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 HERMANDAD— HERMENEUTICS. 
 
 897 
 
 Iler'mandad (Sp., '* brotherhooj"), a general name 
 fnr tlic kagiK'S entered into by the Spanish cities in the 
 Middle Ageti for the preservation of public order and the 
 dffence of private property. The niosf celebrated (called 
 Santa Ilcrmandud. or lloly Broiherhuod) was jirobably or- 
 ganized in Ariigun in the thirteenth century; was ostab- 
 Ii?hed in Castile in 12S2. Another, of thirty-tivo towns in 
 Castile and Leon, was organized in I29i>. Kindred socie- 
 ties throughout Spain soon followed. Their laws were co- 
 dified in liSj, and published in i:«27. In 1188 the Holy 
 IJrothcrhood was reorganized, and in M9fi it was extended 
 over a great part of Spain. In 1 I'JS. Ferdinand and Isa- 
 bella roduied it from its high office of conservator of the 
 peace and defender of popular rights against the feudal 
 nobility, and it became an organized police force. In 
 K'»2ii-2I the Heriuandad of Valencia rose in insurrection 
 ag»in8t the government. The name has come down to the 
 present century simply as that of a police force. 
 
 Her'inaiin [Lat. Arminhts], a (rerman chieftain of the 
 Cherusci, a con of Sigimer, was b. IS ». r.; entered the 
 Roman service, and became an equestrian. In 9 A. v., 
 when Gennany was groaning under the oppression of 
 Varus. Hermann iimhuscatled the Unmans in the Teutu- 
 burger Forest, and almost all the Romans, Varus included, 
 lost their lives. He fought Germauicus ( 14-IC a. d.), with 
 disadvantage; defeated Marhodacus, king of tho Suevi, 
 17 ; was put to death by bis own relations 19 A. D., on the 
 ground that he was aiming at absi>lute power. 
 
 Hermann, pust-v., cap. of Gasconade co., Mo., 81 
 miles from St. Louis, on the Missouri Pacific R. R. and the 
 Missouri River, It has a savings bunk, a high school, 1! 
 newspapers (English and German), 4 hotels, a plauiug- 
 mill, and a large number of stores and public places. It 
 is noted for wine-growing, its annual production being 
 11)0,000 gallons. Pop. 1336, exclusively German. 
 
 ClIAS. EBEKIIAIinT, PLB. " ZeIUNG t"ND ADVERTISER." 
 
 Hermann (.Toiiann Gottprikd JAKon), b. at Leipsic 
 \'iv. '2!i, 1772; studied law, languages, and philosophy at 
 !.fip'*ic and .lena. and was appointed pro/rHnnr ffoquentiir 
 MI ISfliJ at the I'niversity of Leipsic, which position ho 
 filled to his death. Dec. 31. 1S48. He exercised great in- 
 fluence on metrical science by his /)c metrin (jrtrcorum et 
 liomnnornm purtnrum (1790) and Hnndhnch der Mctrxk 
 (179.S), etc. : and on granminr by his !>»• cmnnltiudaratione 
 frrirctr- tframmntirfr { ISitl ), and a number of minor essays. 
 Also as a text critic ho ac(|uired a groat name: he edited 
 ^schylus, Euripides, Aristojthancs. Ition ami Moschus, and 
 others. His lectures were very attractive by thoir liveli- 
 ness and clearness, and very instructive by their fulness 
 of knowledge; but his standpoint as a philologist, consid- 
 ering the classical languages as the only key to the under- 
 standing of the classical spirit, involved him in disagree- 
 able contests with lliickh, 0. Miillcr, and Crt^'uzcr. 
 
 Ilcrmann (Karl Friedkicii), b. at Frankfort Aug. 4, 
 IS04: studied at Heidelberg an'! Leipsic; travelled in 
 ls25 in Italy, and vam appointed professor in philology 
 at Marburg in 18.'*2, whence he removed in 1S40 to Gtittin- 
 gen. V. Jan. 8, ISjC. He combined in a happy manner 
 the linguiatical clement of classical scholarship with the 
 antiquarian, historical, and philosophical, and his Lehr- 
 hurh drr ffr\rchii*chr)i Altfrthnmer (1841) and (ietirhichtf 
 uiid Si/«tem drr phitituiHchru Philonophie (18;>9), as well as 
 his Cidtttff/rMrhirhtc dvr fJricchcn und Homer (1857), arc 
 much appreciated. 
 
 Iler'mnnstadt, town of Hungary, in the province of 
 Transylvania, on the Zibin. It Is a beautifully situated 
 iind well-built town, the scat of the governor of the prov- 
 ince and of a (Jreek archbishop, metropolitan of Transyl- 
 vania. Pop. 18,588. 
 
 Ilcrmnph>odi8m,orllermaph'roditism [named 
 from the fabled HKRMAiMlRoniTrs (which scei], the union 
 of the eharactcrislic organs of each sex in one individual. 
 This union of the male organs (])roducingsperm-celN) and 
 female (producing germ-cells) in one and the same organ- 
 ism i.H the normal condition in the great majority of jdants 
 und in many of the lower animals. Though the higher 
 f"rm« of rudintey. niolhisk", and Arlhropoda all have 
 the sexes quite distinct, except in abnormal instiinccs, 
 many of the inferior types of each are always hermaphro- 
 dites. Such, for instance, arc the common snail and the 
 earth-worm. No insect hermaphrodites (unless the Turdi- 
 gradesare insects) arc known, except in abnormal instances. 
 Sicbold found hennaphrodites among honey-bees, but ho 
 records that the workers threw them out of the cells, and 
 that they speedily p'rished. It has been euggcHted that 
 this hermaphrodistn in bees may exist normally in some 
 slight ilcgroe, and tliat it may give rise to the partheno- 
 genesis of male bees, for it is well known that queen bees 
 will produce male offspring without coitus with the male. 
 Vol.. TL— :.7 
 
 Hermaphrodism has not been observed with certainly in 
 vertebrates, except perhaps in eels and fishes of the family 
 Serranidw. It has been stated with considerable force that 
 the homologies existing between the male and female organs 
 prevent any possibility of hermaphrodism in the higher 
 vertebrates: but there is no apparent reason why of hihit- 
 eral or double organs one side should not assume the male 
 and the other the female development. Thus, there might, 
 it would appear, be one ovary an*! one testis — n condition 
 analogous to what is often seen in the lower animals. In 
 what are known as monstrosities by fusion, or the blendinf^ 
 of two germs, by which have been produced such abnor- 
 malities as the presence of three legs upon one foetus, wo 
 seem to see that true hermaphrodism is not a priori im- 
 possible, even in human beings. 
 
 Many of the lowest forms of hermaphrodite ]>1ants and 
 animals are self-fertilizing ; that is. reproduction takes 
 place without the sexual union of two individuals. Rut 
 in very many plants which have both kinds of reproduc- 
 tive organs in one flower, fertilizatif»n is accomplished by 
 means of insects, which carry the pollen of one flower to 
 the pistil of another, nature having ])revented self-fertiliza- 
 tion by wonderfully ingenious yet often very simple means. 
 Many bisexual animals, like the snail, conjugate for mu- 
 tual fertilization. Spurious hermajihrodisrn, in which 
 ; the characteristic organs of one sex assume, from incom- 
 plete or abnormal development, something of the appear- 
 ance of those of the opposite sex. has been often observed. 
 Under this head must be jdaced most or all of the recorded 
 instances of hermaphrodism in the human sjieoies. The 
 true hermaphrodism is double sex ; s[>urious hermaphro- 
 dism is donht/uf sex. Chaulks \V. Grkene. 
 Hermaphrodite Brig* Sec Brigawtine. 
 Hermaphrodi'tus was a son of Hermes and Aphro- 
 dite, and inherited the beauty of both of his parents. 
 Once, when ho was bathing in the well of Salmacis, near 
 Haliearnassus, in Caria, Asia Minor, the nymph of the 
 well fell in love with him, and prayed to the gods tliat slie 
 might remain united with him for ever; and when he as 
 cended from the bath he w.is changed so that he was 
 neither man nor woman, but both. The idea of this myth 
 is of Asiatic, the mylh itself of Roman, origin. In il.s 
 later period Greek sculpture often represented llcrmajdiro- 
 ditus, the upper part of the body female, the nether male, 
 Iler'mas, the author of a oncc-cclcbrated hook, 7*/"- 
 Shcphtrd,-mas by Irena?u3. Clemens Alexaudrinus, and Kn- 
 sobius considered identical with the Hermas mentioned by 
 Pt. Paul in his Epistle to the Romans (xvi. 14). while others 
 have j)l;iced him a little later, and made him a lirother of 
 Pius I., bishop of Rome in the middle of the second cen- 
 tury. The Shcpkrrd is divided into three parts — the 
 IVsioJi*, Prvvepts, and Sinti(itudr». It is in the form of a 
 dialogue, and consists of a blending of fantastic poetry 
 and naive morals, a character which explains how th«,' book 
 at once could be the Pi/ijrim'e Proi/rcnn of the old t"hur«'h 
 and yet be called childish by 8t. Jerome an<i TertuIIian. 
 It was originally written in Greek (6 ttoim'?*'). but exists now 
 only in translations. The Greek text found in a monas 
 tery on Mount Athos, and ])ublisheil in 1867, is generally 
 considered a translation of the Latin translation. An 
 English translation of Pantor Ifermiv was published in 
 I'Minburgh in isr>7 in the Antr.-Xiceuc Chrintinn Library. 
 IIcrmeneu'ticB [from the Greek verb ipyLrivevtt.v, to 
 '• interpret," and that from the name of /imncH, the son of 
 Zeus and Maia, the messenger and interpreter of the gods] 
 is the science and art of interpretation, or of ascertaining 
 the meaning of an author from his language. It is closely 
 allied to grammar, logic, and rhetoric, and presupposes 
 thorn. Its aim is to reduce interpretation to fixed laws and 
 principles, and to the precision of an exact science, so far 
 as the elastic nature of thought und language will permit. 
 The business of fj-position has often been confounded with 
 imposition, whereby all sorts of arbitrary subjective fancies 
 are introduced into (ho text of which the writer never 
 dreamed. The work of interpretation requires intellectual 
 and moral qualifications, natural and acquired — viz. a full 
 knowledge of tlic author's original language, historical 
 situation, mental status, and range of iileas, and an appre- 
 ciating sympulhy with his spirit und aim. 
 
 liihlicnl //' im(iirntic9 IB general hcrmcnonties applied to 
 the iSacreil Scriptures. It has been most cultivated on ac- 
 count of the vast importance and general interest of these 
 hooks. Its first germs may bo traced to Iho .lews and to 
 Philo of Alexandria, who reduced the allegorical method 
 of interpretation to a system, which through Origen (d. 2,')4 ) 
 passed into the Christian Church. Origen of Alexandria 
 distinguished a threefold sense of the Scriptures, corre- 
 sponding to the tripartite nature of man (a somatic or 
 literal, a psychic or moral, and a pneumatic or mystical 
 sense). The grammatical school, on the other hand, which
 
 898 
 
 HERMES— HERMIPPUS. 
 
 was best roprcscnfcd among the Fathers by Chrysostom 
 anil Jerome (tlioiigh by no meiins consistently), adhered to 
 the natural and literal sense as the only one which the 
 writer hud in view. Assuming the last jirinciple to be 
 correct, there are still three legitimate kinds of interpre- 
 tation, which, however, must harmonize with each other, 
 and together give the one full meaning of the text : (1) The 
 philolofjical (also called litvrnl or tjrammutifn-hiiittirical) 
 exegesis is concerned with the body or letter of the text, 
 with verbal, critical, and antiquarian questions. It brings 
 out the meaning of words and ])hra.-ies according to the 
 general rule? of grammar, the particular idiom and vocabu- 
 lary of the author, his age, nation, and country, and clears 
 up all references to contemporaneous history and antiqui- 
 ties. It deals with the literary and human aspects of the 
 Scripture, with the earthly form into which its divino con- 
 tents are cast. It is the basis of all sound exegesis. It has 
 been successfully cultivated during the present century in 
 Germany and England by Wiuer, Do Wctte, Lucke, Bleek, 
 Meyer. Ewald. Dillmann,' Alford. Ellicott, Lightfoot. (2) 
 The Iheolor/irdl (or tlorlriiHil and fthiinl interpretation) 
 deals with the divine thoughts and spiritual truths of the 
 Bible, and explains them in connection with its general 
 tcat'hing and according to the analogy of faith ; but it ought 
 ni>t to be fettered by dogmatic prejudice or made subservient 
 to sectarian interest, as was ilono in the scholastic periods 
 of theology (hiring the Middle .Ages and the seventeenth 
 century, when the Bible was used simply as a repository 
 of proof-texts for certain tenets of orthodoxy and against 
 heretical opinions. Among the most distinguished the- 
 ological expounders are Augustine, Luther, Calvin, 01s- 
 hauscn, Tholuck. Ilodge. {?>] Prarticul and homilellral 
 exegesis applies the text to the wants of tho human heart, 
 and draws from it lessons of wisdom and comfort for tho 
 battle of life. It belongs properly to tho pulpit and to 
 popular works. Of this character arc tho exegetical homi- 
 lies of Origen, Chrysostom, Augustine, and other Fathers, 
 and the commentaries of Matthew Henry, Burkitt, Dod- 
 dridge, Starke. 
 
 Literature. — ErNESTI. Principlrs of Biblical Interpreta- 
 tion (1861, Latin; Engl, transl. by Terrot, ISl.",); Wilki., 
 Jfcrmcneutik ilea ]V. T. (1844, 2 vols.); LrTZ, Billitche 
 JTermeneutik (1861); Cellerier, Manuel d'Hermeneulique 
 (1352); F.1IUB.V1KN, Tlermencutical Manual (l.'iiO); MrN- 
 SCazv., Manual of Billiral Interpretation (ISC')); ImmeR, 
 Hcrmcncutik des -V. T. (1870). PniLip .^cHAFr. 
 
 HeTRies. See MERcunr. 
 
 Her'mes (Georg), a German theologian who under the 
 inUucnce of the *' new philusojdiy " endeavored to carry out 
 tho doctrines of unity and identity into forming a common 
 basis for Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. B. in 
 Dreicrwald, Westphalia, Apr. 22, 1775, he d. at Bonn May 
 26, is:'il. Ilaving studied theology at Miinster, where he be- 
 came in lS07protcssor, he was subsequently teaeherof Cath- 
 olic theology at Bonn. '' Ho had found," says Binder, " tho 
 futility of the attacks of Kant and Fichte on Christianity, 
 and tlie truth of Uoman Catholicism." He, however, busied 
 himself for many years in trying to base the principles of 
 the latter on those of the former, setting forth his views in 
 tho Einleiluntj in die ('hrint-l.-alhoUaelie Thevtotjie (" Intro- 
 duction to tlie Catholic Christian Theology"). His work 
 was not in any respect heretical, but confined itself to 
 negativing the arguments of those who declared the in- 
 stability of the Catholic dogma. He founded a school or 
 doctrine termed Ilcrmcsiairisra, and his followers, tho Her- 
 mesianer, occupied many important positions as preachers 
 and te.ichers in (tcrmany. He maintained that tho prin- 
 ciple of pure reaton, which, as Kant teaches, is innate in 
 every soul, enabling it to decide on all principal truths, 
 should he applied to religion; or rather that the Church 
 should teach its doctrines on this basis. But this principle 
 was disapproved of at Rome, .and a papal letter was directed 
 against it (Sept. 16. 1835) by I'opo Gregory, beginning 
 with the words Dnm aeerhi»»imun. During the life of 
 Hermes his school had great influence anci made many con- 
 verts. Binder attributes the delay in proeeecling against 
 it to tho usual system of formalities followed at Rome in 
 such cases. The fundamental principle of the Ilermesian 
 doctrine is, that human reason can grasp the truth, and 
 that religion, being true, is or may be based on this "nat- 
 ural sense." Hut the Church holds a directly different 
 doctrine, and tloes not look up tc) philosophy or science to 
 authorize her doctrines, as the Roman Catechism declares 
 "the mysteries which are contained in God's holy Church 
 arc to be understood only by faith, and not by reason." 
 Hermes did in fact quite unconsciously seek to put the 
 Catholic Church on that Protestant foundation of independ- 
 ent reason which from l.utlier to DiiUinger has been so 
 strongly characteristic of the Teutonic mind. .Among the 
 principal works referring to Hermcsianism are the follow- 
 
 ing: IJinweifiunrfen auf den Grundehurakter den Herme- 
 ftisehen Si/stems, by J. B. Bai.tzer (1802, 8vo) ; Uliitter 
 sur Orientirung in Sftihen den Heriuetiianisnius (18M8), by 
 F. X. Bii'NDE and J. .1. Uosenbaum ; Aeta Jiontana, by J. 
 W. J. BiiArN and P. J. Ki.vENicH (documents relating to 
 tho condemnation, by the pope, of ti. Hermea (1808, 8vo); 
 Aeta Jlennetiana, hy A, J. El.VENICH : ynr/e Aintotatioiieiff 
 by LAN(i (1809); Apidtti/ic de» llennenianinmuit, by J. B. 
 LlITTERBECK (1805): Veber (i/anlien, by J. J. RoSE.NDAUM 
 
 (1808, 8vo); Vhrisl-kalhulitehe VoijmaliJc, by G. Hermes; 
 Der Hermeaianiamua und Joh. Pcrrone ( Breslau, 1844). 
 
 Chari.es G. Leland. 
 Hermesi'annx, b. at Colophon, lived in the times of 
 Philip and Alexander the Great, and d. before the destruc- 
 tion of his native city by Lysimachus in 002 n. c. Ho 
 wrote an elegiac poem in three books to his mistress Leon- 
 tium, of which a largo part of the third book has been 
 quoted by Athena'us. and thus como down to us. It has 
 been separately published by J. Bailey (London, 1809), to- 
 gether with a critical epistle by 0. Burges. 
 
 Ilerinesianism, the religious philosophy taught by 
 Gi-.ouG Heumes (which see). 
 
 Her'mes Trisincgis'tus (" thrioe-grcat Ilcrmes," or 
 Mercury), or Thoth, an Egyptian god, regarded as in- 
 ventor of all science and learning; e. 3. speech, writing, 
 religion, geometry, architecture, and the arts. Every Egyp- 
 tian boftk relating to religion or science was inscribed with 
 his name, as if inspired by him; and according to Jambli- 
 chus there were of these 36,000. The name " thrice-great " 
 is supposed to refer to the god's triple manifestation as 
 philosopher, priest, and king. Certain dialogues on mys- 
 tical theology, etill extant, and which were very popular 
 during tho fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, were subse- 
 quently regarded as forgeries. They had been transmitted 
 from an early ago in a rude Greek form. More recent re- 
 search has indi^eated that the Greek, by its very defects, 
 possesses the ch.araeter of a translation. The writer pro- 
 fessed a belief in their authenticity, as Champollion the 
 Younger had done. More recently a French Egyptologist, 
 M. Pierrat of the Louvre, in the Metnnijea d' AreKoloijie 
 (!to, Paris, 1S70, p. 112), has jiointcd out tliat many of the 
 very peculiar phrases and ideas contained in tho Hermetic 
 books arc to be found in tho papyri and inscriptions. Tho 
 works or fragments bearing tho name of Hermes Trisnic- 
 gistus are as follows: (1) Pawander^o/ the Xalureof T/tin<fit 
 andofthe Vreationufthc World; (2) Of Dirinc Wisdnmand 
 Poicer; (0) Asclepius; (1) The Aphoriama of Hermes; (5) On 
 the Kertdutions of Xativities. Fragments of five other works 
 are preserved by John Stoba;us. The most recent text, Greek 
 with tho Latin versions, is tb.e Ilermetia Trismeyiati Pcem- 
 andcr,hy Gustavus Parthey (Berlin, Kicoli, 1854). Among 
 all the mysticism of tho Pamander, etc., there is much that 
 is grand and beautiful. Tho first editors of Hermes Tris- 
 megistus erred in attributing tho works to Jloses himself, 
 or in giving to thcin a fabulous anticjuity, while the later 
 critics were as much in tho wrong ia boldly declaring tb.at 
 they were Nco-Platonio or Christian forgeries of tlio third 
 century A. D. Chari.es G. Lelasd. 
 
 Hermet'ic Writings [from Hermea (Mercury), with 
 whom the Greeks identified tho Egyptian 7'/io(/i, tho god 
 of literature and learning], a name in its widest sense desig- 
 nating the whole body of Egyptian literature ; but tho name 
 is especially given to a mass of works in Greek and Latin, 
 fragments of which have como down to our time, and which 
 profess to have been inspired by Hermes Tkismegistits 
 (which see). They treat of astrology, ontology, and other 
 subjects, and are of no value. There were also a number 
 of works written in the Middle Ages by alcheuiisls, and in 
 later times perhaps by the Ilosicrucians, which profess to 
 have been written by Hermes Trismcgistus. The Zabi.ans 
 of tho East have writings in Greek which they ascribe to 
 
 j Hermes. 
 
 I Hermi'as was a eunuch and slave in tho household of 
 Euhulus, tvrant of Atarneus and .Assus, in Mysia, Asia 
 Minor: but he gained his master's confidence, was made 
 free, travelled to Athens, where he heard Plato's lectures 
 in eompanv with Aristotle, and succeeded Eubulus on the 
 
 i throne of Atarneus in :!47. Aristotle spent several years 
 at his court, but had lo flee when Artaxcrxes, king of Per- 
 sia, sent an army to reduce all the petty tyrants in Asia 
 Minor. Ilermias was captured and sent to the Persian 
 court, where he was put to death, but Aristotle raised a 
 statue at Delphi in honor of him, and married his relative 
 Pythias. 
 
 Ilermip'pns lived in the middle of the third century 
 n. I'., and wrote a work containing the biographies of the 
 Greek philosophers, historians, and poets. The work itself 
 is lost, but it is frequently quoted by subsequent writers, 
 
 j and s.'cms to have enjoyed a great reputation in antiquity.
 
 HERMIT— HERNIA. 
 
 899 
 
 The fragments which arc found in other authors have been 
 collfctcd and edited by Lozyuski (Uoiin, lsy2). 
 
 ller'mit [Ur. iprjtiinji ; Lilt. errmt(ti,a "dweller in soli- 
 tude "]. a jiurjson who retires from human .«ociety and dwells 
 alone ; a title given ei<pecially to reltgioup reclusoii, and par- 
 ticularly to those who do not live in eomniou with others. 
 •So aUo the Augustinian monks, though living in monas- 
 teries, are called hermits, being aecustomcd to ^pcnd a part 
 of their time in solitude. There are many other monastic 
 congregations cfilled hermits, notably certain lay members 
 of the third order of ?^t. Francis, who, being married before 
 taking their vows, cannot be received in full into the order. 
 
 Her'mitage, post-v., county-seat of Hickory co., Mo., 
 80 miles S. W. of Jeflerson City. 
 
 Hermit Crab. Sec Ciiab. 
 
 llormuduc'tyl ("Mercury's finger"), th© name of a 
 bulbous rout sometimes used in medicine. It appears that 
 some hermodactyls arc produced from /n'« titberoga, and 
 others from Cnlchicnm variet/ntum, Euroneau and Asiatic 
 plants. The ancients used hermodaetyla for gout, but in 
 modern times they are considered nearly or quito inert. 
 
 Uermog'enes [*Epmoy«Vii?] lived in the time of the em- 
 peror M. Ant<minu?, son of ('alippus, and b. at Tarsus in 
 Cilicia. He was noted for the early development of his 
 oratorical powers, so that at the age of fifteen he attracted 
 the attention of the emperor, who listened to his extempore 
 discourses with great pleasure. When seventeen he became 
 a public teacher of rhetoric, and at eighteen or twenty he com- 
 posed his rhotorical works, which Suidas speaks of as mo«t 
 worthy of admiration, and which were for several centuries 
 the established books of instruction. At the ago of twenty- 
 five he lost his intellectual power and sank into imbecility. 
 Five of his works, forming a Textrq pjjTopnei) ('* System of 
 Rhetoric"), have come down to our time: ( 1 ) On general 
 issues; (2| On invention; (3) On the forms of oratory; (J) 
 On the method of acquiring skill in S|)eaking; (j) Prepara- 
 tory exercises lTrp13yvtJ.vdtrfi.aLTa). This last work was abridged 
 by Aphthoniu^ (a. d. ;il j|. and was thus in time superseded. 
 They are found in the lihctorfa Orteci of Walz (Stuttgart. 
 18.'J2-:i«) and of Spengel (Loipsic, lS6."J-5fi, .3 vols.). The 
 Prof/ifiHiiaMmata were first published in Orcek by Hecren 
 (rtHttingen, 1791), with Hceren's and his own notes by 
 Veesenmeyer (Nuremberg, 1S12). (Seo .MUlleu's and 
 DoXAXMOs'a Greek Literature, vol. ill. p. 150.) 
 
 H. DmsLEn. 
 
 Her'niODf post-tp. of Penobscot co., Me., on the Maine 
 Central K. K., II miles W. of Bangor. It has manufactures 
 of cooperage. Pop, 14S9. 
 
 Ilermon, tp. and post-v. of St. Lawrence co., N. Y. It 
 has iron ore and other minerals, and contains 3 churches. 
 Pop. of V. 67."i; of tp. 1792. 
 
 Hermonf Mount, is the highest elevation of the whole 
 Syrian system of mountains. It is formed by a spur from 
 Anti-Lebanon, which, separating tho valley of Ctcle-Syria 
 from that of the Jordan, unites to the W. with tho range of 
 Lehanon. Orcat Hermon, or Mount Hermon proper, is 
 abuul 10,000 feet high. Its top is generally covered with 
 snow, and is visible from Tyre and Damascus. Its sides are 
 clad with white poplars. The Psalms speak of the *' dew 
 of Hermon," and modern travellers say that during tho 
 night their tents become as wet with dew as by a rainstorm. 
 
 Hermop'olis .Mag'na, an aneicnt city of Egypt, was ! 
 situated on the left bank of tho Nile, near tho boundary i 
 between Tpper and Middle Egyjit. on tho site nowoocupiell 
 by the village of Oshmoonegu or Kshmoon. At tho time 
 of the Ptolemies it was a rich and magnificent rity, promi- 
 nent among whose buildings was tho temple of Thr)th or 
 Tauth, the ibis-headcd god, the inventor of (In- pen and 
 letters, identified with the (Jreck Jlermes. But it was en- 
 tirely destroyed by tho Mohammedans, who carried away 
 ita monuments for building purposes, and left nothing be- 
 hind but largo mounds of ruins and rubbish. 
 
 Ilcrmosi'llo, town of Mexico, in tho state of Sonora, 
 stands on the river Sonora, at tho entrance of an exceed- 
 ingly fertile valley which produces wheat, wine, and all 
 kinds of fruit in abundance, and carries on a very lively 
 tra.Ie. I»op. It.OOO. 
 
 Ilcrnan'do, county of Florida, bounded on tho W. by 
 the Uulf fpf Me.xico. Area, 1? 00 squaro miles. Tho soil 
 is undulating and generally very fertile. Jt has extensive 
 hard-wood forests. Rico is tho largest crop, but tho soil is 
 adapted lo all tho products of tho Southern States. Cap 
 Brookvillc. Pop. 2ft38. ^ 
 
 Hernando, post-r., cap. of Do Soto co.. Miss., on the 
 Mis3i«?ippi and Tennessee 11. R., 22 miles 8. of Memphis, 
 has a weekly newspaper, a female ooIIckp, a male seminary, 
 •1 churches, a very fine court-house, and 22 commercial 
 houses. Pop. 7?>0. W, S. Si,Ai>t;. Kn. *' I'la-^s." 
 
 Hern'don ( William Lewis), b. at Freilcricksburg. Va.. 
 Oct. 2a, lMl;i; entered the U. S. navy when fifteen years 
 old; was engaged in the Mexican war, and employed in 
 tho National Observatory, Washington, I). C, for three 
 years. He crossed the Andes from Lima eastward, and 
 with Lieut. Lardncr Gibbon conducted the exploration 
 { lSaI-J2) of the Amazon Valley. The publii^hed report of 
 this expedition was in 2 vols. {I8j,3-54), the first by Hern- 
 don, tho second by Gibbon. Herndon was in command ol 
 tho steamer Central America when she was lost (Sept. 12. 
 1SJ7) in a storm on the voyage from tho Isthmus of 
 Panama to New York. There were on board *omc 580 per- 
 sons, of whom 427 were lost, but the women and children 
 were all saved. Herndon went down with the ship, stand- 
 ing on the bridge in full uniform. 
 
 Hor'nia. [Lat.], the protrusion of a viscus from the cavity 
 to which it normally belongs ; but the term is generally used 
 to exjiress the protrusion of an abdominal viscus, as when 
 wo speak of other forms of hernia we express it thus : her 
 nia cerebri, hernia corucjc, etc. The predisposing eaus<- 
 of hernia is a weakness of some portion of the abdominal 
 w.alls, and there are certain parts which are naturally 
 weaker than others, as the inguinal, umbilical, and femoral 
 regions. This weakness very often exists congenitally, and 
 may be increased or produced by injury, disease, or }»reg- 
 naney. Among the exciting causes may be mentioneil vio- 
 lent muscular exertion, jumping, straining from lifting 
 heavy weights or at stool, playing on wind instruments, 
 etc. The usual contents of a hernial sac is a portion of the 
 small intestine, or the omentum, but we may find ])ortion>' 
 of any of the viscera in it, especially when tho abdominal 
 walls are congenitally weak. The sac is formed of perito 
 neum, which is covered by the integument and subjacent 
 fascia?. 
 
 Hernia is generally divided in two ways: 1st, according 
 to its situation, as inguinal, femoral, umbilical, phrenic. 
 etc.; 2d, according to the condition of the protruded vis- 
 cus, as reducible, irreducible, anci strangulated. Reducible 
 hernia is that variety in which the contents of the sac may 
 be returned into its normal cavity without recourse to a 
 surgical operation. It sometimes disappears spontaneously 
 when the patient t^ceks the recumbent j)osition, but more 
 often needs a greater or less amount of pre.^surt? to bo made 
 in the pri>per direction. The symptoms of it are — the ap 
 pearanco of a soft and compressible swelling at some por- 
 tion of the abdominal wall, which increases when the pa- 
 tient stands up and diminishes when lie lies down ; by 
 jilaeing the hand upon the tumor and directing the patient 
 to cough a distinct impulse is imparteil. The treatment 
 usually adopted consists of the reduction of tho contents, 
 and the application of a suitable truss to prevent the re~ 
 protrusion. If the patient is young, this method will efi"eet 
 a radical cure in time, but in the adult recourse must be 
 liaci to an operation to effect this. 
 
 Irreducible hernia differs from reducible in that the pro- 
 truded viscus cannot be returned into its normal cavity. 
 Tho general causes of it are adhesions between the sac and 
 its contents, the growth of membranous bands across the 
 sac, or enlargement of the contents. It is much more trou- 
 blesome than the preceding variety : in the first place, it is 
 much more inconvenient, and is always exposed to the 
 danger of strangulation; the patient suffers from indiges- 
 tion, constipation, colic, flatulence, ami dragging pains in 
 the loins. The treatment of this variety must be generally 
 palliative, and consists of the patient's avoiilanee of all 
 violent exercise; regulation of the bowels, which shoulti 
 never be allowed to become confined ; and the wearing of 
 a truss to support an<i protect the tumor. 
 
 *' Hernia is said to be stranguhiteil when it is constricted 
 in such a way that the contents of the protruded bowel 
 cannot bo propelled onward, an«l the return of its venous 
 blooil is impeded." There is always more or less inflam- 
 mation, caused by tho constriction. Tho causes of this 
 condition are sudden enlargement of tho contenis of the 
 sac by fiuees or gas. or congestion ur s\velling of the neck 
 of the sac. The symptoms arc — pain, fialulenee, a desire 
 to go to stool, constipation, nausea, and vomiting, the 
 vomited matter after a time becoming storcoraceous. The 
 tumor is hard, and cannot be replaced in the abduniinal 
 cavity, and there is very little impulse transmitted to the 
 hand when the patient coughs. I'he pain in the tumor 
 continues to increase, and extends over the whole of tho 
 abdomen : tho countenance assumes an anxious expression; 
 the pulse becomes small and wiry, and the f-kin cold and 
 clammy. Should the pain c'-ase, ami I he tumor feel doughy 
 anil crepitate when handled, we may be sure that the intes- 
 tine has mortified; when this happens, there is very little 
 hope for the patient; in fact, the only chance for recovery 
 now is by an artificial anus. The object of treatment is to 
 r*'turn the intestine into its cavity. When this cannot bo 
 aecomplished by manipulation, or manipulat imi coinhincd
 
 900 
 
 HERO— HERODOTUS. 
 
 with warm baths and the administration of ether — the pa- 
 tient having first been niaccd in such a position that all 
 the parts in the neighborhood "f the trouble shall be com- 
 pletely relaxed — recourse must immediately be had to 
 an operation. This consists of enlarging the constricted 
 portion, so as to allow of the return of the gut, and consists 
 of cutting down to the sac, and then either opening it and 
 divi'iin" the stricture, dividing the stricture without open- 
 ing the sac, or by merely incising the neck of the sao. 
 Edward J. Berminouam. 
 
 Hero. See Heroic Age, 
 
 Ile'ro, or He'ron, an ingenious mechanical philoso- 
 ]'her. pupil of Ctesibius. who 
 li\cd about 286-222 b. c. famous 
 I'lr an acquaintance with the prin- 
 ciples of pneumatics and hydrau- 
 lics quite in advance of his age. 
 lie wrote a nuniVter of books and 
 invented a variety of machines, 
 twoof which, the moli pile (sec ^0- 
 i.ii'ILk) and the fountain which 
 bears his name, are still among 
 the familiar forms of illustrative 
 apparatus in the physical lecture- 
 roum. Hero's fountain is shown 
 in tho annexed figure, in which 
 it is seen that tho elastic force of 
 a ennfined body of air, increased 
 by hydraulic pressure and react- 
 ing upon the surface of water in 
 a closed reservoir, produces a jet 
 which may rise ( theoretically) 
 above that surface to a height 
 equal to the effective height of 
 the pressing column. 
 
 F. A. P. Barnard. 
 
 Hero, a priestess of tho tem- 
 ple of Aphrodite at Sestos, on the 
 coast of Thrace, was loved by Le- 
 andcr, n native of Abydos, on the 
 opposite shore of the Hellespont. 
 Guided by the light of tho torch 
 which Hero planted on the cliffs 
 of Sestos, Leander used to swim 
 across the sea to meet her, but 
 one night the storm ])ut out the 
 tnroh, and when next morning 
 Hero discovered the corpse of her 
 lover floating on tho waves, she Hero's fountain, 
 
 threw herself into the sea. There is a Greek epic poem by 
 MusLieus, a ballad by Schiller, and a drama by Grillparzer 
 on this subject, and it has been painted over and over 
 again by the disciples of the school of David. 
 
 Her'od the Geieat, king of the Jews, was b. in 62 d. c. 
 at Ascalon in Judaja, and was of Idumean descent. When 
 in 47 B. c. his father, Antipatcr, was made procurator of 
 Judyea by Julius Caesar, he himself received the govern- 
 ment of Galilee, to which was afterwards added that of 
 Samaria and ('tele-Syria. Ho was expcllc<l for a short 
 time by Antigonus, the nephew of Hyrcanus II. and tho 
 representative of tho Asmoncan dynasty, but in Rome, 
 whither he fled, he succeeded in gaining the favor of An- 
 tony ; not only were his claims recognized by the senate, 
 but the title of king of Judiea was conferred on him (40 
 It. i\). He established himself by force in Jerusalem, and 
 by unlioard-of cruelty he maintained his jiowor. Ail mem- 
 bers of the old dynat'ty, even his own wife. Marianine, the 
 daughter of Hyrcanus II., and the three children ho had 
 by her, were executed. And the older he grew the more 
 suspicious and atrocious he became. The slaughter of tho 
 infants at Bethlehem, of which we are told in .Matthew ii. 
 1*1, was 80 common and insignificant an afTair that Jose- 
 plius does not mention it. A few days before ho died ho 
 had his son. Antipatcr, strangled. But, altliough cruel, hi^ 
 government was vigorous and brilliant. He was highly 
 esteemed by Augustus. There was peace in Judaea; eoni- 
 merco and irulustry prospered; literature and art flour- 
 ished. His buildings were especially magniftcent ; he 
 -founded Ca;?arca, rebuilt Samaria under the namo of Se- 
 baste, and adorned Jerusalem with numerous splendid 
 structures. The Jews, however, found iu his government 
 a leaning towards Home, which humiliated them, and a 
 general tendency towards Roman civilization, which they 
 hated; ami tho latter part of his life was much troubled by 
 conspiracies and riots. He was ton times married, and died 
 between Mar. 13 and Apr. f), a few weeks after the birth 
 of Christ, of a horrible disease, the same as killed Sulla 
 and Philip II. of Spain. — His son, Hkrod Antipas, by 
 hi' wife Malthaoe, a Samaritan, was by his will appointed 
 f' 'rarch of Galilee and Pera*a. He divorced his first 
 wife, and marrieil Hcrodias, the wife of his half-brother 
 
 Philip, and when John the Baptist remonstrated against 
 this incestuous connection, he had him put to death. 
 During a visit to Jerusalem for the purpose of celebrating 
 tho passover, t'hrist appeared beiore liini, sent by Piiato 
 as a former resident of his tctrarchate. In 42 A. d. he 
 made a journey to Rome in order to obtain the royal dig- 
 nity, but, through the intrigues of Herod Agrippa, ho was 
 exiled by Caligula, and d. in Lyons. — Hi:uon AcjniiM'A I., 
 son of Aristobulus, brother to Hcrodias, and grandson of 
 Herod tho Great, was educated in Rome, and received 
 from Caligula the tetrarehate of Judiea with the title of 
 king, and after the banishment of Herod Antipas, Clau- 
 dius gave him all the old provinces of Judu>a. He was 
 mucli liked by the Jews, especially for his vigorous meas- 
 ures against Christians; he liad the apostle St. James the 
 (Jroater beheaded and St. Peter thrown into prison. He 
 d. early (44 A. n.). — Hkrod AiiuriTA II., a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was. like his father, educated in Rome, and resided 
 there, at tho court of Claudius, at the death of Agripj»a I. 
 He did not inherit his father's dominions, however ; they 
 were made a Roman province, and Herod Agrippa II. ob- 
 tained at first (.")(J A. n.) only the small kingdom of Chal- 
 ois. Abilene and Trachonitis wcro subsequently added. 
 In 60 A. I)., when he went down to Cajsarea to compliment 
 Festus, the Roman governor, the apostle St. Paul a]>peared 
 before him. In the Jewish war he sided against his coun- 
 trymen, anil after the destruction of Jerusalem (70 A. d.) 
 he resided in Rome, where he d. in lOU a. n. 
 
 Rkviscd by R. D. HiTriicocK. 
 
 Hero'des At'ticus, one of the most celebrated Greek 
 orators, w.as b. at Maratlion in 104 A. d., and d. at Athens 
 in 180. M. Antoninus was one of his pupils, and during 
 his reign he held public oflices. He was immensely wealthy. 
 His father left an annuity to each Athenian citizen. Still 
 more remarkable was his eloquence. He was called tho 
 " tongue of Greece," and his speeches were compared to 
 silver streams running in golden beds. Unfortunately, tho 
 only one of his works which has come down to us (Ilepc 
 IIoAiTeia?, edited by Bekker in his Onitorea Attici, 1824) is 
 niiseral)le, amaze of affected sophistry. 
 
 Hcro'dians, a Jewish party in the time of Christ, 
 first mentioned in Mark iii. 6. They were partisans of tho 
 Herod family, whose tyranny they preferred to that of the 
 Romans. They appear to have been mostly Sadducees. 
 
 Herodia'nus was a Greek by birth, but lived for a 
 long time in Rome, and wrote in the Greek language a work 
 in eight books on the history of Rome from the death of 
 M. Aurelius (180 a. n.) to tlic accession of Gordianus III, 
 (238 A. !>.), narrating events, as ho informs us, which had 
 occurred in his own lifetime. Tho work, which is still ex- 
 tant, is interesting, and is considered truthful and impar- 
 tial in the main; the best editions of it arc by Irmisch 
 (5 vols., Leipsic, 1789-1805), bv Weber (1816), and by 
 Bekker (1826 and ISoo), 
 
 Herod'otus, a Greek historian, often called tho 
 "father of history," was b. at Halicarnassus, a Doric col- 
 ony in Caria, Asia Minor, in 484 B. c. Thus his life falls 
 within the happiest and most glorious period of the history 
 of tho Greek nation. Like a spring flood the Persian 
 power came rolling on, swelling through centuries by the 
 absorption of Media, Bal)yIon, Egypt, Asia Minor, Thracia, 
 and Macedonia; and now it burst upon Greece. But its 
 force was broken in the battles of Marathon {Sept. 12, 490), 
 Thermopyhe (July 6, 4S0). Salamis (Oct. 5, 4S0), Platwa 
 and Mycalo (Sept. 23, 470). Harmless it retired, and tho 
 Greek nationality arose. Within a few generations somo 
 of the noblest and loftiest instruments of civilization were 
 either invented — such as philosophy, history, tragedy, and 
 comedy — or brought to greater perfection, such as public ed- 
 ucation, republican government, architecture, and sculpture. 
 Herodotus became tlio inventor of the art of history. Ho 
 belonged to a wealthy and influential family ; among his rel- 
 atives was tho celebrated epic poet Panyasis. Under the 
 reign of Lygdamis, Panyasis was killed, and Herodotus and 
 his family expelled from Halicarnassus. Ho went to Sa- 
 mos, where ho lived several years, and where he learnt tbo 
 Ionian dialect, in which ho wrote his book. Ho returned 
 once more to Halicarnassus, and took part in the expulsion 
 of tho tyrant, • but ho soon again left his native city, and 
 entered on tho long and extensive travels which formed tho 
 necessary preparation for his great work. Ho wandered 
 through the whole of Greece, studying the history of each 
 jjlace on the spot by making liimself acquainted with its 
 monuments and its traditions. Thus ho acquired a most 
 intimate acquaintance with the whole route which tho Per- 
 sian armies had taken; with Marathon, Therniopylao, 
 Salamis, Platoea and Mycale, where tho great battles wero 
 fought; with Athens and other cities which formed tho 
 political, commercial, and intellectual centres of tho Greek 
 nation; with Delphi and Dodona, the sacred and awe-in-
 
 HEROIC AGE— HERPES. 
 
