is meant that sometimes two or more courts, in- difi'erently, may entertain a cause, while in other cases it can be disposed of by one alone. Thus, an inferior court, c. I/., a justice of the peace, frecjuently lias concurrent juris- diction with a superior court of minor causes. The action may accordingly be c<iniuienced in either. An instance of exclusive jurisdiction is that of a ]irobate court in deter- mining the existence and validity of a will. .lurisdietiun is also original and appellate. It is iniginai when a court entertains Ihe cause in the tirst instance, appellate when it is brought from another court. Again, jurisdiction may be either of the subjtct- matter or of the jierson. The court may, for example, have general p<i«ei tvcr the subject, but it nniy not bo presented in such a way Iliat its authority can be exercised. Where jurisdiction does n<d exist the act of passing judgment is wholly inoperative and void. Thus, if a State court should pass upon a (juestion which is re- served by the U. S. Constitiilion exclusively for the Fed- eral tribunals, its jmlgment would be without effect. An instance wonhl be the assumption of the functions of a court rif admiralty. It is not necessary, where there is a total want of jurisdiction, to raise the question by an ap- peal from Ihe decision. It may be shown to be of no avail in a whrdly independent and collateral proceeding. Thus, if a person were sentenced for a criminal offence by a court having no jurisdiction, ho might bo discharged on a writ of hithniH ctn'f»is. This power to declare tho judgment of a court a nullity is one of great delicnoy, and shouM be exercised with nuich caution. Still, in a clear case there should be no shrinking 147^ JURISDICTION. from ita use, as otherwise much injustice may be done. A distinction has been taken aa to the presumption of juris- diction between au inferior and a sn])erior eourt. It has been hiid down as a rule that "nothing shall he intended to be out of the jurisdiction of a superior court except that which specially appears to be so; on the other hand, noth- ing; shall be intended to bo witliin that of the inferior court unless it bo expressly so alleged." In determining to which partieuhvr class a court belongs, it will ho necessary to con- sider the statutes and usages of the particular State in which the case arises, especially as to such courts as surrogates', general sessions, and justices of the peace. A court may have a limited jurisdiction, such as the circuit or district court of the U. S., and not be an *' inferior" court within the meaning of this rule. Eren as to the shperior courts, the presumption of jurisdiction may bo rebutted by proof to the contrary, unless, having jurisdiction under a certain state of facts, its record contains a recital of those facts, in which case the record, by a technical rule of law. is not to be contradicted by extrinsic evidence. Wherever the record expressly or by implication shows that the court proceeded without jurisdiction, there is no presumption in its favor, and its acts are plainly void. The rule also fails of application when the court proceeds in the exercise of some special statutory authority ; for as to this, it is deemed to be an inferior rather than a superior court. When the case is one of an " inferior court," another set of rules pre- vails. Thecourt cannot obtain jurisdiction by deciding that the conditions precedent to the rights to hear and determine the matter in hand exist, when in fact they do not. The most that can be said in any case is that its decision is npjiarently correct, hut tho facts may be disproved by ex- trinsic evidence. Thus, a board of assessors having power to tax residents of a town could not gain junsdietion over a non-resident l.iy deciding that he was a resident, when he was not so in fact. So, in any case where the record of an *' inferior" court docs not show upon its face the ex- istence of the facts necessary to give jurisdieti<m, they are presumed not to have existed, though extrinsic evidence may be offered to the contrary, and the jurisdiction thus be upheld under these rules. If a court-martial should a^isess a fine without giving tho accused au opportunity to be heard, the decision will be wholly void : the court would in such a case have no jurisdiction over the person. The same rule would be applied to a magistrate having power by statute to issue a warrant or an attachment under spe- cial circumstances that were not complied with. Where a judge acts wholly without jurisdiction, his decision may not only be disregarded by other courts, but ho may render himself liable to an action for damages at tho suit of the party injured. This question of want of jurisdiction is frequently pre- sented where an attempt is made to enforce in the courts of one State the ju<igment or de(;rec of tho courts of an- other State. The U. S. Constitution provides (art. iv., § 1) that full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial jtroceodings of every other State, and Congress is empowered to prescribe the manner in which such acts and proceedings shall be proved and tho effect thereof. Under tiiis provision the court of tho one Slate m.ay inquire into the jurisdiction of the eourt of the other State, and refuse to recognize a judgment rendered without jurisdiction. The Constitutional eluuse assumes that there ia a record to which recognition can be given ; and a professed judgment rendered without jurisdiction is in fact no judgment. There must be jurisdiction both of the subject nuitter and of tho person. Accordingly, if judgment was obtained against a defendant in one State without notice, it could not be enforced against hiui as a judgment in the courts of another State, as the court acted without juris- diction over his person. It would bo immaterial though the courts of the State where the judgment was rendered deemed it valid. A judgment of this kind may sometimes, by force of statutory provisions providing notice by means of newspaper publication instead of that which is personal, have a local effect when it is wholly discarded in other States for want of true jurisdiction over the person. This question frequently arises in the case of an action for total divorce. If one of tho parties, having become domiciled in one State, obtains a divorce from tho other in his ab- sence and without personal notice, the judgment maybe valid by the local law of the State where it is rendered. and yet not he recognized in another State, on the ground of want of jurisdiction. If. on the other hand, the absent party had appeared and submitted to the jurisdiction of the court, the judgment migbt have been valid in both States. A like question may arise as between the courts of different nations. Thus, the Knglish courts will, as a general rule, recognize as conclusive a judgment rendered in the courts of an American State where the latter has full jurisdiction over tho subjcot. Assuming, what is doubtful, that this rule would be applied there to an action in this country for divorce from an English marriage, still, if an Knglishnum, dissatisfied with hi.-j marriage relations, should leave Kngland and acquire a domicile in one of our States, tho wife still remaining in England, and obtain a divorce valid by its laws, the English courts would not rec- ognize its existence on account of the defect of jurisdiction. It is scarcely necessary to add that questions of jurisdiction thus become of great practical moment in the administra- tion of justice of various states or nations under the rules of private international law. Under the jurisprudence of the U. S. government, the judicial power is prescribed in the Constitution. It is. for most purposes, left to Congress to determine in what courts it shall bo vested. It is, however, providecl that there shall be a supreme court, and that it shall have oriijiual jurisdiction in two classes of cases — one in all cases affect- ing ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, and the other in which a State shall be a party. In all other cases the court shall have ap])ellate jurisdiction, with such exceptions and under such regulatiims as Congress shall make. The effect of this provision is that Congress can- not confer upon the supreme court "original "'jurisdiction in any other cases than those tliat arc expressly mentioned. This is an instance of au ap])iication of the rule that tho expression of tho power in one case is an exclusion of it in all other eases. '• Original "jurisdiction in all other cases to which the judicial power of the U. S. extends must be exercised, as far as Federal tribunals are concerned, by some of tho "inferior" courts referred to in the Constitu- tion as within tho power of Congress to establish. (See Constitution, U. S.) It cannot, however, be claimed that the supreme court of the U. S. cannot exercise appellate jurisdiction in the two classes of cases in which its juris- diction is original. Thus, a State may be a party in a State court to a proceeding in which the validity of tho laws of Congress may be involved, and the case mny be appealable on thnt ground. The fact that it was a party would be no hindrance to tho appeal to the supreme eourt of the U. S. In fact, there are two general grounds on wliieh a case may be brought before a U. S. couit, one being the nature of the case, and the other the presence of a particular party. The fact that the presence of a party makes a case one for original jurisdiction does not prevent I the exercise of appellate jurisdiction where that depends ! on the nature of the case. I Tho jurisdiction of a State court may or may not be prc- I scribed in a State constitution. Where it is. an act of the ', legislature extending or abridging its jurisdiction in op- position to the coustituiional provisions will be void. Where there is no constitutional direction, the whole matter is within the control of the Stale legislature, which may in that case erect and abolish courts at will, and parcel out their jurisdiction according to its pleasure. Though such an abolition of a court shoulil displace judges who held office for a specified term, no legal objection would stand in the way, as nocontntct is created between the State and the judges en- suring their continuance in office for the designated period. Somo suggestions may be useful as to the question \vhether consent of parties will confer jurisdiction. It is manifest that a judicial tribunal cannot be created by consent. If parties should in the most solemn form agree that they would submit a question to a tribunal created by them- selves, tho most that their unaided act would amount to would be to appoint an arbitrator and to give him author- ity to make an award. (See Awakp.) Under the same gen- eral view it may be shown that it is impossible by consent to extend the powers of an existing court to subjects over which the law gives it no control. While these jiositions are true as to jurisdiction "over the subject-matter" of a cause, they cannot be applied with the same breadth to juris<liction "over the person." It is frequcnllv the case that general power to decide a question exists if the par- ties are properly before the court, and the law jirescribes a jiartieular mode of bringing them there. If that mode is not observed, regularly the court has no jurisdiction. In such a case, if a party waives an observance of tlio pro- scribed mode, and voluntarily takes part in the action, tho court may, upon the consent thus given, entertain the case. This view could not bo taken of a case where tho court could not, by the most strict adoption of regular forms of jirocedure, acquire jurisdiction. An illustration is found in the jurisdiction of a State court over a foreign consul. The U. S. Constitution for public reasons withdraws the consul as a defendant from the State courts. He can- not, accordingly, be sued there by his consent. There is here no question of an adoption of regular forms. Tho State court has nothing to do with the case, anrl can no more acquire jurisdiction over the person of the consul by his consent than it could obtain the right to dispose of an admiralty cause in tho same manner. T. W. JDwight. JURISPRUDENCE. 1479 Jurisprn'dence is both the philosophy and the gcience of IttW. Lttto. as the subject-matter of jllrit^p^ude^ce, is the body of rules reguliiting the rchitive rights and duties of meu in society, declared and politically enforced by public authority. As a branch of pbUogophy, jurisipnidmco is coucfrned with the origin of law, its nature, and its con- nectiou with the other phenomena which make np the uni- verse. As a science, it classiGes into system the body of our knowlcilgo acquired by a study of its actual develop- ment and lii.slory, aud traces the principles wliioli eonnect its various results. As philonuphij, it teaches the theory of all p05!>ible law ; as science, it teaches the facts and priuci- p1e«i nf all actual law. Jurisprudence, regarded as a whole, comprises not only a stiidv of what the law is and ha.-J been, but of what it would bo if the principles to be extracted from it were correctly worked out. It permits us to test those principles themselves by a standard external to them — by our abstract notions of what is right and reasonable, by our observation of what is useful, by the visible wants and tendencies of society. " It may be said of laws, that mankind have but one iatCt though every nation has had its otcn si/st^in of /film. For positive law is not essentially a simple collec- tion of isolated rules and ordinances, arbitrary or conven- tional in thrir nature, but it is a system, exhibiting, nmid all its variations in time and jilaco, invariable aud tixod principles and relations, whicii constitute the foundation or identical part of all laws; that is to sav, universal or natural law." (2 Lmv lin: and Mofj. (Lon'd.), N. S. ;VIK.) ** For as reason and reflection arc natural to man, and are as important parts of his nature as the highest of its in- stincts, so laws fiiunded on the right exercise of that rea- son are natural laws in the best aud highest sense of all." (l)uke of Argyle, Ueif/n of Laic.) The nature of man as a rational and moral creature points out the ends and objects of his existence on earth, and the means furnished by external nature by wbiidi, in the exercise of his activities in society, they may bo at- tained, and in the progressive exercise lof these activities establishes the- various relations which bind together and olassifv mankind in a social order. Arising out of the na- ture of men, and its relation to the phy,«ical and moral universe, and developed in history in the progressive cul- ture of the race, jurisprudence may be traced and studied both ilefinrtirfilif and hiatoricnUy. The conclusions reached by this double analysis, and reconciled, constitute the sci- ence. Law and government ajipear as facts in human his- tory simultaneously. They never exist apart, and from their nature cannot; it being the very office of government to declare and enforce law, aud law, consisting of those rules of conduct which are enforceable and actually enforced by that puljlic autliority embodied in government. Law and goveriimont are therefore correlates. Each inijilies the other. From the simplest to the most complex political organizations — the family, the tribe, the nation — as society di'velops historically, law in always present; but in the logical order its itlea is ])ri<)r, for governments exist in order that law may be declared and enforced. The study of human nature gives rise to the conception of a mornf ordrr, the realization of which constitutes man's hi;;host good, and the pursuit of which employs all his ac- tivities. It etmstitutes the flnnl cnntr of niairs existence, the purpose and perfection of his being, his end and des- tiny. Whatever conforms to that moral order is rirfht ; whatever violates it is tcrnnij. .Subsidiary to that concep- tion of universal moral order, and forming parts of it, through the me<lium of which in combination it is to be realized, are subordinate conceptions of the liuiium reoson declaring and defining the relations of men with each other in society, of men with each other in relation to external nature, and to the universe of things, material, intellectual, and moral. I4lus(rations of these are coneei>ti<tns of the family, the state, of property, of contract, etc. To conform to that universal moral order — that is, to do whatever is riijht and avoid whatever is trrontf — the nature of man recognizefl as his t/ultf : which at the same time ho is eon- seious, by virtue nf Ihe /rrftltun r,/ hit* trill, that he may choose not to perform; the exercise of which, in that way, however, ho feels to be the brea'di of an uhfiffntinn. The conception of this moral order bin'Iing him, as iv rational free agent, to its observance. i« lh»; idea of jnorah'hf, the rule.-* of wbieh. analyzed and clussified. constitute Ihe sci- ence of cfhim ; and those rule»i. habitually practised, are named rirtura, their hahitual violations, vicm. Among virtues we find that of yiMfiV*-, which is <lefined to bo thr htihifunl itiiifuniifiitn to render errrif innn hin ilnr ; and those claims, whatever they may be, which bebdic to man as matters of justice are called ritjhi». The dutic* resting on all t(t render to each his rights are called nhfitjatiintu, the violation of them, irron//* .- the relations between men thus established arc distinguished as Jural. Rights differ from other moral claitna of men upon each other in this — that the latter are duties, depending for their fulfilment altogether upon the fjood- will of those bound by them; the former carry with them a claim to be en/m-icd In/ phi/itirfit cntnpnhion. But as the mind of man is not the suhject of physical force, the ritjhtH which are susceptible of being enforced must be such only as constitute claims upon the rxtcrnaf conduct or orcrt ovts of others; but fur the purpose of delcrmiuiug the vioml (fua/iti/ of these it often becomes necessary to investigate the inrntal condi- tions of the agent at the time of their commission, as in questions of motive, intention, negligence, sanity, intoxica- tion, nonage, etc. And the phy.sJca! Ibrce required for Iheir enforcement is furnished by the pnldir authoriti/, repre- senting the rfttionnf irifl of the community in the adminis- tration of law. That puhlic authorltf/. organized in every separate, indepemlent community constituting a slate or nation, is its ])0litical and civil government; and to it is referred the determinati(tn, from time to time, in each suc- cessive stage of its hislorj", of the question, \Vhat are the juMt and natural untral claims of each member of society upon all which it will enforce as lc(/al rights? and its dec- larations to that effect are the ponitivc laws of that fitatr. The supreme public authority inherent in every inde- pendent state or nation, whereby it organizes its political and civil government, is called nortrei'/nti/; aud the mode in which the government exercises the powers of sover- eignty is its constitution. There are no Icffnl limitti to sovereign power, for it declares what the law is ; it is boun<I only by moral restraints, but the constitution of a state may impose Ifjal limitatimiH upon the government; and this gives rise to public or constitutional lair. There is, however, a supreme law which binds and re- strains the sovereignty of imlividual Htatvx. It is the law of natimis, or international law. It consists of a body of rules regulating the relative rights and duties of inde- pendent nations in that mutual intercourse denmnded by the progressive advancement of human society. It is the application of the right reason and cultivated conscience of mankind to the relations of men orgiinized into sepa- rate and inde])endent communities and as subjects of dis- tinct national sovereignties. It is developed by diplomatic discussions and state pa]>ers; by the decisions of judicial tribunals in private controversies, where the litigants have no common municipal sujicrior; by the treatises of jihil- osophical jurists; aud is cmbodierl in a traditionary code of international usage and tlie modifying legislation of treaties and conventions. It is not, as has sometimes been said, without a Honction; for, although sovereign nations recognize no common superior with power to prescribe the rules of their conduct, nevertheless each sovereign is a public aulhorily which by resort to the ultima ratio of just war, is entitled, according to tl»o public oi)inion of the civilized world, to enforce the commands of international law; any breach of which, though directly injurious to but one, is also an offence against the rights and pence of all. Kach individual meinlier of human society is under a moral necrsHiti/ — that is, owes the duty by the rational ex- ercise of his wilt — to conform to the universal moral order Ijy the habitual observance of all the rules of morality and the practice of those virtues which constitute the ideal ex- cellence of life and character; and is Iherefore not only entitled, but required by the eonstittition of his nature, to employ the means necessary to enable him to perform (hat duty. The means to this end are furnisheil by the organi- zation of mankind in society, and the materials for its de- velopment providcil by the material universe with which he is placed in contact or connection. IJut both duties — to attain the end and use the means — rest cffualli/ on all ; and the liberty of each man's will in the pursuit of his highest good is limited by the j)roper exercise of the wills of all others. The harmony of this coexistence is the establish- ment of civil and nacial f»rder, which is the sphere and scope of human freedom, personal, civil, and political, being tihrrti/ regulated by law, the principle of which is Cf/ualiti/ in right. The perfection of civil order, it is manifest, therefore. consists in the largest liberty of iudiridual action compati- ble with the etinal lilicrttf of all others — that is, compatililo with the general gnnd .■ and the question requiring solution in every case as it arises or is foreseen, is. To what extent is the ]>ubIio authority justified in ituposing jibysical restraint upon, or applying physical coercion to, individual action? Il has been fnuiid impossible hitherto to announce any principle which will theoretically answer that question for all rases. There lias been found, indeed, as yet, no com- mon agreement asto the true principle on which the publio authority intervenes forcibly at all. Some ground it on the principle o? self' difrncf,- sonie, on the pri'ser^ atioii of the Hiatus </ui>: some, on the abstract nature and quality of rights as enforceable; some, by the application of the 14.su JURISPRUDENCE, MEDICAL. maxiiSr " Do as you would be done by ;" others, by the principle that any one may prevent what will make his physical condition less comfortable than it is by nature: but the opinion most Ecenerally received is. that the proper limit of the law, as the applied or threatened public force, is in every case a C)uestion to be determined by the viifti- vntcd ycnson and cnlifjhtcned conact'ence of mankind, testing and correcting their conclusions hy protfrcHsht experience as it advances in civilization, resorting to crpcdi^nct/ and utidtt/, not as the standard and measure of truth, but as its evidence and confirmation, seeking the perfection of man in the historical realization in human society of ideal jus- tice. Consequently, every system of civilized jurisprudence will be found to contain two elements — one deduced by the public reason from the general principles of natural justice ; the other dogmatically fixed by recognized custom or by express legislation, and affected by the peculiarities of national character, history, and situation. The latter is arbitrary, accidental, and positive ; the former is its rational element and unchangeable foundation. " It would be hard," say-* Burke, " to point out any error more truly subversive of all the order iintl beauty, of all the peace and happiness, of human society than the position that any body of men have a right to make what laws they please, or that laws can derive any authority whatever from their institution mereli/, and independent of the quality of their subject- matter. . . . AN human laics tire, properly spealdn;/, oulif derltiratori/. They may alter the mode and application, but have no power over the substance of original justice." Jurinpi-mh^nee, then, is distinguished from rthirs as a part is from the whole, being one of the branches of that larger and more comprehensive department of human knowledge. On the other liand, its own province includes — l.Xatural Laic, or that theory of human relations, and the rights and obligations implied in them, deducibic from the nature of man and of the things around him, and of which his social and individual advancement require the enforce- ment, if necessary, by physical power. 2. International Lair, or that body of rules deduciljle from the relations of man, organized into separate and independent communi- ties, and which are applied (1) to regulate the intercourse of sovereign states, and of which the ultimate sanction is just war; (2) to determine the rights and obligations aris- ing between individuals considered as subjects of separate sovereign jurisdictions, by juiUcial tribunals acting and deciding on private controversies. The former is called public international law ; the latter, private international law. .3. Public or Constitutional Law, or that body of cus- tomary or enacted rules which form the frame of jiolitical government or constitution of the state, prescribing the divisions of political power, the functions of public author- ities, and the relative rights and duties of the national government and the subjects of its jurisdiction. 4. ^fnnici~ pal Law, or the domestic law of particular states, prescrib- ing the relativerightsandobligationsof all persons subject to its jurisiliction as members of that separate community. Examples of this are to be found in the Roman law, con- spicuously called the ciril law, which forms the base of the civil rights and duties of a large number of modern states, in which it has been preserved since tlie days of the supremacy of the Roman empire; and the common law of ICu'ifaud, which consists chiefly in a body of principles applied in the historical development of the Knglish people, emhoilicri in traditional customs, deduceil by judicial prac- tice aiul decision, by the application of reason to the varied ami multiplying relations of men and things in a commu- nity remarkable for vigorous and continuous growth, and from time to time supplemented by express legislation. The canon law also constitutes part of the municipal law of those states where it is or has been recogniz-ed. being originally a body of rules established by the ecclesiastical authority of the Christian Church, acting with civil power over certain matters claimed by it to he, hy reason of their spiritual nature, exclusively within that jurisdiction, but since, in accordance with more enlightened views as to the true division of the civil and spiritual authority, adopted by the civil power of the state as part of the bodj' of its miinieipal law. Under the head of municipal law is to be found the whole body of authoritative rules regulating the prrHonal status <>( the individual members of the state, and the relations annexed to and growing out of it, with the corresponding rights and obligations, such as husband and wife, parent and child, etc. ; also the relations of men to one another as constituted by contract, property, and all those civil relatitms which arc based on their mutual inter- course. A large part of every such system becomes law by the unconscious ()peratinn of social instincts, growing into hahitual observances, thus forming what is known as cns- tnmarjf law, which becomes scientifically developed by a long series of judicial decisions, making new applications of recognized principles, discovering new principles hy the analogy of reason, and supplied as necessity or convenience requires by the express aid o^ letjislation. When the mass and body of municipal law thus built up has grown enor- mous, confused, and unwieldy, a comprehensive legisla- tion reduces it to the written form of a code, such as those of .Justinian and Napoleon, on which, as on a new foun- dation, the work of development begins again. Consult Droit Xaturcl, Henri Ahrens (Lcipsic, 1868); Philosophic dn Droit, Lcrminier i Paris. 185;i); Political Ethics, Fr. Lieber; luf/uiries. Elementary and JUntorical, in the Science of Law, Jas. Reddie (London. IS47); Princi- ples of Jurisprudence, I). C. Heron (London, 1873); Ele- ments of Jun'iiprndence,C J. Foster (London, 1863); Sphere and Duties of Government, William Humboldt, Tr. Jos. Coulthard (London, 1854): Inquirira in International Law, Puhlic and Private, Jas. Reddie (Edinburgh, lS.jl) ; Prin- ciples and Maxims of Jurisprudence, J. G. I'hillimorc ( Lon- don. 18J0); Two Treatises on Government, John Locke (London, 1821); Universal Jurisprudence, J. P. Thomas (London, 1828) ; St/stem of fnirersal Law, neincceius. tr. Turnbull (London. 1703); Doetrina Juris PhiloHophica, Warknnig (18.30); Phihsophia Juris, Warkiinig (1855); Vocatif}nof onr Affc f'or Leytslation and Jurisprudence, Sa- vigny, tr. llayward (London, 1831) : Lorimer's Institutes of Law (Edinburgh, 1872); Ancient Law, Sir Henry Sum- ner Maine; Province of Jurisprudence, etc., Austin; Spirit of Laws, Mfuitesquieu : Jurisprudence, H. S. M. Phillips (London, ISr>3); Westlake's Private lutemafionul Law; Phillimorc's International Law; Lawrence's Wheaton's In- ternational Law. Stanlky Matthews. Jurisprudence, Medical. This is the name given to a science of comparativHy recent origin, and which forms a syncretism of law with medicine. Its boundaries in the physical world are coextensive with the whole ficlil of natural history, while in law, although more largely relat- ed to the domain of crime or public hygiene, its assistance is often required in cases involving the application of chem- istry to the mechanic arts. It is also designated unforensic, juridical, or state medicine, and is defined as the science which treats of the application of the laws of nature to the administration tf justice and the preservation of the public health. Nearly all the physical sciences contribute to the wants of this new sister, while with an equally wide range it enters into the myriad channels of municipal law, and follows human relations in all their phases, whether per- sonal, domestic, or social. The apj)Iicntion of medical jurisprudence to the admeasurement of physical facts affecting the civil or criminal responsibility of jiersons amounts practically to this only, that medicine furnishes the lights of her experience, and law applies them accord- ing to the established rules of her tribunals and under the equities of each particular case. Medicine furnishes the principle, law the rule, for its application to the artificial relations of civil life: unci thus, without collision or con- flict, each science treads its appointed path and perforins its required part in human government. Some idea of the range over which experts may have to travel in order to decide problems in medical jurisprudence will be had from enumerating the various sciences into whose (iehis these inquiries must enter. The first is natural philosophy in its restricted sense, and involving more particularly meteor- olof/y fiin\ its influences upon animal or vegetable life ; next, physical 'jcoijraphy and elimatolo;fy ; following these in all their various divisions and subdivisions come auatotny, pliysiolof/y, patholotfy, therapeutics, surf/ery, chemistry in its multiple relations, botany, hyijiene, and mental philoso- phy or psychofotjy. It is needless to say that no one can be equally proficient in all these sciences; and yet without some knowledge of the general principles of each, and of their nomenclature, a medieal jurist would fail at the very outset to know in which of all these fields he must lo'di for a rational solution of any problem committed to his judg- ment. Although, as before said, medical jurisprudence as a sci- ence is of comparatively recent origin, one of its depart- ments, that of public health, has always engaged the atten- tion of lawgivers from the earliest days of established governments. Among the Hindoos, and more lately among the Israelites, we have the best evidence from their religious coiles of the important part which it occupied in their cere- monial law. The frequent lustrations and isolations of the person enjoined as part of the habitual duty of all sectaries converted a physiological safeguanl into an act of worship, and thus protected the health of the community while ensuring that of the individual. For so urgent is the necessity of personal purification among a people ])ro- vcrbially unclean, and in a climate disposing to pestih-nce, that Mohammed required his followers to cleanse them- selves with sand wherever water could not bo obtaineil. From this incorporation of sanitary observances into the JURISPRUDENCE, MEDICAL. 14.S1 reJijjion of a country, it followed that priests became the earliest oustodiaus of public health, and, it may bo truly said, the first mediea) jurists on record. The Jew?, with all their traditional re^pi-ct for the teachings of llie !*cnta- tcuch, and their adherence to the tabernack; ritual of their reIi;*ion. do not appear to have followed its injunctions as closely in their domestic life as consistency would demand. Much that was cimmanded by Moses is now practically ignored, and Leviticus has given place to modern science and household convenience. In striking contrast to this is the still enduring imperative of Brahma, for even at this day in India caste is forfeited by touching articles forbid- den in the religious code, and the priest among the Hin- doos remains in many senses the supreme lawgiver, as in age? past. It is not difficult to conceive that a people a? enlightened a? the ancient Egyptians must have had canons of medical police by which to guide their civil life. According to He- rodotus, they had laws regulating marriage and the relations of the sexes: distinguishing between mortal and dangerous wounds in order to affix penalties; prescribing modes of eml)ahning an'l interring the dead ; and in other respects maintaining what would now be called a system of sanitary and criminal police. Nor, after reading the ordinances of Lycurgiis. or the physical rubrics laid down by Pythagoras and Plato, need we ask whether they had studied the laws of our bo»!iIy life. Both these philosophers be- lieved anri taught that medicine was a branch of legisla- tion. Beyond this, however, there is nothing to show that anything approaching to a distinct sictcnce of forensic med- icine was ever conceiverl by them. No union of the prin- ciples of law and medicine appears in the jurisprudence of Greece, for, except in questions of public disease or medical police, medical men were not oflen consulted by the tribunals of that country. The chief concern there was to secure a robust population capable of bearing arms, and in their prevalent ideas as to tlic best mode of per- fecting the human species they were led to the barbarous practice of abandoning delicate infants and rearing only strong ones. Kveu Plato advises that children with diseases of inheritance should be left to chance f<ir their future development. To perfect this dogma of their polit- ical economy, and to provide for the health of cities and camps, formed about the entire scope of slate medicine in Greece. The opinions of Hippocrates and Aristotle on a few s\ibjects relating to the sexes and to wounds express all thai was practically tised at that day. Nevertheless, so much is there in the authority of a name that many of tho principles of the canon law, as formerly recognizeil in the ccclesinstienl courts of Kurope. were unf|nestionably found- ed upon the teachings of Aristotle, whose Organon was the Bible of tho schools of philosophy dowD to the time of Bacon. In passing to Rome we meet at once a superior character of legislation. A later age and a more advanced knowledge of the duties ()f munieif>al government to its citizens placed medical police on a higher plane of action and of authority. As early as the rcien of Numa Pompilins a law was enact- ed which was intendecl to proteet the life of an heir by re- quiring mfdic*al assistance to be summoned in all cases of (iilhoiilt labor, and forbidding the burial of a pregnant woman until th«-' fo'tus should first have been extracted. And such was the eontrolling influence of (ireek philosophy in legislation that in the Puntl*cU of Justinian, whore va- rious titles are arranged referring to crimes, physical de- formities, anil questions of legitimacy, courts were instructed not to bo guided by the judgment of living physicians, but to form their opinions exclusively '* tipnn thf nuthon'ti/ of the mont frarn'rfi //ipporrafm." Yet the existence of nn nrrhinlfi- or stale physician, who was himself both physi- j eian to the court and the acknowledged head of the nied- ] ieal profession, must have imparterl to his opinion great ■ weight with the judges, notwithstanding the institutional i reverence for Hippocrates. According to Tacitus, the bod- ies of (lermanicufl and .Agricola were medically examined, and in the former slight traces of poison were found; but as the specific signs thereof arc not given, we are left to conJTture how, in the absence of chemical knowledge and familiarity with tho characteristic pathology of such cases, any rational judgment could have been arrived at in the premises. N^r. again, are xtc informed at whose command the autopsy was made, and whether the samn was under- taken as part of n judicial inquisition info the euuso of their suilden death. Probably, autopsies upon private in- dividimls were not infrequent under similar cireumstanees of death, but if so. we have no sufficient record to make it the basis of any inference of their judicial eharai-li-r. In the wbirlwincl of savage customs which ruleil Kuropo during the Hark Ages legal medicine could hope for no positive recognition. In its stead, ordeals by fire, water, or the judicial combat were introduced as so many direct interrogations of the Deity. Human responsibility was judged, even before courts of justice, by the haphazard results of chance, and superstition usurped the ]>laoo of reason. But inai^much as it is easier to adopt a system of laws than to frame one, the wiser conquerors of Home were not slow in availing themselves of the rules of her juris- prudence. They drew largely froni it. nor did they ever cease paying that homage to her laws which they hail so emphatically deuied to her empire. It would not be dilTi- cuU to show that the Roman law had authorized the calling of physicians before courts in cases requiring expert testi- mony ; and finding tho same rule prevailing in the juris- prudence of the O.«trogoths in Italy ami of riiarlemagne in France, it is easy to conjecture the source whence the rule was derived. This rnay be said to include the whole aspect of legal medicine as presented to us in the laws of antiquity, nor is the little progress shown by it there to be wondercil at when we reflect, that most of the jihysical sci- ences upon which rest its foundations had scarcely risen upon the horizon of human thought. No Harvey had yet shown that blood, in>;tead of air. circulated through the ar- teries; no Vcsalius had established a system of rational anatomy; no Boerhaave or Van Hclmont had yet explored tho mine of chemistry through which Priestley and ha- voisier were destined to descend into the very storehouses of nature. It is now generally admitted that the npplication of med- ical knowledge to jurisprudeuce, and the practical recog- nition of a science of forensic medicine, only commenced about the middle of the sixteenth century. The criminal code of tho Germanic empire, originating with Charles V., and enacted by the diet held at Ratisbon in 16.'!2, is tho first public recognition an*! the first legal application of the scienoc with which wc meet in mo'lern history. This cele- brated code enacts that physicians shnU be called by courts in all cases where death has been occasioned by violent means, whetiier accidental or criminal. One of the first and most notable fruits of this new authority given to medicine to enlighten jurisprudence was the speedy overthrow of many dominant superstitions, which had formerly fettered the public mind arnl cost tho lives of hundreds of innocent people. The literature of mcdijrval Europe on the subjects of witchcraft and demonology forms an instructive chapter in tlie history of luiinau opinion. Those who are curious to inform tbcniselves in this department will find no richer mine than in the pages of Hallam and (^almeil. Subsequent to the days of Charles V. the ordinances of the kings of France combined in the form of codes what had formerly been only customs, thus engrafting the common law of locality upon systems of positive enactments. In IGUli, Henry IV. gave letters patent to his chief surgeon, by which he was authorized to appoint two physicians in each town, who, in the nature of coroners, should investigate and report upon all cases of accidental death. In the English law the oflice of coroner was not originally given to physicians, this officer being the adjunct simply to the sheriflT in the government of counties. In U)(17, liouis XIV'. decreed by royal ordi- nance that in all criminal matters requiring reports, courts should be assisted by at least one of the physicians named Itv his chief surgeon. Of such binding obligation were all these ordinances that a decree of the Parliament of Paris in lGfi2, and of the Parliament of Dijon in ICSO. set aside judgments of inferior courts because they had been ren- dered without the intervention of medical experts. As a branch of instruction and a special science, medical jurisprudence is but a new-comer in the schools; and as its first teachers were physicians, so its first altars were erected in medical colleges. Inasmuch also ns its first seeds were sown in the bosom of the old civil law, so, too, those countries first cultivated it which had themselves derived tho foundations of their juri.-iprudenco from the same source. Haller's lectures on juridical me<Iicine, published in 17^2. indicate the establishment of a chair of instruction in (Jeriuany at a <lay when no similar in- struction was probably given in any of the European schools. In I "'.12 the first ]irofcssorslups of the seit-nco were created in France, and in l80;i the I'niversity of Edinburgh followed the example. In Englaml it would appear that no similar chair was established in any college until the year Is20. although in the t*. S. it had been made the subject of lectures as early os ISOJ. So far a< can now be ascertained, the first lectures on medical jurisprudence ever deliverctl in this ctumtry were given to the students of Columbia College, N. V., by Dr. James S. Stringliam. then professor of chemistry, in lStl4. This chair he filled until iiis death in 1SI7. when he was succeeded by Ihe late Dr. .Itdin \V. I'rancis. one of the most eminent physicians which our country has ever produced. Dr. I'raucis held Ihe chair until ISSfi. While Dr. Stringhom was delivering his lectures ou medical jurisprmleuce in Columbia College, Dr. Charles Caldwell gavo a courso upon the samo aiibjcot 14.S2 JURISPRUDENCE, MEDICAL. in Philadelphia during the winter of 1812-13, and in 1S15 Dr. Beck was called to fill a similar chair in the Western Medical Colle*;c. Since that time, aud advanced into prominence by Dr. Beck's encyclopaedic work npon the subject, foren.^ic medicine has been considered as part of a regular course of medical study, and many schools have accordingly intntduced it into their scheme of lectures, though generally as a subordinate branch and appendant to some established chair. At last, als-o, the law-schools have recognized it in many instances, and adopted it as an adjunct science, collateral to, and not in the main line of, required studies. Slowly and surely, however, it is work- ing its way to that eminent position which belongs to it in the interna! economy of government, since it is truly a part of the fiig iif-iiiinm or ucrcHnnr}/ law of every state, whether in its capacity of medical police or of forensic medicine. The philosophy of medical jurisprudence is founded in the necessity of frequently applying the laws of nature to the aclministration of justice, no less than in employing them in the preservation of the public health. In a large range of subjects it is occu])ied, therefore, with the consid- eration of topics that are, strictly sjieaking, exclusively medical in character. The law looks to, aud in fact em- ploys, forensic medicine as, in every sense, an tnniciis ci/nV, and as a counsellor retained not in the interest of one party, but in that of justice generally: and the philosophy of this science, as it has gradually been unfolded, has shown the essentially legal necessities upon which it rests. Its duty, like that of equity, is to soften the rigors of the law wher- ever particular instances are shown to merit some modifi- cation in the application of universal principles to them, or some light not attainable from any other source than nature is needed to determine the just limits of human responsibility whether for crime or private wrong. In this way, forensic medicine forms an auxiliary branch of municipal law, affording both circumstantial evidence and skilled opinions upon the inferences to be judicially drawn from such evidence. M'hiie, as we have before seen, it treats of the whole realm of nature so far as it applies to man in society and to govt-rnment as the arbiter of human difTercnces. it is usual for convenience* sake to classify its subjects into divisions founded upon their practical appli- cations. The following is a synopsis of these topics in their legal aspects and under the complexion they assume before courts. It will be seen that they may all be arranged into distinct groups, belonging either to Medirnl Evid*:uce^ Mcdiml Ptifice^ Leynl Cfiemietrt/. or Pnycholorjif. This differentiation of topics implies also ihtit rjenera I medical knowledge does not necessarily furnish the special jiro- ficiency in each department required to constitute any physician an expert in it. Spfti'tlinta are recognized in all departments of science, and to them exclusively belongs the right of testifying as ex|>erts in their own field. Hence, even an eminent physiciiin may be no expert in some branches of surgery, nor in the chemistry of poisons, or the arts, or in psycliology ; and this without detriment to his general professiimal standing. And upon these reasons rests the necessity of grouping the subjects with which mcflical jurisprudence concerns itself into such classes as may render them distinct specialties before courts, with speoiul witnesses to illuminate the tf)pics mooted in issue. /VrKo»«/ [dfiififif. — This is the birthright mark affixed by nature to all human beings. It is an individual pre- rogative which can neither he lost nor effaced. Being in- delible, it is ineradicaide. The philosophy of every age has recognized this as a jirimordial fact. Horace tells us that wo may expel Nature with a pitchfork, and yet she will return ; and Lord Bacon asserts that " Nature is often hiclden. sometimes overcome, seldom extinguished." The necessity at law of proving personal identity is of such a variable character as to render it im|>ossible to enumerate in arlvanee all the circumstances under which it may be- come indispensable to establish it. In homicide, burglary, arsnn, bigamy — in fact, in every variety of crime — the identity both of the perpetrator and the victim must be proved. In heirship, in payments of cheeks, and in scores of similar civil transactions, the same necessity often arises. The sources whence proofs of personal identity are obtained are such as belong partly to our physical and partly to our montal constitution. They consist of all those physical features, whether congenital or acquired, which can distin- guish one body frt>m another: such as nrj-, sfnhire, t/m't, compfcj-tnti, Offr, (lfmrn)u>r, voice. n>t:ut«il trails and cuft)ire, hnfiitx, ^rars, and dr/ormilt€«. Identification of the drad as well as the living is often necessary. This is of course more iliffirult in pro])ortion to the length of time the person has been drad. But even skeletons can be and have been iilentified when a sufficient amount of bones can he found to reconstruct by anatomical theory the missing parts. (Jreat skill is of course required for such an investigation, and in cases of homicide the proof of the cor^tw delicti should rest upon something more than conjecture. Unless an expert can prove the identity of the remains against all objections made thereto, his testimony should not be re- ceived as conclusive, since it cannot amount to certainty. Abortion. — The only signiticanee which abortion has at law is derived from its intent. There arc occasions when it is lawful to commit it as a medical necessity, to save the mother's life in preference to tliat of the foetus. Of this necessity physicians arc the only proper judges, and in order to purge the act from all suspicion it should bo per- formed as the result of consultation with and concurrent opinion of others. But whenever it is done without any pro-existing nu-dical necessity, and solely with the intent of destroying the child, it is a crime in the eye of the law. In some States no indictment for abortion will lie previous to quickening, but abetter knowledge of the physiology of ntero-gestation is undermining these dogmas of the canon law by showing that a child is just as much a living being hr/ore as after quickening ; and if the common law regards an infant in ntero as capable of inheriting an estate, it can- not in consistency refuse to regard its slaughter as the kill- ing of a human being. Nt-t only is abortion when crimi- nally accomplished a crime, but even the administration of drugs to pregnant women with intent to produce it, although unsuccessful, is a high misdemeanor. Infantieidr. — The killing of a new-born child is at law a crime, subject to the same rules of responsibility as belong to any other form of homicide. There are some peculiar difficulties in the way of obtaining precise evidence of live birth as a sine qua nun to the fact in issue. But when this is once established, and it is proven that the child had an independent existence of its own, then the crime can be subjected to the rules of ordinary evidence. Infanticide maybe of two kinds — viz. either hy omisninn to take neces- sary precauti<ms to protect the child against exposure, hun- ger, and accidents, or by comtnimiifni, meaning thereby the direct application of means feloniously employed for the purpose of destroying its life. In the former ease the mother may herself and singly accomplish it : in the latter, she may similarly act alone or with or through an accom- plice. It has also been held that it a child upon whom an act of abortion is commenced dies subsequently to birth from injuries received while in the womb, the act becomes a homicide. Live birth may exist at law without the child having breathed or the umbilical cord being severed, pro- vided only it be completely delivered from the mother's body and have an independent circulation of its own. Rape. — This crime consists in the carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and without her consent. In law, certain persons have no legal capacity to assent to such an act, and when done to them it is always unlawful in the perpetrator. Thus, children under ten years, idiots, and the insane can have no assenting minds, and assent is never presumed, not even in the unchaste. By carnal knowledge is meant sex- ual bodily connection. Force n)ay be either exprea* orim- pliid, the former implying any ilirect threats or personal violence; the latter, duress, either by moral fear, fraudulent imposition of person, deceitful representation of the nature of the act, magnetic sleep, anoesthesia, or narcotics. Im- potence of copula is a good plea in defence, but even a eunuch may commit this crime. So a husband may be an accessary to a rape committed upon his wife, and a man may be indicted for rape upon his own concubine, since at any time she may withhold her assent. But whether it is rape to have carnal intercourse with a demented woman at her own solicitation has been doubted. What consti- tutes want of will has been variously interpreted. It is agreed by all authorities that the resistance of any woman should be, so far as her condition will allow, sincere and continuous throughout the act. Imputence and Lcijifimaci/. — Marriage is at law a con- sensual contract entered into by two cumjietcnt jtarties for the purpose of procreating children. The natural basis of this contract is purely physical. Aside, therefore, from statutory regulations relating to evidence of such a contract having been entered into, each party is presumed to guar- anty his own physical compctcut-y to the other, and the absence of this, if shown to have existed at the time of the marriage, and to have been unknown to the other, consti- tutes /("»(/ to that extent. As fraud vitiates every con- tract into which it enters, it f(dlows that the marriage of an impotent person is voidable, provided no laches he shown in the party wronged. But inasmuch as impotence is a matter of experienre, and not necessarily one of infer- ence, the law requires the triennaiin cnhahitntio before it will entertain any suit for a nullity f<iundfd upon this fact alone. If one knowingly marries an unfruitful person, he can claim no remedy at law, nor can a party plead his own impotence as a ground for a sentence of nullity. The in- curability of the impotence must also be determined before any suit for nullity will lie. And if the impotent party J I'KLSI'IIUDEN'CE, MEDICAL. 1483 refuses surgical treatment, the act will be taken as pro con- ft»*Q (o the prayer uf the pctUiouer. It follows from the necessary consequences of marriage that children horn in wedlock have u pre-sunied character of letfitimarif which distinf^uishcs them from bastards, who are in the eye of the law the children of no one. and have no inheritahlp hlood. And so far is this doctrine pushed at common law that every child born in wedlock, no matter how sonn after the marriagn of its parents, is legitimate. But this presumption may bo rebutlccl by showing either the impotence of the husband or liis continuous absence from the country, with the simultaneous crim. con. of the wife. A mere probability of non-access by the husband is not sufficient to repel the presumption of Ici^itimacy. nor is his advanced n»e. It is not necessary for the party ob- jecting to the legitimacy to prove that access was inipos- ciblc, for if tlie evidence places it beyond all reasonable dnubt, it will he suffi<'icnt to repel the presumption. Whether, therefore, a child was begotten iu or nuf of wed- lock where the marriage precedes the birth, the presump- tion of paternity will be tiie same, and the like evidence is required to bastardize the issue. Tliat evidence is proof of non-acrrHit by the husband. Parents may testify to children being born out of wedlock, but a wife is not a competent witness to prove non-access of her husband and to bastardize the issue, even after such husband's death. WoltniiM. — The only legal aspect under which wounds can 1)0 considered is that whieh connects them with assaults terminating in maiming or homicide. Under tiie Knglish Statutes against tcoiiutl hit/ some very nice distinctions have been made touching the constituents of the offence, but these have not generally been ailopted in this country, our courts giving a wifier interpretation to the meaning of the terra, and treating the subject only in connection with such as- saults as are or have been fatal to life. The questions there- fore considered by them have been such as tended to show the probable criminal connection of certain wounds with death. To Ktate them briefly, thev are these: IHd death immediately follow the wound? AVas the wound in itself mortal? Wjis it the probable cause of death? What was the interval of time between the two? Did any disease of a mortal character meanwhile intervene and destroy the life of the patient ? and if so, was it induced by the wound ? Did the patient refuse medical treatment? or was the med- ical treatment unscientific ? and did it cause death ? What was the conilition of the patient previous to the wound? All the authorities agree that the party inflicting the wound is responsible for its immediate consequences : and even though a mortal disease was present, and the wound only accelerated thi; death, the act is still homicidal. PoigntiM. — Poisons, in legal significance, are substances which act not tjunntitativehf, but qunlitalirefif, to tile destruc- tion of health or life, by reason of their inherent deleterious properties. They are naturally noxious, and may bo classi- fied either chemically into mineral, vegetable, or aniumi, or physiologically, and according to their effects, into irritant, narcotic, or acrid-narcotic. Restricting ourselves only to their legal aspects, the questions to which they give rise befttrc courts are. like wounds, such as tend to show their criminal connection with a person's death. The evidence in such cases is largely mecjieal. although extraneous cir- cumstances may throw much light upon the problem of the alleged perpetrator; and such moral evidence is allowed, accordingly, its due weight. To constitute the offence of administering poison some portion of it must bo taken by, or applied to, Iho pers«>n of the one receiving it, but it need not be swallowed. So if poison intended for one person bo nccitlentally taken by another, it is still murder in the giver, for the intent of homicide inheres. Hence, whether the sub- stance he poisonous or nnt. |)rovidcil it be given with tbo intent to take lif(^. the act is felonious. And where death ensues from alleged poisoning, it is not necessary to prove the particular substance used, nor the quantity required to destroy lifr; nor is it necessary to prove that such a quan- tity was found in the body after death. It is sufficient if (he jury are satisfied from all the ciroumstances, and be- yond a reasonable doubt, that death was caused by poison administered by the prisoner. M<ifprnetirf. — It \» a time-honored principle of law that every professional man in offering his servieos as such to the public impliedly covenants to bring l(» their ilischarge the ordinary skill of his vocation. The public having no means of ascertaining this in advance of experiment, they may be saiti to contide in him of necessity, and any want of due qualification on his part is, to that extent, a fraud upon his employers. The errors committed by profi'snional men, whether due to trnnt nf mkiU or iiri/Htfenre, are termed mnf/irnctire, au"! for such they are amenable in damages to any person who has been injured thereby. From the diffi- culties inherent to the treatment of disease, mere errors of judgment are not considered malpractioe in themselves wherever the party has not otherwise offended by cither negligence or rash experiments. There may be. thus, mal- practice by omissiim as well as rommisnioti, but hoiU must be proved, for they cannot be inferred from acts turning alone upon diversities of medical practice. The law knows no difference between systems of medicine. All it requires in any practitioner is ordinary skill and a faithful discharge of the duties of such a ]icrson when employed to relieve the sick, for it does not consider his contract in general as one to cure, but simply to do all that his professional skill can accomplish towards promoting that result. Mrdirnl ICvidenre or Expert^. — In law there arc two classes of witnesses — viz. ordinttnf and sklflrti. The former testify to what they know; the latter give opinions upon facts in issue. To these witnesses the term expert is applied. An expert being, legally, one instructed by experience, it fol- lows that any person may he admitted to testify as such upon matters belonging to his profession. The range of scientific investigation being so vast in medicine, there has in consequence arisen a necessity for differentiating experts, and limiting the term alone, in any given case, to those who have had special experience in the department of practice under review. Hence, there are vhewinif experts, snrgtcnl experts, and speciu/ists in medical practice, who are better informed and better qualified to testify as such than gen- eral practitioners of medicine; and to them courts will give preference as experts. It is of course at times extremely difficult to draw the lino of distinction, but wherever it can bo it should be; for where men are equally proficient tlicro will be less opportunity for differences of opinion, and pos- itive contradictions of each other will form the excrption rather tlian the rule, as they so often do now. Experts may give opinions either upon direct or fufpi>thetictt/ facts, but not upon conclusions of law. They may refresh their minds from memoranda, but cannot use them as substitutes for memory, nor quote from professional books, nor give opin- ions upon the merits of any case. Lift; Insurance, — The only aspect under which medical jurispruilence considers life insurance is that which springs out of the suicide of the party insured. The question there being whether the party intended to fake his life in fraud of his contract with the insurers, and was a legally responsible being at the time, the whole problem turns upon the fact of his mental condition. If sane, then the act was felonious and the policy should be avoided : but if insane, then the act was not his in legal contemplation, but that of a being under the coercion of disease. All authori- ties agree that suicide of itself docs not prove insanity in the perpetrator. Consequently, we must look outside of the act and to the whole history of its victim to determine the probabilities of his mental state. Decisions have V>ecn very conflicting in the conclusions of law to which they have arrived, some permitting the moral responsibility of the suicide to weigh in the balance of justice, and some, again, ex(duding it. On the whole, however, the current of de- cisions, both in this country ami in England, has been steadily turning towards the exclusion of the element of moral responsibility, and narrowing it down to tlie simple questions of whether the party knew what he was doing, intcndeil to do it. and was not impelled thereto by diseaso — meaning insanity. Sinfivorsliip. — Whore two persons perish in a common calamity, it is often imptirtant to be able to determine which died first, with reference to the rights of succession to an estate. In order to solve su<*h a problem, many circum- stances of a purely physical character must be taken into account, relating to sex. age. strength, disease, season, and temperature, not omitting the peculiar form of death to which they were subjected. Many limes it is impossible to arrive at any satisfactory conclusion, and courts are ilriven to the necessity of advising a comjiromise between the parties, as in tlie celebrated case of (ten. Stanwix, where Lf»rd Mansfield said that ho knew of no prineiplo nf Iho common law by which the issue eonld be settled. The English law ban no provisions upon this subject, and borrows all its light from the civil law. The Coile Napoleon has devoted three sections to it, and given us all the modern statutory law wliich is possessed by any of Ihe continental nations. A very few eases only have been adjudged by our courts as yet, the subject being (d' infrequent mention even in textbooks. The most extensive nomnients upon it are to bo found in the fourth volume of Mr. [{urge's (\ifo- uifilnnd Fnreitfu A^mp, and to it we arcordingly refer (hoso who desire more information. The following are Ihe two divisions into whiidi all questions of surviv<uship may bo included: viz. 1st, a» to the survivorship of mother and child where both die during delivery: 2d, as to the sur- vivorship of persons of different ages and sexes perishing by a common accident. fnsiiuiti/. — This topic, under all its various legal aspects, will bo found treated id its appropriate alphabetical place. 14.S4 JURY, TRIAL IIY. There are other topics bclonginj^ to the domain of medi- cal jurisprudence, like vinbifiti/./ti/jued diseases, the Ctrtar- ia» «^' ti'H), hrrmaphrodiHm, deaths bif heat, sunstrokr. h'(/ht- niiiff, Ntnrvatiou, and cold, and HpontauenuH cnmbuHtion, which have few if any special legal aspects, and wc leave thcra accordingly to he discussed under their more appro- priate pliysical complexion. The topics we have reviewed in a Itrief and eomprclieiisive way are those upon which courts are most often called to adjudicate, and whose litera- ture is adorned by authoritative decisions defining the re- sponsibilities of parties niising issues under them. These decisions we have not cifed, because out of place in a popular encyclopaedia. They may easily be fonnd by re- ferring to digests and works on medical jurisprudence. .Inn\ Ordronaux. Jn'ry, Trial by. Jury trial in its modern form is cer- tainly a product of Knglish soeial and political forces. Although the new codes of several cuntinenta! states of Kuropu have professed to borrow it. they have materially modified its form, ha^■o confined its u^'o to certain classes of cases, and it is at best nn unnatural and sickly excres- cence upon their national systems of jurisprudence. In England and the T^ S. alone docs the jury flourish as an essential part of the fi<icial organization — as an institution arounil which all other means and modes of administration are grouped. The object of this article is briefly to de- scribe the origin of the jury trial, to state the nio?t import- ant steps in its course of devclojiment, and to give a gen- eral SLimmary of the rulea which regulate its use. The jury trial in its present matured form involves two very 'lifferent elements, each equally importnnt, but having no historical or tlicorctical connection. They are (1) t!;o decision of the facts in a judicial trial by a number of indi- viduals distinct and separate from tlio olTicial judgo or magistrate; and (2) the free choice of these individuals from among the mass of ordinary citizens. The Romans possessed the first of these features in their administration of justice: the origin of the second is to be found in f ho tribal customs of the {Jcrman peoples who overran the provinces of the Western empire, including the Angles and Saxons who settled in Britain. In the ''ordinary" jurisdiction of the Roman magistrates an action was brought before the pr;etor, the pleadings or allegations of fact were put in ac- cording to prescribed forms, the issue was joined, and the rule of law applicable to the case as thus presented was announced by him. With this proceeding the function of the court or magistrate ended. The cause was at that sta^c referred to another person — sometimes called Xha judex and sometimes the arbiter — who heard t!io evidence, passed upon the issues of fact, and rendered a decision in con- formity with the rule of law announced by the praetor. lie was not an official magistrate. A limitccl number of citi- zens seems to have been annually chosen in some manner to perform this duty, and from the class thus constituted one was selected for eaeh trial. In certain spcciiicd ac- tions sever.al triers of the facts were employed instead of tlie single judex, who were termed reeuperaforcf}, hut in what respect their functions differed from those of the judex is not known with any accuracy and certainty. The analogy between tlio entire course of proceeding in the "ordinary" actions of the Roman law and tho English common-law forms of action and jury trial was vcvy strik- ing: there was the same separation of the questions of fact from those of law. and the dceisian of the one by an official magistrate, and of t lie other by a lay tribunal having no offi- cial forensic status, but appointed for the very controversy submitted to it. This system of administering justice con- tinued in existence for several centuries, but the*'ordinary " jurisdiction of the magistrate gradually gave place to the "extraordinary." in which, like tho English etiancellor, ho decided all the issues of fact and of law in a single decree, without the intervention of any other assistant. Finally. by a constitution of the emperor Diocletian, the "ordinary" jurisdiction was abolished, and the trial of all causes was conducted in every stage tliereof before tho praitor or other judicial officer constituting the court. It is evident, therefore, that this important clement of the jury trial— the separation of tho law from tho facta, and the dual tribunal for their decision — was not borrowed from the Snxon ancestors of the English nation. On the contrary, tho German tribes which overran tho Western empire and settled down in the conquered provinces, had not attained to the conception of any such refinement in the administration of justice. It was the very central prin- ciple of their primitive civil polity that the decision of all private controversies, as well as the onlering of everything whi-h pertained to the public welfare, was committed to the collective freemen gathered together in their local as- semblies. This system of self-government was carried to an advanced degree of development by tho Saxons in Eng- land. The folk-courts or gemotes of Iho "shire3"wero composed of the assembled freemen, presided over by the ealdormou or by liis deputy, the t/ere/a. Here they deter- mined, according to their rude customs which had the force of law, the disputes between man and man concein ing property and other private rights, and also the accusa- tions which at the present day would bo regarded as crimi- nal and punishalde by the state. The courts of the "hun- dreds " were gatherings from the smaller districts into which the shire was diviiled, but with :i similar organiza- tion and the same functions. In this institution of the early Saxons tho modern method of selecting the triers from among the great body of citizens at large had its certain origin. Although the whole course of progress from these rude folk-courts to the completed jury cannot be traced with absolute precision, yet the principal steps of the on- ward movement, the most important transitions which marked the passage from one epoch to another may be de- scribed. The first of these progressive steps was the employment of vnmpiirffators or cotijtiratnm, who by their oaths estab- lished the existence or not of tho fact in dispute, and thus guiclcd the folk-court to its decision. A juclicial trial of that primitive age had no element in common with a trial of the present day. There were no written allegations of the facts; no evidence was olTcrcd; no witnesses de)iosed as to their knowledge of tho transaction. A charge was orally made and orally denied. In the place of a trial and of witnesses, each party was accompanied by a number of relatives, friends, or neighbors, who, in the presence of the assembled freemen, joined with him in making oath that his statement — the charge or the denial — was true. These were his compurrfators; and the early codes of (be Germanic nations contain numerous provisions ]>rescribing the num- ber of them requisite to establish or to rci)el any particular accus;ition or deuiand, such number varying according to the rank of the party and the gravity of the off'encc or the value of the property in controversy. These compurgators were in no sense witnesses, for they might be wholly ig- norant of the real facts in dispute; nor were they a jury, for no evidence was submitted to their consideration. They were merely friends of tho party who summoned them ; they knew his character, and by their united oaths they at once attested that eliaractcr and their confidence in his truthful- ness and in the justice of his cause. The next step in the progress was a movement far in ad- vance of the rude contrivance last described. Compurga- tors were no longer used ; even the primitive folk-court had become obsolete. Tho function of deciding a particular case was entrusted to a limited number of freemen taken from tho di.^trict, which number consisted of twelve or some mul- tiple thereof. This delegated body, unlike the compurga- tors, acted upon a knowledge of the facts involved in the controversy, but sueh knowledge was not acquired by means of any evidence laid before them. They were carefully chosen from among the persons familiar wilh all the circum- stances of tho case, with the parties, and with the property. To this end they were invariably selected from the inhab- itants of the "vicinage" — that is. the district of territory immcdip.tely surrounding the lauds iu question or the resi- dence of the litigants. On being appointed they examined no witnesses, but rendered their venlict, rere div.tnm, on oath based upon their personal knowledge previously ob- tained cither from a sight of the occurrence or from tho tradition of the vicinage. These reroffni/urs, as they arc called, were tho undeveloped jury — a jury, as it were, of witnesses. Tho unwieldy and turbulent assembly of free- men is rcfilaeed by a small and compact tribunal; a de- cision upon knowleclgo has been substituted for the mere numerical preponderance of oatlis. All the subsequrnl mod- ifications consisted of measures contrive<l to aid this body of men taken from tho vicinage by the testimony of other persons. In the reign of Henry III. the practice was in- troduced of joining with these recognitors others who wore actual witnesses of tho transaction, but still all united in rendering tiio verdict. During the reign of Edward III. a still more important and radical change was effected. Wit- nesses were added to or connected with the recognitors, who communicatetl to the latter their knowledge of tho facts, but took no part in tlio decision. In this stage of tho progress wo find for the first time the feature of testi- mony communicaterl to the triers by parties who do not join in rendering the verdict. Tho innovation once made, the ])rogres8 was rapid of aiding tho recognitors by the tes- timony of outside parties; but as yet great irregularity prevailed in all parts of the proceeding. There were no rules of evidence; tho witnesses instructed the jurors with- out any oversight by the court: there was in fact no or- derly, public forensic contest. These defects were reme- died in the reign of Henry IV. The trial was from that time conducted entirely in public and in the presence of a presiding judge; all the witnesses were sworn, examined, JUS GKNTIUM—Jl'STK 14.^5 and testified under his direction, and pursuant to the re- quirements of estaljlighcd rules. Thus was tinally devel- opecl. as the result of a long and continuous progress, the jury trial suljslantially as it exists at liie present day. The ancient requirement, however, still reiuiiined operative, that the jury should he summoned from the immediate vicinage. As the original reiison for this rule had been abandoned, the rule itself became an anomaly, and a. hindrance to a fair and impartial trial. As soon as the sole reliance came to bo placed upon the testimony of witnesses, the prior knowledge of the triers themselves was an obstacle rather than a h»_-lp to an orderly antl legal investigation of the fact*. It was not. however, until the reigns of Anne and of tJcorge II. that Parlinnient interposed, abolished the old rule as to the vicinage, and provided that jurors should be selected from the body of the county. By a decision of the court of king's bench, made a short time subsequent to these last-named statutes, it was held that if a jury ren- dered a verdict upon their own private Unowledge. it was ern>r — that they ought to have informed the court, so that they might be sworn as witnesses. We have thus traced the jury through all its phases and modifications, and we find that since its introduction it has undergone a complete change from the jtrimitive notion both in form anrl in prin- ciple. The trier? were once carefully selected from among those most familiar with the parties and the facts, and they derided the controversy upon that jirior jiersonnl know- ledge. Kqual e:ire is now taUen to ehoope only those per- sons who are absolutely ignorant of the parlies and of the facts, and who come to the hearing with their minds a complete blank in respect to the matters in dispute which are to bo settled by their verdict. The jury trial is even more completely wrought into the political organization of the U. S. than into that of Great Dritain. It is expressly protected by every constitution, state and national. The most common forms of the constitu- tional provision are. *'In all criminal prosecutions the ac- cused has a right to have a speedy public trial by an im- partial jury," and *'The right of trial by jury shall remain inviohite." The other forms of the guaranty, \vhi<'h may be more minute and detailed than these, do not differ from them in any substantial manner. The judicial interpreta- tion put upon these clauses in all the States may be summed up and expressed in one comprebensivo and fundamental principle — namely, the provisions in question do not create, nor enlarge, nor restrict the right of triiil by jury, but re- tain it and prcBcrve it inviolate in all those classes of eases, civil anrl criminal, in which it existed by the common law or by any prior leijislation of the State itself. In no more emnhalic manner could the people have shown their at- taeliment to an institution which secures and maintains all their other civil and political liberties and rights. The jury trial, thus guarantied to the people of the V. S. until they voluntarily disr-urd it, is therefore the common-law trial by jury. .Ml the fe:iturcs and elements of the insti- tution itself which had been me settled as a part of the com- m in law. and all the fundamental rules by which its con- stitution was preserved and its use was controlled, are also iii';orporiited into the organic law of the States and placed beyond the rcaeh of modifying legislation. These essential and unchangeable elements of the common-law jury trial are the following : ( 1 ) The jury itself must invariably con- sist of twelve men. It is useless to ask a reason for this requirement. The old Oermanic codes constantly show the number 12 or its niulti[ileH or fractions; the recognitors \Tere originally 12 or some multiple : and this numbi-r has been ban 'led down to our day. (2) The jury must bo drawn from the body of the county in which the trial is had — that is, from among the resident freeholders and taxpayers of the county. The historical and statutory oritrin of this requiri'inent has been already stated. (11) The verdict must bo unanimous. The historical origin of this rule must be found in the early custom of compurgators in a prescribed nutnber agreeing in their oaths, and of recog- nifors to the number of twelve agreeing in their decision. (4) The jury must be itnpartial. Thin most important requisite involves the seb-ction of each jury in some ?unn- ner by lot from the freeholders of the county. While the principle of a chance selection is undoubtedly presrrved inviolate by the constitutions, the particular mode in which that principle shall be made operative, may be regulaterl by statute according to the diseretion of the Ir-ginlature. There is. in fact, a great diversity in the modes of drawing anil sumtnoning the jurie<< among the several States, and the common-law metliods liavo been quite generally de- parted from. A lint of freeholders ami taxpayers is pre- pared at stated intervals and preserved in the clerk's office of each county. From this Hit certain designated offieinls choose by lot the names of those who are to serve at each court; the persons thus selected are summoned and must attend unless excused, forming what is termed the " panel ;" finally, from this panel the clerk draws by lot the requisite twelve *' good men and true " for each case as it is brought on for trial. The impartiality of the jury is also secured by the right of challenge given to the litigant parties. Tho various classes of challenge are as follows: (1) " To the array," by which the party objects to the entire panel for some error of the oflicer in drawing or summoning tlietn ; (2) '• To thr. polh," by which the l>arty objects to nn indi- vidual as he is drawn from the jianel. The challenges of this class are of two kinds — namely, *'for principal caime,*' and *' to thr j'nror:*' *\f'or priitripnl caune " when the ob- jection if it exists would disqualify the person as a matter of law; "to the faror" when the objection would simply be a sufficient ground to reject the juror as a matter of fact. The object of these challenges is to secure persons as ju- rors who possess the legal qualifications, who are not in any degree related to the parties, and who have not formed or expressed an opinion uj)on the matters at if^sue. In addi- tion to these challenges, in which reasons therefor must bo assigned, there is in criminal trials another species termed "peremptory," by which a juror may be objected to and excluded without the assignment of any cnuse or ground for the objection. The number of such challenges permit- ted in each trial varies with the grade of the ofTenee, and differs in the several States, These pereni])tory challenges are in some instances allowed in civil cases by statute. Trial by jury, as above described, is preserveil by the con- stitutional provisions already referred to in all criminal prosecutions which are cognizable by courts of general ses- sions and of oyer and terminer, or by courts of whatever name corresponding to these tribunnls. The only offences that can be punished without the intervention of the eom- inon-law jury are those minor ofVenees that arc cogni/ahle by courts of special sessions an<l by police magistrates possessing the jurisdiction of these last-named tribunals. It is also preserved in all civil causes of a legal nature which are cognizable by common-law courts of a higher jurisdiction than that of justices of the peace. Some of the States provide a mode of waiver of jury trial in civil cases. It follows that all civil causes of an equitable natiir«>, or which arc cognizable in courts of equity or of adniiralty or of probate, and all causes of a legal nature which re- quire an accounting for their decision or which may bo brought before a justice of the peace, may be tried without a jury. (See Grand .Iritv.) John' Norton Pomkiiuv. Jus ^en'tium. This is not to be confounded with tho more UKKloni ]ihrase.yi/« inter (fcntcs, or "the law of na- tions," "international law." By tho first phrase Gnius understood those rules and usages of justice which nil na- tions use alike, as opposed to jun civile, the law of Rome itself, so far as it was peculiar. Thdjim f/futiinu contained many rules of an international coile. siu-h as the sanetify of ambap?adors, but covered quite a different grounrl from that of the international science. T. D. Wooi,si:v. Jussicu% de, the name of a celebrated family of French botanists and ])bysicians, tho most noteworthy of whom were the following: (1) Antoisi: ni: Ji ssiki-. M. D., b. at Lyons July 8, ICSG, d. in Paris Ai>r. 22, 1768.— (2) IJi:n- NARD, b. Aug. 17, 1G99, d. Nov. C, 1777.— (:i) Josi:i>n, b. 1701, d. Apr. II, 1779, — (4) Antoini: Latrknt, one of the fathers of botanical science, b. at Lyons Apr. 12, 1718; studied medicine in Paris, where he was an academician and botanical professor. Following his uncle Bernard, who haci made the sketch, he was the first to introduce the natural system into botany, disp(»sing all known genera in defined natural orders. His mai/uuin opiin is the (i<iier<i Plantantni (1789), and he was the author of many botan- ical papers of great value. I>. Sept. 17, iS.'lfi. — (5) His son AnuiTN. b. Dec. 2.''., 1797, succeeded his father in 1.S20 as professor at the museum; became professor of organography in 1815, and was for nuiny years a bril- liant lecturer, an able (scientific writer, and one of the first botanisis of his time. li.June 29. !8j.t. Jiissiru (liAinKNT PiKruti:). nephew of Antoinc Lau- rent, h. in the department of Isi^ro Feb. 7, 1792; was a member of the t'hamber of Deputies 18;i9-42, an<l wrote many educational and popular works designed for the ilif- fusion of useful knowledge among the masses. One of these, Sntion ifr \ti)itua, on /«* unwrhaud f'ornin (18IS^, passed through more than thirty editions and was (ranslateil into eight or ten languaires. Ho received the Montyon prire for the similar work, (Eiirrm poMttimeH itr Simon i/i A'on- tun ( lK29t. an<l for many years edited educational journals. JllNtO (TiiKonoRK). b. at Brussels, Belgium, in I81S; is secretary of (be Belgian hoard of education, and a very pro- lific writer on Bt-lt;ian and French hiflt<»ry. The most promi- nent of his works are — llintoirr iti'inrntnirr r/r ht Iirt,fi,pte (18:{S). liiKtoirr th in rrrnlution Heh/e dr t700 (18I(i>. Le noit/i^ventent <lr fn /foUnufle cu 2SJ.S, c( la fondation dn roy- aumc dc» Payt'lian (1871). 14,SG JUSTICE— JUSTrCE OF THE PEACE. Jus'tice* Jupticc is an attribute of a man in his inter- course with hit" fellow- men. of the law in relation to those who are under it. of the state toward its subjects or citizens as far as their political position and rights arc coneerm-d, i and of the judf^e in his office of deciding between the I claims of two private parties or of a person and the state. | We also speak of primitive justice, and of just and unjust punishment, in which case the slate may be just or unjust in its penal laws, and the judge, in the application of law or evidence which he makes to a particular case. Justice also, as a moral quality, denotes a certain fairness of mind in estimating truth or in weighing the claims of persons to a certain sart of treatment in social intercourse. Final- ly. Ood is conceived of, and is represented in the Scrip- tures, as being just, as when he is said to have no respect ti) persons, to have a day of righteous justice in which he will rentier to every man according to his deeds, and as being faithful and just to forgive sins, because be has con- ferred a right to forgiveness by a solemn promise. Justice ( JHtttita in hatin) comes from jmtuti, "just," which is connected with the very important words pihco, "hid," "order," " ordain :" jV/t, " right," "the system of right or law;" and/»f/e.r — i. e. jnridex. "judge;" and also with jttrn, " sweiir :" JuHjtirnudnm, "oath :" and jurffo {jure ar/f>)', "altercate," " quarrel." " scold." Perhaps the origi- nal sense of /n* is '* law." that which the community has ordered, but the Romans early introduced a moral element into the word. There was justice according to law. and natural justice. Thus, the Roman lawyers speak of slavery as being contrary to jus naturale, although allowed by ;"h* civ>/r. The words jnut and ri'jhteous coincide in part, but ritjfitrottfttirss has the general moral sense of conformity to the law of right in the moral dispositions of the soul, as well as in outward actions. Justice inclines more towards legality, and towards that which is external. (Jrcek philoso])hy. after Socrates began to teach, occu- pied itself much with discussions touching justice. One of Plato's leading definitions of it is that a person should " do his own things" — i. r. mind his own business, keep within bis own sjihere of action, and not invade the sphere of an- other. In this definition the question what a man's "own things " arc — an expression nearly identical with the apostle Paul's " do his own business" (1 Thess. iv. 11) — must be determined by an enlightened conscience or by an outward rule: and Plato would determine each man's sphere by state authority. Aristotle makes a distinction between political and natural justice. The .Stoics carried out the thoughts on ethics of the older philosophers in one direction beyond tlieir predecessors : in their hands the ethical sys- tem of classical antiquity bore its best fruits, and their thinking has affected the forms of thought or morals ever since. They conceived of virtue as consisting in a life ac- cording to nature — meaning by nature both the law of general or divine and of human nature; and of justice, after a definition of the Platonic school, as that which as- signs to each his due or worth. Cicero folK)ws them in call- ing justice an affection of mind, snum cuiqitr trihuam {He Fin., v. ^ 2^, 0.'>): i. e. which assigns to each person his own. The doctrine of a law of nature, or a jn» uatnrale, having principles which may oppose the laws of the state, was borrowcil by the Roman lawyers from the Stoics, and produced in their hancls important results: in theory, for instance, as we have already said, slavery became contrary to natural right, although the institution in the empire could not be shaken. The modern <l()ctrine of personal or subjective rights (for which sec the article RiniiT and RuiiiTsl helps us to a clearer notion of what justice is. If each person is a centre of power according to natural law ancl the divine will, for the purpose of developing his manhood, he and his acts impose on others the obligations not to interfere with these power? ; and it is one of (he offices of the state to decide what the^e powers or rights are. A just man is one who fully respects the rights of others or fulfils his obligations towards them ; a just state, just law. and judges are such because they ren- der to each one his rights : and in the case of the judge not only the rendering to each one of his rights, but such a state of mind as involves conformity to the truth of law ami of evidence enters into the quality of justice. As laws are expressed in general terms, it may be that the *' letter killeth " in a particular case. Here, according to the rule, niimmum jus est ftiim7un iujtiria, equity modifies the decision of the judge in accordance with the circum- stances. This is really a justice which law in its abstract form cannot rcRch. Kquity is equality, and deciding dif- ferent cases by the same rule would be inequality, which is injustice. A word is needed in relation to penal justice or punish- ment. This consists, and can consist, only in taking away from a man one or more of his personal rights, as life, freedom of motion, property, personal honor, or of his rights granted to him by the political constitution. Is it not strange that whereas justice has been found to be the ap- jiortionraent to each one of his rights, here justice is made to consist in taking away from a person his life or some other right? Vet there is a reason why the two forms of justice, altliough thus differing, should be called by the same name. Penal justice is such not only because it is according to Ia,w, but also because it gives to the trans- gressor his due according to the law of righteousness. Law would be unequal if it did not recognize the radical differ- ence between the just man and the unjust. It expresscB the feeling inherent in the human soul that the wrongdoer ought to suffer, and punishes him in the only way open to the law — that is. by depriving him of his prior rights or place in the state. T, D. Woolsev. Justice of the Peace» a subordinate magistrate ap- pointed or chosen to exercise certain judicial and admin- istrative functions of a subordinate character within the limits of a county, borough, or town. The office of justice of the peace was estaldished at a very early period in tho history of the English law. The public officials, however, who anciently possessed similar powers were not desig- nated by this particular title, but were styled connrrvainrtn part's ("conservators or preservers of the ]ieaee"). The mode in which they derived their authority was also differ- ent from that established in later times. Some claimed their power by prescription ; some were bound to exercise it by reason of the tenure of their lands; while the larger number were elected by the freeholders of the county. Rut at the commencement of the reign of Edward III. (i;!27) the system of election was discontinued, and it was or- dained by Parliament that such magistrates should be ap- pointed by the king or under the king's commission. Rut still they were called conservators, wardens, or keepers of the peace until l.'lfil, when, by statute, as Blackstone states, "they acquired the more honorable appellation of jus- tices." They are now appointed by the lord chancellor by virtue of the king's special commission nnder the great seal. The form of the commission addressed to the jus- tices was determined in loOO. This is in the name of the king, and directs the person therein appointed to "keep our peace in our county of , and to keep all ordinances and statutes for the good of the peace, and for the good rule and government of the people, and to chastise and punish all persons that offend against the said ordinances." It also requires them to inquire of and determine felonies and other misdemeanors. It was the former practice to specify in the commission the names of a few justices who were men of greater competency or distinction than their associates, and to declnre that without the presence of at least one of these no judicial business should be transacted. These were said to be of the <funrnm, a term derived from the first word of the clause by which this special privilege was conferred. A Latin term was adopted because legal documents were thtn expressed In that language. Rut now all or nearly all of the justices are included in the quorum clause, and it is no longer necessary, as it was formerly, to specify in a warrant that the justice who issued it is of the quorum. There are certain property qualifications required at the present day in oriler that a person may be appointed a justice. Thus, he must have in jiossession, for his own use and benefit, an estate in lands of the clear yearly value of £100 above all incumbrances, or he must be entitled to the reversion or remainder of an estate of the yearly rental value of £:!f)0. The person appointed is obliged to take an oath that he is properly qualified by an ownership of the requisite estate, and if he is not so qualified he forfeits £100 by acting as a justice. Ai' a general rule, the jus- tices serve gratuitously, but in the cities and larger towns there are certain justices appointed, called stipendiary magistrates, who receive a fixed salary. In the U. S. the institution of justices of the peace has been adopted from England. They are county or town officers, and are in some States elected by the people, in others appointed by the executive. Their terms of office arc usually of short duration, rarely continuing longer than three or four years, and as a rule tlieir mode of compensa- tion is defined by law. The rules of law governing their ajipointmcnt. tenure of office, powers, and responsibilities are generally defined by statute with great fulness, and tho extent of their authority made to depend entirely upon statutory provisions. The functions of justices of the peace are very multifarious, and in minor details differ considerably in different States. It will therefore only he rneticable to state the general powers which they possess )oth in England and in this country, so far as these are substantially similar. These powers are either administra- tive or judicial. Important administrative functions are those which justices exercise as keepers of the peace. Tlius, they may arrest without a warrant any person committing a felony or a breach of tho peace in their presence, and !:, JUSTICES, LORDS— JUSTIFICATION. 14.S7 commit him to prison. They may issue warrants for the nrnst of ttltcj^Ml criminal offenders against whom a charge hax ln'cn made supported l>y an affidavit, or search-warrants authorixiug a search to he made upon a person's premises for goods which ho is accused hy complaint under oath of having stolen or cmbez7,Icd, when there appears reasonable ground for snspiciftn that they are there concealed. A justice may also bin'l over to keep the peace any person who engages in an affray in his presence or makes threat- ening demonstrations of violence against others, or who is brought before him by any other peace-officer, as a con- stnble or a sheriff, after being arrested for a breach of the peace, or who is charged with having threatened to commit a criminal offenre against the person or property of another by a complainant who maintains his charge by a sworn nffidavit. and who upon examination under oath patisfics the justice that there is reasonable ground to ap- prehend the commission of the offence by the person com- plained of. In determining whether such rea^^onable ground exists the justice acts judicially, and in like manner many of his administrative functions are incidental to the exer- cise of judicial prerogatives : as, for example, the issuing of subpa'nas for witnesses, bin<ling over witnesses to tes- tify, examining persons accused of crime and committing or discharging them, taking recognizances, committing pers<ms for contempt of court, admitting to bail, etc. As a general rule, also, justices have power to take affidavits and acknowledgments of deeds. In some States they have, besides, a right to celebrate marriages. In the exercise of judicial functions justices of the peace have either a civil or a criminal jurisdiction. In criminal cases thcj- have power to try offenders charged with offences of a minor grade, without the aid of a jury, by what is known as a summary proceeding. 8uch offences are drunkenness, idle- ness, vagrancy, profane swearing, mendicancy, keeping dis- orderly houses, gaming, and other ,<imilar practices. Such proceedings must, however, be conducted according to the course of the common law in trials by jury. The defendant must be <luly summoned, and must have an opportunity to make his defence. This fnrm of proceeding was intro- duced into the lOnglish law by various acts of Parliament, j and was generally adopted in this country as a part of the common law. At the present day, however, the nature and extent of the power to try and convict by summary process arc usually <lelined by statute. It has been decided that such Icgisl.'vtion is not in contravention of the common provision in State constitutions that no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or properly except by the judgment of his peers or of the law of the land, although this is interpreted as requiring trial by jury in most cai^es of criminal prose- cution. The power of summary conviction existed ]>re- viously to tho ailoption of such constitutions, which must be construed with reference to the previous state of the law. No Icjislfttion can, however, be adopted providing for trial without a jury except in regard to offences of the same grade or class as those lo which tins mode of proceeding was fiirmorly applicable. Justices also have power to make a preliminary examination of nil persons arrested upon a criminal charge, and if there is reasonable ground to !>e- lieve that the offence alleged has been perpetrated, and tliat tho person accused is guilty, he may be committed to prison, or, in a proper case, adraittetl to bail. If the offence charged be of a minor graile, it may also be tried beff»re justices in a special criminal court wiih a jury, but if it be a grave au'i serious crime, the prisoner will bo committed for trial before a higher court. All States do not agree in their legislation as to the various offences whieh may be tried before justices, it being providerl in some that all mis- demeanors may bo thus tried, while in others this is only true of specified classes of misdemeanors. Tho trial of feh)niea is almost invariably veiled in the higher criminal courts, as, e. ff., courts of oyer and terminer where such tribunals exist. (See ('iiihk.\ In Knglanil there are four courts composed of justices of the peace — the petty, special, quarter, and general sessions. The general sessions is a court of record, and may be divided into tw) branches for the despatch of business. Ity statute it must be held four times a year if occasion shall require. When held at tho regular period, it is calleii the quarter sessions; otherwise, the general sessions. The petty sessions and special ses- sions are courts of inferior importance. In this country siuiilnr tribunals sometimes receive corresponrling names, as the courts of special sessions in New York State. In some States, however, they aro termed simply justices' courts. In many of the States of this country justices' courts have received by special legislation jurisdiction in civil cases. The causes declared cognizable in such courts are those which involve claims to properly of but little value or demands for small amounts of damages. Thus, in New York tho larger number of cases which are declared tri- able in justices' courts are those in which the sum claimed does not exceed $200. Such courts generally have no power to try causes involving the title to land. The extent of their jurisdiction must be ascertained by special reference to statutes. A justice of the peace is not liable to a civil action for any injury to another committed in the exercise of his judicial functions if be had jurisdiction of the proceeding or cause of action in connection with which the injury occurs, and acted honestly and in good faith. As he. however, is a magistrate of special jurisdiction, his privilege in this re- spect is not so extensive as that of judges of superior courts of record. (See .hr>iriARY.) If a justice has no jurisdic- tion of a particular case, and has the means of ascertaining his want of jurisdiction, he will be responsible to any per- son who suffers damage from his unwarrantable exercise of judicial power. But where the pleadings and allegations of the parties apparently give jurisdicticm, the justice will be protected in an honest and faithful exercise of the power to which he believes himself entitled, even though he be chargeable with mistake or error, lint even if he has juris- diction, ho will be liable to an action if heads maliciously, corruptly, or wit!) wilful intent to commit wrong. In ease of corruption also a justice may be sul>iected to a criminal prosecution, either by indictment or information. (See In- DirTMF.NT, IsroitMATiON'.) For any neglect of duty or malfeasance in the performance of ministerial duties he is not protected by his juilicial privilege, and is liable in damages for any injury which others may sustain by reason of such neglect." In some States it is provided that justices may be removed from ofhee in a specilieil manner for a vio- lation or disregard of their official duty, on good cause shown. In New York they may be removed by the supreme court, after due notice and an opportunity of being heard, for causes to be assigned in the,order of removal. Gkorgf. Cuase. KnvisKn by T. W. Dwight. Justices, Lords. See Coi'rts. I. (2). Justifiable Homicide. Sec IIoMicinE. Justifica'tion. I. Tiieti^um it theolofjical — used more prominently at the Reformation period and since. From LOnO to l.'>41 the Uomish Church, through its leaders, was willing to admit justiliention to bo b}i Chrint, while the Reformers claimed it to be h/ Chrint afmtr. the little word " only" becoming thu« the pivot of Protestantism. Lu- ther's well-known " Articulus stantis vel cadentis ccclesia>" — ^justification tfif; arti'rff of a n(rt»fliu<j or n fnUiuij Church — expresses his conviction of the great importance of the doctrine. The Westminster Assembly, in their elaborate Confessions, followed the Reformers. The more condensed statement, in the Lanjvr Catrch'iHin, is as follows: "Justi- fication is an act of God's free grace unto sinners, in which ho pardoncth all their sins, accepteth and accounteth their persons righteous in his sight; not f")r anything wrought in them or done by them, but only for the jierfcct obedience and satisfaction of Christ, by (Ind imputed to them and received by faith." (Ans. lo Q. 70.) II. Tin; DOPTRINK INVOLVES — 1. Thfi fftrt that JuMtiJirn- ti'nit ia mnrr than pnrdun. The latter is, indeed, to the for- mer a condition n{ur qua hoii. Rut justification has special reference to iha pr(Mrr\)>tSrr part of the law. as pard(ui has to its penalty. It is tho official announcement that tho subject stands acquitted and accepted before the lawgiver or iudge: its rraiH/r/icnf sense would be, (i'kVk drrfnratinn of the tiinirr'n ri'fht-iitiiin/iti;f in rmprrt tit hitr /or the ftake of fin effin'rttfr}it Hiihititntr /or pcrtititutf rij/litmuituciiH. *' Who was delivered for our offences, and raised again for our jus- tification " (Rom. iv. 25). 2. Thr Stfiml'ird in (jfiH^M ftnmutnhU f.nir, trht'rh Man ramtnt, fnit vhirh Vhri>*t dorn, unit's/if.— "Sn inherent good- ness, n'lne that human nature, weakened by sin, can pre- sent, will satisfy the law, which is not weak in resjiect to the sinner, although he may be in respect lo it. That it remits none of its original claims the fact of a conscious condemnation bears witness. Hence, inasmuch ns man's obedience is imperfect, (Jod must either pronounce that perfect which is not, or else a righteousness which is per- fect, and can ho declared to bo so, must be substituted for it. "There is the very same need of Christ's obeying tho laiT in our stead in onh'r to the reward, and of his suffer- ing the penalty of the law in our stead : and the same rea- son why ono should bo accepted on our account as tho other." ( /''/irnrdn.) ']. JnHli/irnlinn iit not an fn/iiirfl Riifhtmunnrnn, iior the namr n# S'lnrlijimtion. — Sanctifieatlon is the development of the new life begun in regeneration, and is progressive. Hciiig, like its germ, a transformation nf ebaraclcr. and wrought within, it is, in Ibis sense, infused. Rut justifica- tion, though indeed instantaneous — in which it is /if:r re- generation, and uitlihr sanctifieation — in being " forensic" — i". r. for the itiiiiitr bc/orc ihr I'ur — is unlike either, indi- 1488 JUSTIN I.~JUTE. catinj; a state of privilege to wbich the believing sinner is brouj;ht by virtue of what Christ, by his obedience, has done for him. Theologinns speak of the imputation of Christ's righteousness. Thus, Pres. Edwards: ''And by that riirhleimsness being imputed to ns is meant no other than this, that the righteousness of Christ is accepted for us. and admitted instead of that perfect inherent righteous- ness which we ought to have in ourselves." "Even as David ulsodoscribeth the blessedness of the man unto wlioin God imputcth righteousness without works" (Rom. iv. fi). 4. CniiiH irith Christ reuders such a Method of JuHtifiration PoH><ifile, aiitl Faith in Him vin/res it Artiinl. — On the part of him who undertakes it a substitution must he voluntary nn<l gratuitous : it must also be according to the will of the lawgiver and judge, so that it can still be said, *' It is God that justifieth." Furtherraore, there must needs be a moral union in which the transaction can be effected. This is provided for in the lurantntion of the iSon of (lod, wliere- bv he becomes "like unto his brethren." "Of him arc ye ill ChriMt JettiiR, who of God is made unto ns wisdom and righteousness and sanctifieation and redemption " {I Cor. i. 30). But if Christ's obedience is the pmcuritiff and ?»eri*- toriiius cause of justification, faith is its tufitruuifntaf cause, or the condition of receiving it. "Therefore, being justi- fied by faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus' Christ" (Rom. v. 1). "But to him that worketh not, but believoth on Him who justifieth the ungodly, his faith is counted for righteousness " (Rom. iv. 5). III. AniHTIONAL R.^MARKS AND EXPLANATIONS. (1) Two points in justification were emphasized by the Re- formers : (ft) Chrint «/o/ie, excluding human merit. " AVe are brought into peril and exposed to danger." says Mc- lanehthon, "/or this one onhf rcasojf. that wc believe the favor of (rod to be procured for us, not by our observances, but for the sake of Christ .alone. If the exclusive term oufi/ is disliked, let them erase the apostle's corresponding termsyVce^/ and without works." (A) Faith onli/, to the ex- clusion of meritorious works. Thus Lulher (at the Diet of Augsburg) : " Nor can I embrace Christ otherwise than by faith only. Faith nftmc, before works and without works, appropriates the benefits of redemption, which is ! no other than justification, or deliverance from sin. This ' is our doctrine; so the Holy Ghost teaches and the whole , Christian Church. In this, by the grace of God, will we i standfast. Amen." (2) *• The Fathers " are often quoted as holding the same doctrine. For example, Justin Mar- tvr. who says : " In whom could we transgressors and un- godly be justified, but only in the Son of God? sweet exchange! unspeakable contrivance I that the transgres- sions of many should be hidden in one righteous person, and the righteousness of one should justify many trans- gressors!" (;i) When justification is confounded with par- don, or with sanctifieation, or when a native or infused gootlness is made the grouml of justification, or, again, when its f'orrunic sense is eliminated from the word, and it is interpreted to mean hdiu/ made righteous, instead of brinff pronounced so. the doctrine then held or tauglit is other than the justification of the Reformation and the Reformed churches. (4) .Justification, though of Latin origin, is not classic. The Greek (Xew Testament) terms are 6(Kaio< (adj.), used ordinarily of personal character, but foun«l in the expression, "the just shall live by his faith;" imatwMtt and 6(«atw(n5 (of which justification is meant to be an equivalent). " 'f juHtififinq net:" 6iKaiO{rvi-T), "righteous- ness" (but according to Robinson's Xew Testament (ireck Lexicon), "the righteousness which God reckons or im- putes to believers because of their faith in Christ" (Rom. iii. 22: Phil. iii. 9\; and the verb autotow. to "hold as righteous," to "declare righteous." to "justify:" "God is said to justify a person, to regard or treat him as righteous, by reckoning or imputing to faim faith as righteousness." J. R. HERRirK. Jus'tin I, (JtSTiNHs), an emperor at Constantinople, by birth a (»othic shepherd of Tauresium in Mnesia, b. 150 A. n. : went to Constantinople to seek his fortune: enlisted in the imperial guard : acquired fame for valor, and at last became commander of the guard : by craft and skilful man- agement induced the army to salute him emperor after the death of Anastasins (518 a. n.). The emperor couhl not read or write, but under the advice of the quaestor Proclus his reign was on the whole a just one, and advantageous to the empire. B. Aug. 1, 527, and was succeeded by his ne[diew, .Tustinian. Justin II. (Fr.Avrrs Anicits Jtstincs), emperor of the E;ist, succeeded .Tuslininn I., his uncle, in 565. His reign was characterized by the defection and death of Narses and the occupation of nearly all of Italy by the barbarians. In the North the Avars gained great advantages, and in the East a bloody war went on with the Persians. The em- peror d. Oct. 5, 57S, and was succeeded by the excellent Tiberius II. Jiifltin (JiSTiNtrs), the author of a compendium of Ro- man history, extracted from a vast work by Trogus Pom- peius, who lived in the time of Augustus. (Sec Trocus.) It seems rather to be a collection of extracts than an abridgment, and in it much important information has been preserved from oblivion. F^spccially in regard to the early wars with the Parthiaus it is almost the only source of information. Nothing is certainly known of Justin, who is sometimes called Juslinus Frontinus, at others Junianus Justinus, but he probably lived in the fourth century a. d. The first edition of his work, ./»/'*//»(/ Hittoriarum Phifippi- carnm Liftri XL IV., was printecl at Venice in 1471' by Jenson ; best Venetian edition 1.^22 (Aldus) ; most complete by Frotscher (3 vols., Leipsic. 1S27J. An English version by Arthur Goldinge was printed in 15G4,and five other trans- lations have since appeared. Jastin'ianthe GreatfFr.AviisANirirsJiSTiNi.wrs), Roman emperor at Constantinople, b. of (iothic peasant an- cestry at Tnuresium in M<Tesia. probably in 4fi3 A. D. ; went in youth to (Constantinople, where his uncle, afterwards the emperor Justin I., was in high favor; was educated by the latter, to whom Justinian was a faithful and useful servant after the uncle's elevation to the purple. In 520 he was appointed commander of the Asiatic armies, and in 521 consul, and soon after married Theodora, an actress and courtesan, to whom he was always tenderly attached. Jus- tinian's celebrated reign seems to have derived little of its splenclor from the ruler himself, whose great talent lay in the selection of able lieutenants. His generals. Bclisarius, Narses, and Germanus, carried the terrors of the Roman arms into Africa, where the Vandal kingdom was over- thrown ; into Italy, where, after long years of warfare, the Goths and Lombards were conquered: into Persia, where, after a twenty years' struggle, Persia obtained a nominal triumph, but Constantinople gained the real victory. Huns, Avars, Arabs, Gepido?, were repelled, often by setting tribe against tribe, oftener by the direct expenditure of gold. Constantinople and the whole empire was adorned with splendid buildings, of which the prx^sent mosque of Santa Sophia is the most famous. Silk-eulture was introduced, and manufactures, agriculture, commerce, notwithstanding the fearful burdens of incessant wars, appeared to prosper. The greatest monument to Justinian's farao is the Corpus Juris Ciritiff. the work of Tribonian and his assistants, but one which Justinian planned, anil in which he took a pro- found interest. Justinian is accused of vanity and avarice, and his treatment of Bclisarius shows that he was capable of meanness and ingratitude; but his private life was in the main correct. In his later years he was a Nestorian. He persecuted heathenism and certain heretical sects, and d. Nov. 14, 5G5, leaving no legitimate ofi'spring. Justinian II. ♦ surnamed Riiinotmftis, b. 669, suc- ceeded Cimstantine IV., his father, in CSa. and was one of the worst of the Eastern emperors. Notwithstanding some splendid successes in Syria. Sicily, and among the Slavi, he abandoned the fruits of his victories; in 695 was seized, his nose cut off, and he was banished to the Crimea, whence in 705 he returned and took fearful vengeance upon all ad- versaries. His reign is a record of shameful excesses. Dur- ing the insurrection of Philippicus Bardaues the emperor was killed, Pec, 711 a. d. Justin Martyr (Flavics Justinus), b. at Flavia Neapolis, the ancient Shechcm, tho modern NublouH, in Samaria, about 105 a. n. : studied philosophy in the schools of Asia Minor, Greece, and Egypt. None, however, of the ditl'oreut systems satisfied him, and about Li2 he turned away altogether from pagan philosophy and embraced Christianity, of which he became an able and zealous de- fender. Of his personal life nothing is known with cer- tainty, but it .seems probable that he resided at Rome dur- ing the latter part of his life, and suffered martyrdom here about 165. Of his writings, the Liber eontrn omiitft hrrrenea is lost : the genuineness of the Omtioad Uracosnnd Epistuln ad Diofjnetum is contested; but \i\s Apohufia prima and nrcunda and his Dialoi/us cum Trtfphone Judiio are among the most important productions which the Christian litera- ture from the second century contains. Tho best edition of all the works which pass under his name is that by Otto (:i vols., .lenn. 1S42-46). Translations into English of the Ap'doifia by William Reeves (1700), and of the Dinlofjua by Henry Brown (1755). Jute is the fibre of Corchorus capsufaris and oh'torius (order Tiliacero), Indian annuals from five to ten feel high, with stalks as thick as a finger. The name is taken from the Orissa jhot, which is derived from the Sanskrit y/m/, to " be entangled." It appears to flourish best in a hot, ' damp atmosphere, with a heavy rainfall and rich alluvial I soil. The acreage under cultivation in 1872 (an excep- tionally productive yean was 921,000. The plant is util- , izcd in a variety of ways. The top? serve as potherbs. JUTERBOGK— J UVENILE OFFENDERS. 1489 the leaves ns manure, the stalk? for fences, the seed for oil-cake, the root for paper, and the inner hark for tibro. Althoinj^h India is the ^reat source of jute supply, the plants yielding it have long been cultivated in China and the Kftst, Attempts have been made to acclimatize them on the lower bank;* of the Mississippi, in Enp^land. and in Algiers. The results are said to be satisfactory. The har- vest is in July and August. The stalks, cut with a bill- hook, have the fibre (which constitutes the inner bark) separated by maceration. The cultivation is carried on chiefly by the ryots of Ilen^al. and often by means of co- operative (Tuilds. The commission which has recently re- portctl to the fndian government on the culture, etc. of the jute plant complains of the extreme carelessness of the cultivators in the stdection of the seed. Until Is:tO it was praiHioally unknown to Europe, and was only used in the native manufactures as the material for the gunny-ba^s in which Indian produce was exported. At first only used for cordnffo and coarse bagffinfr, succes- sive improvements in its treatment have made it also avail- able for other and more profitable purposes. As corda^^e it is too easily affected by moisture to be considered a suc- cess. An immense quantity is used in makinj^ coarse baj»- gin». Not only Indian products, but those of nearly every other nation, are transported in {junny-ba^s of this material. Carpets are now made from it, and it is mixed with cotton and silk for dress-stuffs. As it will serve for every kind of coarse textile fabric, it is manufactured in a variety of forms. It is used as a substitute for hair, and can be made into admirable chi<;nons. Bri;rhl-colored stair-carpets can be gold at threepence per yard, whilst *' carpet bed-covers" are produced at onc-thinl the cost of wool. Jute is the most important export from Calcutta after cotton, opium, and rice. In 1S2S the quantity exported was only ."iOl cwts., valued at £02. Cheap Uussi:in flax for a time kept down the Kn;;liflh demand. i>ut the Crimean war led to increased requirements, and the Henffaleo cultivators seized the favorable moment. From IS.'iS to isn.*} the average expor- tation was itfi7.72t cwts. In 1872-7.'^ the quantity exported was 7.0'*0.*I12 cwts., worth £1.112.547. This industry has been created without government aid or encouragement. In 1S72 there were '.\,\K}:t,4b^ cwts. imported into Great Britain from India, and fiO.OOO cwts. from other countries. Franee took 1 iS.H7fi cwts. from Calcutta and 5on,.T00 from England: Trieste took 9000 cwts. direct; Holland, .'i.157 from India, and S^.filO from England ; Germany had 77.S:il : Belgium. 31,192: Spain. 20.7'iS: and other" coun- tries 11.17*1 cwtH. byre-exportation from England. Fac- tories for the manufa"ture of jute on modern principles and uniler European management arc springing up in India. Those at narnngpdr, ne:ir Calcutta, employ 4700 natives, who under seventeen European overseers work up yearly about 10,000 tons of jute. The success has been great. The importation of julc (ra\v) into the U. S. was in 1871-72, ■1I.S.J7 t<ms, valued at $2.(;(J0.Si>'J ; in 1872-73. 63,329 tons, at $3,105,741: in 1873-74.36.991 tons, at ?1.693.947: in l874-7.>. 43.402 tons, at $2,013,391. The value of the jute mnnufaeturo in the U. S. is estimated to bo not less than $-1,500,000. Jute is easily dyed, but the beantifal colors it so readily takes up arc fugitive except when carefully executed. It is readily brought to a rich cream-color, either in the fibre, yarn, or clolh. but until very lately it was considered next to impossiblo to bring it to a full white without injuring the fttren^th of the fibre. Dr. Hodges, in a paper read at the nritisli Assocjution in Au^., 1871. claims that it has been i-omjiletely obviated by methods patented by his son and then in practical operation at Mile Cross, county I>own. In this ease the worn-out gunny-bags should furnish plenty of paper material. It is already used for coarse wrapping paper. The jtife manufacture has its chief seat at Dundee, and gives employment to more than 20,000 jtersons. In ]872 Iho quantity imported into that port direct was 1.82^.61 1 cwts. Since (he opening of the Suez Canal the fibre has reached Dundeo, been spun and woven, the goods shipped back, and paid for within six months of (he date of the bill of ladiuff. It has led to the revivjil of (be whale fishery in Itaffm's Hay. The bulk of the whale oil is used in the treatment of jute. The Dundee chamber of com- merce has represented that an Arctic expedition is desira- ble, that new haunts of (lil-hearini; animals niny be ex- plored. Thus, the lubors of (he scientific discoverers in the frozen North will bring an increase of prosperity alike to the workman of Scotland and the peasant of Bengal. AVii.i.iAM E. A. Axon. Jii'torbogk, town of Prus^sia. in the province of Bran- denburg. It hns some manufactures of woollen and linen stuffs, i\nd a lively trade in flax anil cattle. Bop. 0093. Jllt'tnnil [Dan. Ji/fl>niff]. a peninsula between the Xorth Sea, the Skagerack, and the Cattegat, is the largest province of the kingdom of Denmark. Area, 0607 square miles. Vol. 11—94 Pop. 788,119. It is traversed by a ridge of low hills, to the W. of which the country is heath, lined with a range of sandbanks along the coast. The eastern part is beautiful and fertile, hilly, rich in forests of beech and oak, indented by numerous fjords, dotted with small but thriving towns, and cultivated like a garden. The .Tutcs formed the nucleus of those swarms which under the name of the Northmen devastated the coast of Germany and France and conquered England, and they have still retained in their characters something shrewd, daring, and indomitable, which distin- guishes (hem from the islanders, who arc softer and livelier, but weaker. Jovena'lis (Df;ciMrsJrMrs) wash, probably in the lat- ter part of the first century of our era at Aquinum ; studied rhetoric and declamation; was an intimate friend of Mar- tial, and d. in Rome in the eighty-second year of his agcj but any further details of his life are not known. Sixteen satires written in heroic hexameters have come down to us under his name, but some scholars (M)nsider only the first nine and the eleventh to be by Juvenalis, and even these seem to have been much interpolated. There is a certain rhe- torical coldness about his satires: bo lacks the humor of Horace and the elevated moral enthusiasm of Pcrsius. But his descriptions of life and characters are often highly picturesque or cutting. The best editions are by Heinrich (Bonn, 1830) and 0. .Tahn (Berlin, ISr.l): best Encrlish editions by Mayor (London, 2d ed. 1875), and by ^!ac- leano (London. 1857). (See nlso I)cr cclitc und dcr unechte Juvenal^ by Ribbeck, Berlin, 18C5.) Jn'vcnile Offend'ers. The first organized movement for the reformation of juvenile ofi'endcrs seems to b.ivo been made in London, Eng., in 1817. It grew out of the efforts of the denomination of Friends to follow up effectually tho work of .lohn Howard in the visitation and the ameliora- tion of tho condition of prisoners in public penitentiaries. Howard died in 1700. In the early years of the present century, Elizabeth Gurney. afterwards tho saintly Elizabeth Fry, commenced her remarkable work among the female inmates of Newgate prison, London.* Her brothers-in-law, Sir T. Fow<'ll Buxton and Samuel Hoare, with her well- known brother. .lo^eph .T.ihn (iurney.and several of her personal friends, about tho same time formed a society for the improvement of prison discipline and the reformation of the juvenile depredators who then "infested London in gangs." They became particularly impressed with the im- portance of 'Making from the streets boys who were umler no parental control, exposed to every temptation, addicted to every vice, ignorant of all that was good, and trained by their associates to the perpetration of every crime." This organization, called "The London Pliilantbropio So- ciety." soon found, in their ex !i mi nation (tf the prisons, thnt nearly every youthful inmate was efVectually ruined, and introduced into tho permanent criminal class, by tho taint of the jail. To prevent this inevitable result they provided in London the first bouse of refuge, to receive, reform, educate, nnrl train \u a useful trade delinquent chil- dren, over eight and under twelve years of age at the lime of their reception. In 1819 this institution, which had ac- complished a great amount of gooil in the city, was re- moved into its present rural quarters at RerJ Hill, Surrey. In its reconstruction it followeil tlie model of the French agricultural colony at Mettriiy : it has no surnuinding walls, and is broken up into separate fnmilies. It is here, as it has been doing for tho lust fifty years, working out very successful anrl benign results. On the continent of Europe, the German and Napoleonic wars creating so many orj>hans and engendering so mucli poverty and vice, institutions liad bee?i formed previous to the Englisli experiment for the rescue of unprttteoted and wretched children from lives of crime. In ll>95. August Herman Francko opened his institution at Ilalle. Germanv, the immense quadrangle of buildings which he ultimately ereetetl still renjainintr as a mnnuinent of his faith and pie'y. The history of his remarkable success, as preserved in his biography, is fidl of encouraeement to those cniraffed in the work of juvenile reform. .Tohn I'alk followed him : and at about the "ame date that the first English house of refuse was established be organized in Weimar " The So- ciety of Frienrls In Ni'ed,"and founded an institution "for the children of criminals and criminal ehihlren." His ex- pressive coiit-of-arms was a representation of a band of ehihlren converting, on an anvil, (heir chains into useful tools. It is recoriled of the su<'cess of his refuse tbnt hun- dreds of respectable tradesmen, clergymen, lawyers, and doctors, schoolmasters, merchants, and ortists. dated tho commencement of a life of usefulness ond honor fr<un their entrance into the reformatory at Weimar. About the siinie date (1818) of the English efforts to res- cue exposeil children, and of the Ocrman movement under Falk, a corresponding interest was awakened in the U. S., 1490 JUVENILE OFFENDERS. chieflv.at first, in the city of New York, under the auspices of the Society of Friends, through visits and correspond- ence\ith their English fellow-Christians. Such men as Tohn Gri^c.n.. Thomas Eddy. Mayor Cadwallader Golden, Hon Ilu-h Maxwell, and James W. Gerard* were u ti- matelv led to unite themselves in an assoc.at.on for the "prevention of pauperism." As early as 1.S03 Edward JvTn-slon, the f'ather of penitentiary reform .n th.s eoun- trv, w^.ile nn.Vor of New York City, felt the necessity for some effectual measures to redeem young cnmmals upon heir first arrest from a life of cnme, and made ,n h s an- nual messa-es suggestions which afterwards were luUy de- i vcToped ( 1821 ) in the well-known code wluch he prepared I for the State of Louisiana. In this a house ot refuge and ndustry and a school of reform have c.msp.cuous positions The SoLty for the Prevention of Pauperism soon found ] that the rescue of children from a life of crime and from | e noison of the prison was one of the most important and p omi n° feaiure'i of its work. In 182H, therefore, the ^oeidv changed its name, and secured an act o iiicorpora- i„n f om the State as "The Society for the Keformafon of .Juvenile Delinquents." Their first school of reform was opened in the old government arsenal, on what is now Mad- °s'on Square, New York, and has grown during the half centurv to the immense structures that now raise their fine architectural proportions on Randall's Island. The early superintendents. Curtis and Hart, obtained a very wide repu i"ion fur the successful management of their delicate 2i difficult charge. The first American institutions were patterned after this model. Many changes have been made n the modes and discipline of reformatories ^""nS 'ho la«t twentv five years, but it has always been found that more depends upon securing reformatory men and women of the right character than upon any particular system "' Boston' opened her school, under the care of Rev Mr. Wells also a man of remarkable reformatory abdity, in 1R26V Philadelphia in 1828. It was nearly ten years be- fore the next institution, a farm-school, purely a private charity, was opened in the former city, and ultimately lo- cated." where it is still accomplishing its benign work, on Thompson's Island in the harbor. Nearly ten years later still (1847) a fresh impulse was given to juvenile reform bv the very generous donation of Mr. Theodore Lyman, who was a trustee of the farm-school, to the Mate of Mas- sachusetts of a large sum of money for a reform school for bovs The well-known institution at W estborough was the result. This was the first purely Slate institution estab- lished in this country ; heretofore they had been founded by charitable associations, which held their control, while the State, in most instances, granted annual supplies, ihe CNpcriment has proved that the latter i"-'"""""""' »^. »; general rule, are more successful, more economical better mana«d, and less liable to frequent and disastrous changes of officers. As it is better for the State and for the indi- viduals interested to develop the benevolence^and piety of lie citizens, the policy now pursued in Great Bntain seems to be the wisest on the whole-by a general law a reason- able sum per capita is allowed by the government to all reformatoJv institutions for clearly specihed J;<ve>» e S"b- iects lawfully committed to such custody m establi hments accepted bv," and open to the supervision of. a -''"t" °- spcctor. Smaller schools, other things being equal, give better promise of reforming their inmates than those ag- gregating large numbers of delinquent or defective youth. Tbesc voluntary schools will secure not only better super- vision over their subjects in the institution, but a more careful oversight after their discharge, which ,s an element of reform of almost equal imporlnncc with the former. In IS'!.'! Dr .John Henry Wichern. then a young theological student just ordained for the ministry, and engaged in voluntary city missionary services in the city of Hamburg. Germany, opi-ned at the Horn, a short distance from town in a memorable old cottage, into which he removed wilh his mother, a school of reform for the worst boys ot the city streets. The cottage, which has given a name to what is now a village of plain dwellings in the midst of gardens, with workshops, chnpel, and schools, was called very sig- nificantly, "The Rauhe Ilaus." ■\Viclicrn admitted but twelve boys, who became members of his family, and were in every respect treated as his children. Afterwards he successively built other cottages, each for the same num- ber of boys or girls, and established workshops, calling to his aid'a body of theological students, whom he trained, while they became the elder brothers and tutors, as wel as instructors in various mechanical and agricultural industries, of his remarkable families of street Arabs. *He was the last survivor of the first hoard of managers of the New York Homo of Eefuge, dying while this article was in preparation (Feb., 1874). ' These elder brothers were trained for the " inner " or home missionary work of Germany, and have made admirable supcrinteudents of reformatory institutions throughout Europe and in this country. This e.siierimcnt proved re- markably successful in its reforming influence over its sub- jects, in 1837, M. de Metz, a judge of the court of assize of Paris, visited the U. S. as a commissioner to examine and report upon the prison system of this country. He was strongly impressed with the good work done for juvenile on'ende"rs in the houses of refuge at New York and Phila- delphia, and made to his government a full report of their discipline and efliciency. Immediately upon his return ho commenced what, in the end, proved to be his own great life-work— the organization of a general movement for the rescue and reform of young criminals in France. He visited the institution of Wichcrn in Hamburg, and finally upon the Loire, just out of the city of Tours, be established Iho great model French reform school, which bears the name of tho estate upon which it stands— the "Agricultural Colony of Mettray." It combines the American and Ger- man systems. It forms a little village by itself of small, thrce-"storv dwellings, each one capable of accommodating forty boys" wilh their instructors, wilh a church, workshops, and" farm-buildings. These institutions are constructed without walls around them or bars upon the doors to re- tain the ileirmis. The accounts of these institutions, pub- lished in this country by Horace Mann, secretary of tho Massachusetts board of education, by Dr. Calvin E.btowe, who visited and carefully examined them, and by l)r. Henry Barnard, secretary of the Connecticut board ol edu- cation, awakened great interest among philanthropic men. A scries of prize essays also, three of which were published, on tho subject of juvenile reform, secured by an ofl-er of $100 for tho best by the board of managers of the Phi adel- phia house of refuge (which was awarded to Rev. Edward Everett Hale of Massachusetts, forty having been sent in), tended to add to the growing interest. In 18oo, Massa- chusetts established her Industrial School for girls at Lan- caster, following quite closely the French system of M. de Mctz. and allotting but thirty girls to a separate house, each home under the care of three matrons. Ohio hut a short time after opened her farm-school for boys on the same plan in a town of the same name. Since this time nearly all the later institutions, which have been qui e rapidly organized throughout the country, ehieQy State establishments, have followed, with more or less c oseness, the farm-school system as distinguished from the congre- gate" or penitentiary form of discipline. Many private and voluntary institutions, meeting the wants of special classes, have been established during the last twenty-five years in this country and Great Lrilain. The most efficient of these is the Children s Aid Society of New York Citv, of which Mr. Charles L. Brace is tl"e orig- inator and cliief manager. It was incorporated in 186.5. Its object is to save the vagrant childrrn of the street from bccom'ing even juvenile criminals. By inexpensive nigh lodgings for little street-merchants and for girls without homes, by encouraging small savings, by establi.«hing in- dustrial schools where sewing as well as the rudiments ot knowledge is taught, and where Sunday services for re- ligious training are held, and chiefly by deporting house- less and worse than homeless childrrn from the miserable haunts of poverty and vice in the city to good homes m the country, an inestimable amount of good is done, and an efi-cctive preventive agency against crime secured. J he State of Slassachusetis has connected one feature of tins plan wilh the bureau of her State boanl of chanties. An agency under it assumes tho work of finding l>on>cs in tl c State "for unprotected children. Tho multiplication of hese voluntary and State preventive agencies in many portions of the country has perceptibly reduced the amount of ,ue- nile crime, and the eflcct would also soon ^c made nai - fest in the decrease of adult crimina s were it ««'/"■•»? large importation from Europe of this class. Scve al of the great religious sects, particularly the Roman Cathoc have turned their attention and practical energies in th, direct on. Tho largest portion of the most exposed and V OS children in Sur c'ities has ^f " °f ./^'f , ["7, " age, and by birth connected with the Catholic told. The vfr; vigor/us estaldishment in later years of reformatories industrial schools, and ort.hanages by the Catholic clergy a made i-self npparen. in most beneficial results iii son o of our cities. V duntarv religious movements like the ragged scWIs instituted"by .John Pounds in Eng'-d ; h a, (be industrial and christianizing scheme of P/- "^ "'^^■f' introduced into the most abandoned par s "f •'« ^i .y o^ GIns-ow, Scotland, in 1820, an,l into the lowest wjnds ol E nbiir^h in !Sl.=i ; like those of the Melhodist ladies and Re Mrf Pease in the Five Points of Xew Virk, and of the successful imitators in Philadelphia and Boston lla^ e produced marvellous results. The inauguration of com- JUVENIS— JYNX. 1491 pulsory education, providing for puch neglected classes as the Toung Ftrect-mcrclianls and children employed in factoric!*, uu«i the vigorous use of the facilities oflFercd by the puVilie and private schools of reform, promise very cer- tain and ellicleut results in the direction of the ])revention and cure of Juvenile offences. Particular interest at the present hour is drann to the niaturcr class of young crim- inals, from sixteen to twenty years of ago. It ^^ very evi- dent that they should not be trained in the same institu- tions with ehildreu. They are just now the most dangerous members of our crimiua! class, our most violent crimes be- ing perpetrated by them: but they are still amenable to reformatory influence?, as has been proved by an interest- ing experiment of a few late years in the New York house of refuge. They require more restraint than youths, and a broad(.T dluealional and industrial discijtliue. They need to bo taught a full trade. A portion of their earnings while restrained of their liberty should be credited to them if obedient and diligent. They should be discharged before the limitattou of their sentence if there is a good promise of reformation, with power on the part of the managers of the institution with which they have been connected, in their failure upon trial, to return them for further restraint until they show themselves capable of living (and ready to do so) honest and industrious lives in the community. The suspicion that all persons rest under wiio have been drtcnue renders it necessary that there sliould be an industrial refuge for them when work cannot be elsewhere obtained. This was really the problem — how to find work for dis- charged young criminals — that first arrested the attention of Edward Livingston, and turned his thoughts in the direction of the causes and the cure of crime. It is estimated tliat there are in this country (1S75) some 40 schools of reform, not including those of an educational and preventive character. These institutions have an an- nual average of about 11*. 000 children, 1000 of whom are girls. This estimate is rather below than above the actual census. The smaller and purely voluntary institutions would present much larger statistics. In Great Britain there are Co ofTicially recognized schools of reform, and 9o industrial schools, embracing about 'lOOO inmates. lu the Qcriiian-speaking couutries of Europe there are over 400 establishmeuts lor the succor of exposed aud criminal youths, with an annual average of 12.000 inmates. Be- tween 10 ond 50 have been organized in France. Italy has .l.'J, of which 22 are for boys — all private institutions. The estimates as to the ref<trms accomplished in these bouses of refuge vary from (JO to 75 per cent, of the wh(dc number received. Many of these young children are not vicious, simply homeless and exposed; so that the actual reformatory power of an iuf^titutioti ciiunot be measured by the number of inmates that ultiniiittly turn out well. In several instances, however, very thorough and en- couraging inquiries have been made, extending over a pe- riod of ten ami twenty years, and embraeing some of the most unpromising subjects wheu received. Without doubt, every year the class that now enters purely reformatory institutions becomes, in some degree, less promising. They are now the residuum of the streets after orphanages and industrial schools have selected and sifted out their sub- jects. More cure and thoroughness of discipline will be required in their instance, and less pronounced results may be expected. * As disciplinary ogcncies, education, the cultivation of industrial habits, the h;arning a full trade if possible, the assimilating and transforming power of a strong, loving, niagnetic mind, and jiositive religious instruction and training, arc relied upon. Small institutions bring the children nearer to their officers. It will be seen at once that both the heads an(t subordinates <d' these schools must be persons of peculiar a<la]itation ; they must be specially intelligent, unselfish, devoted, fond of children, ami of an earnest religious character. These institutions must train their inmates to a plain form nf life aud lo ordinary ex- pet'tations. Much disappointment and failure results from inattention to this. Hut few of these youths will be received into families in the position of ehiblren: they arc to go out into life to earn their livelihood by the sweat of their brows. As farm-labor at tiio East ufl"ers such limitecl pecuniary rc'urns, boys in these schools, as far as jiossible, should be taught trades, and placed in a position to earn their living by their work upon their diseharge. It is not wise to re- tain them too long in sehooN of reform ; all instituiion-lifc is unnatural, irksome, and in some degree unwholesome. They sh<>uld be placed in homes and in industrial positions in the country at as enrly a day as practicable. It is better to have thorn returned often, an<l new homes found for them, than to keep them too long under restraint. The great want of the hour is a body of well-trained instructors and oflieers. The best systems fail for lack of devoted and intelligent trainers. The irreligious and careless tempers and habits of subordinate officers, who, after all, come nearest to the children, will utterly destroy the reformatory influence of the school, the chapel, and an admirable super- intendent. European institutions, which have been models of success, have been in the hands of the most devoted and self-sacrificing missionary spirits, men aud women who have made the rescue of childhood a life-work of faith and love, as will be seen in reading De Liefde's volumes. The literature of this question has become very exten- sive. In aildition to the c<dleeted reports of the older in- stitutions, like the New York. Philadelphia, Wcstboro'. and Lancaster schools, and the Ohio State Farm, we mention Juvenile />f^'»7itc»(» ( Eng.), by Mary Carpenter ; The Vhnr- iticH of Europe (Eng.), by De Liefde ; lieport of Mukk. State Hoard of Chun'lien, 11 vols., very valuable; Half Centurif trith Juvenile Delinquents^ by B. K. Pcirce : Xa- tional Education in Europe, by Henry Barnard, LL.D.; Jiefonnation of Juvenile DelinqvcntH, by L. Bonneville de Marsangv, 1 vol. Svo, Paris ; J*uniKliment and Prevention, by Alex. Thomson, 1 vol. 12nio, London; Social Evils, their Cause and Cure, by the same author; Prni/itit/ and Working, by Stevenson; The ('omjje.te Worhs of Edirard Liviuffftton, 2 vols., new cd., New York, 1S73. The English Parliamentary reports upon reformatory institutions arc very full and of great value, covering every detail of their management. The reports of Wichern's Kauhe Ilaus and the agricultural colony at Metlray. The published ProeccdiufjH of the National Prison Congress held at Cin- cinnati in 1870, and of the International Congress held in London in 1S72, contain particularly valuable papers upon preventive and reformatory agencies. B. K. Peiri'e. Juvenis (Raymond), b. at Gap, the capital of the de- partment of llautes-Alpes, France, in the first half of the seventeenth century; held some subordinate position in the civil service of his native city, and d. there Jan. 7, 1705. His leisure hours he used for historical researches, and from old state papers and ofiicial documents he compiled a His- toirc stctditre et eccleainstitjue du J)anphinv et de sen dt'jtend- anccs. The work was never printed. The manuscript was presented to the library of Carpentras in the department of Vaucluse, where it is still kept. But it is often quoted on account of the curious and generally reliable information it gives concerning life and characters in the French i)rov- inccs in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Juvcn'taSy in the mythology of the llomans, the god- dess of youth, corresponding to the Greek Ilebc. She was worshipped in Home at a very early period ; her chapel on the Capitol was built before the temple of Jupiter, .'\fter the defeat of Hasdrubal, in 207 n. c. the consul, M. Livius, vowed a temple to Juventas, wliieh was consecrated iu the Circus Maximus sixteen years afterward. Juvcn'tia gens in ancient Rome was a plebeian ffcns, which came from Tusculum. and settled in Rome iu the fourth century B. c. The families belonging to this geus were the Celsus, Laterensis, Pedo, and Tbalna. Juvcnti'nus ATbiiiH Ovid'iiis, tlie name of the au- thor of tbirly-five Latin distielis ubieli have come down to us under the title of A7<v/r(( de Philomela, and which contains a collection of words expressi\e of the respective sounds uttered by birds, quadrupeds, and other animals. Of the author nothing is known, but the distichs themselves have some interest as a curiosity. Jlix'on (William), I). P.. b. at Chichester, England, in 1582 ; was educated at St. John's College, Oxford, of which bo became president in 1021, and vice-chancellor of the university in lfi20. He was made dean of Worcester in 1C2S, bishop of Hereford in It'ill.'t. unci of London iu the same year, and hi;;h treasurer of England in ir.li5. Bi.'liop Juxon suffered deprivation during tlie great rebellion and the Commonwealth, but remained faithful to King Charles, whom he attended in his imprisonment, at his trial, and on the scaffold. After the Restoration ho was made arch- bishop of Canterliury (Sept. 20, IGtJO), aud d. at Lambeth Pahice June -1, IOO;t. Jyn'tenli, the name of a district of British India, hc- vond the Brahmaputra, belonging to the presidency of Bengal, situated between hit. 25° and 20*^ N., Ion. 1)2° E., and bounded N, by Assam and S. by Sylhet, with which it wos incorporated during the Burmese war. The district is mountainous, and rich in iron aud coal. Cap. Jynteah. .lynx 9 iu Gr^'cian mythology, the name of the bird which Aphrodite gave Jason as a symbol of passionate and rest- loss love, and by which ho won (he love of Medea. Accord- ing to one version of the myth. .lynx was the daughter of Peitho an»l Pan. and wns transformed into a bird becnuee she undertook, by means of magic, to make Zeus fall in love with lo. Accordini; to another, she was a dauirhter of Pierus, and when she and her sisters presumed t<» enter into a musi- cal contest with the J^Iuses, she was changed into a bird. 1492 K— KAFFIRS. K. K, a palatal mute, tho eleventh letter in our alphabet. It is the (Ireck htp/ja (K, «). but is very seldom seen iu Latin, C takint; it.< place. It has but one sniuul in Eng- lish, the same as that of Chard. As an abbreviation it stands for king; in chemistry it is the symbol of potassium (kalium). Kaa'ba [Arab. i4/-A'an/m7(, "square house"], an ob- long stone building enclosed in tho great nios^que at Mecca. At the north-eastern corner of (he building, four or five feet from tho ground, is a celebrated black stone, of an irregular oval shape, about seven inches in diameter, which received idnlatrous worsliip from the Arabians before the time of Mohammed, ancl it is still the most sacred object of veneration to his followers. The 8aba?ans and (lucbers also worshipped this stone, which is thought to be of me- teoric origin, and to have been first connected with the worship of Saturn. Xonc but Mohammedans are now ad- mitted within tho Kaaha. but Burckhardt and Burton suc- ceeded in entering under the disguise of pilgrims. Every follower of Islam is bound, if possible, to visit this sacred spot at least once during his life, and scores of thousands make the pilgrimage each year. Kaama. Pee IIarti:beest. Ka'ba, town of Hungary, in the county of Bihar, has 5631) inhahitants, who arc extensively engaged in the rear- ing of bees. Kabbala. Sec Cadbala. Kabul. See Cabool. Kabyles. See ALOEniA. Ka'clesh [Hcb.. "holy"], or Kadesh-barnea, city an<l encampment of the Israelites during their journeys in the wildcnu'ss, at the S. E. border of Palestine, near Edom, To this point they had penetrated when they were turned back by the hostility «f the Edomites, and compelled to peek the circuitous route E. of Edom and Mnab. By some biblical geographers Kadesh is distinguished from Kadesh- barnea, and it is held that tho people of Israel were twice turned back, once from each place; othcrsconsider tho two accounts a duplicate narrative of the same event. Dr. Rnliinst)n in his fiihfirnl A*tscarcAe« identifies Kadesh with the modern Aiuef- Wchtk. Ka<rinonitos [Heb. Kadmoni, "eastern"], the name of a Canaanitc tribe which in the time of Abraham inhab- ited the N. E. of Palestine, near Mount Ilcrmon. The name ia thought to bo a general one for the dwellers in Eajffern countries, and that they are identical \vith tho "chiMren of the East," elsewhere mentioned in the books of Genesis and Job. Kadom'^ town of Russia, in the government of Tam- bov, on the Moksha, has 7173 inhabitants and some trade. Karfa) or KaTa^ country of Eastern Africa, S. of Abyssinia, consists of an extensive table-land rising about fjOOO feet above the sea and covered with immense forests of coffee trees. Coffee is indigenous hero, and is said to have received its name from this country. It is largely cultivated, and great quantities are exported to Mocha. Tho enitrffi. a plant resembling tho banana, furnishes the chief article of food. Cereals arc not cultivated, an<l "grain-eater" is used as an expression of contempt. Tho inhabitants belong to the Abyssinian typo, and speak a language classified under the Ilamitic group. They profess to be Christians, and arc governed despotically by a king. Bonga, situated iu 7° 12' ."JO" N. lat.. 3C® 41' E. Ion., on the Gojob. is the principal town, but is a poor place, consisting of straggling hut.-', and comprising only between 6000 and 7000 inhabitants*. Kaffa, or Foodo'sia,town of Kupsia, in the gorcrn- ment of Taurida. is beautifully situated on the eastern coast of tho Crimean peninsula; it has a good fortified harbor, and was. while in tho possession of Genoa, a com- inercial port of conseqnence, but lost its importance under Turkish dominion. It is now rising again, and is much visited as a watering-](laoc. Pop. 8435. Kariirs, or CaPfres [Arab, l-rfir, "nnboliever" or "heathen"], first apj>lird by the Arab slave-dealers of the eastern coast of Africa to all the natives. In after years the terra was limited to the tribes inhabiting the coust-country on tho E. side of S. E. Africa, and recent events have nar- rowed the designation in a popular sense as applying to the tribes living in the country between the Cape Colony and Natal. TTie Kaffirs form a very large family of tho human race, extending beyond the equator, and are closely allied to a great part of the Central and North African tribes. They are a inofH/ied negro, being distinct from the negro proper, the Hottentot, and Buslnuan ; for. though their hair is woolly, their color is as a rule deep se[)ia-brown. They are often intensely black, but many, on the other hand, arc coffee-colored, so that those are merely variations from the original complexion. Many are reddish, like the American Indians. In their own language they call themselves A-bntitu, moaning "people " or " men." Their features are often regular, and instances occur in which but for its color the countenance might ho taken for that of a European. Several writers describe their figures as admirable and their movements as graceful and dignified. Their skulls are dolichocophalous and high, or. according to Welcker, hyp- sistenocephalous. Their langunge belongs to the so-called prefix-pronominal. The Kaffirs of South Africa are di- vided into four species — the Katfir proper, the Sichunna, Tageza, and Otjiherero. The first speak the real Kaffir language ; the second, the Se-rolong, Se-suto, and Sc- tlapi ; the thinl. the Mancolosi. Ma-tonga, and Ma-plocn- ga dialects. The general disposition of the Zulu races, called Kaffirs by the English, is fl) the tribes N. of Natal, Amatahele. Amazulu. etc., and the Amaxoso and Aniara- pondo, in the E., speaking Zulu; (2) Makololo. N.. and Bakuku. N. W., speaking Sicbuana, and genornlly known as Bochuanas or Bctjuana: and (3) the Ovanipos and Otji- herero or 0-va-hcrero. For practical study G. Fritsch re- duces all these to the Ama-xosa, tho Ama-Zulu, the Bc- chuana. and the 0-va-horero. Tho Kaffirs were first made known in 1497, when Vasco da Gama was wounded by them in Helena Bay. Succeed- ing notices of the country and of the natives occur in Santo's work on East Africa (loOC) and that of Lopez (1591). In 1026 tho traveller Herbert described them. From 1652, when the Cape of (lood Hope was settled by the Dutch, until 1705, when it was passed to the English, and with little intermission almost to the present day. tho history of the Kaffirs is that of continual savage warfare with tho Europeans, varied hy hloody feuds among themsoh'os. Chaka or Tshaka, " the Napoleon of South Africa," b. in 1787. killed 1S29, founded the Zulu dynasty. When his mother died this king, to terrify his suhjects. caused 7000 of them to bo murdered in one dav^ and continued these sacrifices for throe months. The Kaffirs, though not re- ligious, are extremely superstitious. Much has been writ- ten in their favor, but even from the testimony of their Eu- ropean friends it is evirlent that they arc greedy, cruel, and expert in poisoning. Owing to the insecurity of life and property among themselves, ahout .'iOO.OOO Kaffirs, or one iialf the nation, have taken refuge in the British colony. As wives are the most profitable of their possessions, polyg- amy is so deeply rooted that Christianity makes but little progress among them. Tho f>ld. the poor, and the sick arc treated with incredible barbarity. When a chiefs hair turns gray he is often put to deatli, and Tshaka once entered into a treaty with the English, tho secret oltjcct of wliieh was to olitain a hottle of hair-dye. The language of the Kaflirs, in cimimon with those of the Bechuanas, Damaras of tho Plain, the people of Congo, Suaheli, and many other regions, is what is called nlliteral. as contrasted with tho tongues characterized by "clicks," such as aro spoken by the Hottentots and Bushmen. The Knffirs aro ferocious and passionately fond of warfare, but unless driven to de- spair are only to be dreaded in ambush or night-attacks. Among tho numerous works relating to tho Kaffirs may be named Thr Knflirn of Nntni, Hr., hy Rev. J. Shooter (1S57): Tfir lUroril Ifrf'nti'rr fn thf Xntivfi Tribm nf South A/ricn, by Lieut. D. Moodio (Cape Town. 1838): 7?c- pnitn, etc., hy Col. R. Collins (ib. 1841); Procerffhtt/ii of the Cnmmiftninn Rflatirf to the ICnJfirg, etr. (Piet. Ma- ritzburg, 1852); South Afrirnu Annah, by D. Moodie (ib. 185,^)): Narratire of th^ Kaffir Warn/' 18.50-5?, by R. God- lenton (Graham's Town, 1852): Kaffir Laim and Ctistom^, bv M.aclcan (Mount Cope, 1858): /'«W and Future of the Kaffir Tn'hrM. by Rev. W. C. Holdcn (London. 1855); The Oranrje Rt'rrr, by C. .1. Anderson ; Lake Xffatni, by the same : The Zamhrxi, etr.. by I). Livingstone (London, 1865i ; J'ttirual of n Refidfnrr at the fape of Good ffope, by ChaS. J. F. Bunbury (London. 13(8) : Trnreh,rtc. in South Africa, by (i. Thompson (London, 1872) : Zidn Lefjmdn. etc., by Dr. BIcek (an interesting work, indicating great imagina- KAFFKAKIA— KALAMA. 1493 tion and even poetic power in the Kaffirs); Rerpiard the Fox 111 South A/n'ca, bv the same. Sec also otlier works by Blcek. The titles of nearly fifty works rcfcrriii); to the languages, ethnography, and anatomy of the Zulus and other South African tribes are given in Vic Khir/rbureuen Snd-A/rikat, by Q. Fritsch. C. G. Lelaxd. Kaffra'ria (Proper or fndrprndent), the name of the eastern coast region of South Africa, extending N. to the river Umzimkulu, in lat. .lO" 215' S., and P. to the Oreat Kei or Koiskammn, which separates it from the Cape Col- ony, to which in lSfi6 the so-called I'.ritish K;ifTraria was annexed. The distance from N. to S. is about 2j0 miles, and from E. to W. — that is. from the Indian Ocean to the Kalambi .Mountains— about 120 miles: the area of the whole territory about 20,000 square miles. Besides the Great Kei and the I'mzimkulu, many other rivers— as, for instance, the I'mzimvubu, the Umlata. and the Umbashco — flow thr<iugh these regions, rising in the Kalambi or Quathlamba mountains at an elevation of about 3000 feet. None of them is navigable, however. They flow in deep beds, and their shores are, like the coast, rocky and irregu- lar. When sufliciently watered, the soil is very productive. Cotton has been grown with success in manyiilaces: maize and wheat are easily raised ; large trees and watermelons abound. The inhabitants, whose number is estimated to be about .lOCflOO, are Kaflirs, and live as nomades in tribes which bear the names of the chiefs. Their religious and moral ideas are often very low ; one Zulu tribe believes that their present chief has created the world. But the Wcsleyan Missionary Society has had great success among them, and the whole population is gradually coming under the influence of the Cape Colony. Kafiristan', a country of Central Asia, between Hi" anrl .ill" N. lat., and between 09° 20' and 71° 20' E. Ion. It received its name, '* the hind of the infidels," from the surrounding Mohammedan people, who entertain an in- veterate hatred against its inhabitants. .\s the country is an isolated alpine tract of land, on the declivity of llindu- Kush, which never was conquered, though often invaded by foreigners, and about which we know very little, the inhabitants form an isolated race, entirely (lifl"erent from their neighbors. They resemble Europeans in their fea- tures, and have blue eyes and light-brown hair: in their language, which is of Sanskrit root, and in many of their habits, sitting on raised seats. They are said to bo very- proud of this resemblance to Europeans, while they con- sider it the first and most essential part of a man's honor to have slain a Mussulman. We know, however, as littlo of the inhabitants as nf the country. Kagoslii'ma, or Ka;;oNima, town of .Tapan, situ- ated on tbo south-western coast of the island of Kiusitl, is the (Capital of tlie feudal prince Satsuma. It was bombarded in ISB.I by the English, who thus compelled Satsiima to ex- ecute the murderers of Mr. lliehardson, an English subject, and to pay £25,000 in indeiniiiftcation. Ka'haiit or Probosris .Monkry, the ffrmnnpithrrun nnmtlin, a most grotesque and hi<lcnus tnonkey of Borneo. It is of gregarious habits, and is extremely active, noisy, mischievous, and even savage in character. The native name is derived from the cry of the beast. Its nose is six inches long, and perfectly black. Kah'lenbcr^, the last outpost of the Wicncrwald, the northernmost spur of the Noric .Mps, rises just outside Vienna, on the Banube. From its southern side Sobieski attacked in It'iS.'J the Turks besieging Vienna. On its top, which rises 1100 feet above the river, are some places of amusement, much visited during summer by the inhabit- ants of Vienna. Kai'etenr, a celebrated watrrfall in British Guiana, on the Polaro River, a tributary of tlio Essoquibo, 822 feet in height. The river is hero nearly 400 feet wide, and is 15 feet deep. Kairwan', town of Tunis. Northern Africa. It has several magnificent mosques and other monuments of a pjilendor which has gone. It stan<ls on a snndy plain, has no manufactures and no trade. Pop. estimated at from 10,000 to 50.000. Kaisari'Jt'h, town of Asia Minor, situated in lat. 3S° '12' N. and Ion. .'t5° 20' E., and not to he confounded with Kaisarijeh in the province of Syria, which was built by Ilerod, boro the name of Ciesarea Palestiiue, and was in the first century one of the most Sftlendid (Ireck towns in Asia, but which now is wholly in ruins. Kaisarijeh in Asia Minor is <li'eaying too, surrr>nndeil on ail sides by ruins, but it has still 10,000 inhalntcd houses, and carries on a very important trade in European and Asiatic produots. Kai'scr[from Lat. Cirttnr'\, the (lerman wr,rd for emperor, which has been ?f extensively known anil used in every lan- guage since the year 1871, when William, king of Prussia, was crowned at Versailles, France, as emperor of Germany. Thus was revived the old Teutonic appellation of kaiser, which applied formerly, and especially in the Middle Ages, to the German emperors, wiio iuberited this title from the Roman Caesars, themselves succeeded by Charlemagne, who is considered by Germans as the first emperor of the ^*atcr- land, as William is the latest one. Fei.ix ArcAiGNK. Kai'scrslautern, town of Rhenish Bavaria, on the Lauter. It has some manufactures of iron, cotton, and to- bacco, and a lively trade in fruit. Pop. 12,029. Kai'serswerth, small town of Rhenish Prussia, on the Rhine, is noted for the school of evangelical deaconesses which was founded herein IH.'i.'j (see Fl.n:lisr.l{), and which now h;is branches in most Protestant countries. Pop. 222."i. Kak'odyle (syn. Cacodtlk, which see) ; also Kako- dylic Oxide, Correctly speaking, the synonym given in the former note under CAronvi.r, " Fitinln;/ Li'iunr of Cn- ffrt" belongs, as it was originally applied by Bunsen, the discoverer of this baneful series of bodies, to the latter compound, which is also called o/corni'iie {arsenical alcohol), though it is now known that the liquor of Cadet is always mixed with kakodyle itself. Cadet's liquor is obtained liy distilling together white arsenic and potassic acetate. The mixed product is treated with hydrochloric acid, which gives kakodylic chloride, and this, treated in an atmo- sphere of CO2, with metallic Zn, gives pure kakodyle. The formula C<IIcAs also, which was given before, becomes, in tbo p^e^■ailing notation adopted in this Ctirlnpivdtnf CjIIij.Aso. Under the view that it is arHnullmrihyle, the rational formula attributed to kakodyle by Woiihlcr is: (r-n \ t ; »nd to kakodylic oxide (alcarsinc) he assigns (C Jl^J'jAS the formula [(CIIajiAsl-jO. The latter is formed, with Unlc- oili/Hc arid (CII3 l-j.'Vs.OlI. by the .slow oxidation of kako- dyle. It is only kakodyle itself which fumes and inflames spontaneously in the air, and it confers these properties on the mixture called '* liquor of Cadet." Humanity revolts from the use of this agent, kakodyle, in human warfare, and it never will be thus employed, as its emi)loyers would place themselves without the pale of humanity. The power to prepare such terrific agents has doubtless been conferred upon man to enable him to cope successfully with beasts of prey anil deadly reptiles and serpents, which in some countries prove too powerful tor tlio untaught natives, and actually have been known to depopulate large districts of the earth, and render theiu impenetrable by civilized man under ordinary conditions. 11. WtltTZ. Kalnfat', town of Roumania, in Little AVallacliia, in a plain on llie left bank of llie Diuuibc, nearly opposite to Widin. Partly by its natural position, and partly by its artificial fortifications, it commands entirely the approach to the Danube here, and was the scene of very severe eon- tests between the Russians and the Turks in 1829 and in ISJI. Pop. about 2600. Kalnkau'a (Davih). b. at Honolulu Nor. Ifi, lS.'?(5.and desecddcd from an ancient king of the islands of Hawaii. Together with Lunalilo and other hereditary chiefs, he was educated in the royal school of Honolulu, a thoroughly English institution, and in ISdO he visited California. When l.unalilo died (Feb. X, 1S7I) without having pro- claimed a successor. Kalakaua was eleeteil king (Feb. 12) by the legislature, .'i9 votes being given to him, and only (i to the queen-dowager, Emma, his rival to the throne. A riot took place in favor of Emma, but was speedily put down by niil from the British and American ships of war present! and Kalakaua was installed on the same day as the seventh king of the Hawaiian Islands. KnI'aina, city and tp., cap. of Cowlitz CO., Wash. Ter., on the right liank of Columbia River, 45 miles from Port- land, Or., and fi5 miles S. E. of .\storia. southern terminus of the Pacific division of the Northern Pacific R. It., now eomrileted 105 miles northward to Tacoma. Kalama was first laid out in Feb., 1871, and was incorporated as a city in the same vear, in consequence of its selection as tbo head-quarters of the above-mentioned railroad co., which erected buildings for ofliccs, car and machine shops, a ware- house, and a wharf 700 feet long. It has several large ho- tels, 2 churches, 1 newspaper, 1 public-school edifice, a jail, anil a fire department: and is the highest ]ioint on Colum- bia River to which deep-sea vessels can ascend without lightering cargo. Within a few miles northward are exten- si\-e coal-miiu's, ami on every side are forests of fine tim- ber. Kalama Creek, rising at the base of Mount St. Helen, supplies unlimited water-power, .^almon fishing, in the Columbia River, for canning and export, is a profitable in- dustry. U. »S. mails received daily from Paget Sound by rail, and twice a day by steamers connecting with overland mail from California. M. H. & M. L. MosKV, Eds. " Beacon." 1494 KALAMATA— KALMAR. Kalama'ta, risiDg tovrn of Greece, at the hend of the Gulf of KuroD. and carries on a brisk trade in oil^ figs, and cocoons. Pop. 6'JOO. Kalamazoo', county of S, W. Michigan. Area. 576 square miles. It is very fertile, and diversified with prai- ries, oak-openings, and forests. It is traversed by numer- ous rivers, and by five lines of railroad. Cattle, grain, wool, buiter, and bay are staple |)roduets. The manufac- tures include carriages, wagons, lumber, cooperage, flour, saddlery, etc. Cop. Kalamazoo. Pop. ;J2,0j4. Kalamazoo, post-v. and tp., cap. of Kalamazoo co., Mich., on the Michigan Central, the Kalamazoo division of the Lake Shore and Mirhigan .Southern, the Grand Rapids and Indiana, and the Kalamazoo and ,South Haven R. Rs., 40 miles from Lake Michigan and 143 miles from Detroit. Situated on the river of the same name, with a fine location and splendid water-power. Kalamazoo is a beautiful and wealthy place, having 12 churches, 2 fine libraries (one of 5000 vols.), a gallery of art. 2 national and 1 savings bank. 1 college. 2 female seminaries, a fine sys- tem of public schools, and several private schools, 1 daily, 2 weekly, and 2 monthly periodicals. AVatcr is supplied on the Holly system by 10 miles of pipes and 100 hydrants. There is an effective fire department with a fire-alarm tele- graph ; the manufactures are extensive, embracing iron machinery, steel springs, carriages, pianos, billiard-tables, elevators, clothes-pins, woodwork of Tarious kinds, and paper. There is a public park, and a driving-park with a superior track. The Michigan asylum for the insane is located here, accommodating 400 to tJOO patients. Kala- mazoo is the fnurth town of the State in size. Pop. of v. UlSl : of tp. 10,447. Geo. Torrey, Fon *• Telegraph." Kalamazoo College, Mich., was incorporated as a college in ISoo. It had previously been a branch of the University of Michigan. Its founders were Baptists, and a majority of its board of trustees are of the same body of Christians. But other denominations have always been represented in its board of trustees, and generally in its faculty. It admits both sexes to an equal share in its in- struction and to the same courses of study. The buildings are very finely situated, and the campus includes about 25 acres. Rev. Kenrlall Brooks. D. D., has been since 1868 the presirlcnt of the college, whicli embraces f 1S72) 6 male, 4 female instructors: 1*8 male. 71 female students. Kalamazoo River risi>s in Hillsdale eo., Mich., flows gent-rally W. N*. W. to Kalamazoo, and thence X. "VV. to La^e Michigan. It is 200 miles long, :i50 feet wide at its mouth, and is navig.ible 40 miles for boats. It flows through a level and fertile region. Kal'amo, post-tp. of Eaton CO., Mich. Pop. 1363. Kalb MoiiN). Barox pe. See De Kalb. KaTbe, town of Prussia, in the province of Saxony, on the Saale. It has considerable manufactures of cotton and paper. Pop. 7386. Kalb'fleisch (Martin), b. at Flushing, in the \etber- lands, Feb. 8. 1804; was well educated, and in youth paid special attention to chemistry; went as a supercargo (o Sumatra, and afterwartls became a merchant in France; in 1826 came to the V. S., where he acquired great wealth as a manufacturer of colors and chemicals, at first at Harlem. X. Y., and later in Connecticut; in 1841 es- tablished the same business at Green Point, L. I.: took a prominent place as a Democratic politician, was sent to Congress in 1862, and chosen mayor of Brooklyn, X. Y., in 1867. He was distinguished for mercantile integrity. gor>d judgment in business, and public spirit. D. Feb. 12, 1873. Kale, a variety of Bra^iica oleraceay the species of cruciferous plant to which the cabbage, turnip, etc. belong. There are many sub-varieties — some biennial, others with a perennial root. Kale is grown in kitchen-gardens for its leaves, which are boiled as potherbs. The plant is often called borecole. In Great Britain the sea-kale ((^VfimA/" mnritimn),ix |ilant allied to the above, is extensively raised in gardens. Its leaves are not palatable until after blanch- ing, when they are highly prized as food. Kalei'dosoope TGr. koAm. "beautiful." <T8o?, "form." and txKonttv, to •■ see "], an instrument invented in 1817 by Brewster, consists of a tube containing two or more longi- tudin.ll stripes of glass mirror, whose reflecting surfaces are inclined to each other at an oven-numbered aliquot part of four right angles; that is. ntfiO'^. 45°, 36°, etc.. which are respectively one-sixth, one-eighth, and one-tenth of a circle. At one end of the tube is an eye-piece: at the other, two plain glasses, the outer one ground. Between these glasses are bits of bright-eolored glass, dia^ihanous beads, and the like. The reflection of these ohjects is multiplied by the mirrors, ami constitutesasymmetrical image often of great beauty. It is of considerable use in the arts as an aid in devising new patterns for calico-printers and other deco- rative purposes. Kaler'gris (Demetriis). b. in the island of Candia in 1803, and educated at St. Petersburg by an uncle. In the war of independence he fought with great valor, but was taken prisoner by the Turks, who cut off one of his ears. Later on he partook with great passion in all p^ilitical movements in his native country, and from 1843 to 1.S45 held the oflico of minister of war; but his influence was nevertheless not great, as he was suspected of receiving pay from Russia. After 18-16 he lived partly in London, where he became in- timately acquainted with Prince Louis Napoleon, partly in different places in Greece, until he was sent in 1861 as am- bassador to Paris. D. at Athens Apr. 24, 1867. Kalevala. See FiNNisn Langitage and Literathre. Kalgan', an ill-built but large and populous town of China, on the route from Peking to Kiakhta, on the Yang- ho, near the Great Wall, in lat. 40° 50' X., Ion. 115° 3', and is of great importance for the overland trade between China and Russia. Kal^uev% or Kol^uev, an island in the Arctic Ocean, belonging to the government of Archangel. Russia. It is inhabited only by a few Simoyed families, but visited o.ich summer by a great number of fowlers on account of the multitude of eider-duck?, swans, and geese which brood here, and whose feathers and eggs are very valuable. Kali'da, post-v., Union tp., Putnam co., 0. Pop. 290. Kalida'sa^ an Indian poet, author of the drama Sahun- tah'i, translated by Sir William Jones in 1789, and into German by Forster in 1790. Many other poems are attrib- uted to him. but with less certainly. The date assigned to Kalidasa by different scholars ranges from the first to the eleventh century a. d. Kaliha'ri Desert, the name of a large territory of Southern Africa, of undefined boundaries, but mostly ex- tending between Ion. 20° and 30° E.. and between lat. 21° and 28° S. It consists of an almost level plain, without springs or streams. The surface is mostly covered with fine sand, resting on a bed of red sandstone, and in many places presenting a striking resemblance to Sahara, Rain is very rare. Grass-plains and groups of acacia trees form the transition from the desert to the fertile tracts. Ostriches, giraffes, and antelopes arc met with. KaMisch (PArin). b. of Jewish parentage at Breslau Feb. 23, 1820; lived, engaged in literary pursuits, first in Paris, then in Leipsic. and at last in Berlin, where he founded Kfiidiferadaturh in 1848. and d. Aug. 21, 1872. He also wrote a number of local farces, which were performed with great success on all the stages of Xorthern Germany. The songs of these farces and from KlaihhradaUvh have been collected underthc title Bfrliner Lcierkaaten. Ka'lispels,or Pen<lsd'.Oreilles,atribe of Indians belonging to the Sclish group, living in the Territories of Washington. Idaho, and Montana, and ui British Colum- bia. They have been partially civilized by Catholic mis- sionaries. The MontaiHl band is the largest, numbering ' 1000; that in Idaho numbers 700. and that in Washington \ Territory, 400. The latter inhabits the valley of Kalispcl, I E. of Cascade range, which gives name to the tribe. ! Ka'lisz, town of Russia, in the government of Warsaw, ; on the Prosna. It is one of the oldest Poli.-'h towns, situ- ated in a fertile and well-cultivated region, and carrying on quite an extensive trade. Pop. 11,778. Kalkas'ka, county of the southern peninsula of Mich- igan. .Area. 540 square miles. It is traversed by the Manistee River and co\*ered by dense forests. Pop. 424. Kalkaska^ post-v.. cap. of Kalkaska co.. Mich., on the Grand Rapids and Indiana R. R.. 137 miles X. of Grand Rapids and 58 miles S. of Little Traverse Bay. in the midst of a vast lumber-region; has 1 newspaper and a fair pro- vision of churches, schools, stores, and business accommo- dations. The streams are noted for a plentiful supply of brook-trout. The county was recently organized, and had but 424 inhabitants in 1870, since which time the village of Kalkaska has sprung up with a present (1874) pop. of about 1700. C. P. Sweet. Ed. " Kalkaskian." Kalm (Peter), a Swedish botanist, b. in East Bothnia in 1715: was educated at Abo and Tpsal ; travelle<l exten- sively in Europe: was sent by the Swedish government, at the instance of his friend Linnaeus, to Xorth America, where he travelled 1748-51 : returned to Abo. where he was botanical professor, and published (1753-61; in English 1772) an account of his .American travels. He also pub- lished a large number of works on natural science and other subjects. D. Nov. 16. 1779. Kal'mar, or Calmar, an old but interesting and well- built town of Sweden, is situated on an island in Kalmar KALMIA— KAMEHAMEHA V. 1495 Gounil, and cominuincates with its suburb? on the maiDlnnd by a long stone l.riilgc It has a pood harbor, considerable trade, and i-oine maniifuctures. In its old eastic, now de- cayed, the treaty was jiijrncd in }'.i\)7 by which QncL-n Mar- pretho of Doriniark united the three Scandinsiviun king- doms, Sweden. Xurway. and Denmark, under oiio crown. The instrument was [.oorly digested, making minute slip- ulations for petty affairs, and no provisions for great events. Thus it became a source of calamities to all the three kingdoms. In ntodern times, however, since the idea of a Scandinavian union has taken hold once more of the minds of the Scandinavian people, the failure of the first attempt has been forgotten, and the old city where it took place has become quite an object of enthusiasm. Louis X^■l^. and Charles X. of France lived here during their exile. P. 8S13. Karmia [named in honor of Peter Kalm]. a genus of shnihs of the order Krieaeeic, evergreens and natives of North America. The V. S, have at least six species, of which the mountain laurel, spoon-wood, or calico-bush (A"". Intifnlin) is the best known. It is a large, handsome shrub, with beautiful flowers, highly ornamental in cultivation. The leaves of K. auffunti/t>lia are very poisonous when eaten by sheep. They have been employed in medicine. Kaloc'sa, town of Hungary, on the Danube, 70 miles P. of Pc?th. It is (he see of an archbishop. In its im- mediate vicinity is Lake Kolon, famous for its delicate fish. Pup. 12, SOS. Kalon?. See Fi.visg Fox. Kalil'j^a, government of European Kussia, bounded by Smolensk. Moscow, and Tula. .Vrea, 12,17'i square miles. Pop. l)S4,2JJ. The ground is low, the surface flat, the soil stony and not very fertile. The largest part of (lie country is covered with forests. Rye and oats are the common crops ; flax and hemp are extensively cultivated ; distilling and manufactures of linen arc the chief branches of in- dustry. Kaluga, town of European Russia, the capital of the government of Kaluga, on the Oka. It has very important manufiiclures of sailebtih and leather, and an extensive trade in corn. Pop. .'M'l.OSO. KalWf town of Wiirtemberg, on the Xagold, is the principal seat of the lumber-trade in the Black Forest. Pop. s:>^2. Ka'ma, a river of European Russia, rises in the gov- ernment of Viatka, and flows through Perue, Orenbourg, and Kasan, where, after a course of 1 100 miles, it joins the Volga. It is navigable Ht miles from its sources, and forms a very important line of traflic. Kamba'lia, or Seraia, a seaport in the Gulf of Cutch, on the W. coast of India, opened to commerce about 1S70, and pronounced by the Indian coast survey to bo one of the safest and most commodious harbors on the Malabar coast. Kambalu', the ancient capital of the Chinese ompiro under Kiiblai Khan, the founder of the Mongol dynasty, was visited by several Europeans in the thirteenth century, who have described its inagnilieence. The ruins of Kam- balu have recently been found a few miles to the W. of Peking. Kamre'la, or Kama'la, a drug consisting of a red- brown powder from the capsules of f(i>l((pru tlnrton'tt, a small euphorbiaceous tree of India, China, .id Australia, It is iiseu in medicine for killing the tapeworm, which it usually aecompli.-'hes with great promptitude. It is a smart cathartic, and is used for skin diseases. In lu'lia it is ex- tensively use«l as a dyeslufl", making a deep red color. Kainrha^moha l.^ the conqueror and first king of the rn/fV'- grnup of (he Hawaiian (or Sandwich) Islanils. at the deal h of his unele, Kuhiniopu, king of Hawaii, in 1 7^1. in- herited the hend-chiefslii[p of a part of that island. Of un- common mental and physical f|uickness. strength, and cour- ng**, ati'l with the udvnrilage iif s"ine foreiun-buiU vessels and (he tiid of firearms in thr' hnnds of a few Europeans, ho soon conquered the other chiefs of that island, and one ftfler another the other i.shinds ft-ll under his sway, so that in isn he was the aekiinwiedgfd sovereign of the group, and had ai-quired (he f-nl»ri<|U<'t of "(he Nap'deon of the Pacific." As a ruler be was vigilant and strict, placing authority only in trustworthy hands, and keeping near his person nnri under eonlml those eonquereil and rival high chiefs from whom he hml the most to fear. Hi>t friends and favorite warriors were llberallv rewarded, and his enemies, If Rpared. eloxely wntehfd. He valued the superior know- ledge and skill of while men, and kept several employed as mechanics, etc. On Miiy 8, 1SI9. n few months before the first missionaries nf tb" A. P. ''. F. M. sailed from PoRton for his country, he died. By his queen of higbrst rank. Kenpuolani, ho left (wo sons and one daughter. The oMest son, Liholiho, succeeded bim under the title of Kame- hameha IT. Charles R. Pisiior. Kainehnincha II, (Liiiomho) did not inherit the best qualities of his father. He was intemperate and given to pleasure; but by abolishing idolatry and the more oppres- sive tabus ho prepared the way for the missionaries, who received permission to land and commenced their labors in Mar., 1S20. Fearing that he might not be able to retain control of his kingdom, he desired to secure the friendship and protection of the king of Great Hritain. In Xov., IS2.'^, he sailed for England with his favorite queen (Kamanialu). a few chiefs, and servants. They were well received ami kindly treated by the sovereign and people, but. taking the measles soon after their arrival in London, both king and queen died in July, 1S21. chiMless, Their renmins and tneir suite were returned to their island-home in H. B. M. ship Blonde, under command of Capf. Lord Byron. CiiAui.KS R. Bishop. Kamehameha III. (Kanikkavli.i). brother of Li- holiho, b. in 1814, came to the throne in ISit.T (two of the queens of Kamehameha II., Kaahumanu and Kinau, having ruled successively as regents since 182^). He was educated by the American missionaries. Bright, amiable, wild, and dissipated in his youth, and always careless in the choice of his associates, he yet liptoned to good advice in affairs of state, and wisely followed it. Tn 18:i7 he married much below his own rank. In ISIO he gave his people a written constitution and a simi)lc code of laws, and in 1852 a new and very liberal constitution. The independence of his government was aeknowlcdged by the U. S. in 1842. and by Great Britain and France in 18-1.1. With the concurrence of the chiefs he gave in 18-IS Innfls in fee simple to llic common people, so that nearly all heails of families were laudhohlers. Treaties wore made with Iho C. S.und with several European countries, and great prog- ress was made in education, civilizatiim, agriculture, and commerce. The king adopted as his heir and successor his youngest nephew, Alexander Liholiho. On Feb. 28, 1842, Lord George Paulct forced him to cede the islamls to Great Britain, but Admiral Thomas, commander-in-chief of the squadron, restored the flag and sovereignty July HI, ISVA. In 184G a new eoiie, establishing a more systematic gov- ernment, with courts of various grades, was promulgated. The more responsible offices were filled bv foreigners, of whom Rev. William Richards. Dr. G. P. Judd. R. C. Wyllie, William L. Lee, and Rev. K. Armstrong were the mn?t prominent and useful. This king, called ** Kamehameha the Good," deserved the love and gratitude of his pecqile. D.Bee. 15, 1854, at the age of forty years, childless, ami bis adopted nephew succeeded him. Chaiu.ks R. Bishop. Kamehameha IV. (Alk.xandbr Liholiho), b. Feb. 9, ]8;J1, succeeded his undo in Dec, 1854. He was edu- cated in the Young Chief's School under tlie care of Mr. and Mrs. Cooke. In 1849-50 he and his older brother, Lot Kamcbamehn, visited the U. S., Englaml. and France. Juno 2, ISjIi, he married Emma, adopted daughter of Dr. T. C. B. Uookc. and May 20, 1S57, a son, the jtrince of Hawaii, was born, to the great joy of the whole natirm. Kamehameha IV. was a brilliant and agreeable gentleman. in accomplishments and talents 8uperi(tr to any other of his race ; hamlsome in form, graceful, fond of military and civic pnrade, of sports and society, and generous to a fuilt. When excited with wine he wns piissionate and reckless. U'\» love for his country and people was intense: his pros- pects for a long and prosperous reign seemed fair, and through his son he hoped for the perpetuity of his dynasty : hut in Aug.. 1802. the young prince died after a short ill- ness. The king never recovered from the efl'eet of the grief and disappointment caused by that loss, and it undoubtedly shortene<l his life. He took an active interest in the iutro- ducti<m and progress of the " Reformed Catholic Mission." The l^ueen's Hospital in Honolulu was established in ]^Ct(\ by the aid of subscriptions solicited by him in person, and ho kept up a deep interest in it to tho end of his life. Tlio rapid and constant decrease of his people was to him. as it also was to his brother and successor, a depressing and dis- couraging fact. D.Nov. :J0, 18G;1. CnAni,i:.s R. Bisnop. Kamehameha V, (Lor Kamkiiamkha), b. Dec. II. 1S;;0, sueceeiied his younger brother in Nov., lSfi;L He hiid been minister of the interior and eommander-in-ehief of the forces. Like his predecessor, he. too. was a well-educated and ogreeablo gentleman, though less aceonijdished and more retiring. His experience in public nfl'airs, high rank, firmness, and comman*ling presence nimle him eminently litted to be the ruler of his people, and al bis accession ho was even more popular with his native subjects than his brother had been. While prince he hacl been dissipated, but before ho became king he reformeil. and the cdiange was permanent. On coming to the throne h<' declined to tako I the oath to tho constitution of 1852, considering it not 1496 KAMEKE, VON-KANAKIS. binding upon him to do so, and that the constitution was too democratic for the good of his people. In lS6i he called a convention of the nobles and delegates of the peo- ple to make a new constitution, but disagreeing with the third estate, and believing the opposition to be factious and unreasonable, he dissolved the convention, grantid the present constitution, and took the oath to support it. ^N hile the masses seemed to be quite satisfied with the change, by many he was severely censured for this step ; but those who knew hira the best, though disapproving of the manner in which the change was made, had, and now have, no doubt that patriotism and a determination to promote the inter- ests of his government and people controlled his action. He was too proud to take much pains to disabuse the minds of those who misjudged and blamed him. ^\ ant ot sympathy between the king and that part of the foreign community who were of radical, democratic, and progres- sive tendencies had the effect to make him suspicious and exclusive, and to strengthen the influence of those who lor various reasons took more pains to agree with and please him— an influence not always wholesome or honorable. IIis energy and his disposition to engage in trade and specula- tion, for which he had not been trained, did not increase his estate, and in the latter part of his life he got the repu- tation of being avaricious and grasping. His character was a strange one. He was strong-minded, fearless, and firm, and yet superstitious; generous even to wastefulness with Fome, and with others close even to injustice; afl"ec- tionatc and confiding towards those who won his respect, and suspicious and reticent towards others equally worthy. Partly out of regard for the memory of his brother, and also from a real interest in good morals and education, he gave liberal aid to the Reformed Catholic Mission and its schools. He was never married, and left no heir to the throne. On his deathbed he requested his kinswoman, Mrs. Bernice Panahi Bishop, to become his successor, but she declined, and he expired soon after without making any appointment according to law. P. Pec. 11. lS72,that being his forty-second birthday. Cihri-es P.. Bishop. Ka'meke, von (Gf.oro Arnold C.vri.I, b. June 14, 1817: entered the military service in ls:j4; in ISjO was made a captain in the staff, and fromlSoG to If 58 was mil- itary attache to the Prussian ambassador at Vienna. He was" then created a lieutenant-colonel, and appointed chief of the engineering department of the ministry of war. In ISCl he received the command of a regiment of infantry, in 1863 became chief of stafl' of the 8th army corps, and in 1SG5 m.ijor-general and chief of stafl' of the 2d array corps. In (his position he took part in the war of 18CC against Austria, and received the decoration pour le mi'rilc. In ISfiT he was made inspector-general of the engineering corps and the fortresses, and in 18C8 lieutenant-general. In the war of 1870-71 with France ho first commanded the 14th infantry division, occasioned tlio battle of Saarbriickcn (.\ug. 6, 1870), and took part in the battles of Aug. M, IG, andls. After the surrender of Metz he was ordered to take Thiouville and lav siege to Mezieres and Longwy. Hence he was called to Paris to superintend the works during the siege. After tho war he occupied his old position as in- spe'ctor-general of the fortresses and the engineering corps, and in 1874, when Gen. von Roon retired, ho was made minister of war. Ai r.t st Niem.1xx. Kames (Hkxrv Home), LoRn,b. at Kames. Berwick- shire, in IGOC ; was educated at Edinburgh, and passed ad- vocate in 1724; became a judge of tho court of session, with the title of Lord Kames, 1752, and in 1703 became a lord of justiciary. He published several legal works, chiefly volumes of decisions and the like, but his fame mainly rests upon the Prbiciphu of MoraUli/ 'uid Natural Relig- ion (1751), and especially on tho EInnaiti of CriUciem (1762), a >vork which once had a wide influence. As a jurist he was just and able. D. Bee. 27, 1782. Kamin'etz Podolsk, town of Russia, in tho govern- ment of Podidia. on the Smotritza, near the Austrian fron- tier. It is beautifully situated, fortified, and has a Gothic cathedral. Pop. 17,109. Kamiscliin', town of European Russia^ in the govern- ment of Saratov, at the influx of the Kaniischinka in the Volga. It has some manufactures. Pop. 7651. Kamouras'ka, county of Quebec, Canada, extending from the .St. Lawrence to the Plate of Maine. It is trav- ersed by the Grand Trunk Railway. Pop. 21,254. Kamouraska, post-v. of Kamouraska co., Quebec, Canaila, 'JO miles below Quebec, on the S. shore of the St. Lawrence. It is a summer resort, and has a nunnery and academy. Pop. of v. 797: of parish, adilitional, 1484. Kam'pPn, town of the Netherlands, in the province of Overvssel, on the Vssel, near its outlet in tho Zuyder-Zee. It was formerly a town of greater importance, but has still and considerable manufactures of paper, ropes, bricks, spirits. Pop. 13,902. Kampen, van (Nikolais Godfried), b. at Haarlem May 15, IT"ti : was apprenticed in a bookstore, but devoted him'self' with great zeal to the study of languages and his- tory, and became professor at the University of Leyden in the butch language, literature, and history in 1816. He was a very prolific writer, but his principal work is Ge- siliieihms'drr Xcdirlanllni luhen Eiiropa (Uaarlcm, 1831- 33). D. at Amsterdam Mar. 14, 1839. Kamp'fcr (ExcELBREcnT), b. Nov. 16, 1651, at Lemgo, in the principality of Lippe, Germany : studied medicine at Kiinigsberg; accompanied in lf.38 a ■'Swedish embassy to Persia as secretary : wont then with a Dutch fleet as physician to the East'lndics and Japan ; returned in 1692, anil d. in his native town Nov. 2. 1716. Of his voUiniinous writings on the countries he visited, the [fliitori/ of Japan and S7nm was published in London in 1727. in 2 vols., but most of the rest remain unpublished iu the British Museum. Kamptu'licon, a sort of floor-covering composed of eutta-pcrcha and caoutchouc (or linseed oil), mixed with naphtha and powdered cork, and rolled into sheets, which arc calendered, dried, and painted or printed in imitation of floor-cloths. It is expensive, but warm, noiseless, and waterproof. It is, however, not durable. Kamptz, von (Karl Albert Christoph HEixnicn), b at Schwcrin Sept. 16, 17G9 ; studied jurisprudence at Gottin.'cn, and held from 1790 to 1830 difl-erent judicial positions in Mecklenburg and Prussia. From 1830 to LS42 he was Prussian minister of justice, and contributed very much, both by his writings and by his practical measures, to harmonizo" the difi'crent legislation of the several divis- ions of the Prussian state: but his bearing towards the liberal movements of his time was arbitrary and odious; the students burnt his Codex der Gendarmerie at W arlburg in ISIJ. D. at Berlin Nov. 3, 1849. Kamtchat'ka, a large peninsula of South-eastern Si- beria, 850 miles long, and at its greatest width 250 miles broad, extending between the Sea of Kamtchatka and the Sea of Okhotsk, and terminating in a long, narrow tongue forming Cape Lopatka. It is traversed from N. to S. by a range of volcanic mountains, whose craters mostly are ex- tinct thouffh Klintchewskaia. 16,152 feet high, was seen in full activity in 1829. The soil is generally stony, though there arc fertile valleys, especially that along the river Kamtchatka. But even hero the land is unfit for agricul- ture on account of the severity of the climate. The winter lasts nine months, and frost is not rare in the summer; for- ests of birch and pine trees grow. The inhabitants, num- bering from 5000 to 6000, are nio.^lly Kamtchadales. who live by hunting and fishing. Bears, sable, foxes, otters, beavers, seals, and salmon abound. The only domestic animal is the dog, a peculiar species, large, strongly built, silver-n'ray or yellowish-brown. These dogs do not bark or hovTl, and, l"ike the wolves, they see better during the ni-'ht than in the daylight. They arc sagacious and docile ; when harnessed, ten or twelve couples, to a sleigh, they are governed bv the voice and tho whip, without reins. But thev are exceedingly wild, attacking every animal they meet, and sometimes even children. They live on fish. Tho principal town is Petropaulovski, on the E. coast, in lat. 53° N. Kanabec', county of E. Minnesota. Area, 540 square mi'es. It is traversed bv Snake River, and is larpcly cov- ered with forests of pine and larch. Tho surfaco is uneven. Cap. Brunswick. Pop. 93. Kanaga'wa, town of Japan, on tho Bay of Teddo, 16 miles from the city of that name. In 1859, Kanagawa was opened to foreigners, and very soon it developed a considerable trade. Ka'naris (Coxstastise), b. in the island of Ipsara in 17911. and commanded a small merchant vessel when the war uf independence broke out. But his exploits soon made his name known to the whole civilized world. June 19, 1822, he burnt a Turkish squadron in the canal ol t hios ; Nov. 22! another in tho harbor of Tenedos; Aug. 17, 1n24, a third at Cape Trogilion. In 1825 he conceived the bold idea of burning the Egyptian fleet, which lay at anchor in the harbor of Alexandria ready to convey the troops ol MehemetAli to Peloiionnesns. The attempt failed, how- ever On Aug. 5 the fire-ships were actually launchcil. but at the same moment the wind turned and drove them away from the Egyptian vessels. Kanaris wished to make a new attempt tho'foUowing day. but for some unknown reason the plan was not executed. In 1826 he commanded llio fri''.-ite Hellas, and in 1827 a whole squadron, with winch h.-'drove the Turkish flag out of the (ireek waters. I ndcr Kin^ Otho and King Gorge he was constantly a member of tho Greek diet; and held tho oftico of minister ol war KANAWHA— KAKGAROO. 1497 scvornl time?, lhou;2;h generally only for a short time. In 1851. Kin;; Otho iitlemptetl to buy off his oiiposilion by a peiiHiiin an'l the title of udmiral. but fiiilcd : the en|»t!iin de- clined both offers. In IStij he was appointed ins^pector- gcnoral of the tJrcek navy. D. 1S77, Knnn'whav county of S. W. Central West Virginia. Area, about 1 IJO square miles. It is hilly and mountain- ous, but fertile. Iron, coal, and salt abound. The county is traversed by the fircat Kanawha River and the Chesa- peake and Ohio R. R. Tobacco, cattle, grain, nnd wool are the chief staples. Lumber and coopernge arc manu- factured, and salt is made by boiling natural brines. Cap. Kanawha Court-house, or Charleston, which is also capital of the State. Pop. 22,349. Kanawha Court-house, once the P. 0. name of Chaulkston (which see), the capital of Kanawha co., W. Va., and former capital of the State. Kanawha Hiver. Sec Great and Little KAXAwnA. Kandahar. See Canoahar. Kantliyo'hi, county of S, W. Central Minnesota. Area. S04 square miles. It is traversed by the St. Paul and Pacific R. R. It contains innumerable small lakes, has an undulating surface and a good soil, well adapted for wheat. Caps. Kamliyohi Station and Lake Klizabeth. Pop. 1760. Since the census of 1870, >ronongalia co. has been united with it. so that the total pop. in 1870 was 4921. Kandiyohi, tp. of Kandiyohi co.. Minn. Pop. 558. Kandiyohi Station, a post-v., one of the county- 8eat3 of Kandiyohi co., Minn. It is on the St. Paul and Pacific R. R., 9S miles from St. Paul. Kan'dy, or Candy, town of Ceylon, situated nearly in the centre of the island, on an elevation 1G7C feet above the sea. It is the seat of the government, has many Chris- tian churches, Rooddhist temples, and Mohammedan mosques. Close by is a beautiful artificial lake, IJ miles long and from 100 to 500 yards broad. Pop. 7000. Kane, county of X. E. Illinois. Area, 540 square miles. It is a rolling [irairie region, with abundant limestone, some timber, and a very fertile soil. It is traversed by Fox River and numerous railroads. Live-st<ick, grain, hay. and dairy products are (he great staples. Flour, cheese, machinery. and the celebrated Kigin watches (see Elgin) are made in this county. Cap. Ge'neva. Pop. :i9.0!)l. Kane, county of S. E. Utah, extending nearly across the Territory from E. to W. Area, estimated at 7.>jn square miles. It is traversed by the Colorado River, and contains a great variety of lands and much mineral wealth. Cap. Toquerville. Pop. 1513. Kane, post-v. and tp., Greene co., 111., situated on Jaek- 8onville division of the Chicago .Alton antl St. Louis R. R., 25 miles N. of Alton, and 8 miles S. of the county-seat. Carrollton. It has I bank. 2 newspapers, several business- houses and 1 large school-house, nnd is surmuncled by a fine farming country. Pop. of tp. 957. En. " Kxi'ucss." Knne, tp. of Ronton co., la. Pop. 763, Kane, tp. of Pottawattamie co., la. Pop. lOSrt. Kane, post-v. of Wetmore tp.. McKean co.. Pa., on the Philadelphia and Erie R. R., 19:! miles \V. X. W. of Phila- delphia. It is situated on the '* Big Level," a fertile plain 2000 feet above the sea-level. It has grand forests of pino and other timber. Here are the repair-shops and round- houses of the railroad. Kane has a public piirk nf fion acres, besides several private parks and a number of schools and churches. Kane (Et.isnA Kknt), M. I>., a distinguished explorer, b. in Philadelphia Feb. 3, 1820, was Iho son of Judge J. K. Kano of that city. He was educated at the universities of Virginia and Pennsylvania: tr>c»k his medieul degree in 1813 ; entered the navy ; was physician to tl»e Chinese em- bassy ; travelled in .\Kia, tho l>evant. and Western Africa; served Id tho Mexican war, in which he was ceverely wounded; sailed in lS50un<lcr I>e Haven in the first Grin- nell expedition in search of Sir John Franklin ; commanded the second (Irinnell expedition (185<'i-55), and discovered an open polar sea. For this expedition he received sev- eral goM Tuedals and other distincticms. (."^ce art. Poi.AR SKAitni. by Dr. I. I. IlAVK<t.) Hi.s health, always delicate, was much impaired by the terrible sufferings of this ex- pedition. He published a narrative of his first polar cx- f edition (1853) and of his second (2 vols., |s5n). I), at lavana Feb. IC, ls57. I)r. Kane was a man of active, en- terprising, and courageous spirit, and of most generous im- pulses. A volume of his personal letters was published ny his wife. Mnrgarctta Fox. (See his Li/f, by Dr. W. Elder, 185S.) Kane (Sir RonKnTl. M. I>., LL.D.. F. R. S.. b. at Hub- lin in ISIO; was long professor of chemistry in Apotheca- ries' Hall ; was founder and (1832-34) editor of the Dublin Juunial of Medical ^'citiicc ; was 1844 — 17 professor of na- tural history to the Royal Dublin Society ; was for a time president of Queen's College, Cork; was knighted in 1846. Is a prominent member of many learned societies, and has been the recipient of many honors. Is widely known as the author of the Elements of Chemistri/ (1842) and the Indtistriul JliHOurct-a of Ireland (1845). Kane (Thomas L.), b. at Philadelphia Jan. 27, 1822, brother of Dr. E. K. Kane, noticed above; was educated in Paris, where be was intimate with Auguste Comte and the democratic leaders of the day; was admitted to tho bar at Philadelphia in ISItJ, but abandoned the law for civil engineering; visited the Mormon settlements in 1847, and acquired such influence among them that ten years later (1858) he was sent to Utah by tlie l'. S. government ns confidential agent to prevent the outbreak of hostilities. Returning to tho profession of an engineer in "Western Pennsylvania, raised and commanded in Apr.. 18fil, tho famous regiment of mou!itairiecrs known as the Ruck- tail Rifles; was wounded at Dranesvillo and Harrison- burg, was taken prisoner at the latter engagement, ex- changed in Aug., 18(i2, and appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers in September. D. 1875. Kane City, post-v. of Complanter tp., Venango co., Pa. It has numerous oil-wells. Kane'ville, i)ost-v. and tp. of Kane co., 111. Pop. 999. Kangaroo', a name given to numerous species of mar- Kangaroo. supial or pouched animals living exclusively in Australia, belonging to the family MAritoi'oiuDA: (which see), but more especially to the large species of tho genus MorropuM. Kan- garoo is a native name. The kangaroo was first made known to the world by Capt, Cook, who on lauding at New South Wales was astonished at tho sight of what was at first re- garded as a new and very peculiar species of greyhound. The kangaroo is characterized by a remarkable di.^pmpor- tion between the anterior and posterior extremities, and particularly l)y the presence in tho region of the abdomen of a curious pouch, within whieh are the mamma?. Tho malo is without this development. The licad is small and resembles that of the deei, having the same mild ami placid expre."si(m, as well as delicate shape. The hind feet are proviiled wilh four toes, the middle <tne being much larger than the others, of great strength, and provided wilh a hoof-like claw. An examination of these stout and extremely long hind limbs shows how well adapted they are to aid the creature in its wonderful leaps. The tail, which is also very stout and strong, aicls very materially in the leap. Tho fore legs are very short, and are proviiled with bent elaws with whiidi they hold fooil when eating. Kangaroos have no canine teeth; their incisors arc six in tho upper Jaw, and but two in Iho lower. The molars aro ten in number in each jaw, and aro separated fri>m the in- cisors by a long space. They aro exclunively hcrliivorous in diet, associating in small her<ls under the guidance of older males. They vary in size greatly, some species being about the dimensions of a rat. while others are known to measure eight feet tVoni the nose to the tip of tlie tail, and to weigh over 200 pounds. The young are produced in a very imperfect state, being in tho largest species not moro than two inches bmg at birth. Tho newborn creatures are conveyed by the mouth to tho pouch, where they attach themselves to the teats, which they do not Imvo until able to walk. Theso animals aro easily tamed, and aro harmless 1498 KANGAROO APPLE— KANSAS. and timid, though when brought to bay in the wild state they arc said to iifz;bt with great power, u^ing their tail and hind feet. Tho flesh of the kani;aroo is cistcemed a deli- cacy in regions where they inlmbit. J. B. Holder. Kangaroo Apple, the Sofmutm fnciniatum, a kind of tomato growing in South America. Australia, and some of tho Pacific inlands. It is useful as food, but not until per- fectly ripe. The green fruit has sharply acrid properties. Ka'nizsa, Gross-Kanizsa, or !Vagy-Kanizsa, town of Hungary, inhabited partly by (jcrnians, partly by Magyars, manufactures tiles and liqueurs, and carries on an import trade in corn, cattle, and wine. Pop. 11,722. Kanka'kce, county of N. E. Illinois. Area, 590 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by Indiana, and consists chiefly of flat prairie. Its soil is productive. Live-stock, grain, wool, dairy products, and hay are tho great sta|)les. Carriages and wagons are leading articles of manufacture. Tho county is traversed by the Illinois Central and Chicago Danville and Vincennes R. Rs. Cap. Kankakee. Pop. 2i,;iJ2. Kankakee, city and tp., cap. of Kankakee co., Til., 56 miles directly S. of Chicago, on the Illinois Central and the Cincinnati Lafayette and Chicago R. Rs., on tho N. bank of Kankakee River, au affluent of the Illinois, now being improved for purposes of navigation ; is situated on rolling prairie-land, with easy communication to extensive coal-fields and beds of bog-iron ore, in the midst of a rich farming and grazing country. Kankakee contains 13 churches, a public-school building costing $60,000, I na- tional and 2 private banks, 4 weekly newspapers (1 in French), 1 sock, 1 woollen, and 2 button factories, several tanneries, and wagon and carriage manufactories. Two stone-quarries furnish fine building material, so that Kan- kakee is one of the best built towns of the State. It has excellent water-power, which is utilized by paper, planing, oil, and flour mills. There is a public library successfully managed by an association of ladies. Pop. of tp. 5189. Arthir B. Holt, Local Ed. " Gazette." Kankakee, tp. of Jasper co., Ind. Pop. 215. Kankakee, tp. of La Porte co., Ind. Pop. 1185. Kankakee River fluws AV. S. W. from St. Joseph's CO., Ind., through Enfflish Lake and through a flat marshy region. Joined in Kankakee co., 111., by the Iroquois or r>es I'laincs River, it flows N. W., and pours its sluggish waters into tho Illinois. Kan'kari, the ancient GaDf/m. town of Asiatic Turkey, in Asia Minor, on an affluent of the Halys. at an elevation of 2751 feet above tho sea. It has several fine mosques, khans, bazaars, and public baths, and an important trade in salt. Pop. 18,000. Kano% town of the empire of Sokoto, in Central .Africa, situatecl in lat. 12*^ 2' N. and Ion. S° 22' E. It hns largo manufactures of cotton goods and an extensive and grow- ing trade. Pop. :J0,000. Kano'na, i)ost-v. of Bath tp.. Steuben co., N. Y., on tho Rochester division of the Eric R. R. Pop. 1*J0. Kan'sas, one of the central tier of Western States, and geographically the central State of the American Union, ly- Soal of Kansas, ing between tho meridians of 9 (° 38' and 102° of W. Ion., and between the parallels of ;J7° and -10° N. lat. It is bounded on tho X. by Nebraska, the 40th parallel forming the line of division ; E. by Missouri, tho Missouri River firrming tho boundary from the -luth parallel to Kansas City, and the meridian of 94° :iS' the remainder of tho dis- tance ; on tho S. by the Indian Territory, on the line of the 37th parallel J ou tho W. by Colorado, tbo 102d meridian forming the line of division. Its area is stated by the general land-ofiice as 81.318 square miles, or 52,04.'J.520 acres. The form of the State is a nearly perfect parallelo- I gram, only the N. E. corner being clipjied, in consequenee I of following the course of the Mi.-^^ouri River instead of the meridian of 94° 38'. Its length from E. to \V. ranges from ' 391 to 410 miles; its breadth from N. to S. is 200 miles. Surface, Etrration, Mount ft Inn, rtr. — The whole State slopes gently from the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains near its western border to the Missouri River. Along its eastern border, from Wyandotte ai\d Kani«as City, the ele- vation above the sea ranges from GI8 feet to 707 feet; at Lawrence it is between 800 and 900 feet ; at Fort Riley, 1300 feet; 10 miles W. of Fort Riley. 1459 feet; at tho mouth of Saline River, 1592 feet; where the Arkansas River crosses the southern border of the State, about 1800 feet: near Fort Larncd, 2004 feet: near Fort Dodge. 2330 feet: near the Arkansas River, at the W. line of the State, 3047 feet; at Pond Creek, on the Kansas Pacific, 3175 feet. The State has no mountains, but, though there are exten- sive prairies, it is very far from being a monotonous level. There are everywhere low hills or gen tte undulations divided by depressed valleys existing, or former river-bottoms, or in some instances ravines or canons which tho streams have cut through the yielding soil. Hirers, etc. — The Missouri River forms a part of the eastern boundary of the State, but receives no important tributaries from Kansas above tho point where it turns eastward to flow through Missouri. At th.at point it is joined by the Kansas River, one of its largest aflluenis, whieh. rising in Colora<lo, traverses tho State almost cen- trally from W. to E. The pnncijml branches of the Kan- sas are — from the N.. Solomon's Fork, Republican Fork, and Big and Little Blue rivers; from the S. AV., Smoky Hill and Saline Forks. The eastern and south-eastern portions of the State are drained by the Osage, an affluent of the Missouri River, and the Neosho, Verdigris, Little Verdigris, and Walnut Creek, tributaries of the Arkansas River: while the southern and south-western portions are watered by the Arkansas and its branches; the principal of these are the Cimarron and its branches; Bear Creek; the Little Arkansas and its affluents ; Chicaskia Creek, Ne- nc-scah or Good River, Turk or Salt Creek, and Pawnee Fork. The State is, as a whole, well watered, the eastern and middle portions better than tho western, though tho streams of that section are increasing in size and perma- nency with the progress of settlement and tree-jilantirg. There are some marshes, but, we bclie\e. no lakes in tho State of any importance: the two or three claiming that name being only deserted river-beds. Geolofft/. — Eastern Kansas belongs to the coal-measures, which comprise in the State, in one body, a tract 2flS miles in length, with an average breadth of 107 miles, and an area of 22,256 square miles. These arc the lowest of the geological formations of the State, and are a continuation of the coal-field which covers North-eastern Missouri and Southern and South-western Iowa, and extends into the Indian Territory and North-western Arkansas. The thick- ness of the strata belonging to the coal-measures in tho State varies from 403 feet to about GOO feet, the former being its extent in Leavenworth co., and gradually , in- creasing thence southward. These strata contain two beds of bituminous coal — one of 13 feet in thickness, about 300 feet below the surface: the other, 100 feet lower, of 9^ feet thickness. Both arc of good quality, but the lowest is tho best. The dip of the coal-measures is very slight. There seems to be an anticlinal axis in Wyandotte co., the dip of the strata N. of it being to the N. W., and S. of it to tho S. E. The Permian formation laps over tho coal- measures on their western border, and in the valley of Blue River is said by Prof. Swallow to be 507 feet thick. To this succeed the Triassic. and probably tho Jurassic forma- tions, covering a triangular tract of territory, the apex of the triangle being at Fort Riley on tlie Kansas River, where the Republican Fork unites with it. and extending with abroad base through the Indian Territory into North- ern Texas. In Kansas it extends from the point where the Arkansas River crosses the boundary into Indian Territory to the lOIst meridian. It is not apparently rich in fossil.s, the few found being mostly ornithicnites and belonging to the Lias. The Cretaceous formation, which extends over the greater part of Dakota, South-western Iowa, and East- ern Nebraska, crosses Kansas from N. E. to S. W in a very irregular tract, pressed upon on tho N. W. and on the S. by the Tertiary (Drift and Loess). It joins the Carbon- iferous formation at the N. E., then separates from it by the interposition of the wedge-shaped Triassic rocks, and about tho central line of the State gives place to the Ter- tiary for a breadth of 140 miles, when it reappears in nar- row bells, extending southward into New Mexico and North-western Texas. South-western and North-western KANSAS. 1499 Kansas belong to the Drift period, the larger boulders be- ing found as far S. as MS" 30', while ihe deposits of pebbles arc mainly confiued to South-western Kansas. There arc nowhere in ihu Estate striated or grooved rocks, or those which show uuirks of glaciiiL action, and the presumption is that the drift must have been deposited in the geologic periods from icebergs. On the banks of the Missouri, and to Slime extent of the Kansas Kiver, is founcl in large quantities the Loess or lilufl" deposit, sometimes 100 feet in thickness, and rich in the later fossils, such as the .l/a«- Mf/oii and the Elephmt gtrfanttuH, The river-bottoms and the hi;;h prairies in Eastern and Middle Kansas are cov- ered with heavy deposits of alluvium in thickness varying from 3 to 50 feet. Kciittomir Grnfofji/ and Minerafn/ji/. — Kansas contains, so far as is known at present, no valuable mines of the pre- cious metal:<, an<l from itsgeologic formations it can hardly be o.\pected that these will be found. But it has an ample supply of bituminous coal for all the States adjacent, and this of several qualities. Lime and hydraulic lime, are abundant, salt springs exist in great numbers in diflerent sections of the State, and salt of excellent quality is made. There are also many surface-deposits of salt of two or three inches in depth, the result of the evaporation of pools or streams flowing from salt springs. Marble and lime- stone suitable for buibling and ornamental jiurposcs, and freestone or sandstone for building and other purposes, exist in the coal-measures. Gypsum is found in numerous places; alum and native sulphur, and alum and nitrate of potassa, occur together at several points. Rrown hematite and other iron ores are found in considerable deposits, but have not been much worked, the Kansas coal near the sur- face not being well adapted to smelting purposes. Some lead is found in connection with zinc and manganese, but not in quantities 8ufli<'ient to make its working profitable. Tin is reported, but its existence in paying quantities is more than doubtful. Petroleum undoubtedly exists, but at present prices its production would be unprolitabtc. Kaolin or porcelain clay and fireclays are found in extensive de- posits. Moss agates, pelcnite. and other minerals exist in large quantities in Western Kansas. Fossils are found in the .Turassic formation, in the Drift, and in tho Loess, somo of them of great interest. Vcffrtution ainl /iot<tui/. — The number of species of plants indigenous to Kansiis is stated by the State botanist to be ahuiit 1200. About (iOO of these are not in Gray's Manual, antiare probably not found E. of tho lower Missouri River. Kansas is not a State of largo or dense forests, and much of its surface is jtrairie or plain. Aceording to the agri- cultural report of tho Slate, Uii per cent, is prairie and only Table I.— Ti 5 per cent, forest, but in the rivor-bottoms of the eastern and middle sections there is a considerablu dense growth of deciduous trees, of the same class as are found in most of this region — the cottonwood, red and white elm, black walnut, some species of oak, sycamore, box-elder, hickory, and ash, hackborry, red, rock, and sugar moplc, pecan, mulberry, coliee-bcan. cherry, basswood, and occasionally clumps of ceclar. The hooey-loeust, buckeye, and ailanthus have been introduced, and in some sections form consider- able breadths of forest. There are few evergreens in the State except those which have been set out by settlers. In Western Kansas tree-planting has been extensively prac- tised, and with great advantage. The Osage orange and osier are consiilerably used for hedges and fences. The rich prairies of Eastern Kansas are covered with tall and nutritious grasses, and in I heir season with beautiful flowers. In the W^. the grama and buffalo grasses abound ; they are well adapted to the dry but fertile soil, and furnish excellent pasturage. In the extreme W. the SarcohutU (or pulpy thorn of Lewis and Clarke), the Artcminin or wild sage, and the Obionr or grcascwood grow in clumps. Zooloffy. — The wild animals of Kansas are such as arc common to the region knoxvn as •' the Plains." extending from Dakota to Texas, and comprise among the mammals the black and brown bear, the wolf, possibly Hie lynx, tho catamount or panther, tlic wild-cat. the ojjopsuin, raccoon, prairie-wolf, the buffalo in countless herds, the deer, ante- lope, two or three species of hare, several squirrels, field- mice, wood-rats, etc. The prairie-dog has for some cause nearly or quite disnppearcd from the State. Of the Reptilia, tho number is not large; it includes tho rattlesnake, moc- casin, and one or more species of the black snake, two or three adders, and ten or twelve species of the innocuous snakes: and among batraehians, the horned frog, as well as several other species of frogs, toads, and lizards. The professor of natural history in (ho State University reports 200 species of birds belonging to Kansas as already de- scribed, and further research will probably increase tho list to about 360. The rivers, except the Missouri, the main streams of the Kansas and Arkansas, and perhaps the Re- juibliean Fork of the former, arc shallow and partly dry in tho long hot summers, and arc not in consequence so largely stocked with many varieties of fish as those which have a more perennial flow. There are generally the same species of fish found in the other aflluents of the Missouri and Mississippi, and some experiments have been made in tho way of stocking the larger streams with somo of tho best fish from the lakes and northern waters. Cfiuinte. — The climate of Kansas is temperate and salu- brious ; the cold, though sometimes severe in winter, is not RMITRATURKS. PtACn or Omsbvation. |li Hi ill Dc«. F. HONTIILV MBAN TBMPBHATUnBB. J.a. Fob. HBr. Apr. May. Juno. July. Aug. Sopt. Oct. Nor. Doc. Hti rl i II sam c, Osa);n CO., ) lat .•«=> i',; l.in. 95* V 45'; nll.'JOO ft. I Dog. F. Dcg. F. De(. F. Dog. F. DCS. F. Dcg. F. Dog. F. Dog. P. Dog. F. Dog. P. Dcg. p. Dcg. P. Dcg. P. Dcg. P. 52.90 100 —6 32.75 33.08 45.2-5 49.12 64.90 72.45 77.08 74. 66. 63.73 44.85 20.95 Miinliallan.lat,39°ir,') liin.9«'=:)9'; alt. 100<l > Liavonworth, lat. M") •52.81 98 —12 18.50 27.70 49.49 46.60 07.00 74.30 80.20 71.10 00.70 53.10 38.10 25.30 15', Ion. 94° .W; all. ^ S98 fl. ) 61.0.) 99 —29 19. .10. 42.10 48.60 63. 75.50 77.50 79.20 66.40 56.40 35. 21. Lawn-npp, lat. M° SR'.) Ion. 9.5" 10'; alt. 8S1 J- a. J t54.20 108 —3 28.01 27.50 39.50 48.07 69.76 77.11 83.62 83.45 67.03 56.01 38.70 31.01 Tablb II. Fort l>ooTraworlh.. OlalhP Mniihmtiio I.,»irri'nr4' Itaxtcr Sjirinf*.,.. Ucao Fort mii'T ... F'Tt llnrkor . t'art I.«rn(^ . FnrC DixIrp ... Fort AtkliKon. Fort WnUnce.. Fori hyon .... Utan... First, or Eastern Belt. Lai. I,OD. Ml r s 8 f. B. i >• "^ < ai 39"iir w:a' KM II) I.M I.IM 2..1n S.«7 4.S" 38 U Ul 61 • l.il 1M .1.06 4.61 (1,7! -W 16 WI 40 iilKI, » 0,.M l.iM I..18 .1.10 3.:i; IK 68 «6 13 it i.;i4 0,»7 1M I2.7J 4.0H JT 01 Dt 44 \ n J.Tl 111'. ■.'.,'.1 \im ,!.!•- ....i 1.96 1.73 3.01 .1.15 4.>'-- 1 i i 1 I B o VI i < 6 a 1.39 3. in in a.HT ».n 11.67 7.58 1113 .14„15 1.(17 .1.116 ■i.M ■i.-ih 14.B7 33.45 10.110 6.011 6.1.88 1 •.'* 1 ,j 11.83 13.38 (l.5« 3.31 31P,«» . 1 -HD 13.07 7.66 4.18 :i3.«8 • 11 n.m 8.S0 7.30 37.™ {'.oil MM 7.90 4.93 37.07 Sfcond, or Mlildir Bell. WW 9«°35' 1900 U 0.77 1.01 Ic) 7-,' I Iilini .M 44 08 15 .... » 1.87 I.VV. 38 10 98 67 Iin3' 4 1o.44 in.ni 100 3.33 1 3, no 1 1. SI 1.15 0.74 I > --I 0.80 14.30 13.16 0.75 3.33 I ll.OI 3.11 |0.37 10.76 0.331 III l.;» 3.39 1I..VI l0.ull.46l 9.S0 4.51 6.08 10.16 8.06 1.81) 5.45 8.18 3.14 S.63 10.16 1.61 7.87 6..13 S.II9 33,83 30.87 13.83 nird, or Wmtrm BrII. JTOWIflOOOO .... 37 47 IMl 1 1 3^10' 38 61 '101 60l .... 38 08 103 60 4000 a 0.87 0,811 0.17 1,17 0,3"' 1 > I '0.04 '0.411 '0.II8 3,3M ll.rti ■ 4 0,46 10,14 0,(11 13,00 ! 2,(1" _l 0,33 0,13 0,1a ,3.011 I4.I-I ... 0.43,0.M!0U 1.17 !<.37 2,1 '1,78 3,73 0.» 0,7Sll I.«3 8.37 1,8618,81 ll,3»ll,80l| 13.88 10,15 1 M 0,78 0,14 0.07 4,08 0,18 11,04 0.00.0.07 0,16 i_7,n8' 4..10 l.79",3.57]o.45jO.«4;| «.77|' 8.47 4.71 13,06 3.41 0.11 4.83 3,3(1 1' 13.90 3,13 I .18.01 0.(M 13.114 OA£f i 13.00 1.43 II 19.48 * Mean of 23 jrcsrs. t Mean of 7 yoan, 93.14. 1500 KANSAS. protracted, and the prevalent dryness of the atmosphere renders it less trying than it would otherwise be; the heat of summer, though at times very great at midday, is al- ways tempered by cool breezes at night. The mean tem- perature of the year varies with the altitude and the de- gree of raoiiiture, which is greater in the eastern than in the western portion of the State. The winds are often high, especially in the winter, the southerly winds exceed- ing those from the N., N. W., or N. E. in the proportion of 11 to 9. The preceding tables give the temperatures at different points in the State, and the rainfall in several localities far apart, for different years and for the several seasons. The rainfall is best shown by statistics from the three longituilinal belts in Eastern, Middle, and Western Kansas, as in Table TI. Soil uiid A;/n'rultitraf Prnducttoim. — The soil of Kansas, though of two kinds — the alluvium of the river-bottoms and lower prairies, and the upland or plains— is all of it very fertile. Probably no State in the Union has so little waste or worthless land. The rit^h and fertile loam of the river-bottoms, from S to 50 feet deep, at tirst attracted the attention of the settlers; but it has been found that even the lands of the western part of the State, forming a por- tion of what was known as the '* Great American Desert," will yield with moderate irrigation, or without it where groves of trees have been planted, from 40 to 60 bushels of wheat to the acre. Table III. gives the amount of the principal crops gathered in the State in 1S74, according to the assessors' returns in Dec, 187-4. These, being pro- cured for the purpose of taxation, are generally consider- ably below the truth. It will be remembered that 1S74 was the "locust or grasshopper" year, and that Indian corn and some other crops were greatly diminished by these pests. The corn crop of IS73 was in round numbers nearly 39.000.000 bushels, and with the increased acreage that of 1874. but for the '' grasshoppers." would have amounted to not less than 46,000,000 bushels if an average crop. There are to be added to this table several other items of statistics, which are most conveniently stated in a dif- ferent form. Of dairy products, there were produced in the State in 1S73, 151,172 pounds of cheese made in cheese- factories, and 14.'i,922 pounds made in families; in 1874 Table III, — Principal Crops ffrown in Kannua in 2S?^, trith the Acreage in 1S7S and 2S74t 'Ac Quantify and t/ic Value of the Crops of 1874t according to the Asaeeiiora' Returna: Amount or Valae or Acreage for IBH. Products. product in product ID cultitaled IBT*. Id 1871. Winter wheat, bushels. 6,870,606 8.5,794,008 252.724 438,179 Rye, bushels 421,261 289.117 23.184 30,.546 Sprin;; wheat, bushels. 3,010,777 1,837,663 145,566 278.026 Corn on sud,^ Corn on old ^ bushels. land, j 15,099,078 12,283,142 f 112,2691 156,239 \1,142,070T:)69,182 Barley, bushels 414.188 .S29.488 22,7(M 24,115 Oats, bushels 7,700,.38G 4.064,424 277.729 314.926 Buckwheat, bushels.... 113,664 170.499 6,405 7.86C Irish potatoes, bushels. 1,072,260 1.247.817 41.6,53 46.164 Sweet potatoes, bush's. 192,213 249,511 2,2:!7 2,617 Sorghum, gallons 912,12.') 540,:«8 9.908 14,103 Castor beans, bushels- 123,637 l.W.OOo 2,915 8,815 Cotton, pounds »9,6.W 11.6.17 810 1,739 Flax, pounds 174,698 265,704 6,462 16,844 Hemp, pounds 2,331,126 116.560 1,643 3,136 Tobacco, pound.s 293,828 29,384 3,116 507 Broom corn, pounds.... 2,677,.M0 123,317 4.176 483,312 142,469 19.910 40.225 Hungarian, tons 21.069 12.6.i9 1.5.101 Timothv meadow, tons. :i4,067 2.52.817 21.616 29.601 Clover ineadow, tons... 25.381 215,756 13,484 13,967 Prairie meadow under fence, tons 322,9M 1,421,746 433,190 433.968 Tim ot b V past u re, ac r's. 1,679 ,5,016 Clover pasture, acres... 2,948 3,793 Blue-qra»s pasture, acres 12,203 13,776 Prairie pasture under fence, acres 829,920,734 46.5.793 3,037,9.57 .397.142 3,669,769 Total the cheese-factories had increased so much that they man- ufactured 2SU,401 pounds, and the family product bad slightly decreased, being 141,448, the total production of cheese in the State in 1874 being 4;J0.841* pounds against 2yj,094 jtounds in 1873. There were produced in 1873, 6.814,6U3 pounds of butter, and in 1874,7,457.110 pounds. The number and value of farm animals, and the number and product of hives of bees, in 1873 and 1874, were re- spectively as follows: No. or I No. of I pounds of l^s. of I honi'jr wiix io i in 1«73. Uulei and Asses. 'Number. I Value. nR.llil SI0,:{!i.t,'t99 '' 17.S16 , 20-2.9r>? 10.391,633 [I 22.0M Si.»S2.»7r Sheep. Swioe. .Number. [ Value. Number.' Value. iNo. of bivps. No. of or stauds of fitunds of lltalianbees. DStlve bees. 634.021 sia.:m,44i <19.»J9 1 13,124,273 51. lee i$iiy.728 380.70i Sa.oss.soii M.KtS I 168,676 366,916 i 2.673.174 < 33,312 1540 The number of acres of nurseries, of acres and products of orchanls and vineyards in 1S74, was as follows: acres of nurseries, 5071.74: acres of orchards, 100,839.61 ; bush- els of fruit produced, 124,9.'i7.01 ; acres of vineyards, 5558.87; gallons of wine made from crop of 1873, 13,561.42; pounds of grapes protluced in 1874, 2,345,318. Mnnnfurturiiuj mid Minin'j Industries, — .\ceording to the census of 1>*70. Kansas had 1177 manufacturiug and 26 mining establishments, employing together 30.987 persons, of whom 28,038 were men, 1159 women, and 1790 children. The capital employed was estimated at $29,450,939; the wages paid, at $9,572,624; the materials used, at $29,504,086; and the annual product, at $54,800,087. This includes blacksmiths' shops and a great variety of small industries not requiring much machinery or power. The returns to the county boards of assessors include none of these, nor the cigar manufactories, breweries, or machine- shops of the different railroads. The cigar-factories and breweries are, however, returned for internal revenue pur- poses. The ounty boards report for 1874,65 saw-mills (50 steam and 15 water-power), with a capital of $250,791 ; 139 flour-mills (80 water-power and 59 steam), with a cap- ita! of $2,106,105; 27 saw and grist mills {13 water-power and 14 steam), with a capital of $135,392: 13 furniture and cabinet factories, with a capital of $157,820; 5 foundries and rolling-mills, with $195,000 capital: 6 woollen-facto- ries, with $111,600 capital, and 50 miscellaneous factories, embracing oiI,checse,gyp«ura, soap, and carriage factories, having a capital of $567,910. These returns are obviously very incomplete. There were also 72 cigar manufactories and I tobacco-factory reported to the assessors of internal revenue, whose annual product was estimated at about $272,500 : and 43 breweries, having an annual product of $274,021.25. The centra! position of Kansas, it? numerous railw.ays, its excellent supply of coal, and it.-» fine water- power, as well as the absenceof any great mining interests, indicate that it is destined to become one of the great manufacturing States of the Union. Railroad*. — The entire number of miles of main track of railways completed and in operation on Jan. 1, 1S74, ac- cording to the assessors' reports for 1874, was 1339 miles and 142 feet. The valuation of this property for purposes of taxation was $14,711,277.92. which was probably a little more than one-fifth of the cost of road. land, and equip- ment. On Jan. 1, 1875, according to Poor's Railroad Mannal, there were in the State 2480.88 miles of railway, and the cost of road.*, equipment, etc. was $74,61 7,856. Two of these railways traverse the whole breadth of the State from E. to W. — viz. the Kansas Pacific, extending from Kansas City on the Missouri to Denver and beyond, a dis- tance of aljoul 672 mib's; and the Atchison Topeka and Santa F€. extending from Atchison, also 4m the Missouri, to Granada in Colorado, 528 miles with its branches, and des- tined to be speedily completed to Santa F6. The other im- portant railways are the Jlissouri Kansas and Texas. 256 miles in the State, including brandies; the Leavenworth Lawrence and (ialveston. 207 miles, including branches; Missouri River Fort Scott and Gulf, 159 miles; St. Joseph and Denver City. 136 miles in the State; Atchison and Ne- braska, about 40 miles in the State; central branch Union Pacific, 100 miles: Kansas City St. Joseph and Council IJluffs, 71 miles in the State: Kansas Central ( Leavenworth to Hidton). 56 miles: St. Joseph and Topeka. 87 miles; Kansas Midland (Kansas City and Topeka), about 60 miles: St. Louis Lawrence and Western (from Pleasant Hill to Carbondale), about 69 miles in the State; somo branches of the Kansas Pacific, as Leavenworth branch, 27 miles, Junction City and Clay Centre branch, 33 miles. The rapid building and completion of so many railways in the State has contributed greatly to its development and increas^e in population. The ithffrnph lines of the Western Vnion accompany all or nearly all of the railways, and the Atlantio and Pacific have also lines to most of the towns. Finances. — The receipts into the State treasury from all gources, exclusive of balances, during the fiscal year end- ing Nov. 30, 1874. were $995,102.89. and the expenditures, exclusive of transfers, were $970,805.82. The amount re- ceived from direct taxes only was $690,253.59; from alt other sources, $304,749.30. Of the amount received from taxe?, $461,095,59 was for general revenue purposes, $22,988.83 for the sinking fund. $91,715.79 for payment of interest on public debt, and $114,453.38 for the annual KANSAS. 1501 school fund. Tho receipts from other sources than taxes were credited, with the exception of a very small amount, to the permuDcnt and annual school funds. Tbo bonded indcbte<lne3s of the State was $1,341,7"/), but of this amount $7";!.S-6 i:? held by the sinking fund and other permanent funds in the Slate treasury, so that the d<'l>t of the State, except to its own funds, is only $r>.*^7.y.")0. There is no floatinfj debt, but there was a balance in the treasury Nov. 30, IS74. of $222,880.05. The permanent school fuu'd on Nov. 30, IS7I, amounted to $1,12:),309.32. The valua- tion of all the property of the State, as fixed for taxable purposes for the year 1S74, was Sl2S,yO(j,.'il9.S0, an increase of $:t6,7S0,fi58.80 since 1S70. The true valuation in 1S70 was $IS8,S92,014, and would now be ])robably not less than $200,000,000. The State-tax of 1874 for nil purposes was six mills on the d«'Har. There were in the State 10,990,740 acres of taxable lands, of which 3,009,709 acres were under cultivation, an iacreaso of 633,000 acres over the preceding year. Commerce. — As an interior vState with no large navigable s^treaiu except the ^[ispouri. which washes its X. E. border, Kansas can have no foreign commerce except that which is conducted through the ports of other States. But her in- ternal commerce, transacted mainly by means of her rail- ways, is very large. She ships castwarti corn, wlicat. and other cereals, considerable quantities of cotton, cattle in large numbers, driven from Texas and Colorado to her rich and abundant pastures, broom corn, and moderate quantities of other products. Abilene, Junction City, Sa- lina, Ellsworth, and some of the other southern towns are the centres of the cattle-trade. In 1872 her internal commerce had reached $114,000,000, and since that time, in spite of drought and "grasshoppers," it has rapidly in- creased. /tinilcy fntturancc Companies, etc. — There were on Nov, 30, 1874, 20 national banks in the State, having an aggre- gate capital of $1,983,0(10, and deposits amounting to $2,994..'!30. There were at the sp.me time SO banks other than national (a considerable number being private banks), with an aggregate capital of $l,oSS,000, and deposits to the amount of $2,399,010: making an aggregate banking capital of $3..'i7I,00n, and of deposits of $5;493.94r). There are in the State 2 life insurance companies — viz. the Jlis- souri Valley Life Insurance Co., incorporated in 1807. hav- ing a capital of $209.4,52.70. mostly invested in bond and mortgage, and the Alliance Mutual Life Association, or- gani'/ed in 1873, with a capital of $105,506.25, similarly in- vested. The former reported in 1873 assets to the amount of $S7 1.898. Both are in Leavenworth. There is one tiro insurance company, the Kansas, also located at Leaven- worth, incorporated in 1864, and reporting in 1873 a cap- ital of $250.1100 and assets of $258,900. Both capital and assets consist in part of notes. Population. — The following table gives the total popula- tion of Kansas, by sexes, races, and nativity, in 1800, 1870, and 1874, so far as ascertained : Yc«r. of CCQSUS. Tot»l t>o|)ula- tloD. 107,200 373,299 530,307 Mala. Females. While. Colored. iDdlSD. or natlre binh. or rorclim binb. 12,691 48,392 or Khool «gc, males. Of school age. females. Otcr 21 years, males. Bolwecn 18 aad 45 years. males. 27,976 95,002 i«i-,o \*~a lH74t .59,178 202,224 246,939 4R,n28 102.175 228,875 106,390 316,377 627 17,108 189« 9,814 94,515 316,007 18,623 55,609 101,872 18.800 63,041 97,138 31,037 10.1,671 120,087 The density of tho population of Kansas in 1870 was 4.48 persons to the square mile ; in 1874, 7.37 to the square mile. Tho census of Is70 reported 12.3,852 persons engaged in all occupations, of whom 73,228 were engaged in agricultural pursuits, being 50.13 per cent, of tlic whole; 20,730 in personal an<l professional occupations = 10.74 per cent.; 1 1,702, or 9.5 per cent., in trade and transportation ; and IS, 120, or 14.03 per cent., in manufacturing, mechanical, or mining pursuits. Edncntion. — The following are the statistics of the public schools for the year encling Nov. 30. 1874 : number of school di-triets, 4395: total number of persons of school age in the State, 199.010; total number of persons enrolled in public schools, 135,598 (08.978 males an.l 00,620 females); average daily attendance in public schools, 77,380 ; aver- age length of time school is taught. 5.5 months; number of male teachers in public schools, 2300; of female teach- ers, 2033, Average nu)ntlily wages paid — male teachers, $37.24 ; average monthly wages of female teachers, $28.09; amount paid for teachers' wages for the year, $723,568.03 ; amount expended for repairs and incidentals, $51,203.70 ; amount received from semi-annual dividends of State school money, $201,952.02; amount raised by district tax, $H95,093.H5 ; total amount derived from various sources for public schools, $1,038,977.99. Number of school-houses— log. 328; frame. 2006; brick, 139; stone, 470; total, 3543, of which 399 were built during the year; total value of school-bouses. $.3,989,065.87; total value of apparatus, $10,697.00. Tho public-school expenditure per head of tbo population of school ago (5 to 21 years) is $7.94, and per head of the actual population of school age (6 to 16 years) is $11. 31. Twenty-six cities and towns have complete systems of graded schools, comprising primary, interme- diate, grammar, and high schools. In these schools in 1874. 232 teachers were employed. 10,700 children were enrolled, and 9018 in daily attendance. Of these, 1004 were pupils in the high scliools. Tlicre were 70 school buildings occupied by these graded scliools. many of ttiem costly buildings, ranging from $7000 to $55,000 each. There are 4 normal schools in the State — at Emporia, Leaven- worth, Concordia, ond Quindaro. Tho last named is for the training of colored teachers. The school at Conconlia. Cloud CO., in the N. AV. ])art of the State, was o]>ened in Sept., 1871. Emporia had 2;'.0 pupils enrolled, 191 of them normal: Tjeavenw(»rth, 235, all normal; Concordia, 60, all normal: Quimlan), about 55. Teachers* institutes arc held in the larger counties. Tho other State institutions of higher education arc (1) the State Agricultural College near Manhattan, on a farm of 415 acres, having an endow- ment valued at $432,500. In 1874 it had 13 professors and instructors, ancl 112 male and 58 female students — 170 in all. Tho course of study is extensive, but thorough and ])ractical. (2) Tho Cniversity of Kansas, at Lawrence, par- tially endowed with university lands (about 46,000 acres), and receiving from the legislature an apprctpriation vary- ing from $23,0(10 to $30,000 to supplement the present lack of receipts from its landed endowment. In 1874 il had 10 professors anrl instructors and 173 students — 5S in the col- legiate and 115 in tho preparatory department. Tho follow- ing are the other collegiate institutions in the State in 1874: Name ofioilltutJoD. Baker University Baldwin City. rollejje of .Sisters of Bethany.. Topeka .'^I. llenedlcrs. I Atchison St. Mary's !.St. Mary's Wasbhurn I Topeka IIJKhland !Hlghland Lane 'Lccompton.... DfttPof organlia. Uoa. 1857 1870 1808 18G9 1805 1SA8 1858 DcDomlnatloD controtlloK. 1! ? 9 » a 2 Studcots. In prepar- atory dipt. Incollp. Il.lo depl. Metbodist Kpiscopal.. Protestant Kpiscopal. Roman Tatholic Bonian Calholle rongregalionallst 82 48 95 121 24 145 70 19 27 IS "6 25 United Brethren 11 Rndowmcnt and properly. 80.000 6(1.000 47.000 i.'io.noo 101.000 6(I.UO0 26,000 1,000 1,000 2.nno i.wno 5,000 fi.ooo 1,000 Ottawa University, under tho control of tho Baptists, at Ottawa, has suspended operations. There are 10 acad- emies or collegiate schools — 5 of them Catholic — and a con- pi<lerable number of private schools of niore or less merit. The institutions of special instruction in the Stato are — tho deaf and dumb asylum atOlathc, incorporated in 1866: •Onlv Indians not in tribal relations were enumerat(Kl In 1800. The nniulHT was unnOiciully staled as WMIO. + The enninrraliftn t>f IS74 is tty the townslnp assessors, and Is Iniiicrfeet, counties hein\{ omitted, as well as many townsblpH I and all the settliTs in the unornani/ed counties. It fs believed j that the population of the .Stale is nearly OUO.OUO. I it had in 1874. 6 instructors and about 70 pupils; tho in- stitution for the blind at Wyandotte, incorporated 1866, and having instructors and 2S pupils in 1874 : 2 orphan asylums, bnrbat Leavenworth — the Kansas with 28 orphans, and the St. Vincent's with 52. Of charitable institutions the State has a State insano asylum at Ossawatomie. This institution is still untinished, but had under treatment during the year 172 patients, with an average of 115, and on Nov. .30, 1874, lit) present, of whom 5S were males and 52 feniales : 10 bsnl tlied during tho year, and 52 harl been discharged, of whom live were not insane, 23 were recovered, 13 improvcil, ancl 9 un- 1502 KANSAS. improved, while 2 eloped. The home for friendless women at Leavenworth has received aid, and during the year 1S74 ha<l 200 iuniiite^. 'Jhc principal penal institution of this State is the State penitentiary at hcavenworth, which in 1S74 had 40 oflieers and employes, and an average of ".02 ]>risonerti : its annual expenditure wasSi;iO,6(l!l.sri, and the total earning»$2:i, 000; the salaries paid to ein])loy6s and oflieers amounted to $77,000. There is as yet no reformatory school in the State, thoufrh preliminary steps have been taken looking to the organization of rmo. The county jails, especially in the new counties, are not generally well managed. Churches. — We are indebted to the Tliirtf Aiiitital liepnrt of thp Kannas Stnte Board of Afin'rulturr/or the Jfear 1874 for valuable statistics in regard to the condition of the seven principal denominations in the .State for that year (as well as forvcry much other valuable statistical matter rela- tive to tbc State). The following are their aggregates: Presbyterians, 101 churches, 74 church edifices, ri(t04 mem- bers, value of church property, $294,856; Congregation- alists, 113 churches, 4S church edifices, .38,31 members, $2.3S,,')00 of church property ; Baptists, 229 churches, i'i church edifices, 97S9 members. $220,000 of church property (the /inptist YvarJionk ior 187o gives in 1874.242 churches antl 1(»2 ministers) : the United Presbyterians reported .39 churches, 14 church edifices, L31.3 members, and $49,200 of church property ; the Methodists (this probably includes the various Jletbodist bodies). 021 churches, 96 church edifices. 22,090 members, and $;i.39,400 of church property (the Methodist Episcopal conference reports for 1S74 give IfiOJ church edifices, valued at $;t9o,5j0, and parsonages worth $19,900; 19,162 members, of whom, however, ,3458 were probationers; 108 travelling and 147 local preachers). Tile Protestant Episcopal Church is reported as having 34 parishes, 22 church edifices, 11.36 communicants, and $172,000 of church property. The Church Almanac for 1875 claims but .30 p.arishes, 25 clergy, and 1041 commu- nicants. The Roman Catholics are reported as having 191 congregations, 72 church edifices, .32, .311 Catholic popula- tion, and church property worth $415,200. The Cntholic Directory iov 1S75 gives the church edifices {including 7 building) as 62; the number of congregations as 180, of which 117 are very small missions, in most cases not at- tended oftener than monthly by the hard-working clergy; the whole number of priests (secular and of the religious orders) was but 48. and the Catholic population was roughly estimated at about 35,000. These statistics include also the few stations of the Catholics in the Indian Territory. These statistics show in these seven denominations 1.388 churches or congregations, against 530 of all denominations reported in the census ; 379 church edifices, against 301 for all ilenominations; and a valuation of church property of $1,730,055 for the seven denominations, against $1,722,700 for all denominations in 1870. We find further that the Christian Connection, a.s reported in the census, had in 1870.35 churches, 16 church eciificcs, 4550 sittings, and $15,300 of church projierty; the Evangelical Association (probably included in the Methodists aliovel, 2 churches, 1 church edifice, 300 sittings, $6000 of church property; the Friends, 7 meetings, 7 meeting-houses, 1 600 si tting,s, $13,300 of church property : the Lutherans, 9 churches, 5 church edi- fices, 1400 sittings, $1 2,500 of church property ; the German Reformed, 1 church, 1 church edifice, 275 sittings, $3000 of church property : tiie Unitarians, 2 congregations. 1 church edifice, 400 sit tings, $20, 000 of church property; the United Brethren in Christ fptissibly included under Methodists above) in 1874 had 120 churches, 60 ministers, 2173 mem- bers, and proltably $60,000 in church ]iroperty : the Uni- versalists had 9 congregations, 10 ministers, 146 members, and probably about 1600 regular attendants. There were also a number of union churches, a few Cumberland Pres- byterian, and a few Jewish synagogues. Ncwupaprm. — There were in 1874, 13.3 newspapers and periodicals published in Kansas, not counting the weekly editions of the daily papers. Of these, 11 were dailies, with an aggregate circulaticm of about 28.000. 1 triweekly, US weeklies, and 3 ninnthlies. The circulation of the weeklies was a little more than 100.000 ; that of the month- lies, about 8500. Two were in the (lerman language, 1 was medical, 1 educational, 2 religious, 8 agricultural, and the remainder either political, literary, or miscellaneous. Cimnllcn. — The fidlowing table shows the population of the 74 organised counties of the State in 1860, 1870, and 1874, and the date of organization of the counties. The names of the counties are as they appear in 1874; some have been changed since 1860. Besides these, there are 30 counties, named, but not yet organized, .several of which have a population of 100 to 200, of which no account has been made in the table. The names of these unorganized counties arc — Arapahoe, Buffalo, Clark, Cheyenne, Decatur, Footc, Grant, Graham, Gove, Greeley, Hodgeman, Ilamil- ton, Kansas, Kearney, Kiowa, Lane, Meade. Rush, Raw- lins, Sequoyah, Staflord, Stanton, Stevens, Seward, Sher- man, Sheridan, Scott, Thomas, Trego, and Wichita : Allen Anderson Atchison Barbour * Barton* Bourbon Brown Butler Comanche t- Chase Cherokee Clay Cloud Coffey Cowley . Crawford Davis Dickinson Doniphan Douglas Edwards Ellis Ellsworth Ford Franklin Greenwood Harper f Harvey* Howard Jackson Jefferson Jewell Johnson Kingman t Labette Leavenworth J.. Lincoln Linn Lyon * Marion Marshall McPherson Miami Mitchell Montgomery .... Morris Kemaba Neosho Ness t Norton Osage Osliorne Ottawa • Pawnee Phillips Pottawattamie.. Pr.att t Reno Republic Rice. Riley Rooks Russell • Saline* Sedgivlck Shawnee *.... Smith Sumner Wabaunsee... Wallace* Washington . Wilson Woodson Wvandi>tte .. ,953 ,213 ,2:J4 G08 860 ,231 ,418 ,07G 2.J0 ,903 ,980 ,089 ,165 ,818 ,r,84 ,318 ,079 ,407 ,370 ,202 632 92.5 ,273 3,'!3 G46 ,339 .300 600 872 583 49S ,074 ,478 300 265 ,933 ,220 ,8,i9 340 06G 122 S:i7 ,:)70 473 ;i4(i 300 ,041 ,324 200 844 ,837 ,890 ,070 10 ,409 ,054 300 ,467 ,020 ,369 5,737 507 1 8I5| '.742 j r,429t ),9IG l,4ii0 i,602l ),C63' 600; r,860 J,.372l I.SCI I I,.W1 7,022 fl.220 15,50 2 15,076 6,823 3,035 1,9: n.oiis •.',1142 2,32:i 6,2(11 1,175 8,160 5,526 3,04:t 13,969 20,592 1,330 1,185 427 10,385 3,484 2,794 6,053 12,526 207 13,684 9,973 32,444 516 12,174 8,014 768 6,901 738 11,725 485 7..564 2.225 7.3:19 10,200 2 7,648 ;f3 2,127 179 7,848 1,281 S 5,105 I.5U 4,240 1,095 13,121 66 22 3.362 5.38 4,081 6.094 3,827 10,015 3,0821 1S.>5 2,40(1 1 18.55 6,101 2,607 437 1872 1855 1.855 1855 1,077, 1.046 1859 L-lni 1SG6 163' 1866 I 1866 2,842; 1859 158 1870 ! 1867 1,163 i IS.55 3781 1857 8,08:i' 1855 8,637, 1855 1»74 1867 1867 1873 3,030 i 18.55 1862 1873 i 1872 19: 1870 1,9361 1857 4,4.59' 1855 ' 1S70 4,364 1855 1873 I 1867 12,606 1855 1870 1855 1858 181)5 1855 1870 18.W 1870 1S69 770! 1858 6.336 3,515 74 2,280 4,980 2,436 88 18,55 1864 1873 1872 ]8i9 1871 186G 1872 1,S72 1856 i 1H73 1872 1868 1871 1855 1872 1872 1859 1870 18,55 1872 1871 \»m 1868 383 i 1860 1,224 3,513 1,023 27 1.488 2,609 1865 1855 1859 Principal Towna. — Leavenworth is the largest town and city in the State, having a population in 1874 of 16,468 Atchison had about 900(1 inhabitants ; Topeka, the capital and Lawrence, about 8000 each; Fort Scott and AVyan dotte, between 4000 and 6000 ; Ottawa, Emporia, Wichi ta. .Tunction City, and Parsons, between 2000 and 4000 Olalhe, Osage Missiim, Paola, Hutchinson, and Manhattan between 1500 and 2000; Troy, Walluna, Osage City, Bur lington, Eldorado. La Cygnc, ami Humbcddl, about 1200 while Baxter .springs. White Cloud. Grasshopper Falls Pleasanton, Oswego, Independence, Council Grove, SenC' ca, .Salina, and Fredoiiia. all exceeded 1000 inhabitants .Marysville. Newton, Oskaloosa. Chetopa, liurlingame, Ne^ odesha, and .\bilene are all thriving and growing towns, and some of them incorporated as cities. CountitHtinn^ Court'*, Iirpre»eutntinn in ConffrfSH, etc. — The present constitution of Kansas, though tlie fourth in its history, is the one under which the State was admitted into the L'nion in 1861. It provides that male citizens of the U. S., or persons of foreign birth who have declared • Census of 1873; no returns for 1874. X Estimated by county clerk at 30,714. t Estimated. KANSAS— KANSAS CITY. 1603 their intention to become citizen?, are entitled to %'ote after having resided six months in the ^tate and thirty days in the township. No person under guardianship, uon contpm nientin, or insane, nor any person convicted of treason or felony, unless restored to civil rights, uor any soldier, sea- man, or marine in tin- employ of tlie general government, is allowed to vote. The executive offiecrs of the State arc the governor. lieutenant-governor, seeretary of state, aud- itor, treasurer, superintendent of public instruction, and attorney-general, all of whom are chosen by the jieople for a term of two years. The general election is held on the first Wednesflay in November. The legislature consists of a senate of 2.5 members, elected for two years, and a house of representatives of 75 members, chosen annually. The legislature commences its session annually on the second Tuesday in January. Efforts have recently been made to change the constitution so as to make the sessions biennial instead of annual. The judiciary of the Slate consists of a supremo court having a chief-justice an<l two associate justices, elected by the people for six years: and of nine district courts (the State being divided into nine Judicial districts), each presided over l)y a single judge. The dis- trict judges are elected by the people for four years. Under the apportionment of 1872, Kansas is entitled to three Rep- resentatives in Congress. Hilton/. — That portion of Kansas lying E. of the 100th meridian formed a part of the Louisiana purchase of ISOIl, and was inchidr^d at different periods in Louisiana Territory and Missouri Territory. By the Missouri Compromise act of IS-Jfl, in all this region lying N. of lat. .36° 30', except- ing only such part thereof as was included within the limits of the State of Missouri, shivery and involuntary servitude, otherwise than in the punishment of crime whereof the party should have been duly convictc<l, was for ever prohibited. As a result of the Mexican war the territory of the U. S. was extemied from the lOdih meridian westward to the Pa- cific as fiir S. as :^'*^ 'Mi' N. lat. In ISj.1 settlers had already entered the territory in such numbers that Congress was called upon to protect them from the Indians. It soon be- came evident that the fertile lands of Eastern Kansas were to be the objeets of contention between the friends and op- ponents of slavery ; the latter contending that by the Mis- souri Compromise this region was to be exempt from slavery, while the former claimed it on the grouml of the partial repeal of thai compromise in 1850, and the altered circum- stances arising from tho accession of new territory in 1848. Both sides were terribly in earnest: in Massachusetts an emigrants' aid society was chartered with ample funds in Mar. or Apr., 1854. to assist emigrants to remove to Kan- sas, and to furnish them with weapons of defence against those who might attack them; in Connecticut a similar company was chartered in May or June of the same year. In May, 1^54, Congress pa'^sed the Kansas and Nebraska bill, organizing these two Territories, and expressly declar- ing that the Missouri compromise of 1820 was inoperative and void in regard to tlicm. As thus organized, the two Territories extended to the Roeky Mountains, taking in a considerable portion of Colorado. The emigrants forwarded by the emigrants' aid companies entered the Territory in very considerable numbers in the spring unci summer of 185(, generally resolute men. able and willing to contend for their new homes; but the pro-slnvery nu-n of Missouri and .Arkansas were as determined to sooure the pri/e for them-fcUes, and a series of raids and condicts ensued, last- ing for four years or more, in which many settlers, as well as cnnsiderahic numbers of the invaders, were killed. Law- rence was twice besieged and burned, Pottawattamie, Ossa- watomie, and Leavenworth were partially destroyed, the polls invaded and broken up, legislatures disturbed, and their meuibors and ofiicers arrested and imprisoned, and the Territory kept in a constant condition of turmoil. Gov- ernor after governor was appointed by the Presidents (Prcs. Pierce appointing (Jov. Reeder, and Prcs. Buchanan. Govs. Shannon, (Jeary. Walker, iJenver, Medary, and Stanton), but each in turn became convince<l of the justice of the cause of the settlers, and so incurred the displeasure of the "border ruffians," as the invading party was called, and their leader, David Atchison, formerly V. S. Senator from Missouri, had in niost cases sufficient influence to cause their removal. Four successive constitutions for the Ter- ritory were voted upon between Dec, 1855, and Oct., 1859; the first, known as the Topcka constitution, pro- hibited slavery, and was adopted in Dec, 1855, with very little opposition, but its authority was never rccognizctl by the pro-slavery men, very few of whom, however, were legal voters. The second, called the Lecompton constitu- tion, was drawn up by a convention never authorized by the peoj)le. and composed almost entirely of Atchison's fol- lowers, the Free State men refusing to vote, and only 2000 out of more than 10,000 votes being cast for it. The con- vention met at Lecompton in the autumn of 1857, and the constitution prepared by it had four sections relating to slavery, prohibiting emancipation, conferring upon slave- holders all the immunities of the worst slave codes, and declaring these inviolable, and preventing any change in this constitution before 181)4. The only alternative offered to the people was to vote for this constitution (which was other^vise objectionable) u-lfh the slavery sections or irifk- out them. The Free State men generally refused to vote, and the constitution was declared to be adopted by about 51100 majority, the greater part known to be fraudulent. (>n .Tan. 4, 1858, the people had an opjiortunlty of voting against it at the Territorial election, and llicrc was a ma- jority of 10,220 votes against it. On Aug. ."i, 1858, Con- gress ordered another vote on this constitution, and it was rejected by over 10,000 majority. Another constitution had been mode by a constitutional convention in Apr., 1858, and had been adopted by a small vote. As it was not quite satisfactory, a fourth convention met at AVyandotte July 5, 1S;VJ, and adopted the present constitution of the State. This was ratified by the people Oet. 4, 185!>, by about 4U00 nmjority. Kansas was admitted into the Union as a State Jan. 20, ISGl, and its subsequent history has been one of great prosperity. During the liilc civil war no State of the Union sent so large? a jtroportion of its male population into the field as ICansas. Its growth since the war has been without parallel for its rapidity. Its population, which in 18G0 wos but 1011,000, is now not far from (iOO.dOO ; without a mile of railway in 1802, if has now within its boundaries over 2500 miles: it has subclued lands which for thousands of years bad lain waste, planted seliools and churches all over its territory, and, though in the sumnior of 1874, it was severely tried by a visitation of grasshop- pers or locusts, which destroyed two-thirds of the growing crop of Indian corn (the loss being estimated at ."iO. 000, 000 bushels), and reduced the settlers of sixteen or eighteen of the new counties to destitution, so great ia its vitality and enterprise, that this visitation will not perceptibly check its growth. (ivvrrnnrs. — Tkruitorial. A. 11. Ueeder 1854-55 Wilson Shannon 1855-51; John W. (Jearv !R5G-57 Robert J. Waiker 1S57-5S James W. Denver I858-.5S Samuel Medary 1858-59 Frederick P. Stanton., State. Charles Robinson Thouias Carney Samuel J. Crawford... James M. Harvey... ..1859-Gl .18Gl-fil ,.18Gl-r.5 .lPG5-fi9 ,..I*<G9-73 Thomas A. Osborn 1873-77 Popular and Electoral Votct/or Prcnident. jgg Su«:«"ftilCiindldiit«jiforProiIJcnland VIco-PrwWcni. 8| ^^^jj'"" OppoiltlonCandldalciforPrtMldcntaQdVlcc-PrciIdCDt. ^^'^jjy* Mftjorltloj, IR64 Abraham Lincoln P., A. Johnson V.-P. 18G8 U. S. <irant P., S<'huyler ("olfax V.-P l872lU. S.Grant P., Henry Wilson V.-P 16,441 8 1.0 IS 67,01rt Geo. B. McCIellan P., G. H. Pendleton V.-P. Horatio Seymour P., F. P. llinir V.-P llorace Greeley P., It. (irat)! Urown V.-P 13,990 32,970 12,750 17,058 84,078 KniiNaSy tp. of Etowah co., Ala. Pop. 481. KanNnfl, post-v. anri tp. of E<lgnr co.. III., on the In- dianapolis and St. Louis It. K., 104 miles W. of Indian- apolis and 150 N. K. of St. Louis. It has 1 national bank, I weekly newspaper, 4 eburcbes, 1 school, 2 hotels, 2 grain- warehouses, 1 agricultural iniplenuMit mnnnfactory, 3 wagon and carriage-making shops, nnil 17 stores; in nearly in the centre of a large prairie, 2i to 5 miles from timber. Prin- cijial industry, farming and «toek-raising. Pi»p. of (p. 1018. W. W. Hisiioi', Kn. ** News." Kansas, tp. of Woodford co.. 111. Pop. :i49. Kansas, a tribe of Inilians in the State of the same name, numliering about OflO. They belong to the same family with the Dakutas and Osages. and have deereased L. P. BnorKFTT. rapidly in numbers during the present century, on account of wars with the Pawnees ao'l other Indians of the Plains. Ily act of May 8, 18C2, Congrcsp. with their consent, pro- vided fr»r the sale of their reservatitm in Kansas and their removal to the Or-ago country in the Indian Territory. Kail'ins City, city of .Tackson co.. Mo., on the right bank <if tlic Missouri Uiver, just below the mouth of Kan- sas Uiver, and 1 mile from the boundary -line between Missouri and Kansas, 2't5 miles W. of St. Lrniis. It is sit- uated at the point where the jMissouri Uiver finally bends to the E., and is the natural centre of an immense land and river traffie, having nine railroails (1875) centring in a couimon station, and four or five others in construction. Tin- >ile was originally very rough and uneven, part of the 1504 KANSAS, CONGRESSIONAL LEGISLATION, ETC.— KANT. city being on a bluff and part on bottom-lands; much has been done, however, to remove irregularities by grading. The streets, though not uniformly laid out. are wide, well lighted with gas. and well provided with sewerage and side- walks. The Missouri Hiver is spanned by a bridge nearly 1400 feet in length, built at a cost of $1,000,000. Thi-re are four linos of street railroad, which also connect with the adjoining town of AVestport and with Wyandntte in Kan- sas. There are 6 daily papers {'^ morning and ii evening), 2 tri-w<'(>kly, fi weekly, and I bi-monthly; of the weeklies, 1 is in iJerman, 1 is agricultural, and 1 devoted exclusively to the trade in live-stock. There arc 12 banks, 28 ehurche?, 14 schools, 2 medical colleges (with a medical journal), 1 sem- inary and I hospital (both Roman Catholic), a city hospital, orphan asylum, workliouso and woman's Iiome, 2 theatres, an opera-house, an efficient fire department ami jioHce force. The surrounding region is one of extraordinary agricul- tural resources, and is abundant in coal. lead, iron, and other minerals. The chief importance of Kansas City con- sists in its being the centre of the live-stock traffic for tho States W. of the Mississippi — a business which has enor- mously increased since the completion ( in 1873} of tho Mis- souri Kansas and Ti-xas R. R., connecting this city through the Indian Territory with the great stock-raising regions of Texas. The pork-packing business is also rapidly as- suming importance, having increased from l'i,000 hogs packed in ISC.S to nearly 200,000 in lS7;i. The receipts of cattle in 1873 were 227.009, valued at $3,415,0.35 ; of hogs, 220.056. valued at $2,131.1 78; of horses, 4202 ; and of sheep, 5975. The sales of merchandise at wholesale in 1S73 were $15,695,000, against $13.84 1,440 in the preceding year. The receipts <if grain in 1872 were 1,001.203 bushels, and in 1873, 1,718,280 bushels. .Manufacturing industry is as yet small, but with the rapid development of the coal-mines at Fort Scott, may be expected soon to assume importance. The receipts of coal in 1809-70 were less than 1500 car- loads; in 1S7I they were 5000; in 1872, 9990; and in 1873, 11,022 carloads. Five years ago, the only fuel used in K.ansas City and by the railroads centring there was wood, but now (1875) coal has generally taken its place, and the whole Missouri Valley as far N. as Omaha is supplied with coal from this market. The mines are at present mostly in Kansas, the whole K. portion of tb.at State and the con- tiguous counties of Missouri beinij underlaid with a soft bituminous coal, which, it Is claimed, has from 20 to 30 per cent, more available power for steam-engines than tlio av- erage Eastern coals. Extensive water-works, cotnbiuini; the reservoir, the standpipe, and the Holly system, were being constructed in 1874. to cost from $750,000 to $1,000,000; there were to be 20 miles of supply-pipes, 300 fire-hydr.ants, and tho 2 reservoirs were to have a capacity for holding 20,000,000 gallons of water. A metropolitan telegraph com- pany was formed in 1873. A board of trade was organized about thi- beginning of 1872, and has taken important meas- ures for the clevelopment and regulation of the commercial interests of Kansas City. It sent representatives to tho con- vention of Congressmen at St. Louis in May, 1873, and pre- sented to the Senate transportation committee, when sitting at St. Louis, an able memorial on transportation facilities for the West and South. It also sent delegates to tho na- tional boarcl of trade, an<l secured recognition as the tenth among the great trade-centres of the country. The river- navigation has naturally decreased in comparative im])ort- ance through tho extension of tho railroad system, but a company for barge-navigation was organized in 1873, in which year the arrivals of steamboats were 65. The val- uation of real estate in 1872 was $11,993,060: in 1873, SI2,687.S75. Pop. in 1800. only 4418; in IS70, 32,260. It has increased very rapidly since the war. AV. II. Mii.i.i'.n. En. *' Jm hnai, of Commkrcf,." Kansas, Congressional Legislation of 1854 in RelVrence to. Sec Dougl.\s, Stephen A., by Hon. A. H. Sti;i'Mfns, LL.D. Kansas (or Kaw) River, in Kansns, is formed by the union of the Smoky Hill and Solomon rivers. Its prin- cipal affluents are the Kepuldiean. the Rig Rlue, and the (Irnsshnpper rivers from the N.. and the Wakernsa from the S. It has innumerable smaller tributaries. Steamboats have traversed its whole course at high water, but its navi- gatiim is not of any practical value. It falls into the Mis- souri on the Missouri State line, near Kansas City, Mo. Kan'sasville, post-v. of Racine co., Wis., on the West- ern Union R. R. Kansn', province of China, between Thibet in the S. and Mongolia in the N. Its area is estimated at 100,000 square miles : its pop. at 10.000.000. It is covered with mountains, and traversed by tho Iloang-ho. Cap. Lan-Chow-Fee. Kant (Immanii:!.). b. ,\pr. 22, 1724, in Konigsberg, where his father, of Sfuftish descent, was estal>lished as a saddler. Kant was brought up in strict religious princi- ples. From 1740 to 1740 he studied theology, philosophy, and mathematics in the Konigsbcrg University. From 1746 to 1755 he was engaged as tutor; and subsequenlly entered upon his career as professor at the Kiinigsbcrg University, which he kept up till 1797, when old age com- pelleil him to retire. D. Feb. 12, 1804, in the eightieth year of his age. Ho never married, though he was very fond of society, genial in his manners, and a favorite with all who knew him. It is a rather singular circumstance that he never left his native city of Kiinigsbcrg except for a few miles' walk out in the country. Tn his first lectures at the university, Kant followed pretty closely tho Wolffian school of philosophy, then prevalent all over (Jermany. Still, even in those earlier works his dissatisfaction with the existing state of the science of philosophy, and a per- sistent endeavor to ascertain the source of that dissatisfac- tion and its remedy, are clearly discernible. The great works of the French and English skeptical writers of that time, and especially the works of Locke and Hume, comjileted tho change that was taking plaee in his views. The lucidncss of their style, too. forbade the employment of the extrava- gant jargon introduced by WulfT into the philosophical discussion of the German schools in their refutation, and forced Kant, for tho satisfaction of his own mind, to enter upon a thorough investigation of all the problems of phi- losophy in a manner and style altogether new and liis own. It was not till 1781, about ten years after he had begun his new researches, that he published their result in the ('rititjitc of Pure Iicnnoit, which was soon fol- lowed bv the Criiiffue of Prnctivti ficanon and the Critiifue of (he Pnirej- of Judijmcnt. These three critiques form, in- fleed, only one great work, and cannot he understood cor- rectly except when thus studied in their unity. The dis- tinguishing feature of the new system presented by Kant in these works is, that instead of treating philosophy as a transcendent science, it treats it from a transcendental point of view. That is to say, Kant denies that by mere reasoning or argumentation we can discover any new truth or transcend the world of common consciousness, and that hence all the efforts of previous philosophers to discover such new truths have been futile. Philosophy can only explain and prove truth; and its problem is to discover and apply tho touchstone by which this proof can be made. Now, all theoretical propositions that may he made are either identical (like A = A), and these need no proof, or synthetical (A is A and something else too; for instance, iron is not only a body, but also magnetic). Of these syn- thetical propositions, again, all those which are empirical can be proved only by experience; and hence pure reason is required only to prove those synthetical propositions which are not empirical — that is. which are a prinri. For instance, if when the sun shines I observe a stone get warm, and say that the sun is the cause of th.at warmth, I utter an « prinri synthetical proposition, because the con- ception of cause is not any quality of the sun or the stone that I perceive empirically. I perceive only a change from cold to heat in the stone, hut a million of such changes would not make the conception of change a conception of cause. It is this class of conceptions which require a rule whereby their proper applicati(m can be secured, for it is only by their improper application that disputes have be- come possible between philosophers. When quarrels havo arisen, for instance, as to whether (lod was the cause of the world, or whether the soul was a substance, etc.. the dispute wouhi have been settled at once if a rule had been known whereby it could have been determined whether the syn- thetical conception of cause could have been predicated of (lod, or that of substance of the sold. Kant discovered this rule, or the *' supreme principle of alt synthetical judg- ments," to be, that synthetical propositions «/)rfV<n are valid onlv in so far as it can be shown that consciousness could not otherwise be possible. Tbe whole Cridqnr of f*nre lifnnnn is notliingbut an application of this principle to all the various problems that have engaged philosophical specula- tion, and especially to the antinomies to which it has given rise. By this application, Kant rooted out the entire old science of metaphysics, and established in its place a uni- versally valid critique of reason, orscience of knowledge. But not all the propositions of human reason are of a theoretii-al character, nor could tliey well be so, since other- wise human reason itself would remain unex]'laine(L Theoretical reason always explains by the categories of causality, substantiality, and reciprocal relation, but all these categories explain only the u priori synthetical prop- ositions or phenomena that occur within reason : not, how- ever, reason itself. If reason itself husan explanation, there- fore, it must be of an entirely different character — of an abso- lute character, in fact. It mnst be an immediate explana- tion, having no grniiiid. no cause, no why or wherefore. This explanation, says Kant in his Critiffue of Prariirnl R'ftmni, is the Freedom, the Self-determination, or the Categorical KANWAKA— KARAITES. 1505 Imperative, which maDifcsts itself in each iiiilividual as the Moral Law. No one can demonstrate to another by argumentaltun that thcro occurs within him a phenom- enon which tells him at every moment of h\» life what he ought to do or ought not to do, and impels him to do it or not to do it, no matter what hi? natural inclinations may be ; each one can discover that this phenomenon does occur only in his own consciousness. Freedom, therefore, which is nothing but this categorical imperative or moral impuUc, can never be proved by something else, as theoretical cogni- tions can be proved, but only by practical experience. If, however, this categorical imperative is onco admitted, if any individual confesses that he has ever donea moral act, then it can bo shown that he also admits a Supreme God and immortality. For no one could rationally perform one moral act if he did not presuppose that he couhl rise to such a perfection as to make all the acts of his life moral — a perfection to which finite beings can attain only in an in- finite life. Nor could he rationally perform such an act did he not presuppose that his act would accord with all tho other acts performed by moral beings — an accord which can bo realized only by a God. (Compare Leibnitz's /Ve- €Mtaf>ii»heU Harmony.) These propositions Kant has fur- ther demonstrated in his Critique of Pure Uelifjion, pub- lished in 1704. The remaining problem now was: How can reason be- come conscious of its free acts — i', e. of itself as practical reason operating upon an outside world — if that outside world can be cognized only by its theoretical faculty ; that is to say, under the categories. Tliis question Kant solved in his Critiffue uf th'^ Power of Judgment by shoxving that wc do view the outside world under other forms than those of theoretical reason — namely, under tho forms of purposes or designs — forms which can be referred either tu tho out- aide world itself, in which case we arrive at tclcological views of tho worM, or to our own reason, in which case we pass eesthctical judgments upon outside objects. In either case, we posit ourselves as free judges; and thus tho CVi- tique of the Power of Jndffmeitt substantiates the immediate fact postulated by the Critique of Practical 7?cu8o;i, and completes the whole system of reason. Having thus fini^'lled tho work of his lifetime, Kant devoted tho remaining years of bis lifo to applying its principles more in detail to tho sciences of law, morals, theology, and to natural science. Thus, in I7S0 he pub- lished his Melaphi/niritl. fundamental Principlea of the Sci- ence of Phtfairn: in 179.^ to 1797, two works. Eternal Peace and Sft-taphifniral-Fund'tmrntal Prim-ipha of a Srirncc vf Law and a Scirnee of Morah; and in 17'JH he concluded his literary labors by his Authropolojyy a book full of rare knowledge, shrewd observatious on men, races, nations, and the sexes, which every one should read who wishes to become thoroughly acquainted with tho author uf the Crit- i»{ne of I'ure Jtraatnt. It is, moreover, an excellent example of tho exquisite clearness of stylo which distinguishes nearly all of Kant's writings. As an introduction to tho Ciltiifue of Pure Iteanon echolarg might bo recommended to read Kant's I'ndrtjinucnn, which is also a marvel of sym- metrical arrangement and lucidity of style. Of Kant's many followers, Fiehto alono adopted fully, and carried out in his own way, the great discovery of Kant's transcendentalism. At present, however, the study of Kant is again beconiiug quite general in tirrniany, and several new editions of his complete works have appeared within tho last few years. A. K. KuotH>KR. Kanwa'ka, tp. of Douglas co., Kan. Top. 913. Ka'olin [f'bin. fCao-finy, tho name of a hill of porce- lain clay], the common name of a hydrated Hilicato of alu- mina f AU<)3.2Si02 + 2110) or clay used for tho manufac- ture of porcelain. Kaolin is supposed to be derived from potash feldspar by the loss of all the potash and two-thirds of tho silica, which ingrc<hents arc replaced by 2 equiva- li-nts of water. Tho proportion? of silica to alumina vary largcdy in different countries, the kaolins of China and Japan containing twice as much silica as those uf Passau ari'l Gutriiborg in Germany. Large beds of kaolin arc found at St. Austell in Cornwall, Kugland (where it is de- rived from pure feldspar), in Limoges. France, at Itrandnn, Vt., Perth Amboy, N. J., Hichmnud, Va., Aiken co., S. 0,, noiir Augusta, *ia., and many other ports <d' the U. S. Kaolin, post-ip. of Iron co.. Mo., 20 mile? from Pilot Knob. Pop. .ir.:i. Kapio'DCf tp. of Atchison co., Kan. Pop. 775. Kapp (FitiKDnicn), h. at Hamm. Westpbiilia, Apr. 13, 1824; studied law; came in iH.'iO to New York: practised hero as a lawyer: was a Presidential elector in IHtiO ; then commissioner of entigratlon ; returned to Germany in 1K70, and was elected a member of the German diet in 1H72. He wrote /iif Shlarcn/'ratjr in den Verriui'/tm Stanteii (1851), Qcaehichtc der Sfclavcrci in dtn Vcrcini'jtcn Staatrn Vol.. II.— 95 (1860), Geachichte der deutachen Atutoauderuny in Amerika (1868). Kap'pel, village of Switzerland, in the canton of Zu- rich, noted for tho encounter which took place hero (Oct. 11, 1531) between the Protestants and Roman Catholics, and in which Zwingli was killed. In ISMS a monument was raised to him on the spot where ho fell. Kara (GEOitot:). See Czekxy (George). Karahissar. See Afium or AFirst-KARA-HissAn. Karaites, a Jewish sect. In the early part of tho Middle Ages congregations of this name wore settled in tho region known in Jewish history as Babylonia, in Palestine, Egypt, Syria, in the Crimea, and in Lithuania. It has, however, hitherto been iiniiossible to fix the exact date of their first settlement in these various localities. In 1110 A. D. they appcare«l in Spain, but soon after (11 ;iOj suffer per- secution at the hands of their coreligionists, who in contra- distinction to them are known as Rabbinites. With tho help of tho temporal power they were driven from the citit^s, and thereafter confined to a single insignificant town. In 1150 they endured a second persecution, and after this period we lose sight of them completely so far a? Spain is concerned. In 166S, King John 111. Sobicski succeeded in drawing a body of Karaites from Lithuania and tho Crimea to the neighborhood of Lenibcrg by granting them special privileges of great value. In proportion to the rest of the Jews, tho number of the Karaite settlers was inconsiderable, and since then it has kept on dimin- ishing. At the present day a few feeble congregations in the East, in Poland, and Russia are all that remain of them. Their chief settlement is in the Crimea, in a village among tho mountains called Tshufut Kale, where they enjoy tho protection of the Russian government. The nmny excel- lent traits of character for which they are distinguished have procured their exemption from special enactments of a hostile nature which have been at different times directed against the Jews of Russia. Tho name Karaite, or, as they also style themselves, Bene Mikra ("sons of Scripture"), is derived from the fundamental doctrine that marks their peculiarity as a sect. It consists in their acknowledging Scripture, and nothing hut Scripture, to the exclusion of the Talmud and the traditions of tho rabbins, as tho source of their religion. Tho rise of this sect is wrajiped in obscurity. Concerning the time and tho occasion of their origin tho opinions of scholars — nay, even the accounts of the chronicles— are widely divergent. Rabbi Jehuda ha Levi (1140|, in his philosophical work the CHnniari (3, Go), thinks proper to assign their origin to the ago of John Ilyrcanus {l.'ia B.C.), Tho rabbins, ho thinks, having incurred the dis- pleasure of the king, his friends seized the opportunity to stir up opposition against them, and a new sect was thus formed. Other authorities, at their head the Gaon Saadia (in his polemical work against Auan), and, following his lead, Shorira (950 a. n.), in his well-known hjgeretk (a his- torical document of tho highest value), con.sider Anun, whom the Karaites only regard as the first leader of their sect, as its founder. Annn flourished about 700 a. d., as Rapoport has shown in tho Hebrew periodical Kerem Chrmed (5, p, 20l{;. The chronology of the Karaites in- accurately assigns him a date fully a century too early. A second time tho motive of revenge is called in to exj)lain the rise of tho sect. Anan, it is said, aspirctl to the ofiieo of rcah tjchitha ('* Prince of tho Captivity "|, but another having been preferred in his stead, jealousy provoked him to institute a division. It is evident, however, that this account is colored by tho rancor of enemies. Jealousy may explain tho secession of an individual from his party or creed, but it can never bring about a new religious move- ment ; least of all, such a one as gave rise to the sect of the Karaites — a sect whoso existence is measured by at hast twelve centuries, whoso members have ever displayed pro- found religious conviction and zeal, and havo preserved a degree of moral energy and purity which calls forth univer- sal admiration. A third view concerning ihc origin of the Karaites current among tho mt-diieval rabbins, an<! repre- sented by such great names us those of Maimonidesand A ben Esra, identified them with tho ancient sect of the Zidukim (Sadducees),and writersof the class wo have mentioned com- monly apply the name of Sadducees to them without hesita- tion or reserve. This view derives its solo support from the fact that tho Karaites agree with the Sadducees in certain questions of religious theory nncl practice ; as, for instance, in celebrating tin' feast of Pentecost on a Sunday. But. on tho other hand, we should consider that they hold the most important articles of faith, such ns tho doctrine of reward and punishment, of the resurrection of tho dead, etc., in common with the rabbinfl. and reject the opinions of the Satlducccs. If (Jeigcr's viexv as laid down in his Vi-Kchrift and elsewhere be admitted, and it is trui-. as he afiirms, that 1506 KARAITES. the Sadducees accepted tradition in its earliest form, and rejected only its later development by the Pharisees, then the futility of every attempt to identify both sects must be at once apparent. For the Karaites were consistent in discarding tradition in all its forms, earlier and later. The accounla of the Karaites themselves concerning their origin appear to be, so far as their writings have become known, no less untrustworthy. At one time, they acknow- ledge Jchuda ben Tabbai, an ancient teacher mentioned in the^Mishna. as the founder of their sect : again, this honor is reserved for Anan b. David, whom we have already men- | tiotied above; while at the same time they claim that their \ doctrine is as ohl as .Judaism itself; that the jirinciples they advocate were those of Moses and the pr<ipbet8 ; and, fur- ■ thermore, that thev had remained unquestioned until the days of Simon b. .Shetach. He, the brother-in-law of King | Hyrcanus and president of the Sanhedrin. began to intvo- j diico innovations of an arbitrary character and contrary to the established customs of Israel, and by so doing laid the foundations of rabbinism. His measures were resisted by , his colleague in the presidency of the Sanhedrin, Jehuda b. Tabbai, who remained true to the ancient law, and who j is for this reason called the father of the Karaites. (Dod Marflechat, chap, ii.) Though these different accounts are unclear, contradict- ory, and without adequate historical basis, they all contain an essential clement of truth, or at least indicate the direc- tion in which the truth is to be found. The correct view of thinfs seems to be the following: As compared with the Bible, it cannot be denied that the rabbinic system marks a new departure. Like every innovation, it encountered opposition at the very outset. This opposition was grad- ually silenced, but could not be completely destroyed. It continued to exist as a strong undercurrent, and when the occasion was presented rose with new energy to the surface. In order thoroughly to understand this process, it will be necessarv to define the exact position of rabbinism, and brieflv to trace the successive stages of its develo]>ment. In the age when rabbinism struck root, shortly after the return of the people from captivity in Babylon, the condi- tions, both external and internal, amid which the code of the Pentateuch had arisen had materially changed. The demands of life in favor of new laws were pressing, and (he leading spirits of the time, recognizing their justice, felt themselves called upon — nay, in duty bound — so to modify the teachings and commands of religion that they should conform to the altered state of affairs. But, holding their own authority to be insufficient to ensure obedience to those new enactments, which, though urgently demanded by the exigencies of life, were contrary to the prescriptions of the Bible and the traditions of the fathers, they resorted to a measure at once thoroughly effective and dangerous. By the aid of a highly artificial and tortuous system of exe- gesis they assumed the appearance of deducing whatever laws they intended to pass from the very words of Scrip- ture a liieasurc which they justified on the ground of ne- cessity, and because the means in this ease seemed author- ized by the good end they desired to reach. A wide field for controversy was thus opened. The Sadducees made excel- lent use of the opportunity afforded them, and employed as the keenest weapons of attack the revealed word of God himself and the sacred customs of antiquity. But their ef- forts were vain. In struggling against the innovations of the rabbins they resisted the tendency of the age, and they were at last forced to succumb. But the very suc- cess of rabbinism encouraged an altogether unprecedent- ed extension of that vicious method of exegesis by which its triumph had been secured, and became instrumental in rallying anew its defeated and scattered adversaries and arming them for the attack. The new method of the rab- bins was too fruitful, and, breaking through all restraints, soon became corrupt. Though at first regarded as a mere makeshift to ensure the acceptance of measures otherwise wholesome and wise, it came to be considered in the later schools of the Talmudists true and valuable on its own ac- count. It was cultivated with exaggerated zeal and dia- lectical acuteness. and thus became the source of a mul- titude of legal provisions equally unmeaning and un- called for. In such a condition of affairs it could not but come about that men of sound judgment and firm will should protest against this corruption of religion. The opposition was at first carried on secretly, then with greater boldness and openness — the hostile band was small in numbers at first, then increased by a large and powerful following — until a bitter conflict ensued, and at last a new sect went forth from the struggle. Already in the Talmud we find a number of ordinances which ap- pear to be directed against those who hold Karaite opin- ions, and which therefore presuppose their existence. (AV- thiibnth. 62 li.) The celebrated teacher of the Mishna, Rabbi Eliezcr the Great, admonishes his disciples (Ziora- chotli, 28 b) to keep their children from " Higaion," mean- ing, as the commentator explains, from too frequent reading of the Bible. This shows us that even in the days of R. Eliezcr the rabbins saw the danger which would threaten their system if an intimate acquaintance with Scripture were to become general. And yet it was impossible to avoid this danger. Within the pale of Judaism the people could not he precluded from studying Scripture, as was done elsewhere. The reading of the "books of Moses" formed an essential element of the sabbath service, and even the Talmudists were forced to declare the study of the Bible a religious dutv, though of less importance than the study of the Talmud. iBnha Mczia. 33 a.) Indeed, the letter of Scripture was the very foundation on which rab- binism had raised its huge edifice. It was thus forced to nourish its foe at its own breast, and, by continually re- curring to the Bible for the sanclificatiou of its encroach- ments, to keep alive and strengthen the spirit of opposi- tion which these innovations tended to develop. After the close of the Talmudic epoch the spirit of opposition was still further encouraged. In Palestine (Tiberias) greater attention began to be paid to the correct preservation of the biblical text. It was supplied with vowel-signs and accents, and an organized Masoretic school devoted care and vigilance exclusively to this task. A similar school arose in Babvlonia, where a dilferent system of vocalization was introduced. The scrupulous care with which the Bible was now studied naturally directed the thoughts of many to the wide divergence existing between the real meaning of Scripture and that which passed current in the schools of the Talmudists. Thus the number of those hos- tile to the Talmud kept on increasing. But when in the eighth century Babylonish rabbinism began to urge new claims to supremacy! the like of which had never been heard of before, the opposition became uncontrollable. So long as the Sanhedrin had remained in existence, there had been at least a senate of seventy persons to limit the sovereignty of thcnasi(first president) in matters of religion. During the Talmudic epoch proper great diversity of opinion pre- vailed among the individual teachers, without there being any central authority of sufficient influence to pronounce final decisions on disputed questions. This state of things continued in the succeeding (the so-called Saburaic) epoch. And it was not till the presidents of the Babylonish acad- emies had assumed the magnificent title of </"o?i (highness) that a desire awoke for greater power than had ever been granted before. A kin.l of iniallibility was assumed by these gaons. and the iudgmcnt of an individual was claimed to be binding on all Israel. At that time honest and enlight- ened men found that the burden of rabbinism had become insupportable. The time for separation was at hand. An impulse from without was all that was needed^ This was given by ,\nan. ( Fiirst in his Hiniuri/ of Knrni»m has prirth/ recognized the true relation and succession of events as we' have detailed tbem above; bat in this he had been already anticipated by a mediseval writer of note. Rabbi Simon" b. Zemach Duran. See GrUtz, MonalsKchrl/l, 1874, Nov., p. 5tK).) Anan ben David, b. 700 A. n. in the town of Bazra, near Bagdad, of noble family, claiming descent from King David, received a thorough education in Jewish theology and in those scientific pursuits which were cherished at the time. He soon acquirerl a considerable re|uitalion as a scholar, and collected a number of adherents around him, who accepted his independent views. Even thus early he did not scruple to deviate from the beaten track of rab- binic teaching. In 754 he settled in Bagdad, where his uncle, Salomo, the "prince of the Captivity," resided. When the latter died childless (700) the nearest claim to the vacant oflice was that of Anan, both on account of his eminent learning and high descent. The academical pres- idents of Sora and Anl.ar, however, opposed his election, because, as the rabbinical chronicles tell us. "they discov- ered a defect in him " (in the .sV/Vr >>" Cahhtihi (" R"OK »' Tradition') of Abraham h. David of Toledo, 1110-80). What this defect was thev do not say. and their silence on this head amply proves that it could have been no moral flaw. It was, indeed", nothing more than his heterodox opinions to which thev referred. The party of Anan sought to gain the protcctio'n of the caliph Almansur,but their opponents represented them as rebels, and caused their persecution. In consequence, Anan and his adherents fled to Jerusalem, where heopenlv cut loo.se from the authority of the Talmud, and founded the first congregation of Karaites. To hini and his descendants the title of nasi was applied, as it had formerly been given to the patriarchs of Palestine in the Talmudic epoch. But the " princely " office of nasi was royal only in name, and lacked the substanceof power. Its incumbents continued to reside in Jerusalem until 910. Later on they removed to Cahira. , , . . The foundation of the sect of Karaites had thus been KARAITES. 1507 laid by Anan. though he was far from carrying out his principle? to their last consequence. Neither he nor his followers were entirely emancipated from those religious views and practices which education and custom had so long eontrihulcd to foster. It is true he proclaimed the right of interfireting and applying the words of Scripture independently of all authority, yet, none the less, he clung to many of the ordinances prescribed by the .Mislinii. Es- pecially was this the case in questions of civil law. A complete reconstruction of practical religion, which nt that time included the administration of juFticc in its spliore, transcended the powers of an individual to accomplish. New congregations were formed, new teachers arose. Questions whieh Anan had never considered came up for decision. Others which he had adjudged were discussed anew, and conclusions differing from his own not unfrc- qiiently reached; for Anan had himself opposed the habit of blind reliance on the utterances of the master, and de- clared free exegesis his watchword. As the sect grew in num- bers, and its rival teachers struggled to fix it securely, each on the basis of his own system, iho confusion of conflicting opinions increased, and the new sect was in imminent dan- ger of splitting into numberless minor sects, and thus perishing. In this way the struggle continued until 800 A. T>., when Benjamin Xahawendi, from the town of Xaha- wend in ancient Media, succeeded in gaining universal recognition among the Karaites, and to him the sect owes its perpetuation. In his day the name Ananites was ex- changed for Karaites, by which latter appellation they haro since been known. His authority was sufficiently great to challenge even that of Anan. His views, laid down in con)menlaries to the Bible and legal compendia, spread tr> the Kast and West, to the congregations of Biibylon and Palestine, and were the more readily accepted because they temied on the whole to lighten the load of religious duties. Anan had intcnlicted the use of fowl at table; Benjamin piTinittod it. Anan had extended the obligation of the leviratical marriage to all male relatives of the deceased; Benjamin confined it to the brother. Anan had jealously guarded the rigid sanctification of the sabbath. On the sabbath day he prohibited conjugal intercourse, forbade circumcision, and demanded the literal ajiplicntion of the words of Scripture, " Xo one shall leave his place," thus locking up his people in their houses. Bcnjaiuia abrogated all these provisions. The main principle of Anan, that of free exegesis, re- mained undisputed, and Benjamin Xahawendi could not check the further development of Karaisni, even had he been disposed to do so. And, indeed, after his death wo find differences of theory continuing to exist among schol- ars, and practical differences arising in various congrcga- titms concerning important questions of religious law. Thus, for instance, some held with the rabbins that it is permissi- ble to keep a light burning on Friday evening, provided it had been lit before the opening of the subbatli, while oIbel■,■^ consiilered it wrong to <lo so, nml were forced to ]pass the whole night in darkness. In the main, however, the dan- ger of dismemberment was averted by Benjamin, and the unity of Karai<m secured. The essential difTerenee between themselves and the rab- binist Jews had meantime come thoroughly homo to the Karaites, and was continually strengthened by the habits of their daily life. Though there was no dogmatic con- flict between them, though the same basis of faith was common to both, yet their disagreements in other matters were too important and far-reaching to admit the hope of reconciliation. The common celebration of feast-days is at all times a strong bond of union between coreligionists. This bond Anun had already severed. Kvrr since his time the Karaites have determined the day of the new moon by direct observation, while the rabbinist? continue to guitle themselves by the calculations of their received calendar. The Karaites celebrated, and Still celebrate, the Pentecost on the fiftieth day counting from the Sunday of Passover Week : the rabbinists, on the fiftieth day counting from the second day of the feast. Also, the rite of circumcision is practised hy the Karaites in a way not recognized as vali<l Ity the rabbinic law. In respect to dietary laws, the Karaite;! abandoned numberless restrictions held sacred by the r.ibbinisls. The latter naturally liroke ofl" connection with tho-ie wlio habitually transgressed their laws. On the other hand, the Karaites aspired to the most nnstero purity in the social relations. As early as the days of Anan they, with the help of their peculiar methotl of exegesis, extemled the number of forbidden marriages to such a degree that many matrimonial alliances which pa<"s unchallenged aimmg the rabbinists were by them regarded in the light of crimes. The offspring of such alliances were consiflered to have sprung from an incestuous intercourse, and intermarriage with them was of course impossible. The golf between Kar.iites and rabbini?ts cnnM no more he bridged over. The peculiarities of both parties were strongly marked. Both were firmly resolved to preserve their own opinions and institutions intact, and they might have pursued their several ways side by side without inter- fering one with the other. But this was not to be. It is in the nature of every new sect to seek an extension of its influence by drawing converts from the outside world into its ranks. The leading men of the Karaites being thoroughly familiar with the Bible, admirably skilled in scholarly research, and impelled by holy xeal for thetr cause, produced a great and varied literature in its interest, and in every way labored strenuously to gain adherents for their doctrines. In the course of the ninth century they sent out missionaries in all directions, and succeeded in founding congregations in Iran. Persia, Media. Armenia, Syria, Palestine. Egypt, and the N. of Africa. Raltbinism witnessed the triumph of its opponent with terror and dis- may, but was too feeble effectually to resist it. Its repre- sentative men were equally lacking in power of thought and of expression. Even the gaons of the academies, though versed in Talmudio lore, were utterly ignorant of the ]»ursuits of science. In this extremity, the rabbinists, though loath to adopt a measure which seemed so deroga- tory to their dignity, calletl a stranger, Saadia ben Joseph (b.892 A. n. ) of Faium, in Upper Kgypt. to Babylonia, and appointed him gaon of Sora. His fame as a profound Talmudist, a master of science, and at the same time a bitter eneuiy of the Karaites, had preceded him. The wisdom of the appointment was proved by the event. Saadia, indeed, was a writer of extraordinary fertility and genius. The reader will gain some conception of the ver- satility of his mind on learning that this man. apart from his labors on the field of the Talmuil, was the author of a Hebrew grammar, a Hebrew lexicon, a book on rhetoric, an Arjibic translation of and commentary on the Bible and the Mishna, a work on the philosophy of religion from the Jewish standpoint, and of many minor treatises be- sides. Not only did ho in all his works seize every oppor- tunity that offered a plausible pretext to refute the opinions of the Karaites, but he also directed three separate books — on the marital laws, on the Hebrew calendar, and the divine institutions — expressly against their doctrine, and wrote seven polemical treatises against their most distin- guished teachers. The influence of Saadia inter])used a barrier to the further spread of Karaism, while at the same time it tendeil indirectly to strengthen and purify it inwardly. Such attacks as thoso of Saadia, carried on with the weapons of science and learning, and the keen sword of eloquence, Karaism had never before experienced. They called for counter-efforts on its part, which brctught leaders of such high intellectual power to the front as only the hour of danger can awaken. Prominent among these are Joseph el Bazri, the fust Jc wish writer on the philoso- phy of religion, and Salmon b. Jerochim. An emulous strucrglo betw<'en the literary rivals of either side began, whoso influence was salutary to both parties, encouraging thoroughness and accuracy of investigation. The half century between 900 and 9;»0 A. n.. during the lifetime of Saadia and shortly after, is the golden age of the literature ofthe Karaites. Their principles were then firmly grounded, their theology completely systematized. After the death of Saadia (1)12) his disciples feebly continued the contest for some time longer ; hut gradually the cries of I he contend- ing champions died out, and wlun the fight was over the limits of lioth sects were found to be more strictly defined and closed in than they had ever been previously. We may say that the rabbinists by their persecutions cre- ated Karaism. By their literary opposition tiu-y made it strong and enduring. In the following centuries the feel- ing of hostility bctwi-en Karait* s and rnbbinisls. which was still at times displayed in their writings, diminished in billernefls. Knlighlened men of both parties admon* ished their friends to practise patience and forbearance toward their opponents, and a ^i^stingui^bed rabbi, She- maria Icreti (of Crete or Cundia, ll'lHI-ll'.'-Mt). even at- tem]>ted, though to no purpose, to reunite the two divis- ions of Juilaifiu. A similar attempt was made with tho same result by Uabbi ttedalia Ibn Jaebia of Lisabon in tho year Hf^T. The relations subsisting between the Karaites and rabbinists of Lithuania, Russia, and Po- land during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were of a particularly peaceful ancl cordial characler. while in our own century of prr»gres»ive and liberal culture the last vestiges of niutunl distrust have completely disappeared. It is worthy of remark in tins connection that e^■en at the time when the animosity of the eontemling sects was most pronounced, no one ever thought (d" declaring tho opposing party w ithmit the pale of .ludaism. t^n the contrary, some of the very highest authorities of the rabbinists distinctly affirmed that the Karaites are to bo considered and treated as .lews, nolwith'-'tanding all their errors. The prc-ence 1508 KAKAJITCH-KARAMZIN often men is required for P^^ic worship according^to counting of '^"'^"^ him'^elf, not from any desire to ""' ""ie'thein'rom " feUow'ii , o( Israel, but simply bc- "::' hey do n„" alree with t'hc rabbinists in re-iuiniv. i, birth and not circumcision wl^chmak-^ ^^ ^^^ As re-ards the scientific and " ""> j^, ^^ n„njer- mentioned. They "^^ "7j,i,oi<„^, philosophy, niathe- different branches, partly '» P^'^fA'^ ^^„„ „ beyond a matics, astronomy, and medicine. It is cena j ^ c 1 ii.a rin..tiine<i of the existence ot troa, oi ru>eiui.wu. !;^;ry:;M^onada.m.ar,d.s„^ ^'X/,™ (^Trt f -llif! •• . o"n \he philosophy of religion. Lbn edited with many learned annotations a„<, ex- '''rr-^Vi-irii'Lr^^^th^rtr'^s^riiifn^'^.ephth f^s'og^f whose commentaries have been f-ely used by Joseph(h 1250 in tneLriu .. ^_^^^_. ^^ ^ '° ^ '"':r hl^^ralic Tho-mo;t important of these den in the literature of he karaitet . ._^ „,^ Karaism and <^h"; '^" ;'' ,i, „,„ seventeenth century RUtaneel professor at Kiinigsberg. «ho travelled to L.t i^ nania in fi4 and there visited the Karaite congregation in ITr \o :.ud'; Uie doctrines of the sect at .ho foiintain-head^ I He was f.illowed by (Sustavus I'erringer. protcssor oi mi. SAem" 'ai;uases^t Tpsala, who ""<|-'-^, t%weT iournev for the same purpose, at the instance of "'c Mve.i dhk°ng Charles XI.. in 1690. Six years later, two scholars, stedes^'as before, went on a similar mission to I-<h"a"'a; aiTd nduced the Karaites to send one of their learned men ^U'sl in order. o supply the ^^^"^'^--f ^^^^^^^'Z with detailed information concerning the historv ana uio Tssen ial doctrines of their sect. Salomo Toroki, the author ^f 1he%,.,.H-'oM. was selected for this purpose. In the f iwln/vear he came to Upsala. was received with great JstiSna^d wrote a treatise in answer to the questions d,s Unction, an Holland, however, where tCJZ X abic^studies were cultivated with great .eal and devotion, the desire for a better understanding of Ka- j„„( nnd the measures taken to secure raism was most "^ent ^"^/Ji^^Uie Dutch scholars who it proved most »f =''^«- /"""^i ,„ » knowledge of the took a prominent I'^rt >n spread.n ^^^^,^ ,^ ^^^^ history ""J '"""''.'^,°V I e not only collected, but care- first place, LewmW arner.K not on y ^^ (My stu.lied and )'""» "I^t-^hich were :fO codices, con- Hebrew i"''""''\'"PV , rw frv tes Then Jacob Trigland, within the last few decades, after a part "'^ of manuscripts «i„g to Karaite .;^ -■-„„,^, scattered in various Periodica .and 'o^^ <■ ^ri^whi^wii?^!:^.:"^;--'--'^''--- '■^C^^drof-hJ'^elt^f Karaite is - ^^- -- exhausted. The greater P" "f '^^'jje of the wandering lost in the course of ;,'°>;';';;°;,d ^a <he d '"lal destiniel life -hH-ht>'.'[/'^^^.,° ";^1 :ris. with few exceptions, they met with. AM at ""''',, u e „f half-faded man- '^"'!''*'°'ThfuCrorLe d:nwtT;ralong uscripts. Ihelioraryoi . minted works of the than any other in ----•;':,:;"bre':surpassed by the Karaites It ^^if^'J' „,,ieh is now in possession of tho "waSht at the expense of the emperor^ b. AnLCK^ Kara'jitch (V.k ^--;---" V^ wa 'in^pend- cated at Carlowitz ; served in the Ser wan 1^ ^^^ ence, but Bed to Austria when in » .^ ,„-,i,erary ^'''*'^%r^Hircot;t strvL^popularsongs.^vols., X'^a^JU::: andf Strwi'r^rammar and dictionary. -.rj^nj^i::-.^^^-;^^^^^ log safe anchorage. In the eig"' „ ,. . , j^ ,he island t^'ish^ ?im:.= It?, i^ha-S'b^^^etirn 2000 and 3000 ' K^raUo'r^ is^ed -^';--:,^^>;^^':el'^S western part ot the '^'•''■•^; •"'',,;' 1^1 high) by which this of one of the few P-^-^/^^'^^to the name of the ancient ,ange can '- ""f-^'-,,, 'eu/of the mythical I'rester .lohn. 3:!i:v^'ne^.'':;i^u ^^^;^^^^- ^- -- have been sought in vain ^ J" ™ \;'l";,„et of the Karaman', own o Asia Mm ^_. ^^^^^^^.^^ j, ^^, IZl ZniVr'ti'ir^s orcot.on and woollen stuffs. Pop. es- timated at 12.000. ,, Kamm.in; <N.ko..^. M.n.i.v^O, _b^^ ^ J^:-^i;lt M;;;rof\s count. in ea.y^^ i,„b?.ed with mystical ;' -- ^ ;::,^' n.^^ry production, Freemasonry. ms "rsi p. ,„,■„, „„» his /-'■»'•/• of a which gained him great ■■eP"^" •'• ;:g»2 \^ ,,,, ^,.„i„„ I «,.„,•„„ r--('-'P>"'''tUh assumed. Vn.il ISO:-., J„„r„.^thoedltor.sh,pofwhKh h a ^^^_^^,.^,„ ^„,, y,,. ditors up ->•""•••"■. ,„ jounialism and lit- Karam.in devoted 1>""^' f ^^ ;7'-\, , ,1,^,, the best known erature. writing poems, e"'^''''"'' " " ' f ,, , „as his senti- of which are />o„. ''■- "^^^^^^^ ";; '•■,„ted by .he emperor mental period. I" ^*";\^^'' ""f%Oo' ) roubles, and withdrew historiographer with a sajaryot ^ for some years to Moscow »"" ' g ■ led by thcso self up entirely to l""<'"<^»/'"^;V,„„rado views, In l-H studies to extreme conservative or retro raa ^^ _ ^^^ ho presented to .he emperor Alexander a ^^ ^^_ form .hen in vogue "f "O^;;'/ ^ ,;y Ud through the lo- Karamr/in returned to b . '"'"^'""^f ,o„erfal minister of 1 fl„ence of Count Arak ohe, f, the a 1 o ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^.^ I Z-^:"^ ^■'^' '^^tll'liTasod rank, and set apart KARASOV-BAZAR— KASHAX. 1 ")()!.» 60,000 roubles for the publication of his H\*tortf of the Rtu- «?«ii Empire, which wns then completeJ. The history was {iiibli.''bcd in 1818, and the first edition of 3000 copies was sold within tweuty-five days, and the fume of Karamzin became for over established. The rest of his life he passed quietly in St. Petersburg and the vicinity, in intimate re- lations with the imperial family. At his death the emperor f:ranted his family (he had been twice married) a pension of 50,000 roubb's. ErncXE Schiiyi.ek. Kara^HOV-lta/ar', town of Southern Russia, in the government of Taiirida. on the Karasov. It has large manufactures of morocco leather and soap, and is the cen- tral market of the Crimea. Pop., comprising Greeks, Russians, .Armenians, and Jews. 14,:i97. Karntrliev', town of European Russia, in the govern- ment of Orel. It carries on considerable spinning and weaving, has several oil-mills, and manufactures of sail- cloth and cordage. Pop. 10,750. Kardza|E;'«i|j-Szallas% town of Hungary, in the dis- trict of Jazygia and f'umania. Its trade in wheat, wine, and fruit is very considerable. Pop. 9515. Karelians. See Finns. Ka'rens, a people of Northern Burmab. belonging to the Mongolian, or perhaps to the Thibetan, family, the in- dependence of whose country was recognized by treaty be- tween England and Burmab in June, 1875. They are chiefly known from tlie wonderful success among them of the missifins established by Messrs. Judson and Board- man of the American Baptist Missionary Society, soon followcii by numerous others. In ISfiS there were among the Karens flO native onlained pastors and evangelists. 34fl native preachers unordained. 300 native churches, with about 20,000 church members. (See Mason's G»»p€l in linr- niafi and the /ir/,i,it of the Americnn Hnpti'yt MifHinn Union for 1SC8.) A comparative vocabulary of the two principal Karen dialects, Sgao and Pwo, by Rev. Dr. N. Brown, may be found in Jt»urmtl of vlmeriVau Oriental Sodtty, vol. iv. Karg i(iKortG). Sec Ai'pkndix. Karikal'y a French possession in India, on th"^ Coro- mandel coast, 150 miles S. of Madras, in lat. 10° S:.' X., on the c'Stuary of one of the branches of the Kaveri. Area, 6.3 square miles. Pop. about 50.000, of whom hardly 1000 are Europeans. The colony is of very little consequence, .as the estuary is unfit for navigation. Kar'kor* ''ity in the desert E. of Palestine, wbi-.-h was the capital of the Midianitcs in the time of the Judges. Several identifications have vainly been made in modern times; the true site was undoubtedly farther to tho S. E. than recent travellers have explored. KarU% village of British India, in tho presidency of Bombay. -lO miles E. of Bombay, is famous for its cavo- teniple. which, l.'iO feet long and 40 feet wide, is cut into thf rock at a considerable hoigbt.aud consists of two rows of suulptured pillars, terminating in a semicircular en- closure and bearing an arched roof. Tho whole etructuro is well preserved. Karr^tadt fANonEAS Rudolf), b. at Karlstadt, in Franconia. in 1480; his true name was Bodkxstkis. He studied at different places besides Rome, and was ap- pointed professor in theology at the Tniversity of Witten- norg in 1513. \\vi was a learned and elofjuent man, and hecamo one of the mont enthusiastic and energetic cham- pions of the Reformation, but his temper was vehement, almost violent ; and differing from Luther in several points, especially in his views of the Lord's Supper, a disastrous controversy broke out between them. Karlstadt, whoso turbulent mind brought him in connection with Thomas Miinzer and other fanatics, was twice banished from Sax- ony, and actually persecuted by the Lutherans. In 1523 ho went into exile for tho first time. In 1525 ho rc- (urni'd, and was rceonelled with Luther. But when the <'ont<-s( between I*uther and Zwingli began again, in 152S, Kurl^tacll was once more banisiu-d. At last he found refuge with the Swiss Reformers, with whom he agreed concerning tho Lord's Supper, and he no doubt con- tributnil much to bring about the schism between the I,u- tbcran and tbn Bcfurmed eburches. I), as a minister at Bi\le in 1511. II in jirineipat writings are !>'■ utraffur nprrii- Ccttiir (1524), and AuHf^ynnff dcr Wurtr : Dus int mtiit Ldh (1525). Karma'tliiailH [from ITanuhtn K'irmnt, one of their early leader"], a Mohammedan sect of reformer'', who were originally a branch of the Ismailis, an<l like them became free thinkers. They were at one time very powerful, and hcM nearly abstduto sway over Arabia. Persia, ntid Syria, everywhere defeating the caliph's armieR. In !'00 a. n. they made great aclvanees ; in 928 they threatened Bagdad ; in 930 they attacked Mecca, then full of pilgrims, whom they slaughtered, desecrating the Kaaba, and carrying away tho Black Stone, which they kept for twenty years. Their capital was Labsa. where they were in power in the eleventh century. Relics of them exist to this day. They now re- ject Mohammedanism and conceal their real doctrines. Karnak', a modern village of Upper Egypt, on the right bank of the Nile, occupying part of the site of Thebes, renowned for its magnificent architectural re- mains. Chief among these is tho great temple, 1200 feet long, 3.'^0 feet broad, with gigantic colonnades, colossal fig- ures, sculptures of various kinds, in colorcil sandstone, marble, red and dark granite. Fragments have been found bearing the name of Sesortosis (r. c. 2300). The archi- tecture is duo in largo part to Mceris, who adorned the palace with a list of his royal predecessors. There are memorials of the glory of Amenophis (a. c. 1500) in a body of bas-reliefs of his wars in Asia. The great ball was built by Setbos {b. c. 1340). The chief temple contains sculp- tures with inscriptions of tho time of Raraescs the Great, or Scsostris (n. c. 1300-28). The great tablet of Karnak was shown and explained by the priests to Germanicus (b. 0. Ifi). (See ARCHiTKOTriiE, Efivi'T, LrxoR, Thebes.) St. John, Frrfpt and X„hia (1844, 355-378)^ Henry, L'F'/ifptr Plniraonitjiir (184fi, ii. 205): Bartlett. i\7/-"-6o«f {Htirperfi Monthhj, 1850, i. 212); Champollion-Figeac, E;ft/pte Anriejnie (1858, 310) ; ib. G*miihlv v. Avrjifpt (1852); Lepsius, Letters from Efjt/pt (1853, Letter xxx.1 ; W. C. Prime, From Thebes to the Pyramidn [Harper e Monthhf, 1857, xiv. 4G3, 4G7) ; Weber, 'Weh-Cjeseh. [^ 30, 31,42)! C. P. Khaiitii. Karnes, county in S. W. Texas. Area, 830 square miles. It is traversed by tho San Antonio River. It has a fertile, sandy soil, is one-third timber-land, and the rest prairie. Stock-raising is the chief industry, but cotton and grain aro also raised. Cap. Helena. Pop. 1705. Karoo' Bokadam', tho CtrUrnR cincrcns, a fresh- water snake <if India, nearly four feet long and quite harmless. Otlicr species of the genus are found in tho East. Karpin'ski (Franciszek), b. Oct. 4, 1741. at IIolosco, Galicia, and educated by tho Jesuits at Lembcrg. In 1783 he became secretary to Prince Adam Czartoryski. and lived at tho court of King Stanislas; but from 1791 he resided in retirement on his estates in Lithuania, where he d.Sept. 4, 1825. His songs aro still very po])ular among the Poles. His collected works, including a tragedy, Judith, a trans- lation of the Psalms, and a number of idyls, were pub- lished in 4 vols, at AVarsaw in 1804 j his memoirs in 2 vols. at Lembcrg in 1849. Karr (Jean Bai-tiste Alphonse), b. at Paris Nov. 24. LS08 ; was educated at tho CoIl/'-ge Bourbon: published Sntin leu 7V//rf(/# ( 1832 ), a successful novel; became chief editor of Fii/nm 1839; and founded Lch duepen, ti very successful periodical. In 1848 bo removed to Nice, where ho engaged in gardening on a large scale. He has pro- duced many novels and other works, one of tho best of which is tlio Voyaf/r autunr de imni Jardin (1845). — His daughter, TiifiRilsi:, is a popular writer of books. Karroo' [a Hottentot term], a name a])plici| to tho great barren ])lateaux of Southern .-Vfriea. Tho soil is sbal- lo\v, resting upon a rocky bed. In the rainy season they furnish abundant pasturage, and jiortions of them when irrigated have been fountl very productive. Kara, town of Armenia, ceded to Russia in L878, situ- ated on a table-land between tiOOO and 7900 feet above the level of tho sea. It carries on a lively transit trade. In 1855, its fortifications having been much strengthened, it sustained a long siege by the Russians, but was compelled hv famine to surrender Nov. 30. It was stormed by the Itussians Nov. 18, 1877. Pop. 12,000. Kar'stcn fUriiMANN Kari.I. b. at Stralsund Nov. t'l, 1817: studied botany at Berlin; made two great journeys Ihrongb Northern South America { ISI3-17 and 1818-5(1), and was after his return appointed professor in botany at Berlin. His principal writings arc />»> IV(/c^rth"o»i«<»>y/fiiie drr Pafmrn (1847b Flora Unlnmhitc (1857-66), and Che- miitmuH tlrr !*danxriirrllr (1870). Knn'hniis, post-(p. of Clearfield co.. Pa. Pop. 452. KaNanlili', town of European Turkey, in Rum-clee. is famous for its manufacture of attar of roses. Pop. 10,000. Kas'cliail^ town of Hungary, on the right bank of the Hernad. Its church of St. Elizabeth, built 1 .".12-82. istbo finest (lolbie building in Hungary. Knsehau has a very brisk trade in wine, wheat, and fruit. Pop. 21,742. Kashan'^ town of Persia, in the province of Irak- Ajemec. situated 3ft90 feet above the level of the sea. It is a beautiful eity, with a |»alaec. numerous mosques, baths, and promenades, and important manufactures of velvet, gold brocade, and silk stuOTs. Pop. 30,000. 1510 KASIICiAR— KATHAY. Kashgar', province of East Toorkistan, between lat. 36° and 40° N., and Ion. 72° and 77° E., occupies the basm of the Kizil-Darya, along the southern slope of tlie Tluan- Shan Mountains. Area, about i",OI)0 square miles. In the eicrhtecnth century it was conquered by the Chinese and th°y held it to ISIili, when, under a general rising ot the Mohammedan population, they were driven out, and Kash- gar and the adjacent provinces were lormed into an lude- ],endcnt liingilom by Yakub Beg. Kashgar, capital of East Toorkistan, in lat. :U)° 29' N Ion 7i;° 12' E., on the Kizil-Darva, in a fertile and well- euiiivated plain elevated between 40(10 and 5000 feet above the level of the sea. It is surrounded by an earthen wall of considerable height and thickness and surmounted with numerous towers. It has 8 colleges, 1 1 caravanserais, ex- tensive bazaars, some manufactures of woollens, carpets gold and silver ware, and a lively trade. The number of its inhabitants is very differently estimated at from lb,OUO to 80.000; 60,000 seems the most probable. KaNhill, town of Russia, in the government of Tver, on the Kashinka, an atHuent of the Volg-a, has e.xtensive tanneries and manulactures of paper, and carries on an ac- tive trade in grain and cattle. Pop. 76:!9. Kashmir. See Cashmere. Kaskas'kia, tp. of Fayette co., III. Pop. 1220. Kaskaskia, post-v. of Randolph eo., III., on the W. bank of the navigable Kaskaskia River, 7 miles from its mouth. It was founded in 1682 by the French under La Salle, and was until 1818 the capital of Illinois. Many of its present inhabitants are of the old French stock. The town was onee large and important, but it has declined. The surrounding country is very fine. Kaskaskia Indians, a tribe onee living in Illinois. In 18:!2 they were removed to what is now Kansas, and j in 1S67 to the Indian Territory. They are intelligent and quite advanced in civilization. They are confederated , with the Peorias and others, and arc few in number. | Kaskaskia (or Okaw) River rises in Champaign CO., 111., flows about .'JOO miles in a generally S. W. course, and enters the Mississippi in Randolph co. In its lower course it is navigable. Kaskes, tp. of Jackson eo., Ala. Pop. 729. Kaso'ta, post-tp. of Lc Sueur co., Minn., on St. Paul and Siou.i City R. R., 77 miles S. W. of St. Paul. Pop. 903. Kassimow', town of European Russia, in the govern- ment of Riasan, on the Oka. It is an old town, with largo tanneries and manufactures of sailcloth. Pop. 7781. Kasson', post-v. and tp., Leelanaw co., Mich. Pop. 440. Kasson, post-v. of Mantorville tp.. Dodge co., Minn., on the line of the Winona and St. Peter R. R., 5" miles W. of Winona, in a farming region, was first surveyed in ISOO ; contains :t churches, 2 banks, 2 weekly newspapers, 2 hotels, 1 flour-mill, and 12 stores. In 1873, 4aO,:'..-i9 _bushels of wheat wore sliipped from this point. Pop. (1870), 510. V. \i. Shaver, Plb. " Dodge Co. Rei'iiblican. Kasson (John A.), b. near Burlington, Vt.. Jan. 11, 1822; graduated at the University of Vermont in 1842; studied law in Massachusetts, and practised at St. I.ouis until 1857, when he removed to Iowa; was ap).oiiited as- sistant postmaster-general in 1861 ; elected to Congress as a Republican in 1862 ; commissioner to international postal congress at Paris in 1863; again elected to Congress in 1864, and again in 1872 and 1874. Kastamoo'ni, town of Asiatic Turkey, the capital of the eyalet of the same name, in Asia Minor. It has 36 mosques, 24 public baths, manufactures of leather and cot- ton, and the vicinity is rich in cojiper ore. Pop. 48,000. Katagoom', or Katagum, town of Central Africa, in Soudan, capital of an iudepeiidcut district of the same name, fortified with walls and ditches. Pup. about 8000. Katali'din (or Katadn), Itlount, the highest moun- tain in .Maine, reaches 5385 feet above the sea. It stands in a wilderness, is not easy of access, and the view from its toj) is e.xtensive, but wild and lonely. Katalidin Iron-works Plantation, tp. of Pis- cataquis CO., .Me. Pop. 35. Ka'ter (IIenrv). F. R. S.. b. at Bristol, England, Apr. 16, 1777; went to India in 1796, where he was engaged for several years on the trigonometrical survey: rose to the rank of lieutenant in the military service, and retired on half-pay in 1814, after which he devoted himself chiefly to scientific stiulies. He invented ah*uit 1825 the important trigonometrical instrument callcl n flnntittr/ rtilUmatnr, ex- perimented on telescopes, writing for the PhiloHophifnl TrntiMnrtSnnn accounts of various researches; was principal author of Eardner and Kater's Trrfitinf on Mrrhatiicn in tho Cabinet Ci/clopKdia, and wrote An Account of the Con- .(ruction and Verification of Certain StandartU n/ Linear Meamre for the llumian Government (1832). D. at London Apr. 26,'l835. Kathay', or Cathay. A remarkable phase in the history of intercourse between Europe and farther Asia is best characterized by the name then given in the West to China. fJr if China was ilincvrtrcd. as books sometimes tell us, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, then the best delinilion of Cathay will be that it is the name by which China was known in Europe hc/ore itg diacorrri/ ! That spacious seat of ancient civilization has always loomed so large, however dimlv, to Western eyes, and has, in spite of its distance, subtended so large an angle of vision, that onee and again we find it distinguished by difl'ereut appel- lations, according as it was approached as the terminus of a southern sea-route coasting the great peninsulas and islands of Asia, or as that of a northern land-route trav- ersing (he vast longitude of that continent. In the former aspect the name has always been some form of the^ name r.in, as Chin (Sinim ?), Sina, Tbin.T, T/.ini.sta. Maha-chtn, China. In the latter point of view it was known to the ancients as the Land of the S^re, ; to the Europeans of tho Middle Ages, as the empire of Cathay. The latter name {Khiiai in Oriental form) is still that by which China is stvlcd to this day by all or nearly all the nations which know it from the direction of Inner Asii, including the Russians, the Persians, and the nations of Toorkistan, yet it originally pertained to a people who were not Chinese." The Khitdn or Khitit were a nation allied (it is supposed) to the modern Tunguses, whose chiefs, after making themselves supreme over all the tribes from the Sea of Corca to the Altai, in the early part of the tenth century overran the Chinese provinces N. ot thc\ellow River "and established their empire over them also, under the name of Liao or the Iron dynasty. This Kliil An em- pire subsisted for two centuries, terminating m 112.., when it was in turn subverted by a new invasion from the ^. And it must have been in those two centuries that the name Khiiai became iudissohildy associated with China. Tho Nvuche, or Chiiiehf. a tribe akin to the modern Manchus." displaced the KhitSn, and reigned under the name of Kin or Gold,,, dynasty. They about a century later (1214-34) were disjilaced by those more lamous war- riors, the Mongols of Chinghiz Khan. The conquest oflhe Kin empire was completed by Okkodai, the son of (. iiin- ehiz : but not till the third generation, and sixty years atter the capture of Peking, was the Mongol conqticst extended over Southern China, in the reign of Kublai. This southern emnire, under its Chinese covereigns holding Iheir royal residence {Ki,,,,-,-.,-) at the great city now called Hang- chow was known to the northern conquerors as Manlzi. a name often by the Western Asiatics "''IjanRf^'J "f con- founded with AhUhin—i. c. tho Hindu Mah6-thln (Great The flood of Mongol conquest spread westward as well as eastward, levelling all political barriers, sweeping over Slavonic Europe, and threatening weak mid disunited Chris- tendom widi aunihilation. And when Western Europe had recovered from the alarm of this brief but terrible invasion (l-'lO-l") Asia lay open as it never did before or has done since, and the accidents of war, commerce, and opportunity carried a number of persons in various ranks ol life, and from almost every country in Europe, to its remotest re- cions. Missions also went to the Tartar courts from the pope and the princes of Europe, and among others .lohn of Piano Carpini (1245-17), a native ol 1 nil.na, and W il- liam do Rubruquis (1253), a Frenchman both I ranciscan monks of suiicrior intelligence, who have left us narratives of high interest. And these brought to V eslcrn Europe the revived knowledge of a great and civilized nation 00- cunving a country in the extreme East, on the shores of thi'oceSn, which bore the name, then first heard in Europe of CiTH IV Rubruquis was acute enough to discern that these Cathavans must be the Seres of classic fame. But though thes"c travellers saw the people at the Tartar court, and Friar William gives an unmistakable description of them (■• Those Cathavans ore little fellows, speaking much through the n„se, ami, as is general with those Eastern people, their eyes arc very narrow They are first rate Itrtists in every kind of craft They do their wnling with a pencil such as painters paint with, and a „mjle ch.,rnrl,r „f ihrir, vomprehend, xrrrral Irlirr,, to a, to form „ ,rhoh irordr the last remark, imperfect as it is, shows the intelligence and observation of the writer), neither traveller reached the country itself. The first actual European visitors to Cathay of whom we know are the P.dos (sec Pui.o, MAmol, regarding whom wo need say nothing here. But just as they were reaching Venice (1295) after their absence of twenty. six years, the forerunner of a new band of travellers was ent^ering ( h.na by the route of the Indian seas. This was John of Monte KATHAY. 1511 Corvino, another Franciscan, who, already nearly fifty years of age, was plunging single-banded into the ocean of paganism to preach the gospel acconiing lo (he inter- pretation of his Church. After years of uphill work and solitary labor, others joined him, and the Catholic mission flourished at Camhaluc or Peking, under the patronage of the Great Khan himself. The papal see woke up to the importance of this distant work, maile Friar John arch- bishop in Cambaluc with patriarchal authority, and sent him spasmodically batches of suffragan bishops and mis- sionary friars. The Roman Church ?prca<l : churches and houses of St. Francis were founded at Cambaluc, at Yang- chow, at the great ocean-port in F<tkien which the Westerns called Zaytou and the Chinese called T'swanchow, and el.-ewhere. Among the monks whose duty carried them to Cathay during the interval between 1300 and 1328, when Archbishop John was followed to the tomb by mourning crowds of pagans a.-i well as of Christians, several have left letters or narratives. Among these we have several early letters from the archbi!>hoj> himself n3<>5-06); one from Andrew, bishop of Zayton ( ]"2Ci) ; and the narrative of Friar Odoric, afterwards canonized as a bnitus of the Church, dictated after liis return to iiis native FrluU (l.'>30). The narrative of Odoric is the only one that mentions Canton, known to him and the Westerns of that age by the name of Chln-kalan (/. c. " (ircat China," a Persian ren- dering of the Indian MahiS-chfn). He landed there on arriving from India, and describes it as a city as big as three Venkes, standing on a great river, one day's voyage from the sea. Thence he travels through Fokicn, visiting the cities of Zayton and Foochow, and then to Cansay or Kinsay [Kituj-a.ir — t, e. Haugchow), the va^tnc^s of which in extent, population, and wealth made the same extra- ordinary impression upon him as upon Marco Polo and all the travellers who speak of it.* From tliis point it is not difficult to trace his journey by Nanking, and across the two great rivers of China, and then by the Imperial Canal to the capital, Cambaluc, where the emperor then reigning was Ye.-'uu-tinirtr, a degenerate descendant of Kublai, in the fourth generation. This traveller on his homeward journey seems to have passed by Central Asia, and by Kabul, reaching his native land in 1.129. Several of the stories told by Odoric that were probably regarded as fic- tions by his contemporaries are remarkably characteristic of China. IJef^ides many particulars occurring in the larger narrative of Marco Polo, ho gives the earliest notice of the now well-known Chinese practice of using tame cormorants in fishing ; and ho mentions the custom of compressing the feet of girls to prevent their growth. But the Exchange had its emissaries at this time to Cathay as well as the Church. Tlie record is a very frag- mentary and imperfect one, but many circumstances and incidental notices show how frequently the far Fast was reached by European traders in the fir.^^t half of the four- teenth century — a state of tilings which it is very difficult to realize when we see how all those regions, when par- tially reopened, less than two centuries later, 9eeme<l as ab- solutely new discoveries as the empires which in the same age Cortes and Pirarro were conquering in the West. This commercial intercourse cannot have commenced till Borae years after l.'iuO. For Monte Corvino, writing in 1305, Bays it was then twelve years since he had heard any news from Europe, the only Western stranger who had appeared in all that time being a certain Lombard chirurgeon, who had spread awful blasphemies about the pope ! Yet even on his first entrance into China, Friar John had been ac- companied by " Master Peter of Tjucolotigo, a faithful Chris- tian man and a great merchant," who purchased a piece of ground for Iho niission-church opjiosito the jialace gate at lacking. Twenty-ono years later, Pishop Andrew of Zay- ton M326) quotes the opinions of the (Jenctese merchants at that great mart touching a question of exchange value. Odoric, dictating his Irnvel.t in 13;iO, refers for corrobora- tion of the marvels of Kinsay or Cansay to the many per- sons at Venice who had themselves been witnenfes of all that ho asserted. And a litter traveller. John .Marignolli. mentions that there was (riVra 131(1), in connection with one of the ihrrr Franciscan houses nt Zayton, n. /omlnm or factory and warehouse for the use of the Christian mer- chants. But Iho most distinct and notable evidence of the ira- portanco of European trn'le with Cathay is to be found in the work of Francesco Bulducoi Pegolotii, written about 1310. This person was a factor in the Levant and else- where under the great Florentine houxe nf Iho Bnrdi — the house which gave a husband to Panto's Beatrice, and has given a heroine lo (Jenrge Eliot ( K'nnnfn ), and whieh failed, about the date of the hook, in consequence of dealings with •This (ireat city retnlned much of Its pro«perlty till destroyed by the TalpluRs In our own day. Edward III. of England, whose bankers and agents the Bardi were. The book is a regular manual of commerce, giving details of duties, exchanges, and customs of trade at the various marts of Europe and the Levant. f But the first two chapters are devoted to information for the merchant bound to Cathay. The route lay from Tana (or Azov) to Sarai on the Volga (above Astracan), and thence by Organj (Old Khiva) and Otrar (not far from the modern town of Hozrat Toorkistan ) to Aiuialik { near (iulja on the Hi ), and thence to Kanehow in North-eastern China, and so forward to the Grand Canal leading to the great marts of Cansay and Cambaluc ( llangchow and Peking). Particulars are given as to the investments and exchanges proper to this journey, an«l especially as to the paper money then form- ing the currency of China. The extent of dealings con- templated may be judged frr»m the example, which the au- thor assumes for illustration, of a merchant carrying goods to the value of some 2o.0on gr>l<I florins (say ?60,b00}. Lit- tie was to be taken lo Cathay except silver in ingots, and the purchases contemplated there were silk and rich silk textures (damasks, gold brocades, and the like). Silk cost then in Cathay about o tlorins (say $12) for 20 Genoese pounds. The only unsafe part of the road was that between Tana and the Volga, but even there a company of sixty would be *' as safe as in your own house." The picture that we can put together from the notices of mediaeval travellers in Cathay is that of the China that wo know, but always with a striking contrast as regards the facilities of movement aUowed to foreign visitors in the in- terior. The vast swarms of population and of river-ship- ping, the great plenty of the necessaries of life, the splen- dor and magnitude of the cities, the high civilization of this heathen people, the cheapness of silk and porcelain, the use of fossil coal and of paper money, are the features which are constantly prominent in tliese notices. The free inter- course was not, however, of long duration. As the Mongol chiefs in Central and Western Asia, one after another, adopted Islam, the power of bigotry revived, and with it the old obstacles. Thus, already in 1330 we find a mer- chant, William of Modena. along with certain friars, put to death for the faith at Almalik. Aliout the middle of the century the house of Chinghiz in China began to totter, and its fall in 136ft closed all communication with the AVestern World. The last notices we possess are contained in a work (strange to say) on Bohemian history by John Ma- rignolli. a Florentine monk who had been sent as envoy to the last of the Mongol emperors by Pope Benedict XII. Ho had gone by the usual land-route, and after spending about four years (1 342-4*') | at Peking, returned by the sea- route to India, on his way visiting Ceylon, where he was wrecked and robbed. In 1370. the pope, probably in ig- norance of the changes in the East, nominated one Friar William of Prato to be archbishop of Cambaluc. but we know not if he attempted to rea*'h his see. He certainly cannot have succei'<led. Later prelates appear in some lists, but this has been shown to have arisen from a confusion with another see in Tartar territory, that of Cembalo, other- wise Balaklava, in the Crimea. Of the same remarkable phase in Cliinese history we have also a good many notices in .Moliamniedan writers. The establishment of a Mongol dynasty in Persia tl25S). by which the Great Khan reigning over t^athay was for many j-ears acknowledged as lord paramount, led to a good deal of intercourse. Chinese visitors were by no means unknown at the court of Tabriz, and some of the Persian historians, writing at that court umler the patronage of the ]\Iongol princes, have told us much about Cathay, especially Rasht- duddfn. the great minister and historian of the Mongol rulers of Persia (d. 13IS). We have also in the book of ibo Moorish traveller Ibn Bntuta, who visited China about i;;47_4M, many very curious, and in great ]>art true, notices, thouirh in this part of the work it is not possible to give credence to the whole of the traveller's narrative. With Ihe downfall of the Mongol dynasty in China, as we have said, this curious phase of history came to a close. The new and native rulers reverted to the old indigenous ))o|i<'V, and kept all foreigners at arm's length, whilst Mohammedanism entirely recovercii its grasp over Middle Asia, and the Nestorian Chri>tianity, which had acquired eonsicierable sway, as rapidly dwindled and exjiired. A dark mist descended on the further East, covering Mantzi and Cathay, with thooc cities of which the niedia'val travel- lers had told such such wonders, Cuwlnifur and A'iiiiiftt/, Zntfii,u and C}i\n-kaf6n. And when the veil rose, a century and a half later, before the Portuguese and .'Spanish navi- gators, those names were heard no more. In their stead men spoke of Prkitiff and HatigrhotP,oT Ohiuchen and Can- + The MS. of this hook Is In the Rlrrarrllan Lfhrnry nt Flor- ence. It wn"« printed hv G. K. Pai^nlnt del Ventura In a work called JMIa Vfcima, etc.\l"6o-66). 1512 KATIF— KAUFMAN. ton. Not only Tverc the old names forgotten, but the fact that those places had been previously known to Europe was utterly forgotten also. Gradually, new missionary priests went forth from Rome — Jesuits now. Xew converts were made, and new vicariats were constituted: but the old Franciscan churches, and the Xestorianism with which they had battled, hud been alike swallowed up in the ocean of paganism. In time, however, slight traces of the former existence of Christian churches came to the surface; and when Marco Polo's book was read by intelligent men, one and another began to suspect that his Cathay and the new China were identical. liat it was a very long time before this was thoroughly or generally understood. When the new interest in dis- covery recalled attention to the perusal of old travellers, the Cathay of which they spoke was regarded, except by a s:igncious few. as a region distinct from those new-found Indies. Cathay had been the aim of the first voyage of the Cabots in 140G, and it continued to be the object of many adventurous voyages, English and Dutch, to the N. W. and X. E. till far on in the sixteenth century. At least one nieniorable land-journey also was made by Englishmen, of which the investigation of trade with Cathay was a chief object — that in which Anthony Jenkinson and the two Johnsons reached Bokhara by way of Russia in 1558-59. The country of which they collected notices at that city was still known to them only as Cathay, and its great cap- ital only as Cumbnluc. Cathay as a supposed separate entity may be considered to come to an end with the journey of Benedict Goes, the lay Jesuit. This admirable person was in IGO.'i despatched through Central Asia, by his superiors in India, with the specific object of determining whether the Cathay of old European writers and of modern Mohammedans was or was not a distinct region from that China of which parallel mar- vels had now for some time been recounted. Benedict, as one of his brethren pronounced his epitaph, *' seeking Cathay, found heaven." He died at Suhchow, the frontier city of China, bnt not before he had ascertained that China and Cathay were one. In briefly recalling one more aspect of Cathay, wo close this article. It was Cathay, with its outlying islands of Zipangu, or Japan, that Columbus, penetrated by his in- tense convictions of the smallness of the earth and of the vast extension of Asia eastward, sought to reach by sailing W. ; and to the day of his death he was full of the imagi- nation of the proximity of the domain of the Great Khan to the ishinds and coasts which he had discovered. And these imaginations are curiously embodied in some of tho early maps of the sixteenth century, which intermingle on the same coast-line the new discoveries from Newfoundland to Brazil with the provinces of Marco Polo's Cathav. 11. YlLE. Katir% town of Arabia, is situated on the Persian Gulf, in lat. L't>° 25' N. The bay on which it stands affords good anchorage, but tho town itself, which is fortified, is un- healthy, and its trade is dwindling away. Pop. about fiOOO. Katkoff' CMicnAFi.). b. at Moscow in 1S20: finished his studies at Konigsbcrg and Berlin, and was for several years professor in philosophy in his native city. Since 185G he has devoted himself exclusively to journalism, and he has exercised an enormous influence — in a liberal direction by his denunciatif)ns of existing wrongs, and in a national direction by tho formation of the Old Russian party. Kato'nah, post-v. of Bedford tp., AVestcherter co., N. Y., on the Harlem R. R., 42 miles N. of New York. It has 1 weekly newspaper. Kn'trine, Loch, a lake of Scotland, in tho county of Perth. It, is S miles long and J of a mile wide, and" re- markable as well for the depth and purity of its water as for tho beautiful scenery which surrounds it. Glasgow, nearly 25 miles distant, draws its supply of water from this lake. Kat'sona, town of the empire of Sokoto. in Central Af- rica. It was formerly a large and flourishing citv, but since its capture in 1808 by tho Fulbes. who almost ilcstroyed it, its trade and manufactures have removed to Kano. It has now only 7itl)0 inhabitants. Kattimaiidu% or Cuttimundoo, the milky latex or sap of Euphorbia nori/oHa, an East Indian plant. This substance resembles gutta-percha, and has considerable value in the arts. The leaves are used by the natives for their diuretic, cathartic, and deobstruent powers, and the juice is an ingredient in anti-rheumatic liniments. Katiili';;n, or Eyeo, town of Central Africa, the cap- i:al uf ii state of the same name, is in S° .59' N. lat., 4° 25' E. Ion., and is, like all towns of these regions, surrounded with walls to protect it against marauding tribes. It car- ries on some trade, and is said to have 15,000 inhabitants. Ka'tydid ( Ci/i-tophylluit concavua)^ a large green ortbop- terons insect of the U.S., belonging to tho group Locus- tariiic. found throughout a great part of the country-. It is so called from its note, produced in the early part of the night, somewhat resembling the words " Katy did." This noise is produced by the friction of transparent membranes attached to the wing-covers. Hatz'bach, a river of Prussia, in the province of Si- lesia, entering the Oder at Parehwitz. On Aug. 2fi, 1813, the Prussians under Bliieher totally defeated the French under Marshal Macdouald on the banks of Katzbach. Kauai% one of the Hawaiian Islands, is situated in lat. 22° N., Ion. 150*' 30' W. Area, G40 square miles. Pop. 4961. It is high — Waialealc. the highest point, rising about fiOOO feet — of volcanic origin, but very fertile. Koloa and Nawiliwili are the principal towns. KaufTman CMaria Anna Ancemca), b. at Coirc, in the Grisons. in 1741. Her father was an itinerant painter of ordinary t.aients. of whose work notliing authentic re- mains. His enthusiast for his art was, however, sincere, and. appreciating the extraordinary gifts of his daughter, he gave her such instruction, opportunity, and stimulus as ho could command. Her talent for music rivalled her tal- ent for painting, and for a moment she was tempted to make music her profession, and go upon the lyric stage, as she was urged to do at ^lilan: but she wisely decided to pursue her first calling. At Como she painted success- fully the portrait of the bishop, through whose influence she had many sitters there. At Milan, whither her parents went when she was but thirteen years old, she associated with artists of reputation, studied under competent mas- ters, copied good pictures, and won favor with people of the court. At Schwartzenberg she painted in fresco the twelve apostles by order of the bishop of Constance. In 1701 the father and daughter visited Florence, Parma, Rome. Bologna, Naples, and Venice. In Rome she formed the friendship of Rafael Slengs and Winckelniann, and painted the portrait of the latter to his great satisfaction. In a letter to a friend he wrote of her as ** a person of rare merit," " very eminent in portraits in oil." In Bologna she executed what is considered her finest etching. The Toilet; in Venice she won praise and patronage from the English tliere, and in 17Cfi went to London with Lady M'entworth, who had become interested in her. In London her success was brilliant. The duchess of Brunswick sat to her: she was presented at court, painted portraits of the queen and son of George III., and was overwhelmed by orders from the nobility. She was spoken of as " the beautiful and ac- complished Miss Kauffman." In 1768 she was chosen one of tho original thirty-six members of the Royal Academy, just started; her pictures held prominent places at the ex- hibition ; she was flattered by the admiration of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and chosen to paint jiortraits of the most distin- guished and beautiful ladies of the court. When the plan of decorating St. Paul's cathedral was entertained, J^Iiss Kanfl'man was scleetcd. along with Reynolds, West. Bray, and Cipriani, an Italian artist then much in vogue. She lived in England till 1771. when, her father's health fail- ing, she married Antonio Zucchi. a Venetian, and the three left England for Italy. At A'eniee she lived long enough to paint Leonardo Djfing in the Arms n/ Franciti I. Tho latter years of her life were spent in Rome, where Goethe, Herder, and Klopstock were her friends; where she was so much respected that tho French general, on taking posses- sion of tho city, ordered that her house and property should bo unmolested ; and where, after a lingering and painful ill- ness, she d, in Nov., 1807. Angelica Kauffman owed her fame and fortune as much to personal attractions, eharm of manner, and social accom- plishments as to her art, which was mannered, conventional, and monotonous. Her pictures are graceful and pleasing, harmonious in color, correct in drawing, and sweet in ex- pression, but are not thought deserving of the praise lav- ished on them by Sir Joshua Reynolds. Rafael Mengs. and Goethe. Her attempts at historical painting were ambi- tious failures. The galleries of the Louvre in Paris and the Royal Gallery in Dresden contain excellent examples of her work ; some of her best pieces are in Russia. In England her compositions are well known. An unfortunate marriage connection, from which she was released by di- vorce, saddened a portion of her life, hut gave to it a ro- mantic interest. Of her later marriage with Zucchi little is known. 0. B. FitOTriixoiiAM. Kaurman, county of N. E. Central Texas, in the val- ley uf the Trinity River. Area, 950 square miles. It has a very fertile soil, and is well timbered. Live-stock, grain, and cotton are staple products. Cap. Kaufman. Pop. 6895. Kaufman* post-v. and tp.. cap. of Kaufman co.. Tex., near Trinity Itiver. 10 miles S. of the Texas and Pacific R. R., and about 40 miles S. E. of the city of Dallas, on the KAUFMANN, VON— KAVAXAUGH. 1513 dividing-line between the timbered portion of Eastern Tex- as :ind the gn-at wheat-belt of Northern Texas. It has .'J churches (1 colored), 2 pchools, 1 bank, 2 hotels. 1 news- paper, and I sa.-^h and door manufactory; is at tho intef- scction of three projected railroads. Principal occupation, farminp^. Pop., not found in census returns of 1870, esti- materl in ls74 at 12,000. G. W. Clahk, Plb. "Star." Kauf'mann, von (C), Russian general, governor-gen- eral of Toorkcstan. and adjutant-general to the czar, of Oerman descent, made himself famous by his successful expedition into Central A?ia. In 1S07 ho was appointed governor-general of the vast regions which, partly depend- ent on Russia and partly inhabited by hostile tribes, formed the provinces of t'ir Daria and Semiretsebkaia. but which now have been united into the military circle of Toorkestan. Ilia tar<k was to strengthen and extend tho influence of Russia in Central Asia, ancl he soon became engaged in a war with Bokhara. Immediately after his arrival in Toork- estan ho took up a position with his troops at Dschisak, on the southern frontier of his territory, and entered on long negotiations with the hostile emir of Bokhara until ho received largo reinforcements in Mar., 18G8. lie then commenced to march southward alongthe river Serafscban. Tho emir declared war. By prudent and enorgctic meas- ures Kaufmann succeeded in defeating the force of the emir. though vastly superior in numbers, and in the middle of May ho occupied Samarcand. Tho result of this victory was a peace very advantageous to Russia, by which the emir ceded Samarcand and a large territory, and became a submissive friend of Russia. Kaufmann now used the hu- miliation of Bokhara for the subjugation of tho most dan- gerous enemy of Russia in Central Asia — tho khan of Khiva. Surrounded on all sides by great deserts, Khiva was imapproachablc to Russian armies without the aid of Bokhara. After several cautious reconnoitrings, Kauf- mann moved in Mar., 1873, three columns, consisting of 12,000 men, from the Caspian Sea, from Orenburg, and from Tashken<l, toward.-? Khiva, and after great hardships on the loni^ march ho entered the liostile capital .Tunc 10. lie compelled the khan to a peace advantageous to Russia, and defei'ed the wild tribes of the Toorkomans and Jo- mudfs, which, although dependent on the khan, would not acknowledge the peace. In consequence of a treaty be- tween the Russian government ami England, tho Russi.an army again retired from Khiva, but the unconditional authority of Russia in Central Asia was nevertheless es- tablished, numerous military stations, which will prove of great service under future expeditious southward, were established on the Black Pea, the Pea of Aral, and along tho Amu-Daria, and the territory of the military circle of Toorkestan was doubled by conquered districts. Tho resi- dcnoo of tho gener.al is Tashkend. Auoi'st Niemann. Kaiikaii'na, post-tp. of Outagamie co., Wis., on the Chieago and N'orlh-wcstern and lUo Milwaukee Lako Shore and Western R. Rs. Pop. 1429. Kniirbach* von (Wimielm), b. at Arolsen, in tboprin- cijiality of Waldcck. Oct. 15, 1805. His parents were very poor, and tho unfavorable circumstances under which be grew up gave his mind something bitter and sarcastic, at th« same time that they etrengtheued and elevated his character. In 1822 he was enabled by the aid of the sculp- tor Ranch to frequent the Academy of Diisseldorf, where ho stuflicd under Cornelius, and when the latter removed to Munich in IS2.>. Kaulbacb followerl him. He remained in this city for the rest of bis life, and d. there Apr. 7. 1S71. Hi« first pictures, Apofto nmi thf .Vtwr*, on the ceiling of the Odeon, and tho sixteen wall-pictures in the palace of Duke Max illustrative of the myth t»f Cujiid and Psyche, all executed in fresco, were protluced under the inlUuMiee of Cornelius, and are kept in a purelv idealistic Htyle. But nearly at the same time appeareil bis Lunatic AMt/fuin, an oil-painting of the most decidedly realistic character, and to tho same style belong his celebralcl illustrations to /'riiirke FurfiM, n series of skrtclies as ndntirable for their striking conceptions of the eharaeter au'l nature of the dif- ('■'letit animals as distinguished for their humor and satire, liiif his true genius did not fully reveal itself until 18.17, when ho finished the finttlv uf thr f/unti for Prince Ba- c/ynsky; next year followed the fhntnirtinu of Jiruinhm for the Pinakothck in Munich. These two pictures, which g'-Mi-rally are considered as liis masterpieces, are not his- torical puintings in the oinnmnn sense of tho word. They do not represent facts, but ideas, and the form in whii'h they represent the ideas is tborouirhly symbolical or alle- gorical, in spite of tho realistic life and fulness of tho de- tails. To this stylo belong all his largest and most cele- brnted productions — the decoration of the ^tairwav in the Museum of Berlin, commene'-d in IS 17. St. yfi'harl, the Patron Sahtt nf Ifrrmauif, finished shortly before his dcnth. and others. In Germany these piotures produced a very deep impression ; no one here hesitated to set them up ns tho highest ])roductions of modern art. In foreign coun- tries, however, they did not meet with the same admira- tion. Their jiictorial eifect. properly speaking, is not great. They impress principally by tlu-ir intellectuality, though it cannot be denied that the symbols and allegories arc some- times rather trivial; thus, the li <■ format if nx is hardly any- thing more than a clever arrangement of portraits. There is something in Kaulbaeh's pictures which reminds of Wag- ner's music. The enthusiasm which they awaken is of a polemical character. They throw down a great mass of modern painting into utter insignificance, but they seem not themselves to satisfy the demands which they raise. Clkmkns Pktkrsk-N. Kau'nitz (Wenzel Antox), PnixcK, count of Riet- berg, b. at Vienna Feb. 2, 1711; studied at Lcipsic and Leyden ; travelled through France and Italy : and entered tho diplomatic career in the Austrian service in 1735. By tho consummate skill with which ho negotiated the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, and still more by his astonish- ing success in forming an alliance between Austria and France while ambassador in Paris (1750-52). he acquired great fame as a diplomat : and 1753, Maria Tlicrcsa made hira chancellor and placed him at the head of the Austrian government. This position he held for nearly forty years, and he was generally considered the greatest statesman of bis age. T'nder the reign of .Tosej)!! IT. his influence de- creased, especially after tlio failure of his negotiations for the annexation of Bavaria to Austria. In 1702 he retired on account of old age. D. June 27, 1704. His policy was exclusively Austrian, and centred in the one idea of mak- ing Austria great, but in details, with respect even to some of tho most important political transactions — as, for in- stance, the division of Pnhmd, the church reforms of .Toseph II., etc. — it is doubtful whether they were origin- ally planned by him. Personally, he was a man of jiorfoct honesty, with taste for science and art. generous and ami- able in spite of his enormous vanity. Kail'ri Pine, the Dmnmnnt auttraliti, and other spe- cies of the sjinio genus, produced in Australasia and the adjacent regi<uis. They are coniferous trees of noble size, and the best (juality as timber. Tiiis tinibor is used for ships' masts and planks. The trees produce kauri gum or New Zealand dammar, extensively used in making var- nishes. Kautz (Ai.nKRT), r. S. X.. b. Jan. 20, 1839, in Ohio; graduated at the Naval Academy in 1858; became a lieu- tenant in 18ril, a lieutenant-commander in 18fi5, a com- mander in 1808; served in tho flagship Hartford at tho passage of Forts Jackson and Pt. Philip aiid cajiture of New Orleans, Apr. 24, 1862, and in the various engagements with the Vickfburg batteries in June and July. 18fi2. Highly commended in thoofficial despatches for " gallantry and aiiility.'