 901 
 
 ppiring scats of the oracles : aod in all the principal parts 
 o( his narrative he simply relates what he has seen himself 
 or heard from eyewitnesses. No less intimate and compre- 
 hensive was his acquaintance with Egypt. He had visited 
 Memphis and lleliopolis, and crossed the whole country 
 from the Iklta to Kle|»hantinu, and from the Libyan desert 
 to the Ued Sea, Modern travellers are still surprised at 
 the accuracy of his observations and the correctness of his 
 descriptions. In Asia xMinor ho knew from personal uc- 
 quaiDtancc every place he mentions, and in Asia proper ho 
 travelled as far as Colchis to the N. and lJaU\ Ion to the S, 
 The latter part of his life he spent in Thurii. a Greek col- 
 ony in .Southern Italy, established in 441 B. v., near the 
 ruins of Sybaris. From his residence in this city ho is often 
 called the rAuriuH by the ancients, and here ho probably 
 wrote, or at least liiiished. his book. It is also probable 
 that be died here, about WS B. 0. At what time and place 
 he actually wrote his history is a much-disputed point. 
 Luciansaysat Haiiiarnassus, Suidas in Samus, and Pliny 
 at Thurii, which indicates three ditfcrent ipojhs of hishf^-. 
 Lucian furthermore says that he read it or recited it to tho 
 people assembled at the Olympian games, and adds that 
 Thucydides was present and burst into tears from enthusi- 
 asm. According to l*Iut:irch, he also read it at the Pau- 
 atbeneea at Athens (415 b. c), and was rewarded by a 
 grant of ten talents from tho public treasury; and Dion 
 Chrysostonius mentions that he read it to the Corinthians. 
 However dubious and even contradictory these statements 
 arc, (he general impression of all is, that llerodotus wrought 
 for many years on his book, beginning it at Ilalicarnaasus 
 and finishing it at Thurii : and tho character of tho book 
 iteelf, its style and method of eomnosilion. seem to con- 
 firm this impres-iion. It narrates the history of tho war 
 between the (Sreeks and the Persians, but every new clc- 
 meot which is introduced into the composition is explained 
 to tho reader in its whole signification by long digressions, 
 tracing it back to its origin, and following up its develop- 
 ment to the moment it enters tho narrative; and thus the 
 book actually gives the history of tho world. It must not bo 
 understood, however, that the narration of tho (ireek-Per- 
 sian war was a mere framework to wliich the history of tho 
 world is hung by the somewhat clumsy artifice of digres- 
 sions. Ily no means; although iu tho details Herodotus is 
 a minute and circumstantial chronicler, in tho composition 
 of tho whole he is a great artist. His digressions aro nu- 
 merous, and, on account of their great elaboration, they 
 may appear distracting at a first perusal, and burdensome 
 ovon at a second; but in the final impression of (Iu total 
 work they simply act as a substructure on which stands 
 the tempie itself, the narrative of the Greek-Persian war. 
 They give this narrative its pathos; they explain what this 
 war was — namely, a war between two worlds, Europe and 
 Asia; a war bet^teen two principles, barbarism and civili- 
 zation ; a war on whose fortune the dcstinv of mankind de- 
 pended. This total view, which made Tli;nydides burst 
 into tears when it dawned upon him, and which the world 
 has accepted as an undoubted truth, is the great merit of 
 the book of Herodotus. But it is not (he o'lly one. .Mod- 
 ern scholars, especially certain modern Iviglish historians, 
 blame Herodotus for his credulity and prt>pi-nr<ity for tho 
 won lerful ; an I it cannot be denied that in eotnparis^m 
 with (he tone and character of modern history the wonder- 
 ful plays a very conspicuous part in his book. The blanio 
 is unjust, however — as unjust as if any one would compare 
 Walt's first steam-engine with the latest produced and most 
 improved, and then blame Watt for weakness in mechanical 
 eonecption and awkwardness in mechanical construction. 
 Herodotus wrote in an age whose eonsciousnes.H, ^till half 
 mythological, perceived the wonderful as the natural, and 
 would have cinaidercd many of the ideas of modern history 
 a< impiety, or even insanity. Instead, therefore, of blam- 
 ing him for credulity and propensity for the wonderful, it 
 would be more just to praise him for tho soberness of his | 
 observation and tho soiin<lness of his criticism ; for in these i 
 (wo points he truly denotes an advaufo in (he human intel- 
 lect. Ho is called "' the father of history " because he was 
 the first who really succeeded in reaching tho fact in its 
 con'*ntenation of cause and effect. The best editions are 
 that of Wc'seling {Amsterdam. 17lV'., folio); that of 
 .Schweighiiuser (.'^trasburir, lHOr>, (\ vols.: rcprinteii Lon- 
 don. |M|S-'J(. withnn Herodotean lexicon; tlreek and Kng- 
 li^h separately, by Cary, Oxford. 184;i); that of (iaisford 
 (Oxford. IS'JI, 4 vols.; :Jd ed. US-Ill), of W'. Dindorf ( Paris, 
 lH44,in I>ii«>t's Hihl, r/rffcn). of .1. ('. K. liahr (Leipsie. |h:;0 
 -'Mt, 4 vols. : !id ed. 180ft-6l ), of Stein (in WKumiANN's ^•f^^ 
 Urtinn, Berlin. I'd ed., .^ vols., lHtjM-7 » 1. <'f Abicht (in Tit B- 
 nku'h I'ullrrtian, '.i vols., Lcipsic, ISfi;i). and of Blakeslcy 
 (in /tihiiuthrra ('ittmn'citf 2 vols., Cambridge, IH.'i-l). His 
 liimtin\f has been translated into English by Itev. (I. Uaw- 
 Iin«on (London, 1M.'»S). Ci.i:iikns Pktkhskn. 
 
 Uero'ic Age, the more than half-mythical age of Gre- 
 
 cian history preceding the true historic period. In it the 
 heroes, who were often of half-divine descent — great war- 
 riors, kings, navigators — are tho central figures. *' In these 
 myths," says Ernst Curtius, "tho people recalls to its mind, 
 in their full life, those times when the monotonous existence 
 of the old Pelasgians was interrupted, and new forms of 
 worship, new openings for popular activity, new ways of 
 life, continuing ever after with abundance of great fruits, 
 were called into existence. These founders are figures like 
 those of living men, but greater, nobler, nearer the immor- 
 tals. They are no empty creations of the fancy, but in them 
 tlic real deeds of the early times arc illustrated and endowed 
 with life. The talcs of the heroes contain a certain docu- 
 mentary truth." Iu later times the heroic age furnished 
 abundant material for dramatic and epic poetry, and the 
 heroic character afforded many uuble examples of fortitude, 
 piety, purity, and justice which the Greek people tot) gene- 
 rally failed to imitate. 
 
 Hcro'ic Metre, in English verse, is the unrhynicd 
 iambic pentameter, known as blank verse. In tireck iind 
 Latin poetry it is the common hexameter verse, in which 
 the iliud and the ^Encid arc written, ticrraan and Italian 
 heroic verse is of the same metre as the English. The French 
 heroic is an iambic hexameter. The name is given because 
 these metres are deemed appropriate to lofty themes. 
 
 Uerold (Lons Joseph FERUixANn), b. in Paris .Ian. 
 2S. ITl'l : d. near Paris Jan. 18. 1S."3; studied with Cheru- 
 bini. and wifli distinction at the Conservatoire, and finally 
 in Italy. His first pieces, which were comic and very suc- 
 cessful in their day. arc now obsolete. Zumpu and the /V^ 
 aux C/rrcft. his greatest operas, still hold the stage in Europe, 
 but aro unknown here, except by fragments. 
 
 Hereon, a general name for a part of tho birds of the 
 family Ardeida^, wading birds found in all parts of the 
 globe. In the same family are the egrets and the bitterns. 
 Among the herons of the V. S. are the Dcmicgrctta ludorf- 
 ciaua, or Louisiana heron of the South ; the (larzcfta rnii- 
 didiesima, or snowy heron ; the Hcrodi(in cfjrrttay or white 
 heron ; the Ardett hcrodioft, or great blue heron, a splendid 
 bird, but dangerous when wounded, as it aims severe blows 
 of its long bill at the eyes of its captor; the great white 
 heron, Andubonia Occident alis ; the night herons (A^rfj'- 
 ordra and Nyctkerodtas) : the green heron, Buton'drH 
 virtHcrtiK, and many others. The common European heron 
 (Ardcti ciurreii) was uneiently esteemed for the table, and 
 hunted by falconry or shot with the long-bow. It was at 
 times forbidden to any but kings and great uobles to kill 
 it, and when taken by falconry it was customary to let the 
 heron's wounds be dressed, and then set it free. Heron- 
 plumes, once highly prized, are still worn upon the helmets 
 of some corps of lintish cavalry. 
 
 Heropli'ilus ['Hpo<f.iAo?], b. at Chalccdon, in Bithynia. 
 about ,300 B. c; studied medicine under Praxagoras : re- 
 moved to Alexandria in Egypt, and was there one of the 
 founders of the famous medical school of that city; was a 
 distinguished surgeon, and the most celebrated anutcmiisf 
 and zoJitomist of antiq^uity. It is also stated (with proba- 
 ble truth) that he practised vivisection upon human beings, 
 probably condemned criminals. Tertullian says he dis- 
 sected no less than GOO living persons. It is to lie remem- 
 bered that the ancients regarded the dissection of the flead 
 body as something almost impious, while they bud ciun- 
 paratively few scruples with regard to inflicting pain upon 
 tho living. His fame is coumiemorated by the tnrcular 
 JleriiphUi (the name of the place where the superior longi- 
 tudinal sinuses of the dura vuttfir yni\ the lateral sinuses). 
 He was one of the fathers of what is called heroic practice, 
 in which excessive doses of powerful drugs were used ; an<l 
 ho did much to introduce the useless compounding of many 
 drugs in one prescription — a custom which lasted till tlie 
 present century. Of his writings only fragments remain. 
 
 Hcros'tratuSf an Epbesian, who in li^jC n. r. set fire to 
 the temple of Hiana at Ephesus, ouo of the most uiagnifi- 
 eent buildings of antiquity, and destroyed it, simply in order 
 to make his name immortal ; ho succeeded, though the Ephe- 
 sians passed a decree that ho should never bo named. 
 
 Hrr'pes [from the Gr. epiru, to "creep *'], a name np- 
 plied to several skin diseases, charactcri/.ed by (ho develop- 
 ment of a series of vesicles or clusters of vesirles, which 
 generally run a definite, self-limited course. By far the 
 most important of these diseases is Ucrpcn zoaffr, zoun, or 
 " shingles," as it is called. This may surround ono thigh 
 or one arm with a band of vesicles, or more frequently it 
 starts from the backbone and follows an intercostal space 
 half round the body. More rarely it goes half round tho 
 nerk or half oeross the face. There is usually sfinie neu- 
 ralgic pain, and sometimes considerable fever. The lUseaso 
 must d<'|>end upon some abnormality In the nervous actictn, 
 as it frequently maps out upon the .surface the part of tho 
 integument supplied by some one branch of a nerve. Tho
 
 ;i02 
 
 HERPETOLOGY. 
 
 vulgar have a great dread of " the shingles," and believe 
 that when it so extends as to completely girdle the patient 
 he will die. But, in the tirst place, it almost never does 
 go more than halfway around the body, and. what is more, 
 there would bo uo danger if it .should, for the disease is a 
 seiriimitcd or cvelical one, and the patient is sure to get 
 well if let alone." Other forms of so-called herpes, such as 
 H. cininatiin, aro caused by parasitic vegetation, and should 
 be treated with applications of sulphurous acid and water 
 or other parasiticide agents. 
 
 Reviseh bv Wii.i.ARU P.inKEii. 
 Herpctol'ogy [from the Greek tpirerd^, a "creeping 
 thin"," and k6yoi, a " treatise"] is that branch of zoology 
 which is dedicated to the natural history of Reptiles and 
 Ami'Hidia.ns. Referring to those articles for information 
 respecting the characters of the several groups, our rcm.arks 
 here will be contincd to the indication of the growth of our 
 knowledge and the best sources of information respecting 
 them. 
 
 Little positive information existed among ancient or 
 medi.'cval naturalists respecting the forms in question. In 
 Aristotle arc found isolated anatomical details respecting 
 some species, but he did not recognize the group as a whole, 
 combining the footed forms with mammals as oviparous 
 quadrupeds, and isolating from them the serpents, with 
 which he oven, at least provisionally, combined some eels 
 (Book ii. eh. 10, and Hook ix. eh. 2J, jJ 4) ; he nevertheless 
 appreciated the resemblance between the serpents and 
 saurians (£.."/.■ ii. eh. 12, ? 10), and once defines the former 
 as land animals ( Honk i. eh. G jj 2). Pliny, with less exaet 
 information, mixes much fable. No mediaeval writer is 
 worthy of mention. Gesner (1554), Aldrovandi (1640), 
 and Jonsfon (lfi5:i)need only to he referred teas compilers. 
 Ray (169:i) published the first attempt at a systematic ar- 
 rangement, in which, although nominally confounding the 
 repUlian quadrupeds with the mammalian quadrupeds, he 
 recognized the serpents as related, and combined them in 
 an unnamed group, distinguished by having a heart with 
 a single ventricle. Linnajus (1735-OS) first introduced an 
 essential reformation, definitely combining the oviparous 
 quadrupeds (tortoises, lizards, etc.) and serpents in a single 
 class, which he called Amphibia, and placed between the 
 birds and reptiles. Ho distinguished this class by the (1 ) 
 naked or soaly body, (2) acuminate teeth, and (3) absence 
 of rayed fins ; and, subsequently and erroneously, by the 
 unilocular ancl uniauricular heart. lie distributed its 
 members into two orders: (1) Serpentes, without feet, and 
 (2) Reptilia, with feet. Later, he made the class more 
 heterogeneous by tho addition to it of the branehiostegous 
 fishcs,1)eing misled by the erroneous observations of Dr. 
 Garden of South Carolina. He failed to notice any dis- , 
 tinction between the true amphibians and reptiles, and 
 even confounded tho salamandroids and crocodilians with 
 the typical saurians in one genus under tho name Lacerta. 
 His several combinations and divisions into forms without 
 feet and with feet showed also an utter want of apprecia- 
 tion of the value of morphological characters in this group, 
 limelin (17SS), in his edition of the Si/stemn .V(i(iir.T, re- 
 moved from the class tho branehiostegous fishes, and re- 
 stricted it to the limits originally recognized by Linnaeus. 
 In the last edition of the f!i/i>lema J^'aturx published by 
 Linnirus, SI."! species were recognized, distributed among 
 the following groups: (1) Tcttmlo, 15; liana, 17; l)rai-n, 
 2 ; Lacrla, 47 (not 49) ; (2) Crolaliu, 5 ; Bud, 10 ; Coliibfr, 
 97; Aiit/uii, 16; Amphinhrciia, 2; and Cs!c!lia, 2. In tho 
 edition of the Si/Mlema A'afiirip published by Gmclin, ,165 
 species were reeognizeif, apportioned to the groups as fol- 
 lows : (1) Tnlitdo, :i3 : ICniia.'M; J)r,i<-u.2; larcrla, 77 ; 
 (2) Croialiis, b : llaa, 10; Caiuber. 170; .liiyiii'», 26 : Am- 
 phiilinna, 5; Carilia, 2: many of the additional species 
 arc spurious. Klein meanwhile (1755) published a Trn- 
 lamen H'-rpctolmiiir, distinguished by a singular ignorance 
 of zoological science, as will bo readily understood when it 
 is known that he ranked with the serpents the ordinary 
 earth-worms, the tape-worms, and tho leeches. Laurenti 
 in ITI'iS made a decided advance in herpetology. He rec- 
 ognized a class " Reptilia:" in it he ineludeil all the rep- 
 tiles but the tortoises (which he did not mention) and am- 
 phibians. These he divided into three orders: ( I ) Halienlia, 
 including the frogs, toads, etc.; (2) (iradientia, including 
 the salamandroids and saurians : and (.3) .Scrpentia, in- 
 cluding the serpents, as well as serpentiform saurians and 
 pscudophidian amphibians. He recognized four genera 
 of .Salientia, 13 of eiradientia, and 15 of Scrpentia. Lac<''- 
 pJde in 1788 and 1790 divided tho same animals into four 
 '•classes:" (I) oviparous qundrupe.ls which have tails; 
 (2) thoso which have none; {?,) reptiles with two feet only, 
 which may bo either in front or behind; and (4) serpents, 
 or footless forms. 
 
 lirongniart in 1799 made another decided advance: he 
 characterized the class better than any of his predecessors, 
 
 and apportioned its representatives among four orders: 
 (1) rhelonians, including the tortoises; (2) Saurians, com- 
 prising the lizards and crocodiles ; (:'.) Ophidians, compris- 
 ing the serpents; and (4) Datrachians— /. e. the present 
 class of amphibians, less tho Ca;cilians. He was doubtful 
 respecting the svstematic relations of tho Ctccilians, but 
 placed them provisionally with the Ophidians. The great 
 advance in his work is evinced in his recognition of the 
 orders, and more especially in the segregation of tho forms 
 combined under the name of Batraehians. This classifica- 
 tion came into quite general vogue, and particularly among 
 French writers, Daudin (1802-03), Cuvier (1 SI 7-29), and 
 Dumeril and Bibron, among others, having made it the 
 basis of their respective works. 
 
 Merrem in 1800 and 1820 published editions of a system 
 of amphibians in which he recognized two classes: (1) 
 PnoLiDOTA. equivalent to reptiles proper, and (2) Batra- 
 cniA, or amphibians. Among the Pholidota, three orders 
 wore recognized — Testudinata, Loricata p'. e. crocodiles), 
 and Squamata (i.e. saurians and serpents). Among the 
 Batrachia, also, three orders were established: (1) Apoda 
 (i'. e. Pscudophidians), (2) Salientia, and (3) Gradientia. 
 Do Blaiuville in 1816 recognized two classes among the 
 amphibians of Linnasus: (1) the "Reptiles" or " Squa- 
 miferes ornithoidcs," scaly; and (2) "Amphibicns" or 
 " Nudipelliferes," naked. The reptiles were divided into 
 three orders: (1) Cheloniens, (2) Einydo-Sauriens or Cro- 
 codiliens, and (3) Saurophiens or Bipeniens. including two 
 suborders: (A) "Sauricns" and (B) " Ophidiens." The 
 amphibians were distributed among four orders: (I) the 
 "Batraeiens" (Salientia), (2) " Pseudo-Saunens " ((;ra- 
 dientia), (3) " Sub-Ichthyens " (Proteus and Sirens), and 
 (4) '• Pseudophvdiens" ( Ca-eilidao). 
 
 Merrem and De Blainville. in the appreciation of the 
 mutual relations of the several forms and of the subordina- 
 tion in the values of characters, thus advanced far ahead 
 of their predecessors ; they were also the first to definitely 
 include tho Apoda or pscudophidians among the amphi- 
 bians or batraehians. The first edition of Merrem's work 
 not beino' available, and no satisfactory account being pub- 
 lished, it'is uncertain how far Merrem or Dc Blainville an- 
 ticipatcil or borrowed from each other. 
 
 Thus had the yciicral si/slan of herpetology assumed 
 nearly all the characteristics which now mark it. Tho 
 successive stages of its improvement were manifested in 
 the isolation of the four-footed forms from mammals, and 
 the recognition of their aflinity with the serpents; the 
 recognition of the batraehians as a natural group, and the 
 consequent depreciation of the importance of the members 
 as exponents of afiiuity ; the eventual separation as a class 
 of the batraehians or amphibians from the reptiles ; and at 
 length the perception of the value of anatomical characters 
 and tho comparative unimportance of external resemblances 
 in the estimation of the nflinities of the various types. With 
 this recognition came the separation of the crocodilians as 
 an order distinct from the saurians. The tendency thus 
 marked became more and more decided as time advanced. 
 The details of the system were gradually improved by 
 scientific zoologists, with the aid of anatomic.il investiga- 
 tions , and among the most notable in this work may be 
 mentioned Johannes Miiller. Stannius. Owen, Cope, and 
 Huxley. A remarkable discovery was made also by GUn- 
 ther (1S67) in the dissection of a curious New Zealand 
 lizard-like rejitile (.S/j/ieiiodoii j.uiie(n<iim), which strongly 
 illustrated the insufliciency of external characters as evi- 
 dence of the relations of these forms. That animal very 
 closelv resembles in its external appearance the agamoid 
 lizard's, and indeed had been referred without suspicion 
 to that fainilv till examined by tiunther. A detailed study 
 of its anatomy, however, indicated that it was in nowise 
 related to theAgamidie or other tyi)ical lizards, but that 
 it was reallv the representative of a peculiar order of rep- 
 tiles, for which the name Rhynchoeephalia was proposed. 
 It has also been demonstrated by Prof. Cope and others 
 that to this same order belonged species which had lived in 
 the older ages of our globe, and as far back as the De- 
 vonian period. . 
 
 While these improvements in the system of the living 
 reptiles were being effected, nala.'ontological investigations 
 were rapidly bringing to light many remarkable types of 
 the past world, which, on being subjected to the careful in- 
 vestigations of osteologists, were found to have remarkable 
 relations with tho living members of the class. The gigan- 
 tic Bwinimiug reptiles of the Triassic seas were first eon- 
 founded together in a peculiar order by geologists under 
 the name Enaliosaurians, but subsequent observations indi- 
 cated that thev should be separated into two widely distinct 
 orders, and several others were from time to lime consti- 
 tuted for the reception of various species. The compara- 
 tive examinations of the living uud extinct forms naturally 
 reflected mutual light upon each other. The hcrpetologi-
 
 IIEEPETOX TEXTACULATUS— HERRING. 
 
 903 
 
 cal system is thus now tolerably undorstood. Much, how- 
 ever, yet remains to bo done, especially by the palicontolo- 
 gists and embryulogigts, before we shall be ronversaut with 
 the exact mutual relations of the several orders. Nothing 
 certainly can bo as yet predicated as to the di-greo of gen- 
 eralization of the known forms; and the sequence in the 
 list of orders (as well as the combination of orders in Pcro- 
 spondvlia) which is here appended must be considered en- 
 tirely as a provisional arrangement, subject to great modi- 
 fication"* hereafter. 
 
 While the general system was thus being perfected, nu- 
 merous sjtecial investigators wore engaged in the discovery 
 and cluridiitiouof new species. Tho old genera were gradu- 
 ally ninru and more definitely restricted and subdivided. 
 Many of the newly-discovered species were also recognized 
 as representatives of new genera, ancl the list begun to in- 
 creiisein numbers and importance. Families were introduced 
 as intermediate terms between the genera and higher groups, 
 and, at first very comprehensive, were subsequently re- 
 stricted in their limits; and in order to indicate their value 
 at once, naturalists generally began to adopt for each the 
 uniform patronymic termination -m/.t following the name 
 of the typical genus of the including group. The natural- 
 ists that have described the most species within the last 
 half century have been Dum^ril and liibron of Paris, Gray 
 and (Jiintlier of Loudon, Peters of lierlin, and L'ope of 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 The orders now generally adopted for the inclusion of all 
 these various members of the classes iu question, recent and 
 fossil, are as follows : 
 
 Class Amphibia or Batrathia. 
 Order Labyrinthodontia (extinct forms). 
 " Pseudophidia (worm-like forms). 
 " (.iradientia (salamanders, etc.). 
 " tSalieutia (frogs, toads, etc.). 
 Class Rei-tilia. 
 Sub-claag Euchirota, 
 Suprr-ordcr Perospotidf/Ita, 
 Order Crocodilia or Loricata (crocodiles). 
 '* Anomodontia (extinct). 
 " Dinosauria (extinct). 
 " Ornithosauria (extinct flying reptiles). 
 " Rhynchocephalia. 
 
 " Saviropterygia (extinct swimming reptiles). 
 " Pythonomorpha (extinct sn:ikc-Uko lizards). 
 '* .Sauria (lizards, etc.). 
 " Ophidia (snakes, etc. 
 
 Super-order Pieurospoudi/lia. 
 Order Cholonia or Testudinata (tortoises). 
 
 Sub-cla8» Ptcrochirota. 
 Order Ichthyoptcrygia (extinct whale-liko reptiles). 
 The anatomical investigations which have been prose- 
 cuted rendered it more and more evident that the ani])bib- 
 ians and reptiles, notwithstanding their external resem- 
 blances, have very little true nflinity with each other, and 
 th:»t, indeed, their closest relations in some respects are 
 with other types: thus, (1) the amphibians arc so closely 
 connected with the fishes by means of tho Labyrinthodonts 
 in one class nnd the Dipnoans ( Lriiidnsircn, etc.) in tho 
 other that by many {<•. tf. Huxley) they are combined in one 
 peculiar group under the name lehthyopslcla : while, on 
 the other hiind, the reptiles and liirds agree so thoroughly, 
 and when the extinet forms nro recallerl dilfer in so few 
 eharaeters, that they are also united in a special group des- 
 ignated the Sauropsida. 
 
 It only remains to add references to the principal au- 
 thorities which the student can most advantageously use. 
 The voIunieM and articles published have been very 
 numerous, but only the following need be specially 
 named : ErpHtthtyic ijfnfratc, on histoiri' nutut'ellc 
 comp/fte dm lleptifra, by DrMKRii, nnd BlliRox 
 (Paris, 1S:j|-55, 9 vols.); Thr Cntaffufiu- of' Shirld 
 lirptiUn, by r)r. J. E. (Jrav: (Part I.,' Testudinata, 
 London. 1h:»5 : Supplement, IS70; Appendix, IS72; 
 Part 11., Kmydosaurians. Rhynehocephalin, and 
 Aniphisba-nians, London,! 872, -Ito) ; Cittnloifue o/'tfic 
 Sft'rt'mr„» f.f Stinhn in tfir i'nlhHinu i,f' thr Itritinh 
 .\fn,f'„m,hy Dr. J. K. (iuAV ( London, isi'.l. I'Jnio) ; Cntaloijne 
 of Co/iiftrinfi Simkca in the I'uf/ectioit nf' thr firitiih Mimruw, 
 by Dr. Aliiktit GrNTiiKn (London." 18JS, 12mo); Aroi- 
 oijrtiphtf <if»^r fit f drs Ophidieui, by Messrs. Jan and Son- 
 PKi.i,! (Paris, ISnO-72, 8vo and 4to): (\itafn;/ur'^ of tfir 
 Sprrimrmuf Lizards iuthe Cnffrrtifm 4>f fhr Hyiiinh Mmtrnm. 
 by Dr. J. K. Cnw (London, LSI.'., iL'mo) ; Cat,do(jue n/ 
 Mr liutrarhin SitHrntinin thr Colhrtinu of thf liritinh Mn- 
 tenm, by Dr. Ai.nKRT GUsthkr (London. ISaS, 8vo) ; /^- 
 
 viaion dcr Salamandridcn-Gattungen uehat Ucuchrcibung 
 einitjerueuen oder icenif/er hekannten Arter dieser Eamilicn, 
 by A. Stuauch (Mem. Acad. Sc. St. P6tersbourg, v. xvi., 
 No. 4, LS70, 4to), and Anatomische Abhandbtufjcn tiber die 
 I*crrnnihranchi(itcn und JJerutremen, by Dr. ,]. G. FisoniiR 
 (Hamburg. 1SG4, 4toj. The principal recent anthorilie,- un 
 the American reptiles and batrachiansare Hui.urook (A'oW/i 
 Atnerican Herpetolofjy, or a Jjescriptiun of the Jicptiffn In- 
 habiting the U. S., Philadelphia, lS;Jti-4;i, 5 vols. 4to): 
 BairI) and GiRARn {Catalogue of N'trth American Rtptiles 
 in the Mnnviim of the Sinithsonian Inntitutitni, Part I., Ser- 
 pents, Washington, 1853, Svo, etc.) ; Agassiz {CuntributionH 
 to the \atttral History of the Vniftd States of America, 
 first monograph, North American Testudinata, Boston, 
 1857): and Coi'K (in numerous memoirs in \ho Prorced- 
 iiiffs and Trauittrtiona of the Aeadciiii/ of .Wttnral Scieucea 
 of Philadelphia, etc.). The most recent guide to the rep- 
 tiles of Europe is Br. E. Schkkukr's lierpetologia Eu- 
 ropaa, Etne syatcinatiache Jiearbettung der Amphibi' n n)id 
 liepti/ien, tcelchc binher in Europa auft/vfuiidtit sind (Braun- 
 schweig, 1874). Theodore Gill. 
 
 Hcr'peton tentacula'tus, a serpent brought from 
 tropical countries, and chiefly noteworthy for the siugular 
 a])pendages which arc attached to its muzzle. These are 
 covered with scales, and are of no known use to the serpent. 
 
 Hei-'rick, post-tp. of Bradford co., Pa. Pop. 1009. 
 
 Ilerrick, tp. of Susquehanna co.. Pa, Pop. 950. 
 
 Herrick (.Tohx Kusskll), S. T. D., b. at Milton, Vt., 
 May 12, 1822; graduated at the University of Vermont 
 1847 ; studied at Andover two years, and graduated at Au- 
 burn Theological Seminary 1SJ2 ; from 1851 to 18G7 was 
 over a Congregational Presbyterian church, Malone, X. Y. ; 
 professor of systematic theology in Bangor, Me., 18G7 to 
 1S7;{; became pastor at South Iladlcy, Mass., in 1874; 
 received the degree of D. I), from Union College in 18G7; 
 same year S. T. D. from his alma mater. Author of Posi- 
 tirifim in Boston Lectures (1870), also of various articles, 
 philosophical and theological, in reviews. 
 
 Herrick (Joshua), b. at Beverly, Mass., in 1792; re- 
 moved to Maine, where ho became a sheritV; was deputy 
 collector of the port ofKennebunk, Me.. 1S29-41, 1847-49, 
 and ]:>jO-J4; member of Congress ISl-^— IJ; amlinlSJG 
 register of probate for York co. D. at Alfred, Me., Aug. 
 30, 1874. 
 
 Herrick (Robert), b. in London Aug. ^0, 1591; was 
 educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and took hi.} master's 
 degree 1517 ; took orders and became vicar of Dean Prior's, 
 Devon, 1G29; and d, there in Oct., 1G74. Ho is one of tho 
 best of English lyric poets and song-writers, bis chief fault 
 being tho indelicacy which too oitcn disfigures tho erotic 
 poems in which liis genius is best displayed. His pastoral 
 relations were suspended for a time during tho civil war, 
 but were resumed at tho restoration of Charles 11, His 
 chief j>ul>lication was tho Hcapcridca (1047-48). 
 
 Herrick (Stephtn Solon), M. D., b. at West Randolph, 
 \l.. Dee. H, iSoljj graduated at Dartmouth 1S54 ; was an 
 instructor in Kentucky and Jlississippi 1854-59 j took his 
 medical degree at tho University of Louisiana 1801 ; assist- 
 ant surgeon in Confederato army and navy 1802-05; visit- 
 ing surgeon Charity Hospital. New Orleans, 1S05-0'J; man- 
 aging editor AVki Orlcana Medical ami Snrrfirtil Jonninl 
 18GG-G7 ; i)rofessorof chemistry in tho New Orleans School 
 of Medicine 18G9-70. His cs;;ay on (^iiZ/i/Hf (1S09) won the 
 prize of tho American Medical Association. Author of 
 various professional papers. 
 
 Her'ring (Clupea), a genus of fishes vrhich furnish a 
 
 large supply of food to mankind. There are several spe- 
 
 •Tho " eRtnloffUi'*" enumerated arn really de«ioriptlvo mono- 
 grnphn of all the known s|M'eieH, wheiher In tho Mui^cuni or not. 
 
 1 lie lien in v. 
 
 oies, tho chief of which are the C hartntjn$ of Northern 
 Europe and America, and the C. mirabHii* of the Pacific 
 coast of the U. S. The celebrated white-bait is the young 
 of tho common herring. The herring fisheries of Aujer- 
 ioa arc prosecuted chiefly along the New Kngland coasts^ 
 and especially in British American waters. In Kuropo 
 the great herring fisheries are those of Great Itrilain, 
 Ireland, Scandinavia, the Netherlands, and the north of 
 France. Herrings at tolerably regular periods visit ex- 
 tensive lines of coast, and were formerly believed to mi- 
 grate periodically from the Arctic seas, but this belief is 
 not now generally held by scientific observers. They are
 
 904 
 
 HERRNHUT— UERSCHEL. 
 
 generally caught in gill-nets or scoop-nets. The annual 
 catch of herrings must amount to many hundreds of rail- 
 lions. So important was the Dutch fishery in former days 
 that it was said that Amsterdam was built on herring- 
 bones. A large part of the su-callcd herring caught in the 
 U. S. arc alewives. which are in no wise inferior to the 
 real herring, which they much resemble. Herrings are 
 smoked and dried, pickled, or eaten fresh. 
 
 The most important herring of our Pacific coast apiiears 
 to be the ('. miriihili', which in size, appearance, and hub- 
 its resembles the common herring, but has fewer vertebra; 
 and a ray less in the anal fin. It is not as large as the C. 
 harcnijus, but is said to bo equal in flavor. It can be 
 t.ikeo in very largo quantities, and its fishery will soon 
 heciiue an object of national importance. The "herring" 
 of the great lakes is Coregomu clupei/ormia, a. sort of 
 white-fish. 
 
 Heirn'hut, town of Germany, in tho kingdom of Sax- 
 ony, was founded in 1722 liy a colony of .Moravian IJreih- 
 ren, who were driven from their homes by the Jesuits, but 
 were received and establi.^hed here by Count Zinzendorf. 
 The town has only 1000 inhabitants, but it enjoys a com- 
 paratively great reputation, partly because it has become 
 the assembling-place or metropolis of the United Brethbkx 
 (which see), partly because the life led in this town com- 
 mands respect for its simplicity, honesty, purity, and vigor. 
 The colored paper and the linen fabrics manuf^iotnrcd here 
 are very celebrated, and known under the name of Hcrrn- 
 huler Papier and JJcrniliiiltr Lcinwand. 
 
 Her'ron (Fn.txcis J.vv), b. at Pittsburg, Pa., Feb. 17, 
 1S:'.7; graduated at the Western University of Pennsyl- 
 vania 1Sj3: entered the U. S. army -Apr., ISOl. .as captain 
 1st Iowa Vols., and engaged in the battles of Dug .-springs, 
 Ozark, and Wilson's freck ; promoted to be lieutenant- 
 colonel 9th Iowa Vols., .and in command of the regiment 
 through campaigns in Missouri, Arkansas, and Indian 
 Territory ; engaged in the battle of Pea Ridge, where ho was 
 severely wounded. Appointed brigadier-general of volun- 
 teers Julv, 18C2, and in command of Army of the Frontier 
 at battles of Prairie Grove and Van Buren : for conduct 
 at former promoted to be major-general of volunteers Nov. 
 19, 1S62. In command of the left wing of investing forces 
 at Vicksburg, and of the army and navy expedition that 
 ciptured Yazoo City: subsequently of 13th army corps on 
 Te.'jas coast till assigned to comm.and the northern division 
 of Louisiana. In May, 1SC5, negotiated, and in June re- 
 ceived, the formal surrender of the Tr.ans-Mississippi army 
 and all Confederate forces W. of the Mississippi. Ap- 
 pointed one of the commissioners to negotiate treaties with 
 Indian tribes July, ISGo. Resigned commission as majior- 
 general and Indian commissioner Aug., 1865. W.as U. S. 
 marshal district of Louisiana 1867-09, and secretary of 
 state of Louisiana 1870-72. G. C. Sulmoxs. 
 
 Her'scliel (C.uuiline Licretia), b. at Hanover Mar. 
 16, 17.iU. f^he was appointed assistant astronomer to 
 George III. of England in 1781, with a moderate salary. 
 She attended her brother. Sir William, in all his night- 
 watches, which generally lasted till morning; wrote from 
 his dictation, as ho swept the heavens with his telescope, 
 his observations; noted the clocks: reduced and arrauged 
 his journals; prepared the zone cataliigues for his sweeps, 
 and performed fur hiin all the laborious mathematical cal- 
 culations necessary for the reduction of his observations. 
 She discovered independently eight comets, besides numer- 
 ous nebula- and clusters of stars. At the death of her 
 brother in 1S22 she returned to her native city, where sho 
 spent the remainder of her life with her only remaining 
 brother, honored and beloved by all. She was elected 
 member of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1S32, and d. 
 at Hanover Jan. % IS-tS. Mils. S. 1!. Heurick. 
 
 Ilerschel (Sir Joun Frederick Wii.lum), B.vrt., b. 
 at Shuigh, near Windsor, England, Mar. 7, 17112. He was 
 educated at home under the guidance of his parents and 
 his aunt. Associated always with mature minds, breathing 
 the very atmosphere of science, the boy spent his singular 
 childhood in the silent house where the star-watchers slept. 
 Ho went direct from his homo to Eton, and from there to 
 Si. John's College, Cambridge, where ho graduated in 
 l.SIS ns senior wrangler and Smith prizeman. In the 
 same year he read before the Royal Society a mathemat- 
 ical paper, and was elected, at the age of twenty-one, a 
 r-llow. In ls:n, WiUiam IV. bestowed u]ion him the 
 Hanoverian Guelphic order, and five years later, at the 
 coronation of Victoria, ho was created baronet. Several 
 gold medals were awarded to him by the Royal Society and 
 the Astronomical Society of London, and he was made 
 D. C. L. by the University of Oxford. He was succi ssively 
 elected reotor of Marischal College, Aberdeen, president of 
 the .\stronomieal Society, ;ind finally permanent master of 
 the mint, which last position his enfeebled health forced 
 
 him to resign in 1855. He was honorary or corresponding 
 member to the academies of Brussels, St. Pctersburg,Vieuna, 
 Giittiugen, Turin, Bologna, Naples, Copenhagen, Stock- 
 holm, and others, besides being chevalier of the Prussian 
 order of Merit. In 1829 he married Margaret Brodie, 
 daughter of Rev. Dr. Alex. Stewart, by whom he had nine 
 daughters and three sons. He d. at ColUngwood Apr. 13, 
 1871. From 1813 to 1822 he devoted himself to mathe- 
 matics, chemistry, and optics, as his memoirs testify. He 
 then began his astronomical work in earnest. In 1825 he 
 began, in connection with Sir James South, a scries of 
 very important observations. Though his especial tastes 
 lay in the direction of physics, his filial devotion deter- 
 mined his lifework. He passed in review the nebula; dis- 
 covered and catalogued by his father : while engaged in 
 this work ho catalogued between 3000 and 1000 double 
 stars. In order to perfect the work begun by his father, 
 ho went, at his own expense, in 1833, to the Cape of Good 
 Hope. That the results might be accurately comparable, 
 bo used the same instrument used by his father. He spent 
 four years at the Cape observing, and five years more re- 
 ducing and arranging his observations, which appeared in 
 1847 under the title ilfMli/ts of Aalrunomical Obterinlioiu 
 .lade duriiij llic ycura IS^SS at the Cape of Good Hope, 
 bciiKj the cvmpUlioH of a Telescopic Siineii of the ichole 
 vitlblc heaicns, commenced in 1825. This included seven 
 treatises upon— 1, nebulto i 2, double stars; 3, apparent 
 6i:c of stars; 4. distribution of stars and constitution of 
 Milky Way ; 5, llallcy's comet, etc. ; 6, satellites of Saturn ; 
 7, solar spots. While in South Africa he inaugurated a 
 valuable system of simultaneous meteorological observa- 
 tions, and instituted a fine public-school system. He pre- 
 pared two elaborate and exhaustive treatises upon '• Light " 
 and '■ Sound," for the Enei/clopn^dia MetropoUtana ( 1 S30-31 ), 
 and wrote for Lardner a treatise upon the study of natural 
 ])hilosophy, which gave a strong and immediate impulse 
 to the study of natural science in England; also a treatise 
 upon astronomy, which was afterwards expanded into his 
 Uuttinca of Aa'tronomy. In all, Sir John added to the 2500 
 nebula; discovered by his father, 2208 of his own discovery, 
 the whole number known being 5200. He performed a 
 great service to photography by the discovery of a process 
 for making the impressions permanent. Not the smallest 
 part of his work was that of popularizing without falsifying 
 science. These discoveries, together with those recorded 
 in 131 papers contributed to various scientific societies, 
 compose the results of fifty-eight years of labor, included 
 between the day of his graduation and the day of hisdeath. 
 The entire labor of this enormous work was performed by 
 himself, except that which was purely mechanical in the 
 use of his instruments. Mrs. S. B. Hebrick. 
 
 Herschel (Sir Willi.\m) was b. in Hanover Nov. 15, 
 1738. Besides music, to which he was educated profcs- 
 sionallv, he received instruclion in French and metaphys- 
 ics in his early years. At the age of fourteen, being forced 
 to earn his own'brcad. he became a member of a Hanover- 
 ian band; in this eap;ieity he came to England in 1759, 
 where the story of his life for some years is a record of 
 bitter privation silently and heroically endured. lie be- 
 came successively master of a military band, organist at 
 Halifax, and organist at the Octagon chapel at Bath. In 
 spite of innumerable professional duties, he pursued his 
 abstract studies with ardor, sometimes going to them after 
 fourteen hours of professional labor. Ho learned Latin, 
 Italian, and sometbing of Greek, with no aid but that of 
 a grammar and dictionary, and mastered alone an obscure 
 mathematical treatise upon music. The harmony of sound 
 soon led, bv the way of optics, to a study of the '• harmony 
 of the spheres." A" small Gregorian telescope fell into his 
 hands, and waked into passionate life the longing which 
 determined his future career. Finding the most ordinary 
 telescope bevond his means, he determined to construct 
 one. The fa"ct that he made and polished 200 metal spec- 
 ula before ho succeeded to his own satisfaction reveals the 
 secret of his successful life. In 1781 he discovered, by the 
 aid of one of his own telescopes, anew planet, called by him 
 Georgium Sidus. by his contemporaries Herschel. but now 
 known under the name of Uranus. This brought him 
 under the notice of George III., who bestowed upon him 
 the position of special astronomer to the king, a pension 
 of 300 guineas a Tear, and a residence at Slough, near 
 Windsor Castle. Ho married, in 178S. Mary, daughter of 
 .\lr. Adee Baldwin, a widow, by whom he had one eon, 
 .lohn F. W. Herschel. He was made member of the Lon- 
 don Roval Society, of the Academy of Sciences, Paris, 
 and president of the Royal Astronomical Society, Lon- 
 don. The Hanoverian Guelphic order was bestowed upon 
 him by the regent, and the title of LL.D. by the Uni- 
 versity of Oxford, besides other distinctions. In his 
 eighty-fourth year, on Aug. 23. 1S22. Sir William Herschel 
 died without "a pang. His disposition was marked by
 
 IIERSEY-HERWARTH VON BITTEN FELD. 
 
 905 
 
 sweetness and benevolence; his character by directness and 
 siinplicilv, bv untiring paliincc and induniilable energy : 
 and hisiuind by breadth of view and extreme caution. II is 
 work i? eompreliended. in great part, in memoirs prci-enle.l 
 before the Koyal Society of Lonilou. which " constitute.' 
 savs Arago. "one of the principal riches of the celebrated 
 coilectioirknown under the title of mi'Mi/jliicut Trunmi- 
 liunt." The front-view telescope suggested by Jacques La- 
 maire was perfected by llersehcl ; the mcclianieal contri- 
 vances by means of which ho mounted and adjusted his 
 fortv-foot telescope, with its speculum neighing a ton, 
 showed him to bo possessed of high mechanical genius. 
 lie so improved the construction of telescopes as to bo able 
 to use magnifying powers of (iOOO times in a reflecting tel- 
 escope seven feet long. Though wo cannot give even the 
 titles of the papers contributed by him to the I'hilviophtcal 
 Trnntdciioiit, wo shall take a hasty survey of those discov- 
 eries—recorded in them from 17!<0to 1S22— which arc per- 
 manent acquisitions to science. In optics he discovered the 
 dark heat-rays of the .solar spectrum, anil made many ex- 
 perirnenls upon radiant heat, upon Newton's rings, and 
 upon the illuminating power of the various prismatic rays. 
 In his researches upon the solar system he made many re- 
 markable observations upon the physical constitution of 
 the sun; he discovered the planet (ranus and his si.\ sat- 
 ellites, as well as two satellites of Saturn, lie :idded much 
 to the subject of the form, time of rotation, and eompara- 
 tivc ningniludcs of the asteroids and planets. lie discov- 
 ered that the moon possessed no atmosphere, and made 
 many valuable observations upon comets. But the real 
 work of the ller.schels, father and son, lay beyond the lim- 
 its of our system in the sidereal depths. Sir William made 
 many and accurate observations upon variable and binary 
 stars; in his investigations upon sidereal parallax, though 
 he failed to find it, he made the astounding iliseovery tliat 
 the sun, with all its attendant planets, is rushing on 
 through space toward a point situated in the constellation 
 Hercules. By means of a twenty-foot telescope he made 
 a survev of the whole of the northern heavens, cataloguing 
 and placing the stars as they came within the telescopic 
 field. To the known nibula-. 500 in number, he added 
 2500 of his own iliseovery. and under his trained eye and 
 poivcrful telescopes numbers of what had been considered 
 nebula) resolved themselves into clusters and systems of 
 self-luminous suns. He is well denominated by his biog- 
 rapher "one of the greatest astronomers that ever lived in 
 any age or country." -Miis. S. B. IIkuhick. 
 
 Iler'sey, post-v. and tp., cap. of Osceola co., Mich., 
 near the junction of the Flint ami Pero Marquette and tho 
 Grand Rapids and Indiana K. Us., and at tho confluence 
 of the Ilersey and Muskegon rivers. It has a court-house. 
 a jail, 2 churches, a graded scliool, a prinlingofllce and 
 weekly newspaper, 4 hotels, several stores and shops, a 
 wagon-factory, ii largo saw and shingle mills, a planing- 
 mill, a grist-mill, and an express oflicc. It is in the midst 
 of a fine agrieullural and lumber district. Pop. of tp. 286. 
 ,1. K. IlAmr.ifiL-, Eb. "Osci:ola Oltli.vh." 
 Ilcrs'feld, town of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia, on tho 
 I'ulda, has iinjiortant raaiiufacturcs. Pop. fi-lljl. 
 
 HertTord, town of Kngland, the capital of Hertford- 
 shire, on the river I,ea. It has several educational insti- 
 tutb.ns. l'.,p. 710.1. 
 
 Hertford, lounly of North Carolina, bounded on the K. 
 by the navigable Chowan River and on tlm N. by Virginia. 
 The surface is generally level. Corn is the principal agri- 
 cultural product. Cap. Winton. Pop. 9273. 
 