* Foxiiall A. Pakkkr. Kautz (August Valkntinu). h. Jan. 5, 1828, in the vil- lage of li-pringeu, near Pror/.hciin, grand duchy of Baden : emigrated to tho U. S. in 1.82H with his parents, who settled in Brown co., O., in 1831 ; graduated at West Point, and appointed brevet second lieutenant of infantry July, 1852 ; promoted first lieutenant 1855; cajitain (Jth Cavalry May, iHlil: api)ointed colonel 2d Ohio Cavalry Sept. 2, 1862; brigadier-general of volunteers May 23, 1804 ; served dur- ing the civil war in the Virginia Peninsular campaign, IS02: in the Army of the Ohio in pursuit of (Uu. Morgan and the siege of Knoxvillo isOl!, and with the Army of the Jumes, commanding cavalry division, 18(11-05, participating in tho occupation of Richmond, Va., Apr, 3, ISfi5, com- nmnding 1st division 25th corps; member of the military commission for tho trial of tho assassins of Pres. Linctdn : appointed Ueut.-cul. 31tb Infantry Julv, 1800; transferred to 15tli Infantry Mar., 1860; col. 8th Infantry June, 1874. Author of Cnuipntu/ Clerk (18(53). Cuitnni9 of ,^ervifr for Non-commimiiionrd Ofii'-rrii aud Soldiers ( 1804), and Citntmnn of Service for OJiccm (1806). G, C. Simmons. Kava. See Ava. KavaTln, small town of European Turkey, in the eya- let of .Saloniki, on the >'Kgcan Sea. opposite tho island of Thasos, is noted as the birthplace of Mehemet Ali.and has an important export trade in leaf tobacco. P. about 5(U10. Kav'anaffh (Juma). daughter of Morgan Kavanagh, a novelist, was b. in 1824 at Thurles, Ireland, and from childhood rcsidcfl chiefly in Paris, whence she removed in 181( to London. She produced a very large number of novels, tales for children, etc., among whicli were M'kI* - line 1 1848), Xaifioliv { ISal ), //oafricc (1866), Siflviu (1870). U. at Nice. France. Oct. 28, 1S77. Kav'anauKh ( nrniiAun H.). D. r».,I>. near Winchester, Ky.. in lSi)2, was .Methodist local preacher iii 1S22, joined Keiiluoky eoufcrence in l*>23, and for flfty years has been 1514 KAVI— KEAXE. a successful itinerant; was superintendent of public in- struction in Kentucky in 1839. and became bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, in ISbi. Ka'viy the ancient sacred language of the island of Java in the East Indies, is based chiefly upon the .Sanskrit, a knowledge of which was brought by lirahmanic immigrants from India about the beginning of the (Miristian era. It gradually became corrupted by the ordinary Javanese tongue to the extent of about two-fifihs of its vocabulary. The alpliabet is nearly the same as the Devanagari. although the order of the consonants is varied. The name of the language signifies "learned" or "wise," and has been ap- plied only since it began to be distinguished from the aboriginal languages by the composition of a literature. This took place in the early centuries of the Christian era. A considerable number of works is still extant, devoted largely to legends of the Creation and poems concerning mythical heroes. In the fifteenth century the sacred lan- guage, as well as the religion taught by it, was driven from Java, and took refuge in the neighboring small island of Bali, where some knowledge of it is still retained by the natives. AVilliam von Humboldt has subjected the Kavi language to a searching examination, and has e.Ktracted much curious information — Ceber die Kaici-Sprache. Kaw, tp. of Jefferson co., Kan. Pop. V49. KaAV, tp. of Jackson co., Mo. Pop. 1612. Kawkaw'lin, post-v. and tp. of Bay co., Mioh., on the Jackson Lansing and Saginaw R. R., at the mouth of Sag- inaw River and the head of Sagiuaw Bay. Pop, 756. Kaye (John), D. D., b. at Hammersmith, England, in 178.3; graduated at Christ's College, Cambridge, in ISO-t; became master of bis college in 1B14: regius professor of divinity in \^\6 ; bishop of Bristol in IS20, and of Lincoln in 1827. He wrote The Ecclesiastical Hietori/ of the Second and Third ('tntnyies, illustrated from the ]Vritiit;/s of Ter- fiiZ/mii (lS2fil, Writiiifjs and Opinions of Clement of Alex- andria (IS.'io), Writings and Opinions of Juetin Martyr (1S36), Gox'ernment of the Chnrch dnrintj the First Three Centuries (1855), several charges to his clergy, and two or three anonymous treatises directed against Catholicism. B. at Lincoln Feb. 19, 1853. Kaye (Sir John William), b. in England in 1814, • served for some years in the army of the East India Com- pany ; returned to England in 1845, and devoted himself to literature. In 1S56 he entered the Indian home civil service ; in 1859 became secretary in the political and secret department of the India office: and was knighted in 1S71. He published a //I'sfory of the War in Afghanistan ( l!^5I- bS), Hi»t<*r;f of the Administration of the East India Com- pany (1853), Life and Correspoudenr^e of Lord Metcalfe (1854), Life of Sir John Malcolm (1856), Christianiti/ in India (I859),"//i'»Mr^ of thi S^poy War (2 vols.. 18(i«-71 ), and Essays of an Optimist (1S70). D. July 21, 1876. Kazan% or Kanan^ government of Russia, bounded by Viatka. Novgorod, and Astrakhan. Area, 23.650 square mik'S. Poj). 1,670,337. The surface is Hat, but the soil fer- tile, affording excellent pasture. Cuttle an<l bees are reared, good timber is grown, and the fishing in the Volga is con- siderable. Kazan, town of Russia, the capital of the government of Kazan, on the Kazanska, 4 miles from its intlux in the Volga. It has a university, a theological seminary, a mil- itary school, 2 gymnasia, and several other educational in- stitutions. Its manufactures of leather, soap, hardware, and spirits are considerable ami its trade very extensive. It was destroyed by fire twice in this century, in 1S15 and 1842, but rebuilt more beautiful each time. In the neigh- borhood is the magnificent Semiozernoi convent. Pop. 78,602. KazbiD% or Casbin* town of Persia, in the province of Irak-Ajemce, in a beautiful plain covered with orchards and encircled by hills. It manufactures velvet, silk, satin, brocade, coarse cotton fabrics, and articles of iron and brass. Its breeds of camels and horses are very celebrated. The number of its inhabitants is not ascertained. The area it occupies ia very large, but a great portion of it is covered with ruins. Kaz'inczr (Franz), b. at Er-Semlyfn. Hungary. Oct. 27, 1759: studied law. and held several minor offices during the earlier part of his life, though literature was always his principal occupation. Being implicated in the eonspirnoy of Martinovies, he was condemned to death in 1793. He was pardoncil. hnt kept in prison for seven years. After his liberation in 180] he devoted himself exclusively to lit- erature, and exercised a great influence both by his own works and by hie numerous translations from the German, French; and English. He was one of the leaders of the movement by which the Latin language was laid aside and I the native tongue adopted as the medium of Hungarian I literature. D. Aug. "2. 1831. Kca'gy (John .M.), M. D..b. in Lancaster co.. Pa., about 17115 ; d. at Philadelphia Jan. 30, 1837. He taught chiefly in the public high school at Harrisburg, where he published his Pestatozzian Primer in lSi;7, a book made up largely of " thinking lessons," the modern *' object lessons." He ad- vocated, and to some extent practised, the mode of teach- ing a child to read words *' as if they were Chinese sym- bols." (See Barnard's Jour, of Education, 1871, vol. xxii. p. 649.) S. S. Haldemas. Kcan (Charles Jons), son of Edmund Kean, b. at Watcrford, Ireland, Jan. 18, 1811; d. Jan. 22, 1808: was educated at Eton, but was withdrawn before completing his studies there, in consequence of his father's broken fortunes: declined a cadetship in the service of the East India Company, and made his first appearance on the stage at Drury Lane Theatre on Oct. 1. 1827. in the character of Norval. His reception was cold, and success came to him slowly. In 1830 he visited America, and appeared as Richard III. at the Park Theatre: returned to England Jan., 1S33, and played in the provincial theatres; made a professional trip to Hamburg; came to London in 1838. and took position, as Hamlet, in the front rank of his profession. In 1839 he visited again the r. S. and Havana: returned to London in 1840; in 1842 married Miss Ellen Tree : crossed the Atlantic once more with his wife in 1846: in 1847 went back, and after playing engagements in Birmingham, Manchester. Liver- pool, and Dublin, and at the Ilaymarket. he identified his fortunes with the Princess Theatre, which he made pop- ular and lucrative. Twice Mr. Kean was entrusted with the management of tl»e Windsor theatricals. His produc- tion of Richard IIL and of King John, first attempted in the U. §. on a scale of splendor till then unknown, had great celebrity. Mr. Kean gained bis chief reputation in the tragedies of Shakspeare — Hamht, Macbeth, Bichard //., Richard lff.,Romea and Jnlirt — but he did not sustain tho grand traditions of his father. 0. B. Frothinrham. Kean (EoMrvD), b. in London Mar. 17. 1787; d. in Richmond May 15, 1833 ; date of birth is not quite certain. His father, it is believed, was connected as a mechanic with the Royalty Theatre : his mother was an actress of little repute. The child was born and reared amid the associa- tions of the stage, and early attracted attention by his apt- ness in juvenile jiarts. For fourteen or fifteen years he was connected with strolling companies, played in every variety oi rCle, and by practice acquired professional facility. His first appearance on the London stage was at Drury Lane Jan. 2C. 1814. in the character of i^hylock. His success was immediate, and was raised to the highest point by his impersonations of Hamlet. Richard III.. Macbeth, Othello, Iag<i. Lear, 8ir (iiles Overreach. Sir Edward .Mortimer, and other parts then popniar. He visited the I'. S. in 1820, and again in 1825: his last appearance was in 1833, with his son Charles, as Othello; his strength failed him in the middle of the play, and he was borne out in the arms of his son. Kean was a man of genius and accorajdishment, a student in his profession, of extraordinary powers of mimicry and conversation, but irregular in life, capricious in temper, and eccentric in habit. Tradition represents him as one of the greatest actors that ever trod the boards. In moments ho was surpassingly great, but his reliance on his genius made him unequal. His biography by "Barry Cornwall" (Mr. Procter) gives an interesting account of the actor and the man. The Rtminiscences of Mt. Macready contain allusions to him that show how he was ngarded from a professional point of view. Mr. Macready speaks of him as " one of the most extraordinary theatrical geniuses that have ever illustrated the dramatic poetry of England." Kcan was small of stature, but graceful, and when under the influence of passion effective, and even grand. His countenance was expressive, his eye brilliant, his action free and noble, his voice flexible and strong. His power of impersonation was wonderful; in his best moments "he seemed to clutch the whole idea of his character." Tho impression he made in the l'. S. was impaired by his own waywardness in refusing to complete an engagement in Boston on his first visit there. 0. B. Fiiotiiingham. Keane (Jonx), Lord, b. at Belmont, Ireland, in 1781 ; entered the British army in boyhood : served in Egypt, and in Spaiu during the Peninsular war, gaining the rank of major-general; commanded the British expedition against New Orleans in 1814 until superseded by Pakenham : was severely wounded at the battle of New Orleans : commanded the West Indian forces 182.3-30, ami acted for some time as govprnor of Jamaica. In 1833 he was sent to India. and during the Afghan war ( 1839) captured ihe stronghold of tthuznee, for which exploit he was made a peer and received from the East India Company a pension of KEARNERSVILLE— KEECIIIES. 151o £2000. D. at Burton Lodge^ Hampshire, Enghind, Aug. 24, 1844. Kear'nersvilley post-tp. of Forsyth co., X. C. Pop. 9'Jj. Kear'ney, county of Nebraskn, bounded on tho N. liy Platte Kivcr. Area, 500 square miles. It is rolling prairie, well adapted to pasturage. Cap. Lowell. Pop. 58. Kearney, pnst-v. of Wnf:hin*:tou tp., C!ay eo.. Mo., on the Kansas t^'ity branch ot the llaunibiil iind St. Joseph K. U. It lias 1 weekly newi^paper. Pop. 3yG. Koariiey, tp. of Hudson co., N. J. Pop. 974. Kearney (LawrenckI, b. at Perth Aniboy, N. J.. Nov. 30, 1789; entered the U. S. navy as midshipnmn in 1807: served on the coast of the Southern States during the war of 1812; destroyed pirates in the \Vct;t Indie?, Gulf of Mexico, and in the Levant : commanded the Cliiua squad- ron in 1841, securing Americnn commercial rights ; returned in 1844 ; became commodore in 1866; and d. at Perth Am- boy Nov. 29, 18(J8, Kearney Jnnetion, ])nst-v. and tp.. cap. of Iluffalo CO., Neb., on the Vnion l*iicitie R. K.. iit its junrtion with the Uurlington and ]\Ii.«s(>uri H. R.. 11*S niilus \V. of Omaha. First town-lols were .«ol<i Sept. 9, 1S72; in .Tunc, L^73, it numbered about 600 inhabitants, 2U0 buildings costing $140,000, 3 hutele, 3 hanks, I school, 19 stores of various kind?, and a d6p0t costing $29,000. It is in the Ptatto River Valley, in the uiidst of a tine agricultural region, with decp-blaek clayey soil, well watered by running streams. It ha;^ 2 daily and 2 weekly newi:pii|ieis. C. M. Clapp, MASAfiEii ■* Keak.nlv Times." Kearny (Philip), nephew of (Jen. Stephen W.. b. in New York .June 2, 1815; graduated nt Culumbia College, and studied law. but in 1837 accepted a lieutenancy in the let Dragoons, (tf which regiment his uncle was then colonel, and soon after visited Kurope under urdeis of the gnvcrn- ment to examine and rejtort upon the tHctiesof the French cavalry service. Here he attended the Polytechnic School at Saumur, and subsequently served as a volunteer in the Chasseurs d'.Arri(|Uo in Algeria, winning tho cross of the Legion of Hnnor. Returned lo the U. S. In IStO, and was attached to the stall' of iJcn. Scott 1S41-44, under whom he served with great gallantry in the Mexican war; captain of dragoons in 1840, and brevetted major for Contreras and Cliurubuseo. In tlie final assault on tho city of Mexici* he lost an arm at (he Sun .Antonio gate; subsequently served in California and in eomniand of an expedition against tho Indians on t'olumbia River. Re- signed Oet., I8.'»], and wont to Europe, where he con- tinued his military studies ; served in the Italian war of 1869 HA volunteer aide to (Jen. .Alaurier of the French army, being engaged at Magenta and Suifcrino, aud for bravery was a seconrl time decorated with the cross of tho Legion of Honor. The news of the outbreak of civil war in tho U. S, caused his hasty return home, where his jirof- fered services were at once accepted by the ^rovernmcnt. Appointed at once a brigadier-general of volunteers, ho was assigned to t!ie command of u brigade of New Jersey troops. In tho Peninsular campai;;n of 1SI12 he commanded a division, and at Williamsburj; and KairOuks his services wore most brilliant antl valuable, as well as throughout the suljserjucnt hard fighting hero. Arriving at Harrison's Landiii<;, he was ]>romotcd to bo maJ<»r-Keneral of volun- teers, to iliitu July 4, 1802. Subsequently, in the sectmd battle of Hull Run, he was again conspicurMis, and at Cliiin- tilly. where he was killed Sept. 1, 1802, while reeonnoitring in advance of his troops. G. C. Simmons. Kearny Mlon. Stkphkn Watts), uncle <if Philip, b. at Newark. N. J., Aug. 30. 1794 : ou tho outbreak of the war with (Ireal Rritain he abandoned his studies at Co- himbia College, nn*J enlcrcil the army as first lieutenant 13th Infantry Mar., 1HI2 ; in the following October ho was dis- tin^uii^lied in ttie assault on Ijueenstown Heights. an<l pro- i inoted lo be captain Apr., IN13 ; on the close of tho war he was rctuiiied in the army, rising through succcBsive irrades ■ to bo brigadier-general in 1846. In the war with Mexico he commanded at the commencement the army of theAVost, i which made conquest of the province of New Mexico ; C8- tablii-hing a provisional go\ernment at Santa Fe, he con- tinued his march to California, and Hec.fi, ISIO, fought tho battle of San Paseunl, where he was twice wounrled ; subsequently commanded the tronps of sailors and nmrines and detachment of dragoons in tlie battles of San tlabriel and Plains of .Mesn. .Ian. S and 9, 1817. He was governor of California from Mar. to June. 1817; joined the army in , Mexico and w'S governor of Vera Cr\n Mar.. 1848, and I ItfayTTAl^, of the city of Mexico. For his serviees In New i Mexico and (^alitornia he was brovette.l ninjor-general. Author of A Maniinl /ur tfiv Exrrcine and Maittruvrin^ uf \ U, S. Draijoonn, Ortjanic LttWf and Lawafoi' the Governmeut of the Territory of Xew Mexico. D. at St. Louis, Mo., Oct. 31, 1848. G. C. Simmons. Kear'sarge, mount, a conspicuous mountain in Car- roll CO., N.H.: lat. 44°0'20"N., Ion. 71*' 5' 40" W., height, 3250 leet. On the suggestion of the wife of the assistant secretary (»f the navy, a daughter of Levi Woodbury (tf New Hampshire, the secretary in ISI'.I named the vessel which sunk tho Alabama in iStVt after this mountain. Another one of the same name, in iMcrrimack co., N. H., formerly called h'tfar-Surf/n,hy the Indians Cowissewas- chook, height 2950 feet, has been erroueously claimed lor this honor. G. V. Fox. Kea'tins:^ tp. f>f Clinton co.. Pa. Keating Village (Nasl.y P. o. I is on the PhiUideli.hia and Erie R. R. P. 439. Keating* tp. of McKean co.. Pa. It includes Smeth- port, tlie county-seat. Pop. 1435. Keatinf;^, tp. of Potter co., Pa. Pop. 78. Keats (Jonx), b. in London in 1790: was gent to a school at Enfield kept by the father of Charles Cowdcn Clarke; served ISlD-lj an apprenticeship to a surgeon, and then studied in London ; became the friend of Leigh Hunt, Lamb, and the other authors of the so-called Cock- ney school; publislied iu 1817 a vtduine of verses, followed in 1818 by £ii'.ii/iin'"n, aud another volume of poems in 1820. Keats died of consumjttion at Home Feb. 24, ie21. The often-repeated statement that Keats was killed by the bitter attack upon him by (Jiflord in the Qudifrrfi/ Jit-rii ir was uuiforntly denied by tlnise who knew him best, and (iifford's criticism was more injurious to its author, audjustly so, than to any one else. The fame of Keats as a poet has widened much since his deatli, aud after making due allowance for his youth and inexperience ns a writer, his poems certainly display that indescribable quality called genius in an unusual degree. Kcnyne fCapt. Roukut), b. probably in Iiondon in lo94 or If>9."); was a member of the Honorable Artillery Company in London, and by trade a merchant tailor. He aided Plymouth colony by donations as early as 1024, and became one of the fnunders of the .Massaehusetts colony, settling at Hostou in 103.'). He brou{;ht over considerable* estate: organized in 1038 the Ancient and Honorable Artil- lery Company of Roston : was frequently representative for Boston from 1638 to 1049 : was a lilieral donor to Harvard College, aU'l by legacy founded a free school at Roston. now the Latin Grammar School. He was a brotlier-in-law of the ceh-brated Jcdm Wilson, first minister of Poston. both having married daughters of Sir John jransfield, master of the Minories; was an eccentric man, and his singular will (reprinted in part in \. E. Gen. licff., vol. vi.) covers over ^0 pages, being perha{is the longest ou record in America. Ke'ble (John), M. A., b. at Fairford, Gloucester, Kng- lanil, .Ajir. 25, 1792. passed R. A. at Corpus Christi, Oxford, 3810; became a fellow of Oriel 1811 ; was public examiner at Oxford 1814-10; took deacon's orders 1815, priest's 1810; was a tutor at Oxford 1818-23; became ]irofessor of poetry IS31 ; was one of the original Tractarians. and a leader of tlie Anglo-Catholic movement ; became viear of Hursley 18;:n. H. at Rournemouth Mar. 29. 1800. In 1827 he published Thv Christian Year, a volume of sacrod poetry which attained a wide popularity, and upon which his famo chietly rests ; also publifthe<l rniftrtinnrtt Aroflrnn'rir ( 1844), /.//ro /imorriitluni (IS 17), Thr I'trnhnn in ICiif/lifh Vrrsc, Dc Poitiva I'i Atrdica (1847), some volumes of sermons, and many tracts and pamphlets upon ecclesiastical subjects. (See Memoir of liev. John KcUcf by Sir John T. Coleridge, 1809.) Kecskemet', town of Hungary, tho capital of tho district of Peslh-Snlt. The rearing of cattle uml horses is tho chief pursuit of the inliabiiants, and the annual cattlo- fnir held in this city is tho most imj'ortant in the whole country. Pop. 42.0S9. Kcdf^e, a small anchor used in hauling a vessel from onomooring to fliiolher, in pullinj; off a ship that is aground. etc. Kedges are als<i useful in preventing ships from foul- ing with their bower anchor. Keirceri, or KU'nri, town of Rritish India, in tho presidency of Rengal, nt the mouth of the Hoogly. As this river forms the main entranno into the Ganges and the road to Calcutta, the town has aequireil consiilcrablo notoriety, and the first lelograph-Iine in India was laid between it and Caleuttn. a clistance of 1(1 miles. Kee'chieR, a Irihe of Indians residing on the Washita River in the Indian Territory. They are related to tho Pawnees and AVichitiis, ami formerly lived on Trinity River in Texas, but were removed in i859. They number little over 100. 1516 KEEL— KEI RIVER, GREAT. Keel) in shipbuilding, is the beam which passes under the ship's hull Irom stem to stern. It is usually made up of several heavy timbers bolted together leuf^thwise. The ship's ribs, stern, and stern-post spring from the keel, which is external to the hull, as the keelson is internal. Below the keel one or niorc^/ri/se keels are bolted on. Kee'ler, tp. of Van Buren co., Mich. Pop. 1303. Kecrhatlling, a punishment formerly employed in the Dutch and other navies. The oft'ender, with suitable ropes attached, was dropi)ed from one yanl-arm into tlio sea, hauled beneath the keel of the ship, and then drawn up to the opposite yard-arm. The culprit was lieavily weighted with lead or iron. KeeTson, or Kelson, the beam inside a ship's hull whieh runs fore and ait ilirectly over the keel. It is made up of timbers scarped, nutdied, and bolted into one, and the keelson is itself securely bolted to the keel. Keen (William Williams). M. D., b. Jan. 19, 1S37, in Philadelphia; entered Brown University in 1809 and Jef- ferson Medical College in 1SG2; studied 1SG4 at Paris, Vienna, and Berlin ; returned in IStifi, and began practis- ing in Philadeljihia ; became proprietor of the Philadelphia School of Anatomy, which he conducted with great success ; lectured on anatomy at this institution and on pathological anatomy at Jefferson Medical College, and was appointed trustee of Brown University and Crozer Theological Sem- inary, and surgeon to St. Mary's Hospital, Philadelphia. His printripa! writings are — On Br/h-x Parah/»h (1864), Gunshnt ]Voniuh (1S64). Practical Atmtomi/ (1870), Sketch <if the Eiirfi/ Histon/ of Practical Anatomy (1874), Diagrams of the A'crven ft/ the Human /?of/f/ (1872), Clinical Charts of the Human //of/_y ( 1S"2). Gunshot Wound of the Brain (1871), Anat.y Pathol. , and Surg. Uses of Chloral (1874), etc. Keene, tp. of Adams co., 111. Pop. 1283. Keene, post-tp. of Ionia co., Mich. Pop. 1271. Keene, city, cap. of Cheshire co.. N. H., 92 miles N. W. of Boston and 6.0 miles N. of Springfield, Mass., on a wide plain surrounded by lofty hills, has broad thorough- fares shaded by stately elms, and claims to be the most beautiful inland city of New England. The public build- ings consist of a fine court-house, city hall, high-school building, and 7 well-built churches. Central Square, from which radiate the five principal avenues, is planted with trees, and contains a soldiers' monument erected at a cost of nearly ?20,U00. The eity is well supplied with water brought by an aqueduct from Silver Lake. ;i miles distant. There are 2 weekly newspapers, a large public library, a gymnasium, 3 national anil 2 savings banks, 3 hotels, o Masonic lodges, 1 lodfje and 1 encampment of Odd Fellows. Two railroads centre here; a third (the Manchester and Keene) is about to be built. The eity is noted for excel- lent public schools and for its business prosjierity and en- terprise. The manufactures are large; there are 3 steam- mills manufacturing furniture, sash and blinds, and ma- chinery. The Cheshire U. K. employs several hundred men in the manufacture of locomotives and cars. There arc 3 steam-tanneries, an iron-foundry, a flannel-mill, gas- works, carriage and sleigh manufactories, and granite- quarries affurding employment to about 400 men. The valuation of taxable property in Apr.. 1874, was $4,500,000. Pup. 5971. Tnos. C. Rand, Ed. " N. H. Sentinkl." Keene, post-v. and tp. of Essex co., X. Y. The town- ship contains Mt. Marcy, the highest of the Adirondaeks, and has iron-mines and manufactures of iron. Pop. 720. Keene, post-tp. of Coshocton co., 0. Pop. 787. Keene (BArnA), b. in England in 1S20: came to the U. S. as an actress in 1S52, and had great success in light comedy, as also in Australia in 1S54. Keturningto Amer- ica in 1855, she became manager of the Varieties Theatre in New York, and soon afterward inaugurated another theatre, long known by her name, now the Olympic. Here she introduced in 1858 the very successful comedy of Our American Cousin. She appeared on the stage with suc- cess in the principal American cities until shortly before her death, which took place at Moutclair, N. J-. Nov. 4. 1873. It was at one of her representations of Onr Amer- ican r<'n«i';i that President Bincoln was assassinated in 1865. Keen'cr, tp. of Ja.^per co., Ind. Pop. 71. Keener (Dikcan F.), b. in Maryland or Virginia; re- moved tu Louisiana; was a member from that State to the Confederate Couiiress in ISfil.and to tlto end of the war he held a high positicm throughout. I'n- was brief, practical, able, and eloquent in tlebate. Since the war he has taken no active part in polities, but exerted a great influence in preventing a collision between the Federal troops under Gen. Emory anil the State troojis under the McEnery offi- cials in New Orleans in Sept., 1874. Keener (John C), 1>. I)., b. in Baltimore, Md., 1819; educated at Wesleyan Academy, Wilbraham, Mass., and at Wcsleyan University, Middletown, Conn.; was editor of the New Orleans Christian Advocate (M. E. Church, South) from 1865 to 1870. and was elected bishop in that year. In 1873 he visited the Southern Methodist missions in Mexico, which were at that time entrusted to his superintendence. He is author of Post Oak Cir- cuit. Keese'ville, post-v. in Chesterfield tp., Essex co., and Au Sable tp., Clinton co., N. Y., lying on both sides of the Au Sable River, which is the boundary between those two counties, 4 miles W. of Lake Champlain and 150 miles N. of Albany. It has 6 churches (2 Catholic), a graded school, a national bank, a public hall, ancl a weekly newspaper. Iron and nail works constitute the principal industry. The water-power is excellent. A woollen-factory was erected here in 1813. and a rolling-mill in ISIG. Three bridges connect the two parts of the village, one being an iron susjiension bridge. Pop. about 30OO, W. Lansinu. Ed. " Esskx Co. Republican." KefT, or El-Keff, the ancient Sicca Vencria, town of Tunis, near the Algerian frontier, is beautifully situated among fertile and well-cultivated surroundings, and has a strong citadel. Pop. GOOO. Keigh'ley, town of England, in the county of York- shire, on the Aire. Its manufactures of woollen and worsted goods are very considerable. Pop. 15,005. Keight'lev (Thomas), b. in Dublin in Oct., 1780; graduated at Trinity College in that eity in 1808, and de- voted himself to the production of a series of classical textbooks and works on history and mythology, by which he became widely known in Eiigland and America. His best works were — Outlinrv of Jlistory, Mi/tholitgi/ of Ancient Greece and Italy, History of India, and Sh<tks/jeare E.tpo8- itor. He received a pension from the English government in his later years, and d. at Erttb, Kent, Dec, 1872. Keil (Karl August Gottlieb), b. at Grossenhain, near Dresden, Saxony, Apr. 23, 1754; was educated in theology at the University of Leip^ic. in which he became tutor, lecturer on exegesis and hermeneulics. professor extra- ordinary of philosophy (1785), of theology (1788), and full or ordinary professor iu 1793. His writings in German and Latin are especially valuable upon the subject of her- meneutics. in which he is recognized as a master. His Manual of Hcrmtnentics appeared in 1810; his miscella- neous Latin writings wereiuiblished after his death by Gold- horn, under the title Opuscula Acadcmica, etc. (Leipsic, 2 vols., 1821). D. at Lcipsic Apr. 22, 1818. Keim {THKonon^, D. D., b. at Stuttgart, Wiirtemberg, Dec. 17, 1825; studied at the University of Tiibingen (1843-48), devoting himself, under the guidance of Baur, to philosophy, biblical criticism, and ecclesiastical history; was tutor in those branches at Bonn (1850) and at Tiibin- gen (1851-55) ; was ordained deacon (1857)and archdeacon (1850) at Esslingen, and became in ISCO professor of the- ology at the University of Zurich. He wrote volumes upon the history of the Reformation in several parts of Germany; in Ulm (1851 ), in Swabia until the Diet of Augsburg (1855), in Esj'lingen (lSt»0), Amhrosius li/arer, the Sn-abian Re- former (18(10), The Human Development of Jesus Christ (ISIJI). The Historical Words r/ ^f^H* (ISfi I ). and recast the latter two works into The Historical (^hrist (IS6G). wliich at once gave him a wide reputation. He then devoted him- self to a nu)re biographical work upon the same subject, called History of Jesus of Xazara, of which two volumes have appeared (18G7 and 1871). an<l have been translated into English (London. 1873). D. Nov. 17, 1^78. Keim (William Hifiii), b. at Reading, Pa., June 25, 18i;i ; educated at Mt. Airy Military Academy ; was chosen Representative in Congress in 1S5S, and State surveyor in 1850; served as major-general of Pennsylvania volunteers in Patterson's campaign on the upper Potomac (1S(H), and as brigadier-general U. S. volunteers in McCIellan's army. D. at Harrisburg. Pa., May 18, lS(i2. Keim'er (Samuel), a printer in Philadelphia in the early part of the eighteenth century, celebrated in the yl ijfo/jf'o7rn/>/i// of Franklin, wlio was employed in his office. Little is known of Keimer beyonil these inciiicntal notices; the place and time of his birth and death are alike undiscover- able. Franklin states that he was originally '*one of the French prophets, and could act their enthusiastic agitation," and gives an amusing accnunt of his projects for founding a new religion, the cardinal doctrines of which were never disclosed. Keimer went to Barbadoes, where in 17.'U he was pTini'iugthQ Gazette, and in 1711 a work of his entitled Caribhcana was printed in London. Kei River, Great, scjiarates the formerly so-called British Kafl^raria. which now lornis a jwirt of the Cape Colony, from Kaffraria proper, and empties itself into the KEISKAMMA— KELLOGO. 1517 Indian Occao. Like all rivers of Kaffraria, it is unfit for navifiation, ils bed being very rocky and irregular. KeiskaTn'ma, a river in the Capo Colony, rises in Amatola, and Bows into the Indian Ocean after a course of SO miles. Keith, new county in P. W. Nebraska, adjoining Colo- rad">. inttT?cctcd by the two forks of the Platte, and trav- ersed by the Union Pacific K. R. Area, 201(» square miles. Keith MIkohgf). b. at Aberdeen, Pootland. about 1640; was educated for the Presbyterian ministry at the Univer- sity of Aberdeen : adopted Quaker principles about 1664, ancl in 1075 was associated with Robert Barclay in defend- ing that sect in public discussions with the university students. He was also associated with Pcnn in similar discussions with the Baptists in London. In 16s2 ho took charze of a Quaker school at Edmonton, and was impris- oned in Newgate for refusing to take an oath and preaching without license ( 16S4). Soon afterward he cnmc to America; became surveyor-general of East .Jersey, and in 16S0 took charge of a Quaker school in Philadelphia. Next year he went to New England as a Quaker preacher, and was en- gaged in disputes with Increase and Cotton Maihcr. Re- turning to Philadelphia, he became involved in controversy with his own sect, chiefly about the atonement, and ulti- mately came into sharp collision with William Penn him- self, whom ho charged with deism, and by whom ho was denounced as an apostate. Keith thereupon founded a sect known as Keithians. Christian Quakers, or Baj)tist Qua- kers, but ultimately entered the Church of England, and was employed as a missionary for the conversion of his former fellow-believers. From 1702 to 1705 he made a tour of tho Northern colonies, and converted many hundreds of Qua- kers, who were baptized by him. Returning to England in 1706, he was appointed rector of Edburton in Sussex, where ho d. about 1715. Ho was a man of deep learning, well versed in PIatonism,and wrote many theological tracts both for and against Qu:ikerii*m ; al.»> two works of travels in America ( 1699 and 1705) and a X* ir Throri/ of the Lou- ffitiifie (1709). (See Jannoy's Iliston/ of the Friends, Phil- adelphia, 1867, and Watts's Ttibliotheca Bn'tannica.) Keith (firoROE^b. at Kineardine. Scotland, in 16S5. and received a military education. After the death of Queen Anno he espoused tho cause of tho Pretender, was outlawed, and his estates were confiscated. For several years ho lived in Rome with the Pretender, then in Spain, but entered at last into the service of Frederick IL, whoso friend he became, and who employed him in several re- sponsible positions — as ambassador to Paris 1751, as gov- ernor »if Neufehatel 1754, etc. Through the king's media- tion his estates were restored to him, but ho continued to reside at Potsdam, where he d. May 25, 1778, Keith ((iKORfiE KEiTn-Ei.i'HiNSTONc), Admiral. Vis- rocNT, b. at Elphinstone, Scotlan<i, Jan. 12, 1746; entered tho navy in boyhood, and, as post-captain commanding the | frigate Perseus, took part in the actions of Bunker Hill | (1775) and Fort Mifflin on the Delaware (1777). In 179.3 he served with the Mediterranean squadron under Lord | Hood at Toulon, and as admiral was despatclie<t in 1795 to operate against the Dutch colonies. Ho took jtossession of ' Ciijie Colony in South Africa, Ceylon, Cochin, Malacca, and the Mohn'cii Islands, and in Aug., 1796, captured a Dutch , squadron near Satdanha Bay, West Africa. For these bril- I liant services, he was created an Irish peer, as Baron Keith I of Stonehaven Marischal. In Mar., IHOO, ho blockaded 1 Massena in Genoa, co-operating with tho Austrians, who besieged and took that city, lie co-operated with Aber- , crombifc in the Egyptian exptdition, and in 1S15 com- | nianded the Channel fleet, which prevented tho escape of Napoleon I., and brought about his surrender to Capt. ] >faitland of the BelUrophon. In lsI4 he was created Vis- I count Keith of the peerage of the United Kingdom. D. | at Tullialan, Pertli!«hire. Scotland, Mar. 10, 182.3, Keith (.Tames FnANns EnwARo). brother of George (16S5-I77S), h. at Kineordine, Scotland, Juno 11, 1696; look part, like his brother, in the rebellion against the Hanoverian house; was outlawed, and lived for several years at Paris and in Spain. In 17-31 he entered the Kus- sinn servifi', and <listinguishe<l himself very much in the wars against Turkey and Sweden. In 174.3 ho was nnulo a fii'ld marshal, but in 1747 ho left Russia, went to Berlin, and was one of Fre<leriek's great generals. He was u man of great military talent and much appreciated by tho king. He fell at Hoeh'kirch Oct. 14, 175S. Keith (Sir Wii.!,iAM\ b. in the N. of Scotland about lOf'O; became surveyor-general of customs in Amerien for the Southern colonies: was governor of Pennsylvania for the proprietors 1717-26; was fond of intrigu*-, vain, and treaeberous, but the colony prosperetl under bis ailminis- tratinn. Author of a ///*/<»(■»/ <</ Vii-'finia (17.'!S) and a Tolame of tracts and papers (1749). D. in London Nor. 17, 1749. Keiths'bur^, post-v. and tp. of Mercer co.. 111. It is on the Mississii)pi River and the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., and has a national bank and 1 weekly news- paper. Pop. of v. 1179; of tp. 1579. Keitt (Lawrence M.), b. in Orangeburg district. S. C, Oct. 4, 1824: graduated at the State College, Columbia, in 184.3; studied law. and was admitted to practice in 1845; was elected to the State legislature in 1S4S. and to Congress in 185.3. which position he held until he resigned it in the winter of 1860-61, after South Carolina had passed her ordinance of secession. He was then elected to the Confederate Con- gress, which met in Montgomery on Feb. 4. 1861 ; in this body he acted a conspicuous part in the formation of the provisional and permanent constitutions for the Confed- erate States. He subsequently entered the military service with a colonel's commission, and gallantly fell at the head of his regiment in repelling the assault at Cold Harbor on the .3d of June. 1S64. As an orator and a popular dc- claimer Mr. Keitt held a high position. A. H. Stephens. Kelat% the cap. of Beloochistan. in lat. 2S° 52' N. and Ion. 00° 3;i' E.. situated in a narrow valley 6000 feet above the sea. It is surrounded with walls, and has some im- portance as a fortress, but it is ill built and dirty, and ils trade and manufactures arc of very little consequence. Pop. 12,000. Kellermann' fFRAN<;ois Crristophe), b. at Stras- bourg 17.35; d. in 1820; was raised slowly, under the old monarchy, to the rank of brigadier-general, when the Rev- olution of 17S9 broke out, and suddenly made general-in- chief. He won tho famous battle of Valmv in 1792 against the allies, who were marching on Paris. Kellermann, being a moderate republican, was arrested in 1793, and remained in prison until the Tbermidor reactionary revolution in 1794. He coninianded in 1795. with success, the armies of the Alps and of Italy, and Napoleon made him duke of Valmy and nmrshal of France. Kellermann was a soldier, not a politician : ho did not stick, therefore, by Napoleon, any more than ho had done l>y the radical republicans who had been the first to discover and employ his rare military genius. On tho full of the empire in 1815, lie rallied to I lie Bourbons, who confirmed his title of duke and made him a peer of Franco. Felix Al'caignk. Kellermann (Francois Etienne), son of F. C. Kdh r- mann, b. at Metz in 1770; received his military educiitiun under his father ; was aide-de-camp to Napoleon in 1796, and brigadier-general in 1799. He distinguished himself very much in the battles of Marengo. Austerlitz, and Waterloo. After the restoration of tho Bourbons ho with- drew from the service. D, June 2, 18.35. Kelley, tp. of Ripley co., Mo. Pop. 240. KeI'ley (Wii.mam D\u»ah), b. in Philadelphia Apr. 12, 1814. a grandson of M:ij. ,hAiu Kelley. a Revolutionary oflicer of New .Jersey. He was (I8;J5-.39) a jeweller of Boston, Mass. ; was admitted to the Philadelphia bar in 1841; became a leading Democrat ; was attorney-general of Pennsylvania 1845-46; a judge of the common pleas I court 1846-56; and in 1854 became a republican; was n ' prominent member of Congress 1861^74, and has taken a , high rank as an elleetivc public speaker. I Kellcy's Island, one of the AVino Islands of Lake I Erie, belongs to Erie co.. 0., and has flourishing vineyards, j producing large quantities of wiuo and grapes. Pop. of Kelley's Island tp. 8.38. I KeTlogg, post-v. and tp. of Jasper co., Ta., on tho I Chicago Rock IslanrI and Pacific R. R.. 45 miles E. of j Dos Moines. It hat* .3 churches, 1 Englii^h newspaper I (weekly), large jjump-faetory, and the usual number I of stores and whops. It has good water-power and nu- I merous branches of indu.'ftry. Pop. of tp. 1507. S. r. Mm iiKLL, Kn. " News." KellOff^ fCi.ARA LoiiSK), h. in Snmtorville. S. C.luly. 1842, of Northern parentage and ancestry. Her father is a man of remarkable ingenuity in mechanical invention; her mother had unusual gifts as a musician, a talent with tho pencil, and evni skill in the cutting of cameos. Clnra was their only child. A year after her birth the family removed to New Haven, Conn., ami resided there till 1S56. when they went to Xew York. Here tlie young girl's mu- sical genius was appreciated, and by help of a friend her musical eilucalion was begun un<ler the direction of Millet, Rivarde. Manzoclii, and .Albitc?). all teachers of tho first rank in their time. She studied with intense industry, ambition, and paiision for art, devoting herself wholly to her pursuit. learning along with music the French and Italian Innguaees. Her whole professional edueatinn was acquired in New York, the few lessons she received in Lon- don from Ardili being scarcely wortliv uf mention. A 1518 KELLOGG— KELP. private presentation made so favorable an impression on ] her auditors that she was V>rought out in the character of Gildft {Ht'folettu) at the Academy of Music iu the season of 1S61-C2, and sang that season ten or twelve times. In 1867 she appeared in London at Her Majesty's Theatre under the nianaj^ement of Mr. Mapk-son, and was immedi- ately engac;ed for the following or summer season. Ro- turiiing to the V. S. in ISfiS, she made a brilliant tour though the States with Mr. Strakosch. gaining new laurels, till 1872, when she a:;ain accepted a London engagement, and sang at Drury Lane with Nil?son under Mapleson's management. Her success was even more signal than before ; she sang also at a ''private" concert given by the queen at Buckingham Palace. On her return to the U. S. she resumed her professional career, singing in Italian opera till Nilsson and Lucca absorbed the attention of the fashionable world of music : then, about two years ago, she determined to establish in America on a popular basis the English opera. Into this enterprise she threw herself with all her accustomed energy, aided by a deep confidence in the musical appreciation and enthusiasm of the American people, assuming the direction of the pieces, the training of the singers, the translation of the Vihrctti from French or Italian, and in general the conduct of the business. Her labors have been severe (in the winter of 187-1—75 she sang no fewer than 125 nights), but they have been crowned with complete success. In the Western cities her popularity is immense. She has fairly domesticated opera there. Miss Kellogg has a fine musical organization, great capacity for labor, a retentive memory (she is perfectly familiar with thirty operas — not with her own part only, but with all the parts and with the instrumentation), se- vere conscientiousueps as an artist, an ardent enthusiasm, and a voice of great compass and pr.rity. To these gifts she unites an uncommon talent for bur iness. She is. more- over, much respected as a woman for her blameless life, the perfect decorum of her behavior, and the goodness of her heart. 0. B. FrOTHiNGH.VM. Kellogg (Edward X.), U. P. N.. b. Bee. 8, 1S42, in Maine; graduated at the Naval Academy in ISOl ; became a lieutenant in 1RG4. a lieutenant-commander in 18CC; served on board the Oneida at the battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, and was commended for skill and courage. D. of yellow fever at Ponsacola in the fall of 1S74. FoxnALL A. Parker. Kellogg (Francis W.), b. at Worthington, Hampshire CO., Mass., May 30. 1810; removed at an early af^e to Michigan, and became a lumber-merchant. After serving in the legislature ho was elected a Representative in Con- gress in 1858, re-elected in 1800 and 1802, and appointed in lf*05 collector of internal revenue for tho district of Ala- bama : was returned to Congress from Alabama in 18GR. Kellogg {Gkorge). the father of Clara Louise Kellogg, h. June 19, 181 2, at New Hartford. Conn.; graduated at Wes- leyan University, 18"7 : was prinnipal of Sumter Academy, Siimterville, S. C., 18:!S-n, but is chiefly distinguished as an inventor and manufacturer. Among his inventions arc a jack-chain machine, cajiable of making a yard of chain a minute; a dovetailing machine; improved surgical im- plements ; type-distributing and other machines. lias in- troduced into England American machinery for making hooks and eyes, hats, etc. Residence, Cold Spring, K. Y. Kellogg (Stki-ren WuiGnx), A. M., b. at Shelburne, Mass., Apr. 5, 1822 : graduated at Yale in 1840 ; became a lawyer of Waterbury, Conn.; clerk of tho State senate 1851 : was in both houses of the legislature; judge of pro- bate 1854-60; delegate to tho Chicago Repulilican conven- tions of 1860 and 1808; elected in 1871 as Representative in Congress, and re-elected in 1873, but defeated at tho election of Apr., 1875. Kellogg (Wii.i-tAM), b. in Ashtabula oo.. 0., July 8, 1S14: removed to Illinois in 1837; studied law; acquired an extensive practice, chiefly in respect to land titles; was member of the State legislature 1S49-50 ; judge of the cir- cuit court for three years; elected to Congress in 1856, re- elected in 1858 and 1>160; appointed in 1804 minister resi- dent in fJuatemala, and iu 1S6G chief-justice of Nebraska. Kellogg (William Pitt), b. in Vermont in ls?>n: re- moved in 1^4f< to Illinois; became a lawyer in 1854; was in IJ^56 and 1800 a Presidential elector: chief-justice of Nebraska in 1801 ; served as a colonel of volunteer cavalry in the civil war. and became a brigadier- general : was col- lector of the port of New Orleans; V. .'^. Senator from Louisiana 186S-71 : was in 1872 declared elected governor of Louisiana for the term ending in 1877, which office he ctill (1875) holds, after the failure of an insurrectionary attempt (Sept., 1874) to displace him in favor of the Demo- cratic candidate — a movement which resulted in Federal military interference, a Congressioiuil investigation (1875), and a finally accepted compromise between the parties. Kel'loway Rock^ The^an arenaceous limestone un- derlying the Oxford Clay in England, and apparently the lowest member of the Middle Oolite. (See Jurassic.) The term Callovien was applied by D'Orbigny to a geological horizon corresponding to the Kclloway Rock. Kei'ly, tp. of Warren co.. III. Pop. 1295. Kelly, tp. of Cooper co.. Mo. Pop. L'i72. Kelly, tp. of Union co.. Pa., contains Kelly Point P. 0. and West Milton P. 0. Pop. 942. Kelly (Robf.rt), LL.D.. b. Dec. 10, 1808, in New York City; graduated at Columbia College 1820, entering and leaving at tho head of his class. He then joined his brothers John and William as an active partner in the house of J. &, W. Kelly A Co., retiring in 1837 to devote himself to the cause of education and to public affairs. He was regarded as the founder of the Free Academy ; was president of the board of education and a regent of the University of the State; also a trustee of New York and Madison universities, and one of the founders of the I'ni- versity of Rochester, presiding over its board. He was identified for many years with the House of Refuge, the president of its board of managers, and actively engaged in many other benevolent, literary, and financial associa- tions in his native cif}'. He was a scholar of rare culture and master of many languages. He held the office of chamberlain of the city at the time of his death, Apr. 27, 1850. Kelly (William), b. in New York City Feb. 4, 1807. His father, Robert Kelly, d. 1825, leaving three sons, John, William, and Robert, all minors. The two first, the "boy- merchants," as they were called, aided by Robert after leaving college, ably conducted tho extensive house until l'"""". when, John having d. in 1836, the other brothers re- tired and gave themselves to promoting charity and eilu- cation. In 1^-42, William purchased the estate known as ''Ellerslie," near Rhinebeck, and became a leading farmer. President of New York State Agricultural Society 1854; one of the founders of the State Agricultural College at Ovid, president of its board. lie was many years president of the trustees of Rochester L^niversity. and of the board of Vassar College from its foundation til! his death ; presi- dent of the Baptist educational commission, and active in many other charitable and religious enterprises; a man- aging director in railroad, steamboat, banking, and trust companies, and working president of several iron com- panies. A New York State senator lS.'i5-5G, and Demo- cratic candidate for governor in ISGO. A man of great benevolence, widely but silently difi'used. D. at Torquay, Eng., Jan. 14, 1872, Kelly's Mills, tp. of Madison co.. Ala. Pop. 1525. Keloid, more eorrectly Che'loid [Or. x^M- a "crab's claw," from some fancied resemblance], a name applied to two apparently distinct skin diseases: (1) A sort of fibroid tumor of the true skin, often appearing on the scar of a cut or burn. It in almost certain to return after ex- cision, is n<»t malignant, and is thus far not curable. This is tho keloid of AUbert, (2) A much more general disease, sometimes spreading over the whole body. Congested tubercles, generally originating near the sternum, advance gradually over the body, are very irritable, and cause trouble by itching, especially in warm weather. Cold ap- plications and tonic treatment p:illiatc but do not cure it. Negroes are more subject to this disease than white persons. Kelp, Barilla, or Varec, names applied to the ashes or products of incineration of «eoir<W». These products were of far more importance to former generations than at present, having once been the sole source of the valuable alkali soda, for making soap and glass, previous to the grand discovery of the French chemist Leblanc, of manu- facturing soda from common salt. .'\t present the chief interest that attaches to kelp is as the principal material from wliieh the element iodine is obtained. The name for seaweed ashes uscil in France is mrrr. MVeds are also used, particularly for manufacturing the variety called ha- rifln, in Sicily, Spain, and some other countries, which grow on the sea-shore in saline soils, these plants being cultivated in those cnimtrics for the purpose, and the ashes uped in making soap, even at the present day, though ap- parently a very ]>oor material for the purpose. Kelp and varec, on the other hand, are made exclusively from the .Mgje and Fuei, which grow on rocks in great abundance, between high and low water mark, on the coasts of Ireland, Seotbmd, Wales, the Orkney Islands and tho Hebrides, and on the coast of Brittany. The seaweeds are <iried, and burned to ash in rough stone or brick ovens built on (he shore. The ash fuses into a solid mass, which is broken up and sent to market. Twenty- four tons of seaweeds are necessary to produce one ton of kelp. This substance, produced from actual marine plants. KELSEY— KEMP. 1519 is much poorer in soda-salts (except chloride nf sodium) than the barilla variety, but coDtaios more polasli-salts. The composition of these products varies within wide lim- its, and the few analyses quoted give scarcely a general idea, being conlined to a few special cases. SeatceeU Asheg, Kt:lp : tcifhout Cftarcoul and Carbonic Acid. aa carbonates, thcCO^ omit- ted ." Potash Lime Magnesia Chloride of iKMlium Chloride of potassium.. Iodide of sodium Phosphate of lime I*h'>!*phate of iron Oxi'le of Irou Oxide of manganese.... Sulphuric acid Silica. Percentage of ash in the wetxl. dried at 212^ F.... I Laminarta \ Nortli Sea. I, Pucua v€- taetharina, digUatut, * jTr^^**' Sea. 24.77 1.84 6.50 8.13 33.72 4.70 8.41 .75 10.60 .58 9.78 Aicuf Clyde. 2240 8.29 8.79 7.44 28.39 3.62 S.63 13.26 1.56 100.00 17.68 5.78 4.71 6.89 35.38 .13 ■ 6.44 23.71 .28 wo.ocT 20.40 20.56 Fueu* M* tteutonu. 15.23 11.16 8.15 7.16 25.10 .37 2.99 .33 28.16 1.35 moo~ French and Spanhh Barilla, called also Varec. AlicuDtc. ChcrtMurg. Spain. ^!o6 2.00 sioo s6!oo 22.19 16.00 45.78 9.53 liso traces. 5.00 15 85 Chlori»le of puta:>sium 10 55 68 35 CarlRniaie of soda Sulphate uf lime „ Iii^oluhk- 1.10 Water 4.00 10U.00 100.00 99.85 (For the preparation from kelp of the iodine of com- merce. SCO under Iodine.) II. Wubtz. Kel'sey, tp. of El Dorado co., Cal. Pop. 315. Kel'so, post- (p. of Dearborn co., Ind. Pop. 1908. Kelso, tp. of Sibley co., Minn. Pop. 442. Kelso, tp. of Scott CO., Mo. Pop. 1000. Kel'ton, popt-v. of Box Elder co., Ut., on the Central Pacilic K. K., 89 miles W. of Ogden. Kcm''ble, a name distinguished from firi^t to last in the records of the English stage. The founder of the family, Uoger, himself an aetorand theatrical manager, )i. in Here- ford, Eng., -Mar. 1. 1721, d. in 1S02, had twelve children, tho eldest of \vhom, Sarah, married an actor named Siddoiis. (See Mrs. Smmujns. ) The oldest son was John Philip, b. in Prescot, Lancashire, Eng., Feb. 1, 1757. This was the "great Kemblo." Ho was educated partly at the Roman Catholic seminary of Sedgely Park in Staffordshire, and afterwards at the English College at Douay in France; returned to Eng- lainl at tho age of nineteen, and made his fir.-^t aj'pearanco at Wolverhampton Jan. S, 1770, in the character of Thco- dosius ; made his first appearance in London at Drury Lane, in Sept., 17S;i, as Hamlet ; became manager of that thea- tre in 1790; in lHO;i bought a sixth share in Covent Garden Theatre for $24,000, and became manager of it. Tho theatre was burned in ISOS, but immediately rebuilt. An increase in tho prices of admission to the new house (from six to seven shillings for tho boxes, and from three to four shil- lings for the pit) caused tho 0. P. (old price) riots, which lasted for some months and menaced the ruin of the e.-'tab- lishment. At this time Mr. Kemble was grossly insulted and abused. In I>*I7 he took leave of tho London stage, retired soon afterward to the S. of Franco, and finally took up his residence at Lausanne, Swit7.erhin<I, where he d. FeW. '2<\, lH2:i. Mr. Kemble's style of acting was more fuitfl to the lofty and majestic than to the pathetic and tender. In parts like Cato, Coriolanus, Holla, Macbeth, Hamlet, Lear, King John, ho was supreme. His person was of heroic mould, his action was stately, hi.-* deelama- lion noble and true. In moments of |>assion he roue to great power. But his form lacked suppleness, his limbs were rigid, his voice was husky and unmusieal, and a con- stitutional asthma gave a labored character to his utter- ance. As an artist he had not " the art to conceal his art ;" ais a -<eholar he was close and exact ; lis a eoinpanion he was geni;il : a>* a man he was held in high esteem. His Z^iyif was written by his friend, Mr. Boaden, in 2 vols., 1825. — (iKonr.K Stephfn, brother of the foregfiing. h. in Kingston, Herefordshire, May .T, 175S; made his d(^lmt in London at Covent (Jarden in ITS.t, and was theatrical mannirer in Lon- don, Edinburgh, and Glasgow. D. June J, \^'2'2. — Emza- BETH (Mrs, Whitlock), sister of the above, b. in Warring- ton, Lancashire, Apr. 2, 1761 ; d. Feb. 27, 183C; made her first ap[iearauce at Drury Lane in 178^1; came to the U. S. in 1792, and played with great success. She performed several times before llcorge Washington. In l*sU7 she re- turned to England and retired from tlic stage. In pcri^on and voice she was said strikingly to resemble Mrs. Sid- dons. — CiiAHi-ES, eleventh child of Roger, b. at Brecon, S. AVales, Nov. 27, 1775 ; d. in London Nov. 12, 1854; was educated at Douay; made his first appearance at Drury Lane in 1794, playing Malcolm, with his brother John as Macbeth, and his sister, Jlrs. Siddons. He was an excel- lent comedian, appearing at his best in characters like Benedick, Petruchio, Charles Surface, very creditably in Cassio, Mark Antony, Edgar, but failing in deeply tragic parts, '' A first -rate actor in seconcl-rale parts." He adapted German and French plays for the London stage, and in lafe life was ajipointed examiner of plays, lie visitcil the U. S. in l^'.V2 with his daughter, Fanny Kem- ble, and retired from the profession in 1S|0. — Frances AxsE {commonly called '• Fanny "), daughter of Charles, b. in London in 1811. She possessed the famil}- talent for the stage, but not the family passion f<tr it. Her theat- rical career was suddenly decided on to relieve the financial embarrassments of her father, and in six weeks after her mind was made up she came out at Cov- ent Garden in Oct., 1829, as Juliet to her father's Romeo. Her success was marked in characters like Juliet, Portia, Bianca, Belvidcra, Lady Teazle, Camiola. and Julia in 7'he Jlunckh'tck. In 18^2 she came to the U. S. with her father, and met with enthusiastic applause. In 1S,34 she married Mr. Pierce Butler, a Philadelphia gentleman of wealth, and retired from the stage. The marriage being unhappy, she left her husband ami resirled in Lenox, Berkshire co., Mass. In 1840-47 she passed a year in Europe, and on her return, having obtained a divorce in the courts of Pennsylvania, resumed her maiden name. Since 1848 Mrs. Kemble has been known as a reader of Shaksjtearc in tho chief cities of the U. S. and in Great Britain. In 18G0 she left America, and from that time her residence has been partly in England and partly in the V . S., with two inter- vals of continental travel. At present she resides near Philadelphiii, wholly withdrawn from public life. Mrs. Kemble is the author of several books in prose and verse: Francis the Firn(, a play, written when she was seventeen years old, and performed in London ; A Journal of a lies- idtnvc in Awcriva (2 vols., London and Philadelphia, 1835); The Star of Scviifc. a play ; A Voir of VonxolntioUf a record of her visit to Italy in 184G; litHidencc on a O'titrr/ia Plan- tation nSfi.l), and a volume of poems. — AnELAinK, younger sister of Frances, b. in London in 1820. Her talents, both for the dramatic and lyric stage, were brilliant, but her marriage in 18i;j to Mr. Edward Sartoris prevented her pursuing a career which, beginning in Venice, had given continued promise of success in Trieste, Milan, Padua, Bo- logna, and was culminating in London, where she sang in JV'tnnii, Fitftiro, Si'inuntihu/a, Sciiiirttwitle. and otlier Operas. She publislied in 1807 A Wcrk in n Frcnrh Count rj/'ftouKe. — Her son, Ai,<;eiiS()N Cmaui.es, married the daughter of Prca. Grant in May, 1874. 0. B. FitointNGUAM. Kemble (GoiverneuiOi b. in New York City Jan. 25, 1780, a son of Peter Kemble, his mother being Gertrude (iouverneur, descended from Jacob Leisler of colonial his- tory, and whose daughter was the wife of Abram Gouver- ueur ; graduated at Columida College in 180.'i; beeamo in- terested in commercial pursuits, an<l t^aw much of the lead- ing countries of Europe, then agitated by the wars of Na- poleon; subsequently visited the Mediterranean ports, and transacted business fur the L". .*<. in connection with tho supply of tho squadron at the time of the war with Algiers about LS15; estaljlished in I8l7 the West Point Foundry at Cold Spring; was member of Congress I8;;7-4I, and of the constitutional convention of New Ytirk in 1810; was one of the first ami most active ailvoeates of the Hudson River K. U., and an early and efficient friend of the Pana- ma R. R. ; to his other ((unlilies he united a love of art, manifested by a rich cidleelion and a kindly regard for artists; was one of the last nine survivors of the Tontine Attsociation of New York, organized in 1790, and at whoso death {Sept. 10, 1875) the accumulated profits were divitled. Kemble (John Mitciieli,). Soo Appe.vpix. Kemp {James), D. D.. 1>. in .\berdeenshire, Scotland, in 1704; grailuated at Marisehal College, Aberdeen, in 1780; came to the V. S. in 1787 ; took orders in the ProteiUant Episcopal Church in 1789; held various rectorships in Maryland, in which diocese ho became in 1814 a suffragan, and in ISIO the diocesan binhop. He was 1816-27 provost of the State Iniversity. D. in Haltimoro Oct. 28, 1827, in consenuence of an accidental injury. 1520 KEMP— KENDALL. Kemp (John), Cardinal, b. at Wye, Kent, England, in 1380; was ambassador to Aragon in H15; bishop of Rochester in 1411*. of Chichestt-r in 1421, of London in November of the same year; chancellor and archbishop of York in 142t>; resijjned the Great Seal in 14.*i2; joint am- bassador tt» France, and made eardinal-pricst in 14.;'.l : en- dowed the College of Wye in 1447; ajjaiu chancellor in 1450: made eardinal-bi^hl^]^ and archbishop of Canterbury by papal bull in 1 152, and d. Mar. 22, 1454. Kem'pelen, von (Wolfgang), Bauon, b. at Presburg. Hungary. Jan. 23, 1734, was the inventor of a so-called " automaton chess-player," made for the amusement of the empress Maria Theresa (17t>9). which was exhibited in Paris in 17S4, and afterwards in England and the U. S. It is not properly an automaton, but an ingenious con- trivance for concealing a living player, as is fully explained in Tomliuson's Amu»rmnits in Chrsn {lS45t, but its me- chanical ingenuity is great. Baron Kempclen also invented in 1778 an automaton speaking human figure, which he ex- plained in an illustrated work. Lf m^catiisme de la parole (1701). He filled several political posts at the Austrian court, published poems and dramatic pieces, and d. at Vienna Mar. 26, 1H04. Kemp'en, town of Prussia, in the province of Posen, on the Pchummerwasser, has manufactures of sonp, tobacco, and woollens, and an active trade in horses and cattle. Pop. 5S22. Kem'penfelt (Richard), Admiral, b. at Westminster, England, in 1720; became rear-admiral in 1779; captured a French convoy on its way to the West Indies in 1781; drowned at Spithead by the sinking of his vessel, the Royal George, with nearly 900 men, Aug. 29, 17S2. Kemp'er^ county of Mississippi, bounded on the E. by Alabama. Area, 775 square miles. It is fertile and some- what diversified with hills. Cotton, live-stock, and corn are the staple products. Cap. De Kalb. Pop, 12,920. Kemper (Jackson). D. D.. LL.D., Cantab., b. in Pleas- ant Valley. Dutchess co., N. Y.. Dec. 24. 17^9, and grad- uated at Columbia College in 1H09. In isll he took dea- con's orders in the Protestant Episcopal Church, and in 1812 was ordained a priest. After holding rectorships in Philadelphia for twenty years, and one for some time in Xorwalk, Conn., he was made missionary bishop of In- diana and Missouri, and was afterwards transferrer! to Iowa, Wisconsin, etc. In 1854 he became bishop of Wisconsin. D, at Delafield. Waukesha co.. Wis., May 24, 1S70. Kemper (James Lawson), b. in Madison co., Va., in 1821; graduated at Washington College, Va.. in 1844j studied law; was ten years member of the Virginia legis- lature, two years Speaker: colonel of 7th Virginia regiment C. S. A. in 1861; brigadier-general 1862: major-general 1864; distinguished himself at most of the battles on the Peninsula; was wounded and taken prisoner at (tettysburg; elected governor of Virginia in 1S73 by the Democratic party. Kemper (Retben), b. in Fauquier co., Va., was the son of a Baptist preacher, with whom he emigrated to Ohio in 1800. Soon afterward. Reuben and two of his brothers settled in Mississippi Territory, engaged in land-survey- ing, and conceived the project of stirring up an insurrec- tion in West Florida against tlio Spanish government. They formed an expedition for that ])urpose In 1808. which was unsuccessful ; attempted with the same result the cap- ture of Mobile (then a part of West Florida), and in 1812 joined the great expedition organized by tJutierrez and Toledo against Mexico. In this campaign Reuben Kcm])er onmmanded, with the rank of colonel, a force of several hundred Americans, at whose head he won some brilliant actions in Texas, but the results of victory were neutralized by dissensions between the Mexicans and Americans, and the latter returned in disgust to the V. S, Kemper took j'art under Gen. Jackson in the defence of New Orleans, afterward settled down in Mississippi as a planter, and d. at Natchez in 1820. Kem'pis (Thomas a), b. at Kempen. near Cologne, in i:i80; his family name was Hamt-RKEN (Lat, Malholua). In 1400 he entered the monastery (tf Mount St. Agnes, near Zwolle, of which his elder brother was prior, and in \A\?> n-as ordained priest; in 1425 was elected sub-prior. D. July 26. 1471. By the other monks of the monastery he was highly esteemed for his deep piety, his untiring industry as a scholar, and his great gifts' as atoacher and supervisor | of the novices; and his authorship soon spread his fame far outside the boundaries of his personal acquaintance, i lie wrote several books; among others, a chronicle of the monastery of Mount St. Agnes. A collected edition of his I works was given by the Jesuit Sommalius ( Antwerji, 1607), I But the book which sent his name to the remotest corners j of the world is his Z>f /nn'tntiour Chri'ifi. It has been i translated into all languages in which books are printed and read, and it is used as a hook of devotion and re- ligious instruction by all Christians, without regard to dif- ferences in creed, race, or standpoint of mental develup- n)ent. With the exception of the Bible, it is probably the book most read in the whole of Christian literature. In consequence of his personal humility, and in harmony with tlic moral maxims of his order (unta itcsdrl), Thomas I'l Kempis has never mentioned himself directly as author of the book ; on the other hand, there exist copies of the work, the oldest of 1441. which ascribe the authorship to the cele- brated theologian Jean Gerson. chancellor of the Univer- sity of Paris. These two circumstances have occasioned a very sharp controversy between French and German theo- logians, and the question seemed at one time doubtful. (Seo G€rnen,Gf:rHnn ndcr Kemph. 1828,\'ienna,) Of late, however, it seems to have been decided finally in favor of Thomas i Kempis. He is mentioned by three contemporary writers as the author of tlie book. There is a perfect harmony in doctrines and in style between De Iniitntione Christi and other devotional writings of Thomas a, Kempis, It can be satisfactorily explained how the copyists could make the mistake and ascribe the authorship to the celebrated chan- cellor (or to St. Bernard, or an Italian abbot, (icrsen, for there arc many rivals). A new edition of the hook was given, after an autograph by Thomas S, Kempis, by Hirsche (Berlin, 187.V74). Kemps'ville, post-v. and tp. of Princess Anne co., Va., 10^ miles S. E. of Norfolk, and at the head of tide- water on the E. branch of Elizabeth River, Pop. 3100. Kemp'ten, town of Bavaria, on the Iller. It has some manufactures of cotton and woollen goods. Pop. 10,370. Kempt'ville, post-v, of Grenvillc co., Ont., Canada, on the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Railway, It has a good trade and manufactures of lumber. Pop. of sub-district, 872. Ken (Thomas), b, at Berkhamstead. England, in July, 16.'i7 ; was educated at AVinchester and Oxford: travelled on the Continent as far as Italy in 1674; became in 1679 chaplain to Mary, princess of Orange (the future queen of England) ; was chaplain to Lord Dartmouth in the Tangier expedition, and subsequently (16'^4) to Charles 11., by whom he was soon after made bishop of Bath and Wells. He attended that king on his deathbed. On the accession of James II. he was one of the " seven bishops " committed to the Tower for refusing to obey illegal commands of that monarch. Bishop Ken. however, refused to take the oath of allegiance to William III., and was deprived of his bishopric iu consequence. He passed his declining years at Longleat, engaged in writing devotional works, among which his morning and evening hymns are still popular. D. at Longleat, Wiltshire, Mar. iy.'l71I. (Sec his Li/c, by George L. Duyckinck, New York, 1859.) Kenai'ans^ a branch of the Athabascan family of In- dians, living in Alaska, deriving their name from Kenai, the peninsula between Cook's Inlet and Prince William Sound. The Kenaians are held to include all the Indians N, of Copper River and W. of the Rocky Mountains, except the Innuits or Esquimaux and the Aleuts, and are esti- mated to numlier 2.5,000. They resemide in manners, cus- toms, and religion the tribes of Northern Asia, especially in their practices of cremation, infanticidO; etc., and their system of caste, Ken'ansville, post-v., cap. of Duplin co.,N. C, 7 miles E. of Magnolia Station on the AVilmington and Weldon R. R. Pop. 2878. Ken'dal, town of England, in Westmoreland. Certain kinds of cloth are manufactured here, which for centuries have been known under the name of " Kendals." Pop. 13,442. Ken'dallf county of N. E. Illinois. Area, 324 square miles. It is a fertile rolling prairie, dotted with groves of timber. It is traversed by Fox River and the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R. Cattle, grain, and wool are the staple products. Cap. Yorkville. Pop, 12,399. Kendally county of S. W, Central Texas. Area. 475 squaro miles. It is one-third prairie, and the rest is well timbered. Live-stock, wool, grain, and cotton are raised. There are many German settlers. The climate is healthful and pleasant. Cap. Boerne. Pop. 1536. Kendallf po8t-v. and tp. of Kendall co., Ill, Pop. 1445. Keiidallf post-v. and tp. of Orleans co., N. Y. The township lies on Lake Ontario. The village has 4 churches. Pop. 1714, Kendall, tp. of La Fayette co., Wis. Pop. 1131. Kendall (Amos), LL.D., b. at Dunstable, Mass., Aug. 16, 17S9; graduated at Dartmouth in 1811; in 1814 he- came a lawyer of Lexington, Ky., where he was for a time KENDALL— KENNEBEC RIVER. 1521 a tutor iu Henry Clay's family. HenftcrwftrUs reino\-eil to Georgetown, Ky., where he was postiuafler an^l editor of the Arffu9,&n aMc Democratic newspaper. In 181.''.'. Jack- son maJe him fourth auditor of the treasury, lie was 181^5-40 postmaster-jreneral. In 1846 ho became maua};cr of Prof. Morse's interest in the telegraph businegg. He was an early friend of public schools in the West, founded the deaf and dumb asylum at Washington, and was a lib- eral benefactor of Columbian College ancl of the Baptist cburch with which he was connected. He wrote a work on his iTA and TiniFif, and published a /w'/V >>/ Andrew JarkunH '(lS4;i, incomplete). D. at Washington, D. C, Nov. 12, ISf.'J. Kendall (George Wilkiss). b. at Amherst. N. H., in 1807 ; became a printer, and worked in many places in the South and West at his trade. In 1:^85 he settled in New Orleans, where, with F. A. Lumsden. he founded the Picayune newspaper. He took pari in the Santa F6 exjie- dition of 1S41. and during the Mexican war was with Gens. Taylor and Scott, and furnished to his newspaper the earliest and fullest accounts of all movement?, incurring thereby a large expense. He published Xarruthe of the Texan Sanftt /V Expedition (1844), and Thp War hrtireen the U. S. and Mexico (folio. 1S51. with costly illustrations). In IS62 he removed to Comal co., Tex., where he had a large grazing ranche. D. at Post Oak Spring?, Tex., Oct. 21, i.-^c:. Kendall^s Mills, post-v. of Fairfield tp., Somerset CO., Me., on the W. bank of the Kennebec Kiver (here crossed by a lofty railroad bridge), and on the Maine Cen- tral and the Kennebec and Portland R. Rs. It has a fine water-power and manufactures of lumber, etc. Kcn'dallville, city of Xolile co., Ind., at tho intersec- tion of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern and the Grand Rapiils and Indiana U. Rs. It is surroundeil by a rich ngricultural region, and afford? an excellent market for all kinds of produce. It has S churches, 1 national bank, manufactories, a free-school building, and 1 weekly newspaper. Pop. 2164. C. 0. Myers, Ed. '* Standard." Ken'dell, von (Robrrt), b. at Klinigsbcrg F'^b. 27, 1824: atudieri jurisprudence, and held in 1^62 a position at the court of lircslau. In 1S63, Bismarck gave him an appointment in the ministry of foreign affairs, and from this time he always accompanied the great minister. At all diplomatic negotiations, on travels and in wars, he was always at the side of Bismarck. Sometimes he was sent on independent diplomatic errands : thus, he represented the North German confederation at the opening of tho canal of Suez in 1869. In 1871 he was elected to tho diet, and in Apr., 1873, ho was sent as ambassador to Rome. AiGisT Niemann. Kendo'ta, tp. of Todd co., Minn. Pop. 94. Kcn'drick, tp. of Greene co., la. Pop. 887. Kendrick iAsahrl Clark), D. D.. LL.D., b. at PouU- ney, Vt., Dec. 7, 1809; graduated at Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., in 1831 ; was professor first of ancient lan- guages, and subsequently of the Greek language abme, in the literary and theological seminary at Hamilton (which afterwards became Madison University) from 1831 to 1850. Since then ho has been professorof Greek in ihe University of Rochester. He has published several introductory (J reek textbooks: tho Amthtixiti of Xenophon, with notes and vocabulary; an edition of Srlrrt Orations of Drmon- theneH ; ^>7iocj. being poems from the German and French; Otir Pnetirnl Fttrnritm ; a revised edition of Olshausen's ^ew Tf-tament Cnmmrutunf ; CnmHicutnrjt nn tfir Eplttfr to the Ift-hretrn in Lange's liifdirnl Cfimnirtttttrif ; aud Li/c and Lrttrri ../ .Uf«. Enii/if C. Jndnou (1861). Kendrick (Hrsrv L.), b. in New Hampshire in 1812; graduated at tho U. S. Military Academy ; entered the army as brevet second lieutenant of infantry July, lS,t/>, but was retained at the Academy for twelve years ns assistant pro- fessor of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology, in the mean time having been transferred to the artillery, and attaineil tho rank of captain in 1846. In the war with Mexico ho was engaged in tho siege of Vera Cruz, battle of Cerro Gordo, and defence of Puobia, where he gained the brevet of major. From tho close of the war be served principally in garrison and on frontier duty, being engage'l in frequent expeditions against, and numerous actions with, hostile Indians; and for five years in command of a post in New Mexico, when in hSfi? appointed professor of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology at Ihe Military Academy, which chair he ha? since continue<l to fill. Kondrick (Capt. .John), b. in Boston : was a resident of Wnreham, Mass., and commanded a privateer during tho Revolutionary war. In I7S7and 1791 he made a voy- age of exploration along the N. W. coast of America and amoDK the islands of tho Pacific, and open" I uptlie sandal- Voi,. II.-!)6 I wood trade with China. Congress gave him a modal for '■ the first of these voyages, in which his second in command, Capt. Gray, discovered tho Columbia River, Capt. Ken- I drick was accidentally killed in a harbor of Hawaii in l&OO, I by a ball fired iu a salute from au English vessel. I Kendrick (Xathamki.), D. I)., b. at Hanover, N. II., I Apr. 22. 1777: received liut a limited early education ; was I licensed as a Baptist preacher in 180.^, After pastorates at j Lansiugburg, N. Y. {180.'>), Midillebury, Vt. (1810), and I Eaton, N. Y. (1817). he was chosen professorof theology I and moral philosojihy at Madison University, remaining in i that post until his death at Hamilton, N. Y., Sept. 11, 1848. I Kendus'kea^, post-v. and tp. of Penobscot co., Me., I 12 miles N. W. of Bangor. It has 3 churclics, and manu- ! factures of lumber, cooperage, stoves, farming tools, and I other goods. Pop. 770. j Kenduskea^ River, an offluent of the Penobscot, in ' Maine, flows S. E. to Bangor, where its mouth affords a tidal basin. The fall of its waters is extensively utilized in sawing lumber and in other manufactures. I Kenea'Iy (EnwARDVArcnA\Hvnn).D.C.L..b.atCork, I Ireland, in 1819 ; educated at Trinity College, Dublin ; bc- j came early celebrated for bis knowledge of many languages, ' having publislied translations of songs and ballads from and into the Greek, Latin, French, Italian, Portuguese, I Dutch, (iernian, Spanish. Swedish. Danish, Romaic, Mag- 1 yar. and Irish languages. He was a contributor to Dr. I Maginn's Hoturrir Iiuflfidn, to the Ihihlin rnirrrniti/ M'kj. \ azitic, and Eraser's Mar/azine ; published in 1845 Ihnlla- fjhan, or the Deipnosnphists ; in 18.00 Goethe, a S'ew Pnnfo- j nn'ntc, both works abounding in wit and brilliant criticism. Of late. Dr. Kenealy has become widely known as Ihe impas- I sioned advooafe of " the Claimant " in the celebrated Tich- borne case (1873) : founded a newspaper. The Eiuffinhmau, in 1874. which attained an imu]en!=e circulation; was elected a member of Parliament, and took his seat in Apr., 1875. Ken'chf town of Upper Egypt, on the right bank of . the Nile, 34 miles N. of the ruins of Theb* s, has large manufactures of earlbenware. and carries on an extensive trade with Arabia and Central Africa. Pop. 10,0(10. Ken^ilworth, town of England. inM'arwickshire. It contains some ruins of Krnilworth Castle, which becamo notable in the history of Queen Elizabeth on account of the gorgeous manner in which the earl of Leicester enter- I tainecl her here for sevcntctn d:i\s: which entertainment I forms the subject of a romance of Walter Scott and a novel of Ludwig Ticck, Ken'ites [Heb. Keyni and Kn^ini ; Or. Ktraioc], a col- lective name for a tribe 'ir race which resided in tho Sina- itio desert and otlicr districts adjoining the land of Canaan at tho time of the Hebrew Exodus. Tliey seem to have been akin to the Midianitcs and to the AinaU kites, but were dis- tinguished from the mass of those tribes by their steadfast friendship for and alliance with the Hebrews, for which reiison tlicy received allotments with the tribe of Judah. Jetbro, the father-in-law of Moses, was a Kcnite, whence gome modern critics have built up a vast fabric of argument to show that the Mosaic ritual was derived from iutereourso with the Keuites in the desert : and many theories have been broached connecting the Kenites with Cuin as Ibeir ancestor, and attributing to Ihem an important part in He- brew history down to a late jteriod. (See E. Buuscn's Keyt of Sf. Ptttr, London, isri7.) Ken'naday (.Iohn), D. D., b. in New York City Nor. .3, 1800; joined the New York Methodist conference in 1823; preached in Philadelphia, New York, Brooklyn, N. Y., and New Haven. Conn. D. Nov. 13, 1S63. Ken'namrr's, tp. of Marshall co., Ala. Pop. 412. Kennebec', county of S. W. Central Elaine. Area, about I'OO ^.jiiare miles. It is traversed by the navigable Kennebec I{iver. and by the Maine Central and the Kenne- bec and Portland R. Rs. The surface is diversified, the soil mostly fertile. Live-stock, grain, hay, wool, and dairy products are the great staples. Tlie county has abundant water-power, timber, nn«l building-stone. The manufac- tures include lumber, carriages, sleighs, leather, saddlery, metallic wares, maehincry, agricultural and erlge tools, and wooclen and oilier wares. Ice and building-stono arc c.xportcrl. Cap. .Augusta. Pop. 53,203. Kennebec, tp. of Monona co., la. Pop. 333. Kennebec River rises in Moosehead Lake, although its principal head stream, tho Mouse River, rises more thnn 60 miles W. of that lake, of which it is a tributary. Tho river falls some 10(»0 feet in 100 milcR, reaching tide-water at Augusta, where tho river is crossed by a large dam. affording great water-power. Sea-going steamboats and coasting vessels ascend to (his point, except at low water. 1522 KEXNEBUXK— KEXNETT. when they stop at Hallowell or Gardiner, and in winter, when navigation ceases entirely. Above Augusta small steamboats ascend to Watcrville, IS miles farther, wherr, as at many points above, there is much valuable water- ?ower. The river is navi<;ablc for ships to Bath, 12 miles. is banks are fertile aud beautiful, and are the seat of a large trade in lumber, provisions, hav, cattle, etc. It reaches the ?ea in lat. 43° 44' 23" N., Ion. 09° 46' W. Kennebunk% post-v. and tp. of York co.. Mc. The village is on the navigable Kennebnuk River. 3 miles from the sea. It has an insurance company, a national bank, fi churches, manufactures of twine, braid. lumber, shipping, and other goods, and is the seat of a good co.isting-trade. Kennebunk D^pot is a thriving post-village on the Ports- mouth Saco and Portland R. R., 24 miles S. W. of Portland. Pop. of tp. 2003. Kennebunkport% post-r. and tp. of York co.. Me., at the mouth of Kennebunk River. ^ miles below Kenne- bunk. It has a good harbor, a tliriving trade, and manu- factures of shipping and ships' furniture, and contains 5 churches. It is a pleasant summer resort. It was perma- nently settled in 1029. Pop. 2372. Ken'nedale, post-v. and tp. of Tuscaloosa co., Ala., on the Alabama and Chattanooga R. R. Pop. 1202. Ken'nedy, post-v. of Poland tp.. Chautauqua co., X. Y., on the Atlantic and Great Western R. R. and on Conewango Creek. It is sometimes called Falconer. Kennedy (Anthony), b. at Baltimore. Md.. in ISIl; removed in childhood to Virginia: studied law. and became a planter and cotton-manufacturer: served in the legislature of Virginia from 1839 to 1843; returned to Baltimore in 1S50; was elected to the Maryland legislature in 1S56, and was U. S. Senator from 1857 'to 1863. Kennedy (Benjamin Hall), b. at Summer Hili, near Birmingham, England, Nov. 6, 1804; graduated at Cam- bridge in 1S27 ; took orders in the Church of England ; be- came assistfint master at Harrow in 1S30, and was head master of Shrewsbury school from 1830 to 186G, becom- ing in 18G7 regius professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge. He has held numerous preferments in the Church, and written many valuable manuals for the study of the classical languages. ^His brother, Charles Rans, b. at Birmingham Mar. 1, 1808; graduated at Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge; became a barrister (lS3o|: published Poems (1S43), a translation of VirtfH into English blank verse (ISJO), a translation of the Omtiuufi of Demosthenes (5 vols.. 1841-03), with notes and appendices ; several law- books and miscellaneous verse. D.at Birmingham in 1867. Kennedy (Grace), b. in Ayrshire, Scotland, in 1782: resided in Edinburgh, and wrote under nssumecl names many novels and tales of a moral and religious tendency which had an extensive circulation and were translated into several languages. Among them arc Ihcinion (1821), Father CUment fl823), Aunn }{'>»», the Orphnn of Wntcrloo (1823). and Philip Colcille (1824). D. at Edinburgh Feb. 28, 1825. Kennedy (.Torn Pendleton). LL.T>.. b. in Baltimore, Md., Get, 2.'), 1795 ; was educatecl .at the University of Maryland, where he graduated in IS12. In 1814 he took part as a volunteer in the battles of Bladensburg and North Point. After the war was over be sturlied law. nncl was admitted to the bar in 1816 : having a taste for letters, ho found time in the midst of his professional engagements to devote some leisure hours to a new publirntion ontitlcl The lied Booh, oi "which ho became the chief editor. Itwa:? issued every two weeks, and was made up of miscellaneous articles in prose and verse. In 1820 ho was returned as a member of the house of delegates of the State legislature, which position he held for three years with liigh distinc- tion. Being more devoted, however, to law and literature than to politics, he resumed his favorite pursuits. In 1832 he published a work of fiction entitled Thr Sicallmr fiam, which consisted of a collection of sketches of Virginia | country life soon after the Revolution. This book was ex- tensively read and became very popular. In 1835 appeared ; his celebrated fforieHhnc B'>h{nnon, a work that added greatly to his reputation. The hero was a Revolutionary soldier of South Carolina. In 1835 appeared his 7?oft o////c I lifnrl. In this year he was elected a member of Congress from Maryland, which position he held with great distine- tion for six years. In the Presidential canvass in 1810 he was one of the electors fov his State on the Harrison ticket. , In this year ho published the annals of QnodUhft, which was a burlesque or satire on the political issues of the day. In 1846 ho was again returned to the house of delegates of ' the State legislature, of which liody he was made Speaker, , and took an active part in the measurns which were then adopted to resume the payment of the State debt and for the restoration of tbo public credit. In politics Mr. Ken- | nedy was an ardent and earnest Whig of the Henry Clay school. In I84y he published the memoirs of the life of William "VVirt. which is one o^ the most finished produc- tions of the kind from any American pen. In the 8.*ime year ( 184'.t) he was chosen provost of his a/wia mo^cr, which position he continued to h()Id during the remainder of his life. He was als^o vice-]>rcsi(lent of the Maryland Histor- ical Society. In 1852 he was appointed by Pre?. Fillmore secretary of the navy, which position he held until the clofc of that administration. It was under his auspices at the head of the navy department that the Japan expedition of Com. Perry an<l the second .\rctic exploration of Dr. Kane were mainly due. During the late war Mr. Ken- nedy's sympathies were entirely on the Federal side. His antislavery sentiments were very strong throughout his whole life. After the war he made an extensive tour in Europe, chiefly with a view of benefit to his health. He did not long survive his return, but d. at Newport, R. T., Aug. 18, 1S70. At his death ke was not only provost of the University of Maryland and vice-president of the State Historical Society, but was also chairman of the trustees of the Peabody Academy of Baltimore and a member of the board of trustees of the Peabody Southern Educational Fund. A. H. Stephens. Kennedy (Joseph C. G.), LL.D.. b. Apr. 1. Isi.l, at Mcadville, Crawford co., Pa., and educated at Allegheny College; was superintendent of the U. S. census of 18.*>0 and ISfiO, secretary to the National Institute and U. S. Agricultural Society in 1854 : sent as commissioner to Eu- rope in 18Jl to investigate the administration of census: appointed I*. S. examiner into the condition of national banks ; wrote Census of 1850 and 1860; I/iifforif and Sta^ tiatics of Man/lnnd ; prepared the law for U.S. census; received a gold medal for his statistical researches from tho king of Denmark, and is member of different French, Ger- man, and Belgi.an scientific societies. Kennedy (Josiah Forrest), M. D.. b. Jan, 31, 18.34, near Landisburg, Perry co.. Pa. ; graduated at Dickinson College in 18;>.'). and in medicine at the University of City of New York in 1858, and settled at Tipton, la.: was com- missioned assistant surgeon in U. S. regular army in 18f)l, which position be resigned in Oct., 1802; settled at Dcs Moines in 1870, where he now (ISTo) practises his profes- sion. Dr. Kennedy has published in the medical journals several papers on practical medicine, and is assistant sec- retary to the State Alcdical Society. Kennedy ( Wh.i.iam MiOee), b. in Tennessee in 1783; joined the South Carolina Mvlhodis^t conference in 1806, and was a founder of his denomination in North and Souih Carolina and in Georgia. D. in 1S40. Ken'nodyviUc, post-v. of Kent co., Md., on the Kent County It. K. Pup. of tp. 3247. Ken'uckcet, tp. of Dare eo,, N. C. Pop. 599. Ken'ner's Prai'rie, a v. of Matagorda co., Tex. Pop. 6o. Ken'net (White), D. D., b. at Dover. England, Arg. 10. 1060 .• was educated at St. Edmund Hall. Oxford, of which he became vice-principal : was made in 1707 dean, and in 1718 bishop of Peterborough. He was a man of indefatigable industry, and accumulated a vast collection of historical MSS.. largely in his own handwriting, which now form part of tho I.anndoicue (\tllcctiun in the British Museum, Besides more than fifty miscellaneous publica- tions, he wrote a Hilton/ of Entflnnd from the Accession of f^hnr/cs J. to that of Queen Anne, forming part of lluglics' collection ( 1 70i> ; 2il ed. 1719) : liilUotherir Americans Primordia^ an Attempt Toicard Laifinrf the Foundation of an American Lihrarjf (1713); and -4 Hefjinter and Chron- iV/c, Ecclesiastical and Civil, from the Penlnration of Kintf Charles II. (vol. i. fob, 1728). His American library was , collected with a view to writing a work under the title A j Full Nistori/ of the Propagation of Chrintiantty in the ' Fnt/lieh Xorth American Colonies, which unfortunately was \ never executed. D. at Peterborough Dec. 19, 1728. (See his Life, by Rev. W. Newton, 17.10).— His brother, Bash. ■ Kennet, D. D.. b. at Postling. Kent, Oct. 21. 1674 ; grad- uated at Corpus Christi College. Oxford; was long chftp- I Iain at the English factory at Leghorn. Italy (1706-13), and was elected in 1714 president of his college at Ox- ford, where he d. in 1714 or 1715. He wrote Romre Auti- ifHX Xotitia, or the Antiqnitl^s of Rome (1696), a WOrk which for a century was the standard school-book on tho subject ; an F.rpo»ition of the Ap'^nthn Crred, a Paraphrnae t-n the Psnhns. in vcrsc (170G), and translations of Puffen- I dorf and Pascal. Ken'nettf post-v.. cap. of Dunklin eo., Mo., on the Ft. Francis River, and 28 miles W. of Gayoso on the Missis- sippi. Kennetty a b. (P. 0. name, KENyETx's Square) and tp.. KENNETT— KENT. ir)23 Chester CO., Po., on the Philadelphia and Baltimoro R. R., ami in n rich agricultural dislri<;t. Pop of b. SS4 ; of tp. UO-t. Kennctt !Li theh .M.), b. at Falmouth, Ky., Mar. la, 1807: studiid law; removed in 1825 to Missouri, and en- gaged in mercantile pursuits; settled in St. I.ouis in 1812: was chniriiKin of the Pacific U. R. convention hold there in 1849 : was mayor of St. Ij(»uis 1S.',U-J2 : president of the St. Louis and Iron ^lountnin U. R. in ISoil. aud chosen Representative in Congress for St. Louis district in lv^j4. Kcn'nicott (Rkxjamin), D. D., h. at Totness, Devon- shire. Kngland. .Apr. 4, 1718, of humldc parentage: was aided by a subscription to enter Wadhnm t^ollege. Oxford, 1744: wrote while an undergraduate two dissertations. On thf Trur nf Life and On the Olitntinnn nf Cain nnd Ahel ; became fellow of Exeter College and keeper of the Kadcliffe Library, and after many years* labor produced his great work, the IV/M1 TrMlnnientnm Hehraicutn cnm Vnt'tin Ltr- lionihnt (2 vols., 177C-S0). and d. at O.\ford Sept. IS, 1783. Kcn'lion (Rev. Rohriit I,.). M. D.. b. in Granville co., N. C. in 17811; was educated under the Rev. Dr. Moses Andrew, undo of Bishop .Andrew, at Sparta. Ha., and at the South Carolina College. His medical training was be- gun under Dr. William Lee, .Jasper co., (ia.. and completed iu Columbia, S. C. He entered the itinerant ministry in the South Carolina conference \ M. K.) in 18o;). On account of ill-health he located and practised medicine for several years in (Icorgia and .\labama: but re-entered the itiner- ant ministry in IS24 in Alabama, and exercised his sacred functions with great success till .Ian. 9, 18.'J8, when ho d. while attending the session of the Alabama conference in Columbus, Miss. His remains were taken to Tuscaloosa, and there interred. \ mural mtmumcnt, bearing an in- scription written by his intimate friend, tiov. Collier, placed near the pulpit in the Methodist church of Tuscaloosa, per- petuates bis memory. T. 0. Sithmers. Keiriioiisbiirg, post-v. of Wayne tp., Noble co., 0. ruj., 91. Kenockee', postv. and tp. of .St. Clair co., Mich., 15 miles W. of I'ort Huron. Pop. 1229. Keno'Kha. county of .S. E. Wisconsin, bounded on the K. by Lake .Michigan and on the S. by Illinois, Area, 278 sf|uare miles. It has a fertile limosionc soil. Cattle, grain, and wend are staple proiluets. It is traversed by the Kcniisha R^ckford and Rock Island anil the Chicago and Milwaukee i;. Rs. Cap. Kenosha. Pop. 1.'!,I4", Kl'nosha, city, cap. of Kenosha co.. Wis., on Lake Michigan, il miles N. of Chicago and 34 S. of Milwaukee, almost in the ,S. E. corner of the ,Slate. It is on the Chi- cago and .Milivaukee and Kenosha and Rockford R. Rs. ; has a good harbor, 9 churches, 1 bank, 1 hotels, 2 weekly newspapers, several public and private schools, including a high school, a seminary, and 2 Catholic parochial schools, a public library, a reading-room, 3 carriage and 1 wagon innnufuctory, the hitter turning out oOno per year, numer- ous manufactories of wooden implenjents and furniture, several tanneries, lumber-yards, and fisheries, 2 water-cure establishments, numerous stores and shops of every kind, 2 telcgraph-olliccs, 2 foundries, .'i .Masonic, Odd-Fellows, or other associations, and 2 parks, whence th<> name of " Park City." Pop. 4399. Havs.McKini.kv, Ed. " Tklkouai'II." Kcno'za Lnkc is within the city limits of Haverhill, Mass. lis beauty is celebrated by the poet Whittier. Its area is 238 acres. It is a favorite resort for pleasure-parties. Kon'rick (Fhascis PATiiirK), D. I)., h. in Dublin, Ire- land, Dec. 3, 1797 : studied at Rome, where ho was ordained a priest in 1821, He was sent to this country, and was for nine ycnr^ conductor of the Roman Catholic scminiirv at lianlstown, Ky. In 1828 appeared his f.tllrrn /mm Omi- rroN to Odici/o, a controversial work. In 1830 he was made bishop of Arath in paitihuf, and coadjutor to Bishop Con- well of Philadelphia, to which see he was translated in 18 12. He founded the seminary of St. Charles Bnrrotneo. and in 18."il became archbishop of Baltimore, and in 18.')2 njiostolic rlelcgalc; in 1859 honorary primate of the IJ. S. lie published Thmlnrfin Itniimiillea {\ vols., 1.839-40), TVlr. vlnijHi MuraHn (3 vols., 18II-I3I, and several other works, mostly polemical. D. at Ibillimore ,luly 8. lMf,3. At the time of his death he had nearly finished a revision of the English Bible, with copious notes. Kenrick (.Jons), b. in Exeter, England, about 1803; ' was for some years ehissical tutor in the College of York, and became in 1840 professor of history in the New College at Manchester. He translated Zumpt's Ltiiin (irammttr (1839). published a volume of tlrrrk- !-^.rrrriHrn the same year, An K»Ktii/ <>n Priim-rnl /liiitort/ (1840), Aurirnt /•'tfifftl tinrler III,- I'hiiniahH (1850). aud I'hrrniciii (18,'i7). Tlio'l'wo latter volumes arc of cousidcrablc value, and have bccu re- printed in the U. S. I Kenrick (Pf.ter Richard), D. D., a brother of Arch- bishop Francis P. Kenrick, b. in Dublin in 1S06 ; was trained at Maynootli: became u Roman Catholic priest in Ireland ; emigrated to the V . S., and was for a time editor of the Vnlh- otic Herald, Philadelphia: was also vicar-general to his brother. In 1841 he was made bishop of Drasa in parlibnn, and coadjutor to the bishop of St. Louis, to which sec he was translated in 1843. In 1847 he became the first arch- bishop of St. Louis. He has written 'flic Iluly IIokhc of Lorctlf, Ant/iiean Ordlndtiona, aud some other works. Ken'sett (.Ions FiuaiEuicK), b. Mar. 22, 1818, at Che- shire, Conn., d. in New York Dec. 14, 1872; worked as a lad with his uncle, Alfred Daggett, an engraver; went to England in 1840, and began the practice of landscape art in 1845: passed several years in Kngland and Europe, studying nature in Switzerland, on the Rhine, in the moun- t.ains of the Abru7.?.i, in Sicily, by the Bay of Naples, among the Italian lakes, amid the scenery of the Cam- pagna and the associations of Rome, always observing and p.Ttiently tnmsfciring to the canvas the impressions taken by his eye. In 1848 he returned to America, and was I equally faithful in his study of native scenery at Newport, Beverly, ami other parts of the Atlantic sea-coast, among the White Mountains, the Adironilaeks, the Catskills, on Lake George, the Hudson, the up]icr Mississippi and Mis- souri, at Niagara ; passing his summers iu collecting ma- terials for winter-work in his studio in New York. A facile and diligent artist, well trained, quick in perception and delicate <if touch, he executed a great number of pictures singularly equal in merit, and of a very high rank in ex- cellence. His pers<uia! (lualitics f)f sincerity, motb'sty. and puritj', which made him beloved by many friends, made his pictures dear to lovers of truth and feeling in art. His work commands the best prices. The collection of his sketches, made for exhibition and sale after his death, ex- cited unustnil interest. Mr. Kensett belonged to the ''real- istic school," as it is called, but was polished, harmonious, sweet, anil sympathetic. He was made a member of the National Academy of Design in 1S49, and was for some years a member of the national art commission formed to superintend the decoration of the Capitol at Washington. O. B. FitoriuxcnAM. Keli'»inf;ton, post-v. of Berlin tp., Hartford co., Conn., 15 miles S. W. of Hartford. Kensinpiton, post-v. and tp. of Rockingham co., N. 11. . miles S. of Exeter. It bus 3 churches, and nmn- ufactures of leather, etc. Pop. C42. Kensington, Pa. See Pnii.Anri.riiiA. Kensington Gardens, one of the public parks of London, 2* miles in circuit and extending along Hyde Park. In its western part stands Kensington Palace, which during the eighteenth and the beginning of this century was the residence of the kings of England. Kent, county of England, comjirising the south-eastern angle of the island between the mouth of the Thames and the Strait of Dover. .\rea. ltJ27 square miles. Pop. 733,887. The ground is undulating, traversed by the North Downs; the soil is very fertile and the climate mild and genial, Tho whole county consists of gardens in which vegetables and fruits arc raised for the market of Loiidon, and meadows on which a multitude of sheep arc reared. Hops are the jirineipal product. Kent, county of New Brunswick (Canada), bounded on the E. by Northumberland .'^trait. The soil is pcncr;dly very fertile. Agriculture, lumbering, fishing, and ship- building are carried on. Cup. Riehiliueto. Pop. 19,101. Kent, county of Ontario. Canada, extending from Luke .St. Clair to Lake Eric. It is intersected by the river Thames and the Great ^Vestcrll Railway. Tho surface is level and fertile. The W. part is a kind of prairie, some- times overflowed. Cap. Chatham. Pop. 20,830. Kent, county of Central Delaware, extending across the State from Marylnnd eastward to Delaware Hay. Area, 240 square miles. The soil is geiwrally level and quito fertile. Live-stock, grain, wool, und fruit are the staple products. The manufactures include carriages, lumber, etc. The county is traversed by the Delaware and tho Maryland aud Delaware R. Rs. Cap. of co. and Slate. Dover. Pop. 29,801. Kent, county of Eastern Maryland. Area, 318 square miles. It has Chesapeake Bay on the W., Delaware on the E., and the navigable Sassafras and Chester rivers on the N. and S. respectively. The county is nearly level, but not low: its soil is a light, fertile, clayey loam, easily cultivated. Live-stock, grain, wool, and fruit, especially |icaches. are largely prodneed. The county exports largo quantities of fish and oysrfrs. II is traversed by the Kent Cnnnty and the Queen Anoc's and Kent R. Rs. Cap. Chcstcrtown. Pop, 17,102. 1524 KENT— KENTUCKY. Kent) county of Mtcbtgan, in the S. W. central part of the southern peninsula. Area, 864 scjuare miles. It has a rolling siirt'iice and a ricli limestone soil. Salt and gypsum are found in the county. Cattle, grain, wool, Imtter. and hay are staple pnnlucts. Lumlicr, earriages. Hour, cloth- ing, cooperage, and saddlery arc leading articles cf" manu- facture. The county is traversed by numerous railroads, mostly centring at (irand Rapids, the capital. I'up. 60,403. Kent, county of Rhode Island, extending from Narra- gan?i'tt iJiiy on the E. to the Connecticut liue on the W. Area, ISO square miles. The soil is generally good, the surface uneven. Li%'e-8tock, grain, hay, and potatoes are the staple crops. The streams aflord good water-power. There are important manufactures of cotton goods, and some luniber is sawed. The county is travertied l>y the Providence and Stonington and the Hartford Providence and P'ishkill R. Rs. Cap. East Greenwich. Pop. l.s,^9ij. Kent, post-v. and tp. of Litchfield co.. Conn., on the Housafonic River and R. R., adjoining the W. Imundary of the State, 48 miles N. of Bridgeport and 45 miles W. of Hartford. It has ."i churches. 5 stores, a hotel, and a sem- inary. The principal industry is farming. There were formerly 3 blast furnaces for the manufacture of pig iron, now only one; a newspaper, maintained for several years, was discontinued in 1S74. Pop. of tp. 1744. including a few Indians of the Housatouic tribe. W. H. Kikk. Kent, post-tp. of Stephenson co., III. Pop. 1116. Kent, post-v. of Republican tp., Jefferson co., Ind., 8 miles \V. of Madison. Pop. 309. Kent, tp. of Warren co., Ind. Pop. 601. Kent, tp. of Putnam co., N. Y. Pop. 1547. Kent, post-v. of Franklin tp., Portage co., 0., 31 miles S. E. of Cleveland, on the Cuyahoga Kiver, which here af- fords a fine water-power, utilized by extensive cotton and flour mills and by various manufactures. Kent is the geo- graphical centre and divisional terminus of the Atlantic and Great Western R. R., of which the principal car and machine shops are located here. The village is noted for the manufacture of superior window-glass from the pure white sand rock which abounds here, and also as the local- ity where Capt. Samuel Brady made his famous leap across the Cuyahoga River when pursued by Indians. It has 1 national and 1 savings bank, I weekly newspaper, a fine public school edifice, 6 churches, and 30 mercantile estab- lishments. AI. Dewev, Ed. "Sattrday Bulletin." Kent (Edward), LL.D., b. at Concord. N. H., Jan. 8, 1802 ; graduated at Harvard in 1821 : attended a course of law lectures by Chancellor Kent in New York, and engaged in legal practice at Bangor, Me., 1825; was a member of the legislature from 1S20 to 1833; mayor of Bangor for two years, and governor in 18.';h and 1840. In 1843 ho was commissioner for settling the Maine boundary-line under tlie Ashburton treaty: delegate to the national Whig convention in 1S48; eonsul at Rio Janeiro from 1849 to 1854, and in 1859 associate justiee of the State supreme court. 1>. at Bangor, Me., May 19, 1877. Kent (Edward Ar(;rsTis). Dt-kk of. b. Nov. 2, 1767; was the fourth son of King (ieorpe III.; joined the army ; participated in the capture of some of the Ereiich West India Islanils : was appointed governor of Nova Scotia and commander-in-chief of the British fcnvcs in North America. The island of St. John changed its name to Prinee Eilward in his honor. On his return to Europe he married (Miiy 20, 1818) a German ]irin<'e,-s. Maiua I>i>riSA Vtctohia (b. 178G ; d. Mar. Ifi. 18(11 ). widow of the ])rince of Lciningcn, daughter of the duke of Saxe-Coburg. From this mar- riage the reigning queen of England. Aloxandritia Victo- ria, was born in 1819, and the duke d, Jan. 23, 1820. Kent (James), LL.D.. b. at Philippi, Putnam co.. N. Y., July 31, 1703, was the scm of Moss Kent, surrogate of Rensselaer co. He gra-lnaterl nt Vale College in 1781 ; was a student with Egbert Benson ; was admitted to the bar in 1787, and settled at Poughkeepsie ; was a member of the legislature in 1790 and 1792. In 1793 ho removed to New York, and became a master in chancery, a Icoder among the Federalists, an associate and friend of Hamilton and Jay, and professor of law in Columbia College. While hero ho became profoundly versed in the civil law. In 1797 he became recorder of New York, then an officer presiding over a court of civil jurisdiction ; in 1798-1804 was a puisne judge of the supreme court of New York, and in 1804-14 chief-justice. In the latter year he was ap- pointed chancellor of New York, wliich office he held till 1823. He was in 1822 a member of the constitutional con- vention at Albany; in 1S24 resumed his professorship in Columliia College. I), in New York City, Dec. 12. 1847. His legal and chancery decisions arc mostlj^preserved in Caines" and in Johnson's reports. His great work, the Commcntanes on Atucrican Law (4 vols., 1820-30), is oao of the greatest and most useful legal works of the age, and its merits have becu as freely acknowledged in Great Brit- ain as in this country. Chancellor Kent was one of the fathers of American jurisprudence. His simple style, his abundant learning, his accurate citations, and. above all, his own good sense and conscientious character, have given bis writings and decisions a permanent value. Kent (Joseph). M. D., b. in Calvert co., Md., Jan. 14, 1779; was eilucatcd as a physician, combining the practice of his profession with agriculture on an extensive scale — first in Calvert co., and after 1800 in Prince George co. He was a Representative in Congress 1811-15 and 1821- 26, governor of Maryland 1820-29. and U. S. Senator 1833- 37, D. near Bladensburg Nov. 24, 1837. Kent (William), b. in Yorkshire, England, oboutlfiSS: was apprenticed to a coach pninter, an<l showed so much talent that he was enabled l»y tlii' hel]) of patrons to study the line arts at Rome. In 1710 he was invited by the earl of Burlington to return to England as his guest, and resided with that nobleman for the remainder of his life. He was in some request as painter. sculj)tor, and architect, but his real importance was as the founder of landscape-gardening in England, the best sjioeimen of the new principles of taste being Kensington Gardens. D. Apr. 12, 1748. Kent Island^ the largest island in Chesapeake B.iy, belongs to Queen Anne co., Md. It is 15 miles long, and is very fertile. It has 4 churches and important oyster fisheries. It is the site of the earliest settlement in the State. It was colonized in ICol by William Claiborne and others. Pop. 1847. Kent'land, post-v. of Jefferson tp., cap. of Newton co., Ind., on the Pan-Handle (Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis) R. R. It is situ:ited on the Grand Prairie, in the N. W. of the State, in a rich agricultural section; has 1 newspaper, 1 bank, I plough-factory, a first-class school building, several churches, hotels, stores, shops, and mills. Pop. 802. Jon.v B. Conner, Ed. " Gazette." Ken'^tony county of Kentucky, having the Ohio River on the N. Area, 150 square miles. It is hiily. hut gener- ally fertile, having a good calcareous soil. Tobacco, live- stock, and corn are the agricultural staples. It has manu- factures of cigars, tobacco, iron, etc., chiefly carried on at Covington (which see), its chief town and capital. The county is traversed by the Kentucky Central and the Louis- ville and Cincinnati R. Rs. Pop. 3(i,09G. Kenton, post-v. ami humlrcfl of Kent co., Del., on the Maryland and Delaware R. R. Pop. 20.56. Kenton, post-v. of Pleasant tp.. cap. of Hardin co., 0., on the head-waters of the Scioto River, near the centre of the State. It has 9 churches, 3 banks, 2 weekly news- ]tnpers, 2 hotels, 8 manufactories. 3 mills, and GO stores. Principal industry, farming and lumbering. Pop. 2010. A. \y . Mn.i.KR. El). " RKi'iiiLirAN." Kenton (Pimon), b. in Fau(iuier co., Va., Apr. .'i, 1755; went to Kentucky at the age of eighteen in conseqncnce of an affray, and w.ts associated with Boone and other early pioneers, lie acted for some time as a spy for Lord Dun- moro, the liritish go\emor of Virginia : participateil in the war of independence W. of the Alleghanies : returned to Virginia in 1784; removed his whole family to Kentucky, and continued to take part in all Indian wars until AVayne's campaign in 179.3 established the supremacy of the whito race in the <^>hio Valley. Kenton "took up" immense tracts of land, but when they became valuable they were invariably lost to him through the invasions of settlers, coupled with his ignorance of law, so that he was ultimately reiluced to great poverty. lie tottk part witli the Kentucky troops in the Canadian campaign in the gectmd war with England, fought at the battle of the Thames, finally had lands couJirnied to him by the legislature of Kentucky and a pension by the U. t?. Congress. 1). in Logan co., 0., Apr. 29, 18,36. Kent's Hill, post-v. of Readfield tp.. Kennebec co.. Me., is the scat of the Maine AVesleyan Seminary and Fe- male College. The seminary was founded in 1821; the college chartered in 18J9. Kentuck'y, one of the central States of the Mississippi Vallev, Iving between the meridians of 82° 3' and 89° 2C' \V. Ion., and between 3fi° 30' and 39° 0' N. lat. Its ex- treme length from E. to W. is 308 miles; its greatest breadth from N. to S,, 172 miles. The northern and north- eastern boundaries of the State are very irregular. The Tug Fork, or main stream, of the Rig Sandy River forms the boundary between it and West \*irginia on the X. E., from the summit of the Cumberland iVIountains, about lat. 37° 33', to Catlettsburg. where the IJig Sandy joins the Ohio. From this point the Ohio River forms its N. N. E., N., and N. W. boundary to Cairo, where that river enters the Mississippi ; Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois lying N. of the KENTUCKY. 1525 Ohio, andibe jurisdiction of Kentucky extending tn low- water mark on the X. sident'tho Ohio River. The Missis- sippi forms its western boundary, aud separates it from Seal of Kentucky. Missouri. TennesMe bounds it on the P. for the whole di.«tance, the dividiu<;-Iine being the parallel of 36° oO' from the Mississippi to the Tenucssce River, and that of 3G° 3S' thence to the meridian of J?o* 40' W.. whence a curved line following the summit-ridfrcs of the Cumberland to the Big Sandy acpamtes it from West Virginia on the S. E. The area of the State, according to the eenpus of isro, is 37.6Sn square mile?, or 24,n.'j.200 acres. TheStato lies wholly within the Misii>i^sippi Valley, and all but about 1000 square miles of it in the sub-valb-y of the Ohio. Face of thr Conntrif, etr. — Topographically. Kentucky is divi<led into two unequal areas — the mountain district, in the eastern and south-t-ajitiirn secticjns of the State, cover- ing about 4000 square miles; and the table-land, including all the region W. to the Mississippi. Through this tabl"-land the rivers of the State plough deep furrows. The State is emphatically well watered, but most of tbe larger streams in passing through the tablc-lan«l have made for them- selves valleys of erosion varying in depth at difHirentpoints from 25 to 600 feet. There are, strictly speaking, very few hills in this table-land, though tho bluffs give the land- scape the appearance of high bills ancl abrupt valleys at some points, and the geological structure of the country gives it the asppct of rounded and niammiliated slopes at others. With the exception, then, of tho mountainous districts of Eastern and South-eastern Kentucky, which have the general characteristics of tbe Allcgbiiny range, being simple regular curves of great X. and S. extension, but comparatively narrow in an E. anci W. direction — Pine Mountain, for instance, having a length of 70 miles, and an average wiilth of not over 5 mile:), and ri.sing in the ridges of Pine Mnuntiiin and Cumberland Monnfain to the height (ff fully mUUO feet — the topography of the State may bo re- garded as a succescton of river-valleys deeply incised, hav- ing a general X. W. and S. E. trend, with considerable stretches of taido-tand lying between, and having an aver- age? elevation of 400 feet above tho streams. Tho river- valleys are rarely more than two miles in width. As wo proceed eastward from the Mi-sisHippi. the table-lands rise gradually ; those between the Mississippi and a line drawn due S. from Louisville are about GOO feet above the sea; between this line and uni* drawn due S. from Covington they rise to UlOO feet or a little more. Lexington, which seems to be the highest point of the t it ble- lands, is 1070 feet above tho pca, nnd from it tho lanrl (-lopes in every direction, and (ho decline toward the E. continues till wo reach Ibo base of the Pine and Cumberland ridges. . liirrrt, Lnkm, rtr. — About ><.'>0 miles of the boundaries of the State are riverine, including the Rig Sandy, the Ohio, and the Mississippi. The two largert tributaries of tho Ohio (as well as many smaller ones), tho Cumberland and Tennessee, have their ultimate sources in the mountain- district of the State, nnd iMtth, after a wide il/t>ntr to the S., return to the Shite, and. crossing it. ])onr their waters into the Ohio. Other affluents of the Ohio are Clark's River, Tradewater River, and the large and important streams, Green, Salt, Kentuekv, and Licking rivers, nnd still farther E, tho Little Saiidy. The W. Fork of Rig Sandy is a eon-idcrablo stream, as are also several of the tributaries of tho Cumberland. Kentucky. Li'-king, and Green. The Mississippi has a few smnll tributary streams in the State. With the completion of tho slaekwater navi- gation im]irovcments now in progress, Kentucky will have nearly 40(10 inilcB of navigiiblc wuters in bcr bnundF', of which more than half will be within regions containing valuable coal and iron deposits. There are no considerable hikes in the State. Geofofftf. — Tho geological structure of the State is vorv simple. Its expoaed rocks represent the Upper Cambrian (Lower Silurian), including the Trenton and Hudson River groups, about "IIO feet in thickness ; the Silurian, thinly de- veloped ; the Devonian, consisting mainly of about lUO feet of shale; tho Sub-carboniferous, consisting of the Waverley, a thick series of sandstones and limestones (300 to oOO feet); the Sub-earboniferous limestone (10 to 300 feet); aud the Carboniferous series (1600 to 2500 feet). In the W., between tho Mississippi and tho Ten- nessee rivers, there is a tract of beds of a later Tertiary age, which have a thickness of perhaps 3011 feet. Just W. of tbe Tennessee River, where it re-enters the State, tho northernmost point of the great cretaceous rocks which ex- tend through Tennessee. Eastern Mississipjii. and AVcstcrn Alabama, appears at the surface. The beds below the Car- boniferous seem to have been deposited tn a nearly unin- terrupted succession from the lowest to the highest, except in the region from Covington to Casey co.. where a strip of about sixty miles wide {directly through the blue-grnss country) was lifted above tho sea, probably about the time of the Carboniferous era or earlier, thus for a time forming a nearly complete bnrrier between the eastern and western coal-Jiclds. E. and W. of this the land remained low, and the deposits of the Coal periods were made with from ten to twenty alternations of exposure to the air and submer- sion beneath the sea. The geology of Kentucky is not at all local or individual in its character; the Tertiary is a part of tlie great Tertiary deposit of the lower Mississippi River; the western coal-field is a prolongation of that of Illinois, and the eastern of the Appalachian fields : and the Devonian and Silurian stretch southward from Indiana and Ohio. Economic Geology and Mineral^fjif. — The most imy>ort- nnt of the economic mineral resources of Kentucky nrc its rich and abundant deposits of coal and iron. The whole coal-area is about 14,000 square miles, of which 10,000 arc in the eastern and 4000 in the western basin. The coal-beds vary in number nnd thickness, but will probably average in the eastern section in good exposures about ten beds, aggregating .'iO feet: and in the western coal-measures about the same thickness, but fewer beds. Most of this coal, especially in the W.. is a soft bituminous coal, though some eannel is found; it resembles the Eng- lish coal very strongly. The eitstern deposits have more splint coals, which are better adapted to smelting and iron- making. The iron district of the State covers about 20.000 square miles, in almost all of which ores of such richness as to pay well for working are found. Tho best ores are con- nected with rocks of the Clinton grouji of the Silurian, where one bed has been discovered having a depth of 20 feet or more. (Jood ores are also found between the Car- boniferous limestone and the up])er coal-measures. Some of tho upper beds in Edm()ndson co., in the Orcen River country, are oolitic in character, and have a thickness of 5 feet or more. Most of the iron is produced in small char- coal furnaces, though no State in tbe I'nion is better pro- vided with good coals for smelting and reducing purposes. Lead exists in tho Trenton and Cincinnati limc^Jtones and in the Carboniferous limestone, but has not been success- fully worked. Iluilding-stone of excellent quality exists in several sections, and is exportecl to some extent. Tho Sub-carbr)niferous sandstones of the Waverley group are in considerable tlemand both in Cincinnati and Louisville, aud tho oolites of the Sub-carboniferous limestone are un- rivalled in beauty and durability. Silver ore has been found near Cumberlanil Fulls. A more remarkable con- tribution to economic geology is that afforded Ity the salt sftrings (tr licks of the State. The early deposited rooks— tho Potsdam sandstone and the oil-bearing sand-rock — were laid down in shallow waterc. and absorbed consider- able quantities of salt from the brine. In time, springs charged with this saline deposit found tlnir way to tlie surface, UHually in some nmrfthy valley, and thither all tbe herbivorous mammals naturally resorted to lick the salt whii'h bar! crystallized around the springs. This practico mupt have continued for many thouoands of years, and hence we find in these swampv licks vast quantities of the remains of these animals. Tbe skeletons of the buffalo and the deer, and below these of the elephant, the masto- don, and mammoth, the fossil elk. nnd a species of musk- ox, lie in countless numbers. Rig Itone Lick in Roone co. has in an area of about t'll) acre<t many thousands of these fossil fkeletons. Tho remains of animals fonncl here indi- cate very eleiirly that tbe elejdiant period in this region was one of eohl anil low temperature. There are nnmeroufl medicinal springs of great virtue in the State: those of Ilarrodsburg. Rluo Lick. etc. contain eonsiilcrablc quiinti- tics of sulphur. SaUpotro, gypsum, and selenite abouncl 1526 KENTUCKY. in the caves. The caverns of tbe State form one of its most remarkable features; the Mamiuoth Cave, which Is the most wirlely known of the thousands in the f?tate. though possibly not the largest, is very fully described in this volume by Prof. N. v?. Shaler, and the caverns of Ken- tu'.'ky are alsu discussed in the same article. (See Mammoth Cave.) We may say here that they occur throuj^liout the entire range of the Sub-carboniferous limestone, or over a region of GOOD to 8000 square miles. In the region drained by the Green River and its affluent?: tliey are very nnmer- oiis, and the belief is very general that they underlie almost the whole region. In some jilaccs there are what are called sink-holes, considerable tracts often containing trees of large size, under which the roof of the cavern has given way and precipitated those patches {\vhich arc from 60 to ] JO feet or more in diameter) to the floor of the cavern, often 200 or MOO feet below. In some cases these sink-holes become partially filled with water: in others, the trees and shrubs continue to grow and strettdi up toward the light. A few of them are funnel-shaped and very deep, having been sounded to the depth of 300 feet without reaching bottom. Soils aifl Ver/cttitiniK — The last glacijil period did not spread its ice-sheet over Kentucky. I»ut stayed its course a few miles N. of the Ohiu Kiver. Hence, there are not in the State the gravelly soils which are found wherever the advancing front of the ghvr-ier has pushed forward its mo- raine, made up from the lU-hrU of widely separated rocks. The soil of the Cincinnati basin, which includes the entire blue-grass region, may properly be called a soil of imme- diate derivation ; /. c it is formed by the disintegration of the rocks of the Cincinnati group, which contain brachio- pods in great numbers. This crumbling blue limestone, which falls to pieces on exposure to the nir. renders the soil derived from it one of surpassing fertility, and by its constant disintegration restores to it tlie constituents drawn from it by the crops. Hemp and tobacco, both exhausting crops, can be produced on these lauds in undiminished quantities for a score or more of years in succession, and their rich and gigantic growth is nowhere surpassed : and the grasses and grains of the region arc remarkable for their luxuriance and tlicir nutritive qualities. The region of the Sub-carboniferous limestone owes its fertility, which is almost as great as that of the blue-gra^s country, to the Sfime cause, the disintegration of fossiliferous limestone. These two tracts comprise about three-sevenths of the area of the State. The other four-sevenths are less suited to the culture of grain and the best grasses, except the over- flowed lands of the river-bottoms, which have soils of re- mote derivation. The soils underlaid by tbe beds between tlio top of the Cincinnati group and tlio top of the Carbon- iferous areof fair fertility, and oftentimes rich in materials suited for certain crops. The soils within the Carbonifer- ous areas are admirably suited botlj for fruit and for to- bacco culture, and under proper and skilt'ul tillage will produce any crops adiipted to this climatic belt. The great difference between tlicse lands — a part of which have been known as barrens — and the rich blue-grass country is, tliat the former require a fair and judicious use of manures, while the latter manure themselves throuirb (be disintegra- tion of the fossiliferous limestone. There is, however, very little really barren land in the State. The peculiarity of the soils is manifested in the distribution of the forests. On the Sub-carboniferous limestone there are grand forests on the uplands where the blue ash {Frnrlnus qtinilriturfH- lut'i) and the black walnut {.htijhtus nujrn\ mark the rich- est tracts. Rich but k-ss fertile soils have extensive forests of beech (Fagtiti /vmiffiuea). On the sandstone soils, es- pecially within the Carboniferous areas, the forests are of oak, of which there arc six or seven species, as Qiierru» atba. mond'ola. fttlcfttn. rubra, niijnt, etc. In tho richer lowlands the tulip tree [Liriodtmiiron tnfip!/ern) sind the sweet gum ( Lufuidnmbar Bti/mriflun ) form considerable forests. Tho open parks which form so fine a feature of the blue-grass region are mainly of the sugar-maple (Arrr Hnrrh'trinufit) and othrr maplus, tho tulip tree, blue ash. black walnut, etc. In the swamps of the S. W. the cypress (Ta^odiuin ifiniirhiim) is the prineijml constituent of the forests. In the mountainous district of Eastern Kentucky there are limited areas of pine (Phntx mZ/M). There are of course other forest trees in the State, but the species named are the most important. AV'lien the State was first settled by tho whites there was a tnact of about 7000 square miles lying between the Ohio River and the Tennessee line, ami between the 8.">th and 87th meridians, embracing most of the l>evonian shales and a part of the Carboniferous bedi, which was open prairie, having no trees except along tho streams: this was duo unquestionably to the fires kin- dled in tho grass bv the Indians each year. On the sup- pression of these fire« Ibis region immediately sprang up in timber, .ind is now densely wooded wherever it is not under cultivation. Zoologt/. — Very few of the larger surviving wild animals of the Mississippi Valley have now a home in Kentucky. The buffalo or bison, which in the last century roamed in very considerable herils through this State, ami perhaps as far E. as the base of the mountains, became extinct in the State before the beginning of the present century. The elk may have disapjieared a little earlier: the panther has been seen within tifty years. Bears and wolves are very rare. Deer arc still found in considerable numbers in the forests, and the raccoon, the opossum, the badger, and ground-hog are not uncommon. There arc at le.Tst two species of the hare or American rabbit, and live or six of the squirrel; moles, dormice, rats, field-mice, etc. are suf- ficiently plenty. Of game birds, the wild-turkey is found in most of the counties of the State, and grouse, partridges, quails, etc. abound. The rivers contain a good supply of most of the fresh-water fish, and fresh-w.iter roollusks. in- cluding many species of the Unionida^. the fresh-water lobster, etc., are found in great abundance. We have spoken already of the fossils found in the swamps; there arc very many fossils also in the caves, but except some insects, crustaceans, and fishes, none of them are peculiar to the State. The so-called eyeless fish of the Mammoth Cave is not known elsewhere. The following paragraphs on the pro-historic remains of man found in Kentucky, from the pen of Prof. X. S. Shalcr of the Lawrence Scientific School, State geologist of Ken- tucky, seem in place here : J're-hifiloric Jiemaiim of Man. — Two distinct Stages are marked by these remains — the first, or most remote, by tho mound-builder works; sccon<l. the later conditions, during which the common Indian graves arc formed. The first of these stages was evidonlly a period of considerable dura- tion, in which the State was in possession of n people con- siderably more civilized than the common North American Indians; they Imilt regular fortifications on tolerably uni- form plans, ami they traded for copper from Lake Superior and shells from tlio (lulf of Mexico. Tiiey seem to have been an agricultural people, their numbers being too great for constant subsistence by tho chase, ami their fortifica- tions implying fixity. Their general culture and habits would seem to have been as high as that of the Natchez Indians when they wt-re first approached by the whites. Although there are within the State twenty or more forts and many thousand mounds built by these people^ they do not seem to have existed within these in such numbers, or for so long a time, as they did in Ohio. The State is also completely wanting in the "picture mounds," or represen- tations of animals, so common in the North-west. This people was probably here before the coming of the buffalo, as its bones are not found among their remains, nor its form on their very numerous enrvings and pottery. There .are other evidi-nees of tho very recent coming of this spe- cies into the .Mississippi Valley. There is nn utter absence of evidence that this people ever came into contact with tho earlier fauna of the Ehphas priinitftuiuH and the masto- don : none of the animals of that time figure among their art products. Possibly to the same age we may attribute the cave remains of Western Kontu»rky. which have not been as yet much examined. They show prolonged occu- pation of tho sliallow caverns and *' rock-houses" of that region, but they all. so far as examined by the Kentucky survey, show only animals of the present period. Several hundred caveins and *' rook-houses " in the western district exhibit signs of occu|)aney. Sometimes these caverns are combined \\\{\\ fortifications, the caves being used for resi- dence, and stouo walls or earthworks for tho defence of tho hill above. During the last few centuries of the Indian occupation wo find this State apparently used as a lumting-ground rathf-r than as a place of permanent settlement. It seems likely from analogy with other countries that this neutral condition of the area between the Tennessee and the Ohio had been brought about by long conflicts between tho southern and tho northern peoples of this region. The es- sential similarity of the customs of the Natchez Indians, especially in the matter of mound-building, to the so-called mound-builders of the Ohio Valley, points to the probable conclusion that this neutral hunting-ground of Kentucky marks tho southernmost point of j>enetration of a distinct warlike race which drove the more ancient people to tho southward. These invading peoples arc likely to have been the ancestors of the tribes the whites found in resi- dence along tho northern borders of the Ohio River. As a whole, the pro-historic remains of Kentucky point to the conclusion that there was no indigenous man dating farther back than about two or three thonsaud years. There sc'ins no evidence of succession in the stages of develop- ment, such as wo find in the European pro-historic records. The oldest remains belong to a state of eulture answering, on the whole, to the polished Stone Age of Europe, though KENTUCKY. 1527 the uso of copper for ornnraent?. and the nmoimt of traffic indioatL'd by tlu- presence of iniiteriiils brought from great distances, seem tu bo an indicution of nn creD greater ad- Tance in civilitation. It seems likely that the highly fin- ished forts, ^bowinf^ a capneity for quite definite measure- ment, the strongest evidence of culture, came long alter the earliest mound;^. Despite the fact that mounds perish very slowly, we may trace every gradation, from those nearly blended with the natural surlace tu those which can hardly have withstood a thousand years. This seems not to be the case with the fortifications: most of them, at least, have still great distinctness of outline, and often could be made tenable by modern troops with a few ho.irs' labor. Some of these forts would require several thousand men for a garrison to make their walls of any utility: this, tojrelher with the fact that mounrl-builders" remains are most numer- ous where the soil is best fitted for agriculture, seems to show that they must hare been in the main agricultural. Some of their pottery shows considerable skill in manufac- ture, and a nice taste in the use of incised ornaments. The frequent presence of pipes shows the use of tobacco. The great care taken of the dead, and the prodigious accumula- tionjj about some of the funeral mounds, seem to point to the conclusion that they were worshippers of ancestors. There is no evtclenco of phattic-worship in the remains as yet discovered within the State. Their weapons seem to havo been the same as those of the North American In- dians generally, except that the spear seems to have been more commonly used: their axes arc almost always made iVum materials derived from beyond the great lakes. The buffalo seems to have followed on the footsteps of the van- isliing mound-builders; with their disappearance the for- ests returned, except over the country of the Barrens in the central part of Western Kentucky. Tbere is no reason to suppose that in its most peopled state, before the coming of the whites, this region ever bad anything like its present prqiulation: nor aye there any reasons for supposing that an anticjuity of ^tOUO or 4000 years would not embrace all the human events of which we havo any record here. X. S. Shalkr. Climntfi. — In general it may be said that the climate of Kentucky is delightful. The mean annual temperature is about bb°j and the extremes, not often reachc<l, arc zero and 100*^. The winter commences late in December, some- times not till January, ancl the cold weather seldom lasts long after the 1st of March. The winter and spring months are the seasons of greatest rainfall, the summer and autumn being usually somewhat dry. The heavy rain? of winter and spring, falling on the adhesive red or blue clay of the central counties, ntakcs locomotion some- what ditlicuU except on the superb macadamized roads of the State. The summers are long and somewhat hot, though the extremes of heat are less than in States farther N. In the southern counties cattle are not sheltered in winter, and very little hay is cut. The blue-grasa. falling down as it ripens, protects the lower portion of its stalk, and furnishes as nutritious grazing in winter as in summer. Tables r. and H. give — Hrst. the maximum, minimum, and niean tL-mperatures of each month and the year at tivo dilferent points; and second, the monthly, quarterly, and annual rainfall at the same points. Ayrienititrat /*ro(fuctM, — '1 he largo proportion of exceed- ingly fertile soil in the State, its capacity for producing a great variety of crops, au'l its extraordinary facilities for conveying its crops to the best markets, arc good and suf- ficient reasons why. in proportion to its area. Kentucky should bo one of the best agricultural States in the Union. That these great advantiiges have not been so fully de- veloped as they should havo been is doubtless true; yet the agricultural position of the State is very creditable to her. The census of 1870 gave the following statistics of tite agricultural wealth and productions ol tho State : \*aluo of farm?, Jill l.'iitS.Hlli ; of farming implements and ma- chinery, $M,j72.sy(( : of all farm productions, including betterments and additions to stock, $S7,'177,it7-l ; animals slaughtered and sold for slaughter, $21, 121. Stil ; of home manufactures, $l,ns3,072 (deeidoilly an under-estimate, as few Slates have manufactured so largely at homo jeans, linsey-woolsey, bagging, and other artielep used largely on the farms, as Kentucky); forest products. $."»7l.ll'.M ; market-garden proilucts, S,')27,:VJ0: orcharil products, $l,2;!I,.tH,'i; wages paid to farm-hands, including board, $10,70y..'iS2. A more particular statement of the principal crops and the amount of each was as follows : wheal, (i,72S,701 bushels; rye. l.lOH,li;t:t ; Indian enrn. .'iH.llltl.nor. ; oits, (J,ll20.10.t; barley. 2;JS,.|Hit ; buckwheat, ;:ii;t: cotton. lO.SU bales; llax, 2.17,2tJH pounds; hemp, 7777 tons; silU- oocoons, 15 pounds : wool, 2, 2m, lid) pounds ; hay, 20l,:ilMt tons; hops. 017 pounds; tobacco, 10;(.:tO.S.S(»0 pounds; maple-augnr. 2»"''.'.11(1 pounds; niaple-molasso"'. ■l!'.07:t gal- lons; sorghum-molasses, 1.7-10.153 gallons; common ]>ota- toes, 2,.^91,6r)2 bushels: sweet potatoes, 802.114; peas anc beans, 119,i)20; beeswax, o2,567 pounds; honey, 1,171,500; domcstio wine, 62,360 gallons; cloTer-sced, 2551 bushels; 1 1 i ""K \'l "9 8 I I in •diu.>J. "IK 1 '"' " 1 f 1 •diwj. 1 °" 3 8 S s I *(]iaaj, UTOK 1 °§ n « 3 «! ■dmox •OIK 1 °- s « M s •diuDX ■x»K 1 "S s 1 3 e 1 •dmax 1»5 3 1 i *diudx ■nils l°" eS s 5 '■s, ■doidx ■««K 1 °s « s e s 1 i ■'Ini»x M s s 00 i ■dmox •0|K 5 5 5 s 5 "duiax ■x«K 1 OS S S 3 S 1 •draax own 1 °g 2 CD B 'diaax "IK 1 OS s s 5 •duiax ■««H 1 o§ IS s % •diuax OT13K 1 " 1 =s iS 3 •duiax •U|K 1 °« j2 s s ■diuox •xuK 1 o§ s s s S 5 ■duiox utOK 1 o ^ •a a p 03 8 'dluox •"IK •dluox •»"K OS n 3 s s "S s •3. s s ^ i ■dinci QMK 1 °s 3 & s i 1 •duwx •"IK oS s s 9 s 1. •duiax •XUK oS s s •& s t < •duMX n»OH t "l I 1 s 1 H ■duiox "IK og s '& s s •dtoax •x»K oS s e 3 s a 1 •dujox iiLiK o2 7\ 5 % 1 •dwox •"IK oS s •9 7 o •fluioX •x«K o 12 t c s j2 •^ •iJuioX "i 1 I 3 3 .a ■duiox "IK oS 2 »- - n ■diuDX •X»K og 8 s 3 s 1 ■ 3 a A -> •dmax "oaR °8 n ^ ^ 3 •diuax "IK •>' 8 1 •0 1 s •dmax •xnK "a B s s s o ^ 8 8 3 ^ s ivtH tiin MIIIV tun 01|1 JCIJ joduisx "1"1K o"? 0* 1 1 1 jadmox "|X«K °s s ig s s e ■* 4 ^- '■■ L. _ lis lis 111 ■ i's ' J3 l: M : i\ •■• '\i ii. 85 iifi II ii ■oon 1 d^ ^"^ . " 1 -^ i.i 1 •■"" i •si ii 1 .2 SS .--liiii 1 i-iiiil "•^'"^4 'ft --Mi ii t-«l4ll •'""^Ms sis .•-lilli l-|iiii -'\^% ^ •^ •nv 1 -oed.oM g -jaoi 1 .S«'£i * -UI118 1 -**-S22 1 j-'--s|4i^ii •"Ltt|-5- = = * •MQ |i2?|3;- Li % 1 ■..„., |d§'si!ii •"0 |sn2SSJ a ■Idas aSSSSlS 3 ' "■•<,"rl=!-§5bl |'.f»K|=22SS5 ■,Hdv|=^2il3 a )f -j.moiui •palajo a.llUila KtooiKce B S : : »- (i : c - • - ^ i = r ? - flax-tccd, 14,667; grass-seod. 35,80(1. Dairy products: buttor. 1I,S7 1,978 pounds; chofse, Il,'i,21'.l; milk sold, l,;tl.'>,77y j^alliii)!!. Of soino of thcgi* crops wo luive later iitn(it«ticii from tlic usually accurate estiiiuLlcs of tlic a;;ri- ciilttiral dcpartmont. If llic-flc err at nil. it i.t almost inva- riably in till' way of iindcr-cstimatc. Tho folio wing arc tho linuris for the vcar IS7:!: Indian corn, jS,.|.')l,mill bushels, valued nl !i:'.i.'71.S.I 10: wheat. 7.22.').nnil bushels, worth $S.7IL'.20II: rvc. 1.1117. UOO bushels, worth $S.'.2.:;'.ill : oats. 1528 KENTUCKY. 7,037,000 bushels, worth $2,633,320; barley, 21S.000 bushels, worth $213,000: buckwheat. 3600 bushels, wurlh $.3096; common jjotatoes, 1,737,000 bushels, worth $1,076,910; tobacco, 152,000,000 pounas. worth $10.94-1.000; hay, 337.000 ton^ worth $1,392,706. The laad under culli- vation that year in these crops was reported at 3.732.0 12 acres. In 1870 the value of the entire live-stock of the State was reported as $66,287,343, and the numbers were — 317,034 horses, 99,230 mules and asses. 247,615 milch cows, 69,719 working oxen, 3S2.993 other cattle, 936,7fi.i sheep, and 1,838.227 swino. The report of the agricultural de- partment for Jan., 1S74, estimates the number of horses at 343,900, of mules and asses at 83,600, of oxen and other cattle at 380.400, of milch cows at 229,400, of sheep at 8118.100, of swine at 2,008,000, and the aggregate value of the live-stock of the State at $50,950,792. We are in- clined to believe that these are under-estimatcs, both as to number and value. A shrinkage in values of nearly $in.000,0ll0 is hardly probable. Mnnii/aclKreH. — The latest published statistics of manu- factures in Kentucky are those of the census of 1S70. The comparatively slow development of manufacturing indus- try in the State makes this a matter of less moment than in the newer States, where the changes of a single year are marvellous. During the decade from 1850 to 1S60 the in- crease of manufactures was rather from the increase in the price of the articles manufactured than from any addition to the number of establishments or emp!oy6s. From I860 to 1870 there was no more advance, especially after the war, but with the best and most permanent water-powers in the world, and an abundance of coal to generate steam, Kentucky is far behind many of the other States in the extent and variety of her manufactures. The discoveries of coal, iron, and petroleum in such extensive deposits may stimulate her citizens to greater activity. The manufac- turing statistics of the State in 1870 were — numl)er of es- tablishment?, 5390, for which the motive-power was — steam-engine?, 1147. with 31,928 horse-power; and 459 water-wheels, with 7640 horse-power. These establish- ments in 1870 employed 30,636 persons, of whom 27,687 were men, 1159 women, and 1790 children and youth: the estimated capital of these establishments was $29,277,809 ; the wages paid, $9,444,524; the raw material used, $29,497,535; and the annual product, $54,625,809. The greatest of these manufacturing interests in the State is the produetion of iron and iron goods, including pig iron, forged and rolled, castings of all sorts, and stoves, heaters, and hollow-ware. In 57 establishments there were pro- duced in 1870 iron and articles of iron to the value of $7,869,053; malt and distilled liquors come next, 176 distilleries and breweries, producing liquors valued at $5,222,089; flouring-mil! products, in 190 mills, are made to the extent of $5,093,213; lumber planed and sawed is produced in 278 mills to the extent of $3,748,809 ; tobacco, as chewing, smoking. snufT, and cigars, in 102 establish- ments to the extent of $2,097,005; bagging in 11 factories to the amount of $1,752,120; leather, tanned and curried, in 182 tanneries to the amount of $1,693,574; furniture in 90 cabinet-shops to the amount of $1,463,977 ; wool-card- ing and cloth-dressing, and woollen goods in 125 estab- lishments to the amount of $1,312,458: machinery of all kinds in 28 establishments to the value of $1,453,426; ag- ricultural implements in 44 factories to the amount of $1,381,917; carriages and wagons in 325 establishments to the extent of $1,339,909 ; clothing in 167 establishments to the amount of $1,181,158 ; tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware in 127 shops to the extent of $1,051,026; sad.llery and harness in 212 shops to the amount of $1,013,852 : printing and publishing in 31 offices to the amount of $842,210. The other more important manufactures were — bookbind- ing, boots and shoos, bread and other bakery products, brick, bridge-building, cement, confectionery, cooperage, cotton goods, glassware, monuments and tombstones, paints, lead, and zinc, and sash, doors, and blinds. Of these only boots and shoes and bridge-building exceeded in the ag- gregate $500,000. Minuiff. — The census returns for 1870 in regard to the mining interests of Kentucky are singularly imperfect. Only 35 mines are reported, employing 925 persons, with a capital of $761,450. j)aying $312,486 wages, using $31,083 of raw material, and producing ores, coal, etc. to the value of $509,245. It is hardly beyond the truth to say that si2g!o irines produce a larger amount than this. "The coal resources of Kentucky," says Prof. Shalor. "are only exceeded by those of Pennsylvania, and the quantity of ifrtn or« is probably not exceeded by any American State. The coal r.nd iron products of the State already reach sev- eral millions in value, and are destined to have a great and rapid development." lidih-nntU. — Having ft larger amount of water-communi- cation in its navigable streams through almost every part of its territory than almost any other interior State (esti- mated by Prof. Shaler at over 4000 miles), and provided with magnificent macadamized roads to most of ita larger towns, Kentucky has not until recently felt the necessity for railroad extension to the same extent as most of the adjacent States. In 1841 there were but 28 miles of rail- road in the State, and there was no increase till after 1818 ; in 1851 there were 94 miles; in 1860,510: in 1862,567; in 1872, 1123; and in Jan., 1875, 1519 miles in opera- tion, the cost of the roads, with the equipment, being $62,728,511. The principal roads, beginning on the east- ern border of the State, are — the Lexington and liig Sandy, beginning at Catlettshurg, at the mouth of the Big Sandy, where it connects by u bridge with the Chesa- peake ami Ohin from Huntington, and extending to Lex- ington, 1 18 miles (about 73 miles of this are now completed, and the whole will he in running order during the present year); the Eastern Kentueky, Kiverton to (Jrayson, with two branches to coal-mines, in all 28 miles; the Elizabeth- town and Paducah. 185 miles (this is to be continued from Elizabethtown to Lexington, to connect with the Lexington au'l Big Sandy) : the Kentucky Central, with branches. 123 miles: the Louisville Cincinnati aud Lexington, with iho Cincinnati branch, in all 189 miles; the Louisville and Nashville, in all 436 miles ; the Paducah and jMcmjihis, 165 miles (of which about 53 miles are in the State) ; the Evans* ville Henderson and Nashville. 98 railcs in the State to Guthrie; the Madisonville and Shawneetown R. B., about 55 miles; and several short railroads connecting with Southern or South-western lines. Flunnrfs. — The assessed valuation of the State in 1S70 was $409,544,244, of which $311,479,694 was of real estate and $98,004,600 was of personal jirojierty. The true valua- tion that year was estimated to be $604,318,552. The total taxation of that year, not national, was $5,730,118, of which $2,254,413" was State, $1,307,833 county, and $2,167,372 town, city, etc. The State indebtedness w.is $3,076,480, for which bonds had been issued, and $sin.liOO floating debt. Four years of prosperity have increased materially the valuation of the State and diminished both its debt and its taxation. On Oct. 10, 1871, the entire debt was but $2,720,710, of which $1,652,317 was of bonds issued to the board of education, andnotncgotiiible. and $1,068,394 negotiable. On Oct. 10, 1872, this debt had been reduced to $766,394, but $200,000 in bonds had been authorized to meet a floating debt ; the negotiable debt of the State therefore stood at $966,394; the sinking fund at the same time amounted to $1,691,991, or more than $700,000 more than the negotiable debt. For the fiscal year ending Oct., 1873, the receipts from taxes were $1,024,460, and the ex- penditures $1,476,469, including some payments on the State debt which were ordered paid from the sinking fund. The State bonds are 5 and 6 per cent, bonds, aud have com- manded a ready sale at good prices. Commerce. — Kentucky has a small amount of foreign commerce, Louisville, its chief city, being a port of entry, and exporting and importing directly to some extent ; but its interior commerce is of great magnitude, variety, and inijiortancc. Its numerous navigable rivers, as well as its railroads aud its macadamized roads, enable the State to send its products to market with great facility, and the im- I'orts rival the exports in quantity and value. The prin- eipal articles shipped are: tobacco, whisky, salt, beef, pork, bacon, flax. hemp, and cotton-baling stufls. ropes ' and cordage, flour, ale and beer, iron, as pig iron and in j eastings of all kinds, etc. Horses, mules, and cattle are I sent eastward in great numbers, the State maintaining the I highest reputation for its horses botli for racing and trot- I ting purposes, and for service as carriage and family horses, its nuiies being of greater size and belter quality than those I of the other States, and its cattle being of the best breeds and in the best condition from the excellence of its pas- turage. There are no statistics accessible which give the I amount of this internal commerce at a later date fhnn that , of the census of 1870. and these only incidentally, but there can be no doubt that it annually reaches at least $400,000,000. /{(titka. — There were Nov. 1. 1874. 47 national banks, 1 of which was closing; the 46 in operation had n capital of $10,018,900 paid in, $9,381,850 of bonds on deposit, ■ $10,264,670 circulation issued, of which $1,299,069 had I been redeemed, and $8,335,601 of circulation still outstund- I ing. At the same date there were 45 State banks in opera- tion, having an aggregate capital of about $12,000,000; .3 j savings banks, having a capital of $450,000; amount of deposits not stated : and 38 private banking-houses, many of them with very large capital. There were Jan. 1, 1875, ' 12 tire and marine insurance companies in the State, 2 of ithem mutual, and the remainder having an aggregate cap- ital of $1,384,000, and assets of the whole (in 4 e:ises in- eluding notes) of $1,889,036.53 j liabilities aside from cap- KENTUCKY. 1529 its] and net eurplus, $3-J3.774.88 : amount of insurance written during the yenr. $47.-l25.263 ; premiums rccoivcj during tho vtar. >^17i, jfis ; losses paid during tlic year, $244,738. Al tliut time lliore was but 1 life iusiiruncc com- | pany in the Siale. tlie Southern Mutual Life at Louisville, organized in l-<f>i;, with $inn,UOO eapilal, $752,005 assets, I $629,031 liabilities, $261,663 income, and $201,678 ex- > pcuditurcs; 2166 policies for the aggregate amount of S5,S20,!I2:! in force at that date. Pnifii/titinu. — Wc have endeavored to throw into taliulnr form as many facts in regard to the population of Ken- tucky, past and present, as ]iossib)e. The earlier censuses are very defective in regard to the sex and ages of (he col- ored population, whether free or slave, jet tho annexed jear. WUtM. rrto eolorad. 114 Slana. 1790 ei.ix! 12,430 18IW 179,S7.t 739 40,:i43 1«10 324.2:17 1,713 SO,.^! 1S20 434,r>44 2,759 126,7.32 1<10 517,787 4.917 16.1.213 ISIO .WO.2.53 7,317 l,S2.2i8 lH.->0 7Gl,4l:l 10.011 210,9S1 1 IfUM 9I9.4S4 in,R84 2-2.'i.4,K3 1870 1,09S,692 222,210 none. 73,677 220,9.'..-. 406,.'.ll .■■.64.1:1". 687.917 7T9,S:;s 9*2,40.-. l.l.-..-.,6s4 , l,;i2I.Ull,| ,211 ,9.56 l.SO.'i 192 .084 ,()8S 7:i(i ;i2i 6(i.-..ii; •28,922 ♦8.1,91.5 •l.'>.'i,4:i2 27.'),12.5 33.'j,8:i3 379,740 . 479.67.-. 949.6.'>2 563.3(i:! I,09.i,sa-. G.55,33(i 1,2.57,613 Foreign. 31,420 59,799 63,:i98 or school Kgc, 610 18. 204,.571 2:)2,570 302,899 t280,466 4.54,.539 or 11.111. tnr; age, IS to a. •131,211 2:i9,+S3 or «otiDs orer 21. *119,243 «I7G,974 •191,391 289,471 Cannot md or write. •40,018 •69,706 •70,040 .332,176 table will be found to contain some interesting statistics not hcrclofuro tabulateil. Tho density of the population to the square mile in 1S50 was 26.07: in ls60. :f0.y4 : in 1S70, 35.33. The number of families iu 1870 was 2.'i2,797, or 5.67 to a family : tho number of dwellings, 224,'.tli9, or 5.87 per- sons to a dwelling. In IS70 the number of white males of all age.^ was 557,:J26, of white females, 541,366 : of colored males, 10.8.304, of colored females, 113,906 ; of Indian males, 44, of Indian females, 61 : tho number of native males was 631,020, of native females, 626.593 ; of males of foreign birth, 34,fJ55, of females of foreign birth, 2.8,743. The number of males of school ago was 230,491, of females of school age, 224,048. Tho number of male citizens (i'. e. voters) was 282,305. Etiiirftt'ton. — Tho interests of higher education were sub- jects of thought and action very early iu the history of the SLite. Transylvania University at Le.\ingti.n {now merged in th.i Kentucky University) was organized and chartered in 1798, and other collegiate schools not lung after; but very little attention was paid to free or popular education. Academics and private schools were established ail over the .<larp, and to these the sons and tlaughfers of wealthy planters and manufacturers were sent, while a large pro- portion of the children of the poorer elassi-s were entirely without instructir.n. There was no provision for common schools until 1S2I, when one-half of tho clear revenue of the Hank of the Commonwealth was set apart for a school fund : and no system of puidic schools was established until 1838, though a bill fur that purpose was passed in 1830. Under tho organization of 1838 there was a board of education and a superintendent of jiublic instruction appointed. Under this law each county could at its option vote to organize public schools within its own territory, and then avail itself of the aid of the school fund, which at this time amounted to a considerable sum. In a number of counties no organization t(»ok place, owing, it was said, to tho impossibility of linding in tho county three men who possessed the educational and other qualifications re- nuired for school commissioners. In 180 1 ])rovisiun was made by llio legislature fur the erlucatiun (.f l.'tO teatdicrs in the Slate I'niversity at Lexington. In 1870 a bill was i>nssed for tho reorganization of the school system, and in iho winter of 1872-73 it was completely reorganized. Its chief executive officer is now the superintendent of public instruction, elected for four years, and having a salary of $.3000 besides clerk hire. The l.uard of education, who constitute his cabinet, consisls of the superintendent, the attorney-general, the secretary of state, and two profes- sional educators: the State board of examiners consists of tile superintendent and two practical cducitors selected by him. There is also a county cuminissioner for each county, elected by the presiding county judges and the justices of the peace for two years, and a county board of examiners, consisting of the county commissioner and two well-edu- cated and competent persons to sit with him, who arc ap- pointed by him. The sclo.ol fund consists of the interest at 5 per cent, on $1,327,000, a non-negotiable bond of the State, the dividends on 735 shares of the stock of the Hank of Kentucky, taxes on some other banks, and whatever distinct tax the people of the respective school districts may vote to impose up'-n tliemselves. Teachers* institutes arc required to be held annually in July and August in each county by tlie county cuipinissioncrs. The legal school year is five months of 22 days each; the scholastic age in tho Stale is from 6 to 20 years. Provision was made by the legislature of 1S71 for the establishment of schools for colorcil children, but on a basis so narrow and restrictive that it is doubtful whether it will be enforced very generally. The number of children of school age reported at the close of 1873 was 416,71.3, the number of schools was 5521, tho number of teachers about 600(1, tho expenditure, asiile from the interest on county school- bonds, was $977,425.82. The interest in public school edu- cation in tho State is evidently increasing. There were but 24 academics and high seliuuls which reported to tho superintendent of jiul.lio instrucfi<in in 1873; these had 158 instructors and 2621 pupils. There are normal depart- ments in three ot the colleges of tho State — licrea, (ieorge- town, and the Kentucky Stale I'liiversity — and normal schools under private or assuciational control at Cavlislo (6 teachers, 75 pupils, 3 years' course), Callellsburg (6 teachers, 50 students, 3-5 years' course), and Lcxinptt.n (American Missionary Association. 280 pupils). liesides these there are training-schools at Lexington and Frank- fort. There are 12 universities and colleges iu tho Slate; tho following were their statistics in 1873-74 : Nimo or iiolrfr Jljr or collef.?. Ptnco wbora looated. Berca. Tterea t^ollegc i Ileth.l College RussellvUle , reelllan CullcKO iCccllian ('.•ntre CullcKe | Danville Ciiilral i:nlver»lty Richmond Kioiu. nci. Cillei.'e Kniinence <ii'ori;.l..wn( "H.-KC tieort'Olown Kentueky Medical Institute... Frankfort Kentucky fnivemity Lexington St. Mary's CollcKo .St. Mary WarrendalcfoUeKo I Bowling Green.. Wealeyan Unlrer»lty iMillemhurg ti Kumlwrof ■tuOcntj. 3 w Propar- Colli- awry. slow. s 43 14 28 52 11 100 6 7.5 .54 5 122 29 8 4S 6C 7 28 80 6 17 78 8 134 10 84 3 62 R2 4 85 13 Value or frouaA*. band- ing... and n|.. |.aratuH. SI 15,000 176,000 20,000 70,000 16,200 .50,0110 80,000 7.5,000 100,000 R.OOO 15,000 Amounl at endowment. S9 1,000 20,000 180,000 12.5,000 "soo.tioo prmliiellre rands. gl,.^30 5,400 11,000 12,000 Rocelpll for ln*t year irr>nt ttll r>lhiT ■ourcei. f29,000 3,000 2,800 is,ooo 1,S70 Vrtliiniet Iu lllirury, 1,500 1,000 7,000 1,500 S.IKIO 3,000 20,000 800 800 There were 11 colleges or seminaries for women, having 75 professors and instructors ami 1013 pupils, of nliom 742 were in tho collegiate and 271 in preparatory stu.liei. In all, music, both instrumental ami vocal, is taught. These had libraries ranging from 500 to .3000 volumes ; 1 had a gymnasium; 5, chemical laburat«.rie8 ; 4, philosophical cabinets; 2, natural history museums; and 1, an astro- nomical observatory. There wcro 10 professional and • Whiten onlv enumerated. t White children only enumerated. soientiflc sohools in tho State in 1873, as shown in tho toblo of |.rufessional schools on tho next page. Liliriirim. — In 1870, the census reported 5516 public and private libraries in the Slate, with 1,909.230 vulumcs. Of these, 1172. having 318,985 vulumcs. were public. This number included 2 State libraries, with 9200 volumes; 10 tov;n and city, with 13,4:16 volumes; 218 court and law libraries, with 61,590 (apparently an error) ; 18 school and college libraries, with 20,675 vuluines (the colleges named above have 38,000 volumes, ami the professional schools 25,01)0 more)j 717 Sunday schools, with 160,377 volumes; 15:30 KENTUCKY. 207 church libraries, with 53,707, and no hiatortcal or eir- ! city more than 20,000, and Lexinjrton and several other dilating libraries: while the Pultlie Library of Kentucky ' towns have circuhitinf; libraries. The number of private at Louisville has 45,000 volumes, the Historical Library in libraries reported is 4M74, eontainin-; L5y0,24o volumes, that city over 10,000, the Mercantile Library of the same j Scu^ajiupera. — In IS72, Kentucky had 106 newspapers, Name or prorossional school. L Theological: Itiblc ("nlk'tte, University of Kentucky Panville Thcolo^'ical Sfuiiiiary St. Juseph's Sfniiiiarv and CuIlcKe Theological 8flio(»l ot" Bothel Collc-to Western Baptisl Theological Institute U. Law: Colb't^o of Law, Kentucky L'niversitv III. Mi;i>hal: Louisville Medical ColIcKe Medical department. I'nivcrsity of Louisville Louisville College of Pharmacy IV. SCIEXTIFIC: AEricultural and Mechanical College, Kentucky tJuiversity Lexincton...., Danville Bartlstown ... Kussellville... Georgetown., Lexington.... Louisville Lex,in prion., "c o Sludeou. Tilue of grounds and buildings. Amount of prcHluc- tive fiinds. Income from produc- tire funds. Receipts for last yi-ar front all other sources. Is 11 It Volumes In UUrarj. 4 4 8 I 2 88 14 22 824.000 20,000 SI.<?0,00ft 1,800 SI1,.500 ii'.m 8,000 48,000 8,000 R ?() 3,000 4,000 100 12 15 217 253 25 2o'o,o6o 1,500 ""si) 15,000 7oa 3 1,000 11 G7 ISl 27^,000 105,000 9,900 7,089 •20,000 an increase of Ifi since 1S70. Of these, 10 wera dailies, having an aggregate circulation of over 40,000,' 2 tri- wecldy, circulation about oOOO ; o scmi-wockly, circulation ahout ■l.'iOU: 7i'. wceltly, circulation about 140,000 ; 12 montlily, circulation about ^13,000. Ily far the grcaterpart were political, at least four-fifths, but S were religious, having a circulation of over 25,000, and 3 professional, with a circulation of over 8000. Chitrchcs. — According to the census of 1S70, there were at that time in the State 29()9 churches or congregations of all denotniuations, 2000 church edifices, 87H,0;19 sittings, and $9,S24,40.^^ of churcli property. The following table gives the statistics of tho principal denominations, accord- ing to the censu.s, and also later statistics, generally of 1874, where attainable, showing in this short time a great in- crease over tho previous numbers : Denominatjons. Baptists Disciples and Christiansf <'onKre>;alioiKtli>ts Pioti'.slant Kpisiofial Church livanyclical Association .Tewish synagogues Lutherans Methodist (Th. South, mostly^... Presby'u (Gen. Asseinblv)) " " " .Sjuth / Presbyterian, other Itnnian fatholics .shakers I Unitarian ('nivrrsalist Union churches 1004 490 978 818 Sittings. 288,936 141,585 15,800 3,000 1,500 1,C50 244,918 97,150 3,000 72,.')50 1,090 700 400 4,G.50 Value of church properly $2,023,975 1,046,075 "570,'3M 1.10,000 IW.OOO 10,000 1,854,505 1,275,400 17,090 2,604,900 23,000 75,000 5,530 28,7.-;o ki . "SS 5 ^°.3 ■^ w Ministers. IS? g.,. t) 1367 12R5 723 545 .';02 313 5 5 9 39 37 41 8 7 G 4 4 4 10 8 5 1037 898 1132 327 301 231 203 148 155 2 2 8 2 2 2 4 4 S 23 20 21 Statistics of ls;4. communicants. 147.031 51,372 359 3,927 1.090 800 1,098 120,303 27,188 500 250 175 2,.500 Adherent populaUou. 588.124 20.1,000 1,854 17.000 5.000 2.4(10 6,000 480,000 116,000 135,000 1,000 1,200 800 10,000 S.S.tenehers and 7? scliulars. 13,000 29,700 487 3.814 1,200 27,350 Charitable Titntitutione. — There is an institution for deaf mutes at Danville, Ky., organized in 182."', being one of tho earlier institutions, the fourth organized in this country. In l.*^73 it had 5 instructors, 87 pupils (4S males. 39 fe- males); the value of its buildings and grounds was $100,000, iind its annual expenditure 820,312, of which nearly $18,000 was appropriated by the ,'^tate, There is an insti- tution for the education of the Mind at Louisville, founded in 1812, having 19 instructors and other emitloyt's, 59 pu- pils, property valued at $90,000, and receiving from the State annually 810,000, which covers its expenditures. There are 3 orphan asylums, all at Louisville, liaving in all 13 teachers, 1 j2 children, and expending annually about Slj,0OO. Of 7 other orphan asylums in tlio State tlicre is no recent report. There is an institution at Frankfort for feeble-minded children, but we have been unable to obtain any recent report of its condition. The house of refuge at Louisville is a municipal not a State institution; it has IG teachers, 174 inmates (150 boys and 24 girls), its annual cost is about $20,000, and the inmates earn about $j000 per annum. There are two insane hospitals in the State — the Western, at llopkiusville, and the Eastern, at Lexing- I ton — both well managed. The Kentucky jienitcntiary is at I Frankfurt. It has room for about (100 prisoners. It has not j the reputation of being a model institution. The penal in- i stitutionsof the State generally are susce]itible of very great improvement. In 1870 there were 603 pcrson.s convicted of crimes which are punishable by death or imprisonment in the State penitentiary, and 10(')7 in prison charged with euch crimes and awaiting trial. Of these, 968 were of na- tive birth and 99 of foreign. ConHtttHtioHf Onreninient, Iteprcaetilntion in Congrettf etc, * Tlic ITnlverslty T,lbrnry. t There are no data for inakinc a correct statement of the numbers of lhe«e two denomin.ttioiis in tlie .stntf ; the "Dis- ciples" are by far the most uuiuerous. hut Ix»tb denominations have been very negligent in collectlog their stati<tica. j — Tho present constitution of the State was adopted in 1850. The governor, lieutenant-governor, auditor, attor- ney-general, and superintendent of public instruction arc elected by the ]>eople for the term of four years. The gov- ernor is ineligible for the four years succeeding the expira- tion of his term. If a vacaney in the office of governor occur during the first two years of the term, it is filled by a new election : if during the last two years, the lieutenant- governor, and after him the Speaker of the senate, acts as governor. The treasurer is elected by the people every two years. Tho secretary of state is appointed by tho governor, by and with the advice ^and consent of the sen- ate. Senators, 38 in number, arc elected from single dis- tricts for four years, one-half every two years, liepresent- ntives, 100 in number, are elected from single districts for two years. Sessions of the assembly are biennial, and can- not continue longer than 00 days without a two-thirds vote of all the members elected to each branch. The members are jiaid $4 a day and 15 cents a mile for travel. Lvery male citizen who has resided two years in the State, ono year in the county, and sixty days in the precinct in which his vote is ofl'creil, is entitled to vote. The court of appeals is tho supreme court of the State, and has appellate juris- diction over tho final orders and judgments of all other courts of the State in civil cases, except where the amount in controversy is less than $50, or in eases of judgment granting divorce, or on a judgment of an inferior court from which an appeal is given to the quarterly or circuit court. It has appellate jurisdiction in criminal cases where the fine is $50 or more. The circuit courts have original jurisdiction in civil cases where the amount in controversy is S50 and upwards, except where exclusive jurisdiction is given to other courts; appellate jurisdiction in certain cases specified; and criminal jurisiliction for the trial of all offences which may he prosecuted by indictment, and all prosecutions and final actions except where exclusive jurisdiction is given to other courts. There ore also county KEXTICKY. 1531 courts and justices* courts. All judges are justices of the peace. Judges of the court of ajipeals arc elected by dis- tricts for a term of eight years, one every Sfcond year, and the judge having the shortest term to serve is chief-justice. The circuit court judges are elected by districts for six years, and justices of the peace for four years. Under the apportionment of 1S72, Kentucky is entitled to 10 llepre- sentatives in Congress. Coiiutirn. — Kentucky is divided into 110 counties. The following was their population, divided into white and col- ored, iu 1S70, population in ISOO, and valuation in 1S70 : CoaDtie«. ItiTO. Whiles, 1870. Cotftred, 1870. Pop., lew. T.IUAtlOD, 1870. Adair Allen 11,065 10,296 5,449 12,576 17,780 10,14.5 10,698 14,863 8,573 9,51.5 11,409 i>,672 1.3,440 7,781 9,404 10,826 9,410 27,408 6,189 7,.509 8,81*4 23,227 10,882 8,297 6,497 9,381 7,690 20,714 4,439 4,4:il 9,198 26,6.56 13,398 7,877 15,300 6,161 5,074 10.376 9,529 19,398 11, .580 9,379 11,463 6,.591 15,705 4,415 12.993 13,r,j(7 18,457 11.066 8,4.53 13,827 4,547 118,9,53 8,638 7,494 3,731 36,096 8.294 8,235 6,016 8,497 3,0,55 4,608 9,113 10,947 8,200 20,129 6,2.33 19,543 4,681 12,s:w 9,4.5.5 ni.w 1.8,126 13,988 7,614 9,48S 1.986 13.144 7,9;m 9,231 7,.5.57 8,975 12,6:i8 M,804 o.ira I.5,.56I 9,027 14.:t09 3.889 ll.OW 4,274 9,229 9,192 4,7.51 11.099 14,137 8,443 9,684 8,186 8,282 5,83o 10,773 5,491 11,738 6.587 8,761 8,748 8,598 27,123 5,649 7,409 8,310 13,415 7,167 7,802 6,205 8,572 6,181 17,111 4,2*1 4,411 8,.599 14,142 11,842 7,706 10,637 5,224 4,474 6,972 9,020 17,069 11,173 7,442 11,002 5,861 13,429 4,3IM 10,015 11.493 12,467 8,628 6,818 11,938 4,496 99,806 5,199 7,373 3,620 »l,4:i9 7,737 7,270 5,872 8,376 2,924 4,479 8,887 7,871 7,147 14,706 4,814 13,271 4,,505 9,493 9,070 county 14,.544 10,099 6,800 8,191 1,970 9,8:H 7,073 8,H2 4,8.58 5,931 11.1195 10,886 7,88.5 14,168 6,217 13,l;« 3,812 13,;«i9 4,173 1,830 1,101 698 1,477 3,623 2,702 1.012 6,677 291 3,679 636 181 1.682 1,194 643 2,078 812 2.S2 640 100 544 9,812 3,715 495 292 809 1,609 3,603 226 22 599 12,513 1,6.56 171 4,663 937 600 3,404 509 i 2,329 407 1,937 461 729 2,276 99 2,378 2,192 5,990 2,438 1,6.33 1,869 SI 19,146 3,439 87 111 1,657 657 965 144 121 131 129 228 3,076 1,0.'.2 8,723 1,419 6,272 179 3,:m3 385 3,582 3,289 814 1,294 16 3,310 861 789 2,699 44 1,633 3,918 1,244 1,393 2,810 1,176 76 641 96 9,509 9,187 7,404 8,692 16,065 12,113 11,196 14,860 6,044 9,.304 11,021 4,980 1.3,236 7,289 7,927 9,318 9,915 20,909 6,578 8,510 6,466 21,627 11,484 6,652 6,781 8.796 7,340 13,549 4,643 "6,886 22,599 12,489 6,388 12,694 6,317 6,056 10,6.il i 8,35r. 16,233 7,982 8,806 8,760 6,213 15,189 5,494 13,779 10,:i48 14,262 11,949 7.008 11,875 3,087 89,404 9.465 6.306 $1,768,973 1.818.615 Anderson iBallard 1.511,100 2.190,.5SS 1 Barren ,Bath 1 Boone 3,333,784 2.i;04,16H j 5,006,925 11,982,749 iBoyd 2,239,177 iBoyle 4,123,535 3,900,888 Ilreatbitt 489,848 Breekenridge ... Bullitt 3,584,220 2,419,859 Butler 1,566,207 Caldwell 2,200,472 Calloway 1.976,765 8,72 1,696 2,2117,236 Carter 1,53.5,0.13 l,432,3i;l Christian 6,294,945 (*huk 6,29l),610 ('lay 886,808 Clinton 870,279 Crittenden <'umberland .... Daviess Ivlmondsuu Elliott 1,769,651 1,234,9^18 7,823,750 874,224 .■K.-i.6U3 tittill 1.. 520,720 14,790,437 4,337,841 ri«yd 685,255 4,923,176 1,434,348 'iallalln 1,862,731 tiarrard (Irant 3,8.36,809 2,841,682 3,732,053 1,606.960 1,219,873 2,949,187 HancocK Hardin Harlan 1,752.31)0 3,72S,8S2 405,396 6,720,070 Hart Henderson 2,535,910 6,434,1.82 6,262,399 1,788,027 Honkins 2,477,2'J6 3.55.385 76.414,971 .Iivs^amiau 4.049,576 684,049 Tosh Hell 2M 944 Kenton Knox Larue 2.5,167 7,707 0,891 6,488 7,601 14,229,8.50 90.5,231 1,542,217 864,922 1,1.52,310 Ue Letcher 8,904 8,361 10,617 7,213 1 19,021 6,307 17,207 1 3,48.'5 12,693 6,982 18.222 10,360 6,144 8,898 310,.502 2,.H9,:H0 4,48.3,920 LivinKHlon 1.. 509, 182 4,269,i:V) 937,674 8,177,420 Mat(ontn .Marion Mar.Hhall Martin ,5.59,8.56 .1.22.3,991 1,487,165 8,171,206 Mi'Cracken MeLean 6,284.816 1,.564,S.23 2,16.5,648 120 773 13,7o{ 0,74-. 8,5.- 1 7,K.v.p «,-.'37 10.7.'3 13,7'.ili Il.i>:!(l 12.209 7.2S3 12,710 6,3:l5 ' 10.443 ' 3,9.50 ! 4,129,231 .Metcalfe I,:in1,(l95 1,217,072 Mont^^omeiy Mortian Multlenbure 3,:.4r.,(l27 7IK,.267 2,4r,2,7.57 5,.l;ill,2IO Nlcholiw Ohio Oldham Owoii 3,090,:1.50 3.313.(»I6 3.194..i52 2,588. i:to OwMcy 617,691 Pt'ndluton. P«rry 2,S»4,:V89 330,083 Countlei. Pop., 1870. White, 1870. Colored, 1870. rss.' TatuntEoD. 1870. Pike 9,.562 2,599 17,670 6,399 7,145 2.991 5,809 11,607 1.5,7.33 9,573 6,9.36 8,226 12,612 13,086 9,460 2,360 16,595 6,142 6,776 2,939 6,316 7,651 io,;«o 7,406 4,477 0,.376 7,7.52 9.880 102 239 1,07,5 2.57 369 32 293 .3,9.55 5,383 2,107 1,479 1,8,50 4,8G0 3,806 4,56 2,574 6,367 2,110 675 1,3.53 138 28 3,825 7,384 2,237 17,201 t910,007 343,819 2,258,090 1,025,147 1,0:«,.531 388,688 1,0.57.097 6,-22,370 8,569,998 2,533,749 2,693,.561 1,4*12,094 2,803,846 2,498,423 1,739,680 3,396,183 -.mv"'. 3,564,004 1,419,585 1,578,643 988,8.52 381,325 .5,981,130 Powell Pulaski Rockcastle 6,343 2,282 6,024 14,417 16,433 8,146 6,188 7,481 11, .575 11,051 5,880 12,791 17,320 11,575 10,259 7,533 7,762 .Scott Shclbv Simpsou Taylor Torid Trimhlo .5,.577 5,121 13,640 11,006 21,742 15,375 12,464 10,;i54 10,6021 9,927 10,9371 9,582 8,278! 8,140 3,603) 3,573 a,240l 4,415 Wasbingloii.. Webster Whitlev Wolfe WoodfoM 11,219 1,15.5,684^ Totals l,321,0Il|l,09S,692 222,210 1 409,544,244 Principal Toirns. — Louisville is the chief city of the State, and had in 1870 a population of 100,753; Coving- ton in Kenton co., opposite Ciucinnati, has nearly 80,OU0 inhabitants; Newport, Campbell co.. and Lexington, Fay- ette CO., have each between Ij.OOO and 20,000 inhiibitaiits ; Paducah, Frankfort (the capital of the Slate), Maysville, and Bowling (irecn have from 5000 to lO.dOO; Henderson, Owensboro', Versailles, llopkiusville. Paris, ^helbyville, Danville, and narrodsI)urg liave less than 5000. lluBsell- ville, llichmond, Lebanon, Cyutbiana, CoUmilius. Franklin, BardstowD, and Ellzabethtown are thriving towns. Ilist'inj. — The territory now included in the State of Ken- tucky was during the greater part of the eighteenth cen- tury, and probably for several hundred years previously, the favorite hunting-ground and home of powcrlui and warlike tribes of Indians, who had given it the name ot' Kentueky, eignifying "the dark and bloody ground." In 1701). Dan- iel Boone, an enter])rising hunter and pioneer, came tliither and established himself where now is Boonesboro'. ^Vithin the next six or seven years other pioneers settled in the territory, and among them such men as Knox, Bullitt, Harrod, Henderson, Kenluu. Calloway, and Logan, all of whom idontilied themselves with the subsequent history of the State. Virginia claimed this whole region as a j>art of her territory, and most of the pioneer settlers were from that colony, but they purehascd tlieir lands from tlie In- dians. On May 2?>, 1775, the settlers met at Boonesboro', and in convention organized themselves as the ''.Assembly of Transylvania." They established courts, enrolled a militia force, and passed laws : but when their doings camo to the knowU-dge of the Virginia legislature they were pro- nounced null and void, though grunts of land were niado to these pioneers. In I77f'i the legislature of Virginia erected its territory S. of the Ohio into the eounty of Ken- tucky, embracing all the country lying between the Big Sandy liiver and the iMississinpi. In 17H.1 thi.x county was constituted a district, and the decisi'ins of its civil and criminal e<iurts were declared to be subject to appeal to tho State courts of Virginia, llarrodsburg had been foun<Ied in 177'l, and Lexington jirobably in the autumn of 1775. During the Revolutionary war the number of settlers rap- idly increased, although, owing tn the eontiiiual hostilities of the Indians, they were nbliged to go e^>n^Ialltly iu-n»e»l, and had numerous and lieree eontlicls with the Clierokecs and other Indian tribes. On Aug. I'J, 17H2, a bloody and desperate battle took plaec between the whites, who num- bered nnly In2, and an Indian force of about 600, near Blue Liek Springs. Col. Boone was prumineul in the bat- tle, and hist a H<tn in it. The Kentuekiana were finally de- fcate<i with the loss of CO of their nunihor. In 17SI tlio people of the district urged that they might bo recognized as a State and admitted into the Union of Stales, They held repented conventions in 17S5, ITMrt. and 17S"; and tho Virginia legislaturi' puf'sed an ordinanee in I7H5 grant- ing a separate organization, but with conditions which caused delay and discontent. In Jan., 1787. the people in cunvtntion agreed to form a State and adopt a constiiu- tinn. but there wre liindrMrifi-s i<n the juirt of Virginia; and intrigue" on the part of the Spanish viremv in Louisi- ana and of emissaries from (*anada, both trying to draw away the district from its nllegianec to the Union, kept it in turmoil, while tho Indian hostilities and depredations were uiakini; the lives of the settlers wretched. At length, when the diifieulties with Virginia seemed about to he sot- tied, the announcement was made that the Constitution of the U. S. had been aeoeplod and ratified, and the wholo oontroversy iu regard to tho organization of the district as 1532 K ENTUCK Y— K EN VOX. a State was handed over to the general government. In 1790 it was made a separate Territory of the U. S., and on Apr. 19 the delegates of the people asaemhled once more in convention (the tenth of these assemblies, wc believe) at Danville, and reported a State constitution, which was soon after ratified, and under which Kentucky was admitted into the Union as a State on June 1. 1792. Its population was at that time about 75,000. For the ne.vt twelve or fourteen years the young State was often in an agitated condition. She had a vital interest in the free navigation of the Mis- sissippi, and in its being at least in the hands of a friendly power. The treaty with Spain in 1705, and its subsequent violation by that power, and the repeated transfers of the territory bordering on the Gulf to and from France, its final purchase by the U. S., the iuterineddling of the Brit- . ish government' and the French minister with the matter. and the wild and treasonable schemes of Aaron Burr and his confederates, all tended to keep the people at fever- heat. In the war of 1812, Kentucky bore an honorable part, though she suffered severely at the battle of French- town anil m the barbarous massacre which followed it, and some of her best citizens were sacrificed in the unfortunate and ill-managed attempt to relieve Fort .Meigs. Somewhat later a civil contest in the St.ate, known as the " Old Court and Xew Court controversv," which virtually involved the question of the repudiation of a debt of doubtful legality by the State, was decided, greatly to her honor, by the maintenance of all her obligations, though they had been obtained by fraud. In the Mexican war the State sent move than her quota of volunteers to the conQict. and their gallant conduct in the field won them lasting renown. In the late civil war the State declared at first her strict neu- trality in regard to both parties to the war, but as it proved Electoral and Popular Votes for President and Vice-President. impossible to maintain this condition, the legislature, after the invasion of the Southern troops in Aug., ISGl, engaged in correspondence with the opposing forces, and finally, after a very exciting discussion, gave in its adhesion to the Union, Nov. 27, ISOl. The State was a recruiting-ground for both armies, and its people were almost equally divided in sentiment. It furnished iu several instances the battle- fields in severe and hotly-contested actions, such as those of Mill Spring, Pcrryville, and Richmond, as well as in the minor conflicrs of Cvnthiana. Elizabethtown, Grcensburg, Lebanon, London, Mount Slorling, Mumfordsville, Pound Gap, Prestonburg, Somerset, and Tobb's Bend, and suf- fered not onlv from the passage of large hostile forces across its tcrritorv,' but from repeated raids to and through the State. It "refused to ratify the fourteenlh and fifteenth amendments to the Constitution, and is the only one of the border States which has remained constantly under Demo- cratic control since t-he close of the war. Governors of the State. — Term '''™'' Isaac Shelby 1792-96 ] Charles A. Wiekliffe .Tames Garrard 1796-1804 (acliUK)--- ]^rf. lb ristonlier Greenup 1S04-08 Robert P.Letcher \'^}{^i ClKules S,..tt l«0K-r2 I William Owsley. 1844-48 Uiac .Shelhv 1812-16 1 John .1. Crittenden IM*"-^? Gmrae Madison 1816-16 i John L Helm (aeting)..^^*-^! Gabriel Slaughter (act- | Lazarus \V. I owell... J^Jl^;^ i„„i 1816-20 Charles S. Morehcad IS.'i.^-.D T I V^"" m*in-''4 "•-■■.!. Tj \(.,.»..fl,», iR5>n-iii Joseph ivsiia;!;'.'.v.'.;!!."!;is24-2s rrU n.. ^Trttrtnlf.* 1S9S— :t'* Thomas Metcalfe 1828-:5'. John Breathitt 1832-84 James T. Morehead (act- ingl iwi-se James Clark 1836-37 Beriah H. Masoflin 1859-01 James F. Robinson 18G1-C3 Thoniaa K. Bramlette....l86»-«7 John L. Helm 1867-67 John W. Stevenson (acting) 1S67-68 John W. Stevenson 1868-72 Preston H. Leslie 1872-75 1792 1796 1800 1 804 1 808 1812 George Washington P... tleorge Clinton V.-P Thomas Jefferson P .\aron Burr V.-P Thomas Jefferson P ,\aron Burr V.-P Thomas Jefferson P Georjie Clinton V.-P James Madison P George Clinton V.-P James M.adison P ElbridKC Gerry V.-P I816ljames Monroe P 1 1). D. Tompkins V.-P t820jJames Monroe P D. D. Tompkins V.-P... 1824 1828 1832 Andrew Jackson P... J. C. Calhoun V.-P Heury Clay P Nathan Sauford V.-P.... Andrew Jackson P J. C. Calhoun V.-P John Quincy Adams P.. Richard Rush V.-P Henry Clay P John Sergeant V.-P .\ndrew Jackson P Martin Van Bureu V.-P. 1836' W. II. Harrison P Francis (irauRer V.-P..., 1 Martin Van Buren P...., R. M. Johnson V.-P 1840 W. H. Harrison P John Tyler V.-P Martin Van Buren X'.... R. M. Johnson V.-P 1844' James K. Polk P George M. Dallas V.-P.. Henry Clay P T. Prelinsbuysen V.-P.. Zacharv Tavlor P Millard" Fillmore V.-P.. LewisCassP W. O. Butler V.-P ISIS Winfield Scott P W. A. Graham V.-P Franklin Pierce P W. R. King V.-P James Buchanan P J.C. Breckenridge V.-P.... John C. Fremont P W. L. Davton V.-P Millard Fillmore P .\. J. Donelson V.-P .-Vbraham Lincoln P Hannibal Hamlin V.-P, J. C. Breckenridge P Joseph Lane V.-P John Bell P Edward Fvcrelt V. P Stephen A. Dousilas P Herschel V. Johnscnl V.-P. Abraham Lincoln P Andrew Johnson V.-P George B. McClellan P G. H. Pendleton V.-P Ulvsses S. Grant P Sehuvler Colfax V.-P ilora'tio Seymour P Francis P. Blair, Jr., V.-P. . Ulysses S. t"iraut P Kenrv Wilson V.-P.... Horace Greeley P B. (iratz Brown V.-P... Charles O'Conor P 12 57.0G8 53,806 74,642 314 67,416 1,361 53,143 66,058 25,651 27,786 64,301 39,566 115,889 88,970 100,208 2,374 For most of the data concerning the topography, geol- cy, etc. of Kentucky we are indebted to Prot. ^. b. Shaler, State geologist of Kentucky and professor in the Lawrence Scientific School, Cambridge, Mass. L. P. Brockett. Kentucky, tp. of White co.. Ark. Pop. U3. Kf^ntucUy, tp. of Jefferson co., Kan. Pop. 1976. Kentucky, tp. of Nicholas co., W. Va. Pop. 015. Kentucky River rises in the mountains of Letcher CO., flows in a tortuous north-westerly course some 250 miles, reaching the Ohio at Carrollton. Its middle and S. forks join the main stream iu Owsley co. Its head-streams flow through a rough region, abounding in iron, coal, and salt. Great amounts of money have been expeudeil in im- proving the navigation of ibis beautiful stream, which steamboala now ascend to Frankfort, 60 miles, and flat- boats for 150 miles. At high water cargoes are floated down from its head-streams. Kent'ville, post-v., cap. of King's CO.. Nora Scotia, on the river Cornwallis and on the Windsor and Annap- olis Railway, 5il miles N. E. of Annapolis. It contains the principal otfices, car-shops, and engine-house of the railway, and has 1 weekly paper. The scenery is fine, the soil fertile, the mineral wealth great. Pop. of sub-dis- triot, 1779. Ken'yon, post-tp. of Goodhue oo., Minn., 14 miles E. of Faribault. Pop. 6Z3. Kenyon (Jonx). b. in Jamaica about nS-^i, son of a wealthv idanter : was educated at the Charter-house. Lon- don, and at Peterhouse College, Cambridge; cultivated the friendship of Coleridge, Soulhey, and A\ ordsworth and published two or three volumes of verses, not without merit; but will be chiefly remembered for the generosity with which he distributed his large fortune among eighty legatees, many of whom were distinguished in literature. B W. Procter" (Barrv Cornwall) received ±ri..00 ; Dr. Hen- ry Southey, £SO0O ; Robert and Elizabeth B. Browning (the i latter his" cousin), £10,000. D. at Cowes, Isle ot Wight, Dee. 3, 1850. ' Kenyon (Li-ovn), Lonn, b. at Gredington, Flintshire, Wales Oct 5 1732; studied at the Middle Temple; was called'to the bar in 1750; was associated in praelice with Dunning; became attorney-general in 1 , .s2: master of the rolls in 17S4 : and on the retirement of Lord Mansfield was ' by Pitt made chief-justice of the king's bench, with the title of Lord Kenyon, Baron (-,redington-apos which he held till his death, which occurred at Bath in 1S02. Uo made an immense fortune at the bar, but was dislike, for his arrogance. His grandson, George J. Kenyon published a i.'/'c (Lon., 1S73), for the purpose of justifying his character. KKNYON COLLKGK— KEPLER. 1533 Kenyon College, situated atGambier. 0., comprises | three distinct ychooU — the theological seiuinary. Keuyon College, and the grammar Bchool, It wa-- f'ouiHled in 1825 under the cor|H»rate name of the Theological t^rmiiiary of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the diocise of Ohio, aud opened al WDrlhingtoij, near Columbus, with the purpose of rearing up miuiiiters of the gospel in the mid8t of the habits and circumstances and with all the facilities of econ- omy of the Western country. As pupils in elementary gci- enoo and the chu-^sioa increased, an act of tiie U-git-lature was obtained by which the president and pri»fetsors were con- stituted the faculty of a college by the name of Kenyon Col- lege, and the institution, thus moiiificd and enlarged, was transferred to Uambier in 1S28. The growth of tlie insti- tution is shown by the institution of its professurships : Latin and Greek in 1.S25: intellectual and moral pliiios- ophy in IS2'J; mathematics, natural philosopliy, and chem- istry in 1S:J0; logic and rhetoric in If^.U ; mathematics and civil engineering, separate from natural philosophy and chemistry, in 1854; Knglish literature and history in iSjC) ; ond in the theological department: systematic divinity' in ls;JO; ecclesiastical polity, pastoral divinity, and sacred literature in 1833; ecclesiastical history in IS37; ancl pas- toral theology in 18i)D, In 1839 the seminary and college faculties were organized separately hy an net of the legis- lature, which conferred upon the former power to confer degrees in divinity, and upon the latter power to confer de- grees in the arts and sciences. The situation of the college is beautiful and heulthy, on a headland to the N. of the valley of the Kokosing, and in easy communication with Cleveland, Sandusky. Columbus, and Cincinnati. Itsbuild- ingii are elegant and comfortable. Its property — real estate, buildings, farmlands, and endowments for jirofessorships — amounts to$4jO,UOl), According to the constitution adopted in IS21, recognized by the act of incorporation, and modified in 1870, the board of trustees consists of the bishops of all dioceses which may embrace territory now within the limits of the diocese of Ohio, the assistant bishop of the diocese in which the seminary is situated, the president of KenyoD College, 4 cierical and 4 lay trustees chosen for terms of ten years by the board of trustees. 3 clerical and 3 lay trustees elected for terms of three years by the dio- cesan conventions, and 2 clerical an<l 2 lay trustees chosen by the alumni for terms of four years. At the publication of the triennial catalogue in 1873 the number of gradu- ates was 555 — namely, from Kenyon College 453, and from the theological seminary 170; 68 were graduates of both schools. Kli T. Tappax. Ke'okuk, county of S. E. Iowa. Area. 57r> square miles. It is well watered, and consists of prairie lands with groves of trees. The soil is good. There are productive mines of coal. The county is traversed \>y a ln-uiieh of the Chi- cago Hock Island and Pacific K. R. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. Carriages and wagons are leading ar- ticles of manufacture. Cap. Sigourney. Pop. 19,434. Keokuk, city. cap. of Lee co., la., on tho W. bank of the Missis-^ippi Kiver, near its confluence with the Des Moines, about midway between lUirlinglon and Quiney. 135 miles H. K. of l)es Moines. an<l 2uu miles above St. Louis. It lies at the foot of tho lower rapids, which aro 12 mites long with a fall of 2i feet, and is at the head of navigation for tho larger class of steamboat navigation; is a port of delivery, and being in the extreme S. E. corner of the State, hnn received the name of'Minte City." Keo- kuk is built on lime-tone blutVs 150 feet high, overlooking tho river, and surrounded by a rich and productive dis- trict; is well built, chiefly of brick, .Main street, the prin- cipal thoroughfare, being 100 feet wide and more than a mile in length. A mugnilieent iron ruilrond and liighway bridge, 2300 feet in length, spans llie Mississippi; *i lines of stcam-poekels ply daily to and fro ; (i railroads aro eom- Idctcd and 3 others aro projected. It has 20 churches, 4 >anks, 2 daily and 3 weekly newspapers, 1 religious monthly in Sweiiish, 1 medical college, 4 large public- school buildings ( briek, costing $l25.lt00), a U. S. court- room, a public library, gaswork-*, u loan an<l building association, an<l several large pork-packing establishments. A large wholesale business is d'ine in dry goods, groceries, boots and shoe.-i, and all kinds of merchandise. Tho U.S. givernnjcTit is eoustrueting a ship-canal, U miles long and not less than 3IH) fiu-t wide, around the lower rapids at a cost of about $S.O0O,OuO. Ity it a first-class water-power will bo secured for manufacturing ]iurpo8e8. Pop. in 1850, 2478; in lsf>0, 8130: in 1870. 12,7(>fi. Enii: J. LI:^:l'Il, Sc*\ of Citiscna* A»»ociation, Keokuk, tp. of Wapello co., la. Pop. 700. Keokuk .hinotioii, post-v. of Adams co.. III., at tho jnni'tion of llie (Jalesluirg and t^uincy division of the Clu- engo Hurlington and (Quiney K. H. and the Keokuk branch of the Toledo Wabash and Western U. U. Ke'osauqua, post-r., cap. of Van Buren co., la. It has I weekly newspaper. Pop. 869. Keo'wee, post-tp. of Oconee co., S. C. Po]>. H20. Kep'lcr, or Keppler (Johann), b. at MagPtatt. near Weil, Wiirtemberg. Dec. 27 (or 21), 1571. His father. Henry Kepler, was a soldier in tho Netherlands under the duke of Alva: his mother. Catherine Guidenmann, was daughter of an innkeeper, antl was \inahle to rend or write. Johann came intti the wctrld by a premature birlh, and ex- perienced a severe attack of smallpox at six years of ngc. and another nearly mortal illness at thirteen, which left permanent traces upon his constitution, so that he was a sutferer through lile from fevers and jicriodical diseases. In early childhood he was taken from school to serve as waiter in a miserable inn his father liad set np at Elmcr- dingen. but as the business diil not prosper, the father en- listed as a soldier against the Turks and was never heard from again. Young Kepter. having had to sutler from the severities of his mother, sought refuge ui(h an only sister married to a Protestant minister, and the latter, fin<Iing tho hoy too feeble to work in the fields, obtained for him in 1586 admission to a Protestant monastic seho(d at Maul- bronn ; and having shown aptness for learning, he was sent in 158S. at the expense of the duke of Wurtemberg. to the University of Tiibingen to prepare for the ministry, and took his degree of M. A. in 15',H, His theses on theolog- ical topics exhibited too great freedom to merit the appro- bation of that faeulty, and. abandoning his studies in that department, be turned with eagerness to the astronomical theories of Koperniek (Co])ernicus) as expounded by Mostlin. His proficiency was such that in J50I. at the age of twenty-two, he was ap|)ointed professor of mathe- matics at the Ihiiversity of (iratz in Styria. where the saino year ho ]iublished an almanac, and in 15(10 n co^^mograpli- ical treatise filled with erode fancies drawn from a mixture of theology with nialheniatics. In 1507 he married a beau- tiful widow of noble birth. liarbura Muller von Mnlech. and was required by her t<i produce proofs of his own nobility, which ho is said to have done, but tho evidences furnished by the innkeeper's son could scarcely have been very satis- factory: at nil events, the union was not n happy one. In 150'J ft series of religious persecutions began in Styria. and culminated two years later in the expulsion of the Protest- ant professors from the University of (^iriitz. Kepler had visited Tycbo llrahe. the most eminent astrononiir of the time, at Peiiach. near Prat;ue. in liiliO, and joyfully accept- ed an invitation to aid him in the ealculr.tion of a new set of '* Kudolphinc" astronomical tablfs ordered by the em- peror Rudolph II., who was ambitious of scientific honors and wished to replace the Ptolemaic and Copcrnican tables by others bearing liis own name. Unfortunately. Kepler, who entered ujton liis new labors in Si-pt.. lOdl. as assist- ant imperial mathcmaticiRn, found it impossible to live in harmony with Tyeho. The latter doled out a niggardly salary tlorin by fiorin, and Madame Kepler bad to make jiersonal solicitations in ord»T to collect anything. Tycho died the following month [Oct. 21). find Ke])ler succeeded to his post, with a nominal salary of 1501) Horins jier an- num, but the imperial treasury being low and payments rare and irregular, he had to eke out a livelihood by east- ing nativities. Astrology was then an admitted branch of astronomy, and in a treatise on that subject, />«■ Fmultunfutin ylWnj/o»/(V(1602), Kepler expounde<l the inilueneeof ]dan- etary conjunctions upcin hnnnin destinies. A treatise on optics, /'itrriflponKii*! nil ViuUinuem ( I (lOn, exhibited ac- curate reseandies into the structure of the eye, and fur- nished the formulas which have been ever since employed in tho calculation of eclipses. In ft work published in H1116, Ih St'Un .Voivi mi jmir Scrprutfirii, etc., Ke]der. be- sides describing a new star in the ctmstidlation of the Ser- pent, made the correction of I'our years in the era of the birth of Christ which has since been accepted. In lOdD appeared his greatest work, the AHtrmioinia iVorvi, com- piled from the observations of Tycho Itrahe. supplemented ny his own, in which the motions of the planet Mars were made the basis for two of the important corrections of the received astronomical theorii'S known as Kepler's Laws — namely, the cllipticity of the planetary orbits, and the fact that the U viiM s VriToii (which see) of every planet pasM s over cqmil areas in etpml times. These brilliant discoveries were, as Kepler truly said in his title-page, "wrought out by persistent research extending over nmny years" i/'fti- riuiii iinimnim /ttrthntrt utuiiio rlnfuirftta), the mathematical oaleulatioits having been ten times repeated for every op- position of Mars, and each filling ten ])ages of figures. All this was without the aid of logarithms, which wc re not in- vented until five years later (by Napier in 161 lb Kepler's worbily position was not imjiroved by these wonderful re- searches; his salary was 12.000 crowns in arrears; Iho emporor refused him permission to accept a professorship 1534 KEPPEL— KKRATKY, DE. elsewhere; he lost his wife and three bods by the smallpox; i a conflict arose between Rmiolph and his brother Matthias ' for the crown of Bohumiii; i'mj^ue was attacked by the troops of the former (IGll), and was devastated by the plague. ; Uudolph, having resigned the crown the same year, died at Prague soon after (.Ian. 20, 1()12), and Matthias having be- come emperorof Germany, as well an kinj^ of Bohemia, con- I firmed Kepler as imperial astronomer, allowed him to accept the prnfe?sc)rship of mathematics at (he Vniversity of Linz, and in lOlil summoned him to the diet at Ratisbon to per- j suade the Protestant princes of the necessity of accepting } the Grecjoriau correction of the calendar, for whieh purpose i he wrote a short treatise. In 1615 he married his second I wife. Susanna Rettinijer. after a careful scrutiny of tho ! comparative advantages of an alliance with no less than eleven ladies, an estimate of whose charnefers he has left on record in a letter to Baron Strahlendorf About the same time his aged mother, who still lived in the duchy of ■\Vurtemberg. became a victim of her son's scientific repu- tation. She was formally accused of "having learned magic from an aunt, who was burned as a witch, of having frequent interviews with the devil, of being unable to shed tears, of killing the pigs in tho neighborhood by riding them at night, of not being able to look in the eyes of per- sons with whom she talkeil. and of having hired the grave- digger to exhume her husband's skull to make of it a cup for a present to her son Kepler." This trial lasted five years, and only a personal appeal (in 1020) made by Kep- ler to the grand duke saved his mother from the flames. She was released only after every ignominy short of actual torture, though bravely maintaining her innocence, and d. in T()22. At Linz. Kepler was now denounced by tho Catholic priests as not only a heretic, but as the son of a witch. During these sufferings he had worked out tho third and greatest of his immortal laws — namely, "that the squares of the periods of revolution of any two planets are to each other as the cubes of their mean distances from the sun." This discovery was made, as Kepler was careful to record, on May 15, 1018, after seventeen years of study upon the observations of Tycho : it was published in IfilO at Tjinz, in a folio volume, flunnouiri h Mmuli L ihri V., dedi- cated to King James I. of England, the father-in-law of the elector palatine, who had just become king of Bohemia, and whose claims to the imperial crown gave rise the same year to the Thirty Years' war. The rival candidate, Fer- dinand II., deposed as king by the states of Bohemia in tho same month that he was elected emperor of (iermany (of the Romans), desired to conciliate the favor of men of science; ho offered to pay Kepler's arrears of salary and to enable him to issue the '' Rudolphine Tables,'' but tho breaking out of the great war postponed for years the ful- filment of the promise. At last, after a delay of a quarter of a century, they were pulilishe<l at ITlm in 102". At tho invitation of Wallenstein, Kepler removed in 1020 to Sagan in Silesia, and soon after received an appointment as pro- fessor at the University of Rostock. Having gone to Ratislion in lfi.*iO to negotiate in vain for the payment of his long arrears of salary, he d. there Xov. 15, and was buried in St. Peter's churchyard, tho spot being now cov- ered by a tompTe-monument erected to his memory in 1S03. He composed his own epitaph in tho following striking words : " Mcnsus cram coclos, nunc terrte metior umbras : Mens cceicstis erat, corporis umbra jacet." (•'T have measured the heavens; I now measure the shades of tho earth. The mind was of heavenly origin : only tho shadow of the body lies here.") Kepler published, besides the works already specified, an abstract of the Ci)pcrnican system, Epitome Afitronomi'ir Copcrnictr, in T //. h'lirot dt- ffeNta, etc. (liinz, 2 vols.. lOlS-22) ; a treatise on Ih'optrica (Frankfort. IGll ; London. 105.^), which in the opinion of Sir David Brewster hii«l the foundation of optics; a small work on Comets (1019); several series of Epfiemcride^, and numerous minor productions on astrology or other subieets, written chiefly for bread. His total published works were .^:i in number, and he left 22 volumes of IMSS,, of whieh (hose containing the correspondence were printed in 171S. and the remainder were included in a new edition of all his works published at Frankfort in 8 vols. (1858-70). PonTER C. Bmss. Kep'pel (ArGusTFs), Viscofnt. b. Apr. 2, 1725, was a son of the second earl of Albemarle; entered the navy in 1710; circumnavigated the world with Lord Anson: was made rear-admiral in 1702. For many years ho was very successful in isolated nnviU engagements, commanding a single vessel or a small squadron. In hie only general en- gagement with the French, whieh took place near t^shant in July, 1778. the victory remained uncertain, and Keppel was tried by court-martial, but acquitted, and his conduct approved, lie was several times first lord of the admiraltj; WM in 1782 made Viscount Kcppcl of Elvedou, and d. in Suffolk Oct. 2, 1786. Keppel (Sir Henrv), K. C. B.. a younger son of the earl of Albemarle, and an admiral in the English navy, b. June 14, IS09 ; entere<i the navy af an early age; was lieu- tenant in 1829, commander in IS.I.'J, captain in I8;i7, com- modore in 1856, vice-admiral in 1807, and full admiral in 1809. His early service was on tho Enst India, Mediter- ranean, and Cape of (Jood Hope stations, and on the coast of China, where he commanded the Dido 18(1—15; in the Crimean war he commanded the naval brigade before Se- bastopol : was again (1850-57) in command on tho Chinese waters, and created K. C. B. for the destruction of a Chi- nese war-fleet; naval commander-in-chief at Cape of Good Hope ISOO, from whence he was transferred to the Brazil- ian station; vice-admiral and comniander-in-ehief on the China and Japan station 1807-60. returning to England in the latter year as admiral. Auth<tr of Expedition to Bor- neo and Visit to the India)} Archipffftf/o. Ker'atine [<lr. Ktpai;, "hem"] (another name that has been proposed is Elnstilie\ a chemical term which has been introduced to designate a supposed specific substance forming the bai^is of a large class of animal substances, such as horns, hotfn, nuija, elaiee, wool, hair, /ent/ttrs, cuti- cle, etc. No sufficient correspondence has yet appeared, however, in analyses of preparations made by nny of the methods yet tried upon these substances, to justify the es- tablishment of a specific name for all. The entire insol- ubility of all of them in all solvents yet tried— except al- kalies, which show chemical change by evolving sulphur- etted hydrogen — has been the (djstaclc to their purification. After boiling them in fine shavings with water, alcohol, ether, concentrated acetic acid, and dilute soda, until all is removed soluble in these agents^ Schercr found mean re- sults about as follows: ButTnlo horns. Humno nails. Carbon 51.23 50.94 HvdroDjen 6.66 0.77 Nitrogen 17.18 16.80 5V^"^ I 24.23 24.99 Fulphur ) Ashes 0.70. _fl50 'lOO.OO 100.00 Another chemist, named Lear, found, as a mean of two analyses of human hair, calculated without the ashes — Carbon 50.42 Hydrogen 6.34 Nitroeen '7.38 Oxvpen 20.91 Sulphur 5.00 100.00 Lenr made also some examinations of tho ashes of hair of different colors: Percentage of ashos. Peroxide of iron. Brown hair From 0.32 to 1.10; from 0.00 lo 0.-39 Black hair " 1.02 " 1.15; 0.21 Bed hair " 0.54 " 1.85; " 0.17 " 0.27 Gray hair '* 0.75 " 1.00; 0.23 Other constitnents of tho ashes were chloride of sodium, sulphates of lime and magnesia, phosphate of lime, and silica. Comparing the composition of hair with that nf tho proteids (see article on Ai.ut mivn). it apjiears that it3 carbon atid hydrogen are somewhat less, its nitrogen some- what less, and its oxygen about the same; but the main diiTerenco appears to be in the sulphur, whieh is /our or fire tiinrti as larue. According to some fashionable notions of the day, as that of pho=phoretted food to nourish the brain and bones, and so forth, sulphuretted food should possibly siimulato the growth of the hair; but there is as yet little probability, and less evidence, of the validity of such notions. Hkvrv Wi rtz. K^ratry, de ("ArcusTE Hii,.\rion). b. at Bennes Oct. 2^. 17G0. After the restoration of the Bourbons he was a warm and courageous supporter of liberal measures, and enntributed very much to the revolution of IS^O. Louis Philippe made liim a peer of Franco in L'*.''.7. He opposed Xnpolenn strongly, and after the coup d'/tat he lived in retirement. I), in Nov., ISfjO. Besides a great number of pnmplilets and minor essays, among which was Questions «? Vnrdrc dit /our i\^?-7), he wrote seveniJ large novels and books of art -criticism: Fr^dfric .^naidall (1827), Saphira (1S,?5). Dn hrrtu dnvn hs arts d' imitation (1822). K^ratrv, de (Estii.t:), Coi-vt, son of Auguste, b. in Paris Mar.20. 18^2. From an old feudal family of Britta- nv. he abandoned its legitimist traditions, served as a vol- unteer during the Crimean war, then as a French gucrillero in the Mexican campaign 1P0.V05, nnd published afterwards in several reviews some articles denouncing the frauds and impolicy of the imperial intervention in ?dexico. He thus gained some celebrity, and in 1 809 was returned to the Corps L^'gislatif as an opposition deputy by tho Brest electoral district. AVhen the revolution of 1870 burst out, K6ratry KEHBELA— KEROSENE. 1535 was made at first prefect of police of Paris ; then ns gene- ral of division he organized nearly fifty ImUalions in Bre- tagno ; came into conflict with tiiirabetta and the hiwyers, whom he acci^ed of incapacity : and was prclVct nf Tou- louse and of Marseilles undcrthc Thiers Kovi'rninent ( 1871- 72). Felix Aicakjnp:. Kcrbe'la, or .>feshed-Hossf in, a city of Asiatic Turkey, [irovince of Irak'-Arabi, 50 miles S. AV. of 6at;dnd. Pop. estimated at 2t>,000. It has five p:ntc!?. a well-supplied bazaar, and 7 caravanseries, and derives ;;ieat sanctity in Muhumiiiedan eyes from the ma.a;nificent tomb of Hussein, who was killed here. It is a place of pilj^rimapc. largely inhabited by Persians, and much coveted by Persian monarchs. KerToot (.Tons Baruett). LL.D.. b. Mar. 1, ISIfi. at Dublin, Ireland, and educated at FIu«hin:j Institute and St. Piiur.-* Cnllege. N. Y.. whence he {graduated in 1 834 : was or- dained deacon Mar. 1, 18;J7 : priest. Mar. 1. 1S40 :and bishop of tho diocese of Pittsburg Jan. 25, ISfifi; received the degree of 1>. D. from Columbia College, N. Y.» in 1850, and from Trinity College, Cono., in 1865 : and the degree of LL.I>. from tho I'niversity of Cambridge, England, in 1807: was president of St. James's College. Md., 1812-64, and of Trinity College, Hartford, Conn.. 1861-66 ; and published baccalaureate anil other college addresses, sermons, episco- pal addresses, and charges. Ker'guelen Land, an island in the Indian Ocean, taking its name from the French navigator who discovered it in 1772, lOU miles long and 50 mile^ broad, is situated iu lat. 4'J° 54' S. and Ion. 70° 10' E. It has many bays and inlets, and a harbor at the northern extremity was <inc of tho stations for American and British observers of the transit of Venus in Dec, 1874. Seals formerly abounded, but aro no\T extint;t ; large flocks of wild fowl still remaiu. The island is barren, covered with moss, and has but a few flowering plants, the most important of which is the so- catted '* Kerguelcn's Land cabbage," the Priugha antt- trnrbntirn^ a cruciferous plant, having a head somewhat like that of the cabbage. It has pungent qualities, like those of horse-radish and mu^tar<l, and a'munds in a volatile oil. It is antiscorbutic, and is valued as fond by mariners. Kerkook% a large town of Koordistan, Asiatic Turkey, 100 miles S. K. of Mosul and UO mile? X. of Bagdad. Po*p, Ili.OoO. The town stands on a commanding eminence nearly perpendicular on all sides: it has numerous mos<|Ucs and three Catholic churches. Near by are inexhaustible sup- plies of naphtha, whieh is the principal commodity. Kerl^rec, de fLoris Billoiart), Crevai-ier, b. at Quim])f'r, France, in 1704; entered the marine corps at flcvonteen years of age ; was in fourteen campaigns, dis- tinguishing himself on board the Neptune in the memora- ble coniliats of .Aug. and Oct., 1716, and Oct. 21, 1747, in tho latter of which he was in comman<l after his .superiors had been killed or wounded. In 1752 he was apjtointcd governor of Louisiana, and remained at that post for ten years, comprising the whole period of the ."^evon Years' war. Returning to France in 17(14. he was charged with peculation and undue severity, anil thrown into the Bas- lilo. Sentence of exile was pronounccil in 176*.), but he was about to submit new evidences to the tribunal wlien he d. at i*aris ."^ept. It, 1770. He wrote memoirs upon Louisiana, never published and supposed tu be lost. Kerinan%the ancient CarrtmaHin,a province of Persia, extending along the tJulf of Persia, from Farsistan in the W. to Beloochistan in the E. It comprises an area of about 65,000 square miles, with only 600.000 inhabitants. The northern part is a desolate plain, where no life can exist, and oven the southern mountain-land, though interspersed with fertile and beautiful valleys, is nio<<tly barren and rustijed rocks. The province is very little known, however, with the exception of the route from Belooehistan along the southern border of the desert, and that fr(»m the capital, Korman, to the sea-coast. The province has a lireed of camels and goats whieh are fammis for their long, silky hair. Kerman, town of Persia, the capital of tho province of Kerman. in lat. 20° 48' N. and Ion. 56° MV E. It was formerly much more flourishing than now. whieh is appar- ent from the fields of ruins that surround it. but its manu- factures ()f shawls and carpets are still celebrated, and it has some importance as a fortress. Pop. .10.000. Kermanshah', town of Persia, the capital of a district of the same name in the proviDce of Irak-Ajcmi. in lat. 114° 30' N. and Ion. 45° 37' E. It is a flourishing town, with elegant mosques and palaces and beautiful promcimdes. and is noted for the manufacture of Persian carpets. In the vicinity is the celebrated rock of Behistun. whose trilingunl inscription furnished the key to tho Assyrian tin4 r.ld Per- sian languages. It carries on a very brisk trade with Bag- dad, Tcbcran, and Ispahan. Pop. 35,000. Ker'mes [Arab., "little grnb"], or Scarlet Grain, a dyestuff formerly once used extensively for producing a biood-red. It is still emjiloyed in Spain. Africa, and the East, but is to a great extent replaced elsewhere by Cociit- NKAi. (which see). Kernics is the dried bodice of Cocvitn fViVtV, an insect inhabiting the kermcs oak, an evergreen shrub-oak of Spain and tlie Levant. Kermcs furnishes a more durable but less brilliant color than cochineal. Kermcs >Iincral, amorphous trisulphidc of antimony, esL'cntially Sb^iS^. The preparation user! in medicine con- tains oxide of antimony, and is liencc callc<l oxysulphide of antimony. The mode of preparation for this purpose is simply to boil the commercial gray sulphide of antimony with an alkaline carbonate, filter, and cool for twenty-four hours, when a brown-red powder is founil to have deposited, which is washed and dried. Tlie jmrc amorphous trisul- phide is olitained by fusion, and sudden cooling in water, of the native crystalline trisulphidc. also by dissolving tho latter in caustic potash, and prccijtitating with an acid. It is harder than the native sulphide, and its powilcr is red-brown, but lighter in color than the impure comp<iund containing oxido used in medicine under the name of mineral kcnnea. H. WiRTZ. Ker'messe [Flcm. l-erkmcsif, from ktrk, "church," and »)«»»]. formerly religious and parochial festivals, but now more exclilsively ordinary and secular enjoyments. These arc nearly the same in Flemish countries, Belgium and Holland, as in any other country of old Europe; but tho kcrmesses of Flanders are more extensively known, because the custom was more strictly adhered to, and be- cause attention was called to them through some celebrated paintings of Teniers and other great Flemisli artists. Dances, Ijanquets, target-sliooting, all sorts of comical and even clcrieal processions, formed the bulk of popular amuse- ment during the kcrmesses, which were sometimes rather licentious affairs — a motive which induced Joseph 11.. llien ruler of Flanders, to order that they should all of them be celebrated on the same day. That rule disappeared with the Austrian domination. Felix Aitaicnk. Kern, county of S. California. Area, estimated at 7800 square miles. It is partly mountainous, being traversed by the Sierra Nevada, and having the Coast Range on the W. On the X. W, of the Sierra Nevada is the l>asin whence flow the head-streams of the San Joaquin. Here is pon:c tule-land which may be made very proiluctive. S. E. of the mountains there is a basin which has no connection with the sea. Wool is the staple product. Cap. Haviloh. Pop. 2025. Kern, a v. of AVhite Pine co., Nev. Pop. 36. Kern (Jean Co-srad), LL.D., b. at Berling;en, Switzer- land, in ISOS; stuclied at the gymnasium of Zurich, at tho univerbities of Bale, Berlin. Heidi'lberg, and Paris, devot- ing himself lirst to iheol()i;y, and aftcrwanU to law, in which latter brnncii he took the degree of doctor. He sat in tho diet of 18.^3; became in 1837 president of the su- jireme court of his native canton, Thurgnu ; aided in re- vising the Swiss constitution in 1S48: and became distin- guished for eloquence as a member of the National Assem- bly. In IH57 anil isiil he was sent as plenipotentiary to Paris for tho management of vital interests, and in 1S75 ho became president of the Swiss Confederation. Ker'nan (Francis), b. at Tyrone, Steuben co., N. Y., .Ian. 1 (. 1^*16; gra<luated at Georgetown College, D. C, ami immetliately thereafter began the study of law, enter- ing upon practice at Vtica in 1S:HI; was reporter of the court of appeals 1854-57, and in 1S62 was elected by the Democratic party to Congress. In IS72 he was tho candi- 'latc of the same party for governor of New York, but was not elected : in IH75 was chosen C S. Senator by the legis- lature of New York. J. B. Bisiiui*. Kern Lake, in Kern co.. Cal., is connected with Kern Biver by a slough. It is full of fish, and is in part over- grown with tule (Scirjni» tal{(liin). All kimls of game- birds, otter, beaver, raccoons, and other game, are found in the tule around it. It is in a very fertile region. Its size varies with the rainfall. Kern llivor rises in Tulare co., Cal.. flows S. and S. W. through a grandly picturesque region. an<i finally divides into two parts— one Mowing N. W. and N. into Tulare Lake, and one into the lute-region about Kern and Buena Vista lakes, with wliieh it is connected. Its upper waters abound in tine trout. Its waters aro finally discharged into Tularo Lake. Kern Kiver Slonf^h, a chnnnel by which at high water the surplus contents of the Tulnrc Lake in Califor- nia flow northward into San Joaquin River. .At ordinary staRcs Tulare Lake has no communication with the ocean. Ker'osenc [from Gr. xiipoc, "wax," and i\atov, "oil"], 1536 KERR— KKTONES. a term applied by Abraham Gesner in 1840 to oil distilled from coul in Prince Edward's Island. It has since become the general term lor those hydrocarbon oils which arc suit- able for burning in lamps, from whiiicver source obtained. Most of the kcrof^enc now u^ed is relined petroleum. (See Oil fhom Coal, Siialk Oil, and Pktuolelm.) Kerr, county of S. W. Central Texa?. Area. S18 sqimre miles. It is partly mountainous, but has much fertile land. Stoek-niising and' timber-cutting are the principal indus- trial pursuits. The cypress timber is of e.\ct:llcut quality. Cap. KerrsviUe. Pop. 1012. Kerr, tp. of Champaign co.. 111. Pop. 3G1. Kerr (Johm Bozman), son of -lohn L. Kerr. b. at Easton, Md..Mar. 5, 1809: graduated at Harvanl in 1830: admitted to the bar in IS.''.^ ; was elected a member of the general assembly of Maryland in ]8;',0 ; Uepresentative in Congress in 1S48; and was sent in 1851 as charge d'affaires toiJuate- mala. where he saved the lives of some prominent citizens during a revolution, and received the thanks of the govern- ment of that republic. On bis return he resumed the prac- tice of law at Ilaltimore, and was afterwards deputy solicitor of the court of claims at Washington. D. Jan. 27, 1878. Kerr (John L.),b. at Greenbury Point, near Annapolis. Mil., Jan. 15, 1780; graduated at St. John's College in 1791): became distinguished at the Maryland bar: was Representative in Congress from 1825 to 1820 and from 1S:U to 1883, an.l U. S. Senator from 18-11 to 1843. D. at Easton, Md., Feb. 21, 1844. Kerr (Michael C), b. near Titusville, Pa., Mar. 15, 1827; studied law at the University of Louisville; settled at Xcw Albany, Ind. : was elected to the State assembly in 18J)J : reporter t) the State sujireme court in 1862, and published 5 vols.: in 18(j4: was elected as a Democrat to Congress, and re-elected in 186^. ]Sfi8. 1870, and 1874, and in ls7o was ehusen Sjieaker of the House. B. at Hock - bridge Alum Springs, Va., Aug. lit, 1876. Kerr's Creek, tp. of Rockbridge eo., Ya. Pop. 1833. Kerrs'ville, post-v., cap. of Kerr co., Texas, 83 miles W. by S. of Austin. Ker'ry, county of Ireland, in the province of Munster, bouniled N. by the estuary of the Shannon and W. by the Atl.iutic. Area, 1853 square miles, with 1U6.014 inhabit- ants: 201,800 in 1861. and 238,2:19 ia 1851. The surface is mountainous; the highest muuntain of Ireland, Cnrran Tual, 3410 feet, is found here, and the scenery is often very beautiful, as, for instance, around the hikes of Kilhirney. Rut the soil is rather inferior, and still more so is its culti- vation. Oats, ])otatocs, and turnijis arc the chief crops; dairying and fishing the chief occupations. The ]>npuhition is very jtoor. The principal towns are Tralec and Killarney. Ker'seymere [originally the same as cassimcrc. and probaldy derived from Crfihniere]. a thin, fine-wool fabric manufactured chiefl\' in the W. of England, and often called heinnfy for brevity. Also a coarse-twilled, hmg-wool fabric for men's wear, made mostly in the N. of England: this also is called kf^rsey. The modern cnssimevrt! are phiin or figured woollen or ciittnn-and-wocdlen goods, made in the U. S. and Europe, and designed for men's wear. Ker'shaw, county of X. South Carolina. Arcn, 750 square miles. It is traversed by the M'ateree River and a branch of the South Carolina R. R. It has an uneven sur- face and a soil generally fertile. Cotton, corn, and rice are staple products. Cap. Camden. Pop. 11,754. Kershaw (J. R.), b. in South Carolina; was a prom- inent actor in the American civil war from the first battle of Bull Run, July, 1861, where he commanded a regiment of South Carolina volunteers which was raiseil prim-ipally by himself; subsequently, as brigadier-general, he eoiu- manded a brigade throughout the Virginia Peninsula cam- paign of 1862: at the second battle of Rull Run : engaged in the capture of Harper's Ferry. Sept. 15, I8r.2. iind in the battle of Antietam two days later: at the battle of Fred- ericksburg, where his command held the strong position of Maryc's Heights, so fatal to their opponents; at Chancellors- ville and at (xettysburg; transferred to the West with the corps of Longstreet. he was engaged in the battle of Chieka- mauga and the subsequent siege of Knoxville. Returning to Virginia in 18(14, now major-general, he commanded a division in the final campaign of Lee's army, terminating at Appomattox Court-house. Since the war he has acted a prominent part in the politics of South Carolina. Kertch [the ancient PnntSinpmim^ town of Russia, in the government of Tauridn. on the eastern side of the Crimean peninsula, on the Strait of Kaffa. It was a flour- ishing town, with an extensive trade and 23,000 inhabit- ants, when in 1855 it was taken by the allied French and English in the Crimean war, and sacked bv the soldiery. Paiiticapmim was founded by the Greeks of Miletus in the sixth century D. c. It was the capital of the ancient king- dom of Bosporus, was annexed to the Roman empire by Pompey 63 n. c. ; conquered successively by the Huns (375), the Genoese (1280), the Turks (1475), and the Russians (1771). It is alleged to have been a residence of Mithri- dates, the ruins of whose palace are found on a hill adjoin- ing Kertch. Ker'ton, tp. of Fulton co.. 111. Pop. 504. Ker'vyn dc Let'tenliove (Joseph Mahik Brpno Co5- stantin). b. at St. Michel. Flanders (now Belgium), Aug. 17, 1817 ; engaged in histori(^al researches in early life, and became one of the most distinguished authorities upon the antiquities of Belgium. Among his works are ^tudc nur les Cfirtnn'i/ur» (ie Froissnrt (1856), Hixtoirc de Flnndre (6 vols., 1847-50), both which obtained premiums for distinguished merit; t/a^'/f/^s f/'^lrfpcrWf (1863). an edition of the Z.rr^*e« et X<'ffnci<itiims (h: f*hHippt- (U Cfiiiiin'iieit (1867), and nu- merous memoirs published by the academies of France and Belgium. Keshe'^na, post-tp. of Shawnnaw co.. Wis. Pop, 49. Kes'trel, called also Wiiidhover, from its habit of maintaining itself in one place in the air, with its head to the wind, one of the smallest and most abundant of Euro- pean hawks, the Fafru timiuiicultig. It is a great dcvourer of mice and other vermin. Kes'wick, market-town of Cumberland. England, 22 miles S. S. W. of Carlisle, at the foot of Skiddaw Mountain, and beside Lake Dcrwentwater, is noted for its picturesque sccnerv and as the residence of the poet Southey. Pop. in 1871. 2777. Keswick I>^p6t, post-v. of Albemarle co.. Va., on the Washington Citv A'irginia Jlidland and Great Southern R. R., 110 miles S." W. of Washington, ]>, C. and on the Chesiipcahc and Ohio R. R., 90 miles W. N. W. of Rich- mond, Va. Keszthcly', town of Hungary, is situated on the west- ern side of Lake Balaton, on which it carries on a very im- portant fishing business. Its breed of horses is celebrated, and its trade in corn and wine extensive. Pop. 7150. Ketch'o, or C'aclia'o, town of Anam, in Farther In- dia, the capital of the province of Tonquin. on the Ton- quin. Although this river is navigable only for small craft, the trade of Kcteho is considerable. Bullion, lacqaered wares, and fine .silks are exported. Pop. 150,000. Ketch'ura (William Scott), b. July 7, 1813, at Nor- I7alk, Conn.; graduated at West Point July 1, 1834. and entered the army as second lieutenant of infantry ; prior to the civil war he served in Florida against the Seininolcs, upon the Western frontier, and on the Pacific coast, having in 18C0 arrived at a majority in the -Ith Infantry. In Nov., 1861, he became lieutenant-colonel in the 10th Infantry, brigadier-general of volunteers the following Fehruarv, and colonel of the lllh Infantry May 6. 1864. After eight months' service in the West as acting inspector-general, he was in Aug., 1862, placed upon special duty in the war and treasury departments in Washington. Brevetted brigailier- gcneral and major-general Mar. 13, 1865; retired from Ac- tive service Dec. 15, 1870 j d. at Baltimore, Md., Jane 28, 1P71. G. C. SiMstoNS. Ketones, or Acetones (see Acetone). This large class of bodies, though no member of it has as yet obtained any practical application of importance, is of great interest to chemical science and the chemical student ; and we may expect to find practical uses for its memhers in the future if we prosecute their study. The ketones have the same empirical generic formula as the fatty aldehydes, ChHthO, and each ketone has therefore its metamere among the al- dehydes. The view that they are derivable from llie alde- hydes, by the replacement of hydrogen by an alcohol-rad- ical, does not seem substantiated by synthesis so far; and their relations to the aldehydes, exhibited in the foUowing table, do not apjiear to lend it any sup])ort. Chancel seems first to have hypothetically pointed out that the ketones are carhoni/ fides, containing a nuclear molecule of carbonic oxide or e» rbonifle. Gerhardt's and AVilliamson's researches supported this view, and Wanklyn demonstrated it by show- ing that carbonic oxide and his ethylidc of sodium react as follows, producing the ketone which is called pmpioue, from being originally formed by the destructive distillation of calcic propionate : CjHsNa + CO = Xa2 4 (C:iH,oO = CCCsITs.CHs) ; and we may represent the ordinary method of making ketones, by distilling the fatty acid salts of dyad metals, in the case of ftropionc, ns follows: propionate cnrb-aato. Propione. CslifiOj*^^" ^ C^"C*^3 + CO,C2H5,C2H6. KETTELKK— KEW-KIA.NG. 1537 On the homologic theory (see article Homoi.ocy), the ke- tones, as a series of homologuos, must have a nuclear molo- cule or radical wCO or IIj.CO; and their homologenic for- mula is IIj.C'O + nHjC; the consideration of which excites very curious su«;<;cstioDS and speculations. Tho last cohimn in the accompanying table shows the system of notation assigned to the ketones here tabulated, by AVanklyn, who lias been the most distinguished investi- gator of this class of bodies. There have been placed at the end of this table two ketones of high rqnivalc-nts. dis i covered near forty years ago by Bussy, but which have Fatty Aldelijrdes: Kamn nad FormaliB. Formic CHgO Common CoH^O Propionic CaHgO Butyric— ! C4HaO Valeric ! CjHi^O Caproic CaflnO 'Knanthylic CtFIhO Caprylic OsII.oO C,II„0 C.„H„,0 Fatty KctouM. Di-hydroRen ketone (unknown) H*ydrogen-methylo ketone (unknown) Common acetone Methyle-ethyle ketone Propione Metbyle-butyle ketone Butyrone Ethylc-amylo ketone Valeronc Di-amylc ketone Palmitonc, or margarouc.... Stcarono Wanklyn'is Formula). co{™» cii. CO. ro. CO i CIIj. ICIU.CII,. cii,,cir™,ciii CO J "la- " CO rcir,. .CUj.CHa.CHj. .. -1 ii . J < ■ir;,rH„,cH2,cHj,CH,,CHs. ICU2,Cir,,CII»,CIl2,CHj,CH2,CHa. ciio,cii;,cir2,cir2.cir2,cH2,CH2.ciij. CO,C3oIIg2. CO.Ca^HyQ. !)pcn po nearly forgotten that they are scarcely mentioned in the textbooks. Tliey were compared by their discoverer to "prrmitirli, and are easily prepared by distilling the crystiillized fatty acids with lime. They should bo re-ex- amined with a view to determine their practical or economic value for making candles or otherwise. Hknrv Wrnxz. Ket'teler, von (Wilhelm Emanuel), b. at Miinster, Westphalia, Dec. 2."), I.SII; studied first law, and entered tho civil service of his native city ; then theology, and was ordained a priest in 1844. In iS41l he was made provost of the lledwigskirehe of Berlin, and in 1S;»0 bishop of Mentz. The energy of his character and his talents as a debater and controversialist have made him one of the leaders of the Ultramontane party, and one of the most prominent members of the Roman Catholic Church in tier- many. Ket'tcll (Sahiki,). b. at Newburyport, Mass., Aug. .1, ISflO; was an accomplished linguist, and mastered no less than fourteen languages. lie assisted Mr. Goodrich in preparing tho " Peter Parley " books, and was (1848-55) chief editor of the Boston C<nirify, He was a clever writer, and published a number of works, of which the best known is Sjirrhiirnn of Amrriran Puelri/ (3 vols., 1829). I), at Maiden, Mass., Dec. 3, 1855. Kct'tcring, town of England, in tho county of North- ampton. It has flomo manufactures of silk and plush. Pop. M!)S. Kettle River, tp. of Pine co., Minn. Pop. 74. Ken'per, The, the uppermost of tho three groups into whi.h the 'i'riassic or New Ucd Samlstone period is divided. It is reprcsontod in Europe in different localities by two very dilTercnt sots of strata, supposed to bo of contempora- neous origin — the one a series of red and yellow fresh-water marls an»l sandstones, and the other a more recently recog- nized series of marine strata, known as the Hallstadt and St. Cassian beds. About tho true position of theso latter there is still, however, much dispute, and where these are absent the Keuy)er is eapperl by a bone-boil of especial in- terest, as in it have been found the remains of the earliest known maininals { Micrntciite», etc.). Whether any portion of tho American Trias is equivalent to tho European Keu- per is an open question. Kow, village and parish of England, county of Surrey, <.j)posite Brentfonl, in Middlesex, 8 miles from I,ondo.n. kew (lardens and the pleasure-grounds extend along the Thames from Kew (Ireen to tho borders of Uiehmond. It was in these grounils that Bradley's observations upon the lixed stars were made about the middle of tho seventeenth century, with a telescope constructed by Mr. (!. Molyneux, then the owner of Kew House, which was leased by the prince of Wales, son of Ocorge II., by whom the •' pleasure- grounds " were first laid out, and further embellished by his widow. Kew Palace, an unpretending brick house of moderate si«e, became royal property in the early ilays of tleorgo in., who here played his favorite part (»f " Farmer (Jeorge." A cottage, secluded in the upper part of the park or pleasure-grounds, is still preserved with its furniture as it was left by (Jueen Charlotte. This and tho nnlenanteil palaco remain in the possession of tho Crown. AVhile tho Vol.. II.— U7 life of the royal family at Kew will be remembered through Madame d'.Xrblay's (Miss BnrncyV) memoirs, tlie later in- terest of Kew centres in its gardens and btitanieal collec- tions. The large and choice collections of living plants, maintained for 70 or 80 years as the private property of the sovereign, under the administrali i( the two Aitons. futlicr and son, were of much botanical importance. In If.lS the grounds became national properly, under the contr(d of the commissioners of tho woods ami forests, and the now cele- brated establishment was foumled. It was placed under tho charge of Sir William Il.iokcr, and since his death in isr.o tliatof his son, Dr. .Tose])h II. Hooker, now president of tho Royal Society. Umler these adniini.«trators r.nd tho liberal .support of Parliament the royal gardens at Kew have become tho largest and most im|>ortant, as well as the most popular, botanical establishment in the world, both as respects tho conservatories ami collections of living )ilants, and in tho herbarium and noble museum of vegcluble prod- ucts founded by Sir William Ilcjoker. The whole establish- ment is freely open to the public every day after one o'clock. Tho annual number of visitors, commencing with 9000 in 1841, has risen to nearly 700,000. A.sA GitAy. Kewa'nee, posl-v. and tp. of Henry co.. III., on tho Chicago liuilington and Quincv K. Ii.,'].'i2 miles W. of ("hicago; has 7 churches, .'i public-school buildings, 1 na- tional and 1 private bank, 1 weekly newspaper, 2 flour- mills, 2 foundries and machine-shops, several wagon and carriage shops, manufactories of agricultural implements and of house-heating iipparatus, a distillery, and the usual complement of stores. In the immediate vicinity are rich farming-lands and inexhaustible beils of bituminous coal. Pop. 4225. C. Bassett, Ed. '■ I.vhei'E.vde.nt." Kcwas'kiim, tp. of Washington co.. Wis. l>op. 1,109. Kewnu'liec,county of Wisconsin, having Lake Mich- igan as its eastern bounrlary. Area, about :i4ll square miles. It is chiefly covereil with foresls. and lumber is the prin- cipal export. The soil is productive. Orain an<l potatoes are the staple crops. Cap. Kewaunee. P<qi. 10,128. Kcwniinec, post-v. and tp., cap. of Kewaunee co., Wis., on Lake Michigan, nt the mouth of the Kewaunee River, 27 miles E. of (ireen Bay City. It has several churches, hotels, 2 saw-mills, and I weekly ncwsiianer Pop. Ifisl. .'II Kcwpc'nnw, county of N. Michigan, consisting of Iho extremity of the peninsula known as Keweenaw I'nint in Lake Superior, by which it is surrounded except on the south-west .Wde. Area, about lifiO square miles, it is cold. elevated, and unproductive, but abminds in valuable ar- gentiferous copper, the mining of which is the principal eniplr>ymenl. Cap. Eagle Harlior. Pop. 4205. Kcw-KinnK, or Kiu-Kinng [Chinese. "Nine Riv- ers"), one of the largest cities of China, situated in tho province of Kiang-Si, on the Vang-tic River, near the N. extremity of I'oyang Lake, 227 miles S. W. of Nanking. It i« the emporium of tho great (ea-distriels S. of Povang Lake, and tho shipments have reacheil 25,000,0110 pounds in a single year. Tho city has two suburbs nearlv as largo as itself, the uniteil population of all three beinc calculated at over 1 ,000,000, notwithstanding a great loss of population 1538 KEY. and partial ruin incurred during the Taeping rebellion. There is an English settlement and several American houses of commerce, one of \vhieh. Russell & Co., maintains a large number of steamers on the river, the arrivals of steamers having numbered over 4110 in 1871. The trade is chiefly in connection witli Shanghai. Key. In modern music every regular composition is written, or purports to be written, in one or other of the major or minor scales. The scale chosen is said to bo the I:ri/ of the piece: and the first or root-note of that scale, from which all its steps or degrees are reckoned and derive their character, is called the k' ipiotc or tonic. These scales or keys are either major or minor, no other "modes" be- ing recognized in what is distinctively known as modern music. The normal form of a .«eale in the major mode is that of C ; and the scale of A gives the normal form of the minor mode. But under certain conditions scales similar to those of C and A may take their rise from an:/ point or degree of the diatonic-chromatic scale — i'. c. we may form a scale commencing on I), E. F, etc., or on BI7. EI7. Cj, etc. ; and as there arc twelve degrees in the origin.al scale (viz. C), the number of possible scales will bo twelve in the major mode and twelve in the minor. The composer has therefore a choice of twenty-four keys, differing both in acuteness and in certain peculiarities of expression. It will be found, however, (hat every one of those additional scales is imperfect in its natural order of tones and semi- tones, difl'ering more or less in form from the pattern .scales of C and A, and therefore requiring an adjustment of cer- tain intervals to render it fit for use. Thus, on comparing a scale commencing on G with that of C. as in Ex. 1, wo perceive that the place of the semitone at Mi. (as indicated by the sliir) does not correspond with that in the key of C ; thus rendering the new scale imperfect and practically use- less : Ex.1. Scale of C Major. Scale of G. NB. To remedy this it becomes necessary that tho F in the scale of G should be raised a semitone by means of a sharp, by which alteration the two scales will now be brought into agreement. In music written in the scale of G mjijor every F will therefore become F nharp (unless when contradicted occasionally by a 3) ; and for convenience' sake in writing, a sharp on F is placed once for all near the clef at the be- ginning, and called the sujnatiirc. The case may be further illustrated by comparing the distances of the letters in tho following example: Ex. 2. Scale nf C. C D- Scalc of G. G A -E— F- -B— C- -B-C. -D- -E— F- -G. Now, to bring the latter into correspondence with the for- mer, it is evident that we must move the F at n half a space nearer to G, which is tho office of a sharp when expressed in n«tte?. In the key of D major there are needed tiro such rectifieationsof the sciile. and accordingly two sharps — viz. F anil (' — are placed at the commencement. In A major three sharps are rerjuired : and all the other keys, major and minor, need similar adjustment hy tho use nf sharps or flats, even to the number of seven, the object being simply to bring them into conformity with the csrahlished order of the scale. The succession of the keys, both major and mi- nor, with tho sharps or fiats required for the rectification of their scales, is shown in Ex. :i : Ex.3. Keys with Siiaeps. Maj. jtfm. Sharps. C. A. G. E. F. n, B. F— C. A. Ft F-C— G. E. V,t. F— C— G— D. H. <lt F— C— G— D— A. Ft Dt F — C — G — D — A — E c-S- At F— C-G— D— A— E— B. Ke v-9 WITH Flats. M„j. .Via. FlaU. F. n. n. z G. B— E. <:. I)-E-A. Mr,- I'. B_E— A— D. z Uh. B— I>-A— n— G. h». B— E— A— D— G-C. tb. A(,. B— E— A— D-G— C— F. The signatures of tboFC kovs or pcales nrc written as in Ex. 4, whore the keifnotcn of (ho ro=pt'ctivc scalps are also addod, the upper note heini; tho major, and tho lower one its rela- tive minor, or that having the eame signature : ;sE :^; Ex. 4. C G D A E B $ E B FJ GJ Ob DS At Db A|, Bb F Thoup:h there are in reality onlv twelve major nnd twelve minor scales, corresponding in nmnher with the degrees of the diatonic-ehromatio scale, yet in the example just given it will he noticed that the nuinhor is fj'tecn of each mode, or thirhf in all. instead of twenty-four. This is explained hy observing that there arc in the example three major and three minor keys or scales which are in snuiui identical with certain others, though tliey are difTorently written. These are called the " hinominnus" keys — »'. f. keys having two names, and written variously or indifferontly in sharps or in flats. They arcFff and ii\f, 15 2 and C\j, and CS and Db. with their relative minors. It is evident that FJand (ij*. though different to the ctff, are tho same to the car, when played on ordinary keyed instruments; and therefore the same sounfh are produced, and the same finger-keys arc usecl on the organ or pianoforte, whether a piece is written and performed in the key of TJInr in that of Giy. From which it follows that a given strain or movement may ho written hy a composer in either of those keys at pleasure, the effect on tho ear being precisely the same whether writ- ten in six sharps or six flats. In Ex. 5, for instance, the notes at a are in sound (and under the fingers) identical with those at b : Ex. 5.— a. In Ft While, therefore, there are in reality {!. e, to the car) only twenty-four keys, yet as three of the mnjor and three of tho minor keys mny be expressed in two ways — viz. in sharps or in flats — it follows that the number of keys when tcrilten (but not otherwise) is thirty, as shown in Ex. 4. To find the tonic or keynote of any piece or movement, it is ordinarily sufficient to refer to the lust note in the bnss (which is almost always the tonic), and then to ascertain from the siffnnfnrc whether the key is major or minor. Should tho final bass-note, for instance, bo C, and no sharps or flats be fouml at tho elef, tho key is that of C mnjor; but if we find three flnts at the clef, we know from this signa- ture that tho key is C minor. T\\\», however, is only a gen- eral rule, to which there are several exceptions, as when in old music a movement in Bb is written with tlic signature belonging to F — i*. c. with one flat only — tho second flat be- ing inserted before each E in the piece as an accidental. Also, in discursive pieces, digressions into new keys often occur, including whole movements, without any change of tho signature, the necessary flats, sharps, or naturals being inserted before the notes themselves where necessary. Occa- sionally also in ecclesiastical compositions the last note of tho bass is not the krt/note or tonic, but the c/omninrif with its major triad. M'ith these ami similar exceptions kept in view, the hrt/notr and tlie scale and mode of a composi- tion may bo generally ascertained by reference to the final bass-note and the signature. It is far more difficult, however, to find the key of a given mclodjf than of a piece con^prising two or three parts in harmnni/, because a melocly may be founded on certain notes which are common to nm:rnl Hca/rn or keys, and will necessarily bo equivocal until settled hy tho addition of harmony. In demonstration of this see the melody or theme in Ex. C, which nt first appears to be in G major: Ex.6. But though this may readily and very naturally be har- monized in O major, yet the key in which the composer conceived it mni/ possibly prove tn he V major or E minor, as illustrated by the harmony in Ex. 7 : KEY— KEY-BOAED. 1539 Ex. 7. In C major. ^^^^^^^ ^ A ::& E^E £E ^ In E m inor. ^E^E^ r^r .*=M-36d=Fd-^ :*: ^^^ -I ^ The keynote of a pivcn melody cannot therefore be fully n^jccrtaincd UDleiis tliiit melody includes in its ranj^ca/nho notes of ft scale, thereby iduiitifviug itself with tliiit scale by elements and progressions which would be foreign to any other. Kespecting keynotes, it may also be remarked that in keys with sharps the keynote in major is always on that letter which is onr nctuitoiie ahitrc the Innt Hhnrp <jf the sig- nature. Thus, if there are two sharps. FJ and 05. the key- note is />. When F, C, and O arc sharped, the keynote will be A, and so on. In keys with Hats the keynote in major is on the letter n fourth below (or a fifth uhnre) the laxt jfnt at the clef. Thus, in two flats. Bb and h}y, the key- note is Bb. In three flats, lib, E^, and A\j, the keynote will be K^, and so throughout. The kcynnto in miuor is always a minor third below the major, as A below C, G below 1%. etc. In keys with sharps the minor keynote is also one whole tone below the last ^harp of the signature. Thus, in two sharps, FS and CJ, it is IJ : in three sharps, Ff. (% and (i5, it will be FS, and so on. In keys with flats the minor keynote is a si.xth below the last flat. Thus, in two flat?, Bb and F^, it is (J, and in three flats, Bb, E^y, and A\j, it will be C. To recollect the anicr of major keys in sharps, reckon upteani bt/ prrfcvt fiftht, as from C to G, then G to I>, l> to A, and so onward. This gives the succession of major keys in regular order from one to seven sharps. In major keys with flats, reckon duwuward htf perfect ffthi, as from C to F, F to V\y, etc., and the succession of keys in reguhir order from one to seven flats will be found. This rule applies also to miuor keys. William Statnton. Key (Fkancis St-oTT), b. in Frederick co., Md.. Aug. 1, 17711, and was educated at St.. John's College. He practised law ill Frederick, Mil., aiid in Washington, I). C. lie is | chiefly ri'incmbered as the author of The Sdir-Spanf/lnl llnuiur, which ho composed while a prisoner iu the British fleet during the bombardment of Fort Melienry. D. at Baltimore Jan. II, lH4:i. A volume of his poems, edited by II. \). Jcdtns, appeared in 1867. Mr. Key was a brother- in-law of CJiiol-Justice Taney. Key (Thomas Hkwitt). M. A.. F. R. S., b. at South- wark, Knglaud, Mar. 20, 1791*: graduated at Trinity Col- lege, Tambridgo, in 1S21 ; studied medicine, and was ap- pointed professor of mathematics in the University of \'ir- ginia on the first organization of that institution in 1S24. lU'turning to Knglaiid in 1^27. he was for thirteen years professor of Liitin in the newly-organized University of London, after which ho became professor of compnrntivo grammar and headmaster of the preparatory school, which positions ho retained to thu lime of his death, Nov., 1S75. llj! published a Lutitx (jnnnmar (IHI.i-lfi), /'hifological Eh- 0III/1 ( lSr»S), Lmujtuiijr, tin Orif/iit iintl /Jrrriopmeut (IH7-1), and nniny philological essays in the magazines. His great- ( U work, a Latin- Enijliih Lexieon, is still unpublished. Key (Thomas Mahsiiall). b. in Kentucky about IftlS; graduated at Yale College in \K\V>\ studied law: settled at Cincinnati, and took a high position at the bar. He was repeatedly elected to the Ohio senate: was in ISfil sent as commissioner to the government of Kentucky in the in- terests of the Union; was a member of the staff of Oen. McClcllan; author of the first bill passed by Congress for the emancipation of slaves, and also of that for the eman- cipation of the slaves in the District of Columbia. D. at Lebanon, Ky., Jan. I.'i. IMIU. Kcy'-bonr(t,or Fingrr-l>onr(l, in an organ, piano- forte, or olhi-r similar in>lrunieiit the series or range of short levers, usually covcreii with ivory and ebony, on which the lingers of the performer operate. Each of these Icvcra is called a kejf, the longer or while ones representing tho diatonic scale of C miijor in several successive octaves, and the shorter or black ones furnishing tho intermediate sharps and flats requisite for tho other scales. Tho key-board is frequently denominated a hnnk^ row, or set of keys, and in organs of considerable size there are two, three, and some- times four, such sets. The clavichord, virgiual, spinet, and harpsichord of former days were also furnished with keys, tho latter frecpicntly having two sets, and in some eases four and even more. Dr. Ilimbault remarks that "the author of a rare volume published at Bologna in 1590, under tho title of II Dvsidrri'ti, mentioning some curious instru- ments in the palace of the duke of Fenara, says, 'There was a harpsichord invented by Don Nic'»la Vinccntino, sur- namcd Arr{ninRirt>, in the year iJ.");'). It had six rows of keys, comprehending in their division the three harmonic genera.' He adds that the niuhitude of strings on this as- tonishing instrument rendered it very difficult to tune, and more so to play." ( Thr Pitniofnrtc, itn Origin, etc.) Besides the key-boards for the fingers, organs are usually provided with a set of keys for the feet. Iho former being distin- guished as tho muunah, an<l the latter as tho ped<da. The key-board has reached its present perfect form only after several centuries of experiment and improvement. In its rudest elementary form we may trace its existence in the small and roughly constructed organs of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. It appears to have comprised at that period only a few parallel levers of much larger size than our present keys, and requiring a strong pressure to move them. Anterior to that pcrioil we have no distinct traces of this mecdianical device. *' Guido," says the author just quotecl, 'Ms said to have invented the clavier or key-board, and it is not at all improbable that be was the first to npply it to the media'val instrument of many strings, . . . which seems to have been tho same with the clavichord, and, as such, was the progenitor of the harpsichord, the spinet, the virginal, and the pianoforte of modern times. . . . The first stringed instrument to which the key-board was ap- plied was proliably the clavicytherium or kei/til cithara. In its early stages it was a small ot)l(jng box, with the strings arranged in the form of a h;i!f triangle." {/hid., pp. 2S-li.'>.) The structure or plan of the key-board now in use is comparatively modern, and its very outline or conception presupposes such a knowledge of the diatonic-chromatic scale as was ntd attained till many years after the time of (luido. The probability, therefore, is, that for a long jie- riod tho early key-boards consisted merely of two or three octaves of short levers operating on pipes tuned in the nat- ural order of the scale, with, possibly, an extra key in each octave for a fliit seventh or other needed interval. The ad- justment of the key-board so as to comprise «// the inter- vals would, from the necessity of the case, be dependent on the regulation of the elements of tho ehronuitio scale; and for this reas<tn we cannot date tho formation of our present key-board fartlicr buck than about the close of the twelfth century or the iMginning of the thirteentli, when the struc- ture of the scale began to be more clearly apprehended. The ordinary key-hoard comprises tones and semitones, but excludes all lesser or enharmonic intervals. Each black key is the sharp of the while key on its left, and the Jfttt of the white key on its ri;/hf. From this it follows that every black key serves two distinct purposes, being a sharp in one relation, and a flat in another. This apparently de- fective arrangement is unavoidable, on account of a certain irregularity in the scale, which if strictly met woubl require us to have one black key for Cf. anri aiKdher for l'f»; and so with FS and every other black key. In rrnfiii/, CJ and Db are not the same sounds, nor are DJ and V\j the same; but to avoiil tho eom])tcxily of mechanism ^vhich would arise from the use (d" quarter-tone keys, and the nuiltipliea- tion of piites or strings, the scale is so "tempered" as to make eacn black key give a middle or compromise tone, which shall snflicienlly answer for a sharp in the one case and a flat in the other, though not truly or exactlj- repre- senting cither. This same " tempering " take? place also on the white keys f<ir a similar reason. Hence, all tho finger-keys on tho board, whether white or black, come to be representative of two or more dilTerent intervals or sounds ncconling to the place and relation they may oc- cupy in a musical eoniposition, or the scale In which such composition is written. Thus, the while key ordinarily namerl C may also be cither BJ or DW» when used in certain scales: and so of every other finger key throughout tho octave, as will ho seen in the iMinipI-' following: r 9 .'. JS .r V y 1' i' It L-IL_I nt r« Dm (; D i; 1$ I'-x Om F i; A An It mm 111 *'bb|*^bb|^^ ct nbbl . 1 1540 KEYES— KHANDEISH. On the pianoforte it would not be possible to express the ininulo difTurenccs bcre referred to without a multiplicity of iidditioiuil slrin<;s and corresponding changes in the ar- rangement of the key-board. Hut several organs have been built with liey-boards and extra pipes to give quarter-tones or enharmonic intervals. In those instruments each black kcv is divided into two portions, one of which is used for sharps, and the other for flats, thereby securing much richer and purer harmony than can be obtained from organs tuned on cither the equal or the unequal temperament. Harpsi- chords, as already noticed, were constructed centuries ago with additional strings and rows of keys, for the purpose of obtaining trithnul temperamentthe advantage of quarter- tones. (ScO^TF.MPEnAMENT.) WlI.I.lAM ST.\rNT0N. Keyes (En.isvfS D.mwiM), b. at .Sturbridge, Mass., .Tunc, 1810; removed in boyhood to Maine; graduated at West Point in IS:i2 ; was instructor at the Military Academy from ISU to 184S; was engaged in Indian w.ars on Puget Sound in 1856; commanded a brigade at the battle of Bull Run ; was appointed brigadier-general, to date from May 17, ISGl ; was in the b.attlcs before Rich- uujud in command i.f the 4th corps, and made major-gen- eral of volunteers and brevet brigadier-general U. S. army for gallant conduct in the field. Key Islands, a group of islands in the Malay Archi- pelago, S. of New Guinea, in lat. 5° 2o' S., Ion. 1G2° E., consists of two large and a number of small islands. Great Key comprises an area of 294 square miles, with 21,000 inhabitants: Little Key, of 2S3 square miles, with 10.000 inhabitants. They are of volcanic origin, mountainous, fertile, and rich in timber, cocoanuts, tortoise-shells, sago, and ilifferent kinds of fruits. The inhabitants, who are partly Christians, partly Mohammedans, arc described as hospitable, industrious, and honest. Keynote. See Key, by Rev. William Staunton, S. T. i). Key'port, post-v. of Raritan tp.. Monmouth co.. N. J., on Raritan B.ay, 2.') miles from New York City and 13 miles from Freehold. It has 4 churches, 1 gradcdschool build- ing (costing S:)0,000), 1 weekly newspaper, 2 saw-mills, 2 flour-mills, .1 large hotels, and numerous boarding-houses for summer visitors. There is a fruit-canning factory, es- tablished in 1SC«. employing l.iO hands. Two steamers plv daily between Kcyport and New York, connecting with stage-lines to several towns of New .Jersey. Koyport is an important centre of the oyster, clam, and fish trade, the oysters being generally brought from Virginia and planted in beds until they attain their growth. Pop. 2300. McKiVNEY & Pox, Ens. "Wepkly." Keys'burg, post-v. of Logan eo., Ky.. miles from Allcnsville, a station on the Louisville and Nashville R. R. Pop. 133. Key'ser (Petek D.), M. D.. b. Feb. 8, 1835, at Phila- delphia; studied at Delaware College until 1851; en- tered the chemical laboratory of Prof. F. \. Gonth at Philadelphia: went to Europe in 1854; graduated in the medical department of the University of Jena. (Jermany, in 1S04; returned homo same year and entered the army hospit:ils as acting assistant surgeon I'. .^. A. In I8li3 he became surgeon in charge of the Philadelphia Eye and Ear Infirmary; in 1870 also ophthalmic surgeon to the medical dep.artmcnt of the German Society of Phila- delphia ; and in 1872 one of the surgeons to the Wills Eye Hospital in Phihvdclphia. In 1853 he published his chemical analyses of the albinites from Reading, Pa., IJethlchcui, Pa., and Orange co., X. Y. : also analyses of thalite and of oweuite (tliuriugitc) from Harper's Ferry, Va., and in 1854 the analysis of thuringite from Germany, and the analysis of barnhardite from Cabarrus eo.. N. C. To the medical journals he has contributed The I'm- n/ Calabar {Plii/noslirima) in Paralt/ait of Accommoilrilion (1SG5); On Pn-tiilcnrc of Pupiliar/i Mfmbrniies (ISB7); Injury and Dcitt ruction of an Et/e, with Bone-formation in the /rr«(ISGy); Rrmovnl of n Cancrniilal Tumor from the Surface of the E'l/f ( ISGO) ; On Impnirmenl of Vision the retull of Denial Irritation {\!i7C): Oil the Uecoreri/ of Si'/ht after Gray Atrophy of the Ontic i>i»i« (18711 ; On the Une of Chloral Hydrate after Eye Operaliont (M'tl) ; Report on OperaliOHH for Cataract {iS7-i) ; On Conrjenital Heredi- tary Dinlocationfi of both Lennen ; Jliiptnret of the Chora- dix ; Phonphalie Verjrneraiion of the Cornea (1874). Keys, House of {Claret Immla), a body of twenty- four members constituting the lowi-r house of Tyndwaid Court, the legislature of the Isle of Man. All vacancies arc filled by the hnnse itself. Keys of Florida. Sec Florida Keys. Keytes'ville, post-v. and tp., cap. of Chariton co., Mo., on the St. Lo:iis Kansas and Great Northern R. R., 174 miles W. N. W. of St. Louis: has 3 churches, 2 hotels, a largo public school, 1 bank, 1 weekly newspaper, 1 flour- mill, 2 agricultural implement manufactories, and the usual number of stores and shops. Pop. of v. .'j29 ; of tp. 1GG3. TnoMAS D. Bocie, En. "Herald." Key West [a corruption of the Spanish Cayo Ilnem, "b(uie reef "], post-v., cap. of Monroe co., Fla., is the ex- treme southern boundary of the U. S., and forms the en- trance to the Gulf of Mexico, being distant about fiS' from the coast of Cuba. It is situated on an island of the same name, 7 miles long by 1 to 2 wide, of coral formation, ele- vated only 11 feet above the level of the sea, and covered with a thin layer of soil, on which tropical fruits are suc- cessfully cultivated. The town is a naval station, has a large dfpat for U. S. stores, etc. ; it possesses a good and spacious harbor; is in connection with the Northern States by Mal- lory's lino of steamers, and with New Orleans by a line of steamers running from th.at place weekly i-i'^ Cedar Keys, where it connects with the railroad. Key West has a fine marine r.ailway, where ships of .'lOO tons may be hauled out for repairs. There are 7 churches of the various denom- inations, 2 weekly papers, 2 public and several private schools, a convent, 1 hotel. 3 large and extensive cigar-fac- tories, where about 2500 Cub.an refugees are employed in making cigars. On the S. W. point is a lighthouse, with a fixed light 72 feet above the water, situated in 24"' 33' N. lat. and 81° 47.3' W. Ion. The inhabitants proper are em- ployed in mercantile pursuits, fishing, sponging (which is a source of wealth), and wrecking. The population has increased largely of late by emigration from the Bahamas and Cuba. Pop. about 0000. i;. J. Flemminc, Ed. "Key West Dispatch." KhabOUr' [C.r. Cliaboras; Heb. Halior or Chebar], a river in .\siatio Turkey, tributary to the Euphrates, which it joins at Kerkesich after a course from N. to S. of 190 miles. It is noted in biblical geography as the river along which the captive Israelites were settled, and is frequently mentioned in the cuneiform inscriptions. Another smaller river of the same name is a tributary of the Tigris. Khaldun' (Ibn), otherwise called Waly Eddix Abu Zeid Abdalrahmas. h. at Tunis, Africa, in 1332 : studied polite letters for some years in Granada: was then em- ployed in the service of his own sovereign, and in that of the sultan of Fe?, ; made the pilgrimage to Mecca in 13.82, and settled at Cairo, Egypt, as instructor in several colleges ; was sent as ambassador to the conqueror Timour at Damas- cus about 1400: was chief cadi at Cairo in 1384, and again in 1400. and d. there in 140fi. He was one of the most dis- tinguished of the Arab writers, and left a vast History of the Arabs, the Persians, the Berbers, ai:d the Nations among whom they hare Lired, which is one of the principal author- ities upon Oriental annals. Kha'Icd (surnamed " The sword of God "), b. in Arabia in 582 ; commanded the cavalry of the Koreish against Mohammed at the battle of Ohud in 623 : was converted to Islam in 029; saved the army of Mohammed at the battle of Muta the same year, gaining the surname by which he was ever afterwards known: invaded Persia in 632; took Bozrab. besieged Damascus, and defeated the generals of the emperor Ileraelius at Aiznadin in 633: stormed Da- mascus in 034; took Aleppo in 638. D. at Emesa 642. Khalkas', the name of the northern part of Mongolia, a part of the Chinese empire, and extends between Sibe- ria, the river Amoor, the desert of Gobi, and the Altiii Mountains. It consists mostly of vast steppes, where the inhabitants lead a miserable, sluggish, and savage life. Ranges of mountains traverse the country, however, beau- tifuirv terraced and well wooded, and here are the seals of the immense Booddhist monasteries. The inhabitants are Mongolian Tartars, and ]irofess Booddhism. The country was the birthplace of Genghis Khan. Cap. Oorga or Urga. Khallikan' (Ibn), also called Shems Eddin Abil Abbas Ahmed, I., at Arbela, near the Tigris, in 1211 : became pro- foundly versed in Arabic literature: lived for a time in Cairo E^vpt; was chief cadi at Damascus in 12G1, and again' in"l 277, and d. in that city in 1282. He left a Bio- uraphieal Dictionary of the Illustrious Men oj /»/..m, which contains data upon 'several thousands of persons, and is invaluable to the student of Oriental history. Khan [formerly spelled cham in many cases], a title given to many Tartar magnates and kings, also to East Indian princes under the Moguls. The old spelling co.cn (as in Jaflier Ally Cawn) fairly represents the true pro- nunciation. Khandeish', orCandeish, a district in the Bombay presidenev, British India. E. of Guzerat and N. of the Ni- jam's dominions. Area, 12.000 square miles. Pop. about 80,000. Formerly a part of the Mogul empire, it was an- nexed in 1818. KHANG-III— KHIVA. 1541 KhaiiK*Hif or Kang-Ui [Manchu, "inalterable peace"], second cmperur ot Cliiua of the present Manchu dynasty, b. in \Obi ; was orij^iuall y named Ui-mcn - Yt ("blue spark"): succeeded t« the tbrouc in 1GG2 ou the de:vlh of bis falber, Chun-Chi, under the regency of four innndarins; assumed the povernmeut in li)G7. and imnie- diatfly put to death one of the regents; introduced the of- ficial tcacliinL; of I he Kuropean system of astronomy (IGfi"), studyinfr it himself under the iustruction of the Jesuit Fa- tlier Ferd. Vcrhiost ; suppressed a formidable revolt made by the prince of Yunnan (167:i): annexed Kwnnp Tung (iCSO). Fo-Kien (ltJSI)» and Formosa to the empire: con- cluded with UusHiia a treaty of peace and limits at Nip- chow (Sept. ;>, Uisy ) : was cured of a fever by Jesuit physi- cians (by the use of quinine), who thus pained the ascend- ency at bis court; annexed Thibet about 17lM(; authorized a persecution of Christians in 1717, and d. Dec. 20, 1722. Kbang-Hi is esteemed the greatest of the Chinese sover- eigns, and through the Jesuits became the best known in Europe; he caused the publication of important works on the language, history, and literature of China, and directed the topographical survey (1708) executed by Jesuits, by whieb Chinese geography is best known. Khnnia. See Canra. Khanpoor', or Kbaunpoor% town of British India, in the N. W. Provinces, the capital of a district of the same name, on the Ganges, is dirty and poorly built, V»ut has ex- tensive manufactures of jewelry and leather, an<l carries on an active trade. It is a military station, and the part of the city occupied by the barracks and their gardens has a very fine aspect. Pop. about 50,000. Kharkov'9 government of European Ilussia, traversed by theUon and ilsafiluents. Area. 20,737 square miles. Pop. I, GH 1,18(1. It is low, mostly level, but very fertile. Wheat, wine, and tobacco arc raised in great quantities, and large herds uf cattle reared. Manufactures are unimportant. Kharkov^ town of European Russia, the capital of the government of Kharkov, on the Kbarkova, an affluent of the Don. It is a nourishing town, with several good edu- cational institution: , and four annual fairs which arc much fre<(uented, especially the wool-fair in spring, at which (he value of the wool sold generally amounts to £1,IJO,000. Pop. .>'J.yC8. KhartoomS town of Egypt, in Upper Nubia, at the conlluenco of the Blue and the White Nile. It has a con- siderable trade, being the centre of several caravan-routes, especially in slaves and ostrich feathers. Pop. 30,000. Khatmandoo', or Katmandu', the capital of Nc- paul. Ilindostan, in lat. 27° \'V N. and Ion. 85° 15' E. It i.^ poorly built, many even of its tem[)lcs being built of wonil ; the streets are narrow and dirty. It has no great commcreial importance. Pop. .'>0,000. Khazars, or Chazars, a powerful tribe of Finnic or Magyar stock, settled N. of the Caucasus, near the mouth of the Volga. They had kings of their own, and derived some celebrity by their conversion to Judaism in the eighth century. lihc'dive, with the predicate of aftcsae ("highness'*), is, since I8fi7. the official title of the viceroy of Egypt. The vicoregency is hereditary in the family of Meliemet Ali since 1811, according to the Turkish law of succession, and since 1M60 in direct line— (hat is, from father to son. The first khedive of Egypt is Ismail, pon of Il>rahtm Pasha, b. in 1830; he succeeded his uncle. Said Pasha. Jan. 18. 18G3. Ismail is an energetic and active ur.in, always busy with plans of increasing his power. In 18G'Jho travelled in Eu- rope like a sovereign prince in order (o e?tJiblish connec- tions with the powers which couhl help him to acquire a greater independence of the sultan ; he especially courted the aid of Napoleon III. But this journey excited great displeasure at the court of C»mstantinople, which by (hrents compelled him to deliver up the vessels of war and the guns which he had bought, and to repair personally to Coni<tan- tinople in order to prove hissubmisst«m. By judicious bribes, however, the kli'-tiive has succeeded in obtaining more in- fluence at the court and greater advantages from the sultan. In 1873 he acquired the right of concluding commercial tro\ties wi(h foreign powers, anil in the internal government of the country ho has complete autonomy. He has tiime mucl) to introtlucc European civilization into his country. He has not attempted, however, to educate the people and raise it to a higher standpoint ; he has only established European institutions in the country, without any preparations, com- pletely, despotically ; and thus in Egypt civilization covers barbarism like a varnish. There exists since l8rtG a rep- resentation of the people, but the khodive rules, neverthe- less, absolutely, and (ho poor representatives are only pup- pets. Magniticent buildings have been erected at Alexan- dria and Cairo ; the great undertaking of building the canal of Sues received great support from the khedive ; French opera iscstablisbedin amost splendid style ; and on diffennt occasions, especially at the opening of the Suez Canal, the khedive received his European guests with brilliant and prodigal hospitality. The army and fleet are in excellent ctmdition, and provided with arms of the latest improvement ; different expediti<»ns have been undcrlaken to the S., in order to extend the authority of Egypt and suppress the slave-trade; but the taxes are very heavy, and arc gath- ered with despotic severity from the poor people, exactly as in the time of the Pharaohs. Alglst Niemann. Kherson', government of European Russia, bordering on the Black Pea. W. of the Dniester. Area, 28,G6G square miles. Pop, 1,107.905. The northern and eastern parts are billy, fertile, and often covered with splendid forests ; the southern and eastern parts are a saline steppe. Agri- culture is often impeded by lack of water, and by the im- mense change of climate, from (he scorching heat of the summer to the piercing eold of the winter. Tobacco is extensively cultivated; cattle, sheep, and silkworms are reared. Kherson, town of European Russia, the capital of the governmeut of the same name, on the right bank of the Dnieper. It was founded in 1778 by Potemkin ; has sev- eral good educational institutions, some manufactures of salt, leather, and rope, extensive shipbuilding, and a large trade in timber. Pop. 45,92G. Khi'va, khanate of Toorkistan. in Central Asia, which until recently was lield to extend from the Sea of Aral on the N. to the Persian frontier ou the S., and from Bokhara on the E. to the Caspian Sea on tlic W., thus comprising a vast region, mostly desert, with an area variously calculated from 195,000 squ.are miles down to 44.000. and a population estimated with equal uncertainty from 2.000.000 down to 480,000. As the result of a war with Russia in 1873, the limits of Khiva were much reduced, and were in part defined by treaty, while more accurate data were obtained for the population. By the treaty the new E. boundary is the river Amoo, or A[nu-Durya (the ancient Oxus), from Kukertli in lat. 40° X. to the Sea of Aral, and thence S. W. along the so-called " ancient bed of the Oxus " to the Caspian, in about lat. 40° N. The Khivan territory E. of the Amoo was ceded to Russia, and a portion was transferred by Russia to the khanate of Bokhara. The area and popula- tion of Khiva are still uncertain, owing to a conflict of jurisdiction as to territories claimed by Persia and by Af- ghanistan on the S., but as Khiva exercises no sovereignty over the disputed region, it may be considered as practi- cally reduceil to the oasis N. of the Desert of Toorkistan or Kharcsm, and S. W. of the lower Amoo River, a district not exceeding 30.000 square miles in area, with a popula- tion of 280,000. The whole region of Toorkistan was prob- ably once covered by a vast inh'nd sea. of which the present Caspian and Aral are the remains. The oasis of Khiva is abundantly watered by irrigation from numerous natural and artificial canals fed by the Amoo, and by the employ- ment of manures profluces an abundance of wheat, rice, cotton, apples, peaches, pomegranates, melons, and vines. The climate is variable, frosts prevailing from October to April, while tlie heats of midsummer arc excessive. In December the Amoo and the Aral are usually coveretl with ico. Manufactures of brass and earthenware, woollen goods, shawls, and silk are carried on to some extent, and domestic animals, especially horses, asses, and camels, are abundant. Trade is carried on by caravans, sometimes of 2000 camels, eliiefiy \vith the Russian cities of Orenburg and Astrakhan, th« articles of importation including firearms, sugar, muslin, chintz, and fancy goods. A former traflio with Persia and Afghanistan has been interrupted by the hostilities of the Turkoman tribes, but a brisk trade is carried on with Bokhara by exchanging European for Cliiiicse and other Oriental staples of merchandise. The jtopulation of Khiva is of several nationalities, representing the results of a long series of wars au'l irruptions. The ancient popu- lation called Sarts or Tajiks still form the large class, fur- nishing most of the laborers. They are of Persian aflinities, and until recently there were many thousands of Persian slaves. The Turkomans or Yoinuts, Kirghiz, and Karapal- kacs constitute the nomadic population of the ilesert, and are scarcely to be reckoned as Klnvans. though some td' Ihcin are adopting a tnnrr setlleil mode of life. The dominant race is that of the I'/beks, of Turkish origin. Khiva in the widest geographical sense comprehends a great part of Chnra-smia. Sogdiana, and Bactria, which, tts inde]iend- en( kingdoms or as provinces subject to the Persian and P:irlhian empires, tilled a large space in early Asiatic history. During (he Middle Ages it became an inde- pendent kingdom under the name of Kharcsm or Kho- varesm ; was conquered by Genghis Khan in the thir- teenth century, by Tamerlane in the fourteenth, and by 1542 KHODAVENDTGHIAB— KHORSABAD. the Uzbeks early in the sixteenth century, the latter being the founders of the existing khanate. A Russian expedi- tion, sent against Khiva hy Peter tlie Oreat in '"J". "J^ utterly defeated, and another simihir undertaking in 1^..J was suceessfullv resisted. In 1873, however, the ill-treat- ment of Russian captives afforded a pretext for a campaign skilfully conducted hy Cen. Kaufmann. who invaded Khiva with three corps of 0000 each simultaneously from I he !■... the M W and the S. W., took Kungnid May 20, and occu- pied the capital June 10. The khan. Scid Mohammed, had fled, but soon returned to tender his submission and arrange terras of peace. The boundaries were defined as before mentioned, slavery was abolished (.July 25), and the slave- trade prohibited; an indemnity of 2,200,0(10 roubles was imposed, payable in yearly instalments for twenty years, the Russians meanwhile occupying Shurakhan and Kun- grad ; the right of making treaties with foreign powers was surrendered, and the Turkoman tribes were to be punished for their continued hostilities against Russia. The inde- pendence of Khiva was recognized, in conformity with promises made to England, but Khiva became really a Russian dependency. More recent events (1874 and lS7o) having demonstrated the inability of the khan to comply with some of his engagements, the Russians occupied the capital anew by request of the native ruler, and the region extending from Bokhara to the Caspian, and S. to the Attrek River, was formally occupied as Russian domain under the name of "Trans-Caspian Territory," with the capital at Krasnovodsk, a newly-established port on the Caspian. The inhabitants of Khiva are .'^oonite Moham- medans • thev have some taste in music and poetry, and a Z^:;^V^^':.^l^X:l^^^^'^^'^^^- > ^;;;;;rof .hoNlVbudda Riv^r^embracmg the plateaux of r''^thc:;;::s;re™ud-b.^U,,hepa,aeeandba.aarsare I thcViiu.^^^ hill-tribes." supposed to be remnants of the ear- and madder. Fruits of many kinds abound ; silk of ex- cellent quality is grown and manufactured. In 1872, 8.000,000 jiounds of cotton and 200,000 pounds of silk were exported to Russia. Domestic animals, especially sheep, arc reared in sufficient numbers ; turquoise, iron, coal, naphtha, and petroleum arc among the mineral products. The population consists of Tzheks. of Tartar origin; the more numerous Tajiks or Sarts. of Persian or Aryan origin, once serfs, and still the principal agriculturists: and the Kara-Kirghiz and Kiptchak nomadic tribes, of Turkish blood, living chiefly in the eastern districts. The govern- ment has been of late years violently disputed between these three races. The present khan, named Khudayar, com- menced his reign in 18t:i, and being by descent a Kara- Kirghiz, the Turkish tribes were in the ascendant during his minority. On succeeding to full power in 1819, Khu- dayar favored the peaceful and industrious Saris in prefer- ence to the turbulent nomads, until the latter in 18.57 made a successful rebellion, raising his brother Mollah to the government. A war with the Russians in 1864 led to the annexation of the greater portion of Khokan to Russia, to the return of Khudayar from exile in Bokhara, and the re- establishment of his government by Russian support. A commercial treaty w.as negotiated in 1808, but in 1S74 the anti-Russian sentiment had gained the ascendant, fomented by a civil war, and furnishing pretexts for a new interfer- ence not likely to bo neglected. The chief cities of Kho- kan are the capital, bearing the same name, a handsome place of 50,000 inhabitants; Marghilan, and Andiian. ■^ PoiiTEn C. Bi.iss. Khondistan', a district in the province of Orissn. In- dia, about 200 miles in length by 170 in breadth, at the of rude construction, and the few edifices meriting notice are mosques and colleges. (See Spalding's A7,i'ia and Turkes- trni. Mactiahan's Cnmpniijniiiri on the 0.nia aiirl the /all of Khira, and Vambcry's Central Afin anil the Avgln-Ruesian Frontier Question, al"l published in 1874.) A work by Hon. Eugene Schuyler, American chargS d'affaires in Russia, who accompanied the Russian expedition, is in the press (1875). PoRTEn C. Bliss. Khodavendigh'iar, yilayct or province of Anatolia, Asiatic Turkey, S. of the Sea of Marmora, traversed by the Keshish-Dagh Mountains (ancient Uli/nijinn). and compris- ing parts of ancient Bithynia, Mysia, and Phrygia. Pop. about 1,100,000. Cap. Brusa. Khoi, town of Persia, in the province of Azerbijan, in Iat.:iS°:J7' N., Ion. 45° 15' E.,is one of the best-built cities of the country, with broad and straight streets traversed by canals and planted with trees. It has considerable trade, and the surrounding plain produces much fruit, grain, rice, and cotton ; but the locality is somewhat un- healthy. Pop. about :!0.000. Khojend', or Kodjend, the ancient Jaxarten, town of Kho'kan, Indejiendeiit Toorkistan. Central Asia. It is a populous town, but decaying, important only on account of its transit trade. Duty has to be paid here on all mer- chandise entering Khokan from Bokhara. Pop. estimated at 30,000. Khokan', or Kokan', one of the three independent khnnates of Toorkistan in Central Asia, boundeil on the S. \V., W., N., anil N. E. by the Russian province of Sir- Darya, E.'and S. E. by Kashgaria or E. Toorkistan, and S. by the' Pamir plateau" and the Karateghin. The area was formerly calculated as high as 227,000 square miles, and the poii. as high as .3.0011,000, but these estimates were much exaggerated. The western part of the khanate, com- prising the lower basin of the Sir-Darya, with (ho import- ant cities of Tashkend and Khojend, was annexed to Rus- sia in 1864, and further annexations have so reduced the khanate that, according to Russian maps published in 1872, the area is only 28,270 square miles and the pop. 800,000. In the present aspect of affairs in Central Asia (1875) its speedy annexation to Russia may be anticipated. Khokan is at present chiefly comprised within the valley of the river Sir-Darva, the ancient Jaxnrtr^, forming an almond- shaped district about 165 miles long and 65 miles wide. This was formerly known as the province of Ferghana. The average elevation above the sea is 1500 feet: the cli- mate varies from extreme cold to extreme bent, according to location. The valley is bounded on the S. E. and S. by lofty mountains, the chains of Thian-Shan or Muz-Tagh and Asfernh-Tagh forming watersheds between the basin of the Sir-Darya and those of the Kashear and Amu-Darya rivers, which flow E. ami W. from the .Amir plateau. The country is abundantly watered by the numerous tributaries of the Sir-D»ryn, and. aided by nn extensive system of ir- rigation, the fertile soil produces fine crops of rice, wheat, cotton, and barley, as well as hemp, flax, tobacco, eorgham, 1 scriptions. so-called ' - liest inhabitants of India, their physique, religion, man- ners, and customs being entirely non-.\ryan and of an ex- tremely low type. They are very black, with thick lips and woolly hair, but well proportioned, strong and athletic, living upon wild fruits and roots and such game as they can snare or kill by their rude devices. Their language is classed with the Uriya: it has many dialects and a " pecu- liar pectoral enunciation." Human sacrifice was formerly very prevalent, but since the English came in contact with the'lChonds (1835) it has been suppressed through the long- continued efforts of the British agent. Col. (now Maj.-Gen.) John Campbell, who.so Pergonal Xarratire (1864) is a val- uable source of information. The Khonds have recently attracted great attention from ethnologists on account of their very peculiar customs. I See the works of Hodgson, MePherson (1842), Tylor, Lubbock, Brace, Hunter, and JIcLcnnan.) Khonsar', town of Persia, in the province of Irak- Ajemee. It has a largo trade in dried and preserved fruits. Pop. 12.000. Khooloom', or Tashkurgan', town of Toorkistan, Central .Xsia, is on a river of the same name, in l.at. 36° 40' N., Ion. 08° 5' E. It consists of about 20.000 hou.ses. one story high, built of clay or sun-baked brick, with con- ical roofs, and surrounded with w.alls ; it is defended by two citadels. Melons are extensively cultivated in the vicinity. Khoondooz. See Kooxdooz. Khorassan', the ancient Bnctrin. a province of Per- sia, situated between lat. 31° and 38° N., and between Ion. 53° and 61° E. Its southern part is a desert of shifting sand and salt waste, but in the northern part branches of the Elburz Mountains form beautiful valleys, whose nalu- 1 ral fertility is still further increased by irrigation, artificial manures, and a most careful cultivation. Cotton, hemp, and tobacco are grown : wine, fruits, and silk are produced ; aromatic and medicinal plants are cultivated, and gold, silver, ami salt are found. The manufactures of silk and goat-hair fabrics and sword-blades are celebrated. Cap. Meshed. KhOTSabad' [corruption of Khotrnnhad. "the abode of ' Khosru or Chosroes"]. a v. of Asiatic Turkey, on the Ti- gris, 13 miles N. E. of Mosul, occupying the site of one of the royal cities of Assyria, the remains of which were dis- covered by E. Botia ili 1S43. The palace of Sargon. exca- vated at the expense of the French government, afforded the first historical inscriptions in cuneiform characters found in ancient Assyria, and led to the more famous dis- coveries of Lavard on the site of Nineveh. The excava- tors of Khorsabad erroneously gave the name of Nineveh o that place. (Sec Botta and Flandin's magnificent puhli- 'ation. iVoni.mrii(« i/e .Viiiei-; (5 vols., chiefly of plates. t' cat Paris, IS 10-50), and articles Assyria and CrsEiFORM Is- KIIOSRU— KIANO-SU. 154.3 Khosru', nr C'hos'rocs [(Jr. Xovport^], the name of two Persian uiunarchs ot the 8u^:^nDill dynasiy : I. NtsiliitVAS (" noble spirit"), ciillcti by historian!* The Jist, one uf the greatest of Orieutul M»Vfreigns, was tbirJ ^on of Kobad or Cobadcs, by whose will he succeeded to the thruiic at Ctesi- phon Sept. 12, 6.11, to the exclusion of his elder brnthere, whom he is said to have put to death as a measure of pre- caution. Unreliable legciiils give different accounts of the birth and education of Khosru. According to Kirdousi, his mother was the daughter of a king of the Huns: while Eutychius and many Persian histories assert he was the offspring of a noble lady of Khorassan, born about 500, while his father Kobad was a refugee in that province. Tlie Greek historian Procopius relates that Kobad solicited the Byzantine emperor Justin to adopt Khotru, in order to strengtiien his title to the throne^ and that the proposal was accepted, and theyoung prince was on his way to Constanti- nojtle, when a sudden rupture put an end to the (irojcct nnd implanted in the prince that hatred of the (Jreeks which ho atttTwarda displayed. Tliis talo is a puerile invention, though repeated by some modern writers. The Iiereditary war bi'tween Greeks and Persians had broken out afresh in 6'.M, and was carried on languidly in Armenia, Syria, and Mesopotamia until the accession of Khosru. Justinian had come to the throne of Constantinople in 527, and being desirous of concentrating his energies upon the war with the Vandals in Africa, he concluded with Khosru an igno- minious peace (bXi) by agreeing to pay an annual trihute of 410,000 pieces of gold. One of the conditions made by the Persian monarch was that seven (ireek philosophers, who had been persecuted as pagans ami had taken refuge in Persia, should be allowed to return to Ihoir homes and reside there under Persian protection. During the jircced- ing reign a politico-religious sect, called after their founder Mazdak, had arisen in Persia, inculcating conununistic or socialistic principles. Kobad had at one time favored, but at a later pcrioil endeavored to subdue them, seizing the lenders by stratagem and massacring many of the sec- tarians. A formidable civil war was the result, continuing into the reign of Klmsru, who finally suppressed the sect. The actions of the two monarchs in this respect have been much confused *vith each other, many events, especially the execution of Mazdak. being attributed to both, and it is now impossible to recover the facts of the case. One of the earlier measures taken by Khosru was the administrative division of his vast empire into four viceroyalties — Assyria, Media, Persia, anrl Hnetriana, He is charged by the By- znntino historians with having incited one of his vassals, Almondar, the Arabian prince or king of Ilira, to invade Syria, in violation of the peace. Be this as it may, the war broke out afresh. Khosru marched an arrny into Syria in 510, imposed enormous contributions upon the principal cities, took Antioch f.lune) after a gaUant defence, and nearly destroyed that Kastern metropolis of the Byzantine empire. Belisarius, the conqueror of Africa, was sent to conduct the war f 511 ). and by a bob! irruption into Meso- potamia forced Khosru to return to the defence of his own states. Belisariiis being recalled, the invasion of Syria was renewed (5(2) ; the return of that general to the Held caused the PersianH to recr»»ss the Kuphrates. and his second recall for the Italian campaign (54;{J again gave the victory to Khosru. After n brief truce the war was renewed in Colchis and Lftzica, provinces lying at the foot of the Caucasus, which had revolted from Persia by the aid of .Justinian, and continued with numberless alteriuitions ni' fortune until 5()L', when the Byzantine emperor consented to |iay an annual tribute of If). 000 pieces of gold, and remained in possession of the rlisputeil provinces. Southern Arabia was soon after- wards crinriuercd by Khosru ; the Armenians revolted from hitn in 5(i'J with the support of the emperor Justin 1 1., and the war between the two empires was renewed in 571, with the usual alternations of fortune, Syria was again ravaged by the Persians, but Khosru was completely (lefeutcd in a great battle at Melitene in Lesser Armenia in 57ii, and d. at Ctesiphon in Mar., 570. leaving the throne and the he- reditary war to his son Hormuz (or Hormisdas) IV. The reign of Khosru is accounted by tho modern Persians the most glorious period of their annals. All the Oriental virtues are ascribed (o Inm. and there can he no doubt that the government was adinini-tered with vigor ami sngncily. Learning was powerfully stimulated by the translation of tho best .*^ansk^it and Greek works, agriculture and eom- merco reeeived a powerful stimulus, and many magnificent cities were built. The boundaries of the empire were ex- tended beyond the IndiiR ami tin* Oxus. anrl clipluirmtio re- lations were maintained with all the realms from Africa to China. H. Pt'nwiz or Ppnwis ("tho generous"), grandson of Khosru I., succeeded his tatlier, Hormuz I\'.. who was de- posed in 5'.10 bv a rebel general nunied Bahram, who reign^'d for a year. The young Khosru took rofugowilh the Greek emperor Mauritius, by whose aid ho regained the throne, and in recompense ceded a great part of Mesopotamia, besides {laying a large sum of money. On the murder of Aluuritius )y Phocas (G02), Khosru made war upon the usurper, nomi- nally to avenge the death of his benefactor, ond within a few years conquered Syria. Egypt, and Asia Minor. He took Antioch in Oil, Damascus and Jerusalem in 614. Alexan- dria in filO, Chalcedon in 01^^. and Aueyra in 0211. thus bringing the war to the gates of Cnnstantinople. Hcraeliu3 had succeeded to the tliroue in GIO, but the Persian con- queror was enjoying too great favors from fortune to listen to proposals lor pence. With the wealth of so many king- doms he built a palace of unparalleled niHgnilicence at Uastagerd, 60 miles E. of Ctesiphon. in the midst of a park laid out upon a corresponding scale. After twelve years of defeats, the emperor Heraclius began in 621 a series of campaigns in whicli he recovered all his lost possessions, reduced Khosru to exlremities.and even ravaged his palace of Dastagerd. In consequence of these misfortunes. Khosru was deposed and murdered by his son Shirweh (Siroes) in Feb., 628. It was during his reign that Mohammed pro- claimed the doctrine of Islam. He sumnioneil Khosru by letter to recognize him as the proj)liet of Allah, and when the former tore the letter in pieces, Mohammed predicted, " Thus will God tear his kingdom and reject his supplica- tions." PoKTEii C. Bliss. Khotnn% or IHitsi, one of tho four provinces of Kash- garia. Icirnierty Chinese Toorkistan. The capital city, bear- ing the same name, is situated on the route between Var- kand and Lussa, in lat. 37° N.. Ion. "8° to S0° E. It was formerly, according to Abulfetla and other Mohammedan geographers, a city of great importance, and is still a largo place, enclosed with earthen ramparts and with broad streets, though ill built. If has manufactures of silk fab- rics, leather, and paper, and bus il thriving trade in these articles and in ijti, the jas|nr of the ancients. The in- habitants are chiefly Uzbek Tartars, and the place is cele- brated for its musk and for the beauty of the native popu- lation. Khotin. See Ciiotyn. Khuzistan% the ancient Sueiann, province of Persia, bordering on the (Julf of Persia. Its southern part is a low plain, sandy in some parts, swampy in others, but generally afl'ording e\-cellent pastures wherever it is well watered. The northern part is mountainous. Rice, maize, sugar, and indigo arc cultivated, and large herds of goats, cattle, sheep, and horses are reared. Khy'licr Pass, in the Khyber Mountains, a gorge nearly ;iO miles long, enclosed by clifts of slate, rising al- most perpendicularly on both sides to the height of 1000 feet. It is the principal, and for artillery the only availa- ble, road between Hindostan and Afghanistan. Khyen' Couiilry, a semi-independent province of Farther India. N. W. (tf Burmah and E. of tho British provinces of Araean and Chittagong. It is a narrow strip some 200 miles in length, traversed by the largo rivers Kbyen-dwem and Khyuung. Khyei-poor% town of Sinde, tho residence of tho ameer of North SInde, near the Indus. It is an ill-built and insignificant pla(re. Pop. 15.000. Kiaboiir'ra, or Amboyii<> Wood, a very expensive and beautiful wood, importeil lor veneering purposes. It is richly nn>ttled, and is of a reddish hue. It is sawed in thin slips from knots and wens upon the Pterospermimi In- (iii-um, a tree of tho East Indies. It is chiefly employed in inlaying. Kinc'li'tn, or Uiakhtn, town of Siberia, in tho Rus- sian province ot Traiisliaikaliit, near the Chinese frontier, ISO miles S. E. of Irkutsk. I*(»p. 5O00. It was established in 1727 as tho exclusive mart lorthetrafle between China and Russia, which was chiefly conducted by means of an- nual fairs. The trade sctnietimes amouiitid to $S. 000, 000 per annum, but hos decreased since the treaty of Peking (l'*60), which pertnilled cinnmeree along thewhole frontier of the two empires. Kiachta has a fortress containing the government and customs buildings, and is tho residence of many Kussian mendnints. Kinng-Clioo. See Kiong-Ciioo. KiaiiK^"*^!* ftn inland province of China, between lat. 21° and :tO° N., and between Ion. li;t° ami 118° E. Area, 72,|.S0 squaro milos. Pop. 4:i,HM,:^66. It, is mountainous and rich in miuerals. Cap. Nan-Cliang-Foo. Kianc'«Sn, province of China, between hit. 31° and .15° N., and between Ion. 116° and 122° K.. b<irdcriMg on the Yellow Sea. Area. 44.5)tO square miles. Pop. 5t,ini.t;il. The ground is low and level, but the soil is exceedingly fertile. Rico and sugar arc the principal products. Cap. Nan-King. 1544 KIANTONE— KIDNEY. Ki'antone9 post- v. and tp. of Chautauqua co., N. Y., 6 miles S. of Jamestown. Pop. of v. 62; of tp. 539. Kickapoo% post-tp. of Peoria co., III., S miles N. W. of Peoria. Pop. lUO. KickapoOf post-tp. of Loarenworth co., Kan. It con- tains the vilhigo of Kickapoo or Kickapoo City, on the Missouri Uiver and on the Leavenworth Atchibon and North-westorn R. R. Pop. 1856. Kickapoo^ post-tp. of Vernon co., Wis. Pop. 912. Kickapoos, a tribe of Indians, of Algonquin stock, who iu the seventeenth century lived on the Wisconsin River, and hunted, in company with the allied Miamis, over a vast territory. They came in collision with the French explorers in Illinois, wliither they had migrated early in the eighteenth contury.and in 1763 were found by the English on the Wabash River. They committed hos- tilities against the settlers in the Pontiac war (1765), and again in ITDl, \vhen their Wabash village was taken by Gen. Scott, and another burned by Wilkinson. After Wayne's victory over the allied Western tribes, the Kickapoos sub- mitted, and by the treaty of Greenville (Aug. 3, 1795) they ceded part of their lands. They were again in arms in 1811 at Tippecanoe, and at Fort Harrison in 1812; as a consequence, several of tiicir villages were burned, and by new treaties {1S15. 1810, and 1819) they sold most of their lands, removing beyond the Mississippi to Osage River reser- vation to the number of 1800. Few of them would settle down to agriculture, but roved through what is now the Chickasaw and Creek country, committing depredations in Texas and other frontier states of Mexico, wbere many of them ultimately established themselves. They now reside in N. E. Kansas, where they are comfortably established, and in the Indian Territory, numbering in all about 1500. Kidd (William), the *• Robert Kidd** of popular tradi- tion, was the son of a Scotch nonconformist preacher. He became a sailor, and in 1691 received an award of £150 from the council of New York for services in behalf of the colony. In 1696 he sailed from Plymouth. England, in command of the Adventure galley, fitted out for the sup- pression of piracy, but, according to the general belief, he b'.-came a pirate himself. He came in 1G98 to New York with a large amount of treasure, which was seized by the earl of Bcllomont; and an additional treasure which Kidd had buried on Shelter Island was also recovered. Kidd himself was sent to London, where lie was hanged May 24, ITOl — not for piracy, but for the murder of William Moore, a seaman. The trial was very unfair, and there is some reason for believing that Capt. Kidd was not guilty of the crimes wliich have made his name so notorious. Kid^der^ county of Northern Dakota, newly formed, crossed by the Northern Pacific R. R., occupied by the Pla*eau du Coteau du Missouri, and comprising an area of 1700 square miles. Kidder, post-v. and tp. of Caldwell co., Mo., on the Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R., 163 miles W. of Hannibal. Pop. of V. 195; of tp. 922. Kidder, tp. of Carbon co., Pa. Pop. 1417. Kidder (Daniel Parish), D. D.. b. at Darien, N. Y., Oct. 18, 1815; studied in Lima, N. Y., and at Hamiltoa College, N. Y., and graduated at the Wesleyan Univer- sity, Conn., in 1835. He preached in New Jersey confer- ence 1810-44; was connected with the M. E. Rook Con- cern ; was professor of practical theology in Garrett Bib- lical Institute, Evanston, III., in 1855, and afterwards be- came professor at Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, N. J. lintzil and the /iraziiiaiifi, Afonnonisin and the Mor- mons. IfomilctlcB, and The Christian Pastorate were pub- lished by him. Kid'derminster, town of England, in the county of Worcester, on both sides of the Stour, near its influx in the Severn. Its carpet manufactures are very celebrated. Pop. 20,803. Kid'doo (Joseph B.), b. in Pennsylvania; on (ho out- break of civil war he enlisted, Apr., 1861, as private in the 2d Penn.^ylvauia Vols., and was engaged at the siege of Yorktown, the battles of Williamsburg. Fair Oaks. Malvern Hill, etc.; promoted to be major lOlst Pennsylvania Vols. ; subsequently as licutonant-coioncl i;J7th Pennsylvania Vols, ho was engaged in the battles of South Mmnitain, Antietam, and Fredericksburg; and as colonel at Chan- ccllorsvillc. In Oct., lS6:t, he was appointed mnjor 6th, and June, 1864, colonel 22d IT. S. colored troops, operating during the siege of Petersburg with the Army of the James, being severely wountb-d Oct., ISfU. For gallant conduct he was brevettcd brigadier-general and ninjor-gencral U. S. volunteers, and colonel and brigadier-general U. S. A. In July, 1866, ho wae appointed lieutenant'Colonel 4.'ld U. S. Infantry, but owing to disability arising from wounds re- ceived in service, was retired Dec, 1870, upon the full rank of brigadier-general. G. C. Simmons. Kid'napping [from Ger. kind, Prov. Eng. /r/rf, "child," and Pro". Eng. nap, to "seize"] is a criminal offence, defined by Blaekstone to be the forcible abduction or stealing away of a man, woman, or child from his own country and sending him into another. (0>//i/>i., iv. 219.) The term is commonly employed to denote the stealing and carrying away of children, but iu law it is applied to all persons. This ofTence was treated, at common law, as an aggravated kind of abduction or false imprisonment, and was punished by fine and imprisonment. (See Abdl'C- TiON, False iMpnisoNMEXT.) At the present day the na- ture of this crime is generally defined by statute, and the carrying of the person taken into another country is not usually made a necessary ingredient in the offence. Fraudu- lently inveigling, enticing, or decoying a iierson away, with intent to imprison or secrete him or detain him from his home, is frequently declared to be kidnapping as well as an abduction by the use of force. It is sometimes provided that the consent of a person to his abduction shall not bo a defence to the party aceusetl of the offence, unless it ap- pear satisfactorily to the jury that such consent was not extorted by threats or duress. Such is the case in New York. There are frequently special statutory provisions in regard to the kidniipj)ing of children. The consent nf a child of tender years has been held at common law to render his abduetion none the less a criminal offence. At what age a child would be capable of giving an assent which would be available in defence has never been pre- cisely determined. His capacity in this respect must be ascertained from the circumstances of each particular case. In New York it is declared by statute that every person shall be guilty of kidnapping who shall forcibly seize and confine, or shall inveigle another, with intent to cause him either to be sent out of the State against his will, or to bo secretly confined or imprisoned in the State against his will, or to be held in involuntary servitude. The offeuco is a felony, and is punishable by imprisonment in a State prison for a term not exceeding ten years. The statutes of other States must be specially consulted. George Chase. Revised by T. W. Dwight. Kid'nev [from Ang.-Sax. cy/me, '"genitals," and neah, "near;" Lat. reucs; Fr. rctii; Old English, "the reins"], an excretory organ in the body of vertebrates (an imper- fect analogue being found in exceptional invertebrates), whose function is the elimination of the urine, an aqueous solution of various effete organic products and of inorganic salts, the debris of nutrition and metamorphosis of tissues. These excretory products — water, salts, and organic mat- ter — are separated from the blood. In the kidney, there- fore, arterial branches elaboiately subdivided, their walls attenuated, are brought in close contact witli a system of glandular bodies and tubules for the escape of the compo- nents of urine by transudation and secretion. In fishes the kidney presents a simple, rudimentary structure — one straight tube or ureter extending the entire length of the body, and giving off at right angles numerous tufts of tu- bules which intcrdigitate with blood-vessels. Reptiles have a more definite organ — a localized mass of tubules. Birds have relatively large kidneys. iMammals, especially man. have the most perfect development— namely, the great- est multiplioation of tubular surface in a compact form. The kidneys in man, two in number, are situated in the posterior part of the abdominal cavity, behind the perito- neum, one on either side of the spine iu the lumbar region, and extending from the eleventh rib to near the crest of the ilium. The kidneys arc retained in tutu by their blood- vessels and by fat in which they arc imbedded. A kidney is ** beau-shaped," or ovoid, with a concave depression, notch, or *■ hilue " on one side; is of a bruwnish-red or maroon color; in consistency is dense, firm, but fragile; measures four inches long, two in width, and one in thick- ness ; in weight varies from four and a half to six ounces in the adult male, and half an ounce less in the female. Relatively, the human kidney.s are j^jjth of the weight of the body. The kidney is invested by a strong fibrous cap- sule loosely attached by "areolar" or connective tissue. An organ so small, it contains so compact and elaborate an arrangement of vascular tufts and extensive multiplication of tubular structure, that the surface for excretory work is equal to six times the entire surface of the skin. (Mnpo- iher.) A vertical section of the kidney (see Fig. 1) dis- plays a hollow organ, consisting apparently of a thiok wall folded around the internal cavity at its hilus or concave side. Two distinct structures arc noticeable : 1st, the Cor- tex, or external peripheral portion, termed the "cortical substanoe," dark, homogeneous, granular ; 2d, internally a series of pinkish, fan-shaped, or pyramidal masses, their bases towards the cortex, their apices converging upon the KIDNEY. 1545 central cavity. lu the apparently homogeneous substance or granular matrix miouie inspection reveals, imbedded, convoluted masse.3 of capillaries — vascular turts known as Fio Fio. 2. Vertical section of kidney, showing Br.antilar corti-x and pyra- mids or lau-»liape<l groups of uriuilcruus tiibuiej. Miilliiijhiun lii/t: These tufts arc surrounded by flask-liko capsules or membranous cxpansiona of tui>ulcs. A tuft and its investing capsule constitute a *' Mtt'i>!-jhlan hodr/." Departing from the capsule of the tuft, tlio uriuifcrous tubule is tortuous or " convoluted." The cortex includes in its granular "matrix" or "stroma" (be Malpighian bodies, and convoluted tubules wbich separate uriuo from the blood circulating in adjacent and intertwining capillaries, as well as from the tufts. The cortex is therefore the sec- retory or functional portion of the kidney, as distiiiguisbed from the pyrami<Ial or medullary portion, \vhieh is termed *' tubu- lar." The cortex constitutes three-fourths of the kidney, being thin over (ho bases of the pyramids, but dipping deeply down between them (eolumns of Berlin), and con- taining the vessel.", nerves, and lymiihaticg, which, entering at the hilus, ramify towards the periphery of the organ. The pyramids vary in number from eight to eighteen, and collectively constitute the niedcillary sub- stance of the kiilney. .\ pyramid is a col- lection of straight urinary tubules, which communicate with the convoluted tubules of the cortex through interincdialc " loop- ctl" tubules. One straight tubule collects the urine of several convoluted tubules. A pyramid contains about lOOU tubuli recti (straight tubules) converging at its apex, which presents a convex ]iroces8 or eleva- tion on the surface of the cavity, desig- nated a papilla. Several pyramids may oo- alesconear their apices, presenting n singlo papilla. The tubuli recti discharge bv free apertures into the central cavity or jcscr- °'"'"^'"'' ""'<"■'■ voir, termed the pelvis of the kidney. The cavity is of irregularoontour. havingthroo sacculated recesses, termed inrundibuli. The pvlvis, receiving the urine coilroled by the several pyramids from corresponding sections of the cortex, ])arl8 with it through the ureter, a tube communicating of cxereiorv between the kiilney and the bladdir. In tubules (labiifl the human a.lull the kidney isa symmelri- J",',',! j"*^ '''^' ''* ' cal organ, but in IVptal life it is dividetl into distinct lobes, seven or eight in number, eneh consisting of ft pyramid and corresponding seotion of cortex. The super- ficial depression and lobulatcd structure disappear later by gin, course, and sulidlvlMions nf a single uri- nary tubule. TriiuKltion of tbi- cnuvulutetl urinary tubule Into the system tho growth of new, intermediate pyramids. In other mam- mals, the sheep, ox, bear, whale, tho kidneys are distinctly lobulatcd, — externally nodulated. Although tho visible distinction between lobules is obliterated in man, disease, as inflammation, is often limited by the primitive bound- aries, leaving adjacent healthy parts to vicariously perform tho function of the crippled ones. The kidney having but a single function, the excretion of urine, interest centres in the study of the microscopic, exact structure of the glandular apparatus of the cortex, and of the system of minute tubules which conduct the excreted fluid to the central resfrvoir of the kiilney, thence to pass to the blad- der antl liiially be voided from the body. Our perfect knowledge of tho histology of the kidney has rcsultcil in part from the labors of Miiller and Bowman in unravelling the tubules of tho lower vertebrates, in part from tho line injections of vessels and tubules by lluschke, Gcrbich, Ilenle, Ludwig. and others. The granular stroma, matrix, or substance of the cortex is studded with inuumer- ablo Malpighian bodies. The Malpighian body is sphe- roidal, and measures about the too"' "' ik"' "f "" •'"='' '" diameter. The reniil artery, a lirancb of the aorta, enters tho kidney at its hilus. extends its branches up between the pyramids to the cortex, and having divided and subdivided many times, its ultimate branches suddenly expanding into numerous capillaries rolled in a spheroidal form, a convo- luted mass, or plexus, variously designate. I as a Malpig- hian (from Malpiglii, who discovered it) " tuft," '• glome- rulus," or "knot." Tho vessel supplying or bringing blood to the tuft is termed the *' a_ifrrt lit" vrssel, and a com])anion vessel leaving the tuft, re. moving the blood which has parted with the urinary products, is the •• t-fferent'* ves- sel ; it conveys its con- tained blood to the yfi renal vein. This Mal- pigbian tuft of capil- lary arteries and veins is surrounded by a spheroidal, flask- slinped, membranous capsule, which is the H"lalion of blood-vessels in the kidney be;'inning of a urinif- I., Ilio glandular strucinre separat- e,-„us tubule. Thethin- ing the urine: a, artery conveying ,, , -n • „ r blood by alle'rent vessel en to tuft of "•'""•J capillaries of eaiiillaries within the capsule c; tc. the tult or knot part the ell'erent vessel removing blood with blood, serum, or to network of capillary veins in, and water bv simple trans- inlo vein v; ul, uriniferous tubule. „,,,,,;„„; ,„„i therefore excrete the chief ingredient of I he urine, water being from Hi to DM percent, of itsconstilucncy. The capsule, being a niero receiver of water oozing from the vessels, performs no true secretory or glandular action, and therefore is not lined with epithelial or secretory cells except at its lower third, being nieioly a thin, translucent. siructureU'ss basement meiiibnine. The c(iillielial oelis at it.* lower third continue to lino tho uriniferous tubule whieli departs from it. This tubulo is convoluted, at first about :ttrr"' "' "" '""'' '" diamoter, later u^nth only, and its epithelium is "sphe- roidal " in shape. The tuft separates water by transudation. Theso oonvolutod tubes, by their glandular lining cells, separate or excrete from the adjacent capillary vessels tho solid constituonls of the urine, rarely us high as 6 per cent, of its entire volume. (In snakes, w hose urine is nearly solid, tho entire tract of capsule and tubule is lined with cells.) The convoluled tubules were discovered in the oighteenth ocuturv by Ffrn-in. 'I'liev occupy Iho cortex between and arounii the .Malpighian bodies, and continue in a transition state, as smaller, iraii.-luceni, unliiied. " looped " tubules, across tlio boundary of tho cortex to the medullary or pyr- amidal portion, and empty into the larger, straight tubules (tubuli recti) which compose those radiating, fan-shaped masses — tlie pyramids. Theso straight tubules, discovered in tho sovenleoiitli century by Dellini, merely collect tho urine and transmit it to the pelvis of tho kidney. Tlioy are lined with " tessellated " or pavement epithelial cells, which are Hat and polygonal, usually live-sided. Theso liibiilea have a calibre of jUjtli or even jiijlb of an inch. Tho pelvis of the kidney is lineil with ovoid cells, the ureter with oonoiilal cells. Tho presence of epithelial cells of on« of the gevorni forms In exoess in the urine is of service in inilieating what part of tho kidney is the sent of disease. Karly in to'tal lib' the iiiiilevi'lnpeil kblncys ore sur- mounted by tho Wolilian bn<lies, having a stnietiiro like Iho kidney, a truo urinary seoretioii, and a common duct. They disappear as the kidneys develop, aiul replace them. 6ur- muuDtiug the kidneys in adult life are small masses, the lo46 KIDRON— KILDARE. Bnprarcnal capsule?, ductless, glandular bodies of unknown funcHon, and chii'fly intcreating «n account of a peculiar pigmentary, granular degeneration tlu-y rarely undergo, di.-sseminating ])ignu'ut throughout the body, impoverishing the blood, and tingeing the skin. (See Addison's Diseask.) An anatomical anomaly is the *' horseshoe kidney," the two kidneys being united by an isthmus of fibrous and granular structure. Exceptionally, the kidney is ** mova- ble," and varies its position in the abdominal cavity. The nervous supply of the kidney is rich, dt-riveil from the sym- pathetic system. The nerves may be traced from their en- trance at the hilus up to the afferent vessels of the tufts. The kidney is well known to be easily excited to action by emotion and all influences upon the sympathetic nenous system, and to have a direct ami complementary relation to the functional activity of the skin. (For diseases of the kidney see Rexal Diseases, by Frederick Zinsser, M. I>.) E. Darwin Hudson, Jr. Kid'ron^ or Cedron, a small stream or "brook" in the vall<\v E. of Jerusalem, and memorable in many scenes of biblical history. Kiel, town of Prussia, in the dnchy of ITolstcin, on the Kicler Fjord. It is well built and lieautifuUy situated, has a university, some manufactures, and a considerable trade. Its harbor is one of the best on the Baltic, deep and safe, and now very strongly fortified ; it will be the station of the German fleet in tlie Baltic, and the seat of all institutions belonging to tlie German navy. Kiel communicates daily with Copenhagen, Christiania, and Malmo. Pop. 31,764. Kiel'ce^ government of Poland, adjoining the frontier of Austrian Galicia. Area, .'JG2;i square miles. Pop. 470,300. It is watered by the Vistula, produces good wheat and other grains, awd has abundant iron-mines. The cap- i'al is a town bearing the same name, 9fi miles S. \V. of Warsaw, with 7205 inhabitants : !?eat of a Catholic bishop- ric and seminary, a mining-school, and a gymnasium or aeademy. Kieiichow. Pee Kioxg-Choo. K ien'- Lung [Chinese, '* celestial blessing"], fourth em- peror of China of the present Mauchu dynasty, b. in 1709 ; succeeded his father, Yung-Ching. in 1735; made war upon the Tartar tribes (17.'»4-tj0) and upon the kingdom of Ava (KfiS); published an edict against Christianity (1753); received the first English embassy under Lord Macartney (1793) ; abdicated in favor of his son, Kia-King (1795), and d. Feb. 7, 1709. He was a protector of literature, wrote treatises in Chinese and Manchu, and edited a vast diction- ary of the latter language. Kie'pert (Heixrich), b. at Berlin July 31, 1S18: de- voted himself from early age to the stuily of geography; enjoyed the instruction of Bitter ; explored Asia Minor in 1S4I-42: was director of the geographical institute of Wei- mar 1815-52; returned to Berlin and became professor at the university in IS59. His Athis von Hellus nnd den he!- fe.niHvhfH C'thmif-n (Berlin, 1SI0-4G ; revised ed. ISfiO), and his maps to Robinson's PalcHtina (Halle. 1S43), attracted the attention of the seientilic world. His HiHtoriachfjeo- {/ittphinrhe Krliiiitrnitig der Krierje zicischen drm out ro- miHchcn Ilcivhe iiiid den peiaiHchen /Conirjen dcr Sftisaniden- Dtfnastie, was awarder! a prize in 1844 by the French In- stitute. Of his numerous rither publications, Aeuer Ifond- atlnn der Erde, A^ maps (Berlin, 1857-01), is very exten- sively used and much appreciated ; also his Atlas der alten Wth (1848), etc. Kicr'kcgaard (Soren Aabvk), b. at Copenhagen in ISl.'i, spent his whole life, almost without any exception, in his native city, living in elegant retirement, at last almost in seclusion, and d. there in 1854. His works are very numerous, some of them also very large, nnd comprise two series of writings, published simultaneously — one pseudony- mou3ly, the olherunder his name. In the former, Whether — Or, Stmjt^n iif Lift; liifs of Phifosophif, The Idea of I/nrror, etc., he gives a sketch and a criticism of thope different views of life with which people try to live in our times, and shows that outside of Christianity there is a chance for dnr.zting heroism, for brilliant vices, for mediocrity, and for nonsense, but none for the deepest impulses of human nature. In the latter, Erercigeg in Cfirintitmiti/, Jieedit of Lovf, Srrmoun, etc.. he develops liis own conception of Christianity, partly in positive form, partlv polemically, criticising the ruling theological systems. His conception is very austere. Intellectually. Christianity is a paradox, whieh can b«» grasped only by faith : it is the charaoteristic of overy truly Christian idea that it is a cross to the under- stamling. and yet absolutely imperative in its form. J^Ioral- ly. it is love — not charity, or benevolence, or honesty, but a love which knows no choice nnd makes no }>rcfercncc, but embraces the whole human race with the same sympathy, blotting out all those differences which arise from the natural relations between parents and children, man and wife, etc. ^'Esthetically — that is, in its effect on natural life— it is suf- fering ; he whose life is not one continuous suffering is not a Christian. He was a most powerful stylist, though his style was more seducing than convincing. Clemens Petersen. Kie'sewetter (Rafael Geohg), b. Aug. 29, 1773, at Holieschau. Moravia ; studied philosopliy and law at 01- miitz and Vienna; held since 1704 different government offices in Vienna; retired in 1SI5. and d. Jan. 1, 1850. His writings are of great interest for the scientific study of music, especially Oe/irhichic dt-r tvropp-tthtnhiud : Mnnik (1834) and DcrweUliche fimnng von f'r'iihen Alittelaltcr bia zur Ei-fndnng des draniatischen Sti'fn {1841). Kics'ter, tp. of Faribault eo., Minn. Pop. 61. Kiev', Kief, or Kiew, government of European Rus- sia, bordering on the Dnieper. Area. 1042 square miles. Pop. 144.270. The northern part is biw antl marshy: the snuthern, hilly, covered with branches of the Carpathian Mountains. The soil is fertile, and the climate very mild. Wheat, maize, tobacco, hemp, nnd vines are cultivated ; excellent timber is grown and many cattle reared. Kiev, town of Russia, the capital of the government of Kiev, on the right bank of the Dnieper. It is one of the oldest and most beautiful cities of Russia. It consists, properly speaking, of three towns, each with its own walls and fortifications — namely, Petchcrsk, with the famous monastery of Petcherskoi, containing the tombs of many Russian saints ; Kiev proper, with the celebrated cathedral of St. Sophia, built in 1037; and Porlol. which is occupied by the middle and lower classes. Kiev has a university fre- quented by 1500 students, and several other educational in- stitutions. Its manufactures are not considerable, but its trade is extensive and important. Pop. 70,591. Kikin'da, Na^y-Kikinda, or Gross-Kikinda, town of Austria, in the Temesvar banat, lias an imjiortant annual fair and a large trade in cattle. Pop. 17.462. Kilauea, a celebrated volcano in Hawaii, one of the Sandwich Islands, one of the largest in the world. It is in constant activity, and in the eruption of 1840 sent forth for three weeks a river of molten lava which varied from a few hundred feet to 3 miles in width. The crater is 8 miles in circumference, and varies from 800 to 1500 feet in depth. Mauna Loa, another famous volcano, is only 16 miles distant. Kirbourn City, post-v. of Newport tp., Columbia co., AVis., on the Wisconsin River and the Chicago Milwaukee and St. Paul R, R., 108 miles N. AV. from Milwaukee. It has 8 churches, 1 bank. 4 hotels, 1 newspaper, 33 stores, 3 harness, 5 boot, 4 blacksmith, ancl 3 wagon shops; also saw and flour mills, sash, iloor, nnd blind factories, and a tan- nery. There are extensive public schools and a fine insti- tute. Kilbourn City is surrounded by a rich farming dis- trict, is the eentre of the hop-trade of the North-west, nnd noted as a place of summer resort, being at the foot of (lie famous *' Dells of the Wisconsin." Three elegant little steamers ply on the river for the accommodation of the pleasure-seeker. Pop. about 1100. Frank 0. Wisner. Ed. "Wisconsin Mirror." KiTbourne (Jamks). b. at Farmington, Conn., Oct. 19, 1770; was a mechanic, a merchant, and a manufacturer; in ISOO was ordained as deacon, and at times ofliciated in the pulpit. Having attained considerable wealth, he was a liberal benefactor tu various public institutions, and in 1802 removed to Ohio with a numerous following, and founded the town of AVorthington ; was a member of Con- gress 1813-17, and again 1S39-41 ; was frequently elected to the State legislature : was surveyor of public lands, com- missioner to settle the boundary-line between the public lands and the great Virginia rcservaticm ; and was colonel of a frontier regiment; president of the board of trustees of AVorthington College for thirty-five years. D. at AVor- thington, 0.. Apr. 9, 1850. Kildare', an inland county of the province of Leinster, Ireland. Area. 653 square miles. Pop. 83.014, of whom 2H,359 cannot read or write. The ground is mostly level or slightly undulating, consisting largely of reclaimed bog; the soil is a deep and fertile loam ; wheat, oats, and harli-y are the principal crops. The chief towns are Atby, May- nooth, and Kildare. In the centre of the county is the fantous Ciirnitfh of Kildare, consisting of a ](lain of about 5000 acres, used for military encampments, and famous for athletic sports of nil kinds. From 1851 to 1872, 21, 6U persons emigrated from this county. Kildare, market-town nnd parish in the county of the same name in Ireland, famous as tho seat of one of the old- est Catholic bishopries (saiil to have been founded about 500). for the Parliament held there in 1309. and for the Curragh races, held in Apr., June, Sept., and Oct. Pop. 2654. KILDARE— KILNS. 1547 Kildare, post-tp. of Juneau co.. Wis., od the La Croese di%-ision oT (he Milwaukee and St. Paul K. K., 8 luiles N. W. uf Kilbourn City. Pop. 685. KiTdeer, the Chmadriuti ioci/€ni», a North American plover, coiumoD in suinuicr on the interior plains, and iu winter frequenting the sea-coast from Texas to M]i8»>uc'hu- setts. It is named from its cry, which is constuully re- peated. Its Uesh is not prized very highly. Kirham {Alexam>kk), b. at Ep\vorth. England, July 10, I7li2; jiiim-d tlic Wesleyan Conlercucc iu 17)Sf», and in 17^6 was expelled for advocating loo fervently tculesiaaticul reforms, especially a more equal distribution uf powers among laymen and preachers. The next year was organ- ized "the Kilhamites " or " Kcw CoDncction of Wesieyan Methodists." 1). in 1798. Ki'lia^town of European Turkey, in the province of Bessarahia. on a hraneh of the l>antibc. It carries on consideraljle tishinj^, and its preparation of caviare is cele- brated. Pcqi. 6101J. Kil'ian, Saint, b. in Ireland early in the seventh cen- tury; devoted himself to missionary labors in Thuringia, Germany, where ho was murdered with many companions in fi89, being afterwards canonized. Mueh of the history of Saint Kilian and his companions is admitted to be le- gendary, but there seems to be no good reason to doubt the facts above stated. Kiliman^jaro', a mountain of Africa, situated on the western border of Zanzibar, in lat. ?>° 40' S., Ion. .30° E., is supposed to be the highest mountain on the continent. Its top is covered with perpetual snow, and its height is esti- mated at about IS,7U0 feet above the level of the sea, Kilkcn'nVy an inland county of the province of Lein- ster, Ireland. Area, 796 square miles. Pop. !fl9,:i79, mostly Roman Catholics. The surface is undulating, in some places rising to the height of 1000 feet; anthracite coal and black marble are found. The soil is light, but fertile, and crops of wheat, oats, and barley are raised. The only city of any importance is Kilkenny. From 1851 to 1S72 the emigration from this county was 48,146. Kilkenny, town of Ireland, in the county of Kilkenny, on the Nure, It has several interesting buildings, a col- lege, a griimmar school in which Swift, Congreve, Far- quhar, and Berkeley received the first part of their educa- tion. Pop. 15,609. Kilkenny, post-tp. of Le Sueur co., Minn. Pop. 7.'J0. Killnr'ncy, market-town and pari.-<h of Ireland, Kerry CO., 44 miles N. N. W. of Cork, situated in the midst of the most beautiful scenery, and within about a mile of the cele- brated lakes to which it gives its name. The town contains several hotels, churches, and chapels, and a magnificent Roman Catholic cathedral, a dispensary and fever hospital, a poorhouse, etc. Pnp. 5187. The lakes, three in number, aro connected with each other; the lower lake is nboiit ti miles long by 2 miles broad: the middle. 1\ miles Inng by i mile broad: the upper, It miles lonj;. Tliey receive sev- eral streams, and arc interspersed with numerous islands. On a projecting penini^ula which divides the middle from the lower hike stand (he picturesque ruins of Muckross Abliey and Hops Castle. The lovely and pieturesfjuo sce- nery abounding; is unsurpassed, and in the summer is a famous attraction to tourists, who resort hero in large numbers, Kill'bnrk, tp. of Holmes co., O. Pop. 1121. Killhnck, Ip. of Allegheny co.. Pa. Pop. 1919. KiU'rr, a name applierl to cetaceans of the genus Orca, i family Delphinida', or dolphins, and given in allusion to their sanguinary and ravenous habits. They are noted enemies of the right whale?, as well as other delphinoids, seals, fishes. The kilhr of the Atlantic U, S. coast is Otca ytiufiatitr, and that of the Pacific coast, O. atnt. Killif'crnn'kio, a celebrated pass through the <iram- piun Mnitutains, in Perthshire, Scotland, about 15 miles N. \V. nf l>unkeld. At the N. extremity the revolutiunary army, under Cien. Maekay, was drf(ute<i en July !7. I6sy, by tlie n»yalif»ts, under (irahame nf Claverliouhc, Viscount Dundee, who was killed at the moment of victory. Kil'lingly, tp. and post-v. of Windhnm co., Conn. The lownnhip in traversed by the Norwieh and Worcester R. R., and eimtainH ^everal manufaeturing villngen. one of which is tho bcirough of Danielsonvillc. Killingly has a national Itiink. Pop. 5712. Kiriington Peak, in Sherburne tp., Rutland co., Vt., II miles E. of Rullnnd, is the third in height of the Vermont mountains. It is a mtbin landmark, and the view from its t(»p is very fine. Its lieight is 4 1 NO feet. Kiriincworth, pnst-r. and tp. of Middlesex oo., Conn., 2.'{ miles E. of New Haven. Pr.p. s-,f;. Kirion, tp. of Jackson co.» III. Pop. 950. Kilmainc' (CuAtii.FS Jennings), b. at Dublin abont 175U ; entered the French army in 1765; served under La Fayette iu the Ameriean war; became brigadier-general in 1792; was distinguished at the buttle of Jemappcs, in the Vendean and Italian cainjtaigns, and was appointed iu 1797 general-in chief of the army fur the invasion of Euglaud. D. at Paris Dec. 15, 1799. Kilmar'nock, town of Scotland, in the county of Ayr. It is famous for its calico-printings, and has some tan- neries and distilleries. Pop. 22,952. Kilns [Ang.-Sax. ct/ln, from cylrue, "a furnace or kit- chen "], a name given to various kimls of furnaces or ovens constructed of brick or stone, in which a hi<;h and uniform heat can bo applied to bodies for the jmrpose of drying, baking, or charring them, such as brick-kilns, pottery-kilns, charcoal-kilns, etc. etc. The best kiln for any special pur- pose is that in which the requisite intensity of heat can be produced and maintuinerl un<ler the most perfect control at the least expense for fuel. Inh rmittent kilns are those in which the fire is allowed to go out after each burning, to be again started after the kiln is recharged. For burning lime with wood-fuel the upright kiln is the simplest. It may be built of briek ; if of other masonry, it should have a brick lining. On the inside it is circular in Iiorizontal section, tapering slightly, by a curve both up nnd down, from the circle of largest diameter, which is from 4 feet to 6 feet above the bottom. A kiln of 10 to 11 feet in largest diameter may be about 25 to 2S feet high. 5 to 6 feet diameter at top, and 7 to H feet at bottom. There is an arched opening on one side at the bottom, 5 to 6 feet high, through which the wood is introduced and the burnt lime removed. It is advantageous to have a horizontal grating 1 to 2 feet above the bottom, on which to maintain the fire. These kilns arc usually located on a hillf=ide, so that the top is easily accessible for charging the kiln, and the bottom for supplying fuel nnd drawing out the lime. In charging, the largest pieces of stone to be burnt are first selected, and formed into a rough, dome-like arch, with large open joints, springing from the liotlom of the kiln to a height of five or six feet. Above this arch the kiln is filled in from the top. taking the larger stones for the lower layers, and topping ofl' with those that are smaller. When starling a fire under the dome, the heat should be raised gradually to the required degree, iu order to prevent a sudden expansion and probable rupture of the st(me forming the tlome, which might either cause a downfall of tho entire mass above, or choke the liraught by the stone breaking up into numerous small fragments. .After a bright red heat is once reached throut;h the mass of stone, it should be maintained to the end of the burning, as indi- cated by a large shrinkage in the volume of the contents, the choking up of the voids between the fragments, and the ease with which an iron rod can be In reed down through the stone from the t<q>. A better form of inter- mittent wood-biiruin[^ kiln tlntn the one described is Fhuwn in Fig. 1, in wliich the fireplace h rests on a permeated Fio. 1. brick arch, throufjh which there is a sufiieiently frco eiriMilatitm of air to secure the re(jui,<ite <Irau<.'ht. Tho interior should be lined with brick, U'aving a thin space between the lining and tho mil side nin^onry, to Iio filled with a^hes or other non coniluetor. This eim- bles the in»<ido to ex|>and and contract without seri- ous injury to the kiln, nnd lo a great extent prevents the (ranf«iui.>^sion of heat to the outside masonry — an important consideralion when the latter is made of stone not able to wifhstantl great heat. In Ihes^e inter- mittent kilns one great defect is the enormous waste of hent which takes place at each burning, for ihe quantity of fuel expendecl in rai!<ing the contents of the kiln, as well ns its thick masonry walls, to the degree of hnit neecfsary to burn lime, has lo be repeated each time tho kiln is charged. Another special defeet is. that the stone nearest tho dome is liahln to hccomo injured by everburning hcforo the top portions become thoroughly caustic. Intermittent bill-shaped kilns, using gas-coke or coal for fuel, are extensi\ely employed in EnghintI, ?" ranee, and (ieruniny for burnini; PortlanrI cement. The Cermnn kiln is usually about 50 feet hich and 10 feet in greatest diame- tcr. It is filled, for burning, with altornato layers of the raw cement and ooko or coal, in tho proportion of about one c*«"^wr>sif*^ 1548 KILNS. part by weight of fuel to two parts of raw eement, and theo ijjnitej at bottom. Three to four days are required fur b'urning, and fully five days, and sometimes more, for the Fio. 2. kiln to cool off so that the contents can be removed. The burning is always carried to the point of incipient vitrifl- cation, and when properly burnt the pieces of cement arc of a dark greenish-gray color, are quite heavy, hard to pulverize, and are cracked, contorted, and shrunken. These kilns are usually tapered to a small diameter at top, and have one or two side-openings through which they are charged. . Fig. 2 represents a vertical section and elevation through the draw-pits of a Portland-cement kiln, of the form gen- erally used upon the Thames and elsewhere in England, Fi'.'S being a sectional [ilan through the draw-pits. These kilns are from :J7 feet to 40 feel high from the draw-pit floor to the top of the upper eonc, and from 12 feet to 15 feet in largest diameter. Thev are built of brick, with an interior linfng, y inches thick, oV firebrick, reacbing to within 5 feet of the top, properly bonded to the e.tterior masonry, except in the lower portion to the height of about 12 feet, which is not so bonded, and can therefore be renewed with ease whenever necessary. There arc two draw-pits, opening on opposite sides, and" separated from each other by a wedge of brick-work, finished in firebricks on top, which divides the descending contents of the kiln when drawing. At the bottom of the kiln, just above the wedge, a number of Fia. 3. single grate-bars rest upon two cross-bars. By knocking out°tlie cross-bars the grate-bars can be removed and the cement drawn. The kiln is charged, for burning, with al- ternate layers of raw cement and coke or coal — about 2 of cement to 1 of fuel by weight — through two man-holes placed on different levels. These holes are tightly closed during the burning. Sometimes, with a view to increase the dr^iiight, the top is carried up higher with a sheet-iron stack. The Coplav Cement Company are beginning to use kilns of this form" for making Portland from argillaceous limestone, near Allcutown. Pa. The raw stone is first finely ground between millstones, then tempered stitUy with water, and formed into lumps of irregular shape of from li to 6 pounds weight. These, after jiartial drying, are burnt in the kiln in layers, alternating with layers of anthracite coal, about sixteen days being consumed in ehaiijiiig. hnrnhi;i, coolhltf^ and di-nwiii;i a kiln. O'liiiiiiioiitoyPapeliiiil Kiliif. — iMatorial.* such as common lime, lloman cement, and tlio argillo- maguesian cements of the U. S., that do not, like Portland cement. require prolonged in- tonso heat, ean be burnt in upright kilns (either bell -shaped, eyliildrieal, or ovoidal) without in- termission in the fires. The kiln is filled with al- ternate layers of coke or coal and the stone to b.- burned, and then fired from below with light wood. As the eombus tion is completed in the lower portion, Iho burnt stone is drawn out from time to time, allowing tho entire mass above to settle down. New layers of fuel and stone are then added at top. The layers of stone should not exceed six inches in thick- SCALE or rcET. ne<!s It is usual to draw the burnt stone at least twice every twentv-fonr hours. Fig. 4 gives a verlieal section of the kilns' in Ulster co., N. Y., for burning Kosendalc cement. The fuel (anthracite coal) is broken up very fine. What is technically known as " second .screenings " from the mines of the Delaware and Hudson Canal to. and the Pennsylvania Coal Co. have been found to be entirely suit- able " The dolled line shows the interior form of kiln pre- ferred at Balcony Falls on the James River, Vn.; :t600 pounds of anthracite or somi-bituminous e<ial have been found sufficient to burn 100 barrels of cement of .'.OO pounds each. A continuous kiln of the upright form may be oper- ated with either wood. peat, or eoal fuel, without intcr- stratifying the latter with the limestone, by maintaining the fires in furnaces at the side of the shaft. The heat and flame are conducted into the shaft, which eonlaiiis nothing but the material to be burnt. Indeed, this method is neces- sary when wood, which cannot be subdivided into conve- nient size for inlermixtuie with the stone, is the fuel cin- ploved Figs. 5, fi, and 7 represent a flame-kiln ol this kind for anthracite coal, in which Q arc holes through - • ■ ' watched ; 11 the which the progress of the burning can be watched; II he feed-ovens lor heating the eoal before it passes through he dampers S into the furnaces T; U the ash-,.its ; \ the draw pits; W a platform in front of the furnaces; and O a division-wall to prevent the meeting of opposite draughts from the furnaces T. These kilns arc some imcs called ,Z,e,-/Ia„.c kilns, from the fact that the fuel belore ignition is made wet with hot water, the steam Irom which, by its decomposition, aids the expulsion of the carbonic acid gas, and therefore, it is claimed, facilitates the burning. When designed for wood-fuel the furnaces are larger and somewhat differently arranged. These kilns arc used in the I . S for burning both common lime and eement but are not con- sidered adapted to the manufacture of Portland ecmen . Poll wood is used in them for burning lime in Kockland Me., about 4 cords being required to burn 100 barrels of 'HO to 240 pounds each, at an average saving ol about three-sevenlhs of the fuel that wmld be necessarily con- sumed in ordinary intermittent kilns. When first starting the fire in these kilns, the portion below the level of the grate, called the thimble, is filled with ligh wood The interior of the kiln, nearly up to the top. is also lined with one layer of wood set on cud. The first precaution is neees- KILNS. 1549 eary, because othorwiso tho stone near the grate would be insufficiently burnt ; and the second because tbo expansion of tho gtono when heated would injure the kiln it" lillcd to Fig. 5. Fig. 6. its entire capacity. TIic stone should bo broken into pieces not exceeding 8 Inches to 10 inches in diameter. In these kiln? the stone is e.\po.«cd to tlic heat from 42 to 48 hours, and the burnt lime is drawn every tiorS hour:», raw stone being added at tho top, while tho fires are steadily maintained in Iho furnaces. A kiln holding enoiij;h raw stone to makf I ".'> barrels of lime f<hould yield, when tvell under way, about 100 barrrls every 24t hours. When the amount of work to bo drine is very great, sev- eral of these kilns are ranged in juxtaposition side by side, each having its furnaces on ono sido and its draw-pit on the oilier. With this arrangement a great deal of masonry is suvcd, ns tho wails separating contiguous kilns need not bo very thick, and need not bo carried as high as the side- walls by several feet. They should, however, terminate in a wedge, so ns not to impede the downward move- ment of the contents of the kiln. lirtvL- Kilns. — Bricks are burnt either in special permanent kilns, charged with the ware and emptied at each burning, or they are piled up in regular systematic layers, with openings between them, so as t:» form of themselves a temporary kiln, called a clamp. (See article BRifK.) Permanent brick-kilns are of various forms, generally rec- tangular, and they may be arched over on top, when they are termed clof>c kilns, or they are left open. In cl'iHp. kilns the tires arc main- tained in furnaces at one end, per- meate through the bricks in the boily of tho kiln, and escape through a chimney at the other end. In iiprn kilns the lires are maintained under the ware to be backed, and penetrate through the mass u])Hard, esca()ing on the top. In both kilns the bricks are piletl up in courses on their edges, in such manner that the bricks in the difl'erent layers cross each other, and arc so far separated from each other that the flame finds a free passage between them. In tlie open kilns, in order better to rc- iiiu the heat, the entire top of the pile is covered over during the burn- ing with a layer of brick-dust or loam, and while tho bricks are cool- ing off this is further covered with moist clay or sand. Kilns for burn- ing firebrick should have a firebrick lining, and are in all respects constructed and oj>erate(l with more care than is usual for nmnufaeturing common brick. The intermittent kiln used by Messrs. A. Hall &. Sons, Perth Amboy, N. J. (Figs. 8 and 9), for baking firebrick, is rectangular in plan, about ?>2 feet long, and IIA feet wide inside. It is rcnuirUable for the comparative thinness of its walls, and by being open on top. Tho walls above tho level of the fires consist of two distinct shells, not bonded together; tho inner one, a, a, of firebrick, 9 inches thick and 12 feet high above tho fnvs; and the outer ono of common briek, 8 inches thick. In one of tho long siilrs an opening of about 4' 8" wide is left for charging and empty- ing the kiln, licforo tho baking is commenced this open- ing is closed with old firebrick put in close-jointed, but dry, its outer surface only being coated over with a layer of fire- clay mortar. An air-space, 2 inches wide at bottom, is left between the inner and outer walls, but the walls nro gradually drawn together, so that they touch eaeh other at top. The side-walls and end-walls of tho outer shell are not bonded together at the corners, and do not ovcrlup each other. Tho iirebriek lining is therefore exposed to view at these points. The outer wall is built with a groove /,/ about 2 inches deep and .1^ inches high, M'ben tho inner wall begins to expand by the efi'ect of the heat, tho r Fio. 8. li^,^HW/fWM t a,. Scctlonnl plnn, on line A, B, C, D, E, F. Qn interior space permits it to do so without hindranoe, while it prevents a scnsi))le loss of heat by traDsuiiasiou. As tho heat increases tho inner wall may exert sonio pressure against tho outor ono without any injuriuus elTect on thu 1550 KILNS. latter, the thin portion of the same (the groove/,/) acting I ral position when the pressure ceases. Close by, and op- as a sort of hin^e, enabling the wall to bend outward to posite each (exposed) corner of the firebrick wail, a strong some extent under the pressure, and returning to its natu- ' wooden post */, £/ is firmly planted in the ground. The Klevation and section, on line G, H corners are reinforced with angle-iron h, and a similar piece of angle-iron i, bent, rests with its two ends firmly against the angle-iron of the corner, and with its convex back or middle part against the post. When the inner wall expands it lends to flatten the curve of the bent an- gle-iron ; on cooling, the latter, by its spring-like action, returns to its original position. The kiln is heated by ten furnaces, five of which, with their doors and ash-pits, are sliown in elevation {k, k), and five in cross-section (I, I). The grate-bars run across the whole width of the kiln, the furnaces or fire-holes being provided with a door at each end. Between the fire-boles and the benches (nt, vi) upon which the green brick are placed, six heavy posts (h, ij) arc placed as shown ; they serve partly to support the roof over the kiln (not shown in the drawing), and partly to carry a scaffolding or platform (o, o) running around the kiln for easier access to the upper portions. The green or raw bricks are arranged in alternate courses, the spaces Fig. 10. the centre of each bench and extending across the width of the kiln. The draft of the kiln can to some extent bo regulated by opening or closing these 2-inch spaces. A kiln of the above kind holds about 70.000 firebrick of the usual dimensions — i. c 9" -i- 4\" X 2i". The baking re- quires about four days' firing, of which the fir^t two days consist in easy firing, and the closing two days in sharp firing. The whole quantity of fuel consumed in one baking is stated to be 40 tons, of which a little more than half is anthracite coal, the balance of a seuii-bituminous kind; the latter being used only during the latter stages of the firing. Eight to ten days are required to charge, bunt, cool nffy and fwpti/ a kiln of this kind. Potteijf kihiH are of various forms, hut in none is the fuel consumed in the same chamber or in contact with the ware. Porcelain and other finer kinds of clay ware cannot even be allowed to come in direct contact with the flame of the furnace, and arc therefore always enclosed in clay boxes called scffffnrti. in order that the glaze maj' receive no in- jury. The kiln in which the celebrated Stn-cfi ware is baked is a variety of the upright flame-kiln, subdivided into two or more compartments or stories by perforaie<l floors. Fig. 10 represents this kiln, the left half being in elevation and the right half in vertical secti(»nal elevation. Fig. 11 is a horizontal sectional plan, on the left through Fig. U. >#i."«-y between them as nearly equal as possible. The whole pile i-: finished off on top with two layers of old burnt firebrick laid flat and quite close, but with a 2-inch opening over [ D the heat ascends to a third space E, usually used for the upper chamber, and on the right through the fire- hearths. Fig. 12 shows a vertical half section, through the baking cliamber, with the wares arranged in it for buking. There are four fires. A, A, A, A, which //•«/ heat the lower chamber IJ, in which the ware receives its final baking. The heat then ascends through the lower perfo- rated floor C, and heats the upper chamber P, filled with unglazed ware, which here receives its first baking before it is dipped in the liquid glaze, preparatory to the linal bak- ing in the lower chamlier. Porcelain ware which has re- ceived only its first baking is called fnncuit. From chamber KILNS. 1551 bnking bf*ruit or »eggnr», and then escapes through the chimney F. G, G are the doors through which the wares arc introduced and removed; (, f, ( are the openings Poltery kiln. through tho floors C, there being only half as many Fuoh openings in tlie upper as there are in the lower floor. The flue from tho furnaces to the lower chamber are each di- vided into three channels. ;>, p,;j of plan. Small openings rr, IP are made through the wall of the chamber B for ob serving the color and intensity of the Iieat, and for intro- ducing small samples of biscuit covered with glaze, in order to ascertain the progress of tho baking. These holes arc closed on the outside with a tube-stopper carrying a plate- glass disk or diaphragm, and a sliding damper. Those kilns arc usually at least 20 feet in interior diameter and 40 feet high. They are built of ordinary brick masonry, with a firebrick lining, and are surrounded by a system of iron bands, m, m, m. When ptartiug the fires, coals of burning charcoal are firjit put into the space c, and light wood in- troduced through the aperture b until the space / is com- pletely full. The downward draught through creates a long flame in/, which reaches through the flues p,p,p into the chamber B. The aperture©, for stirring the fire, is gen- erally kept closed with a clay stopper ; d is the ash-pit. Tho draught is regulated by the movable lid of tho aperture h. Tlie jiitiTig of the scggars one above tho otiier fur baking is shown in Fig. 12, some in section and otliers in profile; 7, i/are plates of refractory clay called fireguards, sf-t in front of the flues to ]>rcvent the flame coming in direct contiurt with the seggars, and to exclude ashes and dust. liight worid-fuel 9|tlit up Kinall is almost universally used for baking pornelain. Thoso kinds which burn with a long and vigorou!^ flame, and discharge but little ash and dust into the kiln, are preferred. At Stivres poptnr is used, and generally in tJerraany piue. These kilns can be operated at the rate of about one firing per week, and (ho average endurance of the Sevres kilns is about 'M)0 firings, or six years. In other places several have been known to last from twenty-five to thirty years. During the baking tho heat in tho lower chamber reaches from \'.W° to 1^0° of Wedgwood's pvromctcr (cf|uivalent to from 11.000'' to 111,0000 c anj from Ii»,S.'iO° to 2l.fi.t2° F.). On the upper floor the temperature varies from 30° to 00° Wedgwood. Articles of common stoneware and pottery are baked in kilns of much simpler construction than the Sevres kiln. The ware !•* not placed in seggar? piled up in rolumns. but the flame in allowed to come in direct contact with it. In form they somewhat resemble the ordinary baker's oven, consisting essentially of an ellipsoidal dome of brick, with a brick or earthen floor, ancl having at one encl a furnace and at the ntlicr a chiinney-flue. In some cases tho fl()or ascends from the furnace to tho chimney-flue, in others it is horizontal. The larger kilns, which are ;)0 to HO feet in length, are usually divided into two compartments by a transverse vertical wall constructed with numerDiia open- ings to allow the heat to pass freely through. The com- partment next the furnace, being the most intensely heated, IS used for baking stoneware. In this the heat frequently attains 120° Wedgwood. The other compartment is used for baking common pottery. With the large kilns about five days of preliminary fire and threedaysof baking fire are re- quired at each burning. The fuel employed, which may bo cither wood or coal, determines the details of the furnace. 77ir Hoffntfxuu Kiln (Figs. i;j and 14).— Imagine a rail- road tunnel 8 to 9 feet high by 10 to 12 feet span, built of Fig. 13. Section on line A, brick continuously around a long oval of such dimensions that the central line of the annular chamber thus formed is about 360 feet long. This annular chamber is called the hnrninif chumhvr. In the centre of the narrow space en- closed by the ring is a long Jhtc calird I be Hinok-e-vfnntihcr, lending to a high chimney. Fourteen flues? lead at equal intervals from tlie lower inner side of tho burning chamber into the smoke-cbiiniber, entering it vertically from tho bottom, each provided at its end in tho smoke-chamber with a damper that can be opene<l and closed at pleasure by means of a vertical rod operated on top of the arch. There are also fourteen doorways, each about 6 feet high, through the outer wall of the burning chamber, placed at regular intervals. The arched to|i of I he burning chamber is pierced at intervals of 3 to -I feet each way with vertical holes about inches in diameter, culled firti-hofet. which are used for supplying the fires with fuel and watching the burning. These liobs are kept habilually closed with dampers on top. It is customary to call each portion of tho burning chamber between two consecutive doorways, including one of them, a eonijiartmcnt, allhough there is no permanent division of the burning chamber into smaller chambers. Kaeh compartment is therefore 26 feet in length along the axis, and has one doorway at its left-hand outer angle, and one smoke-flue at the floor in the inner angle diagonally opposite to the doorway, tho observer bciug suppoi^ed to be entering a doorway. Manurr »/ ('"in;/ thr Ktlu. — Let the compartment, and also the doorways and flues eorresnonding thereto ft ver- ally, be numbered from 1 to II. When tho kiln is in oper- ation all the compartments but two or. exceptionally, three. are filled with the material to be burnt. Suppose Nos. I and 2 are empty, aii<l all the others filled. All the door- ways except Xos. I and 2 are temponirily closed with brick- work, and all the flues except No. II are cbtsed with their dampers. Workmen are filling compartment No. I with raw limestone, and removing burnt lime from compartment No. 2. Compartment No. 3 c<pntains limestone put in twelve days ago. ('ompartment No. 1 that put in eleven days ago, and so on around to No. 14, which was filled yesterday. A sheet-iron movable partition, called the riit-njf, separates No. 11 from No. 1. Yesterday it was bttwctn Nu. 13 and 1552 KILNS. No. 14; to-morrow it will bo between No. 1 and No. 2. Yesterday, all the 6ues except No. 13 were closed: to- morrow, only flue No. 1 will be open. Yesterday, men were setting limestone in No. 14, and removing burnt lime from No. I ; to-morrow they will be lilling No. 2, and emptying No. JJ. Every day, therefore, tlie stfring, draic- iuff, vitt-uff, and open jUte advance one compartment. The compartments not yet iiretl are heated by the hot gases passing through them to the chimney, the ytone in the compartment next in advance of the fire being at a full red heat, while that farthest off. in No. H, which waj^ put in yesterday, is only warm. No fuel is put in with the ware when charging the kiln. It is all supplied through the Fig, feed-holes. A serious objection to the Hoffmann kiln is that the force of the draught and the progress of the com- bustion cannot always be regulated with certainty, even hy the most experienced and careful burner. For instance, the draught throujrh the chambers 7 and 8 is longitudinal entirely, and can only be cliauged by opening the flues in these chambers, giving a cross draught towards the inner wall, which may or may not be desirahlc. It would operate very badly if the combustion next the outer wall was too slow, in which case a flue in the outside wall would be ad- vantageous. The Morand Kiln (Figs. 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19), for burn- ing by successive chambers, is an improvement on Hofl'- 16. a.; if} ^jMf^^A^MPl^ n^wf^ y JiB m;^ -r Fm. l.'!. Fig. 18. z^=^^-W^W ^?s ^iSts^LiS; ^. - - v^- - a - - 1 M 1 i 1( -J £ s^ 1 rf ._,„,u Fin. 19. FT > Or 'I n I " t oq; ; •Q;: — E| —3 a3 ; TiLZEZIiLZl Morand kiln. mann's, inasmuch as it has lonj^itudinal flues both above and below (ho burning; clianiber. with branch flues fitted with damper,s leading; int't then) iit the top and bottom of each chaini)cr. so that tlie direction and force of the draught and the ])rof5rcss of the luirning are untler hotter control. Fig. 15 is a side elevation of a portion of a kiln of fi^■o eliarabcrs built of hriclis : Fig. 16 is a longitudinal section and elevation through the dotted line r, r of Fig. 17 ; Fig. 17 is a transverse section on line z, z of Fig. l(i ; Fig. 18 is an end elevation: and Fig. 19 is a sectional plan, showing the horizontal bottom-flues in dotted lines. A^ A^, etc. are tlie drying and burning chambers, separated from each other by brick partition-walls, perforated at the bottom with openings c, c. In kilns for burning bricks these walls, except their lower portion to the height of about 2 feet, are usually formed of the green bricks to be burned. Each chamber is ])roviiled with doorways, d and c, through which it is filleil and em]>tied, and with small fireplaces, /, /, placeil at the floor level. In chamber A', where the tiring begins, there arc six fireplaces in the end-wall of the kiln. In the other chamber there arc only two, placed op- j'ositc each other in the end of the chamber nearest to eliambcr A'. In the haunches of the arch above the cham- bers there are two longitudinal steam and smoke draught- flues, B, B, and below the chambers there arc two others, r, C, called hot-air flues, all four leading from chamber A* to the chimney at the other end of the kiln. In each cham- ber in the end farthest from chamber A* there are four cor- responding branch flues, two at top. i, t. and two at bottom, /, ^ leading respectively into the four longitudinal flues. These branch flues arc provided with dampers, r. r, y and fr, ir, v\ for opening and closing them at pleasure. The two lower flues, t', C, may be replaced by a single flue. There are numerous feed-holes, 3. 7, through the arch for sup- plying fuel, arranged substantially as iu the llofl^inann kiln. This kiln is operated ns fcdiows : All the chambers. A', A', etc., arc first suitably filled with the articles to bo baked. The doorways and ieed-holes are then closed, as are also the branch flues leading to the lower longitudinal flues. The branch flues 1, 1 leading from A' into the upper longi- tudinal flues B, B, are open. Fires are then started in the fireplaces f, /, of chuniber A'. As the wares in this cham- ber arc gradually dried and heated, the steam and va|ior which they give off escapes through the flues B, B to the chimney at the far end of the kiln, without passing through and injuring or discoloring the wares in A'. When the wares are sufliciently dried in A' the top branch flues in that chamber are closed, and those in chumber A' opened, .so that the waste heat from A' passes through A', and dries and heats the green wares therein before it passes into the upper flues B, B. and thence to tlie chimney. Or, if cham- ber .'\' is not charged ready for drying, the surplus heat from Ai may be carried to A', or to any other chamber, through the lower longitu.linal flue ('. by a suitable adjust- ment of the dampers; so that the surplus heat from one chamber is utilized in drying and heating the ne.xt or any following chamber, until" A-'* is reached. "When the wares in any chamber are siitheiontly dried, fires are started in the fireplaces /, and stoking from the feed-holes at top follows at the proper time, or when there is heat enough 111 the chamber to ignite the fuel thus supplied. ^^ ben the wares in A^ arc sufficiently dried, the upper dampers in KILO— KILPATRICK. 1553 that chamber are closed and the lower odcs opened, so that the surplus heat, iustead of cutoriug the chiuiiuy, is thus conveyed back through the flues C, C to A', or to any other chamber by a suitable udjuiiitment of dumpers, for drying the green wares with which that chamber has in the mean time been freshly charged. The steam and vapor from a drying chamber always puss directly to llie chimney through the upper flues B, B, creating a draught quilo suf- ficient to draw the heat through the lower Hues C, C from any burning chamber into any drying chamber. It will thus be seen that the operation of this kiln is completely under the control of the burner. The fuel used for stoking from above is finely pulverized coal, such as gmudge or re- FlG. 20. fuse coal. In the fireplaces either coal or wood will answer. Id economy of fuel, simplicity of management, and uni- formity of burning, whether for bricks, tircV>ricks, cement, or pottery, this kiln seems to combine every essential fea- ture of exeellencc. Charcoal Kt'hi/i are of a variety of forms and sizes. Those used in the V. S. for making charcoal on a large scale for smelting-furnaces are made of brick, some being rcctan;;u- lar in plan and covered on toj) with a flat brick arch, while others, known as the beehive kiln, are circular in plan and dome-shaped. A rectangular kiln 40 feet by l(i feet in plan {Figs. 20 and 21), with side-walls 13 feet high, coverc<t over with an arch of 4-feet rise, will hold nearly UO cords Fig. 21, ^ i^ tW^X ^*"^^ ( tiun-i);tl killi». of merchantable wood. As the side-walls and arch are habitually made only 8 inches (or one brick) thick as a measure uf ec<<nomy, they are always supported by a tim- )>cr framework on the outside to jirevent their being thrown dowu by alternate e.Y|>unsiun and contraction wheu^u use. The end-walls are generally 1 foot thick. The supporting frame consists of upright timbers 4 inches by 12 inehes, and 19 ft'ct long, placed about .'{ feet apart, witli their edges against the side-walls and end-walls. They are tied to- gether at top by 4-inch by G-inch horizontal cross-tics. For a kiln of the above dimensions fourteen of these frames, each consisting of two uprights and one cross-tie, embrace the kiln transversely, and four of them longitudinally. The transverse frames are stin"ened at the angles by diagonal braces, spiked to the uprights and cross-ties. In the side and en<l-wall8 numerous vent-holes aro left, each of tho width and (hieknesH of ii brick (about 4 inches by 2 inches). There aro I.')2 of these lioles. arrangeil in four horizontal rows of 3S holes each, the upper row being 4 feet from tho bottom of the wall, the next row Ui feet, the next 1 foot, while tho lowest row is placed Just about the level of tho floDr of the kiln. In one end of the kiln there is an open- ing abr)ut fi feet by fci^t at the level of the floor, through which most of tho wood is introduced and the charcoal re- moved. Above this, near tho crown of the arch, there is a smaller opening, 2 feet by 2 feet, for completing tho filling of the kiln. Both openings are fitted with boiler-ir(m tloors, and aro tightly closed during tho burning. There are three vent-holes on top thruuKh the crown of the arch, about 10 feet apart, each 1 foot by I fool, elo.