 Ilerlford, post -v., county-scat of Perquimans co., N. C, 
 on the navigable Perquimans Kivcr, 12 miles from its 
 mouth. Pop. IHB; of tp. 1188, 
 
 Hcrt'fordHhire,or Herts, county of England, bound- 
 ed by the counties of Ksse,\. Middlesex, Buckingham, and 
 Bedford. It contains .'i'.tl. I 11 acres of fertile and well-cul- 
 livaled hind, consisting of chalk overlaid with gravel and 
 loaiiK and presenting a pleasantly unclulating surface. 
 The products of its meadows and orchards are brought to 
 the London market. Malt is a very important product. 
 Cap. llerHurd. Pop. 7:i,'J«l. 
 
 ilrri/, (IlKxniK), h. at Copenhagen Aug. 2.'i, 17fl8, 
 and d. there Fob. 2fl, 1870. With the excepti»m of a tour 
 (hroiigli (lermany, France, and Italy in 18:{.'i-:i 1, ho spent 
 his whole life in his native city in a quiet way. anrl devot- 
 ing liimself exclusively to literary work : in IH.M) the Uigs- 
 dag gave liim a jiension. But several cif his works caused a 
 great commotion, especially his rtn-liraf Epixttt h fiftm J''trti- 
 dine ( I H.lfl), whose satire and criticism made people furious. 
 though at the same time they could not help neing charmed 
 by the wit, elegance, and freshness of the style. lie bus 
 written other satirical, lyric, and epical poems, and also 
 some novels; but his talent was eminently drauiatio. He 
 
 used to write a new drama every winter, and many of them 
 have become verv dear to his countrymen, such as his 
 tragedy Sicnd Ijiirimja Hum (1837 ), his character comedies 
 Sp^nLmen (IS.'itl) and El 0/cr (1863), his romantic come- 
 dies -Viiioii (1848) and Ucii Vtii/tli (1854); some of them 
 have been performed in all the principal theatres of (icr- 
 many, France, and England, such as A'..ii;/ Ilrnen Duller 
 (lS4i")l, twice translated into English, and not seldom per- 
 f.iriaed in America, and Sc/ici^U Jliiseaii (1851). His gen- 
 eral character us an author shows a perfect training — he 
 never failed in what he undertook to do; and a perfect ve- 
 racity — not one adjective in all his volumes was ever al- 
 lowed to tell a lie. Ci.emkss Pktersen. 
 
 Iler'uli, a (iermanic race who first appear in history 
 in the third century A. I), on the shores of the Euxinc. 
 They were conquered by the Ostrogoths under Ilermanric, 
 and bands of lleruli appear after this in all parts of Eu- 
 rojie. They swelled the train of Attila, and arc later found 
 among the enemies of the lluiis. In the valley of tho 
 Theiss, on the lower Danube, and in lllyria they founded 
 governments, and were everywhere among the bravest and 
 most barbarous and unruly of the liermanic jieoples. Odoa- 
 cer was called king of the lleruli, but was not of this race. 
 After the fall of the Western empire (470 A. D.) the lleruli be- 
 came one of the dominant races, but the subject Lombards 
 rose and almost annihilated them about 512 A. i). From 
 that time they were important only as soldiers in the ser- 
 vice of the more powerful tribes. 
 
 Horvfc (Eooiaud), b. in 1835 ot St. Denis (Rf-union 
 Island) ; entered, after brilliant studies in colleges, tho 
 famous Paris Normal School, where he had as fellow-mates 
 Prf'vost-Paradol, About, Sarcey, Weiss, Tainc, all tho 
 pleiad of modern French polemists and writers. Hcrv6 
 contributed to many Paris journals, and with Weiss founded 
 in 186U the Junnial (b: Paris, of which he is the present 
 editor, and which supports the cause of a liberiil constitu- 
 tional monarchy, modelled after the British constitution, 
 llerv*; is the author of One I'mje of Ciitilcm/uiraneoua Hia- 
 U.ry and of a llletonj of the Liberal Ideas in England. 
 
 Felix Aitaicxe. 
 
 IIrrv6 (assumed name of Fi.orimosd Rongcr), b. at 
 
 lloudain. near Arras. .lunc 30, 1825, was at first dramatic 
 
 artist and manager of small theatres. He took afterwards 
 
 to composing opf-ras boufl'cs, like L'CEil Cnrf, Let Tnrce, 
 
 rllilprrir. Le Petit Fumt. FEI.IX AtlCAIGNE. 
 
 Her'vey (.Tames), b. at Ilardingslone, Northampton- 
 shire, Eng., Feb. 20, 1713; studied (1731-38) at Lincoln 
 College, Oxf<ird. where, from his acquaintance with John 
 Wesley and from Zimmerman's writings, he received strong 
 religious impressions. He took orders in the English 
 Church and held various rectorships, notably that of Wes- 
 lon-Favel, where he d. Dec. 25, 1758. Author of Midila- 
 liont and Contcmplutit.nH (1740 and 1747). which became 
 exceedingly popular, notwithstanding its turgid and ex- 
 travagant "style, which founil many admirers, attracted 
 iiarlly by the devout spirit of the author; of Thrmn and 
 Acjiasia (3 vols., 1755), consisting of dialogues upon rclig 
 
 kiHS topics— a work which called forth replies from Robert 
 Sandcman and John Wesley; and other works, among 
 them posthumous Letters to John ll'e/i?<.y, which, it is be- 
 lieved, sufi'ered much from tho reckless interpolations of 
 llervey's editors. Ho was a man of learning, but not of 
 intellectual )^owcr. 
 
 Ilor'wnrth von Bit'tcnfold (KAni,EnERnAnD),b.at 
 (irosswerther, Prussian Saxony. Sept. 4. 17th'i; entered tho 
 military service in 1811. He took part in tho campaign 
 against France in 1814, and look two hostile pieces at tho 
 Bt"ormingof Montmartre. In I.-; 17 ho reccivcil tliecoiumand 
 of the Islrcgiment of the guard, in 1850 of the lOlh brigade 
 of infantry, in 1854 of the confederate fortress of Mentz, in 
 1800 of tho 7lh armv corps. In 1863 he became a general 
 of infantry, and commanded in 1804 the Prussian troops 
 against DiMimark niuler Prince Frederick Charles, who was 
 eoinmander-in-chiif of the allied Austrian-Prussian force. 
 Juno 2'J ho took tho island of Alsen. After the peace of 
 Vienna ho was appointed chief commander in the duchies 
 (jf the Elbe, ami in 1805 he received the command of the 
 8tb army c.irpy. In 1800 he was commander-in-chief of 
 the armv of the Elbe, gained victories in the encounter at 
 Iliincrwnsser and Miinchengr'dti! (Juno 26 and 28), and 
 played a very conspicuous part in the battle of Kiinigs- 
 griil/. by crossing tho Biestrit/. anil attacking tho villages 
 of Prolilus and Prune. The Austrian left wing rested 00 
 these two points, and by storming and taking them ho 
 completely destroyed this wing of the enemy. In 1870, in 
 the war against France, bo was appointed governor-general 
 .01 tho Ubine and of all the western provinces, which diOi- 
 .■ull and responsilde)iosilion lost agreat deal of itsimport- 
 aiH'c, as the war was carried on in tho enemy's country. 
 On Apr. 8, 1871. llerwarlh retired from netivi' servioo as 
 field-mBrsbal-gcnoral. Ai;oi:sT Niemann.
 
 906 
 
 HERZBERG— HESIOD. 
 
 Hcrz'bcrg (Ewald Fiiiedricii), b. at Lottin, in Pomc- 
 rauia, Sept. 2, 172j; studied law at the University of 
 llalle, and entered in 17-17 tho service of the Prussian 
 ministry of foreign affairs, llo wrntc in 17^6 tho famous 
 Mt'muire raUottnSf founded on papers stolen from tho ar- 
 chives of Dresden, and intended to defend tho invasion 
 of Saxony by Frederick II.; he also wrote a memoir in 
 defence of tho first partition of Pohind in 1772 j and the 
 peace of llubcrtsburg in 170."?, as well as the formation of 
 the su-called "Fiirstenbund " in 1785 against Austria, wa? 
 his work. Frederick II. appreciated him very much, and 
 made him first minister of state, but after his death llorz- 
 bcrg's influence soon decreased, thou<;h Frederick William 
 11. made him a count and president of tho Academy of 
 Si--ieneo of Berlin. Tho convention of Keichenbaeii in 1700 
 proved a failure, and Hcrzberg retired. In 17'.KI, when 
 the second division of Poland and tho unfortunate war 
 against Franco had brought Prussia into a critical jiosition, 
 he offered his services once more, but tho offer was not ac- 
 cepted, and the old ni:»n felt this disappointment so keenly 
 that ho fell sick and d. shortly after, May 25, 1795. 
 
 Herzcgovi'na, province of Bosnia, in European Tur- 
 key, bounded ^V. by Dalmatia and S. by the Gulf of Cat- 
 taro and by Montenegro. Area, G420 square miles. It is 
 peopled largely by Slavic races : is occupied by tho ridges 
 and valleys of tho Binaric Alps; produces much grain, to- 
 bacco, and honey. Two-thirds of its people aro of tho 
 (ircek faith, and of tho remainder one-third aro Roman 
 Catholics, the rest Mohammedans. Tho name is corrupted 
 from llerzog (** duko'"), because at the time of the Moslem 
 conquest it had for sonio years been governccl by a line of 
 independent dukes. Cap. Mostar. Pop. 2U0,000. 
 
 B[er'zea(ALEXANDKK), b. at Moscow Mar. 25.1812. In 
 lS3ir ho was imprisoned for a short time, and banished to 
 Viatka. near Siberia, on account of tho radical ideas ho 
 entertained without concealing them. Having been par- 
 doned in ISui*, he was appointed clerk in one of the gov- 
 ernment offices at St. Petersburg, but his ideas had not 
 changed, nor his desire for making them known, and con- 
 sequently in lSt2 ho was ordered to reside in Novgorod. 
 At the death of his father in 1S47 ho inherited a large for- 
 tune, and he now sought permission to go abroad. It was 
 granted, and, steadily watched by the llussiau police, he 
 travelled for several years in Italy and Franco. In 1S52 
 he settled in London; in 1865 he removed to tieneva; ho 
 d. in Paris Jan. 21, 1S70. His most important literary un- 
 dertaking was no doubt tho Kolokol ("Tho Bell"), a Rus- 
 sian periodical, issued through many years, first in London 
 and then in Geneva, and very extensively read in Russia. 
 But besides some novels and sketches of a lighter descrip- 
 tion, though generally very interesting — as. for instance, 
 Who»e is the Fnult f Doctor Krupow {hoi\\ in 1847), 7?e('j/- 
 lecttont of mtj Traveh (1854), etc. — ho wrote a great num- 
 ber of political and polemical works, as, for instance, Ruh- 
 gia and the lirro/ufion (;i vols., 1800), liitssia and the Old 
 World (18(JI), Memoh-rs de V Impiratrtce Catheviney Merits 
 par elle-meme, with an introduction (1859), liiloe i Doiinii 
 (3 vols., 1864), etc., which exercised great influence on Rus- 
 sian civilization. He was the channel through which the 
 ideas of Western Europe flowed into Russia, but this chan- 
 nel was provided with a filter; gome im|iracticable ideas ^ 
 may have slipped through, but much unclean matter was , 
 stopped. Of the revolutionists of Europe, Herzea is con- 
 sidered one of tho noblest and one of the most powerful. 
 
 Her'zog ( Hans), b. at Aarau in I8U0 ; devoted himself 
 to technical studies, anrl took charge of the factory of his 
 father. Ho was very fond of studying military science, 
 especially artillery; served as a volunteer in tho M'iir- 
 tcmberg artillery; visited the Sardinian camps, and was 
 often present as a spectator at the German manoeuvres, i 
 After serving for many years in the militia, ho was ap- , 
 pointed inspector of tho confederate artillery. As tho ! 
 Franco-German war of 1870-71 made it necessary for 
 Switzerland to take some military measures in order to 
 protect her frontiers, Herzog was ap])ointed commander-in- 
 chief of the army in July, 1870. With tho corps of ;{7,000 
 men which Switzerland raised he formed a line of observa- 
 tion, beginning in the valleys of tlie Jura, at iJelsborg and 
 Pruntat, increasing in strength along tho lianks of the Birr, 
 Ergolz, and Rhine, continued over Sehaffhausen into the 
 canton of Zurich, and ending on tho Aar at Brugg. As 
 the war drew away from the Rhine in August, the greater 
 part of this army was disbanded. Herz<tg resigned, but 
 gave a report of the army organization which showed that 
 the fighting capacity of the Swiss army was a mere illu- 
 pion. He was persuaded, however, to assume the command 
 once more when Bouvhaki's army approached, and noeupied 
 the frontier with HO.OOO men. In this position ho mediated 
 the passing of tho French army, dofoated at Belfort, across 
 the Swiss frontier. ArorsT Nikma.vs. 
 
 He'siod ['Ha^oSo?], next to Homer tho oldest of the Gre- 
 cian poets whoso works aro known to us, and founder of 
 the epic-didactic school of poetry at tho foot of Mt. Helicon 
 in Bceotia, as Homer was tho representative of the epic 
 Ionian school of Asia Minor. The two schools had little 
 in common except the epic form and dialect, for while Ho- 
 mer sang tho exploits of heroes and sought to inspire 
 admiration for adventurous enterprises, Hesiod inculcates 
 tho duty of labor and frugality, and treats of tho daily 
 round of domestic life. Frotn these characteristics Cleom- 
 cues claimed the former as the bard of tho Spartan war- 
 riors, while Hosiod was termed by him tho poet of tho 
 Helots. Of the period when he flourished and tho circum- 
 stances of his life wo know little. What little is known is 
 derived from his own writings; for while Homer, in whom 
 there is greater objectivity than in any other poet, has left 
 in his productions no personal allusions, Hesiod has intro- 
 duced in many passages incidental accounts of his life and. 
 family relations. But in neither poet is any indication 
 given of tho jicriod in which ho lived. Nor is there any 
 external testimony worthy of coufidoncc. Herodotus (ii. 53) 
 says that Hesiod and Homer lived 400 years before his 
 time, and not more, which wouhl givo their date about 840 
 B. c. Most writers make tho two contemporary, while some 
 place Hesiod before, others 100 years later than. Homer. 
 (The various statements aro collected in Clinton's /'««/*' 
 Ildlenicif vol. i. pp. 359-.'i61.) Gottling coincides in the 
 opinion of Herodotus, while Grote, from tho internal evi- 
 dence of style and sentiment, places him shortly after 700 
 B. c. Hesiod was of ^^olian parentage, b. at Ascra in 
 Bceotia. His father had been a resident of Cyme, a toxvn 
 of ^olis in Asia Minor, but had removed to Ascra, where 
 he possessed and cultivated a farm, which he left at his 
 death to his t\vo sons, Hesiod and Perscs. After the divis- 
 ion, Perses, tho younger brother, who seems to have been 
 fond of lawsuits and the harassing business of the agora, 
 managed by bribing the judges t<> defraud his brother of a 
 portion of his inheritance. Hesiod thereupon in disgust 
 left his native Ascra and removed to Orchomenus, where 
 he spent tho rest of his life. Ho further intimates that he 
 was cugage<l iu farming pursuitis. and the precepts which 
 arc embodied iu his Worku mid Dai/s appear to be the re- 
 sult of a practical acquaintance with agriculture. The way 
 iu which ho was led to attempt poetic composition is related 
 in tho opening of tho Thcof/uu^, The Muses, who frequented 
 Mt. Helicon, on one occasion met Hosiod as ho was pastur- 
 ing his flocks at tho foot of tho mouutaiu. They thereupon 
 bestowed on him the gift of poetry, and consecrated him to 
 their service by presenting hira a laurel branch. Tho only 
 other incident in his life is his visit to Chalcis in Euboca, to 
 take part in a j)oetical contest at the funeral celebration iu 
 honor of King Araphidamas, in which he gained a tripod 
 as the prize, which he dedicated to tho Muses. From this 
 arose tno story of a poetical contest between Homer and 
 Hesiod, which gave rise to a production ('Ayu>»' 'Ofj.j)pov koX 
 'Ho-idfiou), still extant, and often printed with the wi-rks of 
 Hesiod. His death was said to have been brought about 
 through the false suspicions of two youths of Locris. His 
 bones were subsequently removed, by command of tho ora- 
 cle, to Orchomenus, where a tomb was erected to his mem- 
 ory, and he was honored as a hero. The works ascribed to 
 Hesiod aro numerous, but some of these are not his own 
 productions, but belong to the school of which he was the 
 founder: (1) 'Epyo Koi 'H^epat ("Works and Hays"), a 
 poem treating of the duties of the farmer and the best 
 method of conducting the ojieratious of agriculture, also 
 inculcating justice, maintaining the dignity of honest labor, 
 laying down rules for the regulation of life and the rearing 
 of children (the •' Works '*) ; followed by a calendar of tho 
 days of tho month on which it is advantageous or otherwise 
 to undertake any labor (the "Hays"). This jioem is the 
 only one accepted by the Boaotians about Mt. Helicon as 
 genuine, though regarded as somewhat interpolated. (2) 
 The Theoi/ont/ (ecoyoi'ta), which treats of the genealogy of 
 the gods, being in great measure a mere enumeration of 
 names, but containing some episodes of considerable beauty. 
 From the battle of the Titans and the gods in this Milton 
 borrowed in his battle of the angels. Herodotus recog- 
 nizes the genuineness of this jioem when he says that 
 Hesiod and Homer formed a thcogony for the Greeks and 
 gave names to tho gods. In its present form it has under- 
 gone many variations and been largely interpolated. The 
 ancients regarded as a sort of continuation of the Theogony 
 tho poem called 'Hotat, sometimes oulleil 'Hoiai fi.tydk<x.% or 
 KaraXoyoi. ywaiKuiv, an aceuunt of the women who had been 
 loved by the gods, and who had become mothers of tho 
 great heroes and demigods from whom tho princely houses 
 of (ireeco were derived. Tho name is said to be formed 
 from the expression used in introducing each character, ^ 
 o'ii\. The work is now lost, (^i) The Shield of Ifercnlea 
 {'AffirU 'HpojtKiovt) is tho title of a poem made up apparently
 
 HKSPELER— IIESYCHirS. 
 
 907 
 
 from other works of Ilesiod ; a part of it at least is believed 
 to have belougcd to the 'Hoiat, and only a portion is devoted 
 to (be description of the .shield, and this is an imitation of 
 Homcr'a shield of Achilk-.". The titles of other poems as- 
 cribed to He>;iod arc — AiytMio«. Mf\aniToSia, 'EfirK^<ri? cVl 
 Ttpaaty, and Xctpofi'oc virod^Kai. The best editions of Ilesiod 
 are by Th. Gaisford in i\>ntfe Miutirrs (irnvi, vol. i. ; by 
 Gbttlins (Gotba, 1S43, 2d ed.)j by Van Lennep (Amster- 
 dam, 18i:i-47, 3 vols.): by F. A. Paley (London, ISfil). 
 Chapman ha^ translated the ir<**-i*« nnri D'li/it into English 
 under the title ll><iii>'VH ftroiyim and B>n>h of Vat/M, and 
 Elton has given the entire poems. (Sec Mi'ller's Nint. 
 Greek Lit., vol. i. p. 77 : Murk's //*«/. Gntk Lit. ; Grote's 
 Hi»t, of Greece, vol. i.; Creuzeu u. Hermann, Brt'e/e iiber 
 Homer und Heniod (Heidelberg:, 1S17): (Irir.Nl.\rT, I)c la 
 T/i/n,/oui>- d'lhiiode (Paris, 1835) ; Bahr, in p€ndyn Jical- 
 
 Enryklnp.) H. DkISLER. 
 
 Iles'peler, a v. of Waterloo tp. and cc. Out., Canada, 
 on the (ircat ^^*estern Railway, 59 miles from Toronto, has 
 manufactures of worsted, woollen, cotton, and other goods. 
 Pop. of sub-district, 797. 
 
 lles'pcr, post-tp. of Winneshiek co., Ta. Pop. 10-11. 
 
 llcspor'idesy three or four, or even seven in number, 
 were the daughters of Atlas an<l He.'^peris. To their guar- 
 dianship were entrusted the golden a])plo,-< which (iea gave 
 Hera as a bridal present, and which Henicles stole and 
 brought to Eurystheus. Not only their number, but also 
 their descent and the place of their garden, is variously 
 given in the Grecian mythology. 
 
 Hesper'omys,a genus of Murida?, including the white- 
 footed or deer-mouse of the Xorthern States, and some 
 thirteen other species of North American mice. 
 
 Hes'se [Gcr. ffrttnen; Lat. Ilt-MtiHt], a mountainous ter- 
 ritttry in the western part of Central Germany, situated 
 between the Ncckar, Hliine. Main, Labn, and Fulila. It 
 was inhabited by the tribe of the t^atti at tlie time of Ger- 
 manicus, but the Catti became lost as an individual tribe 
 among the Franks, and when these emigrated to Belgium 
 and France, the Hessian territory became nearly depopu- 
 lated. Meanwhile, the Saxons pushed into the country 
 from Thuringia, and for a period Ilessia was united with 
 the Thiiringian principality; but at the death of Henry 
 Ka.spo in 1217 a succession- war broke i»ut bctwecu his 
 nephew, Henry of Misuia, and his niece. iSophia, married 
 to Henry, duke of Urabant, which ended in V2G'.i in a sepa- 
 ration of the two countries. Sophia obtained Hessia. and 
 her son, Ludwig the Child, was acknowledged as landgrave, 
 took up his residence at CasscI, and founded the Hessian 
 dynasty. One of his descendants, Philip the Magnani- 
 mous, divideil his land at his death in l,'it)7 between his 
 four sons. William IV., Ludwig IV., Philip II.. and George 
 I. But Lmhvig IV. .lied in KlOt and Philip II. in lOS.*?, 
 without children, and thus only two branches uf the family 
 were continued — that of Hesse-Cassel, descending from 
 William IV., and that of Hcssc-Darmstadt, descending 
 from (Jleorge I. The elder branch, that of Hes-iie-CasscI, 
 ceased to reign Aug. 17, I SCO, when its dominions were in- 
 corporated with Prussia; but it rcigncil long enough to 
 acquire quite a conspicuous place in history, for no family 
 was ever meaner, more treacherous, or more infamous ; and 
 as if to intensify the character of their history, most of 
 it? members possessed a peculiar art of mixing tlicir stu- 
 
 fddity and their crimes with the ridiculous. Frederick It., 
 nndgravc from 17C0 to 17S5, hired to England 22,000 of 
 his subjects to light against the Americans (1776-81), and 
 was paid therefor 21,276,778 thalers. He iiad sixteen pal- 
 aces, some of them large enough to contain sixteen land- 
 graves, yet he left a mysterious treasure, which his son in 
 the days of troublo deposited with the Frankfort Jew, 
 Roth»<ehild. This son, William I., made first a bargain 
 with Napoleon, and rose- acc<(rdingly in dignity from land- 
 grave to eleclor in KSU:{ ; but unable to predict whether 
 France or Prussia would carry the day, and having pre- 
 pared himself for siding with Prussia if that shoubl prove 
 the way to pr<»fit, lie was disoovcreil by Napoleon and ex- 
 pelled sb<»rtly after the battle of Jena (Nov. 1, ISO(!) ; his 
 dominions were iner>r])orated with the kingdom of West- 
 phalia. After Napoleon's fall bo returned to his electorate 
 (Nov. 21, 1813), with many golden ])romises to his subjects 
 of constitution, representative government, etc., all of 
 which he broke as soon as be discovered that constitution 
 and representative government had something to do with 
 the linaoces. His intrigues, however, in Vienna to be cre- 
 ated king by the congress. like the electors of Saxony and 
 Bavaria, and the indignation of the other kings on account 
 of this impertinent demand, form a very entertaining epi- 
 Bodc. lie d. Feb. 27. 1821. Under his son and suceessor, 
 William II.. the discord between monarch and subjects be- 
 came dangerous, and when in ls;;0 a revolution actually 
 broke out, bo followed his father's example: ho promised 
 
 everything on one day, and broke his promises the next. 
 Still worse was Frederick William I., who succeeded his 
 father Nov. 20, 1847. When the revolution of 1S48 came, 
 nothing was too dear to him: censorship of the press, re- 
 ligious restrictions, arbitrary judicatory authority, irre- 
 sponsible financial measures, etc., — he gave up all. and 
 granted an excellent constitution, but in l.Sy2 foreign soldiers 
 sat in courts-martial and condemned Hessian civil officers 
 because they had declined to act against the constitution 
 on which they had made oatli. From 18."U to ISlJl the 
 pojiulation of the Hessian electorate decreased more than 
 6 ]>er cent., and it was a great benefit, not only to Hesse, 
 but to Germany and to civilization in general, when in 
 18Gf), the elector happening to side with Austria, Count 
 Bismarck had him carried as prisoner to Stettin and bis 
 domini«)ns incorporatetl with Prussia. 
 
 The younger branch, that of Hesse-Darmstadt, is still 
 reigning. One of its members. Ludwig I., joined the con- 
 federation of the Rhine and obtained from Napoleon large 
 accessions of territory and the title of grand duke. Ho 
 followed Napoleon faithfully until after the battle of I,(i|)- 
 sic. when be was fortunate enough to join the allies ju^. 
 in time to be accepted. After 1814 he promised, like all 
 the German princes, to give a constitution, but he re- 
 deemed his word conscientiously, and the country was in 
 a prosperous condition when he d., Apr. G, 18.30. His 
 grandson, Ludwig III., who succeeded to the throne June 
 l(i, 184S, concluded a special military convention with 
 Prussia in 1SG7. according to which the army of Hesse be- 
 came a part of the army of the North German confedera- 
 tion, and as such it took part in the Franco-Prussian war 
 in 1870. Clemens Petersen. 
 
 Hes'se-I>arin'sladt, German grand duchy, consists 
 
 of two large and eighteen small scjiarate districts, situated 
 
 j partly between Prussia, Bavaria, ami Baden, partly within 
 
 the Prussian frontier. Area, 29G4 square miles. Pop. 
 
 802.894; namely, i)S.'-),.'i99 Protestants, 2;J8.080 Roman 
 
 Catholies, and 2^>,'^7•^ Jews. The country is mountainous 
 
 or hilly, covered by Vogelsberg, Odcnwald, and spurs of 
 
 Taunus and AVesterwalil, but the soil is very productive 
 
 and well cultivated. Wheat, wine, fruit, and tobacco are 
 
 ! raised; some iron, salt, and brown coal is mined; linen 
 
 ' and woollen fabrics, leather and .straw goods, arc mauu- 
 
 I factured; the carriages from Oft'enbaeh are celebrated. The 
 
 j annual revenue amounts to $4,500,000: the expenditures 
 
 to $4,250,000 ; the public debt to $5,J00,000. Cup. Darm- 
 
 * stadt. 
 
 ' Iles'se-Nas'san, province of Prussia, formed in ISGG 
 I of the electorate of Hesse-Cassel, the duchy of Nassau, the 
 I landgraviate of Hcssc-Homburg, and the free city of Frank- 
 fort, is situated between Hesse-Darmstadt, Bavaria, und 
 the provinces of Saxony, Hanover, Rhenish Prussia, and 
 Wcsti)halia. Area, G02"l square miles. Pop. 1.400,370. 
 The surface is mountainous, occupied by the Spessart, 
 I Rhiin, Westerwald. and Taunus, but the soil is very fertile 
 I and well cultivated. Agriculture, cattle-raising, and manu- 
 I facturo of cloth, iron, jewelry, and jiottery are the chief 
 I occupations. Much and excellent wine is produced. Min- 
 I eral springs are numerous, ancl the watering-places of Ems, 
 I Wieabadcn, Schlangenbad, and others are celebrated. 
 I lles'.sian-Fly [so called because it was believed to have 
 been brought from Germany by the Hessian troops during 
 ! the Revolution], the Cvridonnfia destructm-, a dipterous in- 
 I sect which is very destructive to wheat in parts of the U. S. 
 In spring and autumn the larvip crawl in between tlie stalk 
 I and the sheath of a leaf, and remain near the ground, head 
 [ downward, sucking the juice. In five or six weeks they 
 I enter a semi-pupa or '* flaxseeil slate," from which they go 
 into the pupa, and then become ]>crfect insects. They are 
 destroyed in great numlurs by insect parasites, and burn- 
 ' iug the stubble in the autumn will destroy a great projior- 
 I tion of their larvio. 
 
 I Ilcs'ychasts [Gr. ^trvxairrot', "quictists"], n body of 
 mystics in the Greek Church, chiefly monks of Mt. Alhos, 
 who professed that by retirement and conteinphition they 
 I could come to behold the divine glory (called the *' Taboritio 
 , light," because it was regarded as the same as that which 
 shone at Christ's transfiguration on iMt. Tabor). They be- 
 lieved that the best position they could assume for behold- 
 ing this light was to sit an<I gaze unon the navel. They 
 flourished in the fourteenth century, but the leaven of their 
 doctrine is not yet extinct in the East. Barlaam was their 
 great opponent. 
 
 Upsych'ius [*H(ri;x*o«]- ^ grammarian of Alexandria, 
 under whose name a valuable Greek lexicon has come down 
 to us. Nothing is known of his life, and bis date is so un- 
 certain that oritics vary in regard to it from .'iOO a. i>. to the 
 tenth century. Tlie former is more generally accepted, and 
 the forms and references whieh imply a later date are be- 
 lieved to be interpolations. The work is bused on the ear-
 
 908 
 
 HESYCHIUS-HEUSSER. 
 
 lier lexicon of Diof^cnianus, and is valiiat>)o as containing 
 explanations of words and forms and literary and archtuo- 
 logical information derived in part from writers now lost. 
 The explanations of words from the Scriptures and from 
 Christian writers arc tho additions of later hands. The 
 best editions are by Alberfi and Ruhnken ( Leydeu, I74G-76, 
 2 vols., fol.). and by M. Schmidt (5 vols. 4(o. Jena. 1SJ8-61); 
 the (ifu»»a'- Sucra separately by Ernesti (Leipsic, 1785). 
 (Sec Kanke, De Lex. Ileajfck. vera orit/ine, ete.. Quedlin- 
 burf;. 18;!I.) II. Dkislf.k. 
 
 Ilesychius^ of Miletus, a philosopher and historian, 
 surnanu-d 'IWovtrrpto^ (tlie Latin i((uKtrit<), lived in the sixth 
 century a. r>. under the emperor Justinian. He wrote a 
 synoptical history {'laropiKhv uif ci* avvu>ii(.i Ko<Jti.iKTi^ (OTopta;) 
 of the world, in six parts, from Belus. king of Assyriii. to 
 the deatli of Anastnsius I. Of the sixth part a portion, 
 relating to the origin of Constantinople, still remains. Ho 
 was also the author of a work treating of persons distin- 
 guished for their learning ( I If pi rutv ev naiStiif St.aXafj.\J/dvToiv 
 ao>i)oiv). arranged under the letters of the alpliabct, proba- 
 bly' extracted from the work of Diogenes Laertius. Best 
 edition of both treatises by OrelU (Leipsic, 1S20). 
 
 H. DnisLKn. 
 
 Heteroccr'cal [Gr. tVfpo?, " another," and KipKo^, 
 *' tail "], a nnnic applied to the tails of those species of 
 fish whicli have the vertebral column extended into the 
 upper lobe, which is the larger of the two. A symmetrical 
 fish-tail is called homocarcal. The terms were introduced 
 by Agassiz. The cartilaginous fishes and many extinct 
 species have hetorocercal tails, and fishes with homocercal 
 tails have, while imperfectly developed, tails of heteroeereal 
 character. This fact was formerly held to indicate a rela- 
 tively low rank for fishes with heteroeereal tails ; but this 
 opinion is not generally accepted. 
 
 Hctcropy'gia [from erepo?, "abnormal." and irvyri, 
 '' anal region "J, a group of fishes represented by a single 
 family ( AniblyopsiduM. belonging to tho order Tcleocephali 
 and tho sub-order llaplomi, and especially distinguished 
 by the abnormal position of the vent under the opercular 
 region, and consequently far in advance of the pectoral 
 fins (and hence the name). The fishes are subfusiform in 
 outline, with minute scales on tho body, but none on tho 
 head, with the dorsal and anal fins opposite to each other, 
 and with the ventral fins very small and abdominal or en- 
 tirely wanting. The margin of the upper jaw is formed 
 wholly by the intermaxillaries. The intestinal canal has 
 two turns ; the stomach is well defined and ciecal ; and py- 
 loric appendages are present. The species are viviparous. 
 To this family belong four species, which have been re- 
 ferred to three distinct genera: (1) AmblyoI'SIS (which 
 s"p). including the celebrated large blind fish of the Mam- 
 moth and sonif other caves of Kentucky and Indiana {Ani- 
 bhlfpHiH i^pdrciin). in which there are no functional eyes and 
 ventral fins are present; (U) 7]v/i/i/iVAr/i_y«, represented by 
 a small species ( Ti/ph({rh(fit/n subterrauens), which is also 
 found in the Mammoth Cave, as well as in some other sub- 
 terranean streams in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama, 
 which is also destitute of eyes, but has no central fins; and 
 (M) i'liiibxjaMtvr, containing two species ( T. ronnttim, A g.. dis- 
 covered in rice-ditches in Carolina, and C. A^jassizii, l*utnam, 
 found in subterranean streams in Tennessee), both having 
 eyes and being destitute of ventral fins. Amb/f/opnis and 
 Ti/plilirhilif/s have each a single pyloric apjiendage on each 
 side, and the ovary is at each side of the stomach, and the 
 head has tactile ridges; while ('holm/antcr has two pyloric 
 appendages on each side, and the ovary is ])laced behind 
 the stomach, and the head is without ridges. The species 
 of AmhlifofiHi's sometimes reaches nearly five inches in 
 length; those of TifphUchthifH and Choli>f/nstrr, less than 
 two. The afiiiiities of these fishes have been generally su])- 
 posed to be with the killy-fishcs or minnows {Cyprinodon- 
 tidae), but their relation to those forms is not chtso, although 
 there is some resemblance in general appearance. 
 
 Much speculation has been spent upon the question of 
 the origin of the blind fishes, but it is sufficient to state 
 that they arc very closely related to perfectly seeing fishes 
 (Choloiffifitcr) found in the streams of the same region, and 
 that at the same time there are other differences between 
 the two forms than those of sight ; therefore we cannot at- 
 tribute the parentage of the blind fi?hcs directly to the 
 eyed ones. Inasmuch, however, as we know by experiment 
 and the occurrence in entire groups of animals of tho tond- 
 eney towards atrophy of parts tliat are disused, it is toler- 
 ablv curtain that the want of sight could be readily eflfcctcd 
 by confinement to dark caves, and we sliould doubtless 
 search for the original progenitors of the blinil fishes in 
 formerly existing oycd ones. (Sec Pi;tnam (J. W.) in Au- 
 nitiif Report of the Pcnhotly Academy of Science for 1871, 
 and in American Naturalist for Jan., 1S72.) 
 
 TlIKODOIlE CtlLI,. 
 
 Heteroso'mata [from crepoc, " unequal," and <Twp.o, 
 **boily "]. a sub-order of teleocephalous fishes, peculiar 
 among the vertebrates in the asymmetry of the body, to 
 which the name alludes. The animal is very much com- 
 pressed, with dorsal and abdominal edges trenchant, and 
 generally it rests on the sandy or muddy bottoms of the 
 water flat on one side, and hence the inferior is white, 
 while the side which is kept uppermost is dark ; the ventral 
 fins are jugular or thoracic; the dorsal and anal fins very 
 elougated ; the scapular arch is destitute of a mesocoracoid 
 bone. They are most nearly related to the cod-fishes and 
 allied tribes. In the early embryonic stage these fishes are 
 symmetrical, but they very soon assume that dissimilarity 
 of the sides which is characteristic of the mature condition. 
 Their development has been studied by Malm, Steenstrup, 
 Thompson, Traquair, Sehrodte, etc. Steeustrup ( 1804) con- 
 tended that the combination (tf the eyes on one side was 
 effected by a transfer of the upper one from the blind side 
 through the tissues below tho .arch formed by the frontal 
 bono of its own side to the opposite one. But a more con- 
 secutive study of the development and anatomy of the va- 
 rious forms seems to establish the fact that this transfer is 
 rather effected by a rotation of tho eye and contiguous 
 parts from the one side to the other. The rotation of the 
 eye has been explained on the principle of its tendency, 
 while the fish is yet young and symmetrical, but prone to 
 lie on one side, to turn towards the light ; this tendency, con- 
 firmed and established by slow degrees, finally culminated 
 in the habit now universal. The least generalized of this 
 type is the Rrinhnrdtus hippofjlossoidrH, a kind of halibut 
 found in the Arctic seas and as far S. as the Banks of 
 Newfoundland. The sub-order embraces two families 
 (Plei'RONEOTID^ and SoLEiDiE) and numerous species. 
 
 Tni:oDOKE Gill. 
 
 Heth, tp. of Harrison co., Ind. Pop. 1615. 
 
 Iletman. See Atamax. 
 
 Hct'zel (PiERnE .Iiles), b. at Cbartres in 1814, began 
 as the partner of Paulin, the celebrated publisher of the 
 works of the greatest modern French writers. In 1848, 
 Hetzel exercised a great influence in favor of the republican 
 movement, and occupied several offices in the capacity of 
 an under-secretary in two ministries, and finally as general 
 secretary of the executive power. During the empire Hetzol 
 busied himself exclusively with publishing the books of 
 Victor Hugo, Georges Sand. etc.. and he wrote also, under 
 the pseudonym of "Stahl," some highly moral hooks, like 
 The Familiar Morale A Student's Travels. Xcw antl Safe Ad- 
 veuturea of Tom Thumb, The Esprit of Women and Women 
 of Exprit, etc. Felix Aicaigne. 
 
 Hcug'Hn, von fTHEonOR). Baron, b. at Hirschlanden, 
 Wiirtemberg. Mar. 26, 1824: travelled in the East 1850-52 j 
 became Austrian consul at Khartoom. and explored Abys- 
 sinia and the White Nile Valley 18.">2-54; travelled along 
 the Gulf of Aden and the shores of the Red Sea 185G-58; 
 from 1860 to 1865 was again engaged in African explor- 
 ations; made a journey in the region of Spitsbergen and 
 Nova Zembl.a 1870-71. Author of Rrisen in Nordoatafrikn 
 ( 1 857), Ornithologic Nordo8tnfri1ca>i { 1 860 ). Sifntemat. 
 Uebersicht der Siiuffethiere Sordafri kaft {\SG7), Heine narh 
 Abeaginien, etc. (1868), Reiee in das Gchiet dee wcissen Sil 
 (1869), etc. D. Nov. 5, 1876. 
 
 Heus'ser (Mrs. Meta), tho best female song-writer in 
 the (icrman language, and a woman of rare genius sanc- 
 tified by deep piety, b. Apr. 6, 17U7, the fourth daughter 
 of Pastor Diet helm Schwcizer, in the mountain- village 
 of Hirzel, canton Zurich, Switzerland, within S miles of 
 Mount Kigi, where she resided till her death Jan. 2, 1S7G. 
 She married Dr. Heusscr, an eminent physician, and be- 
 came the mother of a large family, bur her household duties 
 did not prevent her from singing "like the bird on the 
 tree," giving utterance to her love of nature and nature's 
 God, and the jcys and sorrows of her heart. She never 
 dreamed that her lays would ever be given to the world, 
 but her friends thought differently, and after many vain 
 efforts they obtained her consent to publish anonymously 
 some of them in Knapp's Chrivtoterpr (1S^4). They were 
 most favorably received, and passed into many collections 
 and German hymn-books of Kurope and America. In 
 18.S7, Albert Knapp edited a volume of her poems (under 
 the title Licdtr einer Verborfjenen), which was followed by 
 another volume (Tjcipsic. 1867) under her real name, which 
 at last became generally known. A selection from both 
 volumes has recently been translated into English by Miss 
 Jane Borthwick {translator of ffymn» from the Laud if 
 Luther), under the title Alpinr LyricH ( Edinburgh and Lon- 
 don, 1875). Koch, in his lliatttry of German Church /*i>elry 
 (3d ed.), well characterizes her jioems in these words: 
 "From contemplation of the glorious .Alpine world, and 
 tho atmosphere of spiritual freedom which she daily and 
 hourly breathes out of tho Sacred Scriptures, have sprung
 
 HEUSTIS— HEXACIIOKD. 
 
 909 
 
 the tender yet deeply reflective poems whioh have made i 
 Mcta lleusser the most eminent and nolile among all the 
 female poets of our whole Evausclieal Chunh. Her lavs 
 flow freely from the fresh fountain of a heart in conslaut, 
 holy communion with (iod." Phii.ii- Siiiaff. 
 
 Heus'lis (.Iabez Wiggixs). M. D., b. in 17S6 in St. 
 John, .V. B. It is believed he graduated in the College of 
 I'hysieians and Surgeons of New York City ; made a cruise 
 in a man-of-war as surgeon's mate, and on his return was 
 appoinlc.l surgeon in tJcn. Jackson's army, and served 
 tbrouohout the Southern campaigns. Dr. lleustis was a 
 ready writer, and from 181C to the time of his decease, 
 which occurred from blood-poison contracted by a puncture 
 made while operating, ho wrote on the topography and dis- 
 eases of Louisiana, etc., and contributed largely to the 
 Amrricun Juiiriiiil of Mediral Scienrit. In ISlii ho re- 
 moved from Cahawha (where in 18L'.i ho was selected to 
 welcoino La Fayette) to Mobile, but was at the Talladega 
 Springs when he d., 1.S41. Few in the South were more 
 active in the profession than he, or more deserving. 
 
 ■^ Paul F. Eve. 
 
 Hcvcs, town of Hungary, carries on a considerable 
 trailu in wine, wheat, tobacco, flax, and hemp, raised in its 
 vicinity. Pop. 5700. 
 
 Ilcwes (.losEPn), a signer of the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence, b. of Quaker stock at Kingston, X. J., in ITIiO ; 
 was educated at Princeton, and went into business, first in 
 Philadelphia, and then at Edenton, N. V. ; wasa member 
 of tbetieneral Congress from North Carolina 1774-7", and 
 again in 1779. In Congress ho took a prominent jiart in 
 the pcrformauco of public business. U. at Philadelphia 
 Nov. 10, 177'J. 
 
 IIcw'it(AtGnsTixnFnASCis), ft Roman Catholic (Paul- 
 ist) priest, a son of N. Ilcwit, b. at Fairfield, Conn., in 
 1820; graduated at Amherst in 1S:!'J; studied theology at 
 East Windsor, Conn., and became a:i Episcopalian minis- 
 ter. In 1840, while residing in North Carolina, he be- 
 came a Roman Catholic; was ordained in 1847; joined 
 the Paulists in 1848, and afterwards was appointed pro- 
 fessor of philosophy, tlicology, and Holy Scripture in the 
 Paulist seminary, New York. Author of /Vo///cra» o/ (/le 
 jtjr, Light and Darkness, and of several translations, and 
 of many articles in periodicals. 
 
 Hewit (HKXnv Sti-aiit), M. D., b. at Fairfield, Conn., 
 Dec. 2i, 1825; studied at Yale College; was a ]>upil of 
 Drs. Van Duren and Mott ; graduated 1847 at New York 
 University ; wasan nssisiant surgeon (1847-52) in the U. S. 
 army, serving in .Mexico and on the Pacific coast; prac- 
 tised three years in California; became a Roman Catholic 
 1855; returned to New York ; served 18G1-C5 as a surgeon 
 of volunteers on the 8lafl"s of Gens. Grant, Scolield. etc.: 
 was eminent for charitable labors. Son of Rev. Nathaniel 
 Ex. L IstTctrachord. 2d. 3d. 
 
 a 
 
 D. in New York 
 
 Hewit and grandson of James Hillhouse. 
 Aug. Ill, 187;!. 
 
 Hewit (NATnASiEL). D. D., b. at New London, Conn., 
 Aug. 28, 1788: graduated at Yale in 1808; taught for 
 some years, and in 1811 was licensed to preach; studieil 
 theology at .\udover ; held Presbyterian and Congre- 
 gational pastorates at Plattsburg. N. Y'., 1815-17, and at 
 Fairfield, Conn., 1818-27; engaged in the temperance re- 
 form lS27-.'!0 ; held pastorates at liridgport. Conn., 18:iO- 
 62, receiving an assistant in the latter year. He was one 
 of the founders of the East \Vind."or (now Ilartfonl) Theol- 
 ogical .Seminary, and an able and eloquent defender of the 
 Old School theology. D. Feb. 3, 18G7. 
 
 Hew'itt (Abram Steve.vs), A. M., b. at Haverstraw, 
 N. Y., July ai, 1822 ; graduated at Columbia College 1842 ; 
 studied law, but engaged in the manufacture of iron ; was 
 commissioner to the French Exposition of 1807; was elected 
 in 1874 to the 44th Congress (1875-77) from the Tenth dis- 
 trict of Now Y'ork ; has been secretary of the Cooper Union 
 for the Advancement of Science and Art. New York Cily, 
 from its organization to the present time (1875); and is 
 widely known as an expert in questions relating to the iron 
 manufacture. Author of the official Report on the Iron and 
 Sttcl iif the I'nivcreal Expusitl'JU of 1867. 
 
 Ilew'ston (Geouge), A. M., M. D., b. at Philadelphia 
 Sept. 11, 1820; graduated A. M.at the Central High School, 
 Philadelphia. 1815; M. D. at the Philadelphia College of 
 Medicine 1850; received the same degree in ISliO from the 
 University of Pennsylvania; was professor of anatomy in 
 the first-named medical college, and afterwards became 
 professor of the theory and practice in the University of 
 California, a position which he still holds (1875); was 
 supervisor of San Francisco 1873-75 ; president of the Odd 
 Fellows' Library of San Francisco, etc., and member of 
 various scientific societies. 
 