<'cd with iron dampers. The kiln having been compactly filled tu the crown of tho arch with wood, cut and split into the usual merchantable sizes, the two end-doors are then closed, and fires are then started in tho three vent-holes on top. Thei'o holes aro then at once closed with the damperti, all the small vent- holes below being open. The fire shiwiy and gradually works its way downward through the mass of wood, itrt progress being known to a skilful burner by the eolur and volume of smoke issuing from the lower vent-holes. From ft to 7 days are required to completely char the euntrnli of a kiln of tho dimensions above given. Tho lower vent- holes are closed from time to time, one after the other, as tho burning is completed in their vicinity, and finally, when they are all closed, tho kiln is whitewashed all over in order to close all the pores tltrough ivbieh the air could enter, and it is allowed to stand four or Ww days for the lire to go out. When skilfully operated, iheso kilns will yield 4'i bushels of charcoal to the cord (d' wood. With wood costing $2.60 per cord at the kiln, the eo.>>t of tho charcoal will not vary much from *.*4 to 10 cents per bushel. This covers Jilfintf, coaling, irhitricaiifiiii'j, and current repairs of kiln. Q. A. tJii.i.MonB. Kilo [CiT. x^Aioi. "thousand"], a )irefix used in tho French metrical system to denote a thousand times tho \-or. 11 -',ts measure indicated by the word to which it is prefixed ; as. Kilogramme, a thousand grammes, tho unit of commercial weight, is equal to 2.204G1'12j pounds avoirdupois ; Kilo- litre, a thousand litres, a measure of capacity', is equal to 264.1SC:i5 gallons; Kilomltre, a thousand metres, the unit of linear measure, is equal to 0.G2138 mile; Kilo- STFRF, a thousand stercs, a iiicat;uro of solidity, is equal to 3.*;;ilG.y8 cubic feet. Tho latter term is rarely employe)!, measures of solidity or volume being expressed in cubic denominations of tho linear base. (See Wetuic Sv.stem.) KirpatricU (Andrew Robf.rt), M. D., b. Mar. 24. 1S17, near Cheucyville, Uapides parish. La.; educated in Geor- gia under tho tuition of a Baptist clergyninn. Rev. Otis ymith ; graduated in the Medical College of Georgia at Augusta in Mar., I8;i7 ; practised medicine first in Burko CO., Ga., then (IS.'iS— l^J) in Avoyelles parish, La.; hut re- moved to Woodville, Aliss., where he passed through a severe epidemic yellow fever in IS41, and published a full report of it in the A>ip OrUftui M:dirtil Jnuruftl. From 1S47 to I'^tl^ he resided near Trinity, in Concorflia j)arisl), La., during which timo bo contributed articles to the AViu OrltunH Metfivul Joitnial ; to an annual medical publica- tion, edited by l)r. E. D. Fenner, styled Saiitfurii Mtdiral Ucjiortu ; J/iatoricftl M^momuda of Cintcnrdia ami Cata- houla /\trtHhi.ti, besides other articles in l)r Jimc'» Jicrictr, New Orleans; some articles to Li/tpinrotl'» O'aziltrrr ; a sketch of the early Baptists in Mi^'sissippi and Louisiana; and kept meteorological tables fur theSmith.-^onian Institu- tion. In 18G3 he removed to Texas, and in iSOrt settled in Navasola, (irimes co., where lie now (lS7i)) resides. Ilo fiassed through an epidemic yellow fever in I8f)7, nnil pub- ished a report of tho same in the Trxnn Mrdical Jonnml. In 18GH ho was chosen professor of anatomy in the Texas Medical College in Galveston; cditol the A'»irn#of»i Werkdi/ I TnUrt in 1S70-7I ; one of the assistant editors of tho I Sniithrrn M'diral /^rfor^/, Atlanta, Ga., in 187;t-75; also I contributing articles to the Mrdiral and Sunjtral Itrportcr, I'hiladelphia, the Rirhnutnd and LauiHvttlr Mrdiral Jmirtialf and Till Amrriran }frdiral WcrKdy of Louisville, Ky. Kilpatrick (Ilron Judson), b. near Deekertown, N. J., Jan. II, I^.'iG: graduated at the U. S. Military Academy, I and entered tho army as second lieutenant of artillery May I 0, IHill ; was commissioned captain ."ttli New York Vols. May U, an<l wounded at battle of Hn; Brihel, ,Iune III. On his ( recovery was commissioned lieut.nant-eolonel LM New York I (.'avalry \'ols., of which regiment ho became colonel iJec, i 181)2. With his regiment he participated in the Hap[.»han- noek campaign, in theseeontt buttle of Bull Hun, and nniny minor actions, jind in the Maryliiiid eampiiigii. I'uring " Sloncman's raid " to tho rear of (ien. Lee's army he com- manded a brigade uf cavalry, and was promoted lo bo brigadier-general of volunteers .Tune. I.^C^t. At the batllo of Gettysburg ho commanded a brigade and division. In 1554 KILTY— KINDERGARTEN. Apr., 1864, he was ordered to duty with Gen. Shcrmao in the West, and at the hattle of Resaca, May, 1SG4, was severely wounded. During Gen. Sherman's niareh to the sea and subsequent campaign tl)rough the Carolinas ho commanded the cavalry and was actively engaged. In June, isfij, he was promoted to be major-general of volunteers. He resigned his commission in the regular army Dec, ISOj, and his vuluiiteer commission Jan. I. IS(j(>. In Nov., 18Gj, he was appointed U. S. minister to Chili; recalled in IH68. G. C. Simmons. Kil'ty (Augustus H.), V. S. N., b. Nov. 25, ISOG, in Maryland; entered the navy as a midsbipman July 4. 1S2I ; became a jiassed midshipman in 1^.".L'. a lieutenant in l^S.■t7, a commander in 1^55, a cajttain in 1S()2, a com- modore in ISfiO; retired in 1868. Commanded the Mnund City in the action with the Confederate gunboats off Fort Pillow. May 10, 1SG2, and with the St. Charles batteries on AVbite River, June 17, 1S62. In the latter engagement Com- mander Kilty was severely injured by the exphision of the steam-chest of the Mound City, which was pierced by a shell. In his official report to the navy department of June 20. 18G2, Flag-officer Davis says : " Commander Kilty is out of danger, but be is severely crippled in his hands and feet, and suffers a great deal. He is a brave gentleman and a h)yal officer. He has always been conspicuous in this sfjuadron for acting his part in the best spirit of the pro- fession." D. Nov. 10, 1879. FoxiiALL A. Parker. Kihva. See Quiloa. Kilwinning, a small town in the county of Ayr. Scot- land, famous for an ancient abbey, now destroyed, which was the birthplace of Scottish Masonry. Until IT^iG, when the Grand Lodge of Scotland was formed, all other lodges in Scotland received their charters from " Mother Kilwin- ning." This prerogative was exercised down to 1S07. Eg- linton Castie in this town was the scene of the famous *'Eglint<)n Tournament" in 18.39. Pop. about 4000. Kim'ball, tp. of St. Clair co.. Mich. Pop. 1091. Kimball ( Hkbkr C), b. in 1801 : joined the Mormons in 1832 at Kirtland, 0.; in 1835 became one of the twelve apostles of that sect; in lS.'J7-'i.8 was a missi<tnary in Eng- land: in 1838 went to the Mormon colony in Ray co., Mo. : removed thence to Nauvoo, III. : and in 1846 became head priest of the order of Melchizcdek at Salt Lake City, where he d. June 22, 1868. Kimball (Richard Burleigh), h. at Plainficld. N. 11.. Oct. II, I81G; graduated at Dartmouth in 1834; studied hiw in Europe; practised atWaterford. Saratoga co., N. Y., and removed in 1S40 to New York City. Among his nu- merous works the most widely known is St. Lc(/cr (1849); others are Letters from Cuba (1850). Cnhn and the Cubans (18501. Romance of Stnffcnt-H/e Abroad (1853), ffenrt/ Powfra, Banker (1868), and To-dmj (1870). He has con- tributed much to periodical literature. Kim'berley (John WonKnorsK). Eari.of. b. in England Jan. 7. 1S26 ; graduated at Christ Church, O.xford, in 1847 : succeeded his grandfather as Baron Wodehouse in 1846; was undcr-secretary for foreign affairs from 1852 to 1856, and again from 1859 to 1861, under the administrations of Lords Aberdeen and Palmerston ; was ambassador to Rus- sia in 1856 ; special minister to several states with refer- ence to the Schleswig-IIolstein question in 18G3. and lord lieutenant of Ireland from 18C4 to 1866, in which latter year he was raised to tht- earldom of Kimberley. I'nder the second Gladstone ailministration he was lord privy seal (1S68) and secretary of state for the colonies (1870). Kim'beriy (Lewis A.), U, S. N., b. in 1830 in New York; entered the navy as a midshipman Dec. 8, 1846; became a passed midshipman in 1852, a lieutenant in 1855, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in 1866; pcrved in the flagship Hartforil at the capture of New Orleans and in her various engagements on the Mississippi, and was lier executive officer at the battle of Mobile Bay. In his official report of Aug. 6. 1864, Capt. Pcrcival Dray- ton writes: "To Lieut. -Com. Kimbcrly, the executive offi- cer, I am indebted not only for the fine example of t-itolncss and self-possession which he set to those around him, but also for the excellent condition to which he had brought everything belonging to the fighting department of the ship, in consequence of which there was no confusion any- where, even when, from the terrible slaughter at some of the guns, it might have been looked for." Foxhai.t. A. Parker. Kim'ble, countyof S. W. Central Texas. Area, about 1300 square miles. It is a rough, broken region, with good pasturage and timber, and numerous salt-licks. The val- leys have a good soil, which, however, reqtiires irrigatiOD, for which there are many facilities. Pop. 72. Kim'broiis:h, tp. of Arkansas co.. Ark. Pop. 611. Kim'chi (David), Rabbi, b. at Narbonne, Provence, in 1160; was one of the raost distinguished Hebrew writers of the Middle Ages. Little is known of his personal his- tory beyond the fact that in 1232 ho was designated l)y the French and Spanish rabbis as arbiter to settle the heated controversies in the synagogues growing out of the doctrines advanced in Maimonides' More J^'ci-ochim. His works con- sist of commentaries on nearly all the books of the Ohl Testament, some of which are given in the rabbinical Bibles : a Hebrew grammar and lexicon bearing the name of Mi/ciui (''Perfection"), which have been the basis of all modern works of the same kind ; and a Ji*-/iifati"n of Chn'titianittf, based upon the denial of Messianic predic- tions in the Psalms. D. Kimchi exhibited such hostility to Christianity throughtiut his eommcntaries that numerous passages were struck out by the Inquisition as a condition of permitting their publication. Several of his works remain in manuscript. D. at Narbonne in 1240. His father, Joseph, and his brother. Moses, were also distinguished rabbis of Provence, the former having been driven from Spain by Mohammedan persecution. Both left some grammatical and exegetical writings. Kirn'meridge Clay, an important bed of marl in many localities, several hundred feet in thickness, and often very bituminous, is so called from Kimmcridge in Dorset- shire. England. It constitutes the argillaceous member of the Upper Oolitic formation. (Sec JrRASsir.) It contains many distinctive fossils [Ostrfa deftoidca, Exogyra virgulUf etc.)- and has yielded the remains of the IHiosanrun, ■ Kim'poliing;, town of Wallachia. is situated in a mountain-region near the Transylvanian frontier, and car- ries on a considerable transit trade. Pop. 8695. Kim'shew, tp. of Butte co., Cal. Pop. 857. Kin'aston (Sir Francis), !>. at Otley. Shropshire, Eng- Kand. in 1587; studied at Oxford and Cambridge; was employed at court, and gained the favor of the king, by whom he was knighted in 1618. He wrote a Latin trans- lation of Chaucer's TroiluH and Crcsnidaj and several other volumes of verse, but is chiefly remembered as the founder and regent of a sort of university at Lonclnn called " Mi- nerva's JIuseum," chartered by the king June 26, 1635. Owing to the civil war it came to a speedy end, and Kin- astou d. in 1642. Kincaid% tp. of Jackson co.. III. Pop. 1049. Kincar'dine, port of entry of Bruce co., Out., Canada, on Lake Huron, ships grain, lumber, salt, bark, fish, wool, and butter. It has some manufactures and 2 weekly news- papers. Pop. of V. 1907; of tp. exclusive, 4097. Kincar'dineshire, or The i>Iearns,county of Scot- land, lietween the Dee, tiie North Esk, and the North Sea. Area, 381 square miles. Pop. 34.651. A great part of the country is covered by the Grampian Mountains, of which Mount Battock rises to the bight of 3500 feet. But at the foot of this mountain-range lies the " How o' the Mearns," a low anil very fertile tract of land, yiehling excellent crops of wheat and oats. Large herds of sheep and short-horned cattle graze on the mountain-pastures. Cap. Stonehaven. Kind (Kari, Theodor), b. at Leipsic Oct. 7, 1799 : stud- ied law, and began in 1824 to practise as an advocate. After the Greek war of liberation he contributed very much to spread among his countrymen a fuller knowledge of Motlern Greece, its institutions, language, and literature. His most prominent writings arc — Acnt/rirchi»i-/if VolkfU*^- der (1827), Ncitgn'echiMche Chrestoniatftie (1835), Genc/iichlc dergriechiacheu Bet^ohition (2 vols., 1833), translations from Alexander Sutso, and a Greek-German dictionary. Kin'dergarten is the name given by Friedrich Frocbel to a er)m]>any of children between the nursery age and that of the primary schools, wlio are to be educated accord- ing to a certain method. The literal meaning of the word l-indtn/arten is "garden of children," and it suggests Froebel's method by speaking of children as if they were plants to be cultivated. Cp to Froebel's time the method of educating had been to drift, a process properly applicable only to stone, but which well expressed the hard mechanical method of pro- ceeding from the outward inward, instead of from the in- ward outward, as the growth of all living organisms must do. As. to prepare himself for his work, (be gardener of plants first learns the general laws and conditions of vege- table growth, and next inquires into the special soils, de- grees of light, temperature, and moisture necessary to the perfect development of the several species of plants, so Froebel proposed that educators should prepare tiiernselvcs to cultivate young children — first, by acquainting them- selves with the general laws and conditions of human na- ture, for the purpose of bringing forth the common sense and common conscience : and, secondly, by a careful study of the individual possibilities of beauty and power of the several children committed to their care. Froebel may be KINDKKIIUOK-KING. i; ).).) called the Copcroicus of education, from the new point of view that he took ; or its Newton, from tho new character of method that he proposed. Seeing that tho child, a mere sensibility, comes into nature from Gocl on the th>o(l-tide of self-activity — not an isoliited individual abandoned to the reactions of tho incxorahle material universe, hut in living rehition with humanity's heart in the person of the mother, whose <luty as well as inmost desire it is to bring him into a joyful yense of his relations to his race, to na- ture, and to (iod — Froebcl souglit an<I found the clue to the true method of education by analyzing the instinctive play of mother and child, when she studies its instincts and spontaneities in order that she may help him to enjoy his body, which is the first world that circumscribes him. Hav- ing found that the child takes possession of his own body and develops his organs of sense by first acting, nnd then realizing his action as a conscious fact, Froebel discovered that in tho same manner he must bo brought to take pos- session in a measure, and gradually, of the universe out- side of his body; that is, he must he led to rut with the purpose of making o**f/c»-/// changes (he instinctively makes changes, not with the intention to compass an end, but simply because he cnn). The reaction his activity provokes, gives him impressions which ri:=c into thoughts, by express- ing themselves in words that re-echo his impressions, and later, into knowledge, by embodying thcm.-jelves in tran- sient ofTects, or productions more permanent, which rcfloct his inner being to his individual consciousness. But as the sympafbi/.ing mother — not perouiptorily, but genially — assisted llic child to know nn'I use his organs of sense and locomotion in nursery play till bo eould run alone and began to speak, so the kindergartners, who take tho child from his mother's arras, as it were, must — not peremptorily, but geniiilly — superintend his production of effi-'cts, an<l assist him to express himself freely in conver- sntion. while he is following the laws of order suggested to him in pmducing objects, whether transient or more per- manent, that give him experimental knowledge of tho laws and order of n:iture, muking outwiird things a stepping- stone, not a stumbling-block, of progress. Tlie Froebel edtieation is not, however, merely organic, or even artistic and intellectmil, but mornl nnd religions also, never losing sight of the principle that spontaneous (or at least a willing) ditiuff precedes thinking, and think- ing precedes knowing, and knowing preceiles nacning, anti naming, or language, is the creative element of human in contradistinction to merely animal intelligence. As, when tho chibl runs alone nnd speaks, tho nursery education merges in the kindergarten, so, when the child can manipulate cleverly, converse intelligently, and begins to invent, and hns como to a sense of moral resptmsibility by learning ** fair j)!ay " with his c<Mnj»anions, (lie kimler- garten merges in tho school. lie is then ripe for learning to read and write, to appreciate signs, words having bo- come familiar with things signified, material and mental, as substantial facts. Elementary materials for the child's production, by whicli he is eduiratcd. were graibially elab- orated by Froebel in fifty years of experimenting, and con- sist of a series of nolitls, round, cnbicular, and triangular, divided and siibdivided. with tablets, square nnd triangu- lar, sticks of various lengths, peas or balls of wax repre- senting points, cards for sewing with colored threads, pa- per for foMing, cutlittg, pricking, and drawing, also for weaving; all to bo used under the supervision of tlie kin- dergartner to make forms of order and use, but leaving tho children a fair margin for their free choice. Besides these manipulations, which meet and employ in- stinctive spontaneities, tho instinctive desire to work upon the earth is not allowecl to die out from want of opportu- nity to plant and cultivate. The vegetable world is al- ways at hand, ami afTurds subjects for exjimination nnd analysis, which engage nttention next after the works of his own hands. Tho latter arc the first nnd best objects for lessons, since what a child has done (ir made, interests and even commands hts attention, and what he hns made himself ho can exhaustively knnw — not nwrely its nppear- ances, hut tho Inw nnd method nf it'i being. wlii<'h is tho child's own thought. If ho is nllowe.l in give an nce.mnt of how ho did it, and what ho made it for. he will have a pattern, as it were, to follow in analyzing any one of na- ture's works, learning its Inw aii"! referring it (o its Author ; and thus tho edueatinn of Fruchcl IcarN th<' child to (}od Ihrou'^h his mother, who represents to him infinite Love, and nature, which represents to him infinite Wisdom. In the spirit that ninkes these one lie comes to fr-el that lie "lives, moves, and has his being." for "we nre tho off- spring of Ood," as heathen poet and Christian apostio agree. The methods of using Froebel's materials for education are indicated in the manuals prepared for aiding kinder- gartncrs, written under tho dircotion of FrocbcI's ablest I disciple and apostle, the baroness Marenholtz-Buluw. There is one in German, edited by (toldammer. and one in French, edited by Jacobs, and named Lr Jnrdin den Eu- fauH. Both are anijdy illustratecl by ])lntes — the former published in Berlin, tlio latter in Brussels by F. Claassen. In the beginning of his career, Froebel published a work under the title Mtn'ichen- Erzichuuy (" Education of Man "}, in which the word kiitdcrtfurten does not occur, but all the elements of it arc manifest. The best edition of it is edited by his disciple and relative, Lange. und it is publi.<bcd in Hamburg. It has been translated into French by tho baroness Crombrugghe. Later in life, Froebel published his characteristic and unique work. Mnfter-Spit-l und h'nue- Lit-der, which has been translated and set to music by Lady Baker, anil jiublished in London. The notes to these, with its pictorial illustrations, have been translated bv tho baroness Crombrugghe into French, and called Camferica dea Jfrre*. It is a kind of nursery manual. The baroness Marcnholtz-Bulow has published many works, among which are eminent Education (.1/ Lnlmr, TIk Ednmtiinuif M!xniun of Vt'nmeu, Thf Child'ti Workshop, and a pamphlet trans- lated into English, and published by the National Bureau of Kducation in their drruhir of Information for July, IS72. which may be had for tho askinu; by any citizen of the V. S. In America Mrs. Matilda IF. Kriege has pub- lished extracts, freely translated, from the above works in a little book called The. Child in itH RrlntionH to Nnturr, to Man, and to God ; nnd AV. Ilailmann. a small bof)k on Kin- dcnjartcn Culture. There is also 11 monthly periodical de- voted to the interests of this most radical of reforms, juib- liehed in Cambridge, Mass. Elizabkth P. Peacodv. Kinderhook'9 tp. of Tallapoosa co., Ala. Pop. 800. Kinderhookf post-tp. of Pike co.. III., on the Hanni- bal and Naples branch of the Toledo Wabash and Western R. P. Pop. 14:.4. Kinderhooky post-tp. of Branch co., !Mich. Pop. 037. Kiiiderhook, post-v. and tp. of Columbia co.. N. Y., 20 miles 8. E. of Albany and b miles E. of the Hudson River, on the Boston and Albany R. R. Tho township in- cludes the villages of Valatie and Niverville. Kinderliook Village has 4 churches. 1 weekly newspaper. 1 entton-mill, and 2 national banks. Valatie has 4 cburehes. 4 cotton- mills, a knitting-mill, and 2 hotels. LindenwaM. the home of the late ex-President, Martin Van Buren, is 2 miles S. of Kinderhook Village. He was a native of this town. Pop. of tp. 4055. Wm. B. Howlanp. Ed. ""AnvKRTiSEn." Kinderhook, tp. of AVashington co., Va. Pop. 2^91. Kiii(Niu,or Kilinu, queen of the Sandwich Islands, b. in the beginning of this century; reigned from the death of Kamehameba II., in 182.t, to tho accession of Kamc- hamoha III., in IS.'JU. D. in 1844. She was much upposed to tho French Roman Catholic mission, and in favor of tho Protestant American Methodist mission. Kin^, county of Washington Territory, extending from Puget Sound K. to the Cascade Mountains. It is an un- even, heavily-timbered region, with a good soil and a mild climate. Lumbering is the chief pursuit. Excellent lig- nitic c(ml abounds. Area, about 1550 square miles. Cap. Seattle. Pop. 2120. Kiii^, tp. of Christian co., III. P<'p. Ii;i. King (AisTiN A.), b. in Sullivan co., Tenn.. Sept. 20, 1801: became a lawyer 1822, removed to Misscturi ISrtO; was circuit judge of' Ray co. 18.'^7-4H, and again in lSfi2; governor of Missouri 1849-5:1; member of Congress 1862- 64. I), at St. Louis Apr. 22, 1870. Kinp (CiiAULEs), LL.I>., tho »on of Bufus King, b. in New York Mar. 10, 17S1I: educated at Harrow School, Englaml, ami at Paris, while his father was l'. S. minister to Great Britain, serving afterward in the banking house of Hope A ('<!.. Amster'lam. In ISOfi he returned to New York: entered in 1810 into mercantile business with Mr. Archibald Gracic. his father-in-law : served for a time in IS14 as a volunteer in the war with England ; was sent to England as coinmissinncr to investigate the treatment ut' Dartmoor prisoners; was associate with Verplanek in etlit- ing the Xrtn York Amrriran IS2.'i-27 : siile edil«ir ISi;7-l7 ; and afterward assneinted with Col. Webb in I he editorship of the Cnurirr ftnd Kuquirrr; was president of Columliiii t'ollege l84U-f\l. an<l .1. at Fraseati. Italy. Sept. 27. ISC.;. He wrnte a sketch of the < "rot on Aqui'duct (4 to, 184;'.). //(«- tortf nf thr AVip York Chamhri' of f Vm/iicrce, and published many addresses. King (HoitATlo^, b. nt Paris. Oxford eo., Me.. June 21, 1811 ; learneil the printing tra<le. and publisbeil in his na- tive State a newspaper called Tlir JrffrrKonian.' was ap- pointed elerk in the post-office ilepartment at Wnshinglou in 18:i«; by gradual promotion became first nssislant post- in BSlor-gon oral in 1854; was oppointod postmastcr-gonoral 1556 KING. in 1861 by Pres. Buchanan ; retired from office on the ac- cession of Pros. Lincoln, but remained in Washington ; rendered service in various capacities during the civil war, and became especially promini-nt by his successful efforts to elevate the standard of society life in Washington, by introducing a literary clement into social reunions. Kin^ (Jamks Gouk), son of Rufus King, b. in New York May 8, I79I : stu<lied in the best English schools, ancl gfaduated at Hiirvard in ISIO; studied law; was an adjutant-general in the army IS12-1J; became a prominent merchant of New York and Liverpool ; member of Congress from New Jersey lS49-ol, and president of the New Y'ork Chamber of Commerce. D. at Ilighwood, N. J., Oct. ,'1, 1853. King (John Ai.sop), eldest son of Rufus King. h. in New York Jan. 3, 178S; educated at Harrow, England, and Paris: served as a cavalry officer 1S12-15; elected to New I'ork assembly in lSI9andto senate in 1S23; was sec- retary of legation in London in LS26, and afterward chanje d'affaires there; was a member of Congress LS-IO-51, and governor of New York LSoT-oS ; delegate to the " Peace con- vention " of 1861, and to the State constitutional convention of ISfi", besides holding at different times mnny other im- Sortant public positions in that State. D. at Jamaica, L. I., uly 7, 186S. Kin^ (Jons Crookshanks), b. at Kilwinning, Scotland, Oct. 11, 1806; educated as a practical machinist; came to the U. S. in 1S29 ; was engaged for several years as super- intendent of factories at Cincinnati and Louisville, but in 1834 turned his attention to sculpture, in which he met with great success, having executed busts of Daniel AVeb- ster, John Quincy Adams, Agassiz, Emerson, Shaw, and many other prominent men. He has devoted himself espe- cially to cameo likenesses, and resides at Boston. King (Jorix P.), b. Apr. 3. 1700, near Glascow, Barren CO., Ky. His father soon after moved to Bedford eo.. Tenn., where the son remained until 1815, when he matle his wav to Georgia; studied law, and was admitted to the bar in Augusta in 1819, before his majority. In 1822 he visited Europe, where he spent two years in completing and per- fecting his education. During this period ho attended lectures in Edinburgh aud Paris; on his return he rose rapidly in his profession amidst the most formidable com- petition. In a few years he acquired a large estate. In 18.33 ho was chosen a momljer of the constitutional conven- tion of Georgia of that year. lu this body ho greatly distin- , guished himself. He was a Jackson Democrat, and by his superior talents took the lead of that party in the conven- tion. Before this hi.s reputation had not extended beyond the limits of the county of Riehmond, but by his debates in this convention, and especially by his discussion with the late AVilliam H. Crawford (who was the Democratic Congressional caucus candidate fur President of the U. S. in 1824), he rose in one bound to tho forefront of the ablest and most eloquent men in Georgia. The next year ho was sent to the U. S. Senate, where he took ami maintiiined a high position ; but some of his party presses of the State having censured (unjustly, as ho thought) a very notable speech he made against some of tho leading measure? of Mr. Viin Buren's administration, he promptly resigned the trust committed to his charge, retired to private life, and resumed his profession in 1838. No like abandonment of politics from pcr.sonal disgust has occurred in tho history of the V. S. In 1S41 he was elected to tho presidency of the Georgia R. R. and Banking Co., which jtosition (Juno, 1875) he continues to hold, and for many years has been regarded one of the first railroad men in the country. A. H. Sti:piiexs. King(JoNAsl, D. D.,b. atHawley, Mas;... July 29,1792; graduated at Williams College in ISIG and at Andovcr Seminary in 1819; preached for a time in South Carolina; was 1823-26 a mi^-sionary in Syria, and 1828-69 a mission- ary at Athens. He was the author of quite numerous writ- ings in the modern Greek language, and by reason of some of his publications was sentencfd in I8."}2 to fifteen days' imprisonment and expulsion from the kingdom, but an of- ficial jtrotest saved him from tho fulfilment of tho sentence. D. at Athens May 22, 1869. King (MiTrnKi.L). LL.D., b. in Scotland June 8, 1783; removed in 1H06 to (Charleston, S. C, and became a profes- sor in Charleston College, of which he was afterwiirds for some time president. lu ISIO he was admitted to tho bar, and began a prosperous law-practice. In 1819, and again in L8 12-44, he was judge of the city court. He early attained a wide fame for leiirning, and for many years was a Iea4ler in the cause of education and in many enterprises for the improvement of tho public taste and for the diffusion of knowledge. King (Pf.tfr). Lord. b. at Exeter, Eng., in 1669. was a nephew of Locke; studied at tho University of Leyden, Holland, and read law at the Inner Temple; entered Par- liament in 1699 ; was one of the managers of the impeach- ment of Sacheverell in 1799, and in 1712 was counsel for Whiston. Uy George 1. he was made chief-justice of com- mon pleas and privy couucillor, and in 1725 was appointed lord chancellor, with tiic title of Baron King of Ockhara. He resigned in 1733, and d. at Ockham, Surrey, July 22, 1734. Baron King wrote several treatises in support of the rights of dissenters, and a Cn'tiad History of the Apostles' C'/Tprf(1702). King (Philip Parker), Admiral, b. on Norfolk Island Dec. 13, 1793, his father being one of the founders of that colony, and afterwards (ISOO) governor of New South Wales (Australia); entered the navy in 1807; commanded an exploring expedition in Australian waters in 1817 and on the coasts of Patagonia in 182:). publishing in both ca?e3 the hydrographical results of the survey. Ho afterwards settled in Australia, where be took an active part in poli- tics and other public interests. Ho was a|»pointed rear- admiral in 1854, and d. at Grantham, near Sydnev, in Feb., 1S55. King (Preston), b. at Ogdcnsburg, N. Y., Oct. 14. 1806; graduated at Union College in 1827; became a prominent lawyer, journalist, and Democratic politician of St. Law- rence CO., N. Y.. and held various offices; was in Congress 1843-47 and 1849-53; a Republican U. S. Senator 1857-63; became in lSfi5 collector of the port of New York. He was drowned in New York harbor, Nov. 13, 1865. King (RicFiARD Jonx), b. in England about 1820 ; wrote for John Murray his valuable series of Hdiidhonks to the C<ithedr<ih of Enfffaud, and has contributed to Ftnscr's and other magazines some very able topographical and anti- quarian sketches of English counties and towns, which were published collectively in 1874. King (Rufus), Gen., son of Charles, b. New York City Jan. 26, 1814; graduated at U. S. Military Academy : was appointed brevet second lieutenant of engineers July 1, 1S33; resigned Sept. 30, 183G, and for two succeeding years was assistant engineer on tho Erie R. R., and for four years (1839-43) adjutant-general of the Slate of New York. Associated during this time and until 1845 in tho editorial conduct of the Albany Evcniug Jourual, in tho latter year he removed to Wisconsin, and assumed charge of tho Milwaukee SctitijuJ, of which ho was editor until 1861, when he wn? appointed V. S. miui.-tcr to Rome; but the outbreak of the civil war caused him to tender his services to the government in a military capacity, and in May, 1861, he was appointed a brigadier-general of volun- teers, serving as such in various departments in Virginia until Oct., 1S03, wlicn ho resigned from the army and as- sumed his duties at Rome as U. S. minister. Recalled July 1, 1S67. D. Oct. 13. 1876. G. C. Simmons. King (RiFt's), LL.D., b. at Scarborough. Jle., Mar. 24. 1755, son of Richard King, a wealthy merchant ; graduated at Harvard College in 1777 ; studied law under Thcophilus Parsons at Newburyport; was on the .statf of Gen. Glover in the Rhode Island campaign of 1778; admitted to the bar; commenced practice at Newburyport in 1780; elected a member of the general court or legislature of Massa- chusetts in 1782 and succeeding years, and by the legis- lature chosen in 17St as delegate to the Continental Con- gress at Trenton. N. J. One of his carlictt acts in Congress was to move aresolution (Mar.. 1785) " that there be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in any of the States de- scribed in tho resolution of Congre^s of Apr.. 1784 (the North-west Territories), otherwise than in punishment of crimo whereof the party shall have been personally guilty; and that this regulation shall be made an article of com- pact and remain a fundamental principle of the Constitu- tion between the original States and eacli of the States named in said resolves." This resolution was. by a vote of 7 States against 4, referred to the eummittee of the whole, and not further acted upon until two years later, when its provisions were embodied in the fannuis ordinance for tho government of the N. W. Territories presented to Congress at New York July 11, 1787. by Natlian Dane of Massa- chusetts, which became the Magna Charta of five great States. King was one of tho commissioners appointed by Massnehusetts to settle tho boundary of that State with New York, and also empowered, with his ccdieague Dane, to convey to tho U. S. tlie large tract of land beyond the Alleghanies which was claimed by the State. In Aug., 1786, he was associated with .lames Monroe as a committee to represent to tho legislature of Pennsylvania the neces- sities and erabarrassraents of the Federal treasury with ref- erence to the 5 per cent, impost levied by Congress on the States. Elected a meml>er of the convention for framing the Federal Constitution, King took his seat May 25, 17S7. participated actively in the debates, and was one of the committee on revision of style and arrangement of the ar- KING. 15.57 tides. After si^oin^ the Constitution he returned to Mas- sachusetts, was eU-ctftl to the State convention for the con- sideration of that instrument, and was in:^tnin)ental in securing its ratilicatiun, iiotwithstandint; viuient opposi- tion. In 17.SS ho removed to New York t'ily, where two years before he liad married Mary, diiugliter of John Alsop, and in ITS'.* was elected one of the first Fecleral Senators for X^'w York under the newly establit^hcd Con- stitution, his follea'^uo being (ien. Schuyler. He was re- ole-^tcd in 1705. On the formation of the earliest national political panics. King ranked as one of the leaders of the Federalists; Ilis ardent dcfcuco of Jay's treaty with Eng- land ( I'SI'"), both in the Senate aud in the press, under the signafuro of " Camillus," broui;ht him into conspicuous favor with Pres. Washington, \Tho offered him the secre- taryship of state on the resignation of Edmund Uandolph, and in I7i)fi appointed him minister to Kngland. He re- mained in Londnn eight ycar^, notwithstanding the acces- sion of the opposite party to power in lSIII,and discharged the duties of his post during that important epoch of Eu- ropean history with great tact and ability. Returning to the IT. S. in 1^04, he settled on a farm at Jamaica, L. I., where he remained for .-iomc years in retirement, but on the outbreak of the war with (ir^-at Britain (ISI.I) was elected for the third time to the U. S. Senate. King was opposed to that war, but aided in passing the measures necessary for its proso'ution, and after the Capitol was burned in Aug., 1SI4, ho made a stirring appeal to tho country to avenge the outrage. His policy after the war was directed towards the speediest recovery of national prosperity; he was chiefly instrumental in securing the navigation and commercial acts of IS|S; took an interest in promoting trade with the West Indies; strongly opposed the estub- lishmcnt of a national bank, and procured the enactment of a general measure regulating the sales for cash of the public Ifinds. In ISIfi he was, against his will, nominated by the Federalists as their candidate for governor, but was defeated. In 1319 he was elected to a fourth term in tho Senate, during which he was chiefly conspicuous as leader of tho opposition to tho admission of Missouri as a slave State, and to tho extension of slavery genenilly. His speeches on this subject formed a point of departure for all subsequent Congressional debates on slavery. On Feb. 16, IS2.">, a few days before his final withdrawal from tho Senate, he ofl"ered a resolution for devoting tho proceeds of the sales of put>lic lands to the purchase ancl emancipa- tion of slaves and their removal to some foreign country. Later in the same year King accepted a new appointment as minister to Englancl, at the urgent request of Pre?. J. Q. Adnms, but resigned and returned homo tho following year (IS^Ot.on account of ill-health. D. at Jamaica, L. I., Apr. 29, 1S27. He is generally acknowledged to have been an able diplomatist, a wise and liberal statesman, a brilliant orator, a genuine patriot, and a philanthropist of enlarged views and true insight. .^, i Poiitkh C. Bmss. King (Thomas UrTi.fciij/^>MiVtr'Sti itJuoApcfiW countv, Mass., Aug. 27, ISOI; wSs cdueaf d at Wotlicld Acad- emy ; stuilicd law. and moved to (ioorgia in I>^2:i, where ho married a lady of wealth and devoted himself to planting. His residence is on St. Simon's Island. Ho was from l.S.'J2 a nieinlier of tho Slate senate for a num'irr <)f years, iu which bo'Iy he greatly distinguished hiuiself by hin etTorls in the cause of public works for idieap tratisporlation. Ho was a member of Congress from Georgia from IS.'I'J to 1S43, and 'from 1S46 to |S4!>. While in ('ongress naval nlfairs chiefly occu]>iecl his attention. Many valuable reports upon these subjects were made by him during his ternjs of Berviee. In iSlit. (Jen. Taylor sent him on a special mis- sion to tho then Territory of California, where, iu connec- tion with Gen. Riley, he rendered important service in preserving law and order where no organized civil govern- ment existed; and this was done without any aeti\e inter- ference on the part of tho military. While in California he cslablished interests of an individual cdmraelcr which subse(|uenlly requireil his attention to the exelusicm of poli- tics for several years. In IHfJO, while he was iqqtnsed to / the policy of secession (as most of the large sluvebtdders of the South were), yet 'when Georgia in \st\\ resulveil to adopt that measure, he cast his fortunes with those nf tho State. D. May H*. 1864. A. H. Stki-iikns. Kin? fTno\t\s Starr), b. in New York Doe. 16. 1H24; d. in Sun Franeisco. Cnl., Mar. 4. |sni. His father was a rniversali-^t minister in Clmrlctown. Mas-. Young King had a passion for study, but was oMiged from family ne- cessities to forego n college education. From twelve till twenty he lahored first as clerk in a store, afterwanis as a teacher, preparing himself in leisure hours for the ministry. His first prea-'liing was in \S'oloirn. Mass., his first settle- ment in ChnrIt«town. over lii« father's pllri^h. In 1S4.S ho ac'-eptcd a call to the Cnitarian church in Hollis street. Boston, and remained there till the spring of 1860, when he went to California to take charge of the Unitarian church in San Franeisco. The outbreak of the civil war roused all his remarkable powers as a writer, speaker, and man, and to his influence is ascribed the change of public opinion iu the State from lukewarnincss towards the North- ern cause to devoted loyalty. Through his exertions the U. S. Sanitary (Commission obtained the generous sums of money that enabled it to carry on its work at the critical period of the war. Mr. King's eloquence as a preacher and lecturer, which was familiar throughout the West and North-west, made him equally jx.pular on the Pacific coast. His personal qualities endeared him to all who knew him. But for his incessant labors in the pulpit and on the jdat- form he would have been emiucnt as a writer. He con- tributed frequently to the Cmrvrwo^V/ Qurtrterft/, but he published but one book. The W'/iitr IfUlM, tJm'r Letjruda^ Latu/scnpi ft, (utd Pttftri/ (1S.^)9). A few of bis papers were collected after his death — /'ntriutt'^m, and other Papers (IS64). The same year Richard Frothingham wrote a brief memoir, Tribute to Thoiiunt Starr Kiiiff. In 1860 Mr. King received the honorary degree of A. .M. from Har- vard College. 0. B. FitOTniNciiAM. Kin? (William), b. at Scarborough, Me.. Feb. 9. UfiS; was endowed with distinguished talents, and with equal educational advantages might have become as prominent as Rufus, his celebrated brother. After residing at Tops- ham for some years, he settled at Bath as a merchant about ISOO; was for several terms a mcml)er of the Massachu- setts legislature, was one of the leading advocates of the separation of Maine, president of the convention which framed the constitution of Maine, and first governor of the new State. In 1821 he was made U. S. commissioner for the adjustment of Spanish claims, was a general of militia, collector of customs at B:Uh 1s:;|-:m, nnd a jiatrou of in- stitutions of learning. 1>. at Bath June 17, 1852. Kin^ (William), b. at Antrim, Ulster. Ireland. May 1. ir»j(l; studied at Trinity College, Dublin; entered the Church in 1074; became dean of St. Patrick in 1CS8, in which year ho was twice imprisoned in the tower of Dublin for sympathizing with the Knglish revolutionists. He be- came bisliop of Kerry in ir.'.il. urclibisliop of Dublin in 1702; was one of the lords justices of Ireland iu 1717, 1721, and 172n, and d. at Dublin Jlny 8. 1729. .Ho wrote several controversial works against Catholicism, but is best known by a remarkable Latin treatise on the origin of evil ( Dr On'tfiiif Mah\ 1702), and by a sermon on predestina- tion {17091. in which ho maintains that the moral attri- butes of (lod are difit'rent from the qualities bearing the same name among mankind. Kins: (WrLLiAM Rirrs). b. in Sampson co.. N. C, Apr. 7, nsii; gradu.ated at Chapel Hill. University of North Carolina, in isn.'l; studied law. and was admitted to the bar in ISOfi. The same year he was elected to the legisla- ture from his native county, and was re-elected to the same position in 1S07 ; this, however, he resigned on tho meeting of the legislature to accept tho ajtpointment of State so- licitor for the Wilmington circuit, which ofliee be also re- i signed after holding it for two years. In 1S09 he was again returned to the State legislature; in ISIO he was re- turned a member of Congress from bis district, and con- tinued by re-elections to hold this position until ISIfi, when he resii;ne<l it to become secretary of legation uniler Wil- liam Pinekney, American minister, first to Naples, and then to St. Petersburg. During his Congressional term he was an ardent and able advocate of the wnr-jtolicy aud mensures of Mr. Ma'lison's ndministration. 0\\ bis return from Europe in 1S|S he moved to the then Territory of Alabama, where he establishc'I a plantation ancl devoted his attention to agriculture. In ISP.I ho was a member of tho constitutional convention of the Territory of Alabama ; and upon the admission of Alabama ns a Slate into the Fefleral I'ninn, the same year, under the constitution formc'l by tins convention, he was elected one of the two U. S. Senntors, which position he continued to hold from I Sill to IHli. During the whole of his Senatorial career Mr. King was a zeahms supporter of the views and policy of (ien. Jackson. He advocated his election to the Presj". deney in 1S2I. IS2S, and IS;;2: he also sustained with great ability the policy of Mr. Van Buren. who so closely followed in the " fonlsteps of his illustrious predecessor." In isn he resigned his position in the V. S. Senate, and nccepted the ap))ointment of minister to France tendered to him by Pros. Tyler. The special object of this mission was to prevent France from uniting with England in a joint protest against the incorporation of Texas into the Federal UuifMi. Having been successful in this mission. .Mr. King returned to the U. S. Nov.. 1846, and remained in private life until I84S. when ho was appointed by tho governor of Alabama to fill the unexpired term in tho T 1558 KING AND QUEEN— KINGS. U. S. Senate of Arthur P. Bagby, who was sent by Pres. Polk as minister to Kussia. This unexpired term was less than a iwelveuionth, but before it was ended Mr. King was again elected by the legislature to the U. S. Senate for an- other full term of six years, beginning Mar. 4, 1849. Upon the death of Gpn. Taylor, on July 9, 1850. and the acces- sion of Vice-President Fillmore to the Presidency in con- sequence of that event, Mr. King was unanimously elected president of the Senate. He presided over this august body during the exciting debates that ensued with great urbanity, dignity, and ability. At the Presidential elec- tion of IS J2 he was the Democratic candidate for the otfic© of Vice-President of the U. S. with Gen. Franklin Pierce for the Presidency: both were elected by large majorities, but Mr. King did not live to perform the duties of his office. His health began rapidly to fail before the close of the can- vass in Nov., 1852. Early in Jan.. ISo.*?, under advice of physicians, he went to ('ut»a, but was not ai)le to return by the 4th of March, the day of inauguration. This being anticipated, a special act of Congress was passed and des- patched to him in time, providing for his taking the official oath in Havana. Some weeks afterwards he was able to return to his home in Dallas co., Ala., where he d. in Apr., 185:?. A. H. Stephens. Kin? and Queen, county of E. Virginia. Area, 330 square miles. The Mattapony River flows along its S. W. border. It has an undulating surface, and contains valua- ble marl-beds. Corn is the staple product. Cap. King and Queen Court-house. Pup. 9709. Kins: and Queen Court-house, post-v., cap. of King and (^ueeu co., Va., 15 miles from West Point. King'bird, the Tymnnna Caro/('»e?)«M, a familiar little bird found throughout the North American continent. It belongs to the tyrant 6ycatcher family, devours considera- ble numbers of honey-bees, and boldly attacks and drives away hawks, eagles, and crows, flying to great heights in its eagerness for the encounter. King'-crab, or Horse-shoe Crab, the Limnlua PithfphemuM, a remarkable articulate of the Atlantic shores of the r. S., classed by most writers as an entoniostracan, but reckoned by others as constituting, with its congeners, a separate sub-class, and by some regarded as an anoma- lous representative of the class of Arachnoids, which in- cludes the spider-seorpions. It is used in the U. S. as a fertilizer for land, being hardly edible. King'dom, tp. of Bibb co., Ala. Pop. S35. King'ficld, post-tp. of Franklin co., Me., 22 miles N. of Farmington. Pop. 560. King'fish, or Opah {Lampn's rjuttattiSj 'Reiz), a. fish which is the solo representative of a peculiar family (Lam- pridida*), said from its beautiful coh)rs to look "like one of Nejitune's lords dressed for a court-day." It is widely ' distributed, being found in European seas, in those of China and Japan, and also, it is said, on the W. coast of Africa. ; King'flsherSf or Alcedinidap, a family of birds be- I longing to the order Insessores. and so named from their jpeculiarly piscivorous hal)it3. This family is represented in North America by the genus Ccrylc, nearly allied to the . typical Old-World Alct^do. The common species of tho [ U. S. is the belted kingfisher {C. ah-you, Linn.). j King George, county of Virginia, having tho river Potomac on the N. and E.. and the Rappahannock on the S. \\. Area, 17fi square miles. It is uneven, and much of the soil is fertile. Corn is the principal product. Cap. [ King George Court-bouse. Pop. 5742, j King George Court-house, post-v., cap. of King i George co.. Vu., I'J miles K. of Fredericksburg. Kingkitao, or Kienghitao, called by the Chinese Ilanrliing or Wangking, and by the French S^oul or Sioul, the capital of Corea. near the centre of which it is situated. There arc no reliable accounts of its j^opulation. King'lake i Ai.EXANDEnAVii,M.\M), b. at Taunton, Eng., , in 1811 : was educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cam- bridge, where he graduated in 1.S32: was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn ls;t7. and acquired an extensive chancery practice, but retired from the law in 1S5G. Soon after finishing his studies Kinglake made an extensive tour in i Eastern countries, of which he published an account under j the title of A'ofArn ( 184-1 ). which obtained great popularity. He accompanied Lord Raglan in the Crimean war, and wrote, in great part from the papers of that general, a Hin- toiji of the Crimrnn W'tir, of which the flrst volume ap- peared in 1863, and the fifth, devoted to the battle of In- kerman, in 1874. This work, which is not yet completed, is eloquently written, and enters into great detail, but e.x- hibits a bias highly unfavorablcto the French, and especially i toward ^'apoleoD III. Kinglake entered Parliament in I 1857, and became prominent for his anti-Napoleonic atti- tude upon the Conspiracy bill (1S58) and the annexations of Savoy and Nice (IS6U). — His cousin, John Alexander Kinglake, b. at Taunton in 1805. a lawyer and for many years Liberal member of Parliament for Rochester, has written articles for the reviews, and is often confounded with the historian. King'lets, The (Htijulns. Cuv.), constitute a genus of the extensive family of Turdidje (or thrushes). The com- mon American species are the ruby-crowned (H, calendula) and golden-crested {li. autrnpfi) wrens or kinglets, which are both closely allied to the golden-crested wren {li. cris- tatfts) of Europe, the smallest of the Old-World birds. King'man, county of S. Central Kansas, Area, 643 square miles. It is traversed by Good River, and is well adapted to grazing. Kingman, post-v. of Penobscot co.. Me., on Matta- wamkeag River and the European and North Americao R. R. King of Arms, or in Scotland King-at-Arms, a herald of the highest rank. The English kings of arras are Garter. Bath (who is not of the college of arms), Cla- rencieux, Norroy, and one for the order of St. Michael and St. George (the last not belonging to the heralds' college). Scotland has one. called Lyon, or Lord Lyon king-at-arms. Ireland has one, Ulster king of arms. There have been other English kings of arms, whose ofiices are now extinct. {For these and some continental kings of arms, see Her- ald.) Kings (Books of). First and Second, two of the canon- ical books of the Old Testament, following the second book of Samuel and preceding the first book of Chronicles. The two books were originally but one, and contain the annals of the kings of Judah and Israel from the death of David to the Captivity. The Septuagint and Vulgate versions call them the third and fourth books of Kings, reckoning the two books of Samuel as belonging to the same work. Ewald and other modern German critics go still further, reckoning Judges and Ruth to belong to the same work, which they call the " Great Book of the Kings," while sug- gestions have not been wanting that large portions of the Pentateuch and book of Joshua originally belonged to it, constituting an unbroken series of annals from the creation of the world to the dispersion of the Hebrew race. It is certain that the books of Kings are in reality a continua- tion of those of Samuel — that they are written in the same spirit, with the same style and characteristic expressions; but the identity of authorship cannot be asserted from these premises, as there are numerous minor differences which show at least the hand of another contributor. On the other hand, the contrast in many respects with the books of Chronicles, which narrate substantially the same events, is very marked, showing a considerable jiriority of time in favor of Kings. By a modern German school of criticism the two works are designated as prophetic and priestly, and this antithesis, which is nrguecl to represent a real and long-continued conflict between the two orders of religious teachers, may be accepted so far as to admit a noticeable distinction in this resjiect between the two historical works, lint the very fact that the books of Kings are largely occu- pied with the public ministrations of the prophets, while less attention was given to the priestly service of the temple, was a suflicient reason for the writer of Chronicles, liimself probably a minister of that sanctuary, to omit to dwell upon the prophetic annals already written, and to bestow greater attention upon matters which might be of greater interest to his own class. The books of Kings have been considered to show a strong bias against the northern kingdom, as nil its monarchs without exception are said to have " done evil in the sight of the Lord," but as far the larger number of the monarchs of Judah arc charged with like conduct, tho argument is not conclusive. A prominent feature of Kings consists of the narratives of the prophets Elijah and Klisha, which occupy fourteen chapters. The Septuagint version exhibits some remarkable variations from the received te.xt of Kings, a considerable number of passages being trans- posed, while a few are omitted, and several additional frag- ments of narrative are inserted, chiefly relating to Solomon and Jeroboam. Biblical scholars disagree as to the nuthen- ticity and value of these fragments, but they are generally rejected as corruptions of the original te.xt. The sources from which the writer drew \u» materials are often referred to. They were a scries of biographies of individual kings, tho writings of several prophets, and a general history called the Hook- *>/ th^ Kiiuji vf hrticl ami Judah, of which the present work may be considered as a brief compend, .'Ml these original works have perished. As to date and authorship, the narrative itself shows that it must have been written during or after the Captivity, and many co- incid6nces of style and matter appear to justify the Tal- KIXG'S-KIN08LEY. 1559 mudic traditioD which ascribes it to .Terciniah, which is maintained in recent times by HUvernick Hn>l Grnf, but opposed by Keil and l>avidscn. Calinet ascribed the au- thorship to Ezra. Miiny critics contend for a still later date on the strenj^th of Chaldaic forms, which mi^ht. bow- ever, have easily crept into the Hebrew language during the close interenursu witli IJabylon before tlie Captivity. (See the commentaries of Keil (ISiCi; Kilinbur;;h Irans., 1S57), Thcnius ( istiM. ScbUisser (IHUl), and (I. Kawlinson in the Spfaker'g ('iimmentarif (IST.'J)-) PoUTEU C. BliSS. Kin|;^9, county of Ireland, in the province of Lcinster, bordering on the Shannon. Area, 772 square miles. Pop. 75,900, of whom 2S,:J8;{ cannot read or write. Towards the S. runs a small branch of the Slieve Illoom ^fountains; the surfaee i^ otherwise level. The soil is tolerably fertile. Cap. Tullamore. From 1S51 to 1872 the emigration from this county was 35,5113. Kings, county of New Brunswick, intersected by the river St. J^hn. The soil ie fertile. Large quantities of lumber are rut and sawed. The county is traversed by the European and North American Railway. Cap. Hampton. Pop. 24,593. King's^ county of Nova Scotia, bordering on the Bay of Fundy. Its shores arc bold and picturesque. Its soil is to a great extent of the best description. It is well tim- bered, and produces iron, copper, manganese, slate, build- ing-stone, etc. The county is travcrsicd by tlie Windsor and Annapolis H. K. Cap. Kentville. Pop. 21,509. King's^ the easternmost country of Prince Edward Isl- and, Douiinion of Canaila. It is very fertile and well culti- vated. Cap. (leorgetown. Pop. about 17,000. KingH, county of New York, comprising the western- moist part uf liong Inland, and including some small islands along the coast. Area, 72 stjuaro miles. Much of the soil is naturally light, but proximity to markets has cau.sed it to become very productive. Garden products arc the staple crops. The county has extensive manufacturing and com- mercial interests, which are described in the article BnouK- LVN (which see). It is traversed by various railroads, cen- tring in lirooklyn, the capital. Pop. 419,921. Kings, l(t. of Williaint^iiurg co., S. C. Pop. 1774. King^s iuv Qiiocn's) Bench. See Cornxs, I. (1), Kings'borongh, post-v. of Johnstown tp., Fulton co., N. Y., i mile from (lloversville. It has 10 manufactories of mittens. Kingsborough(EDWARnKiN'G), LonD,b. Nov. 10,1705. lie published a work in 9 largo folio vols, upon the ,4(j- (jV/h/mV* nf Mexico, rompriHinij j'ac-iiiniiUa of Anvient aMcx- ican Pttiiitttif/H uud IlirriHjly^hirH, ti>(fvthcv rrtth the Monu- menta of Nftn Spain by M. Diipnix, irith thfir reitpcctivc ScnlcR of Mt-fiHurcmfut and Arrompatn/iuf/ De/tcri'pti'oue ; the irhnfr illiiHtrntcil f/i/ iiKittt/ vftlutihtr inrdltril MSS. (Lon- don, 1K30-IS), at an expense of some .$300,000. Only seven V(durae6 had been issued when Lord Kingsborough d. at Dublin Feb. 27, 1837; the two concluding volumes were brought out after a considerable interval. This work is valuable as a collection of materials, but is confused in arrangement and disfigured by uncritical theories. Kings'bury, an unorganized county of Dakota, trav- ersed by the Dakota or James River. Area, about 750 square mites. Kingsbury, post-tp. of Piscataquis co., Me., 22 miles W. of Dov(r. I'op. 174. Kingsbury, post-v. and tp. of Wasliington co., N. Y., on the Hudson Biver. It is traversed by the Chaniplain Canal mid Uensselaer and Saratoga U. U. It contains Sandy Hill, one of the county-seats; has great water- power, 10 churches, manufactures of lumber, |)a]K'r, ma- chinery, etc., and valuable limestone-quarries. Pop. 4277. Kingsbury (Ciiari.ks P.), Okn., b. in Now Y'ork IHIS ; graduated at thu )'. S. .Military Academy, and entered tho nrnty as second lieutenant of ordnance in IS40; served as assistant and in command of various arsenals until tho threatened (roubles with Mexico in conaecjuencc of tho proposed annexation of Texas, when he necumpanied the army of occupation to Texas; subse(|uently during the Mexican war was (ien. M'ool's chief ordnance oflieer ; was engaged at Huena Vista on the sluflTof (Jen. Taylor. Dur- ing the civil war ho was superintendent of the V. S. armory at Harper's Ferry in Apr., JSOl. when tho property was destroyed to prevent its lulling into tlu' bund-* of the Con- federates; was chief of ordnance (with rank n| eoh.iu-l ) of tho Army of the Potomac |Ht'iI-('.2, tliroughoul (lie Virginia Peninsulitr campaign, on the terminatiion of which he was relieved, owing to ill-health, and subsequently served on important special duly until duly, lKr>5, when he was t placed in churge of the l*. S. arsenal at Walertown. .Mas- i sacbusetts. In Dec, 1^70, he was retired on his applica- 1 tion, with the rank which he had attained in his corps, that of lieutenant-colonel. He was the author of various ])ro- fessional works, and was a frequent contributor to various periodicals. D. Dec. 25, 1879. G. C. Simmons. Kingsbury (Henkv W.), Coi.., b. in Connecticut in 1837; graduated at the U.S. Military Academy, and aj)- pointed second lieutenant of ordnance May 0, 18fil ; first lieutenant of artillery May 14, 1801 ; was engaged in the first battle of Bull Run on the staff of den. McDowell, with whom he continued until Dec, L'^Ol, when ho was plaeeil on duty with his battery in the defences of M'nsliington ; in the spring of 1802 he accompanied 4he Army "of the Po- tomac to Virginia, and in Ajiril was apjioiuted colonel of the 11th Connecticut Vols., wliich regiment he led in tho battles of Gaines's Mill and Malvern Hill, and subsequently at South Mountain and Antietnni. where he received wounds from the effect of which he d. the following day, Sept. 18, 1862. 0. C. Simmons. King's (or Queen's) Counsel, in Engli.^h practice, are certain barristers or scrgeantf^-at-lnw who have been specially appointed by letters-patent to be His (or Her) Majesty's counsel. They are entitled to a right of ])rc- audicnce in all the courts before other barristers or ser- geants, and among themselves usually have precedence ac- cording to the date of their appointment. Their rank in this respect is generally defined by the terms of the patent. King's counsel do not, as their name might indicate, render legal services exclusively in behalf of the Crown, but may be retained by ordinary clients. They cannot, however, net for a jdaintiff in a suit against the Crown, or engage in the defence of persons prosecuted for crime, without ob- taining special license from the Crown. But this is never refused, and may be obtained by the jmynient of a small fee. King's counsel are appointed for life, but the lettcrs- jiatent may be revoked for dishonorable practices or un- professional conduct. GioiiOK Chase. Rkvised by T. AV. Dwight. Kinp's Creek, tp. of Caldwell co., N. C. Pop. G25. King's Kvil lScroful(t),& disease which for many cen- turies was professedly cured by the touch of the kings of England and France. The practice is traced to the times of King Edward the Confessor (1013-60), was emiiloycd by Louis XI. of France in I 180, by Charles VIII. at Rome and Naples in 1105, and by Francis I. in 1597. Charles II. of England ( HiOO-S-l ) carried the pnwtice to the greatest extreme of any English monarch, having '* touehcil " nearly 100,000 patients during his twenty-five years' reign. It was last employed in England by Queen Anne (1703-15), Dr. Samuel .Johnson having been, when a boy, one of her patients; but <tn the accession of the Brunswick dynasty was discontinued, and a special service for the purpose omitted from tho Eiturgy in 1719. Tlie "Young Pre- tender" attempted to gain adherents by touching for tho king's evil at Ilolyrood Palace in 1775. and Louis XVI. of France performed the same ceremony at Klieiins as late as 1775. (For curious data on this subject see Lccky's Jlitftory of liatinunHfim.) King's Ferry, post-v. (sometimes colled Northvili.e) of Genoa tp., Cayuga co., N. Y. Kings'ley, tp. of Forest co.. Pa. Pop. ,575. Kingslcy i Calvin). D.D.,LL.D.,b. at Annsville, Oneida CO., N. v.. Sept. 8, 1S12 ; licensed as Methodist preacher in 1835; graduated at Allegheny College, Pa., In 1841. The same year he was appointeil professor of nnithematics in that institution, and was afterwards a pastor at Meadvillo and Erie, Pa. In 185l» was elected editor of the W'tftrm ('hrtHtian Advocate at Cincinnati, 0., ami again in 1800, He took an earnest part against slavery, aiol was elected bisliop in 180L In ISOO he started on an epincojial ttiur of the world, and d. at Beirut, Syria, in 1870, He published On thf /{tHttrrectiou of the fiudi/ (181.')), und lelt u pohthu- mous work on his travels Around the Worfd. Kingslry (Chahi.f.s), b. at Hcdne. Devonshire, Eng- land, June lU, l8l'.f, was the son of Uev. Dr. C. Kingsloy, at one lime rector of St. Luke's, Chelcca, and after\Yards vicar of Ilolne. Jlis preliminary education was directed by Uev. Derwent Coleridge at Ottley St. John. In ls;;S» he entered King's College, London, but in the following year removed to Magdalen College. Cambridge, where ho graduated with lionors In 1842. His first destination was for tho law, but after a few months he exclianged that study for theology, and lo(tk orders in the Chureb of Eng- land, becoming in 181 1 rector of Eversley, Ilainpshire, where he resided through life. He early devoted himself (o till' improvement of the condition of the working classes, acquiring thereby the nohnrfiirt of "the Cliartist parson," and was the chief originator f»f the school of elhies styled "Christian socialism," with which was closely connected that foDdncss for manly eports travestied as " muscular 1560 KINGSLEY— K I NGSTON. Christianity." His earliest publication was T*./-™ i, >€ Villaqe Sermom. addressed to his rustic parishioners (lS4b), followed in l!<4S bv a dramatic poem, the .Saint « liaijetiy, foun.led on the cireer of Elizabeth of Hungary, and m ISiO by a novel. All.,n L.,H-e, Tailor a„d /'„.(, the produc- tion which first brought him into notice, and by which he will alw.-vvs be best known. It was bused upon personal research "nmonj; artisans and laborers, undertaken in con- Son with Rev. Fred. D. Maurice, and wh ch led to the establishment of co-oper.ative associations. This work i.ia an immense popularity in ..\mcrica, and conlributed much to determine u'in^sley's literary career. In 1S5U he was chosen „rofe-or of modern fiijtory at Cambridge ; resigned in lb5 I, in which year he became cxnon of Chester, and subsequent- ly of Wes'tminster, and chaplain to the queen. Among his works are We.Uoard Ho {Xr^b), Yeart, a novel (!8al), Phaithnn (1852), Il<ipalla (1S5.3), Alexandria and her Shooh (1854). aUuiL (1855), Poe,n, (1856) W^ Heroes [1856), ko Year. A.,o (1857), The Roman and ,1^ Teuton 1864 Hereward (1866), The Hermit, (W.). How and mvf (1869). At Last, a Chrixlman in the II «( /nrfios (1871), hay, and Puritan,. Pro,e Uhjl, (1873^. Westminster Sermon, and Health and Eduction (1874). A collect^ion of poems, chieflv Ivric, was published in 18o6, andAndro- meda. a hexameter poem, appeared in 18o8. In 18;^- ho undertook the editorship of Hood II orrf.. and in 18, .i-, 4 visited the V. S. on a lectaring-tour, in which he was re- ceived with warmth by the literary classes. D. at Eversley Jan. 24, 1875. Po«™« C. Bliss. Kinssley (Henry), a brother of Charles Kingsley, h. at llulne vicara>'e, Devon, in 1824; was educated at Oriel College, O.xford ; lived 1853-58 in Australia ; ac- quired reputation as a reviewer, journalist, and novelist. Author of (leoff-rey Harnhp, (1859). Pavrn,hoe (1861). Aus- tin Elliot (IS63), The Hilh/ars and Ilnrtnn, (1865). Leujh- ton Curt (1866), //e«./(l'8-n. Old Marqarct (1871). and other novels. He was for some time editor of the Edin- burgh Daihi Review. D. May 24. 1876. kingsley (James Lfcr.), LL.D.,b. at Windham, Conn., Au". 28, 1778; graduated at Yalo in 1799; was a tutor there lSOl-05, librarian 1805-24, and professor of Hebrew, Greek and Latin, and of ecclesiastical history 1805-ul. D at New Haven, Conn., Aug. 31, 1852. He contributed nany valuable articles to periodical literature, and pub- ished a History of Yale Coller,e (1835) and a Life, of President .Stiles, and valuable editions of Tacitus and of ma li Cie'erode Orat'.re. Prof. Kinssley was master of an ele- gant style in both English and Latin. Ho was called by President Dwight the "American Addison," and several Latin compositions on festive or eommcmorativo occasions received the highest praise for purity of Latin style from President Woolsey. King's MounJain, a mountain-range, some 10 miles Ion" N. and S.. with lateral spurs abounding in marble and iron, mostly in Gaston cc, N. C, near the E. border of Cleaveland co. Its S. extremity is in York co.,S. t. Tho highest point is Ciowder's Knob, some 3000 feet high and very precipitous. Near the S. extremity, in South Caro- lina a body of British troops under Lieut. -Col. Ferguson were surprised and attacked (Oct. 7, 1780) by tho American militia under Col. Benjamin Cleaveland, and alter a most gallant defence nearly all the British troops were made prisoners. The British weco_iiL_part ^ armed w ahbrcc^- luailiui_small;arnis. then first cmp loyeil in warTa roT On 'theroliowiiigThiyT Cn O f t hg Tory prijoncrs fffrirlianged other crimes. This was one of the most for murder and oL — bloody contests of the w.ar in the Southern States, and con- tributed much to the final success of tho American arms. King's Mountain, tp. of Cleaveland oc, N. C. Pop. 1248. King's Mountain, tji. of York co., S. C. Pop. 1818. King's Prairie, tp. of Barry co., Mo. Pop. 857. King's River, tp. of Carroll co., Ark. Pop. 686. King's River, tp. of Madison eo.. Ark. Pop. 958. King's River, of California, rise? in the Sierra Nevada, in Fresno co., by numerous head-streams, and flows in a S. \V. course into Lake Tulare. Its copious waters divide into numerous channels before they reach the lake. King's River, in the northern basin of Nevada, is in Humbolill CO. It sinks about 50 miles N. W. of Winne- mucca. Its valley contains some 75,000 acres of good grazing and tillage land. The bottoms have a heavy growth of blue-joint and red-top grass, and the hills are covered with a fine growth of bunch-grass and white sage. The average elevation is 4850 feet. Tlic river abounds in trout. King's River, tp. of Tulare co., Cal. Pop. 1G6. King's Store, tp. of Pickens co., Ala. Pop. 212. Kings'ton, the capital of the island of Jamaica, stands on the southern coast. 12 miles from Spanish Town, tho former capital, in lat. 18° N., Ion. 76° 5U' W. It is situ- ated in a plain at the foot of the Blue Mountains, sur- rounded by rich sugar-plantations and numerous villas and gardens. In spite of the regular laud and sea breezes morning and evening, the climate is very hot, and as parts of the vicinity are marshy, the place is unhealthy ; yellow fever is a frequent visitor. Although there is no building of any architectural interest in the city, it is nevcrthelcES well built, with regular and spacious streets, and it has re- cently been provided with good drinking-water through a magnificent aqneduel. The harbor is enclosed on the S. by a tongue of land, and is defended by several strong forts, and the city derives its greatest im]iorlanee from its situ- ation as a commercial station on the route between Europe and Central America. The value of exports for the year 1869-70 was S0.315.S13, and of imports, f6, 600, 146. Tho principal articles of exportation are rum. sugar, tobacco, and dyewond. Pop. about 35,BI'0. Kingston, pnst-v. of King's co., N. B., on a neck of mountainiuis land between the Kennelpccasis and Ihe St. John rivers, 19 miles above St. John. It has a court-house, jail, churches, and schools. Pop. about 200. Kingston, a citv, cap. of Frontcnac co.. Out.. Canada, near the lower extremity of Lake Ontario, opposite tho Thousand Islands. It was founded in 1784 on the site of the old French fort Fronlenac, lat. 44° 8' N., Ion. 78° 40' W. It is strongly fortified. Its harbor is sheltered by "Wolf and Garden islands. It is connected by steam-ferry with Cape Vincent, N. Y. Its wharves, shipyards, and grain-elevators are well constructed. It has manufactures of locomotives, musical instruments, farming tools, stoves, and many other kin<ls of goods. It is on the Grand Trunk Railway ,"lfil miles E. of Toronto. It has 3 banks, a board of trade, and 18 churches, being the seat of a Roman Cath- olic bish'op and the see-town of the Anglican bishop of On- tario. Kingston has water and gas companies, a fire brig- ade, and a well-organized police. It has a custom-house, a jail, a penitentiary. 10 schools and academies, and is Ihe site of Queen's University and College, including a medical college. It has also an institution called Regiopolis Col- le<'e.° It has a library and mechanics' institute, 2 daily and 2 weekly papers. 2 hospitals. 2 orphanages, an insane asylum, and many religious, benevolent, and temperanco societies. Kingston is a naval station, and contains Ihe roval dockyards. A long bridge has been built across Cjtaraqui Bay. The town is mostly built of blue limestone, and its streets cross each other at right angles. It is di- vided into seven wards. Pop. in 1871, 12.407. Kingston, post-tp. of Autauga co., Ala. Pop. 1278. Kingston, post-v. of King's River tp., Madison co.. Ark. Pop. 65. Kingston, post-v. of Barlow co., Ga.. at the junction of the Rome It. R. with the Western and Atlantic K. R., 41 miles S. of Dalton. Pop. 402. Kingston, tp. of Dc Kalb co., IB. Pop. 975. Kingston, a v. of Trimble co.. Ky. Pop. 59. Kingston, posttp. of Plymouth co., Mass.. on Ihe sea- coast and on the Old Colony R. R.. 33 miles S. E. of Bos- ton. It has a good harbor for light-draught vessels, 3 churches, a high school, and manufactures of lumber, thread, iron-ware, gimlets, rivets, shipping, etc. It has also prosperous agricultural and fishing interests. Pop. 1604. Kingston, tp. of Tuscola eo.. Mich. Pop. 324. Kingston, post-v. and tp. of Meeker CO., Minn. Pop. of V. 56 ; of tp. 530. Kingston, post-v. and tp.. cap. of Caldwell co.. Mo., 8 miles from the Hannibal and Si. .loseph K. R. and 60 miles from Kansas City. It has a good court-house, jail, and school building. 2 churches. 2 weekly newspapers, a flour- mill, anti Ihe nsnal number of stores and shops. The prin- cipal business is wagon-making. Pop. of v. 414; of tp. J2V7. Mii.i.s A SpivEV, F'lis. '•Sentinel. Kingston, tp. of Washington co.. Mo. Pop. 10S5. Kingston, post-v. and tp. of Rockingham co., N. H., 38 miles S. E. of Concord. It has an academy, 3 ehurches, and extensive manufactures of carriages, lumbcr,and leather. Pop. 1051. Kingston, city. cap. of Ulster co.. N. Y., 90 miles N. of New York City, and 55 miles S. of Albany, on the W. bank of the Hudson River and N. bank of Rondoiil f r^'k; E terminus of the Kelaware and Hudson Canal, of the ^cw York Kingston and Syracuse, and of the Wallkill \ alley R. Rs.. which connect by steam-ferry with the Hudson River R. R. at Rhinebeck. immediately across the nver. Kingston was incorporated as a city by act of Mar. 29, 1872, by the junction of the former incorporated villages I r, ,\i^^\-Xl KINGSTON— KIN, NEXT OF. 1561 of Kingston and Rondout with the small viIlaj;cof Wilbur. It h:is '2\ churches. 1 daily and o weekly newspaper?. 5 national and .1 savings banks, lit carriage niantit'actorie^, 5 iron-foundries and maehiuo-shops, ceverul hotels, an academy, several private seminaries, an efiicient school system with 16 teachers, 6 brickyards, 5 boat-building yards, 3 ferries, 4 lines of passenger steanicrs. a volunteer fire department, a horse railroad, a'handsoine eity hall and court -house. It is the location of the largest cement manufactory in the country, turning out about IIHIO barrels daily; receives l.nOO.OOO tons of coal annually by the Di'laware and Ilmlson Canal, and annually ships to New York at least 1,000.001) tons of blue flagging-stone, brick, ice. lime, and lumber. It has a wharfage front of 4 miles, and 43 steamboats are owned there : docs a heavy business in grain, flour, etc. The city is governed by a mayor and eighteen aldermen. It received a charter from (iov. Stuy- vesant in \(\<\{ under the name of Wifftri'v/:, was first set- tled in lO'ij. and was incorporated by j)atent in Ififi". On Feb. 1"J, 1777, the first State convention adjourned from Fishkill to Kingston, and the first State constitution was adopted Apr. 20, and, having been printed at Fishkill.was proclaimed in front of the court-house at Kingston Apr. 22, 1777. The legislature met here in September of the same year, but was dispersed by the approach of a British force under Sir Henry Clinton Oct. 7, when the town was burnt. Being afterwards rebuilt, it was incorporated as a village in ISOj. Rondout, now a part i»f Kingston, was incorporated in lS4y ; it was long the county-seat, an<l had 2 newspapers. Pop. of city in 1S70, 0316; of tp. 21.043. Horatio FowLEit, Ed. *' D.\i[.y Fuklma.v." Kinsston, tp. of Delaware co., 0. Pop, 5S7. Kiimston^ p(tst-v. of (treen tp., Ross co., 0., 10 miles N. of L'hillicolhe. It is the seat of an academy. Pop. 345. Kin^^ton, post-b. and tp. of Luzerne co.. Pa., in the anthracite coal region. The borough is on the Lacka- wann.i and Bloomsburg R. R.. and on the X. branch of the Susr(uehanna. opposite Wilkesbarre, with which it is connected by a bridge. The massacre of Wyoming took pla'-c in this township, and is commemorated by an impos- ing ni'.nurnent. Pop. of b. 1143 ; of tp. 282 J. Kingston, post-v., cap. of Washington co., R. T., is in Sou*h Kingston tp., 3 miles S. E. of Kingston Station, on the Providence and Stonington R. R. It has a national bank. Kini^Hton, post-v.. cap. of Roane co., Tenn., 40 miles W. of Knuxvlilc and K'.O E. of Chattanooga, is situated at the junction of the Clinch River with the Tennessee, both of them being here navigable lor stuambonts. It has 2 weekly newspapers. 1 hotel, 2 iron-furnaces, 2 steam saw- mills, foundry and machiuc-shop, 1 charcoal furnace, 1 steam-distillery, and 10 stores. Pop. 739. W. B. RrFin. En. " East TKNNKSst;KA\." Kingston, post-tp. of (ireen Eako eo.. Wis. Pop. 807. KinK^tun lEMZAnnTii Ciirni-Kini!), Dichkss ok. b. in England in 1720, was daughter of Col. Chudlcigh, gover- nor of Chelsea College, who d. when she was still a child. leaving his family in poverty. Elizabeth was a girl of re- markable beauty, to which (circumstance she was indebted for an appointment as maid-of-honor to the princess of Wales, mother of (Jeorge HI., through the influence of Pulteney, afterwards earl of Bath. She was privately mar- ried in 1741 to Capt, llervey, grandson <tf the earl of Bris- tol, but immediately separated from him. ami for many years led adissipated life in European capitals. She mar- ried the duke of Kingsloi] in 1 709, he being ignorant of her former marringo, and on his death in 1773 sneeeeded to an enormous fortune, which, however, was disputed by the duke's relatives on the ground of bigamy. The duchess was tried by the Uoupo of Lords for bigamy in 1770, and declared guilty, btit retained her fortune, as being derived from brfjuest. After a further series of adventures she d. at a chateau near Paris Aug. 28, 1788. Kingston-on-ThiimOH, town of England, in tlie county of Surrey, on the E. bank (tf the TlnuneH. It has an extensive trade in corn ami malt, anil many good edu- oational institutions. Coins and other remains from the time of the Romans arc often discovered here. Pop. 15.2:>7. Kinf;*«'to\vn9 capital of the island of St. Vincent, in the We^f Indies, at the head of a small inlet which forms a good harbor, is well built and fortified, and has a fine botanieal gard'-n. Pop. about .'lOOO. Kinffstown, town of Indnnd, on the ftouthern shore of the Bay of Iftiblin. It has a magnificent harbor, and is the station of the steam-packets to Holyhead and Liverpool. It is one of the most frequented watering-places of Ireland. Pop. ll.:>84. Kings'trro, post-v. of Kings tp., cap. of M'ilHnmsburg CO., S. C, on the left bank of Black River. 05 miles N. E. of Charleston, on the North-eastern R. R.. has 2 weekly newspapers. 2 schools (1 white and 1 colored), 3 churches, 2 hotels, I livery-stable, 1 hook-and-laddcr fire company, 3 bakeries, 2 drug stores, and a number of other business interests. The principal occupation is farming. Pop. of tp. 1774. J. Marion Stauokiis, for Ei>. "Star." Kinf^s'villCf post-v. and tp. (otherwise called Ramky) of Johnson co.. Mo., on the Missouri Pacific R. R. Pop. of v. 298; of tp. 13G0. Kingsville, post-v. and tp. of Ashtabula co.. 0.. on the Lake Shore R. R. It has an academy. Pop. 1758. King-te-Ching% district of the province of Kiang-Si, China, anil the scat of the celebrated manufactures of ])or- celain, in which ncarlj' 1,000,000 persons arc engaged. Kinf; Wil'linm^ county of Virginia, having the Mat- tnpony River on the N. E. and the Paniunkey on the S. W. Area. 200 square miles. It is iine\en. and (rencrally fertile. Grain and tobacco are staple products. The county is trav- ersed by the Richmond and Chc?apeako R. R. Cap. King William Court-house. Pttp. 7."(1j. King William Court-house, post-v.. cap. of King William co., Va., 27 miles N. E. of Richmond. Pop. 44. King'-WOOd, the wood of a species of Tn'ptolomia. a Brazilian leguminous tree. The wood is very beautiful. but comes only in small pieces, and is used in ornamental joinery. Kingwood, post-tp., Hunterdon co., X. J. Pop. 1942. Kin^wood, post-v. and t p.. caii. of Prtj^ton co,. W. Va., is situated in the .Allt irhany iMounlains, 111 niiles N. of the Baltimore and Ohio R. R. ; has 2 churches. 1 nati<uial bank, 2 weekly newspapers, 3 hotels, numerous stores, a fine school building, and several elegant private residences. It is on the line of a proposed raih-oad, the Iron A'allcy and Pennsylvania line. Principal imlustry. farming. Pop. IjSl. Wii.i.. M. O. Dawson. En. " PitESTON Co. .Journal." Kink'^O^Uf the Ccrcofepten crniflh-otrit/tiit, a small bear- like carnivorous mammal of tropical South America, liardly as large as a eat. It is placed in a family, ('ercohptidje. It is a graceful nocturnal creature, arlxu-eal in its habits, easily tamed, and excessively fond of honey, one of tho])rin- eipai articles of its food. It has many popular names, but the above is the one now generally employed. Kinli'e! (Joiianx CIoTTrnir:i)l,b. at Obereasscl Aug. 11, ISIT); studied theology at Bonn and Berlin: became jiro- fcssor first of theology, and then of the fine arts, at Bonn, and published a volume of poems whieli beeanic ]»opuIar. On account of his participation in the revolutionary move- ments in Rhenish Prussia in 1S4S, ho was sentenced to twenty years' im])risonment at S[)andau, but c>caped, lived for some years in London, and removed in ISriO to Zurich as professor of the history of the fine arts. Of his writings, the most noticeable, besides his ]ioems. are Die altchritt- (irhr h'uut^t flSI.'i) and iV/mn/f/. a tragedy (1857). Kiii'hick, tp. of Lawrence eo., Ala. I*op. 1621. Kin'iniindy, city and tp. of Marion co.. III., 229 miles S. of Chicago, and 130 miles N. of Cairo, on the Illinois Central U. R.. has 1 bank. 1 weekly newspaper, 5 churches, 2 hotels, large school buildings, brick mills, various manu- factories, and 12 stores. Principal industry, farming, graz- ing, and fruit-raising. Pop. is'.ly. E!>\v\ito FitKiCMAx, En. *■ Kismi'NDV lNni:i»KNDr.ST.** Kill, Next of, a term employed in law to denote the nearest blood relatives of a deceased ]ter>on. among whom his personal property is distributed after the payment of debts and legacies, according to the provisions of the stat- ute of distributions. Thi.s is the ordinary technical sense of the phrase, though it is sometimes used with a wider exIiMit of meaning, to <iesignatea personV nearest relations by Idood. without regard t<» this stiitule. The relationship iiiust bo by consanguinity, and not by afiiiiily. The next of kin may be either of lineal or of collateral consanguin- ity, and the nearness of relationship among them is com- puted according to the rules of the civil law. in accordaneo with which the degrees between one relative and an(»tber are aseertaine<l by reckoning upward from one of the par- lies to the common ancestor, and then downward to the other party. (The distinction between lineal and collat- eral consanguinity is explained, and this eivil-law rule of estimating relntifmshiji illustrat<'d, in the article CoNSAN- nriNiTV. See also Akkimtv.) Cpon the death of a per- son intestate who was tlie ownerof personal property, there are two important rights to wbieb bis next of kin are en- titled : one is to administer up(»n his personal estate, and the other to share it among themselves, either wholly or partly, according to the statute of distributions. By the 1562 KINNEY— KIPPIS. English common law the power to administer upon the goods and chattels of a wife is granted to the husband or his representatives, while, by ancient statutes, if it be the husband that is deceased, administration upon his property is granted to either his widow or next of kin, or both. In case of administration by the next of kin, one or more are selected from among them as administrators, preference being given to those who are most nearly related to the ish, highly astringent taste. It forms a deep-red solution in water and alcohol. Kino owes its astringency to tannic acid (tannin), and is used in medicine to check morbid dis- charges in bowel complaints. Edwakd Curtis. Kinross', or Kinross'-shirc, county of .Scotland, be- tween the counties of Perth and Fife. Area, 72 square miles. I'op. 720S. The surface is undulating, covered with j low hills which enclose i^ooh Lcven. The soil is a mixture intestate, according to the civil-law method of reckoning of gravel and clay, but fertile and affording good pasturage above referred to. Of persons in equal degree any one may be taken. Children arc preferred to j.arents, parents to brothers or sisters, brothers or sisters to grandparents, grandparents to uncles, aunts, nephews, and nieces, etc. (See AnMiNiSTKATiox.) In the U. !^. the English rules as to the appointment of administrators arc substantially adopted in the various States, though more or less modi- fied by statute. After the payment of debts by the admin- istrator, and of various expenses, as funeral expenses, taxes, etc.. the residue of the property is dislributed among the next of kin and the husband or widow of the deceased. The statute of distributions was enacted in the reign of Charles II. (22 and 23 Chas. II. ch. 10). If the deceased person be a married woman, leaving a husband surviving, he takes, by English law, the entire personal property after the usual necessary disbursements, the statute not applying to husbands. In other cases the statute requires the dis- tribution of the surplus property, after the expiration of one year from the time of granting administration, in the following manner: If the intestate leave a widow and chil- dren, the widow receives one-third of the property, and the children the residue in equal proportions. If any child be dead, leaving lineal descendants, they divide equally the share which'he would have received. This is called taking per stirpit, or by the doctrine of representation. If there are no children or their representatives, one-half goes to the widow and the other half is distributed equally among the next of kin who are in equal degree and their repre- sentatives; but no representation is admitted among col- laterals after brothers' and sisters' children. If there be no widow, the whole estate is divided among the children. If there be neither widow nor children, the whole is distri- buted among the next of kin in equal degree and their representatives. Substantially the same ]>referencc3 exist among the next of kin in regard to their right to receive a share in the property as in regard to the right to be ad- ministrators. If children survive or their descendants, these take the property to the exclusion of other relatives. If there be no children or their descendants, the father takes the whole. If he also be dead, the mother and the brothers and sisters, with their descendants, divide the property, and so on. If in any case those who receive the property arc related to the deceased in equal degrees, they share equally, or, as it is termed, jitr ctijuia. If there be any personii'l properly of a testator left undisposed of by his" will, it is distributed among the next of kin according to the same rules of distribution. Statutes of distribution similar in their general provisions to the English statute have been enacted in the IT. S., though with various modi- fications of the rules just stated. (5K0R0E Chask. Revised by T. W. Dwioht. Kin'ncy, county of Texas, bounded on the S. W. by the Rio (Jrande. Area, 1400 square miles. It is not gener- ally very fertile, and water is deficient, but it affojds good jiasturage. Stock-raising is the chief pursuit Clark. Pop. 1201. Kinney ( Rev. .John W.), b. in 1790 ; d. in Texas Jan. 9, ISGj. lie joined the Ohio (JI. E.) conference in 181S. and l)ecame a member of the Kentucky conference when it was organized; after eight years' labor in Kentucky, lo on the moorlands. Principal town. Kinross. Kinsalc', town of Ireland, in thccounty of Cork, Mun- ster, stands on the ISandon River, 2 miles from its fall into the Atlantic. It has an excellent harbr>r, valuable fisheries, and is much resorted to as a bathing-place, but its trade has mostly been transferred to Cork. Pop. ('i9J5. Kins'ley, post-v. and tp.. cap. of Edwards co., Kan., on the Arkansas River, and the Atchison Topeka and Santa F6 R. R., 2R8 miles W. of Topeka and 34 E. of Fort Dodge, 110 miles N. of the salt-lieMs on the boundary of the Indian Territory, of which it is the nearest shi)iping point. The first house was built in Jlar., }K7o ; a news- paper was started the same year ; the county was organ- ized in 1874 with some 600 inhabitants. Kinsley suffered much from the grasshopper plague (1874); has fine soil and climate. JliiS. C. C. McGiNMS. En. " Reporteii." Kins'nian, post-v. and tp., Trumbull co., 0. Pop. 1029. Kin'ston, post-v. and tp.. cap. of I.enoir co., N. C, 35 miles W. of Xew Berne, on the Atlantic and North Caro- lina R. R., has a high school, 8 churches (3 colored), 1 newspaper. 1 hotel, 40 stores, a carriage and plough fac- torv, and other industries, principally farmiug. Pop. of v. Illi3 ; of tp. 4604. E. A. WiLSO.v, En, " Gazette." Kiong-Choo', town of China, the capital of the island of Hainan, on the northern coast, in lat. 20° N., Ion. 110° 22' E., and is surrounded with high walls of hewn stones. It is described by the Chinese as a model of a city, so rich that it has no beggars, so noble-spirited that it needs no police, and it is said to have 200.000 inhabitants. Unfor- tun.ately, the Chinese speak in exactly the same terms of another town they have founded on Hainan, and describe it with exactly the same features; which circumstance oc- casions some "mist around' the double-star, at least to or- dinary minds. Kioto. See Miako. Ki'owa, county of South-west Central Kansas. Area, 900 square miles. The X. TV. part is travcrseil by the Arkansas River and the Atchison Topeka and Santa F6 R. R. It is a good pastoral region. Kiowas, or Kioways, a tribe of Indians of the Sho- shone family, having a reservation in the S. V,'. of the In- dian Territory, but not yet reclaimed from a nomadic life, hunting and marauding upon the great plains of Kansas, Colorado, and Northern Texas. They have been more in- tractable than any other Indian tribe except the Apaches, have been often at war with the Pawnees, the Dakotas, and the Mexicans, and have been frequently chastised by V. S. troops. Treaties were made with the Kiowas in 1853, 1865, and 1860, by the hitter of which they agreed to settle in the Indian Territory, but the following year they again committed murders in Texas, for which their chiefs, San- and Big Tree, were sentenced to death, but ultimately tanta Cap. Fort j pardoned. They number about 2000 Kip (Rt. Rev. Wii.i.iam Ingraham), D. D., b. in New York Oct. 3, isn, of an old family of Dutch descent (orig- iniilly Kype). He graduated at Yale in 1831 ; took deacon's orders in the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1835; was rector of St. Peter's, Albany, 183S-53. and in the latter Jlc is the captain of a conipiiny ; emigrateil to Texas in i^.i.i. ana .,,,(i,ni. nf mnnv worlis. amons wnicn are j iie i.enlcH Fatl, with the Rev. Henry Stevenson held the first camp-meetin catcd in Illinois, and fought through the Black Hawk war , y^^p ^^s consecrated bishop of California. Jl as captain of a conipiiny ; emigrated to Texas in 1833. and auti,or of many works, among which are The Leiileii If/ Jcmiil Mlstioiig III ynrllt Amrritn {ISiG), Cliritliiiat in Austin's colony. He possessed great pulpit power. He belonged to the Texas conference at the time of his death. T. 0. Simmers. ! Kinnickinnick', or Killickinnick' [Chippcway, a "mixture"], a name given by the northern Indians to various substances used liy them for mixing with tobacco before smoking, such as the inner bark of the red willow and the leaves of the mountain cranberry (Arcloslnphijlus Vin-Vrii). Kinnickinnick, post-tp. of St. Croix co., Wis. Pop. 028. Ki'no, an astringent drug, the hardened juice of Ptcro- carpitt nmrmtpimii^ a lofty tree, natural order FabaceaJ, growing in the East Indies, and also of other trees in tho West Indies, South America, Africa, and Australia. East India kino is the only variety in general use, most of the others being unknown in America. It is in small shining, brittle fragments, of a deep reddish-black color and bitter- Jfuliiliiiiii in Home. Domeslic and llcliijinm Lift: in /tali/, The Ciiiacomh« <>/ iioiix: (1S54). He has contributed much to periodical literature. Kip'pis (AxnnEW), D, D., F. R. S., b. at Nottingham, Eng., in 1725; studied theology in Dr. Doddridge's sem- inarv at Nottingham; became in 1740 minister of a dis- senting congregation at Boston, Lincolnshire, and in 1753 of a Presbyterian church of Unitarian tendencies in Prince's street, AVestminster, where he remained through life. In 1703 he became professor in a theological academy in Lon- don for the education of dissenting ministers; wrote much for the firnlUmnii'a Mii;ltiziiif. the ihrnlhti) R, licit, and tlie A'eir Anniinl Kn/iiiter: edited Doddridge's Lrclnrct and Dr. Lardner's work's; published lives of Dr. Lardner and of Capt. Cook, and undertook a new edition of that vast work, the ntniirnphiii IlriKimiicn. but it was projecteil on too ex- tensive a scale, and only five folio volumes, with part of a sixth, were published, extending to the middle ot the letter KIPTCHAK— KIRKALDY. 1563 p (177g-93). Dr. Kippis published also some sermons and coutroiersiiil paiupbltts ou Ibeological subjects. 1>. at Wost- miuster iu 17'.ij. Kiptchak% or Kaptchak', a Tartar or .Mongolian race whieli j;ave name lo a khunato founded in the thir- teenth century by the Golden Horde, and which extended from the Jiixnrtes iu Toorkistan to the limits of Russia proper, and comprised all the region N. «f the Caueasus i traversed by tlio rivers Dnieper. Don, Volga, and Ural. After the career of Tamerlane in the fifteenth century, Kazan. Astrakhan, and Crimea became independent of Kiptchak, and were at length annexed to Russia. Kir'by, tp. of Northampton co., N. C. Pop. 1844. Kirb» post-tp. of Wyandot co., 0., on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R. Pop. s;ii>. Kirby, tp. of Marion co., S. C. Pop. Ili>5. Kirby, tp. of Caledonia co., Vt., 4 miles S. E. of Lyn- douville. It has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 417. Kirby (KnMiNOj.b. in Rrownsville, Jefferson co.. X. Y., 1840; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy and ap- pointed second lieutenant of artillery May 0. 1801. Tho stirring time in which he graduated calleil for tho services of every military educated man, and Kirby was at one© ordered to Washington, and assigned to tlie duty of drill- ing tho newly-arrived volunteers; upon tlie movement of the army he was as;<igned to Ricketts's battery, with which h& served at the battle of Bull Run, assuming command of the same upon the capture of (Jen. Ricketts ; ho was next en- gaged in the disastrous combat of Hall's IJIuft", Oct.. ISOI ; in the Virginia Peninsular campaign of lS(i2 bo commanded a battery at Vorktown. Fair Oaks. Savage Station, Glcn- dale, and Malvern Hill, and in the Uajipahannoek cam- paign at rredcrieksbnrg and Chancellorsville, in all of which battles bo displayed great coolness, skill, and bravery, and at the latter received wounds from the olfect of which ho d. at Wasliington, D. C. May 2S, ISG:J, aged twenty-three. For his gallant services at Cbancellorsvillo he was appointed on his deathbed a brigadier-general of volunteers. Though barely arrived at manhood, *be few years of his life were well and honorably filled in the ser- vice of his country. G. ('• Simmons. Kirby (Wimjam), b. at Witnosham, Suffolk. Sept. 19, 17jy ; graduated at Caius College, Cambridge, in 17S1, took orders in tho English Church and obtained the living of Barbam, which hn held Ihroagh life. lie was widely known by bis work on Eiit'imol'ie/i/. pul>li.sbed in ISI j in eonjuiie- tion with Spence, and by bis IJridgewater treatise on Unbi(a auU InntimtM of Animah in'tlt lic/crcncc to Natural Theolofft/ (ls:tO). D. at IJarham July 4, ISoO. Kirby's Mill, tp. of Jackson co., Ala. Pop. 285. Kircli':»aoli, von (Hrco EwAi.n), b. May 23, 1809; educated at tho military academy, and entered in lK2(i tho 2fith regiment of infantry. In 1850 he was attached to tiio staff as inujor : in isjy became commander of a regiment; in l><0:i of the liHh brigade of infantry, and in the same year was made a mnjor-general. In ISOO. in tho war against Auslria, he led with distinction tho lOLh division as lieutenant-general : fought at Nachod, Skalitz. Scbwein- sehadel, (iradlitz, and in tho battle of Koniggriltz, and re. ceivcd the order pmir (c mt'n'tr. In 1.S70, in the war against Franco, he led tlio .Hh army corps. At its head ho opened the war by tho attack on Weis.senburg, and two days after- wards ho took a most important part in the battle of Worth, Aug. 0. Tho crown prince, who commanded the army, gavo orders to break off the figlit ^vhicb had just commeneefl, but Kirehbach continued it on bis own responsibility, and a few momi!nt3 later on tlie crown prince agreed witli bim. Four days after tho battle, in which ho received a slight wound, be wa** made a general of infantry. In the battle of Sedan, when thr leader of the 1 lib army eorpn was se- verely wounded. Kindibaeh a-'sumed tho eniumand of this corps too, and performed the decisive manoeuvre by which the French army was completely surnnmded. During tho siege of Paris ho held Versailles and its vicinity. AlfMST NiKMASIf. Kir'clior (ATiiASAsirs), b. at fioisa, in Hesse, May 2, lfi02 ; joined the Jesuits in Ifil'J; was dlueateil at Wiirz- burg, where ho was ]>rofessor of philosophy and the East- ern languages; was in the Jesuits' college at Avignon in lOHr,-;!'! ; was professor of matliematies in the College of Rome ir..1.^-43. D. at Rome Nov. 2S. IfiSO. lie wrote much upon pliysies, archanjlogy. philology, etc. Kircli'liciin^ town of (lermany, in the kingdom of Wiiriembcrg, on tho Lauter, manufactures cntloo fabrics, musical instruments, and furniture, aud trades in corn, cattle, and wool. Pop. J4.15. Kirch'hoir iOtstav Robert), b. Mar. 12, 1S24, at Kouigsbcrg; atudieil matliemntics and natural science at the university of his native city; lectured on physics at Berlin in 1S4S and at Breslau in 1850, and was appointed professor of natural philosophy at Heidelberg in 1S54. His researches concerning bent, elasticity, magnetism, and electricity, communicate<l in Poggendorff s AunaUn and in Crello's Journal fa r MuthdiuatiK-, attracted great attention. But his most brilliant liiscovery was that of tho spectro- scope, made in connection with Bunsen. and its application for tho so-called spectrum analysis, which has exercised so great an influence on tho study both of chemistry and as- tronomy. (See his Chemischc Annlifsc i/nrrk Spcctralbco- bachtutig, together with Bunscn (Vienna, IS(>1), Daa Soutioi- gpectraun uixl die Spectreu der chrmhchrn Klc/)itntr (Berlin, 1861), VorlcsHiiffen iibtr annlytieche Mcchanik (Leipsic, 1874).) Kirgheez% Kirghccz-Kaizaks, or Cossacks, the name of a nomadic people of Central .Asia, numbering about 2,01)0,000, and occupying a vast region called the Kirghccz Steppes, of about 8;>0,UtHl square miles, stretching from the Caspian Sea to the Altai Mountains and from tho Sea of Aral to the Tobol and Irtish, traversed by several mountain-ranges, between which extend large barren plains dotted with salt lakes. It is now divided intu the three provinces of Orenboorg, West Siberia, and Toorkistan. The climate is exceedingly cold in the winter, excessively hot in the summer, and always very variable. Only a few dis- tricts along the rivers are rudely tilled : the remainder is pasture-land. The Kirgbecz are divided into the Little, Great, and Middle Hordes, politically distinct from each other. They arc of Eastern or Tureo-Tataric origin, akin to the Uzbecks in race and language. They are below middle size, but strong and hardy; have the high cheek-bones and small, deep-set, oblique eyes of the Mongolians, but their faces, though generally ugly, are not wholly flat. Their language is a very pure Turkish dialect; their religion, a mixture of Islamism and idcd- atry. Without being savages, their state of civilization is very low. They know but little of agriculture, ami still less of manufactures. The breeding of sheep, burses, and camels is their business, besides occasicuial robbery. In the beginning of this century they fully deserved tbelr title of the "slave-hunters of the ste])pes." They attacked the caravans, took the goods, and sold the persons as shives at the markets of Khiva and Bokhara. But the line of forts wbieb the Russian government has laid Ihrougb the country has effectually checked this business. The wMunen, who often are quite pretty, do the work. The men spend most of their time on horseback, bunting and sporting, or in sensuous enjoyments. Mutton, horseflesh, and sour mare's milk, from which an intoxicating beverage is dis- tilled, are tho princijial articles of food; bread is nearly unknown. They arc governed by their own chieftains, but since 18fi0 they have been brouglit under Russian authority, and great ])aiiis have been taken to civili/.e tlieui. Tloro arc no towns among tbetn, and the only remains of cities and temples which have been found are vestiges of ai. ear- lier civilized race. Kir'in, or Girin, tho largest province of Mantchoorin, Chinese empire, bounded N. by tho Anu)or and Sooiigareo rivers, E. by the Oosooree River and tlie Japan Sea. S. by I Corca and Cliina proper, and W. by China .proper and 1 Mongolia. Area, about 200,0(10 square miles. Pop. about I .^(^0,0U0. The capital, Kirin, Kirin-Oola. or Uirin, is a largo I town on the Soougaree, and is the residence of a viceroy. Kirk (KiiWAiin Nonius), D. I)., b. in New York Aug. 14. 1S02: graduated at Princeton in 1S20. and afterwards studied law auti theology: served as agent lor the foreign mission board; held lS2S-;jti a Congregational pastorate at Albany, N. Y., and in 1839 became secretary of the For- eign Evangelical Society. In I>'42 he became pastor of tho Mt. Vernon church, Boston. Mass.. with which be main- ■ tained the pastoral relation until his deatli, Mar. 27, istl. He was the author of several volumes of .st-rmuns and lec- tures, ttUil many published occasional discourses, besides some translations. Dr. Kirk was an active friend of the cause of Protestant religion iu tho Roman Catholic coun- tries of Europe. Kirk (Jnnv Foster), b. in 182i at Frederickton, N. It., and educated in Nova Scotia. In 1X12 he removed to Bos- ton, Mass, where for eleven years he was secretary to the historian Preseott. He i« the author of a //i«/on/ of ChnrUn the Hold (3 vols.. ISfi.l-GT), and iu 1870 bccamo editor of Lipftitir«ftt'ii Mntjnziur. KirkaTcly iSir Wh.mam} of Granfso, b. in Scotland early in the sixteenth century, son of Sir James Kirkaldy, high treasurer in the reign of .lames V., was one of the ear- liest Protestants of Scotland; joined a conspiracy against Caniiual Beatoun in 1540; surrendered to the French at St. Andrew's in the summer of that year, and ivns im- prisoned, but esjapcd to France, where he became distill- 1564 KIRKBRIDE— KIRKLAND. ffuiahed in the court and army of Henry TI. ; returned to Scotlantl in 16.t9; took part in the political movement against Miiry queen of Scots ; narrowly escaprd assassina- tion by IJuthwcIl at the battle of <'arberry JliU, and ])ur- siuhI that nobleman to the eoast of Norway (lj()7); con- tributed to the defeat of Mary at Langside, and became governor of Kdinburjfh Castle (May. 1 .'iliS) ; espousod the cause of Mary, and defended the castle for her from Ii>7(l to l.')7;t ajjainst the besiej^inj^ forces of Marshal Berwick; surrendered May 28, and was hung at Edinburgh, with several of his followers, Aug. 3, 1573. Kirk'bride (Thomas S.). M. D., LL.D., b. near Morris- ville, Bucks CO., Pa.. July 31, 1809. His ancestry were of the So(riety of Friends, and he received his early education in the excellent schools of that denomination. He gradu- ated M. I>. from the University of Pennsylvania in Mar., 1S32, and was immediately appointed resident physician of the Friends' asylum for the insane at Frankford, Pa. In 1S3-1 he was elccteil resident physician of the Pennsyl- vania Hospital in Philadelphia, and was for two years in charge of the west wing of the hospital, which was the first hospital department for the treatment of the insane in the U. S. In 1835 he opened an office for general practice in Philadelphia, hut in Oct.. 1840, just before the comple- tion of the new Pennsylvania Hospital for the insane W. of the .Schuylkill, he was clecteil its superintendent and physician-in-chief. He entered upon his duties at the opening of the hospital, Jan. 1. 1S4!, and has been at its head for thirty-four years. He was and is firmly convinced that not more than 250 insane patients should be treated at one time in a single hospital : and foreseeing that that number would be reached in his hospital within a few years, ho commenced, amid his other cares, in 1853, the effort to raise money for a second institution. The hos- pital grounds included a tract of 113 acres, and by divid- ing the pleasure-grounds and placing his new hospital a third of a mile distant from the other, he could keep tho two entirely distinct, though under the same general super- vision and treatment. He was the first superintendent in this country to separate in entirely distinct institutions the two sexes. In 1 859, with the assistance of some friends, he had raised in Philadelphia and vicinity $355,000, and had erected, in accordance with his own carefully prepared plans, a hospital for tlie insane, which is so perfect in all its appointments that it has been a model for all those since erected. To this hospital he transferred all his male pa- tients, and while retaining the general superintendeney over both, placed his most trusted assistant at the head of the male department, and gave most of his personal attention to the feuiale department. To this latter ho has since added, through the liberal bequest of a friend, two wards at a cost of about $(10,000. In all matters appertaining to mental alienation Dr. Kirkhride ranks as one of tlie aldest men in the profession. A careful student, thoroughly devoted to his specialty in medical science, of tho most gentle and genial miinnera, and of rare executive ability, he has l»ecn p-markably successful in the treatment of the insane, while his writings on the subject have given him a high reputa- tion. His first publication, in 1850, liu/cs and Rrffnlafioua for the PfunHijU'rinSn Iftinpitnl fnr the imtanPy had a circu- lation far beyond that liospital, and his Propttsltiouft Rela- tive to thr ('oiiHtntrtloii It/ HoHj>itiiln fur the Insane, first adopted by the Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane (of which he was one of the fotinders), have been repeatedly reathrmed by then), and at their request were published in 1854, with notes and additions, under tho title of The f'onHtnirtion. Off/a iiizat ion, ftii'/ Gcnctnl Arraiiffemrnt of HoHpititin for the fumiue. It is tho standard authority on this subject, both in Europe and the U. S. The same year he published an eloquent Appeal for the Inaane. In his thirty-four years of super- intendeney of (he Pennsylv.ania Hfispital for (ho Insane, Dr. Kirkhride has taken up. year by year, in his annual reports, nearly every subject connected with the care and treatment of the insano and the provision to he made for them, and has discussed at length all topics connected with the eonslru<-tion, heating, and ventilation of hospitals. These reports are of great value to every student of men- tal disease. He has also been a member of numerous com- missions on the erection and management of insane hos- pitals, and an active participant in the medical and phil- anthropic institutions of Philadelphia. The degree of LL.D. was conferred on him in 1874. L. P. Brockett. liirkcnrdy, town of Scotland, in tho county of Fife, on the Frith of Forth, where it stretches along the north- ern shore for about 3 miles, which has given it the name of " Lang town." It has large bleatdiing-fields, flax-spinning mills, and manufactures of linen and canvas, and its harbor, though completely dry at low water, admits large vessels at full tide. Pop. 12,422. Kirkcnd'bri^htshire, or the Stewartry of Kirk* cudbrightf county of Scotland, bordering on the Irish Sea and the Frith of Solway. Area, 954 square miles. Pop. 41.852. Only one-third of the surface is arable; the rest is granite hills covered with moss, the highest of which are Blacklarg, 2890 feet, and ("airnsmoor, 2329 feet. Cattle of the , celebrated (Jalloway breed are reared here. Principal town, ICirkeudbright. Kirk^dale, parish of Yorkshire. England, in the Vale of Pickering, remarkable for a eave 245 feet long, discovered in 1821 in cutting through the Oolitic limestone rock. A great abundance of fossil bones of extinct species of ani- mals was found there, and described by Dr. Buckland in his /it/iffiu'ir DihiriajiUy as well as in all recent works on palaeontology. The most remarkable were hyasnas, tigers, eli'])hants, rhinoceroses, hippopotiimuses, cave-bears, and horses, all of species not now representee! in England. (See Cnve-Httutiuff, by W. B. Dawkins, 1874.) Kirke, or Kertk fSir David), b. at Dieppe, France, in 1590, of English parentage: was engaged in business as a wine-merchant in Bordeau.x and Cognac, but wmt to Eng- land in consequence of the persecutions of the Huguenots, and with his father and brothers became connected with Sir William Alexander's American projects. Da\'id com- manded in 1627 an expedition of three vessels under let- ters of marfjue, with which he blockaded Quebec, and in an engagement near Gasp6 (July 18. 1028) captured a French squadron commanded by De Roqucmont sent Cor the relief of Quebec. In 1029, Kirke and his brothers asain sailed from England against Canada, compelled Champlain to surrender Quebec in July, and also reduced the colony of Cape Breton. Both these conquests, how- ever, were restored to France in 1032. Kirke was knighted in 1033, and with others obtained a grant of Newfound- land, which he colonized, being governor of that island for twenty years, until dispossessed by Cromwell, when he went to England and recovered his property through CroniwelTs son-in-law, Claypole. He returned to Newfoundland, and d. at Ferryl.and in 1650. His Life was jiublished by a de- scendant in 1871 (London). Kirk'ersville, post-v. of Harrison tp.. Licking co.. 0., 2 miles from Kiikersville Station (Hutvillc P. O.), on the Baltimore and Ohio and the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis R. Rs. Pop. 295. Kirkes (William Srmioi'Sf), M. D., h. in England about 1820; was physician and lecturer at St, Bartholo- mew's Hospital in London; published in IS48, with Dr. James Paget, a Ilandhofik of Ph'fsiolofftf, which became a standard work upon that subject both in Enghiud an<l the V . S. : and with Dr. William Baly, an appendix to Miiller's Phijftiolofftf, entitled Recent Advaucen in the Pht/fiolotfif of Motion. Later papers, on the Detachment of FibrinofiB Deposits from the Interior of the Jfcart, constitute a rc- ninrkablc contribution to pathological science. D. in Dec, 1804. Kirkintil'lochf town of Scotland, in the county of Duml)arton. It has cotton manufactures. Pop. 6342. Kirk-Kilis'seh, town of European Turkey, in the province of Room-Elee. contains se\'tM:il tine niot^qucs, pub- lic baths, and extensive bazaars, but is generally ill built. It is famous for its confectionery, and carries on an active trade in butter and cheese. Poj). 10,000. Kirk'Innd, tp. of Adams co., Ind. Pop. 508. Kirklaiid« post-tp. of Oneida co., N. Y., on the Utica and Rome division of the Midland R. R. It contains iron-mines, stone-quarries, and several important villages, among which are Clinton (which see). Kirkland (or Man- cinvvtL-r), Franklin Iron-works, and Clark's Mills. P. 4912. Kirkland (Carolina Matilda), h. in New York in Jan., I8(il, was the daughter of Samuel Stansbury. a book- seller. She married Prof. William Kirkland of Hamilton College (1800-10), spent some years in Western New York and Michigan, and afterwards in Nl-w York City, where for time she very sueccssfuUy taught a school for a num- ber of young ladies. Under the pseudonym of Mary Clavers she published several works on Western life distinguished for piquancy and originality, edited the Union Ma'jazine (New York, 1817-49), assisted in the management of Sar- tain'it Maffazine (1849-51 ), made two short visits to Europe (1848 and 1850), and attained rare popularity and success as a writer. D. Apr. 0, 18G4. Her principal works are — A New Home, WhoH Follow? (1839), fore'^t Life (1842), Western ClearinfjH (1840), Holidaijn Abroad (1849). The Eremug lionh { 1 852), Pernonal }fenioirii offJeorffc Wa^hinr/ton ( 1 857). Kirkland (John Thornton). D. D., LL.D.. h. at Little Falls. N. Y.. in 1770; d. in Boston Apr. 20, 1840, son of Samuel Kirkland, missionary to the Indians; Harvard College 1780; Congregational church in Summer street. Boston, 1794; president of Harvard College 1810-28. He KIRKLAND— KISKIMINITAS. 1565 published occasional pamphlets and a life of Fisher Ames (1809). }Iis name id ideutifiud with Harvard College 08 one of its ablest uud most distinguished |(rrj;idfut>. equally remarkable lor sagacity, kiuduess, and tnurgy. ilis ad- ministration was cfTective thruugh thel'urceol his personal qualities; he bequeathed nu 8yslem of rules or organized methods to his successors, and upcuod nu avenues of future progrcfs. but graced bis position and gave great distinction to the college by his intellect and dignity. 0. B. Frothingham. Kirkland(SAMDEL),b. at Norwich. Conn.. Dec. t, 1744; graduated at Princeton in 17GJ. In 1760 he was ordained a Congregatiunal minister. Ho lived much as a mission- ary with the Six Nations, and was appointed in 1776 by tho Congress of Massachusetts to jirocurc their favor or neutrality. In this attempt he was but partially success- ful. He was afterwards an army chaplain in the Hovolu- tionary war. lie may be rejrardeii as the founder of Ham- ilton College, since he established the academy from which it sprang. In 1789 ho received from the government a grant of land two miles square, now in the town of Kirk- land, N. Y. D. at Clinton, N. Y., Feb. 2S, 1S08. (See his Memoir, by Dr. S. K. Loilirop, his grandson, in Sparks's Amer. ftiograpfn/f 2d series.) Kirk'lin i Kirk's Cross-Roads P. 0.). a v. and tp. of Clinton co., lud. Pop. of v. 141 ; of tp. I2Cr,. Kirk'inansville, a v. of Todd co., Ky. Pop. 889. Kirkpat'rick (Andrkw), b. at Mine Hrook, N. J., Feb. 17, 17j6; graduated at New Jersey College in 177j, and began the study of theology, but soon devoted himself to the law; was admitted to the bar in 178.'); practised with distinction at Morristown, and afterwards at New Bruns- wick ; became judge of the supremo court in 17'.>7, and was chief -justice from ISO."! to 1824. His decisions are found in Pennington's. Southard's, and Halsted's reports. He married in 1792 a daughter of Col. , John BayarrI, Kirk- jiatrick Place in New York City was namecl from him. H. lit New Brunswick, N. J., Jan. 7, 18:U. (See Mtmoir, by Gen. James (irant Wilson.) Kirks'viUc, post-v., cap. of Adair co.. Mo., fi miles E. <.f Chariton River. 6j miles \V. of Quincy, and 200 miles X. W. of St. Louis; has 7 churches. 2 weekly newspapers, 2 banks, 4 hotels, a State normal school, a hub and spoke. furniture, woollen, cheese, and plough factories. AM kinds of business arc well repre.-onted. The county has splendid farming-lands anrl an abundant supply of wood and coal. Principal occupation, farming. Pop. 1 171. S. M. PiCKI.KR, En. " JoiiRNAl-." Kirk'ville, post-v. of Richland tp., Wapello co., la. Pop. 2;{fi. KirkvUle, post-v. of Onondaga co., N. Y. Pop. 150. Kirk^uaH, capital of tho Orkney Islands, N. E. of tho most nrirlhern point of Scotland, formerly an independent kingdom. There is a fine cathedral of St, Magnus dating from about 11.18, and close by the ruins called the King's, the Karl's, and tho Bishop's palaces. In the latter, Haco, king of Norway, died in 12(>:;. Kirkwall has steamer com- munication with Leith, Abcnleen, Wick, and Lerwick, has an annual fair of considerable celebrity, a museum, libraries and grammar school, and cultivated society. The vessels registered at tho port exceed 70,000 tons burden. Pop. 3J0O. Kirk'u'oodf a villa near .Atlanta, On. Kirkwood, post-r. of St. Louis co., Mo., on tho Pa- cific R. R. of .Missouri. Kirku'ood, post-v. and tp. of Broome eo., N. Y.. on the E. bank of the Susquehanna, and on the T>elaware Lacka- wanna and Western R. R. .Joseph Smith, the Mormon prophet, was born here. Pop. 1 102. Kirku'ood, tp. of Belmont eo.. 0. Pop. 1792. Kirkwood (Daviki,), A. .M., LL.I>.. b. in Harford co., M'l., S'pt. 27, isl ( ; was a mathematical instructor in York CO., Pa.. 18;i8-4;i; principal of Lancaster (Pa.) high school I81.'l-48: of Pottsville academy IS1S~J1 ; professor of math- ematics 1861-54 in I)elawure College; its president 1854- 50; became in I85fi profi-ssor of mathematics in Iu<lian» University; author of f'<»»i»7« nml .l/»7'*o*t ( 187^1), and of important astronomical papers, which havo given hiui a high reputation at homo and abroad. Kirkwood (S\mitf.i. J.), h. in Harford co.. Md., Dec. 20, isl.'t; educated at WaHhingt<)n, I>. C. ; admitted to the bar in Ohio in 18L1; was for four years prosecuting attorney of Rirhland co.. and a member of the Stale eoiistltntional convention of IS50; removed tti Iowa in 18.').^; was elected to the Slate senate in 185ri n* a llepublican ; was governor of Iowa 18fi0-fi:!, and was honorably dislinguishol as *mo of the great *' war governors " for his efforts in maintaining tho quota of Iowa troops in tho Held and providing for their comfort and efficiency ; was chosen U. S. Senator (1S66-67) to fill tho unexpired term of James Harlan, vacated by his acceptance of the secretaryship of the interior ; in 1875 again elected governor of Iowa; and in I870clccted U.S. Senator. Kirsanov^ town of Russia, in tho government of Tambov, on the Pursovka, carries on some manufactures and rears a good breed of horses and fine-flecccd sheep. Pop. 5063. Kirsch'wasser [Ger. for "cherry-water"], often called Kirsehf an alcoholic ii*ftieur prepared in Piurope from cherries. The ripe fruit is first stoned and then fermented. Afterwards the broken pits arc thrown into the masli, and the whole is distilled. A fraudulent imitation is m:ide of ordinary spirits flavored with clierry-laurel water. It is a dangerous compound. (See Maraschino.) Kirt'land, post-tp. of Lake co., 0. Pop. 1029. Kirtlnnd (Jakkh Potteii}, M. D., LL.D., b. Nov. 10, 17y-'', at Wallingfoid. Conn.; studied medicine 1812-15 at the medical schools of Vale and Pennsylvania universities j began practising at WuUiugford ; removed in 1818 to Po- land, 0.; was appointed professor of the Ohio Medical Col- lege at Cincinnati in lS;^,7,of the Willouj:hby ^ledical School in ISU, and of the Western Reserve College in Cleveland in 184:i, which latter chair he filled to 18fi4. His scientific researches and experiments have principally been engaged in the sexual relations of the naiads, in the rearing of bees, and in the cultivation of fruit trees on his residence at East Rockport, 0. D. at E. Rockport, 0., Uec. 10, 1877. Kir'waii (RirnAnn"), b, in Oalway co., Ireland, abont the middle of the eighteenth century ; was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and at the Jesuit college at St. Omer in France: settled near London in 1779; devoted himself to chemistry and geology, and read valuable pa- pers before the Royal Society, for which he received the Copley medal in 1782. He returned to Ireland in 17^'.', and became president of the Royal Irish Academy. Among his numerous works were Ah Est»ni/ tm P/iiotfihttm and the Compoiifion ttf Acids, Ktrmeiits of Miiuvdltiijy, and an Es- satf on the Analysis of Mineral Wafers. J), at Dublin in 1812. KisTaludyf the name of two brothers who in the be- ginning of this century exercised great intluence on tho rising Hungarian literature. Jhey were both educated at the gymnasium of Raab. entered the Austrian army, and made campaigns in Italy and Germany, but retired from tho military service into jirivatc life and engaged in lit- erary pursuits. The elder, S.\Nnon, was b. at Siimcg, the family estate, Sept. 22, 1772, and d. there Oct. 28, 1811. His poem in twenty songs, Him/y's Love, somewhat senti- mental in its tone, but of an elegant form, excited general enthusiasm: his ballads also made a great impression: his tragedies were Icps successful. The younger brother, Ka- Roi.v, was b. at Tete Feb. fi, 1788. and d. at Pesth Nov. 21, IB.'.O. He wrote dramas, took his subjects from national life, treated them with great skill for theatrical effect, an<l became the favorite of his countrymen on account of his sounil and pleasant humor. Kishenev% or Ki?«hinof, cajiital of tho province of Bessarabia, on the Bnik.an atliuent of tho Dniester, and is ]»icturesqucly situated on three bills, between which tho ri\'er winds around, crossed by several bridges. The rail- way to Odessa has been in operation for several years, and in 1S74 that to Jnssy was completetl; thus new channels havo been opened up to tho trade of this rapidly growing city. It is the seat of the civil and eceksiaslical authori- ties of Bessarabia, and has about 20 ehurehes. a synagogue, several nutgnilieent Turkish baths, a gymimsiuin, a semi- nary, gooil schools, and several theatres. It has largo markets, especially for caltle anti corn. The inhabitants arc much engaged in the cultivation of fruit and tobacco. Plums are exported in immense quantities. It is also tho centre of a very considerabh- trade in tallow, wool, wheat, hides, etc.. carried hence (<» Odessa and .lassy. It existed as a small place in the ninth century, wiis nearly destroyed in the seventeenth bv the Tartars, and was transferred in 1812 from Moldavia "to Russia. Pop. 120.000. At ci ST Niemann. Kinli^oiif a small river of Central Palestine, rises near Mount Tabor, and flows N.W. into the Mediterranean, drain- ing tho plain of Esdraelon and the mountains of Carmel and Sanuiria. It is famous in biblical hii^tory as anor<ling tho Bcenes of the defeat of Sisera by Deborah and Ihirak. and of (he slaughter <d' the priests of Haat by Elijah. Some portion of the Kishon was anciently called the " waters of Sleciddo :" it is now known as the Xnfir->{ MnK-ntln. KiHkimin'itaN* po^t-v. and tp. of Amifirong co.. Pa., on the Kiskiminilas River, on the Western division of tho Pennsylvania Canal, and on the Western Pennsylvania R. R. (North-west Station). Pop. 1728. 1566 KIS-KOROS— KITTRELL'S SPRINGS. Kis-Kdr6s% town of llungarjr, celebrated for its fine red wine. Pop. 6413. Kiss (Arr.rsT), h. nt Pless, in Upper Pilesia, Oct. 11, 1S02; began bis education in tbe royal iron-foundries at Gleiwitz; pursued bis studies at the academy of Btrlin, under Ranch, and was first known by bas-reliefs for churches and other pubiio buildings, and by groups of nymphs, tri- ton?, and similar decorations for a fuuntain at Charlotten- hof, designed by Pchinkel. The pUifter model of his fa- mous group. 7'he Atiiazon and the l*nuthci\ was exhibited in is;;0. and created such enthusiasm that a public subscrip- tion was opened, even on Sundays and in churches, to pay the cost of casting it in bronze. In 1815 this was placed in the Museum of IJerlin. The same artist subsequently produced a bronze equestrian statue of Frederick the Great for the city of Brcslnu, two statues, one colossal in size, of Frederick William III., .SV. Michael and the Diafjnny a gift to Frederick William IV., a copy of which in zinc is at Carlsvuhe; an equestrian statue of St. Geonjej of colossal size, which was sent to the Paris Exposition in 1855. The work of Kiss is marked by grandeur and energy. D. Mar. 2f, 1SG5. He was a member of the Royal Academy of Arts at Berlin. 0. B. Frothingham. Kis'singen, town of Bavaria, on the Saale, has three mineral springs, from which 500,000 bottles of water are an- nually exported. In summer the place is much frequented, as the water is not only drunk, but also used for bathing. Kissingen, The Battle of, took place July 10.1866, between the Prussians and the Bavarians. The latter held the Franconian Saale occupied from Waldaschach to Ham- melburg, in order to prevent the Prussian army from cross- ing the river. Gen. Vogel von Falckenstein, the Prussian commander-in-chief, ordered the Goeben division, with the Manteuffel division as reserve, to advance on the left wing towards Kissingen, and the Beyer division on the right wing towards Hammelburg. The Bavarians defended the defiles at Kissingen very obstinately, yet after a contest of two and a half hours the Prussian artillery succeeded in silencing the Bavarian cannons at Kissingen. At 4 p. m. the town was stormed by the Prussians, and an attack which the Bavarians made with a fresh force at 7 p. m. was repellcil. At the other points. Hammelburg and Walda- schach, the Prussians were also victorious, and crossed the river. Ai'gust Niemann. Kist'nah, or Krishna, one of the largest rivers of Hin- dostan, rises in the Western Ghauts, about -10 miles from the Malabar coast, flows S. E. across the whole breadth of the peninsula of Deccan fur 800 miles, and enters the Bay of Ben^jal near Masiilipatam. Precious stones are found in some portions of its course. Kit Car'son, post-v,, cap. of Greenwood co., Col., on the Kansas Pacilic R. U. Pop. 473. Kit'chel (Haiivkv Dknison), D. D., !>. at Whitehall. N. Y., Feb. ;i, 1812; graduated at Middlebury College. Vt., 1S35: studied theobigy at New Haven; held Congrega- tional pastorates at Thomaston. Conn., ls;:{y-4H; at De- troit, Mich., 1818-04 ; pastor of Plymouth church, Chicago, 111.. 1864-06; became president of Aliddlebury College 1866, and resigned that post in 1875. Kitchen-ffardcn. See HouTicrLTunE and tho names of the principal garden-vegetables. Kit'chen-mid'clcns are largo mounds consisting of oyster-shells, bones, and other refuse. They are found along tho coasts of Denmark, anil were formed in pre-his- tori* times in places where the pagan inhabitants assembled to celebrate their annual religious festivals. Their cha- racter was not fully understood until tho midiUe of this century, but their thorough exploratir)n by Worsaae and Steenstrup has proved of great interest to science, as they contain numerous specimens of weapons antl utensils, and also in various other ways give illustrations of tho life which at that time was led in these regions. Kite [Welsh cT/'/J, a toy employed for ages and in many countries by boys as a plaything, and which has also had its scientific uses. Thus, Franklin and others have obtained the electric spark from tho clouds l>y this danger- ous means. In engineering, the kite has been employed to carry lines across deep chasms, and in removing the pas- sengers of strancled ships the kite has sometimes been suc- cessfully employed. The kite is a light frame of wood covered with strong paper, and held by a string so attached to it that it shall bo acted upon by tho wind much like a ship's sail when sailing close to the wind. A tail is usual- ly, but not always, added, which gives the kite steadiness in sudden flaws of winil. The Chinese and Japanese con- struct kites in the form of owls, bats, dragons, etc. These have no tail, but fly low, and well before the wind. Kite, tho .IftVcrw reffolfSf a common bird of prey in Eu- rope, distinguished by the beauty and ease of its rapid flight and the deep forking of its tail. The name is ox- tended to numerous other species of the same and of closely- allied genera. The V. S. have, among others, the Missis- sippi kite (Ictiiiin MlHsisBippicnsis) and tho black kite {Jinsfrorhftmiis sociabitis). Kit-Kat (or Kit-Cat) Club, a society consisting of about fifty gentlemen of ability and rank interested in pro- moting the Protestant succession in the House of Hanover. It was instituted in 170X.and took its name from Christopher Kat. a pastry-cook who lived near the tavern where they met in King street, Westminster, and supplied the members with pics. The association lasted about twenty years. Sir Godfrey Kneller painted the portraits of the members, 4.'{ in number, among whom were Addison, Steele, Walpole, Marlborough, and himself, three-quarters length, whence the term "kit-kat portraits." The memoirs uf the club, illustrated by engravings from Knellers pictures, were published in 1821. 0. B. Fkoti!INgham. Kit'sap, county of Washington Ter., consisting of a peninsula between Hood's Canal and Paget Sound, with some islands in the sound. It is heavily timbered, and has good advantages for commerce and the fisheries. Area, about 500 square miles. Lumbering is the chief pursuit. Cap. Port Madison. Pop. 866. Kittan'nin^, tp. of Armstrong co.. Pa. Pop. 1504. Kittanniiig,post-b.of Valley t p., cap. of Armstrong CO., Pa., on the Allegheny River and Allegheny Valley R. R., 4 t miles N. of Pittsburg and :^>5 miles from Parker City. It has 2 national banks, ."J weekly newspapers, 1 rolling-mill. 1 woollen-mill, several oil-refineries, and various other manufactories. It has a college and other educational insti- tutions. Pop. 1889. M. B. Oswald, Ed. " Frek Press." Kittatiu'uy^ or Blue Mountain^ a chain which takes its rise near ShawangunU. I'lster co., X. Y.. passes S. W'. through a corner of New .Jersey, crosses the Dela- ware at the Water Gap, trends W. S. W. through Pennsyl- vania, ci'osscs the Susquehanna a few miles above Harris- burg, and the Potomac near Berkeley Springs, and con- tinues with 2;radually lessening altitude through Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee into Alabama, thus having a total length of more than 800 miles. In average elevation and bulk the Blue Mountain range exceeds the iilue Ridge, which has acquired greater prnniinence on maps on account of its greater definiteness. springing from a narrow base, and the greater height of some of its peaks. The average elevation of the Blue Mountain is from 800 to 2500 feet. Kit'tery, post-tp. of York co., Me., the south-western- most tp. in the State. It is on the Piscataquis Kiver, op- posite Portsmouth. N. II.. with which it is connected by ft bridge, and is on the Portsmouth, Saeo and Portland H. R..50 miles S. W. of Portland. The Portsmouth navy- yard is on Continental Island in this township. Kittery has 5 churches. It was settled in 162:i, and was the birth- place of Sir AVilliam Pepperell. Kittery Point is an im- portant post-village in this township. Pop. of tp. 3333. Kit'tiwake, a popular name for sea-gulls of the genus litHSd. Several species are known. They are rather jiretty birds, and are named from their cry, which resembles their name, somewhat slowly pronounced. Kit'to (Jons), D. D., b. at Plymouth, Eng., Nov. 4, 1804; lived for years in great poverty, and when eleven years old totally lost his hearing in consequence of an ac- cidental injury ; was sent to the workhouse and learned the shoemaker's trade, hut devoted all his time to books; published in iSL'j K.'maf/s and !.ith rs, which attracted much attention ; learned the printer's art in the Islington College; resided at Malta 1827-20, and at Bagdad : travelled exten- ' sively in the East 1820-33; published the Pi'eton'af Bible (1S38), Pictorial IliHtonj of Pafcitiiic (1830-40), another Ifitttnnf of Palestine (1843). Tfic Lost .9cH«f« (autobiograph- ical. 1845); edited and largely wrote the Ci/rloptfdift of Biblical Literature (1845 ««•«/.); founded and edited the Journal of Saered Literature (1848-53). and nmny other works. of which tho mostpopular was Oai/if liible Hhmtra- ^•oijj<i(8vol9., 1849-53). Kitio received the degree of D. D. from Gicssen. D. at Cnnnstadt, Germany, Nov. 25, 3854. Kit'tredcrc (Thomas), M. D., b. at Andover. Mass., in July. 1746. lie came of a family distinguished for the eminence of manv of its members in the medical profes- sion. He studied "at Byfield Academy under Samuel Moody (1725-95), and at Newburyport with Dr. Sawyer: was sur- geon of Col. Frve's regiment at Bunker Hill : received his degree from Harvard Vniversity in 1811. He held many important public trusts. His practice at Andover began in 1768. D. at Andover in Oct., 1818. Kit'trell's, post-tp. of Granville co., N. C, on the Ra- leigh and Gaston U. R. Pop. 1820. KittrelPs Springs, a place of valetudinary resort in KIU-SIU— KLAPROTII, VON. 1567 Qranvillo co., N. C, half a mile from Henderson, on the Raleigh and (tiiston K. R. Here are saline chalybeate water?, useful iu a cimsidenible range of diseaiies. Kia'<*Siu% Kioo-Sioo, or Xi'mo, the i^outhcrn- most of (ho three priueipul islands of Japiin, \s situated in the Pacific, between lat. 31° and 3t° N., and between Ion. 129° and \?>i° E., antl is separated front Corea by the Strait of Torea, and from the island of Nij>hi)n by the Strait of Sikokf. Nagasaki is situated on this island; otherwise it i:* entirely unknown to foreigners. Kiu'i-Kiwi. See Apteuvx. Kiz'il-Ir'mak [Turkish, "red river'*], the modern name of the Haly:*, the principal river of Asia Minor, ris- injf nearly in the K. of the peninsula, and tlowing circuit- ously about jOO niilos to the Black Sea, near the town of Sinopo. It forms the boundary between the Turkish pasha- iics of Anatolia and Seovaa. Its principal aflluent ia the Kara-Soo or Kastamoonoo River, the Mc/ns of Strabo. Kizliar% town of Asiatic Russia, in the government of Stavropol, on the Terek. Vines are cultivated, and silkworms reared hero with great care and considerable Bucces:?. Pop. 11,000. Klad'no, town of Bohemia, 1.1 miles X. AV. of Prague, has some iron-works and important coal and iron mines ia the neighborhood. Pop. jJUO. Kla'genfiirth, town of Austria, the capital of Tarin- thia, on the (llan. It is fortified, has largo nianulnctures of white lead, an important transit-trade, and good edu- cational institutions. Pop. l.'>,478. Klam'ath) county of X. W. California. Area, about 2000 square miles. It is boumled on the W. by tho Pacific O'-'f-vxn. Its surface is generally rugged, its ciiniato much cor>ler than that of tho State at large. Much of the surfaco has a heavy growth of redwood and other timber. Gold is obtained quite extensively. Cap. Orleans. Pop. 1080. The county is now (1S77) abolished. Klamath, tp. of Klamath co., Cal. Pop. 278. Klamath, tp. of Siskiyou co., Cal. Pop. R4. Klamath Kivcr rises in .Taekson co.. Or., traverses the Klamath Lake, passes S. AV. into California, and after Joining tho Trinity River in Klamath co., turns N. W., and finally enters tho Pacific Ocean. It is a rapid stream, and traverses a rocky and well-timbered region; itisnavi- galilc for small steamers some 30 miles. Klam'aths, llamati, or Clamcts, called by thcm- Belvejf Lutliami, a tribe of Indians living near the lakes of tho same nariie and on the Klamath and Koguo rivers in Southern Orc^^on an<l Xorthcrn California. They be- long to the tribal group called Northern Californian, some- times termcil the Klamath family, which occupies portions of tho region exicnding from Rogue River, Or., on the N. to tho parallel of 10° on tho S., an<l from the \V. bonnrlary of Nevada to the Pacific, and comprise-t. busidt^s tho Klam- alhs proper, tho Modocs, Shastan, Pitt River Indians, Eu- roes, CahrocH. Iloopahs, Woeyots, Wallies. Tolcwahs, and Tototins or Rogue River Indians, besides several small ban Is having no tlislinctivo names. Those tribes aro in- cluded in tho ordinary name of "Digger Indians," given AS a term of contempt to all the aborigines of Northern nnd Middle California, Nevada, Utah, and Southern Ore- gon ; but the Klamath t^roup of tribes is unquestionably superior to tho others thus i-otifouruli'd with them. They are tall, muscular, and wi'll-made, have regular features, tho face largo and oval, and tho cheek-bones slightly prominent; tho women are much shorter than tho men, out are not unfrequently quite handsomo. Tattooing is practised by both sexes to a liniitetl extent; they nro fond of nose and ear rings, and paint th'-ir bodies. They build conical and sometimes sfpiaro houses of slono and wood, piirtly sunken in the ground : have canoes, anil aro expert ii.'^liers, but indilTerent hunters, being fcmder of using snares and trap-* than weapons, with whi<rh they am ill providc'l. Bt'rries and roots form a large portion of their food. The women aro ingenious in b;isket-making and plaiting grass into hats, hammocks, an<l mats. They aro fond of traflic, usinj; shell-money; are nut addicted to war, hut when attacked defend themselves desperately, as was instanced in tho *' .Modoe war" of 1S7^. Polygamy is common, and morality very low, wives being bought and gold. Tho chiefs havo little more than a nominal author- ity. Tho passion for wealth nnd for paniinj; is universal ; Ihoy are superstitious, and their relii;i<iri is a degrading fotichism. Flic dead are sometimes burned, but m(»re com- monly buried. In IS.Sl tho Klamaths proper numhered 18 Villatjes and about .'!0(iO Boids : they have sinep rapidly de- clined, partly throuj^h eonllicts with whites, but ehiofly thr'iuijh tho vices contraetnl lri»m contact with "civiliza- tion." By a treaty made in IStU they ceded to the V. S. all their lands except a reservation on the Klamath lakes of 1200 square miles, where they are gradually adapting themselves to the pursuits of agriculture, and es|)ecially devoting themselves to lumbering. In 1S7;J they num- bered only 672, (For copious information upon the Klani- athe and the allied tribes sec il. II. Bancroft's Acttire Hnccs of the Pacific StutcH (1874), vol. i., ch. iv., where all the authorities are indicated.) Porter C. Bi.iss. Klap'ka ((Jyorav), b. at TcmesviSr. Hungary, Apr. 7, 1820; was educated in the artillery school at Vienna, be- came an oflicer in the emperor's life-guanls. and in I.S47 obtained u command in a border rcginu-nt. AVheu Hungary revolted in 1S4S, young Klapka immediately espoused the cause of his insurgent country, and was made chief of staff of (ten. Kis, and in 1849 commander of an army corps. He led bis troops with talent and energy in the battles of Kapolna, Komorn, etc., nnd was made minister of war by Kossuth. After the defeats exiicrienced by the Hungarians, Klapka shut himself up in the fortress of Komorn, where he heroically repulsed during several weeks the desperate attacks led by the famous Austrian general, Haynan. He surrendered only after having obtained for his army and himself the " honors of war." He sjient many years in exile in (iermany, England, France, and Turkey, and en- tering the (tcrman service attempted, Ihougli unsuccessfully, to raise Hun^rary against Austria in iS.'j'.) and 1800. Klap- ka was naturalized as a Swiss citizen, and elected a mem- ber of tho federal council in 18;j0, In 1807, on the reor- ganization of (he Austro-Hungarian empire, he returned to his native country, and was employed in the army. In 1873 he was in the military service of 1'urkey, and visited Kgypt in 1S74. He wrote Memoim nf thf War of Jndrpen- f/ence iu Uttinjttrii (1850), The Xafioiiftf War in Hmufary and TrauHt/h-ania (1851), and a work on 'J'hc War in the East (18j0). Fei.IX AUCAIGNK. Klap'roth (Maiitin' nEiNRini). b. at Wcmigerode. Ger- many, Dee. I, 17 lu; was employed for seven years in an npothecary shop at Quedlinburg, and afterwards at Han- over and Berlin, at which latter ]>laees he made a methodi- cal study of chemistry, and puldished numerous analyse:; of great value, whieh obtained Uiv him jirofrssorships of chcnii.stry at the Berlin Pehool of Artillery (1787) and university (17'^9). He was made a member of the French Institute, of tho council of public health, and of many scientific bodies. Among his discoveries were the metals zirconium, titimiuni, and uranium, thr* 8ul]ihate of stron- tium, and the- inolybdate of lead, lie dirl nuieli to advance tho classification of minerals by chemical iinalysis; was an early defender and popularizer of the di.<eoveries of La- voisier. His numerous writings were chiefly published as papers in the hcukuvhyifUn of the Berlin Academy, the analyses alone constituting five v(»!umes of a collecttd scries published from 17'.*.'i to IS 10. Ho also edited a Chemical Dictimiart/ (5 vols., 1^07-10) and a Chemical Matnial. D. at Berlin Jan. 1, 1817. Klnproth, von fllEiNRini Jiii.irs), son of the cele- brated elienii>t. b. at Berlin, Prussia, Oct. 1 1, 17^:i ; apjdied liimsell" by i-tcalth when ftuirleen years of age to the study of Chinese, and manifested such wonderful talent Un lan- guages that he was allowed tn devote liimself to philology instead of applied eeience, as infendeil by his father. Ho studied at the universities of Halle and Dresden, and find- ing in the I>re«den library a fine eolleeticui (d' Oriental MSS.. be establislie<I in ISOL* (he AHi(itiMchrn Mtifjaziu, printed at AVeimar, for making known the results of his researches. These nehievements of a boy of nineteen years naturally attracted nttenlion in Oermnny nnd Russia, and in Istll tho government of the latter country appointed Khiproth interpreter to an einba;;sy already on iln way to China, Ho set out alone, overtook the embassy in Siberia, and ac- companied it into Mongolia (.Inn., 1800), but tho refusal of the Chinese government to receive a Russian envoy pro- vented his penetruting into China proper. Returning to Furope by a difTi-reiit route, be aequired a knowledge of tho gi-ography of Central Ania.auil of the langunses of tho inhabitants, whii^h he turned to good account. In 1807 he was sent to explore the Caueiisus, and spent a year in I hut region, after which he was appoinled professoi- at the Uni- versity of W'ilna. He wa^ made a member of fbe I{ussian Academy, liad a pension ami other honors equivalent to a grant of nobility, but diflieulties thrown in the way of tlio publication of hif researches Iccl tn a rupture, and when bo left Russia in IS12 his titles and honors were revoked. Ho then |»ulilished at Halle his Triiv^h in CanraMnn ami (t'cor- l/tn (isl2-Ml. at W'eimnr his iirinjraphirn.Ilintorival Jh- Mrriptinn /;/* Eantcru CaHcniatn (IS14), and at Berlin his Ifmrriplion nf the llnnnian /*roviticrM hrtirren the (\i»pian am/ lilavh Sean ( 1 8 1 -( ). He cnneeived a great admiration for Niipideon precisely at the time when tho fortunes of that monarch were most rapidly declining; visited him at 1568 KLATTAU-KLOPSTOCK. the island of Elba, and was received with honor. On the final establishment of the Bourbons in France, Klaproth settled in Paris, obtaining through the inlluonce ol Hum- boldt a u..ininal professorship at Berlin wilh a handsome salary He spent the remainder of his life in the French capital, engaged in the production of a scries of works upon Asia, especially Central Asia and China. Among these were /«.V, /•„///;/'""« (l.S2:V2'J), with a linguistic at- las • T.,hlc,w^ hhlvrhinrs ,le VAsie (1824), treatises on the Chinese, Corean, Mantchoo, andother Asiatic languages, ana verv numerous papers in the transactions of learned socie- ties. He left in MS. a geographical and historical work on the Chinese empire, and a Xtw .Milhr,<ltili-s.»rSi/ele- nmllc CtasH'ficilloH of AU Known L,,,,,,,;,,,,:- >c,lh U,.»b- «;„,■.<•». The geographical labors of Klaproth in Central , Asia have been characterized as fraudulenton a colossal scale by Sir Henry Rawlinson (1872). 1). at Pans Aug. 20, lb..3. '^'Klat'taii, town of Bohemia. 68 miles X. W. of Prague. It has considerable nianufaetuies of leather. Pop. 73hL. Klail'scnburg [Hun. AV,?o«.v1r], the capital of Tran- sylvania, formerly a separate principality nf the Austrian empire, now unit'ed to Hungary, situated 225 miles S. E. of Pcsth Pop. 2ii,SS2. It has a university established in 187" a Unitarian college, a fortified castle, manufactories of porcelain, and a considerable trade. The inhabitants are chiefly Magyars. lil^bcr (.Teas Baptiste), b. at Straaljoiitg. in 1755. Son of a stonemason, he was one of the truest and best representatives of that generation of Frenchmen who started from the then so-called low ranks of society, and demonstrated, through their splendid actions and noble conduct, the necessity of the coming of the Revolution, which erased for ever discrimination between classes. Kle- ber's military and warlike character caused him to give up his first calling as an architect, and to enlist in the military service of Austria. He was soon tired of that mercenary work, and returned to France, where he was inspector of buildings at Belfurt, when in 1792 he volunteered to serve as a private in the republican armies of France, where he rapidly rose to the highest rank. After the glorious siege of Mayencc. Kleber was sent to fight against the royalists of Vendije, then to the armies of Sambre-et-JMenso and of the Rhine, with which ho crossed the Rhine and won the two battles of Allenkirchcn and Fricilberg in 179 J. As he was strong reiiublican, the Directory did not want to em- ploy him : but Napoleon gave him a command in the ex- pedition to Egypt, and left him there as gcneral-in-ehief. After the departure of Napoleon, Klf-ber vanquished the Turks at Heliopolis; ISOtl again subdue.l Egypt, which had revolted, and was murdered at Cairo, June, ISOO, by a fanatical Moslem. In .Strasbourg there is a square called " Place Kieber," adorned with a statue of the great Stras- bourgcois republican general. Felix Aucaigse. lirccne'-Boc [Dutch for "little buck"], the Ceplinlo- «„« ,,i/./mir<i,one of the smallest of the antelope group, an active' little animal of South Africa. It is one foot high at the shoulders, and is of a dark slate-color. Klein (Joiians Aram), b. in Nuremberg Mar. 24, 1792; d. .May, 1875. He studied at the art academy in Vienna, ami after travelling in Hungary, returned and began work in his native city in ISl J : in 1819 was sent by King I.ouis of Bavaria to Italy ; was there two years, and afterwards made Nuremberg his home. Klein was chiefly famous as a painter of baltlepieccs, but excelled also in portraiture. He was, besides, an engraver of ability, and reproduced many of his own and other artists' works. lilc-ist, von (Heinhich), b. at Frankfort-on-the-Odcr Oct. 10. 1771). He never succeeded in giving his life a fixed and practical aim. The military service he left in order to study philosophy and mathematics, and these studies he lett'in order to accept a position in the I'russian civil service. This he gave np in ISOC, and determined to devote himself exclusively to literature, but more than once he abandoned literature too with disgust. The result of a life thus scattered was despair, and the state of degra- dation in which Napoleon kept Germany, and the personal disappointments and calamities which befel Kleist troin this source, added to his misery. It was of no use that moments of the most sublime enthusiasm alternated with his despair. He grew tired of life, and Nov. 21, ISU. he «l»at hiuiself at Waiisce, near Potsdam, having shot first his frienXaccofding to a givcti promise, Henriette Vogel, the wife of a rich merchant, a spirited and highly gifted woman, but sick in mind like her lover. In 1S26, Ticek published a collected edition of his works in .•! vols. His dramas. Vie Famille S<-hn<ffriiHl<-:u (180;i), Amphilriiwi (1S07), Her zfr- brochcne Kruij (ISll), Kiitchen roll Htilhroim (1810), Die llermanntiichlnchi, and Der I'rinz \;>ii Homhurtj, belong now to the standard pieces of every stage in Germany ; and his novels, among which Muhnel Kohlkuaa occupies the first place, have taken rank beside Goethe's and above Ticck's. It is now generally acknowledged that Kleist was one of the richest and most original poetical geniuses which the German people has produced. Other poets have depicted greater characters, but in the life and fulness of the de- lineation none has ever surpassed him, and the sickliness of his s])irit is not so very conspicuous in his works. After his death he became the idol of the romantic school, not exactly on account of the diseased state of his mind, but on account of his absolute contempt for real life. Ci.EMEXS PeTEHSES. Klemm (FniEnnicn Gistav), b. at Chemnitz Nov. 12, 1802 : studied history in I.eipsic, Jena, and Dresden ; held difl'crent positions at the library of Dresden 1S"1-C3, and d. Aug. 2.i. 18fi7. His principal writings arc Allr/emeine CnllurgrKchichle dvr Mclschheit (10 vols., 1843-52), Allje- meine Cnlliinoiaaemchaft (2 Tols., 1854), and .Die Fraiien (6 vols., 1854-58). Klen'zc, von (Leo), b. at Hildesheim Feb. 29, 1784; studied at Brunswick, Berlin, and Paris; travelled through Italy, and settled in 1S15 at Jliinich, where ho became architect to the court. He built the whole nioilern Mii- nich— the WaUialla, Pinakothek. Glyptothek, Odeon, Mu- seum, roval palace, post-office, etc., and a great number of private palaces and houses. Also in St. Petersburg, whither he was invited in 1S39. he built a great number of buildings, all of which are distinguished by something magniUeent and picturesque; but there is nothing original in them. Of his writings, Aphnrtstinche Bemerkuugen (1838) is an interesting book. D. Jan. 27, 1864. Kleptomania. See Issaxitv, by AV. A. Hammond, M. I). Klias'ma, a river of Russia, rises in the government of Moscow, flows through those of Vladilneer and Nizhnee- Novgorod. and joins the Oka after a course of 327 miles. It is navigable for about 150 miles, and. as it runs through the most llensely peopled and industrially developed dis- tricts of the country, is of great conimereial consequence. Klike'tats, a tribe of Indians living in 'Washington Territory, in the region N. of the Dalles, between the Cas- cade Range and the Columbia River. They belong to the Sahaptin family of the Columbian group, and arc there- fore akin to the Nez Perces and Walla Wallas, while they seem to be almost identical with the Yakimas, from whom, apparently, thev are distinguished only by geographical lo- cation. They were formerly quite migr,atoryin theirhabits of life, but their most permanent aboile was in the valleys between Mounts St. Helen and Adams. W. and S. of the Yakimas. The name KlikeUtt means " robber," and was gained by their encroachments upon neighboring tribes, they having for many years overrun the Willamette Valley, until in 1855 they were curbed by forces of the V. S. army. They have since been consolidated with the Y'akimas, and placed np<m the reservation near Fort Simcoe, E. of the Coast Range, where they have made considerable progress in civilization. They arc divided into five bands, and number about 2000. (See Bancroft's Xatiie Ituat uf the Pacijic Slntr«, vol. i.) Kliki'tat, county in S. Washington Territory. Area, about 5000 square miles. It lies E. of the Cascade Moun- tains, and is bounded on the E. and S. by the Columbia River. It is generally a good open grazing country. It includes the Klikitat Prairie. Cap. Rockland. Pop. 329. Kling'er, von (KmEnnirn Maximilian), b. at Frank- fort in 1753, anil educated at the I'niversity of Gicsscn; wrote dramas for the Sevier band of stridling actors; took part as a volunteer in the Bavarian war of succession ; went to St. Petersburg in 1780 ; rose there to the highest positions in the military administration: beennie lieutenant-gen- eral in isll.and d. Feb. 25, 1S3I. In 1775 ho wrote a tragedy, Smrm iiml Dranr,, a horribly affected imitation of Shakspeare, from which the whole period of fermentation preceding the ajipearance of Goethe and Schiller received its name. But, with the exception of this one fact, all Klinger's tragedies, comedies, and novels arc entirely des- titute of interest. Klipp'springcr [Dutch], the Orcotrugvn tallalrii, a beautiful and graceful South African mountain antelope, resembling in its habits the chamois. It is an extremely agile and 'swift little creature, less than two feet in height, "kIop'sIocU (FiUEnnirii Oottlieb), b. in Quedlinburg, Prussian Saxonv, July 2, 1724. He studied theology first in Jena, where he 1 1 745 ) wrote the first song of his great epio poem. Mcntinh; then in Leipsic. where he (1748) publish- ed the first three songs of that poem in Ilremitche Jleiliuye. Thev niaile a deep impression. Every young man became at oiiee his admirer and his disciple. But, although he had touched the very heart of his nation, he found no support KNAI'l'-KXIAZNIX. 1569 and little encouragenieDt at home. All litenituro in Ger- luuny was at that time more or less a court affair, and every court was a |)etty copy of Versailles. Frederick the (Jreat considered tbe attempt of forming a genuine (ic-rman litera- ture as foolishness, and even the emperor Josepli, to whom Klopstock dedicated his great drama, flvrmnuni) Svhhivht, could not bo brought to take any notice of him. He was supported by foreigners. The Dani.«h king gave liim a pension — i<niall enough — an<i on this he lived ]>artly in Copenhasen, ]iartly in Hamburg, where he d. Mar. 14, ISO^. Even when a boy he entertained the idea nf writing a great epic poem, antl he certainly succeeded tn realizing this idea, though, iinf<<rtunateiy. his poem bears striking, even painful, marks of being the result of great exertions, as tnueh as the product of great powers. Klupstock be- comes often forced when he wishes to be strong. nn<J obscure when he tries to be deep. His 0'^•* are generally hard to understand, and not always worth unrlcrstanding. It is impossible, therefore, to explain the impression ho made and the inlluence he exercised from the artistic value of his works: they depended on the peculiar position he oc- cupied in the history of ficrman literature. He is the father of modern German poetry, not because he created it, but because he made it possible — not on account of his genius, but on account of his standpoint. Fn a moment when the German nation had given up its confidence in itself, and looked to France not only for its literary forms, but for its liter.-iry impulses, Khtpstock steppeil forth and emphasized German character, as revealed in Gcrninn history and German Protestantism, with such a strength that it echoed through two or three generations, and became a rallying-point for all national aspirations and .sympa- thies. Cl.KSfrSS PRTKItSKV. Knapp (Ai.BKnT), b. at Tiibingen, AVIirtcmberg. July S."), 171IS: studied theology: held different positions in the Protestant Church, and was appointed pastor in 18r.fi at Stultg.irt. where he d. June IH, ISfil. His nniHtfirhen Geilirhir (2 vols.. 1S21)) iinil Xrnrni Orf/t'rfitr { 1 S.'M ) contain some of tbe most beautiful hymns prorluccd in our time. Knapp (CiiArscKY L.), b. in Berlin. Vt., Feb. 2fi, 1809 ; learned the printing-trade at .Montpelier; was for some years editor of the Vermont Stnte Journal ; secretary of state from 1S:16 to 1840; removed to Massachusetts, and was secretary of the senate in ISjl. and wa.*5 a member of Congress from 185j to I8j9. He had nominated Gen. Har- rison for the Presidency in IS.'Xi, obtaining for him the electoral vote of Vermont, four years before the campaign in which that President was elected. Knapp (Hkom ann\ M. T>., b. in Germany in 18.t2 : was professor of ophthalmology iti the Tniversityof IIei<lelberg from iH(U to IMfi.S. In the latter year he removed to New York, where ho opened the New York Ophthalmio and Aural Institute, and founded the ArrhirvK <«/" Ophthnimolofjif find Otofntff/, published both in (lerman and English. He is the author of fntraont/'tr Tnimnx and various papers in different ophthalmolf)gieal periodicals. Knapp (JAroH). b. at Otego, Otsego CO., X. v., Dec. 7, 1709 ; was educalcrl as an Episcopalian, but about his twenty-first year joineil the Itiiptist Church : studied at Madison University in Hamilton, and taught school at Springfield, tvhcre he cnlerecl tbe ministry in 1822. Tn I.S;iO he remiived to Wiiterlown. taking an activo and very successful part in a revival there, after which he entered upon the wider field of itinerant preaching. His labors now dircftrd him to all the principal cities and towns of the N'cw England and Midillc Statey. ihcnee westward to Chi'-iigo and St. liouif. and tinnlly to CiiliOiriiia, every- where bybis earnest entliusiasm and practical preachipg winning mullitutles of converts. He published his Autn. hinfjrnphif a few years before his death on Mar. 2. 1874, in whifh, among the slatisties of his bib-irs. it is stated that about a dozen years after he begun iiidepcnrb-nt preiiching the number of converts had reached 100,000, and he there- after refrained from counting them. Knapp (Samiei, LonKxzol. I-Ii.D.. h. at Newhurypnrt, Mass., Jan. 10, 178ri ; graduated at Harlmouth in 1804: became alawyer: commanded a militia regiment as colonel in the war of 1812-11 ; from 1821 to 1828 edited .inurnals in Hn^'on, Mass. — the timrttr, the Xiidfniftl Rrpufifimu. ancl others. In 1827 be entered upon the practice of hiw in New York. Col. Knapp was the author of many works, chiefly biographical, among whidi are TmrrU in North Amrn'cft f>,i Afi /^//(1818). /iiorj. Skftrbr» of Eminent Inir- yrfi, St'ttt>imrn, and Mm of Lrtfri f 1821 ), Orniun t,f Fret- mnttonrt/ (1828), Sl-rtrhrit nf l*nhfir fVinrnrtrrt (18:^0). Av). /?mf/ra;)/M/(18n3). Amc« of HcWit t Clinton (1828). of Daniel AVcbster (18.35), Aaron Uurr (rs:].')). anrl a revision of J. H. Hinton's Ifinlon/ of the Vnitrd Statm (1834). D. at Hop- kinton. Mass., .Tuly 8, 18.18. Knap'sack [Dan. knapxak, from knappen, to "eat"], Vol.. II.— 99 a case, wallet, or scrip of leather or painted canvas carried upon the shoulders. The knapsack is chiefly employed by ioot-soldiers for carrying their personal efl'ects. Knarcs'boroughy town of England, in the county of York, on the left bank of the Nidd. It has some manufac- tures of linen and cotton goods, and some interesting ruins. Pop. o20j. Knaus (LtTi>wic), b. at Wiesbaden Oct. 5. 1829. His father was an optician. He received instruction from Jacobi, the painter of the grand duke, and was sent, pen- sioned by the state, to Diisscidorf. There Sohn and Sha- dow were bis teachers, but he .struck out an originnl path for himself in the portrayal of scenes in peasant-life. In 185;{ he went to Paris, and remained eight years ; returned to Germany; sojourned a while at Berlin, and finally (1 HOG) took up his residence in DUsseldorf. M. Knaus is a mem- ber of the Academy of Anisterdum.and has received a gold medal at Berlin. Other medals were bestowed on him in I86:i, 1S5j, 1867. 18;»0, and a medal of honor in 18C7 ; the same year he was created an officer of the Legion of Honor. The pictures of Knaus represent scenes in Ger- man rustic life, and are rich in humor. Good examples may be seen in private collections of New Y'ork. Knpe'land f AB\ER).b. in 1774 ; was fcr a time a Bap- tist minister, then a I'niversalist, and finally a <lti?i. lie was ( 1 S2I-2M J editor of a I'niversalist periodical in Phila- delphia; in 1828 editor of the OUvefimnch, N. Y. ; in 181^2 founded the Jnre/ttitfator at Boston. Mass.. and in ISIifi was tried before the supreme court at Bostini on a charge of l)laspiieniy. T). at Sa'ubria. Ind.. Aug. 27, 1814. He pub- lished The lJri>it flH22). LeriureM on Ciirrrmf Snhation (1824), a translation of the New Testament (182;n, a /U- view of the Evidences of Christian if t/ (1829), and other works. Kneeland (Samtel), M. D., b. in Boston. Mass.. Aug. 1, 1821 : graduated at Harvard in 1840. and at (he Ma?Pnehn- " setts Medical School in I84.'i: studied in Paris, and practised medicine in Boston 1845-50. He is an active member of many learned societies: served as an army surgeon in the late war. In 1800 he became secretary of the Massachu- setts Institute of Technology, and professor of zoology and physiology there. Prof. Kneeland has contributed much to scientific and other literature, and edited (I8ni>-l)9) the Aniiufif iff Scientific Discovery. KneriorfSir GonrREv), b. at Liibeck in 1040 : was sent by his fat her (who intended lluil he should pursue the military yrofession ) to London toptucly m at hem n tics and fort ili cat ion. laving more taste for painting, he went to .Amsterdam, and studied, so tradition says, with Ilenibrandt and Ferdi- nand Bol ; at the age of seventeen went to Rome, and was I a pupil of Maratti and Bernini : in Venice gained a repu- I tation by painting the portraits nf eminent jiersons, espo- I cially of Cardinal Bassadonna. His fame was earned in I London, whither he repaired in 1674. The duke of Mon- I mouth, being attracte<l by a portrait of his secretary whitdi I Knelter had painted, sat for his own. and persuader! the I king. Charles II., to sit also. The picture was successful, I partly, it would seem, because it was executrd with rapidity j and boldness, and the artist's fortune was made. He had I as much as he could do, and at his own prices. Tlie nuni- I ber of his portraits is as nstnnifihing ns llie quality of his subjects. He painted the likenesses of ten Fo\ereigns — Charles IT., James II.. William III.. George I., Louis j XIV., peter the Great. ChnrUs V., and queens Maria, Mary, and Anne. William employed him to paint the ; beauties of }lamj>tnn Ciuirt. conferrrel on him the honor j of knighthood, and presented him with a goM nn-diil and I chain. George I. created him a baronet. Kneller d. in I 172", and had a monument ereclctl to him in M'estminster 1 Abbey; he was buried at Whitton. The monument was erected at hi:: own e>:penFc, after designs by n sculptor of his own selection. Kneller wa-* vain, and greedy of money and distinction, and is thought (o have done less than jus- tice to his roil talents. He was a coarse man, ami did course work ; but ho had knowledge, judgment, and taste, and when he exerletl himself, as in those of his pictures in the Gallery of the Admirals, in which he shared the honor with Lcly. showed that he was a nnin of ability. After the death of Sir Peter Lcly he stood a( the head of hi.'- profrs fion in England. But be owed his fame to the qtialily of his patrons rather than to the quality of his art. In a belter auc he micht have done heltcr work. Th*^ portraits of the Kit Kat Club are among the best of Kneller s pieces. To bim we owe the nre«ervation of Rafaellc's cartoons. Kneller was married, but left no heirs to enjoy the largo fortune that he accumulated. He was a wit, highly appre- ciated by men like Dryden. Addison, Prior, and Piccle, and the members of the Kit-Kat Club, (o which he be- lone d. 0. B. FnorniNfinAM. Kniaz'nin (Franciszck Dyonizv), b. Oct. A, 17:^0; 1570 KNIGHT. educated at Vitebsk, in the school of the Jesuits, which order he entered. After the dissolution of the order in 1773 ho became secretary to Prince Adam Ozartoryski, but ft'U about 179(5 into a mental derangement from which he never recovered. D. Aug. 25. 1807, at Konskawola, one of the estates of the jirince. He translated Horace. Anac- rcon. (^atullus, Ossian. and others, and among his own poetical jiroiluctions there are many idyls and minor poems of a delicate beauty, both in sentiment and form. Knight [from Teut. Knecht, defined by Grimm ns puer, f'imuhiH, Bcrvus, "attendant or servant"]. The word cor- responding to our " knight" is in most languages derived from the horse, as, for instance, the French chevalier, the Danish lii'tf'h'r, etc. In nearly all nations which have at- tained any martial renown there has been set apart a body of combatants known by a distinguishing title and perform- ing certain honorable service. Such were those Grecian warriors whom historians call knights, and such also the cquitesof Rome. (See Egt'ESTiiiAN Okder.) But knight- hood, as associated with chivalry, is of Northern origin. A certain value of land, called in England a "knight's fee." and in Normandy " fief de haubert," was allotted to a tenant, \vho in return bound himself to follow his lord to battle. Thus, in its earlier days knighthood was but a part of the feudal system, and could boast little of that nobleness which afterwards distinguished it. Its real histcry begins with the Crusades. During these wars it assumed a vohin- tary character. The younger sons of noble families enlisted undor the banners of wealthy lords, in whose service they might hope to gain such honor, and even riches, as would raise them to an ciiuality with their elder brothers. Barons were glad to take these adventurers into their pay, and it was not long before knighthood won by voluntary service became more esteemed than that feudal sort which was the right of the eldest horn ; so that in time rich landowners grew ashamed of a title which they had not earned, and refused the honor until they had earned it by some brave ex- ploit. During the Crusades knighthood became blended and almost identified with religion. Every knight pledged himself to aid in recovering the Holy Land. Fighting against infidels was itself a religious service; warriors who died while wearing the cross were assured by pries^ and pope of a speedy entrance into paradise: chivalry was held to be little lower than the Church itfielf, and the two were united in the persons of those monk-soldiers who, while under vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, were also foremost and fiercest in battle. Their deeds, however great, were supposed to increase not their own renown, but that of the order to which they belonged, and it may be that such devotion to a common interest had some influence over secular warriors, and aroused that aprit dc corps which made knighthood a universal brotherhood. Another peculiar trait of knighthood was the worship of women. Women gave the prize in tournaments; the knight wore his miatreas's favor in real as in mimic battle; God and the ladies {Di'^n it nutrr /Mme) were associated on the lips and in the heart of every true knight. Various manuals were written, especially when chivalry was on the decline, to teach knightly duty, but our most vivid knowledge of knights an<i their manners is derived from ancieut ro- mances and from chroniclers like Froissart and .loinville, whose naively-told stories show us not only the virtues of chivalry, but also its vices. In France, knighthood came nearest to the ideal standard. German knights were want- ing in courtesy, and too often regarded noble birth as more important than noble deeds. During the Mid<lle Ages many orders of religious knight- hood were founded for the purpose of helping Christians against the infidels. Their members wore bound to pov- erty, rhastity, and obedience, but the first, at least, of these vows was soon l)roken. The orders became very rich and luxurious, the original motives of their formation were lost sight of, and their power aroused the jealousy of kings and nobles. The chief of those, orders were : The Ilixtpiudleis, or brothers of J?t. John of Jerusalem, founded 1043 to nurse and care for poor wounded crusaders. After leaving the Holy Land they occupied first the island of Rhodes, and then Malta, whence thoy were expelled by Napoleou Bona- parte in 1798. The r(m;>?ar«, so called from having a house near the supposed site of Solomon's Temple, founded IIIS for the protection of pilgrims. They grew extremely rich, and after quitting Palestine had establishments in several European countries. Having been accused of heresy and other crimes, they were in 1311 suppressed by Pope Clement v.. at the instigation of Philip the Fair, king of France, who caused many uf them to bo imptisoned. banished, or put to death. The Tintouic order, instituted during tlie siege of Acre, at the close of the twelfth century, acquired great power, and in the thirteenth century conquered Prussia, Livonia, and Courland from their heathen chiefs. The Spanish order of St. James of CnmpostcUa was founded for the defence of pilgrims to the shrine of that saint, and the knights were continually engaged in warfare with the Moors. Jankt TrcKEV. Knight, tp. of Vanderburg oo., Ind. Pop. i;U2. Knight (Chaules). b. at Windsor, Eng., Mar. 19, 1791 ; studied at a classical school at Ealing, and served an ap- prenticeship with his father, whet was a bookseller at Wind- sor. After a brief residmec in liondon, occupied in gain- ing a practical insight into journalism, he established, in company with his father, ,'i newspaper, the Wiudsor and Eton E,rprcfiH, which he edited from 1812 to IH2G. During this peri'id he also publi;;hed the I-'tonion (a magazine ed- ited by Praed, and of which Macaulay and Nelson Cole- ridge, then '* Eton boys," were leading writers), and the Plnin EnffVtnhnui», a cheap literary miscellany in 2 vols., chiefly written by himself (1^20-22)". Removing to London in ]S2fl. Knight purchased the (luardinn newspaper, which he edited for two years, when hf s<dd it in order to coni- nienee business a? a publisher in Pall Mali. Tiio most im- portant venture of the new house was K'in';/Jit'» Qnartcrly Maffozine (1S23-24). which contained some brilliant articles by Macanlay. Praed, and other Cambridge students, hut came to an end after six numbers. About this time (1^24) he brought out a newly discovered work by Milton on Chris- tian Doctrine, which gave occasion to the remarkuhic arti- cle on Milton with wliich JlacauJay commenced liis tri- umphal career in the columns of the Ediht.urt/h lirriew. vShortly afterward Knight conceived the plan of a national library, " a cheap series of books which should comlcnsc the information contained in voluminous and expensive works," for which ho selected the subjects of about 100 volumes in history, science, art. and miscellaneous lit- erature. The scheme being too large for a single pub- lisher, a part was given to other houses, and it was adopted by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, then just formed. As a consequence of the commercial crisis of i-826, Knight's publishing-house went down like so many others, but in the following year he commenced business again as superintendent of the publications of the U. K. Society. His connection with that association lasted nearly twenty year?, and was the central incident in his career. He displayed great enterprise and mental activity in pro- jecting many of the most popular and useful works of a series which was practically the continuation of his own early scheme. The firifisfi Ahnnunr and C"i)i/iniiin}i In ihf Ahitaunc were commenced in 1S2S. ecMted by Knight for forty years, and still continued as an indispensable hand- book and work of reference. In 1^29 he recommenced business as a publif^her in his own name for the purpose of bringing out the Lihrori/ t-f Kntrrtnininfi Knotrhd^r, a sc- ries for which he wrote the volumes on Menafjrriis and The Efcphant. In 1832 he commenced the Pcuni/ Mar^nzine, which had an unprecedented success, reaching a sale of 200.000 within a twelveniontli. ami ler] to the Penny Ct/rlo- j)tEfh'a, conimonced in is:;;i \i\ the V . K. Society, but of which Knight was the publisher. Originally intended a? a pojmlnr manual of reference in eight handy volumes, it grew into twenty-seven bulky volumes, forming n learned and original digest of universal knowledge. Wilh the co- oj>eration of John Kitio miil other able writers Knight next brought out a series of illustrated works, the Pictorial Jiibfr, Pratfcr liool^ Jh'atort/ of Pahstine, Pictorial himtttrr/ of' Enfffniid, j/oudon, Ofd Evf/land, Shakepenrc, The Land We Live In, etc., which had a deservedly great success. In 1SJ4 he commenced the Enr/lish Cydopirdia, in four divis- ions, according to the subject, a work of still greater value than its predecessor, the Penny Ci/rlop/rdia. Besides edit- ing the Wcfkli/ Vidnnie and tlie Shilling Vohinie series, Knight compile*! Lfaff' //<>itrs uith thr licst Authors, Half Hours of Entflinh Ilistio-if. and other works on the same plan, prepared a valuable biography of Shaks|)care. and wrote a !*np,dar History of England in S vols. (lS:.fi-C2), which occupied his declining years, and may be considered his greatest original work. After 1S02 he revised and re- issued his earlier jiroductions, and wrote an int*^resling autobiograpliy entitled J\t^sa(fes of a Working Life during Half a (\-i>tnry {?, vols.. 1SG4-G.'>). D. at Adtlhslone. Sur- rcv, Mar. '.', 1S7.1. Knight may fairly bo esteemed one of the greatest benefactors of the English-speaking public of the nineteenth century, as tlie founder of that system for the generalization of knowledge which was so successfully carried into effect for many years by himself and his younger rivals, the Messrs. Chambers. His original pro- ducti<ins. too numerous to he here mentioned, are all cha- racterized by a vigorous style and a high degree of adap- tation to the wants of (he class of rea<lers addressed. His i>ecuniiiry success was not in proportion to the enormous circulation of bis works, and on some of the best of them, like the Penuy Ci/rloprrdin, he lost Iicavily, In considera- tion of this fact he was in 18fi0 a])pointed by the govern ment publisher of the Loudon Gazette, a sinecure post with KNIGHT— KNITTING. 1071 £1200 a year. His statue was erected in 1874 in hia native city of Windsor. Porter C. Bliss. Knight (Hknhy Cocswkll)» b. at Xewburyport, Mass., about 17S8; spent his childhood at Kowlcy : gra<luated at Brown Tniversity in 181*2: was ordained in the Kpiscopal Church, and published two volumes of sermon?, but was never settled over a congrt-galiun. Ho publislied a volume of verse in 1809, and another. The HroLfu Ifarp, in 1815, both which were republished with ad<litinn8 in 1821. D. I8;i5. Ik- lef^ an amusing autobio;;rapby. extracts from which were given in a volume entitled Thorn Collage, or the /'oct'e i/ume (1865). which chiefly consists of sketches and verses written by his younger brother. Frederick (b. in Hampton, N. H.. Oct. 9. 1791 ; d. at Uowlcy Nov. 20, ISl'J). The poems of Henry C. Knight are full of fine touches of character and sportive satire, which make them worthy of remembrance. (See Duyckinck's Cyc. Am. Lit., vol. ii. p. IJS,) Knii^ht MonathanV b. in Bucks co.. Pa., Nov. 22. 1787 ; removed at the age of fourteen, with his parents, to East Bithlchem, Washington co. ; received only a limited com- mon school education, but by close application at home made much progress in the study of mathematics, of which he was very fond. At the age of twenty-one ho was en- gaged as a teacher, at the same time pursuing his occupa- tion a^ a surveyor; in ISIG he made for the State a survey of Washington co. ; was elected county commissioner 1817 -20; in 1822 he was elected to the State legislature, and for six sessiims waj* re-elected to the senate or house of representatives ; l*. S. commissioner (182;*)) for extending the National Uoad from Wheeling to Illinois, and tor many years chief engineer of the Baltimore and Ohio U. R. D. *at E. Bethlehem Nov. 22, 18.^8. Kniffht (Jonathan), M. D., b. at Xorwalk, Conn., Sept. 4, 17S'J: graduated at Yale in 1808; studied under Dr. Uush at the medical school of the I'niversity of Pennsyl- vania 1811-13, became professor of anatomy and physiol- ogy at Yale College in 181.1, and in 18:t8 was transferred to the chair of surgery; was president of the American Medical Association in 1853; waa a skilful operator and an effective lecturer, but wrote little. He obtained in 1862 the establishment of a U. S. military hospital at New Haven. D. at New Haven Aug. 25, ISfil. Kni|;ht (RiniArto Pavnk). b. at Wormsley Grange, Hcrcfordsihiro, England, in 1750; came in 1771 into pos- session of a handsome fortune, which he liberally employed in the formation of a unique collection of ancient coins, bronzes, and objects illustrating the pagan religions of an- tiquity. He wrote a curious work entitled An Account o/ the Urmainft of thf W'nrship o/ Prinpun hit fly criMtinff at [nrmia in the KimfiVnn of \ftpfei, to ichlch in adtlrtl a Dix- coHme OH the Wnrithip of Priapnn, and itn Connection tcitli the yfi/ttic Thrttfotftf of the Andcntn, which ho privately printed in 1780. and for which ho was severely criticised on the score of delicacy, though at the present day the same branch of inquiry has assumed grciit importance, ari'l Knight's treatise was reprinted in elegant style in New York in 1S71. Ho was for many years a member of Par- liament and trustee of the British Museum, to which he bequeathed his collection of untiquos. Ho published sev- eral volumes of |)Ocms, which were little esteemed, a success- ful work on the l^iinciphnof Tante (1805), and an edition of Homer, with the dignmma restored and supposed inter- polations suppressed, which createil considerable interest, but was not ooocptod as authoritative. D. in London Apr. 24, 1824. Knight (Thomas Axprew). K. R. S., brother of Kichard Pavne Knight, b. at Wormsley (irange, Herefordshire, Eng- land. Oct. 10, 1758; graduated at Baliol College. Oxford, and devoted his attention to vegetable and animal physi- ology and horticulture, of which scienerg in their modern form ho may almost be considered the founder in Englnnd. He contril>ute<i forty-six papers to the Trnunartioun of the Royal Society, in some of which he came near anticipating the characteristic doctrines now known as Donriuian. His Hhidies on the propagation of fruit trees, mnde public a'lout 1795, attracted deserved attention. In 17'.'7 ho pub- lishc'l a Trratimr on the Cnttnre of the Aftplr and the Prar, nnd in 1809 Pumona ifcrrfovdieni'in. or Xntnral ffi»torif of the aid Cider nnti Perrtf I'rnitn uf thr Cntintif of firreford. He succeeded Sir Joseph Bunks as president of the Horti- cultural Society, and d. at London May II, 18;;8. After his death hi?* Phtftitdoifiraf anil l/nrllrnllnrnf Papem were collected and jmblisbed (1841), with a sketch of his life, in a volume which well deserves the study of cotmtry gentle- men. " Few men." says Allibone, " have done so much to promote the science of horticulture as Mr. Knight ha« ef- fected, both by precept and example." Knight-Service. See Tknurf. Knight's Ferry, poat-v., cap. of Stanislaus co., Cal., in a fertile wheat-region, once celebrated for rich placer gold-mines. Knightft Templar. Sec Templar. Kni^hts'town, post-v. of Wayne tp., Henry co., Tnd., on the Pittteburg Cineionati ami St. Louis R. K. and on Blue River, 34 miles E. of Indianapolis. It has several churches, a national bank, an academy, machine-shoi)S. and 2 weekly newspapers, and is situated in a fine farming district. Pop. 1528. Knierhts'viHe, post-v. of Van Buren tp., Clay eo., Ind.. is situated on the Terre Haute nnd A'inccnnes It. R., 16 miles E. of Terre Haute and 50 W. of Indianapolis. It has 3 churches, 3 schools, 3 lodges, 1 newspaper, 1 largo planing-mill and sash and door factory, 2 blast furnaces with a capacity of fifty tons per day, and 1 rolling-mill giving employment to 150 men, 3 coal-shafts, 3 drug stores, and 8 other stores. It is the centre of the block-coal re- gion of Indiana, is one of the largest shipping-points for freights between St. Louis and Indianapolis, and the N. terminus of a projected railroad to Bowling Green. Ky. It was first laid out in 18(>5. nnd is surrounded by a fine timbered and agricultural country. Pop. 1071. LiTnF.n WoLir. Eu. ''Clav Co. Enterprise." Knip'perdolling (Brrxrard), b. in MUnsler. Ger- manj', near the end of the fifteenth century, adopted in Sweden the doctrines of the Anabaptists, one of the wild fermentations of the Lutheran reform, and, returning to his native province, was associated with Matthia>'. .Tobann Boccold or Bockelson Tcalled John of Ley den), and other fanatics in the celebrated socialistic crusade proclaimed in Miinster in 1534. KnipperdoUing was elected burgomaster, and subsequently stadtholdcr, John ot Leydcn being pro- claimed king. Equality of property and coninuinity of wives were among^tbe cardinal doctrines of (his mad effer- vescence, which startled Luther, and was by him denounced in the strongest terms. On the suppression of the move- ment. KnipperdoUing was taken prisoner and put to death, after frightful tortures, Jan. 23, 1536. Knit'ting [Ang. Pax. cnytlan or hnittan: Ger. l-nuttei}^ knot; Hind.y«ntA; Sans, tjnnnthi. a "knot "], a manner of wea.ving or twisting a single thread into a kind of cloth by means of steel, ivory, or wooden implements called knit- ting-needles, which arc made of various sizes, according to the fineness of thread used and the tightness of stitch required. For fat or straight knitting two needles arc employed ; for round knitting, such as stockings and cuffs, three, four, or even five, are needed. Steel needles are used with silk, flax, and cotton thread; wood, bone, or ivory for most kinds of woollen yarn. As knitting consisls of loops or meshes made without knnti-. it is easily undone, the slipping of one loop frequently causing the destruction of the whole fabric. It is extremely elastic, and therefore very suitable for gloves, stockings, and other articles in which an exact fit without com])res?ion is desirable. The work is easily learned, and by a f^kilful knitter, whose fin- gers have acquired delicacy of touch, can be carried on almost or altogether without using the eyes. It is for this reason specially adapted as an emitloymcnt for the aged^ and is practised with much success by the blind. Knitting is a far more modern invention than its kindred art, netting. The exact period when it was first practised is not known, though at the time of the Rowleyan contro- versy much information on the subject was collected hy antiquaries. Chalterton, in the poems written by him, pretending that Thomas Rowley, who lived in the fifteenth century, was their author, mentioned knit stockings: '* 8be said, as her white handn white hosen were knitting, What pleasure It is to be married !"— yfi/Zfi, xxxvii. ; and his antagonists used this as an argument against his vcracitv, asserting that knit hose were not known until the sixteenth century. (For particulars of this controversy see the Orntlrman'n Magazine, 1782-83.) JTany antiquaries affirm that knitting was invented in Scotland, and thence introduced into France; others say (hat it is of Spanish origin, and was first known in England in the reign of Henrv VIII. But in a rare collection of the acts of Edward VI. is one specifying, among other woollen articles, •' kiiitte hose, knittepelicote.q. knitte gloves, knitfc slievcs." In 1527 (he French knitter^' formed themselves into a corporation, styled "Communaut/"' des Maftres Bonnetiers an Tricot," choosing for their patron St. Fiaere, who, according to legends, was the second son of Eugenius, a Scottish king in the seventh century. S(. Fiacre became a hermit, an'l lived at Meanx in France. Wherever nnd whenever knit- ting was invented, it is certain (hat (icrman women of all ages and classes excel in the art those of other nations. Very young German children are sent to linitting-schools, and stockings are knitted by little creatures who have lo72 KNOB CREEK— KXOWLES. hardly learned how to wear out those articles by walking in them. Such schools have been established in Ireland aod Scothind. hut only for the children of the poor. Excellent directions for both knitting and nettin,^ will be found in Madamo Got baud's work on those subjects (London, 1870, J^vol. Janet Tickev. Knnb Creek, post-tp., Cleaveland co., N. C. Pop. fi.">8. Kno'bcl [ Karl Aigi .st). 1). D., b. near Sorau, Silesia, Aug. 7, 1SI)7; studied at the University of Brcslau, where he became a professor of theology in 1831, and at (Jit-ssen in 18;i9. His work on Errfegiffstet (ISofi), Hihrcir Pn^phcry (l?>:t7). and his Conimrntnn'es on Itnink {1S4.^). Genesis (18.32), Exodus and Leviticus (1857). Xnmhers, Deuteronomyf and iTtiHltHa (ISfil), and Grneafof/ical Tahfcs of Grncsie (l^hi]), are among the most Icnrned productions of the rationalistic school of theology. 1). at Giesscn May '2h, lSfi3. Kno'belsdorfr, von (Hans GKonr. Wenzeslais), Baiion. b. at KuehUdel. in the Prussian province of Bran- denburg, Feb. 17, U>'J7 ; entered the Prussian army, and was a captain when in 1730 he left the military career in order to study art, especially painting and arehitecture. After travelling through France and Italy, ho joined the crown prince at Rheinsberg, and soon iiccaino a favorite of his. On the accession of Frederick II. to the throne in I7I0, Kuobelsdorflf was made superintendent of all the royal buildings, and planned the Thiergarten at Berlin, and built Sans Souci at Potsdam and the opera-house in Berlin, besides other minor buildings. I). Sept. Ifi, 1763. Knob Xos'ter, post-v. of Washington tp., Johnson CO., Mo., situated on the Missouri Pacific R. R., 20S miles AV. of St. Louis and 78 miles E. of Kansas City, has 6 churches, 1 national bank, I weekly newspaper (agricul- tural), 1 flour-mill, 3 hotels, a fine public-school budding, and the usual number of stores, built mostly of brick. Pop. 1H4. J. R. CoRDELL, Ed. ''Missouri Farmer." Knobs, tp. of Yadkin co., X. C. Pop. 14j1. Knob View, post-tp. of Crawford co., Mo. Pop. 515. KnoTlys (Hasserd), b. at Chalkwcll, Lincolnshire, England, in l.')'JS; was educated at Cambridge University, and became an Anglican priest, but was ejected for non- conformity, and compelled in 1G3S to flee to New England. In Boston he was early involved in a controversy with the authorities, and was afterwards named by Cotton Mather " Mr. Absurd Knowless.'' Knollys was {16CS— il) the first minister of Dover, N. H. Thence ho went to Long Island, and in lfi41 returned to London, where be was for a long time a successful Baptist pastor. D. Sept. 19, 1G91. He was a man of bold, gcnt-rous, and liberal spirit, an accom- plished scholar, and an able preacher and teacher of youth. He wrote -1 F/muin'j fire in Zion (Ullli). a pmall Hebrew grammar (IfilS), and an autobiography, finished by Kitfin (IG'Jl,')- The Hanserd KnuUys Society of London, formed in 18 I j, reprints early Baptist writings. Knollys, or Knolles (Richard), b. at Cold-Ashby, Northamptonshire, England, about I.'i43 : graduated in 1505 at Lincoln College, Oxford, of which he was chosen fellow ; was appointed head-master of the Free Grammar School at Sandwich, Kent, where he spent a useful life, and d. in June. 1(>10. He wrote a ('ompendimn of Lai. ^ Gr., and Hfli. Grnmmar, irith JiootM { IGOO). and translated Camden's liriinunin into English, the MS. of which is preserved at the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford; besides several other books on Oriental subject.s. But the only work for which Knollys is now remembered is the Genemlf flistorie of the 7'ur/.v\.r(c.( folio, 1GU;J), which was reprinted in IGIO, 1631, and 1G3S. The best edition is the Gth, in 3 vols. (1087- 1700), with a continuation by Sir Paul Uycaut. This book was commended by l)r. Johnson in the Jiamhler (No. 122) as " displaying all the excellence that narration can admit." Knot, a twisting or entwining of one or more pieces of cord, or the looping of sueb cord around some other sub- stance, in such a way that the two parts shall be held to- gether. Knots are of special importance on shipboard, and the number of them in use among seamen is very great. To these a great number of names are given. Much skill is required in the adjustment of some of the kinds. Knot, in measuring a ship's speed, represents a nautical mile. On the ship's log-line there are 120 knots to the mile; consequently, the number of knots which run out in a half minute represent approximately the number of geo- graphical miles per hour in the ship's rate of speed. Knot, (irayback, or Robin Snipe, the Trinyn ca- mtta, a sandpijar of the .\tlantic States and of Europe. It is some ten inches long, and is a good game-bird. The young birds in season are delicious for the table. The place of breeding of this bird is unknown. Knott (J. Prcx-tor). b. in Marion co., Ky., Aug. 29, 1S30; studied law; removed to Missouri in 1850; was attorney-general of that State in 1860; returned to Ken- tacky in 1862, and was a Democratic Representative in Con- gress from 18G7 to 1871. and again elected in 1874. He won a national reputation as a humorist by several of bis speeches in Congress. Knout [Russ. kinit], an instrument of punishment in Russia, varying in form, but often consisting of a wide and pointed piece composed of thongs of leather braided with wire, soakeil in milk, and dried hard. This is swung by a handle, anil when applied to the back of a culprit cuts like a knife. Criminals were often scourged to death by this instrument, which at present is less frequently used. Knowl'ed^e* This term includes the possessions of the mind derived through its several activities of sensuous perception, reflection, undorstaniling. and sj>eculation, in so far as the same relate to truth. It should be distinguished from mere feeling and from opinion or impression. Know- ledge implies the exercise of iliscrimination and comparison in regard to iileas, noting their agreement and disagreement. Feeling is limited to the subjective, and relates only to modi- fications of the feeling subject, there being no antithesis of subject and object in it. When the Ego pcrrrins itself as feeling, it becomes conscious, and cognition takes the place of simple feeling. Inference accompanies all grades of knowing, although it is merely implicit in the lowest stages. Hence, all knowledge contains the results of inference, and is based upon it to some extent. The realm of truth which knowledge has for its oi>jcet ineludes three de]iartments : I. Nature ; II. Spirit or Human Mind : HI. Pure Ideas or Gen- eral Principles. Knowledge implies convietion reached by the perception of suffieient grounds. Certitude must be dis- tinguished from truth, asa mercpbascof it. It appertains to the immediate or external, aud hence to the phenomenal or transitory. Such knowledge as is derived from certitude or immediate knowing lacks, therefore, the unity of sys- tem, and is partial, needing modification in each pnr- tioular th^ou^dl otlier particular? and through the whole. Incismuch as there is unity in existence, natural and spir- itual, an isolated knowledge of particulars is not a true or adequate knowledge. Since existences are interdependent, each one being conditioned by all others, a true knowledge can e.xist only in a systematic form — that of science. In science each thing or province of things is treated in its relations to the others and to the whole. Thus, by reason of the relativity of particular existences, a true knowledge of them must deal with relations, and in this sense know- ledge may be called relative, not on account of its inade- quacy, but rather on account of its trutli. The *' relativity of knowledge " is a doctrine that has been quite well known since the time of the Sophists of Greece. It has taken a subjective direction in modern times. It has been held (a) that knowledge is relative, because we cannot cognize ex- istence in itself absolutely, but only in its modes; (fc) that it is rel.ative, because we can know only what stands in rela- tion to our faculties; (r) because the subjective constitution of our faculties adds elements and modifications to the matter derived from sensation. These positions have been generalized in the doctrine of the relativity of knowledge based on the lonct that we know only phenomena, and not "things in themselves." Knowledge has been further clas- sified according to its origin in the psychological activities : (1) the intuitive — sensuous ]iereepti<)n, or consciousness; (2) the discursive — inference and generalization; (3) the speculative — synthetical and analytical processes combined in one. Thus arise various distinctions, such as a priori, a posteriori, abstract, mediated, intuitive, representative, empirieal.apodictic, etc. etc. (SceMiNn.) W. T, llAniils. Knowles (James Davis), b. at Providence. R. T., in July. 179S: graduated at Columbian College. D. C, 1824. In Oct.. 1825. he became pastor of the Second Baptist church in Boston; in 1S32 was appointed professor of sacred rhet- oric at Newlon Theological Institute in Massachu.setts. He published memoirs of the first Mrs. Adoniram Judson (Ann Hasscltine) and of Roger Williams; edited the Christian J^evicic, and d. at Newton, Mass.. May 9, 1S38. Knowles (Jamfs SnFninANt, b. at Cork, Ireland, id 17S4. Hi.-- father. James Knowles, a cousin of K.B.Sheri- dan, was a schoolmaster and teacher of elocution, enjoying a hi<rh reputation, and was editor of an improved edition of Walker's Prmumncinfj Divtinnnrt/. In 1792 the family removed to London. At the age of twelve young Knoivlcs composed a play, which was represented by an amateur company of schoolboys. In 1^06 he made his first appear- ance ns an actor at Dublin. an<i afterward taught elocution at Belfast and (Hasgow, without attaining eminence in either profession. He had written four or five dramas which have not been preserved, and had published a small volume of fugitive poetry, when in ISl.^ he met with his first success hv the production of Cains Groerhns at Belfast. In 1S20 VirginiuR was produced at Drury Lane, with Ma- cready in the leading part, and Knowles was thenceforward KNOWLKSVILL -KNOX. ir>i:\ rocosnized ns one or the chief drainatio authors of England. He proJiiot'J fuurtccD othor drainns, ^orIle of wbieli were unduiiblctlly ainoiif; the bo8l"uciiD;; pliiws" of thu time, tl)oii;;h nunc di^pUvetl any exceptiunal put^tic geiiiuts, and all were justly anionablo to the charge ot t>ys(eiiuilic viola- tion of the " nnilies." The plots were so involvcil in their construction as to require a great ciTort fur their cinnpre- heiision. Knuwlesi tfometiiues took part in r*-). resenting his oivn dramiiiH. :ind uado a successful theatrical tuur in the U. f'. In IS4:J his Dramatic Wor/cn were collected into throe volumes (revised cd. 2 vols., 185G), and in IS-lo ho abandoned Ihr stajie from conscientious 8eruples, devoting himself to literature, and in ISID ;i pension of £200 was granted him. In 1S.V2 ho joined the Baptist denomination, and became a preacher distinguished for religious fervor. His lust yeiirs were passed in retirement, on account of ili- heiilth, at Torquay. Devonshire, where he d. Nov. 20, 1SG2. His dramas, besides those already mentioned, are — Wiflt'nm 7V//MS25). The fir^'/ar'n Ihtuqhtcmf li.thnal Cnem ( 1S2S), Atrrrdth«(?reat (ii^M), The ffxnrkfnuk {\>^:i2), The Wi/e, a Tah of Mmitnn (IS.'i.'l), Thn Dawjhter {\^'M\), The love- <7Aa« {is:S7), WnmonH Wit {\S:iH}, The Moid of Matien- dorpt (I8;t8), Aorc (18.19), John o/ Provida (IS-IO), Old Maid* (1841). The Uuite of Arnffon (1842), and The Secre- tarjf (1843). He also published two novels — Henry Fot- teacue and Gcur»je Lorrfl (1847), and two controversial works against Romanism, The lioch of' /{ome, or (he Arch- Hereaif (V?A*J\, and The Idol DrmotiHfied hij itn own Priest (1851), the latter volume being a reply to Cardinal Wisc*- man's LectnrvH nn TrantuhHtuittiatinn. PoUTr.Kt". HiJSS. Knowlos'ville, post-v. of Hidgeway tp., Orleans co., N. Y.. on the New York Central K. U. and the Erie Canal. Knnwrton, post-v. and cap. of Krown co., Quebec, Caii:id;i. It is the scat of an academy. Pop. about .'iUO. KnoAvlton, post-tp. of Warren co., N. J. Pop. IfiOl. linoulton, p(ist-tp. of Marathon co., \Vi?. Pop. Ififi. Knou'-\<itliinf;s^ the name assumed by a .secret po- litical so'-iety in ihe^ CS. first organized in ISfjIt.nnd which appeared in the elections of is.H ns a well-di^'-ipllncd party, and fwept .'Several of the Northern Stales, irieludiiig New York. The cardinal idea of the society was opposition to foreign citizenship. In tho Presidential campaign of ISjfi the Know-Nothings appeared as tho "American party.** presenting Millard Fillmore as its camlidate. but the growth of the slavery issue extinguished tho question of foreign citizenship, and the party speedily died a natural death. Knox, county of N. W. Central Illinois. Area. 720 square miles. It is fertile and undulating, and eontains abunclant supplies of coal, with considerabln timber. Cat- tle, grain, wool, and hay are sla]d(^ products. The manu- factures include carriages, clothing, flour, saddlery, furtii- lure, brick, and metallic wares. The county is traversed by the Chicago Uurlington and Quincyand Ihc Peoria and Oquawka U. Ra. Cap. fJalesburg. Pop. .39,522. Knox, county of S. W. Infliana, bounded on tho E. by the \V. f.irk of While River, on the S. by White River, and on the W. by the Wabash, which Hcparatis it from Illinois. Area, .')I0 square miles. It is partly level and partly roll ing, and is very fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple pro»hictfl. Tho county is traversed by several railroads, centring at Vincenncs, the capit.il. Pop. 21,502. Knox, county of 8. E. Kentucky. Area, about 340 square miles. It is a mountain-region, with iron, eonl, salt, and limestone. Kivc-stoek and corn are staple ^»rod- ucls. Tho county is traversed by tho Cumberland River. Cap. Barboursvillo. Pop. 8294. Knox, county of Maine, bounded on the P. E. by Pen- ob-i'.it Bay and the Atlantic Ocean, and including numerous islands. Areii, about :i.')0 srpmrc miles. It is uneven, but generally fertile. Wool, potiitoes, and live-stock are staple products. Tho manufactures include shipping, ships' fur- niture, cooperage, lime, and lumber. The lisheries and forei-jn and coastwise commerce employ a eonsidcrnblo piirt of the population. The county is traversed by tho Knox and Lincoln R. U. Cap. Roekhmd. Pop. .^0.82.^. Knox, county of N. E. Missouri. Area, 504 square mil' s. It is very fertile, and is generally undulating. It is in part timbered land. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are staple products. Carriages, wagons, an<l brick are leading articles of manufaeture. It is traversed by the Quiney Missouri and Pacific R. R. Cap. Edina. * Poi>. 10.')7I. ^ *^ Knox, county of Nebraska, formerly called Ij'Eau qui Court. Area. 1008 sauare miles. It is separated from PaUnta on the X. by the Niobrara and Missouri rivers. It has a good soil, and is adaptetl to grain and stock-raising. Cap. Niobrara. Pop. 201. KnoXf a central county in Ohio, traversed by the Balti- more and Ohio (Lake Erie division) and the Cleveland Mt. Vernon and Delaware R. Rs., intersected by tho Ver- non AVulhondiiig and Licking (N. fork ) rivers. The surface is undulating and tho soil rich. The chief agricultural products are Indian corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, tobacco, and hay. Nearly 700. OOt) ])ounds of wool are annually clijipedi 000,0(10 pounds vt' muplc-sugar and 800.000 pounds of butter are produced. It has 10,000 horses, 8500 milch cattle, 150,000 sheep, and .'(0,000 swine: 24 carriage-fac- tories and a considerable number of manufactures. Cap. Mt. Vernon. Area, 525 square miles. Pop. 20,ll.i;i. Knox, county of E. Tennessee. Area. 510 square miles. It is in the beautiful and fertile valley of the Ilolston River, which traverses it. It has several mountain-ridges, and contains abundant iron ore and marble. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool arc staple products. The county is traversed by the various railroads centring at Kno.wille, the capital. Pop. 28,990. Knox, an organized county of N. Texas, traversed by the Brazos River. Area. 1275 square miles. Its surface is hilly and br()ken, and partly of undulating prairie-land, with little timber. It is attached for judicial purposes to Montague co. Knox, tp. of Knox co., 111. Pop. 2S81. Knox, tp. of Jay co., Ind. Pop. 685. Knox, po?t-v. of Centre tp., cap. of Stark co., Ind., on the S. bank of the Yellow River, 7 miles S. of tho Pittsburg Kort Wayne and Chicago R. R. It has a gootl court-house and school-house, 2 hotels, I newspaper, and a number of stores and shops. Lands in the vicinity are cheap and well adapted to stock-raising, as also to wheat, corn, and potatoes. Pop. 244. 0. Mi'ssKLMAN. Ed. "Stark Co. LKnnF.R." Knox, tp. of Clarke co., la. Pop. 777. Knox, tp. of Pottawattamie co., la. Pop. 901. Knox,post-tp. of Waldo CO., Me.. 12 miles N.W. of Bel- fast. It has manufactures of lumber and carriages. Poji. Knox, post-tp. of Albany CO., N. Y. It has 6 churches and several small villages, and is on the Albany an4l Sus- quehanna R. R.. 17 miles W. of Albany. The village hag an academy, 4 churches, and a wnoUcn-mill. Pop. 1656. Knox, tp. of Columbiana co., 0. Pop. 2151. Knox, tp. of Guernsey co.. 0. Pop. SIC. Knox, tp. of Holmes co., 0. Pop. 964. Knox, tp. of Jefferson co., 0. Pop. 1.301. Knox, tp. of Vinton co., 0, Pop. 559. Knox, post-tp. of Clarion co.. Pa. Pop. 656. Knox, tp. of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 587. Knox, tp, of Jcfl'erson co., Pa. Pop. SO:i. Knox (IlKNrtv), Gkneral, b. in Boston, Mass., July 25,1750; receiverl a common school education; became a bot)kseller in Boston and au ofticer in a militia body of grenadiers, having devoted much study to military tactics. W^hen the batllc of Bunker Ilill was inipcn<ling he made bis way seerelly out of Boston, oflercil his services to Maj.- (Jcn. Artenius Ward at Cambridge, and acted as a volun- teer aid to that general during the battle. In the siege of Boston ho was engaged as engineer and artillery i)flieer in (Jridley's regiment, and attracled the atlention of \\'iish- ington by his skill in fortification. He was soon after placed in command of the artillery in New York, took a iuilliant part in the battles of Trenton and Princeton, and was thereupon elected by Congress brigadier general of artillery, and sent to New England to raise a bntlalion of that arm. In the buttles of Brandy wine, (>ernnintown, and Monmouth tho artillery under Knox bore a leading part. He was a member of the court-martial fttr tho trial of Andre; was repeatedly sent to New England as com- missitmer to obtuin money and recruits ; was at the biitlle of Yorklown, after whieh he was made major-general, put in comnmnd at \\'e«l Point, and appointed to superintend the disbanding of the continental armies, and commissioner to arrange with Sir (Juy Cartel on the terms of (he surrender of .Vew Yitrk City. In 1785 he succeeded (ten. Lincoln as secretary of war antl of the navy, retaining that ]iost iVtr six years of Washington's atlniinislration. In 1795 he removed to St. (Jeorge's in Maine, where ho acquired an enormous landed estate, and finally settled at Thoniaston, Me., where he d. Oct. 25. 1806. (See his f.i/r and Corre- Kpondtnrf, by Francis S. Drake. Boston. 1S7L) Knox (.IoiinV b. at (Jifford. in Eosi Lothian, in IftO.S, His education beean at Haddington. At lb" rniversily of St. Andrew's (1524) he learned from John Major, and never forgot, (hat councils are above popes, and thai nations give authority to kings, can depose kings, and put them to 1574 KNOX. death. Before 16u0 ho was ordained priest, in advance of the canonical age. From his favorite Fathers, Jerome and Augustine, ho went to Holy Scrijiture, and the progress of his investigation into those questions which were then con- vulsing Kuropc became very marked about l.i."i;>. The re- sult wa^, that he made a distinct avowal of his Protestant cnnvietioDS in 1642, withdrew from his position as teacher at St. Andrew's, and sought a covert from the wrath of Tardinal Beaton. The shelter needed he found in the house of Hugh Douglas (Id4;J-45). This was at Longnid- dry, the ruins of whose ehapel are still known as " Knox's kirk." Wishart, his dear friend, was tried for heresy Mar. 1, and burned to death Mar. 28. I,'i45. Cardinal Beaton was assassinated May 21J, 1546, and the castle of St. An- drew's was held by Norman Leslie and the other conspira- tors. Knox took refuge in the castle at Easter, 1547. acted as its faithful chaplain, and when it was surrendt red tu the French, July, 1547, was among the prisoners, I'nder the charge of being concerned in the death of the cardinal he was condemned to the galleys and chained to the oar. Sickness was added to his trials (1548). The "sobs of his heart" were heavy when the galley lay tossing in sight of the wlilte steeple of St. Andrew's, "where God first in public opened his mouth to His glory ;" yet that heart was strong in the uttered assurance, which became jiropbccy, that Knox should glorify God's name in the same place. He was liberated in Feb.. 1549, went to England, was rec- ommended to the English council, and. though unordained as a Protestant minister, was sent by Cranmer to preach at Berwick — out of Scotland, but barely out of it. There he battled with popery, and made many converts. Cited by Tonstall, he defended the cause of the Keformation with such ability that he was appointed one of Edward's chap- lains {Dec, 1551). He was consulted about the Eook of Common Prayer and the Articles. He was sumnxuied to London Apr., 1553, and was in full royal favor at the time of Edward's death, July 6, 1553 ; he had declined a bishop- ric. He was married 155.*J to Marjory, daughter of Richard Bowes (brother of Sir Robert) of Berwick. The accession of Mary ( 155.3) made England a dangerous place for Kno.x. He had wisdom as well as bravery. He landed at Dieppe Jan. 20, 1554. In February he went to Switzerland, and was everywhere cordially received by the Reformed divines. In Geneva he found a congenial friend in Calvin. He took temporary charge (Nov., 1554) of the church of English exiles at Frankfort-ou-tbe-Main. His Fuith/nl Admonititxi iiuto the Pftifeannre of^ Ood'a Truth in EitijUind appeared this year. He reerossed the Channel Aug., 1555, saw his wife, preached, and dispensed the Lord's Supper. He re- turned to the Continent July, 1556, accompanied by his wife. The clergy of Scotland adjudged his body to the flames and burned liim in effigy. For the next two years, the most peaceful of his life, he was pastor of the English church at (Jcneva. The Genevan New Tcstamout (1557) and the Itiblo (1560) were influenced by him. In 1558 aj)- peared his /''Imt Htast nf' the Trnmpit mjnlnHt the Mmistroim Jirijinirut '>/ Women. The women sjiecially aimed at were Mary of (Juise, queen dowager and re|^nt of Scotland, the princess Mary, then heiress, afterwards occupant, of its throne, and Queen Mary, Knox's *' Jezebel," of England. The prospects of the Reformation seeming brighter. Knox was recalled, and (Jan., 15511) for the last time left Geneva for Scotland. Ho was refused passage through England, wliose *' secret and assured friend he had been in cases which herself could not have remedietl" — refuseil under the regiment of Elizabeth, who had just come to the throne, and who was yet to owe as much to Knox as perhaps to any man of the time. Knox in his Blast had made too sweeping generalities from particular cases, and Elizabeth stood up for her sex. Knox landed at Leilh May 2, and was at once proclaimed an outlaw and rebel. His preach- ing at Perth was followed by an insurrection, in which the '* rascal multitude "committed a number of act? of violence. He was forbidden to preach at St. Anrlrew's June 9, and preached there with tlio greater zest June lO-l.'I, and the officials and people destroyed the images and pictures and pulled down the monastery on the 14th. Though the direct personal influence of Knox produced a relatively peaceful abolition of the old worship, the storm against "idolatry" involved the destruction of many precious works of art. " The rooks' nests were pulled down." Knox was formally ordained at Edinburgh in 1560. The Confession of Faith, mainly his work, was adopted by the Parliament .'Vug. 17. The Reformation was ofticialiy estul>- lished Aui;. 24. The first General Assembly of liie Kirk was held Dec. 2ft. Of the f<.rly members, there were but six ministers, of whom Knox was one. Private sorrow eamo fast on public joy, for this same month ho lost his wife. The clouds which had been pwcpt away in 1560 be- gan to gather again in the follnwing year. The young queen of Scotland had returned from France (Aug. 21, 1661 ). Never was there a less congenial conjunction between the throne and the people. The first interview of Knox with her took place early in Se])t., 1561, and another May 2, 1562. after the queen had been told of a sermon in which he condemned the festivitie.-^ in the palace, believed to have been prompted by the massacre of the French Protestants in March at Vassy. He did much to preserve the peace in the South while the rebellion of the earl of Hunlly was crushed in the North (1562). At Lochlcven, Knox again saw the queen (May 2. 15G3). who exerted on him all her powers of pleasing. Her success with Knox was little, but it was great with her Protestant nobles at the Parlia- ment May 20, and Knox came to an open rupture with the earl of Murray, whom he had regarded as (»ne of the greatest pillars of the truth. In political sagacity and insight into character Knox took rank with the greatest statesmen of his time. He now spoke in the puljtit with freedom of the apostasy of the nobility, and of the reputed marriage of the queen to a papist. I'nivcrsal terror and ofl"ence followed. Knox was deserted by some of bis nearest friends. The queen, whoso hand had almost grasped the triumph for which she labored, was overwhelmed with anger that this man should defy and thwart her and the nobles she had won to her side. She sent for him, but she was now too nmch wounded and angered to dissemble. *' I can- not get quit of you," she cried : *' I vow to God I shall he once revenged !" and could speak no more for wee[>ing. The moral trial of the position of Knox at such a time is almost inconceivable. It was beyond any mere test of courage. In personal matters Knox was of a loving nature. But as the face of angry men could not move him, neither could the beauty of the young queeu cliarm him, nor her tears melt him. At this time powerful efforts were made to crush Knox. A calumny against his personal purity was set afloat, but was promptly met and exposed. In Decem- ber he was accused of high treason, and the queen thought she should now "make him weep" whom her tears could not move. But the majesty of Knox's heroic nature made itself felt in the council of the nobles. Knox was not only acquitted, but couiniended. and "that night was neither dancing nor fiddling in tiic court." The same year he published an account of his disputation of the year pre- vious with Kennedy, abbot of Cromaguel. Knox married a second time ( I^Iar.. 1564). His wife was Margaret Stew- art, daughter of Knox's friend, who stood by him when all other men forsook him — Lord Ochiltree, who was of the blood royal by the second son of Robert 11. Alliance wilh kings did not make Knox more courtly. He was brought before the privy council for a sermon preached in St. Giles's (Aug. 19, 1565) in the presence of Darnlcy, in which ho had quoted certain texts which (he ncw-niarricd king, not without good reason, applied to himself and the queen, and was violently offended. Knox was prohibited from preach- ing while the royal pair remained in the city. They left before Sunday, and when tliey relumed they wisely let the matter drop, for the pul|)it of Kn<)X had grown mightier than the throne. Mary entered the Catholic League for the extirpation of the Protestants Feb. 2. 1566. Rizzio was assassinated Mar. 9. On the return of the queen. Knox left Edinburgh. In December he visited his son in England. Knox's prophecy was fuKilled. The queen became the in- strument of Darnley's overthrow; he was murdered Feb. 10, 1567. The queen married Rothwell May 15, and one month later, forsaken by her husband, was a prisoner at Lochlcven Castle. Ten days later (June 25) Knox was present at the General Assembly in Edinburgh. Ho preached at the coronation of James VI., an infant thirteen months old (July 29). Knox urged the capital arraign- ment of Mary on the charge of adultery and murder. The aj:sassinati<tn of the regent Murray (Jan. 23, 1570) by a man whom he had pardoned on the persuasion of Knox, and the civil troubles which followed it, greatly depressed him. In October he had a stroke of apojdexy, which left him weak, but did not long keep him from the pitl))it. Jlo had enough <»f his old vigor and his old mode of using it to give such oflVnce to Kirkaldy, governor of the castle, as to make it prudent to retire (May 5. 1571) to St. Andrew's. Here he published his answer to Tyrie. Ho returned to Kdinburgti Aug., 1572. The tidings of the massacre of St. Bartholomew (.Aug. 24) helped yet further to break bis declining strength. He made his last appearance in the pulpit Nov. 9, and preaebecl with no abatement of intel- lectual power. Sick and exhausted, leaning on his staff and tlie arm of an attendant, with a loving multitude crowding around him. ho crept to his home, and there, when speech failed him. with his hand uplifted in token of the faith for which he had fought, he breathed his last in perfect peace, Nov. 24, 1572 — one of the most heroic mcTi of a heroic race. Two days later he was buried at St. (liles's. He was followed to the grave by an immense body of mourners, nobles and people, and then were uttered by K NOX— K N Y I'll AUSi:X. l."^7o Morton, the new regent, the words "ho neither feared nor flattered any fle^h," which the world has accepted in its later, more trraceful phra-«inir. as the epitome of Knox's character: ''There lies he who never feared the face of man.'* The precise spot where he was buried is no longer known. It is said the highway came to pass over it. Knox was pliysically small and fcclde. II is voice was weak. It was its moral power, by which, as the Knglish ambassador wrote to Cecil, "the voice of one man is able in an hour to put more life in us than six hundred trumpets." Knox was profoundly pious, indomitable in pnr|)0!ie, yet not without j;cniality and humur. not without sensibility and tenderness, and tliat vein of melancholy which so often attends them. He hated bad thinirs rather than bad men. His animosities were the animosities of principle. None feared him but the enemies of truth. Ho was above all pettiness. He was a man of thought and a man of action, a statesman as well as a divine, with an acuteness of insight into character and a comprehension of the movements of Providence which gave iiim almost a prophetic forecast. He abhorred every species of tyranny, and roused a spirit in his native land which broke violence with violence. He had the roughness needed for a rough time and a fierce people. lie was intolerant to the intol- erant, and, exacting in his conception of his own <luty. be was exacting of others. His writings are full of vigor, originality, and simplicity. In his intellectual tone and theological opinions he was in afiinity with Calvin, in his pergonal heroism he resembled Luther : an<I next to Luther's his story stirs the soul in this great baf(!e-roll of the Ref- ormation. Ho wantorl nothing hut a wider sphere lo take rank in the first order of the historic men of his age. Perhaps ft wider sphere could not have been given him, for as none but Scotland could have produced a Knox, none but .Scotland would haveendurcil him. Such a direct and daring contlict as Knox wa^cd with the great would hardly have found out of Scotland such a support; hut not in Scotlan«I itself could any man but Knox have de- veloped it. The estimates of so strong a man in so stir- rini; a time, in which the jfolitical and religious antag- onisms were so violent, vary, of necessity, very much. Hume: "His political principles were as full of sedition as his theological were full of rage and bigotry.'* Whita- ker: "A holy savage." "I happened to ask," says Bos- well, " where Johu Knox was buried; Dr. Johnson burst out, ' I hope in the highway.' " Robertson : " Zeal, intre- pidity, disinterestedness, were virtues which ho possessed in an eminent degree." Melville: "That most notable prophet and apostle of our nation, John Knox." Banna- tvnc : "The light of Scotland, the comfort of the Church, the mirror of godliness." Smelon : " I know not if ever so much piety and genius were lodged in so frail and weak a body." Frou<lc: " Xo grander figure can be found, in (he entire history of the Reformation in this island, than that of Knox. Ru^ for him the Reformation would have been overthrown among ourselves. . . . He raised the poor commons of his country into a stern and rugged people, who might bo hard, narrow, superstitious, and fanatical, but who, nevertheless, were men whom neither king, nol)Ie. nor prie!<t couM force again to submit to tyranny." Car- lyle: "The most Scottish of Scot?. . . . Nothing hypo- critical, foolish, or untrue can find hurhor in this man ; a pure and manly silent tenderness of afTeotion is in him; touches of genial humor are not wanting under his severe austerity. A mojtt clear-cut, liurily, distinct, andeffcctivo man; fearing <iod without any other fear. There is in Knox throughout the spirit of an old Hebrew prophet — spirit almo<<t altogether unir{uc among modern men. A Ileaven-in^pircd seer and heroic leader of men." Knox's //M/ori/../" the /i'/.,riiinti»u in .SV.,//.mk/ appeared in I68G. His entire works have been cililed by Laing (ISIrt-S.')), The older sketches of Knox are by Beza, A'lam, and Vcrheidcn. The he^t Lirrtt are by McCric ( I^M), Nie- meyer f IK24). and Rrandes (IS(J:.M. The general histories of tircat Itritain and of England covering Knox'o time touch upon him with more or less fulness — Hume, Linganl, Kroude. The general lii!)toric!< of the Kiiglir'h Reforma- tion and Church of Knglnnd — Rurnel. Short : of the Prot- cstant Church and sects of (ireat Rrilnin — Weber (IM (5- b'J ) : more particularly the histories of Scotland, general — as Robertson, Tytler, Von Raumrr, Rurton : or special — Thomas McCrie, .Jr., Sk-rrrhr» "/" Sroitinh f^hurrfi Iliittory {ISll-ll'.). D'Aubign/'-'s Thrr^ (V,ifN,-.V* «/* .S'/rm/v//- (l.s:>0) ; Rudloir I2d cd.. 1«J4). Kiisllin i |.s;,:M, are of value. Car- lylo has an article in rrnnrr'i> Mai/nzinr for Apr., IS7A, on the portraits of John Knox, published by Harper A Rron., 1S7^>. Lorimcr, Jnhu Knnx mtil fh*i Church nf Kntj\%i%ui (Lond., IS7.'>i, has used important papers to illustrate his work in her pulpit and his influenoe in various respects. C. P. KnAiTii, Knox (Jons Jav), b. in Knoxboro*, Ouoida co., N. Y., Mar. 19, 1828; graduated at Hamilton College in. 1849; was a private banker or an officer of a bank until 1802, when he received an appointment from Secretary Chase, and subsequently bad charge of the mint eoiniigo corre- spondence of the treasury department; in lJS(i7 he was appointed deputy comptroller of the currency; and in 1870 his two reports on the mint service, together with a codification of the mint and coinngo laws of the U.S., willi many important amendments, were published by order of Congress. The bill which he proposed was subsequently passed with a few modifications, and is known as " the Coinage Act of 1873." In 1872 he was appointed comp- troller of the currency, and in 1877 reap])ointcd. His six reports published by Congress contain historical sketches of the two banks of the W S. and of the State and national systems of banking, and statistical information of banking and currency in this country, from the curliest date to the present time. Knox (LoRKS L.). D. D.. b. in Nelson, N. Y., Jan. 8, 1811 ; graduated at Wesleyan University 1838: tutor 1838- 40; held numerous pastorates aud several priucipalships of seminaries of the Methodist Episcopal Church ; was pro- fessor in Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis., 18;>8-64, and was placed on the superannuated list of his Church in 1871. Knox Corners (KsoxBonorGn P. 0.), a v. of Augusta tp., Oneida eo,. N. Y. Pop. 208. Knox'villCy post-tp. of Greene co., Ala. Pop. 1032. KnoxviHe, post-v., cap. of Crawford co., Ga., 15 miles from Fort Valley Station on the South-western R. 11. KnoxviUe^ city of Knox tp., Knox co., 111., 50 miles W.of Peoria and 50 E. of Burlington, la. It has 1 news- paper (established 18j(>), 1 national bank, B institutions of learning. 7 churches, 4 hotels, 7 wagon and carriage shops, 2 flour-mills, and 1 woollcn-mill. It is largely en- gaged in coal-mining and wagon manufacturing; is the scat of the Episcopal diocesan school of lUiniiis for girls, with an attendance of over 100 pupils. Pop. 1883. 0. L. Cami'Bkli., Forkman " Knux Co. Rkpi:blican." Knoxville, post-v. and tp.. cap. of Marion co., la., 40 miles S. E. of Des Moines. It has 2 national banks, 2 weekly newspapers, 6 churches, 3 hotels, 3 steam-mills. 2 woollen-factories, an iron-foundry, more than 20 stores of different kinds. It is situated on the line of the A. K. and D. R. R. Pop. of V. 800: of tp. 4750. J. L. McCoRMACK. Ed. "Marion Co. Demochat." Knoxville^ post-v. of Frederick co., I\Id., on the Poto- mac River, the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, and the Balti- more and Ohio R. R. Pop. 320. Knoxvillc, post-v. aud tp. of Ray co.'. Mo. Pop. 2-lfiO. KnoxviHe ( Stock bridgk P.O.). a v. of Slcickbridge tp., Madison co.. N. Y. It has 3 churches. Pop. 241. Knoxvillc, a v. of Corning tp.. Steuben co., N. Y.. on fhe Cheuuing Kivcr, opposite Corning, with which it is con- nected by a bridge. Poji. 785. Knoxvillc, post-v. of Knox tp., Jefferson co., 0. Pop. 165. KnoxviMe, poet-b. of Deerfield tp., Tioga co.. Pa. Pi>p. 400. Knoxville, city, cap. of Knox co., Tcnn., is situated at the head of navigation on the Tennessee River, on the East Tennessee Virginia and Georgia R. R.. and on the projected road from Cincinnati to Charleston, the latter roatl being conipleled 40 miles N. to Careyville coaI-mine.'<', and 10 miles S. to Maryville. It fans 17 churches, 5 banks, 2 daily and 4 weekly newspapers, 3 hotels, an opera house, numerous and enterprising wholesale houses, n rolling-nnll, 3 ftmo- drics, a paper-mill, a carriage-factory, sash and blinil fac- tories, extensive railroad car and repair shops, several fine - flour-mills, and many other industrial establishments. Knoxvillc is the third city of Tennessee in size, the centre nf the great valley of East Tennessee, one of the most beiiu- liful and fertile regions of the \} . "^.^ tind is noted for the , niimbor of its public eslablislnnenls. which include a mar- hlo U. S. court-house (and postoflieo") recently completed at a cost of $100,000. in wliieh the Federal courts and the Slato supreme court mer-t ; the East Tennessee University, the State Agricultural College (.■?5()0.000 endowmeut), a fc I male institute, and several fine city free schools, free public library, .'^late deaf and dumb school and insane asylum, and ! an orphans* home. Knoxvillu University, well endowed by the M. E. Church, is to be erected here, as also a city hos- pital. It is one of the most important commercial and man- ufaoturing centres in the .South. Pop. 8(>82. RriK k Ricks. Ens. "Daii.v CnnoNiri.E." Knoxville Mines, a v. of Lake co., Cal. Pop. 104. Knyphnu'scn ( Itono IIknrv), Raron. b. in Alsace in 173U; entered the military service of Prussia at an early 1576 KOALA— KOLLAR. age, and took part in the campaigns of Frederick the Great a-^ainst Austria ; befainc lieutenant-general, aud was second in commniul of the liegsian ami Waideek troops sent to America during the Kt-volutionary war ; was engaged in the battles of Long Ishind. White Plains. Fort Washington, lirandywine, and Monmouth, and was temporarily in com- mand of the forrrs in New York City in June, 17?>0, when hi' made two raids into New Jersey, with but slight ad- vantage beyond the sacking of Connecticut Farms and the burning of Springfield, lie was an excellent commanding ofliccr, and notable for taciturnity. D. at Berlin, Prussia, May 2. I7S0. Koa'ta^ the Phaacofarrtos r/ncrctM^ a syndactyl marsu- jtial mammal of Australia and of the family Phascolarctidie. It is ursine in its general appearance, nocturnal and arbor- eal in its habits, and extremely slow in its movements. It is a marsupial sloth, but we arc told that it sometimes comes to the earth and digs up succulrnt roots as food. The fe- male carries her single whelp for a time in the pouch, but soon transfers it to her back, where it clings by the Jong coarse hair. Ko'bell, von (Franz), b. at Munich July 19, 1S03, and bi-eanie pn»fes:!ior of mineralogy at the university of his native city in IS.'U. Of the Oenrhichte tier Wissen- schn/ten hi Ihnttichfnw/, a Work which was undertaken under the auspices of King Max of liavnria, he wrote Oc- fx'hirhte tfrr Minrrahujic von 1050 bU JSOO; hc also pub- lished several popular papers on mineralogy. Ko'bold [Ger.], in German legends, a kind of elf which in some places was believed to be attached to gome particu- lar house or place. In general the kobolds were beneficent, but some were malicious. They particularly haunted the mine>'; tliey were little, decrepit old men and women, dressed generally in miners' clothes. They heaped up precious stones and valuable metals; and though they dreaded to be seen by men. they were fond of doing mankind favors in secret. Ko'briii, or Kobryn, town of Russian Poland, in the government of Grodno, on the Machazica, has some trade and 7bM) inhabitants. Koch'ville, tp. of Saginaw co., Mich. Pop. lOTO. Kock, cle (Charles Pail), b. in Paris in 1794, was the son of the celebrated banker Kock, who conspired under the Revolution and was guillotined. Paul de Kock published his novels during the Restoration and the reign of Louis Philippe. These works are all of a very comical turn and of a light character, sometimes bordering on license. Among the most popular were (for they are now somewhat out of fashion), M. Dnpnnt, Gugtave on Ic Mauvaia Sujet, and Lea JJemohefleH de Mafjasln, Paul de Kock also wrote many vatuferillen for the stage. I>. at Paris Aug. 29, 1S71. — His son. Henri, b. in Paris in 1^21. follows the literary path trodden by his father, and he has already published many light novels and several vaiide.vUlet and comedies. ' Felix Aucaigne. Kcrchlin' (ANnnf:).* b. in Alsace in 17S6. the most celebrated of the Kfcehlin family, whieh has established and rendered the print trade of Mulhousc iu Alsace so prosperous. Jacques and Nicolas Ka?chlin were the first to engage in that industry, but it reached its highest degree through the efforts of Andr6 Koechlin, who can be considered as the head of this family, whieh does not count less than seven branches, and some members of which arc still the greatest manufacturers of Mulhouso prints. Fklix ArCATGNE. Koek'koek (Bernard Cornelus), b. at Middleburg in the Xetherlands Oet. 11, 180;J; i^tudicd the art of paint- ing under his father and at Amsterdam, and settled in 1S41 at Clevcs in Rhenish Prussia, where he d. Apr. 5, IS02. He painted landscapes, and his pictures arc prized very highly. He had three brothers, who all are painters of j note. Kohat% town of the Punjaub. in a district of the same name. In its vicinity arc rich springs ol naphtha and ex- tensive beds of sulphur. It forms au important station for the trade between India aud Persia. Koh-i-noor' (the "mountain of light"), a famous diamond which for many centuries was in the possession of the monarchs of India, and now in that of Queen Vic- toria. Successivo cuttings reduced its weight from 900 I carats to 792, then to 279. next to IHfi.C. and at last in 1862 to I0;i.7;>, being rose-eut, and valued at about $000,UUO. Kohl f JoRANN (iEORo). Ph. D.. b. at Bremen, Germany, Apr. 2S. ISOS; studied law at the universities of GSttingen, Heidelberg, and Munich; resided for five years { 1832—17) as a private tutor in Courland, Russia, and after visiting u great part of that empire settled in Dresden in IS.'IS, where he prepared three works on Russia, all published in ISJI. Their success led him to make a similarly careful series of journeys in the Austrian empire, and afterwards in Great Britain. Denmark, the Nethcrlande, and tbo Sla- vonic portion of Turkey, of nil whieh countries he furnished excellent accounts in his popular books of travel. His writ- ings on Denmark an'd .SK-.-iwiek-IIolstein (6 vols.. 184C- 47) were published opportunely just before the political questions regarding the Danish duchies sprang into im- portance (1848), aud they therefore obtained a wide pub- licity. From ls;>4 to ISjS, Dr. Kohl travelled or resided in North America, and as a conse(|uence prepared several valuable works — Travels in (Miunla (\^o:>), Traif.U iu the North-wentrru Pnrts of the U. S., and Kitrhi'Gami,uv Talta from Lake Superior ( 1S07). He also communicated to the Smithsonian Institution two essays on early maps aud charts of America, and prepared a catalogue of Ihein as a supple- ment to Hakluyfs great work. Iu iStH ho published a Jiist. of, and Cominentarif oji, tiro Mnjm of the Xtir U'ii/7(i made in Spain at the Commcnvcntcut of the Rtitjii of the Emperor Charles V., and almost at the same time a Hift. of the Discorrrif of Aiiierica. Dr. Kohl resided after his return from America at Bremen, and d. there June G. 1871. Shortly before his death he communicated to the Maine Historical Society important data rcppeetiug the early an- nals of discovery, exploration, and aticinpted colonization of the coasts of Maine by French navigators. Kohl'-rabi [Gcr.. perhaps originally meaning '* rape cabbage " or " Ijcet cabbage " — h'ohl-rultr'\, a variity of tbo lirnssica oleraeca, the species which includes the cabbage, turnip, etc. The thickened edible portion is the leafy stem, and above ground, instead of the root beneath, as in the turnip. It is cultivated in the I'. S.. but much more exten- sively in Europe, aud is prized for cattle aud for table use. Its cultivation is precisely that of the cabbage. Ko'komO) post-v.. cap. of Howard co.. Tnd., 54 miles N. of Indianapolis, on the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis, the Indianapolis Peru and Chicago, and the Frank- fort and Kokonio R. Rs.. being the terminus of the latter. It has 6 churches, I national and 2 private banks. 2 week- ly newspapers, a high-?ehoo| building (cost $40,1)00). ma- chine-shops, hub and spoke, door and sash, chair, furniture, and other factories, 1 woollen and 2 flouring mills. Pop. 2177. T. C. Philips, Ed. *' Tribine." 1 Ko'kra, or Cocus-wood, the Aporo^a dioira, a rather small tree of the East Indies, order Euphorbiacea'. The timber is very hard and of a rich handsome brown I color. It is imported, and used in making flutes and for I ornamental joinery. j Ko'la,town of Russia, in the government of Archangel. I is the northernmost town of European Russia, situated ; at the confluence of the Kola and Tuloma. 36 miles from I the Arctic Ocean, in lat. riS*^ 50' X.. Ion. Z^^ lb' E., cud has a good harbor. It was bombarded by the allied powers r Aug. 2.1, 1854. Pop. about 1000. Kolapoor'y an independent state under Engliiih protec- tion, in the jircsidcney of Bombay, partly occupied l)y the ! AVestern Ghauts, jiarlly situated on tHc table-land of Dce- ' can, bordering on the Kistnah. Area, 3445 square miles. Pop. 500,000. Cap. Kolapoor. Kolb (Geokg FniErmicn), b. Sept. 14, 1808, at Spires, where in Ib'.'S hc founded a liberal journal, which hc con- dueled for more than twenty years, though uuder many ditlicuUies from the government. As a member of the Bavarian diet he compelled King Louis I., iu l>4y. by his report on the Greek louu. to repay to the state treasury out of his private means the money which had been lent to his son, King Otho of Greece. Shortly after the reac- tionary party came into |>ower, aud Kolb had to retire to Zurich to escape from the persecutions of the govtrnment. He lived here from 185o to 18ri0. On his return hc became editor of the liberal journal. Frankfurter Ztitumj. Besides being a journalist and politician, hc has acquired u great name as a statistician. He wrote l/tindhuch der verylcich- eudtn Stittistik (1858) and O'rinidritis dtr Statiatik (1862). Kol'csey (Fkhkncz), b. Aug. 8. 1790. at Szo-Demeter, in Transylvania: studied law, but allied himself very early with that literary movement at the head of which stood Kazinczy. His poems and tales were much appreciated ; he exercised the greatest influence, however, by his clear and vigorous criticism. Having been elected a member of the Hungarian diet { 1832-36). he showed himself to be one of the most brilliant orators of the country, and a great political career was opened for him when he suddenly d. at Pesth, Aug, 21, I8.'{S. His collected works were published after his death ; his JJiart/, during the diet in 184S. Koliazin'f town of Russia, in the government of Tver. It is famous for its shoe-factories. Pop. 5895. Kolin'f town of Bohemia, on the left bank of the Elbe. Here the Austrians under Daun defeated the Prussians un- der Frederick the Great. June 18, 1757. Pop. 7727. KoHar' (Jan), b. July 2y, 1793, at Mossocz, in North- KOLLIKER— KONIGSTEIN. 1577 western Hungary, of Slavic descent; studied theology at Prcsburg and Jcnii : was appointi'd minister to Ihe Slavic congregation nt I*est!i in Isl'.t, oml removed in 1K4'J, as professor of Slavic archaeology, lo Vicuna, where he d. Jan. 2U, 18o2. His poeniB and Um^ edition of the Slavic popiilar songs exercised a great intluence on the development of the Itohemian literature. lUit a still iimri- intense and much wilier attention was attracted by his idcsis of Panslavisro, which pervade his poetry, his sermons, and his archteologi- cal writings, and which were openly set forth for the first time in his Ccbcr die Utrrarinchc Wt'cfmrheitif/keit zwiscUen dtn Stiimmrn und MuudartcH der iilawischen A'atioiten (1S;U), written in (icrman. KoTlikcr (Ridoi.f Ai.BUKCtiT). h. at Zurich. Switzer- land, July G, 1817: studied at Zurich. Uonie. and lierlin ; became distinguished for knowledge of histology and skill in micro?c<tpical anatomy ; was nuide an instructor at Zu- rich in 1H41;, and in I84j adjunct professor of comparative anatomy and of physiology : received the full professorship of the same branches at Wiiizhurg in 1.SI7, and in IS-l'J heciimc professor of anatomy there. Author of a series of very valuable works on histology, physiology, and other departments of biology, several of which have been trans- lated into the principal European languages. Kolmar, tp. of Olmsted co., Minn. Pop. 972. Kolonio'Uf town of Austria, in the province of (lalicia, on (he Pruth. at ilie foot of the Carpathian Mountains. It is famous for its pottery. P(»p. 14,S.'iy. Kolom'na, town of Kuropean Russia, in the govern- ment of Moscow, on the Moskva, near its confluence with the Oka. It has large silk manufactures and a consider- able trade. Pop. l:i,70:i. Koloshcs, the Russian name for the Indians of the const of Alaska. fScc Komacas.) iionfi Mountains, the name of a mountain-range of Central Africa, commencing in lat. 9° N. and Ion. '.)° 20' W., at a distance of about 2O0 miles from the Gulf of (luinea, and forming the northern frrmtier <tf Ashaiitce. The height of these mountains i- not more than 2.')()0 feet, but very little is known about tbeui. Tlic Kong district is remark- able for its trade in gold, and the town of Kong is quite celebrated for its manufactures of col ton cloth, in which it carries on an extensive trade, being itself a centre of sev- eral caravan-routes. Konfj^^'berj;, town of Xorway. in the province of Chris- tiania, has a mining scbool. and in its vicinity silver-mines, discovered in 102^5, and still worked with profit. Pop. about .onon. Konia'gas, Ka'diakn, or Southern Eskimos, a great family of aborigines inhabiting thcsca-c<»ast of Alaska for more than lilM) miles from Kot/.ebuc Sound, N. of lUh- ring Strait, across the peninsula of Alaska to the mouth of the Atna or Copper River, and extending inland lOU to IJO miles. They derive their name from the large island of Kadiak, the inhabitants of which called themselves K'nunfinl. They arc divided into fourteen tribes — the K'>niaga3 proper, who inhabit Kadiak and tlic neighboring islands; (hugatslies, on the islands and shores of Prince William Sound; Aglegmutes, on Itristol Rnj' ; Keyalaig- mutes, on the river Nushagak and the coast as far as Cape Ncwenham; Aguliuules, on the coast between the Kusko- quin and Kishunak rivers; Kuskoipiigtnutcs, on the river Ku.-koquim: Magemulrs. near Cape Romanzofl"; Kwieh- Iiagmutcs. Kwicbluagniutes. and Pa^hloliks on Kwichpak, vwiehluak. and Pashtulik rivers; Clinagmutes, near Pash- t'.lik Ray: Anlvgmutcs of (Jolovnin Ray; Kaviaks and Miilemutes of Norton Sound. All these tribes speak dia- Icct.s of the same language. (Fur an elaborate account of these little known races see II. II. Rancrofl's Native Rucea n/tln- I'ft'ifii: StnUi,, vol. i., ISVI.) Ko'iiieh, the ancient ftonitun, town of Asialio Turkey, the capital of (ho province of Karaniaiiin, Asia Minor, situated in lat. 'M"^ M' N. and Ion. ;i2° 41)' K. It has some manufactures of carpets anrl nuirocco. but it is mo.stly in a decaying state, although its walls, surmounted by square towers, its nuiny mos(|UCs und minarets, give it an impos- ing appearance at a distance. Pop. between 4U,U00 und .')0,000. KO'niff (Hf.ivnini .To**Epn\ h. Mar. 19, 1700. nt Fuldn. in the toruicr eleelorale nf Iles-te. held different small of- fices in Ihe civil serviee at Ihumu; retired in is 17; lived for some time at Wiesbaden, and d. Sept. 23. IS(iU. He wrote a great number of novels and so-calletl historical ro- mances — f/i»fipi'f,dir \i'4ilti' imrrin (2 vols.). Wiffinm Shnk- fif>r<trr {2 vols.), />i> ("luUnKtfH iu .l/«iniS (.'1 vols.), etc. — which were eagerly devoured by that kind of people who have time to read many novels, but not taste enough to rend the good ones. KO'nigf^riUZy a fortified town of Bohomiaf on the Elbe. The Austrians under Gen. Rencdek were completely defeated here by the Prussians under Gen. Moltko, July 2, 186(3. Pop. JVlGl. Kti'nisinhof, town of Bohemia, on the Elbe. It has some manufactures. Pop. 5370. Ko'ni^sbcrg, the capital of the province of Prussia and a fortress of lirst rank, is situated 20 miles from the Baltic on both sides of the Pregel, whose two arms, the old and the new Prcgcl, unite within tljc city. Pop. Dec. 1, 1871. 112,002. It is the scut of a university, of the pro- vincial government, of the staff of the 1st army corps, and has a numerous garrison. It consists of three former towns, Altstadt, Lobenicht. and Knei])hof, which in 1724 were united into one city. It is not a handsome place; the streets arc narrow and tlierc are few conspicuous buildings. Altstadt is the oldest part, and contains the palace and the tov^n-houso. The palace, with a tower 87 metres high, forms an oblong square, anil stands nearly in the centre of the city. It is rich iu historical recollections. It was founded in 12.'t7 by King Ottokar of Robcmia; became the residence of the grand master of the (icrman order in I-ICC, and in 1J25 the residence of the dukes of Prussia. The eastern wing was built in lo;i2 by Duke Albrecht, the southern in 16^1. In the chapel, occujiying the western wing, the elector of "Rrandonburg, Krcilcrick IIF., crowned himself, Jan. 18, 1701. as the first king of Prussia, under the name of Frederick T. In the same place William I., afterwards German emper()r, was crowned as king of Prus- sia Oct. 18, 18(il. Over the church is the large Moskowi- tersaal, which is used for great festivals. In front of the eastern gate stands the statue of Frederick I., erected in 1801, of life-size. Other remarkable buiblings arc — the cathedral, 92 metres long, situated on an island formed by the Pregel, a Gothic structure commenced in l.'ilJo, and con- taining several interesting monuments; the old university building. Collegium Albertinum. founded in 1;'»44; the new university building, on the parade-ground to the N. of the juxlacc, finished in |S(;2, with a hall frcscoecl by Uosentelder, Griif. and Piotrowsky. On the parade-ground Pt.ands also the theatre, and in the centre of the place rises the equestrian statue of Frederick William III. by Kiss. The museum, the royal library, tlie observatory, tlieniuuu- nicnts of the philosopher Kant and the niinister Scliiin, arc also inlorcBting. Excellent scientific and benevolent in- stitutions are the botanical garden, the zoological museum, the seminary, Ibrec gymnasiums, a mercantile school, an aiuidemy of art. asylums for the deaf und dumb, fur the blind, lunatics, and orphans, and several hospitals. The nnmufacturing industry is considerable. Iron-foundries, machine-shops, breweries, and dyework.s are in operation. Iron goods, chemicals, soap, paper hangings, leather, and tobacco are manufactured. To the city belonged in 1872, la sea-going vessels, besides 8 river steamboats. At Pil- lau, the port of Kiinigsberg, entered in 1871, 1322 vessels, with cargoes of IIO.OJO tons, and ."588 vessels without car- goes; and cleared, I.VIO vessels, with cargoes of lii.'i.OGS tons, and 8i vessels witluuit cargoes. Among the imports were 2lH,07fl cwts.tea, U0,4(i.') cv.ts. pig iron. 3I8.1'J3 cwts. rails, 131,238 barrels of herrings, 1,018,255 cwts. coal, 1 323,'IS5 cwts. salt. Among the expoils were 201,808 cwts. tea to Russia, 138,247 cwts. rails, 20;'.,filiO cwts. flax and heiup.OU7.00(i cwts. wheat, 2,130, l)2il cwts. rye, 401, SO I cwts. . barley, 433,007 cwts. oats, 310,500 cwts.* beans, 700,412 j cwts. oil-sceds, 104,8.33 cwts. rags, 175,230 cwts. salt. Konigsberg was built by the Teutonic order of Knights in 1255 as a fortress against llu' jiagiin Samhender, and losc I to importance througli its corn-trade. In 1020 its foi-tifi- I cations were reconstructed, and again in 1813. About 1523 it became the capital of the duchy (tf Prussia. In 1758 it i was occupied for a short time, by the Russians, in 1807 by I the French. The philosopher Kant taught here from 1755 to his deatli, Feb. 12, 1804, AriasT Nikmann. Ko'nic^^ninrk (.MAitiv ArnoiiA^, CorNTKSs, b. nt Stado. Ilanitver, in IfiiiO. Her lather was a Swedish general, and fell ill th)' Dutch service at Bonn in 1073; her motber was a daughter of the Swedish field-marshal Wrangel. She re- ceived a brilliant education at the courts of Stoekh<tlm, Hanover, nnd Rrunswick, and she was moret)Vcr exceed- ingly beautiful. In 1004 she *vcnt lo Hresden, where August II. had just ascended the throne, and in lOOO she bfirc him a son, the famou.<4 Maurice, nuirshal of Saxony. In i7"2 (he king, whose frien<l she became after being his mistress, sent her to the camp of Charles X 1 1, in (Nunland (o ))orsuade him to niakc pcact^ but Charles XII. declined to SCO " the most tanious woman of two centuries," as Vol- taire calls her. The rest of her life consists merely of anecdotes an>l gossip more or Icm credible. She d. poor and sutVering at Qucdiinburg Feb. 10, 1728. Ko'niustpin, small town of the kingdom of Saxony, on the left bank of the Elbe. Behind it rises a huge rock, 1578 KONIGSWAKTH— KORAN. 878 feet above the river and lUl feet above the sea, and entirely inaccessible except through a narrow passage to tiie N. W. On tlie top ol this mek is buiU the famous fortress (if Koiiigstein with bombproof casemate!?, and a well 1172 feet deej), to which the crown jewels and the treasury of the kingdom are brought in times of war. Ko'ni§;8\varth, town of Bohemia, has iron and tin mines and mineral springs. Pop. 74y4. Koohetph'i, town of Russia, in the government of Daghistan, Caucasus, manufactures cloth, shawls, and arms. Pop. COOO. Koo'doOf a splendid antelope of South Africa, the StrepHt'ccros koodoo, one of the largest of the family. It has an extensive range in the wooded regions, is easily domesticated, and its tlcsh is highly esteemed. Its large and spirally twisted horns are characteristic of the species. KooTa^ or Kufa^ town, or rather the ruins of a town. of Asiatic Turkey, in the province of Knordistan. on an affluent of the Euphrates, was founded by Omar, who made it his residence, and who was murdered here. It soon be- came the scat of Arabic learning, and the ancient Arabic characters called Cu/ic received their name from this place. AVhen, at the end of the eighth century, the residency was removed to Bagdad, Koofa declined, and sank into ruins. KoolTo, or Kiilfo, town of Western Africa, in the dominion of Gando. stands on the Mayarroxv, in lat. 10° 10' N.. Ion. 6° 45' E.. and is surrounded with high walls. It has an important trade, and about 12,000 inhabitants. Kooni) or Kiim^ town of Persia, in the province of Irak Ajeniee. is pariiy in ruins since its destruction by the Afghans in 1722, but is at present rising once more. The district in which it stands is very fertile, and its position on the road between Teheran and Kasbin gives it consid- erable commercial importance. Pop. about 12,000. Koondooz'9 KhoondooZy or Kunduz, a small province of Northern Afghanistan, lying between the fron- tier of Bokhara and the Bolor Mountains, formerly an in- dependent khanate of Tartary, but now owning allegiauce to the Ameer of Cabool. The greater part of the province is mountainous, but there are some fertile valleys where excellent grain is raised. The capital, Koondooz, has a population of 2000. Koordislan', or Kurdistan, the name of an exten- sive region of Western Asia, situated between hit. o4° and 38° N., and between Ion. 42° and 47° E. It forms no in- dependent political unit, but is divided between Turkey and Persia, though its relations to both of these two powers are somewhat loose. Its area is estimated at 100,000 square miles : the number of its inhabitants at :J,000.000,of whom four-tifths are Koords. The country is mountainous, some of the peaks rising to the height of i:j.O()0 feet, intersected by beautiful valleys along the rivers, which in great num- ber flow down to the Euphrates and Tigris. The Koords. who are M<)hammedans. live mostly as nomads. They are a proud and fierce race, engaged in the rearing of cat- tle, sheep, goats, an<l horses, of which great numbers are annually exported both to Turkey and to Persia, where they are highly ej-teemed — the goats for their silky hair, the horses for their strength and fieriness. Generally, their looks, characters, and habits correspond perfectly with the description Xenophon gives of them. Koorile Islands. See Kuimi.k Islands. Koorskfor Kursk, government of European Russia, between the Don and the Dnieper. Area, 17,3S5 square miles, with 1,86C,H.')'J inhabitants. The surface is mostly low but undulating, and the soil very fertile. Large crops of wheat arc raised, besides hemp, tobacco, and fruit. Koorsk, or Kursk, town of European Kussia, the cap- ital of the government of Koorsk, on the Seim. It is a flourishing to\vn, with an extensive trade in tallow, rope, and fruit, and many good educational institutions. In the neighborhood of Koorsk is held au annual fair in the month of ,Iuly. which is one of the greatest fairs of the country. Pop. 2S.'.t2!. KooMruais, Kitiinaha, Coutanies, Cottoiiois, or Flat bows, a tribe of Indiana in British Columbia, Wiushington. Idaho, and Montana Territories, called by themselves Skalzi. They are classed by H. H. Bancroft (X'llive /inrca 0/ thr Part'Jic StatrHf vol. i., 1874) in the Shushwap family of the Columbian or Nootka-Columbian group; by others they are placed in the Palish or Flat- head family, and arc sometimes considered a family by themselves, though closely allied to the Atnas and Oka- nagans. Amid a multitude of authorities, frequently at variance with each other or ilefectivc upon essential points, the tribal distribution of this entire group is still problem- atical. The original hnbitnt of the Koolenais is in British Columbia, in the space bounded by the Columbia and Clark rivers and the Kocky Mountains, where about 400 still remain upon the Kootenai or Flatbow Lake. Some hundreds now live in Washington Territory, on the great reservation bounded X. by the U. S. frontier, E. autl S. by the Columbia, and W. by the Okanagan Kiver; 400 live in Idaho, near the Cipur d'Alenc mission ; and 320 are settled with the Kalispcls, on the Jocko reservation in Montana. They are generally jieaceabic and self-sustaining, hunting the bufl'alo with bows and arrows, and have had little deal- ing with the government. They have made some progress in civilization under the auspices of Father de Smet and other Catholic missionaries. Koo'tenay, county of X. Idaho, bounded X. by British Columhin. E. i>y Montana, S. by Ctt'ur d'Alenc River, and W. by Washington Territory. It is partly mountainous, but contains large and fertile prairies. It is traversed by Clark's River, and contains several large lakes. Gold is reported to be found. Ko'pel, a V. of Marion tp., Mercer co., 0. Pop. 305, Kopp (Joseph Ettych), b. in 1793 at Miinster. in the canton of Lucerne, Switzerland ; was director of the Ly- ceum at Lucerne from 1819 to 1841, and president of the board of education to IS45, in which position he became conspicuous by his opposition to the Jesuits. Ilis princi- pal works are — Vrkumicnzur lieleurhtutit/ der Gfsfhirht*- der cidij^noeaischen B'unde {2 vols., 1835-51) and GcHchirhte der eidgenoBsischen B'unde {5 vols., 1845-G2), by which he threw new light on the relation between the house of Haps- burg and their possessions in Switzerland, and liissolvcd the story about Tell into a myth. D. at Lucerne Oct. 25, 1S66. Kop'parberg, or Stora-Kopparberg, the name of a political division of Sweden, situated on both sides of the Dal River, and comprising those regions which formerly were so celebrated in the history of the country under the name of Dalarne (Lat. Dahcarlia). It is a wild but beau- tiful mountain-region, covered with forests of fir and birch, and rich in copper and porphyry, but ill suited for agricul- ture. The inhabitants, numhcring about ISO. 000, form one of the finest types of the Scandinavian race. They are valorous, hardy, ingenuous, and trustworthy, and nearly in all crises in the Swedish history the Dnfrcttrlicr have make the decision. As the country is unable to support them, they spreail over Southern Sweden and Denmark seeking for work, but they always return to their native vales with their earnings. Cap. Falun. Kop'pen, von (Peter), b. at Kharkow, Russia, Feb. 10, 17i'3; studied at the university of his native city, and devoted himself throughout life to researches concerning the ethnology, archaeology, and history of Russia. His principal worlcs are — Afatcriaiicnzur Culturgrgrfiirhte Russ- lan(h{\V>^'i), T>\f OcsrhirhfcdcM WcinhancfitDtd Weiuhniidefs Ml Iiitimfnnd» (1832), Tntiricn (1840), Efkno/frnphiftchc Knrte dea eiintpnischen liussland (1H51), and an exhaustive me- moir on the census of 1800. The Russian government pre- sented him with an estate in the Crimea, Karabagh, where he d. June 4, 18G4. Ko'ran, the book of the Mohammedan religion and the foundation of the Mohammcd:iu literature. It may be also regarded as the conservative power of the widely-spoken Arabic language and the source of its refined system of grammar. Its religious and intellectual influence extends from India to Morocco, from Turkey and the borders of the Russian empire to the central and southern parts of Africa. In comparing it with the Bible, it may be said that the lat- ter differs from it. an<l from every other book called sacred, in having been, so far as its human jiroduetion is con- cerned, a growth of many ages and of many nitnds. It lies in history as a stream of supernatural influences, events, and teachings, extending from the patriarchal times to the complete introduction and establishment of Christianity upon the earth. In tliis respect the Bible dif- fers wholly from the Persian, Indian. Booddliist, and Chi- nese books with which it is so often ignorantly compared. So the Koran is also the product of one mind and of one I age. In certain features, however, it hears a much closer ; relation to the Jewish and Christian Scriptures than the other writings referred to. It may be regarded, in fact, as I a lateral wave from that great tide of religious thought and feeling which came down from the curliest times of human history, bearing in its mid-channel the Jewish theocracy, and culminating in the Christian Church. In other words, the Koran may be regarded with some reason as an npocry- phal book of the Bible, bearing to it a relation similar to that of the weird visions of the Second Esdras. the Wisdom ; of Solomon, or the sententious book of Sirach. Itisstilithe heaving of the ground-swell from that old fountain-flood of religious power. Without Judaism and Christianity, Mo- : hammedanism anrl the Koran would never have had an ex- istence. Without Abraham and Moses and Christ the Arabian prophet would never have made the appearance he pre- i scnts in history as the reaffirmer of the Divine Unity, the KORAN. J.")7!) ^' rebuker of idolatry, and the restorer of the primitire pa- triarclial or Abruharaic religion. The name Konin (Al Konin. with the article, The Koran) is derived from an Arabic verb tjnrd, to "read," and this from the older Slieinitic, meaning to "cry aloud" (icpaw, »pa^(u), to *' pronounce," " utter," *' dictate." It is in this respect like the name Mii/nt (NTp?3), from the cognate }{oi»rew root, and which tlie .lows gave to their ."Scriptures. This probably .'*u;5geslcd it lo .Moliammed. thnu;;li the ap- plication he makes of it is somewhat different. The Jew- ish name was from the public reading — the Koranic, from the idea of recitation or dictatinn to jMohamined himself. Sometimes a word e.vprcssly denoting this is Ui-cd for the )urpose; as in Sura x\v. (J, 7: *• .\nd the unbelievers say, ~IiM is a lie which ho hath contrived; they arc traditions of the ancients which he has caused to be written down, saying that thev wore dicttftrd {tninln) to him, morning and evening. ,Say unto them. He hath revealoil it who knoweth the secrets of heaven and earth; lie the (Jracious, the Merciful." The medium of this dictation was the an- gel Gabriel, who is elsewhere callcil, in the Koran, Ihihn- 7X*Hf/i(». the Holy .Spirit (see .\vi. 101, etc.), and sometimes simply Huh, The Spirit, as in l.K.x. 4. Hence also the Ko- ranic name Tonzil, or the "descent," defined in the book Titrifnt as "the declaration or revealing of the Kru-an by means of the angel (or spirit) tlencfntling on the heart of the Prophet." .Some regard Iho word Tamil as denoting the literal descent of the book in successive folios or por- tions from the heavens; but the other view is most in ac- cordance with the spirit of the passages in which the term is used. This has been commonly treated by the earlier Christian writers as all a designed imposture, very much as it waa vioweil by the scoffing Arabian Kafirs whom Mohammed pathetically rebukes. Later tierman authorities, on the other hand, esnci-ially Spronger in his I.rbni uml Lrhre 'Un Mohauimtul, go to the other extreme in ranking the Arabian reformer with the |>rophets and apostles of the Christian Scripluns, and even with the Founder of Chris- tianity itself. This, however, is evidently done not so much in honor of .Moharamcl as fr>r the disparagement of Isaiah, Paul, and Christ. There is unquestionably a deep conviction of truth, a strong sense of some destined mission, and a fervent enthusiasm prevailing throughout this remarkable work. No man can carefully study it with- out feeling its subjective truthfulness — that is, without be- ing impressed by the thought that the writer, or the preacher, is delivering what he believes to be a true message from a superhuman sphere, whatever may have been the mode ami influences throu;;h which that conviction was produced. The explanation which would so easily resolve it all into a studied dece])tion comes from a shallow overlooking of well- established facts in the human psychology. The earnest- ness and strong devotional spirit manifested in ttie Koran re- pel the idea. There is. moreover, a tenderness of conscience in respect to his supposed mission which one guilty of a long and studied imposition would seem incapable either of feeling or affecting. There is a striking instance of this alluded to in Sura xvii. 7.'i, where there is related a rebuke Mcdiaramcd had received for seeming, on a certain occasion, to have swerved from his instructions under the temptation to palliate some forms of idolatry among his followers. It was at this time that ho olTored the touching praycrreeorded by.\l Zamakhshnri in his commentary on the passage: " We have it from tho Pro- phet. Allah bless lijm I that when this weakness was revealed to him, he prayeil and said, ' Allah, never again leave mo to myself for the twinkling of an eye.' " It is not easy to reconcile such emotion as this, and such utterances, with a protracted scdiemc of harrleneil and deliberate lying. To a similar end may be cited tho instances of tender and cbnr- ilablo feeling that characterize tho earlier parts of the Ko- ran, though in the later chapters strife anil oppression had t.'ndeil to make hi« utterances more fierce ami fanatical. See .Sura ii. .'>!): "Verily they who believe, and those who ;iro Jews, and the Christians, and the Sabienns, yes, every one who believes in (lod ami in llie day of judgment, and who rloes that which is right. —to all such is there recom- p-nso from their Lord; they have nothing to fear: they shall not bo grieved." A ililferent language is found iii some other parts, which commentators. Christian as well MS Mohammedan, have labored to reconcile: but it is better lo admit the inconsiilency. A deliiiernte dei'eption would have avi>ided or suppressed it. As having the same bear- ing, may bo meutmned the places where he speaks not only reverently but temlerly and lovingly of Jesus, or "'/«o 'hriiu Mnii)iimii (son of Mary), Wind of truth," as he calls him. Sura xix. :'..'i. acknowledging liim as one grenter than himself— a revere ncc which he also pays to Abr:ibam and Moses. Passages elsewhere which are inter- preted as teaching persecution, or the enforcement of relig- ion by the sKcir I. are to be regarded in the same light as coming from a change of temper, and as having been still further perverted by the fanatical bigotry of his immediate followers. It may be doubted, however, whether they were ever meant to bo ap])lied to .lews and Christians, of whom Mohammed speaks so charitably in the passage cited. Throughout the better part of the book the Kafirs, or uii- 6c/t'ciTr«, who arc to be forced into truth and puritv by the cUnnsiuff sword of Islam, arc the unclean alul bloodv pagan idolaters whom he regards as in alliance with Sbcitan (Sa- tan, Eblis) and the Jins. As the idea of crude imposture is untenable, so also does the more plausible explanation of an excited enthusiasm fail to remove all the difliculties of this remarkable literary and religious phenomenon. The Koran is a book which can only be interpreted on the ground that the author himself strongly believed in it as coming from some other source thiin llis own conscious and voIunt:iry mental exercises regarded in their normal condition. There have been, even in mod- ern experience, too many wullattestcd cases of the ecst:itio trance, of abnormal visionary states, of clairvovant and somnambulic titterances, to warrant the summary rejection of such explanations. .Mcdiammed's epile]itic eomlition of body made him a fit subject of such influences, from what- ever sphere we nuiy regard them us coming. His high ge- nius gave them a more intensive form and a more elevated character than ordinarily characterize such utterances in our own times. We know, loo, that similar claims have been ])ut forth by men characterized not so much bv imag- ination as by the loftiest reason. The iatMoi'iot'of Soc- rates, so solemnly asserted by bim in his last moments, belongs to this class of psychological phenomena. The power and value of tho utterances produced arc to bo judged by the evidence they give of the genius and mental rank of tho one from wlnun they inoceeil, and the coloring recei\'ed from the outward infiucnees ()f the age in which they appear. Tliey may be trilling, they m;\y lie unmean- ing, or they may rise to an eloquence and a dignity pro- ducing, as in this case, the mightiest efTccIs, and demand- ing, therefore, our awed respect, though higher evidence may be required to certify them as an actual and direct revelation from the Divine sphere. The careful and intel- ligent rettiling of the Koran furnishes the best proof here. Let a man carry steadily along with such rending the thought of colli artifice, of deliberate lying, or studied im- ]iosture, and the idea is continually refuting itself It would have been a very dill'eicnt book produced in that way. Its very extravagances, its rhapsodies, its sudden emotional transitions, its weird pictures, mingled at times with the sublimest ideas, give conclusive proof of a deeper anil more mysterious origin. There arc other names for the Koran to be found in the book itself, such as Al Kltuh, " the Scripture," liikr, " me- morial" (used like the Hebrew zikcr,zikl-ariiii). Al FiirLan, etc., which are of little significance in determining either its form or the nature of its contents. The latter would strictly mean, the book divided into sections, as the Hi'lircw pprek is nscil for the shorter divisions of the Talmud. Keg- ular division, however, is very far from being a feature of the Koran. Its one hundred and fourteen chapters vary greatly in their length, from forty octavo pages, which is the length of Sura ii. in Fliigel's edition, to a short para- graph containing a verse or two, which is the extent of a largo number towards the end. Besides this, there is an artificial division, subsequently made, into sixty-five equal portions, called Ahzfib, and each of these again subdivided into four equal jjarts. Another makes thirty portions, but all tlieso are simply for the use of renders, and made in im- itation of the synagogue sections for the worship of the Jews. There aro mentioned seven principal eilitions or ancient copies — two named from Medina, one from Alecea, one from Cufa, one from itasrii. a sixth called tho Syrian, and a seventh styled the common or vulgatc edition. Tliev differ slightly in the reckoning of the whole number of the verses, a variation arising from n few difierences of divis- ion : but they all agree in the same total of words, which they make to be 77.(i."fl, and the same total of letters. .T2.'!.01.'( : the Mohammedans, as ,Sale says, having imitiilrd in this respect the superstitious carefulness of the.lewi!.|i Mftsorites. There can be no <loubt of a wry ancient wri- ting, whether made by .Mohammed himself, or by some of his lievoted followers, but the principal means of promul- gallon in the beginning was most probably by oral recita- tions made by those who had eominiltcil to memory partic ular Sums, and in some cases the entire Koran. That this is by no means incredible appears from the same fact nnd the same practice as now exhibiteil in the Mohammedan schools in India, an. I even in the inlerinr of Africa. The solemn recitation of iMobammed, believeil, a" it was, to have come from the nneel, must have made a deep impression upon the minds of his early disciples, thus aiding the memory Id receiving and retaining the romarknblo words. Tho 1580 KORAN. .'/' belief in this is also aided by the fact of a class of racn in after times professionallv devoted to this practice, and dc- rivinj; from it a special name. Thi-y were called huffii(hun, rnttotlrs^ connervatoreti, qui Cornnujn ineworin lenetit; resem- bling in some respects the old Homeric chanters. They are referred to in Ahmed's Hinlori/ n/ Timur (Manger ed.), p. 871, where the names of a mimlier of them are given. (See also llerbelot. nUil. Orient., 202, and Pocock. Spe<-lm., X-S.) So the Koran itself is called Mahfndz, "the book preserved." The term is used Sura l.\.txv. 22, though there applied to a tablet, whether literal or as figurative of the memory: "Nay. it is a glorious Koran, prcscrvcil (in mem- ory ) as on a tablet;" though some would interpret it as moaning a tablet kept in heaven— the original in the Divine mind. . The Koran, as has been said, is a reflection from the Bible, however distorted and apocryphal the image it pre- sents to the f'bristian mind. It admits the divine author- ity of the Jewish Scriptures. It may be said, too, that its inlluence as a book gives a more encouraging basis for Christian missionary effort than can be found in the worn- out religions of Boo'ddha. Brahma, and Confucius. In dis- tinction" from them it is a live book and the text of a living religion. It belongs to the side of positive theology, bav- ingfor its ground, like the Jewish and Christian, the , Vo/A Ychnriih. " the fear of God " — of a personal God— in- stead of the empty theosophy or mystic nature-worship that characterizes those systems of the remoter East. In opposition to their materialistic dualism, their elusive pan- theism, their cold subjectivity, stand out the glowing devo- tion, the snblime earnestness, the pure, distinct, and lofty th-.-ism of the Koran. Its doctrine of Allah's sovereignty, of his immovable throne, of his eternal decrees, of hiseon- tinual person.il providence, is the antithesis of their physi- cal fate. So, too. does its teaching in respect to a great judgment to come, a resurrection-day of final account, " the book " in which each man shall read the true value of the life lived by him in this preparatory world, the '•meeting of his siiis that have gone before him," and above all, its sublimely rigorous doctrine of prayer, place it in direct contrast with the poor, barren worldliness which is all that we get from the best selections made from the writ- ings of Confucius. In view of these facts we cease to won- rler at its triumph wherever it has met those lifeless creeds. It is all the more hopeful for Christianity that it should have had such a pioneer or forerunner in India and China. Better to contend with Mohammedanism itself, when the time comes, than with those dead systems, who.sc inertia or want of religious susceptibility presents a harder and more ho]ieless antagonism than the vitality of eveii Mohammedan error. The very fact that the Koranic religion is sharply controversial gives all the more encouragement. It is evi- dence of some kind of life : it shows that it has something to contend for. It is better to meet the jealous Islamite in this way than to encounter the meaningless pantheism of the Hindoo or the stolid indifference of the Chinese. VVith the first there is a common ground, giving hope of ultimate agreement. The Koran has all those grand theistic elements of religion that demand the Christian »/)pc/rr/fi/— that is, the doctrine of ihr croni, or that mediatorial idea which may he said to be the great lack of Islainism. When other enemies are slain, clear discussion may bring that media- torial idea to light, and thus show that the Ar.abian enthu- siast had really something which may be called a mission for that dead iEasleru world. Neither can it be denied that the Koran produced a most salutary reformation in its own times. Neither the Ish- maelite nor the Joktanite Arabians had wholly lost the old patriarchal or Shemitic monotheism. But it had be- come much darkened and corrupted by Sabiranisin. and some still grosser forms of creature-worship that had come in. The Koranic name for this, ;l/<.«Ait kunn (" who make sharers, partners"), is suggestive of Paul's description of the beginnings of iilolatry— " The worship of the creature <i/on7 iriih the Creator, or h'ni'lr the Creator (iropi ii»' rriVaiTa, Rom. i. 25. See especially Koran. Sura xyi. 1"2). Some had gone farther than this, even to what might he called demon-worship, occompanied with the foulest prac- tices. The change in this respect produced by the promul- gation of the Koran was sudden ami extensive. It was also the means of a reformation of morals, and the putting away of some exceedingly barbarous and revolting customs. Thus, infanticide was very commonly practi.sed, especially the putting to death of female children, ond even burying them alive. There is a most touching allusion to such a horrid custom in Sura Ixxxi. The passage is gi^ven at some length, as a specimen also of the peculiar Koranic rhythm, and of the weird style that especially chnraeteriies some of these later chapters. It is entitled Tnkirir, or the •• Fidding up." from the verb in the first verse, hlh' o»A-»/i<iin«ii koirmral. It is a description of the day of iudgment. and we have rendered it almost word for word, witira few slight freedoms in the use of the active for the passive, in order to preserve something like the rhyming cadence : " When the sun [its face! is shroudine. When the stars are downwards gliding. When the hills are lightly moving (Jer. iv. 24 ; Ps. ciiv. 4), When the camels ten mouths gone, T'ncared for now. are left alone; When the rabid ticasts are gathering, When the seas are hotly boiling. When fto liodiesl souls are joining, ll7;r;i thf hnrifd habr ix axhinij f-hr what critni' lA* yulhlpss slm/init ; When the sealed books are opeoing, When the heavens are deparlini: ; Thin when hell is fiercely buruiiig, And when Paradise draws near, Knows each soul what to the presence it hath sent before." The Koran abolished the cruel practice alluded to in the verse above, and others of a similar kind. This was done, not in a cold humanitarian way, which is seldom long or intensely elTicacious, but by an appeal to the deepest re- ligious feeling. Personifications of nature are not frequent in the Koran, but there are some examples that present a striking com- bination of the moral and physical sublime. Thus, in Sura xxxiii. 72. God is represented as offering " the faith " (truth, law, conscience, accountabilityl to nature, to the heavens, the earth, the mountains. They are "afraid of it :" thev " shrink away from the tremendous charge." But man undertook it— presumptuous man, "ignorant and un- just (to himself)." Hence his peril and his woe. It is. h<iw- eyer. in its descriptions of the Dixine justice, the Divine unity, the Tliraiic ../ AUnli — an expression Mohammed so frequently uses — and the Divine majesty generally, that the Koran is especially magnificent. See, among other similar examplesi Sura lis. 22: "God. beside whom there is no God. who knoweth the future (the hidden), as he knows the present — God most merciful, God the King, the Holy, the Giver of peace, the Ever-to-be-trustcd. the Keeper, the Almighty, the Great, the Most High ; God the Creator, the Maker, the Former, exalted above all idols, all partners of His throne. Whatever is in heaven and inearth, let it praise Him. the Strong, the Wise." Aside from the great defect before referred to, there arc two things in the Koran which may be regarded as positive deformities. One is its doctrine of polygamy, and the other the too sensual aspect it gives to the happiness of Paradise. In regard to the second, however, it may be said that the representation of the beautiful females was ailapted to the Arabian ideas, and is therefore adopted among the other symbols of spiritual joy. such as "the gardens, the fair rivers, the perennial fruits." which enter also into the bib- lical pictures. There is an evident int. ntion to make it as |Uire as the human conception will allow. That a degree of spirituality is intended is shown by the Arabic words which the Koran brings into use respecting the two worlds. The great idea in the one is rcrtninti/, assuralici:. rtmiilii. Hence the phrase that occurs so frci|ucu(ly in connection with the "garden and the fair rivers," Cli,iliiliiia fihmihihin •' they abide there for ever." In contradistinction to this there are two names for the present world that are most expressive. They are niiiii/n and Al-njrltii; the first de- noting the near world, the world of sense, the common, and sometimes the mran worhl. in distinction from the glorious and the strong ; the second is literally the rolling or A.i«(cn- ii,,/ world, the transitory, quick-vanishing world, the failing worhl, miiii</ii« rnilurtiH. in distinction from the permanent and the immutable. (See Sura xvii. 10, 20, and many other places.) Besides these, there is the general term for the oih.-r or afterlife, Arlienil, corresponding to the Hebrew n'"<nx. as we may suppose it to be used in the prayer of Balaam (Num. xxiv. 14). For the fullest details respecting the Koran, see Sprcn- ger's I.rhc, nil./ Uhrclha M.Jinmmud : Freytag. Einlritunj In (/o» Stmlliim tier arabl»rlien S/.rarlir ; llerbelot. Bi'6/io- thiqnr Ori,ni„le, arts. " Koran " and " .Mohammed;" and Sale's Intrmlni-limi. The last is especially to be commended for candor ami fidelity. Much valuable information, espe- .■iiiUy in regard to the influence of the Koran in Central and Western Africa, may also be obtained from an article by Pr.d". BIyden of Liberia College in the Mitlimlitt Qunrlcrli/ l/nicc for Jan.. ISfiT. Among native Arabian authorities that give tho fullest information may especially be men- tioned the two great commentators. Al Bei.lawi and Al Zaiiiakhshari. The fi.rmer is the better known and tho most frequenllv referre.l to. The latter (see the latest edition, published by W. Nassau I-ees, Calcutta, IS.Ifi, in 2 quarto vols., pp. Iti47) is an immense mine of theology, phih.sophy. .Arabic grammar and lexicography, besides aboun.ling in copious citations from Aj;abic poetry and general literature. T.4Vi,ER Lewis. KOK A T— KOSTROMA . i:ksi Korat% a small independent territory lying between | Siam ttiid Cambodia, pituati'd "n an clcviitud table-land, j Copper-mines art- wurked by the natives, and the sugar- cane is cultivated. l*op. about 60,000; of capital^ also called Korat. "OOU. Kordofan'y a territory of Soodan, Central Africa* be lonj and ing to Ejjypt, and situated between lal. 11" and Ia° N. between Ion. 28*^ and 32* K., bounded on the E. by Seuuaar, from which it is separated by the White Nile, and on the W. by Darfoor. Area. 12.tMH) s.juiire miles. Pop. 600,000. The iuhahifants aro a mixture (►(' negroes and Arabs professing Mohummodanism. Kordofuu is a sa- vanna, dry in the hot season, but covered with luxuriant verdure during the rainy season. The breeding of horses, cattle, and eauiels is tho chief pursuit of the inhabitants. Cap. Kl Obeid. Hornegarf or Koornagrtrioe, town of Ceylon, 55 mile.-' X. E. of CoIomi)n. beuulirully situated. It is a resort of pilgrims, on account of an ancient temple where a foot- print of Booddha is adored. Kdr'ner f Karl TiiKonon), b. at Dresden, Saxony, Sept. 2^, 1701: ft'll in a skirmish at Wobbelin, in Mecklenburg, An;;. 2ti, 1813. His wh(»le life was consecrated to the one idea of rousing his countrymen airiiinst the humiliating and almost infamous despotism which Napoleon exercised over thom ; and although he died in tho twenty-second year of his age, ho saw the idea of his life realized, and ho heard the world say that this great result was in no small degree due to him. Even when a very young man. studying in Freiberg and Berlin, he spoke with sm-h velunience against the French that it was considered necessary for the sake of his safety to send him to Vienna. Hero he liej^an to write for tho stage, and was very successful, but of his ilramas Zriinf is the only one which deserves atten- tioTi. .After the disastrous issue of Napoleon's campaign in Russia, Korner left Vienna and volunteered as a private in the Prussian light-horse of Liitzow. and his great per- sonal valor in eon nee t ion with his inspiring war-songs mnde him in a few months the pride and the enthusiasm of his countrymen. After his death his sons^s were collected under the title f,n>r uiid Srhtrrrtj and several of thom are as thrilling with their genuine beauty as exciting with their wild inspiration. Clkmkns Pktkhsen. Kdros* See Kis-Kunu9 and Xagv-Kohos. Kortetz', nr Cortitz^ an island of Uussia. in the gov- ernment of Yckaterinoshn , is formeil by the Dnicjier, and rises 10 J feet above the river, framed in un all Fides by granite clilTs. It was one of tho strongholds of tho Cossacks, but after their removal in 1781 by Catharine II. it was settled by (lerman .Mennonites. Kort'right, post t p. of Delaware co., N. Y. Pop. LSI 2. Kor'vcy, or Corvey, villugc of Westphalia, on thn We.i;r, is celebrated for its Benedictine abbey, founded in HIO by Louis the Pious. It was during the Middle Ages a fiiiioui' centre of leurning, and from it issued Ansgarius, Bruno. Wiltekind, \Vib:iId, and others. The massive build- ini;s of tho former abbey aro now occnpie<l by tho prince of Hohenlohe-.Schillingsrurnt as a residence. KosciilM'kOf county of N. Indiana. Area, 558 square mile-. It is very fertile, and is generally undulating. Cattle, grain, wool, and lumber are staple j)roduet'<. Tho county is traversed by the Pittsburg Port Wiiyne and Chi- cn-^o and the Cincinnati Wabash and Michigan R. Ks. Cap. Warsaw. Pop. 23,531. KosciiiHko,post-v., cap. of Attala co., Miss., tho present northern terminus of tho New Orleans .Tuckson and Great Northurn R. R., is situated nearly at the geographical cen- tre of the State; has 3 ehurehes. 2 liotcls, 25 stores, 15 shops, and 2 weekly nowspjpers. Principal business, rais- ing cotton, of which 25.000 bales are Khi]iprd yearly. Pop. 577. R. Wai.poi.k, Ed. " Centual SxAn." KoHciusko (THAnoEis), [Tftdeuiz KoMciuMsko], b. Fob. 12, 1 7 Hi. at .Mereezowszczy/.Tia. in Lithuania, of an nneirnt princely race. Edueat<-d in Warsaw. Paris, and other Eu- ropeim capitals, he was made an (dlicor in a regiment ; but having sui'd in vain for the hand of adaughti-r of the vice- grand general of Lithuania, and the king of Poland him- self bring unable to forward bis suit with the unwilling father of tho young lady (to whom Kos-iusko had bien a tutor), the young soldier sailed in 1775 from Dantzie for the V. S., by way of Martinique. In I77fi he was made colonel of ongineers. lie servnl gallantly throuch tho war of tho Revolution, was made a member of thi- Cincinnati, a Itrinadier-iieneral by brevet, and received the thanks of Congress. Returning to his native Inml, he fought fop his country in tho wars of 1702-01 against the pnrtitioners of Poland : but, notwithsfandinu th'' prodigies of valor per- formed by the unhappy Poles, with Kosciusko at their bead, they were totally overpowered at Macieowioe, whore their commander fell covered with wounds. Imprisoned at St. Petersburg, he was set free in 17'Jli by the emperor Paul. from whom he refused the oiler of a sword, lie revisited the U. tS., where ho received a pension and a grunt of land, but in the following year he retired to France, displeased, we are told, by the passage of the Alien law. In ISUl ne lixcd his residence ot tioleure, Switzorland, and in the fol- lowing year set free the serfs on his jiaternal estate. D. at Solcure Oet. Hi, 1817. The statement very olten made with regard to Kosciusko (that he exclaimed '*/V»i'j» PvlouiiE.'" as he fell wounded in his last fight) he always indignantly de- nied. (See J. L. Chodzko, IlUtury of KoHciusko, Militarij, Political, and I'riiatc.) Ko^ciiisko^ Mornit, the highest peak of the Austra- lian Alps. 7171) feet higli, is situateil nearly in lat. 30° 30' S. and Ion. 134° 30' W., on the boumlary between the prov- inces of New Stmth Wales and Victoria, about equidistant between Sydney and Melbourne. The chain of mountains to which it belongs affords tiie most pirturcsque scenery on the Australian continent. The great Murray and Murrum- bidgec rivers take their rise nearly at the base of Mount Kosciusko. Koshkonong% tp. of Jefferson co., Wis. It includes FoitT Atkinson (which see). Pop. 3202. Koslin% town of Prussia, in the province of Pomerania, on the Miihlc-nbach. It has considerable niannfacturts of ribbons, stockings, tobacco, paper, and Eoaj). Pop. 10,S-18. KoslOV% town of European Russia, in the government of Tambov, on the Voronezh. It has large manufactures of woollen and linen fabrics. Pop. 2S,GI3. Kossc, post-v. of Limestone co.. Tex., on tho Houston and Texas Central R. K., 13 miles N. of Bremond. Kos'suth, county of N. Iowa. Area, 432 square miles. It is traversed by the Des Moines River and the Iowa and Dakota division* of the Chicago .Milwankeu and St. Paul R. R. The soil is fertile. Grain is tho staple product. Cap. Algona. Pop. 3351. Kossuth, popt-v. of Des Moines co., la., 2 mile:; from Kossuth Station (Mediapolis P. 0.) on tho Burlington Ce- dar Rapids and Minnesota R. K. Kossuth, post-v. of Salem tp., Anglaizo co., 0., on tho Ohio Caiinl. It is also called Six-mile Aqueduct. Pop. 112. Kossutli, tp. of Manitowoc co., Wis. Pop. 21SG. Kossuth (Loris. or. strictly, Lajos), b. at Monok, Hungary, Apr. 27, 1802, of a family originally Slavie.and not Magyar, but of noble rank and of the Lutheran faith. Louis was carefully educated, and in 1S22 became a suc- cessful advocate of Monok ; rcmovedin 1S31 to Pesth ; was a member by proxy of tho upper house of the diet of 1832- 3l»; and by liis ceaseless activity as a writer ancl journalist did nun-li to disseminate liberal jirinciples; was impris- oned at Bnda 1S37— 10 as a ]ntlilieal ofi'ender ; was editor <d' tho !\Mth Jnnrmd 1811-11; entered the lower house of tho diet in Isl", and became tho leader of tho liberals; headed the deputation of IS IS dennmding a new ministry, in which he became minister of finance; proposed in IS 10 tho independence of Hungary ; was during tho Hungarian war for liberty provisional governor of Hungary, Apr.- Aug., IStO, and was succeeded by Giirgei; escaped to Tur- key, where he was protected, notwithslandini; the demands of Austria and Russia for his extraililion. In ISjl he was allowed to go on board the U. S. steamer Missi^siiipi, whieh had been sent out for Inni by tho U. S. government ; visited Kngland ; mado thetour of tho U. S. lS;')l-.*)2, and delivered many eloquent (hough fruitless appeals fur the influence of the U. S. in bi-half of the prineiplc of non-intervention, believing that if Russia had not assisted Austria in ISIO, Hungary wouM have become free; has since IS.^2 resided chieliy in London and Turin, engaged in political projects, in pul>lie speaking, in writing for liberal journals, and lat- terly in seicntiti*^ observations. During the wars of Austria against France (1S,'»0) and Prussia (ISOt'i) he was actively engaged in preparing for insurroclions in Hungary, but the speedy termination of both wars frustrated his hopes, lie biM been several times eleetetl iti his absence to the diet of Pesth, and sinee the reorganization of the Austro Hun- garian empire ( I**!'*"! has been free to return to his native land, but lias declined to do so. condemning tho arrange- ments whieh were nceepled by the Hungarian liberals. Kos- suth in his best days was one of tho most impassioned ami effeelivo of publie speakers, and possessed a marvellous capneily for the aef|nisition of languages. Koslro'mn, government of European Russia, pilu- ated nearly in the centre of the co\intry, and trn^'erfcd by the Volga". Area, 30.S34 square miles. Pop. 1.101.000. The surface is low and flat, dotted with lakes, and covered with dense forests. The climate is eovorc, yet good crops 15»2 KOSTROMA— KRASICKI. of grain are produced. Tar, pitch, and potash are manu- factured, and much timber is exported. Kostroma^ town of European Russia, the capital of the govcrniui-nt of the same name, on the Kostroma, near its influx into the Volga. It has 40 churches, 2 monas- teries, a poniinarv, a gymnasium, and several other educa- tional in.-^titiitions. large manufactures of leather and Uiien. and an important trade in corn and timber. Pup. 24,411). Ko'Cah, one of the independent Rajpoot states, under E:ii;!ish protection, in Hindostan. Area, 4400 square mill'--. Pop. 440,000. Its capital. Kotah, is situated on the riiuml.iil. in lat. 25° 9' X. and Ion. 75° 5' E. ; it is for- tified, and is a town of some importance, having good ba- zaars, many temidcs, and substantial houses. KoHhen, town of Germ.iny, in the duchy of Auhalt, has a handsome ducal palace with several fine collections, is the seat of civil and military authorities, has good edu- cational institutions, breweries, tanneries, iron-foundries, and manufactures of tobacco, vinegar, carriages, and brass articles. Pop. 10.59.3. Kot'zebue, von f ArctTSTrs Frtedrich Fcrdinand), b. in Weimar May ?>, 1701 ; studied law at Jena, and after fini^bin;; his studies he went in 17S1 to St. Petersburg, where he was introduced to the empress. From that time he was always more or less intimately connected with the Russian court. Catharine nominated him a counsellor, and gave him a pension. Paul sent him to Siberia, but recalled him and gave him an office. Alexander used him first to stir up the popular hatred against Xapoleon, and then after the Restoration he kept him in Germany with a salary of 1 j.OOO roubles a year to report on the liberal movements. This was by the Germans consideretl as a sort of espionage, and under the general excitement a young student, Sand, broke into his study and stabbed him at Mannheim, Mar. 2.'t, 1819. Even before he went to St. Petersburg the first time, in the twentieth year of his age, he had written quite a number of tragedies, comedies, dramas, and farces, and he continued <luring his whole life to evince the same versatility and proliticnoss. He wrote about 100 plays. He attempted every descrip- tion of drama and every style, and, in a certain sense of the word, he succeeded in them all. His jilays were trans- lated into every language which had a stage, and for more than a generation they reigned absolutely in the whole theatrical world. But between 1S20 and 1S">0 they disap- peared, succeeded by tliose of Eug&ne iScribe, and now only a very few of them — as, for instance. The Stranger, Pizarro, The Indians in London^ The Tico Kfinffsberrjerg, etc. — can be met with, and even these only in the suburbs of their native country. Ci-emens Petkrsek. Koirba, town of Southern Russia, at the foot of the Caucasus, on the Koiib.an River. It has considerable trade with Astrakhan and Persia, and some stlk manufactures. . Pop. 0405. Koiiban', a river of Southern Russia, rises in the El- brooz Mountains, flows Ijetween the governments of Stav- rojiot and Circassia, and empties itself ])artly into the Black Sea, partly into the Sea of Azof. Kouli Khan. See Nadir Shah. Kou'miss, Kumys, or Kumiz [Russ. knmyti^ of Mongolian origin], a fermented beverage made from mare's milk in the steppes of Russia by the Kirghecz, Tartars. Bashkeers. Calmueks, etc. Tlie alc(diol is derived from the milk-su'^iar, which is present in mare's milk in larger quantity than in the milk of other animals, us is Been in the following table by Jagielski : Conipnaition of Mitk. Marc. 7.3 2.1 AS9. Womao. 4.8 2.9 2.9 0.2 lO.S 89.2 100.0 Shi!<>p. Goat. Cow. 6.4 1.3 1.9 6.4 2.4 4.8 0.9 13..') 86..5 100.0 4.3 8.4 4.4 0.8 12.9 87.1 100.0 4.6 Butter 36 5 1 Salts Water 10.9 S9.I IHU.O 9.6 90.4 100.0 13.9 86.1 100.0 The fresh milk is diluted with one-third to one-sixth water, and placed in a sack of goat skin or the skin from the en- tire hind quarter of a horse, the wider end serving for the base, and the leg portion for the neck. There is generally added some yeast, the sediment from a previous brewing, called kor, to induce fermentation. Frequent stirring or shaking is essential to success. In from twelve to twenty- four hours the fermentation is complete, the product being known as ''young koumiss" or naumal. Fresh milk is added daily, and as the product is concentrated by the evaporation of water from the surface of the hide, the old koumiss is much stronger than the new. Kounlis^ is an acid liquid ofa not unpleasant pungent taste and an ethereal bou- quet. Iteffervesces when poured intoaglass. Itis very intox- icating to persons not accustomed to its use, and produces drowsiness. Besides alcohol and carbonic acitl, it contains the other constituents of the milk, except tl»e sugar, and is consequently very nourishing. It is easily assimilated, even by invalids, and the hardy vigor of the Tartars is attrib- uted to its general use among them. Koumiss yields by distillation a strung liquor called by the Calmueks nrrarn^ rack, or rarkij. From the residue in the still they make a kind of hasty-pudding. Beverages somewhat similar to koumiss have long hecn made in the Orkney and Shetland islands, in Arabia (called lehan), and in Turkey (called i/anitsf). Koumiss has recently attracted much attention among European pliysicinns, and its manufacture has been intro- duced at Moscow. St. Petersburg, Vienna, and London. It may be made from the milk of any animal. The followini^ analysis was made by Wanklyn of the contents of n boHle of koumiss, twelve days old. made from cow*s milk at the establishment of E. Chapman & Co. in London: Water I0,Gf;2 grains. Aleoliol 192 " Caseine and albumen I2S " Su^ar (lactose) n.S2 " Lactic acid ViO " Fat 36 " Ash W " Carbonic acid IJiO " 12,000 grains. It is claimed that koumiss is most valuable for the treat- ment of extreme debility and all the phases of impending marasmus. It is said to have specific action in diabetes. (For further information consult Johnston's ChemiKtrjf of Commnu Life; Wagner's Jahresherichte, vol. ii. 243, and vi. 421; The Milk Journal, i., 64: BrUinh Med. J.y Feb. 21, 1874 ; Pharm. J. and Tram., Feb. 28. 1874; The Amer- ican Chemist, vol. v., June, 1875.) C. F. Chakdler. Kous'so, or Cusso [an Abyssinian term], a drug con- sisting of the flowers and unripe fruit of Bmi/ern anthel- minfirit, ft small rosaceous tree of E. Central Africa. It is an efficacious and safe remedy for tapeworm, but costly. Kouznetsk, town of Russia, government of Saratov, has large tanneries and trade in timber. Pop. 13,107. Kov'no, government of AA''estern Russia, bounded by Prussia and Poland, and watered by the Niemen and its tributaries. Area, lO.lIo square miles. Pop. 1,131.248, most of whom arc Roman Catholics, many Jews. The surface is low and flat, and more than two-thirds of it are covcreil with lakes and dense forests. Besides rye and wheat, flax and hemp are extensively cultivated. Kovno, town of Western Russia, the capital of the government of Kovno, at the confluence of the Vilia and the Niemen. It has many good institutions for military, theological, and scientific education, but its manufactures and trade are insignificant. Pop. 34,012. KoylHon^ tp. of Tuscola eo., Jlieh. The principal in- dustries are farming and cattle-raising. Pop. 422. Koze1sk% town of Eurojiean Russia, in the govern- ment of Kalooga. on the Jizdra. It has large manufac- tures of sailcloth and trade in flax and hemp. Pop. 8387- Krackowizcr {EknstI. M. D., b. in the duchy of Slyria. Austria, in 1822; studied medicine at Vienna and Padua; as captain of the Students' Legion was involved in the insurrection of 184S, and finally came to America; practised at Brooklyn. X. Y. ; removed to New York City : established the tierman dispensary; was member of the committee of seventy during the municipal reform ; assisted in reorganizing the Bellevuc Hospital Medical College in 1874, nnd contributed to several medical periodicals. 1). Sept. 2::, lS7o. Knuo'va, the capital of Little Wallachia, on the left bank of the Schyl. It has several good educational insti- tutions and a beautiful public park. Pop. 25,000. Kra'kcn [Xorse], a fabulous sea-monster described first under this name by Pontoppidan, althoujih Olaus Magnus, Gesner, and other old writers have substantially the same accounts. The tales of the kraken seem to have been exaggerated reports of large ccphalopods and whales. Stories of its devouring ships, of its back being taken for an island and men landing upon it, etc., rccull similar fables in Lucian's and Pliny's works and the Arahian Xiffhtu: but Lucian's narrative is a witty satire on the credulity of other writers, who in all ages have seriously recorded these mons'rous fables. Krasic'ki (Icnacv), b. at Dubiecko, Galioia, 1734; studied theology in Rome: was macle bishop of Ermcland in 1707, archbishop of Gnesen in 1795, and d. at Berlin lAJar. 14, 1801. As Krmeland was annexed to Prussia io 1772, KRASINSKI— KREMLIN. 1583 I^rasicki became a Prussian subject, and bis talents and elegant attainnienta soon made him a favorilo of Frederick II. His writings, which were collected in AVursaw in ten volumes in ISU.f, are mttstly aatirieal, and procured for him the name of the Polish Voltaire. His Monomnckia ("War of Monks")» a satirical epic, and his faVjlcs have been translates! repeatedly both into tJeriuan and French. Krasiii'ski (Zv(:mc;nt Napoleon). Cot nt, b. in Paris Feb. ly, XM'ly a son of Count Wyncent^- Krasinski, who after the fall of Napoleon held tlie highest position in the Russian government. The snn, however, declined all offers from Russia. When he became of age he left his native country, lived in different European capitals, and d. in Paris Feb. 24, ISOH. But his poetical productions were re- ceived by all Poles with the greatest enthusiasm, and caupcd now and then considerable excitement. His principal works arc — Xiehimka Komrd;ifi, a drama in three parts (IS;!7-1S), Przrttsirit (" Before Dawn "), and Psalmtj przy- aztosci ('■ Ilymn^ of the Future"), lyrical poems in which a glowing patriutifm is combined with a deep piety. Krasnoslobodsk', town of Russia, in the government of Pcii7.li, on the Mok:;ha, carries on an extensive trade in corn. Pop, 77152. Krasnovodsk% a Russian fortress, on a bay of the same name, on the south-eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, in lat. 10° N., is an important starting-point for seicntilic and military expeditions to Central Asia. Peter the Great understood the iin]»ortanee of the point, and used it in an undertaking against Khiva, but afterwards it fell into de- cay, until it was once more oci-upied and fortified in Nov., 1^6'.). 'From here the savants Kadde and Siewers explored the flora and fauna of the adjacent steppes ; fifteen meteor- ological stations were established in Toorkistan; and the engineer Kosclikul ina'lo a geological map of the vicinity. In connection with a military expedition against the Toor- koman fortress Kisyl-Arwat, about I.'jO miles to tho S. E. of Krasnovodsk, important geodetic labors were under- taken under the leadership of Col. Stehnirzky. purporting to re-establish the old water-road between the Caspian Sea and the Sea of Aral by employing the old bed of the Oxua. During the great expedition against Khiva, led by (ien. Kauffinann in 1H73, one of tho three advancing columns started from Krasnovodsk. Augitst Nikmans. Krasnoyarsk', town of Siberia, in the government of Yeniseisk, on the Yenisei. It is a neat town, with consid- erable trade in fur au'l leather, and important gold-mines in the vicinity. Pop. 7028. Kraszew'ski (Jozkf Ionacv), b. at Warsaw in 1S12; studied ai Vilna; settled in Volhynia; went in 18G0 to Warsaw as cililor of Gnzetn i'^lnhn, and removed in l^ti.'! to Dresden. He is tho most prolilie writer in tho modern Polish literature, and he has both talent and education. Ho has written a largo epic, Anofiflun (3 vols., lSiO-j;t), treaiing a subject of the history of Lithuania; a great number of novels anil romances depicting Polish life; sev- eral historical works; and a multitude of monographs, travelling sketches, critical essays, etc., tho whole compris- ing over IllM) volumes. Krausc ( Kari. Christian FniRnnirH), b. at Kisenbcrg, in tho duchy of Saxc-Altenburg, May G, 1781 ; studied at Jena; lectured on philosophy at Berlin, Gottingcn, and Munich, but lived for I lie most time at Dresden as a private m;in, and d. at Munich ^ept. 27, \^?.2. His views of tho human race, as forming pari of a higher and more spiritual realm, led him to peculiar ideas concerning tho destiny of mankind, the development of human life, and tho organi- sation of human society; and these ideas brought him in connection with the Freemasons. His writings in this line, Dir ilrci nllmtrn KitnnturhHnilr.n rfcr FfrimiturrrhrudcrHrhiift (1810), Ifiiherc VrrtfrtHtiifuiiff lirr erfit uherfir/rrttm (irutiff- »t/mf>nlr drr Freimnnrrrri f ISIO), and Urbitd dcr Meniichhfit (isll), attracted much attention. Kraiitli (CiiAur.KS Piiii.n'), D. D., b. in Montgomery CO., Pa., May 7, 17U7; reeeiveil a thorough education at hcHn-.', and early showed a talent for pliilology. At the age of eighicen he commenced the study of medicine, but a changi! in hia religious views led him to enter tho ministry of the Ijutheran (.^hurch. Ho was licensed 1819, and be- came pastor in Marlinsburg, Va. ; went to Philadelphia in 1827 ; was president of Petinsylvnnia College iSV.l-.'iO; professor of biblical and Oriental literature in tho theolog- ical seminary of the Cicneral Synod at Gettysburg lS;i'*-fi7; d. May l!0, I8ft7. Dr. Kraulh had every quality which en- sures a large ilistinetion, rxerpi ambition. His mind was of a very high order: his IcHriiing extensive and exact ; his power of nioving men as a preacher exlraonlinnry ; and his character one of the most exquisite purity and completeness. Ho wrote much, but published eompara- tivcly little. His theological position was that of uncom- promising adherence to tho doctrines of evangelical Prot- estantism, of great moderation on points in dispute, and of cautious adjudication between tho claims of conservatism and progress. A very complete sketch of his life and labors was given in the Evdntjclicaf lievieir, Jan., 1SC8, by Prof. M. L. Stoever. (Sue also McCliutock and Strong's Cyclo- pndifi, V. IGD.) Krauth (Charles Pouterfield), S. T. D., LL.D., son of Charles Philip Krauth, b. Mar. 17, 182.t, at Martins- burg, \'a. ; graduated at Pennsylvania College, tlettye- burg, lS;i'J; became a licentiate in 1841 ; labored at Balti- more, Md., 1842-47 ; ordained 1812; pastor in Winehcstcr, Va., 1848-65; in Pittsburg. Pa., ISOj-il) ; in St. Mark's, Philadelphia. 1859-Gl; had temporary charge of St. John's 1SG4-05 and 1874-75; labored in mission churches at Canton, Md., 1841. and in St, Stephen's and St. Peter's, Philadelphia. He spent ten months, 1852-5.'!, in St. Thomas and Santa Cruz, D. W. I.; for nearly three months during the prevalence of yellow fever officiated as jtastor in St. Thomas; subsequently ]uiblisheii Skrlrhra of a Wintrr and Sprhuj in thr Jhiniufi W'rut Indies. He became editor of the Luthrmn 18f>l ; in 18("i4. Oct. 4, was inaugurated as Norton profcssorof systematic tluMtlogy and ecclesiastical polity in the Lutheran Seminary in Philadel- phia, and is the author of its constitution. In lsfi8 the chair of intellectual and moral philosophy in the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania was offered to Krauth : he was cliosen its vice-provost in ]87o: in 1874 the department of logic was attached to his chair. He is a member of the Histori- cal Society of Pennsylvania; of the Pliilosojihical and Ori- ental Societies: of the American eommittec (Old Testament Company) co-operating with the British revisers of the au- thorized version ; and of the American Bible Society's com- mittee on versions. Besides numerous translations from different languages, and many critical and annotated edi- tions, ho has written in the line of practical theology — Pastoral Office (1845), Chn/Mostom (184*)), Tranfjhjurution (1850), Popular Amii^onfintn (1851). The Iiihh\i Pcr/e^t fiaok (1852), The Old Church on fhf f/ifl (1854). Pm-rrtt/, three essays (1858), Christ and I/is Khujdom in Shadows (187-1). His published sermons on national occasions are — The Former Dayn oud These />«»/«( 185fi), Tht: Altor on the I'hrrshiuff-Floor (\S57), The Tiro Pa<jeauts,on the death of Pros. liincoln (181)5). In illustration of the doctrines, his- tory, and usages of the Lutheran Clinrcb he wrote The Tt- <jau ArticlcK (1851)), The Lord's JJai/, Thcolmpcal Fuci/rlnpie- dia from the Sevcnteeutli to the Niticteenth Cruturi/ (1857), Chrintinn Liberti/ (1860), The EvautfcUcnl Mat^s and the Jiomish Mass (18C0), The Lutheran Church, I/rr Glory, etc, (18fi;5), The Augsburg Cuufcssian, translated and annotated {\>>6\i). The Conservative JicformatifU, and its Thcolotjy aa repreHcuted in the Augsburg Confession and in the History and Literature of the Evangelical Lutheran Church (1871, 8vo, pp. 858). Dr. Krantli has been a constant laborer in tho liturgical movements in the Lutheran Church, and writ- ten in this lino Sunday Scrriets of the Churches if the licf- orniation (on the basis of Alt's Cultus, 185;>), The Jubilee Service (1867), Common Prayer, arrangrd from thr CollfCtB in Ancient i'eein the Lutheran Church ; The Church Hooh of the General Council (18fii)); The LHunjical Muvcmrnt in the. German lirformrd and Presbyterian Churches. Ho has been associated with the organization of the general coun- cil of tho Lutheran Church in America: wrote the Pcffly to the Pope'M Letter, adopted Nov. 0, I8t)i); the Thcsrs on Jusfificalion (1870-74) ; was elected ])resident of the coun- cil 1*870, has held that office to this time (1875), and is chairman of its committee for the preparation of a consti- tution for congregations and synoils. Dr. Krauths lil)rary is one of the most carefully selected in our country, and contains aboiit Lt.OOO volumes, largely of the class of l«ioks which are the primary sources of in- formation in the departments of his investigations. He has published a number of papers on " the internal history an<l re- lations of the Authorized English Version of the Serijitures, and of the Translations and Texts which have intluenecd it." KrebH (Jttns MnnAKi,). T>. D.. b. at Hagerstown. Md., May 6, IStll; graduated at Diekinson College in 1827 and at Prini'cton Theological Seminary in l^'M); was l8;U1-07 pastor of the Rutgers street ehurch. M. Y., and held many prominent positions in tho Old School branch of the Pr»s- iiyfcrian Church. He was the author of several devotional and other works, chiefly of a religious character. D. iu New Vork Sept. :U). lSfi7, Kromrnets', town of Kuropean Russia, in tho govern- ment of Volhynia. on the Irwa, which, however, is not navigable. It has seven annual fairs. Pop. 10,486. KremcntclinoK', town of Kuropcan Russia, in Iho government of Poltava, on the Dnieper. It has manufne- tures of rope, leather, tnllow. and a brisk trade. Pop. 2.'»,848. Kremlin. See Moscow. 1584 KREMNITZ— KRUPP. Krem'DitZy town of Hungary, situated in a deep val- ley among barren mountains, and provided with water by an aqueduct aU miles long. Its eold and silver mines arc tho richest in Europe. Pop. 6330. KremSy town of Lower Austria, on the Krems, at its intlux into tho Danube. It is famous for its mustard and wine. Pop. 5300. Krem'sir, town of Austria, in the province of Moravia, is beautifully situated on the March; it is well built, the seat of several civil and ecclesiasticiil authorities, and has good educational institutions, many line buildings, and an active general trade. Pop. 'JllO. Kreutz'nach, town of Rhenish Prussia, on the Nahe, at its intlux into the Ubine. It has celebrated salt springs, much used for bathing, and largo manufactures of brandy, champagne, chocolate, and tobacco. Pop. 10,y3j. Kreuz'er, the name of a small coin which originated in the Tyrol in the thirlcenth century, and became very com- mon all over Germany since the fifteenth. At present, since I.S5S, it is made only in the South German states of copper. 100 to a gulden. It received its name, cruciatua, cti(fi/t;r, from a cross imprinted on it. Kris, or Crease, the dagger of the Malays, often cnriou?!y twisted, the more seriously to mangle those who are wounded by it. It is of native manufacture and ex- tremely well tempered. Krishna. See IIindc Religion, and Mahabharata. Krishna River. See Kistnah. Kroe'ger ( Adolph E.). b. in 1837 at Schwabstadt. near Friedrich?tadt, in the duchy of Sleswick. where his father was a minister. In 1818 the whole family emigrated to America, and settled at Davenport, la., and soon after young Kroeger entered into business life as clerk in a bank- ing-house. From 18.")7 to ISGO he was engaged as trans- lator on the New York Times. During the war he served on the staff of Fremont. After the war be settled at St. Louis, Mo., where he is still residing. Both by his trans- lations of Fiehte and by numerous essays in difTcrent periodicals he lias contributed much to a better understand- ing of and a more widely spread interest in German litera- ture and philosophy. He is a steady contributor to the St. Louis Joiininl of' Speculative PhUosuphif. In 1873 he pub- lished The Mintiesiiif/cra of Gcrmanif, containing translations of Walter von der Vogelweide, Ulrich von Lichtenslcin, etc. Krolevets', town of European Russia, in the govern- ment of Tchernigov. It has a much-frequeuted annual fair. Pop. fill! 7. Kro'nenbcrg, town of Rhenish Prussia, on the Wip- pLT, li;is uiauufactuves of silk and of iron and steel goods. Pop. 7S74. Kron'^tadt, town of the Austrian empire, in Transyl- vania. It is an old city, consisting of an inner town sur- rounded by walls, its three suburbs respectively inhabited by Germans, Szeklers, and Wallachs. It is a thriving and very neatly built town, with many beautiful gardens and promenades. Pop. 28,1)14. Kroos* See Liberia. Krotos'zyn% or Krotoschin, town of Prussia, in the province of Po;;en. It has manufactures of tobacco and linen, and a large trade in wool. Pop. 7688. Krozet' (or Crozel) Islands, a group of four small islnnds in the Indian Ocean, between Kerguelen and Prince Edward islands. They arc uninhabited, and visited only by sealers, Tho easternmost, situated in hit. 27° S.. Ion. 48° E,, was selected in IS7I as a station for the observation of the transit of Venus by the American astronomers; but owing to tempestuous weather the party were unable to land, and the station was unoccupied, Krii'dener, von (Jt mask), b. at Riga Nov. 21. 17fi4, a daughter of Haron von WietinghofF, one of the wcallbiest Livouian noblemen, and a granddaughter of the famous Russian field-marshal .Miinieh. In 1783 she married Baron von Kriidener. whom she accompanied to A'cnice and Co- ])enhagen, and to whom she bore two children. In 1789 she made a journey to France, from which she sent her husband a milliners biil of 20.000 francs for the first three months, and from which she returned in 1791 with M. de Fregcville, a young lieutenant of hussars, disguised as her footman, .\fter that timo the couple lived separated. The fame of Madame dc Stai-l tempted her into literature. Va- l/tir, oit fettrca de (ntaUtve de Liuttr <l Ernent de G , was produced, correcteil, read aloud in tho salons, and at last published at I*aris in 1803, after the most careful preparation. Tho result was a perfect success, quite a sensation, which, however, did not satisfy the authoress, ll^r connections with Jung-iStilling and the Moravian B.'cthreu had now the ascendency over her mind, and she appeared in the world as a Sister of Charity, a preacher, a pr<»phetess. In 1815 she held a sort of religious reunions in her hotel in Paris, and [leople of the highest rank crowded her salons; the emperor of Russia, Alexander, was among her visitors, lie invited her to the grand review over the Russian troops in the plain of Chalons, and the sight in- spired her as the beginniug of the '• reign of Christ on earth.'' From Bale, where she attempted to ctmtinue her religious assemblies, she was expelled; also from Baden, Wiirteraberg, Bavaria, Saxony, and Prussia. In 1818 she was escorted by the Prussian police to the Russian frontier, and on entering her native country she was forbidden to preach and to appear in St. Petersburg and Moscow. She found, nevertheless, an opportunity of visiting St. Peters- burg, and attempted to renew her friendship with tho em- peror. But her enthusiasm for the Greek revolution, and her indiscretion in working for her ideas, were too great for tho Russian diplomacy. She was banished from St. Petersburg, and went in 1824 to the Crimea in order to found a colony in accordance with her own ideos of human society. On this expedition she d. at Karassubasar Dee. 25, 1824, Her life and character have been subject to much curiosity and speculation; at present, however, most critics agree in considering her a specimen of a not uncommon kind of female character, only that peculiar circumstances forced her gifts and her weaknesses into caricuture. Krng (WiLHELM TiiArcoTT), b. at Radis, in PruB.^ian Saxony. June 22. 1770; studied at M'ittenbcrg. Jena, and Guttingcu; was appointed professor in philosophy at Frankfort-on-thc-0«ler in 1801 ; at Kiinigsberg in 1804, as the successor of Kant; at Leipsic in 1809; resigned in 1834, and d. Jan. 13. 1812. He took part with great eagerness and with a certain adroitness in all literary and political movements in his time, lie was jiresidcnt of the Tugenbund, formed after the Peace of Tilsit for the rcgcn, eration of Germany. He joined a Saxon regiment in the campaign of 1813. In politics he stood foremost among the liberal agitators ; in theology he wrote liriefe iiber die Prrfrrfihilifiit der tjcuffcnhnrteu Ifffitjinn (1796); in phi- losophy he pretended to have found the true reconciliation between idealism and realism, which he presented in a quite popular form. J'inidainentai philoiKtphie (1803), and afterwards in a more scientific form in his AUtjemcinea I/midtrorterlinvh der jiliifn^npfiiarlien Wisxensclia/ten (4 vols., Leipsic, 1827-28). His writings are very numerous and varied : they were popular in their time, but are now superseded. Kru'mau, town of Bohemia, on the Moldau, consists of Krumau proper. Latron. six suburbs, and an iunuensc palace or castle with five courtyards. Krumau has large breweries, and a famous bccr-vault excavated in a solid rock. Pop. GCOO. Krum'macher (FniEDRice Adolf), b. at Tecklenburg, in Westphalia. July 13. 17(»8. and d. as minister of the Re- formed congregation at Bremen, Apr. 14, 1845. His Aij«- fdrit (1805) became a very popular book, ran through many editions, and was translated into English. lie wrote sev- eral other works, poetical and religious, none of which at- tained great popularity. — His son, FitiEimirn Wilhkmi, b. at Duisburg. in Rhenish Prussia, Jan. 28, K^'O, and d. as chaplain of the court at Potsdam, Dec. 10. 18r»8, wa? a rather harsh opponent of the rationalistic school of theol- ogv, but he was a very eloquent preaeher. Of his writings, Kii/uh the Tithhite, The Last D'lt/a of Eliaha, Snfumon and t/ic Shidamite^ fjfiiiipsta into the Ktut/dom of Ifenren, Darid, Kintf of hratf, and his Autobiography have beeo trans- lated into English. Krupp (FniKURirn). The Krupp cast-steel works at Essen, in Rhenish Prussia, were founded in 1810 by Fried- rich Krupp. After his death, in 182r», his widow and sons took charge of the establishment in company until 1848, since which time one of the sons, Alfred Krupp. carries on the business alone under the firm-name of Friedrich Krupp. Like his father, he had many difficulties to overcome before he achieved any signal success, but the introduction of steel for cannons exercised a decisive influence on the prosperity of the works. At present the establishment covers an area of more than 400 hectares and employs over 12,000 hands, besides about 5000 men engaged in the mines and smelting- houses, 2000 in the building department, and 739 in the administration. Tho quantity of steel produced and consumed for casting amounted in 1872 to more than 125,000.000 kilogrammes: the articles manufactured com- prised axles, tires, wheels, etc. for railways : rails and springs for railways and mines; axles for steamboats; dif- ferent parts of machinery, rollers, etc., and cannons, gun- carriages, and guns. In 1873 there were 1 100 furnaces of different kinds in operation ; 275 coke-ovens. 204 smiths' forges. 240 boilers; 71 steam-hammers, of which 3 were of 100 cwts., 1 of 200, 1 of 400. 1 of 1000 : 28r. s'cam-cngines. KRUSENSTEKN— KriiX. 15.^5 of which 6 were of 150, 1 of 200, 1 of 500, 3 of 800, and 1 of lunu horso-power: and 1050 machine-tools. In 1S72 500,0011,000 kilut:rttmmc9 of cual. iL'j.OIHi.OOil kiloi^Tuiuines of cuke, 3,500,000 cubic metres of wnter. ami o.UOu.tluO cubic metres of gua were consumed. Of means of eornniuuioatiou the ostHblishmeut possesses 52. K kilonielre.'^ of railway, 15 locomotires, i^OO ears, nnil a complete system of telegraph: 206 dwollius^-houses for officials, 2048 for wi>rkingnieu, several ho.^pitals, a chemical laboratory, a photographic and a lithographic cslablisliment, etc. belong to the works; 414 mine:^ and several smelting-housies, with 11 blast fur- nacpf!, produce annually about 10,000,000 kilogrammes of pig iron. Rich deposits of iron ore in Northern Spain be- long to .Mr. Krupp. Mo,«t arllllerists consider the Kru])p cannon to be the best in the world. They are mo.*Jt extensively used ; more than ];i,000 pieces have already been produced. Since lS72 the whole German army has been jiroviiled with a new field- gun invented by Mr. Krupp. The system of his cannon is the breech-loadiug ; their peculiarity consists partly in the appropriateness of the metal, partly in the construction. At the Vienna Expitsition he exhibited the following can- nons : I. 304 cm. cannon ; calibre. ;105 mm., length of tube 6.7 m. ; length of bore. 5.77 m. ; weight of tube, 30,000 k. ; of the filled steel grenade, 200 k. : of charge, 00 k. ; of cast-iron long grenade. 257 k. 11. 28 cm. howitzer; cali- bre, 280 mm.; length of tube. .*t.2 m. ; length of bore, 2.5 m.; weight of tube, lO.noO k. ; of filled grenade, \'J'.i k. ; of charge, 20 k. III. Short cm. ship cannon; calibre, 200 mm.; Icngtii of tube, 5.2 m. ; weiglit of tube, 18,000 k. : of grenade, 1S4 k. IV. hong 24 cm. cannon for casemate ships; calibre. 235.4 mm.; length of tube, 5.23 m.: weight of tube, 155.000 k. ; of steel grenade, filled, 135 k.: of cast-iron grenade, filled, 118.5 k. V. Li»ng 21 cm. cannon; calibre, 2ii0.3 mm.: length of tube, 4.708 m.: weight of tube. 10,000 k. ; filled steel grenade, 95 k. VI. 21 cm. siege cannon : calibre, 200.3 mm. ; length of tube, 3.400 m. ; weight of tube, 3000 k. ; filled gre- nade, 70 k. VII. Long cm. cannon; calibre, 172.0 mm.; length of tube, 4.250 m. : weight of tube, 5000 k.; filled steel grenade. 55 k. VIII. 15 cm. siege cannon ; calibre, 1 rj.l mm. ; length of tube, 3.44 m. ; weight of tube, 3000 k. ; filled grenade. 28 k.; charge, 6 k. IX. Long 15 cm. cannon : calibre, 140.1 mm. ; length of tube, 3.S5 m. ; weight of tube, 4000 k. : filled steel grenade, 35 k. ; filled cast-iron long grenade, 28 k. X. 12 cm. cannon; calibre, 120.3 mm.; length of tube, 2.925 m. : weight of tube, 1400 k. ; filled steel grenade, 17.5 k. ; filled cast-iron grenade, 15.5 k. XI. cm. field cannon ; calibre, 91 .5 mm. ; length of tube, 2.04 m. ; length of bore. l.sl'J m. : weight of tube, 425 k.; filled grenade. 0.9 k.; charge, O.fi k. XII. 8 cm. fieUl cannon; calibre, 78.5 mm.: length of tube, 1.0:'5 m.; weight of tube, 295 k. ; filled grenade, 4.3 k.; charge, 0.5 k. XIII. fi cm. mountain cannon; calibre, 60 mm.; length of tube, 1.25 m. : weight of tube, 107 k. ; filled grenade, 2.3 k. ; charge, 0.2 k. AuorsT Nikmann. Kru'spnstern, von (.^dam JonAxx), b. Nov. 19, 1770, a^ Ilag^ud, K;«thonia, and cduoatcfl at the naval academy of Kronstadt: served 1793-99 in the Uritish navy, and un- dertook, from Aug. 7, 1803, to Aug. 19. 1800. a" scientific anl commercial cxpcditi<in at the expense of the Russian government to the northern coasts of the Pacific. The ex- pedition was a great succes-s, and has been described by Krusenstern himself in his lifiie um ifir \\%/t (3 vol?., 1810-12. translated into English by Iloj.pner in 1813). From 1824-27 he published Atftti tfn Vnc/nn /*nciji»/iie (2 vols.) and RrcurU de nf'tnnirm fiifiim/fntp/iitfiifH, ptmr ner- vi'r ii'(tn(t/i/»e et ii'r.rpfiriilimi tl /'tttttm f/** l'i)rfttn /'artfittite. In 1829 he was made a vice-admiral, iu 1841 an admiral, and d. Aug. 24, 1840. Krylof (Ivan AxnnKiviTrn), h. Feb. 14, 1708. d. Nov. 21. IS 14: passed the early years of his boyhood in the dis- tant pn»vinco of Orenburg, where his father was serving aijainst the rebels of Pugatcheff. and subsequently in Tver. His father died when he was fourteen, and he was then ob!i.;ed to enter the goverinnent servic in Tver, and after- war. U in St. Petersburg, at a salary of two roubles a month. He rei-eived a good education from his mother. His first iiroduetion, at the ago of sixteen, was Co/rhiitun. In 178S im entere.l into journalism, iu which be continueil until 1790, when all the jirivate priritirigofllceR were closed by the emperor Paul, por some years after he resided on the estate of Prince Galitzin, teaeliing the children and acting as ft frien<l to the family. On the accession of the empe- ror Alexander in 1801. IVinee tialitzin was made governor of Livonia, and appointed Krylof his seeretary. His pas- sion for cards caused him to leave the service iind tn wan- der about Hussia for two years. In 18n5 he wrote his first fables, which bad a great success, and from this time on his literary activity was entirely confined to fable-writing. Vot,."TI.— 100 His first essays were chiefly adaptations and translations of La Fontaine, but he afterwards wrote wholly in the na- tional vein, touching sometimes on politics, especially on the stirring events of 18I2, though principally on moral and social topics. From 1812 to 1841 he occupied a position in the imperial public library, lie never married, and par- ticularly iu his latter days led an almost solitary life, con- fining himself to occasional visits at the houses of one or two friends. Eigkxk Scmivlkr. Ku^blai Khan, the founder of the twentieth or Mongol dynasty of emperors of China, was a gramison of ticnghis Khan, b. early iu the thirteenth century in Tartary.of which country he was the reigning sovereign, when about 1250 his aid was invoked by Li-Sung, emperor of China, against the Oriental Tartars. Tliis task having been successfully accomplished, Kublai Khan remained in China with his largo and well-disciplined army. Afier the death of Li- Sung and of his imljccilc successor, Kuhlai Khan assumed the title of emperor of China, excluding the infant claimant of the throne. His undisputed reign dates from 1279. after which he extended his empire by the c<in<|uest of Tonquin, Cochin China, and other adjoining countries, until bis limits reached the Arctic Ocean, the Straits of Malacca, and the Euxinc. lie sent a naval expecliti(m for the conquest of Japan, but it was partially destroyed by a tempest, and the remainder easily defeated by the .Ja])antso. Under his reign the celebrated \'cnetian traveller Marco Polo resided many years at theimjierinl court, of which he has given so vivid a description. (See Katiiav, by Col. Heniiv Yi'le.) Kuenlun', or Koulkoiin, the name of a mountain- range of Central Asia, wliieli commences near the point of lat. 35° N. and Ion. 75° K.. from which tlie Himalayiis, the Hindoo-Koosh,and the Bolor-Tagh radiate in three difiVrcnt directions, and stretches eastward, forming the northern boundary of Thibet. The eastern parts of (his mountain- range, which extends into China jiropcr, are almost un- known to us, but the western part, generally known by the names of Karakorum and Mustagb, rises to a height of 21.000 feet, is covered with tremendous glaciers, which sometimes descend to 10,000 feet, and forms deep. wild, hut beautiful and exceedingly fertile valleys. Karakorum is properly the name of a pass, 18,000 feet high, leading from Thibet into Chinese Toorkistan. Kufic Writing. See CtJFic Writing. Kug'Icr (FitANz TiiixiDou), b. at Stettin Jan. 19,1808; studied lii>t(iry, philology, and art in IJerlin, lleitlelbcrg. and Italy, and was a(q»oinIed (iroftssor in the line arts at tbo University of Berlin in 1833, His Hamibitch dcr GrRchichte dtr Malerei von Iiunntaiitin dcr Grosne bin an/ (lie tieiitrc Zcit (2 vols., Berlin, 1837), and his llaudhuvh der KiniMtfftHchifhtc (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1841-42), arc excel- lent productions — clear, comprehensive, and very instruc- tive: the former of them has been translated into English. His Kltimn Si-hrlfitn iitid Studit-u zur Knnsff/cschiclitr (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1853-54) contains many valuable essays on the history and philosophy of the fine arts. Very little interest, on the contrary, have his dramas and poems, and his History of Frederick th>' Great, though the latter is very much read in Germany. I), at Berlin Mar. 18, IS58, in tho midst of a large work on the Grirfiic/itc der Hdukunst, of which he finished only tho three first volumes. Killin ( A tiAMiKiti), b. at Kiinigsberg-in-dcr-Ncumark, in llie Prussian province of BramUnbing. Nov, 19, 1812; studieil philology at tho University of Berlin since 1833, and became teacher at the gymnasium of Cologne in 1841, and in 1850 profcf-sor. As editor of Zritnchrift fUr ver- iffrirhcudc Sprarh/'orsidiiitif/ and /iritriitft ziir vrrjffriiht tiifr Spntrh/tirHrhumf he has contributed much to the growth of comparative philology. an*l by his IHe lirrnhkuufi dra Fenrrn iniil drn G'otfcrtranlcH { Berlin. 1859), as well as other researches in the same line, ho inaugurated tho new science of comparative mythology. Kiihn (FiiANz). banm von Kuhncnfeld, b. in 1R17; en- tered in 1837 the \>t nginunt of infantry as a lieutenant ; distinguished himself in iSls and 1810 in the war in Hun- gary an'I Italy: was employed on the stafl" and as teacher of strategy at the Military Aeadt my of \'jenna, and occu- pied in 1859. in the war in I'pper Italy, the important posi- tion of chief of stuff to (lyulay. After this unfortunate war bo receiver! ihi' eoiniuand of the 17tli regiment of in- fantry, and in the war of I SOO be was made a nnijnr-general ami ehargcil with the defence of tho Tyrol against Hari- baldi. He was successful in the performance of this task, and was promoted to bp field-marsbal-lieutenant. In 1868 be ua> appointed minister of war for the whole empire, and devoted liimself with great energy to tho reorgani.-alion of the arniv. managing \vith delicacy and prudence tbo many difllculties which arose from the discrepancies between Austria and Hungary. In June, 1S74, ho rotired from this 158t:> KCHNOL— KUKISCHE-HAFF. position, in consequence of one of those fluctuations so com- luon with the Austrian government, and assumed the com- mani.l of Griitz. Augtst Niemann. Kiih'nol, or Kuehuoel (Christian Gottlieb), b. at Leipsic Jan. 2. 17t.>S ; studied th('oU)gy in the univcr^-ity of his native city, where he began to lecture on biblical exe- gesis anil hcrmcneutica at the age of twenty : became pro- fessorof philosophy in 171tO, and preacher in 17y*>. In 1801 he acce])ted a professorship atGiessen. and remained there I until his death, Oct. 15, Itfil. His earliest original work was on MvuHiaiiic Propheciea (1792 ). in German, after which he published (in 1794) Notes on the New Tcntnment, /mm \ the Apncn/f>h(i! lioukfi of the Old Tt-atuineiit, in Latin, and in 17y'.> ThepHuhns in Metre, in German. The great work of i his life was his Latin Commeutuvif un the Hintoricaf liookn of the Nfw Testament (Leipsic, 4 vols.. IS07-lt*: 4th ed. 1S37), which had great popularity, and was reprinted in London ( 1S37, 3 vols.), with the addition of the Greek test. Kithniil is credited with many of the best qualities of a bibliiMil interpreter, and held a middle ground between orthodoxy and neology. Ku'ka, or Kukawa, town of Central Africa, the cap- ital of Uornoo. in lat. 12° 55' N. and Ion. 13° 26' W., on tbe western shore of Lake Tchad. Pop. 8000, Ku-Klux KIan,or Ku-KIux [named, we are told, in imitation of the click heard in cocking the rifle ; kfan is the word c/(in in a new orthography], a former gecret associ- ation of ex-Confederate soldiers, first heard of in Tennessee in 186?*. The society soon spread into several other States of the South, and many murders and other crimes were committed by its members, who were dressed in fantastic disguises. The victims were chiefly freedmen. pei-sons of Northern origin, and Southerners accused of favoring the reconstruction acts of Congress. The great budy of the Southern people never approved of this method of settling the questions involved, and greatly deplored the crimes of the Ku-Klui. In Apr., IS71, Congress made these offenders punishable in the Federal courts, and authorized the Presi- dent to suspend the habeas corpus act when necessary to the preservation of order. These measures, and the em- ployment of U. S. troops in the troubled districts, soon brought the disturbances to an end. Ii.ula'9 town of Austria, in the province of Serbia, with some manufactures and a lively trade. Pop. 6908. Knlja, or Kuldsclia, province of Asiatic Russia, in the giivernment of Toorkistan. Area, 25,500 square miles. Pop. in 1S71, 114.;i;i7. It was formerly Soongaria, the ex- treme X. W. province of the Chinese empire, but a few years since it declared its independence under a native sultan, and in May, 1871. the Russian government seized and an- nexed the country in aceordanee with a previous agreement with China. The capital, Kulja, called also ^fVc*', is situated on the Eelec River, and has considerable trade. Pop. 30,000. Kulm [Bohemian Chfumnl, village of Bohemia, 8 miles N. E. of Teplitz, is noted for the battle which took place here Aug. 29-30, 181.3, and in which a French corps under Vandamme was surrounded by the allied Russian-Austrian army, ami compelled to surrender after a desperate resist- ance, with 80 pieces and 10,000 men, having lost 5000 men. Kulm 9 town of Prussia, in the province of Prussia, on the Vistula. It has some manufactures of linen and some trade in corn. Pop. 72G3. Kumaon'9 territory in the north-western part of Hin- dostan, forming a province of the presidency of Agra, British India, and situated between 20° and 31° N. lat. and between 78° and 81° K. Ion. Area, 11,000 square miles. Pop. 605, 010. It is mostly covered by the Himalaya Moun- tains, with the exception of a belt of lowland from 2 to 15 miles broad extending along the foot of the mountain- range. Two crops are gathered here yearly ; rice, sugar, and indigo form the one — wheat and Kuropean fruits and vegetables the other. The tea-jtlant has lieen introduced with success. The capital is .Vlmora, situated 5337 feet above the soa. Kuniquat,the Citrus Japan ka, a v&T\eiy of the orange which is perfectly hardy in Japan and China, and would probably succeed in inauy parts of the U. S. The shrub and its fruit are both very small, but the fruit is of excel- lent qualify. Ku'nersdorf, village of Prussia, in the province of Brandenlmrg. Here Frederick the Great was utterly de- feated by the combined liussian and Austrian forces, Aug. 12, 1751). KuDg, pRiscF,, b. in 1835. was uncle of the late em- peror of China, and as regent hecame the virtual ruler of that country at the accession of the former in 1861. In 1860, at the time of the capture of the Pei-II<i forts an-l of tho summer palace of Peking, he advised the emperor to sign the peace with tho French and English. Prince Kung is the leader of the small party in China which ad- vocates friendship with Christian nations, and the intro- duction in the Celestial empire of Cheir industrial, scientific, and manufacturing processes. He agreed with Anson Bur- lingame, then American minister at Peking, to send him in 1S68, as envoy extraordinary of China, to the V. S. and European powers, in order to form with thrm all alliances on a very enlightened basis, ile became afterwards prime minister, and concluded peace with Japan, after the For- mosan troubles, Nov., 1874. On that occasion he was ac- cused of having given way to foreign influence, and was even condemned to death, but on the following day an im- perial decree reinstated hini in all his offices, which he re- tained until the death of the young emperor, Jan. 17, 1875. Felix Aucaione. Kuu^iir% or Kooni^oor, town of European Russia, in the government of Perm. Its manufactures of Russian leather are celebrated as the best in the world. Its vicinity has very rich iron-mines. Pop. 8208. Kun*Hegyes% town of Hungary, on the Theiss, has 71L'> inhaliitants, mostly Calvinists. Kunnoilj', town of British India, in the presidency of Agra, on the Kali Nuddi, 3 miles from its junction with the Ganges, was at one time a flourishing town, but is now only a vast field of ruins, of which some Mohammedan tombs are interesting, and bear witness to the former splendor of the place. Pop. 15,000, who live miserably. Kun-Szent-Martony', town of Hungary, on the Koros, has ','001 inhabitants. Kun-Szent-Miklos', town of Hungary, on the Dan- ube, has 5751 inhabitants, chiefly Protestants. KuDth (Karl Sigismind},!!. at Leipsic June IS, 1788; studied natural science at Berlin; lived 1813-19 at Paris, engaged in the editing of Humboldt's and Bonpland's bo- tanical collection: was npjiointed professor of botany at Berlin in 1820, and d. Mar. 22, 1850. His principal works arc — Enmncratio plaiitariim onniium hueueque cotjnita- rnm (5 vols., Stuttgart, lS33-50)and Lehrbuch der Jiotnnik (1S47). Knnze (John Christophf.r), D.D., b. in Saxony about 1740 : studied at Leipsic and Halle : entered the Lutheran ministry, and cume to Philadeljthia in 1770 as associate pastor of the German churches in that city. For several years he was a professor in the University of Pennsylvania. In 1784 he ncct-pted a pastoral call to the city of New York, where be resided for twenty-three years, until his death, July 24, 1807. He added to his pastoral duties those of the iirofessorship of Oriental literature in Columbia College. lo was celebrated as a Hebrew scholar, being consulted even by the rabbins upon the philological interpretation of their Scriptures. He published several works, among which •were a Ilinftprtf 0/ the ChriHtniu Rrliijion nnd of the Lutheran Church, a t'literhiam and Liturr/i/, and a Lutheran Hymn au't Pra>/er Hook. Kuper (Sir Augtstis LtoroLn), K. C. B., G. C. B., b. in 1800; entered the royal navy in 1823; served on South American and Mediterranean stations and in China, attained the rank of rear-admiral in L^-OLnnd was appointed commander-in-chief on the East India and China stations, conducting with success the operati<ms in 1864 on the coast of Japan, and for which services was crcatdl a K. C. B. ; subsequently promoted in the navy to be full admiral. Kuppcrwunje', town of British India, in the presi- dency of Bombay, in lat. 23° 3' N., Ion. 73° 9' E., is for- tified and has some trade. Pop. 13,000. Kiir^or Koor, a river of the Caucasus, rises in Turkish Armenia and flows to the Caspian Sea. Its course is so irregular and its currents so rapid that it is entirely unfit for navigation. In most places it is even impossible to bridge it. Ku'rile (or Koorilc) Islands, a group of twenty-six islands in the North Pacific Ocean, near the Asiatic coast, forming a chain 700 miles in length, from Kamtchatka to Yesso, tho northernmost island of Japan. Estimated area, 3000 square miles. Pop. uncertain, but very small. The surface is irregular and mountainous, with eight or fen active volcanoes, one of which is from 12,000 to 15,000 feet high. The inhabitants of the northern islands resemble the natives (»f Kamtchatka : those of the southern are chiefly Ainos. a race found also in Yesso. These islands arc divided into Great and Little Kuriles, the former belonging to Japan, and the latter to Russia, but by a treaty signed June. 1^75, Japan has acquired sovereignty over the whole group. There are iron and copper mines; the seal-fishery and fur- trapping is of some value. Kn'rische*Haff, a lagoon on the northern coa?t of Prussia, extending from Labian to Mcmel, separated from KURNOOL— KYTIIUL. 15«7 the Baltic by a narrow belt of land called " Kurische-Noh- ruDg," and communicating with it through a channel of hardly 1000 feet width, called *' Mcmel Deeps." Its water is fresh and in most pluces shulluw. Kurnool', nr Kurnul^ town of British In'lin, in the presidency of M;idras, the capital of a district of the same name. It 13 situated on the Tamhudra, is strongly forti- fied, and has about 20,0U0 inhabitants. Kurrachee'9 town of Sinde. on an inlet of the Ara- bian Sea, is miles X. \V. of the mouth of the Indus. As all tbe branches of the Indus are barred by sandbanks, Kurrachee is the only seaport on these coasts, and as it has railway communication both with Hyderabatl and with Lahore, it carries on an important trade. Pop. 22,000. Kur'shee* town of Central Asia, in the dominions of Bokhara, has some fine mosques, bazaars, and public baths, and carries on a considerable tra<ie in cattle, carpets, and horsecloths. Tobacco is extensi\'ely cultivated in the vicinity. Pop. about 10,000. Kurtz (Benjamin), D. D., LL.D., b. at Harrisburg, Pa., Feb. 28, 1705; was at fifteen years of age an assistant teacher in the Harrisburg academy, and afterwards gave private instruction in ancient and modern languages; stutlied theology :it Lebanon, Pa., under the direction of Uev. Dr. George Lochmau, and was licensed to preach in 181j by the Lutheran synod of Pennsylvania. Ho was successively assistant at Baltimore to his uncle. Rev. Dr. J. I>. Kurtz, pastor at Ifagerstown, .Md.,and at Chambers- burg. an<l in lS;;;i settled at Baltimore as editor of the Luthfriin Ohsprvr. He conduuted that paper for twenty- nine years, making it a leading representative of the Lu- theran culture in America. Dr. Kurtz took an active part in foundling the theological seminary of his clcnomination at (Jettyshurg, spending two years in (Jermany flS2o-27) seeking aid for it; he was also a Iea<Iing manager of the Lutheran Book Company estaldished at Baltimore in 1840, and was the chief founder of the Missionary Institute at Selinsgrove, Pa. He wrote several theologi<'al books, was an eloquent speaker, and was recognized as a leader and a great power in the Lutheran Church. D. at Baltimore Dec. 2'J, I8G6. Kurtz (Jons Daxiei,), D. D., b. at Ocrraantown, Pa., in Kfl.'t; studied Lutheran theology under the direction of his father, Kev. John Nicholas Kurtz, and subsequently under that of Rev. Dr. H. E. Mlihlenburg of Lancaster, and wag licensed to preach by the synod of IN-unsylvania in I7S1. In 1786 he was ordained pastor of the principal Lutheran church at Baltimore, Md., and held that post for nearly half a century, until in 18;{2 ho resigned on account of advancing age and infirmity. He was tme of the found- ers of the Ueneral Synod of the liUthfiran Ciiurch. a direc- tor of the theological seminary, and closely identified with all the benevolent institutions of his Church. D. at Balti- more Juno 30, 1856. Kurtz (John \icnoLAR),b. at Lutzclindcn, Nassau, Ger- many, about 1720; studied theology at Gicssen and Halle, and in 1745 came as a missionary to his countrymen in Pennsylvania. He was the first Lutheran minister or- dained in the British colonies in America, labored succes- sively at New Hanover, Tulpehoeken, (lermantown, and York, Pa., and spent much time in perilous missionary journeys through the frontier settlements, exposeil to the tomahawk and the scalping-knife. He was pastor at York when the Continental Congress hfid its sessions there dur- ing the Revolution, and gave evidence of his patriotism by his solicitude to relieve the sufferings of the soldiers. At the age of seventy ho n-tired from the ministry, and spent his remaining years with his son, Kev. Dr. J, D. Kurtz, at Baltimore. wht?re ho d. in 17U4. Kliskoquim', a river of Alaska, rises in the Chigmit I Mountains at about lat. fil° N., and flows .S. W. more than ' 500 miles into Kuskoqtiim Bay. Its course has never been ; explored by white m<*n, and its valley is occupied only by a few wandering Indians and Ksnuimaux. the former being Kenaians, and the latter a sub-tribe of the Koniagas, called Kuskoquigmutes. Kiiss'nacht, a v. of .^iwitzcrland. in the canton of Schwytz, on an arm of the Lake of Lucerne, at the foot of the Rigi. Hero is Tell's chapel, and many localities re- lating to the myth of Tell arc shown in and around tho villagi-. Pop. 2:ion. Kiisteiid'Ji, or Ki»tcn4jehf small town of European Turliey. oa the Black Sea, near the termination of Trajan's AVall. It carries on some trade in corn. Pop. about 5000. Kiistrin'f town of Prussia, in tho province of Branden- burg, at the confluence of the Warta and thi* Oder. It is a fortress, but only of the third rank, and has il,)o4 inhabitants. Kutni'eh, or Kutaya^ town of Asiatic Turkey, in Asia Minor, on tho Pusak. It has many mosques, palaces, public baths, and promenades, and a considerable trade in meerschaum, opium, tobacco, and goats' hair. Poj). 2S,9G:i. Kutais'y government of Asiatic Russia, in Caucasia, is bordered W. by the Black Sea, S. by Asiatic Turkt-y. and E. by the govcrnmrnt of Tiflis. Area. 8000 square I miles. Pop. 605,0(10, The surface is mountainous. The ! capital, Kutais, is situated on the Rion (the ancient Thasin), and has 826.3 inhabitants. It stands on the site of the an- cient CuttttiHiHin or Cytiitt, the caj)ital of Colchis, is forti- fied, and carries on some trade in corn, wine, and cattle. Kutchillf an Indian nation of Alaska, occupying tho upper valley of tho Yukon (or Kwiehpak) River through a great part of its course. Tliey are found as far E. as Mackenzie's River, and arc divided into a large number of petty tribes. Kut'tenbcrg, townof Bohemia, haslarge cotton manu- factures, and in its vicinity important cojiper and lead- mines. Pop. 12,727. Kutu'soff (Mikhail or MiniAEL), b. 1745; entered the Russian army at the age of sixteen; became major- general in 1784; was tho leader under SuvarofF in tho memorable assault nnd capture of Ismail ; became lieuten- ant-general in 17in : was amViassador to Constantinoph." in 1793, and fillcil other diplomatic jiosts up to the Russian war against Napoleon, when his services were put in re- quisition. In l-sOo he entered Germany at the head of 50.000 men, defeated Mortier at Dlirrenslein, and disap- proved of the plan followed by the allies at the battle of Austerlitz. His greatest title to glory is in the final results which he obtained in the Russian campaign. In Aug., 1812, he was appointed generaUin-ehief, and though he lost the battle of Borodino, and could not prevent the capture of Moscow, still, his energy caused the Russians to reeovir confidence, and he received the baton of a field-marshal. After the evacuation of Moscow, Kutusoff hotly pursued the French, infiieted on them great losses in the battles of Malo Jaroslavatz, Krasnoe, and Smolensk, for the latter of which he was created prince of Smolensk, and while pur- suing the Ereneh in Prussian Silesia, d. of a malignant fever at Bunzlau, Apr. 28, 1813, Felix At caigne. Kiit'zing (Fuikdrioh Trai'gott), b. at Ritteburg, in Thuringia, Dec, 1807; studied at Hallo; travelled in Southern Europe, especially exploring the flora of the coasts of the Adriatic, and was aj)pointed in 1835 professor of natural science at Nordhausen. His principal works are Die Unncanfilmnj ujedeicr Alfjruformen in hnhcrc { 1839), Phycohigin t/eiicrtifitf (1843), Phi/cofogia f/criiifinirn (1845), Specirn Afffdvum (1849). His researches have principally concerned the Alga*, and led him to the same fundamental ideas as those of Darwin. Kutz'towii, p<ist-b. of Berks co..Pa.,qn tho Allcntown branch of the Philadelphia and Reading R. R., has 2 weekly ncwsjiapers, an iron-foundry and furnace, and a eo.achmaking establishment. It is the sent of the Keystone State Normal School, which has 400 students. Pop. 1' 15. Rev. a. R. Hohnk, Ed. *' National Ei>l'catur." Kwang-See. See Qtanc-Skk. Kwang-Tun^. See (^rANnriNfi. Kwei-C'hii, KmcicIiow, or Queichow, iirovinoo in the S. \V. of China, lying between Se Cliuen. Hu-Nan, Quang-See, and Yun-Nan. Area. 64,547 square miles. Pop. 5.228.219. It is a rugged, mountainous country, of which c<q>per, iron, lead, ami quicksilver arc the most valuable proilucts. Clip. Kwci-Yang. Kw'irhpak River. Sco Ytkon. Ky'Riiitc [Gr. «varo?, "Idur"], a natural silicate of alumina, crystallizing in the trieUnic system, commonly of a pale-blue color (whence its imme),but occasionally white, gray, or black, and generally occurring in long-bladed crystallizations. Kynni/iiig. Sec Timiiku, Pukskrvation and Fire- PR(joi--iN(i or. Kylo^s Springs, tp. of Jaokson co., Ala. Pop. 407. Kymiirgrr, tp. of Talladega co., Ala. Pop. lOl.'i. Kyr'n', tho first word in <ireek of *• A'i/ri> cicisnn." " Lord, hiivo mercy," a ]>etition often occurring in (ho liturgies, masses, and other ofliccs of the Catholic Church. Hence tiic name h'ifric is used to designate tho opening movenirnt of musical masses, ret|«iems, and various ser- vices wbicdi commence with the words h'l/rir ff< imni, I'ln-intc rhiiinn. For this reason the term is opplicd in the .Angli- can Church to tho responses between the commandments in the Communion office, " Lord, have mercy upon us." Kythul% town of British India, in the presidency of Ben- gal, the capital (»f a district of t)ie same name. It is a well- built city, with a magnificent palace and 60,000 inhabitants. 1588 L— LABEL. L. L, one of the consonants called liquids, representing a sound fciunil in almost every language. It quite constantly stands for tlic same sound in all languages using the Roman al(diahct; although tl in French {mouillf) undergoes a peculiar softening in certain situations, while II in Spanish {lit in Portuguese) has a sound like / followed by.y a» a con- sonant. LI in Welsh has a peculiar aspirated sound not fonnd in Knglish. L is to some extent interchangeable with other consonants, ))articuhirly with li and the mutes. \f, a numeral, L stands for fifty; as an abbreviation, it represents the Latin proper name Lucius. Laa'laiid, or Lollaiid, an island of Denmark, in the Baltic, separated from Falster by Guldborgsund. Area. 452 square miles. Pop. 5(;,000. It is low and flat, but fertile ami well cultivated. Large crops of wheat are raised : fine forests of oak and beech cover a large part of the island. Principal towns are Maribo and Jfaskov. Labadie'Mr.ANl.b. Feb. 13,1610.at Bourg-en-Guiennc, and educated at Bordeaux by the Jesuits, in whoso order he became a distinguished professor. In 163;i he left the Jesuits, and commenced preaching peculiar doctrines of his own, having considerable success at Paris, at .^micns, at Bazas, and at Toulouse. He obtained many followers through his eloquence and learning, claimed to have re- ceived the spirit of John the Baptist, and predicted the end of the world in lfi66. Finding no rest in the Roman Catholic Church, and being subject to persecutions, he publicly embraced the Reformed creed in 1650 at Jlontauhan, where he preached for several years a return to apostolical religion on pietistic principles. In lliii? he became pastor at Orange, and in 16.')9 at Geneva, where he gained many proselytes, but created such disturbances that he soon with- drew, and for several years travelled through Germany and Holland. In liiiili he became pastor of a Walloon church at Middelburg. Midland, where several persons of import- ance cinljraced his doctrines. His most celebrated di.sciples were two ladies, Anna .Schurmann and .\ntoinette Bouri- gnon, the former distinguished for her learning in the Ori- ental languages, the latter as authoress of many devotional publications. In 1669 he removed to Amsterdam, anri formed a body of followers known as Labadists. Expelled from Holland in 1670 as a dangerous sectarian, he went to Erfurt, where the princess palatine Elizabeth protected him and became his disciple. He afterwards went to Bre- men, and finally to Altona, where he d. Feb. 2, 1674. His discii>les settled in the duchy of Cleves, where they existed for nearly a century. Early in the eighteenth century some Labadist missionaries settled on the backs of the Hudson in New York, but do not seem to have founded any churches. Labadic's iloctrines were a combination of mysticism with Calvinism ; he held to illumination by the Holy Ghost as the means of salvation superseding the Bible, rejected infant baptism and the observance of the .Sabbath, and taught communism in property. The Roman Catholics circulated many charges of immorality against his teachings, but without reason, his practices having been ascetic in the extreme. He left numerous writings, now extremely rare. Lab'arec (Benjamin), D. D.. LL.D.,b. at Charlestown, \. II.. June .1, 1801 ; graduated at Dartmouth in 182S,and at Andover Theological Seminary in 18:U ; was ordained at Bradford, Mass., IS.Jl ; was professor of Latin and Greek in Jackson College, Tenn., lS.'i2-:i6, its president 1S.'!6-S7; president of Middlebury College, Vt., 1840-66; held a j.asturatc at Hyde Park. Mass., 1S69-71. Lnbarraque's' Solution ( Liquor Sndit Chlnrlimi^), a solution of chlorinated soda formed by mixing the solu- tion of fodic earbcmate with that of the best quality of blcaching-powder (the so-called chloride of lime). It is very valuable, both as a remedy and as a general disinfect- ant, lis chemical constitution is indetinite. See S01HV.M. I^ab'arnm [etymology doubtful], the name of the prin- cipal standard of the Roman armies after the conversion of Constantine. It was a banner home upon a cruciform standard, and had the monogram of Christ, with the letters alpha and omega. It was designed to commemorate the conversion of Constantine, and was an object of adoration to the troops. Labaf (Jean Bapttste), b. at Paris in 1063; entered the ortler of the Dominicans in les.") ; was appointed pro- fessor in mathematics and philosophy at Xancy in 16S7. and went in 1693 as a missionary, first to Martinique, and then to Guadeloupe, where he remained till 1705. He worked not only »s a missionary, bnt also as a scientist, besides being a man of great practical ability. He founded the city of Basse-Terrc and took part with great energy in the defence of the island against the English. On his re- turn to Europe he lived (or some years in Spain, then in Italy, and afterwards in Paris, where ho d. •Ian. C, 1738. His principal writings are Xoiirfaii vyaije tttix ties de l'Am(riqtie (6 vols.. 1722). Voi/ni/e en En/inyiic et Itnlle (S vols.. 17.10), Helalion hittoriqnc de V Ethiopie oecidentale (5 vols., 1722). Lab'danum, or Lad'annm, the resin of Cistns ere- tivHn, htitrlf'oliuH, and Ittdaui/erh't, small evergreen shrubs of the order Cistacea?, growing chiefly in the Levant. It is combed from the beards of goats and the fleece of sheep that browse u|ion the hills when- it grows, and is also col- lected by drawing a rake over the plants. Leathern thoogs are attached to the rake, and to these thongs the resin ad- heres. It is nsed as an incense an<l as a fumigation ; also sometimes in plasters. It was formerly valued as a stimu- lant and expectorant. La B^dollifere, de (1?mile Gigailt). b. at Paris 1814. He is especially known as one of the most assiiln- ous contributors to the journal Le SIfcIc, which he recently left for f.e Antioiial, another republican paper of Paris. La Bfdolli^re began his literary life by writing the Pulilical Life (if the Mnrquis de La Fni/elte in 1R33. which work at- tracted public attention to him. He has translated many English and American books — Unrle Tum't Cnbin, t\ie nov- els of Fenimoro Cooper, etc. He has written also Hitlory of the Xntioiml Giiiird, Hitton/ of llie Miiiinem and Prirale Life of the French. The Xew Paris, Hinlory of the Me.rierin Wnr, etc. All these works are animated with a high spirit of liberalism. Fii.ix Aicaigne. La Bedoy^re, de (Charles HrrnET), Coi'st, h. at Paris 1786; shot there Aug. 19, 1815. His historical fame is due to the fact that he was the most exact personification of the persecutions which the Bonapartists had to 8ufl"er at the hands of the Bourbon restoration after Waterloo. La B6doyere. though of an ancient legitimist family, had be- come the admirer of Napoleon and taken service in his armies. Ho did not resign his military functions on the first fall of Napoleon in 1814. and was colonel of an in- fantry regiment when the emperor landed in France from the island of Elba in 1815. La Bedoyere, like the whole army and the whole of France, joined Napoleon at Vizille, who, on arriving in Paris, made him his aide-de-camp, general of division, and senator. On the return of the Bour- bons after the •• Hundred Days," La Bfdoyere was arrested, tried by a drumhead court-martial, and shot. Felix ArcAinxE. Ija'bcl [Lat. labellum, "lip" or "tassel"]. In its original sense Inhel meant a narrow strip of paper or parch- ment used in affixing a leaden seal to a deed or other in- strument of writing. Verification is still the intrinsic idea of the label, although its mechanical function has disap- peared, and in its legal sense it has been justly termed a qiirmi trademark. Like the trade-mark, it implies pro- prietary rights defensible both by common law and stat- ute (see Trade-marks), but differs from it in including proper names, descriptive terms, etc.. and in excluding merely arbitrary symbols. Although the distinctions be- tween a label aiid a trademark may appear at first glance shadowy and uncertain, they are substantial and readily deducible from the ethics of the numerous judicial decisions on record ; provided always that the rhnrarter of the spe- cific matter decided upon be considered without regard to the terms used by the court in its designation : for the word "trade-mark" has been frequently applied even by learned judges to indicate a label, and hence the confused ideas current as to the true nature of the latter. In the V. S. previous to the act of Congress approved I June 18, 1874, and which went into effect Aug. 1 of the same year, no provision existed for the registry of labels, and infringements were tried in equity under rulings sim- ilar to those governing trade-mark cases, but based more upon the substantial justice of each suit, as in eases of un- fair competition in trade, than upon the clearly defined axioms that govern the disposal of tradc-mnrks. The act just mentioned, however, although faulty in many respects, afi'ords a basis for the building up of a system of law and practice which will undoubtedly ensure to labels a defined status and value which the isolated and to some extent LABERGE— LABIAT.E. 1589 discorrlant decisions of different State courts have failed to give them. As officially staled, the scope of this net is as fnMows: ". *?<<*. S. That in the construelion of this act the words * enjraving," 'cut.' and *]»rint' phall be applied only to pictorial illustrations or works connected with the tine i art<. and no prints or labels designed to be used for any other articles of manufacture shall bo entered untier the copyright law. but luny be registered in tlio patent office. And tho commissioner of patents is hereby charged with the supervision ami control of thf entry or registry of such prints or labels, in conformity with the rfKuhitions provicled hv law as to copyriijht of prints, except that there shall be paid for recording tho title of a print or label, not a trade- mark, six dollar-5. which shall cover the expense of furnish- ' inn a copy of the record, under seal of the commissioner of patents, to the party entering the same. Scr. ^. That all laws and parts of laws inconsistent with the foref;oin^ ' provisions be and the same arc hereby repealed. Sec. 5. i That this art shall take effect on and after tho first day of Aiijfust, eighteen hundred and seventy-four. Approved June 1^. 1S74." *' By the word 'print,' as used in the said act, is meant any device, picture, word or words, figure or fisuros (not a trade-mark », impressed or stamped dirct-tly u]>on the arti- cles of manufacture, to denote the name of the manufac- turer or place of manufacture, style of gooils, or other mat- ; ter. By the word Mabel.' as therein used, is meant a slip i or piece of paper, or other material, to be attached in any ' manner to manufactured articles, or to bottles, boxes, and packages coutainini; them, anil bearing an inscriptiou (not a trade-mark), as. for example, the name of the manufac- turer or the place of manufacture, the quality of goods, i directions for use, etc. By tho words * articles of manu- I faclure' — to which su'-h print or labpl is applicable by saiil act — is meant all vendible commodities ]^rndni'od by band, machinery, or art. lint no such print or label can be regis- , tered unless it properly belongs to an article of commerce, and be as above defined; nor can the same be registered ; as such print or label when it amounts in law to a technical I trade-mark." ' It will ho seen that the act in question excludes trade- marks per **•, together with matter relating to the fine arts and belles-lettres. In addition to these, it also excludes designs or articles the form and configuration of which are intended for the decoration or artistic improvement fns dis- tinguished from the mechanical or functional) of manufac- tured articles. | The registry of a label is specially desirable in those cases wherein business interests are identified with the sale of an article known by the term by which it would naturally he designated, as. for example, the word "Akron." for a material produced at Akron, an illustration taken from the noted case of Newman r«. Alfonl ( (*.) Barbour's Reports, p. 5S.S>, in which the cement obtained from a bed in the vil- lage of Akron. Krio co., X. Y., was designated as Akron cement. Any one could quarry and prepare cement in tho village, and sell it as .Akron cement, for sur-h is the proper term to indicate the article. But parties in Syracuse, N. Y., made a cement obtained from another locality, and sold it as Akron cement. The court enjoineil them. It was shown that the plaintiffs had made known to the world the merits of the cement-be<l in Akmn. au'l the market of the product depended essentially upon the title given it. The sale of another article under the name, therefore, not only defrauded plaintiff of tho profits that would otherwise accrue, but deludc'l the public into purchasitig what it ilid not wish. The labtd. therefore, nlthouirh lacking the in- herent characteristic of a trade mark, that of exclusive pro- prietorship. cxclu<les competition from all except those in co-equal possession. The question as to whether tho regis- try of the term as a hibel would exclu'le another in tho same locality from using it has never yet been decided, but in all probability a decision wouhl be in the negative. If. however, the party registering owned the entire source of snp]>ly, as of cement, iron, or otlier product, in the locality, the term, under the practice of the patent office, woubl be- c'tnie a trade-mark, and would bo regiMtored as such, and not ni a label. A^ with a geographical, so with a proper name; for alMiongh tho arbitrary form of a person's signature may c'MMtitule a trade-miirk, his name alone cannot. Any one named Holloway has a right to make llolloway's pills, but one llollowiiy must not so frame his labels as tu rleceivo the public with the i<lca that the articles vended by him are the wares of another. This was decided in the rolls court in Kngland about twenty-five years ago, and the principle holds good in American practice. The master of the r'lIU declared that "the defendant's name beine Hol- loway, be has n right to eonstituto himself tho vender of Hollnway's pills and ointment. . . . But he has no ritrht to do so with such additions to his own name as to deceive the public, and make them believe that ho is selling tho plaintiff's pills and ointment." In Burgess r«. Burgess, in chancery. ls.');l, another English case, the court aflirmed the right of any one hearing the name of Burgess to make and vend "Burgess's Anchovy Sauce," but compelled tho defendant to remove certain accessories from his store which tended to mislead the public into tho belief that they were jmrchasing from another person of the same name. But had some person, not of this name, adopted the term, there is no <loubt tliat a permanent injunction would have issued. And could it have been shown that a person named Burgess had used the label, not in the hnua-ftiic pursuit of a legitimate business, but with intent to trade on the repu- tation of another dealer, an injunction would have issued as a matter of course. As the law concerning labels, although now embodied in statutes, rests fundamentally upon commercial equity, the jurisprudence of different countries shows, in the main, great uniformity in the drift of tlecisions. For instance, the view just previously ex- pressed is sustained by a noted French case, in wluch an association organized by one Th. Roedercr was enjoined, with especially humiliating conditions, from using tho name Roederer except in a manner so conspicuously dis- tinctive as to show at a glance that the article sold was not that of the celebrated wine-merchants of the name. An action brought in a V. S. court would, so far as the above points are concerned, be decided in accordance with tho above acknowledge*! princijdes ; in other respects tho analogies of the law of trade -marks wcmld prevail. In some of the States local laws provide for the puiiishnirnf of in- fringers upon a label, and in such instances the courts of the State are the proper tribunals. Even where no such laws exist, an action under tlie common law may be main- tained, the choice of courts resting with the lawful owner of tin' label. But registry in the U. S. patent office is always desirable, not only as bringing the matter within the scope of the V. S. courts, but for the reason that it de- fines the precise character of the label, and because it is notice to the public that it is claimed, so far as his option and volition can secure it, exclusively by the party regis- tering the same. Strictly speaking, the so-called copyrighting of labels never gave any security or protection to them in point of law, although to a certain extent useful in advising tho public of the asserted proprietorship. But as this is now forbidden by law, no further consideration need be given it. Pictures, engravings, etc. relating to the fiiu' arts, and printed matter considered apart from a Cfunmcrcial product or article to which it is attached, are subjects for cojiyright, and no matter embraced within either of these divisions can be protected either under the act of Congress or by State or common law. A " design " being in llie nature of things arbitrary, and distinct in configuration from any other, may be used as a trade-mark, provideil that its use for this purpose is by its originator, patentee, or owner as a design, nut as for trade purposes it may thus be brought within the scope of n trade-mark, it cannot properly be registered as a label. Jamks A. AVuitnky. Laberpe' (Ciiart-KS JosfpiO, b. in Montreal in 1827; was educated at tho college of St. Hyaeiiithe, and became a lawyer in 1S48; in IS.^il he entered the Canadian Parlia- ment as a liberal : in 1S6S he was solicitor-general for Can- ada East. He was an able public speaker, and was for a time eclitorially connected with the FvonrO'Citunfiinu of St. .Tohn's, Quebee. and was later chief editor of Lr Xitti'onnl, Montreal. He was for a time a licutcuant-coloncl of vol- unteer troops. D. in Aug, 1S74. liftbotlo', county in tho S. E. of Kan:*as. bounded on the S. by Indian Territory. Area. iV2i square niibs. It is drainr<l by (he Neosho and its branches, and by aUluents of the Verdigris. Valuable coal is found, and the cminty is generallv level and fertile. (Jrnin and stock are staple products. The county is traversed by the Missouri Kansas and Texas U, K. Cap. Oswego. Pop. 997.1. T^nbolto, post-v. and tp. of Labette co., Kan., on tho Labette Biver and the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. K., 9 miles S. of Parsons City. Pop. 2S1I. Lnbitt'tiT [Lat. fahin, "lips," from the two-lipped co- rolla 1, one of the larger of the mon ope talons onlers of phie- nogamous plants, well marked by tlie o|q>osite and mostly aromatic leaves, square stems, liilabinte corolla. f"ur tli- dynamous, or only two stamens, and a four-parted ovary, forming four seed-like millets Cnaked seeds of the old bot- anists) around the base of a single style. No plants of tho order are known tliat are in the least degree hurtful. The essential oils which give an aronmtie charoetcr tn many of them are separated by distillation for medicinal purposes ' or for use in perfumery. Several, sueh as thyme, summer- I savory, and the liko, are the "sweet herbs" of kilchen- I gardens. Lavandula vera, a shrub cultivated throughout 1590 LABIENUS— LABOR. Germany, and widely in England, has fragrant flowers, from which the officinal oil of lavender is produced. Itoa- mnrinm otncimtliK is au evergreen shrub of the S. of France and the contiguous coast of Italy, the leaves and flowering tops of wliich yield the volatile and fragrant oil of rose- mary. It is believed that the essential oils just referred to are constituents of cau-de-colognc. Mtnthu piperila is the well-known peppermint. It is cultivated on a vast scale in Southern Michigan, Western New York, and Ohio. In St Joseph CO.. Mich., there were in 185S, 2000 acres de- voted to its growth. A ton of dried peppermint yields about 3 pounds of the es.sential oil. Spearmint is a closely allied species, cultivated for its aromatic oil. Many other plants of the order are widely known and safely used in domestic medicine— pennyroyal, American pennyroyal, hyssop, horo- hound, and the "like. A few are cultivated for ornament, such as Chinese Perilln, several scarlet and blue sages, and ColeuJi, with richly-colored and often variegated leaves. Asa Gii.w. Labie'nus(TiTrs),h. about 98 B.C.; tribune in 6.3 B.C., when Cicero was consul ; accompanied Ca>sar as his lien- tenant to Gaul, and distinguished himself in bi B.C. by his two victories over the Treviri, and in 52 in the campaign against Vercingetori.t. Although he entered public life under the ausjiices of Ca>sar, and served him for many years, he nevertheless sided with Ponipey when the civil war broke out. and made himself conspicuous by the mean- ness and cruelty with which he treated those of C.-vsar's soldiers who fell into his hands at the battle of Dyrrhachium. After the defeat of Pharsalia he fled to Africa, and thence to Spain after the defeat at Thapsus. In Spain he fought against Ca!sar at Mnndn, and by his mistakes the battle w"as lost. D. 45 b. c. He was not without literary ability, but ho was a loose and vain character, and his blunders and crimes have thrown his successes into the shade. Labienns, Les Propos de, the title of a bitter satir- ical invective against the second French empire, and per- sonally against Napoleon III., which appeared in Paris in ISfi.i, immediately after the publication of the first volume of Napoleon's life of .Julius Caesar. Labienus is represented to be a soured, disgusted, and obstinate republican living under .\ugustus. against whose usurpation and tyranny he perpetually chafed. He is represented to have written a history of "his country, of which he reail jiassages in secret to his friends. His grandfather is said to have served under Julius up to the crossing of the Rubicon, and his father to have joined the Parlhians rather than support the triumvirate. This was supposed to point to Victor Hugo, whoso father was a general under the first republic ; but as this latter also served the empire, the coincidence is not complete. The due d'Aumale wrote a life of the great Condi'' which was printed privately forhis friends, and was seized and confiscated. This was a point of similarity with Labienus. who, however, by hypothesis, could not have been of royal extraction. The author probably did not mean to i.oint definitely to any individual. The appear- ance of a volume of Memoirt by Augustus is the occasion of a special outburst of the spleen of Labienus. with which the satire concludes. The author was M. A. Rochcard, an ex-professor in a provincial college. His name was on the title-page, and he was condemned for his pains to four or five years' imprisonment, but escaped by taking refuge in Brussels. F- A. P. Bahnard. La Billnrdiere, dc (JAcqrES Jti.iF.s), b. at Aleni;on Oct. 2:t, I7i5 ; studied medicine and botany at Montjjellier ; travelled in France, England, and Italy; made in li8G-S7, at the expense of the government, a journey in Syria and Palestine; accompanied the expedition of D'Entrecasteaux in 1791 ; was taken prisoner in 1703 by the Dutch at Java, while his botanical collections were carried to England; was liberated in 1795, and resided afterwards in Paris, where in ISOO ho was elected a member of the Institute. D. at Paris Jan. 8, 1834. He wrote /coiiri plantarnm Sjrin: vnri.innn (1791-1812), Sovir /lollautllir phlillnrum specimen (}>)0i), Ilelalion dii nj/tit/e n la rechmht (Ic La Piroute (1800), besides a great number of monographs and essays. Lablache' (Lnoi'), b. at Naples Dec. 17, 1794; made his dC-but as a basso in 1812 in his native city; achieved his first great success in Vienna in 1824, and sang from 1830 to 1857 alternately in Paris and London, making oc- casional trips to St. Petersburg and Naples. D. at Naples Jan. 23, 1858. His principal performances were Figaro, Leporello, Dulcamara, Don Pasquale. etc., but he also sang Henry VIII. in -liiim Ilolnm, and Giorgio in / PuritanI, making a most powerful impression. La'bor [Lat.],in political economy, denotes one of three great agencies by which wealth is produced, the others be- ing land, or nature, and capital. A celebrated German economist divides industrial history into three periods, in the first of which nature is the chief productive agent; in the second, labor; in the third, capital. In the first of the three periods wealth consists mainly of natural i)roduec. as in the hunting and .pastoral stages, and likewise in the early stiige of industrial jirogress in new and prolific regions, where wealth lies, as it were, on the surface. In the second period— the later centuries of the Midille Ages, for example — agriculture progresses, handicrafts multiply, considerable manual skill is developed, and labor plays the principal part. In the third period production takes jdace on a large scale, machinery su- persedes handicrafts, as in the case of the haudlooin. and labor and land become the ministers of the mechanical pow- ers, materials, money, and credit, at the command of the capitalist. This generalization, though rough and needing some qualification, puts in a strong light one truth in par- ticular which it is of great importance to the working classes to recognize— namely, that labor is not the only productive agent, that capital gains ground with industrial progress in respect of the contributiim which it makes to production, and that all theories on behalf of labor which omit to take this fundamental economic fact into account are fallacious. Thus, the leading doctrine of some Gerninn Socialists, that all wealth is the proiluct of labor, eai.ital itself only accumulated labor, and that the working classes are therc"fore entitled to the whole produce of every coun- try, is unsound and delusive. The steam-engine is the typical feature of modern industry, and it was mainly the p"roduct. not of manual laborers, but of the genius, enter- prise perseverance, and command of funds of two em- ployers of labor. Watt and Boulton. With the steam-en- gine came production uu a great scale and for distant markets, needing large advances of capital and new powers of direction and enterprise. Yet, although capital has be- come the dominant element in most of the chief depart- ments of industry, both labor and the powers of nature do absolutely much more in our d.ay, though relatively less, for the production of wealth than formerly. Walt com- plained that the main ditficulty of constructing his steam- engine arose from the unskilfulness of bis workmen ; work- men now easily and rapidly make far more perfect machines. Again, wealth increases fastest, and both profits and wages are highest, in the civilized world where natural resources and advantages, such as fertile soils, mines, water-commu- nication, arc greatest. Coal and iron, for example, played an insignificant part in medieval industry; the natural riches of whole continents lay idle ; and numerous products of nature which were then unknown or valueless are now sources of wealth. A still more important consideration in reference to the three great productive agents, land, labor, and capital, is that their separate ownership is not an essential or a universal condition of things. A peculiar course of national history and a peculiar legal system led to a separation of society in Great Britain into three great classes— landlords, capitalists, and laborers ; and English economists, with the tendency to premature generalization which characterizes infant philosophy, were led to reason i as though this were the natural and necessary consequence i of industrial progress, and as though rent, profit, and wages must belong everywhere and always to difi'erent classes. i But the severance" of the laborer from landed property is an exceptional fact in the modern world, being peculiar to British industrial economy. And although co-operation is in its infancy, it has succeeded in several forms; and in Great Britaiii itself the recipients of wages are in a con- siderable number of cases partners also in profits. There is, however, in all civilized countries— and there must for generations to come, if not always, be— a large class living by manual labor and in the receipt only of wa<'e9. The causes which determine the material condition of This class and their real income must long retain the highest importance. These causes arc not to be summed up, as some eminent economists have supposed, in any sin- gle law or formula, such as the projiortion of capital to laborers; thev vary in difi'erent circumstances, m different places, and in difi'erent stages of economic progress. 1 hus, the etfect of an increase of poimlation on wages is very different in different regions. In Flanders, for example, wages are kept down by excessive population, but in new countries, such as the Western States of America and in Australia, an incrca.se of laborers may raise m jilace of reducing wages, by rendering possible a better division of industry and the ilovelopment of the immense resources of nature. In such regions, too, wages are often paid chiefly not out of capital, but out of the ultimate produce. Even"in old countries, where they are paid chiefiy out ot capital, it is an error to suppose that the rate of wages is absolutely fixed by the ratio of the amount of capital to the number of laborers. (See Strikks. Trades Usions, Waues ) What it is desirable to draw particular attention to here, however, is that the rate of wages, or the price of LABORATORY, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL. loiil labor, does uot in the majority of cases by ilsolf determine the amount of the real income of the workinir classes. though it is one of the conditions which do su. NVhere the hiburcr is paid altogether in food and other commodities. bis na.^c^ uud his rcul income are identical. In nicdiieval Kurope this was for the most part the case. And lu many parts of Germany to this day, and in ?omo parts of Eng- land, the farm-laborer receives part of his wtigcs in kind. In the U. S.. likewise, and in Australia, board or food .^'imetimes forms part of the price of labor. Nevertheless, the decided tendency of modern industrial economy is to suhstituto money payments for wages in kind : and wher- ever this change takes place, or in so far as it does so, the real income of the laborer becomes subject to more com- plex conditions, and ceases to depend solely on the rate of wages or on the tenns of the exchange between employer and employed. For the workman then makes not one ex- change only — namely, the sale of his labor for food and other article?— but a number of exchanges, by means, first, of the sale of his labor, and subsequently of the purchase of the various commodities which he consumes. The term " real wages," which is still sometimes employed, is in this c:iso inappropriate and misleading, an tending to shut out of consideration some most important elements of the real income of the working classes. Two workmen may be r:irning exactly the same wages, yet the real income of the one may be increasing, that of the other decreasing, be- c;iuse the articles which the former buys are falling, those on which the latter spends his wages rising in price. There are places where the laborer contracts to work for a year at a fixed rate of monthly or weekly wages ; here the amount of commodities constituting bis real income depends partly on the seasons, on taxation, and on various circumstances quiteindependentof his wages. some of which were not even in existence when his wages were fixed. It is one of the most im- portant results of the introduction of money as the medium of exchange that the working classes have become <lirectly and deeply concerned in matters — improvements in produc- tion, tari^s. tuxes, laws, forms of association, investments for savings — which otherwise would only remotely affect them, or not at all. That admirable modern institution for the economical purchase of commodities, the co-operative store, owes its origin to the change in industrial economy which substituted payments of wages in money for payments in kind. The immense purchases of land which the working classes have made in rranco and other parts of the conti- nent of Europe are among the results of money-wages. The legal system which has excluded the British laborer from the owiierahip of land has led some British econo- mists to look to co-operative association, by which the workman becomes a partner in capital, as the only mode by which any considerable number of the working class can be raised from the condition of living from hand to mouth, and the only solution of the labor question. But in France there are t.OOO.UOO land-owner.-^ cultivating their own ground, besides many more whose land is farmed by tenants, and the number yearly increases by the purchase of little plots ; in (Icrmany, Switzerland, and Belgium the number of small ]»roprietors, who would otherwise bo only laborers for hire, is very large, and land in those countries is the favorite investment for savings from wages. In the V, S. there are now probably :i, 000, 000 farms, and the rapiility with which tlio number increases is shown by the following figures: in IH.'.O, I.U'J.or.t: in isno. 2,11 n. 077; in 1S70, 2.0.VJ,9Sj. Even in England a great number of working men ar« own- ers of house property, and hundreds of thousands of the English working classes of both sexes have invested sav- ings in building, benefit, and friendly societies. The in- security, indeed, of many of these investments shows the loss which the laborer in (Jreat Britain sustains from the inaccessibility of land. In countries, moreover, in which lanil is accessible to the working classes, it not only pro- vide.H a healthful occupation and a secure investment for those who acquire it, but also raises the standard of wages in other occupations. An American employer pr>inted out to the English trades-uinon commission that in the Stales the price of labor is in a great measure regulated by what a man can make out of luncl, which there competes with capital in the labor-market. What is called the labor question is not, however, susceptible of any single solution, be it co-operation, a good land system, secure savings banks, nr any other method. All the methods, moral and intellectual as well ns material, which benefit and elevate all classes, and not the working classes alone, must concur in the solution '>f the problem. The iidvautages which the laborer derives froui education, newspapers, books, cheap postage and locomotion, sanitary improvements, medical science, show how his condition de- ](onds on the general progress of civtliration : nnd the fu- ture doubtless has iu store additions to his welfare undreamt of lit |)rc.-4cnt. T. E. Ci.iffk Lkslie. | Lab'oratorVf Physical aud Chemical. For the first fourteen or fifteen hundred years of the Christian era the grand sciences now known as physics and chemistry, so far as they had advanced, were known under the names of the " Egyptian art " or the " black art " ( whence the word ''Chemistry" or '* Chemie," from Cheni, Egypt), and were chiefly cultivated in secret, being condemned as shameful and illegitimate by the State, and as impi(jus and danger- ous by the Church. The amazing power and progress ly- ing here in latent forms were no doubt instinctively felt and recognized; and from the element in humnn nature which holds oninc iymthtm pn* terrihifi, these studies were rightly regarded as fraught with peril to all existing institutions and authorities, and to the perpetuity of the prevailing ideas that had been carefully inculcated in the minds of the illiterate mass of men — ideas which were naturally con- trived with the most anxious care to assist iu upholding those authorities and institutions. Thus it was that the laboratory — which in our day is claimed to be the fountain- head of our greatest arts of civilization, and which is the sphere that now absorbs many young men who feel within them the God-iniplantcd ambition to arid something to the sum of real knowledge, and to die that denth which comes to all with a consciousness that life has not been spent in vain. — thus it was that philosophical and chemical labor of all kinds, during all these centuries, was driven into holes and corners, and classed with astrology, alchemy, jugglery, diabolism, spiritualism, and all that genus of mysticism, quackery, trickery, and fraud. Thus, as we recede, in trying to trace the past history of civilization, before the present ep<»ch of printed books, we find it almost or quite impossible to obtain satisfactory ideas of labora- tories or of their occupants antecedent to this epoch. The records of those days, consisting of manuscripts and pic- tures, are both rare and inherently defective. The true stuclents of science then rarely wrote books, and still more rarely painted pictures. The only branches of chemistry and natural ]diilosophy which received any countenance from the powers that were, and any aid from the possessors of the existing \vealth. were such as presented the promise of immediate and direct additions to that priwer anil wealth. The only natural si-ience held to be "practical " in its character— as held even now by many — was such as would help to innlu- jjioh*// for individuals ; additions to the sum of human knowledge, involving the greatest good to the greatest number, being as dust in the balance. Naturally and necessarily, such books as may have been written by true men of science were not valuecl. copied, or preserved: probably not sought after for public libraries, nor even admitted thereinto, unless they bore the stamp and held the jargon of mysticism of some sort — astrology, gold-making, miracle-mongery, or the preparation of nos- trums and specifics. Paintings — of engravings there were none — were founderl almost wholly upon the popular ideal of the haunts of these popularly-reputed mystics, and are not, of course, to be fairly or justly accepted as represent- ing the real science of those days. The engraving we pre- sent with this, therefore, of a medb-eval laboratory of a dale nearly .'iHO years ago, must be viewed with due allowance, no doubt, for the necessary coloring of the mind <if the ar- tist with the prevalent idea of sucli places and sueh pur- suits. The artist in this case was the elder Teniers. and the date of the original painting — in the (lallery of the Li)uvre in Paris — somewhere about the close of the six- teenth century. Students of the history of science will re- member that this was a generation previous to the birth of Becher. and two generations before that of StabI, the two chemists who were the f'uinders of the first scientific system of chemistry, the jihlogistic system: which, witli tiiP substitution of the idea of fm n'vit for that of i)bIopis- ton,may be held as still standing at this present day. The art of printing was then a century and a half old, and printed books appear in this painting, prominently exhib- ited. We kn<iw. from very numerous facts on record, that the chemists of the day of this painting, the sixteenth cen- tury — many of whoso names even are uncertain or unknown — ma<lo groat discoveries — discoveries \vhich we are sure could not have been made without long, exhaustive, ainl unselfish labor and research. In spite of the assertion — oft repeated, but not by those who vtakf discoveries — that they are ''mostly made by accitlcnt," we do not find at the present day that aeeident plays any important part in the progress of human discovery. All now methods, nmteriiils. arts, theories, gencralizatiims, and principles, all that is entitlcfl to the rank of a discovery, come in these days to men in the laboratory, as the sefjuences of indefatigable study and labor, inspin-il by a patient enthusiasm, devoid of nil tinetiire of sordid ealeulatiou, nnd <'crtainly con- (hicted with as great an avoiilanec <)f the cli-ment of aeci- d'-nt or random-work, as in any human pursuit whatever. Those who pursue science consider themselves justified in 1592 LABORATORY, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL. believing, therefore, tliat it has ajivays been thus: and that the many funtlanientul discoveries, the new materials, methods, and nrls which came from the laboratory during the so-called alchemical times, were neither accidental nor the results of empirical work, but arose from the same identical sort of research, by the same sort of men, as iu our own day. To illustrate this assertion, the cut is presented of the Fio. 1. A chemist's hiL ui 11 ixti-.-iiUi ancient laboratory furnace of the famous Gcber, 1100 years old. It will be observed that this apparatus involves a number of inventions and principles often supposed to be of modern origin, among them that of the so-called " base- burning" stoves. The name Atlmnor was derived from this feature, meaning '• deathless " or never-expiring. V^ Fig. •-'. Ti)«tr f ff^ Allraor. Gctxr's Tuwer of Alhanur ^ab■rut A. D. 1, the ashe hole; 2, a, the ashe hole: 6, 1, the ashe hole; 2, the focus or fire- the focus or fire- the focus; 3, the roome;:i, the place roome; c, the pas- kettle where the wherelheashesor sages made for water of the Bal- 8and for the Hath communication of neum is put; 4, a arc placed; 4, a the Are; rf, the round (of wood. Watt rasse ; .'», a empty place of the hay, or sonic other classe dish ; 6, the Tower; r.thesolid soft matter) to Eeijister of fire;", part of the Tower ; keepc vpthe Lim- Ihe entrance of ^, the cover of the beck b<xiy ; .'>, the the fire or heat Tower; (?, two sev- curcubite, with its from the Tower of erallcircleswhere- Limbeck head; 6, Alhanor; 8. the in the cover is in- the ReKiaters of Iron plate or Ves- layd. fire; 7. the stoole sel containing the or table to keepe Sand or ashes. up the Re<ipiem; 8, the Recipiem. Chemical Lahoratorieu are at present too numerous and too easily accessible to make it necessary to illustrate their ur> , li'ilii Li p.uullu;^ by the elder Tcuicis. arrangements by a graphic representation. In well-ap- pointed institutions, as at the School of Mines of Columbia College, distinct laboratories are now provided for each kind of study and investigation. Thus, there is a qualita- tive laboratory, a quantitative laboratory, an assay labor- atory, a photometric laboratory, a photographic laboratory, a laboratory for gas analysis, and a blowpipe laboratory, each of which is provided with the apparatus and fixtures required for the work for which it is designed. A Phytical Lahorntnrij, as its name would indicate, is an establishment provided with all the appliances needed in the prosecution of research in subjects of physical investi- gation, such as those of heat, light, electricity, etc. Such an establishment may moreover be specially adapted to each or all of the following objects: 1st, The instruction of students in such general methods of accurate measurement in the various subjects as lie at the foundation of all re- searches in each of these departments. 2d, The prosecu- tion of original investigations by which new facts and laws may be discovered, and additions made to the general stock of human knowledge in these directions. 3d, The appli- cation of scientific methods to the examination of commer- cial products or materials, to test their value, elBciency, or improvement under treatment by new processes. To present an interesting and instructive contrast with the laboratory of media-val times, above depicted, and to furnish an index of progress in this regard, an interior view of the physical laboratory of the Stevens Institute of Technology, prepared at our request by President Henry Morton, is given here. The space occupied by this depart- ment in the Stevens Institute is as follows: 1st, A largo room 40 bv 60 feet, illustrated on the next page, atd which is used as a general laboratory for such work as can be pursued under ordinary conditions. 2d, An optical room, containing a large collection of rare instruments, especially for polarization, and used chiefly by students engaged on problems in that subject, ."id, An optical room, especially arranged for observations in diffraction, spec- trometry, and the like. 4th, A large room employed chiefly for investigations in acoustics, although used also from time to time as a lecture-rooin. 5lh, A ]ihotonietric-room, provided with a complete set of photometric apparatus by Sugg of London, fitli, A photographic-room, with dark closet, cameras, and lenses of various sorts. 7th, An eleo- LABORATORY, PHYSICAL AN'D ClilCMICAL. 15'J3 trical measurement-room, oontaining a complete set of in- struments fur this purpose, iucludiugTbompsou'sufltatic gal- vanometer of high resistance aud a water-buttery of 6.50 cells. The largo room represented in the cut is divided by double oasc3 into ten alcoves on tho sides, caoh devoted to the use of special instruments, and each occupied by an appropriate table. The middle of the room is occupied by a series of tables and of largo pieces of apparatus, such as the great induction coil in the foreground, the large electro- magnet in the distance, etc. etc. FlQ. 3. Tho ii*'W l.;»'toraiMry lor r«' :i[i<l instruction in in -I' - nr N;itiiriit riiilosopliy at the Stevens Iii-suiutu ut lecliiioln^')-, ui Uubukun, K. J. At tho present day, so mn.nv difT'Ti^nt briinnhos of applied Bcivnco are undergoing rapid clovflopment that spooitio l;indj«jf tcrhnirnl laboratories oxi-ft in considoraljlo variety, in which tho analytical and cxperimontal researches arc carried on exclusively that jiertain to special teohnoloijical artH. These special laboratorii-s aro fo numorous that wo c;in do little niorothan mention somoof the more important. .\f f'ltftirtfirril Lahufitoriett. — Those nro of several kimlw. Attached to our mints and assay-offioi-s aro special assay la'turatories, in whieh immense numlKTS of delicate assays of ;;old and silver luilli'in aro cmfimially oon'Iueted; and in the samo CHlablisbnicnts an' nn-Hiti;; iind roiiiiintj labor- atories, in which vast quant itics of gold and silver are parted, refined, melted, cast, and prepared for the coining departments by methods of high interest. Other motnl- Iurgi<;al laboratories are spceialiy devoted to tho assaying of irin and steel, and their ores, slaps, etc., by methods chiefly vnliiractric. for tho sake of rapidity. frna Lnhoratorirn, such n« nhtmhl hr attached to all our gasworks, the operations of photometry and oudiometry being specially carried on in these, with many others. A'jfii-tthund Lnhnrnfttrirtt, ns in nnr agrieultnral schools, and in the agriiMiltural dopartnient ut \Va^hingt<»n. Tho Muifar-n-finhifi art requires at the present day labor- atories in which peculiar operations aro oarriod on, as, for instance, with tho polariseope. The arts of </i/'tMy, cft/int-prhitinf/, and hlearhiitff require alsoehemical and analytical invest! gal ions of various l^iniis. so that many spoeial laboratories exist devoted to llu^e. Tho same may l)o said of nonp and vamlfv m»kimj. In Knglau'l, at tho present time, many spceinl and very important government labr)ratorios are being organized and perfected — -whieh it is to be hoped will be imitated ^oon among us — to prosecute continual and special analyses of all articles of food and medicine, to ensure purity and de- tect fraud. We may add to theso phnrniamtdrnf laboratories, in whieh medicines are elaborated ; rfrrtnt-wta/hiri/i'ttl labor- atories, in whieh elcetro-plating and electrolyping are proseeutod ; ancl telrffrnph laboratories, in which numer- ous special arts are practised, arising out of tho great de- relopment of olcctro-telegraphy. Hesuy Wuutz. l.V.I-l LABOKDE— LABRADOR. Laborde' (Maximilian), M. D., b. in Edgefield, S. C, Juue 5, 1SU4: graduated at the College of South Carolina in Columbia in 1S21 : took the degree of M. D. in the Med- ical College of Charkston in 1S2G. His tastes, however, led him more toward the pursuits of literature and science than to the practice of medicine. Ue soon became a dis- tinguished contributor to BitmeU'a Mmjaziiie, the Smitliern Qiuu-tert)/ licvieu; and other like periodicals. lu l-S+2 he became professorof logic and belles-lettres in his alma mater. This position he held until the close of the late war. In the reorganization of that institution subsequently to the war, whereby it is no longer styled the College (but the University) "of South Carolina, Dr. Laborde was assigned the chair of rhetoric, criticism, elocution, and English lan- guage and literature. This position he assumed, and filled with great ability. He also wrote several books of merit, especiallv the Histoi-i/ ../' S'<,iith Carullna Culhrjc. In con- junction with other labors he had for a number of years performed the high trusts of the office of president of the board of regents of the State lunatic asylum. D. at Colum- bia, S. C, Nov. 6, 1873. A. H. Stephens. Laborde, de (Alexandre Louis Joseph), Coint, b. at Paris Sept. 15, \~~i; served in the Austrian army in the first campaign against the French republic ; returned to France after the peace of Campo Formio ; filled several diplomatic missions under Napoleon ; was elected a mem- ber of the chamber of deputies in 1822 ; took part with great energy in the revolution of IS.'iO ; was made a briga- dier-general and aide-de-camp to Louis Philippe, and d. at Paris Oct. 24, 1842. His Wynye jii'lorcaque el hislonqiie en Espagne (4 vols, fob, 1807-lS, with 90U engravings) is a work remarkable for its learning and aecurateness, and unique in its elegance. It was followed by Itineraire di- .ertptif de VEspa.jnc (5 vols., 1809-27). He also wrote Leu monHmculs de la France (2 vols., 1832-36, with 259 plates), Versailles, ancieii et modern (1839-40), etc. Laborde, de (Henri), Viscount, b. at Renncs, France, May 2, 1811 ; studied under Delaroohe ; exhibited in 1836 Haijar in the Wilderness. His Capture of Damietta (1841) and Kni'jhts of St. John of Jerusalem (1845) are at Ver- sailles. Ho wrote In,jrcs, sa Vie et sa Doctrine (1870). Laborde, de (Leon Emmanuel Simon Joseph), Mar- tiuis. ason of Count Alexandre, b. at Paris June 12, 1807; studied at (jtittingen; „ „ ^._, travelled in the East; held several diplomatic positions ; was curator of the antiquities of the Louvre from 1848 to 1854, and director of the archives of the empire from 1856 to his death, Mar. 30, 1S69. He wrote Voyage de f Arable PHree (1830-33), Voi/ayc en Orient (1837-64), and several other works relating to arohffiology and art. Labouchere' (Henry), Baron Taunton, b. in London, Eno-land, Aug. 15, 1798; was educated at Oxford; trav- elled in the U. S. with Mr. Stanley (afterwards Lord Derby), making the acquaintance of the leading members of the government and Congress at Washington; entered Par- liament in 1826, and soon became recognized as one of the Liberal leaders ; was member for Taunton from 1830 to 1859, when he was made a peer ; filled many administrative posts, having been lord of the admiralty (1832), chief sec- retary for Ireland (1846), president of the board of trade (1S47), and colonial secretary (1855-58). D.July 13, 1869, leaving no male heir.— His nephew, Henry dv Pre La- bouchere, b. at London in 1831, served ten years in tho diplomatic service ; became a member of Parliament in 1865, and attracted attention by his able letters written from Paris to the Daily A'eim during the siege of that cap- ital by the Germans. They were published in a volume with the title Diari/ of a Besieged Uesident in /'<in« (1871). Labouchfere (Pierre Antoine). b. at Nantes Nov. 26, 1807, pursued a mercantile career till 1836; then stud- ied painting in Italy and under Dclarochc, and became known especiallv by" his representations of subjects from the time of the Keformation. Luther at the Did of Worms (1357) and Luther's Death (18G6) became very popular. Laboulaye' (finouAnn Rene Lefebure), b. at Paris, France, Jan. 18, 1811 ; studied law while following n me- chanical trade, and astonished the literary world in 1839 by publishing a learned Histonj of Landed Properly in Europe from the Time of C'^nsiantine to the Present, on the title- page of which the author announced himself to be a type- founder. The book was cnuronu,' (crowned ) by the Academy of Inscriptions. In 1842, after being admitted to practise before the royal tribunal at Paris, he published an Essay on the Life and Doctrines of Sarigny, and in the following year Researches on the C'icil and Political Condition of Wtnnen from the Times of the Romans to the Present. In 1845 he "wrote an Essay on the Roman Criminal Legislation respecting the Hesponsihilities of Magistrolrs. which again won the crown of the Academy of Inscriptions, and pro- cured for its author an election as one of the members of that body. In 1849 he became professor of comparative legislation at the College de France, and distinguished himself by the clearness with which he expounded the principles of legal science. He also began from this time to take a prominent part in politics as an ardent republican, and during the eighteen years' existence of the Second Empire there was in France no more able, active, and vigilant worker in the committees and public meetings of the Liberal opposition than M. Laboulaye. His attention was attracted to the institutions of the U. S. as affording some useful models for introduction in France, and he devoted much time for several years to their careful study. He published a valuable Political History of the U. S. from the First Attempts at Colonization to the A Hoption of the Federal Constitution, of which vol. i. ajqiearcd in 1855, and vol. iii. and last in 186G. He translated W. E. Channing's works on social topics (1854), prefixing a life of Dr. Channingand an essay on his doctrines, and brought out in 1855 that author's work on slavery. He wrote largely for several Tears in the 7?ci-iie de Legislation and other periodicals, from which he collected in 1855 a volume of Contcmporori/ Studies on Germany and the Slarir Countries, and in 1856 another on Religious Liberty. In 1862 he rendered a vast service to the U. S. by an exposition of the causes of the American civil war in the work entitled The Vnited States and France, and lost no opjiortunity to inculcate his opin- ions bv speeches. In 1863 he published perhaps the most popular of his works, Paris in America, an amusing study of American characteristics, which has been republished m ei-'ht or ten editions in the republics of Spanish America, where it now forms one of the principal sources from which opinions are formed about the U. S. In 18C5 he wrote tho Programme of the Liberal Party, and edited in 1866-67 the Memoirs and Correspondence of franl.lin. He was many times an unsuccessful candidate for a seat in tho National Assembly. In 1870 he, inclined to favor the reforms pro- posed by Napoleon and E. Ollivier, and from his professional chair advocated an affirmative vote in the plebiscitum of May. He was elected to tho National Assembly in July, 1871 was made chairman of the committee on the higher education, and in 1874 secretary of tho committee of thirty on the (republican) constitution, in which capacity ho maintained (1875) a prolonged battle with tho monarchists of every type. In 1873 he was made director of tho Col- K-go de" France. Of all living Frenchmen, ho is perhaps the best entitled to the admiration and gratitude of Ameri- cans. Porter C. Bliss. Labonrdonnais', de (Bertband Francois Mahe), b atSt.Malo, France. Feb. 11.1699: entered the navy earlj-, and became a captain in 1724. Having served for somo time in the Portuguese navy, returned to Franco m 1 . ,..% and was made governor in 1734 of Isle do France and Bourlxm, which colonies prospered much under his rule through the introduction of cotton, sugar, and indigo cul- ture, and the building of fortifications, canals, aqueducts, hospitals, and shipyards. His administration has become celebrated through 'St. Pierre's romance, Paul and Virginia. Durino- (ho war between England and France was very succeslful in his undertakings against the English in the East Indies In 1740 bombarded and took JIadras, and levied a war contribution of 9.000,000 francs. But tho French governor-general, Duplei.^, became jealous, and discharged him. On his return to Paris in 1748, was thrown into the Bastile, where he lay for three years. In 1751 a commission declared him innocent of all the charges brought against him by Dupleix. Liberated, but broken in spirit, he d. Sept. 9. 1753. His widow received a pen- sion. In 1859 a statue was erected to him in tho Isle ol Bourbon, now Reunion. Labrador' [Port. /,n/.rorfor, " laborer," or lerrcilabo- rador, ••cultivable land"], a name vaguely applied to that part of the peninsula lying between the Atlantic Ocean and Hudson's Bay, of which the waters flow neither into Hudson's Bay nor Hudson's Strait. The land whose waters flow into" the bay and strait above mentioned was for two centuries the property of the Uu<lson s Bay Company, and was (1809-71) sold by them to the Do- minion of Ca'nada. Labrador proper consists of two parts. That part whoso waters flow into the Gulf of St. Lawrence formerly belonged likewise to the Hudson's Bay Company, and now constitutes the district of Labrador, in Saguenay CO., province of Quebec. Canada. This coast is inhabited chiefly bv Indians and by Canadians, mostly of French descent ■ In 1 873 the country was reported to bo in a pros- perous condition. The catching of seals, herring, codfish mackerel, salmon, trout, halibut, and fur-bearing animals is the r.rincipal industry. The population is increasing, he houses gener.ally neat and comfortable and the prices of Voods very moderate. The eggs and f^.th^f »f "''-^ fowf are gathered to some extent. At Mois.e there are LABKADOKITE— LAC. 1595 quite extensive iron-works. The Indianu have been partly civilized l>y the efforts of Roman Cuthoho mifsiouaries. They are of the Micmac, Mingan, Seven Island, Betsia- mite, and other tribes, Pop. in ISll, exclusive of Auti- cusli Island (pup. 102), and inclusive of the three la«t- named tribes of Indians, 3597. That part of Labrador whose waters flow directly into tlio Atlantic, and which lies between Cape Cbudleigh on the N. \V. and the Straits of Belle Isle uu the 6. E., is the r».-gion mure generally called Labrador. It belongs, like the former region, to the British empire, but not, like it, to the Dominion of Canada. It is at present under the jurisdic- tion of Newfoundland. It is governed by a summary court of civil and criminal jurisdiction, whose judge is also magis- trate and coroner. There is a bailiff attached to the court, aud there are several justices of the peace. The court is held upon a revenue cutter. The revenues are in the care of a collector and his deputy, whose principal office is at Blanc Sablon. There are usually but one or two govern- ment mails despatched to Labrador during the summer. The people are not litigious. Most of the cases before the court arise from disputes with regard to the herring fishery. This coast is rooky and precipitous, much broken by bays and inlets. Small islands abound. The native inhabitants are mostly of the Esquimaux race. Nearly all of them have been converted to Christianity by the labors of Moravian missionaries. The principal mission-stations are Naiu, Ukkak, Hopedale, Hebron, Zoar, and Rama. There are other missions, Roman Catholic and Protestant, the former among the Indians of the interior, who arc very few in numbers. The country is so rocky and rough, and the climate so intensely cold In winter (when the temperature averages lower than that of Ureeuland), that Lalirador would bo worthless were it not that its coasts abound in the harp and hooded seals (whose fur and oil arc very valu- able), and that the sea is abundantly stocked with codtish and lii-rring of the best quality. The streams, too, abound in salmon-trout, which are extensively taken ami salted. Furs and feathers are collected to some extent. Seal and tish-offal are beginning to be exported for fertilizers. The land-products are few in number. The llora is limited. The forests consist of stunted birch, willow, juniper, aud poplar trees. The interior is rough and barren, having a rocky surface, with sandy valleys and numtrouc swamps and lakes. Near (he settlements a few potatoes and other vegetables are raised. During the short summer the coast is visited by great numbers of vessels, mostly from New- foundland, England, Jersey, and the U. S. The New- foundland seal lisheries employ numerous sailing vessels and quite a number of steamers. The population of that part of Labrador under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland in isiiy was 2179, exclusive of the aborigines. Disease and famine have greatly reduced the numliers of the latter. In IS'U the mission-station of the Moravians numbered only 1201 souls. This gives for this whole peninsula, with jOO.OOO square miles of area, a population, exclusive of a few wild aborigines, of only 7277 souls; '.iJ*J7 of whom, on the S. coast, bclnng to the province of t^uebco ( 1^71 ) ; 2179 to the Newfoundland sottlemonts ( ls69), ami the remainder ( IS70) to the Moravian missions. (See Hind's Ej-plorations It/ the Interior of the Labrador Peninmtltt, ISfiH.) ClIAULES W. GrEFNF. Lab'radoritef a soda-Ilmo feldspar (see Frldhpar) orystultizing in the tricltnic system, and originally ob- t-iiiuf'd from the eoast of Labrador. Some specimens when turned in different lights display to perfection a " chango of colors." Lab'rador Tea {Lrdum UttifnUum), an evergreen shrub of the hi-nth fiimlly found in mar-thy soils from Penn- sylvania northward. The natives of Labrador use the leaves us a sub.4tituto for tea. Labrau'da, in classical geography, a city of Caria, Asia .Minor, near Mylasa, celebrated for its temple of Ju- piter (Zeus Stratios). The ruins found at lakli, near Kizel- jik, where sixteen columns of an Ionian temple are still standing, wero identified by Chandler and by Sir Charles I'Vllows a!< those of Labranda, but Leake believes the true !.ile of the city to have been iu the hills N. E. of Mylasa. \ti\ Urea, a small town on the south-western extremity f.f the island of Trinidad, in the West Indies, 10 miles from San Ftrnando, is noteworthy from its oxtensivo exporta- tion of ii^phaltum. Kah'ridic [from LahruH^ the typical genus, and t*/*-], a family of acanthopteryglan teleucephalous liwhes, having the lower pharyngeal bones united in a snlid inaf<s, and the upper chiefly or wholly represented by the third bono, which is fixedly articulated to the fourth ^uperinr branch!- hyal ; the form is oblong or elongated ; tlie scales cycloid; tli4< upper maxillary bones articulated in a complex man- ner; rhe teeth cnic or confluent into an osseous ridge, tho dorsal entire, and with its spinous portion generally larger than the :foft. and the ventral fins jugular. The lamily is a large one. embracing our blackfish [Tautoya onitis) and burgall I Tttut'HjifltihrtiH ti(Upergiig). Thko. Gill. La Bniyore, dc (Jkan). b. at Dourdan, in Normandy, probably in !fi4ti. and held a little oflice in the civil service at Caen! when Bossuet called him to the court of Versailles as teacher to the prince of Conde. The rest of his life he spent at Versailles. ChantiMy. and Paris, always belonging to the court, where ho enjoyed a pensi(m of 1000 francs a year, but ocmipying a retired though dignified position. b. May 11, llVJfi. In 1088 ho published his Caractins de ThPophrtXHte, tradnitH dx'/rec, on leu moeitrs d^ ceHi'erfe. Two more editions followed in the same year, nine during the life- time of the author, and a great number in the next century. It has been translated into most European languages— into English by Rowe in 170*,* — and its reading is >tiU found both interesting and instructive. It is a work of in- sight, not of inspiration. There is nothing in it of a cre- ative imagination which reveals the depths of human na- ture through immediate intuition. But it contains much of tliat fine and acute observation which arrives at a full understanding of human characters through actual expe- rience. Its style is elegant and Its tone noble. After his death was published, under the title of Dlalntjnes post- humca eur le Quntt'sme, a work which ho left unfinished. Ci.EMKNS PeTKIISKN. Lablian', an island in the Malay Archipelago, or rather in the China Sea, 60 miles from the N. coast of Borneo aud COO miles N. E. of Singapore. Area, 45 square miles. Pop. 4.sy3. The island was ceded to Great Britain in 1S46 by the sultan of Brunai (Borneo), and a settlement called Vic- toria has been made at the S. E. extremity. Its chief im- portance is derived from its central position with regard to Borneo, Anam, the French colony of Cambodia, and the Spanish colony of the Philippines. There is a fair port, a good supply of water, and abundant mines of coal, for conveying which a railway 5 miles long has been built. Sago, camphor, birds* nests, and pearls are the chief ex- ports. Labuan is the seat of a colonial bi-^hopric; it had in 1H72 a tonnage of 7000 and an export trade of £185.000. Labur'num [Lat.], the name of the Lfibiinium vnfijnre ami niplinnn. two highly ornamental European small trees or shrubs of the order Lcguinino?)e, cultivated in shrubberies in the V . S. They have abundant yellow flowers in early summer. The wood is hard, heavy, dark-colored, and valu- able to the carver and turner. The bark. leaves, and seeds are poisonous. The first-mentioned species is called Eng- lish, the other Scotch laburnum. Labyc ( ItiKinoNNf:), a French theologian, b. at Rovin, department of Ardennes. France, Mar. :il, 1712; entered the Dominican order in 1728 ; studieil theology at the Uni- versity of Douai; taught for some time in tlie College of St. Thomas, but retired afterward to his native town, whero he formed an excellent library, with which was connected a cabinet of natural history. D. Jan. 7, 171»2. He wroto Sniiniia Siinuiiir I. Thumit, nivv cumpcndinm tfiftdngiie 8cho- litHtirn w ninrtdia I\ IHUnart (0 vols., Liege, 1754). liabynetUN, a name frequently occurring iu Babylo- nian history, but uncertain with respect to its significa- tion. It is applied only to the monarcbs. but whether it is used as a proper name or a title cannot be deeiiled. One Labynetus is mentioned by Herodotus (i. 74) as mediating, in conjunction with a prince nf Cilicia, a jieaco between Cyaxarcs and Alyattes. From the chron(dogy it is evident that this Labynetus must have l)een idenlioal with Xebu- chadnczrar. Another Labynetus is mentioned by the samo author ( i. 77) as a contemporary of Cyrus and Crresus. with the hiller of whom he was in alliance. This Labynetus is the same as the Belshazzar of the prophet Daniel. Lab'yrinth (Gr. Xa^epii-^ot], in Greek archa'ology, a subterran<'an cavity, natural or mure fnquenlly artificial, with intricate passages. The most famous, that of Egypt, one of the Seven Wonders of tlu- World, was near Arsinoe and beyond Lake Ma'ris. It had I JOO subterranean rooms, and as many above ground, and had a wall around it. If is believed to have been a royal scjiulchre. The Cretan labyrinth, where the Minotaur was ktpt. Is believed to be mythical. Saiiios. Leninos. and othi-r ancient places had labyrinths in imitation of that of Egypt. Twibyrinthodon. Sco Ai>ri:Ni>ix. liar ( I'r. l-"fi' : (ier. (iummfhirk]. Stirk-lac, Sccd- lac, laiiiip-lai', Shrll-lac, and Liic-dyr, a rc!*in- ous substance produced by the puncture ui' the female in- sect of Ciurut I'lcrn or t-.Jiriii upon branches of cevoral plants, as tlio Firu» rtdu/iona (the bo tree or religious treo of the Hiniloos). the Hhnmnut jujuhn, tho Cro/.oi huri- f't-nim (or bihar tree), and the Itiitm fnmdtntn {or (ho butea tree), which grow in Slam, Assam, Pegu, Bengal, 1596 LAC. and Malabar. Tho female insect is of the size of a louse — red, round, flat, nnd wingless. The male is twice as iar-jio as the female, and hus four wings. Soon after ilia punctured the twig becomes incrueted with a mammillated resinous substance, red, hard, and nearly tran.'^parent. It serves the double jiurpoise of protecting the eggs and of supplying food for the young maggots in a more advanced slafe. The mothers are held by the adhesive fluids whieh exude from the punctures, and contribute their substance to the mass. The characteristic constituents of the incrusta- tion arc the lac-resin, derived from the tree, and the lac- dyo, analogous to that of the cochineal, Ctx^cus cacti, con- tained in tho insects. The most valuable product is ob- tained by breaking off the twigs before the brood escapes, and drying them in the sun. Stlrlc-tttc. — These dried twigs are called stick-lac, and from thorn the other proihicts are i)reparcd. That from Siain is the best, tlie inerustntion being oflcn a quarter of an inch thick all around the twig; that of Assam ranks next. Dr. John gives the following analysis of stick-lac : An odorous resin 6G.65 Resin in<>olublc in ether) lg ^S " laecin J Coloring-matter (analogous to that of cochineal).. 3.75 Laceie acid 0.G2 Extractive 3.i>2 Skins of insects 2.08 Wax 167 Salts I.W Sand 0.fi2 Loss _2 90 100.00 It is insoluble in water, to which it, however, imparts its red coloring-matter. It is partially sohil>lc in alcohol, coloring it red; is insoluble in fatty and essential oils. S'td-lnc is the resinous concretion s?parafcd from tho twigs, coarsely pounded, and washed with water, by which much of the coloring-matter is removed. AVhen it is de- sired to secure tho lac-dyo also, hot water is used, to which a little soda is often added. Lum}i-hic is 8im})!y sced-Iac melted into lumps. ShfU'lac is prepared from seed-lac by placing it in bags of cotton, about -i feet long and inches in circumfercnee, and warming it over a charcoal fire. When the resin be- gins to melt the bag is twisted, and the clear resin is al- lowed to tlow over the smooth stems of the banyan treo or planks of fig-wood, when it cools in thin layers or scales. Ilatchett has published the following analyses of these dif- ferent forms of lac : Stick-lao. Resin 68.0 Coloring-matter 10.0 "Wax 6.0 Gluten 5.5 Foreign bodies 6-5 Loss 4.0 100.0 Lnc-resin \s very valuable, much harder than colophony, and easily soluble in alcohol. It may be nbtaine<l pure by treating shell-lac with cold alcohol, and filtering the solu- tion in order to separate a yellow-gray pulverulent matter. AVhen the alcohol is again distilled olT, a brown, translu- cent, hard, and brittle resin, of specific gravity I.I.IO. re- mains. It melts into a viscid mass with heat, and ditfuses an aromatic odor. Anhydrous alcohol disfsulvcs it in all proportions. According to John, it consists of two resins, one of whieh dissolves readily in alcohol, ether, the volatile and fat oils ; while the other is little soluble in cold alcohol, and is insoluble in ether and the volatile oils. Unverdor- ben. however, has detectecl in shell-lac — (1) a resin solublo in alcohol and ether; (2) a resin soluble in alcohol, insol- ulilc in ether; (^i) a resinous body little soluble in cold al- cohol; (4) acrystallizable resin ; (5) a resin soluble in alco- hol and ether, but insoluble in petroleum, ami nncrystalliz- ablc; (6) the unsaponified fat of tho Coccuh insect, as well as oleic and stearic acids; (7) wa.K : (8) the fnrciue ot Dr. John; (0) an extractive coloring-matter. Dilute h^-dro- chloric and acetic acids dissolve shell-lac readily; nitric acid slowly; strong sulphuric acid not at ail. Like most other resins, it has a strong aflinity for bases, with which it forms definite compounds. It dissolves in aqueous pot- ash, soda, carbounte of soda, etc. It deprives the caustic alkalies of their alkaline taste. Tho solution in caustic pot- ash is of a dark-red color, and dries into a brilliant, trans- parent, reddish-brown mass, which may be redissolved in bnth water and alcohol, liorax renders five times its weight of shell-lac soluble on boiling with water. This solution is equal for many purposes to spirit varnish, and is an excel- lent vehicle for water-colors, as when once drie<l water has no effect upon it. India-ink rubhtd up with this liquid forms a m<tst valuable hthcl-ink for the lahorntory. as it is not affected by acid vapors. Sal-ummouiao is also a sol- vent for shell-lac, and the solution has been suggested as a substitute for the alcoholic solution. /ifeacfied Shell-lii'-. — By passing chlorine in excefs through the dark-colored alkaline solution the lac-resin is prccipilJiteil in a colorless state. \Vhen this precipitate is washed and dried, it forms with aleohol an excellent pale- yellow varnish, especially with the addition of a little tur- pentine and mastic. By exposure in thin shreds to the sun's rays or in a finely-divideil state to ehlorine-watcr, or by reducing it to a line jiowder. susjiending in water, and passing hydrochloric aeid va])or into the menstruum, the dark-colored varieties are bleached. When this is done, however, the resin loses many of tho.'ie qualities that so ad- mirably recommend it for some kinds of varnishes, but it answers well for making sealing-wax. Usee of Shril-fnc. — In India lac is fashioned into rings, beads, and other trinkets. It is the material of which tho best modern sealing-wax is made. Turpentine is added to promote fusibility and prevent brittU-ness, Earthy matters are added to increase weight ami to prevent too rapid fusion. For red and other light-colored sealing-wax very pnle or even bleached shell-lac is used, while for black and dark colors the darker-colored shell-lac is equally suitable. The following are common proportions, the first being tho best, Venice turpentine being used in it: 1. 2. s. 4. Shell-lac 500 300 .340 330 Turpentine I2j 400 370 330 Chalk or magnesia 140 110 Gypsum or zinc-white Vo Sulphate of baryta 60 160 Vermilion .375 65 120 165 Oil of turpentine ... ... ... 15 1000 lUUO 1000 1000 Tho materials are melted together in an iron pan, with constant stirring. The cool but still soft ma?s is rolled on a slab of marble and shaped into sticks, or the fluid mass is poured into brass moulds. The various colors are im- parted by cobalt blue, chrome yellow, bone-black, etc. Perfumed sealing-wax contains gum benzoin, storax, or balsam of Peru. Inferior sealing-wax is colored red with oxide of iron instead of vermilion, or it is e\en made of common rosin with gypsum or chalk. New Zealand resin, from XXvi Xftnthnrrhten hantHii, is frequently used in place of shell-lae. Media'val sealing-wax was a mixture of bees- wax with turpentine and coloring-matter. ShcIMao is used for the preparation of varnishes and for japanning, tho ordinary shclI-lac varnish being a simple alcoholic solution. It is used for stift'ening hat bodies and many other purposes. Its solution in sal-ammoniac and water has been suggested as capable of numerous applica- tions. It is made by placing :• parts white shell-lac. I part sal-ammoniac, and 6 to H parts water in a close vessel for twelve hours, then boiling with c<instant stirring till tho shell-hie is dissolved. The solution may be used as a stiff"encr, waterproofer, or vehicle for pigments and dyes, as paint or varnish. Lft'--(/if and Iftr-lake are tho secondary or by-products of the purification of stiek-lac. The coarsely-powdered stick-lac is macerated with hot water, to which a little soda is sometimes added. Tho red liquid thus obtained is .""trained through canvas and evaporated over a charcoal fire or in the sun. The residue is made into little cakes, which are known as htr-i/ifr, and. as they appear in com- merce, contain about 60 per cent, of coloring-matter, 2a of resin, 25 of earthy imjiuritics. Ltic-fukc is obtained by precipitating with ulum the decoction from stick-lac, pre- pared with weak caustic soda. The jireeipitate is pressed, moulded into cakes, and dried. It contains coloring-matter ^yi), resin 40, alumina 9, impurities 1. Messrs. Brooke, Simpsi)n A Spillcr of Manchester, England, have intro- duced into commerce a lac-dyo superior to that imported from India. They treat stick-lac with weak ammonia, and Jireeipitate the solution with chloride of tin. The coloring- matter of lac dye is analogous to that of cochineal, car- minic oeid. but its absolute identity has not been estab- lished. The shades produced by it are less bright, but more permanent. Lae-dye and lake are chiefly employed for ilying woollen fabrics scarlet; 2 or .3 parts produce the same effect as 1 of cochineal. The solvent for the dye is cither sulphuric or hydrochloric acid ; the mordant is chloride of tin and tartar. Tho following processes for preparing tho dye for use are given in Watts's /tirtifni'irif of Chemidirtf : ( 1 t A mixture of 4 parts of lao with strong sulphuric aeid is allowed to stand for 24 hours in summer and 48 in win- ter, then diluted and stirred with ;U parts of water, and again left to clarify. The clear liqui<l is poured into an iron pot, and mixed with the wash- wa tor <»f the previous residue ; the solution is mixed with a quantity of lime sufficient to neutralize four-fifths of tho sulphuric acid, and the precip- LAC— LACE. l.V.)7 itato of pypautn is irmoved : the liquid ia t)ipn rendy for use. This is the mode of preiiurntion chiefly n«lnpifd in England. (2) .^2 parts of lac-dye are triturnt.d with 10 to 12 parts of sulphurio acid of specific gravity l.Sj. or hy- drooblorio acid of specific {gravity I.IM. e:u-h diluted with three times its weight of water. Tlie mixture ir* left tu itself for 4S hours in winter or 24 hours in summer, and then mixed with the requisite quantity of river-water. (3) .12 p:\rts of Iftc-dyo are triturated with 12 parts of hydro- chloric acid of specific gravity 1.14S. diluted with unequal weight of water; the mixture is left for 24 hourii, and fre- quently stirred, and then diluted with water. To dye with the color thus prepared, each pound is mixed with three- quarters of a pint of «io-called lac-spirit, a aolulion of slnn- nou*» rhloriile prepared hy dissolving 1 pouncl of tin in 20 pounds of fuming hydrochloric acid, the mixture being left to itself for 6 hours before use. C. F. Chanih.kh. Lac fitindostanco], the sum of 100.000 rupees, worth about $5(1.000. The term is used in Kast Indian couimercc. One hundred lacs make one crore of rupees. La Caille, de fXicoLAS Lot-is), b. Mar. IJ, 1713, at Rumigny, in Charapagne ; studie<I mathematics and astron- omy ; made himself known by his participation in the sur- vey of the French coast between Xantcs and Hayonne, and in the measurement of the arc of the meridian, and was appointed professor in astronomy at the Colb'ge do Maza- rin at Paris in 1741. In 1750 went to the Cape of Good Hope, and in 127 nights determined !)S00 stars hitherto uniietcrmlncd : and in connection with Lalande in Berlin he established the distance of the moon, IMars, and Venus. He evinced the same energy in his literary activity, which comprises, besides his Astroiiomim Fnudumentn (1758), Ttihitl/r Solaret (1758), Olmervtitiomi tmrSI''* ftoilcn (hi zodi- arjiie (1763), .«everal elementary handbooks, and a number of essavs which have been of great iDfiueuco on navigation. D. at Paris Mar. 21, 1702. Lacando'ncSf an Indian tribe of Central America, inhiibiiiiig an extensive unexplored region of Norllicrn Guatemala, near the frontier of Ilelize, on a river of tho same name tributary to tho I'sninasinta. Tbcy formerly extended into Chiapas and Ta!)asco, but aro now found only in tho region of the Cliieho Mountains. They. like tho neighboring Itzacs of Lake Potcn. belong to the Maya stock, and do not di^er in point of actual civilization from the other fractions of thtir race in Yucatan. Tbcy formoro than three centuries kept up a warfare with the i^paniards, but havo generally been pacific of l:i(o years, and, though allowing no whites to visit their settlements, .'Sometimes traffic a little on the frontiers, giving tol>at'oo and earsa- parilla in exchange for trinkets and firearms. They aro nominally subject to Guatemala, but are in fact entirely independent, never having received laws from or paid trib- ute to tho whites. They still Jtractii^e their ancient relig- ious rites, and havotownsof sctnio extent, though tho mng- nifieent description of their eilio t<dd to Mr. John L. Stephens by tho cura of Quieh<5 is but a romance. (See Stepliens's TnnifM tu Cvntrnt Anicn'ra, and AIorelct'B do. (trans, by Mrs. Squior, Now York, IsrO).) Lac'cadivcs [Sans. f(tKkr,*'a hundred thousand." and ffir^, " island "], a numerous grouj) of small islands in the Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea), consisting of twenty clusters, 100 milcsfrom (he Malabar const. Area, 744 s(|narn miles. Pop. 7000. They aro of coral formatiun, the largest being only 7 miles in length, and most of them are mere barren rocks. From the dangers of I ho surrounding reefs the Lac- cailives are little frequented by navigators. The natives are called Moplays, are Mohammedans of .Arabian descent, and live in stono huts. Tho only cunraerco is in cocoa- fibre and betel-nuts. The islands pay tribute to Cananoro in the presidency of Madras. They were discovered by Vasco da Oama in 1499. Lace [Oltl Fr. farin, lacet, from Latin Incinin, the guard- hem of a robe: in Karly English htrr meant simply a fas- tening or to fasten, in common with th(? Aug. -Sax. farrr-nn, to " cttteh, to hold," probably allif-d to the (ireek Atyui and Latin lifjnre ; Sanskrit, hujati], an ornamental open-work of thread, twisted, plaited, or woven into patterns. Itself comparatively modern, laee is derived front two mnut an- cient kinds of work, netting and embroidery, the former of which was used by tho Kgyptiatis to ornament the borders of some festival garments; indeed, the network of blue heads found on mummies mny. as it was marjr with the needle, be regarded as a sort of Inco, The (Jreeks iind Ro- mans bordered their rnbes with embroidery, enlled. when of superior qiiality. npuH /'firi/ffintium, from the skill with which it was executed by Phrygian workers. Among early Christians it was customary for women to wear veils during piibli.i wnrship. an<i writers of the second century com- plainnl that too often thiiso coverings minislered rntlier to vanity (ban tn modesty, being frequently uf netting inter- woven with gold or silver, through which the face was visi- ble. Anglo-Saxon embroidery, known as opitu Aiuf/icmnim, was esteemed even in Kome : tho cope and maniple of St. Cuthbert, found in his coffin, and still preserved at Durham, are gotnl specimens of this work, I Lace may be di\ idcd into two principal classes — point and pillow lace, the former being of much the greater anti- ' quity. We cannot decide when point was first made, fo vciy I gradually was it evolved from netting and embroidery, with which it is often confoumled in old records. The Italians probably derivcl it from Ityzantiuni, since its earliest de- velopment may be traced to Venice, Genoa, and other towns engaged in commerce with the Greek empire. The oldest point is of two kinds — fnris, or point roinptS ("counted stitch "), ami cut-work {point conpr). Lncis usually con- sisted of netted squares, made in tlic ordinary way on a mesh, then joined with the needle, and darned or embroid- ered in a pattern, like the modern "guipure d'art ;" or de- signs cut out of linen were laid on the netting and secured to it by embroidery. The open ground, again, was some- times formed by drawing tbrcafls in a piece of linen and fastening them with the needle where they cro.s?od each other. For cut-work, threads were stretched netwiso across a piece of linen, called '/uintin from the place of its manufacture, and a pattern was made by sewing round with butt<inliole stitch tbo.'^e parts of the linen intended to remain, antl cutting the rest away. By degrees, skilful workers arrived at making the thick part entirely with the needle, using variations of two stitches (Figs. 1 and 2), Fio. 1. Fir. 2. similar to those in modern point. The name "cut-work," though inapprojiriate, was long retained, and as late as 1(140 we find it applied to Italian lace by John Taylor, tho Water Poet, in bis Pruijuc of thr J^'rcclle. Embroidery, lncis, and cut -work were often e<)ml)ined in one piece, squares of darned netting alternating with squares of cut and embroidered linen; and this work, which was used chiefly for largo articles, sucli as coverlets and altar-cloths, was sometimes white or unbleached, sometimes varied with gold, sih or, or colored threads. Tho earliest pat tern -books extant date from the sixteenth century, and are extremely rare, most of them having been worn out in the using. Tho best known ia that of Vinciolo, a Venetian (about 1G12), who gave new designs, besides reimblisbing many from older books. Among those wo may notice /-<■ Llvre ;kju- veftu dfS Patronn (it; Lingerie (llerlin, 152.*)) ; /Cnittin;/ nnil Lace /'(ittcrna, Hans Sibmaclier ( 1597, reprinted at Vienna 1S6G). having a curious frontispiece representing a work- room where an aged female is directing several ytiung pu- pils; La /'i((ti</nfl (ir CAIifuiNr inflitntriciiMr, M. Mignerak iU»05). The designs in tbesc an<l contemporary works on tho same 8u!)ject aro either geometrical or attempts at de- picting sacretl, historical, or allegorical scenes. Sibmaclier gives St. George and the Dragon to bo worked in lacis ; i\Iignerak shows how the seasons, the elements, the death of Lucretia, etc. may be more or less adequately repre- sented with the needle. In the South Kensington Museum, London, a large piece of lacis in many compartments con- tains in each a Kible picture wrought on a netted groinnl. As pattern-books were expi-nsive nnd easily damaged, it was usual for ladies, in (be times when needle-industry ranked as a cardinal female virtue, to preserve ilcsigns and stitches by working lace-samplers or " sam-cloths," which aro still kept as heirloonts in many families. In the sixteenth century laee became n very general or- nament (tf both male and female dress, and we find it fre- quently mentioned in royal edicts and accounts : " H peces of yolowc (yellow) laee were bought for Henry VHl. at a cost of 5<». 4*/." A sumptuary law of Queen Mary foibado the wearing of "white woorkes, alias eut-woorkes, miuio bcyon'Ic the seas." Stubb<'s, in his denunciation of" rufl"«s," ileclares them to be "clogged with gold, silver, or silk lace of stately price, wrought atl over with needle-work, speckled an(l sparkled liere and tJK-re with the sonne, the moone, the starres. an'l many other antifpiities siraunge to be- holde." For lho«e muidi-reviled yet long-triuiu]>liant ar- ticles of dress, pillow-lace, being lighter than point, was a favorite edging. This work, usnaily supposed to havo been invented by Ilarlmrn Uttmann. wife of a master-minor of St. Annaberg, in Saxony, is by Joseph S^-guin pronounced of Italian origin. " From Italy," says he, "a kni>wlcrlgo of tho art passed into France, whence it was acquired by loil.S LACE. the lace-makers of Flanders." Be that as it may, Belgium is now the special home of this beautiful fabric. The lace- pillow is a round or oviil boiird forming the base of a hard cushion : the worker places it upon her knees, lays on it a strip of parchment pricked with holes which indicate a laco- pattcrn, and sticks a jiin through each hole so that its point enters the pillow. The thread for making the lace is wound on bobbins, small pieces uf wood, hone, or ivory about the eircuniference of an ordinary lead-pencil, having round their upper ends a groove or neck to receive the threail ; by the twisting and crossing of these the lace is formed. The ground or "mesh" is made by plaiting (I'ig. 3) or Fig. 3. Fro- *• twisting the threads (Fig. 4): the pattern, technically called "gimp." by weaving or "clothing" (Fig. 5. These figures, as also 1 and 2, represent the stitches pj^ g considerably magnified). A large number of bobbins is needed, as many as 1200 being sometimes employed on one cushion. Those not immediately in use hang over the front of the cushion, each by its own thread, which is sti looped as not to become unwound. The leading lines of the pattern are sometimes miirked bv pins with colored heads, and the " gimp " threads are wound upon colored bobbins. Early piTlow lace, like contemporary point, was of stiff design, and m.ay be compared to the more formal of modern crochet edgings. But towards the close of the sixteenth century lac°e of all kinds changed from the geometrical to the flow- ing style, as may be seen by comparison of Holbein's pic- tures with thoso'of Vandyke. And every year it was more generally and profusely worn. At Queen Elizabeth's death 3000 lace-trimmed habits were found in her wardrobe. Charles I. wore hunting-dresses adorned with rich point. In France, and all countries where French fashion-laws were obeyed, lace during the seventeenth and eighteenth centurieswas used lavishly for nearly all articles of dress. The falling collars and cravats which succeeded ruffs were either made of lace or deeply bordered with it. Ladies wore lace head-dresses, lace flounces, ruffles of lace at the elbow, aprons frilled with or composed entirely of lace. Gentlemen had lace cuff's or ruffles (called pleiirrtisen. "weepers") which fell over the hand, and thus, it was said, facilitated cheating at cards; they wore Ince-trimnied garters, deep frills of lace at the knee, lace roses in shoes, even quillings of lace to fill up the wide boot-tops that were fashionable about 16(12. Infants' robes, caps, and cradle-furniture were made of rich lace, and it was used for curtains, for coverlets, even for bathing wrappers. Drayton's prettv conceit for a head-dress which tiic shep- herd Lalus promises to his mistress must have been in- spired by the sight of some beautiful lace of flowery pat- tern : " For thy head Tic have a Tyer Of Nettim; made of Strawlicry wver. And in each kmit that doth couiimsc A mesh, sliall slick a halfe-blowne Rose Kcil, ilainaskc, white, in order set ; About the sides shall run a fret Of primroses; the Tver throiichnut With Thrift and Daysyes frindccd about." (77is .Viixs' ElUiiim, Nimphall ii.) Great sums were spent upon lace, and as it was nearly all brought from Italy, Venice and Genoa were enriched with the fortunes of French nobles. For this reason its impor- tation w.as, between 1620 and 1060, forbidden by many edicts, which, however, had little efl'ect except to inspire numerous satires: of these, La Jii'iulle dei PimoemeHtii ("The Kebelliim of the Laces") is specially valuable, since it names every kind of lace known at the time. .Soon after the edict of li'.fiO the minister Colbert, resolved that France should have a lace manufacture of its own, sent to Italy for workers, and established them near Alenfon, where thev instructed a number of French girls in the art of making point. Alenjim lace, which, though derived from that of \'enice, difl'cred considerably from it. was by Louis XIV. called imini lU fnim;-, and being patronized by that monarch, soon became indispensable to all his courtiers. In 1065 a company was organized with the monopoly of its sale for ten years, during which time the shareholders received over and over again the amount of their original investments. The manufacture of "point de Franco," though affected, like every kind of French industry, by the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, flourished until the Revolution, when nearly all demand for lace ceased, and many Alenfon workers, having uiinistcrcd to aristocratic lu.'iury, shared the fate of their high-born patrons. It was revived by Napoleon I., and there e,\ist here and there fragments of a suite of bed-furniture powilered with the imperial bees, which was made for him at immense cost. Venice point is no longer worked, e.tcept by skilful repro- ducers of old lace. The raised kind was especially beauti- ful, and had the appearance of carving or bas-relief, the outlines of the jiatterns being worked over thick rolls of cotton. The flowers were filled in with delicate lace-stitches (technically called mo(/<») and couiiected by linden, or bars, of e.xquisiie lightness varied by little stars and picots. or pearl loops. A similar lace was made in Spanish convents and devoted to church purposes, such as altar-furniture, vestments, and the dresses of images. In the island of Ccphalonia much Italian point of geometrical design has been found in tombs and sold under the name of " Greek lace." P<iint d'Alenfon, the most costly and complicated of needle-laces, is made in small segments and by twelve difl'erent workers, each of whom has her s|ieeial province. The pattern is printed off on pieces of green iiarchiiicnt about ten inches long, each segment numbered in its order; the pattern is then ],ricked upon the parchment, which is stitched to a piece of coarse linen folded double. The out- line of the pattern is traced out by two threads fixed by small stitches passed with another needle and thread through the parchment and its linen lining. The ground is ne.vt worked in fine riecriu ("net") backward and for- ward at right angles to the border: the flowers are worked in, and the various "modes" or "fillings" are introduced. Tlie threads which unite lace, parchment, and linen are next cut by passing a razor between the folds of the linen, and the niany segments are joined by an invisible stitch called "assemblage." Point d'Alenfon is the only lace in which horsehair is introduced along the edge to give firmness to the " cordonnet." The horsehair has the dis- advantage of being apt to shrink in washing, and thus impair the beauty of the point. Until the Revolution there was made at Argentan a point resembling that of Alenfon. but with heavier flowers and a " bride" ground of large hexagonal meshes worked over with button-hole stitch. The art of making this lace, which was very strong knd effective, is entirely lost. Pillow-lace is either worked in one piece on the cushion, in which case it cannot be of any great width, or is made in separate flowers, afterwards connected by " brides " or applied on net. Of the hiller kind are Brussels, Honiton, and guipure de Bruges. The best Brussels lace is made of wonderfully fine thread, the flax for which is grown in Brabant and steeped at Courtrai, the I,ys water beiug very clear. This thread is spun in cellars, since contact with dry air causes it to break : a ray of light is thrown on it, but the spinner is guided chiefly bj- touch, and stops her wheel when she feels the slightest unevenness. The number <.f expert spinners being small, and their work tedious and unhealthy, real Brussels thread is very expensive, costing from 20.000 to 50.000 francs per pound. Machine-made thread is therefore generally used, tint it has never attained the fineness of that spun by hand. The most costly Brussels lace has a fine needle-marle ground, called jifi'it if 'I'nir/iiHlc, rarely used exce])t for royal trous- seaux ; the pillow-made ground, though much less expen- sive and durable, is also of great value, and is commonly replaced by fine machine net made at Brussels for the pur- pose. The flowers are sometimes worked with the needle, but more frcquentlv on the pillow: a fine " cordonnet " marks the outlines of the pattern, which is formed with a variety of beautiful "modes." A piece of Brussels lace passes through seven different bauds, each worker having her own department, and knowing nothing of the intended effect, which is decided by the head of the establishment. Laee-making is taught in schools, of which there are over 000 through Belgium, many being attached to convents. Brussels flowers coming soiled from the lacemakcrs' hands arc too often prepared for sale by means of white le;id: this process, besides being injurious to health, renders the l.aco liable to turn black on exposure to heat or sea-air. in which case it can never be cleaned. Iloniton, the most valuable English lace, is made along the Devonshire sea- coast. The flowers, now generally copied from nature, are of fine woven or cloth-stitch, a thicker thread marking the outlines. Thev are either" applied" on net or connected by "brides," which, like the pattern, arc worked on the pillow; needle-stitches are occasionally introduced. Gui- pure de Bruges, sometimes called " duchesse " lace, resem- bles Iloniton, its sprigs being united by "brides." Of the manv laces made in one piece on the pillow, \ a- lenciennes is the most esteemed. Before the French Rev- LACE-BARK TREE-LACHAMBEAUDIE. 1599 olu.ion it was worked c'>-"y,»Vy»^;,tr„^,."'''u ^as ' cost sometimes »' ™YLd formi >" both ground and ,mt. tern, and as it ncars ^ „ p^niser pronounces in irilh stitches, and was very penshaWe, as llu- vellum was Lff" ed h dan, >. Thread guipures, --".M.ng he mod- ern nun;, Maltese, and Russian, were made in Il.ilv a-id Flanders Some speeimens of Russian ace now ,n the Sm^h Kensington 'Museum, arc remarkable for bold and '"nund'e"!'"; both black and white, is either worked en- tire Iv on he pillow, like fhantilly. "r has p.llow flowers tirely "" ""' • p, ,^ rhantillv laeo is now made X^^^at Bav ux Orammont, in Belgium, produces blaek face an ar-e ,,nantities are manufactured ,n >pain par- "cuiarlv at M.nagro. where l2,(H.n workers are emp oyed. Wh He hhrndc mantillas are worn by Spanish ladies at bull- fi?hs Irish lace comprises ero.-het gn.purc. very fine fait ng farriekmncross, a kind of cut-work, and embroid- Irv Im. m^ehine net, called " Limerick l^ce/' The las^ named variety is suitable for large articles, such as veils and Soinee. Worsted, mohair, and •'yak' ace, used of la o year, 7or dross-trimming, arc made ehielly at Le Puy. ijTcek and Italian peasants work aloe-.ibres •"<" - '-» which ihough pret.l, has the disadvantage .d not wasli- Tn. ,VMnetimes^,owever, it is dyed blacd,, and thus re i- le^ed more useful. A natural lace is furnished by the ];r'«"/,n..,-r,.., a lofty West Indian '--^ «""7'; « flowers and large smooth leaves: its inner bark may, after ™a^eIaf?on "water, be separated into line layers resem- bling n t «"»hl -d silve'r laees. employed for uniforms and eonrt dress, arc made either of very fine wire or si k covererwith afine flat thread of «'>1;1"'^"V"'.' "wldh M chinery is now S-orally used in the inanufad,,. which is carried on in I.on.lon, Belgium, I aly and Frame The first machine net, made at Nottingham about ,«n anon t le ordinarv stocking-frame, was a looped fabric, Xen with a single thread, and resembling an open knit- "^g bo"h in appearance and liability to nivel. Improve- ments in its nmnufacturo were introdneed by Hammond. Robert Frost, Flint, and others, but the object of iiiventors- "atel, animi.ation of the tirin '"ree -d --side, meshe, „f nil ow-work-was not attained until 1S( I, wh.ii lentn cf/a t "long watching a woman at her pillow, and eare- llV iin^avelling some pieces of pillow '"-■""";;;;';: to liiake twist bobbinet. l.-^ee Nr.Ts.) I,aee pa terns are ior d in bobbinet either in a frame by hand, like I.i.ner- ck lace, or by an adaptation of the .Iae,,u,.r, apparatus to ho n "maehfne. Wllen the ""^^'Yl^^T'^^Zn:^. si.sts of separate sprigs, »•"!>. or dots, the tek pa ter,, thread (called" gimp "j is earned fr"". -n - b^ o -r^ and afterwards cut away by ehildren. Net who li nas men ?or« in tTio working 8 eonfided to laee-menders, who ; . V r place the damaged meshes. In No'-^'-";:;';^ chief ieaL.f the English mnehiue-laee trade, in .sfi there verc 2^0 lace manufacturers, employing -;-;';'"'f "jj; endnecrs, laeo-dressers. sinreh-makers. designer , a..d drnu"h" men! besides mfiW female operatives. Phe nm- rtraugnismiu.i'ii Tisflni)- the wages and profits terials used cost about il.i l.i.oo". mi^ ""^ i came to £3,115,000, and the net returns to about t,'..UO.OO0. English machine-nel was formerly smuggled into France. but the French now eicel in the liner kinds, and show spe- cial taste in their patterns. Their principal lace-inakirg towns are Calais, Camhrai. l-yons, »-t. Omer. Lillc M. Ouentin. and Caen. Embroidery on machine-net is done in Paris. Every kind of piMowdace is imitated Ijy nui- ehinerv, and so "aceuratelv as to deceive a superficial or ignorant observer. But in this, as in all work, that done by hand, even though faulty, has a cJrrrocf,,- which no niachine can sujiply ; and the very evenness and flatness of "imitation "lace make it of little value from an artistie point of view. ■ m \ . .1 Peguin's new work, already cited, contains fifty brau- tifui photographs of oi.lan.l mo.lern hand made lace. //.«- (orvoV r.uc; F. Burv Palliser (London. M^C,-,. 8vo) ; Ik^,./,:, for lnrr-mal:l,,g, Mrs. Hailstone (187(1. fob): V. Touche, Thr II.n„lhn„k of /'■>!:'! Luce (1871); Gmpu,;- d Art, Madame (ioubaud (ISTO). Janet Titkf.v. > Laco-Bark Tree, the Lay,-Ua Hutearta «. large tree of the order ThTmelaeca>, growing in the \\ est In.Ues. Its white inner bark, after maceration in fre.-h water, is stretched out into a material curiously resembling coarse lace. Laceda-mon. See L.vconh and Spauta. I,accdo'gna[Lat. .4 ,,,„7o"m], town of Southern Italy, in the province of Avelliuo. This town is beautifully sit- uated, and is of much historical interest. Like so many "rher places in Italy, it.s neighborhood abounds i„ Roman antiquities. The cathedral was originally a temple of (ob- tor and Pollux. Pop. in lH7t. Ili:!2. Lac^-D^de, de (liKRXAitn CrmiAiN Ktiknne m i.a V,M K stMr.iu'os,, CoiNT, b. at Agcn Dec. 26, 175fi : early showed great fondness for music and for physics and nat- ural seicMice; went to Paris in 177f. under the patronage of Buffon and the musician filuek ; became sub-demon trator in the Royal Cabinet 1780; member of 'be Institute and nrofcssor of herpetology at the Museum of Natural His- tory 17% : president of the senate 1801 ; was grand ehaii- cJL of the Legion ..f Honor Jsn.-M ; re.eii ere.l the chamber of peers in 1819 : d at Kj.inay Oct. fi. 18 >o. H earlier works on science and mus.e are unimportant ; bis beat works are m.to/re „a,„r,ll. de, <,un,lrupr,h, onjKirc. f, ,lr^ ,crDr,il-, (1788). //;»»'.<■" nnturclh da, reptde, (1.^J|, ^tVrc L";,„.«c ,L poU.o,„ (1798-1803), Uistoire uatu- relle dm cdiieft (1804). I.a'cewillO, post-v. of Braintrim tp.. Wyoming Co., Pa on the E. branch of the Susquehanna River and on the'Lehigh Valley R. R., 2H miles N. W. of lunkhannock. I.achaise' (FnAsro.s n'A.x). b. Aug. 25, 11124 at the Ch-iteau of Aix, France. He was grand-nephew <-nhe cele- brated Father Colon, confessor of Eouis \ 11. an,l of Henry IV afterthe latter's abjuration. Laehaise ha.l tlurelore rap- idly risen to be " provincial '•-that is, a ^^^ ^^'^'''^^ ^^ he .Tcsuitical order. In 1H7.'. he became confessor of Louis XIV.. tolerated the many mistresses of this king was con- ce , ei in the Revocation of the Edict of N"" -• >-; ° persecution of Protestantism, and of F/nelon and oth.r iberal .relates of the (iallicaii Church. Louis X H . enused o be built f..r Father Laehaise a splendid mansion ,n one : o the eastern suburbs of Paris. In 1 <(V1 the grounds were chosen as a fit place for the largest eemeter.v of ''-r'^- »■ 1, eh is known as the •' Cimetifre duPire Laehaise. D...in. 1 20 170'! He wrote in Latin a book on philosophy, le,,- ^:Z,2r,.i;. i, J.r.,,i'. being an ^^^^^^ "^ ^^^^^^'^ lectures, and some academical essays. I'tLix AiCAioNt.. ' I.afhambraiidie' (PikuueI. b. at Sarlat, department of lordogne. in 180C,. would have not been much known if he Kid not been mixed up. though in a quite sccondaiy de- cree with revolutionary movements iii Iranec, and if h,s falls 1 ad not reflected some of the .s,.eial,s le ideas eur- re t inis:;0 and 1818. Lachamb.audie only received a „rin.V instruction; he joined the St. Simonians, and lo, Is to their chief, M. Eufnnlin, he was able to publish "/;,/.!'/•:.';': ^ 18.^9. Though very lil.er«l in their eaehi. gs. their m.iralily was so appropriate and so ,„..u,l bat 1.V received the annual pri^e of the French Academy. I8IS during the Uevolulion. and at the time of lie ,.',„„ d-ftni (d- Dee.. 18.-,1. Lachambeaudie assoc.ated with Esouiros. Illanqui. and other ultra radicals. In .lune. MS at-t?. the insuraction of .Tune, he was released H'rough the enorls ofB.-ranger; and in 18,',1 l,c was prevented from being transporte.1 to Cayenne, thanks to the duke of Per- T;"v, who'had been twenty years ago his rnend and o^ writer for ft poetical review then published (IS 9) in tno depart"-"' "' '■"■'"■■ '""•'">■"'"■";•■'''■ '^"rv"'o 18 sTnd eeieration under Louis Philippe, the republic of I»18. ""1 f,„. uipirc. what B^ranger had been for Fre.Kdimen^n.^^^^ the Restoration. IGOO L ACH ES— LACLEDE. Lach'es [Old Fr. McAt-Mc, from Fr. /(icXc, " negligence ;'* Lat. la^us^ '• loose," " lax "], a term employed in law to de- note negligence, remi;ssae^8, or UDreasunablo delnj in en- forcing or attempting to enforce a legal ur equitable right or claim. It is most commonly used with reference to claims arising in a court of equity which are not affected by an ex- ?ress statute of limitations. (See Limitatioss, Stati'Ti; of.) t is a rule of equity not to encourage stale demands or give relief to parties who sleep upon their rights. A clnim must bo us.-icrted with reasonable diligence, in order that the in- terests of other parties may not be unduly prejudiced by the diffioulty of procuring the necessary evidence nfter a long interval has elapsed. In the case of legal titles and leiral dfinands, however, courts of equity usually act in obedience to the statute of limitations, in conformity with the prac- tice of courts of law. In some States, also, there arc special statutes of limitations applying to equitable causes of action. But where this is not the ca^e, and a demand is striotly of nn equitable character, the statute of liuiita- tions applying to legal actions is not an absolute bar in equity as at law, though it is frequently followed in analo- gous cases. But where the analogies of the law do not ap- ply, a court of equity is governed by its own inherent doc- trine of discountenancing stale demands. What shall be deemed an unreasonable delay is not determined by any precise and definite rule, but must depend upon the cir- cumstances of each particular case. A long delay which would ordinarily be deemed laches may be excused when a party is in ignorance of his rights, without any fault or re- missness on his part: when a transaction is involved in obscurity, so that information in regard to it cannot be ob- tained ; when he was under duress or undue influence which prevented him from asserting his rights; or where he labors under a legal disability, as insanity, coverture, infancy, and the like. Poverty or pecuniary embarrnssmeut, however, is not a sufficient excuse for delay. (See Kerr on Fraud and MUf'd-e, pp. :i0.'i-.312, Am. ed.) (teorge Chase. Reviseb by T. W. Dwight. Lach'esis [(ir., the name of one of the Fates], the Cran- pcdnrejihaluH Lnchen'iH or Lachesis mutus, one of the most dreaded of the venomous serpents of tropical America, called bushmastcr, curucucu, and couanacouchi. It has been known to exceed twenty feet in length, is partly ar- boreal in its habits, and often attacks man with the greatest fury. Its poison is very deadly, and when greati}' diluted constitutes a favorite remedy with homocopathists. Lachine' [Fr. for " China," so named by the early ex- ?lorers, who hoped to reach China by passing up the St. ,awrencej, a v. of Jacques Cartier co., Quebec, Canada, on Montreal Island. A ship-canal S\ miles long extends from Machine to Montreal harltor, and surmounts the Lachinc Rapids. It is connected by rail with ]\Iontreal,9 miles dis- tant, and by steam-ferry with Caughnawaga across the river. It is a thriving place. Pop. IGKfi. La'chish, a city in Southern Palestine, among the mountains separating the territory of Judah from the She- phcluh, or plain of the Philistines. It was an almost im- pregnable hill-fortress, as its name probably signified, but was taken and partially destroyed by Joshua and fortified by Uohoboam. It resisted for a long time the assaults of the Assyrian army under Sennacherib, and the biblical ac- counts afford no indication that it was taken ; but auKmg the cuneiform inscriptions discoverccl by Layard at Kou- yunjik several were carved on large slabs representing the siege and capture of Lnkhlfthn, giving a ground-plan of the fortress, and a picture of a procession of Jewish cap- tives from the same place appearing before Sennacherib. Tliis interesting discovery has given rise to much discus- sinii. I,achish was afterwards taken by XeVtuchadnezzar at the dnwafall of the kingdom of .Tudah. Its rnins have been id -ntified by Raumer, Van dc Velde. and Thomson with the modern village Vm-LakiH, on a round knoll covered with heaps of stones, on the left of the road between Gaza and Hebron. Other geographers, however, question the correctness of this idcntilieation. Lach'lailf a river of East Australia, rises in Xew South Wales joins the Murrumhidgce in ^i° .10' S. lat. and 14-1° 10' E. Inn., and after 400 miles enters the Murray. Lach'mann (Karl). D. D., LL.D., h. at Brunswick, Germany. Mar. 4, 170.1; studied at the universities of Lcip- sic and Gottingen; founded at the latter a philological society in union with Bunsen and Schulzo ; entered the army as a volunteer in 1S1;J, and served in the Waterloo ciimpaign : became professor extraordinarv at Kiinigsberg in ISIS and at Berlin in Is20; ordinary professor in 1828, nnd member of the Academy of Sciences in 18;tfl, remain- ing at Berlin until his death, Mar. 1.1, 18.>1. His life was chiefly devoted to the preparation of critical editions of the classics, of the New Testament, and of the masterpieces of early German literature. lie published an eseny On the primitive Form nf the Poem nf the XilirltnttfCn Koth (1816), translations of Shakspeare's Sninifts and Macbeth (1820\ critical editions of the yifnlnnf/cufifd (182(i), Walter ron der Vo(/ehceide (1827). Ctttutdnt, Tifmlhi/i, and Pmpcrtiiis ( 1829), ]r*.//nfm von Eacheub'nh (18;io). Vlrivh von Lichten- titein (1841*), Caina (1841), liubriun uud Arimiun (1S4.'>), Studies on the Hind (1847). LucretiuH (I8j0), and edited Lcssing'e com]>lete works (13 vols., 1838-40), besides nu- merous studies upon classical and early German philology and literature. His great work, however, was his edition of the (Jreek text of the New Testament (18.11), the first which had any pretensions to be called critical, and wliich is not yet entirely superseded by the labors of Tischcndorf. His readings were taken from a limited number of the earliest codices, from the citations of Origen. Irena'us. Cyp- rian, and the earliest Fathers, from the friigmentg of the Latin versions previous to the Vulgate text, which was re- printed at the foot of the page. (See hie Biography, by Hcrz. Berlin, 1851.) Lach'rymiP Chris'ti [Eat.. " Chrir^fs tears "], a sweet but very spirited wine of the group called muscatel, has a fine bouquet, is produced chiefly upon Monte Somraa. near Naples, in Italy. It is white (sometimes red), and of me- dium alcoholic strength. Large quantities of wine from the Levant and Southern Italy are soM as Lachrymm Christi. Lach'rymal Gland, or^Tear Gland, the organ in man and other animals which jtroduces tears. In man it is of the shape and size of an almond, and is found above the outer angle of the eye. Its secretion is discharged by some seven duets into the space between the eyeball and the lid. At the inner angle of the eye may he seen two snmll apertures through which the supply of lachrymal secretion is taken up by the lachrymal cnnals. passed into the lachry- mal sac. and thence, through the nasal duct, into the nose. Lach'rymatory [Lat. tafri/mn. a " tear"], a popular name fnr the supposed " tear-bottles " of the ancients, small glass or earthen vessels found in ancient Greek and Roman tombs. That they ever really contained the tears of mourn- ing friends is probably fabulous. Lack, tp. of Juniata co., Pa. Pop. 1290. Lackauan'na, or Lackawannock, a small river in Pennsylvania, rises in Susquehanna co., near the N. E. corner of the State, flows S. W, through Luzerne co., and enters the Susquehanna River at Pittstou. its lower course for .10 miles passes through the larj^est and most abundant anthracite coal-basin in America, to which it gives name. though it is sometimes called the Wyominj: basin. The chief emporium of this basin is Scranton. formerly called Lackawanna. A large portion of the anthracite coal nsed in New York City and in the New England States is fur- nished by this coalfield, which has an area of 108 square miles, and a thickness of from 5 to 14 feet at a depth vary- ing from 100 to 400 feet beneath the surface. The.annual production, including the Wyoming Valley as n part ol the same field, is over 10.000.000 tons, and furnishes constant freight to several railways, with very numerous branch lines. Next to Scranton. Wilkesbarre, Pittston, and Car- bondale are the chief seats of the mining industry. Larkawanna, post-v, and tp. of Luzerne co., Pa.. 3 miles S. W. of Hyde Park. Pop. .5i;i3, Larkawan'nock, former tji. of ^ferccr co., Pa., now called West Laekawannock. Poji. 1070. Lackawax'en, post-v. and tp. of Pike co., Pa., on the Erie R. R.. at the junction of the Honrsdale branch, and at the confluence of the Lackawanna River with the Dela- ware, here crossed by railroad and canal, the latter being carried over by a suspension aqueduct. Pop. 17;'f7. Laclede' (formerly Kinderhook), county of S. W. Cen- tral Missouri. Area, about 690 squnre miles. It is a rough, broken region, with fertile valleys and deposits of iron and lead. It is traversed by the Atlantic and Pacific R. R. Tobacco, cattle, and grain are leading products. Cap. Lebanon. Pop. 9380. Laclede, post-v. and tp. of Fayette co.. III., on the Illinois Central R. R.. 34 miles N. E. of Centralia. Pop. of V. 1;.9: of Ip. 1242. Laclede, post-v. of Linn co.. Mo., at the junction of the Hannibal and St. Josopli and tlio Uurlington and South- western R. Rs., 97 miles E. of St. Jo.-^cph. has 2 churches, 3 hotels, 1 flouring-mill, a fine brick school-house, 1 weelily newspaper, and 20 stores, is surrounded by a rich farming eouniry. and ships large quantities of grain. Coal is abun- dant in the vicinity. Pop. about 1000. W. J. Porter, for En. "LAci.EnE Reitblicak." Ijacl&de (Pierre Ligteste). the foumler of St. Louis, Mo., a native of France, was in 1762 a resident of New Orleans, when he established the Louisiana Fur Company under a charter from the director-general of the colony, LACMUS— LA CROSSE. 1601 f^ivinf^ it the exclusive right of trading with the Indiana on the Missouri. The pioneers under his direction made the first setllement un the site of St. Louit* Feb. \o. IT'il, erect- ing a largo house and four storeri, and named the place in honor of L'»uis XV., then king of France. Lacmiis. .Sec Litmls. La'con, po>-t-v. and tp.. cap. of Marshall co.. III., on tho Illinois Kiver :ind a branch of the Chicago and .St. Louis K. K., I.IO miles .S. W. of Chicago, has 7 churches, 1 bank, 1 weekly newspaper, a court-house and jail, a sliawl-niill. 3 flouriug-niitis, a distiller}*, and several hotel?, store?, and Fhops. Large quantities of grain arc .-^hipped from this place. Pop. of V, 2105: of tp. LM4H. ."^rKXCEU ElLSWOHTII. Ei>. " HoMK JnCRNAL,*' Laco'na, po?t-v. of Sandy Creek tp., O.^wegoco., X. Y., near Lake Ontario, is the N. terminus of the Syracuse Northern U, K., and is oa the Rome Watcrtowu and Og- dcnsburg K. K. Laco'nia^ or LaccdiPmoiif the southernmost division of the ancient Peloponnesus, was boun<led W. by .Messenia, N. by Arcadia and Argolip. and E. and S. by the Argolinn Gulf, the Myrtoan Sea, tho Laconian and Messeniau (lulfs. To the S. it ended in the two promontories of T:euarus and Malea, the present Cape Matapan and Cape Malio. To tho Laconian Gulf flowed the Eurotns. on whose banks was tho capital of Laconia, Sparta {which see). Lacouia, post-v. and tp., cap. of Belknap co., N. 11. (partly in Gilford tp.), 28 miles N. of Concord and 102 N. of IJoston, upon the Winnipiseogee Itiver, between the lake of that name ami Grand Cay, and on the Boston Con- cord and Montreal R. R., is a flourishing manufiicturing village, having 7 hosiery-mills, 1 flannel-mill, an extensive car manufactory, 1 weekly newspaper, 6 churches, 2 hotels, .1 banks, numerous stores, and various minor industries. The views of lake and mountains are picturesque. Pop. of tp. 2:iO'j. 0. A. J. Vai GRAN, Ed. "DrMomAT." liaconlaire' ( Jeam Bai-tiste Henri), b. May 12, 1S02, at Uecey-sur-Ourco, in the department of Cote d'Or; stud- ied law at Dijon, and went in 1821 to Paris, where a bril- liant career seemed to open for him as an advocate. But suddenly he entered the seminary of St. Sulpiee; was or- diiined a priest in IS27 ; became preaclicr at the ColK'go do Henri IV. in ls;iO; and founded tho journal L'Arcnir in connection with Lamcnnais and Montalembert. His stand- point was a most singular combination of ultmmontanism in religion and radicalism in politics, and the tone of Wxa sermons and articK'S was extremely violfiit. Summoned before the civil court, ho was acquitted, but when tho popo in 1832 denounced his ideas, he immediately retracted and submitted. In Is.'JS he began his celebrated cm/rrenctH in Nutre Oame, which drew immense audiences, and in 1812 he onleretl the order of the Dominicans. In 184H ho was a member of tho Constituent Assembly, though without exer- cising any influence, and after 1853 — in which year he was orclered to leave Paris on account of one of his ultramon- tane-radical sermons — ho lived in retirement at Korfizo, where ho d. Xtiv. 22, IStil. Besides his C»jii/4rence€ tin Xtitre Dame ilc l\iri% {\ volfl., 1 8 1-1-5 1), he wrote Vie de St. Dominiifun (1810; new ed. 1858), Leftrm it un Jenne i/itmmtt ( I85M), iJiscoum mir le Droit et le Omtir dp la Pro- ju'ifif (1858), etc. — His brother, Jean TiihionoRE, b. at Recoy-8ur-Oureo Feb. 1, 1801 ; studied law at Dijon ; after- wards dr-TOterl himF^elf to natural science; ma<le four voy- a:;efl to South America between 1825 and 1 8;i2, exploring Bra7.il, tho Argentine Uepublie. and Chili: travelled in Senegal ; became cilitor of tho Trmp^ (18.'12), in 18.15 pro- fessor of loology. and in 1838 of comparative anatomy in the Tniversily of Lii'-ge, Belgium; \Trote several valuable works on natural history and entomology, and d. at Li^'^go An:;. :il, 1870. Lac'qiier [from Lap (which sec)], a varni>*h, transpa- rent or coIorc<l, for covering wood, papier-maeb/', U-atber, or metal. It is of many kinds. In most of them lac is an im]>ortant ingredient. Annofto and <lragon*s blood give red tints, nnd gamboge, aloes, etc., yellow. Larqucrs, well ma<le nnd I'kilfully npplied, will take a high polish and withslnn'l lH»t aii'l etdd water, and even alcohol. The Jnpancso and ChiiieHo excel in the art. \tt\v qui Parle, ennnty of Minnesota, boiin<led W. by Dakota and N. K. by Minnesota River. It is traversed by LiK? i(ui Parle iind numerous other streamn, und is adiiplfd to grain-culture. Cap. Lac qui Parle. Pop. 1-15; it has greatly increased since the census. Lac i\\\\ Parle, post-v. and tp., cap, of Lac qui Pnrlo CO., .Minn., on the N. side of the Infpab or Lac f|ui Parle River, about 2 miles above its confluence with lh<' Minne- sota. The first house was built in 1870; it now (1875) has a newspaper and all the usual necompaninn-nls of a grow- ing town. It is on tho line of the projected Hastings and Vor. 11. -111! Dakota R. R.. miilway between the St. Paul and Pacific R. R. on the N., and the Winona and St. Peter on the S. It has a large school, 1 hotel, and 1 weekly newspaper. Pop. of tp. 307. C. J. Co«HLAN, El>. " PUFSS." La Crescent', post-v. and tp. of Houston cc, Minn., on the Mississippi River, opposite La Crosse, Wis. It is the E. terminus of the Southern Minnesota R. R. Pop. of V. 380; of tp. yr.i. Lacretelle' (PieuhPv Louis), b. at Mctz in 1751 ; prac- tised law, first ut Nancy, and then, from 1778. at Paris, where he lived in intimate connection with Malesherbes and Laharpc. Uncler the Revolution took part, though with great moderation and cautiousness, in all the jirinci- pal political movements, but after ISOI lived in retirement. I'nderthe Restoration belonged to the opposition, and his Mrrriirr d'- Frattrc nnd Minerrr Fi'nnrfn'n, published in con- nection with S»'gur and Benjamin Constant, were succes- sively suppressed. I). Sept. 5, 1S24. Besides a number of juridical and political works, he wrote Pfn-fraitu rt Ta^ fdraxr, Etudes eur ht lirtofuti'ni Fraiiraiitf. and MrASfn'r^ea <y MahfhrrhrH, which arc of great interest to the student of the history of that period. Lacretelle, de (Jean CiiAni.Es DoHiNigrE), b. at Metz, France. Sept. 3, 17ti6: studied at the College of Nancy: was admitted to tho bar at the age of eighteen; wrote at Nancy a tragedy and several academic essays ; went to Paris in 1787 ; assisted his brother Pierre in writ- ing for the Enryrlnpfdic MMhoditjuf ; became an editor of the .J>>urn(if den Dflmtn. fur which ho reptn-ted the sessions of tho National Assembly; became in 17iMI secretary to tlio due de Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, with whom he was ns- aociat<'<l in the project of favoring tho king's escope ; made himself popular ns an advocate of the constitution at tho Club des Feuillants ; wrote the most extensively circulated account of the execution of Louis XVT. ; was associated with .Aiidrr- Chrnicr in editing the Jnuniaf dr Pnriti ; ex- erted himself in speeches and with the pen to save tho Girondins from the popular wrath ; was accused of being a royalist, arrested after a long residence at Kpinay, and kept in prison two years (1797-09); became ]trofeseor of history in Paris 18011, imperial censor 1810, was admitted to tho Academy in I8II, nnd ennobled by Louis XVIII. in 1S22. Ho remained professor of history for thirty-six years, and wrote eight valuable histories, covering all the period from tlio outbreak of the Revolution to 184C, and several earlier periods. D. at M^lcou Mar. 2fi, 1855. La Croix, tp. of Emmet co., Mich., on Lake Michigan. Pop. oo;;. Lacroix' (Paitl). b. at Paris. France. Feb. 27. 180(^; was educated at the ColK-ge Bourbon, and has written, un- der the pseudonym of ** Le bibliophile Jacob," a vast num- ber of ronnuu'es and works of curious learning about the books, the history, manners, and custoiris of the Middle Ages ; distinguished himself by his efVorts to improve tho Biblioth^'|uo du Uol ; was apjiointed in 1855 conserva- tour of tho .Arsenal Library, and has edited since 1851 the Jlerue Unirerinlle des Arta. His best works are probably tho Arts (in moifiu /J;/e rt (1 r/p'itptr tie la liennissauce { ISHSI, Mfpurs, umnftH ft rOHtnmiH tui mnyin rf'/c, etc., with 4-1 1 phltcS (1871). and /-*( riv mi/itotn- rt fa vir refii/ieime nu vioi/cn bffr (1872). which have all been tran.'-luled into English. — liis wife, Ai'oi.iJNK Bii-'KK. has written some popular novels : and his brother, Jn.fs. b. in Paris May 7. iNO'.i. has had success as a writer of dramas and as u trnnslutor, imitator, and critic of Sbakspeare. His (Kdi/ni» /ur. a translation from Sophocles, was succfssfully produced on tho stage in 1858, and received in 18G2 from llic French Academy a grand prix of 10,000 francs. Lacroix (Siivksthk Francois), b. nt Paris in 1765; becnuH' professor of nialheunities nt the nmrino schitol of Boeh<forl in 1782, held^subsecincntly the same nosition at the normal school, the Keolo I'olytechnique. Sorlmnne, and ! ('(db'ge de France, and d. at Paris May 25, 1843. |i;» I noble cbaractor. instructive lectures, and very useful hand- I bonks, bcsifles Trnite du Cutiul di(f/rrutir{ rf iufr;fral, made him (juite a popular man, ami on tho re-eslablislimcnt of the Academy under XapoIe(ui he was one of the very few of the i>riginal members living. La CroNMC, the "national sport" of Cnnadn, a field- game of Indian origin. The players have a misxr — a hick- ory rod some six fed long, bent in the shape of a bisliop's pastoral ern»»k ; aerojm the crooked part leather thongs aro stretched in a network. There is a rubber ball some three inches in diameter. Tho object of each of the two par- ties in the game is to send the ball over the goal of Iho other party. Tho ball in not thrown, but carricl on the rrits^r. It may. if necessary, be thrown froni one plnycr to another, but is not to he touched by the band. IjO Crosse, county in the W. of Wisoonsin, bounded 1G02 LA CROSSE— LA CYGNE. on the "W. by the Mississippi River. Area, 450 square miles. It is tltversified, generally fertile, and i? traversed by the Milwaukee and St. Paul K. H. (La Crosse division). Cattle, grain, and wool arc leading products, t'ap. La Crosse. Pop. 20,297. La Crosse, post-v. of Izard co.. Ark., 30 miles N. \V. of Batc.-iville, has one weekly newspaper. La Crosse, city and cap. of La Crosse co., Wis., 100 miles W. of Milwaukee, is finely located on the E. bank "(' the Mississippi, at the mouth of the Black River from llio N. and the La Crosse River from the K.. the former trib- utary having an annual lumber product of 260,000,000 feet, and the latter draining one of the finest farming valleys of the State. Opposite in Minnesota is the Root River Valley, a brge and rich agricultural section, which is pierced for 200 miles by the Southern Minnesota K. R.. of which La Crosse is the cistern terminus. The main commercial sup- ])ort of La Crosse is derived from the Black River lumber and wholesale trade with Southern Minnesota. The Chi- c^igo Milwaukee and St. Paul and the Chicago Dubuque and Minnesota R. Us. connect with the East, North, and South. La Crosse has L'l church buildings (worth §300,000), 3 banks. 2 daily, a weekly (1 German and I Norwegian), and 3 monthly newspaper.^. 3 school-buildings worth $15,000 each, and 4 others of wood, a library association with 2.3011 voltimes, a fine court-house {cost $40,000), where the U. S. courts for the western district of Wisconsin meet twice ayear, an opera-house, acustom-house with the largest registry of tonnage between St. Louis and St. Paul. steam ' saw-mills, 2 steam flouring-mills. an extensive machine- ' shop {cost SfiO.OOd) and several smaller ones, ■> agricultural implcnont factories, the largest yard above St. Louis for building steamboats, j large breweries, and 20 wholesale firms. The assessed valuation is §3.000,000. Pop. in ]870, 77Soj by State census of iS7o, 11.012. E. B. Usher, Ed. " Liberal Democrat." Lac Surphuris {milk »/ milphnr), finely divided sul- phur, precipitated by acids from solutions of alkaline and alkaline*earthy persulphides. {See Stlphur.) Lactan'tius (FiRMiANrs).one of the Christian Fathers, b. about the middle of the third century, either at Firmum, Italy, or In Africa ; studied rhetoric at Sicca in Proconsular Africa; became a distinguished orator, and one of the most learned men of his time. At the invitation of the emperor Diocletian he settled at Nicomedia as professor of Latin eloquence (301), became a Christian, and having been a witness of the persecutions of the times, wrote his works in defence of tiie new religion. lie was called by the em- peror Constantine to Treves as tutor to his son Crispus, and is supposed to have d. there about 32j. Lactantius was called the "Christian Cicero;" ho wrote an important work, Divinnrum fiiatitutiontim libri VII. , and smaller treatises, iJc Ira D*i and De Opijtrio Ihi, vcl Formatione Hominis. The famous work on the death of persecutors ( Dc Mortibua I'rrnccuti>nim ), attributed in the only existing manuscript to a Lucius Coelius or C:eeilius Lactantius, is now generally thought to belong to a later date, perhaps to another Lactantius, as the best authorities never give those names to Firmianus. The first edition of Lactantius was printed at the monastery of Subiaco in 14(15, being one of the iirst specimens of the typographical art. The best editions are those of ]^e lirun and Lcnglet du Frcsnoy (2 vols., 4to, Paris, 174H), and by Fritzsche (Leipsic, 1842-44, 2 parts). Two other editions were printed at Rome iu 140S and 1470, Lac'teals [Lat. lac^ iactis, "milk"], the lymphatic vessels of the small intestine, a part of the general ab- sorbent or lymphatic system, pervading all parts of the body, distinguished as lacteals, since they imbibe from the glandular mucous surface of the pmall intestine, following the ingestion of fatty food, a milky, white, opaque fluid, "the chyle." The chyle is fat digested by the pancreatic and biliary fluids, reduced to an emulsion, molecular par- ticles of fatty matter suspended in an albuminoid liquid. The laoteals take up the chyle, traverse the mesentery, and terminate, by two or throe small trunks, in the thoracic duct, iiero the eliyle mingles with the more watery, opales- cent lymph, and with it passes up to enter the left sub- clavian vein, and becomes a nutritive element of the blood. (See LvMPiiATics.) E. Darwin Hi dson, Jr. Lac'lic .\cid [Ger. MUch^llure: Fr. acide hctique^, acid'- tuincaiffnc of Braeonnot : the acid which is formed in milk when it turns sour, and which exists ihercfuro in but- termilk. It is CslIeOs, and is formed from lactose or milk- sugar, as follows : Ci^HwOio + 2H2O = 4CsIl603. The souring of milk is not therefore a process of oxidation, but, like the vinous fermentation of sucrose or glucose, a molecular breaking up into simpler molecular structures; lactic acid, like alcohol in the other case, being an inter- mediate product of decay or dissolution. Sucrose under- goes the lactic fermentation like lactose, under the influ- ence or impulse of the same special ferments. The names of Scheele, Braconnot, Bcrzelius, Liebig. and other great chemists arc associated in the early history of the discovery of lactic acid and the extended controversies that grew out of it. Braconnot found it in sour beer, sour meal, sour beet-juice, fermented rice, and many other places, and, supposing it new, culled it imttf iv ucid, after his birth- place. Nancy. Berzelius appears first to have announced that it occurs as a normal constituent of flesh, deducing im- portant physiologiciil conclusions. Liebig denied its oc- currence in flesh, but afterwards found therein garcnfacfic iiciti, an ispmere or metamere of lactic acid, which Strecker found to be convertible into ordinary lactic acid by heat. Mitscherlich first prepared pure lactic acid by decompos- ing lactate of zinc with sulphuretted hydrogen. A color- less syrupy liquid: deliquescent; docs not freeze at 12'' below zero F. : density = 1.215. It appears strangely like Qhfcrrine, Call803, in its properties, though intensely sour, while the latter is intensely sweet. Lactic acid has been produced by many artificial chem- ical transformations: probably the most interesting being that of Lippmaun. who formed it by synthesis, by combin- ing olofiant gas and oxychloride of carbon, which gives parulactifUc cfiforif/e: COCI2 + CalU = CsHiCIaO. This, with alkalies, gives salts of paralactic or Liebig's sarcolactic acid, which then, by heat, as aforesaid, will give us the ordinary lactic acid of buttermilk. Several methods of manufacture are given. One is to mix 6 pounds of cane-sugar with one half ounce of tar- taric acid {to convert it into glucose), and after forty-eight hours to add 3 pounds of prepared chalk and 4 ounces of roftrn curd, which latter ferments the glucose to lactic acid. Stir the mass daily in a warm jdace {00° F.). In a week or so it becomes a paste of lactate of lime, which is dissolved by boiling in water with some hydrate of lime. The lactate must be evaporated, pressed, washed with cold water, and pressed repeatedly for purification, tlien decom- posed by sulphuric acid. A crude lactic acid thus cheaply prepared might probably be used as a condiment or ingre- dient of food, confectioner}', etc. To get it pure, it is fur- ther converted into zinc lactate, which is then decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen. Lactic acid has a great solvent power over phnttplntlc of lime, and to this some attribute its known medicinal virtues. The lactic fermentation of sugars is referred by Pastrur and others to the action of the common yeast-fungus !\-ii- cif/ium Qf'jucum, as the aU-oholic fermentation to that of Torultr. It is said that filtering common brarer'n i/cu-t through paper will separate it into two portions: that which passes through containing the smaller PeniriUium cells, and therefore inciting lactic fermentation, while the larger cells of Toniht will remain on the filter, which will therefore cause a saccharine liquid to enter into vinous fer- mentation, (See Fermestatio.v.) Lnrtateit. — Somc of the salts of lactic acid are used iu medicine. Hexry Wtrtz. Lactin and Lactose, f^e Mii-K-srcAU. Lactom'eter [Lat. h^c, " milk," and Or. MfTpo*-, " mea- sure"], a graduated cylinder for roughly estimating iho amount of cream in milk. The term is often applied to the f/(^^/crome^■/■, which is a hydrometer for showing the specific gravity of milk. (,Seo Mir.K.) Lactuca'rium [Lat. lactnra, "lettuce"], a drug con- sisting of the dried milky juice froni the mature stem of difl'erent species of Lrtctur.u or lettuce. It is in reddish- hrciwn lumps, masses, or cakes, of an oj>ium-like smell and bitter taste. It was introduced intu medicine in 1700 as having the property of allaying pain and procuring sleep, like opium, but its powers are exceedingly feeble, and it cannot be relied upon. Edward Cimitis. Lacustrine Villaf^cs, or Lake Dwellings. Sec Pai.epits and Prehistoric Max. La'cy {Li'is), b. in San Rnque. Spain, in 1772; distin- guished himself in the war of independence against Napo- leon, in which he was one of the earliest leaders, with the rank of lieutenant-general. On the establishment of ab- solutism by Ferdinand VII.. Lacy was at the head of a con- spiracy for the restoration of the constitution, which was to have broken out Apr. a, lfjl7. in Catalonia, but the plot having become known, he was seized, tried by court-martial, and condemned to death, the sentence being secretly pro- nounced and executed at the castle of Bellver, Mnjorca, some time in the same month. La Cygnc, post-village of Linn co.. Kan.» on the Mis- souri River Fort Scott and Gulf R. R., 63 miles S. of Kan- LA D A K H— L A DRON ES. 1603 SIS City, bas n fioe public scboo!. 3 churches, 2 banks, 2 i hotels, 1 weekly nL•w^[Japer, and su]H'rior water-power, ' making it a de^i^a^_^le locution ibr luanufiictures. There are 4 lodges, 1 grange society, a puljlic library, and a num- ber of croecry, hardware, and drug stores. Town-site wa« laid out in 1870. Pop. about I40U. Aldert Gore, Ed. "JorRNAL." Ladakh% or Middle Thibet, an independent terri- tory in Central Asia, extending from 32° to oG° N. lat., and from Tt*" to 7\t° E. Ion., between Great Thibet in E. and Little Thibet in W., and separated N, from Toorkistan by the Karakorum, S. from Cashmere by the Himalaya. Area, estimated at oO,000 square milts. Pop. loO.OOU. It is a wild mountainous region along the upper course of the Indii^, mostly of ^ sterile soil and with a severe climate. But it is well cultivated, and its inhabitants, who are Mon- golians, professing a kind of Lamaism and governed by a thcocratical despotism, raise large crops of wheat, barley, an-i buckwheat, besides rearing iramenso henls of shrt-j., which jiupply most of the wool use<l in Cashmere. The mountains contain iron, copper, and lead, and a very im- portant transit-trade between China and Ilindostan is car- ried on by mules and sheep. Cap. Lt:ii (which see). Ladanam. See LABnAMM. Ladd I William), h. at Exeter. X. H.. May 10, 1778; graduated at Harvard College in 17*J7; was for pome years a captain in the merchant marine, and was one of the prin- cipal founders of the American Peace Society, of v.hich he was for many years the president. He edited in behalf of that society the Friend of Peace, and afterwards the Har- biu'jer o/ /''•rtfc, and publii'hed many occasional writings upon the same topic, of which the most important w.as An linnntf on a Comjrcita of Natioit9 (IS4UJ. D. at Portsmouth \ Apr.'.J, IS41. Ladi'gaf post-v. and tp. of Calhoun co., Ala., on the Sclma Home and Dalton R. U., 36 miles S. W. of Rome, | (ia. Pop. 1605. Lading:, Bill of, .See Bill of Ladisg, by Prof. T. | W. Hwi.wiT, LL.L). I La'dislaSy or Lancelot, king of Naples, surnamed j Tin: LiUKHAL and inv. Victoriois. b. about I;l76: succeeded ! his father, Charles III., under the regency of his mother | Margaret, in 13S6: was driven from Naples in July, lliS7, by his competitor, Louis II. of Anjou, whom Pope Clement VII. (of Avignon) had invested with the crown; was re- instated by Otto of Brunswick the same year; repulsed two invasions made by Pope Urban VI. in lliSS; was crowned at Gaeta May 21*. 13110. by a legate of the nev[ pope. Boni- j face IX.; maintained a war for several years in the heart j of his kingdom against his rival, Louis IT., who was in I possession of the capital ; recovered that city July 9, l.'!99; ; was a candidate for the throne of Hungary, and actually j crowned Aug. o, H0.'{, but soon withdrew his claims; at- | templed to seize Home in Aug., I4UJ; was excommunicated and deprived of his kingdom by the pope June IS, 140G; entered Rome in 140S, retiring in a few months; after a long series of alternations of fortune again took by sur- |»riso and plunilered that city June S, I4l.'i, and d. at Naples .Aug. Iti, U14. Ue was perhaps the earliest mttdern Italian ruler who conceived the project of the unity of Italy ; was also a claimant of the throne of Proveneo and a candidate fur the imperial crown of Germany. Ladislas I. (LoKTrK), king of Poland, b. in 1260: succeeded to the dukedom of Poland in 121*6; was deposed in 1.300, in \?hieh year he attended the jubilee at Rome; was restored in 1304; carried on a long war with the Teu- tonic Knights ; assumed the title of king of Poland in 1320 by permission of Pope John XXTI. ; d<*fcated the Teutonic Knights at Plowco iSept. 27, 1321, and d. at Cracow Mar. 10, 1333. Ladislas II., king of Poland. See Jacrllok. LadislnH III., king of Poland. Sec Ladislas V., king of Hungary. Ladislas IV., king of Poland, b. nt Cracow Juno 0, l.VJJ; succeeded his father. .Sigisniund III.. Nov. 13, 1()32; j compe'Ieii the Russians to raisr the siege of .'Smolensk 0''»32l: drfratod the Turks in .Moldavia (ir.3U, and the Tartars of the Crimea; made a truce for twenty-six years with Sweden (1635) ; began a wir with the Cossacks ( 1637) ; married a daughter of the German emperor Ferdinand (1637), and d. in Lithuania .May lit, K.IS. Wv was an able and energetic prince, sprung in the female line from the Jat;ellons. and had such a reputation for valor that in his early youth a party among tho Russians wished to make him their c7,ar. Ladislas, or Lndislnns, the name of seven kings of Hungary: Lapislas I., xiir. Saint, called also Lanct.lot, b. about iU41; succeeded his brother, Ueysa I., in 1073; , was victorious over the Wallachians. Bohemians, Russians, Cumans, and Poles: conquered Croatia and Dalmatia (10^7 i for the crown of Hungary; promulgated a new code of laws nt the diet of Zablon (11192); stimulated comniereej aided Boleslas II. in obtaining the throne of Poland ; pro- jected the delivery of the Holy Laud from the Moslems; erected many churches and monasteries, and favored the clergy in their efl'orts to civilize the Hungarians. D. Julv 29. lUi'a. He was canonized by Pope Celcstine III. in 111*2. — Ladislas II., b. about 1134: crowned July \b. 1161, and d. Jan. 14, 1162.— Ladislas III., b. about llSo; woe elected in 1204 to succc-ed his father. Emcricb. but d. May 7. 1205. — Ladislas IV., surnamed thk Clman. b. about 1250; succeeded his father, Stephen IV., in 1272; made war upon and at first defeated the Cumans (1282), but tho latter, reinforced by vast hordes of Nogai Tartars or Mon- gols from the plains N. E. of the Black Sea {the empire of Kiptchak). overran and ravaged all Hungary (1285). He then made terms with the Cumans. adopted some of their customs, repudiated his wife, and married one of their princesses, whence his surname, but was finally assassinated by them July 19. 1290.— Ladislas V. (III. of Poland), b. Oct. 31, 1424 ; succeeded his father, Ladislas U. ( Jagell(.n), as king of Poland in 1434; was elected king of Hungary in 144U by the influence of the famous John Huniades, vaivode of Transylvania, by whose aid he defeated the in- vading Turks in two great battles (1412-43): made a ten years' truce with the sultan Aniurath II. at Szegedin in June, 1444, acquiring thereby the sovereignty of Wallachia, but at the instigation of Cardinal .Julian ol>tained a papal dispensation from his oath, and invaded Bulgaria, where be was defeated and killed in battle, with a great part of the Polish nobility, at Varna, Nov. 10, 1414. — Ladislas VI., THE PosTnrMoi'S, son of Albert of Austria, emperor of Ciermany and king of Bohemia and Hungary, b. Feb. 22, 1440, several months after his father's death, when Ladislas V. had already been jilaced upon the throne; was elected king in 1445: assumed the government in 1451; was crowned king of Bohemia Oct. 28, 1453, and d. at Prague Nov. 23. 1457. He was cowardly and cruel, and persecuted the followers of John Huss. — Ladislas VII.. eldest son of Casimir IV. of Poland, b. about 1456; was designated as his successor by iJcorge Podiebrad, king of Bohemia. July 19, 1469 ; crowned at Prague Aug. 16, 1471 ; entered Hungary with an army on the death of Mathias Corvinus in 1496 ; was j>rocIainied king and crowned Sept. 21; fought against the Turks, and repulsed the army of Bajazet in 1501 ; made peace at Buda Aug. 20, 1503; per- mitted tho proclamation of a crusade against the Turks in 1514, and d. at Buda Mar. 13, 1516. Porter C. Bliss. Ladmirault', de (Rkne Patl), distinguished him- self in tlie war with Germany (1870-71); commanded the 4t!i corps in the battles of Courcelles, Aug. 14, Vionvilte, Aug. 16, and (jravelotte, Aug. 18, 1870; on the capitula- tion of Metz became a jtrisouer of war, but on his return after the conclusion of peace received, in recognition of his brilliant services, the command of the territorial division of Paris, and was appointed governor of the capital. When in 1873 tho arrangement of territorial divisions was abol- ished. Ladmirault retained his position of military govern- or of Paris. ArcrsT Niemann. La^dopa, tho largest lake of Europe, comprising an area of 6sUI S(|uare miles, situated in Russia, between tho governments of Viburg, Petersburg, and Olonctz. It re- ceives the water from the lakes of Onega. Sainm, and II- men. and sends it through the Neva to tho Baltic. On account of shallows, sandbanks, and sunken rocks naviga- tion is very dangerous on this lake, and canalK have bei-n constructed connecting the Neva with those rivers which flow into the lake, and iboreby establishing a water-com- munication through tho Volga between the Baltic and the Caspian Sea. LadO(;a, po«t-v. of Montgomery co., Ind., on the Louis- ville New Albany und Chicago It. R., II iniles S. K. of Crawfordsville, is a thriving mercantile and manufauturing town. Lado'nia, post-v. of Fannin co., Tox., 13 miles S. E. of Haiham. on N. fork of tho Sulphur River. It has I weekly newspaper. Pop. 516. Ladorc', post-v. and tp. of Neosho co., Kan., on tho Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R. Pop. 839. Lndroncj)', or iHariannc Islands, a group of twenty islands in the Paeific Ocean, belonging To Spain, anil situated between 13° an<l 21° N. lat., and between 144° and 146° E. Ion. They are of volcanic origin, have a warm but not unhealthy climate, and comprise an nrca of 1251 square miles of fertile land, hut only two of them, Guguan and Rota, arc inhabited. They were first discov- ered by MagclhacDS in 1521, and called Las Islas do los 1604 LADY— LAFAYETTE. LadroDes (the TbieveR' Islands) on account of a Btrong propensity to theft observed in the natiyes. In 1667 the Simniards established a regular settlement on Guguan.aiid culled the inlands Mariaune Islands, after Queen Maria Anna. At the time of this settlement the islands had about 100,000 inhabitants, who received the settlers well, and made great progress until the Spaniards begun to at- tack their independence, when a war broke out which ended nearly with the extermination of the natives. Theprestmt number of inhabitants is not more than fiOOO, and of these many have been transferred by the I^paniards from Luzon. Principal town, San Ignazio do Agafia, situated on Gu- guan. La'dy [Ang.-Sax. hlafdlfje^ probably originally mean- ing " bread-keeper "], a woman of good social standing : a term correlative with rfentUman. In Great Britain the wife of a nobleman is legally styled '■ lady," and the title is by courtt'sy given to daughters of nobles and the wives of knights and baronets. The Virgin Mary is often desig- nated " Our Lady.'* La'dy-bird [Ger. Marieyihafer, " Mary-bug **], a com- mon name for coleopterous insects of the family Coccincl- lida^, of which there are more than 1000 species and many genera. They are extremely useful to farniers. destroying vast numbers of aphides or plant-lice: but are tlie ob- jects of many popular superstitions, and arc by many viewed with a vague and unreasonable dread. They are usually of an elongated hemispherical shnpe, frequently having bright colors, and are often spotted. The species are quite difficult to distinguish. Lady Day, the 25th of March, the feast of the Annun- ciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary. In England it is ouo of the quarter days upon which rent is usually payable. Lady's Slipper* See Cypripedium. Lae'laps [Gr. AaiAai/r. a "storm"], a genus of fossil saurians found in the cretaceous strata of various parts of the U. S. The creature was carnivorous, Ptirac twenty-five feet in length, and doubtless walked upon its immense hind legs like a bird, for its fore legs were very small. It must have obtained its prey by leaping. L. aquilunt/His is the largest known species. Laon'nay tp. of Logan co.. 111., traversed by the Gil- man Clinton and Springfield R. R. Pop. 691, Laennec' (Rene Theodore Hvacinthe). b. at Quim- per, lirittany, Feb. 17, 17S1; studied from ISOO medicine in Paris: obtained the degree of M. D. in 1804; became principal physician at the Necker Hospital in 1816, and professor of medicine at the College de France in 1S22. In 1S24 retired, on account of his health, to his native town, where he d. Aug. 13, 1826. Was the inventor of the Stethoscope (which see). Besides articles in different medical journals, he wrote Traitf (fa rtiunruftation mediate et licH via hid i ft ilrn pnunitniH et dii rcenr ( ISl'J). LiTStryRones, the name of a race of giants men- tioned by Homer {Odj/nspi/, x. 80-1^2). Homer, however, docs not know anything about their abode, as little as about that of the Cyclops and other fabulous nations, but later traditions assigned Leontini in Sicily or Formiae in Xaples as the homestead of the La'strygones. Laet, de (.Ias), h. at Antwerp ; was in 1633 a director of the Dutch East Inclia Co., and was an intimate friend of Saumaise (Sahnasius). Published nearly twenty learned geographical works in Latin, several of which formed pnrt of the miniature series of /{rpuhficH issued by tlie Elzevirs ot" Leyden. Mnintained a sharp literary controversy with Grotius about the origin of the American Indian tribes (1613-41). His most important works were ynrus Orbin (folio, Leyden, 1633) and H intoria Nnturah's Jiraaih'a' {l6iS}. D. about" 1649. liHi^ta're Sunday, >Iid-Lent, or Domiuica de Rosa^ the fnurth Sunday in Lent, the diiy on which the pope blesses the Golden Rosk (which see), /jftftre, "re- joice," is the first word of the introit in the missal for this day ( Isa. Ixvi. 10). On this day only is the organ played during Lent, La Farge'ville, post-r. of Orleans tp.. Jefferson co., N. \ .. on the (.'haumonl River. It has an academy. La Fari'na (Giiseppe), b. at Messina in ISl.'); d. in 1S63. At the ago of eleven he comj)osed a hymn to Italy which excited great admiration. In 1S37. after an in- effectual attempt to detach Sicily from the dominion of the Bourbons by heading a popular insurrection, he fled to Tuscany. The following year he was amnestied and re- turned to Sicily, but after about three years he was once more forced to retire to Tuscany, Here for several years he occupied himself with literary pursuits and in efforts to promote Italian indepenrlence. The revolution of IS4S took Lim back to Sicily; no was elected deputy to the Sicilian Parliament, then appointed commissioner to the courts of Turin, Florence, and Rome, and in August of the same year he became minister of war and of the marine. In the spring of 1S4'J he took command of the University Legion against the Bourbons, and when the liberal cause was lost he escaped to Paris, where he continued in relations with Daniel Manin and other patriots till 1S:)3, After a few months' stay at Tours he established himself at Turin in 1854. Here he made great efforts to strengthen the politi- cal party in favor of a united constitutional monarchy un- der the house of Savoy. He co-operated with Cavour in the war of 18.^9, and with Garibaldi in org.inizing the nu- merous volunteers. In 1860 be was elected deputy to the Italian Parliament from six districts. Among the many historical works of La Farina, La S'ton'a d'ltnlin may be specially recommended for the warmth and patriotic elo- quence with which it is written. Two volumes entitled // Epiatohn-io di Giuseppe La Farina were published at Milan in 1869. Lafave', tp. of Scott co., Ark. Pop. 175. La Fayette', county of S. W. Arkansas. Area. 1060 square miles. The soil is generally level and very fertile, but requires drainage. It is partly prairie and partly hard- wood timber, and is traversed by the navigable Red River and by the Cairo and Fulton R. R. Cotton and corn are leading products. Cap. Lewisville. Pop. 9139. Lafayette, county of Florida, bounded on the E. hy the navigable Suwanee River, and on the S. W. by the Gulf of Mexico, is extensively covered with forests, and is quite level. Corn is the principal product. Area, 925 square miles. Cap. New Troy. Pop. 1783, La Fayette, parish of S. Louisiana. Area, 230 square miles. It is level, very fertile, and is traversed by the n.avigable Vermilion Bayou. Cattle, corn, rice, and cotton are leading products. Cap. Vermilionvillc, Pop. 10,388. La Fayette, county of N. Mississippi. Area. 607 square miles. It is generally level and highly productive. Live-stock, maize, and cotton are leading products. It is traversed by the Tallahatchie and Yockenev rivers and the Mississippi" Central K. R. Cap. Oxford. Pop. 18,802, La Fayette, county of W. Missouri, bounded on the N. by the Mis^rouri River. Area. 585 square miles. It is generally level and highly fertile, partly timber and partly jirairic. Coal, limestone, and sandstone are found. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are staple products. Flour and lumber arc leading manufactures. It is traversed by the Lexington branch of the Missouri Pacific R. R. Cap. Lex- ington. Pop. 22,023. La Fayette, county of S. W. Wisconsin. Area, 630 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by Illinois. The surface is diversified, the soil fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are stajdc products. Wagons and carriages are lead- ing articles of manufacture. Lead and zinc are found. The county is traversed by the Mineral Point R. R. and the Pecatonica River, which affords good water-power. Cap. Darlington. Pop. 22,659. La Fayette, post-v. and tp., cap. of Chambers co., Ala., SO miles N. E. of Montgoniery. on the East Alalmnia and Cincinnati R. R., has 4 churches, 3 hotels, 1 weekly newspaper, a male high school, and a fenmle college. In 1S74 it handled 6000 bales of ctton. P.. p. of v. 1382; of tp. 1694. W. C. BLEnsoE, En. "Clipper." Lafayette, tp. of Crawford co.. Ark. Pop. 902. Lafayette, tp. of Ouachita co., Ark. Pop. 1131. Lafayette, tp. of Scott co., Ark. Pop. 400. Lafayette, post-v., cap. of Walker co., Oa.. 16 miles S. W. of Tunnel Hill, a station on the Western and Atlantic R. R. It is in a beautiful mouutain-regiou. Pop. 251. Lafayette, tp. of Coles co., III. Pop. 1265. Lafayette, tp. of Ogle co.. 111. Pop. 467. Lafayette, post-v. of Goshen tp.. Stark co., III., on the Peoria and Kock Island R. R. Pop. 2S1. Lafayette, tp. of Allen co., Ind. Pop. 1471. Lafayette, tp. of Floyd co.. Ind. Pop. 1576. Lafayette, tp. of Madison CO., Ind. Pop. 1452. Lafayette, tp. of Owen co., Ind. Pop. 1071. Lafayette, city, cap. of Tippecanoe co., Ind., on the Wabash River and Wabash and Erie Canal, at the inter- section of the Louisville New Albany and Chicago and the Toledo Wabash and Western R. Rs., and terminus of the Indianapolis Cincinnati and Lafayette, the Cincin- nati Lafayette an<l Chicago, and W. division of the Lafay- ette Muncie and Bloomington R, Rs. The E. division of the latter road is graded and ready for equipment. Lafayette originally derived its chief importance from being the head of navigation on the Wabash River, and then received an LAFAYETTE— LAFITTE. 1605 impetus vhicb haa suntaioed its growth since the abandon- mc'utof the upper Wabash as a channel of commerce. La- fayette has 2a ohurches, 1 (Sunday) weekly, and 3 daily newspapers, U pubtio-i^clioo] buildinj^s, besides several de- nonainationat academies, street railroad, ga.'^wurks^ paid fire department with fire-alarm telegraph, an elegant opera- houje. State agricultural college (Purdue L'uivor?ity ). and a large nuinbcr of manufactories of difTereut kiud^. There are 6 national, 4 private^ and 2 savings banks, with an aggregate capitol of nearly $3,000,000. The wholesale trade is heavy, especially in grocerici and boots and shoes, while the retail traffic finds abundant supplies in the rich agricultural region of which Lafayette is the centre. The scenery in the vicinity is very beautiful. Pop. 13,506. .S. Vater, Plb. '■ Uailv Joi h.val." Lafayette, tp. of .Allamakee co., la. Pop. 1120. Lafnyettc, tp. of Bremer co., la. Pop. S67. Lafayette, tp. of Keokuk co., la. Pop. 959. I.a I'ayrlte, tp. of Story co., la. Pop. 401. I^nfayette, a v. of Centre tp., Doniphan co., Kan., on the .Mi.-'suuri lUver. Pop. 54. Lafayette, post-v. of Christian co., Ky., 22 miles S. W. of Ilopkiusvillc, the county-scat. Pop. 215. Lafayette, a v. of Motcalfe co., Ky. Pop. 53. Lafayette, post-v. and tp. of Gratiot co., Mich., 10 miles K. 'if Iihaca, the county-seat. Pop. 288. Lafayette, tp of Nicollet co., Minn. Pop. 594. Lafayette, tp. of Clinton co.. Mo. Pop. 2007. Lafayette, t]). of Nemaha co., Xeb. Pop. 018. Lafayette, post-v. and tp. of Sussex co., N. J., on the Sussex K. U. Pop. SS4. Lafayette, po«t-v. and tp. of Onondaga co., N. Y., on the Syracii^'c and Hinghamton R. U. The township is hilly and fertile, and is in part occupied by the Onondaga In- dian Reservation. Pop. of v. 135; of tp. 2233. Lafayette, a v. of Jackson tp., Allen co., O. (Herring P. 0.). on the Pittsburg Kort Wayne and Chicago R. R. Pop. 337. fjalavctte, *p. of rofihocton co,, 0., traversed by tbo Pit:.-<Kiirg iiihI C'iiicinDiiti U. K. Pop. t»20. LafayrttCy post-v. of I>ccr Creek tp.. Mndison co., 0., 4 miles N. K. of London, tUo couuty-seat, and on the Na- tional Koud. Pop. I CI. Lafav^^tte, a v. (Whittlesey P. 0.) and tp. of Medina CO.. O. Pup. 1109. Lafayette^ poat-v. and cap. of Yarabill co., Or., 32 milefl S. \V. '^f Portlund, on tbo Vamhill River and near tbo Oregon Central U. li., ha^ a cburob, a botel, a weekly newspaper, an academv, a flourinf^-mill. 2 drug-stores, and A number of inercai)lilu and inanufaeturing estaldi6bincnti<. It i? situated in a fine agricultural tliptrict. P(»p. about 6.'>o. DoKiEis A IIkmuickk. Ens. '* Coi uicre." LafayettCf v. and tp. of MrKcan co., Pa., on a brancb of the lIutTalo Itradfurd and Pittsburg K. R. Pop. 591. Lafayette^ a v. ( Hossville P. 0.) of Fayctto co., Tenn., on the Memphis and Ohio U. R. Lafayette, po»t-v., cap. of Macon co., Tcnn., 22 miles N. of Cftrtiiiij;e. Pop. lOl. Laftiyf'tte, tp. of Pleasants co., W. Va. Pop. 307. Lafiiycltc, pDCt-v. ami tp. of Chippewa co.. Wis., 6 mihM \. K. of Eau Claire. Pop. ItTH. Lafayi^tto, a v. (Sparta P. O.j rmd tp. of Monroe co., Mis., 'Ml the I'll ('rosi40 divisiuit of tbe Milwaukee aud St. Paul U. K. Pop. 192. La Tayrtte, tp. of Walimrlh co.. Wis. Pop. 10.32. La Fayette, de (.Marik Pur, .Tn.^s Rorn Yvns flii.- BKUT MoTiFii), .Maiiqi'IS. b. at the ebi\tr)in Cbava(tnac, Au- verjjno. Sept. rt, 1757, of an aneient family. His father wft!* killoil at Mindon, and on hix mother*!* death in 1770 ho fell heir to larjfo enlutes ; married in 1771 a jprand- (laughtcr of the due do Noiiillcs; entered the guanlH, and while a captain of dragoons in 1 77'^ delerminod to join the American lU V(iltiti(iniHl<< : fitted out a yiicht at his own ox- peiiHc, and landed Apr. 21. 1777, m-ar (tf.rgetown, 8. C. ; served an mnjor-goneral 1777-.s:t without pny, furniflbing also clothing and eamp e<|uipnge at bir* own expense to tbo neetly pntriot«i: was wounded at Hrandywinc, and fouglit with great honor at M<Mimoulh ; wii<i in France I77U-H0, where he induced the kin;: to send Uoebambonu to Amer- ica ; coinlueted the eampaign in Virginia, whieh ended so brilliantly in the siege and capture of Vorktown ; an<i then returned ti> France; visited the V. S. again in I7'*4; ex- erted hinipelf to prneure th«' aholitjon of nlnvery in the French colonies, and freed and ednpntod hi<i own slnvro at Cnyenne ; wa^ in the Aj^nemhly of NotaMeF". Paris, 17H7 : demanded the convocation of the States General, to which be was a deputy, 178l>; became vice-president of the Na- tional A>;8embly. cominnndant of Paris, and chief com- mander of the national guards, which he organized, 17H9; founded the clultf^ of Feuillunts 1790; protected the king and queen from the nmli t)r Oct. 5 and C> ; commanded suc- cessfully the army of Flanders 1792; denounced the Jaco- bins, from whom ho escaped to Flanders, but was impris- oned for live years by the Austrians at Olmiitz: was liber- ated by Kapoleon. and returned to France in 1790, but would never become a partisan of Napoleon ; lived princi- pally upon bis estate of La Grange; was in the French House of Representatives lbI5; in the Chamber of Depu- ties iSlS : visited tbo U. S. in lS2-l-2r<, and received a grant of $200,000 and a township of lanrl ; was chosen to tbe Chamber of Deputies 1S27; took part in isJiO, and com- manded the national guard, but not in person. La Fay- ette d. at Paris May 20, 1^34. It would be hard to over- estimate the services done by La Fayette to the cause of American liberty. In France be was an ardent and con- sistent democrat, but he was ready to sacrifice his own pref- erences for the advantage of tbe public. Even bis enemies admitted his perfect honesty, his courage, and his ability. — His son, Gkorges AVasbington La Favj:ttk (1779-1849), and his grandsons, Oscar (b. ISIG) and EnMOsn (b. 1S18), have ligured in French politics as republicans. Lafayette College at Ea?ton, Pa., at the junction of the Delaware. Lcliigh. and Rushkill rivers, and of many canals and railroads — a site known from the earliest times as a centre of Indian occupation, and of missionary-work by David I'rainerd ami others — was chartered in lH26. Rev, George Junkin. I). D.. was the (irst jiresident. It has been from the first distiiiguisliod lor ehejip living and thorough study, especially for students preparing for the ministry, and at first undertook to find manual labor for students who wished it. Since 1S55 it has also been known for its course of Anglo-Saxon and Englit-b in connection with comparative phihdogy under Prof. F. A. March. LL.D.. in which it has been a pioneer, and trained many teachers and professors in other American ctdlegcs, and has now a European reputation. It is also known to the scientific wiirlii as in some sense the bead -quarters of meteorology in America, for hero, since 1.S53. the observations of the gov- ernment oflicers and tbe collections of the Smithsonian In.-^titution. suj>plemented by the world-wide correspond- ence of Prof. J. II. Cotlin, LL.D., have been reduced and prepiired for publication under the iHrcction of that em- inent meteorologitit, I'nder tbe presidency of Rev. W. C. Cattell, D. D.. and since 1>'^'J5 it has still further become a centre of scientific and technical instruction for the coal and iron regions of Pennsylvania and New .Jersey, in tbo midst of which it is situated. It has received nearly $1,000,000 of new endowment, of which about one-half has been given by Mr. A. Pardee of Hazleton. Pa., and #."(iO,OU(l bus been exjieniled in the buildings and appara- tus for scientific and technical teaching and iiivestigutiuu. The flora of Pennsylviyiia, in charge of Prof. T. C. Porter, D. D., is the most complete in existence. The Anglo- Saxon and Early English department of the library is jirobably tbe best in the country. The college now offers fixe schools or courses of stu<Jy of four years each, leading to degrees ; two of general culture — the classical and the scientific; and three technical — mining engineering, civil engineering, and ebemistry. In the clashieal school there are two piinillel courses — one the ennmion college course in h<-athen authors; the other in the Latin and Greek of Christian authors, the latter eslnblisheil in L^72, and sus- tained by tbe munificence of li. Douglass, Esq., of New York City. Special courses of two terms eaeh are given on iron, road engineering, and cbemixlry; and any person prepared to do so may devote his whole time to any branch of learning or science taught in the college, either in an under-graduato or post-graduate course. A law school has been organized, and will npi n in t)ctoberof this year (IS7.'>). There are 2S resiilenl profc-^sors and tutors. I non- resident lecturers, and .110 students, nearly etjually divided betwee?i the (dd and new courses. Traill Grkkn. LaHtaii' i.InsFi-n Fran'vih). b. at Bordeaux in 1G70; became a .lei'tiit priest ; came tit I'anadii as a missionary in 1712; was stationed at the Iro(|n<'is nli^sion at Sault St. Louis, and studied closely the Indian ehaiaeter. Discov- ered also the ginxeng-plant. Returning to Franco in 1717, wrote his two esteemeil works — Mtruni dm Sniiraifm tnn(- ri'tfUtiiu^ (1721) and Uimin'ir dm fi/itniirrtrM tlru Portiuftih (lanMlr .y.mr.au .l/oM/Zr { 1 73.1). I), at Pordoaux July 3. 1746. Lafittc' iJACQiKs), b. at Rayonne, France, Oct. 24, 1707, was the son of a poor caqienter: went in I7H7 to Paris: became in 17SS a nookkeeper in the hanking-houso of Pi'rr''Kaux ; was soon ailmitte<l l<> (he firm by reason of his finaiKMal ability ; became a regent of the Rank of France ISll'.f, and in IHI 1 its governor : was in the Cham- llJDIi LAFITTE— LA FOURCHE. ber of Deputies 1810-17; acquired great reputation by his patriotic uiau-.igemeut of the pu'ilic finuuccs : became I'anker to NapoKun iiiul LouisXViil.: was widely belovej for his geniTo3ity, huuesty, and constant devotion to the cause of good government, his own preferences being demo- cratic ; supported the revolution of 181^0 ; was minister of finance 1830-31, soon after which he suflercd great pecu- niary losses. D. in Paris May 20, 18-14. Lafitte* (Jean), b. in Franco about 17S0. He has b?eu made the subject of Ingraham's romance, The /'irate of the Onff. According to (what appears most authurita- tivc) writers in De Bow's Jifvivir. vols. xil. and xix., the former of whom refers to the late John R. Grymes. who he says was once Laffitc's counsel, he came from IJordeaux or Marseille?', and was, "within the recollection of old cit- izens now living," a blacksmith, " who kept his forge at the corner of 15ourbou and St. Philip streets." This is, in a subsequent volume (xxiii.), referred to as an ''idle story" by a writer who styles him one of three brothers whose (trivateering operations led him to Galveston Island, and then to Barataria, ''keeping as agents in New Orleans bis two brothers/' etc. The cession to the U. S. of Louisiana was followed by events — especially the war betwecu France and Spain — which made the Gulf of Mexico " the arena of the most ex- tensive and profitable privateering" depredations upon the rich commerce of Spain. At the period of the taking of Guadeloupe by the British (1806). most of the privateers commissioned by the government of that island, and whi..di were then on a cruise, not being able tu return t'j any of the West India islands, made for Barataria, there to dis- pose of their prizes, which could not be admitted into any of the ports of the U. S., we being at that time in peace with Great Britain. Most of the commij^sious granted to privateers by the French government at Guadeloupe hav- ing expired some time after the declaration of the indc- pendenee of Colombia, many of the privateers repaired to her port of Carthagena for the purpose of obtaining from the new government commissions for cruising against Spanish vc3:>els. Having duly obtained tlieir commissions, they in a manner blockaded for a long time all the ports belonging to the royalists, aud made numerous capture?^, which they carried into Barataria. (See Bauatauia Bay.) It is asserted by Latour, from whom wo have quoted {Hist, of the War in E. Floriila and Louisinntt)^ that public auc- tion-sales were made of the cargoes of their prizes. " From all parts of Lower Louisiana people resorted to Barataria, withont being at all solicitous to conceal the object of their journey. In the streets of New Orleans it was usual for traders to give and receive orders for purchasing goods at Barafaria with as Uttlo secrecy as similar orders are given for Philadelphia or Now York." While Latour denies that these men were really pirates, lie admits that they auda- ciously infringed our laws, and committed a great offence in smuggling into the territory goods captured from nations with which we were at peace. Preparatory to the expedition against New Orleans, Lt.- Col. Nichoils, commander of the British forces in the Flor- idas, made overtures by letter, dated Peusacola, Aug. 31, LSU, to LafBte, "with his bravo followers, to enter into the service of (Jreat Britain;" ho is offered the rank of captain, and lauds arc fo be given to "all in proportion to respective ranks." The letter was delivered hy Capt. Lockyer, R. N., commanding an armed brig which Sept. 2d visited Barataria for that purpose, and who personalhf offered him, aceonling to Latour, besides the rank of cap- tain, the sum of $;;0.l)0(). These offers he communicated to the governor of Louisiana hy letter couehcd in language which girea evidence of a cultivated mind and of elevated sentiments. "I offer (writes he) to you to restore lo this Slate several citizens, who perhaps iu your eyes have lust that sacred title. I offer you them, however, such as you could wish to find them, ready to exert their utmost efforts id defence of the country. This point of Louisiana which I occupy is of great importance in the present crisis. I teuiier my services to defend it ; and the only reward I ask is that a stop be put to the conscription against mo and my adherents by an acf of oldivion for all that has been done hitherto. I am the stray sheep wisliing to return to tlie sheepfold. If you were thoroughly acquainted with the nature of my otVences, I should appear lo you mucli less guilty, and still worthy to discharge the duties of a good citizen. I have never sailed under any flag but that of the republic of Carthagena, and my vessels are perfectly regu- lar in that respect." No answer appears to have been given, and, indeed, an expedition already in preparation under • The name is thus most commonly spelt, and is so in Latour's IlUftory; but in the appt-ndix to that work tho signature to the several letters Ihciu juitilisli-'d is printed .1. LngV" ; and It is so spelt in the headinc to itie If-lierol Li.-(.:ol. Nichoils; beaee this was probably his own and the correct speUing. Commodore Patterson to break up the association at Bara- taria (where, however. Laffite and his men were not found) was carried out. Subsequently (about the middle of De- cember), when the invasion of New Orleans was imminent- ly pending, the governor of Louisiana issued a proclama- tion inviting, and Gen. Jaekson accepted, the services of Laffite and iiis men, a portion <»f whom formed a corps un- der Cajjts. Dominique aud Beluche, and were employed on the lines, where with distinguished skill they served two twenty-four pounders in batteries Nos. 2 and 3. Others enlisted in one or tlic other of the companies of mariners, under Capts. Songis. Lagaud, and Colson, and served at Forts Petite Coquille (uow Fort Pike) and St. Philip, and Bayou St. JohD.f On the fith of Feb., ISlJi, Pres. Madison issued a procla- I mation stating that "'it had been long ascertained that many foreigners, flying from the dangers of tlicir own I home, and that some citizens forgetful of their duty, hail co-operated in forming an estaldishinent on the island of , Barataria, near the mouth of the river JVIississippi, for the purpose of a clandestine antl lawless trade. . . . But it has since been represented that the offenders have mani- fested a sincere penitence; that they have abandoned the prosecution of the worst cause for the support of the best, and, particularly, that they have exhibited in the defence of New Orleans unequivocal traits of courage and fidelity ;** and granting full pardon for acts therein defined, provided that certificate in writing be produced from the governor of Louisiana stating that the person ''has aided iu the de- fence of New Orleans." The subsequent career of Laffite is involved in uncertainty. J. G. Barnard. La Fleche, town of France, in the department of Sarthe, on the left bank of the Loire, has manufactures of paper and leather, aud a brisk trade in grain, wine, wax, cattle, and fowls. The palace, which was liuilt by Henri IV., and which for some time belonged to the Jesuits, who here had a celebrated school, is now used for a school of artil- lery. It contains a picture-gallery and a library of 20,tJU0 vols. Pop. I)2y2. Laflin (Addison H.), b. in Lee. Mass., Oct. 2-1. 1823; graduated at Williams College in 1843; removed to Her- kimer co., N. Y.: elected in 1867 to the New York senate; in 1804 to Congress as a Republican ; re-elected in I8(i6 and lSf)8. and ajjpointed in 1871 naval officer of the port of New York, which office he hold till Feb. 1, 1877. D. Sept. 2-1, 1878. La Fontaine', de f Jfan), b. at Chateau Thierry in 1021; d. IGUO. Was protected at first hy the duchess of Bouillon, then by the prince of Cond{s Fouquet, Henrietta of England; but was too frank, too ojion-spoken, ever to succeed in securing the favors of Louis XIV. Had for fricn<ls Moliere, Racine, Boilcau, and was member of the French Academy. Wrote at first his Contes. a set of sh<»rt, lively, but rather licentious novels ; but his great and clas- sical work, known throughout the world, is his Fables, some of them taken from iEsop and Pha?drus, which have been translated into every language. an<l of which many have been committed to memory hy children in every S(d:o(d. La Fontaine, like Moliere, had a larger and hctler heart thao most of the French writers of the Louis XIV. period: he held fast by his protector, Fouquet, even after the ruin in- flicted, through a personal jealousy, on handsome and kingly-looking Fouquet by the roi eofcil (Sun King), as Louis' XIV. liked to be called. Felix ArcAiGxi-:. Lafontaine iSir Loris HirM'oi.VTK), Bart., b. at Bou- chervillc. Lower Canada, in Oct., 1^07; became a prom- inent advocate and politician ; accused in 1837 <)f sympathy with the insurgents, a reward was offered for him, and he escaped to Europe, but was recalled, and became premier of Canada for some time, resigning his oflice in 1851. In 18j3 ho became chief justice of the queen's beach, a baronet in 18j4. and d. in Montreal Feb. 20, IStU. La Fourclio, parish of S. E. Louisiana, bounded S. and S. E. by the Gulf of Mexico and Barataria Bay. Tho surface is flat, and abounds in lakes and bayous, often navigable. Ahuig the Bayou La Fourchearesomeof the best lands in the Attakapas region. Rice, sugar, molasses, and corn are leading products. Area, 102j square miles. Cap. Thiboiieaux. Pop. 14,710. La Fonrche, a bayou in S. E. Louisiana, an outlet of the Mississippi, which begins at I>i>naldsonville on the right banU, and flows S. E. through the parish of La Fourche In- terior to the Gulf of Mexico, with a total lengtii of 150 miles. Il is navigable by sieamboats for about 100 miles from its mouth, and is one of the principal channels of com- munication between the Gulf and the interior. + Fortifving Barataria (Grand Terre Island) or the passes of Barataria Bav formed no part of the services rendered by these nt'-n. When' the writer, twt^nty-one years after the bailh* of New Orleans, visited (irand Terro Island, scarcely a trace of Laf- flte'8 occupatlou remained. LAFUENTE— LAG RANGE. 1607 Lafacn'te (Modesto), b. at Revnnal do los Caballeroa, near CcrviTii. Spain. May 1, ISnii: studied philosophy and theology at Leon aud atthc I'nivcrsity ol' Santiago Com- postclla: became in 1S30 professor of rhetoric, and after- varda of philosophy, at Astorga; began in JSll to publish under the pseudonym of " Fray (ierundio " a scries of sa- tirical cssavs, and' in 185(1 issued the fir.«t volume of an elaborate Htmimj of Spain, completed in l>^fi2 in 2G vols. Lngcr Beer. See BtEn, by Piio:-. C. F. CitAXDLER. La'go Maggio're, the longcstof the lakes of Northern Icily, situated between Piedmont, Lombardy, aud the Swiss canton of Ticino, and traversed, or rather formed, by the river Ticino, which carries its waters to the Po, is 40 miles long aud 2 miles broad, and remarkable for the beauty of its aceuery. wild, rugged granite mountains alternating TFith vincelad hills. Lagomy'id.'B [from Lagomys, Xnyu;, "hare," and »»"s. "miuse," and -idx], a family of mammals of the order Glire.t or Kodesti.\ (which see), anil sub-order Duplieiden- tau, externally resenibliug a guinea-pig [Cftvia apcrcn) an I to sonic extent a rabbit, having a squat body, with the binder limbs not very greatly exceeding the fore ones, the back arched, and the bu'tocks projecting backward: the heal is deep, but the profile scarcely arched backward; the eyes small, the snout hare-like, the ears short, and the tail almost wanting. The skull is depressed, the rostral portion motleratelv produced and narrow, and the interorbital area narrow and without well-delined supraorbital processes; the orbits are oval and rather small ; the nasal processes of the Bupramaxillary bones have each a single largo aperture, and are not perforated in a sieve-like manner; the lower jaw h-is the ascending rami nearly vertical and the con- dyles correspondingly advanced, and the angular processes extend very little forward. The teeth have the four upper and two lower incisors (j ;< 2) characteristic of the Diipli- cidentati, and five molars in each jaw ( M. j ; P. M. § X 2) ; the upper are (as in the Lcpuridiu) mostly (M. 2 ; P. M. 1) provided with vertical grooves on the outer as well as inner surface, and three transverse ridges of enamel, but on the last "asinall extra Ioop"i3 developed; the molars of the lower j.iw have each the groove on the outer surface, as well as inner, very strong. The clavicles are wanting. This fam- ily includes a few species combined in one genus ( Lfif/rtiiii/i, Cuv.), which was formerly associated with the hares and rabbits in the same family; but the numerous diiVcrenees between the two groups have caused modern mammalogists to separate Ihcm. The Lagomyidte are of amalUr sine than most Leporida>, tho largest not exceeding the guinea-pig in Bize; they inhabit cold mountain-regions, and species are found in Xorthern Asia and Eastern Europe, as well as tho Himalaya Mountains and tho Rocky Mountains, the latter being the Lnijumtjn pvincept of Richardson, or the " little chief hare." Tiieodoke Gii,l. Lagoon' [Lat. Incimii, a "hollow;" Sp. layuna], a shal- low lake, usually eommuuicating with the sea or with some river. The name is also given to the water enclosed in tho atolls or circular coral islands. La'gOS, a British colony on the coast of Dahomey, W. Africa, extending from tho river Yerewa to Ode. Pop. obnut OO.UDii, uf whom less than lOn are whites. The prin- cipal settlement is on tho island of Lagos in tho Bight of Benin, at the mouth of the Ikorodu Lagoon, from which it derives its name. The territory uuiler British protection extends only Ul or 12 miles inland. The trading-posts are Ba'lagry, Palma, and Leekie. the exports being palm oil, cotton, indigo, and groundnuta. The town of Lagos has a population of .'SO.OOU, is the seat of Catholic and Wesleyan missions. AVas once famous for the slave-trade, but was conquered in ISJl, and ceded to Great Britain in 1801. Lagos, town of Portugal in the province of Algarvo, on the western side of a large bay. The harbor, however, is not lit for large vessels. Pop. HiMO. Lagos, city, capital of a canton of tho same name in the stale of Jalisco, Mexico, near tho frontier of tho state of (iuauajuain, noted for its fine churches and factories, and for the abundant dcpusils of iron ore in the vicinity. It is acentral point in .Mexico, and as sueh has been designated as the place of juEietion of the three principal railroa<l» to be built by governincnl aid, and which will cunneit Lagos rcspeet- ivelv with the eily of Mexico, with the Rio Grande, and with tho Pacific. Pop. about 25,1100; of canton, 1)0,000. Lagosto'mintc ffrom Laitottontun, Aaywc " hare," and o-ron". ■■ month." and -in/r], a sub-family "f the family Chinehillidrt). whose only known species is ilistinguishcJ by a rat-like form, but with a bushy tail, a broad muffle, upper lip with a vertical groove like a hare's (ami hence tho name), moilerate ears, ami imperfect feel — i'. e. tho an- terior with four toes, and the pnslerior with three, the for- mer having eoinparativcly short and pointed nails, and tho latter long, compressed, and acutely-pointed ones; tho molar teeth have mostly only two narrow lamelUe, but in the hindermost u]ipor ones are three. But one species is known — the viscacha or Ltujniii<,mua lrii:hodaclijhis or muxi- mu»; it is a characteristic animal of the Pampas of South America, where it burrows in a clayey or sandy soil; it has the singular habit of bringing to the mouth of its bur- row every hard object which takes its fancy, such as bones and stones. Theodoue Gili.. Lago'tis, or Lagidium, a genus of the chinchilla family of mammuls. with two species, L. Cnvteri and L. patlipes, is tho mountain viscacha. inhabiting the west- ern slope of tho .\ndcs in Chili, Peru, and Ecuador, and must not be confounded with the viscacha of the plains (Lnr/oatomiu). It is about the size of a hare, and burrows in tile rocks. The fur is long and soft, and falls out as soon as the animal is dead. La Grande, post-tp.. cap. of Union co., Or., on the S. side of tirandc Ronde Valley, SO miles S. E. of Walla Walla, and on the line of the projected Portland Dalles and Salt Lake R. R., has Federal and State land-offices, is supported by its proximity to the mines of Eastern Oregon and Idaho, and is eslcbratcd for the even temperature and heallhfulncss of its climate. There is a weekly newspaper. Pop.' 6 10. E. S. McCoMAS, Rfjhler Stule Lands. La Grange, county of X. E. Indiana, bounded N. by Michigan. Area, oS4 square miles. Its surface generally consists of level ami productive oak-openings. Cattle, grain, wool, and lumber arc leading products. It is trav- ersed by the (Iraod Rapids and Indiana R. R. Cap. La Grange. Pop. 14, US. La Grange, a v. of Colbert co., near the N. W. corner of Alabama, scat of La l5rango College, a thriving Presby- terian institution founded in ISIiO. La Grange, ip. of Lafayette co., Ark. Pop. 2784. La Grange, post-v. of Richland tp., Phillips co.. Ark., 15 miles N. W. of Uelena. Pop. G2. La Grange, post-v. and tp., cap. of Troup co., Ga., 71 miles S. W. of Atlanta, on the .\tlanta and West Point R. R., has 5 churches, 2 banks, 2 hotels, 2 female colleges, 1 nialo high school, 1 steam grist-mill, 1 furniture manufactory, 34 stores, sonic of the finest flower-gardens in tho South, aud 1 weekly newspaper, the oldest in tho Sttitc, which won tho $50 gold medal atthe Georgia State fair in 1S73. Pop. 2053. .1. T. Wateumax, Ei>. "La Grange Rei'ohter." La Grange, tp. of Bond eo., III. Pop. lOCO. La Grange, poat-v., cap. of La Grange co., Ind.. in tho centre of the county, on the Grand Rapids and Indiana R. R'., 15 miles N. W. of Fort Wayne, has 4 churches, 2 banks, 1 weekly newspaper, 2 school-houses, 1 large hotel, and tho usual number of slores and shops. Pop. 1038. JcjiiN II. Rahick, Ed. "Stanuahd." La Grange, Ip. of Harrison co., la. Pop. 308. La Grange, post-v., cap. of Oldham eo., Ky., on tho Louisville arol Cincinnati R. R., near the junction of tho Lexington and Louisville R. R. Pop. 612. La Grange, post-tp. of Penobscot co.. Me., on tho Bangor and Piscataquis R. R. It has good water-power and manufactures of lumber, etc.. and is the site of a re- markable ridge, the result of glacial action. Pop. 622. La Grange, post-v. and tp. of Cass co., Mich., 4 miloa N. W. of Cassopolis. Pop. 1884. La Grange, city of Lewis eo.. Mo., on the Mississippi River and Mississippi Valley and Western R. R., 175 miles above St. Louis. II above tjuiney. 111., and 30 below Keo- kuk, la., has II chuivhcs. 2 hotels, 1 national bank, I savings bank, 1 weekly newspaper, a chartered enllege, tobacco manufactories, several largo flouring and planing mills, a mammoth rolling-mill for turning out railroad iron, and considerable river mule. Incorporateil as a city in lh53. Pop. 1576. It. M. Wai.i.aie, En. " Demociiat." La Grange, tp. of Dutchess co.. N. Y. It is traversed by the Duiehess and Columbia R. R., and contains several villages. Pop. 1774. » La Grange, post-v. of Lenoir co., N. C._. on tho Allan- tie and .N.irtb Carolina R. R., II miles from'Gcdilsborongb, hap 2 churches. 2 curriage-shiqis. 4 secret societies, 1 feninlo high school, I weekly newspaper, and ships annually 3000 bales of cotton. Pop. about 300. B. W. Nasii. Ed. "Baptist Review." La Grange, a v. of Wells tp., JelTrrson eo..O.. on tho Ohio River and on tho Cleveland and Pittsburg R. R. (Phillipsburg P. 0.1. Pop. 228. La Grange, post-v. and tp. of T,orain eo., O., on tho Clev. laii.l I'..luml.u8 and Cincinnati R. R., 24 miles S. W. of Cleveland. Pop. LiOU. 1608 LA GRANGE— LA HAKPE. La Grange, post-v. of Bell co.^ Tenn., oa tho Mem- phis ami Charleston R. R. Pop. 760. La Grange, post-v., cap. of Fayette co., Tex., on the E. bank of Colorado River, 25 miles from Columbus, 20 miles S. of the Central R. K.. and 14 miles N. of the '" Sunset Route," has 4 churches, 4 schools, 2 weekly newspapers, a public hall, and 20 or more business-houses. Pop. HGo. J. J. GosSLER, Ed. " New Era." La Grantee, post-v. and tp. of Walworth co.. Wis., 8 miles E. of White AVatcr, a station on the Milwaukee and Mississippi R. R. Pop. 1039. Lagrange' (Joseph Lons), b. at Turin Jan. 25, 1736; d. at Paris Apr. 10, 1S13. He was, by the rivalship of La- place only, says Prof. Nichol, prevented from " bein;; held, by comiuon consent, the most illustrious geometer of mod- ern times." Though born in Italy, as his name indicates, ho was of French extraction. At the age of nineteen ho was made a professor of geometry in the Royal School of Artillery. In 1766 he was invited to Berlin by Frederick 11. (who as the "greatest king" expressed the desire to have the "greatest mathematician " of Europe at his court) to succeed Euler as mathematical director of the Academy, of which he was made president. Here he wrote his Me- cnuiffite Anufiftirfue. After the death of Frederick (17S6) he received invitations from the sovereign of his native Sardinia, as well as those of Naples and Tuscany, but ulti- mately accepted one in 17S7 to take his residence at Paris (receiving a pension from the Academy, of which he had been elected in 1772 a foreign associate), where the rest of his lite wa? passed. The method of the Variation of Parameters, expounded to a certain point by Euler, but perfected by Lagrange, is one of his important contributions to analytical mechanics. The ellipse which a planet would describe around the sun were there no other attraction undergoes fluctuations of form by attractions of other heavenly bodies. The essence of the method in question is that, holding fast to the idea of the simple curve — the ellipse — though it be never real- ized, the actual motion of the body is conceived to be on an elliptic curve, the pantinctern (or elliptic elements) of which are ever varying through the disturbing action of foreign attractions. To subject this motion, which under the name of "revolving orbits" had its origin with New- ton, to .analytical calculation, and to determine the in- fluence of each planet in disturbing the elliptic motion of othi^rs, was the problem the solution of which is in great degree due to Lagrange. As a natural sequence to this problem arising out of this perpetual change in the planet- ary orbits comes the greater problem of the ataffilit^ mid pernntneiice of the solar sifateniy the establishment of which is Lagrange's greatest achievement. Tbe orbits being thus in constant fluctuation, it is of the highest interest to know whether the resulting changes be necessarily limited in amount, or whether they will progressively increase until the Htubilitij of the solar system sball be destroyed. Lagrange demonstrated (though Laplace had preceded him with a partial demonstration) that the fluctuation of the orbital elements is limited to small amounts, and is periodic, extending, however, through long periods of time. Thus, €. <f,, the eccentricity of the earth's orbit, now dimin- ishing, will continue to do so for 21.000 years, and then begin to increase. At the same time the apsides and nodes are in motion. The grand cycle of the earth's perihelion, which coincided with the vernal equinox 4089 years B. C. (about the date ehronologcrs assigned to the biidieal as- count of the Creation), will be eoitipletcd in 110,000 years, "Some of the (orbital) ellipses." says Prof. Forbes (6th Dissertation, Eucyc. lint.), "will elongate, whilst others tend to become circles; their planes will vary in inclination, but ultimately be stayed within the limit which human saga- city had predicted myriads of years before. * These.' says a French analyst, * arc the jiendulums of elernity, which beat ages whilst ours beat seconds.* And amidst all these varia- tions, subject to law and to impassable limits, the Major Axes of the orbits preserve a steadfast uniformity, or are subject only to transient fluctuations ; and thus permanence arises in the midst of tfhange, and the perfection of the sys- tem is demonstrated by the very nature of the disturbances which seemed at one time inevitably to limit its duration." " These results may be considered as among the most astonishing with which science brings us acquainted. The range of insight which man has acquired into the past and future history of the universe throughout periods cora- jiarcd to which the whole existence of his species is but a epan, enhances our admiration of the reasoning power which can attain to knr)wledgc so high and excellent." Laplace had asserted the invariability of the major axes of the planetary orbits, which involves the fort of stability. But Lagrange, says Prof. Niehol, "from a higher flight, showed the necetaity of that stability;" and that it resolts I from the ditipogitions of the elements in nearly the same plane — the almost circular form of the orbits, and the uni- furni direction of the motions therein. The iniportunce of such assurance is enhanced when one is reminded that Newton believed that our system contaiaed the seeds of dissolution. After the mention of these two opera mngiin of Lagrange, his miunr works, though there is scarce a topic in physical astronomy or in mechanics or pure mathematics which he has not touched and shed liglit upon, must be passed by without notice. (A very complete enumeration and analysis of his writings is attached to his biography in the 8th ed. of the Kucye. Brit.) Happy in the atlectionate attach- ment of the young wife he at the age of fifty-six had mar- ried (his first wife dying soon after marriage, twenty years before), living in intimate relations with Laplace, Euler, D'AIenibert, and other renowned contemporaries, escaping the misfortunes to which the French Revolution subjected nearly all his contemporaries, and retaining throughout his scientitic appointments, Lagrange's residence in Paris was tranquil, and he died universaily respected and regretted. "Take him as a whole," says Prof. Nichol, "abstnict sci- ence has in modern times possessed no other servant so great." J. G. Barsard. La Granja, or Sau Ildefon'so, town of Spain, in the province (»f Segovia, with a magnificent palace built in 1724^ by Philip V., and situated about 4000 feet above the sea. Here Maria Christina was surprised (Aug. 13, I83fi) by a number of conspirators and compelled to restore the constitution of 1S12. Pop. 3S50. La Greux, tp. of Arkansas co., Ark. Pop. 355. La Gro, post-v. and tp. of Wabash co., Ind., is on the Toledo Wabash and Western R. R., W' abash and Erie Canal, and Wabash River. Pop. of v. 519; of tp. 4066. La Guay'ra, town of Venezuela, South America, the harbor of Caraccas, on a narrow strip of land between the sea and the wall of the inland plateau, which rises at onea to a height of about 3000 feet. It is one of the hottest places on earth, very unhealthy, and often visited by earth- quakes. Its harbor is an entirely open roadstead, where the water is always agitated, and where loading and un- loading are very difiicult. It is nevertheless the principal port of Venezuela, and the importation of manufactured goods and the exportation of coffee, cacao, cotton, sugar, indigo, and hides are extensive. Pop. about 8000. La Gueronnierc, de (Lons Ktiexne Arthur Dt?- BRKriL Hkliux), Viscoi XT, b. in Poitou, France, in 1816. In 18J0 ho became chief editor of the Puye- and attracted great attention by his Portraits polit it jtttn o^ Louis Napo- leon and the count of Chambord. After the ctmp d'hat of Bee. 18jI, ho became a decided supporter of Napo- leon, was elected a deputy, became a member of the Con- aeil d'£tat (1853), and took charge in tlie ministry of the interior of the delicate relations of the government to the press and to literature, in which capacity his con- ciliating manners enabled him to discharge his functions with advantage. In ISGl he was made senator, and be- came one of the most popular orators, especially on the questions relating to Italy and to home government. In 1S6S he was made ambassador to Belgium. Ao a writer, M. do La Gueronnidre became tbe most trusted organ of the Napoleonic policy, and his pamphlets {brochure*) were often the first indication of coming events. La HarpC) post-v. and tp. of Hancock co.. UK, on the Toledo Peoria and Warsaw R. R.. at the junction of the Burlington branch. It has 1 weekly newspaper. Pop. 1741. La Harpe, de (Fhkokric Cesah), b. at Rolle in the canton of Vaud. Switzerland, in 1754 ; studied law at the University of Tdbingcn : became tutor to a younir Kussian nobleman, with whom he travelled through Italy and France, and was recommended by Baron t^rimm to Cath- arine II., who appointed him tutor to her two grandsons, Alexander and Constantinc. His enthusiasm for the French Revolution made his stay in Russia somewhat diffi- cult, and in 171'3 he left the country, but received a pension for life, and resided partly in tienevn, partly in or near Paris, until 1S14. On his visit to Paris the emperor Alex- ander received his former tutor with great esteem, made him a Russian general, and exercised through him consid- eralile influence on the political reorganization of Switxer- land. In I8I7 returned to Lausanne. D. Mar. 30, 1838. La Harpc, de (Jean Frax^ois), b. at Paris Nov. 20, 1731); made his debut as a poet in 1759 with a volume of ffrro'idefi, wrote Waririck- ( 1763), Tinudeon ( 1764), and two other tragedies ; was in 176S literary critic on the Merciire dr France ; gained several prizes from the Academy; ob- tained applause by a drama, Meiauie, oh la lieliffieit^e (1776) : was elected member of the Academy, and in 1786 appointed professor of literature at the oewly-establisbed LAIIASKA— LAITY. 1609 LycC'C. Hero largo audiences gathered year after year to hear his lectures on literature, from which originated his best worlc. ('onm de hi titt/rttfiirc nnct'emie ct inotlente {10 voU., nyO-ISOo). Embraced the Revolution with great enthudiasin, and lectured with the red cap on hie head. Was nevertheless arrested and kept in prison for some time, and this incident wrought a sin<;ular change in him; the philofiopher of the school of Voltaire beearae a fervent Cath'tlic. As a poet, La Ilurpe is entirely forgotten, but his Count fit; ta littfrntHfe is still an interesting and instruc- tive book, in spite of the superficiality and harshness with which some parts are treated. D. Feb. 11, 180-'{. Ijahas'kaf po^^t-v. of nuckingham tp., Bucks co., Pa., 6 miles N. K. of Doylestown. Lahijail% town of Persia, in the province of Ghi Ian. near the Caspi.ni Sea. It has some silk mLinufactures. Pop. "000. La IIoutan% de (Aumaxd Loris de Dklondaiue). BviEON, b. near Alont dc Marsan, Ciascony, France, about Itl(i7j camo to Canada, probably 0^3 a private soldier, in I6S:i, in one of the companies of marines sent by Gov. de la liarre agaiust the Iroquois, and was afterward in De- DOQvillo's expedition against the SenccaSi being stationed successively at Chambly and at Forts Frontenac, Niagara, and .'^t. Jiisoph's. In ItiGS he was sent to Michilimackinac and .*^auU .Ste. Marie, was at Green Bay in KiG'J, and pre- tended to have explored the head-waters of a branch of the Mississippi. Returning to Quebec, he sailed for Franco in lO'JO, came back the following year, and was sent by Count Frontenac witli despatches to the French government announcing the failure of Sir WilHiim Pliipps' expedition against Quebec, The vessel put in to Placentia, Newfoundland, and La Ilontan rendered such good service in defending that port from an attack by the English that ho received a command as lieutenant in Newfoundland and Acadia. In lOUil he became involved in difliculties with the governor, mado his escape to Portugal in a mer- chant vessel, and thence passed to Spain, Denmark, and England. Having been dismissed from the French service, and being unsuccessful in his endeavors for reinstatement, he published at the Hague in 170,'i his adventures in America under the title Xomcnux. \'tn/a;/r9 tie M. te bnrnn de La- hutttnn ilan» I' Ameriffue S*jjlentrinii<ile (2 vols.), and added a third volume, iJinlot/ue tie if. Ic baron de Lahontaa et d'uH tauvntje dunn i' AuUiitfue, avcc lea rut/af/ea du mime en /'oWtiya/ (Amsterdam, 1704). These volumes were widely Girculatc<l, bnt are entirely untrustworthy for details of fact, the geography and ethnography of the upper Missis- sippi being completely fictitious, though lung relied upon by compilers, U. in Hanover in 1715, Lahore', the jirincipal city of the Punjaub, British Iniiia, ;<ituatrd on tlie western bank of the Ravee, in lat. :U^;ili'N. and Ion. "I^IH'E. The eity itself is surrounded with a high brick wall, and consi.-^ls mostly of narrow, dirty, and overerowtled streets between high houses, which present only bare walls toward the streets. But it has many magnilicent Mohammedan mosques and Hindoo temples, iiri'l its extensive bazaars arc well stocked. Out- side the wall arc other fortifiealioiis, strctehing 7 miles in circuit, enclosing the most bcautit'ul antl luxuriant gardens and promenades, interspersed with large monuments and ruins of tlie former Hfilendor of the city, when it was tho residenee of the Mogul emperors iind luul I.IIDOJHIO inhab- itants. Sinec I'SPJ it has been a Ih'ilit'h po^scsi-ion. and it is said to be rising again. Its present pop, is estimated at about 100,000. Lalir, town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden, on tliu Shatter. It has some mamifaetures of sailcloth, vine;^ir, tobacei>, and paper. Pop. 7103. I^nh'sa^or Kl*.Vir»ta i whieh tatter word in the Arabio language means a tract of land where (he water sinks through tho surface, but is rt^tiiiiied by a lower layer), tho name of an independent i|oniini<m, situated on tho eastern shore of Arabia. 00 miles S. W. uf Katif. in lat. 2.>° 25' N., Ion. -10° I.V E., anil comprising nn extensive valley, fertile and well watered, and a largo capital, tlmirishing and well built. Wheat, millet, and all kinds of fruits and vegetables are cultivated, and horses and sheep are extensively reared, but dales and camels arc the two principal items of tho wealth of tho country. The population of (he distriet numbers about 50,000 ; of tho town, about lO.iMHI. The former namo of tho tribe and its abode was Iledjaz. A small trilmlo is annually paid to tho Turkish sultan. Iini'l>aeh« or Laybnoh, town of Austria, cap. of duehy of ''arniidn, beautifully siluatrd on n plain on a river of the same name, on the nmd from Vienna to Trieste, is an olil town, with some manufaetures, n eonsidorabJo trade, many good edueational institutions, and several intoresting buildings ; as, for instance, the cathedral of St. Nicholas, the G.ithio town-house, the castle- and tho palace of Count Aueraberg. Pop. 23,032. Laid'lie ( ARriiiBAi-n), D. D., b, at Kelso, Scotland, Dec. 4, 1727: graduated nt the University of Edinburgh: was ordained in 1 75'.'. and was for four years pastor of the Scotch church at Flushing, Holland, where he acquired a know- ledge of the l>uteii language and the theology of Ihc He- formed (Dutch) Church, with which ho was thenceforth conneeted. As a consetpieneo of a sharp controversy in New York as to the language to bo used in preaching to the churches founded by the Dutch colonists. Dr. Laidlie was called to the pastorate of the Collegiate church, and on Apr. 15. 1704, preached at the Mitldle Dutch church the first English sermon addressed by a regular pastor to an American Dutch congregation. His ministry was marked with great popularity and success. Early in the war of the Revolution ho retired from New York to Red Hook, N. J., where he d. in 1778. Laing ( Ai.i-:xAM)i:u GoutxiNl.b. in Edinburgh. Scotland, Dee. 27, 1701. entered the British iirniy : served some 3'enr3 in the West Indies, and was in ISl^O aide-de-camp to the governor of Sierra Leone. AVas employed in negotia- tions with African chieftains for the supjiression of the slave-trade, and explored the upper course of the Niger. Returning to England, was promoted to the rank of major, nnil in 1820 undertook an overland journey from the Meiliterranean to the Gulf of Guinea. Setting out from Tripoli in July with a caravan of native traders, reached Timbuctno in August, but was s<ion after murdered near that city. Hud [lublishid an account of his earlier explorations. Travels throHtjh the Tlnumncc, Kooraitkoy and SoolliiKt Cinintriea to the Sources of the Rokelle and Niger (London. 1825). Laillg (Mau'OI.m), h. on tho island of Mainland, Ork- neys, in 1702; studiecl at the University of Edinburgh, ond was called to the bar in 17.'^5, but devoted himself chiefly to literature. Wrote a continuation (»f Henry's JIiHtory of Great Itrita'in (17^5), and a ffiM(<»ri/ of Scotland frovi the Union of the (h'ownn to the Union of the Kinf/do/im (ISOO), with dissertations on tho Gowry conspiracy and on tho Ossian poems, adding in the second edition an essay ar- guing the guilt of Mary Queen of Scots in the murder of Darnicy. Was eleeted o member of Parliament in 1S07, and d. in the Orkneys in Nov., 1818. Laillg (SAMfKL). of Rapdale, Orkney, brother of Mal- colm, was author of several of the most instructive works of travel published in the ju'cscnt century. Among them are books on Xorwai/ {IS'M), Sictdcn (IS.'iS). Xofcn of a Trardlcr in Franrr^ Prwaiia, and Switzerland (1841), iSV>- cial and PuUtical State of the European People in IS/fS and IS49 {\^o(\), and Ohnervations on the Social and Political State of Denmark (IS52). Lainf;(SAMii:i.),b. at Edinburgh, Scotlnnd. in 1810, son of Samuel Laiiig the traveller; graduate'! nt Cambridge (is;i2j, and at Lincoln's Inn; was admitted to the bar in 1840; became private secretary of Mr. Labouchere. presi- dent of tho board of trade, ami afterward a member of tho railway commission, and had much to ilo with the relations of tho government to the railways, then bi-ing rapidly ex- tentlod. To his eft'orfs the public were indebted for tho convenience of " juirlianienlary trains" at a minimum rate of payment of one penny per mile. In I8IH he became eluiiriuitn of the Brighton Railway Company, in IS.>2 chairnnm ol the Crystal Palace Company; entered Parlia- ment in 1852 for his native district ; was finaneial secretary to the treasury in 1859, and wont to India in I8fi0 as min- ister of finance. Returning in 1805, he again entered Par- liament, and resumed in 1807 tho chairmanship of the Brighton Railway Company. Lniiips'hurf;, posl-v. of Shiawassee eo., Mich., on (he Jaekson Lansing and Snginaw R. R. It has manufaoturcB of castings and lumber. Lnird I.Toun). h. at Grcenoek, Scotland, in 1805, was the lirst buibler of iron steamshijis in isjit. and was for many years head of the great firm of .lohn Laird A Sons, iron shipbuilders and engineers at Birkenhe»d. near Liver- pool, As builder of the Conferlcrate jirivnteer Alabama his name has become a part of the history of the American civil war. Mr. Laird filled many posts of responsibility in conneetion with eiunmeree and jiublie works, ancl was a member of Parliament from iHOl until his death at Birken- hen.i. O.-t. 2'.i. IS7I. liair^A StntioUt postv. of Harrison co.. Ky., on tho Kentueky Central R. R. I<n'itv [remotely from the Gr. Aadc, the " pe<tple'*]. a term ehietly used to distinguish the unordaineil peopio from the elergy. The term is also sometimes employed by persons in the professions of medieine and law to distin- guish non-professional from professional persons. So also mi'tnbers of certain voluntary associations speak of tho un- initiated OS the laity. Convents have lay brothers and lay sisters and lay eldors, lay prooohors. IGIO LAJAED— LAKE. M Liuard' (Jean Baptiste Felix), b. at Lyons, France, ar :iO, 1783; aocouipaniuJ as secretiiry a mission to Per- sia in lSn7; liccuino iuturested in the study of OrifUtal re- li'ions and Oriental intlui-nccs upon ancient Orocci', and iinido a fine colleetiou of cuneiform cylinders, wliieh were obtained bv the luiiierial Library, liy tlic aid of the labors of Boi.p and Schlegel in the young science ol com- parative philologv, as well as by bis own researches. La- iud was enabled to broach a theory of the common origin of the races now called Arvan, which has since been con- firmed in most points, lie filled diplomatic posts in Greece, Russia, .and Penniark until the tall of Napoleon I. ; was afterward employed in the liuaneial department; was elect- ed in 18:!0 a member of the Academy of luscriptioos, and wrote most of vols, xviii. and xi.\. of tho vast work edited hv that body, nUl„u-e littcrairo ,le la Fmm-c, his oontri- bntions bein<' upon tho early rabbins, soliolasties, and ju- risconsults. Of his numerous and learned miscellaneous writings, the most important is tho lleclurchet sur te Cnlle publiiPrI Ut .T/:/./J,v» ,le MUhra en Orient ct en Occident (Paris, 1S17-48'). V. at Tours in Sept., 1858. Lakanal' (.Ioseph), b. at Seires, France, July 14, 1762 ; studied theology ; became professor of ihetorio at Bourgcs, and of pbilosophv at .Moulins: was elected to the National Convention: dislin>;uished himself by his solicitude for the io'c-P^t, of the sciences and of literature ; was the princi- pal founder of the Museum of Natural llisloiy, of the AcaAemy of Sciences, and other institutions of higher edu- cation ; 'entered the Council of Five Hundred (17'.)5) ; was professor at the Lvcee Charlemagne under tho consulate and empire : was a' refugee in 1815. as having voted for tho dea'hof Louis XVI.; settled in the U.S.; was favored by Jefferson ; received from Congress a grant of 500 acres of cotton-land in Alabama, and became a planter; was chosen president of the University of Louisiana; returned to France after the revolution of 1830 ; was re-elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1831, and d. at Paris Feb. 14, 1845. Lake [Lat. hicua], a body of water nearly or quite sur- rounded bv land. Lakes derive their forms .and character fr.ini the iialurc of their basins and tho region in which tbev arc found. Mountain-lakes, being valleys filled by runnin" streams, are long and narrow, rarely of great size, but often of great depth. Lake George and Lake Cham- plain in the Appalachian .Mountains, the lakes of Con- s'ance. Zurich. Lucerne, and Geneva on the N. side, Lago Ma'i-iore and Lago di Como on the S. side of the Alps, all renowned for the beauty and loveline.«3 of their shores or the grandeur of the surrounding seen.^ry. are fair cx.amples. TheTr length exceeds their width twenty or thirty times. The depth^of Lago M,ig;iore, which is hardly 3 miles wide, reaches, according to the Italian engineers. 2f.l3 feet below its surface, or more than double the depth of Lake Superior, and 1921) feet below the level of the ocean. .-Jometimes their forms arc very irregular, for the water of a mountain-lake often covers several contiguous valleys, as in the Lago di Como, with its two long branches, and the lakes of Lucerne and Lugano, which owe their strange and crooked form to the fact" that each fills four distinct valleys, crossing each other almost at right angles. Lakes in plains and plateaus, being simple depressions in a uniform snrfaee, arc generally of larger size, and wider , compared to their length, but relatively of no great depth, i The larg'-sl lakes of the globe, the so-called Caspian and Aral seas in Asia, the eciuatorial lakes of Central Africa, the great North American lakes, and Lake Titieaca in South America, all belong to this class. Their vast expanse and the tamcness of their shores deprive them of the picturesque beauties whicb adorn the mountain-lakes. Most lakes receive and send forth large rivers, of which tbev seein to bo an expansion. In their basins the wild alpine torrents spend their force, and their muddy waters flow out purified and transparent. The lakes arc thus the regulators of the mountain-streams, preventing ilestructivo freshets ; they perform the same office in the low plains. Snii Lnkct. — Numerous lakes, however, in the interior of the continents, though receiving aflluents. have no out- let, some of their water losing itself in the sandy ground, but the greater portion passing into the atmosphere by evaporation. These are usually filled with salt water. All tho surf.ace of the continents being an olil sea-bottom, the presence of salt is very natural. Fresh-water rivers and lakes can only bo found after the surface has been thor- ouzhly wa.dicd and the salt carried away by streams hav- ing access to the ocean. The Caspian and the Aral seas, nt^the bottom of the vast depression which lies between Europe and .\sia, arc the most extensive salt lakes. The Caspian Sea, though receiving tho Volga, the largest river of Kurnpe, and many others of considerable size, evaporates so much ivater that its surface has been found by the Unssian academicians to be S3 feet below tlio level of the Mediter- ranean, and varying with the seasons. Many lakes in tho neighborhood ooze away during the summer, leaving a pure, white crystalline crust of salt. One of them, tho Ellon Lake, between tlic Volga and Ural rivers, furnishes thus an annual crop of over 100.000 tons of salt. More remarkable than all is the Dead .Sea, which lice in the deepest part of a long valley, sunk from 4000 to 51.00 feet below the surrounding country, its surface being 1286 feet, and its bottom over 2500 feet, lower than the level of the Mediterranean. Its feeder, the river Jordan, alone among the streams of the earth. acconi)dishcs nc;irly its wholc'career below the level of tlic sea. When expanding into the Lake of Tiberias, the beautiful sheet of water whose shores witnessed so many of Christ's miracles, it is nearly C20 feet below the surface of tho Mciliterranean. I!y an- other long step of over 610 feet downward its fresh waters mingle with the bitter floods of the Dead Sea. In this last reservoir the salt has accumulated so as to transform the water into a heavy brine, which may be the remnant of an ancient sea of miieh l»rger extent, gradually reduced by evaporation to its present si/.c. The other continents have also their salt lakes, and North America can boast of the Great Salt Lake of Utah as one of the finest specimens of its kind. O'cntiraphical Dialiihiilmu <,/ intr».— Lakes are not uni- formly spread over the contineuts. They are most numerous in the northern regions of Asia, Europe, and North America, but more thinly scattered farther S. and in the southern continents. .\sia is pre-eminently the land of the salt lakes. Both in its north-western steppes from the Caspian to Lake B.alkash. and in its vast central highlands, they occur in countless numbers. The Altai and Daourian mountains, however, contain the largest alpine lakes, among which the kingly Baikal, nearly 500 miles long, holds the first place. In Europe the most characteristic and celebrated are the mountain-lakes which adorn the Alps of Switzerland and Scandinavia, and the more modest chains of the British Isles. But the greater number and the largest are found on the slight swells an'l in lowlands which surround the Baltic Sea in Northern Germany, Western Uussia, Finland, and Sweden. The lakes of Ladoga and Onega in Kussia, and those of Wcner and Wetter in Sweden, are the most extensive among the European lakes. In Africa the great platcau-lakcs ore typical of the continent. The majestic Ukcrewe, or Victoria Nyanza, and the Albert Nyanza at the sources of the White, the Tzana at the head'of the Blue Nile, Lakes Bangwcolo and Tanganyika, probable head-waters of the Congo, Lake Nya"si in the Zambese basin, are all crowning the table- lands of Central Africa. But North .America is peculiarly rich in this respect. Ko continent presents a more remarkable chain of large lakes than that which stretches from N. W. to S. E. in the Arctic plains, along the line of contact of the oldest geo- logical formations, to the Appalachian Mountains, compris- ing the Great Bear and Great Slave lakes. .Athabasca. Lake Winnipeg, and the five great lakes from Superior to On- tario, forming together the largest extent of fresh water on the face of the earth. This abundance of lakes in the northern part of the continent renders their almost com- plete absence in the basin of the Mississippi the more re- markable. AknoldGiyot. Lake. This term is applied to pigments prepared by com. lining animal or vegetable dyes with melnllic oxides, usually alumina or oxide of tin. Almost all coloring-inatterB may be made to produce lakes, but in practice a few only arc found available for this purpose. Lakes are used as pigments for painting, for wall-paper, and in calico-print- Itcd in/.v«.— (1) Carmine lake, called also Florentine, Vienna, Munich, and Paris lake. This has a beautiful red color, and is the finest of all lakes. It is made by adding an alkali to a decoction of cochineal mixed with alum. In- ferior cochineal, and the residues and mother-liquors from the preparation of carmine, arc employed for carmine lake. This lake was manufactured at Florence from kcrincs before cochineal was known in Europe. A finer lake may be made by adding freshly precipitated alumiua to the mother- liquor from carmine. (2l -Madder lake(»ler. Krn/./.r.irmine) is extensivclv prepared. It has a more or less deep rosc- colnr. with a'bluish tint. The following is Persoz's process for preparing it ; Madder is washed with cold water wherein some sulphate of soda is previously dissolved, and boiled for about twentv minutes, with ten times its weight of a 10 per cent, solution of alum free from iron. The liquid is filtered and cooled to 40° or 35°. The red-colored solution is then treated either (.i) by saturating cautiously with car- bonate of soda equal to from one-tenth to one-eighth the weight of the alum used, so as to cause the formation of a i basic alum, which remains in solution, aud which is pre- LAKE. 1611 cipitatcd on boiling, as an insoluble basic sulphate of alu- mina, bulilin;; ull tbe coloring-matter in combination. Or III) by uililiii.; a solution of acclatc <pf Icail. containing 7S parts of tbe s:»lt for every 100 of alura used, tiltering Irom the precipitated sulphate of lead, and boiling to precipitate a colored basic acetate of alumina. This is much finer than tiiat precipitated by carbonate of so. hi. Flowers of madder, garaucino. or other preparations of ma Jdcr may lie used iu phice of tiic root. The coloring-matter of madder may be extracted by an alkaline solution, and precipitated by alum. (.!) lirazil-ivood lake, known also as Vienna ball-lake, Flor- en:ine, Berlin, new lake, etc. The wood is boiled with water, and the solution should be left some time to permit certain impurities to .settle. The addition of a little glue or skimmed milk is advantageous. A solution of alum and tin crystals is added, ami precipitation effected by caustic potash, taking care not to add an exe 'ss, or by carbonate of soda. A slight excess of potash gives the lake a violet tint. Kio('f (inrf Purple Lakes. — (1) Logwood gives a violet lake on the addition of an alum solution to its doeoction, and precipitation cold by carbonate of potash. (2) Alknnet yielrls a purple lake when tbe finely-cut roots are boiled with potash, and the solution is precipitated by alum, Yellmr Lnkef. — ( 1 ) Persian or French berries furn ish a yel- low lake called Dutch pink. Potash or soda is ndiled to tbe decoction, and then a solution of alum is poureil in as long as a precipitate occurs. Tbe color is brightened by treat- ing the moist precipitate with a tin solution. (2) Fustic lake : the decoction of the wood is treated with a litllo gluo or skimmed milk to remove tannic acid, then made alka- line, anrl precipitated with alum. (.'!) Qiicrcilnm lake is miide in the same manner. ( t) Weld lake is mjide in the same manner. (5) .\nnofto lake: the aqueous solution of annotto is mixed with carbonate of soda, heated to boiling, and precipitated by an excess of alum. Oiiiiige l.nko. — (I) Annotto: by boiling annotto with carbonate of soila, and pre.'ipitating by alum or salt of tin, an orange lake is obtained. The color is still deeper if the annotto is fir.st boiled with water and the solution rejected. (2) Turmeric boiled with potash and precipitated with alum gives an orange lake. IHhc inkm are seldom prepared. (1) Logwood solution mixed with sulphate of copper, and precipitateil cold with |icita-ib, gives a bine lake. (2) .'^ulphindigotic acid mixed with alum, and precipitated with carbonate of potash, gives a peculiar blue lake. Urefn Lnkm are usually prepared by mixing blue and yellow lakes, or blue pigments, such as Prussian blue, ullratnarine, indigo, etc., with yellow lakes. ( I ) Coffet; lake: a very good green lake is made by exhausting 1 pound of bruised collee-bcrrics with 1 gallon of water, ndtl- ing 2\ to .3 pounds of sulyibate of copper, and precipitating with caustic potash, avoiding an excess. Jly moistening the precipitate with vinegjir anil exjiosing it to the air, its color is bcighlencd. (2) Weld yields a green lake by similar treatment; and liy adding alum to the sulphate of copper, and precipitating by cold carbonate of potash, various tints can be obtained. Olfier Cohrg. — Lakes of other colors can be prepared in a similar manner, but true lakes are rarely nmdo except those of cochineal, madder, and Bra7.il-wood. Lakes of great variety of shades may also be obtained by the substi- tution of bismuth or antimony solutions for those of alum and tin. Ailullrrnlliiii of Lnkrt. — Starch, gypsum, China clay, barytcs, etc. are extensively used to adulterate lakes, in- creasing the yield at the sacrifice of brilliancy. To secure Iburough mixture niih the lake, they are often added to tbe solutions before prci-ipitation. Aniline Liikf, so called, are not true lakes. They are made of all colors. They are easily prepared by dissolv- ing 1 gramme (IJ grains) of the aniline color in 4 kilo. (J l)iut) of 9.) per cent, alcohol, adding 10 grammes (4 ounce) gum copal, and when all is dissolved mixing in dry starch to a uniform mass, which when dry is reduced to pnwdiT. Aiirino produces a variety of beautiful precipitates if mixed with metallic or earthy solutions, and (brown down by the cautious addition of an alkiili. Tliese are merely bydrated oxides or snb-salts, with wbieh tin' aurine is meebanically ini'orporaled; on washing with distilled water they lose their color. C. F. CMANnt.Kii. I.nke, county of California, consisting of the valley of ('lo:ir Lake, which is some SO miles N. of ."^iin Francisco. It is enclosed by the Hear .Mountains on the I'l. and Mayn- cannas Mountains on the W., both of which are arms of the t^oast Uange. .Area, X'.',\\ sr|uaro miles. It contains much excellent farming laud. Cattle, wool, and dairy products are the agricultural staples. .><ulpbnr and borax abound, the hitler especially iu Borax Lake, Cap. Lako- port. Pop. 2»li9. Lake, county of Colorado, extending W. from the Rocky Jlountains to the E. border of Utah. Area, ICUD square miles. In the E. part the -Arkansas River rises, and also the Gunnison, one of the head-streams of tbe Col- orado of the West, It abounds in timber. There are m!iny lofty mountains iu the county. Gulch-mining for gold is a leading pursuit. Cap. Dayton. Pop. 522. Lake, unorganised county of S. E. Dakota. Area, 076 square miles. Lake, county of X. E. Illinois, having Wisconsin on the N. and Lake Michigan on the E. Area, 390 square miles. It is level and fertile, the soil being a clayey loam. Cattle, grain, and wool arc largely produced. The county is traversed by two divisions of the Chicago and North- western R. R. Cap. Waukegan. Pop. 21,014. Lake, county of N. W. Indiana, having Lake Michi- gan on tbe X., Illinois on the W., and Kankakee River on the S. The extreme X. is sandy and the S. part morshy, but tbe rest is very fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are. staple pi-oducts. The county is traversed by several rail- roads, mostly centring at Chicago. Area, 4S0 square miles. Cap. Crown Point. Poji. \'l,'.'>'.\\i. Lake, county of Michigan. Area, .576 square miles. It is very level, and generally has a good soil, but is mostly covered with forests. Pop. 548. Lake, county of X.E. Minnesota, hounded N. by Can- ada and S. E. by Lake Superior. -Area, HCOO square miles. The lake shore is abrupt, and characlcri/.ed by numerous short, rapid streams. The interior is a succession of pine- covered ridges, diversified by numerous lakes and flat, boggy tracts covered with small larch trees. Cap. Beaver Bay. Pop. 135. Lake, county of X. E. Ohio, bounded X. W. by Lake Erie. Area, 220 square miles. It is undulating, and has a productive clay soil. Iron ore is found. Live-stock, grain, wool, and fruit arc leading products. Carriages, l)riik. and lumber are important manufactures. The county is traversed by the Lake Shore and the Painesville and Yonngslown R. Rs. Cap. Painesville. Pop. 15,935, Lake, county of X. W. Tennessee, bounded W. by Ihe Mississip]ii River, N. by Kentucky, and E. by Rcelfoot Lake and River. Area, 150 .square miles. It is level, well wooded, and fertile, but partly subject to overfiow. Indian corn is the staple product. Cap. liptonvillc. Pop. 242S. Lake, tp. of Cook eo.. 111., contiguous to Chicago, on the S. of that city. Pop. 3300. Lake, tp. of Allen CO., Ind. Pop. 1309. Lake, tp. of Xcwton Co., Ind., lying N. of Beaver Lake. Poji. 378. Lake. tp. of Cen-o Gordo eo., la. Pop. 11C4. Lake, tp. of Monona Co., la. Pop. 17K. Lake, Iji. of Muscatine CO., la. Pop. 843. Lake, tp. of Dorchester co., Md. Pop. 1409. Lake, tp. of Berrien co., Mich., on Lake Michigan. Poji. 1002. Lake, tp. of Huron co., Mich. Pop. 320. Lake, tp. of Lake co., Mich. Pop. 28. Lake, post V. of Scott CO., Miss., on the Vicksburgand Meridian It. K. Lake, tp. of Buchanan CO., Mo. Pop. 297. Lake, tp. of Humboldt CO., Xov. Pop. 117. Lake, Ip. of Ashland co., 0. Pop. 701. Lake, tp. of Logan Co., 0. It contains Ihe city of Bellefontaine. Pop. 3753. Lake, posl-v. and Ip. (the former also called Cmox- TOWS), .Stark co., 0., 12 miles S. E. of Akron. Pop. 2113. Lake, tp. of Wood co., 0. Pop. 1120. Lake, post-tp. of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 597. Lake, tp. of Mercer co.. Pa. Pup. 524. Luke, Ip. of Williamsburg co., S. C. Pop. 873. Luke. Ip. of Milwaukee eo.. Wis., on Lake Michigan, just S. of Milwaukee. Pop. 2974. Lake (Gi:ii,inn), Visroi'NT, b, in England- ,Iuly 27, 1714 ; entered the army in I75S; served in the closing ciimpaigns of the Seven Years' war. in the American war (17S1), and in Holland under the duke of York in 1793-91; rosololho rank of general; was eonimnniler-in-cbief in Ireland dur- ing the insurrection of 1797-9S: defoaled the rebels and recovered Wexford .lune 21; ilefeated the French troops under Humbert nt Killala Sept. .S ; was made commander- iu-ebief in India in Isuil; conducted the Mahratta war (1N03) with brilliant success, taking Delhi (Sept. 12), Agrft (lint. 17), and winning the decisive victory of Lnsivareo |N"V. I 1. which br.iu;;bl the .Mo-iil emiie.or i vassalage 1612 LAKE BELT-LAKE SUKVEY. e Charles, post-v., cap. of Calcasieu parish, La., I on Lake Charles and Calcasieu River, .Ml miles N. to England, for which he was made (Sept. 1, 1804) Baron Lake of Delhi and Laswaree. He defeated Holkar near Bhurtpoor A\)T. 2, 1.S05 ; returning to England in 1S07 was made viscount (Oct. ."1), and appointed governor of Plym- outh, where he d. Fcl). 20, ISOS. The title became extinct by the death of the third viscount, June 24, 1S4S. Lake licit, tp. of Martin Co., Minn. Pop. 29G. Lake Uutler, post-v., cap. of Bradford co., Fla. It is U miles S. from Olustec, a station on the Jacksonville Ponaacola and Mobile R. R. take situated.^ - of the Gulf of Mexio.i, M miles E. of .Sabine River, and ■»00 miles W. of New Orleans, on the (unfinished) New Or- leans and Texas R. R. It has 11 steam saw-mills, 1 week- ly newspaper, 4 churches, 7 orange-groves, 11 stores. 80 lumber-schooners making vorages from Calcasieu River to Galveston, Tcs.. chiefly for the transportation of lumber, which constitutes the leading industry. Pop. about 500 J. \V. Bin-AX, Ed. " Weekly Echo. Lake City, post-v., cap. of Columbia Co., Fla., CO miles \V. of Jacksonville and 105 E. of Tallahassee, on the Jacksonville Pcnsaoola and Mobile R. R.. has 5 churches, 3 schools, .I weekly newspapers, and the usual number of stores and hotels." It is surrounded by bright silvery lakes abounding in the most delicious tish. Pop. 964. E. G. JoHNSoy, Ed. " Herald." lake City, post-v. of Calhoun tp.,cap. of Calhoun eo., la., on Lake Creek. 27 miles S. W. of Fort Dodge, has 2 churches, 2 hotels, 1 weekly newspaper, a fine brick school- house, with the usual proportion of stores and shops. Situ- ated in the midst of a rich farming country. Pop. 103. Eahi. Billings, Plb. " Pioneer." Lake City, post-v. of Missaukee eo., Mich., on the E. shore of Wintergreen Lake, was laid out in 1873 in the midst of a lumbering and fanning region; has a weekly newspaper, stores, and saw-mills. S. W. Davis, Ed. "Missaikee Reporter.' Lake Citv, post-v. and tp. of Wabasha co.. Minn., on the Lake Pepin and Chicago and the Milwaukee and St, Paul R. Rs., D.T miles below St. Paul, contains 4 large steam-elevators, several saw and flouring mills, a large foundry and machine-shop, a plough and 2 w.-igon manu- factories, several churches. Masonic and other lodges, 2 banks, 2 weekly newspapers, a public library and 10 or 12 stores. The town is hand.somely laid out, is the market of a thickly settled and productive wheat-region, and the scenery on Lake Pepin is admitted to be the most beautiful on the upper Mississippi, and for grandeur to vie with any other region in America, resembling that of Lake Geneva. Pop. 2fili8. E. C. Spacldino, Ed. " Lf.^der." Lake Crys'tal, post-v. of Judson tp.. Blue Earth co., Minn., on the St. Paul and Sioux City R. R. Lake DweUings. See Palefits and Pre-historic Man. Lake For'c§t, post-v. of Shields tp.. Lake co.. III., on Lake Michigan and on the Milwaukee divifi.m of the Chicago and North-western R. R.. 8 miles S. of Wauke- gan, and 28 miles from Chicago, is laid out in curvilinear form. It is tho seat of Lake Forest College, and has a female seminary. Lake Fork, tp. of Logan co., 111. Pop. 398. Lake <;corge, the P. 0. name of Caldwell (which see), the cap. of Warren co., N. Y. Lake Haus'kah, tji. of Brown co., Minn. Pop. 215. Lake Ilen'ry, tp. of Stearns co., Minn. Pop. 159. Lake Johaii'iia,post-tp., Pope co., Minn. Pop. 219. Lnkc'land, post-v. and tp., Washington co.. Minn., on St. Croix Lake, almost opposite Hudson. Wis. Pop. 595. Lake I/ancrinp, post-v. and tp. of Hyde co., N. C, on Mailamuskcet Lake and Canal. Pop. 2235. Lake LiTian, post-tp. of Kandiyohi co., Minn. Pop. 238. Lake Marmc, tp. of Monongalia co., Minn. Pop. 196. Lake .Ha'ry, tp. of Douglas co., Minn. Pop. 244. Lake Mills, post-v. of Winnebago co., la. It has 1 weekly newspaper. Lake Mills, post-v. and tp. of Jefferson co., AVis., 9 miles X. W. of .lefforson, the capital of the county. Pop. of V. 590; of tp. 1509. Lake of the Woods, a large lake on the boundary between Pembina co.. .Minn., and the Dominion of Canada. A small detacheil portion of Minnesota lies on its N. W. side. Its principal atllucnt is the Rainy Lake River, and its waters flow N., through the Winnipeg River into Lake Winnipeg. It contains many small wooded islands, apart of which are in Minnesota and a part in Canada. It is but 977 feet above the sea-level, being 598 feet lower than Lake Itasca. Wild rice {Zlzmtia aqimlica) grows along its shores abundantly. Lake Pleas'ant, tp. of Hamilton co., N. Y., in the Adirondack region. It contains Sageville, the county-seat, and the beautiful Lake Pleasant. It is a place of summer resort, and has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 318. Lake Poets, a name given by the Eilinliiirijh Jieiieic to a number of English poets, of whom Coleridge, Words- worth, and Southey were the most important, who at the beginning of the present century lived in the lake region of "Westmoreland and Cumberland. England. They had little in common except the desire to break away from the conventionalities of the literature of that day. Lake'port, post-v., cap. of Lake co., Cal., 28 miles N. E. of Cloverdale, tho terminus of the San Francisco and North Pacific R. R., on the shore of Clear Lake, has 1 bank, 1 weekly newspaper, 2 churches, 2 hotels, I flpur- mill, 7 stores, numerous mineral springs, and 2 steamers plying on the lake. Principal business, farming. Pop. 248. " J. B. Baclis. Jr., Eo. " Lake Co. Bee." Lakeport, post-v. of Sullivan tp.. Madison co., N. Y., on the S. shore of Oneida Lake. Pop. 134. Lake Prai'rie, tp. of Marion co., la. It includes Pella and several other villages. Pop. 4958. Lake Prairie, tp. of Nicollet co., Minn. Pop. 828. Lake Prov'ideiice, post-v., cap. of Carroll parish, La., on the W. bank of the Mississijipi, 60 miles .above Vicksburg, has 5 churches. 2 machine-shops, and 1 weekly newspaper. It is located in the heart of a fine cotton- growing section, and ships annually 7000 to 8000 bales. Pop. 320. B. H. Lanier, Ed. " Lake Repiblican." Lake Survey. The U. S. shore-line of the great lakes and their connecting rivers, if measured in stejis of twenty- live miles, is about 3O00 miles, hut if the indentations of the shore and the outlines of the islands arc included, the developed shore-line is about 4700 miles in length. Where a lake is narrow and along rivers it is necessary for nav- igation that both shores be surveyed. This increases the a'ctual shore-line to be covered by the survey between St. Regis and Duluth to about 6000 miles— a dimension which giv'J'S some idea of the magnitude of the work. The ne- cessity of accurate soundings and accurate charts for the commerce of these lakes is evident on remembering that in the frequent storms and fogs on these lakes, vessels are never many hours from shore, and that during the summer, coinniercc.ns shown by entries and clearances, is equal to that of all the rest of "the U. S. The first appropriation of $15,000 was made in 1841; none was made in 1847, and previous to 1802 the largest annual apiunpriation was $76,000. Since that time it has varied between !?50.000 and $175,000. At first, the survey was confined mainly to special localities, but, progressing, the work was made continuous, and one lake after another was taken up and its .American ,«horc completed. The first chart was published in 1852. It was not till |.'<52 that work on a larger scale was begun, a copy of the Baelie-Wurde- mann base apparatus being then obtained, making greater cision in the triangulalion practicable. The work has been" under the secretary of war, at first under tho direction of the chief of topographical engineers, and since the junction of the two corps under the direction of the chief of engineers, I". S. army. The following offi- cers have been in immediate charge of the work : Capt. W. G. Williams, T. E., 1841-45; Lt.-Col. J. Kearney, T. E., 1845-51: Capt. J. N. Macomb, T. E., lS51-.i6; Lt -Col. J. Kcarnev, T. E., 1856-57 : Capt. G. Meade, T. E., 1857-61: Col. J. 'D. Graham. T. E., 1861-64; Col. and Brevet Brij.-Gen. W. F. Raynolds. engineers, 1864-70; Major and Brevet Brig.-Gen. C. B. Comsloek. 1870. They have been aided from time to time by such other oflicers of their corps as eould be spared for the work, ami by civil assistants, until a body of men has grown up tlior- oughlv competent for such duty. The normal plan for the survey of a lake is the follow- ing • (1) Tho establishment of a primary triangulation, the average probable error of whose angles shall not exceed Aths of a second, the probable error of its bases not exceed- ing innJniTth pc'-' of their lengths. (2) The determination from the primarv triangulation of secondary iioints along the shoreline to be surveyed, not more than ten or fifteen miles apart, these distan'ces being much less when a sec- ondary or tc-rtiarv triangulation can be carried along shore. (?,) .\ detailed topographical and hydrogrnphical survey along the shore based on these points, extending inland ahoul three-fourths of a mile, and bikoward for half a mile, or to tho four-fathom curve. (4) A belt of offshore by- LA KETON— LALITA-PATAN. 1613 drography doDe with a steamer, aod cxtendiug from the j ruur-futhom curve to eight or tea miles from lau<l. (J) | Lines of steamer-soundiugs across the luke. (Ct) Preoi:je i determiuiitious of latitude, longitude, and azimuth at sev- i eral primary Btntiun^. (7) Keductiou of ticld-work and ! construction of the maps. lu some eases, on accuuntof special difficulty or cost, the primary triaagulatiou has not been carried nlung the lake shore. Thus, on the American shore of Lake Huron points were determined by a combination of astronoiuiciil work and triiinnuhition. Oa the f).and a part of the W. shore of Lake Michigan the positions of points needed for the maps were obtained by carrying lines of azimuths and lati- tudes southward from known points, the longitudes being computed from their azimuths and latitude.-*. The field- work for Lakes Superior, Huron, Michijyan. St. Clair, and about one-half of Ontario, for the rivers St. Mary, St. Clair, Detroit, St. Lawrence, is now {July 1, 1.S75) completed. Lake Erie remains to be done. Forty-two charts, on scales varying from 55^0*^ ^** ^nihna^^t have been published, and about GUOO are issued innually. The pressure for the gen- eral charts (scale loo^iifjth) has been so great that few of the shore-charts ou a larger scale have yol been published. The primary triangulatiou is completed from Duluth to Chicagt), a distance, measured along its a.\is, of 700 miles, and depends on four bases, of which one is yet to be measured. When the triangulatiou at Chicago is con- nected with that of Lakes Erie and Ontario, the length of the chain wilt be increased to 1300 miles, with three more bases, of which one is measured. Incidentally, this triangulatiou will give an arc of the meridian running N. from Chicago for 4.')0 miles, an arc of a parallel running W. fri>m the E. end of Lake Ontario for (KM) miles, and an ob- lique arc from the same point to Duluth, 800 miles long. These, in connection with those of the Coast Survey, will, in combination with the long European antl Indiau arcs, finally give a more precise determination of the form and dimensions of the earth, which, so far as this continent is concerned, now depends on the Peruvian arc, a short one, and therefore of little value. As connected with the lake survoy, determinations of the magnetic elements are made at various points, the heights of the lakes above the sea are being determined, and their fluctuations arc observed. The existence of solar and lunar tides in Lakes .Michigan and Su])eriur has been established, and their values determined. Aid has been rendered to tho State surveys of Michigan and Wisconsin, and the positions of many hundreds of points near the lakes have been pre- cisely determined, wliich will servo as starting-points for State surveys in all the future. C. B. Comstock. linKo'tnn, tji. of Muskegon co., Mich., on Lakes Mus- kegon aii.l Michigan. Pop. 1039. Lnkc'town, tp. of Allegan co., Mich., on Lake Mich- igan. P*»p. t'ifio, Lnketowii) post-v. and tp. of Car\*or co., Minn. Pnp. lo:t'.t. liake Viil'loy, post-tp., El Dorado co., Cal. Pop. 246. Lake Vnlley^ tp. of Douglas co., Nev. Pop. 11. Lake View, jiost-tp. of Cook eo.. III., on Lnko Mich- igan, is eonliguouM to Chicago on the X. It contains many fine suburban residences, and a marine hospital, and is the sitcof several beautiful cemeteries. Pop. |SU. liako Viria^c, post-r,, cap. of Chicot co.. Ark., on Old lUver Lake, part of a former channel of the Mississippi Kiver. Lake Village, post-v. of Belknap co., N. II., at tho outlet of Lakr- Wiiinlpi.''eogee in (iilford and Laconia tps., on tho Boston Concord and Montreal H. U.. 27 miles X. of Concord. It has I churches, 1 hotel, 1 weekly newspaper, railroad repair-shops, several hosiery-mills, foundry and machine-shops. Pop. in village liinils, ubnul !il'>OI1, M. A. IIavnis, Plu. " Laki: Vii.LAr.i: Timi:h." Lakevi lie, post-v. ofSalishurytp., Litchfield CO., Conn., 6 niile^ E. of Millerton, N. Y. It is a romantic place of summer resort, is t)i<> snit of the Cnnnceticut institution for feeble-minded children, and has a public library. Imkeville, post-v. and tp. of Plymouth co., Mass., .1ft miles S. of Bnslnn. It is traversed by the Old Colony and Newport and the Tounton and New Bedfonl B. lis., con- tains several beautiful lakes, large forests and valuable granite ledges, and has 2 churches and a publio library. Pnp. IJ.V.l. Lakevillo, tp. of Dakota co., Minn. Pop. 7S0. Lakevillc, post-v. of Livonia tp., Livingston co., N. Y., at the toot of Cunesus Lake. It has i cliurehoa. Pop. Ii'.n. Lnkeville Plantation, tp. of Penobscot co., Mo. Pop. I Its. Lak-Nugy, town of Hungary, on the Marog, has 1IJ112 inhabitants, mostly engaged in agriculture and tho rearing of cattle and p<»ultry. Laksh'mi, a goddess of the Hindu Pantheon. Through- out the whole range of Oriental mythology no creation is to be met with more pleasing than that of Lakshmi. at once the Ceres and the Venus of India, the bride of the Preserver Vishnu, who sprang in the full perfection of maidenly beauty from the foam of the sea, as Homer and Hesiod sing of Aphrodite. According to the Viehuit Purann, " Tho goddess S'ri, seated on a full-|jlown lotus, and holding a water-lily in her hand, radiant with beauty, rose from tho waves. The great sages, enraptured, hymned her with vo- tive song. ViHirnntHH and the celestial choirs sang before her, whilst (jfnrturhi and the heavenly nymphs danced. The Ganges and other holy rivers followed her, attending on her ablutions. The elephant of the skies, taking up pure waters in vases of gold, poured them over the god- dess, the queen of the universal world," etc. Lak^hmi, it has been observed, is also represented as the counter- part of Vishnu, the beneficent protector and preserver. Vishnu is meaning, Lakshmi is speech. She is intellect, he is understanding. He is righteousness, she is devotion. He is Creator, she is creation. He is the male energy, she is the female, and .SVf/,ff of Vishnu. (SeeSAKTi.) Her com- plexion of ekin is delicate saftVon. Her attendant, like that of Minerva, is the owl. This is a curious circum- stance, but difficult of satisfactory exjilanatinn. The sim- ple fact appears to be that Lak^limi has always been such a popular deity in Hindustan that gradually her true cha- racter was lust sight uf. and the attributes and attendant emblems of other divinities were ascribed to her. Tlius, some Hindus have confcmnded her with Saras wuti, tho true goddess of learning of the East, who as such might, like Minerva, be (itiy attended upon by the owl. How- ever, in the early times of the epic period of Sanskrit lit- erature Lakshmi was simply known as the queen of loveli- ness and good-luek, also called Ptnlma, S'ri, Kamiila, Va- rtthiy rtc. (See Sir William Jones's Uifmn to Luktthmi, wherein she is addressed as "the world's great mother.") Hindus, when they perform solemn obsequies in honor of deceased ancestors, almost invariably invoke the consort of the Preserver. As the goddess of fertility she is widely worshipped by agricultural laborers. Balfour states: "The Maliratta cultivators are attentive to her worship, and when tho rufj/ii crops are well above the ground they jiroceed to their fields, where they place five stones round a trie, un which they set pots of vermilion and some wheaten fiour, which they worship us the Puurh-Pumlu." In all of the ordinary worship paid to Lakshmi throughout India it is suflicicnt to state that the ceremony principally consists of offerings of liuwers and grain. The goddess is a very favorite subject of Hindu art. In painting and sculpture she is represented as a very young girl, with the full breasts of a mature matron, thus ty]iifying budding beauty eon- joined with full fertility. She is frequently represented as reclining at the feet of Vishnu. A huge lotus supports them as they ride upon the silver foam of the churned ocean of milk. K. C. Cai.pw km,. Lalande% dc (Joskimi Jcrome \.v. Fran(;ais), h. at IJourg-en-Bresse. department of Ain, July II. 17;t^; edu- cated at Lyons by the Jesuits; at Paris studied mathe- matics and astronomy, and in 17^1 was sent to Berlin to make observations complementary to those made by La Caillc at the Cajic of (ioo-l Hope concerning the distance between the earth and the moon. In 1702 was appointed professor of astronomy at the ColIC-gc do France, and direc- tor of tho observatory of Paris. He cumlueted the i'tunuuK- tianrc (Ic IVtnpH from 1700 to 177.'», and from 1701 till bis death. His leelures were exceedingly attractive, not only to the student, but to educated people in general, and his success in diff'using astronomical kuowledgo and interest was very renmrkahle. His most prominent writings are TntitS (i'AMtnmumiv (2 vols., 17fll), Ahr/iji tic Xmi'./k/iom (171(3), AxtroiKwn'f rfcif I)m>ic» (17S5). D. Apr. 4, ISO". Lnleniant'(CiiAiii.Ks). b. in Franco Nov. 17, 15S7; ho- eanie a Jesuit in 1007: went to Canada iu 1625 as superior of the niinsions: opened Ibe first schoid in Quebec in iO!JI ; attended Champlain on his deathbed ; returned to France in It'i.tS; became rector of colleges of his order at Boiun, La Fl^ehe, ami Paris, and viee-provincial. D. at Paris Nov. IS, ll'>7 I. He wrote several letters on the missions of Canada, reprinted at Albany in IS70. — His brother JriioBti: ( 160;!-lfi7.'') was superior of (ho Canadian missions 1011- 50, and again for several years from 1059, nnd wrote fl vol- ume>' of the Jtnuit livhuhtuH. — His nephew (lAluiiKl,, b. lOlO, a missionary to tho Hurons, was put to death by tor- ture by the Iroquois Mar. 17, lOIO. Lali'tn-l*atanS town of Nepnul, Northern Hindostan, It has mauy clvgaut buildings. Ptip. 21,000. 1614 ^ Lallemand' ( Gen. CnAni.ES Fn.tN90is Astoise) BAno.s, b. at Me-U June 2:1. U74; entered the army in 1 , U- ; dis- L-4LLEMAND— LAMAISM. l>. at iMi-u June -■■', 11 n, K.I.V.V.. . — . ■"■■ - ;, . , tiuguishcl himself in the cami-uigns in tgypt, P<"-"'K^ _ Prussia. .Spain, and Russia: was briga.l.er and baron m 1811 and was made lieutenant-general and member "I tne chamber of peers on .Napoleon's return from IClba. He ac- \ compauied the etnperor in the Water 00 ean.pa.gn an was sent as oomn.issoner to Capt. .Ma.tland to treat for h.s surrender to the English navy, lie was sent ■> I"-;;™" '» Malta, and on his release went to Turkey. Pers a, and E-ypt in an unsuccessful search for en.idoyment, a ter which ho made his way to the f. S.. where he proposed to . found a colony of French imperialist refugees. A hrst at- tempt htvd already been .na.le in Alabama but as .proved a failure, he, with his brother. Baron Ilenr. Lallemand, located a Vh,,,,,,, d:Uilc on tha Trinity K.ver >" 1«";. then bdoncing to Me.ueo. where in 1.S17 he 1''^™ ''"J f colonists. Driven from Tc.as by the Span.sh autho t.es , in .Mexico. Lallemand an,l his cmpantons fell back upon ; the projector a colony in Alabama, and, aided by a bounti- 1 ful ubscription opened in Paris, lands were again ob- Uined and^he so'called »m;. or ™,.,o» of Marengo wa founded ou the banks of the Totnbigbee River. A city was laid out. and named E„.i!rr//I.-: the streets were denomi- , nated from the victories in which the refugees had partici- pated under Napoleon. Lallemand, however, took no per- , sonal part in the Marengo colony. After .Revising nmny wild i.roiects. he settled in Louisiana in 1S19, and opened acorrcspondence with Xapoleon, whom he proposed to carry awav from ,St. Helena. The cs-emperor, dymg >■> IS'21 bequeathed 11)0,000 francs to Lallemand. but the 1-rcnch government ojiposed obstacles to his receiving it on account of his bavins been tried and condemned to death in 1- ranee during his absence. In 1823 he fought in the Spanish war- went afterwards to Brussels; entered France without molestation; returned to the U. S., and established a snc- ccssful school in New York. After the revolution of U^..O. Lxllemand was restored to his military and political honors (!><■;■' 1 look his seat in the chamber of peers, and was lor two vears military commander in Corsica. D. in Pans Mar.'o. 1S39. , ^ I.nlly'-Tollendal' (Thomas AnTHt;n), Couxt, b. at Romans, in France, in Jan., 1702, of Irish descent, his father having come to Franco with James XL ; received a militarv education ; fought with distinclion at Kohl in l-r! ai Fontenov in 174:,, at Falkirk in 1741., and received in 17,-i7 the comiimnd of an expedition against the French possessions in the East Indies. He was very successful at first : conquered the Coromandel coast and laid siege to Madias, but being left unsupported by the other French commaiulers, he was compelled to surrender at Pondielierry in 17i;i and was brouibt to England as a prisoner. Uav- in.' hci'vdthat his personal enemies accused him of various crfmos. he went to Paris on parole and demanded a truTd. But bv infamous intrigues ho was thrown into the Baslile, and after nineteen months' imprisonment placed heforc a court, which, after a kind of mock trial, condemned lim, to death as a traitor and defaulter. He was executed May .1, 178ti Bv tlio indefatigable exertions of his son, Trophime (iSr.ard, supported by Voltaire, a revision of tJio proceed- ings was ordered in 1778, which ended with the complete reversion of the sentence. La'ma, or Llama, the Aurhcnin glama, a quadruped of the family Camelidie, an artiodactyl ungulate mammal of the Andes of South America. It is believed to be spe- cifically identical with the ^''^^--V" <"^"''/7 ;„„,,„ lama is domesticated, and employed as a beast of burden, though to a much smaller extent than in the age of the old Peruvian ineas. In fact, it is believed to be the only domestic animal known upon the American eont.nent before the advent of Europeans. The old Peruvians em- ployed immense numbers of lamas. Besides its use as a beast of burden, its flesh is eaten, though it is not big ily esteemed. Its wool is employed as a textile material, but is inferior to that of the alpaca. It is of brown or varie- gated color, slenderly built, and carries about 100 pounds. Lama, or Lamas ((JiiANnb See Lamaism, by Janet Tl<KKV. La'maism [from Thibetan tmnn, "priest" or "lord J, the nresent religion of Thibet, Mongolia, and a great part of Tartary, is Booddhism, modified by Sham.vsism and SivMSM (which sec), and containing some relies of the ancient Thibetan faith. Its chief characteristic is the wor- shii) of grand lamas, in whom Booddha is supposed to bo incarnate. These priest-gods are very numerous, every lamasery or monastery of note having one at its head, i he most important are: the yOyh-" Jth,-po-chhe. or IMn, Lnma, at Lhassa: the P.in-irhm Hin-pn-Mr, at bKra- Shiss-Lhun-po, in Further Thibet ; the U«mn Tnmba. at the lamasery of the Great Kouren, on the river Toula; the Tchanq-Kla-Fo, at Peking; and the &a-Dchu-Fo. at the foot of the Himalayas. After the grand lamas rank the l,hnlul.-ln>. or incarnations of celebrated Booddhis ic saiiils ; and next to these in the lamaio hierarchy come the k-hubil- '„han>. in whom dwell the souls of former patrons or lound- ers of lamaseries. The lower classes ol lamas are incarna- tions of nobody in partir-ular, and gain consideration only bv superior learning or talents ; among them, therelore, aro found scholars, scribes, artists, physicians and sorcerers (which two terms are in Tartary frequently synonymous), praver-makers. and artisans. Tbey form a large proportion of the population— about one-third, according to SI. Huo. ■• In most Tartar families," says this writer, " all the sons except the eldest become lamas, an 1 at the age of seven enter a monastery as ch„hi. (novices or disciples) This «tate of things is favored by Chinese rulers, as it keeps down the population of Tartary ami Thibet, all classes of lamas being vowed to celibacy." The history of Tl |bV»" Booddhism mav, according to Csoma de Koros, be divided into two distinct periods. The first began in the seventh century A. c, when King Srong-Tsan-(^ianibo married two princesses from Nepaul and China. Both ladies brought to their new home images of Booddha and works on the Booddhistic faith, to which the king became a wi ling eon- j vert He encouraged the building of temples and colk-ges, I and sent to India his minister Thumi .'-Jcmbhota who there learned Sanskrit an.l arranged a Thibetan alphabet after Cashmerian characters. Srong-Tsaii-tJambo wrote a his- torical treatise on Booddhism, called .l/n.M-A»i»„. or The Hundred Thousand Precious Commandments, and obtained the name of a,..kr„„„w, (" wheel-turner,' or "e'fe" « or of doctrine"). Manv sacred works were tn.nslattd l.om the Sanskrit, and Booddhism continued to flourish until the close of the tenth century, when King Langtarnia or gLang- dar, opposed and nearly extirpated it. In the eleventh ceniurv it was revived by Atisha, hBromston. and other learned Thibetans, and from this second period cl"le» its division into sects. " Those persons who still adhere to the ancient forms of worship are called u,j,r,m,,p<,, and arc most numerous in the parts of Thibet nearest India. In the fourteenth century, Tsong-Kaba, a native of the province of Amdo, efl-ected a revolution in Thibetan Booddh- ism This reformer's birth was caused and accompanied bv miraculous circumstances. He came into the world with a'lon- white beard; his countenance was grave and majes- tic -he spot from' the moment of his birth, all his utter- anJes shiwing a knowledge of the my.^teries of existence. At the age of three years he desired to lend a religions life and his mother, favoring such early devotn.n, hersell cut off bis hair an.l flung it outside the tent. From it sprang a man ellous tree, having fragrant wood and .'e^^es in- scribed with sacred characters. Tsong-Kaba withdrew to ihe mountains, and spent his time in l-myer anJ eoiitem- plalion, but seldom returning to his i.arents ent. Dun g one of his visits thither he met a wandering aiua from tht West, who remained with him and instructed bim 111 re ig- ion. When the teacher died the pupil, eager tor lurther knowledge, travelled westward to seek it. and a last reached Thibet. There he was stopped by a spirit (//,<.). who told him that in that country he was destined to teach prayers and rites. Tsong-Kaba remained at this meeting-place, to wh e was given The name Lh.,-S,. (" land of spirits ), and Tm ledhimself to reform the worship of Booddha. Hega.ned a reputation for sanctity, and in spile of oppo.sitioti f om the priests of higher rank was joined by many '""'"f • ' " were called Yellow Caps to distinguish them Irom the Ked- Cap lamas, 0. adherei'.ts to the old forms The new sec soo*^, spread over all Thibet and Tartary. Its f""- ;■"■ '^•^;' in 1419 at the lamasery of Kaldan. near Lhassa, which he had established, and there, according to Lamaic belief, h s body still remains, unchanged in appearance and m.raca- ou^v supported above the earth. He '■>"'"-"; "-''"f,'^ of w'hich the most important is Lam-]l,m-T„e„.Ho (ibo "Progressive Path to Perfection"). The tttle of rO,p:lv„ J!in-po-Mf (" precious " or holy majeriv"). proper to the grand lama of Ti.bel was given " w ,r 1 the ?nd of the fifteenth century. The Mong>.ls call ,1 /M ,', or TM la,nn, by which name he " !^™^'f»'^ know to Europeans. His territorial power dates Iron lOW, when Nag-dva.ig-bLo-b7,aug-rgya-mtsho was made tem- por lord of Thibet by the Mongol conqueror of that country 'and China There has since then been a constant succession o? Dalai Lamas, none of whom has made any mark in h s- °orv These Thibetan sovereigns have no share in secdar business, which is transacted by a viceroy called ""'-J''"'' r"s iritual emperor ") and four ministers chosen from the am class The Dab i's office, like that of all other iv.ng Booddha^ is to sit cross-legged in his temple and silently rec I tl e ador..tio„ of .h?falthfal, towards whom he oc- cas onally extends bis hand "'.'"I'^rl^'bTv^onlv X; carnatc Booddha never dies. He quits his body only, alter LAMALINE— LAMAR. 1615 a brief period, to enter that of a young child. Therefore when a griinj lama depart? no grief is shown — merely an anxiety to know where he may be found in his new form. Sometimes ho tells this before his wiihdrawiil, ur after it sends a si;^n. whieh is interpreted by the augurs. He com- monly truiisniigrates in Thibet, so thut long ami dangerous journeys must ofd-n be undertaken in search of him. \Vhen the young living Bouddha has been found he must, before his recognition, answer many questions about the lamasery of which ho in his former state was head, and identify among various artieirs those belonging to the late grand lama. This examination, it would appear, is always passed with credit, which fact M. Hue, while owning thntdeception may sometimes bo used, gravely attributes to the possession of the child, not by Booddha. but by .Satan. The litdo grand lama having been joyfully acknowletiged. is con- ducted to his lamasery, where, placed upon an altar, he is worshipped by believers. The Diilai Lama is chosen by lot from three rhaberons or living Booddtias of tender age; at least such a form of election is gone through, but its re- sult is determined by the emperor of China or his mini^ter8. Like iho Thibetan sovereign, the living Booddha of a lama- sery has no real power, that being in the hands of anon- incarnate lama-chief, assisted bj* subordinate officers. A lamasery [dOon-pn) or monmtery is very unlike our idea of such an establishment. It consists of numerous houses or hnts built around a temple {Lhn-Khnutf, "spirit house"). The lamas have no common refectory, but live according to their wealth, which, as they arc not under vows of poverty, is sometimes considerable. Those who have reached a certain rank as theological scholars receive an allowance from tho emlowmcnt. Some arc paid liber- ally Ijy tho faithTul for their services as physicians, exor- cists, or intereess.irs for departed souls. Others engage in trade or transcribe the sat^red writings. Each lama has under him one or moro chabis, who ;iut as his servants, and arc instructed by him in religion and the Thibetan language, a knowledge of which is as necessary for a lama as that of Latin for a Human Catholic priest, or of Hebrew for a Jewish rabbi. Lamai temples are built in the Indo-Chinese style, and are profusely adorned with paintings and sculp- ture. Opposite the principal ontran-e is a broad flight of steps surmounted by an altar, upon which arefbo BooiMhic images. In front of the chief id >1, and hardly moro life- like than it, sits the living Booddha. Tho lamas are called to prayer by a blast blown upon a sca-shcM. They enter in prucesjion, bow before the incarnate Booddha, and place themselves in a circle according to tlioir ninl:. Tho service is chanted; a bell is rung at intervals, and there is loud and (to European ears) discordant music. Inecnao is used, tho most o.doomed being brought from Thibet, tho Holy Land of Lamaism. There the inr^aniato Booddbas trans- migrate; tho lamaseries there are largi-r and better endow- ed, tho lamas more learned than tUuso of Tartary and Mongolia. Besides tho ehnrmnnaf^ or monk-lama?, there are her- mits {ijalpim) who inhabit cells or eaves and spend their time in contemplation. Also a largo einss of wandering lamas, who travel from tenf to tent and from lamasery to lamasery, receiving evrry where a welcome as ready as that given in Kuropo to the itinerant friar« of the Middle Ages. I'Vmilo lamas, or nuns, form a part of tho Thibetan- Booddh- io sy»tem ; their number, however, is comparatively small. Cleri'^al assistance is not necessary at wcdilings and fune- rals, but the lamas arc generally employed to foretell tho most fortuimte day for a marriage ; to facilitate the passage of a ileparting fail an'l pray for its happy transmigration ; and to specify tho host manner for disposing of the dead. Cremation is u<*ual, but bodies are frequently exposed in lonely places, where they are devoured by beasts of prey. As a rule, Lnniaists are devoted to their religion, and give generously for the building of lamaseries and other ^^iou9 objects. They arc fond of going on pilgrimages to I >ly places, such a.^ Lhassa ; the lamasery of the Five Towers {Oit-Tn>/), near which Boocldha is said to dwell wi'hin a mountain : and Tsong-Kaba's birthplace, where is a famous lamiisery called Konna bourn ("Ten Thousand Images"). There grows tho tree sprung from the re- furmiir's hair, all efl"orts to propagate which have, says M. Hue, been unsuccessful. Penance forms a part of the pil- grim's duties. Tho more zealous penitents make tho cir- ouit of tho lamasery, prostrating themselves at each step, with their foreheads touching tho ground. Or they carry a heavy Ioa<l (if prayer-books, ami thus gain creilit for having repeated all the prayers therein contained. Lighter forms of penance are^walking round tho lamasery while telling tho beads of a rosary, or turning a wheel called rcArt-A'or ('* revolving prayer"). This devotional machine is usually a sort of barrel, moving u)ion an axis and in- scribed all over with lioorldhi-'tie petitions. The worship- per sets it going, and it turns pr.iyers for his benefit v.hile he pursues some more mundano occupation. The most com- mon ros try-prayer is that called the Maui, consisting of six syllables: "Om .\f'tiii Ptidnir Ifoiim" (**0h, the gem in the lotus I Amen"). According to Klaproth, this is tho Thibetan translation of a .Sanskrit formula brought from India by Thumi .Sombhola. Volumes have been written commenting on it, and ascribing to it various meanings. It probably expresses a desire to attain the gem perfection, and be ab- sorbed into Booddha, of whom the lotus is an emblem. Kvcn a casual student of Lamaism must observe the similarities between its ceremonial and that of Uoman Catholicism. These wure pointed out by M. Hue. for which frankness his interesting book was placed in the Index Es- punfatorltt>i. To account for them, he premised that the wandering lama, Tsong-Kaba's instructor, was in reality a Christian missionary. The canonical books of Tibet ex- ceed in length those of every other country. They are comprised in two collections, the Kan-^ur {hKnak-Iif/t/ttr), consisting of H^S volumes, containing 108;j distinct works ; and the Tan-jur {hnTti)i-h;fifiii') of '2'2ii volumes, each weigh- ing from four to live pounds in the Peking edition. A large proportion of both collections is translated from the San- skrit, but they contain also many original treatises by Thibetan and Tartar authors. (See Travdit, hy E. U. Hue; the works of Alexander Csoma de Kiiros; />/« Litniaittche Hiernrchir, K. Fr. Kfippeu ; UechcvchcH nnr Ich Lnmjucs TartarcH, P. A, Ilfiinusat.) Janet Tl'CKEY. Lamaline^ port of entry of Burin district. Newfound- land, 40 miles by land from Burin, situated on lowgrouinl, which is destitute of trees. Very large codfish are here taken. Pop. rJlO. Lamantiii. See Manatee. Laniar% county of Ala., once Sanford co. (which sec). Ijamar, county of N. Texas, bounded X. by the Ucd River. Area, lUlo square miles. It is b:itf jirairie and half timber-land, very fertile, producing tobacco, cotton, live-stock, and corn. Cap. Paris. Pop. 16,700. Lamarf post-tp. of Randolph co., Ala. Pop. fil". LamaTf post-v. and tp., cap. of Barton co.. Mo., 20 miles from Kansas line in an open prairie country; has a bank, a steam Houring-mill, a saw-mill, ?> chundies. 2 weekly newspapers. 3 hotels, a large graded school, etc. I'. H'l] I. Kdwarp Bt'i.i:[t,FOR Ens. '^Soith-west Missourian." Lamar, post-v. and tp. of Clinton co., Pa., 8 miles S. of Mill Hall. Pop. l."/Jl. Lamar (Lrcius Qiinti's CixciNXArrs), b. July 15, 1797; studied law at Judge Gould's Litehlicld schoi.I, Conn., the most funuius institution of the kind then in llic U. S. : admitted to tho bar, removed to Milledgcville. (Ja., in 1819, and soon attained hij^h position in his profession. Ho \vap chosen by the legislature to compile the statutes of the vState from IHIO to ISLMI. In 18;;o he was elevated to the circuit court bench. The duties of this oflice he discharged with great dignity and aliility; his decisions were ciin- siderod of tho highest authority, not only in Georgia, but in the adjoining States. Universally beloved and esteemed, 8urroun<led by a happy family, with the brightest prospecls of a high career, and without any known cause, he fell, iit his home in Milledgeville, by his own hand, on .Iu!y I, 1S."4, Without any collegiate training. Judge Lannir from boyliood was a lover of books, became distinguished for his attainments in hftlrM-httnn n.m\ for the classic purity of his composition, and in forensic eloquence stood among the first orators of his day. • A. H. SrfiiiiKNS. Lamar ( Lrrns QiiNTt^s Cincinnati-s), son of L. tj. C. Lamar, b. in .lasper co., Ga., in lS2f>; was educated and graduated at Kmory College, Oxford, Ga., with llie highest honors of that institution ; studied law, was admitted to the bar, and rose rapidly in his profession; subsequently moved to Mississippi, and settled at Oxford in that State; was elected to Congress in iSjft; was re-elected to Con- gress (tho 3t)lh), an<l resigned his seat in that body after Mississippi passed her ordinance of secession in ISill. At tho outbreak of tho war he accepted a colonelcy in the provisional army of the Confederate States, but was after- wards sent on a Kuropcan mission. On his entrance into Congress in 1>*.'>7. .Mr. Lamar tO(ik a very high position as a debater and orator. Beforo his retirement hestood among the first in iho House. In 1S72 he was ogiiin elected a memberof the House from Mississippi to the llJd Congress. In this body his position was amongst the foremost in logical argument, scbttlarly neomplishmcnts, ]iatriotii.' fer- vor, and forensic display. His .'Speech upon the death of Mr. Sumner was considered one of tho most eloquent over delivered upon the floor of the House. A. H. Steimikns. Lamar (MiRAHKAir B.), b. at Louisville, Ga., Aug. Ifi, 17l'S: became a merchant and planter; establi.-^hed in 1S28 a State Rights* newspap<'r, the ('nhi>iif>ni /in/iiirrr ; re- moved in 183j to Tc.\as, where he was distinguished at tho 1616 LAMARCK, DE— LAMAS. battle of San Jacinto ; became a major-general, attorney- general of Texas, and secretary of war : in 1^36 was chosen Vice-President, and wns (18;JS-41) President of Texas. In 184(i ho fought at Monterey and on the Comanche frontier. He wns appointed in IS.'>7 U. S. minister to the Argeutine Republic, and in 1868 to Costa llica and Nicaragua. I). at Richmond, Tex., Dec. lU, 1869. Lamarck% de (Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de JIunkt), CiiKVAMER. b. at liarcntin. France, Aug. 1. 1744 : studied at the Jesuits' College at Amiens : entered the army at the age of seventeen, serving in the Seven Years' war, and at it:i close devoted himself to medicine and physical S'jience at Paris, and in I"7t5 published a pni>cr on atmo- spheric vapors, followed by the Flore Fnturaise (1778). In 1770 he was chosen to the Academy of Sciences; became botanist of the Jardin du Roi 17SH; etlited the Dictiommire de Hutnniqne (15 vols., 1785) for Panckoucke's Encyrlo- pfdle Mtthodi<iHe, and was professor of zoology at the museum 1794-1818. His principal works are Si/Hfenic dea animaux 8(ni8 vertrhrea (1801); P/iifoS'iphitr Zoolngiqiie (1809), in which ho announced substantially what is now called the law of evolution, together with some rather fan- ciful speculations; H'lKtnirc natnreUe dfn atu'inanx sant vrr- tebrrs (1815-22); TabJenu eucyclnpfdlqtie de In Botaniqxie (1791-1823), and other works. D. at Paris Dec. 8, 1829. La Mard, tp. of Wayne co., 111. Pop. 1349. La Mar'mora (Albert), Couxt, elder brother of Al- fonso, b. at Turin in 1789; d. in 1863; received his mili- tary education at Fontainebleau, and in 1808 served in Calabria, then in Lombardy, afterwards in Austria; at Bautzen was decorated by the hand of Xapolcon I. ; fought at Leipsic ; was made prisoner at Torgau. and released only in time to join the Sardinian forces at Grenoble in 1814. Having taken part in the revolutionary movement of 1821, he was banished to Sardinia, where he spent nine years in studying the island, especially its geology. In 1820 ap- peared his first volume of statistics of Sardinia, rejirintcd at Paris in 1839. After traversing the island nineteen times, he described it minutely in a work which does him the greatest honor, and which may well servo as a model for the scientific illustration of any country. He was recalled in 1831 by Charles Albert, his military rank was raised, and he was made member of the Turin Academy of Sciences. In 1818 he went to Venice to assist Manin. After being named to the senate he was sent to Sardinia as royal com- missioner, and by his earnest an<l friendly councils he calmed tlie passions of the Separatist party. In 1857 ho publisbod the third and last volume of his Via<jgio in Sar- dinia. In 1S6U appeared his Itinerarto, La Marmora (Alfonso), Maiiqi'IS, b. at Turin in IS04, of an old and noble family; loft the military academy in 1823 with the rank of lieutenant of artillery; while in Ger- many in 1830 was greatly struck witli the Prussian military system; reported upon it with a view to the reform of the Piedmontese light artillery ; and on the accession of Charles Albert was entrusted with the formation of mounted batte- ries. In 1831, lia Marmora established a school for non-com- missioned artillery officers ami soldiers, and between that time and 1848 ho visited almost every country in Kurope for purp()ses of military study. He took an active and im- portant part in the battles of 1848; saved the life of the king in the insurrection at Milan ; was sent on a mission to Franco, and on his return was made minister of war. In I 1849 he was sent to Tuscany to restore the grand duke; then to Genoa to suppress the republican insurrecti(m there i — an event which he describes in his recent work. L'n Epi- ' aodio drl Hiaorgimenlo Italinno. In Oct., 1849, being again ! minister of war. ho established the system of obligatory instruction in tiie regiments, purged the army of incompc- i tent officers, reduced the number and improved the quality of the troops, enlarged the beraatjlieri c<irps, etc. In 1854 i he organized and took command of the 15.000 troops sent to the Crimea, led them to the victory of the Tchernaya.and returned to Piedmont to resume his post as minister of war. In 1859 he accompanied Victor Emnmnucl to the field, and after the peace of Villafranca ho became president of the ! council. In ISfil he was sent as minister to Prussia, where ' he biid the foundation of the Italo-Prussian nllianee, which he concluded in 18fifl, and by moans of which, notwitbsland- j ing the defeats of t"'ustoza and Lissa, Venice was restored | to Italy. Sent minister to Paris in I8(»7, and was governor of Rome in 1870-71. (See his Qmittrc IH'^rtn-ai, etc., and , Uii po di iuce.) D. at Florence, Italy, Jan. 5. 1S78, l.amarque' (Maximimev). CorsT, b. July 22, 1770, | at St. Sever, in the department of Landes: entered the army in 1791, and distinguished himself in Spain by the capture of Fuenterrabia in 1794. In 1801 he was made a i brigadier-general ; took part in the battle of Austerlitz ; ac- j companied Joachim .Murat to Naples in 1808; put down | the rebellions in Calabria; captured the island and fortress ! of Capri from the English, and was made a general of division. On his return from Elba, Napoleon made him governor of Paris, and later on he sent him to put down the insurrection in the Vendee, which task he fulfilled with as much forbearance as firmness. On the second return of the IJourbons he left France, being exempted from amuestv, and lived at .\msterdam, but was allowed to return in 1818. In 1828 he was elected a memljcr of the Chamber of Depu- ties, where he sided with the opposition, and exercised some influence by his peeuliar eloquence and disinterested character. D. at Paris June 1, 1832. His funeral, June 5, occasioned an insurrection in Paris, which cost many lives. Lamartine', post-v. and tp. of Fond du Lac co., Wis., 7 miles W. of Fond du Lac. Pop. 1367. Lamartine, dc (Alimionse Maiuk Lons), b. at Mi- con, Burgundy, Oct. 21, 1790 ; d. at Paris Feb. 28, 1869. His name is popular and classical, not only in France — where for nearly thirty years he held the sceptre of poetry, and during four months the sceptre of power — but also throughout the world, for his works wore translated into every language. Lamartine was for a iew months the real dictator of France, but he was a poctieal statesman, like Castelar of Spain, and no practical results came out from his tremendous political power. Still, he left as a states- man a memory as highly honored as his memory as a poet and historian is elevated and unsullied. He was brought up by his mother with a delicacy and tenderness of senti- ment which is reflected in the M''dtt'ttion», \hc first poetical production of Lamartine. After the first fait of Napoleon I., whose rigid and rough rule disagreed with Lamartine, he took service, being a nobleman by birth, in the body- guard of Louis XVIII. in 1814. When Napoleon camo back from Elba, Lamartine, instead of following Louis XVIII. to Ghent, travelled for four years in Italy and along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. In 1820 he published his first volumes of poetry, Lcs Mf'ditntious, Le I. fie, etc., more than 45,000 copies of which — a large num- ber for that time — wore immediately sold. Ho acted after- wards as attache to the French legation at Naples, London, and then as charge d'affaires in Tuscany, always thanks to the protection of Chateaubriand, who had become the ad- mirer and the friend of the young poet. A young English lady, possessed of a very large fortune, became at the same time enthusiastic of Lamartine, and he married her. In 1832 ho made his famous "journey in the East," the descri]ition of which he published under that title. From that time ( 1834) Lamartine, having been elected dejiuty to the French Assembly, divided his life between politics and literature. His Hiatortf of the Girondists, published in 1840, built up his reputation as a liberal; and in 1848 he acted as the leader of the ])rovisional government of the French re- public, in the capacity of minister for foreign affairs. But he was too much of an aristocratic gentleman, of a genuine f/rnnd aeit/nciir, not to oppose the daily increasing torrent of revolutionary passions. He had prevented France from adopting the red flag as its national banner by his eloquent apostroj)he to a Parisian deputatir)n: ''The red flag has (miy gone around the Cliam])^do i^Iars. while the tricolor has made the tour of Europe." After the insurrection of June, 1848, Lamartine sank entirely into political oblivion, and he retired into ])rivate life. But he had lost his poet- ical and literary strength ; he wrote hastily some works, with tho expectation that their sale would jiay up the tre- mendous debt which he had incurred, principally through a generosity of heart. But all bis efforts were fruitless to fill up the abyss; he lived almost in poverty, when in 18f>7 the Corps Li^gislatif voted him a large annuity, which softened his last days, for he died two years after having received this testimonial of the gratefulness of France to- wards one of her greatest poets, historians, and most hon- est statesmen. A public subscription was started after his death, and in 1871 a statue was erected to Lamartine near Mricon, at Milly, a village where he had spent his youth, and which he has so often celebrated in his books. To the list of his works already mentioned above can be added among the most remarkable Iliaton/ of the Revobtti'm of IS^S, The Coiifideueea, ToitHaaint L'Oitvertui-e, a drama, (I'oieviere, <7»-«siV//rt, and the numbers of two kinds of peri- odical reviews exclusively edited by him — Lr CniiMci/licr and Coiira Fainificr de Lift/^rattire. FtLix AucAlG.VE. La'mas (.Andres), b. at Montevideo, Uruguay, about 1817, received an excellent education in his native city, and at an early ago became distinguished both in literature and politics, founding tho Historical Institute of Monte- video, and filling euecessivcly several important offices. He was prefect of Montevideo during a portion of the cele- brated nine years' siege; minister of finance, nn<l sevoral times plenipotentiary to Brazil and Buenos Ayres to nego- tiate the most important concerns of the republic. It is, however, for his vast knowledge of South American history LAMB— LAMBRUSCHIXI. 1017 that bo is best known, bis private collections of manuacripta being perbnp:* (he must important materinls extant upon the subject, lie has published several vulumt-s uf a vast Collettioti of Mrmoirs tuid Docnmcnla rehitircto the Histortf and (ifographif of the Jiio de la Flata, and uumeroua poems and bisturical treatises. Lamb, tp. of Dickinson co., Kan. Pop. -162. Lamb Caroline). See Melbouuse. Lamb iCii.vhles), b. in London Feb. 18, 1775. His father, who was a servant to one of the benchers of the Inner Tcinpk*. had some literary taste and a rare fund of huuior, and was author of a small volume of verse. Charles was cduca(c<l at the school of Christ's Hospital from his seventh to his fifteenth year, Coleridge being a fellow-pupil an. I friend, and in 178'J obtained a L*ierkship in the South Sea House. In 17'J2 ho became an accountant in the office of the East India Company, and remained at this post until 182j, when he retired on a pension. There was a tendency to insanity in the family, which manifested itself in Charles for a short time in 179j» and in his sister Mary the next year, when she killed her mother with a knife. In 1707, Lamb printed a small volume of verses written )ty him- self, Coleridge, an'l Charles Lloyd. He devoted much at- tention to early Knj;lish literature; published in ISO" TaUa /itjtn Sba/:npc<irr, and in ISOS Specimens of Entjllnh Vrtxnuitic Puttn irho litrd about the time of Shakxpenre. Ho twice appeared as a dramatic author, having printed in ISOI a tragedy, John ]\'oodrif, and in 1800 a farce, Afr. II , which was brought out at Drury Lane. Neither of these plays had the slightest success, and the author wisely devotetl thereafter his occasional literary cffttrts to the field in which he is best known and njost universally appreciated. Several brilliant Eitafii/« appeared from time to time in Leigh Hunt's lirjlcctor (ISlU) and in other periodicals, but it was not until 1S20 that he began the EHHntfH of EUa in the London M'ltjosine. They wore collected in 1S2;1, and established his reputation as one of the most brilliant and thoughtful of humorists. In 1S,J3 ho added the Ln^t Esuayn of Elia. After his retirement in 1S2J from the drudgery of office-labor the remaining years of his life were passed in the companionship of a host of literary friends, to whom be was mueh attached. Among them were, besides Cole- ridge ami IJoyd. Southey, Wordsworth, Godwin, Talfourd, Procter, Leigh Hunt, Hazlitt, De Quinecy, and Hood, and their Wednesday evening sessions at Lamb's house in Inner Temple lane were for several years a markcl feature of lite- rary life in London. Lamb, though painfully moclest and somewhat hesitating in his speech, was an admirable enter- tainer, and his table-talk, of which fragments have been preserved by his biographers, abounds in the rarest wit. His sympathy with the literary labors of others, even in spheres far removed frotn his own, was an admirable trait of character, surpassed only by his absolute freedom from exclusiveness in regard to opinions, religious or philosoph- ical. His feeble and delicately strung physique was too susceptible to the effects r)f liquors and tobacco, which ho nevertheless craved, this bi-ing his only frailtj'. Ho was never married. 1). at Kdmonton Dec. 27, is;i4. An admi- rable biography and selection from his letters was pub- lished by T. N. Talfourd in IStO, and his F.'n>d Mrmorioh in 1S(S. The poems of Lamb, though graceful, were never popular, but his reputation rests securely upon his criti- cisms and the A'#»fi^« of EHa, acknowledged to bo one of the most exquisite volumes in the whole range of English literature. — .Makv Anne L.\mb, b. in London in 17t»j, sister of Charles, was a woman of considerable litt-rary tuk-nt, and took part in siirae of her brother's works, especially the TuUa from Shuktpeaie. She resided through life with Charles, who was tenderly attached to her; received a pension after his death from the East India Company, and d. at St. John's Wood May 20, 1S47. PouTEn C. Huss. Lamb (<lcn. John), b. in New York Jan. 1, K^t'i; aa- sistrl his father at the business of optician ami maker (»f mathematical instruments; took a distinguished part in Montgotnerv's expedition against Quebec, in which hi* was wovhuIlmI and taken prisoner ; beeamo major and cohmel of artillery under <len. Knox; and did good service through- out thu war. clo!<iiig liis cari'cr at Yorktown. lie was after- wards a member of the New York legislature, an«l was ap- pointed by Washington collector of customs for the p«)rt of Nrw York, which post ho hchl the remaintler of his life. 1>. in New York May .'JI, ISOO. (See Life of Lamh, by Leake. Albany. ls.">0,) Lamballe% de (Marie TriEui^sK Lot'isp. de Savoie- CAttii;\lN). I'lMNTESS. 1). at Turin Sept. S, 1710, iind mar- ried in 17fi7 the prince of Laml»alle, son of the duke of Uourbon-Penlhii'vre. who did next year. Petween Mario Antoinette and the princess, who was as much distinguished by her intelligence as by her beauty, arose a friendship which proved true to the last. When the royal family at- Vol. II.— 102 tempted to flee (May 29. 1791) the princess, who was mis- tress of the royal household, preceded them, but when the attempt failed returned from England to slay with the queen. whose humiliations and sufferings she shared with genuine heroism. Murdered in the massacre of Sept. 8, 1792. Lambaye'que, town of Peru, South America, on the Lauibayetjue. b miles from its mouth into the Pacitic, is bcaulifully situated and well built. It has manufactures of woollen and cotton fabrics, and carries on some trade, though its roadstead is over a mile distant from the shore, and very bad. Pop. 10,000. Lam'bert (Daniel), b. at Leicester, England. Mnr. l.*?, I7(tO ; was remarkable for his great size, and for some years exhibited himself to visitors in London and the large cities of England. Previous to the age of nineteen ho had not been noted for corjiulency, but owing perhaps to a seden- tary life as keeper of a prison, he attained in 17911 a weight of 44S pounrls. and ultimately 739 pounds. He was only 5 feet 11 inches in height, strictly temperate in habits, and distinguished for health, octivity. good-humor, and polished manners. D. at Stamford June 21, 1S09. Lambert (Johann Hkinimcii), b. Aug. 29, 172R, at Miilhausen in Alsace, in humble circumstances, but suc- ceeded by industry and perseverance in developing his nat- ural talent for mathematics and natural science; travelled much as jtrivate tutor to two young Swiss noblemen, and came in 17(')l to Herlin. where Kreileriek II. made him a member of the Academy of Science and superintendent of the Antronomical Almanac. His Photomvtria.aivide mennnra ct fjradihna hnninis colorum et vmhrtv (1760) contains the first scientific representation of the measurement of the in- tensity of light; and his /n»it/niur'H Orhitn- (\>metaruin I'roprirtatrn still occupies an hontirablc jdace in the history of astronomy. His metaphysical writing's, on the contrary, have become entirely forgotten. D. at Lcrlin Sept. 25, 1777. Lambert ffien. John), b. at Kirkby Malham<lale. York- shire, England, Sejit. 7, llilO; studied law. ami on theout- break of the great rebellir)n entered the Parliamentary army as cnptain under Lord Fairfax. Ho was conspicuous ill the ])rineipal battles of the war; was cohmel at Marston M<»or (1014) and major-general in the Scots war. (lO.'.U), in which he gained the actions of Hamilton and Inverkeilhing ; was appointed lord deputy of Ireland in 10J2; was o mem- ber of ('rom well's council and Parliament I UJ.")4) ; and aided Cromwell to become Protector, but opposed his assumption of 8<»vereign power in 16J7, refusing to take the oath of allegiance, and was dismissed from court with a pension. On the accession of Richard Cromwell in ICJS, Uen. Lam- bert headed the confederacy of military commanders which deposed that feeble ruler, and asjiired to the Protectorate. In May, 10.')9. he was chiefly instrumental in tlio reinstal- lation "of the '• Hump Parliament;" defeated the royalists at Chester in August, came into c(uifliet with and forcibly dispersed the Rump in October, thereby becoming head of thu committee of safety and virtual ruler of England. Lambert started with an army to oppose Monk (Nov.), but the troops deserting in great numbers, he was soon seized by order of i'arliainent 'Jan.. lllOtt) onil cast into the Tower, whence ho eseii)ied and reassembled forces against J^lonk; hut being captured a seconfl time, he was tried and eon- deinned to death (.lune, 10fj2) by the new court of king's bench under Charles II. His sentence was commuted to banishment, and he d. on the island of tiuernsey in 1092. l^am'bcrtville, postv. of West Amwell tp., Hunter- don CO., N. .1.. on the l>elaware Kiver and the Pelvidero division of the Pennsylvania R. R., II miles above Trenton, 44 miles from Philadelphia, and 71 from New York. It has .') churches, 2 weekly newspapers, .O hotels, 1 natioruil bunk, a rubber-factory, iron-foundry, railroad construelion and repair shops, a cotton. 2 paper. 2 spoke, and 2 twine mills, with exeelUMit water-power. INqi. ;{HI2. Hazkn a R.uiKUTs, Ens. and Piuh'S. of " Rkaoon." Lamb^HC, small town of Algeria, in the province of Constantino, is used by the French as a penal colony. It stands on the silo of the ancient LamhenHn; one of the most important cities of Numidia and the station of a Roman legion. Uuins of an nmpliitheatre. a tem]do of iEsculai)ius, and a niagtiilieent wall with forty gates are stUl extant. Lnm'brthf one of the suburbs of London, on the S. of the Thames, opposite Westminster, with which it is ccm- nected by the Waterloo. Westminster, and Vauxhall bridges. Pop. :t79,ll2. Lambeth Palace, an eilifieo of the Middle Ages, has been for evnturios the principal residence of Iho archbishops of Canterbury, and has a line library. LnmbrtiNchrni (Rakpaello), Aruk, b. at (ionoa in 17SS; d. in lS7;t; passed some years at Rome in the study of theology, after which the young abb/'- returned to his father, theii living in Tuscany, to devote himself to agricul- tural and philanthropic pursuits, going from time to time to 1618 LAMBTOX-LAMINARIA. Florence for the benefit of scientific lectures. At the age I of forty, Lambruschini published his first work— a work | which "proved him an cle-;aut, careful, and thoroughly in- structed writer, anxious to promote all real progress. The habit of training plants suggested to him the true metho<l of training men; Vieusseux entrusted to him the education of his nephew, and he afterwards established a boarding college for boys at his villa of San Carboui. In isati he took the direction of La (Jidda dclV Eilia-alore. In 1848 he, with Kicaaoli and Salvagnoli, wrote pulilical articles for La ratria. and was elected deputy to the Tuscan assembly. In ISJ'.I bo published his Lihii delta Edm-aziom; then his I)ialo.,lu mdla hlrnztoue, enlarged an.I reprinted in 18/1. In 185'J he was made in.spector-gcneral of the schools in Tuscany, afterwards of all the elementary schools of the kinu-.loin, besides being entrusted with the superintendence of tbe Istituto di Studii Superior!, in which he was professor. He was a member of the senate at the time of his death. Lamb'ton, county of Ontario. Canada, bounded on the N bv Lake Huron ami on the W. by the St. Clair Kiver. Vetrolcum is produced to some extent. The soil li? J'^jy fe-tile. The county is traversed by the Grand Trunk K. K. Cap. Sarnia. Pop. ;!1,U',I4. Laine'go, town of Portugtil, in the province of Beira. It is bcautitullv situated at the foot of the Penude Moun- tains, on an alflnent of the Douro, is surrounded by walls, has an ancient castle, an episcopal palace, a college, a fine Gothic cathedral, and many other ecclesiastical monuments. It has been the seat of a bishopric since tha fourth century, and was the residence of the early Moorish kings of Por- tugal. P"p. yooo. Lamellibranchiata, or Acephala (a class of mol- lusksi. ,*ce Coxciioi.oiiv, by G. W. Trvon, .Jr. Lamennais', de ( UrnrEsFKLiciTE RoBnitr), Abbe, b. June HI, 1782, at St. Malo, Bretagne : acquired very early, throu>'h passionate application to studies, a comprehensive knowFedge of theology, philosophy, and history; adopted, though only after some hesitation, the ecclesiastical career ; i received tlie tonsure in 1811, and took holy orders in 1817. | It struck him that lack of true religion was rtie real cause , of all the mental and nior.al troubles from which the age sufi'cred ; and although he move.l along through many and verv singular windings, and changed his standpoint and j allies more than once, at the bottom of all his different I views of the world lies the idea that the regeneration ol the time depends on a religi.ms revival. The first work in which he set forth his idea with full power was his Lmy siir ni,il:tr''mi<-e en MatilTe de Reliqiia, (4 vols.. 181 i-L'll), a brilliant apology for the Church and the monarchy hailed with enthusiasm bv the I'ltiamonlane clergy and the old- conservative statesnien, hut offensive to the (iallican party ; in the French Church, and hateful to all the different shades of dcmocracv and liberalism. It awakened a certain sus- picion however, even among its best friends. The monarchy w-is not based on its legitimacv. but on its usefulness to the j Church, and in the Church the highest authority was not | sought for in th.' infallibility of the pope, but in the universal [ consent of all Christians. In his next following works, ia Reliqlw, rnmiJerfe dan, /<■« Rapport, arec VUrdrc cud ct pa- \ //(.V;'ii«{2vols.. IS2J-2l))and/Voffr^»</f /t Itfmluiianflde la oJn-e r-.niirr r£,,l!K ( 1 82H ), this idealization of the existing Church and moiiarchy developed into a tendency towards reform of both; and after the July revolution in 18;iO he openly broke with the old monarchy, and tried in his journal, the \i-n,lr, to establish an alliance between the Church and the free constiluthm.al government. He was immediately denounced at Home, and the pope condemned in 18112 the views set forth in the Avndr. Nor was he accepted by the doctrinaires, who felt that his present staiidi>oint was only an intermediate station from which he soon would pass into radicalism. .At the first niiunent he submitted e<iinpletely to the papal condemnation ; the .4rrMii- was suspended. But after a veai's silence and meditation he ]uiblifbeil in lS,i4 his I'arid.t d'nn Crayant. which made an unexampled sen- sation : it ran through 1 On editions in a few years, and was translated into all Euiv.pean languages. The jiope con- demned it, and l.amennais answered by his -1;?"ir<-» rff Jlmne (18:!G). By these two books he broke absolutely with the Church, and in his subsequent works, Lr Llir,- dti J'enple (lS:i7), A\./.li««f d-iaif rhdannphir {?. vcds., 1841-4.1), JJc la Itellijinn (1841 ), Du I'aMf il de I'Arfnir dn I'eiijilr (\»42). he appeared as the apostle of the democracy, as the prophetic cxpouniler of the alliance between Christianity and radical- ism. In 184'J he was a member of the Constituent Assem- bly ; after the rr.n;) r/V(<i( he lived in absolute retirement. D. Feb. 27, lSi4. In accordance with his will, his corpse was brought to Pere la Chaise and deposited among the poor and unknown, without any funeral rites; not oven a, simple stone marks hia grave. Lamenta'tions, Book of, a canonical book of the Old Testament, following the book of Jeremiah, and gener- ally attributed to that prophet. Itconsists id" fivechuptcrs, each composed of twenty-two verses (except the third, which has sixtv-six), according to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, and is an acrostic, each verse begin- ning with a distinct letter. The contents arc. as indicated by the title, a series of dirges or threnodies upon the down- fall of Israel. Some have found the occasion of its com- position in the defeat of Josiah at Megiddo, and regard the references to the ruin of Jerusalem as prophetic; but the internal evidence is decisive that it must have been written after the event it commemorates. Little opposition has been made by modern critics to the tradition derived from the Sc].tuag"int text and supporteil by the Talmud, which refers its authorship to Jeremiah, treating it as an appendix to the prophecies. Lameth', de (Alexandre TniononE Virionl, Cohxt, b. at Paris Oct. 28, 17G0. desccndi d from a noble family of Pieardy ; was one of three brothers who figured largely in French politics during and subsequent to the Revolution, after having rendered services in the American war of in- dcpcnilencc on the staff of Count Uochambeau. Alexandre became a colonel in 1 78;'i, and was elected a deputy to the States General in 178il, taking an active part in the destruc- tion of the privileges of the nobility and clergy. He was chosen president of the National Assembly Nov. 20, 17110; afforded protection to Louis XVI.; tendered him counsels which were disregarded; was a member of the constitutional committee; had frequent conflicts with Mirabeau, and op- posed Robespierre and the Jacobins. On the outbreak of war with Austria (17112), Lameth served as field-marshal in the army of the North ; was accused by the Assembly (Aug. 10). together with La Fayette ; escaped from France, was seized by the Austrians, and imprisoned three years at Magdeburg; repaired to England in 179.'); \vtis well re- ceived by Fox and the Whigs, but being ordered by Pitt to leave the country, joined his brother Charles at Hamburg, opening there a eoniniereial house. Under the eo: and empire Lameth was prefect of several depart • . . .■ . _ » 1 1... T i.xlD \ \ I Under the consulate nieuts ; was appointed lieutenant-general by Louis XVIII. in 1814 and during his reign was for four sessions a leader of the opposition in the Chamber of Deputies. Lameth wrote much on ].olitics, his most important work being ILitlone dc I'Agncnddi'c conalilnanle (2 vols., 1828-29). I^aineth, de (Charles Malo Fras(,-ois), Count, b. at Paris Oct. 0, 1757, brother of Alexandre ; served as captain on the staff of Count Rochambcau in the American Revo- lutionary war : was wimuded at the capture of a Bnlish redoubt "at Yorktown, and promoted to be colonel. During the Revolution his career was singularly parallel to that of his brother Alexandre; like him, be was at one time (Julv.i 1791) ch.isen presiilent of the National Assembly, served ks field-marshal, had to flee after the events of Aug. 10 1792. and .settled at Hamburg. From 1809 to l.-^ll ho served in the army under Napoleon, obtaining the rank of lieutenant-general. After the Restoration he lived in pri- vacy until elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1829 : eo- ope"rated in the revolution of 1830, and d. at Paris Dec. 28, is:i2— His elder brother, CoiST Theodore, b. at Pans June 24 17;'ifi, also served in America, was a deputy and a field-marshal, but took little part in |,olitics. lie wrote a biogra].by of his celebrated brothers, whom bo survived many year.*. D. at Busagny Oct. 19, 1854. I.a Mottrie', dc (Jiliex Okkray). b. at St. Malo Dec. ■^ > 1701) ; studied medicine, and was appointed physician in The urmv of the duke of Gramont, but was disebargid on account of his llhlalye nam,; lie de /■.l«,r(tbe Hague. 17 l.i), which lio.d^ was luiblic Iv burnt f.ir its materialism and athe- ism After the publication of La fahtd/ue dn Mfdenn de MncldarrI (Amsterdam, 174fii he was compelled to leave France and sought refuge in HolUand, but he was expelled also from this country on account of his /.-. Eoenlte etnjee (1747) and i: llaniin, .maehine ( Levden, 1748). He removed to Berlin ..11 the invitation of Frederick II.. with whom he lived in great inumaey. Here he wrote /.7/..«mc-;,,,„(e (1748), An dejauir. etc., and d. suddenly Nov. 11. li.'l, from over-eating. Frederick II. wrote his (h„je ; \ <.ltaue called him a-fooir and this different impression which his writings made on his time gives them a certain histori- cal interest ; else they are entirely destitute of scientific or literarv value. 1 I.ainina'ria [Lat.], a genus of seaweeds, of which L. ! dddlala. I,ullj,„a. and nae.harlna. all deep-sea plants are ,,r"ii;ed in Europe for the rich supply of iodine aflorded by them when burned as kelp. The stem of Lam.nuna ,1,./,- laia (sea-tangle, girdle) is manufactured into bougies and uterine tents for surgeons' use. In some cases these tents are superior to tents of compressed sponge. It is reniarK- ablc that the sea-tangle of the American coasts, specifically identical with that of Europe, is unfit for this use. LA MINE— LAMP. itjiy LaMine,|>09t-r. and Ip. or Cooper CO., Mo., oo La Mine | River, 7 miles W. of Bouneville. Pop. 1088. | Lam'ina!* Uay, the festival of St. Peter's chains (Aug. IJ, probably so called because it was an ancient practice on this day to make an offering of bread a« the first fruits of the year ; henco *• loaf-mass," corrupted to Lammas. I.am'mcrgeyer [<icr.. ".lumb-vulture"}, called also Grillon and Bearded Vulture, the (Jiipnfim, burba- tut, one of the lar;:est. perhaps (ho largest, of the birds of prey (since the condor has by recen( au(hors been described as rather inferior to the lammcrgeyer in size), an dld-World bird, a vulture in anatomy, but an eagle in habits, rarely feeiling upon carrion. It is a strong and bold hunter, some- titnes reaching ten feet in expanse of wing. Lammermoors', a range of hills. 1732 feet high, form- ing the boundary between East Lothian and Kerwickshire, Scotland, and covering the south-eastern part of the latter county, where it presents a bold, rocky, and dangerous coast to the Xorih .Sea. Lam'nidie [from Lamna. the typical genus, and -iV/jc], a family of sharks, with a fusiform body ; the caudal fin with the lower lobe a little s[aallcr than the upper: with a keel on each side of the tail ; and two dorsal fins, the first of which is behind the pectorals. Head with a pointed snout: mouth large, inferior; teeth large: the nostrils not confluent with the mouth: the spiracles obsolete or entirely wanting: the branchial apertures very wide. The family thus defined e[ubracc3 several genera, including the nmck- ercl shark and the formidable "man-eater" of the Amer- ican waters. The row of teeth on the upper jaw in all these forms exhibits a break a short distance from (he symphysis on each side, where the teeth are much smaller than the others. Two well-defined groups represent the family — viz. Laranai. in which the teeth are lanceolate or siginyidally curved, and not serrated ; and Carcharodontcs, in which the teoth are triangular and serrated. The two groups arc represented in the .Vtlautic as well as Pacific waters of North America, the .\tlantic species being Imiroptii Oekai/i and C'irckamluii Alu-fmdi. The family was well repre- sented in past geological epochs, and enormous toctn of Cuiclmr,„lnn are found in Tertiary beds. Theouore Gill. Lamoille', county of N. Vermont. Area, 450 square miles. It is quite mountainous, but generally very fertile, atlording fine pasturage. Cattle, grain, wool, potatoes, hay, and dairy products are the agricultural staples. Lumber, leather, and starch are manufactured. The county is trav- ersed by the Lamoille Kiver and by the Portland and Og- dcnsburg K. R. Cap. Hyde Park. Pop. 12,-148. Lamoille, post-tp. of Bureau co.. III. Pop. 1408. Lamoille River rises in the mountains of Vermont, and Hows westward into Lake Chaniplain, through La- moille. Franklin, and Chiltenrlen cos. It furnishes exten- sive water-power. Lamoille Valley, a v. of Elko co., Ncv. Pop. 134. 1,11 .Moin, tp. of MeDonough co., III. Pop. 1107. Lainiiine', post-tp. of Hancock co., Me., on the sea- c<iast, .\. of .\It. Desert Island. Pop. 612. Ijamont', post-v. of tjttawaco., Mich., on Graml Uiver. Lamoute', post-v. of LIk Fork tp., Pettis co., Mo., on the .Missouri Pacific R. R. Po|i. 1S4. Lamoriciere, ile (rntiisTopiii-: Locis L£on), b. at Nantes Feb. li, ISOti; was a pupil of the Polytechnic ."^chool ; entered the army, took part in the campaigns against the Arabs of Algeria, and captured Abd-el-Kader in 1847. After the revolution of Feb., 1818, he was elected repre- sentative in the National .Assembly, and as a general fought a:;ainsl (lie Paris insurgen(s. .\s soon as they were defeat- el he was appointed minister of war .lune 28. 1848, but re- signed on the election of Louis Napoleon as President, and in the .\ssembly opposed the Itoiiupartist policy. On the night of the r-oii/j iVfl'il, Dec. 2, Is,, 1, he was sent as pris- oner to the fortress of Ham. and thence exiled from France. In |8(',0 be took the command of the jnipal troops, but was defeated at Castelfidardo by Victor Kinmanuel's generals. Ho returned to France, thanks to a pardioi already granted to him in 1867 by Napoleon III., and <l. in bis clitKeau of Prouscl near .Vmiens Sept. 10, ISGj. Fti.ix At caicse. Lnmotte', tp. of ."^anilac co., Mich. Pop. 04. Lainotte, de (Wvtoink HoinAnn). b. at Paris. France, in l'>72; studied in a .lesiiit college; obtained success in writing operas of the pastoral type, and also with four tragedies, on© of which, htfz ftf Canti-n (I72;i). has main- tained a place on the French stage. He became blind at the age of forty; was admitted to the .Vcadeniy in 1710; was dramatic censor, and was noted for the literary para- doxes he maintained in his critical essays. He wrote many fables, odes, and eclogues, depreciated Homer, and brought out an " improved end corrected " lllud in French verse. reduced to ten hooks, which involved him in a violent con- troversy with Madame Dacier. D. at Paris in 1731. His complete works form 10 vols. (17o4), Lamotte, de (Jf.avnf. nE Lcz nE Saint Remv peVa- I.OIS), CofXTESs. b. at Font^le. in Champagne, .Tuly 22, 1766, of a noble but degenerated family; educated by the countess of Boulainvilliers. and received a pension of Louis XV. on account of her descent from the house of Valois. .\ftcr marrying the count de Lamotte. a penniless ad\'en- turer. she settled in Paris aliont I 780. and soon began the in- trigue with Carclinal Rohan which has become famous under the name of the " necklace story." It ended with her convic- tion May M, 1785. She was whipped, brandeil, and put in theSalpetriere. In 1787 she escaped, came to London, and d. there .Vug. 2">. 1701. falling during a night-revel out of a wintlow. (Consult The Difimnnil Sfrklnvi' (Carlyle's) and Louis Blanc's HiMtnire de In lUrolution /niliruiMe, and Campardon's Marie Anloinette et Ic Poifg du Collier (1864).) Lamoure', county of E. Central Dakota, traversed by the Dakiita River. .Airea. 1800 square miles. It is almost entirely uninhabited by white men. Lamp [Fr. lampe; Lat. hnnpnn; Or. Aa^Taf, from Aa^- ntLv, to "shine"]. Defined till within a few years as a receptacle for oil with a wick for illumination, the inven- tions of the past and present geucration have made it impossible to distinguish between the /nm/< properly so called and any other artificial means of giving light. Known to the Egyptians, Hebrews, and 11 reeks, lamps were originally simple flat vessels of oblong or round shape, at one end of which was a smalt handle, at the other a little projection with a hole forming a nozzle, and with a larger opening on the back anil in the centre into which the oil was poured. The oil used was generally veg- etable, but. .according to Pliny. sometiuKS of liquid bitu- men. These lamps, of terra coKa or metal, many of very elegant form, were placed on nr hung with chains to bronze candelabra. Tareutum and iEgina were famed for making the latter of great elegance. But though the ancients con- fined their ingenuity to the ornamentation of the lamp and its stand. Hero of .Alexandria (b. r. 221 ), in his Tnniis, i.n I'nenmaliet, details four inventions, by one of which "oil can be raised by water within its stand. " and by the other "raised by means of air." All the older lamps formed a crust on the wick, which was renioveil by :i needle or picker; none of them gave a good light, and the majority of the poorest persons of the younger generation, especially in our cities, have literally no idea of the limited artificial illumination, even of the rich, before the days of gas, cam- phcne. lard oil. and hydrocarbons. From the earliest times until within a century the lamp remained the same, consisting simply of oil and a wick in a receiver. In 1784, M. Ami Aigand (or, according to some, M. tjuinquct) produced an entire revolution in arti- ficial light by the invention of a liunier with a circular wick, the fiame being thus supplied with an outer and in- ner current of air. the eflfcct of which was increased by means of a glass chimney. Argand was also the inventor of the chimney itself as applied to other lamps. Soon after .\rgand. I'ctcr Kciri I 787 ) made the great invention — which was only fully developed of late by .\ronson — of raising the supply of oil by means of another fluid whose specific gravity is greater limn that of oil, this being generally salt in water. The principal inventions since his arc as follows : .John .Miles (1787) invented a portable carriage-lamp, also one with a reservoir on the same principle as "a birdcage waler-fountnin," and a burner of twisted wire. Th. II. Stokes (1787) patented a new and peculiar method of rais- ing oil in lamps to suoply the wick. and.!. Smcthursl ( 1701 ) anil .1. Lucas, with W. jiaylis (170.!). made ingeninus ap- plications of lenses to light. Eckhardt and Morion (17117) set forth a "method of making lamps and candlesticks by means of sliding pillars, so that Ihcy may be raised or eon- traoted." M. Carcel in 1708 invented a lamp in which the oil was raised by clockwork. This and Stokes's laiiip are the parents of the moderator lamp. Aliout seventy varieties of this or the pressure lamp have been iialeiited in England. A modification of the Carcel lamp known as the Diiicon was lung popular in .Vmerica. In 1810 an American named Wood wrote a singular novel, consisting of the adventures of a lady in search of a really good lamp, in which the successful end was the attainment of the Diaeon. .lames Sinclhurst and .Michael Paul ( 1802) pa(enled the register tube, air-lubes, and a reailily removable burner, wi(h re- flectors. Porter's "automaton " ( 1804) was very ingenious, "the lamp being suspended on an axis counterbalanced by a weight, so as to make it hang level when full and at an angle of 4.'>'^ when empty, so as to feeil itself evenly by the gradual ascent of the burners." (1. li. .Alcoek (1 8015 1 sup- plied oil by means of a piston and tube, also with n lube and syringe, which forced the oil up by compressed uir"ot 1620 LAMPASAS— LAMPBLACK. any heavier fluid than oil." Elizabeth Perr.vman (1809) invented an improved street and hall lamp. J. Smethurst (ISU ) offered several improvements, one of a spiral burner with screw- valve ; also tlic doublc-coue globe. Peter Du- rand ( ISl 1) attempted to "render illumination more soft and agreeable to the eye." Lord Cochrane (ISIS) invented lamps for burning the "spirit" or *'oil of tar," and made an jirrangement for allowing the direct rays of light to fall ]ii*riiendieularly ou the ground bcueath the tlame. •SaimiL'I Parker. Jr. (IS22), made the important impruvc- mcnt of lixing French chimneys upon burnerd by means of metal supports affixed to the turning adjuster of the lampwick. J. C. Haddau and J. Johnston (1838) invented an ingenious candie-Iamp with a spring, the candle being m:uU' without a wick, the wick being in a short tube above, up to which the candle rose as it melted. Robert Kcttie entered (I84o) an improved method of signalizing on sea or land with colored glass lamps, shades. a!id reflectors, also un excellent arrangement of reflectors for liglithouses. W. C. Wilkins (1S40) devised a number of inventions con- nected with raising oil by atmospheric pressure, with gas- burner.-i and heating gas. Robert Hesketh {1SJ2) claimed the invention of the combination reflector, also that of glass iu eorrusated sections, every alternate face being silvered. Edwin Whale (1Sj2) invented candle-lamps which did not require snuffing, and eandle-clooks. Abel Easton (1853) patented a self-generating gas-lamp, the gas being made from spirits of wine. Edward Maneire (1854) patented lamps in which the oil-reservoir was raised above the sur- face of the burner, and so placed that its inner surface acted as a reflector. Ed. Simons (185J) invented an ap- paratus for condensing and absorbing the smoke, etc. aris- ing from gas and other flames, and increasing the light. Theodulo Cavfi (18.'»G) suggested a "continual lamp" to burn twenty-four hours without requiring attention, by means of a ]>lunger and elastic India-rubber tube. John Maedooald (ISj(i) presented imjirovements for regulating the supply of oil to lamps, or of liquids of any kind for any useful ])urposes, by means of air-tubes and valves. Charles E. Ileinke (ISofi) contrived an improved apparatus for illuminating objects beneath the surface of the water, or lighting mines where explosive gases exist. This was an- other form of safety-lamp, originally invented by Dr. Clanny of Sunderland in 181.3, and perfected by Humphry Davy and George Stephenson in 1815, the former receiving all the credit of the invention. A much better lamp of tho same kind was patented by J. Roberts and George Upton ( 1827). A. V. Newton ( ISoO) made an improved construc- tion of lamp for burning hydrocarbons without the aid of the usual glass chimney. M. A. F. Mennous (1859) in- vented a very curious api>aratu8 for the distribution of heat as evolved by lamps, and tho application of it to heating and cooking. A. V. Newton (1860) suggested an improved lamp for burning hydrocarbons without a chim- ney ; and again, in the same year, for smokeless lamps, tho principle being that of a blower supplying enough oxygen to cause complete combustion, il. R. Fanshawe (ISG2) patented a submerged light, or reflect()rs for the purpose of alluring fish. Solomon and A.J.Grant (1804) invented several improvements in lamps for burning magnesium and other raetailie substances, the wire being fed by clockwork. AV. Ryder (ISlU) suggested burning ]iaraffin.etc. in lamps by means of an inconsumable metnfiko» wick or burner — 1. e. a wick of gliiss fibres in metal tubes. E. J. C. Welch (136.0) off'ercd an improved clockwork apparatus for sup- plying with a regular pressure air to burners <d" hydrocar- bons. W. B. Dalston (1885) improved an atmospheric- pressure lamp for burning hydrocarbons, in which tho oil was consumed in the form of gas. The apparatus com- prised an air-pump, a cup of alcohol, tubes, a copper coil or cylinder, and a regulator. C. Rahn (ISfij) invented an improvement for concentrating light, applicable to dental and other operations, by means of a combination of lenses. Giaeomo Felice Marehisto (1S65) recorded improvements in apparatus for obtaining light without danger of explo- sion, l)y the use of air which has been rendered influm- roable by aJmixture with the vapors of petroleum and other hydrocarbons. The apparatus consisted of a mechanical motor, a circular chamber and drum in compartments, with opening? for the inlet and outlet of air, the chamber being half filled with air, upon which the hydrocarbon floats. The count De Fontaine >l'>reiiu (ISfi.")) invented an illuminating apparatus for burning petroleum in the open air without the use of a chimney. Count de Mitreau also suggested a number of improvements in the Carcel or moderator lamps for burning mineral oils. Though elaborate and compli- cateil. his inventions arc ingenious ami suggestive. C. T. Mlillcr also made improvements for burning hydrocarbons an<l turpentine, by which atmospheric air was mingled witli the gas. It may be rcraarketl that the difficulty of distinguishing between inventions relative to lampi and those referring to general illumination does not appear be- fore so recent a period as 1865, when the introduction of petroleum into England greatly stimulated studies in all ])ractical methods of generating light. Thus, the apjta- ratus of William Clark ( IStJj) for lighting and beating, by comhiuing air and gas from hydrocarbons by means of a simple reservoir and tubes, with diaphragms of wire-gauze to prevent explosion, is as afpplioable to gasworks or cook- ing as to a hand-lamp. H. A. Bonneville (1805) invented a safety-lamp in which the flame must be extinguished be- fore the gauze cylinder can be removed. J. Maublanc (1S65) attempted what has since been perfected by J. Aronson — a kerosene lamp which can be lighted without removing the shade. The lorce of the old Hindoo proverb, that '* it is always dark under the lamp," was attempted to be removed in the same year by Levi Hewitt, who invented a contrivance to remedy tho inci>nvenience caused by the extensive shadow cast under ordinary illuminators, by means of horizontal burners of paraffin. D. Gallafent (1850) attempted to adapt the Argand principle to paraffin. Louis Pebyre (18(35) suggested an improved apparatus for burning hydrocarbon oils in the open air without a chim- ney. It consisted of a cap and two wick-tubes, the former having two air-holes in its top or sides, with an opening below, putting it in communication with the oil-vessel, tho wick-tubes extending above and below the cap. Eliz. Leiehenstadt (1860) patented an ingenious lamp for tho purpose of burning a mixture of crude benzole, camplior. and aconite root. Alexandre Mugnin (ISfiOi offered an improved lamp containing in a reservoir a sjinnge filled with petroleum, in which was a tube of wire-gauze through which a wiek passetl. This wick absorbed only the vapor of the petroleum, forming a gns-larap. William James Current (18G0) invented a system of telegraphing with colored lights, and devised a lamp fur the purpose. Charles Brown (1800) offered a very valuable invention for con- suming smoke from lamps. Edward Howard (1860) at- tempted to make a non-explosive lamp for all kinds of highly inflammable oils. The principle was ingenious, but the application was imperfect. (See Petroleum.) The chief improvements in lamps of late years have been, with few exceptions, modifications of the foregoing. It is remarkable that tho first specific invention of the kind ever made, that of Hero of Alexandria, in which the oil was raised by water, involves the pressure principle since developed as the mofhrator in nearly a hundred forms, the last of which is that of Joseph N. Aronson. applied to burning kerosene and other inflammable fluids, though it may be used for any oils. In this the reservoir and tube for oil are accompanied by another containing water, their connection being such that by the least deflection of the lamp from the perpendicular, the oil supply is cut off near the burning point. While burning, this lamp may be rolled on tho ground, upset, or reversed for any time, without danger. Its blaze is remarkably steady and clear, and from the great simplicity of its principle the lamp is not likely to get out of order. The gas-sunlight apparatus of R. G. Berford is intended to concentrate light for work or reading. It consists of a hemispherical cuj> made of glass, filled with water, and placed beneath a horizontal burner. It is especially adapted for reading, engraving, writing, or sowing. The lamp-burner of .1. Aronson (1875) is a sim- ple but effective invention by which a lamp may be lighted, trimmed, or filled even in the dark, without removing tho chimney, globe, or shade, the latter remaining stationary. Capt. Doty, an American, has invented a lamp for light- houses, signals, etc., wliich has been extensively adopted in France. The most important recent inventions in lamps are cliiefly American. Chahles G. Leland. Lampa'sas, county of Central Texas. Area, ^^b square miles. It is mostly rolling prairie, with some hills and fertile wooded valleys. It is bounded on the AV. by the Colorado Uiver. Live-stock and grain are staple prod- ucts. The county abounds in mineral springs. Cap. Lam- pasas. Pop. 1344. Lampasas, post-v., cap. of Lampasas co., Tex. It has I weekly newspaper. Lamp'black. This term is applied technically to car- bonaceous pulverulent matters deposited during the im- perfect fuliginous combustion of carburetted gases or va- pors, in the presence of inadequate supply of air or oxygen. The quality, both as regards fineness and color, for use in pigments, blacking, and printing inks, varies greatly with the materials burned in the manufacture and with tho methods employed. For the cheaper cotnmercial qualities the materials employeil are f/oit-tar, irnofl-t>t>-, petroleum, soft resinous woods like pine, pitrh, roniu. and even hitwin- 1IOU8 conJft. In making ordinary lampblack several quali- ties aro obtained at the same time in the same apparatus, bv means of the following arrangement, which is here de- LAM I'KRTICO— LANCASTER. 1G21 scribed in but a general wav : The fireplace is connected with the soot-chambers by means of a brickwork jrallery or horJEoutal flue at least 14 feet lonj;;, in which inferior tarrt/ materiiil tlfposits. A series of chiiiiibcr^ <»r c<»nfli'uscrs then usually fdlluws, in which the successive depot^its increase in fincnci'S and value successively. The la^t chamber has suspended over it a loose conical hooil, of coarse woollen material, through which the (lrau;;ht percolates, and which of course collects the finc!?t black of all. As the pores of this houd become clogged it is shaken or tnppc<I. Its con- tents arc reserved for fine printer's ink and similar uses. For special uses lampblacks of special kinds are some- times prepared from costly oils and resinous substances, for which extravagant prices are required. For instance, it is said that the finest tfeiiuhir India inks arc made of soot ob- tained by burning the costly material cnmphtir. It would appear as if the very finest blacks ought to bo now made very cheaply by proper manipulation of our cheap Ameri- can mineral oils. It is also stated that the natural gas of the gas-wells in different sections of the l*. S. may be con- verted into fine qualities of lampblack on a largo scale. Lampblack in crude form always contains some oily, tarry, or resinous matters, and sometimes, according to Ueicbenbach, a little naphthaline. Braconnot found in lampblack from resinous wood — Carbon 79.1 Moisture 8.0 Resin " 5.3 Tar 1.7 Ulmlne 0.5 Sulphate of ummuuia 3.3 with some other small impurities. When printer's inks or oil colors are to be prepared, these impurities are im- material, but when water-colors are wanted, as when to be ground with gum-water to make imitalion India inks, etc., the resinous and tarry matters must be removed before- hancl. This may be done by careful calcination, but not witimut detriment to the quality of the finer blacks. A better way, therefore, is to work into a paste with heated oi7 of vitriof, which chars and destroys the hydrorMirbon- accous matters. Thorough washing with water yioMs then a very superior material f^or India ink. IIknhv Wimitz. Lnmpcrti'co {Fi:ni:i,p:), b. at Viccnza in 183.'i, of a wealthy eouimercial family; received his earliest instruc- tion from his mother, a lady of intelligence and of a strong will: pursued his classical studies as a day pupil in the seminary of Vicenza: his other studies ])rcparatory to a legal course were pro«ecnted at lnjino. At this time he formed relations with Pnsini, Messcdaglia, and Luz/ati. In 1S.'>1 he published an article on the advantages which e<!onomical science may derive from poetry. In IHjD the Institute of Venice honored with a prize his memoir Sufft; fonitr>furuz*r (Ifl tnijlio ilrlV htmn (It Siifz. IHs other prin- cipal works are a memoir Ih N't I Vm « drlfr /)oftn'tie di Gian Alfirin Often; Sulla Stnti'tlicfi Teorica in tjenrrale e an Mcl- rhiorre dioin in pnrtirolnrr ; Shtdii tnlln Lctjinlnzione Minc- ffirift ; fntroduzi'ine ad iiii rorio ili Srt^nzri Evomtmicn ; II Litvoro. Since his twenty-first year he has continued to oc- cupy positions of the highest tru?t in his native town. In iHftft he was elected deputy to Parliament, was re-elocted in 1H(17. and was named to the senate by the minister Min- ghetii when ho hail Hcarceiy attained to the required age. linmporcc'chio, town of Italy, in the province of Florence. It contains a remarkable work of Luca dclla Uobbia, and is known as the birthplace of Berni, the au- thor of Orlando finminorata. Pop. «2V3. linm^prey, or Ijampcr Eel^ the common name of the l'etromy/.onti<lji'. cartilaginous fishes of the grou]* Hy- peroartia, class Marsipobranchii, having an eel-like body, a round sucking nmuth with numerous teeth, and having seven round gill-holcw on eiudi side of the neck. Europe has two abundant species, the /*rfiunn/Z'ni nxiniiu^ and Lantprtrn Jliirintilin; the V. S. have a number of species, among which arc /*. AiiiTirdntiti, very nearly related to the P. mariniii, and species of Lniiifi'trti and nerirly allied gen- era. They arc prized as food by some. The lampreys arc represented in Australia by (he jioiieheil lamprey ((t'mtria Afnttnthm), which has an enormous pouch upon the throat. l.'^ee Pi:tiu)«vzontii».i;.) TiiKoimiu: (Jii.i,. I^nmprid'idir [from Lumpri», the type (»f the family, and -idtr], ri family of ueanthopteroun tcle<»erpbalnn«i fishes of the mackerel gniuji. ebanu*teri7.»'d by the much com- prcHscil body, small deciduous scaleo, smiill mouth, abi4cnoe of teeth in adultx, six branehioHtegal rays, long undivided dorsals, multiradiate thoracic ventral finn, nuntorous pyloric cncca. and large posteriorly-bifurcate air-bladder. A single genus ( Laniprit) i.-* known, whose representatives (probably Iwlonging to but one species, the O/nth or A. litiifi) are found in the northern Atlantic and Mediterronean. The A. /una has been reconled as an inhabitant of the onslern American coast, but is doubtless a mere straggler. Tmkoikiki: (Jill. Lamprid'ius (iSuus), one of the Scriptoret Niston'ie AufftiHtir, lived at the time of Constantine the Great. Four biographies are inscribed with his name — namely, those of Commodus, Antoninus Diadunienus, Elagabalus, and Alex- ander Severus — but there is good evidence, both internal and external, for bis identity with ./Klius Spartianus, to whom the biographies of Iladrianus, Verus, Julianus, Severus, Piscennius Niger, and (leta are ascribed, Lamp'sacUM [.Vafi^a»eo«], a (Ircek city on the Helles- pont, in Mysia, 4)ppo!-itc C'allipolls, was anciently called Pityusa, and was famous for its wine and its phallic-wur- ship. Near its site stands the village of Lamsaki. Lamp^^shelly a name ai)plie(l in a largo sense to all the HuAciiioroDA (which see), but especially to those of the family Tk- REBnATri.iii.K (which see). The valves are united, and the pedicle for attachment passes out through a foramen of the projecting one. as tho wick passed out of an ancient lamp ; hence the name. Shells of several species of niollusks are also used as lamps (as the Fnsna anttqnus in Shetland). Theokohe (iiLL. Lamp'son (Sir Cruris Miranda), Baut., b. in Ver- mont Kept. 21, ISfllj; went in 1S;J0 to England, where he was naturalized in 1848: became a wealthy merchant of London, a Hudson's Bay director, a trustee of the Pcabody fund, and rendered important services in laying the Atlan- tic cable, for which in ISOli be was made a baronet. He is deputy governor of the Hudson's Buy Company. Lamps, Safety. See Safctv Lami*s, by Mns. S. B. Hehuuk. Lan^ark, town of Scotland, the capital of the county of Lanarkshire. The beautiful scenery in its vicinity at- tracts many tourists. Pop. 6099. Lanark) county of Ontario, Canada. Area, 1180 square miles. It is traversed by the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Railway. It abounds in lakes and streams. There are two ridings. Cap. Perth. Pop. ."jI^OUO. Lanark, i)ost-v. of Ilock Creek tp., Carroll co., HI., 21 miles S. W. of Frceport. on tiie Western Union R. II., hiiw 1 national bank, I weekly newspaper, fi churches, 2 hotels. several warehouses and elevators, 24 stores, and a flouring- mill. Pop. 972. J. R. Howi.ett, Ei>, ''Gazette." Lanark, tp. of Portage co., Wis. Pop. 471. Ijun'arkshirc, or Clydrsdale, county of Scotland, comprising the upper basin <>[' the Clyde, between Edin- burghshire on tlu! E. and Ayr and Renfrew on the W. Area, 889 square miles, of which only one-half is under cultivation. Pop. 70r>,279. Along tho Clyde the surface is level and well adapted to agriculture, but the southern part is mountainous and the soil nferile. It is rich, h<iw- evcr, in coal, iron, and lead — richer perhaps than any oilier region in (ireat Britain ; 160 collieries and Li iron- works are worked, and 90 furnaces in blast. Almost every kind of manufacture is carried on in or abont (iLAscow (which see). Lanc'ashire, or Lancastorshire, county of Eng- land, liurdering on the Irish Sen. Area, 1905 j-quare miles. Pop. 2.818,904. Tho northern and western parts are cov- ered with ranges of hills which separate Lancashire from the county of York, and of which the highest point, Conis- ton Fell, is 2J77 feet. Tho rest is low and level, consisting <»f a sandy loam, watered by the Lune, Wyre, Mersey, and I Irwell, and generally fertile. Manufactures, however, and not agriculture, arc th'* chief interest of Lanca:shiri', and iis manufactures flepcnd mainly on its immense coal-beds, cov- ering nearly lOO square miles. Alth(»ugh almost everylbiug is manuliicturcd in or arouml Mancliestcr, Liverpool. Hinn- ilton, and Preston, yet c<»Iton goods form the principal item, and in I8tl0 no less than lil.'i.filiO persons were en- gaged in this branch of industry, consuming 2, .192, 000 bales of cotton and producing goods to the value of £80,000,000. Lanc'aHler, county of S.E. Nebraska. Area, 804 square miles. It has a highly fertile soil, productive of grain. The county contains several salt-basins which yield considerulile salt. There are also (|uarrics of fine building-stone. The c<<unty is traversed by Salt Creek, whose waters are braek- itih, and by the various railnuids centring ut Lincoln, tlio capital of the county and tStatc I*op. 7074. Lancaster, county of S. E. Pennsylvania. Aren, 920 s(|uari* miles. It is a beautiful region, diversified with low bills, and is one of the mowt fertile districts in the worM. Live-stock, tobacco, grain, hay, ami dairy produce are tho principal staples. Tho manufactures arc very im- portant, and include fioiir, carriages, tobacco, clothing, saddlery, furniture, metallic wares, cooperage, leather, iron, lumber, agricultural implements, and many other kinds of 1622 LANCASTER. goods. The county is traversed by the Reading and Co- lumbia and the Pe'unsylvania R. Us. and their branches. The county has much water-power, an abundance of mica- ceous routing-slate and bhu* limestone, and some marble. Cap. Lancaster. Pop. I21.;i4U. Lancaster, county of South Carolina, bounded on the N. by North Carolina and on the W. by Wateree River. Area. HOO square miles. It is uneven in surface and gen- erally fertile. Corn and cotton are staple crops. Cap. Lan- caster Court-house. Pop. 12,087. Lancaster, county of Virginia, bounded S. E. by Ches- apeiike Ray and P. W. by the navigable Rappahannock River. It is level and naturally fertile. Corn and wheat are staple products. Area, 108 square miles. Cap. Lan- caster Court-house. Pop. 5355. Lancaster, town of England, the capital of Lanca- shire, on the Lune, near its mouth. It is a neatly-built tuwn, with an old castle, a fine aqueduct, which carries the Lancaster Canal across the Lune, and manufactures of fur- niture, leather, and cast-iron work. Pup. 17,248. Lancaster, post-v, and tp. of Cass co., III., on the Springlield and Illinois South-eastern R. R. (Philadelphia Statiun). Pop. 1239. Lancaster, tp. of Stephenson co.. 111. Pop. 08fi. Lancaster, tp. of Huntington co., Ind. Pop. 1492. Lancaster, i)Ost-v. and tp. of Jefferson co., Ind. The towusiii)) is travorsi'd by the Madison and Indianapolis R. R. ( Bright's Station)." Pop. 1442. Lancaster, tp. of Wells co., Ind. Pop. 1381. Lancaster, post-v. and tp. of Keokuk co., la. Pop. of V. 135 ; of tp. 1525. Lancaster, post-v. and tp. of Atchison co., Kan. Pop. 000. Lancaster, post-v., cap. of Garrard co., Ky., 1 1 2 miles S. E. of Louisville, on the Louisville Nashville and (Ireat Suuihern R. R. (Richmond branch), has G churches, 3 ho- tels, 1 weekly newspaper, 1 national and 1 deposit bank, 2 high schools, a planing-mill, a tobacco-factory, a wheat- fan factory, 4 society lodges, and about 70 business-firms. There is a company of U. S. troops in garrison. Lancaster is in the *' Blue-grass region,'* and is noted for its fine corn and wheat. Pop. 741. Jos. R. Rlckkk, Ed. "Central Kenttckv News." Lancaster, a thriving and beautiful town of Worcester CO., .Mass., un the Worcester and Nashua R. R., 19 miles N. by E. of Worcester. It has a fine memorial hall, a pub- lic library, a national and a savings bank, and is the seat of thf? State industrial schoul fur girls. Its streets are shaded by noble elms. It is the oldest town in the county, and was incorporated in 1653. Pop. 1845. Lancaster, post-v. of Liberty tp., cap. of Sehuyler co., Mo., on the Missouri Iowa and Nebraska R. R., 2 miles E. of the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R., 22r» miles N. W.of St. L«>uis, has county buildings, 3 hotels. 2 churches, 1 national bank, I weekly newspaper, a fine seminary build- ing, and a number of stores and shu])s. There is abun- dance uf coal in the vicinity. Prin.'ipal industry, farming and dairying. Pop. 427. lliiNiiY A, Miller, Ed. "Excelsior." Lancaster, post-tp.. cap. of Coos co., N. II., 137 miles N. of ('uncord, on the lioston Concord and Muntreal R. R., has 5 churches, 2 weekly newspapers, an academy, a sav- ings bank, a paper-mill, a fuundrv, 50 stores and sho^is. Pop. 2248. W. F. Williams, Ed.'" Coos REprnLicAN." Lancaster, post-v. and tp. of Erie co., N. Y., on the New Vurk Central and the Erie U. Rs., 10 miles E. of Buffalo. It has 6 churches, a number of manufactories, and a bunk. Pop. ir)'.l7. The Inwnship contains several other villages, and has a pup. of 4330. Lancaster, city of Hooking tp., cap. of Fairfield co., 0., on the Hocking River, at the intersection of the Cin- cinnati and Zanesvillo with the Hooking Valley R. R., 21 miles N. E. of Circleville and 30 S. E. of Culumbus. It has 10 churches. 1 private and 2 national banks, a mag- nificent court-house (cost $150,000), 2 weekly newspapers, several fuuntlries. ll.uring-raills, and manufactorie?. 2 new public-school luiildingfl (cost $30,000 each), a good city hall, and several wine-cellars, one nf which will hold 40,011*0 gal- luns. The State refurm fiirm for bovs is located near by, and maintains 400 b..ys. There are few cities in the U. S. mure beautifully situated than Lancaster. Pop. 4725. T. Wktzler. En. " Eaglk." Lancaster, tp. of Butler co., Pa. {P. 0. Middle Lan- ca.sier). Pup. 1053. I«ancaster, city and tp., cap. of Lnnenstor co.. Pa., on tho Pennsylvania R. R., 68 miles W. of Philadelphia, was la 1818, when William Cobbett visited it, the largest " inland " town in the U. S. It is located in the centre of tho largest and must productive limestone region in the State, if not in the U. S. It was at one time the capital of Pennsylvania. and when the British troops occupied Philadelphia the Con- tinental Congress met here. It is laid out regularly, the streets crossing each other at right angles: the principal streets are macadamized, and the houses almost invariably of brick. There are 14 macadamized roads leading to the city. The city is lighted with gas, has a neat theatre, 3 daily and 7 weekly (2 German) newspapers, and 7 monthly publications, fine free schools, and free night schools during the winter months, 33 churches and chapels. 4 handsome cemeteries, a volunteer fire department with 7 steam-engines, 3 national banks with a en])ital of over $1,000,000. 5 other banks, waterworks on a vast scale, extensive foundries, and iron manufactures of the most varied kind. There is in- vested here in the manufacture of cotton goods over $l,500,0<fO, employing 1700 hands and paying to them an- nually $450,000 in wages. It is the centre of a large seed- leaf tubacco business, nearly 20.000.000 cigars being annu- ally manufactured. At least 25,000 barrels of lager beer are brewed here annually, most of which finds its market elsewhere. Lancaster has a court-house erected in 1853 at a cost of $U»0.0()0. a hospital, almshouse, and prison, all of approved modern construction, and a home for friendless children. It is the seat of Franklin and Mar- shall College and Theological Seminary, under the control of the German Reformed Church, antl was the residence and place of burial of Pres. James Buchanan and of Thad- deus Stevens. Pop. of city, 20,233; of tp. 1002. John A. Hiestasd, Ed. " Hailv Examiner." Lancaster, post-v., cap. of Lancaster co., S. C, 28 miles E. of Chestt^. has 3 churches, 1 weekly newspaper, a high school, a hotel, and several stores and shops. Prin- cipal industry, farming. Pup. 501. I). J. Carter, Ed. "Ledger." Lancaster, post-v. of Dallas co., Tex., has some manu- factures. Lancaster, popt-tp., cap. of Grant co.. Wis., 25 miles N. W. of Galena. III., and 20 miles N. of Dubuque, la., is a thriving inland town, located in the midst of a rich agri- cultural and lead-ore region. It has 1 bank, 2 weekly newspapers, G churches, 4 hotels, a large woollen-mill, and a sash and door factory. Pop. 2710. Jons Cover, Ed. "Grant Co. Herald." Lancaster, Drcnv and Countv Palatine of, a ter- ritorial division uf England nearly corresponding to tho county of Lancashire, but distinguished from it in law as a separate administrative entity. It derives its origin from a royal charter of Edward III., by which it was conferred upon Henry, earl of Derby, Jlar. 0. 1351, and on his death in 13()2 it was granted to John of Gaunt and his heirs for ever; received a grant of a chancery and palatine privi- leges in 1377 ; became a Crown possession un the accession of Henry IV. tu the throne in 131H). at which time the order of succession to the duchy was declared to be independent of the succession of the Crown, so that should the house of Lancaster lose the latter, it might still retain tho former. This expectation was not met, for on the accession of the house of York in 1401. Eilward IV. confiscated it to tho Crown, and in turn attempted to make it a private appan- age uf hi.s descendants. The result has been that down to the present time the government of the duchy has been vested in the sovereign, not as king of Englancl. but as duke of Lancaster. The county palatine is a jmrtion of the duchy, and is governed liy a separate court, jiresided over by a chancellor. wh() is usually also chancellor of the duchy, an officer who of late years has been a member of tho cabinet. The duehy court is held at Westminster. Lancaster (Sir James), b, in England about 1550; cominauded two naval expeditions to the East Indies in 15UI and 101)1, which opened trade with Ceylun. Sumatra. Java, and other islands, and was largely concerned in pro- moting tho search after h N. W. passage to Asia. Lan- caster Sound was named from him. D. in 1G20. Lancaster (Jusepr), b. in London Nov.. 177S. opened a school for children in Southwark in 171(S on the principle of mutual instruetiun, and having achieved a brilliant suc- cess, numerous sehuuls on the same plan were speedily es- tabli)^hed by him in other cities, and he devoted himself to tho popularization of his mcthttd. He came to the U. S. in I.HIH, where ho had some success, and obtained from the legislature of Canada a grant for the purpose of establish- ing his sj'stem of iuslructiun. He was a Quaker. D. in New York Oct. 24, 1S3?<. His family removed to Mexico, where several of his grandchildren, under the name of Lancaster-Jones, have figured in ]>olitics, and where his system is now (1875) in full operation, supported by legis- LANCASTER COURT-HOUSE-LAXDIT. 1623 lacive grants under the management of a national Lancas- tiTian foeicty. Tlio same system has also been largely adopicd in Colomljia und other parts of South America. I/ancaster Court-house, post-v., cap. of Lancaster CO., \':i., fin iiiilcj E. by X. of Kichmond. Lancaster Gun, a system of artillery devised by Mr. Lanca-^tir, an Englishman. The guu had a twisted ellipti- cal bore and an elongated elliptical shot, but no grooves. The plan hai not been adopted to any extent. Lancaster, House of. See England, John of G AtJHT, IIksky 1\'.. etc. Lancaster Sound lends from Baffin's Bay to Barrow Strait, between the island of North Devon on its northern side and several minor islands on its southern. It is 2J0 miles long, forms the entrance to the N. W. passage, and was discovered in Ittlfi by Baffin. Lancclet. See Amphioxis and Lkptocabdia. Lancelot' (Claidk), b. in Paris in IGlo : was educated under the influence of the Abb6 dc Saint-Cyran, who brought him into connection with the religious association of Port Royal, in Paris. In the schools of this association he taught mathematics and Greek, and wrote for the use of his pupils a Grammin're tjiiifral (ItJGO), Le Jardln dea Uacincf Oircqiict, a Greek dictionary (165"), yoiivelle mith"ftf pour iipprendrf Itt Liijii/iw tfi-erfiur, a Greek gram- mar (Ifij.'i). and several other works. After the suspension of the school iu ICGO, he was tutor to the princes of Conti till IG72, when he retired first to St. Cyran, and then to t^uimperK*, where he spent his time in prayers, meditations, and penitence, and d. .Apr. 15. 11)95. He was neither a great philologist nor a great graiiunarian, though his books are remarkable for clearness and precision : but he was a great pedagogue. His method of instruction and education was in strong opposition to the barbarous pedantry of the Middle .\gcs, and exercised great influence on the method , adopted by the eighteenth century. Lan'cers, a name given to such cavalry regiments as are armed with lances. The Cossacks, the Polish lancers, and the Uhlan (lancer) regiments of various armies are among the most celebrated corps of cavalry. Most of them carry a lance or spear of ash, eight, ten, or sixteen feet long, , armed with a steel point and decorated with a pennon. The alh, 9th, 12th, Itjih, au<l 17th British light cavalry are lancers. There is a wide ditference of upiiiii»n among mili- tary critics as to tfao valuo of the lanco in the warfare of the present day. Lan'cet Win'dow, in Gothic architecture, is a nar- row \vio<l'i\v with 11 sharply pointed head. Lancet win- dows generally appear in gruiij)S. The hineet window is one of the eharactcristie marks of the Early English or First Pointed .*ityle and the French Ogivalo Priiiiitif; hence these arc often called the Lancet styles of Golliic building. Lance'wood, the wood of Gttatteria virgata and hittri- fnl'ui, used (especially the former) for the shafts of car- riages. The tree is tall ami very straight. It is of the order ,\nonaceir. and grows in the West Indies. Lancia'no [Lat. Anxnnum], town of S. Italy. This is one i>f the most beautiful towns in the ,\bruzzi. It has many fine public buildings, among which the eathe<lral should bo first named. This church. "Our Lady of the Bridge," stands high above the river-valley on grand and lofty Koman bridges of the time ofl)ioctet Ian, and from some points of view seems to be suspended in the uir rather than resting on the earth. Its architecture, both external and internal, is striking, I.aticiano is in railway communication with Ancona and with Naples, and good common roads connect it with the ncighliuring towns. It nmnufacturen linen on a large scale; also silk, wool, and various chemical products. Pop. in 1874, 17,.'ilO. Land. Sec ItKAt, Piiopkbtv. liUndntr, posl-lp. of Grafton co., N. H., 8,'> miles N. N. W. of Concord. It has extensive manufactures of starch, lumber, etc. Pop. 8S2. Lan'dau, town of Uhenish Bavaria, on theriver Queich, It was from olden times n fortress. In the Thirty Years' war it was taken eight times. It is still a fortress, and has considerable tobacco manufneturcs. Pop. I2.;in.'i. besides a garrison of more than GMOil persons. In Ifisi it wiis fnr- titied by Vauban, atid was supposrcl to hnvi- been lutide impregnable, but in 171)2 lionis of Baden took it. Land'-crab, a name applied to a rather large number of crab^, remarkable as being gilled animals, which in the perfect state are air breathers. One of the best known species of tho U. S. is the tielaiiinua vocan* or fiddler. (See t'li \n.) Lan'denburg, post-v. of Xow Qardon tp., Chester oo.. Pa., on the Wilmington and Western R. R., 20 miles N. W. of Wilmington. Lan'der, county of Nevada, bounded N. by Oregon and Idaho. Its surface is broken by numerous N. and S. mountain-ranges and valleys. Some of the latter arc fer- tile, and arc especially adapted to stock-growing. The county is traversed by Humboldt River and the Central Pacific H. R. Silver and lead are mined and smelted, and some gold is obtained in the N. Cap. Austin. Pop. 2SI5. Lander (Gen. Fkedehic Wkst), b. at Salem, Mass., Deo. 17, 1S22 ; studied at the .Military Academy at Norwich, Vt., and conducted two perilous surveys for a railroad to the Pacific, being the only survivor of the sccoud expedition. In May. ISfil. he was appointed a brigadier-general; dis- tinguished himself for daring in the Virginian campaigns, and d. of congestion on the brain at Paw Paw, Va., Mar. 2, 1862. — His wife. Jean Margaiset Davkxpout, b. in Wolverhampton. Eng., May 3, I82'.l. was a distinguished actress previous to her marriage in ISCO ; acted as a hospital nurse during the war; and in 18C5 returned to the stage. Lander (Loiisa), b. at Salem, Mass., about IS.'io, early manifested her genius for sculpt arc by modelling likenesses of members of her family and executing cameo heads ; went to Rome in 1S55 ; became a pupil of Crawford, and Soon after finished in marble her two earliest statues, To- Diiy and Guluha, which obtained her considerable celebrity. Among her later works are busts of Hawthorne and Ijov. Gore of Massachusetts, statuettes of yinjiiiin lime and L'lidinc, a life-size statue of Vinjiiiin. a reclining statue of Eriiiigeliiic, Etiziibelh, the Ejcih of Silicriu, a statuette of t'ercs moiiniiiii/ /or Piuaerpiiie, A Si)lplt Alitjhtiiig, and several portrait busts. Lander (KunAnn). h. in Truro, England, in 1804; ac- companied Cnpt. Clapperton on his second .Vfrican expe- dition, and |)ublished the narrative from ('lai>pcrton's pa- pers (182'J-.'iO). In 1830 he ami his brother John made a successful expedition, descending the Niger to its mouth. In 18:J2 Ije returned to the upper Niger in two steam-ves- sels, on a commercial expedition, was mortally wounded in a conflict with the natives, and d. at Fernando Po Feb., 18.14. Landernau', town of France. 14 miles E. of Brest, in the department of Finistcrc. It manufactures good leather and pajier. has a consi.lerable trade iu wine and iron, a good harbor, a fine Gothic church, and extensive marine barracks. Pop. 789.!. Lan'dcrsville^ post-v. and tp. of Lawrence co., Ala. Pop. i;3i. Landes, department of France, bounded N. by tho Girou.le, S. by the Basses-Pyrenees, and W. by the Bay of Biscay. Area, S590 square miles, with :i0n,52S inhabitants. The eastern and southern parts are hilly and fertile, and well adapted for agriculture; much aud excellent wine is produced. But the western part, bordering on the ocean, consists only of desolate tracts {Iniidm) of sandbanks, marshes, and swaiu])S, covered with bcath and dwarf shrubs, and inhabited by a few scattered families, whose members stalk along on stilts in the sand, herding their ?heep and swiue. On thedowus arc planted foreslsof pino and cork trees, and these plantations afford some resources to the inhabitants in cork-cutting and charcoal-burning. In 18C.1, out of ;i8,UUj children, 1S.590 received no school inrorumlinn ut all. Cap. Mont do .Marsan. Land'KrovCj post-tn. of Bennington co., Vt., 12 miles N. E. of Munchester. It has manufactures of lumber and ohair-slock. Pop, 302, Lan'dis, tp. of Cumberland co., N. J. It contains tho town of \ivEi,ANii (which sec). Pop. 7079. Lan'disburg, ])ost-b. of Tyrone tp., Perry co., Pa. Pop. IIG'.I. Lan'disvillc, post-v. of E. Hcmpfield tp., Lancaster CO., Pa., 12 miles N, W, i»f Lancaster, at the crossing of tho Reading and Columbia and the Pennsylvania R, IU. Landit', a celebrated historical y'oi'rr, or fair and mar- ket, which was tho type of those of the same kind so nu- merous in the Middle .-Vges, and which are now continued in France only by tho famims /'h'iti of Bcaucairc and the ham and gingerbread fairs held in Paris during the weeks preceding ami following Easter, The name hiudit is a corruption of Lttttdi, .Mitnday : for tho Lniidit fair opened both In Paris and in .'^t. lienis on the first .Monday after tho 1 Itbof ,lune, St. Harnabas's Day. The talcs and books of Ihe .Midillo Ages arc filled with allusions to the Landit, which lasted for one week, and which was much frequented by the university students. It was both a t'estival, a kind oi French kermesse, and n market. It is said that Charle- magne instituted the Lanilil, which wn« solemnly opened every year by a procession iu which attended the bishop 1624 LAXDIVAR— LANDLORD AND TENANT IN LAW. of Paris, with the rector of the university, all the priests and officials, and the students. The Revolution put an end tu the Landit, and now it is no more than au ordinary market for sheep, which are allowed to be brought to St. Denis and sold there between the Xlth and ll^th of June of each year. Felix Aucaigne. Lamrivar (Rafael), b. in Guatemala Oct. 27. 1731 : graduated at the university of that city ; entered the order of Je^^uits in 1750 in Mexico, and rose to be the head of the seminar^' of San IJurja. Expelled as a .lesuit on the sup- pression of that order in Spain and America (1707), he passed his remaining years at Bologna, Italy, and acquired distinction by his elegant Latin poetry, descriptive of tropical life in America. Besides miscellaneous verses, he published in 1782 Hnxtirntio McricanUf in fifteen cantos, in which he describes the lakes of Mexico, the volcanoes, the mines of gold and silver, the wild animals, binls, and plants of New Spain, upon the model of Virgil's Gcoryiva. I), at Bologna Sept. 27. 17'.);;. Landlord and Tenant in Law. This phrase is used to expr?s5 a relation between the owner of land and one to whom he transfers it for such a period or in such a manner as to leave an interest still remaining in himself, technically called a reversion. The more common mode of tran-^fer is to create an estate in the land for a fixed period, called an estate for years. It is not necessary that the time should be measured by years, the leailing thought being that the time for the commencement and the termination of the estate is certain. Thus, an estate for a month, or even for a day, is of the same grade as one for a tliousand years, unless there is some statute to the contrary. The common law makes a principal division of estates into those of freehold and less than freehold. An estate for years belongs to the latter class, and is thus inferior in dignify to an estate fur life, which is a freehold. An estate for years is ranked as a chattel, no matter how long it may liist. Partaking to some extent of the nature of land, it is called a chattel renl. The reason of this rule is of a his- torieul nature. When these interests were first introduced into the law, they belonged to the sphere of contracts. They were granted to husbandmen, whose only remedy in case of a violation of right was derived from the law of contracts. The right itself was of a personal nature. Although a tenant for years is now regarded as having an est;i!e in the land, it partakes to some extent of its original character. Accordingly, if an owner of it dies, his nnex- pired interest does not descend to his heirs as land, but passes to his administrators or executors as a chattel. An owner of such an interest is said to have a term for ye.ars. The word "term" is here used to point out the fact that the estate has a fixed and definite termination. A distinc- ti(m is thus drawn bet\veen the meaning of the words " term " and *' time." Thus, if one should grant an estate for three years to .A, and at the end of bis tfrm to B, the estate of the latter would begin whenever A's interest might terminate, whether by surrender of his estate or by lapse of time. If, on the other hand, the word " time " had been nscd, B's estate could not commence in possession until three years had actually elapsed. An estate for years usually commences by means of an instrument called a hnte. The person making it is called a frrtxor, and the person receiving it is termed a fe»HCc, It frequently becomes imjiortant to distinguish between a lease and an agreement for a lease. One of these creates an estate, and is '' executed " in its nature : the other con- fers a right to an estate, and is "executory." The rights and remedies in the two cases are quite different. In the case of a strict lease, the lessee may insist on possession when the proper time arrives, and to that end, if possession be refused, may bring an action of ejectment; in the case of an agreement for lease, his regular remedy would be to bring au action in a court of equity to obtain a lease, and subsequently he might, by means of the lease thus ob- tained, acquire the possession. To which class any particular instrument belongs depends mainly upon the intention of the parties as derived from the terms of the contract. Kntry by the Icssqc is an essential element in constituting an estate for years. A distinction is thus taken between the strict estate and an intertnac termini (or a mere interest in a terra). This phrase is applied in two ways. Its first signification has reference to the in- terval between the execution of the lease and the time fixed for the estate to eommr-nce. Thus, if a lease were executed in February, and the estat« was to commence in possession on May 1st, during the intervening period the lessee would have an " intercsse termini." This expression also applies to the case where the time for taking possession has arrived, and yet there has been no entry. The lessee cannot avoid responsibility by refusing to enter, though the remedies of the lessor would not be the same as if an entry had taken place. Nice distinctions, which need not here be discussed. are derived from the doctrines of tnter«««e Urmini. One im- portant difference between the first form of it and that of an actual lease may be noted. If a lessee has actually taken possession of a house and lot, and the house be destroyed by fire wholly without his fault, the lessee, in the absence of an agreement or of a statute to the contrary, is liable for rent. This would not be the case if ho had but an intercsse termittt. When the relation of landlord and tenant has been fully constituted, there is a twofold relation, or so-called " privity," between them— privity of contract and privity of estate. Privity of contract is derived from the terms of their agreement ; " privity of estate " partakes of a feudal origin, and expresses all the relations springing up between the parties from the fact that one of them has a temporary interest, and the other is the ultimate owner. This is a very important distinction, and will he again recurred to in the course of this article. These observa- tions are preliminary to a discussion of the main subject, which is very complicated and forms the topic of extended treatises. It will only be possible to give a cursory view of the rights and relations of the parties. The subject will be considered under the following principal divisions: I. The creation of the relation ; 1 1. Its termination or de- struction ; III. The respective rights and obligations of the parties; IV. Assignment and sub-letting. I. It has been already observed that the common course is to create this relation by a written instrument. By the rules of the common law an estate fur years may be created orally. The statute cf frauds (see FitAuns, Statute of), however, applies to the case, and the estate, uuless the term be short, must be created by writing. The terms of the statute vary in the different States as to the estates which maybe created without writing. The general fact remains that oral leases are only allowed where the term is short. In some of the States the name of the lessor must be subscribed; in others, it may appear anywhere in the instrument. An agent may act for the lessor, but where the latter must execute a written lease the agent should have written authority, and should sign the principal's name, adding his own as agent. It is prudent, in most cases, though not usually necessary, to attach a seal to the instrument. The rules as to parties are substantially the same as in other contracts. The presumj>tion is that an owner may lease; incapacity is the exception. The prin- cipal classes of incapacitated persons are the insane, intox- icated persons, such as are under duress, infants, and married women. The latter may in some States by statute make leases ; the transactions of infants are in general voidable, rather than void, and may be ratified upon attaining ma- jority. The same general rule applies to persons mentally unsound, who may ratify on the recovery of their reason, unless they were at the time of entering into the lease un- der judicial guardianship. In that case, by a technical rule, the lease is wholly void. Trustees may. acting within the scope of their trusts, make leases, and so also may cor- porations under like limitations. The capacity to take a lease which is clearly beneficial to a lessee may exist even whore he could not be a lessor. Thus, a young child or a person bereft of reason may be presumed to acce]>t a ben- efit when he could not be allowed to assume a burden. As a general rule, a lease can only be made of such an interest as a lessor may have at the time of its execution. Thus, if a person having a life estate in land should jiurport to lease it for twenty-one years, and should die within a few days afterwards, the lease would terminate at the moment of his death. Owing to this fact, life tenants are frequently unable to make advantageous leases. To remedy this de- j feet it is not uncommon for one who creates a life estate to ! confer upon the life tenant a pmccr (see Powers) or author- j ity to create a lease commencing during his tenancy, and i continuing for a moderate period — viz. twenty-one years. ' If this power is executed, the result is. that while the life tenant lives the rent is payable to him; after his death, to the next owner for so-called reversioner). Should his death I occur during the currency of a quarter, the rent belongs as I a unit to the reversioner, unless there is some clause in the ' instrument or a statutory provision to the contrary. Should the life tenant live till after the expiration of the lease, he may execute another under the power, etc. I Should a party having no interest whatever in land pur- ' port to make a lease of it, he would of course convey noth- i ing. Still, should be afterwards acquire it. the instrument might operate, on the theory of an estoppel (see Kstoi'PEl), to prevent him from setting up a title as against his lessee. This would only be where he had no estate icfmtever when he made the lease. If he had some estate, though less than what he purportC'l to convey, the lease would pass what he had, and would spend its force. If he had, for example, an estate for ten years, and made a lease for twenry, the lease would pass the ten years, and would have no further ope- ration. LANDLORD AND TENANT IN LAW. 1625 II. The Di»$olution or Deatruction of the Relation. — The leading modes in which the relutiou of landlord and tenant may be broken up or dissolved are — (1 1 by eviction, (2) by surrender, (^S) by merger, (4| by destruction of the subject- matter of the lease, (6) by forfeiture, iuotuding the act of disclaiming the relation on the part of the tenant. (1 ) Erirtidii. — By this term is meant the act of depriving the tenant of the estate. It may be either by some person having a superior title, or by the landlord. A mere stranger or wrongdoer cannot legally cause an eviction. Should such a person turn the tenant out of possession, he would stilt be liable to pay rent. But in the case of a true eviction the tenant is discharged. An eviction may either be partial or total. The former does not necessarily discharge the ten- ant absolutely. Ho may still be liable to perform in part the obligations of the lease. Thus, if a landlord should leaj'c two houses for a gross rent, and the tenant should be evicted from one of them by a persun having a better title, rent would still be ilne for that portion of the premises ac- tually enjoyed by the tenant. This rule does not apply to a partial eviction by the wrongful act of the landlord. In this case the entire rent issuspenclcd while the eviction continues, as he is guilty of a breach of his portion of the contract. The doctrine of "constructive eviction" should be referred to. This is a modern principle, allowing the tenant, in case the landlord renders the occupation of the premises practi- cally valueless by his own wrongful act, to abandon them, and make use of this theoretical eviction as a defence to the payment of the rent. Thisgroundcannot be taken unless the tenant vacates the premises. The mere deterioration of the premises in value is no eviction. Accordingly, if one hires a house and lot, and the building is accidentally destroyed by fire, the tenant cannot, by the rules of the common law, leave the premises and ccaso to pay rent. The land still remains, and by legal theory the rent is indivisible and can- not be apportioned. So- far is this doctrine extended that if the landlord insures with his own funds, the tenant can- not insist that the insurance-mnney be applied to rebuild the house, though ho might if the premiums of insurance bad been paid by himself, as ho would in that case prac- tically be the insurer. There may bo a clause insertecl in the lease that on the buildings becoming untenantable the tenant may abandon the premises and be relieved from lia- bility. The .same recult is attained in some of the States by statute modifying the common law. The rule itself is not to be extended to the ease where llie subject-matter of the lease has wholly ceased to exist. This is not properly a ease of eviction, but rather of a want of material for the contract of the parties to operate uj)on. The doctrines of eviction sometimes work a hardship, as where a landlord who has failed to receive rent ejects u tenant for that reason during the currency of a quiirter. He may thus lose bis rent for the portion of time whicli has elapsed since the last rent- day. This result, however, may be avoided by the insertion of appropriate claui'es in the lease. (li) Siirremirr. — By this word is meant the act of the ten- ant yielding up his estate to the landlord. It requires the assent of both parlies. A surrender may be mado either by words or acts. When made by words, the stAtutc of frauds as to the necessity of writing may be applicable: when mado by acts, no writing will lie necessary. This is called a surrender by '* act and operation of law." Such a surrender will only take place where the oct on which re- liance is pla4;ed is iiir»iiin'itnit with the continuance of the tenancy. Thus, if the landlord f-hould substirute a new tenant in tlio place of the former one with his consent, or should hiiuHcIf take possession in the same manner, a sur- render might bo presumed, as there would be a plain in- consistency between the new state of things and the con- tinuance of the tenancy, Hnwi-ver. if the liiiidlord should merely assent in wordn to the tenant's leaving the prem- ises, without taking any step on his part, there would be no surrender by means <if an art of which it couhl be af- firmed that there wa« an inconsistency between it and (he continued enjoyint-nt by the toinint of the jiremises; and if the statute of frauds were not complied with as to writing, there would bo no valid surrender. The delivery and accept- ance of the key have in numy instances been hold to be evi- dence from which un intent to surrendf-r might be inferred. The effect of a surrender in to break u|> the relation of land- lord and tenant. Accordingly, if it should take place tluring n qinirter. no rent could bo eollecte<l for that portion of it which had elapsed. This remark, of course, could not he ap- plied to rents which had aedially become duo bof«ir« the surrender. Nor can a surrrnder be held to affect the pre- viously acquired rights of third persons. An instance of the application of thix rule is found in case the tenant has made a sub-lease of which tlie landlord is cognizant. The landlord could not iiecejd a surrender so as to impair the rights of the under-lenniit wilhotil Ins consent. (3) .\hnj^>'. — This topic resembles that of surrender. It, I however, proceeds upon a different theory. It depends upon a rule of law founded upon jtublic convenience, jirevcuting a person from holding inconsistent rights and interests in the same property. In the ease now under consideration it might be applied to the act of the tenant acquiring the cstiitc of the landlord, as well as to that of the landlord in becoming owner of the lea^c. In either case the estate of the tenant would in general merge in that of the landlord. Another form of statement is that the prior estate merges in that which is future and reversionary in its nature where the latter is of a superior or of an equal grade. Thus, an es- tate for years may merge in a life estate, or even in an estate for years reversionary in its nature. The subject of merger is full of thorny distinctions, for a full account of which Mr. Preston's treatise on the subject may be con- sulted. It is not necessary or expedient to present them here. It may be much controlled by the intent of the par- ties wherever any good reason can be found for keeping the two estates distinct and separate in the same person. (4) Deati-nction of the SiihJfCt-iiialttr. — The rights and obligations growing out of the contract arc reciprocal. They depend upon the existence of jiroperty to be leased. If that is totally destroyed, the contract is at an cud. An illustration may be found in the lease of a room in a build- ing which is totally destroyed by fire. The room having ceased to exist, the relation of landlord and tenant is ter- minated. (5) Fur/t'ittirc. — There are various grounds on which a lease may be forfeited. They depeml in general upon clauses found in the instrument of demise. Forfeiture may also be caused by a violation of the implied obligations growing out of the contract, as by disathrming the land- lord's title, and transferring the j)crforniance of the ten- ant's obligations to another. Spoil or destruction of the premises, termed waste (see W.