 Hex'achord, in music, a series of six notes in direct 
 succession, forming a portion of a scale. The extension 
 of the musical scale and its division into hexachords are 
 attributed to tiuido, a monk of the eleventh century. Under 
 the system of tho ancient Greeks, which continued for ages 
 to influence all music, both ecclesiastical and secular, the 
 scale was divided into telmchurdg, or portions of four notes 
 each. As the (ircek scale comprised only about fifteen 
 notes, or two octaves, these tctraehords could not appar- 
 ently exceed four and a fraction in number; but the 
 Greeks, by an ingenious use of some extraneous elements, 
 obtained no less than five. According to our modern 
 reckoning — taking B in the bass, as the Greeks did. and 
 following their mode of division — the four tctraehords 
 would uot fill the double octave, and a fifth tetrachord 
 added would reach beyond it, as at a, b in Ex. 1 : 
 
 But under the Greek system the five tctraehords were ob- 
 tained— 1st, by adding an initial note A, which note was 
 called the Protlambunomeiioii; 2d, by using lJ|j in the third 
 Ex. 2. IstTct. 2d. 3d^_ 
 
 tetrachord, and then commencing the fourth tetrachord 
 by a descent to liO, thus : 
 
 4th. 
 
 5th. 
 
 It is evident that tho fourth and fifth of the.se tctraehords 
 are merely repetitions in tho octave of the first and second, 
 but, as Dr. Burney rcinarUs, "the several sounds of which 
 they are composed have in the Greek music different d( - 
 nominations." anil also were no doubt <lifl'erent in their 
 treatment and effect. Guido's system, imjierrect and un- 
 satisfactory as it is, was nevertheless an advance towards 
 tho modern and only rational system of the division of the 
 gcale — viz. into successive *>"('ii*r«. It is coinTiiunly sup 
 
 f 
 
 loscd also that Guido invented Ihe mode of writing his 
 
 liexachorda and other music on lines and spaces. This 
 
 however, is an opinion for which the evidence is weak 
 
 Ex. 3. iBt. Natural. 2d. Mollf. 
 
 For manv ages after him tho stave consisted of only four 
 lines, with their spaces, and in Ihe Chureh of Home and 
 elsewhere the same system of notation is extensively used 
 for Gregorian music at the present day. The hexachords 
 of Guido were three in number, and were based on C, F, 
 and G, tho first being called the nalnral: the second, the 
 molle, or soft ; and the third, the durum, or hard. T<i each 
 of these were assigned Ihe syllables «(, re. mi. fa, »../, la ; 
 and in the F hexachord liy/'i( was substituted for B natural. 
 These hexachords may be' thus expressed, and their range 
 extends to an octavo and a Ibinl -viz. C C — E, etc. 
 
 3d. Durum. 
 
 T ~ r-r 
 
 It is known, however, that in Guide's time more notes than 
 these were in use, he himself having invented the gamut, 
 which began on tho lower line of our modern bass stave. 
 Taking, therefore, gamut G as tho first of an ascending 
 Ex.4. 1st. 'id. 3d. 4it 
 
 series of notes, and E of tho last example as its Icrmina- 
 tiiin, we have a succession of twenty-two notes (including 
 B flat), which admits of easy arrangement in the form of 
 seven hexachords, thus : 
 
 6th. Clh. 7th. 
 
 ^^^PP^
 
 910 
 
 HEXAMETER— HIBERNATION. 
 
 The system of hexachords is of no practical use in mod- 
 ern nuisie, being superseded by the simple and natural 
 division of the scale on the normal type of the series of 
 notes furuiing the octave. William Stauxtox. 
 
 Hcxam'eter fGr. cfa^irrpo?, "of six metres," «'f, "six," 
 ^e>po^, " measure "j, in Greek and Latin prosody, is the 
 name of the heroic verse of Homer, A'irg:il, Ovid, and others. 
 Ancient rhythm is based chiefly on the distribution of long 
 and short syllables, while the less delicate ear of the mod- 
 erns is satisfied with the alternate presence or absence of 
 accent. Taking a succession of Virgil's lines (bk. 1, I. 
 8-10)— 
 
 MuVa ml' I 111 cays' | in mSm'ft I r3, qvo ] nu'mTnS | lie'so, | 
 qvTd'vC- il6' | I5ns, r5g ] T'liS dc' ] u™, tot J vOrvgrC | cfi'sus j 
 InsTg' I (le* i>U \ tS'tS vir | u", tftt 5d | ra^ ISb j G'r.'S, 
 
 and representing them in English, syllable for syllable and 
 accent for accent, 
 
 M i\sa relate [ those trea I suns c6nsura || matSd, | ckiiscs of | torture, | 
 whoiicc the 6b j diiratc 1 queen of hon |! or'd (.'ods |] drivioK u hi-ro I 
 Biipd I ryor in his | virtue, un [j d€r such iiii | pdsiiig mis || I'drtune, { 
 
 we find that the feet are composed of dactyls (~ " ") and 
 spondees (~ ~), with the accents entirely absent or present 
 at any point — in some cases (as mii'sa m!''-) two being 
 present in a single dactyl. Looking farther, wo find that 
 any foot from the first to the fourth may bo dactylic or 
 spondaic at pleasure; the fifth in nearly every ease is a 
 dactyl, and the sixth a spondee. This recurrence of final 
 daciflus-spondee would not be sufficient to enable the lis- 
 tener to seize the metre ; he is therefore aided by an initial 
 accent on each of these feet (see Adonic Verse) ; and, as if 
 this were not enough, Virgil in many cases separates them 
 from the four feet with mixed accents, by making the fifth 
 foot accentless, or what we may terra nmiraf, because it 
 has nrithrr the irregular accent of the earlier feet nor the 
 regular accent of t he close. The following is a longer speci- 
 men (bk. 1, I. 23-33): 
 Remembering thi^i, Saturnia, thinking o'er various conflicts 
 waged at Troy's stronghold for Argos, dear to remembrance : 
 nor no-w Itad grievous causes resentful escaped from 
 Ikt angry soul. Paris, whose verdict rankles sorely ber bosom, 
 a 8tij;nia on slighted form, and also storn Ganyme-de, 
 a nation despising cordially for evils uneqiiall'd, 
 Blie (these urging) scatters far far from Latyttm the Trojans 
 over wide 6cean — those relics 16ft by ruthless Achilles 
 and Grecian heroes. Many years they wander'd in sailing 
 around tliro' nuurroue waters, F5te aUurini; them onward. 
 F<jundiiig such a nation, required these arduous labors. 
 
 To an ear trained to the strong accent of German and Eng- 
 lish verse the rhythm of such lines is not readily appreci- 
 ated, and accordingly efforts have been made to prove that 
 the .Encid must be commenced with " Arma virumqvc 
 canu'," instead of cau'o ; for, according to Prisoian. no 
 Latin words have a final accent. Richard Koe{Prinriplpii 
 of Jiht/thm, 1823) goes so far as to say of the ancients that 
 " there is reason to believe that their perceptions of quan- 
 tity were confused and imperfect " — where the imperfection 
 is his own. 
 
 The misnamed hexameters of Southey, Coleridge, and 
 other moderns are mere h?xametroids, or accentual hexa]i- 
 odies in mixed rhythm, and without dactyls and spondees, 
 as shown in two of Prof. Longfellow's linos, in which 
 "ruddy" is supposed to be a spondee, and "then through 
 those" an equivalent dactyl: 
 
 FIllTug ft I nn of ] 16ve and the I riSdd.V I faces of ) children. . . . 
 
 Thentlirouyh Ihost.- realms (if shade, in muUiplied reverberatious, 
 
 the second line of which has quantitive matter enough for 
 seven feet, and other lines would pass for distichs of Iliu- 
 
 toalh't, as — 
 
 I>onii I burg is | not for \ gotten. 1 
 nor Ileaii I S^jour, | nor Port | lloyal. | 
 
 These spurious hexameters belong to what Guest {Englhh 
 Rhijthmn, i. p. 177) mentions as "these slovenly verses the 
 * tumbling* metre. ... the impudent license of the tumbling 
 metre." Such forms tend to the perversion of Latin scan- 
 sion, and to the destru'-tion of just ideas of tho nature of 
 feet. They have neither tho rhythm of Latin nor of Eng- 
 lish verse, but, on the contrary, they constitute an offensive 
 system which is tolerated only because it is supposed to be 
 classic. S. S, Haldkmax, 
 
 Hcx'apla [Gr. "the sixfold"], a celebrated edition of 
 the Septuagint text of the Old Testament, the original He- \ 
 brew, the llebrew in Greek letters, the (ireek versions of i 
 Aquila, Symmachus, and Thcodotion. Besides these, there I 
 were columns containing parts of three other Greek vcr- \ 
 sions, whose authors are not known. Origen was the author , 
 of this great work, which he originally prepared as ate- i 
 trapla, giving four columns only. The liexapla had also | 
 marginal notes, and marks indicating variations, retrench- i 
 ments, and additions in the texts. The Uexapla is not , 
 extant except in fragments, of which the most complete I 
 edition is that of the Benedictine Montfaucon (2 vols, folio, | 
 Paris, 1714), I 
 
 Ucyst-op-den-berg, town of Belgium, in the prov- 
 ince of Antwerp, has some cloth-factories and corn-mills. 
 Pop. 6670. 
 
 Uey^uard (Thomas, Jr.) was b. in St. Luke's parish, 
 S. C, in 174(j, and was the son of a wealthy planter, Col. 
 Daniel Ileyward. The son studied law in Loudon, and was 
 early and prominently connected with the Uevtdutionarv 
 movement in North Carolina. He was (I77.")-7S) one of 
 the signers of the Declaration of Independence, and was 
 afterwards a judge in his native State, holding also a mili- 
 tary command. He was (1780-81) a prisoner in the bauds 
 of the British. D. in Mar., 1809. 
 
 Hey'wood, town of England, in the county of Lan- 
 caster, on the Roach, has large iron-foundries and extensive 
 mauufactures of cotton fabrics. Pop., with surroundings, 
 l»,-i54. 
 
 Heywood (Charles), U. S. M. C, entered the marine 
 corps as second lieutenant Apr. T), 1858; became first lieu- 
 tenant early in 1861, and captain in November of that 
 year; served on board the Cumberland in her encounter 
 with the Merrimack, Mar. 8, 18G2, and in the flagship 
 Hartford at the great battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864 ; 
 and is very highly spoken of in the despatches of bis com- 
 manding officers. Received the brevets of major and lieu- 
 tenant-colonel for ''gallant and meritorious conduct." 
 
 FoxHALL A. Parker. 
 
 Hey'worth, post-v. of Randolph tp., McLean co., 111., 
 on the Illinois Central K. R., 12 miles S. of Bloomington. 
 Pop. 300. 
 
 Hczeki'ah ("The Lord hath strengthened"), thir- 
 teenth monarch of Judah. son and successor of Ahaz. He 
 reigned twenty-nine years (726-697 b. c). He was a ile- 
 vout man, a severe enemy of idolatry, and the restorer of the 
 ancient worship. He warred successfully against the Phil- 
 istines, and refused to pay the established tribute to Tig- 
 lath- Pileser, king of Assyria, in consequence of which 
 Jerusalem was besieged, and Hczekiah was forced to pur- 
 chase peace by a heavy mulct in silver and gold and by the 
 loss of parts of his dominions. It is probable that Senna- 
 cherib, the Assyrian general, next marched into Egypt to 
 punish the Ethiopians and Egyptians. Hezekiah's allies, 
 that he was repelled by Tirhakah, and that the miraculous 
 destruction of 185.000 Assyrians took place in a second 
 invasion, after the failure of the Egyptian campaign. 
 Hczekiah was soon after visited with a severe sickness, 
 from which he was miraculously healed. The remaining 
 years of his reign were peaceful and prosperous. D, 697 B.C. 
 
 UiacoomeS) an Indian minister of Martha's Vineyard, 
 1). about 1610: converted under the preaching of Thomas 
 Mayhcw; learned to read, and began himself to preach in 
 1653 to his people, among whom he labored with much 
 success and with great faithfulness. In 1670 he was or- 
 dained by Eliot and Cotton as pastor of the Indian church 
 of Martha's Vineyard, organized in that year. He is be- 
 lieved to have been the first Indian convert in New Eng- 
 land. D. about 1690. 
 
 Hiawas'sce^ post-v., county-seat of Towns co., Ga., 
 85 miles N. of Athens. 
 
 Hiawa'tha, post-v., cap. of Brown co., Kan., 42 miles 
 "W. of St. Joseph, on the St. Joseph and Denver City R. R. 
 It has 4 churches, 1 bank, 1 newspaper, a steam flouring- 
 mill, 2 grain elevators. 2 hotels, several schools, and tho 
 usual number of stores. It is situated in a fine agricultural 
 rcgtOD, with excellent water-power. Pop. about 800. 
 
 A. N. RuLEV, Ed. " Dispatch." 
 
 Ilib'bard (Billy), b. at Norwich, Conn., Feb. 24, 
 1771 : jniued the New York Methodist conference 1798, and 
 laburtd with great success in New York and New England. 
 D. Aug. 17, 1844. His memoirs have been published. 
 
 Hibbard (Freebors Garretson), D. D., b. at New 
 Rochelle. N. Y.. Feb. 18, 1811; entered tho Methodist 
 Episcopal ministry; labored 1830-60 chiefly in the State 
 of New York; was editor of the Northern Chrietinn Advo- 
 cate, Auburn, N. Y., 1860-64; resumed active labor, and 
 became presiding elder of the Geneva district. Author of 
 Jinptinm (1S41), Geaqraphy and Hiftory of Palestine (1845), 
 a work on The Pva'tms (1852), The Reliyion nf Childhood 
 (1864): edited the SermonJi (1869) and the Works (2 vols., 
 1S72) of Bishop Hamline. 
 
 Iliberna'tion [from tho Lat. hibcmug, "pertaining to 
 winter"], a condition into which certain mammals (bats, 
 rodents, Insectivores, bears, etc.) and many inferior ani- 
 mals, both vertebrate and invertebrate, pass in cold 
 weather, the temperature of the blood being lowered nearly 
 to that of the air, and many of the vital functions entering 
 a state of abeyance. The power of the will over the mus- 
 cles is quite suspended, and respiration is nearly abolished, 
 while the muscular irritability in the case of the higher
 
 HIBERNIA-HICKORY TAVERN. 
 
 911 
 
 hibcTDiiting ftoimols is rcmarkaljly increased. Meanwhile ; 
 a vt-rv grt-at loss of weight occurs from the sluw .Ustruction | 
 of the slorc of fat which the animal lias laid up in Ihc au- 
 tuinu It is evident that animals feeding on insecis and 
 succulent vcgetal.lcs couM never survive a northern winter 
 but f.r the state of hihernali.m which Misp.n.ls the need 
 of foo<l. .Accordingly, while northern bats ami some bears 
 hibernate, those of tropical regions do not do so. 
 
 Somewhat analogous to hibernation is the long slumber 
 which many reptiles, mollusks, and other inferior organ- 
 isms undergo in the dry season in very ho. countries. 1 He 
 animal becomes more or less completely desiccated, and 
 from the loss of moisture the functions of life are sus- 
 iiended This suspension also serves to preserve animal 
 life in very untoward conditions. Cuvier slates that the 
 leurecs ( liscctivorcs ) of .Madagascar remain torpid through 
 the hot season, but this slateinent has been denied. 
 
 llibcr'niu, Ib.-r'nia, Iver'iiia, and ler'iie are the 
 names under which Ireland is mentioned by the ancient 
 writers— by Aristotle, Diodorus Sioulus, btrabo, 1 ompo- 
 nius Mela,' Pliny, and Ptolemy. 
 
 Ilibrrnia. post-v. of Jlorris co., N. J. 
 Ilibis'ciis [(ir. ;3c<r«o!]. a large genus of malvaccous 
 trees, shrubs, aud herbs, often with largo and showy flowers. 
 The herbaceous species are numerous in the L. .s., and arc 
 known as rose-mallows. .Among the eultivate.l species are 
 the OiMUo (which see), the //. c«»M«im«., or Deccanec 
 hemp of India, a useful fibre-plant, and //. Surnicu., the 
 ornamental, slirubbv altha-a of gardeners. Other species, 
 mostly tropical, arc cnllivated for their fruit or seeds or 
 the beauty of their (lowers. One of the most interesting 
 species is'//,/..V... tili..cr„«. a very large but not tall tree, 
 Browing in Florida, the East and West Indies. an<l the 
 South Sea lalan.ls. Its wood is light, tough, and very use- 
 ful ; its bark yields material for malting and cordage, and 
 thc'sarac bark is used as food in the Pacific Islands. 
 Hib'Icr, ip. of Edgefield co., .S. C. Pop. 1C07. 
 Uic'coiIKh, or Ilic'cup [Lat. ,;,iyull,i-]. a clonic 
 spasm of Ihc diaphragm and of the glottis accompanied 
 bv a sharp sound, produced by the rush of air into the 
 larynx from without. It may attend an over-distension 
 of 'the stomach with food, and sometimes accompanies in- 
 toxication. In young children it often is the lorcrunncr 
 of intestinal .list'urbanccs. When persistent, it is, in some 
 diseases, such as low fevers, peritonitis, and gangrene, a 
 rather grave symptom. Lumps of ice frequently swallowed 
 or small doses .d anlispasmodic medicines will usually re- 
 lieve obstinate hiccough. 
 
 Hick'man, counlv of Kentucky, hounded on the W. 
 by the Mississippi KiVcr. Area, 21U sciuare miles. It is 
 level and fertile, produciiu; tobacco and corn as the ehiel 
 staples. It is traversed by the Mobile and Ohio R. K. Lap. 
 Clinton. Pop. H4o:i. 
 
 Hickman, county of W. Central Tennessee. Area, 3j0 
 •nuare miles. It is a hilly and fertile region, having good 
 w'ater-power and .leposi.s "of iron ore. Catlle corn t..bacco, 
 and wool arc staple products. Cap. Ceutrcville. 1 op. a^JO. 
 Iliokinan, Ip. of Seott co., Ark. Pop. 1310. 
 Hickman, city, cap. of Fulton co., Ky., on the Mis- 
 sissippi River, at tiic terminus of the Nashville Chattanooga 
 and SI. I.ouis U. K. It has 2 academies, (1 churches, a city 
 library, a steam rurnituro and wagon fai-tory, and scvera 
 steam' llouring-mills. The Masons, Odd lellows, and Good 
 Templars have nourishing lodges here. It has 1 weekly 
 newspaper. Pop. 1120, composed largely of Germans. 
 ' ' Gi;o. Wauiies, El). "CoiuiKU. 
 
 II ick'mnn's,po8t-lp. of Tuscaloosa CO., Ala. Pop. S02. 
 II icU'ok 1 1, u UKNS Pkkskis), D. I>., M..I)., b. at Bethel, 
 Conn Dec. '.".1, 17UH; grailualed at I'nion College 1K20; or- 
 dained and scllled as pastor ..f the Congregational church 
 at Kent Conn.. 1M2I; removed, and again installeil pastor 
 at Litcli'fiild, Conn., 1S2'.); became professor of theology in 
 Western Keservc College l.s:;n, and in the Auburn Iheo- 
 logical Seminary IHM; was again transferred t.. nion 
 College as vice-president and jirofessor of menial and 
 moral philosophy 1S62, where for eight years he was asso- 
 ciated with l>r. Nott in the government and discipline ol 
 the college, and where for the eight years succeeding lie 
 had sole charge thereof, being ollicially inilucleil into (lie 
 presidency only at Dr. NotCs death, l^tCl'.. A( (he age of 
 s,-ven( V, in fulfilment of a purpose long cherisherl, he retired 
 from ail public and official s(a(i.>n, and removed (o Amherst, 
 Mass.. whire he has since resided, dcvodng his time (o 
 philosophical studios. Ilcsides occasional sertnons and ad- 
 Ilrcsscs. ho has been a frctiiicnl contributor to such i.eriod- 
 ical publications as the Chri.ium Siir-jalar, IhhUinhrca 
 Sarr'i, /lihllr.il I!-p„i,!ti,ni. /'r^ihi/leriim Quurlcrl;/. e(c. on 
 various theological aud philosophical themes. His more 
 
 extended published works are— ft'Kionn? Pti/rhnto;,;/ (1848), 
 S,,'ltm o/- Murni Scifuce (lS6:i). Empinci.t I'Yl-'Hy 
 {\a:,\). lWal;r nil./ Crralion (1872), Humauily Immortal 
 (1^721, and Lnriii- „/ Ilcamn (1875). 
 
 l)r llickok has from the first held firmly the necessary 
 distinctions in the intellectual functions of the sense, the 
 understanding, and the reason, and the peculiarity ot his 
 philosophy is seen in his clear idea and diseriminadve use 
 of the reason. The sense perceives single phenomena: the 
 understanding puts these together in judgments according 
 to the relations given in experience, while the reason at- 
 tains an insight of these faculties of perception and judg- 
 ment, which beholds in the phenomenal relations of expe- 
 rience the necessary prerequisites, without which such an 
 ordered experience "could not have occurred. This know- 
 ledge of the necessary conditions for experience reaches (o 
 the distinguishable forces underlying all physics, and (he 
 life-power— a combination of force ami feeling- underlying 
 (he organic world: and nalure thus becomes known in Ks 
 inirinsio connecdons, and not alone in its apparent collo- 
 cations and sequences. The reason also has an insight ot 
 its own being and activity, involving a conscious scKhood 
 and personal agency, and putting the human in a sphere 
 of freedom and responsibility to which the mere animal 
 never attains. In this same insight also is allained the 
 ultimate standard of the beautiful, the (rue, and the good 
 and the whole rational region of art, philosophy, and 
 morals lies open to man. but into which (he brute con- 
 sciousness never comes. The finite reason also knows tho 
 Absolute Reason as its own necessary s.nircc and original, 
 and (herein finds open the transcendent (hemes of doc(nnal 
 theology and practical pie(y. In Dr. Hiekok s separate 
 works t"hesc first principles are applied particularly to psy- 
 chology, physics, asthctics, ethics, and divinity— (be same 
 philosophy fuling unchanged in them all— but are madirely 
 knd completely developed only with the teachings of his 
 latest publication. •'• »• S'-'"'^'^- 
 
 Hick'ory, (ho common name of trees of the genus 
 Cania (order Juglaudaceic). erroneously called walnut trees 
 in New England. The hickory (rees arc North Ameri- 
 can Besides the PiccAS TiiEi; (which see), there arc four 
 species ( (.'. nlba, microcurpn. tnmrnlom, and suhnlii) known 
 as shcllbark or shagbark hickories, having excellent tim- 
 ber and nuts generally edible, the bark of the trees be- 
 coming very r.mgh. The pignut or bitter hickories {C. 
 porchn,, amnru, myri^llcrformi-. and „7,m(of.) I'ave more 
 generally a smooth bark, inedible nuts, and ralher interior 
 wood "Hickory timber is excellent for handsjiikcs, nxc- 
 hclves, spokes. "barrel-hoops, and the like. It is prized as 
 fuel but will not stand tho weather. The oil of the nuts 
 is recommended for oiling clocks and delicate niachmery. 
 The nuts are marketed in considerable quanddcs. there 
 are numerous variedes of the hickories, so that the botany 
 of the genus is rather obscure. 
 
 Hickory, county in S. W. Central Missouri. Area, 
 414 sq. m. It is UDcvcn, but fertile, iiroducing tobacco, 
 corn, wool, and live-stock. Cap. Ilerinitagc. Pop. ll4o;.. 
 Hickory, tp. of Carroll co.. Ark. Pop. COO. 
 Hickory, tp. of Cass co.. 111. Pop. 513. 
 Hickory, tp. of Coles co., 111. Pop. 1402. 
 Hickory, tp. of Schuyler co., 111. Pop. 557. 
 Hickory, post-v., county-scat of Ncw(on co.. Miss., on 
 (he Vicksburg and Meridian R. R., HO miles E. of Vicks- 
 burg.- Pop. 155. 
 
 Hickory, a v. of Catawba co., N. C, on tho Western 
 (N C ) It II It has 3 schools, 3 churches, 1 coaoh-factory, 
 1 saddle and' harness faclorv, 3 hotels, I tobacco-factory, 
 flour and saw mills, lanyard, and I weekly newsi>iiper. ^_ 
 W. E. AvEitv AND.1. T. Ml unii,... Ens." Pii:nM(iXT Pkess. 
 Hickory, tp. of forest co., Pa. Pop. 513. 
 Hickory, tp. of Lawrcnoo co.. Pa. Pop. 915. 
 Hickory, (p. of Mercer co.. Pa. I( embraces Sharon. 
 Sharpsville, and o(her villages. Pop. 7700. 
 
 Hick'ory Flat, posl-tp. of Chambers co., Ala. P. 1400. 
 Hick'ory (irovc, (p. of Jasper co., la. Pop. 402. 
 Hickory «;rove, tp. of Scott co., la. Pop. 1298. 
 Hickory (irove, (p. of Warren co.. Mo. Pop. 1703. 
 Hickory Crovc, (p. of tirant co.. Wis. Pop. 907. 
 Hick'ory Hill, (p- of Wayne co., 111. Pop. 878. 
 Hick'ory iWoun'tain, (p. of Chatham co., N. C. 
 
 IVqi. 1100. 
 
 lIick'oryPlains,post-tp.of Prairie CO.. Ark. P. 1030. 
 I Hick'ory Toiiil, (p. of Macon CO., III. Pop. 1130. 
 
 Hick'ory llidgc, post-tp. of Monroe co.. Ark. P. 778. 
 1 Hick'ory Tav'crn, p. -tp. of Catnwbaco.,N.C. P.150I.
 
 'J12 
 
 HICKS— HIERARCHY. 
 
 Hicks (Elias). an eminent minister of the Soeietv of 
 Friends, b. at UemiistcaJ, L. I., Alar. 19, 17-18; at" the 
 age of seventeen .years was placed as an apprentice to a 
 carpenter, and became master of tliat trade; subscnuenlly 
 followed Ihe business of building houses. In the morn ad- 
 vanced period of his life he engaged in agriculture. When 
 about twenty-seven years of age, he began, to use his own 
 words. " to have openings leading to the ministry," and 
 H-as "deeply engaged for the right administration of dis- 
 cipline and order in the Church, and that all might be kept 
 sweet and ele;in, consistent with the nature and purity of 
 the holy profession which Friends made before the world." 
 In 17S1 and subsequently he vi.sited the meetings and fam- 
 ilies of Friends e.-itcnsively through the country, working 
 at his trade iu the intervals passed at home, whereby he 
 obtained means to pay his own exjjen.ses, declining to have 
 them borne by the society, which made ]irovision for its 
 travelling ministers iu necessity, lie held it to bo no less 
 a religious duty to work than to preach when called, of 
 which his journal bears frequent record, as follows : '• Spent 
 two days in my salt-meadows assisting my men in securing 
 the hay. On my return visited a poor widow with the sur- 
 plus of our provisions. . . . Closely engaged in temporal busi- 
 ness, but did not forget uiy .accountability to my great Lord 
 and Master. I see no time when it would bo right to in- 
 dulge in idleness. . . . Occupied in collecting relief for the 
 poor in the city of New York (1814). Labored bard in my 
 harvest-field; and although sixty-six years of age, found 
 I could wield the scythe nearly as in the days of my youth." 
 Sueh was the high esteem in which ho was held by all 
 classes of people in his neighborhood that he was frequently 
 chosen as an umpire to settle differences. Very early iii 
 life he denounced slavery as a crime, and preached per- 
 sistently against it. As early as 1811 he published a val- 
 uable essay on the subject, and exerted constant personal 
 inlluencc to induce persons who held slaves to set them 
 free. But this fell short of the measure of justice in his 
 view, and he obtain^ for many of the emancipated wages 
 for their time in addition. He was a bold and fearless 
 preacher, both in deed and word. His religious visitations 
 were not confined to members of his own society, but ex- 
 tended to distant sections of country where few such re- 
 sided. His meetings were crowded by people of every sect 
 and opinion. Ho was an impressive speaker, with "direct 
 and clear enunciation, of commanding presence, and pro- 
 foundly serious deportment in his public appearance. The 
 following sentence from his journal is charaeteristio of his 
 career as a minister and servant of God. '• Spent Second 
 and Third days in preparing my business for setting out 
 on my journey. As I trust and believe a dispensation of 
 the gospel is committed to me, woe is unto me if I preach 
 not the gospel !" Ho was the subject of much misrepresen- 
 tation in his religious opinions by bigots and by many dis- 
 senters from the original doctrines of Friends. The name 
 Hicksito was given as a reproach to that part of the old 
 Society of Friends with which ho continued in fellowship, 
 but was never recognized by iter him, his true relation 
 being well described in the memorial of the immediate 
 meeting to which he was attached : " He felt himself called 
 upon, under the inlluence of the love of the gospel, to ad- 
 monish his brethren to rally to tho ancient standard, the 
 light of truth manifested in the heart, and to follow no 
 man any farther than he should be found a follower of 
 Christ." A journal of his religious travels was published 
 (l,S.'i2), Obgerrutinm on Sl<iri:n/ (ISIl), and Itnrtiinal 
 Ephth (IS2-4). There have been published since his death 
 a volume of his sermons and one of his letters. (See 
 Qi AKEBS.) J. s. Gibbons. 
 
 Uicks (TnoMAs), a descendant of Elias Hicks, b. in 
 Newtown, Bucks co., Pa., Oct. 18, 1823 ; came to New York 
 tostudyart in 1838; exhibited a picture, The Death of Abel, 
 in 1811 ; wentto Italy in 18(5, to Paris in 18-18, wlierc ho 
 studied under Couture; returned and made New York his 
 residence. iMr. llieUs has painted composition pictures, 
 out-door and in-door scenes, and landscapes, but his rejiu- 
 tation rests on his portraits, of which ho has painted a 
 great number, many of distinguished men ; among them, Dr. 
 Kane in tho cabin of his vessel, Dr. Cogswell in his library, 
 Edwin Booth as lago. He is cultivated in his jirofessio'n, 
 laborious, genial, and greatly beloved bv his friends. Elect- 
 ed to Nat. Acad, of Design in 1851. O.B. FnoTnixcnAM. 
 
 IlieliS (TnoMA.s Hollvdav), b. in Dorchester co., lid., 
 Sept. 2, I7U8 ; was elected to several important offices, and 
 in ISllI became a member of the Alarvland constitutional 
 convention ; was governor of Maryland 1S5S-62, standing 
 firmly for the Union in tliose trying days; U. S. Senator 
 lS(i3-(;5. D. at Washington Feb. 13, 18"6d. 
 
 HicksTord, post-v., county-seat of Greenville co., Va., 
 fi2 miles S. of liiehmond, on the I'ctersburg and Weldon 
 I!. H., at the junction of tho Gaston branch, and on the 
 Meherrin River. Pop. 116 ; of tp. 2.'!67. 
 
 Hicks'ville, post-v. of Queens co., N. Y., in Oyster 
 Bay tp.. on the Long Island H. K.. 25 miles from New- 
 York, at the junction of the Port Jefferson branch, has 1 
 weekly newspaper. 
 
 Hicks'ville, post-tp. of Defiance co., 0. Pop. 1287. 
 
 Ili'oo, tp. of Fayette co., Ala. Pop. 286. 
 
 Uiro, tj). of Halifa.x eo., Va. Pop. 3570. 
 
 Hidal'go, county in S. W. of Texas. Area, 32no square 
 miles. It is bounded on tho S. by the navigable Kio 
 Grande. Most of the soil is light, and the climnlc is very 
 dry. The county is adajited to pasturage. Cattle anil 
 wool are the staple products. Salt is produced from the 
 salt-lake Sal del Rey. Cap. Eilinburgh. Pop. 2387. 
 
 Hid'dcn, in musie, a term applied to certain errors in 
 counterpoint which are not obvious, direct, and open vio- 
 lations of rule, but more or less concealed, implied, or cov- 
 ered up. These errors are chiefly indirect or implied con- 
 secutive fiftlis and octaves. The rule, e. ,/., that two iier- 
 fect fifths must not immediately fullow in the same parts 
 in equal motion, is direvtly violated when we write as at n 
 or b in Ex. 1 : 
 
 Ex. 1. a 
 
 But in Ex. 2, though tho notes at o, «, do not actually ex- 
 presa fifths, yet the effect on the ear is nearly as offensive 
 as if the fifths were direct, because it is impossible to move 
 from the first note of tho upper part to the second, or from 
 tho third note of the lower part to the fourth, without past- 
 ing thronijh or orcr the interval of a fifth, and thus creating 
 an impression like that at J, 4 ; 
 Ex. 2. o o b 
 
 U I. . . 
 
 Such fifths are therefore said to be " hidden " or implied, 
 and should be avoided, either by placing the partp in con- 
 trary motion, or by a change of tho harmony. That sim- 
 ilar remarks will apply to hidden orlares will be evident 
 without an example. William Staintox. 
 
 Hides, in commerce, the skins of large animals, sueh 
 as domestic cattle, horses, and the bufialoes of the Old 
 World. They np]ioar in commerce either dried, salted, or 
 in tho undried and natural state. Hides are used chietiv 
 in the manufacture of leather, and the fragments and waste 
 go to the glue-maker. The hair is also saved for plasterers' 
 use. and is used to some extent in ujiholstcry. (See also 
 Leather.) JJomeatic hides are those sold in the green 
 state, and manufactured into leather in the country where 
 produced. The hides of general commerce are the product 
 of South America. South Africa, Australia. India, Califor- 
 nia, Russia, etc. The iddes of sheep, goats, deer, etc. are 
 known iu commerce as "skins." 
 
 Hicrap'olis, the birthplace of Epietelus, was situated 
 in Phrygia, Asia Minor, between the rivers Lycus and Me- 
 ander, and was celebrated for its warm mineral springs. 
 Among its ruins, which are a mile and a half in circum- 
 ference, is one of the most complete and best preserved 
 Greek theatres. The place is mentioned by St. Paul in 
 his Epistle to the C(dossians (iv. 13). Its present name is 
 I'nmbonk KnlcKiil (the "cotton castle"), which is probably 
 derived from the singular appearance which the deposit of 
 the springs has given to the jdace. It is totally deserted. 
 
 Ilierap'oiis (/. .. "sacred city"), or Bainby'ce, a 
 once splendid but now utterly ruined city of Cyrrliesliea, 
 in Syria, five days' journey from Antioch, on the road to 
 Seleucia and Babylon. It stood on a rocky barren plain, 
 and derived its prosperity from the caravan trade. Its 
 palmy days were under tho Seleucida?. Extensive ruins 
 mark its site. 
 
 Ili'orurchy [Gr. itpot, '•sacred," and opxi, "rule"] or 
 Ilieroc'racy, the power, post, dignity, or ofiico of a 
 hieiarchet, a steward or president of saered rites, one su- 
 premo in holy things, a high priest, a hierarch ; especially 
 in ecclesiastical Greek, the episeop.ateor patriarchate. The 
 word is unknown to thoelassictireek and to the Septuagint 
 and New Testament. In the work of the sixth century, 
 of a Neo-Plalonic cast, attributed to Dioxysirs tho Are- 
 OPAGITE ( which see), the angelic orders are the prototypes of 
 tho ecclesiastical hierarchy. He enumerates three orders 
 of angels, with three hierarchies in each— seraphim, cher 
 umbim, thrones; dominations, powers, principalities; vir- 
 tues, archangels, angels. (Sec Mnnrni, Diet. Hlntoriquc.) 
 Milton adopts in Paraiiise Lnut every one of these titles, 
 though he does not use them all in any one place or in the 
 order given. The word hirrareinj came to be applied to
 
 HIERARCHY. 
 
 913 
 
 the orders uf clergy ID the Christian Church — the ecclesi- 
 aslicul hiemrchv. It is sometimes transferred to other 
 jiihcrcs of government, as the pulitieal, military, social 
 hierarchy — the hierarchy of the court of t'onstautinoplo. 
 It is, however, most cotnmoDly applied to the orders of 
 clcr^v in the Christian Church, the ecclesiastical hierarchy, 
 or to the Ijoily of priests in the various systems, in which 
 they arc rei^arded as divinely instituted administrators 
 of holy things. It is also applied to the rule which they 
 exercised as at onco priests and civil magistrates — the 
 Egyptian, the Hindoo, the Hebrew hierarchy. 
 
 Amou;! the Hebrews the administration was hereditary. 
 It was a lineal hierarchy, and its headship was in the high 
 priest. In the Christian Church the hierarchy is the gov- 
 ernment of the Church by the clergy. It took its historical 
 shape as the congregations increased in number and came 
 into closer conjunction. The government of the Church is 
 conceded to have originally been, at least relatively. ]iopu- 
 lar in part (democratic hierarchy), and to have changed 
 more and more into a spiritual aristocracy (aristocratic 
 hierarchy). The lino of historical advance is generally 
 supposed by I'rotestant writers to have been from a gov- 
 ernment of perfect co-ordination among the presbyter- 
 bishops of a congregation to tlie congregational and paro- 
 chial episcopate, then to the diocesan episcopate. From 
 this arose tho metropolitan system, in which a governmental 
 superiority was exercised by the bishops of the chief cities 
 of tho provinces. Then came the system of patriarchates, 
 under which the bishops of tho great sees of Home, Con- 
 stantinople, .\ntiocli, Alexandria, and Jerusalem were rec- 
 ognized as patriarchs of the metropolitan. Civil events 
 destroyed the prominence claimed for the last three. The 
 tcndelicy to unilicatiun remained fixed at tho patriarchate 
 in tho Eastern Church, but advanced in the Western Church 
 till it culminated in the papacy. ,\mong the earlier rep- 
 resentatives of this tendency was Leo I. (440-461). In 
 the ninth century this papal hierarchy was greatly strength- 
 ened by tho P'sKfOo-IsinoiiiAX Di:(itt;TALS (wliicli sec). 
 They systcmatiied and professcil to give historical vouchers 
 for the tendency of the era, which made the pope a spiritual 
 monarch, regent and lord of Western Christendom, to whoso 
 rule neither princes nor councils were able to put any well- 
 determined limits. This great hierarchy, preserving tho 
 unity o( its purpose and plan amid tlic confusions of the 
 time, supplementing by moral power the feeblenesses of 
 civil rule, preserved order when social life without such a 
 bond might have been reduced to chaos. Something gov- 
 ernmcnlally equivalent to the papacy was a necessity of tho 
 MidJlc AgL-8. From theelevcnth century to the thirteenth 
 it had a political supremacy which was not successfully 
 challenged. This it owed especially to several popes of 
 distinguished ability and force of character. Gregory VII. 
 (1073-8j) is more readily recalled by his earlier name, 
 llildcbrand, which made Hildebramlism tho synonym of 
 that hierarchical .system of which ho was so great a 
 master. Clear in vision, iron in will, cautious and bold, 
 he did much to snbordinate tho civil authority to tho ec- 
 clesiastical. Ho made the papacy a universal theocracy 
 of all Christian slates, with tho |iopo as Christ's vicar, by 
 whom kings reigneil : people and princes were simply, in 
 different degrees, the virtual subjects of tho pope. Inno- 
 cent III. (1 l9S-l21li), in many respects the greatest of tlic 
 popes, whoso history is tho history of his era, finished tho 
 work of llildcbrand and brought the hierarchy to tho sum- 
 mit of its glory and (lower. IVililical independence and 
 unlimited spiritual authority were the objcols of his strug- 
 gle. He brought to it the greatest qualities of llildcbrand, 
 with others of the highest order, and the mightiest powers 
 of Christendom bowe I before him. Boniface VIII. (12'J4- 
 I.to;!), nut inferior in intellectual force to liis predecessors, 
 but destitute of their nobler qualities, urgcil to tho ox- 
 tremest point their principles of domination over the tem- 
 poral power. As in him the loftiest assertion of the hierar- 
 chical claims to power over tlie state came to a crisis, so 
 with his reigu began that great reuelionary movement of 
 the fourteeiUh century by which that power was narrowed 
 in various ways. His great opponent was I'hilip (IV.) tho 
 Fair of Franco (120S-l:tl4). The pone interfered as um- 
 pire in tho war between France and England, and in favor 
 of tho latter. The pope sent a legale; the king threw hitu 
 into prison ; the pope jironounced the king a heretic ; the 
 king called tho pope a fool ; the jmpe issued a bull ; tho 
 king burned it: a council excoinmiinicated the king, ami 
 tho agi-nts <if the king seized the pope on his throne and 
 held him captive. The Itciman people said of him, " He 
 crept in like a fox. ho lorded it like a lion, and died like a 
 dog." Ilul harsh judgment diil not cease with his death. 
 He has been ** dmnned to everlasting fame " by Dante, who 
 assigns him a place in hell, as a Siinoiiist. between Nicholas 
 III. and Clement V. The French king eame forth victori- 
 oua in this oonllict. ClemcDt V. (I^UJ-77) was tho more 
 Vol. II.— 58 
 
 tool of the French policy, and formally transferred tho 
 curia to Avignon, where it remained during the" Babylonian 
 exile" (131)6-77). Tho French party elected John XXII. 
 (1316-44). In the contest between Louis of Bavaria and 
 Frederick of Austria for the imperial crown, John took 
 sides against Louis. Louis was chosen by the electors: 
 appealed to a general council against the pope ; was excom- 
 municated (1324) ; was crowned at Home (1327) ; procured 
 the temporary deposition of John, and the nomination, 
 though not the permanent estaldishmcnt, of Xicludas \". 
 as a eoiinter-popc. The residence of the popes in France, 
 the great schism (1378-142'J), with one pope at Rome, an- 
 other at Avignon, for a time three popt s (1409), tho great 
 reformatory councils of Pisa (14(i'.>), of Constance (1414- 
 IS), of Bale (14.31-43), and the character and conduct of 
 John XXIlI.and other popes, greatly weakened the papacy. 
 Though it seemed to come forth triumphant from the strug- 
 gle, it had received deep wounds. The Church was yearn- 
 ing for reformation. Many symptoms of reaction from tho 
 llildcbrand type were manifest, and at length the great 
 struggle of the sixteenth century began. 
 
 The influence of the Reformation on the hierarchical 
 claims was very marked. The part of European Christen- 
 dom which sympathized with that movement entirely re- 
 jected all these claims. All the Uefonntrs, and none more 
 radically than Luther, declared in tho most uncomproinis- 
 ing manner against the whole hierarchical system. But 
 even tho states which adhered to the Roman Catholic 
 Church found their power increased by the new tendencies 
 of the minds of men. Vast changes took place in )iolitical 
 relations, and the powers claimed for the pope were more 
 and more restricted. Various concordats marked the defi- 
 nition and limitation of the hierarchical power. The pro- 
 gress of events has made the civil and hierarchical powers 
 more completely independent of each other. Civil consti- 
 tutions, the regulation of police and finance, show the in- 
 fluence of tho modifications of tho polity of the Church. 
 (See Polity, Ecci.ksiastic.vl. For the latest history of tho 
 hierarchy sec Pirs IX.) 
 
 The divinloiia of hierarchical power made in the theology 
 of the Roman Calholic Church may bo stated thus: I. 
 The authority which belongs to the Church is connected 
 eilher with her agency as the distributer of divine grace 
 and blessings, especially of the sacraments, or with iho 
 preservation and control of the Church's life. In accord- 
 ance with this, the power correspondent with the authority 
 is divided either into three parts, pntcstng ordiiiiH, rii(i;/i»- 
 lerii, andjiiri'»(/i'r(ioiii» (so Walter, llinschius), or into two, 
 tho paliHtiia oriliniH (tho power derived from ordination, 
 and embracing the ^io/cs/dswicif/rstertj', or teaching function) 
 and the putcotut jurisdiclloiitii, or ruling authority. The 
 second classification is that of St. Thomas Aquinas ( llmin'ri; 
 iv. 97). and of the majority of theologians, and accords 
 with the Catechism of the Council of Trent (ii. 7. 7). (Seo 
 RlclITKU, Lchrhiich li. K. II L. Kirchenrecht bcaib. v. Voir, 
 Sieb. Auflage, 1.S74, J 91.) 
 
 II. Tho potcaiiiit nrdinh respects the spiritual good.s, es- 
 pecially tho sacraments, which those in holy orders are to 
 distribute to believers. It rests in its fulness on the bishop.s, 
 from whom, by ordination, it passes over to the priests in 
 qiuiniiuitire rrstrirtiojt. The sacrifice of tho mass, which 
 is tho su|iremc point of this power, appertains to both 
 bishops and priests, and in virtue specially of this fact the 
 bishops anil priests constitute one prieslly order — oiilo. 
 In apostolic times the deacons were aids to the bishops and 
 ]iriests, and at a later period, for the same end, there were 
 appointed snbdeacons, acolyths, exorcists, lectors, and ves- 
 tiarii, all of whom receive the necessary gifts for their of- 
 fices by ordination. Hence the organs of the Church in the 
 sphere' of ordo. the sphere of the power conferred by holy 
 orders on bishops, priests, and ministers. Under this last 
 name arc grouped all the clergy but those of the first order, 
 which embraces tho bishops and priests. This is called tho 
 hierarchy of (holy) orders— /nVidrr/n'a ordiiiia. 
 
 III. Tho ;)</«•«("» Jill iWiV/ioiii'«, or governmental power, 
 is divinely committed to tho bishops and the pope. Be- 
 tween tho diocesan bishop and the pope exist by human 
 right tho gradations of archbishops, primates, exarchs, or 
 patriarchs. The priest, with no pnitKl'in jurindUtiiiitin, ex- 
 ercises Iho piiimlnn ordiiiia in his parish: the bishop with 
 tho/K.ti«M» jiiriadiclioiiit rules the clergy of his diocese; 
 the metrojiolitan has as his suffragans the bishops of his 
 province; the (irimato ordinarily has under him several 
 metropolitans or archbishops; llio palriarchis the superior 
 of the metro]iolilnns ; and tlio pope, patriarch of patriarchs, 
 primate of primates, metropolitan of metropolitans, bishop 
 of bishops, priest of priests, and servant of the servants of 
 (iod. is earthly head of the whole Church on earth. This 
 is the hierarriiitt JiiriHilicliiiitia. (Sec l)KrounK, JJiction. rf. 
 (•„/(, r.i(/..i/i./ii.-, IS.VJ.) 
 
 Tho hierarchy of orders is of divine institution; the hie-
 
 914 
 
 HIERO— HIEROGLYPHICS. 
 
 rarchy of jurifdiction is of rcolesiastical institution. The 
 former may exist without the latter, but the latter exists by 
 virtue of the former. In the hierarchy of order respect is 
 had to the sacramental "character" impressed in ordina- 
 tion; in the hierarchy of jurisdiction respect is had to de- 
 gree. As rejjards the hierarchy of orders, the diocesan 
 bishop and the primate are on the same level ; the parish 
 priest is iho same as the vicar-general, and is the superior 
 of tlio cardinals when they arc deacons. It is in the hie- 
 rarchy of jurisdiction the gradations exist which have been 
 enumerated. There is also in some cast-s a simple luniorary 
 hierarchy. (See Paspal, Orif/, ct Raison tic In Jjitm-f/ie 
 Catholiqr.Cf art. " Ilicrarchic.") 
 
 The theory on which the papal hierarchy rests is that 
 the one catholic Church of Christ on earth is a divine mon- 
 archy, under one catholic iiead. the pope, who is the 
 oecumenical pastor of all the churches. The prehite? under 
 him govern particular churches, participating in the 
 solicitude, but not possessing the plenary power, which be- 
 longs to the ])opc alone. To the spiritual rule, supremo in 
 the pope and subordinate in the prelates, the wlndo laity, 
 fiom the humblest to the most exalted, owe obedience. In 
 the great body of the older Koman Catholic divines who 
 have been distinguished as defenders of the Iiiernrchy 
 the names of those now most frequently quoted are Bellar- 
 min and Pcta^ius. (For the literature of recent date on the 
 questions of the hierarchy, see Papal iNFALi.imi.iTY.) In 
 the Koman Catholic si/Htcm the hierarchy is usually treated 
 of under ()r<l<i, the sacrament of holy orders. Ordo is 
 defined as ( 1 ) the ecclesiastical hierarchy, or estate of the 
 ministers of the Church; and (2) the act by which they 
 arc constituted a part of that estate — ordination. (See 
 Baim.v, Tfifnf. dnrjm. ct mornf. (Lugduno, 1S22), v. 340; 
 Peuronc, Pra-lcct. Thcnlng. (Paris, lsii2), ii.439.) "It is 
 an article of faith that there exists in the Church a plu- 
 rality of orders, constituting the sacred hierarchy — to wit, 
 the ejdscopate, the presbyterate, and the diaconate." 
 (Boivii:u, fitHtit, Theolog.) "If any man shall say that 
 there is not in the Catholic Church a hierarchy insti- 
 tuted by divine ordination, which consists of bishops, pres- 
 byters, and ministers, let hiin be anathema." (Can. C, ,Scss. 
 2.'i, Council of Trent.) Under the *" ministry " is embraced 
 certainly the deacons. How many more, or whether any 
 more, are included, is left an open question, {/iourirr. iv. 
 9(>.) The theology of the fifth and sixth centuries, in which 
 the j>riestly office was greatly exalted, is sometimes styled 
 the hierarchical theology. (See Gelasius, Lf.oI.) Offences 
 against the hierarchical go\ernment are called sacrilege of 
 the hierarchy. The ccfcsti'nl hierarchy of Cellot is the rule 
 of the Trinity, of Christ, the Virgin, and the angels in 
 heaven. (Tncvorx, Dictionn. Unirersef, 1740.) 
 
 In Protestant thcologj' the term hierarchy is sometimes 
 used in a generic sense to designate the sacred and divine 
 rule of the Church established by Christ. The body of Prot- 
 estant divines hold that Christ instituted no hierarchy in 
 the ecclesiastical sense, but condemned it ; that he endowed 
 his Church with no civil power; and that the functirms of 
 its teachers and ofBcers are purely moral and spiritual. 
 From these views many of the writers of the Church of 
 England dissent, rejecting the papal supremacy and what 
 is involved in it, but holding in .substantials the rest of 
 the hierarchical views of the Church of Rome. (See Bltnt, 
 Diet, iif Doctrin. and /fhtor. Thrufarfi/, arts. " Hierarchy," 
 ** Jurisdiction.") The Lutheran Reformers (at Augsburg, 
 Ib'M)) rejected the whole theory of the hierarchy. Itetain- 
 ing the twofold division of the pntentuH ordiuis and poteHtm 
 jiin'udictiout's, they defined the former as covering only the 
 ministry of the word and sacraments — the latter as involv- 
 ing no more th.an the cognizance of doctrine, the office of 
 the keys, absrdution and excommunication ; and that both 
 powers are by divine right conferred on one and the same 
 body of ministers, all of whom are equal. ( Antjub. Con/esn., 
 Abus. vii.) In the otTieial reply of the Roman Catholic ' 
 divines (the ('o»jHf<ifif, Puntijira) they assert over against 
 this that " the bishops not only have "the power of (he min- ; 
 istry of the word of (rod, but also the power of regimen j 
 and coercitive correction." (Given in full in FnANKi:. Lih. \ 
 Si/iiibn/., App. OS; Hase, do. Pmlrfjnm., 84.) On this the ' 
 Apalofji/ (xiv. irj) says: "We are satisfied with the old di- 
 vision of power into the pnfritat itrdim'it and the poUktnii 
 Jun'sdi'riionin." It defines both in substance as defined in 
 the Confession. The Reformers at the same time expressed 
 their desire to retain the canonical polity and the grades ex- 
 isting in the Church, even though they rested on human 
 authority, prnviiled the bishops would cease their cruelty 
 to the evangelical churches. 
 
 In Protestant theology the name hiemrrht/ is nlso ap- 
 plied to the divinely instituted government in the three 
 great institutions, the Family, the Church, and the State. 
 
 The literature of the sultjeet. direct and indirect, is very 
 large. The dogmatic and polemic work.s of a general kind 
 
 I largely take it up. Those on the Church and the associ- 
 
 I ated topics more particularly discuss it. The great names 
 
 connected with special discussions of the monarchy. ])riest- 
 
 hood, power of order and jurisdiction, the papal jKiwcr and 
 
 infalliljility, are — Sander (IJTl), Palalin ( 17U4 ), Kocaberti 
 
 (11 vols, folio, IO'Jd-U'J). Pineda (IJNS), Maimburg (168o), 
 
 I Ballerini(I77t)). Veith (1781), Fischer (ISliJ), Pincl (1829), 
 
 Rothenseo (ISilO-.'JS). Elleudorf (1841), Himioben (1840), 
 
 ! Vestermaycr {lSf»7-70}. on the Roman Catholic side. On 
 
 I the Protestant side may bo mentioned the names of Chamicr 
 
 ' (lOlll), Brochraand (Ui2.S), Salmasius (1008), Calixtua 
 
 I (1G.J0). Hase (1871). To these are to be added the special 
 
 I historical works on the constitution of the Church, the 
 
 i hierarchy, and the papacy, and works on church polity. 
 
 fSoo Polity, Ecclesiastical, the articles on the different 
 
 forms of church government. Concukgationalism. Kpis(X)- 
 
 I'AL Sy.STI;M, ISDKE'ENnKNTY, PaI'ACY, PkESUVTKHIANISM J 
 
 articles on the ecclesiastical orders. Bishop, Klper, Phes- 
 BYTEK, Priest, Deacon. Acolyte: ecclesiastical dignities, 
 Pope, Exakcii, Aitcnuisnnp, Cardisal, Archdeacon, Pri- 
 mate, Metropolitan, I*ATRiARrii ; divisions of ecclesias- 
 tical territory, Diocese, Parish, Phovixcb; rites connected 
 with the clerical office, Installation, Investitcre. Oian- 
 
 NATION.) C. P. KrAUTH. 
 
 Hi'ero ['Ifpwt-]. tyrannus of Syracuse, in Sicily; was 
 victor at Olynipia 488 b. c. {Miilfer); suececded (ielon, his 
 brother, in 478; conquered Naxos and Catana in Sicily; 
 defeated the great fleet of the Etruscans 474, and in the 
 same year won a victory at the I*ythian games. He was a 
 generous patron of art and letters. In 472 and 408 he won 
 his second and third victories in the Olympic games. Pin- 
 dar celebrated these victories in his odes. D. in 411" B. c. 
 
 Hiero, king of Syracuse, was a natural son of one 
 Hierocles, b. before ?A)C) b. c. ; served with distinction under 
 Pyrrhus; became general of the Syraeusans; sent a supply 
 of corn to Rome 272; routed the Mamcrtines at the river 
 Longanus, and was declared king in 270 b. c. ; waged a 
 disadvantageous war with Rome 264-20.3 B. c, after which 
 ho was a most faithful ally of that power. He was a popu- 
 lar ruler, and his reign as a whole was one of splendor and 
 prosperity. There are many coins, inscriptions, and other 
 existing remains of Iliero's time. D. 21G B. C. 
 
 Hicr'ocles, a grammarian, so called by way of distinc- 
 ti<fn from the pliilosojihcr and others of the name, wrote a 
 guidebook (^ui'ckSjjmos), containing an account of the 64 
 provinces of the Eastern Roman empire, and of the 9:i5 
 towns situated in them. Its date is probably about the 
 beginning of the sixth century a. d. It was inserted by 
 "Wesseling in his Vet. Jiotn. Itiiierartn (.Amsterdam, 1735); 
 also edited by Bckkcr at the end of his Coitstaiitiniis Por- 
 j^lt'jr., in the Buzuntlne IHstorinus (Bonn, 1840). 
 
 Hierocles [*l(po»eA^«]. a New Platonist, lived in the 
 middle of the fifth century, and taught philosophy at Alex- 
 andria. Very little is known of his life. He wrote a com- 
 mentary on the golden verses of Pythagoras, which is useful 
 for iho understanding of the Pythagorean doctrines ; also 
 a work in seven books on Providence, Fate, and Freewill, 
 of which Photius has preserved a few fragments; and a 
 third treating of morals, no longer extant. To this Hiero- 
 cles is sometimes ascribed a collection of Fdcctiic, entitled 
 'AoT-eta, but it belongs to a later writer. The best edition 
 of the Cinnmentury is by Alullach (Berlin, 180.*}); of the 
 FdcrfiiF, by Sehier (Leipsic, 1768J and bv Eberhard (Ber- 
 lin. 18G9). * U. Drisler. 
 
 Hieroglyph'ics [Gr. UpoyAi-tjocd?, from 'up6^, *' sacred," 
 and -yAu^^ij, '"carving"]. All writing began with pictorial 
 representation. As only a small ])art of the words in any 
 language can be directly represented by pictures, the first 
 step to a system that allowed of theexpression of all words 
 whatever was taken when the picture which represented 
 any given word was allowed to rrprcscnt any other word 
 having a difTercut meaning and proximately the same 
 sound. This may be illustrated by supposing the picture 
 of a gate to be made to stand also for yit, or for the first 
 two letters tjti, or for the consonant y. If. while (he trans- 
 fer is made of the signilicalion of the character from the 
 entire word to the single letter, the character itself is worn 
 down into a conventional form, and a single character is 
 adopted out of all those that might represent a letter, then 
 the passage has become complete from the system of the 
 
 Eictorial hieroglyphic to that of the alphabet. All alnha- 
 ets have arisen in this way, but not all hieroglyphics have 
 reached the luirely alphabetic stage. 
 
 The hieroglyphics of Egypt are the only ones that con- 
 tain a literature of any value, and the term is generally 
 applied to the Egyptian system from which it first had its 
 name. There are scanty traces of the original picture- 
 writing in the Assyrian and Chinese: the inscriptiony from 
 Hamath. as yet unread, are hieroglyphieal. and the more 
 civilized natives of aboriginal America bad their systems
 
 HIEROGLYPHICS. 
 
 915 
 
 of hieroglyphics, though exceedingly rude and undeveloped. 
 It w«s a false notion of the (irceks that of the three kinds 
 of writing used liy the Ej;ypli:itis, two — for that reason 
 called hicroglyphio and hieratic — were cniplovcd only for 
 sacred, while the third, the demotic, was employed for sec- 
 ular purposes. No such distinction is discoverable on the 
 more ancient Egyptian monuments, but we retain the old 
 names founded on misapprehension. The hieroglyphics 
 consist of full pictures carved on stone and brilliantly 
 colored according to conventional rules or the fashion of 
 tho dynasty in which they were prepared. The characters 
 themselves suggested to both the ancients and the moderns 
 that they were the symbols of ideas rather than the signs 
 of sounds. The number of these signs being a thousand 
 or more, gave color to the idea that they were exclusively 
 diagraphical. (J reek authors even gave the meaning of a 
 few signs. This misapprehension of the force of the cha- 
 racters continued till the beginning of the present century. 
 In 179'J the famous Kosetta Stone was dug up by one of 
 Napoleon's officers belonging to his e.\pcdition into Egypt. 
 It contained inscriptions, partly mutilated, in hieroglyph- 
 ics, in demotics, and in Greek. The name of Ptolemy oc- 
 curred in the Greek, and in the corresponding portion of 
 the hieroglyphic there were a number of characters encloiicd 
 in a ring, which it was conjectured might be the sign of a 
 proper name. Do Pacy first announced the phonetic 
 character of these proper names, and ChampoUion and 
 Thomas Young simultaneously caught tho secret of the 
 characters, and announced the combination of phonetic with 
 ideographic elements. Fortunjitcly, there was found at the 
 Isle of I'hilic a little obelisk with an inscription both in 
 Greek and in hieroglyphics, containing the names of a Ptol- 
 emy and of his sister Cleopatra. A ring containing the 
 same characters as those on the Uosetta Stono was conolu- 
 sivelv proved thus to be the uame of Ptolemy, while an- 
 other ring could contain nothing other than the name of 
 Cleopatra. Very fortunately, these two names contain tho 
 letters /', T, and /- in common, and.thcsc were soon fi.xed, 
 and the others followed. The monuments of the Roman 
 epoch contained a largo number of names in rings, and 
 these were speedily unlocked with this key, and fouud to 
 embrace a full scries of the Roman emperors, with the title 
 emperor {auro«(><iToip ) added. The names of the old Egyp- 
 tian kings followed, some of them familiar, as Psamnieti- 
 chus and Ramses. Tho process thus outlined was sufficient 
 to give tho value of all tho more common hieroglyphic 
 signs. The next step was to read and translate the por- 
 tions not marked as proper names. For this recourse was 
 had to the Coptic, which was known to be the imin<;diato 
 descendant of the old Egyptian. Cliampollion first applied 
 himself to short sepulchral ninnurncnts on which the 
 proper names were connected by words that evidently ex- 
 pres.^ed relationships. These terms be found to agree with 
 the Coptic, and by various stages the discovery was per- 
 fected by liim and by his associates in the study. The 
 history need not be pursued farther. At present a hiero- 
 glyphic inscription may be read nearly as fluently as one 
 in tho classical languages, and apparatus for study is 
 abundant in texts, and especially in the magnificent dic- 
 tionary of .M. Brugsch, publisheil in ISfiT-OS. 
 
 Tho Egyptian hieroglyphical characters are either ideo- 
 graphic, syllabic, alphabetic, or determinative. All writing 
 originated in ideographs — pictures of objects to be sug- 
 gested by them to the reader. The Egyptians very early 
 f Hissed through the pure ideographic stage into the .syl- 
 abic, and eveii the alphabetic, but the idea of the alpha- 
 bet, depending wholly on ultimate vocal analysis, never 
 dominated in their (Writing, as it did in the IMwenicinn. 
 Even in our own writing wo employ some purely ideographic 
 signs. like f. plus, and §, section, although they are not. 
 like the original ideograjdis, pictorial. A vast number of 
 objects could be directly drawn, as, for example, portions 
 of the body, the hea<l, car, eyes, eyebrows, lips, nose, mouth, 
 arm, hand, either open or shut, leg, foot; also numerous 
 actious, as writing, building, and walking: also such ob- 
 jects external from man as sun, moon, star, the lotus-flow- 
 er, the linn, water (represented by a line of waves), etc. A 
 combination of single figures might express an appropri- 
 ate idea. Thus, if a waved line t:!^" exprcsseil water, an 
 ellipse enclosing tho waved line ^^3 would represent a 
 cistern. If a circle reprcsenletl the sun, a half circle with 
 rays streaming upward jjM^ would represent sunrise, and 
 a circle half sunk below a imc rOn sunset. \ ean<ijiy ^ — ^ 
 represented the heavens, and a star utidcrneath the canopy 
 P^ suggested night; while a circle in the same position 
 •■^T* represented midday; and the same ennopy with some- 
 thing like tunnels rtinning through it vw v represented 
 rain. Of these pictorial objects there 1 I 1 I are about 
 400. Their range is considerable, but abstract i<leaa and 
 connecting words, most verbs, and all inflected forms can- 
 not bo expressed by more pictures. A comiilotc sentence 
 
 is impossible by this system, 
 reached. 
 
 Its limitationa are soon 
 
 Moon. 
 
 \ sail. 
 
 4 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Man. 
 
 Woman. 
 
 Child. 
 
 1^^^ Goose, 
 fj-t Road. 
 
 n 
 
 1 1 oil so. 
 
 j 
 
 Throne. 
 
 1 
 
 Obelisk. 
 
 *f 
 
 A prisoner 
 
 \ 
 
 To strike. 
 
 The next step was that of allowing the figure not merely 
 to represent the idea and its name, but the souiwis by which 
 that word is expressed. Thus, the tiguro bcooaits entirely 
 tho representation of a sound, and no longer of an object. 
 Thi? may be illustrated by the jdcturc of an altar, which 
 might al^o stand for the word ultcr. But the Egyptians 
 regarded the consonants as the substantial parts of a word, 
 and, disregarding tho vowels, the same figure might stand 
 for latrv, letter, Itttfr, or ultra. Thus, the owl, rnulak, might 
 also stand for vufich, king; the hyaena, httitr, for Iiotv, an 
 hour; the serpent, hoji, for fiepi, a cave, and the obelisk, 
 nmei'tif for the god Aunni. Pincc the Egyptian car did not 
 distinguish the surd (sharp) from the sonant (flat) conso- 
 nants, the range was somewhat further extended. Tims, 
 tho finger, pronounced tcp, would represent any other word 
 whose consonants were tp, th, dp, or db; as, for example, 
 tatpe, a magazine, and tha, ten thousand. 
 
 The next stage was to allow any character to stand for 
 only the iirst one or two sounds in the word which it pri- 
 marily represented, generally for tho first consonant and 
 vowel, but in the case of a few characters, called by lirugsch 
 fundamental, for the first sound only. A single letter or 
 gyllablo may often be represented by a number of different 
 signs. Thus, A might be represented by an arm, an eagle, 
 or a reed; T, by a serpent or a hemisphere. The sense 
 often guided the selection of the character. Thus, in writing 
 the Greek word for emperor {avToicpdrtup) the eagle, symbol 
 of the Roman power, would be selected to represent a. Of 
 the syllabic characters there were 400 or iOO. The accom- 
 panying table includes the common alphabetic characters : 
 FiQ. 2. 
 
 1°' 
 
 S J-, C 
 
 IP 
 
 Cbanictcrs 
 In 
 
 Characters 
 rarely used. 
 
 IN 
 11^ 
 
 Cb&ractcrs 
 
 In 
 
 commoD use. 
 
 1 
 
 Chftractcrs 
 
 rnrcly 
 used. 
 
 A 
 
 W 
 
 " ^ 
 
 D 
 
 -=*• 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 TS 
 
 -li 
 
 >1 
 
 I 
 
 II ^^ 
 
 -i^lv 
 
 M 
 
 %.- 
 
 )T 
 
 Cor on 
 
 \ ' 
 
 S 
 
 N 
 
 ■ 5 
 
 KW 
 
 F 
 
 * — ■ 
 
 9 
 
 I 
 UorL 
 
 
 b 
 
 B 
 
 w 
 
 ^ w 
 
 S 
 
 n 
 
 U 
 
 P 
 
 m 
 
 ^r^- 
 
 .'ill 
 
 ™ j[i[ 
 
 8. 
 
 K 
 Q 
 
 
 ^ — 
 
 Kll 
 
 e 
 
 1.0- 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 III! 
 
 \ 
 
 f 
 
 T 
 
 • r ^ 
 
 L-::. 
 
 H 
 
 la 
 
 1 
 
 The Egyptians paid regard to vowels only as they were 
 needed to avoid ambiguity in writing. Where there might 
 be iloubt which of two words was li> bo read, or in the case 
 of words having nn initial vowel, or of monosyllables with 
 a final vowel, and especially of foreign proper names, it 
 biiamc necessary to express the vowels. These were not 
 put in theirphice between their consonants, but either after 
 CM- under the consonants which formed the word. Thus the 
 three fundamental characters given in the order ii. /'. ". are 
 to be pronounced mi;), not iipn. The scribes often found it 
 necessary to employ certain signs, not as characters to be
 
 916 
 
 IIIEROMAX— HIGilGATi:. 
 
 pronounced, but as suggc-^tions to the reader bow to read 
 other ambiguous signs. Thu?, a figure like a hill — pro- 
 nounceil tovc, and meaning much — indicated that the cha- 
 racters i)rccediug it were to be read not as single letters, but 
 in their larger content, a^^ full syllables with two or more 
 consonant?. Sometimes the character was repeated for the 
 same purpose. AVheu the characters hacl settled into their 
 almost completely phonetic use, a word spelled out was often 
 followed by its pictorial representation. Thus, \verc it de- 
 sired to write mtkhi, ft crocodile, instead of simply giving 
 a picture of the crocodile, which might signify either aukhi 
 01- skf the word might bo spelled out by its consonants: 
 first an », expressed by a sii>hon and pronounced arppe; 
 tlien /:, expressed by the breast, klhp. To show that these 
 two characters are not to be ]ironounccd syllabically. »>jpn 
 hip, as they may be, but consouiintally, su/.-/ii, the figure of 
 the crocodile, tti/chi, is appended. This system of deter- 
 minatives had considerable extension, of which the follow- 
 ing arc examples: 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Names of foreigu 
 countries. 
 
 Karnes of places in 
 Egypt. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Names of animals. 
 
 ^fc^ Evil or hurtful actions. 
 C )\ Encloses royal names. ^^^^ Articles of clothing. 
 
 Names of enemies. 
 
 Objects in wood. 
 
 o 
 
 YYY 
 
 Articles of metal. 
 
 Disaster, storm, confu- 
 sion. 
 
 The direction of the hieroglyphic writing was unfixed. 
 On the same monument it was in one place read vertically 
 and in another horizontally. The common way was from 
 right to left, as in Hebrew. In the older temples the 
 characters were raised ; but after the fifth dynasty they were 
 generally cut in intaglio, often very deep, as in the temple 
 at Zepe, where Bruce found them six inches deep. The 
 portions cut out were sometimes filled with white lime, or 
 often with mastic or richly colored enamel. 
 
 The hieratic writing was an abbreviation of the hiero- 
 glyphic. Mo«;r. of the jiapyrus is inscribed in this cha- 
 racter. In the seventh century D. c. a still more abridged 
 style, called demotic, came into use, in which no trace can 
 be recognized of the original pictures, although there is in 
 it the same mixture of both the phouetij and the ideographic 
 characters. AVillia-M II. AVauo. 
 
 Blioromax. Sec YAnMUK. 
 
 Uierun'ymites [from St. Jerome, or ^(V)-o»v»i»s], 
 properly the hermits of St. Jerome, were originally Fran- 
 ciscan Tertiaries of the Strict Observance. In 1373 the new 
 order was accredited by Pope Gregory XI., and received 
 an Augustinian rule. P. F. Pecha and one Vasco were its 
 founilers. Charles V. entered the order upon his abdica- 
 tion. This order, once very rich and extensive, is now 
 small and feeble. — Another small congregation called Hie- 
 ronyinitcs was founded at Pisa by one of the Gambacorti 
 about Ki'JO. It still exists. 
 
 Hier'ophant [Gr. Ifpof^aj-n??]. the mystagoguc, prophet 
 or priest of Demeter who had charge of the Eleusinian 
 Mysteries, and initiated new members into those mysteries. 
 Ho must be a descendant of the hero Eumolpus. unmarried, 
 and unblemished in character and in body. He preserved 
 and expounded the unwritten lavv. 
 
 Hies'ter {.Tosmi), b. of parentage of remote Silcsian 
 origin in Hern tp., Berks co.. Pa., Nov. IS, 17o2; became 
 ft merchant of Heading in 1771; raised, equipped, and 
 eomniiindcil a company in the Revolutionary army : was 
 woun-Ied at the battle of Long Island, and imprisoned a 
 year in the Jersey hulk; wounded again at Germantown ; 
 a member of the constitutional conventions of I7S7 and 
 17SII ; was a member of Congress 1797-1805 and KSI j-21 ; 
 governor of Pennsylvania 1821-23. D. at Heading, Pa., 
 June 10, \y.V>, 
 
 llii;'£;ins, Ip. of Perry co.. Ark. Pop. 292. 
 
 HiU'J;ins, tp. of McDowell co.. N. C. Pop. 401. 
 
 Ilig'j^inson (Francis), b. in England in 15S8; grad- 
 uated at St. .lohn's College, Cambridge, and became ft par- 
 ish clergyman of Leicester, but was deprived for noncon- 
 formity, and in 1029 became teacher of the congregation at 
 Salem. Mass., where he d. Aug. 6, Ki.'JO. Ho wrote jVeio 
 Eii'iIiuuVh IHnntatiom (1030). 
 
 Hi^ginson (Francis J.). U. S. N., b. July 10. 1840, in 
 ^Iiissachusetls : graduated at (he Naval Aeiidemy in ISCl; 
 beenmc a lieutenant in 1S02, a lieutenant-commander in 
 ISfifi; served on board the Cayuga, as aide to Capt. liailey, 
 in the great victory of New Orleans, and was wounded in 
 the very gallant boat-expedition from the Colorado Sept. 
 
 14, 1S61, which succeeded in destroying the Confederate 
 privateer Judah, moored to, a wharf at the Pensacola navy- 
 yard. FOXHALL A. PaRKKR. 
 
 lIig:ginson (Sir Jamks Macaulav), K. C. B., b. in 
 
 ISO.'j; in 1824 he joined tlie Bengal army, and served dur- 
 ing the Bhurtpore camjiaign and ass:iult of that fortress in 
 1 S20 ; was appointed to the stafl' of the army in 1S2S. and 
 filled the positions of aide-de-canij) to Lord William Ben- 
 tinck. governor-general of India; military secretary to the 
 governor of Agra: private secretary to the governor-gen- 
 eral of Canada, and in 18.19 accompanied Lord Metealle to 
 Jamaica as secretary to the governor ; following that states- 
 man to Canada, he was made civil secretary and superin- 
 tendent of Indian aff'airs. From 1846 to 1S5() he was gov- 
 ernor ftnd commander-in-chief of the Leeward Islunds, 
 when he was transferred to the governorship of Mauritius 
 (lS.")t)-r>7) ; created companion of the Bath in 1861, a 
 knight-coraraauder 1856 j retired from active service in 
 1857. 
 
 Higginson (John), a son of Francis Higginson, b. at 
 Claybrookc, Leicestershire. England, Aug. 0, 1010; came 
 to Salem with his father; became a teacher of Hartford; 
 was a short-hand writer to the Massachusetts synod of 
 1037 ; chaplain of Saybrook ; assistant minister of Guilford, 
 Conn., 1G41-59: minister of Salem, Mass.. 1000-1708. He 
 was a popular preacher, and left some valued writings. D. 
 Dec. 9, 1708. 
 
 Higginson (Thomas WrNxwoRTii), b. Dec. 22, 1823, in 
 Cambridge, Mass.; graduated at Harvard College 1S41 ; 
 received the degree of A.M. 1809; studied divinity at 
 Cambridge; was ordained at Xewburyport, Mass. (First 
 Religious Society), in 1847, the year he left the Divinity 
 School : was Free-soil candidate for Congress in 1S50 ; went 
 to Worcester, Mass., in 1852 as minister of the Free church ; 
 resigned in 1S5S, and left the ministry. !Mr. Higginson 
 had taken a leading part in the anti-slavery conflict that 
 preceded the civil war; had visited Kansas in 1850; was 
 acquainted with John Brown, and was active in sustaining 
 the Free-State men in the West. On Sept. 25, 1802, he was 
 made captain in the 5lst Massachusetts Vols. ; on Nov. 10 
 accepted the colonelcy of 1st South Carolina Vols., colored ; 
 was wounded Aug., 1S03, and mustered out Oct., 1804. 
 He has since lived in Newport. R. I., devoting himself to 
 literature and the work of social reform ; is :i vice-president 
 of the Free Religious Association, a leader in the cause of 
 woman sufi"rage, and an earnest friend of the higher edu- 
 cation of the youth of both sexes in public schools and 
 colleges. His efforts to introduce modern ideas and men 
 into the management of Harvard College, and to have its 
 facilities extended to women, have been assiduous. Mr. 
 Higginson is the author of several volumes of collected 
 essays : Out-door Papers ( 1S03), Anui/ Life in a Black Rciji- 
 ment (1870), and ^l//(i»r("c EniifVfs (1871): wrote a novel, 
 Malbon^, nn Oldpnrt Ji.,mfnice (XSG'^). Oldport Dm/e (1874); 
 a history, Yunnij Folks' Ilintorij nf the V. S. (1S75); besides 
 various pamphlets and magazine articles, memoirs of Lydia 
 Maria Child and Margaret Fuller Ossoli in Eminent Women 
 of the A(je (1808), and a memoir of T. W. Harris, prefixed 
 to his Entomological Coryexpuudenec (1809). He also edited 
 (in connection with S. Longfellow) a book of poems, Tha- 
 Ifittn ( 1853), a translation of Epietctus ( IS05), Harvard }fe- 
 morial Iiin;/raphir» (2 Vols., ISOO), Child- /'ictnrrs from 
 Dickens (1808), firjV/' liioijraphia of European Statesmen 
 (1875). Is also well known as a lyceum lecturer. He 
 visited Europe in 1872. 0. B. Frotiiinuiiam. 
 
 Hig'ginsport, post-v. in Lewis tp.. Brown co., 0. It 
 is on the Ohio, 40 miles above Cincinnati. Pop. 530. 
 
 Hig'ginsvillej post-v. of Verona tp., Oneida co., N. Y. 
 Pop. 219. 
 
 High, in music, a term indicating acutcness of sound, 
 generally by way of comparison or contrast with other and 
 graver sounds. Thus, of two sounds, notes, or parts, one 
 is said to be higher than the other because it is more acute, 
 though both notes may chance to be in the graver portion 
 of the scale. In a general and indefinite way alt musical 
 sounds are said to bo either high, low, or of a middle 
 gra<le. Hence, the use of the terms ascendintj and descend- 
 ing whon wc change from the graver part of the scale to 
 the more acute, and rice versH. William Staitnton. 
 
 High Bridge, i»ost-v. of Hunterdon co., N. J., on the 
 New Jersey Central R. R., 54 miles W. of New Vork. Here 
 are extensive iron-works and a remarkable railroad bri'lgc. 
 
 High For'est, tp. and post-v. of Olmsted co., Minn., 
 15 miles S. of Rochester. Pop. of v. 249 ; of tp. 1243. 
 
 High'gntc, post-tp. of Franklin co., Vt., on Missisquoi 
 Bay ( Lake Champlain). and on the Canada lino. It is also 
 on the Central Vermont R. R. (northern division), 13 miles 
 N. of St. .Albans. It is a jilace of summer resort, has 4 
 churches, 4 hotels, and manufactures of castings, scythes.
 
 HIGH LAKE— HIGHWAY. 
 
 917 
 
 and leather. It has sulphurou:^ mineral springs, which are 
 very useful in eertaiu flkiu diseases. Pop. 2JG0. 
 
 IIi;;h LaKe, tp. of EniDictt co., la. Pop. 1S2. 
 
 Iliuh'hiiid, county iu the S. S. W. of Ohio. Area, 460 
 equnre mile?. It lies between the Scioto and Little Miami 
 valley?, and is well cultivated and fertile. Cuttle, grain, 
 and wool are stajdcs. The manufactures include carriages, 
 flour, harnesses, etc. It is traversed by the Marietta and 
 Cincinnati R. K. Cap. Hillsborough. Top. 29,133. 
 
 Highland, county of Virginia, bounded on the W. and 
 N. by West Virginia. Area, 400 gquaro miles. It is very 
 mountainous. Live-stock, grain, and wool are staple pro- 
 ducts. Cap. Monterey. Pop. -ilJl. 
 
 llishland, tp. of Shelby co., Ala. Pop. 657. 
 
 Ilii^hlaiid, tp. of Grundy co., III. Pop. 980. 
 
 Highland, post-v. of Madison co.. 111., 30 miles E. of 
 St. Louis, on the St. Louis Vandivlia and Terro Haute R.Rs. 
 It contains 2 public schools, 4 churches, 1 Catholic uni- 
 versity, 2 large flouring-mills, 1 foundry, 1 bank, I woollen- 
 mill, and 1 newspaper. Pop., composed of Swiss and Gcr- 
 m-inn, 17.'>7. Ad. F. Bandkliek. 
 
 Hi:;hland, tp. of Franklin co., Ind. Pop. 179G. 
 
 Ilighlund, tp. of Greene co., Ind. Pop. 1321. 
 
 Highland, tp. of Vermilion co., Ind. Pop. 2294. 
 
 Highland, pust-tp. of Clayton co., la. Pop. S34. 
 
 Highland, tp. of Guthrie co., la. Pop. 229. 
 
 Highland, tp. of Tama co., la. Pop. o03. 
 
 Highland, tp. of Union co., la. Pop. 247. 
 
 Highland, tp. of Wapello co., la. Pop. 959. 
 
 Highland, t]>. of Washington co., la. Pop. 753. 
 
 Highland, tp. of Winneshiek co., la. Pop. 922. 
 
 Highland, post-v. of Iowa tp., Doniphan co.. Kan., is 
 the ^eat uf Highland University (Presbyterian) for both 
 8exe.4, and has a coal-mine. It is nenr the Atchison and 
 Nebraska U. R., and 25 miles N. by W. of Atchison. P. 2K2. 
 
 Highland, tp. and post-v. of Oakland co., Mich., on 
 the Flint and Pcre Mar<|uctte K. R., 2S miles S. of Flint. 
 
 Pnp. I -J II. 
 
 Highland, tp. of Osceola co., Mich. Pop. 5S. 
 
 Highland, tp. of Wabashaw co., Minn. Pop. 716. 
 
 Highland, a v. of Salioe co., Ncb-i 17 miles S. W. of 
 Line-tin. 
 
 Highland, a v. of Lincoln co., Ner. Pop. 21. 
 
 Highland, tp. of Sullivan co., N. V., on the Delaware 
 River. It confains many small lakes. Hero was fought 
 the battle of the Minisink. July 22, 1779, between the 
 Indiana in the British service, under Brant, and the 
 Amerii'nn militia. Pop. 958. 
 
 Highland, post-v. of Ulstcrco., >r. Y., opposite Pough- 
 keepsic, with which it is connected half hourly by ferry. 
 It contains a seminary for both sexes, 3 churches. 7 flour- 
 ing-milU, 1 foundry, a felloe-factory, 1 weekly newspaper. 
 It h:is 3 daily linos of steamers to New York. The in- 
 lubilants are largely engaged in the grape-culture. Pop. 
 about "00. W. F. Hkndrick, En. *' Joirnal." 
 
 Highland, tp. of Defiance co., 0. Pop. 946. 
 
 Highland, tp. of Muskingum co., 0. Pop. 784. 
 
 Highland, tp. of Adams co., Pa. Pop. 121. 
 
 Highland, tp. of Chester co.. Pa. Pop. 958. 
 
 Highland, tji. of Clarion co., Pa. Pop. 024. 
 
 Highland, tp. of Elk co., Pa. Pop. 98. 
 
 Highland, tp. of Greenville co., S. C. Pop. 1261. 
 
 Highland (called also Ft-ankUn), post-v. of Iowa co., 
 AVis.. 12 miles S. by W. of Avoca. P.ofv.482; oftp.30Ifi. 
 
 HighManderf*, properly the Oaclsor Celtic inhabitants 
 of the Highlantis of Scotland. In the British army the 
 term ile^ignate^ the eight regiments of foot-soldiers who 
 wear the old Highland costume, cacli with its own distinc- 
 tive tartan. These are the 42d, 71st, 72d, 74th, "Sth. 79th, 
 fl2d, and 93d regiments. The 91st (Argylcshire regiment) 
 is also sometimes reckoned with the Highlanders. There 
 are several Highland volunteer regiments. 
 
 Highland FuIIn, pust-v. of Curnwall tp., Grange co., 
 N. v., on ibo llud.-on, 2 miles below West Point; has 
 hotels antl I churches, and is a pliiec of summer re.iorl. 
 
 Highland Park, post-v. of Dcerfield tp.. Lake co., 
 III., on L iko Michigan ami on the Chicago and North- 
 west erit U. K. (Milwaukee division), 22 miles N. of Chicago. 
 
 Iligli'lands, of the Huilson. are the broken hilts which 
 stretch tnmi S. W. to N. E. through Kocklaud, Oninge, 
 Putnam, and llutehcss cos., N. V.. being the N. E. con- 
 tinuation of the Blue lUdge, and extending farther N. E. 
 in the Taconic and Green Mountains of Western Now Eng- 
 
 land. The passage of the Hudson through the Highlands 
 is marked by very fine scenery, and it is remarkable as 
 almost the only instance in the U. S. of a navignble river- 
 passage through a great mountain-range. The Highlands 
 are mainly composed of azoic rocks, with rugged and 
 steep sides and a somewhat scanty soil. The highest peaks 
 do not reach higher than 17U0 feel above tide. 
 
 High Market, tp. of Lewis co., N. V. It has 3 cheese- 
 factories. Pop. lOJl. 
 
 High Places. In the Old Testament frequent men- 
 tion is made of high places, where the people unlawfully 
 went to worship strange gods. The custom of erecting 
 shrines upon hilltops is a very ancient and widespread one, 
 and seems to have ari^^cn from the belief that the tops of 
 hills were nearer the abode of Deity. In spite of the strong 
 denunciations of the practice in the Jewish law, the custom 
 became a prevalent one, and such men as Samuel, David, 
 and Elijah conformed to it, but in later times a reform oc- 
 curred, and the more devout kings of Judah actively de- 
 stroyed the high jdaces. 
 
 High Point, tp. and post-v. of Decatur co., la., 13 
 miles S. of Woodburn. Pop. 79G. 
 
 High Point, post-tp. of Guilford co., N. C. Pop. 1027. 
 
 High Prairie, tp. of Leavenworth co., Kan. P. 1300. 
 
 High Priest, in the hierarchy of the Hebrews, the 
 princii)al religions dignitary of the nation. By the Mosaic 
 law the office was held for life, and was hereditary in the 
 line of Elcazar, son of Aaron, the first high priest. But 
 in the New Testament times the office had ceased to be 
 hereditary, and was held at the will of the civil ruler. 
 Some of these officers in those times were men of low Mrth. 
 One of the most brilliant periods of this pontificate wns that 
 of the Asmona^an princes (Maccabees), some of whom 
 joined regal to priestly authority. 
 
 High Shoals, tp. of lluthcrford co., N. C. Pop. 904, 
 
 Higll'spire, post-v. of Lower Swatara tp., Dauphin 
 CO., Pa., on the Pennsylvania R. R., and on the N. E. bank 
 of the Susquehanna, 6 miles below Ilarrisburg. Pop. 012. 
 
 High'towers, tp. of Caswell co., N. C. Pop. 1502. 
 
 Hights'town, post-b. of Mercer co.. N. J.. 11 miles N. 
 E. of Trenton, on tlie .\mboy division of the Pennsylvania 
 R. R. It is an incorporated borough, containing 3 educa- 
 tional institutes, 6 churches, 2 foundries, 2 hotels, chain, 
 plough, and door factories. 1 newspaper, and 2 national 
 banks. Pop. of borough, 1347. 
 
 Tiios. B. Api'i.kget, Ed. "Gazette." 
 
 High Was'sie, tp. of Pulaski co., Va. Pop. 1S07. 
 
 Iligh'way, a road or way over which the public at 
 large have a free right of passage. The term, in popular 
 usage, is commonly restricted to ways upon land, as car- 
 riage- or foot-roads or turnpikes, but it is employed in law 
 as a generic designation, including not only ways of this 
 kind, but also watercourses which arc, in a similar manner, 
 open to public convenience, as, for instance, natural streams. 
 Ferries are also sometimes coinpreheuded within the same 
 category. Highways upon land are created cither by ex- 
 press dedication of the owner, by prescription, or iu jmr- 
 suancc of legislative authority. Dedication occurs when 
 the owner of the property appropriates it to the public use 
 as a common passage-way, and there is a sufficient acccj>t- 
 ance of the privilege on the part of the |)ublie, evidenced 
 cither by jjositive acknowledgment und assent or by 
 constantly enjoying the advantage oiTcred. A right is 
 obtaine«i by prescription by a continuous, undisturbed 
 use of the land as a common way for a particular period 
 of time established by law, usually twenty years. The 
 validity of a claim originating iu this manner is sus- 
 tained by the fiction of a presumed grant or dedication by 
 the owner on account of his long acquiescence in the vio- 
 lation of liis proprietary rights. (See PiiKsntii'Tiox.) But 
 much the most common mode of establishing public ways 
 is by the exercise of the governmental prerogative (jf tak- 
 ing private properly for public uses. Laws have been en- 
 acted, both in Englainl and iu the several States of the 
 Union, regulating tin- nuthods Ipy which new nmds may be 
 laid out as occasion may require. The authority in this 
 country is usually delegated to towns or bodies of commis- 
 sioners, who, in conjunction with a jury, determine unou 
 the necessity of a road, its direction, and extent. Iho 
 commissioners may also have power to direct its construc- 
 tion and make all necessary repairs. As this is an inter- 
 ference with the rights of private owners untlcr the luw of 
 Eminkst Domain (which see), adequate compensation must 
 be made for the loss which they sustain in conseijuencc. 
 Tlii-* power must never bo capriciously or arbitrarily exer- 
 cised, but only to satisfy a public necessity. Hiirhways by 
 water, in the case of natural streams, exist independently 
 of the granting of any privilege by dedication or of any
 
 918 
 
 HIKA— HILDEBEKT OF TOURS. 
 
 legiiilative interposition — by force of the natural right 
 whioh every citizen possesses of free passage along all 
 watercourses not of artificiiil construction. 
 
 The estahlishmont of a highway docs not necessarily 
 give Iho public a right of owiicrshij) in the soil over which 
 the privilege of passage is exercised. It is a general rule, 
 applying both tu highways upon land and to watercourses 
 above the point where the tide ebbs and flows, that the 
 property in the soil is VL-sted in the adjoining owners. If a 
 single individual own the land upon b«tth .sides of a road 
 or stream, he has in general also the exclusive title to the 
 entire highway as far as the limits of his estate extend; 
 but if the proprietors upon the opposite sides be different 
 persons, the right of each extends to the middle of the 
 highway. The right of the public in such a case consti- 
 tutes merely an easement, and though this is so far restric- 
 tive upon the owner's management and control of his prop- 
 erty that he can do nothing to deprive the public of their 
 privilege of free passage or to incommode them, yet it 
 must be enjoyed simply as a right to travel over the land, 
 and an obligation rests also upon the public not to inter- 
 fere with the owner's interests further than the appropriate 
 use of the way demands. If there arc trees or grass grow- 
 ing along the line of a road, the ailjoiniug owner has an ex- 
 clusive right to them, as against all but the public, and can 
 maintain an action against any one who attempts to carry 
 them away. In like manner, he may obtain redress for 
 injuries occasioned by encroachments upon the soil, or un- 
 lawful excavations, or any violation of his rights as owner 
 which is not strictly incidental to the public privilege. If 
 there arc mines beneath the surface of the highway, ho 
 may continue to work them, ])rovided he does not deprive 
 the public of the right of way or impair their exercise of 
 it. Under similar limitations ho may construct water- 
 pipes or drains, excavate cellars, etc. below the surface. 
 But the public right of easement, especially in villages and 
 cities, somctimrs includes ])articular privileges not directly 
 incidental to the right of transit, but so important and 
 essential for the common welfare of communities that they 
 are deemed to be included within the interest which the 
 public acquires by establishing the highway. For instance, 
 the soil nuiy bo opened for the construction of sewers or 
 gas- or water-pipes for the convenience of neighboring 
 residents. But acts of this nature can only be done by 
 virtue of public authority, and if any individual or com- 
 ''bination ui' individuals attempt to lay gas- or watcr-]>ipcs 
 without obtaining special powers for that purpose, they 
 commit an actionable offence fur which the owner may seek 
 redress. But nothing additional to such privileges as these 
 is embraced within the easement which the public ac- 
 quires: and if the legislature authorizes the use of the soil 
 for other purposes, this is a new exercise of the right of 
 eminent domain, for which further compensation must be 
 made. Thus, it has been held that the construction of a 
 stcam-raiIro;id is not a legitimate exercise of the easement, 
 and that for such a use of the highway additional compen- 
 sation must be made to the adjoining proprietors. Grants 
 of property bounded upon a highway carry with them the 
 same interest in the soil of the road as the grantor pre- 
 viously possessed, even though there be no distinct state- 
 ment to that cficct. Such a presumed conve3-anco can only 
 be prevented by the use of precise expressions in the deed 
 of transfer, limiting the l)oundary to the edge of the way. 
 The statute law may, as it sometimes docs, jirovidc that the 
 entire interest in the land over which the highway passes 
 shall vest in the public. This is the case with the modern 
 streets in the city of Now York. 
 