\stk), is also a ground of forfeiture, as being a breach of the tenant's duty. It is, however, a general rule that a mere wrongful act or breach of contract docs not of itself causeadissolntion of the tenancy. It rather gives the landlord an o]ttion to uphold or to over- turn the estate. Accordingly, if no afhrmative steps are taken by him the estate will continue. He may also waive his right to enforce the forfeiture, either by express words or by implication. An instance of the latter is an acceptance of rent with full knowledge on his part of a breach of contract. This subject will be again referred to in connection with (\>»ditioi>n. I'orfeiture when enforced terminates in evic- tion. It is, however, a lawful act, ami the result of o right exercised under the contract, while eviction, as ordinarily understood, is either an art performed by a stranger having a superior title, without reference to the contract, or is a wrongful act on the landlord's part. III. There are certain rights and obligations implied by law from the relations of tlie parties. These may bo in- creased, modilicd. or diminislied by special clauses in the lease. The jiarties nniy make any agreement not incon- sistent with law m- with the rules of pul>lic policy. It will not bo possible to arrange, or even tt) state, the special pro- visions thus resorted to. They assume two general forms: they arc either ennditicms or covenants. The main dis- tinction between these is that the office of a condition is to enable the lessor to declare the lease forfeited: that of a covenant is to confer a right of action in case of its breach. This action will sometimes bo in a court of law for dam- ages ; at other times, in a court of equity for an injunction or a specific performance of the covenant. A clause may be drawn both as a condition and a covenant, when tlie lessee will have his choice of remedies. Tl»o ruk-s of law governing conditions are more strict than tlH)Be which pre- vail coneerning covenants, since a forfeiture is frequently very severe. The distinction miiy well be illustrated in tho case of non-payment of rent. Where there is n condition in a lease entailing a forfeiture for its non-payment, it is necessary for the landlord to dcnniml the exiu't rent on the day it is due at a specified hour at the front door of the house, etc.. otherwise the forfeiture eould not take place. If his object were simply to collect the rent by actioti,this precision would not be necessary. If the tenant did n«tt pay promptly an action could at once be maintained. An- other instance may be alluded to. There is frequently a Cfindilion that a lessee shall not assign without thu consent of the lessor. i\ consent to assign to one person dispenses with the eontlilion altogether. The doctrine of waiver is also reftdily applied, and tho courts infer thai a forfeiluro is waived by any ae( on tho landlord's part inconsistent with it, such as acceptance of rent with knowbrdgo of the oct of forfeiture. Independent of express clauses in tho lease, tho law will in general impose upon the tenant the Odiowing duties: (1) to pay rent, |2| to render fculiy or to be faithful to tho h'flsor. (.'I) to refrain from (>oniniitting nets of waste, (4) to make ordinary repairs, (5) to render up possession at 1626 LANDLORD AND TENANT IN LAW. the end of the term. <\) The duty to pay rent is fairly to be implied from the enjoyment of the premises. There is usually an e.tpress covenant to this effect. Where there is none, the tenant may he liable to a reasonable amount for '• use and occupation." Kent until it is due is deemed to be real estate; after it is payable, even though not paid, it becomes a debt, and is a mere right of action, and is re- garded as personal property. The landlord's right to rent is of a dilTorent nature from the tenant's estate ; the former is incorporeal, the latter is corporeal; the former is real estate, the latter is personal property (chattel real). (2) Fealty is a word of feudal origin, and expresses the duty of the tenant to be faithful to the landlord. The leading rule in modern law. derived from this view, is. that the tenant cannot dispute the title of the landlord. Practically, the rule amounts to this, that so long as a tenant remains in undisturbed possession he cannot set up as a defence to an action for rent by his landlord that the latter has no title. On similar principles, all encroachments made by the tenant on the land of others enure to the benefit of the iTndlord as between him and the tenant. In other words, ^—^ „w..„.. -. r.i..;„ he at r is norpermitted to deny that he was acting for | part. This f-* ^-^'Lv .ncreases ";«/°;P'^7''-^j°V 'rU": his landlord. The rule ceases to prevail as soon as the terests and rights connected with thi. subject. The trans- transgress statutes to prevent forcible entry, and may, per- haps.'be regarded in that case as nugatory by the courts. Should the landlord permit the tenant to hold over for a con- siderable period of time beyond his term, he may become a "tenant at sufferance." (See Tenant at Sufferance.) Thus far, the duties of the tenant have been considered. Those of the landlord may be briefly referred to. They are principally to secure the tenant in quiet enjoyment of the premises, "and to discharge all taxes upon the land un- less there is some agreement to the contrary. In every sealed lease there is an implied covenant by the landlord for quiet enjoyment. This means such enjoyment as agaiust persons having a paramount title. The tenant must defend himself against strangers. It is the better opinion that if the State takes the land under the right of eminent domain, the landlord is not responsible, nor has the tenant any defence for that reason to an action for rent. This is not deemed to be a paramount title, and the tenant must look to the State for indemnity. IV. Agsiipunent timl .S'lii-franiic.!/.— Either of the parties may assign' or transfer his interest, cither in whole or in tenant is evicted by some person having a superior title. So, if he be threatened with an eviction by such a person, be may yield the possession to him or become his tenant, and set "up these facts as a defence to any action by his lessor. It may be further stated that the tenant, while he cannot deny his landlord's original title, may show that it has expired or has been subverted. Thus, if the lessor has fallen in debt, and his estate is sold on an execution, the tenant may purchase it and himself become owner. The effect of such a transaction would be to destroy the claims of the lessor under the lease. (?.) The subject of waste will be treated separately. (See Waste.) It is enough to say here that it is an act on the part of the tenant to the injury of the landlord, and leading to a forfeiture. It is either negative or positive, " permissive or voluntary." Under this doctrine it is the duty of the tenant to refrain from cutting down timber trees, or destroying or impairing buildings, or opening mines, or from acts of neglect tend- ing to injure the estate. He is to use the property as a prudent owner would, without doing injury to the rever- sioner. As he is in possession, he is bound to sec that others do not commit similar acts. He is in some sort an insurer, though his liability is not extended in this country so far as to make him responsible for accidental fires, though he might be for such as were caused by his negli- gence. There may be clauses inserted in the lease permit- ting him to commit waste, either in an unlimited way or under restrictions. These will not be extended so far by the courts as to allow mere wanton destruction, and acts of that kind will be restrained by courts of equity. (4) The tenant is also bound to make ordinary repairs. He must, for instance, keep roofs and windows tight. Accordingly, in the absence of special agreement, he cannot call ui)on the landlord to make repairs. This matter is frequently regulateii by special agreement, the landlord assuming more or less fully the duty of making the repairs. If a tenant agrees to "make full repairs, he will, in general, be liable to replace buildings destroyed by an accidental firo or otherwise, the word " repair" being construed as equiva- lent to •• rebuild." A duty sometimes springs up as be- tween the tenant and third persons or the public to keep the premises in good order. Thus, if he should allow them, being on a public street, to become dilapidated and to cause injurv to persons passing by, he might be liable to an ac- tion for damages. (5) When the tenant's term ceases ho should render up possession to the landlord. At this point a question frequently arises as to his right to remove such improvements as ho may have made for the purposes of trade or manufacture, or for other reasons. This topic has been fully discussed in the article on fixtures. (See Fix- Ti'iiES.) If the tenant continues in possession after his term expires, legal proceedings to eject him may be resorted to. The regular course is to bring an action of ejeetinent against him. This remedy is expensive and dilatory, while despatch is frequently of great consequence to the laud- lord's interests. Statutory remedies of a summary nature are resorted to in a number of the States. These provide in substance that the tenant mivy be summoned before a magistrate — e. ij. a justice of the peace^and required to show cause why he does not leave the premises. This summons is speedily returnable ; it may be within a few hours. If no good cause for the delay is shown, a man- date is addressed to an officer of the court requiring him to dispossess the tenant. In some iuetances the landlord takes the law into his own haluU. and by his own act dispossesses a refractory tenant. This course is to be discouraged, par- ticularlv ill those States where the summary proceedings prev ; and may lead to a breach of the peace, and may | general no greater rights than the lessee. fer of interests may be considered under two principal di- visions: (1) Bv the tenant; (2) by the landlord. (1) A distinction must be taken in the outset between assignment and a sub-tenancy. In a complete assignment the "tenant parts with his entire interest ; in a partial as- signment he transfers all his interest in a portion of the premises. The case may be illustrated by a lease of two houses for a specified time and for an entire rent. Should the tenant sell all his interest in one of the houses, there would be a partial assignment. In a sub-tenanoy the tenant still retains some interest. The importance of the distinc- tion between the two transactions is very great, as an en- tirely different set of rules is applied in the two cases. In order to understand the efl'ect of an assignment it is neccs- sarv to recur to the subject of " privity," which has already bee'n referred to. It was stated that there is between a land- lord and tenant a twofold privity— that of contract and of estate. When an assignment takes place there is privity of estate between the lessor and the assignee: the privity of contract between the lessor and the lessee remains as before. The result of this theory is that the lessor has his choice of remedies. He may eithe"r pursue the lessee upon the " privity of contract." or the assignee upon the "privity of estate." This proposition involves the doctrine of covenants '■ run- ning with the land." By this technical phrase is meant that there are or may be two classes of covenants in a lease, some of which may bind an assignee, and others not, since they Bolely affect the lessee. Those which will bind an assignee are said " to run with the land." It is frequently a question of much nicety to determine whether a covenant has this characteristic. As a generol rule, in order that a covenant may bind an assignee it must concern the property em- bra"eed in the lease. Instances are promises to pay rent, to keep a house insured, to cleanse a sewer upon the premises, etc. etc. In some instances a covenant which would not regularly "run with the land" is made to do so, because the assignees of the lessee are referred to in the lease. When the promise has nothing to do with the land, or is "collateral," it will not be binding upon the assignee. The details of this subject are well stated in a note to Spencer's ease in SiiiUh's Lfadimj «i»f». The lessee, in any event, remains liable during the entire tenancy, or un"til the contract between the parties has spent its force. The assignee, on the other hand, being liable to the lessor only on the ground of his relation to the estate, may ter- minate all responsibilitv to him by making an assignment to a second assignee. He may even assign 1.. a beggar to re- lieve himself from liability. There may thus be an in- definite series of assignees, any one of whom will be liable for a breach of covenant occurring during his ownership, but not for anv transpiring after he has parted with his estate. However, if the lessee is made liable, he will in general have a remedy over as against the assignee who was owner when the breach of covenant took place. Ibe loswee is on this view deemed to be a surety for the assignee. Similar principles will be adopted in the case of a )iarlial assignment. Such an assignee will be liable to the land- lord in proportion to the interest which he has acquired. None of these rules will be applie.l to a sub-tenancy. As- 1 sume for exauiide, that a lessee has taken a lease for five years, and then sub-lets the entire premises for lour years, "retaining one year at the close of the term to himself. He has thus become landlord to his own lessee. There is now ' no •' privity of estate" between the original landlord and the 6ub-le9"6ee. The latter does not claim the estate of the original lessee, but holds under a new and derivative con- tract It is. however, true that the sub-lessee can have in His interest LAXDO— LANDSCAPE GARDENIXO. 1G27 being derived from that person^s estate^ must stand or tall with it. If, therefore, the lessee fails to perform bis cov- enants, so us to he liable to eviction, the sub-lessee may also be deprived of his estate. If threatened with an evic- tion for that reason, he may by agreement with the original lessor become his tenant, and relieve himsetffrom obligation to his own immediate landlord, the original leiisee. A word should be added as to the effect of a mortgage of a lea^e. This is properly to be regarded as an assignment. A lease being a chattel interest, a mortgage' of it must, ac- cording to the usual rules prevailing in mortgages of chat- tels, be regarded as a sale or assignment. Still, it is not in general deemed to be ?uch an assignment as to render the mortgagee liable upon the covenants in the lease binding upon the lessee, and *' running with the land." unless the mortgagee goes into possession. In that case he would be liable. (2) Am'ifttmfnt* by the Landlord. — For the sake of clear- ness, the only case that will be considered is that of an owner in fee parting wi»h a smaller estate than he pos- sesses. In such a case ho has a reversion to which rent and fealty are incidental. If he assigns his reversion, the rent goes with it. though it is not expressly mentioned. This remark would not be a|)plicable to rent then due, which is a mere debt, and in legal contemplation separated from the land. The rent, even when not due, may be assigned by express words without the reversion, or the reversion without the rent. There were some difficulties in the com- mon law attending an assignment hiyih of the lease and the reversion. These were removed in England during the reign of Henry VIII. by a well-known enactment by Par- liament, sometimes called the statute of monasteries. If there are any covenants in the lease binding on the land- lord, these, if they are of a nature to ** run with the land," will attach to the purchasers of the reversion. There may be a partial as well as a total assignment of the reversion. The same general rules as to proportional rights and liabil- ities will be applied as in the case of a partial assignment of a lease. The reversion may be apportioned by operation of law, aa where the owner dies leaving several heirs who take undivided interests as tenants in common. In order to render the lessee liable to the assignee of the reversion, notice of the assignment must usually bo given. If not. any payment of rents made to the lessor before notice of the assignment must be allowed to the lessee. Registration of tbe assignment will nut bo notice to the lessee, as he could not be expected to examine the public records lo see if an assignment has taken place. He may assume, until ho has notice to the contrary, that the original slate of things con- tinues. (See RKGiSTRATioy.) (Further information upon the general subject may bo sought in the works on real prop- erty, such as Cruise's Ditfrnt ; Washburn on /{ruf Properti/ ; Hitliard on do.; Kent's Commentaries ; Piatt on Leaner, also on Currnnntn, etc, etc.) T. W. D wight. Lan'do, Poi>k, b. at Sabina, succeeded Anastasius III. in 'Ji;; ; d. in 9U. Landon (Lktitia Elizabeth). See Maclean. lian'dor I^Waltrr Savace), b. at Ipsley Court, War- wickshire. Kngland, Jan. HO, 17".'). Being the son of wealthy parents, he wa^ intended for the army: received a careful early training from private tutors and at Rugby School (ITSJ): entered Trinity College. Oxford, in 17l»3; was rusticated in the summer of 17iM for a breach of dis- cipline, and never returned; printed in 17*.)j a small vol- ume of poems, which attracted no attention; studied law, thou<;h never called to Ihe bar, au'l issued in 17yH u poem {Ofhir) of considerable length, which in 1S02 he published in a Latin translation {fii'hiruit), and which .TcflVey de- clared to l>c e(|ually uiiinfellijfible in both languages, while Southey ancl De (Juinccy prided themselves upon being its only reajlers. Landor visited Paris in 1H02, Buecceded soon after to his patrimonial estates, spent immense sums in improving them, in buyinj^ others in .Monmouthshire, and in huihlin^ a )>alatial tnnn-ion : but in HItrt, in a mo- ment of irritation. si)lrl all his lands, ordered his magnifi- cent house to he torn down, and prepareil lo live abroad. In I SUM he raised a body of troops at hit own expense, joined the S)ianish general Blake in defending the Penin- sula njjain^t Ihe French invasion, and contributed a large sum lo Ihe Spanish military treasury, receiving the thanks of the supreme junta and a eommiosion as colonel. Lan- dor married in 1><11 ; resigned his commission on the relurn of Ferdinand VII. to Spain, and in 1^1. 'i settled in Florence, Italy, where for seven years he occupied the palace of Iho Metlicis, and afterward* houghl the celebrated villa (ihe- rardesca at Fiosole. In 1*12 he published Cnuut Jufimi, a Trof/rt/i/, irhich elicited the warmest praise frim Southey; in ls2o. A/7//10 Hfrnira, in Latin fpnhlished at Pi-ja); in Ift24, another volume of Lnthi f^i^rmn. and in the same year the first series (2 vols.) of hit) most celebrated work, Imagi- nnry Conreraations 0/ Literary Men and Statesmen, of which the second series appeared in 1.^29. This work in its best passages rises to a sublimity rarely equalled in English lit- erature, while there is an abundant display of cynicism, ill- temper, and worse logic. A passionate enemy of conven- tionalism and of tyranny, whether political or social, he indulged in startling paradoxes, defending Tiberius and Nero, and advising Ihe Greeks in their struggle willi Ihe Turks to discard firearms and employ only the weapons of their classical forefathers. After thirty years' residence in Italy. Landor took up his residence at Bath in IS.'tS, pub- lished in 1836 one of his best works. PericUn aud Attpaniaf followed by -4 Entire on Sntin'utt (183C), Pfutameion and Pentnlogue (1S."?7), and the dramas Atfdreu of Hiuujary and Giorniina of Xaphfi. all written in Italy; The flrlhuics (1847), Popery^ Britinh and Foreujn (1S51), LaiH Fruit nff an Old Tree (18o3), Antony and Octnriufi (18.50). and Dry Stirls Fayotrd {1858), besides some minor works and a voluminous literary correspondence in the columns of the Examiner. The last-named volume contained some poems satirizing a lady at Rath, who ol)tained a verdict against the poet for libel, with a judgment of £1000. It was evident to his aclmircrs that the great poet was in his dotage, but the public refused to accept such a doubtful excuse, and amid a storm of obloquy Landor retired to Florence, where he d. Sept. 17, 1864. A collective edition of his works ap- peared in 1S40 (2 vols.), and a complete edition, to be con- tained in 7 vols., was commenced in 1874. His biograjihy was written by John Forster (I8)»y; new ed. 1874). Lan- der's writings have never been popular, but they all con- tain unmistakable evidences of a high order of genius, which is best appreciated by the ** fit audience though few " of poets possessing kindred gifts. PoittKn C. Bi.iss. Lands'bcr^« town of Prussia, in the province of Bran- denburg, on the Warta. It has large breweries and cele- brated nurseries of fruit trees. Pop. 18,6;U. Land'scape Gar'dcnin^* Landscape gardening is a branch of horticulture, the highest results of which may be attained by processes of a comparatively simple ehar.icter — simpler, for instance, than those of kitchen or of floral gardening. Failure of success in it being oftener duo to a halting purpose than to lack of science, of means, or of skill, this artielo will be chiefly given to establishing the definition and limitation of the general end proper lo the art; some indications Icing incidentally presented of the manner in wliich, under the requirement of different indi- vidual tastes and different local conditions, it may be ju- diciously pursued. There are two other branches of horticulture, which in ordinary practice are often so much confounded with that of landscape gardening that the rcacler may find it conve- nient to have lliem set apart from it at the outset. One of them is the cultivation of plants with special regard to an interest in their distinctive individual qualities. The other is the cultivation of plants (trees, shrubs, perennials, and annuals) with a view to the production of effects on the principles commonly stu<lied in the arrangement of precious stones, enamel, and gtd<l in an elaliorate piece of jewelry, or of flowers when sortecl by colors and arranged for the decoration of a head-dress, a dinner-table, or a terrace. Whether, in any undertaking, one of these two leading mo- tives or that of landscape gardening bo adopted, it may bo jjresumed that the result will satisfy that motive in pro- )iortion as it shall bo followed to Ihe end with singleness of purpose. We now turn, therefore, from the two wliich have been defined to consider what, in distinction from them, the lea^ling motive of landscape ganlening nmy be. Derivatively, the wonl "lanilscapo" is thought to apply only to such a scene as enables the observer to comproliend the shape of the earth's surface far before him, or, as we say in common idiom, " to get the He of the land," the land's shape. Consistently with this view, it will bo found, on comparing a variety of scenes, that those which woubl bo most ui)hesitalin(;ly (dassed as landscapes are distinguished by a certain degree of breadth and distance of view. Look- ing at the face of a thick wood near at band or of a precip- itous rock, we do not use the term. Pursuing the compari- son farther, it will be found that in each of those scenes to which Ihe word more aptly aj)idies there is a more marked subordination of various iletails to a characteristic effect of the scene as a whole. As Lowell says, " A real landscape never presents itself to us as a disjointed succession of* iso- lalc(| parlicutam ; wo take it in with one sweep ot the eyes — its light, its shadow, its melting gradations of distance." But there are many situations in which plant-beauty is desired where the area to bo operated upon is so limited, or so shaped and eirtfinifttanced. that the depth and breadth of a landscape scene must be oonsideretl impracticable of attainment. In America gardening is required for the dec- oration of places of this class many thousand times for one 1628 LANDSCAPE GARDENING. in which such restraining conditions are not encounterefl; and the question may he asked whether they must all be cxchidcd from the tield of landscape gardening, and if not, what, in these cases, can be the siguitieaueo of the prefix '* landscape "? As a general rule, probably, so many pur- poses require to be served, and so many diverse conditions to be reconciled, that the only rule of art that can be con- sistently iipplied is that of architecture, wliich would pre- scribe that every plant, as well as every moulding, shall bear its part in the " adornment of a service." To this end, parterre and specimen gardening are more available than landscnjie gardening. But it may hap])eu that where, with duo regiird to considerations of health and convenience, there would be st^ant space for more than two or three middle- sized trees to grow, there will yet be room for a great deal of careful study, and, with careful study, of success in pro- ducing effects the value of which has nothing in common with either of the objects of horticulture thus far defined. As an example, suppose a common village dooryard, in which are found, as too often there may be, a dozen trees of different sorts planted twenty years before, and that, by good chance, among them there is one, standing a little way from the centre, our fair Western kinsmaid of the linden (7*. httcmphijlUt). Trampled under by ruder and greedier neighbors, and half starved, youth and a good constitution may yet have left it in such condition that, all the rest being rooted out, sunlight given it on all sides, shortened in, balanced, cleaned, watered, drained, stimu- lated, fed, guarded from insidious enemies, its twigs will grow long, delicate, and pliant; its branches low and trail- ing, its bark become like a soft, finely-grained leather, its u]tper leaf-surface like silk, and its lower leaf-surface of such texture and tint that, with the faintest sunlight and the softest summer breeze, a constant wavering sheen, as of a damask hanging, will be flowing over the whole body of its foliage. While it regains its birthright in this re- spect it will also acquire, with fulness of form and moder- ate play of contour, a stateliness of carriage unusual in a tree of its age and stature. If landscape gardening is for the time to take its order from this princess of the fields, and all within the little court m.adc becoming with her state, the original level surface of the ground need be but slightly modified, yet it may perceptibly fall away from near her, dipping in a long and very gentle wave to rise again with a varying double curve on all sides. There cannot, then, be too much pains taken to spread over it a velvet carpet of perfect turf, uniform in color and quality. Looking upon this from the house, it should seem to be margined on all sides by a rich, thick bank, generally low in front and rising as it recedes, of shrubs and flowering plants; the preparation for which may have required for years a clean-lined border, curve playing into curve, all the way round, A very few plants of delicate and refined cha- racter may stand out in advance, but such interruptions of the quiet of the turf must be made very cautiously. Of furniture or artificial ornaments there must be none, or next to none, for even bodily comfort may willingly defer a little to the dainty genius of the place. They may well walk, for instance, a few steps farther who would take a lounging seat, put up their feet, and knock the ashes from their pipes. Vet a single Chinese garden-stool of a softly mottled turquoise-blue will have a good effect if set where a flickering light will fall upon it on the shady side of the tree. The rear rank of shrubs will need to stand so far back that there will be no room to cultivate a suitable hedge against the street. The fence will then best be a wall of cut stone, with decorated gate-piers; or with a base of stone it may be of deftly-wrought iron touched with gilt. By no means a casting with clumsy and overdone effort at feeble ornament — much better a wooden construc- tion of less cost, in which there is a reflection, with variety, of the stylo of the house if that is of wood also, c)r if it is not, then something like a banister-rail of turned work, but with no obviously weak parts. The gateway being formed in a symmetrical recess of the fence nearly opjiosite the tree, the house-door being on the side, the approach to it will bend, with a moderate double curve, in such a way as to seem to give place to the tree, and at the same time allow the greatest expanse of unbroken lawu-surface. Near the gateway, and again near the corner farthest from it, there may be a small tree or a cluster of small trees or large shrubs, forming low. broad heads (dogwood grown in tree- form, sassafras kept low, or, to save time, the neat white mulberry), the tups of which, playing into that of the loftier linden on the right, will in tiiue give to those sitting at the bay-window of the living-room a flowing sky-line, depressed and apparently receding along the middle. If there is a tall building over the way with signs, or which otherwise offends, and the sidewalk space outside admits, we will plant upon it two trees only, adjusting them, as to both kind and position, so that they will almost repeat the I depressed line of the nearer foliage, at no greater distance I than is necessary to obscure the building, t^uite hidden it I need not be, lest, also, there should be some of the sky lost, banishment from the lower fields uf the sky being a punishment that we should strive not to need. But let us hope that at the worst we have but our neighbor's stable opposite, and that the tops of more distant trees may be seen over it; we shall then still bo glad to have the chance of bringing up two trees, set somewhat farther apart than before, on the roadside, as their effect will be to make an enlarged consistency of character; to close in and gather together all that makes up the home-scene, and to aid the turf in relieving it of a tendency to pettiness and excite- ment which lies in and under the shrubbery. Let a different theme be sung on the same ground. Sup- pose that it is an aged beech that we have found, badly used in its middle age as the linden in its youth — storm- bent, lop-limbed, and one-sided, its veteran trunk furrowed, scarred, patched, scaly, and spreading far out to its knotted roots, that heave all the ground about like taut-set cables. If we had wanted a fine dressy place, this interesting ob- ject would have been cut away though it were the last tree within a mile. Accepting it, nothing would be more com- mon, and nothing less like landscape gardening, than to attempt to make a smooth and even surface under it. Let it be acknowledged that fitness and propriety require that there should be some jdace before the htmse of repose for the eye, and that nowhere in the little property, to all parts of which wo may wish at times to lead our friends in fine attire, can we risk danger of a dusty or a muddy surface. Starting from the corner nearest the tree, and running broader and deeper after it has passed it and before the house, there shall be a swale (a gentle water-way) of cleanly turf (best kept so by the crojiping of a tethered cosset and a little play now and tlien of a grasshook, but if this is unhandy we will admit the hand lawn-mower). Now, to carry this fine turf right up over the exposed roots of the beech would be the height of landscape gardening indeli- cacy ; to let it come near, but cut a clean circle out about the tree, would be a landscape gardening barbarism. What is required is a very nice management, under which the turf in rising from the lower and presumably more humid ground shall become gradually thinner and looser, and at length darned with mo^s, and finally patched with plants that on the linden's lawn would be a sin — tufts of clover and locks and mats of loosestrife, liverwort, and dogtooth- violets ; even plantain and sorrel may timidly appear. The surface of the ground will continue rising, but with a broken swell towards the tree, and, in deference to its bent form, hold rising for a space on the other side; hut no- where will its superior roots be fully covered. Suppose that we are to come to this house, as it is likely we may, three times out of four from the side opposite to where the beech stands ; our path then shall strike in well over on that ()])p<jsite side and diagonally to the line of the road: there will be a little branch froni it leading to- wards and lost near the tree (the children's path), while the main stem bends short away toward a broad bowery porch facing the road at the corner nearest the gate. The path must needs be smooth for ease of foot and weleome- ness, but if its edges chance to be trodden out a little, wc will not be in haste to fully repair them. Slanting and sagging off from a ringbolt in the porch there is to be a hammock slung, its farther lanyard caught with two half- hitches on an old stub well up on the trunk of the beech. \ strong, brown, seafaring hummo<rk. There shall be a scat, too, under the tree of stout stuff, deeji, high-backed, armed, and, whether of rustic-work or plank, fitted by jointing (not held together by nails, bolts, or screws). It may even be rough-hewn, anil the more checked, weather- worn, and gray it becomes, without dilapidation or dis- comfort to the sitter, the better: here you may draw your matches and clean out your pipe, and welc<>me. Wc will have nothing in front to prevent a hedge, but must that mean a poor }tretenee of a wall in leafage ? rerhajts it must have that character for a few years till it has become thick and strong enough at bottom, and always it may be a moderately trim affair on the roadside, otherwise we should be tres- passers on our neighbors' rights. But its bushes shall not be all of one sort, and in good time they shall be bushes in earnest, leaping up with loose and feathery tops, six, eight, and sometimes ten feet high. And they shall leap out also towards us. Yet from the house half their lieight shall bo lost behind an under and out-growth of brake and bind- wecil, dog-rose and golden -rod, asters, gentians, Inilter- cups, poppies, and irises. Here and there a spray of low brambles shall bo thrown out beforo all. and the dead gray canes of last year shall not be every one removed. There will be coves and capes and islands of ehickweed, catnip, cinquefoil, wild strawberry, hcpatica, forget-mo-not, and lilics-of-the-valiey, and, still farther out, shoals under the LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 1629 turf, where crocuses and daffodils are waiting to gladden the children and welcome the bluebird in the spring. But near the gate the hedge shall be a little overrun and the gateposts overhung ao.l lost in sweet clematis : nay, as the gate must be set-in a little, because the path enters side- wise, there shall bo a strong bit of lattice over it, and from the other side a honeysuckle shall reinforce the clematis ; and if it whirls off also into the thorn tree that is to grow beyond, the thorn tree will bo none the worse to be held to a lowly attitude, bowing stiffly towards the beech. Inside the gate, bv the pathside, and again down by the porch, there may be cockscombs, marygolds, pinks, and pansies. But nothing of plants tied to the stake, or of plants the names of which, before they can command due interest, must be set before us on enamelled cards, as properly in a botanic garden or museum. -Vbovo all. no priggish little spruces and arborvit;cs, whether native or from Satsuma ; if the neighbors harbor Ihem. any common wooJside or fence- row bushes of the vicinity may bo set near the edge of the property to put them out of sight : nannyberry, hazel, shadbush, dogwood, even elder, or if an evergreen (conifer) will befit the place, a stout, short, shock-headed mountain-pine, with two or three low savins and a pros- trate juniper at their feet. Finally, let the roadside be managed as before. Then, if the gate bo left open nut much will 1)0 lost by it ; not all the world will so much as look in, and some who do will afterwards choose to keep the other side of the way. as it is better they should. Yet ", ur the old seat under As with reference to Landscape effect, it is not to be overlooked that nature acts both happily and unhappily. A man may take measures to secure the happy action and to guard against the unhappy action in this respect with no more effrontery than with respect to the production of food or protection from lightning, storm, frost, or malaria. Ho need not wait for the slow and uncertain process by which in nature a certain position would be adapted for a certain tree. He may make the soil fertile at once. He need not take the chance that a certain thick growth of saplings will be so thinned by the operation of what are called natural causes that a few of them may yet have a chance to become yigorous, long-lived, umbrageous trees. Knowing how much more valuable a very few of these will be in the situation, with the adjoining turf holding green under their canopy, than the thousands that for long years may otherwise occupy it, struggling with one another and bar- ring out the light which is the life of all beneath them ho may make sure of what is best with oxe and bill- hook. The ultimate result is not less natural or beautiful when ho has done so than it wnuld have been if at the same time the same trees had been eaten out by worms or taken away, as trees sometimes are, by an epidemic disease. On the other band, there are several considerations, ne- glect of which is apt to cause too much to be asked of landscape gardening, and sometimes perhaps too much to be professed and attemjitcd. The common comparison of the work of a landscape gardener with that of a landscape l^n'r'r^f wm i:yn!;hi:::\;nd;rvle;-;i;;t^u;;w-or [ painter, ..r e.atnp.e,- easily — - "^J^^, -If-^^X " ■ •■■ ■ a scene ! The artist in landscape gardening can nevei have, Ike I he ruile or vulgar: on the contrary, there will be of much relinement as well as of much beauty, and those who live in the house, especially if they have a way of getting their work or their books out under the beech, will find, al the sun goes round ami the clouds drift over, that taking it altogether there is a quality more lovable in it than Ts to be found in all the glasshouses, all the ribbon borders, all the crown jewels of the world. The same will be enually true of the result of the very different kind of gardening design first supposed. We come thus to the iiueslion. What is the distinctive quality of this beauty? In each case there has been an ideal in view, and in each clement introduced a consistent pursuit of that ideal, but it is not in this fact of consistency that we find the beauty. Wo term it landscape beauty, although there is none of the cxjianse which is the first distinguish- ing quality of a landscape. This brings us to the consid- eration that from the point of view of art or of the science of the imagination we may ask for something more in a landsca)ie than breadth, ilepth, composition, and consist- ency. A traveller, su.bbnly turning his eyes upon a landscape that is new to him. and which cannot be directly associated with any former experience, may find himself touchcrl as if by a cicep sympathy, so that in an instant his eyes moisten. After long and intimate acquaintance with such a landscape it will often be found to have a persistent inftuence which may be called its charm— a charm possibly of such power as to appreciably affect the development of the character and shape the course of life. Landscajics of parlioular type associate naturally an.l agreeably with cer- tain events.' Their fitness in this respect is due to the fact that, through some subtle action cm the imagination, they affect the same or kimlred sensibilities. If in these door- yards there is something to which every element contrib- utes, comparable in this respect to a poetic or a musical theme, as well, in the one case, of elegance and neatness, carried perhaps to the jioint of quaint primness, as in the other of homely cninfort and goo.l-nature, carried close to the point of careless habits, then the design aiol process by which it has been attained may lay some slight claim to be considered as a work of art, and the highest art-significaiicc of the term landscape may properly bo used to distinguish its character in this respect. In the p.issibilitv, not of making a perfect copy of any charming natural iandscaiie. or of any parts or elements of it. but of leading to the production, where it does not exist, under required conditions and restrictions, of some degree of the poetic beauty of all natural landscapes, wo shall thus find not only the special function and the justification of the term landsca]ie gardening, but also the first object of study for the lamlscape gardener, anil the standard by which alone his work is to be fairly judged. There are those who will oHcstion the propriety of re- garding the production of tlie poetic beauty of natural landscape as the enil of landscape gardening, on the ground that the very term " natural beauty" means beauty not of man's design, and thai the l.isl result of all man's labor will be but a poor counterfeit, in which it is vain to look for the poetry of nature. .Much has been written to this effect ; with what truth to the nature of man it will bo well eiiutiously to consider. landscape painter, a clean canvas to work ujion. Always there will be conditions of local topography, soil, and cli- mate by which his opcriitions must he limited. He cannot whenever it suits him introduce the ocean or a snow- capped mountain into his background. He cannot illu- minate his picture with constant sunshine nor soften it by a perpetual Indian summer. Commonly, he is allowed only to modify the element? of scenery, or perhaps to bring abo'ut unity a"nd distinctness of expression and suggestion in a locality where elements of beautiful landscape already abound, but arc partly obscured or seen in awkward, con- fusing, and contradiet"ing associations. This is especially likely to be the case in undulating and partially wooded localities, such as in America are oftenest chosen for rural homes. Again, the artist in landscape gardening cannot determine precisely the form and color of the details of his work, because each species of plant will grow up with features which cannot be exactly foreknown in its seed or sapling condition. Thus, he can see his designed and im- aginary landscape only as one may see an existing and tann-ible landscape with half-closed eyes, its finer details not'being wholly lost, yet nowhere perfectly definable. Still, again, it is to be remembered that works in landscape gardening have, as a general rule, to be seen from many points of view. The trees which form the background, still oftener those which form the middle distance, of one view must be in the foreground of another. Thus, the working out of one motive must be limited by the necessi- ties of the working out of others on the same ground, and to a greater or less degree of the same materials. I'lnally, the conditions of health and convenience in ei.nnection with a dwelling are incompatible with various lonns of captivating landscape beauty. A house may be placed in a lovely situation. Iherelore. and the end of long and costly labors of improvement abmit it prove comparatively dull, formal, ami uninteresting. What is lost is a part of the price of health and convenience of dwelling. The Iand- scaiie gardener may have made the best of the case under the conditions prescribed to him. It has been sabl thai landscapes of ft particular type as- sociate naturally and ngr.eably with certain events. It is to be added that the merit of landscape gardening consisis largely in the degree in which their designer has been in- spired by a spirit congenial te elcmenis of locality and oc- casion which are not, strictly speaking, gardening elements. The grounds for an ordinary modest home, for instance, may ilesirablv be designed to give the house, gardens, and offices an aspect of retirement and seclusion, as if these had nestled coiilv down logelher among the trees in escape from the outside 'world. The gnoinds of a great public loiibl- a monument of architecture— will, on the other hand. 'cale, nf open, simple, and broad es of foliage, as convenience of very Irce arranged in subordi- ing- be desirably as large in in spaces of turf and mai aiiproueh will allow, and . nation to, and support of, the buiMing. The grounds of a church an.l of an inn. of a cottage and of an arsenal, of a burvingplaco and of a place of amusement, will thus dif- fer,'in each case correspondingly to their primary purpose. Uealiling this, it will be leeognized that the choue ol tho site, of the elevation, aspect, entrances, and outlooks of a 1630 LANDSEER— LANE. building for no purpose oan be judiciously determined ex- cept in connection with a study of the leading features of a plan, of its approaches, and grounds. Also, that in the desi»n of roads, walks, lakes, and bridges, of the method of dealing with various natural circumstances, as standing wood, rocks, and water; in a determination of what is pos- sible and desirable in respect to drainage, water-supply, distant ]>rospects to be opened or shut out, the avoidance of malaria and other 'evils, — all these and many other du- ties are necessarily intimately associated with those of gar- dening (or the cultivation of plants) with a view to land- scape effects. Frederick Law Olmsted. Land'seer (Charles), son of John and brother of Edwin, b. in 1799; received instruction from his father; studied in the schools of the Royal Academy, and exhiljited in 1S2S; was chosen an associate in 1S;J7, a member in iS45, and keeper in 1S51. He was a painter of historical pieces. His I'liimlering of Bmiiuj Hvtite. an incident of the civil war in England, is well known. Other pictures are —Cbti-i'S't Harl:,<rc in Prhmi, The De/mrluru of Chnrle^ II. in l)i>.,„he, The .Voi.i-« „r Melrose, The Iletitn, of the Dove to the 'Ark. D.July 22,1879. 0. B. FnoTHiNGnAM. LanUseer (Sir Euwis), younger brother of Charles, b. in Loudon in 1S02; excelled while a boy in the painting of animals; became a student of the Academy in 1816; began to exhibit when only fourteen years old. Sketches made when he was but live years old are in the South Ken- sington Museum. In 1S20, at the suggestion of Uaydon, he look advantage of the death of a lion at E.\cter Ex- change to study the anatomy of the animal, and subse- quently he painted several pictures introducing the lion — The Liuii Ileposiioj, The Lion Dislnrhcil, Van Ambuigh and the {.ions. The four bronze lions at the base of the Nelson Monument in Trafalgar Square were his work ; they were done by order of the government (1SJ9), and uncovered Jan. .'il, 1S67. Landseer is beyond question the greatest animal painter of his time as respects anatomical truth, vigor of treatment, and power of characterization ; he treats his subjects suggestively, often with humor, and ex- cels equally in producing comic and tragic effects. Uis pictures, which are very numerous and of great variety, are too well known through engravings to need mention. Some of his best originals may be seen in the Vernon Collection (National Gallery) and the Sheepshanks Collection at South Keusinglon. His subjects were taken from animal life in all regiljus — deer of the Scottish Highlands, polar bears from the Arctics, and dogs of every breed. Edwin Land- seer was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1S26, and a member in ISSl. In ISaO he received knighthood from the queen. On the death of Sir Charles Eastlake in ISfiO, he was elected president of the Royal Academy, but declined the honor. 0. B. Frothi.ngbam. Landseer (John), b. in 1761 ; d. Feb. 29, 1852 ; was the son of a jeweller: received his earliest instruction from \Vm. UyTne. His first jiroductions were vignettes for Mac- lin's Bible and liowyer's Hisiori/ of Knijland (179:!); in 1799 was engaged on a series of views in the Isle of Wight for J. M. W. Turner and J. C. Ibbetson ; afterwards pub- lished engravings of animals, after Kubens, Snyders, Rembrandt, and others; in 1806 gave lectures on engrav- ing at the Royal Institute, which were puldishcd ; in 1807 was chosen associate engraver by the Academy ; in 181i began a series of line engravings illustrating the antiqui- ties of Dacca (British India), 20 plates: in 1817 read a paper to the Society of .-Vntiquaries on Enijnired O'emi Jrom Jiaii/lon, and later gave a course of lectures on Emjiaved Hieioylyphies ; in 1821! published Sahiran Keseaiehea, a volume, and in 18.14 a catalogue, descriptive, explanatory, and critical, of the earliest pictures iu the National Gallery. As late as ISil exhibited at the Royal .\cademy views of Druidical temples in the islands of Guernsey and Jersey. One of his early pictures, J)or/s of .Ml. St. Jlnnard, was finely engraved by his father. 0. B. Frothlngiiam. Landseer (Thomas), A. R. A., elder brother of Edwin and Charles, an engraver of ability and repute. His best work is the reproduction of his brother's pictures, which he executed with spirit and delicacy. The pinte of Rosa Bonheur's llorie fair, published in 1861. gave him celeb- rity. He wrote the /.i/e of William llexriek (artist) in 2 vols. (1871). D. Jan.,'l88i). 0. B. FROTHi.vGnAM. Land's End. See Cornwall. Laud^iTord, post-v. and tp. of Chester co., S. C. Pop. 2100. Lands'hnt, a quaint old town of Bavaria, capital of the district of Lower Bavaria, on the Isar. It has large breweries and manufactures of tobacco, and many inter- esting buildings, among which are St. Martin's church, built in 14.i0, with a tower 454 feet high ; the old castle, built in 1232 ; a royal palace, with beautiful frescoes. From 1800 to 1826 it was the seat of a university, previously lo- cated at Ingolstadt, and subsequently removed to Munich. In the tifteeuth century it was the capital of the duchy of Bavaria-Landshut. I'op. 14,141. Land!ihut,town of Prussia, in the province of Silesia, at the confluence of the Zieder and the Bober, has some linen and woollen manufactures, and is noted for the vic- torv which the Austrians gained here over the Prussians, June 23, 1760. Po)). 6673. Lands'krona, town of Sweden, in the province of Malmi), on the Sound, has a good harbor, and some manu- factures of leather and tobacco. On the island of liven, a mile distant, was the residence and observatory of Tycho Brahe. the celebrated astronomer, of which nothing now remains. Pop. 7323. Land'slipt a sort of avalanche of earth and rocks from the sides of mountains or hills. Earthquakes, frost, and especially the action of water, are frequent canses. Soils resting on inclined planes of smooth rock or upon beds of loose gravel are liable to slide en innxse during long-con- tinued rains. Elevated peat-swamps have been known to absorb so much water as to burst and deluge lower regions with torrents of muil. Underlying strata of clay may be- come liquefied and gush out, leaving the surface to topple in. A remarkable land-slide occurred near Nice, France, when the castle and village of Roecabruna, surrounded by oran<'e and lemon groves, moved for some distance down the mountain without disturbing the houses. One of tlie most famous land-slides was that in which Goldau in Switzerland was destroyed. In 1826 there was an extensive land-slide 2 miles from the Notch in the White Mountains of New Hampshire, which destroyed the Willey family, choked up the Saco River, and flooded the surrounding country. Landstnrm. See German Empire — Armij and Xnry. Land Tax, a revenue derived by a government from an assessment on land. (See Taxation, by Rev. A. L. Chapix. S. T. D.J Landwchr. Sec German Empire— -limj and Nary. Lane, county of W. Kansas. Area, 720 square miles. It is a prairie region, watered by tributaries of Walnut Creek. Lane, county of Oregon, extending from the Cascade Range W. to the Pacilic. Area, l.inil square miles. Its E. part is in the Willamette Valley, and is highly fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are leading products. The county is traversed by the Oregon and California R. R. Cap. Eugene City. Pop. 6426. Lane, tp. of Warrick co., Ind. Pop. 870. Lane, tp. of Greenwood co., Kan. Pop. 320. Lane (Ebenezeri, LL.I).. b. at Northampton. Mass., Sept. 17, 1793; graduated at Harvard in 1811; studied law with Matthew (Jriswold, bis uncle: removed in 1.'*I7 to Ohio, and in 1822 became a resident of Sandusky. He was 1824-30 a judge of the common pleas; of the State supreme I court 1S30-37: chief-justice 1837-45, and aftcrivards a railroad manager. 1). at Sandusky, 0., June 12. 1866. Lane (Edward William), Ph. D., b.at Hereford, Eng- land, in 1801 ; was educated for the Church, but never took ; orders; went to Egypt in 1825, and resided there three ! years, studying the -Arabic language and literature, and making two voyages up the Nile; again spent two years there (1833-35), preparing, at the request of the Society for the Diffusion of I'seful Knowledge, bis popular and entertaining work on the Manners and Cnstoms of the Mod- ern Ei/i/ijllans, which was published in 1830 : made a trans- lation 'of the ,l;<r(,/.iii Xiijhts, with notes (1841); went to Egypt for the third time in 1842, and afterward resided in Cairo, principally engaged in the preparation of an .\rabio lexicon, under tlie patronage of the iluke <if Northumber- land, and after the death of that nobleman with the sujiport of the British government. The first part appeared in IS63, the second in 1865, and others more recently, but was left unfinished. Mr. Lane also published .Silceliont/rom the ICnr-an (1843) and Arabian Tales and Anerdotet (1845); was in 1864 made correspi>nding member of the Institute of France, and in Feb., 1875, received the degrees of mas- ter of philosophy ami doctor of literature from the I'ni- versity of Leyden. D. Aug. 10, 1876. Lane (Rev. Geouge W.), b. in Wilkesbarre, Pa., Jan. 15, 1815, a son of the Rev George Lane: was licen.sed to preach in Georgia in Mar., 1834: was classical teacher in the manual-labor school near Coviugton, Ga., and then, for ten years, professor of languages in Emory College. He was a man of large attainments and indomitable energy. lealous and successful as a minister, and belonged to the Georgia M. E. conference. D. Sept. 21, 1848. T. 0. Summers. LANE— LAXGDON. 1631 Lane (ilKNRy S.l, b. in Montgomery co.. Ky., Feb. 24, lull : wiis early in life admitCcti lo the Indiauii bar; was ID Congress ISIl—t.'t; lieutenant-coloDcl of volunteers in the Mexican war; choeen U. S. Senator in 1S50, but un- sealed; elected go^'ernor of Indiana 18G1 ; V. &. Senator from Indiana 18t>l-C7. Lane i.Tamks Hevrv), b. at Lawrcnceburg, Ind., .Tune 22. \^\i. was a son uf llou. Amos Lane, an able lawyer and politiiMsin. J. H. Lane was iidmitteil to the bar in Is40 ; enlisted in the 3d Indiana Vols, in 1810 as a jirivate. but became a colonel, and at Buena Vislu eomiuandcd a bri- gade with great credit ; was IS47-4S colonel of the ^th In- diana. In 184S he was chosen lieutenant-governor; was in Congress 1853-55, and voted for the Ncbrai^ka bill; re- moved in 1855 to Kansas: was a prominent member of the first Free State government; was president of both the To- peka and the Leavenworth ( 1S57) constitutional convcn- tioii-j. and major-generni of the Free State forces. In 185G he was chosen by the Free State legislature as U. S. Sen- ator, but was not allowed a scat, and in the same year was indicted for high treason by the enemies of the Topeka c<m- stitution. and compelled to flee. In IS.">S he was indicted and tried for the murder of a neighbor whom ho had killed in a fjuarrel. l>ut was accjuitted. In I SOI. and again in I8f)5, he was sent from Kansas to the U. S. Senate. lie served efliciently for some time during the civil war as a brigadier- general of volunteers. In ISfiCi ho received a ])aralytic stroke, and on July 11, 1866, took his own life, at Leaven- worth, Kan. Lane (Rev. Jons), b. in Virginia Apr. 8, 1789: entered the ministry in the South Carolina M. K. conference in 181-t, and in ISIG became a pioneer of i^fethodism in Mississippi. He was present at the first session of the Mississippi con- ference, in which for many years ho was a standard-bearer. He ivaa also a probate judge in AVurrcn co., where ho exer- cised a wide innuence. haviug married a daughter of Mr. Vick, after whom Vicksburg was named. D. at Vickaburg, Miss., Oct. 10, 1855. T. 0. Simmeks. Lane (.rosi:iMi).b. in Buncombe co., X. C, Dec. 14, IROl; removed in youtli to Indiana, where he engaged in mercan- tile pursuits and in ]M)Iities : served iis colonel of tlio 2d In- diana Vols, in the Mexican war, and was made a brigadier and brevet major-general for gallantry at Bucua Vista and in many minor actions; became in ISIS, an<l again in 1S53, governor of Oregon Territory; was a delegate in 1851-5Uj U. S. Senator lS5'.t-fiI ; ami iu iSf'.O was nominated for Vice-President on the Breckenridgo ticket. Lane fSir Rammii, b. in Xorthamjitonshire, England, about 15:»0; entered the service of (Juoen Klizabelh in 150.'i as equerry; served with credit in the rebellion of 15(19, and in Ireland in 15S3-84, and was appointed by Sir Walter Huleigh in Feb., 15S5, governor of Virginia. Ho aban- diined the province in the following year, returning to Eng- land with Sir Francis Drake; was colonel in Drake's exjic- dition against Portugal in 15^1); wounded in an Irish cam- paii^n in 1591, knighted in 1593, antl d. iu Ireland iu 1604. I^nne Prai'rie, tp. of Otter Tail co., Minn. Pop. SO. LiliK'N, tp. of Morgan co., Ala. Pop. 722. LuiurN'boro'y poat-v. and tp. of Anson co., N. C, on the Carolina Central U. R, Pop. 129:!. Lanen'borough, a pleasant post-tp. of Berkshire co., Ma^s., on the i'ittsfield and North Adams R. R., 5 miles N. of Pittsficld. It has quarries of niarlile and limestone, and mines of iron and glass-sand, a literary as.^ociutioD, 4 churches, a public library, and nninufacturcs of iron, glass, lime, etc. It is widely known for its scenery, at some points wild and grauil, at others remarkably beautiful. Pop. 13y.'{. Lnncsboroii;;!!, posl-v. of Carrollton tp.. Fillmore co., Minn., on tho Southern Minnesota K. U., 50 miles W. by S. of La Crosse, Wis., has 1 weekly newspaper. Pop. C55. LaneHborou^hf post-v. of Harmony tp., Suscjuehanna CO.. Pa., on the Krie U. R., 1 mile N. K. of Susquehanna Dt'pftf, and on the Susf|uehanna River. LnncN'burg, tp. of Lc Sueur co., Minn. Pop. 1123. lianeN treek, post-tp.of Union co.,N. C. Pop. 1575. Lanes'ville, a thriving post-v. in the X. K. part of Gloucester tn., Essex eo., Mas;*.. 5 miles from Glouoeater Village, on the N. shore of Capo Ann. Lnnc'villc, tp. of Halo oo.. Ala. Pop. 25fln. LnnYrnnc, b. at Pavia, Italy, about 10(15; studied at Bologna, and taught juricpru'lence and dialectic at Pavia with applause: removed to Frnnee. and. probably in 1039, settled at Avranches; entered the Rpne<lietine abbey of Bee 1042, which soon became a renowned school of theology, ?atristics, and dialectic; was maile prior in IflCc took part 050-09 in tl»e controversy with Berengarius: lieranif ab- bot of Caen lor.f., and was appointed arclibi-bop of Canter- bury by William the Conqueror 1070 — a position which was rendered a trying one by the solf-will of the Conqueror and his successor, the refractory conduct of some of the clergy, and the unsettled relations of the po])e to the king in re- gard to church preferments. Lanfrane was one of the foun*!- crs of scholasticism. His most important existing works arc De c<»rpmr it «amjuhir Domini and commentaries on the Pauline Epistles. D. at Canterbury May 24, I0S9. Lanfrey' (PiEnitK), b. in 1828 at Chambi'Ty, Savoy, then a part of the kingdom of Sardinia. His father was a Frenchman who had been a military oflieer under the em- pire. Pierre entered the Jesuit college at Chambf^ry. I>ut left on account of having written a pamphlet against his reverend instructors, and compleled his studies at the Col- lege Bourbon in Paris, where iie qualified for the bar. but afterwards turned his attention to pliilosophical and his- torical studies. His first work. T/ir Chnrrh and the Phi- hsophrm of the Eiffhtertith Vruturif ( 1S57), made a consid- erable sensation, which was deepened by An Efm'tt/ on the French /icrohition ( 1 S5S). Tftr Politicnl Histori/ of the Poprg (I860). Political Stndirs and Portraits (18G3), and The ReHtnratinn of Poland (ISG3). In ISG7. M. Lanfrey ct»m- mcnccd the publication of his most important work, a Iliston/ of y/fpn/eon /., of which the fifth volume ap- peared in IS71. the ablest and niot-t complete arraignment of the First Enipiro at the bar of hif^tory that has a])peart d. M. Lanfrey served in tlu^ moln'/es of Savoy during the Franco-Cierman war, was elected to the National Assembly in Feb., 1871, and in October of that year was appointe<I by Thiers minister to Switzerland, but resigned in 1873; elected life senator in 1S75. D. Nov. 15, IS77. Lang fJoiiv Di'NMORr), D. D., b. at Largs. Ayrshire, Scotliind, about ISOO ; emigrated to Sydney at an early age, and becunie ]>rincipal of tho Australian Cidlege. In ]S:;i ho pnldished The lUstnrj/ <>/' AVm- South Wafe>t, both an a i*cual Sftt((incnt and ax a Britinh C(doni/,t\ictirsl historical work on that colony possessing any claims to fulness and authority. It has passed through several editions. Dr. Lang wrote briefer works upon other separate colonies, including New Zealand (IS't)), Philipshuid (1847), CooKs- lancl ( 1S47), and Freedoin and Independence /or the Gtddtn Landi of Australia (1853), republished iu 1870 under tho title The Cominy Event. Lang (Louis), b, at Wnldsee. Wiirtemberg. Mnr. 29, 1814; became noted at an early ago for skill in painting likenesses in pastel ; resided at Constance ( 18oO-.'M 1 ami at Paris (1834-37); eame to the U. S. in 1838; went to Italy in 1841, studying at Venice, Bologna, Florence, and Ron.e; then spent two years in tho U. S. ( 184 5— 17), engaged in the artistic decoration of houses, an<l after another visit to Rome (1847-49) made his permanent residence in New York City. Lang'dale (SlrM.vnMADi'KE),b. in Yorkshire. England, aij<Mit I.VJO; was sheritl" of that county in D)42: cmbractd the Royalist cause, and became one of tlie most valiant generals of Charles I., defeating the Scotch at Corbridgo and raising tho siege of Pontefract Castle (1644); com- manded at the battle of Xaseby, June 14, IG45. which was lost through the imprudence of Priuc<- Rupert ; joined ALmt- rose : was defeated; escaped to the Isle of Man; uent thence to the Continent; joined the Scotch royalist army in 1G48: took Berwick by surprise (May); defeated by Cromwell at Preston (Aug. 17): captured and im]irlsnii(d in Nottingham Castle; escaped to Flanders; was made baron by Charles II.: was lunl li(iitenant of Yorkshire <in tho Restoration in ll'.fiO. nml cl. at York Aug. 5, 1G61. Clnr- ondon in his ///«^>rl/ of ihr HduUion gives him a high repu- tation for courage and skill. Lang'deH (CnnisTiu-nKR CuLfMnis). A. M.. LL.B., A. B.. dean of the law faculty <if Cambridge I'nivcr.'ily, Cambridge, Mass., b. in Hillsborough en.. N. M.. May Tl, 1826; entered Phillips Exeter Academy in isi.'i, and Har- vard College in LS48; left college to pursue teaching in 1849, and decided not to return, hence did not graduate with his class; in IS50 began the study of law, and at- tended Harvard Law Sch()ol in the sub^cquent year. At the annual eommeneonicnt in 1853 110 received the degree of LL.n.. and at the following eomnicncemcnt the honorary degree of .\. M.; removed to New York, where he practised law until be was appointed Dane professor of law in Cam- bridge I'niversity. .\t the annual commencemeiil in 1870 he received the <legree of \. B. as a niember of llie class of LS5I. and was nppointecl to the position he now hobU at tho beginning of the academic year of 1870-71. J. S. Oinnoss. 'Lanf;'tlon« jtost-tp. of Sullivan eo.. N. H.. 50 miles W. of Coneord. D has mnnufactures of lutuber. Pop. 4 11. Langdon (CiiAHi.KS C.). of Northern birth: emigrated about is.'IG to Alabama, and became a nierchant of Perrv 1632 LANGDON— LANGLOIS. 00. ; was afterwards editor of the Mobile lirghler, a Whig paper; was mayor of Mobile, and in 1861 opposed seces- sion ; chosen in 1.S6J to Congress, was not allowed to take his seat : was the founder of Uitronelle, Mobile Co., Ala., where he has since resided. Laiigdon (.rmiN), LL.D., a patriot of New Hampshire, b. at I'l.rt-'niouth in 1741, became a successful moreliant of that town. In 17"l he assisted in securing for the colonies the ordnance stores in the fort near Portsmouth. In 1775 he was sent to the Congress. In 177f) he bccauie navy agent. Speaker of the New Hampshire assembly, and judge of the common pleas. He gave the money with which Stark's famous brigade was equiiipcd, and in person com- manded a company at Bennington, Saratogiv. and elsewhere. In 177n he was president of the New Hampshire convention and Continental agent. In 1783 he was sent to Congress, and was afterwards more than once Speaker in the New Hampshire legisl.ature. He was president of New Hamp- shire in 1785, and in 1787 was in the convention which drafted the Federal Constitution. In 1788 he was governor, and again in 1805-09 and lSIO-12. He was a U. S. Senator 1780-1801, and declined the secretaryship of the navy and the Vice-Presidency of the U. S. 1). Sept. IS, 1819. Langdon (Samuel), I). D.. AnERnREx, b. in Boston, Mass., Jan. 12, 1723, and graduated at Harvanl in 1740. He became master of a grammar school at Portsmouth, N. II.; was a chaplain in the Louisburg e.spedition 1745; assistant minister, and afterwards (1747-74) pastor, of the First Congregational church at Portsmouth ; president of Harvard College 1774-80. and afterw.ards a minister at j Hampton Falls, N. H. He was prominent in the public ; affairs of the State. Published many sermons, and several volumes upon theological and religious subjects. U. Nov. 29, 1797. Langdon (WonnBrnv'l.brotherof .John Langdon (1741- 1810), h. at Portsmouth. N. H., in 1739 : served in Congress 1770-80; ajudgeof tlie New Hampshire supreme court 1782, and again 1786-90, and held other public offices. D. at Portsmouth Jan. 13, 1805. Lange (Joranv Pkter), b. Apr. 10, 1802. at Sonnborn, near Elberfeld, in Rhenish Prussia, in humble circum- stances; acquired his first education by his own energy; •attended for a year and a half the gymnasium of Diissel- dorf : studied theology at Bonn ; preached in several places, and was ap|iointed professor of theology at Zurich in 1841, and in 1854 at Bonn. His Lrhrn Jrs„ (3 vols., 1844-47), translated into F.nglish by Sophia Taylor and J. E. Ryland (Philailelphia, 1872). Chrlnlliehe Dmjmalik (Z vols., 1849- 52), and Ap„Fl,Jhi-hr y.,ll,dli-r (2 vols., 1853-54), exercised a widespread and highly bencfici.al infiuence; of his Thco- JnrjUrhhamihilm-he llihrlirfrk an English edition has been prepared under the title of £nii./f'» Cnmmenlnry, by Philip SclwafT, and published at New York ( 1865, teq.). Lang'eland (''long land"), an island of Penmnrk, in the Baltic, between Funen and Laaland. It is 33 miles I.mg and 3 miles broad. Area. 106 square miles. Pop. 18,399. It is exceedingly fertile, producing wheat, apples, good tim- ber, and excellent cattle. Principal town, Rudkiiibing. I/an'gemarcq, town of Belgium, in the province of West Flanders, has extensive manufactures of lace and linen. P,.p. 615S. Lan'genbielaii, a number of villages in Silesia, Prus- sia, un the IVila, consisting of I'pper, Lower, Oreat, Lit- tle, New, and 01,1 I.angenbielau, which together form a town of 12,700 inhabit.ants. Many kinds of manufactures are carried on, especially cotton. Iiangensal'za, town of Prussia, in the province of Saxonyl numbering about 10,000 inhabitants; was several times "the theatre of battles. On Feb. 15, 1701, the allied Prussians and Englishmen, under Sydow and Spiircken, de- feated the (lerman imperial anuy nnder Steinville; Apr. 17, ISI3, the Prussians defeated the Bavarians: June 27, 1866. a bloody contest look place between the Prussians and the Hanoverians. Under the commanrl of King (Jcorge, who had allied himself closely to .\ustria, the Hanoverian army, numbering about 20.000 men. broke u|i from Giit- tingcn and moved southward in order (o join the Bava- rians, who stood on the other side of the Thiiringer Wald. A Prussian corps nnder the command of (len. von Fliess, reinforced by tri>ops from Saxe-Dotha. anrl numbering about 10,000 "men, pushed forward from fiotha in order to detain them. .\t Langcnsalza an encounter took ]dace, in which the Hanoverians, although victorious, sutfered so much that they were unable to continue their march. They lost 102 officers and 1327 men; the Prussians, 846 in all. As a superior number of Prussian troops came on from other sides during the next days, the Hanoverians had to capitulate ; the army became jjrisoners of war, and soon after the kingdom ceased to exist. Augitst Niemann. Langeron', de (.\sdraclt). Count, b. at Paris Jan. 13, 1703: served in America as sub-lieutenant during the closing year of the war of the Revolution ; rose to be colonel in 1786; emigrated from France at the outbreak of the French Revolution; took service in Russia in 1790, first against Sweden, and afterwards against Turkey ( 1790 -91) ; was with the Austrian forces in the invasions of the Low Countries and of France (1792-94) ; returned to Rus- sia, and rapidly rose to the rank of lieutenant-general and count (1799) ; commanded a Russian division at Austerlitz, and on the Danube in the Turkish war from 1S07 to 1812; bore a ilislinguishcd )uvrt in resisting the grand army of Napoleon in the invasion of Russia (1812-13), in the vic- tory of Leipsio(Oct. 18), and the advance upon Paris (1S14); was governor-general of New Russia in 1822; served in Turkish war 1828-29, and d. at St. Petersburg July 4, 1831. He left MS. memoirs which were used by Thiers in the History of the Connxdate and Empire. Langevin' (Hector Louis), C. li., h. at Quebec Aug. 15, 1820 ; was educated at the Quebec College and in Mont- real; became an advocate in 1850; was for a time a jour- nalist in Montreal, and afterwards in tjuebec ; was mayor of Quebec 1857-60. and a member of the Provincial Par- liament 1858-66. In 1S64 ho became solicitor-general, and in 1860 postmaster-general. He was ( 1866-69) secretary of state in the Dominion cabinet, and 1869-72 minister of public works. He sits (1875) in the House of Commons for Dorchester, Quebec; was made C. B. in 1868. Author of Droit AdmiiiiHtrotif des Paroisnes (1862), aud is a con- servative in politics. Lang'ham, de (Simon), Cardinal, b. probably at Langham. Rutlandshire, England, about 1310 ; became n monk in Westminster in 1335, prior and abbot in 1349, high treasurer of England 1360, bishop of Ely 1362, chan- cellor 1363, and archbishop of Canterbury by papal pro- vision July 22, 1366. His most noted action was the re- moval of Wyclifie from the wardenship of Baliol College, Oxford, in which he was su[iportcd by Pope Urban V., who signalized bis approval by making Langham a cardinal- presbyter (1368). while the king, Edward III., was favor- able to the Reformer. The new cardinal was forced to re- sign his archbishopric (Nov., 1368), and retired to Avignon, where he became a trusted counsellor of Pope Gregory XI., and d. July 22, 1376. After the accession of Richard II. his remains were removed with great pomp to Westminster Abbey in 1379. Lang'horne (JonN). D. D..l>. at Kirkby-Stephen.Weet- morelanil. England, iu Mar., 1735: entered Clare Hall, Cam- bridge, in 1760; became curate of Si. John's, Clerkenwell, and of Blagden. Somersetshire, and was some time assistant preacher of Lincoln's Inn. In 1708 he removed to Folke- stone, where his brother William i 1721-72) was perpetual curate, and with him made a translation of Plutarch's /.Ives (6 vols., 1770), which still holds its position as one of the most wiilely-read of any translation from a classic author. Ho publisiied many poems, tales, and sermons of little value, and in 1777 became prebend in the cathedral of Wells, Somersetshire. D. at Blagden Apr. 1, 1779. Lang'land, Langplande, or Longland (Robert), b. probiiblv at Cleobury .Mortimer, Shro], shire, about 1332 ; was educated at Oxford ; became a fellow of Oriel College, and a monk at Malvern. His Vision nf Piers Plowman, in alliloralive verse, written about 1362. was a satire upon the clergy, and is one of the earliest works written in the Eng- lish language ; first jointed in 1550. The best edition is that of Thomas Wright (London, 1856). Langland d. about 1400. Langles (Loris MATniEr), b. at Perenne, Haute-Loire, Aug. 23, 1763; studied Oriental languages at Paris, and attracted considerable attention in 1787 by his translation into French from the Persian of Tamerlane's Institutes. In 1789-90 he edited Father Amiot's Mantchoo-French dic- tionary, and in 1795 he induced the French re|.ublican government to establish a special school of Onental lan- guages, of which he himself became the first administrator 1 and professor in the Persian. Tbrougli this school, and through the geographical Society of Paris, (if which he also was the founder, he exercised a large and beneficial infiuence. He was also the author of numerous works re- lating to Oriental languages and literature. D. at Paris Jan. 28, 1824. 1 Langlois' (Victor), b. at Dieppe Mar. 20, 1829; stud- 1 ied Oriental languages, and travelled in 1852-53 in Cilicia and Armenia, where he discovered over eighty new (ireek i inscriptions, and unilertook excavations at Tarsus, from which bo brought many interesting antiquities to Pans. ' In 1867 he pubiishod Le' Mnnt .Ulios el ses Mouaslires. con- I taining a pholo-lilhographic reproduction of the gcogra|)h- ical work of Ptolemv. In 1SG8 ho began the publication LAXGNAU— LANGUAGE. 1683 of CoKectwit dea Hintorienw anciena et modernes de I'Armi- ni>, which was uotiuiijbcU wkcD bu d. May 14, ISGU. Lang'imu, towu of Switztrlund. in the canton of Bcmc, hns iron-fuumlrii-s. tanneries, inauufactures of tobacco and watches, and au active trade in liucn and cheese. Pop. 53CI). Lango'ln, post-v. and tp. of Benton co,, Miun., on the MiMsissij.jii Uiver. Pop. Hit. Lnns Plantation, tp. of Franklin co., Me. Pop. 36. Langrcs, tuwn of Frnnce, in the depnrtiucnt of Haule- M.irne, situated on the left bank of the Murne, ou a plateau at an delation of liGO feot. It is au old town, with a ca- thedral of the eleventh century, a college, and theological seminary. Large trade in grain and cattle, and celebrated raanufacture of fine cutlery. It is the birthplace of Diderot, to whose memory a ra'inuinent was erected here. Pop. 8320. Lang's, tp. of Darlington co., S, C. Pop. 1211. Langs'ton, post-v. of Montcalm CO., Mifh., 10 miles from Greenville .Station, which is ou tho Detroit Lansing and Lake Michigan K. K. Lnngston (John Mfrokr), LL.D., b. at Louisa Court- hou.^c, Louisa co., Va.. Dec. 14. 1829. By birth a slave, ho was emancipated when six years old: educated at Oberlin College, where he graduated in 1849, and from the theolog- ical department of the same college in 1853; jitudied law, being admitted to the Ohio bar in IS51; pursued his profes- sion for thirteen years in Ohio, when he was called to a pro- fessorship in the law department of the Ilowanl Tniversity at Washington, D. ('.; became dean of the faculty, and in IS'.'J vice-president and acting president of the university. Was appointed in 1871, by the President of the U. S,, a member of tho board of health of the District of Columbia, of which in 1S7j he was elected secretary. Author of va- rious addresses ami papers upon political, biographio, lit- erary, and scientific subjects, and is distinguished as an orator and scholar. Lang'8troth (Lorenzo Lorratne), b. at Philadelphia Dec. 2j, ISIU; gra<luated at Yale IS.U; tutor there 1^31- 35; pastor of the South Congregational church, Andover, M:iHS., 183t)-39; principal of ,\bbott Female Seminary, Andover, 1838-39; of (irecufiuld (Mass.) High School 1839-43; pastor of Second Church, Grccnfieid, Mass., 1843-48; principal of a young ladies' school, Philadelphia, 18iH-.'i2. Since 1858 has resided at Oxford, O. Mr. Lang- Btroth is famous as tho inventor of the movable-couib hive, which has wrought a revolution in bee-keeping. Author of tho ///*■*: fuifi //out I/- /ice, etc. / / X •? i 3 "^ Lang'toft (i*i:TBU),b. in the second lialfo^ the thirteenth century, was a canon of tho order of St. Auguj^tine at Brid- lington, Yorkshire, and derived his name from a parish of tho same county, perhaps his native idace. lie translated from tho Latin into French verso Herbert Bosenham's Life of Thoiiutn tl /itr/:ct (1300?), and wrote, also in verse, a French Cfnonicle of Kmjftmd from the siege of Troy to tho reign of Kdward I., translated into English verse by Robert de Brunne, and edited by Ilearno (Oxford, 1725). Lang'ton (Stfj-hkm). CARniNAi,, b. in Devonshire, Lin- coln, or Sus'-ex, Eiig., about 1 1 00; was educated at Paris, taking degrees in philofophy and theology; became a pro- fessor and chancellor of tlio university and canon of Notro Dame; was a fellow-student with Lothario Conti, who bc- camo pope in 1I9S, unit was named in tho same year a member of tin- papal household. In 1200, Langtou, while on a visit to Rome, was made a eaflinul. and in December of the same year wa-* by exprc?<s oriler of the pope elected archbishop of Canterbury in opposition to the wilt of King John. Though consecrated b\- the pope at Vitt>rbo in June, 1207, Lan;5ton was not permitrrd to take pim'^ession of his 800 until the submistsinn of Kin;^ John to iIk- papacy in I21.'t, when he inimeiliately joined the insurn<*nt barons in their con6ict with that monarch, a>!^i»led ihi'm at Bury St. Ed- mund's (Nov. 20, 1214) in drawing up the basis of Magna Charta, and heatled the lint of buronial signers of that in- strument at Riinnvmede (June 15, 1215). For this conrluet ho incurred tho ceiisure of the pope, imd notwilbstaniling a visit to Home was siispclTTed frOm bis runcrionTIn De- cember of that year, but restored Feb.. II'IO. Ho returned to England in 1218; rrowned Ihnry III. in 1220; presided at tlio ('ouneil of Osn«*y in 1222. wliirh drew np a code of canon law; watched over tlie ol.Hcrvaneo of Magna t'haria; and in 1223 again jdneed himself at tin- head of tho barons to demand its eoiifirmation fr<tin Hmry III. The divijtion of the Bible into chapters has been c^nimiHily attributed to hini- TTc Ts n-presentcd ns having been a ntan of great b'urning and author of numerous theological works, none of which, however, is extant. D. nt Slindoo, Sussex, July 9, 1228. (Sco Hook's Aichbinhvpt of Can- tcrbnrv.) Vol. IL— 103 lian'guage. The word /anyuar^e comes from the Latin linguUf " tongue," through derivative forms represented by Fr. Imujntje, It. liniftiatftjio. It signifies, then, primarily, utterance by the tongue, that being the most active and essential of the articulating organs. It is in nccordonco with this that we use the word ; it denotes orticulate utter- ance for the expression of thought. But this also in two ways. First, wo mean by language the general power or faculty of expression of thought by nrtieulale utterance, a power possesr-cd and exercised by all normally conFtiti;(cd and circumstanced human beings fnot by the deaf nor by the solitary); in this sense, «7>ff -A is its common synonym. Secondly, we mean a particular body of articulate utter- ances, signs for thought, used in some definite community, present or past, as their means of expression; intelligillc between members of that community, but not to outsiders. It is of the highest inij)ortance to hold these two senses clearly apart, for ui>on their confusion depends no small part of tho falso views of language more or less commonly held. AVe shall begin by considering the extrrnal body of lan- guage, the audible sounds. These are produced by on ap- paratus locatc<l in the throat and mouth, supplied with ma- terial by the lunjrs. The lungs send forth a current of air through the throat and mouth. This rtctivts tone and pitch in the larynx by the action of the vncsil cords, which are tho membranous edges of a pair of half-valves, capable of being brought close together and made tense across the passage of the throat, so ihut the expelled air causes them to vibrate like the tongue or reed ot an organ-pipe; and this vibration, transmitted to our organs of henring by the sympathetic movement of the air, is cognized by us as sound. Above this vibrating apparatus is set the cavity of the pharynx, the mouth, and the n(»?i', in the manner of a sounding-box : anel voluntaiy tdiiiniies niaele in the walls and apertures of this box diftcrenliate the sound, giving rise to a great variety of dislinguit-bable products, which are our aljdiabetic sounds. That branch of lin- guistics which concerns itself with the physical character of alphabetic sounds, as dependent on the voluntary move- ments of the organs. Is called phonetics or phonology : it involves something of acoustics, and something of anatomy, but is quite distinct from either. A very brief conjiilera- tion of its leading principles will be all that is needed here. Tho number of distinct articulations capable of being nroduced by the organs of utterance is indefinitely great. Nearly 300 have been represented separately by Ellis in his " PalaHjtype " (first chapterof AVir/y EvgUnh Proniimititiou). But many of these are variations, hardly perceptible to any but skilled and observant ears, of what is practically the same sound; and no single language uses for purposes of speech more than a fractiv)n of this nuniber. The most im- portant division of the system is info vowels and cemsonants. The vowels are the e>pener sounds, those in which the modify- ing action of the mouth-organs on the intonated currents of breath is le-ast, which are therefore mainly tone; the con- sonants are the closer sounds, those in wliich the element of oral action prevails more or less over that of tone. Upon the antithesis of vowel and consonant, the succession of alternutely opener and closer sounds, depends what we call tho nificul'ttf character of our utterance; tho stream of audible ttouud. consisting especially of the vowels, is nar- rowed or cut oil' from point to point by the consonants, and so broken into articnlif *' joints," being thus made both distinct and flexible to a degree that would be attainable in no other way. There is a class of eoni-onants — p h. kg, id — in which tlic interference of the mouth-organs with tho stream of breath is carried to tho extreme of complete stoppage: these are ealled mutes (stops, cheeks). Thero is another in which the organs are so closely tipproached that a rustling or buzzing is heard at the orilice. and is tho conspicuous element in tho sound produced: the.<e nro called fricatives; Ibey are eonveniently divided into sibi- lants — such as It z, «/* zh (of azure) — and spirants — such as /r, tho two f/f-sounds (//iih, thru), ami the (ierman eA. Another very distinct ehif^s is that of the nasals or re- sonants ; in these there is a eonijdete closure of the mouth- organs at the same points as in the utterance of the mutes, but the nasal passa;re is unclosed, so that the eounils are sonorous and eonlinuable — as m, n, vg (in m'tiging) : in the nnsrtl voivels (e. g. of I'reneb) there is an unelosuro of tho nasal pavsiigo along with (trdinary vowel utterance, giving an addcfl twang to tho prmluct. One more class of con- sonants remains, the xenii-vowels ;/• »'', ', r — sounds wliieii stand on the line between vowel imd consonant.// being only in(inite.«ima1ly difierent from the i' of pt'qur (the /r-sound), and ir from the k of nifc (the oo-^nund) : and / and r being convertible, and by many languages converted, to vowel use?. In English, and In the majority of other languages, there arc in tho mouth three places of complete closure, produ- 1634 LANGUAGE. oiDg mutes — a front, or labial, at the lips, giving p and 6 ; a back, or palatal, between the back of the tongue and the soft palate, giving /,- and ij ; and an intermediate, or lingual, between the tip or front part of the tongue and tlie roof of the mouth at or back of the upper front teeth, giving ( and d. The last two pairs may vary in character according to the phu-e on the palate and the parts of the tongue used ; and different ('s and Ic's are sometimes found side by side in the same language. Usually there is, as in English, a cor- responding nasal to each mute closure. But the other conso- nants alsolend toward the same organs of production : thus, the /"and i- and w are more labial ; the (/i, the s and s, and the r aiid I, are Ungual ; and the cli. the sli and i/i, and the y are more palatal. And even the vowels show the same tend- ency: from the n-sound of /nr, which is the purest alpha- betic tone, most unmodified by the niouth-organs, the tongue approaches the palate, toward the /--position, more and more in the a of pan, the e of pen, and the j of jnn, giving thus a palatal scries of vowels ; and the lips are more and more rounded and approached in the a of all, the o of jiole, and the n of ride, giving a labial series. There is one more principle of relationship to be noted: that of sonant to non-sonant or surd sounds. The « and z, for example, are uttered with the same articulating po- sition of the mouth-organs, but the former with simple breath, the other with intonated breath or sound: the former a hiss, the latter a buzz. .\nd the difference of ( and d is the same, sound beginning in the former only im- mediately after the breach of mute contact, which is made witli breath alone, but in the latter before the breach, by forcing :iir enough to support for a moment the sonant vibratTon of the vocal cords up into the closed cavity of the mouth. Thus, the mutes and fricatives go usually in pairs, of surd and sonant. But in the opener positions the mere breath is not sufficiently characterized to give an alphabetic constituent for each position, and we throw all the different products together as h. The principles, then, which determine the system of the alphabet arc: (1) the degree of approach of the organs, between the absolute openness of a {far) and the absolute closure of k, t, p ; (2) the particular organs or parts of the mouth brought toward or against one another: and (3) the kind of material furnished to the mouth-organs by the throat, whether breath or sound. Annexed is a sample alph.abet thus arr.anged, containing (with neglect of some miuor distinctions) the simple sounds of the English lan- guage : vowels. V r. I tv semi-vowels. n m nasals. surd. ? aspiration. -> sonant, surd. zh sh z sibilants. "» p sonant, surd. dh th ^ \ spirants. j '? sonant. fj d 1 mutes. k t palatal liuKual laiiial sorics. series. scries. In this scheme, a represents the <i-sound in pan, A the sound in all, and. a the "neutral" vowel-sound in hut. hurt. that are found in anv human alphabet, and n great many more; and (apart from special individual disabilities) any sound is equally easv at the outset, bctore habits are form- ed, to all human beings : there is nothing eharacteriBfic of race in the aljihabets of different races. But each person grows up to produce bv imitation just those sounds which he hears others make "about him. Some sounds, however, are easier and sooner learned than others: the norm in every language is given by the practised adult speakers, and "the child, beginning by reproilucing only imperfectly what he hears, gradually acquires the same facility and ac- curacy as his fellows possess. .lust so, every well-endowed child is capable of gaining the skill of eye and hand re- quired for any one of an indefinite number of trades; and he actuaflv gains that to which he is made to apply himself. Without such application he would learn none; and so he would acquire no language if he were not taught it. There are, we shall sav. a thousand different languages in the world, and each of tbcm has a different word for " hand." or " green," or " run :" there is no reason why any human' bein" uses one of these thousand words instead of another, except that he hears it used by others, and then hims"lf learns to reproduce it by imitation, and to associate it with the same idea which it reiiresents in their use. There is no such relation between the articulating appa- ratus and the apparatus of mental action, of perceiving, and comparins. and judging, that anywhere in the world a human being produces a series of articulate sounds by an internal and natural impulse as representative of a con- ception. The relation of uttered signs for ideas is precisely what that of acted signs would be; the hands and arms aro capable of making an infinity of combinations of motions, and, as the experience of the deaf-mute shows us, a person is capable of .associating conceptions with these motions to such an extent as to make them a full apparatus for the expression of thought. We see clearly enough that the tic between such signs and the movements of the mind is an external and artificial one; but it is not less the case with our own si^ns. That is to say, every uttered word is an arbitrary alid conventional sign— arbitrary, because any other could have been made to answer the same purpose; conventional. becaus=e the selection of this one has its sole crround in the accord.ant usage of a community. It was Teamed bv the direct instruction or from the examjile of others who used it alreadv ; it has no lie with its inner con- tent or meaning save that of a mental association. He who has acquired and learned to use one set of signs may add another and another, and use them also wilh readiness, even forgetting, if the shift be made early enough, his first acnnired set, or "native language." in their favor. We see, then, cleailv, what the " gift of language is to man It is a general power of expression. It consists in such gifts of mind and of body, and in such command over tliem, that anv human being can possess himself of any of the systems of expression established and current in 'the world," and make use of it. more or less perfectly, for communication and for the operations of his Inought. It places all existing languajes within his reach, but puts none into his possession : he can learn to speak anything, but can speak nothing without learning. But the power to use implies also, at least to a certain extent, the power to produce. If there could be such a thing started as a ■ ■ -.--,. » beings, it would, by the Thn snoken alnhabct of every lani-ua'-e may be reduced speechless community of human ^ ihc spoken ai^pnaoci oi every i.iu„i ^o , ^.^__ _^ , _^ exercise of its gift, make a beginning of supplying itself a language, which would become increased .ami extended and perfected until, after generations enough had made their contributions to it. it would compare with some of those now current. Of what kind the beginnings would be we shall see belter after considering the main facts relating to the life and growth of the existing tongues. Men are, even now and everywhere, makers as well as learners and users of language. If the whole life of lan- guage consisted in simple teaching and learning, every language would continue the same from age to age. But not'onc does in fact continue the same: all are changing, some more and some less rapidly. The English has changed so that the form of a thousand years ago, which we call An^lo-Paxon. is as a wholly strange tongue to us. I.ntin cha'igcd into Old French, and this into modern French ; old lli.'h-Gerroan changed into Middle, and this into ^cw : and so on. This is simply the effect of the collective mind of the speaking community working underneath its apparatus ot to a systematic form resembling this. Alphabets are, how- ever, of very different character as regards both the num- ber and the identity of the sounds composing them. And Languages differ not only in their sounds, but in the coin- binations of sounds allowed in forming syllables, and in the combinations of syllables allowed in forming words. Some have hardly more than a dozen articulations, all told, while the Sanskrit and English each possess near fifty: some allow only one consonant in a syllable, and that always before the vowel, while the English makes such in- tricate and difficult combinations asKlranda, tiorl/tha; some (as Chinese) admit only words of one syllable, while Amer- ican Indian languages sometimes count the syllables of a word by the score. And as they differ in these respects, so also, and much more, in the combinations of sounds by which they represent any given conception ; whence the diversity and mutual unintelligibilily of human languages. This diversity, which is very different from what we might feel ourselves authorized to expect, considering the funda mental unity of the human mind and its operations, i"8"o"ne ! expressi™, and adapting the latter ♦.'''';,, ':|;"'''Xf„"'hat - - ' • ■ and shifting )ircferences. Nothing is plainer tnan inai whatever new knowledge and altered conceptions may arise in a comniunitv must somehow find e.xpression in its speech —that the passing out of mind of old conceptions is accoin- panicd by the oblivion of their signs (if not transferred to new uses): and then there is. besides, a kind of wear and tear of words, by which they change shape or disappear. of the problems which the science of language has to ex plain. We hayc said that articulate sounds are produced by the voluntary action of their utterers. Of course this does not imply that the speaker understands at all the mechanism which he sets in motion, or commands it otherwise than as he commands the mechanism of locomotion or of gesture he commands the mechanism ot locomotion or nt gesiure. lea. oi ..u,..., .., ........ ~..^, -■■-■■„ ■ . ^^^ ,j^ Each human organ is capable of making all the sounds I and a constant production of new material to taKC me LANGUAGE. lC3o place of what is lost, nnd to extend and improrc the mcane of oxpreesioD. To nndorstund these chaiijii'S is to under- stand the growth of hnijrua^f'; and in order to bo undcr- stoiid, in tliGuisoh'es and in their oaui^e^, they need to bo Studied in tlieir detail; the general eflcct is only the sum of <lotails. ca<di of which has its own history and occasion. Tho chiingcs of language may be best grouped under three heads: (I) alterations of old materiul ; (2) loss of material ; {'.i) ndditionsi of new material. Alterations of old inaterial, again, are made either in the external audible form of words or in their internal content, their meaning. Each kind of alteration is indepemient of the other; and for tho ruason that tho tie between form anil meaning is. as pointed out above, only one of the convenience of use; otherwise tho two could not he divorced. Each is dctcr- minod by tho requirements of the convenience of theusers; and this, f>o far as alteration of outward form is concerned, makes towards ease of nttcrance, economy of tlie muscular offnrL of enunciation. The princi[ilo of eaec is that which underlies the whole department of phonetic change. It shows itself most ohviousiy in the constant abridgment which words undergo by tho lo.'^s of initial, and especially of final, sounds and syllables, and the omission or con- traction of interior elements. Thus, benr in "wo bear" is fr^m hititramaitiy bore in "we bore" from b'tb/iontiasi, hnd in " had wo "' from hiibnid^-drima ; nlnut is from rlee- monnnf: and so on. Wo may follow the gradual re(iuction of a word like bh<irnmitni through such forms Xi9 phrromca (dial, (ireolt) and/VrriHirt* (Lat.), and bnimm (Goth.) ; and so in innumerable similar cases. By this means especially tho endings which once showed the grammatical forms of words aro worn out and lost. As i« well known, no lan- guage shows the results of this abbreviating process in such a d.greo as the English. The monosyllables which form two-thirds to (hree-(|uartcr8 of our language as spoken or written were all of them words of two or three or tnore syllables in its earlier condition. But also tho constituent elements of words that are sparerl become variously altered. Tho character and extent of the spoken alphabt't are all the time slowly changing. Old sounds go out of use : new oncH are introduced ; both vowels ond consonants are shifted to other places and moiUs of utterance. Thus, the old In'lo-European aspirates (mutes with a puff of jlafuit, a kind of A, following the broach of their contact) have long sineo disappeared in Europe, becoming variously altered ; tho root b/iftr, instanced above, is in ancient Greek ^)Acr (;//i). in modern Greek, as in Latin. />»■ (tiie/a sound not found at all in tho original alphabet) : in (lermanic, brr ; tho huh of hftban (our bavn) Is Latin cap (cnpcrc) ; and so on. All such transitions of sound are more or less strictly reducible to rule, being governed by the physical relations of sounds and by the general tendencies of language, an modified by tho special tendencies and habits of eaoli par- ticular community. To trace them out, and, so far as is possible, explain them, is the task of phonetic science. As- similation is the head under which the larger part of them fall ; both on the smaller scale, making diflicult conibiua- tions more pronounceable, and on tho larger scale, approx- imaMng tho whole vowel and consonant systoms to one au- olber, making thn vowels closer and the consonantsopener, and thus filling up the alphabetic system with intermediate, more sli-^jhlly din'orentiated, soiuuls. In Indo-European, h was tho only fricativcconsonant, and « (f'ur). i ( piifite), ami u (cii'c) iho only vowel-sounds, and a formed a quarter to a third of tho whole utterant^e, while wJtli us n has sunk to much less than a hundredth. There aro examjiles of tho opposite principle, dissimilation, and more difficult and anomalous eases; of which the most note<l and intricate is the so-called (irimm's law of the rotation of mutes in Ger- manic language, whereby, of the original surd, aspirate, and sonant mutes (in this order) each if by the majority of Gci'iiumic dialects pushed around one step, and in the lligh- (ierinan two steps; thus. .^ans. tmt, Eng. (hut, Gcr. tlfiit (th-^ sibilant replacing the aspirate). Tho changes of internal content or meaning of words are quite as indefintlely various as those of form, and even mitro irredu"iblo to systematic order. There is hardly a conceivablo transfer of use which may n<»t be found exeui- plilierl in tho history of words. But much the greater part of them may be rutlely cla"sified un<ier two great heads — restriction anil extension. By restriction or apcciali/.alion is meant tho taking of a general word expressive of (|uality or action, and making of it the specific appellnlion ol s«une thing or class of things possessing that along with other qualities. Thus, the vm is named from its " shining," tho m'M.ji from her '* niensurint; " of time; a pfnurt from its '* wandering " motion ; tlx- e/re^rV force from its displaying itself in "amber" (when rubbed); a rmtrmf from the shapo of tho "growing" moon; a bonrd from its b"ing *' broad " in ])roportion to its thickness; and so on. This is one of the earliest, most conetaot, and moat fruitful methods by which names of things have been won. But a name, once won, becomes the appellation of a class of rehitcd things, and the limits of classes are constantly shifting and spreading by direct an<l indirect means. Even huh and moon become class-names when tho progress of astronomy dis- closes other bodies of analogous character with tbera ; planet is, by the same means, both changed in application (mado to exclude hhh and include earth) and widened (to take in Uranus and Neptune and the asteroids). But not tics of scientific classitication alone, lies of analogy, of every kind and dogroe. aro used to extend the sphere of application of words, lioafd is made to signify the ** table," and then the food set on it, and the body of men that sit round it (board of directors, etc.). Post, literally ''put. placed," gets a whole scheme of meanings, seemingly of utter diversity, although each is real!}' fastened to some one of the others by a traceable tie of association. Thus, a great part of our words come to have a variety of senses more or less re- mote from one another — senses which it is the oflicc of the lexicographer to place in tlieir right mutual relations, but which the ordinary speaker would often be puzzled to ex- plain. But there arc two special departments of this change which require a word or two of additional notice. In the first ])lace, ail our expressions for intellectual and moral conceptions and relations arc obtained thus from terms originally indicative of what is physical and sensible: thus, right is "straight," and n-rony is '* wrung " or *' twist- ed ;" undfratand is "stand in the midst " of anything; im- ply is " fold in," a]tphf is " fold to," rrpfij is " bend back," complif is "bend along with ;" dnrlnp is " unwrap ;" occur is ■' run against ;" apprehend is " take hold ;" and so on. In tho second place, words indicative of relation, form- words, connectives, auxiliaries, are made from words for- merly of more definite and material meaning by a gradual extension so wide that it results in a coniplete efl'aceuient, by attenuation, of that meaning. Thus, the verb he, the copula between subject and predicate, is mado up of roots signifying originally " grow," " dwell," " sit," " stand," and the like. The auxiliary have, now a sign of past time (/ barn done), of future obligation ( / have to <jo), and so on, is from a root meaning "seize." "grasp;" vill cf)nies from "encloae," fthall from "offend," may from "be strong." The articles are from demonstratives and numerals: rela- tives, from demonstratives and interrogatives ; conjunc- tions, from adverlis niul other parts of speech. By both these methods the material of a growing and cultivating language is constantly undergoing conversion to liner, more formal, more coneej)tual uses, and this is perhaps tho grandest general movement that goes on in it. There aro minor movenunls id' every kind, many of which aro mado tlie subject of exposition and illustration in such works as Trench's Stndi/ of IVordt and JCufflinh J^ttut and PrcHf-ut; there is no space to dwell ujion them here. Tlio second general division of linguistic change is that of loss. It is a comparatively simple subject. As language is maintained and kept in existeneo only by use, disuse causes <li8appcaranee of any of its elements. A wonl is lost when tho eoncejition for which it stood dies out of men's knowledge and remembrance; so, for examjile. the phraseology of ancient religion and ancient arts, when these aro superseded by n";w, unlc-s, indeed, some of the old words should take on new and changed meanings ; then we have only that minor kind of loss which consists in the ilisappearance of an internal content. But words are also crowded out of use by the uprisal of new terms which come iulit fashion an<l make Ihcm dispensable. When, for ex- ain|de, the Hood of words of Latin origin was brought in upiMi I'ingliah, it eaus<,'d the obsolescence of nuniy an equal- ly good term of Saxon (trigin ; and sporadic cases are al- ways liable to happen of words being allowed by careless- ness, as it were, lo die out, which we nflcrwards regret. A moro important deparlitient of b'Ss consists in the dis- appearance of the signs of grammatieal distinctions, and with these of the consciousness uf the distinctions them- selves. chi<'fly as a result of the wearing-out processes of phonetic decay. As alrcaily noted, no modern language ttffers such abuixlaiit exemplification of this as our Engli>h. Thus, the seven original cases (d our family have been re- duced to two (in certain pronouns, three) ; the five origiinil tenses, to two; the agreement of tho adjective with its rntun, in two forms of ileelcnsion, is entirely lost; the scheme of artificial or graminatieal gender is obliterated; the subjurielive mood is nearly gone. But the same thing is true in less degree of all tho languages akin with ours, and of all others which have any grammatical structure at all. The law of abbrevialion is inex()rable in its working, and. along with what can well enough be spared, takes away what is valuable. The third division of change includes additions to tho material of language. Of the addition of new meanings to old words, Buffioioat nolioo hoA already been taken ; and it 168G LANGUAGE. is evident that by this means the resources of expression of a language may be very much increased without auy corresponding outside show. It is possible, too, to no small extent, tu pile away the results of new knowledge in the oM words : however much we may come to know more than of old about the Ktin, hrtit, ri'itiitf/ and /alii mj, and innumer- able o'.hnr subjects, it docs not disturb our employment of the traditional names. These are just as real parts of the growth of language, produced by the same forces and for the same purposes, as the more external aclditions. Ex- tcrntil additions are of two kinds: those made by borrow- itig from abroad, and those made by the development of native material. Borrowing is a wcllnigh universal pro- cess of language-making; there is hardly one unmixed tongue in the world, unless here and there a dialect which never comes into contact with any other. But only thoso languages borrow on a large scale of which the speakers have derived to a large extent their cullnre, knowledge, institutions, from other cnmmunitie.s. The Persian in this way gets material of expression indefinitely from the Ara- bic ; the Turkish, from the Persian and Arabie ; the modern dialcf'ts of India, from the Sanskrit; the Japanese, from the Chinese. And so all t)ie pp'>plc3 who inherit (irrck and Roman civilizatitm have taken abunrJantly from the Greek and Latin vocabularies. And our English has borrowed more than any other language that is not descended direct- ly from the Latin; partly because the forcible fusion of a Gcrm.anic and a Romanic diak'(;t which was the result of the Xorman Conquest opened the d>)or to such borrowing and made it easy; and partly because the native processes of composition and derivation in Kuglish had become so inactive tliat not much growth could be accomplished by their aid. As our vocabulary presents itself in tlic diction- aries, about live sevenths of it arc of classical origin. Of course, in actual use, in speaking or writing, the propor- tion is very different, because the core of the language, embracing the words of most frequent upc, is almost ex- clusively Oeimanic ; the Germanic part is fiO to I'D per cent. Names of things are most easily and directly borrowed, connectives least easily, grammatical apparatus, endings of derivation anrl inflection, almost not at all. The foreign material is stripped of its native grammatical form, and often shapel over a little to assimilate it to the native stock of the borrowing language; ami it i< prepared for free prac- tieal use by means of the grammatical apparatus of the lat- ter, each borrowed element thus often becoming the nucleus of a little family of derived and inflected words. What thus conifs into a language is to a very great extent only words of loarne I use, employed almost exclusively by those who know it as of foreign origin and recognize ils source; but more or less of it, according to circumstances, works its way down into popular n^o, and is then in no way distinguish- able from that which is of idtimately native growth: the mass of speakers use their words simply because they arc in use, neither knowing nor caring whence they came. For obtaining new resources of expression out of the old material of a language, the mothoils cannot, of course, bo very various. In the course of the phonetic changes of language a single word sometimes divides into two or even more forms, which then go on to lead an imlependent life; so Anglo-Saxon n/'bas separated into of nniXoJf, Anglo-Saxon dn into otir and nn or «, erihwtt into also and a« ,- and we have such doublets as mhiUte and mlinitf, condurt and co;i- rfH'7, (frntle and rfrntrrl and grntilr, and so on; but such a method operates only on a very restricfcil scale. A process of much wid-^r reach and greater importance is that of the forma'ion of compound words, which is very extensively and fruitfully resorted to by all the tongues of our family, althou:?h much more by some than by others. Wc have in English, for example, combinations of every grade — from suL'h loose ones as bo'tkrover, rhnh--hitrk, througli closer, like trth/ecfoth, in/culaud, homefttcai/, vailrnttd, steanibuat. to such as have been so far altered in pronunciation or mean- ing, or both, that we do not ordinarily think of them as compound at all, like hrptihfn>;t, forvh'oil. Ifxitfiipniti, or such as have their origin wholly concealed from all but learned ovcj*, like »itch and wltirh (from no~h'ke and ipAo- likc). Many a flccmingly simple word of ours is proved by biatorical inquiry to bo put together, no great way back, from two or more others. For we are always ready to for- get tiie origin of tbo terms we use when thoy aio once made and put to use; and then the processes (»f ]»honctic cliange seize upon them and alter and disguise them past recognition. Very frequently these processes act only upon one, the lat'cr. of two members of a compound, converting it into a dependent addition to the other. Thus, our /i/ in ffodfi/, mnnit/, bomehfy etc. is to us a mere suffix, forming adjec- tives from the nouns if id, man, hinue ; or, in other words, as /';■/•*'/»/. frii/y, it makes ndver'ns from adjectives; but in Anglo-Saxon it was an appended adjective, tic, lice, our like. The d which makes the past tense of our *' regular " verbs is similarly traceable to the verb did^ added as an auxiliary in early (ierman language to some verbal word. The ai of French vhaiitcrai is an auxiliary — J'«i, " 1 have." The bavi, bii^ and vi of Latin verbs arc of the same origin ; so is the <Tw {n/t) of the tireek future. These are but ex- amples of a large number of endings or suflixcs whicli come demonstrably from independent words, at first compounded with other words, then disguised in form, and finally com- ing to be felt as mere modilicatory a]>pendages, and ex- tended in use in that office. No other method of producing such elements of cxjircssiou is known through all the his- torical epochs of language. It is true that by no means all suffixes admit of this explanation; but that is because the evidence wliich would constitute an explanation is no longer attainable. The facts in our language which seem to make against it — especially the instances of internal change like man men^ lead led, tfira yare — are capable of easy explanation as inorganic or accidental results of plionetic change, and traceable to original external addition like the rest. In ^hort. we have here a method of linguistic growth which is in corajdetc accordance with the facts and tendencies of known linguistic history, and which, in the opinion of the l>est modern students of language, is capable oi' having produced the whole structure of speech. It works very slowly, indec<l, as conii)arcd with wholesale borrowing, but its effects are intinitely cleeper and more important. All those methods of ehange are carried on, it will be observed, in the interest of convenient expression. Tltcrc is new knowledge of every kind to be provided for — new facts, new classifications, abstractions, deductions: and there are, not so indispensable, but as inevitable, changes of the instrument of expression itself in its uttered form, in its apparatus of connection and relation. As a whole, the proce:58 seems a biglily intricate one, but in its details it is perfectly intelligible. It is a constant name-making, a never-ending satisfaction of the individual needs of ex- pression, as suggested by an<l built ujion the already sub- sisting uses of a language, as governed in the mode of satisfaction by the existing habits of speech, and by the circumstances of the ease. The idea being conceived, the mind reaches after the means of its significati<»n, and finds this wherever it lies most ready at hand. The mind is easily content : no nicely adajited sign, essentially bodying forth the conception, is required: only a representative which shall be iienccfi>rth ns,sociated with the conception, and one having such relation to antecedent expression that it shall commend itself to the acceptance of the community. For this is an ordeal which everything in language must pass. Nothing is language until it is adopted by a com- munity as its means of communication. Though every individual change jtroceeds from individual action, and luis its own time and jilaee and occasion of origination, the common action is equally a factor in its history. It is easy to find, in the antithesis of individual action and that of the community, the explanation of dialectic variation. Every language is all the time changing; it changes by specific items, v.liich begin with individuals and .spread by communication, by imitation, through the whole mass of the community. So long as they do thus spread, the langu.agc of the community, liowevcr rapidly it may change, remains homogeneous throughout its whole terri- tory, with the exception of those minor local and class dif- ferences which jirevail within the limits of every existing tongue without disparagement to ils unity, because those who speak it can all understand one another in reference to the most necessary subjects. iJut if the parts A and ii and C, and so on, become separated from one another, so that the changes initiated in A do not spread into II and C, nor thoso made in li or C into the rest, then the local dif- ferences begin at once to be multiplied and deepened; mutual intelligcnco becomes more and more diflicult, an(l finally impossible: and different languages are the result- All, then, that makes for unity of community represses dialectic growth. And the forces of culture are those which work most efficiently toward this result. A literature, writing, instruction, tend to check the rate of change of a language, and to efface local and class differences already exisling. Ignorance and barbarism both encourage rapid alteration, and. by favoring the isolated and antagonistic position of districts and tribes, make for divarication also. The maintenance of wide-extended unity of speech, be- cause of wide unity of other institutions, is possible only under civilized conditions. The state of language throughout the earth is precisely what the principles here laiil down would lead us to ex- pect. The world is full of dialects, some closely and ob- viously akin with one another, others having resemblances discoverable upon closer examination, others apparently unrelated. If speech began to exist along with a single race or a limited number of races of human beings, and LANGUAGE. 1637 Spread with tbcni IVum land to laud and from coDtlDcnt to oontineDt.cvcr nlttTiDg aud divaricuCing diulecticully with every new <livisiou oIl ii race ur cumtuunity, the result would linully bo what we see it tu he. In the luu<; ages of barbari!«iii the j;iuwih of diaU-ets was the prevailing teud- oucy ; sinoe civilization has become tho ovenvlieliuing fiirco in the history of (he worhl. the tendency is the other way : iho cuUivated dialects of the leading nations aro cx- tendini:. and crowding out divorsit_v, and even encnuraging men to luok forward to a time when one or two languages shall prevail universally. Such being the ca^-^e, it is evidently one of the first ob- jcots tu bo aimed at by the students of language tu make a classificatioD of all human dialects according to their relationship and its degrees: only thus can the way be prepared for the historical research of language in general. And this *vork has been accomplished, so far as the assem- blage of matrrials has made it possible — jtrovisiunally, that is tu say, and with full acknowledgment uf the probability of aincndnieot and improvement hereaftor. And at least tho main outlines of the classification wo have here to re- view. In imitation of genenlngieal phraseology, the dia- lects regarded as demonstrably de.'jcendcd from a common ancestor aro called a " family," ca;;h family being tlicn di- vided into branches, sub-braDches, etc., as may be found convenient. Im/o-EHropenn Ftiinih/. — This is sometimes also called Aryan, ur, by the (iormans, Indo-Germanic. It is the family to which our own tongue belongs, with must of tho other languages of Europe, and with those of Suuth-wcstem A^ia; and it is by far the most important of all. It is di- vided into seven principal brunches. There is (1) the /n- (iitin, or Sanskritie. an intrutler into India from the X. \V., prjbably not more than liiHiO to ;iU0O years B. c, and gradually filling all the northern country, with a part of the southern peninsula, the l>ekban ; the rest remaining in puj»st'ssiun of tho mure ab(»riginal Dravidian tribes. Its oldest language is the Sanskrit, the earliest parts of the literature of which, the hymns of the Veda, go back prob- ably to near 2000 u. c, the remotest date anywhere reached among Indo-European records. The language is alf^o less altered, by changes either of form or of meaning, from the original common speech than is any other; an«i hence tho iSanskrit takes the leading place in all researches into the oMest language-history of the whole family. The great groups of varying dialects known as Hindi, Bengali, Mab- ratti, are the modern repri-s<-nlatives of the branch; and between them and the Sanskrit lie the Prikril dialects aud the I'llli, the sacred language of Southern Hiiddhism. (2j The Iraninn branch, oc'tipying the great,, Iranian plateau between the borders of Mesopotamia and of India. It is nearly akin with tlie Indian, auil the two are often, aud very properly, combined togi^ther into a single *• Aryan " branch; their oldest dialects are hardly more unlike tlian, fur example, some of tho Ocrmanio languages aro unlike one another. Tho eldest records of the branch of definite dft'c are the cuneiform inscriptions of Darius and his sue- cessiirs (from about JOO ». i\); in part, probably, older is the iSible of the Zoroastrian religion, tho A vesta; its lan- gtiage is called tho Zend, (»r Aveslan, or Old Bactrian. Of cnn:oiderahly later date is the prublcmatical Iluzvilresh. or I'ehlevi; and the Ptlrsi but little precedes tho Modern Per- sian, which has a great and valuable literature, beginning from al)out 10(10 a. d. To this branch belong also I lie Kunlish, tho Ossetic in the Caucasus, and probably the Afghan ; also the Armenian, which has a literature going back to the fifth century of our era. (ti) Tho Greek brnneh. Of this Iho history is too well known to require more than a wor<l here. It has in the poems of Homer the oldest monuments of the family outside of India. What wcro the relatione, tu it and to the fauiily, of the languages on tho N., and of those on the E., in Asia Minor, is very uo- cerlain, and will perhaps never ho determined. Tho present Albanian, or Skipetar, regardeil aH mu<lorn representative of tho ancient lllyrinn, is of disputed eliaraeter, but more probably Indo- Kurojiean. (I) The lutlir branch. This included a considerablo nuinbor of the languages of Italy ; and of some of them, especially the Osean and the I'mbrian, considerable remains aro left; uf ulhers. as Vulseian and Sabine, tho merest fragments. All were wiped out by tho Latin dialect of Unme, which aUo extendecl itself, along with It<iman dominion and institutions, in both directions through Southern Europe, giving rise to tho muilem group of the U' I manic languages, embracing as its principal menibors the Italian, Kreneh, Provencal, Spnnish and Portuguese, Humansh. and Walhichinn, each inelutling a greiit variety uf dialects. Tho literatures of these modern languages commence between tho tenth and thirteenth centuries; fragments of Latin como down from tho third century u. c {;'») Tho Crftic branch. The Celtic lan- guages formerly occupied a very broad space iu Europe, but they have been continually encroached upon by buCh Romanic and Germanic, until now they survive only on the farthest western edges of their old territory. Tho Welsh, the Cornish (extinct since tho end of the last century), and the Armoriciui of Hrittany constitute tho Cymric divisiun of the extant dialects; tho Cjadhelic in- cludes the Irish, the tiaelie of Scotland, and the Manx of the Isle of Man. Irish and Welsh monuments go back to the eighth and ninth centuries. (0) Tho Sf'nosti'c, or Siavo- Lcttic branch. The seat of the Slavonic languages is in Eastern Europe. The important members of the eastern subdivision are Russian. Bulgarian, and Servian; of the western, Polish aud Iluhcmiau. The earliest Slavonic record is a Bible versiun made iu the ninth century. The branch is a double one, in virtue of being made to include the more remotely but still specially kindred Lettish dia- lects — namely, tho Lithuanic, Livonian, and (extinct) Old Prussian. These have no records older than the sixteenth century, but the Lithuanian especially is distinguished by the primitivcness of some of its forms. (7) The Germanic (or Teutonic) branch. This is divided into four sub-branches. The Ma;so-Gothic, or dialect of the (iuths of Mcesia, is long since extinct, and is represented only by parts of a Bible version made by lUfilas in the fourth century. It occupies, as both oldest in time and most primitive in structure, much such a position in the braneii as the Sanskrit occupies in the family. The Scan- dinavian sub-branch tills Denmark, Sweden, Noiway, aud Iceland. It has its olilest living representative in the Ice- landic, and its oldest and most original monuments also eomc from Iceland iu manuscripts of the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries. The more jirojicr German is divided into the lligh-derman of the c.ntral and southern region, and the Low-German ol the northern lowlands. The High- German begins its Old period in tho eighth century, its Middle in the tweltth. and its New in the sixteenth; what we cull the German language is its only cultivated dialect. A great partultlie Low-German territory in Germany now acknowledges the supri macy of tho literary High-German ; but the Ketherlandish ur Dutch has an independent culture and literature, and the English is its colonj", brought to Britain by the Angles and Saxons in the fifth century and later. Tlic oldest Anglo-Saxon remains arc from the sev- enth century. Respecting all this great and important body of lan- guages is to bo held, in conformity with the principles laid down above, that they are descended frum the tongue of a single community which lived somewhere, within narrow limits, at some remote period, and by sprtad and emigra- tion broke up, over and over again, into separate parts, with the inevitable consequence oi tho breaking up uf its speech into dialects. Where antl when that original com- munity lived it is wholly imputsible to determine from any evidences as yet brought to light ; certainly, language does not give, and cannot be expected ever to give, any definite information about it. The question of the time depends wholly upon the grander and now much moc»te<l question of the antiquity of man on the earth; tho historical lin- guist will only say tliat ho does not know well how to ctMU- pretJS all the events of Indo-European language-history into the brief space of tiOtJO years, and will wlIcohic an ex- tension of the period ; hut what extension to ask for he dt>es nut at present know. As for the place, the popular impression which fixes it about the Hindu-Kush or in Bac- tria has no defensible basis whatever ; the facts of huiguage admit of being reconcildl with almost any theory that can bo suggested. It is now prevailingly lield by linguistic Scholars that the European branches must have constituted a community together for 8(»nie time after their common separation from the Asiatic or Aryan braneli ; but that proves nothing. The Slavonic and Girnianic branches are also believed to be of especially near kindred ; whether the Celtio branch shall be reckoned lis independent, or more closely connected with the Italiean, is a disputed point, as is also the special ^elation^bi^l of tho two classical lan- guages. While language is thus silent as to ]>lace and time, it gives some definite information respecting the con- dition of the primitive ooinniunity, showing it to have been nut merely nomadic, but of setllccl and agricultural lif'', with well-developed family organization, with domes- ticated aninmis, with some of the arts of life, aud with knowledge of a metal or two. The history of 'development of iDdo-Eurnpcan language is better tindorstoud than that of any other family, the ma- terials being cxcepti<)nally abundant. a!id lia\ ing received an amuunt of study which has been bestowed up'Ui nu other; its nmin features are pretty clear, though tture remains abundance of obscurity in its details. The language began in a condition uf munosyllabie "roots" (analogous with those of which, fur example, tho Chinese language is even down to the present time composed), utteranct'^ which were 1638 LANCxUAGE. neither noun nor verb, nor any other "part of speech," but were as rcaUy to turn to the uses of one as of another. They were of two elnsses — verbal roots, expressing material, sensible aet or quality ; and a small number of pronominal or demonstrative roots, indicating position and direction. That the distinction of these classes is primitive is by no means certain : but it is at any rate earlier than the growth of Indo-European structure. The first important step of growth, it seems, was the making of a predicative or as- sertive form — a verb; it was done by couibining with ver- bal roots certain affixed pronominal elemcnls, and " under- standing " the copula between them ; thus, dit-mi, " giving- I," to be used henceforth only in the sense •• I [am] giving" (or, " a giver;" or "giving-minc "). Thus were made the three persons of a verbal form, in three numbers, singular, dual, and plural ; and the addition of a preterit "augment"- tense, a-rUl-mi, " then-give-I " — !. e. "I gave," a redupli- cated preterit or perfect (/(t-rfu-mi'. " give-give-I " — i. e. "I have given," and a future, dd-Hj/aiiii, probably " I am going to be giving," left to this simpler form the character of a present. More or less of an imperative, o|italive, and subjunctive, and of a middle or reflexive voice, also were products of the original tongue before the separation of the branches. The establishment of a verb left the re- mainder of linguistic material in the condition of noun, noun substantive and noun adjective; for these two parts of speech were at first not held apart. A system of inflec- tion was by similar means (very hard to understand in their detail) created for these also, indicating case, number, and gender. Of eases there were seven, besides the vocative — namely, nominative or subject-case, accusative or lo-case (also direct object), ablative or /rom-case, locative or in- case, instrumental or %-case, dative or/or-case; and geni- tive, case of general relation or appurtenance. Of num- bers, there were the same three as in the verb : and the dis- tinction of gender, which, founding itself on the natural differences of sex, extends itself to all objects of thought, being only in small part governed by sex, is something very characteristic of our family ; much the smaller number of human languages make any account of such a distinc- tion. The pronouns are a class of words inflected like nouns .and adjectives, but coming from pronominal instead of verbal roots. From the same roots come naturally the first adverbial words, indicators of position and direction ; the other particles, prepositions, and conjunctions are yet later to arise. The interjection is no "part of speech," but rather an unanalyzed, holophrastio utterance, analogous with the undeveloped root. Thus, by combination of ele- ment with element, and the assignment of the combinations to specific uses in definite connections, this language arose from a mere indefinite intimation of intended meaning, such as our exclamations give, to orderly and distinct statement— first in single clauses, then in elaborate com- binations of clauses, in periods. How much time the pro- cess occupied it is impossible to say, but it must have been a long time ; and before the separation of the branches took place a height of synthetic development was reached from which, although every branch has more recent synthetic formations to show, there has been on the whole a reces- sion, by the substitution of more "analytic" moans of ex- pression of relation, of form-words and aux'iaries — our own English being, as in other respects, the most marked and extreme example of the new tendency. The importance to us of the study of Indo-European language lies partly in the fact that it is our own family, and that also to which belong the tongues of the founders and leading representatives of our civilization, so that the study is connected in its bearings with a variety of other inquiries in which wo are especially interested. It has also been the principal foundation, and almost the initial phase, of the general science of language, because there was no- where else in the world so large and varied a body of re- lated linguistic phenomena, by the examination of which the general laws of linguistic life could be deduced, and methods of research worked out which might be fruitfully applied where the material was less abundant, and exhibited a less length and breadth of development. Ileneo, and not from any over-estimate of this language, as alone worthy of investigation, or as furnishing the norm of human speech, comes the conspicuous absorpti<>n of linguistic students thus far in Indo-European studies. At the pres- ent time the profounder comparative stuily of other fami- lies also is well prepared for, is becoming more and more urgent, and is engaging more and more labor : although none has yet received anything like the same degree of comprehensive and penetrating examination as the Indo- European family. We shall, aooordingly, review the others much more briefly. The Sri/th!'iii i>r Ural-Altaic Family. — This group of languages, widely coterminous with the Indo-European, is often also called the Turanian, and is generally reckoned to contain five great branches: (1) The Finno-Hungarinn, chiefly European in locality, including, besides Finnish and Hungarian or Magyar, the Lappish and the dialects of a host of unimportant tribes stretching through North- ern and Eastern Europe across the Ural chain. (2) The Samoyed, along the shores of Siberia, from the White Sea to the Yenisei, and up that river to the Altai Mountains, probably its original seat, (.'i) The Turkish, recent occu- pants of Asia Minor, and overlapping the border of Europe, extending over a vast tract of (.'entral Asia, and having an important branch, the Yakut, even on the Lena, to its mouth. (4) The Mongoliiin. yet f:irthcr East, but nowhere reaching the ocean. (5) The Tungusic or (from Ihenameof the principal people) Manchu, beyond in the north-eastern end of Asia, save its peninsulas and islands; the ^lanebus have also held China in their grasp during the past two centuries. The languages of the first or westernmost branch do not difl'er remarkably in their general character from the Indo-European, but have more of what is called the "agglutinative" type: that is to say, root or theme antl ending are less intimately united, rather "stuck to- gether" than fused together, the ending retaining a moro independent character: this results both in a greater regu- larity and a greater intricacy of formation. But the two easternmost members are of a much less developed and more jejune character, verging on the stifl' incxpressivc- ncss of monosyllabism ; and this, in connection with other peculiarities, linguistic and physical, casts some doubt on the coherence of the family. There is neither abundance norantiquity of literary productiveness among the Scythian races; their main part in history has been war and dev;is- tation : the wild and curious mythic popular poetry of the Finns (the Kahrala) is their most original work, unless, indeed, it shall turn out to be true, as is eliiimed of late, that the "Accadian " people, who laid the foundation of Mesopotamian civilization, and invented the cuneiform writing which was afterwards borrowed and ado]ited by both Semitic and Indo-European peoples, was Scythian, of the Ugrian branch. This would carry the antiquity of Scythian language back to a point fully as remote as that reached either by Indo-European or Semitic. It cannot be long now before this question is settled. Of the various and diverse languages of the North-eastern Asiatic waters, the JajianeKe is the only one that deserves mention. It is, though highly polysyllabic, of an exceed- ingly simple structure, phimetically and graniuiatically, much like the Mongol and Manchu, and may perhaps yet be proved of one family with them. Its culture is derived from China. The S. E. of Asia is filled with languages which have monosyllabism as their distinctive characteristic. The Cliiiiese is by far the most pr<iininent and important among them. This is a language in the highest degree remark- able for the paucity of its resources and the exceeding deft- ness with which they are used, so as to |ierform the duties of a highly cultivated speech during an unpreeedcntedly long period. The Chinese literary monuments go back to nearly 2000 n. c, and are of great variety, extent, and merit. The language is composed of only some 500 differ- ent ivords, as we should write them : but their number is raised to about 1500 by the tones of utterance, this clement having been pressed into the service of intellictual distinc- tion in the scanty monosyllabic tongues, both Chinese and Farther Indian. The means of formal distinction are in part form-words, particles and auxiliaries, and in part |iosition in the sentence. The intelligibilily of the literary language is much aided by the mode of writing, which is to a great extent indicative of meaning, instead of pro- nounced form. The popular dialects are numerous, and so diverse as to be like so many independent languages. Some of them are saiil to make a degree of approach to an agglutinative structure. _ • The onlv tie to connect the Farther Imlian and the Him- alayan (at least in part) with the Chinese dialects is their common nionosvUabie structure. The liurmcse, Siamese, etc. have literatures of no great antiquity founded on that of India, whence comes their religion I Buddhism) also; and nearly the same is the case with the Thibetan. A vast deal has still to be done to make clear the character and relations of this great and perplexing confusion of littlo- known and unimportant dialects. Off this corner of Asia lies Iho vast and scattered array of the isles of the Pacific. They arc occupied by at least three independent and wholly insular races and language- families. Australia and Tasmania arc the home of one, the Aimtrallati. New Guinea, part of Horneo, and the moro inaccessible parts of several other islands and groups, are inhabited by a black race with frizzleil hair, the Papuan or Negrito; its dialects are almost entirely unknown, but aro bebeved to be unrelated with any others. But the great j islands nearest ^Malacca (and Malacca itself by recent im- LANGUAGE. 1639 migratioD), and the shores of the others just mentioned, anil the scattered groups within the limits innrked by For- uioaa iiud Xl-w Zciiland, by Madagascar aud Kaster Island, aro Iho liouio uf an immense and well-deliut-d tuniily, the Mnlnjf- l^iffyncKiaUf in three branches — Malay, Melunesian^ and Polynesian. Several of the dialects of the Malay branch have literary culture, derived from the mainland; that of Java and Ilali, coming from India, has rocuidr^ go- ing back oven to the lirst centuries of our era. The Malay has adopted I?lam, and with it the Arabic alphabet. These languages, though not monosyllabic, arc nearly bare of structural development, not having evrn a clear distinction of noun and verb, nor anything that cmld fairly ))0 called inflection. Their phonetic form is also simpler than that of any other known tongues. The Drtiviii'tin group of languages, of Southern India, is of an a;rgluttna(ive type, somewhat resembling tho Scythian, aud some linguistic sch<)lars have been ovcrhasty to pronounce it a branch of the Scythian family, lis prin- cipal members aro the Tamil, Canarese, and Telugu. They have literatures of some antif[uity, founded on tho San- skrit, their culture having been derived from the Aryan races of the North. The Caucasus region is filled with a medley of peculiar dialects, apparently akin with no others in the world, aud for the most, [tavt unrelateil even with one anotlier. The Srnu'ti'^ Fann'fi/. — This is the only Asiatic family re- maining to be considered. Its home is in tlie great but barren and thinly populated peninsula of Arabia, with its border-lands — Palestine and Syria on the X. W., Mesopo- tamia on tho X. E. — and with an outlier in Africa, across tho Straits of Babclmaiideb. It is usually ilivided inio three branches — Syriac, ranaanilic, and Arabian — but the recent resurrection of the Assyrian language from tho cuneiform inscriptions of Nineveh and Babylon has brought to light so peculiar a dialer-t as to make it better to rank tho Syriac or Aramaic with tho Canaiinitic, leaving the A.'syrian alone as third division. The members of the central branch would be, then, the II( brew with the other related Palestinian dialects, tlie Phfenieian with its Car- thaginian colony, and the Syrian or Chaldce. Tho solo surviving literature of the Uobrew, written during the Kfo of tho language (it became extinct as averiiacular fourcen- turics before t.'hrist). is our Old Testament ; its oldet't parts come from near tho middle of tho sec »nd thousand years D. C. Neither Pliocnicia nor Cartliago has left any litera- ture ; their language, very closely like tho Hebrew, is known only from inscriptions. Of the Moabitic, a remarkable monument, from "JOO it. c, was discovered a few years ago ; tho language was almost pure IK'brew. The Hebrew has been kept in artificial learned existence, like tho Latin, and has an immense literature as such. Apart from an Aramaic passage or two in the Old Testament, the abun- dant Syriac lilcrature commcncea in the second century with a Christian Hiblo version. The Assyrian literatuD-, inscribed and impressed on alabaster and on clay tablets, is now coming rapidly to light, and furnishing un<l ]iromis- ing information of the highest interest, especially in its bearing on biblical history ; its records are perhaps as old as the biblical. The Arabic proper makes its appearance only recently, pt>sHessiug but few records which are older than Mohammed {seventh century) ; but tliero are in tlio suuth-wcstern corner of tho peninsula remains of a wholly indcpendeiit and much oliler civilisation, and of dialects, called Ilimyaritie, very dilTirent from the classical Arabic. The Seiniiic dialects of Abyssinia are a colony from these, ami nearly akin with them: the Klhiopic, or (ice/, has a Christian literature dating from tlie fourth century ; the Amharic, which has crowded (he other out of cultivate<l use, does not appear until the twelfth or thirteenth. This is tho ancient distribution of Semitic dialects: since the rise of Mohammi-diinisin the Bedouin Arabic has sprea'l itself over nearly tho whole Semitic territory, extinguishing tho other dialects, has taken possi'Ssi<in of Kgy]>t,now its main scat of literary cultivation, and of the whr>lc northern bor der of Africa, and has influenced, and more or less fille(l with its material, tho Persian, Turkish, anrl llindustuiii, and even the widely sundered Spanish and Malay, thus winning a sway eompiirable to that of thf Latin, (hough falling far short of the Latin in (lie iinpr>r(ance of tho do- riveil languages to which it lias given birth. The Semitic rneo has played a far greater part in history than any other, save only the Indo- European, and its lan- guages possess a corresponding degree of importance. Their range (d* ilialoetic (iitTerenees is much les>< (han that prevailing in our family ; they are olosrly kimlred forms of speech. Not, apparently, beenuse they have been more recently separated than the Indo-Kuropran diiileets, but because their structure has been especially rigid and un- changing. The Semitic structure is more peculiar and probtema'ical than that of any other family of languages. Its striking characteristics are its tri-consonantal roots and its internal flexion. The roots, namely, have not, like the Indo-European, each a constant vnwel. which is, even if more varialjle than the consonants, an integral part of it; the vowel or vowels in Semitic have a formative value, are indicative of relation, not less than tho vowels of m«« and men, of hind and fmtnii/ and Imiid and bond. And (with insignificant exceptions) the radical consonants are thr{*e, no more and no less. Suffixes and prefixes — and even in- fixes, elements inserted within tho body of the root — are not unknown, but tho sphere of their application is limited, because so much of what is done in Iiido-Kuropean by af- fixes is here accomplished by internal change of vowel. Thus, for example (in Arabic, which is by far the moSt primitive and transparent in its structure of all the dia- lects), all that we can call the root corresponding to "kill" isiy-f-/; tftitfifn is a third person singular, meaning "ho killed," and f/iitila its passive, ** he was killed," «»/(«/« its causative. 'Mic caused lo kill," <ytf^(/a its conative, '* ho tried to kill," tji^a^r^n its reflexive, " he killed himself," and so on. Then {n)rjtiii is imperative, "kill !" and a sec- ond set of verbal persons (hardly to be called a tense) has this form of the root ; iftuftnfu, latfiufu. <t<fliifn, and so on. The active participle is tfdtil, "killiug," the intensive iqftlf, "causing to kill," the passive mrtfjtul, "killed." Tho infinitive or verbal noun is (/«//. "act of killing;" and qltl, "enemy," and r/^r/, *' murderous," are specimens of deriva- tive words. These examples arc sufficient to bring out tho remarkable features of Semitic speech. We have paralleled above the internal fiexion with the Germanic ith!mtt of h'md and hmiud and their like: but the essential diflercnce be- tween tho two coses is, that what in Indo-European is rather a sporadic phenomenon, antl capal.de of easy expla- nation as the i7i(««/-accidental result of phonetic change consequent upon external additions, in Semitic is the very life and soul of the language, irreducible to anything dif- ferent. It is, however, tho prevailing belief among lin- guists that this condition ol Semitic language must be tho result of a very peculiar history of development out of beginnings more analogous with those found in other families of speech ; and attenijits are constantly making to penetrate tho secret of tho development, but as yet without any considerable measure of success. It is very certain, meanwhile, that there can be no proof of any relationship between the Semitic and any other family until the attempts prove successful. It is a favorite subject of effort with pome ])hilologists to demonstrate tho primitive unity of the Semitic and Indo-European races: and there are many indications outside of language which favor the conclu- sion ; but thus far, at any rate, the language is an impassa- ble barrier. Tho other peculiarities of Semitic structure are of small account as compared with those already noticed. The verb tends more to conjugational distinctions, such as were illustrated above, than to rlistinetions of ti-nse and nmoij. It marks the difTerenee of gender in its personal inflection. The noun is almost destitute of case variation ; it anil tho verb have the three numbers found in early Indo-European. Secondary derivation, or the forming of derivative from derivativi', is almost unknown, as is also the formation of compounds. Connectives of clauses are few and simple. Among tho languages of Africa, those nearest to Asia, grouped together as the ffaitiitic /ninth/, are often elainu'd, but on gnumds which mn«t be pronounced thus far insuffi- cient, to be akin with the Semitic. The family is reckoned to comprehend three branches — tho Egyptian, the Libvun or Uorber. and the Ethiopian ; (he most conspicuous mem- bers of the last aro (he (lalla and Somali. The Egypdan of the modern period is the Coptic, which has a Christian literature beginning early in our ei-a; it was overpowered by tho Arabic, ami became extinct several centuries ago. The ancient Egyptian is tho language of (he hier()glvphs, and has older records (han any other form of human speech, renching, in scanty measure, probably into tho fourtn mil- lennium before Christ. The Egyptian is a tongue of the simplest possible structure, with deficient distinction of its parts of speech, and with ^ery little flexion; go entirelv lacking (ho oharaeteristic featuris of Semitic lhat> in spite of apparent coincidences in their pronouns, (ho two cunnnt well bo brought together until tho riddlo of Semitic struc- ture is solveri. The extreme south of Africa is occupied l)y the Hottentot and Bn<'hman dialects, which have been recently elaiiued, though prol.jibly without good reason, to bo connected with the Itamilic family. N. of them, and up tti the eipiator, are founil the branches of a w<-ll-defined family, the .V-.k/A A/n'rnii (or Bantu, Kafir). The mnrk<'d pr-.-uliarity of its structure is its use of pn-fixes, instnid of suffixes, as principal inllectional apparatus. Those of its languages which border upon tho Hottentot share with tho latter (from whi.m they aro believed to have derived tho pccu^ 1640 LANGUAGE. liarity) the possessioo of clicks, or smacking and cluckiug eounits, in their alphabetic system. Between the Simth African languages anil the Great Desert lies a perfect Babel of languages and races, into the little-understood classification and characterization of which we cannot here enter. Even the best authorities are greatly discordant in their treatment of it. The J!a?que, on the border between France and i^pain, by the Bay of Biscay, is the only other language of the Old AVorld which calls for mention. It is unrelated with anything else in the world, and perhaps a relic ot a fsimily which occupied at least s<imc part of Western Eurojie be- fore the intrusion of llic Indo-Kuro])ean peoples. It is of an intricately agglutinative structure, commonly styled polysynthctic. The same polysynthelic structure characterizes tho lan- guages of the New World, in the main, and is the only tie by which, if at all, they are to bo connected together as a single family. Tho peculiarities of its manifestation, and tho classification of tho American dialects, are fully dis- cussed in the article on tho Indian Languages of this con- tinent. The classification horo given is strictly a linguistic one, making no a:;count of tho c:hnological division of human races. Between tho two there ia not a necessary accord- ance. Every language, as \7e have seen, is an institution, kept in existence, like all the other parts of our acquired and accumulated culture, by a process of teaching and learning; it docs not go down by descent. Just as any in- dividual c:in, if circumstances favur or require, learn as his first languago or "native tongue" a dialc?t wiiich is not that of his ancestors, so a community — which in this re- spect is only an aggregate of individuals — can do the same. And such cases have occurred, over and over again, in the history of the world. Like the useful arts, the sciences, art, religions, a language may be abandoned by a race which had produced it, or assumed by one which had no part in its production, because naturo makes all men capn,!>!e of speech, but prescribes to no one what speech ho shall use. Yet, wliile a language is a traditional institution, it is the most clinging and persistent of institutions, and also the one running out into the greatest infinity of detail and possessing the most notably objective character. Words, sentences, grammatical structure, can be recorded and turned over and compared almost as if they wero real sub- stances like fossils or archtoological remains. The.;o qual- ities make languago, beyond any othtr human product, of value in tracing out tha relations of th^; differeut sections of the human race anterior to tho epoch where trustworthy historical record begins. I?^s evidcuco yields no certainty, hut only a probability. Human communities have been influencing one another since the beginning of time; and it is not possible to say absolutely of any race on earth that it has not obtained its speech somewhat as the French got their Romanic, or the Xormans their French, or the Irish their English. But it is only the forces of a highly-devel- oped civilization that give a language tho power to propa- gate itself widely beyond its natural limits — that enable a minority of a mixed community to determine the speech of the whole: the ruder the people, the greater tho probability that its linguistic relations represent its tics of blood. Hence, tho trustworthiness of linguistic evidence is great- est where it is most desired, among wild and primitive races, as to whom recorded history is silent. The ethno- logical problem is doubtless too tlifficult to be ever com- pletely solved by us; the mutual encroachmonta and super- positions of races, with consequent mixture i>f blood and of speech in every degree, the dwindling and disappearance of one race, and the expansion of another to greatness, form a web so intricate ihat it will never bo unravelled. But in the present condition of ethnolugv, language is the richest and most reliable source of information. There are ulti- mate questions which it cannot decide, and as to which zoology and biology will probably some day show a higher authority. Suc^h, for example, is that of the unity or va- riety of the human ra-je : here linguistic science can only say that there are, on the one hanil, no differences between hum.an languiigos which might not be the result of later divergence from a common nucleus; and that, on the other hand, there are a great many languages so unlike that they can never be proved descended from the same ancestor, since they show no correspondences which might not bo the result of ftc:ridont. Linguistic material is not. like physit-al, analyzablc to its minutest elements; creation, annihilation, trausmutafion. are the commonest of pro- cesses within it: it yields its results only to historical methods of investigation. Thus far. it has been found pos- sible even to unite into families only languages wliich had the bond of a common structure; correspondences of ma- terial, of radical elements, anterior to the growth of struc- ture, have not been available; and although it need not be declared impossible that they may yet be found available between certain families, it is absolutely imytossible that they should be so between all. Koot-comparisons. among families of unrelated structure, are in the very highest de- gree ]>rccarious; none yet made are to bo approved as sound. The question of tho origin of language has assumed an entirely new aspect in consequence of the recent progress of linguistic science. It is clearly seen that language as a concrete possession, a stock of words and phrases used for the commuuication and elaboration of thought, is in no jiropcr sense of the word a gift, a natural capacity, a fac- ulty, but rather an accumulated acquisition, the outcome of certain faculties and tendencies which belong to man and are a characteristic part, of him. To maintain the di- vine origin of language now is simply to hold that man was endowed by his Creator with those faculties and tend- encies, with the foreseen and intended purpose that he work them out to the possession of language : as, in a dif- ferent but still essentially similar way, with the capacities that have brought him to tho possession of his other insti- tutions — of regulatf^d society, of art. of the arts of life. To hold that he was put in possession at his birth of a de- veloped speech is analogous to holding that he was pro- vided with houses and clothes and instruments and ma- chines. The formal structure of language. e\cn the more formal part of its vocabulary, we see to have been devel- oped by degrees out of a simple body of formless roots, indicative of external, sensible acts and qualities — in the same manner, and for the same reason, that instruments and machines have been developed out of simple sticks and atones and flakes of flint, that architecture began with caves and huts, and dress with skins of animals and fig leaves. To investigate the origin of languago is to inquire how these rudiments of speech were produced. The inquiry is not a part of the historical science of language, becauso history brings us only to the recognition of these, and to the recognition of them only in their kind, not in their concrete identity as sueh and such utterances. But it is au essential and prominent part of linguistic philosophy as a branch of anthropology, and can only be properly treated by one who understands tho facts of later language-history, and can read their meaning. To express himself is natural to man. and he has for that purpose a variety of instrumentalities — namely, ges- ture, grimace, and utterance. All are capable of beiug put to use, apart from anything conventi<mal, between human beings anxious to understand one another; and ail are, under dotermiuiug circumstances, so put to use. That any one of them should bo employed with the intent to commu- nicjite is enough to constitute au act of language-making. It is by the addition of this intent that they pass over from the condition of natural to that of conventional expression. The sphere of natural, instinctive expression is limited to the feelings or emotions of the cxpresser; it is purely sub- jective, and, so far as the action of the voice is concerned, it extends only to tones; it does not include articulations, specific combinations of vowel and consonant. There is nowhere, in the whole domain of language, anything going to show that a sound or combination of sounds is ever pro- duced as tho natural representative of an act of the intel- lect, a conception or a judgment. While human expression remains instinctive and emotional, it is not language, any more than that of tlie lower animals, with which it is anal- ogous. But when, for instance, a cry whi<-h was at first tho direct outburst of jjain or pleasure or disgust or warn- ing is repeated or imitated for the purjioso of giving to an- other an intimation of pain, etc.. then the making of lan- guage is begun. The lower animals, some of them, are able to make a beginning here; if a dog stands at a door, and scratches or barks in order to attract attention and bo let in. waiting for the opener who, he knows, will an.swer his call, that is an act of language-making as genuine and perhaps as good as the earliest attempts of a human being Would be. There is, to be sure, an essential difl'crence be- tween the two cases: but it lies only in this: the dog, with his limited powers, can go no further; he is incapable of a continuous progressive development ; but the man sees and appreciates what is gained by his linguistic act, and tries it again, and tries others; and so. by a gradual process of accumulation, he arrives at a body of expressions which use by and by renders conventional; and by manipulation of them he comes to linguistic structure, and finally, in races more gifted or more tavored by circumstances, to vo- cabularies and grammars like our own. Then, by a process of development showing the most striking analogies with that just described, he adds the art of writing, a mode of record of speech which continncs and completes its value both to the individual and to the race. This exposition shows tho true ground on which the dif- ferent relation of men and of the lower aniimils to language LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS— LANGUEDOC. 1641 is to be put and argued. Usually, tho great and ruinous error is coiumiUcd of assuming that at the bc^iuning cer- tain uuiiibiuutioDs ut' sounds must have naturally signified goinothir.g lo mau, aud then of searching anxiously for siuiilar {ihenuuiona among the animals: also. This can never lead to auy valuable result. The true point for the attention of naturalists is this: What signs are to be discov- ered in animals below man (like that quoted above of tho dog) of the power to adapt means to ends in the way of ex- pression, with more or less of free consciousness and intelli- gence? That their power is extremely limited is clear enough from the fact that no nice or community of animals, 80 far as we know or have reason to suspect, possesses any conventional language kept up by teacliing and learning. It is hero just as in the ease of instruments: the power to uso a stick or a stone as tool or weapon cannot be abso- lutely denied to certain animals; and men began with nothing better: but, except in man.it is not a growing and developing power. With the animals it remains a natural gift; with man it becomes by degrees an institution, and leads to tho possession of ships aud steam-engines and cannon. To ascribe the lack of language in animals to the wnnt of some specific mental power is an error, like tho error of ascribing its possession by man to the addition of some specific mental power, some linguistic faculty or lan- guage-sense. Tho lack and the p<tsscssion arc both alike tho results and indications of a whole eust and grade of mentiil capacity. <d" combinations of Huiulties wliicli show themselves abundantly also in other ways. No animal below man has any accumulated results of the exercise of his natural powers, any iustitulions — any civilization, in fihort. To make language dependent on a power of form- ing general ideas or concepts is least of all t<) be approved ; for it is past all reasonable (|ucstion that the lower animals do form such, in their degree and xvithin their limits ; noth- ing like intelligence is possible otherwise. The power of the dog in this respect is not sensibly dificrent from that of the wholly undeveloped aud speechless man ; but the ac- quifiition of language, impossible to Iho dog, trains and e<|uips the power in m:in, and makes it capable of vastly higher and more abundant work. The prominence in existing language everywhere of tho voice Its means of expression has its ground, not in any especial nearness of the organs of utterance to tho move- ments of the soul, but only in a kind of natural selection and survival of the fittest. The voice is, for obvious rea- sons, tho most available instrumentality, in the infinite va- riety and rapidity of its apprehensible combinations, in the small expenditure of muscular effort which they cost, in their power to command attention from any direction, and in tho dark as well as in the light, and in the liberty afi"orded the hauiia for other work at tho same time. Experience brought all this to light. even as it has brought to light Iho various availabilities of wood and slone aud metal. That we find every part of the human race, at the very beginning of our knowledgeof it, in possession of a spoken language, a more or less complete system of vocal »igus for ideas and their relations, means no more than that the whole race had lived long cnttugh to have worked out its natural gifts to their ncceSf'ary and intended results. It by no means proves that there was not a time when gesture, more than utterance, was tho principal nu-ans of expression, or even that for a period, of duration inipo.-^siblo to determine, men may have had no expression different from or higher than that of tho auijnals next beneath Ibeni in the scale of cre- ation. Tho natural (as distinguished from the conven- tional) means of expression atill continue most important auxiliaries to language; for anything but tho driest scien- tific statement, tone and gesture and jjosturo and facial expression are requisite; they are the subjective means whereby tho personality of tho speaker is impressed upon the hearer — whereby he moves, excites, persuades. And their power is greater and their aid more indispensable the lower tho grade of the language and of those who uso i(. In tho highest elaboration of S|irei-h. and with those trained to employ and interpret it with the keenest ?ensibi!ily, even t!io written page shows tho reader the very tone and action of tho writer — seems to smile or scowl or weep or excite. Out of tlie leading part asuunu^l by the voice grows tho imporlanco of onomatop(i>ia, or the vocal imitative princi- ple, in Iho earliest history of language. The intent being to make an intelligible sign, and the voice tho instrument, audible sounds are the matlers most easily signified. This is just as natural and necessary as that in a written system of signs the outlines of visible objects are most easily, and therefore earliest, signified. A hieroglyphic mode of writ- ing, intended for the eye to understand, begins with pic- tures of things that strike tho eye, and proceeds from them, in various ways, to inrlieate matters of more varied and oven of subjectivo knowledge. A system of audible signs begins in like manner with a rude, sketchy dejiietion, as it may be called, of audible sounds, and arrives, by figurative transfer and by various ties of association, at the intimation of other classes of acts and qualities. The sphere of imi- tation is by no means restricted lo the actual sounds occur- ring in nature, though these may well enough have been the first subjects of reproduction. What its limits are may be best seen from the range of ononiatopoctie expression in existing languages. There is a figurative imitation, where- by rapid, slow, abrupt, repealed movements are capable of being signified by combinations of sounds which mako through the car upon the mind somewhat the same im- pressions as the movements themselves through the eye. And while this was a jirincipal suggestcr of the means of mutual intelligence, it may well enough have been found even more fertile than we now regard it as being. Our recognition of the value of the imitative principle is thus founded njion our general theory <if language, in combi- nation with the fact that the same principle continues efiicicnl, in greater or less degree, through the whole his- tory of language; it docs not depend upon our ability to trace the main mass of material in any existing langungo to an ononiatopoctie origin. For. tlie intent being simply to ])rovidc by the most available means for communication between man and man, ononiatopceia would bo gradually crowded out, after tho provision of a certain quantity of intelligible signs, by the later and now almost exclusive method of the combination and variation of those signs; and, with that readiness to forget derivations and disguise etymologies which is a leading aud most valuable feature in universal language-history, the signs of imitative origin would be hidden and disap]>ear. If by such methods as tliosc here described there could bo made a suflieient working provision of signs, to be de- veloped by degrees into such languages as we now find in the world ; if these methods are in harmony with the known history of language, the one stage passing into the otlu-r without a break or a change of governing principle: if, from what we know of man anil of his linguistic ca}>acilies aud activities, these are the methods by which a new lan- guage would bo created if it were possible that a com- munity of human beings should begin life again without any, — then this is such a solution of the problem of the origin of language as science demands. it may be brielly pointed out. in conclusion, that there is no relation whatever between the develojiment of language and any dcvelo]inient of nnin himseif out of a lower tyjio of animal. JIan was man in endowment when the j)roduc- tion of his jnesent speech began : its acquisition, like that of the other parts of his civilization, has only helped in Ibe development of his powers, raising him higher and higher in the scale of manhood, and being, of all his aequisilions, the one most fundamentally in)])urtaut, most needful aud helpful to eveiything else that he jiossesses. The view of the history, nature, and origin of language here compendiously ])rcscnted will be found worked out in much greater fulness in the writer's works, Laiujuuijc uud the Studi/ of LftiujtKUje (New York. 1807), The Life aud Growth of Lnnifwiije { IH7&), and Oriental and Linyaisiic Studies, i. (1^72). Other general works on the subject in English ore M. Miiller's Lccturrs on the Scioire of l.an- ffmufc; H. We<lgwood*s Orii/in <f Lnuffuatfe ( London. 1S()6); F. W. Farrar's Chitjitcm n» l^autfuatjc, Familice of Lanfjnaije, etc.; A. II. Sayce's Principles of Comparative Philvlof/y (London, 1871). To trace the history of the study of language, from Iho often surprisingly acute but crude and narrow speculations of the ancients down to and through the reuutrkablc col- lections, comparisons, analyses, deiluetions, of the great linguistic scholars (especially in (Jcrnuiny ) of this century, constituting tho vast and rieh department of ** coniparalivo philology," is a task by itself, and will not here bcattempteil. The best auth»»ritie8 for it are L. Lersch, Sprachphilunopliic dcr Alien (I.S40); II. Pteinlhat. fienchivhte der Sprnvhtcis- Hcnnchnft bti dm Orirrhtn nnd flUmcnt (18C:i); T. Benfey, t^iHrhichfc drr Sf>rnrhuinMriiHrhaft umi dcr OrientnliKchvn Philnloijic in iJtut^vhland (iHf.U). J. Jolly has added a general sketch of tho history to bis (tcrman translation of the writer's Lantfutiifv aud the Stndtf tf Lnnt/nnijc {M\iu\t.h, 1H7I). nnd some interesting details are given in the fiist series of Miiller's Lecturer. W. D. AViiitnuy. Lanciint^o of Flowers, a sentimental systrm of floral >yinliolH by means of which it is intended that tho more tender feelings an<l passions shouhl be expressed. Among the Turks nnd Persians we are told that the hm- guage of flowers has received much attention, and is carried to great refinement and expressiveness ; but in othercoun- tries it is chiefly used by young persons of both sexes. Tho literature of the subject is extensive, but not important. liniiKilodoc', one of the old provinces of Franco, bounded S. by tho Mediterranean and E. by tho Rhone; it 1642 LANGUIDIC— LANSDOWNE. bore while a Roman province tlie name of Gnllia Xarbo- nemii : passed Iroin Uie Komans to tlie Gotlis, from tlic Goths to the Saraoous, and from the Saracens to thci'ounts of Toulouse ; iu \-M\ it was finally annexed to the French orown. In the Middle Ages it received the name of Laugue- doo [tau'iitc d'lic), from the circumstance that its inhab- itants expressed "yes" by vc, while in the northern pnrt of France it was expressed by oil. It is now divided into the dcpartiuents of Anleche, Audc, East Pyrenees. I ppcr Oaronne, tiers, U^rault, Lozere, Tarn, and Taru-et-Uaronne. Langiiitlic', town of France, in the county of Morbi- han, has (;;1S2 inhahitauts. L.'AngniIIe', tp. of Phillips co.. Ark. Pop. SOO. l,».\nsuille, post-v. and tp. of St. Francis co.. Ark., on the M.miihis and Little Rock K. It., and on the L'An- guillc River. Pop. 30C. Lanier', tp. of Preble co., 0. Pop. 1634. Lanjuiuais' (Jk.\n Dexis), b. at Konnes Mar. 12, Vib'i; studied law; practised for some time at the bar; was appointed professor of ecclesiastical law in his native city in 1775, and became conspicuous as a man of superior talent, when in 17Sy he was elected a deputy to the States General. As a member of the Convention he sided with the Girondists, and opposed all extreme measures. On June 2, 1793, he was arrested, but escaped to Renues. and resumed bis seat in the .Assembly in 17UJ, after the fall of the Terrorists. During the Directory he was a member of the Council of Five Hundred, and of the senate during the consular rule, in which latter position he led the opposition against the monarchical tendencies of the government of Napoleon, who nevertheless made him a count on the es- tablishment of the Empire. He voted for the deposition of the emperor in I8U, was made a peer of France by Louis XVIII., and advocated liberal principles during the Kestoration, in opposition to the reigning political and ecclesiastical reaction. He was a man of great literary attainments, and after his death (Jan. 13, IS271 his son published a collected edition of his writings {I vols., Paris, IS32), containing valualile contributions to the sciences of politics, archfeology, and language. Lank'ester (Enwix), M. D.. LL.D., F. R. S., b. at Melton, Suffolk, England, Apr. 23, ISU; studied medicine at University College, London, l!*3i-37 ; graduated at Hei- delberg 1839; became lecturer at St. George's school of medicine 1843; secretary of the Ray Society 1844; pro- fessor of natural history at New College. London, 1850; president of the Microscopical Society ISo'J. and elected coroner for Central Middlesex (city of London) 18C2. He acquired wide fame as a lecturer and writer upon sanitary and social science, physiology, botany, zoology, foods, mi- croscopy, etc. ; was author of many valuable reports and scientltic papers, and of various hooks upon the above Bubjects, mostly designed for popular u.se, and since 1866 edited the Journal of Social Science. D. Oct. 30, 1S74. Lan'man (Chaules), b. in Monroe, Mich., .Tune It, 1819, the son of Charles James Lanman; received an academical education in Plainlield, Conn.; was a clerk iu New York from 1S35 to 1845, when for a few months he edited the Monroe Ouzt^nr; was associate editor in 1841) of the Cincinnati Clironirlr, with E. D. .Manstield: and after making a canoe tour of the Mississippi and through Lake Superior, returned to New York, and was associated as a writer with the ll'tihi ICxpress. In ISIS he liecame a cor- rcsponilent of the .Vulioiial fntelliffriicrr, travelling exten- sively through the U.S.; settled at Gcorgetoivn, l>. C, and held at Washington the positions of librarian of the war department, librarian of copyrights in the state department and private secretary of Daniel AVebstcr, librarian of the interior deiiartmcnt, and librarian of the House of Ueprc- eentatives. In 1857 ho became the .\merican correspond- ent of the llhulraled Lnndnn Xcim, and in 1869 of the London Atltrn^Tiini. He has published E»na}j» for .Summer Jioura, 3 eds. ; A Summer in the \Vildcrne«9; A Tour to the Hirer Sotjuenoy, republished ill England; Lettem from the Alleghany Mountoinii; Occasional Rerordu of a Toiirint ; Private Life of Daniel Websterj republished in England: Adeentures in the Wilds of America, made from previous publications, in 2 vols., and republished in England, with introductory letters from Washington Irving; Oirtionary of Congress, 6 eds., three of theui published by the general government; Life of Witlinm Woodhrid/je: edited Prison Life of Alfred Ely, and two volumes of Sermons by Rev. Octavius Pcrinehief. Since 1871 he has been American secretary of the .liipaneso legation, and has published The /?,'(/ Hook of .Michigan and The Japanese in America, the latter reprinted and very successful in England. I^anman (Chari.ks James), b. nt Norwich, Conn., July 5, 1795; graduated at Yale in 1SI4; was admitted to the bar at New London, Conn., in 1817 ; removed to French- town, now Monroe, Mich., and held various public offices, such as judge of probate and U. S. receiver of public moneys (1823-32). He was one of the most promiueut and public- spirited of the early citizens of Michigan ; returned in 1835 to Norwich, Conn. ; lost much of bis property in the financial crash of 1837; was mayor of Norwich in 1838; removed to New London, Conn., in 1SG2. D. July 22, 1870. lianman (James), h. at Norwich. Conn., June 14,1760; gvaduatcd at Vale in 17SS; was admitted to the bar in 1791 ; held numerous important State offices; was a V. S. Senator 1819-25; held judgeships in the State courts 1826 -29; was mayor of Norwich 1831-34. He was the step- father of Park Benjamin. D. Aug. 7, 1S41. Laiiman (Joseph), U. S. N., b. July 11, 1811, in Con- necticut; entered the navy as a midshipman Jan. 1, 1825; became a passed midshipman in 1831, a lieutenant in 1835, a commander in 1855, a captain in ISGl, a commodore in 1862, a rear-admiral in 1867. Commanded the Minnesota at the attack u|)on Fort Fisher, Jan. 15. 1865, and is thus commended by Rear-admiral David D. Porter in his official report of that action : " Commodore Joseph Lanman, com- manding the Minnesota, was selected to lead the line, his vessel being the slowest and least manageable. I recom- mend him to the consideration of the department as one on whom thev can place the utmost reliance, place him in any position."" D. Mar. 13, 1874. Fo.\hall A. Pakker. Lanner. See Falcos. Lannes (Jean), b. at Lectoure, in Guienne, Apr. 11, 1769, of poor parents, and apprenticed in his fifteenth year to a dyer; in 1792 left this occu|iation and enlisted in the army, where he soon rose to the rank of a colonel; w.as nevertheless discharged in 1795. at the reorganization of the army, but in 1796 followed Napoleon to Italy as a volunteer, and very soon attracted his attention by his boundless audacity ; distinguished himself in every battle by some daring feat, and was made a brigadier-general in 1797; in 1798 accompanied Napoleon to Egyjit, re- turned with him in 1799, and rendered him great ser- vices by his faithful adherence on Nov. 9. 1799, in reward for which he was made a general of division in 1800, and commander of the consular guard ; led the vanguard when in the same year the army crossed the Alps at St. Bernard, and gained a brilliant victory over the Austrians at Monlebcllo. On the establishment of the empire lie was made a marshal. He led the memorable siege of Saragossa, and compelled the city to surrender Feb. 21, 1809, and nt Ratisbou he was the first who put the scaling-ladder to the ramparts. When he greiv older his judgment developed rapidly with his courage, and Napoleon considered him one of his best generals, when his career was cut off sud- denly in the battle of Essling, being mortally wounded, and d. a few days after in Vienna, May 31, 1809. liannion', town of France, in the department of Cfttcs- du-Nord. It manufactures several kinds of coarse woollen and linen goods, and has some general tr.ade. Pop. 6598. La Noue, de (Frani;ois), b. in 15:11. in the vicinity of Nantes, of an old noble family of Brittany: embraced the Reformed creed, and distinguished himself in the army of the prince of Cond6 as one of the most valiant Hugue- not soldiers. At the siege of Fontenay-le Comte, in 1570, he lost his left arm. and had it replaced by one of iron, whence he received bis surname. Bras dc Fvr. In 1572 ho went to La Rochelle, trying to bring about a reconcilia- tion between the city and the king. Having failed in this, and seeing that there was no other means of safety for his partv than open war, he took the command of La Rochelle, and defeniled the city for four years with great success. After the conclusion of peace in 1578 he Vent to Flanders, entering the service of the Low Countries: was taken pris- oner by the Spaniards, and retained at Madrid for five years, but at last exchanged in 1585 for Count Egraont. Under Henry IV. he again fought for the cause of his re- ligion, and d. .Aug. 4, 1591, from a wound he received at the siege of Lamballe. During his several imprisonments be engaged in literature, and his Bisrours politif/nes el mi- litaircs fBaic, 1587) have been often republished. His cor- respondence was published in 1854. Lans'dale, post-b. of Gwyncdd tp., Montgomery CO., Pa., about 25 miles N. of Philadelphia, on the North Pcnn.sylvania R. R., at its central point and junction with the Doylestown and Stony Creek hranehes. It has a churoh, 3 hotels, 1 national bank, 2 weekly newspapers (1 German), agricultural m.achinc-works, foundry, carriage manufactories, telegraph-office, planing-mills, a number of stores, etc. F. WAGVEn, Prop. "Lansdale Reporter. Lans'downe (Hexrv PETTv-FiTZMAtRicE), third MAlt«iKs.s OF. b. in London, Engband, July 2, 1780, second son of William Potty, first earl of Sheldcbne (which see). LANSDOVVNE— LANSING. 1643 who in 17S1 was crcfited marquess of Lan?downe; educated at Weslminslcr School aud at Edinburgh under the tutor- ship of Duj^atd Stewart : graduated at Trinity College, Caui- hridgc, in I^Ol, aud uuder the uamc of Lord Henry Petty was clioseu as a Whig in 1S0« to u seat tn I'arliameut for the borough uf CaJDc. Iludistiuguii>bed lliIu^^etf in debate, giving his chief attention to tiuaucc; wa:* elected member for the University of Cambridge in ISOG on the death of Pitt» and io the same year became chanccllur of the ex- chequer in the ministry of Grenvillc and Tox, retiring from office iu 1807. On the" death of bis elder brother in 180lt, ho succeeded to tho title, and became one of the heads of the Liberal party in tho House of Loids, being an early advocate of Catholic emancipation, the abolition of slavery, parliamentary reform, and free trade. On the return of tho Whigs to power iu 1827, ho became secretary of tho home department under Canning, secretary of foreign af- fairs under Lord Goderich (ISL'S), lord president of the council under Earl Grey from Nov., 18;;i», to Nov., 1S34, under Lord Melbourne from Apr.. 1835, to Sept., ISIl.and under Lord John Russell from July. 1810, to Feb.. 18J2. Fur many years he had beentbe Liberal leader in the upper house, when ho resigned that position iu 18J2, not intend- ing to return to office, but in December of the same year, on tho formation of the Aberdeen ministry, he consented to take a seat in the cabinet without a portfolio, and again in the first Pulmerston ministry, Feb., I8jj, to Feb., 1858. He was a man of cultivated taste, formed a splendid library aud collection of art-treasures, was a generous patron of literature, and made Lausduwne House the centre of polite society in England. He was a trusted adviser and friend of tho queen, but refused a duUedum and the premiership. After the death of the duke of AVellington he was the patri- arch of tho House of Lords, and perhaps tlie most univer- sally honored statesman of the realm. I), at liowood House, Calne. Jan. 31.180.'}. — His son Hrxnv, fourth mar- quess, b. in ISIG. d. in July, iSfifi; his grandson, llESitY CiiARLKs Kkith FiTZMAiRicr:, fifth marquess, b. Jan. 14, IS 15, was lord of the treasury ( 1 808-72 ) and under-sccretary of state for war (1872-71), in second (iladstono ministry. Lansdownc (William Petty), Marquess of. See Shelblrnk, Earl of. L'Alise, post-v. and tp., cnp. of IJaraga en., Mich., on Keweenaw liay, Lake Sui)eri()r ; is the N. AV. terminus of tho Marquette Houghton and Ontonagon R. R., and has a lino of iron steamers ruuuiug to the ports of tho copper- region. Pop. 33. Lan'sin^, post-v. and tp. of Allamakee co., Ta.. on tho Missisj:i]>pi Uiver and the (')iicago iJubiiquo and Minnesota R. U., 81 iriiles N. uf l)ubuque, has several eburcdies aud hotels, 1 national and 1 savings bank. 3 weekly newspapers (1 German), 2 steam saw-mills, a furniture factory and flouriug-mill (both steam), an agricultural implenunt fac- tory, a large school building, and numerous lunincss houses, has daily ferry connection with Wisconsin, aud handles an- nually 75U.0(M) bushels of grain. Pop. of v. 175.'j ; of tp. 2jl9. James T. Metcalf, En. "Mirror and Chroniclk." Litinsin;;, city and tp. (tf Ini,'hnm co.. onp. of the Stat© N, u of Michigan, is «itnated on Grand River, about IIH) miles from its miiutb, at its confluence with tho Cedar, anil on the Chicago and Lake Huron, tbo Detroit Lan^-ing nnd Luke Miidiignn. tho Lake Shore and Michigan Soulliern, and the Michigan Central R. Us. It has two oilier less important lines of railroad, and others are projected. Lan!«irtg was laid out by the State ns a capital in 1817, and was projected on a lilicral Mcale. with avonue^* seven and five rods in width: is situated on high land r»n both sidefi of tho river, is St miles W. of Detroit ami 00 S. W. of Sag- inaw. It has 2 national nnd 2 private bnnkp. a gaslight and a fire insurance eompany, 10 churelicK, 3 hotels, an opera house. 3 weekly newflpapern, iron-works, superior common and high sehonls, a female anrl a oommereial col- lege, State Agricultural College, State Reform School, State Lansing, Mich. Library of 20,000 volumes, several private literary nnd li- brary associations, and a young men's lecture society. (Jrand River is spanned by 4 iron bridges and 1 wooden one. Tliero is a noted mineral spring. The fine water- power has made Lansing an important manufacturing cen- tre, ami it has a large eom[dement of niereantih' Iiousch and of professional men. Tbo State eapitid is on high ground, fifty feet above tho river; an appropriation of $l,200,ll0lt was mado in 1874 for a new building. A eity government was organiited in 1851). Pop. of oily, 5-11; of tp. exclusive of city, 82:{. W. S. GKonor, En. "Statk RrnrnLiCAN." I>aiisinf;, powt v. and tp. of Mower eo., Minn., on tho MilwauUrc and St. Paul U. R. (Iowa and Minnesota divia- ionj. pop. 77;L 1644 LANSING— LAODICEA. Lansing, tp. of Tumpkins co., N. Y., on the E. shore of fayugii Lake. Pop. 2S74. Lansing i.roiis), b. at Albany, N. Y., Jan. .".0, 17;U: stuilicii law witli Ilobl. Yatfs ia Albany ami James Diiaiic ID New York t served in the Revolutionary war as niililary secretary to Gen. Schuyler; was for seven years a nienibcr of the legislature, for four years mayor of Albany; mem- ber of tlfe Old Congress 1784-88; member of the Slate convention for considering the U. S. Constitulion, which he opposed, leaving the convention; commissioner in 1790 to seille the Vermont controversy; appointed judge of New Y'ork supreme court Sept. 28, 17!lll, chief-justice Feb. l,i, 179S, and chancellor of the State from Oct. 21, ISOI, to 18U. I). Dec. 12, 1829. ljan'sin!;bura;h,po3t-v. and f p. of Rensselaer CO., N.Y., 3 miles N. of Troy, on the Hudson River, nearly opposite the confluence of the Mohawk, has 6 churches, 6 hotels, 1 weekly newsjiaper, established in 179S, 1 savings bank, an academy, !! public schools, 25 brush-factories, 2 oilcloth and 2 cracker fautories, 5 malt-houses, a fire and a police dc- p;\rlment, and is connected with Troy by a street railroad. It is perll.aps the chief point in the U. S. for the manufac- ture of brushes, oilcloth, and crackers. It has considerable river trade, and is connected with Waterford by a bridge across the Hudson. Named from the founder, Abraham J. Lansing, who settled here in 1771. Pop. of v. Go72; of tp. 6S01. J. <i- Scott, Ed. '• Gazette." Lan'singville, a v. of Hamdcn tp.. Delaivare CO., N. T., on the S. side of Delaware River. Pop. 110. Lansingville, post-v. of Lansing tp., Tompkins CO., N. Y. Pop. 07. Lanta'ua, a genus of mostly tropical shrubs of the orJor Verbeuacca;. Many have stimulant and aromatic qualities, i. /iseiuloilica is highly esteemed in Brazil as a substitute for tea. A number of the species are beautiful greenhouse shrubs, notably L. camara and inl.rta of trop- ical America. The U. S. have at least two species native to the (lulf States, L. camara and inroliu-mfa. Some have square stems. The flowers are mostly showy and of chang- ing color.^. Lan'tern [Lat. lauima, Interna], a portalile or fixed artificial light, enclosed in a suitable case to protect it from the action of air-currents. Ancient Rome, Greece, and Car- thage employeil lanterns. The lantern also appears, but not frequently, on Egyptian monuments. Thin layers of horn, oilcil or wa.\ed pajjer, or linen, bladder, and other translu- cent substances were used, .\idhelm, bishoi) of Sherborne in ICngland, mentions glass lanterns in 70o A. D. Tlic East- ern nations, and especially the Chinese, excel in the making of ornnmcntal lanterns. — On the evening of the lith of January tlie Chinese eelol)ratc the Feast of Lanterns. .SjMietiiues the wealthy Ciiinese spend tiiousanrls of dol- lars ou a single lantern, whose sides are often of silk, and whicii m:iy have a diameter of twenty-five feet. It eon- tains usually a great number of wax candles. The origin of the lantern-festival is vat'iously stated. Lau'tern-fly, a name given to several insects of the family Fiilgoridx, some of which arc reputed to emit a brilliant light from the forehead. Of these, Fnl-iora ran- delaria of China and F. Iniiicniaria of Guiana are the best known species, but it is doubtful whether they really emit any light. Tiiey are nearly three inches long, and arc the largest of tlie Ilemiptera. Some of the genera produce a fine wliito wax, utilized in the S. K. of Asia. Lan'thanuin [(Jr. haviivtiv, "to escape notice"], an elementary metal of rather rare occurrence, to which Mo- sander, its discoverer, in 18:19 gave this name, because it had remained concealed, in combination with cerium, for thirty-six years. Mosander also found in 1S42 in oxide of lanthanum another rare metal, d'ultfiniiun, which he named from the Greek 5i6wMo«. *' twofold " or *' twin," from its con- generic association with lanthanum and difficulty of dis- tinction therefrom. Didymium gives rose-colored salts and solutions, while those of lanthanum, when ])ure, are white. Those three rare and curious metals, cerium, lanthanum, and didymium, arc usually found in combination in the minerals cerilc, nttauilf, min-oinontitc, mosaiulrite, etc.; but the One here under consideration, lanthanum, occurs by itself, as the beautiful mineral laiilhaiilic, in at least three American lo- calities — in the zinc ores of Saueon Valley, Lehigh co.. Pa., at the Canton mine in Georgia, and at the Sandford ore- bed, Moriah, Essex co.. N. Y. Lanthanite is carbanate of iauthaiiniiti n.rtiUj or /ont/mim, La2C03,.'iH20, containing 55 p'*r cent, of lanthana. It is sometimes pink in color, from the presence of its roseate twin-sister, didyniia. Lnuthnna is a white oxide, like lime or magnesia, very heavy, density a''Out 6, which absorbs carbtmic acid and water from the air, and slakes with water, like lime, to a hydrate. llESllY Wdktz. Lan'thopine [Gr. KavBivtiv, "to escape notice," and 6;r6«, for '■ Opium "], a base homologous with papaverine, contained in opium. (See Watts's Diet., Sup/jlemcnt.) Lanu'viiim^ an ancient city of Latium, 20 miles S. S. E. of Rome, where now stands the hamlet Civitii Lavigna. It was anciently a place of much importance, famous especial- ly for its temple and sacred grove of Juno Sospita. It was one of the members of the Latin League, and the birthplace of the emperor Antoninus Pius. Few remains of the old town now exist. Lan'za (Giovanxi), b. in 1815 at Vignala, Piedmont; stu'licd medicine at Turin, and practised in his native city ; in 1848 was elected a member of Parliament, and espoused the policy of Cavour; in 1805 entered the cabinet of Cavour as minister of puljlic education, and in IS5S ex- changed this ofiice with the ministry of finance; in 18;'i9, after the Peace of Villafranca, resigned, together with the whole cabinet of Cavour, and then worked simply as a member of Parliament, of which he was elected president several times: in 1804 took charge of the min- istry of the interior under La Marmora, but retired in 1865. Once more entering Parliament, and having been elected president in Sept., 18G7, he opposed the financial policy of the ministry of Mcnabrca, and resigned his presi- dency when the ministry triumphed. His re-election in 1809 caused the dissolution of the ministry, and he now undertook to form a new eainnet himself. He occupied theminisfry of the interior, and the other members belonged mostly to that section of the Right which had supported Menabrea's internal policy, but opposed his financial mea- sures. Lanza endeavored to introduce the greatest possi- ble parsimony to bring order into the internal affairs of the kingdom. Nevertheless, as the annexation of the papal states in 1870 took place while he held office, large ex- penses for the army and navy were necessary. The pecu- liar tendency of the Itali.an Parliament to grant the ex- penses, but to reject the taxes, overthrew the cabinet of Lanza in 187.T. June 23 he gave in his resignation, as the Parliament would even not allow Sclla's tax-bill to bo discussed. AiOfST Xiemasm. Lanzaro'te, the most N. E. of the Canary Islands, comprises an area of 325 square miles, with a population of 17,JU0. It rises to the height of 20110 feet, and contains several active volcanoes. It is very fertile, and produces the finest grapes and wines on the Canaries, but it is much exposed to drought. Teguise is the capital; Arrecife, the principal port. Lan'zi (Li-ir,i), b. at Monte dell' Almo, Italy, Juno 14, 1732; entered the order of the Jesuits in 1719, and became, after its dissolution in 1773, assistant director of the gallery of Florence. He now devoted himself much to the study of art and archa;ology, especially Etruscan language and antiquities, and his two works on these subjects, Sagrfio di liiiijiia etrntfca (3 vols., 1789) and Storia pittarica drti'Ilafia (6 vols., 1792), attracted great attention — also in foreign countries ; the latter was translated into English by Thomas Roscoc. D. Mar. 30, ISIO. Laoc'oon [Gr. Aao«d«)v], a Trojan patriot and priest who opposed the introduction of Sinon's wooden horse into tho city of Troy, and was, with his two sons, slain by two great serpents from the sea. His myth is variously given, but tho account in Virgil's jEncid is the best known. Tho death of i^aoeoiin and his sons is the subject of a noble group now existing in the Vatican. It is described by Pliny, and was rediscovered on the Esquiline Hill in 1 JOfi. It was executed by Agesander, Alhenodorus (his son), and Polydorus, Rhodian artists who probably lived in the lime of 'Til us. The Laocoiin has been made tho subject of Les- sing's masterly criticism. (See bis Laocoon, translated by Ellen Frothingham, 1875.) Laodice'a [Gr. ,\ao4.icaca], the name of six Greek cities built liy the Seleuciila;, mouarchs of the Syrian empire, who after the death of Alexander the Great were the chief representatives and inheritors of his Eastern conquests, five of them having been named in honor of Laodice, w'ife of Seleucus Nicator, and one in honor of the wife of Antioehus Theos. Of these, one in .Media, one in Mesopotamia, and another on the Orontes in Pheenicia (called Cabiaiia by Ptolcmv and ad lihanum by Pliny), have not been iden- tified in" modern times. I. LAonirEA Combpsta [Gr. K<iTa«- Kii.vy.ivr,. tlie "burne.l"], now Ladik, situated to the N. \V. of Iconium on the highroad from (irecee to the Euphrates, anil variously .assigned to Lycaonia, Pisidin, and Galatio, as the boundaries of those provinces were ehan'.'cd. Strabo derived the name from the volcanic nature of the surnumil- ing country, but Hamilton (Kcnearclics. vol. ii.) asserts that there is not a particle of volcanic or igneous rock in tho neighborhood, and proposes to derive the name from some confl.agration. Leake (Asia Minor, p. 44) found at Ladik LAON— LAOU-TSZE. 1645 more numerous fragments "f ancient architccturo-ftntl sculp- ture than at any other place visited by liiin in ihut country. Imperial coins of the reigos of Titus and l>oini(ian show that it must have hccn a largo city. — II. La'Hucka ad Lyci'M, now EHhi-IUHHtir, a city in the S. W. of Phrygia, somelime-i reckoned to Onria and to Lydia, near Colussaj, 4(1 miles E. of Ephcsus and fi miles W. nf Ilierapolis. situ- ated on the spur of a hill between thcvalleysof the Asopus and Caprus rivers, which hero fall into the Lycus, was originally called Dionpfffi^ and afterwards 77io'f*, and bav- in;^ been rebuilt by Antiochus II. (Tlieos). 2ri0 D. c, was named from hi^ wife LAonuM:, by whom he was poisoned D. (-'. 24(j. From the Syrian monarcdis it passed to the kings of Pcrgamu3, and was annexed to the Roman empire on the death of Attains IH.. I'^l B. c, wlien it became the capital of the vast province of (irealer I'liryj^ia. and rapidly took position as one of the most populous, splendid, and wealthy cities of Asia Minor, distinguished also in liter- ature, noted as the seat of a great medieal school, and was the official residence of Cicero during his (iroconsulatc in A?<iiv (Ut-.Mi); an'l very interesting accounts are to be found in the great orator's correspondence. It became the residence of great numbers of Jews ; was one of the earliest scats of Christianity in Asia Minor, the church having been founded by Paul, who wrote an episilu to the Laodi- ceans (now lost ), mentioned in the Epistle to the Ephe- siani". According to the superscription to I Timothy, Paul wrote that epistle from Laodicoa, called "the chiefcst city of Phrygia Pacotiana," but there is no further notice of his visit. The terrible threat conveyed by the uutborof Keve- lation to the "an^el of the chureh of the Laodiceans, ' one of the seven churehes of Asia ( iii. 14-22), will readily occur to mind, and has rendered the term LainUccnn a synonym for Inkeirnrm, " neither cold nor hot." The city was nearly dcstroycfl by earthquakes in the reign of Tiberius, but quickly restored, ancl was the scat of two impurtant general councils of the Christian Church: the first, whose date is variously placed fmin ;!fi3 to ;t72, enacted sixty canons, one of which defined the books fthence called cmioniml) of Scripture; the set:ond in -170 eonilemneil the Eutyebians. It was again overthrown by an earthquake in 401, was captured by the crusfulers in I1'.I9, by the Turks in 12j.t, and finally destroyed by Tamerlane in 1402. Its splendid and wid'dy scattered ruins, including a stadium, gymna- sium, aqueduct, and three theatres, have been frequently described by modern travellers. (Sco good account in Smith's i>ivi. Oco'f. ii. 122.) — III. LAonic^:\ ad M\ni^, a city of Syria, founded by Seloucus Nicator, now L\takia (whiiih sec). Poktbu C. Hi.iss. I^aon' [Late hat. Lnndminm'], town of France, the an- cient /.n'fifitntnu (■fitr'ttniii, the llihrnx of Caesar, capital of the department c)f Aisne. is situated on the top of an iso- lated hill with steep declivities, and surrounrled with a wall flanked with towers. Its (iothic cathedral, built 1114, crowning the top of the hill, adds much to the picturcsquc- ness of its appearance. This ancient city was the scene of an ecclesiastical council in 9 IS. was taken by tlio Eng- lish in ! 12H, was memorable in the wars of Napolroii i. and in the Franeo-tJerman war of |H70, having capitulated to the (lernians Sept, 'J. If has a palace, often the residonco of French monarchs, and a famous library. Pop. 10,208. liao'nn, post-tp of Winnebago co., III. Pop. 742. Ijiionay postv. of Pomfret tp.. Chautauqua co., N. Y., on Siw l.'rcek, and on the Dunkirk Warren and Pittsburg U. K. It has 2 churches and several manufacturing estab- lishments. Pop. 21S. La'os, country of Farther India or Indo-Cliina, nearly in the centre of the vast peninsula S. of t'hina, bounded N. by the Chinese province of Yun-nan, E. by Tonquin and Annm, S. by Siam. and W. by the Shan states. Area, en- tirely uncertain, as well as pop., which is estinmled at ],.50li.0l)n. The Shan states r,n the \. W. were formerly a part of Ij'ios, but are now separate. Lao^ is travers'-d by the great Mc-kongor f-imbodia lliver, and consists chiefly of the fertile valley of this river, which is very produetive of sugar, rice, tobneeo, gums, br-tel-nnts, and other fruits, which with leak, saiidal-wond. and gold-dust form the chief exports. Formerly independent, the tribe) of Laos have since the eighteenth century acknowledged a nominal do- pcndimcp upon Siam. The people are related to the Hur- me-(e in blood, language, religion, and customs; they are ingenious artisans, and trade with Tonquin and Siam. Cap. Cliii-ngmni. l.a'oii-Ts/e, otherwise T^ao-Tscn^ I>no«t86e, or Ijao-kiiin, a Chinene moral pliibfsnpher whose teachings have many points in oimmon with thoso of .Sankhya Booddlia, of whom he was eontempornry. Lao-tse means in Chini'so "aneient sage." ilis family name was Li-pC-- yang. and he was born in the third year of the emperor Ting-ouaug, of the dynasty of Tscheu, near Lai in the principality of Thsou, This would be, according to Rein* old von Pliinckner, at the end of the seventh century, but another account places the year of his birth about Ct)4. Little is known of Laou-tszo except that he was state librarian and keejxT of the records at the imperial court of Tseheu. nn'l that having resolved in advancing age to retire from China, probnbly to India, be ren)aini'<l for a short time on the liorder, llan-kow, where he was per- suaded by the general Yun-hi to at least leave some record of his doctrines in a book, ile did so, the result being the LftD-tic Tno-te-hiiuj (" The Road to Virtue"), a small col- lection of aphorisms which probably contain more deep philosophy set forth in a spirited and genial form than can be found in any other work of the same size. It has within a few years been translated into the principal Eu- ropean languages, and extensively coniinented on. Lanu- ts/.c makes all things proceed frtjm and live in an infinite First Cause, which he calls T<ui. and which John Chalmers thinks best to leave untranslated, because neither " Way," '* Reason," nor " The Word " gi\es it exactly. lie placed moral pcrlection in the indiviihial, in independent realiz- ing of truth, and in self-discipline, being in nil resjiects the opposite of Confucius, who exhorted blind obcdienco to old customs and the doctrines of the ancient pages. Confucius is said to have taken a long journey lo visit Laou-tszc. They met and interchanged their views, until Laou-tszo, probably wearied by the narro\v scope of the opinions of Confucius and bis frequent quotations of the ancients, sharply exclaimed, *' Why talk for ever on of men who are long dead, and whose very bones are dust? Only their words remain and arc heard. When the wise man meets with opportunity, he rises with it; if he does not, he lets the weeds grow, goes his way, and follows his destiny. I have beard that a shrewd nierehaut conceals his opulence, and the sage of pci'fect virtue loves to seem simple. Put away your priile and your many desires, with the endless ambition wliieb is manifest in yonr manner. It is all folly : and that is all I have to say."' This was a cut direct, but it was natural. Ci»nfucius followed the ancients, and aimed at establisliing society upon conventional rules, while Laou-tszc. a rationalist, yet a mystic, despised glory, the world, the llesh, and {as a writer in Lnnnisse adds) the devil as known to Christianity, (.'onl'ueius is said, on re- turning to bis scholars, to have remarked. *'liirds, 1 know, can fly, fish can swim, and beasts run. The running ones may be snared, the swimming hooked, and the flying snared. But I know not how the dragon rises on the wind and clouds toheaven. I have Seen I*aou-tsze. anil he is like the dragon." Tradition stsites that Laou-tszc when last seen was mounted on a black ox. and rode away into the western wiJdcnirss of Thibet. Brimze figures representing him thus riding may be seen in every shop of Chinese and Japanese goods. From his disquisitions on Tau, tlie great cause and spring of life and morals, or that wbicli with him takes the place of the Deity or the Absolute, Laou-tsze became the head of one of the great religions of China, known as the Tauist. lie did not distinguish between spirit an<I matter, lieing. in fact, a pantheist, and, like lioucldha. he seems to identify pure existence, devoid of passion and t arlhly emotions, with a state which is not to oe separated from non-existence. His philosophy embraces much that resembles the Itleuti- t'dtHlrhrvy a (b)etrinc of identity, of Sehelling, and still more the bold jiarailoxes of Hegel as to the logi<-aI sameness of "Being and Not-Being." Yet from this mysterious un- known Being of nature be deduces a vigorous and beauti- ful moral ereed. The water that bublileil up in the spring of the valley came from be knew not where, and s<i it eaine from unn-hrrr. from nothing. That spring fl<»ws on for ever — a symbol, he thought, of all existence, which con- tinually flows from non-existence. And yet the eternal Tun is ticither one of these nor the other, but the slumber- ing possibility of !)oth. Th<' following extracts give an iilea of the style of Laou-tszc: '* The reason ( Ttnt) which can bo reasoTied is not the eternal lEeasun — the name wliieli can be named is not the eternal Name." "When in the world beauty is recognized to be beautiful, straiglitway tliero is ugliness. When in the world goodness is recognized to bo goofl. straightway there is evil. And thus in like nmnnrr existence and non-existence mutually originate each other; so also diflictilty and ease, long and short, treble and bass, before and after." Laou-tsze often suggests Emerson, and the latter in his essay on Cumprimntion has extended the idea of the former, that " an inevitable (/ualtmn bisects na- ture." ** It is after wisdom has conferred renown that there are great shams. And it is not until a nation bus got into a disordered state that there are patriots" {i. e. faithful ministers). Laou-tsze lived in ft great ago. " Ho wa<? contemporary with Booddba in India, with Jeremiah. Habakkiik. Daniel, and Kzekiel in Judiea. with Tbales. Anaximander, Pythag- oras, Hcraclitcs, and Xenophanes in Greece, while at the 1646 LA PALA— LAPIDARY. same time an immense reformation of the doctrines of Zoroaster took place in Persia." It seems impossible while studying his seiitenocs. so full of sagacity and dec]) wis- dom, to doubt that some of this Western influcnee had reached him. The principal works on Laou-tsze, in the order of merit, area? fallows ; L'to-tsr'e Titit 'J'e ICTnt/, ttns ifcm ChineHitiflitn tit* Drnttffie nheruct^it, eiiif/eleitet mtfi comnicntirt. von V ie- tnr VDii Strauss (Lcipsic, 1870); Le Livre ih fn Vnie it de la VcrtH, traduction dc M. Stanislas Julien (Paris, I.S42j, to which may be adclcd The Speculations of the Old /'hifos- opher Lau-tHze on MetaphysifS, PoUti/. and Muraliti/, by John Chalmers, apparently in great part a translation from the version of Julien (Loudon, 1S6S). Le Tao-te-h'm(j, on Le Livre rfrfrf dv In Ruismi supreme et de la VcrtUj par Lao- tscii, traduit par G. Pauthior (only the first part of tliis published): Memoires de I'nnciennc Academic dcs Inacrip- tinns (vol. xxxviii.). by De^uigncs : Mf moires sur ht Vie cf la Doctrine de. Lao-tsen, by Abel Remusat ; the (Tcrman version by Rcinold von PlUnckner (Ltio-tsn T6.o-te-king. Leipsic, 1870) is rather an extravajant paraphrase than a translation, it beinj; difficuU. or often impossible, to recon- cile any of its phrases with those of the other versions. The remarks of the early Jesuits yn Laou-ts/.e are as ab- surd as they are contradictory, Pere Couplet (Uifi7), in common with Montucei (1S08), seeing? in him almost a Christian Trinitarian, while Pere du Ilalde (I7r.f)) abuses him as an atheist and destroyer of all morals, in which opinion he was followed and outdone by tlie Fathers Bou- vet, Fouquet. Pr^mare. and Amiot. A good English trans- lation of Laou-tszc's work is desirable. C. G. Lelasd. La Pa'la, tp of San Diego co., Cal. Pop. 120. Lapal'cong, tp. of Warren co., N. J., on the Delaware River, opposite Easton, Pa. Pop. 1150. La Paz, seaport of Mexico, cap. of tho territory of Lower Calilornia, on La Paz Bay, W. coast of the Gulf of Calif )rnia, is tho scat of a deeliniug pearl-fishery; exports to San Francisco tropical fruits and hides. Pop. about 1000. La Paz de Ayacucho, city of Bolivia, the capital of the dL-pirtnunt of La Paz, and one of the capitals of the rejiublic, in la^ 10° oO' S. and Ion. GS° H)' W., at an elevation of 12.22(5 feet, on both sides of the river Chu- queapo. Well built, with an agreeable climate, and beauti- fully situated, its promenade or alnnuda presents a splen- did view of the tllimani, and is said to be the finest in Bo- livia. It was founded in lo-lS; is the chief commercial city of Bolivia, transacting a large foreign trade with the Peruvian ports of Arica and Islay, with the latter of which it has been brciu'iht into close connection by the completi(m of the Aroquipa Railway to Puno on Lake Titicaca. It has a beautiful cathedral, 14 other churches, a university, schools of law, medicine, theology, and science, and has frequently been tho seat of the national government. Pop. 8li,000. Lapeer', county in the E. of the southern peninsula of Michigan. Area, 6M0 square miles. It is uiululating and fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool arc staple products. Lum- ber and flour are leading articles of manufacture. It is traversed by the Detroit and Bay City and the Port Huron and Lake MiL-higan R. Rs. Cap., Lapeer. Pop. 21,345. Lapeer, city and tp., cap. of Lapeer co., Mich., 60 miles N. of Detroit, at the junction of the Detroit and Bay City wiili Chicago and Lake Huron R. R^. A branch of the former railroad, G miles long, connects with Fish Lake. Lajieer has 1 national hank, 2 weekly newspajiers, 9 churches, 7 hotels, several large mills and shops, and many stores. It is in a fine farming region, ami is the head- quarters of a large business in ])ino lumber and shingles. Pop. of city, 1772 J of tp. exclusive of city, 1IU)2. S. J. ToMi.iNsoN, Ed. "Ci.AniON," Lapeer, post-tp. of Cortland co.. N. Y. It contains the beautiful cataract called Hunt's Falls, on Fall Creek, 71 feet high. Pop, 7:15. Iia Perouse, de (Ttan Franc^oir nn Oai.attp), Coi'nt, b. at lino near Albi, France, Aug. 22, 1741 ; entered the navy in 17-")(i; served in the American war of independence, and was placed at the bead of an exploring expedition which Louis XVI. fitted out, and which left Brest Aug. 1, 178a. Doubling Capo Horn, Ija P^rousc followed the American coast to Monterey, California, crossed then the Pacific, and followed the Asiatic coast from Manila to Petropaulovsk. From this place he sent his journals and charts to Pari.s, and in Sept., 1787. he started southwanl. A letter was re- ceived from him dated Botany Bay, Feb. 7, 1788, and from this place it was his intention to go to the Isle de France by way of Van Dieraan's Land, but nothing more was ever heard of him. It is probable, however, according to re- searches made in 1791 by Admiral d*Entreca?tcaux and I>umont d'Urville in 182S, that he was shipwrecked in 17S8 at Vanikoro, in the New Hebrides group of islands. Lap'ham (Increa.se Allkn), LL.D., b. at Palmyra, N. Y., .Mar. 7, Isll. Was a civil engineer; was employed on the Miami, Welland. and Louisville canals. Was sec- retary of the Ohio canal commission 18S3-35, and early won a wide fame as a botanist and geologist. In 1S;JG he removed to Milwaukee, Wis., where he has held many ]»ub- lic offices. In 18fi2 he became president of the Wisconsin Historical Society. He published valuable papers and works on the geography, gculogy. mineralogy, anti history of Wisconsin, was a careful obsL-rver of the meteorology of tho region, and prepared a memorial to Congress showing the necessity of storm-predictions for the benefit of com- merce, and how they could be secMired. the suggestions of which were subsequently carried out. All branches of physical science engaged his attention, and he did more than any other man in the State to develop and stiniuluto scientific investigation for practical ends. In 1873 he was appointed to take charge of a geological survey of the State. He organized the survey, and conducted it with great ef- ficiency for two years, nntil, in consequence of a ]>olitical revolution, ho was superseded. He had prepared two able reports which are yet unpublished. He d. suddenly at Ocouomowoc Sept. 14, 1875. Lap'idary [Lat. ?r»;)K/arj'»«, a "stonecutter," from lapiSf a " stone," but limited to one who works in precious stones]. By some writers a distinction is observed between the en- graver of ycHis and cameos and the lapidary, the latter being supposed to merely prepare precious stones for jewelry by cutting and polishing them. Of lateyears, since a great demand has sprung up for imitations of ancient Scotch jewelry and for tierman beads, all of agate, carneli.in, and other third-class stones, the lapidary has been chiefly de- voted to this class of work. The first step in polishing a stone is to slit it. This is effected by means of a circle or disk of thin sheet iron placed horizontally, and made to re- volve by very simple machinery. Dianioud-dust is applied to the edge of the iron plate, and sperm oil drops upon it from a can. A raised edge around the tal)le is provided to prevent the loss of the dust. A small quantity on the disk will, if pro|icrIy managed. last all day without appreciable loss. Wh-^n cut, the stone is ground on horizontal wheels made of lea<l, brass, iron, or alloys, and sometimes of wood of different degrees of hardness. The wheels of metal are calloil Inps. On these is spread emery, diamond, or corun- dum powd'T. and sometimes the powder of agates and other gems. For the la-t polish, wheel:^ are used covered with cloth, leather, or hard brushes. The powders of diamond, etc. gradually imbed themselves so firmly in the lead or other soft metal of which the wheels are made that the stone yields to tliem. It is held either with the fingers or by wax in a hollow at the end of a stick, and pressed against the wheel. The /((rcf«, or flat surfaces which give brilliancy to transparent stones, are cut by a very simple contrivance. By the side of the horizontal griuding-whcel is )>laced an upright heavy, club-like piece of wood, resembling a long- necked, very narrow bottle reversed. Into this, in difi"ercnt places, a rod is stuck, at one end of which the gem is affixed with cement. The gem presses on the wheel as it revolves, and the surface is cut away. To make a new facet the rod holding the gem is simply stuck into another hrde. which gives a new inclination or a new angle. The diamond- jiowder used is made from bort, or cheap coarse diamonds, and sells at from £1 to £2 per carat. The workmen acquire wonderful facility in shaping and polishing stones, and from a given pattern will produce any object required with great rapidity. Certain gems, such as the cairngorm, are very elegantly cut in Scotland, but the great mass of beads, bracelets, and inferior '* Scotch "jewelry comes from Ober- stein in Germany. (See Gems.) (For further information consult the woriis of Dr. A. Billing. Dr. Feuchtwanger, King, and HoUzapfel.) Cmaki.ks (J. Li;i,and, Lapidary. In writing, this word is applied to a style peculiar to inscriptions, and which derives its name from liipis, a ** stone," from being commonly applied to monu- ments. As it was developed at a time when Latin was principally used for such purposes, its rules are in reference to that language. It has, says Larousse, its special rules, its consecrated abbreviations, its ready-made formulas, and its conventional archaisms. It affects to be ancient and unchangeable by perpetuating words no longer in common use. anil exerts itself chietly to be concise, without neglect- ing great words or pompous forms. It is very difficult to write well, and in ancient forms is much more difficult to read, owing to the abbreviations, by which words are often represented by single letters. The commonest abbreviations in Latin inscriptions are the following: Ab I'rbe ComlUa, " Year of the buildini; of the city " (Rome), or " from the building of the A. K, Artinm Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Arts. A. M.. Aflium Magister, Master of Arts. A. U. CyAnno Urbis OindUce^ or city.*' COSS., Cbnsules, consuls. LAPIS LAZULI— LAPLACE, DE. 1647 CS.. CbHJtttt. I K.. JTalfndU, "At (or In) the C VIR., Ckniatn fir, a magU- { Kalfiid:*." trail'. ; L., I.ihrr'us, a frccdinan. CC VV.. Clarissimi VJrC, tery , N, A' •/*".». nephew. ilhHiri MIS miMi. O. T. B. tj.. Ov.«i ttia bene 71*i*m- D. M., Ifiis MuHibtis, "To the I cnit/. '*M:iy your boiiea rest M.-iiiL's." j well :" D. M. S., Diu M'lnibus Sticnimy P. M.. Pim/if^z Maxtmus, the '•Allarof the Mant's."' | great pontiir. D. S. P. . Pi' tit'i pfcimia, " At hut S. C., Stnattui roruu//o, " By a de- own f'xpt-nse." crcp of tho Senate." F^ FiHuj, >on. I S. P. Q. R.. S^n>Uw popiihisqiff! F8-. /'V<i/fM. brothers. Ronuinus, "The Sonale and (J. I). N., Ornio Domini noUrt, \ the Koinaa pe<>pl« S. T. T. I... Sit fibi terra hrijc, "May the earth be light to (ont Iht'el" V. F.. I'irus /rcU, "He did it wliih^ alive." V. P.. I'irm poxt/H. " lie erected it whilf yet alive." V. S. ]j.. I't'fttin solrit libmx^ " He did it to accomplish a vow." "To ilii- (ii-niiis i()r tutelary spirit* <if nur Ma-'ttrr." I H. F. <'.. If-rfx facinwiuni cum- i ri'. " Kxe-'ul'-d bv the heir." i n. M. H. N. S., ll'i)C monnm^- \ turn hrrfdrrn non seqiiitiir, "This ni'tnument (Iik*s not ' follow our inb'Titnne)'." 1 T. O. M.. J'ni O.tfimo ^f'^rimo, , " To Juvf, thi b'jst and great- , est." i Among the peculiarities of lapidary style is that by which a date was e.\pressed hy mnkin;; tho numeral letters promi- nent in an inscription. Of this kind is the followinj^, which was formerly on tho face of an old clock before a tavero in Paris : ** AV t?Mps dV rnt ChirL-s T.-* hVU C.'st VI liosleL fVt caiiblrVIt." By addin:; !h?3e capitals the date 1405 is obtained. (See Chronockam.) CiiAitt.p.3 G. Lelasi>. La'pis Laz'nli [Lat. M/jiV, "stone," and Arab, asii^ *'heavi?n "j, a natural silicate of lime and alumina, with a small amount of sulphurets, crystallizing in the mono- metric system, ami of a beautiful Berlin-blue color. It i,-; highly valued for the manufacture of ornamental articles, and was formerly the sole sourcs of the rich paint ultra- marine, which is now chiefly manufactured artificially. Lap'ithiE [Aafftfljti], in the Greek mythology, a race of Thessilians, the d*seen<lants of Lapithcs, a son of Apollo, whoso king was Pirithous, son of Ixion. They overcame the Centaurs in a bloody war, but were in turn humbled by Hercules, as relate I in llcsiod and Ovid. They wore prob- ably an early warlike race of the Pelasgian stock. Laplnce' (rvnii.i.KPicRRKTHf'onoRK). b. Nov. 7,170^; entered the French navy early: was niado captain in ISIM, rear-admiral in 1S4I, vice-admiral in IS.i.3, and retired in ISjS. He commanded in two c.\pcilitions of circum- navigation, which he described in 1'".'/".'/'' autonr dn Monde (5 vols., Paris. lS;{.'}-;i9j and Cfitnpat/ne dc Ctrcnmufivigatiun (4 vols., 184J-4S). I). Jan. 24, 1875. Laplace, de fPtEnnr: Simox), M\RQrrs, b. at Beau- mont en-Aug'\ in X'iriniindy, Mar. L'.l. ITtO. of poor pa- rcn's: ho was indelttcd to the interest of wealthy friends for almisT^ion to tho College of Caen and the military school of Iloaumont. Brought to tho notice of D'Alembort, who procured him the mathematical mnstership of tho military sehool at Paris, that city bcc.imc his resilience at the ago of eii;h;ccn. Two papers on the Theory of ProbaI»ilittc9 printo 1 at tho Academy rUiring the ensuing five or six years arc mentioned by tlio Aendeniy as chosen for publication among many, with the eulogy, "This society has never known so young a person t() furni'ih in so short a time no many important memoirs on subje^ds so diverse and so diffi :ult." He was elected an associate, and in I78.'tamoin- ber. His political career during the Kevolution and under Napoleon has been much commented upon, but ucilhcr space nor adequate data allow its tliscussion here. Lapliioo is stylccl by Prof. Forbes (fifh Dissertation, Enci/c. Itrit^ "a sort of exemplar or typo of (he highest oIajh of mathematical natural pnilosophersof tbis, or rather tho immi'dialely preceding, ago;" by Mr. Airy," the great- est mathematician of the past age;" and by Prof. Xichol, "tho titanic geometer." It may bo added thiit (he present a!;o haa proilu'cd no recognized rival; that (o Newton alnno, as a " m;ithematical philosopher," is. in any ncc, supc- riorify concc Ic-I. His more important invcstigaliuns are — his improvements of tho lunar theory ; his discovery of the cause of tlie great inequality of .Tupiter nnd Sntiirn's mo- tions ; his tlir'ory of tho tides; his work on jirobnbililies. Newton's newly disfovered law of gravitation Imd been so successfully applied to the lunar motions ns with one im- portant exception to reconcile ihem to the refpiirements of th^ theory ; th'^ nnoxplainotl exception was " that the mcnn nt'iti'in of (h-* moon has been accelerated from century to century by a minute quantity, which, in the lapse of thou- samls of years, has become rccngnizniilc." The earliest au- thentic observations of eclipse, made a( Babylon in the years 71fl. 720. 721, show that they oceurre I 1} hours ffooiirr thnn if the present mcnn motion of tho mom then obtained. The interval has been Imi-fr than it should liuve been found to be, and hence the motion fe^s rapid in former cen- turies. As regards the moon's orbit, "the effect has been that at each lunation she approaches nearer to the earth than during the last hy one-fourteenth of an inch ! thus de- scribing a spiral of almo'it infinitely slow convergence." To understand (he ^'olution of this apparent anomaly as finally given by Laplace, il must be remembered that under tho action of central forces the angular velocity of a satel- lite about its primary will be increased by an increase of the central force: that the effect of the sun's attraction on the moon and earth is. on the whole, to diminish the central force between these bodies by a minute qu.antity propor- tional to the inverse cube of the sun's distance.* The dis- turbing effect, therefore, of the sun's attraction is to make the moon".^ motions less rapid than they otherwise would be; anrl whatever diminish*? //o'^* »listiiri)ing effect accele- rates the moon's motion, ^^ow, though the earth's nienn distance from the sun has not varied, the eccentricity of its orbit has been diminishing from the earliest historic times, and with it the arcrni/r inverse cube of the distance. Hence, the secular acre^cr«tion of the moon above descrilnvl ; wliich, however, as also its approximation to the earth, nui.-t cease with the attainment of minimum eccentricity by the earth's orbit, when the reverse effects will ensue. The amount of acceleration is now about 10" of longitude in a century. A comparison of ancient observations with modern re- vealed an acceleratii)n of the mean motion of Jupiter and a retardation of that of Saturn, whereas modern observa- tions alone show a contrary effect to be in progress. The revealing after many years of ptu<iy of the source of the re- sulting discrepancy between astntnomical tables nnd ob- servation is regarded as one of tho prouilesi achievements of its author, though Mr. Airy regards his theory of tho tides as furnishing a "greater claim for reputation." Analytical expressions for celestial pliennmona can, in general, be but approximations, in which terms considered insignificant, as involving the square, cube, or higher pow- ers of minute quantities, are discarded. Laplace demon- strated that among those which had been thus neglected in the expansions of the mutual perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn were some multiplied by sines or cosines of angles renijered small by sm:ill multipliers. Mathematicians arc familiar with tho tact that, subjected to integration, such terms, by making tlie small multiplier a diristtr, pro- duce quantities of appreciable magnitude. The effect of this discovery and the restoration of such terms was a com- plete reconciling of ancient and moilcrn observations. Thus were removed from the theory of gravity the two most formidaI>le obstacles to its acknowledged adequacy to ex- plain celestial phenomena — the anomaly of the lunar aecel- era'ion and the great inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn. Tidal theories, previous to Lajtlace's investigations, pre- sumed the earth lo be at rest, and the waters of the ocean to be in motionless equilibrium between the forces of gravity and the solar and lunar attractions. Laplace had the bold- ness to attempt the solution of a problem in which necount is taken of the mntiunH (relatively to the earth) which tlie fluid particles must receive in order to produce the tides ; in other words, of the forces rer|uired to produce them. All hough this theory, in the writer's opinion, no more really grasps the actual lidnl phenomena of the existing sens of (he earth than the equilibrium theory, it in»idd solve the problem did the ocean cover the whole of the earth's surface with uniform or nearly uniform depth, or did it so occupy a canal continuous between parallels of tatilnde around tho globe; and it furnishes highly interesting and even import- ant results. In another paper (Amn\ Jour, of Science^ 1S59) the writer remarked : " If tho actual conjij/ttrution of tho ocean's •The sun's a'iracfitm varies as the Inverse square of the dis- tance; but (if the moon be new or full) il is by \\\<} diffeiener only of ilH attraclions on the earth uiid moon, by which one is drawn nuin/froui (he olh'-r, and so tiuirli of iln' mulual ntlnution of earth arid moon nentralizL-d. Now, if A* be the sun's mass, and /> lie its distance from the earth, and d that of Ihc nH«)n, •S S this difference at time of new moon will be ,„ — ;— — . ■ (D — tlYt in Sinecdishut aJgth of A this diffei'cnce will reduce (nearly) to * -; and the same for full moon. But on the contrary, when the moon (In first or last quarter) and earth areequidlstaul from the sun, il dmn-x th'-m I'ntrthrr, owinu to the slightly ouiverk'cut dircctiotiH of Us attraction, Iliouu'b by hnlf only id the above expressed force. The average effect (neRlcctlng a srnall fluclti- utliig and Hclf-neutrali/Jng force) is a decremi'nt of (lie gravi- tating force between tho earth and moon, equal to "-, which may bo computed at ^^ri^b. and by which the period of a luna- tion would he lengthened yj[{y. or \ h<uirs. Il is mtt, however, the tutnl amount of ihe sunN ellect. but its excessively minute (now) u:anin{i fluctuation (owiiiK to the minute increase in the aifratje value of IP. through Ilio pronresslve diminution urecccntri- citvi, thill causes the moon s *' acceleration." 1648 LAPLACE'S COEFFICIENTS. bed is the very basis of a dynamic theory of the tide?, then a theory which is ohlijied to reject entirely tliis actual enn- figura'ion, and instead of ocean-beds of Ihnited areas, iso- lated from each other by dry land in tho*c parallels where the tidal etTects arc the greatest, substitutes an imaginary ocean covering tiio tchofe r/tobe, and of the same depth fol- lowiii<; each parallel of latitude, the problem can be only a raatht'iiiatical one of more or less interest, from which noth- ing; of any practical value, as to the actioit ])licnomena of the tides, can ho expected ;" and Mr. Airy, who speaks of Laplace's investigation as "one of the most sfdendid works of the greatest mathematician of the age," in almost the same breath says,*' As it is, Laplace's theory fails totally in 3]>]ilication. from the impossibility of introducing in it the cun-iideration of the boundaries of the sea :" and Prof. Forbes (fith Dissertation) fully sustains the writer when ho says, *• It is, in fact, like many other productions of the same age and school, a great display of ingenuity and mathematical skill, which hardly yields a .single result worthy of confulencc or agreeing with nature, except by the ahnndonment of its deductive rigor, or a concealed in- duction backward from the phenomena to he accounted for." The doctrine of Probabilities — the subjecting to the rigor of mathematical methods subjects which /cimw no law (i\ e. of chance) — furnishes the most subtle and at the same time the most fascinating of problems, occupying as it were a borderland to Metaphysics, Logic, and Mathematics. The ThSoiic (innhftlqnr mtr fen PiuibabHtttx of L;iplace is re- gardeil as quite the ablest specimen of matheniaticai writ- ing of his age; but one which cannot here be discussed. (See Phobabilities.) In this brief notice it would be in vain to discuss La- place's distinctive claims to greatness as a mathematician and a ])hilosopher. His mastery of mathematical analysis was perhaps unsurpasst-d, and he has contributed gi'catly to the development of this powerful agent of human rea- son, especially in its application to physical problems. Ho is the inventor of the most powerful calculus (since generalized and enlarged as the Spherical /Jttrmonfr Anat- ysiH) known generally as that of LArLACF-'s (^okfficibnts. (See that head.) It is due, however, to L^jfudre to say that he (according to Dr. Forbes) "was the first to imagine and employ those artifices of calculation known as * La])lace Functions.' " His longest and most system- atic work, the Mf'niui(fnr C^U-^itc, is a compendium of tho proliU'tns of (ihysica! astronomy which had been accumulat- ing for a century, but which arc treated by methods mainly original with himself. This work, though written with en- tire tlisregard to preserviug the order and connection wliich would enable the reader to fuUow him, is justly considered his most imperishable monument. Dr. Buwditch. whose voluminous explanatory notes appended to his translation arc almost an indispensable aid, was accustomed to remark, " Whenever I meet the words of il etit fnn'/c dr voi?- (i. e. it is cii.H}f to ficr), I am sure that hours and pvrhaps days of hard study will he necessary fur nio to discover how it plainly appears." It is certainly a disparagetncnt to the work that it should he so, for I think mathematicians will admit that a little more reganl to order and connection, and a slight condescension to furnish explanation or clue, would make tho work more useful, ccriainly more easily read. For a short time Laplace was one of Napoleon's minis- ters. The cause of disagreement is unknown, but his was not tho character of miud best fitted for politics or di[)lo- raacy, and he was evidently out of his element. No moro infelicitous or unjust characterization than that ap])lied hy Napoleon, '* the intinitesimal philosopher," could have been made. No modern mathematician has exhibited greater powers of generalization : and in his Xthit/ar Jlifpnthcuitt wc have one of the grandest conceptions of the origin of the actual Coshiok, as the result of continuous action of physical " laws," and one which has anticipated modern thought in relation to ilcrdopnieut. Lapbicc has been cen- sured for •' meanly " suppressing in the second eilition, pub- lished afier the emperor's fall, the dedication, "yl Napoh'on le Grand," which had been given to the first edition. Mr. Todhunter iff inf. nf the Thron/ of Probahitift/) thinks that "tho fault was in tho original publication, and not in the final suppression;" and that it would have been "almost a satire to have repealed it when the tyrant of Europe had become tho mock sovereign of Elba or the exile of St. Helena." He has. too, on very inadequate grounds been charged with atheism. His Inst words (he died in Paris Mar. 5, LS'J7, exactly a century after Newton), so similar in sen- timent to language attributed to his great predecessor, prove that, like that great philosopher, insight into the mysteries of nature deeper than other men's nourished in him not arrogance, but humility ; " Ct- que tiotm cfinuainnouD est pen de chusc; cc fjite nous i'jnorous cat iiitmeune," J. G. Barnard. Laplace's Coefficients. The properties of these important analytical exjiressions were discovered by La- place while investigating the attractions of bodies nearly splicrical in figure. The total attraction of any body upon a material point is the resultant of the attraction of all its elementary particles: or, to slate in different form, the total effort of the attraction in any given direction is tho integral of the comi)onenls in that direction of tho attractions of all the elementary particles. If j-. y, z be the rectangular co-ordinates of any elementary portion dm {~ pdxdi/dz, p being the density) of the attracting body, and jr',y',z' the co-ordinates of the attracted point, the attraction exerted by dm (varying inversely as the square of the distance) will be pdm and the componcDt of this panilkl to the axis of x will be pf.r' — x)tl.r<fti<h and the component of the nttrnclion exerted by the entire body upon the attracted particle will be the triple integral of this last expression. Now, if we put -^A pdxdi/dz [{x' - jc)i + (/ - 1/)'^ + {r' - z)^i (2) (that is, T' is the sum of the quotients of the elementary masses, each divided i»y its distance from the attracted par- ticle), it will be found that ( 1 ) is simydy the partial dilfcr- entiai (with sign changed) of V taken with regard to tho d V d V variable a:'. Hence also — , , and ^ -— give the compo- rt// dz ncnts of attraction parallel to the axes of ^ and z; or, more generally,— -- is the component of attraction parallel to any line of which dn is an element of length. The function V, first introduccil by Laplace for gravita- tion, is of great iinportani'o in physics, au'l the name of potentinl has been given to it by the English mathcmnti- cian the late (leorgc Green, who (taking his clue from the use of it made by Laplace) may be said to have created tlie theory as we now have it. In reference to gravitation, not only does the amount of attractive force depend upon it (bcinff, in any direction, — — I, but the Kork which (hat dn ) attraction is potent to do along anv path is evidently the in- /dV rfs, or, — V} hence the name of potential. A property of V. easily verified, is that the sum of tho second partial dilferentials with respect to eaeh of the co- orclinates of the attracted point is y.rro. provided it be not a part of the attracting mass. In the latter ease (demon- sfration cannot be here given) the sum is —4iTp', Hence, tho property in question is expressed by p' being the density at tho attracted point of tho mass. Jlcnce, if we know the potential V with reference to any point included in its oini mnss of which the co-ordinates are a:', y', z'f the variable density will be expressed hy "*" dy'^ "*" dz"i The determination of T lends nt once to the determination of the attraction upfin any point. V is the inltgial of pdjcdijdz multiplied by [(x'- j:)2 ^• {y'~ y)^ + {z'-zW^ , (4 ) the reciprocal of the distance bi-'twpen the element flm and the attracted particle. If wo IransfDrm x", r/. z' into (lolar co-ordinates r', 6', at', and x, y. z into /•, 0, w, wc have tlio iijual expressions (the angle being mcasared from the axis of z], j-'= I ' sin 9' cos u' : y'= r' sin 0' sin u' : z'=r' cosO', and corresponding ones for x, i/, z. If. with Laplace, we represent cos » and cos 9' by m ami il', the above reciprocal will be converted into [,•2 + )•'» - 2it' JMf ' + \/n^^Vl -^'-" cos («! — <»') J ]' i ; which may bo expanded into converging scries (according as r'> or < r), 1 r r< P<,-, + Pi-.i+ ■P'-Ti+T in which Po Pi . ■ ■ ■ and Pi are rational and entire funo 4„ \(/x'» 7r\ (5) LAPLACE'S COEFFICIENTS. 1649 lions of n, VI — fi.' cos w, ••/l — m^' aio w ; any coefficient /*( is of t dimensions in these quantities (and the sixuic is tnio with regard to the variables m' nod w'), and its numerical value has plus or minus unity for maximum and minimum. If wo style the expression (-1) Q. it will be found to sat- isfy the condition (3) (with zero for second member). In polar co-ordinates this condition becomes and if we substitute for Q the developments (o), it will be found that /'i satislies the condition The functions Pi possess remarkable properties discov- ered by Laplace. Hence their name. LafAncca Co^J^^Unta. As resulting from the develupmeuts (j), they are deter- minate, and hence involve only numerical quantities with fi and w, fi' and w'. Other expressions derived from the in- tegration of (7). and onlaining, of course, but one set of variables with arbitrary constants, share in tl»c same prop- erties, and are designated as Lnpluce' a Functions to distin- guish them from the Coefficients. These properties {proofs of which cannot be hero given) are the following: 1. If Qi and Si be two Laplace's Coefficients or Func- /-ft /»2Tr / Qi *Vi dft-dui =: 0, when i and i' are — 1,/ ditferent integers, the sura of which bo not minus unity. 2. A function F (fi,w) of n, VI— ^i-cosw, and VI —^ einw, which docs not become infintto between the limits — 1 and + 1 of Ml And and 2tr, of u, can be expanded in a scries of Lnpf<icf.'*a FunctionH (which is equivalent to saying that any fuuction of a-, y, z can be thus expanded); that is, F{^,u»)==Fo + Fi + Fi . . . -(-Fi+ . . . , (S) in which Fi is a Laplace Function of tho order i, and is equal to That Is, Pt (which contains symmetrically fi and fi.% and also w, ••'), by being multiplied by fin^ function, Fin', Hi'), of }i*,'J\ — m' cos: w', VI — /x' sin w, and intcfrnited as above, is converted into the Laplace Function of i order, of tho development of /' (/x. w). The general expression for these coefficients. Pi, is ex- ceedingly complicated. Wo give here, as examples, ex- pressions for Pi and 1*2 only. Px = m/ + vrr;:* v'n^'^ cos (« - «')• ft=![u'-J)C/*"-l)+3(i-M')^M(i-**'^)Vcos(«-«') + Ml -m"^)( I - 1^"^) COS 2(« - w'). The Laplace Functiona, Ft (tho sum of which from t = to I =a to tho order of tho given fuuction, /', constitutes the development of the latter), may be obtained from /' by the indicated process (U), involving the use of the *' Laplace Coufficienis " /\ :f but when tho function /•' Is rational and integral, tho development is more readily made the melhod indicated by Laplace, having recourse to the general forms of Laplace Functions (or Sphrricttl hnrmnnicajf i. e. to the general solutions of differential equation (7). I shall not attempt to initicate the processes by which these general form« arc detcrrained, but give thoso of 0, I, 2, 3d orders with the general expression for a harmonic of ant/ order i, calling Si the general solution of (7) with regard to variables m and w: S =Ut +('• r,W -,( rl , sin : t + If , COS 2 II /f'TU3-s^}+(i- l- '1' M- •\ A , sinti • In relation to those pecultarnunnlltlcM, A, this equation holds for«iVA<rof the twoitcis of variables /a, w, or m'. w'. f It is nut unusual to slylc iht? di;vcli>|iinenl (8) as a scries of " Laplace's Otrfficirnl ;" but I ImIIcvc U inoro correct to confine that deslynatlnu to the (jimntitbn A, which appear ni neiiinl "coeflicient?!" in thcMlcvi'lopment (To. These quiin({(i<-<i nre in- deed l-iplnce Kunctiont itr " S/>/trrirat hnrmonir.t," Uut of very ni.Trkcd peculiarily of form; beiii;; biaxutl or double (i. r. pns- scssin.,' I he essential properties, in eac/i of Ibc two seis of varia- bles M. «^ and (x', w') and de>fitute of arbitrary cnnHlants; and thrnuch this double form. Instrumental In eonVertin-^ F(n',ta') Into a I-a|)lncc i'linctioii /•' mul. ilni-*. to (he ilcvclopmcul of F (m tit) in Ijaplace Furulious, or Spherical hurmunies. Vol.. II.— (Ill + Z? 3 cosw I +(1— m*)m I a 5sin2»-|- /? 3 cos2cii [ +(1 -m')^ [ A *J*siD 3 w + fljcos Sol and in general 6'^"= 2 .(1-M^): etc. I '+. A sm nut + If cos n n (10) (;-n)(t -«-l) 2(2*'- 1) * j VI »lUH«-t-y/ CO? HOI [, In the foregoing the capital letters, with super and sub fixes represent arbitrary constants. To develop any rational integral function F oT jr, t/, Zy of degree f, these variables must first be transferred into polar co-ordinates. The general Laplace Function (10) of tho same order (' will be subtracted from it. and the arbitrary constants de- termined by tho condition that the remainder /'*— .V^ shall contain no powers or products of ^ or V 1 — ^■■' of higher than tho t - 1 order. This determines Fi of (S). From that remainder (of de- gree I*— 1), tho general expression (10) of next lower order 1—1, is subtracted; and the constants again determined by the condition the new remainder shall contain no pow- ers or products of ^ or V I — fi^ of higher order than i — 2; by which Fi-i of (S) is determined; and so on. First invented for expressing the attraction of a body of nearly spherical figure, its first application may here be illustrated. It is well known that, except for spherical or ellipsoidal figures the integration of V, (2), is impracticable by direct process. Transposed into the variables r, ^, and w, pdxdi/dz be- comes pi'^drdfidia. Tho denominator of V develops, for an external attracted point, into the first of the scries (o). If wc suppose the mean radius of the body to be o, and va- riable radius to be a ( I +//), in which tho greatest value of the variable, y, is supposed to be but a small fraction, and if we integrate I with reference to i-, from r = a, to r = a(l +y), wo shall get (supposing the density p to be constant, and neglecting powers of y above the first), for that jiart resulting from the stratum of small variaMo thickness (positive or negative) ay, by wbieli tho given body varies from true sphericity of form. Tliis function y must, of course, be given, in terms of fA, Vl — /x^^cosoi, and ^/l — (I* sin u ; and can bo developed in Laplace Functions, Yo + J'l + J'j + . . . Yi r . . . But by (0) - -- i^ J —\J y Pi (Ifji dui = Yi : hence the terms of the integral (11) become, severally, (2i + lj r'<'*i '' and henco (since that part of V belonging to the sphere of •lirpa' radius a is easily found to bo (12) r- 4irpa' 4irpa* { >»^3 ), .' (2'+l) r + ...j. Thus tho potential r(from wliich can by diGTerentiation bo derived the attraction) is determined. If, on tlic other hand, the body {f.y. the earth considered as a fluid enveloping a spherical nucleus) be such that a foreign attrjvction pntdiu-v a slight distortion or deviation from perfect sphericity, many important problems (c. */. the tides) depend on the determination of tins distortion. The ' direct effect of the foreign atlructi(m would be determined with comparative case ; but the problem is very much com- \ plicated by tho fact that this directly prottuccd stratum of I distortion itacf/ reacts upon the particles of its own sub- stance; which secondary action must be taken into account. The potential of that reaction, in terms of the sought quan- j tity,_i/,can by aid of ( 12) be cxpreiHrd tinu/i/firafh/, und oom- bincil tcit/i tho potential of the foreign attraction in ex- pressing tlie conditions of equilibrium, and thus tho actual tidal dislortions determined. Tho discovery of tlie remarkable functions of Laplnco (whose own demonstration of their properties was regarded as inconclusive, or at least incomplete) was followed by a controversy among eminent marhematieians, the subslanco of which is given by IJ«)wditch in his voluminous notes to botdt iii. chap. ii. ^ I J of tho Mtcaniipte Ctlrnfr. The method has since been gencrali/.ed, and, under tho designation of apht-ricul hnrmonic anali/ain, greatly devel- oped (see Thomson and Tait, Natural Pfiifmiop/n/, whero Its objeot is defined to bo "the expression of an arbitrary 1650 LAPLAND AND THE LAPPS. periodic function of two indepen.lent variables in the ; ^ "per form for » large class of I'hy^i-l P-W^XXduc"- in<r arbitrary data over a spher.eal surface and the deduc tio'u of solutions for every point of space ) in nve ic^ations of the distribution of electnc.ty and m-, "ne i'.m-of the conduction of heat, etc.-its power alo.,e "n'c.p with the difficulties of the problems The n,c^ hnpor nt application involving grav.tat.on .s o the theory of 'the Fi-uro of the Earth, the attraction ot the mass on each of itf particles being that of approximate y spher.eal la^• rs of m,ltter equally dense through each, but v-y.og n donsitv from layer to layer. Bes.des '''^ ^"^l^^^^ ^ f mentioned, consult Pratt, /'isf'-e oy ihv ha, h, ^l^J"^'"' ^Uctririonnd Ma<„,Hi.m ; J.J. Sylvester, Ao<e.«.. Spher- ical Harmonic. .- Phil. Ma,j., 1ST6 vol. »■ A simple harmonic function is deBned under the head utZni,- Motion. A combination of such producesacom- nlcThamooic function. " Fourier's Theorem (wh>ch >s Sot only "one of the most beautiful results «' '-;J-° -" alvsis but mav be sai.l to furnish an indispensable ustru- »rt in rLt;ea.ment of nearly every recon.teques.,^^ modern physics ■•) amounts to th.s-viz. ^" '/"°^''f°^7;*. ever between definite values of the variable may be ex nressed as a complex harmonic function. The ^pherical Tarmonic analvsis " is but an extension (^^ence probably "ts name) of {his principle to the expression of quantity arbitrarily distributed over a <pher,cal "y/^"g^^^.^„p_ Lapland and the Lapps. Lapland ("the land of the LipW' U the name generally given to an extensive territory o^NCthern Europcltretching along the Arctic Ocean, from the AUantic to the White Sea. It does not form an indo- pentoit poli ical unit, but is divided tefveen Norway Swe don and Russia, and inhabited, besides the Lapps, by Irnns Norwegians. Swedes, and Russians. The general aspect of the "ountn- is rather forbidding. A long, severe winter of nine months, during which the sun does not r se for two months: a short, extremely hot summer in July and ."ugust, during which the sun does not ^,<;' ? j'/P"?! and a fall of a couple of wecks,-such is the climate. The forests of pine and birch which cover the southern parts of the cou'^try soon cease ; barley and po''' -s may be raised as far as 70° N. lat., but only in a few v. alleys. Un Ihc lar"e ablcland nothing grows but liehens and mosses on which the large herds of reindeers feed, which ogethcr w°th hunt g and fishing, afford the inhabitants their solo :esourc-es ol^ife. The'l.apps belong to 'he LaPPO"ian subdivision of the Tschudic races, which ■"•« jf";"^^''^ the philologist Castren to the Finnic group of the great Turanian family. This gives 'h"- '"». P-'/'rih^/nanies £=^b«be^.r^ti;oth;r^^ ;:^A^^ before Us oecupatiL by Aryans, and therefore hefore the European historical period. Their dwellings on the E. 1 sideTf ?he continent Jxtended as far S. as the lower ^ olga hut they were long ago driven from their old home by the steady prrsure of' Finns, Slaves, and others, laterally and | f om belw, until they have been crowded into their present seal Now and then, however, their frontier has been able to ma ntain itself, or even advance upon that of the.r neigh- W'' Thev have always been closely connected with the i Finns, possiblv even ccmfounded, by early observers, bot^^ j ethnically and geographically^, especially '" L^i;''" ''/^'f ancient Fenni, mentioned by Taci us ''Y'; '^«;' ••'■<> ^. of Europe, were probably the ancestors of the Lapps, not ot fhe Xns. They ha>-e a tradition of their former occu- pancy of Sweden or Finland. " The Swedes and Lapps '. they say, " were originally brothers. When a storm came on^ the Swedes put up a board and took shelter under it the Lapps took to a tent ; and ever since the after have lived in te'nts, the former in houses." The primitive wanderings ' of the ancient Sabrae are scarcely distinguishable from those of the Finns. Their later history, too, is only inci- dental to that of their Aryan conquerors, who have either reduced them to the condition of serfs, or forced them into sterile an.l icy regions, where they could never develop an independent nationality. , . e _j.„ The Lappish countries now are Lappmark in ^werten, Russian Lapland to the White Sea, and Finnmark, or the March of the Finns, in Vpper Norway, where many of them live. The Lapps subject to Russia are— (I) those of he duchv of Finlaid. N.; (2) those of the government of Archangel. Lallerstedl. in L; S;v.„Hli,„„-ir. counts in Finn- mark 13.000 Lapps to fioOO Finns and 2-,,n00 Norwegians. Friis estimated 156fi Lapps to 174- N'or-vegians ,n 1M5. Since then the Lapps seem for a long time to have in- creased as the Norwegians decreased; then those were sta- tionary and the Norwegians increased up to ISSd, though "hould be remembered that the Lapps, Uving been to a gr;at extent absorbed, are reckoned as Norwegians Bu ; ^h" author considers them as dying out in Finnmark. At ,"° , " . ;„ io-,i| the n.>pu ation of Russian Lap- the last oe°^"». ■; \^ ■•.• ,;^ T^Lapps, 1956 were Kar'e- and ""l^^i^^' ^fj,'"' To'Ihise might be added a few Nor- : Ir^Ln t'd'Vinrmigrants. Brafe in 1863 counts 28,000 l.amis under Sweden and Russia. The Lapps of the Russian empire, Gurowsk, says, have as i,u,ro,lli>-i. c. provincial natives of non-Russian stock !!Jn or<.anization and rights distinctly recognued by the government. But a narrow policy is exercised towards them Ld less done for their improvement than >° ^""'/.Yt her more especiallv in Sweden. The N orwegians. having hither- rreArSthem as hopelessly debased and ignorant, ne- g ected them, but latterly Swedish and Norwegmn mission- Irie have much enlightened and softened both Lapps and F\'„";,_Stockfleth particularly, and the brothers La=s tad.us, Lutherans, who labored in the first half of this century. ! The I npps seem to be physically inferior to the Finns. ' probablv be^-anse less comfortably housed, fed. and clothed i [hou"h they are wonderfully hardy, and quite as courageous i There i« much intermixture of these races at the Finland ' Jrontte ami at the copper-mines. Friis 'h-'^s the mixed race best able to withstand the rigorous el-ma e of the ftir North The Laplanders are wild, savage, and dull, small of I a ure with large head, short neck, small gray-reddi,h evef ha r' dark brown, beard short, hands long, legs thin abdomen projecting, the result of improper or insufEcient f od^omp^e.^'ion liiht, chin P-'"'>'"|i,^,^t; trll^avl, inent In disposition they arc peaceable but too slaMsn, aTd ;tuJborn 'withal. They appear f™"^-'^/;^^:',''^" arc reallv knavish and treacherous. The Lap . "'""-""^ „« well as the Finn lives partly upon fish and game, is a herd'man Like the Finn, he catches the fish of the lakes th safmon, the cod, cod-bait, herring and o.her fish of the t:t. -^^m:::. onXiSJ'tit 1^"- "i ! s^ -b^a^«^.^tfth!V?. e^i^ , and ^hile the s^ow-covered ground -/I '»» .— Z;^'';/ render slcd-travelling po^^'bl? '° * "^ ^be Xr h " bul The reindeer has been called the '-camel of the North, but seUlers°annot keep these animals, for they will -« <hr.Te 'fs ailed or confined in pastures and not allowed to wan- I der freelv over large spaces. Latterly, steam eommnniea- Hon be 'ween Bergen, Trondheim. and Ilammerfest has iTven anew inniuUe o trade, and begun somewhat to de- felon the resou ces of the country. But from Ilammerfest 1 N and N. E. reindeers complete the line of eommnnioat.on ! The i ai.ps of Finnmark. La .land, and Norway ''"ve eno. gh re ndee'r'^neat and skins for themselves and the seed pop nlation. many thousands of these animals ^e "g k'"^'» e^e^_ vear. They also furnish the Norwegians >"th game some- "times as liany as 10,000 grouse in a day. The L..p| ot land hunts in winter the squirrel, -b'e ermine ot, and bear, and in summer seeks the hsher.cs of the coasts, i:x±:^rs;^^^^;i:^:^:^^^frOI III, be" hes for beds, very few and -"'P-e u'ens.l j a Hx^i:^:-^=iron::qip^=~ t'^I ac CO and'ioffee are scarcely known ^u' --'. ^;-'^-:^ "■Be"w"e"n'lS.« and lS6o these people lost 14.944 reindeer ei.he by death on the fields or by eonfi.-ation --ee -h.ch ' emigrated to Sweden with 20,0011 reindeer. The fa>or.te ::rrnt*s of .he Lapps are hajbplaj-ing an , on e^N^ L-n'eXrtrnrali'd^kii^' IwthiU w^th the skide^ 'IHSSSiSs^^^r^^-H I Lapps scarcely understanding each other. There is mucn LA PLATA— LA.PSE. 1651 heathenism among them. Their Christianity, nominally Greek, consists in little more than mtinihlinj; the prayer "Lord Jesiis. Son of God, have mercy ujton me!" The Swedish anti Xorweeian Lapps are Lulheraiis. ami of these all the adiiln are aide to read. The Lajips formerly wor- shipped a fleity called the Storjunker (''great noMe"), to whom they sacrificed a full-grown reindeer. Ticrmes was the divinity next in rank, and Baiwc, or the Sun. Hut the god most venerated liy them was .Jubmel, worshipped also liy Other peoples akin to them, under the name.Juinala, Jiimara, or Num. Their rude wooden or stone idols, often only gro- tesque unhewn logs or blocks, stood within an enclosure of boughs, and were honored with simple riles. I-ike all Turanians, the Lapps believe in supcrualurully wise men. Their noaids or magicians are both their oracles and pliysi- oinns, the medium, in short, between the human and the divine, able to control the spirit world in a degree to make it favorable to mankind. Some ancient famous noaids were mentioned by name in the Sagas. These clever medi- oinc-men are often selected for their office while children, on account of some hiarkcd nervous susceptibility, and trained to throw themselves into real or pretemled frenzies, followed by fainting, preparing for such occasions by fast- ing or stimulants. In these fits or trances the noaid is supposed to be transported by his bird-familiar to heaven, earth, or the realm of the dead, at pleasure, and, being awakeneil by a brother magician, relates his visions to his superstitious and ignorant followers. Like all |iolar people and those inhabiting desolate regions, the Lapps by organi- sation and habit are subject to nervous excitement : their old women especially start and scream at the slightest dis- turbance of fear or disgust, rush frantically about, striking insanelv at every one near, and then faint and iloze for a while. In church a contagious furor sometimes takes place, many striking each other or moving violently about and falling into fain'ing-lits. In their sicknesses, too, these people ore liable to delirium. So that there are many Donids, who fiml it easy to impose upon a ready credulity by their air of mystery, their superior knowledge of for- mulas, song, sleight oi" hand, hieroglyphics on the ninc- druin, and even a certain empiric skill in medicine which some of them accpiiro. There are those among Ibem who profess to have the power of selling favorable winds to sailors, and this superstition is believed in by the Swedish, Norwegian, and Russian peasants, as well as by the Lapps. (For references sec FiNL.\xn.) E. ToititEv. I^a Plata. Sec Aiir.K.vTixE Kkimbi.ic. La I'la'ta, county of S. W. Colorado, bordering on Utah and Xew Jle.vico. Area, about 70011 square miles. It contains the Sierra San Miguel Mountains and part of the .Sierra La Plata range, is well watered, and the S. W. portiim is occupied by the I'te Indian reservation. Oold- mines have been discovered here. Cap. Parrott. I^a Vlata, post-v. and tp. of Macon co., Mo., on the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. H. It has 1 weekly newspaper. Pop. of v. 546 : of tp. loOfi. I.a Plata, Kio dc. See Plata, Rio nr. i.a. La Pointc, post-v. and tp., cap. of .'\shland co.. Wis., is a lishieig-station at the S. end of Madeline Island, one of tlie .Apostle group in Lake Superior. It was settled by French missionaries in lOSU. Pop. 1-'2I. Ija Porte, county of Indiana, bounded N. W. hy Lake Michigan and N. by .Michigan. Area, loO square miles. A largo portion nf the soil is very fertile. Imt there are Borne barrens, and on the banks of tin- Kankakee there are extensive nnirshes. Cattle, grain, and wrml are largely produced, and lumber is manufactured. The county is traversed by numerous railroads. Cop. La Porto. Pop. 27,0152. La Porto, post-v. of Plumas eo., Cal., 20 miles S. of Quiufry. It is the business-centre of a large niining region. La Porto, post-v. of Larimer co.. Col., on both sides of Cache a la Poudro Creek, lU miles N. W. of Oreoley, in a fertile region. Liiportc, city of Kankakee (p., cop. of Laporto co., Ind.. at the intersection of the Lake .Shore and Michigan .Siinlhcm will) the Indianapolis INtu and Chicago H. It., .V.I miles K. cd' t'hieago and 12 miles ,S. of Lake Michigan, has If) churches, i bonks. :i weekly newspajiers, 2 hotels. Holly waterworks, publio library of ;HliM) volumes, an academy, fine schools, numerous mercaniib* houses and manufaclurics, and is the scat of Indiaiii) .\IiilicaI College. Laporte is handsomely situated on a hiLrb plali'iiti on the edge of the rich prairie of tho san)e name, is surrounded with fine driven and promenades thickly skirletl with maple and other shade trees, anil is close to a chain of seven clear and beautiful lakes, which are traversed by steamers and constitute one of the attractions which annually draw hun- dreds of summer visitors from Chicago, Indianapolis, Cin- cinnati, and tho South. Pop. GiSI. C. U. Powell, Ed. " IlF.nALn." La Porte, post-v. of Carlisle and Eaton tps., Lorain CO., 0., -t miles S. E. of Elyria. Laporte, post-b. and tp., cap. of Sullivan co.. Pa., 28 miles N. E. of JIuncy.on the line of the projected Sullivan and Erie and Muney Creek R. Us., has 2 churches, 2 week- ly newspapers, and one of the largest tanneries in tho U. S., using from 11000 to SOOO cords of bark annually. Lumbering and mining arc important industries. Eagles- mere Lake, noted for its beauty, is 5 miles distant, tho brooks are filled with trout, and doer abound iu the forest. Pop. of b. 14.1 ; of tp. 5:iO. J. K. Pin OH, El). "SCLLIVAN Co. Demookat." La Porto City, post-v. of Big Creek tp., Black Hawk CO., la., on Wolf t!'reek. 1 mile above its conduence with Cedar River, on the Burlinglon Cedar Rapids and Minne- sota R. R., 15 miles N. of Vinlon. 15 S. of Waterloo, and 40 N.W. of Cedar Rapids, has 4 chuivhcs, 2 hotels, I weekly newspaper, a bank, a large flouring-niill, a wagon and car- riage manufactory, and a fair number of business-houses. It is surrounded on all sides by a fine agricultural country, and was laid out iu June, 1S55, by the subscriber. Pop. about 1500. .J. Wasso.n, En. "Phogrhss." La Porte tin Thcil (Imiaxcois .Teav Gabiukl), b. at Paris .Tuly l;i, 1742; recciveil a military education, and served in the campaigns of the Seven Years' war, but de- voted all his leisure hours to the study of the Greek lan- guage and literature, and published in 17il5 a translation of ^Kschylus's Ti-ii;i'-tltiin, ami in 1775 of the //)y»)*i«of Calli- maehus. From 1771! to 17S() he resided in Rome, and hav- ing received admittance to the Vatican library, which at that time was generally closed to foreigners, ho brought back to Paris a great number of historical documents illus- trative of French history. Three volumes of these docu- ments were published in 1701, containing among olher things the letters of Pope Innocent III.: but the further publication was interrupted by the Revolution, and the materials were )ilaced in the National Library. In the latter part of his life he was occupied with a translation of the (Icoijraphi/ of Strabo, of which, however, only nine books were finisheil, when he d. May 28, 1815. Lap'poiibcrg (.Johaxx Martix), LL.D., b. at Ham- burg .Inly MO, 17'.M; studied medicine at Edinburgh and law at London, Berlin, and Gottingen, receiving the doc- torate in 1811!; ivas for a time minister resident for Ham- burg at Berlin; became in 182:! keeper of tho archives at Hamburg, and was in 1850 plenipotentiary in tho Frank- fort conference. His best work is O'cm-hnhd: run Einilund (1834-.37); ho also wrote valuable histories of the German Hanse Towns, of Heligoland, etc. His JJhiori/ of Eiit/liiiiit relates to the Anglo-Sa.von period, and is the standard au- thority for early English history. It has been translated into English, with notes and additions, by Benjamin Thorpe. The //inhtn/ (>/' EiKfl-iiiil ttti'Itr thi: Xormnnt, comnienced by Lappenberg and linishcd liv Piiuli, was also translated by Thor]>e. Lappenberg d. Nov. 2», 18G5. La Prai'rio, a fertile counly of Quebec, Canada, on the S. side of tho St. Lawrence, directly S. of Montreal. Cap. La Prairie. Pop. 11,8(51. La Prairie, posl-v. i>t La Prairie co., Quebec, Canada, on the S. side of the St. Lawrence.".' miles above Montreal, has an aeadcniy and a convent. Pop. 1259. La Prairie, tp. of .Marshall co.. III. Pop. 1400. La Prairie, tp. of Rock co.. Wis. Pop. 8157. Lapse [Lat. Utptiiii, from tntmr, to "glide," to "fall"]. A devise of real property or a bei|ue8t of personal properly is said in law to lapse wlien the ilevisee or legatee dies after the making of the will and before the death of the testator. The etfect of this at comnion law is that in the case of a de- vise the property deviseil passes to the heir-at-law of tho testator, while in the case of a legacy tho iiroperly be- queathed passes to the residuary legatee if one be named in the will, and if not to the next of kin. (See Kix, NixT or.) The reason why this ilisposilion is made of the prop- erty, instead of its passing to the representatives of the de- ceased ilonee, is that a will takes eflcet only from the time of the testator's death, and the donee can acquire no title unless ho is in being at that time. There is a dislinetion between a lapsed ami a void devise or bequest. The gift is void when the person specified as donee is dea<l or in- compeieiit to take the property at llie time when the will was inatie. The general rule is, that the same disposition shall be made of the property included in the terms of tho gift as in the i-ase of a lapsed devise or bequest. It seems, however, to bo the English rule that a voi'l devise passes to the residuary devisee. These oommon-law rules have 1652 LAPWAI— LARCENY. been to some extent changed by statute. By tbe English statnte of wills (1 Vict. ch. 26) the real estate comprised in a lapsed devise sliull, unless a contrary intention a|. pears in the will, pass to the residuary devisee, if any there be, instead of to the heir-at-Ia>y. It is further provided that a devise or legacy to a child or other descendant shall not liipse if issue of the devisee or legatee survives the testator, but shall take effect as if the devisee or legatee had died immediately after the testator, unless a contrary intention appears by the will. A change similar to this second pro- vision has also been made hy statute in New York, and also in several other States of this country. A legacy is also said in some cases to lapse even though the leg'atec dies subsequently to the testator. This happens when the vesting of the leg.acy depends upon a future con- tingency, and the legatee dies before the contingency oc- curs. Thus, if a legacy bo given to one ichen he attains, or if he attains, the age of twenty-one, and he dies before that time, it is a lapsed legacy. (See Lecacv.) George Chase. KEViscn by T. W. Dwioht. Lapwai', post-v. of Nez Perc^ co., Id., 12 miles S. E. from Lewiston. Pop., including U. S. troops, 91. Lap'wing [so called from the flapping of its wings in flight], or Pee'wit [named from its note], the Vunellus cHelitlim. a game bird ctimmon throughout a great part of the Old World, but unknown in America. It is referred to the plover family. Its flesh is excellent. It strives with great ingenuity to conceal its nist, which is greatly sought for the "eggs, which are sold in quantities as plo- vers' eggs. Lar, town of Persia, cap. of the province of Laristan, 60 miles from the Gulf of Persia. It is famous for its manu- factures of sword-blades, muskets, and silks, and has fine bazaars. Pop. 12,000. Lar'amic, county of Wyoming Territory, bounded N. by Montana. E. by Dakota and Nebraska, and S. by Colo- rado, extending N. and S. the whole length of the Territory, 4 degrees of latitude by J a degree in width, and includes the Wyoming portion o'f the Black Hills, belonging to the Ogallalla Sioux, where gold was found in 1SV4, and which were explored in the summer of 1875 by hundreds of miners. Area, about 14,0(10 square miles. It consists largely of the elevated Laramie Plains, well adapted to sheep-raising, and is broken by the Laramie range of mountains. The county is traversed by the North Platte, the N. and S. forks of the Big Shycnne, and hv the Union Pacific U. R. Cap. Chey- enne city. Pop. 2Q'jr; in 1S75, 6000. Laramie, city, cap. of Albany co., Wyoming Tcr., on the Union Pacilic R. R., b7 miles' by rail N. W. of Chey- enne, and 7122 feet above the level of tlie sea, laid out in Apr., 1S(18, when the railroad reached this point, lies in the midst of the Laramie Plains, is regularly built, chiefly of wood, with a few structures of stone, has 5 churches. 2 daily newspapers, I national bank, a court-house and jail, several hotels and schools, and numerous stores. The rail- road company has established here extensive maehine- shops. A stream of clear cold water passes through the city, and is fed hy a spring at the foot of the lilaek Hills, a few miles E. Laramie is the second town in the Terri- tory in point of population, which is rapidly increasing; it is noted as the first place in America where a female jury was empanelled. Po)i. about .3000. Larnmic, a river in Wyoming Territory, formed by the union of two branches, the Big ami the Little Laramie, which rise in the Medicine Bow ^lountains. and flow N. E., skirting on the E. the plains of the same name. It enters the X. fork of the Platte at Fort Laramie, and is much used for floating lumber from the mountains. Laramie Mountains, a riingc vising at the Red Buttes, near the Sweetwater River, Wyoming Tcr., and extending in a curve southward to the Arkansas River, near Long's Peak in Colorado, forming a wall which closes in the Laramie Plains to the N. E. and E. Geologically, it is composed of a nucleus of red syenite, with margins of fossiliferous formation. Carboniferous, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and in some places lignite Tertiary, the beds inclining from a central axis at different angles. This range is connected with the Big Horn Mountains and Black Hills by low anticlinals extending across the prai- rie, tbe most complete and beautiful to he found in the Rocky Mountain region. The numerous branches of the Platic rise in this range, of which the principal summit is Lar.amic Peak. Coal has been found in them in consider- able quantities. Laramie Peak, the loftiest summit of the Laramie Mountains, in .Mbany CO., Wyoming Tcr. Laramie Plains, an elevated table-land in Wyoming Territory, lying iu Carbon and Albany counties, S. of the N. fork of the Platte, between the Laramie Mountains on the N. E. and the Medicine Bow spur of the Rocky Moun- tains on the S. W., watered by the Big and Little Laramie and Medicine Bow rivers. The tops of some of the sur- rounding mountains are covered with perpetual snoiv, and the mean altitude of the plain being above 7000 feet, the summer is always short and the winter severe. The prin- cipal cereals can be raised, but the soil is more suited to potatoes, turnips, bcaus, peas, and other vegetables, which have been successfully cultivated at Fort Sanders, a mili- tary post on the S. W. margin of the plains. Grazing will be "an important industry, and vast beds of iron and coal of good quality have been found. Larash, or Larache. See El Araiseb. Larceny [contracted from lairoriut/, from Lat. ?a(ro- cinimii. " theft"], the wrongful or fraudulent taking and car- rying away by any person of personal property belonging to another, with a felonious intent to convert it to the taker's own use, without the consent of the owner. When the prop- erty is taken directly from the house or person of the owner the offence is termed mixed or compound larceny ; in other eases it is called simple larceny. Simple larceny was fur- ther distinguished at common law as grand or ]ietit lar- ceny, the former being the theft of goods above the value of twelve pence, the latter the theft of goods below this value. But the distinction between grand and petit lar- ceny has been abolished in England and in many of the States of this country by statute. While in some of the States it is still retained, the value of the property upon which the distinction depends has been generally changed by legislation. In New York, for instance, the property must have a greater value than $2J in order that the steal- ing of it may be grand larceny. If it he worth this nmount or less, the theft is petit larceny. At common law the only importance of the distinction was that the severity of the punishment inflicted differed in degree according to the grade of the offence. Both forms of the crime were felonies. (See Fklosv, Crime.) But in those States where the dis- tinction is retained, grand larceny is sometimes declared to be a felony, while petit larceny is made simply a mis- demeanor. This is the case in New Y'ork. The taking and carrying away, which are necessary elements in the oH'cnco of larceny, are also technically termed caption and asporta- tion. It is not requisite, in order that the crime may bo complete, that the property should remain permanently in the thief's possession or be removed to any considerable distance from the position which it previously occupied. It is a sufficient asportation if every part of the thing stolen be removed from tbe )ilace which that part occupied, even though the entire article is not wholly removed from its re- ceptacle or the place where it had been jiut. On this ground it was adjudged larceny where a jicrson lifted a bag which he was intending to steal partly out of the boot of a coach, but was detected before its complete removal. So if a sword be drawn partly from a scabbard, or if goods be removed from one ]iart of a wagon to another by one who intends to commit a theft, the larceny designed is sufticicntly per- petrated, though the thief had only momentary possession. But. on the other hanil, if a bale of goods resting upon its side be merely lifted anil set upon end, there is no complete asportation, since some small portion of the goods still re- tains its former position. The strictness with which the rule is adhered to that every p,article of the properly stolen must bo taken from its former position thus results in very nice distinctions, since the determination of the question whether a certain act of attempted larceny was criminal or not criminal may turn upon the point whether an iusig- nificiint part of the goods was moved a very snuill distance from the place which it previously occupied. The rule is more practical of application than ctiicacious as a means of de- termining with reasonaldc accuracy the v.arious degrees of moral turpitude in acts of intended theft. It is further necessary, in order that larceny may be committcil. that the property should be entirely in the possession of the thief, though but for a moment. Thus, where goods were fastened by a string to a shop-counter, and a thief, in at- tempting to carry them away, removed thtm only as far as the string would permit, it was held that the owner was not completely deprived of his possession, and that conse- quently the intended larceny had not been fully perpetrated. But where a ring was snatched from a lady's car. but fell immediately afterwards from the thiers hand ir'o her hair, where it was subsequently found, the entire possession which the thief had hail, though only instantaneous, was deemed sufficient to warrant his conviction for larceny. On account of this rule, that the briefest interval of complete po,"se8- sion is sufficient, immediate restitution by the thief after taking the property will not lessen nor do away with the criminalitv of the offence. It is a fundamental legal principle in regard to this crime LARCENY. 1653 that there can be no larceny committed without an act of trcsjmss. Trespass, as the term is used with reference to personal property, is an injury to or violation of a person's title and postjct^sory interest in chattels, and consists in wrongfully depriving him of possession against Lis will. Hence, larceny may be committed not only by taking goods away from one in whom the absoiuto title to them is vested, but al!<o by taking iliem from any one who has a temporary ownership nnd an immediate right of pot^sesslon. The ownership of the property may be either general or special, and the possession may be either actual or constructive. A Ecrson is said to have a general or absolute title when ho as an exclusive right of permanent ownership, while one has a special title or special property in chattels when he has them in his possession, and retains them for a limited period, subject to the claims of the absolute owner. A bailee, for instance, would have a special property in goods entrusted to his ehargc. and a person would be guilty of larceny from him who took the goods from his possession. In all cases of simple bailment, where the absolute owner is en- titled to resume possession of tho goods at any time at his own option, if they arc stolen by a third person while in tho custody of tho bailee, they may be described in the indictment against the thief as the property of either the bailor or tho bailee. The former has tho constructive and the latter the actual possession. A general owner may even be adjudged guilty of larceny if betakes his own goods away from the per- son who has tho special ownersiiip of them for thctime being, with a feloniuu-s intent to charge tho latter with their value. But there can bo no theft from a person who has not a legal right to tho possession of tho goods taken. A servant is never deemed in law to have tho possession of tho goods committed to his charge by the master, but only tho custody. Ho lias neither tho general nor the special ownership, and the possession is constructively in the master. If, therefore, tho property is stolen while in the charge of the servant, the theft is committed again.';t the master, and not against the servant. But goods in the possession of a thief arc re- garded in law OS iiis property to sut-h nu extent that a per- son wlio steals thorn fiont him will bo guilty of larceny. In like manner, a finder of property has a special riglit of oivnorship in it as against all tho world but tho true owner, and a wrongful deprivation of his posFCssory interest would cons:i*.utc an act of larceny against him. As larceny involves nn act of trespass, it cannot bo com- mitted by any one who 1ms himself a right of property and oC immediate possession in the goods taken. If, therefore, a bailee converts to his own use the property entrusted to him during tho continuance of tho bailment, ho is not guilty of larceny. Hut if th" bailment has terminated when the gootls arc taken, as if they ar(^ taken by a carrier after they have been transported by him to tlic place of destination anr| there delivered, a trespass is committed, and tho act is therefore the offence of larceny. The rela- tion of bailor and bailee may also be tormiimted before the nattiral expiration of the time for whifh the contract was formed between the parties, by a wrongful act of inter- ference *vith the property on tho part of tho bailee, who will subsequently be guilty of larceny if lie appropriate tho goods lo his own use. If, for instance, n carrier of goods " breaks bulk," as it is termed, by wrongfully opening a box or bale or package which he lias received for transportation, be ceases immoiliately to have any right of ownership in the good." as a bailee, and if he abntracts and carries away any portion of them he is chargeable with larceny. This rule leads to the peculiar result that if :i bailee takes llie entire package entrusted to him. he commitu no crime* but only a breach of trust, while if he breaks it open and takes a part of the contents, he perpetrates larceny. Tho prin- ciple already stated, that a servant has the custody and not tho possession of his master's gnods, renders it on aet of hireeny for him to convert to his own use tho property which ho has received from the master. But if tno prop- erty was received from sonu^ tliird person for delivery to tho nmsler or to be held for his use, the servant would not bo guilty of larceny in appropriating it, for the reason that it had never come into the master's possession, and therefore no act of trespass eould be rommitled against tho master by pernmnently retaining it. Tins defeet in tho common laiT, which deelari'd such an aet of conver-^ion by a servant no crime, but only a breaeh of trust, has been remedied by legislation in recent times, by whieh sueli nets of wrongful appropriation have boon declared eriminal of- fences, anci have received the name of embezzlement. (See Emukzzi r.MKNT.) Finders (»f lost goods have no right to detain them from tho possession of the true owner if he is known : nnd if thoy appropriate the property to ilieir own use when they know to whom it belongs or have reasonable means of nseertain- ing the true owner, they are guilty tif larceny. If, for in- stance, carriers of passengers find in their vehicles pack- ages of goods upon which the name of the owner is marked, they cannot retain and dispose of them as their own prop- erty without committing tiiis offence. But if articks be found, and there is no means of discovering tho owner, there will be no larceny though tho finder subsequently applies them to his own use. This is true oven though the owner may have been discovered in the mean time. It is a general principle that larceny must be eommitled against the will of the owner of the property. If the goods are taken by his consent, which has been fairly obtained, no wrongful act of any kind is committed. But if his eon- sent be procured by fraud or stratagem, tho asportation will in some cases constitute larceny. It is necessary at this point to distinguish between that frau<lulent acqui- sition of the chattels of another which will constitute lar- ceny, and that fraudulent taking which constitutes the criminal offence of obtaining goods by false pretences. (Seo Chkat.) When the owner Intends, in consequence of the fraudulent devices by which lie is iniluenced, to part with the absolute property in tho goods, retaining no interest in himself, the person who receives the goods is guilty of tho crime of using false pretences. But when he intends merely to part with his possession of the property for a certain interval, instead of his entire ownership, but tho person who by artifice obtains his consent lakes the goods with tho secret design of appropriating them to his own use, hirceny is committed. The act of taking another's j)roperty is deemed to bo a trespass unkss the consent of tho owner is given with a full comprehension on liis part of tho receiver's intent with reference to the transfer of ownership. In case of fraudulent larceny the poasrssion of the goods is given willingly, but tho owner is still de- prived of liis propcrit/ in them against his will. If, for example, a person hires a horse and carriage for a limited lime, but appropriates tiiem to himself, he commits larceny, because the owner only intendcfl to give liim the use of the property and not tho title. But where one obtains a pay- ment of money by presenting a letter falsely purporting to be an order from tho creditor, and appropriates the funds to himself, ho is guilty of obtaining property by false pre- tences. If property bo obtained by fraud from a servant, it will be larceny when tho servant is merely entrusted with the possesb^ion of tho goods for a special purpose, nnd has no authority to part with tho property in them except to fulfil the special ])urposo for which they were entrusted to him. But when lie has a general autliority to dispose of his master's jiroperty, a person may procure a transfer of ownership from liim by fraud, and will then be cliarge- abie with false jtrctences. The trespass committed in taking the property must also bo nccomjianicd by a felonious intent to deprive the owner of his entire ownership, and convert (ho property to tho taker's own use or dispose of it for his benelit. The goods must bo taken, as it is expressed in technical legal jihrase, futiiiin fiirandi — with a design of stealing. Thus, if prop- erty be taken upon a claim of title or merely by niielake, or if tho intent is Eimi)ly to use the articles and afterwards to return them to the true owner, no larceny is perpilralcd, becauso the felonious intent is wanting. The wrongful purpose must also exist at the time of the taking. If the property be acquired rightfully, nnd with no design of misappropriation at the tinio it is received, a subsequent conversion of it with felonious intent by the person having it in his possession will not eonstituto larceny. If, for ex- ample, a person should find an article, and lakt> it with tho intention of restoring it to the owner when diseovere<l. but should afterwards appropriate it to himself, he would ho chargeable merely with an act of trespass ami not of lar- ceny. Tho same rub' np[dies when property is taken at first in the eommission ">f a trespass, but with no design of depriving the owner of it permanently. It is sometimes stated in treatises upon eriminal law and in tho reports that there can be no larceny unless properly bo taken /nrri cnunn — for the sake of gain r)r profit to the thief. This doctrine is only sustainable at the present day by giving to tho icrm ill rri ("gain") a much more comprehensive meaning than it was formerly held to bear. It must be used to denote not merely pecuniary profit to the thief, but any advantage, whelber pecuniary or otherwise, which ho obtnins by the ae(|uisition of the properly, whcllorthis bo a direct or indirect result of the taking. Tlius, it has been adjudged laroeny to lake an article with intent to present it (o a frieinl; or to intercept and burn a letter to supprej^s inquiries it may suggest concerning the thief's eharacler; or to take and kill a liorse, that his existenec might not furnish evidence against a third person who bad been ac- cused of stealing liim. Some cases have denied the doc trino of iticri cf/KKa entirely. It is only personal property which is tho subject of lar- ceny at eommon law. Anything which is deemed in law to bo real property, or to savor of tho realty, cannot (hero- 1654 LARCH— LAREDO. foro 1)0 stolen. If soil be taken from a. person's land, or apples from his fruit trees, or grass and grain be cut down and carried away, no larceny is committed. Those classes of articles which, in themselves personal properly, have become so attached to laud as to form a part of the really, an<l are denominated iixtureg. arc not subject to larceny. (See FiXTfUKs.) But when things which once belonged to the realty have been severed from it, and fubscqueutly carried away with felonious intent to B]>propriale Ihem to the laker's own use, the act will amount to larceny, because by reason of the severance the articles become personal pVonertv. The severance may be made either by the thief or l>v some third person, and it is not necessary that any particular interval of time should intervene between this and the a.'>portalion. The two .acts need only be so much separated as not to constitute one transaction in order that the taking may bo larceny. Otherwise, it is only an act of trespass. At common law, also, choscs in action are not the subjects of larceny, since they are regarded as mere evidences of a right, without intrinsic value in themselves. (See CnosE in Action.) There can be no larceny, more- over, of animals /'i-a.- imiiirie (I.e. of a wild nature), so long as they arc unreclaimed or unconfined. (See Feb« Natir.e.) If such animals are reclaimed from their wild state by being tamed, they become the subject of this of- fence, provided they are tit for food, but not otherwise. Thus. ]»igcons, hares, deer, swans, etc. may be stolen when reclaimed, but dogs, eats, bears, foxes, squirrels, etc. can- not. If an animal is dead, it is of course subject to lar- ceny if it be suitable for food. The same is true if an an- imal be confined. These common-law rules in regard to the kinds of property which may be stolen have been much changed in modern times by statute, and it is now gener- ally provided, both in England and in this country, that choses in action and a large variety of articles which savor of the really, but are readily detached from the land with which they are connected, may be the subjects of larceny or its eriuivalent. Various other important changes of the common-law principles applying to this crime have also been mailo by legislation, which must be ascertained by special reference to the statutes of dilTerent Slates. (Con- snlt the works of Bishop, Wharton, Russell, Chitty, and Colby on Criminal Lnir. i?ec also RoiinERV.) George Chase, Revised by T, W. Dwight. Larch [Or, Wpif], applied to trees of the genus Larix, conifers with deciduous leaves. The Larix Eiiropaa, called " Scutch larch " in this country, is not a native of Great Britain, though very extensively grown there. Its wood is valuable for a great variety of purposes. In Russia, "Orenburg gum," a wholly soluble and edible product, is obtained from tho charred trunks of this tree, as is Brian^on manna in France. Tho Himalaya larch is Larix Grif' fithtii. (For tho American larch, see Hackmatack.) Lar'com (I.tcvl, b. at Beverly Farms, Mass., in 1826; was for a lime a teacher in Illinois. She compiled flrratli- iti'imii' the lleiirr Life (l.sOG). and is author of I'lirinn (ItiGS). Her literary career began while she was an operative in a Lowell factory. She has been an editor of Our Young Fut/:e, a children's periodical. Liarcy', de (Chaiiles Pai'lin Roger he Saubekt), liAUos, b. Aug. 211, 1S05, at Vigan, in tho department of Gard. France; sturlied law, and was aduiitled lo the bar in lS2ii ; became a member of the Chamber of Deputies in Ks:)U, and being a legitimist and liberal took |iart with great energy in the opposition against Guizot. After the fall of the ,Iuly monarchy in IStS, he accepted the Republic, and sat in the Constituent and again in the Legislative .■\s9em- bly, but retired into private life after the cou/j d'ftat. Elect- ed a member of the National Assembly in 1K71, he was ap- pointed minister of jiublic works by Thiers in February of the same year, and held tho position to June, 1X72; voted for the preliminaries of peace, the validity of the elections of the Orleans princes, the dissolution of the national guard, and against the maintenance of the commercial treaties. His pamphlet. La Ii<rt>lulioti tfe la /'';'«j(cc. made great sen- SAlion in \^Z\: in 18B0 he published tho first part of Vet VicissiltiilfiH politiqnes de la France. Lard [Fr. lanl, from Lot. lardiim"], tho oily part of hog's fat, extracted by melting at the temperature of boiling water, exicnsively used for culinary purposes and for the manufac- ture of candles, illuminating oil, pomades, unguents, and soaps. The ordinary lard of commerce is obtaineil from tho entire fat of tho animal; the best quality is that de- rived from the fat which surrounds the kidneys. It is often adulterated to the extent of 2b per cent, or more by the ad- dition of alum, lime, mutton suet, starch, potato flour, or other farinaceous substance, while water may bo employed for the same purpose up to 12 per cent. The presence of water is detected by the loss of weight umlcr moderate heat; that of starchy substances by changing to a blue color in a solution of iodine. The composition of lard is 02 parts oleino to 3S of stearine and palmiline, the former, called lard oil, being used for lubricating machinery and for illumination, while the latter is chiefly employed for Ihe m.anufacture of hard candles. Lard is one of the chief pro- duct? of the Ceulral States of the U. S.. Chicago and Cin- cinnati being largely engaged in this industry, which has reached nearly 2."»b,tH)(),(lUU pounds per annum, as shown by a comparison of the statistics of several years. Lard is the chief material employed in pharmacy, in combination with vegetable balsams and oils, for the ])reparalion of unguents and cerates, for which purpose, however, only the best qual- ity can be atlvantagcously used. Lard oil is exported from the U. S. in immense quantities, cliielly to France, where it is largely used for the adulteration of tdive oil. Lard oil is often mixed with 2."i per cent, of rosin, tlic latter substance forming an acid wliich protects the oleine from its tendency to rancidity when exposed to dampness, and also increasing its power of illumination. The melting-point of pure lard varies from 78° to 87° F, Lardiz'abal y Ifribe (Migtei.), b. in the province of Tlascala, Mexico, in 1744 ; studied at Puebla and at the University of Valladolid in Spain ; obtained high scientilic employments at court, but. incurring the displeasure of the favorite Godoy, was exiled in 1785 to the Basque provinces, where he became the head of the seminary at Vergara. In ISOS he was restored to favor by Ferdinand VII.. and ap- pointed a member of the council of the Indies : retired to Cadiz before the French invasion : was elected representa- tive for New Spain (Mexico) in the central junta (Sept.), ancl became a member of the regency ; came into conflict with the Cortes in 1811. by whose order he was imprisoned at Alicante; was exiled from Spain in Aug., 1812, proceed- ing to England; returned to Spain in 1814 as councillor of state and universal minister of the Indies under the abso- lutist government of Ferdinand VII., exercising immense power ; again fell into disfavor a year or two later, and was imprisoned in the castle of Pamplona, and passed his Inst years in honorable exile at the head of the seminary of Vergara, Biscay, where he d. Dec, 182.1. — His brother, Mamel. b. at tlascala Dec. 22. 17.19, was a learned magis- trate at the Spanish court, and perpetual secretary of the Spanish Academy. D. about 1818. Lard'ner (Dioxvsiis), LL.P.. b. at Dublin Apr. 1. 17'J.1; graduated at Dublin University 1817: remained in his college, of which ho was for a time chaplain, until 1827. and received many honors, mostly for excellence in mathematics and j.hysics ; abandoned the clerical profes- sion ; became in 1S28 professor of astronomy and physics in the University of London; resided lS4l)-45 in tho U. S., and afterwards in Paris, where he d. Apr. 29, 1859. The greatest of bis works was the publication of tho Cabinet Ci/rlnpnitia in I;i4 vols.. 12mo (lS:iO-14), composed of a series of treatises, partly written by himself; also pro- duced an Al(iehraic Qeometry (1823), a work on Caleulua (1825), on the Steam-Ent/ine (1828), a scries oi Handbooks upon science (IS51-5fi), the Muaxum of Science and Art (1854), and other works. Lardncr (.Iahes L.), U. S. N., b. Nov. 20, 1802, in Pennsylvania; entered the navy as aniid>bipman May 10, 1820: became a lieutenant in 1828, a commander in 1851, a captain in ISiU. a commodore in 1862, a rear-admiral on the retired list in 18l',ri; commanded the U. S. frigate Sus- quihnnna at the battle of Port Royal, where he distin- guished himself by his skill and bravery. Rear-admiral Dupont characterizing his "close support" of Ihe flagship as " a very gallant thing." Foxhai.i. A. Parker. Lardner (Xathaxiei.), D.D., b. at Hawkshurst, Kent, ,Iuno 6, 1G84, an English Presbyterian minister of Uni- tarian proclivities; studied at Utrecht and Leyden 1099- 17U:!; was long minister of Crutched Fri:irs. London; is chieflv remembered as author of The Crcilihiliitj of the Got- prl Hittory (5 vols., 1727-4.1), first delivered as a series of lectures at the Old Jewry, and still a standard work ; pub- lished also a Hinlori/ of the Apnullr h and Eranr/cliilf ('i vols,, 1750-57), Letter on ihe Logon ( 1759, distinctly Socinian), ./riPi'«/, and Heathen Testimonies (1704-07), a llisturi) of /lerelief nf the I'irtt Tiro Centuries (1780), etc. D. at Hawkshurst July 24, 1768. Lare'do, post-v.. county-sent of Webb co., Tex., on tho left bank of the Rio Grande, 2011 miles above its mouth, at the crossing of tho high-road between San .-Vntonio, Tex., and Saltillo, Mexico, 400 miles S, W. of the former city, was founded by Spanish settlers in the latter part of tho eighteenth century as a frontier town of .Mexico, and suf- fereil much then and since from Indian inroads. On the annexation of Texas to the U. S. nmny of the Mexican in- habitants moved across the river and founded Nuevo La- redo. Tho town is tho American terminus of tho chartered LARES— LARK. 1655 luteraatioDal K. R., which is to unite the U. S, with Mex- I ico. It has a cuD^iUorablo trade with Mexico. Pup. 2040. La'rcs [pi. of tttr, Etruscnn for "lord"]. In the re- ligion of ancient Rome the Lares were tutelary ^pints^ public or private. The domestic Lares appear to have been originally the spirits of the departed lufuibers of the family, and wore worshipped with slmplt' but very devout eervicea. The Lares diflered from the Manes, which were spiritu that were supposed to hover nciir the tomb. The Penates included other domestic spirit?, not ancestral. Public Lares had care of highways, ship?, fields, etc. The images of the Lares were also worshipped. Larg^e, one of the characters or notes in aneient music, and the hmgest in point of duration. The notes formerly in use were, in the order of their respective time-values, the largo, the long, the breve, and the somibreve. They were commonly written thus: Large. Long. Breve. Seraibrove. The relative duration of these notes was, theoretically con- sidered, equivalent in proportion to 8, 4, 2, und 1. the "large" being equal in time to two longs, or four breves, or eight Bcuiibreves; the "long," to two breves or four Bemil>rcve9; and the ■•breve," to two semibrevos. It may be considered certain, however, that these ratios were not very accurately observed in the pracfice of music, but were regarded only as approximate measures of slowness or rapidity, subject always to such variations and irregulari- ties as might take rise from the feelings of the performer, or {in vocal music) from the accentuation, purport, and proper expression of the words. The actual length of time represented by each of these ancient notes was alto much less than would be inferred from the names of the first two, which suggest a highly prolonged duration. It will bo observed that while in modern music the "breve" is the longest note in use, yet in ancient music its duration was short, as indicated by its name aud by comparison with the " largo " and the " long." A note such as tho " large," equal in length to four breves, eight semibreves, or sixteen minims, would, of course, be impracticable if the old time- table were not essentially difl'crent from our own as a measuro of rapidity. .Some idea of the rate or speed of the old notation may probably be derived from tho hear- ing of (iregorian music as still in use in the Church of Rome, where the mode and velocity of chanting, as handed down by tradition, may bo taken as a sutticicntly correct representation of the time- value of the ancient note. Judging by such a standard. Ilie ancient liirge, long, breve, and semibreve would, at the longest, be only eijuivalent to our present breve, semibreve, minim, and crotchet ; while this relative proportion might probably be still better rep- resented by our semibreve, minim, crotchet, and quaver. Hut in the absence of any positive rule for the translation of ancient notes into their ef|uivrtlents uiidi-r tho modern system, tho most common mn<!c! followed by musicians is to render the long by a semibreve, tho breve by a minim, and the semibreve by a crotchet, as in tho example follow- ing: Ancicn ..gf^^g^^-z 3E Good Lord, dc • Ht - er us. Modern. =S3= '^^^m (Seo Notation.) William Staunton. Lar'gO [It.], in music, a term denoting a slow and rather heavy movement, with a rate of progress somewhat faster than " grave " or •' adagio." Lnnj/nttt,, iho diminu- tive, aud lari/hiniiinio, the superlative, indicate respectively a decrease rir increase of slowness, tho latter being hardly distinguishable from "grave," " adagieaimo," and other terms implying extreme slowness. La'rif town of Italy, in tho province of Pisa, about IR miles S. of the city of Pisa. Its old forlifioations and cas- tle are still in good condition. Pop. in 1K74, 10,081, Laric'iOf or Corsican Pine {PinuH Lnncio)t a large pino of the S. of Kur(»pe, esteemed for its timber aud its resin. It grows well in the most barren sands, and, with other species, has been extensively pbinted in the Landes of S. W. France, thus transforming a waste of worthless land into valuable plantations, and preventing tho destruction of fertile regions by tho moving of Band- dunes, Lar'idtc [fromZarii*,*' gull." and the family termination • iV/.'], a family of birds distinguished by the schizognatli palate, lateral open Dostrils, feet completely webbed between the three anterior toes, hallux or posterior toe rudimentary (aud free) or obsolete, and wings elongated and pointed. These are the chief and superticial distinctive characters of the family, which embraces several well-marked minor groups, distinguished by most recent authors as sub-families — viz. (1) the jajgers (Lestridinie), (2) the gulls (Larinw), (;>) the terns (.Sternina'), aud (4) tho skimmers (Ilhynchop- inaj). These groujis are very trenchantly distinguished from each other, but the first two and last two are contrasted with each other, the jiegers and gulls on one hund being closely al- lied, aud on the other the terns ancl shearwaters. The sub- families themselves are very homogeneous, the various members of each differing very little from each other. Rep- resentatives are found in every sea, and sometimes wander far inland. A M<Hi»ujr<iph of fhr Xitrtfi Amen'mii Lan'tiir has been recently (1^74) published by Dr. E. Coues in his Sirds of tliv XoitIi-ic€«t (pp. 6sy-7i;). TiiEonouE Gill. Lari'^ot. The name of one of the stops in an organ, otherwi^e known as tho "nineteenth." It consists of a single rank of mclal pipes, and is tuned an octave above the twelfth stop, or two octaves and a fifth {i. r. a nine- teenth) above the diapasons. It occurs also as one of tho ranks of the scsquialtcra and mixture stops. Lar'imcr, county of Colorado, bounded W. by the Medicine Bow Mountains and N. by AVyoming. Area, 2000 square miles. It is watered by Cache la Poudro and Big Thompson creeks, which afford irrigation aud water- power. It is a fertile region, producing grain, hny. butter, and wool extensively. Lignitic coal and silver are found. Cap. Fort Collins. *Pop. «;JS. Larimer, tp. of Somerset co., Pa. Pop. 951. Lar'iliiT [frtun Larug, a ''gull," and the sub-family affix -i'n/r], a sul)-fauiily of Laridu', characterized by a well-de- veloped beak, whose upper mandible is hooked and projects downward in front of the upper, and has no cere at tho base. In this are included the birds familiar to every one who has been along the shore as "gulls," but under this common designation are embraced many species. In the most recent general catalogue of birds {Hauil-lixt of Genera and Species of Itirdn, by George Robert Gray) 7r> species are enumerated under five genera — viz, JihodoHhihin, with 1 species; Lmus, with 18 sections and 68 species; Xemn, with 2 sections and 2 species: Pa(/opfii{fi, with 2 species: and Jilnmt, with 3 species. Many of these, however, are undoubtedly varieties. Dr, Coues recognizes ten American species, and in addition two varieties — viz. Lama, with 5 sub-genera (including Paijuphila and Rissa)M\<X~ species; lifiodoMttfhia. with its single species; and A'oiia, with 2 sub-genera and species. LaniM has a square tail, and in- cludes the largest and most common species; lihodnHtelhia has A wedge-shaped tail ; and CrenfjniH a forked tail. Tho species of the last two genera arc inhabitants of tho arctic regions, and lexcejit A', sabinei) are very rare. TnKonoRE Gill. Larin'sa^ town of Kuropean Turkey, in the province of Salonieu, on tbi" Saleinbria, It has extensive manufac- tures of cotton and silk goods, mid a large trade in wine besides a very important transit-trude, Po]>. 2j,(iOU, Laristan', district of Persia, part of the province of Fursistan. and bordering on the Persian Gulf. It is mostly an arid sandy wuste, and the guinea-worm is so frequent as to become a perpetual plague. La Rive* Ue, the name of two eelebrnled Swiss physi- cists, father and son. — Chahlks GASPAru*. b. at Gi-iieva, Mar, 14, 1770; resided from 17it4 t<. 1791) at Kdinburgh on account of the political disturbances in his native country ; returned in 171IU to Geneva, and look charge of its insane asylum ; founded a museum of natural science and a botan- ical garden, and delivered annual courses of lectures on medicine and chemistry. 1), at Cieneva I^Iar. IH, Is;i4. — AiGi'STK, b. at (ieneva Oct. 1, 1801 ; studied chemistry and natural science under his father; was professor at the Academy of (icneva. and since I8fi4 one of the eight foreign members of the French Academy. !►. at Marseilles Nov. 27, IS73. Kleetrieity, its theory as well as its practical ap- plicability, formed the principal subject of their investiga- tions, and both of them coinmuuicated to different scien- tific papers — liibfiothi^tpie Uin'rniirffe, Atitlftlri dr C/tiiiiir,* etc. — a number of valuable essays relating lo this braiieh of natural science. The princinal work of Auguste de la Rive is his Traitf d* ElcctricitS thforiqne applicfe (;J vols,, Paris, IS.^,4-.'i8). Larix. See LAncii. Lark [Ang.-Pax. lu/crr; Scotch, lnvn>rK-], a popular name of several passerine birds of the group Oscines (sing- ers). The true lurks are of the family Alaudidu'. of which tho skylark (d' the Old WmUX ( A/'iuda fin-ni-iM} is the typ- ical spirit. This most intere.stine bird is a great favorite, from its sweet song, which it sends forth while soaring 1656 LARKHANA— LARREY. aloft in clear weather. It is a fine cage-bird, and is now to some extent naturalized in the U. S. by the laudable efforts of the acclimatization societies. Europe has several other species of .4Aiif'/(r. The liorned skylark {Eremnphitn cnr- untn) is one of the most familiar bird<! of the great Western plains of the U. S. The shorclark yOtoantt afpciti-iit) is a very sweet singer. Tho well-known meadow-lark of the V. S. (Stnrnet/'t maffim) is of the oriole family. There are two varieties, the eastern and the western, which differ en- tirely in their song. Larkha'na, town of British India, in the presidency of Uombay, in the district of Sinde, 7 miles AV.of the Indus. It is fortified, has a larj^e trade in grain, and manufactures of cotton and silk goods. Pop. 9000. Lark'insbiirs, post-v. and tp. of Clay eo.. 111., on the Springfield and Illinois South-eastern R. K. Pop. 976. Lark'insvillev postv. and tp. of Jackson co., Ala., on the -Memphis and Charleston R. K. Pop. 2(108. Lark'spur^ a popular name of the herbs of the genus Befphinitirn (order Kanuucnlacea?), which are found in the cool regions of both continents. The U. S. have eight or ten native species, and Europe as many. They are poisonous herbs, and have a limited nso in medicine. Several of these, with some Asiatic species, are favorite garden flowers. Lar'ned, post-v., cap. of Pawnee en., Kan., on the At- chison Topeka and Santa Fe R. R. and the Arkansns River, is the station for Fort Lamed. It has 1 weekly newspaper. Pop. about ."500. Larnod fBKNJAMiN F.), b. in Massachusetts in 1791; entered the U. S. army as ensign of the 21st Infantry in Oct.. ISl.'J; served with distinction throughout the war, and for gallant conduct in the defence of Fort Erie, where he commanded a eompnny, was brevetted captain ; retained as regimental paymaster on the reduction of the army in 181o ; during the Mexican war was marie deputy pay- master-general, and on the death of Gen. Towson succeeded him in ISjt as paymaster-general of the army, with the rank of colonel : from that date until his death discharged the responsible duties of his office with rare integrity. The outbreak of civil war largely increased his labors, and called fur a reorganization of his department, which be thoroughly accomplisherl, hut at the expense of his life, for his over- tasked powers gave wav, and he d. at his residence in Washington, D. C, Sept. 6, 1S62. Larned (Simon), b. in 17,^4 at Thompson, Conn,: was a Revolutionary officer who settled at Pittsfield. Mass.. in 17S4. He was a member of Congress 1S04-0.): eolnnel 9rh XJ. S. Infantry 1S12-1.J. and afterwards sheriff of Berkshire CO., Mass. D. at Pittsfield Nov. 9, 1S17. Lamed (Svlvkstkr), son of Col. Simon Larned, b. at Pittsfield, Mass., Aug. .31, 1796; graduated in L^l.tat Mid- dlebury College; studied theology at Princeton, and in 1SI7 was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry, ilcwcnt to New Orleans, where he was distinguished for the rare eloquence and power of his preaching. D. of yellow fever An^. 31, 1820. (See his Life and Sermons, by 11. R. Gurley. 184L) Larned (Wim.tam ArcrsTrs). A. M., b. in Thompson, Conn., .June 2:5. ISOfi: graduated at Yale 1826: taught in Salisbury. X. C, 1S26-2H ; tutor and theological student at Yale 182S-;j| ; was ordained lS."51-35 pastor of a Congre- gational church at Mill bury. Mass.; was instructor in He- brew and Greek in a theolo-^ical school at Troy. N. V., 1835-37; professor of rhetoric and Enejlish literature in Yale College 1S39-G2. D. at New Haven, C.nn.. Feb. 3, 13<>2. Prepared an edition of Demosthenes On the Croien; editor of tlie A'ctc EmjluutUr ISJl-jj. Lar'nioa, town on the southern shore of tho island of Cyprus, Turkey, in a fertile but very unhealthy plain. It has nn harbor, hut a good roadstead, ami carries on an ex- teni^ive trade, exporting silk, wool, and oil, and importing iron, paper, and colonial products. It is annually visited by 61)0 or 700 vessels of 60,000 tons burden. Pop. about 11). 01)0. ^ La RorhefoiiranldS de fFRAN(:ois), Ditkk, prince of M.irsillac, b. at Paris Dec. 1'.. ICr3; received a military education, an<I served for some time in the armv. but the element in which he felt perfectly at home was'tho court intrigue. While yet a young man he took an active part in the contest between Anne of Auflria and Richelieu, which ended with his banishment from Paris. On the death of the car.Iinal in lfi.!2. he Immediately returned to the court, but heini; poorly rewanled bv the queen, he sought an alliance with tho leaders of the Fronde ; and in order to acquire influence and become of importance he established and carried through a love-intrigue with Ma- dame dc Longueville, a sister of the prince of^Conde. This time too, however, bis political enterprises brought him nothing but trouble, and after 1660 ho gave up all am- bitious plans and lived solely for literature and social en- joyment in intimate intercourse with Mesdames dc Sable and Sevign6, and with Buileau. Racine, and others. In lGti2 appeared his Mi moires, and in 1065 his Hpjlcxionii. The latter made a great sensation, as well on account of its elegant style and acute observations — for which rcafon* it is still considered a classical work in France — as on ac- count of its philosophy, by which the difference between virtue and vice is reduced to a mere conventionality, and egotism is established as the principal if not the only spring in the human will. D. at Paris. Mar. 17. IfiSO. — Another member of the same family, FitANrors Ai.exandrb Fn£- PKRii: UE LA RocHEFOi'cAULn-LiANroi RT. b. at Paris Jan. II, 1747; lived mostly on his estate of Liaucourt ; was president of the National Assembly in 1789; emigrateil in 1792 ; lived in England and the U. S. ; returned to France in 1799 : was much in public life under tlie Restoration as an advocate of liberal measures, and d. at Paris Mar. 27, 1827. He was a very voluminous writer on different social topics, but his name is best known as that of a great prac- tical philanthropist. He established the first model-farm in France, introduced vaccination, founded at Liancnnrt a school for industry and art, which developed into the cele- brated Kcole des Arts et Metiers of Chalons, brought the method of mutual instruction into use, and established the first savings bank in France. La Rochejacqiielcin', de fllFvnt nir Vfrgf.r), Count, b. Aug., 1772. at the chateau of La Durbellierc, in Vendee; did not emigrate when the Revolution broke out, but joined Lescure, became for a short time the distin- guished leader in the first Vrsdfan War (which see), and was killed Mar. 4, 1794, at the battleof Nouai 116, near Chollet, La Rochejaequelein is the noblest personification of those royalists who thought sincerely that only the return of France to the legitimist monarchy could give the conntry peace and happiness. He was a reactionary La Fayette, and when he was chosen as gcneral-in-ebief of the Ven- dean^, be said to his soldiers, ** If I fall back, kill me ; if I go forward, follow me; if I die, avense me I"' He took part in all the early battles fought in Vendue against the republicans, and after he had been chosen chief of all the royalist armies be defeated twice the army of the National Convention around Autrain. and occupied Le Mans, La Fli'^ehe, Laval, and other cities. — His nephew, Henri de la RornF.iACyi'Ei.EiN, the latest celebrated representative of that historical family, gave up its ultra-legitimist opinions, rallied to the imperial regime, was made a senator by Na- poleon III., and d. in 1867. Fti.ix Atcaigne. La Rose, post-v. of Marshall co.. III., on the western division of the Chicago and Alton R. R., has 1 weekly newspaper. Larousse' (PiEnnr.l.b. in 1S16 at Toucy. department of Yonne ; began to be known as jiartncr of Roycr, a eele- bratrd Paris pul)lishcr of books for primary education. Many of these books are used now in French schools, and were written by Laroussc himself. In 1803 he conceived the idea of his universal dictionary ( iJivtiounnirc tin XIXe ftirrlr), and set at work surrounding himself with the best writers. The work was published by subscription, and had an immense success, (hough it slowly appeared periodically in small /««ei>ii/c« in a pamphlet form of about fifty pages each. Larousse exhausted bis strenirth in this stuj)endous work, and he d. Jan., lS7r), leaving his encyclopaedia at the letter M. He was a moderate but strongly-convinced re- publican. Ftl.IX AtTAIGNE. Lar'ra, de (Mariano .Tosk), b. at MatJrid. Spain. Mar. 24, ISOO ; known under the pseudonym of '* Fifjaro " as tho most popular modern satirist, dramatist, and critic of bis country, after a short career abounding in tumultuous ad- venture, d. by bis own hand at Madrid Feb. 13, 1837. His works have been many times reprinted in Spain, Mexico, and South America. Ijar'rabee, tp. of AVaupacca co., Wis. Pop. 362. Larramcn'dif dc (Mantel), b. in Biscay about 1600 ; was a .Tesuit. and became the principal authority upon his native language, the liasque. of which he prepared a gram- mar and dictionary, and maintained it to have formerly been universal in Spain. The titles of his works arc El fnipnsihfe Veut^tdo (KIO). Antiffurdad if Unnernfrlidnd del Unitruenre en Eipn^tt (1728), Dicdonnrio trifiufjue del Cas- tefhnio, finaeiieurc i/ Lathi (174.'>). D. in Biscay about 1750. Larrey' (Dominique Jean), Raron, a famous military surgeon, b. at Baudean, Ilautes Pyrenf-cs, in July, 1766; studied surgery with his uncle. Oscar Larrey. a successful surj;eon of Toulouse, under whose care the baron's elder brother, Charles Francois Hilaire Larrey, M. D. (1774- 1810). an able surgeon and writer, was also trained. Tho younger Larrey went in 17S7 to Paris; entered the navy; LARREY— LA SALLE. 16.57 returnetl to Paris; studied under Dessault and Sabaticr; joincd the army in 1791i ; invented the unihulauce vuUmte 1793, and was made sur^jeon-in-chief ; served in Kgypt, Germany, Spain, everywhere disphiying the grandest courage and perfect devotion to the eonifnrt and honltli of the troops, and especially to the wounded, whether Iriouds or enemies ; was mailc a baron on th<- lifld of Wa^^riim 1S09 ; was wounded at Austerlitz and Waterloo; made countless and exceedingly iuiportaut improvements in operative and clinical surgery, and made important obser- vations in general medicine. D. of pneumonia at Lyons July 25. 1S42. I^arrcy {Kki.ix IltppoLVTF.) M. D., Bahon, son of the great Baron Larrey, h. Sept. KS, ISOS: entered the army, and in IH32 received his degree at Paris ; became professor of pathology at Val de Grace 1841 ; becatne sanitary in- spector of the army 1S5S ; was chief surgeon in the Italian campaign 1861*, and the author of several medical and sur- gical books and of many professional papers. Lartet' (KnoiAnn), b. at St. Guf-rand, France, in ISOI ; has been one of the most distinguished promoters in France of researches in fossil palipontology and pre-historic an- thropolojjy, having been for many years professor of the former science in the Museum of Natural History at Paris. Among his numerous discoveries may be mentioned the mammalian remains in the Miocene deposits of Gers (1837), including entire skeletons of MaHtodmi awjustidcus, and affording the first proof of the existence of fossil monkeys in Europe. Subsequently he worked with (Jaudry in de- veloping the palpcontological results of excavations in the Miocene beds of Piterini, an'I aided Christy in exploring the caves of Perigord, as well as in the publication of the results in the lirtitptiir Aquitnnterr (isr>7-71), a work on the pre-historic ethnohtgy of P6rigord. Larue'y county of Central Kentucky, bounded N. E. by Salt UivL-r. It is undulating and fertile. Cattle, tobacco, and grain are staple products. Area, 400 square miles. Cap. HodgensviUe. Pop. 8235. LaruCy post-v. of Montgomery tp., Marion co., 0., IH miles U'. of Marion, on the Scioto Kiver and Clcvi-hind Co- lumbus Cincinnati and Indianapuli.s R. U., has 1 weekly newspaper, 2 hotels, flouring and saw mills, a factory, a union school, various stores and warehouses. Principal business, farming and lumbfring. J. A. Moi sKit, M. 1)., roH Fd. " LAurn Citi/.kn." Lar'va [ Ijat. for " mask." so called becnuse it was onco believed to conceal a perfect insect], in the life of most in- eects and of many infcriftr invertebrate iininials the con- dition or stage of devebipnu-iit which follows the batching of the egg, and which in most insects is fincceede<l by the pnpa or chrysalis state. The larva* of flies (Diptera) are catlcil maggots; those of coleopterous insects are grubs; those of moths and other Lepidoptera are catorpillars. A tC'Jfx (plu. •ro/iV^j*) is the larval condition of a trematodc worm. There is really no one stage of dev<'Iopment in the larval state, for it is usually one of most active progress, lu some cases another condition, the senii-jjupa, precedes the pupa form into which the larva is changed. Lar'will, post-v. of Whitley co., Ind., on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne anri Chicago K. U. Ijarynt^i'liH [from (5r. Adpi-yf, "larynx"], an inflam- mation of the mucous membrane lining the larynx. It may first bo divided into acute and chronic varieties, and the chronic subdivided into simple chronic catarrh of the larynx, laryngeal phthisis, and syphilitic laryngitis. The first of these, acute laryngitis, generally commences as an inflani- miition of the pharynx, which is afterwards communicated to the larynx, although it does occur imlcpondently in the larynx itself. The cause is generally " a cold," or exposure to sudden ehiingcs ijf tcmprrature, or it may ho Irautnatic; and the sympttuns consist of hoarst^iess, a sensation of tickling and dryness in the throat, and more or hss cough and expectoration. With ordinary care It subsides in a couple of days without any ine.lieal intorforcneo, or at most a warm bath ftdlovTcd by gmde diaphoresis. In very severe cases inhalations of infusion of hops may bo used every two or three hours with decid'd advantage, but we should ho very wary about making astringrnt local applications with a sponge or brush. Simple chronic catarrh of the larynx is usually a sequela of the aculo form, or arises by extension of a similar inflammation of the [pharynx and posterior nares. The symptoms arc somrwhnf simihi- to tho^c of the acute form, though not as well marked, nnd in addition there is an almost constant hawkingand hemming kept up by the patient to clear his throat from the contin- ually accumulating mucus. In the treatment of this, as in that of all intlainmalions. the first indication is to remove all irritati<»n, and the patient should be cautioned against swallowing largo masses of food ut a time, or, what is a very common practice in this country, partaking of very warm dishes, followed by large draughts of ice-water. All the food taken should be of equable medium temperature, neither too hot nor too cold, and the inhalation of hot nnd cold air and noxious vapors, dust, etc. should be avoided as much as possible. Besides all this, the general health should bo by no means neglected, and local medication seems to be very beneficial. Standard solutions of nitrate of silver, sulphate of copper, perehloridc of iron, iodine, etc. are those most commonly used; they seem to produce a better result wIicti changed from time to time, and the application should bo made by means of a cnmcrs-hair brush from twice to five or six times weekly. ' Laryngeal phthisis occurs in connection with pulmonary phthisis; the symptoms ditVer lifllo from those of an or- dinary laryngitis, but upon examination the cartilages arc found thiokeued. and often there is ulceration affecting both them and the cords. Syphilitic laryngitis exists as a mani- festation of that dire affection, syphilis. It is jirincipally from the previous history of the ciise nnd an exploration of the chest that we differentiate it from laryngeal jihthisis. Sometimes the destruction of tissue is appalling. In the latter two varieties the chief reliance must be placed on the constitutional treatment of the disease of which they arc but symptoms ; but still, local medication shoulil not be ignored. In ulcerative laryngitis, from whatever cause, powdered iodoform seems to have the most beneficial eflcct. KinvAIlD J. BIRMINGHAM. liaryn'{;oscope fGr. Aapi-yf. " larynx." nnd <rKontlv, to "examine"], an instrument proposed, and in jiart intro- duced, by Mr. Liston, and employed by other eminent .•sur- geons of his time: hut greatly improved and first system- atically used by the late Prof. Czermak. It is emjiloytd for examining the eonditiou of the diseased larynx, nnd also for observing the action of the vocal cords during phonation. It consists of two mirrors; the larger one. concave, throws light upon the smaller, which is held in the throat of the patient and illuminates the interior of the larynx, at the same time presenting a reversed ininico of the glottis, voeal cords, and surrounding parts. The laryngoscope is of great value in treating local diseases of the throat. I^ar'ynx [Gr. Ao/jvyf ], the organ of voice, situated at the upper part of the windpipe. The lower part of it is cylin- drical, and scarcely wider than the windpipe, but above it widens out and forms a triangular-shaped box, which is at- tached to the hyoid hone by various muscU s. It is situated in front of the o-sopbagus, and immediately beneath the in- tegument on the front of the neck, where it forms a projection known as the pomum Adnmi, \\h\v\\ is very prominent in males. The larynx is composed of various cartilages, nine in number, the most important of wliieli are the thyroid, cricoid, two arytenoid, and the epiglottis. It is moved by a number of niu5cI^.'S, and lined with mucous membrane, which in places is thrown into dupHcaturcs or folds, con- stituting the ary-epiglottic folds, the ventricular bands, and tiie vocal conls. The function of the larynx is twofold — the production of the voice, and protection to the lungs and bronchi dur- ing respiration. The manner in which the voice is pro- duced is as follows: The vocal cords, which are stretched across the laryngeal tube, arc relaxed when the voice is at rest, but as soon as there is u desire to produce a sound, they arc put on the stretch, and approximated by certain muscles connected with the larynx, and at the same lime the air is driven forcibly through them from the lungs. Tlie qmility of the sound is regulated by the degree of ten- sion nnd npproximiition of the cords, nnd the force with which the column of air is driven through the aperture. This has nothing to do with nrticulntion, which is produced by the lips and tongue. The movements of the larynx during rcf-piration are as follows: At each iu'-pirafion the vocal cords are separated and the larynx freely opened, but in expiration it is partially closed by the relaxation of the vocal cords. The larynx further protects the lungs from the invasion of any foreign ))o<ly. We are all nequninled with the violent coughing produced by a crumb of breml wbieli has been drawn in by a sudilen inspiration. The larnyx is subject to many aflections, the most common of which aro laryngitis, or inflammation of its lining mem- brane; paralysis of some of its muscles; growths on the cords; ulcerative and laryngeal phthisis. KhWAIU) ,1. BKHMINfJIIAM. l.n Salle, county of N. Central Illinois. Area, 1152 square miles. It is level and very fertile. Cnftle. grain, wool, anrI hay are largely produced. Bituminous cool nnd sand- st<me are obtained extensively. Carriages, harnesses, nnd flour are the chief manufactures. The county is traversed by the Illinois nnd Fo\ rivers nnd by numerous railroads. Cup. Ottawa. Pop. (»(>,7y2. 1658 LA SALLE— LASSA. I La Salle, county of S. W. Texas. Area, 1470 square } milts. It consists of extensive and rather dry undulating I prairies, watered hy tbe Frio and Nueces and their branches. 1 It is a groat stock-range, where cattle and sheep are pas- tured. Pop. oy. ! La Salle, eity and tp. of La Salle co., III., on the N. bank of the Illinois River, at the intersection of the Illi- t nois Central R. R. with the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific ! R. R., ilil miles .•>. W. of Chicago and 1 mile li. of Peru. It ! is situated at the head of navigation on tlie Illinois, ami is I connected with Chicago by the Illinois and Michigan ■ Canal. The adjoining city of Peru is practii-ally a suburb of La Salle, which will undoubtedly soon absorb it in the same municipal org.anization. Zinc-smelting establish- ments, four in number, one being the largest in the coun- try, form an important feature of business: a glass-factory is in successful operation; hydraulic cement is produced upon an extensive scale; and 2110.000 tons of ice are an- nually sent down the river to a .Southern market. It has gasworks, and a street railroad connecting La Salle with Peru was completed in l.''"4. The canal connection be- tween tho Mississippi and the great lakes has recently been greatly improved in the vicinity of La Salle. There is a gooil supply of bituminous coal within the city limits, and the )>l.ace offers great inducements to manufacturers. There are :i weekly newspapers. Pop. of city, 52110; of tp. .'i452. R. C. Stiivens. La Salle, post-v. and tp. of Monroe co., Mich., on the Michigan Southern R. R. (Detroit division). Po]i. 1S92. La Salle, ile Mean Baptiste), D. D., b. at Rheims, France, ,\pr. liO, lti.")l ; became a cathedral canon at Kheims when seventeen years old; received the doctorate after studying at the Sulpitian school, Paris; became a priest Kill ; ilevoted himself to the instruction of the poor; founiled the Brothers of the Christian Schools, an order which received papal approval in 1725. D. Apr. 7, 1719. Numerous miracles are credited to him, and in 1840 he was declared '■ Venerable " by Gregory X\'I. La Salle (Ren£ Robert Cavelier), .Sieur ns, b. at Rouen, France, in 164.3; became a .lesuit, but, renouncing his profession, embarked for Canacla in IfiOG ; became a fur- trader; in 101)9 set out to find the N. W. passage by way of the great lakes; explored Lake Ontario, and in 1671 discovered the Ohio ; went to France in 1674; was ennobled and received important grants in Canada. Returning in 167S from another voyage to France, he explored the great lakes, and attempted to colonize their shores; descended the Illinois and the Mississippi, reaching tho (lulf of Mexico Apr. 9,1682, and named the region Louisiana. In 168:5 ho went to France, and, having received a commission, endeavored in 1684 to plant a colony in Louisiana, but the voyage was disturbed by dissensions, and ho landed in Mar., 1685, in Matagorda Ray, Tex., and built a fort. His followers were much reduced in numbers, and having deciilcd to g<» by land to Canada, he was murdered by his own men on tho banks of a branch of Trinity River, Mar. 19, 1687. Las An'imas, county of S. E. Colorado, extending W. to the Rocky Mountains. Area, 7000 square miles. The W. part is mountainous, the E. part a grassy plain. The Cimarron and Purgatory are the principal rivers. It con- tains coal, iron, gypsum, fireclay, marble, and considerable timber. It has good grazing and farm lands. (Jrain and wool are staple products. Cap. Trinidad, Pop. 4276. Las Animas (West), post-tp. and cap. of Bent co., Col., situated on Arkansas River at its crossing by the .Ar- kansas Valley branch of the Kansas Pacific R. R., 2 miles above the mouth of Las Animas River; it was laiil out in 1873; has a newspaper and all the usual accessories of a rising town. It is the government freigiiting-point for New Mexico, and has a large cattle-trade. Pop. 500. Charles W. Bowma.v, Ed. '■ Leader." Las'car [Hind. lnnbkn)\ an "army "], properly, an East Indian cjimp-follower, but the name is now applicii in the East Indies to boatmen, sailors, and other low-caste menials. The lascars are able seamen, but cruel and treacherous. There is a company of gun-lascars at IIong-Kong in the Bvi'ish colonial eorvico. They are Malays, and number 176 men. Las'caris, the name of two celchrated Oreek grnm- raarians who took refuge in Western Europe after the final overthrow of the (ireek empire by the Turks, and contributi'd very much to the introduction of the study of the t^rcek language, literature, and philosophy into Italy and France. Anoreas Joanses, h. about 144.'p, at Rhyndacus in Phry- gin. whence he received the surname RnvMtAcENfS. He liveil in Italy and France at the courts of Lorenzo do' Medici, for whom he puhlishetl his eelebnited Aniholnffia Grifca; of Louis XII., who used him in several diplomatic missions; and of Leo X. and Paul III. B. in Rome in 15:15. — Of the life of Coxstantixe Lascaris very little is known. He lived mostly at the court of Francesco Sforza in Milan, where he wrote his famous (irammatica 6'rjun, but he also taught in Florence and Kaples. D. in 1493. Las Casas, de (Bartolom£). See Casas. Las Cases, de (Emmanuei, Augistin Diei'iwnxe Marie Josei-ii). Mari^i'is, b. at Las Cases, in Languedoc, in 1766 ; entered the navy ; emigrated in 1791 ; served lor some time in the army of the prince of Conde ; lived later on in Londcin, where he published his Atian hintorique (1803) ; returned in 1805 to France; held several offices in the civil and military service during the om])ire, and ac- companied Napoleon to St. Helena in 1815. A letter he wrote to Lucien lionaparle (Nov. 27. 1816). and in which he spoke freely of the manner in which Napoleon was treated, caused him to be arrested and transferred to the Cape of Good Hope. After thirteen months' imprisonment he was liberated ; resided in Belgium, and returned after the death of Napoleon to France, where, in 1824, he pub- lished his Mrmitriftl tU ^t<\ f/r/iiic, containing a record of the remarks which Napoleon had made to him in their con- versations. D. May 15, 1842. Las Cru'ces, post-v. of Pofia Ana co., N. M.. on the Rio Grande, 3 miles above Mcsilla. It has 2 weekly news- papers. La Sieur, tp. of New Madrid co.. Mo. Pop. 2004. Las'ker (Edward), b. Oct. 14, 1829, at Jarocin, in the Prussian province of Puscu ; studied jurisprudence and mathematics; spetit three years in England studying Eng- lish constitution and law ; and received in 1856 an oflice in the Prussian government. His creed, however, and his con- stitutional views, which he set forth in several excellent papers, prevented him from advancing in the service ; in 1870 he was appointed an attoruey-at-law in Berlin. Since 1865, in which year he was elected a member from Berlin to the Prussian house of deputies, Lasker has devoted him- self with great energy and steadily increasing influence to his parliamentary career, regardless of his practice as an attorney and of other personal interests. Until 186s he represented in tho house of deputies a district of Berlin, and then Magdeburg; in the North German and in the German diet he represented first a district of Berlin, and then one of Saxc-Meiningen. At first, his political con- viction allied him with the progressive parly, but when it became evident that Bismarck's policy aimed at tho estab- lishment of a united Germany, Lasker became one of the founders of tho nati<mal liberal party, which still has the majority in the Parliament. In the internal development of the empire he always stands for that which is right, for the strict fulfilment and judicious development of the law ; and in pursuing this aim he pays regard to none, to no powerful party, to no ]iowerful person, not even to tho gov- ernment itself, with which he agrees in other questions ; as, for instance, with respect to foreign policy. On all import- ant laws of a more recent date, especially on those concern- ing trade and traflic, usury, imprisonment for debt, loans with premiums, etc., he has exercised a decisive influence. What has made him most popular, however, was his attack on the ministry of commerce (Feb., 187.'!) ; he attacked di- rectly one of the highest oflicials In the ministry of stale, and several princes. August Niemaxn. Las Pal'mas, town on the north-eastern coast of (Iran Canaria. one of the Canary Islands. It is beautifully sit- uated at the feet of lofty hills, with a spacious and good harbor. It is also well built, with a fine old cathedral and many beautiful promenades. It has some manufactures of glass, leather, woollens, and hats. Pop. 11,400. Las Pi'las, an extinct volcano in Nicaragua, forming one of the chain called Los Marrabios, extending across the plain of Leon. Nearly at its foot a new volcanic cone several hundred feet high was formed in 1850 by an erup- tion which lasted a month. Las'sa, Lliassa, or H'Lassa, the capital of Thibet, situated in lat. 29° 30' N. and Ion. 91° 40' E.. on a plain 9500 feet above the sea and encircled by lofty mountains. It is a very lively and well-built town, with a population estimated "at 50,000, and nn extensive trade in precious stones, gold, velvet, silk, and cashmere. Its principal im- portance, however, it derives from the Booddha-la, a temple, with adjoining palaces, monasteries, and schools, situated on the top of a hill close by the city, with which it is con- nected by a magnificent road. The Booddha-la. or " moun- tain of Booddha," is the residence of the Dalai Lama, tho pope of Booddhism. Thousands of pilgrims come annually to visit it ; hundri'ds of them stay there to complete their theological and |ihilosophical education; and all of them leave behind them a present to the Dalai Lama. The tem- ple and palace, which cover many acres of land, glitter with LASSEN— LATHAM. 1659 golden domes and miuarcts nntl columns, and it \s said that few places ou earth contain sucli enormous treasures of gold and precious slouos as thv Booddbala. Ilut t'orcigners-^lhat is, ail who are not Booddbists — are Ibrbiddco to enter not only the Booddbala, but also ibc city. Las'sen, county of N. California, bounded E. by Ne- vada. Area, -M32 square miles. It consists of arable val- leys, dry sago plains, alkali flats, and rougb mountains. Tbc greater part has its drainage into lakes with no out- let, drain and live-stock are the chief products. Cap. Susanville. Pop. i:i27. Lassen, tp. of Tehama co., Cal. Pop. 2-10. Lassen (t7HRisTiAx), b. at Bergen, in Norway, Oct. 22, 180U; studied at Chrisliauin, Heidelberg, Bonn, Paris, and London ; attracted great utteiiliou by hia EnHni mir h- Hull, written in connection with Burnout' | Paris, IS2i>), and his edition of /litopttdetft, a c()llcction of Indian fables, made in aounection with A. \V. Schlegel (Bonn, 1S21*); and bc- onme professor in Indian languages at the University of Bonn in IS.'JO. By liis critical editions of Itmtitutiotiea liti'fHfe Pfncn'lica ( \^,i~), AntbuUtfjia Sonmcritn (1838), etc., and by hid numerous linguistic, areha'ologieal, and histor- ical writings he became the founder of tbe study of Indian language, literature, and history in Europe. His princi- pal work was his Im/iirhe Attcrthttmufcuyide (4 vols., Bonn^ 1844-62}. D. May y, 1S76. Lasscn*s Peak, in the Sierra Nevada, Shasta co., Cal., rises H),;>71 feet above the sea. Las'sile, tp. of Union co., Ark, Pop. 782. Las'so [Sp. Ifizo^ kindred to the word lace], or Lariat' [Sp. f't rifttii], a long thong of ox-bide or rope of horse- hair used by Spanish-American iierd«men and hunters for catching cattle, horses, or game. A running noose at the end is dexterously east over the neck or legs of the beast, the other end of the lasso being fastened to the saddle, from which the lasso is thrown. L^Assomption', county of Quobeo, Canada, bounded on the S. by the St. Lawrence. It lies directly N. of Mont- real. Cap. L'Assomption. P<)p. lj,473. L'Assomption, ]iost-v. of L'Assomption co., Quebec, Canada, on L'Assomption River, is the seat of a college and convent. Pop. 1210. I^as'tra a Sign'a, town of Italy, in the province of Florence, on the Kft bank of the Arno, about 8 miles f». AV. of the city of Florence. It is well built, and was a for- tified town under the Florentine republic. Pop. in 1817, 10,276. La'sus [Aaaov], son of Chabriuua or (according to Schneidewin) Charminus, a (}reek dithyrambic poet and hymn-writer of Uermione in Argolis, flourished about 510 D. c. He was a contemporary and rival of Simonidcs, and the reputed teacher of Pindar. Of all his poems, only a fragment of a hymn to l)einetcr remains, which is given in Bcrgk's I'ottif Lyi-iri Cirirci. 11. Duisi.KU. Las Ve'gas, post- v., cap. of San Miguel co., N. M., 70 miles E. of Santa ¥6, on tbe Pecoa Kiver, has 2 churches, 2 weekly newspapers, 2 hotels, a public sebuol. 2 denouii- national schools, a door and sash factory, mineral hot springs, and a large number of stores. Within a few miles are 6 grist-mills and M s-iw-mills. The Atchison Topcka and Siinta Fe U. K. will, when completed, pass a few miles to the N. of Las V'ugas. Cattle-raising and farming arc the chief industries. Pop. about 1.^00. Loiis IloMMKi., Fd. '• (Jazette." lintnki'nh, or Ladiki'yeh, the ancient Laodk-ka ad Mauk I which see), town of Asiatic Turkey, in the province of Syria, on the Mediterranean. It has many mosques, among which arc several beautiful ones, and a consider- able trade with Kgypt, espeeially in tobacco; yet it bears a general aspect of dilapidation and downfall. Pop. 10,000. Lateen' Sail [It. Ittlhm, "large or broad"], a trian- gular sail, used mo^dy upon small vessels in thr Mediter- ranean. The anterior and superior edge is faHlened to a long yard which is crossed at about one-third of its length by a short mast. Tbe yard inclines about 4j° to the horizon. Latent Heat. See IIkat, by Pnnp. W. P. Taow- DniixiK, .\. M. I<aleral Pressure of laquiils. Sec IlvnRODY.SAU- irs and II voiiostath s, by .1. !'. Fiii/Ki.i.. C K. Lat'eran is the name of a place in Rome occupying the site of the estates of the aneieitt Konniii family Latr- ranim. The two principal buildings situated in the place are tlio church of S. tiiovunni and the palace. The old Latenin palace became imperial property under Nero, who put I'laulius Lateranus to death and contiseuterl his es- tates. Constantino the Ureal preacnied it to the pope, and I it was the pontifical resideuoe until in LiOO the Holy See I was transferred to Avignon, On the return of Gregory XI. to Rome in L177. he took up bis residence in the Vul- ; iean. Having been burnt down under the reign of Clement iX., the Latenin palace was rebuilt in IjJS under Sixlus v., but it reuKiiued unoccupied until innocent XII. in HHiii made it an orpbnn asylum. In ls4.'i, liregory XVl.estab- j lished hero the ^luseum (Tregorianuui Lntcranensc for an- j tiquities, tbe Vatican and Capilolinc museums affording no I more space. The church, S. Giovanni in Lateruno. was founded by Constantino the Great, overthrown by an earth- quake in 806, rebuilt by Sergius 111. 001-11, burnt down in i;t08, restored by Clement V., and subsequently much altered and modernized by Martin V., 14;J0, Pius 1\'., Iii60, Borromini. IGoO. and llulileo, 1734. For centuries it was the principal church in Christendom — Omnium urhiit ct orhiH rcclcniarniu mater ct caput. Five great cecumenical councils were held in its vaults. The popes are still crowned here, and from the balcony of its front facade the Holy Father blesses the people ou Ascension Day. Lat'eran Coun'cils — thus called because they were held in the church of St. John Lateran in Home — com- jtrise, besides six minor, five great (Veiimeiiical councils — namely, (1) that convened by Calixtus If., and opened Mar. 18, 112;i. by which the long strife between the popes and the German emperors concerning investiture was eniled on the following terms: "The eniperor surrenders to tlod, to Sts. Peter and Paul, and to tbe I'atliolie Church all right of investiture by ring and stuff. . . . The pope agrees that the election of German prelates shall be had in the presence of the emperor, provided it is without vio- lence or simony." (2) That convened by Innocent II., and opened Apr. 20, IK'.O. by which the anti-jiope. Ana- cletus II., and all who had received oOice under him. were deposed. (;i) That convened by Alexander III., and opened Mar. 2, 1170, by which it was established that henceforth *' tbe election of the popes shall be confined to the college of cardinals, and two-tiiirds of the votes shall be required to make a lawful election, instead of a majority only, as heretofore." (4j That convened by Innocent III., and opened Nov. II, 121 J, by which a crusade was determined upon for the libenition of Palestine from the infidels, tbe heresy of the Waldenses was condi-mned. and the doctrine of transubstantiation established its an article of failb. (5) That convened by Julius II., and opened May 3, 1.M2, by which tbe acts of the Council of Pisa were annulled, and the concordat coneluded in I.'jID between Francis I, and Leo X., who succeeded Julius II., and closed the coun- cil in 1617, was substituted for the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges. Lnter'za [Lat. Fratuertium], town of S. Italy, in the province of Leccc, about 35 miles S. W. of Taranto. Pop. in 1874. 6;U8. La'tes [properly taio or latuf, Gr. Aotos], a genus of large Percidic, of which is F^utrn nifottrun, the fiimnus fish from which Latopolis in Egypt took its name. This fish is the largest in that stream. It is three feet long iin«l of fine flavor. L. ucf-HtH is an excellent food-fish of the tidal parts of the Ganges. La'tex [Lat. for "juice"], the tbirk, milky juice of certain plants, as the milk-wted. celandine, etc. It is dis- tinct from the true sap, and in contained in a set of tubes called '• laticilerous vessels." Many iniporliint products, such as opium and caoutchouc, are tbe ihied latex of some one or more species of jdants. In snme plants the latex exhibits the pnemtmenon culled cyclosis. Lath« a thin strip of boarti used to nail upon tbe up- rights of house-walls. I'pon the biibs tbe plaster is laid by the trowel. Laths are now sawed out complete by ina- ohinery. Formerly, a wide and Ibin board was split into laths. Laths are generally miide cd' small sticks; any kind of wood which will not warp will serve for laths. Ln'tlinin (John), b. at KItham, Kent. England, June 27, l7tU; studied medicine and natural history; estab- lished himself in 17(Kt as a physician nt I)artford; aided Sir A. Lever in forming bis museum, and was one cd' Ibc founders of the Royal Society ond of the Liniuean Society. Besides papers on medicine and natural history, ho was the autlHir of a (Imrml Si/noptn'ii nf liirdu {S vols., 1781- IHOI ) and of an Atrfrj- Oniif/mfntjirnit (I79I), both which were combined in a new edition under the title .1 (J*unal HiHtnrif uf iiirdn (10 vols., 1821-24). D. at Komsey Feb. •I, is:!7. lifithnm CMii-ToN S.), b. at Columbus, 0.. May 23, IS27; graduated at Jefferson College, Pa., in ls|5; became a lawyer of Alabama, and was clerk of the courts in Ru«- sell CO. lS4S-r)0; clerk of the recorder's court. San Fran- cisco, Cal.; a district ottorncy ISoO-al ; a member of Con- gress from California lSj;t-5j; collector of the port of San 1660 LATHAM— LATHE. Francisco 1855-57; governor of California ISGOj U.S. Senator 1861-67. Latham (Robkrt Gordon), M. D., F. R. S.. b. at Bil- linj;sljorou;;h. Lincolnshire, Eng. : was educated at Eton and L'ainhridiie, where he became a fellow of King's Col- lege and received degrees in arts and in medicine; became a lecturer al Middle.«ex Hospital: published Xorimtf and the Av>rirc'/mH« ( l^^ill) ; translations from the Swedish, etc.; became in 1H4I professor of English literature in University College, London ; published a work on 7'Ae English Lnu^ufvje llS41), a series of English grammars (lSt:!-50), liisiorif of the Englinlt Lnngumje (!S4'.»), Hnud- b'i'ik »f the EnijltHh Lniu/unge (1851), a translation of Syd- enham's Wurh-ft ( 1848-.l'j), Xatiiral Hilton/ of Man (1850), Mtiit and his Migratious (1851), a series of works on eth- nology (1850-59"), Comparative Phiiufogi/ flS(12). a tho- roughly revised edition of Johnson's /Jictiouart^, in 36 numbers (1857-70), and other works. Lathe [Fr. tour; Ger. Drihbanlc], a machine for shap- ing materials by the process called turning. It has a great variety of forms, as the •* foot-lathe." the " engine- lathe," the "lathe for turning irregular forms," or as classified by reference to the art to which the tool is pecu- liarly adapted. In the lathe the material to be shaped is sustained by two ■* centres," between which it is given a motion of revolution, while a turning- tool, held by the hand of the workman or by a tool-holder attached to and moved by a "slide-rest," cuts away the exterior, and gives the mass the sliape required in the finished piece. The lathe was known in very early times. Its invention is claimed by Diodorus Siculus for Talus, the grandson of Daedalus; Pliny ascribes it to Theodore of Samos (740 b. c), and spates that Phidias and Pericles were very expert in its use. Cicero called the workmen using the lathe *'ra«- cnlarii.'* Phidias is supposed to have been the first to adapt the machine to turning wood. It had previously bc;en used in turning vases and other forms in clay; and the potter's wheel, which is a kind of lathe, was in use among the ancients. It is mentioned in the Bible as used by the Hebrews. Very rude lathes were used in Europe at a period which antedates history, and they are still met with in some jiarts of the country. Turned objects in WDorl were exhibited at the international exhibition at Vienna in 187.'l, made by the peasantry of Galicia, among the Carpathian forests, on these old lathes. Fig. 1 repre- sents this tool. The work- man goes into the forest, selects two trees growing side by side, and close by a young maple or beech. Two maple cones inserted in the trees serve as cen- tres, .ind the block to be turned is fixed between them, the end being first trimmed to cylindrical shape to take the '* bight" of tlie rope, one end of whicli is attached to the eml of the sapling, and the other to the treadle seen below. The cross- bar, d, is a rest to sup- port the turning-tool. The treadle btini^ worked by the loot, the piece revolves, and the turning is readily performed. Lathes were adapted to other than cylindrical forms of revolution in comparatively modern times. Leonardo da Vinci, Jacques Besson, Salomon de Cans, and Jerome Car- dan produced modifications and improvements, having for their object the production of oval and other geometrical figures. The engine-lathe, with its slide-rest, was tho in- vention of Joseph Bramah, an English mechanic, in 1791. The lathe for turning irregular forms was invented by an ingenious Americ.in mechanic, Thomas Blanehurd, about 1820, and was by him applied to turning gun-stocks and shoe-lasts. Tho metal-worker's engine-lathe has been variously modified by many inventors. Tho most efiieient and per- fect machines of tins class are built by the leading manu- facturers of machine tools in tho U. S. This is the most generally useful and most indispensable tool of the whole collection of tho metal-worker, and it is hardly less im- portant in wood-working. The art of turning is often made nn independent in- du>!try. It employs large numbers of workmen, and some of the finest illusKtrations of manual dexterity and of ar- tistic skill are produced by the use of this tool. (See Titrn- iNc.) The lathe is usually so constructed that the work may be placed between two conical pointed "centres," one of which is stationary, and the other of uhicb revolves, driven by the foot or by other power, and communicates its Fig. motion to the work. AVhile the piece is thus rotating about the line joining the centres, the cutting edge of the tool is brought against the exterior or the projecting jtorlions, and It is gradually worked into the required shape. When the axis remains constant in ])osition, the tool being moved inward and outward, or laterally as required, the surface becomes that of a solid of revolution, composed, usually, of cylindrical combined with spherical, spheroidal, or other geometrical forms. The axis is sometimes changed in po- sition during the operation of turning, as in the "rose- engine," by which oval and many intricate combinations of regular figures are produced. Hand-turning is usually adopted in working wood and ivory. The tool is carried in the hand of the operator^ a rest being provided to sup- port it beneath while it is moved in the horizontal plane by the turner. In the engine-lathe used for working metal tliC tool is secured in a tool-po.-^t erected upon a slide-rest, which latter is moved horizontally by suitaljle mechanism, worked either by hand or by the automatic "feed-motion" of the lathe. In the "chuck-lathe" the work is carried in a chuck mounted on the end of the rotating spindle, which in tho first described or centre lathe earrit s the live or ro- tating centre. The chuck grasps the work firmly, and thus enables the dead centre to be dispensed with when turning short pieces. The foot-lathe is driven by the foot of the workman, operating a treadle beneath. When the tool is larger, and is driven by steam or water power, it is called a power- Jathc. Nearly every trade uses some form of lathe, which by some peculiarity of detail is cppeeially fitted for its work. The forms of the lutbc are therefore Qumcrous^ while the variety of attachments is enormous. Fig. 2. Screw-cutting engine lathe, with foot motion. Fig. 2 represents a very complete foot-lathe, as made by Chase & Co. of New York City for general work. A hori- zontal shaft, extending beneath the bed of the lathe from end to end, carries a pulley balance-wheel, which by means of a belt not shown drives the spindle which runs in bear- ings in the "head" of the lathe at the leO. This driving- shaft is turned by a treadle which is worked by the foot of the turner. The slide-rest, seen at the middle of the lathe between the two heads, is moved either by hand, or auto- matically, by a small shaft running from end to end of tho lathe, and partly concealed by that portion of the slide-rest which carries the handle for attaching and detaching it. The tool is shown in its place in the tool-holder, which is mounted upon and carried by the slide-rest. The back centre is shown nt tho right, and the back-head, in which it is carried, is adjustable in position at any distance from tho fixed head, and is clamped by tho nut and handle seen beneath it. Tho centre is moved backward and forward by the handle at the right, which turns a screw within tho shell, and when in adjust?nent it is clamped by a smaller set-screw or clamp, seen above it. The train of gearing at the end of the lathe adjacent to the driving-head is used to determine the relative motion of the tool and the work, when it is desired to secure an exact velocity-ratio, os in cutting screws. The ge.iring seen behind the driving- spindle takes its motion from the pinion on that spindle at the left, and, turning with the belt-cone, transmits it, with a reduced velocity-ratio, to the gear on the driving-spindlo at the right. This gear drives the live spindle to which it is keyed. With this arranc^ment the driving-pulley and its attached pinion turn loosely on the driving-spindle. LATHE. 1661 A rapid uiution of tlio driving-wheel is thus converted into a blow, stroog movcniebt of the live centre, and the latho is thus adapted to turning metals. Throwing the baok-gcaring out of gear, the largest gear can bo clamped to tbo belt-eune, and the driving-spindle then jiartakes of the rupid motion of the latter, turning witli the higher velocity required lo working wood and other soft materials. Both the back-gearing and the screw-cutting attachment are usually dispensed with in lathes intended for turning wood only. Fig. 2 represent:; a Inrgo foot-lathe, capable Fia. 3. Jeweller's lathe. of taking pieces 10 inches in diameter and -10 inches long. A more u:iual size turns pieces G or 8 inches in diameter and about 2 feet long. The jeweller's lathe, shown in Fig. 3, illustrates this style. The finest fitting and the best workmanship is expended upon the head-stock of the lathe. Fig. 4 is a sectional drawing of this part of the tool, as made at the Free In- stitute of Industrial Science at Worcester, Mass. It rep- resents the best of practice. This lathe resembles in gen- eral structure that shown in Fig. 2, The foot-motion is omitted, this being a power-lathe. It is 8 feet in length, "swings" — i". e. it can turn a piece of the diameter of — 10 inches, and weighs l.'^iiu |M>uuds. The spindle A, A is of hardened cast steel, ground perfectly cylindrical, «//<r hav- iiiff been hardened^ to avoid danger of change of form in the process of hardening, to secure absolute truth in size and shape, and to obtain perfect smoothness and the de- sired hardness. The box. ii, carrying this spindle is sub- jected to all the strain thrown upon the latter, whether by the weight of the piece or by the force exerted by the tool. Here it is made of a single piece of steel, fitted approxi- mately to finished size, hardened, and finally ground to exact form and to fit. The fpiudlc-bcaring, C, (', where it turns in the box, is conical, and capable of adjustinoiit longitudinally to take up the looseness occasioned by the wear which takes place even with hardened steel journals running in hardened steel bearings. End-play is prevented by the nut, D, D, and the set screw, E, K, which hr>ld the spindle snugly in a position such that it may turn freely without either side or end play. The back end of the spindle is carried in the journul, F, its box being held by the cap-screw, G, U. The conc-pullcy, 11, II, turns loosely on the spindle when the back-gear is in action, and is clamped by the sliding-bloek. I, and screw. J. when llie spindle and the cone are to move together, the cone driving the gear, K, K, directly, and the latter carrying the sj)iii(lle. to which it is secured by keys. The pinion. L. L, on the cone-pulley, drives the back-gear. A spindle. M. M, car- ried on the rear plate of the head-stock, X, N, carries tlio feed-cone pulley, O. The belt-cone, II, II, and the back gearing are given broad bearings. Head-stock, IC-lncb engine lathe, made at Free Institute of Industrial Science, Worcester, ^(ass. A good lathe must he capable of turning a truly cylin- I the way when using it. Pieces carried between drical surface, and of |)roduciiig a perfectly plane face are connected with the face-plate by a** dog," a upon the end of the cylinder, or of any piece secured in the j.^^ j- latho in such manner that the faee to be finished shall lie in the transverse plane. These requirements are attained by skilful design and careful fitting. Lathes used in screw cutting are driven by an arrangement of belting which permits them to bo turnecl in either direction at pleasure. As the reversal of motion usually occurs very suddenly, "friction-pulleys," which are not afleeted by shocks, are generally used. Lathes for turning metals are driven at speeds much less than those adopted in working wood. These speeds arc : Material. Fcet per minute. Iron, chillufl white cost r> '• soft itray b't Steel 15 Iron, wrouicht 20 Wtw^'s and bronze BO-CO Wood 1500-4500 Pieces to bo turned are frequently of such shape that it is more convenient to b»dt them upon a "face-plate" than to hold them between centres. J)isks, pulleys, wheels, and similar pieces aro thus held. The faco-plato is a strong disk of metal of convenient sixe. having a hub on the rear face, bon-d and having a screw threat! cut insiile it to fit the thread cut on thn end of Iho spindle P, Fig. I. Tho dead ei-ntre and pLippet-head aro drawn back entirely out of the centres clamp hav- Judson lath ing a projecting arm which enters a slot cut in the face-plate, and aio thus driven. Pieces for h liich the faec-jtiato is used 1662 LATHE. mny be sometimes more conveniently held by a "chuck." This coDSists of a tjici'-plale carrying on its face a set of projecting pieces, movable in radial lines by means of screwp, cani.