 The public right of transit must bo entirely unrestricted. 
 If obstructifms he placed in the way impeding free travel, 
 they will constitute public nuisances, and will affonl ground 
 for an indictment or for a private action by any person 
 especially discommoded. They may also bo abated or re- 
 moved by any one, so far as may bo necessary to ])ermit 
 him to continue on his way. Moreover, in order that the 
 privilege of passage may be enjoyed with as little incon- 
 venience as possible, it is the duty of every traveller to 
 observe proper care to avoid collisions and accident. To 
 promote this desirable end, it has been made the rule in 
 Englancl that vehicles in passing each other must keep to 
 the left. In the U. S. the regulation is exactly the reverse 
 — that they must keep to the right. The obligation of this 
 requirement ceases when one tif the vehicles is confined to 
 a specific line of travel, as a horse-car, and in such a case 
 the other carriage may turn to either side. In England 
 the repair of highways is n duty obligatory upon the in- 
 habitants of the parishes, and they may be indicted if they 
 suffer defects to continue after knowledge of their exist- 
 ence. In the t^ S. the liability is created by statute. In 
 New England the duty is imposed upon the towns, and a 
 statutory right of action is given against thcui if any in- 
 jury bo sustained by u traveller in consequence of their 
 
 neglect. In other States the obligation devolves, as a 
 general rule, upon municipal corporations, such as cities 
 and villages, while towns, which are usually considered 
 quasi cor])<»ratious, are sometimes made liable, as in New 
 Eugland, or the roads within their limits are placed under 
 the charge of specially-appointed commissioners, who may 
 be subjected to an action if they fail to make repairs after 
 they arc provided with the means to obtain the requisite 
 funds. If a person brings an action for an injury sustained 
 through a defect in the highway against the body bound 
 to make repairs, he must show that they had knowledge 
 of the existence of the alleged <U'fect, or a reasonable op- 
 portunity and means of obtaining such knowledge. If the 
 defect or obstruction be caused by a resident adjacent to 
 the highway, and the city or town be compelled to respond 
 in damages to a person injured in consequence, a suit for 
 indemnification may be instituted by the city, etc. in its 
 turn against the party primarily responsible by reason of 
 his uuauthorizeil act or culpable negligence. 
 
 George Chask. Kevised uv T. W. Dwiciit. 
 Mi'ka^ post-v. of Manitowoc co., Wis., on Lake Mich- 
 igan, 12 miles N. of Sheboygan. 
 
 lii'^kOf post-tp. of Lincoln co., Nev., 215 miles S. of 
 
 Elko. Pop. 64; of tp. 110. 
 
 Hillary. Four persons of this name are prominent in 
 church history : I. HiLAnv of Arles, Saist, was b. at 
 Aries, in S. Gaul, about 401 A.n. ; was persuaded by Hono- 
 ratus, afterwards (42fi-420) bisliop of his native place, to 
 enter the monastery of Lerins ; in 429, on the death of 
 Ilonoratus, was chosen his successor in the see of Aries, 
 and d. there May 5, 449. Zealous in discipline and strong 
 of will, he had a bitter controversy with Pope Leo the 
 Great, which, however, was amicably settled at last. He 
 was learned, eloquent, and charitable to the poor. Ilis 
 sermons, it Is said, were sometimes very long (four hours), 
 so that his hearers were driven into the novelty of sitting. 
 His Li/e v/ llonoratim is in the Acta Sauctorum, Jan. 16. 
 — II. Hilary of Poitiers, Saint, "the Atbanasius of the 
 West," of distinguished but heathen parentage, was b. at 
 Poitiers in Central Gaul. near the end of thclhird cinlury; 
 became a Christian in mature life after prolonged and 
 careful investigation ; was chosen bishop of Poitiers about 
 350 ; in .Ojj was banished to Phrygia, because he would not 
 sanction the condemnation of Atbanasius ; returned to 
 Poitiers in 3G0, and d. there Jan. 13, 308. He was one of 
 tho ablest meu of his century — clear-headed, incisive, reso- 
 lute, learned, and eloquent. The leading characteristic of 
 his career was tho sharp and steady war he waged agiiinst 
 Arianism. The earliest edition of his works was by Eras- 
 mus (Bale, 1j23) ; the best is Ihe Benedictine, by Constant 
 (Paris, 1G03; republishcil, with additions, by Maffei, Ve- 
 rona, 17.00). (Sec Reiskens's lliiarius von J'oitierHf 18fi4.) 
 — III. HiLARV the Pope, was h. (date unknown) in Sar- 
 dinia; while deacon at Uomc, under Pope Leo the Great, 
 was sent as legate to the *' Kobber Council" at Ephcsus 
 (449 A. D.); succeeded Leo in the papal chair in 461, being 
 consecrated Nov. 12, two day.s after the death of Loo; and 
 d. at Romo Feb. 21, 40S, He was zealous for the faith and 
 strict in discipline. A synod which met in Rome Nov. 12, 
 4Go, passed five canons, inspired by him, endorsing the 
 canons of Nice, and forbidding, amongst other things, the 
 ordination of men twice married or marrying widows, and 
 forbidding bishops to nominate their successors. (See Acta 
 Sanctorum, Vch. 21.) — IV. lIii.AUV THE Beacon. A Roman 
 deacon of this name was sent by Pope Liberius (362-306 
 a. D.) to a council (attended by 300 bishops) which met at 
 Milan in 366. He appears afterwards to have joined tho 
 schism of Lucifer (who d. 371), bishop of Cagliari (Lat. 
 Cnfan't) in Sardinia. He has generally been ideutilicd 
 with tho unknown author (.-VMituosiASTEit) of the com- 
 mentary on the Paulino Epistles, wrongly ascribed to 
 Ambrose of Milan ; who also wrote the Qimntiouot Veferh 
 ft Xovi 7\Hta„icutt, wrongly ascribed to Augustine. But 
 this identification is now questioned. Tho commentary 
 on St. Paul's Epistles contains passages which have im- 
 portant bearings on questions of church polity. 
 
 R. I). HiTCIKOCK. 
 
 Hil'burn, tp. of Madison co., Ark. Pop. 424. 
 Ilildlnirirliairscn, town of Germany, in Suxc-Mein- 
 
 ingen, was once the capital of Saxe-Ilildliurghauscn. It is 
 on the river Wcrra and the Eisenach-Coburg Railway ; has 
 a gymnasium, a teachers' school, and institutions for deaf- 
 mutes and fur the insane, besides manufactures of consid- 
 erable importance. Po]k 6148, 
 
 Hil'deliert of Tours, the most celebrated Latin poet 
 of his time. b. at Lavardin. in the Vermandois, in 1067. and 
 educated in tho monastery of Chigny. In 10'.17 ho was ap- 
 poinlefl bishop of Mans, and in 1126 arehbisliop of Tours, 
 where he d. Dec. 18, 1134. His dogmatical essays have in-
 
 H'.LDEBRAND— HILL. 
 
 919 
 
 Icrost on account of thoir eyatemntio form. A collected 
 edition uf liis works was published in 1708 by Beaogcndro. 
 Ilildcbrand. Sec Gukoory (VII.). 
 IlirUcshuim, town of (icrmauy, in Hanover, on the 
 Inucrste. It contains several line oiJ uionumeuts, as, for 
 iualiiucc, the cathedral, built in lUlO, nilh ics famous 
 l.roiizB galea and j;la9s-|iaintings; tho church of St. Oodo- 
 hard, built in 113J; and the church of St. Michael, built 
 in 1022. It has a lively trade in corn, lineu, and yarn. 
 It is a Roman Catholic bishop's see. Pop. 20,.s01. 
 
 Uil'Ureth (UioiiaroU tho son of Ucv. Uosca Hildrcth 
 (17K2-1 <:;.■>), b. at Dcerlicld. Mass., Juno 2L'. ISO", and 
 graduated at Harvard in U'20; was admitted to the bar at 
 Boston: in 1S32 became editor of tho Boston A:lua ; re- 
 sided lS3-t-3J in Florida, where ho wrote Arch:/ iloore 
 (l.Su7), an anti-slavery tale, republished in 1SJ2 as Tlic 
 While Slarc. Ho tr.inslated Dnuiout's version of Bcntham's 
 Tlirorf of Lc'ilslaiiiiit (IS 10, 2 vols.), and published Hi-iloii/ 
 n/Itantt (U«r), a L!/e o/ ir. //. Uirrlmn (1S30), whom 
 ho vigorously supported for tho Presidency, and Dcapotimn 
 inAMtrka ('l8jl),nn auti-slavcry work. lie resided (1S40- 
 43) in Dcmerara, where ho edited two free-labor journals. 
 Ho published a Thrunj of MoraU (ISU) and a Thmrii nf 
 Pullllvt (1S03), but his great work is a ]Ihti>nj of the U. S. 
 (0 vols., 1849-Jl)), written in a style pure but without 
 adornment. Tho author's standpoint is an'.i-Jcifcrsonian. 
 Ho also produced Jap'in «» it U'tin imil h (IT-jJ) and .ifro- 
 cxmit Jml'/cA (IfiJO), prepared from Lord Cr.mpbeirs Hres. 
 Ho was for several years on the editorir.l stnl' of tho Xcv/ 
 York Tribmic. and bcenmo V. S. consul at Trieste in ISGl. 
 D. nt Florence, Italy, July 11, ISCJ. 
 
 Hildrcth (^^.uiiki. Prhscott), .M. P., b. at MctUucn, 
 M, , . 1,1. .'•.;i, 17S:i; studied nicdicino with Dr. Kittrid;;o 
 1 ', . ', r; removed from New liampshiro to I!elpr6, 0., 
 iu 1 .'., .uid to Marietta, 0., in l''«S. Ho was a valued 
 contributor to periodicals, and prepared various scicutiiio 
 and genealo„'ieal papers, etc. llo wrote a J/i-ilori/ nf the 
 Diti-imrt ,Hid Clim>ile of Smilh-casltrn O/no (1"37), //.sfory 
 of /IrllerHle in West Virginia (1S.".7), Pioiicfrll'-istur:! ( 1 S4S), 
 /,irf» of Eiirli/ Seillrre of Ohio (lSi2), .".nd other works. 
 Ilia valuable library and scientific coUcetions ho gave to 
 Marietta College. D. July 24, 1SC3. 
 
 Ilil'gard (Euobne \Va!.di:>hr), Ph. D., b. in Zwei- 
 bruckcn, Khenish Bavaria, Jan. a, ISol : emigrated with 
 his father to Bellville, 111.. ls:;i-30; in 1S4',I returned to 
 Europe, and studied at tho .\eadcmy of Mines, Freiberg, 
 Germany ; also at tho universities of ZUrieh and Heidel- 
 berg, graduating at Heidelberg in 1863; in lS3j returned 
 to the V. S., and became assistant State geologist of Mis- 
 sissippi; in 1SJ7 was in charge of the laboratory at the 
 .Smiihsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. ; in ISjS was 
 appointed State geologist of .Mississippi. Since 1S71 ho 
 has held that ofliec in connection with the ehiiir of agri- 
 cultural chemistry in the State University at Oxford, Miss. 
 In 1''73 bo look a similar position in tho University of 
 Miilii-an. and in l'<74 wa ' elected professor of agriculture 
 in the University of California, wliiih jiosition ho still oceu- 
 pics ( I.S7 J). Author of a report on the geology and agricul- 
 ture of iMiasissippi, and various papers on chemical and 
 geological subjects, chiefly on the geology of Limisiana and 
 of the .Mississippi delta, in the Am. Jour, of Science; is a 
 member of the National .\caderay of Sciences. 
 
 Ililgard (Jrurs Erasmus), h. ,Tan. 7, 1S25, in Zwci- 
 briieken, (Jerinany; emigrated in 18;i.i to Illinois with his 
 father, from whom he reecived a classical education : studied 
 civil engineering in Philailel|diia; in 184.5cutcrcd the Coast 
 Sirvcy service, which has been the principal sphere of his 
 la'iors, and to the success of which he has largely contrib- 
 uted. His writings on geodetic methods, tides, and terres- 
 trial magnetism arc published in tho Coast Survey reports 
 and in various scientilie journals. In 1S02 he took charge 
 of the Coast .Purvey olhee, and of the const ruction of stand- 
 ard weiglits and measures, a position whieb be still retains ; 
 in lH(i3 ho was named a mc-mber of tho National .\cademy 
 of Sciences; in 1S72 look an active part in the interna- 
 tional metric commission which met at Paris, and was 
 chosen a member of its perinaiient eoniinittee. He at the 
 same time conducted a iletennimition by telegriiph of tho 
 longitude between .\meriea and Europe, including that be- 
 tween the observatories of Greenwii-h and Paris. Was 
 eleirti'd president of tho Am. Assoc, fur tho Adv. of Sci. in 
 
 isri. 
 
 lIilanrd(TiiKonoBECnAni.i".s),.M.P.,b. inZwcibriicken, 
 Oermaiiv. Feb. 2S, 182S: came to the li. S. in lis:ij, and 
 aflerwiirds iMimpletcd his edueation al the (terinan universi 
 lies; settleil as u physician in Si. Li>uis, and devoted inneh 
 time to the mieniscopic atudy of zymotic fungi and the 
 circuita of generation of the lower forms of life. His pii]MTs 
 on then and kindred subjects — aueh us frcah-water ulgo), 
 
 tho spawn of mosses, natural orders of Ihe vegetable king- 
 dom, phyllolaxy, and tho genetic explanation of its uu- 
 racricftl law, the numerical low of the vertebrate system, 
 contributions to the physiology of sight, and other essays 
 — are published in the Tntntoctioni* of the St. Louis .\eade- 
 my of Science and in those of the American Association 
 for the Advancement of Science. 1). Mar. 6, 1875, of pneu- 
 monia, aged forty-seven. 
 
 Ililgard (Tiieodor ERAS«t:s), b. in Nassau, Germany, 
 July 7, 17'JO ; educated at Heidelberg and Paris; counsel- 
 lor at law at Treves during the empire, ami after the resto- 
 ration of Ihe Khenish provinces to Germany judge of the 
 court of appeals at Zweibriickcn. While hobling this po- 
 sition he published a series of reports on the working of 
 the French system of jurisprudence and tho Code Na- 
 poleon, which remained operative in those German prov- 
 inces, contributing largely to the preservation and exten- 
 sion of that system. He was during live years member of 
 the provincial .assembly, maintainiug the right of local self- 
 government, but, dispirited by the reaction toivards abso- 
 lutism under the influence of Austria, he emigrated in 1835 
 to Iho U. S. with a family of nine children, whose educa- 
 tion he personally directed at his newhome in Illinois. He 
 afterwards returned to Germany, and settled in Heidelberg, 
 where he d. Feb. 14, 1873. Author of publications on im- 
 portant social questions, such as pauperism, the dcalh- 
 pcnally, woman's rights, and the war-power. He also 
 published metrical translations into the German language 
 of Ovid, Homer, and Moore, an original poem entitled The 
 Iluitdrcd Dniji, and many minor poems. 
 
 Hill, county of N. Central Texas. Area, 950 square 
 miles. It is half prairio and half timber land. The soil 
 is fertile. Tho chief products are cattle, maize, aud eot- 
 toa. Tho Braios forms part of tho western boundary. Cap. 
 Hillsborough. Pop. 7453. 
 
 Hill, post-tp. of Merrimack CO., N. U., on tho Northern 
 R. U., 25 miles N. W. of Coiioaid. It has manufacturca 
 of furniture, carriages, etc. Pop. G20. 
 
 Hill, tp. of Montgomery co., N. 0. Pop. 477. 
 Hill (.Vmbrosf. Powell), b. in Culpcper co., Va., 152^ ; 
 graduated at the U. S. Military Academy July 1, 1S17, aud 
 appointed in tho army brevet second lieutenant of artillery, 
 receiving his full commission tho following month, aud pro- 
 moted to be first lieutenant Sept., 1851. Repairing at onco 
 to the seat of war in Mexico, ho was in time lo participate 
 at Huamantla aud .Vtlixco; subsequently serving in gar- 
 rison and on frontier duty, aud in the field in Florida 
 against tho hostile Semin'olcs, until 1855, when ho was 
 placed on duty in tho Coast Survey ofiice at Washington, 
 where he remained until Oct., 18110, from which Latter data 
 he was on leave of absence to .Mar., 18l'il, when ho resigned 
 his commission to follow the fortunes of his native State. 
 On the secession of Virginia he was appointed colonel 13th 
 Virginia Vols., and despatched to Harper's Ferry, rejoining 
 tho army at aud engaged in the first battle of Bull Run. 
 Promoted to be brigadier-general, he was dislinguished at 
 the battle of Williamsburg, and advanced to be major- 
 general. In the succeeding operations on the Peninsula he 
 bore a prominent part, and gained a lirillianl reputation as 
 a division couuuandcr. In .\ug., 1S«2, his divisiou was 
 added to Jackson's force in Nortlierii Virginia, arriving in 
 time lo reniler important aid in tho defeat of Gen. Banks 
 at Cedar .Mountain (Aug., 1SG2), and in Iho succeeding 
 battles of Bull Run and Chantilly. In the following month 
 ho received the surrender of Harper's Ferry, and luirryiiig 
 forward arrived with his coMiinaiul at .Vnlielain at the crit- 
 ical moment when he was most needed. .Vt Fredericksburg 
 his division formed the right "t Jackson's command, which 
 cneounlered Iho vigorous assault of Union troops under 
 .Meade, and which was finally repulsed ; al Chaneellorsville, 
 still with Jackson, he participated in the lamous Hank 
 movement which broke tho F'edcral lines, and on the dcalh 
 of Jackson assumed command of the corps, himself being 
 wounded soon tbereuflcr. F'or gallantry on this occasion 
 he was ])iomoied to bo liontenanl-gcneral and placed in 
 command of one of the three corps composing the Army of 
 Northern Virginia. In the campaign of 18114-1)5 he was 
 I indefatigable in his exertions, eominainling with great 
 ability at all Ihe bloody conflicts from the WiMcriuss lo 
 tho final assault of the Confederate lines beforo Petersburg, 
 Apr. 2, 18115, where he displayed the grcatcsl bravery, 
 meeting his death by a rifle-shoi while engaged in recon- 
 noitering at the nioinent it was decided that Richmond 
 could no longer be held. G. C. Sim.moxs. 
 
 Hill (IlENJAMis Harvev), b. in Jasper co., Ga., Sept. 
 I I. IS23, of Irish descent on the lather's side, and of Eng- 
 lish on the mother's side; graduated at the Stale Univer- 
 sity with higli honor in IMI: sliiiliel law, an.l entered 
 the profession at La Grange, Ga., in Aug., 1845, in which
 
 920 
 
 HILL. 
 
 he has since attained great eminence; in ISol was elected 
 a member of the legislature from Troup county a;^ a Union 
 man; in ISjj was defeated forC"ougre!>s by the Hon. Uiraui 
 Warner (in this race ho was supjiurted by the American or 
 "Know-Nothing" party, as it was then called, though he 
 did not advocate the ritual or secrcsy of the organization, 
 and disavowed membership with it); in 1800 was elector 
 at large on the Fillmore or American party ticket, and by 
 his canvass of the State this year made much reputation 
 as an orator and a popular speaker; in 1S57 was run with- 
 out success by the same party as their candidate for the 
 office of governor; in ISJ'J was returned to the State sen- 
 ate as a linion man ; was elected a trustee of tbo State 
 University in 1855; in ISfiO was run as an elector for the 
 State at large on the Bell-Kverctt ticket ; was a member 
 of the seccs.^ion convoution of Jan., ISOl; was an earnest 
 advocate of the Union until the convention passed a reso- 
 lution delaring that the State ought to secede; ho then 
 voted for the ordinance, and cast his fortunes with those 
 of all other citizens of the State, earnestly resisting coer- 
 cion as the only means of avoiding the calamity of subju- 
 gation. He was elected to the provisional Confederate 
 Congress that met at Montgomery, Ala., on Feb. 4, 18G1 ; 
 at the fall session of the State legislature the same year 
 he was elected to the Confederate Senate, in which body Iio 
 served until the end of the war. lie was arrested at his 
 home, La Grange, (la., in May, 18Gj, and confined in Fort 
 La Fayette, Xew York, until July following, when ho was 
 released on parole. In 1SG7 he presided over the conven- 
 tion heUl at Maeon, Ga., for the purpose of reorganizing 
 the Denioeratie party ; in this and the next year ( 1868) ap- 
 peared his celebrated jVoCcj? on the Situation, embodying 
 arguments of great power against the reconstruction policy 
 of Congress ; on July 4, 186H, was delivered in Atlanta his 
 famous "Bush-Arbor" speech; in the fall of 1870 ho 
 issued an Addrrns to t'le People of Georgia, which brought 
 upon him severe censure from many quarters previously 
 friendly to him; he, however, is understood to maintain 
 that it was but a step in advance toward that position 
 afterwards taken by other distinguished leaders of the 
 Democratic party throughout the Union, known as the 
 " New Departure," and the jtoliey of which culminated in 
 the nominations made and the platform adopted by the 
 national convention of the Democratic party in 1872 at 
 Baltimore. Mr. Ilill therefore supported the "Greeley 
 movement" with all the zeal and eloquence he could com- 
 mand. On this line of policy he c:>mpeted in Jan., lS7"i, 
 for a scat iu the U. S. Senate which was to become vacant 
 in thi^ March following by the expiration of the term of 
 lion. Joshua llill. There were two other candidates for 
 the same office. One of these was Gen. John B. Gordon, 
 who, though he had supported Mr. Greeley as the nominee 
 of his party, disapproved of the principles set forth in the 
 "New Departure" platform. The other was Alexander 
 H. Stephens, who had bcr-n utterly opposed to the election 
 of Mr. Greeley, as well as to any departure from the fun- 
 damental principles of Jofforsonian Democracy. In this 
 tri:in;;nlar contest Gen. Gordon bore off the palm. Mr. 
 Hill's .-poech pending the canvass on this occasion, in vin- 
 dication of his course, and in urging the Democracy of 
 Georgia to stand by the policy adopted at Baltimore in 
 1872, was one of the ablest of his life. He is still (Mar., 
 1875) in the full vigor of body and intellect, and hisfriends 
 look forward with confident expectation to his acquiring 
 much higher honors and distinction in the future than any 
 yet attained in his past career. A. II. Stcpiii:ns. 
 
 Hill (Daniel Harvey), b. in South Carolina in 1S2T ; 
 graduated from the U. S. Military Academy, and was ap- 
 pointed brevet second lieutenant of artillery July 1, 1812; 
 tran.^ferrrd to the infantry in ls.17, with rank of first lieu- 
 tenant. Callril to active duty in the field in the war 
 with Mexico, he served with distinction from Monterey to 
 the final capture of the city of Mexico, winning the brevet 
 of captain for gallantry at Contreras and Churubnsco, and 
 that of major for Chapultcpec ; in addition to which he was 
 presented by his native State with a sword of honor. In 
 Feb., 18111, he resigned his commission, and acccptecl the 
 chair of mathematics in AVashington College, Va., which he 
 filled until 1S54; that of mathematics and engineering in 
 Davidson College, N. C, 1851-50, whrn he assumed super- 
 intendoncy of the North Carolina Military Institute at 
 Charlotte. On the outbreak of the civil war ho at once 
 offered his services in support of the cause of the Confed- 
 eracy, and as colonel 1st North Carolina Yoh. was engaged 
 at the liffair of Big Bethel, Va., June, iSCd. Speedily pro- 
 m'jted to bo mnjor-general, he comman<led a division dur- 
 ing the Seven Days' fight on tho Virginia Peninsula, re- 
 maining in command of tho James on the dnparturo of tho 
 main army of Gen. L**e for Northern Virginia, but rojoin- 
 ing it in soason to partieipate in the hattlos of South Hloun- 
 tain and Antietam, where he led his division, as subsequently 
 
 at Fredericksburg. Detached for a period during 1SG3 on 
 duty iu North Carolina, he was in September at the battle 
 of Chickamauga, Ga., an<l in 18G4 at Bermuda Hundred, 
 Va. At the timoof the capitulation of the armies his divis- 
 ion was among the command of Gen. Johnston, who sur- 
 . rendered at Durham Station. At the close of the war he 
 returned to Charlotte, N. C. and published The fiefdand 
 the Farm. Among his works published prior to 18G1 are Ele- 
 mcntH of Air/(hra. Considcrfittuno/ the Strniou ox the Mount, 
 The CruriJixioH of Christ. G. C. SlMStoss. 
 
 Hill (IsAAr), b. at Cambridge, Mass., Apr. G, 1788; 
 was ajjprenticed in youth to a printer at Amherst, N, H. 
 In 18UU he became editor of the New Hampshire I'atrioty 
 which was long one of the ablest Jeffer?onian or Demo- 
 cratic journals in the country. In 1824 he was second 
 comptroller of tho V . S. treasury ; U. S. Senator 18:10-30 ; 
 governor of New Hampshire 18.30-31), and afterwards was 
 ij. S. sub-treasurer at Boston. He again edited, with his 
 sons, the Patriot (1840-47), and for fifteen years he pub- 
 lished The Parmer's Monthly Vinitor. D. Mar. 22, 1851. 
 
 Hill {John Henhy), D.D., LL.D., b. Sept. 1 1 , 179 1, in New 
 
 York City ; graduated at Columbia College ; became a min- 
 ister of the Protestant Episcoj)al Church; has now (1875) 
 been a missionary at Athens, Greece, for forty-five years, 
 and for thirty years chaplain to the British legation in 
 Greece. 
 
 Hill (Joshua), h. in Abhevillc district, S. C, in 1812; 
 removed to Georgia early in life; studied law, and was ad- 
 mitted to the bar; was a member of Congress from Georgia 
 from 1857 to 18G1, when he resigned his seat after the con- 
 vention of his State passed the ordinance of secession in 
 Jan. of that year, though he was strongly opposed to that 
 measure. During the war he took no part on either side, 
 except that he allowed his friends to run him for govrrnor 
 of the State in 18G3. After the war he was a member of 
 tho constitutional convention called in pur.>;uancc of the 
 proclamation of Pres. Johnson, and which met in Nov., 
 ISGj. He took a prominent and leading part in the pro- 
 ceedings of that body, and was n candidate for the office 
 of U. S. Senator before the legislature of ISGfi. Upon his 
 failure of election on that occasion, he left the State and 
 took np his residence in Washington City. In 18C8, after 
 another constitution was formed and another legislature 
 was elected under the reconstruction acts of Congress, he 
 was chosen U. S. Senator for the terra which expired upon 
 Mar. 4. 1873. A. II. Stkphi:ns. 
 
 Hill (Rowland), an eccentric divine, b. at Hawkstone, 
 England, Aug. 13, 1744; was educated at Eton and St, 
 John's, Cambridge; became a Calvinistic Methodist ; took 
 orders in the Church of England, though six bishojis refused 
 his ordination on account of his Mclhodistic opinions; be- 
 came an itinerant, and in 1773 became rector of King,-*ton, 
 Somerset; minister of the Surrey chapel, London, 1782- 
 1833 ; and was remarkable for wit, eloquence, and success 
 as a preacher. D. in London Apr. 11, 1833. He was a 
 son of Sir Richard Hill. Bart. — Ilis brother, Sin Rhfiaud 
 (1733-1808), was also an active and successful Calvinistic 
 Methodist preacher. 
 
 Hill (Rowi.ANn),ViscorsT,nephewofthe great preacher, 
 b. at Frees, Shropshire, Aug. 11. 1772; entered the army 
 in 1700 ; served with the greatest distinction in most of tho 
 battles against Napoleon in which the British participated 
 from Toulon to Waterloo : was raised to the peerage in 
 1814 ; took the chief command in 1828, and became a vis- 
 count in 1842. D. near Shrewsbury Dec. 10, 1842. Hill 
 was called the "right arm of W.ellington," and was tho 
 mostpifpular general in the British army. 
 
 Hill (Sir Rowland). K. C. R., D. C. L., F. R. S., b. at 
 Kidderminster in Oct., 1796 ; entered the British civil ser- 
 vice in I'^.'l.'t, and in 1837 brought forward in a pam|dilet a 
 plan for uniform penny postage, which was a«loptfd in 
 1840; was ehictly employed in postal and railway nflfairs, 
 and was the recipient of abumlant honors and pensions, 
 the result of his labors for postal reform. D. Aug. 27, 1879. 
 
 Hill (TnoHAs), D. D., ]*L.D., Unitarian minister and 
 : mathematician, b. at New Brunswick, N. J., Jan. 7, 1818. 
 His parents were poor, but the I)oy's thirst for knowledge 
 overcame all difficulties; he entered Harvard Cullt-ge in the 
 clas.-^ of 1S43: gave two years to the study of theology; 
 was settled in Waltham, Mass., 184.'); was nnide president 
 of Antioch College is:)l»; of Harvard College 18G2; resigned 
 in ISGS on account of ill-health; retired to Waltham; ac- 
 companied Agassi?, on the expedition to South America ; 
 acceptetl on his return a call to Portland, Jle., where ho still 
 preaches (I S7ri). His mathematical genius showed itselt 
 early, and distinguished him in college. As a mathe- 
 matician he miKht have reached eminence bail he not pre- 
 ferred tho otli<'e of a Christian minister to any sfirntific 
 position. Mr. Hill is a man of remarkable intellectual
 
 HILLA— HILLSBORO". 
 
 921 
 
 power, aad of sin^^ular simplicity and devoutness of heart, 
 and hi:j iimbiliun is to make science tributary to faith, lie 
 bna published a vuluuic of pueiim (Cambridge, 184.3), an 
 elcmentiiry treatise on arithmetic (1840), (Jeometry and 
 Faith i I MO and 1874). a treatise on curves (1860), /'I'rW 
 LesKoiit in Geonictn/ (iSio), Librrnl Education (1856), The 
 True Ordrr itf Studies, JemiH the Interpreter <>/ iVntnre ( 18511), 
 Thf: ytttuntl SoHrre9 uf Theoloijtf (1876), being tivo articles 
 reprinted from the fiiblintheca Sacra. Mr. Hill's distinction 
 is as a mathematician; his special distinction is as a dis- 
 coverer in the laws of curves. 0. li. I'ltoTinsGHAM. 
 
 IIiria,or Ilil'lah, town of Asiatic Turkey, in the pro v- 
 incc of liui^diifl. un the Kuphrates, which liero is 4J0 foct 
 broad and erossi-d by a floating bridge. It has nianufuc- 
 toriesof silk.", tanneries, dyeing establishments, and largo 
 bazaars. It is built on the ruins of liabylon. Pop. fiUUU. 
 
 Hil'lard (Gkorgb Stillman), LL.D., b. at Machias, 
 Me., riepr. 22, 1808, and graduated at Harvard in 1S28. 
 He tauijht for a time in the Uound Hill .^^chool, Northamp- 
 ton, and was admitted to the bar in ISIl.'l at Bustoa In 
 1833 he became one of the e liturs of the Cltriatmn Ile^iit' r 
 (Unitarian), and was afterwards eonnected editorially with 
 the Jiirint and the Boston Courier. He took a high position 
 at the bar. and ]>nblislied Six Muuthn in Itnhf (1863), Life 
 of G. a. Mrf'h/l.tn / lJ*U t), /'>-f{tirnf DutifH of the Edurated 
 Vlnnnt-n, nnd educational works, etc. I). Jan. 21, 1879. 
 
 Ilil'lcar, tp. of Knox co., 0. Pop. 931. 
 
 lliric'ly TilK GiiEATorTHU Kldeee {IfaznlenoT ffaam- 
 i-c;i), b, at Babylon about 75 B. c, or, as others say, 110 
 B. c; became one of the most illustrious of Jewish rabbis. 
 eminent alike for wisdom, holiness, and learning; went 
 about .'iti B. c. to Jerusalem, and worked witli his hand^ 
 for his living, at the same period attending the lectures of 
 the principal officL-rs of the Sanhedrim, of which, about 30 
 B. c, ho became president, retaining that exalted position 
 till his death, in A. n. He became the founder of the 
 *' school of Hillel," which numberecl thousands of ailhercnts, 
 while Shamniai, vice-presid'-'nt of the S.vnhedrim, was at 
 the heal of the rival ''school of Sharamai." The two 
 schools disputed mainly about questions of the law and 
 discipline in sacred things ; Hillel's, which was the more 
 liberal party, tiujilly becoming the dominant one. — Hili.el 
 THE YouN«i:n, a descendant of the foregoing, became pres- 
 ident of the Sanhedrim and head of tho school of Tiberias, 
 as some say in 268 a. d., dying in 320; or, as others say, 
 was chosen president 330 a. p., and d. before 400. Dis- 
 tinguished as the great reformer of tho Jewish calendar. 
 
 Iliirffrove, post-v. of AVashington tp., Darko co., 0. 
 l'..|,. 117. 
 
 Uitriionse (Jamks), LI-.D., b. at Montvillo, Conn., 
 Oct. '21, 17jl: gnvluatcj at Yale in 1773. His fathor, 
 Willi;im. who (1. in 1316, was a member of tho Continental 
 Con^ri.'ss 17S:i-Sfi, ancl forty years a jud^e in Connecticut. 
 Dr. Ilillhouso was a lawyer, Sirrvcil against Tryon in tho 
 Kevuhition, was a mcrai»cr of Congr<'SS 17'Jl-i)l, l^. S. .Sen- 
 ator from Connecticut 1791-ISlO, and held many offices 
 of trust and honor. D. at New Haven Dec. 29, lS.i2. 
 
 Ilillhonse (.Iamks .\bii\ihm), a poet, son of .lames 
 Hillli M1SI-. b. at N'ew Haven, Conn., Sept. 26, I'.S'.I, nnd 
 pradiiatcd at Vale in IHOS ; l)ccamo a merchant in New 
 York, and in 1822 marrietl and retired from bu.siness. Hi.s 
 principal poemn were T/ir Jtiitymritt (1812), Pt-rcf/'s Mum^iie 
 (I.S20), nnd Ilii'l id (l.S2i). His collected works in 2 vols, 
 appeared in 1.s:i'J. D. at New Haven Jan. 4, 1811. 
 
 Iliriinrd, post-v. of Norwich tp., Franklin co., 0., on 
 the Columbus ('hicago and Indianapolis Central U.K., 9 
 m\U■^ N. \\ . of Columbus. Pop. 2S2. 
 
 Ililliard (11i'>!hy WAsniNiiToy), b. in Cumberland oo., 
 N. C., .\ug. 8, ISIIS; graduated at the South (Jarolina Col- 
 lego in C«)Iumbia in 1826 ; soon after ho moved to Athens, 
 Ga., where in 1829 ho was admiltod lo the bar; in ISIil 
 was elected to a profiissorship in tho AliLliannl University 
 at Tuscaloosa, which position he lilleil with distinction for 
 three years; then resigning, ho resumeil the jtractiee of law 
 at .Montgomery in that .State, which ho pursued with nr'b>r 
 nnd distinguished sucess. lie was a member of tho Har- 
 ris!. urg Whig Convention in Islu, and zeiilnusly suppoiteil 
 the ninnination of Harrison, though Mr. Clay was the man 
 of his choice f()r tht^ Presidency at that lime. He was a 
 member of tho .State legislature in ls;i8, and was a Presi- 
 dential elector on tho Whig ticket in 1810. In 1812 he 
 was appointed by Pros. Tyler minister lo Ilolgium. and 
 afterwards was a member of Congress from Alabama from 
 I8I.'» t<i I8.'(I, when he declined being again a candidate. 
 He was a warm supporter of the Compromise measures of 
 18.ift. In IS.'ifi he was a eanditlnle on tho Fillmore electoral 
 ticket of .Mabama. and also on the IJell-Kverett ticket in 
 1800. Ho opposed secession in 1861 with all his might, 
 bnt after tho convention of Alabama pussed their ordi- 
 
 nance of secession ho espoused the cause of hia State with 
 firmness and flecision. He acceptetl from Pros, Davis tho 
 appointment of commissioner to Tennessee, and met with 
 signal success in the objects of his mission. Ho also accept- 
 ed the commission of brigadier-general in the provisional 
 army of tho Confederate States. After the war he returned 
 to (ieorgia. when he resumed tho practice of law, first at 
 Augusta, and then at .Mlanta. where ho now (Mar., 1875) 
 resides. Mr. Hilliard has through life evinced quite as 
 much fondness for letters as for legal or political distinc- 
 tion ; has been a preacher of tho Methodist Episcopal 
 Church, .South. A volume of his speeches was published 
 in 18o5, and since the war he has contributed to the litera- 
 ture of the country a work entitled lie rone, a Siorif of 
 Plebeians and Patriciaufi. U. S. Minister to Brazil 1877. 
 
 A. H. Steciik.vs. 
 
 Iliriiardsvillc, post-tp., Henry co., Ala. Pop. 1867. 
 
 Hills (Ai.rKF.ii KiMB.ii.i.), M. D., b. Oct. 2.'), IS 10, at 
 Hudson, N. II. : studied in the Massachusetts Jledieal Col- 
 lege and tho llabnetuann College. Philadelphia; took his 
 medical degree 1870; professor of materia mcdica in New 
 York Medical College and Hospital for Women since 1871 ; 
 surgeon to New Y'ork Ophthalmic Hospital. Author of 
 professional jiapers. 
 
 HiHs (Uight Kcv. GEonGE), D. D., Protestant Episco- 
 pal bishop of lirilish Columbia, b. in England in 1817, a 
 son of Kear-admiral Hilts, was educated at Durham Uni- 
 versity ; received several Church preferments, and in 1859 
 was consecrated lord bishop of British Columbia, having 
 his see-housc at New Westminster. 
 
 UiHs (Gi:onGn Mono.VN). D. D., b. in Auburn, N. Y., 
 Oct. 10, 1S2J; at the age of fourteen removed with his pa- 
 rents to New York; graduated with honors at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Hartford, Conn., 1847 ; was ordained deacon by Bishop 
 r>c Lancey, and took charge of Grace church, Lyons, N. Y. 
 'i'lio next year he was advanced to the priesthood by tho 
 Fimo prelate, nnd in IS.'i.l was calleil to Trinity church, 
 Watcrtown, N. Y. This he resigned in 1857 to accept the 
 rectorship of St. Paul's church, Syracuse. In 1862 he 
 was elected a trustee of the General Theological Seminary 
 in New Y'ork, and wns placed by that corporation on the 
 committee for tho examination of students. In 1865 ho 
 ivas selected as one of fotir clergymen to represent tho 
 division of Western New York in the General ('onvention. 
 In 1867, in addition to the care of his parish, he inaugu- 
 rated a very successful mission among the tbiondaga In- 
 dians. At the organization of the diocese of Central New 
 Y'ork in Nov., 18(t8, he was chosen ]>resident of its stand- 
 ing committee. On Aug. .'1, 1870, he was called to the rec- 
 torship of St. Jlary's church, Burlington, N. .!., and entered 
 upon its duties Sept. 4. On the 2.8th of the same month ho 
 was appointed an examining chaplain of the diocese of New 
 Jersey, and on the 21th of Nov. following lecturer on honi- 
 ileties and )iastoral theology in the divinity department of 
 Burlington College. On July IH, 1871, be received the hon- 
 orary degree of doctor of divinity from his ahna mater. 
 In 1873 he was chosen a fellow of Trinity College, and in 
 1874 was elected sub-dean of the house of convocation of 
 that body. In Sept.. 1874, he was a))poin(cd dean of tho 
 convocation of Burlington, having previously served as 
 treasurer and secretary of the same. Among his publica- 
 tions those most known are Tlic U7»c Mnalcr-Jhtlldei; a 
 sermon e<unmeniorativc of Bishop Dc Lancey; A Step 
 bvlwccn Vk and Ihiilh ; A Mt,lh,-r in Iar<i<l : The Urcnrd of 
 the Pant an Jncmlirc for the Fnlnrc ; an llittitrirat Sketch 
 af St. Paul'a Chnri-h. Syranise ; nnd llistorieul Heeorda 
 of the Church in Hurlimjlon, N. J. 
 
 IliHs'boro', tp. of Lawrence co., Aln. Pop. 1863. 
 
 llillshoro', tp. of Shelby co., Aln. Pop. 522. 
 
 IIillsb<>ro', postv. and Ip., cap. of Montgomery co., 
 III., 60 miles N. K. of St. Louis, on tho Indianapolis nnd 
 St. Louis U. R. It is tho centre of a good agricultural 
 district; has 8 churches, 2 banks, and 2 weekly news- 
 papers. Pop. ol tp. .'Un. 
 
 K. J. C. ,\t r.x.\Nni:n, Ei>. " Hii.i.snoiio' Pk-Mociht." 
 
 HiHsboro', a v. of Henry co., Ind. Pop. 95. 
 
 IlilKltoro', post-v. of Louisa co., la. Pop. 46. 
 
 IIill>lior<i', post-v. of Fleming oo., Ky., 9 miles S. S. 
 E. ..1 Kl.iningsburg. Pop. 1464. 
 
 llillshoro', post-v. and cap. of Orange co., N. C. 40 
 miles W. of Baleigh, on the North Carolina K. B. The 
 country in the vicinity is hilly and broken, climate -alubri- 
 iMis. It contains 6 ohurehcs. 2 acuilemies. 1 newspaper, and 
 4 tobocoo-fnctories. Pop. of v. 809; of tp. ;!62l. 
 
 J. D. Camehox, E[). " Hii.i.sBono' BKionnnB." 
 
 IlilUhoro', post-v., cap. of Highland ,o., O.. 60 miles 
 E. of Cin.'innali, on tho .Marietta anil Cincinnati It. U. It 
 ban 2 fumalu institutes, 4 ohuroUus, 1 banks, 2 uewapapora.
 
 922 
 
 HILLSBORO'— HIMAl-AYA. 
 
 scale and agricultural works. planing-miUs, flouring-mills, 
 3 hotels. Pop. 281S. J. C. .'~pbi.m;eh, Eu. " (iAZETiE." 
 Ilillsboro', tp. of Marion co.. S. C. Pop. 131S. 
 liillsboro', post-v., cap. of Hill CO., Tex., pleasantly 
 situated in a picturesque and well-watered valley. It has 
 a good academy, 1 flour and grist mill, and 1 weekly news- 
 paper. Pop. 313. 
 
 L. J. Stirgis, En. "nii.i. Co. Expositor. 
 Ilillsboro', post-v. of Loudoun co., Va. Pop. 2-16. 
 Hillsboro', post-tp. of Vernon co., Wis. Pop. DSa. 
 llills'borough, port of entry of Albert co., N. B., on 
 Pelitcodiau River, has a good harbor, and exports large 
 quantities of gvpsum and gas-coal (alberlite) to the U. S. 
 It has several handsome public buildings. Pop. about aUO; 
 of eub-district, 2995. 
 
 Hillsborough, county of Florida, bounded on the ^V. 
 by the liulf of Mo.xieo. Land area, 1S30 square miles. 
 It includes Tampa ]!av. a broad inlet, which furnishes a 
 splendid harbor for vessels of nineteen feet draught. The 
 county is generally level, partly sandy, partly rich marl 
 hammoek-land. and partly marsh. Cotton is the staple 
 crop. Cap. Tampa. Pop. 3216. 
 
 Hillsborough, county of New Hampshire, bordering 
 on .Massachusetts. Area," 9G0 square mile.^. The surfaeo 
 is hilly. It principally lies on the W. side of the Merri- 
 mack Kivcr. The soil'is mainly fertile. Cattle, wool, and 
 grain arc staple products. The cities of Manchester and 
 Nashua, with many smaller towns, are extensively cngage<l 
 in manufacturing. Lumber, cotton, woollen, wooden and 
 metallic goods, furniture, cooperage, harness, and many 
 other wares are manufactured. The county is traversed 
 by several railroads. Caps. Amherst, Manchester, and 
 Nashua. Pop. 64,238. 
 
 Hillsborough, post-v. of Scott co., Miss., 6 miles N. 
 of Forest. 
 