-^. or other mechanism, either together or inde- pentlently. The piece to be turned is placed between these jaws, and they are forced together, seizing the work firmly, and compelling it to turn with the face-plate. Fig. 5 represents the Judson chuck in elevation and in part section. The jaws are forced together or separated by the screws shown, which screws are turned by a wrench, shown in use on the lower one. Circles 1, 1, 1, 2. 2, 2, scored on the face, enable the workman to secure a sym- metrical adjustment when it is desired. The jaws being independently adjustable, unsymmetrical pieces may be chucked readily and accurately. The wedge-shaped lug which connects the nut of each screw with its jaw causes the same force which drives the jaw a.^rainst the work to press the former more firmly against the face-plate, thus holding the work firmly and snugly. The shell of this apparatus is usually of iron : the jaws should be of steel ; the screws are of wrought iron. A "scroll-chuck" has a similar form, but the jaws are moved simultaneously by a spiral feather on the face of a disk within the casing. These chucks, if accurately made, always place the piece symmetrically on the axis, but they cannot be used for un- symmetrical work. Fig. 6. Horton's chuck. The Horton chuck, Fig. 6, combines tiie distinguishing I moved by a set of geared screws turned by a circular rack, features of both the forms just described. The jaws are ! of wrought iron, sliding in the circular groove cut in the Fig. 7. The lathe for turning irregular forms. A, gun-stock; B. cutter-head; C. former; D, Kuide-whcel; E. E, E. E, swinging frame hoHinc cutter-head and guide-wheel; F, F, cutter-head belt ; G. drivinc-shaft ; H, drivlnR-bclt ; I, belt to first counter-shaft : J. belt from first counter to second counter- shaft K ; L, ImU to fe«il-sbufl ; M, fted-motion ; N, shipper for feed-niutiun M. ana revolving motion T; O, hand-feed; P, sliding t»hle ; R, R, R, R. shaft aud connecting gears for revulTing the stock A and former C ; S, hand-wheel ; X. clutch on revolring shaft B; U, revolving stop-belt. LATHROP— LATIN LANGUAGE. 1663 back-plate. The front and back plates are nicely fitted to- gether, !'o that no dust or dirt can get inside. Taking out the rack, the jaws are uiuvable independently. The face of the jaw has a slightly raised portion, and a groove is cut at the corner whcru it meets the *' bite/' to allow of accu- rate regrinding. Fig. 7 represents the lathe for turning irregular forma originally invented by IJlanchard, and n^ now used at the U. S. artit-nal at Springfiehl, Ma.^s., i>f whiu-h drawings arc kindly furnished by the commanding otTiccr. In this beautiful machine the |)attcrn or former, C, is mounted between centres parallel with the piece to be made its duplicate, and is revolved at precisely the game rate of speed. A cutler-head, IJ, carrying several knives and driven by the belt, F, swings in the frame. E, K, E, on the centres at the base. A guide-wheel, D, bearing against the former, C. throws the frame and cutter-head in and out as the guide- wheel and the gun-stock revolve synchrouou!*ly, making the latter a fac-simile of the ])attern. A slow, uniform motion is given the frame in the longitudinal direction, thus shaping the piece from end to end. Many modifications of this copy- ing tool are now made for special uses. In the *' ro^e-enginc lathe " the spindle carrying the work is movable, and is vibrated by a guide-wheel or pattern- wheel turned at a fixed rate of speed, and having an out- line which is determined by the shape of the design to bo cut. Sfvcral wheels being used in succession, intricate and beautiful geometrical combinations arc obtained. (Sec Hfdtzaptfers Mrchanical Mtinipuiatioiis; The Luthe and its tV»; .^fnnttft iiu Tounicnr.) R. li. TlU IISTON'. La'throp, post-v. of San Joaquin co., Cal., on the Cen- tral Tacilic U. H., 9 miles S. of Stockton. Lathrop, post-v. and tp. of Clinton co.. Mo. It has 1 weekly ni'wsp;iper. I'op. of v. b2'.i; of tp. 1782, Lathrop, post-tp. of Susquehanna co., Pa. Pop. 983. Lathrop {John), D. D., b. in Norwich, Conn., May 17, 1710; graduated at Princeton in 1703; taught for a time in the Indian school, afterwards Dartmouth College: was (I7fi^-l>*l(l) a Congregationalist minister of Boston, first over the Old Xorth, and then over the Second church. His degree of I>. I), was conferred first by Harvard, and then by Edinburgh I'nivcrsity. D.Jan.l, IStO. — His son, .Jons (b. Jan. I.'i. 1772: d. Jan. .10, IS20), wasa famous wit, poet, and orator of the early years of the reimblic. Lathrop (.John HiniM). LI*.!)., b. at Sherburne, N. Y., Jan. 22. 17'.i'J: graduated at Yale in 1819, and was a tutor there IS22-20; beeame a lawyer in 1826, and afterwards tau(;ht in Norwich, Vt.. and (iardiuer, Me.: professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in Hamilton College lS29-:ij; of law, history, etc., 1835^0; president of the University of Missouri 1840-t9 ; chancellor of the Univer- sity of Wisconsin 1849-59; president of Indiana University is;)9-ti0; profrssor of Enj^Hsh literature in the University of Columbia. Mo., 1800-62. and its president 1865-66. D. at Cohunbin, Mo., Aug. 2, I8(i0. Lathrop (Joskph), !►. !>.. b. at Norwich, Conn., Oct. 20, 1731 ; grailuated at Yale College in I7a4 : became pas- tor of the Congregational church in West Springfield in 17.'>6, and retained that position sixty-four year.'\ until his death, I>ce. 31. 1820. His published works in 7 vols. ( I796-I8III ) are eompiisfd almost entirely of sermons, sev- eral of which, entitled ]\'nfri» In Sfierjt*M Ctothiiij, elicited by troubles in his parish, bad a wide celebrity. Tbo last volume contains an autobiograjdiy. Latia'no, town uf Southern Italy, in the province of Lecce, about II miles S. of HrindiMi. Pop. in 1871, 5953. LatiUidn' [frnm LniUnn, ft typical genus, and the ter- mination -I'/.'], a ("arnily of fishes <if the order Tclcopt'])bali and sub-order .'\canth«»pteri. distinguished by sub-jugular ventral fins, each of which has a spine and five branching ravd ; a more or less ehmgatetl body (the vertebral cidumn hiiving mure than Ww abilominal and ftiurtcen camlal ver- tfliraM, covered with scah-v. und with the lateral line sub- mcilian along the tail ; an elongated dorsal fin, of which the spinous portion is shorter than the soft ; ami a com- pressed head, with a snout truneatcil or moderately pro- duced. These are the principal diagnostic characters of a group of fishes which have been variously ])laeer| by iliffer- ent naturalists, Cuvier having referred some forms to the Perciilii'. and others to the I.abridu' : and (iiinther having refcrretl all to the family Trachinidie, except MnlnrnnthuH^ for which he framed a jieculiar family— -Malacanlhidie. It embraces not many genera, but eonibiniilde nn<ler several gruups of genera, or possibly subfamilies — \\i.. Imtim, with three genera, Lutiluu, i'ltnlitlittHun, and Pmltttitua ; M Ai-ArANTMi. with the Mithirauthun: and PiNgrii'inF.s, with the genus l*i}U{uij>rn. All the genera are tropical, the I'in- qttipfiifii being peculiar to America, and tlic others tropi- cupolitau. TiiicononK Gill. Lat'imcr (Hugh), D. D., b. at Thuroa«ton, Leicester- shire, England, in 1491, was Iho son of a thrifty yeoman; was educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he was chosen a fellow I juy : passed a bachelor 1510, and a master 15U ; was cross-bearer to the iinivcrsity, and in 1516 became Greek professor; was ordaineil a priest at Lincoln ; became a Protestant by reason of the laliurs of liilney; was dis- missed from the university as a heretic by Wolsey 1527; became chaplain to Henry VIII. 1530; beeame rector of West Kingston. Wilts. 1531 ; was excommunicated, but ab- solved on his submission, 1532; chaplain to Anne Uolcyn 1534 ; became bishop of Worcester 1535 : resigned his oftico 1539. not being able to accept the Six Articles (31 Hen. VIII. c. 14t, and was imitrisoncd in the keeping of the bishop of Chichester: was afterwards silenced by authority and shut up in the Tower 1546—17; declined his former bishopric 1548; was preacher to Edward VI. 1549-50; im- prisoned in the Tower by proclamation of t^ueen Mary 1553; transferred to the Hocardo of Oxford, with llidley, 1554 ; tried and condemned by order of Cardinal Pole 1555 ; and burned at the stake with Uidley in the ditch near Ba- liol College Oct. 16, 1555. Latimer was one of the most in- fluential and fearless of the English Ueformers, and his ad- mirable SvrnuniH (4 vols.. London, 1845) are models of for- cible and witty speech. (See his Life, by Rev. K. Demaus, 1869.) ! Lntimor ( Jamks EujahI. A. M.. S. T. P.. b. Oct. 7, 1826, at Harlffird, Conn. : graduated in 184S at the Weslcyan ; University; entered the Methodist Episco])al ministry: was for many years an instructor in the seminaries of his Church, and held pastorates in the State of New York 1861 -69; became in 1870 professor of systematic theology in Boston University. Lal'imorc, post-tp. of Adams co., Pa. Pop. 1230. I^at'in Churchy a name ajjplied to the Koman Cath- olic, the Occidental, or Western Church. It is antithetical to Greek Catholic, as the title of the Oriental or Eastern Church. After the separation of tlic Greek Church from the Koman (ninth to eleventh century) the Catholics of the West were called Latins, because of their retention of the Latin language in the church service. In association with this distinction we sjicak of the Latin Fathers after (not before) the separation, Iho Latin ritual, the Latin clergy. A Greek latini/.ed is a convert from the Greek to the Koman Church. (See Aschbaeh, Alhj. K. L, (1850), iv. 12; Bcrgicr, Theulo(ji<; in ICiu'j/clnp. Mcthodique (\1i>\3), ii. 408; Milman, Lutin ChriHtianiti/ (1854).) C. P. Kkauth. Lati'nif in the government of ancient Rome, were in- ferior citizens of a class superior to the Peregrini. Tho term originally designated the jieople of Latium ; these after the Social war attained an inferior kind of citizen- ship, the nature of which is not clearly known. The jiia ttttii, hittiuitiiH, or Latium ( Latin (irivilcgc) was afterwards extemleil to nmny cities, towns. an<i colonies in foreign parts, and the Latini and their descendants, even though living at Rome, possessed only tbo Latin and not tho full Roman citizenship. Latini (BniNKTTo), b, at Florence in 1230; belonged to the party id'the Guelphs; was exiled in 1261 ; lived for several years in Paris; returned after the <»verthrow of tho Ghibellines to Florence, where he d. in 1294. lie is better known as the teadier and friend of I>!inlc than on account of his own writings, tho most remarkaMe of which is his Lirrr dr trfnor, written in French, translated into Italian in 1474, and containing a compendium of the whole wis- dom of his time. Latin Language. Latin is a member of that great family of languages calle<l Indo-European, ami aico, but less properly, Indo-Gernianic or Aryan. This family em- braces the Sanskrit, Persian, Lithuanian. Greek with its modern representative Romaic, Latin an<l its modificntions the Romance tongues, Celtic, Gcrnuin, ami English. These languages, for the most part, present striking resemblances in words, in infiections, and in general granunatica! struc- ture. Tho Sanskrit is tho oldest of them all, and throws more or less light on the obscurities of all the rest. The San- skrit has prevailing usages which pass away in its descend- ants, as the ending -»</of tlie firht person present indicative, which appears in a limited number of words in tJreek, in ft modified form in two In Latin {nun and inqtinm), in only ono in EngliRh (am), further modified in the Oerman hin, and utterly disappearing in other tongues; it has a dual as well as singular and phiral for its nouns, pronouns, adjeclivcs, and vcr!>s, which the Greek po.«ses,-eil, but was little inclined to use, which the Latin retained only in duo an<l (i»i/<".and confused in »«>» and ro*. and whioh the Eng- lish and GeriuHU have retained in only one word. Iirain, ztrtt-n : it had both augment and redoplicutiiin. in which tho Greek nearly followed it, while the Latin retained only 1664 LATIN LANGUAGE. reJuiilicition, nod that in certain verb?, the German an aiij^iueut in the |)nft participle of simples, the last faint trace of which appears in some old forms in English, as i/ihpt : it had eight cases, which kept certain relations dis- tinct which were afterwards confused, as the genitive, da- tive, and ablative, which last was lost in Greek, and in Latin also was mostly lost as a separate form, and in use be- came very complicated and irregular; in making its redu- plicalive syllable it illustrates, with one exception only, the order of the development of the L.atin vowels, a, u, ii, e, i ; and in its words, .is will be seen below, it is sometimes more closely allied to the Celtic or Germanic than to the Greek or the Latin. In former times it was customary to regard the Latin language as descended, and that very directly, from the Greek, and real or fancied connections wore tr.^ccd out between nearly all the Latin and Greek words. Others, who discovered in the Latin language words and forms which occur in the German and the Celtic, were led to believe that the Latin was largely de- rived from the Celtic. But in resolving such a question there are very great difficulties. How are we to know whether the IL'ellio or the Latin form is the older? We may generally receive the statements of the Romans them- selves as to the origin of certain words which they dis- cussed, but as we have no monuments of Celtic earlier than the seventh century of our era, how is modern research to decide whether the Celtic word is an old collateral form of the Latin, or was actually carried by the Romans in their conquests and deposited among the strange people ? Was the Ccltio tir, for instance, an original word with this people, or only the barbaric form of the Roman icrni ' While in some cases one of these views might be correct, and in other cases the other, we can only assert with confidence that the Latin belongs to the same family as the above, but more closely resembling the Greek in its oldest elements th.in any other member, and afterwards, in historic times, following the development of the Greek, adopting words from it with no change of form, or only such as convenience or regard for analogy required, imitating its construction, as in modern times English and French have imitated each otlier. and first translating and then imitating its literature, as Early English dealt with French and with Itali.an. To show how far this resemblance extended in some of the most ancient forms, and with what remarkable excep- ti<ms, we subjoin four comparative tables of groups of words, putting the Latin words in italics only when they are identical with the Greek or closely allied to it, and en- closing in parentheses such words as are more remotely connected in the group, or ch.angcd in meaning, or both: I. The names of the human body and its parts : BnylUh. body, skin, bone; G. Bein (= leg, bone), hair; G. Hanr^ head; G. Jfaupt, back, ueek, shoulder, arm ; tl. Arm, brcii^t ; (i. lintM, heart ; (1. Ilerz ■ face, brow ; St. bhnt, eye; Goth, auqo; Aitge; St. akshi^ car, nose. corpus ; i cutis: (G. IIaut = I hide), crinis, caput ; G. dorsum, Kopf, < coUuui ; G.I/als; \ I Goth, hall, / humerus, uments, brachium, pectus, cor (core), facies, /roiw, ocultts, aurii; G. Ohr, (nasus; St. «as;'l 1 G. -Vttse, J G. i XP'^^ (tTKVTO^ or ( KVTo^ — hide). oCTToGi'; Ht.aslhi. vCjtov. avxrif. (ot/nos; Goth.amsa; ( St. amsa. KapSia., Kpa^ia, K^p. WpOiTdiTOy. (of^pii? — eyebrow). ous (iiTOf ; Goth. aujo. OTofia. iDcua; archaic) v-^,^ dingua, ; yA"<r<ra. densdentis; G.Zahn^ oSovc o^oito^. mouth; Goth, mitnths G. Muml^ OS. longiu*;Golh. tungo;\ f Ii (;. Znnge. / 1 tooth ; SI. d'tt danta, lip; it. Lfp/f, hanA;(i.}Jand;Goth. hatitfiis, ftst ; G. Fatixt, L'llww; {j. EUrnhogen, toe, G. Zehe^ nail ; G. Nagel ; St. le-'. kui'c; Goth. ^SThiu; G. /Cuir, fool ; Goth, fotus ; G. Fuss, II. The names of the Dcitj and of human relations: God; G. Gotl; Goth. GudoT GiUK, Detu,IHvm; Si.d€va; e«k, (Zevs) Ato?. fingfr; G. Finger; \ labium, xeiAo^. maniis; arch. AiV, x«i'p- , puonus. vliia ; Goth, aleina, nvyfiri. uikiirq. digUus; Ft. doigl. SdxTvkoi. unguis, criis, O-xeAos. genu. yoi'u; St. f7flrnu. pes pedis. iroii? TToSd? ; St. pad. man ; G. Mann ; (iuth. man, father; Goth, fadar; ti. ra/er. pater, mother; *.i. Mutter, mater, son; G. Sohn; Uoth. Sunns; St. sunn, filius, daujrhter; Goth, "i dnuhtar; G. /)och-> fiUa, /('»■ ; St. duhitri, I brother; Goth. 6ro-| t/inr ; ii. Bruder ; > frater, St. bhrntri, \ sister; (ioth.,9t'(Var; 1 G. ikhwester ; St. ^ soror, svasn, Latin. homo huminis; Lioth. gnmtt, vir ; A.^. u-er; Celt. Jear, f avBpiifno^. \a.vrip ; St. nri. n-aTijp ; St. pUri. y.r\-rqp \ St. matri. Buyarffp. \ clansman). uncle ; G. Onkei, aunt; G. TbrUe; Ft.} tante, J nephew ; G. Ke^Te, } niece ; G. Nichte, J boy (G. Bube, pro-"| viue.), > girl. \ maid ; G. Magd; Goth. viagalhs, virgo, III. Pronouns: I ; G. ich; Goth, ik, ego; C. me, mi, me; G. viich; Goth. viik, me, thou : Goth, thu ; G. du, tu, thee; (1. dich ; Guth. thuk. te, we; Goth, veis; G.~ tcir, ye ; St. yvyam ; G. ■ihr, he, she; G. er, sie ; Goth, sa/i, is, so, hie, sui (reflex.), it; G. es; that; Goth. l/ia(u, id. who, what (G. wer, u-as), qiii, quod, who? what? G. werf u-a.s f Goth.iroj .*" u^a f quis f whether? (ob3.);Goth. uaihar t uler t IV. Cardinal nurabera : f patruus, 1 uvunculus, I am it a, \ matertera, fnepos,l'i;,h/," \»«P"^. J meaning, \puer, \ (St. ptdni [puelta,] = son), a5cA^^. \ aScA^idi). nos ; C. ni, vos; Goth, jus, quid f irapOivov. cyui, tytav ; St. oham. cV^tMc ') St. md, ffii, TV, Tiii'Tj ; St. tvam. ffi, Te; St. tva. {^fi.«tc (vJi, dual); St. nau. fvfific (o'4'<^( dual); \ St. ram, (t obs.) iv. 09, o; St. yah. Ti9 ; Ti ; St. kafi. irdrepof ; St. katara. Gothic. German. English. Zatii Greek. Btnucan (from CorsscD). a ins. cm, iffii, zwei, thrri.t, drei, fidvor, rier, /itnf, /iiii/, sAcJis, scchs, sibun, sif^en. ahtan, acht, nitm, neun, toihun, sehn. one, tinus, two, duo, three, ires, fou r, quatuor, five, quinque, six, sex, seven, seplem, eight, octo, nine, ten, di <fd9, £vo, Tp«t9, Satukrit. ^eka ) ^Uleb. }eca or un-. I echad), > dva, teis. iri, tri-. TeTTapt^,chtiittr, cbuar-. wftrre, paiichan, cain-orcvin'. shaxh, sees- or sfs-. saptan, se/u-OT-^eAtu-. ,, c uhlar-nthtar-, <^^^^\ titar-orvtan-. navnn, ««-. dasan, lecu-. ainli/, ei/f or elf,c]i:YCn,undecim , ei-fitifa, ekudasn, tesne-eca. 7iovem, decern. cirrd, OKTW, 2e'Ka, tvalijf, ziv6/f, " twclve,duo</ec(m,6w5cKa, dvasada, tesns-teis. Interesting facts maybe gathered from the.^c tables, and from similar ones which our space does not allow us to in- troduce here ; as that a generic word in one language may brcomo specific in another; as Gr. fiijp, Eng. deer; G. Ifmifl, Eng. hound; Lat. dif/itns, Fr. (fottjt, Eng. tor; that in sumc instances the English or the English and the Ger- man retain an old form lost to the Latin; as Gr. opo</»o9, r<vf»/V Gr. irdTov, pttth: G. P/nd; that in some cases, where the word is generally preserved, the modern form may be nearer to the Sanskrit than to the classical form; as Gr. ovott.a', \jXtX. nomen : G. Xante; Fng. name; St. nutiinn : (ir. ij&v^; Lat. auavig; Eng. siccct; St, evUdu; and that there arc interesting cases of change of moaning ; as (tf. wdrTos = sea; Eng. /joh/:/; Lat. niarc = sea: Eng. mfrv. a lake : lleb. elcph ^ a,xi ox: Gr. eAe.^a9 = nn elephant; Gr. icoirpos = a wild-boar, which seerns to be the Lat. coper, a goat, as well as apcr, a wild-boar: and that pronouns and numerals arc the least variable elements in language. Certain languages of Italy, the Oscan, Umbrian. Celtic, Mcssapian, and Etruscan, have affinities to the old Latin more or Ie?s close, and i)robably in this mdcr, and these languages have substantially the same alphabet with it. The remains of the Sabine and Oscan belong to a period when the Saliincs had mixed themselves up with the con- quered Ausonians.and had learned their language; of this we have certain specimens, therefore properly called r^a- bello-Oscan. The most important of these arc the Hantine Ttihh, the Cipptis AhcUanim, and the Tabht o/ Aj/nmie. The Hnntino Table, now in the Museo Borbonico, is a bronze tablet found in 171*3 at Gppido. on tho borders of Lucania. and called Tabula Bantina from tho name Bnuftre in tho inscription, which seems to refer to the neighboring LATIN LANGUAGE. 1665 city of liftntin in Apulia. The Cipnus Abcllanus, a fltonc tablet, w:is moved fruiu Avellii Veccuia to the muilern vil- Iai;e of this name iu l(»,S6. and there used as a dourstep till iu 1740 it was noticed and removed to the museum of Nttla. The lironxe tablet of Agnone was so called from the place near which it was found in 1848. Among these re- mains wc find the following: uaiai ~ arso, a mm ft i ^ ma-tri (comp. Ileb. em ), mit — al, antcr^ inter, com = cum (prit'p.), dckittjftioi -- dictario, <iiovei — Jovi, diumpniH = lymphis, thtrad — extra, eatud — esto, horto = Imrtura, int ^ est, Av(M = civis, //*/a/oi"« = legatis, /("i*fVurf = liccto^ m(ij*« = magis (comp. Fr, mui'i* and It. wai"), nep = nee, ncque, «f = ne, paterei = patri, 7)011 =cura {i. e. quuui), pim zj= que, prti = ftT'Ji, pntter = prujter, naa/itom — sacrum, eenatein = senatus, 8vai = si, triom = terra, vium -^ viam. The relics of I'mbrian arc contained on. seven tables in a state of perfect preservation. They were discovered in 1444 in a subterranean chamber at La Sehicggia, near the ancient city of /(/ucium, now (luhhiu or Cijithio, and hence styled the I'jui'iuc or Euijubinr Tables. Iguvium lay at the foot of the .'Vpeniiines, near the Via Flaniinia. and is known to have been an old Umbrian town ; this circumstance is the foundation of the belief that these tables are specimens of the L'mbrian tongue. Tliey relate chiefly to matters of religion, and are written, some in Umbrian or in Etruscan, and others iu U<unan characters. Lepsius infers that the former were written not later than a. r. c. 400, and the latter cir. A. V. r. 6.>0. The L'mbrian, being subjected to disturbing causes not uiilike those wliich at a later period afl'ected the Latin, exhibits some of the characteristics of the Uomance l'in;^iies. Wo find the ending -« for -nm ; 9 and d final arc constantly dropped; there is a tendency to substitute liquids for mutes ; and o is softened to h. Kxamplea of Umbrian words are : o^<'r = ager, ahtu = actutum, af/a = albtis, under = inter, aia ~ ara, nr<,'t"»= avibus, hcnci = venieg, dicom = dicere, eit - est, e^tii = esto, far— far, /utu — fatum./crnie — ferina,/trM — facito, /ra/cr = frater, pater = pater, i/e = ibi, kventm- = quaestor, mann ■= manus, mentrn — magistcr (comp. It. mnentro), main = magis, ncp — noc, ncque. nuntrn and Home ^ nonion, namer = uumcrus, one ^ ore, pir -z nvp.jirc, ptiplna — populus, rca = res, xnfcrc — sacrum, ncnt — sunt, *r/"=^ sues, «c»iia'= cena, tujh ~ ta- bula (comp. Fr. tdble), tra ~ trans, nri7*iim = cum ore (with this kitm enclitic comp. mecuiHf etc.; It. mcco, etc.). While the relation of the Celtic to the early Latin is very obscure, yet there is reascjn to belie\ e that the relation was important in earlier, as wc kno^v it to liave been in later, times. The Celts had preceded all other races in the west- ward movement : they arc mentioned even by Herodotus ns living beyond the I'illars of Hercules, and they had filled .the Transalpine plain jirobably soon after the time of the Tarquins. There must have been a substratum of (,'elts in Italy at a very early period: for ancient authorities assert their connection with the Uiubrians, and this fact is in- dicated by the name of tlieir country, UmhrUt, and of their chief river, Cmhro, compared with Jlumhrr, t'l/mri, and the like. The Celts arc known also to have occupied the neighboring Liguria. A great authority, tSchlcichor, is of the opinion that the Celtic ami the Latin were more closely con- nected in pre-histr»rie times than the Latin and the (ireek. We subjoin a eomparativc list of a few out of the many Celtic words connected with the Latin ; and thou,:;b, as wo have saiil above, the priority of the one to the other cannot be made out, they present an element sometimes only ob- scurely related to the Grcck^ and sometimes quite inde- pendent of it : «rVe-^ alius, ar — ad (cf. ar in arbiter, arcesso, etc.), nrbha — arvuin, arch -^ area, arm or arr — anna, cahit = cantus, canrri = cantor, car — amicus (comp. crtriiJ<), cnua — caseus, ctaidtb - gladius, cm — cruor, cimt = cutifl, dant or dtnit - dens dentis, din ^ deus, dii: or diit - dies, /aiih = vaies, frar or r/rir ^ vir, Jin = finis, furch ^ fuTca, fjarin ^gravis, tadcn ^ latro, lahn = lux legie, larhd or /ait ^ htc lactis, Inch --^ laeus. me or mi -^ ego, me, mo- uadh -- mons montis, nmr or mitir more, ncad -■- nidufl. Ml ^ DOS, noeth or nockd - nudus, nitmcrui — nuinihir, ober ~ opernri, 01 = ovis, on? =- ursus, our, nur, or or ---- aurum, ubh -= ovum, pain -- panis, pan quando, piom - plum- bum, jtor ^ puer, rt'y or rtiy rex regis, r«i7A — rota, «mcc -^ sacer, itain stannum, tarhh taurus, tc or ti - tu, to, tir -- terra, tra trans, tn^j ^ duco. The Alessapians or lapygians were settled in Iho S. of Italy. Scanty fragments of their ilialect are founti pretty frequently in the Terra d'<Hranto ; they are in (Jn'ok letters, and almost always written from left to right. This dialect seems to have preserved Iho Lithuanian elements with little change: and subjected to no influences but that of the (ireek colonists, into whose idiom it was rapidly absorbed, it may bo regarded as a pure reiiinant of the old Italian. Sonic Messapian words that have come down to ns with their meanings are : irai^c = panis, ^pivho^ (whence /irumtiHiitm) 3E ccrvus (comp. Litb. brvdit — elk), fiavftia ■-= domus (coiup. Vol.. II. — 10;, G. bnucn = to build, and Eng. boircr); and among the words iu the inscriptions we find IN©I = inde, and MOHKo:i ^ i^farcus. I The Etruscans were called, by the Greeks, Tyrrheni and Turseui : by the Romans, Tusci and Etrusci : and by them- selves, liasena or Kasenna. According to Herodotus, the Tyrrheni were originally Lydians, who during a grievous famine sought a new home, and under Tyrsenus came to the country of the Umbriaus (*Om^pi.koc). which was thence called after him Ti/mruia. All that modern research is as yet able to say of their ori;jin is, that they were a foreign people that came by sea, and that they were akin to nations of Greece and Asia Minor. Their language, which has been preserved in a great number of inscriptions on monu- ments and fictile vessels, has exercised the ingenuity of scholars with small results as yet. The longest of these inscriptions is one of forty-six lines from Perugia. Their al))habct is the medium through which the Oscans and Umbriaus seem to have deriveil their characters. The in- scriptions aro written in almost all cases from right to left, according to the Semitic and the most ancient Greek cus- tom. Various theories on the origin of the Etruscan lan- guage have been propounded. Dr. Donaldson has at- tempted to prove its Scandinavian or Low German cha- racter ; Padre Tarquini and others, its Semitic afiinitics ; but at present all that can be asserted with confidence is the Pelasgic or old (Jreek character of the language. AVhat was wanting to enable scholars to form a certain or highly probable judgment was a critical examination of all the remains of the language ; and this the learned Corssen has happily now furnished us in his great work Utbir die Sprache die Etrunhcr (Lcipsic, 1874-76). Wo give the following specimens of Etruscan words: ocAr = ager, aypoc, antes — ventus, avt(io%^ auk = ac, atrium = atrium, «ri7 = £cvuin, aiwr, baltca — balteus, belt, cana = cantor, cn/)ra= capra. r«««j'« ^ cassis ; rtcr ^ mors (comp. kjjp), c/nn = filius vel filia (comp. Gael. f7">i), r/niHjms ^ equus (comp. the Homeric in-TrofiaMos), esmi — snm (comp. St. asm! and Gr. ti/u'Ot hiHtcr — histrio, itiia = idus, lar ~ do- minus (comp. lar)^ mala -^ mains, urpoR — nepos, spend- thrift (Fcntun 9, 14), iimH -= sol iSabine, ausci), vcrnc — -nvp, Umbr. pir: and the following proper names: Alpnan = Albinus, Aplu = Apollo, Caiia = Caius, Mcnrva = Minerva, Hcrcfe = Hercules, Titr ^ Titus, Vipia -^ Vibia. 77ic Af/'fiabct. — The Semitic alphabet had originally 16 characters: the Oscan and the I'mlirian had 20 each; the Etruscan 19; and the old Latin, 1*1. The Etruscan letters seem to bo a modification of the (Jreek, with some new characters. The Italian alphabets from the first contained Y, H.'P, X. which were invented, or at least newly applied, by the (irceks. Put beside this Greek alphabet borrowed from the earliest Hellenic settlers, there was a later set of Greek characters, which the Latin derived from the Greeks of Cuma?, probably under the Tarquins, when there were special relations between Home and Cuinie. Put the Humans, showing in this their jiraotical tendency, sup- pressed letters for which they had no sound.-', as ie>, «!•, X (eh); they mostly dropped K as unnecessary, altered the shape of C for convenience, added Y and restored Z. For some time C represented both the medial (/.) and the tenuis guttural {;/), and then G was introduced by the frcedman Sj). Carvilius (cir. a. r. c. ;'i2.'i), th<uigli Gains and (inteuB were to the last indicated by the abbreviations C. and CN, In Cicero's time the number of letters was 21 (/>-■ Itiimum Xalnra,'!, IKJ), but before his death Y {}j) was intro<luced to transcribe (ireek words, and Z was re- stored, and cla.>»8ieal Latin confined itself to the use of the following 2.1 letters: ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPQRS T V X Y Z, J and U being mere modern devices to discrim- inate between the powers of 1 and V respectively as vowels and as consonants. The Greeks retained the names of the old Pho'iiician hieroglyphics, but the Uomaiis dropped them, and named the signs, mneli as we do, by their sounds. y/c aid /jiitiii. — We have some interesting remains of the old Latin, considered as contemporary and akin to the old Italian dialects, such as it was before (ireek civilization and culture had begun seriously to work upon it. For tbo earlier centuries we have only a few brief inscriptions of religious ami legal import. As we approach the Punio wars the inscriptions become more numerous and complete, but we are here near the time when the Latin language began to be inoililled or to lose its proper characteristics under the pressure of (ireek influence, and to be transformed into the idiom of the Augustan age. (Jne of the most important and ancient specimens of the genuine Uoiinin language is the f\trmrn Fnitrum Arrafiumf the S(»ng of the Arval Prothers, discovered on marble tab- lets in 1777. while workmen were digi;ing out the founda- tions of the sacristy of .Sf. Peter's at Home. These tablets are probably not older than A. u. r. ;'>:tj (n. c. 219), but there ia every reasoa to believe that the song itself is the 1666 LATIN LITERATURE. same that was sun;* in the earliest ages of Rome. Every word of this ancient hymn can be made out with a high degree of certainty. We here find enon (ace.) = nos, with which we may compare the G. tni* ; Lfmen — Lares ; *i'n» for sinas; ndvncnpit for ad vos capite, which may be illus- trated by the usage of comedy in after times; berbcr for verbere or verbera; and (inUn for solis, with which we may compare <r€Aa«, ^Ato?. Two relics of a similar character have been preserved by Cato. Further discoveries relating to the f'ratres Arvahn were made in 1S66 at the fourth mile- stone of the Via Portuensis, consisting of 72 lines contain- ing the acts of the order i \. f. c. 754). Several fragments of the Salian Hymns also have been handed down by Varro. Fragments of the oldest Koraan laws have been preserved by Varro, Pliny, and Festus, but the most copi- ous as well as the most important are the remains of the /hioficrim Tahitfir, the Twelve Tables. These were engraved on tablets of bronze, au'i publicly set up in the Oomitium. A. u. c. 304 (b. c. 449); and it may he added here that the Romans had no other liody of codified law till the time of Justinian, in the sixth century after Christ. Beside the tablets just mentioned, they have been preserved chietlj by Cicero, Varro. hivy, Pliny, Festus. Aul. Gellius, Gains, and Ulpian. Thfi Kpituphfi <>/ the Scipivs (a. v. r. 456-588) are very important and interesting specimens of early Latin. They are examples of a custom introduced from Greece, are the earliest dated inscriptions of anycon- siilcrable length, and are very useful in settling points of archaic quantity. In these documents, m in the accusative and d in the ablative singular are generally wanting, but each occurs once : « in the nominative is sometimes added, sometimes omitted; and consul is written both coiwi^ and cdHol. .Some words are spelt indifferently with o and i/, but the use of r between two vowels, for the earlier f, is invari- able. The inscription of the Cuhimna fiotitratn, contained on a bronze tablet found at the foot of the Capitol in 1565, commemorates the naval victory of C. Duilius, a. u. c. 494 (b. r. 260), This preserves many archaic forms, such as d in the ablative, C for G, and single instead of double con- sonants, Ritschl, however, suspects that this inscription suffered a restoration, and that with forms that did not belong to the period of the victory. To these may be added the Senntun (^onsuftntn dr /iaccfiaunfifniH, belonging to A. r. c. 668 (b. r. 186). and found in Calabria in 1640; and the Lrx Tkoria de A'jria. or .Agrarian Law of Sp. Thorius, passed, according to Rudorff, a. u. c. 643 {b. r. Ill), which presents a specimen of tho formal written language of the age immediately preceding that of Cicero. Chaules Short. Tjatinliiteratnre. The literature of Rome is less orig- inal and ooinpietc than that of (Jreeoc, with which it stands most closely connected, but it can hardly be said to be less important. For Roman law everywhere underlies the con- stitutions of Europe: the language of Unme is the parent of several of )ier chief tongues ; her literature has always been the chief study of the schools ; she has given to Chris- tianity its nomenclature: and from her great power of assimilation and adaptation she has preserved to us what- ever was most valuable of the Greeks, and probably of all other nations with which she came in contact. The literary life of the Romans nmy be divided into three periods: (I) The Archaic Period, beginning A. r. c. h\\ (n. c. 240)^ when Livius Andronicus exhibited tho first regular drama in Latin at Rome; (2) the Mid«Ue Period, the Ciceronian and the Augustan age, which begins a. i'. c. 671 (b. r. 83); (3) The Imperial Age, beginning A. n. 14. The Archaic f*erimi. — The earliest literature proper of the Romans, as of other nations, was poetic, and the earliest author Livius Andronicus, a. u. c. 470-550. He trans- lated the Odt/Hsci/ of Homer into Saturnians. and also ren- dered from the Greek tragedies, imitating the easier Greek metres. Cn. Nsevius began to exhibit plays a. r. r, 519, and with more originality than Anclronicus. T. Maccius PInulus fc, A. r.c. 500-5701 was a prolific writer of comedy. Of the plays ascribed to him. twenty-one were considered certainly genuine, of which we have twenty, more or less complete, and nineteen others were probably genuine. He borrowed bis plots from tho Greeks, but wirkerl them up antl with grt-at ability. His measures are skilfully handled, and sometimes with harmonious effect ; his diction is of great importance in the history of Latin. His plays long main- tained their popuhirity, nnd have been extensively studied and imitated in modern times. Q. Knniiis (a. v. r, 515- 585) had a higher social and political position than the literary men that ]»reeed(d bim. and was the first to attain tho full privileges of a Roman citizen. Cicero was very fond of him, and largely (uioted bim in his writings, and Horace styles him Patrr Enniui as the founder of Latin poetry. His greatest work was the Atnutfra, or history of his nation, from the arrival of ,Kneas in Italy down to the poet's own time. He also wrote tragedies, mostly after Euripides, and Satnnr — ^(hat is, probably, miscellaneous poems in various measures. We possess them only in frag- ments. M. Pacuvius (e. a. u. c. 534-6221, the nephew of Ennius, was a painter and a poet. There are extant frag- ments of his tragedies imitated from Sophocles ; we have the titles of twelve of his plays. To this period belong Statius Ciecilius, an able imitator of the Greek New Comedy, and Lusrius Lavinius, the rival of Terence, against whom nil the Terentian Prologues are directed except that of the /fc- ct/ra. P. Terentius (a. r, r. 569-595) at an early age came from Carthage to Rome, where he was a slave of the sen- ator Terentius, by whom he was educated and set free. He was intimate with Scipio Africanus the Younger, and hence the rumor that Scipio was the author or elaliorator of the plays of Terence. We have of him six comeilies, and prob- ably these are all that he wrote. They were great favorites with the ancients, as they have been with the moderns. He has not the versatility of Plautus, neither has he his extrav- agance; his verse is not so varied, hut it is more melodi- ous ; his language is truly Roman, and his phrases often reappear in the best works of the best period of the litera- ture. His plays also have often been imitated in the modern drama. Roman prose, like English, was reached by an in- termediate step, the earliest Roman historians emjiloying the Greek language. These were Q. Fabius Pictor (c. a. v. c. 525) and L. Cincius Alimentus. M. Porcius Cato (a, r. c. 520-605) was the first real Latin jirose-writcr. Jlis writings wore numerous and various. He wrote ()rii/hie» in seven books, an account of the Italian tribes, aud pub- lished instructions on agriculture, health, and eloquence, hut only his Oe Be Ruttticn has been preserved entire. There were orators of this period, as Fabius Maximus. ftL Cornelius Cethegus. the Gracchi, and others ; and also jurists, as Sextus JEliue. who wrote the first Roman treatise on law, L. Attius or Accius (a. r. c. 584-c. 650) wrote tragedies after the Greek, and dealt also with pure Roman subjects. He wrote other works, and resembled Ennius in the varied character of his writings, but he was more pol- ished and accurate in style. I^. Afranius (b. c. a. i:, c. 605) wrote Fahultc Tixjatfe, of which we have the titles. He combined the popular manner of Plautus with the elegance of Terence. C. Lucilius (c, A. v. c. 606-651) was the father of satire proper (//or. S, ii. 1 and 10), His writings of this class were numerous, of which we now have upwards of SOO fragments, very valuable in the study of early Latin. An important literary work of Sulla's time, and one much copied and used in the Middle Ages, has come down to us in the Rhetorica ad //^rrjuM'KHi, a complete manual adapted from Greek s<»urces. It is by an unknown hand. The Middle Heriod.~T\\\'s is the Golden Age of Latin literature, and may be subdivided into two periods, in the first of which, the Ciceronian, prose culminated; aud in the second, the Augustan, poetry was pre-eminent. The Ciceronian Arje. — M. Terentius Varro (a. r. c. 638-727). styled by Quintilian vir /{nmanomm entditissi- miis, of ancient family and senatorial rank, was an exten- sive writer, versatile in matter and in form. Tho total number of his works was seventy-nine, of which four were written in verse. His prose writings embraced literature, eloquence, history, jurisprudence, grammar, philosophy, geography, husbandry. au<l other subjects. M. Tullius Cicero (a. v. c. 648-711) was born near Arpinum in Latium; his father was a Roman knight. He was endowed with great talents, had iron industry, was kind and gene- rous in his disposititm. and cherished the loftiest aims. His tone of mind qualified him to become the interpreter and transplanter of Grecian culture and refinement. He was ft true patriot and full of good intentions, hut was without calmness and that courage which might have carried him safely through all the dangers and distrac- tions which beset bim. Cicero possessed, to a marvel- lous degree, that Roman power of appropriating and as- similating foreign ideas to which we have adverted. He thus enrichecl Roman literature by introducing into it sev- eral new departments not previously attempted. Ho be- came the creator of a standard prose so refined and so suited to the genius of the Latin language that it was never afterwards surpassed. The real business of Cicero's life appears in his legal and ]>olitical speeches, and hero his ability shows to the greatest advantage; the know- ledge and experience gained in this career were turned to the highest account in the rhetorical treatises which ho composed toward the end of his life. His later composi- tions also included political science, ethics, the philosophy of religion, and theoretic philosophy. Reside all this, his extensive personal connections and his social dispositirui led to a voluminous correspondence. Of his speeches, fifty- seven have come down to us; we have twenty in fragments, and we know of thirty-three more delivered by him, mak- ing in all 110, Of these, the most famous are those against Catiline, for Milo, against Verrcs, and the second against LATIN LITERATURE. 1667 Antony {Ttic. Dint. <le Or., 37; Jiw.. Sat. 10. 125 teq.). In llie case of Verrcs. Cicero prosecutcil, iind llurtensius, bis great rival, delcndcd ; nnd Cicero by his success became head of iho bar, icj- jmlirii'rum. Tbo extant rhetorical works of Cicero are — tiluttirica. or Ve /nrrttiionr, an im- inaluro work ; Vt- Oniiurr, written A. i'. c. 699, composed, after the manner of Plato, in a dialogue, and between the two greatest orators of the precetliug period, L. Crassus and M. Antonius. and several others ; this work is one of the most elaborate productions of Cicero, varied in its contents and graiiil and el"nuent in stylo ; De Vluria Oratvrilnis, or /inilint, a history of Komau eloquence; Oiulur ml .M. lirulnm, Cic- ero's /<!•/ iptn-d on rhetoric, giving his ideal of an orator: I'arliiiinn Oinlnriir, a sort of catechism of rhetoric: Tnp- ic.i ml V. Trcbuliiim. an explanation of Aristotle's ToiriKi, written down from memory during a sea-voyage— a mar- vellous feat; l)e U/jlimo Ij'nirre ((rrttonim, forming the in- troduction to his translation of Demosthenes' and /Eseliines' speeches for and against Ctesiplion. which translation is lost. The four collections of letters that have come down to us, if we count in ninety addressed to Cicero, contain alto- gether Hti4. and are a treasure of contemporaneous history, and on some matters the sole authority extant. They con- sist of— .■!</ FmnillureH, 10 hooks (A. i:. r. 091-711); Ait Allicum, 12 books (a. y. r. 6S6-71 1 ) ; .Id Qniiiliim Frnlrem, 3 books I A. 1-. c. fl91-7llU): .id M. Ilnilnm. 2 books (ques- tioned by Markland. Lond.. 1745: defended by C. !•'. Her- man, liiitting.. 1844|. Cicero studied philosophy originally to perfect himself as an orator, and in his later years wrote on the subject partly as a matter of ambition, and partly as a solace amid his troubles and in the thoughtfulness of declining life. Admirable as the matter sometimes is, and important as it sometimes is from the circumstance that it is our only means of knowing the system or view in ques- tion, the form is scarcely less admirable (»r important. Be- ing the first Uoman ivriter who treateil philosophical sub- jects in a clear and elegant manner, he created the philo- sophical stylo in Latin. The following is a list of his extant works in this department: Ih- llrpnbtirii. 6 books, of which scarcely a third has rcachecl us : l)f I^ptfilntn, probably in 6 books originally, of which we now possess only three and some fragments: I'nrndti.ni, an exposition of six striking maxims of the Stoics: ('ununliitin, on his daugh- ter's death, of which only fragments exist; Huriemim, on the praise of philosophy, now fragmentary: l)c t'inilma Unuorum €t Miitm-nm, in i} books, a compilation on the doctrines of the Greek sects concerning the Supreme (iood and Evil, perhaps the most carefully elaborated of all his phitos^iphical works: .\cmtcmicn,ov doctrines of the Acad- emv, originallv in 2 books, afterwards rewritten in 4 books; we have now the second hook of tlii> 1st ed., and of the 2d ed. the first part of the first ami some fragments ; TiiHrn- /.(ii/r l)lM/iu(rttiaiirii, in 5 books. On certain metaphysical and moral piints; TimriiM, a free rendering of Plato's dialogue of this name: fjr Itrnriim .\iiinni, in 3 books, mainly ex- crTpts from the (ireek philosophers on this subject: Cnlo Miijiir, or praise of r)ld age. containing materials drawn from I'liilo. .Xenophon. and others, with a eari'fnl delineation of Cat'i's character, finished in style and important in matter; /)c lUriiialione, in 2 books, a supplement to (>'■ Ihnniin .Vdinrii : /<<■ Fnio, now in mutilated form, attacking the views of the Stoics and defending those of the Arademics ; Lrrliin, rir praise of friendship, largely ilrawn from lircek sources, composed in a highly interesting manner; />«■ titnrlii, in 2 books, read by Petrarch, but since lest; JJe OlTiriin, in 3 books, addressed to his son to form his morals, hastily written and praeti.al, containing some just an<l pro- foun.r views andeuliveni-cl by illustrations from Roman his- tory. In Iho ileparlment of jurisprudence he wrote lie Jim; Cieili, He inaile some attempts in history, as Cntiuiii-iitiiriitii Cr.B«iW<i(ii«.Viii'anil .4 </"iiV"Mi/.i, which arc lost. In poetry this groat prosi'-writer. like our .leremy Taylor, was liltli' more than a versifier, and only subjeefed himself to tlu' ridicule of the great poets, as Juvenal I.V.l^ lit. 124 x./.i and .Mar- tial (2. S9, 3 »<•</.). Cicero's freedman nnd friend. Tiro, sur- vived him, and published his orations and letters. C. Ju- lius l^iesar (a. I'. t\ B5I-71II| hail the most varied talents; he was second as an orator only to Ciceri>— was a historian, a grammarian, a great statesman and general. Ilf his literary works the most important has come down to us, Cnminrutnrii dp Itrtln liittliro, in 7 books, and Or ttrttn Cirili, in 3 books : and iifler his death the last year in Haul and the .Alexandrine. African, and Spanish wnr-^ werc> nar- raleil by his friends, the first two by A. Hirlins, aii.l Ihi' last two by some unknown hand. Ciesar's style is a model of simplicity, precision, and directness, with little rhetori- .■al nniainenl. Cornelius Nepos (c. A. r. c. 000-730). the friend of Cicero and .\llicus, and also of Catullus, was a somewhat voluminous writer of history and biography, but only a portion of his l)r Vlrii ///ii«fri/<ii« is extant. His style is graceful, hut deviates in some points from classic usage. T. Lucretius Cams (c. A. u. c. 656-699) in his l)e Neriim Saiiiru. in 6 books, treated of physics, of meta- physics, anil the Epicurean ethics, in imitation of Em|ic- docles and Ennius. This work is important as being the fullest exponent of the doctrines of Epicurus, and though written in an archaic style, it was composed with great mastery of thought and expression. He received little at- tention in his own age, but the Augustan poets admired and copied him. He has been fortunate in his treatment in modern times, having been edited by the great Lachmann (Berlin, 18all-00) anil by a consummate English scholar, Mr. Monro (Camb.. 1800-73). C. Sallustius Crispus (A. u. f. 667-720) devoted the last years of his life to history. Of his works we have liit/iim <_'ttfitiiiai-iitin and liiUum Jiiijnr- tliinum complete; of his Hinloriir, in 5 books, we have only fragments. He was the first Roman historian who wrote according to fixed rules. Like his great model, Thucydides, ho was sententious and concise, soinetimes even to obscuri- ty. He deviated from the usages of his time, perhaps largely through hatred of Cicero, and nflTcctcd archaic dic- tion. ' C. Valerius Catullus (a. u. e. 007-700), called by TeufTel the greatest lyric poet in Latin, and by Niebuhr the greatest poet Rome ever possessed, except perhaps some few of the earlier ones, followed at first the track of the Alexandrine poets, but afterwards developed rich lyrical talent which was ripened by love and a bitter cxperieuoo of life. The 116 pieces that have come down to us refer to such a variety of topics, are composed in so many different styles nnd metres, that it is hardly possible to classify them. Some are strictly lyrical, one is a legendary heroic, four may be called elegies, and several epigrams. His genius adorned whatever it touched, but it is every way to be a matter of profound regret that many of his poems are de- filed by gross coarseness and sensuality. P. Vergilius Maro (a. !-•.<• 684-735), by way of eminence the Roman poet, was alike distinguished for ability, learning, delicacy, and amiability. His extant poems are. ten Kilinjn or bucolics, imitations and partly translations of Theocritus : (imnjha, in 4 books, in which he partly availeii himself of his own experience in youth and p.irtly drew ou the lircek writers, especially on Xenophon and Hesiod, and partly on the Roman writers Dn llilni» /tnillrig ; the masterly diction of this work makes it the most perfect Roman poem as a work of art ; the .'Kmid, in 12 books, on which Vergil spent Iho last ten years of his life, and dying regarded as in an unfinished state. In this poem, which has taken its place among the great epics of the world. Vergil partly availed himself of IJreek models, and partly relied on his exten- sive studies in Italian legends, history, and localities. Bo- side these undoubtedly genuine works, we have several Viirmhiii .Miiiiini. )ierhaps wruugly attributed to him. As to the form of his name, the in.scriptions of the time of the Republic and of the first centuries of the Christian era are in favor of Vcriiitiiiu ; the earliest dated instance of the use of the form ViniiliuK belongs to the fifth century after Christ. (J. llnra'lius Elaccus (A. n. c. 089-740) has shared with Vergil the greatest popularity among all the Roman poets. The branch of poetry he first cultivated was satire ; of this we have two books or eighteen pieces; his A'/mi/ioi l.iliiv, of about the same dale, a sort of satire of a inoro special character, contains seventeen pieces. He aller- wards resolved to transplant Aleieus and Sappho into Ro- man soil, and the result is the three first books of the Ciir- miiiii or odes, to which he added a fourth after an interval of about six years. These are the most elaborate of all his works, 'fho K/iininlit. 23 in number in 2 books, aro of the same general character as the Sulhii. but being wriltin in the maturity of his learning and ability, have higher qualities ami arc in a more perfect form; the third of the second book, the .lr« /'i,<fiVri. treating of lesthetio questions in the Ureek style, is the most fumoos of the Epistles. Albius Tibullus (c. A. f. r. 700-73.')) followed the Alexandrine pools in his choice of annitory subjects; his representations are nalural and his style very simple. Wo have four books of /■.'/■'/iV" under his name, of which the third is by an imitator of Tibullus; Lygdainus is his real or ficlitious designation. Sextus Propertius (c. a. f. c-. 70.1 7311) was also an elegiac poet, ond a disciple of the Alexandrines, learned and often obscure, but lively and original. Ho has left five bnoks of Klii/im. P. ttvidius Naso (A. t'. r. 71 1-770). the most pridific of the great poets of Riilne. was carefully bred as a pleader, but from natural bent turned off into the path of poetry. The following are his works now extant ; Umiidit, 2\ letters in elegiac verse, feigned to have been written by Indies or chiefs in the heroic age ; l.ihri Amiirum, 49 elegies. chicHy amatory pieces: .4i» Amnlnriii, «. didaclic jioem in elegiac verse; Urmrdiii ,4iio.ii«, of Ihu same charailer and form ; .Meia- mor/iAi.ncoii l.ihri AT., a collection of Iho most remarkable fables of classic mythology, in dactylic hexameters; /'«»- (oriiiii I.iliri VI., an oxiiosilion in elegiacs of tlio festivals in 1668 LATIN LITERATURE. tlie Roman calendar: Tri/itium Lihri V. and Kx I*outit Lihri / r,, the former consisting of 50 elegies and tlie latti-r of (fi, d('Scril)ing his sufferings on his way to exile and while he was in exile; /fci's. a poem in elegiacs written against an enemy whose name is concealed : Nalieutityni, a fragment in hex- ameters on fishes. Ovid had a most fertile mind, possessed great niiis'tcry of form, and treated his subjects with inim- itable ease and grace, and had he been as retined as Vergil, he would have rivalled liim in fame. T. Ijivi\is of Patnvium (a. u. r. 095-770) was the most important prose-writer of the Augustan ago. He wrote on philosophy and on rhet- oric, but his great work was his .!/> Vrbc Confiita Libri, or history of Rome from the foundation of the city to A. v. r. 745, in 142 books, of which only 35 are extant, being the first decade and books 21—45 ; but we have a summary, I'vruH-hir, of most of the lost portion. For his matter ho drew especially on Polybius and the later annalists; but his manner, eminently natural and lively, of relating events and of depicting moods and characters, was his own. His diction was wanting in strict classical Latinity, and its provincial characteristics were designated as piitnvinitas (Qnint. 15, 55). Justinus, who, with Florus, probably livc<i in the age of the Antonines, abridged the Vniveranl Jfixton/ of Trogus, a work in 44 books, written in the ago of Livy. Vitruvius Pollio composed (c. A. v. c. 740) Ife Arrhitectura Lihri ,V., and dedicated it to Augustus. The Imperial Ar/e, the Silver Aje of Roman Literature. The Firnt Centnrif, A. D. 14-117. — M. Vclleius Patorculus (a. n. 30) treated the history of the Empire in his abridg- ment of Roman history in two books. His words are clas- sical, but his style is affected and pompous. To the same period belongs Valerius Maximus, whose Fnctomm et Bic- tornm Mfmorabtlium Libri IX., addressed to Tiberius, 18 a compilation made without, taste or discrimination. A. Cornelius Cclsus, of the time of Nero, wrote on various practical matters, and composed an encyclopjedia, of which the eight books treating of medicine alone have reached us. Phasdrus, partly under Tiberius and partly under his suc- cessor, published his book ni^ ^EHopean Fabhn in good iam- bic senarii, and in good literary style. L. Anua-us Seneca (c. A. u. c. 750-A. D. f)5), the most brilliant figure of his time, in genius and culture may be compared with Ovid. His works were on a great variety of subjects, but composed with an aim to brilliancy rather than accuracy. Many of them are known only in fragments or by quotations. Among those extant may be mentioned EpiHtnls: mi Lucil- imuy Apocolocifntogix, a satire upon Claudius, and De lie- nejiciin. We have also as attributed to Seneca t-ertain epi- grams and tragedies. The latter, eight in number, agree in the main with one another and with the prose works of Seneca. Q. Curtius Rufus, under Claudius, wrote Hintoriif Afexandri Maf/ui, in 10 books, (he two first of which arc lost. He is rather a rhetorician than a historian, and in his style somewhat resembles Seneca. Contemporary with Seneca was Columella of Gades, who wrote De lie linitira, in 12 books. Under Caligula or Claudius, Pomponius Mela wrote his JJe Chronofjraphia^ in 3 books, the earliest geog- raphy we possess. A. Persius Flaecus (a. d. 34-62) wrote some compositions that have been lost, and six satires, which are mostly reflections on tenets of the Stoics, with extensive employment of Horatian words and phrases. M. AnnasuH Lucanus, a friend of Persius and nephew of Sen- eca (A. D. 30-()5), wrote on various subjects in prose and verse. We have hi? Pharaalia^ in 10 books, an unfinished epic on the civil war between Porapey and Caesar. It is historically accurate, but (he style is artificial and pathetic. possessing great beauties and great defects. In Noro's time arose that ethical novel which we have under the name of Petronius Arbiter. Originally a largo work, it is now a heap of fragments, the largest of which is the Centt TrimftlrhioniH. C. PHuius Secundus, Pliny the Elder (a. T). 23-7'J), an officer and inspector of finance, was also a person of great and diverse literary activity. Of his works there is extant only his Aatitratia I/iittorin, in 37 books, a sort of cneyclopa'dia of natural science. It was compiled from a great number of authors, and is admirable for its extent, but bears marks of haste, and is composed in an uneven style. It long enjoyed great authority. The only poet of the lime of Vespasian that has come down to us is Valerius Flaecus, whose Artjonautim. in 10 books, is an imitation of Apollonius of Rhodes. The style is pretentions and the phraseology mostly derived from Vergil. Under I»o- mitian wrote C. Silius Italicus (a. n. 25-101). originally a )>Dlitieian, then a literary man. He wrote the /^/fHiVrt. apoem in 17 books, deriving his matter from Livy and Polybius. and in stylo imitating Homer and Vergil. At the same jicriod (c. A. i>. 45-'.MJ) lived P. Papinius Statius. His earliest and largest work was the TbrbaiH, in 12 hooks, drawing on Antimachus for material and following Vergil in form; he \oR his Arhi(/ein unfinished: his Si fvpr, in 5 books are very interesting, forming valuable sketches of the time. Mostly under Domitian also lived M. Valerius Martialis fc. a. d. 42-102) : we have by him fifteen books of ejtigrams, turning on the social life of Rome in those days, with all its grossnessand servility. Martial appears in these writings almost equal to Ovid in ease ami elegance of poetic form, but sinks quite below him in moral detrradation. M. Fabius Quintilianus (c. a. d. 3.)-il5) holds a high place among the prose-writers of this period. Educated at first for the bar, he afterwards became the most distinguished teacher of eloquence in Rome. He composed a work on the causes of the decay of oratory, which is lost ; we happily still possess his great work /nxtitutio Oratorio, in 12 books, on the complete training of the orator. This work is very valuable for its matter, and treats the subject in an inter- esting and judicious manner. Quintilian was sensitive to the faults of the diction of his period, and continually reverts to the earlier and better usage, never wearying of praising and recommending Cicero; but t^tiintilian's own style seems artificial and ungraceful to the admirers of that con- summate writer. Sextus .Tulius Frontinus (e. a. d. 40-103), a distinguished engineer, has left records of his experience and studies ; we have extant Strataf/riuatn, a work on tactics, and De Aqnig Vrbin Jioni/r, in 2 books, written in a concise and refined style. The most eminent poet of the time of Trajan is J). Junius Juvenalis (c. a. d. 47-1301, who turned from the study of oratory and the pursuits of wartothe study of poetry. We have by him sixteen satires, the last of which betray the infirmities and faults of age. The earlier satires depict the vices of Roman society in a manner always interesting, and sometimes horribly vivid. His style is concise, energetic, and always suited to his theme, only he indulges now and then in a flash of sarcas- tic wit even in his most grave passages. Among the prose-writers of the time of Trajan, the first place has been conceded to C. Cornelius Tacitus (c. A. D. 54-119). His extant works are Dia tot/us de Oratorihun, composed with a fulness and grace not found in Tacitus's other writings: Ajfriroia, a valuable biography of his father-in- law, reminding us by its manner now of Sallust, now of Cicero ; Oemnmia, written in a sympathetic spirit and with a high rhetorical coloring; //fsfonff, a narrative chiefly of the Flavian dynasty (a. p. 69-96), originally in fourteen books, of which only the four first and the first half of the fifth have come down ; Auuafen, or Ab ExcrnHn Dlri Autfu»ti, in 16 books, a history of A. D. 14-68, of which we now have only the first and the last third. His style is very peculiar; it is concise often to harshness, audacious in its irregularities, and withal of a poetic coloring; it is com- monly sententious, but on special occasions grand and son- orous, and then reminds us of the best periods rounded by the hand of Cicero. C. Plinius CflpciUus Seeundus, Pliny the Younger, nephew and adopted son of Pliny the Elder (a. It. 62-113). was a fluent, smooth, and interesting writer. We have of him the speech in which he returned thanks to Trajan for the consulate, commonly called Pane- ijip'icAot; Kpiotuhr, composed with a view to publication, in 9 books; and EpiaUds- Plinii et Trajant, in an unfin- ished state. The limit assigned to this article allows us to add scarcely more thau the chief names of the rest of the Im- perial l*eriod. Of the nevnud century of our era are Suetonius, the au- thor c)f the Lires of the Twelve Cfr&arn ; Florus. who wrote an abridgment of Roman history ; Terentius Scaurus, the grammarian; the historian Appian. who wrote in (Jreek; the jurists lUpius and Gains; the critic Aulus (lellius, au- thor of tho Shorten Attirir ; Appuleius. author of the Met- ftinorphonfH : Minucius Felix, whose Octavitts is tho earliest extant work of Christian Latin literature: Tertullian, a defender of Christianity ; Aeron and Porphyrion, the classic commentators: the Vrrnio ]'ctun of the Hible, at"tcrwards revised and called the Vnh/ata. In the third rt7tfuri/ we find the jurists I'lpian and Julius Paulus ; Cyprian, bish- op of Carthage, chiefly an apologist: Nonius the lexicog- rapher; Terentianus Maurus, a writer on metres: Ar- nobius. a Christian apologist, and Laetaiitius his pupil, the most elegant of all the Cliristian Latinists. To the fourth crutur)] belong the grammarians Victorinus and Donatus; Eutroj)iu8 the historian; tho theologian Hilary; the poet Ausonius: Damasus. one of the earliest writers of Chris- tian hymns; Ammianus the historian: the grammarian Servius ; St. Ambrose, whose hymns appnuieh classical perfection ; St. Jerome, the translator of the liible and re- viser of the earlier version : Prudentius. the greatest of the i'hristian poets: Claudiau, the last classic poet; and St. Augustine, the theologian, the greatest of tho Latin Fa- thers. This period, the period of decay, cannot well go beyond tho time of the philosopher Boethius, c. A. D. 500, and certainly not beyond the age of Justinian, under whom the great Corpus Juria was drawn up, in the middle of the sixth century, Cuables Shokt. LATI.NUS— LATROBE. I(j(i9 Lati'miSy a king of Latium, was, according to tho com- mon tradition, a son of Founu? and tho nymph Marien. and the father of Lavinia. whom he gave in mnrriajrr to ^iira?. But heside!^ this there were many other dificrcnt traditions concerninj; his descent and history. Lat'itude, on the earth, 18 the distance of a place from the equator measured on the meridian pa«?ing through the phice, and expressed in denominations of circular measure. To the ancient geographers the largest dimension of the known world was that which lay in the direction E. and W. Hence distances measured E. or W. from a meridian as- sumed as an axis of reference were called longitudes (Lat. Aiiiyr7if(/o, '* length "), and those measured in the transverse direction, latitudes (Lat. Inti'tuito, " breadth "). Geographi- cal latitude is the angle made by the vertical (or perpen- dicular to tho horizon) at the place and the plane of the equator: but as the earth is not truly spherical, this verti- cal is not usually coincident in direction with the radius drawn to the place from the earth's centre. Tho angle made by this radius with the plane of the equator is called the geocentric latitude. Geographical latituilc is also the angle made by tho horizon of the place (which is the plane touching tho earth at the (dace) and tho horizon or tangent plane of that point of the equator in which the meridian of the place cuts it: and as this last plane is necessarily parallel to the earth's axis, it follrtws that the latitude of a place is equal to the angle which its horizon makes with the earth's axis, and that the elevation of the pole above tho horizon is equal to the latitude of the place. Hence, if tliere were a star situated truly in the pole of the eeleslial sphere, the latitude of any place at whieh such star could be Been could be determined by the sintple observation of that star, correctifm having been made for the effects of refraction, aberration, and nutation. As the star called the j pole-star is not truly in the pole, wheu it is observed for i latitude further and more important correction is necessary i for its position at the time of observation relatively to the true pole. A meridian observation of any star or other celestial body, whose declination (distance from the equi- ' Doclial or celestial equator) at the time of observation is known, affords an easy means of determining latitude. Meridian observations of stars passing near the zenith fur- nish the most satisfactory results, being hardly perceptibly affected by refraction. Observations of celestial bodies out of the meridian may also, with proper auxiliary data, be used for ascertaining latitudes, the varying conditions pre- senting several distinct problems in spherical astronomy. Latitude in the heavens is tho distance, in angular mea- sure, of any celestial object from the ecliptic, or plane of the earth's orbit, measured on a secondary (that is, a circle perpendicular) to tho ecliptic. The latitude is geocentric if given as it would seem if observed from the centre of the j earth, and heliocentric if given in like mariner as if observed from the centre of the sun. F. A. P. BARNAnn. Latitlldina'rians, a former Broad-Church party in the ('huroh of England. Their chief scat was Cambridge, and the reign of Queen Anne was their most flourishing period. The Latiludinarians attempted to unite the I'uri- tan and Presbyterian elements with the national Church. They wore strongly Protestant and Low Church in their foelinffs. and generally Arminian or indifferent in doctrine. Burnet, Whialon, Tillots<in. Chillingwortli, Cudwnrth, More, Gale, and Wilkins were among their greatest names. Tho modern Hroad-Chureh parly is also called Lalitudinarian. La'tiiim^ during the Roman empire the most fertile and most den-iely peopled province of Italy. Its undu- lating plain, rising from tho Mediterranean to the Apen- nines, produced the choicest wines, and contained, bewitles Rome, the capital of the empire, many populous and flour- ishing towns; as, for instance. Alba Longa, Tusculum, Ardea, Lavinium, Antium, and Corioli. By neglect the water-courses anil the whide ilraining system of tlio plain fell into disorder, nn<l (hustho whole coast-district between Antium and Terracina was transformed Into an unproduc- tive and pestiferous swamp, known as tho Pontine ^larKlics. Ijato'na [Gr. Letu], in Grecian mythology, the mother of Apollo au'l Diana (Artemis) by Jupiter (Zeus). Pur- sued by a serpent sent by Juno (Hera), she fled frtim place to place, until at last she found rest nn the floating inland of belos, whieh Jupiter fixoti firmly for her. and wliere she bore him t\To children. Atlhoiich the myths relating to her were much enlargerl by later writers, no xpecial worship was over instituted fur her, and hhe hn<l no temples of her own. Latoar'd*,Vuvrr4:nr',drfTn^oi>nM.K M\t.oCouKKT). b. at Carhaix. iJrittiiiiy, N<»v. '2'.\, I74''>: edui'tited at the college of Quimper; entered military service in 17»>7: served for some tinte in the Spanish army, and <)islingui-'hed him- self in 1782 at the siege of Port Mahon ; wa-^ a captain at tho outbreak of (he Revolution : fought with brilliant suo- cess in llic republionn armies of the At|is autl the Pyrenees, I and became the commander (although still retaining the sitnple title of captain) of a vanguard of 8000 men, com- posed of all the companies of grenadiers, which soon be- eamc famous as " the infernal cohimn." and more than once decided the battle by its irresistible impetuosity. In 1795 he retired from service on account of ill health, and mak- ing a sea-voyage he was taken by an English cruiser and held as a prisoner of war till 1797. He re-entered the army a? a substitute for the last son of one of his friends; fought under Massena in Switzerland, and then at (ho head of his own company in Germany, where he fell at Ober- hauscn. Bavaria, June 27. 1800. His indomitable courage, his noble pride, and the generosity and simplicity of his character made him the idol of the soldiers. After his death his heart was embalmed and carried in a silver va?e by his company, anrl his name continued to be called at roll till 1S14, the oldest sergeant answering. " l>ied on the field of honor." He had a passion — not unsuccessful — for linguistical studies, and published in 17H2 A'inreUe'i Jie- chcrrhrs nur In Latufiie, VOrirjiue ct Irs Aiitit/uit^H i/e/i lirC' M»*. whieh was reprinted iu 1802 under the title Oritjinea Gnuloinea. |ja Trappe, a retired valley in the department of Orne (Normandy). P" ranee. 8 miles N. of Mortagne, where in 1140 a Cistercian abbey was founded under very severe rules, from which originated the celebrated religious order known as the TitAi'PtSTs (which sec). I^atroille' (Pierre AxnRKl, b. at Brives. in the de- partment of Corrcze, France, Nov. 29, 1762: studied first theology, and was ordained priest in 17Sfi, hut devoted himself afterwards to the study of entomohtgy : became superintendent of the entomological division of the Museum of Natural History at Paris in 1708. member of the Acad- emy of Sciences in 1814. and professor of zoology after the death of Lamarck in 1820. and d. Feb. 6. l8."i.'J. "The most prominent of his numerous and voluminous writings are — Ifinfiiire nattirri/e (lea CruHtart'ti et tfrn Inxertpft (\ 4 vo]s., 1S02 -05), Genera Cruatacfttrum <t InHrrtorum (4 vols.. 18flft-09), Coiirg iV Entomofngie (is;jl). He also wrote parts of Buf- fon's Natural History and the entomological part of Cuvier's Jitf/ne animal. La'tro (M. PoRCirs), of Spanish birth, flourished in Rome in the time of Augustus. He is highly spoken of by Quintiiiau, and also by the elder Seneca, who had known him from boyhood, and who has given in his CourrttrrrHiK interesting details of his personal and professional charac- ter, and specimens of his declamations. Among his pupils was the poet Ovid. He d. b. c. 4. having taken his own life, according to Jerome, while suft'ering from a severe fever. His writings have perished ; for the Derlamatio in C .Saffitathim Crinpitm and the Dcclaniatt'o in d'ceroncm have been ascribed to him without sufficient reason. (See BUhr's Gcurh. d. Hiim. Lit., vol. ii. p. 488; Lindner, Be M. Porcio Latrune Cummentatio, Brcslau, 18,'>.').) H. Drisi.er. Ijatrobe% post-b. of Westmoreland co.. Pa.. 41 miles E. of I'ittsburg, on the Loyalhannn Creek, at the junction of the Ligonier Valley and Pennsylvania Central R. Rs., has I weekly newspaper. 7 churches. 2 hotels, 2 banks. 1 college, and 1 convent (St. Vincent and St. Xavier), ;t largo coal and coki- companies, a paper-mill, 2 itlaning-mills, several large flouring -mills, carworks and machine-shops, and the usual number of stores and shops. Pop. 1127. Charles B. Fink, hu. "Apvaxck." Latrobe (Benjvmin Henry), b. in Yorkshire, Eng- land, May I, ]7t<7 ; was educated at the University of Lcip- sic : served in the Prussian army ( 1785) ; returned to Eng- land ; studied architecture: became surveyor of public offices of London (I78S(; came to the V. S. in 179t>, built tho bank of Pennsylvania, the Schuylkill waterworks, the cathedral and exchange at Baltimore, completetl tho Capitol of the U. S.. and rebuilt it after its destruction in I8I5; built steamboats at Pittsburg iu tho same year, and d. at New Orleans in Sept., 1820. Latrobe (BENJ\Mfv H.>, b. in Philadelphia, Pa.. Dec. Ifl, I80fi : graduated at St. Mary's Ctdlege, Baltimore. iSL'.'t ; studied law, an<l was admitted to tho luir: after practicing his profession in New Jersey and Baltimore for a few years, abandoned it to become a civil engineer, and in 18;{0 was appointed assistant to.Ionnthan Knight, then chief engi- neer of the Baltimore and Ohio H. K. Co., as such locating the Washington branch of (hat road and that between Point of Bocks and Harper's Kerry, and many other important divisions; was chief engineer (tf the Baltimore and Port Deposit B. R., locating and completing it ; suceeedetl Mr. Knight on his retirement in lS42. and flnished the road to Wheeling. Va. ; has been chief engineer and president of various railroad companies, besides consulting engineer for various State govoromcDts, and is frequently consulted IbTO LATROBE— LAUDER. by the general governmeDt on important works of internal improvement. Latrobe (Charles Joseph), b. in EnglanJ early in the ninutet'Uth century ; author of sevenil works of travel of high merit, among which are The Alpenstuvk, or ^^k-etckea vj Steins Sct-urri/ utid Mtinnerg (1829), The Rambler in yurth Ametica hi 1S3^~3S (1835), and Tht /iamUer in Mexico in 18S4 ( lt>''i61. Mr. Lalrol'c accompanied \Va«hingtoa Irving in his "tour on the prairies." Lat'ten [Fr. (niton], a kind of sheet bronze used in the Midille Ages for making church ornaments, monumental brasses, and the like. lu later times latten denotes simply sheet brass or other sheet metal. liatter-Day Saints. See Mormonism. Lat'timore (Samiel Allan). Ph. D.. LL.D., b. May 31. 1828, at Liberty, Ind. ; graduated in KS50 from Asbury University, Greencastle; became professor of <Ireek at the same university in 1852, of natural science at Genesee Col- lege, Lima, N. Y., in 1860. and of chemistry at the Univer- sity of Rochester, N. Y.. in 1867. Lat'ty, tp. of Paulding co., 0. Pop. 294. LatiideS de {Hesri Masers). b. Mar. 23, 1725. near Montagnac. in the department of H^rault, France ; received a military education, and went in 174S to Paris to study mathematics. Anxious to make himself conspicuous some- how, he obtained an audience with Madame de Pompadour, and told her that a conspiracy had been formed against her life, and that a box containing a subtle poison would be sent to her through the post. The box came, but its con- tents were found to be ashes only, and it was discovered that Latudo himself had sent the box. He was thrown in the Bastile, and as he escaped, but was caught again, bis term of punishment was prolonged. Three times he escaped, and three times he was caught again, and thus it happened that he was kept in prison for thirty-five years as a punishment for a mere foolishness. In 17S4. Madame Legros, who in- cidentally became acquainted with his history, procured his liberation, a pension was given him, and the whole unfor- tunate affair — for it was hardly anything more — was for- gotten. But when the Revolution broke out the case was brought before the public with all its details, and used as a means of exciting the revolutionary hatred against the old regime — a purpose for which the story was eminently well suited. Latude published hia Mf moires in 1789; his advo- cate Thierry. Le Despotisme dSroHr {Z vols., 1791-92), and in 1793 a court awarded him 60,000 livres in damages, to bo paid by the heirs of Madame de Pompadour. Thus, the French people made a similar mistake to that which the mistress of Louis XV. had made. She took Latude for a criminal; they made him a hero: both forgot that he was a fool. A later world has been more just ; it pities him. D. Jan. 1. 1805. Lau^bailf town of Prussia, in the province of Silesia, on the Queiss. It has a bell-foundry, .several breweries, and manufactures of cotton and Hueu goods, cloth, and tobacco. Pop. 6G10. I^au'be fllEi.N-RicH). b. at Sprottan, in Silesia, Sept. 18, 1800; studied since 1826 theology at Halle and Rreslau, and settled in 1832 in Leipsic, devoting himself exclusive- ly to literary pursuits. He travelled much in Germany, France, and Italy ; was often persecuted, and several times imprisoned, for his participation in the revolutionary move- ments of his time ; sat in the German Parliament of 1848 ; waa director of the Burg theatre of Vienna from 1849 to 1807, and of the theatre of Leipsic in 1808-09. His writ- ings are partly historical — Dan ueue Jahrhumlert (2 vols.. 1833). Moilf^rnen Characterintiken {2 vols., 1835), Geackichte dtr Dentuchen Literatur (4 vols., 1840), Daa crstc Deutsche Pitrlnment (3 vols., 1849), Dan /iurfftheatcr (1868), etc.; partly travelling sketches and novels — Framosischc Lust- er hi Utter {'A vols., 1840), Bnsjttnffp Europa (4 vols., 18.H3-37), Der deutsche Krietj (9 vols., 1803-66), etc.; partly dramas — ^fonfttdeschi (1845), Die Carlssrhuler (1850), O'rn/ Es^ex (1856), etc. He is a man of enterprise, of practical ability. and of some talent, but he has no genius, and his studies wore superficial. As a writer of fancy his mastership of all the technicalities of art often enabled him to produce striking effects, but he never made a lasting impression. As a his- torical writer his mental vivacity and varied personal ex- perience make him very entertaining, but he never in- structs. Clemens Petersen. Laud (William), b. at Reading, Berkshire. Oct. 7, 1573, was the son of a rich clothier; entered St. John's College, Oxford, in 1589; became a fellow in 1593; took his degree aa master of arts in 1598; and was ordained a priest in 1601. From 1601 to 1021. in which latter year he was cod- secrated bishop of St. David's, ho held several minor posi- tions. In 1607 he was appointed vicar of Stanford, North- amptonshire; in 1609 rector of West Tilburv, Essexshire; in 1611 president of .St. John's College, Oxford; and ia 1615 archdeacon of Huntingdon. In all these positions he plainly showed his character, and by degrees he attracted the attention of James I. He was a learned man and a liberal supporter of learning; an exemplary clergyman, energetic, dignified, and benevolent to the poor; but he hated the Puritans, and the fearlessness and consistency with which he resisted, and, later on, even persecuted them, made the hatred reciprocal. He was a churchman, rather than a theologian. His religion had a color of sacerdotal- ism. He understood the Church better as a worldly insti- tution than as a spiritual necessity, and its rites and cere- monies were to him of paramount importance. In 1617 ho accompanied King James to Scotland, and an attempt was made to introduce episcopacy into the government of the Sc(»tch Church, but it failed. After the accession of Charles I., Laud was removed to the sec of Bath and Wells in 1626, and in 1628 to that of London. In 1624 he was made a member of the court of high commission, in 1627 a privy councillor, and after the assassination of Buckingham he actually became prime minister. In 1630 he was chosen chancellor of the University of Oxford, and in 1033 he was made archbishop of Canterbury. These powerful and in- fluential positions he used with more passion than pru- dence, and more energy than justice, to carry through his ecclesiastical views. The Puritans were everywhere and in every way repressed. People who would not conform to the Established Church were fined, imprisoned, branded on the forehead, and exiled ; in some eases they even had tlieir ears cut off and their noses slit open. His spies were every- where. The smallost congregations of Separatists were broken up, and even the devotion of private families did not escape his control. But if the exertions were great, the purpose was rather small. Besides these harsh and tyran- nical measures in order to compel people to conform to the Established Church, that which the archbi:^hop did to per- fect the institution itself was rather of a jietty character — regulations with respect to the proper place of the altar, the due manner in which the altar ought to be railed in, ''Sunday sports," etc. The result was a deep and itnplac- ablc hatred. In 1635 a new attempt was made to intro- duce the episcopacy into the Scotch Church, and this time it led to the Scotch rebellion, which ushered in the English revolution. When in 1640 the Long Parliament met, the archbishop was impeached for higli treason, and by order of the Commons brought to the Tower. There he remained three years, exposed to many indignities. At last his trial came on, and although he defended himself admirably, and was not found guilty by the Lords, the Commons sentenced him to death and gave order to his execution, which took place June 10, 1644. A complete edition of his works was publishe<l in London 1857-60; his Dinry and his letters are of great historical interest. Clemens Petersen. Lairdanine [from/(iii(/nnt(»i],a base homologous with morphine and codeine, contained in opium. (See Watts's Diet., Snj'jjlcmcnt.) Lau'danum [probably from Lndannm or Labdanum (which seel], the tincture of opium, made by soaking the dried and powdered drug in alcohol. It is a valuable opiate, though of variable strength. It ought never to be given to young ehildreu as a domestic remedy. It has a more stimulant and astringent effect than morphine, and frequently causes headache. Lau'da Si'on Salvato'rem ('' Praise the Saviour of Zion "), a sequence sung in the Roman Catholic churches on Corpus Christi Sunday. It is a rhymed Latin hymn by Thomas Aquinas, in twelve stanzas — nine having six lines each, two having eight lines each, and one, the twelfth, having ten lines. Lau'der (RonEnr Scott), R. S. A., b. at Silver Mills, near Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1803; studied painting at Edinburgh and London under the patronage of David Rob- erts and Sir Walter Scott : spent five years in Italy ; resitled from 1838 to 1849 in London, and for the remaindc-r of his life in Edinburgh, where he d. Apr. 21, 1S09. He was a <ft-nre painter of great merit, his best works being scenes from Scott's novels. His Christ tcuchiiiff ilnmilitif was pur- chased by the Scottish Association for the Encouragement of Art, and presented to the Scottish National Gallery at Edinburgh. Lauder (Sir Thomas Dick), Bart., b. near Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1781, only son of Sir Andrew Lauder, sixth baronet of Fountainball. Haddingtonshire; was a contrib- utor to Blnckirood's Mar/axine from its commencement, and so successfully rivalled Sir Walter Scott in his peculiar de- partment of historical fiction that several of his tales were attributed to the author of Waverley. Among them were Lochandhn (1825). The Wolfe «/ Hudenoch (1827), Hiifh- land Jiumldra, irith Lfnuj Taiti to Shorten thr Way (1837), and Lvfjendiirif Tnle- u/the Hi'/hlandn (1841). Hc was an active member of scientific and antiquarian societies, edited LAUDER— LAUGHTER. 1671 several works on natural history, and was a contributor to the Edinburgh Eiwyclopttdia, \>. near KdinburgU May 29, 18-18. Lauder (William), b. in Scotland early in tho eight- eenth century: educated at Edinburgh I'niversity; pub- lished in 17iiy a collection of modern Latin verso; and becoming a tearher of Latin in Loudon, contributed to the Oentlemnnn Mmjuziuf in 1747 a series of articles attempt- ing to pntve that Milton had in his /*(irn</inv Lont borrowed largely from modera Latin poems by (irotius, Maseuius. and others. These essays were reprinti'd in a volume in 1751, with a preface by Dr. Samuel Johnson, but it was soon uiieertnineil that the work was an iinposture, tho par- allel passages quoted being either forged or taken from a Latin translation of the i*ni-ndi»e Lost. Lauder confessed his offence, and went to Barbadoes, where he d. in 1771. Lau'dcrdale, county of N. W. Alabama, boun«lcd N. by Tennosft-e and S. by the Tennessee River. The \V. end touches Mississippi. Area, GJO square miles. It is gener- ally very fertile. The N. part is a rolling plateau. Cot- ton, pork, and corn are the chief products. Cap. Florence. Pop. \:y,\VM. Lauderdale, county of Mississippi, bounded E. by Alabama. Area, 720 square miles. It is generally level and extremely fertile. Corn and cotton arc staple products. It is tnivt-rsed by the Mobile and Ohio and the Vieksburg and Mni-hau \\. Rs. Cap. Meridian. Pop. 13,102. Lauderdale, county of W. Tennessee, having the Mis- sissippi KiviT ou its western boundary, which separates it from Arkansas, the Forked Deer Creek partly on the N., and the liig Ilatchic River on the S. Area, .'iiJU square miles. Th«' surface is level and the soil fertile. Corn, cot- ton, and wliL-at are tho chief productions. Cap, Kipley. Pop. iu.n;;h. Lauderdale, post-v. of Lauderdale co., Mis«., on the Mobile nnd Ohio R. R.. 19 miles X. of Meridian, has a church, a semi-monthly newspaper, an orphans' home, and ii Iiir^e business in shipping cotton. One mile S. E. am tho Laiid<'rdalc Springs, a favorite watering-place. Pop. 2.M). \Vm. II. IlooAS, .Manager "(Orphans' HoMK Ii.\NNKii." Lauderdale (Col. Jami:s), b. in Virginia about 1780 j removcil early in the present century to West Tennessee; bore a distinguished part in the Crt-ck war under Gens. Coffee and Jackson, an'l wus killed while fighting with great gallantry at the first battle of New Orleans Dec. 2.'*, IHII. Several counties and towns ia the Southern States were named for him. Landerdale (Jamfs maitland), Eifinrn Earl op, b. in SL'oIland in J ".'>*.) ; entered Parliament in I7SU; was ono of the managers of the impeachment of Warren Hastings in 1788; succeeded to the title in 17^'.', and was elected one of the 8i.Ytccn representative peers of Scotland; favored the French Revolution ; visited France, and formed an inti- macy with Krissot and the leading Girondists; energetic- ally opposed all tlie war-measures of Pitt ; rewigned his scat as ri'prescntativo peer: became a citizen of Ijonilon, and ran unsuccessfully torslicriff; wrote much upon finance ami Indian affairs, and on the accession of the Wliigs in 1.S06 became a baron of the United Kingdom, privy coun- cillor and chanci'llor of Stuthind. In -Aug., 1.SII7, he was charged with an unsuccessful mission to Frunce to treat for peace ; resigned the chaueellorship the same year; con- tinued in tho House of Peers to oppose the wur-pidicy ; in 1SI6 cntleavorcd to obtain the release of Napoleon from St. Ilcli'na by act of pHrliainent. Hi- publisht-d in iSOl u very popular Wi)rk, An Inifuiry I'litu tht: Snturc and Oriijin oj' Pithtif W'li/t/i, and in i>-ii'J a treatise on tho system of government for India. D. Sept. I.'l, LS^Jl). Lauderdale tJonv iMaitland). Dtkrop, b. at Lctb- ington, Scotland, May lU, Hllli; educated ns a rigorous Covenanter; was commissioner to treat with Charles I. in j his prison in tho I^lc of Wight, and obtained the signature I of the treaty known as tho ■* Kngagement" (Dee. 2r», Ifil"), by which tho king was again recognized in Scotland; was tho chief favorite of Charles II. <luring his brief rule in Scotland (IftlU-^l): was taken prisoner at tho battle of Worcester (Sept., ICjI), and remained nine years in tho ToWlt and other prisons; was made secretary of state and high commissioner in Scotland by Charles II. in Itifiit; re- \ ceivect in rapid successitm all tho highest posts in Scotland, of which kingdom lie was tho virtual ruler for nuiuy years ; was created duke of Lauilenlale in lC7.'t ; raised to the Kng- i lish peerage in Ili7i as Kiirl tlnilford, and sworn of tlie i privy council, forming a member of the celebrated Cafml ' ministry. He was a tlatterer of Charles, ami has been painted in the darkest colors by Maenuhiy in his Ilintory u/ En'jhtnd. D. at Tunbridgo Aug. 24, If.HI. Lau'dnn, von (GinroN Krnst), Baron, b. at Trotzen, Livonin, Oct. 10, 17 HI. of a Scottish family, and entered in his fifteenth year the Russian military service, but was dis- missed after the Peace of Belgrade (i7;i9) with the rank of a lieutenant. He now offered his services to Frederick II. of Prussia, but was not accepted, because the king disliked his face. He then went to Vienna, was employed as a cap- tain, and fiKight in the Bavarian and in the second Silcsian war, not without distinction, but without promotion. Alter the peace he was removed to a regiment stationed ou tho Turkish frontier, and here he was nearly forgotten. In the first year, however, of the Seven Years' war he distin- guished himself as colonel of a regiment of Uhlans — so much that in 17r»7he was made a general. His commission came to him through the hands of the Prussians, accom- panied by a congratulatory letter from Frederick II. At Kuncrsdorf ( Aug. 12, 17J'J) he decided the battle and turned the victory whicli the Prussians had gained over the Rus- sians into a complete rout of the Prussian army. Having been made a fielii-miirsbal and placed at the head of an in- dependent corps of .'10,(100 men. he defeated the I*russians once more at Landshut ( June 20, I7tJ0), an<l took Scbweid- nitz (Oct. I, Kfil). After the Peace of Hubertsburg ho lived in retirement on his estates, engaged in studies, until Joseph n. placed liim at the comiimnd of tho whole Aus- trian army in tlie war against the Turks. Tlie campaign was a most brilliant one; the Turks were repeatedly de- feated and Belgrade was taken. In the Bavarian war of succession he commnnded the .Austrian army, and succeeded in placing the Prussian armies in a very difficult position when peace was concluded. The Austrian emjiirc gave him tho title of generalissimo, which none but Eugene had ever had. and overloadetl him with dotations and honors. I). suddenly at Ncutitschein July 14, 1700. Laudouiiilre, de (Ukni^: Goilatne), b. in Franco early in the sixteenth century ; was sent by Admiral Coligny along with Jean Ribault to found a colony in Florida ; sailed from Diepjio Feb. 15, I5f>2, and left tho colonists at Port Royal ; returnc'l with three ships to their relief in l.')tU: found the settlement abandoned; entered the river St. Jfdin's, called by him the river May, and built Fort Caroline. In the surprise and masi^acre perpetrated there by the Spaniunls under Menendez {Sept. 20, 1565) Laudon- nicre escaped with but a few followers ; arrived in Franco in Jan., 16t)0 ; was coldly received by tho court, and spent the remainder of his life in obscurity. He published in IjSfi an account of his adventures, Ih'ntoire notable de fa Fluridr. vtnxtruant IvH tmis rotfaf/rn /aifti eu ivrde par des capitainei et den pilutea fran^ais, (See alsoT. Irving's Con- queat of Florida.) Lau'enburg, duchy of Northern Germany, bounded by Ilolsicin. Mecklcnliurg, Hamburg, and Hanover. Area, 454 square miles. Pop. 40,5)G. Cup. Butzcburg, the only other towns being Lauenhurg and Miilln. Important in the Middle Ages, Lauenhurg has during the present cen- tury become of fo little value as to have several times served as a make-weight in treaties. It was taken by Franco from Hanover 180M, incorporated with the French empire ISIO, regained by Hanover IS!.'!, ceded to Prussia 1815, ami transferred to Denmark the same year. In 18G4, after tile Danish war, it wris ceded lo Austria ami Prussia, and by the convention of Gasteiu (isr)5) it wiis acquired by tho king of Prussin for the sum of l,M75,00it thalcrs, paid from his own pocket, whereupon he became its duke, and has conducteci the administration separately from that of Prussia. LaurnbuTf;, town of Prupsia, in the province of Pom- eraiiiii, on tbc Leba, has inanufaelures of lincu and woollen fabrics and ^ aluablc li^heries. Pop. OjoO. I^angh'ery, tp. of Ripley co,, Ind. Pop. 1874. J«aiigliiiig <>aN. See NiTitooKN. Laugli'tcr [Ang.-Sax. hlxihtor, from hUnhhnn, to '* laugh "J consists of convulsive, and to a certain ex- tent involuntary, actions of the muscles of respiration, by means of which the uir, being expelled from the chest in a series of jerks, produces a succession of short, abrupt sounds, variously^ modified according to individual pecu- liarities : at the same time the angles of the mouth are drawn backward an<l upward; the upper lip is ehvnteil ; tho nostrils are expanoed ; (he lower eyelid is slightly raiseil, anil (he external angles of tho orbital iq>cnings tlirown into wrinkles by (he contraction of tho lower pint of the orbicularis iialpi-brarum muscles, wliile the eyes as- sume a peculiarly bright iipj)earunce. If the action be suf- ficiently intense <.r jirc.longed. tears are shed through the compression exerted an the lachrymal sacs, the brows ore elevated, and other muscles of the body may participate to such an extent that tlie head, trunk, and limbs are thrown into movements, and even (ho contents of the bowels and blailder may bo evacuated by tlie expulsive efforts of the abdominal muscles overcoming the normal contractility of (he sphincters. 1G72 LAUGnXER. Tins roinarkable category of actions, which in its en- tirety Via call Imt'/hter, may be originated in various ways. In children antl weak-minded persons, and in certain ani- mals, it is, as Darwin asserts, the expression of pure pleas- ure, hut in the normally constituted adult the most intense jileasurc unmodified by other emotions does not appear to he capaldc of exciting laughter. At the same time, it must be admitted that, no matter how induced, laughter is always indicative of a certain amount of high spirits and eelf-satisfaction. combined sometimes with a sense of su- periority. The exciting causes of laughter are, as a whole, not thoroughly understood, and have been the subject of very diverse opinions from physiological and psychologi- cal writers, none of wliich appears to be entirely correct or to include all the emotional or other excitations. Thus, Hohbeg assorts that "laughter is a sudden glory arising from sudden conception of some eminency in ourselves by comparison with the intirniity of others, or of our own formerly.*' But this explanation by no means covers the ground, for wc very frequently laugh at matters that in no way concern ourselves, as, for instance, at a humorous re- mark made by another, or at some striking incongruity of action in an individual which cannot by any means be con- nected with our own being. As Bain remarks, Hobbes'a definition will only apply to the laugh of victory, ridicule, derision, or contempt against persons whom we ourselves have humiliated. Bain has very well shown that mere in- congruity is not of itself always sufficient to excite laugh- ter, although such is the generally received opinion. There arc many incongruities whicdi. as he says, may produce any- thing but a laugh. A little reflection will enable any one to call up hundreds of such without there being developed the slightest disposition to laughter. It would seem, how- ever, that the incongruous in certain forms is capable of causing laughter. Thus, upon one occasion the writer wit- nessed the fact of a whole congregation of devout worship- pers thrown into paroxysms of the most intense laughter by the attempt of a dog which had entered the church to pass through the chancel-railing to reach his master, the officiating clergyman. When half through he stuck fast, and hy no effort could he either a<lvance or retreat. His cries drowned the voice of the minister, and he was finally with difficulty extricated by the senior warden and the sex- ton, and carried howling out of the church. In this in- stance the incongruity was of the most marked character, and there was in addition the sudden revulsion of feeling whieh so frequently excites laughter. To use the language of Herbert Spencer — who lays great stress on this sudden interruption of the course of one emotion by the instan- taneous development of another — the channels through which tiio discharge was about to take place were closed, and a new channel opened. In another instance which camo under the writer's notice the incongruity and revul- sion were still more evident — more even than in the case given by Spencer of the tame kid snuffing at a pair of de- voted lovers in the most highly wrought part of a sensa- tional drama. Two lovers on the stage had reached the culmination of their fate, and were dying in each other's arms. The intfsrest of the audience was worked up to the highest pitch: many were in tears, and then the curtain ■ slowly descended. But the dead lovers had fallen too far to the front, and wheu the curtain reached the stage they were between it and the footlights. In an instant the idea of the ludicrous was aronsed, aud amidst peals and shrieks of the most convulsive laughter from the audieuee the two actors had to get up and walk abjectly from the presence of the crowd. True wit does not excite laughter, for the reason that in true wit there is the very reverse of incongruity ; but the attempt at wit. being incongruous, does give rise to the idea of the ludicrous, and hiughter is produced. This is well sliown in the following lines from the signboard of an inn kept by one Littlejuhn : " Ve who love old wine and good, Come ill ami drink wiih Roliin Hood: If llohin Hood is not at home, Come in aud drink with Little John." There is nothing incongruous in this; it is witty, but though it causes pleasure and may excite a smile, it does not cause laughter. In the course of time. Iiowever, the inn camo into the possession of Jacob Snodgrass. who, ignorant of the relation between Robin Hood and Little John, but knowing the persuasive power of the old sign, and wishing to continue it as far as truth would allow, left it intact with tho exception of erasing the name of Little John and substituting that of Jacob ^nodgrass. Nobody ha<l ever laughed at the old sign, but every one hiuirhi-d at tliis. for the incongruity between Robin ilood and Jaeob Snodgrasa was so palpable that the impulse to laugh was irresistible. The incongruous, to be capable of exciting laughter, must be of such a character as to produce no other strong emotion. If this latter occurs, the sense of the ludicrous is overwhelmed by the more powerful feeling which tho event occasions. Tbu?, if in the instance cited of the dog sticking fast in the ehancel-railing the struggles of tho animal to get free had ignited some lueifer matches acci- dentally near him, the emotion of fear would have arisen in the minds of the congregation, would have overwhelmed all idea of the ludicrous, aud cries of fright, not laughter, would have been the result. The theory of Dumont is, when analyzed, not materially different from that which ascribes laughter to a perception of incongruity. According to this author, wc laugh when the mind is concerned with facts of such a nature as to cause us to think at one and the same time that a thing is and is not. In other words, when we are forced to affirm and deny the same thing — when, in sliort, the understand- ing is obliged to conceive simultaneously two contradictory relations of one thing or circumstance. " It is certain," he says. " that wc can no more succeed in uniting two con- tradictory elements in a single conception than we can cause two bodies to occupy the same space at the same time. But two distinct forces can so act upon two bodies as to push them towards the same space, aud thus to cause a shock or a succession of shocks. In like manner, diverse circumstances can prompt the understanding to attempt to make two contradictory ideas enter into the same concep- tion. From this attempt a kind of intellectual contest re- sults, of which laughter is the expression." This contest between contradictory ideas is nothing more than the sense of incongruity to which, as a cause of laughter, the atten- tion of the reader has alrea<ly been directed. But besides those causes of laughter which are entirely intellectual in character, there are others which are sensa- tional, others which arc partly sensational and partly in- tellectual, and again others which are pathological. As an instance of a sensational cause (classed erroneously by Bain as mechanical), tickling may be mentioned. Among the pathological causes hysteria jtlays an important role, and the abnormal condition of the mind from which laugh- ter is evolved as an expres::^ion of grief (sardonic laughter) may be placed in the same categoiy. Among the mixed ; sensational and intellectual is the fact that individuals, , especially children, laugh when the motion of tickling is made towards them. Ilere the laughter is the result of tho perceptirm of the approaching finger performing the motion . of tickling, evoking the recollection of previous ticklings. j According to Darwin, the anthropoirl ajics utter a rcitcr- I ated sound when they are tickled un<ier the armpits. The I laughter from tickling is of reflex character, and scarcely i if at all under the control of the will, though such control I may be acquired by repeated eff'orts. But there is frequently another governing factor in the ! laughter from tickling, besides the mere sensational ex- t citation. AVe laugh when we are tickled by others, but we I do not laugh when we tickle ourselves. This is especially the case when the motion is made on the skin covering the siiles of the chest. The fact iijtpears to be that in order ; for laughter to result from tickling wc must be in igno- j ranee of the exact spot which is to be tickled. Wheu we I know it, as we do when we are about to tickle ourselves, I laughter does not result. I Bain asserts that cold and some kinds of acute pain I cause laughter, but this is ])robably erroneous. The laugh- I ter of young infants in their sleep, commonly ascribed by ! mothers and nurses to colic, is more likely due to pleasant [ dreams. Tiie mechanism of laughter, so far as the muscles of the I face are concerned, has been admirably studied through ! the agency of electricity by Dr. Duehenne (de Boulogne), anci previouslv, verv philosophically, by Moreau (de la Sarthe) and Si'r Charles Bell. flihfioifntph If. -^Thomas Hobbes, Coiiipfrte Wor/-*, edited by Sir Willimn Molesworth. Latin and English (London, 18.19-45, op. Human Xatiirc) ; Moreau (de la Sarthe), Sitr la Structure, hi* L'tfiffeg et lea f-aractl'ren da (IfJfVroiteti parties dp In face de V ihnnmc. art. .'?, t. iv. of L' Art dc vmniaitre leu Homme- par f<i /'/iifKloffnoinir, par Gaspard Lavater (Paris, 1820); Sir Charles Bell, Tlir Auafomt/ ami Phtfm'- o/nffi/ of E.rprefminn (3d cd.. London, 184-1); Alexander Bain, The Emotions and the ]\'tfl (2d cd., London, ISG.^); L$on Dumont. Du Catinr/) dn /iirr (Paris, 1802); . 'flit'orie Hrirntifiipie de la Seunibitit^, le P/niMtr et la I'cinr (Paris. 187o); Herbert Spencer, The Phifniolofftf of Lan<fhtcr { Eniatfii, 2d series. 18(53: published in the U.S. ns IlluHtratittuHfif Vnivrrnnl Protfrcss, New York, 1861); G. B. Duehenne (de Boulognel. Mi^caninme de la Phi/ninfjnomie hnmnine. ete. (Paris, 18fi2); Charles Darwin, The Erpresfiinn of thc^ Emotions in Man and An tmnh (hon- don, 1872) ; I. Luys. Etndea de Phy»ioloffie et de Pafhofojie cfr^bralea (Paris," 1S74). *W. A. Hammo.nd. LAUGIER— LAURENCE. 1673 Lau^ier' (AsnRfi), b. at Paris Aug. 1, 1770: was em- ploTcd l»y the Convention during the French Hcvolution in collecting the bells from the ehurehes of Bretaffne to be melted into cannon ; was afterwards at the hea<l of the office for the inanufaoture of powder ; served iu the medical corps of the army ; became professor of pharmacy and chemistry at several institutions, assistant professor at the Museum at Paris in ISOl?, and professor in ISId, on the death of Fouroroy, who was his relative. Laugicr made numerous important chemical discoveries, recorded chiefly in the AitnaleM of the Museum ; he was long a nicmher of the dc- partiiieut of public instruction, and along with Foureroy was the organizer of a large number of colleges and lyeeums. He puKJifihed a Courn de. Chimic ffrni'raic (3 vols, Itj2S). D. at Paris Apr. 18, 1832. Laugier (AiT.rsTE Ernest Paul), son of Andrf', b. in Paris Deo. 22, 1812 ; studied astronomy under Arago ; ob- tained a post in the observatory at Paris ; made important discoveries in regard to ma;2:netism. comets, eclipses, me- teors, and solar spots; made improvements in astronomical clocks: determined the exact latitude of the Paris obser- vatory (IS-V?), correcting previous errors, published a cata- logue of 53 nebulas and another (1857) of the declination of 140 stars, and contributed many astronomical papers to the CounniiH'turr dn Triiipn. He was long associated with Arago in researches on terrestrial physics, and was for Borae years president of the Academy of Sciences. D. at Paris Apr. 5, 1872. Laiincr, a species of sand-eel. Sec Ammodytes. Lauu('('!^'Con9 parliamentary and municipal borough of England, tormcrly cap. of the counfy of Cornwall, on the Kensey Kiver, a tributary of the Tamiir, 22 miles X. E. of Plymouth, with which it is conucoted by railway. It is situated on a steep hill, at the top of which arc the ruins of Castle Terrible, built by the ancient princes of Corn- wall; has elaborately carved gates, several public buildings, and a grammar school founded by Quceu Elizabeth. Pop. 5U0. Xjaunceston, the second town of Tasmania or Van Dicmen's Land, cap. of the county of Cornwall, situated on the river Tamar at it^ confluence with the Esk, 32 miles S. E. of Port Dalrymplc, has 22 churches, 30 schools, 5 banks, 3 newspapers, commodious government buildings, and a considerable trade with .South Australia, and X'ietoria, exporting wool, timber, and fruits, and importing manu- factured goods. Pop. lO.OSS. Launch, the principal boat attached to modern ships. Ships of the largest hize sometimes have steam launches, and these in the uavul service frequently carry a piece of artillery, and are very serviceable iu shallow waters and rivers. Lannch'ing [Fr. lancer, "to hurl out"], the removal of a new ship from the shipyard to the water. .Ships are usually l>uilt upon inclined wooden ways, and when the hull is flnished the vessel is allowed to slide stern foremost into the water. The spurs are usually set up after launoh- ing. The Itreat Eastern was launched sidewise into the Tliames( 18i>8), powerful hydrostatic pressure being required to force her into her proper element. Laun'tlalr, tp. of McLean co., III. Pop. 835. La I nion. Sec Tsiun. Lau'nitz (ItoiiEUT ERKitiiARD), b. at Higa, Russin, Nov. 4, IHiUi; studied in Uoino under Thrirwiildsen, and settled in 182S at New York, where he d. Dec. 13, IS70. Tho battle monument at Frankfort. Ky., the Puliiski monument at Savannah, (la., the monument to George 11. Thomas at Troy, .V. v., were executed by him. Lail'ra [l-ir. \avpa, a "defile," or, ns some say, a name taken fr'Hu ii district in ancient Alexandria], in former times, anrl especially in tlie Levant, a collection of hermils" cells, each of whoso occupants either provided for himself alone, or at most passed but two days in the week in the community of his brethren. Tho tenants of the laura w«ro subject to severe rules. Solitude, silence, and a most mea- gre diet were the lot of all. Ijaiira'ceiP [from AniirH*. the typical genus], a natural ord r of exogenous plants, chiefly tnes. often of j,'real size. This oriler is mostly tropical, and prorluces many trees of great economic value. Among its products are cassia, cin- namon, camphor, and many valuable drugs and timber- woods. Tho sassafras, bay, and a few other shrubs and trees of tho V. ?>. arc lauraeeous. Laii'ramic, tp. of Tippecanoe co., Ind. Pop. 21 14. Lau'ra Town, tp. of Stokes co., N. C. Pop. 1117. Lniiroa'na di Borrl'lo, town of R. Italv, in tho province <if Heirffio di <'ulabria, about 2U miles E. of Pal- mi. Pop. in 1S74, 5807. Lan'rel [Lat. Lnttmg], a name properly belonging to the LnnruH nobilin or bay tree of Europe, Asia, and Africa. In the warmer parts of Europe it becomes a large tree. Its wood has a limited use in the arts: its essential oil is em- ployed in perfumery; its fruit yields a fixed oil, used in veterinary medicine: its flowers aflbrd rich bee-pasture; its leaves were the material of the luurel crown of victors in war and of successful poets and artists. The name is often loosely extended to all the Lauraccse, to which this tree belongs. Shrubs of the genus Kalmia (which see) are j called laurels in the U. S. Some of the larger rhododcn- ! drons of our country are called mountain-laurels. Tho evergreen cherry trees are called Ciif:nr:v Lairei. {which see). In (Ireat Britain they are often simply called laurel. The Portugal laurel is one of the cherry laurels. Several kinds of magnolia are known locally in tho U. S. as laurel trees. In England the Dnphue taurcolti is called spurge laurel. It is a handsome European evergreen shrub, some- times planted in the TI. S., and is of the order Thymelacea;. It has a poisonous bark. Laurel, county of S. E. Kentucky. Area, 430 square miles. It is hilly and mountainous, but much of the soil afi"ords fine pasturage. The grain cro]) is the most im- portant. The county is traversed by the Knoxville branch of the Louisville and Nashville K. R. Cap. London. Pop. 6016. Laurel, post-v. of Little Creek hundred. Sussex co., Del., on the Delaware R. R,, 7 miles N. of Dclmar, and on the navigable Broad Creek. Pop. 1U80. Laurel, post-v. and tp. of Franklin co.. Tnd.,on Whito Water River and White Water Valley R. R. It has 1 weekly newspaper. Pop. of v. 741 ; of tp. 1942. Laurel, a v. (LAriiFi, Factorv P.O.) and tp. of Prince George's co.. Md., on Patuxent River and on the Washing- ton branch of the Baltimore and Ohio ii. R., has a large cottou-mill. Pop. of v. 1148; of tp. 1684. Laurel, tp. of Asho co., N. C. Pop. 456. Laurel, post-v. of Monroe tp., Clermont co., 0., 15 miles S. of Bnlavia. Pop. 126. Laurel, tp. of Hocking co., 0. Pop. 1343. Laurel Creek, tp. of Watauga co., N. C. Pop. 585. Laurel Factory, Sco Lauhki,, Md. Laurel Fork, tp. of Carroll co., Va. Laurel IlilK 'p. "f Lincoln co., N. C. Laurel Hill, tp. of Richmond co., N. Laurel Hill, a beautiful cemetery within the limits of the cily of Philadelphia, on the left bank of the Schuylkill. The grounds comprise more than 20 acres, picturcs(piely situated u]>on several hills, are ornamented with great taste, and have a fine tJothic chapel. (See Philadkli'Mia.) Laurel Hill, a range of mountains in Western Penn- sylvania, rising in Camliria co., and running S. W. as tho boundary between Somerset co. on tho E. and Westmore- land and Fayette cos. on the W. Laurel Junction, p(>st-v. of AVood eo.. West Va., at the juneljon <»f the Laurel Fork and Sand Hill K. R. with the Baltimore and Ohio U. R. It is an iui)>'>rtaiit point in the trade in petroleum, which is obtained in large quan- tities in tho vicinity, anil brought here by pipe and rail to be tanked. It is called also Laiiiei. Fohk. Laurell, tp. of Madison co., N. C. Pop. 992. Laurel Ri<lf;e, a rnnge of mountains rising on tho S. bank of the A'nugbiogheiiy River, in South-\vest<rn Penn- sylvania, and trending S. W. to Cheat River, through Tay- lor, Marion, anci Monongalia cos., West Va. Lau'rence (BirnAnn). !>. C. L., b. at Bath, England, in 1760; graduated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in 1782; look orders in the Church of England; preached the Bam|»t<in lectures ISO) ; appointed Soon after to the rectory of ,\Iersbam, Kent ; bceiiine r*'gius ]irofessor of Hebrew and canon of Christ Church. Oxford. IS14: archbishop of Cashol IH22. and d. at I>uhlin Doc. 28, 1S38. Archbishop Laurence was one of the restorers of Oriental studies in England, and ]ierhaps the only high dignitary of his times who cultivated the diali'cH ()f the Semitic languages. His most important service to theology was the recovery from Ethiopic manuscripts of several interesting apocryphal works, often quoted by the early Fathers, but supposed to have been Inst. These were the Anrnit>i'nu of' the /*rn/>hft hnitih, edited with Latin and English versions in IHI9, and Thr Iiu.,k of Enoch thr Prophrt (1821 : 3d od. IS3B). He brought out a now version of Fourth Esdras (1S20), also from the Ethiopic; published A /HiHrrtntion on the LufjuM uf St. Jnhn (1808), Critirni lirfh-rti,m» on thr Vui- tarittn Vrr^ion of the A'rir Tefttammt I I S 1 1 ), i)n thr Ejitt- e«cc of the Soul after Death (1834), and numerous <»cca- Pop. 2197. Pop. 430. C. Pop. 2127. 1674 LAURENE— LAURVIG. sional essays and sermons. — His elder brother, French Lavrence, LL.D.. regius professor of civil law at Oxford (d. 1S09), was author of Critical fiemark/i on JJetarJieti Pas- aaf/ett uf the Ncic Tetstameut (1810) and other works, but is best known for his iwierc^iin^ Correspondence loith Ldmund linrhe, imblisiied in 1827. Lau'rene,or Laurol [Lat. ;a?irH», "laurel "],CnHi6, a hydrocarbon homologous with benzol. (See Watts's Did., Sitpplcninitf p. .'104.) Lau'rensy county of S. Central Georgia. Area, 759 square miles. It is generally level and bus a good soil. Cotton and corn are staple products. The county is trav- ersed by the navigable Oconee River, and has extensive forests. Cap. Dublin. Pop. 7834. Laurens, county of N. W. Central South Carolina. Area, 000 square miles. Its surface is varied, its soil well cultivated and productive. Cotton and corn are staple products. Flour is llie chief article of manufacture. Cap. Laurens Court-liousc. Pop. SS^J-'iG. Laurens, post-v. and tp. of Otsego co., N. Y. The vil- lage has manufactures of importance, and there is a sulphur spring in the vicinity. Pop. 1919. Laurens, tp. of Laurens co., S. C, containing the county- seat. Pop. 4289. Laurens Court-house, post-v., cap. of Laurens co., S. C, on the Laurens R. R., 31 miles N. W. of Newberry. It has 1 weekly newspaper. Laurens i IfEVRV), b. at Charleston, S. C, in 1724, of Huguenot stin-k ; was well educated in Charleston and Lon- don; acquired an ample fortune in mercantile business, and was consjiicuous in the contests with the Crown admiralty judges, whose injustice was then great, lie served as a major against the Cherokees ; went to England in 1771. and while thrre strove to avert a war; became in 1774 president of the South Carolina congress; in 177() was sent to the General Congress, of which he was president 1777-78. In 1779 he was sent as U. S. minister to the Netherlands, but was made a prisoner by the British while at sea, and kept a close prisoner in the Tower for tifteen months. In 1781 he was released, and appointed by the Congress one of the commissioners to negotiate a peace, with Franklin and Jay as his colleague?, t). Dec. S. 1792, at Charleston, S. C, and by a diroeti<Mi in his will his body was burned and the bones afterwards buried. Many of his pamphlets and other pa- pers have been reprinted. Laurens (Col. .Ton\), ''the Bayard of the American Rcvolutiuu," b. in n.'j^i, a son of Henry Laurens; educati-d in England, an<l in 1777 joined the army, and was placed upon the staff of Washingttin, who loved him as a son. From Monmouth to Ynrktown he was in all of Washington's bat- tles, and in all displayed (he utmost valor, so that Wash- ington is reported to have cheeked him for rashness. He wounded Gen. Charles Lee in a duel, and the latter declared he "could have hugged the boy " for his handsome behavior on that occasion. Ijaurens was badly wounded at German- town and Coosahatchie. In 1780 he went as a special min- ister to France, and successfully negotiated a loan. Re- turning, he served with great and even unnecessary activity under Greene, and was killed in the contest on the Comba- hee, Aug. 27, 1782. (See his Life and CorreapondencCf by W. (J. Sims, 1867.) Laurent' (Francois), b. in Luxemburg July S, 1810; studii'il law at Louvain and Liege, and was appointed pro- fessor in civil law at the University of Ghent in 18.'J5. His historical essajs have been collected under the title Etudes Hiir I'HiHtoire de VHnmunit^ (14 vols., 1860-68). Lauren'tian .Mountains, the principal range of British Atneriea, forming tlu; watershed bt-tween Hudson's Bay, the St. Lawrence, and the great lakes, and between the same bay and the Mackenzie River. It rises near the Atlantic sea -coast of Labrador, sweeps S. W. across the Ottawa River to Lake Ontario at its outlet, thence curving N. W. skirts Georgian Bay, Lakes Huron and Superior, and thence N. to the ,\rctie Ocean, with a total length of ;JOU0 miles. The fun- damental series of rocks, called the Laurentian System by Sir William Logan, consists of highly metamorjihosed sedi- mentary deposits of hornblendic and micaceous gneiss, al- ternating with mica schist, and abounding in beds of crystallized limestunc and of magnetic oxides of iron, as well as vast masses of granite, syenite, and greenstone. This system is believed to be older than any of the Silur- ian strata in (Jreat Britain, and even to be the oldest on the globe. Indications of organic life have been detected and classified by Dr. J. W. Dawson as Ettznun Cunndcnn*-, it being still uncertain to what groups they should be referred. Lauren'tiuft, Saist, was, according to tradition, a pupil of Sixtus II.. who made him deacon, and uftcrwards archdeacon and treasurer, at Rome. In 268 a. d. the magis- trate, during the Valerian persecution, commanded Lau- rentius to reveal the treasures of the Church ; accordingly, the saint collected a company of poor, sick, lame, and blind persons and presented them as tlie required treasures ; for which act he was condemued to be broiled alive. He un- derwent martyrdom with great courage and resignation Aug. 10, 258. Laurenza'na, town of S. Italy, in the province of Potenza. situated in a mountainous and not very fertile district. It is not on the line of any railway, and is even without carriage-roads, but liy means of mules it carries on a considerable trade with the neighboring provinces. Pop. in 1874. t)966. Lau'restine, or Lauresti'nus, the Vihnmum Tinus, an Old- World shrub, one of our tinest cultivated evergreens, belonging to the order Caprifoliaeeoe. It has somewhat poison4>us qualities. Lau'ria, town of S.Italy, in the province of Potenza^on the high-road from Naples to Calabria. It has fine churches and other good buildings, and was the birthplace of the celebrated Admiral Ruggiero di Lauria. P. in 1874, 10,690. Lau'ric Acid [Lnt. /ftuniti, " laurel "]. Laurostcaric Acid (Marsson), Pichuric Acid, or Pichurinitalg- S^LUre (Sthamer), Ci2H2i02. This fat acid belongs in the fatty group of monatomic acids, CnllanOj, and was first described by Marsson (.4»ji. Phdi-m., xU. 4:j, 1842) from the fat of the bay tree (Laurw* wthiiix), and by Sthamer (/. c. liii. .39.'!) from the fat and the volutile oil of the pichurim bean {FnhiF Pichurim jnaj.). Gideon E. Moore also found it in the wax of ^fl/rica ceri/era {Sif/. Jmtr. [2],xxxiii. 313). It exists as a glycidc f laurostearine or laurine), from which it is prepared by saponifying these fats or the wax by caustic alkaline solutions, and after the soap is separated by common salt (Marsson), decomposing the soaps thus formed by hydrochloric or tartaric acids. Laurie acid also exists in other like vegetable bodies, sometimes in connec- j tion with niyristic acid (ChH2sOi'). as in Myrica cerf/era ' and the so-called Dika bread ( Mmujijeru Gahouensin),ti.\\^ j in a salve-like fat obtained from Coccus Axin, the Aye or axin of the Mexicans. In connection with many other fatty acids, it exists in spermaceti and in the oil of the cocoanut. It fuses at about 4:1° C. to a colorless oil, and I solidifies to a scaly crystalline white mass, and crystallizes I from its alcoholic solution in white tufts and silky needles, t or sometimes in nearly translucent scales. It dissolves [ readily in alcohol, and yet more freely in ether. Its alco- I liolic solution has a feebly alkaline reaction. It is quite insoluble in water, but when boiled in it volatilizes with ! the vapor. The sodium, potassium, and barium salts of ■ lauric'acid are soluble in water. The salts of the heavy ' metals with lauric acid are insoluble, or sparingly so. The ! calcium salt Ca" (Ci2H2302)2 obtained by mixing the solu- j tious of hiurate of sodium and calcium chloride is resolved I by distillation into calcium carbonate and laurostearone=s j Ca"C03 + C23H«0. B. Silliman. Lau'rinc | Lat. /aur«»." laurel "], or Bayberry Cam- phor, ('221130*^3. n crystalline body obtained from the ber- ries of the bay tree. Lauriston% de (Jacques ALEXANunF. Behnard Law), Makqiis, b. in Poudicherry, India. Feb. 1,1768: was a companion of Napoleon at the military school of Paris, and distinguished himself in war and diplomacy during the Revolution, the Consulate, and the Empire. His de- fence of Ragusa against the Russians was a brilliant ex- ploit, and the battle of Wagram was decided by his valor and judgment : and be was the negotiator of the marriage of Napoleon with Maria Louisa. He was favored by Louis XVIII., being made a manjuis in 1S17 and marshal of Franco in 1S21. D. at Paris Juno 10, 1828. Lnu'rite, a sulphide of ruthenium and osmium, which occurs in small, iron-black, lustrous crystals, associated with native jjlatinum. in Rorneo and Oregon. It contains sulphur :^I. 79 per cent., ruthenium f).^. IS, and osmium 3.03, agreeing nearly with the formula 0sS4.12Ru2Ss. It was discovered by Wiihler, and named in honor of Mrs. C. A. Joy. (See Ann. Ck, Pharm., cxxxix. H6, and Ztitsch.f, Cfi [2], vi. 85.) Lau'rium, a range of hills in Attica, Greece, famous in ancient times for rich mines of silver, lead, zinc, and antimony. At the beginning of our era these mines were deserted, being considered exhausted. In ISG.'i a foreign company began to rework with profit the refuse left by the ancient miners, and have recently reopened the mines themselves. Laur'vig, town of Norway, on an inlet of Christiania Fiord, has a good harbor, large distilleries, some trade in timber, and very important iron-works in its vicinity. Pop. about 5000. LAUSANNE— LA VATER. 1675 Lausanne' [unc, Aaiwaiiiiim],city of SwitKerland, capi- tal of tUv Clinton of Vaud, on the northern shore of the Luke of (icnt'Vrt, built on two hills. connei*tt'd by a t*plendid bridge of granitf.has a beautiful Gothic cathcdriil, connnencid about lOUO, completed in lli7j, a library of DO.UOl) volume!', many good educatiooal institutioufi, and several manufiictories of tobacco, leather, and gold and silver ware. On account of its beautiful ^litualion on the southern slope of the Jura Mountain?, and near the Lake of (Jeiieva, it attracts yearly a great number of tourists, who generally reside here for some time. Lausanne is famous in literary annals from having been the residence of lluller, Voltain-, and Cibbon. The hou?o occupied by the latter while writing his cele- brated liUtnrif is still shown, and visite.i by multitudes of travellers. Hyron wrote here his Pn'no}ur "/ Chilton. An ecclesiastical council was held here in 14J'J, a conference between Calvin, Farel, and Viret in hKiO, leading to the adoption of the creed of tlie Hefurmed faith, ami in modern times it has been the scene of a noted peace congress (.Sept., 1S71) and a Masonio universal coDventioa (1875). Pop. 26.520. Lniisnnnf , tp. of Carbon co., Pa. Pop. 141B. Laiiztin', de { AiiMAxr) Louis de Gontaut), Ditke, b. in Pari.". !■■ ranee. .\pr. IJ, 1747; commanded a naval expedi- tion which captured Senegal and Gambia from the English (1779); took part in the American war (17JS0-ts:{) at the bead of " Lauzun'a Legion:" afterwards succeeded to the title of due de Biron ; was a deputy to the States General ; a confidant and secret agent of the duke of OrKrans; ap- pointed general-iu-chief of the army of the Rhine July W, 17y2, of the army of the coasts of La Hochelle May 16, 179.'i; took Siiumur, and defeated the Vendcans at Par- thcnay. He then tendered his resignation, but being ac- cused by Carrier before the Committee of Public Safety of too great lenity to the Vendeans, he was deposed, thrown into the Abbayc prison, tried for conspiracy before the Kcvolutionary tribunal Dee. ;tl, 17y;i. and executed the same day, meeting hie fate with cynical courage. Lauzun had great ability, but was dissolute and unprincipled. His Miiiutirm were jmblislied at Paris in IS22. La'va [Lat. lavme, to "wash"], the material, fused or solidified after fusion, which has escaped from a vol- canic crater. The term is, however, applied gencrully to those volcanic roeks which are filled with ragged cellules. If extremely light and loose, it is called scoria or slag. There are several varieties of lava. Molten lava (lows like molten glass or iron, a portion being usually unfuscd and held in suspension in the fused portion, which is, indeed, a Dative glass. The boiling motion sometimes observed in hot lava is due to the escape of steam, sulpliur-vapor. car- bonic acid, air. etc. Lava-beds, after cooling, snmctimes exhibit great caverns, which are a>erilied to the Honing off of the lower strata of the lava after the coiding of the surface. (See Volcano, by PnoK. Aunold Guvot, Ph. D., LL.D.) Lava Ornaments (so-called) arc made of iron slag, which is m<'lt«-<l utid manufactured into vases and other small ornamrnlul and useful articles. liavac'a, county of S. Central Texas. Area, 920 square miles. It is partly timber-ianil, and has considerable ureas of prairie. Nearly all the soil is very productive. Live- stock, corn, cotton, woo], and fruit are important prod- ucts. The county is well watered by the Navidud and the head-slreams of the Lavaca Kiver. Cap. ILillettsville. Pop. DIGS. Lavaca (Pokt Lavata P. 0.), seaport of Calhoun co., Tex., on the \V. side of Lavaca Itay, an arm of Matagorda Hay. It is the S. K. d'rminuH of the Mexican (iulf and San Antonio K. K., and has an extensive coastwise trade. Pop. 7tiS. Lavngn^af town of Italy, in the province of Genoa, famous fur its excellent quarries of slate (Chiappami). This slate la extensively used for roofs, pavement?*, and other domestic purposes, and is largely exported to vari'ius Ku- ropcan countries, and also to .\mcrica. The public build- ings of the town are imposing, especially the churches. Pop. in IH74, 6HSS. I. aval', town of France, the capital of the department lit .Miiyerine, on tlie Maycnno Uiver. It is nnted for il.^ linen nianufa<;tures ; linen goods to the value of half a million franco are sold at eacl» of its monthly miirkets. Among its other manufactures are paper and earthenware, and it has a bri?*k trade in grain, timber, and cattle. Pop. 22,RU2. Laval, county of Quebec. Canada, consisting of the Isle J^sus. an island 2-1 miles long and miles broad, lying between the Ottawa River on the N. W. and the Ilividre dcs Prairies nn the S. K. Pop. 9172. I^aval, tie (Puan'.ois ok MoNXMonKxrv), b. of an nn- cioDt and noble family, at Laval. Krance, Mar. 2.'^, 1622; becamev^ priest id Paris 1tJ45; declined the bishopric of CochinX'hina in 1651 ; became archdeacon of Evreux in 1663: bishop of Petra;a in jmrtibuH and vicar-opostolic of New France in 16.)S. In 1663 ho founded the seminary of Quebec, and in 1660 consecrated the parish church of Notre Dame, lu 1674 he was bishop of the new see of Quebec, from which he retired in 1688 to his seminary, to which ho gave his worldly possessions. Ho was de facto ruler of Canada, in civil as well as ecclesiastical affairs. The Laval University at Quebec commemorates his name. D. at Quebec May 6, 1708, Lavailo', post-tp. of Sauk co.. Wis. Pop. 881. La Valliere, de (Loiisk). b. in 1644 in the province of Touraine ; was one of the *' filles d'honneur " of the duchess of OrK'ans ( Henrietta of England), when she be- came in 1001 the mistress of Louis XIV., whom she loved sincerely and for himself, not for his royal title, as did afterward Montespan. Maintenim, etc. She represented the only poetical ray which brightened the life of the man who was called the "sun king" (roi" aoiril). Mile, ile la Valliere never used her influence except fordoing good to everybody, and she was so much ashamed of her equivocal situation that she entered a convent as soon as the pnsfion of Louis XIV. for Mademoiselle de Montespan and others allowed her to bury herself in a religious life. The king took her forcibly once from the convent in 1670, but at last, in I67o, she took her religious vows under the name of Sister Louise of Mercy {Sceur Louine tlr lit MiHrnoortlc). D. at the Paris Carmelite convent in 1710. She left Lcttevti and RrftectioiiK OH the Merri/ of (Jod. Felix AiCAiGNK. Lavandula Spi'ca, the broad-leafed lavandula. yields oil of spike (the true luit not the eommon eoniniercial arti- cle), which is valued by painters and nrti.*ans, and is used in farriery. Lavatcr' (.Tohan.v Caspar), b. at Zurich, in Switzer- land, in 1741 : ijjtudied theology, and in I 76 I was iipjiuintcd preacher, first of the orphan house, then of St. Petri church in his native town, which positii»n he held till bis death, in ISOl. The most prominent trait in his character was his absolute veracity. Trutli was with him not a duty, but a passion — not the honor of his soul, but the necessity of his nature. Wherever he l"<iund truth, with Christ or Cugli- ostro. with Spinoza or Mesnier, he acknowledged and ac- cepted it unconditionally. IJul the consiqucnce was. that bis adversaries took the opjiortunity of accusing him of almost every kind of heresy which ever had appeared iu the history of Christianity. "With his character corre- sponded his talent. As his veracity was a pas.-^ion, and not a pedantry, his conceptionsof truth and fali^ehootl were intuitions, and n<»t products of analy.'-is. Rapt in enthu- sia,5m or struck by horror at what he saw, he painted Ins visiims with a lovu or hatred which generally eommnnded the feelings of his audience, but which often gave his views a distasteful one-sidedness. His friendship with tJoetlie is one of the most beautiful instances on record of mutual sympathy, and ils elevating and expanding influence on human character. Hut when in 17Sj he wrote his J'outiua I'iliitHH be gave such a picture of a no-Christian that Goethe literally shrank from him with all the aver.<if)u and antipathy of which his nature was capable. Lavatcr came to his door and wrote his name on the tablet, but Goethe remained unmove<l, and would never see him any more. There was always a tendency towards mysticism in Lava- tcr, but in his earlier days lie was conscious of this tend- ency, and — for instance, in liis AuHHirhttn in dir Eirii/ktit \*' Peeps into Ktcrnity" ) — the reader is charmed witliout lieing duped by Itis mysticism. Put when he grew olil he became visionary, a prey to the <tbfcurity of ebarlatiniry, ami his fervor and zeal turned into fanaticism, lie hailed the French Uevulution with unbounded enthusiasm, but when the king was beheaded he at once turned around and bceanio one of its bitterest opponents. Even his life was (»ften in danger, and when, in 170it, Massena todk Zurich he was fired at in the streets, where he administered help to tlie wounded and dying, and he d. two years alter from a wound he received on that occasion. His poetical writ- ings are entirely without interest, nnd his religious writings are so interwoven with the interests of the monuMit that they cannot lie iip]»r(''-iatrd. hardly even underslimil, with- out a thorough knowledge of the state of the (icrnnin civiliza- tion at the end of the eighteenth century. But bis Phtfuioff- nominrhr Frtufmrutr, wliieli he published 177;')-78 in four large volumes, profusely illustrated and very expensive, will nevrr ceuse to intercut nmnkincl. That book started a new idea, or. rather, it deseribcil a natural and necessary process which lakes place whenever man meets man. with such exactness and telicity as to raise this proeefs from n dull and sluirgish i>raetiee !<» a conxeious and free mental activity. Where there is combinalion there is significance, where there is movement thcro is character. Consequently, 1676 LAVAUR— LAW. the human figure, which is the finest combination known, must signify something of its nature, ami the motion of its parts, the play of its feature?, must express something of its character. IJut before Lavater this had never liein said. The impression made by the outward appearance had l>een overloolied. I'eople had judged one another from their ch)thes. And when Lavater demonstrated that the soul, the character, the history of an individual, was painted on his face, that a human face might be read like a printed leaf, he produced the profoundest sensation. I'eople were j panic-stricken. They began to wear masks. They left the drawing-rooms when a person entered who believed in Lavater. No less was the enthusiasm. People felt that a new signification had been added to beauty, a new eharm to life, a new sensibility to the soul. It has been argued against the Plii/nii^yiininische Frnr/mailc lha.1 the author has tried to make physiognomy a science, but the criticism is hardly just. Lavater knew very well that physiognomy is a taleiil and not a science ; and although he is very anxious to establish rules and show how a certain vice, for instance, always affects a certain feature in the same way, he is as anxious to impress upon his readers that the rules are subordinate to the total impression, and the single fea- tures must be interpreted by the view of the whole. His rules are to him a convenience, and hardly anything more. Clemens 1'eteusen. LavaurS town of France, in the department of Tarn, on the .Agout. It is the entrepot of the silk produced in Upper Languedoc, which is spun here, and then sent to Lyons or Paris. Pop. 7438. Laveleye' (Kmile Louis Victor), b. at Bruges, Bel- gium, Apr. 5, 1822 ; studied at the Athenasum of his native city, and at the College Stanislas in Paris, and took high honors in the law course at the University of tihent. From 1818 onward he has been entirely occupied with those eco- nomical studies which have given him so great a reputa- tion. At first he wrote in the Belgian periodicals, defend- ing liiieral principles against the Ultramontanes ; became from 18j8 a constant contributor to the lievtie des Lfeux Mundet ; was in ISIU appointed professor of political economy at the University of LiSge, and in 1867 repre- sented Belgium as member and secretary of the inter- national jury upon paintings at the Paris Universal Expo- sition, lie has been honored with membership in the' Royal Academy of Belgium and the French Academy of Moral and Political Sciences. Among his numerous works, that <ni Property nnd its Primitire Forms (1874) has already become a classic. In June, 1875, he published a small vol- ume <)n the liell'ftous Conflict in Europe, with a preface by W. E. Gladstone. LaveUlo, town of Italy, in the province of Potenza, of ancient origin. It suffered severely from an earthquake in IS.'il. Pop. in 1874, 5709. Ijav'enderf the Lavnndida vera, a labiate shrub, a na- tive of the S. of Europe, very extensively cultivated for its fragrant Bowers, which yield a volatile oil much u.sed in perfumery. Lavender-water, spirit of lavender, ete. arc of considerable service in pharmacy and medicine. La'vcr, a name ap])licd to several edible seaweeds, such as L'frit latinsima, Porphr/m btciniatit, and P, viihjarie. These are quite commonly eaten as luxuries in Europe, either pickled or stewed. Laverdiere (Ci.AinE II.), b. at Ch.1teau-Richcr Oct. 23, |H2fi: was ordained a Catholic priest in 1851: became a professor in the seminary and librarian of Laval Lniver- Bily. He look part in the publication of three volumes of Jesiill /^^^l(l'o)l« (1858) concerning early missions in Canada, edited the voyages of Champlain (5 vols., 1870), with notes and a biography, the Journal des Jt'uniUs (1871), wrote a J/lutoire flu (Janada for schools, and several smaller treatises upon subjects connected with early Canadian history. 1). at Qucliec Mar. 27, 1873. Lavialle' i Pikrre Joseph), D. D., b. at Mauriac, France, in 1820; eame when twenty-three years old to the U. S. ; was ordained a Roman Catholic priest: served for a while in New York, and then became president of St. Mary's College, Ky.. and was its president 1855-G5. In the latter year he was made bishop of Louisville. He founded a number of schools and charitable institutions. D. near Bardstown, Ky., May 11, 1867. Bishop Lavialle was a man of extraordinary energy and ability, and w;is highly esteemed by Protestants, as well as by those of liis own faith. Lav'ington (George). D. D., b. in Wiltshire, England, in 1683: became can<in of St. Paul's, London, in 1732, and in 1747 bishop of Kxeter. Becoming involved in a con- trriversy with Wesley and Whitefield. he wrote in 1749 The FfithuniaKin itf the Mrthodintit nnti Pajt'mtH t^ompared, an amusing and well-written work, not without some passages of a too broad raillery, and very defective as a statement of facts. In 1755 he published a work of similar character respecting another sect of dissenters. The Morariann Com- /jared and JJeleclcd. Bishop Lavington partially retracted his language towards Wesley, and partook of the communion with him as late as 1702, in which year he died. Laviti'lniTif now Priitica, an ancient city of Italy, in Latium. was situated 17 miles 8. of Rome, near the sea. It was founded, according to Iraditifni. by .^neas, on his arrival in Italy, and named after his wife Lavinia, and was in early times the sacred metropolis of the Latin cities, but never acquired any importance, political or commercial. The name was often confounded by classical writers with that of another ancient Latin city, Lanuvium. Lavoisier' (.\ntoine Latrest), an illustrious savant, one of the fathers of modern ehernislry, b. at Paris of wealthy parents .\ug. 16, 1743; studied at the College Mazarin : pursued astronomical knowledge under La Caillc: learned botany under Bernard dc Jussicu; worked in Rouelle's chemical laboratory in the Jardin des Plantes; became an associate of the Academy in 176S: obtained a farmer-generalship in 1769, in order to increase his income, his expenditures in chemical research requiring a large outlay of money : took a prominent part in public affairs, writing numerous and able papers on state questions: dis- covered the composition of water in 1783: and made many important researches in physics. In chemistry, the science to which his attention was ehic8y directed, he made not only important discoveries and great inventions in appa- ratus and in methods of work, but he was one of the first and ablest of philosophical chemists, the destroyer of the false theories of Stahl and Priestley, and was the principal inventor of the system of chemical nomenclature which pre- vailed exclusively for more than fifty years after his death. Lavoisier was guillotined by the Jacobins May 8, 1794, on account of his former connection with the farming of the taxes. The most important of his works are Traitf de Chimle ( 1789) and Me moires de Physique et de tVii'/n/c, which includes his principal occasional scientific papers. Law. When the magnitude of any quantity is altered by changes of any other quantities, the statement of the relation existing between them is known as a law of nature. Thus, the fact that the force of gravity is inversely as the square of the distance is known as the law of gravitation, and the equality of the angles of refleeiiou and incideiiee is the law of reflection. Generally, iaivs may be expressed by equations, and the highest aim of scientific investiga- tion is to determine the form of these equations, and to show that they follow from simple well-established laws. Laws seldom seem exact, owing to various disturbing causes, but if these are properly allowed for, the true law is never deviated from in the ordinary course of nature. The failure of one or more of these laws in a particular case constitutes a miraele. The term "law" is also applied, but less ]iroperly, to the statement of any general fact, as that all bodies possess mass or that matter is impene- trable. K. C. Pickeri.vo. Law [Lat. lex : Ang.-Sax. lag]. When taken in its widest and most comprehensive manner, without limitation to any particular subject-matter, certain essential and ele- mentary notions are implied in the term Law, all neces- sary to its complete and accurate meaning. These essen- tials are (1) a lawgiver; (2) an inferior subject : (3) a command; (4) power in the lawgiver, resulting from some organic relation between himself ami the subject, to en- force the command. As the utteronce of a command implies the formation of a wish and an act of the will, it follows that the lawgiver must necessarily be a rational, in- telligent being, and, so far as we are acquainted with ex- istences, must be either God or man. The authors of all law, then, in a true sense of the term — the only lawgivers possible — are the Divine Ruler of the universe, and men who may be clothed with authority over individuals or over that organized aggregate of individuals which forms the state. The commands which God issues in reference to material objects, whether animate or inanimate, and which prescribe rules concerning all the movements and pro- cesses of the physical creation, fall under our general definition, and are truly laies. They certainly differ in a most important feature from the commands addressed to rational beings, since they are wholly without any moral quality : but it is only upon the assuni|>tion that the invariable order and sequence of acts and events in the material universe are the results of commamls uttered and rules set by a conscious and intelligent lawgiver that the phrases " Inies of nature." "physical taies," "lairs of nat- ural science," and the like, become at all proper and ad- missible: without this assumption such forms of speech are self-contradictory and un.scientific. The other and more perfect class of the divine laws embraces those set by Him LAW, CANON. 1677 to rational bcinps. to mankind. Hero tho inferior subjects arc endowed with n free will, arc clothed with an ability to choose between an n^^enl and u refu:*al to roniply with the command. The command to do or to forbuar, which is only the exprcspcd will of the lawgiver, in iti^elf creates in the rational subject ft ct»rre!«|>ondin(j duty or (ddigation to do or to forbear ; he is bound to obey. When, llierefore. tho subjfct? of God"? laws are intelltf;ent beinps. a fifth essential clement is involved in the peneral concc|ition of law, and that is tho notion of duty or obligation. Again, as the choice exists between obedience and dif;(»bi>dicnce, as the inferior subjects may violate the duty which has arisen from the promulgation of the cnnimand. the power of en- forcement residing in the lawgiver is exercised by the threat and impo-jition of some evil as a consequence of tho violation. Ilcnec we find a sixth essential element involved in the general conception of law when addressed to rational beings — that of compelling obedience by tho danger or fear of suffering evil in the event of disobedience; which evil, thus imposed as a penalty, is termed the iinnctiun of the law. Sufh is the nature of (Jod's law.wliich is addressed to rational beings, and which may be collectively designatecl the "moral law," since its commands necessarily create an obligation resting upon those to whom they are addressed, and obedience or disobedience is therefore always a moral act. liuman laws, or those which arc set by human la-wgivers. are all of the samo essential nature as those which have collectively been designated the moral law of (Jod. The differences are plainly those of degree, and not of kind. The object of nil liumari law — or, in other words, of all com- mands uttered by the constituted lawgiver — is to ]>rcscribe and impose duties, to create and define rights, and to cn- ffireo the observance of both. A brief analysis will disclose the general nature of all such jural rights and duties, and will explain their genesis, or how tbey arise from the commands of the lawgiver. T select for the purj)OFe of this analysis the highest type of human legislation — namely, the municipal law. or that of independent sovereign na- tions, in which all commands are uttered by the supreme power of the state, whatever be the form of the government, or whatever department thereof possesses this legislative function. The object of every command is to impose a duty an<l to ereate a right, and its effect is tlius necessarily twofold : tho duty rests upon some person or class ot per- sons, and a corresponding right is given to another person or class of persims. Two r|i;jtinet individuals or groups are thus nei^essnrily affeetetl by every command, and they are placed by it in a relation of d^-pendencc. or even of an- tagonism. All rights created by the law are correlative to duties, and all duties are correlative to rights. The supreme power in the slate issues a command, the effect of which is to clothe a given person with a certain right. Now, a legal right in its highest and widest sense is nothing but a claim that another person or class of persons sliall do s<jme act or forbear from some act respecting the individual who hrdds the right. We could have no legal rights were there not other persons whom these rights obliged to do or for- bear towards us. Every right, then, residing in one person corresponds or correlates to a iluty devolving upon another person or class i>f persons. All possible rights and duties thus crcafetl or ifuposied by tlieeoniniamlsof the supreme (lo wer in the state belong to one or the other <if two elasses : they an- either private or public. In the (irxt class the duties rest upon persons, and the corrcsponrling rights are held by other persons, so that the command always iind neeessarily affects two <lifferent sets or groujis of iixlividuals, both standing in the, came subordinate relation to the shite. In the flectmd class the duties also rest upon persons, but the cor- responding rights are hehl by that organic nggregatooreom- munity of persons which constitutes the state. This capital lino of dislinclion in reference to the bidders of rights not only separates all the jiriniary rights and duties into two grand departments, but it also divides the remedies for their violation into the corresponding classes of civil and criminal. These iluties are either positive — that is, nVdigations to do some act ; or negative — that is. obligations tt> refrain or forbear from some act. When the determined person upon I whom the duty n-sts, or any one of mankind where tho duty rests upon all, neglects to do tho act which liis posi- tive obligation requires of him, or docs the act which his negative obligation forbids him to do. he commits an in- jury, offence, or delict. A delict, injury, or offence is, therefore, at once the violation of a duty resting upon the offender and the infringement of a right poHsessed by some other person. Such violations of duty must be redressed, and fi)r this purpose the law is provided with sanctions. Injuries themselves are divided into two general classes, exactly corresponding to the disfinctioii of rights into private and public already stated — namely ( 1 ) tliose wliich primarily affcot the rights of private porsous, aud are re- dressed by private remedies pursued by the injured party; and (2) those whicli primarily affect the state, and aro redressed in its name by means of [lunisbments inflicted upon tho wrongiloer. It sometimes happens that the same pnysical act is both a public and a private injury, and e.v- poses the offender to both a criminal punishment and a private remedy. It is plain, however, that iu such cases two distinct rights are invaded and two distinct, duties aro violated l>y the same physical act. liow far this double nature of wrongs an<l this ilouble re<lresa therefor shall bo allowed, greatly varii's in different systems of national law, according to their notions of public policy. The essential elements wbich enter into the conception of law set by human authority having been thus deter- mined, I proceed to describe its grand divisions or depart- ments and the general nature of its subject-matter, without reference to any particulor natii»nal forms, or to any special modes of enactment or distribution of governmental func- ti<tns. The law, considered both objectively and subject- ively — that is, both as a system of rules creating rights and imposing duties, and as a method and a power of es- tablishing further rules — consists of two distinct depart- ments, two sciences — ^jurisprudence and legislation. Juris- prudence in its primary signification denotes the laws which have been enacted, either the entire body of exist- ing legal rules which prevail in any particular state, or the features which aro common to all tho national systems as tbey have been established in different countries and at different times. Asascienceit is occupied with the study and investigation of these laws. It is naturally separated into two divisions, which may ajtpropriately be called general and particular. General jurisprudence is employed in the discovery, examination, and arrangement of institutions, principles, and rules which aro found as parts of all ex- isting legal systems, and especially of tlioso whicli have far advanced in the march of civilization. It does not represent the whole law of any country, but rather the similitudes between the laws of different countries. Par- ticular jurisprudence is concerned only with the whole existing la\v of a specified country, in whatever form this may have issued from the bands of tiie legislator who hail called it into being as a collection of positive rules — that is, with the municipal law. In determining the exact im- jiort of this term, another conception is introduced and joined with that of the law — the conception of the state. The state or nation — for tho words are iu this respect syn- onymous — is an independent, separate, and sovereign polit- ical society, with its own organization and government. The coneejition of the state may be summed up in the sin- gle but most comprehensive term. p(ditical s<jvercignty ; but this includes the attributes of political independence, ])oIiti- cal equality, and absolute power within t lie domain of legisla- tion. From the union of the notions inv<dvcil in the terms "law" and '* the stiito" wo complete the description of tlic complex result which is denominated the " municipal law." It is the entire body of positive jurisprudence winch belongs to a se])arate and sovereign political society, a state; wbich is promulgated in its name and by its authority, in what- ever manner that authority nniy bo exercised ; and which is absolutely binding, throughout the territorial jurisdiction of that state, to the exclusion of all and every other law. While jurlKprudciiec is comersant only with hiws which have been enacted, legislation has to do with laws which should beenacteil, anil with the process of enactment, with the discovery and statement of what tho law as a whole ought to be, and willi the bringing of it into an agreement with that perfect standnrib .Turisprudenco and legislation are therefore, in respect to their ultimate objects, separate, but in their study as sciences, and in tho actual operations by wbich their objects aro attained, they must necessarily be combined. John Noiiton PoMicitov. |jn\V«<'nnon. The term *• canon law" designates tho body of rules and reguhitions wbich were primarily estab- lished by the Christian t'hurch and enforce<i by ecclesias- tical auth<irity. hut which in the course of time became ex- tended to many matters purely civil, ami were recognized and sanctioned by tlio tribunals of tho state. After tho Roman empire became Christian, and tho Church became in part i<lentilied with it, there arose a threefold jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical triliunals— that is, of tho bishops iu their various degrees i»f dignity and adminislratlvo au- thority. (I) This jurisdiction was exercised in respect of any subject-matler whatever, civil or otherwise, over all the clergy, over oil persons in h<dy orders. (2) The jurisdic- tion exteuih'd over laymen in relation to all matters strictly ecclesiastical — ([uestions pertaining to the internal order, discipline, doctrines, anil observances of tho Church, (H) It also extended over laymen in relation to cerloin special subjects, whieh, although strictly civil, and in moclern sys- tems of national jurisprudence universally regarded as such, were claimed by tho Church to have a peculiar religious 1678 LAW, THE CIVIL. aspect and to nearly concern the ("oul's welfare. The most important of those special subjects were marriage and di- vorce and the succession to the personal estates of deced- ents. The term canon law has a direct and primary rela- tion to the creative source by which the rules that compose it are uttered — namely, the law-making; [)Ower of the Church considered as an organic and independent society capable of lejrislating within a certain domain and upon a certain chiss of subjects. It is broader than the ecclesiastical hiw, for while it embraces within its scope everything; that per- tains to the or;»ani7.ation, order, doctrine, and discipline of the Church, it also extends to many other topics which have only a very indirect connection with these purely ec- clesiastical matters. In short, it is to be regarded as a comprehensive system of regulations, primarily established by the legislative authority residing in the Church, relating to subjects both spiritual and temporal, and administered by both spiritual and temporal tribunals. The canon law as a separate and completed system is, and for several centuries past has been, contained in col- lections of digests and codes which taken together are de- nominated the Corpm Jnrh Catinnt'ci. The Roman law. by the orders of the emperor Justinian, had been arranged in three separate compilations — the Pandects or Digest, the Cude, au'l the Novell? — and in this compact form was known as the Cftrjntfi Jiirin Civilift. In direct imitation of this proceeding, both as respects name and method, the Corpti/t Jiirh Cauotn'ri is composed of three distinct parts — *' Tlie Decree." '* The Decretals." and ** The Extravagantes " — which have some correspondence with and analogy to the Pandects, the Code, and the Js'ovells. I, '* The De- cree.'^ — This work was composed and published about the year 1140 by flratian.a Benedictine monk of Bologna, who tuidertook the task at the request of St. Bernard, with the immediate object of furnishing a treatise for use in the university at that city. It is based upon all the previous legislation of the Church, which was treated as authorita- tive, and which was scattered through numerous compen- diums, acts of councils, and decretals of popes ; and it is, in fact, a cotnjilcte collection or epitome of the canon law as it then existed and was in force throughout the Western Church. The name given to it by the author was ^0*1- cnylaiitia Diftcnrdnnthim Canonum, but it is generally known and cited as the *• Decree of Gratian " ( Decretum Grrftiani), or more often as the "Decree." It consists chiefly of extracts taken, as above stated, from all other writings that contained the law in a scattered and confused sha]>e, and these citations are arranged and classitied ac- cording to their subject-matter, being connected by a text which the author himself composed. In other words, these extra'?ts do not, as in the Pandects, make up the entire work ; the legal principles, doctrines, and rules are given by the author in his own language (technically, rfi'c/« Ura- ti'rtHi)^ and the citations are annexed thereto as proofs or illustrations. Tlie whole body of the jurispruilence as it then existed is thus presented in an orderly and scicntitic method. The '* Decree " is divided into three parts. Part First contains 101 sections or paragraphs — technically called ''distinctions" {tliatinctioiicti) — and the important subject? of which it treats are the nature ami sources of dilTercnt kinds <tf law, and especially of the ecclesiastical law, persons in holy orders, and the bishops and other higher ranks of the clergy. Part Second is quite different in its external form, and consists of thirty-six *• causes " or cases (rnu»!r), which are first stated, anrl under each arc placed the legal questitms that arise therefrom It/uxfititnieit), which questions are then solved by ap]>ropriate extracts similar to those in the first part. The thirty-second '* cause" and third "question" is a special treatise on the subject of penance ( />c ;>n'')n'^'ji//a), and is separated into seven "distinctions." Part Third, which has for its title *' />e Connecrationc," is divided, like the first, into " distinctions." It treats of the consecration of churches, of the sacraments, and of the performance of divine service. The work in all its parts contains about HOOO extracts, each being indicated by the letter C, which signifies "caput" or " i-npitnhtm," and not. as has generally been supposed, "canon." Although the " Decree" was the compilation of a private person, its substance was taken from the existing law ; it was at once sanctioned ami ajiproved by the highest authority in the Church — by popes themselves — and thus acquired ail the force of original legislation. Its text has been the object of numerous commentaries, or. as thev arc technically termed, glosses, the most important of which, the (Homm onh'nfiria, is usually printed with it. Many editions have been issued from time to time: and in consequence of a decree made by the Council of Trent a revised and cor- rected edition was prepared by papal command under the care and direction of several learned doctors, and was finally published A. i). 15S0. II. The second part of the Corpita Juris fniioHt'ci, called "The Decretals, consists of three distinct subdivisions: (1) "The Gregorian Decretals," or decretals of Pope Gregory IX., in five books; (2) the " Liher Scxtita" or the ** Srrtns" being a coUuction of de- cretals prepared by order of Pope Boniface VIII. ; and (3) the "Clementine C<mstitutions," or decretals published by Pope Clement V. The following is a brief description of these compilations. After the great work of Gratian was completed, numerous collections of subsequent decretals were made by private persons, which possessed a greater or less amount of authority, but which, on the whole, tendeii to produce confusion and uncertainly in the study and administration of the canon law. To remedy this evil, Pope Gregory IX. directed his chancellor, Raymond, a Benedictine monk, to prepare a new compilation, which should be based upon and should take the place of all those to which reference has been made. Raymond accordingly in 12.'i-4 published his Qulutjtic Lifni Ihcrcttth'um Gregorii Nnnt\ which was at once approved and ordered to be used in the courts and the universities. It contains not only the decretals \vhich had appeared since the " Decree of Gratian," but also some of a more ancient date which had been omitted from that work, together with extracts from the Fathers and from acts of councils, the whole being arranged in five books and distributed into tilk-s, and again into chapters. The principal subjects of which it treats are the organization and jurisdiction of the spiritual courts, the proceedings therein and their sentences, the clergy, be- trothal and marriage, and crime. The same condition of affairs again arose at a subsequent perioil; the same need was felt, and the same remedy was adopted. Pope Boni- face VIII. caused another compilation to be made, con- taining all the decretals which had been issued since that of Gregory. It was publi.«hed in 1208, and follows the same order of arrangement as its immediate predecessor; and under the notion that it was the supplement to that work it was called Liber Serins. Pope Clement V. in the year 1318 issued a collection of his own decretals and of the decrees of the Council of Vienne, over which he pro- sided, which is known as the " Clementine Constitutions." To the text of all these decretals commentaries or "glosses " have been added, which have acquired a certain authority from long-continued usage, from the judgments of courts, and from the teachings of universities. HI. The " Extrava- gniiten." — This third part of the Corpus Jurin Canonici con- sists of two divisions — the " Extravagantes of John XXII." and the "Extravagantes Communes." The former con- tains certain decretals of the pope whose name it bears, collected by an unknown author, and published without official sanction in 132j. The latter is a collection of de- cretals by various popes from Urban VI. to Sixtus IV., A. i>. 148.3. Neither of these compilations was made with authority, nor did they originally form a part of the Corpus Juris Canonici, but iu 1682 they were incorporated into it, and placed upon the same footing as the other decretals by Pope Gregory XIII. John Norton' PuMKttoY. Law, The Civil, The " civil law " (jus <irilr), in its strictly technical import, denotes the body of Roman juris- prurlence collected by order of the emperor Justinian, ar- ranged and digested in the compilations which taken to- gether bear tho name Corpus Juris Civi/is. In this form it became to a great extent the basis of the municipal laws of the continental states of Europe. The term is not; there- fore, exactly synonymous with " Roman lnw,"and docs not describe that system in its condition as the actual juris- prudence of the Roman empire: it was first used in its jircscnt special sense by the jurists of the Middle Ages, and was applied to the collections made by .Justinian to distin- guish them from the "canon law." The civil law of tho Roman state and the canon law of the Roman Church thus stood side by side, and were the two great sources from which the jurisprudence of modern Europe has been largely derived. A description of the civil law, therefore, requires some account of the Roman law, of which it was in fact the final stage. The Roman law, as a national jurisprudence from the foundation of the city to the death of Justinian, in whose reign it was fixed in its present shape and ceased to be a growth, exten<ied through period of about 1300 years, and from an archaic state of barbarism it was trans- formed through progressive stages into an enlightened and philosophic code, so wise and just in its principles, and so lofty in its practical morality, that it is susceptible of little imjtrovement from the culture of the present age. So far as the narrow limits of this article will permit. I shall sketch in a very general manner ( 1 ) the external history rtf its development — that is. the forms, means, and modes by which the law was created, and the process of growth from its primitive rutleness to its final perfection : and (2^ the more important and characteristic features of the law itself, the principles, iloctrines. and rules which were at length gathered into the compilations of Justinian. This latter account must necessarily be exceedingly imperfect, LAW, THE CIVIL. 1679 and 18 given simply to illu^lrnte tbe spirit of the Koman jurispruilcncc and it? method of development. Hitturirul Sketch. — Little is known with absolute cer- tainty of the law in the earliest centuries of the Uonian state, during the period of the kings. The political or- ganiiatiun was in the highest degree aristocratic, and all power was held by the superior orders, the patricians \pnpu(n»). The commons {pUbi), though free, had sub- stantially no voiec in the ninnngement of public affairs, and even the private law discriminated harshly against them. It is inferred upon general principles — that is. from the general nature of barbarous societies — that the laws, or wha* were called the laws, consisted almost entirely of tribal customs, which were banded down by oral tradition, and the knowledge of which was possessed exclusively by the ruling classes. It is certain that for several centuries I ho law largely partook of a religious eharaeter, was in- timately connected with religious observances, and enforced by religious sanctions. After the overthrow of the kingly power, and as the result of a political revolution in which the commons ( ptrbn) ncquired an accession of authority, in the year -1.52 b. o. and ;i*'2 of the city a partial code was prepared and adopted, which became, and ever after was. the basis of the Roman jurisprudence — that is. all future growth of that jurisprudence was actually or fictitii)usly constructed upon it as a fountlation. This code was the celebrated Law of the XII. Tables, or the XII. Tables. The contents of this statute as a whole, and even its order and arrangement, are unknown. Certain extracts from it have been preserved in the writings of various authors, and from them modern jurists have attempted to reconstruct the entire text, but the result is of course conjectural. It seems to bo established, however, that among other sub- jects the first, second, and third tables treated of judicial proceedings: the fourth of tbe paternal power, the power ofthc pnt*-r/tinn'lia8 over the family : the tilth of heirs and persons under the care of tutors, and iloubtless of thu whole subject of succession : the sixth of property and possession ; the seventh of buildings and tii'lds ; the eighth of delicts — that is, of injuries to person or pr<»perty from wbieli a right of compensation arose: the ninth of public and political law; the tenth of the law relating to sacred rites and ot)- servances; and that the eleventh an<i twelfth were supple- mentary to the others. A part of this code was certainly political : that portion which rclatcil to the private law was probably an enactment in a statutory form of the pre- existing customary regulations, witlniut substantial change. For a htng period subsequent to the epoch of the XII. Tables, the public history of Korae was a continuous con- flict between the aristocracy ( />o/>i(/i(«) and the commons {ptchn), which resultt'd in the Inttcr's obtaining complete political equality with the former ; but tiiis struijgle ha^i no interest for us except in its eftVet upon the aclniil law- creating power of the state. In Ktigland and the I'.S. thi- law-making power is conferred upnn two ilistinct depart- ments, the legislature and the hijrher courts, the authority of the lesislalure, however, being supreme. In other words, the actual law of Knjfland and uf this country was partly made by the legislature in tbo form of statute.-, and partly made by the courts and promulgated in the form of judicial decisions, the latter being so far inferior that it can be altered by statute. The law of K<fme grew up in exactly the same metbnd. by a process e.vnctly tbe same in its essential nature, altbou;;!! differing somewhat in its ex- ternal form. A portion of it was stnlutory. and a portion — an<I during a long period of it^ liistory by fnr the gn'ater portitm — was the law <d' judicial deeisiiui, or what Hi-nthnni flneeringly cnlk-d *'judt;e-Tiiade law." I will briefly de- Bcribe the modes in which these two species '»f the legisla- tion were effected prior to the time when the legislative function became possessed exclusively by the emperor. Ttie uolitical constitution of the state provided three dif- ferent official assemblies of the eitizens — that by the centu- ries {vitmitin ren(urifitn), which consisted of both patricians and commons; that by the curies {romitiu curiaUi), which was composed of the patricians alone: and that by the tribes {cnmitia trilintn), which was cmifmed cxehisivcly t<i the communs. The resolution;^ cftlie centuries were termed '• laws " (/ff/cf), statutes, and were always binding upon the whole state J those of the other assemblies were originally binding upon their respective orders alone, but in the year 4r.,'( of the city, in consequence of a statute (/''j- //inftimia), they were clothed with all the efficacy of laws. The as- semblies of the patricians soon lost their legislative func- tion, and were long retained tor certain formal purposes only, while those of the tribes greatly increased in im- ])ortnnce, and their ordinances \ plriii'tiritn) became a common form of legislation. Durinc the republic the senate did not possess the power of law-making, hut upon the establishment of the empire the popular assem- blies were abandoned, and their function was transferred [ to the senate: its resolutions (geuattta consultu) for a while thereafter took the place of both the "laws "and i the •'plebiscites" — that is, became the only s|iccies of ' statutes. The law of judicial decision, on the other hand, was created iiy the magistrates, by far the most important of whom was the pnvtor. This office was first instituted soon after the inauguration of the republic. Its terra was but one year, so that the changes in the actual incum- bents were very frequent. The law-making function of the pra'lor was exercised in tbe preparation and promulgation of an official declaration or doeument termed the ''edict." Upon entering on tbe duties of his office each pra?tor issued a statement of the legal principles, doctrines, and rules by which he should be guided in administering justice during his term. Each new magistrate would adopt the whole or the greater part of his immediate predecessor's work, and annex such improvements, amendments, or additions as he thought proper. In this manner the edict became a con- tinuous and. to a certain extent, systematic body of juris- prudence, based upon the XII. Tables a^ its foundation, and increasing each year by the work of successive magistrates. That portion of it which, onrc established, was continued from year to year without change was termed edictum per- prtiiHin, and since it was borrowed by eacdi prtvtor from his immediate predecessor and incorporated into his own, it was also named r<iirtiint franiffatititiiit. Tlio new portiim which a magistrate added was called efiiitmn )i'nutii. It must not bo supposed that the pnvtorian edict bore any resemblance to a modern statute or to a decision of a mod- ern court, much less to a modern code or digest. It did not contain a statement of principles in a general and compre- hensive form, nor of abstract rules of conduct defining the primary rights and duties of citizens. Like all legislation in a certain period of social development, it was almost en- tirely a mere nnnouncement of the remedies which would be allowed by the magistrates under specified circumstances, and which had not been provided for by the pre-existing law. The law as created by the edict was in substance iho enumeration of remedial rights, remedies, and actions, ratlier than the utterance of general rules of conduct. About the year 50S of the cily. after the conquests of Rome had been widely extended, and its relations with foreigners hail become constant and intimate, they not being regarded as amenable to or governed by tbe law jiertaining to its cit- izens (/(/» civf'ic), a special pra-tor was c(tnslituted with ju- risdiction over legal controversies iu which bidh or one of the litif^ants were foreigners. lie was called the jtrntor percf/rhiu^— that is, the j»r;ptor for strangers { pcrct/rttti) — to distinguish him from the ordinary magistrate, who then took the name prntor urbniiuH. As the pra*ti>r (teregrinus was not in any manner restricted by the Human law per- taining to tbe citizen { jiift rivih), but could witlmut limitation invoke the rules of law common to all nations (Jim fftnliidu), which in time came to be considered as identical with the general principles of abstract justice and equity, his edict was the most important instrument in shaping the entire jurisprudence of the state, in freeing it frinn its primitive technicality and barbarism, and in bringing it to an agree- ment, with the essential rules of right. The principles which lie announced were in time aiioptcd by the prittoy urhttiiun, and thus the Uonmn law in all its depart mcnts was brought under the influence of the same legislative forces. The process of judicial legislation which has been thus described seems on tbe surface to be very different from that pursued in the courts of England and of the r. S., but it is essentially the same. Tbe Uonuin nmgis- trate attempted to anticipate all the fads, events, and transactions that ini^bt arise during bis official term, and to lay down a prcvitpus rule applicable to them ; while the Kngli.-^h and American court waits till the acts and events have happened, and have been brought before it in a foren- sic dispute, and then fnr tbe first time dcelarcs the rule which determines the rights ami obligations of the parties. Our judges legislate r.r post fuctn, in the form of single decisions; the Roman nmgistrates legislated before tbe fact in the form of a more general etlicl : both plainly aeeompli^'h the same purpose in the political organizaticm of the slate. Certain inferior magistrates »d" the city, and especially the judicial officers of the provinces, possessed (he power of issuing an edict, and that of tho provinces {rdivtum pntfiitriit/r) was of great im]>ortancc. The con- struetive and legislative laltors of the pradors — for their number was largely increased — continued through the re- public, and reaehed their lieigbt during the early period of the empire, but deelined and finally ceased after tho law-making function of the emjieror had been firmly estab- lished. The cdii't itself had grown to be long, and doubt- less unwieldy. At length (a. n. 1.10), by eommand of tho emperor Hadrian, it was entirely rearranged ami put into a permanent form by Salvias .Tulianus. a professional juris- consult. Un<lcr the name cdirtum pfipttniim it remained 1680 LAW, THE CIVIL. from that time uiichanfred. the official coJo of the **jiidge- mmW law." anil iipnii it the succeeding rare of jurists ex- peinic-d ihcir labors and their learning in the form of eom- montfiriesnnd treatises: it was sejmrate*! into titles according to the subject -matter, following the order of the XII. Tables. It lias heen suggested by some modern writers that in this work of redaction the three great edicts — that of the pnetor nrbanus, that of the jir!»?tor ])eregriiius, and that of the provinces — -were consolidated into one. If this was so, the process was the same which would take place in this country or in England if the rules of equity and of the common law sliouid be combined and reduced into a simple harmo- nious system by rejecting from the one all that was in coiilliet with the more just and moral doctrines of the other. Another force which was greatly eflicient in promotifig and guiding the development of the law through the formatix'e period I have not as yet mentioned : namely, the opinions of learned jurists (rcsponsa prudeuthim). It has sometimes been said that these utterances of the jurisconsults always had an absolute authority and were binding upon the courts, and that the jurists themselves were thus actual legislators, ] recognized as forming a part of the la\v-making machinery of the state. This is a mistaken theory, and presents a very erroneous view of the Roman legislation. As has been already described, the only constituted means for the crea- tion of law were the statutes passed by the citizens in their as-iemblies, or afterwards by the senate, and the edict of tho praetors. Whatever part the jurisconsults as a class played in tho great work of legal development — and it was a most important one — was by way of infiuence, was moral, and chiefly consisted in advising and assisting the magistrates in the performance of their legislative work, and in aiding the courts in the decision of causes. Beyond a doubt, the aid was great, the advice and guidance were powerful and eflec- tive, but they were not compulsory. l>uring the flourishing period of the republic, and down to the time of Cicero, many of the ablest, best, and most learned citizens devoted them- selves tothestudy of thelawasasoienceandasan art. They were not advocates like Cicero; they formed a distinctive class, to whom, on account of their special knowledge, the names "jurisconsults" and jwrtif/eiirej* were given. They pub- licly instructed students; they were consulted by litigants, to whom they gave legal opinions. During the earlierperiod to which reference is now made they did not compose sys- I tematic treatises upon the law, but contented themselves with answering the cases, actual or hypothetical, which were presented to them. Tliese answers, technically termed j rfipitnttn pnnleudum, when cited to the courts would un- \ doubtedly be used with much effect in determining the de- cision, and the effect would depend upon the reputation of the person whose opinion was quoted. It cannot be doubted also that in preparing his edict each ]ira?tor availed him- self of all the aid he could obtain from the learning and wisdom of these professional experts; and this is the more probable from the fact that the pra'tor himself was often, if not generally, chosen from the same class, and ho would naturally be anxious that his legislative work should meet the approval of all his fellow-jurisconsults. After the empire was established the position of tlieso jurists was somewhat altered. Augustus accordtui to their opinions a certain legal authority, but required an imperial sanction or appointment for those who desired to exercise tlie func- tion. Hadrian afterwards ordered tliat their juridical ojiin- ion should have the force of law, itrc)vidtMi tlicy all agreed, but if they differed tho judge should be at liberty to ftdlow ■whatever one he ])leased. The character of the jurists themselves was al^o greatly changed. In the second and third centuries of our era a class of juridical writers arose far surpaissing tho earlier prttfhnleH, whose labors brought I the law to tho highest condition which it reached. They ! introduced the philosophic element ; they created tho sys- ! tem of classitication, which has remained substantially un- I changed to the present day ; they com])Osed elaborate treatises either upon the law as a whole or upon some spcL'ial department, and it was from these treatises that the material was taken which formed the Uit/eHt afterwards compiled by the eommaml of Justinian. Kinally. most of them occupieil high official positions under the various em- fterors, and thus took an active part in the work of legis- ati<)n, eitiier by framing the "constitutions'' issued in tho name of the cm])eror, or by rendering the decisions in his supreme Ofurt of appeal. Of these illustrious men, whose labors have influoneed the jurisprudence of the entire civ- ilized world, five stand in acknowledged pre-eminence — Gains. Papinian, Paul. I'ljiian, and Mu<iestin. (iaius, who wrote in the time of the Antonines. held no office, hut was a private teacher of the law. Of his works, the InstitulcH has been preserved almost entire, and its discovery in 1816 marked an era in the study of the Roman jurisprudence. Papinianus was the praetorian prefect, supreme judge of appeal, under Septimius Severus, and was murdered by his son and successor, Caracalla. lie was universally re- garded by all writers who succeeded bira as the foremost and greatest of the Roman jurists. Nothing remains of his numerous works except the extracts found in the ran- fleets, of which there are a great number. Paulua was pnr- torian prefect under Alexander Severus, a. d. 222. Resides the quotations contained in the Ifitfrnt, one of his treatisee, Receptfc iSenteiitiff, still survives. Ulpianus wrote iluring the reigns of Septimius Severus and Caracalla, and was killed by the soldiery (a. n. 228) while praetorian prefect of Alexander Severus. The Panrlerts contain a greater number of extracts from his works than from those of any other jurist. Fragments of a separate treatise are also extant. Modestinus lived and wrote in the reign of Alex- ander Severus. and was a mtmher of his council, ile is only known to us by his contributions to the D'ujeHt. At the final overthrow of the republic the popular assemblies lost the po^ver of enacting statutes, which was for a while transferred to the senate: it soon, however, became prac- tically, and ere long openly, tho attribute of the emperor alone. Finally, when the jieculiar function of the pra'tor had ended, the whole legislative authority was centred in the supremo head of the em|)ire, ami there remained as long as there was any life or creative force in the law itself. The official declarations by the emperor were gencrically termed "constitutions," and were of three species — edicts, decrees, and rescrij)ts. "Edicts" were legislative in their character, addressed to the wlude empire, and in every re- spect tlie same as the *' hf/f*" of the earlier form of the government, and as the statutes of the jiresent day. "De- crees" were judicial decisions rendered in causes brought before the emperor on appeal: while "rescripts" were official answers made to those who consulted him whether as public functionaries or as private persons. Decrees and rescripts had not the force of general statutes, but were used as precedents, and arc found in the collections of im- perial constitutions. It must not be supposed that the emperor personally prepared and issued the constitutions. Although done in his name and by his command, they wore usually the work of professional jurists who filled high offices of state, and who were often the ablest, purest, and most learned men of the empire. It thus happened that some of the best examples of philosophical legislation ap- peared during the reigns of the very worst of emperors, such as Commodus. Caracalla, and Nero. From the time of Alexander Severus, which may be regarded as its cul- minating epoch, the Roman law rapidly declined; all power of progress had gone: and at length the appeal was constantly to the past and to the writings of the dead jurists. As an illustration of its condition, of the loss of all intellectual vigor, and of the bliml reliance upon au- thority, an imperial constitution made a. n. 426 by Theo- dosius II. and Valentinian III. ordered that in the decision of causes the judge should always follow the opinion ex- pressed by a majority of the five jurists whose names have already heen mentioned ; but if there was an equal division among those of the five who hail expressed an opinion on the particular p<iint, that of Pa(>inian should prevail: and if he was silent, then the judge could exercise his own dis- cretion. Some attempts were made at a partial codifica- tion during this final jieriod of decadence. Two collections of imperial rescripts were prepared by private jurists — one by Gregorianus (a. t>. ."^Ofi) and the other by Hermogianus (A. n. .'jtJ6). Tho emperor Theodosius II. (a. d. 43S) pub- lished a code containing the general constitutions (edicts) issued since the conversi<in of Constantino to Christianity, which was during the same year adopted by Valentinian HI. in the Western empire. Although superseded in tho East by the compilations of Justinian, it long continued to be used in the West, and was the collection of laws chiefly known U> and employed by the Germanic tribes which overran the Western empire. A portion alone of this code has heen preserved, somewhat condensed, in the i^reriarium of Alaric. The emperor Justinian commenced his reign a. I>. 527. In 528 he appointed a commission of ten jurisconsults, among whom were Tribonian and Theophilus, with direc- tions to select from all the existing imperial eon.^titutions those which were operative, and to arrange them in a sys- tematic order. They were permitted to change the words, to combine several constitutions into one, and to make other modifications that would better express the sense, but were forbidden in any manner to alter the law itself. Their work was completed in one year, and published with the title Cotiex Jiinthn'uuus, but was soon supplanted by another. After the compilation of the DUfcst this original code was revised by a diflerent commission, a considerable number of new constitutions which had been issued by tho emperor was added, changes thus rendered necessary were made, and the new eilition was published a. p. 534, under the name Codex Repetitte PraUctionia. This work, known LAW, THE CIVIL. 1681 as The Code {Coder)^ has been preserved to the present day, the earlier edition being entirely lost. It contains the imporiul constitution!! from Hadrian to Jti^^tinian ; it is divided into twelve books, each of these into titles: each title confains a number of constitutions arranjjed in a chronological order, with the nnrnes of the emperors who were their authors and their dates. In the year 6.'i0 the emperor created another commipeion of sixteen, at the head of which was Tribonian. and entrusted to them the task of compiling a body of the existing law from the writings of the great jurists. According to the general plan which he prescribed, all the juridical works of authority were to bo consulted and extracts made from them: these quotations, with such modifications as should be necessary to explain the meaning and harmonize the whole result, were to be collected into fifty books, and arranged according to the order of (he edict after it had been revised under Hadrian (edicttim prrpetidiin). The commission finished their labors in three years, and in 5Z3 published the result under the name of f*aiiderts or The lUijtHt, In compiling the Dt'f/est selections were made from more than 20011 different trea- tises written by thirty-nine jurists, most of whom flourished within the period of about 100 years from the fr)rmaIion of iho perpetual edict in the reign of Hadrian to the death of Alexander Peverus. Following the plan projiosed by the emperor, the JJufHt is divided into fifty books; each book, with the excejition of three, is separated into titles; and each title into sections, which consist of the extracts from various authors. The internal arrangement and clas- sification of the material itself which forms the body of the l)!ijrHt are universally admitted to be very defective. Hav- ing provided for these great compilations of the law, Jus- tinian ordered an elementary work to be com])08ed and entitled The fnxtitutrH. It was prepared by two jurists, Thcophilus and Dorotheus. under the supervision of Tri- bonian, and was published about tlie same time as the Di'ijrttt. Chiefly based upon the IitHtitutcH of Gains, it is separateil into four books, and these into titles, and deals alone wirh the private law. Thr fnstitntcn was written prin- cipally for use in the law-schools as an introduction to the study of jurisprudence, and this use has continued un- changed to the present day: no other elementary work has supcrsedcfl it. It was the design of .Tustiniun th:it the en- tiro body of the Roman law should l>c comprised in the Code and the DitjcRt, and to that end he forbade any refer- ence to or citation of the ancient jurists either in the courts or the schools, and abrogated all the conf^titutions which were not found in !iis collection; he even prohiltitcd all commentaries upon the J^undctti. The cm(>cror, however, did not restrain himself from making additions to the law which he had corlined, but lie issued from time to time new constitutions iuovrflte cuimtltittionrs), the number of winch exceeded U'lO, some of them relating to very important points of the private law. They were oflicialiy published after his death, and are known as The Kovefls. The four works thus described, The Panderftt or Diycut, The Coda, The fiiiif{tiite9,and The iVorc/^w, constitute the Cvrjjua Juris CivifU. These law-books of Justinian were not immediately in- troduced into the West, and in fact the Koinan law was for a long time perpetuated among the !>arbarian invaders of the Western ])rovince8 by means of very inferior and imperfect compilations, itml not by the ('orpun Jniin CtvUin. From A. r>. 41.') Iho Visigolh^ had established themselves in Southern <«aul. About the middle of the same century the kingdom of (he Iturgundians was founded on the Rhone. In t'.f.'I, Iliily was subjugated by the Ostrogoths. For these three kiiigdoios three ditr<'rent eorles were formed, liy which, rather than by thn-c of Justinian, the Roman law was kept alive among all the Ci-rmanic peoples. The first of these was the AW/. 7 of Theodoric ( ICdirtum Throdon'ri), prepared in /iOO for the Ostrogoihs. It contained extracts from the sources of the Roman law. freely treated ; it was very short and incomplete, Imt it left the existing law in full force in all cases for which it did n(!t expressly provide. The secitnd was the ftren'ariiiin, composed by Alaric in .'VOC for the Rrimans within the kingdom of the Visigoths. It cnnlained a part of the Theodosian code, and extracts from (lie novclls annexed thereto, from two wnrks of (laius and I'auliis, from the (Jrcgorian and tlic Hcrmogmian codes. and fnun a treatise of Papinian. Tbe third and least im- portant of those compilations ivas that made for the Bur- gundians, about 517 — Lrx litnnuun Ihinjuiidi»nuin, some- times though erroneously named I'upinuuM. I'pon the defeat of the Ostrogntlis in hh\ under Justinian his collec- tions were introduced into Italy, hut they retained their position of authority for a short time only. In Sfirt the Lombards subjugated the greater part of Italy, and the (leruiariic tribes I'roni tliat time were establi>*!u'rl in per- mant-nt supremacy over the entire Western I'uipire. (See Falck. Encyclopedic Juridit^ue, ^ SO.) This political revo- Voi.. it.— 100 lution did not blot out the Roman law, which continued to exist as an actual jurisprudence, but under a very peculiar form, utterly unknown to modern usages and opposed to modern conceptions. The Germanic invaders wherever they spread did not destroy the Romans nor impnye upon them a new law. Each race, living ujion the same soil, preserved and obeyed its own laws, which were thus no longer territorial, as are laws at the present day, but were ; pergonal, in that they applied to different classes of persons dwelling in the same country. According to the general rule, each person was subjected to the law of his birth — Roman to Roman, Frank to Frankish, or IJurgundian to Burgundian. Wherever, therefore, the province had be- come thoroughly Romanized, wherever the Roman dominion had been fully established, as in Gaul. Spain, and Italy, there were left, even after the su|ireniacv of the German invaders, the remains of Roman institutions, laws, and modes of thought. The codes above mentioned, compiled after the conquest, altltough exceedingly imperfect, were vastly superior to the (Jermanic laws and customs with whicli they were contrasted, and as society gradually be- came settled they were taken as the basis of the Iegi.slation that was created for the nations which finally came into existence from the united pojmlutions. In this manner the Roman law was Instoiically, and as it were uncon- sciously, incorporated into the jurisprudence of the conti- nental nations, and was the great storehouse of principles, doctrines, an'l rules whence the material of that jurispru- dence was drawn during its process of development. The imjiortant influence exerted by the ecclesiastics in tliis work has already been described in the article upon the Canon Law. and the cxjihination need not be repeated. The reason is plain why the like effect was not produced in the legislation of England. The Saxon invaders of Britain found but few traces of the Roman institutions ; there was no opportunity for a "personal" law with them; all was territorial. The Saxon customs prevailed to the exclusion of all others throughout the kingdom ; the Roman law was not left side by side with them, to grow up, and finally to overshadow them. The only influence which it exerted upon the legal develojiment during the Saxon domination was through the ecclesiastics and the canon law which they administered. In addition to the foregoing silent, unconscious, historical method by which the law of the dead empire was perpetuated and macle dominant over modern states, there was another open, external, conscious, and intentional cause which exerted a powerful aid in pro- ducing that result. About the beginning of the twelfth century a spirit of free inquiry was suddenly awakened throughout Europe, and one of its earliest and most remark- able manifestations was shown in the scientific study of the Roman law, which, eoinmencing in Italy, soon extended to France, Spain, and even to Kngland. A school was foundc<l at Bologna in which Irnerius commenced to lecture upon the Corpus Juris Cirilin {a. n. 1120). The professors at Bologna, as a part of the instruction which they gave to their students, t^omposed short nr)tes upon the text of tbe JJirfcHt and the Codr, explanat<uy of obscure and doubtful passages. To these notes the name " glosses " was given, and the entire school of early commentators have been dfuiotninatcd "glossators." The glosses themselves were collected and revised by Accursius (a. n. 121*0-0(1), and form the earlier body of commenlarics upon the books of Justinian. From Bologna the study of the law r!i]iidly spread over Europe, anil lectures were even delivered at Oxford in 114y. The effect of this movement \\\n\n tho local jurisprudence of the Continent was immediate and profound. From the universities the influence extended at once to the tribunals, and the Roman taw was (hence- forth acknowlcdgC'l (o be X\\v- comnitm law of Europe. The Snlmtnure o/ the Homon Luir. — Tlic limits of this article will not ])ermit even an outline of the law i(sclf, and I shall merely attempt to explain and illustrate its inter- nal growth and gratirnil transformation. In thi* primitive perioil, nlthough even tlicn .-showing the wnmierful capa<'ity of (he Roman people for legislation, the laxv as a whole was exceeilingly arbitrary and technical, dealing in ex- ternal symbolic acts, demantiing a strict observance of prescribed formulas, and without a single element of abstract morality and justice. Tho Romans conceived of their law as applying only to the citizen, and thence termed H jitu rieile. Its rules eoercerl none but citizens, and while strangers and f<)reigners. even when permanent inhabitants of the territory, could obtain none of the advantages which it conferred, they were at the same time free frnni its pe- culiar liurdens. Siilo by side, however, with this strictly national law of the state and the citizen, the Romans from an eiirly day conceiveti of another system of jural rights which they regarded as common to all natinns. and therc- fnre irvinvd Jim t/enfiuni- — tho law pertaining to all nations. Whenever a judicial controversy arose in which a foreigner 1682 LAW, MUNICIPAL— LAW. or stranger was a piirty, since the law for the citizen (lid not apply to him, the magistrate fell back upon the rules ■which ho found prevailing among all the jicoplcs with which he was acquainted. .\s these regulations were thus common, and not local and particular, it necessarily followed that they were based upon some universal principles, and were not as arbitrary and technical as the corresponding rules of the Koman civil law. The notion thus introduced from an actual observation of the neighboring peojiles was greatly extended in subsequent times, until at length, under the philosophical jurists of the early empire, the jun ;/cii(iiim came to be considered as synonymous with absolute right, justice, and equity. Again, it frequently happened, cs- jiecially after trade and commerce had sprung up, that in controversies between citizens questions would arise that were not covered by any existing rule of the Koman civil law, and the magistrate would be required to exercise his legislative function. Here also in creating the new rule ho naturally invoUeil the broader and juster doctrines which he had introduceil while adjudicating upon the rights of strangers. There thus existed in the administration of justice two widely different systems: (1) the original civil law of Rcmie, which was enforced against the citizen in all cases that were expressly provided lor by its rules or that could be fairly brought within their operation ; and (2) a boily of rcgidations contained in the prajtorian edict, prim,arilv applicable to persons who were not citizens, but afterwards extended to citizens, and enforced in all cases where the former system was silent. The internal growth of the Roman jurisprudence as a whole, as a single munici- pal law for the Roman state, consisted in the steady ex- pansion and development of the latter branch under the edictal legislation of the pra'tors and the scientific labors of the later jurists, until it finally displaced and completely absorbed the original civil law, of which no traces are left in the compilations of .Justinian. This statement may be illustrated by a reference to a few of the most important divisions. So far as it is concerned with primary rights, the Roman law is separated into three grand departments: (1) the status of per.«ons; (2) things as the objects of rights: and (3) obligations. In the primitive period tho status of persons formed by far the most important de- partment of the national jurisprudence. The peculiar feature of the early society around which all rights and duties were grouped was the family. Its head was the paterfamiUitt. It included his wife, all of his descendants who iiad not been emancipated or transferred to another by marriage, the wives of his male descendants, all persons incorporated into it by adoption, and the slaves. The legal authority of the paterfamilias was prodigious, and em- braced three distinct branches— the paternal power (pntca- tas), the marital power (maii»«). and the power over things (rfomriiriim). Ho was thus tho legal representative head of his wife and children, and other descendants; all their labors and acquisitions within the sphere of private affairs belonged to him. Even the tics of relationship, and tho rights'and capacities incident thereto, were not determined by tho common descent and a common blood, but by tho subjection to a common paternal power. This primitive condition of tho family, of which a slight outline only h.a3 been given, was gradually changed ; the paternal and tho marital powers diminished, and finally disappeared, and tho family as exhibited in the books of Justinian is sub- stantially" the same as in the modern law. The early rules of property were to the last degree arbitrary and unjust. Tho strictly legal property in things, the only one recog- nized bv tiie civil law {ilomiiiium c.r jure ijniiitiim), could only beacquired, held, or transferred by a citizen. Things as the subjects of property were separated into two classes — rm mnnripi and res nee maitcipi, the former embracing land in Roman territory, slaves, horses, cattle, and beasts of burden, and the latter all other things. To constitute a valirl transfer, oven between citizens, of articles belong- ing to the first class, required the observance of certain exceedingly technical formulas termed "mancipation," or a constant possession for one year called "usucapion.' A stranger could acquire legal property (ilomhiinm) in no manner. These unjust and arbitrary rules of the civil law were utterly abrogated by the prretorian legislation. By inventing, protecting, and enforcing a species of property denominated in boniSf which was based upon principles of justice and equity, and which could be held in things of all kinds, and acquired and transferred in simple and natural modes, this entire department of the law was revo- lutionized, and became the comprehensive and complicated system suited to a wealthy and commercial people. In the primitive condition of the law obligations resulted cither from ci>ntracts or from delicts. The rudeness and tcchni- calitv which characterized other parts of the system were especially ]>rominenl in all that related to contracts. Four classes alone were recognized as binding — that is, as raising any obligation — and these did not depend upon good faith, or a valuable consideration, or any other element of riglit and equity, but upon a compliance with the prcseribcJ forms. These four classes were — (1) Those made by the thing (re), which became binding by a delivery of the thing to which they related; of which class there were four species — loan (wiidmui), where the same amount was to bo returned; com.iintliilniii, where tho very thiug loaned was to bo returned ; deposit (dcpuiiliim), and pledge (;)cj- tinc). (2) Those made by words (verbit). These were executory agreements, v/hich became binding by the use of certain specified words put in the form of a question and answer. (•") Those made by letters (/i'(c/i»), which became binding by tho entry of a memorandum in the do- mestic books of account of the parties. (4) Those made by con.'^cnt {consensu), which became binding by the mere consent of tho parlies, without any formalities. Of this class four species alone existed — sale, hiring, partnership, and a kind of bailnietit. The changes wrought by the pr;etorian legislation in tho law of contract were more numerous and important than those made in any other department. In tho place of these few and arbitrary rules a system was built up which, with a few special additions, is sufiicicnt for all the business and commercial transactions of modern society. John Xobton Pomeuoy. Law, .llunicipal. See Municip.vl Law, by Pnor. T. \V. i>\viGHT, LL.D. Law (.\XDRF.W), b. in Connecticut about 1V4S ; graduated at Brown University 1773; became a clergyman, and was for forty years a teacher of music ; published a Cotleetion of Hymn-Tunes (17S2), The Hndiments of Music (1783), The 'Musical Maijitzine (1792), and The Art of Singing (3 parts. 1803). He was author of tho well-known tune " .-Irchdale." invented four characters to express the four syllables of music, and was one of the earliest .\mericnn musical composers. D. at Cheshire, Conn., in July, 1821. Law (EnsirxD), I>. D., b. near Cartmel, Lancashire, England, iu 17Ua ; was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge, of which he was chosen fellow upon graduation in 1723; obtained the rectory of tiraystoek, Cumberland, in 1723; became archdeacon of Carlisle in 1743. master of Peterhouso College, Cambridge, in 17i4, librarian of the university, professor of casuistry, anil archdeacon of Lin- coln soon afterward, prebendary of Durham in l"fi7, and bishop of Carlisle in 1768. D. at Rose Castle, Carlisle, Au<'. 14, 17S7. Bishop Law was one of the most learned and liberal prelates and acute metaphysicians of his age; translated from the L.atin Archbishop King's Essay on (he Origin of Eeil (1731). with copious notes: wrote an En- qitiri/ into the Ideas of Space and Time (1735), Considera- tions on the Theory of Itcligion (1745), and IteJIeclionB on the li/'c and Character of Christ ( 1 749). lie published an edition of the Works of John Locke (1777), with a biogra- phy of that philoso]ihcr, of whom he was an admirer and follower. His Considerations, " a work of singular beauty," was often reprinted, and was edited in 1820, with a Life by Dr. Paley. — llis eldest son, Eowaud, was the first Lonn E'LLKNiionouGn (which see); another son, GnoiicE llExnY (17C1-1S45), became bishop of Chester in 1812 and of Bath and Wells in 1824; and a third son became bishop of Elphin. Law (John), of Lauriston, b. in Edinburgh, .Scotland, Apr. 21. 1071, oldest son of a goldsmith and money-changer who accumulated a fortune and bought the large estate of Lauriston. which John inherited, deriving from it his title. .•\t the a^c of twenty Law settled in London, and soon be- came prominent in financial circles, though addicted to gambling and dissipation. Having killed an antagonist in a duel (1094), ho was condemned to death, but escaped from prison anil took refuge in France, travelling thence into Italy and Holland, and was for some time connected with a banking-house in Amsterdam. Returning to Scotland in 17tlO, ho published a pamphlet advocating a state bank, but as the project met with no favor at home, he presented it to the French government, with the same result, .\nother pamphlet was issued on the same subject in 1705. For sev- eral years Law led a wandering life in European capitals, gainin" large sums at the gaming-table, until the death of Louis XIV. in 1715 opened a field for his grand scheme. The kingdom was burdened with an enormous debt, and the regent caught at a plan which promised unlimited gain to the state. A private "general bank," with a capital of fi, 000.000 livres, was chartered under letters patent of May 2, 1710. and began to emit vast quantities of notes, redeem- able in specie, discounting bills of exchange, and accepting at par the government paper, then at SO per cent, discount. The national credit and the general prosperity immediately received an immense stimulus: the vicious principles in- volved were not at first detected. Law was hailed as a na- i tional benefactor, and in a few months had issued notes for LAW— LAWN. l(i.s:] nearly 20,000.000. But their circulation was limited to a few large cities, until in Apr., 1717. the government decreed that Law's notes should he accepted in payment of impost?. Another feature was added to the scheme in Aujr.. 1717. by the formation of the celebrated iMi8:<issippi or West India Company, with a capital of lOO.OOU.dOO livrcs, a monop- oly of tr:ul'? witii Canada, and sovereign rights over the ter- ritory c)f Louisiana, which was to be colonized upon a vast scale. Parliament was hostile, and in Aug., 1718. prohib- ited the receipt of Law's bank-notes in payment of taxes; D'Argenson. president of the council (tf finances, lent his patronage to a rival Western company called the yl;i/j'- Si/9trm, but Law's star was still in the ascendant, and the decree of Parliament was declared invalid by judicial in- terposition. By royal edict of J)cc. 4, 17IS, the "general bank" was transformed into a roi/nl hauK-, with Law as director and the king as security. Another edict of May, 1719, conferred a monopoly of East Indian and African trade upon the favored organization, which now absorbed the EatJt India Company, took tlio name of '' (^onipany of the Indies." augmented its capital, and undertook to pay the national debt, agreeing to lend the kiug 10,000,000.00*0 livres at ,1 per cent. Au unexampled fever of specula- tion now carried the shares to .10 or 40 times their original value, antl nearly 20,000,000,000 in notes were issued. On Jan. .'>, 1720, Law received the appointment of oontroller- gencral of the finances, and in Xlarch he united the royal bank to the Company of the Indies. It was in the conver- sion of paper demanded by this colossal operation that the utter bankruptcy of the company was first perceived. The government, becoming alarmed, issued an edict deposing Law from tho controllership, abolishing the bank, and de- priving the company of its home monopolies and its connec- tion with the state revenues. As a commercial corporation tho company struggled for existence during several months, and disappeared in November. In December, La\v quitted Frani'c. carrying with him only a few hundred !ouis-d'or, and loatleil with the public execration. lie travelled on tho Continent for some lime, returned to fireat Britain by per- mission of tho ministry, received a pardon for his early crime, was presented at court, and entertained illusive hopes of repairing the disasters of the " system." in which he pre- served a genuine confidence. A friend in France, the mar- quis dc Lassay, gave him for some years a pension of 20,000 livres. He gradually fell into obscurilj', and d. in poverty at Venice Mar. 21, 1720, His remains wore buried in the church of iSan Gemiano. from which tliey were trans- ferred in 1808 to that of Sau Moise by the celebrated Mar- shal Law, a grandson of his brother, who founded in Franco a noble family, still flourishing under the namo of Law t>£ Lai'risto.v. Tho complete works of John Law were trans- lated for tho first time into French in 1790. They were re- printed in 1^12, and liavo since been inserted in the great collection of tho writings of the principal economists and financiors of the eighteenth century, published by M. Guil- laumin, (See Thicrs'a Ifistoire fie Law {ISitS) ; John P. World's Mrmoira of the Life of Jtthn Law (1824); and Mackay's Mcmoirt of Extraordinary Popnlnr JJehiaiont (1850).) (See Mississii'i'i Sciiemk.) Porter C. Bliss. Law (John), b. in New London, Conn., in 170G, was son of Lyman : graduated at Yale t'ollege 1814 ; admitted to the bar in 1817; emigrated to Indiana and located at Vincennes, where ho was successively elected prosecuting attorney, member of the legit^laturo (I82.*t). and judge, holding tho latter office eight years. In iS.'iR he was ap- pointed receiver of public moneys: in ISTiS, judge of tho court of land claims ; removed to Evansville ; was elected in I8rtO a member of Congress, and re-elected in 18C2. IIo drew up and reported the bill assigning a jiension to tho surviving soldiers of the Revolution, and has been presi- dent of the State Historical Society. Lnw (Jon ATI! vn), b. at Milford., Conn.. Aug. fi, lrt74 ; gratliiatcil at Harvard in lOlt;*; studied law, and practised at Milford. and was a magistrate for more than thirty yeiir^, having been ehief-justice from I72j to 1741, and governor froui 1741 until his death in May, 174L l.nw (Lyman), b. at Xew Lomlon. Conn., Aug. 10,1770 ; graduated at Yale College 1701 : studied law with his f.ither. Uichard ; served in tho State legislature, of which ho wa--r at one lirac Speaker, and was a Represi'ntativo in Congri'ss 1811-17. 1). at New London Feb. .1, IS42. Law (UirHARh). LL.I)., b. at Milford, Conn.. Mar. 17, 17.'i:!. sin of Gov. Jonathan; graduated at Yule Cidlego in 17Jl ; Htuilieil law, and practised at New liomlon. where he , be.'.inie chief judge; delegate to Continental Congress 1777-78 and 1781-84; mayor of New Londtm for more than twenty years; justice tind ehief-juslieo of supremo court of State, and district judge by appointment of Wash- ington. He aided Roger Sherman in revising tho Connec- ticut code of statute law. B. at New London Jan. 20, IbOO. Law (WiLi.iAsi), b. at King's Cliffe. Northamptonshire, England, in IfiSC; was admitted into Emmanuel College, Cambridge, 1705; became a fellow of that college 1711 ; graduated as M. A. 1712; took orders in the Church of England, and preached for a time in London, but on the accession of the house of Brunswick to the throne (1711) forfeited his fellowshij) and bis prospects of advancement in the Church by refusing, as a Jacobite, to take tho oath of allegiance. He never again officiated in public as a ctergynian. In 1717 the bishop of Bangor, Dr. Benjamin Iloadley, having in a sermon before the king given rise to tho famous "Bangorian controversy" by attacking the non-jurors, Law wrote in reply 7'firee Letters to Bishop Hoadlejf, remarkable for their close reasoning and com- mand of language, which placed him at once in the front rank of the defenders of authority both in Chundi and State. In 1724 he wrote one of the best of the numerous replies to Mandeville's Fnhlc of the livrn (republished with introduction by Rev. F. D. Maurice, 1S44), and in 1729 his masterpiece, the Srrioun Cull to u Ihrout and J/ffif Life — .a work fo which Dr. Johnr^on attributed his eon\crsion, which had great influence upon the brothers "Wesley, and which elicited the warmest praise even from the pens of tho historians Gibbon and Maeaulay. Shortly before this lime Law became tutor to Edward (iibbou, father of the historian, accompanied his pupil to Oxford, and was for several years a member of liis family at Putney. Between the years 17.'J.1 and 17.'U» be became acquainted with the writings of the German mystic Jakob Biihrne, and adopted his teachings, which influenced the treatises On the Sao-n- meH((1737), Christ ion liriji neration (17'iO), and his numerous other tracts. In 1740 a wealthy widow lad}', Mrs. Ilutcho- son, and Miss Hester Gibbon, sister of his pupil, resolved to spend their lives in a quasi-conventual manner, devoting their fortunes to charity, aud engaged the services of Law as chaplain and almoner. The three thenceforth resided at King's Clifl"e, and Law now prepared a series of works ex- pounding tho doctrines of Biihrne ; these were The Woif to J)iviue Knowledge (1740), The Spirit of Prayer, and 'The Spirit of Love. He also wrote some illustrative materials for a translation of tho works of Bohmc executed liy the ladies above na?ned, but published after bis death under the name of Law (4 vols., 1701-Sl). Ho d. at King's ClifTo Apr. 0, 17{)1. In the following vear his collected works were pub- lished in 9 vols. (See hi's Life, by R. Tighe (18i:i). aud a volume of Notes and Materials for bis biography, printed for the Theosophian Library, 1800.) LaAVes (Hknrv), b. about IfiOO at Salisbury, England. where his father, Thomas Lawcs, was vicar-choral in tho cathedral. Educated as a classical musician under the in- structions nf .John Cooper, he became about l(i2.'> one of the "gentlemen of the royal chapel" to Charles I., and acquired celebrity as a composer of music for masques and songs. Milton's Mamptc of f'omnn was set to music and brought out under his personal dirfction at Luillow Castio in 16u4. an<l the great poet. prolial!ly a pupil of Lawes in music, bestowed upon him extraordinary eulogies in sev- eral of his poems. Waller, Herrick, and Phillips wrote of him in a similar strain, and were indebteil to him for tho populari/.ati<»n of many of their songs. The music of Lawes was of the Italian style, and was of very unequal merit. IIo was a royalist; remaine<l in the service of the king as "clerk of the cheque" until 1010. and composed the anthem for the coronation of Charles II. He published in lOj^ Ayrca and JJialtnjitcn,fnr f)nr. Tiro, and Thrrr I ot<Ti, comprising l.'iO pieces. D. at London in Oct., lliG2, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. — Hiselderbr(»tber, Wii.mam Lawks, also a gentleman of tho chapel, and killed at the siege of Chester, was associated with Henry in several of his musi- cal undertakings, eomp(t-ied the music for Sandys's verj^ion of the Psalms (1648), and for many songs of that period. Lawler (Joab), b. in North Candina June 12. 1700; was educated for the ministry, and became a Baptist cler- gyman ; served from 1820 to 18;tl in tho lower house of the Alabama legislature ; was elected Slate senator IS.'H ; was receiver of public moneys I8;i2-.'tr), treasurer of the I'ni- versilv of Alabama |8:t;{, nnd elected to Congress in 1834, D. at "Washington, D. C. May 8, 1838. Lnw'lcfj jjost-v. of Chickasaw CO., la., on the Chicago Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R. Pop. about 400. Lawn, from the Old Knglish Intend, nn open clear place, meant formerly an open space between woods, but is now mostly restricted to a space of ground covered with gra^s for orniinieutal purposes. In order lo produce a thick - turfed, dark-green, velvety lawn, the soil, especially if light, should lie well provided with manure, and worked so deeply as to allow the plant to e.^tend its roots bel<»w tho stratum generally reached by a surface-drought. The seed used should bo a mixture of red-top and while clover, in the proportion of three parts of thu former to one of tho 1684 LAW OF NATIONS— LAWRENCE. latter; but it is not recommended to mix the Rrass-seed I with that of some grain, which is often done. The idea is to produce shade for the young grass-plant, but the effect really is that it is starved. A third and indispensable condition is frequent mowing — once a week, at least once every two weeks, and each spring a little top-dressing, es- pecially on any poor spot. I,nw of \ations. See Internation.4L Law. Law of Storms. See Storms. Law'rance (.Toun), b. in Cornwall, England, in 1760; caiuc to New Yorlc in 1707 ; was admitted to the bar in 1772 ; w,as aide-de-camp to Washington in 1777, and judge- advocate at the trial of Major Andr€ : member of old Con- gress 178.i-8fi. of the new Congress 1789-0.3 ; U. S. district juilge 1791-96; U. S. Senator 1795-1800; presiding over the Senate in 1798. He was a zealous defender of Wash- ington and Hamilton. D. at New York Nov. 10, 1810. Law'rcnce, county of N. W. Alabama. Area, S.'iO square miles. It is bounded N. by the Tennessee River. The S. part is a high plateau. As a whole, it is a very fer- tile county. Cotton, corn, and live-stock are largely pro- duced. The county is traversed by the Memphis and Charleston R. R. Cap. Moulton. Pop. 16,6.i8. Lawrence, county of N. E. .\rkansps. Area, 540 sqtiare miles. It is a fertile Wooded plateau, with ridges and rich alluvial valleys. Cotton and grain are proiluced. The county has rich ores of iron, copper, zinc, and lead. It is traversed bv Black River and by the Cairo and Fulton U. R. Cap.' Powhatan. Pop. 5981. Lawrence, county of S. E. Illinois, bounded E. by the Wabash River, which separates it from Indiana. Area, 400 square miles. It is partly uneven and partly level, with ccmsiderable timber and some swamps. It is traversed by the Euibarras River and by the Ohio and Mississippi and the Cairo and Vincennes R". Rs. The soil is fertile. Cat- tle, grain, and wool are staple products. Cap. Lawrence- ville. Pop. 12,53:i. Lawrence, county of S. Central Indiana. Area, 444 square miles. Its surface is broken and well timbered. The soil is productive. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. Coal is found in some places. The county is traversed by the E. branch of White River and by the Ohio and Mississippi and the Louisville New Albany and Chi- cago R. Rs. Cap. Bedford. Pop. 14,028. Lawrence, ccmnfy of E. Kentucky, bounded E. by West Virgiuia. Area, 642 square miles. It is mountain- ous, with fertile valleys. Corn is the chief farm product. Coal is found in great quantities and of superior quality. The navigable Big Sandy River washes its E. border. Cap. Louisa. Pop. 8497. Lawrence, county of S. Central Mississippi. Area, 581) square miles. It is gener.ally fertile. Corn, rice, and cotton are staple products. The county is traversed by the Pearl River. Cap. Monticello. Pop. 6720. Lawrence, county of S. W. Missouri. Area, 576 square miles. It is undulating and in part billy, with a large area of timber-land. Copper, lead, and iron ore have been found. The soil is good. Live-stock, grain, tobacco, and wool are staple products. The county is traversed by the .\tlantic and Pacific R. R. Cap. Mt.'Vernon. Pop. 1.1.067. Lawrence, county of S. Ohio, bounded S. E. and S. \V. by the Ohio River, .-irea, 400 square miles. It is uneven, but fertile, (train and tobacco are staple crops. Coal and iron are mined, the latter very extensively. Iron, charcoal, and cooperage are leading manufactures. The county is traversed by the Iron R. R. Cap. Ironton. Pop. "1,;!80. Lawrence, county of Pennsylvania, bounded W. by Ohio. .\roa. 42."> square miles. It is uneven, but fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. Lumber and flour are leading manufactures. Coal and iron ore are mined. It is traversed by Beaver River and its affluents, and by the Erie and Pittsluirg and the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. Rs. Cap. Newcastle. Pop. 27,298. Lawrence, county of Tennessee, bounded S. by Ala- bama. Area, Olio square miles. Its surface is mostly high, healthy, and productive. Oraiu and tobacco arc staple products. There is abundant water-power. Iron is mined to some extent. Cap. Lawrenccburg. Pop. 7601. Lawrence, tp. of Sanford co., Ala. Pop. 5:!7. Lawrence, tp. of Lawrence co., Ark. Pop. 244. Lawrence, tp. of Lawrence eo., 111. Pop. 1492. Lawrence (.Sedan P. 0.). a v. of Richl.and tp.. He Kalb CO., Ind., on the Michigan Southern R. K. (.\ir-liue divis- ion). Pop. 176. Lawrence, post-v. and tp. of Marion co., Ind., on the Cleveland Cincinnati and Indianapolis R. R. Pop. 2360. Lawrence, city, cap. of Douglas co., Kan., on both sides of the Kansas River, at the junction of the Kansas Paciiic with the Leavenworth Lawrence and Kausas U. R., 3S miles S. W. of Leavenworth, has 17 churches, 2 national ancl 'i other banks, a public library, ,'i daily. 2 tri-wcekly, and 4 weekly newspapers, and is the seat of the State I'ui- versity. Lawrence is the second city of the State, both as to ]iopulation and wealth : has a dam across the Kansas River nearly completed, which will afford 3000 horse- power, the largest pork-packing establishment in the State, a woollen-factory, iron-foundries, machine-shops, planing and llouring mills, tanneries, and a large nunil>er of mer- cantile houses. Si.x railroads centre here, affording low freights ami easy communications in all directions. Law- rence has had an eventful history. It was founded in 1854 in the midst of the struggle for a free State, and was the bead-quarters of John IJrowu, Lane, Robinson. Con- way, and other noted leaders. It was burned in 1863 by the Quantrell raid, but has been rebuilt, and is now one of the most beautiful and enterj)risiug cities of the ^Vcst. Pop. 8320. T. D. TnAciiF.ii, Ed. " I)AiLV JotRNAI.." Lawrence, city and one of the caps, of Essex co., Mass., on both sides of the Merrimack River, 26 miles N. W. of Boston, on the Boston and Maine, the Lowell and Lawrence, and the Manchester (N. 11.) and Lawrence R. Rs., was until 30 years ago an almost uuiuhabited waste, forming portions of the towns of Andover and Jlethucn. The river in its natural condition floweil over a bed of rooks at this pla^e, having a descent of 26 feet, without any sudden fall, for the distance of about half a mile, af- fording unrivalled water-power, which in 1845 led to its selection for a uianufajturing centre. By the efforts of .Vbbott Lawrence, Nathan Appleton, and other enterpris- ing capitalists of the State, the Essex Company was incor- porated in that year, proceeded to construct a dam of solid granite across the rapids, and opened a canal 90 feet wide and U miles long for the utilization of the water. This dam, 900 feet long and 40 feet high, one of the most sub- stantial constructions in New England, was completed Oct. 14, 1847, at a cost of $250,000, and on Feb. 24, 1848, the first wheel was set in motion by water from the canal, since which time the industries of the place have acquired a rapid and almost unexampled development. A second canal has recently been built, on the opposite side of the river. The most important establishment? are the Atlantic cotlon-inills. capital $1,500,000, employing 1800 looms and 1400 operatives; Pacific Mills, capital $2,500,000, employ- ing about 5000 operatives: and the Washington Mills, cap- ital $1,650,000, 1265 looms, and 2900 operatives. Other prominent establishments are those of the Lawrence duck and woollen mills, Hoadley steam-engine works, the Ev- erett and Pemberton mills (cotton and woollen), .Arlington woollen, Russell, and other paper mills. The Pacific mills occupy a vast area; their buildings are of colossal dimen- sions and considerable architecturiil beauty, this company being noted for the educational and social advantages it offers to its operatives with its fine library (6000 volumes), reading-room, relief societies, and hospitals for the sick and aged. The original Pemberton mill, a brick structure, suddenly fell Jan. 10, 1800, burying 700 persons in its ruins, of whom 91 wore killed or mortally injured. The new building is very strongly built. The city received its name in honor of the Lawrence family, its principal found- ers : was incorporated as a town .Vpr. 19. 1847, and as a city Mar. 21, 1853; has 21 churches, 3 national and 3 sav- ings banks, 2 daily and 4 weekly newspapers, 59 public schools (graded), a public library (14,000 volumes), very fine high and grammar school-houses, a beautiful common (17 acres, with miniature lake) and park, excellent water- works and fire department, court-house, city-hall. Masonic temple. Odd Fellows' and music hall, several institutions of public and private beneficence, numerous manufactures of machinery, carriages, hardware, and flour; an assessed valuation of" $24,1 17,373, a large proportion of which con- sists of capital invested in manufactures, which afford em- ployment to nearly 15,000 operatives. The prosperity and enterprise of Lawrence are notable phenomena of Amer- ica. Pop. in 1850, 82S2; 1860, 17,039; 1870, 28,921. Oeobgi! S. MEnaiLL, Ed. " Daily Amehicas." Lawrence, postv. and tp. of Van Buren co., Mich., 9 miles W. from Paw Paw. It has 1 weekly newspaper. Pop. of V. 555; of tp. 1927. liawrence, tp. of Mercer co., N. J. Pop. 2251. Lawrence, tp. of St. Lawrence co.. N. Y. It is level and very fertile, contains several flourishing villages and 7 churches, and is traversed by the Ogdensburg and Lake Champbiin R. R. Pop. 2577." Lawrence, tp. of Lawrence co., 0. Pop. 1245. Lawrence, tp. of Stark co., 0. It contains Canal FtLTox (which see). Pop. 3366. ' o.„.:„„rM Lawrence Station (N. LAWRENCE. UiSry Lawrence P. 0.) is on tho Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chi- cago U. U. Lawrence, tp. of Tuscarawns co., 0. Pop. 1-179. J>a\vrencCy post-tp. of Washington co., 0. Pop. 28C0. J*nu reuoe, (p. of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 1720. Ijawrence, tp. of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 1/57. Lawrence, tp. of Brown co., Wis. Pop. 7oO. liftAVrence, Saint. Sec L,vi iikntiis, Saint. Lawrence (Abbott), LL.D., b. at tiroton, Mass., Dec. Ifi, I7'J-. His father, Samuel Lawrence (1754-1827), was a Revolutionary officer. Abbott Lawrence studied iu the academy at Groton, and became iu 1S1)S a clerk, and in ISII a p:irtner in tho dry-goods business of his brother Amos iu itiiston. In this business he often visited Europe. He was an early advocate of the protective taritl", engaged Iarg<dy in manufacturing, and was ouo of tho principal founders of tho city of Lawrence, Mass. He was a member of Congress ls;jj-;{7 and lS;jU-n ; was in lSt2 a commis- sioner to settle the Aroostook boundary (question; U. S. minister to (ireat Britain IS4'J-J2. He founded tho Law- rence Sjientific School of Harvard University, founded scholarships and prizes in public schools, and was a Iil)cral benefactor of tho Oroton Academy, now known by his name. Jle was liberal in ail philanthropic and charitable causes. He received in 18j t the honorary degree of LL.D. from Harvard University. U. at Uo.«ton .Aug. 18. 1S.'>5. Lawrence (Amos), b. at Groton. iMa^s., Apr. 20, 1780, and studied in the academy of his native place. In IS07 he set M\t a mercantile business in Boston, and in 181-1 his brother Abbott became his partner. Ho acquired a largo fortune, wliich he freely and unostentatiously employed fur tho good of the public and of individuals, bestowing in tlic most unobtrusive and noiseless way hundreds of thou- ■^ands of dollars for benovolent uses. D. in Boston, Mass., Dec. 31, 1852. (See Extntrf/i from hia Ifittn/ and (\n-rc- gjiomience, tcith Memoir by W. K. Lawrence, his son, 18J5.) Lawrence (Eioknr), b. in New York Oct. 10, 182:i; graduated at New Vork University in 1^41; has written Liir<i of liritinh UiHturi(ttnt. and is a vulumimuis contributor to Harpers' periodicals, chieMy upon subjects connected with the political inUuence of the Roman Catholic Church, of which he is an earnest opponent. Lawrence (Gkoiujk Alfhko), b. in 1827 in England; was educated at Rn^by und iJaliol College, Oxford, where he graduated with honors in ISIS; was ndniitted to tho bar: author of (/cy Livi)n/»tfnir, Strmd tmd (i'unt. Unrrcn Jlouof, and other popular novels. D. Sept. 21, 1876. Lawrence (Sir Hkvuy Montoomery), b. at Matura, Ceylon, June 28, ISIifi: studied at tho Military Co!Iet;c at AdJiscombe; went to India in 1x21 as a cadet in tlie Ben- gal artillery; took part in the Af(;han war in lSl;t; was acnt in the same year as British resident to Khatmandooj participated in the Sutlej campaign ; was resident at La- hore from 1810 to I'^ltt; thr-u chief' of the board of admin- istration in the Punjanb, agent of the governor-general in Rnjpootana ( 1S52). ari'l in 1S.'>7 commisr^ioner in Oudc. He eondiictecl tho memorablo defence of tho British residency at liUcUnow againj't the mutineers, until on .luly 2 ho was mortally wounded, and tl, at Lueknow .July 1, 1857. (Soo his At/V, by Kdwardes and Merivale. London, 1872.) Lawrence (Cnpt. Jamks), b. at Burlington, N. J.. Oct. 1. 17*^1 : entered tho V. S. navy as a tnidshipuian in 17'.I8; became lieutenant in 1S02; took part in the war with Tripoli (181)1-05); was appointed in 181(1 to tho command of tho Hornet ( IS), with the rank of master-commandant ; cruised in Com. Bainbridj^e's squadron on the South American coast at the clo«e of 1SI2. anil on Feb. 21, 18i;{, captureil, near the mouth of tho Heincrara River, the British sloo]i- of-war Pencrick ( 18), after an engagement of liftcen min- ute?. Tho Peacock had six feet of water in her hold when she surrendered, and went down immediately after with a number of men of both crews. Returning to New Vork with these prisoners, and those of several other prijtes, Lawrence received from Congress a gold medal, was pro- moted to bo captain (Mar. 4),an<l commander of the frigate Chesapeake. On Juno I, while ho was lying in Boston harlinr, tho British frieate Shannon (:!8), Capt. P. V. Broke, came iu si^ht with tho express design of fiyhiinK the Chesa- peake. Capt. Lawrence aeeepteil the implied challenge, liut both he and his principal onieers were soon mortally woun'led, antt the Chesapeake, lieing mueb disabhvL was taken by assault, anil carried into Halifax, where he d. July 5, ISLJ. Hi8 exclamation on being carried below, " Don't give up tho ship!" became a household word in the U. S. Lawrence (Jasos Vai.i:nti\k 0*Ruikn1. M. D.. b. in New Orleans. La., in 1791; grailuated in medicine at the University of Pennsylvania in 1816, having previously for some time been house-physician to the Pennsylvania Hos- pital. After securing a lucrative practice in New Orleans he returned to Philadelphia, where in 1822 he gave a six months' course of lectures on anatomy and surgery, and prepared for the press a work on morbid anatomy. I>. Aug. 19, 182."L His p.apers were published in tho Phila. Jour, of Med. (uid Pliyn, Sciences. P.\UL F. EVK. Lawrence (John Laikh Mair), D. C. L., Baron, b. at Riehm«)nd, Yorkshire. England, Mar. 4, 1811 ; was edu- cated at Haileybury College, where he became proficient in Oriental languages and laws; went to India in 1S2'J us a cadet in the Bengal civil service; filled various subordi- nate administrative and judicial posts, and in 1840, after the first Sikh war, was called to tho responsible office of chief commissioner of the Punjanb, becoming lieutenant- governor in 1819. In this post, which he retained many years, Lawrence displayed rare talent in the government of a naturally turbulent race, and with such perfect success that the Punjaub, far from joining the mutiny of ls.')7, as was anticipated, was able to send forces of Siklis and Pun- jabees to the relief of Delhi. His co-operation with Can- ning, Havelock, Outnun. and Cly<lc for the suppression of the mutiny was of inestimable value, and gave him popu- lar fame as '* the saviour of India." Having returned to England in 1858, the last special court of directors of the East India Company, on the eve of its abolition, conferred a pension of £2000 upon Lawrence, who also received a baronetcy, and was sworn of the privy council. He was viceroy of India from I8fi;j to 1868, and was created a baron 'in KSOy. D. June 27, 1879. Lawrence (Sir Thomas), b. in Bristol, England, in 1709; d. Jan. 7. 1880. His father was a tavern-keeper. When a mere child he made sketches in chalk ; at ten he used the crayons with skill ; at seventeen he painted in oil ; ho was but thirteen when he received a silver palette and five guineas from the Society of Arts for a copy of The Traniifitjurutiou ; at the age of twenty-two, being younger than the rules required, he was made a" supplementary as- sociate" of the Royal Academy, and paintetl portraits of tho king and queen : in 1794 he was elected an academician ; in 1815 he was knighted: in 1820 he became jiresidcnt of the Academy. Lawrence came to London in 1789. Reynolds befriended him with counsel and influence, and so diligent was he that during his first year in London he exhibited at Somerset House seven portraits of women. Flattered by his success in ])ortraits, Lawrence was moved by an ambition to attempt historical painting, and produced Sntun Sitwrnnuitiff hit LcyjouK, the subject taken from Milton; but, thfuigh the picture was praised by his admirers, its recep- tion did not justify his abandonment of the department in which he so far cxcelleil all otliers. The most distinguished men and women of the time sat to him; his prices were high, rising in 1810 to 100 guineas for heads and 400 for fill I -lengths — more than thrice his earlier charges. In 1814 tho princo regent commissioned Lawrence to paint the sovereigns, generals, and statesmen who were in league against Napoleon. The famous Waterloo gallery at ^Vind- sor is the result. In \'ienna he jtainted the emperor of Austria; in London he painted Bliichcr and Plaloff; in Rome he painted Pius VI I. and Cardinal iionsalvi. Honors were showered on him at home und abroad; foreign acade- mies elected him to menibcr>bi}p : he was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honor. A handsome person and elegant manners nidetl Sir Thomas in his profession with tho no- bility and peojilc of wealth. His jdctures are remarkable I for richness of c(dor, a mingled stdtness and splendor that was of great eiTect. particularly in the portraits of women, which ore preferred to those of men. So great was tho fame of Lawrence that a school of art was formed nfler his example, but of late years his fame has been declining. (See J/' f»o/r* «"(/ forrc*y>wti(/t'Hcc, by I). E.Williams, Lon- don, 18:il, 3 vols.) 0. B. Frothingiiam. Lawrence (Timothy Bigki.ow), b. in Boston, Mass., Nov. 2.5. 1>»20, a son of Abliott Lawrence; graduated at Harvard in 1810; was an attaclu'' of the .American legation in London during his father's resiilence as minister at the British court, und remained in that position until IS55; was U. S. consul-general in Italy 1802-09. \). in Wash- ington, n. C., Mar. 21, 1801). Lawrence (Sir William). B \rt..F. R. S., b. at Ciren- cester, Kngland, .luly 10. I78;>; studied surgery for five years as apprentice to Dr. Abernethy ; became in his twentieth year demonstrator of anatomy at St. Bartholo- mew's Hospital; professor of anatornv and sur^rery at Iho Collegcof Surgeons (1815-191. and director »d" St. Bartholo- mew's (1819), which position he retained until lsC5. His name is intimately connected with the progress of practical surgery in En;xlan<i, to which ho made brilliant contribu- tions, described in a long series of papers in the TnmitaC' tivun of the Medical and Chirurgical Society. He was re- 1686 LAWRENCE— LAWSON. markaMe for varied attainments beyond the line of his jirofessiou : possessed an elegant literary style ; was un- rivalled OS a lecturer; was twice president of the College of Surgeons, member of a host of scientific societies, and surgeon oxtnii>rdinary to the queen, by whom he was made a baronet. His most important works were the Lrrtures on PhifHiohitjif, Zooh^ijy^ and the ^'atural Histori/ of Man (IS19: Dth ed. ISIS), the Tt-eatiee on Heniia (1807), and the Treatise on Diseases of the Ei/e (18-il), edited iu the U. S. by Dr. Isaac Hays (1347 ; new ed. 185S). Lawrence (William), b. at Mt. Pleasant, 0., June 26, ISl'J; graduated at Franklin CuUege, 0., in lSo8. and at the Law School of Cincinnati in 1840; settled at McCon- nellsville, and afterwards at Bellefontaine, 0.. and engaged with success in law-practice; edited (1846—47) the Logan Gazette, and at one time the Western Law Monthh/; was often in the senate and lower house of the Ohio legislature ; was the founder of the reform school and of the free banking law of the State; a judge of the common pleas 1850-64; for some time colonel of the 84th Ohio in the civil war; a member of Congress 1865-71 and 1873-74. Author of a work on the Ohio Civil Code, The Law of Interest and Usitri/, and comjiiled vol. xx. of the Ohio Heports. Lawrence (William Bkach). LL.D.. b. in New York Ci(y Oet. 23, ISUO : graduated at Columbia College in 1818 ; studied law in Europe; admitted to the N"ew York bar in 1S23; secretary of legation in London 1826-27; chargfi d'affaires ad interim 1827-28; resided for some time in Paris, where he made a translation of Barb^ Marbois's His- ton/ of Lonibinna, and its Cession htf France to the U. S. (1830), adding an introduction and notes. Returning to the U. S. in 1832, he delivered a course of lectures on po- litical economy at Columbia College, published in 1834; gained a prominent jiosition in his profession : was influ- ential in promoting the Erie Railway enterprise ; was vice- president of the New York Historical Society 1836-45, to ■whoso Proceeditifjs he was a frequent contributor; wrote a Historic of the Negotiations in reference to the Eastern and North-eastern boundaries o/the U. S. ( 1841 ), a brief Memoir of Albert Gallatin (1H43), a small volume on the Coloniza- tion of Xew Jersey (1843), and numerous articles in the quarterly and monthly reviews. In 1850 he became a resident of Rhode Island, where he became lieutenant- governor and acting governor in 1851, and member of the constitutional convention iu 1853. He was a member of the Social Science Congress which met at Bristol, England, in Ot;t., 1869, and lecturer on international law (1872-73) at the law school of Columbian College at Washington, I). C, in which city he has been em])loyed for several years as an advocate in cases of iuternatioiuil claims, especially those arising from the Treaty of Washington of 1^71, and has published several arguments and hrochnrcs upon that subject. His most important original works have been The Law of Charitable Uses {\^\b). Visitation and Search (1858), a Commcntarif on the Elements of International Law (in French, 3 vols., Lcipsic, 1868-73), Disabilities of American Women Married Abroad (1871), and Administration of Effiiti/ Jurisprudence {Boston, 1874). Ho is. however, best known by his valuable edition of Wheatou's ICl'-mcnts of International Law, with an introduction, memoir, and copi- ous notes (1855 : revised ed. 1803). I^nw^renceburg^ city and tp., cap. of Dearborn cc, Ind,, <tn the Ohio Kiver, 20 miles below Cincinnati, on the Ohio and Mississippi and the Indianapolis Cincinnati and Lafayette U. Rs., has 2 national banks, 2 weekly news- papers. 7 churches, the usual number of stores, several ho- tels, and a large number of furniture manufactories. It is the terminus of the White Water Canal, whieh affords ex- cellent water-power. Pop. 3159; of tp. exclusive of city, 1708. E. F. Sibley, Ed. *' Democratic Register." Lawrencebur^y post-v. and cap. of Anderson co., Ky., lU miles S. of Frankfort, on the line of the proposed Frankfort and Harrodsburg R. R., has 3 churches, a national bank, and a seminary. Pop. 393. Lawrencebur^, post-v., cap. of Lawrence co., Tenn., on the projected Memphis and Knoxvillo R. R., 20 miles W. of Pulaski and 80 S. W. of Nashville, on Shoal River. 40 miles above its confluence with the Tennessee, has 4 churches, a Catholic convent, 1 weekly ne^vs])apcr. 3 hotels, 4 large cotton-factories, and the usual number of stores. There are fine beds of iron in the vicinity. Pop. 351. Tbomas B. Malonk. Ed. " Joirnal.'* Lawrence University of Wisconsin, an institu- tion of learning in Apjdeton, Outagamie co., Wis. It was founded in 1817, the Hon. Amos A. Lawreneo of Roston, Mass., offering to give $10,000 towards the estiildishmcnt of a collegiate school, provicled an additional $10,000 should be raised by the Methodist denomination. This was done, and the first classes were formed in ilie ])repftratory depart- ment in the fall of 1849, In 1852, Rev. Edward Cooke, D. D., was elected president of the college, and entered upon the duties of his ofliee with the collegiate year begin- ning in 1853. According to the catalogue of 1873-74, the number of different students in attendance during the year was 377, of whom i<o were in the regular college classes. The whole number of graduates up to 1873 was 148, of whom about one-third wore ladies. The library of the institution was founded by the Hon. Samuel Appleton of Boston, Mass., by a donation of $10,000 ; it now comjiriscs 7000 volumes. The jiroperty of the university amounts to about $180,000. Besides the original donation of Mr. Lawrence to the foundation of the institution, he has fa- vored it with several additional gifts. Dr. Cooke resigned the presidency about 1800, and wiis succeeded by R. Z. Masi>n, LL.D., who resigned in 1805. and was succeeded by Rev. (i. M. Steele. D. D., the }>resent incumbent. The courses of instruction in the college are two, classical and scientific. There is also provision for instruction in civil engineering. In the academical department the facilities for a broad English culture and business education are ample. J. H. Worman. Law'renceville, tp. of Henry co., Ala. Pop. 1194. Lawrenceville, post-v., cap. of Gwinnett co,, Ga., 15 miles N. E. of Stone Mountain, beautifully situated in the centre of a fine cotlon-produeing district, has 2 ehurchcs, 2 academies, 1 weekly newspaper, a handsome court-house, and considerable trade. Lawrenceville, post-v. of Lawrence tp., cap. of Law- rence CO., Ill,, on the Embarras River, at the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi with the Paris and Danville R. R,, 9 miles W. of Vinceunes, has 3 churches, 2 weekly news- papers. 2 hotels, and a number of stores. Principal busi- ness, farming. Pop. 455. Mary Blntin, Ed. "Riral Republican." Lawrenceville, post-v. of Lawrence tp., fiercer co., N. J., miles N. of Trenton. It has a boys' high school and seminary for young women. Lawrenceville, post-v. of Lawrence tp., St. Lawrence CO., N. v., on the Ogdensburg and Lake Champlaiu R. R., and the seat of a fine academy. Poj). 350. LaAvrenceville, post-b. of Lawrence tp.. Tioga co,, Pa., on Cowanesque Creek, at the junction of the Corning Cowanesque and Antrim and the Tioga R. Rs. Pop. 478. Lawrenceville, post-v., cap. of Brunswick co., Va., 20 miles W. of Ilieksford Station. It has 1 weekly news- paper. Laws, tp. of Williamsburg co., S. C. Pop. 1274. Law'son (.John), a native of Scotland, who in 1700 be- came surveyor to the province of North Carolina, and in 1701) published a valuable work, A New Voyage to Caro- lina, containing the Exact Description and Natural History of that Country, etc., with a good map and accurate illus- trations. In 1712, while engaged in prosecuting his sur- veys, he was taken ]>risoner by the Tuscarora Indians, and burned at the stake as a supposed usurper of their hinds. His New Voyage was reprinted at Raleigh, N. C, in 18C0, Lawson ( L. M.). M. D., b. in Nicholas co., Ky., Sept. 10, 1S12,- graduated in 1837 at Transylvania University, where he became j»rofessor of anatomy iu 18-13. He sub- sequently filled the chair of materia mediea iu the Medical College of Ohio (1847), occupied similar posts iu the Ken- tucky School of Medicine at Louisville (1854), the Univer- sity of Louisiana at New Orleans (18(>0), returning to the Ohio College in 1857 and in ISOl. He conducted the Western L<i net/ from 1842 to 1804. edited Hope's Morbid Anatomy {1811), and published his best work, a Practical Trtatise on Phthisis PulmonaUsf in 1SG4. D. at Ciocinoati, 0., Jan. 21, I8G4. Lawson (Thomas), b. in Virginia: entered the navy in iNDil as surgeon's mate, which position he resigned in isll to take a similar position iu the army; in 1S13 was promoted to be a full surgeon, and after serving in this capacity for twenty-three years was appointed surgeon- general of the army, with the rank of colonel. This re- sponsible position he ably tilieil for a quarter of a century, during which time he labored incessantly to improve the condition of his corps, and it was under his direction that the publiention of statistics aud reports by the medical otficers of the army was inaugurated. Of a fiery, ehivalric nature, he acted as colonel of a regiment of Louisiana vol- unteers in the Florida war. and as chief medical otlieer ae-.'ompanied the general-in-chief throughout the war with Mexico, gaining the brevet of brigadier-general for bravery. D. at Norfolk. Va.. May 15, 18Gi. Lawson (Sir Wilfrid). Bart., b. in Cumberland, Eng- land, iu 1829; became at an early age an enthusiastic ad- vocate of the temperance movement; elected to Parliament for Carlisle in 1859, and introduced in Mar., 1864, the mea- LAWSOXS— LAYEKING. 1687 sure well known ns the Permissive Bill, the main principle of which \) the giving to two-thirds of the inbuhitanis of any parij'li or township an nheolutc veto npon all licenses for the sale ^if intoxitating liquors granted within their district. Defeated at the clccliou of lS(i:>, ho was returned at the head of the poll in IS6S as a supporter of (iladslone, and again elected in Foh., 1874. lie is the leader of the Inilod Kingdom Temperance Alliance, and its spokesman in Parliament, where he figures also as u frequent opponent uf Disraeli upon other subjects. Lawson's, tp. of Somerset co., Md., on Tangier and Pocomokc sounds, traversed by the Eastern Shore 11. H. Pop. 3.)49. Law'ton, post-v. of Antwerp tp.. Van Burcn co., Mich., ir, iniks .■'. W. "f Kaluiuaioo, at the junction between the .Michigan fintral and the Paw Paw li. Us., has a large blast furnace, a foundry and machine-shop, a |doughfac- torv and planing-inill. 2 wagon-sho].s. 1 weekly newspaper, several churches and schools, and the usual number of si. ires, shops, ami smaller manufacturing establishments. Tbo principal industries arc farming and fruit-raising. Poji. 1081. E. V. IIavdkn, Ed. " Tuibune." Lawton, tp. of lieaufort co., S. C. Pop. 3905. Lau'ton ((icn. Ai.KXAsnKii R.), b. in Beaufort dist. (now CO. I, S. C, about 1S20: graduated at West Point in 1339, when be was commissioned as second lieutenaul in the Ist Artillcrv, an.l stationed on the northern frontier until ISIl. Tlien resigned; studied law at Harvard Law School. Mass., and commenced the practice in Savannah in 1812. Soon rose rapidly in his profession, and was repeatcillv elected to the State legislature, first to the house and then to (he senate, where he achieved great dis- tinction. Upon the organization of the Savannah and Augusta K. H. in IS 111, he was chosen its first |iresident. In "Apr., isr.l.hewas appointed brigadier-general in the provisional army of the Confederate States, and was put in command of the coast of (icorgia. This positionhc held until June, |8ri2, when he was transferred to Virginia, where ho serveil with Stonewall .Jackson in his several campaigns: received Ihc eominand of a division, and was severely wounded at Sharpsburg, disabling him for a year, after which he served as quarlerniastcr-geiieral until the close of tho war. After the surrender in ISCa he resumed the practice of law in Savannah, which he still pursues with eminent success. Ho is also at this time (1870) a distinguished member of the legislature from the county of Chatham. A. H. Steimikn.s. Lawyer. See .\TTnnNr:Y, BAnnisTKii, Kino's Coux.sei,, Anvoi-ATK, Sii.iriTon, Pnoi-Toit, Skukeast-at-Imw. Lay (Bi-.v,iAMiN), b. at Colchester, England, in IGSl ; settled at Barbadoes in 1710; became obnoxious on ac- count of abolition principles, and being a Quaker removed to Abinglon, Pa., where ho was one of the earliest and most zealous agitators against slavery, in which connection ho was an associate of Franklin and Bcnezet. He scp.aratid from tho Society of Friends in 1717 on account of slave- holding being permilte.l lo ils nunibers, but had tho pleas- ure at a later day to see that body assume an attitude similar to his own. In 1737 ho wrote a ])ainplilet, AH Sl<irrl:rr)„;-)i llint l.ri/, ill'- Iiinnrnil hi /Inniliiiji; .■l/»o«(.((.«, printed l.y Franklin, lie oppose.l tea-drinking, distributed religious books as prizes in the schools, and mannfacturcd his own clothing, so as not lo avail himself of the products of slavo-labor. D. at Abington in 1780. Lay (IlKfiuv CiiAMi'i.iN). I). I)., LI,.D..h. at Riidimond, Va., Dec. 8, 1823: gradualed at the rniversily of Virginia in 1812, and at the Theological Seminary of Virginia; or- dained deacon .fuly 10, IS 1(1; was minister in Lynnliaven parish, Va., until .June, 1817, when ho removed to the church of tho Nativity, Hunlsville, Ala.; ordained priest July 12, 18 IS ; consecrated missionary bishop of the South-west Oct. 23, 18.)i), and translated to the diocese of Kaslon Apr. 1, 1809. liay'ainon, a priest at Krnelv on Ihc Severn River, Wori-eslersliire, England, flourisheii in the second half of Ihc Iwclflh century as the author of the llnii. a rhyming chron- icle of English history from the lime of the faliulous Brutus of Troy to tho death of King Cadwallader dlsw A. n.). His work is an amplified Inuisbitioii <ir Ilie Hrnl il' Aniilrleni: of tho Anglo-Norman pool Waco, llie nddilions being ilc- rived chiefly from the writings of Bedo and St. Augustine of Canterbury, while Waco's work is itself lillle more than a translation' of (leolTrey of Monmonlh's l,alin //i«i.,iiVi Jlril/oniim. The value of liayamon's chronicle is mainly philological. It contains ;'.2.2.iO lines, some allileralivc, hut more imitating the imperlVcl rhyme of ils Anglo-Nor- man original. Tin- best edition is that of Sir Frederic Madden, with a literal Iransliition. notes, and a grammali- cal glossary, published by the English Society of Antiquaries (3 vols., 1.847). Lay'ard ( Aistes Hen-ky), D. C. L., b. of English parents at Paris. France, Mar. 5, 1817 ; spent several years of his youth in Florence, Italy, and commenced the study of law in England. In 1839 ho undertook a course of Eastern travel extending over several years, chictly within the Turkish empire; learned Persian and Arabic; was for a time correspondent at Constantinople for a London paper ; spent many months in 1842 in cxidoring the antiquities of Susa and S. W. Persia ; and passing through Mosul, became deeply intereslcd in the cxcavalions then being made by the French consul, M. Botta, at Khorsabad, the supposed site of Nineveh. After consultations at Conslanlinople, the British minister. Sir Stratfonl (fuming, ofl"ered to as- sume a portion of the expenses of similar excavations, and Layard, returning to Mosul in lS4fi, began that scries of wonderfully successful researches which lias made the Brit- ish Museum the richest Oriental museum in the world, and laid the foundation for the reconstruction of ancient Orien- tal history by means of the copious cuneiform inscriptions. Accounts of these discoveries were given by Layard in Nhierrh and ilt JlriiiaaiK (1849). The British government in 1849 ajipointcd him attache to its legation in Constanti- nople, and ho undertook for the British Museum a second series of excavations in Assyria and Chaldea, which resulterl in another Kurk, Discoveries ammiij the Ruins of Ninercli and Itnhiilim (1863). lie also published 2 vols, of engrav- ings of the Moiiiimrnls of A'i„<-r(h ( 1849-53), and a volume of inscriptions (1851). In 18.'i2, Layard was elected to Par- liament for Aylesbury, and for a few weeks was under-see- rctary of slate for foreign affairs in Lord John Russell's administration. Ho was again on duly in the legation at Constantinople for a short time in 1853, and took an active part in tho House of Commons in the debates on Eastern questions, advocating a vigorous policy against Russian aggression. He visited the Crimea in 1854, witnessed tho battle of the Alma, and examined the condition of the army, concerning which he .soon afterward gave testimony before a parliamenlary committee, the appointment of which ho was instrumental in procuring. In 1855 he became one of the leaders of the Administrative Reform Association; was chosen lord rector of Aberdeen University in 1855 and 1S5C; was defeated at the election of Mar., 1857; spent some months in India during the great rebellion of 1857- 58; was elected to Parliament for Southwark in IsfiO, and appointed by Lord Palmerslon in July, 1801, under-sec- rctary of state for foreign affairs, holding lliat iiost until the fall of the Russell minislry in July. 1800. In that year ho became a trustee of llie British Museum ; was chief com- missioner of works and privy counsellor in (lladslono's administration (Dec., IS08I until in Nov., 1809, ho accepted the post of envoy at Madrid, where he slill remains (1875), having rendered im]iorlaiit services, both to England and incidentally to the U. S., during the troubled period of his diiiloinatic life in Spain. Lay'cock (Thomas), M. D., h. Aug. 10, 1812, at Weth- erby, Yorkshire; was educated at London, Paris, and (!iit- tingcn, where he received degrees ; became professor of tbo practice of physic and of clinical medicine at lOdiiilnirgh 1855; physician to tho queen in Scotland 1809; wrote and observed "much upon sanitary science, physiology, mesmer- ism, insanity, etc. Author of 7'/ie AVrroii* Diseases uf H'omcli (18411), J/i'/i(/ mid Hiitin. in- ihf Vorrrltilions of Puil- srioiiswss iind Oryaniztilioii (1800; 2d ed. 1809), Method) of Mrdioil Uliser'vitlion, etc. D. Sept. 21, 1870. Lay Days, a term used in the law of shipping to de- note Ihe days allowed to llie charlerer or freighler of a vessel by Ihe terms of the cliarler-])arly for loading and unbiad- ii'ig. For detaining Ihc vessel during this slipulaled time no expense is incurred by the charterer, but if Ibis lime is exceeded he is obliged to pay lo Ihe master or owner a cer- tain sum for the aiblilional deU-nlion. the amount of which is usuallv delermincd beforehand by a provision in tho charter jiarly. The sum to bo paid is teebnically termed demurrage. '(See DEMrniiAGE.) Lay days for unloading, as a rule, commence when the vessel has arrived at Ihe usual place for discharging the cargo. When such place is a dock, they commence when she enters Ihe iloek, and not when she' reaches the wharf. The jiarlies may. however, make a special agreement as to the time when Ihey shall begin. Sometimes this depends upon usage. (See CiiAiiTiii- Paiitv.) In the absence orcusloni to the contrary, Sunday is included in Ihe compulalion of lay days al Ihe port of discharge. (ii:omir, CiiAsi:. Revised nv T. W. Dwibht. Lay'cring, or LayiiiKi the propagation of herbaceous plains by pegging down branches and covering ihe portion to be rooted wilh carlb, or of trees by bending down a low branch, )>egging it to Ihe ground, and partly covering it wilh earth. The covered part takes root, and as soon as the roots are well devclo|ied llie layer may be cut olV and planted as a new tree. It is thought that a notch cul in 1688 LAYNEZ— LEAD. the branch between the trunk of the parent tree and the covered part favors the early development uf the new roots. Laynez' (Diego), b. in 1512 at Almazan iu Castile: studied at Alcala and Paris: became the general of the Jesuits on the death of Loyola in loJ6. and d. at Home Jan. 10. 1505. He was a man of great natural gift>", and still greater attainments; played a conspicuous part in the debates of the Council of Trent and at the ast^embly uf Poissy; and left several theological works in manu- Fcripf. which, however, no one has been able to road on ac- ci^unt of the bad han<lwriting. His labor in tlie service of the order was very succospful, and his influence on the members was decisive. It is generally acknowledged that tlic peculiar .spirit which characterized the Jesuits issued from Layncz. Laz'nristSy a body of Roman Catholic missionary priests, founded by St. Vincent de Paul in 1024. The name is derived from the College of St. Lazare at Paris, their original house given them in 1():12, but their proper title is " Priests of the Mission." They are engaged in for- eign, and especially in domestic missions, and in the teach- ing of theology. They are found in most civilized and in several barlmrous countries, and have fourteen establish- ments in the U. S., including three colleges. Laz^ulite [Arab. azul. "heaven," and Or. Ai'flos, "stone"], or Azuritef a mineral composed of phosphate of alumina, magnesia, and iron, and bearing some resem- blance in color to lapis-lazuli. Lazzaro^ni [It. fazzaro, "a leper"], formerly the pop- ular name fur the lower classes of Naples, so called from the hospital of St. Lazarus, their customary plaee of refuge. The name is ultimately derived from tiiat of the beggar Lazarus iu the parable. The lazzaroni of Naples number- ed at the close of the eighteenth century nearly 40,000 per- sons, who had no fixed employment or home, but were by turns porters, boatmen, or peddlers, besides their constant recourse to begging. From the Middle Ages they derived the obligation to wear a peculiar dress of the simplest de- scription, were treated by the government as a separate class, electing annually a chief called capo luzzaro, and often took part in political revolutions. They upheld Masaniello in 1647, and fought bravely against the French during the siege of Naples in 1799. During the republican agitations of the present century they generally sided with the Bour- bon monarchy. They are no longer recognized as a sep- arate class, and their condition has much improved under the governmeut of Victor Emmanuel. Lea (Hrnry Charles), son of Isaac Lea, b. in Phila- delphia Sept. 19, lS2o; early disjdayed a talent for science, and at the age of fourteen wrote for Si//iiniiHn Jouninl a paper on the salts of manganese. Ho gave much attention to conchology, publishing Description itf ucw Species of S/i'l/s, .and at a later period to the organization of society ill the Middle Ages. He has published a remarkable work, Siipvrntltion and Furce : Essays on the Wai/er uf Law, the Worjer of Battle, the Ordeal and Torture (ISGG; 2d cd. 1870), a Historical Sketch of Srtcerdotal Celihaei/ in the Christian Church (1S67), a.iid Studies in Church History: The Rise of the Temporal Power, Benefit of Clerr/y^ and Excommunication (1869). Mr. Lea early became a member of the iinportant publishing-house of Lea A Illanehard, of which he was long the head, ami is now the sole represen- tative. Ho was prominent during the civil war in organ- izing the system of municipal bounties, has written much on political subjects, and has been for years engaged on a work on the history of the Inquisition with special ref- erence to America ( Mexico and Peru). Lea (Isaac), LL.D., b. of Quaker stock at Wilmington, Del., Mar. 4, 1792; was engaged in mercantile pursuits iu liis early youth, and devoted his spare time to the study of uatur.al history, especially geology, making collections of fusriils, uiinerals, and shells in the vicinity of Philadel- phia. In 1S15 was elected a member of the Academy of Natural Sciences, and began to coiitriUuto papers to its Journal. From 1S21 to 1851 was a partner with hisfalher- in-law, Matthew Carey, in what was then the principal pub- lishing-house in the V. S., and in 1827 commenced a re- markable series of memoirs upon fresh- water nnrl land moUusks, which were continued for nearly fifty years, and form the materials for a great work upon American I'nion- ida) on which he has long been engaged. In 1828 was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society, was chosen president of the Academy of Natural Sciences in 1 s5S, and i? connected with the chief societies of natural history throughout the world. His private collection of Uniouidie is the richest in existence, embracing nearly 10,000 specimens, and his memoirs, read chiefly before the Philadel]»hia societies, number more than 150. ]Io made important discoveries of saurian remains in the red sand- stones of Pennsylvania below the coal-measuret, published Contrihutionn to Qeolngy (1S33), Fossil Footmarks in the Bed Sandstones of Potteviilc (folio, with colored plates, 185.'!). and, besides other works, collected into 13 vols. (1827-73) his miscellaneous papers with the title Observa- tions on the (Senus Vnio. Lea (Matthew Carey), b. in Philadelphia in 1823, son of Isaac Lea ; studied chemistry under Prof. James 13ooth; has printed in the Am. Jour, of Science many analyses of minerals and chemical compounds; has given special at- tention to photography, and published on it an important work, ^1 iManual of P/toto(/nijjhi/ (186Sj 2d cd. 1871). Lea (TuoMAS Gibson), b. in Wilmington, Del., Dec. 14, 1785, a brother of Isaac Lea. His Catalof/ur of Plants Collected near Cincinnati, 0.> was published iu 1849 by the late Dr. W. S. Sullivant. D. Sept. 25, 1844. Leach {Wii.mam Elford), b. at Plymouth, England, in 1790: became in 1809 a pupil of Dr. Abernethy at St, Bartholomew's Hospital ; became an enthusiastic investiga- tor in zoology and curator of the natural history depart- ment of the British Museum. In his work on Crustaceohifjif (1813) he was the first to separate the Insccta of Linnaeus into Mi/viopoda, Araehnida, Insecta, and Crustacea; he published a Zoolofjical Miscellany (3 vols., 1814-17), and commenced a J/istory of the British Crustacea, of which 17 parts aj>ptarcd. wheu an affection of the eyes forced him to resign the curatorship. and abandon iu great degree hla favorite studies. D. at San Sebastiano, Piedmont, Aug; 25, 1836. Lea'cock, post-tp. of Lancaster co., Pa., 7 miles E.of Lancaster. Pop. 1900. Lead [Ang.-Sax.], a plummet used on shipboard for taking soundings or measurements of the depth of the sea. The ordinary lead is attached to a line of twenty fathoms ; the deep-sea lead weighs some twenty-five pounds and has a much longer line. (For improved methods of deep-sea measurements see art. DEEr-SEA SorNniNCS, by Prof. W. P. TROwBRinr.E, A. M.) Lead [(ler. Blei; ¥r. plomh; Saxon, lo'd; Dutch. /oorf, also meaning a " ball " (suggesting '•load," as of a gun); Lat. plumbum, also Satumum : to the modern word is as- signed a kindred with " clod " and "clot "]. Lead is one of the metals mentioned iu the book of Job, and known therefore in the earliest times. In Numbers, also, among the spoils of the Midianites, lead occurs. It has been maintained that Solomon's verse iu Proverbs — "Burn- ing lips and a wicked heart are like a jiotsherd covered with silver dross" — refers to the glazing of pottery with litharge made from lead. In the hanging gardens of Baby- lon lead existed largely as a building material. 1. Occurrence in Xature. — Lead is known in nature as a constituent only of solid rocks and soils. It has not been discovered in mineral waters or in the ocean, nor in veg- etable or healthy animal bodies. On life it acts as a poison. Its ores arc numerous. It is found as sulphide, chloride, and iodide, as oxides and oxychlorides, selenides and tellu- ridcs, as sulphate, carbonate, chromate, phosphate, molyb- date, vanadate, tungstate. Its commonest metallic chcm- iral associates are silver, <jold, antimony, and arsenic. Though in its veins in the rocks it is commonly found associated with iron and copper sulphides and other com- pounds, yet it is almost never found crystallized together in the same mineral species with these two latter metals. A'atirc Lead. — Metallic lead, as a mineral, has been re- ported at many localities, widely distributed over the earth, but occurs in such minute quantities that it is one of the rarest of all minerals, and difficult to find in mineral col- lections. Though other native metals, such as gold, silver, platinum, mercury (and copper, in a smaller degree), have a great tendency to alloy with lead, yet there are scarcely any well-ascertained cases, among the great number of an- alyses of these native metals on record, of the detection of the slightest traces of lead. This alone is proof positive that these native metals have not been formed by igneous processes, but rather by chemical precijiitation at temper- atures below that of the fusion of lead and its alloys. This argument is strengthened by the fact of the common na- tural association of silver and gold with lead in its ores, especially in galena. Two localities of metallic lead in minute quantities on the American continent are a point in the country immediately N. of Lake Superior, called Dog Lake, where Prof. Chapman of Toronto recognized it form- ing a small string iu white quartz; and in an argentiferous galena of the Zomelahuacan district of Vera Cruz in Mexico. 2. .Metallurgy of Lead. — In the consideration of the ex- traction of lead from its ores, by far the most important ore is galena, from which very nearly all our lead comes. (Jalena, or galcnitc (the word being the Greek yaA^iTj. "serenitv," from imaginary medieinal virtues early attrib- uted to i't), is Hulphidc of had, PbS, and is the only known LEAD. 1689 compoun<l of this metal with sulphur, conliiinin^j: sO.O per cent, of louii and 13. l of fititphur. There iirt." few metallic orc3 moro easily and simply reducible to the metallic or "rcgulus " form than coiuiiiun galena, and hence, no doubt, the very ancient knowledge of lead possfssed by man. Sim- ple roastinj; of galena in an ordinary fire will drive off tbo sulphur and furnish melted lead. Xevertbeless, as lead is a mctul required by man in enormous quantities* extreme economy is needed in its metallurgical manipulation, and hence this branch of technology is practically by no means 80 simple and obvious a business a.-^ might be supposed. Lead-smelling furnaces arc of two classes, revcrbcr- atory and blast furnaces, corresponding to two very differ- ent modes uf smelting. We shall speak first of the opera- tion with the nterberatori/ /iiniacc. It has been stated that simjjle roasting eliminates metal- lic lead from galena. It has been no unusual occurrence, indeed, in the early history of different countries, and par- ticularly so in America, for hunters and pioneers, ami even for the aborigines after instruction by the former class, to procure their bullets by smelting down galena broken by themselves from the rocks. Some mines of this metal are said to owe their discovery to this need on the part of the primitive explorers. The ability to aeeoniplit^h the rr duc- tion 30 simply proceeds from the following chemical facts. The first effect of a preliminary roasting upon sulphide of lead — in a revcrberatory space, for instance — at a compar- atively low heat, for about two hours, is to oxidize portions of the ma-^s into both oxide of Iea<I and sulphate of lead. On then raising the heat for about half an hour to a bright red, the following reactions take place: PbS + 2PbO = ;jPh + SO2. and PbS+ PbSO* = l'Pb-l- :iS02. the products in each case being simply metallic lead and sulphurous acid gas. This is a general description of the most essential steps in the simplest kind of lead-smelting, which requires, however, many further precautions and operations, to detail which would carry us ti»o far. Tlieso two successive steps of oxidizing-roasting an<l smelting are sometimes conducted in separate furnaces. In the case of argentiferous galenas, when their learl is to he subse- quently treated to separate the et'ivcr it carries with it fseo Sii,VKit), much more knowledge and skill than are usually exercised in the smelting operation arc called for to avert loss of silver by volatilization. It appears to have been proved by chemists that certain chemical reactions occur in the mass, accompanied jirobably by intense temperature loc'tfli/, which cause much loss of silver unless the heat bo regulated carefully, and not continued unnecessarily long. The subject is, however, not well understood. In another pro:;ess, in use in France, metallic innt is employed with ores containing much quartz to reduce tbo lead, and pre- vent its ln'ing converted into a fusible silicate, which wiuild be diflicult or impossible to reduce. Tho ciiarge of I ho fur- nace is KtlO pounds of the silieious ore, with frcnn L'llU to 210 pounds of scrap iron, excluding cast iron, which is less suitable in this case. Lertd-smrltiufi loitk a fflant. — This ia accomplished in two classes of apparatus — the ** cupola furimcc" and the "ore- hearth." The cupola is tho apparatus most used through- out the continent of Europi', being ada]>tablo to poorer ores, while the simple ore-hearths are adaptc<l only for very clean and pure gale?ias, producing at the same time, however, tho j purest and softest lead, which brings tho highest prices. The smelting with a blast in a cupola furnace is sometimes practised upon the raw ore — as by what is called tho Site- 9tnH process — in which case waste metallic iron is emi)loyed, OS in the French method above, to tako up the sulphur of tho galena. Six parts of galena require one part of cast- iron scraji : and to Hux out the silica, etc. of tbo ore, about H parts tt( foi-fje rimhr, a highly basic fusible silicate of iron, are added. This mixture an<I coal in equal parts arc thrown separately into tho ton of tho furnace. The lead fusfs down into a cavity in the hearth IhIow the tuyere. and a mutt is also formed of mixed sulphidi -i of lead and iron (usually with silver also), which retiuircs subsequent Rp]iara*e treatment. The action of tho fusible lead-slags on the walls of tho furnace is terribly destructive, and a fur- nace will run but about eitjht ilnyit before requiring a new lining. The commonest practice in Prussia, Sweden, France, and Belgium is to roast out the sulphur from tho ore before smelting with a blast. In Prussia a large part of the sul- phur is even saved in this operation, by forming cavities in the upper parts of tho heaps of ore and w<mh1, in which it condenses. Tho expense of the roasting operati(»n is thus nearly covered. Such roasted ore is then fluxed in tho blast furnace with silicious slags from previous operations. A matt is the product, which goes through subsequent com- plex operations to separate the copper, lead, and silver it is liable to contain. Ore-hearths are much more primitive contrivances, used where ore is pure and abuuilant, and economy of the same less important than cheapness of plant and saving of lal)or. Without cuts but an imperfect idea can be conveyed. For tho *■ Scotch hearth" the ore is now usually roasteil. though formerly worked raw. This is a very simple opparatus — lit- tle more than a rectangular chamber, with opening in front and tuyere entering at the rear. The lead drains off through a channel in front. In tho case of the "American hearth" — which has been used, among other places, at Kossic in St. Lawrence co., X. Y. — the hearth is sometimes surround- ed with a hollow iron casing, through which the blast passes on its way to the tuyere, thus attaining a high temperature. (Jreat rapidity and eheajmess of working arc thus attained. Even this simple apparatus of the ore-hearth requires much special skill and many precautions in its management on tho part of the workmen, which cannot Ipc entered into here. Fumes from Lend-Hinrlthuj. — In all furnace operations with lead much smoko and fume result, cliietly mechanical, but partly through volatili/.ation. Some compounds of lead — pre-eminently the chloride of lead — are very volatile at high temperatures. Even metallic lead volatilizes rapidly at a high reil heat, and boils at a white heat. If any commnn salt or chlorides are present, great loss may result in the furnace. In all cases where economy is an object measures must bo taken to catch and save the fumes. The condens- ing flues or chambers through which the draft or blast is caused to pass have sometimes an immense length. In one case in England a flue Jh-r. miles hnuj and eight feet wide by six feet high saved ./(/'// thousand didlurn worth of lead per annum. Other arrangements are chambers furnished with filters of pebbles kept eonstanlly wet with running water, through which a powerful blower forces the fumes. JJy means of exhausters in other plans the fumes are drawn through a series of water-seals under diaphragms which dip thereinto. Dr. Thomas Richardson, one of the most diatinguishcfl of the liritish metallurgists, relates that the ]iurii)cation of lead-furnace gases by this latter jdiui was so complete that he icatlccd through the exit-jUm without perceiving any fume — an experiment which should not be rashly emulated. Jirjiniuif of Lcfid. — Two metallurgical operations coming under this hea<l are of esjiecial interest and importance — tho extraction of tho silver often contained in it, and the converting of hard into soft lead. The former subject will be treated of under SrLVr.ii. Hardness in lead is due to several causes, presence of antimoni/ being the commonest. Exposure of tho Icacl in a fused state on the liearlh of a furnace to continued currents of air over its surface will gradually remove tho antimony and other metallic imjiu- ritics, and yield a soft or softer lead. Such a hearth, it is found, must have an impervious mefallic lining, as other- wise tho very fluid alloy will leak through like water and bo lost. This operation is stateil to be carried on on an enormous scale in England, on hard, antinionifcrous Sjian- ish lead. Chinese tcn-chist f<<td is one of the hard alloys (with tin) that is thus susceptible of being relhied, yielding over 7J per cent, of soft refined lead, tin being separated by this method as easily as antimony. Tlie dross that forms in this jirocess, containing UMially lead wilh tin or antimony, is utilized best, according to Richardson, by treating it with acetic acid, whicli converts the lead into commercially valuable acetate, and the residue on smelting yields good antimony or tin. .*{. Chrmirnl CmiHtitiitinii aud Proprrtica. — Lead is one of tho softer and more plastic and sectile of the metals, be- ing only approached in thtse respects, among tlie nietals in common use, by pun- gold. Color, wiicn fresh cut, blu- ish-gray, with beautiful lustre, hut a dull film of an oxy- gen-compound quickly forms over the surface. The mal- leability of lead is great, and its ductility also, but its tenacity is so small that it is drawn into fine wire with great diflieulty. It has so little strength that a wire one- twelfth of an ijieh in diameter breaks with a weight of 20 poun'Is. It mells at about G;!i'»° F.. beginning to soften an<i become |>asty, however, at about r»17°. Its specific gravity is certainly somewhat variable, being but 11.07 by the hnvest determination of Playfair and Joule, and ll.llj by the highest figure given, attributed to no less an au- thority than the great itrrzelins; and for diemieally iiure lead llerapalh gives I1.H.'»2. and Karsten ll.itSSS. It is probably ininprrHnifdt; to some degree, wlucli may account in part for the diverse densities. Pliiyfair and Joule found its density in mrltrd form t(» bo ln..*)fi;t. lis crystals are isometrie. Fresh-cut lead does not tarnish in ]jerfeelly dry air, nor in j)ure water entirely free from dissolved oxy- gen, showing that the tarnish is due to conjoint action of oxygen and water. If exposed to both water and air, or immersed in pnrv water exposed totlii' free air, it is rapidly corroded, and a ]>ortion fllnK-tlvrH, If the water contains carbonic acid or carbonates, however, or, according to some, 1G90 LEAD. also sulphates and phosphates, there is formed over the metal a tiliu of an insoluble salt of lead, which retards fur- ther action. A? these insoluble compounds, particularly the carbonate of lead, are somewhat soluble in water con- taininc^ free earbonin acid, some slow action often still con- tinues, and no prudent person will venture to use hahitu- allv. for drinkin;; or cooking purposes, water that has stood for any appreciable time in leaden pipes or tanks, or even in a well or cistern into which a leaden pipe has been in- serted for connection with a pump — a practice extremely common with [ilumbers. Waters containing nitrnfcH, not uncommon in well-waters, are believed to dissolve lead with especial rajjidity. 4. Uses uf Lend. — In metallic form lead is used for many purposes too familiar to need enumeration. The principal compounds of lead that have known uses are litharge, the protoxide; miutiim, or red lead, the three-four oxide; the carbonate, or irhitf Itaif; the nitrate, chromate, and acetate of lead, all of which will be referred to again : and the sev- eral alloys with other metals, which will be treated of first. 5. Aiiin/H i,f Lrnd. — Few metals form alloys so easily and in such number as lead ; and to this fact, together with tlie great cheapness of this metal, is due to a large extent its high v.alue to the human race. In an alloy may fre- quently be combined the chemical and physical properties of each of its metallic constituents, and the cheap metal, lead, may thus, to a very important extent, be endowed with strength, hardness, whiteness, brilliancy, and resist- ance to oxidation, while retaining its easy fusibility, and even gaining in this latter respect. Lead alloys readily, permanently, and in various proportions with the metals j)otnssiuni, s(>fllum, arsenic, antimnni/. tfUnrium, hinmitth, tiu, cndminin, manrjnneac, mercurif, silver, f/ofd, pfatinitni, jtal/fi- diiim, and iridium, but apparently not easily or readily with alnminnm, iron, cobalt, nickel, znir, and copper. With some of these latter metals it may be mixed mechanically when both arc in fusion, but on standing more or less sepa- ration, sometimes nearly complete — as in the case of lead and zinc, for example — will be found to occur, owing to differences of density. The alloys of lead will be taken in the order in which they are above enumerated, Affot/s tritlt Potassium and Sodium. — The salts of potash and soda with organic acids, if fused with litharge, yield these alloys. Scrulla? prescribes for the lead-sodium alloy, to fuse together at a high temperature lOU parts of litharge and 60 parts of cream of tartar. Two parts of sodium to one of lead give ij. brittle alloy, but with less sodium the compound is malleable. The curious classes of organic compounds containing lead, ethylides, methylides, and amylides of lead, are prepared with the help of the lead- sodium alloy. With Arnriiic. — This alloy is white, brittle, and crystal- line, and very fusible. It is of practiejil interest in connec- tion with the manufaeture of lead nhnt, which are formed of a true alloy of lead with metallic arsenic, containing some 2 per cent, of the latter, held by the shot-manufac- turers to be absolutely essential to success in the manufac- ture. With Antimoutj. — Here we have alloys of eminent im- portance, tifpe-mrfal being the chief. The alloys of these two metals are harder and more fusible than either metal, while endoweil with peculiar qualities adapting them for making tine and sharp castings. Common ty])e-metal con- tains 17 per cent, of antimony, the remainder being lead, sometimes with a little zinc. Common sterenty]>e metal varies from these proportions within small limits, some- times a little tin being added. Music plates are chiefly tin, Ijcing about fiO per cent, of this metal to ^b of lead and 5 of antimony. Some of the various alloys used for ma- chinery-bearings, called ■* Babbit metal'' and the like, con- tain lead and antimony. Emery-wheels, in Europe at least, are made of an alloy of lead and antimony mixed with emery. A large proportion of this brittle metal, an- timony, even 75 per cent., may be added to lead without making the mass brittle, great whiteness, hardness, and capacity for polish being thus attained. Keys of musical instruments, »uch as flutes, etc., are made of such au alloy, containing two-thirds of antimony. With Tellurium.' — With this metal, and with its related metalloid selenium, lead forms definite crystallized com- pounds, occurring in nature as crystallized mineral spe- cies. Altttitc is the telluride of lead; clmiathalite, zorgitCf and h hrhachite are selenides of lead. With Uismnth. — Malleable alloys when the bismuth is small, but when equal to the lead they become brittle. The most useful alloy with bismuth is one also containing antimony, 70 of lead, 15 of antimony, and 15 of bismuth, which expands on solidifying, and hence has been used for stereotype metal, but from the present high price of bis- muth is costly. With Tin, etc, — Here we have some of the most valuable alloys of lead, including hard and soft solders, pcictcr, and with bismuth also the common /((*i'6/e allinjs. Three gradi s of solder are in common use : common solder, of equal parts of tin and lead : fine solder, of 2 parts of tin to I of lead ; and a cheaper article, of 2 of lead to I of tin. The follow- ing figures arc the fusing-points of the different alloys, in Fahrenheit degrees: Tin 1 to lead " 1 " " ..25, .10, . 5, .. 3, .. 2, .. 1, 558° 541° 511° 482° 441° 370° Tin It to lead 1, 1, 1, I, 1, 1, .334*' 34 0« 35GO 305° 38 1"^ The follow- Common pewter contains 4 of lead to 1 of tin. ing are the best-known fusible alloys : Lead. Bfsmiill). TIo. Fuses. Homberg's alloy 1 1 1 2o2° F. Krafffs '' 2 5 1 220° F. Xewton's " 5 S 3 202° F. Rose's " 1 2 1 201° F. The last two will of course melt in boiling water. These fusible alloys are of great value in taking anatomical casts and impressions of delicate and combustible objects, or tliose which will not stand a heat above the boiling-point. By adding mercury, their fusing-points may be lowered still further. Such an alloy with mercury will adhere to glass, and is much used for coating the interior of glass globes, tubes, etc. The alloy called in England Qtt*ena metal contains of antimony, lead, and bismuth I part each with 9 parts of tin. Teapots, spoons, etc. are made of it. With Codinium, fusible alloys of tin and lead similar to those with bismuth may be made, which fuse at even lower temperatures still. This facr was discovered by an Amer- ican chemist named Wood. (See Fusible Metal.) With Silver, (jold, Platinum, etc. — Lead has a great affin- ity for the noble metals. It is stated that if a thin sheet of one of these metals be held horizontally, and a drop of melted lead be let fall on it, it will make a perforation and pass through, in consequence of the great fusibility <d' the alloys formed. In the process of assaying, when litharge is reduced to metallic lead in admixture with an ore of gold or silver for subsequent cupellation, the lead takes into al- loy with itself every trace present of the precious metals, the success of assaying as an art being dependent on tho completeness of this corabiuation. In the chemical labor- atory, if any substance containing lead is incautiously heated in a ])Iatinum or silver crucible or other vessel, a perforation is the certain consequence. 6. The Useful Compounds of Lead. — Litharge, PbO. the protoxide of lead, also called massicot. This is chiefly a product of a special cupellation of metallic lead, carried on for the |>urpose of its manufacture. iSome of it is ?ent to market in scaly or flaky form, as it cools quickly from fu- sion : but the more compact, lumpy portions are ground and constitute levigated litharge. The color of the scales is sometimes yellow and sometimes reddish, but there has not been found any chemical difference between the two varie- ties. Protoxide of lead is also obtainable ^y igniting the nitrate, carbonate, or oxalate of lead. Its density is about H.l.'i. It is dimorphous, crystallizing in tho regular system as cubes and dodecahedra, and also in the trimetric system. Minium, lied Lead, the ."5-4 oxide, I'l-iC^. This is a fine- colored red substance, familiar to all from being used ex- tensively as a pigment and for coloring paper. It is poi- sonous, of course, and should therefore be employed and handled far more circumspectly than is customary. Min- ium occurs as a native mineral in many European localities, and in one known phice in America — Austin's mine, Wythe CO., Va. It is a product uf the continued action of a low red hciit upon litharge while cxjupsed to the air. Its den- sity when pure is about 8.8. Besides its use as a pigment, etc., it is employed as one of the most important materials in the manufacture of lead or flint glass. White Lead, Carbonate of Lead, Ceruse. — This highly important com- pound, PbO.COj, is found native, sometimes in very beau- tiful transparent crystals, as the mineral ecrussitc. There are several American localities of fine varieties — at Thoe- nixvillc. Pa. ; in AVythe eo., Va. ; at King's mine. Davidson CO.. N. C, and other places. The crystals arc right rhombic. White lead is prepared commercially by two methods, the older of which, called the " Dutch process." is somewhnt curious and complex in its character. Sheet lead is roUcd into loose rolls, each of which is placed in an carthrn jar containing a little vinegar at its bottom, the lead not touch- ing the vinegar. These jars are pileil up in alternate Inyers with some material which is fermenting and evolving car- bonic acid gas. spent tan-bark being preferred, though for- merly stable manure was used and thought essential to success. A large building is thus filled with jars and closed. Basic acetate first forms on the surfaces of the LEAD. 1691 sheets, which is decomposed by the atmosphere of carbonic acid, forming carboimle and free acetic acid, which latter then acts again on tVcsli portions of lead ; so tliat liut little vinegar is needed to keep the process g<iing on cimtinuoiisly. The heat of the fermentation helps; and in duo time, the jars being opened, the lead sheets arc found encrusted with white had, which is beaten oiT. ground, and washed. The proilui-t thus ol)tained is deemed superior in " body, ' or opacity in mixture with oil, to that ot any other method y,t discovered, and brings therefore a higher price. Much while lead is made, however, by simpler and more speedy operations, as bv boiling solutions of the nitrate or acetate of lead with litharge, which dissolves to form a basic salt. Carbonic acid gas then precipitates a very good quality of white lead, not generally accepted, however, as equal in bo.ly to that of the old Dutch process. The liquid drained off from the precipitate is boiled again with litharge, and so on. Niiriite of' Lend.— Tilts is used as a material for the preparation of the carbonate and chromatcs. and is therefore, in crystallized form, a regular article of commerce. Aerlnle nf Lend, Smjar of /.<■«</.— This familiar article has well-known uses in medicine. It is manufactured by dis- solving litharge in wood-vinegar or other cheap form of acetic acid. It crvstallizes very beautifully, few objects being more beautiful than a mass of fresh crystals of acetate of lead; but on exposure to the air acetic acid is lost, with formation of a basic acetate, with a little carbonate also in time. Hence sugar of lead has an od.ir of acetic acid, nnd the transparent crystals gradually fall down to a white powder, to disiiolve'which in water requires an addition of acetic acid to replace that which has been lost. It is from this circumstance that the luirulc. which undergoes no such spontaneous change, but remains clean and uniform, is largely supplanting the acetate in commerce of later years. CluomiiteH nf l.fiid : Cliromr-Vrlloic mid Chrome-Iled. — These arc two brilliant and valuable pigments, chrome- yellow being especially so. The latter occurs naturally ns "an elegant crystallized mineral called crocoile. of which an American locality is at Congonhas-do-Campo in Brazil. It was in crocoite "that Vauquelin first discovered the metal rhrnmiiim in 1791. Hhriimi-.t/clliiw is, however, prepared artificially by precipitating a solution of the nitrate of lead with chro'ma"te of jiotash. The brilliant yellow precijiitatc that falls, after thorough washing and drying at a low heat is ready for grinding with oil for pigmentary purposes. If the heat in drving much exceeds that of boiling water, the color will be liable to injury from reducing action of traces of organic matter always present. In calico-printing chrome-yellow is formed on the tissue itself by successive application of the above specified compounds of lead and elir<ime in appropriate ways. This color, however, does not attach itself so well "to silken and woollen fabrics. Chrome-yellow as a pigment is liable to be much adulterated with cheaper substances. .As most of these are insoluble in nitric acid, they may generally be delecleil by heating a little of the color with diluted nitric acid, which should dis- solve it wholly to a clear yellow liquid. C'knimr-red is a chromalc containing twice as much lead as the yellow chromatc : Chrome-yellow is PbO,Cr0.v Chrome-red " 2(l'bO),CrOa. The red pigment is produced from the yellow by several different mcthoiis— either by boiling with lime or an alka- line .-..luli.>n, which takes out half the acid: or by digesting with levigated litharge; or by b.iiling it with neutral yel- low chromalc of potash, which forms biehromato of potash with half its acid : or by fusing it with saltpetre. Its color i.s very fine, consiilcred equal in tint to vermiliim, but, like all lead-colors, it becomes dingy in the air in time, through the action of sulphur, forming black lead-sulpliiile. Clirome- <ircrn should strictly be the green o.xide of chromium, but "most of what passes uniler that name commercially at the present day is a mixture of ehroniate of lea^l with some l.lue pigment — jirussian blue or ultramarine. -A dilute :icid will quickly distinguish such mixtures from true chrouio- grccn, which latter should be totally unacted on. llKSiiv WriiTZ. I.cad [.\ng.-.Sax. ; Dutch. I^mdl. After iron, this is the most abundant and widely ilistribuled of the metals. II i< bluish-gray in color, ve"ry soft and ductile, but wilhout elasticity. Its specific gravity is ll.lCi. It fuses at 01',!° K., and when raised to a while heat in the open air it vola- tilizes, burning with a blue flame and leaving an oxide known as litharge. Its uses in the arts are very varied, such as f.ir ro.ifing, for lining sinks, cisterns, etc., for shot aiol balls f.ir firearms, and for the luanufaotnro of load pipe. This lalter is formed by mechanical pressure, the softness of the lead permitting of its being forced out in tubes of indefinite length without welding. From Iho fa- cility with which lead pipes are manufaotured, and after- wards bent, cut, and united, they arc almost universally employed as conduits for the distribution of water through buildings in cities; and the employment of lead in this connection has created the plumber's trade, which takes its name from pliirnhmn. •' lead." Type-metal is formed of an alloy of lead and antimony, and the alloys which go by the name of pewter or solder are composed of lead and tin. Lead has apparently been in use among civilized nations from the dawn of the historic period. Among barbaric races it seems to have been but little used, its softness maU- in" it of little value to the savage man, whose only use for metals was for the manufa-jture of offensive and defensive weapons and for tools — purposes served much better by bronze and iron. I,ead is found in all the geological forma- tions except the igneous rocks, and deposits of it are known to occur on every considerable portion of the earth's sur- face. In China lead-mines have been worked from remote ages, the metal being there chiefly employed for the pro- duction of sheet lead used to line the chests in which tea is stored and transported. Among the nations of West- ern Europe lead was a]i|iarently first brought into general use by the Romans, who derived a large )iart of their supply from "Spain, where the remains of their smelting- works are still to be seen. Lead occurs as a component element in many minerals, but the lead of commerce is almost exclu- sively obtained from the sulphide, or galena. This consists of lead 86.55, and sulphur !:;.15. Near Ihe outcrops of lead- deposits this ore is sometimes extensively decomposed by oxidation, and the carbonate (cerussite) and the phosphate (pyromorphite)are formed in such quantities as to have an economic value. The other ores of lead which deserve to be mentioned are hnurniniite, autimonial lead ore; memcle- silf, the arseuiale : atujicaitr. the sulphate; and craw/ordile, the' chloride. There are also vanadates, chromatcs, etc., which have only interest to the mineralogist. Nearly or quite all galena contains some silver, and often so much that it is called argentiferous galena, and is one of the most important ores of Silveu (which see). Lead occurs in three distinct classes of deposits — viz. what are known as gash veins, segregated veins, and fissure veins. Of those the first class is confined to the sedimentary rocks, and con- sists of fissures or crevices filled or lined with galena. These arc generally vertical, though sometimes horizontal, when the ore which they contain is said to form Jloore. Gash veins arc usually restricted to a single stratum of limestone, and have apparently been produced by the for- mation of cracks and joints by shrinkage. These joints have been subsequently enlarged by the solvent power of atmospheric water, which has flowed through them and filled or lined them with galena deposited from a solution issuing from the adjacent rock. Segregated veins are sheets of mineral matter found in nietainorphie rocks conforinablo to their bedding. Galena rarely occurs in large quantities in deposits of this kind. Those of Spain are the only ones known which have economic value, and they may perhaps belong to a difierent category. In fissure-veins lead occurs, frequently in large quantities, associated with copper, silver, zinc, antinionv. and many other minerals. It is an imjiort- ant fact that iiighly argentiferous galena is mostly confined to fissure veins traversing crystalline rocks. liy far the greater portion of the lead of commerce is obtained from rocks of sedimentary origin, especially the limestones of the Silurian and Carboniferous ages. These arc the cal- careous sedimenls of nneieni seas, the waters cd' which con- tain lead in solution, part of which was sparsely distributed through the materials that accumulaled at the bottom. Sub- sequently, it was leached out and re.leposited when the sea- bottom was raised, hardened into limeslone, and was trav- ersed by fissures which became channels of drainage. Do- posits of this class are typified by the lead-mines of Wis- consin and Missouri; which will be described in another paragraph. Among the leail-producing rations of the globe, England is the first. The product of her mines in I,'<"2 was (10,150 tons. This was oblaiiicd chiefly fnim the Cambrian and Silurian rocks of Wales, and from Ihe Carboniferous linic- Blones of Devonshire, Cumberland. Northumberland, and Durham. The next largest producer of lead is Spain, in which the mines worked from the remotest ages have been recently reopened and largely multiplied. The production of lead in Spain was at one time over 10,000 tons per an- num, lint it has now fallen to less than half that amount. The deposits ivhicli have been the most productive are those of the Sii'rra Gadnr. where Iho lead occurs in Lower Silu- rian limesloncs, much in the same way as in the Mississippi Volley. The third in the list of lead-iirodiieing nations is the V. .S., in which the annual product is from 12.000 to l,'>,Oflll tons. Though widely distributed throughout tho eountrv. Iho mining of lea.l is now almost exclusively confined to the •• lead-rcgi..n " of the ii|iper Mississippi and that of tho State of Missouri. Throughout the Alio- 1692 LEAD. gheny belt and the ractnmorphic region of New England giilcna occurs in nunnTous localities. Most commonly it is contained in segregated veins, but is occasionally found also forming part of true fissure or crosiS-cut veins. Nearly all the galena of this region is argentifer- ou.>J, but the quantity is generally small; and with one or two oxcoj»tions all the mines -which have been opened here have failed to be remunerative. The exceptions referred to are the Washington mine of Davidson c<>., N. C, and thL' Wheatley mine, situated at Phfeuixville, Pa. In East- ern New Vork there is a group of lead-mines which at one time produced large quantities of metal, but which have of late years been abandoned. These are the Ancram mine in Columbia co.. the mines near EllenviUe in Ulster co.. and that at Rossie. The EllenviUe mines were itpened in ver- tical veins in the Shawangunk grit which lies at t!ie base of the Upper Silurian series of rocks. In J-Sa^I the Ellen- viUe mines yielded over half a million pounds of lead. The lead-mine at Hossie, St. Lawrence co., N. Y., was at one time very productive, and famous not only for its yield of lead, but for the beautiful crystallized minerals with which it was associated. It ceased to be remunerative some years ago, and has now been for a long time unworked. The lead occurs here in a well-defined vein cutting gneiss rocks. It has an average width of about two feet, half of which in places was solid galena. The vein-stone is chiefly calc- sj»ar. The mines of Phcenixville, Pa., arc located in veins which penetrate the gneiss and Triassic sandstones. Here the lead is associated with considerable copper, and is re- markable fur the occurrence of a large quantity' of phos- phate of load (pyroraorphite). which has been extensively worked as an ore. In East Tennessee and Virginia con- siderable quantities of lead were produced in former years, but the mines in this region have been for some time aban- doned. This has been for the most part due to the abun- dant production of the lead-mines of the Mississippi Val- ley ; and it is highly probable that hereafter, when the means of transportation shall be improved and the col- lateral industries are introduced into this region, the work- ing of some of these mines will be resumed with j)rofit. In Central Kentucky, near Lexington, a group of lead-veins is found traversing the Lower Silurian limestones. These i are fissure veins, of which the vein-stone is chictly sulphate i of baryta. Though containing so much galena as to con- | vey the impression of great richness, It is a question whether ' any of these veins can be profitably worked. The lead of j this region is argentiferous, and a continuous sheet one ' inch in thickness would abundantly pay for mining, but it is doubtful whether this quantity cnn be depended upon in any vein yet opened. It is a matter of no little in- ■ terest in connection with the Lexington lead-veins that at least one of them was quite extensively worked by the ' ancient inhabitants of the Mississippi Valley, (lalena ' seems to have been highly prized by this ancient peo- ple, as it is frequently found in their mounds. It is, however, always in the condition of the ore. and it is : doubtful whether they made any use of the metal itself. ' Probably the brilliant ore was valued for ornamental purposes, as was the mica of North Carolina, also mined , by the same people. The only lead-producing distriotg of the U. S. at the present time arc those of the upper j Mississippi and the State of Missouri. Of these, the first covers the contiguous angles of Wisconsin. Iowa, and Illinois, by far the larger part of the district lying within the first-mentioned State. Lead is here found in gash I veins, contained in the Galena limestone, a portion of the 1 Lower Silurian system, and the equivalent in part of the Trenton group of New York. This formation has been ex- tensively eroded by atmospheric action, and forms broad valleys and plains, where the soil, derived entirely from the decomposition of the underlying rock, contains many masses of galena, which in these circumstances is known as " float mineral." These scattered masses frequently lead to important deposits in the rock itself, and thoy arc there- fore sought in the *• diggings" with which the region is dotted over, both for their own sake and because they so often load to something still more valuable. In the (Jaiena district there are two sets of fissures which traverse the limestone, and run, one imperfectly N. and S.. the other nearly nt right angles to this. These fissures are sometimes as much as 500 feet in length, and they have been known to expand into eaves thirty or forty feet wide, ami of equal or greater height. The walls of these fissures are frequently I lined with the sulphides of iron. lead, and zinc, and with ! masses and crystals of calc-spar. These sometimes form stalactites and incrustations in such a way as to show dis- tinctly that they have been deposited from solution in water which continually percolates through the soil and , subjacent limestone. Everything indicates that the lead of this region is indigenous to the Galena limestone, as it j is restricted to it, and all explorations of the underlying | and overlying rocks have failed to detect any continu- ation of the lead-veins above or below. It is also apparent that the deposit of lead in the cavities which now contain it is a phenomenon of comparatively modern date, as it could only have taken place when the Galena limestone was raised above the sra-levd. and was traversed by a flow of surface water which drained through its fissures, and more or less completely filled them with ore. It may be even said that the lead is being deposited there at the pres- ent time, for the bones of the elephant and mastodon have been found at the "diggings." in which the cavities were filled with crystals of galena. Such being the nature of the deposits of the upper Mississippi, it may be predicted that they will never be worked over a much larger area than that now covered by the mines, for the twofold reason — that in the district where the Galena limestone is deeply buried it has never served as a channel through which sur- face drainage has passed, and it is therefore probably with- out any considerable fissures; and even though the Galena limestone should contain important deposits of lead where covered by the Hudson River group, its lead-veins would there give no sign at the surface. The production of lead in the Galenadistrict was in 1825, 664.530 pounds. From this date it rapidly increased, and in 1845 it was 54.494.856 pounds; since when it has grad- ually, though somewhat irregularly, declined, and it will probably never again reach the figures quoted. The lead- mines of Missouri are like in all essential particulars to those of Wisconsin, except that the formation which con- tains them is older — the equivalent of the Calciferous sand-rock of New York — -and the fissures which contain the lead arc somewhat more continuous, giving more system and certainty to mining operations. Among the Missouri lead-mines the '"Mine La Motte '' was first worked 150 years ago. and is now valued at more than $500,000, al- though it has at times yielded more than 1,000,000 pounds of lead per annum. ValK-'s and Perry's mines in St. Fran- 9ois CO. have been scarcely less productive. In these mines the ore is found in a system of inosculating veins, forming a network of which the limits have not yet been reached. The production of the Missouri mines could apparently be not only largely increased, but maintained at a much higher than the present yiehl for an indefinite period. In the far West lead occurs in a great number of localities, but has nowhere been the object of special search or min- ing enterprises, as its value is too low to pay for the neces- sarily great expense of mining and transportatinn in that region. It is abundant in the silver districts of Colorado and Utah, nearly all the silver ores there having the cha- racter of argentiferous galena, and their treatment being greatly facilitated by the lead they contain. In Nevada and California lead is comparatively rare. The ore from which lead is almost always extracted fuses at nearly the same temiterature as the metal itself; hence it would seem that the metallurgy of lead would be very simple ; but the facility with which it is oxidized and dis- sipated by heat makes it a matter of no little diflieulty to avoid serious loss in the process of reduction. The different varieties of ore which arc met with also require very con- siderable diversity in their method of treatment. Where the galena is mixed with much silicious matter it has been found most profitable to smelt it in a cupola; but where it is purer, or the foreign matter it contains is calcareous, the Scotch hearth or some form of reverbcratory furnace is used. In the valley of the Mississippi, where the ore contains very little mineral matter, and the galena contains little over an ounce of silver to the ton. the processes adopted in the reduction of the ore arc quite simjile. A reverberatory furnace is usually employed. This has a sloping hearth to carry off the fuscci metal as fast as it is produced. The ore is charged into the h<)t furnace, and is permitted to remain for a time at a low temperature, undergoing a kind of cal- cination. Suhsequently, a higher heat is applied for a time, to be followed by another "firing." so that by alter- nations of smelting and roasting the ore is ultimately de- ]>rived of its metal. Argentiferous galenas require a special and somewhat elaborate treatment, for the details of which, as well as for further information on leod-smelting proper, the reader is referred to the articles Metalll'Rcv and SiLVKH. anrl the previous article, Lead. The salts and oxi<les of lead are quite numerous, and are somewhat extensively employed in manufactures and medi- cine. Of these one of the best known is the protoxide called litharge, used as a drier with oils an<l varnishes and in the manufacture of glass. Red lead, or *' minium,'* is a com- pound of the protoxide with the peroxide. It is very gen- erally employed as a pigment, either in oil paints or in the coloring of wall-papers, sealing-wax, etc. It is also em- ployed, like litharge, in the manufacture of glass. Per- haj>s the most important preparation of lead is that of the carbonate of the protoxide. This is commonly known as LEADING-XOTE— LEAD PLASTER. 1693 White Lead (which see). Some of the gaits of lead are highly poisonous, ami. since the quantity of lead used by every civilized community is great, grave accidents are not uncommon from this caussc. The carbonate, the oxide, and the acetate of lead are the most active poisons. They are introduced into the system both by the lutigs and the digestive organs. With those who work much in the prepa- rations of lead, ag painters, plumbers, and those employed in glazing cards, earthenware, etc.. cases of lead-]>oisoning are constantly met with. One of the most striking symp- toms of the disease is what is called *• lea<l colic," or cutlca pictottum. It also produces local or general paralysis or other symptoms, which are always grave and difficult of cure. The use of lead pipe must be regarded as the source of many cases of lead-poiponinjr. It has been prnjiosed to avoid this ikinger by lining lead pipe with tin. and pipe of this kind is now coming into general use. It is but liltle more expensive, and is certainly far safer, than that made from pure lead. (Seo4*EAi» Poisosixc.) J. S. Nkwbkiuiv. Lead'ing-Note, in music, the seventh degree of the major sc.ile. or the semitone next below the octave. In the scale of C the leading-note will thus be B ; in that of UJ?. it will be A, anil so in the other keys. In major keys with sharps the la$t sharp of the signature is always on the leading-note. From a certain natural tendency to regolvc itself upwar<l into the octave, the major seventh of the scale is said to lend the ear in that direction, or cause it to ex- pect that the next progression will bo to the octave, and hence its name of /<(i(/tM^-notc. In minor scales the seventh in its natural form is not properly a leading^ote, being a minor seventh above the tonic. It is thus a whole tone below tho octave, and does not possess any sjiecial upward or leading tendency. This defect, however, is removed by the use of an accidental sharp, which brings the seventh into tho same relation to tho octavo as in the major mode, and makes it equally characteristic. The leading-note is considered as the most sensitive interval of the scale, be- cause (as already stated) it creates in the mind of the hearer a peculiar longing or desire for an ascent into the octave above, which it already seems almost to touch. In the ma- jority of cases, especially in cadence?, the car feels disap- pointed and baulked when the leading-note takes any olher direction, and particularly fo when tho progression is a downwani one, Instanees of this are given at a. l>, and c in Ex. 1, and these may bo compared with the true pro- gression as represented in each ease by the black dots: Ex. 1. a b :;f^^ J^ ^^^^ T-3. — \-m- is— (»- i^' ■&=&. 1— t- ^ :^ Exceptions to this general rule, however, occur in good compositions when special effects are to be producecl, or in flowing melodies where the leading-note is not prominent «ff «MrA, or when by an upward spring tho leading-note in its resolution passes over the octavo and lakes the third or fifth abovo. Some casos of this kind will be seen in Ex. 2 under tho asterisks : Kx. i __.. _, •_]__!_ J 'i J- -.111 Tho leading-note, as third in tho chord of the seventh on the dominant, is subject also to tho rules relating to the resolution of sevenths. liut in this case the rule of the leading-note as such, and tliut itflVctiiig it as third in the chord of the seventh, arc coinrident in requiring that the progression should bo one semitone upward— r'. c. into tho tonic. WiM.iAM Staunton. Leading Qnestion, a phrase used in tho law of ovi- deneo to denote a question put to a witness which is so framed as to suggest or imlieatethe answer desired. Thus, for example, if a witness were oskeil. " I)id he not <lo a certain act ?" or *' I>id he not carry a pistol ?" an affirmn- tive answer would be plainly suggested. It is a general rule in regard to the taking of testimony that learling ques- tions aro not allowable in the direct examination of a wit- ness : by which is meant an exaininati<jn by the party pro- ducing him. The oliject of the rule is to prevent a witness from Ix'ing a facile iuslruuieut in tho hands of skilful counsel for the introduction of testimon.v. artfully colored or fabricated, or presenting the facts of the case in a dis- torted or inaccurute form, and to obtain a ver.^iou of the circumstances of the ease which shall dt-pend entirely upon his own recollection. There is particular danger that a witness will be hd upon a direct examination, because he is likely to favor the cause of the party for whom he ap- pears, and to desire that he may succeed in the action. Leading questions are. however, permitted even upon a direct examination when the witness appears to be hostile to the party producing him. or in the interest of the other party, or unwilling to give evidence. They are also allowed where an omission in testimony is evidently caused by a want of recollection, which a suggestion may assist, as where a transaction invidvcs numerous items or dates. The same is true when a particular specification of a matter of inquiry is ncccs:-ary. in order that a witness's attention may bo directed to it. The prohibiti(ni of leading ques- tions only applies to material suljjei^ts of inquiry, and not to that part of tho examination which is merely introduc- tory to the principal points in controversy. Such ques- tions aro allowed at tho preliminary stuge of the exami- nation for the sake of convenience and expedition. Vpon cross-examination, or examination by the opposing party, there is no restriction u]»on inquiry by leading questions. Tho object in this case is to expose the inaccuracies in the witness's direct testimony, and as ho appears in opposition to tho counsel then examining him, there is no danger of his being influenced to subserve their designs. (See Evi- PENCK.) Tho whole subject is peculiarly within the discre- tion of the judge presiding at the trial, subject to review by an appellate court in a plain case of an abuse of the discretion. Geohgk CnAsi-:. Revised by T. W. Dwight. Lead, Medicinal Uses of. In this relation the local and constitutional cficets of lead compounds have to be considered. Luralhj^ mlnhh: salts of lead are astringent and irritant, but the latter property is much less marked in proportion to the astringeiicy than in the case of salts of mercury, silver, copper, and zinc. Indeed, weak solutions of lead-salts arc positively soothing. Taken internally in large dose, however, these salts are powerful iriitant])oisons. Solutions of lead salts are used in medicine as local ajipli- cations in catarrhs of mucous membranes and in nuiny in- flammations of the skin, especially where attended by much heat and pain. They should not, however, be used in in- flammations of the eye. except by physicians' prescription, as if there be any ulceration of tho cornea an indcliblo white iqiacity will be produced sit the spot by chemical de- composition of the lead-salt. The preparations used as lotions arc solutions of lead acetate, nitrate, and suliacetate. Two officinal solutions of the latter aro directed by tho U. S. Pharmacopceia. the stronger being commonly called *' Gou- lard's extract," and the latter *' le:id w;iter." From tho former are also prepared a cerate (" (Jnulard's cerate ") and a liniment. Internally, lead-acetate is alone used, its em- ployment being as an astringent in diarrha?as and in bleed- ing from the stomach, hmoluhh lead compounds, like the carbonate, arc simply soothing to moist surfaces, but as. if applied in quantity, they may bo rendered soluble, and thus irritant, or become absorbed, ami thus iiuluco lead- poisoning, other insoluble ])owdrrs, like zinc-oxide or salts of bismuth, are safer. The cniHtltutiounl cfleclsof lead are wholly poisonous, and are brought on by a slow and steady impregnation of tho system with the metal. (See 1-i:ad- PoisoNTNf;.} EnwAitn Ct itns. Lead Plaster, Diachylon, or Emplaslruin Plunibi. This familiar plaster of lead is a lead soa]> (see SoAr), formed by the action of litharge or plumbic oxide on olive oil in presence of water. These materials aro boiled together in the jiroportion of (lounds of jdumbio oxide in fine powder. 1 gallon of olive oil, and water 2 pints, supplying more water as it ovajjorales, until the oil and lead oxide unite into the consistence of a plaster. Tho glycerine of the oil. set free by the basic power of the plumbic oxide, remains in aqueous solutinn. llic i'alty aciils of Ihe oil forming with the leail the lead plaster, which is made uj) in cylimlrical sticks of a yellowish-white or gray color, brittle when cold, but softening and melting by a gentle heat, when it is readily s]iread upon leather or cotton cloth for use. It is (|uite insoluble in water, and nearly so in alcohol. It is without toste. but has a faint peculiar odor. This prejtaration of lead was well known in ancient surgery. Pliny ( Hint. Xnt., xxxiv. UW) gives a formula for its preparation almost identical with tho one now in use. The nature of the reaction which occurs is explained by tho following formula : Olclnc. LllhnrffV. WnUr. 2031X5(0^113303)3 + aPbO -i 3HaO = Plumbic olrKle. Olyrcrlne. 1694 LEA D-POISONING— LEAF-CUTTER BEE. Load plaster may also be prepared Iiy double decomposi- tion, precipitating a solution of acetate of lead by one of soap. It 19 employed in surgery on account of its adhesiveness, and for thi:* purpose a portion of resin is adiieri while the diachylon is in a fused state. In this way it is used to hold to2;etlier the edges of wounds in persons of delicate skins. It is also used, spread on cotton bandages, as a strappiiii; for giving support and causing pressure, as in ulcers of the leg. In the large way, this important preparation is made in a steam-jacketed copper holding fifty gallons or more, and capable of standing a pressure of alniut 10 pounds per inch, giving a temperature slightly above boiling- point. Lard and lard oil may be substituted for olive oil in the preparation of lead plaster, but by no means will all kinds of animal and vegetable fats answer this purpose. Logan's plaster is made Ijy boiling together litharge, IG ounces; carbonate of lead, IG ounces: Castile soap, 12 ounces; butter (fresh), i ounces ; olive oil, 2i pints ; mas- tic (powdered). 2 drachms. By a high heat lead plaster is decomposed, giving off irritating vapors of acrolcinc from the decomposition of the glycerine, and leaving a black- ened residue, with oxide of lead. Diachylon or diachylum is a derivative of far-fetched meaning, from the Greek 5ia,\uAo«, ''very juicy," or ''prepared with the juices of plants,'' such having been the ancient practice in prepar- ing this plaster, vegetable juices supplying the place of water. Its chief use in pharmacy is in the preparation of other plasters. Made from the refuse oleic acid of stearic aci<l candle-factories, and mixed with a certain quantity of oil or tallow, it has been used as a wheel grease. A compound of lead oxide with the acids of linseed oil, prepared by de- composing tiie potash soap of linseed oil with solution of acetate of lead, serves, when dissolved in oil of turpeptine, ■ for printing on wall-paper previous to gilding it with gold- leaf or Dutch metal, or dusting it with wool-shearings for the production of flock patterns. B. Silliman. Lead'-Poisoning, a diseased condition resulting from the presence of a considerable amount of lead in the system. This condition is induced in various ways : (1) By the use of lead pipe for the ctinduction of drinking water. Happily, a large proportion of the waters used for drinking and cooking have not the power to take up lead in solution; but there can be no doubt that a very great number of cases of lead-poisoning are induced in this way. (2) By the use of lead pipes in racking off wines, cider, and beer; by the use of lead-lined chambers in soda-water ap- paratus and the like. It is very certain that the use of leaden siphons for drawing cider and vinegar from the cask is a very common practice among farmers and dealers in the U. S. ; and a dangerous, senseless, and even criminal, practice it undoubtedly is. (:J) By the use of lead-paints; hence the name ''painter's colio" applied to one symptom of lead-poisoning. Si/mptom^. — Th^sc arc (1) pain, often intense in the abdominal region, with constipation, some- times, though rather rarely, accompanied by acute inflam- matory symptoms; (2) a blue line visible on the gums near the roots of the teeth : the gums and teeth often foul and tender; the breath offensive, the mouth having a me- tallic taste; (."ii ?ometimes icterus or jaundice — the skin dark ra'her than yellow: the patient usually looking pinched and haggard: (-1) there is a certain proportion of cases which liavo 'Mead-palsy," affecting primarily the extensors of the wrist. This is called " wrist-drop," though it is some- times seen with no other indication of lead-poisoning. Lead rheumatism sometimes occurs, and disease of the brain from Icafl-jioisoning, while delirium, convulsions, and coma are not unknown, but arc rare. Trentmcut. — Opium is the sheet-anchor in ordinary Icad-poisoning. It relieves the pain, and even at times the obstinate constipation of this disease. Cathartics are very useful, except when there is much tenderness of the bowels. Then tlieir uso should be deferred for a time. Iodide of potassium is pre- scribed in chronic cases, and is believed to assist in the , elimination of the metal. Sulphuric acid and the sulphates are given with a view to precipitating lead from the cir- culation, aii.l fixing. Kevised by AVillaku Parker. Leudvillo. Sue Appendix. Leaf [Ang.-Sax.; Gothic, /«»/«/ Gcr. Laiih ,• denoting something broad and thin], in botany, one of the pieces which make up the expanded portion or green foliage of a plant. Being the essentia! organs of vegotation. leaves arc the most important part of a plant. In them actual as- similation, or the conversion of the plant's inorganic food into organic matter, only takes place. This, accordingly, may be taken as the primary function of the leaf, which may be defined as being, physiologically, an arrangement for the exposure of a large green surface to the light and I air; of "(/recti surface," because it is only in the presence | of the green matter of vegetation (called chlorophyll or I leaf-green) that assimilation takes place: and" to the light," because this takes place only under solur radiation. The green rind of shoots subserves the same purpose, so far as it goes ; but the expansion of definite portions of the green surface of the shoots in the form of foliage vastly increases ( tho amount of working surface^ and therefore the power of I vegetal i(»n. Considered even as foliage, the word hnfls naturally and I almost inevitably used in more than one sense, both popu- I larly and in descriptive botany; as (1) for the expanded I green blade alone (the lamina of tho leaf): and (2) for ! this and its su])porting footstalk (petiole), and whatever else is normally connected with it. A complete leaf, in the botanist's sense, consists of blade, footstalk, and a ]iair of stipules (lateral appendages at the base of the latter); but these three parts are very commonly re«Uiced.to two, the stipules being wanting or fugacious, and not rarely to one, the footstalk being absent, and so the blade growing di- rectly out of the stem. Indeed, sometimes the blade is wanting, while the footstalk remains, with or without the stipules, or only the stipules arc produced, or there is in the place of the leaf a body not distinctly answering to cither of these three constituent parts. This leads us to the botanist's idea of — A Leaf Morphofof/icanr/ considered. — As leaves are pro- duced on the stem at definite points (called uodes), and in a fixed arrangement and order, and as they appear under most diverse forms, and either with or without all the parts which a leaf may have — the deprivation or transformation sometimes being sueh that the organ fulfils little or no function as iTjliage — so the botanist has come to regard the leaf generically, as being whatever body occupies the place of a leaf, however unlike a foliage-leaf it may bo either in appearance or function. The intermediate gradations be- tween ordinary leaves and these various representatives uf leaves, both as regards office or structure and appearance, compels this view, irrespective of other considerations. In the absence of any generic name for this protean organ, which takes almost all forms and functions, the botanist, from the morphological point of view, extends the signifl- cati<m of the term hnf {u cover them all. Leaves as foliage arc the typical leaves. Of these the diversity is great, and the nomenclature correspondingly extensive. The details of structure and terminology need not here be entered upon ; they have a j)lace in every elementary treatise on botany. Suffice it to say. that a foliage-leaf is either simple or compound — simple, when there is a single blade, with or without its footstalk: compound, v:\iC^Ti the footstalk divides or branches, or bears distinct partial blades, called le<i/letn. Of specialized leaves, a series of the more imptirtant modi- fications will serve to illustrate the jilan upon which, in the plant, one and the same organ, fumlamentally, is modified and made subservient to wholly diverse offices. Some aro storehouses of food, in which organic vegetable products for future uso are deposited and concentrated. To this use the first leaves (namely, the cotyledons in the seed of a large proportion of ])ha*nogamou8 plants) arc wholly or partly devoted. So arc the bud-scales of bulbs, which are modified leaves or bases of leaves: while the fleshy leaves of houscleeks. of the century plant, aloe, and such-Hkc suc- culent plants, serve at the same time as ordinary foliage for the production of food, and as magazines for its storage. So bud-scales represent leaves devoted to the use of pro- tection; tho temlrils of the pumpkin arc probably leaves transformed for the purpose of climbing; and in the pea- plant Rfmio of the leaflets of a compound leaf are tendrils for climl>ing, while the rest servo as foliage. In the bar- berry some of the leaves are branched spines : in Sarraccnia and some other plants they are pitchers or tubes in which insects are cauglit; and in the Venus's flj'trap [Ditman) a part of tho leaf, endowed with a special sensitiveness, power of rapid closing, and a digestive apparatus, is clearly carnivorous. (See Piivsior-ocv, VE^•ETABI-E, Dio- N.f:A, etc. Also, Darwin, fuaectivoroua Plnjitu, iSTo.) The *• leaves " of a flower — of the corolla no less than the ealjx — afford another instance so obvious that this name has always been applied to them in common language; and to the morphological botanist the essential organs of the blos- som (stamens and pistils) equally represent leaves, more completely transformed and specialized, and devoted to sexual reproduction. They conform to leaves in situation, arrangement, etc. (For the arrangement of leaves upon the stem, and the laws governing it. sec Pilvl.l.OTAXV. Their anatomic:il structure, behavior under light, action upon the air, and general functions aro considered in tho article Pnvsior.oGV, Vegetable.) Asa Gray. LeaT-cutter Bee, a name given to several solitary bees of the genus Mn/'irhi/^, which construct, or sometimes merely line, their cells with bits of leaves cut out by their scissor-like jaws. Jif. cfiifitnruldyi'i, our most common spe- cies, is found also in Europe. It cuts out pieces of rose- LEAF RIVER— LEAGUE, ANTI-CORN LAW. 1695 leaf for its cells, which are of a very ncftt and curious struc- ture. The cell it stufTd with poUcQ, in which it deposits an Leaf River, tp. of Oglo co., III. Pop. 1067. Leaf lliver, a v. of Perry co., Miss., near the S. W, bank of Leaf River, 10 miles S. E. of Augusta. Pop. 720. Lear-Kollcrs (Tortricida*), an imjtortant family of small lepidupterous insects, characterized by sliort bcak- likc palpi. They are mostly nocturiuil, and take their name from the fact that many species make a rude tent by rolling up the leaves of trees, often fastening thorn with siken threads. The number of genera ami species is great, and as a rule the insects are great destroyers of useful vegetation. The genus Tortrix is the typical one. Leaf Valley, poat-tp., Douglas co., Minn. Pop. 232. League [It. l^gfi ; Span. Utjua ; Fr. ?/V»e, from the Gaelic Unc or /encArf, *'a stooe," as the (Jauid used to mark distances by stones] is a measure of length, used in America mostly for distances at sea, but in Europe also upon land. The nautical league is fl^^th id" a degree, or '^ geographical miles, or 3.457875 statute miles, in England the land- league is ',^ statute miles. In France the legal post-league is 2.12 English miles; in Spain, SOOO vurnSf or 7418 Eng- lish yards. League, Achipan. See Acn.cAX Leagite. League, .\nti-Corn Law, a name taken by a famous associ:ilinn of Manchester manufacturers, founded in 18o9, for abolishing all fiscal imposts on corn. The first Man- chester election of members of Parliament, which took place in 1832, carried free-trade candidates, that electoral issue being then raised at the hustings for the first time in England. In 1834 the first meeting of Manchester mer- chants was called to consider the question of corn-law re- peal. In IS30 a miscellaneous anti-corn law society was formed in I^ondon, which included 22 members of Parlia- ment. Among the names of the adherents were those of (Jroto tho historian, Ilutne the economist, Sir William Molesworth, and J. A. Roebuck; Ebenezer Elliott, the corn-law rhymer; W. H. Ashursl, a lea<ling promoter of the penny-postage system: Francis Place, tho chief of working-class agitators ; William Weir, subsequently editor of the Dnitif NeioH ; Col. Thomjison, the great expositor of free trade. But no intellect, however eminent nnd various. could avail against monopoly without money aii'l popular opinion, and of these forces the precursor was W. A. Paul- ton, a young surgeon of bright, elastic enthusiasm, with a genius for agitation. In 1838 a Dr. IJirnie had announced, at the theatre, Bolton, hancashire. a lecture on the corn laws. Tho doctor was hiclen with notes, in which be got 80 entangled that he could not tell what he had to say, Mr. Thomas Thomasson, afterwards tho executor of Cobden, a man of striking energy of character and commercial sa- gacity, being among the auditors, said to Paulton, who was near him, ** You can speak ; go down on the stage and de- liver the doctor." The spontaneity and capacity which Paulton showed on that occasion led to his being invited to lecture himself, and ultimately he delivered 300 lectures against the corn laws throughout (ircat Britain. Ho be- came Iho private and contidential secretary of tho future League, which his eloquence and thoroughness mainly in- stigated. At a dinner given to him at Boston, Mr. Bright made tho first public speech delivered out of his native town, Rochdale. Later in the same year Dr. B')wriug, then of free-trade r(>put<!, being entertiiined at a dinner in Manchester, .Mr. James Howie cried out, on Mr. Paulton'a health being drunk, '* Why could not wo havo a free-trade association?" A week later one was formed, consisting of seven persons, of whom tho chief was .Mr. Archibabl Pren- tice, founder of the Mititrhnti r Exanihifn; who had him- self, as early as 182^ adviseil Iho formation of such a so- ciety. A subscription of fivo shillings each was adopted; £5000 ca'.'h was wanted before corn -law repeal whs carried. In 1838, Mr. Cobden first became prominent in the Man- chester (.'hainber of Commerce for resistance to the restric- tive commercial policy of the manufacturing trade of tho country. In 18:il) delegates from the manufacturing dis- tricts were appointed to proceed to Ltuidon to press their opinions upon the legislature. Mr. Charles Pellmm Vil- liers, who ten years later became president of tho Poor Law Board, undertook to represent the free-trade question in the House of Commons. On Feb. HI, 18311, Mr. Villicrs moved that certain manufacturers bo heard by counsel be- fore tho bar of tho Huuso of Commons, against tlio corn laws, as injurious to their private interests. Tho m<»tion was rejected by an overwhelming majority. On Mar. 12 following, tho day on which the ,\nti-Corn Law League originated, Mr. Villiers again moved "that tho House re- solve itself into a ccunmittec of inquiry on tho corn laws," when only 195 members could bo found to vote for inquiry, while 342 voted against it. Discouraged and di!^raayel^ the partisans of inquiry, who had come up from Miin- ohester to await the result of the motion, rushed over to Herbert's hotel, then standing in Palace Yard, opposite tho House of Parliament, to consider what could be clone. It was in that crowded room that Cobden, leaping on a chair, reminded the delegates of the victorious ctt'orts of the Han- seatic League, which three centuries previously had frcid tho trade of the Hanse Towns from the imposts of Ger- man princes. "Let us." cried Cobden, "have an Anti- Corn Law League, which shall free corn and trade also." It was then and there that the League originated. Cobden proposed that a fund of £50.000 be raised, and a consid- erable portion of that sum was subscribed in tlic room. Tho chief Manchester commercial houses followed with sub- scriptions of £50 and £100 each. The English corn laws, which had for their object tho restriction of the trade in grain, date as far back as I3G0. At that time the prohibition was against exportation. It was not until 1462 that an act was passed prohibiting its free importation. The object of the Anti-Corn Law League of 1831* was slated by the chairman (Mr. J. B. Smith), on the occasion of Paulton's first lecture in tho Manchester Corn E.Kchange, *• to be the same righteous object as that of the Anti-slavery Society, which sought to obtain for tho negro the right to dispose of himself; and the object of the League was to obtain for the people tho right to dispose of their labor for as much food as could be got for it" in whatever market the exchange could be made. Tho Leaguers little foresaw at the time the formidable work they had undertaken, and only gradually learned them- selves, as the great agitation pr4)cecdcd, the principles they had to establish. What they discovered was that monopoly always had advocates ready m.ade, who, sharing in its ex- clusive advantages, had reasons for being enthusiastic in its defence. Any tradesman would profit could he exclude from the market rival articles of those in which he dealt. His profits would increase at the expense of the purchaser. Themonopolist dealer considers this protection, but the pub- lic, who arc the customers of the market, find it to be but I)rotcclion on one side — the protection of the seller wlnlo 10 has bis hands in the pocket of tho buyer. What tho public want is free inircbasc in a free market, the power to procure what they want from whoever has it to orter. Free buying — that is ]»rotection to the customer. The doctrino of the purchaser is as much food as a man can buy, for as much wages as a man can earn, for as much work as a man can do ; and is the natural, an<l ought to be the inalienoble, birthright of every man who has tho strength to labor and the will to work. On other things besides corn, protection was always on tho side of the seller until the Anti-Corn Law League freed all English industry from restrictive im- posts. These *• free traders," as the Leaguers were styled, were opposed by an organized party who took the title of " protectionists," who maintained (I) that protection was necessary to keep certain lands in cultivation ; (2) that it was desirable to cultivate as much laml as ]MJssiltIc in order to improve the country; (3) that if improvement by that means were to cease, there must be depcmlence on the for- eigner for a large (lortion of the food of the peojde ; (1) that such dependence would lie fraught with immense dan- ger. In the event of war supplies might be stopped, for the ports might be blockaded, the result being famine, dis- ease, and civil war. (5) That the advantage gained by pro- tection enabled the landed proprietors and their tenants to encourage nmnufaclures and trade: so much so that wove the corn laws abolished half the country shopkeepers would be ruined ; that would be followed by the stoppage of many mills and factories : large numbers of the working classes would be thrown idle, disturbances would ensue, cajdtal would be withdrawn, and no one could venture to say what would he the final consequences. By this formidable enu- meration it was made to appear that the end of EnglantI was certainly at hand if the corn monopoly was disturbed. No country in the world can hope to put on record a more appalling set of consequences if protecti(ui is menaced. In Lnglan<l they exercised a commanding inlluence oven over the working people, who were induced to believe that it was for their interest that bread was nnide dear. The learned as well as tho ignorant, the aristocracy as well as the small- town shopkeeper, worn under the samo uninstructed terror. Even Sir dames (iraham declared in Parlinmcnt. when a fixed duty on corn instead of a fluctuating one was pro- posed by Lord .lohn Russell, that " it would not be the de- struction of one particular class in tho state, but (d' the stato itself." Sir Robert Peel at first mot tho efforts ctf the League by a sliding scale, varying with tho price of wheat. Tliis wa< a thoroughly English device, worthy the genius of a people who never precipitate themselves even into the truth. Had .Moses been an English premier, instead of nmking tho CommuadmcDts absolute, he would havo proclaimed a slid- 1696 LEAGUE, HOLY— LEAMING. ing soaie of violation. The struggle of the League lasted seven year;?, iiiul cuat half a millioii of money. In the fourth year of their activity ilr. Paulton stated that the League oiuployed upwards of uOO persons in making up electoral packets of tracts, and ilH) otlicr persons in dis- tributing tlifui amongst the constituencies. lu England and Scotland alono they distributed to electors 5.0011.000 tracts and stamped publications, while to non-clectur.> of the working class they distributed o, GOO, 000 pultljcatiuns. In addition, the League had stitched up in monthly mag- azines and other periodicals 420,000 tracts. The entire number of tracts and stamped pul>lieati<>ns issued hy the League in the single year IS4;i was 9.020,000. weighing up- wards of 100 tons. Such were the business features of this famous association, iiut its success came from its inspira- tion, and its inspiration came from its renmrkable leaders. Ebenozer Elliott wrote fiery rhymes for it; Col. Thomj)son wrote its Vitierh'tHin; Ocorge Wilson, the chairman of the League, admittedly tiie most efficient public chairman who appeared in England during his day, organized its popular action ; James Noland, a vigorous speaker, acquainted with the people, was a sort of outrider to the League, going into market-towns on market-days on a white horse — perhaps as a pacific emblem, partly a means of conspicuousncss. Ho took the figliting among the belligerent farmers, so that when Bright and Cobdon came the strengtli of the enemy was known, and the local stock of turbulence being ex- pended the great orators obtained a hearing. There was one R. R. R. .Moore, with a voice that ft-Il o!i a meeting like the bursting of a roi^ervoir. It was not what he said, but the sound it made, that produced the oft'ect. The maddest clamor was not hushed; it was overwhelmed by the new roar, which was always reserved to the end of the meeting. His function was to appeal for subscriptions, and he ex- actly answered that end, for when his astounding voice fell upon the meeting no one seemed to have the power of going away. In the hours of argument Mr. Villiers's mastery of the question was ever hcanl, and his high character lent iuflucnco to the cause. Mr. Milner (libson, another Par- liamentary voice, had a graceful and cogent eloquence which always commanded attention. Mr. W. J. Fox. a Unitarian minister, and subsequently M. P. for Oldham, surpassed all the orators of the League of that day in bril- liance of speech. Shorter and more rotund than Charles James Fox, he notwithstanding produced effects of rhet- oric transcending those of his great namesake, and which "brilliance '* but weakly describes. Above all in renown were the great names of Cobden and IJright. Mr. Cob- den, the "pale-faced manufacturer," whom tiio landowners believed, and the farmers were persuaded, was a Man- chester enemy of all agriculture and paid emissary of the Socialist insurgents of the Continent, was himself the sou of a Sussex farmer, and whoso ambition was to die one of that class; and did, seeking and accepting no other distinction than that which his genius east around his name. Ho was the logician of the League. As a mas- ter of lucid statement on the platform or in Parliament he left no equal at his death. When he had made a statement he looked at it and around it, as though he saw it in the air before him. AVhat was deficient he supplied, what was redundant he withdrew, hy putting the question in another way, in wliich he omitted any mischievous word or quali- fied any phrase he had used which might mislead, so that he could not bo misunderstood by accident nor his meaning perverted hy design. This contributed to give the League great ascendency, since all its adherents cr>uld quote with- out fear of contradiction what he said, and his speeches of one day became the authority of the next. Mr. IJright's was a grander and move imposing order of eloquence, at once impassioned and colossal. Cohden presented the facts, Bright put lire into them. AVith the finest voice of any Euroftean orator, lie displayed a measured vehemence on the platform which gave the impression of unknown power. He was the Vulcan of the movement, who forged at red heat and hurled the burning bolts which finally set protec- tion in (lames. These were the great propagandists of po- litical economy who made conquest of the premier, Sir Robert Peel, who won for himself an imperishable name hy repealing in ISIO the corn laws, thus "giving the people bread, no longer leavened," as he promlly said, " by a sense of injustice." Never was such a wreck of political reputa- tions as took place within a few years of the abcdition of protection in corn. Nothing happened which had been pre- dicted by the prognosticators of disaster. Puoi- lands were more cultivated tluin hef(trc ; no stoppage of imports by war has occurred; manufacturers and shopkeepers have thriven beyond all the dreams (tf prosjierity ; instead of rents of land falling, the aristocracy, the chief owners of it, have grown rich while they slept, and farmers have found *' ruin '* a very pleasant thing to them. The working classes have been better instead of worse employed, and their wages in large districts now excite the jealousy of curates, while the agricultural laborers are at last able to insist upon improved provision for themselves. A stimulus, inconeei\ able heretofore, has been given to trade; fluctua- tions in the price of corn have decreased ; api)rehensions of insuthcicnt harvests no longer excite dread, and the Brit- ish race are physically much improved since the days before Cobden and Bright arose. The victory of (he Anti-Corn Law League was the greatest ever won by reason in the history of human agitations. Neither in piety nor morals nor trade are men for trusting one another. Everybody is for pro- tecting his neighbor from benefiting himself. Nobody is for leaving freedom free. The princi])le of progress in commerce and social life is not to limit litierty, but to limit injury. It was the establishment of this principle in trade that caused this League to be regarded as one of the histo- ric forces of British civilization. Gkoiu;k J. Holvoake. League, Hoi y[Fr./,'f.S'fl("»rf Lk/jk"), called The League par fscellmrc, was entered into in I'tTll jit Peronne, by tlie beads of the Catholic jiarty under the leadershij) of Guise, for resistance to the spread of Protestantism and opjto- sition to the succession of the Calvintstic princes to the French throno. This led to the renewal of the bloody civil wars, which were not ended until 1690, when Henry IV. won the battle of Ivry. LeaKe, county of Central Mississippi. Area, 570 square miles. It is undulating and fertile, and is traversed by Pearl River and its aflluents. Cotton and corn are staple products. Cap. Carthage. Pop. 8490. Leake (Sir John), b. at Rotherhithe, England, in 1 050; distinguished himself in the naval service during the war of the Spanish succession by taking Newfoundland from the French (1702), for which he was made admiral and knighted: relieved Gibraltar in Oct., 1701, and Mar., 17U0, forcing the French and Spaniards to abandon the siege; took part in the reduction of Barcelona the same year; cap- tured Carthagcnaand Majorca in 170G; became commander- in-ebief of the fleet in 1707; took Sardinia and I\Iiuorca in 1708; became rear-admiral of (Jreat Britain and lord of the admiralty in 1709; represented Rochester in Par- liament for some years, and d. at Greenwich Aug. 1, 1720. Leake (Stkphen Martin), F. S. A., b. in England in 1702 ; was an eminent autliority upon heraldry and numis- matics: became Clarencieux Herald in 1741, Garter Herald in 1754 ; published a manual of British coins, Summi liri- tfitniic! Hifitftrioj in 17-t', and a Life of his uncle, Sir John Leake, in 17o0. D. in London Mar. S-l, 1774, Leake (William Mahtin), b. in London, England, in Jan.. 1777; educated at the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich; obtained a commission in tlie artillery in I7W4; served in the West Indies; sent in 171*11 to Constantinople to instruct the Turks in the use of artillery; appointed in 1500 to advise the Turks in resisting the French, and pro- ceeded through Asia Minor and Syria to Egypt ; iind in 1501 was engaged with William Hamilton in making a general survey of I'pper Egypt. In 1S04 he was ajq)ointcd to survey tlie coasts and fortresses of European Turkey, and made a careful exploration of (Jreece. For many years he was frequently employed upon government commissions in the East, and gave the result of his researches in the learned works Jiescarches in Grrrcc (1SI4 ), 7'i'potftaphi/ of Athrns (1S21). Journal of a Tour iu Atiin Minor (182-1), Travch in the Morca (18H0), Travels in Northern Greece (18.3.5). /V/o;joHnr«(«eff (1846), A'irm/smnM Hrffrnira (18.04), Dinpufrd QucntiotiH of Ancient Geoffrapfn/ f I8i^7), antl ///«- torivnf Oiitliiir of the Greek Jierohifimi (1820), and other minor political works. He attained tlie rank of colonel; retired from the army in 1823, and devoted himself thence- forth chiefly to geography. In ls;?.S he married I^Irs. Mnr.=dcn, v-idow of the historian of Sumatra and daughter of the learned Orientalist Sir Cliarles Wilkins. and she rendered him valuable assistance in Iiis literary tasks. Filling important posts in the geographical and antiqua- rian societies of London, he was for many years a lea<iing authority njion Eastern questions. He was an ardent sym- pathizerwith the Greeks in their struggle for independence. I), at Brighton Jan. 0, 1860. Leakes'iille, ])Ost-v., cap. of Greene co., Miss., on Chiekasawha River. Leaks'villCf post-tp. of Rockingham co., N. C. Pop. 20:; 1. Leam'ing (Jeremiah), D. D.. b. at Middletown. Conn., in 1710; graduated at Yale in 174;'): wits ordained to the Episcopal ministry in 1748; preached eight years at New- port, R. 1., twenty-one years at Norwalk, and eight years at Stratford. During the Revolutionary war he was im- prisoned as a Tory, contracting a disease of the hip which rendered him a cripple. On account of infirmity he de- clined iu 1783 an election as first bishop of the American LEAMINGTON— LEATHER. 1697 Episcopal Church. He wrote a Defence of the Epiaeopal Gutfemnient of the Church (1766), a Second Vf/encf (1770), Et'idencea of the Truth of Chriatianity (I'SJt. and Ditter- tntinna mi Variona Subjecta ( 1789). D. at New Haven. Cono., 8epi. i:.. 1S04. Leam'ington, or Leamington Priors, town of EnglniHl, 2 uiilc:^ from Warwick, on the Leain. celebrated for its mineral 8pring;s, saline, sulphurous, and chalybeate, whii'h attract a large number of fashionable guests during the season from October to May. It is wholly of modern growth, and is one of the handsomest places in England. Pop. 22.7.iO. Leap Vear. See Calendar, by F. A. P. Baiisabd. Lear ( Tobias >, b. at Portsmouth, N. II., Sept. 19.1762; graduated at Harvard I'niversity in \~^^; became private secretary to Washington in KSo; was consul-general at Santo Domingo ^1802) and at Algiers (1S04); was in 1805 commissioner to negotiate peace with Tripoli, and return- ing to the U. S. became accountant in the war department. D. at Washington, D. C, Oct. U, 1816. Lcar'ned (tJen. Ebrxezer), b. in Massachusetts about 1728; was a captain in the French war ( I7o(>-C3) ; raised the ;id Massachusetts regiment at the outbreak of the Revo- lutionary war; was appointed brigadier-general in Apr., 1777: took part in the relief of Fort Schuyler (Aug., 1777), and commanded the cpntre at the battle of Stillwater (Sept. 19, 1777): was at Valley Forge the ensuing winter, and was forL-ed by broken health to retire from service in Mar., 1778. A pension was granted him in 1795. D.at Oxford, Mass.. Apr. I, 1801. Lcas'burg, post-v. and tp. of Caswell co., N. C. Pop. 1461. Lease. Sec Landloiid and Tenant in Law, by Prof. T. W. DwiGiiT, LL.l). Lease and Release* See Bargain and Sale, by Pkok. T. W. DwiGiiT, I.L.D. Leather [Sax. ieth^r, from /iVAe, "soft:" Ger. Leder ; \ Fr. ruiVJ. the skins of animals prepared by processes which i protect them from putrefaction and render them soft, pli- I al)le, tough, and non-transparent. [ Hittorxf. — .^kins constituted the first clothing of man, , and have been more or less perfectly prepared from the j earliest times. Persian and Babylonian leather was long celebrated, and during the first centuries of the Christian \ era the Russians and Hungarians were most skilful tan- ners. The earliest method consisted undoubtedly in cleans- ' \u% and drying the skins. Then fat, smoke, urine, sour milk, brains, etc. were in time found to be cfhcaeious. Later, astringents — nut-galls in the East and oak-bark in the West — were introduced, giving rise to the process of t'ttiin'tnj, and alum to ttiiring. It was not till the close of the eighteenth century that the true nature of the processes began to be understood, when the structure of the skin and the chemical nature of the agents employed had become knuwn. In 1778, Macbride proposed raising skins with dilute sulphuric acid : in 179.1, Dej'eux recognized tannin as a peculiar boly, and in 1795, Seguin showed that leather tanned with oak-bark was a compound of tannin with the animal tissue, and proposed his process of quick tanning. Ranks in ISO I discovered the tanning projiertics of terra japonica, and Pelouze in 1H;U investigated nut-galls and showed the acid character of tannin. Davy, Proust, Vau- quclin, Chaptal, F. Knapp, Rollet. and many other chem- ists contributed important investigations on the subject. Mechanism has done much more than chemistry to expe- dite the operations antl improve the appearance of leather. It is an unfortunate fact, however, that in most cases tho quality of the leather has deteriorated in proportion as tho processes have been quickened. The Mnnufartnre of Leather is conducted in three en- tirely distinct ways: I. lanninrf by tho aid of bodies con- tiiiiiing tannin; II. fotri'iiy with alum and common salt; Hi. f*nriM«/ with oil. The whole skin is not converted into leather, hut only thai portion known as Xhc corium or drrntn, which possesses a fibrous texture. This is covered on the hair or bloom side by the epiclermis, consisting of nu- cleated cells, and on the flesh sicle by a fatly tissue, both of whii'h are removed by the tanner. I. Tnnninfj. — The skins of almost all quadrupeds may be converted into leather. In practice, the hides of bulls and oxen yield the best leather for soles, harness, and for belting; calves' nkins furnish the best upper leather for boots and choes : lamb, sheep, goat, and buck skins are generally tawed with alum or oil for the preparation of glove, wash, or bookbinders' leather. Most of tho so- called huckakin is now prepared by tawing the skins of wild hog:^ from Africa. Alligators* hides have recently been introduced for boots and t*hoes. Horse, ass, pig, and seal skins are tanned for trunks and saddlerv purposes. \.M,. 