 Hillsborough, post-v., cap. of Jefferson co., Mo., 40 
 miles S. of .St. Louis. It has a good school, 2 chnrchoo, 3 
 hotels, 1 newspaper, and the usual meahanieal shops. 
 Principal occupations, farming, mining, and fruit-growing. 
 Pop. about lUO. R. W. McMlllin, Ed. " DESiocit.tT." 
 
 Hillsborough, post-v. and tp. of Hillsborough co., 
 N. H.. situated in the Contoocook Valley. It has a bank, a 
 weekly newspaper, a hotel. 10 stores, 2 large woollen-mills, 
 and bedstead and shovel-handle shops. Pop. of tp. loOJ. 
 Wm. M. SAnr.i-.ST, Piiof. " Hillsboro' Messengi!R." 
 Hillsborough, tp. of .Somerset co., N. J., embracing 
 several villages. Pop. 3443. 
 
 Hillsborough, post-v., cap. of Washington co.. Or., 17 
 miles W. of Portland, and on the Oregun Central II. R. 
 
 Hillsborough River, in Volusia co., Fla., is a salt- 
 water higoon continuous with Halifax River, and extend- 
 ing 30 miles S. of Mosquito Inlet. It abounds in fish and 
 oysters, is separated from the sea by a stri]) of land from 
 half a mile to o miles wide. It is shallow, though navi- 
 gable for small boats, but its navigation is obstructed by 
 mangroves, coral, sand, etc. Its W. bank is a range of 
 oyster-shells. From its head to Indian River a short and 
 shallow canal has been dug. This eliauucl was once called 
 Mosquito Soutli Lagoon, and (with Halifax River) it is still 
 known as Jlosquito River. It averages a mile in width. — 
 .\nother Ilillsboro' River flows into Tampa Bay, and a third 
 into the Atlantic, directly at Ilillsb.u-ough Inlet. 
 
 Hills'dale, county in the S. W. of Colorado, formed 
 in 1S74. Area, 1400 square miles. It contains important 
 gold ujines. Cap. San .Juan. 
 
 Hillsdale, county of Michigan, bordering on Ohio and 
 Indiana. Area, o70 square miles. It is undulating, fer- 
 tile, and well timbered. It has quarries of good sandstone. 
 Grain, cattle, and wool arc staple products. Lumber, car- 
 riages, etc. are manufactured. It is traversed by the 
 Michigan Southern and the Detroit Hillsdale and Indiana 
 U. Itsf f'a)i. Hillsdale. Pop. 31,084. 
 
 Hillsdale, eity and tp., cap. of Hillsdale CO., Mich., 
 on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern and the Detroit 
 Hillsdale and Indiana U. Rs., 06 miles W. of Toledo and 
 177 K. of Chicago. It is the seat of Hillsdale College, and 
 has churches, several schools. 3 weekly newspapers, 2 na- 
 tional banks, 3 hotels, a chair factory, 2 steam flour-mills, 
 and 2 foundries and raaehineshops. Pop. of city, 3518; 
 of tp. 562. H. B. RowLsov, Ed. "STAsnAiiD." 
 
 Hillsdale, tp. of Winona co., Minn. Pop. 417. 
 Hillsdale, tp. and post-v. of Columbia co., N. Y., on 
 the New York and Harlem R. R., UU miles N. of Now 
 York. Pop. 2083. 
 
 Hillsdale College was founded as Michigan Central 
 College at Spring Arlior, .Mich., iu consequence of a vote 
 (1844) of the Michigan yearly meeting of the Freewill 
 
 Baptist denomination. The college was chartered in 1S45 
 bv the legislature, rechartcred and removed to HiUsdalo, 
 Mich., in ISJo. It now has departments for the classical 
 course, for theology, science, music, and art, besides two 
 preparatory departments. A portion of the principal col- 
 lege building was burned in 1874, and a new building has 
 been since erected. Both sexes arc educated in this insti- 
 tution, in which there are 7 professors and 14 other instruc- 
 tors, the greater number of students thus far being in the 
 preparatory depart meuls. The college has a capital of 
 more than $200,000. 
 
 Hill's Grove, post-tp. of Sullivan co.. Pa. Pop. 249. 
 Hills'ville, post-v. of Carroll co., Va., situated on the 
 Blue Kidge, 13 miles E. of New River. It has 1 news- 
 paper, 1 church, 2 hotels, and 4 stores. Pop. 208. 
 
 CiiAs. C. Harrvmas, Ed. "News." 
 Hill Top, tp. of Charles co., Md. It constitutes a 
 peninsula iu the river Potomac. Pop. 4040. 
 Uiirtown, tp. of Rucks co.. Pa. Pop. 28C9. 
 Hill'vcr (.Ji Niisl.b. in Wilkes co., Ca., Apr. 23,180"; 
 graduated at the .State University in 1828; studied law 
 while in the university, and w.as admitted to the bar imme- 
 diately after his graduation. In 1S34 was elected by the 
 legislature solicitor-general of the western judicial circuit 
 of°his State; was elevated to the bench in 1S41, where he 
 served several years ; and was a member of Congress from 
 Georgia from 1851 to 1855 ; in 18,'i7 was appointed solicitor 
 of the II. S. treasury, which position he held until Georgia 
 passed her ordinance of secession in 1861. He then re- 
 signed and returned home, and resumed the practice of 
 law, to which (Mar., 1875) he is still devoted. 
 
 A. H. STEPnE:ts. 
 Hill'yer (William Silliman), b. at Henderson, Ky., 
 Apr. 2, 1831 ; graduated in 1S47 at Anderson College, Ind., 
 with honors, and became a brilliant and successful lawyer 
 and politician of New Alljany, Ind. In 1855 he removed 
 to St. Louis, where he was a warm friend of U. S. Grant, 
 afterwards President of the U. S. In 1 801 he served for a 
 time as a private iu a volunteer organization under F. P. 
 Blair, Jr.. and then removed to New York, where he com- 
 menced the practice of law. In 1803 he served on Gen. 
 Grunt's staff with the rank of brigadier-general, but after 
 the Vicksburg campaign resigned on account of ill-health, 
 and returned to New York. D. at Washington, D. C, July 
 12, 1874. 
 
 Hi'lo, an important seaport of Hawaii, and the second 
 town in size in the Sandwich Islands. It has a spacious 
 and commodious harbor. Pop. 4220. 
 
 Hil'son's, tp. of Henry co., Ala. Pop. 774. 
 Hirton, tp. of Iowa co., la. Pop. 503. 
 Hilton Head, post-v. and tp. of Beaufort co., S. C. 
 It is on Hilton Head Island, and has on the N. the Port 
 Royal entrance, which constitutes a noble harbor. It was 
 fortified by the Confederates, and taken by the U. S. naval 
 forces Nov. 7, 1861. Pop. 3073. 
 
 Hil'versnm, town of the Netherlands, in North Hol- 
 land, is beautifully situated, and has manufactures of oar- 
 pets and horse-cloths. I'op. 0294. 
 
 Himala'ya ("the abode of snow"), the highest and 
 most majestic system of mountains on our globe, forms the 
 boundary between the high table-land of Thibet on the N. 
 and the low, alluvial plain of Hindostan, around the Gan- 
 ges and Brahmapootra, on the S., and stretches in a curved 
 line, 1500 miles long, and at somepoints 350 miles broad, from 
 Ilindoo-Koosh to Assam, from Ion. 73<= to Ion. 98° E. To 
 the S., towards the plain of the (Janges. Himalaya stands 
 almost perpendicular, from 4000 to 5000 feet high, like a 
 wall, from which the mighty rivers formed by the melting 
 of the snow burst forth with tremendous violence, splitting 
 the granite masses and forming long, winding, but narrow 
 ehas'ins. To the N. the uKuintains slope more gently towards 
 the plateau of Thibet. The Himalaya consists of several 
 ranges, with a direction parallel to each other, and enclosing 
 fertTic and well-cultivated valleys, some of which are among 
 the most beautiful places on earth ; as, for instance, the val- 
 leys of Cashmere, Nepaul, and Bootan. The central range is 
 the highest, averaging from 10,000 to 20,000 feet, and forty- 
 five p'eaks are known t ) rise above 23.000 feet. Mount 
 Everest, the highest mountain on our globe, is, according to 
 Col. Waugh. 29.002 feet high : Kanebinjiuga, 28.150 ; Dha- 
 walagiri, 25.820; Nanda IJcvi, 25,749: and Shumalari, 
 23,929. The lino of perpetual snow descends to 10,200 feet 
 on' the southern side of the range, but only to 17,400 feet 
 on the northern — a singularity which probably can be ex- 
 plained from the peculiarly dry atmosphere of the plateau 
 of Thibet. Glaciers abound, and at some places they are 
 known to descend from the regions of perpetual snow to 
 I about 12,000 feet. At an elevation of 2000 feet the heat
 
 HIMERA— HINDS. 
 
 923 
 
 varies from lUO'' to 37°; at 7000 feet, from 80° to 26° ; at 
 12,000 leot. the thermometer falls during the nights of Sep- 
 tember l>elow zero. But wheat can be gniwn at un elevation 
 of l.'t.OOU feet, and up to the height of JOdiJ feel the vegeta- 
 tion still rcluins a tropical character ; the tca-phmt ha--' been 
 introduced, ami can ho cultivateil on the soulht-rn side up to 
 a height of .)OU0 feet, but it succeeds best at an elevation 
 of 201IU to 3000 feet. The pusses of the Himahxya aro few 
 and extremely difficult. Ibi-Gamin, leading into (tuhrwal. 
 is the highest known pu3S, 20,4o7 feet : the highest pass 
 used for traffic is Parany, IS. 600 feet above the sea. With 
 respect to their geological structure, the Himalaya Moun- 
 tains consist of granite and gneiss, whicli form the loftiest 
 peaks, and against which strata of the Silurian poriod 
 rest. Mines of gold, copper, iron, and load exist, but aro 
 not worked with energy, and seem not to be of importance. 
 The Qoraof the Himalaya is peculiarly rich and interesting. 
 
 Hi'mern, an ancient city of Sicily, situated on the 
 northern coast, was founded in the seventh century before 
 Christ by a colony from Zancle, and was destroyed in 408 
 B. c by the Carthaginians under Hannibal. The first time 
 the Carthaginians invaded Sicily (in 4S0)thcy were utterly 
 defeated, and their commander. Hamilcar, fell in the battle 
 at Himera. The second time they wore victorious, and 
 Hannibal, the grandson of Hamilcar, after taking Himera, 
 put a part of the inhabitants to death and razed the city 
 to the ground. 
 
 Hime'rius, a celebrated Greek sophist of the fourth 
 century after Christ (probably from 315 to 3S6), b. at Prusa 
 in Bithynia; studied at Athene; travelled, and settled 
 finally at Athens as a teacher of rhetoric. For some iimo 
 ho lived in Antioch at the court of the emperor Julian, 
 who fully appreciated him. Of his orations, twenty-four 
 have come d'»wn to us complete, and have been edited by 
 Wernsdorf ((Jiittingcn, 1700). We have fragments of eleven 
 others, and extracts by Photius of thirty-six. His stylo is, 
 as that of his time, oliscnre, overladen with figurative ex- 
 pressions, and affected, but he enjoyed a great reputation 
 in his lime, .-\mong his disciples was (iregory Nazianzen. 
 Ho was, liko Lib^nius, a pagan, but he speaks with modera- 
 tion, and soraclimcs even with kindness, of the Christians. 
 
 UimircOf or Hamilcnr, is a name of common oc- 
 curronco in the history of Carthage. Pliny mentions one 
 ilimilco, a Carthaginian, who mado a voyage of discov- 
 ery along the western coast of Kuro]ie at tho same time 
 that Hanno explored the western coast of Africa; but 
 Himilco's voyage is stated to have been stopped by tho 
 absence of wind and by the sea being loaded with seaweed. 
 — Both in the first aud third Punic wars there were noted 
 Carthaginian generals of this name, but tho most famous 
 was that Himilco, tho son of Hanno, who in 406 b. o. 
 commanded the Carthaginian expedition against Sicily, 
 together with Hannibal, the son of Gisco. Tho expedi- 
 tion was very successful, and the whole western part of the 
 island was oonquered. In 397, however, Dionysius, tyrant 
 of Syracuse, renewed the war. Himilco again commanded 
 the Carthaginian force, and was very successful in tho 
 beginning, but while he besieged tho city of Syracuse a 
 pestilence broke out iu his camp. In tliis emergency 
 Dionysius attacked and defeated him, and Himilco now 
 made an infamous capitulation, paying 300 talents in 
 orcler to be permitted to depiiit unmolested with all his 
 native Carthaginians, while he left his allies and the mer- 
 cenary troops to the nicrey of I)ionysius, Having returned 
 to Carthage, the popular odium which ho incurred pressed 
 so heavily un him that he eoiiimitted suicide. 
 
 Ilimynrit'ic Lan'guii;;p, a Soniitie language for- 
 merly spiiken in Soulh-western Arabia by the Himyaritca 
 (or llnmcriles), a people of whose history coniparutively 
 little is known. A modern llimyaritic kingdom was de- 
 stroyed 62.i A. n. by tho Ethiopians, who coni]ielled tho 
 pooplc to abandon Christianity. Uimyaritic inscriptions 
 of great but uneertaln age have long been known to exist, 
 but have not been dceipliered until a quite recent date. 
 Tho modern Kkhili Arabic is regarded as a rcprescutativo 
 of the old Himyaritic. 
 
 llinck'ley, town of England, in tho county of lieicestcr. 
 It ha« a fine (iothic church and some manufactures of 
 hosiery. Pop. C902 ; with surroundings, 8082. 
 
 Hinckley, post-tp, of Pino co., Minn. Pop. 205. 
 
 lliiu'klcy, post-tp. of Medina co., 0. Pop. 972. 
 
 lliiicks (KnwAUD). D. I>., b. at Cork, Ireland, Aug., 
 1792: studied under his father, Hebrew professor at Bel- 
 fast ; graduated with hrtnorn lsV2 ut Trinity College, Dub- 
 lin, ancl receivc'l a fellowship : took Anglican orders, and 
 became rcetor of Ardtrca, and in iS'Jt) rector of Kilty Icagh, 
 Ireland, where he d. l>ee. 3, I.SfWJ. Though living in a re- 
 mote country parish, and pussessed of but small memis, bo 
 became one of the fir-t iind ubleril restorurs of tho lost 
 
 I knowledge of the meaning of tho Assyrian inscriptions. 
 
 ! Ho discovered the key to the Asifyrian numeral sy.'^tem, 
 and his papers On AiJitfrian Verbv (1 855-50) contain the 
 
 I first successful attempts at ao Assyrian grammar. Among 
 his writings are valued papers on Egyptian MSS.j and 
 some polemical and other works. 
 
 Ililicks fSir Fkascis). K. C. M. 0.. C. B., b. at Cork, 
 Ireland, iu 1S05. a son of the Rev. Hr. Hincks, a learned 
 Presbyterian divine uf Belfast, and brother of Kev. Edward 
 Hincks (17y2-lS(t(>). the Assyrian archaeologist. Sir Francis 
 
 \ became a merchant, and in ls;J2 settled at Toronto, Canada, 
 where ho became a prominent editor and politician : finance 
 
 I nnui:;;ter of Upper Canada 1S12-13 and lSlS-j4: prime 
 minister in 1S51; governor of the Windward Islands 1S53- 
 62, of British Guiana 1862-69 ; finance minister of Canada 
 180l>-73. Ho was knighted in 1869. 
 
 Hind, the female of the red deer or Stat, (which see) 
 of Europe. 
 
 Iliud (.Tons Ilrssi:LL). b. at Nottingham. England, May 
 12, 1823, the son of a manufacturer of laces ; became inter- 
 ested in astronomy in childhood; became an assistant to a 
 civil engineer, and went in 1840 to Limdon ; found employ- 
 ment in Greenwich Observatory, and in 1843 was for three 
 months employed in Ireland upon the task of exactly de- 
 termining the longitude of Valentia; entered Mr. Bishop's 
 observatory, Regent's Park, 1814. Here he discovered 
 (1847-54) ten new asteroids, and made many other even 
 more important observations: became foreign secretary of 
 the Royal Astronomical Society 1847 : corresponding mem- 
 ber of the French Institute 1850; is superintendent of the 
 Xautk'(d Almanac, which under his direction has attained 
 unsurpassed excellence both for astronomical and nautical 
 purposes. Among his works are 7'fic Solur Stfstcm (1840), 
 Jlfuslratcii London Antronomy (1S53), Etementa of Alyebra 
 (1855), and treatises on comets. 
 
 Ilin'dersin, von (Gistav EDUAnD),b. July 18,1804, 
 at ^Veinigerode. Prussian Saxony; entered the artillery 
 nsa volunteer in 1820; distinguished himself by his quick 
 apprehension, indefatigable ajiplication, and eminent busi- 
 ness capacity, and was attached to the staff as first lieu- 
 tenant iu 1841. In 1846 he became major, and wa? ap- 
 pointed director of the topogra])hical department. In the 
 campaign of 1849 against the insurgents of Baden he had 
 the misfortune to be taken prisoner while reconnoitring 
 from a belfry, but was liberated after the capitulation of 
 Rastadt. In 1854 he received the comumud of the 2d 
 brigade of artillery, in 1S58 that of the 3d, and in 1864 the 
 position of inspector-general. Shortly before the assault 
 on tho lUippcl intrenchments in Sleswick, during the war 
 against I>enmark. he was called to the head-quarters of 
 Prince Frederick Charles and ajipointed leader of the artil- 
 lery* attack; after tho victory he was ennobled and received 
 the title of a general of infantry. In the war against France 
 (1870-71) ho followed the royal head-(juarters as com- 
 mander of tho artillery, and took a very active part in tho 
 siege of Paris. D. at Berlin June 25, 1872. of heart dis- 
 ease, lie did much for the improvement of the Prussian 
 artillery, and introduced the breech-loading gun. But ho 
 was nevertheless not popular; ho was vehement and 
 haughty. A, Nn:MANN. 
 
 Ilind'lcy, town of England, in the county of Lancaster, 
 lias extensive cotton manufactures and large coal-mines in 
 its vicinity. Pop. with surroundings, 23,706. 
 
 Ilin'doo-Koosh',lliiidu-Kiish,or Indian Can- 
 casus, a mounlain-rangc in Central Asia, extending from 
 Ion. 6S° to Ion. 75° E., anil forming tho boundary between 
 Afghanistan and Toorkestan. At its eastern extremity it 
 is connected with the Himalaya, w hi(di it resembles in many 
 of its features, I bough it is lower and destitute of forests. Its 
 highest point is Hiiuloo-Koh, 20,(100 feet high. 
 Ilindostan. See India, by R. C. Caldwkll. 
 Hinds, county of W. Central Mississippi. Area, 930 
 .'^fjuarc miles. Il;i surface is jileasantly diversified and well 
 timbered, and its soil very fertile. Corn and cotton are sta- 
 ple crops. The county is crossed by the Vieksburg aud 
 Meridian and the New Orleans Jackson and Great Northern 
 R. Rs. Cap. Jackson. Pop. 30,488. 
 
 Jlsnds (Sami i:i,). H-D., born in Barbadoes 1793; grad- 
 ualcd iu 1815 iit (Queen's College, Oxford; became vice- 
 president of Albion Hall, Oxford, and i)rinoii)al of Cod- 
 rington College, Barbadoes; was vicar of Yardley. Hants, 
 1834—13; prebendary and rector of Castlenock, l>ublin, 
 1843; chaplain to Archbishop Whately; chaplain to the 
 Ir.rd lieutenant of Ireland 1816-48; dean of Carlisle 1848; 
 bishop of Norwich 1849-57, when ho resigned. I^- Feb. 7, 
 
 j 1872. Author of a Hi»t'»rtf ../ Chriatinnihj (1S29 ««».), a 
 
 I treatise on logic. Sunm-ta ami Sfirretl /*n&ni.t. The Three 
 Ttrnplen (// r/if One Triir O'oti C'ttntnmttHl (lS3ttJ, Innpira- 
 
 I tioti and Authority of Scripture (1831), Scripture and the
 
 5124 
 
 HINDU PHILOSOPHY— HINDU RELIGION. 
 
 Authorized Vemion (185."?), etc. His Iflatort/ of Ckristian- 
 ity, ori.i^iually |)ublishe(l \u (he Encychpadiu Metropolitana, 
 has ijono throu;;h maiiy editions. 
 
 Hindu Philosophy, The primitive religion of the 
 
 HiiiiJu hraiich of the Aryan race seems to have been mon- 
 otheistic, but as it is exhibited iu the hymns of the Vcdas 
 it is a puro naturc-wor-^hip, its praises and its offerings 
 being devoted to the various phenomena of nature and 
 their deified jiersonifications. Such a religion was suited 
 only to a people in a primitive state. As the Hindu race 
 advanced in kiiowlecige, men began to *' look through na- 
 ture u|i to nature's (Jod,"' and to seek '' if haply they might 
 feel after Him and find JUm." This was an inquiry pecu- 
 liarly suited to the 8ul)tle and analytical llinilu intellect, 
 and it resulted in the formation of six distinct schools of 
 philosophy. AH the six systems are supposed to start 
 from the Vcdae, and arc all recognized as orthodox. But 
 the simple Vedic hymns afforded but scant material for 
 metaphysical investigation, and were soon left far behind. 
 The philosophical dogmas liavo only a very slight basis in 
 the Veda?, and rest almost exclusively upon the deductions 
 of pure reasoning. The nature of the Supremo Being, the 
 origin of the nniverso, the mysteries of life, intelligence, 
 and future existence, are the great subjects to which philos- 
 ophy addresses its speculations. Though widely differing 
 in their developments, all tlie schools recognize one funda- 
 mental maxim, <x uiliHo nihil fit — "from nothing comes 
 nithing." All also have one final object, the attainment 
 of niitkti, or deliverance, the emancipation of the soul from 
 future birth and existence, and its absorption into the Su- 
 premo Soul of the nuiverse. 
 
 The names of tho six schools, or darsanas, are Ni/4ya, 
 Vuiicuhika, Snnkhya, Yofja, Pt'irra M't.ituu'iu, and Vttarn 
 Mlnidi}fid or Vcddnfa. But certain points of resemblance 
 bring the six into association in three pairs, called Nydyaj 
 Siii>h/a, and Vcdiiuta. 
 
 I. (I) Xijnjn, founded by tho sa^o Gautama. Thoword 
 ^U'^ll"' means *' propriety or fitness," and vras adopted be- 
 cause the author's primary object was to find the proper 
 victhod of arriving at truth and of arranging tho arguments. 
 It is hence called tho *• logical school." Tho founder held 
 the Bcniatiouti to be the source of all knowledge, and set 
 him=olf to inquire into their nature and functions. So his 
 s-^bool is also known as tho '* sensational." (2) VaiscshU'ft. 
 — This was founded by Kanilda, and is called tho "atomic 
 schottl." Its method is gcneially the same as that of the 
 Nij^ti/fty though it is not so precise and comprehensive. It 
 pushes tho sensation theory farther into an investigation 
 of the objects of sense, but its distinctive doctrine is tho 
 existence of a transient world composed of aggregations of 
 eternal atoms. Both divisions recognizo a Supreme Being. 
 To tlie M'ostorn AVorld tho Nydya is especially interesting, 
 as the only logical system which is not distinctly traceable 
 to the teachings of Aristotle. 
 
 II. (1) Siinkhffa, with which is classed the Torfay the 
 former being atheistical, the latter thcistical. ThoSankhya 
 was founded by tho sago Kapila, and received its name 
 S'lnkhya ('* numeral ") from its discriminative tendencies. 
 The first principle it asserts is the necessity of true and 
 perfect knowledge. It defines tho nature of evidence, and 
 the principles of which a knowledge is attainable. First 
 among the latter is nature, *' the universal material cause." 
 Matter it declares to be eternal, and so far it may be con- 
 sid -red materialistic, bnt it recognizes also an intellectual 
 power with affections, sentiments, nnd faculties. It admits 
 the existence of separate souls, and admits that "intellect 
 is exercised in tho evolution of matter, or, in other words, 
 in the work of creation, but it denies tho existence of any 
 Supreme Being, either material or spiritual, by whoso voli- 
 tion the universe was ]froduced." Tho dortrines of this 
 school are set forth in Wm Sunhhya Kurihu, translated with 
 a gloss and commentary by f'olcbrooko and }I. H. Wilson. 
 (2) Yof/a, found(Ml by Patanjali, and sometimes callodaftcr 
 him /Yitioijaln. This pursues tho samo method and holds 
 most of the doctrines of the Suiil-h}/a, but it a^t^erts not 
 only the existence of separate individual souls, but of one 
 all-pervading Spirit, unaffected by the influences to which 
 other souls are subicct, the Supreme Ruler, God. Tho 
 followers of tho Sankhya devote tlicmsclves to contempla- 
 tion nnd to abstruse reasonings ujion tho nature of mind 
 and matter. Tho Yoga insists upon the necessity of devo- 
 tion, and prescribes the exercises and disciplinoto ho prac- 
 tised. The disciple? of both these schools are called Yoffin 
 (or Joffis), but the Sankhya yoffi sits in calm meditation, 
 while the yoi/i of the Yoga school practices all kinds of 
 austerities and bodily torments ns acts of devotion. 
 
 III. Vcddnta. — Th is i neludes the /'(in-rt-.l/f Hi*? )M/5, found- 
 ed by .Taimini, and the f^f/ar«-.Uf m^/ijsrt, attributed to VviSsa. 
 Tho I*Cirvn, or prior MimAnH/i, started with the express ob- 
 ject of aiding the interpretation of the Vedas. and its most 
 distinctive dogma is the eternity of the M'ord, meaning tho 
 
 Vedas. The Uttnray or later MimdnsA, is the more import- 
 ant, and it is to this that tho term Veduittn especially ap- 
 plies. This professes to be founded on tho Vedas, and 
 cites texts as authorities, but its conclusions are worked 
 out by jture reason. It leaches that "God is the omnis- 
 cient and omnipotent cause of the existence, continuance, 
 and dissolution of the universe. Creation is an act of His 
 icill ; JIc is both the cftieieut and the material cause of tho 
 world," and in the end all things are resolved into Him. 
 
 The time when these systems of philosnphy sprang up 
 is, as is usual in all matters of Hindu ehronulngv, very un- 
 certain. The Vtluva- MlmuuHu, or Ve<lanta, is generally 
 admitted to be the latest, and is supposed to have been es- 
 pecially directed against the teachings of tho Buddhist?. 
 This would bring it within three or four centuries B. c. Tho 
 other schools are to all appearance older, but reasons have 
 been urged for jdacing them all after the rise of Buddhism. 
 If this be the correct view, the date of the Ved^nta must 
 be brought down later. This is a question of some interest, 
 for the later tho rise of these schools the greater \^ the pos- 
 sibility of their having been evoked by the teachings of 
 tho Greek philosophers. Mr. Colebrooke, the highest au- 
 thority on the subject, expresses his decided opinion that 
 " the Hindus were the teachers, not the learners." 
 
 The principal authorities arc Coleukooke's essays in the 
 Trftnstntiuns of the lioi/al Asifiiic Societ}/, subsequently pub- 
 lished separately iu 2 vols. ; JJinloffucs on f/iiidn PhiloHophi/, 
 by the Rev. K. M. Baser.iea {Calcutta, ISfiO); Refutation 
 of Hindu Philonophi/, by PuxniT Nehemiaii Kilkatth 
 Sastri, translated by Dr. Hall (Calcutta, 1802); Ballan- 
 tvne's Esuai/a (various). John Dowses*. 
 
 Hindu Religion. The origin of the Hindu religion 
 is veileil in the mists of a remote antiquity. AVhen the 
 old Aryans crossed the Indus in their emigration from Irdn 
 or Central Asia, they carried with them certain hymns which 
 were probably even then committed to writing. These 
 hymns were afterwards increased iu number, for there are 
 allusions in some hymns to the new land in which their 
 authors had settled. The language in which the hymns 
 are composed is the oldest known form of Sanscrit, and 
 centuries probably passed before these scattered comjmsi- 
 tions were collected and arranged in the books called J tdav. 
 The date of these compositions is a matter of very great 
 uncertainty, and the best opinions are based upon deduc- 
 tive reasoning from uncertain premises. The date which 
 has received perhaps the greatest approval is 1400 b. c. 
 The hymns have a strong mythic character about them. 
 They are addressed to the elements and powers of nature 
 personified — to fire, to the wind, to the firmament, the 
 moon, and other objects. Those addressed to the dawn are 
 jteculiarly interesting from their mythical significance. No 
 one of tho divinities has any recognized superiority over 
 the others, but tho differences in the numbers of the hymns 
 addressed to the individual deities show that they were 
 held in various degrees of dread and reverence. There are 
 glimpses in some of the hymns of a high and syiiritual con- 
 ception of tho Deity, or direct mystical allusions to one 
 superior Being, from whom all the rest emanate: and texts 
 are found which speak more or less explicitly of " One Su- 
 preme Spirit, the Lord of the universe, whose work is the 
 universe." But the general character of the hymns does 
 not rise above earthly objects. Protection from the ele- 
 ments, from sickness, nnd from enemies, aspirations for 
 the favors of nature, for increase of children and of cattle, 
 are their main topics. Various rites and ceremonies are 
 provided for and enforced, and very frequent reference is 
 made to tho fermented juice of the snmd plant [Aurlepiaa 
 acida), a beverage in high favor amcmg mortals, and there- 
 fore presented as an acceptable offering to the superior 
 powers. In course of time the scattered hymns were col- 
 lected and arranged in books by a snge who is known as 
 Vydsa " tho compiler." The Vedas as they are now known, 
 and have been known for ages, are four in number, named 
 Ilifj, Yojur, SYniia, and Arhart-fi. The Hi*/ is the most im- 
 portant and original. Tho second and ihirri Vedas consist 
 principally of hymns from the 7^i"«7 adapted to special pur- 
 poses. Those of the Yajur are intended for sacrificial, 
 those of tho-V(/Hi« for choral uses. The Atharva, or fourth 
 Veda, is of later date, and its contents are more original 
 nnrl diverse than those of the second and third. Tlie 
 hvmns of tho Vcdas recognize a priestly claims and a regal 
 c!ass, which are evidently the beginnings of the lir&hmnn 
 nnd Kehiitriffa castes of later days. The great body of the 
 people was called rii, a word which was afterwards ex- 
 panded into ]'fiixi/a, and used as the name of the third or 
 mercantile and agricultural easte. The fourth or servile 
 caste, called Sudra, seems to have had no recognized exist- 
 ence in thoi^e <lays. Tn tho later portion of the ffi>/. and in 
 tho more nmdern Athanui vda. there are references to a 
 future state, and an abode of bliss is promised after death 
 to tho victorious.
 
 HINDU RELIGION. 
 
 925 
 
 The difference between the religion of the Vcdns and 
 moilcrn Hiudiiisin is very wide — so wide indeed that the 
 two religions have little or nothing in oununon beyond (ho 
 Vedio texts itud formulas which still remain in use. "The 
 great feature of difference," says 11. 11. Wilson, "is the 
 total absence of the divinities, both nomi'mi and miinina, 
 who have for ages engaged, and. to a great degree, en- 
 grossed, the adoration of the Hindus. We have no indica- 
 tions of a Triad, the creative, preserving, and destroying 
 power; Brahind does not appear as a deity, and Vishnu, 
 although named, has nothing in common with the Vishnu 
 of the Huranas ; no allusion occurs to his untu'ira or incar- 
 nations. As a divinity Siva is not named : nor is his type, 
 the ;'y,ii«;.im, evcrarlvertcd to. Durgaand her triumphs, and 
 Kill, • whom the blood of man delights a thousand years,' 
 have no place whatever in the hymns of tho Vcdas." The 
 doctrine of transmi;;ration seems to bo entirely unnoticed 
 in the Vedic hymns ; and the rite of tn(i, tho burning of 
 widows with the corpses of their husbands, although known 
 to lircck writers ;)0U years before Christ, and said to bo a 
 Vedic institution, proves upon examination to have no 
 belter authority than a ini.* |uoted verse. Some portion 
 of tho ceremonial of the Vcdas still survives in tho domes- 
 tic observances of the Brihmans and in their obsequial 
 offerings. It is incumbent on ever}' householder to mako 
 offerings of cakr-s and other viands to liis own ancestors, 
 and to the collective Piiri,i or Patres of tho human race. 
 Kvery br/ikmaii also, on approaching maturity and being 
 invested with the sacred thread, is taught the celebrated 
 verse called the (ii'iyairi ; *• Let us meditate on the adorable 
 light of the .•>un (or Divine Ruler): may it guide our in- 
 tellects !" This may be the only verse of tho Veda he may 
 ever learn, but this be must repeat in all his devotions. 
 
 The hymns collo-tively. tho whole metrical part of tho 
 Veda, is called M^inlra, and is thus distinguished from an- 
 other part written in prose and called Brdhmana. There 
 are several works bearing this title. They arc of later 
 date, but they are held to be part and parcel of the Vcdn, 
 and of equal authority with the Mnntra. Tho Br/ihrnnnm 
 have been compared to the Talmud, and though "gleams 
 of beautiful thought occasionally break out" in them, their 
 contcnt.<t are in gener.al wearisome. They enter into long 
 details about ceremonies, and of the origin an<I meaning of 
 various rites, and they illustrate them with curious legends, 
 both human and divine. Tho four castes arc distinctly 
 named in the ///viAnian'M, and one of them indicates, rather 
 than lays down, the doctrine of transmigration. 
 
 Next in order come the writings called Aranyahaa and 
 l/jiniii'thad: These arc works of a far higher character, 
 and give clear evidence of a vigorous intellectual life in- 
 teresting itself in questions about lifo and eternity. They 
 are the beginnings of Hindu philosophy, and cast aside 
 matters of riles and ceremony to deal with abstract ques- 
 tions and make " guesses at truth." 
 
 Second only to the Veda in importance is the Code of 
 Menu, which is also a pro-Christian procluetion. This 
 shows a considerable advanje in tho development of tho 
 Hindu system. A future state of reward and punishment 
 is clearly recognized, and the doctrine of transmigration is 
 distinctly enunciated. No one of the three great gods of 
 niiMlern times was known to the Tet/a, but Menu recognizes 
 Brahmi, the Creator. But BrahmS is not the One Supremo 
 Being, the Soul of tho universe, hut merely tho creative 
 energy ; and after the world which he has produced has 
 endured for long ages, the iJivine energy is withdrawn and 
 llrahmd himself returns to the Supremo essence from which 
 he emanated. It is remarkable that no mention is made by 
 Menu of the burning of widows; and as he prescribes tho 
 kind of life that widows were to lead, tho inference to bo 
 drawn is, that tho practice was unknown to him. Yet, as 
 wo have seen above, tho custom was well known to Greek 
 authors ^lOU years b. c. But the most remarkable feature 
 in .Menu is tho full development of tho caste system. Not 
 only are the four great castes recognized, but the "mixed 
 castes" also have come into being through the intercourse 
 of couples belonging to different ca-^tes. .Most stringent 
 rules are laid down for the separation and guidanco of all 
 the castes, tho chief and leading object throughout being 
 the elevation of the /Ir/thitmn and the degradation of tho 
 others. The br^ihnmn, according to ^lenu, is the chief of 
 all created beings; kings are inferior to him, and must 
 show him respect ; his pers((n and property are guarded by 
 the severest laws in this wrjrM. and by denunciations of 
 tremendous punishments iit the next. But the hi-Ahinnn'i 
 life was not to be one of luxury and ease: all his days were 
 to be spent in study, devotion, and austerity, in acquiring 
 and imparting a knowledge of the holy books, in perform- 
 ing the duties and ceremonies they enjoin, and in so mor- 
 tifying tho flesh that it might eeasc to care for the things 
 of this world, and rise nearer and nearer to assimilation 
 and unity with tho Great Soul uf tho universe. Tho brdli- 
 
 man*a life was divided into four portions or stages. The 
 first portion ho was to spend as a /tnitmntrh^ri, or stutlent, 
 in strict service and obedience to his religious superior un- 
 til his investiture with the sacred cord about the age of sLx- 
 teen. Next he was to marry and become {2} a (ii-ihnntha, 
 or householder and head of a family. During this stage 
 ho was to be diligent in studying and teaching tho Veda, 
 to officiate at sacrifiecs, to receive alms and bestow alms. 
 But the grand object of marriage was to obtain male off- 
 spring, and so ]>rovido for tho obsequial offerings to him- 
 self after ileath, an<l to his ancestors and the general pro- 
 genitors of mankind. These duties accomplished, he \vas 
 to proceed to the next stage, {?,) tho V&iHiprantha, or dweller 
 in tho woods, whoso duty it was to divest himself of all 
 fleshly luxuries and comforts, to despise all trials of heat 
 and cold, wet and dry, to live upon the coarsest fare, and 
 to mortify tho body in every way as a clog and burden to 
 the soul. Lastly, ho was to become (-1) the Satmi/fiHi, or 
 mendicant, when, freed from all earthly attachments and 
 religious observances, his only duty was to abstract his 
 mind from material objects, and to strive after that perfect 
 equanimity, that complete indiffcrcnco to everything mun- 
 dane, which is tho nearest approach in this world to the 
 all-pervading Spirit which rules it. Such was tho high 
 ideal of the lifo of a brahman — an ideal which few sought 
 to realize, even in the days when tho ordinance was young, 
 and of wliich tho mero name and shadow only now remain. 
 In tho days of the i'/ifniiahadi tho duty of studying and 
 teaching tho Veda had been shared by tho second oaste, 
 but now it was restricted exclusively to the brahmaus; tho 
 law was either derived directly or deduced from tho same 
 writings, so tho braliman was tho judge and the exponent 
 of the jaw. Government and ailroinistration were to be in 
 accordance wiih tho law, so tho brdhmau was tho king's 
 counsellor nntl guide, the chief director and administrator 
 in all political transactions. Fighting was tho more ospc- 
 ci.al duty of tho knhnlriyn, but, as will bo presently soon, 
 the brahman took a prominent part even in this. Tho 
 Co.lo declares that "tho world and all that arc in it arc 
 his;" tho world was made for tho brahman ; it was for him 
 to rule and guide it. Others might act as instruments, but 
 ho was tho director and controller. 
 
 Tho Kihatrif/d, or military class, were charged with tho 
 duties of government and war. They were entitled to 
 honor and obedience, but were far inferior to the brdhman. 
 Tho sacerdotal class required tlio protection of tho ruler 
 and warrior ; tho soldier ncedcil the advice and guidanco 
 of the sage ami lawyer. The two classes wire mutually 
 dependent on each olhcr, but tho ono contributed nuntal 
 and spiritual influence, tho other physical power, and tho 
 former asserted and maintained its ascendency. 
 
 Tho business of tho \'<n\i/<i, or third class, was to carry 
 on trade and agriculture, to ]ierform sacrifices through tho 
 brdhiuans, and to bestow alms. 
 
 The Sudnt was the fourth or servile caste, and its whole 
 duty was service of the others, especially the brdhman. 
 Ingenuity almost exhausted itself in the cfl"ort to describe 
 the utter vileness of the stSdra, a being so base that a 
 brdhman could not receive a gift from him, and even in 
 the extremity of hunger could ai'ecpt nothing more than a 
 little dry grain, lint the degradation of the sfldra was 
 only religious. Though ho was to serve, he was not a slave; 
 he could choose his own master, and was entitled lo pay- 
 ment. He could accumulate wealth and acquire properly, 
 and he often Ijccamc rich and soniclimcs rose lo power. 
 
 Tho "mixed castes" are fully recognized by Menu: 
 their social status is declared, as well as the course of lifo 
 to which their degraded birth had called them. 
 
 In the present day it is asserted by the hrdhmans — and 
 with much apparent reason — that they alone of the four 
 castes remain unchanged and unmixed. The iHJ/iuli claim to 
 bo the representatives of the kshatriyas, and there arc olhcr 
 castes who assert themselves lo bo the desccntlonts of tho 
 vaisyas and slidras, but il is difficult for them to prove tho 
 purity i>f their descent. The brlihmans themselves have 
 broken up into divisions nntl subdivisions without eml, and 
 tho higher classes hold the lower divisions in the utmost 
 scorn. The mixed castes have naturally greatly increased, 
 and the general temlency is to still lurlheeiunltiply thciu 
 by all kinds of arlilieial and arbitrary distinctions. 
 
 "The two great poems lii'muhftitid and Mttfii'ihliArtitu are 
 supposed lo have been written a little before the Christian 
 era. They depict the heroic age, and those deified heroes 
 come upon the stieno who oeenjiy so prominent a jiosition 
 in modern Hinduism. The linm/ii/rttia celebrates the ex- 
 ploits of the hero Kdma in effiicling the conquest of the S. 
 of India and Ceylon. He was a brdhman, ami in the poem 
 ap]>cars as a more mortal lu-ro, but he has since been raised 
 to (ho dignity of an incarnation of Vishnu. The ,l/u/i<S- 
 hhnrata records the wars between two rivjil families for the 
 I suvoroignty uf a stato whoso capital stood near tho site of
 
 926 
 
 HINDU KELIGION. 
 
 modern Delhi. In this war, Krishna, the most celebrated 
 of the incarnatiuns of Visiimi, took a leading part. Like 
 Kama, ho was br^ihinnn, Kut even in the poem he has many 
 of the attributes of divinity, and is more of a j^od than a 
 mortal. He it is who is represented as recitiiij^ the /ifta- 
 ffavad-tj'ita, the"l)ivino Sung," a pliilosophieal poem of 
 great elevation of (hoii;;iit anil beauty of language. 
 
 From the epii; poems to the Purtinns is a wide interval, 
 full of important ohangcs. There arc many works? bearing 
 this name, but the recognized pitrdnim are eighteen in num- 
 ber, and nro supposed to have been written between the 
 eighth and fourteenth centuries of ourera. In these works 
 the Hindu religion receives its full development. Brahmd 
 the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Siva the Destroyer 
 (or rather Regenerator) are acknowledgnl as the three 
 great divinities constituting the Triad. The lirst of the 
 i'uranas is tho Jirahniti-puriina ; the others arc devoted, 
 some to the exaltation of Vishnu in one or other of his 
 many forms, and some to the honor of Siva and his em- 
 blem, tho Uiufom. It is doubtful if DrahniA was ever an 
 olijcct of worship, for even the Br!»hmii-purdna does no 
 more than indicate a local worship of him at one place near 
 Ajmfr. Vislnm the Preserver was then, as now, the most 
 popular deity, under cue or other of his nvatnrs or incar- 
 nation?. The avatiirs were ten : (1) -Va/sya, the Fish, tho 
 object of which was to recover the Vedas, which had been 
 lost in a general deluge. (2) A'llrania, the Tortoise. This 
 is connected with one of the wildest legends of Hindu 
 mythology. The deluge had destroyed thirteen precious 
 things, among which was the timn'ta or water of immor- 
 tality ; Vishnu converted himself into a tortoise, and sus- 
 tained the mountain Mandara on his back while the gods 
 churned the ocean with it till they recovered tho lost treas- 
 ures. {'^) Vfinth'i, the IJoar. (4) yarttsinhtt, the Man- 
 Hon. (o) Vdmuiiif, tho dwarf named Bali. (6, 7, 8) The 
 three llamas — Parasu-riima, Kama or Rdma-chandra. and 
 Bala-rima. (H) Buddha. (10) Kalki, tho White Horse, 
 which will appear hereafter to destroy the world and re- 
 store purity. For Bala-raraa some substitute Krishna, but 
 Krishna has attained to such honor that ho is held to be 
 Vishnu himself, not simply an incarnation. A foreshad- 
 owing of one <if these incarnations appears in the Veda. 
 The sun is represented mythically as taking three steps — 
 his rising, culmination, and setting. Bali tho dwarf is 
 represented as having begged three steps of land from a 
 tyrant, and then to have strode over the whole world. 
 Vishnu in his abstract form receives littlo or no adoration. 
 R5,ma an'l Krishna, the deified hemes, are tho great ob- 
 jects of worship. Both were mortals, and are represented 
 as dying, one by suicide, the other by accident. Rlma, 
 the hero of^ the JUtnt/i^^iii<i, is the especial deity of tho men- 
 dicant sects. His name is used as a salutation and bene- 
 diction by all classes, and the constant repetition of it is a 
 religious exercise of great merit. Krishna, tho hero of the 
 Mnhdijhftnita, enjoys unbounded popularity, particularly 
 as Gopdbi, the youthful cowherd. He wns of royal race, 
 but wa? hidden among tho cowherds from a tyrant who 
 sought his life. His gambols with the niilkinaids and the 
 frolics of his childhood and youth are related in the Bful- 
 gnvntn puriiiia and in the modern Pi'cm-s6;/ai: They are 
 the delight of all classes, especially of females and the 
 young. In biter life he performed many wonderful ex- 
 ploits, and after taking a leading part in the war of tho 
 Mahiibhurata he retired to Dwdraka, his capital, in Guze- 
 rat, where he was killed by an arrow shot at him by mis- 
 take. The name Krishna signifies *' black," and tho god 
 is represented as a youth of very dark enmplexion. Thn 
 ceremonies and rejoicings at the great spring festival, tho 
 liolij are principally in honor of Krislina. 
 