11.-107 Preparation of the Skina. — (1) Steeping or macerating in water is resorted to in order to solteu tho skin and to remove blood and dirt. Fresh hides arc macerated two or three days, dried or salted hides eight or ten days. They are taken out of the water twice daily and put hack again. (2) Cleansing the flesh side is etfected by supporting the hide on a " tree " or " beam," a stout semicircular plank, and scraping it with a dressing-knife to remove the fatly tissue, etc. (3) Loosening tho hair is eff"ected by sweating, liming, or treatnu-nt with depilatories. Sweating is a putrefactive fermentation which is often resorted tu lor solo leather, as lime tends to render the leather brittle. Tho hides are piled up with the flesh side inward in a tank which can bo closed to retain tho heat generated by the fermentation. Some salt or wood vinegar is generally rubbed on them beforehand. When tlic smell of ammonia is perceptible the operation is completed. Similar results are obtained by hanging the hides in rooms heated to from 86° to 122° F.^ the air of which is kept moist by steam. Liming consists in placing the hiih's in vats with milk of Hme, frequently transferring them from one vat to another, or taking them out and replacing them, to allow the limo to act equally on every part. When the hair is found to be i)roperly loosened the hides are withdrawn. Depila- tories are used for skins of the smaller animal?, which will sustain neither sweating nor liming. Rhusmn, a mixture of orpiment and two or three times its weight of slaked lime, has long been used. It is rubbed on the hair side of the skin, and allowed to remain in contact till the hair is sufficiently loosened. Sulphide of calcium, which is the active agent in the rhusma, has of late been substituted for it. The refuse lime of gasworks contains a consiiler- able proportion of this comjiound, and may be used with advantage. In (iermany sulphide of sodium is now used, either in solution (I part to 100 of water), or as a paste with three times its weight of lime and a sufficient quantity of water. The paste is ajppliod with a brush to the hair side, and the hides are then covered with damp matting, to prevent tlie drying of the paste; tho process is complete in fifteen or twenty hours. Acid liquids possess some depilatory power, and are sometimes used. The Calmuck Tartars employ sour milk. The acid liquid resulting from the fermenta- tion of barley or rye meal in water has been used. (4) Removing tho hair is efi'ected by scraj.ing on the beam with the dressing-knife. The skins arc then washed in water. (5) Bating is next resorted to for the purpose of removing the lime and the lime soaps which have been formed in the skin. The material employed is the dung of i)igeons, fowls, or dogs, mixed with water. The skins are placed in this, and frequently handled to secure uniform action. Tho dash-wheel is used in large establishments to keep the con- tents of the vat in constant motion and save handling. Rating is very efl"eclive, but it is attended with some dis- advantages. The putrefaction of the liate during the steeping injures the skins, renders them lighter, and di- minishes their strength. Tho jirocoss must therefore be carefully watched ami interrupted at the iiroper moment. Dilute hydrocbl<irie aeiil. and even sugar solutions — 4 or 5 (jounds of sugar or molasses to (iU gallons of water — have jccn recommended as substitutes for dung. (6) Swelling or raising the hides is resorted to in order to swell tho fibres, and make the skins more susceptible to tho oction of the tanning solutions. The swelling-bath may consist of (ol barley meal and one-tenth its weight of sour dough difl"u8ed in water, which yield by fermentation lactic and other acids; (h) of spent tan-liquor, wliieh contains con- siderable lactic and butyric acid : (f ) dilute sulphuric acid, 1 part of acid to H'OO or 15110 id" water. Considerable prej- udice exists against sulphuric acid, tm the ground that it injures the quality of the leather, hut it is still extensively used. (7) Tanninfj. — The tanning materials are various astringent vegetable products which contain tannin (tan- nic acidt. Those most useil are oak, fir. and hemlnek bark, sumac, divi-divi, Valonia nuts, myrohalans. euteh, gam- bir, catechu, and kino. (Sec article Tansr' AciD.) The impregnation of the hides with tannin is efi'ected by (o) placing them between layers of coarsely crushed bark in a vat, which is then filled with water or old liquors; (A) im- mersing them in fir^t a weak aqueous infusion of the tan- ning material, and afti-rwards in a stronger: [r) sewing two hides together into a sack and filling this with the tan- ning solution. The progress of the operation can be ascer- tained by exiinnning ll»e hide on a freshly cut edge, which shows the depth to which the tannic acid has penetrated. When the appearance is uniform throughout the ibiekness the tanning is completed. Quick tanning maybe accom- plished by various means, some good, others objectionable, (n) The a}>plica(ion of hydrostatic pressure to force the liquor through tho hides; (t) cireuhitinn of the liquor among the hides; {c) sewing tho hides into sacks, filling witli oak-bark chips and water, and immersing in vals of 1698 LEATHER. catechu infusion made dense by molasses ; {d) motion of the hides in the lifjuor : (e) frequent withdrawal and work- ing of the hides on rollers; (/) puncturing the hides wilh sharp needles to produce artificial pores; (;/) treatment, of the hides in vacuo. (8) Currying is the jirocess by which the tanned skins, after being converted into leather, are prepared for use. For sole leather it consists in merely hauunenng the dried hide to render it more compact. For upjier leather, used for boots and shoes, it consists of (n) pari rig with a knife to secure uniform thickness ; (i) scrap- ing for a similar purpose; (.) graining with the pommel or graining-board; {d) finishing off with a flattening iron or horn to remove creases, etc.; (e) greasing, which consists in rubbing in a mi.Nture of oil and tallow : the skins are previously moistened, and after the .application of the grease are hung in warm rooms to dry it iu ; (/) blacken- ing, which is effected by an application of a fresh .solution of oak-bark, and then of copperas (ferrous sulphate) solu- tion, to which some blue vitriol (cupric sulphate) has been added; (7) greasing again; (*) applying a solution of glue and (allow; (0 polishing with glass. (For details with regard to special varieties of leather see below, and also Morocco LuATHF.n.) Lacquered leather, commonly called patent leather, is made by applying a varnish to the leather, and then placing it in a stove heated to about 120° F. This causes the varnish to become thin, to spread out evenly, and dry to a smooth, polished surface. Cow or split skins are generally used for this purpose. Corduran differs from morocco in being prepared from heavy skins, and by retaining its natural grain. It is a soft, fine-grained, colored leather, usually dyed red, yellow, or black. It was originally prepared by the ancient Ori- entals. It was first introduced into Europe at Cordova in Spain, whence the name. The French name for shoe- maker, cnvdouitifr, is probably derived from this leather. The manufacture of this leather was established at Cor- dova, and for a long time European markets were ohiefiy supplied from this city. The best qualities of cordovan are now made at Constantinople, Smyrna, and Aleppo; Bremen supplies the best German. Yufis or liussiii Leather is a very strong, pliant, and watertight leather, usually colored red or black, which has a peculiar penetrating odor, due to the oil of birch with which it is impregnated. It was invented by the Bulga- rians. The best is made in various Russian and Lithua- nian provinces. The name yufts is derived from the Russian jiifti, signifying a pair, and probably due to the fact that two hides are sewed together in the form of a sack for the dyeing operation. The hides of young cattle are generally employerl. but sometimes horse, sheep, goat, and calfskins arc employed. The hides are cleansed with lime in the usual manner. They are swelled in an acid bath prepared wilh malt, exhausted tan-liquor, or hiiKchkn, the dung of dogs rubbed up with water. Willow, fir. and birch b.irk arc employed in the tanning. The hides are first sub- mitted for some days to the action of partially exhausted bark ; they are then placed in vats with fresh bark, or a warm infusion made from it. The tanning requires five or six weeks. The tanned hides are next impregnated with dii/i/iit or elachert, the oil of birch obtained from bireh-wood by dry distillation. It is rubbed in on the Hesh side, and when the hides are thoroughly impregnated, they are stretched till soft and supidc. They are then rubbed on the hair side with .alum solution, grained, and dried. The dry hides are sowed together in pairs, forming sacks which arc filled wilh the dye-liquor, which for red is a decoction of sandal-wood. Tlio dyed leather is dressed by the usual mechanical operations. Russia leather is specially useful for bookbinding, the oil of birch repelling insects. II. 'fiiwiiiij wilh Alnmiu'i S'llis ("white tanning") is generally resorted to for sheep and goat skins, though it is also applied to cow and ox hides for moccasin and lace leather. The thick skins are prepared as for tanning ; sheep and goat skina arc nuire carefully cleansed and freed from hair and wool. Lime and fermented bran-liquor are used, however, as already described. The skins are then immersed in a solution of common salt and alum. After removal from Ihe solution and drying Ihe skins appear shrunken and stiff. In order to restore suppleness and flexibility they are dampened with water, and subjected to meeh.anical operations which stretch and knea<I them. If thin they are stretched on a frame to dry. Thick hides arc greased as described under Toituinf/. Fine glove-leather is tawed by a different process. The .skins of kids or lambs arc most carefully handled to avoid abrading or staining them. They arc cleansed and unhaired by lime and bran- liquora as for ordinary tawing. The tawing is effected by applying a paste composed of wheat flour, yolks of eggs, alum, common salt, and water. As the yolks of eggs aid by furnishing tlie oil which they contain in tl»e state of emulsion, which gives the kid leather its highly prized suppleness and softness, they may be replaced by an emul- sion of almond, olive, or fish oil. The skins are thoroughly soaked and kneaded in the paste, to which 2 or 3 per cent, of carbolic acid is often added to prevent putrefaction, and packed in heaps. They are then stretched by hand and rapidly dried in the air. They are then dampened, placed in linen cloths, and trodden to render them soft. They are then planed, dried, and planed again, polished by rub- bing with a heavy glass disk or by the apprctcur, simulta- neously with the" application of some white of egg, gum, or fine soap, to give a gloss to the hair side, which is after- wards dyed. Shaf/rcen. — Genuine Oriental shagreen (unghi'r, saf/ri, srir/rc) is a variety of tawed leather which has long been celebrated for its hardness and strength. Its appearance is very peculiar, the grain side being covered with globular granules, which are produced by stamping the hard seeds of the wild orach (Chenopodiiim nlbmn) into the wet hide, and afterwards knocking them out. This leather origin- ated in the East, and the best is now brought from Persia, Constantinople, Algiers, and Tripoli. The name shagreen is also applied to fish-skin prepared for covers and for pol- ishing wood. III. Tmeing wilh Oil {" Samian tawing "), for the prep- aration of shammy (chamois) or ivash-leather. For this leather the upper or exterior layer of the corium of the thick skins is cut away, as it is too compact and prevents the ready absorption of oil. Thin skins, as those of lambs and goats, are not deprived of the exterior layer. The skins are prepared with lime and the subsequent bran-bath, as in alum-tawing. They are then stretched and rubbed with oil, which is worked in by the fulling-machine. They are then hung in the air. Oiling, stamping in the fulling- machine, and exposure to the air are repeated till a suf- ficient quantity of oil has lieen worked into the skin. The skins are then heaped together in a warm room to produce a kind of fermentation, which must be carefully watched, and occasionally interrupted by airing to prevent over- heating. The oil becomes rancid by these operations, and appears to combine wilh the animal fibres of the skin. The uncombincd oil is then removed by a tepid bath of potash solution, and the skins are wrung out and dried. The softness and suppleness are restored by dressing. Cordovan or Turkey leather is oil-tawed, without having the hair side removed, while the flesh side is blackened in the usual wav. Stearic Acid Taicinr). — According to Knapp's researches, a very good white kid leather is obtained by tawing the epidermis (lilosa) from lamb or goat skins in a saturated solution of stearic acid in alcohol. The leather thus ob- tained is very soft, has a whiter color than ordinary glace leather, and a beautiful gloss. Sialistio. — According to the report of the ninth census there were in 1S70 in the U. S. 42:17 tanneries, with a cap- ital of $42,720,505, erajdoying 20,784 hands, and paying $7,9:14,416 in wages per annum. The bark employed amounted to 1, 255, ;i4fi cords, valued at $0,089,303; 8,788,752 hides, 9,664,148 skins, and other materials of a value of $1,631,234, wore used, the t^^tal value of (he materials be- ing $63,069,491. The products were 17,577,404 sides of leather and 9,794,148 skins, of an aggregate value of $86,169,883. There were also 3083 establishments for cur- rying leather, with a capital of $12,303,785, employing 10,027 hands, and paying .$4,154,114 in wages. Theae consumed — 9,13:!,:W0 sides, value $33,784,271 4,084,980 skins, value 6,833,215 2,089,754 gallons oil, value ''oi'?i?2 Other materials, value 1.305.6 12 Cost of all materials S43,.56.5,,')93 and produced 9,133.330 sides of leather and 4,084.980 skins, the total value of which was $54,191,167. New York and Boston arc the great markets for all sorts of leather in this country. Lilcratiire. — The. Art) of Taniiinr) and Curryinr). by Camp- bell Morfit; A New avd'ComplrIc Trealinc on tlie Artn of Tannine/, Curryimi, and Lealhcr-IJrem'nij, by 11. Dussauee; C. H. Schmidt's Hnndliuch der Lohrjcrhcrei ; Ilandburh der WciHsyerberei ; Die Siiffianfabricalion ; Die Lcdcrfdrbe- kunsl ; Die A'i! rtchnerkuniit ; and Knodorer's Xeue Wich- li<;c Erfindun// in der Lnhijerherei ; Hie Fabrikalion den Lohfiaren Ledem in Deultehland, by F. A. Gunther; Lehr- buck der SohUedertjcrberei. by Von Bichon ; Naliir nnd De- sens der Irerberei, by F. Knapp ; Die Dentnehe (Jerberzeitnnr/ ; Nenea Journal der ijeitammten Gerberei ; Gerber Conner ; Cuire et Pe.anx. by H. Villain ; MaKriel den Indrntries dn t'lii'i-. by J. P. Damouretti ; Cuim el Peanr, by M. Fauler, Rapports dn .lury International Exp. Vnir. 18$7 ; Ure's Dictionary of Artn. Mnnnfaclnres, and Mines; Wagner's rcc/iiin/o./'v ;" Watls's Diilionary ; Muspratt's Chemistry, especially last German edition, C. F. Chandler. LEATIIEK-WOOD— LEBANON. 1609 Leatlier'-wood, Moose*\vood, or Wic'opy, the lUrvn piiiugtrin, a shrub of tbo order Thyiuelacea?, i« abun- dant in the iiurtheni parts of North America. Its tough b;irk was Ui^cd by the ludiaus fur thongs or cordage. Tbo bark has irritant cathartic properties, and its decoction in small doses is recommended fur tho cure of sick headache. Its wood is very white, soft, and brittle. Leather\vood,post-tp. of Henry co., Va. Pop. 3673. Leathcs (StanluvV D. D., b. at EUesborough, Eng- land, Mar. 21, 1S30; educated at ('auii>ridgc ; served us curate in several churches in London ; became in ISO'S pro- fes.^or of Hebrew in King's College, London, and has espe- cially devoted liimself to Christian evidences. IIo was Boylo lecturcrfrom ISfiS to 187*', Ihilsean lecturer at Cam- bridge in 1S73, and Bampton lectun'r at Oxford in 1S74; is a member of the Anglican commission for tho revision of the translation of the Old Testament, and was one of tho delegates to tho Evangelical Alliance in the session of 1S7;I in New York. Ilis best known work is the W'itneHs of Si. John to Cfirhf. Jj'Eaa qui Court, a former county of Nebraska, now called Kni>x (which sec). Leav'el (Rev. Hadi-n), M. D., b. in Madison co., Ivy., May, 1812: graduated at the rniversity of Pennsylvania in 1833; practised medicine in Kentucky and Jli^sissippi for several years, and in 1847 entered tho ministry, in which be rose to eminence. Ho was pastor of t!io Alctbodist Episcopal Church, South, in Vicksburg, at tho time of his death, Sept. 11, 1847. T. 0. f^i'MMEiis. Lcav'en [Fr. /er«m, from Lat. fcvarc, to "raise"], a piece of sour dough used for raising bread. The principle of its action is the same as that of Ykasv (which see). IjCav'cnworth, county of N. E. Kansas, bounded E. i)artly by the Mi.'^souri River and S. by the Kansas River. [t has a rich and well-cultivated soil. Coal is found. Cat- tle, grain, and wool are staple products. Tobacco, car- riages, and clothing arc the most important articles of manufacture. Tho county is traversed by several railroads. Cap. Leavenworth. Pop. 32,444. Leavcuwortliy post-v., cap. of Crawford co., Ind., on the Ohio River, CO miles below Louisville, Ky. It has a gracliMi s'shool, a newspaper, and is a good shipping-point. Tho Great Wyandotte Cavo is situated 6 miles E. of the town. Pop. 007. Leavenworth^ city and cap. of Leavenworth co., Kan., on the W. bank of the Missouri River. 39 miles from Kan- gas City, Mo., and 312 miles by land above St. Louis ; E. terminus of tho Kansas Central fnarrow gauge) and the Kansas Paoific R. Rs, ; N. terminus of the Leavenworth Lawrence and Galveston, and the W. terminus of the S. \V. line of the Chicago Rock Island and Pacilic R. R., which latter roa<l crosses tho Missouri at this point over a mag- nificent iron bridge constructed at a cost of $l.nOO,OUU. The Atlantic and Pacific, known as tho Missouri Pacific, ami tho Kansas City St. Jo?epli and Council lilufls R. Rs.. also pass through the city.. Leavenworth contains 27 churches, 9 commodious school-buildings, several private seminaries, Slate normal schoid, the St. Mary's (Catholic) Academy, 2 orphan asylums, 4 daily and weekly ucws- Impers, 4 monthly periodicals, 2 insnrnm-o companies, 6 tanks, a paid fire department, and 4 miles of street rail- way. The Kansas State penitentiary is situated 4 miles S, of tho city. Fort Leavenworth military reservation ad- joins the city on the \., and has a military prison. Leaven- wrtrlh d-Tives its chief impnrtancv from the nmnufaoturo of carpets, furniture, stoves, engines, mining machinery, and iron bridges. It is the largest city in tho State, a great centre of trade with the Territories, and is noted among Western cities for its elegant resiliences an<l its many miles of sha<le<l thoroughfares. The first house was built in 1H.")4. I'op. 17, X7;!. J. W. RoBKHTS, K». " CoJIMEnriAL." Leaven worth, post-v. and tp. of Brown co., Minu., 17 niiU'S S. W. of New Clm. Pop. 433. lieavcnworth (Ei-tAs Warneii), LL.D., b. at Canaan, ('olnml>ia co., X. V., Dec. 20, 1SI)3 ; spent his childhood and yuth at Great Harrington, Mass.; graduated at Yale Col- lege in 1S2I; began the study of law the same year in tho ollii'C of William Culleu Bryant at Great Harrington ; spent 2 years at tho Litchfield (C(mn.) law-school; admitted to tho bar in Jan., 1827, in which year In- removed to Syra- cuse, N. Y,, where he practised law with success for many years until forced by ill health to abandon it. lie was mayor of Syracuse in 18 10 and IS.'ill; member of assembly in 18.")0 and 18."j7: secretary of State 18.'(l-:).'i, to which ofiice be was again nominated in 18.M); president of the board fif quarantine commissioners ISfifl; elected regent of the university Feb., ISfil ; appointed by President I:iin- coln in Mar.. ISfil, cuinmi.-^inji' r under the convention with New Granada; was in 1865 president of a board of commissioners to locate the State asylum for the blind, an^l in the same year trustee of the State asylum for idiots, to which post he was twice reappointed; member for the fifth district of the constitutional commission 1872; published in 1873 the dcncnloijif of the Leavenworth Famifi/ in the U. S., an elaborate work, the result of years of research and correspondence, and was elected 1874 a representative in the V. S. Congress. He is now (1875) president of the Syracuse savings bank, of the gaslight and waterworks companies of that city, and holds numerous other posts of trust and responsibility. Leavenworth i Gen. Hknrv), b. in Connecticut Dec. 10, 17;C; studied and ])ractised law; entered the army in Apr., 1812, as captain ot" the 2jtli New York Infantry ; was made raajorof tho Uth Infantry in Aug., 1813; commanded his regiment at tho batllis of Chippewa (.luly 5) and Niag- ara Falls (July 23, 181 1). Ijciug wounded in the latter en- gagement; made lieutenant-colonel and brevet colonel for bravery in the above engagements; lieutenant-colonel jth Infantry of tho regular army in Feb., 1818; commandeil expedition against Arickarco Indians on the npper Mis- souri River; made brevet brigadier-general in July, 1824; colonel 3d Infantry in Dec, 182.'). He founded several military posts on the Western frontier, one of which, Fort Leavenworth, was the nucleus of the present flourishing city of Leavenworth, Kau. 1). at Cross Timbers, Indian Territory, July 21, 1834. Leaves. Seo Leaf, by Phi>f. Asa Gray, M. D., LL.D. Leavltt, tp. of Oceana co., Mich. Pop. 316. Leavittf post-v. of Monroe tp., Carroll co., 0., 7 miles W. S. AV. of CarrolUou. It has 1 weekly newspaper. Leavitt (Joshua), D. D., b. at Heath, Franklin co.. Mass., Sejit. 8, 17Ui; graduated at Yalo in 1814; studied law, and in LU'.I was admitted to the bar ; ]iractiscd law in Heath, Mass., and I*utney, Vt. ; grailnated in 1826 at tlie Yale Divinity School; was tho highly successful pastor of a Congregational churcli at Stratford, Conn., 1825-28 : editor of the Sttilor'ti Maffnzinr 1828~.'}1 ; of the Xew Yin-!: EvantjeUiit 18:!l-37; of the Kinancipator 1837—17: and in 1848 became connected with the Independent, which eoii nection ho retained till his death. Mr. Leavitt was always active in tho cause of Sunday schools, temperance, seamen s aid, and tho abolition of slavery. Ho was a zealous frei-- trader, and greatly iufluencoci the politit-iil opinion of his time. 1». Jan. 16," 1873, in Brooklyn, N. V. Lebade'a [.\epa5<to], now Livaoia, an ancient town of Bo-otia, at the northern foot of Helicon, noted for the cave of Trophonius and a famous oracle. Leb'anon [Heb„ from Uibimn, " to be white;" Assyrian Labniniu ; <iv. At^ai-o?; Lat. Lihanua ; Arabic Jtbcl Lih- nnn~\, a celebrated range of mountains in Syria, extending about 110 miles along the sea-coast frtnn the Xuhr el Kibir (Kleulherusl River on the N. to the Nahr-el-I.itany (Lcontes) on the S. ; t". v. from the great pass opening into the valley of Hamah (Hamath). hit. 34° 40', to the vicinity of Tyre, in lat. 3;!° 20', and separated by the elevated val- ley of El-Bukaa (Conle-Syria). U) to 20 utiles wide, from the parallel range of Anti-IjKHANon (which see), similarly extending from near Homs (Kmesa) on the N. to tbo peak (d'Jebel-esh- Sheikh {Hcrmon). a few miles S. of Damascus. In tho centre of tho valley of Kl-Bukaa are the niojestic ruins of B,\Ai,Bi:r (wliich see), tho ancient IIcHopoIis, near which rise tho Aasy (Orontes) and Litnny rivers, the ior- mer fl(»wing N. to the Cilician liulf. liie latter S. to the Mediterranean, above Tyre. Physically, the mountains of Lebanon are connected northwards through their prolonga- tion, the .L-bel Nusarieh. with llie great chain of Tauius in Asia Minor, and southward, through the hnver mountnins of Palestine and Moab, with tbo Sinaitic group and the coast range of W. Arabia; and some modern geographers empbiv the name in this wider sense. Lebanon was at the earliest recorded i)eriod the chief geographical feature and eastern limit of Pikkvuia (which see); it was altermitrly subject to Assyria and Kgypt. whose monarchs often em ployed its celebrated cedars to supply timber for their edi fices, and was included within tho boundaries of the llelirew " land of promise " ( Num. x.xxiv. : Deut. xi. 2 I ; Josh. i. 4 ), though it never came into tln'ir possession, unless in a \ ery limited sense for a brief period, and may properly lie con- sidered as the northern boundary itf the ILdy Land. The books, projdietie, poetic, and historiciil, of the Old Tes- tament al)onnil in references to Lebanon, which supplied the timber for Solomon's magniticcnt tempi*- and palaces; and tho term usually, though not uniformly, inclmles both ranges. Lebanon proper was called by the early Arabian geographers Jehel Libnan, and V>y later writers .lebct-el- (Jhurby. "the west mountain," in distinction from Auli- Lfbanon. calbri Jebel esli Shurkv. " iIk- ni-t mnnira ii." 1700 LEBANON— LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE. These names, however, are cow seldom heard in Syria, where, besides local names, the northern section is called Jcbel-Akkar, the central Sunnin, and the southern Jebel- ed-Druze. Between the mountains and the sea the plain uf Ph(jeuicia is of varying breadth, but never more than 10 or 15 miles, while spurs are several times thrown off which jut precipitously into the sea. The base of the range has an average breadth of 20 miles ; the peak of Jebel Tiinarun attains a height of 10,j:j3 feet, that of l>ahar-el-Kudib 10.051, and Sunnin S500 feet. The elevation decreases towards th© S., and falls rapidly from the " twin-peaks" of Tomat-Niha (G500 feet) to the wild, abrupt ravine of the Litany, whose banks sometimes rise perpendicularly lOUU feet. The mass of Lebanon is a hard, partially crys- tallized Jurassic limestone, surmounted in many places by a grayish white cretaceous deposit, whi-nce perhaps the name, more usually derived from the snows, which cover the main ridge from December to March. The southern section exhibits traces of violent volcanic action, and earthquakes are still frequent, that of ISltT having buried thousands of persons in Safed beneath the ruins of their homes. The inhabitants are chiefly Maronites, a Christian sect, in the N., and Druses, professing a corrupted Moham- medanism, in the .S. These races are rivals, and have for centuries been at feud: a terrible massacre of Christians in 1860 resulted in European intervention. The district is subject to a Maronite governor, depending upon the pasha- Hc of Damascus. There are more than 'Si) ruins of ancient temples within this region, which has still a considerable population. Cap. Nahr-ed-Dammur, formerly called Deir- el-Kamr. Porter C. Bliss. Lebanon, county of S. E. Pennsylvania. Area, 300 square miles. It consists in the main of the very fertile Lebanon Valley, and is bounded N. W. by a range of the Kittatinny Mountains. Its soil is a rich reddish clay loam. Live-stock and grain are staple products. Clothing, metallic wares, tobacco, furniture, carriages, flour, etc. are largely manufactured. The county is traversed by the Lebanon Valley, the North Lebanon, and the Lebanon and Fre- montR. Rs. Cap. Lebanon. Pop. .'>4,006. Lebanon, post-v., cap. of De Kalb co., Ala., on the Alabama and Chattanooga R. R. (Brandon's Station). Lebanon, tp. of Sharpe co., Ark. Pop. 609. • Lebanon, post^tp. of Xew London co., Conn., contains several villages, and has important manufacturing interests. Pop. 2211. Lebanon, post-v. of St. Clair co.. III., 24 miles E. of St. Louis, on the Ohio and Mississippi R. R., has 7 churches, 4 hotels, 1 bank, 1 weekly and 1 semi-monthly newspaper, 1 machine-shop, 2 large mills, and a great variety of stores. It is noted for its educational advantages, being the seat of McKendree College (Methodist, founded 1835), the oldest institution of the kind in the West, and is quite a summer resort for residents of St. Louis. Pop. 2117. T. W. EcKERT, Ed. "Journal." Lebanon, post-v. of Centre tp., cap. of Boone co.. Ind., at the junction of the Indianapolis Cincinnati and Lafay- ette with the Anderson Lebanon and St. Louis R. R., 26 miles X. W. of Indianapolis, has 2 weekly newspapers, 5 churches, 3 banks, 4 hotels, 3 mills, 3 stave-factories, an acadctDj, and 47 stores. Pop. 1572. T. IL Harrison, Ed. "Pioneer." Lebanon, post-v., cap. of Marion co., Ky.. 67 miles S. E. of Louisville, on the Kuoxville branch of the Louis- ville Nashville and Great Southern R. R.. at its junction with the Cumberland and Ohio, has 2 national banks, 8 churches, 2 hotels, 2 weekly newspapers, 3 high schools, 1 carriage and 1 furniture manufactory, and is the shipping-point for the productions of several counties. Pop. 925. James W. Hopper, Eik " Standard." Lebanon, post-tp. of York co., Me., on the New Hamp- shire line and on the Portland and Rochester R. R. It has 3 churches. Pop. 1953. Lebanon, tp. of Clinton co., Mich. Pop. 1119. Lebanon, tp. of Dakota co., Minn. Pop. 216. Lebanon, tp. of Cooper co.. Mo. Pop. 3316. Lebanon, jiost-v. and tp., cap. of Laclede co., Mo., on the Atlantic and Pacific R. R., 185 miles S. W. of St. Louis. It is very pleasantly ?ituated. contains 5 churches, 2 news- papers, a first-class seminary and a number of stores, and is the business centre of a large tract of surrounding coun- try. Poj>. of V. 10<»0 ; of tp. 3358. J. G. Lehen, Ed. and Prop, of "Anti-Monopolist." Lebanon, post-v. and tp. of Grafton co., N. H., on the Connecticut River and Northern R. R., 65 miles N. W. of Concord, directly opposite White River Junction. Vt., has ;'• churches, 1 national and 1 savings bank. I weekly news- paper, numerous stores, a fine park, extensive manufactures of furniture, agricultural implements, iron castings, etc., and the only clastic sponge manufactory in the II. S. The W<.'gt Village has a church, a hotel, railroad shops, and the Tilden Ladies' Seminary. Water-power is afforded by the Muscoma River, which falls -100 feet within the town. Principal industries, farming and wool-growing. Pop. 3094. E. H. Chenev, Ed. " Frf.e Press." Lebanon, tp. of Hunterdon co.. N. J. Pop. 3561. Lebanon, post-v. of Clinton tp.. Hunterdon co., N. J., on the New .Jersey Central R. R. It has important manu- factures and trade. Lebanon, post-tp. of Madison co.. N. Y., on the Syra- cuse and Chenango Valley R. R. Tlic Midland and llie Utica Clinton and Biughamtun R. Rs. also traverse the town. Pop. 1559. Lebanon, tp. of Meigs co., 0. Pop. 1823. Lebanon, a v. of Bethel tp., Monroe co., 0. (P. 0. name, Masterton). Pop. 124. Lebanon, post-v. of Turtle Creek tp., cap. of Warren CO., 0., 5 miles from the Little Miami R. R. and 30 m. N. K. of Cincinnati, has 7 churches, 2 weekly newspapers, 3 hotels, 2 planing-mills, a new town-hall, a public library, a national normal school with 1600 students, a county in- firmary and orphans' home. Principal industry, farming. Pop. 2749. Wm. C. McClintock, Pib. "Western Star." Lebanon, post-b., cap. of LeV>anon co.. Pa., beautifully located on tlie Lebanon Valley and the Philadelphia and Reading R. Rs.. 25 miles E. of Harrisburg and 5 miles N. of the great Cornwall iron-hills. It has 15 churches, 1 daily, 1 semi-monthly, and 7 weekly (2 German) newspapers, and is well provided with banks, hotels, schools, factories, ma- chine-shops, and stores. Copper, marble, and anthracite coal abound, tlie latter supplying 8 large furnaces. It is regularly laid out, well built of stone and brick, has a fine water and gas supply and other modern improvements. Situated on the Swatara Creek and Union Canal, it is the centre of an active trade. The original settlers were (ier- mans, but English is now generallv spoken. Pop. 6727. T. T. AVurth. Ed. " CouRiEn." Lebanon, tp. of Wayne co., Pa. Pop. 628. Lebanon, post-v.. cap. of Wilson co., Tenn., 30 miles E. of Nashville, and 6 miles S. of the Cumberland River, at the E. terminus of the Tennessee and Pacific R. R. and of the Lebanon and Nashville telegraph line, has 7 churches, 2 national banks, 4 hotels, a large woollen-factory, flouring and other mills, a market-bouse, town-hall. Masonic and Odd Fellows halls, a business and telegraph college, 2 female seminaries, several public schools, 1 weekly news- paper and 1 quarterly (educational) periodical. It is th© seat of Cumberland University, founded in 1842 by the Cumberland Presbyterian Church, which is now fully or- ganized with six departments ( including law. theology, and engineering), a library of 6000 volumes, 12 professors, and an average of 301) students, including the preparatory de- partment. Pop. 2073. R. L. C. White. Ed. "Herald." Lebanon, post-v. and tp.. cap. of Russell co., Va., in Clinch River Valley, 15 miles N. of Abingdon and 21 miles from the Atlantic Mississippi and Ohio R. R., has 2 churches, 1 weekly newspaper, a male and female academy, and several hotels, stores, and shops. Principal business, farming. Pop. of v. 209: of tp. 2246. J. IJ. Jones, Ed. '* Rissell Progress." Lebanon, tp. of Dodge co., Mis. Pop. 1621. Lebanon, tp. of Waupacca co., Wis. Pop. 657. Lebanon Springs, post-v. of New Lebanon tp.. Co- lumbia CO.. N. V. It is a place of summer resort. Here is a copious mineral spring, having u constant temperature of 70° F. The waters have nearly the taste of pure water, and are so abundant as to furnish a valuable motive-power. The hotel accommodations are ample, and the waters have a good reputation in many diseases. In the vicinity there arc large manufactories of tbermomelers and of phuruia- ceutical preparations. (See New Lebanon and Moi st Lebanon, N. Y.) Near at hand are several communities of Shakers. The scenery is delightful. Lebanon Valley College, located at Annville. Leba- non CO., Pa., on the Philadelphia and Reading R. R., 21 miles E. of Harrisburg. It was organized and chartered by the State legislature in 1867. From this time until 1871 it was under the supervision and jurisdiction of T. R. Viek- roy. In Juno of this last-mentioned year the board of trustees assumed the control and reorganized the faculty, with L. H. Hammond, the present incunibcnt, as president. The growth of this institution has been gradual and con- stant, and though young it now has a respectable number of students in each uf the college classes. Young ladies are admitted, and have equal advantages with young men. They may pursue the same course of study or the one es- LEBAS— LECCE. 1701 pcciolly arranged for them. In this institution tho joint education of the sexes proves not only successful, but in many respects advantageous. There are cabinets of minerals and a museum well begun, and the trustees have ordered the procuring of a library and complete apparatus during tho present year. ' h. U. H.vmuond. lipbas' (Jkax Bai'tiste ApoLi.iNAinE). b. in a village in the ileparlmcnt of \'ar, France, Aug. i:i, I"'.'"; studied at the Kcolc Polytcchnique; was employed since 1823 as an engineer in the French navy : became keeper of the naval inuseura in 1S39, and d. in Paris in 187:!. His name be- came nuite famous on account of his success in tratisport- ing the obelisk of Luxor, weighing oOd.noO pounds, from Thcbis in Egypt to Place de la Concorde in Paris, which ho has described in his L' Obrfisqtie dc Luxor, hittoire de sa tninnhttiun d Puriii, etc. (18.37). Lc Bas (Philippe), b. at Paris .Tunc 18, 1794; served first in the navy, then in the army, at last in the oBico of the prefect of the Peine, and was appointed by Queen Ilor- tense governor to Prince Louis Xapuleon in 1820. In 1827 ho returned to Paris; was appointed professor in Greek at tho Lyceum in 1829; and made a scientific journey in Greece and .^sia Minor in 1842 at the expense of the gov- ernment. His priiicijial writings are Expfiration rfe« ftt- Hrriptiiina [frrcifHPH ft t'ltiiifx reciieitticH en (ir*'cf (ISS,*)), and Viti/iifje archhtloijiifue en Grice et en Aaie Mincure (1847). D. at' Paris in 1881. Lebcau' (Jean Loi is Joseph), b. Jan. 2, 1794, at Iluy, in tho province of Li6ge, Belgium ; studied law, ])raetised as an advocate with great success; founded in 1824 the Junrntii I'tititiijuf de Li<';fc; brought about that ulliimee between the clerical and liberal parties which made it pos- sible for the Belgian provinces to dissolve the union with tho Nethcrlanils ; opposed, as member of the congress of 1830 and minister of foreign affairs 1831, the annexation to France and the election of the duke of Nemours as king; served under King Leopold as minister of justice to 1834 ; was called once more in 1840 to the ministry of foreign af- fairs, hut retired before the violent opposition of tho cleri- cal ]iarly. D. in his native city Mar. 19. 18G5. lie wrote ObaiTVutinna aur le Ponvoir Rotfal dana ica Etuta Conatitn~ tionrja (1830). (See Lea Fondateura de la Monarchie BvltfCf by Juste, 1865.) Lebedin', town in Kussia, in the government of Khar- kov, with considerable local trade and manufactures. Pop. 13,377. Leblanc' (UrhaisI, b. at La Commanderie, Dcux- Sdvres, France. Nov. 20, 1798: studied veterinary science at tho school of A I fort, where he afterward became professor ; was appointed surgeon to the prefecture of police at Paris in 1832, and elected member of the Medical Academy. Be- sides a great number of minor essays, communicated to various medical periodicals, he published, together with Trousseau, Atlita dn IJirtionnaire de Midevinc et de Chi- rurt/ie vfterinnirea, and, together with Follin, Traits, dc fnitfintuf/ie ciuHjnir/-e (2 vols., 1866). I,e lltnirf post-tp. of Erie eo.. Pa., on ^ branch of tho Pliil!i.|.l|.lua and Erie R. K. Pop. 1748, 1,(1 liii'iir (Edmovo), marshal of France, b. at Paris Dee. fi, 1809; received his military education in the Keolo PoIyteehnif|ue : entered the artillery in 1822, and distin- giiished himself as oflieer in the staff during the expedition against Constantine. From I8:',7 to 1840 he served in Algeria; returnetl then to France ; bcL-ame second commander of the Keolo Polyteehniquo in 1818, and went in 1864 to Crimea as colonel and chief of the stalTof the artillery. Here ho dislinguisheil himself greatly, both in the battle of Alma and at the artillery attack on ,^ebaslopoI, which ho partly leil ; in Ni>v., 1861, he was made a brigadier-general. After tho close of the Crimean campaign he was sent tc Kinboorn as coininander-in-ehief, and remaineil there to 1865. Ho then received the command of the artillery of the guard; was made a general of division in 1867, aii'l look an im- portant anil l)rilliant part in the Italian war of 1869. In 1889 ho was commanrler of the 8th corps, stationed at Tou- louse. Unfortunately for him, Niel d. Aug. 14. 1889, and be was called npttn to succeed him as minister of war, for, allli'ni;.:b an exeidlent ofiieer, he was unable tn master an administration of such dimensions. Mar. 21. 1870, he was created a marshal, and four months afterward the war with tlermany began. Since the last victorious wars the or- giini/.atiim of the French army had made great progress uiiiler the talented and energelieni government of Niel ; thus Lo Bieuf believed that tho army was fully prepared for war. Hut he had not been able to understand how much superior was the organization of the (lerman army. Jle received the eminent position as chief of the staff of the emjieror — that is, of actual commander of the army, as the emperor, even bodily, was unable to command in jicrson. But this task was too heavy for the marshal. The dispo- sitions of the French army at the end of July, 1870, and the first strategical measures against tho invading (iernian army, showed the greatest lack of preparation and a fatal weakness in the command. A short time after (.^ug. 12, 1870) Baiaine was made commander-in-chief, and Le litcuf received the command of the 3d corps. In this position he took an active and brilliant part in the battles of Vionvillo and Gravelotte ( Aug. IG and 18), and fought at Noissevillc (.\ug. 31 and Se]it. 1 ) with such a furious stubbornness that the French army jirobably would have succeeded in break- ing through the tierinan lines if tho other generals, and especially liazainc himself, had shown an equal valor. At the surrender of Metz he became a prisoner of war. He lived in Cassel, where Napoleon resided, and after peace was concluded went to the Hague. Ai'OfST Niehass. Lebon' (.Toseph), b. at Arras in 1786. was curate of Neuville when the Revolution liroke out, and in 1792 was elected representative. Soon after ho was chosen commis- sioner in his own department of Pas-dc-Calais, and displayed an energetic violence against the reactionary party. When. after the illli Thermidor, this party came into power, Lebon was tried for his alleged revolutionary excesses, sentenced to death, and guillotined Oct., 1796. His son published in 1881 a book, J. Lebon in Ilia I'rivnie and Political Life, which attempts to exonerate his father from some of the atrocities attributed to him. Fii.ix Atcaigne. Le Hrc'toii' Flats, an important suburb of Ottawa, the capital of Canada, is situated on Chaudierc and Victoria Islands and on the Canada Central Railway. It nianu- faclures immense ([uantilies of lumber, flour, castings, and otlier goods. Pop. about 2000. Lebri'ja, town of Spain, in the province of Seville, manufactures woollen cloths, hempen fabrics, pottery, brick, tiles, glass, and soap, and is celebrated for tho excellent oil produced in its vicinity. Pop. 10,338. Le Bnin (CnAKi.Es),b. at Paris Mar. 22. 1819; studied under Nicolas Poussin in Paris and Rome : was made a member of the Aeaiiemv of Painting and .Sculpture in 1818 ; first painter to Louis .\1V. in 1881 ; director of the manu- facture of (iobclins tapestry and president of the Academy, ond d.at Paris Feb. 12, 1090. Tho most prominent of his works are a series of pictures of the history of Fiance dur- ing the reign of Louis XIV.. at Versailles, and another series of pictures illustrating the life of Alexander tho Great, in the Louvre ; but besides these a great number of historical, religious, and allegorical pictures is scattered through other French and European galleries. Tliey rep- resent in the art of painting the same taste, the same wstbetical ideal, as that which is represented in poetry by Corneille. Racine, and Boilcan. They contain nuieh which deserves to be admired — an inexhaustible invention, a re- fined sense for effect, perfect elegance in forms and arrange- ment, etc. But the feeling is generally tame and shallow. the allegories arc often very superficial, and tho incon- sistencies of I he costume are sometimes irresistibly ludicrous. In his time he exercised an enormous influence. Not only the painters and sculptors, but all artists, from the vase- maker and jeweller down to the sign-painter and job- printer, f'ollowcil his taste, which for a generation or more was reigning absolutely. Lcbriin (Ciiaki.es Frasijois), duko of Piaeonza, b. at St. Sauvenr-Lendclin, Normandy, Mar. 19, 1739; was for several years secretary to the ehancellor, Maupeou. After the ncee'ssion of Louis XVI. and the dnwufall of Maupeou ho lived in obscurity until 1789. whin bis paniplibt, I.a mix du citoi/en, attracted considerable attention. He was elected a deputy to the Slates General, and ns n member of the Constituent Assembly he acquired both influeneo and authority by his modenilion and by his insight in financial maiters. Having bten imprisoned during the Reign of Terror, he entered, under the government of Ihe Direetorv, Ihe Council of Five Hundred, and was chosen its )iresiilent Feb. 20, 1798. He allied himself very closely lo Gen. Bonaparte, and was made third consul by him Nov. 9, 1799. On the eslablishment of the empire he became minister of finances, or urch-treasurer, in 1^08 governor of Liguria and duke of Piacen7.n, and in 1810, on the abdica- tion of King Louis, governor of Holland, whence he was driven by Ihe allies in 1814. After the first restoration he was made a peer of France by Louis XVlll., but having during the Hundred Days received the title of grand mas- ter of Ihe university from Napoleon, ho was excluded from the Chamber of Peers on the second restoration. In 1819, however, he was allowed to lake his seal, and in the do- bates he silled with tho constilulional opposition. I). June 16, 1824. His MiiMiirea were published in 1829 by his son. I.cc'oc, the former Terra d'Otranto, a province of Italy, belonging to tho division of Apulia. Area, 3293 square 1702 LECCE— LECOMTE. miles. Pop. 49;i,594. It is traversed by the Apennines, and produces corn, tobacco, wine, olives, and in some places cotton, but often sutlers from severe droughts. Lpcee, the ancient Lifcia or Lu/iui, one of tho most beautiful towns in S. Italy. It is situated in tho prov- ince of Leeee, lat. 40° 42' N. and Ion. :X° 40' E., on a plain between the Adriatic on the N., tho Gulf of Taranto on the \V.. and the Ionian Sea on the S., precisely at tho point whieh forms the heel of the Italian boot. The town is reg- ularly built of a remarkably fine white stone, and has many interesting edifices, especially churches and cunvcnt?, some of whieh contain admirable works of art. At the {jate of St. Biagio stands a grand triumphal arch erected in commemora- tion of tlie entrance of Charles V. Tho myal manufactory of tobacco is on old establishment, but has rcei'ntly been provided with the best modern machinery, ami tho first quality of Lecccse tobacco is said to be equal to that of Seville. The public library contains 10,000 volnnics, both day and evening schools are established, and the charitable institutions are numerous and well sustained. Lecce (])rob- ably of Cretan origin) was very flourishing during the Ro- man period, escaped the barbarians, and in 1000 A. D. was governed by its own counts, among whom wero Tancred and Bohemond. Pop. in 1S74, 23,247. Lec'co, town of N. Italy, in the province of Como. It is delightfully situated on the Adda, near tho point where it flows out from the S. E. arm of Lake Como, at the foot of the Resegone. Leeeo already existed under the Romans, and continued a town of considerable importance through all tho vicissitudes of the Middle Ages. It is now one of the most industrious and prosperous of the small towns of Loiubardy. Its iron and silk manufactories are extensive. In its neighborhood stands the pretty villa in which .Man- zoni wrote a part of his remarkable romance / fmmeisi S/>f>ii. A picturesque road on the E. bank of tho lake con- nects it with Colico, while it has direct railway communi- cation with Bergamo. Pop. in 1874, 7040. Lech, a river of Southern Germany, rises in the Vorarl- berg, runs N. through Tyrol and Bavaria, and joins the Danube after a course of about 140 miles. A little below FUssen it becomes navigable for small boats, and for larger from .Augsburg, but it has generally no great commercial importance on account of the irregularity of its course, bottom, banks, etc. Many mills are worked by its waters. Lechevalier' (Jean Baptiste), b. at Trclly, Nor- mandy. July 1. 17.i2; studied theology at the seminary of St. Louis in Paris, but did not take orders; accorajmnied in 1784 the count of Choiseul-Goufiicr as secretary to Con- stantinople, and participated with great energy in his ex- plorations of the plain of Troy; travelled much in Spain, En;,'land, Germany, and Scandinavia, and was appointed director of the library of Stc. GeneviJve in Paris in 1805, which position he held to his death, July 2. ISIiG. His Voi/- uijf^ lie la TtimfU- f 1797) and Y'li/aijc d*- In' Pmpnnthle ct da I'uiil Eiijrin (ISOO), in which he pretended to have made many groat discoveries concerning the geography of tho Homeric epics, made a great sensation at tiieir first appear- ance, but are now generally put in the same class as his r'y««'.' ffumer (1829). in which he proves that Ulysses wrote the Iliad and the Odi/tmeif, Lech'ford (Thomas), a lawyer from London who set- tled at Boston, Mass., in ni.lS. Ihc first to practise that pro- fession in Xcw England. Ho returned to England in llUl, much dissatisfied with his experience; published in 1G42, I'lninc Vealiiit/, nr Xewcn from Xew Eiiijlaud'a Pieaciit Gov- criimml, etc., and in 1044 Neic Entjlniid'a Adiice to Uld Enijlaiid. Ho is said to have d. soon after. A new edition of the I'lainc Draliiiri, with introduction and notes by J. Hammond Trumbull, was published in 1807. Though writ- ton in a spirit of hostility to New England, it contains val- uable information. Lec'ithine [Or. AjViSo?, "yolk of an egg"], tho motiVrc fi»'/Meioic of Gobloy, a phosphuretted fatty body found in the yolk of eggs, the brain, bile, blood, and in the roe of fish. Diakonow gives it the formula ChIIjoN PO9; Strecker, CtjllMiNl'Og. (Sec Watts's Oiri., iii. 500, and Suppl., 778.) Lcck'y i Wiii.iAM EnwAnn IlAiiTpni.E), b. near Dublin, Ireland, .Mar. 2(1, IS.;8; graduated at Trinity College, Dub- lin, in 18J9; published anonymously in isiil Tht Leadem 0/ I'ahlic Opiiiinn In /ri-laiid'(ne\r cd. 1872); travelled ex- tensively oil the Continent: settled in I>ondon, devoting himself to historical and philosophical researches : and sur- prised the learned world in 1805 by the /Ai»(.>rv nf the !{:«<■ antl Injliiencr. nf Ihf Spirit nf liatin'nnl inm in Eiiro'pr. a work which united to an elegant style a judicial imjiarlialily and a more than German erudition. It was speedily republished in the U.S., as was also his next work, n Hintoryof Eiirnpran MnraU /mm Auffitgtint to (ViarlfT}ia>pif, whieh displayed the characteristics of its predecessor in a still higher "degree. All these works were translated into German by Dr. H. Jt)lowic2, and the UiMtortf of Morula has become a text- book in more than one German university. Lecky is not known to have published anything else except a lecture before the Royal Institution on the /nltuinrf if the Imagi- nation in Ilietori/. He married about 1870 a maid of honor of the queen of Holland, has considerable fortune, and possesses a fine library. Le Claire, post-v. and tp. of Scott co., la., on the Mississippi River, U> miles below Clinton, and midway be- tween St. Louis and St. Paul. It is at tho head of the Up- per Rapids, which extend 15 miles to Rock Islaml. It is a place of active trade. Pop. of v. lOO."".; of tp. 1910. Le Clear (Thomas), h. at Oswego, N.Y., Mar. II, 1818; attempted at the age of nine years to execute a portrait on a jiine board with lamp-black, \'eiietian red. and white- lead, and at twelve created a sensation by a St. Matthew, for which he filled several orders at two dollars and a half each. In 1832 his father removed to London, Up]ier Canada, where he took some jiortraits, and two years later was employed at Goodrich on Lake Huron to decorate the panels of a steamboat. He afterwards visited Green Bay, Wis., painting portraits of the Indians in that vicinity; returned to London, and after exercising his improvised art for brief periods at Elmira and Rochester, in the midst of jirivations and discouragements, made his way to New York, where in 18.19 he opened a studio in Broadway, and soon gained an honorable position in the artistic fraternity, his jiicture of The Riprimnnd having been purchased by the .'Vrt Union during the palmy days of that institution. From 1844 to ISGO he successfully practised his art in Buf- falo, and painted, among others, the admired pictures The Marble- 1 III i/ers and Youne/ America, Returning to New York, he has since enjoyed popularity as a colorisf, and exhibits great power over details. He has produced strik- ing portraits of ex-President Fillmore, Hon. D. S. Dickin- son. T. B. Thorpe, and Booth as Hamlet; his Itineranla, exhibited at the National Academy in 1802, was praised. Leclerc' (Jean), b. at Geneva JIar. 19. 1057; studied theology, and accepted the Arminian doctrines; travelled much in France, England, and Holland; was appointed professor of ecclesiastical history at the Remonstrant col- lege of Amsterdam in 1084: retired in 1728, and il. at Am- sterdam Jan. 8, 1730, The most jirominent part of his comprehensive and varied literary activity was his editor- ship of BibliothefjXie Universelle et I/iatoriqne (2(> vols., 1080-93), liibliothhine Choiaie (28 vols., 1703-13), and JUblinthi-fjiie Ancicnnc et Moderne (28 vols., 1714-27). Ijeclerc ( Victor Emmanuel), b. at Pontoise, near Paris, Mar. 17, 1772 ; enlisted in the army in 1791 ; distinguished himself at Toulon in the armies of the .\rdennes and the Alps; was a])pointed military commander of iMarseilles in 1795, and made a brigadier-general in 1 797 ; married in tho same year Napoleon's eldest sister, Pauline, and went in 1801, with a large fleet and an army of 30,000 men, to Santo Domingo to vindicate the authority of France over the colony. After a contest of some months a truce was made, but when Toussaint I'Duverture was sent as a prisoner to France, a new rising of tho colored population under Dcssalines took place, and at the same time the French army was attacked antl more than decimated by yellow fever. Leclcrc himself fell a prey to the disease Nov. 2, 1802. His wife, who had accompanied him to Santo Do- mingo, and behaveil with great coui"age and fortitude, married in 1803 the Prince Borghese. Leclercq' ( .Mkhti. Theopobe), b.at Paris Apr. 1, 1777; held from 1810 to 1819 a subordinate place in the civil ser- vice, but lived else on an independent fortune. D. at Paris Fob. 15, 1851. His works consist, besides a couple of novels, of 8 vols. (i{ prorcrbea dramatitpieti, small draums not des- tined for the theatre, but for private ))crformance in the salons. They are rich in the finest and most striking psy- chological observations, and many of them belong, on ac- count of their humor and elegance, to the most exquisite productions of French literature. They were received with extraortlinary applause, and exercised great influence on the development of the French drama. Lecocq' (Charles), b. in Paris, France, about 1835, is regarded as the best successor of Auber in comic operas, of which the most successful have been Flvur dc Thf, La Fille dc Madame Aniiot, and GimjU-GiroJla, each in three acts. LeH Prfa Saint Uerrnis, with libretto by V. Sardou and Gille, was brought out in Paris and London in Nov., 1874. Lccomte' (Lons), b. at Bordeaux, France, about 1055; was one of the six .lesuits selected for their mathematical attainments to undertake a somi-scientific mission in China. They embarked at Brest Mar. 3, 1080, with the Chevalier de Chaumont, ambassador to Siam, whore they arrived in •September, and were detained two years by the reigning monarch, Phra Narai, who prided himself upon his know- ledge of mathematics. Arrived at Pekiu in Feb., 1088, LECOMPTON— LECTIONARY. 1703 thpy made astroDomicnl obsorvatioDS in various parts of tlie empire for fcvcral year.*, and became well acquainted with the condition of the country and people, and had con- Bidcrable success in making proselytes to Catholicism — a eueccjig much facilitated by their tolerance of many pagan ceremonies which the uii:<sionaries of other orders cou<iemn- cd an idolatrous. Lecomte wasscnt to Home in 10^2, beciiuio soon afterward confessor to the duchess oj liurjtuudy, and wrote a work, Xouveaux Memoires »ur V Etnt pr/ncut (fe fa Chine (3 Vols., 169C-97-1701 ),combininj; much information with an exajrf^erated panegyric upon the Cliiiiese, who were represented a,s havini; always retained a knowledge of the true God." This work, together with Sitr les C^rhnonic» dc in Chine (170U), was censured by the faculty of theology at Paris and by the Congregation at Rome. Lecomte d. at Bordeaux in" 1729. Lecomp'ton, post-v. and tp. of Douglas co., Kan., 10 miles N. W. (if Lawrence. It is on the S. bank of the Kan- sas River, opposite Perry .*^tat ion on the Kansas Pacific R.R. It was for a time the Territorial capital of Kansas. It is the seat of Lane University (I'nited Rrcthrcn). Pop. 971. he Conte (John), M. D.. son of Lewis, b. in Liberty CO.. Ga., l>ec. 4. 18IS; prepared for college under the tui- tion of the undersigned; grmiuated in 1S:;S with high honors at Franklin College, Athens (now University of Georgia) ; studied medicine, taking his degree in I8-U from the New York College of Physicians and Surgeons; mar- ried the same year, and in 1842 began practice at Savan- nah, Ga., and from that time forward contributed largely to the prominent medical journals of the U. S. ; elected in 1SI6 to the chair of natural philosophy and chemistry in Franklin College, and resigned in iSa;') to become lecturer on ehcmi?try in the Cidlege of Physicians and Surgeons, N. Y. ; accented in iS.'jfi the new professor?bip of natural and mechanical philosophy in the South Carolina College, Columbia; in IS69 became professor of physics and indus- trial mechanics in the new University of California at Oak- land, and president after the resignation of Pres. D. C. (litman in Apr.. 1875; is a member of the lea<ling Ameri- can scientific societies, to whor'C ])rocee<ling8and various scl- ent i tic journals he hflscoiitrihuled important papers on phys- i'ral se,ience : has published bis addresses of I'liilonophtf uf Mrfficinr i\S i'J ) and Stilt/ 1/ '>/ tfit' /'fii/nir,if Srirurra (ISJ8); and contributed 77if? SvLulur IIifptttfuxi« to the !*opnhtr Srirtice .Von/A/y for Apr., IH73. In l>ec., 1857. delivered a course of lectures on the ** Physics of Meteorology " at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and in Nov., 1807, one of f<jur lectures on the " Stellar Universe" at the Pea- boily Institute in Baltimore. By the burning of Columbia, S. C., in Feb., I8tj;j, Im lust the nearly coui])leted manu- scripts of a treatise on (Ji-mrul I'liynicn. A. II. Stkphk.ns. Le Conte (Maj.JoiiM Raton), brother of Lewis, b. near Shrewsbury. N. J., Keh. 22, 1784; entered the engineer corps of the U. S. army in 1S1;J; was long employed in surveys and fort ifieatious, and retired with the rank of major in ls:il. He was a successful cultivator of natural science, especially botany and zoology. He published Monngrapfm o/ fht' Xitrth Amerirnn Sprrira nj' I'trirultiria, Crfifinla, and iiUfdiit, Olmrrrtitiona of 'Ae North Americnn Species o/ Viofd, and /JfHcriptioitM uf the Spvcim ttf North AmcfXPfin TortoiMca in the Ainiala of the \rw York Li/n-tim of Ntilu- rut Hintory, vols, i., ii.,iii.; A Moiunjvnphjf nf North Amrr- icftn IliHtrroidra in the Itonton Jourti'tl of Ntttuntl Hiatoiy, vol. v., and ifrHcriptionn of thrre uvw Sprcim of Arvicitia, \rith i{rinnrk» upon other North Anirrirtin Jiodcnta, In the J*roceediinj» of the Aradcnit/ of' N'tturaf Scif:)irea of Phila- defphittf in several of which he had the benefit of the sci- entific observations of his brother Lewis. I>. at Philadel- phia Nov. 21, 1860. Lc Conte (John L.iWRKsrB), M. D., son of John E. Le Conie. b. in .Vew York .Mav Li, 182r>: graduated in ISIO at tin- New York College of Physicians and Surgeons; made several seientitic excursions in the Western States while a student, and subsequently extended his travels to Central America, tlio results of which were communii!ated to scicn- lilie sorietics and journals. Mis spreialty is the study of North .\mcrican Coleoptera, on which subject he is recog- nized as a high authority. The Smithsonian Institution puhlished in l8(il-iV2 his Cfnnnijirtttion of tht; Cotroptera of North Amrrira, and in I8ft:i-0V> his Liit of lh« Cotroptera i'f North Amrrim. Pr. Lo Conte enten-d the army in 1802 :n surgeon of volunteers, and beeaiue a iiiedieal inspeotr»r nf the regular army. He is a meuilKT of the National Ai'ademy of Seienoes, and was in I87;{ elected president of llio American Association for the Advancement of Soienoo. IjC Conte (.Iosfph), M. P., son of Lewis, b. in Liberty CO., (la.. Feb. 20, 182:5; sturlied at a private school uniler llie rhiirge of the undersigned: graduated with distinction at Franklin College. Ga., in 1811, and in medicine in New York in 184.>; settled in 184S as a physician in Macon, Ga. ; studied natural history under Agassiz at Cambridge in ISJU; became in l85.'i professor of natural history at Franklin College, and of chemistry and geology in the Uni- versity of South Carolina from ISjf> to 18G9, accompanying his brother John in 1809 to California, where he took the chair of geology in the University of California. Resides numerous seientitic papers, he has written on art and edu- cation, and published a work on 77tc; Mutual Jiclatioits of litiigion and Science (1S74). A. H. Stki-iiens. Le Conte (Lnwis), M. D., b. near Shrewsbury, Mon- mouth CO., N. J., Aug. 4, 1782; descended from a French Huguenot family that settlccl about the close of the seven- teenth century at New Roehellc. N. Y. ; graduated in 1799 at Columbia College ; studied medicine in the office of Dr. David llosack, but never practised, and soon settled in Liberty co., Ga., taking charge of his father's estate, es- tablishing a botanical ganlen. especiully rich in bulbous plants from the Cajic of (lood Hope, where he produced large camellias anil the hybrid Amorif/fit Jt>hn»iniii. In his laboratory he tested the discoveries of elicmists, the fruits of which, averse to ]ml)lisliing, he communicated to his friends. Stephen Elliott and other botanists acknowledged their ob- ligations to him, and by his observations he enriched the monographs of his brother, Major John E. Le Conte. Re- sides occasional rambles in the adjoining counties, he made two scientific excursions to the region of the Altamaha River, the earlier in company with the botanist Dr. William Raid- win, U. S. N.,and the later with Mr. (Jordon, the Scotch col- lector and botanist, who gave an account in I^oudous Gar- dcner*a Mmjazine of the result of many months' residence with him. Dr. Lc Conte devoted much attention to math- ematical studies, and manuscripts on this subject and on native animals and binls. whieh were in the custody of his son. Prof. Jfdin Le Conte, were lo?t by the burning of Co- lumbia, S. C.,in Fc)>., 1805. His death, Jan. 9. 18:^8, result- ed from poison taken into his system by dressing a wound for a member of his family. By his wife. Ann Quartcrman, whom he married in 1812, and who died in Dec, 1820, ho had four sons and three daughters, of whom two sons, the scientists Profs. John and Joseph Lo Conte, still survive (1875), as well as one daughter. A. II. Stephens. Leconrbe' (Claurk Joskpo), Count, b. at Lons-le- Saulnier. France, in 1759; spent eight years in the army in early life, without securing any advancement, but at tlie organization of the National (Juurds at the outltreak of tho French Revolution became commander of those raised at Lons-le-Saulnicr, and soon after joined the army of tho Upper Rhine at the head of a battalion from the Jura. He distinguished himself repeatedly in the battles in the Netherlands, especially at Fleurus (.lune, 1794), where he had command of a brigade, and hcbl his position for seven hours against llt.OtiO Austrians. The same qualities were displayed in the campaigns on the Rhine, tho Danube, and in Switzerland, and nuide him general of division in 1790. For partisanship in I'avor of Moreau, Napoleon slruek his name from tiio roll of officers (I8I)1), and he lived in re- tirement at Itourges during the Knipire. Louis XVIII. re- stored liim his rank, and made him grand officer of tho Legion of Honor and count in 1814. Heopi)osed Napoleon on his return f'roui Elba, but finally accepted a command under him in the Jura, with hcad-((uartcr3 at Rcforf, where he d. Oct. 2:t, ISlo. His statue was erected at Lonsdo- Saulnier in 1857. Lecouvrcur' (Adrienne), b. at Dnmery, near Epernay, France, .Apr. 5, 1092. In 1702 her parents settled at Paris, and after receiving some instruction from the actor Legrand, she entered tho stage at Strasliourg in 17H). Nrxt year (May 14, 1717) she matle her di- but nt the Thr-Atre Fran- pais in Paris, where she very soini attained the first jjlaco both in comedy and tragciiy. Her character as an actress was not so much the gratid as the touching, and ln'r prin- cipal power was a most wonderful miiniery. Her death was very sail. Maurice of Saxony was her lover; not tho only one she over had, but she loved him deeply, and \>hen he was made duke of (*ourland she sold her diamonds in order to furnish him with the money necessary to take pos- session c)f the country. It wiis alleged that another ol his mistresses, tho duchess id" Ron i I Ion, poisoned her from jealousy, and she d. Mar. 20, 17;ttb \\*iY remains were not allowed lo rest in eonsoerated ground, but were buried se- cretly in a private place. Roused by imligimtion, Vol- taire wrote an ode on her death, but publie opinion was so fixed on this point that he had to leave the city. In modern limes her tragic history was made tho subject of one of the mr)st suooessful dramas of Scribe and Legouv6, in whieh Rachel achieved celebrity in tho r^tir of Adrienno. Ijec'tionnry fLat. iectionarium], a service-book con- taining the lections (lessons) of Seripture to bo read in the ehurch. or '\n other eases a list iudu';iting what lossonfl are appointed for different days in tho calendar. 1704 LECTOURE— LEE. Lectoure'f town in France, in the department of (iers. on the right bunk of the Gers. It has a brisk trade in grain, wine, brandy, mulfs, and cattle. Pop. 6122. liCc'tiirn [Lat. fff-trutu, from iefjere, Uctum, "to read"], or Anibo, the readiuj^-desk of a church; the stand at which thf lesson for the day is read. These names are used in Uomnn Catholic and in yome Protestant churches. The form is various, and the lecturn itself is either fixed or movable. Le'da, in (rrccian mytholofi^y, was the wife of Tyndareus, kin,' uf Siiarta. and by Zeus, whu surprised hrr in the shape of a swan, she was the mother of Castor and Pollux. There are many versions of the myth, but the above is the most common. Led'erer (Jonx), known only as an early explorer of the mountain-region of Virginia, wrote in Latin an account of his travels, which was translated and printed in lGT2by .Sir William Talbot, Bart., under the title T/ic DiacovcricB of John Lrfhircr in three several marches from Vinjinia to the Went of Carolina and other parts of the Continent, hryun in Mareh, 1669, and ended in September, 1670 {quarto, 27 pp., with a map). Sir William states in the preface that Lederer was driven out of Virginia by ill-treatment from the pDpulaee — that he made his acquaintance in Maryland, and induced him to write this treatise as a vindication. He was probably a Oerman. Liedg'er-Lincs, in music, short lines added above and below the five regular lines of the stave. As the stave affords ruum only for a limited number of the notes now in use, the ledger-lines, with the spaces between, are equiva- lent to a temporary extension of the scale, thereby furnish- ing a? many new degrees above and below as may be re- quired. These short additional lines are also a convenience to the eye of the performer, as the notes placed on or be- tween them can be read with great facility; whereas, if the lines were continuous and permanent (forming a stave of eight or ten lines), the same notes could not be read without difficulty and constant risk of error. (SeeXoTATioN and SrAi.i:.) William Stalxtos. Ledochow'ski, de (Cardinal Miecislas Halka), i CofNT, b. Oct. 29. 1822, at Ledochow, Galicia ; studied , theology at Warsaw, Vienna, and Rome: became domestic ! prelate and prothonotary apostolic to Pope Pius IX. ; and entering the papal diplomatic service was auditor of the nunciature successively at Madrid, Lisbon, Rio de Janeiro, I pnrnons injiaeiium in i^oi ; ana at ttie reqi of the kin; " " ..... . - . ... of Une of Poland. On May 26, 1873. he led in the protest signed by the clergy against the new Prussian ecclesiastical laws, which placed the choice of bishops and priests in the hands of the people of the diocese or parish. Persistently refusing to appear before the courts to justify his action, his prop- erty was taken in payment of fines, and he was confined in ]trison at Ostrowa. where he has since remained, having been exhorted to constancy by a papal brief of Nov. '.\, 1873, and elevated to the cardinalate in the secret consistory cele- bratutl Mar. lo. 1S75. Ledrii'-Rollin' (Alexandre Auoustk), b. at Paris Feb. 2, IS07. began to be known soon after the revolution of July. 1830, by acting as an ''avocat" for the political men prosecuted by tite government of Louis Philippe, or by writing pamphlets and memoirs in which lie indicted in a legal and technical argumentation the repressive measures ordered against individuals or public liberties. He was at the same time a favorite and celebrated lawyer in ordinary law- suitjj, and published dogmatic works and periodical reviews on jurisprudence. In 1861 he was elected member of the Chamlier of Deputies, and upheld openly the pure doctrines of republicanism in the chamber. In 1848 he was. as min- ister of the interior, one of the provisional government of the republic, and put in practice his theory of universal sulTrajjc. When Cavaignae. and afterwards Louis Napoleon, took the power into their hands. Ledru-Hollin continued to fight for liberty as a memberof the National Assembly. On June l:J, 1819, he was the leader of an insurrection at tempte<l to prevent Louis Napoleon from sending the French troops to help in the re-establishment of the pope at Rome. Thcin- surreetion collapsed, and Ledru-RoUin escaped to England. There, though he kept quiet and exclusivrly busy with writing books, his extradition was asked by Napoleon III., under the pretext that he had been participant with Maz- zini in the insignificant plot of Tibaldi against the life of the emperor. But the extradition was not granted, and Ledru- Rollin returned to France in 1870. He did not wish to enter again the political arena : still, the republicans elected him deputy in 1873, and ho was one of the members of the extreme Left in the Versailles Assembly, llcouly delivered and Santiago do Chili, nuncio at Brussels, and archbishop of Thebes in partibns iiifidtlium in 1861 ; and at the request : king of Prussia appointed in Jan., 1866. archbishop , lesL'M and Posen, becoming thereby ex ojftcio primate I one speech, in favor of universal sufi'rage, which was worthy of the great orator, and was his •' chant du cygnc," for ho I d. soon after (Jan. 1, 187i»). and was accompanied by thou- j sands of Parisians to the cemetery of Pere la Chaise. ' Felix Aucaigxe. I^e'dum, Oil of [Gr. A^fioi/. the ''ledum"], an essen- tial oil obtained by distilling the leaves of marsh tea, Le- dum patnstre. It is reddish-yeilow, has an acid reaction, 1 smells like the plant, and consists of a hydrocarbon iso- meric with oil of turpentine, and an oxygenated oil having the c()mpositiou of ericinol, CioHieO. Le'dlim Palus'tre [Gr. A^Soi-] ( MarA Tea, Hosmariuun SylveMtri»\, a small evergreen shruli growing in swamps and I other wet j)laces in the northern parts of Europe. Asia, and I America, and in mountainous regions of more southern ' latitudes. The leaves have a balsamic odor and an aro- m.atic. camphorous, bitter taste, and contain, among other ingredients, a volatile oil and tannin. They arc thought to possess narcotic properties, and have been employed to allay irritation in whooping-cough, dysentery, leprosy, and scabies. ( U. S. IHf^p.) They are said to protect clothes from moths, are sometimes used as a substitute for hops in beer, and arc employed in Russia to tan goat. calf, and sheep skins into a reddish leather of an agreeable smell, as also in the preparation of oil of birch, for making what is gen- erally called Russia leather.. C. F. Ciiaxdler. IjCd'yard, post-v. and tp. of New London co.. Conn., on the E. side of the navigable river Thames, 8 miles 8. of Norwich. The township is traversed by the Norwich and Worcester R. R.. and has a public library and inij)ortant manufactures. Pop. 131>2. Ledyardf post-tp. of Cayuga co., N. Y.,on the E. shore of Cayuga Lake. It contains the village of Alrora (which see). Pop. 2221. Ledyard (John), h. at Groton, Conn., in 1751; lived for a time among the Six Nations, to whom he intended to become a missionary, and studied in Dartmouth College with a view to that work : but his restless spirit prompted him to embark alone in a log canoe upon the Connecticut River and leave college for ever. He shipped as a sailor to Gibraltar: enlisted as a British soldier, but was soon dis- charged : returned to America during the Revolutionary war; went to London, and sailed as a corporal of marines under Capt. .Tames Cook on his last voyage, of which Led- yard kept a diary, an abstract of which was published at Hartford. Conn.. 1787. In 1782 he deserted from the Brit- ish service when off Long Island. Assisted by Sir Joseph Banks and others, he started, after many vexatious hind- rances, from St. Petersburg (whither be had walked from Stockholm, through Lapland and Finland) for the Pacific Ocean. At Irkutsk in Siberia he was arrested, and was hurried back to the Polish frontier and expelled from Rus- sia for some unknown reason. In 1788, immediately after his return from Russia, he started under the auspices of Sir Joseph Hanks and others fur the exploration of Africa, but was attacked at Cairo, Egypt, by an acute febrile dis- order, of which ho d. Jan. 17. 1789. Ledyard fCol. William), b. at Groton, Conn., in 1738; was in Sept.. 1781, commander of Fort Griswold, near New London, whieh he defended with great courage against an overpowering British force until it was taken by storm, when, with more than 100 of his soldiers, he was massacred by the exasperated enemy, Sept. 7, 1781. A monument now commemorates the event. I^ee, county of .Alabama, bounded E. by Georgia. Area, 620 .square miles. It is hilly, but fertile. Cotton and corn are staple products, and Hour is the leading article of man- ufacture. The county is traversed by the East Alabama and Cincinnati and the Savannah and Memphis R. Rs., and branches of the Western R. R. of Alabama. Cap. Opelika. Pop. 21,730. Lee, county in Eastern Arkansas, formed in 1873 from portions of Crittenden. Monroe, Phillips, and St. Fnincis, bounded on the E. by the Mississippi and traversed by the St. Francis an<l L'.Anguille rivers. The surface is for the most part level, well timbered, and fertile, and yields very abundant crops, chiefly of cotton and corn. Cap. Mariana. Lee, county of S. W. Central Georgia. Area, 350 square miles. It is level and fertile. Cotton and corn arc the staple products. It is traversed by the South-western R. R. of Georgia. Cap. Starkville. Pop. 0567. Lee, county of N. Illinois. Area, 720 square miles. It is level and very fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are the staple products. The county is traversed by Rock and Green rivers, and by various railroads, centring at Dixon, the capital. Pop. 27,171. Lee, county of S. E. Iowa. Area, 300 square miles. It is bounded E. by the Mississippi and S. W. by the Des LEE. 1705 Moines. It is extremely fertile, rolling, and well oulti- rated. Cuttle, gruiu, and wuul iire staple products. Car- riages, furniture, harn*-'8ses, tobacco, metallic wareg, coop- erage, luml>er, brick, etc. are auiung the leading articles of manufaeture. Tbc county is traversed by (he Burlington and Soulb-weslern and the Des .Moines \'iiUey U. Us. and a branch of the Chicago IturliugloD and Quiuey li. U. Cap. Fort Madison. Pop. 37.210. Ijee^ county of E. Kentucky. Area, 3U0 square miles. It is mountainous, with fertile valleys. Corn is the staple product. The county is traversed by the Kentucky Uiver. Caps, lieatty ville and Proctor. Pop. 3U5J. Lee, euunty of X. E. Mississippi. Area, 620 square miles. It is undulating and very fertile. Live-stock, corn, and cotton arc leading jiroducta. The county is traversed by the Mobile and Ohio K. K. Cap, Tupelo. Pop. 10,965. Lee, county of S. W. Virginia. Area. .'i76 square miles. It irt bouniled .V. W. by the Cumberland Mountains of Ken- tucky and S. K. by Powell Mountains. The surface is high and partly mountainous. Coal is found. The soil is excel- lent. Live-.-^tock, grain, and wool are leading pn»ducts. The county is traversed by Powell's River, and contains much fine scenery. Cap. Jonesville. Pop. 13,268. Lee, tp. of Fayette co., Ala. Pop. 389. Lee, tp. of Sacramento co.^ Cal. Pop. 370. Lee, tp. of Rrown co., III. Pop. I6G0. Lee, tp. of Fulton co., 111. Pop. 1296. Lee, tp. of Huena Vista co., la. Pop. 302, Lee, tp. of Madison eo., la. Pop. 420. Lee, tp. of Polk co., la. Pop. 729. Lee, post-tp. of Penobscot co., Me., 60 miles N. E. of Bangor. Poj*. 900. Lee, post-v. and tp. of Berkshire eo., Mass., on the Ilousatonic River and R. R., 99 miles N. of Bridgeport, Conn., and in miles S. of Pittsfield, K. terminus of the Keu and Hudson R. R. (in construction) and N. \V. terminus of the Lee and New Haven R. U. (surveyed); has I national and I savings bank, I weekly newspaper, 7 churches, 3 ho- tc\-t, a public library, excellent scliools, 26 paper-mills, 2 iron-fijuiiilries, 3 machiue ^hops, i-x tensive woollen -fac- tnrie^, a tr-ttting park, aiirl line niarblc-cpiarrics which sup- plied materials for the Capitol extension at Washington and fnr the Catholic cathedral in Xew York. First settled in 1700, incorfioruted in 1777, and njune(l for Gen. Charles liCe ; first paper-mill erected in iSdO by Samuel Church. Pop. 3800. (.See l/iMtorif of Lrr, by Aniory Gale, 1861.) J. A. RoYCK, Ed. " Valley Gleaner." Lee, tp. of Allegan co., Mich. Pop. 249. Lee, tp. of Calhoun co., .Mich. Pop. 1123. Lee, tp. of Platte CO.. Mo. Pop. 2290. Lee, post-tp. of Strafford co., X. II., 33 miles E. by S. of Concord, has manufactures of leather and lumber. Pop. 770. Lee, post-tp. of Oneida co., N. Y. Pop. 2060. Lee, post V. and tp. (the former called also Albany) of Athens CO., O. It is the seat of Atwood Institute (Free Baptist). Pop. 1140. Lee, tp. of Carroll co., 0. Pop. 901. Lee, tp. of Monroe co., 0. Pop. II 14. Lee, tp. of Williamsburg eo., S. C. Pop. 1181. Lee, tp. of Aceomao co., Va. Pop, 0183. Lee, tp. of Fairfax co., Va. Pojt. 1340. Lee, tp. of Shenandoah eo., Va. Pop. 2698. Lee, tp. of Caliioun CO.. W. Va. Pop. 008. Lee, tp. of Clark eo.. Wis. Pop. 203. Lee (Rt. Rev. Ai.iKcn). I>. D., b. at Cambridge, Mass., Sept. 9, 18U7 ; graduated at Harvard in 1827 ; was aiimitlcd to the bar in 1830, and practised law at Norwich, Conn, 1S31-33; studied in the General Theological Seminary, N. Y. ; was ordained a iloacon of tbc Protestant Episcopal Church in IS37. and a priest in 1H38; rector of Calvary church, Uockilale, Del., lS38~n; consecrated bishop of Iii-lawurc in ISU, and became also rector of St. Andrew's, Wilmington, Del. He is author of Li/r of St. Peter (1852), Li/f »/ Sf. John (IS6U, Trrnti^r un HuptUm (1864), Me- moir uf SitHtin Mtifmur (I860), Ifurhinijvr ./ Christ (1867). Lee (Ann), h. at Manchester, England, Feb. 29, 1730; worked in a cotton mill, and afterwards became a cook ; was married to a man named Stanley, ami foon began to lake part in the conventicles of .lolin iin<l .lunc Wardley, the '>rii;in;il " Shaking Ijuakers,'' whom ^lle nueeceded as the leader of the sect in 1771, soon after which bhe was for a time confined in a jail, and then in a mad-house. After her release she was acknowledged as a " mother in Christ," and assumed the title of "Ann, the Word." In 1774 she went with a few followers to New York, and in 1770 settled at Watervliet, near Albany, Here she was charged with high treason and witchcraft, and imprisoned for some time at Albany and Poughkcepsie. This im[>risonment, regarded as ft per.-'ecutiun, brought her many followers. (See Siia- KEits.) D. at Watervliet, N. Y., Sept. 8, 1784. Lee {AktihiO, M. D., LL.D., b. in Westmoreland co., Va., Dec. 20, 1740. son of Thomas Lee; educated at Eton and Edinburgh, where hr graduated as M. D. in 1706. and practised at William.sburg, Va. ; returned to Europe; studied law. and was admitted to the bar in 1770; became prominent in jmblie affairs in London, and in after years served as comnuFsioner of Massachusetts, Virginia, and finally of the General Congress, in London, Paris, Madrid, and Berlin successively. While in Paris he and Mr. Izard were involved in serious' differences with Franklin and Silas Deane. In 1781 he was in the Virginia assembly; was in Congress 1782-86, and held other positions of importance. D. Dec. 14, 1792. Mr. Lee's mission in Europe was very fruitful of good to the U. S. Personally, ho was a truth- ful, straightforward, and decided man. a hearty lover of freedom, and wa^ never married. (See his />//V. by R. H. Lee, 1829.) He was a brother of Fnineis Liglitloot, Rich- ard II., Thomas L,. Philip L., and William Lee, all emi- nent patriots. Lee (Charles), b. at Dcrnhall, Cheshire, England, in 1731, and was the son of a colonel in the British army. When eleven years obi he entered the service; was in Braddock's expedition, and was wounded at Ticonderoga in 1768; distinguished himself in Portugal, but never rose higher in the British service than a half-pay lieutenant- colonel, his meddlesome disposition, quarrelsome temper, and sarcastic speeehes about his superiors interfering with his promotion. He became later a soldier of fortune ; aide- de-camp to the king of Poland and a mnjor-general ; entered the Russian service against the Turks, ancl became notorious as ft duellist. In 1773 he came to America, purchased an estate in Berkeley co., Va., and became an ardent Whig. lu 1776 he was chosen major-general of the Cuntincnlal army ; took part in the defence of Charleston : and in 1770 was taken prisoner at Baskingridge, N. J. AVhile in prison it is now considered certain that Lee made treason- able proposiiious to the enemy. In 1778 he was ex- changed, and nt the battle of Monmouth his iiisub<irdin!ition nearly lost the daj'. He was court- mart iulud, and .suspend- ed for one year from command, and soon after was wounded in a duel by Col. John Laurens, who challenged him in con- sequoneo of disres[ieefful language used to (jlcn. Washing- ton. He then retired to Virginia, where he led the life of a hermit; and a disrespectful letter sent by him to Con- gress causeil his dismissal from the service. D. while on ft visit to Philadelphia Got. 2, I7S2. (His Life luis been written by Sir H. Bunbury, by Edward Laugworthy, by J. Sparks, and by G. II. Moore, 1801.) Lee (CuAitLKS AI.^'lM:[^). M. I)., b. at Salisbury, Conn., Mar. 3, ISdl ; graduated at Williams College, and took his medical degree at Pittslield, Mass., in 1826; settled in 1820 in New York, where he was one of the founders of tlio Northern Dispensary. Ho hold nt various times professor- .••hips in no Icj^s than ten medical schools, and aided in foumling the medical college of the I'ni versify of New York City an<I that of Buffalo, N. Y. He wrote much un medical and other subjects, and was at one time editor of the N. y. Jfiurital of Afctlici'ne. He bestowed much atten- tion upon the colonization or Gheel-svstem of the (reatmeut of the insane. D. at Peekskill. N. Y., Feb. 14. 1872. Leo (Ki.KANoii Pkim vj. b. near Natchez. Miss., in 1820, was the daughter of Mnj. N. A. Ware; resided in Pbilu- delphiu and Cincinnati, and bcfiime tbc wife of II. W. Lee of Vicksburg, Miss. With her sister. Mrs. C. A. Warfield of Kentucky, she publislied PovniH by Tico AV#fei« ( 1843) and other works. I), in I860. Lee (Ei.i/.A BiTKMiNSTKiO. b. in Portsmouth, N. H., ftboul 179 t, diiugliter of Rev. Dr. .lo.xcph and sister of Rev. J. S. Buekminster. married Mr. Thomas Lee of Boston; wrote Shrtrhm n/ a AVir ICiif/hnul I'lV/fiyr ( 1837). » Ai/. n/ liichler (I8I2|. translated from the German; Wnlt ntnl Viift {18L'>) from the (Jerman of Riehter; Xaomi. or Itoft- ton Tico I/,n,itrr,i )>./r» At/n (1818), J/rmoiV of /{rr. Dr. Ihickminntrf aud Jn^rp/i S. lUtrkmittntfr (18(9), llorfiuu-, thf, Pttrifh Orphan (IS6IM, I'arthruin, or thr Lunt Ihnji »/ Pttffauiitm (1868), [tnd 77ic fi<irr/„fttr'i Maidrn, from the German of B. Auerbaeh. D. in Brookline, near Bo.ston, June 22. 1804. Loo iFiiAsris LionTFooT), Bon of Thomas, b. at Strat- ford. Wectmoreliindco., Va.,Oct. I 1, 1731 : received a careful classicnl and KngliMli education from a private tutor ; in- herited an amplo estate; served in the house of burgesses 1706 LEE. troiu 1765 to 1772. and four terms as delegate in the Conti- noutal Congress from 1776 to 1779; was a signer of tlic Declaration of Independence; member of important com- mittees, and frequently chairman of the committee of the whole, lie rendered important services in framing the old Articles of Confederation, and insisting, as conditions of peace with England, upou the right to the navigation of the Mississippi, anjl to tlic Newfoundland fisheries, thereby justly earned the gratitude of New England. lie aeblom spoke in Congress, but exercised great influence, and was a consistent friend and supporter of Washington in the most critical times. Retiring from Congress in 177U, he resumed the life of a country gentleman, distinguished for geniality and wit, but averse to politics, in which he did not again figure e.xcejit by a brief service in the Vir- ginian senate. D. at Monocan, Richmond Co., Va., in 171)7. Lee (FRi;iiERirK George), D. C. L., b. at Thane Vicar- age. Oxfor.lshire, England, Jan. 6, 1832; graduated at tJxford with high honors in 18.)4; toolt holy orders in IS.)!!; was successively curate of Sunningwell, assistant minister of Berkeley c'uapel, incumbent of St. Mary's, -Aberdeen, and vicar of All Siiints', Lambeth, which post he now fills (lS7a). Dr. Leo was from lSo7 to ISIi'J a secre- tary of the Society for the Promotion of the Union of Christendom, founded the I'nion Jiccieic in 1SG3 and con- ducted it until ISC'J, and has been a frequent contributor to the Chiirih ilitijaziiic; has written several volumes of poems and many theological essays, of which (IIuiijuks of the Siipfniatiiru/ and Lyrirs of Light and Life, both pub- lished in 1874, attained considerable popularity. Dr. Lee is a writer of undeniable ability, but his avowed belief in the ecclesiastical miracles of the fourth century and in many modern marvels has exposed him to sharp criticism. Lee (FnEDERicK Ruhakd), R. A., b. at Barnstaple, Eng- land, in June. 1798: served in the Netherlands at an carK- age as an officer of the 56th Foot; studied painting and acquired a high reputation for landscapes, especially of Eng- lisli and Scotch scenery, his pictures having been purchased for the most celebrated private galleries of England. He began exhibiting at the Royal Academy in 1824 ; was elect- ed .\ssociate in 1834 and Academician in 18.'!8. He has exe- cuted notable joint works with Thomas Sidney Cooper, R. A. Lee fU.iNVAH F.), b. in Newburyporl, Mass., in 1780, daughter of Dr. Sawyer, and became the wife of George G. Lee of Boston, Mass. She was the author of many ex- cellent books, among which are Three Ej-perimcnts ofLhinn (18.3S), The Old Pointer, (1838), The Huguenot, in France and America, Hittnry of Sculpture and Sculptors (18j4), Memoir of Pierre TouMaint (1853). D. in Boston, Mass.. Deo. 28, 1865. Lee (Harriet), b. in London, England, in 1756; pub- lished in 1786 a novel in b vols., Thi Error, of Innocence, and in 1787 a drama. The Xew I'crroge ; followed at much later dates by two other dramas and another novel. She is best known as associated with her sister (see Lee, Sophia) in the authorship of the Conierhnri/ Talc, (5 vols.. 1797- ISOj), once extremely popular, and reprinted in New York ' in 1857. Eight of the ten tales were from Harriet's pen, the most remarkable being The Oerman', Tale ; and Kruitz- ner, which supplied Byron the jdot, the machinery, and some of the language of Werner. D. at Clifton Aug". 1, 1851. I Lee (Gen. Hexry), the father of Robert E. Lee, and a relation of R. II. Lee. b. in Westmoreland co., Va., Jan. 29, 1756; graduated at Princeton in 177'i; in 1776 entered the army as a captain of horse, and served afterwards both in the North and South in command (as major and after- wards as lieutenant-colonel) of a partisan corps known as " Lee's Legion," while Lee himself was familiarly knoivn as •' Lighthorse Harry." He became renowned lor bold- ness, .activity, and efficiency. He retired from the armv soon after the battle of Eulaw, in which ho distinguished him.self greatly. He was in Congress in 1786; was gov- ernor of Virginia 1792-95 ; commander-in-chief of the ex- pedition against the whisky insurgents 1794; and again a member of Congress in 1799. In his celebrated eulogy on \V ashiugtou. prepared by direction of Congress, ocour the words, ''First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." In 1809 he was confined for debt in Spottsylvania oo., Va., and wrote his Memoim of the War in the Southern Department (1809). In 1814 he was in Baltimore, the guest of Mr. Alexander C. Hanson, at the time when the house of that gentleman was attacked by a mob. Gen. Lee took part in the defence of the house, and was nl'ierward put into the city jail lor safety, but the mob entered the jail, and killed or cruelly maimed the whole parly. Gen. Lee never re- covered from his injuries. He went for his health to the West Indies, and d. on the return journey, on Cumber- land Island, (ia., where he was the guest Of Mrs. Shaw, a daughter of Gen. Greene, Mar. 25, 1816. Ho was frank, j generous, and impulsive; and in the opinion of Gen. Greene did more than any other man to bring about the triumph of the Americ:in arms in the Southern department. Lee (Henry), a brother of Gen. R. E. Lee. b. at Strat- ford. Westmoreland CO., Va., in 1787; graduated in 1808 at William and Mary College: became major 36th Infantry in 1S1:1. He was author of The Compuiijn of 17gl (1824), Life if Niipoleon (vol. i.. 1S.;5|, Ohaercotion, on the Writ- ' '"a' of Tkomu, Jefferson (18:j2j. D. at Paris Jan. 30, 1837. I Lee (He.vry W.), b. at Haindcn, Conn., July 26, 1815. and d. in Davenport. Ia., Sept. 26, 1874; received deacon's orders in 1S38; in 1840 became rector of a church which he had built up at Springfield. Ma.ss. : in 1S48 received charge of St. Luke's church at Rochester. N. Y., where he re- mained till 1854, when he was chosen bishop of Iowa, which position ho held at his death. J. B. Bisnop. Lee (Jesse), b. in Prince George's co., Va., Mar. 12, 1758; joined the Methodist Church in 1773; in 1783 was received into the conference; in 1787 penetrated New Eng- land, and preached from the Connecticut to the farthest settlements in Maine. He formed the first Methodist '•cl.'vs8"in New England at Strntfield. Conn., Sept. 26, 1787, and the first in Boston, Mass.. July 13, 1792. Ilewasthree times elected chaplain to the l'. S. House of Representa- tives and once to the Senate. In 1S07 he published at Bal- timore. Jill., his History of Methodism in America. D. j Sept. 12, 1810. Abel Stevens. I Lee (John), LL.D.. F. R. S., b. in London Apr. 28, 1783: graduated at St. John's College. Cambridge, in 1806; became fellow, and travelled extensively in the East, luakjng collections of antiquities. In 1815 ho took the name of Lee (his original name having been Fiott) j upon inheriting the property of an uncle, and devoted himself to science. He was a member of fifteen or twenty learned societies, and was for two years president of the Royal Astronomical Society. He erected a magnificent observatory at his residence near Aylesbury. Bucks, and engaged competent astronomers to conduct the observations. D. at Hartwell House Feb. 25, 1866. Lee (Leroy Madison), D. D.. b. in Petersburg. Va., 1808; joined the Virginia Methodist Conference in 1828; in 1836 was appointed editor of the Richmond Christian Adrocate; in 1859 resumed the pastoral office. He has published Life and Times of Jesse Lee, Atlrice to a Young Concert, etc. .Abei, Stevens. Lee (LiTHER), D. D., b. at Schoharie, N. T., Nov. 30. 1800 ; became a Methodist travelling preacher of the .M. E. Church in 1827 ; lectured in favor of temperance and the abolition of slavery, being mobbed several times ; seceded on account of slavery from the M. E. Church in 1842: joined the new body of " Wesleyan Methodists," became pastor of a church in Syracuse (1843); president of the first Wesleynn Methodist general conference in 1844, and editor in New York of the organ of that Church, tlic True Wrslci/an. In 1856 he was chosen president of Michigan I'nion College at Leoni, Mich.: resigned and spent several years in Ohio; became in 1864 professor at .Adrian College, Mich.; returned to M. E. Churoh in 1867, and has since been a member of the Michigan conference. Dr. Lee has edited several papers and written various religious and controversial works. Lee (Mary Elizabeth), b. at Charleston, S. C, Mar. 23. 1S13. was a niece of Judge Thomas Lee. She contrib uted much prose and verse to periodical literature, and was author of Tales from History. D. at Charleston Sept. 23, 1849. (See a Memoir, with selections of her poetry, by S. Gilman, D. D., 1851.) Lee (Nathaniel), b. at Hatfield, Hertfordshire, Eng., about 1657; educated at Trinity College, Cambridge; be- came an actor and afterwards a dramatic author, producing a new play every year from 1675 to 1681 ; was several years confined in an insane asylum ; aided Dryden in writing iK'lipus and the Duke of Guise. He was killed in an afi"rav in London in 1090. Two of his eleven tragedies. Theo- do, ins and Alexander the Great, were Successful acting dramas throughout the eighteenth centur}'. Lee (Richard Henry), signer of the Declaration of Independence, son of Thomas, b. at Stratford, the family- seat of the Lees, in Westmoreland co., Va., Jan. 20. 17:i2. He was educated in England, and after his return marched with a company to join Bradd»»ok. who rejecte4l his services with an ill-judged expression of contempt for the "pro- vincials." He was early chosen to the house of burgesse.", where he at once took a commanding position on the side of popular rights. He was in Congress 1774-77, 1784-85, and 1786-87. He was the author of the famous motion of June 7, 1776, "That these United Colonies are. and of right ought to be. free and independent iStates," etc.. and advocated the Declaration of Independence in a bold and LEE. 1707 brilliaut speech. Duriug 1780 he was for ft portion of the time in I he Ik'lflatthe \iviul of the mililiu of Westmoreland CO. Ho was a Senator from Virginia 17S',t-lt2. ami, though not a FederalisI, .supporte<l the ndntini^tratiuu of Washing- ton with ztal. I>. at Chanlillv, Va., .lunf ID. 1791. He was a man of amiable and noble cbaraetur, uf cuinmundiug presence, excellent abilities, and self-.-iacrituring patriotism. (See his Li/e and Corrcgpondence (182j), by R. 11. Lee, hia grcat-graudaon.) Lee f RoBi: rt), D. I)., b. at Twccdmouih, North Durham, Eng., Nov. 1 1, 1S04 ; entered the University of St. Andrew's in 1S24: was ordained in the Church of Scotland in ls:!2; was minir^UT at Arbroath (18;J.1) and at Caniptiie ( IS.'Jfi), and in 1S4.';, on the disruption of the Scottish (,'hurcb, was ap- pointed by the town council of Edinburgh to the pastorate of the Old lirey Kriars' Church. In IS44 he published a transla- tion, witii a preface, of T/u- Th'ses >>/ ICraitnit touchimj Ej- cnininiinirtiti'in, as a reply to the writers of the "Secession Church," who charged the adherents of the establishment with " Erastianism," In 1840 he became regius professor of biblical criticism in the University of Edinburgh, and devoted himself at once to a course of minute investiga- tions upon the text of the Hil>le. which resulted in the great work of bis life, T/ic flnf^ /iihfe, icith tthmtt 60,000 Mar- fjinnl Iie/t-rencc8 and Vartoitii jficndiiif/it, rcvined and im- proved, published at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and London in 1851. lie was charged by iho WitiuHt newspaper with in- culcating licresy in regarcl to universal salvation, and vig- orously defended hira^^elf in the columns of the Smtsumu. In 1SJ8, Dr. Lee was a member of a deputation sent to London to appeal before a parliamentary conimitteo on the subject of university reform, and his suggestions were em- bodied in the measure as finally passed. In IS;)7 he jiub- lished a volume ot Prat/fru fur Pnhlic H'orw/i//;, and having employed them in his own parish, was arraigned in IS.VJ before the presbytery of Edinburgh, and later before the General Assembly, on a charge of introducing into public worship a liturgy and certain forms and postures unknown to the Church of Scotland. Dr. Lee argued his own case in a speech of great eloquence, and obtained u verdi<'t in his favor. In l^^t'iO he published The Uefurm »/ tht- Church of Scfjtlnnd in Worvhip, Oovcrnmcnt, and JJurfriiw, in which ho discussed liturgy, postures in worship, instrumental music, and the propriety of observing certain festivals and fasts, with a tenclency towards bringing the Church of Scotland into greater hormony with the age. The (iineral Assembly of ISOII-fil reported favorably upon these views, and on the 22d of Apr., lSfi.5, an organ was first opened in hia church of (irey Friars — an event which niarkr-d an era in the national Church, and has been frequently iniitatctl. The action of 1S(U was, however, reversed by the (Jeneral Assembly of I8G5, and Dr. Leo was preparing to contest his favorite views before the civil courts when he was at- tacked with paralysis, and d. at Torquny Mar. 12, ISiiS. Dr. Lee was the acknowledged leader of "the liberal party in the Scottish Church. (See his IJ/t mul licmuin^, by Rev. R. IL Story, 1870.) Lee (Robert Edward), h. at Stafford House, Wcstnoore- land CO., Va., on Jan. lU, 18U7. Having been entered as u cadet at the U. S. Military Academy at West Point in I82i). ho was graduated, second uf his class, in 1H21*. and attached to the army as a sceond lieutenant of engineers on the Ist of July of that year. Habitually employed upon the most iniportnut duties of his corps in time of peace, he ha<l also, previously to |M4(), been specially rletailed to airl in estab- lishing the boundary-lino ootween Oliio and Michigan, and from 1H;I7 to l>^ll wa?» superintending engineer uf the im- provements in the harbnr of St. Louis and of the Minsouri and upper Mississippi rivers, to which was added, from IH40 to 1841, the supervision i>f the improvements in the naviga- tion of the Ohio belciw Louisville, and of the lower Mia- sisHippi. Alreafly a captain of engineers since July 'J, Is.'is, ho first saw field-service in the war with Mexico as chief engineer with Gen. Wodl. Hut when (ien. Scott took com- mand for the principal operation against the Mexican cap- ital in Miir.. 1S47, he called ("apt. Leo to his side. In that briiliunl campaign he was conspicuous for professional aldlily as well as for gallant and meritorious c(.nduct. win- ning in quick succession the brevets of miijr)r, lieutenant- colonel, and cobdiol for Itis part in the battles of Cerro tJordo, Contreras, Churubusco. Chapultcpec (in which latter action be was wounded i, ancl in the ciipture of Ibo city of Mexico. Hy the eb»se of the war he bud come to he gen- erally regarded in the army as the «Mie oflicer best fitted ultimately to succeeil (Jen. Scott In ibe chief command. Called tfi Wnshington for a time as assistant to the chief engineer of the nrrny, be resumed hia place on the board of engineers charged with the delVnce of the Atlantic coast. From Sept, 1, 1852. to the end of Mar., lS.).'i. be was super- intendent of tho Military Academy, a position which he gave up to assume the duties of lieutenant-colonel of the 2d Cavalry, to which he had been appointed on Mar. 3, ISJj, at the formation of that regiment. For several years ho now served on the Texas border; but happening to be on leave of absence, near Washington, at the time of the raid of John lirowu (Oct. 17 to 2.">, 1859), Col. Lcc was placed in command of the Federal forces employed in its repression. Having soon after returned to his regiment, he fell iu command of the department of Texas during tlie greater part of IStlO. On Mar. ll», 18G1, he became colonel of his regiment by regular promotion, but resigned that commission three weeks later (Apr. 26) u])on the secession of Virginia. Repairing to Richmond, he tendered liis s^er- vices to the governor of the State, and by acclamation was appointed commander-in-chief of its fiirccs, with the grade of niajor-generat. Extracts from his letters at the time show the character of the man. Writing to Gen. Scott, he said: ''Since my interview with you on the 18th inst. I have felt that I ought not longer to retain my connnigsion in the army. I therefore ten<ier my rcsigniition, which I request you will recouiuiend for acceptance. It \vouId have been presented at once, but for the struggle it has co^t mo to separate myself from the service to wliich I have devoted all the best years of my life and all the ability I possessed. . . . Save iu defence of my State, I never desire to draw ray sword." To his sister the same day he wrote: *' I am grieved at my inability to see you. I have been waiting for a more convenient season, which has brought to many be- fore mc deep aud lasting regret. Now we arc in a state of war which will yield to nothing. The whole South is in a state of revolution, into which Virginia, after a long strug- gle, has been drawn ; and though I recognize no necessity for tiiis state of things, and would have forborne and pleaded to the end for redress of grievances, real or supposed, yet in my own person I had to meet the question wbelher I would take part against my native State. Willi all my devotion to the Union, and the iec^ling of loyalty and duty of an American citizen, I liavc not been able to nutke up my mind to raise my hand against my relatives, my chil- dren, my home. I have therefore resigned my commission in the army, and save in dtjencc of viy native State, with the hope that my poor services will never be needed, I hope I may never be called on to draw my sword. I know you will blame me, but you must think of me as kindly as you can, and believe that I have endeavored to do what 1 have thought right." I*)nteriug upon the duties of his new posi- tion, he set to work to organi'/.e and develoji the tlefi nsive resources of his State, having assumed "eominaml td" tlio military and naval forces of Virginia" on Apr. 2.'-, 1S61. A month later he directed the occui)ation iu force of tho important strategic position of Manassas Junction, which ho visited about the 1st of June and gave special directmns for its defence. iMeaiiwhile, \'irginia hnving entered tho Confeileracy and Richmond become the capital, Lee was appointed third iu rank of tho five generals by virtue of an act of the Confederate Congress creating that grade — Samuel Cooper, lately ailjutant-general of the U. S. army, and Albert Sidney Jidinston. a brigadier in the same service, being his seniors. For the time he remained at Richmond, generally consulted by Mr. Jefi'erson Davis concerning military afl'airs, until tho early autumn, when he was as- signed to command the forces confronting Gen. Rosecraiis, his lornier junior in the engineer corps. Rut practically reduced to inaction on that field, (»cn. IjCO was transferred to the command of the coast of North and South Carolina and Georgia about Dec. 1, 1801, with impaired rei)Utation, which was not retrieved, in public estimation, on that the- atre of operations. So the notion grew widespread that, wanting in decision antl not a man ot action, lie was un- fittoil for practical warfare. Tho Confederate Congress, however, having created the ofiico of commander-in-chief, Mr. Davis, regarding it us an encroacbnnnl upon the e.\eeu- tivo jiuwer, vctoiil the law, but not long after, or about the end of Mar., 1S(J2, culletl Gen. Lee back to Richmond, and nominally invested bim with the functions in question, which were exercised without material inllnence or control over either the organization or operations of Confcderato armies. It was in this posture of atlairs that tien. .loseph E. Johnst*>n was wounded ut the battle of Seven Pines or Fair Oaks. May .11, 18(12. Leo the following day was ap- pointed to succeed him in the direct command of the army assembled for the defence of Richmond, and his first act was to draw all his troops back to their eneanipnienls near the city. Their casualties in the late engagements had boon rising tiOIH), and their material gainr^ some 10 pieces of ar- tillery, f»7lH) rifles and muskets, with considerable subaist- ence and quurternmster'f. medical, and ordnance stores; but Lee wisely stood, as yet. upon tho defensive, while gathering all possible reinforoenn'nlM from the southward, which .lohnston declares liad. in like need, been withheld from him. In this way, by tho night of June 25, ISG2, Lc'e 1708 LEE. had added from 2l:i.000 to 25,000 men to his forces, includ- ing Jackson's and Ewvll's veterans, fresh from their recent successes in the Shenandoah Valley, and had at his dispo- sition an army 80.0U0 strong, which he soon infused with the belief that he was equal to every emergency in the husi- nesa of war, and that it was invim-ihle under his lead. McCleltan's position, meanwhile, was peculiarly strong; his left and centre, covered by a great morass (White Oak Swamp), extending southward from the Ghickahominy nearly to James River ; only his right (some S/i, 000 men) was at all exposed to attack, but well protected by intrench- meiits and artillery. Thus disposed, there was an army of at least 100,000 men, admirably equipped. His new adver- sary, now reaily for the offensive, put -Jackson in motion with three divisir>ns (I^.OflO), by a wide circuit arounrl the Federal right tc( fall upon its rear with his now well-known vigor, and leaving Magrudor with bandy 25,000 men to shield Richmond from the mass of MeClellan's force, Lee threw Longstreet with 40,000 men forward to a direct attack upon the Union right under Fitz John Porter, late in the afternoon of June 2fi. Under this attack Porter's corps was pressed back behind Beaver Dam Ureek, where he found stable standing-ground; but retreating that night to the stronger position about Cold Harbor, where, rein- forced, he successfully withstood all assaults until the full weight of Jackson's turning movement fell upon and over- powered him, driving his shattered divisions across the Chickahominy, with the loss of twenty cannon and many small-arms. The wise audacity of Gen. Lee's plan of attack gave him the field, hut the nature of the ground enabled Mc- ('lellan, in spite of the extreme demoralization of his troops following the disaster, to effect a consummate retreat, though hard pressed at every step in the several affairs of June 2'^, 29, and 30, to the shelter of naval support in James River and the almost impregnable position of Mal- vern Hill, the attack upon which was repulsed on July 1 with a heavy Confederate loss. But Richmond was now virtually relieved from the risk of an attack from McClel- lan and the quarter of James River. A fresh Federal army having been massed soon after in the vicinity of Culpeper Court-house, under Gen. Pope, in menace of an attack from that direction, Jackson was at once detached to confront and stay this fresh danger, and the battle of Cedar Run was won by hira on Aug. 9. Ten days later, leaving a force to secure Richmond from a coHy> tie mf(i'», Lee was in move- ment with his main army for a stroke at Pope — a movement of signal aud-jcity in execution that ended in the com- plete discomfiture of his opponent in the notable actions of Aug. 2l>and;i0, 1S02 — or seeond battle of Manassas — with the loss of 30 pieces of artillery and large stores of war material. Following this brilliant success. Gen. Lee threw his victorious corps swiftly across the Potomac into Mary- land as far as Frederick Town — an operation more boldly and skilfully conceived than thitroughly carried out in ac- cordance with the offensive objects for which it was under- taken. For while the detached operation entrusted to Jacksim resulted in the important capture of Harper's Ferry, so much of Lee's army was diverted to (hat end for so long a period that in the interval, thrown virtually on the defensive, the Confederate general gave M'^Clellan time to concentrate his masses upon and tight him at Antietam (Sept. 17. 1^1)2) when separated from a material part of his army, and with .lackson present, with two of the previ- ously detached divisions, only under the stress of a severe forced march. Under these circumstances Lee was. there- fore, unable to profit decisively from the advantage he gained at the close of that combat, and after standing in position awjiiting attack from his now strongly rein- forced opponent, ho found it expedient to abandon the campaign and retire into Virginia, the major object of his movement having unquestionably been sacrificed to the minor. The Union army having been reorganized during the next month, and a new commander ((Jen. Bnrnsidel given it on the 7th of November, he took tlie offensive with Richmond again as the objective, but Aquia <'rerk as his bane, and reached the N. bank of the Rappahannock at Fredericksburg on the 17th of that month, to liml Gen. Leo in due season ready to dispute his further march. Then came the Ltth of December, with the Idoody conflict of Fredericksburg, which afforded another illustration of the high capacity of the Confederate general as a defensive soldier. With another change of Federal commanders came the battle of Chancellorsville (May 2-4, lsfi3). Lee, as habitual to him, forecasting his adversary's plan, was now able to give another victory to his supremely confident, trustful army, even though his strongest corps, or one- third of his force, was detached at the time. As the whole field or theatre of war stood, after that battle, for the Con- federates in all quarters of their territory, it would seem qlear th.at a comprehensive strategy must have inrlicated the employment of their available resources in a different operation from that which Lee next essayed, as is alleged, entirely against his own judgment and advice, under the orders of his ])olitioal 8U])erior — that is to say, the cam- paign ending in mortal disaster to the Confederate cause on the field of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 18G3), from which ho withdrew shorn of some 27.000 of the very 61ite of his army, as well as of its prestige of habitual success, which had made it wellnigh invincible. But, though beaten and foiled, he withdrew and repassed the Potomac with con- summate method and skill, leaving his opponent wholly unwilling to seriously adventure the offensive in turn for ten months. By that time, however, Lieut, -Gen. (Jrant, made commander-in-chief of the armies of the V. S. with absolute powers, took the field against Gen. Lee with an army of over 140,000 men, thoroughly inured to war. To meet this formidable general and army Lee stood as reso- lutely ready as on ail previous occasions, but his redoubtable corps were reduced to within 55,000 infantry and artillery. The object of Grant was to turn his adversary's position, and reaching an open field beyond the AViIderno«s. upon Lee's communications, force him to figlit lor their integ- rity at mortal disadvantage. But altogether too wary and far-sighted to be thus out-manoeuvred. Gen. Lee became himself the assailant at the threshold of the operation, when his adversary was entangled and his corps danger- ously separated in the dense recesses of the Wilderness, on May 5, lSfi4, and inflicted a loss of 20,000 men. On the next day. Grant essaying to move, Lee was again the as- sailant, with the advantage of the affair on his side. As- sailed in turn, however, on May 7, HI, and 12, in tentative operations, Lee's position was found impregnable, so that at the close of the third week of the campaign the aggre- gate of Federal losses rose above 40.000 ofliccrs and men. Grant having skilfully crossed the North Anna on May 21, the gain was immediately so neutralized by the position in which he found his adversary awaiting his further march that the Union army had to retrace its steps, and, led by a wide circuit, was carried to the scene of McCleilan's dis- aster at Cold Harbor within ten milesof Richmond. There, reinforced by Smith's corps, 16,000 strong, making the sum- total of reinforcements 97,000 men added to his army be- tween the 12th and 31st of May, 1803, while the Confed- erates had been strengthened, all told, by less than 20,000 men. Gen. Grant on June 3 adventured a direct assault upon Lee's intrenched lines, and it may be said that the annals of war record no more sanguinary repulse than that which was then inflicted. It is noteworthy that by this time the casualties of the Union army reached 00,000, in- eluding 3000 officers: and it remained for Gen. Grant to seek a new line of approach to his objective; that is to say, throwing his army acros* the James and S. of the Appo- mattox on June 14 and 15, 1804, he opened a new campaign at Petersburg of 300 days. Looking at the force employed against him during all that period, and his own compar- atively petty resources. Lee's stand at Petersburg has no parallel in war, and the details of that nmsterly defence, properly related, will form one of the most instructive les- sons in the art of war. From the \ery outset, notwith- standing his great advantages in all war-resources, in the presence of such an adversary as Lee. Gen. Cirant found it expeilicnt to shelter his forces behind strong intrenchments. In the course of the ten months of struggle and combat which ensued, from a concurrence of adverse circumstances elsewhere than at Petersburg, Lee, foreseeing the ultimate issue, would have evacuated that position early in 1.^65, but his political superiors were unwilling to give up Richmond until fiirced away by Federal arms. Re- duced to about 40.000 rifles in his trenches, on Mar. 25, iNfio, the Confederate general, with that astute audacity which had come to be characteristic, essaying the oflensive, delivcrcfl a strenuous, skilfully-aiuted stroke in his finest manner at a vulnerable ])oint in his opp(.neiit's lines : Iiut at the critical moment the supports quaileij. aini the ctiterjirisc miscarried, with a loss which he could ill afford. Now Grant in turn massed two corps au'l all his cavalry for a counter-stroke at Lee's right (lank. But before tlie blow fell, the Confederate general, coiu'cntrating 15,000 men, again smote his menacing adversary with wellnigh "his wonted success." Swinton states, as also that a Federal dis- aster was barely escaped. But the terrible blow fell soon after upon the Conf^cderate lines at Five Forks, which made them untenable. So Lee, retreating, was pressed with such vigor and skill that his surrender at Appomattox was the absolute necessity of the campaign. And iilthougli that cnpitulation embraced only some 27,000 men, but MHIO ai whom were armed, it brought the war of secession in all quarters to an immediate close so soon as the event was known. Judged critically, it may be said that rarely has a com- mander been so sharp-sighted and quick to detect the pur- poses of an opponent as was Gen. Leo. Never surj>asscd. LEE— LEECH. 1709 courage, nliioli enaljlc.l liiiii to uiiiko it relatively comparable instrument of his jOans. In the cr comii if ever equalled, in the art of winning the passionate, per- I soiial love as well as admiration of his troops, he acquired and held an inftueucc over his army to the very last in- stant, foun.led on a suiirimc trust in his judsjcuent, pre- science, and skill, coupled with his cool, stalde. equable ' '■ --'-•:-'■• iiio im- crisis of disastrous battle, as at Gettysburg, and als.) on tliat day at Petersburg when the whole Federal army seenied surging in upon hFTn through the breach in his lines opened by the exploded mine, den. Lee was seen to be as placid and cheerful, as free from anxiety and clear-headed, as at the close of ft dav of viotory. Strategically defective and ill- eonceived. \ct the (iettysburg campaign was executed by r.ee with a inaslerlv knowledge of the theatre of operations, unsurpassed celerity, and secrecy of movement, and with all possible care of his communications; but it must be added that in that battle, as also previously in the san- guinary assault upon McClellan in \»G2 at Malvern Hill, there was a serious lack of that tactical concentration of his masses on the part of the Confederate general which was essential to success. It is also ap|)arcnt that he was wanting in the talent of administration which distinguished Wellington; unlike whom also, with all his military vir- tues, Lee was careless of the discipline and training of his army. From temperament, likewise, he gave way, as no general so placed ever should consent to do in matters of supreme military concern, to his political chief, and hence not only undertook false campaigns, like that of the second invasion, and maintained too long a position, like that of Petersburg in ISC.j, but ho failed to throw the decisive weight of his great personal and professional authority against that sHtleil )Mdicy of wide dispersion of its forces wliich proved so fatal to the Confederate cause. For the proper measure of ticn. Lee's rank among the soldiers of history, however, seeing what ho wrought with such re- source's as he had, under all the disadvantages that ever attended his oiieralions, it were fair to sujipose what ho might have achieved in campaigns and battles with re- sources at his own disposition equal to those against which he invariably contended. In person. Robert K. Lee was of remarkable manly beauty, with a distiiiguishcil martial appearance and car- riage.' Lett at the close of the war without estate or pro- fession, he accepted with alacrity the presidency of Wash- ington College at Lexington, Va., to which simple employ- ment he gave the same devotion, with the like high sense of .lutv, which had distinguished the captain of engineers and the commander of the chief army of one of the bel- ligerents in a mighty civil war. At the same time, not uii- inindful of the largo inlluenco he had acquired over his section, he lost no opportunity to use that influence to soften and assuage the passions and animosities of his people. '•.Madam, <lo not train up your children m hos- tility to the government of the II. S.,"are authentic charac- teristic words which he uttered to one widowed by the war, who in bringing her son to him for education had spoken bitterly. But sixtv-ihree yeiirs of age, with apparent promise of prolongetl health and a life of usel'iiliuss and influence, he was taken suddenly ill, and in a fortnight d. Oct. 12, l«70, at Lexington. Thomas Joiiiias. I.ce (Sami:ki.). n. D., b. at Longnor, Shropshire, Eng- land, May II, ITX-I; receive.l his first instruction at a charity school, an.l was at the ago of twelvn apprenticed to a c'arp.nter. While laboring at this trade he acquired Iho chief classical. Oriiiilal, ami modern languages, and at the ago of thirty was enabled to enter Queen's College, Cam- hri.lge, as a student, graduating in due course, taking or- ders in the Cliureh, becoming in 1S111 university professor of Arabic, and regius professor of Hebrew in IS.U. He published a Itrhrrw Oriimmnr, which hail a wide circula- tion in Knglaiid and America ( IKHO), translations of the 7V-1I--/. ../• Ml. IlKitifi (is:'.:!), and of the ll.,„l.- o/' ./.,/, ( 1S?,71, and a llrl,rr,r nml K,uji:,h Lexicon (1810). 1). at Barley, Hertfordshire, Dec. I«, lSo2. Lee (Samiki. Pim.ifs), U. S. N., b. Feb. 13, IS12, in Virginia; entered the navy as a midshipman Nov ■"" 1S2.^; became in 18:17, a coinman niodoro in isr.fi.a ri'ar-adininil in 1^70; retired fnon active siTvije Feb. l;i, lH7;i. Commanded the Dneiila with dis- tinguislied gallantry at the passace of Forts .lackson and St. Philip and capiure of New Orleans, "driving off the assailants of the Varulin, and preventing her oflicers and cnnv from being captured by the Conl'cdi rates." From lS(i2 to ISfil commandeil the North Atlantic blockading squadron, and from lf<(lt to ISfi.'i the Mississippi squadron. From ISOfi to ISO? president of the board to examine vol- unteer oflicers for admission into the navy; ISCS to 1S70 gnal-onicer of the navy ; IS7tl to Is;.'! in command passed miilshipman in ls:t3. a lieutenant »"""" lander in IS''.'', a captain in isfi2. a com- ■"•.""' , • I :.. lo-n. ...i:..i r, „..i;.„ iiainlii chief sign of the North Atlantic fleet. FoxiiAi.i, A. Paiikku. Lee (Sarah Wallis), b. in Colchester, England, in 17'J1 : married Thomas Edward Bowdich, whom she ac- coni)ianied to the Cold Coast of Africa in ISU, residing there until 1S22. Mr. liowdich was employed as a com- missioner to conclude a treaty with the king of Ashanteo in 18lo, and with the aid of his wife published in ISl'J a work entitled .1 .V/i«»ioii to Aahaiitec. Ho d. at Bathurst, Isle of St. Mary. Jan. 10, l.'S24. Mrs. Bowdich published in 1825 Storiea of Stynnrje Lands, ill which she narrated with great efl'ect her observations in Africa, edited three illustrated works on mammalia, birds, and shells, written liy her late husband, and prepared other original works of the same character, which gave her an honorable name in the annals of British science. Mrs. Bowdich resided many years in Paris, where she enjoyed the friendship of Baron Cuvicr and other distinguished naturalists, and married her second husband, Mr. Lee. D. in l.'^oO. Lee (Sophia), h. in London in May. 17o0. daughter of an actor. and in 1780 wrote a comedy, Tlir Chapter o/.-lcci- <lriitK. which was brought out with success at the llaymarket Theatre. The profits of this play enabled Miss Lee to es- tablish at Bath (1781) a seminary for young ladies, which was for many years conducted by her along with her sister (see Lee, IIa'rriet). with whom her name is inseparably con- nected in the authorship of the celcbr.ated Canttihnri/ Ta/en. Two only of these tales, and the introduction, were written by Harriet. She wrote two novels and a tragedy, which were moderately successful, and another comedy, which proved a failure. D. at Clifton, near Bristol, Mar. 3, 1824. Lee (Thomas), b. in Virginia about the beginning of the eighteenth century; was third son of Richard Lee, a mem- ber of the council and grandson of Richard Lee. the founder of the family in America, who as a Cavalier played a dis- tinguished part in Virginia along with Berkeley in securing tho allegiance of that colony to the Stuarts. Thomas Leo succeeded to the ancestral estate at Stratford. Westmoreland CO.. on the" Northern Neck;" became president of the coun- cil ; and his commission as governor had just been made out when he d. in 17:)0. He had married Hannah, daughter of Col. Philip Ludwell, a member of the council, and by her had six sons, all of whom were distinguished for their public services during the Revolution : Phili]i Ludwell, a member of the council; Thomas Ludwell. b. about 17:{0, member of the hou.se of burgesses, of tho conventions of 1775 and 1770, of the Committee of Safety, and one of tho judges of the supreme court, d. soon after, aged 47; Rn-n- ARB Uenrv, Frasxis LicHTFOOT, and Arthiir (see those names); and William, the fifth son, b. about 17:!7; was a-'ent of Virginia in England; elected sherifl' of London iu'l773 and alderman in 1775 ; afterwards diplomatic agent of the U. S. at the Hague, Vienna, and Berlin ; recalled in 1779, and d. at Oreenspring, Va.. June 27, 1705. In the third and fourth generation from Thomas this family, al- lied by descent and intermarriage to tho Lees of military celebrity, has produced several influential citizens. . ■ * Lec (Wilson), b. in Sussex co., Del., in 17(51 ; became an itinerant .Methodist in 17S 1 ; travelled and preached in Ken- tucky, and after 1701 went to New Englan.l. and shared with'jesse Lee in the founding of Methodism there. 1). in Anne Arundel co., Md., Oct. 11, 1804. AiiEi. Stevens. Lec Centre, post-lp. of Lee co.. 111. Pop. 1028. Lee Centre, postv. of Leo tp.. Oneida co., N. Y.. 9 miles N. \V. of Rome, has some manufactures. Pop. 355. Leech [Ang.-Sax. h-rr], a name vaguely apjilicd to va- rious representatives of the order Bdellodea or ^llngllisuga- ria, but especially employed fur the species of the family HirudinidiB. This group has a number of genera and spe- cies, and all of tluin have in common an elongated, flat- tened, and transversely annulate body, which is narrowed anteriorly and obtuse' posteriorly : the anterior extremity has an oval sucker, ami within tho mouth are three jaws converging backwards and denticulated in their margins; ton inconspicuous eyes are developed on the upper lip; the posterior extremity has a large round, .ibliciiiely-iiisertcd sucker. Tho sexes are united in one indivblual. The best known species are the oflicinal leeches (Hirmto ofih-inaliK, rillcinalit. nnA 11. Irorirna). Leeches afl"ord the least painlul means for tho local abstraction of blood. They take from three to five times their weight in blood, six gen- erally being a|iplie 1 for every fluid ounce of blood to be lost. To ilisgorgo the blood, apply salt or squeeie them. The medicinal leech is cultivated in Europe, being kept in ponds in natural meadows, and increase rapiilly. horses, cows, etc. being driven in to feed lliein, or the leeches im- mersed in warm blood deprived of fibrine. They arc kept in clear soft water in jars, and are sensitive to change ot weather. TiiEonoiiE iJlI.t,. Leech (John), b. in London in 1817. His father for many years kept tho London Coffee-house on Ludgalo Hill. 1710 LEECH— LEESER, Leech was educated at Charter-house, and was a student at the K(»yal Aciidcmy. As an artist he was neglected. His genius appeared in sketches of character for /hff'^ Life in Lfnidou: in ISl" he began to work as a designer for Ptiticb, and for eij^hteen years made that journal famous among journals hy the wit, originality, versatility, and hu- mor of his pencil. In 1861 a rich Manchester firm enabled tlio artist to reproduce many of his drawings by a ne\vly- in vented mechanical process in large size and colored. These were exhibited at Egyptian Hall. Leech d. Oct. 30, ISGt. 0. B. Frothingham, Leech, tp. of Wayne co., III. Pop. 1268. Leech''bur;^f post-b. of Armstrong co., Pa., on the Pennsylvania ( entral R. R. and Pennsylvania Canal, 35 miles X. E. of Pittsburg, has 4 churches. 2 hoti-ls, 1 weekly newspaper, 1 bank, an academy, a flouring-mill, )^ stores, a wagon and carriage manufactory, tin-factory and roll- ing-uiill : the two latter use for fuel a natural gas obtained friim a well 1200 feet deep. A fine school-building is now (1875) being erected at a cost of $20,000. Pop. .368. J. F. Robertson, Ed. "Enterprise," Leech Lake* in Cass co., Minn., is 20 miles long, 16 miles wide, and discharges its waters into the Jlississippi by the Leech Lake River. Elevation, 1330 feet. It is in a well-timbered region, inhabited by the Leech Lake Indians, a band of Chippewas. Lee Creek, tp. of Crawford co., Ark. Pop. 654. Leeds, municipal and parliamentary borough of Eng- land, and one of its leading manufacturing cities, situated in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on the northern bank of the Aire, here cros.»;ed by t\vo stone and four iron bridges, which connect the city proper with its two large suburbs, Hunslet and Holbeck, situated on the southern bank of the river. Most of the streets are narrow and crooked, though generally well paved and well lighted. The western part of the city, however, contains several fine streets lined with elegant houses. The most remarkable of the public build- ings are — St. Peter's church, rebuilt in 1838, and the hirg- est of the thirty-six churches of the city; the town-hall, with several fine statues : the grammar school, the corn ex- change, the cloth hall, the borough jail, etc. The city has many benevolent and educational institutions, such as the Mechanics' Institute, founded in 1S24, with a library of 13.000 vols.; the School of Art, which annually gives in- struction in drawing to 3000 persons; the AVorkingmen's Institute, numbering about 20U0 members, etc. As a man- ufacturing ])lace Leeds was conspicuous already in the six- teenth century, and the products of its industry were at that time nearly the same as now — namely, woollens, linens, and leather. But at first it was only the coarser kinds of wool- lens which were manufactured at Leeds, while now its cloths can compete in fineness and elegance with those of any other place. About 12.000 hands are employed in this kind of manufacture, and a similar number in that of linens. Of late the iron manufactures have grown very considerably; machinery is annually made to the value of about £2.000,000. Near the citv are the beautiful ruins of Kirkstale Abbey. Pop. 1J1,SJ0" in ISU; 171,805 in 1851 j 207,153 in ISGl; 25y,212 in 1871. Leeds, county of Ontario, Canada, bounded on the S. E. by the St. Lawrence River. Area. 805 square miles. It is in part united for judicial and other purposes with Gren- ville CO. It is traversed by the Grand Trunk and the Brockvillc Railways. Cap. Brockville. Pop. of Leeds and (Jrenville cos., including Brockville, 57,918. fjppds, post-tp. of Androscoggin co., Me., on the Maine i'lMitnil and the Androscoggin R. Rs. It has 5 churches, gooil water power, and some manufactures. Pop. 128S. Leeds, post-v. of Northampton tp., Hampshire co., Ma.-s.. on Mill River and on the New llavcn and North- am]itun R. R., 5 miles N. M'. of Northampton. It was the scat of important manufactures, but was almost entirely de- stroyed, with several other villages, May 6, 1874, by the bursting of the Williamsburg reservoir. Leeds, post-v. of Catskill tp., Greene co.. N. Y., at the falls of Catskill Creek, which furnishes water-power. It has 2 churches and various manufactures. It is 4 miles N. \V. of Catskill. Pop. 847. Leeds, post-tp. of Columbia co., Wis. Pop. 1098. I.eedH (.lonN), b. in Bay Hundred. Talbot co., Md., May 18. 1705; was for forty years a clerk of the county court and a judge of the Provincial Court; received in 1760 a commission to supervise the returns of Ma.son and Dixon of the boundaries of Maryland and Pennsylvania; pub- lished in 1769 in Philogophtrnf Trnn/tnctionit, Obn^rmtion of the Transit of VenuH^ and while surveyor-general of Maryland d. at Wade's Point Plantation, in Mar., 1790. Leek [Ang.-Sax. leac'], the AHimn porrum, a liliaceous plant of the onion genus, the mildest in flavor of that whole group of plants. It is extensively cultivated in the kitchen- gardens of Wales, Scotland, and other parts of Europe. Thcro are many varieties, some of which arc much esteem- ed. The lower jiart of the sttm is the part eaten. The juice made into a syrup is a good diuretic and stimulant expectorant medicine, valued in domestic practice. Leek, town of England, in the county of PtafTord, on the Churnet. It has some silk manufactures and many good educational institutions. Pop. 10,045. Lec'lanaw, county of Michigan, bounded W. by Lake Michigan and E. by Grand Traverse Ray. Area, 310 square miles. It is very level, and abounds in lakes and forests. Grain and potatoes are the chief products. Cup. Northport. Pop. 4576. Leelanaw, tp. of Leelanaw co., Mich., on Lake Mich- igan. Pup. 8.';o. Lee'mans (CoNRADrs),b. at Zalt Bommel,in the prov- ince of Gfldcrland, Apr. 28, 1809; studied from 1826, first theology and then nrcha'ology, at the University of Leydcn, and was appointed first conservator at the Museum of An- tiquities of that city in IS'Mk He was eminently success- ful in gathering together all the archaeological treasures which the city possessed, and arranging them in proper order, and in ls;;i) he was made director of the museum. In 1859 he was furthermore commissioned by the govern- ment to found an ethnographical museum, with which Pie- bold's celebrated Japanese collection was incorporated. Most of Leemans's writings are critical and historical de- scriptions of objects of the museum, but more especially on Egyptian antiquities: among which are his critical edition of the Hicro<jhfphica of Horapollo (1835), and his ^fi^ffjfp- tiftche Monumciitena van het Museum van Andhcdcn te Lev- den (1835-651. Lee'pertown, tp. of Bureau co., 111. Pop. .387. Leer, town of Prussia, in the province of Hanover, on the Leda, near its junction with the Ems. has several sugar- refineries, cotton-weaving and printing establishments, to- bacco manufactories, breweries, distilleries, and a consider- able boat-building business. Pop. 8932. Lee's, tp. of Columbus co., N. C. Pop. 031. Lees (FREnKKKK RirHARi>),h. at Mcanwood Hall, near Leeds, England, Mar. 15, 1815; devoted himself from an early age to the temperance cause, and worked with success both by lectures and writings. He published The Jfefn- phifHics of Ouciiism A^rfl^^-cffr/ -(1838-39), the Hintort/ of Al- cnhol ( 1843), and a Treatise ou Lngicy or thr Method, Menus, and Matter of Argument. In 1845 he started the Truth- Seeher in Literature, Philosophi/, and RcUffion, a periodi- cal which continued for several years. In 1853 he repre- sented the British tcnijierance associations of the N. of Eng- land at the world's tetnperance convention in New York, and in 1800 he was presented with a testimonial of lOOO guineas by the friends of temperance in Great Britain. Lees'burg, post-v. of Plain tp., Kosciusko co.. Ind., on the Cincinnati Wabash and Jlichigan R. R. It has an active trade. Pop. 320. Leesbiirf?, post-v. of Harrison co., Ky. Pop. 144. Leesburg, post-v. of Highland co.,0.. on the Bfarictta and Cincinnati R. R., 64 miles N. E. by E. of Cincinnati. Pop. 508. Lecsbiirg, tp. of Union co., 0. Pop. 1410. Lee.sburg, post-v. and tp., cap. of Loudon co., Va., on the Washington and Ohio R. R., 38 miles N. W. of AVashington, D. C, lies in a fertile agricultural district near the E. base of the Kittoctan Mountain and 3 miles from the Potomiic River: has 6 churches. 1 national bank. 2 hotels, 2 weekly newspapers, 1 male and 1 female semi- nary, several fine schools, a steam saw and planing mill, and the usual number of mercantile and industrial estab- lishments. The streets are well paved and lighted, and the court-house square is a large and beautiful enclosure, laid out with walks and shade trees. There are numerous and nourishing lodges of benevolent societies. The battle- field of "Ball's Bluff" lies 2 miles from the town. Pop. of V. 1144; of tp. 4075. B. F. Shketz. En. "JIirror." Lee'ser flsAAc), b. in Neukireh, Westphalia. Dee. 12. 1806; came to Richmond. Va.. in IS24; was at first engagcil in commerce, but in 1829 beeame rabbi of the jirincipal Jewish synagogue in Philadelphia, and wrote several works relating to Jewish history and doctrine, among which are The Jews and the Mosaic Lair f 1833b Dixroursrtt. Arfjnnienfafire and Devotional (1836). Partutfurse Form if Prai/ers (1837), Descriptive Geotfraphtf of' Pftlr^tine. from the Hebrew of Rabbi .Joseph Schwartz, and a Translation of the Hntt/ Scriptures iO\i\ Testament) /Voni the oriffinnf Hebrew (1853). In 1813 he established a monthly maga- LEE'S MILL— LEFORT. 1711 7.ino. Thr Ocrident anrf Amrn'can Jewinh Advornte; retired from the ministry in ISaO. D. at Philudelphia l\h. 1, 1808. Lee's Mill, tp. of Washington co., N. C. Pop. 1522. Lees'porCy potJt-v. of Ontetaunco tp.. Berks co., Pa., on the E. sjiic of the Schuylkill Kiver, H miles N. of Read- in^'. Its niilruad station (Kcudiug R. K.) is across the river in Rern tp. Lee's Summit, post-v. of Jackson co., Mo., on the Missouri Puritir R. R., 209 miles W. of St. Louis and 2-1 miles S. K. of Kansas City, has li churches. I weekly news- paper. 1 hutel, 1 graded school. 1 grain-elevator, and 20 i>U!<iness-housc.«. It is one of the garden-spots of Missouri. Pop. about lOUO. L. D. Caumklv. Pru. " Ledokb." Leet, tp. of Allegheny co., Pa. Pop. fl29. Leete (William), h. in England early in the seventeenth century: eame to New England in 16;i7j was an early set- tler of New Haven. Conn. ; a founder of the town of Guil- ford in 10:19; was for many years chosen assistant and deputy governor, and was governor of Tonneetieut from Ifitil to 1605. Tie was frequently a couimissioner of the colonies between IGJJ and 1G70; befriended and enter- tained the regicides tJofTe, Whalley, and I>ixwell in Mar., IGCl ; was again chosen governor in 167fi, and annually ro-eleeted until his death, at Hartford Apr. Ifi, 1683. Leeto'nia, post-v. of .'<alem tp., Columbiana co., 0., at the junetion of the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicag<i and (ireat Western R. Rs.. G.> mik-s X. W. of Pittsburg, has j churches, I bunk, 1 weekly newspaper, 3 hotels, numerous stores. 1 rolling and 1 planing mill, 4 blast furnaces, ex- tensive coal-mines and c<»ke-ovens, a nail and bolt mill, boiler-works, a foundry and machine-shop, luraber-yards. and a fine school building. It is situated in a rich farm- iug country, and was incorporated in IS(ii>. Pup. 12(10. W. Hahuv Watson, E». '• Rcpoutku." Leeu'warden, town of the Netlierlands. in the prov- ince of Friesland. It is 10 miles distant from the sea. but in the fourteenth century it lay on the shore of a deep inlet of the sea, wbieh by degrees has been filled with banks of sand and mud and become solid gnumd. The eity is inter- sected by canals, and is neatly built, with many olegnnt houses. Among its educational institutions and scientific societies is particularly notable its society for Frisian his- tory and language. Its trade in cattle, swine, butter, flax, and spirits, and its manufactures of linen and paper, are quite considerable. Pop. 2.'>.4o0. Leeu'wenhoeck, von (Antonh-s), b. at Delft, Neth- erlands. Oct. 21, 1632: went in his sixteenth year to Am- sterdam, and entered a merchant'? office, but returned after the lapse of a few years to his native city, and devoted him- self exclusively to the study of natural science. Ho nianu- faetured Optical instruments, especially microscopes, ancl these he applied with the most brilliant success to his re- searches in physiology. Mis principal discoveries were that of the red' globules of the blood in 16";i, that of the infusorial animalcules in IGT.**, and that of the spermatozoa in 1677. By these discoveries he attraetcil general atten- tion, and established connections with nil learned men anil learned societies of his age, such as Leibnitz, the Royal Society of Iion<lon, and others. His writings were pub- lished partly in book-form at Leyden, partly as erunmuni- cations to scientific journals, Aiift KrwHtn, /'hi/onnphimt. Tratmarttouii, etc., and collected in 1721 in 4 vols, under the title Opera oinnin, ittrc nrcnnn uaturrv ope eraet'imi mo- rum mioroHritpini-um ilricrUt, D. at I)clft Aug. 26, 1723. LeewnnI Islands* See Antillks. LeCrbvre' i I'uANrois .Ioski-ii), dnke of Dantzic, mar- shal of I'raiM-e, b. at RulTacb, Alsace. Oct. 2r>, 17.'*a; enlisted Sept. 10. 177:'', in the French guard, and distinguished him- self greatly by courage and resoluteness on several occa- sions during the Revolution. In 1792 ho was made cap- tain of the 13lh infantry regiment, and his talents now developed v«ry rapidly: in K'.*l he was made a brigadier- general. Having been appoiiit<d commander of the I7lh military division, to which Paris belonged, he supported Napoleon on Nov. 1», 17y'.t, and was made a marshal of Franco at the establishment of the empire. In the war against Prussia he also distinguished himself, especially by the siege and capture of [>ant/.ic (May 26. 1S07). whence be derived his title of duke. Rut his mo.«t brilliant exploit was his campaign in Spain in isOS. He took Rilbao, and defeated the English under Rtake, Nov. 7. In 1814 he commanded the left wing of the army opposing the inva- tion of the allies, but after the abdi«'iitioM of Napoleon he .«ul»niitled to the Rourbons ami was made a peer of France by Louis Will., .lune 4, iNl I. D. at Paris Sept. 14, 1820. lie had twelve sons, who all died before him. I.pfebvre'-nosnouettes' fCnAiif.i^sl. Coint, b. at Paris, France, Sept. II, 1773 ; served in the French army in Belgium under Dumouriez in 1792: was aide de-camp to Napoleon at Marengo: distinguished himself at Auslerlitz ; became brigadier in IS06, and general of division in IS08; began the siege of Sarag'»ssa in S])ain : was taken prisoner by the English ; escaped from England ; took a prominent part in the Austrian (1809), Russian (1812). and (lerman (ISI3) campaigns, and in the defence of France from in- vasion (ISII): was made a peer by Napoleon in isl.'i: fought at Fleurus ancl at Waterloo ; was condemned to death by the royalists, but escaped to the U.S.; joined with Baron Lallemand in the attempt to found a colony of French refugees in Alabama: was in correspondence with Na])oleon for the purpos4' of effecting his rescue from St. Helena, and received 1. 50. 000 francs by the will of that monarch, and while returning to Europe was lost at sea near Kinsale. Ireland. Apr. 22, 1822. Lcicvre (PETr.it Pail), I). H., b. at Roulers, in Bel- gium, Apr. 30, 1804, and educated in Paris; came to the IT. S. in 1828; was ordained a Roman Catholic priest at St. Louis in 1831 : was stationed at New Madrid, Mo., and afterwards became a travelling missionary in the North- west. In 1844 he became bishop of Zela in ptirlibus and coadjutor of Detroit. He was active in the establishuient of charitable, religious, and educational institutions. I>. at Detroit, Mich., Mar. 4, 1869. Leffevre (Tansecii) (commonly known as Tanaquil Faber, from the Latinized form of his name), b. at Caen in ]6ir>; educated at the Jesuit College ut La Fleche, where he devoted himself especially to philosophy and classical lit- erature. Cardinal Richelieu appointed him inspector of the press of the Louvre. After the death of Richelieu his salary was irregularly paid, and he was obliged to sell his library. Having resigned his position, he retired to Langres, afterwards to Prcuilly, where he eml>raceil Protestantism; was soon ofter ajjpointed professor in the Reformed acade- my of Saumur. His works were ehierty annotated editions of the classic authors, r. 7.. of Longinus. ^liau, Lucretius, Horace, Pha^drus, Terence, Anaereon. Sajipho, and several others. He translated also into Latin iambics the Fables 0/ Ltilcmnu (Saumur, 1673), and wrote IVcv des Poetea grcca anil Mi'thude poitv vommcncer hn //iiiiiuuitfs grecquea ct latins. D. Sept. 12, 1672. He left one son and two daugh- ters, one of whom was Madame Dacier. H. Drislku. I.efkosi'a, or Nicosia, the ancient Lriiconia, the cajiital ot Cyprus, and silnatcMl nearly in the midtlle of the island. It is surrounded with walls, and has many inter- esting and elegant buildings, chielly Christian churches transf(»rniccl into mosques. It has some manuiactures of silk, cotton, and leather. Pop. 1S,U00. Le FI6 { AnoLPHK Charlks EMMANrKL),h.at Lesneven, France. Nov. 2. 1S04 : received his military education at St. (^'yr; dislinguished himself at the siege of Ctuistantiue in 1837, and on the expedition against Medeah in 1S4(.I; was made a brigadier-general after the February revolution, and sent as the ambassaclor of the republic to St. Peters- burg, Sept. 7, 1S!S, he was elected a member ot" the Con- stituent .Asseinldy : returned in the lieginning of ISl'.l to Paris, and was at first an adherent of Louis Napoleon, but became later on one of his adversaries. He was one of the members who in Nov., 1851, proposed that the command of the army should rest with the Constituent Assembly. The jiroposition was not adopted, and shortly after the coup ilVfal he was arrested, liy a decree of .Jan. 9, lS.'t2, he was banished, but in 18,'i9 he was permitted to return to France, where he lived in retirement till the fall of Napoleon, Sept., 1870. During the Revolution be became minister of war, and sat as a meniber for Brest in the National Assembly at Bordeaux, but resigned in .June, IS71, his ofliee in the ministry, ami went again to Petersburg as ambassador. In spite ol the high positions whiidi he bos held since 1870, the part he hos played in public life is nevertheless not very important. Arwisr Nikmasn. Le Flore, county of Mississippi, traversed by the nav- igable Ya/<>o River. .Area. 6I.'» square miles. Much of iho surface is subject to overflow, but it is very fertile. It has been formed since the census of 1870. Cap. McNutt. Lefort' (Fran<;ois), b. at (Jcneva in 16.')6, of Scot- tish di'siM-nt, and was early placed in a merchant's ofliee in Hamlnirg. Thence he ran away in his fourteenth >ear, came lo Marseilles, and enlisted in (he Swiss guard in the French ser\ ice. In 1674 he left France on account of a duel: enlercil the service of the Nel lierlands : distin- guished himself at the siege of Audenarde, but, templed by the golden promises of a Russian recruiter, he wintin 1675 through Arcbanjjcl to Moscow, wdiere he first held a position as secretary to the Danish ambassador, and then became a captain in the Russian army. In I6>^2 he became aecjuaintcd with the c7.ar. Peter the (Jreat, at that time only ten years old. He became his teacher, soon also his friend, and after 1712 LEFTWICH— LEGACY. the revolution of KJ.sy, which made Peter the Great sole ruler of Russia, aod in whiidi Lefort had doue the czar great service, his influence became almost unhoundcd. To some extent the whole direction of Poter's remarkable reign was given by Lefort, and his influence can be distinctly traced out in many of the most important military and civil measures which the czar carried through. But ho d. early. Mar. 12, I (V.MI. in consequence of tlio frightful dissipations which formed the czar's daily habits. Lcft'wich (Gen. .TocL),b.in Bedford co..Va..in 1759; was a soldier of the Revolution ; fought at Gcrmanlown and <\imdcn, and was severely wounded at Guilford: com- manded a brigade under Harrison at Fort Meigs in tho war of 1812; bceamo a niajor-gcncral of militia, and was often a member of the Virginia legislature. D. in Bedford co. Apr. 20, ISIG. Ijeg'acy [Lat. leyare, to "bequeath'*], a bequest or gift of pcr.^onal property by will or testament. A lo^'acy is to be distinguished from a devise, which is a gift or cauveyauce by will of real estate. Legacies arc of three kinds — gen- eral, specific, and demonstrative. A legacy is sr.id to bo general when it does not amount to a bequest of any par- ticular portion of, or article belonging to, the personal es- tate of the testator, as distinguished from all others of the same kind. A specific legacy, on the contrary, is a be- quest of specified property, which is particularly desig- nated or described, so as to be definitely distinguished from the rest of the testator's estate. Thus, a bequest of a sum of money, the amount of which is named, is a general legacy, while a bequest of all the money which is contained in a certain box or other particular receptacle is specific. A bequest of a horse, of silver plate of a certain named value, of a library, of clothing, or of any article described iu this in- definite way. would be a general legacy : but a bequest of tho horse in the testator's stable, of all the plate wliich should be in a certain house, of a library which the testator had in a particular mom, of the clothing which ho had worn, etc., would be a specific legacy. If there were a general legacy of a chattel, as of a horse, it would be valid, even though the testator had no property of the sort, and the executor wouhl be obliged, if there were sufficient assets, to procure an article of the kind mentioned, in order to meet the be- quest. But when a legacy is specific, only the particular property designated is to be given to the legatee, and if the testator owned no such property the legacy fails. General legacies are sometimes termed pecuniary legacies, but tho designation is inaccurate, as specific legacies may also bo pecuniary, as the examples already given indicate. A be- quest of money will not, however, be a specific legacy be- cause it is directed to be applied to a specific purpose, as for the purcliasc of particular articles for the legatee. That it may be specific there must be a sufficiently particular description in the will, so that the exact fund shall be given to the legatee or applied to his use which the testator allots to him. A demonstrative legacy is a bequest of a certain amount of money to be paid out of a particular fund; as, for example, a bequest of $J00 payableout of the proceeds of tho sale of certain property. This form of legacy is interme- diate between a general and a specific legacy, and partakes of tho legal characteristics of both. The importance of distinguishing between these various kinds of legacies is principally with reference to the doctrines of abatement and ademption which are applicable to the subject of leg- acies. By (tbnUmeiit is meant a proportional reduction of the bequests to various legatees when there are not sufficient assets to make full payment. It is the duty of an executor umler a will to discharge all the testator's lawful debts be- fire paying the legacies, upon the principle that ''a man must be just before he is generous." All the personal nssits may be applied, if necessary, to the payment of dL-'jt.-. even though property bestowed in specific legacies be used for this purpose. But if there bo any residue after the indebtedness is satisfied, it is to be first applied to the payment of the specific legacies, then the demon- strative legncies are to be satisfied, and finally the general Ieg.acies. If (here bo insufficient assets to satisfy tho legacies in cither of these three classes successively, those in tho same class will be reduced proportionally by the law of abatement. But the specific legacies are to be ])aid, even though other legatees are entirely or partly deprived of a share in the assets. Neither specific nor demonstrative legacies will abate with general legacies, unless the testator particularly directs that certain general legacies shall have jirecedence of those which are specific. In some cases general legacies of a particular character will be preferred to others of the same class. Thus, if there be any valuable consideration for tho testamentary gift, as where a general legacy is given in consideration of n debt owing to the legatee or of the relinquishment of any right or interest, as of her dower by a widow, such legacy will be entitled to a preference of payment over the other gen- eral legacies. After all the general legacies are paid, any residue of assets will puss to the residuary legatee, if one bo named in the will, ami if not will be distributed among the next of kin. (See Ki\, Next or.) A residuary legacy is so termed because it is a gift or allotment of this remain- der by the will to some designated person. General leg- acies are never subject to abatement for the benefit of re- siduary legatees, and are to be paid in full if there are suf- ficient assets, even though they exhaust the entire residue of the ])ersonal estate. Advmpdun is an extinguishment or destruction of a legacy as a result of some change or loss of the property bequeathed, or of its non-existence, or it is the substitution ofsomo other provision for the person named as legatee which is deemed a satisfaction of the legacy. The first part of this definition applies more a])proj>riatGly to specific, the latter to general legacies. Thus, if the sub- ject-matter of a specific legacy were never in the posses- sion of tho testator, or were not owned by him at the time of death, the legacy fa.ils entirely, and the legatee has no claim against the testator's estate. A legacy of this kind is also adeemed when the specific property designated, though it formed a part of the testator's estate at the time of making the will, was subsequently sold or otherwise disposed t»f by him, or so altered by him in form as to change its identity. Thus, if the thing specified were a gold cup, and the testa- tor should have it made into jewelry, or if a piece of cloth wore made into a garment, the gift to the legatee would be extinguished. So if a debt specially bequeathed be received by tho testator, the legacy is adeemed because the subject of it is extinguished. Ademption may also occur as a re- sult of a removal by the testator of the articles bequeathed from one place to another. Thus, if the testator should be- queath all his furniture as being situated in a particular house, and afterwards remove it to another house, the leg- acy would fail. This would not be the case, however, if the goods were removed by reason of a sudden emergency, as to save them from fire, or if tho removal were effected by fraud or without the knowledge or consent of the testator. An ademption may be p.artial, as where a portion of the property bequeathed is found among the assets of the de- ceased, but not the whole. A pledge or mortgage of tho property by the testator is generally held not to occasion an aclemption. In regard to the rule of ademption, demon- strative legacies difl'er from those which are specific. If the fund out of which a demonstrative legacy is to be paid is not in existence at the testator's death, the legatee will have a valid claim for satisfaction out of the general fund of as- sets, and the bequest to him will rank among the general legacies. Demonstrative legacies therefore resemble spe- cific legacies by cot being subject to abatement witli the general bequests, while they are distinguished from them by not being suViject to ademption. The doctrine of ademp- tion is applied iu courts of equity to general legacies when a parent or other person i;i loco panniin {i. c. standing in the place of a parent) bequeaths a legacy to a child or grandchild, and afterwards in his lifetime gives a portion or makes a provision for the same child or grandchild, with- out expressing it to ho in lieu of the legacy. If this portion or jtrovision be etjual to or exceed the amount of the legacy, I»e certain and not merely contingent, and Ite a gift of the same geueral nature as the legacy, it will be deemed a sat- isfaction or extinguishment of the legacy. This is on the ground of the presumed intention on the part of the testa- tor to substitute one portion for another which ho has al- ready made. Legacies are further distinguished as vested or contin- gent. A legacy is said to be vested at the time of the tes- tator's death, when the legatee acquires an absolute present right of present or future enjoyment. It is said to be con- tingent when the right of enjoyment depends upon the happening of some contingency. Thus, a legacy given to a man i/' he reaches the age of twenty-one will not vest until he attains that age: but if it be given to hv pnyahl^ when he becomes twenty-one.it vests at the testator's death. the right being absolute, though the time of enjoyment is deferred. A conditional legacy is a bequest whoso existence depends upon the happening ornot happeningof someuncer- tiiin event by which it is either to take place or be defeated. (See CovniTioN.) A contingent legacy is one form of a condi- tional legacy, the condition being that the legatee shall bo alive at a particular period. (Sec Williams on Exrruforti, ii. 1)0;',.) A cumulative legacy is one additional to a previous leg- acy given in the same will. It is sometimes an important question of construction, in determining the effect of a will, whether a second legocy is intended to be cumulative, so that the legatee is entitled to both, or is merely a repeti- tion of a previous bequest, so that only a single gift is be- queathed. The general rule is that when the testator has not plainly dcclarecj a different intention, two or more legacies of the same article or the same amount of money given to LEGARE— LEGATES. 1713 the sarao person in the same instrument amount to but a fiinglo gift. liut bequests of different artiflrs or of differ- ent amounts of money, or of the oumc amount in diflerent instrument!', \fi\\ he generally considered cunuilutive lega- cies. Other distinctions between legacies are not of suffi- cient importance to require speeifio mention. As a general rule, all cIhsbcs of persons may bo madoleg- ateeji. But in Englan*! and in several of the States of this country it has been provi^led by statute that a legacy given to any subscribing witnees to a will shall bo void. This enactment has been made on account of the danger of permitting a will to bo supportetl by persons who are beneficially interested in its enntmtp. In New York this rule lA mofliliod by the provision that if the witness would have been entitled to a share in the estate in cnse the will was not established, he shall receive so much of this share as does not exceed the value of the legacy. Alien enemies also, nt common law, arc incapable of taking legacies. In England bequests to Ui'es declared by statute to be super- stitious are void; as, for example, to maintain a chautry priest or to pay for the saying of masres for the testator's soul, etc. lint bequests for "charitable uses," as for the endowment of hospitals or the foundation of insititutions of learning, and for like purposes, arc generally favored, and will be deemed valid. IJiiI if such bequests are charged upon land, in opposition to the policy of the statute of 9 Geo. II., ch. 36, they will be void. In the U. *S. the right to make bequests for charitable uses in general exists, unless controlled by statute. (See TnrsTS.) In this way legacies may be given to trustees, though not incorporated for charitable uses. Corporations may take property by bequest, so far as is consistent with the general purposes for which they were formed and the provisions of their charters. The right of a corporation to take personal property by bequest must not bo confounded with the power to take laud by will. (See Will. CottcimATioN.) In New York it is declared that no person, having a husband, wife, child, or parent, shall bequeath to a corporation more than one-half of his personal estate after the payment of his debts. ( In regard to capacity to make a will and convey legacies, see Wii.i.s.) At common law, legacies arc not payable until the ex- piration of a year from the time of the testator's death. This period is allowed to the executor to ascertain the nature and value of the property, to collect the assets, to determine the extent of the testator's indebteclness, to satisfy cliarges agaim^t the estate, etc. In this country, where the subject is frequently regulated by statute, the same limit is generally adopted. As a general rule, inter- est is to be reckonetl uj»on the amount of the legacy, for the benefit of the legatee, from the end of the year when the legacy becomes payable. Itut where the legacy is given in payment of a debt due, it will bear interest from tho death of the testiitor. So when a bequest is given by a parent to his child by way of maintenance, or by a hu.s- i>and to his wife in lieu of dower, interest will run from tho time of death. If a legacy be given to an infant, the ex- ecutor will not be justified, by the rules of comiuon law. in paying it lo the infant, or to tho father or to any other relative of the infant, without the stinction of a court of cquitv. If payment should be made without such snii'-tion to the father or relative, tho exeeutor might be eonipelled to pav the legacy again lo tho infant when he became of age. IJut in Knglaud it is now i»rovidei| by statute that tho execulor may relievo hiiusell from responsilolilv in such a case by paying the legai-y into the Hank of Kugland forthe bonelil of the infant. In this country it is sometimes provided by statute that legacies to a minor, if not of greater value than a certain specified sum, may bo paid to the father for the minor's use. Such a statute exists in New York when the bequest is of less value than $J0. When it is of greater value, there are provisions for its j)ayinent to the general guardian or for its investment. A legacy given to a married woman must at common law be paid to the husband, unless it be given for the wife's sepa- rate use. This is true, oven though the husband and wife are <livorccd n mrititn rt thorn. Itut courts of equity may compel a husband, on receiving a legacy given to bis wife, to make a suitable provision for her support. I'ntil such support is provided tho executor may deelJno to pay him tho legacy. In a number of the U. S. it is providcl by statute that married women may take property l»y bequest in the sauio way as if they wen* single. Legacies given to one person in trust for another should regularly be paid to tho trustee. When a legacy is bequeathed by a lenfator to his ere<iilor, it is a general rule in equity that it is to bo deemed as given with a view to tho satisCai'tion of the debt, if the bequoflt he equal to or greater than the amount of tho debt. This rule, however, is not favored, an<l will not bo applied except un<Ier these special eireunistancos, and when the legacy is of the same general nature as the debt. Vol.. U.— 108 It is a general principle applicable to all legacies that tho legatee does not become fully entitled to the bequest, so as to obtain a right of action in a court of law, until the as- sent of the executor is obtained. lie cannot, accordingly, take possession of the legacy without such assent, and if ho does, may bo sued by the executor, who may recover the value of tho property. The assent of tho executor may bo express or it may bo implied ; as, c.7.. where he acquiesces in tho taking of the property by the legatee. This rule, however, does not affect tlie right of a legatee to proceed to recover his legacy before a court of equity or a probate court. It sometimes happens in the administration of estates that legacies are paid by executors before all the debts aro satisfied. Debts may subsequently be proved of which tho executor had no knowledge, ancl if there are no assets re- maining to discharge them, he may bring a suit in equity to compel the legatees to refund to an amount equalto this indebtedness if ho acted prudently in paying the legacies. The residuary legatee would first be compelled to refund, and next the' general legatees. They would refund pro- portionally so far as was necessary to satisfy the debt. So if one legatee received full payment of his share, and it afterwards appeared that there was an original deficiency of assets to pay all tho legacies in full, the other legatees may compel him to refund, so that all in the same class mav receive ])roportionaI amounts upon their respective shares. This wouM not be tho case, however, if tho insuf- ficiency of assets wero attributable to the negiigence, de- fault, or misconduct of the executor, and the executor would himself be solely liable to make up the deficiency. If thero bo a ci)utiugent claim against the testator's estate, the ex- ecutor may retain the assets from the legatees, if necessary, to meet the demand when the contingency occurs. If, how- ever, the legatee offers to indemnify tho executor against the future claim, the indemnity must be accepted and tho legacy paid over. If payment be mudc without requiring a bond of indemnity, the executor will be liable for the satis- faction of the demand, when it becomes due. out of his own estate. But it is frequently provided by statute in tho States of this country that claims against the estate of a deceased person must be presented within a short period after the issue ofletters testamentary, if the executor give duo notice of his appointment. The effect of such a notice varies in the different States. The statutes must be consulted. .Turisdietion in regard to legacies is vested in general either in probate courts or in courts of equity. Tho juris- diction in equity, independent of statute, is exclusive where the bequest invidves the execution of trusts charged upon land, or whore remedies of a peculiarly equitable nature aro i sought. No suit will be maintainable in a court of law, as has been seen, to recover a legacy unless it has been as- sented to by the executor. But in all cases where actions at law may bo brought upon legacies tho jurisdiction of equity is concurrent. (Kor tho rules of law in regard to lnp»Al leijfjr'tvH, SCO the article hiPSK. In regard to tho in- terpretation of bequests, sec Inti:iiphktation and Con- STRicTiov. See also Wii.i.s, KxKri'xon. The following treatises may bo consulted on this subject: Williams on Exerutoi»: .Farnian on Wiffx; Ue<lfield on ]yill»: Roper on Leijaeiet; lledfielil on the //'fir nii-l I'ro'ticr nf SurrntffttcH* CottrtH.) llr.oitcK Cmasi:. Kkviskd kv T. W. Dwhjiit. Lcgnr6 (llufiii S\vi\TON),b. in Charleston, S. C, Jan. 2, 17'J7 ; educated at Ucv. Dr. Moses Waddell's famous Willing- ton School ; graduated at the C'ullego <tf South Carolina at Columbia in 1811 ; went to Kurope to further prosecute bis studies, eiiiefly law and literature: returned in 1S20, and practised law in Charleston. In ls;(0 he was honored with the oflico of attorney-general of the State, and at the saino time had charge cjf the .S'ofW/icrfi Qnttitnlt/ AVriMf, published at Charleston, of which periodical he was chief editor, and by the contributions of his pen elevated It to the first rank of publications of its character in the V. S. In 1S;!2 ho was charge d'affaires from the U.S. to lielgium, an«i from 1S37 to 1S;!'J was member of Congress from South Carolina; iu lS41-i;i filled the office of attorney-general of tho U. S., and also part of the time was acting secretary of slate. D. smldenly at Boston, Mass., June 10, iSlli, where he bad gone in comjtany with the President to attend the UuiikLr Hill celebration. His fine taste as a writer, his eminent acquirements as a scholar, ami his learning and eloquence as a lawyer, were known and appreciated throughout tho Union. His writings wero collected and published in IS 16 in 2 vols. Svo.— His sister, Mauv Swinton liK(;Aitii (Mrs. Bullen), b. about iSOt), attained considerable success as a painter. She removed in 1M19 to West Poiiil. Leo co., la., whoro she founded and endowed Logar<5 College for women. A. H. Stki'IIKNS. I»CK'ntt»j» and Lei^atioil* The Latin word /^-yo^iffwas used of persons commissioned or acting as delegates, and 1714 LEGATO— LEGEND. especially of ambassruiors, of adjutants or deputy com- inantlertj of an army usually appointed by the senate, occa- sionally by commanders themselves, and of (he emperor's provincial governors. In international law *' legation " denotes erabussy. the right of legation, the right to send an ambassador, or the whole subjeet of the nature nnd powers of public envoys : nnd '* legate." the envoy or minister him- gclf, Tht' popes, borrowing the word from the old Roman state, called their principal envoys to the Catholic nations legates a or tie latere. Those were cardinal?, but nuncios (from inintim, a "messenger," an '* envoy ") were not, and thus were a lower grade of papal envoys. T. D. Woolsey. Lega'to [It.], in music, a graceful movement in which the notes are connected by a uniform and gliding motion. Lc'gend [L:it. Irtfrndtan, from ler/rrc. to *' read "] np- poiirs to have been originally applied in the ecclesiastical dialect to portions of Scripture, and at a later period also to other writings of religious instructioTi or edification, .Tp- pointed to be not chanted, intoned, or recited, but nod in church services, and it therefore nearly eorrespondecl in signification to the modern h^'ioii. In the authorized bre- ^'iarics used in the Romish Church the term Ircttu is now ap- ]ilitd alike to extracts from Scripture ami to lives of saints of post-apostolic ages, which are introduceci into the church services in precisely the same way. The primitive Christian community consisted of two classes of persons — the ordi- nary or secular clergy, whether parochial or missionary ; and the laity or people. The Scriptures, including many books now regarded by all sects as apocryphal, together with exegetical and doctrinal essays and narratives of the lives and deaths of saints, sufficed for the instruction of both elasjcs alike. But besides the clergy and the laity there were, in the earliest ages of the Christian Church, as in most other Oriental religions, a certain number of anchor- ites or hermits living in seclusion not only from the pro- fane world, but from each other, who do not, however, ap- pear to have been usually consecrated to a religious life by clerical ordination, but self-devoted to mortitication of the passions, penance, and ascetic exercises. When these re- oluses became sufficiently numerous to attract attention as a peculiar class, they acquired the name of monitchi (Gr. lAovos, *' single " or '* alone "), whence our word monk. For the sake of mutual suitervision and discipline, and for greater security from persecution and disturbance, the monks grail ually abandoned their individual solitudes, gathered together in small communities, and became co-ao- biif.e, or *' livers-in-common " (Ur. koivo^, pio?), dwelling apart from the world, at first in desert retreats, and after- wards in cloisters or habitations in which each had his separate cell for repose and private discipline and medita- tion. A new literature, designed primarily for the instruc- tion of persons thus severed from the general body of the faithful and devoted to a religious life, sprang up, and this literature was greatly enlarged in extent and modified in character after the establishment of regular orders or mon- astic institutions organized each under its own special rules, and recognized by the Church as permanent bodies corporate. This is the literature of the hfjcud, the signifi- cation of which term was gradually changed, and the com- positions emliraecd under it vari<iusly named according to their ditfereut purposes and character. Thus, there were the lectionen, collectively legendariunt, lectiouarium, or li'bcr Icctionariiie, consisting of lives of saints and confessors, read at their festivals, and ;>r/j?»ro«e«, collectively ;jaM/ojif(/»? or librr pnHHtoualig, containing the passions of martyrs, read on the anniversary of their deaths. This latter term was sometimes applied exclusively to histories of the pas- sion of the Saviour. There were also numerous treatises on cU'in or monastic life — such, for example, as the old Eng- lish Aiifrrn liiirle for the instruction of nuns — which, though not now called legends, were sometimes included in that designation, because, like religious narratives, they were read aloud to the monks and nuns assembled for re- fection :in<l on other special occasions. The nomenclature of all this literature is somewhat confused. The distinc- tions between its branches, which do not seem to have ever been very sharply marked, gradually become obsolete in common usage, and centuries before the invention of print- ing "legend " liad come to signify any religious narrative not taken direetly from the Old or New Testament, even if not designed for ]>ublic reading, but rather for private study ; and it was applied indiscriminately both to prose and to poetic compositions. There is, indeed, no critical distinc- tion between the prose and the poetic legend, except in literary form, and it may be added that many mediocval narratives usually ranked with romances of chivalry — the ff'di/ (ii-nil, for example — areas truly religious in spirit anil historic in character as most of the ecclesiastically accepted legends of the same period. Very many legends exist in both forms, but the Church does not favor verse except when employed for strictly devotional purposes, as hymns* and the like, and therefore the authorized legeudarics em- braced prose narratives alone. As a general rule — subject, indeed, to some few excep- tions — it may be said that even the most credible legendary annals now extant were not the work of eye-witnesses to the events they describe, or even of contemporary writers, but were compiled from popular narratives orally handed down, or from other sources now quite unknown, lleriee, upon the whole, we cannot perhaps better deline the legend of the Romish and other churches than as a |)rofessed his- tory of sacred persons or niiraeuluus events founded ujion tradition, but practically or formally recognized by the Church as authentic, and entitled, if not to be received as matter of faith, at least to reverence. Legends are, therefore, to the churches which accept them what mythol- ogy was to the old ]>agau, and still is to mauy non-Chris- tian religions. At the first awakening of the spirit of historical criticism the palpably unhistorical character of the religious legends, and the intrinsic improbability, not to_ say absurdity, of very many of them, threw a shade of suspieiun which soon ripened into utter discredit on this whole branch of eccle- siastical literature, and the term "legend" acquired the signification of superstitious tale or fictitious narrative, the adjective "legendary," that of fabulous, imaginary, or at best traditional. At present these words are frequently applied to the fragmentary annals and fantastic tales which make up the body of unwritten popular literature, ur what is called the folk-lore, of European and Oriental na- tions. These latter legends are too diversified in origin and critical character to be considered under a single head, and for notices of them we refer to titles Faihy and Folk- lore, confining ourselves in the presmt article to the relig- ious legends of early and mediaeval Christianity and of the modern Romish Church. Apart from the few well-authenticated ancient ecclesias- tical annals which have come down to us, the oldest extant legends which can with any confidence be affirmed to bo genuine — that is, not spurious, however little entitled to credit — are some of the sketches of hermit-life in the Vilx Patrum, which are referred, with reasonable probability, to known authors, though other parts of that collection are certainly later fabrications. The old Roman martyrologies, though often ranked among legends, and truly legendary or unhis*t<tric in character, arc catalogues rather than nar- ratives. They were condemned by some of the early popes, and even by Gregory I., notwithstanding his appetite for the marvellous, as of totally unknown origin and unworthy of credit ; and they may safely be rejected as of no histor- ical authority whatever. The legends accepted by the early Church very generally have monks and monastic life for their subject and their object. Tliey were composed for the purpose of holding up that life as the true Christian ideal, the type for the imitation of the aspirant to sanetifi- cation, and of guiding the votary to perfection in the real- ization of it. They were not intended for the world, but for those who had retired from it, or who were preparing to renounce it. Hence, in them the monkish virtues alone, not the social, are exemplified and exalted. In short, they were professitmal. not popular, didactic writings. Though the personal authorship of most old legends is unknown, they were evidently in general the work of monks, to whom the retirement and leisure of monastic life gave both op- portunity and encouragement for this species of literary oeeu])ation. In their departures fioni historical fact they were by no means always intended to be received as true, and therefore to deceive, though numbers of the most ex- travagant have been accejiled by the Church as authentic. Thev were sometimes, doubtless, honest statements of what was believed to be the literal truth, sometimes mere literary cxercitations, and sometimes religious romances exhiliiting the writer's spiritual ideal in the form of an imaginary history. Writers actuated by these various motives would naturally take their images and illustrations from the roost convenient sources. Hence heathen divinities, demigode, and heroes figure in them under various Christian disguises, and the legend of Barhiam and Josuphat, who to this day retain a place as saints in the Romish calendar, has been unequivocally traced to a Sanskrit religious nimanee as its (uiginal. nnd* its heroes identified with Sakya-Muni, the founder of Rooddhism, and one of his disciples. The early legends are often rich in poetical imagery, nnd even thought, and distinguished by an apparent truth of local color and an air of probability scarcely inferior to that of De Foe's apparition of Mrs. Veal. They are therefore of value as illustrations of contemporary life and opinion, notwith- standing the uncertainty of the periods to which they be- long and of the extent to which they have been disfigured by later recensions. But with the growth of the temporal power of the LEG EN DRE— LEGG ETT. 1715 Church, and more especially with the increasing influence of monastic corporation?, the aim and character of the le- gend underwent an important clian<;e. Jlonachism had diverged mure and more from the tyjiical form of ordinary social life, and given birtli to new and special interests pe- culiar to large, opulent, and powerful bodies of mcu, prac- tically inilepeniient of the civil power, living in ii^olation from the pursuits and cares, the duties, the hopes, and fears of common humanity, and constituting; a third estate which aimed at ostaldishing a supremacy over the other two. For this new institution and its objects new instrumentalities were required, and the legend, as modified and adapted to a new public and to new purposes, became <»ne of the most efficient of these. Legends began to be addressed not only to the regular but to the parochial clergy and to the laity, whom the dawn of intelligence which preceded the revival of classical learning was rend«-ring accessible to literary influences. The simplicity and true-hcarlcdncss which, in spite of exaggeration and absurdity, make them attract- ive even in an age of culture and religiiius light, disappeared. They became what the (Jeruians call 'J'niileiizrnmniie — tales designed for the diffusion and inculcation of particular doc- trines or maxims, the catch-words or symbols of this or that party in the Church, and more especially for the glorification of particular religious orders, in whose hands Ihcy arc at this ilay among the most potent means of action on the un- reasoning classes which unhappily form a large proportion of the highest as well as the lowest circles in modern society. Under the influence of the Reformation the legends of the Church were superseded by translations of the Scrip- tures in the popular reading of Protestant countries, and their circulation was much diminished even in those which continued to adhere to the Cliureh of Home. In the Catli- olic reaction which followed the triumphs of the Kel'orniers strenuous and Buccessful cfi"or(s wore made to rehabilitate the old legendary literature by remodelling the ancient traditions through discreet omissions and the infusion of new elements into their comiiositiou, and to strengthen its influence by reports of modern miracles duly authenticated by ecclesiastical authority. These endeavors have been stimulated to new activity in the present generation, and in no age have su]>ernatural wonders been more abundant, in no age have holder experiments on popular credulity been tried, in none have more determined eflbrts been made to eliiuinato the spiritual and magnify the material clement in religion, than in our own. The legends which have Ijcen rewritten or composed within the last three centuries, and es- pecially in the present, are almost uniformly destitute of all merit except those of style and dexterous adaptation to pur- pose, and have rarely any literary or liislorical interest, un- less as monuments of the aberrations of the human intellect. A niicstion of great and growing importance to the doc- trine, the discipline, and the ethics, theoretical and prac- tical, of the churches and peoples who accept religious legenils is. Whether and to what extent they are binding on the faith of believers? This question has been inei- di'nlally much discussed in reference to legends connected with the lives ami miracles of modern saints in treatises on canonization, which rite bears u|ion it in this way : The evidence of miracles wrought on the intercession of the candidate is submitted to a board of cardinals specially named for the occasion, and reported on to the iiontifl', who finally adjudges upim its suflieieney, and in the aflirmative case pronounces the alleged fads established, and decrees the enrollment of the new saint upon the calendar. The whole inciuiry is in the nature of a judicial proceeding, and it conforms so closely to the forensic practice of civil tri- bunals that coimsel are heard for and against the claims of the aspirant, the opposing counsel being complimented with the title of tirlvurnliiit ili'dlinl:, " tho dcvil's iidvoeiile." Now. if the ]iopc is to be considered as acting c.r rallnili/l in rendering sentence, then his judgment is infallible, and of course belief in the evidence on which that judgment is founded becomes obligatory. I'pon the character of the pontiff's action in this ease the wei'.;h( of the numerous au- thorities citeil bv licncdict XIV., />'■ Srrronim llr! Cniiniii- zatioiic (sec I'ra'to ed. of 18:i«. lib. i. cap. I'.', 4.1. 41, 4,'ii, is dcciiledly in support of its infallibility, and tho personal opinion of Benedict himself. Iliough he does not give a formal decision upon it. is evidenlly ravoral)le to that doc- trine. In many cases, indeeil, if not in all— as. for example, in that of the canonization of tho saints Isidore, Ignatius Loyola, Francis Xavier, Teresa il ,Icsu, and Filippo Neri, by llregory XV. — the decree expressly recites that the pope Dirltin Sumine innltnclun, e.r nllinnimil liiir Chrlnlianir mipi- eiilln- Vathftlrd qunm dlriuir rrrllnlil (irnrnliim Driin ijiMc confliluil, . . . dreernll, etc. etc. Here tho assertion of in- fallibility is unequivocally implied. The literature of the legend is of vast extent. The most conspicuous collections are the Vilrr- f^tilntw, tlr Vil/l rt Verbis Scniorum, ecu IliHoria Ercmilica (best edition, that of Rosweyde, 1 vol. fob, Antwerp, 162S); the Leijeiidn Aurmi, or /liKtnn'ii Lumbardicn, compiled by Jacobus de Voragine in tho thirteenth century, and first printed in 1470, perhaps the most widely circulated and at the same time intrinsically among the most worthless of all: the Flos Sanctorum of the .lesuit Kibadineira, commonly known as the GiHcrril f,r,/,iid (first published in Spanish in 2 vols, fob, Madrid. l.'ili'.i-KilO) : this has been augmented by sup- plements, and printed in many languages and in hundreds of editions, and is the source from which most smaller col- lections of legends have been drawn : anil, linally. the Acin Sanctorum, edited by a .Jesuit association known as the Bollandists, from the name of its founder. Of this vast collection, begun in IGUI. about 60 folio vols, have appcareil, ancl it will pr<ibal>Iy extend lo lOl). Tiiero is, moreover, an immense number of legends of inilividual saiuts, and espe- cially of the Virgin Mary. Of these the most extensively known is the Gturic dl Maria of Liguori ( 1st ed. 2 vols. Svo, Venice, 17S4). One of the most remarkable is the Portu- guese Santuariu Marian"{'iU 10 vols. 4to, Lisbon, 170y-2;i), containing tlic legends of more than 2000 miraculous images of the A'irgin in tho Peninsular possessions of Portugal alone. (On this whole subject consult Maury, Let Li'jcudcs jiieuscs du Mcijat Atjc (ISI"): Milman, History of Latin Chritlianiti/i-Uh cd., 1807); and hec^y. History uf Ration- alism in Europe (4th cd., 1870).) Gt:onGE P. M.iiisn. tegendre' (.\nniEN-MAUir,), h. in Paris in 17j2 ; d. at his suburban residence Auteuil .lan.'J, 1833. A inalheuia- tician who. says Prof. Nichol. " would have been ut the head of the most illustrious school of modern Europe, had he not possessed as compeers Lagrange and Laijlaee." He early distinguished himself as a successful teacher of mathe- matics in the military school at Paris, and before atluiuing the age of thirty made his d^but in the world of science by one of his finest memoirs — tliat on The Attraction of Sphe- roids — by which he gained admission to the Academy of Sciences (1783). His equally imjiortant investigations of tho Figure o/'tlic Fiancts, considered as made of spheroidal strata whether homogeneous or otherwise, soon followed, and in LSOo his Xcw Method for deterinininffthe Orbits of Comets. Itis Elements of Geometry has been translated into all lan- guages, and has become a classic in that species of liter- ature, lie assisted Dc Prony in tiio calculation of his great logarithmic tables : invented tho rule of the least st/utfres of errors; was author of a work, the Exercices sur le Cafcul integral, and of researches on the Eulerian integrals; both of which woro subsequently developed into tho great work of his life — the Trait/- dcs Fonetiona rllipti<fU€9. A funeral discourse was ]>ronounced by Poisson in which he says: "In common with the geometers who have jne- ceded* him, the labors of Legcndro ended only with his lile. . . . Only a short lime jireeediug his death he procured tho most recent ol>scrvations (»f comets of short ])crinds, for tho purjioso of applying and ]ierfccling his methods. . . . The hist(jry of seieiu-c (dicrs nuiny such examples. At an ago nearly equal to tliat which Lc!;:cndro attained, Lagrange died while publishing an enlargqd second edition of his Mecunii/ue Analyiii/uc; Laplace in finishing the 5lh vol- ume of tho Mtcani'jnc Celeste; Euicr while finishing an in- vestigation of the ascensional fo:-cc of balloons." (.Ste Memorial Eneye. of Bailly de Merlicu.K ; and Vcrhulst. I)ct Fonetiiais ellijjti<iucs, ) Legeudro, though inferior in range and power of intillect to cither of his three great contemporaries — Lapbiee, La- grange, and Kuler — was nevcrlbeless only int\'rior to lluui : and was one of that age who most jiowerfully coutriloitcd to the advancement of mathematieat science. According to Prof. Forbes, he was the first to imagine and employ those artifices of calculation known usually by the name of " Laplace's functions." \Vhen towards the close (d' his life the discoveries hy .\bel and Jacobi of the ivct//^ distinc- tive characteristic of elliptic functions — their periodicity — gave an nnbioke<l-for extension ond generalization to the applications (d'lhese functions, he welcomed them with a liberality (says I*rof. Fiu'bcs) 'Mvorthy of all commendii- tion." Legcndrc's life, spent in pri\'oey and strcnnons de^ votion to science, was uneventful. (Consult Vcrhulst, su- pra, and Hriot and Bouquet, Th/orie des Fonetions double- mcnt jn'rioditjues.) .1. U. Bahsahh. li^K^rt'incnt [Fr.], in music, a term indicating a gay, light, and airy nio\'cment. Le <;ott, Ip. of Marion co., S. C. Pop. \M'>:>. Lcg'geU (.MouTiMKU I).), b. at Ithaca, .\. V.. A|>r. 19, 18:11: removeil lo Ohio in 1817: stmlied law; praeliscd, and was superintendent of schools at Zauesville in 1801, when he raised the 78th Ohio Infantry, of which he was appointed colonel in .Ian.. 18tJ2, ami which he led at Fort Donelson, Piltsfiurgh Laniling. and t'oiintb ; eouinianded at the capture of .Inckson, 'I'enn. : ilelended Ilolivar. Ti nn.. against a largely superior force: appointed brigadier-pen- 1716 LEGGETT— LEGUMINE. era! of voluuteere Nov. 29, 1S62; was severely wounded at ChiimpiuD Hills, aud again before Vickaburg: was iu the Atlanta campaign ; commanded a divi^iun in Sherinan'a march to the stu : brevetted major-gencrul for this latter campaign, he wns iu Aug., 1 S75, promoteil to be full major- gu'iu^ral, which office he resigned the following mouth, and was appointed commissioner of patents Jan. i'.), 1S71. Leggett (William), b. in New York City in 1S02 ; grad- uated at (Teorgotr)wn College in 1822 ; was midshii)nian in V. S. navy from 1822 to 1820; published in 1823 a volume of poems, Lrinure Hours at Sea ; wrote for the Mirror his T'llfi />!/ ft Country Svhon/mnster, and established the Critic, a weekly newspaper, in 1S2.S; was associated with W. C. Ilryant in the editorship of the Eieninfj Pont from 1829 to 1S;!5: edited the I'iitin Denfcr in ISIiG; was appointed iu 18J19 diplomatic agent to (Juatoinala. but before going to his post d. suddenly at New Rochelle, N. Y., Jlay 29, 1839. Two volumes of bis political essays were published by Theo- dore Sedgwick, Jr., in 1840. Legg's, tp. of Limestone co., Ala. Pop. 121G. Leg'horn [It. Ai'i-orno], a large maritime town in Cen- tral Italy, in the province of Leghorn, lat. 4.S° 32' N., Ion. 111° is' E. It stauils on a tongue of land between the mouth of the Calambrouo on the N. and the lowest spur of the Tus- can Apennines on the ^^., 62 miles W. S. W. of Florence and 12 miles S. S. W.of Pisa. A navigable canal connects it with the Arno, which enters the sea 7 miles N. of the town, and smaller canals int('r>;ect it in various directions. There are two harbors, the old and the new, the latter — S. of the fi»r- mer and overlooked by the largo lighthouse — being capable of receiving vessels of heavy tonnage, and even ships of war. More than 11,000 ships of various sizes entereil the harbor in 1873, the import and export trade of that year amounting to above $35,000,000. The import trade em- braces cotton, wool, cutlery, hardware, etc.. and colonial products generally. The export trade is in silks, straw hats, borax, coral, and many of its own manufactures. These are very extensive, and consist of oil. soap, tobacco, salt, etc. The port of Leghorn was for a long time free, except for government monopolies, but since 1807 it no longer enjoys special privileges. Notwithstanding this change, the port of Leghorn is one of the most frequcDted in the Mediterranean, and the commerce and general pros- perity of the town are constantly increasing; fine public and private buildings are being erected: facilities for com- munication between its different quarters are multiplying; its suburbs are being extended and embellished: and it is every year more and more resorted to as a fashionable bathing-place. The churches and ])ublie edifices generally are very respectable, and the Jewish synagogue is the sec- ond in Europe in size and richness. The monument to Ferdinand I., near the port, is a work of merit, without being pleasing. The aqueduct and great reservoir which supply the city with water are remarkable constructions. The first notices of Leghorn arc of the ninth century, and relate to the building of a church there, but it had little importance for a long time. At the close of the fourteenth century we find it under the protection of the French king, who in 1407 sold it and its territory to Genoa for 26.0(10 gold ducats. Genoa ceded it in 1421 to Florence for 100.000 gold florins, and this republic, aware of the value of her new possession, spared no pains to increase its prosperity. Under the Medici the harbor was improved, the fortifications wore strengthened, and exceptional privileges an<l immu- nities granted to the inhabitants; religious toleration was also established, so that merchants of all nations flocked thither. Towards the end of the last century Leghorn fell into the hands of the French, who impoverished it by forced contributions and forced loans, from which it recovered but slowly. The population, consisting of various nationalities, was in 1ST4, 97,096, among whom were 8000 Jews. l4e'gion [Lat. tegin, from hrfcre, to "gather," "col- lect"], a military organization of the ancient Romans, com- bioing all the constituent elements of an army, and num- bering from about 3000 to about 6000 men. Originally, service in the legiou was a privilege reservetl to the Roniau citizen of property, the slaves, prohtarii (more children- begetters), etc., being excluded from its ranks, and the al- lied forces being separately organized under the distinctive denominations »orii and nuxilia ; but the distinction be- tween the Borii and R-mmni disappeared when all the Ital- ian states were admitted to full citizenship with the native Romans, and un<ler the exigencies of the civil war all : classes were enrolled in the legions, and the employment of mercenary soldiers became common. The horse and , foot of the legion have already been described (see Cav- ! Atnv and Infantry), the artillery seems to have had no j distinctive ptrnonnef, and the prototyjn's of the modern , "staff departments" have not been minutely described. In imitation of the Romans the armies of France in 1534 | and li)J7 were organized into legions, and in 1792 our own army was officially designated as '* the legion of the V. S.," tlio infantry regiments were styled "sub-legions,"' and the major and brigadier general were called respec- tively the legionary and sub-legiouary general ; hut in neither of these cases was the resemblance to the original organization more than nominal. Robert N. Scott. Legion of Uoiior^ Order of the, a French order of merit instituted May 9, 1>U2 (I'J Floreal, an Id), by the First Consul, Napoleon Bonaparte. The order has received several modificatitnis since then. It consists of several ranks — viz. grand officers, grand crosses, commanders, and knights. Its distinctions are conferred for civil, but more especially for military achievements. The order pofgesses considerable wealth, of which the proceeds are paid out in pensions to wounded and disabled members and gome oth- ers. Their house at Paris was burned by the Communists May 24, 1871. Legna'go, town of N. Italy, in the province of Verona, on the Adige and on the high-road between Mantua and Padua, about 23 miles S. E. from the city of Verona. This town has much strategic importance, and formed one of the four angles, though not the atrongcst, of the famous qiiadri/dtrral. Pop. in 1874, 13,355. Legna^no, town in N. Italy, in the province of Milan, about 17 miles N. W. of the city of Milan. It contains some interesting churches, and, among other fine pictures, an io- valuablo one by Luini. Pop. in 1874, 6685. Legouv^f the name of two French |)oets of some note. — Gabkiel Marie Jean Baptiste, b. at Paris June 23. 1764, and d. there, insane. Aug. 30, 1812. He wrote tragedies, of which Epirharis et X^ron (1794) made a great sensation on account of Talma's performance of Noru and the allusions of the part to Robespierre : and elegies, of which Lc Mirite de« I'cmmea (1800) proved a great success. Legouve (Gabrie!- Ernest Wilfrid), sod of the pre- ceding, b. at Paris Feb. 14, 1807, made his debut in lite- rature with a poem, Deronvertc dc V Imprimerie (1827), for which he received a prize of the Academy; wrote, in company with Scribe. Adricnne Lecmivrcur (1849), Lea Cuutes de la rdnc dc Navarre (1850), Bataille den lJame» (1851), and Lc8 Doi,ftM de Ffe (1858). His tragedy. Mrd^e, in which M.ademoiselle Rachel refused to play, though the refusal cost her a fine of 5000 francs, was translated into Italian, and performed with great success by Madame Ristori. He is also the author of the Higtoirc mora/e den Femmca (1848), which made a success similar to that of his father's poem. Lc Grand, post-v. and tp. of Marshall co., la., on tho Chicago and North-western R. R. (Iowa division). Pop. 1537. Legu'mine [Lat. Ugumeny "pulse"]. This is one of the vegetable protcida, or, as they are sometimes called, albuminoids. (Sec article Albi'minoids, by Piiof. Chand- ler.) It is so extremely similar in its chemical properties and composition to animal cascine, the substance of cheese — that is, of curd of milk — that several distinguished chemists, among them Liebig and Braconuot. have been unable to find any difference, and concluded that they were identical. Other equally distinguished analysts, however, I>nmas and Cahours, have maintained that there is an ap- preciable ditTerence in composition and in chemical nature. Whether the vegetable caseine, plant curd, or Icguinine passes directly, iu solution through tlie blood, into the milk of lactiferous mammals, is a question to be worked out by physiological chemists. Leguminc occurs extensively throughout the vegetable kingdom, but is more especially found in various kinds of seeds and nuts. It derives its name from the fact that, with starch, it makes up almost the whole substance of the seeds of leguminous plants, such as peas and beans. Hence, the powerfully nutritious character of these as food — that is, for those ]»osses5cd of powerful digestion, for vegetable cascine is far from being as readily soluble in the gastric liquids as animal caseine or curd of milk. Peas and beans contain about one-quar- ter of their weight of this plant-curd, and are comparable, therefore, so far as richness in nitrogen is concerned, to eggs or to milk when condensed. Ordinary cow's milk, ac- cortling to the highest determinations on record, contains nttt more than 5^ per cent, of dry cascine by weight; wo- man's milk contains less than 4 per cent. One remarkable point connected with the chemical com- position of legumine is a large proportion of phoFphorus in organic forms of combination. Voelcker found in legurnine precipitated from its solutions by acetic acid, and thus freed from all mineral matters, from l.SS to 2. IS per cent, of ab- solute phosphorus. The believers in the virtues of phos- phurettcd foods as uerve and irain nourishers should by this have their attention directed to leguminous aliments. LEGl'MINOS^E— LEIBNITZ. 1717 Lei^umino was prepared in pure state by Duinaa nnd ('ahours from milk of sweet almonds. Tht-v are bruised, S'liikc'l in warm water for Ihreo hours, cnij'lied to pulp, and an equal «ei^,'hl olould water added. In an hour ibe mass U pressed ilirou-jh a clotli. The liquid deposits its starch, and is then filtered. Acetic acid (avoiding excess) now precipitates or curdles the legumine as a white coagulum or curd, which is washed on a filter with water, then with alcohol, dried, pulverized, and treated with other to remove fatty substances. It is more difficult to obtain the vegeta- ble curd pure from beans, ns these contain mucilaginous matters which render the filtration troublesome. This might probably be overcome, however, by some experiment, should it be desirable to obtain eheaply a concentrated " brain- food." Tlie legumine thus prepared is stated by other chemists still to retain in a<ltni.\ture some albumen, to sep- arate which requires re-solution in ammonia and re-pre- cipitation with acetic acid. H. Wi'rtz. Legumino's.x [Lat. l^'jumm, a "pod"], or Fabaceie [Lat, f'lhit, a '* bean "]. a large and must important natural order of plants, equalled by no other of the dicotyledonous clas>>. except, possibly, by the related order Rosacea;. Its distinguishing marks are the p;ipiIionaceous corolla and the legume (i. (?. a solitary and simple 2-valved pod, of which the pea-pod is a familiar representative), along with alternate leaves furnished with stipules. Vet no one of these oharactera is without exception, and the papilioaa- oeous belongs to only one of the three great Bub-orders, one of which, the Mimose;i?, has wholly regular flowers. Among the food-plants of (ho order, beans, pease, and clo- ver, also peanuts, are the most important representatives. But there are also many poisonous or very active plants or pro.lucts. among which the Calabar or ordeal bean, now turned to useful account in medicine, is remarkable, inas- much as the plant is nearly related to the common bean. Moreover, both in Australia and California plants of the pulse family, which would be supposed to be innocent and nutritious, prove to be sheep-poisons. Among plants or products of the order with active properties, senna, indigo, copaiva, tolu, kino, and catechu may be specified. Other drugs and dyes of large use are gum-aral)ic, tragacanth, liquorice, copaiba, tolu, tamarinds, sanders-wood. logwood, Brazil-wood, etc. Among timber trees, the locust and rose- wood. Asa Gray. IjChf city of Central Asia, capital of the kingdom of Ludakh.'is situated in lat. ."1° 8' N.. Ion. 77° 40' K., in a valley of the Himalayas, at an elevation of 11, 3(^10 feet above the sea, aud forms a station of some importance on the commercial road between Central Ania and India. It is surrounded with a wall of sun-dried brick, surmounted with turrets, and contains a great palace of the rttjah. Its population is variously estimated at from 6U00 to 12,000. Le'hi City, post-v. of Ctah eo., I't., on the Utah South- ern R. R., at thu junction of the American Fork U. R., and on the N. shore of Utah Ijake, near the river Jordan. The people profess the Mormon faith. Ije'high, county of K. I*cnnsylvania. Area. 350 square miles. It is bounded N. K. by the Lehigh River and N. \V. by the Blue Mountains. The soil is generally very fertile. Thi.-i county contains mi net* of zinc and iron. Live- stock anJ grain are staple prrtducts. Carriages, tobjiceo, brick, clothing, (lour, leather, furniture, iron. lime, metallic wares, and agricultural implements arc leading articles of numufitcture. .Many of the people arc of l.Jerman descent. Cap. Allentown. Pop. 5(>,7y0. Lehigh, Ip. of Northampton co.. Pa. Pop. 3-(9G. liChigh Kivcr, in Pennsylvania, rises in Pike co., and traverses a region remarkaliitt for its beauty and famous for its great productioo of anlhriuulc coal. It parses the Blue Ridge at Mauch Chunk, and at Ka.'^lon unites with the Delaware. It is nearly IHO miles long, and for 70 miles has been fitted for slack-water navigation. Lcliif^h'ton, post-b. of t'arbon co,, Pa., on the W. bank of the Lehigh River, and on tlm Lehigh Valley R. R. and tlie Lehigh and Suscjuehanna division of the New Jersey Central H. R. It has '.i chureheit, it hotels, a fine publio school, and 1 newsptiper. Pop. 11M5. II. V. AioitTniMEi:, Kn. "Carbon Advocate." I^eh'man, i)oat-v. and tp. of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 709. I.ehninn, tp. of Pike co., Pa. Pop. 8;{2. Leh'mnnii (CiiAni.Ks Kuvkst Roi>oi.i*i!k Hknui). b. nt Kiel, in Holslein. Apr. 1-1, IHII, and received his first in- struction in the art of painting. by his father; but settled early in Paris, where be studied under Ingres, and began to exhibit in IS^i). His ]>ietures excel in brilliancy of ool- oring. and are generally distinguished by a peculiarly ro- mantic and dream-like feeling, even when the subjects have been choaco from the Bible or the Wreck literature. He has also painted many excellent portraits, such as those of Liszt. Alphonso Karr, and Buron Haussmanu. Lehinann { Koi>oi,I'Hk). a brother of Charles Lehmann, b. at Kiel, in IIoK>tcin. Aug. 19, 1S19; studied under his father and brother, but resided later on for the niopt part in Rome, and painted mostly fcenes of Italian life and nature. Le pape Sixte- Quint binigsant leg Muraia Puuthm, now at the museum of Lille, is one of his most celebrated pieces. Le'ia^ town of British India, in the Punjaub, in lat. 31° N. aud Ion. 71° K. It carries on a considerable trade in sugar, cotton, silk, indigo, copper, iron, and wool. Pop. 15,00U. Ijeib'nitz(OoTTFRiEDWii,HELM),b..Iune 21,0. s., 1646, in Leipsic, where his father was established as a notary public and actuary of the university. The father died when Gottfried was six years old. His mother sent him to school, where he evinced a remarkable love of study and unusuii! talent. Ho learned Latin without the aid of a grammar, simply by reading and re-reading Livy and the Chrono- loijiruf TlifHunyuH of Calvisius. and acquired such fiuency in that language that at the ago of thirteen ho wrote for a wager .'!00 faultless hexameters within six hours. A large number of his works arc composed in Latin. Ho took chief delight in logic, and thus was led to the study of the scho- lastics and of metaphysics in general. At the age of fifteen Leibnitz entered Ibe Leipsic University to prepare himself for active life by the study of law. Ho excelled there, as everywhere; read in 1003 his dissertation De Prhictpio Indtvt'dui, and in 10(10 published his work J)e Arte Combi- natoria, which really contains the germ of all his future achievements in the fields of mathematics and philosophy. In the same year ho left Leipsic, because his ago was urged as a barrier to his obtaining tlio degree of doctor juris, and went to the university at Altdnrf, where he obtained it by his dissertation I)r (Uisibns Pirplexi»yi\,\u\ elicited such gen- eral admiration that ho was ofTevcd a professorship at the university, which he, howo\er, refused. During the winter ho remained at Nuremberg, studying the works of Kepler, (Talilco, Bacon, Gassendi, and Descartes, also continuing his law-studies. Here he made the acquaintance of the celebrated statesman Baron Boinel)urg, the former prime minister of the elector of Mentz. and accompanied him to Frankfort, where he began to jirepare himself for a polit- ical life. He there wrote his famous essay, No\ui MrtfioJus divcf'Uflii' dnrfitdiripti' J nrisprudfutin: (lOfiS), which he sent to the elector of Mentz. accompanied by the sketch of a chart " which would enable any judge or lawyer to decide immediately any given case of law according to the fixed principles of jurisprudence." This so pUasetl the elector that ho appointed Leibnitz assistant to Dr. Lasscr in the elaboration of a reformed code of Roman law. He soon distinguished himself by his various literary labors — so much that within a few years, when barely twenty-four years r)f jige, he was iijqiointed by the elector a member of the court of appeiils. the highest jiidieiiil tribunal of the electorate. His ofiieial labors did not in the least disturb his other studies. He was specially interested at that lime in effecting a reconciliation between Protestants and Ro- man Catholics, and kept up an extensive correspondence with prominent members of both churches (with Bossuet among others), having discovered, as he thought, a basis on which the theories of both churches on the subject of transubstantiation, their main jioint of ditpute. could bo harmonized. Tin* ])reparations nnnle iiy Louis Xl\'. for a war against GermaMy at the same time led him to enter deeply into polities. To the German electors he submitted a memorial, counselling a friendly feeling towards France and the establishment of a united Germany, which, he said, would alone gi\<' peace to Furope. To Louis .XlWlie sub- mitted a memorial, through Boineburg, which counselled an expedition of France against Fgypt, which was so well received by the French king that Louis XIV. expressed his desire for a persomil interview with the author. Ac- cordingly, Leibnitz left Mentz in Miir., ll»72, for Paris, where he submitted a memorial to the king, \\hich. how- ever, has only recently been mude public. Ho pointed out the conquest of Egypt as the key to India and the humili- ation of Holland. Napoleon alterwards carried out the achemo in order to threaten Kngland's jKiwer in the Fast. Leibnitz's main object was to ilivert (he king's mind from a war with (Jernmny by a foreign enterprise ; and jirobably this object was soon discovered, nnd caused the rejection of his scheme. He maile diligent use of his stay in Paris. however, to study its libraries nnd become ac(|uainted with its men of science. News of his friend Boineburg's death compelled him to visit London for a short time, where ho made the acquaintance of Newton. Boyle, and others, and was chosen fellow of the Royal Society. Here the report of the death of his other friend, the elector of Mentz, reached him. When he returned from ICngland, be ilid not 1718 LE1B>^1TZ. go to Mentz, therefore, but to Paris. Here he soon formed ' an extensive acc^uaiutauce, became intimate with Cassini and lIuyghon.«, and was admitted to the highest circles of ; society. In 1070 he accepted the third offer made him by the ciuke of I'runswick-Liineburgof a position at his court, having just then made his immortal discovery of the dif- ferentia! calculus, which he did not make public, however, until 1C84. In 1G7S the duke of Brunswick-Liineburg, in recognition of his many labors in the interest of science and of the country, conferred the rank of counsellor upon him, which made him a member of tbo supreme court. Be- sides his judicial duties and other scientific labors, Leib- : nitz took charge of the duke's mines in the Ilartz Moun- I tains, utilizing the opportunity to study mineralogy, and kept u]i constantly his labors in behalf of a union betvvcen the Protestant and Roman Catholic churches. In 1079 the i duke died, and was succeeded by his brother Ern.'^t August, subsequently elector of Hanover. When, some years later, the princess Sophia Charlotte of Hanover, Leibnitz's pupil, married the prince of Brandenburg, future king of Prussia, , it was deemed advisable in 16S7 to send Leibnitz to Italy > vn a political expedition, but chiefly with a \ iew tu collect , materials for a history of the house of Brunswick (the Guelph family) from its earliest origin. Leibnitz made \ this the great literary work of his life, though, like most of his works, it has been printed only recently. His stay at Rome was one prolonged ovation. Every learned society , elected him a member. The office of custodian of the great Vatican library was offered him, with prospects of a car- dinal's hat, if he would join the Roman Catholic Cliuruh. But, favorably disposed as he was to Roman Catholicism, he never could be brought to join that Church. He did his best to enlist it in behalf of science, and arranged a per- manent correspondence with the famous Jesuit missionary Grimaldi, then leaving for China, through whom he also sent his Science of Dijadica to the emperor of China, so ar- ranged as '"to prove the creation of the world out of nothing." After his return to the Hanoverian court, Leibnitz was ap- pointed custodian of the Wolfcnbiittel Library. His pa- tron, Ernst August, who in 1692 had become elector of Hanover, died in 1098, and although his successor, George, future king of England, retained Leibnitz in his posi- tion, Leibnitz no longer felt comfortable under a ])rincG who took no interest in matters of science and art. Ho therefore accepted a call to Berlin from his former pupil, the princess Sophia Charlotte, and there established the scientific society which has since grown into the Berlin I'niversity. In 1700 ho was sent on a political expedition to Vienna, and made another attempt to unite the Protest- ant and Catholic churches. On his return to Berlin ho found that tho English skepticism of the Lockian School had made its way there, and at tho solicitation of Sophia Charlotte, now queen of Prussia, wrote bis celebrated Tht'ndirre to comliat it. The death of tbo queen in 1705 was a severe blow to Leibnitz. More than ever he devoted himself to science. When in 1711 ho met Peter the Great at Torgau, he induced him to found libraries, observatories, etc., aud so interested that monarch that he was invited to another personal conference at Carlsbad. In 1714. Leib- nitz visited Vienna for tho last time, and there wrote for Prince Eugiinc his Monudolojij, the work by which he is most widely known as a philosophical writer. Soon after it was finished, the elector George, being about to leave for England, ordered Leibnitz home to attend to his duties. Leibnitz went back, finished his history of the house of Brunswick, and plunged into other scientific labors, in the midst of which death overtook him, Ni>v. 14. 1716. Only one person, his secretary, Eckhart, followed him to his tjrave. Protestant and Roman Catholic clergy both re- fufied to attend his burial. It is almost impossible to convey an idea of the multi- tude of Leibnitz's writings and the variety of subjects upon which they treat. His unpublished manuscripts till the whole side of one of the rooms of the Hanoverian library, and range over the various subjects of law, history, theology, speculative nhilosophy, mathematics, and all the natural sciences. There is scarcely a branch of human knowledge which his wonderful mind has not explored and enriched; and in this universality of his knowledge ho stands un- rivalled in history. Neither Aristotle nor Kant. probabl>; tho other two most universal minds, reach Leibnitz in the extent of their knowledge. And with all this devotion to science he was never forgetful of practical affairs. An ac- complished statesman and politician, he was an untiring correspondent, and in society brilliant and interesting as few men even of his time, when society made great de- mands. Though he never married, he enjoyed the society of ladies, and fascinated them by his courteous manners and conversational powers. During the reign of the late king of Hanover a beginning was made to publish tho complete works of Leibnitz, a literary undertaking of un- paralleled magnitude. A few volumes were issued iu truly royal style, but the expulsion of the king and the absorp- tion of Hanover into the German empire unhap]>ily put a stop to the enterprise. The chief points of his philosophi- cal system are three in number; (I) The Principle vf the SiiJ^rient Heitniju. — In human knowledge, says Leibnitz substantially in explanation of this principle, we meet with two different classes of knowledge — one which is based on the formula A = A, and which is self-evident, needing, therefore, no further explanation ; and one which says of a thing (A) that it is not only this (/. <■. .\. I, but also something else. Kant subsequently called the former class analytical and the latter synthetical propositions. Now, of this latter class, adds Leibnitz, it will not do to assert merely that they are true, but a sufficient ground mu.st be shown why they must be true ; and if we cannot show tho ground, they are not proved true. By strictly separating this class of propositions from those that are merely analytical or identi- cal, and applying to all synthetical a^^sertions tho crucial test of the sufficient reason, Leibnitz contends that the higher sciences of physics, metaphysics, etc. can he aa conclusively established as those sciences that rest merely upon the analytical principle. Leibnitz neglects, how- ever, to state what is the sufficient reason which is tho basis of all synthetical propositions, and it was reserved for Kant to complete the work of Leibnitz in this re- spect. It appears, however, from all of Leibnitz's writ- ings whenever he had to apply that principle, that he was quite well aware of the nature of that sufficient rea- son. (See Kant.) (2) Tlie Doctrine of Mouiide. — At an early period of his life, Leibnitz, who till then had ac- cepted in explanation of the universe the then generally received theory of atoms, convinced himself of the insuffi- ciency of this theory, in that it could not explain the activ- ity reigning in tho universe. By tho two conceptions of motion and a world of atomic matter, Descartes had tried to explain, in his famous Prindpin, all the ])!ienomGna of the universe, from tho position and course of the stars down to the construction of the smallest plant, and again up to the highest functions and passions of rational human be- ings. But as this theory was defective, in Leibnitz's opinion, in that it showed no sufficient ground for the motion which vitalizes the universe, he proposed to substitute for the ma- terial atoms spiritual atoms. Ho made public his discovery at an early day, and it excited an extensive discussion amongst the scientific men of his age. In his first an- nouncement of his new theory, Leibnitz calls "spiritual atoms" what ho subsequently termed monads, *• Suppos- ing," says ho in substance, ** that wo look upon this universe as an infinite number of spiritual activities, each again con- taining within itself an infinite number of activities, and each thus limiting the other: then every such monadic ac- tivity must be limited or influenced in a more or less degree by all the others, so that even the smallest monad, if it could become conscious of all tho impressions directed upon it, would become conscious of tho whole infinite world. "This limitation ajjpears to each monad as something foreign to itself, and where this limitation ceases there is itself in its own body. Each monad having clearest consciousness of wltat passes within itself, and increasing that consciousness only as it learns to unravel the impressions produced upon it by the other monads, it is simply by the grade of con- sciousness attained that the monads are distinguished from each other. From tho smallest speek of dust to the high- est seraph this distinction rules; and as each monad carries within itself tho power to reach the highest degree, there can be no creation and no death in the world; everything must bo stea<ly, progressive development or evolution. Matter must be always the same, since the monads are al- ways the same; and force can never he destroyed, since tho monad can never be destroyed. The whole interchange of forces is simply tho result of a greater or less degree of movement on the part (<f the universal force which every atom possesses, and all forces are therefore correlated with each other through motion." Leibnitz's theory of nature, iu its fundamental principles, is thug the same that has re- cently been adopted by the natural scientists of England. (Translations of several short articles written by Leibnitz in ex])ositiiin of this theory can lie found in the Jour. Spec. Phil. (St. Louis), vols, i. (containing the ytimadtdoijii), ii., iii., V.) (;!) Prr-t:HtftUishcd J/nrmoiii/. — There remained, I however, one great problem to explain, which was how one monad can influence another one, and which also involves the question how communication between body and soul is possible. This puzzled Leibnitz Tur a long time, until he was insensibly led to an idea whieh, he says, ** surprised me, but which seemed inevitable. This was that the soul : or every other real unity must have been created in such a ! manner ns to have everytliing arise in it from it." own proper nature, with a perfect tipoutonrity in relation to it- ! self, and yet at the same time with perfect conformity to LEICESTER— LEIGH. 1719 the outside thin;;s. That thus our intcmal perceptions — thai is, those in the soul itself, and not in the hrain or in the suhtle parts of the body — being nothing but phenomena related to external thing? or true appearances, and like well-regulated dream?, — that these internal perceptions, therefore, in the s"ui itself come to the soul through ita own original constitution: that is to say, through that rep- re?cntativc character (capable of exprcsiiing outside tilings by relation to ita organs) which was given to it at its crea- tion, and which constitutes its individual character. Thus it is that each of these substances — I'ach representing pre- cisely the whole universe in its own way and according to a certain point of view, and the perceptions or expressions of the external things reaching the soul in this point by virtue of its own laws, as nf a world in itself, and as if nothing existed but God and itself (to use the mode of ex- pressinn of a certain person of elevated mind, and whoso sanctify \s everywhere rccognizeil), must be in perfect accord with all others, whereby the same effect is produced as if they all communicated with each other by a transmission of species or of qualities, as the vulgar philosophers imag- ine. Moreover, the organizeil mass, wherein the point of view of the soul exists, being expressed more nearly, and finding itself reciprocally ready to act of itself according to the laws of the bodily machine in whatever moment the soul wills it — neither ono interfering with the laws of the other — the intelligence and the blood have precisely those movements which are necessary to respond to the passions and perceptions of the soul. It is this mutual rttpport. regulated in advance in each substance of the universe, which produces what wo call their communication, and which alone constitutes the union uf body nnd soul. It is thus that we can understand how the soul has its seat in the body by an immediate presence — a presence that could not be greater, since the eoul is there just as the unity is iu the result of the unities, which is tho multiplicity." This is the celebrated theory of a pre-established harmony, upon which Leibnitz also built his religious system, as in- deed none of his discoveries stand apart, but each is closely connected with all others, and the result of the same orig- inal view of tho universe. His mathematical discoveries were the outgrowth of his purely philosophical appercep- tions, no Ie?s than his religious convictions, and it was his distinvery of the monad theory which made him so sure that by its means ho could reconcile Protestants and Honuin Cath- olics on their main point of dispute, the doctrine of trunsub- stantiation. (Mee Kuno Tischer, Leibnitz und Mciiie iSchnle, in vol. ii. of his fieach d^-r rtfluern PhiL; also Erdmann's ed. of his works. 2 vols, f Berlin, 1S4')) ; Foiicher do Tarcil's ed.. 6 vols. (Paris. 18oi)): <»• H. Pcrtz*s ed. (with (imtcfend and tJerhardt). 12 vols. (Hanover. iJerlin.an'l lliiUe. lS4:i- 6:M: Onnot Klopp's ed., 4 vtds. (Hanover, I8C1-66) ; Guh- rauer's '/. \V. F. Ltibuitz (2 vols., and ed. of Leibnitz's Ger- man writings. Itreslau (ls;i7-4riK) A. E. Kkokceh. liUiccs'tcr, or Leicostershirc, county of England, situated nearly in the middle of the country, bounded N. by the river Trent. Area, SO:i square miles. Pop. 2'\7,i\'2. The ground ts hilly; some coal and lead mines are work- ed; granite and freestone arc quarried. But the rearing of sheep and cattle gives the country its industrial charac- ter: 260,000 acres of land are in grass; and its breeds of cattle and long-woolled sheep are very celebrated. Tho 80-called Stilton cheese is chiefly made in this county, which Also is tho principal seat of the English manufoo- tures of hosii-ry. LeicCHter^ town of England, the capital of Lcicestor- Bhire, on tho Soar, whose auclent name was Leire, whence the name of tho city. Its manufactures of woollens and hosiery are very important, employing more than 2a, 000 hands; also laoo is made hero to a considerable extent. The oily was known to the Itomans under the name of li'tttr, and Roman remains are found. Pop. ll.>,0S4. Leicester, post-tp, of Worcester co., Mass.. miles AV. of Worcester, The Boston and Albany H. U. traverses the S. part. The town has a fertile soil, well adapted to grazing, here a lending ttursuit. Tliere arc several villages, 7 woollen and II card factories, 1 national bank, a publio library, an academy, a town-hall, K churches, a memorial h;ill, and good water-power. Pop. 27fiS. Leicester, tp. of Livingston co., N. Y. It contains several manufacturing villagps. Pop. 1711, I^eicpsler, post-tp. of Muneombe co.. N. C. Pop.2180. Leicester, post-tp. of Ad.llson oo., Vt., .'» miles N. of Brandon, on the Contra! Vermont R. R. It has manufac- tures of lime and paint. Pop. 0:10. Leicester (RonKHT Dudley), EAni. of. a son of tho duko of Northumberland, who was executed for trying to make Liidy .lane Grey queen in l-STiM, b. Sept. 7,15^3; married Amy Uobsarl lA.'iO; was enndojuned as n traitor 1554; pardoned 1j.">.'>; bocaino the favorite of t^ucen Eliza- beth, who made him K. G. and master of tho horse 1558. The sudden death of his wife in 1660 aroused strong sus- picions that he was aspiring to the hand of the queen. Created carl of Leicester in 1564; in lJt>0, Elizjibcth pro- posed his marriage with the queen of Scots, and somewhat later his secret marriage with tho widow of Essex aroused the anger of the queen ; was sent to tho Low Countries as captain-general in 1585 and 1587, but displayed no ca- pacity; was in 158S generalissimo of the troops raised against the Spaniards. D. in Oxfordshire, Sept. 4, 1588. Leicester (Simon de ^lontf'ort), Eaki* or, founder of tho English House of Commons, b. I20C in France, and was a sou of Simon do Montfort, tho vanquisher of tho Albigenses. In 12;il his brother, the Count Aiiiaury do Montfort, gave him the honor of Leicester, inherited from his maternal grandmother, an English lady ; fur this tillo Simon did homage to Henry IIL in 12;n, and in 123^ it was formally granted by the king after his marriage with the king's sister ; was for many years emi)loyod as governor of Gascony, where he conducted many wars with advantage, and twice refused tho French regency ; in England, unlike most other French adventurers of that pcrioii. he took tho part of the barons against the king in the wars of Henry III.'s reign : compelled the king to sign the jirovisions of Oxford 1208, and after tJloucester's death ( 12i>2j became the leader of tho baronial party; dictated terms at tho Mise of Lowes 12G4; summoneil the Parliament of ]2fi.*>, at which knights of the shire and reprcsenlatives of tho boroughs were admitted — the germ of the future Ilougc of Commons; became jut^ticiary of England. Lung tho vir- tual master of tho realm, he was attacked by Edward, prince of M^ ales, at Evesham, and there defeated and slain, Aug. 4, 1265. Lcich'liardt (Lri>wiG),b. at Trebitscb, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, Oct. 2;>, iSlli ; studii d philology, medicine, and natural science at Gottiugen and Berlin; travelled through Italy, France, and Kuglaud, and went in 1841 to Australia, where ho made a great name for himself as an explorer. Tho results of hiu first minor travels were published in lieitriiije zur Geolotjie wn Anntnilia (Hallo, 1855). His large tour from Moreton Bay on the E. coast to Port Essiugton on the N. coast (1844-40), he described in his Journul o/' an Ovt-rinnd I^jrjjidition in Anntftifia from Moreton liui/ to Port Enaijajton (London, 1847). In Dec, 1847, ho started on a still greater expedition across the con- tinent from E. to W., but the last report which came from him was dated Fitzruy I)owus Apr. 8, 1848, and later re- searches havo confirmed tliat he jierished on the trip. His biography was written by Zuchold (Leii)sic, 1856). Lei'dy, post-tp, of Clinton co., Pa. Pop. 515. Leidy (JosRvn), M. D..h. at Philadelphia Sept. 9, 1823; graduated in medicine at the University of Pennsylvania in 1844: devoted himself to biological researches, especially comparative anatomy and vertebrate palivontnlogy, on which jiapers were published in Pror. of Avnd. Nut. Sr{- cnccs of Phila., Trnnti. of Am. Philos. 5oe., an<i Smithsonian Contrihft. to Knotrhdffc ; in 1853 was chosen ])rofeSBor of anatomy in tho medical department of the University of Pennsylvania, and in 1871 professor of natural history in Swart hniore (.'ollege, both which positions ho still fills. I)uring the civil war Prof. Leidy rendered important ser- vice as surgeon at Satterloe Hospital, Philadel]ihia. His contributions to seientiOc periodicals number souie hun- dreds. Among his more important works are I'fora and Fauna vithin Lirimj Animals, Memoir on an E rttnct Sfn'- cirn of American Ox, Auficnt Fmina of Ntbranl-it, Memoir on the E.rtinrt Slotli Tribe of N. A., and Cretaceous Hep- tiles of the V. S., all published by the Smithsonian Insti- tution, and Contributions to the Extinct Vertebrate Fauna of the Western Territories (1H73), published by U. S. Ge<d. Survey of tho Territories. (See an interesting notice of liis life and earlier writings in A. J. Med. Reporter for Sept., 1863.) Lci^h, town of England, in the county of Lancaster, 13 miles W. of Manchester. It has large manufaetures of cambrics, muslins, and silk and cotton goods. Pop. 10,<)2l. Lei^h, tp. of Amelia co., Va. Pop. 3464, Leigh, tp. of Prince Edward co., Va. Pop. 3391. Leigh (Bknjamin AVatkins^. LL.1>.. b. in ChosterfieM CO., Va.. Juno 18, 1781 ; gradiiatotl at William and Mary Col- lego ; practised law at Petersburg, and afterwards at Rich- mond ; was reporter of the court of appeals ; often chosen to the legislature; was appointed n commissioner to revise (he statutes, and again to adjust land questions with Kentucky : and was in I8:t5 elected to tho U. S. Senate, and took a jtrominent part in the ilebates. but resigned in 1837, and passed the rest of his life in retirement. He publishe<l 12 volumes of Ueportu of Court of A/>fnaU and lien. Court of Va. (1833-44), D, at Richmond Feb. 2. 1849. 1720 LEIGH— LEISLER. Leigh (Hezekiah G.).I*. D., b. in Perqniiiiftnsco., N. C, Nov. l*;i, 1795. For thirty-five years ho occupied respon- sible positions in the Virginia and North Carolina M. E. conferences. He was one of the foundcr.s and prinoijial supporters of Kandolph-Mocon College, lie had a power- ful inteileot and great executive ability. D. in Mecklen- burg CO.. Va., Sept. 19, 1853. T. 0. Si mmkus. Leii^h'ton, tp. of Lawrence co., Ala. Pop. 1283. LeiuMitou, tp. of Allegan co., Mich. Pop. 1200. Leighton (Alkxandkr), M. D., b. at Edinburgh, Scot- l:ind. in 1668; educated at the university of that city, in wliicli he was professor of moral philosophy from 1GU3 to liilM, when he became a Presbyterian preacher at London, where he also practised medicine; wrote ASpcrtifum licltl Sacra ; or the Lookinff-QUiAH of the Hohf War (1024), and an Appeal to the Parliament ; or St'im'H Plea aijainnt the Prelarie (I02S). For the latter publication, deemed libel- lous with respect to the king, queen, ami bishops. Leighton was sentenced by the Star Chamber to be twice publicly whipped, to lose both ears, to stand twiec in the pillory, to bo branded on the cheek with the letters S. S. (sower of sedition), to pay a fine of £10,000, and to suffer perpetual imprisonment in the Fleet. After eleven years' imprison- ment he was released by order of the Long Parliament in 1010, received peeuniary indemnity, and in 1612 was made keeper of Lambeth Palace as a state prison, where he d. in 1014. Leighton (Frkderick), A. R. A., h. at vSearborough, England, Bee. 3, 1830; received his first instructions in drawing at Rome; entered as student the Royal Academy of Berlin in 1843, and finished a general education at Frankfort; went to Brussels, where was produced in 1848 his first painting, Cimabue Jindinff Giotto Drawing in the Fiffd« : studied at Paris and Frankfort, and again went to Rome, where he executed the Cimabue, which, exhibited at the London Royal Academy in 1855, and being by a hitherto unknown native artist, was so favorably received that it was eagerly purchased by the queen. In rapid suc- cession he produced many fine paintings, classical, scrip- tural, and dramatic: especially noticeable are his Triumph o/.l//(Ki> (1856) : Scene from Romeo and Juliet (\>^5i^) ; Star of lirthlrhem, and Michael Anrjelo nursim) hia Dying Ser- vant (1862); HpIch of Troy and David (1865); Syracnuan Bride leading Wild lieastfi to the Temple of Diana (1866); has also executed designs for literary works, among which is Romola. Leighton (Robert), D. D., son of Alexander, b. in Edinburgh in 161 1: graduated at the university of that city (1031), of which he became principal in 1053; ap- pointed bishop of Dunblane in 1601, in pursuit of the plan of Charles II.. Sharpe, and Lauderdale to Anglicize the Church of Scotland; accepted it with reluctance; appealed twice to the king to adopt milder measures in the attempted reform (1665 and 1009); accepted the archbishopric of Glasgow in 1670 upon liberal conditions, which were not fulfilled, and he therefore resigned in 1073 and retired to Rroadhurst, Sussex. D, at London June 20, 10S4. His works, all posthumous, arc highly esteemed fur their broad and liberal views ; they include Sernwui ( 1002) ; Prclertionrs Thcoli,gicfp ( 1693); Comir.entnri/ on the First Epintlc of Peter (I0'.)3); and A**//Mn)ioHj» Trade (1703), and have been often reprinted. See his hife by J. N. Pearson, accompanying the Works (4 vols., 1825). Lei'ningen^ former principality of Germany, was erected in 1779, comprised an area of 250 square miles, and was situated between the Lower Palatinate and the bishopries of Speyer and Worms. By the Peace of Lun6- vilU- in 1801 it was divided between Baden, Bavaria, and ILsst^, and the prince was deprived of his sovereignty. Lein'steTf province of Ireland, comprising the south- eastern portion of the island, bortlering on the Irish Sea and St. George's Channel. Area. 7619 square miles. Pop. 1.457,635 in 1861; 1,339,448 in 1871. of whom 1.141,401 were Roman Catholics. Before the English invasion this nrovinee formed two kingdoms, those of Leinster and Moath ; now it is dividi-d into twelve counties — namely, Dublin, iMe;ith, Louih. Kildare, Carlow, Kilkenny, King's, Longford, tiueen's. Westmeath, Wicklow, and Wexford. Leipo'a ocella'ta, the "native pheasant'" of Aus- tralia, a guUinaccous bird of the familv Mcgapodidse, somewhat smaller than the turkey. Its flesh is good and its oggs are excellent. The nest is a mass of leaves, dirt, and sticks, the heat of which, produced by fermentation. hatches the eggs. The leipoa is a swift runner, but is very stupid, and often tries to csoapo the hunter by hiding her bead in a bush. Leip'pa, or Btthmisch Leipa, town of Bohemia, on the Pulsnit/., is the seat of several eJvil and ecclesiastical authorities, and has good educational institutions, exten- sive breweries, and manufactures of articles of steel, guns, and glass. Pop. y2tL Leip'sic, city of the kingdom of Saxony, with 100,925 I inhabitants according to the census of 1871, is situated in I an extensive plain (w)jich often was the theatre of great battles) on the Pleisse. which here receives the Parthe and flows into the Elster. It is one of the most important com- mercial towns of the German empire, the centre of the Ger- man book-trade, and the seat of a celebrated university. The inner town, consisting of ohl, tall houses, one looking very much like the other, presents the aspect of industry, enterprise, and solid wealth; it is encircled by five regular and modern-looking suburbs, and in a still wider circle the whole is surrounded by a number of villages, which join the town like a sort of second-grade suburbs. The inner town is separated from the suburbs by the Promenaden. a circle of beautiful gardens and walks, which occupy the place of the old fortifications, and contain the most im- portant public places of the city, such as the Augustus- platz, on which the new theatre and the museum stand; the Rossplatz, and the Flcischerplatz. In the inner town is the market-place, which contains the town-hall, erected in the sixteenth century, and several other fine buildings. The most important streets are the Grimma, Briihl, Peter, and Katharinen-strasse. The streets of the suburbs are longer, broader, and more regular, but much more quiet; Elster, Kiinig. and Nuremberger-strasse are noteworthy. In spring and fall a Messe takes place at Leipsic — that is. a market in which merchants from all countries come together in order to do business. As the improved means of communi- cation which modern times afford makes such gatherings less necessary, the Messe has, of course, lost some of its import- ance. Nevertheless, it still attracts about 40,000 foreign merchants, often from distant countries, and the aspect of the city is much changed during this time, partly on ac- count of the multitude of shops which fill the market-place, the Augustusplatz, and all surroundings, partly on account of the bustle in the streets. The principal articles in which bargains arc made at the Messe are — fur (6.000,000 thalers annually), leather, cloth, woollens, linens, and glass. The most remarkable buildings are — the new theatre, built from 1864 to 1867, after plans by Langhaus, in Renais- sance style, with a porch on Corinthian columns in the front and a magnificent veranda in the rear; the museum, opposite the theatre, finished in 1858, after jjlans by Langc, and containing on the ground floor a not very important collection of plaster casts, on the middle floor a large col- lection of pictures, among which arc four celebrated land- scapes by Calanie, and on the upper story a large collection of engravings ; the university or the Augusteum. frequented by about 2000 students, and built by Geutcbriick in 1836 after plans by Schinckel ; the Pleisseuburg, formerly a cita- del, now used as V>arracks, a large structure, though with- out any artistic interest, commenced in 1549 by the elector Maurice of Saxony. The most remarkable among the churches are— the Nicolaikirche, built in Gothic style in the twelfth century, and the Thomaskirehe, built in the fif- teenth century, and containing a beautiful marble altar. The Gewandhaus, built in 1481, is now used as a conservatory of music, and is the home of classical music in (Jermany. Leipsic appears as a town for the first time in history in 1015; before that time it was an insignificant village, in which Henry I. built a castle in 922. During the Middle Ages the fortifications of the city protected its commerce, and Charles V. increased the liberties of its Messe. In the time of the Reformation it supported the new doctrine, but suffered much from the war; and afterwards felt more severe- ly the Thirty Years' war. Tilly took it in 1631 ; later the Swedes and the imperials held it alternately; its prosperity was entirely destroyed. Since 1007 it attracted the book- trade, and since the beginning of the eighteenth century it bt'came the centre of the same in Germany. The Seven Years' war destroyed its enterprise once more, but its fa- vorable locution enabled it to recover quite rapidly. Dur- ing the wars of Napoleon new calamities came over it. From Oct. 10 to 18, 1813, the great battle in whieh Na- poleon was defeated raged in and around it, and all great movements in (Jermany have affected it more or less on account of its central position. ArcirsT Niemann. Leipsic, post-v. of Liberty tp., Putnam co., 0., near Dayton and Michigan R. R. (Roanoke Station). Pop. 200. Leis'ler (Jacob), b. at Frankfort. Germany; came to America in 1600 as a soldier in the service of the Dutch West India Co.; was some time stationed at Albany, where he engaged in trade with the Mohawk Indians, and acquired some wealth. While on a voyage to Europe in 1678 ho was taken prisoner by Moorish corsairs, obtained liberty by paying a ransom, returned to .America, settled in New York, and in 1083 became one of the commissioners of the court of admiralty. On May 31, 16S0, Leislcr headed an LEISXIG— LELAND. 1721 insurrcotion "for the preservation of the Protestant relig- f ion," took (he fort, declared for (he prince of Orange, and planted within the fort a battery of six {*uns, which gave ori;;in to that name as still applied to the public park at the lower end of Manhattan Ii»land. The deposed lieu- tcnanl-j;overnor, Francis Nicholson, and Mayor Corthmdt tried in vain to restore authority, and retired, the former to England, the latter to Albany. In August, the "com- mittee of cafety " appointed Lcisler conmuiudcr-in-chief with the powers of a governor, and he made unsuccessful efforts to be recognized as such at Albany. In December ho dissolved tl»o committee of safety, appointed a council, and assumed the style of a royal governor, on (he .strength of a despatch addressed " to such (person) as for the time being takes care for preserving the peace and administer- ing the laws in His Majesty'.^ province of New York." Early in liiUO ho sent a small fleet against the French at Quebec. On the appointment of Sloughtrr as governor, Leisler refuged to surrender the fort and the government (Mar., 161)1) until convinced of the former's identity and authority. For this constructive treason Leisler was soon after imprisoned, with his son-in-law and secretary, Jacob Milborne, and both were condemned and executed May Iti, 161*1. At a later period the memory of Leisler was re- habilitated by an act of Parliament (161*5), an indemnity was given to his heirs ( IfiDS }, an<l the bones of Leisler and Milborne wore honorably buried in the Dutidi church. One of (ho acta of Leisler during his brief authority ( lOSK) was the purchase of lands at New Rochelle as a place of refuge for persecuted Huguenots. Leis'nit?, town of Germany, kingdom of Saxony, on the Muldc, manufactures woollen and linen stuffs. Pop. 6770. liCitch (William), P. I)., b. at Rothesay, Scotland, in 1814; graduated in IS^iG at the University of tilasgow ; stu'lied theology in the Divinity School; was ordiiiued in the Presbytcriiin Church in IS.'IH. and from lH+;i to IB.'iO was parish minister at Monimail. In the latter year ho was chosen principal of Queen's University at Kingston, Canada, in which office he was installed Nov. 8. ISOO, and for the remainder of his life was actively engaged in organ- izing that institution upon a large basis of modern culture. Principal Lcitch was an enthusiastic scientific observer, es- pecially devoted to animal physiology and astronomy. In I8ft;i he published an esteemed work, (iod'a Glory in the Jleaveua. or Contributions to Astro-theotoijy. D, at Kings- ton M ly S>. iHrtt. Lei'tersbiirg, post-v. and tp. of Washington co., Md., 6 miles N. E. of llagerstown. Pop. \V,\b \ of tp. 167.'i. Leithy town of Scotland, in the county of Edinburgh, on the Frith uf Forth, 2 miles from Edinburgh, whoso port it is, and with which it is connected by continuous ri)ws of bouses. Its streets are nnrroxv, tortuous, and filthy, but its harbor is excellent, 25 feet deep, provided with a break- water, and containing two wet docks and three dry docks. Its shipbuilding, both in wood tind iron, and its manufac- tures of rope, sailcloth, soap, etc., are considerable, and its trade extensive, importing large quantities of grain, wine, hemp, timber, and tobacco. Pop. 44,277. Loi^hn, or Ijeytlia^ a river of Austria, rises in Lower Austria, furms for some distance the boundary between the two divisions of the ,\ustro- Hungarian eitipire, called, after the river, (.'isleithania and Transleithania, bn^aks through the Lcitlia Mountains, which rise from IjOO to 20UO feet, into Hungary, and joins the Danube at Altenburg. Lcit'meritz, (own of Hohemia, is brautifutly situated on the riglit bunk of the Elbe; contains a splendid cutln'- dral, founded in l>l5i. niid many other remarkable build- ings, among whicli are the episcopal palace, surrounded with walls, the town-halt, and sevoral monasteries; lias a the- ological seminary, a gyninasiutn, and otiier educatiomil in- stituli<ms, iinpttrtant siilmon fisheries, and striiw hut iniiii- ufacture^. and curries ou au active trade in corn, wine, and fruit, pop. Io.U2;i. Lertomischl, town of Bohemia, on tboLautschna, has a line palace and park, a beautiful church, and sevoral good ediicalional and benevolent institutions. Pop. ~{)'!<7. lieit'nrrffloTTLiKn William). Pn. 0.. b.at Pesth, Hun- gary. Oi't. 14, I'^l'.ll. His father, a Cernian physician, left , Hungary in consff|uence of the revcdution of ISI'.t, and I Bctllod in Turkey, whore (iottlieb, already a(*quainti'il with the olassieal languages, became proficient in Turkisli, Arabic, and moilern (Jreek, stmlying under the best native | professors at Constantinople and itrusa ; learned F']nglish, j French, and Italian at Ihe Hrilish Collei^e at Malta; he- . oaine interpreter to the Engli^li commissariat during the Crimean war. after which he went to Lonilon, was natural- ized as a Hritifh subject, and became professor <tf Oriental languages and Mohammedan law in King's College. In l>*i'i| he was appointed director uf a college at Lahore, in the Punjaub: founded numerous societies, schools, colleges, and free public libraries in India: established several news- papers in Arabic and Urdu; promoted the study of the Aryan languages, and succeeded in organizing the Punjaub University upon a broad basis. From 1S60 to ISG8 he was engaged in an exploration of Thibet and other citnntries N. of the Himalayas, and was the tirst to make known the remarkable country of Dardistan, with its interesting group of languages. At a later dale he extended his philological researches to the languages of Cahool. Cashmere, and Ua- dakhshan, excavated an important series of Gra^co-Booddh- ist sculptures, and exhibited at the Vienna Exposition of lS7;i an extensive collection of Central Asiatic antiquities. He lias published a /'hihmophical Orammnr of Aruhic in tho English, Urdu, and Arabic languages; The RnviH of Turkvu ; a' Compnnttlre (irmnmnr of the Dardu Lant/Hai/ci ; Diftfof/Kt^v in those languages : Hittory, Somjs, and Lfijcndu of DardiHtaHftind Onvco-IfoodtUiist Z>/«corenefi, besides nu- merous contributions to the Proceedings of learned societies in London and on the Continent. Lei'trim, county of Ireland, in the province of Con- naught, borduring N. on Donegal Bay. Area, 6i:^ pquare miles, or :!92,30;i acres, of wliieh 115,869 arc uncultivated, and 2.'{,748 under water, cuvcreil by lakes, of which Lougli Allen, traversed by the Shannon, is the largest. The ground is billy, very irregnlar, and rugged; coal, iron, and lead are foiind. The soil is cold, stiff, and retentive, except in the valleys, where it is very fertile. Rye, potatoes, and oats are the common crops, sonic cattle are reared. Pop. I.'i5,2i)7 in 1841 ; 111.1115 in 1851 ; 104,744 in 18fi] ; 95.562 in 1871. The principal town is Carrick-on-Shannon, with only 1568 inhabitants. rr'laiid, post-v. of Adams tp., La Salle co.. Til., on the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., 67 miles S. W. of Chicago. Leiand (Charles Godfrey), b. at Pliiladt-lphia Aug. 15. 1S24; graduated at Princeton College in 1846, after wliich he spent two years travelling in Europe, and study- ing at Heidelberg, Munich, and Paris, devoting himself especially to lesthotics and the jiliiiosophy of modern civil- ization. Returning to I'hiladelphia in 1848, he studied law, but aijaudoned its practice in favor of the literary vocation, to which ho addressed himself particularly through tho magazines, and acted occasionally as editor of more than one of tho periodicals of that day. While well versed in graver subjects, and well acquainted with all branc-hes of inllrn-lvltrKa, Mr. Leiand achieved his greatest popularity by jiroductions of a humorous or burlesque cha- racter. He has passed several years in Eunqie, and now resides in London, where he is well known in literary circles. Among his works are Thr. I'o^try and Mi/Mtrry «/ Drcnnia (1855K AhlHfcr Khi-Vh Skrtrh-'liook (1855), ^Hunhiuc in Tfion;/ht {\H62), Lvijvnd» of liirdx (1861), Huns lin-itinuuna linditda (5 parts, ' 1867-70), a volume of poems (1871), Etjijptian Sketch' Hook (I87.'5), EwjUnh Gypiien and their LVin'jHHffC (187:M. Fit-S>ni;/ (1S74), besides translations from Heine and SeheflVI. In IN75 he jmblished a volume of Kntjlinh f'l/pni/ /'oriri/ with the as.sistance of Miss ,Ianet Tuckey and Prof. E. H. Palmer. As a writer of dialect poetry Mr. Leiand has shown a considerable mastery of the (|uaint speech of the " Pennsylvania Dutch," and his *' Hreitrnaim " ballads are as highly appreciated in England as in America. liClnnd (Hknrv Pkrry). brother of CharlesO. Leiand, b. in Philadelphia Oct. 28, 1S28; was a frequent contrib- utor in prose and verse to Ihe Kniif:t rfutck-rr, the S/'i>il of the TinifH, and other magazines and periodicals. He was endowed with large powers of observation, cultivated by travel, and a keen sense of humor, which would havegiven him eminence in American literature. He publi(<hed two hooks — a vtiluine of travel, Amrriraun in Hoinr. and a col- lection of humorous sketches entitled Thr (I'nii/ l!*iy Mrtrc (1856). During the civil war ho was a lieutenant in tho 1 18th Pennsylvania Vols., and was jirostratcd by a sun- stroke, from Ihe effeets of which ho never recovered. D. at Philadelphia Sept. 22, 1868. liOtnnd, or Laylonde ( Jons), h. in London, England, about 15011; was edu.-ated at Si. Paul's ScIukiI and at Ox- ford; tocdt holy orders, and devoted himself to Ihe stu.ly of English antiquities. He was appointed by Henry Vlll. one of his chaplains, rector of Popeliiig near Calais, and royal antiquary (I5l!;t). In the latter capacity he was com- missiimed to iinike a survey of Englaiul, a la^k which occu- pied him six years, and was so thoroughly pcrformr<l that tho mass of materials gathered was more than he could arrange, much less prepare for publication. After eight years* solitary labors of classification, he became insane in 1550, and d. at Loudon Apr. 18, 15.^2. His account of British authors, entilled (\}ni)iif'nttir{t de SrriptorihuH Uri- tannicis, was published in 170U by Dr. .\nthony Hall, his 1722 LELAND--LEMERY. Jtinerar}/ of England in 1710-12 (9 voIs.).aud his Be Hibue Itritnnnicis Collectanea in 1715 (6 vols.), the two latter works being cditc-tl b_v an eminent scholar, Thomas Hearne. Leland's manuscripts were deposited iu the liudleian Li- brary at Oxtonl, and were largely used by Stowc. Cumden, and l->ugdale iu their respective antiquarian works. Leiand (Johx), D. B., h. at Wigau, Lancashire, Eng- land, Oct. IS, 1691 ; educated at the University of Dublin; was for oO years pastor of a Presbyterian church at Dublin, where he d. Jan. 10, 1766. His j)oieraical anJ apologetical works were highly esteemed and widely circulated. The best known was A View of the Principal Dcistical Writcra in Emjlnnd in the Last and Present Century (1754), often reprinted. Leiand (John), b. at Grafton, Mass., May 14, 17.^4; was 1775-01 a Bajitist preacher in Virginia, and 1792- l^^ll a pastor in Cheshire, Mass., though in fact he was an itinerant, visiting often places remote from his residence. D. at Xurth .\dams, Mass., Jan. 14, 1841. His Life and writings have been twice published since his death. Leiaud (Thomas). D. D., b. at Dublin. Ireland, in 1722 ; educated at Trinity C'oUege, Dublin, where he became fel- low and professor of poetry. His translation of the Ora- liiius of Demostheuea (1750-70) was long a standard work; also published a }l!ntorif of the Life and Ileign of Philip, Aini/ of MacedoH (IToS), and a, iJinaertation on the Prin- ciplea of Unman Eloquence (1764), a controversial work directed against Bishop Warburton ; a Hintorif of Ireland (177'!), and several volumes oi Sermons (1769 J, besides nu- merous other works. D, at Dublin in 1785. LeI'eges, was the name of an ancient race which was widely spread over Greece, the western coast of Asia Minor, and the intermediate islands, but which, like the Pelns- gians, became incorporated with the Hellenes and disap- peared as an independent people. Herodotus pays that Leleges was the ancient name of the Carians; a later Greek writer places them in the same relation to the Cariansas the Helots to the Lacedajmonians. In the Homeric poem both Leleges and Carians appear as equals and auxiliaries of the Trojans. Thus it appears that there existed a close relation between the Leleges and Carians, but about the character of this relation, and about the origin of the people, nothing is known. What the later Greek literature contains con- cerning this subject is evidently invention. Lele«x'(A[)oi.i'nE),b.atPari3Nov.l5, 1S12, and began his artistic career as an engraver and lithographer ; iu 1835 commenced to exhibit, and soon gained great rcjiutation as a genre ]>ainter, representing with much humor and grace scenes of life in Brittany, Northern Spain. Algeria, and the streets of Paris during the revolution of 1818. His pictures arc very common in French galleries. — His brother, AitMAND, b. at Paris iu 1S18, studied for some time under Ingres and in Italy, hut turned also to the genre. Ho seems to have a finer sense for the strictly picturesque than his elder brother, but less humor and character. Leie'wel (JoAcnisi), b. at Warsaw Mar. 21, 1786; studied in his native city and at Vilua, and became jiro- fcssor of history at the Lyceum of Kremenets in V(jlhynia in 1809, and at the University of Vilua in 181 I, but was dismissed in 1824, being suspected of participating iu secret revolutionary associations. Next year be was elected a member of the Polish diet, and becauie one of the most energetic and iiiflueutial agitators, and one of the most prominent leaders of the Polish rising of 18o0. After the failure of the revolution he tied to France, and lived partly in Paris, partly at Lagrange, the villa of La Fayette ; but ill ls;j3 ho was banished from France on account of his jiiirticipation in diiferent Polish conspiracies. He wont to Lrus-el-*, where he resided for the rest of his life, wholly dcvutcd to science. D. May 29, 1801. His writings are very numerous, but they are all of the highest order. His knowledge is always amjde, and generally exhaustive; his views are large and elevated; his style is pure and very impressive. Besides his Numismatique du Mot/en Af/e ( Paris, 1835), Pj/th^as de Marseille et le Geographic de son Temps (Paris, 1836), G^otfraphie des Arahen (2 vols., Paris, 1851), G{n(jraphie du Afoi/'-n ^ije (4 vols., Breslau. 1852-57). all of which arc scientific contributions of the highest value, ho wrote several works relating to the history of his native country which contain some of the most brilliant pages of mcjdern historiography, and which generally are as reliable as they arc interesting. The principal of these works are — Hintonj of Poland (Warsaw, 1829), with a continuation (Brussels, ISl.*?), Oonsidt rations stir l' Etat politirpie de Van- cienne Poloffne, et sur V IHstoire de son Pcnple (2 vols., Paris, 1844), La holoijne au Moycn Age (3 vols., Posen, 1845-51). Leloug' (jAcgrEs), b. at Paris Apr. 19, 1665; received his first education at Malta, having been destined for the order of St. John, but separated therefrom; studied in Paris, and in 1099 was appointed librarian at the oratorium of St. Honors in Paris, where he d. Aug. 13, 1721. His liibliothcca Sacra, a catalogue of all editions and transla- tions of Holy Scripture t,2 vols., 17U9), and his /Hhtiuth^qn-^ hifttorifpic de la Prance (1719), a catalogue of all French historians and their works, arc regarded as model works of bibliography. Le'ly (Sir Peter), b. at Soest, Westphalia, in 1618; d. in London in 1680. His father, whose family name was Van dek Faes, took the name Dr- Lvs or Lely from the circumstance of having liverl over a perfumer's shop, whiih bore the sign of a lily. Peter studied at Haarlem with Peter Grebber, but came to England in 1641 as a historical painter, aud soon devoted himself In portraits, at first copy- ing those of Vandyke, who had diid the year before his arrival. Through the influence of William, prince of Orange, he was introduced to Charles 1., whose portrait he executed, along with those of Williiim and Mary. Lcly succeeded Vandyke as court-painter, and rose rapidly to fame and fortune. It was he who painted the portrait of Cromwell, aud who was bidden by his sitter to put in all the pimples and warts. Charles II. conferred on him the honor of knighthood, and commissioned him to paint the "beauties" of his time for Hampton Court. In the same place are several of the portraits of admirals which the duke of York, afterwards James II., engaged this artist to paint. Most of his portraits arc of women, and are of a showy and meretricious character. The artist painted to suit the taste of an abandoned age. His historical pieces are in private collections. The Susanna and the Elders is in the gallery of the marquis of Exeter. Lely was buried in Covent Garden. There is his monument with bust by Gibbon and epitaph by Flatman. 0. B. Fkothingham. Lemaire' (Nicolas Eloi), b. at Triancourt, France, Dec. 1, 1767; studied at the College of St. M^nehould and afterwards at Sainte-Barbe in Paris; was appointed pro- fessor of Latin poetry in the College of France, afterwards in the same department in the faculty of letters in Paris (1811); became dean of the faculty (1825): in 1810 Murat named Lemaire as head of his projected University ofNaplrs, but Napoleon was not willing to let him leave France, and settled a pension upon him. After the Restoration, Louis XVIII. favored the ]>ublication of a complete series of the Latin authors, of which Lemaire was constituted chief editor. From the list of writers, made by Louis himself, Lucretius was omitted for political considerations. The series was completed in 142 volumes, to which Lucretius was subsequently added by P. A. Lemaire, nephew and assistant of the editor. D. Oct. 3, 1832. (See \'itice snr N. E. Lemaire par J. L. Gillon, in appendix to the BihU- otheca Latina.) H. Dkislkk. Le MarSy post-v. and tp., cap. of Plymouth oo., la., at the junction of the Iowa division of the Illinois Central and the St. Paul and Sioux City R. Rs., 25 miles N. E. of Sioux City. It has a State bank, 2 newspapers, a variety of stores, workshops, and a flouring-mill. 3 churches, 3 hotels, etc. It is the centre of a fertile farming district. Pop. 152. J. C ButnANAN, Ed. "Sentinel." Lem'berg, city of Austria, the capital of Galicin, sit uated on the Peltov in a narrow valley surrounded by forest-clad hills. It is the scat of the government, aud of a Roman Catholic, an Armenian, and a (ireek archbishop. It has n cathedral, built in 1370 by Casimir the (Jreat, two beautiful synagogues, many splendid palaces, and other magnificent buibiings. Its university is attended hy about 1400 students aud has 35 professors. Its manufactures are not important, but its trade, though to a great extent merely transit, is very extensive; it is mostly in the hands of Jews, who number about 25.000. Pop. 87.105. IjJ'mery (Nh-olas). b. at Rouen Nov. 17. 1645; studied pharmacology in his native city, at Montpellier, and at Paris, and gave lectures on chemistry which attracted great audiences, and gained the applause of all truly scientific men, as he kept closely to facts, aud abandoned all mysti- cal dreams of a sympathy between the metals and the planets, of an elixir for the prolongation of human life, and other such things. He belonged to the lleformcd Church, and from this circumstance severe troubles arose. In 1683 he left France and went to England, where be pre- sented a copy of the 5th ed. of his ('ours de (^himie, ]iublishcd in 1675, to Charles II.. and was well received. Soon alter, however, the political troubles in England caused him to re- turn to Paris, and after tiie Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, by which he lost his right of practising ns an apothe- cary and physician, he joined the Roman Catholic Church, and continued his activity as a lecturer aud writer un- molested till his death, Juno 19. 1715. The most promi- nent writings, besides his Cours de Vhimie, are Pharmaropfc univtrscHc (1697) and Traitt dca Droyuts simples (1G98). LEMHI— LE MOYNE. 1723 Lem'hiy oounty of Idaho, bouudcd E. by tho Bitter Uuot Muuutaius. It has scvtral forlile valleys, but is pen- orally mountainous. It has important gold-mines. Cup. Salmun City. Pop. 9S8. Lem'in|;toii, pnijt-tp. of Esecx co., Vt., on Connecticut River, ti" miks N. E. of Moutpelior. Fop. 191. Lcm'ley's, tp. of Mecklenburg co., N. C, Pop. 971. Lem'ma [(ir.A^M^a]. an auxiliary propositicm domon- Ptratcd out of it? re|2;ular order to facilitate tho demonstra- tion of some other proposition. Tho conclusion of the Irm- ma is needed in the demonstration of the main proposition ; and rather than encumber that proposition, a separate demonstration is introduced. Tho eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth propositions of Book viii., Davics's Le^riifirr,nrQ lemmas. W. G. Peck. Lcm'ming, a name applied to rodents of tho family Muridfc and sub-fiimily Arvicolinic (field-mice), belonging to the genus Myodes. Some species are very abundant in the high northern regions of both continents. They are very proli6c, and in Scandinavia arc at times extremely destructive. They are remarkable for their occasional great migrations in search of food. Myod€$ Norvegicus is the typical lemming. Ijemnis'catc [Or. Xtijuh-io-kos; Lat./fr;n»(Va/i/«],acurve of the y'oM/-(/j order, shaped somewhat like tho liguro 8, as shown in the diagram. It is the locus of the points of intersection obtained by drawing perpendiculars from the centre of a hy]ier- bola to the tangents drawn to that curve. If tho equation of tho hyperbola is the equation of the corresponding lemniscatc is If the hyperbola is equilateral, that is, if n = t, this equa- tion becomes The curve is quadrible; in the latter case tho entire area iuc]u<Ied within the two branches CA and CC is equal to the square uf the aemi-transvcrse axis, that i?, to «*. In tho figure A and B are the vertices of tho hyperbola, and C is its centre. At A and B tangents to tlie curve are per- pendicular to A B ; the point C is a multiple point, at which tangents to tho curve coincide with tho asymptotes of the given hyperbola. W. Ci. Peck. Lem'nos [\T}fivo<;, now Limni or Stalimni], an island in the >^gean, bolmigiug to Turkey, -10 miles S. S. E. of Athos. Area, loO square milcf?. It is of vory irregular outline, is rocky and nilly, ^»J bears strong marks of vol- canic action, but tho valleys arc fertile, and the ancients relate that tho mountain Mosyehlus was sometimes an ac- tive volcano. This island, so famous in history and myth- ology, now contains some 12,000 inhabitants, mostly Greeks. Its chief town, Castro, is the seat of a bishop. Lein'on [Ilindostaneo, limbu, iimu, or nimhii, from which the .\rabian (imuu; Sp. fhiifin, etc.], tho fruit of CitniK I i molt ill III. Tho Cilrutt genus, of which the orango and lemon arc the familiar representatives, constituted u natural order, Aurantiacea', which of late is merged in tho large order Rutaceir. The leaves of these trees are noted for tho translucent dots appearing like punctures when held between the eye and the light, these dots being oil- glands and giving tho fine aroiim whieh chnractorizcs tho genus : also for the joint bolow tlio bladr, which shows tho Ii-af to be a compound one rerlueeri to tho terminal leaflet ; and tho petiole below is usually more or loss winged, with loafy borders. Tho lomon tree does not form tho oloso heatl of doep green foliage which is so striking in tlio orango trco, but is of irregular growth, with paler ancl sparser loaves. Tho young shoots are dull purple ; the corolla ex- tornally purplish and internally white ; tho delicate aromn distinct from that of the orango-hloHsom. The fruit is pale yellow, ovoid or oblung, usually crowned by a nipple; tho rind lirm and adherent to tho pulp: (he juice nharpty acid, but in some varieties sweetish. The roughness of tho sur- face of the lemon is owing to the imbedded uil-eollg. These furnish tho oil and essence of Icraon, obtained cither by expression or distilhitii>n. liomon-peel is a well-known flavoring ingredient. Lomon-juice is not only largely used for acidulated drinks and fur elTcrvcscing draughts, but also for the preparation of citric acid, its important ingre- dient. This i^ used in medicine for febrile and rheumatic diseases, and in the arts for certain processes of ealico- rinting, to discharge colors and dccprn the white parts of tiyod with ferric salts. Concentrated lemon-juice is I lorgcly employed on shipboard for the proiention of f curvy in long voyugcs. The commercial article is derived from the lime and bergauiot, as well as from lemons. The lemon is of Indian origin ; tho tree, which probably represents the wild state of both tho lemon and the citron, is u native of the forests of Northern India. The introduc- tion of the tree to Kurope is duo to tho Arabians. Its chief cultivation as an object of industry is on the Mediterranean coast between Nice and Genoa, in Calabria, Sicily, etc. It endures less cold than the orange, and wherever it well suc- ceeds is a more profitable culture. As.\ (Iray. Lemon, tp. of Butler co., 0. Pop. 5242. It includes MiddleloWM ( 1'. U.) and other villages. Lemon, ]>ost-tp. of Wyoming co., Pa. Pop. 6.11. Lemon (M.vkk), b. in London, Eng., Nov. .30, IRflO; was author of more than si.\ty plays and farces, many of tlicul highly successful, and of several novels, but will ho ehierty remembered for his long connection with Punch, From the establishment of that paper in 1841 he was as- sistant editor, and in ls4n assumed the chief management, which he retained throngli life. lie was also for many ye.irs literary eililor of the London ItluHiratcd Kfim, for "which he wrote about 100 songs, and assistant of Charles Dickens in the management of Ifousetio/d Words. lie was distinguished for his generous sympathies and his hatred of shams. D. at Crawley, Sussex, Mity 23, 1870. Lemond', post-tp. of Steele co., Minn. Pop. 417. Lem'on, Oilof (0/ciim C/tn'). the volatile oil of lemon- peel, extracted from tho grated rind by pressure or by dis- tillation with water. It may also be obtained by putting the grated peel in hot water and skimming off the oil which rises to the surface. That obtained by pressure has more of the peculiar flavor of tho fruit, but contains mucilage, etc., which make it more liable to change on keeping than that which is prepared by distillation. Oil of lemon is a volatile lic|uid, generally yellow, having the peculiar odor of tho fruit and a pungent, aromatic taste. Its sp. gr. is 0.8517. It is sparingly s<dublc in water; dissolves in 7.14 parts alcohol of s]). gr. 0.8H17: in 10 parts alcohol of sp. gr. 0.8:'i; in any quantity in absolute alcohol; mi.xes with both fiNed and volatile oils. It dissolves sulphur, plios- phorus, resins, and fats. Kxposed to air and light, it ab- sorbs o.vygcn, with the formation of ozone, becomes darker and more viscid, and evolves a little carbonic acid. It con- sists almost entirely of two hydrocarbons, CjoHis, isomeric with each other and with oil of turpentine, differing from each other in optical rotary power, and in their behavior with hydrochloric acid. Oil of lemon is largely used in perfumery and as a flavoring for ice cream and syrups; has the stimulant properties of the aromatics. though in pliarmacy it is chiefly used to im]uirt flavin- to other meilicines. It sh(mld not bo dark-colored or viscid, and should not leave a permanent stain on paper. It is often adulterated with oil of turpen- tine, lavender, alcohol, etc. Tho presence of cheaper oils may generally be reooguiicd by the odor. Turpentine may be detected by noting the behavior of tho oil with regard to polarized light before and alter heating. With pure oil little or no change will be noticed, but when turpentine is present the de.\tro-rotary power will bo considerably in- creased by healing. C. i'. CliANUi.KR. Lemont', post-v. and tp. of Cook co.. 111., on the Chi- cago and Alton II. K., 215 miles S. W. of Chicago. Pop. 357,'). Lcmontcy' (Pikrhk 1<!iioiaiiii), b. at Lyons ,Ian. 14, 1702. J)i'puty in the National .Assembly, Lemonley soon turned against the revolutionists, and he fought at Lyons during tlie siege of the city by Couthon. He escaped ali\'0, andfledto Switzerland. lie relumed to France in ISOJ.nnd was elected in 1SI7 member of the Academy. His jirineipal works, whi( li were held in high repute, are Kk'iii/ "ii ihr Mn. narcliical K'li'I'llnhmriil of l.imii A'/ I', and llirturi/ iif the Uriifiiri/. 1). at Paris June 20, 182G. FfxiX AlliAKiNE. Lem'onweir, post v. and tp. of Juneau co., Wis., on tho Milwaukee and St. Paul U. U. Pop. 1947. liO .Moyne, a Canadian family of eleven hrolhcrfl, seven of whom acted prominent parls in advancing French ex- l]loralions. conquests, and settlements in ,\niericii.~ Their lather. CiiAui.KS i.k Movm:, b. in Normandy, France, in lfi2li, camo to Canada in Hill; lived some years among the llnrons; obtained extensive land-grants; was distin- guished in wars against the Iroquois nn<ler Courcelles and Tracy ; was held a prisoner by those Indians several months in llili.'i, and was created in lOI'iS Seigneur de Longueil, 10 which title that of Chaleauguay was al'lerwanls adiled. Ho was for some tiuio military comnmndi-r of Montreal, where he d. in It.S.T.— Of his sons. PiKuiiK and Jkan Haptistk weredislinguisheil in Louisiami. gaining Ihe titles of Sieurs ni; liiENViM.K and d'Iiikuviii k i which see). — Tho oldest 1724 LEMPA— LENA. brother, I. Chaulks, Baron de Longueil, b. in Jlontrcal Dec. lU, 1656; served in his youth in the French army in Flanders: promoted colonization to (_'anada : built a stone fort on his estate at Longueil : was wounded in the repulse of Sir William Phipps's asi^ault upon yuehec in IfiUO: was made governor of Alonlreal and baron in 1 7(H) ; commander- in-chief of the colonial forces: fought against the English expedition of Walker and ^sicholson in 1711 ; was in com- mand at Three Rivers in 1720, and at Montreal from 1721 to 1726; rebuilt Fort Niagara in the latter year; was made chevalier of the order of St. Louis, and d. at Montreal .June 8, 17211. — II. Jacqies, Sieur de Sainte llelene, b. at Mont- real in Apr., 1669, was sent in Mar., 1GS6, with his younger brothers, I'ierro and Paul (afterwards Iberville and Mari- courti. in an expedition under the c<iinnKiiid of rhevalier do Troyes against the English on Hudson's I!ay, where they had built Forts Monsipi, Ilupert. ami Kichichouanne. These three forts were captured, as well as a vessel of war having on board the English governor-general of Hudson's Bay, Sainte Helene having borne a leading jiart in each action. He was second in command of the expedition which took Fort Corlear (Schenectady) Feb. 9, IfiUO, and in the same year commanded the batteries which repelled the English squadron at Quebec, on which occasion he was mortally ivoundcd. — III. Pail, Sieur de Maricourt, b. at Mitntrcal Dec. 1.^, 1663, participated, as above mentioned, in Troves' expedition against Hudson's Bay. being wounded before Fort Monsipi (June 20, 1GS6); remained with his brother Iberville in command of that district up to 1690, when he aided in the defence of Quebec; took part in Frontenac's expedition against the Iroquois, witii whom he negotiated peace in 1701, and in -Apr., 1704, lost his life, with forty others, in a stockade burned by those Indians. — IV. Jost:i'H, Sieur de Scrigny, b. at Montreal July 22, 166S; became an oflicer in the French navy, and in 11)94 and I6'J7 commande<l ves.sels in Hudson's Bay in co-opera- tion with the land operations of his brotiier Iberville. Sub- sequently he commanded a squadron ; brought to Louisiana some of its earliest settlers, and in 1718-19 surveyed the coast of that colony. He was engaged in the capture of Pensacola from the Spaniards (.May 14), and repulsed them from Dauphin Island, near Mobile (Aug. 19, 1719). after a siege of a month ; was made captain of a ship of the line in 1720, and in 172.'! rear-admiral ami governor of Koche- fort, France, where he d. in 17.S4. — V. Axtoi.ie. Sieur do Chiteauguay, b. at Montreal July 7, 168.3; became an offi- cer of the French army; brought a body of colonists to Louisiana in 1704; served under Iberville against the Eng- lish in 1705 and 1706; was royal lieutenant in Louisiana in 171S; was eng.aged in the Florida campaign against the Spaniards in 1719; taken prisoner at Pensacola Aug. 7, and cojnmanded at Mobile from 1720 to 1726, when he was removed from otfice and recalled to France; sent as gov- ernor to .Martinique in 1727, and afterwards to Cayenne; returned to France in 1744; was made governor of Cape Breton in 1715; successfully defen<led Louisburg against the New England forces under Peppcrcll, and d. at Roche- fort, France. JIar. 21. 1747. He inherited the title of Sieur de Chateauguay from his brother Loris, b. in Jan., 1676, who was mortally wounded in the attack on Fort Nelson, Hudson's Bay, and d. Nov. 4, 1694. — .Another brother, Fkam,ois, b. Mar. 10, 1066, killed in battle with the Iroquois at Kcpcntigny June 7. 1691, was the first Sieur de Bienville, the title having passed on his death to his brother, .lean Baptiste. Sauvolle, the first colonial gov- ernor of Louisiana, has often been incorrectly included as one of the brothers Le Moyne. Portkii C. Bliss. Lcm'paf a river of San Salvador, Central .\merica, rises in Lake Guija, near the (xuateiuala boundary, flows E. S. E. nearly 150 miles through the ilepartnicnts of Son- sonate, Cuscatlan, and San Vicente, then bending S. forms the E. boundary of the departments of San Vicente and La Pa/, and the W. boundary of San Miguel, and falls into the Pacific after a total course of 210 miles. The Lempa is the largest stream of the Pacific coast of Central America, and is navig;iblc for a large part of its course. The valley of the Lcini)a is broad and well settled, and one of the most productive agricultural regions within tropical .America. Lempritre (Jons), D. D., b. in the island of Jersey about 1750; studied at Westminster School and at Oxford; took orders in the Church of England : was head-master of classical schools at .\bingdon and Exeter; became rector of Meath and Newton-Petroek. Devonshire, in ISll, and d. Feb. 21, 1824. at London. He published in 178S a small tiihlioilieca CTa«»i'co, or " Classical Dictionary." much en- larged in the 2d ed. of 1792. and which has since been many times renrintcd in England and the V. S. It was baaed upon Sabbnthicr's Dirtfonnitire thu Autfum clamtiques, published at Ch'ilons-sur-Marne in .10 vols. (1766-90), and was in turn the basis of Anthon's well-known classical dic- tionary. Dr. Lemprifiro published also a volume of Ser- mons (1791), the first volume of a translation of Herodotus (1792), and a Virtionfiri/ n/ Uiiircrnal /iintjrnphi/ (180S) in a single volume, which was reprinted in New York iu 1825 (2 vols.), with additions by Eleazar Lord. I.emp'stcr, post-tp. of Sullivan co., N. H., 40 miles W. of t'oneord, has 3 churches and manufactures of lum- ber. Pop. 678. Lemur [Lat. Irmm; "spectre"], the name of a genus of mammals, bestowed on it on account of the appearance of the aiiimal, and especially its large staring eyes and its nocturnal habits. By the late Dr. Gray the genus was split into three — viz. Vnrci-ia, Lemur, and Proiimia. (See Lemi )iin.t: and Lemurix.c.) Le'mures, in Koman mythology, was by some writers used as the general name for all spectres or spirits of the dead, of which the good ones were called (arcs and the evil Inrrir. More commonly, however, lemuro was used synonymously with himr, denoting only those spirits which returned to the upper world with the purpose of in- juring the living. In order to propitiate them an annual festival called Lcmnria was held to their honor, and cer- tain ceremonies were performed on the nights of the 9th, 11th, and 13th of May. The days on which tliese rites were performed were considered unlucky, and the temples remained closed during the festival. .A description of the ceremonies is found in the Dfth book of Ovid's t'litli. Lemur'idsp [from Lemur, the typical genus, and the family termination -I'lifc], a family of the sub-order Pro- simiic and order Primates, whose Iccth arc of three kinds^ viz. incisors (f Z5 X 2), canines (J X 2), and molars (P. M. t — \\ ^I- 3x2); the incisors of the upper jaw small (sometimes deciduous), and separated into two groups by a symphysial interspace, and those of the lower ja\v larger, contiguous, and proclivous; the canines of the lower jaw proclivous, parallel with and resembling the incisors (and hence sometimes mistaken for them); leg with the hbula and tibia distinct from each other; hind foot with the sec- ond toe armed with a subulate claw, and the other toes pro- vided with flattened nails. This family includes the le- murs, or, as they are sometimes calle<l. half-monkeys, and is confined to the island of Madagascar, the equatorial parts of Africa, and India. A considerable range of varia- I tion is exhibited by its several constituents in the general [ form and proportions, the shape of the head, the develop- ment of a tail (which in some is very large, and in others wanting), the size of the ears, and the length of the tarsus; the morlifications iu these respects have caused the diifer- entiation of the family into four sub-families — viz. Indrisi- na\ Lemurlua?, Nycticebinse, aud Galagiiiinae. The peculiar relations of the family will be more appropriately consid- ereil umler the bead Prosimi.c, aud the minor groups under their titles. TiiRo. Gill. Lemiir'inx [from Lemur and the sub-family ending -itm], the chief subfamily of Lemurida?, in which there arc 36 (exceptionally 32) teeth — viz. I. j (sometimes lost from the upper jaw), C. \, P. jM. J, M. Ix-: the neural spines of the jiosterior (last dorsal and lumbar) vertebra inclined forward : the tail elongated, and generally exceed- ing two-thirds the length of the body : the hind limbs con- siderably longer than the fore ones, and with the tarsus of normal proportitms, or moderately elongated; and the ears moderate, with the anterior portion of the helix well de- veloped, folded ()vcr the fossa; of the concita and anti- helix, and witli the tragus and anti-tragus distinctly de- veloped. The group includes the typical lemurs, which are readily recognizable by their external appearance ; the head is produced into a more or less elongated snout, and some- what resembles that of the raccoons or foxes. All the liv- ing species arc confined tc the island of Madagascar. Ex- clusive of I'/iirnrta/t uM (which rather belongs to the Gala- gininie), they are grouped in four gener.a — viz. Lemur, Hupaiemur, Lrpihmur, and Mij-nrtbiia ( Peters, 1874). They are chiefly nocturnal animals, live in the forests of Mada- gascar in the trees, feed on insects and fruit, and associate together in troops. In repose they roll themselves up in the form of a ball, and wind their tail around the body. Their elongated hind limbs enable them to leap with agility. Theo. Gill. Ijemtiroidca* a name applied by some to the sub-order Pnosnii-t; ^which see). Le'na, one of the principal rivers of .^^ibcria, rises near Trkoolsk. in the mountains N. of Lake Baikal, and enters (ho .\retic Ocean through several branches between Ion. 125° and 130° E. It receives the Viiim. Olekma, and Al- dan from the right, and the Viliooi from the left, passes by Olekminsk and Yakootsk, and is navigable from May to November. Lena^ post-v. of Stephenson co.. 111., on the Illinois Central U. R., 132 miles N. W. of Chicago. It has a bank, a weekly newspaper, steam flouring and jilaning mills, an LENA— LENNOX. 1725 iron-fouadry, several carriage and wagon niaDufnctorios, nnti other shop?, 1 very fine ftod 2 Pimiller public-school buiMing}!, a school library, 2 hotels, a steam-elcvalor, 4 grain-warehouses, and the usual number of stores. Grain, stock, dairy produets, tol>aeco, etc. are the eluef articles of export. Pop, 1294. J. W. Newcohek, Ed. " Star." Lena, a v. of Brown tp., Miami co., 0. Pop. 144. IjC'iiau (XiKOLAL's), whoso truc uamo was Nikmusch vo\ STREHLENAr, b. at Csatud, Huugary, Aug. 1j, 1S02; studied philosophy, jurisprudence, and medicine at Vienna, travelloa much; visited in 1832 the U. S.; resided after his return to Europe alternately in Vienna, Ischl. and Stutt- gart, but beeame insane in ISIl, and d. Aug. 22. ISr>l), in a lunatio asylum at Oberdobling, near Vienna. He pub- lished his first volume of poems in li>32 ; in liS-if> followed a (lecond; in 1H3^, Fuunl, in 1837, Savonarofa, in 18-12, the Afftt'ijfuarH, and after his death, Don Jimtt. A collected eilition of his works was publishcil at Stuttgart in l.S,")j, in 4 vols. It is unquestionable that Lenau was an original poetical genius, and the great impression which he pro- duced in (fcrmuny was not only natural, but just. The extraordinary brilliancy and variety of bis imagery might be the product of study and labor, to some e.\tent at least j but there is, especially in his Polish and Hungarian songs, a fresh gush of genuine feeling, and in his verse a full, round melody which belongs to the genius alone. Never- theless, even in his earlier productions, it is evident that ho endeavors to raise, by the aid of the speculative ]ihilos- ophy, his poetical foundation above that standpoint which ho actually occupies as a living jicrsouality : and this at- tempt at making tho poetry bigger than the poet by help of an artificial substruction — an attempt friMjUcntly met with in the latest period of (jerman literature, I>ut wliich by itself is as impossible as climbing the moon — resulted with Lenau first in forced ideas, unsound excitement, and ob- scure expressions, and then in tho total destruction both of tho genius and the personality. Ci.kmkn« Peteusen. Iten^awee^ county of Michigan, bounded P. by Ohio. Area, 720 sijuarc miles. It is undulating, very fertile, and well watered. Cattle, grain, and wool arc staple jirodiicts. Lumber, carriages, cooperage, metallic wares, saddlery, fur- niture, clothing, cheese, flour, machinery, and brick are leading articles of manufacture. Tho county is traversed by the Michigan Southern R. K. and its branches. Cap. Adrian. Pop. IJ.b'Jb. IjCn'caSy a tribe of Indians in Honduras, Central Amer- ica, spfuking a language called ChouUil, a Mexican term signifying "barbarian." Tiny arc industrious and peace- able mountaineers, numbering some 40,000, and occupying tho table-lands of Otoro and Intibncat, near Coinayagua, the cajiital of the republic. There arc Chontal Indiiins in Nicaragua and in th(' .Mexican states of Oaxaca and Ta- basi'o, hut their languages arc probably distinct from each other and from that of the Lencas. I.i^Encl08' (Anne, called Ninon ns), b. at Paris in 1G15. Pos«e?scd of a small fortune, which she managed very shrewdly, and which enabled her to make love the pursuit of her life without making it a business, she left early tho parental roof and established an independent household. She was beautiful, .•^he was spirite<I; Scarron. Saint-Evre- mond, MoTH^re, Fontcnelle, Larochefoucauld, and others road Iheir works in her salon ; but, above all. she was fas- cinating, and it soon became indispensable for all young men of birth, wealth, and elegant ambitions to be intro- duced to her. One lover followed tho other in rapid suc- ccfl^ion.and this life went on uninterruptedly for more than half a century. She was the mistress of the marijuis of Sevigne ; In the next generation his stm was her lover, and in the third she seduced his grandson. Her own son, who had been educated by the father and kept in ign<»rancc of tho mother, fell desperately in love with her, and when, in order to prevent a horrible crime, she was compelled to re- veal tho secret suddenly to him. the you?ig man blew out lii.^ brains in her presence, but she herself remained com- paratively cool at the affair. At Inst a ehango came. She was now over seventy. Young men began to call her " Mademoiselle do L'Enelos," an<l not. ns formerly, simply " Ninon," Ladies, even of the highest nosilion n'nd <d'lh"o finest eduoalion, now began to crowd her salon, and for many years longer her social position was very brilliant. She felt sad, however, as her letters to Saint-Evremond. who wrote her bictgraphy, show, but there was no remedy, To tho student her eliiiraetcr does not seem to be of any great interest, but her life is exceedingly eharaeteristio of tho ago in which she lived. Her salon and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes prepare the feeling very well for tho scenes of tho French Revolution. She attained a great rt'^c, dying at Paris Oct. 17, I70i). Clemens Peteusen, Lenc'zy, or Lenozyc'af town of Russia, in tho gov- f ernmcnt of Warsaw. It hud some linen manufactures. I Pop. 533S. Lendina'ra [Lat. Lendennriir'\, a small town of N. Italy, in the province of Kovigo. about 2I> miles S. W. of Padua. This very ancient town was tho subject of much contention during the Middle Ages. It now conluins Some handsome ehurcliee. with tine pictures by Paul Veronese, Scbastiano del Piombo, etc. Pop. in 1S74, 6909. Le Neve (.Ioiin), b. in England about 1679; was cdu- catetl at Trinity College, Camln'idge. and became rector of Thorntonle-I^Ioor, Liucohishire. 1). about 1711. He was a zealous collector of biographical materials; wrote J-'atti Ecctr_gitx Aur/lfcaiiB'- (1710), Mnuumcyttn Avylicnnn (D vols., 1700-19). //mt« of the Protestftnt Jthhopn (1720), LtvcH of the Archlnshops (172'!), and other minor works. A new edition of the Fault was published in 1S54 (3 vols.) by T. Duffus Hardy, nseistant keeper of the public records, with a continuation down to that year. AVlnle the original edi- tion contained only 11,000 entries, Hardy's edition con- tained data respecting more than 30,000 clergymen of the Church of England. Ij'Enfanl' ( Pierre Chahi.es), b. in France in 1755; came to America with La Fayette in 1777, and served in tho Revolution as an oOicer of engineers; became eajitain in 1778; was wounded at tho siege of Savannah; promoted to be major in 1783; was engineer at Fort Mifliin in 1791 ; drew up the plan fur the city of Washington, and was ar- chitect of some of the jiublic buildings at that capital. In IS12 lie was appointed professor of engineering at AVcst Point Military Academy, but declined. B. in Prince George's co., Md., June 14, 1825. Len'itivcs [Lat. ienh-e, to "soften"], in medicine, sub- stances which, without specially active virtuis of their own, possess by reason of viscidity the power to mechanically sheathe mucous membranes or raw surlaces from tlie action of irritants. Such are the bland fixed oils, glycerine, and solutions of gummy and starchy substances. EnwARD Curtis. Lenkoran') town of Russia, in the government of Raku, on thti Caspian Sea. In its vicinity are many hot sulphur sj)rings of great medicinal repute. Pop. 5C14. Len'nep, t»)wn of Rhenish Prussia, on the Lcnncp, an atiluent of the Rhine, has exlenfive manufactures of linen. woollen, cotton, and silk fabrics, especially of ribbons. Pop. 7653. Lcnuep) van fJACon), b. in Amsterdam Mar. 25, 1802 ; studied law at the University of Leyd< n ; practised with great success as an advocate; was appointed attorney-gen- eral for the province of North Holland, and d. Aug. 20, 18G8. Ho made his debut in literature with a volume of poems, Nntiomif Lvijfmh. and shortly after, under the Bel- gian revolution of 1830, his two comedies, the Frontier Vit- Ififfr and the Viflaijr hvyinnl the Fvfut.-rr, were performed with great success. Ho wrote about thirty more dramas. some of whicli were received with great applause. Rut it was chiefly as a novel-writer he gained bis fame Inspired by the example of Waller Scott, he trcaltd the hiKtory of his fatherlaiiil in a scries of romances, about 50 in all, and Severn! of these acquired a great rrnutatiou and were trans- lated into (tcrman. French, and Lnglish ; us, for instance, y/jc JCose o/ hi kniitn autl The AdoptfU Son. I^enni-I^rnnpo. See Dei,awakes. Lcn'ni .IliHs, jiost-v. of Middbtown tp,. Delaware co,. Pa., on the West Chester and Philadelphia U. R, Lcn'uoXy county of Ontario, Canada, bordering on Lake Ontario, includes Aniberst Island in that lake. It is trav- ersed by the (Jrand Trunk Railrtay. The county of Ad- dington is joined to it for judicial purposes. The soil is fertile. Cup. Nepauec. Pop. Ill,;i96. Lennox (Charlotte Ramsay), b. in New York in 1720, her father, Col. James Ramsay, being lieutenant-governor of the province ; went to London at tho age of flftecn ; de- votc<I herself to literature, nn<l wrote novels which obtained great [lopularity. She enjoyed the friendship of Richard- Bon and Dr. Johnson. Among her works were a volume of /'.,rm# (1752): The Female Qnij-ntf{l7J:i): Shakni^crc Ufnntratefl (175.1-jI), a collection of talcs used by Bhak- ttpearo in his plots ; /fenriettii, a Xovel ( 1758) ; PhUnnderf a Dramatic /'aWoraM 1758) ; Sophia (170.'1): Father /tru- mttif'a Oreek Theatre; and a translation of the duke of Sully's Mrinoim (Kfil). D. in London Jan. 4, 1801. Lennox (Earih and Dukes ok). See Stewart and RlriiMoNn. Lennox (Lord Oeoror HENnv^ Oen.. b. in England Nov. 27. I7;J7, was second son to Charles !>cnno.\. second duke of Richmond : entered the army in 1751 ; distinguished himself in the German campaigns as aide-de-camp to (bo duke of Cumberland (1757) and to the king (1702); entered 1726 LENNOX— LENS. Parliament ia 1761 : attended his brother, the third duko of Richinoiul, in his embassy to France in 1705: became lieutenant-pcncral in 1777; constaVilc of the Tower of Lon- don and governor of Plymouth in 17S1 : gi_*neral and mem- ber of the privy council in 17G;i. I>. at Stoko Park Mar. 2J, IS 05. I^ennox i Lord William Pitt), b. in England Sept. 20, 17tl'J, the fourth eon of the fuurth duke of Richmond, ancj Ijodijun of William Pitt : educated at Westminster : entered tl]o army ; was for some years attached to the staff of the duke of Wellington ; has been a volumiiiuus contributor to tlR- Sportiiiff Jieview and to several magazines and Ilclv:^Ila- ])i--YS. Among hia works are Comptott A udln/ (l^il), The Tii/t./fiDiter (1843), /'ere?/ Hamilton {lSb2), 'Pfiih'p Court- H«Y/(18,)7), Mcrrie Eu;/f<tn(l (\S!j7), liecreationa of a Sporta- man (1802), Ft/ti/ Vtars' liiograp/iical AV/H/;i/Vr)jce«( J863), Adttittures of a Man of Famili/ (18C1J ; and Draj'ta on mi/ Mcmnrif (I86j). Lcn^noxville, post-v. of Compton eo.. Quebec. Canada, at the junction of the Massawippi Valley and the Grand Trunk Railways. 3 miles from Sherbrooke: is the seat of liishops' College, a flourishing instituiiun. Pop. about 900. I^enoir', county in E. North Carolina. Area. 400 square milo?. It is traversed by the Atlantic and North Carolina K. K. and the navigable Neuse River. It is level and fer- tile. Rice, cotton, and corn are staple products. Cap. Kinston. Pop. 10.434. Lenoir, post-v. and tp., cap. of Caldwell cc, N. C, 15 miles X. of Morganton. It is the seat of Lenoir Female College. Pop. of v. 446 ; of tp. 2054. Lenoir {Gen. William), b. in Brun^vrick co., Va., May .SI, 1751; removed in childhood to North Carolina; took nn active part in the campaigns against the British and Tories in North Carolina and South Carolina; was for sixty years justice of the peace: often a member of both branches of the legislature; president of the senate for five years; then president of the council, and for the last eigh- teen years of his life major-general of the State militia. D. at Fort Defiance, N. C. May 6, 1839. Lenormand' (Marie Anne Adelaide), b. in Alenpon j\I:Ly 27, 1772 ; came in 1790 to Paris as saleswoman in a linen shop, and appeared in 1793 as a fortune-teller. She was several times arrested — in 1794. 1S09, and 1821— but this circumstance only contributed to make her more popu- lar. During the empire her rooms were visited by people of the highest rank, even by the empress Josephine, and when, after the fall of Napoleon, she went to Aix-la-Cha- pflle, whe attracted the attention of the assembled mon- archs, especially of Alexander of Russia. After 1830 she was nearly forgotten, and d. in obscurity Juno 25, 1843, but her life, and even her writings, M^moireH historiques et srcrtts stir I'iniperatn'ce Jimt'phiue (1829). etc.. are not with- out interest for the mental physiognomy of those times. Lenormant' (Charles), b. in Paris, France, June 1, 1802: .studied law; travelled in Italy, where he gave spe- cial attention to archjeology ; became in lS2o inspector of fine arts : accompanied Champollion the younger to Egypt in 1828: took an active part as a member of the commis- sion for ex])loring the Morea : became after the revolution of 1S30 chief of the section of fine arts at the ministry of the interior, keeper of books and antiquities at the royal library, professor at the Sorbonnc { 1835), and professor of Egyptian archaeology at the College of France. He wrote numerous treatises on art, numismatics, ceramics, and Egyptolugy, as well as on religion and history, and was editor for many years of the Corresjjoniiaut magazine. D. at Athens Nov. 24, 1859. — His wife, Amkhe, a niece of Madame R(!*camier, edited the correspondence of that cele- brated lady (1859), besides writing works on Afadame de .SVc/,/ (1802) and the )Vomeit of the Revolution (18fi5). I^rnormant (FnAN(;ois), son of Charles, b. at Paris in 18:15: was educated by his father, following his footsteps as an an-hneologist, to which ho added a thorough study of the languages of the cuneiform inscriptions, in »vhich department he has become a leading authority. Ho is especially prominent for his important researches in the Accadian language; and after travelling in Egypt, Tur- k'Wt find Greece became in 1874 professor of archavjlogy at the Biblit)th()quo. His Mnmial of the Ancient /listnri} of fhr EaHt (3 vols., 18fi8-69; Am. ed. 2 vols.. 1809-70) is tlio bi'st modern compendium of the results of Egyptian, Phoeni- cian, and Assyrian researches. Other important works are l.ittrr»/i«Hifriolorfiqne9 et (pigraphiquctt (3 vols., 1871-72- 73) ; EtndeH nccndifiunea (1873-74) ; Ln ^fngie chez ten Ai- sifvicnft (\9>74), and Le»premierefi CivilinittioHfi (1874). From none of the recent workers in the field of the cuneiform monuments have greater results been obtained. I^en'ox, tp. of Warren co.. III. Pop. 948. Lenox, tp. of Iowa co., Ia. Pop. 445. 2 LenoXy post-v. and tp. of Berkshire co., Mass., 6 miles S. of IMttstield. It was loug the county-seat. It is travert;ed by the Housatonic River and R. R., and has manufactures ofiron. plate glass, lime, lumber, flour, briek. etc. Iron ore and limestone are obtnined here. The town has 4 churches, a public library, and a gond high school. It is a favorite placQ of summer resort. Pop. 1905. Louox, tp. of Macomb co., Mich. Pop. 21,34. Lenox, post-tp. of Madison co., N. Y., on Oneida Lake, has several mineral springs and beds of iron and gypsum. It contains Canastota, Oneida, and many other villages. Pop. 9810. Lenox, post-tp. of Ashtabula co., 0. Pop. 752. Lenox, tp. of Susquehanna co., Pa. Pop, 1751. Lens, town of France, in the department of Pas de Calais, on the Souchez. an affluent of (ho Scheldt, has im- portant coal-mines in its vicinity. Pop. 5738. Lens [Lat. A»«, a "lentil"], in optics, a transparent substance bounded by opposite curved surfaces, or by one plane and ono curved surface, the curvature being usually spherical. The property of a lens is to refract or bend the rays of a pencil of light transmitted through it sym- metrically toward or from a fixed line called the axis. The axis is fixed by the condition that the tangents to the opposite surfaces at the points where it meets them are parallel to each other and perpendicular to this axis. Lenses arc called converging or diverging lenses according to the efi'ect produced by them upon parallel rays. They arc of several kinds, distinguished by the character of piQ I their curvatures. Six 3 4 5 6 f'*^"^s f^re shown in the figure, the first a double convex, the second a plano-convex, the third a double concave, the fourth a plano-concave, the fifth a meniscus, and the sixth a con- vexo-concave or concavo-convex, receiving the one or the other of these names according as the incident light falls on the convex or the concave side. The use of lenses in optical instruments is to aid vision by forming images of objects, to be viewed instead of the objects themselves; which they do by causing pencils of light from the several points of such object to converge to- ward or diverge from corresponding points, in the first instance on the opposite side of the lens, and in the second on the same side. These points are called /(ni". The image is positive and real when formed by converging rays ; negative and imaginary when without being actually formed it seems to exist to the eye receiving the diverging rays. Only one of the pencils from the object can have its axis coincident with the axis of the lens; but every ob- lique pencil has. nevertheless, an axis passing through the optical eeniro of the lens; and the focus of each pencil will be found in the a.xis of that pencil or in the axis pro- longed. It is unfortunately true, however, that the rays refracted from the border of a lens of spherical curvature meet the uxis at a point less distant from the lens than tiiat in which those nearer the centre meet it. Ilcnec, (ho focus of a simple lens is not a single point; or rather, every elementary ring into which the lens may be supposed to be divided produces its own focus; and the distance on the axis between the fueus of the extreme border and that of the rays indefinitely' near the centre is calleil the spher- ical aberration. It is furthermore true tlnit inasmueh as the rays of the difl^erent colors of light arc unequally re- frangible, these difierent colors ha^e foci differently distant from the lens ; the focus of the red being most distant, and that of the violet least. This separation of the diff'erent colors is callrd dispersion, and the distance along the axis between the foci of tlie rays of greatest and Icai^t ro- frangil>ility is called the chromatic aberration. Spherical lenses would tliereforc be of little use in optics if it were not possible so to combine them as to neutralize the effects of both these two kinds of aberration. Chromatic aberration may be corrected -by using a convex lens formed of a material of low dispersive power in corabinati<tn with a concave in which this power is higher. Two such lenses placed in contact may be so adjusted to each other that their absolute dispersions shall bo Cijual and opjiosite, while there is a predominance of refracting power in the converging glass by which it may form an image. In such combinations the converging lens employed is usually of crown glass and double convex, its diverging mate being plano-convex and of flint glass. The convexity of one side of the double convex is in this ease made of exactly the same curvature as the concavity of the plano-eoncave, and tlie tw(» are usually united with Canada balsam or other transparent cement; by which means the loss of light in LENT— LENZ. 1727 consequence of reflection at the surfiices of contact is almost wholly preventcj. Chrumatic tiHirration cannot be perfectly corrected liy a combination of tivo glasses only, beL'ause it is not true that the digpersive powers of different media are in precisely tho eamo ratio for each of the ele- mentary colors'. Combination^ of three different lenses have therofure sometimes been used in telescopes, in order to correct tho very small secondary dispersion which is left in any combiualion of two. But this is a refinement which is in general hardly neceesary. A combination of glasses for the correction of color is called an achromatic combina- tion. A combination designed to destroy the efl'ect of spherical aberration is called aplanatio. The spherical aberration of a single lens can never bo less than 1.07 times the thickness of the lens. This is (he amount of aberration in a Ions made of glass having an index of rc- fraetion of 1.5, of which tho two opposing curvatures havo radii in the ratio of one to six. the incident rays falling upon tho more convex surface. If tho index is greater, the disproportion of the radii of curvature must be greater also. For tho index 1.6, it i:« one to fourteen. For the in- dex l.fif'C, it is one to infinite — t". e. a plano-convex. By a combination of a double convex and a meniscus (whose radii nf curvature may be calculated Fig. 2. when the index of refraction of the glass is given) the spherical aberra- tion in the axis may be completely corrected, Such a combination was first described by Sir .John Herschel. Hut this is a fact of no practical value, because the aberration of ob- lique pencils in such combinations is very great. A menis- cus having the curvature of a prolate ellipsoid, and an op- posing sphorical concave surface whoso centre of curvature is the more distant foctis, will concentrate rays falling parallel to its axis upon its convex surface truly into that more distant focus: provided the index of refraction of the material is equal to the semi-axis major ilivided l)y tho ec- centricity. A jdano-convex Ions of which the convex side has the carvoture of a hypcrboloid will, on a like supposi- tion as to the index, cause rays incident on the plane surface parallel to its axis to converge truly into the more distant focus of the hypcrboloid. In these cases, however, the ob- FiG. ;J. Fio. 4. e U liquo pencils suffer aberration : and thougli probably for celc^jliiil object'*, in which the extreme obliquity of the pen- cils is very small, ihey might be useful, the diflicully of constructing glasses of such curvature prevents their being used. An achromatic combination of (wo lenses like that shown in Fig. .'I is aplanatic also for two points on tho line of its axis; but tho oblique pencils still havo aberration at these distances. These points arc indicated in the figure at (f and fi. It was discovered, how- ever, in 1S2'.», by Mr. J. J. Lister of London, that thi* aberrations of ob- liqtic pencils from radiants at theso distances are contrary to each other, and also that the focus conjugate to a radiant at the shorter of theflc dis- tances, /', is negative, while that con- jugate to a radiant at tho longer dis- tance, n, is positive; so that if an object be placed at the nearer apla- natic focus of a given cunibiuation, its inmge is a virtual image formed behind itself; and if the placo of tills virtual imago be at the distanco of the remoter a|)lanalic focus of a secon*! combination, a positive image will bo formed beyond this second combination which will bo free from botii spherical and chronmtio aberra- tion, as well in oblique axes as in tho principal axis. In Fig. .'1 tho lino ;/)/ .'*hnws tlie direction ut' a ray froiu f>, and the Vmv /•/ that of II lay fron] a. The first produced toward the right wo\ild meet the axis behind f>. The second continued to the left would meet the axis beyond the lens. In Fig. 4, b is the nearer ajjlanatic focus of tho lens /J ; and its conjugate a is tho remote aphiuatic focus of the lens A. liy the use of both lenses, theretore, an object at b will form an image be- yond A which will be free from aberration both of color and of sphericity. This discovery of Mr. Lister was the foundation of the wonderful improvement introduced into the compound microscope about forty years ago. Besides the evils of aberration attendant on the use of spherical lenses, there is another which consists in the fact that the images formed are not plane, but curved, even after aber- ration has been corrected. This defect has, however, been also removed in the Micitost'opi^ by combinations explained in the article on that instrument (which sec). F. A. P. Barnard. Lent [Gcr. Lenz, "spring;" according to some writers because tho days ff-iiffthiu; others derive it from fme^ a "lentile," that food being largely eaten iluring the Lenten season], the fast of forty days (not counting Sundays) which begins with Ash Wednesday and ends with Easter Sunday. It is observed by the Eastern, Roman, Anglican, Lutheran, and some other churches. It commemorates the forty days' fast of our Lord in the wiblcrness. The Greek Church lengthens it to forty-eight days. Jjentan'do [It.]. Tn music, this term, when applied to a series ot notes, signifies agraiUuil and regular decrease of rapidity. It frequently occurs in connection with medial and final cadences, and in passages marked as expressive, where it has the effect of a gradual dying out or melting away of t!ie sound into comparative stillness. IjCn'tile [Lat. fcim'], the Ermm leitfi, an anniml legu- minous herb of the Old World, resembling tlio velcli or pea, and extensively cultivated as food. Tho seed is the part employed. It is smaller, more nutritive, and more digestible than the pea. There are many varieties. It grows well on tho poorest lands, and might be cultivated in the Southern tJ. S. Lcntilo Hour is used for invalids, and is palatalde and excellent. The vine is small, but af- fords excellent fodder for sheep, horses, and cattle. Fre- senius found in lUO parts of air-dried seed — starch 35.5, gum 7, sugar 1.5, leguniine 25, fat 2.5, cclhilose, peotine, etc. 12, ash 2.3, and water 14. Lentilcs have recently been introduced into England. Lonti'ni [Lat. Lnoititii], town of Sicily, in the prov- ince of Syracuse, about 2ii miles X. W. of the city t>f Syra- cuse. Interesting vestiges of the ancient city, such as re- mains of aqueducts, cisterns, tombs, etc., still exist, and vases, coins, and inscriptions arc f<)und in abundance. In its neighborhood may still be seen the ruins of the castle of Brieinia, mentioned by Thucyditlcs. In 420 n. c. Tjcon- tini sent to .Athens for help against Syracuse. In 21 1 B. c. it fell into tho hands of the Romans. The present town is composed of respectable buildings, and the streets arc com- modious. Its trade and industry are considerable. Pop. in 1S74, 10,578. Lcu''to [ft.], one of tho terms used in music to express a slow aiiit somhie species of movement. liCnto is very slightly qui<-Ucr than " large" and *' adagio." The supcr- lati\i% li ntinfimo, im|)ties a further retardation of time. fjen'tllllis was the name of a celebrated patrician family of ancient Home, belonging to tho _//*■»* Cnnufia, Ono of tho most conspicuous members of this family was Publins Cornelius Lentulus Sura, lie was consul in 71 B. r., but in the following year he was ejected from the senate, together with sixty-three others, on account of the open scandals of bis jirivate life. This event brought him in connection with that parly in Homo which wished to overthrow tho republican institutions; and alter Catiline left the city in G'A n. v., Lentulus was achnilly at the head of tho conspiracy. Tho umb-rtaking failcil. partly on ac- count of his irresoluleness and weakness, ond it was wholly his awkwardness and ulter lack of cautiousness in his rela- tions to the ambassadors of the Allobrogrs which furnished ('ioero with eviilences on which he conhl arrest tho b nders of tho conspiracy and bring (hem before the court. Len- tulus was strangled in the prison of tho Capitol. Lenz (Jakob Miciiaki- Rkinhomi), b. at Sessweyen, Livonia, Jan. 12, 1750; studied at Kiinigsborg, and went in 1771 as tutor for two young nol)lemen to Strasbourg, where ho associated much with (Joethe and Jung Stilling. After (loethe left Strasbourg. Lenz fell desperately in love with Froderiea Brion of Sesenheim, and seems to have led a rather wild life. In 1770 he went fr) Weimar; but un- able to bring his life into harmony with (he (b'man<ls of good society, he soon left ogain, roved omund from pinco to ])lace, half insane, and <1. in iittermiscry at Moscnn May 21, I7i»2. His works, mostly consisting of dramas, were collectrd In three volumes in 1M2S by Tieek. Like bis life, they ])resent only a loose series of impulses, incoherent and 1728 LEO— LEO AFRICANUS. often repulsive. But just as his life derives a certain in- terest from his conmction with tJoethe. so his works are of value to the student of Cierman literature as illustrations of the character and teadcneies of the so-called Sturm und JJraug period, IjC^Oy a sign of the zodiac, which the sun entert? al)Out July 22 and leaves about Aug. 23. The constellation of the siimc name, one of the finest in the heavens, occupies the zodiacal region corresponding to the sign Virgo, and contains many remarkable nebulae Leo, the name of six emperors of the Byzantine em- pire : Leo I„ thk TiiitAriAX (457-474). b. in Tln-aciM about 4Un. was only a military tribune when the emperor Marcian died in 457. But Aspar, the conimamlcr-in-chief of the army, dared not grasp at the crown himself, as he was a foreigner by birth, uf the nation of the Alaui, aii»I an Arian by creed. Ho raised Leo to the throne, persuaded tliiit he was too indolent to care for anything more than the at- tributes of power. Leo, however, soon emancipated him- self from the influence of Aspar, and even seized the very first opportunity of getting entirely rid of him. A magnif- icent expedition was nmlertaken in connection with Anthe- mius, emperor of the West, against Genseric, king of the Vandals in Africa. The expedition failed utterly, and the odium nf the failure was thrown on Aspar. The Vandals being Arians like the Byzantine minister, a rumor of trea- son arose, and under the riots which ensued Leo had Aspar killed in the interior of the palace. In the beginning of his reign several successful campaigns had been made against the Huns, but in the latter part military calamities were added to inundations, earthquakes, and conflagrations. Leo I. was the first Christian king who at the ceremony of coronation received his crown from the hands of a bishop — an ominous precedent; he favored the clergy much, and is generally called the Great by the orthodox party; the Arians called him Mnrdfa, the "butcher." — Leo II. (from Jan. to Nov., 474) was a grandson of Leo I., and only four years old at the death of his grandfather. — Leo III., the IsAV RiAN (717-741), b. in Isauria about 680 of poor parents, enlisted in the army, where he rose rapidly, and was com- mander-in-chief of the Eastern army against the Saracens in 7I<>, when Theodosius III. deposed and exiled Anastasius IF. Leo chose not to acknowleilge Theodosius III., march- ed his army against him in the name of Anastasius II., de- feated him, and seized the crown for himself. The Saracens foHuwod him, and besieged Constantinople for two years, but having been routed several times, they were at last re- pelled with great loss. In 726 he issued an edict ordering all images to be removed fr.>ra the churches of the empire, and thus began the memorable contest between the icono- clasts and iconolaters which disturbed the empire for more than a century. The immediate result of the edict was a general commotion, especially in the western jtrovinces, and in 72S the exarchate became lost to the Byzantine crown. — Leo IV. (775-780), b. in 750, a son of Couslantinc v., whom he succeeded. He was mild and tolerant, but weak : his generals, however, were very successful against the Bulgarians .and Arabs. — Leo V., the Armenian (81.*?- 820), arrived from the commandership <if the army to the throne through a long series of despicable treasons; but having once established himself firmly on the throne by his brilliant victories over the Bulgarians and Arabs, he showed himself an administrator of uncommon ability. Reforms were introduced, and the wliolo administrative system placed on a footing of honesty and justice. He was violent, however, even cruel, and utterly intolerant. He persecuted the worshippers of images with great severity. At last a conspiracy was formed, and he was murdered on Christmas I>ay in the church, before the altar. — Li:o VI., THE Piiir.osoi'MKK (886-012), b. in 865, a sou of Basil I., whom he succeeded. He was a writer. His OracuUi is a poem in iambic verses, prophesying the fate of the Byzan- tine empii-c : there are several editions of it. His Orntioucs, numbering thirty-three, arc composed mostly on theologi- cal subjects; tiiere is no collected edition of them, but some are found in Baronius's,4njta/fff, others in BiUiothera pfifruiii, etc. Alorc important was his treatise on military afl'airs, mostly consisting of extracts from other writers. There exist many editions of this work, as well as an Eng- lish translation by .John Cheke (155)), and a French by Joly dc Mezcray (1771). The reign of this ruler was one uninterrupted scries of stupidities and failures. Leo I., Saint, Pope, regarded by many Protestants as the first real pope, and surnamed the (Jueat. b. about 390, probably at Kome; in early life disjilayed uncommon zeal, knowledge, and capacity, and was often employed by the ]»opes upon important ecclesiastical and political duties; was chosen pope in 440, though only a deacon. Leo op- posed the Pelagian, Manieha'an, Priscillian, and Eutychiau heresies; labored with great ability for the cvtonsion of the Roman primacy; visited Attila in person (452), and in- duced him to spare Rome, but in 455 the city was sacked by (ieuseric. Leo d. Nov. 10, 461. Of the many editions of his writings, the best is that of the Bailcriui (Venice, 753-757). — Leo II., Saint, became pope in 082, and d. in 68^. — Leo III., a Roman, became pope iu 795; crowned Charlemagne emperor of the West, and freed Rome from Byzantine domination. D. June II, 8!6. — Leo IV., a Ro- man, became pope in 847; built the Leonine wall about the Vatican suburb, which is hence culled the Leonine City ; restored the town of Porto, which he colonized with Cor- sicans, and founded Leopolis (now deserted), 12 miles from Civita Vecchia. D. July 17, 855. — Leo V., a Benedictine and cardinal, became pope Oct. 28, and d. in prison Dec. 6, 903. — Leo VI., a Roman, became jiopo July 6, 928. and d. Fob. 3, 929. — Leo VII.. a Roman, became pope in 9;J6, and d. in 939. Little is known regarding him. — Leo VIII., a Roman, was made popo by Otho I. in U63, in place of the infamous .lohn XII. Benedict V. was his rival. I). 905. — Leo IX. (lintno), iin Alsatian, cousin-german to Conrad the Salic, b. June 21, 1002 ; became bishop of Taul in 1026; was celobratcd for learning; was nominated pope at Worms in 1048, and recognized at Rome in 1049; was largely under the influence of Ilildebrand, afterwards (iregory VII. The great events of his pontificate were tlie Berengurian con- troversy and the great exertions of Leo and Uildebrand for the extension of discipline. I). Apr. 13, 1054. — Leo X. (Ginvnimi de' Medici), son of Lorenzo the Magnitieent, b. at Florence Dec. U, 1475; received the tonsure and was made abbot of Fontedolce and of Passignano when but seven years old; became cardinal in /^f^/o when thirteen, and full cardinal-deacon when seventeen (1492); was exiled with the other Mudici in 1494; served under Julius II. against the French as legate and field-marshal, but was taken prisoner at Ravenna 1512: by the aid uf the em- peror, the pope, Venice, and Spain restored the Medici to Florence 1512; succeeded Julius II. as pope 1513. His pontificate is memorable for the splendor of the])apal court; his extensive patronage of learning and art; the reorgani- zation of the L'niversity of Rome, and the establishment of a committee under the presidency of Lascaris for the publication of Greek manuscripts ; the scandalous and open sale of indulgences iu order to procure the necessary means of building St. Peter's church ; the origination of the Ref- ormation under the influence of Luther, at which he at first laughed as a ludicrous monkish quarrel; the c()ntirmation and extension of the Spanish power in Italy ; and the final suppression of the Florentine republic. As a prince, Leo had illustrious qualities; as an ecclesiastic, he certainly failed, as much from a lack of the ecclesiastical spirit as from a want of knowledge of the tendencies of the critical times in wiiich !ic lived. — LeoXI. (Alcsaandro Ottuciauo de'Mcdici), a grand-nephew of Leo X., b. at Florence 1535; became bishop of Pistoia 1573; archbishop of Florence 1574; car- dinal 1583 : po]>e 1605 ; d. Apr. 27. 1605. after a pontificate of twenty-six days. — Leo XII. (Aunihnle dclln O'emja), b. Aug. 2, 1760; became archbishop of Tyre 1793; cardinal in islO; pope in 1823; extended papal authority, and re- formed some points of the temporal and spiritual adminis- tration. I). Feb. 10. 1829.— Leo XIII. {(nm-acrhino IWci), b. Mar. 2. islll, ut Carpineto, in the di(pcese of Anagni; be- came a cardinal in 1846; chamberlain of the Sacred College in 1877, and pope in 1878. Leo (Heinrioh). b. Mar. 19, 1799, at Rudolstadt, the capital of the German principality of Sehwartzburg-Rudol- etadt. Under the influence of Jahn he changed from medi- cine to history, took part in Jena ancl Giittingen with great energy in all the agitation of the ymmg students, and wrote U^hrrdiv Vt'r/dsiiKtij dev fomhardisrfieti Sfiidtc (1820). But suddenly he broke off all these connections, went to Italy with a stipend from the princess of Rudolstadt. and became on his return an enthusiastic admirer of liegel. Having settled in 1828 as professor in history at the l'niversity of Halle, he developed a great productivity, following more or less closely the tracks of Hegel's ideas in his llnudhurh der GeirhichU dm Mtttelalters (1830), Gcnrhirhtf der ifnh'mijich- en Stfiatni (3 vols., 1829), Ziruff /iUrficni nicdrrViudixrhe Geuchichten (2 vols., 1832-35). But once more he suddenly and harshly turned against his own f<u'mer standpoint, at- tacking the Hegelian philosophy in a rather curious man- ner in his lh\ Difntcrire^f uiid die f}ciifMrhfu I'liirriKifHten (1836), SriiHchreifiru an Gorren (1838), and Die Jletjclinfjcn (1839). Hengstenberg had now become his idol. Under his influence, and in the service of ultra-reactionary tend- encies, he wrote Lchrhnch der t^nireniiifffCHcfiivhtr (6 vols., 1835-441 and Lcii/aden fur df'n Unfrrrirht in dcr V>iii-rr- edfr/egfhichte (4 vols., 1838-40), and a number of articles in the Evangcliachc Kirckemeittmg. D. Apr. 24, 1878. Leo Africa'nus (Joannes), originally named Al Has- san luN Mohammed, b. at Uranadu, Spain, about 1485, of LEO ALLATIUS— LEON. 1729 Muoriish parents, who emigrated to Fez io Morocco after the capture of Granada by the Spaaiard^. At the age of sixteen bo accompanied uu uncle on an embassy to Tim- buctoo, and afterward travelled through ."cverul countries of N. and Central Africa, penetrating through Bornoo to Nubia, de:?cending the Nile, and extending his explorations into Persia. Returning from Constantinople by sea io 1j17, ho was captured by corsairs and taken to Rome, where he became a Christian, was patronized by Pope Leo X., whose name he took, learned Italian ancl Latin, and taught Arabic. I), at Tunis in 150!*. His great work, the Deiftrtption of Africa, was written in Arabic, published in Italian by Ramusio (1650) and in Latin by Elzevir (K.:i2j. Le'o Alla'tius [Latinized form of Leonk ALLArn], b. of (ireek parents in the island of Chios in 1 JS6. lie was taken when nine years old to Calabria iu Italy, and thence in ir.OO to Home to complete his studios; was employed in HJ22 by Pope (ircgory XV. to superintend the transfer to Rume and the incorporation in the \'atican of the Heidel- berg library, which had been given to the pontiff" by tho clectorof Bavaria; was nppointtMUiy Pope Alexander VII, in IGfil librarianof tho Vatican, which office he held till his dL*ath in lfit»9. Leo was a ]»rolific writer: his works were partly editions and elucidations of the classic and ecclesi- astic writers and notices of authors, and partly treatises on the history and doctrines of (he Roman Church and on tho diffcroncos between the Eastern and Western churches. Though the son of (Ireck parents, be was an extreme par- tisan of the Roman Church. A complete list of his pro- <Iuctions ( JO enumerated by Fabricius) is added to his Errrritniio tfe MrtiMuvft Trntporum Aufi'ftiontni (Cologne, |tU.M. and is also given by Fabricius in bis liibtiotheca lirarti, vol. xi. 4.'i7 "yy., ed. ilarles. (Seo Creuzer. Znr Gench, tier C((t>iH. P/iilofoffir.) II. Drisler. Leo'beilf town of Austria, in the province of Styria, on the .Mur, is beautifully situated, well built, and fortified. Here a preliminary trenfy was concluded (Apr. 18, 17M7^ between Austria and France, which was followed half a year Inter by the Peace of Campo Formio. Le'obschiitZ) town of Prussia, in the province of Sile- sia, on th" Zinna. It has a large trade in wool, ffax, and corn. Pop. S27L Leoch'arcSy an Athenian sculptor of the middle of the fourth century n. c, belonged to the second Athenian scliKol. Pliny mentions several of his works, and speaks with enthusiasm c»f llieiii. Uf one, inini/mi^fle curried off In/ the Enifff, which originally was cast iu bronze, there are marble copies in Rome and V^cuicc. Le'o Diac'onus, b. about a. d. 950 at Caloc in Ionia; Wiis sent to Constaiitiiiopio to pursue his sturlics, and was j>redeut(iHJ6) when the populaeo brokeoutin revolt agninst tile emperor Nieeiihorua I'hoeas : ticeoiupauied Basil II. in the war against the Bulguriuns, though filling the office of deacon ; wrote a history of the evcnis that took place in his own time from A. n. U.'i'J to D75, valuable for its iu- formaMon, though faulty in style. This work was first published (Paris. 1H[S) by Hase, who has collected in bis preface the chief facl.<* of bis life; reissued in tho Corpus J/iHltri« liyzatitinic (Bonn, IS^H). II. Drisleh. Le'o Grammat'icuSf of whose life scarcely anything is known, and wln)so date even is doubttul, wrote, probably at the beginning of the eleventh eeutury, under tho title Chrttiuujruphiit ( \(H3voypa^i.<x \, a narrative of Byzantine events froiu H7.'i to *Jiii a. n. The work is extant, and was published along with Theophanc* by Combefis ( Paris, 1G55). H. Ukislkii. Leo'la* tp. of Adams CO., Wis. Pop. |S5. I*coni'iiisU»r, town of England, in the county of Here- ford, on the Lugg. It is the eentre of the most celebrated cattle-breeding district of England. Pop. 5865. Leominster, post-v. and tp. of Worcester eo., Mass., on the Na-fbua Kivrrand on the Boston (Minton and I-'itoh- burg and the Fit^-libtirg R. Rs., 18 miles N. of Worcester and 10 miles W, N. W. of Boston. It has a national and a savings bank, a newspaper. 5 ehurches. a large public lilirary. a high sehool, 2 hotels, and a number of nt'iroa. The principal manufacturing business ecmsisls of horn gitods. furniture, pianos, children's eiirriages. tunning and currying, paper, woollen, linen. lealber board mills, and ft)rk-workp. The village is supplied with ai]ueduet-wator at a cost of about $15(1.(100. and with gnsworks. It is sur- rounded by some of the best farming IuihI in (he county. IV)p. ;isy4. l**. N. RocTWKi.i,. En. " ICnti rtPnisK." Le'oilf province of Northern Spain, comprising an area of filfifi s(|uare miles, with .150,002 inhiibilants. It is cov- ered with mountain-ranges, whieb, espeeinlly in the north- ern part, enclose beautiful. wi-ll-waterei|, mii) f.rtilo valleys, while the eastern jmrfs are more level and afford excellent Vol.. II.— nt:i pasturage. Large flocks of merino sheep are reared; flax, beiup, maize, and fruits arc raised, and many medicinal herbs arc gathered. Together with the provinces of Sala- manca and Zamora it formed the former kingdom of Leon, founded in 74(J by Alfouzo the Catholic, who conquered it from the Saracens, and was united to Castile by Ferdinand III. in 12.10. The inhabitants of this province, who gene- rally arc uneducated and la/.y. but honest antl noble, boast much of the purity of their blood and the antiquity of their Christianity. Leon, town of Spain, the capital of the province of Leon, at tho confluence of the Bernesga nnd the Torio. Since tho annexation of the old kingdom of Leon to Castile the city has lost its importance, and although it has a large market for wool and horses, and many beautiful churches and magnificent palaces, its general character is decay. Its eatbeilral, built in the fourteenth century, is perhaps the most elegant specimen of Gothic architecture extant. Pop. 10,040. Leon, city of Mexico, state of fiunnajuuto, near tho boundary of Jalisco. It was founded in 1 J7(>, but did not acquire importance until the miildleof the present century. It now claims to be second only to tho capital of the re- public in point <jf population, which is generally estimated I at 100,000. Tho chief industries arc tanning, saddlery, I and manufactures of cotton and woollen stuff's. There are I abundant iron -mines at Comanja. a fi'w miles to the X. I Leon is well built, has a large and beautiful square, with several fine public buildings and churches, and has become the commercial emporium for an extensive region, cspeci- I ally for tho rich plain or bajio of tluauajuato, famous for I its thriving cities and its prosperous agriculture. Leon has ; for years aspired to become the capital of a new state {Es- [ t'ttlo (it( iVutro) to bo formed of parts of duanajuato and j Jalisco, and is not without hopes of becoming the capital of Mexico. A railroad is now (1S75) contracted for by a Mexican company from Mexico to Leon, and another by an .\meriean company from Leon to the Rio Grande, which will vastly increase the importance of this city. Leon, town of Nicaragua, and the capital of the depart- ment of Leon, is situated in lat. 12° 25' N., Ion. S6° 57' W., in the centre of a well-watered and well-cultivated plain, 200 feet above the sea, and numbers 24.000 inhabitants, Creoles ami mestizoes of difTercnt grades. It is divided into six quarters (canloncs) — Sagrario, San Felipe, San Juan. Calvario, Zaragoza, and Laborio y San Sebastian, and separated only by a street from the Indian town of Sub- liiiba. The city was originally founded by Francisco Fernandez de Conlova in 152:i, on the western border of Lake Managua in Imbita, but on account of various em- barrassments of the location the inhabitants removed in KilO the city, together with the large Inclinn town Sub- tiabfl. to the present place. WmA water was found here, which now is led fntm different springs through the ei(y. Formerly the capital of the province of Nicaragua, and tho scat of a bishop and of the Spanish government. Leon has de- veloped into the best builtcity of the republic. In itscentral part the streets are paved and lighted. The finest building 18 (he cathedral, commenced in 1746 by Bishop Marin Bullon y Figueroa. and finished in 1774 by Bishop Vinchcs y Calirera. It belongs to no particular style, but is of im- mense dimensions, though too low in j>roportion to its length and breadth. The front facade is ornamented with a largo qu:Ldrangular lower, whose platform offers a most splendid view. In (he neighborboud td' the cathedral stands tne old episcopal palace, and connected wiih it (he ciMlege of San Ramon, the university of Nicaragua. Both build- ings were founded in lfi7S by Bishop Andres ile las Navas y l^uevedo. The new episcopal palace, situated at the southern corner of the plaza and close to the cathedral, was not finished in IS7;i. At the northern corner of the jJaza stands the old government building. But none of these structures are distinguished by architectural beauty. The ten or twelve other churches of Leon are rather coinmon- plai'o, though two of them nossess interesting peculiarities ; thus, the front facade of tlie churcli Del Calvario is orna- mented with bns-reliefs representing scenes of Holy Scrip- lure, which are not without artistic merit, nnd in the in- terior of (he rhurch I)e la Merced several good pictures are found and a Iteantifiil altar. Several former monasteries have been taken into public use; (bus, the monastery of San Juan de Dios has been transformed into a hospital, which serves as a practical school for medical students. ' Leon has no industry, but some trade through the port of Corinlo. Tho surroundings are very beaulilul. and mineral springs are found on many points at the foot of Sierra de los Marrabios. The town of Subtiaba, situated close by, has a large ehureh, almost as large as (he cathedral of Leon, but no other structure of any imporlaiiee. It is divided into Iwo quarters. San Pedro and Puelila Orande, At the time of the conquest it bad lUO.diio inhaliitanls ; the pros- 1730 LEON— LEONIDAS. ent number is not known. The inhabitants are engaged in some small Indian industry. ArcusT Niemann. JjeoUj county of Florida, bounded N. by Georgia. Area, GOO square miles. It is undulating in the N. and level in the S. It is very fertile, and abounds in heavy forests and beautiful lakes and streams. Corn and cotton iire staple products. It is traversed by the Jacksonville Pen^acola and Mobile R. R. Cap. Tallahassee. Pop. 15. 2:10. liCon, county of E. Central Texas. Area. 1100 square miles. It is bounded E. by Trinity River and W. by the Navastita. The county is fertile, and contains extensive timber-lands. Iron ore and lignitic coal abound. Live- j^tock, corn, and cotton are staple products. The county is traversed by the International and Great Northern R. R. Cap. Centrevillc. Pop. 6523.' fjCon, post-v. of Centre tp., cap. of Decatur cc, la., 21 miles S. of Osceola. It has a national bank and 1 "weekly ueiTsp:ipt'r. Pop. fS20. Leon, tp. of Goodhue co., Minn. Pop. 970. Leou, post-tp. of Cattaraugus co., N. Y. Pop. 1204. Leou, ]tost-tp. of Monroe co., Wis. Pop. 1241. Leon, tp. of Waushara co., Wis. Pop. 869. Leon'ard (Daniel), b. at Norton, Mass., May 29, 1740 : graduated at Harvard College in 1760 ; became a prominent lawyer; was frequently chosen to the legislature, and at first supported the Whig cause with great energy and elo- quence, but at the outbreak of hostilities adhered to the royal cause, losing thereby a considerable estate. He un- dertook to reply to John Adams's arguments against the colonial measures of Lord North, and his letters, signed MasgdchiiHettciii^is, have been pronounced the best defence (if the English government that appeared in America. Leonard left Boston with the British forces (1776) ; resided for a time in London; was many years chief-justice of Bermuda, and d. at London June 27, 1S29. The polemic lu-tween Adams and Leonard was reprinted in 1819, with a ]iri'f;ice by the former, who employed the nom de plume of Sin-itu'ilns. Leonard (James), b. at Pontypool, England, about 1018; settled at Taunton, Mass., in 1652, and established there the first iron- works in the British colonies of America. D. at Taunton in 1691. lieonar'do da Pi'sa, or Leonardo Bonacci, b. at Pisa in 1170 ur ItSO ; spent a great part of his life in travelling tlinuigh Egypt, Syria, and Greece in order to study the dift'crcnt systems of arithmetic, and acquired a great reputation as a mathematician. He was the first to introduce algebra in Europe, and he contributed much to the full understanding of the Arabic system of arithmetic. His principal work. Liber Abaci — which latter word, orig- inally the name of an instrument of calculation, he uses as the general designation of arithmetics — was written in 1202, nnd published in a splendid edition in 1857 at Rome by B. Boneompagiii. Leonardo da Vinci. Sec Vinci, in Appendix. Leou'ardsville, post-v. of Brookfieid tp., Madison co., N. Y. It has a church, a national bank, and manufactures of impurtanee. I^eon'ardtown, post-v. and tp., cap. of St. Mary's co., Md.. on Briton's Bay, a tributary of the Potomac River, has 2 churelies, a court-house, a jail, a town-hall and library, a weekly newspaper, 2 hotels, 6 stores, 2 wheelwright and blacksmith shops, etc. It is quite popular as a summer re- sort. Pop. of V. 4S5; of tp. 2957. B. Harris Camalier, for Ed. **St. Mary's Beacon." Lcon^ de (Fray Lris Ponce), b. at Belmontc near Gr;in:ida. Spain, in 1527; entered the University of Sala- niunoa at an early age, distinguishing himself in classics and philosophy; entered the order of St. Augustine at Salamanca in 1543, devoting himself to a profound study of sacred literature ; became in 1560 a licentiate in theology and doctor of divinity, and in 1561 obtained the jtrofes- sorship of St. Thomas Aquinas (theology) by competition with seven candidates, and in 1571 obtained in a<lditioii the chair of siiered literature. He had become known as the most elegnnt poet of Spain, when, on account of a spirited translation of the Canticle, to which, in opposition to tlie received teachings of the Church, but in conformity with the conclusions of modern sohnlarship, be gave the form of a pastoral eelogue. he was thrown into prison by the Inquisition (1572), upon the double accusation of Lu- 1 hor:inism and of disobedience to the decrees of the Council of Trent in having translated a book of Scripture into a modern tongue. He was brought before the high eourt more than tifty times, easily vindicated himself from the first charge, and presented an elegnnfly-written defence, which is one of the admired monuments of Spanish prose. It was of no avail thnt he proved the translation to have been made at the request of a friend, and without intention of publication: the liominieans, who controlled the Holy Office, were jealous of his fame as the most distinguished theologian of a rival order, and ho was condemned to the rack; but, fortunately, this sentence was revoked by the higher court at Madrid, and by the urgent efforts of power- ful friends he was liberated after five years' confinement, during which he had written his classic treatise On the JVanirg 11/ Christ (*'De )os Nombres do Cristo"), and com- menced other works, some of which his broken health pre- vented his completing. The university remained faithful to its greatest name, and Fray Luis resumed his lectures with opplause Dec. 30, 1576, on whicli occasion he com- menced his address with the words. ** As we remarked in our last lecture," thus seeming to forget the long and jiainful interval of silence. In 1580, Frny Luis puldished a Latin Commentary on the Canticle ; in 15S3 Thr }*erfccf W'i/f (" La Pcrfecta Casada") ; wrote soon after a poetical panijihrasc of the book of Job, and translations of Virgil's Erloijiu-H and (icnrf/ic9 and some of the Odes of Horace, which were not published during his life. His lyric poems, the finest in the language, shared the same fate, as also his transla- tions of forty of the Psalms. Ho rose to be general and provincial vicar of his order, passed the remainder of his life in perfect tranquillity, and d. at Madrigal Aug. 23, 1591. His poems and miscellaneous works were first published by his friend Qucvedo in 1631, since which time they have been recognized as Spanish classics. (See Ticknor's Spanish Literature and A. Arango y Escandon's Proceto dc Fnii/ Luia de Leon (Mexico, 1871), an elegant and scholarly production.) Porter C. Bliss. Leones'sa, town of S.Italy, in the province of Aquila degli Abruzzi. This town, consisting of several small vil- lages, was given in dower by Charles \. to his daughter Margaret, and rich mementoes of that period are still pre- served. Pop. in 1874, 5451. Leonfor'te? town &f Sicily, in the province of Catania. This town is situated on the skirts of a mountain about 33 mites S. W. of Catania. It is surrounded by a wall, and in the churches may be seen some very gouil pictures. It bus an active trade in grain, oil, almonds, sulphur, wines, etc. Pop. in 1874, 12,010. Lie'onhardt (Gerhard Adolph Wilhelm), b. at Ncu- haus in Hanover June 6, 1815: studied jurisprudence at Giittingen and Berlin: entered the service of the Hano- verian government in 1837, and was appointed minister of justice in 1865. For fifteen lears ho was jircsident of the committee of examination in jurispru<lencc. AViicn (in 1866) Hanover was annexed to Prussia, Leonhardt was first made president of the court of appeal at Celle. and then chief-justice for the new provinces, Nov. IG, 1867 : the king gave him a scat in the Prussian Herren-haus (" House of Lords"), and shortly after ho was appointed Prussian minister of justice. Both in Hanover and Prussia many important and excclient laws are due to him. and as a mem- ber of the federal council and president of the standing committee on justice ho has created a new criminal code for the Gennan empire. Avgist Niemann. Le'onhard, von (Karl C^sar), b. at Rumpeuheim, in the electorate of Hesse. Sept. 12, 1779; studied political economy at Marburg and Giittingen, and hehl several important positions in the Hessian government from 1800 to 1S16. At Giittingen the lectures of Bliimenbaeh led him to the study of mineralogy and geology, and he continued to cultivate these sciences with great energy and success, even while in office. In 1816 he was mn<le a member of the Academy of Sciences at Municli, and in i81S he ac- cepted the chair as professor in geology at the University of Heidelberg, where he d. Jan. 23, 1862. From IJ^O? to 1829 he edited the Ta8ch< nbiich fiir MiuiraltHjic, and from 1S30 to 1858 the Jahrbuch /Ur Mintrattiific. His writings, the most prominent of which arc yulunjrtirhichte der Erde (4 vols., 1836-45), O'rundzuge dcr Mineraloijie (2 vols., 1860), etc., are not so much distinguished by originaLdis- coveries and independent researches as by a clear and com- prehensive representation of what was already known. Leo'ni, post-tp. of Jackson co., Mich. Pop. 1376. Leon'idasy post-tp, of St. Joseph co., Mich. Pop. 1463. Leonidas^ king of Sparta, succeeded his half-brother, Clcomenes, about 490 b. c, and was sent in the spring of ■180. when the Persians had conquered Macedonia, to de- fend the defiles of Thermopylje, between Mount <¥Aix and the Maliac Gulf. With the co-operation of a tleet in the gulf, the defiles could be defended by a comparatively small army, but the Greek fleet was unfit for battle at the motnent the Persian attack began, and, what was still worse, they had forgotten to occupy a practicable pathway which led across Mount (Eta, and which was shown to the L EON I DAS— LEOPOLD. 1731 Pcrsions by a traitor, Ephialtes. For two days the Greeks j resisted llic barlmriun host with great valor; the Persian , losses were eiiorliums. But at daybreak on the third day Leoniihis learned lliat the Persians had found the pathway j and were eoniing in masses across the mountain. There was still time to retreat. But having sent away his aux- iliary Irocips, Leonidas with his SdO Spartans remained in the defiles, and, nceupying a small hill in the centre of the position, they fought to the last man. Leonidas [.\<iui'.{« or -Sin], the name of two poets whose remains are preserved to us in the lircek Auihntogi/. The former, a native of Tarentum, flourished about n. c. 27Ct. lie composed over 100 epigrams in tlie Dorio dialect. — The other, of .Mexandria, lived in the reign of Nero at Itome. In the Aiitlinlniji/ there are 41! epigrams ascribed to him, some of which arc probably not his. They arc less highly csleenied than those of Lconidas of Tarontum. The poems of both are edited by Jacobs in the Anthnioijia (Jrntn, and by Jleineke (Leipsic, 171)1). H. Drisi.f.r. Le'oninc Verse [from Pope Leo II., or from one Leoninus. Benedictine canon of yt. Victor, Paris, in the twelfth century], the rhyming hexameter, pentameter, or elegiac verse, especially in Latin. Traces of this rhyming practice ajipear in Ovid, anil even in earlier poets, but the custom prevailed extensively in the Middle Ages, the rhyme being often barbarously imperfect, and the metre not much belter. Leonowens ( A.nn.v IIakriette CuawfouI)), b. at Caer- narvon, Wales, Nov. o, ls;i4, daughter of a British officer, Thomas Maxwell Crawford, who while acting as aide-de- camp to Sir .1. Maenaughton was cut in pieces by the Sikhs on the frontiers of Lahore. She married an olhcer, Thomas Leonowens. upon whose death in India she was left in that country with two children dependent upon her own exer- tions, and resided for some time at Singapore. Through the recommendation of the English consul at that port she was selected to fill the post of governess in the family of the late first king of Siani, who, having learned English from .\meriean missionaries before coming to the throne, <lcsired his numerous children to be educatetl in that lan- guage, of which he was an enthusiastic admirer and culti- vator, having even established a printing-press within his ]>alaco. Arriving at Bangkok in ISt;.'!, she filled for four years not only the position of instructress to the royal household, but of secretary to the king in his extensive English corrcspontlenco, and exerted a considerable influ- ence as a mediator with the king in behalf of the victims of arbitrary oppression, whether natives or foreigners. The present first king of iSiam, then a boy, was the special ob- ject of her careful and successful training, and shortly after his accession to the throne in ISGS abolished slavery throughout his iloniinions. (See ,Siam.) i\Irs. Leonowens on retiring from her post in .Inly, lr*0", settled in the U. S. and engaged in literary pursuits, being now a resident of New York. She has published two interesting volumes upon her Siamese experiences — The ICnyfiiih Govcrnemt at the Ctmrt of Sidin (iHTti) and the Jiumance of the Ifarem (1S72). Leontini. See Lkntini. Leon'tiu!*, or Leo Pilatiis, a native of Thcssalonion, according to Hody, but Ilatlam nnikes him (on the author- ity of Petrarch's letters) a Calabrian; came to Florence about LIOO A. n., and was employed by the rojjublic at the request of Boccaccio to teach his native language. Ho was the first who publicly lectured on Homer in Western Europe, an<t the first who translated that poet into Latin. Leaving I'lorcnee, he visited Venice, where he met Petrarch, who had studied tJrcek under Barlaam. Thence he went to Con- stantinople, intending to rottirn to Italy, but d. while cross- ing the Adriatic. Gibbon <lescribes his appearance and manners as repulsive. (Ihrlinr (tnri F<tll, vol. viii. ]). 1 IS.) prom hiui Boccaccio colleoted the materials for his treatise ou the genealogy of the heathen gods. (Sec (libbon, /. c. ; Hody, Dc (Jrircit ilhiiilribuii, pp. 1-11.) H. lIlllsi.Ell, Ijenp'nrd [Lat. ten, "Hon," and pnrdiiH. a "panther," it ha\ iug been anciently believed to be the offspring of the lion and panther], the /'r/i't liujianlitit or Lcitji'inlun vnriitn. The leopard, though not the largest, is one of the most active and bloodthirsty of the eat family. I'ound through- out a largo part of Africa and of Asia and its islands, it is of even ivider distribution than the lion. It rarely assails man, but among animals, wild and domestic, it is extremely destructive. Its beautifully spotted fur gives ita readily distinguished character. The hhick leopard is a variety brought from Java. The "hunting leopard " bo- longs t(i a very distinct genus of the cat-family ( (jiirpttrtln)^ anil is more properly known as the Chkktaii (which see). i/Copnr'di (Hiacomo), b. of a noble family at Reeanati, not I:vr from .\ncon;i.in 17'.'^; was taught the rudiments of Latin and of philosophy by two ecclesiastics ; at the age of eight began Ureek by himself, and after his fourteenth year pursued his studies without master, or even guide, making unrestricted use of his father's large and choice library. " .M sixteen," says one of his biographers. '• his learning was so vast that it is impossible to speak of it without seeming to exaggerate." lie was comidctely mas- ter of the tireck and Latin languages and classical litera- ture, was familiar with the Fathers of the Church and other later (Jreek and Latin writers, had a scholarly know- ledge of English, French, Spanish, and Hebrew, and was profoundly versed in his own language. Notwithstanding acquirements so disproportionate to his years, his faculties were not in the least clogged by them, and his reason and imagination lost nothing of their astonishing power and individuality. His physical strength, however, gave way. and there were already symptoms of the complicated and cruel malady which finally ended his life. At the age of nineteen, conscious of his great genius and burning with a lofiy ambition, ho longed for the resources of a larger town ; but his father, a zealous Catholic, and already alarm- ed at the skeptical tendencies of his son, refused to consent to his wider contact with the world; and the obedient son reluctantly remaineil at home until 1S22. As it is impos- sible in this brief notice to eniuuerato his works in the or- der of their production, the reader is referred to the biog- r.iphies of Le(qiardi for a list of the brilliant results of his labors during tlieso years. The splendid success of the three poems entitled AW Itullii, Suprn il Moiiiimciiln di Dante, Ad Anrjcli) Mat, etc. induced him to brave all op- position and go to Rome, which ho did in 1822. Here he was enthusiastically welcomed, and soon made the ac- quaintance of Niebuhr, who expressed to Bunsen and other eminent tierinans the liveliest admiration for the learning and genius of tlie jiale. bent, and emaciated young Italian. Ho even procured for him the ofl'cr of tho chair of Ureek jihilosojihy in the Univer.ity of Berlin, but the wretched health of the poet forced him to decline this flattering ofler. His small pecuniary means were soon exhausted, his % lews on the subject of religion prevented him from accepting employment at the papal court, and ho was obliged to re- turn, in the spring of tho same year, to llecauati. where he renmined, with occasional long visits to ^lilan and Bologna, until 1S27. In that year he went to Florence, where he lived — with now and then a visit to his family — until IS:!."., in close friendship with Capponi, Nicculini, etc. The joy- ousness which had nmrked tho first boyhood of Leopardi had faded early away, and was succi-cded by an ever- increasing sadness, which had now darkened into tho deepest melancholy — alike tho cause and the consequence of his hojieless philosophy. No doubt his physical sufl'er ings largely influenced his philosophical beliefs, though he protested vigorously against this ajudogy for them, and insisted that his absolute denial of a beneficent Provi- dence, and his assertion that //o/a was tho only reality, were the results of a free antl earnest exercise of his reason and of the courage which he had to ]iroelaini his conclu- sions. In IS.'i.'i ills devoted frii-nd Uanieri took him to Naples in tho hope of alleviating at least his terrible phys- ical sufl'erings. The elVect of the change was at first bene- ficial, and even Leopardi began to regard life as a thing to bo desired : but neither the clinmte nor the tentlercst care on the part of his generous friend conUl save him, and he expired on ,Inne M. I.s;t7. Leopardi has been compared with Byron, but there is little in connnon between the self- ish bitterness of the great English poet and the profound melancholy id' the Italian — the former a natural outgrowth of unbridled passions, the latter of acute and incessant physical sufl'ering. The student of Leopardi will lie likely to find a stronger jiarallel between his eliaracter and genius and those of Pascal, widely ditl'erent as were their phi- losophical and religious convictions. Though it is not im- probable that had his life been prohmged this earnest seeker after truth would have ultinnitely rested in a less ' desiiairing creed, yet the miserable attempts to uuike it ' appear that Leopardi in his last days sought for a reeon- I eilmtion with the Church have been nnist thoroughly cx- I posed and confuted. (See Maro Alonnier, // ftnti'r t-Mt-' Ite fa Trrn- dt/i Mt,ft» ; also Montanari, tVtinjraJta del Cniitc Lriipardi ; the works of Louis de Sinner, Sainte-Beuve, Schul/,, Kanieri, Uiordani, IJioberti, etc.) The most com- plete collection of Leopardi'fl works yet published was issued from tho press of Lo Monnior nt Florence between i ISI.'i and 1S.')1, under the supervision of dillerent edi- tors. Cauomsi: C. Mausii. Lo'ojtold, post-lp. of Perry CO., Ind. Pop. K02. Leopold I., emperor of Ctermany (l(irif-170.'i), b. at Vienna .lune '.I, 1010, the second son of Ferdinand III. and Maria .Anna of .'<paiii. He was educated for tho Church, but at the death of his elder brother in lO'i.') he became king of HiuiL'nry, rind in ll'js he suoi-eeded his father as 1732 LEOPOLD— LEPIDODENDRON. kiDg of Bohemia aud emperor of Germany. He was a man of small stature and feeble health, with a sour and mclanclioly face, anrl the lip of the Ilapsbiirgers extra- ordinarily developed. He had f^omo interest in ]inj;uistic studies and a fine car for mii'ic. but he was reticent uml stiff in his behavior, a man of rL-(;iiIar and simple habits, but ceremonious, proud, bip;otcd. and hard. Although be was very industrious^ he left the administration in utter confusion, aud in spite of his pcaceableness, or rather timidity, his reign was one long series of wars with Louis XIV., the Turks, and the Hungarians. Of his three wars with France, the two first, which ended by the Peace of Nymwegen in ItJTS and of Ryswiek in IG*J7, arc described in the articles on Lotris XIV. and Wim.iam or Oiiange, and the last one, the SivVMSii AV,\u or Simtkssion. in a separate article. The point at issue between Austria aud Turkey was Transylvania. The Turks held it. and the Hungarians demanded it. In 16l>2 the war began, ami the Turks broke iuto Hungary. But in ^C)C^'^, LeopoUl received troojis fnim the (lerman empire, ."^weden, and France, and money from the j>o])e and the Italian states, and Aug. 1, IfiiU, Montecucc()li succeeded in routing the Turkish army at St. Gothard on the Raab. On Aug. 10 an armistioo of ten years was concluded, in which, however, the Turks re- tained Transylvania, to the great indignation of the Hun- garians. ?^oon after disturbances arose in Hungary from the contest between the national Protestant and the Aus- trian Catholic jiarties. Leopold treated his political ad- versaries with the utmost harshness, and the result was a formidable insurri'ction under the leadership of Tokiilyi in lfiS2. The Hungarians called the Turks to aid. and on July 14, 108.3, an army of 200.000 men laid siege to Vien- na. Leopold had flci. and in spite of the valorous resist- ance of the citizens and the garrison the city would have fallen, and with it the power of the house of Hapsburg, if the Polish king. .Tohn Sobieski, had not arrived before its walls (Sept. 12), and completely routed the besieging army. In 10S7, Archduke Charles of Lorraine defeated the Turks at Mohacs ; in 1097, Prince Eugene defeated thematZenta: aud in 1699 peace was concluded at Carlowitz, by which the Turks ceded Transylvania. Slavonia, etc., and retired behind the Danube, never to endanger Europe again. The Hungarians also submitted, and at the diet of Presburg (16S7) the Hungarian crown was declared hereditary In the family of Hapsburg. Nevertheless, they rose once more, and when Leopold d. at Vienna (May 5, 1705) insurrection ragi'd in his Hungarian countries, and war with France in his Belgian, German, and Italian possessions. Leopold II., emperor of Germany (1790-92). b. at Vienna May 5, 1747, the second son of Francis I. and Ma- ria Theresa. In I7fi5 he succeeded his father as grand duke of Tuscany, and proved himself a libera! and enlightened ruler. But, like his brother, Joseph II., and like Pombal in Portugal and Struensee in Denmark, he was a despotic reformer, and his reforms caused great annoyances and dis- turbances. In 1791) he succeeded his brother in Austria and (iermany. and found on his ascension to the throne the vast em])ire in a critical state. With great tact, however, he managed the difiicult situation. He pacified Hungary, quelled the insurrection in Belgium, concluded jicace with Turkey at Sistova in 1791, and re-established the friendly relations with Prussia by the congress of Reichenbaeh in 1790. .Just as he had entered a confederation with Prus- sia and Saxony for the support of Louis XVI. against his rebellious subjects, he d. suddenly at Vienna Mar. 1, 1792. Leopold L, king of Belgium (18.31-65). b. Dec. 16, 17911, the youngest son of Duke Francis of Sa.xe-Coburg ; received a very careful education, was made a general in the Russian army after the marriage of his sister to the grand duke Constantine, accompanied Alexander I. to Vi- enna and Paris in 1814, and was married in 1810 to the princess Charlotte .Augusta, heir-apparent of Great Britain. After her death in 1817 he lived in retirement in London or travelling. In 1S.10 he refused the crown of Greece, hut in ls:U he aceepted that of BLdgium, and married in 18;i2 a daughter of Louis Philippe, who bore him three children. His reign was calm and undisturbed. He was firm, dis- criminating, ami progressive in his interior policy, an<l he represented liis people with tact and dignity among other sovereigns. D. at Lcaken, near Brussels, Dec. 10, IS 6.".. Leopold II., king of Belgium, b. Apr. 9, 1835, a son of King licopold I. and Queen Louisa, a daughter of Louis Philippe of Fr.ance; was married (.Aug. 22, 185:i) to Marie Hcnricttc. a daughter of the archduke Joseph of Austria, and ascended the throne Dec. 10, lSfi5. Leopold I., prince of Anhalt-Dessau. generally known as the Old Dhssaieu, b. June .1. 1(170. and evinced even as a boy a strung passion for military business. In \(\SS the emperor Leopold I. made him a colonel and chief of a regiment of horse, but in 169'i, at the death of his father, who was a Prussian general-field-raarshal, he en- tered the Prussian service and received his father's regi- ment. He was at once passionate and shrewd, domineering and kind, utterly rough in his manners and often sublime in his feelings. As a youth he fell in love with .Anna Luiso Ffise, the daughter of a druggist, and in spite of all rcmon- , strances, as soon as he was of age ( in 1698) he married her, induced the emperor to raise her to princely rank, and led a noble and happy married life with her. He served from 1 698 to 171-j with great distinction and in high and responsi- ble positions under Eugene and Marlborough in the Nether- i lands, on the Rhine, and in Italy, and on the accession of ! Frederick William I. to the Prussian throne he actually became the head of the Prussian army. He was a master in military training. He invented the equal step, and formed those armies with which Frederick II. founded the political power of Prussia. He was at once despotic and inspiring, and that spirit — a spirit of discipline — before which the Austrians broke down at Sadowa and the French ■ at Sedan, descends from the Old Dessauer. He was, how- I ever, not only a drill-sergeant, like his royal friend. Fred- I erick William I. : he was also a general. His conquest of I Riigen and the capture of Stralsund in 1715 in the war ■ against the Swedes were brilliant exploits. Frederick 11., who disliked him because he smelt of the tofmrrf, cnl/cijhim, valued his capacities as a commander very highly. In the first Silesian war he placed him in command of the army j on the Hanoverian frontier, and in the second he sent him j t't invade Saxony, where ho won the brilliant victory at ' Kesselsdorf which ended the war. After the death of his ' wife, in 1745, he retired from all participation in public life, and d. on his estate at Dessau Apr. 7. 1747. Leopold II., grand duke of Tuscany (1824-59), b. Oct. 3, 1797, a son of the grand duke Ferdinand III. He ruled in the same spirit as his grandfather, Leopold I., emperor of Germany, under the name of liCopold II. In 1847 ho ' granted a free constitution, and although in 1849 he had to flee to Naples, he was recalled shortly after by his own sub- jects. Thus he weathered the liberal storm, but the na- tional, which soon followed, was too powerful for him. In 1859 he iletl wifli his family to A'ienna. No regard was paid to his abdication in favor of his son. His dominions I were incorporated with the kingdrim of Italy in conseqiicnco of a popular vote, and he d. an exile at Brandcis, in Bohe- i mia. Jan. 20, 1S70. j Leos'thenes, an Athenian general of whose earlier ! life nothing is known. In 324. when Alexander the Great i ordered all the Greek states to recall those citizens who had been exiled for political reasons, several of the states rose in rebellion. Alexander dying shortly after, a league was formed for the purpose of driving the Macedonians out of Greece, and Lcosthenes was placed at the head of the con- federate army. His career was short but brilliant. He routed the Boeotians, wlm sided witii the Macedonians, and then defeati'il Antipater, the Macedonian general, and shut him up in Lamia. But while besieging this city he was wounded mortally in the head by a stone thrown from the r:inij)arts. aud d. two days after, 322 ii. c. Lepau'to, Gulf of, also called the (>tilf of Corinth, an inlet of the Mediterranean. 75 miles long and about 16 miles wide, between Peloponnesus and the mainland of (Jreece, terminates to the E. in the Gulf of Patras, con- nected with it by tlie Strait of Lepanto. not more than a ! mile wide. In this gulf was fought (Oct. 7, 1571 i the cel- ebrated battle between Don John of .Austria, commanding the allied Spanish. Venetian, and papal licet, an<l ,Ali Pa?ha, commander of the Turkish fleet, from which battle may be dated the decline of the Turkish power in Europe. (See the I elaborate and very impressive description in Prescott'sy//*- I t->rif ../ /'/n'lip II. nf Spuin.) Lep'idine [Gr. Acn-i?, "scale," or "bark"]. CioHgN, a volatile, oily base, homologous with chinoline, obtained' with that and other bases on distilling quinine orcinchonine with water and potassic hydrate. Its sp. gr. is 1.072, boiling ]ioint between 200° and 271° *'. The isomeric base iridoline. formerly supposed to be identical with lepidine, is found in the oil of coal-tar. C. F. CnAxni.ER. Lepidodeti'dron [Gr. " scale tree "]. a genus of fossil trees, usually referred to the Lyeopodiaeea\ but was once thought to be allied to the coniferous araucarias. Their remains are found in the Devonian rocks and the Lower Coal-measures, and they are believed to have contributed largely to the producti<m of coal. Their surface is marked with scale- shaped spaces, which are the scars of fallen , leaves. Many of them were of great size— 40 to 80 feet high and 3 to feet through. Remains of many species are known, partly American, partly European, and partly common to both couliucuts. LEPIDOLITE— LEPIDOPTERA. I73;i Lrpid'olitC [Gr. Afir.t. " scale," and A.9o5, "stone"], j a species of mica, crvstalliiing in the trimetric systcni, anil in composition a siiieatc of alumina, etc. with lithia. It is generally met with in granular masses, consisting, as its name implies, of foliated scales. liCpidop'tcrn. This term [Or. Aem's, "scale," and irrcpd.'. " wing "] was applied to the huttcrllics and moths hv Linnrcns, in allusion to the fine powdery scales which clothe their wings. liut this is a character of secondary import- ance, ascertain Diplcra(r'ii/cj-. ctc.)and roleo|.tcra. as well as Neuroptera. have the body slightly scaled. The l.epidop- tcra are hetter ilistingui.shcd hy the long, slender larvie (caterpillars), which have usually from two to five pairs of soft, flesh V. unjointed abdominal legs, besides the three thoracic p'airs. They arc active, and eat vegetable food : the pupa (chrysalis) is inactive, the limbs being soldered to the body, the 'whole integument forming a solid ease : while the adult (imago) is distinguished from all other insects by the want of mandibles fitted for mastication (as they exist in a verv rudimentary state), and by the maxilire being united and forming a sucking-tube called the " tongue." Other essential characters are the small head with its large clypeus, the minute lal>rum. the large globular compound eyes, the large, sealed labial palpi held up in front of the face and protecting the tongue, and by the usually broad wings densely covered with minute scales. The l.epidoptcra are essentiallv flying insects ; the broad wings arc strength- ened by hollow rods (the so-called veins, containing an air- tube around which the blood flows), which arc placed near- est together on the front or eostivl edge of the wing. The normal number of these veins is si.x : they are v.ariously brnnehcd, afl"ording characters for distinguishing families an.l genera. .\s they rarely walk, only using their legs as supports while at rest, these appendages are slender and weak, and very uniform in appearance, but frequently the foremost pair of legs are aborted or rndimentary. The head is small, the masticatory muscles being slightly developed, since these insects take little Ibod. ami then only by sucking up dew or honey through their tongue. The thorax, however, filled with the large, powerful muscles of flight, is very largo in proportion to the head, and more or less spherical, duo to the small size of the prothoraeic segment and the rather small third (uietathoracic) segment. The abdomen, or hind body, is cylindrical, about twice as long as the thorax, with no true ovipositor or other appendage, except tv/u valve-like pieces in the female, representing the ovipositor of other insects. In the male there is a pair of hooked forceps adapted f.ir clasping the abdomen of the female during cop- ulation. Heturning to the head, besides the two large com- pounri eyes, are two simple eyes (ocelli ) situated behind the former. " The most interesting organs are the antennie, which vary greatly in the difl'erent groups. In the butter- flies they are knobbed, in the .■sphinx and its allies they are fusiform, in the silkworms ( liombycidu!) they are beauti- Calerpillar, chry.salis, and bullertly, male auil female, of the pine silkworm mi>th {Ilumtii/x </i.v>"r). fully pectinated, the branches being especially long and well develnpeil in the American silkworm (Trim I'l.lii/ihf- mil.) and f'ecropia. Luna, and I'roiiulhea moths. These branched organs are und.oil.te.lly provided with the sense of hearing, as are the knobbi-.l feelers of the butterflies, which have scattered over the knob little auditory sacs con- necting with the antennni nerve. The hairs clothing the body of a liullerfly or moth are simply modifieil scales, as can be demonstrated by comparing a numbiT under the microscope with the scales taken from the base of the wings. where the hairs gradually pass into scales. These scales are inserted by a sort of ball-and-socket joint to the wing, the points of attachment being arranged in irregular raiseil lines. They are more or less notched at the end. and beautifully ornamented with miero.seopic lines. Under the microscope they are colorless, and the varied and rich colors of the wings of butterflies and some moths arc. like those of pearl, due to the interference of light. Kegarding the internal anatomy of the Lepidoptera, wo may say that the nervous system is, in its general form, much as in other insects. There are seven ventral ganglia in the adult and eleven in the larva. This decrease in their number is due to the fusion during the pupa state of the first, second, third, and fourth ganglia of the larva, exclu- sive of those situated in the front part of the bead. The two thoracic ganglia or nerve-centres resulting from this fusion distribute nerves to the legs and the muscles of the wings. Meanwhile, the fifth and sixth ganglia of the larva have either disappeared entirely, or been united with the others. (Xnrjj'irl.) In connection with the tongue is a sucking stomach, which opens into the (lostcrior end of the fcsophagus. The silk-glands of the larva are very large, consisting of two long, flexuous. thick-walled glands silu- ated on the sides of the body, and opening l)y a common orifice on the under side (labium), usually at the extremity of a short tubular protuberance. They are most developed when the cater|iillar is about to transform into the pupa state, and is aliout to spin a cocoon. The silk is a glutinous secretion which solidifies and assumes a thread like texture on exposure to the air. There are six long urinary tubes which open into the posterior or pyloric end of the stomach. The ovaries consist of four very long tubes : the copulatory pouch is a remarkably large pyriform reservoir. The testes form two round or oval follicles. The metamorphoses of the Lepidoptera are "complete," the larva being worm-like, the pupa inactive and closely resembling the adult, except that the limbs are soldered to the bodv. The eggs of butterflies and moths are more or less spherical, sometimes flattened, usually ribbed, and forming beautiful objects for the microscope. The young caterpillar on hatching often eats up its shell and embryonal membranes before partaking of its true vegetable food. It is then much like the adult, but with the head larger in proportion to the body, and usually wilh<mt the hairs, spines, and warts characteristic of the older individuals, and which are acquired during the subsequent moults. There are four or five of these changes of skin or moults. Previous to moult- i ing the caterpillar slops eating. Ilie old skin, now hardened i and tense, splits asunder on the back, and the calerpillar draws its new body out of the rent, and then considerably exceeds its former size. This is a critical period with the ' insect, and many through weakness and disease rlie during the process. Mr. Trouvelot tells us in his account of the Polvphemus silkworm ( Ai«fiir<tii j\niiirnl!i!, yo\. \. ]t. .W) that when the silkworm is batched it weighs one-twentieth of ft grain, when ten days old one half a grain, and when it has attained its full size, which it does in fifty-six days, it weighs 207 grains, or 414(1 limes its origimil weight. By the time the calerpillar has become fully grown it will have consumed not less than 120 oak-leaves, weighing three- quarters of a pound ; besides this, it will have ilrunk not less than one-half an ounce of water. "So the food taken by a single silkworm in fifty six days equals in weight sii.OOO times the primitive weight of the worm. Of this about quarter of a pound becomes cxcrcmentilious matter, 207 groins are assimilated, and over .") ounces have evaporated." Hefore entering upon the pupa state the caterpillar grows restless, stops ealing. deserts its food, and spins a silken cocoon, or. if not a silU-produeing wr.rm. constructs a ruile cocoon of particles of dirt. or. if a borer, in the stems of plants or trunks of trees, of chips made by the larva, fasl- eneil together with silk. Hire it remains for two or three days. Meanwhile, its body contniels in length, ami the skin of the pupa grows beneath Ihat of the larva. AVhile the bodv of the wormlike caterpillar exhibits no difference between the thorax and abdoni the muscles of the grow- ing pupn variiMisly iMiiilract and enlarge benealh the eali-r- pillar skin until tile pupa I'nrm is coniplole. when it works its way out through a rent in the back. This pupa-skin is developed from the hiipmlrrmiii or inner layer of skin, as shown by Weissman. and the rudiments of the pupa and imago exist as small clisks of cells allaehed to fine lraehea> or nerves in the very young caferjiillar. so Ihat ,<wammer- dam's idea Ihat the skin of the pupa ami imago existed in the larva is partially correct. The difl'eront forms of cocoinis are very varied and often beautiful objects. Those of the geometric tir measuring moths are thin, imd often consist simply of a network of threails suspeioled anooig the leaves of the plants on which the calerpillar has IVil. The cocoon of the tv.iiio/io moth is made out of the hairs of the eater- pillar, which are finely barbed and adhere together without 1734 LEPIDOSIREN— LEPIDOSTEID.E. anv silk thread. The most complete cocoons arc those of the silkwortus. Our native silkworm {Tcitn J'ith/jjheniH«) constructs a very perfect cocoon, a continuous thread com- posing it. Mr. Trouvelot states that the Pol,vpheuiu:H larva, when about to .-^pin its cocoon, draws tlie leaves loj^ether as a support for the threads, forming the foundation of the cocoon. "This seems to be the most difficult feat for the worm to aeeomplish, as after this the work is simply mechanical, the cocoon being made of regular layers of silk united by a gummy substance. The silk is distributed in zigzag lines of about one-eighth of an inch long. When the cocoon is made the worm will have moved his head to and fro, in order to distribute the silk, about 2.i4,U00 times. After abuut half a day's work the cocoon is so far eumi)leted that the worm can hardly be distinguished through the fine texture of the wall; then a gummy, resinous substance, sometimes of a light-brown color, is spread over all the in- side of the cocoon. The larva continues to work for four or five days, hardly taking a few minutes of rest, and finally another coating is spun in the interior, when the cocoon is all finished and completely air-tight. The fibre diminishes in thickness as the completion of the cocoon advances, so that the last internal coating is not half so thick and so strong as the (mtside ones." The eoeoon of the Chinese silkworm {Bumhtfx mori) is white or whitish yellow, and is over an inch long ami nearly half asbroadj 3G0 cocoons weigh a pound and a half. It has long been known that the females of the Bomhyx mofi and a few other moths have in one or more instances been known to lay eggs which without being fertilized by the males have hatched out. Psi/chc helix was for a long time supposed to reproduce solely in this way, but lately Clans has found the males, which, however, arc exceed- ingly rare. Connected with this subject of parthenogenesis among the Lepidoptera is the occurrence of two forms of the sexes, or dimorphism. Mr. Wallace has discovered two forms of females of PnpHio Mcmnon ; one form is normal, having its wings tailed, as usual among the swallow-taiied butterllies. while the second form is tailless, resembling the tailed male. Pttpilio Pnmmon has three sorts of females, and may be said to be trimorphic. Pttpilio Onneunn is tri- morphic. Our PapiHo Tunnis is dimorphic, the Southern dark form having been described as a distinct species under the name of P. (I'fnucus. Pnpilio Ajax. is polymor- ])hou?, the same batch of eggs having given rise to P. Ajax and varieties Wnhhii, TtJainoui'tle'*, and Marcellua. Lepi- doptera in the larva state arc much exposed to disease, espe- cially those kept in confinement. Pebrinc, a disease due to a very minute fungus, has threatened to exterminate the silk- worm in Southern Europe. Another (lii^ense. muscardine, is due to the attacks of another fungus, the liotn/tuH Jiannianns. Fossil Lepidoptera have occurred in the .Jurassic forma- tion; a sphinx-like moth has been found in the Tertiary beds of Kurope, and an unknown moth in the Tertiary rocks of the Rocky Mountains. A few minute forms have occurred in amber, -'\bnut a thousand species of butterflies alone inhabit this country, and about 25,000 species of Le- jiidoptera in all are known to exist. The following synopsis of the different families begins with the lowest and cuds with the highest : Sifnopttifi of the Families of Lepidoptera. 1. Wings variously fissured; larva cither hairy and pupa naked {Ptcrophorufi), or naked and spinning a cocoon {Alncita) : I'tcmphorida- (plume moths). 2. Wings very narrow, more or less pointed ; fringe very long; larva very slender, often mining leaves: Tiiieidte (clothes moth, etc.). .3. Wings oblong: larva naked, rolling up leaves : Tortri- cidie (leaf-rollers). 4. Palpi very long; larva often glassy green: Pifralidx { snout motlis). 5. Wings broad, triangular; larva with only two pairs of abdominal legs, and consequently a measuring gait: /'haln-uidie (geometrids, nicasuring-worms). 6. AVings rather narrow ; larva smooth, cylindrical, taper- ing towards both ends: Soctuidn^ (owlet moths, cut- worms, ete.). 7. lleail unusually small, sunken: antenna; pectinate; body hairy; larva hairy, gpinning a thick cocoon: Jiomhi/cidn' (silkworms). S. Iligh-colored m<iths. with large heads; antenna' either simple, sub-fusifurni, or slightly pectinated: larva naked, and humped at the end, or with radiating tufts of hairs : Zyiinuida:. 9. Wings very long and narrow, semi-transparent; larva boring trees: ^ICi/eriadir (borers). 10. Largo moths with large heads, narrow wings ; a long tongue; larva with a horn on the end of the body; pupa often with a free toDgue-caso : Sphingida (hawk moths). pidosiren. 11. Antenna; knobbed, wings broad; larva often spincd; chrysalis naked, often with protuberances and golden or silvery spots: Pupilionidve (butterflies). A. S. Packard, Jr. Lepidosi'ren [Gr.AeTri?, "scale," and o-cipij*-. " siren "], the typical genus of the family Lepidosirenidu', distin- guished by its very elongated eel-shaped body (it having about lifty-five pairs of ribs) ; the pectoral and ventral •'•fins "or filaments are plain and tapering, and are en- tirely destitute of rayed fringes; there arc five branchial arches, with four corresponding intervening clefts; no external branchial appendage is developed; and tlie cusps of th<' ili ii!:il ji|;!t.> nf ilir jialatc. US well as lower jaw, arc well developed. Tlic genus is represented by only one well -distinguished species I l.rptditHircn pantdoxa, Fitzinger), although two or three have been thought to exist by some. The spe- cies occurs quite generally apparently in the.\mazon River, as well asits tributaries, but is rare : if popular reports arc to be credited, this or a spe- cies of the same genus sometimes attains a gigantic size, though the length of those obtained rarely much exceeds three feet. (See Lepidosirenid.*:.) Thkodore Gill. liCpidosiren'idse [from Lepido»ircu, the typical genus of the family, and the termination -ida], a family of fishes of the order Sirenoidea, with an elongated and eel-shaped body covered with modi^rate cycloid seales ; the dorsal and anal arc united with the caudal, and form a continuous homogeneous border for the tapering tail; the pectoral and ventral fins are developed as articulated filaments; the upper labial cartilage has a median pair of conical teeth; the palatine dental plate on each side is elongated and oblong, and has several strong cuspidate vertical ridges; the labial plate is of similar form, and has also several transverse cuspidate ridges; the air-bladder is represented by two lung-like sacs slightly connected together and communicating by a duct, provided with a glottis opening in the floor of the oesophagus. This family is of extreme interest, as it was for a long time a matter of dispute whether its members were fishes or amphibians. Fitziuger (1837) and Natterer (is;ifl), who first described the Ameri- can type [Lcpidosircn paradoxa), referred it to the am- phibians next to Sireu, from which they difi'erentiated it .chiefly by the seales, and hence gave the name Lepidnsinn — i.e. "scaly siren." Owen (1839), who first made known the African type, on the other hand contended that it was a fish. After much discussion they were and are now conceded to bo true fishes, representing a peculiar family (Lopidosirenida;), order (Sirenoidea). and su]>er-order or sub-class (Dipnoi) of the class of Fishes (whieh see). The family is also interesting, as being (next to the related Ceratodontidtf) the most nearly allied to numerous extinct fishes which flourished during PaUvozoic and Mesozoic times, and which until lately were much misunderstood. The two recent genera (LEriDosiREN and PitoTorrEurs) arc alone known, and will be noticed under their respective names. (Sec also Sire.voidei.) Theodore Gill. IjCpidoste'idflB [named from the typical genus Lrpi- do8teiis (Acms, scale, and octroi', bone) and the family termi- nation -idee], the only existing family of the order Kliombo- ganoidea, distinguished by the elongated and sub-eylin- dricai body co\ cred with rhomboidai scales; the head elongated, ami terminating forwards in a long beak-like snout; the upper jaw projecting beyond the lower, and with the nostrils near the end of the snout ; the fins aio provide<l with fulcra; the short dorsal situated far btdiind, and just above the anal tin ; the stomach is simple in form, but with numerous jiyloric appendages; the intestine has a rudimentary spiral valve. This family, although the only living ty}»e of the- order to whieh it belongs, had numerous relations in the Mesozoic and Paleozoic epochs. The skel- eton has many peculiarities, among whieh is the eumposito structure of the upper jaw, as well as the character of the vertebra", which are eonvex in fnmt and concave behind. There are but few representatives, which are divisible into three groups, by some entitled genera, viz.: Lcpidostmay CifliudfOHtruH, and AtraftonttnH. The genera are regarded by some as nionotypie : i. » . all the forms bLdonging te each are considered to be members of a single speeies; while others, e. 7. Agassiz, admit as many as eighteen or twenty undefined species in the family. The species are found chiefly in the waters of northern America, but representa- tives of one group. Ati-nrtanfrm, descend as far southwards as Central America and Cuba; a species has also been re- cently discovered in China. In the Tertiary epoch the family was represented by forms closely related to the liv- ing American species in Kurope. Theodore Gill. LEPIDUS— LEPROSY. 1735 Lep'^idus, the name of an ancient patrician family of Rome beluDg^iug to thc^milian gens. The most conspicuous membtT of the family was Makci's ^Kmii.k s Lki'IDTS, the triumvir. He was a weak, vain, and avaricious man, des- titute of any talent or any superior quality, but twice — and both times in momenta of the utmost consequence — chance placed the decision of affairs in his hands, lie was praetor in 19 b. c, when the war broke out between Caesar and Ponipey. He sided with Ca'sar. was made his mntjiHUr etfuifmn in 47 n. c, consul in 4t> b. c, and in 44 received as his provinces Spain and Gallia Narbonensis. Ho was just organizing bis proconsular army at Homeland was thus at the head of the only armed force in the city, when Ca?sar was murdered. He used his position to get himself elected pnnti/rx innjci'inun, and having brouglit about a rec4)ncil- iation between Aniimy and the senate, be proceeded to his provinces, flattered and coaxed by both parties. The agree- ment between Antony and the senate did not last long, how- ever, and after the defeat at Mutina, Antony took refuge with Lepidus. and was well received. Octavianus, who up to this time had acted simply as the general of the sen- ate, saw that in a contest with Lepidus and .Antony the cause of the aristocracy was a lost cause, and commenced immediately negotiations which led to the formation of the famous triumvirate in 4'.i n. c. By the partition of the provinces, Lepirlus received Spain and Gallia Narbonensis, and was lelt as governor of Rome while Antony and Octa- vianus proceeded against Brutus and Cassius. But by the second partition, after the battle of Philippi in 42 B. c, he was treated rather slightingly, and received only Africa. This province ho held till ^G b. c, in which year Octavianus orclercd him to join him at Sicily against Sextus Pompeius. Lepidus came, and believed the opportunity favorable for an attempt at throwing off the authority of Octavianus. .At the decisive moment, however, his Sdldiers deserted him, and on liis knees he had to beg for mercy. Octavianus treated him with great contempt, deprived him of his province, though not of his private fortune or of his dignity of pon- tiftj- mnximns, and banished him to Circeii, where ho lived in retirement till his death, 13 B. c. Lepor'idrp [Lat. lrpu»^ "hare," and -irfic], a family of duplieidentate glirine mammals, readily recognizable by the external appearance of the body, as well as by the struc- The Uabbit. ture of the skeleton. 'The hind legs being much more do- velnped than the fore ! alih<nigh not so ilispropitrtionately as in (he kangaroos .'ind jumping mice ), the animal iirogresses by a series of running leaps or short jumps, in which latter case the back is cr«ioked and arched ba<rkwarcl, and gives the characteristic jihysiognomy : the heail is high, arched backward, and ct-mpressed; the eyes lateral and promi- nent; the snout rounded, and with the nostrils converging dt)wnward to a median furrow which divides the lips; the cars are more or loss elongated, and the tail is short and bushy, and turned up. Tho skull is high and conijircssed, the rostral portion much produced and broad, and the in- terorbital urea widened by the development of enlarged and expanding supraorbital plates or procest^cs separated generally by narrow fissures from tho body of the frontal bones fore and aft ; the orbits are ample; the nasal pro- ees?es of the supraniaxlllary bones are perforated in a sieve- like manner; and the lower jaw has the ascending rami very oblique, and the condyles consequently far backward, and tho angular process extensive forward. Tho teelh, be- sides tho four incisors of the upper and two of the lower jaw (Jx 2), consist of six molars in the upper and five in the lower jaw on each side (M. \, P. M. 3X2); those of tho upper jaw have mostly (M.2. P. M. 2) a vertical groovo on the outer as well as inner surface; the crowns are broader than long, and have three transverse ridges; those of the lower jaw are broader, and the grooves are much stronger. Imperfect clavicles are developed. Such arc the most im- portant characters common to the hares and rabbits. The species are quite numerous, between thirty and forty species being generally recognized, and are most abunilant in the arctogsean regions (North America, Euroj)e, and Northern Asia) and the temperate zone; representatives arc found, however, far X. and S., one (Lepua glaciah's) extending to the Arctic regions, and others are found as far S. as Brazil, India, and the Cape, but scarcely or not at all in the low- lands of tlie torrid regions. Though thus widely diffused and numerous in species, they agree so closely in structure as to render it doubtful whether there is more than one generic typo among them, although as many as four have been proposed by the late I>r. J. K. Gray. There is a remarkable difference in habits between tho hares and rabbits. The hares never burrow, but simply compose a " form " or nest, in which they rest and bring forth their young, and the young aro born covered with hair and with the eyes open. The rabbits, on the contrary, burrow in the ground, and often make extensive tunnels, and in these burrows they live and bring forth their broods ; the young aro brought into the world naked and blind. Notwithstanding such differences, however, there are no corresponding structural characters, and the difierent ani- mals aro closely related. All the American species are *' hares " in the sense thus understood. Theodore Gill. liCporiile' [Fr.], a name applied to a remarkable fer- tile hybriii between the common European hare and tho rabbit. Leporides are now extensively breil in France, where they are esteemed for tho table. Lcpo'riuSf a native of Gaul; entered in the beginning of the fifth century a monastery in the vicinity of Mar- seilles, and acquired a great reputation for learning and holiness. He afterwards fell into the heresy of Pelagius, and maintained that man has no need of the grace of God, and that Christ was born with a human nature only. Ho was exeomniunieated, and went to Africa. Hero he met with St. Augustine, and so great was the influence of this powerful man on Leporius that in 425 he retract- ed, and was ordained a presbyter by Au- gustine. His retraction, which was ad- dressed to Proculus, bishop of Marseilles, and Cylliunius. bishop of Aix.and pub- lished' in IfiiiU under tho title lihcUm eiiutitl'ttiunin Hire Hdti'n/actt'onis ad epia- copoM (Inlliiv, was much appreciated by tho old Church. Lcp'ra [Gr. At'irpa, "leprosy"], adis- ease of the skin, in which scaly patches, concealing a red and inflamed surface, are seen, particularly upon those parts of the limbs where the bones aro but thinly covered. It is not contagious, may last for many years or may bo sp<intancously cured, and does not usual- ly affect tho general health. Arsenical medicines, with applications of tarry " ' compounds and iodide of sulphur, aro 5^"^^ recommended in its treatment, IjCp'rosy [(ir. Aeirpa, ** leprosy"]. "an incurable constitutional disease of adult life, which is especially |irevalcnt in tropical and sub-tropical clinmtes." ( luibt-rt LivifiiHj.) It maybe divided into three forms, as follows: "First. Macular leprosy, characterized by an eruption on the skin, accom|>anied by aniesthesia. Sennid, Ameslhotic leprosy, of which the ehief features arc aniesthesia and diseolora- tions of the skin and atrophy of tho muscles, with ulcera- tion and mutilation of the hands and feel. The thini form, or tubereulatid leprosy, is characterized by a bronzing and tubereulaled thickening of the skin, especially of tho face, oars, hands, and feet, tollowed by similar changes in tho mucous membrane of tlu* u])]»er |)art of the alimentary and resjilratory tracts, ending fatally in from two to fifteen years, by intereurreni disease in some vital organ.'' { Lirrliiitf.) Leprosy, or fl'pfinutinniii (inrpnrnm, is a disease which has been known and justly dreaded from the earliest ages. We find frequent mention of it in the Bible, but the diseaao as there spoken of evidently includeil many other skin af- fections, which at that lime they were unable to differen- tiate. The proof of this is that tho cases aro there men- tioned as having recovered, which wo now know would 1736 LEPSIUS— LEQUESNE, have been impossible had they been true leprowy. The IrpiT has always been an outcast from society, both on aeoount of the Ufathsomeness of his disease, and the idea which has prevailed of its contagiousness. During the Mid- dle Aj;es numerous leper-houses were established iu various parts nf Europe, where those suffering from the disease were coiiliueil. and prohibited by law from ajjpeuring in the streets. Now, however, that it is known that the dis- ease can only be transmitted from parent to offspring, the laws are more lax on this point, and a Icpcr-house is a thing seldom heard of. At the present time leprosy is most prevalent in Syria and Egypt, and the cases met with throughout Europe and America are rare. Almitst every drug iu the pharmacojiuiia has been nscd iu the treatment of this dis'-'ase, but without avail, and now the treatment is principally palliative. Good food, clothing, and the pre- vention of marriage amongst lepers are the only means we possess to better their condition and decrease their number. Edward J. Bi:KMiNt;nAM. Lep'sius (Kari. Richatid). Ph. D., b. at Naumburg, Prussian Saxony, Dec. 23, 1810, the son of K. P. Lepsius { I77ii-\^b''<), an able archteologist ; studied at Leipsic, G'6t- tingon. and Berlin under Bopp's instruction, graduating at Berlin with a thesis on the Ei GrBiAS Tablrs (which see), which obtained his degree; went to Paris in 183.3, and for his PdliTfHjrnphtf applied to Linguistic lienearches gained the Volney prize; in 1835 made researches in the libraries of Italy: devoted his attention to languages, especially to ■^Egyptology, and wrote Letter to M. RoseUini on the Hiero- fffifphic Alphahet in 1837; went to England in I83S ; pro- jected an expedition to Egypt, which left England in 1842, and with success returned to Germany in 18-4J; became professor at Berlin in 1846; again went to Egypt in 18G6, and discovered at Tanis a bilingual inscription of the time of Ptolemy Euergetes ; has published a valuable work on the Nile, translated into English; and was placed over the Prussian state library in Berlin in 1874. Among liis works are Jhts Todtenbuch der Aer/i/pter {lS-i2), Die Chronoloffie der Ae(f_>/pter (1840), Denkmtiler aita Aegijpten tind Aethio- pien {1849-59), Ueber den eraten iifji/pfischcn Gotfcrkrein (1851), lirie/e una Aegypteit (1852), JCdnit/abtick der alten Aeffi/pter (\H;ii^)y Die (igi/ptische Elle (l855j, Ueber eiuige ii;/'/ptisrhf A'linhtformen, etc. (1871), etc. I^eptan'dra [proposed for its generic name by Nut- tall], the pliarmaceutical name of the Culver's physic ( Vc- raiiicn Virginica, order Scrophulariaceae), a tall perennial herb of the Atlantic U. S. which has decided cathartic powers. Its impure resinoid is extracted and sold as lep- taudrin. It is an agent of considerable value, and is be- lieved by many practitioners to act decidedly upon the liver: but this is very doubtful. Lep'tis [Pha-nician for '* naval station"], or Great Leptis, so called to distinguish it from another and less imj)nrtaut Leptis, an ancient Sidonian colony and seaport in what is now Tripoli in Barbary. between the two Syrtes and near the modern Tripoli. It had a fine roadstead and an artificial harbor, long since choked vt'ith sand. At this jioint are very extensive ruins, in great ]iart buried in the sand. Le])ti3 once had a large trade, but is now almost without inhabitants. It was one of the three cities which gave the name Tripolia to this region. Leptocar'dia [Gr. Aen-Td?, "slender," and KapSia^ " heart " |. the class of vertebrates containing the lowest organized forms of the branch, and formerly confounded with the class of fishes. Only a single genus {Urnnchin- atftmn, Costa, or Amji/n'n.rus, Yarrell) is known, and this is believed to be the surviving typo of a class which must have been rich in representatives in the distant past, but which, on account of the easy dcstructibility of all its parts, has left no recognizfd remains in the rocks. The brain is of the most rudimentary character and not devel- oped into enlarged lobes, as in all other vertebrates ; the skull is also undeveloped, nor are there any rudiments of auditory organs; the skeleton is represented by a simple notocord or embryonic backbone, which is not divided into vertebra', and has no ribs or other appendages, no scap- ular or pelvic arches, and consequently no pectoral or ven- tral fins being developed. The circulatory system is also very simple, and the heart simply tubular and not divided into distinct chambers (and hence the name of the class). The mouth is an elongated aperture bounded by a semi- cartilaginous hoop, which is beset with filamentary pro- cesses clothed with ciliated tentacles; this ojicns into "an expanded pharyngeal chamber, which is s[tlit <m each side by obliquely transverse clefts, through which the water taken in by the mouth is discharged into an " atrial cham- ber." and thence through a pore which represents the bran- chial orifice of the Myxinida?. Such arc the chief dis- tinctive characters of this type. The differences from all others are so great that it is at first difficult to perceive the homologies of the various organs and parts with those of the higher vertebrates. So great, indeed, arc the differ- ences that the original dcscriber of the European species. Pallas, failed to perceive any resemblance to fishes or other vertebrates, and referred it to the mollusk genus Limaj-. Quite recently, too ( in 1S74 ), Semper, with a full knowledge of its organization, has deliberatuly excluded it from the vertebrates altogether. By all other authorities, however, it has been referred to the branch of vertebrates, but in various degrees of relation^hij) to the class of fishes. Costa, Yarrell, and most other authors until recently have regarded it as the lowest of fishes. Isidore Geoffrey St. Hilaire, C. Bonaparte, and Moquin-Tnndon (all under the name Myclozoa), and Hackel, Gtgenbaiir, O. Schmidt, Cope (all under the name Leptocardia). and others, have raised the type to class value; and several of them have con- trasted it with all the other vertebrates, and thus expressed their views as to the fundamental nature of its distinctive characters. Although the animal is so peculiar, it can be, however, in general terms, compared with the Alarsipobranehiates, and therefore with the other vertebrates : and although the brain is in a rudimentary condition, the jirincipal nerves are developed (though under somewhat doubttul guises), and their relation to the frame-work permits the ]>robable recognition of the homologies of the several regions of the *' head." The muscular system is represented by fiake-like segments or *' myotomes," V-shaped and jjointed forwards. According to Huxley, the oral aperture is large and extends backwards to the level of the junction between the sixth and seventh myotomes, and is there divided from the branchial cavity hy ^ ^"^ vchnn pahiti." Eight [" o — /i "] pairs of nerves are given off from tho ccrebro-sjiinal axis as far as this point. The eighth or most jtosterior of these, which for convenience may be called h, passes out between the sixth and seventh myotomes, and runs down ])arallel with the lateral attachment of the velum. The next five {fj,f, €, d, c) pass out between the first six myotomes to the integument and to the walls of the buccal cavity, Tho foremost two nerves [b and a) pass in front of the first myotome; and the nerve a runs parallel with the upper side of tho notochord to the end of the snout, giving off branches to that region of the body which lies in front of the mouth : this nerve lies above the eye-spot. In Hux- ley's opinion, the eighth nerve (h) corresponds with the last of the prc-auditory cranial nerves in the Ammoccotes or young of Petromifzou, which is the ** portio dnnt;" while those between it and the optic nerve represent, apparently, the third (nwtores oculomm), fourth (pathetici), fifth (^i- tfcnn'naf), and sixth (nbducentea) pairs of cranial nerves in the higher vertebrates, the optic nerves of course being the second pair, while the first («) in Brauchiostoma *' has tho characteristic course and distribution of the orbito-nasal division of the trigeminal." Thus the brad has at least six pre-anditory myotomes, and " on the other hand, from the seventh myotome backwards, a certain number {sup- posed to be eight) of segments answer to the post-auditory or parachordal region of the higher vertehrata." These are supposed to represent ** proto-vertebra>," and thus an- tagonize the hypothesis, at one time so prevalent, that the head of vertebrates is composed of four "vertebra);" and Huxley suggests " that the numerous ])roto-vertebra} which lie in front of the fourteenth of Amphiajrut (Branchio- stoma) are represented only by muscles and nerves in the liigher Vertol)rata." The other characteristics of this cu- rious type will be found in the works of the numerous au- thors who have directed attention to it, the most recent of whom are Stieda of Dorpat, and Huxley and Bay Lau- kester of London. But one genus ( Br:inehiostoma of Costa. 1S34. or Amphifjun of Yarrell, is;;*)) is known, and the species are doubtful. Representatives have been found along almost the entire European coast, but most abundantly in the Mediterranean Sea. the ludian seas (Borneo, etc.), North Carolina, tho Caribbean Sea, and Brazil. They live in the sand from lower water mark to a depth of at least ten or twelve fathoms. They are transparent, and specimens rarely exceed three inches in length. TnKonoRK Gill. Lep'tophis [Gr. Acn-Tos, "slender," and 0.^19, "snake"], a genus of non-venomous colubroid serpents of very slender proportions and arboreal habits. Some serpents of tho U. S. [e. tj. grass-snake, or Ci/rfophia irstintH, and ribbon- snake, or Eutivnia Battrita) have been erroneously referred to the genus. Lcquesne' (EuoSne Louis), b. at Paris Feb. 15, 1815 ; studied law, an<l was admitted to the bar in 1839, but en- t^-red in 1811 tho School of Fine Arts; became a ]iupil of Pra«lier at Rome, and began to exhibit in 1845. His most prominent works are the Dniuint/ Faun iu the garden of the liU.\cmbourg, the Victor}/ on tho tomb of Napoleon, and LERAY— LEROUX. 173 the Prtfft$iu on tho front of the new opera-house; ho has alsu unnie a number of excellent busts. Leniy', tp. of Blue Kartb co., Minn. Pop. -l-IS. I^e Ray, tp. of JcflTcrsun co., X. Y, It cuutatns several vill!i;,'('^. IN.p. 2802. Le Rays'villey post-b. of Pike tp.. Bra^lford co., Pa, Pop. 2S 1. Lerca'ra Frid'di, town of Sicily, in tho province of Puleriiio, jileasantly .situated in a very fertile district abounding in sulphur-mines. Pop. in 1874, OlJi. Ler'do dc Teja'da (Sebastian), president of Mexico, b. at .latapa, in the state of Vera Cruz, Apr. 2j, 1825, of pure Spanish ancestry: studied at a college in Pucbia with a view to the priesthood, but. abandoning that purpose, en- tered tho Crtllej^e of San IMoronso in .Mexico and studied law ; wa.'» admitted to the bar in 18Jl ; was chosen rector of San lldofonso in ISj2, and became in Dec, ISoo, one of the magistrates of tho sujtrenie ci)urt of justice. About this time his brother. Mii^uel Lenlo de Tejadii. an eminent states- man and economist, was appointed minister of finance in the cabinet of Pre.-^ident <_"omonfort, and by his energetic policy respecting the privile;^cs and property of tho Cath- olic Church became the leader of the liberal party. To him Sebastian lent such efficient cr>-opcratinn as to be called to the ministry of foreign affairs, which ho accepted .June A, 1.SJ7. On the overthrow of Tomonfort in Jan., 1858, ho devoted himself anew to the direction of tho college and to practice at the bar, whore ho soon gained an eminent posi- tion. On tho restoration of tho lilieral government Lerdo was elected to Congress ( Apr., ISiH ). re-elocted in the ful- lowing year, and was three times chosen to tho presidency of that body, the term of that office in Mexico being only one month, lie was president of Congress in May, 18C3, when the capture of Puebia forced President Juarez to abandon the capital of the republic, and was one of the few nroiniucnt statesmen who accompauiod the government in its retreat to San Luis Potosi. In that city he accepted tho post of minister of justice. Sept. 15, and that of min- ister of foreign affairs, Sept. 21, 180)', thereby becoming, next to Juarez, the leading representative of the cause of national independence during the protracted struggle against tho French intervention and the so-called empire of tho Austrian archduke Ferdinand Maximilian. In the successive retreats of thi; republican government to Mon- terey, .■^altillo, Durango, Chihuahua, and Paso del Xorte. as well as in its advance three years later to Chihuahua. Zacatc- CAS.and San Luis Potosi, Lerdo preserved an imperturbable confidence in the ultimate success of the cause to which his entire energies were clevoted, and when tho turning of the tide placed the archduke a prisoner in tlie hands ot Ihe re- publicans, neither Juarez nor Lenlo wavered hof<)re tho most urgent appeals in his resolution to execute upon that prince tho sentence to which he had been condemned after a protracted trial. I'pon tlio restoration of the na- tional government to the city of Mexico in 1807, Lerclo was clectrd president of the supremo court of justice, to which post was annexed the vice-pre-'idency of the republic, but continued to discharge the duties of minister of foreign affairs, and was generally erediterl with being tho origin- ator of tho most important mt-asurcs taken for the rebuild- ing ftf the shattered political edifice. He retired from the cabinet .Ian. 17, 1871 : was an unsuocossful candidate for tho presidency in the clo-tion of July of that year, and upon the sudden death of Juarez (July 18, 1872) succeeded him by virtue of his office as vic^-president. In tho elec- tion of Oct., 1872, Lerdo was chosen president for four years, ending I>ec. 1. I87ft. His administration has boon characterized by a strict adherence to tlie policy established by Juarez, by the enforcement of tho "laws of reform" against the alleged machinations of tho reactionary or '• Church party," and by a rigid suppression of all attempts at rcvolutinn. Ho is distinguished i"or cunsiiniirialc urbanity and great diplomatic sagacity, combinc«| with indexible determination. l*oitTi:ii C. Bi.iss. Ler'ici, town of Italy, in the province of (Jenoa. It lies on the (iulf of Spezia in the ini^lst of charming scenery, and has acquired some notoriety from the confinement of Garibaldi within its fortress in 1M12. Its maritime activ- ity is great for its population, which in 1874 was 59 (l>. Ler'ida^ ]>rovinco of Spain, bounded X. by tho Pyre- nees and K. by Hareelona. comprises an area of 'Ifll'.i square miles, with ;t:(0,.1lH inhabitants. The northern portion is covered with spurs of the Pyrenees, and rich in iron, cop- per, leatl, zinc, marble, jasper, and gypsum. The southern portion is an extensive jdain, which produces wheat, fruits, and vegetables. i Lorida [Lat. /Imfa], town of Spain, tho onpital of the province of Lerida. on tho Segro, is surrounded by walls and strongly fortified, as it is tho key of .\ragon and Cata- I j Ionia, and consequently a point of great military import- ance. It has two remarkable cathedrals, one ot the thir- teenth, the other of the eighteenth century; a lyceuni, , and several other educational institutions ; its university, founded in LJUU, was suppressed by Philip V. Pop. 19,027. I Leriiis, The, several small islands off Antibcs, and in the department of Var. France. The largest, Stc. Mar- guerite, was the place of imprisonment of tho ** Man in the I Iron Mask " from 1G80 to 1098. Its fortros?, Kontere^', is I now a ]»rison for military convicts and Algerines, and I Bazaino was here confined (1874). It was the Lmm of the ancients. The next smaller island, St. Ilonorat (/U(inriri<t I Leriu(t), is named from St. Honoratus, archbishop of Aries, ' who founded here in the fourth century the convent of h6- rins, which became a famous school of theology, and passed into tho Benedictine order. After 1650 tho monastery lost its importance, and is now in ruins, and the island supports some agrieullnral inhabitants. There are some smaller un- inhabited islands in the vicinity. Ler'ma (Francisco i»e Roxas de Saxdovat.), Dckk of, b. in Spain during the sixteenth century; was made a duke and ]»rirne minister of .*^]»ain immediately on the ac- cession of Philip HI. in 1598, and governed the em]iiro till 1CI8, during which period tho exhausted and distracted state of tiie country became more and more apparent. His foreign policy was markcfl by defeats, his internal by cru- elty and weakness. In spite of enormous exertions, he was compelled to conclude peace with England in 10(1 1 and with the Cnitcd Provinces in 1008 on humiliating conditions. In 1009 he issued the decree of proscription by which several thousand Moorish families, forming one of the richest and most industrious elements of the Spanish population, were driven out of Spain, anrl their properly, at least in many cases, confiscated. Under Philip 1\'. the animosity against the fallen minister became so strong that an examination was made of his adminstration, and ho was compelled to return a largo sum of money to the treasury. D. shortly after, in 102 >. Lermontoir (MicnAEi.), b. Oct. 15. 1814; received a military educatirai, and entered tlio imperial guard, but was removed in I8.'i7 t(» the army of Caucasus on account of a poem he wrote on the death of Pushkin. In 1810 ho published a volume of poems at St. Petersburg, which made a great sensation, and gained for him (he title of* the poet of Caucasus." But a novel ho wrote slnntly after, T/ir ffei') t'f Our Tiuir, caused a duel between him and one of his fellow-officers in the army of Caucasus, and ho was shot July 27, 1811. Most of his works have boon translated into (Jerman by Bodenstodt (IS52), and some of them — as, for instance. The Sontf of Cznr Ivan Vasi'ltevitch — into French by Saint Ren6 Taillaudier. IjCrilir'ada [from Lcmira, one of tho genera], a pro- posed order of crustaceans, not recognized by all syttua- atists. They are assigned to tho Entomostraca. and tu a Boction called Pcecilopoda. Tho mouth is for suction, tho thorax not jointed, tho or/^ans very small. The males are totally unlike the females. All arc parasites of very degraded type. They aro often much more completely organized when young than when mature. In tho latter stage they loso tho power and organs of locomotion and of eight. There aro many diverse and strange forms re- ferred to this order, most of which would never be recog- nizofl as crustaceans but for their larval forms. They aro found attached to fishes and other aquatic animals. Le'ros [A«po?]. a Turkish island of the .Egean, ?>•' miles S. of Samos, is miles long fr<tm X. to S., and I miles wiile, is very fertile, and has goud harbors. Pop. oOOO. Its people were anciently proverbial fi»i- ill-nature, and its present inhabitants are dcsjiiscd as niggardly. liCrot. See PouMorsK. liCroux' (Pn-.nnr.), b. at Paris in 1798; studic<l at tho Lyceum Charlemagne; fonnrle<l the (ilnUe newspaper in 1821, ns organ of tho philosophers: adhered to the Saint Simonians in 18:il, converting his paper into the organ of their »f)cialiHlic policy: withdrew after the promnlgatinn of the new doctrines of Knfantin. He became in is;i2 erlilor of Ihe Hrvur Etfifrfoprdi<inr, and in cnnneetion with Jean Uoynnud, established in 18:iS tho Xrw Eurtf~ rloprrffin, whicli wtts a continuation of the Enctfrl'tpffUr of the eighteenth century. His capital work, Hr V Hunutuitf, ilr Mon Priiirifir ft fir Htm Avitir. appeared in 1>^.';9, con- taining bis philosophical and theolt»gical iihas. consisting in a continued progn-ss of man and nature towards perfec- tion through changing forms. \\f foundeil in 1841 the /fn-uf fii'I^priiflnntr, with Viardot an<l (leorire Sand, ami in 18IS, wad oleotod a representative of the National Assembly as an ultra radical. After the roup tV.'tat of 1851 be emi- grated to tho island of Jersey. and afterwards to Lausanne. Switsorland. Pierro Loroux was a kind of modern and 1738 LE BOY— LESCHES. secular Zwingli, the rpprcscntative of pure and honest radi- calism in philosophy. He wrote also Ckrialiauily and its Democratic Oiif/in, Mullhua and the Econnmitls. ur Shall there he alwni/a Pnnr t Job. a drama, The Samarcae Beach, a philosophic Jioem. The Ptulocran/, or The (lot'crnmeni of the Jlich, etc. JIo returned to France after the amnesty of Aug. 15, 1809, and d. at Paris Apr. 12, 1S7I. Felix Aucaione. Lc Roy, tp. of Koono cc. 111. Pop. 1002. I-e Hoy, post-v. of Empire tp., McLean co., III., on the Indiun.npolis Blooniington and Western K. R., has 1 week- ly newspaper. Pop. S62. Leroy', tp. of Benton co., la. Pop. 1S07. Leroy, tp. of Bremer co., la. Pop. 303. IiCroy, post-v. and tp. of Coffey co., Kan., on \cosho River, winch affords good water-power. The town has some manufactures. The station, 2 miles distant, is ou the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R. Pop. of v. 410 : of to. 10114. ' ^ liCroy, tp. of Calhoun co., Mich. Pop. 1303. Leroy, tp. of Ingham co., Mich. Pop. 859. Leroy, post-v. of Osceola co., Mich. Pop. 148. Leroy, post-v. and tp. of Mower co., Minn., on the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R. Pop. 1057. Le Roy, post-v. and tp. of Genesee co., N. Y., on the Erie, Central, and Plate Lino R. Rs.. 25 miles S. IV. of Rochester, 50 miles E. of Buffalo, and 10 miles E. of Bata- via, has 7 churches, 2 banks, 2 weekly newspapers, 4 lime- kilns, 4 stone-quarries, several flour, planing, gvpsuni, ]>laster. and saw mills, with fine water-power supplied by Oatka Creek. It is the seat of Ingham University for ladies, and has an academic institute, an art conservatory, and a public library. Pop. of v. 2034: of tp. 4027. C. B. Thomson-, Ed. " Gazette." Leroy, posf-v. of Westfield tp., Medina co., 0. Leroy, tp. of Lake CO., 0. Pop. 811. Le Roy, post-tp. of Bradford co.. Pa. Pop. 1144. Le Roy, post-tp. of Dodge co.. Wis. Pop. 157G. Leroy (William E.), IT. S. N., b. Mar. 24, ISIS, in Now York : entered the navy as a midshipman Jan. 11, 1832; became jiassed midshipm.an in 18:iS, lieutenant in 1843, commander in ISGI, captain in 18G0, commodore in 1870, and rear-admiral in 1S74; commanded the Keystone State in a severe engagement with Confederate irou-clads off Charkslon, .S. C. Jan. 31. 1863, and tlie Oneida at the battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. .'). 1S64, and conspicuous on both occa- sions for " gallantry and determination." , Foxhall a. Parker. Leroy d'Etiollcs (Jean Jacql-es Joseph), b. at Paris Apr. 5, 1798; studied medicine, and took his degree in 1824. In 1822 he presented to the Academy of Surgery a set of instruments which he had invented for the operation of lithotrity. The invention was disputed by Civialo and Aniusa;it, who also claimed it, but after close examination of the case the prize was awarded to Leroy d'Ktiolles. The most prominent of his writings is his IlUtuire dc la Lltholrilie (1 839). D. at Paris Aug. 25, 1860. Leroy de St.-Arnaud ( Jacqies Achille), b. at Paris Aug. 20. ISOI ; enlisied in ISIG in the body-guard of Louis XVIII., but left in 1S20 the military service, and led for several years a rather adventurous life in Franco and Eng- land. In 1831 ho again entered the army; served at Blaye. where the duchess of Berry was detained; became in 1S37 captain in the foreign legion in .\lgeria. and dis- tinguished himself very much during the following years at the taking of Constantine, by the capture of Bou-Maza. as commander of the province of Constantine. and bv his canipai;.'n against the Kabyles. In 1851 he was made a general and commander of one of the military divisions of Paris. In the same year he became minister of war, and in this position he rendered great services to Xapoleon Dec. 2, 1852, for which he was rewarded with the title of mar- shal. In 1S54 he commanded the French armv in the Crimean war, and won the battle of Alma, hut iirSeptem- ber he had to give up his command on account of sickness, and d. on board the Berthollet, Sept. 29, 1854. ,,?'.*''■'','' "le (Jean\ b. at Lery, France, in 1534; was in 15ao a Calvinistio minister at Geneva, when ho was engaged by \ illegagnon to acrM,,„panT dig expedition to Brazil and introduce (he Reformed religion in that counlrv (1550). He preached for some time to the colonists on thesmall island in the b.ay of Hio de Janeiro now called Villegagnon, and was thus the first Protestant preacher in the New World. After the unfortunate result of that colony, Lery returned to France ; was in 1500 a citizen of Geneva ; was" afterward preacher at Belleville. Xevers. and Sancerre; lost twenty- two of his congregation by the massacre of St. Bartholo- mew ; retired to Berne, Switzerland, where ho seems to 1 have passed the remainder of his life, and d. there in Ifill. JIo wrote an account of his Brazilian adventures, Uittoire d'un Voi/ar/e fait en la terre du lirenil (La Rochelle, 1578; often reprinted), and a Jiialoire mimorable de la ville de Sancerre ( 1574). Le Sage (Alaix Rexe), b. May 8. lOfiS. at Sarzeau. in the present department of Morbihan ; received his first edu- cation by the Jesuits at Vauues ; studied philosophy and law in Paris since 1692, and began to practise as an advo- cate in 1095, but gave up this career in 109S, in order to devote himself exclusively to literary pursuits, in which undertaking he was aided by the Abbe de Lyonne. who gave him a pension of -600 livres a year. His literary career he began by translating dramas and novels from the Spanish, but from mere translations he rose by degrees to the production of independent works of ; : greatest merit. Of his numerous jilays. which moitly consist of farces and comic operas, the most prominent are Criipin (1707) and 7'iircarc((I709), which latter comedy is a satire on the finan- ciers of that time, who are said to have offered the author 100,000 francs if he would suppress his w(»rk. A still greater success he achieved as a romancer. Le biahle buiicux ( 1 707), HUtoire de (jttzman d' Al/arache (1732), and especial I V llia- toire de (III lllas de SantiUane (1715), were received with great applause, and the last-mentioned is still a favorite in all civilized countries and with all educated people, on ac- count of its striking psychological observations and refined satire. D. at Boulogne Xov. 17, 1747. His (Eiurea com- pletet (12 vols.) were published at Paris in 1828. Le Sauk, tp. of Stearns co., Minn. Pop. 268. Lesbo'nax [Aecr/SiLraf]. of Mitylcne in Lesbos, lived in the time of Augustus; wrote a number of orations in imi- tation of the Attic orators, of which two have come down to us. They are given in the collections of Reiske and of Dobson, separately by Orelli (Leipsic, 1820).^Another Lcs- bonax, a grammarian, whose date is unknown, has left a treatise on grammatical figures, published in "Valckenaer's edition of Ammonius (Leyden, 1749; reprinted, Leipsic, 1822). H. Drisler. Les'bos, or Mitylene, .in island of the Grecian Archi- pelago, 10 miles (lisiaut from the coast of Asia Minor, and belonging to Turkey. Area, GOO square miles. Pop. 40,000, of whom 15,000 are Turks. Tho island is mountainous, but very fertile, producing excellent olive oil, figs, grapes, and pine timber; its wine, famous in olden time, is now inferior. Thcophrastus, Alcaeus, and Sappho were born here. Chief town, Castro. Lescarbot' (Marc), seigneur de St. Audcbert, b. at Vervins, France, about 1570; became a lawyer; was asso- eiatecj with Do Mont in the colonization of Acadia iXova Scotia) in 1005. and was engaged with Poutriiicourt in the settlement of Port Royal (now Annapolis) until its aban- donment in 1C07. when he returned to France. He pub- lished in 1609 a Hiatoirc dc la .Vfimctlc trance, giving an account of Cartier's voyages to Canada, of Laudonuierc's failures in Florida, and of tho enterprise with which ho was personally connected, the first attempt at settlement having been made on what is now Boon Island on the coast of Maine. lie added a collection of poems, written by him- self and others in the new colony, under the title £i» Miiset de la Ji'otivillc France, one of which relates the defeat of the Micmac by the Armouchiquois Indians in Maine in 1007. The descrii»tion of the country and the accounts of the Indians arc spirited, and probably faithful. The vol- ume attracted the attention of Hakluyt, and under his au- spices an English translation of the greater part was pub- lished tho same year, under tho title A'ova Francia, or the Deecriplion of that part of Sew France tchich i> one Couti- uent with Virijinlu (1009). A second edition, enlarged, of the original work appeared in lOlI, and a third in 1013, with the addition of two smaller treatises, La Cimrersion de» Sauiuiffca and Utilation tierniere de ee qui c'rat pass( au vot/aijc dn Sienr dr L'outrincourt. the former having been first printed in 1010 and the latter about 1612. An account is given therein of the disputes between Poutrincourt and the Jesuits, in which Lescarbot sided with the former. He also published in 1013 a poetical description of ,Switzer- land, Le Tablcan de la Snisae, aud in 1029 an account of the repulse of tlie English from the Isle of l\\i6. As early as 1599 he had written a Diacoiira in favor of the union of tho Greek Church with the Catholic. D. about 1030. Les'chcs fAto-xi']' ''■ n<'!"' Mitylene, one of the class known as the Cyclic poets, nourished about 700 b. c. His poem, entitled the Little Iliad (notpi 'Ui«). treated of tho events subsequent to Homer's great poem, including the de- struction of Troy, from which that j)art is calieil also tho Iteatructitm of Troy {'ixiov iripats). Pausanias has quota- tions from Lescbes, and an extract is preserved in Pro- clus. H. Drisler. LESGHIANS— LESSEPS, DE. 1739 Lcs'ghians, a people of tho Caucasus, Asiatic Uussia, nuinbcriii;^ about 3U0,UU0, and speaking many languages. UnJcr (lie iuQucncc of Sbaniyl thcv unitcl into a siuglc political boily, and for many years carried on a Jirave re- sistance to Russia. Since ISo'J they have liecn peaceable. Their religion, called Muradism, is a form ot' Alohara- medanism taught by a native prophet, who began his re- ligious career about ls;iO. They inhabit the mountains of AVestern l),vghestan, where each village is a fortress. Les'lcy (John), b. in Scotland .Sept. 2'J, Ii27; graduated at King's College, Aberdeen ; studied at several continental universities, and in 1JJ4 was appointed professor of ca- non law at Aberdeen. He attached himself to the fortunes of Mary queen of i^cots, by whom he was made bishop of Uoss; became her diplomatic a;;cnt ; was inii)lieatcd in the l)roject for her marriage to the duke of Norfolk, and the consequent rebellion in the N. of England (loliS); went to France in 1573 in her service and for the promotion of Catholic interests; received ecclesiastical appointments in th.it country, becoming in lo0.3 bishop of Coutances in Normandy, and was soon after obliged to take refuge in Brussels, where he d. .May :il, Ijilli. lie wrote much in de- fence of his royal mistress, and published at Rome a his- tory of Scotland, l)r OrhjinrH M'H-ihtiH ct /ifhtiv (ifnliH Sro- tot'ntn (Rome, 167S), in 10 books, seven in Latin and the last three in the Scottish dialect. This portion was re- printed in 1830 by the Bannatyne Club. Lesley (.T. Pf.tc;ii), b. Sept. 17, 1S19, at Philadelphia; graduated at tho University of Pennsylvania in IS.'iS, and at Princeton Theological Seminary in 1811: was assistant geologist on the first survey of Pennsylvania in IS.ill— tl, and prepared the maps and illustrations for the final report in 1812; after travelling on foot around France, heard lec- tures in the University of Ilalle through the winter of 1S44; returned home in 1S45, and was authorized by the American Tract Society to estalilish its colporlage system in the northern and middle counties of Pennsylvania; be- came pastr)r of the .Milton church near Boston in 18-17, and left the ministry in Is.'jU to settle at Philadelphia as a pro- fessional geologist ; was appointed secretary of the Ameri- can Iron Association in 1 So.'), secretary and librarian of the American Philosophical Society in 1 S;')8, professor of geology and mining engineering in the scientilic department of the University of Pennsylvania in 187.3, and State geologist of Pennsylvania in 1871; examined tho Bessemer iron-works of Europe in 18(13; was U. S. Senate commissioner to the Exposition of 1807, and s]ient the following winter in Egypt : was chosen one of the corporate members of the National Academy in 18()-1 ; published n Mmiunl nf Cnal and lit Titpntiniphi/ (ISiifi), a Guide to ikc Iron-wmkt of the U. S. (1858), arid the first series of reports of progress of the geological survey of Pennsylvania in 1875. Les'lie^ post-v. and tp. of Ingham Co.. Mich., on the Jackson Lansing and Saginaw R. R., 21 miles S. of Lansing. It has 5 churches, a large union high school, a newspaper, (1 magnetic artesian wells of great flow, 3 hotels, 1 private bank,(i steam-mills, 1 iron-foundry, cxlensivo stave-works, and a number of stores. It is in a rich agricultural dis- trict. Pop. I'JSIO. J. W. Ai.i.KX. En. •• Li:sLiE 11i;iialu." Leslie (Ciiahi.ks), b. at Ilaphoc, Donegal eo., Ireland, about ItJIJ. His father, Dr. John Leslie, was successively bishop of the Orkneys, of Raphoe, ami of Clogher for more than fifty years, and d. in 1(171, at the age of 1(11 years. Charles was educated at Trinity College. Dublin; studied law at the Temple, London, for several years subsequent to 1()71 ; took orders in the Church of England in 1(1811, and was chancellor of the cathedral of Connor in 1(187, but by refusing to take the oath id allegiance to William and .Mary cut olV all prospect of ec ■lesiasticnl preferment. lie then devoted himself to religious and political controversy, for both of which he was well fitted by extensive studies in English hi-story ami law and in theological literature. For thirty-three years he was the leading literary chamiiion of the .iacobites. His works against Jews. Socinians. Presby- terians, (Quakers, and Catholics oucc enjoyed great faiiie. but the only work of Leslie which has exercised any in- fluence in the i>resent century is tho Slimi Mvlhnd irilli the Driait (10!) I), tho argument of which rests principally upon the Christian miracles. Though still esleeined by evangeli- cal theologians, it is regaiilcd as inailiquate lo the wants of the present day, and is now little read. Leslie was for some years at the court of the Pretender on the Continenl. then resided in Italv, returned to England in 1721, and d. Apr. 13, 1722. Leslie (CiiAni.rs RniiFnTl, b. at Clerkcnwell, London, of American parents, in 17!M. His father was a watch- maker of Philadelphia. The boy relumed wilh his parents to Philadelphia in ISOO, anil nfier leaving school was ap- prenticed to a bookseller; in 1811 went lo England; studied with West and Allston; waselcctcdoasocinteof the Academy in IS21, and member in 1S20. llis first attempts at paint- ing were on a largo scale of historical subjects, but ho soon abandoned this style for another, in which he became famous. In 1833 he >vas appointed professor of drawing at West Point, but held the position for five months only. In 1S47 he was chosen professor of painting at the Royal Academy, held the office four years, and delivered lectures which were published by the title of A Hundhonk/or Yuinif/ I'unitrrit. In 1845 appeared his Lt'/e of I'uunttfbU, the ar- tist. Leslie's productiveness has been very great. His works cover a period of about half a century; they exhibit much variety in subject, but with much sameness of manner. Sev- eral of tho best of them have been engraved. His .time /'ojc nnd Sfendrr, Sir Rmjer d< Coffvln/ (joirtf/ lo ("hnrch, Mnif Dny ill Ihr. Reifiii of Qiii-cii Klizniieth, arc familiar. His works found great favor in Englanil, partly from (he character of his subjects, which were token chiefly from English lit- erature, and partly from (he artist's sympathy with English scenery and manners. They arc full of a sweet humor, elegant in conception, graceful in execution, and finished in style. The best are in the Sheepshanks Collection. Les- lie painted a few portraits and some ceremonial pieces, among which are the Coromttinn of the Qitmi and tho CliriHtcniiKj of the Priiiccge Jlui/al. He d. in Loudon Jlay 5, 1859. 0. B. FuoTiiixciiAM. Leslie (Eliza), b. ot Philadelphia, Pa., Nov. 15, 1787, sister of C. R. Leslie; accompanied her parents to Eng- land in 17113, returning in ISOU; made her first appearance as an authoress in 1827 with her A'crciit/Z'/iie liei-eiptu for I'anlni, C'ul;rH, iind Si'/rlmeiilii, the popularity of which led to other successful works of the same class. In 1831 she published the Amrricmi Girh' Hook, and having won a prize ofl'ered by Mr. (iodey of the Liidi/'a ISouk by her story .l/i». Wtmliiiiftlon Potts, she thereafter devoted herself chiefly to writing works lor the young, by which she acquired great popularity. Her DomcKtic Cooktrij linok, ])ublished in 1837, went through fifty or sixty editions, while the Home Book (1840) and Liidifa Ucceipt Hook (184(1) were also widely circulaled. Her only novel was entitled ^iiir/i'a, or n Yotimj Liuhj's Vii-in'iliidta ( IS 18). She contributed to Hart's FiiiKiti- Prone Wrilirs of Aiiirrico an interesting auto- biogrnphical sketch. D. at lilouccster, N. J., Jan. 2, 1858. Leslie (Gkorbe Drxi.op), b. in London, England. July 2, 1835, son of C. H. Leslie: was educated at the Mercers' School, received artistic training from his falhcr and at a school of art at Bloomsbury, and was in 1851 aduiillcd as a student of the Royal Academy. Ho began lo exhibit pictures at the Academy in 1857, was elected an associate of that institution in 180S, and has attained considerable popularity as an artist. Leslie (Hknrv Davm)), b. in London, Engliiml, Juno 18, 1822: studied music under the direction of Prof. C. Lucas; founded in Is5(i a choral society known by his name, and in 1801 was made ]irineipal of the College of Music, an institution founded in that year on the system of the continental conservatories. He has published sev- eral symphonies, overtures, oratorios, and cantatas, besides various compositions for stringed instruments, and sixty or seventy songs, duets, antlieins, and pieces for the pittUO. In 1804 he composed a romantic opera in three acts. Leslie (Sir Joiis), b. at Largo, Fifcshiro, Scotland, Apr. 10, 1706; was educated at the universities of St. An- drew's and Edinburgh; spent two years (1788-89) in Vir- ginia as tutor in one of the Randolph families; settled in London in I791l.and applied bimsell (o science. Hetrans- hued liull'on's Nulnrui llisiori/ of llirdu (II vols., 1793), trav- elled on the Continent as tutor, and was an unsuccessful can- didate for iirofcssorsbips at St. Andrew's and (ilasgow. In 1805 he was eleeled by the town-council of Edinburgh profcs.sor of malhenialies in the university of that city, after a vigorous opposKion by (he clergy on the score of dangerously liberal opinions both in politics and religion. In 1819 he succeeded Prof. Playfair in the chair of natural philosophy, which he held through life. He was knighted a fewmon'lhs before bis dealb, ivbieh occurred Nov. 3, 1832. Ho early took high rank as a scientific investigator and I discoverer. His E.rpcriiiiciiliit Iiiijiiirif into the Antnrc ond I Propiuiiiiioii of Ileal (1.804) gaincil the Rumford medal of the Royal S.icioty. From 1809 lo 1822 he |inblished a se- ries of textbooks in geotnclry and the higher iniillieiuatics, and from 1822 to his death a similar series iin natural philosophy. In 1810 he discovered (ho process of artificial congelation. He was tho author of a large number of soi- onlitic articles in the Eneifelopirdin Britaiiiiiea. Les'seps, tie (Fi;nniNANi)), Visioh.st, b. at Versailles Nov. 19, 1805 ; entered public life in 1828 as an attach/' ot Lisbon; held various eonsiilnr ofiiees : proposeil in 1851 to Mebenict Said, viceroy of Egypt, the cutting of a canal across the Isthmus of Suez, and published in that year a report, Peicemciit de I'lathmc de Suez cxpoai. A firman 1740 LESSING— LESTRI DIN-£. s:inctioning the enterprise was granted in 1804, and the wnrk was executed 1S09-G9, (For ii sketch of the history of the riuez Canal and the many diffieultit-s, financial, dip- lomatic, and nutiiral. which were overcome largely hy the energies of M. de Lcsseps, see SfEz Canal.) M. do Les- seps since the c(»niplt-tiou of his great work has been the recipient of many honors and rewards, and has directed his attention to other vast projects, such as a central Asian railway and the conversion of the Desert of Sahara into an inland sea. Les'sing (GoTTiroi.n Ephraim), b. at Camenz, Saxony, 171^11: studied at Leipsic, or rather tried to study, first theology and then medicine, but his innate passion for the theatre, dramn. and literature in general was too powerful ; moved to Berlin, whore, in intimate connection with Moses Mendelssohn and Xicolai, he led for several years an exclu- sively literary life, the most remarkable fruit of which were his Lrfters on L iteniture. In 170" went to Breslau us gov- ernment secretary to Cen. von Tauonzion. and while re- siding there, in the midst of the .Seven Years' w:ir. wrote Miiiiifi fon Harnhelm^ the first national drama of Germany and the inauguration of a grent and brilliant literature. It made a great sensation, and the impression was both widened and deepened by his tragedy, Emifie Gulotti, which soon followed. In 17G9 he went to Hamburg as director of the theatre, and there wrote his Hnmhurqifsche Dramtiinrifie.it series of theatrical reviews, which, together with his Lnokoon, a scries of general critical analyses, not only oxerciseil a great influence on Gorman literature, but raised a new issue in modern civilization : from Ham- burg went to Wolfeabiittel as librarian at the dueal library, and while in this position published the famous Wnlfcn- bUtfehchr Ftaifm<nt<\ the first and perhaps the strongest attack on the historical basis of Christianity. The Fraff- turutc were written by Reimarus; Lessing was only their editor and chaiupiun, but he defended them against the orthodox Church with such superiority of intelligence and brilliancy of argument that the ducal government became alarmed and bade him stop. Although a very independent character, he submitted, and later on set forth his religious views in another form, in his great philosophical drama, Xnthan der Weise, one of his last and most perfect works. His philosophical essay on the development of civilization, TJie Erzlchmiff dea Mcnnckengenchlcchts, followed next year. He d. at Wolfenbiittel in 1781. Lessing's mind is very strikingly characterized by the well-known saying of his. that if God held truth in the right hand ancl doubt in the left, and oflTered him the choice, he would choose the left hand. Truth in the form of dogma, maxim, or rule he did not acknowledge. He understood truth only in the form of something to be searched after, to be striven for. To him, religion was not obedience, but insight ; morality, not duty, but wisdom; poesy, not inspiration, but taste. Al- though Voltaire's antagonist, he is Voltaire's disciple. But in his searchings after truth and in his exertions towards perfection few have ever surpassed him in acuteness and penetrating power, and none in resoluteness and veracity. What, was a needle between Voltaire's fingers became a sword in Lessing's hand. What Voltaire had used only as a brilliant means of repartee, Lessing laid down and car- ried through as a powerful principle. He was a greater critic than Voltaire, and he is the founder of modern art- criticism, of that kind of authorship which at present at- tracts the attention of the greatest and most accom- plished minds in all nations by its analyses and <lennm3t ra- tions of the relation between art on tl>c one side and na- ture, history, morality, and religion on the other. All that hail been written aiiout art before Lessing — by Aristotle and Horace, by lioileauand Voltaire — became insignificant when f.ftohonn and the Ifamhnr<fis''he Di'ftinatiirfjie were puV'lished. It consisted merely of rules, and was founded on the idea that art could be rlcfined by rules. Lessing understood that art is as free in its creations as nature, and. like her. bound by laws, not by rules: and to find out and establish these laws, every one of which opens up new persi>ectives into the philosophy of matter and mind, is the task of criticism. This idea is truly the discovery of a new world, and every point on which Lessing lighted is explored and described with wonclerful completeness and accuracy. A positive system of philosophy and religion Lessing probably did not possess. Yet his criticism on these two fields was not merely destructive. He never took from people their prejudices without giving them a hint or suggestion of how the empty place was to be filled ; and his ideas in philosophy of the infinite perfectibility of mankind, and in religion of the true relation between the Bible and the tradition, have not been without influ- ence. Cl.FMENS PeTERSKN. Lessin? (Karl FRiFPRirnV b. at Wartenberg, Silesia, Feb. IS, 18(lS : received his first .artistic instruction at the school of architecture at Berlin ,- studied then for several years at DUsseldorf under Schadow. and was appointed director of the gallery of paintings at Carlsruhc in 18.')S. His paintings are partly landscapes, partly historical, and among the latter his I/unm'te« ( is:juj, //ii.?« be/ore the Coun- cil ( ls{2|, Thv Martifi-dom of IIhhh (iSjU). and others, ex- cited great admiratii)n by the strength and richness of their characterization. A pupil himself of the school of Diisseldorf. and laboring in many points under its influence, he has contributed much to elevate and ennoble it. Les'ter, post-tp. of Black Hawk co., la. Pop. 844. Lester (Charles EnwAnns), b. at Griswold. Conn., July Ij, 1S1.'>, a clescendant of .Timathan Edwards ; resided for a time in the South and West : cnmc to the bar in Mis- sissipjii. and was afterwards ordained to the Presbyterian ministry; was U. S. consul at (lenua. Italy, 1S42— 17, and has attained distinction as a journalist and political lec- turer. Among other works he has published The Glori/ and Shame of Entfland (1S41), Condition and Fate of Eng- land (1S42), Life of Vcf^imeiua (181C), The Napoleon Dtj- nastif (1852). Life of Charles Snmticr (1874), Our First Hmidrcd Yrarn (1874-75), and Several translations of standard Italian authors. Lestocq' (Jean Hi:nMAs), b. at Celle, Hanover, Apr. 29, 10'J2. His father, a French emigrant, was a surgeon. and the son chose the game profession; in 1713 went to St. Petersburg, and was appointed surgeon in the service of Peter the tireat. Itut was banished to Kazan in 171S on account of his dissolute habits. In 172j. Catharine I. re- called and ajjpointed him surgeon in the service of the princess Elizabeth. He soon acquired complete control over the mind of the princess, and it was by his instigation and by his aid that she undertook the revolution of Nov. 2J. 1741, which made her empress of Russia. The king of Poland now made Lestocq a count, the empress gave him a pension of 7000 rubles annually, and for several years his influence in Russian politics was very great. But in 1748 the vice-chancellor, Bestoozhcf, succeeded in rousing the empress's suspicion against him. He was arrested, put to the torture, and banished to Ooglitch. In 17G1, Peter III. recalled him to the court, and Catharine II. gave bim an estate in Livonia, where he d. June 12. 1767. Lestosau'riis [Or. AjjoT^t. '* pirate." and o-aupoc. "liz- ard"], a genus of extinct reptiles from the Cretaceous of Kansas. (See MosASArnrs, by Prof. O. C. Maush.) L'Estrange' (Sir Roger), b. at Hunstanton Hall. Xorfolksbire. England, in lOltJ: was probably educated at Cambridge; accompanied King Charles I. in 1631) in his expedition against the S?ot.=, and being a Bealoue royalist during the civil war was captured in an attack on Lynn (1644), and condemned to death by the Roundheads. He was, however, reprieved, and kept captive several years, until in 1648 he escaped and unsuccessfully trie<l to stir up a rebellion in Kent : after which he flecl to the Continent. He returned to England on the dissolution of the Long Parliament in 1653, and made terms with Cromwell. At the Restorati(m be was appointed censor or " licenser " of the press : established the Public Intelh'fjcncer newspaper in 1665 and the Obscrrator in 1679, in both of which sheets and in a multitude of pamphlets he showed himself a most energetic supporter of the Crown. He made translations of .losephus. Cicero's (J^vcs, ^sop's Fables, Erasmus's Col- loffnlea, Quevedo's Visions, and other works, ancient ami modern, some of which possessed considerable merit, though unfaithful and disfigured by flippant phrases. Ho was knighted on the accession of James II., elected to the Par- liament of 16S5, and dismissed from his oflBce of censor at the revolution of 1688, soon after which he became insane. D. in London Dec. II, 1704. Lestrid'inw [from Lestris, the generic name, literally "robber." nn<l the sub-family affix -itur], ti sub-family of the faniilv Larida*. distinguished by a well-clcveloped beak, the upjier mandible of which is strongly hooked, overhang- ing the lower, and which has at its base a well-developed cere. In this grouji are embraced the jUgers or gull-hunt- ers, and those names, as well as their scientific designntions, are derived from an alleged peculiarity in their habits, it being affirmed that they chiefly obtain their fofid by pur- suing the smaller gulls after tliey have secured food, and compelling them to disgorge : the fn<ul thus dejected they pounce upon, and, as the bald-hearled eagle does to the fish- hawk, appropriate it to themselves. The species are mostly inhabitants of the polar regions, G. R. Gray recognizing four species from the northern seas and one from the Ant- arctic; but, according to the same authority, two species (not even represented in the British Museum) are found in intermediate regions, one (Stereorariu» //ordifi) being at- tributed to '* Malay. Philippines. Sandwich Islands." and another i,S. spinicnuda) to "Atlantic Ocean. St. Helena." Dr. Coues admits four North American species, which he LE SUEUR— LETTERS TESTAMENTARY. 1741 places in two sub-goncra^ Buphngnsj with one species, aud Stercontrim, with three. TUKODOllB Gill. Le Sueur, county of S. Central Minnesota, bounilcd W.bv the Minnesota Kiver. Area, MO square miles. It is fertile, level, niul well womltHl. tJrain anil lumber are load- ing proriiicts. The county eontains a great number of small lakes, an-1 is traversed by the St. Paul and Sioux Cily K. U. Cop. Lc Sueur. Pop, ILfiO?. iie Sueur, post-v. and tp., cap. of Le Sueur co., Minn., on the Minne--uta River aud on the St. Paul and Sioux City U. U.. tK'> miles from St. Paul. It has churches, an elegant public school, several wa^on aud furniture manu- factories, and a number of stores. Pop. 1009. M. K. PRENDKUGAST, LATK El). ** Lk SlKm CorRIER." Lesueur' iErsTA<iiKK b. at Paris in 1G17: received his first artistic inftruetion from his father, who was a sculptor ; i*tudie<l under Simon Vouet, together witli Lebrun. his future rival, and soon became oue of the most esteemed painters of that time in France, but d. at Paris in 16j.>. i His pictures represent subjects of the Bible, St, Paul at Ephftiis ; of the Christian legends. Sceitcn in the Life of | St. Bruno : and of the (Ireek mythology. Scencn in the Life uf t'npiii : and the circumstance that he had never been in Italy, nor raado a thorouj^h study of the history of the art , of painting, gave his genius a freshness, naivete, and I originality which still charm in his pictures, while it is \ ju^t these qualities which are missing in Lebrun, who ; folluwed Pouj^sin to Italy, and succeeded in throwing Le- sucur into the shade. Lesaenr (Jean Fran(;ois), b. Jan. l.'i, 17fi3, at Drucat- Plesfliol. near Abbeville, France; was appointed director of music at the cathedral of Seez in 1770, and in 17S0 at the church of Notre Dame in Paris. The innovations which his compositions intniduced into the style of sacrecl music attracted the public, but vrcre not approved of by connois- seurs and the clergy, an<l iu 17SS he gave up his position, and lived for some years in retirement in the country. In 170.'t liis opera La Carcrnc made a great success, and in 170.3 he was appointed professor at the newly formed con- servatory of music in Paris. This po.-itioii he lost in INOL' on account of dissensions with his eolleai^ues, but in I.SO-I, Napoleon made him director of the imperial orchestra. The mass and Tc fhtim which he composed for the coro- nation of the emperor were received with great applause, and liis opera, Lia fiatulrH, even excited enthusiasm, La Mort </',l»/«7/»(, on the c mtrary, was more coolly received iu 1800, and liis later masses and oratorios failed to make much impression. In 1H17 ho was appointed professor in composition at the reorganiz(Ml conservatory of music, and among his pupils wore IJerlioz, Ambroise Tliomas, Gounod, and l)ictsch. 1). in Paris Oct. C>, ls;i7. LetartS ip, of Mtigs co., 0., on Ohio River. Pop, i;>19, Letch'ery county of Kentucky, bounded S. E. by Vir- ginia. It is a mountain region, having beds of bituminous coal. Corn is the princijjal crop. Area, 300 square miles. Cap. Whitesburg. Pop. lOUH. Letcher (John), b. at Lexington, Va., Mar. 29, 1813; educated partly ut Washington College, but graduated at Uandolph'Mueon College, Va.; studied law and was ad- mifled to the bar iu ISIIO. aud while practising edited a newspaper in his native town ; in 1H.')0 was a member of the State constitutiotml coiiveulion. and a member of Con- gress from is.i;; to l.S.)9, when In- was ducted governor of Virginia. This positii>n ho was hohling when the Slate passed her ordinaiu^e of secession in lSt>|. Though he hatl not favored the policy of .accession, yet as an imliviilual and as chief mngislnile he sustained the action of the State with zeal, energy, and ability. After the war he took no prom- inent part in politics, but resumed the practice of law at Lexington, A. H, StivPiikns. Ijetcher (Robert P.), b. in Gerard co., Ky.; was a lawytT by profession ; a member of the Slate logisluturo fnr a number of years, and once Speaker of the house ; was a member of Congress from IS2;i to 1833; was an intimate personal aud political friend of Air. Clay ami .Mr. Critten- den ; was elerti-d governor (»f the State in lH|(i, and was minister to Mexico iu 1819. U. at Frankfort, Ky., Jan. 2\, 1S(U. A. II, Stkpiikns. Lc'the, in Grecian mythology, was a river in the lower wrld of which tho departed souls drank before entering the Klysian Fields, thereby entirely forgetting all about their life on earth. It was also used as a personification of oldivion. Leto. See Latona. KctohnU'h'ee, post-tp., Lowndes co., Ala. Pop. 2538. Kt*troiiii(>' (.Ji:a» Antoink), b. at Paris Jan. 26, 17H7: studied tho art of painting under David, but fell himself more strongly drawn towards science; worked for several years under Mentelle. jirofessor in geography ; travelled from I-SIO to 1812 through France. Italy, aud Switzerland; wrote in 1814 his Cotii-M /(rmrntain; dc Geoi/rapJu'r, tiurienuc ct tnoilvntc. which was often republished; became iu 1831 professor iu history and areliicology at the Collljge do France, and in 1810 keeper of the archives of the kingdom. 1). at Paris Dec. 13, 1818. His principal works are AV- chernficn pour acnir ^ VJ/istoiic lie VEtjypte (1823), liecuril den InHcrtptiuiiJt yrccfptes ct latinea de V Etji/pte (1842—18), and Dipiomrs ct Cfiurtres dr f'^poquc Merovimjicnne any pnptfiUH et aur vt'lin (1S4-1). Noteworthy among his minor works is his La Statue vacate dc Mcninon (1833). I.rtter of Attorney. See Power of Attohney. Letter ol" Credit, a Utter written by one merchant ] or correspouileut to another requesting him to credit Uie j bearer or the person therein named with a sum of money. j Letters of credit are either general or special. They are general when addressed to any and every person to whom I they may be presented, and therefore give any person to whom tliey may be shown autlmrity to make advances upon I the credit of the drawer. They are special when addressed to a particular indiviilual by name, who alone is authorized lo act upon the request. If advances Ijc made upon a letter of credit by the person to whom it is presented, he has a right of action against the drawer for reimbursement. A privily of contract springs up between tlieui upon accept- ance of the request by the drawee. (See (iiiARANTV. Burge on Surcti/afiip : Bell's Vomnuntaries Laws of Scotland; Story on Bilh.) Gkorge Chase. Revised by T. W. Dwigrt. Lette'rej town of S. Italy, in the province of Naples, not far from (.'astellammare. Pop. in 187J, 5610. Letterken'y, tp. of Franklin co., Pa. Pop. 2178. Letters. Sec PAL.KOGRAfnv. Letters, Law Concerning. Pee Literahv Pkop- ERTv. by Pkof. T. W. D\vi<;nT. LL.D, Letters of Administration. See Letti:rs Testa- ment art, A DM I MST RATION. Inciters of Marque. See Privateer, War, Marque (Ll'.TTERS or). Letters Patent. See Patent. Let'ters Ko'gatory, a writ or instrument sent in tho name and by the authority of a judge or court to another iu adifFerentcountry or State, requesting that the deposition of a witness be taken who is within the jurisdiction of the for- eign tribunal, to be used as testimony in a cause pending before the judge or court from which the letters are sent. This instrument informs the court abroad of tlie pendency of Iho action, the names of the foreign witnesses, and is frequently nccompanicil by written interrogatories, pre- pared by the litigating parties, upon wliich the witness is to be examined. It also contains an oiler on the part of the court issuing the letters to perform a similar service for the foreign tribunal whenever required. The witness is examined cither before the judge receiving the letters, or before a commissioner apjiointed for the purpose, and the answers, signed and sworn to by the deponent, and duly nuthenticate<l, arc then returned to the court from which tho letters isf^ued. (Sec DKi'i)snniN, Witness.) (Ji:ou(;e Chase. Hkviskd hy T. AV. Dwkjiit. Let'ters Testamentary, an instrument in writing granted by a surrogate or other judicial officer having ju- risdiction of the probate of wills to an executor as evidence of his authority, and enuxiwering him to administer Iho estate of the deceased. When a person dies intestate, let- ters of n similar ehuraeter are granted to the person wlio is apjjointed ailniinislrator. but they are then termed "letters of administration." By the Kngli,-h common law execu- tors c<iuld perform most of the acts pertaining to (heir ofliec, except engaging in suits in relation to the estate, be- fore obtaining letters lestamentary, since an executor's au- thority and title is deemed in law lo be derived from tho will, and only to be evidenced by the letters granted. This rule has generally been changed in American practice by statute, ami it is usually requirecl that letters testamenlarv must be obtained before an executor will be authorized lo perform any of his usual <lufits in the settletnent of the estate except those of minor iinporlanee. An adininistralor has no authority to net until letters of adiuinislration are granted to him, though after the grant is made his title and authority will, by tietion id" law. relate back to the death of Iho intestate. (See Kution.) Letters granted by the surrogate are only valid within the limits <d" the State in which they are issued. If there are assets of the deceased within a foreign Slate or country, letters must he iKsucd there to subordinate or ancillary aclministrators. and tho principal executor or administrator, as such, will have no authority to administer such assets, unless they arc ro- 1742 LETTER- WOOD— LEURET. raitted to him from the foreign jurisdiction. (See Will, ApMIMSTRATOR. EXKri-TOIl, PROBATK. ^TRROGATE.) (iKiMCGK Chask. Rkv!si:i) bv T. W. Dwight. Let'ter-wood, or Suake-wood, a rare and costly ornamental wood used lor inlaying and veneering, the product of lirosimnm Anbletii, an artocarjiaceous tree of South America. It is so hard that axes of extraordi- nary temper arc required to fell the tree. Its rich brown wood has somewhat letter-shaped marks, which arc nearly black. It is one of the most beautiful kinds of wood. Let'tic Race, The, forms a subdivision of the Slavic ^roup, belonging to the Indo-European family, and is ilselt divitied into three branches — the Lithuanians, the Letts, and the Old Prussians. The Old Prussians inhab- ited the region between the Niemen and the Vistula, but were completely Germanized in the seventeenth century. The few remains of their language were collected by Nes- selmaun, and published at Berlin {1JS4))). The Letts, num- bering about 1,000.1)1)11, inhabit Courland, Western Livonia, and the adjacent districts of the governments of Vitebsk. Kuvno, and Pskov. Their language was not reduced to writing until the sixteenth century, on the introduction of the Reformation ; the first book printed in Lettish was the minor catechism by Luther, which ajipcared in 1 j86. Since that time the language has been cultivated with steadily increasing care. Religious books, and even books of fiction, were translated; lyrical poetry, and even plays, were pro- duced by native authors ; and at present Lettish newspapers and periodicals are issued. The Lithuanians comprise the Lithuanians proper, numbering about 7 JO.OOO, and inhabit- ing the eastern part of Courland and the governments of Vilnaand (Jrodno ; the Samogitians or Shamaites, number- ing about Olio, 000, and occupying the governmont of Kovno ; and the Lithuanians in Prussia, numbering about 150.000. The Lithuanian language is spoken in several dialects. Like the Lettish, it was not reduced to writing until the time of the introduction of the Reformation, but it is much older than the Lettish, and exists in a much more prim- itive state, fur which reason it is of peculiar interest to the student of the Indo-Germauic languages. It is rich in songs, of which a small collection was published by Rhesa at Kiinigsbcrg in 1S2j ; and in tales, proverbs, and riddles, of which a collection was published at Weimar in l!^o7 by Schleicher. A Lithuanian dictionary was published in ISo-i by Nesselmann, and a grammar by Schleicher (Prague, I8jG) ; liielenstein gave a Lettish grammar in 2 vols. (Ber- lin, 1863-66). Lettres de Cachet. See Cachet, Lettres de. Lett's, post-v. of Grandview tp.. Louisa co.. In., on the South-western division of the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. R. (Ouonwa Station). Pop. ^S. Let'tuce [Lat. lactHca'\, an important salad-plant, the LactHca sdtira, a composite herb, the native country of which is not known. There are many varieties, some of which form heads of leaves and others do not. It is easy of digestion, rather laxative, and gently soporific. From its juice the narcotic LACTrcARii'M (which see) is prepared. There are several Asiatic. Eurnpean, and American species of wild lettuce {Luctuca), most of which have an acrid-nar- cotic quality. Leucadia. See Santa Maura. IjCucan'ilinc [iJr. Xcvko^. *• white," and Sans, nil, " in- digo"], C^-oHjiNa, a base produced by the action of redu- cing agents on rosaniline, and related to it in the same manner as indigo-white to indigo blue: RosAnlllnp. Lcucantllne. C-20Hl9N3 + H2 = C20H,lN5. (Sec Watts's Dirt., iii. 574.) Leuch'tcnberg, in the Middle Ages an independent principality of tiermany, received its name from the castle ol" Leuchtenberg. and was ruled by a landgrave. In 1G46 the male line of the dynasty became extinct, and the land- graviate fell to Bnvaria. In 1S17 the Bavarian king, Maxi- milian Joseph, ceded it for 5,000,000 francs to his son-in- law, Eugene Heauharnais, who assumed the title of duke of Leuchtenberg. Area, about SO square miles. Pop. about 6500. Cap. Pfreimt. Len'cine [Gr. \cvk6<:, " white "], a curious crystalline substance which is among the products of incipient putre- faction of the albuminoid or proteid bodies. Proust was the discoverer of it in cheese, and Braconnot obtained it by treating animal substances with sulphuric acid. It oc- curs diffused widely throughout living animal tissues. Its composition is CellisXOj. Another name now given to it, conveying a theory of its constitution, is amidnmproic acid, represented thus : CgHul XH2)02: as derived from cnproic a^nd. C6H12O2. by replacement of II2 by NII2, amidogen. It was called by its earlier investigators oxide of caatine or cn«eoK« oxide. Another crystalline substance, called tf/ro- siitCy which is CsHjiNKs, always accompanies leucine, both in nature and as formed artificially. Leucine is prepared by dissolving washed leim meat in oil of vitriol, removing the latter by chalk, evaporating, dissolving in alcohol, de- colorizing with animal charcoal, and crystallizing. There arc several other methods, however. Leucine may be sub- limed like camphor. It dissolves in warm, not in cold, water. The study of these immediate products of metamorphoses of the nitrogcn(ms substances that form animal tissues is of the utmost importance in connection with physiology and the learning of the chemical laws of life and death, of health and disease. In this view, leucine and tyrosine, and their associates and congeners, are bodies of high import- ance, which call for the serious attention and investigation of the chemical student, H. Wirtz. Leucip^pus, the teacher of Bcmocritus and the founder of the atomic school in the Greek philosophy, lived probably about 500 B. c, but of his personal life nothing is known, ilis writings have ail perished, and from the notices which Aristotle. Plutarch, and Cicero give it is impossible to sco now how far he had developed the atomic theory. Leu'cite [Gr. Aeu»c6y, "white"], a natural silicate of alumina and potash, crystallizing in the monometric sys- tem, and of a gray or white color (hence it is sometimes called " white garnet"). It occurs abundantly in the vol- canic rocks of the Rhine and of Italy. Leuck'art (Kahi. Georg Friedrich Rrnoi.F), b. at Helmstedt, in Brunswick. Oct. 7, 1823: studied medicine and natural science at Gottingen under Wagner, and was appointed professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at the I'niversity of Gicssen in 1S50. His licitrilfjen znr Kcuntniss wirbelloser T/ticre {1S4S) and Ueher den Poly- morphiamnn der Individiien (1S51) attracted much atten- tion, but it was more especially his helminthologioal re- searches. Die lilftsenbnndir'urmcr (1856) and Trichina epi- ntlis (1861), which made his name celebrated. He also wrote Die Parasiten den Menschen [2 vols., lSGl-66). Leucocytha^'mia [Gr. Aev^d?, "white," icvto?, "cell," and alfia, "blood"], or Leucha*mia, a disease of the human subject, characterized by a very great excess of the white cells in the blood, and by a corresponding dimi- nution of the proportion of red corpuscles. It is accom- panied by enlargement of the spleen or of some of the lym- ]ihatic glands, or of both, and cases are reported accom- panied by disease of the medullary mass in the bones, which mass takes on, or perhaps normally possesses, the lymph- atic function. In some cases the white blood-cells are not to be distinguished from the normal ones: in others they are smaller and accompanied by free nuclei and granules. The liver is frequently enlarged. A hemorrhagic diathe- sis is often developed. The patient wastes away and be- comes anivmic. Of the causatiim and cure of this disease nothing is known. It is always fatal, but often chronic. Leu'coline [Gr. A(vk6^, "white"]. C9H7N, a volatile oil^- base, isomeric with chinoline, obtained from the oil of coal-tar. (See C/icm. ^uc. Jour., xvi. 377.) Leucorrh<r'a [Gr. AfVKos, "white," and per*-, to "flow"], the "whites," a catarrhal flow from the vaginal or uterine raucous membranes. This disease is an exag- geration of the normal mucous secretion, and is often con- sequent ujion a some\vhat inflammatory condition of the mucous membranes. Rest, the use of iron and otlicr tonics, and astringent washes arc often highly beneficial. Some- times the catamenia assume a leucorrhtval character, espe- cially towards the close. The cervix uteri is often involved in a sub-acute or chronic inflammation, which not unfrc- quentiy is best treated by local caustic or other applications. Leiieothea. See Ino. Leuc'tra, village of Bwotia, Greece, became famous as the place where the Thcbans under Eparainondas de- feated the Spartans under Cleombrotus in 371 B.C., thereby checking for ever the induence which Sj)arta bad exercised over Greece for several centuries. liCuk, village of Switzerland, in the canton of Valais, on the Rlione. It is situated at an elevation of 5000 feet above the level of the sea. and is famous for its hot springs, saline, sulphurous, and chalybeate, which are used for both bathing and drinking, chiefly in diseases of the skin. Leuret' (Fra\<;'0is), b. at Nancy Dec. 3, 1797: studied medicine, and took his degree in 1826. Having applied himself with special interest to the study of mental dis- eases, and developed original ideas of the treatment of the insane, he was appointed physician of the insane sec- tion of the Bic^tre, then director of a lunatic a.'jylum in Paris, .and at last director of the Bicf'tre. His most prom- inent writings are Fragments pitychologiques 8ur la Folic LEUTHEN— LEVEE. 1743 (1834), Trnilrmeiil moral i{e la Folic (1840), and Drt Indi- | rations i1 ouiire dam Ic TrailemenI moral de la J-'alie (1S46). I). «t Xancy Jan. fi, 1S51. Leu'thcn, village of Prussia, in the province of Silo- I sia, 9 miles W. of Brcslau. Hero Frederick the lircat com- pletely Jefeiilcd the Austrians under Prince C'barles of Lcirrainc on Dec. 8, 17J~. Leut'schau, town of Hungary, in the county of Zip?, has J729 inlialiitanis, mostly engaged iu tho cultivation of wine, fruit, saffron, and hops. I Leut'ze (Kmmani'EL), b. at Emiugen, Wiirtemberg, i May 24. Ii'lO. son of a mechanic, who on account of his political opinions left Germany for the T. S., and made his homo in Philadelphia. His early passion for art showed itself in rude portraits. A picture representing an Indian Gaziuifun the Setiiiir/ Sun indicated so much talent that his commissions soon enahled him to travel abroad. In 1S41 ho arrived in Amsterdam, ami from there went to iJiissel- dorf. and beeamc a pupil of Lessing. His first picture, Cilumbtu lirl'nre the I'imncil of Salamanca, was purchased by the Art Union of Dlisseldorf. At Munich, Leutze be- came an admirer of Kaulbaoli. Tlieneo he went to Italy, visiting the chief citicn and studying the great masters, but he was a German by birth and temperament, and he came back to Germany as to his home, married there, and there lived till ISj'J; then returned to America, and between Philadelphia and Washington passed the rest of his life. | 1). in Washington, I'. C, July, l!*l)8. Leutze painted nu- merous portraits, and of eminent pcr.sons, of (ien. Grant among the rest. But his chosen field of art was the romance of history, which he illustrated with such vigor and truth as were in him. In Washington and Philadelphia his work meets the eye of the visitor in public and private places. In the Ca|iitol his WcuUrn Emifiralion is con- spicuous. His W'anliinijlon Crufmimj tht: Dclaifare is famil- iar through engravings. Other pieces, well known and more or less celebrated, arc The Landinri of the Norse- men, Cromwell and hii Daiiijhtci; The /conoclaKt, John Knox ndiiinninhiinf }fartf Stnarl, Volninbua before t'crdinand find Itabrll.i, Wiictiun Mniiiiiem, Godlra. Leutze was a rapid painter, with immense fire and dash. His works are popular with the lovers of action, but distasteful to the lover of delicacy in drawing and color. He was the Amer- ican exemplar of the modern (Jerman school of Kaulbach and Cornelius, with a tumult of passicm all his own. 0. B. FnoTiiiMiiiAM. Lenzc, town of Belgium, in the province of Haiuaut, on the l)cnder. ha? breweries, distilleries, salt-reDncrics, oil- mills, dyeing establishments, blcaching-grouuds, and manu- factures of hosiery and lace. Pop. (500!). Levaillant' (Fraxi.ois), b. in I7J3 at Paramaribo, in Dutch Guiana, of French parents; removed to Kurope in 17B:t; was educated at different places in Germany, and in 1777 studied natural seieneo at Paris; in 17.SI) pro- ceeded to the Cape of Good Hope, whence he made two journeys to tho interior of Africa, which ho described on his rerurn to Paris in 178j in his Vniiai/e dana l' Inter ieur fie rA/'rif/ne (Killt) and Srrfmd loi/nf/e (1795). These books were read with great interest and ran through scv- eral editions, though they were much criticiseil by scien- tifio aulhorities. Of unquestionable value were his collec- tions, sold iiartly in France, partly in Holland, and his or- nithological works, /fi«'f"'ic natnrrlledra Oiiieaus d' .U'ri'ilic (0 vols., I79S-1SI2I, Jfiiloire nolnrrllc dct I'errotjuclii (2 vols., |.S01-n5). D. at .Sezanne in Champagne Nov. 22, 1S21. Le'van, tp. of .Tackson co., HI. Pop. 1321. Lcvaii, tp. of Pope co., Minn. Pop. loO. Lrvan'na, post-v. of Union tp., Brown co., 0., on the Ohio lliver. opposite Dover, Ky. Pop. 101. Levant', post -l p. of Penobscot co.. Me., .S miles W. by N. ofllaugor. It has manufactures of lumber. Pop. liji). Levant, The, a name of Italian origin. // hronir. It denolis the countries bordering on the eastern part of the Mecliterranean— Asia Minor. .'<yria, and Kgvpt. Like Ori- ent, it signifies " rising, east," and was brought into use in t!ie early .Miildle Ages, when the Italian republics controlled the commerce of Kurope. Lev'ee. The word Irrfr is French, and signifies, ninonK other meanings, "raising,"" embankment,"" embanking," "bank," "causeway," "mole." Levees, embankments, dikes, dams, were used by the ancients during the earliest historical periods. Probably the first to use tliein were tho Egyptians in tho Nile valley. Tho Assyrians and Baby- lonians also leveed and reclaimed portions of the valley of the Ku]ibrales and Tigris. The Chinese leveed their great rivers, tho Yang-t7.e-Kiang. or Blue River, and the Hoang- Ho, or Yellow Kiver. Egypt being a rainless country, or nearly so, except near the sea-coast, the alluvial valley- lands of the Nile could not be cultivated without irrigation. During tho flood season of the Xilc — the greatest height being reached about the time of the autumnal equinox — water is drawn off through sluices in the levees, and con- veyed through canals to where it is needed; it is there re- tained within leveed areas or basins as long as required. Variations of a few feet in the annual rise of the Nile aro therefore of the utmost importance to the Egyptians, for low inuixlations cause dearths or famines, and excessive inundations destruction of property, disease, and loss of life. The Nile system is one of leveeing and irrigation, but the irrigation includes the inundation of the valley-lands throughout, leaving dry only the mounds on which the cities, towns, and villages are built, or the leveed areas from which the water is excluded. Near Cairo the river levees are from 12 to 1.^) feet in height, and but very little higher than the river flood-line. The annual overflow of the Nile lands through sluices — or graduated outlets — for many centuries has caused the gradual elevation of these lands — about four to four and a half inches in a century — and also the elevation of the river flood-line. Below Cairo, at the head of the Delta proper, there has been constructed since 1846 a ma- sonry dam, or "barrage," ])rovided with numerous sluice- gates, across the branches of the Nile, for the purpose of facilitating irrigation during low water in the river. Navi- gation is provided for by means of a lock at the end of the " barrage." It is said liiat 200,000 laborers were employed to strengthen and maintain the Nile levees during the ex- cessive flood of 1S74. Queen .Semiramis, Sivys Wheeler, "prevented the overflow of the Euphrates valley by the erection of stupendous mounds or dams along the banks of the Euphrates; and henceforth the laud was irrigated by hand and by engines." In China, says M. line. " the ra.iintenance of the dikes on Yellow River is entrusted to a special board, which forms in the provinces of Cliee, Shan-Toong. and llonan a body independent of the provincial government." In Hindostan levees or embankments, or " bunds," are used to construct reservoirs for the purpose of irrigating the sterile hills and plains, which were only barren for want of irrigation dur- ing the protracted seasons of drought. In the JIadras provinces alone, ('apt. Smith informs us, there exist no less than 43,000 reservoir-tanks in repair, and 10.000 out of re- pair — all of native origin. He estimates the length of the levees or embankments which fcjnu these reservoirs at 30.000 miles, suflieient " to put a girdle round the globe." In Italy the levee system has been in use for many cen- turies — for reclamation as well as to facilitate irrigation — and the obi Italian engineers announced some truths which, though manifest and plain, are not even yet fully recognized among modern engineers, or those of to-day. They learned that the lower or alluvial portions of turbid or sedimentary rivers can be leveed safely, without elevation of their beds or surface as the result of the increased quantity of water con- fined within the channel by levees; that "derivations," or out- lets, will not permanently lower the tbiod-line iu such por- tions of a sedimentary river: and that a division of the waters of such a river into more than one channel results in tho elevation of the beds and high-water lines of the divided channels. Frisi says : " It is a bydrostatical paradox, commonly taught by Italian engineers in the past century, and uniformly eonfirmed by exjieriencc, that you do not diminish the height of the waters in great floods by less- ening the quantity of the water." Gugliclmini taught that " the greater the quantity of water that a river carries the less will be its fall" or surface slope, and also that "the greater tho force of the stream the less will be the slope of its bed." It has been the pri-valent belief that levees have caused tho rising of the bed anci surface of the river Po until the flood-lino of that river is above the roofs of tho houses in Ferrara. But it is now well known that neither tho flood-line nor the bed of the Po has been elevated at all iluring the past 100 years and more, and that for "the roofs" tho "first floor "of the houses should be snbslitute*l in speaking of the comparative height of the river at high water. Tho exaggerations are due to M. Cuvier, and were alleged to bo based upon statements made by De Prony, but the engineer Lcuubiirdini has pioveii their falsity. j The levees of llollanil. whereby immense areas of land. I submerged from five to fifteen feet below mean tide in Iho i North Sea. have been reclaimed, drained, and cultivated, ' are the most wonderful of any in the world. The levees and hydraulic works of Holland are said to have cost fully $l..'i0li.O0ll.0OO. The whole country is an intricate netivnrk j of rivers, water-channels, and canals bordered by levees, 1 and the unconquerable perseverance and industry of tho Dutch people have converted a desolate marsh and lakes into the richest farms and gardens in Europe. By means of steam machinery and windmills these lands arc kept dry. To prevent their being overwheline.l again, the levees ; are placed under a careful system of surveillance. 1744 LEVEE. Levees for the protection of river lowlands, as well as to facilitate the ri-cla.uiation of marshes, morasses, feus, aud overflowed laud, have Iiecn exteusivcly constructed in other piirtions of the German states, aud in France, En^rliind. Ireland, and eli^ewhere. Sinee 1871 the levee system has Ijcen applied on a larj;e scale in California to the reclama- tion of the tule-lands iu the valley of the Sacramento and iSan .Toaquin rivers. The aggregate length of these levees at thiiii time probably exceeds 1000 miles. Li vecs an Applied to the Missiftippi Hiver. — The leveeing of the Mississippi Uiver was commenced at New Orleans in about the year 1720, the engineer Dumout dc la Tour having, after locating the future city in 1717, ordered a fnint levee of jU'O feet in length by 4 feet in height aud IS feet wide at top, as necessary to protect the city. In 171 7, De la Tour's observations showccl that the river flood-line w;is three feet higher than the river-bank in the beud where \\v located the proposed city, aud he allowed for a levee one loot above the then high-water line. AVe are informed by tlie historian F. Xavier Martin that in 171S there was au "extraordinary rise of the Mississippi" which greatly discouraged the new settlers. "Bienville." he says, "had selected a site for a city, but the colony not having means to build dikes or levees, the idea was abandoned." Never- theless, the New Orleans levee was undertaken afterwards, and completed in 1726. Soon after the founding of New Orleans plantations were established along the river-banks above and below the city, but each proprietor had to con- struct and inaiutain his own levee. At that time the river during its floods rose above its banks everywhere — from three to four feet in the bends, and one foot or more around the points — thus affording vent to the water through con- tinuous lateral outlets on both banks, and submerging the valley annually: but the reduction of current velocity in the channel, and of chanuel section, prevented the banks from caving rajpidly, therefore the levees required were in- significant compared with what they are now. The levees were low, because the river deposits had kept the banks always nearly up to the flood-line. They were more per- manent, because the banks caved in but little ; therefore levee maintenance then cost but a fraction of what is now ] required. In 1723 small settlements bad already been es- tablished at several points between the mouth of Red Kiver and New Orleans — at Pointe Coupee. Baton Rouge, Manchac, below the Lafourche, at Cannes lirGl^cs, and at Tchapitoulas. In 172H the settlements extended almost continuously "for thirty miles above New Orleans." and in 17^16 twelve miles below and thirty miles above on both sides of the river. In 1735 a great flood occurred, which inundated New Orleans aud broke through or overtopped the levees in many places, and probably the New Orleans levee. The range from high to low water observed aud re- corded in that year at New Orleans was 15 feetj which slightly exceeds the range of recent years (11.8 feet, which is to the flood-Iineof I S02, the highest due to a river-rise only reeorded for fifty years ])aat) at New Orleans. This proves, on the assumption that the Gulf level is unaltered, that the river flood-line is no higher at New Orleans now than it was in 1735, if so high. In 1743, says Gayar6, " an ordinance was promulgated requiring the inhabit ants to complete their levees by Jan. I. 1741, under penalty of forfeiture of their lands to the Crown." In 1752, according to Monette, the settlements were nearly continuous for ''20 miles below and 30 miles above New Orleans," while " nearly the whole coast was in a high state of cultivation and securely pro- tected from flitod.<." In 1770 a great flood occurred with inundations, and in 17^2 another. Great floods occurred also in 1785, 171H, and 171*9, and tiuring each of these years New Orleans was inundated. But little progress was made in levee construction from 1703. when France ceded Louisiana to Spain, until 1>>II3, when it passed to the I'.S., after having been ceded back to France by Spain in the year 1800. In 1805 the settlements and levees began about 4tl miles below and extended nearly 120 miles above New Orleans; and the Pointe Coupee settlement above had a front of 21 miles on the river. <^>pposite Natchez, near tlio mouth of the Arkansas River, and at New Madrid, small settlements had been made. Both banks of the Ilayou Lafourche in Lower Louisiana were leveeil for about 45 miles from the river Mississippi. In 1812, Louisiana was admitted into the Federal Union, and, according to Stoddard, the levees were continuous on "both sides of the rivor from the lowest settlements " to Ba*on Rouge, and on the right bank to Pointe Coup^'O. In 1S28 the river- banks were leveed nearly to the mouth of Red River, and above, here and there on the W. bank, levees were in ex- istence as far up as the mouth of the Arkansas. In 1844 tliey were nearly continuous to Napoleon on the W. bank, with many isolated levees between Vicksburg and Memphis. In 18C1 levees extended almost continuously from Cape Girardeau in Missouri, with about 40 miles of openings in the aggregate above the Arkansas River, right bank, according to Prof. Forshey, down to near the forts below New Orleans. The process of levee construction, as applied to the Mis- sissipjii River, began at New Orleans. The lower Mississippi — that portion below the last atlluent. Red River — was first leveed; therefore the enlargement of the lower river by the closure of its outlets and the confinement of all the water to the channel, took place before the leveeing of the upper river. It was well that it so haj)pened, for had the upper river been first leveed, before the enlargement of the lower river, the flood-height below would have been much increased and the inundations made more frequent and disastrous. To prevent injury and danger to Lower Louisiana, the sugar region, its levee system should be perfected first and every outlet closed. During 150 years, sinee about 1720, the leree system was gradually extended, from New Orleans, about 70 miles below and about 1000 miles above. Every bend, before levees were built around it. was a continuous outlet, for tlie river floo<l-line was several feet higher than the banks in the bends. Even the banks around the points were overflowed before they were leveed, for they were formed by alluvial deposits while inundated, and were leveed because subject to overflow. The lower river was first accommodated to the leveeing up of outlets. The building of levees is nothing else but the closing up of outlets, and the retention between the river-banks and the levees of the waters which previously passed out laterally over the banks. No evidence exists that the flood-line of the lower Mississippi River is the fraction of an inch higher now than it was before the building of the first levee in front of New Orleans, but the area of the river's channel has been increased undoubtedly. Every outlet except the Bayou Lafourche — the high-water capacity of which is only about 12.t)00 cubic feet ]ier second, or less than the one- hundredth part of the ^Mississippi — has been closed below Red River without adding to the height of the river flood- line iu the lower river. Had the levee system been com- menced above and extended downward, the first effect would have been diS"crcnt. The last outlet closed below Red River was the Bayou Plaquomine in 18G5. the capacity of which was about 35.000 cubic feet per second; but the highest flood-line of recent years below it was that of 1S(>2. which was 0.7 foot above the 1S58 mark opposite New Orleans. In 1871 a storm- tide backed up the river at New Orleans to a height about the same as in 1862, but at Donaldsonville, 30 miles below the Plaqueminc. the river in 1871 was 1.45 feet lower than in 1862. Again, in 1874 an extraordinary storm-tide raised the river (Apr. 15 and 16) at New Orleans about 8 inches above the 1SG2 mark, but at a point 45 miles above New Orleans, and about 30 miles below Donaldsonville. and 60 miles below the Plaqucmine, the flood-line of 1874 was about 6 inches below that of 1862. Hence the statement (by the V. S. levee engineer commission in their recent re- port) that the effect of closing the Plaqucmine outlet was to add " ubitut six iiicken to the nurmal jinod-heifjht at Aew Orleansj" seems to want the support of facts. The front-lancls at the Belleville foundry, opposite New Orleans, formed by overflow deposits before the river was h-veed, were found (see Ph. fnni Hifil. of the Mins,) to be but three-tenths of a fottt below the flood-Hne of the great flood-year 1858, and they were but 1 foctt below that of 1862, the highest known for fifty years. Observation shows that in a current deposits do not generally reach within 1 foot of the flood-line. Recent levellings show that the flood-line of 1862 was but 2.1 feet higher than the crown of Old Levee street, opposite Jackson Square (the old Place d'Armes), New Orleans, about 100 yards from the river, and but 4.2 feet above the crown of Cliartrcs street, opposite the square, and about 2li0 yards distant from the river. The river-bank here is the same as it was in 1717, having neither caved in nor receded by accretion. When De la Tour laid out the city in 1717 the flood-line was .^ feet, at least, above the river-bank here, or certainly as high as now ; again showing no rise of the flood-height since then. It has been claimed (by XLS. engineers Humphreys and Abbot) that the blue clay bed of the Mississip]d River '• resists the action uf the strong current like marlile." and that therefore " the bed of the Mississippi cannot yield" and aec(imniodate itself to the increased (pmntityof water confined 1o the cliannel by levees. It is therefore assumed by them that no enlargement of water-way occurs, and no allowance for it is made in calculating the effect of adding to the quantity of water by extending levees. It is well known that the action of running water slowly wears away even the hardest primitive and volcanic rocks — as, for in- stance, through the immense canons of the Colorado Ri\'er, and elsewhere all over the world ; and that it dissolves and wears away clay, no matter how firm, cannot be gainsaid LEVEE. 1745 with truth. WlK'Devcr a "cut-off"' occurs iu the Missis- sippi River, the clay bed of the river i^ rapidly excavated, and the ciit-ufT houu hecumcs as hirge iu scciiun as the river clsewliero. Kvery bend of the river below a cut-oft" is escavati'd rnpi<Ily and leu<rtheDe(i,and the deepest water IB always found nearest to the bauk in the bend where the blue clay bed has ju.-*t been washed out. Iu IS7J, for in- stance, the maximum horizontal raiij^e or extent of cavint; at Morganzia. holow Hed Ilivcr. iluring that year was ijl) feet; at I'oint Mauoir. opposite Port Uudson, it was IIUO feet; at Lobdeil's, above I3aton Rouge, it was 460 feel; Dear Bayou (iouta it was 'AoO feet; at Landry's, in Ascen- sion parish, it was 120 feet; in two places iu .St. Charles parish it was .'iOO feet: opposite New Orleans it was 2ni) feet in one place and 220 feet in another, while cavings uf 22rt feet, I6l) foct, and 80 feet occurred between New Orleans an'l the forts below:' all of which show that the clay bej of the Mississippi docs yield and wear away from year to year, and far more rapidly than is necessary for the very slow, and in fact inappreciable, yearly increase due to Icvcc extension. A recent comparison of river crosa-sections opposite Jackson and St. Anne streets. New Orleans, by Prof. Forshcy. furnishes another proof that the area of the cbaunel-way is enlarging by yielding of the clay bed. Sections wore taken opposite the above-named streets iu IS50 and in n72. ami the areas of section in 1n72 were 54,000 and j6,n00 s^uaro feet, respectively, greater than in 1850. Opposite Jackson street the depth had increased 13 feet, and opposite St. Anne street it had increased from 150 to 165 feet. Opposite the lower portion of New Orleans a like increase of section ancl depth was manifest. There is evidence that in muuy phices the lower Missis- sippi is slightly widening as well as deepening. Below Baton Rouge, at a point where, on the left bank, levees have existed since IS05. new levees have been built farther back because of the caving in of the river-bank: ancl directly opposite, ou the W. side of the river, the same thing has occurred. In other places opposite banks are caving in, and the river's width is increasing in straight reaches of (he river. Opposite Baton Rouge — the bank on the E. or bluff side remaining as it was— the W. bank is caving in yi-arly, thereby compelling the construction of new levees farther back. The artesian trell-boringsat New Orleans showed that (he river had cut through clay strata before reaching its present depth. Everything indicates that the Missi«si]>pi River is not and cannot be an excep- tion to the laws which govern the How of water in a!i sedi- mentary rivers, small or great. As the normal maximum quantity of water is increased, the mean velocity of current is acceleratcil, the area of channel- way is enlarged, and the slopes of the bed and surface arc diminished. The levee system, therefore, as applied to such a river as the Missis- sippi, is based upon correct principles, an<l the effeet of levees, if persevered in and maintained properly, will be to lessen the liability to inundations, and, if anything, to re- dace the flooci line: if cut-offs and outlets, which alone interrupt the establishment of a permanent river regimen, are prevented. "Cut-offs" precipitate a whole river, by shortening the plane of descent, upon a lower level below the bend cut- ofT. The effects are, a considerable lowering of the flooti- line in the vicinity above; a less corresponding elevation of the flood line in the region below, and for a time a par- tial gorge of water below; a greatly increased velocity of cnrrent above and below an<i through the cut-off", due to the increased slopes of bed and surface: nnd for years afterward, in a great river like the Mississippi, a rapid ex- cava'ion and prolongation of the river-bends below, and to some extent above, thereby compelling the frcfpicnt recon- struction of levees around the bends, and each time on lower ground, and Iherefore higher and much more ex- pensive embankments than ever before, because the river alluvial lancis are highest next the river, nnd they slope downward away from the river. A fall of 15 fret below tlio river flood-line, within a distance of one mile back from the river, is not uncommon above New Orleans, and even a fall of 20 feet within one mile may le f.miid in places. When the river was first leveed lub-w ]{v<\ River, em- bankments of from I to 6 feet high, wiili a crown of J feet and slopes of 2 to l,were found sufficient around tbebends, where now levees from 15 to 20 feet high, with a crown of 10 feet or more anr| slopes of :\ to 1. are needed, and are n(»w built nnd maintained. A levee 15 feet high. «.f the crown and slopes last named, contains nearly twelve times as much earth, for a given length, ns was required for tho • In Tensas parUh, above Red River, n( Kempe\ the eflVet nf the Davis Cut-oir of isc,7 has be.-ii to enuse ;iri nverntfe rnvinnln of the river-bank durlriL' the years iSf.H |o isyn both inrluiive of 1.»00 feet per vear. In lH74tbe eavlnirnt WfNr.n's. same parish] was :Mni) leet. In Concordia parish, at .Marentro. the maximum caving' in 1868 wns 30U0 feet, and 1400 feet in 187;* V,,,.. If.— Ill) old levees ; hence the largely increased cost of levee con- struction and maintenance now, with the river flood-line no higher than at first notwithstanding the efi'ects of cut- offs. Kvcry cut-ofl" increases the cost of Icveo maintenance and the danger of inundations ; therefore, so fur as possible, they should be prevented. Above Red River many cut-offs have occurred : below, including one opposite the mouth of Red River, but three in alt have ever occurred. Fausso River Cut-off" dates back to 1722, at the beginning of tho levee era. Red River Cut-off" was made by Capt. Shreve, an employ^ of tho U. S. governmcDt, in 18.'U. The Rac- courci, between the two former, was made bj' the State of Louisiana in 1S4S-4'J, by digging a deep canal three-fourths of a mile long across the neck of the I^ond. The total dis- tance around these three lower Mississipju cut-off's was about 65 miles, and the total fall acrops their necks about 12 feet, where the usual high- water slope was less than three inches per mile. Their effect in adding to the caving and lengthening of the river-bends below, and thereby increas- ing the cost of levee maintenance, was, and is still, very great ; for the river has not yet regained its original length and slopes. Outlets temporarily lower the flood-line of a sedimentary river, but their final effect always must be an increased el- evation of the bed and surface of such a river, and the contraction of its channel-way ; for the law is tliat tlic less the quantity of water flowing, as the normal maximum, the greater must be ttic slopes of bed and surface. Outlets, therefore, cannot be dc]icnded upon for lowering the fl<»od- line of the lower Mississippi permanently, ami they are not needed, because the extension and perfection of tho levec system never has caused, and will not cause, any ele- vation ()f the river flood-line. Levees, and levees alone, if properly constructed and maintained, can be relied upon for the icclamation of ail the alluvial lands subject to over- flow in the valley of tho Mississippi, and the improvement of navigation will also result from a perfection of the system. It has been said (Ph. and llyd. of the Minn.) that the waters of the Mississippi at flood are "undercharged with sediment;" that is, that more could bo sustained than is held up and transported down stream with tho current; therefore, that it contains less sediment than is due to its velocity. This conclusion is based upon observations show- ing that sometimes, in sonic places, when the river is falling, and is at a stage between high and low water, the river-water is more highly charged with sediment than at a Hood stage. It is assumed or erroneously iufericd because of this that no deposits can occur at any stage of the river below an outlet or a crevasse, no matter of what dimensions. It is very well known that iu all turbid streams flowing between banks of alluvium I hi- caving in of I he banks occurs prin- cipally when the floods arc subsiding, when the banks have lost tho support of tho water which they had at a high stage. Then the river-water as it passes around a caving bend becomes ovfrchanjt il with sediment, and as it cannot all bo sustained and transported to tho river-mouth, the surplus is dropped on the next bars beluw, or wherever the velocity or sustaining power of the current is reduced. To assert that the Mississippi is ut all tintfi *' undercharged with sediment," and therefore difl'ercnt from other sediment- ary rivers, because it is in jilaces and at times less muddy at its high stage than when the banks are caving in at a mill stage, is certainly unwarranted. Tho waters of all sedimentary rivers with caving banks are more turbid when and where the banks arc caving in, and the same laws gov- ern the flow of water in the Mississijipi as in other turbid rivers. Tho "clay bed of the l\lississippi " obviously does yield, because the river excavates its bends by untlcrmining its banks, liecpens its channel, and scours out its cut-off channels; deposits nrr made from its waters after tbcy be- come overcbargecl with seilinient by caving banks wherever and whenever there is a loss of current in tho eddies under or below the p<rmls and below outlets. As an exatnple oi' tho efl^ecl of nn outlet or crevasse to cause a deposit in. and contraction of, the channel of tho iMississippi below it, the following is given: In IS" I. Apr. II, a crevasse oceurred in a large levee at Bonnet Carrf', left bank of the .Mis-<issippi. Id miles above New Orleans. It becnme i;t70 feet wide, with an area of discbarge of about 32,000 square feel, or nearly one-sixth that of tho river opposite. The range of tho river here from high lo low water is about 21 feet, and the level of the land one- fourth of a mile back of the line of levec which hiid given way WHS 15 feet below the river flood-line. On the I5th of July, when the river had fallen 15 feet, the water ceased to run through the creva«se outlet opening. In the latter part of September, when the river bad fallen 20 feet, sections of the river were carefully taken above anil below this outlet. Tho results, briefly summed up. were as follows: Maximum ilepihy above crevasse, 1 10 and 71) feet on two sections at the then stage of water ; maximum depths of sections below 1746 LEVEL— LEVELS. crevasse, 62 and 04 feet. Firm clay bottom above ; soft, silty oozo bottom, indicating recent deposit, below crevasse. Low-water widths above, 2S8G and 'Mili feet; below, 240G and 2452 feet, showing a reduction in mean width below of 521 fret. Low-water areas of upper sections, lS4,fi5.'i and 101,107 square feet; of lower seclinns. •)r),640 and 10fi.lf>(l square feet, a reduction of channel section, means of upper and lower, of 73,015 square feet. The widths on the high- water lines averaged .'^105 feet for the upper sections, and 3^65 feet below; the width below beinj;; 2110 feet the great- est at high water. The mean high-water urea? of sections were, however, 75,000 square feet less below thim above. It was estimated, approximately, that this outlet or cre- vasse of the full dimensions measured would discharge at high water about one-tenth of the river at flood. Below this crevasse there were, in the next bend as well na oppo- site, extensive deposits of sand and earth, reacliing several feet above the low-water line, irhich ircre knotni to be neir. All of which measurements and observations demonstrate unmistakably that the Bonnet Carr6 crevaspo outlet of 1874 did cause a partial filling up and contraction of the river- channel below it. Numerous examples of the effects of outlets to contract the river-channel below them on Red River and elsewhere could be given if space permitted. Wc shall mention one only. Tone's Bayou, 20 miles below Shreveport. wirK-ii hail its origin as an overflow coulee of insignificant dimensions twenty-five years ago, now discharges nearly two-thirds of the turbid waters of Red River whieh reach it, and yet the flood-line below is as high as. if not higher than, before, while the channel below has been reduced to correspond with the quantity of water abstracted. All of the water of Red River now passes Shreveport, and the high-water section there is .about 23.000 square feet. Below Shreve- port and above Tone's Bayou three outlets exist on the right bank, and others on the left bank, whereby the river- section just above Tone's is reduced to 9000 square feet. Tone's Bayou itself has a section of 5000 square feet — or had in 1872 — while that of Red River below it has been contracted to but 3500 square feet, and to a width of less than 200 feet. Fully five-sixths of the water of Red River escapes through outlets within about 20 miles below Shreve- port, and yet, while the area of the river's section is reduced correspondingly, the river flood-line is as high as, if not higher than, ever. Outlets therefore cannot permanently lower the flood-line in sedimentary rivers, although, as wc sec in the Mississippi, when they occur suddenly, as cre- vasses, and enlarge rapidly, their effect is to reduce it tem- porarily, or until the river has had time to accommodate itself to its new regimen by deposits in and contraction of its channel below. The result is certain; how soon is a mere question of time. In calculating the effects of adding to the quantity of water in the Mi.ssissippi River by closing outlets, or in per- fecting the levee system, or of reducing the quantity by outlets, it will not do to assume that the sectional area of channel- way will be neither enlarged nor contracted — that it is fixed and unchangeable. Tliat certain determinate and determinable relations exist between the quantity of water flowing, the mean velocity of current, the sectional area of channel-way. and the slopes of bed and surface, cannot be ignored or disregarded. They must be admitted to ensure a reliable result. It is evident, therefore, that levees alone can bo relied upon for the permanent recla- mation of the Mississippi Valley lands. The only way to safety and exemption from inundations is to build and maintain adequate levees. Cut-offs should be prevented as long as possible. Outlets arc worse than useless, even if it were possible, which it is not, to provide a separate and leveed channel to the sea for the water so drawn off; they overflow land when rcclamaticm is the end in view. Arti- ficial reservoirs arc impraetieable. and whiit natural swamp- reservoirs there arc above Red River only add to the river- floods, and thereby increase the danger of inundation, by feeding the rise below them. As to the diversion of tribu- taries, it would be useless even if practicable. By uu-nns of levees, and afterwards of interior drainage, every acre of land in the Mississippi Valley, exclusive of drainage channels, may be reclaimed, cultivated, and made the home of millions of ])rospcrou8 inhabitants. According to V. S. engineer Ucn. Abbot, with levee protection and drainage 2.500,000 acres of sugar-land, 7.000.000 acres of cotton- land, and 1,000,000 acres of corn-land of inexhaustible fer- tility may be opened for cultivation and settlement. The total lengths of levees required to protect the Mis- sissippi front may be stated as follows: In Louisiana below Red River, 500 miles; above Red River, 280 miles. In Mississippi, 380 miles. In Arkansas, 545 miles. In Mis- souri. SO miles. Total, 1785 miles. In Louisiana, the in- terior rivers, b.ayous, and old river l:»kes would require about 925 miles more. ""-- " '^' ■ for the maintenance of her supremacy as the greatest cot- ton-produeer in the world, and the only way to maintain this supremacy is to perfect the Mississippi River levee system, and so bring all of the valley-lands int> cultivation. The U. S. alone can do this. It has been demonstrated that the States of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Arkansas have not the means an<l resources necessary for its aceomplishmeni!. Surely, the permanent reclamation of the great Mississippi Valley, with its ten or twelve millions of acres of the richest alluvial lands in the world, is or should be of sufhcicnt national importance to justify its being undertaken by the general government. t», W. R. Bayley. Lev'el [.\ng.-Sax. Itr/cl, from Lat. ^/fce//a, "level"]. A level Hiir/'urc is onc that is concentric with the surface of the ocean ; that is, with the surface the ocean would have if the globe were entirely covered with water. Any lino drawn in a level surface is a li rcf line. For ^mall areas, that is, for areas of a feiv miles in extent, we may regard a level surface as the surface of a sphere osculatory to the ellipsoidal surface of the earth at the middle point of the area in question. The surface just described is a surface oi true liAcl. A surface of ajijiurrnt lei-d at any point is a plane drawn tangent to the surfaco of true level at that point. Any line drawn in a surfaco of apparent level is a line of apparent level. The lines indicated by our level- ling instruments arc lines of apparent level, but we may deduce from them lines of true level by making suitable corrections for curvature. W. G. Peck. Levclliug. See HvpsoMF.rnY. liCvcSling Instruments. The instruments used in IcvcHiug are of fwn classes. Those of the Jirst class are used to point out or indicate a lino or surface of a]>parcut level, and arc tcchnicall}' called Irvrh: those of the eccond elass arc used to measure the distances of this line or sur- face of apparent level above the jioints whose difl'erencc of level is to be determined, and these arc called Icrelliuff- rods. W. G. Pkck. Levcllingorods. These are rods of wood graduated to feet and deeimuls of a foot, the lines of di\ ision being nuuibcretl from below upward; the of tlie scale is at the bottom of the rod. One of the best consists of a staff of hard wood, cr.pped with metal, usually about 12 feet in length. A sliding vane can be moved up and down by a cord running on pulleys let into the rod. This rod is graduated to hundredths of a foot, and on onc eilgc of the rectangular opening that is made in the vane is a vernier, by means of which the rod may be read to thousandths of a foot. The vane is divided into four sections by lines througli its centre, one parallel to the rod and the other perpendicular to it, and these sections arc painted in con- trasted colors for greater facility in determining the mid- dle of the vane. A second form of IcvcUing-rod is similar to that just described, except that the rod is constructed in two sections, onc of whicli slides in a groove of the other. The arrangement of the graduation is modified to conform to the peculiar character of the sliding joint. A third form of rod is now much used. It eon>ists of a sim- ple rod witliout a vane, the divisions and numbers being so distinct that the readings nniy be made by the observer. This form of rod is mostly employed in connection with the Gravatt level, a level which difi'ers from the Y level already described in having an inverting telescope. This form of level admits of greater optical power, with the same length of telescope, and is therefore better adapted to making close readings at great distances. When this species of level is used the figures on the levelling-rod are both reversed and inverted. The differenrc of /tit 7 between two neighboring points may be determined by means of the levelling instruments just described as follows : Let the level be set up at some convenient place and so arranged as to indicate a surface of apparent level ; place a level!ing-rud at the first point and note the height at which it is intersected by the level surface; in like manner, place a rod at the second point and note the height at which it is cut by the level surface; subtract the first of these heights from the second, and the remainder will be the difference of level of the two points. If the remainder is -|-, the second point is bigluT than the first; if the remainder is ~, the second point is lower than the first. In the same manner wc may iletcrmine the dif- ference of level between the seennd point an<l a third point, between the third point and a fourth, and so on, as tar as may be desirable. The total diflcrcnce of level between the first point and the l.ast is then equal to the algebraic sum of all the partial difierences of level. W. G. Peck, Levels. Levels are constructed on one of three prin- ciples: 1st. a line of apjiarcnt level is perpendicular to .1 i plumb-line freely suspended ; 2d, a line of apparent level I is tangent to the free surfaco of a liquid in equilibrium; " LfiVfiQUE— LEVI. 1747 and lUi, II ray of light which is pcrpcndiuulur tu h vertical mirror i:* a line of apparent level. The level used by bricklayers', carpenters, etc., affords an example of the method of applying ihe first priueiplc. In it» simplest form, this kind o\' level coD^it^ts of a T- shaped frame, the line corresponding to the top of the T bcin-; perrcctly straight and at right angles to a second line draiTn through the middle of the stem of the T. A plunib- linu is atluohed at j'omc point of the ?euonil Hue ; and when the instrnraent is held so that the plumb line corresponds to this second line, the first lino is :i line uf itpparcnt level. Tiio cross lino of the T may be turned downwards, as is usually tho case when used by mechanics, or it may bo turned upwards, in which ca?e, if supported on a suitable stand, it can bo used for the rougher kinds of field level- ling. Tho ordinary Y level is an example of tho instruments constructed on thcHecond prinuiplc. It consists essentially of a telescope mounted on two vertical supports, which from their shape are called Y's. Tho Y's themselves are attached to a si»Iid bar, called the fi'mh, which turns about an axis at right angles to it. The tinib aud its axis are connected with a supporting tripod by means of a ball- and-socket joint, so arranged that the axis may be made vertical by tho aid of levdling-scrows. Suspended from the tolescopo is a di-Iicate spirit-level, which, when in ad- justment, is parallel to the line of collimation of the tele- scope. Tho lino of collimation of tho telescope is indi- cated by two cross hairs mounted on an adjustable dia- phragm placed in the common focus of the field lens and eye-piece. The parts of tho instrument are so cnnstructccl that they may be brought into accurate adjustment: that is, into proper relative positions. When the instrument is adjusted the attached level is parallel to the line of colli- mation of the telescope, and both are perpendicular to the axis of the limb, thai is, the line that remains fixed when tho limb is turned in azimuth. To use the instrument thus adjusted wo plant the tripod firmly in the ground, and by means of the Icvelling-scrcws bring tho level in such a position that the bubble will re- main in the nii<litlo of the tube during an entire revolution in a7.imuth. The axis of the limb is then vertical, and consequently the line of collimation of the telescope in all its positions is a line of apparent level. Levels couatrueted on tho third principle arc called re- Jlcitiufj levels. One form of this class of levels eont-ists of a plate of glass suspended from a ring and weighted so thaf the plant! uf the glass shall always be vertical. One half of the glass is silvered and the <»tlier half unsilvered, tho line of division between the two portions being verti- cal. A tine is ruled across the middlo of the plate perpen- dicular to the one last mentioned, and is consequently hori- zontal. To use the instrument, it is held by the ring and raised or lowered until tho observer sees the image of his eye rolleotod from the rulol horizontal lino on the silvered portion; tho plane through tho eye in that position and the line on Ihe unsilvered portion is a plane of apparent level. Instruments of this kind arc convenient for making reconnaissances, antl al-^o for contouring in topognij)bical surveys, but they arc not very accurate. \V. G. Pkck. L^vdqoe (Jkan CnARLKs), b. at Bordeaux, France, Aug. 7, IHIS; made extensive stmlios of the li reck and Alexandrian philosophers; resided in 1H17-4H at Athens, and became profi'SHor in philosophy at tho College dc France in 1.S56; in I'^ti.'f member, and in 1S73 vice-president, of tho Academy of .Moral and Political Sciences, Besides a number of articles in the Remrthn Oftur Afondcn remork- able for erudition, he {>ublishe<l in IStJO Lti Sriencr tin lienu (2 vols.), a work which received priz.esfrom several French academies, but which, as a philosophy of the beautiful, BtamU lar behind what tho modern (lerman philosophy contains on the subject. IjCV'en, Loch, a lake of Scotland, in the county of Kinross, abuut II miles in circuit. On an is-land opposilo th*' town of Kinross are remains of IiO<'h Leven ("a^-tle, in which Mary queen of IScots was imprisoned from Juno, 1607, to May, 15II8. Lever. See Mechanical Powkrs, by Prop. W. P. TnownuinoK, A. .M. Le'ver f('iiAitn:s Jamks), M. D.. T,L.I)., h. at Dublin Aug. 31, ISOC; took the degree of M. B. at Dublin Univer- sity ls;il, and of M. D. at (Jjitiingen ; was medical supcr- inteniteut in Londonderry during tho cholera season of is;;i; physician to the legation at Brussels ; editor of tho /Jiiftlin UiiiierMi'tif .}faffax{uc IS12— If) ; vice-consul at Ppezia ls.')S-li7. and afterwards consul at Trieste; ottained great success as a writer of humorous novels, chiefly destriptive of Irish life ami character, among which aro Hnrnf Knrrr- qiirr (1S40). Chniien OWfaffcy (IHII), Arlfmr 0' Lrnry (ISU), The 0'Donughue{\)i\bi Ifnrace Trmplrton (IW49), ro/(rre(/aa(1857). The nramUifjhHof fUHhop's Folhj {X^S), Lord Kilifobbin (1872), aud many others. 1). at Trieste June 1, 1872. Lev'erett, post-tp. of Franklin co., Mass., on the New London Niirthern R. li., lUG miles W. of Boston, has manufactures of pails, satinets, and lumber, and tobacco 18 raised. Pop. S77. Leverett ( Ft!i:L)K!uck Percival), b. at Portsmouth, N. H., Sept. 11. ISO.); graduated at Harvard in 1.S21, and was afterwards principal of the Boston Latin School : pub- lished a Latin lexicon (|s;;(;) uud a number of Latin clas- sics, with notes. D. at Boston, Mass., Oct. G. IS.'IG. Leverett (Sir JohnI, BAUT.,b. in England in IGIO. and came with his father to America in lO^J^i. He held many important positions, both in Massachusetts aud in Eng- land, where ho was an officer in the army of Cr<tmwell. his intimate friend. In Mas.sachuf^etts he was Speaker of the house KiTm-"!, major-general 1 fiOl'.-T^. deputy -govern or 1G71-7-J. and governor ir)7;t-70. In IG7G he was knighted au<l made a baronet by Cliarlcs II. D. Mar. IC, IGTlt. Leverett (Jon.v), F. R. S., b. at Boston, Mass.. Aug. 2.'), 1GG2. a grandson of Sir John Leverett; gra*luatcd at Harvard in 1G80; was a judge, lawyer, and Speaker in the general court, anrl was president of Harvard t'ollege 1707- 24. He had a wide reputation for learning. D. May .*J, 1724. Levorricr' (Urbain Ji:an Joseph), b. at St. L6 Mar. 11, ISll ; studied at the Keolc Polytechnique, Paris; made some important tliscoveries in chemistry, and in 1S4(J aston- ished tho world by the correct announcement of the place in the heavens where woubl be discovered tho planet now called Neptune. He was director of the observatory of Poris 18fii-7n. to which be was reappointed in 1H72; be- came a senator, an academician, and a grand ofticcr of the Legion of Honor, and did much to promote popular edu- cation. D. Sept. 2:!, 1877. Le Vert (Hr-Nitv SrRAcnEv), M. D., b. in King Wil- liam CO.. Va., Dee. 2C, 1804, a descendant of a naval sur- geon from Count Rochambeau's fleet, who after the siege of Yorktown settled in Virginia; graduated M. D. in tlio University of Pennsylvania 1820. and his thesis on metallic ligatures was afterwards published; went to Ahibile, and from his genial disposition, erudition, skill, and nolde im- pulses soon rose to great distinction. He married Octa- via AValton (see 0. W. Le Vert). D. in Mobile Mar. 15, I8G4. Pail F. Eve. Le Vert {OrrAViA Walton), b. nt Bellevue. near Au- gusta, Oa., abdut 1810, iier father. Col. (ieorgo Walton (son of the signer of tho Declaration of Independence of the same name), removed to Pensacola, Fla., in her child- hood, as territorial secretary, and for a time acted as gov- ernor. Here she imbibed sneh a knowledge of French and Spanish tliat they were almost equally with English her mother-tongues. She was invited while still a girl to se- lect a nnmc for the future capital of Florida, and chose the musical Seminole word Tallahassee. Upon tho expiration of his term of ofllce, (.'ol. Walton removed to Mobile, where his daughter was married in iSi'-G to Dr. H. S. Lo Vert. She had previously spent one or two winters in AVashing- ton, where she enj*<yed the friendship of t'lay, AVebster. Calhoun, and Wasliinglon Irving. an<l acquired distinction for the preeit^ion of the reports she wrote of the famous congressional debates on the removal of the deposits from the U. S. Hank. In lSo;;-f)4, and again in isr>5. Mrs. Lo Vert travelh-(l in Eunqie. was received into the best circles of society in England and on the Continent, and recorded her observations in the interesting volumes called Souvenirs of Travfl (2 vols., I8,'i7). She rendered good service in behalf of the Mount Vernon Association, and was noted for oflict'S of charity during the ci\il war. Slie is under stood to have jirepared two books, Stntrein'rM of Dtntin- guinhed Proidc and »S'oi/iriiiV« n/ tfif W'ttr, which have not yet bien puolished. She enjoyed a great reputation as an accomplished linguist, ei>nver.'iationatist, and leader of so- ciety. D. near .\ngusta. (la.. Mar. K'., IH77. Le'vi flleb.. "wreathed "]. in biblical history the third son of Jaeub and Leah. b. in Padan-aram about a. r. I'.'IT. and the ancestorof tmeof tho twelve tribes of Israel. eall« 4 by bis name. (See Lr.viTi:s.) Of his nersonnl history lb-- only trait which has been recorded is tlie massacre hIuoIi, with his brother Simcfui, ho perpetrated upon the inlnil - itants of Sheehem lo avenge tho wrong done his sisti r Dinoh (flen. xxxiv.). Levi went into Egypt with lli^ father ond brothers ofter tho elevation ot Joseph, and d. there. Moses and Aaron were his descendauts. apparently in the fourth generation. Levi (liEONE). Pn. D., b. at Aneona, Italy, of Jewish parcnfs, June fi. IS2I ; removed in ISIl to Liverpool; was naturalized in 18(7 ; was one of tho founders of the Liver- pool Chamber of Commerce 1849 ; became in 1852 professor 1748 LEVIATHAN— LEWES. of commercial law, etc. in University College, Lomlon ; i became a bairistcr in 1SJ9: received the duutorate frciin Tubingen li<01 ; has done much for the reform of commer- cial law and practice, the utilization of statistics, etc. Au- thor of f'.)mm<-n"i< L'lwii vols.. lS.ill-52). Merrnnlilr Ltiio (]8.')-t). On Tiixaliim (1800), fiitcnintiniiill Vitmmerriiil Law (l.Sf>4), and other works, besides many valuable papers on Btatisticul and commercial science. Levi'athan [Hob., " wreathed monster"], in the Old Testament usually designates the crocodile, but in the Tul- mudical writers the whale, the fabulous dragon, or any other creature of monstrous size, may be called leviathan. The name is also used figuratively for gigantic animals as well as other objects. Lev'ico, town of Austria, in the province of Tyrol, at the issue of the Brenta into the Lake of Levico. has 0(174 inhabitants, mostly employed in the cultivation and manu- facture of silk. Leviga'tion [Lat. liciugare, "to plane," "to rub smooth "], a special manipulation of the laboratory, de- viseil for the purpose of converting substances to a smooth, uniform powder. A flat surface, called the "slab," is used to place the substance upon, composed of stone, glass, or metal ; artd a " muller." having a Bat surface below, is propelled round and round with an eccentric motion over the mass. A liquid is always added, usually oil or water, to assist the operation. The process of levigation has passed, probably hundreds of years ago, from the labora- tory into the arts, and paints, printing-inks, and often drugs, are comminuted by a process of levigation, on the manufacturing scale, in so-called "eccentric mill?." Pnr- phi/rizuiiuii is another name formerly applied, from slabs of porphyry being employed. A aputula is an essential adjunct in the small laboratory operation to collect to- gether readily and heap up the mass when spreail by the muller. H. WuitTZ. Lev'ings (No.vn), B. T).. b. in Cheshire eo.. N. 11., in 170(1: early joined the Methodist Episcopal Church, and in 1818 entered its itinerant ministry as a candidate of tho New York conference; travelled and preached with much popularity and success in New York, Connecticut, Massa- chusetts, and Vermont : was presiding elder over largo districts of his Church, and a member of its Gleneral Con- ference ; in 1844 was appointed one of the secretaries of the American Bible .Society. In this office he often trav- elled over the U. S., preaching with great effect, and suc- cessfully promoting the interests of the society. After a laborious tour through the South-western States he was attacked by epidemic cholera, and d. at t'incinnati on his way home," Jan. 9, 1849. Abel Stkve.ns. Ijev'irate Mar'riage [Lat. hvir. a " husband's brother"], the marriage of a widow by the brother of the deceased husband. This custom (common among the an- cient Hebrews, and not unknown at the present day among rude and simple races) was perpetuated by the Mosaic law. It is, however, practically obsolete among the .lews. The canon law expressly fi>rbids such marriage, and in Great Britain it is still viulawful. In the U. S. it is generally permitted to marry the brother of a deceased husband. But the true levirate marriage was compulsory, or at least ob- ligatory (except on certain conditions), but only in case the deceased husband left no male issue. In Abyssinia and parts of Asia the levirate law is still in force. It seems to have prevailed in aneient Italy also. LiCv'is, county of Quoboe, Canada, on the S. shore of tho St. Lawrence, opposite Quebec. It is traversed by tho Grand Trunk Railway. Cap. Levis. Pop., including Levis- town, 24,831. Levis (formerly Poist Levi), an important suburb of Quebec, Canada, in Levis CO.. is opposite that city, on the S. bank of the ,St. Lawrence (here 1 mile wide), and is on the Grand Trunk Railway. It has a larger trade than any town in Canada e.\cept Quebec and Montreal. It is the scat of a convent, and has a board of trade. The river is crossed by a ferry. Pop. in 1871. 1".,021. Ije'vite^ one of the tribe of Levi, a descendant of Levi, one of the sons of Jacob, but in a more limited sense one of those members of that tribe who did not belong to the priestly families of the ancient Hebrews. Tho Levites con- stituted a kind of inferior priesthood. They had no in- heritance except certain cities on either side of the river Jordan ; in which, however, they were not compelled to re- side. There are at the present day some Jewish families who claim a lineage, more or less pure, from the Lcvitical stock. lievit'icus [so named in the Vulgate bccanse it is largely occupied with directions for the Levitical service], the third hook of the Pentateuch and of the Old Testamen'. It con- tains the Mosaic law of sacrifices, the laws regarding cere- monial uncleanness. the laws with regard to intercourse between Israelites and foreigners, together with brief his- torical accounts, admonitions, and the like. Its direct Mo- saic origin has usually been taken for granted, but several recent (Jerman, Dutch, and English commentators refer it to the ]icriod of E/.ra. (See Pentateuch.) Lev'ulose [Lat. Imi-nm. "left"]. Celli^Oo, a variety of glucose. It occurs associated with dextro-glueoso in honey, in many fruits, and other saccharine substances. Fruit- sugar or invert-sugar is a mixture of eq\ml proportions of these two sugars. Cane-sugar is invertetl — that is. trans- formed — into a mixture of dextro-glucose and levulose by warming with dilute acids, or by contact with yeast, peo- tase, etc.: Cano-pugnr. Dextro-glacosc. Levuloae. C12II22O11 -1- II2O =- CsUliOs +C6Ul206. Levulose may be extracted from inverted cane-sugar by adding to the inverted sugar obtained from 10 grammes of cane-sugar 6 gms. of slaked lime and 100 of water. A solid compound of levulose autl calcium is formed, while the cal- cium compound of dextro-glucose remains in solution, and may be separated by pressure. On suspending the precip- itate in water, and decomposing with carbonic acid, the lev- ulose is set free, and can be obtained as a syrup on evapo- rating the filtered solution. Levulose is also produced in a pure state by treating inulin with dilute acids. It is a col- orless, uncrystallizable syrup, as sweet as cane-sugar, and exhibiting most of the reactions of dextro-glucose. It is more easily altered by heat and acids, less readily by alka- lies and ferments. (See Gli'COSE and Src.Mi.) C. F. CnA,'«DLEn. Le'vy, county of Florida, bounded S. W. by the Gulf of Mexico, N. W. by the Suwanee River, and S. by tho Withlacoochce. Area, 8.1O square miles. A large part of its area is occupied by (ho " Gulf Hammock." an extremely fertile tract, covered with dense hard-wood forests. Corn, cotton, and lumber arc staple products. The county is traversed by Florida R. K. Cap. Cedar Keys. Pop. 2018. ,Levy (Emile), b. at Paris Aug. 29, 1S2G; studied at the Ecole dcs Beaux Arts, and under Pujol and Pieot, and be- gan to exhibit in 18o4. His most celebrateil pictures are /,.? Souper lilire (I8.)9), Viriiiir/ilorU (1863), Za Moil d'OrpUc (1S66J, and in MusUjui (18G9). Lew'es, town of England, in the county of Sussex, is picturesquely situated on the Ouse. on a declivity of the South Downs, and carries ou a considerable trade in grain, cattle, and sheep. Pop. 10,7Jo. Lewes, post-v. of Sussex co., Del., on Delaware Bay, 2 miles S. W. of Cape Henlopeo. and directly in front of the Delaware Breakwater, which aflords an excellent and ample harbor for vessels of all classes and sizes. It is the terminus of the Junction and Breakwater R. II., which connects here with the Old Dominion .steamship Co., and lies directly opposite and 12 miles distant from Cape May. It has 3 churches, a weekly newspaper, and a number of stores. Wrecking, fishing, and farming form the principal business. Pop. lO'.IO. J. H. D. KsowLES, Ed. "Breakwater Light." Lewes (George IIesrv), b. in London. England. Apr. 18, 1817: was in youth a clerk in a commercial house; commenced the study of medicine, but abandoned it for that of philosophy and psychology, to which he devoted two years in Germany ; returned to London in 1840; de- voted himself to literature, and speedily became known as a deeji thinker and a writer of uncommon attainments, es- pecially by his articles in the magazines anil quarterly re- views. His earliest important work was the itioijrttjtliii-itl Hintury iif J'hiliiai>iihy /nmi Tlialtt to (.'omtc, published in 1847, which foreshadowed his own opinions as being of the so-called Positivist type — a book of considerable ability, which became popular and has reached a fourth edition. From 1849 to 18j4, Lewes was literary editor of the Liiuler, wrote a compenilium of ComtCis PhiloKop/ii/ uf the ^ScicnccB (ISaS), Liitu of Kobcspierrc (I80O) and of Goethe (1S06), Seatide Studi<:» ( 1858), Phi/siiilogy 0/ Cummuit Life ( ISCO), StHtlio 111 Aiiliimi Ai/c (1861), and ,4i-i«to(/<-, « Clinpter from the Uinlory iif .Vciciioe (1864), besides one or two nov- els and dramas of minor importance. Since 1854 he li.as been largely engaged in jihysiological and anatomical re- i searches, some of the results of which were embodied in papers communicated to the British Association for tho ' Advancement of Science — On thf Spimit Curd an a Crnlrc i,f Sfiisnfion and ViiUliim (18."i8), and On the Xrn-nUH Si/g- lem (18.')9). In 1863 he founded the Fortn!i/l,t/i/ Kcrietr, but in Dec. 1866, was compelled t>y ill-health to retire from its editorship. His most ambitious work, that in whicH he purposes to embody his whole system <pf philos- ophy, bears the title Problems of Life and Mind. Vol. i., The Foundation of a Cretd, was published in 1873 ; vol. ii. in 187o. LEWES— LEWIS. 1749 Lewes (Marian Evans), wife of (leorse H. Lewes, and kuuwu by the uont-d^'pinme of U(:uhgg Ei.iot, b. in War- wicksbiri*, KugJaod, ubuiit 1820, was tbe daughter of a poor ourato, but wa.-i adu|iiud by n wealthy clcrgyinau. who garo her a careful eduuatiuu. Ou leaviug the acudeiuy she be- camo a pupil of Herbert Spencer, since become famous ns a philosopher, and under his training acquired great breadth of mental development, learning German, French, and Ital- ian, studying music and art as well as motaphysics and logio. Her earliest literary effort was a translation of Strauss's Li/e of .A«im (1846), followed in ls04 by Feucr- bach's Ettence of Ckrittianitjf. As as-sociale editor of the Wc*tininiiter Urcieio she soon became acquainted with the leading representatives of the schoul of licntham and J. 8. Mill, with which she may he classified. As a novelist her first work was Scene* of Clerical Life (1S58), originally pub- lished in fihickwood. In 1859 Admn Bede proved a uril- liant success, and her reputation was maintained bv The MiUonthe riogn\\^m),S!lii» Mnnieri\^&\), l{omoln{\^m), /V/,V //o// (ISOO), and 3/r.W/'m.r>rA (1871-72), the last of which is considered one of the greatest novels of the cen- tarv. As a poet she has pubtished Tht; Spantnh fii/pf>/ (mS), Agatha (18CU). and Th*- Lrffoul of Jnhal {1H7-I), which would have sufTiccd to establish a poetical reputation of an unknown writer, but have scarcely added to the fame of the great novelist. Her skill as a painter of strongly marked types of character is marvellous. Lewes and Rehoboth, hundred of Sussex co., Del. Pop. Jl^s. Lew'in fTnoM\s). F. S. A., 1>. at Ifield. Sussex. Eng- land; e>luciited at the Merchant Taylors' Schoul, London, and at Trinity ('ulloge, O.xfovd, taking high lionors iu classics; was admitted to the bar in 18:i:t, and in 1863 became conveyancing counsel to the court of chancery. He has written a treatiso on The Lato of TrastH ( IS r2). The Life and Eftintb-n of St. Panl { IS.'>| ). an £*«fiy on the ('hro- nototfjf of the .Veto Trutamrnt {\i^bi),JentJin(viii, n Sketch of die Cit^ and Temple from the Earliest Timet to the Siege bjf Titut (1861), Ciraar't Incajiioit of Hritaiu (1862). Sietjc of Jerusalem b^ Tttua (1 8(1.'!), und Fautt Sacri, or a Keif to the OKrottolojtf of the Xeir Tt-nt anient (lstJ5). In the work on CsBsar's iuv'a<«ion ho questioned the correctness of the re- ceived theories as to the landing-place of that conqueror, and was involved in a controversy on the subject with Dr. Airy, the astronomer-royal, which led to a new survey by the admiralty of the tides in the British Channel near Dover. For more than twenty years after the publication of his early work on St. Paul, Mr. Lcwin was ent;age«l in the study of the apostle's missionary journeys, visiting in person through a series of years nearly every place named in the New Testament in connection with i*aul, collecting the geographical data of antiquity, and illustrating his materials by accuratu modern plans of the localities in qaostion. As the reMult, a revised edition of his work on St. Paul appeared in 1871 in two large volumes, splendidly illustrated. Mr. Lcwin's views upon the sacred localities in Jerusalem, especially the site nf the temple, have given rise to much controversy in cm nee t ion with the rival theories of Roltinson, Williams, ami Fergnsson. Lew'is, or Lcw'iMHOn [said to have been invented by Louis XIV,, though known long before his time], a simple and effectivo elamp by which to raise blocks of stone. Three iron keys, suspended Iroui a cross-bolt, are let into a tish- tail-shapcd hole in the stone. Tho three keys together fill this hole, and the stone can be lifted by moans of the cross- bolt, which is attiiched to a erano. When the stone is in place tho b(dl is withdrawn, tho middle key, which is straight, is slipped out, and the lateral wedge-shaped keys are then readily removed. There is also an ap])aratus called tho lewis used for shearing cloth. Lewis, county of N. K. Kentucky, Iioundcd N. by the Ohio Uiver. It is a hilly but fertile limestone region. Areo, 401) square miles. Corn is the largest agricultural product. Cap. Vanceburg. Pop. 'Jllo. Lewifif county of N. E. Missouri, bounded E. by tho Mis.'issippi River. Area, 5011 square miles. It is rolling aud fertile, aiiounding in limber, ennl. anci limestone. Cat- lie, grain. aii<l wool are staple pruduots. Ii. is traversed by the Quiney Missouri and Pacific and the Mississippi Valley and Western K. Us. Cap. Monlieello. Pop. 16,114. LewU, county of N. New York. Area, I28S square miles. The county is trnversed by Itlaek River, the valley of which is very fertile, hut the E. ])orlion and a part of tho W. are chiefly wilderness, covered by forests. Cattle, grain, wool, hay. butter, and cheese are extensively pro- <luced. Lumber, carrioges, leather, cooperuire, saddlery, pajier, paper-pulp, hemlnrk extract, and wooch-n wares are leading articles of manufacture; but dairying is the prin- cipal indiistrv of tho counlv. which is traversed by tho Utiea nnd Bliick River R. R.* Cnp. Lowvillo, Pop. 28,fiil9. Lewis, county of W. Middle Tennessee. Area, 420 square miles. It is uneven and generally fertile, but is not cxten:^ively settled. Indian corn is the chief product. Caji. j Ncwburg," Pop. 11)86. I Lewis, c<»unty of Washington Territory, extending W. from the Cat^cade Range. Area. 182U square miles. The W. part is level and fertile. The E. abounds in forests and is broken by mountain-ranges. Tho county is traversed by I the Northern Pacitic R. R. Grain is the staple product. ( Cap. Claquato. Pop. 888. I Lewis, county of N. Central West Virginia. Area, 530 square miles. It is hilly and rolling. The soil is uniformly i fertile. Tobacco, live-stock, wool, and corn are the chief I staples. Grazing is extensively followed. Coal and iron abound. The county is traversed by the W. fork of the ' Monongahela Uiver. Cap. Weston. Pop. 10,175. Lewis, tp. of Coosa co., Ala. Pop. .t67. Lewis, tp. of Clay co., Ind. Pop. 1220. Lewis, post-v. of Cass tp., Cass co., la. Pop. 400, Lewis, tp. of Holt co.. Mo. Pop. 4081. Lewis, post-tp. of Essex co.. N. Y.. in the Adirondack region, has beds of iron ore and a mineral spring. Pup. 1724. Lewis, tp. (P. 0. West Leyden) in Lewis co.. X. Y., is largely covered with forests, aud has 5 churches. Pop. 1252. Lewis, tp. of Brown co., 0. Pop. 2817. Lewis, tp. of Lycoming eo., Pa. Pop. 963. Lewis, tji. of Northumberland co., Pa. Pop. 1228. Lewis, tp. of Union co., Pa. Pop. 1007. Lewis, tp. of Mason co., West Ya. Pop. 1364. j Lewis (Gen. Axnui:w), b. in Ulster, Ireland, about ' 17^.0 ; was brought to Virginia in 1732 by his father, who settled at Bellefontc, Augusta co., and was tho first white resident of that county. Andrew was a volunteer in the I campaign to tbe (.)hio in 17;') I ; was a major in RraiMock's I expedition, and present at the great defeat on the Monon- galieia (July, 1751)) ; commanded the Sandy Creek cx]>edi- tion in 1756; was taken prisoner by the French in 1758 near Fort Duqucsne, and taken to Montreal ; was the Vir- ' giniun commis-iioncr in the treaty made with the Iroquois at Fort Stanwix in 1708; was made brigadier-general in 1774, and commanded the Virginia troops in the victory over the 8hawncc confederacy at Point Pleasant at tho mouth of the Great Kanawha River. Oct. 10, 1774. prob- ably the severest enga^cenient with the Indians recorilcd in American annals u]) to tlint time, lie was lor sevcrol years : a member of tho house of burgesses, took part in the con- vention of 1775, was n]q>ointed a brigadier-general by Con- i gross at Washington's request in 177'>. and was engaged in ' military operations ogninst Lord Dunmore. He resigned his eomniission on account of ill-health in 1777. anil d. in I lUdford CO., Va., in 17SII. Gen. Lewis was distinguished for athletic powers and an imposing presence, and was highly esteemeil by Washington. His statue occupies one of the pedestals apmnd the Washington mnnunn-nt at Rich- mond. He had four brothers who are ujentittned in \*ir- j giniun annals: i^AMi KI-, who eomnianded a company at Uraddock's dcleat : Thomas ( 1 718-1*U), who advocated Pat- I rick Henry's resolutions in the house of burgesses in 1765, wi s*tt member of the State e<mventions of 1775 and 1776, one! of that fi>r the ratilieation c»f the Federal ('<in.>;titution ; W II. I.I AM ( 1724-1811 ), who served under his brother in the I French aud Indian war, and was colonel in the Revolution ; \ and CuAriLRS. b. in Virginia, who iilso became colonel, and WHS killed at the battle uf Point Pleasant, Oct. 10. 1774. Lewis (\)u>), M. I)., b. at Auburn. N. Y.. Mar. 3. 1823; . studied at the Harvard Miilieal S<di(«>l in Roston. and practisecl for a time at Port Hymn, N. \ ., and at Rufltilo, I where he published a monthly medical magazine, in which ho inculcated the importance of gymnastics as a necessary part of a good education, ond proposed to replace tho use I of drugs by dii-t and exercise. He fnumled at Ronton in I iSOitun inslilulion fnr training teaebers.nn<l estllbli^lled in the following year at Lexington, Mass., an academy fur young ladies. In Sept., IS6H, tho institute at Lexingt'oi was destroyed by lire, and \>r. Lewis then engaged in medi<-ul ; praeliee in Roston. Has publir^hed The Avw t_ii/iiiii<isti,'4 i ( 1862 ), UVo/* Liiuj/Hf and lloir fit Main them Siroii;/ I 1 SC.i ). I Tiilh»itt.oiit l*iitpii'H Sfumaihn{\V>lK)), Our 0'ir/« ( 187 0. and Vhat» irith yoniuj Women (1874). j Lewis fPixoN Hali.), b. in Dinwiddio co., Vo.. Aug, I 10, |S02; removed in youth to Hancock eo., t^a.; was ed- ] ucated a( .Mount Zion Academy and South Carolina College; t removed befori- I S'J.'l to Autauga eo., Abi.: entered public life when twenty-three years old, and at once took a leading I po^ilicm ns a Slate Rights man; was in Congress 182H~44; U. S. Senator 1844-48. D. in New York Oct. 25, 1818. I Mr. Lewis was o ccessively corpulent, weighing 450 pounds. 1750 LEWIS— LEWISBURG. but possessed no small de;rco of iiliysical activity. He was an able Mij>porter of extreme State Eights views. Lewis (Ei.i.isl, M. D., LL.D., h. at Lcwisberry, York CO., Pa., May 115. 17;iS ; was a printer iu his youth," and in 1822 came to the bar ; in 1824 was deputy atloruey-gen- cral of Pennsylvania, attorney-general in 1S.^.■!, held va- rious judgeships in the district and supreme courts of Pennsylvania, became in 1854 chief-justice of the latter court, and in lSo7 was rechosen. ilis skill in medical jurisprudence won for him the honorary degree of M. D. In ISiS he was appointed a commissioner to revise the crimi- nal code of the State. He wrote Ahriili/m' nl «/' tlic Crimi- nnl law nf the U. S. D. in Philadel])hia Mar. I'J, 1871. Lewis (EsTKLLA Ansa Robinson), b. near Baltimore, Md.. .•ipr., 1824; was educated at Mrs. Willard's seminary at Troy; married in 1841, Sidney I). Lewis. Esq.. of Brook- lyn, since deceaseil, and has resided chiefly in Europe. She published the volume of poems entitled The Itctord of the lleiiit in 1844, The Clnld „f ihe Sen in 1S48, The Mijths of the Miiiiiiicl \n 1SJ2, and T/e^cmx/i, a tragedy, in 1863. A collection of her poems was issued in the T.'S. in 1S58 and in England in 18(i6. She has since published the tragedies S»pi>hn of Leaboa (ISGS). The Khif^ Siraiiiriem (1869), and a series of letters upon European topics addressed to Amer- ican journals over the signature SlcUa. Lewis (Francis), one of Ihe signers of the Declaration of Independence, b. at Lhindaff, Wales, in Mar.. 17l:i, and educated at Westminster; became a merchant of New York, and in 1757 was on the stalf of (Jen. Mercer, and was captured at Oswego and sent to France; received a grant of 5000 acres from the British; was 1775-79 a member of Congress, and was afterwards exceedingly useful to the country, especially as an importer of military stores. His wife and himself were long imprisoned bv the enemy, and the greater part of his estates was destroyed. D. in New York Dec. 30, 1803. Lewis (Sir Geouoe Cornewali,), Bart., h. in Radnor- shire, England, Oct., 1806; grivduated with high honors at Oxforii, in 1828; came to the bar in 1S31 at the .Middle Temple; entered Parliament in 1847; Wiis an under-secre- tary of state 1848 ; secretary of the treasury 1850-52 ; chan- cellor of the exchequer 1855-58 ; became secretary of state for the home department 1859, for war 1801, and" was one of the translators of MUller's Iliatonj dnd Aniiquitlea of' the Doric Race (1830) ; author of Oz-iJ/Zn ,,/' Jtomatire Ln'ii- (/•'"tjca (1835). Iiijluence of Anthurili/.iii Miillera of Opinion { 1849), Methods of Obaervntiuu and Heiiaonimj in Politics ( 1852), fnrjiiiri/ into the CredibiUty of Enrti/ liomnn ffialoiy (1855); editor of the Edinburgh Reeiew '(1851-55), wrote Aatrunomi/ of the Ancients (1801), A /ha/wpie on the Heat Form of (Jorrrnment (18G3). He also transUatod a part of Miiller's Hiatorij of the Literature of Ancient Oreece. D. in Herefordshire Apr. 13, 1SG3. Lewis (.loHN FnnnERicK), R. A., b. in London, Eng- land, .luly U, 1805: first attracted attention by a series of studies from wild animals which were engraved by him- self; was next engiiged in making sketches of inanner.s and costumes in Spain, of which lithographic copies were pub- lished in 1833-34 in 2 vols.: resided on the (.'ontinent, chiefly in Italy, from 1838 to 1851, making long visits to tireece, Turkey, and Egypt; exhibited in 1853 a scrici? of 64 copies in water-colors of the most fiunous jiicturcs of the \ enetian and Spanish schools, which colleelion was purchased by the Scottish Academy; was president of the Society of Water Colors from 185.5 to 1858; elected asso- ciate in 1859, and member of the Royal Acndemy in 1865. ) D. Aug., 1876. I Lewis (John Thavers), T.L.I)., D. D., b.. Tune 20, 1825. ( at Cork, Ireland; graduated in 1840 at Trinity College, Dublin; was appointed curate of Newtown Butts in 1848; ' went as missionary lo Hawkesbury in Canada in 1850 : be- came rector of Brockville in 1855; was nominated bishop i of Ontario in 1802, and wrote much for jieriodicals. Lewis (Matthew RnEBonv), "Monk Lewis," b. in London. England, .July 9. 1775; was educated at Oxford and in (Icrmany. llis famous romance. The Monk (1795), was in its original form so obscene that he was obliged to suppress the first edition, but in its amended form it had an immense popularity. Ho fell heir to great West Indian estates, and exerted himself to improve Ihe condition of his slaves; was the literary associate of Sir Walter Scott, author of many tales, plays, and poems, mostly full of su- pernatural horrors, and. except The Monk, mostly forgot- ten. The Journal of a in »t Indian Proprietor (1834) is one of his best books. Lewis was a man of amiable and benevolent character. D. at sea May 1 1, 1818. Lewis (.Meriwether), h. near Chnrlottesville. Va.. Aug. 18, 1774, the son of W. F. L"wis. a wealthy citizen: vol- unteered in the •• Whisky Xnsurrootion " of 1794; became , .an ensign in the regular army 1795. and captain in 1800. Soon afterwards he was Jetierson's private secretary, and in 1803-00 he. with ('apt. William Clarke, was sent 'upon a famous expedition to the Pacific Ocean. In 1807, Lewis was made governor of Louisiana Territory. He was ha- bitually suliject to depression of spirits, and in one of his hours of melancholy look his own lilc, near Nashville, Tenn., Oct. 11, 1809. (His memoir was written by Mr! Jefferson, and published with Biddic and Allen's iVarradw of the Lewis and Clarke Expedition, 1814.) Lewis (Gen. Morcan), b. in New York City Got. 16, 1754, son of Francis Lewis; graduated at Princeton in 1773; studied law in Ihe office of John Jay; joined Wash- ington's army at Cambridge in June, 1775; was made cap- tain of a rille comjiany in Aug., major of 2d New York regiment in Nov., colonel and chief of staff to Gen. Gates in June, 1770 ; was at the battle of Saratoga, and was dis- tinguished in Gen. Clinton's cam|>aign against Sir John Johnson in the Mohawk Valley, especially at the bailie of Stone Arabia. After the war he was admitted to the bar in Dutchess CO., became a judge of common pleas, was elected attorney-general in 179i, made judge of the su- preme court of the State in 1792, and chief-justice in 1801. He was governor of New York 1805-00; member of the legislature 1808-11; quartermaster-general, with the rank of brigadier-general, in 1812; promoted to major-general in 1813; was engaged in the operations on Ihe Niagara frontier in Apr.. 1813, and was in command of the defences of New York Cily in 1S14. He subsequently devoted him- self to literature and agriculture, delivered an address be- fore the authorities of New York City on the centenary anniversary of Washington's birth, Feb. 22, 1S32; was president of the New York Historical Society in 1835, and (1. in New York .\pr. 7, 1844. Lewis (Tayler), LL.D.. L. H. D., b. at Northumber- land, Saratoga co.. N. Y.. JIar. 27, 1802; graduated at Union College in 1820; studied law at .Albany, and began to practise at Fort Miller, but relinquished this pursuit, and devoted himself exclusively to the study of the clas- sical languages .and literatures of Hebrew'. Syriac. and Arabic, became professor in Greek at the University of New York in 183S, aud at Union College in 1849. Be- sides several translations and numerous articles in periodi- cals, he wrote The ,Si.r Dai/s ,f Crrali'jn (1855), The Bible and Science (IS50), The /Jiriiir Unman in the Scriptures (1860), and. together willi E. W. Blyden and Theodore Dwight, The People of Africa, their Character, i^nndilion, and Future /'roapccis (1871). D. at Schenectady, N. Y., May 11, 1877. Lewis (WiNST.owl, b. in Boston, Mass., July 8,1799; graduate of Ilarvanl University in 1819; proceeded to Europe, and pursued his medical studies under Dupuy- tren in Paris, and in London under Dr. ."Vbernethy : re- turning to Boston, at once look a leading position in the profession, and succeeded Dr. Warren as consulting phy- sician of the Massachusclis General Hospital; was also city physician of Boston ISOl; re)ieatcdly eliusen to the State legislature ; was president of Ihe N. E. Historical and Genealogical Society 1: 01-60: and a prominent member of the order of Freemasons, of which he was for many years granil master of .Massachusetts. D. at Boston Aug. .3, 1875. Lewis nn«l Clarke, county of W. Central Mon- tana. .Area, 2'i|9 squ:iic miles. It is boiinde.l E. by the Jlissouri l{iver and N. by Ihe Medicine Kiver. It has good grazing and fiirin lan<l. iirodneing bullcr and grain. Gold qunrt it-mining is the principal industry. Cap. Helena. Pop. 5040. largely increased since the census. Lew'ishorry, p.>sl-b. of Newberry tp., York co.. Pa., 12 miles S. ol' llarrisburg. Pop. 268. Lew'isboroii^h, post-tp. of Westchester co., N. Y., on the Connecticut line. Poj). IGOl. Lew'isburp, post-v. of Faulkner co.. Ark., on Ihe Ar- kansas lliver, 50 miles above Little Rock, has 2 churches, 2 schools, 3 hotels, a carriage and wagon faetorv, etc. Pop. 239. E. B. Henry, Ed. "Western Empire." Lewisbnr^;, tp. of Montgomery co., Kan. Pop. 827. Lcwisbiirg, a v. of Mason co., Ky., on the Jlaysvillo and Lexington R. R. Pop. 151. Lewisblirg, a v. of St. Tammany parish. La., on the N. shore of Lake Ponlehartrain. Poj). 110. Lewisbiiri;, a v. of Champaign co., O. Pop. 733. Lcwi»biirg,p.-v. of Harrison tp., Preble co., 0. P. 391. Lcwisburc, post-b., cap. of Union oo.. Pa., on Ihe W. braiieli i.r the ."^usqii'-hanna River, opposite the Lewis- bnrg juiielinii on the Philadelphia and Erie R. li.. 68 miles N. of Harrisbiirg. has 7 cluirches, 2 banks, 2 weekly newspapers, 2 extensive manufactories of agricultural im- LEWISBURG— LEXICON. 1751 plemcnts, a large aod well-appointed boat-,vard, a woollen factory, uiid iruo-works. It i:^ the seat of a university and an academy. Large quantities uf graiu are annually ghippcd from this point. A railroad connects il with Tyrone. Pup. i'.ILM. J. R. C'uiiNKLits, Ed. " CHitosuLii." Lewishur^y post-v. aud cap. of Marshall co., Tenn., 50 miles S. of Xiishville and 21 miles W. of Shelhyville, on the Duck Kiver Valley U. K., has H husiness-houscs. 4 churches, | weekly newspaper, 1 hotel, a male and female institute, a plough and a f hoc factory, and other imlui^trles. Pop. :tL'2. G. WvTHi: Ewisg, En. "Gazette." I*ewi«ibarp9 post-v, and tp., cap. of Grecnhrier co., West Va., on the line of the James Uivcr and Kanawha turnpike. 4 miles from the Chesapeake and Ohio R. R., and y miles from the Greenbrier White Sulphur Springs, has 5 churches, 1 hank. 1 weekly newspaper, .'» puliHc and several private schuols, and 10 slnres. Is in a fine blue-grass coun- try. Pop. S75. B. F. H.viiLow, Ed. •* Isdepesdent." liCWis Creek, tp. of Wushington co., Ala. Pop. 12J0. Lewis Fork, tp. of Wilkes co., N. C. Pop. 1062. Lewis Fork, the southern branch of the Columbia River, in Idaho Territory, called also Shoshone, Snake, and Saptin or Siihaptin River. (See Shoshone:.) Lcwis'ia,a plant o( the Portuinca family, named from its discoverer, Capt. Meriwether Lewis, who found it in the mountains about the sources of the Columbia River. It is found as far S. as Arizona. The root is called racine nmvrc by the Canadian voyageurs. and is used for food by the Ore- gon Indians, who call it upatlum. It 3'ields abundance of starch. Lew'isport, post-r. of Hancock co.. Ky., on tho Ohio River, 8 miles above Rockport, Ind, Pop. ;tOS. Lew'iston, post-v. of Trinity co.. Cat., on Trinity River, in a goldininiD!!; region among lofty mountains, 14 miles N. E. of Wcaverville. Pop. ',y.iS. Lewiston, pnst-v. and cap. of Nez Perc^ co.. Id., at the junction uf the Snake and Clearwater rivers and head of ste.inilioat navigation, tHI miles from Walla-Walla, Wash. Ter. It was formerlj- tho capital of Idaho. It has 1 weekly newspaper. Lewiston, city of Androscoggin co.. Me., .10 miles E. of Portland, situated on the Maine Central R. R. and on Androscoggin River at one of the most powerful water- falls in Xcw England: is largely engaged in the inanufac-* turc of cotton and woollen fabrics; has 13 churches, I daily and 2 weekly newspapers, 2 national and H savings banks. Bates College t Free Baptist) and thcdogicul school, fine school system with costly edifices, a public library, and an elegant city building with one of the largest public halls in New England. In tlie park in the centre of the city is a soldiers* m<mumcnt surmounted liy a bronze statue by Simmons. There ure 10 cotton-mills, with 212,548 spindles, and 5 woollen-mills, with S7.7.'>0,000 invested, which manufactured by water-power in 1H7.3, ."l;), 000,000 yards of cotton and woollen poods, v.ilued at $Il,yO0,000. Tlio river here falls .'»0 feet over a ledge of rocks, and tho surrounding scenery is highly picturesfjue. hewiston is now flS75) tho second city of the State in population, having largely increased since 1S70, when the number was l;t,000. F. L. DiNni.EY. Ed. ** Evkninu JotitNAi,." Lewiston, pnst-v. of Winona co., Minn., on the Wino- na and St. Peter K. R., Hi miles by rail W. of Winona. LeWiNton, p(»st-v. and tp. of Niagara co., N. V., on the Niagara Kiver, opp'<silc t^utenston, <'anada, is the N. terminus of tho BuHalo and Niaj^ara Falls R. R., and is at the head of navigutinn from Lake Ontario. It has 4 churches, and was furnieriy connected with Queenston by a suspousion bridge. It is partly occupivd hy thi; Tus(!a- nira Indians. Lewiston is the seat of the seminary of Our Lady of the Angels. Pop. of v. 770; of tp. 20.)«. LcwiNton, tp. of Lunenburg co.. Va. Pop. 1805. Lpuiston, po.-t-tp. of Columbia co., AVis. Pop. 1031. lii'W'istown, post-v. and tp.. cap. of Fulton co., III., on the Lewislown branch of tin- Chicag*) Burlington and tiuincy B. R., 60 niiks N. W. of Springfield, has 1 national b:ink, I weekly newspiipcr, 2 hotels, carriagr, wjig<tn, wool- len, plough, spoke, ami hub factories, (louring and saw mills, and a numher of stores and shops. Pop. of tp. 2ttj2. W. T. Davidson, En. •* Fii.ton iJEMoruAT." Lewi8tOWnf poRt-b., cap. of Mifilin ei>.. Pa., on tho Juniata River one! Canal, 01 miks AV. of jlarrisburg. is on the main line of the Pennsylvania R. K.. and teruiinus of two of ita branches, has 7 churchi's, 7 Imfels, '.'> banks, 3 weekly newspapers, an neademy, a fine piiblir scbo<d build- ing, 2 flouring-rniils. 2 furnares ; Mann's a.\e-factories, Lo- gan's steel-works, and Logan's trout-ponds are located in tho vicinity. Grain, iron, and coal are largely shipped. The surrounding mountain-scenery is surpassingly grand, attracting numerous visitors during the summer months. Pop. 27.{7. Fitvsi.NGEn Buos., Pubs. "Gazette." Lew'isville, post-v., cap- of La Fayette co., Ark,, 19 miles S. E. of Fulton. Lewisvillo, post-v. of Franklin tp., Henry co., Ind., on the Columbus Chicago ami Indiana Central R. R. Pop. 4 in. Lewisvillc, post-tp. of Forsyth co., N. C. Pop. 816. Lewisville, post-v. of Summit tp., Monroe co., 0. Pop. 124. Lcwisvillc, a b, (Ulysses P. 0.) of Ulysses tp.. Pot- ter CO., Pa. Pop. 226. Lewisville, tp. of Chester co.. S. C. Pop. 2507. Lewis-wilh-llarris, the largest and northernmost of the Outer Hebrides, separated from Ibe mainland by the Minsh Channel, comprises an area of 770 square miles, with 23,666 inhabitants. The coasts, especially of the southern part, Harris, are wild and rugged ; in the interior tracts of swamp and peat-moor occur. Barley and potatoes are cultivated, but fishing is the principal occupation. The inhabitants speak the Gaelic language, though in tho northern part there is a colony of purely Scandinavian descent. Stornoway. situated on the eastern coast, is tho only town of the island. Remains of Druidical structures ' arc very frequent, and remnants of forests which formerly covered the surface are everywhere met with. I Lex Domicilii. See Domicile, Inteuxational Law, ; PltlVATE. I Lex Fo'ri [Lat., the " law of tho forum"], tho law of I the jtlacc or state where a remedy is sought or action insti- tuted. It is a well-established legal doctrine that the forms ; of remedies, the modes of procedure in the conduct of suits, and the execution of judgments arc to be regulated e.xclu- ; sivcly I)v the laws of the place where tho action is brought. j This rule is applie*! in determining what jtarties are legally entitled to maintain and defend actions, what form of ac- tion should be brought, and what kind of process ma}' be employed in securing the enforcement of a claim. For in- ! stance, a written instrument having a scrawl instead of a I regular seal would be considered in some States as a sealed I and in others as an unsealed instrument, and the appro- I ])riatc form of action might therefore vary in different States, being governed by the Irj- fori. Arrest and imprison- ment might not be allowable upon a certain ebiini by the ' law of llie place where the contract was made {l'\r loci con- I tiactun), but might be adopted as a mode of legal process if permitted by the law of the State in which the action was instituted. The defence of set-off (sec Set-ofk) or of I discharge under insolvent laws (see iN.soLVKsrv) is also I governed by the lex fori. The same is true of defences under the statute of frauds (see FnArns, Statute ok) or under the statute of limitations (see Limitations. Statiti; ok). All suits must I.e brought within the period prescribed by the law of the country where the suit is brought, or they will be barred. (See Lex Loci, Lex Rei Sit«.) Gkoiuje Chase. Revised by T. W. Dwic:ht. Lcx'icou, Uietionary, Thesaurus, Vocabulary, <■lo^Ha^V. The first two of these words are the etymo- logical equivalents of each other, the Greek A«fn, the source of the one, corresponding in signification to ihc Latin dirito, the parent of the other. A*fts and dirfio, though sometimes used in the sense of *roi (/.both mean rathera phrase, a umnitrc rfc (///■*-, or at h-ast a special use of a term, than an ordinary single vocable, and the explanation of sueh phrases was tho original oflico of lexicons or dictionaries. Tho titles '* lexicon " and " dictionary " are of comparatively modern origin, because, though there were exiilaiiatory lists of tho Arfrtc or diciiofun of particular (ireck and Latin autbi>rs, true dictitinarics or eolleetivo vocabularies of the whole verbal stock of particular languages hardly existed in tho classic ages. There is no well-established ilistinction of use or meaning between the two words, though "lexicon" is perhaps more frequ<'ully iipplied than "dictionary" to the larger word-books o! the llelirew, (Jreek, Arabic, San- skrit.and other deatt or unfaniiliar langiniges. In pre.^^i-tit usage a lexicon or tlielionary. in its complete normal foriii. I is a general listed' the aulliori/rd words, phrases, and idiom- atic expressions occurring in the litrraluie of a given Ian> I guage, with indications of the pronunciation, the etymol- I "K.v. and the history of each word, with equivalents, defi- ; nitions, or explanations in thi* satno or in ati(*iher (ongue, and with exemplificulions of the act^ial use of the words in I combination with others, and illustrations of peculiarities in their grammatical relations. Many dielionaries, hoth ' for greater clearness and for saving space, now introduce ' engravings of material objects in cases where verbal de- senptions would necessarily be unintclligiblo or prolix. 1 This is a real iinprovement, and the objcotions which have 1752 LEXIXGTOX. IVrl Z"°^ «g»'n'' it have generally their foundalion in pure lcxicogrii|ihical pedantry. Al/,em„n,H j. also a general explanatory word-list, but .rofesaedly mure eop.ous than ordinary dictionaries, and provided with more of citation and discussion in illustra tion and support of the definitions ascribed by it to the words w a,., compose it. In English this term is not often applied to dictionaries ol modern languages, however volu- minous and complete. A rocabulury is an expository catalogue of words, but in l^nglish use It commonly comprises only technical or pro- fessional terms occurring in a particular author or in agi ven art or science, though it is also applied to partial lists of words collected from little-known tongues. We eninloy vocabulary, too, as the e(,uivalent of the (ierman It',,,;. Z'l"' " " 'y'"^-'">,'^y i">pl.ving not a list of words, but the entire verbal wealth of a given language as disnh.ved in Its literature or speech. This u.se of this word is hardly authorized in the Romance languages, and lliev oflcii apply the term " vocabulary " to copious general dictionaries A y/,«,„r^ ,s a work of a lexical character, but com- mon y restricted to obsolete, provincial, obscure, or tech- nical words. It may embrace only such as are employed by a particular author or class of authors, or it may aim to comprise all the anthiuated or professional words of a lan- iZr^i °r •. ■? ""''""''S ""1-f in a particular stage or period of It. In continental lexicography, " Hoss.arv " is generally confined to explanatory lists'of obsolete word, or ol words employed in senses different from classical o^ of" won°s of"arr='' """^ '' ""^ °"'° "PP""'' '» <=»'l«=tio"« But. after all, the common nsage, even of lexicographers, does not always accurately discriminate between any two ol these words, and onr definitions must accordingly bo taken with some latitude. ° ' The order of the words in lexical lists is usually alpha- betical, but in certain languages an etymological .arra , ■he- rder wKiehT''' .^"" '""•^' '"*""•'■'■• ">» "'iie»l forms under wh ch derivative words are grouped commonly fol- i' nh r.t ? % > ^" '"'"" alphabetical dietionariel the I alph bet Itself does not conform to the ordinarv modern A I I. sequence, but the letters are arranged according to their idionological affinities. There are also word-bloks in which a classification according to primary signification, without^ reference to real or supposed radical forms, ha ' been adopted. Dictionaries of these classes require for convenient use and are often provided with, an alphabet- ical index. The Spanish and Knglish dictionary of Fer- nandez IS remarkable as having the words of the two lan- guages under a single alphabet. Besides general lexicon" whether of words or of science, literature, or art '« D?o-' T.ONARY), modern philology has given birth t.. numenms • new classes of word-books. Thus, almost all the prbici "al lumg languages have diclionaries of their dialects and even America, remarkable as it is for substantial unifo niity of speech whether in its Hispanic or in its Anglo-Saxon dis nets, has furnished imporlant contributions to English dialectology 11, lartlelfs D.c.onan, of ^m.r,>„,„„„, (2d ed.. Boston, UM) and in other kindred glossaries There are also dictionaries of pronunciation, of prosodv. and of rhymes; of etymology.- of idiomatic and conventional 1 hrases; of grammatical diffienllies; of synonyms and of rhetorical analogues or equivalents; and in the essentially homogeneous languages, as (Jerman, of foreign' words Lopied*™ ""'"' ""■ '"'' <^<'"'l'''^^'<^'y naturalized and All dictionaries, even those of science and art, are essen- tially word-books, for the knowledge of words is the know- ledge ol things, inasmuch as the full comprehension of the nomenclature of a given science implies the mastery of the science Itself. No lexicon or other list of the words of a living language, or of the terminology of a progressive knowledge, can ever be complete, for new words are formed and introduced faster than lexicographers can collect them, and the hourly discoveries of science are hourly demand- ing the coinag.. of fresh terms to enunciate them. A cer- tain tune must elapse before the claims of a new word to 1. ."■«? 1 r f '"'^"''^^'V- "■'"^"'O'- in literature or in art, can hodv of "h"; ""'' "^•'■^""■'•'i-- «nd besides, no scholar or body of scholars, no student or association of students of fn,„'ir',"""f 17 ^"""'. '''"" "'«■ """■' "^'''"""o of human f, b ^ r 7:r ^'"^attalnment. or with the rapid mul- tpicaton of the words in which new ideas require to clothe themselves. Dictionaries, whatever their ringe or dllTr'VT "i' ."'.'"" '■"P'-'-f''''' -iigests, and, like the digests of legal adjudications, are never lo be cited as „„. ffr,.""' "emplified use of ,he words by rabbis in iterature or in science is the authority. Hence, the real test of a lexicon IS the multitude of its judiciously selected I citations. In ih.s i„y ,hc crowning excellence of Dr. .lohn- eon 8 Ji„gl„l, Dictwnary, and the destruction of the 40,000 I Uie" ^ . 1 ' "'',"'' ^ ^••"■"fi""'! "> ^ave space is one of the greatest losses that English lileratnre has sustained. All literature, especially poetry and jurisprudence in- hues to arch.aic forms of expression, and its' diction ,Td other respects less readily inlelligible than that of ordinal? conversalion. Hence, explanalory lists of peculiar y<«ablcj and verbal combinations, first, no doubt in the fo7,n of m rg.ual glosses must have been almost coeval wi,h tho 1th of written literature itself. These glosses, gradually collected into separate voluuies, were the earliet lexicons^ Ru 1 men ary dictionaries have been found stamped even on he bncks of Assyria, and more or less complefe lexica" eolee,.ons existed a. a very remote period inPallUecI uated nations of the East, as well as in Hrecce The ^Te th""'?," °"'-^^»'"-. »'■ »'- fo-lh century, is satd to be the oldest European general dictionary extaLl. In- comp etc as were the ancient dictionaries, they hayc been of extreme v., ue to scholars, for the very reason that, be ng designed exclusively for the elucidation of rare words o? for''ea7,;'"'"' ^""■''i"'"--- ">« ^r-e and labor ^ q si"e for cataloguing and explaining familiar ex,,ressiu'„s of every-day life have been spared, and the co, ipile s have consequently been able to be more full and thorough in the exposition of really difficult words and phrases. Hence the Tr e" f ^'"' '" ""•'' """'-''-''' '"' ""^ knowledge of the force of many i^„f ,,,y„^„.^, „, "once-used irm-ds " eehnical tenns, and .he like, which without them would haie reinained quite unintelligible. And this is equally true of the more primitive word-books of modern lan- guages. Palsgrave, Florio, Colgrave, and slill older vo- cabuaries answer many questions in English philology of which we have no other solution. It does not appear that tho Greeks and Latins had bilingual lexicons, or dictionaries explaining their word- list in another tongue. Instruction in forefgn languages W.TS oral as. in fact, it continued to be. substantiallv in modern hiirope until the seventeenth century. Tho pupil in general had little or no .self-help, and his teacher was his dictionary. Modern dictionaries of the learned 1-in- guages. indeed, existed at an earlier period, but Sieph.ns and the other great lexicographers of the sixteeulh century labored for advanced scholars. no( for tyros; and this ex- plains why not only Greek and l.alin dictionaries hod their j explanations in the latter language, but why even the old i'.uglish and bennan word-books employed the same uni- versal medium for defining obscure words of the vernacu- lars ISotwithstandiiig the immense importance which the rapidly increa.sing study of foreign languages has given to dictionaries ol this class, the principles of bilin.'unl lexi- cography, at least in regard to modern langmiges, do not appear to have ever been well eonsidere.l and discu-^sed and consequently there are few bilingual dictionaries of iving languages which have any pretensicms to philo- logical merit Hilperfs (Jermau-Euglish dictionary may bo said to have been gooil for its time, and the same" rem'ark 1 may be applied to Fleming and Tibbins' French and Eng- ish dictionary, but the latest editions of boll, arc far be- iiiid the demands and the possibilities of the age. Of other bilingual general dictionaries of living languages, tho only I hree known to tho writer whi.h can be pnuiounce,! even 1 tolerable are the late edition of Kraiiicr's Dulch and French j dictionary, the German and French dictionary of S.vh« I and the Icelandic and English dictionary of Cleasby and j I igfusson, which, with great comjiression and economy of j sjiace, are all truly excellent, j The material form and construelion, soarcoly less than ! the literary execution, of lexicons is a matter of very great importance, especially in an ago whose habits of stu.Iy ' "" '"Very scholar to unshelve and reshelvo dictionaries twenty times in a day. The principles of convenience in this respect arc almost universally sadiv neglected by lexi cographers and compilers of eneyclop.Tdia.s ind other" books ot reference. \\ c are acquainted with no satisfactory essay on this subject, and for want of a belter we refer to a scries of enlieisms on the form, composition, and statistics of " ebslers and other dictionaries by tho writer of tho pres- ent article in the New York X„i,;.,i for 1S65. (For a list of important lexical works see our article Dicrioxvnv and wo may notice the following a.l.litinnal general dic- tionaries : of Sanskrit, that of Biihtlingk and Hoth. just finished at St. Petersburg; .Sanders' (icnnan Dictionary very full, but arranged on bad [irinciples, very badly Car- rie 1 out; Tominaseo's very voluminous Italian Diction- ary, now advance.l to letter .S',- De \ries and To Winkel's important Dictionary of the .\etlicrlan<lish I,an<'uage- J-ane s great Arabic I.exi.'on, rather more than half issued • and two new editiims of Facciolati and Forcellini's Latin Dictionary, at I'rato and at I'adua. (iwinnK 1'. Marsh I.ex'ington, county ..f Central .South Carolina. Arc-i, 701) square miles. It is hilly, with a good soil. It is bounded on thcN.E. bythcCongarce River. Liyc-slock, rice, corn, j LEXINGTON. 1753 aod cotton are leading products. Flour is the chief article of mftniitacture. It is traversed by the Columbia nnd Au- gusta K. It. Cap. Lexington Court-house. Pop. 12,988. Lexington, tp. of Dallas co., .\Ia. Pop. li.>U. Lexington, tp. uf Lauderdale co., Ala. Pop. 12G6. Lexington, post- v. .cap. of Oglethorpe co..Ga..Hcar the Athens brunch of the Georgia K. K. ^Ckawfokd Station). Lexington, po<it-v. and tp. of McLean co.. 111., on the Ciiioago and Alton It. U.. 100 miles tS. of Chicago and 15 W. of Bloomington, has 6 churches, 2 banks, 2 weekly ncw.tp iperR, 1 hotel, a public graded !»ehool, lodges of Patrons of lliifliiandry, and a K"od trade, dealing largely in stock and farm products. Pop. 24U1. Ed. " Estkrpuise." Lexington, po«t- village of Scott co., Ind., on the Lex- iogton briiiuh c^f the Ohio and Miiisiiisippi U. K. Pop. of V. 4(U: of tp. 2529. Lexington, tp. of Johnson co., Kan., on the Kansas Uivcr and the St. Louis Laivrcnce and Western R. II., on waich is De Soto Station. Pop. 1.250. Lexington, city, cap. of Kayetto co.. Ivy., on a branch of iho Elkhorn liiver, Go miles S. E. of Louisville and 20 milea S. E. of Frankfort, on the Louisville Cincinnati and Lexington and the Kentucky Central R. Rs., has IB churches, I State and 3 national banks, 1 daily. 4 weekly, and 2 ?emi-wo?kly newspapers, 7 free sehouls, 2 private Catholic schools, 5 denomin:itioual female seminaries, a U^jrary company owning 10. 000 volumes, a State insane asylum, au orphan asylum, carriage, bagging, and rope f^'jlories, and a large trade sustained by the resources of the fertile and beautiful surrounding country. Tho city is regularly laid out at right angles, is well built, well jjaved and lighted, an 1 the streets are bordered with shaile trees. Founded by Col. Robert Patterson in May, 1775, tho town received i!j» name in commemoration of tho battle of Lei- in'^ton fought the preceding month. It was incorporated in 17'S2, was f'lr a lime Iho State (capital, and eoon became tho principal scat of wealth and culture W. of tho Allc- ghauies, an<l celebrated as the home of several eminent men, chief of whom was Henry Claj', to whose memory a monu- ment has been ereetcrl in the beautiful ctMuetory. Transyl- vania University, the oldest college in the Western StiUcs, wai founded hero in 1798. antt had law and medicul dopart- msnts. Tho Kentucky State University, chartered in ISjS, aud opened at Harrodsburg in 1859, was removed to Lox- in-^ti'U in 1805, and Transylvania University was com- binvd with it. The new instittilion had iii 1^72,21 prules- 8ors, 9 other oJficers, 579 students, and 20,000 volumes in il« libraries. Pop. 11,801. Lexington, post-tp. of Somerset co.. Me., 24 miles N. W. of Xorridgcwfick. Pop. 397. Lexington, post-v. and tp. of Middlesex co., Mass., 11 mik-* \. W. nf Ho8ton,on the Boston Lowell and Najih- ua R. K. (Lexington branidi). has 5 ehurches, 1 savings bank, I we.-kly newspaper, a line high school, aud a public library with .'J500 volumes. There are uo manufactures, tho principal business being farming, dairying, and raar- ki!t-gardt'iiiug. It was settled in 1012 unrler the name of "Cambridge Farms." and probably received its name from Lexington ( Laxington or La.vtnn). Nottinghamshire, Kiig- lanil, of whicli place Francis Whttmore, au early settler, was a native. Memorable as the spot where tho lirst blood was sht-d in tho Revolutionary struggle, this historic town possesses many m<>uien(oesof that period. A modest granite monument upon the village green tells its story of lite sac- rificed fur prin.-iple, while a beautiful memorial-hall ia elo- quent with tablets and statues of .John llaneoek, Samuel Ad imf, tho tuiuute-man of 1 775 ami the soldier of IHfil. The two f'irtuer trero inaugurated at tho centennial celebration of tho battle of Lexington, Apr. 19, 1775, an occasion whieh was brilliantly sueec-sful in Iho many thousands of visitors attracted from all parts of the Union, including tho national and State executives, and elicited eloquent oration* an'l genuine poetry. Lexington is tho native plai;e of Theodore Parker, whose granclfutber, Ciipt. .John Parker, commanded tho company of minnfe-meii flred upon by the British troops in 1775. Pop. ot tp. 2277. (See the excellont Hintury of Lexinytun, published in 1808 by Uou. Charles IludsiMi.) On the evening of tho 18th of April. Gnn. flago de- spatched a force of SOU men, untler Llrut.-t'ol. Smith, to Concord for tho purpose of destroying tho military stores there collected, and in anticipation hud picketed the roads leading from Ronton to prevent the news of the intended expedition from spreading. Tho capture of Hanenok and Adams, who wore at Lexington, was also e'niternplatcd. But in these excited times everybody was on the niert. and the first movement of the enemy was at once maile known by preeoncerte«l signals. an<l Paul Revere, rowing across to the Charleslown shore, mnunted his hor^o Jiiid rnile swiftly away towards Lexington, arousing each household us ho went; the bells of the village churches now rang out the ularm ; signal-guns were fired and other messengers were arousing the eounivy. By midnight Paul Revere had ar- rived at Lexington aud given the alarm: the militia at once assembled on the village green, but there being no signs of tlic enemy, they were dismissed to await their coming, after a number of men had been sent out towards Boston to report the approach of the British. It was about 4i in the morning when Major Pitcairn, with six com- jiauies, who hud surprised and cajitured all the outposts, arrived within a mile or two of Lexington. A general alarm was now sounded, and tho militia to the number of GO or 70, under commancl of Capt..lohn Parker, were drawn up in lino upon the green. Pitcairn. moving rai>idly for- ward with his men, himself rode up and ordered the militia to surreniler and disperse. The militia, however, held their ground, and after tiring a volley over tlieir heads without effect, a second fire was poured into the American line, which killed eight, and wounded ten of the little band. Capt. Parker, seeing that further resistance w<iuld result in the certain destruetion of all hands, ordereil his men to disperse, which they did, some discharging their muskets at the British as they retired, inflicting, however, but little injury upon tho enemy (three of the regulars were wounded and Pitcairn's horse struek), who now pressed on to Con- cord, six miles beyond, wbenec Revere, continuing bis ride with Kbcnezer Dow and Dr. Samuel Preseott, hacl hnstened to spread the ahirm. Rt-vere and Dow were captured by a British patrol : Preseott, however, barely escaping, succeed- ed in reaching Concord. The Lexington men rallied after the departure of the regulars, and ft>IIowed on to Concord, and in the retreat of t!»e British wbieh followed the battle at Concord bridge, joined in the pursuit, wbieh only termi- nated on tho arrival of th(k regulars at Charlest<iwn Neck, under the guns of their shipping. In this pursuit three more of the Lexington militia were killed. During a visit in 1S52 of Kossuth to '* the birtbplucc of American lil>erty," he said of the fallen heroes of tlmt day: '' It is their sac- rificed blood with which is written the preface of your na- tion's history. Their death was, an<l ever will be, the first bloody revebition of America's destiny, and Lexington the opening scene of a revolution that is destined to change the ebiiracter of human governments and the condition of the liuman race.'' In 1799 a small nuinument was erected upon the spot where began the contest of the Revolution. Fkank E. WKTHirriKi.i,. En. *• Minttk-Man." Lexington, post v. and tp.. cap. of Sanilac cm., Mich., is a ]iort of entry <ni L:iUe Huron, 20 miles N. of Port Hu- ron, has 5 ehurches, 4 hotels, I weekly newspaper, a flour- ing-mill, 1 woollen and 2 furniture fiurtories. and a num- ber of stores aud shops. Pop. of v. iib(»ut 1(100; of tp. 243.3. C. S. NiMs, Ed. ".Iki r^RsoxiAN." Lexington, post-tp. of Le Sueur co.. Minn. Pop. 507. Lexington, post-v., cup. of Holmes co.. Miss., situated equidistant between the Yazoo Biver nnd the Mississippi Central R. R., has l eburehes, I weekly newspaper, 1 hotel, 2 schools, and a number of stores and shops. Pop. 7N. HnsKlNS A Wll.MAMS, Pt'US. " AdVKUTISKR." I<exingt(»n, eity. tp.. and Clip, of Lii Fayette eo.. Mo., on Ihi* S. bunk of tlie ^Missouri River and (he Mist^ouri Pa- cific R. R. iSedalia branch). 250 mile^ W.of St. Louis (.'170 by the river) and 40 miles E. of the Kansas line; is situ- ated on a high bluff :M10 feet alx.ve the river. The ter- minus of the St. .Joseph and Lexington R. U. is at North Ijexingtim. on the opposite biink of the river, where also the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. U. passes along tho rivcr-botlom. The eity has 10 ehurehes, 4 hanks, 4 weekly newspiipers (I (Jerman), il female seniinarie.^, hthI excellent pulilic sehoolji, and is the centre of the hemp- growing region. Immense strata of coal, reputed the best in the State, underlie the whole county, and furnish the h'adiug article itf commerce. Lpxingtr)n wiis settled in |k:I7; it is healthy, and enjoys sulistanlial commenMiil prosperity. In Sept., 1^01. a Union force of ulmut 2S00 men, under Cnl. .Tiiiues .Mulligan, occupied the hill on the N. R. of Lexington, which naturally strong position was fortified and held against a Confederate force of some 25,H00 men, under (Jen. .'Sterling l^ric*-; the siege terminating; on the 20th in the >urren"ler of (be town and garrison. Miii"r Frnnk .1. White retook the tr.wn Oct. 10, capturing fiOor 70 prisoners, and releasing such of Mulligan's b-ree us were fouud there. Again, in Oct., IHOl. (he army of (Jen. Price here n(tacke<I (ii'U. Blunt, who afti>r a two hours' resistance withdrew. Pop. uf eity 1:17.'.; of tp. O.t.iO, M\i(K L. ru: Motti:. Kf». **Ri:oisTnn.*' Lexington, pnnl-tp. of (Jreene co., N. Y.. among the CatsUill .Mountains, has 3 churches, and contains n natural ice-cave. Pop. Ut7I. Lexington, post-v. ond (p..oop. of Davidson co.. N. C, on the Nurtli ('iirnliM:i B. li. Pop. "f v. 175: of tp. 2289. 1754 LEXI NGTON— LEYDEN. Lexington, post-v. of Richland CO., 0., on the Balti* more and Oliio K. K. ( Lake Erie div.). Pup. -132. L(CxiiigCon« tp. of Slark co., O. It contains the city of Ai.LiANrK (which sec). Pop. 57U0. Lexingtou, tp. of Lexington co., S. C. It contains the county- seat, Lexington Coubt-uouse (which sec). Pop. ir.ii.i.' Lexington, post-v. and cap. of Henderson co., Tcnn., an inland town, ;1U miles E. of Jackson, has '2 church(\«, 2 hotels, 1 weekly newspaper, and an academy. It was lo- cated in IS21, was seriously damaged durinj^ the war, but is now being rapidly rebuilt. Piip. about 3l'0. L. M. Foun, En. ** Kkporter." Lexington^ post-v. of Burleson Co., Tex. Pop. lo7. Lexington^ post-v. and tp.. cap. of llockbriugo Co., Va.. situated in the " Valley of Virginia," on the N. branch of James River. :\b mik-s N. N. W. of Lynchburg, has 7 churches, 3 hotels, I weekly and 1 somi-nionlhly news- paper, I bank, a public library, a foundry, flouring-mills, and a number of business-houses. It has unlimited water- ]^ower, and is the head of canal navigation on the James Kivcr and Kanawha Canal, and on the line of the Valley 11. K. The celebrated N;itural Bridge and the iiiuturosquc Peaks of Otter are in the immediiite vicinity. Washington College was founded here in 1798 by licorge Washington, and the Virginia Military Institute (the West Point of the South » established in ls;;9. The former was reorganized after the civil war as Washington and Lee University, un- der the presidency of Gen. Robert E. Lee, who resided here until his death. It now has over 20 instructors, nearly 300 students, and a library of 10,000 volumes, while the Mili- tary Institute has 12 professors, 300 students, and a library of oOOl) volumes. It receives an annual appropriation from the State, which appoints a certain number of cadets. Stone- wall Jackson was a professor at this institute, and, like Gen. Lee, is buried here. Pop, of v. 2S73: of tp. 3948. Bahi'LAv & Co., PfDs. "'Gazette." IjCXington Court-house, post-v. of Lexington tp., cap, of Lexington co.. 8. C, on the Charlotte Columbia and Augusta R. R., 12 miles AV. of Columbia, has 3 churches, 1 weekly newspaper, several schools, 2 hotels, an excellent water-power, supplying 1 flouring-mills, and manufactories of cotton -yarn and furniture. It is a noted place for sum- mer resort; famous also for its fruits. Pup. in 1S74 aliout 450. G. M. Hahman. Pirt. "Dispatch." Lex Lo'ci [Lat., the •• law of the plnce "],a phrase used in law as a common abbreviation for the more complete expression lejr /oci* contrttcttm, the " law of the place of a contract." It is a general principle of ]jrivate international law that the validity, interpretation, an<l olpligatory f(»ree of personal contracts are to bo determined by the law of the place where the contract is made, if that is also the place where, by the stipulations of the parties, the agree- ment is ro be performed. But if a different place of per- formance is agreed upon, this is deemed the place of the contract, tho law of which is to be followed in its construc- tion, the determination of the rights acquired under it, and the duties and obligations which it imposes. The rule may be briefly stated, that a contract valid by the law of the place where it is made or is to be performeil is valid every- where, and if void by sueh law is void everywhere. This rule, however, is not without important exceptions, for a contract may be valid in one country which would not bo euforcible in another, on account of its being considered in the latter as injurious to public morals or welfare, or iu contravention of public policy or some positive law. There is no binding obligation resting upon any state to give force anci effect to contracts made in other states; and though this is generally done, it depemis entirely upon in- ternational comity, which will not be extended so far as to operate disadvantagcously to the interests or public insti- tutions of the state in which the contract is sought to he enforced. The capacity of the parties to contract, as de- termined by minority, coverture, guariliansliip, and other causes of personal disability, is also, as a general rule in English ami American law, governed by the le-r f»ci con- traHntf. The place where the contract is made is that in which the assent of tho parties first concurs and becomes complete. For instance, if a proposition he made by a jicrson in one place to a person in another, and an assent to tho offer be depo-ited in the mail addressed to the first party, the contract is generally deemed t<t be fully made at the time and place of mailing the answer. The hx luri also governs as to the formalities and modes of authenti- cation necessary in the execution of contracts. (See Inter- national Law. Private ; Lkx Foim ; Lex Rki SiT.t: ; Story on the Conjlirt o/ Lnirt ; Wcstlake's Priratr Inlt^fmitional L'tir.) (teohrk Chase. Revised nv T. W. Dwi^iit. XjCX Ro'i Si't.T [Lat., the " law of the place of tho sit- uation of a thing "J, The transfer of real estate, the ten- ure by which it may be held, and all contracts or acts in regard to its numagenient, enjoyment, or disposition, are governed by the law of the place where such jiropcrty is situated. It is only in relcrence to real jiroperly that this invariable rule prevails. The ownership, luujiagemcDt, and conveyance of personal property are governed in some cosea by the law of the jdaee where the owner is domiciled (sec Domicile), iu other cases by the law of the place where eon- tracts in regard to it arc made or are to be performed (see Li:x Loci). These laws may be either those of the state or country where tho personal estate is situated, or those of some other state. The ca[)acity of persons to take or trans- fer real estate is also determined l»y the Icj- rt! Kttfc. If, for instance, aliens arc prohibited by the laws of a country from holding lands, they can obtain no valid title to real property situated therein, whatever may be the law of the place of their domicile. The fornuilities to be observed and the modes of conveyance to be employed must be thoso which the local law prescribes. Thus, it is a general rule at common law that a seal is required to an instrument con- veying an interest iu lands, and therefore a deed executed without a seal in a country where this was not required would be hehl invalid as a conveyance of land in a state where the cnmuion-law rule prevailed. Tho /f.r rei «itfe further determines the interest in real ])roperty which may bo transferred. If this law provides that an owner of laud shall not alienate more than a certain portion by devise or any other specified method, no larger interest can be trans- ferred, although the instrument of conveyance be executed iu a foreign country. The law of the place of situation governs not only real property of a corporeal nature, as land, but also that which is incorporeal, as servitudes, easements, rents, etc. (See Inteh-natioxal Law, Private; Lex Loci; Lex Fori.) George Chase. Revised bv T. W. Dwight. Lcy'dcn [nnc. Lni/diftuim Ufiinvnrmn : Fr. /*#■_</(/(■], an important city of the Netherlands, iu the province of South Holland, on the Old Rhine, G miles from its outlet in the North Sen. It is intersected by canals, kept exceedingly clean, well built, with straight and broad streets ; its Breede Etraat is cou>idcred one of the finest streets in Europe. Thus, although tho former splendor of the city is almost entirely lost, there is not the least indication of decay. It was once a strong fortress, and the siege which it sustained from the Spaniards in 1.073-74 made it famous. For seven weeks there was no bread within the walls, but tho bur- ghers still resisted, though the hunger became almost un- bearable. At last the prince of Orange came to their reseue. The dikes were opened, and the waters, which drowned a great number of the besiegers, carried a fleet of 200 boats loaded with ]>rovisii'ns to the city. Now the bastions arc covered with windmills, and the citadel and the towers transformed into storehouses. As a reward for the valor the city evinced during the siege the prince of Orange founded a university here, and it soon became one of the most celebrated institutions of learning in Europe, adorned with such names as those of Scaliger, (Jomar, Arminins, Grotius, and Utscartcs. An immense trade in books de- veloped at the same time, and its Elzevir editions are world-renowned. Now. the university, allhough an insti- tution of good reputation, has hut iiOU student.", and tho city only .'» printing-offices. In the seventeenth and eight- eenth centuries Leydcn was one of the cloth-manufac- turing centres of the world. It had 100, OOU inhabitants, and its broadcloths commanded the higliest ])riees at any fair. Now, it 1ms only ;ilM21 inliabilants, and only half a score of factories, employing about 1000 hands. Yet, al- though retiring from the bustle of life, Leydcn shows no signs of decay ; it seems only to rest and prepare itself for any new chance which may come up. The great j.ainters, Metzu, Mieris, Dow, and Rembrandt were horn here. Tho Pilgrim Fathers who left England for Amsterdam in lOOS remained in Leydcn from 1609 till their departure for America in 1020. Leydcn, |)ost-tp. of Cook co,. III., 10 miles N. W. of Chicago. Pop. \\M. Leydcn, post-tp, of Franklin co.. Mass., i) miles N. of Greenfield. Leyden (Jlen is a place much visited for its romantic scenery. Pop. 618, Leydcn, post-tp. of Lewis co., N.Y., on the Utica and Black River R. R., has >itone-quarrie8 and various mann- facluriug interests, and contains several villages. Pup. 204^. Leyden (John), b. in Denholm, Roxburghshire, Scot- land, Sept. S, 177 J; studied at Edinburgh Cniversity ; was ordained in 1798, but soon abandoned the clerical for tho medical profession, and in 1802 obtained an appointment as assistant surgeon in India. Ho first residi-d at Madras; studied the Oriental languages, and removing to Calcutta, became professor of Iliudostanec in Fort William College. He afterwards became a judge and assay-mastcr at the LEYDEN— LIBEL. 1755 mint. He accompanied the Eu^li^h expedition against Java, and d. at Hniavia Auj^. 21, ISll. Among other works he wrote u HiHtnricttl Acrount of Di»coveri*a and TmveU in A/i'ica and uii EfHfty on fhe Lttnjfiinffes and Literature o/' the Jiifto-Chiume \ti(if,nif, in vol. x. of Agiotir littearchr^: also Ponnn nnd fin/fttf/f. ]>u)>li^bid after his death. The cen- tennial of his hirth was iu ISTit celebrated iu Scotland. Leyden (Licas van ; real name LfCAS Jaoobkz), b. at Lcydcn, Netherlands, in 1401; was a contemporary and friend of .-Mbert Diirer. His genius was ])rccoeious and orig- inal. Under the tuition of Engclhrechtsen he made such progress that at the age of twelve he was already distin- guished, lie painted in oil, distemper, and on glasp, and excelled in history, portrait, and landscape. His pictures are rare, and fine impressions of his prints are scarce and costly. Iliij most important picture is a Ao.r Jii(f;/inr„t in the town-lmuse at Leyden; the Ctrd-PIai/cm, tho Virgin Hud C/tifd in the Munich (Jallcry, the Portrait of the Empc- rttr Marimiiian in the IJelvidere at Vienna, and the /yr^rcjif from the Crona in tlie cliurch formerly of the Jesuits in Paris arc remarkable. As an engraver he held rank with Diirer and Marc Antonio. His Eufruftpicjcl is said to bo the rarest of all prints. Lucas exerted a powerful influence on the artists who came after him, by deciding them to take fresh subjects and treat them naturally. His industry was great, for in spite of the brevity and dissipation of his life upwards of 100 paintings and 171 prints are ascribed to him. P. in \ti?,Z. 0. B. Fi!Othingham. Leys (Jons Aigist IlrNitY), b. at Antwerp Feb. IS, 1815 ; was destined for the Church, but at the ageof fifteen entered the studio of IJrakeker, his brother-in-law; ex- hibited in 1^:1.1 a picture that excited remark, Cumbnt nf a (irenndicr with a C'tHmirk; travelled and 8tu<lied in France and Holland, and on his return till his dcfith, Aug. 20, ISdil, lived iu his native city. The artist^took the subjects for his canvases from the history of his own country and tlic life of the Middle Ages, and painted with the fidelity and feeling of one who describes what ho tlioroughly knows and is imbued with the spirit of what ho depicts. His work has the solid reality of Irudi and the earnest glow of natural feeling. Few of his pieces have come to the U, S. His chief works, sueb of tliem as were not painted for his rich patron, M. Couteau. were executed, it is said, for pub- lic places in Belgium. Three pietur(8 which he sent to the Fxjiosition in Paris of 1S60 obratne<l for him one of the grand medals of honor. To the Exposition of 1 SG7 he sent eleven pieces. an'l was again honored by a nudal. In lS4f> he was decorated with the orilcr of Leopold ; in 18j1 i-aiscd to the rank of officer; in 1SG7 made commander of the order, and promoted to the dignity of olTieer in the Legion of Honor. Ho bad already been created a baron by Leo- pold I. and elected a member of the Royal Academy i»f Bel- gium. 0. B. FllOTIIINGHAH. L^lfdpitul, de (MirHF.i), h. at Aiguepersc, in the presi ht d«'p:irtni'iit of Puy de Dome, about 1^01; studied juri-prudeuce at Padua; was sent by the French court in 1;')I7 to the Council of Trent, whicli had just removed to Bologna; became in I5.!»l presitlenl of the court of ac- counts, and in l.'»r»0 chancellor of Fnineo. By his ability and integrity he gained tin- respect of all parties, but the policy of moderation by wliieb he endeavored to pacify the tu- multuous state of the popular mind made bim many ene- mies, and several of his nteasurcs, by whicli he prevented the establishment of the Inquisition in France and author- ized the free exerci.se of Protestant worship, as well as the | circumstance that his family became Protestant, made biui ! suspected in the eyes (tf the Catholic parly. In Ijlls ho ' resigned his oflico and relireil to his estate at Bi'Uebat, in the present dejMirtment of Seinc-et-Oise, where lie d. Mar. l.'I. 167<L His (Envren, containing Latin poems, speeches, and memoir.^, were published in 1821 at Paris iu 4 vols., and his poems separately in IH27. Ivia'iia [Fr. finn*], a name(usually found in the plural) npplied to the climbing and twining woody plants which, in some tropical countries {as Brazil), entwine tliemsolves among forest trees, otien rendering great areas of land q'liro impenetrable. They belong to a gre:it number of tlitferent natural orders. Some are of vi-ry greiit size, nnd by their constriction and weight they often kill tho trees wbieh support them. Ki'as, The, a group of strata occurring In Western Europe and lubinging to the Jurassic period. The word WIS originally a local term, a eorru|iti'ni, it is snid, of " biyers." in allusion to the thin bedded liiiu-'runes that in :)s lower portion alternate with marls. It is divisible into two natural groups, the older of whieli combines tho strata tliai nre known as the Lower and Middl<< Liiis. The Lower Lias rests below on the Kenper, and ennimenced by limo- sfones, which we find giving pince os wc' n- -"iid the series to bluish marts. Where the entire aeries is wril developed we find the bluo ciarla succeeded by gray marls (of the Middle Lias); these become micaceous, and finally arena- ceous, passing above into the " Middle Lias Sands," which in turn are capped l)y a highly ferruginous and sometimes arenaceous limestone known as the " Marlstone." Suc- ceeding to the Murlstonc we fiml a similar series of strata recurring — namely, the "Upper Lias Limestone," the '• Upper Lias Clay," and tho " Upper Lias Sands," which arc capped by the inferior Oolite limestone of the next formation. To the palaeontologist the Lias is classical ground; in both (jermany and England it has yielded hundreds of perfectly preserved skeletons of saurians {IckthyoBnnri, PfcsioHnnri, Tdrostturi, Scciidunaunni) and of Ptcroducf>/fn; from 70 to 100 species of fish, often most beautifully preserved: and a host of Mollusea(y70 species are recorded from the English Lias atone), amongst which Ammonites, Belemnites, and Brachiopods are especially abundant. Pentacrinitcs abounded in the Liassic waters, Crustnceana and Echinoderms left their remains more spar- ingly, and corals were not so abundantly represented as in some other secondary formations. We may on the whole, however, safely affirm that the fossils of ibe Lias give us tho most compb'tc representation that we have yet found of any extinct fauna. The most characteristic forms of tho Lower Lias arc (jr>/pfiff-tt incnrva, Lima fp't/autca, and .Ammonites of the group Aricten; of the Middle Lias. Am- monites of the group Aiutilffici: and of the Upper Lias, Ammonites of the group Fafci/cri; the vertebrate remains are met with most commonly in the limestones of the Lower Lias and the mnrls immediately over them, and again in tho Upper Lias limestone. The Marlstone of Yorkshire, England, has of late years ])roveil to be one of the most valuable sources of iron ore. This Cleveland Ironstone, as it is termed, is an argillaceous carbonate of iron, yield- ing on an average about :iU per cent, of iron. Ace(»rding to Ansted. it extends over a district of some hundreds of sfjuare miles, in a stratum, generally (tolitic in structure, sixteen Oct in thickness, and from which are annually ob- taine<l I.Olio.uou tons of ore. EitWAkD C. II. Dav. Liba'iiius, b. at Antioch in 314 or 310, and d. there shortly after .'JOl, in the reign of Arcadius; studied at Athens, and mentions Cleobulus. Didymus, and Zenobius as his teachers, but acquired his education principally by private study of tho old (ireek writers, whom he often im- itated with success, jind for whom be alwnys showed great enthusiasm. Ho first set up a privntc sciinol of rhetoric at Constantinople, and his teachings conquered the atten- tion of the students so absolutely that the schools of the oflicial teachers were deserted. These nf»w brought nn ac- cusation of magic against liini, and by (be jiid of the j»re- fect, Limenius. a personal enemy of Libanius, tliey suc- ceeded in getting Iiim expelind from the city, about 34fi. He went to Nioomcclia, where he taught with equal success for five years, but when recalled to Constanlinople he was rather coolly received, nnd, persecuted by the intrigues of his rivals and harassed by domestic trouldes and ill-health, he gave up teaching and livei! in retirement in his nalivo city. He was vain an<i meildlesome in character, and tho moderation «)f his views — his toleratifin, for instance, to- wards Christinnity, though himself a piignn — was due. at least to some extent, to his being a rhetorician and not a philosopher; ho cared more for the form thiui for the sub- stance. But ho was, nevertheless, a man of superior talent and of friendly disposition, nnd stood in intimate con- nection not only with Juliiin the Aposinte. but nl.to with St. Cbrysostom and St. Biisil. A eonsidernldr number of his writings are still extant. His orations, declanmtions, etc. have been published by Reiske (4 vols., Leijisio. 17III- 1*7), and his letters, which nre very interesting nnd of great value for the ntudent of the history of that period, by I. C, Wolf (Amsterdam. 17:'.S). There exist, however, still many letters by him, in manuscript and unpublished, at Madrid, Venice, and other places. Liba'tion [Lat. tibnrc, to "pour"], on offering of wine. milU, oil, or other fluid as a ceremony of divine wor- ship. The Mosaic law requirerl lilmtions (drink offerings) of wine, anti similar practices were eonimon among tho Iiagans of antiquity. Libations were poured upon tho loarlh before meals in honor of the Ronmn Lares, and be- fore sacrificin* wine often was poured upon the victim's head, upon the altar, or upon tho ground. Libations wer« often employed in the conrirmation of public treaties with foreii.'n states. lii'hau, town of Uus^iia. in tho government of Cour- land, on the Baltic. It has a eunsidi>rable shipbuilding intere8t nnd largo trade in timber and corn. Its harbor freeies later than other harbors of tho Baltic, and is earlier free <,f ice. Pup. KODO. I*i'brl fl<at. fihrthiM. 'Mittlo book," "pamphlet"]. Tho term " libel " has in le:;al usag'' two diverse significations. 1756 LIBEL. As employed in one sense it deuotea a particular mode of defaiuatiuu of character, constitutiug an otVeDce puuisbablo at law, while in another application it denote;^ one uf the ploadingfl employed in proceedings in courts of admiralty. I, Libel as denoting defamation of character, and con- sidered as the basis of a civil action, may be defined as a malicious publication in printing, writing, signs, or pic- tures imputing to another something which has a tendency to injure his reputation, to disgrace or to degrade him in society, or to hold him up to hatred, contempt, or ridicule. As distinguished from the oflence of slander, which is de- famatory matter addressed to the ear, libel is defamatory matter addressed to the eye. (See Slandku. ) Libel is moreover ili^^tinguished from slander in this respect — that it constitutes both a criminal offence and a civil injury, and is therefore punishable both by indictment and by a civil action for damages. Slander, on the other hand, is only a civil wrong, a violation of private rights, and is never in- dictable, the only available mode of redress being a private action. iJut while it is generally true that a libellous charge is both indictable and actionable, this is not invariably the case. There are certain forms of libel which constitute criminal offences, but which will not support an action for damages, inasmuch us they are not deemed in law to bo in violation of individual rights. The definition of libel, therefore, which has just been given, and which describes it merely as an offence against the right of reputiition, is not sufficiently comprehensive to include iti^ full extent of meaning and application in its criminal aspect. All ac- tionable libels arc also indictable, but the converse of the proposition is not true that all indictable libels are also actionable. AVhile the general deliniiion, as above given, embraces modes of defamation or injury which are open to both forms of redress, those varieties of libel which are dis- tinctively of a criminal character may more conveniently be cln.S3ificd and described separately. These are of three principal classes — libels which blacken the memory of the dead, libels upon the government, and obscene libels tend- ing to corrupt the public morals. Of these, the first class is of the most importance. Publications reflecting u)'on the memory of one who is dead, vilifying him or tending to detract from his posthumous reputation, arc regarded in law as likely to excite the animosity of his family, and pro- voke them to measures of retaliation or punishment, and thus to occasion violations of public peace and order. Uut only such criticism of the character or conduct (if a deceased person is criminal as is made with malevolent purpose, with a design to degrade his memory. Fair and honest consid- eration of his actions, motives of conduct, and mode of life is allowable. Libels against the government consist of calumnious publicatitms in denunciation or unwarrantable criticism of the established governmental system or in cen- sure of methods of administration, provided the alleviations arc of such a nature that their natural tendency or evident purpose is to promote disaffection among the citizens or to excite a spirit of revolution. But indictments for libels of this kind are very rare, and would probably not be sus- tained at the present day except in very extreme cases, though the rules of the common law in most of the States probably remain unchanged. Obscene or immoral libels arc such indecent or immodest publications as tend to de- stroy the love of purity, morality, and virtue, and corrupt the public morals. This form of libel is generally at the present d.ay made the subject of express statutory provis- ions, whose object is to repress such pernicious ]>ublica- tions, and punish those who issue them with severe pen- alties. It is, moreover, somewhat unusual now to designate such publications as libels, though t\icy are so considered and classified at common law. Uut the most common forms of libel are those which con- stitute both civil and criminal offences, and which affect the reputation of some living person. The theory of law. however, upon which libel is adjudged to be a criminal offence is essentiiilly diverse from that upon which it is de- clared to bo a civil or private injury and open to redress by an action for damages. It is regarded as n tort or pri- vate wrong, because it is a violation of the right of rejuila- tion which inheres in every individual. (See Tout.) Uut a crime is a pulilic and not a private wrong — an offence against the community considered in its social aggregate capacity, instead of a violation of personal rights; and libel is adjudged to be a crime, not because it is an in- fringement upon the right of reputation, but because it tends to public detriment. Thu?, libels nguinst the gov- ernment and obscene libels are indictable because in the one case the tendency is to weaken or destroy the alle- giance of citizens to the state and foment intestine dis- ordeis, and in the other to occasion a pernicious laxity of mor:iIs. Uut libels which blacken ihe memory of the dead an 1 those which injure the reputation of the living are in- dictable on account of their tendency to occasion breaches of the peace, by provoking the person defamed, or his rel- atives and friends if he be deceased, to punish the libeller. In former times it vvas viewed as a natural and probable , consequence that the libeller would be challenged to fight ' a duel or would be assaulted : and upon this legal pre- . sumption the jurisdiction of criminal courts over this of- fence was based and still depends as a matter of principle, though the probability that acts of violence will be resorted to in a particular ease is a wholly immaterial point. A more definite and specific slatement as t<» the point what charges against a person'.s reputation will be consid- ered libellous than is comprised in the general definition already given is hardly practicable. Every form of ma- licious defamatory publication which is calculated to make a jierson appear ridiculous or contemptible is to be deemed a libel, and modes of casting derision and degrading im- putations are of course infinitely various. It has been held, however, that mere terms of general abuse are not libellous, though the discrimination between charges that are libel- lous and those that are merely abusive is necessarily diffi- cult. It has also been decided in some cases that charges of violation of etiquette, of good taste, or the rules of polite society are not actionable. As illustrations of charges which have been adjudged libellous the following may be referred to: Imputations of fraudulent or dishonest con- duet; of committing any crime or of being guilty of any dishonorable practices ; against a professional man of unfit- ness to practi.-'C his profession; of incoutinency or un- chastity ; or assertions that a dealer's wares are adul- terated, or that he knowingly sells bad articles, etc. It is ! not necessary that the charge should be expressed in the form of direct and positive assertion. An ironical mode of conveying an imputation will be suflacient. So a de- famatory charge may be made by indirect allusion, by , covert innuendo, or in the form of an interrogation. It is, I moreover, not requisite that the person defamed should be mentioned by name iu the libel, or should be referred to with such ddinitenci-s of description that all who saw the publication would know to whom it applied. It is enough I if the designation be to such a degree specific that the nat- ural and reasonable understanding of the charge would be. at least among some portion of those to whose know- ! ledge it came, that a particular person was alluded to. Thus it has been held that a person whose name was indicated merely by a:Herisks, but who was otherwise sufficiently de- , scribed, migiit maintain an action for libel. All persons i who take part in the dissemination of the libel by rcjiuhli- cation arc responsiljle to the same extent as the original libeller. It is no defence to one who circulates a charge of this kind that ho was not himself the author of the impu- < tation. Hence, publishers of newspapers are responsible for whatever statements of a libellous character appear in their columns, though these may he merely copied from some other paper or ]>ublication as matters of interest. This is true even though the name of the author be given ' in connection with the publication, t^o it is no excuse that ■ a libellous publicatitm is based ujiou a widely circulated rumor, even though this be generally credited and have a reasonable semblance of truth. As regards the nature of the defamatory charges which ! will sustain an action by the party defamed, there is an important distinction between libel and slander. While every form of imputation calculated to bring a nian into contempt will be adjutlged libellous if written or printed, there are only certain kinds of defamatory charges which if circulated orally will be a<ljudged slanderous. These will be considered in the article on slander. (See Slander.) The reason for this distinction between the two species of defamation is that the wider circulation which charges are likely to receive, and their more permanent cbaracttr, if written or printed, than if merely spoken, are calculated to render them more productive of injury to a person's repu- tation, and to make refutation j)articular]y diflicult. It fullows as a natural result of this distinction that the au- thor of a defamatory charge may bo wholly relieved from legal accountability because he only circulated it by word of mouth, while another to whom he communicated it, and who published it and thus extended its circulation, will be liable to an action or prosecution for libel. i It is an essential element iu libel that the defamatory charge ho made with niaiice. But the word "malice" is used in this connection not in its popular but legal mean- ing. A legal distinction is made between malice in law and malice in fact. Malice in fact denotes actual malev- olence, positive ill-will, spite, or animosity against some person to whom an injury is done; and this phrase has therefore much the same signification as the simple word I "malice'' in common acceptation. Malice in law, on the I other hand, signifies that intent or disposition of mind j from which proceed wrongful act? done intentianally. with- I out just cause or excuse. This use of these phrases is not LIBEL. 1757 confined to the law of libel, but appertains to various oriiuiiKil unJ tortious acts. Tho lualico which is a nccee- eary in;;rcclient iu lilnl is not. cxcipt in special cases, tnalice in f;icf, but inaliee in law, a(i«i ils existence is in- ferred from the defamatory nature of tiie imputation and tho absence of Icijal justification. If, for example, one man traduces another in a i>ubli?hed statement, and tliere arc no attemlant circumstances connectecl with the making of the charj^e to render it lej;al and justitialtlc, or. as it is techni- cally termed, a '* privileged communication," it will be ina- lioiou.4, and therefore libellous, whether the traducer knew the other or not, or whether he intended to ilo him an in- jury or not. .\s every man is presumed to intend the nat- ural consequences of his acts, an intent is imputed to him in such a case which would reasonably be expected to ac- company and occasion libellous accusations. Malice in such cases is a conclusion of law wliich the plaintiff is not requireil to prove, nor ttic tlefcndant permitted to deny. Malice in fact need not be proved to exist in order to sus- tain an action for libel, but evidence to this effect may bo given for the purpose of enhancing the damages. The pre- sumption of malice will be made in all eases of trial for libel, except in regard to conimunications ma'le under cir- cumstances of privilege. As respects these the existence of actual malice must be established. The same principles prevail in regard to actions for slander. In criminal prose- cutions forlibel also the same general distinctions are main- tained in relation to tho subject of malice as in civil pro- ceedings. It is furthermore necessary that the defamatory charge be piililiihf'l. But the meaning attached to the term •' pub- lication " is somewhat diverse in the criminal and tho civil law. This distinction ilepends upon the difference of theory which has been already referred to. As a civil action is j maintainable because the plaintiff's reputation has been in- j jurecl, the libel is said, in reference to this mode of redress, to be published only when it is communicated to some other person than the plainliff himself. It will be suUicicnt if it be communicaled to the |ilaintilT's wife, since for this purpose husband and wife are not regarded as (me. But in criminal law it is held to be a suflicient publication if tho obnrgo bo communicated simply to the party defamed, since in such a case it has a tcmlency to cause a breach of the peace in tho same way as if brought to the notice of i third persons. It has been held in a civil case stitficieiit publication to read defamatory charges contained in a let- ter or any written or printed document to a third person, even though he did not himself sec the article. The principal defences to an action or a prosecution forlibel [ arc (1) that the charge is a '* privileged communication." ancl (2) justification. .^ communication or publication is said to bo " privileged" when, though containing stalemnntg ! that wonbl or.linarily be decme.l libellous, it is yet held in law to bo justifiable because made in the discharge of some public or private duty, legal, moral, or social, or in the pro- tection of imi>ortant interests, or in the furtherance of pulilic welfare, etc. The peculiar circumstances under which the imputation is made are regarded as rebutting the presump- tion of malice which tho law usually makes in cases of defamation of character, and afford in some cases a full, and in others a qualified, ilcfence to the action or jiroseeu- tion. When they afford a full defence, the publication is said to be absolutely privileged; when they furnish only a qualified defence, flic communication is conditionally privilegeil. In cases cit the lalli'r kind the action i r pri>so- cution will be sustainable if actual malice or malice iu fact be provcrl to have aduatcd the defendant's conduct in making the charge. The existence of actual malice, being a question of fact, is to be dctermine.l by the jury upon tho testimony adduced before Ihcm, and not by the court. If a publiclition is known to be false by the party tnaking it, an IsulBeient evidence to this effect is given, actual malice is plainly and un(|Uestionably inlciable, and he loses the benefit of tho privilege claimed. But if a publication be absolutely privileged, it cannot under any circumslances become liie subject of legal proceerlings for redress or pun- ishment, whether civil or criminal. Proof of actual malice will not in such acase deprive the difamer of the privilege. There arc two clauses of communications which arc abso- lutely privileged: (I) Proceedings in legislative assem- blies' in tho regular transaction of public business, as the reports of members upon any subject, written speeches, etc.; (2) proceedings in judicial tribunals which are per- tinent to any cause of which the court has jurisdiclion. This rule is cslablisheil in order that li'gislaiors, judges, counsel, jurors, witnesses, etc. may be fearless in the pcr- f.Minance of their official (luti< s, and active and diligent in I'erreting out corruptictn, inci'inpetence. and violation of law, unileferred by apprehensions of being harassed by legal proceedings. This privilege is usually secured lo legislators by conslitulional provisions. (See U. P. Conslitution. AH. I. J fi, and State constitutions.) Other classes of privileged eoiumunications are conditional or qualified, tho privilege being complete only when the charge is made buna JiiU, ia full belief of its truth. \ few instances of publications of this kind may be mentioned for tho sake of illuslralion : Petitions to the legislature or proper [lublic officer fur the purpose of securing reforms in which the petitioners arc pariicularly interested as citizens; communications by public officers acting in the discharge of o public duty ; charges made by the officers or members of a religious organization or public or private association against a fellow-member in the course of the regular disiripline of the body to which they belong ; private confidential com- munications between relatives or friends to prevent an- ticipated injury to their special interests ; communications between persons engaged in a common business enterprise in strict reference to their iiusiness affairs; statements con- cerniaig the character of servants n)adc to those who intend to employ them ; fair and honest reports of trials without defamatory comments; the publication of speeches and proceedings in legislative bodies. The privilege in these last two cases is sometimes niiuic the subject of express statutory or constitutional provisions. So reviews of books or literary productions of any kind are privileged if the critic do not step aside from a consideration of the work to defame the author's private character. The same rule ap- plies to criticisms upon works of art or of one journalist upon another. Tho same principles in regard to matters of privilege prevail in the law of slander us in the law of libel. A "justification" is a plea in defence that the defama- tory allegations ore true, and therefore justifiable. lint here, also, there is a dift'crencc between the rules of crim- inal and those of civil procedure in regard to this offence. It has always been a rule of law that in a civil action for libel a plea that the charge is true is a valid and effectual defence, since a man is entitled to no better reputation than his actual character would warrant. .\s the theory upon which tho civil action is based allows the recovery of dam- ages for the injury which the reputation of the i)arty de- famed has sustained, he is entitled to recover nothing if tho injury is really aflributablu to his own misconduct. But in crimiual proceilure a different rule was ndo|)ted, ami it even became a maxim at common law that " the greater the truth the greater the libel." This was on account of the principle that the criminality of a libel depended upon its tendency to cause a breach of the peace. The view was taken that a person defamed would be likely lo be more incensed, and more inclined to retaliafiun, if the charge were true than if it were false, by reason of the great dif- ficulty or impossibility of successfully refuting it. This rule has been modified in modern times by statute or con- stitutional provision, and it is usually the rule that the truth of the allegeil libellous matter shall be a defence in a criminal prosecution if the ]iublication be made with good motives and for justifiublc ends. It is evident, however, that even with this change there is an important dificrenco between civil and criminal proceedings upon this point, ir " good motives and justifiable ends " bo not jiroved in a trial ujioii indietmenf. the truth is not, as in a civil action, an effectual defence. It was a rule of common law that a justification must be as broad as the charge, and if the truth of the allegation were not substantially proved tho plea was equivalent to a re]Htilion of the libel, and in a civil action would aggravate the damages. Libel considered as a crime was af common law a misde- meanor only, and not a felony (see C'liiMK, Felony), and tho statutes which have been generally enacted in this country defining the ofience and declaring its punishment have usu- ally left this rule unchanged. As respects civil ai-lii>ns for libel, the question as to the measure of damages which may be awarded becomes of much importance. (See Mkasirk of Damaoi-.s.) It nuiy be shown by way of mitigation of dam- ages that the pbiintin' was a man of blemislied or mini d character befori- the publication of the libel, so that he li:t-- sustained comparatively little injury; or that a fidl iiud unqualified refraction was subseqiu'iitly made; or that the defendant was insane or intoxicated when the charge was made I or Ihni he was provoked by previous libels of the plaintiff upon liiiuself, etc. If was a rule of common law that fuels tending to establish the truth of the charge were not to be used in mitigation of damages, but only by way I of "justification. " This rule has, however, been changed in a number of the States by statutes providing, in sub- stance, that fads anil circumslances which tend lo prove tho truth of the charge, but fail to airmunt lo complete justification, may bo given in cvidenoc lo reduce tho uain- nges. A defendant in these States is permitted to sot up a plea of juslificalion. together with a plea of mitigating circumslances, although the one plea alfinns thetriilll of the charge and the other impliedly admits its falsity. This 1758 LIBELT— LIEERIUS. rule, however, though not sti-ictly logical, has been thought to ho hotter adaptcU thau tho cuminou-law doctriue to \vork fiuhstautial justice hetweeii thu parties. Thoro is an importaut distmciion between civil and crim- inal proceedings for libel as to the province o!" the jury in the construotion of tho alleged libellous charges. In a civil a<iti<>n, when tho words of an alleged libel are unaui- biguon^, the question whether the publication is actually a libel is to be determined by the court, and not by tiie jury. But if the words are of doubtful meaning, the question becomes one of fact for the decision of the jury. In re- spect to criminal prosecutions, there was at common law much uncertainty as to the proper function of the jury in this respect. It was held in England by a nnnilK-r of de- cisions of tho court of king's bench that tho court alone had power to determine whether the subject of the publica- tion was or was not a libel, as in civil cases. But this rule was muoh controverted, and to reduce the matter to ccr- tiiinty a statute was passed giving power to tlie jury to render a general verdict of guilty or not guilty upon tho wliulo matter in issue, and thus to determine questions both of law and of fact. Similar statutes or constitutional pro- visions have been adopted in a number of the States of this country. The construction of t!ie alleged libel is thus mailc to devolve upon the jury, instead of upon the court. This is an anomalous provision in criminal law, and pecu- liar to prosecutions for this offence. It is a general rule in tho interpretation and construction of Ubnls that the language is tn be understood in its natural and ordinary i^cnso. If obscure and ambiguous languago is urvod, or that which is figurative or ironical, its sense is to be gath- ereil from the context and the facts and circumstances uu ler which it was used. (See for general rules Inter- PRKT.VTirtv AND CoNSTnucTiON. Cousult ou this general subject the works of Bishop, Wharton, Russel], and Chitfy on On'nintnl Law; Townscnd on Lilicl and iSfanil'^r! Ad- dison on Torts; Hilliard on Torts; Starkio on Slander; IlearJ on Ltfiel and Slander.) II. IjIBKL in admiralty practice denotes tho first plead- ing of the comj>]ainant in a suit, and contaius a statement of his cause of action. In England the word is also ap- plicfl to a similar jdoadiug in the ecclesiastical courts. A libel in admiralty is not required to bo drawn in any spe- cific form. It should, however, be addressed to the proper judge, should state the names of the parties acouratelj, and should contain a clear and comprehensive statonieut (usually in propositions or ''articles") of the facts upon which the libellant bases his suit. The libel should also incluiio a prayer for relief. A libel answers to the decla- ration or complaint in a civil action. The plaintiff in an admiralty suit is termed the libellant. and the defendant the respondent. fSee works on Admiralty/ Practice.) George Ch.vse. Revised by T. W. Dwight. Li'belt fKAROL), b. at Posen Apr. 8, 1S07; studied philosophy and mathematics at Berlin, where he gained a prize fi>r his essay De Panthei8>iio,a.vn\ acquired the degree of Ph. I), in 1S2'J ; served in ISoO as an officer in the ar- tillery, and distinguished himself in the battle of Ostro- lenka and at the defence of Warsaw; retired after tho failure of the revolution to his estates in Posen; founded in ISlO the successful periodicals T^/godnik literacki and Jioh; to which the best I*olish writers contributed ; was ar- rcstel in ISKJ for participation in the conspiracy of Mic- ro?lawski. bul liberated on the outbreak of tho revolution at Berlin in ISIS ; took part afterwards in politics as mem- ber of tho Slavic congress at Prague in 1S40, and as leader of the Polish fraction in the second Prussian chamber in ISj'J; commenced the publication of his philosophi- cal writings, the most prominent of which are Filnznfin i Krytjfka ("Philosophy and Criticism"), (5 vols., Posen. isLCsO), and E>ftHt/}:a (*' ^Esthetics "), (3 vols., Posen, ISJI); he also wrote a number of mathematical, economi- cal, and agricultural essays and pamphlets. His philo- sophicjil works have been translated into German, and have attracted considerable attention as an individual develop- ment of (he ideas of the German philosophy. lii'bcr, post-v. of Jay co., Ind. Libc'ria, a republic on the wcptrrn const of Africa, founleJ in ISi'O by the American Colonization Societv (which sec), and established as an independent state in 1817, is situated between 4° 2U' and 7° 20' N. lat., anrl stretches along the Atlantic from the Sherboro River on the N. \y. to the Pedro River on the S. E., a distance of about COO miles, extending inland from the coast from 10 to 40 miles. Its area, which is steadily increased by purchases from the native tribes, was estimated in 187.*i at 9700 square miles. The shore is elevated and rocky in the S. E., bnf otherwise low, generally sandy or gravelly. seUlom marshy. In the interior the country rises, swelling into fores^t-covered hilts and lofty mountain-ranges traversed by fine valleys. Many streams flow to tho ocean, but none of them is navigable for more than 20 miles from tho mouth ; the most important are tho St. Paul, navigable for IS miles, and having 7 feet of water at low tide on the bar at its mouth ; the St. John, the .Junk, and the Cape Mount River. The climate is thoroughly tropical. Of the two seasons, the dry lasts from October to June, and the wet Irom Juno to October. In the dry season the average heat is S4° F., tho thermometer seldom rising above 90° in the shade; in the wet season the average Ihjit is 70*^, the thermometer never falling below 00°. To the white man the climate is deadly — not from its excessive heat, but probably from miasmata; and even the negro, when born and reared in another climate, suffers (tn his arrival here fntm the so- called African fever. Tho natives, on the contrary, are robust, healthy, and long-lived. The soil is generally very fertile. The princip.al farming districts lie along (he banks of the St. Paul. Here the sugar-cane grows luxuriantly ; the produce of K'--71 was estimated at ^00,000 pounds. Cotton is indigenous, and yields two crops annually. Cufftc of excellent quality is cultivated with success in the in- terior. The cereals, maize, rice, wheat, barley, and oatsj the vegetables, cabbages, peas, beans, tomatoes, cucumbers, etc. ; and the fruits, lemons, oranges, guavas, tamarinds, pomegranates, pineapples. African jiea^hcs, etc., are easily raised. The forests contain teak, mahogany, rosewood, hick- ory, poplar, several kinds of gum trees, dyewoods, medicinal shrubs, and different varieties of useful palms, among which is the nut-bearing palm, from which jialm oil is made. Wild animals, the ele])bant, hippopotnmu.«, crocodile, leop- ard, etc., are now nearly exterminated. Of minerals, iron abounds, and copper is said to occur in the interior. The inhabitants of the republic numbered, according to tho latest estimates, about 720,000, of whom about 19,000 were Americo-Liberians, and tho rest natives. The natives be- long to different tribes : tlic A'eys. mostly Mohammedans, among whom the Protestant Episci)pal Cliurcb of the U. S. has established a mission school at Totocoreh ; the Pessehs, entirely pagans ; the Bassas, among whom the American Baptist missionaries established a mission in 18H5 ; the Kroos, mostly idolaters; tho Maudingos, the most gifted of the tribes under the jurisdiction of the republic; and others. The Americo-Liberians have a regular system of schools, and are progressing in all branches of civilization. Industrial processes and manufactures have been started among them, and a lively trade has sprung up between the republic and the U. S., Gr<rat Britain, Belgium, and Ham- burg. Palm oil, sugar, cotton, coffee, ivory, camwood, arrowroot, etc. arc exported ; cotton goods, cutlery, powdc r, and tobacco are imported. The country is divided into four counties — Mesurado, Grand Bassa. Siuon, and Mary- land. The capital, Miuirovia. is situated on Cape Mesu- rado, and has about l.'I.OOO inhabitants. Other settlements are New Georgia, CaMwell, \'irginia. Edina. Greenville, Lexington, Buchanan, Millsburg, etc. The annual revenue is about $1(10, UOO, almost exclusively derived from custom- house duties. A public debt of ^JUO.OOO was contracted in 1.S71. Tho constitution of the republic is modelled after that of the V. 8. All men are born free and equal. Elec- tions take place by ballot, and every male citizen who pos- sesses real estate has the right of suffrage. But no white man can be admitted to citizenship, and none but citizens can hold real estate in the republic (a temporary provision). The president is elected for two years; the senators for four; the representatives for two. Each county sends two senators to the legislative assembly, and one representative for every 10.000 inhabitants. The first president was Jose]th Jenkins Roberts, who served four terms, from ISIS to 1856, and was once more elected in 1S7I. The official language is tho English. (See Stockwell, The lUpnhlic of Liberia^ its Geography, Climate, S"if, and J*rodnrtiou8, with a History of its turli/ Stttlenunf, New York, 1S68.) Ijibe'rinSf Saint, a bishop of Rome, reckoned in the series of popes after Julius I., whom be succeeded May 22, :{50. The Semi-Arians, countenanced by the emperor Constantius, were then in tlio ascendant, and in the coun- cils of Aries {:)i>'.l) and Milan {'.'.i*'*) they condemned the doctrincof .Mhanasius. Liberius, togeilicr with some other Western bishops, having refused to sign this condemnation, he was arrested by the emperor's order and taken to Milan, where Constantius endeavored to secure his obedience by personal solicitations. Finding him resolute in maintain- ing his previous attitude. Constantius declared Liberius deposed from the bisliopric of Rome, banished him to Berea in Macedonia, and had Felix, a deacon, consecrated in bis place. In ."i.iS, Liberius was restored to his post in consequence of a petition from the principal ladies of Rome. The Council of Ariminum (Rimini ). ctrnvened in 3.'i9 for the settlement of <loctrinal difficulties, at tirst followed tho suggestions of Liberius by confirming the Nicene Creed and condemning Arius, but gave way to the influence of LIBERTY. 1759 ConsLintiup. and finally accepted an Arian confession of faith prMpused by him. liiheritis ha^ been falsely accused of hav 'iu% signed this confession, a^ well aa of buving pur- cha3?d hid recall from Bcrea by ^ubuii.«.''iun to the nnperor's will as regarded Arinnism. Ho built tbo basilica now called iSiinta Maria Ma3;giore. D. in .'lOrt, and was suc- ceeded by Damasus I. His festival occurs in the Catholic calendar Au^. 27. and in the Greek Sept. 2.1. Lib'erty [Lat. lifn-rtaa, " freedom "J, in the abstract, de- notes tlio power of acting as you will ( pnnteritan ritcmii ut vtlii — Ctccru); but for a finite being this tlefinition has to be modified into the power of acting as ymi will within the ?i>here of existence pertaining to the individual. It is assumed also that the will itself is free, in view of motive?, to choo-e what appears to be (he greater guod before the leas, or the less bclore the greater. ' For an infinite being the highest freedom coincides with the highest moral ne- cessity; that is to say, there is one cuur5o. nnd one only, which his perfection of nature requires him to choose, and makes it certain that he will choose. And for a finite being, moral exocllenco, united with the greatest perfection of in- tellect pertaining to human nature, wilt make the best course of action curtain within his sphere of existence. Liberty in the sphere of the citizen cannot be understood without a correct idea of rights. Here we raust refer to the articles Ji stick and Rights, and will only add that per- sonal and civic liberty may pertain to a man, while in par- ticular cases he rcnonnccs the exercise of it; in which case a man waives his right — that is, freely renounces what he was free to own, do, or enjoy. Liberty in this sphere con- sists in the powi^r of freely exercising those rights which may bo deduced from a true idea of the nature and destiny of man. The entire, or nearly entire, absence of such rights makes a man a slave. To be authorized to exercise sjmc of them is imperfect liberty ; to enjoy all of them is perfect liberty. Sometimes the liberty exists in a degree, although tbo individual would bo injured if he were free to act as he chose. .Such is the case with children, who have rights even against their parents, yet cannot, umlcr wise law, exercise the rights of contract and of testament, bc- ciusQ they would be in danger, if they did, of injuring them- selves. Political liberty implies a share in political power, and those restraints on a government and on individuals which are necess.iry for the protection of one and of all in the civil and political spheres. 8uch liberty consists in the right of voting, the right of holding ofi'ice. in a great va- riety of institutions and of guaranties, and in certain free modes of action in concert wiih others, such as the rights of association, of discussing, petitioning, and remonstrating a:;iinsL [lublic measures, of freedom of the press, and others. What may be called personal liberty and equality of iudi- vi lual rights may exist without equality of political rights. Thus, a man who cannot read, or who docs not bold a cer- tain amount of property or p:iy a certain house-rent, may have uo right of sutfragc or eligibility to office. So a wo- man, a male minor, a foreigner, may have no Buffriige : a man over seventy may be incapable of holding a judicial office, or a man under thirty-five be ineligible to that of Prcsi lent of the U. S. All these last-nieulioued disquali- fications exist under our form of government. Have such persons, then, no complete political liberty ? In the most exact uso of terms we must <lcny that their status is e({ual to that of some others, although the distjualifications atloct all, in each of the classes afi'ccted, alike. We do m:iko a dif- ferer.cc between ci'rr« ojitt'mo jitrp, and c/m'« tuni optiuntjitre (citizens enjoying the best right, and citizens enjoying a right that is nt»t the best). Hut under free institutions these disqualifications are so few that the persons affected by them arc in no danger of having their personal liberties invaded, especially iis they are connected by close relations with others who have a somewhat greater share of political power. If, however, a larger part of a community was shut out of suffrage and the p<»wer to hold office, in order to keep power in the hands of another distinct part, the guaranties of personal rights would not be felt to be great enough, and the prohibited good would be much coveted, while yet not one of a thousanrl, perhaps, of such persons would under unlimited suffrage ever hold offiee. T. D. Wlmh.sev. Liberty, county of Floridn. bounded E. by the Ocklock- onoL-e and U'. by the navigable Appalachieola Kiver. Area, 6o0 square miles. It is sparsely settled, and is mo.nlly em- ployed as a cattle-range, but contains much good land. Cap. Itristol. Pop. I(t50. liiberty, county of E. (teorgia. Area, 770 square miles. Its E. extremity reaches St. ('atharine's SouncI ; its S. W. border is washed by the navij^ablc Altanmha Uiver. The surface is level, well timbered, and in jmrt marshy. Rice, eotlon, and corn are staple products. It is traversed by thcAtlanticandiiuif H. K. Cap. Walthourville. l*()p.7r.SS. Liberty) county of S. E. Texas. Area. IGOtt square miles. It is partly prairie and partly fine timber-land. The county is travLTsed by the Trinity River and the Texas and Now Orleans U. R. Petroleum has been found and min- eral springs are abundant. Livestock and cotton arc the chief products. Cap. Liberty. Pop. 44U. Liberty, tp, of Carroll co.. Ark, Pop. 253. Liberty, tp. of Independence co., Ark. Pop. 455, Liberty, post-tp. of Ouachita co.. Ark. Pop. 908, Liberty, tp. of Pope co.. Ark. Pop. 741. Liberty, tp. of St. Francis co.. Ark. Pop. 27.3. liiberty, tp. of Van Uuren co.. Ark. Pop. 2^5. Liberty, tp. of White co.. Ark, Pop. 368. Liberty, tp. of Klamath co., Cal. Pop. 348. Liberty, post-tp. of San .Joaquin co., Cal. Pop. 1231. Liberty, post-tp. of Adnms co.. III. Pop. 1623. Liberty, tp. of Effingham co,. 111. Pop. 60-1. Liberty, tp. of Crawford co., Ind. Pop. 7o7, Liberty, tp. of Delaware co., Ind. Pop. 1G39, Liberty, tp. of Fulton co., Ind. Pop. 1429. Liberty, tp. of (Irani co., Ind. Pop. 1989. Liberty, tp. of Hendricks co., Ind. Pop. 2478. Liberty, tp. of Henry co.. Ind. Pop. 1884. Liberty, tp. of Howard co., Ind. Pop. 1C97. Liberty, tp. of Parke co., Ind. Pop. 1540. Liberty, tp. of Porter co., Ind. Pop. 798. Liberty, tp. of Shelby co., Ind. Pop. 1465. Liberty, tp. of St. Joseph co., Ind. Pop. i:;94. Liberty, tp. of Tipton co., Ind. Pop. 1740. Liberty, post-v. of Centre tp., cap. of I'nion co., Ind., on the Cincinnati Hnmilton and Indian.TpoIis R. R.. near the E, fork of the Whitewater River. .^0 miles N. W. of Cincinnati. O.. and 70 miles S. E. of Indianapolis. It has 2 national banks, 2 large Houring mills, an a'.rncultiiral im- plement manufactory, planing-inills and shops, 2 hotels. good schools, 4 churches, 1 weekly newspaper, a nunibcr of stores, etc. Principal business, farming and stock- raising. Pop. 700. C. W. Stivers, En. *■ Herald." Liberty, tp. of Union co., Ind. Pop. 763. Liberty, tp. of Wabash co., Ind. Pop. 1816, Liberty, tp. of Warren co., Ind. Pop. 1176. Liberty, tp. of AVells co.. Ind, Pop. 1097. Liberty, tp. of White co., Ind. Pop. 888. Liberty, tp. of Ruehanan eo., la. Pop. 1272. Liberty, post-tp. of Clarke co., la. Pop. 778. Liberty, tp. of Clinton co., la. Pop. O.'JI. Liberty, tp. of Dubuque co., la. Pop. 1102. Liberty, tp. of Jefferson co., la. Pop. 1082. Liberty, tp. of Johnson co., la. Pop. 640. Liberty, tp. of Keokuk co., la. Pop. \\3h. Liberty, tp. of Lucas co.. la. Pop. 600. Liberty, tp. of .Marion co., la. Pop. 1532. Liberty, tp. of Marshall co., la. Pop. 709. Liberty, t[>. of .Mitchell co., la. Pop. 173. Liberty, ip. of O'Rrien co.. la. Pup. 715. I>ibrrty, tp. of Ringgold co., la. Pop. 243. Liberty, tp. of Scoitco., la. Pop. 1193. Liberty, tp. of Warren co., la. Pop. 891. Liberty, tp. of Wright co.. In. Pop. 269. Ijibrrty, tp. of Howard co., Kan. Pop. ."94. Liberty, tp. of Labette co., Kan. Pop. 720. Liberty, tp. of Linn co., Kan. Pop. 480. Liberty, tp. of Woodson co., Kan. Pop. 363. I^iberty, post-v., cap. of Casey co., Ky., on the Louis- ville and Cincinnati R. R. Lil»erty, post-tp. of Waldo co., Me.. 16 miles W. of Bclfiu-'t. has manufactures of leather, axes, pegs, handles, bootj*, shoes, wooden ware, furniture, and woollen and other goods. Pop, 907. Liberty, post-v. and tp. of Frederick co., Md.. 1 1 miles N. E. i»f Frederick, hns 4 churches. :'. sehonis, I iirinting- ofiiec. 2 hotels. a lodge of Red Men mid 1 of (lood Templars, and stores, 8hnp>i, etc. The principal business of tbo sur- rounding neighborhood is farming. Pop. 3281. J. S. L. RoDuiCK, El). "Tiir. Ranvku of LifiiiT." I^iberty, poattp. of Jackson co., Mich. Pop. 1070. 1760 LIBERTY— LIBERTY, RELIGIOUS. Liberty, posl-v., cap. of Amite co.. Jliss., has 5 churches, 2 newspapers, .'i hotels. L' drug nud several other stores. Principal business, cotlnn-plaulinj;. Pop. jlio. Miss P. W. FuHSVTHE, En. "Advocate." Ijiberty, tp. of Adair co., Mo. Pop. 834. Liberty, Ip. of Bollinger co., .Mo. Pop. 1680. Liberty, tp. of Callaway co.. Mo. Pop. 1646. Liberty, tp. of Cape Girardeau co., Mo. Pop. 870. Liberty, post-v. and tp., cap. of Clay co.. Mo., on the Hannilial and St. Joseph R. R, ( Kans,as"hranch), Ifi milps S. of Jlolt, has 2 weeklv newspapers and considerable trade. Pop. of v. 1700 ; of tp. 4Hal. Liberty, tp. of Cole co., Mo. Pop. 901. Liberty, tp. of Crawford co., Mo. P.ip. 1071. Liberty, tp. of Daviess co., Mo. Pop. 781. Liberty, tp. of Grundy co.. Mo. Pop. 103C. Liberty, tp. of Iron co., Mo. Pop. 479. Liberty, tp. of Macon co.. Mo. I'op. 1210. liiberty, tp. of Madison co.. Mo. Pop. 480. Liberty, tp. of Marion co., Mo., contains Palmyra (whi(:h see). Pop. .'iS71. Liberty, tp. of Phelps co., Mo. Pop. 470. Liberty, tp. of Pulaski co.. Mo. Pop. 893. Liberty, tp. of Putnam co., Mo. Pop. 1174. Liberty, tp. of Schuyler co.. Mo. Pop. 1529. Liberty, tp. of St. Fran}ois co.. Mo. Pop. 1405. Liberty, tp. of Stoddard co., Mo. Pop. 1.107. Liberty, tp. of Sullivan co., Mo. Pop. 772. Liberty, tp. of Washington co., Mo. Pop. 879. Liberty, tp. of Cass co.. Neb. Pop. 400. Liberty, tp. of Gage co., Neb. Pop. 770. Liberty, tp. of Richardson co.. Neb. Pop. 506. Liberty, post-v. and tp. of Sullivan co., N. Y.. on the New York and Oswego Midland R. R. The township has an uneven surface, with two ponds, the chief industry be- I ing dairying and stock-raising. The village has 4 churches, 2 weekly newspapers, and a normal institute. There are 5 other post-offices within the township— Liberty Falls, Parksville, Red Rrick. Robertsonville, and StevcnsviUe. Pop. of v. about 500 ; of tp. 33S9. Liberty, tp. of Lincoln co., N. C. Pop. 1170. Liberty, tp. of Nash co., N. C. Pop. 2SC0. Liberty, tp. of Randolph co., N. C. Pop. 1009. Liberty, tp. of Yadkin co., N. C. Pop. 1588. Liberty, tp. of Adams co., 0. Pop. 1377. Liberty, tp. of IJutler co., 0. Pop. 1443. Liberty, tp. of Clinton co., 0. Pop. 1184. Liberty, tp. of Crawford co., 0. Pop. 1597. Liberty, tp. of Delaware eo., 0. Pop. 1395. Liberty, tp. of Fairfield co., 0. Poji. 3000. Liberty, a V. (Kimbolton P. 0.)and tp. oftiuernsey co., 0.. miles N. of Cambridge. Pop. of v. 169 ; of tp. 1163. Liberty, tp. of Hancock co., O. Pop. 1011. Liberty, tp. of Hardin co., 0. Pop. 2308. Liberty, tp. of Henry co., 0. Pop. 1760. Liberty, tp. of Highland co., 0., contains the village of Hillsborough. Pop. 51S9. Liberty, tp. of Jackson co., 0. Pop. 1747. Liberty, tp. of Kno.\ co., 0. Pop. 959. Liberty, tp. of Licking co., 0. Pop. 837. Liberty, tp. of Logan eo., 0. Pop. 1624. Liberty, tp. of Mcreer co., 0. Pop. 779. Liberty, tp. of Putnam co., 0. Pop. 1120. Liberty, tp. of Ross eo., 0. Pop. 1460. Liberty, tp. of Seneca co., 0. Pop. 1668. Liberty, ip. of Trumbull co., 0. Pop. 2420. Liberty, ip. of Union co., 0. Pop. 1414. Liberty, tp. of Van Wert co., 0. Pop. 1174. Liberty, Ip. of Washington co., 0. Pop. 1632. Liberty, tp. of Wor>d co., 0. Pop. 905. Liberty, (p. of Adams co.. Pa. Pop. 860. Liberty, tp. of Bedford co., Pa. Pop. 806. Liberty, tp. of Centre co.. Pa. Pop. 1062. Liberty, tp. of McKean co., Pa. Pop. 1093. Liberty, tp. of Mercer co., Pa. Pop. 034. Liberty, tp. of Montour co., Pa. Pop. 1229. Liberty, tp. of Susquehanna co., Pa. Pop. 1030. Liberty, post-tp. of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 1379. Liberty, tp. of Orangeburg co.. S. C. Pop. 408. Liberty, post-v., caj). of Liberty co., Tex. Pop. 458. Liberty, ]iost-v. and tp.. cap. of Bedford co., Va., on the Atlantic .Mississippi and Ohio R. R., 25 miles W. of Lynchburg, has 7 tobacco-factories, with 2 large additional ones in course of construction, 2 tobacco-warehouses, 2 banks, a school, 2 weekly newspapers, and 7 churches. The Peaks of Otter, 10 miles distant, rival the White Mountains in grandeur and sublimity. Pop. of v. 1208; of tp. 5840. Jamks R. Grv, Ed. " Bedford Sextixel asd News." Liberty, tp. of Marshall co.. West Va. Pop. 2062. Liberty, tp. of Ohio co., West Va. Pop. 1362. Liberty, tp. of Grant co., Wis. Pop. 907. Liberty, tp. of Manitowoc co.. Wis. Pop. 1430. Liberty, tp. of Outagamie eo.. Wis. Pop. 461. Liberty, post-v. and tp. of Vernon co.. Wis., 9 miles S. E. of Viroqua. and on Kickapoo River. Pop. 414. Liberty Grove, tp. of Door oo.. Wis., on Green Bay and Lake Michigan. Pop. 333. Liberty Hill, posl-v. of Williamson co., Tci. Pop. 47. Liberty, Religious. The distinction is quite clear and broad between what is civil and wh.at is religious. Civil government is not to support or binder any form of religion. Privileges are not to be granted nor arc injuries to be inflicted because of religious belief. A state is mani- festly unable to e.\ercise minute supervision over religious opinions. The state cannot go behind the overt act. Re- ligion looks to tlic posture of the mind and the heart. Men are bound to submit their judgment on points of faith to no visible body. Religious liberty is absolute freedom of religious opinion and worship, the equality of all churches, religious associ.-itions, or persons in the way of protection or restraint by the legally expressed will of the nation. Toleration is the assumption ot' the right by civil process to control religious affairs. Toleration cj- ri' ler- iniiii implies that the slate prefers one or more forms of belief, but graciously allows others. To permit implies the right to prevent. The New Testament contains no precept favoring a na- tional or state religion, or interference by government with the right of worship. It recognizes a clear distinction be- tween "the things which are God's" and "the things which are C;csar"s." Disciples of Christ were such not by com- pulsion, but by free choice. The kingdom set up was not of this world, acknowledged no temporal head, asked no help from, nor alliance with, civil power. T'ntil the third century I'hristianily had the hostility of governments. A state religion, under pagan governments, subjected the early Christians to severe persecutions. Unfortunately, Constanline in 313 established Christianity by law, and since that lime Christians, when they have obtained pow- er, have allied their religion with civil authorities. When papacy was established and became strong, thegovcrnments of Europe were not so much in alliance with, as in sulijec- tion to, the ecclesiastical power. According to the Roman Catholic theory, states have rights only bv permission of superior authority expressed through the Church. When, as the result of the Reformation, several slates in Europe renounced the authority of the pope. Protestant kings and governments, as a substitute lor papal dominion, a.-sumed to themselves authority over religion. In some instances, when the pope's authority ceased in the realm, much of the authority exercised by him was claimed by sovereigns, who became the licads of the Church in their respective domin- ions. Civil governments in Europe universally claimed and exorcised the right of legislating upon ecclesiastical and s|)iritual matters. The power of legislation or control extended to the very being and constitution of the state Church — to its creed, ministry, offices, and ordinances. The Church became comjdelely at the disposal of the civil power in temporalities and in spiritual comlition. .As the result of this claim on the jiart of the separate governnionis, a national Church was established in each. The Church thus established or denomination taken into alliance became the recipient of state favors, was supjiorl- cd by stale property, endowed with manifold and exclusive privileges, ami became a part of the government. These national establishments rested at first on the prineijde of making citizenship and church-membership coextensive. To secure conformity and crush dissent, lives were some- times taken, properly confiscated, civil and educational disabilities imposed, ami other repressive measures enacted and enforced. Under the humanizing influences of Chris- tian civili2.ation this harshness has been greatly modified. In every government of Europe there has been more or less relaxation of rigid rules. Toler.-ition is becoming gen- eral, and the tendency is towards unrestrained liberty of LIBERTYVILLE-LIBRARY. 1761 worship. In Franco several denominations receive gov- ernment patronage. In Germany, although the govern- ment claims the management of ecclesiastical affairs, there is little interference with the right of worship. In Russia iiroeress has not been so marked, but even there the public opinion of Christendom has made itself felt in opening prison-doors and obtaining exemptions. The revolutions in Spain and Italy have rid those countries of former cx- clu»ivenc", and now different forms of faith are entitled to protection. In Great Britain the change has been mar- vellous. Tho colonics enjoy perfect liberty of religion. The Anglican Church has been disestablished in Ireland. It «lill remains the establishment in England, as the Fres- bylerian is the establishment in Scotland, with many priv- ileges, but there is now no public position, not ecclesiasti- cal, for tho tenure of which a particular religious belief is required, except tho throne and the office of governor of a few colle-es. These reforms in Europe indicate tho irre- sistible advance of public sentiment. Propagation of rc- li.»ion has almost ceased to bo regarded as one of Iho ends of government. It has been found quite as easy to perse- cute or bribe into one religion as into another. The con- nection of Church and Slate is increasingly reg.arded as corrupting to the Church, destructive of the purity and spi- rituality of religion, and antagonistic to the rights of men. The success and popularity of American ideas of govern- ment have contributed largely to these gratifying results. A distinctive American principle of government is, that what is religious is necessarily, from its very character, beyond the control of the civil government. In the U. S. religious liberty is an absolute prnmnal right. All denomi- na'fons, churches, and religious faiths are equal and free in tho eve of the law. Xone receive gratuities, none arc subjected to inequalities. There is entire divorce of Church and Slate. So long as private rights are not violated, no one is restrained from publishing or advocating his opin- ions on religion or morals. Voluntaryism is tho universal rule. Worship is sustained, ministers arc supported, church- houses are built, missionary operations are carried on, by purely voluntary contributions. The Constitution of the U. S. contains these two articles: "No religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the U. S. :" " Congress shall make no law re- specting an cstablishmont of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." The State constitutions are equally emphatic, and generally more specific in the expression of their jealousy of ecclesiastical ambition and sectarian in- tolerance. Absolute religious liberty is the contributioti of the U. S. to the science of politics. Many external causes conspired to give us the vantage-ground in the es- tablishment of soul liberty. To Rhode Island belongs tho pre-eminent honor of being the first state m tho world to incorporate in its organic law, and to practise, absolute re- ligious liberty. Other colonics set up some forms of Chris- tian worship and established some articles of faith. In New En"land a kind of theocratic government was estab- lished, "in South Carolina, New York, and Virginia tho Episcopal Church was established. In some of these States harsh attemiits were made to enforce conforinily. \ cry early there was positive and prolonged resistance to the attempt to perpetuate the establishment of tho English Church in tho cidonics, and the evidence is conclusive that such an attempt hastened the beginning and aided in Iho success of the American Hcvolution. J. h. M. tf buy. Lib'erty ville, post-v. and tp. of Lake co., 111., 32 miles N. W. of Chicago. Pop. 12;)0. Libocc'drus [Or. A.So«, "tears," or "frankincense," and rclrw, "the ce.lar"], a genus of conilerous trees, of which four species arc known— two in New Zealand, one in Chili, and ono (A. </«u,r<ii») in California, where it was discovered by Eremont, and is now known as " white cedar. In France and England it wa,s for some time confounded with tho riiiijii i/i./nnf.'i or arbor vita) of Oregon, which it somewhat resenibies. The California species is found only in the mountains, generally at an elevation of inon feel or more. It is a beautiful tree, attaining a height of 120 to 200 feel, with a trunk or 7 feet in diameter, and a pceu vhile the liar fibrous bark, much like that of Snjiinii It has a yel- lowish wood of great durability, the leaves are glossy an 1 bright, and the elegant form of the young tree has brought it into request as an evergreen. I.iboiirnc', town of France, in the government of Oironile, on Iho Iionlogne. at its confluence with tho Isle. It is a handsome and thriving town, with large inanulac- tures of leather, ropes, nails, and yarn, and trade in wine, salt, grain, and timber. Pop. i;(,665. I.i'brft [Eat., "The Halaneo "], the sign of the Zodiac which the sun enters at the autumnal equinox (about Sept. 2:i). Tho constellation Libra has no very rcinarkablo stars. Vol.. U. — Ill It corresponds at present to the sign Scorjiio sign Libra corresponds to the constellation V irgo. Li'brary [from tho Lat. libraHum. a " repository of books ■'], a collection of volumes, whether manuscript or printed, containing tho product of human thought. Libra- ries arc to be ranked among tho foremost agencies of civili- zation. The great development which they have undergone in modern times, and especially during the last twenty years, both in Europe and America, has very nearly doubled the numerical extent of the principal collections, while many more progressive libraries have advanced in a still greater ratio. The oldest approximation to libraries of which any rec- ords exist were brought to light by recent Assyrian discov- eries, and consist of the Babylonish books inscribed on clay tablets, supposed to have been prepared for public instruc- tion about GaO b. c. It is said that Pisistratus founded a library at Athens about 537 n. c. though there is no clear evidence of the fact. Strabo says that Aristotle was the first known cidlector of a library, which he bcquealhed (B. c. 322) to Thcophrastus ; and this library, through suc- cessive hands, at length found its way to Rome on the cap- ture of Athens by Sylla. The story of the great Alexan- drian library, founded by Ptolemy Soter, and burned by order of tho' caliph Omar in the seventh century, rests on insufficient evidence. Its alleged number of volumes, stated by different writers at from 100,000 to 700,000, so vastly exceeding tho aggregate of any library of the Middle Ages, or indeed for three centuries alter the introduction of print- in", throws discredit upon Iho wlicde story, except the sin- gle fact of the existence of a collection of books at Alex- andria. Plutarch says that the library of Lueullus at Romo was open to all, and this antedated the library of Pollio, which Pliny asserts was the first public library es- tablished at Rome. Suetonius relates that Augustus col- lecteil in the temple of Aiiollo two libraries of Greek and Latin writers, while Tiberius and Doniilian assembled manuscripts to add to these libraries, and employed scribes at Alexandria to copy works there preserved. Many Ro- m.ans,and notably Cicero, collected extensive libraries, not- withstanding tho' limitations which tho great cost of copy- ing and tho scarcity of books and material entailed upon tho collectors, St.'jeromc records that St. Pamphilus of CiBsarea (a. d. liO'J) made a collection of ;!0,0110 volumes, chiefly religious, with a view of lending them out to read. This,'if authentic, is the first record of a circulating library, except some obscure notices in the Latin writers. The libraries of the Mid.llc Ages were very limited in extent, and were of monkish origin. One of the earliest known was the still existing library of the Swiss abbey of St. Gall, which claims an antiquity of 1000 years. As early as tho thirteenth century Ibcre arc records of a library-tax levied on all the members of an individual mon- astery. Indeed, many mediieval conventual inslitutions n'ero'univcrsitics for t'he copying or reproduction of books, and rendereil incstiniablo service in preserving before tho invention of the printing-press precious manuscripts which mi.'ht otherwise have been lost. The first approach to a library in England is said to have been nine precious MSS. brought by Augustine on ft mission from Pope Greg- ory the Great (A. D. .')90). and preserved at Canterbury. lu fiCS this deposit at the monastery of Christ Church was en- larged by the library of Theoilore of Tarsus, brought from Rome in the same year. The abbey of St. Alban's had gathered quite a collection by the year 1100, and other inon- osleries of the English Benedictines eolleeleil a few hun- dred volumes. The monastery of Croyland bad 300 vol- umes and 100 tracts, all of which perished by fire in lOUl. Ricdiard of Bury (a. n. 1. •;:!:!) was an enthusiastic book- collector, and ha's eloquently written in praise of libraries in his I'UIM'ihInii. Among the earliest royal libraries, that of Charles VI. of France numbered 1100 v<duines iu Ull. As late as the reign of Henry VIII. the royal library of the British crown contained only .•1211 voluincs. In striking contrast to this literary poverty in England and France is tho splendid library of Matthias Corvinus, king of Hun- gary, which at his death in 1 IHO numbcriid .-.0,000 volumes, nearly all .MSS. Forty years afterward this precious col- leclio'u was pillaged and'burneil by the Turks. Lorenzo dc' Medici gathered a great library, which still forms the basis of tho Laureiiliaii library of Florence. In l.'iJtt the royal library of France, then containing 2000 volumes (of which imlv riboul 200 were prinloil books), received by royal ordi- nai'iee the privilege of a cony of every book printed in France. This was tho foundation of the copy-tax, which has been Iho means of enriching so many of the great gov- ernment libraries of Europe. That of France had grown to 200,000 volumes as early as 17S0. and was then, as now, the foremost library in the worbl. Italy, which has l.ing enjoyed the reputation of being rich in libraries, and which possesses many manuscript treasures and early printed 1762 LlBIiARY. books, i-s poor in collections of modern literature. The library of tbu Vatican, the most preL-ioua in Kour', contains about*lUO,UOO volumes of printed boukw aud 26,UUU MSS. In Germany, the land of books and universities, aro more libraries of great exteut and value than in any other Eu- ropean country. Petzholdt. in his AdrcHubuth dcr Uih- liothfkcn DetUechlandi (1875). enumerates 10 U libraries of all grades in Germany. Austria, an<l Switzerland, twenty of which contained over 200,000 volumes each. Tholarf^cst collentiona aro the Royal Library of Berlin. 700.000 vol- umes, including pamphlets ; the Imperial Public Library, Vienna, 400,000; the Royal Public of Dresden, 500,000, and 100,000 pamphlets ; and the Royal Library at Munich, ■JOO.OOO books, to which must be added 400,000 pam])hlcts. The latter library has lung passed in statistical tables as the second in Europe; this claim was based on the fal- lacious system of enumeration, which counted every thesis and tract as a separate book — a metliod which would swell many collections in our table to double the figiirt-s claimed for them. France has, besides the National Library, half a dozen collections of 100,000 volumes or upward, and the provincial libraries of that country furnish superior oppor- tunities for improvement. Spain ha;- about SO jiublic libraries, containing altogether some 700,000 volumes, of which the largest, the National Library at Madrid, has 220,000. The Imperial Library of St. Petersburg, now containing over l.ilOO.OOO volumes, is, next to the libraries of Paris and tho Briti.^h Museum, the richest in Europe. Of Northern European liliraries, the Royal at Copenhagen contains 500,000 volumes, all others being of small account in comparison. In England the library of the British Museum dwarfs all other collections. Founded in 175.3 by the wise and timely purchase of Sir Hans Sloane's collection for £liO.OOO, it received no other grant of public money for its increase until 1S07, or more than half a century. But it has been fortunate in munificent gifts of many valuable private col- lections, and during the last thirty years there has been a systematic and highly successful eflbrt to collect in London a great monumental library whose fundamental idea should be inclusivcncss, not exelusiveness. For many years past the sum expended for books and binding has been £10,000 (or SsO,000) annually, and the British Museum Library now counts 1,150,000 volumes. Next to this stands tho Bodleian Library at Oxford, the oldest and most valuable collection, next to the British Museum, in England, now numbering over 3;)0, 000 volumes. The library of the Faculty of Advocates of Edinburgh stands next, with oOO.OOO vol- umes. The University of Cambridge numbers 250,000, and the library of Trinity College, Dublin, has about 150,000. These live libraries enjoy the benefit of tho copy-tax, and can each claim one copy of every work printed in the United Kingdom. In Great Britain there are only nino libraries exceeding 100,000 volumes each. Provincial and town libraries are, however, springing up, having been originated as recently as 1850 with the Manchester Free Library. Tho fact that for nearly a century and a half after Shakspcarc'a time there was no ]iublie library in Lon- don speaks volumes as to the very recent development of this means of public enlightenment. In tho U. S. the annals of tho foundation and growth of libraries show that while our collections can never hope to rival those of Europe in manuscripts or early printed books, they will one day equal them in the number and extent of the collections. The first foundation of an American library was in 10;iS, when the library of Harvard College was started at Cambridge. Mass. In 1700 a public library was founded at New York City, which was known for over half a century as the City Library, but, not flourishing in that form, was converted into a subscription library in 1751, becoming tho New York Society Library. Y'ale College Library was founded in 17011. In 17111, Dr. Franklin and his associates founded in Philadelphia a library company still in exist- enoe. which has the honor of having been the first subscrip- tion or proprietary library of which we have any record. At the date of its formation no town in England possessed a subscription library. The Library of Congress — or. as it was called in its ffrst general catalogue, the Library of the United States — was founded in 18U0, on the establishment of tho seat of government at Washington. The Capitol and library having been burned in 1S14 by the British army, Congress purchased ex-Prcsidcnt Jefferson's c(dlec- tiou of 700O volumes as the basis of a new library, which was gradually increased until IS51, when it had reached 65,000 vohnncs, and was again nearly consumed by fire, only 20,000 volumes being saved. Tho collection has since grown with rapidly acc(derating volume, until it now numbers over 280,000 books, besides 50,000 i>amplilels. The valuable scientific library of tho Smithsonian Institutitm was incor- porated with tho collection in 1800. The Library of Con- gress is rich in history, jurisprudence, political science, and books relating to America, while no other department of letters has been neglected in its formation. It is the ouly American library receiving the benefit of the copyright law, through which it will in time come to possess an ap- proximately comjdolo representation of tho entire product of tho American press. The ])reservation in .a national fire- proof repository of all tho national literature, with a selec- tion of tho best literature of all other countries, is a boon which will be more and more appreciated by scholars with the advancing development of tho country. Next to tho Library of Congress in numerical extent stands tho Public Library of Boston, founded in 1848, and now numbering 225,000 volumes, besides 60,000 moro in its eleven branches or subsidiary libraries in tho suburbs of that city. This is unquestionably tho most widely useful collection of books in America, lending its volumes froo of charge to all citi- zens. Its example has been widely followed in other cities and towns, not only in Massachusetts, but in tho V/est, where Cincinnati and Chicago have each rapidly in- creasing free-lending libraries, supported, like that of Bos- ton, by funds derived from municipal taxation. Tho school-district library system, originated by New York in 1S08, has been adopted by ten to twelve States, tho books collected being paid for by a proportion of the school taxation fund of the respective States. The State libraries of the country are many of them collections of considerable extent and value. That of New York at Alb.iny is the largest, numbering 95,000 volumes, and furnit^hing a model of a well-stored and liberally managed public library, free to all. In tho other States, and in all of the Territories, libraries have been gathered at tho scat of government, primarily for legislative uses, and consisting chiefly of doc- uments, all of which arc, however, open to public use and reference. A class of subscription libraries which have had much success in America are tho mercantile libraries, of which those of New York and Boston were founded in IS20, tho Philadelphia Mercantile in 1821, the Cincinnati in 1S.*15, j and the San Francisco in 185IJ. Twenty-nine of these li- I braries were established from 1820 to 1870, inclusive. Of : professional libraries, law, medical, theological, and seien- lific, there are many. Tho largest medical collection in tho country is tho library of the surgeon-general's oflice at I Washington, numbering 37,000 volumes; next to which ; stands the library of the College of Surgeons, Philadelphia, I with 18,000. Several of the historical societies, of which more than 100 havo been organized in tho U. S. since 1789, have valuable libraries, those of New York and Massachu- setts being especially rich in early American books and pamphlets, and in manuscripts. Public libraries founded 1 by individual bequest are becoming numerous. Some of the principal are tho Astor and the Lenox Library at New York, the Watkinson Reference Library at Hartford, and tho Pcabody Institute Library at Baltimore. By tho census of 1870 there were reported 107,073 private libraries in the U. S., containing 25,500,000 volumes. The superintendent of tho census expresses the opinion that this is far below the truth for tho whole country, and adds that it is difficult to sec what value attaches to an enumera- tion of private libraries which includes such ephemeral pro- ductions as school-books, public documents, Sunday-scliool literature, and pamphlets. By the same census the public libraries in the V. S., including in that designation every little collection down to parishes and Sunday schools, as well as iho large libraries ojten to public reference, num- bered 55,580 collections, aggregating about 20,000,000 vol- umes. According to the report of the bureau of education for 1874, the number of libraries in the U. S. which returnetl their statistics was "HO, with an aggregate of 7,700.1 18 vol- umes. This enumeration, however, is properly confined to the libraries which can be fairly considered jiublic or asso- ciated. The following fable exhibits all the libraries of the world known to contain 100,000 volumes or upwards at the latest dates : City, Library. Volumes. Athens University 125,000 Auu'sburg City lOO.dOO ,, , f Royal r-'0,ouO ^*^'"^«'"° i and pamphlets ir.0.000 Bale Public KMI.OOO Berlin Royal 700.000 " University 115,000 Bologna University 20n,ono Bonn University 1«0,000 Bordeaux Citv 12:1,000 „ , ( Puidtc 225,01)0 ^°*'o" (Branches fiO,OnO " Athenceura 108,000 Brcslau University 340,000 Brussels Royal 2.')0,on0 Buda-Pesth Public 200,000 " University m'i.OOO Cambridge, Eug University 250,000 LIBRI CARRUCCI DELLA SOMMAIA— LIBYAN SEA, THE. 1763 city. Llbntrr. Voliimw. Cambridge, Mass....narvar(l College 210.000 CarlTulic (iraiid ducal 110,000 Camel National 120.000 Chrialiauia I'niviTsity 200,000 Copcnliogcn Koyal 500.000 ' ■• Univerallv 200,000 Cracow rnivereltv 140,000 Darmstadt Grand ducal S80.000 . ( Rovnl Publi.- 600,000 "'■'•'a'^" \ and pamnlilcis 400,000 Dublin Trinity Collece 1.50,000 Edinburgh Facullv of Advocates 300,000 •■ rnlvcrsitv i:iO,000 Erianaen University 110,000 rinri-noe National 200,000 Krankforl City I.'i0,noo KreiburK University 2W.OO0 (iioMi-n.. ITnlversity l.'iO.OOO Gli-Kow Vnivcrsity I0.->,000 Cotha Diieal 240.000 GottlnKen University 400,000 llaRuc Royal 100,000 Halle Vniveraity 100,000 lliimburu Citv SOO.OOO Hanover Roval Public 170,000 HeiilclberfT. University 300,000 HeislDKfora University 140,000 Jena University 180,000 Kiel University 1.10,000 KiiniKsbcrg Roval and University 220,000 Leipsic City 100,000 •' University SoO.OOO Li.sbon National 100,000 Liverpool Public 100,000 London British Museum 1,1.10,000 Lvons City 120,000 Madrid National 220.000 Manchester Public 120,000 Marburg. University 120,000 Mentz City 110,000 Mexico National 100,000 Milan Anibroslan 100,000 " Brera 18.1,000 Modcna Esll 100,000 aioscow University 100,000 ., ,, (Roval 400.000 *'''""^" t and pamphlets 400,000 Universilv 2«0.000 Mfinster Royal Paul 100,000 Naiilfs National 2«i).000 New Haven Yale College 101,000 New York Astor 1.10,000 Mercantile lf.0,000 Oxford Bodleian 3:10,000 Padua University 100,000 Paris National 2,000,000 Arsenal 225,000 " St. Genevieve 200.000 " Sorbonne llo.oofl " Maiarin IHO.OOO " Institute 100,000 Parma Public 140,000 Pracuo University 1.12,0(iu Rome Vatican 101,000 " Casanata 100,000 " Angelica 100,000 Rouen City 120,000 R„»l,>ck University 140,000 St. Pelersburf Imperial 1,100,000 " Academy of Sciences i:io,ooo Stockholm Royal 12.1,000 Slra.il)Ourg Uity.„ 3l)0,00« Stuttgart Royal Public 180,000 Treves City 100,000 TObiniicu University 220,000 Turin University 1.10,000 llpsal University 1.10,000 Venice SI. Murk's ISO.OIH) Vienna Irnnerial Public 400,0(10 " University 210,000 Waiblngton I.ilirarv of Congress.. 280,000 W.iniar (irand ducal 170,000 Wolf.iibQtlcl Itrunswiek Ducal 2.10,000 Wnrr.burg Universlly 2(HP.O0O Zurich City 100,000 The subject of library economy and inanaf;enicnt can here bo touched on only in the briefest manner. Three points nro of cardinal im|iortance : library buildinps, the chisiificalion of books, and tlio catuloguc system. While most libraries arc bestowed in dark and ill venliiiited builiiings, (here arc some inoilern constructions wliich afford wortliy repositories for the learning they contain. Kvery library building should be isolated nnd fireproof, with adequate room for expansion. The classifieatic»n of every library by subject-matters is indispensable to economy of time in ihe supply of books anrl information, and to the highest utility of the library. Yet many of the eolleotions, iiii'ludiug some of the largest in Murope and Aincricft, have no principle of arrniiKement other tlinn Iho si/.es of the volumes or the order ol acquisition. Tlie calHlo(;ue system most universally employed is the card calalogue in inanu- si'ript, by which a strict alphabetical arrangement is so- cured, and the accessions to the library can be kept con- stantly catalogued up to dale. The printing of catalogues has been abandoned by most of the largest collections, in- cluding the principal government libraries of Europe, as too expensive ami laborious to be kept up witiiout falling hopelessly into arrears. When it is considered how enor- mous is the production of jpriuted matter, and that tho principal libraries both in Eurojie and in the U. S. have doubled during the last twenty-five years, this deprivation to tho public of the boon of printed catalogues of tlio largest eoUectious is partiall.v explained. Yet there is no library hitherto gathered, however large, which contains anything like a complete collection of the literature of all nations, or even of its own. Every national library should have for its object the collection and preservation, on tho exhaustive system, of all that the country within which it is located produces. The use of a great library is not for one generation only, but its value is developed by passing into the hands of successive generations, and furnishing a complete record of the progress of letters from age to age. The private libraries of a country, after they have served their purpose to the owners, continually tend to feed tho public collections. A great capital like London, Paris, or New York constantly receives a flood of private libraries, whicii are poured into auctions or otherwise sold, and from them the vigilant enlleclors for our public libraries arc always recruiting and enriching them. The relation of libraries to popular education has como into prominence onl,y within tho last few years. If, as Carlyle remarks, "the true university of these days is a collection of books," and all edncntion is to teach us how to read, the importance of cherishing and e.-vtenJing thcso aids to civilization can hardly bo overrated. A good library is like a dictionary — not a mere mass of pages to be read through, but a v.ast repository of learning for tho continual use and reference of all comers. That is the best library, and he is the most useful lil)rarian, by whoso aid every reader is enabled to put his finger on tho fact ho wants at the moment it is wanted. A. II. SporrouD. Li'bri Carnic'ci del'ln Sommai'a (Gitili.ahmf. BniiTUs Ini.us TiMOi.to.v), Coi^vt, b. at I'lorcneo Jan. 2, 1803 ; studied mathematics, and was appointed professor at tho l^niversity of Pisa, but being implicated in the po- litical disturbances of IS;;0, fled to Franco, where he was naturalized in ls;j;i: first ingratiated himself with Arago, and became professor at the Sorbonne: then with Guizot, and was made inspector-general of public instruc- tion and public libraries; but in 1.S17 was accused of steal- ing large numbers of costly books from the libraries, and was condemned to ten years' imprisonment, lie had fled to England, however, and returned afterwards to Florence, where he d. Sept. 2S, lS(iU. His Histoirc dcs ScieuccH lunthf- yytatiifiicH en Itii(iv{ Paris, l.'t.'JS—ll ) enjoys a great reputation, as do also his numerous annotated catalogues. Liblir'nia, in ancient geography, a mountainous dis- trict of Illyricum extemling along tho coast of the Adriatic in the present Croatia and Dalmatia. Its inhabitants wero famous as sailors, or rather as pirates, and from tliein tho Romans adojjtcd those small, fast-sailing vessels with tho one large lateen sail which were known under tho name of naccH Littiinw, or simjily Lihiiniir. Lib'ya, the name which often was given by Iho an- cients to the whole continent of Africa, but which was generally applied only to that part which is now cjillcd tho Libyan Desert, extending from Egypt to Fezzan and from the Mediterranean to Darfoor, and consisting of vast stony terraces, sometimes co\'ered with sand and gravel, aud eometimes broken by oases, Seewah being the largest. Jiib'yans, The, occupied in ancient times Iho wholo northern coast of Africa with the exception of the delta of the Nile, and according to Lepsius and other ^Egyptologists they probably at one time occupied this territory too, but were driven out by the Egyptians. They were a .seafaring nation, and harassed the Egyptians with continuous in- vasions, until their power was checked in the sixteenth cen- tury B. r, by Tholhines III. In the fourteenth century n. c, when Ihe Pelnsgians on the nortlicrn coasts of Iho Meiliterrancan haci acquired some imporlanco on Ihe sea, the liibyans renewed their attacks on Egypt in eonnectitin with the Tyrrhenians and Aehicans, nnd conquered T^owcr Egypt, but were entirely defeated by Rameses II, At tho period when the PlKenieiaiis founded Carthage, and tho If reeks Cyrene.tbe Libyans seem to have become enfeebled. They were pressed back from Ihe coast, ami submitted com- pletely to Ihe Uoinans, and fell partly into barbarism. (With respecTt to their ethnographical and linguislical relations, see Ihe articles Hkkiikiis, M.^n and his iMicu.itioss, and Skmitic Hacks ano Lanocaoks.) Libyan Sen, The, in ancient geography, was that part of the Mediterranean which is situated between tho island of Crete, the delta of Iho Nile, and tho territory of Carthage, or Africa proper. Sj/rtls Mnjor and Syrtis Minor were iulots of tho Libyan Sea- 176-4 LICATA— LICENSE. Licata. Sco Aucata. Li'cense [Lat. licmda'] signifies primarily permission, and as used in la\v denotes a privilege, po\Ter. or antliority granted by an individual or a public or private body to do a specified act or series of acts, to earry on n particular oc- cupation, and the like. Thus, an oral permission given by a landowner to another person to pass over the land or to erect buildings or otlier structures upon it is a lieensc. Trades of various kinds are frequently so regulated that the right to follow them depends upon statutory license, as, for instance, to pell liquors, to keep a tavern, to engage in hawking and peddling, etc. This variety of licenses will be considered under the topic Licensk Laws (wliich see). The subject of license has particular importance in law with reference to real property, and will be examined in this article wholly from this point of view. A license ap- pertaining to land must be distinguished from an ease- ment. An easement is a permanent, irrevocable interest in the land, which, in accordance with thn requirements of the statute of frauds, can be strictly created only by a sealed instrument called a grant, or its equivalent, prescription. (Sco Easemen-t; FrtArns, Stattte of : Pkesckiptiox.) An easement amounts in reality to an estate in the land, and is therefore not subject to ilefeasance by any act of the grantor, except when depending upon a condition. A license, on the other hand, is a mere privilege or authority to do a particular act or series of acts upon another's land, or upon one's own land in such a manner as to deprive an adjacent owner of certain rights which he possesses, as, e. ff., an easement of light. It is simply a permission of a temporary nature not capable of assignment, and valid though oral. It is true that licenses are sometimes given by instruments with or without seal, but they would be of the same validity and effect if granted orally. The ques- tion whether .a jiarticular transaction is a license or an ease- ment cb'pends upon its nature and the intent of the parties, and not merely upon the point whether there is a writing. Licenses are either express or implied. They are express wlien permission is given in definite and specific terras to do a jiarticular act; implied, when from the fair interpre- tation f)f the dealings of the parties permission to enter upcm the licenser's land or to do any act thereon may bo presumed. Thus, if a purchase be made of goods which are upon the land of the vendor, the purchaser has an implied authority to enter during a reasonable time in ord M- to remove them. The act of opening and keeping a place of business gives .in implied license to any one to enter for the purpose of transacting such business as is usually carried on there. Thus, railway stations are kept for public accommodation, and may be freely entered by anv one who desires to become a passenger. So an entry into the house of a friend or neighbor for the purpose of paying him a visit is allowable, because the relations of intimacy between the par- ties afford ground for a natural inference that no objection would be made. Onsimilargrounds, public officers, by a mere rub^ of law, sometimes called an implieil license, are justi- ficil in entering upon any person's land to execute, when necessary, legal process. There is no implied license, how- evor, for an officer to enter a man's dwelling-house in the service or execution of civil process, unless ho finds it open. There is a maxim of law that ''every man's house is his castle,'' and accordingly it can be only broken open by the pcace-ofBcer when the process is criminal, and when entrance has been demanded and refused. (Seo ExrcuTiON*, Finiu FiriAS.) In this class of cases the oiBcers may enter even again:«t the will of the owner and in disregard of his exprnps prohibition or remonstrance. Licenses are further distinguished as executory and exe- cuted. This distinction is of considerable iraportauce, as affe:!ting the question whether a license is revocable by the grantor. Li(icnsc3 are said to i>o executory when the privi- In^n given is yet to be exerci=;ed: executed, when it has already been exercised, either in whole or in part. It is a general principle in courts of law, as distinguished from courts of equity, that all licenses, whether executed or ex- ecutory, are revocable at the pleasure of the grantor, pro- vided they are not coupled with any interest in property. But when the lirenso is coupled with the grant of an inter- est, or where an interest exists whose value, continuance, and enjoyment depend upon the license, there is, in gen- eral, no power of revocation. Hence, the right of a pur- chaser of personal chattels to enter upon the premises of the vendor within a reasonable time, and remove the arti- el' -' to which he has acquired a right by the sale, is irrevo- cable by the vendor. Permission to fell and carry away standing timber upon the land of the licenser will give an irrevocable right to remove the timber after it has been cut, unless there be unrenflouable dehiy in making the remov.il. Put until the trees are felled, the privilege, if it does not amount to an easement, can be wilhdrawn. for not until that time is any right of ownership in the timber acquired. In like manner, a license to a person to kill game for his own use upon the licenser's land will give him an irrevo- cable right to carry away the game which has actually been killed. But where there is no proprietary interest connected with the license, it is, if executory, revocable at any time. For instance, a license to hunt in a man's park, orto fish in his waters, or to pass through his land gives the licensee no permanent interest, but merely a privilege whose con- tinuance depends entirely upon the will of the landowner. It is thus seen that no mere license can create or transfer an indefeasible interest in real property. A license is, in reality, in the nature of a power, and is governed by the same general rule as powers, that they are essentially revo- cable at the will of the person who creates them. (See Pow- ers.) The same principle, qualified by previous statements, prevails in regard to executed licenses, except in courts of equity. There is, however, a distinction necessary to be taken between such executed licenses as arc and such as are not attended with expenditure. Licenses of the latter class are revocable at any time, both at law and in equity. A license to deposit property — e. ff. coal — upon a man's" land is of this nature. But where expense has been incurred in carrying into effect the authority given by the license, courts of equity in some of the States adopt diflTerent prin- ciples from those prevailing in courts of law. At law, it is held that though the licensee may have sustained expense, and may be subjected to necessary loss and injury, the au- thority may nevertheless be revoked at pleasure by the licenser. If, for instance, the licensee were to construct a drain across the licenser's land to carry off waste water from the premises of the licensee, the privilege might be withdrawn at any time, even though the drain may have been in use. So if a house be erected upon another's land by license, the right to occupy or use it may be revoked whenever the licenser may desire. The right of revocation is sustained at law in these and similar cases because a con- trary rule would be virtually in contravention of the statute of frauds, since an indefeasible interest in land would bo created without the use of writing. But in equity there is not such strict adherence to the provisions of the statute of frauds as at law. and they arc sometimes disregarded when to observe them would be likely rather to encourage or pro- mote fraud than to prevent it, or would operate as a denial of substantial justice between the parties. Therefore, it is held in some States in courts of equity, or in courts having equitable powers, that where expense has been incurred by the licensee on the faith of the license, so that he would sustain loss if it were revoked, no power of revocation re- mains, and he acquires an absolute right to the continued en- joyment of the license and a permanent interest in the licen- ser's laud. In some cases the delivery of a deed or writing has been required in order to confirm the licensee's right. This equitable practice proceeds upon the doctrine of equit- able estoppel, (he view being taken that the licensee should not be deprived of the benefit of the expenditure which he was encouraged to make by the very party who seeks to render it fruitless. (See Estoppel.) Equity treats the license t bus executed as a contract giving absolute riglits. The courts of Pennsylvania have perhaps gone farthest in maintaining this doctrine. But the same general principle is sustained by decisions iu England and a number of the States of this country. An executed license, on this view, becomes equiv- alent to an executed oral contract for an easement, which is treated as though it were a grant under senl in equity when the parties cannot be restored to their original position. An executed license is irrevocable, both at law and in equity, when by force of it some act is done upon the licensee's own land the effect of which is to imjiair or destroy an casement appurtenant to the licenser's property. If, for instance, a landowner has an casement of light over the premises of another, and gives permission to the latter to erect a wall or a dwelling in such proximity to his land as to darken his buildings or entirely cut off the light, he can- not countermand the lieensc after it has been carried into effect. The license when executed operates as an abandon- ment of the licenser's right to the light, and this is sufficient to extinguish an easement. This reasoning would not apply to a license executory in its nature. A license is a full justification for acts done carefully and prudently in pursuance of the authority given, and re- lieves the licensee from all liability for such acts, and for the consequences which may subsequently result from tluir performance. The rale is sometimes expressed briefly in this way — that a license excuses all trespasses committetl under it until it is properly revoked. But for the conse- quences of negligence or unskilfulness in the performance of the act permitted, the licensee will not be relieved. There is a legal obligation resting upon every man to exercise, in respect to the rights of others, a reasonable degree of care and caution in what he docs, and from this duty the license will afford no exemption. A license is in general a priri- LICENSE— LICENSE LAWS. 1765 lege of a personal nature. The dealh of either party ope- rates as a revocation of it. So, if the licenser conveys to another the premises to which the license appertains, it is extinguished without any express act of revocation. These rules however, apply to 'more licenses, and do not extend to licenses coupled «ith an interest. A !i«nsoJs so,nel_an.s , ;—,;^;;;--;i^f „„,;„„, „„„„„y: The nature of thcso t"on, and the > licenses will l.Upparent from the following eN.«nple,whe,o licensee can recover back tho money paid. For ex , the sale of a ticket to witness a theatrical perform «idcred with a view either to certain unusual effects or to enrich and strengthen (even by irregular means) some otherwise meagre spot in the harmony. To avoid suspici.>n of ignorance, it is customary with some writers to mark such iirogressions with the words "con licnna," but in Bach. Ilaydn. Mendelssohn, and many others licenses occur granted upon the payment of a consideratio; revoked, there will be a failure of considerati license* ample, -II, ance or other similar entcrtainiiieht is in general but a license to the purchaser to enter the building and be one of the spectators. But the license may be revoked before the performance is concluded and the purchaser required to leave the premises. lie will in such a case have a claim against the proprietor of tho theatre or other place of en- tertainment for full reimbursement, or for the recovery of a proportional amount of the sum he has paid, as the case may be. (Sec tho leading case of Wood v. Lcadbitter, 13 Mccson 4 Wclsby's Reports, S3S.) Geoiice Chask. llKvisKn nv T. W. Dwioht. License [I-at. /k-.tc to " be permitted "]. Tho tech- nical sense of this word in music is a liberty knowingly taken in violation of some recognized rule of harmony. Licenses are not unfrcquently found even in tho compo- sitions of the best masters, and are therefore not to be con- sidcred as results of ignorance or heedlessness. They dilTcr also from the mistakes often made by inexperienced composers, by being knowingly written and carefully con- Ex. 2. at « the treble aiid alto make consecutive fifths (as pointed out by strokes) ; at h similar fifths are made by the lower part with the alto ; an<l at c the treble crosses the alto, and unlawfully duplicates the resolution of the seventh, making also a hidden unison with the alto : There are many arpeggio passages which, though pleasing and satisfactory even to a cultivated ear, arc nevertheless indefensible except when construed as licenses. When re- duced to plain chords, and so played, their irregular and unscientific structure becomes at once apparent, and their elTcct is intolerable even to the ordinary car. An instance of this kind, involving a double train of consecutive fifths, may bo seen at « in Kx. 2. and tho same in unbroken chords at 6 ; By a judicious d!>lr!hiit;nn of the parts or voices the ill effects more or less inherent in licenses may be softened or concealed, but the use of thoui is always hazardous, except in the hand of a master. William Staintox. License (in legal pleading). When tho defendant to an action relics upon a license given to him by the plain- tiff, as justifying or excusirg either in whole or in part tho act complained of, it is tho practice at common law for him to answer the declaration of the plaintiff by a special forin of plea or answer, which is technically termed a pica ot " license" or of "leave and license." (See Dkilauation, Pi.tlAniN-o.) This form of plea is most commonly em- ploycil in actions for trespass upon land, but may bo also resorted to in actions for trespass to personal property, or in actions of covenant or of detinue, or in actions upon tho case. (Sec Tkfspass, Covknast, DKrisiTK. Case, Ac- Tioy.) Every variety of valid lioonso derived from tho plaiiitifT, whether it 'be general or jiarticular, express or implied, will support a plea of license on the part ol tho defendant. Thus, the permission or authority obtained from tho plaintiff may have related to tho entire act ooni- initted, or only to some one or more of a scries of acts; it may have biiu given in definite, specific terms, or it may h;ive been rightfully presumed by reason of particular acts of tho plaintiff, hi.s general conduct, or his management and disposition of his property. (Illustrations of these various kinds of licenses have already been given under tho topio Lkf.nse.) Tho plea sh.nild justify only to tho extent of the license claimcil, and so far as it is cnpiiKlc of being establishcil by proof. It is a general rule that a liconso must bo specially pleaded, and cannot bo given in evidence under the general issue. (.Sec Uexeiial IssfE.) This is invariably true of all forms of action except actions upon the ease. In these, however, a license need not bo pleaded, but it is tho practice to admit it ill evi- dence. A plea of license in an action of covenant is not sustainable if the license claimed is by parol, unless it bo provided for by the terms of the deed. A parol discharge IS in general inoperative against a ciced. In those States whi're common-law pleading has been abolished a lieenso may still be plciided in justification, but there is no pnrlic- ulaV form of plea or answer designated by this spccifio name. (Jeouiie TiiASE. Reviskh nv T. W. Dwiimit. License Laws. These arc statutes passed in tho various Stales regulating the pursuit of a particular call- ing or business. It is common in this way to govern tho sale of ardent spirits by innkeepers or retail dealers, or the sale of goods at auction or by peddlers, etc. The laws of tho respective States aro so varied upon this subject lliat few general principles can bo extracted. Statutes of lliis kind rest largely upon rules of public policy prevail- ing in the State which adopts Ihein, ami lluctu.atc with tho cban-'cs of feeling continually occurring in society as to the best mode of regulating subjects having in them, when unregulated, an element of danger to social interests. M- forts have frequently been made in the courts to attack these laws ou constitutional grounds, as depriving a person who is required to obtain a license of his liberty or prop- erty Such a doctrine is untenable. These laws must bo regarded as an exercise of police power inherent in tho States, and not withdrawn by the provisions of the U. S. Constitution. They simply direct how a trade shall bo conducted in articles intimately connected with the puljlio morals or public safety. The business might be altogether suiipresscd if the public good required it. It cannot bo claimed that such a license is a e.uitract. but it is merely n. temporary iicrmission to do what w.mld ollicrwiso be an offence against the general law. Accordingly, if a legisla- ture has granted a license to sell liquors for a particular time it may before tho exi.iration ot that time modify or revoke it if it see fit. This loiiie is well discussed in tho case of tho Mr,r„,ml!lan H,mrd v. Uarne, .U .New 1 ork Reports fi.iT ( l.'ilKi). Congress in tho course of its legisla- tion concerning tho internal revenue has luirported to grant a license to carry on a business coming williin tho polico power of tho States. Though called a license, such a j.ro- vision is in substance a tux, and the prohibition under penalties against carrying on the business without liccnso is only a mode of enloiving the payment of such a tax. (r.!rn„r Tax (V.«c., .', Wallace Reports, -lliL', 17.^..) Sueli a Congressional -license" does not prevent the State legisla- ture, in the exercise of its "police power," fn.ni suppress- I ing the traffic altogether, even though the " license under the U S law was granted on the payment ol a fee. All , that such a lieen.«o means is, that while the business is al- lowed bv the State law to be carried ou a Ice in the nature of a tax must be paid to the U. S. The legislation ol the Stalo and of Congress is thus altogether c.msistent. (See ' the ea«e of M.tlaiv v. ('m,um„V'«HU. :\ Walhico Reiiorls, ■ .187 ) The license laws of the States may, however, come in conllicl with the V . S. Constitution, as, for exaniple, where a discrimination is made by a State in favor of tlio sale of its own products or of one made by its own citizens, fulverso to one made bv the cili/.ciis of another State or ol '. its iiroducts. Such a law may conlliet with the jmwer ol ■ Congress "to regulate commerce among the States,^ as well as with tho constitutional provision that tho "citiiens of each State shall !><■ entitled to all privileges and immuni- ties of citizens in the several States." A corporation exist- ing in another State cannot bo regarded as a "citizen within this rule, and a State, so long as it does not mterlero with till' iiower of Congress to regulate commerce, etc., may discriminate against tho acts of a non-resident corporation. (Sec I'KIVII.EUES AND IMMUNITIES.) T. W. DwifillT. 1766 LICENSE TO TRADE— LICHENS. License to Trade. la ioternatiouul law this licence (lonotfs ft pt-rmistiion givt-u by a belligerent government through its agent, euch as a comman<Icr of a squadron, to Irailo with the enemy. It may be given to a neutral trader or to a fellow-subject ; and it generally specities the kind of article? to be conveyed to the enemy, tbe port, the time, perhaps the amount. It may allow of importation, and not of exportation. Being a permission to do something other- wise forbidden, it is of strict interpretation, so that to go beyond its i^pecifications would subject the vessel and cargo to heavy penalties, unless the violation could be shown to bo unavoidable. Of course, the enemy is not bound to re- ceive such a licensed vessel into his ports. T. D. Woolsky. Li'chen [Gr. Aeix^**]* ^ ^^^^ disease, characterized by an inflammation producing groups of small elevated persistent spots, containing no serum or pus, and terminating by de- squamation. It is common among scrofulous persons, and is rarely caused by external irritation. More often its cause is quite unknown. It may be circumscribed or gen- eral, chronic or short-lived. Acute cases are sometimes accompanied by fever and intense itching. If general ond long continued, the patient may die of the long and un- ceasing irritation. Arsenic, alkaline, tarry, and sulphurous washes are often useful. Arsenic has a favorable efleet upon some cases. But many of the severer examples of lichen will yield to no treatment. Happily, the disease is not very common. The term lichen is vaguely used. Some varieties have been described which appear to be allied to purpura, there being bloody exudations beneath the skin. Lichen rircitmscriptus is caused by a parasitic plant-growth which can be readily destroyed, Lichen'ine [Gr. Acix^*-. "lichen"], or Moss-Starch [Gf-r. .\fiios>itarI:e], a substance contained in the cryptogams calleil lichens, constituting in some eases, as in that of the so-called Iceland moss, reindeer moss, tripe de roche, etc., nearly the whole mass. Many other lichens contain similar mucilaginous bodies. Lichcnine may be obtained pure from Iceland moss by long soaking first in cold water, re- newed until it remains tasteless, which removes a bitter principle and saline substances. Addition of a little car- bonate of soda to the first water is useful. Some chemists treat also with ether and alohol. The washed mass may then be dissolved in boiling water, strained and evaporated to a hard, brittle, tasteless mass, which swells in cold water without dissolving, but forms a jelly with boiling water fa- miliar in all households. Like other starch-isomeres, it is converted into a gummy or dcxtrinc-Iike body by long boil- ing with water. LJlucosc is formed by dilute acids, as in the case of common starch, and strong nitric acid forms with it oxalic acid. Iodine does not blue lichenine when pure, as it does common starch, but forms merely a yellow stain, as with cellulose. Lichenine docs not occur in the plant in tlie cellular or granular form, like common starch ; and some investigators have advanced the idea that it is prop- erly not to be classed with starch, but is ceKufosc in a sol- uble modification. It is stated of late years that strung alcoholic liquors are prepared on a large scale in extreme Northern regions from these lichens — an art not dillicultto comprehend or to carry out. H. Wurtz. Lich'ens [Gr. Aeiyi?*'] are cellular cryptogamous plants, bearing fruit {apitthvdu) containing free spores in closed sacs {thekfi), upon a thallus containing green cells («/o- uidin), and often abounding in crystals of oxalate of lime. They rank between Alga? and Fungi, differing fr<tni the for- mer in the fruit character, an<l from the thecasporous groups of the latter f Ascomycetes), in the presence of gonidia, and in a great degree in chemical reactions, the hymenium of Lichens being usually colored blue or vinous-red by iodine, but those of Fungi yellow, Ihough there are some exceptions in both classes. The thallus is, however, some- times obscure, and in certain parasitic Lichens wanting, A theory, based partly on the alleged absence of connec- tion between the medullary filaments of the thallus and the gonidia. has recently been maintained by Schwendener and others, that Lichens are compound plants, the ttuillus being an Alga and the apotbccia Fungi, whose mycelium draws nourishment from the gonidia. But it has not found favor with lichcnists. Lichens are f(tund in all climates and at all elcvationSi mostly preferring exposure to light. They grow on rocks, by their decay forming a soil for higher vegetation : on trees, anti on the earth, the individuals being more numerous in the colder, and the species in the warmer, regions of the earth. Some are so small as hardly to be perceptible to \ the eye, and others attain dimensions of several feet. ; They remain inactive while dry, and vegetate when moist, and sometimes roach a great age. In the northern regions '. they furnish footl for rcinrleer, are stored as fodder for cattle, and are said to increase the quantity of milk. Bread , is also made of some species, and species of Umbilicaria \ Fig. 1. I'^^^^^^^' (rock-tripe) have furnished an unpalatable food for Arctic travellers in time of need. They yield bitter extracts, but are not poisonous. Many species, especially the orchil { JiorccNa), furnish coloring-matters, and have been exten- sively used in dyeing; and recently alcohol has been man- ufactured from them on an extensive scale in Sweden. Some species have had considerable repute as remedies, but their medicinal virtues are slight. The thallus is fru- ticulous, foliaceous, squamaceou^. orcrustaceous. and diver- sified in color. The gonidia often burst into mealy or pow- dery excrescences (so- rrdia), and by their distribution, as well as by the spores, the plants are propagated. The thallus consists, in the best developed forms, (1) of an exter- nal cortical layer, sub- ject often to modifica- tions which render it indistinct; (2) ofago- nidial layer; {^) of a medullary layer, com- posed of more or less Section of thallus: a, cortical layer; 6, compact filaments (>f a gonidia; c, medullary Iayer;'rf, in- cottony or rarelv {Ve- ferior layer ; e, hypothalline fibres. „,-„ j^f a woody texture. In foliaceous species it is often beset beneath by fibrils, by which it is attached to the substratum, and is there some- times veined {Pcltit/cra) or pitted and cyphellate {Sticta) ; and in crustaceous species often rests on a filamentary tissue {hjjpothalius). The cortical layer is especially modified, and the uieduMary fila- ;(7T->t-~_ nients become lax or in- /{VK distinrt in Colhum and '^/j^l'l'lf-nj/'^ allied genera. The go- yflljlj HI- '/ nidia lie near the upper ■' v/,(j(y( 1,1 surface or encircle the medulla, or are some- times scattered through- out the tissue, and are either (I) true gonidia, of ayellowish-green col- or, or (2) collogonidia ( Turkeruian, grauuln ffouima, Auctt.), which are bluish-green, im- bedded in a colloid cn- ■lope, and often dis- posed in necklace-like chains. Collogonidia occur chiefly in the Coliemei and Pnnmtriri, but arc also found in other genera {Sticta, etc.). The application of hydrate of potash and chloride of lime to the thallus produces changes of color which have been made the basis of specific distinctioui; but their value is Fig. 3. Section of angiocarpous apotheoium : II, thckes; b, paraphyses; c, hjpo- thecium. as yet a matter of dispute. The apotbccia arc borneon the upper, rarely {yephro- mn) un ibe under side of the thaliuy or it.> branches, sometimes at the tins of its prolongations ( podctio ), or arc sometimes prolonged downward into a stalk l^tipe). The hymenium, which contains the thekes. Spores: a, simple; 6, polar bi- rests upon a tissue {ht/po- jwular; c fusiform ; d. aeieu- ,, . ' .- •''. lar; r, colored spores ;/,rau n- thecniw) representing the foj-n, proper exciple, and is com- posed of filaments ipnrophynea) imbedded in a colloid sub- stance {.'ii/mrtifial ffffntiiie). The spores are expelled from the thekes by the pressure caused by the swelling of the hymen iai tissue when wetted. They vary from one to an LICHENS. 1767 indefinite number in the tliokef, but the usual number is eight. In form they arc glubulur, ellipsoid, or elongated, and nro either simple or divided by dissepiments (2 to plu- rilocular), or when thc«o arc in both the transverse and per- pendicular directions, are muriforni; and nro either colorlcsfl or brown, the elongated spore tending to the colorlcf s, and Fig. 4. (I, section of spermogono; b, jointed and, c, simple eterigmas, wilhspcruiatia. the distended one to the colored type. But the typically col- ored spore is sometimes dccolorate. In size the spores vary from 11.001 to O.IS, or even 0.3 millimetre in length. In germinating they give off extended filaments, forming a confused tissue, but no attcm]>t at producing a perfect lichen from the spores has been Fio. 6. successful. Spermo!i;one8are8mnll, usually black bodies, scattered over the thallus, containing mi- nute ellipsoid or elongated organs {npcrmititn) on simple or branched filaments intfritjmna). They have been supposed to bo male repro- ductive organs, but nothing is certainly known on this point. Pycnidos are similar to spermo- gones, but of less frequent occur- rence, containing organs {stt/lu»^iorcit) on simple filaments; their function is unknown. Lichens are divided according to the character^ of the apothecia into two scries: (l)open (gymnoearpous), and Ci) closed (angiocarpous) ; and five tribes — viz. 1, Pakmk- LiACKi : apoth. open, margined by a Ihallinc exciple (acu- lellirftirm); 2, Le( inKAiKi : apoth. open, margined by a. proper e.'scipio i pntella/oim) ; 3, GuAfiliDACEi : apoth. with a proper c.\ciple, elongated (Urcllie/orm) ; 4, Calici- Aini: apoth. goblct-shapcd (cnKcyi/ori/i), with a proper e.\oiplc margining a disk compacted of naked spores: and 5, VEititicAniAi ei : apoth. closed, opening only by u Kio. 6. Porlioii 111 irviiiide, with Hlylusporea. pore at the summit, with an external proper exciple ( prriihrciiim) surround- ing an interior envelope {(tiiipfiifhrviiim), which en- cIosM the nuoleiform hy- meniuin. These tribes are dividi'il in North Ameri- can Lichens into IS fami- lies and about 7.'> genera, containing, according to the present state of know- ledge, about son species; the whole nuTuber of known liehens being from 1500 to IROO. The systematic ar rangement above given is that of Fries (18.'11), as de "ainilies of I, II ii II liaeel ; A, I,ei'hl«'U(< . . . . daeei; d, Caliciacci; e, Verruca- riaeel. • riijilii- vclopcd by Prof. Tuckcrman in his Qenent LUhennm (lS7o). The system of Koirbcr (1866) is based upon tho characters of the thallus ll'rutiouloso, foliaccous, or crufi- taccous). and that of Nylandor {.>>\/iiop»i«, ISiS) is eclectic, taking all jiarts into consideration. Lichens were con- founded liy tho ancients with other cryptogams, and tlio name was originally a]iplied to certain llepatiea>. They were first accurately distinguished by Tourncfort {1G91), further dcscrilicd and figured by Michcli (1729), Dillenius (1711), and Hoffman (1790). At the time of Linna'us about 185 species wore known. Achnrius, "the father of lichenogr:iphy," published his Mcllmrliis, based on thai- line characters, in 1S0.^, and described all then known lichens (about 900 species) in tho Lichenu'jriijilnn Uiiiver- aalit (1810) and Si/iiopait (1S14). Other works down to the modern period are Sohoeror, SjucHcijiiiiii Liih. Jlel- vet. (1S2:!-10); Eschweiler, Si/alcma (1824); E. Fries's ex- ecUeut Llchcnorjraphia Europica (\K,\); Fee, Ensui and Siippl: figuring accurately tho spores (1.S24-.17); Tueker- man, S'i/iii,j,>>ia of A'cxd England I.irhciia (1848), continued in tho ^m.. /our. l?ci". (1858-59). Catalogues of North Amer- ican Lichens have been published by JIuhlenberg (Cnta- logiiH Plnntnnim, Lancaster, Pa.. 181.!), by llalscy (Sj/nnp- licnl ]'inr nf the Lii-lnna of Scu- YorJ;, printed in the Aitiinia iif the N. Y. I.i/ceum nf Natiiriil Ilistiirii. 1823), and by Torrey and others. The spores had been noticed by Jli- obcli, and genera were based upon them by Eschweiler, Fee, and B'lolow ; but iu 1846 a new impulse was given to tho study by the publication of the I'rummenli of Dc Notaris, who was followed by many able investigators, the expounders and representatives of modern lichcnology. The most important works of this period me Massalongo, liicerchc; Norman, Conatna; and Tulasne, Mcmoin', all published in 1852; Kocrhct, Siiulcma nud J'urcnja (\&ai- B5). But these microscopical studies tended to an extreme — to the making the most of all differences whatever in epore-history — and led to tho construction of very many imperfectly distinguished genera. Anzi, Ciidil. Li'li. Sotidr. (1800), and other works, indicated in a marked way a reaction from this, influenced largely by the earlier writings of Nylander, and the turn became still more marked in Th. Fries, 6'( "era Ilctci-olli-hcnum 7?i(m;j/r(lS0l), and Stitzenbergcr, Iliitrnije (1802). But the whole ques- tion of the value of these spore-difl'erenees was first con- sidered by Prof. Tuckernian (Inlrud. In Lithcna of Vulif., etc., 1806): and tho reasoning of this paper is perhaps not far from conclusive against the new genera of the Italian and Cierman schools, and tends thus to restore tho system to the place as indicated for it by Fries, and maiiilaiiicd to a very great degree in all tho writings of Nylander. According to Tuckernian, all the spore-differences are to be regarded as gradal modifications of but two distinct types, complemented in the highest tribe only by what ap- pears an intermediate one (the ]iolar-liiloeularl ; and lie disallows any but subonlinale value to the distinctions based on Ibi/nunilier of spores in tho Ibekcs. much insisted on by all other recent writers. Nor should it be omitted that, according to this writer, there is much looking to show that " tho nllimatc or highest condition of a type of spore being assumed to include potentially nil the steps of tho preceding process of evolution, such ultimate state may bo expected to nflord, in its total history, an index to the spore-modification possible within the whole circuit of the natural grou]> or genus to which the species furnishing the ultimate condition belongs." (^'.ii. li. 15.) Montagne, in his descriptions of the lichens of Cuba, Ouiana, etc. (lS:i8-5.>), was the first who conjoined spore-characters with tho Friesian system. Th. Fries, Lii-lir-iict Arclui (1880), l,!chrnnrjruphia Scandinuviea (vol. i., 1871); Ny- lander, A'ourcllc Clnaaifiidlhnt (ISIM); Prodr. Lirh. tiulliiv. (1857); Eniim. gdiCrn'h (I858; l.'i48 species); Si/nnpaia Liclietiiim ( 1800, vol. i., all published); Llrheiica Scaiidi- luirr/c (1861). Tho same writer has contributed more largely than any other living botanist to the general know- ledge of lichens in jmblieations too numerous to cite here. Lindsay, S/irniintjoiira mid /'l/ni!d,a, in l.illll. Trnlia. (1859- 09); .Sehwcndeucr, I'lilnaiirli. iili. d. /•Vcc/iMi(A«//ic» ( ISCd- 03); Al'inili/pen dcr Flrclitcii;io>iidirn (1S6U); Bornot, /Icdierclira aur Ira (Innidiea (1873); Hcpp, Ehclilai Eiirn- paa (Fxs.) and .MihildiiHi/rn drr S/iorcii (1863-07) ; Huben- horst, /.iVAfiiM A'i/re;>«i' Aj». (1855-71); Tuckernian. Oba. liclirmloijinr in /Vor. Amcr. Arad. (1800-61) : l.i'lirna nf Ciilifornm (1866); Uvnrrn IJrhfmim (1873), which last may be recommended to the student as the most instruct- ivc'oontriliution of recent times to a jihilosophie knowledge of syslemalie lichcnology. (For a fuller account of Ameri- can' lichenogiaphv to l"808, sco iia).er in I'rorrrd. Eaar.r: Inal. (1809), and for tho history and lileraturc of the whole subject, Krempelhuhcr, llrarhi'i-hlr und /.iltrialiir dcv l.ieh- enoloqi--, from the earliest times to 1870 (3 vols., Munich, 1807-72).) II. \Vll,I.EV. ^Kl^cu i )VD 'Rw. % > ^ CO cr U) VD u i'^^ ''^/.M^^^'' i# University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 305 De Neve Drive - Parking Lot 17 • Box 951388 LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90095-1388 Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. \ i'^. '<!> .^^ ^% ^.:j^ V v^ 'Aa^ / ^ "-i'su^r^^^' ^/srap."^ v^\^RS/^^ :5 ^'n <^ / ^.. %. / ^ — ^ o -'jT^; .' r- c •5? ^ O o>. -^ CAL, % ^'idi z:!^ < a: ^ 'tJ' 000 457 860 5 A .V.- .st^ 'o ! ,r.~ <<,, ^ .^\^ ^^ '-iBHh?^ (^ •i^S^. ^\MtRs/r^ vS^:>. i. ■^^nvD ^ > ^.... o>/ •^ '^/.{mi ^^' .^^" 'o ^/8RaB^ ^ CD 5. ,\^--' "'^My, ^^"^^ ^o ^ CAL/p^ '^/sa3^^'' v>ivye/ Ml .^ .<> >VJERS/, ■'^^nXo CD > ^ :^1 ^^