 Vishnu is "the thousand-named," and tho repeating of 
 these names is a very meritorious work. Prominent among 
 these forms — for each name carries with it some special 
 significance — is that of Ja'jnn-uAth. '* tho lord of the 
 world," in whicli form he is worshipped at the great car- 
 festival in Cuftack. 
 
 Siva, the Destroyer and Regenerator, has also a vast 
 number of votaries, but fewer than Vishnu. His appear- 
 ance and attributes are of a very gloomy character. He 
 is represented* aa sitting absorbed in thought — naked, 
 smeared with funereal ashes, with mntted hair, and a neck- 
 lace of human skulls and bones. He bns three eyes, and 
 the fire from them conpuraes those who interrupt his devo- 
 tions. But the especial form under which he is worshipped 
 is the Ihi'fum, or phallus, the male organ of reproduction, 
 which symbolizes his office nf regenerator. There is noth- 
 ing oflenflive in the way this is represented, nor anything 
 obscene in the ideas attached to it. A ]dain column of 
 stone, a cone of elay, or even a natural oblong stone, is its 
 representative. This, in the eyes of the w<>rshi)iper, is 
 yiuiply Siva, its symbolical ]>urport being altogc-iher un- 
 known or unheeded. At tho time of the Mohammedan 
 
 conquest of India in the eleventh century there were twelve 
 celebrated lingnms at ditfercnt places, and it was one of 
 these that Mahmfid destroyed at SomnAth. One of the 
 names of Siva is t^onitt-ifUh, "lord of the moon," and ho 
 is represented as bearing the crescent on his forehead. It 
 is in honor of Siva, but especially of his consort, Devi, 
 that bloody sacrifices are ottered and tortures inflicted. 
 
 Saraswatf, the wife of Brahma, is the goddess of learning 
 and the arts, and the inventress of the Sanscrit language. 
 She receives more honor than her lord. Lakshml, the wife 
 of Vishnu, is the goddess of prosperity and fortune. Both 
 of these deities receive adoration on particular occasions, 
 and the latter is very frequently invoked, but they are not 
 the objects of any regular worship. It is far different with 
 the consort of Siva, who is known under a great variety 
 of names — Devi, Diirga, KAIf, Parvatf, Bhavauf, etc. — and 
 is the recipient of a fierce fanatical adoration. This god- 
 dess is represented in a variety of ways, all more or less 
 terrible and disgusting. In the mildest form she is a hand- 
 some woman riding on a tiger in a fierce and menacing atti- 
 tude. In another and more common one she is K&li, "the 
 black," with a black skin, a hideous and terrible counte- 
 nance, dripping with blood, wreathed with snakes, and 
 adorned with human skulls. The worship of this deity is 
 very widely spread, especially in Bengal, and it is from her 
 that Calcutta obtained its name. The worship of Devi owes 
 itg diffusion, perhaps its rise, to a class of writings called 
 Tantrna. These are works of a comparatively late date, 
 but their origin is very obscure and their authors are un- 
 known. They arc ascribed to Siva, and are generally in 
 tho form of dialogues between him and his consort. " They 
 are very numerous, and some are of considerable volume. 
 They have been but little examined by European scholars, 
 but sufficient has been ascertained to warrant tho accusa- 
 tion that they are authorities for all that is most abom- 
 inable in the present state of the Hindu religion. Tho 
 great feature of tho religion taught by the Tantras is tho 
 worship of Salctf — divine power personified as a female, and 
 individualized, not only in tho goddesses of mythology, but 
 in every woman; to whom, therefore, in her own person, 
 religious worship may be, and is occasionally, addressed. 
 Tho chief objects of adoration arc, however, the manifoM 
 forms of tho bride of Siva. Even in its least exceptional 
 division tho Sakt£ worship comprehends tho performance 
 of magical ceremonies, and rites intended to obtain super- 
 human powers and a command over tho spirits of heaven, 
 earth, and hell. Tho popular division is, however, called 
 by the Hindus tho Ujt-haud faith. It is to this that tho 
 bloody sacrifices offered to KAU must bo imputed, and that 
 nil the barbarities and indecencies perpetrated at the an- 
 nual worship of Dtirga and the swinging festival arc to bo 
 ascribed. There arc other atrocities which do not meet tho 
 public eye.'* (//. H. M'iUoii.) 
 
 The religion of tho Hindus is thus principally directed 
 to tho worsUijj of three leading divinities, Vishnu, Siva, and 
 Devf — each of whom has many names and forms. Each 
 form or nianifcstTition has .'^ome peculiar attribute, somo 
 special kind of worship, but the general features are main- 
 tained throughout. The worship of Vishnu is cheerful and 
 sensuous; of Siva, sombre and severe; of Devf, terrible 
 and disgusting. But besides these great divinities there 
 aro many others of less dignity and power, who have their 
 special attributes and sjdieres of action. They are not the 
 objects of any regular worship, but they are invoked and 
 ndorati<m is offered to them when it is desired to propitiate 
 them and secure a favorable exercise of their powers. There 
 is Indra. the god of the firmament and heaven : Siirya, the 
 sun; Soma, the moon; Varunii, the waters; Piivana, the 
 wind: Agni, fire; Kuvera, wealth : Kdrtikeya. war; Kfmia, 
 love ; Yama, the god of tlie infernal regions and judge of 
 the dead : (Janesa or (Janapati, the god of wisdom and the 
 remover of obstacles. He is represented as a short fat man 
 with an elephant's head. His image is frequently found at 
 tho entrance of temples, and ho is invoked at the begin- 
 ning of important works and ceremonies. The total num- 
 ber of gods i- said to be 3:50,000,000. 
 
 Two very remarkable features in the Hindu religion are 
 the great powers and virtues ascribed to sacrifice and faith. 
 Sacrifice and austere penanee, pcrseveringly and rigidly 
 performed, make even the gods subservient to the wishes 
 of the devotee, and that quite irrespective of the object in 
 vie\v. The merit is in tho performance, not in the spirit 
 of the observance, and tho most impious and worthless are 
 represented as gaining (heir ends by sacrifice and severe 
 bo<niy torture. Tho virtue of faith was a leading prin- 
 ciple in the /ihofjiivKl-^/UA ascribed to Krishna. Trust in 
 the chosen deity, constant repetition of his name, the bear- 
 ing of his seetarial marks — in short, the outward show of 
 religion upheld by a fanatical faith— is of more avail than 
 sacrifice and piety. Morality and innocence maybe incul- 
 cated, but the saving principle is belief.
 
 HINDUS— HIPPOCAMPID^. 
 
 927 
 
 The worshippers of Vishnu and Piva are broken up into 
 tn infinite varielT of sects anil divisions, and thev have 
 also a great miuibor of niuniistic and mendicant orders in- 
 tent uiion the maintenance of their respective phases ot 
 belief Manv iusiances are recorded of rival devotees com- 
 iuK in coullict at some of the great places of pilgrimage, 
 and of hundreds and thousands being kille.l. There arc 
 among the Hindus men of superior intelligence who phil- 
 osophlcallv see through all these varieties ,.f divinity the 
 One Supreme licing. to whom alone worship is due. There 
 have bicn others who, innucnccd by that feeling of mys- 
 ticism so prevalent in the East, have treated all the forms 
 of religion as mere symbols. Such were the founders of 
 some of what may be called Iho dissenting sects, who deny 
 the merit of religious ceremonies, and strive to seek above 
 an<l beyond them the One Oreat licing. .Mich was the sect 
 established by the weaver Kabir at the beginning of ho 
 fifteenth centurv ; such also was that of the Mkhs, lounded 
 bv \Yiiiak at the end of that same century. Many a pure 
 thought aud luftv idea is to be found in the verses of t icse 
 andolhcrsuch independent thinkers— for it is to be noledthat 
 
 all of them u\pross their thoughts in verse— but there is a 
 strong disposition in all such sects, as time wears on, to 
 undulv exalt their ouru or founder, and to adore him as a 
 saint. ■'""=•■ I>0«S0!'- 
 
 Hindus. Sec IxniA, by R. C. Caldwei-l. 
 Uiucsburg, post-tp. of Chittenden co., Vt, 12 miles 
 S. li.of liurlington, has an academy, I churches, and manu- 
 factures of castings, woollen goods, cooperage, carriages, 
 leather, boxes, yarn, etc. Pop. 1573. 
 
 Hinesvillc, posl-v., cap. of Liberty co., Ga., 35 miles 
 W of Savannah. It contains the usual county-scat build- 
 ings a high school, a flouring-mill, 1 weekly newspaper, 
 and a sulphur spring of marked medicinal properties. 
 Priuciiial occupation, farming and stock-raising. 
 
 S. D. BllADWKLl,. Ei>. "Uazbtte. 
 Hinge, the pivot on which a door or shutter, or some- 
 times a wind.w, turns in opening or shutting. Hinges nro 
 also u-ed in fastening on one side of the covers of trunlts, 
 boxes, and the like. In ancient Egypt, Syria, etc. hinges 
 were usually pivots, one below resting in a socket in the 
 doorsill, and another above in the lintel. Such are still 
 seen in the East. .\ simple strip of leather is another early 
 and rude form. From Ibis the transition to metallic hinges 
 was an easy one. In me.lia^val times, and again at the 
 present davi the custom has prevailed of employing elabo- 
 rately designed and highly ornamented hinges. A strap- 
 hin'C is one which is screwed to one side of a d wr. 1 he 
 mor'o common sort, called b,M by the builders, screws into 
 the edge of the door. 
 
 Hinc'ham, post-v. of Plymouth co., Mass., 14 miles 
 6. E. of Boston, on the Old Colony U. R. It has both rail 
 and stcmuboat communication with Boston. It contains 
 an academy,!) churches, 2 banks, afire insurance comjiany, 
 2 hotels, 1 newspaper, a public library, an agricultur.al 
 society, and manufactures of wooden ware, cordage, bag- 
 gin' 'furniture, iron castings, worsted upholstery, fancy 
 knit goods, etc. Pop. 1122. G.-okgk Lin-cols. 
 
 Uink'ley, Ip. of Washington co.. Me., on Grand Lake. 
 Pop. r.i. 
 
 Ilin'man (Clabk Tins), D. D., b. at Kortwright, 
 N Y , .\ug. .1, ISiy, graduated at the Wesleyan University in 
 18:!9* was connected wilh the Metbo.list Seminary, New- 
 bury, Vt., 18.TJ-I0; j.rincipal of .Mbion Seminary, Mich., 
 181B-5.1- founder of Norlh-wostorn University, Kvanston, 
 ■ III., and its first president is:,:!-,>l. 1). at Troy, N. Y.,Oct. 
 21, ISJi. Ho was an able orator and scholar, and a labor- 
 ious and successful instructor. 
 
 Ilinmiin (.loiix), LL.D., b. in Fairfield co.. Conn., in 
 IKO;!; was admitted to tho bar at Now Haven, and after- 
 wards practised law at Waterbury, Conn. ; was appointed 
 a justice of Iho superior court 1842; of tho State supremo 
 court ISifl; its chief-justice ISGl. 1). at Cheshire, Conn., 
 Feb. 21, 1870. 
 
 Ilin'mansvillc, post-v. of Schrocppel tp., Oswego cc, 
 N. v., on Oswego River. Pop. 151. 
 
 Ilin'ny, or Jcn'nct [(ir. lypot, yiwot, a "mule"], a 
 hybrid between the horse and the she-nss. a very different 
 animal from tho mule, which is bred between the ass and 
 the marc. Tho hinny neighs like a horse, the mule brays 
 like the ass. Tho mules ears, tail, and general aspect are 
 asinine. Tho hinny more nearly resembles tho horse; is 
 of slighter build, and of strength inferior to that of tho 
 mule. It is bred to some eileiil in Spain anrl Bnrbary. 
 It was once called jumml. and w:i« nl.nirdly believed to be 
 the fruit of a ero!<« between llie bull and the mare. 
 
 Ilinojo'Hn del Dii'que, town of Spain, in the province 
 of Cordova. It has somo mauufacturea of linens tnd wool- 
 lens. Pop. 8637. 
 
 Hins'dale, post-tp. of Berkshire co.. Mans., 8 miles E. S. 
 E. of Pittslield. It is a mountainous town, aud has somo 
 manufactures. Pop. IfiSto. 
 
 Hinsdale, post-v. of Cheshire co., X. II.. on tho Ash- 
 uelot R R. It has a fine water-power, aud contains large 
 woollen-mills. :'. churches. 2 newspapers, manufactories of 
 mowing-machines, lumber, etc. Pop. 1342. 
 
 IIenbv E. Huxter, Ed. " Staii-Spasoleb Baxxeii. 
 Hinsdale, tp. and p.ist-y. of Cattaraugus co.. X. Y., 
 on the Erie and the Buffalo New York and Philadelphia 
 R Rs., fill miles S. E. of Buffalo. It has some manufac- 
 tures. " Pop. of v. 321; of tp. 1401. 
 
 Hinsdale (BrnKE Aarox), A. M., b. at Wadsworth, 
 Medina eo., O., Mar. 31, 1837 ; was educated at the Elect- 
 ive Institute, now Hiram College; received in 1871 the 
 dcreo of A. M. from Bethany College, W. Va., and from 
 Wriliams College, Mass. ; entered the ministry of the Chris- 
 tian Church (called also Disciples, Campbellitcs, etc.) in 
 1801 ; was pastor in Solon. 0., 1SC4-06 ; in Cleveland IsfiO- 
 G8; assistant editor of the rhr!,t!.ui SlaiiJanl iXM-M; 
 iirofessor of history and English literature in Hiiam Col- 
 lege 1SG9-70: became its president 1870, and performs the 
 duties of professor of philosophy, history, and biblical lit- 
 erature; is also assistint editor of the Chrhtian Q,mrle<l>j, 
 Cincinnati. Author of Ucnmneue»n awl Aiith^niicign/lht 
 Go^mla (IS'3), The Evolntivu o/ (A<: Tlieolnfjical and Vnc- 
 trhml Sn'tcm, „f the Ancient Chnrch (in preparation), and 
 has contributed much to periodical literature. 
 Hin'ton, tp. of Mecosta co., Mich. Pop. 390. 
 Ilinton, post-v.. cap. of Summers co., W. Va., on tho 
 Chesapeake and Ohio R. R.. at the confluence of the (.reen- 
 brier and New rivers. It has a large sash and door fac- 
 tory 1 new.spaper, the rouud-housc and machine-shops ol 
 the C and 0. R. R., 4 hotels, and the usual stores. Pop. 
 about 500. C. L. Tiiosirsux, Ed. " Moixtaix Herald. 
 
 Hinton (Joux HowabdI, M. A., b. at Oxford, England, 
 Mar 24, 1791; was educated at Edinburgh I nivcrsily ; 
 became a Baptist minister, and held various pastorates, 
 nrineipallv in London: attained distinction as a preacher. 
 'Author of a Ilhton/ of the U. S., Mc,n„i,: o/ 11 . AnM 
 Tlie»lo<,!/. Element, of Natural Hintoyy, etc. U. at Bristol 
 Dee. 17, 1873. 
 
 Hio'go, or Fiogo, seaport of Japan, on the island of 
 Niiion 20 miles \S. of Osaka, to which a railway extends. 
 It has a very large trade in tea, and its harbor is the best 
 in Iho empire. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Hip, the fruit of the rosebush. Hips arc used in phar- 
 macy as a material for making "confection of hips" (eon- 
 fcetio rosic canln.r), the /fo«n c«iii.i<i, or dog rose, and R. 
 ponu/era of Europe, furnishing the most ot the fruit. The 
 seeds are taken out, and the hips beaten in a niorlar with 
 white sugar— 2 pounds of sugar to 1 of hips. This makes 
 a pleasant sourish confection. The more fleshy and juicy 
 sorts of hips are in some places preserved or dried, and in 
 winter arc boiled in pottage, after taking out tho seeds 
 and bristly subslancc wilhiu them. 
 
 Hip-joint, Diseases of. See Cdxalcia. 
 Ilipparcliu-i, generally considered the founder of the 
 eeiencc of asirunomy, lived in ihe middle of the second 
 centurv n r. ; b. at Niciea, in Bithynia. Of his life noth- 
 ing is known, and of his writings only the least important, 
 A Commentar;/ on Aratn,, has been left to us. But from 
 the Snntarh of Ptolemy we know that by his great dis- 
 coveries, and more especially by his method, he actualy 
 laid the foundation of the .science of astronomy. (More de- 
 tailed information will be found iu Ihe article on Ptolemy.) 
 See Horse, Fossil, by Prof. 0. C. 
 
 Hippa'rion. 
 
 n'ipnean (Celestix), b. at Niort. Deux-Sftvres, May 
 n Iso' ■ made his first studies in his native city, and 
 filled different positions as a teacher and professor at 1 oi- 
 tiers, NapolC.on-Vendee, Strasburg, Paris, and Caen. The 
 most prominent of his writings arc- W..to.'c delAMa;/. 
 de Salnl-£i;enne de Caen, V>GG-lTnO (185:.), Le, ^cr>-«.,,. 
 „„rmand,andU,epiremc>iMe(\m)Mi'ta>rednOourrrnc- 
 met de la Xannandic (9 vols., I8C3-7.3) D,el,„una,rede la 
 langue /■V,.i,cai,e o.l IJouzlrine el Tr,i2,hnc ,iMe (187u). 
 
 Hin'pias, a contemporary of Protagoras and Socrates, 
 b at Klis, and lived mostly at Athens. Of his life nothing 
 h' known, and of his writings n<me have come ij"'^'' •" ".'- 
 but his cbaracler has been very vividly drawn by 1 la o in 
 Ihe I wo dialogues which bear his name. He seems to have 
 been a man of great gifts and comprehensive knowledge, 
 but arrogant, vain, and superficial. 
 
 Hippocam'pidir [from •lirni.aMiroc. a proper nainc], 
 a family of fishes of the onler Lopliobranebii. disliiiguished 
 by the iircheiisilily of the tail and Ihe wanl .1 a caudal fin, 
 eimbined with a tubular snout, narrow gill-opcnings, a
 
 928 
 
 HIPPOCAMPUS-HIPPOLYTUS. 
 
 single soft dorsal, belonginj; partly to the abdominal and 
 partly to the caudal portioo. and the absence ot ventral 
 tins To this group belong five genera — Gastroloctun, 
 SoUm,m,athM, Phyn,,pl<rnix. Acentronnra. and i/i/jp"- 
 cnmu.'s. The most characteristic and familiar form is the 
 little sea-horse, Jfijipur-nrnpim. remarkiible for the resem- 
 blance of its head aud neck to those of a horse, and the 
 windin" downward and inward of its caudal portion, or 
 
 tail. 
 
 TlIEODOItE tllLL. 
 
 half 
 
 Hippocnm'pus [in Greek mythology, a sea-monster 
 ,lf horse and half fish], a singular genus of Lophobrau- 
 
 chiate marine fishes of the family llippocampidai. ihcy 
 
 The Sea-Horse. 
 have ganoid scales, and swim generally in a vertical pos- 
 ture. The males carry the spawn in pouches upon the tail 
 until the fry are hatched. The tail is prehensile, the caudal 
 and ventral fin absent. All the species are small. H. 
 Hitdsoiiiut is found along our Atlantic coast. From the 
 peculiar shape of the head it is called the sea-horse. The 
 cut shows the H. brcciroslrin, a common European species. 
 Hippoc'rates ['lir^oKpaTrn]. the father of medicine 
 and the most distinguished of Greek physicians, was b. in 
 Cos in -IfiO n. c. (according to Soranus), and was the son ol 
 lleraclidcs, oncofthe Asclepiada>, and Phajnarete.awoman 
 who belonged to the Heraeleidie. }Iipi)Ocrates studied 
 medicine with his father and with Herodicus of Selym- 
 bria; learned rhetoric of Gorgias the Leontine ; prac- 
 tised his profession chiefly at Cos, and rendered its medical 
 school, already very famous, by far more illustrious than 
 it had ever 'before been. He travcllel much among 
 the Grecian towns, and d. at Larissa B. c. SoT. (Clinton.) 
 Little more than the above facts is known regarding his 
 life, but ancient writers relate of him many fabulous tales. 
 His sons, Thessalus and Dr.^co, and Polybus, his son-in- 
 law, perpetuated his fame, and probably wrote some of the 
 works which bear his name. Those now e.xtant are more 
 than si.\ty in number (some of them very short), but by 
 far the larger part are either spurious or incorrectly as- 
 cribed to Hippocrates. Part or all of (he Aphnriams, parts 
 of the Epidemics, parts of the PnxjmislicH, the Re-jimen in 
 Aciiic Viaeriacs, the treatise on U'oiiiif/i "/ the Hmrl, and 
 that Oil Air. tt'uter. ri/i,/ PlnccB, are considered genuine 
 works of Hippocrates: and (according to Littre) the trea- 
 tises On Ancient Metlicinc, on Jointt, On fi-aclurca, on The 
 I'Kciif the Lever (in reducing luxations), on imr, on Ulcers, 
 on Jlirmi.rrhuids, on the Sacred Disease, on Fistula, and the 
 De Medici Offieina, are possil.ly genuine. As a practitioner, 
 it would be unfair to judge of Hippocrates' merits by any 
 modern standard. His pathological notions were founded 
 mainly on natural analogies and n priori reasoning; they 
 consequently have no scientific value, but are memor,able 
 as the direct source of the humoral pathology so long dom- 
 inant in the schools. He also taught the doctrines of 
 d crises, treated disease chiefly by attcn 
 
 every other mode of instruction I will impart a knowledge 
 of this art to my own sons, to those of my teachers, aud to 
 disciples bound by a stipulation and oalh according to the 
 law of medicine, but to no others. I will follow that sys- 
 tem of regimen which, according to my best judgment, I 
 consider best for my patients, and abstain from whatever 
 is injurious. I will give no deadly medicine to any one if 
 asked, nor suggest any such counsel. Furlhcrniorc, 1 will 
 not give to a woman an instrument to procure abortion. 
 With purity and holiness will I pass my life and practice 
 my art. I will not cut a person who is suD'ering with 
 stone, but will leave this to be done by those who arc prac- 
 titioners of such work. Into whatever houses I enter I 
 will go for the advantage of the sick, and will abst.ain from 
 every voluntary act of mischief and eorrujition, and, fur- 
 ther, from the seduction of females or males, bond or free. 
 Whatever in connection with my professional practice, or 
 not in connection with it. I may see or hear, I will not di- 
 vulge, holding that all such things should be kept secret. 
 While I continue to keep this oalh inviolate, may it bo 
 granted me to enjoy life and the practice of my art, re- 
 spected always by all men ; but should I break through and 
 violate this oath, may the reverse be my lot." This oath 
 is not now administered to practitioners, though something 
 equivalent to it was used in the iMiddle Ages, and especi- 
 ally in the school of Salerno; but every honorable and 
 right-minded physician governs his private and profes- 
 sional life bv its noble principles. It is the oldest and one 
 of the best of the codes of medical ethics, there being but 
 one simpler and better code, the Golden Kulc of doing as 
 one would be done by. 
 
 Hippocrc'ne [Gr. Ir^n^o?, «pii>i, " horse-spring "]• " fa- 
 mous fountain upon the side of Mt. Helicon, in Bceotia, was 
 believed by the ancients to be a favorite haunt of the 
 Muses and a source of poetic inspiration. It was fabled 
 to have been produced by a stroke of the foot of Pegasus. 
 It is still a fine spring. 
 
 Hip'podrome [Gr. i^iroSpono?, a "horse-race"], the 
 name anciently given in Greece and Constantinople to the 
 ground where chariot and other horse-races took place. Of 
 these races, those in chariots were the most popular. In 
 these races many competitors for the prize entered the race, 
 which was consequently attended with much danger to the 
 drivers— a danger much increased by the limited siie of 
 the hijipodromc and the consequent necessity of frequent 
 turning of goals. The hippodrome at Olympia was long 
 the most famous, but in later times that at Constantinople 
 acquired great renown, and the whole Byzantine popu- 
 lace was divided in their social and political relations by 
 factions which took their origin in the hippodrome. 
 
 Hippol'ytus, according to the Grecian mythology, was 
 a son of Theseus. His stcpmolhcr, Pliiedra, fell in love 
 with him. and accused him to his father in order (o revenge 
 herself for his coldness. Theseus theu cursed his son, aud 
 asked ^Egcus to destroy him, but after the death of llippo- 
 lytus the kiug learned the innocence of his son and fell 
 into great grief; Pha-dra killed herself. According to the 
 Roman mythology, Hippolytus was restored to life by 
 yEsculapius. and placed in a grove at Aricia by Diana, where 
 he received divine worship under the name of Virbius. 
 
 Hippolytus, S.tiST, bishop and martyr. There is still 
 some uncertainty about the dates and Ihe events of his life, 
 but he was probably b. after the middle of the second cen- 
 tury, and in Italy, though he travelled in the East, and 
 was also a disciple of Irena'us of Gaul. Le Jloync ( IGS'5) 
 makes him bishop of Portus Romani, the modern .trfrn in 
 Arabia. But his diocese was certainly in the neighborhood 
 of Itomc, and probably at Portus Uomanus, l.i miles from 
 
 * .. ■ ..1. ..Til.^. T:i,n» T„ O'i^ iinilor 
 
 erases, coctions, an 
 
 tion to regimen, and earnestly advocated the expectant _ ^ ^ 
 
 treatment in many acute diseases. He was a careful ob- j the city, at the northern mouth of the Tiber. In 2:io, under 
 
 server aud excellent deseriber of symptoms, and (as his i „^^ emperor Maximinus, he was banished, along with the 
 
 genuine writings show) was a man of the noblest mental , {{„„,„„ lijshop Pontianu 
 and moral qualities. Among the most valued works upon 
 
 the Hippocratic writings are the commentaries of Galen. 
 The best editions of the entire works are by 0. G. KUhn | 
 (:i vols., Leipsio, 1825-27). aud by Littr6, with French | 
 translation (Paris, 1839-61, 10 vols.). i 
 
 Hippocrat'ic Oath, a solemn engagement entered 
 into in ancieut limes by young men about commencing the 
 practice of medicine, and especially by the Asclcpiada-. 
 The formula itself has been ascribed to Hippocrates, and 
 is certainly very ancient. It was as follows: " I swear by 
 Apollo the' physician, by /F<seulapius, by Hygicia, Panacea, 
 and all the gods and goddesses, that, according to my 
 ability and judgment, I will keep this oalh and stipula- 
 tion ; to reckon him who tenches me this art equally dear 
 to me with my parents : to share my substance with him, 
 and relieve his necessities if required ; to look upon his 
 offspring upon the same footing as my own bnjthers, and 
 to leach them this art, if liny shall wish to learn it. with- 
 out fee or stipulation ; aud that by precept, lecture, and 
 
 ^^,^^_ ^ _ , to Sardinia, and is supposed to 
 
 have siilTered'niartyrdom the year following, but whether 
 in Sardinia or after returning to Italy cannot be deter- 
 mined. His statue in a silling posture, with a list of his 
 writings inscribed upon the baik of the chair, was dug up 
 in I5»l near the basilica of San Lorenzo in Rome. By 
 much the most important of his writings is the J'hiloso- 
 plimnena, a Refntution a/ Alt Heresies, in 10 books. Unlll 
 recently only I'ho first book was known to be extant, and 
 this was ascribed toOrigen. The second, the third, and the 
 eommencement of the fourth book arc still wanting. The 
 rest were discovered at .Mount Alhos in 1S42 by Minoides 
 Mynas, a learned Greek sent by .M. \illeinain, minister of. 
 public instruction under Louis Philippe, to make re.-^earches 
 in the Greek monasteries. l>liilos„pl,nmena was first pub- 
 lished at Oxford by Miller in l.'^.>2, as a work of Origcn. 
 But the best edition is that of Duneker and Schneidewin 
 (ISj'J). This treatise is one of great value historically, 
 philosophically, theologically, and critically. The works 
 of Hippolytus have been edited by Fahricius (1710-18),
 
 HIPPOXAX— HIRAM. 
 
 929 
 
 Oalland (1766). and Lagardo (1S58). (See also mono- 
 grapba by Buuscn (1852; 2a cd. 1854); Cruico (lS5.i), 
 who also edited the Fhitosophnmcmi in ISiiU; DolUnger 
 (ISj;!), Wordsworth (1S53J, and V'olkmnr (ISJJ).) 
 
 K. D. Hitchcock. 
 llippo'naXf a Greek satirical poet of the si-xth century 
 u. c, ol whom ahout 100 lines are still extiiut. Uo was 
 bani'slied irom his native city, Ephesus, ou account of his 
 satires, and lived afierwards at Clatomcmc. always fight- 
 ing against everybody, lie is the inventor of the choli- 
 ainbic verse, in which a spoudeoor trochee is placed in the 
 last foot, instead of an iambus, thus giving to the rhythm a 
 peculiar jarring movement which is well adapted for 
 satire. The fra;:mcnts collected and edited by F. G. Wclcker 
 (Giittin^^cn, 1S17, 4to). 
 
 Hippopli'agy [Gr. Iv-no^, "horse." and ^aydv, "to 
 eat"], the eating of horseflesh. From the earliest times 
 the Northern races of Europe ate the flesh of the horse, 
 and, in consequence of religious associations, sacrificed 
 it to their god.->. Owing to tliis, early ('hristian mission- 
 aries made the abstinence from horsellesh a test of re- 
 ligion. In the eighth century the popes anathematized 
 it, and Gregory lit. declared iinnutndnm cut ct exccrahilt — 
 "it is foul and vile." In the Xjall saga a converted Ice- 
 lander, taunting an enemy, tells him that he has but lately 
 eaten liorseflesh. In time it was popularly believed that 
 horseflesh was unhealthy. The French were the first to 
 doubt this, and in the retreat from Moscow, Larrcy killed his 
 horses to make broth for the sick. According to experi- 
 ments and reports made by IJaron Guerrier do Duraost, 
 horseflesh contains one-seventh more nutriment than its 
 equivalent weight of beef, and, taking the average horso 
 with the average ox, the former yields 110 to tho 104 of the 
 hitter. In IS42, Dr. Pcrner of Munich began to combat 
 the preju<Iice against horseflesh, and in ISlo tho sale of it 
 was legalized in Uavaria. At the same time hippophagic 
 eoeiotlefi were formed in Paris .and Berlin. Messrs. Le- 
 blanc of tho Academy of Medicine and M. dc Quatrefages 
 were zealous in dissipating the prejudice against this food. 
 Since |Sj5 horse-butcheries have been established through- 
 out Germany. In Paris the first were opened in 1805 in 
 the quarters of St. Marceaux and Popincourt. But it was 
 not until the privations of tho siege of 1S70-71 bad taught 
 nil Pitris by experience the real excellence of horseflesh 
 tbat it became popular. In IS07 the total consumption of 
 boraea, asses, and mules during tho first quarter of tho 
 year was 535 head: in the corresponding period in 1872 it 
 "rose to 1144. During the present year (1874) the quarterly 
 returns from the nhnttolrii-rhcvnlines show that 1555 horses, 
 mules, anri donkeys were slaughtered in August, Septem- 
 ber, and October, yielding GUO.OOO pounds of meat. A like 
 increase was reported from the provinces. A fat horse, in- 
 jured but not diseased, sells for $50 or $60 at tho abattoir, 
 whereas he would not have brought a tenth part of that 
 sum in the old days. The average price is from $25 to $1-0, 
 Horseflesh has a pleasant taste, and expert cooks in Paris 
 excel in dressing it so as to make it resemblo venison. Tho 
 meat is dark in color, but, taking it of relative ages and feed- 
 ing, it is better than beef under tho samo conditions. It is 
 statecl that during tho Stone Ago tho hare was not eaten, 
 as its bones arc not found among tho remains of food of 
 those day?, and even in tho timoof Charlemagne tho Franks 
 rejected it, as do the Russians at present. Tho Jews and 
 other Orientals avoid pork, tho Hindoos consider it impi- 
 ous to touch beef, and in England tho gypsies are tho only 
 people who will eat tho hedgehog, an animal which the 
 writer has found by expericnco equals any m^-nt in quality 
 and any game in flavor. It is to l)0 regretted that tho 
 prejudice against horseflesh has existed with those kindred 
 superstitious to the loss of humanity. C. G. Lelanu. 
 
 Ilippopotam'idnc [from Imro?, a " horse," and woTa^M, 
 "river"*], a family i»f artiodactyl ungulates belonging to 
 the group Omnivora, and distinguished by tho massive 
 body, phalangigraile feet, and well-develoj^ed external toes, 
 round snout and nostrils open upward ami sidcwise, over- 
 hanging upper lips, and inguinal mamniic. Tlio molars 
 have nearly straight or irregular sinuous longiluflinal and 
 transverse valleys dividing four tubercles, of which tho ex- 
 ternal two are convex oxtrorsely, and tho inner two convex 
 introrsely ; tho canines are very largo an<l furrowed along 
 their posterior surfaces. This family includes two recent 
 genera, which are so different as to have been difi'crentiated 
 as distinct sub-families — Uippupuidmnn, including a largo 
 Bpceirs, and (Vnrropnin, established for a smaller species 
 found in fjiberi.a. IlippopntnmuH has the skull depressed 
 between tho orbits, tho frontal sinus obsolete, and tho orbits 
 prominent above the level of tho forehead and closed behind ; 
 ('h<rn>pn{i has the skull convex be! wei-n the orbits, the 
 frontal sinus well developed, and the orliil-< dt'pressed below 
 the level <tf tho forihea<I and iiieoinpli-h- behind. Only two 
 Vol. H.— 5'J 
 
 living species aro known, both of which are confined to 
 Africa; one {//ippopotamus ampkibiua) is the animal well 
 known to menagerie visitors, and is found in most of the 
 African rivers; the other (67(«to/)*m Libertcnaiii) is a very 
 small species confined to Liberia. In previous geological 
 epochs the family was, however, widely extended, and re- 
 mains have been found in England and other parts of 
 Europe, as well as in India. The nearest relations of these 
 animals arc the hogs (Suidic) ; they have no aflinity to the 
 rhinocerotids or to the tapirs. Tiikobork Gill, 
 
 Ilippopot'amtiS [Gr. tTTnoiroTa^of. "river-horse"], a 
 genus of artiodactyl and omnivorous ungulate nmmmals 
 (pachyderms), of which only one living sjiecics is known. 
 Tho Ilippopijtnmus tuiiphibhis inhabits most of the rivers 
 and lakes of Africa from the Nile tothc Capcof Good Hope, 
 and occasionally is known to visit the salt water. The largest 
 males sometimes arc fourteen or fifteen feet long. It is usu- 
 ally inofl"ensivo and quiet, but has been reported as occasion- 
 ally attacking beasts, and even men. with unaccountable 
 fury. It is an unwieldy beast, living chiefly upon soft water- 
 plants, but quite often visiting cultivated lields, which it 
 devastates. It is hunted for its flesh, which somewhat re- 
 sembles pork, and for its skin, which is tanned and makes 
 leather somelinies an inch thick, now used as a material 
 for bufling-whecls and heavy bells, and for other mechanical 
 purposes. Its teeth also furnish a very considerable amount 
 of the best ivory, used in making philosophical instru- 
 ments, etc. 
 
 Hip'po Rc'gius, the royal city of tho Numidian 
 kings, was a Tyrian colony on the W, side of the Gulf of 
 Bona. It became under the Romans a splendid city, and 
 was famed as the eco of St. Augustine, who d. there Aug. 
 28, 4.'J0. It was captured by the Vandals, after a siege of 
 fourteen months, in Aug., 431. About the middle of tho 
 seventh century it was destroyed by the Arabs, and its 
 materials woro used in building Bona, tho present Algc- 
 rino city, 2 miles N. of the ancient site. — lIiiTO Zau'itus, 
 or DiAR'niiVTrs, now iiizcrta, was a Tyrian, and afterwards 
 a Roman colony, near the extreme N. point of Afriea. on 
 the sea, at the entrance to a lagoon called Hippnuids Pahif. 
 flippothcrium [Gr. tjrjro?, a "horse," and t^piW, a 
 "beast"]. See IIousi:, Fossil, by Prop. 0. C. Marsh. 
 
 Hippll'ric Acid(IIC9ll8X03). This acid exists in tho 
 urine of herbivorous animals, and in small. quantity in that 
 of man. Ilippuric acid is readily converted into benzoic 
 acid, the change often taking place in the animal organism. 
 "When horses are kept in the stable or lightly worked (he 
 urine contains hippuric acid; when they are put to hard 
 work it contains benzoic acid. Cows' urino contains about 
 1.3 per cent, of hippuric acid; that of oxen sometimes as 
 much as 2.1 to 2.7 per cent. ; of horses, 0.38 ; the quantity 
 varies with the food and other conditions. Benzoic acid 
 taken into the alimentary canal appears as hi])puric acid 
 in tho urine ; the same is true of quinic acid. Hippuric acid 
 is readily separated from cows' urine in an impure form by 
 the additi()n of an excess of hydrochloric acid. When 
 purified and rccrystallizcd, it forms colorless, transparent 
 crystals. Its taste is bitter; it reddens blue litmus, dis- 
 solves in fiOO parts of water at .12° F., is readily soluble in 
 boiling water and in alcohol. Like uric acid, it dissolves 
 readily in water containing ordinary jdiosphate (»f sodium, 
 in such quantity as to change tho reaction from alkaline to 
 acid. Liebig attributes to this fact the acid reaction of 
 fresh urine. Ilippuric acid is converted by a ferment in 
 tho i)reseneo of an alkali, and by boiling with strong acids, 
 into benzoic acid and glycocinc : 
 
 Hippuric add. GIvcoelne. Dcaiolc acid. 
 
 lICgllgNOj -f IIjO - CallsNO-. ^- HCiIUOi. 
 (Sco WattHH Dirt, and StipplciurMf.) C. F. CiiANPLEn. 
 
 Ilippuri'tcs [onco considered a fossil I/ippitn'ny the 
 plant called mare's tail], an interesting genus of extinct 
 conehiferous niollusks, of which tho shells of some sixteen 
 species aro foun*! fossil in ihc lti/}piiritr Ihumtonr and other 
 European Lower Cretaceous strata. There have been many 
 theories and nineh dispute as U> the origin of these shells, 
 but they aro now generally referred to an extinct order 
 (Uudista) of conchifera. 
 
 Ili'rnm^ post-tp. of Oxford co.. Me., on the Portland 
 and Ogdencburf'^ 11. R., 35 miles W. by N. of Portland. It 
 has maiuifaiturcs of furniture, lumber, eouperago, etc. 
 
 Pop. ir;o:'.. 
 
 Iliram, tp. and post-v. of Portage co., 0., 4 miles N. 
 W. of Ciarrettsville, a station on the Atlantic and lireat 
 Western U. 11. It is the scat of Hiram College. Pop. 12.j4. 
 
 Hiram [called also HinoH and Hiram; JXvh. Cfdmm, 
 *' high-born," tho HiaoMrs of Mi-reunder], a king of Tyro. 
 contemporaneous with David and S(donu)n.and th<' ally of 
 both. He sent n. supply of cedar-timber, with ^liillrd erafts- 
 men, to assist David in consiructing his pataee, and in
 
 930 
 
 HIRE— HIRPINI. 
 
 Solomon's reign supplied timber, treasure, and men for the 
 buiWing of the temple at Jerusalem (Ufi'J B. c.)- He was 
 likewise a great builder at Tyre, and is said to have reigned 
 thirlj-four years; was son and successor of Abibal. 
 
 Hire, Iji. of McDonough co., III. Pop. 1186. 
 Uir'ing. This term has a variety of applications in 
 law as well as in common usage, and may refer to the cn- 
 gajenient of servants or to the leasing of real property, as 
 well as to the hire of things or professional services. But 
 in its more specific legal signification it denotes a species 
 of bailment by which the use of a chattel is contr.actcd for, 
 or labor or services affecting it are stipulaled to be given 
 for a compensation, express or implied. In this sense 
 alone will the subject of hiring be hero considered. Ref- 
 erence ni.-iy be made for its other applications to the titles 
 Mastkr axd Servant, Lkasr, Acknt, while the hire of 
 vessels will be considered under .Siiippixg and Ciiarter- 
 Partv. Hiring as a form of bailment is of three varie- 
 ties, whose names are expressed in Latin phrases: (1) Lo- 
 cntio rei, the hiring of a thing for temporary use; (2) 
 Locntio operia faciendi, the hiring of work and services or 
 care and attention to be bestowed upon articles delivered 
 by tho hirer to the person whose labor is engaged; (:!) 
 Locntio opcritt mercinm vehendarnmy the hire of tho trans- 
 portation of goods from one place to another. (The third 
 species is examined under the title Carrier, Com.«on, and 
 need not therefore be reconsidered. The other two will 
 be discussed separately.) 
 
 (1) Lucatio rei. — The hire of things constitutes a con- 
 tract for the mutual benefit of both parties, since tho owner 
 receives a compensation, while the hirer becomes entitled 
 to the use of the property : and the latter is accordingly 
 bound to ordinary care and diligence, and is liable only 
 for ordinary neglect. He must conduct himself with such 
 prudence, forethought, and dis-jretion as a man of ordinary 
 sagacity and reasonable soundness of judgment would ex- 
 hibit in similar circumstances. The degree of care requi- 
 site will vary with the nature of the property with which 
 he is entrusted. If it be delicate and fragile, or of great 
 value, or subject to deterioration unless attended to and 
 preserved with unusual watchfulness, greater care will bo 
 necessary than if it be of such a character that injury or 
 loss is not to be presumed probable unless there be exces- 
 sive imprudence. If a watch or a valuable horse wero 
 hired, greater precaution would need to be taken for its 
 security than would be required if the article were of in- 
 significant value. But if injury is occasioned by some ac- 
 cident which a reasonable foresight could not have anti- 
 cipated, or by theft or violence against which proper 
 measures of protection had been taken, the hirer is not 
 responsible, but the owner must bear the loss. The hirer 
 becomes invested with a special property in the goods for 
 tho prriod during which his right of temporary use is to 
 continue, and for any interference with his possession or 
 injury to the property by third persons he has a right of 
 actiun to recover damages for tho loss sustained. If tho 
 hiring be for a definite time, as is usually tho case, any at- 
 tempt even by the owner to retake the property or to pre- 
 vent its intended use will give tho hirer a claim for redress. 
 This rule is, however, subject to the qualification that if 
 the hirer makes any unwarrantable misuse of the property 
 tlie owner has a right to retake it, if he can do so peaceably, 
 or to bring an action for its immediate recovery. The 
 articles hired must only be used for the purposes contem- 
 plated by the contract, and the hirer's exclusive interest 
 IS defined and limited precisely by the stipulations agreed 
 upon. They must be used also in the manner ordinarily 
 apprujiriate, and must be surrendered when tho time of 
 the hiring has expired. Tho obligations of tho owner of 
 the property, other than those already stated, have not yet 
 been definitely settled at common law. There have been 
 some decisions holding that ho impliedly warrants the 
 property to b« fit for the purposes for which it is hired, 
 without reference to his knowledge of its unfitness. It is 
 quite clear that he would be liable if he knew of its unfit- 
 ness, and did not disclose tho defect, and injury was sus- 
 tained by the hirer in consequence ; so that, for instance, if 
 he let a horse which he knew to be dangerous, without in- 
 forming the hirer, and injury occurred through the ani- 
 mal's viciousness, ho would be responsible. The contract 
 of hiring may bo terminated by the expiration of tho 
 lime for which the c<mtract was made, or the completion 
 of the intended purpose, when the property reverts to tho 
 owner, who has a claim for whatever compensation was 
 agreed upon, or. if no definite arrangement ha<l been made, 
 to whatever sum might be deemed reasonable ander the 
 circumstances. 
 
 (2) Locntio opfriit /nrifndi, — The same principles in 
 reference to the degree of care to be required of the bailee 
 apply to contracts for labor and services to be bestowed 
 
 upou the thing bailed as in the hiring of chattels. Ordi- 
 nary care is required, and the measure of obligation is es- 
 timated by the value and nature of the articles delivered. 
 But the obligations of the workman depend also, in large 
 measure, upou the nature of his occupation. lie is held 
 responsible for tlie exercise of such a degree of skill and 
 careful workmanship in fulfilling the task imposed upon 
 him as is requisite in the ordinary labors of his trade or 
 profession. In accepting an engagement to perform a par- 
 ticular kind of work he impliedly represents himself as 
 coniiieteut fur such an undertaking, and may be made to 
 rcsiJond in damages for injuries sustained through any ex- 
 hibition of uuskilfulness or incapacity. If, however, his 
 incomijctence were known to the person engaging his ser- 
 vices, tho hirer must suffer the consequence without remedy. 
 If any instructions be given to the workman as to the man- 
 ner in which his labor is to bo performed, they must be ad- 
 hered to strictly. If there be a material deviation from 
 them, he can reco\tr nothing for his services, unless the 
 deviation be attributable to some unavoidable cause or be 
 acquiesced in by his employer. The employer's assent need 
 not be indicated by any express agreement, but may be 
 presumed from his conduct, il he has knowledge of the de- 
 viation from the terms of the contract before its execution 
 is completed, and makes no objection. If the bailee only 
 completes a portion of the desired work, ho can claim a 
 proportionate compensation if the benefit of what was ac- 
 tually performed was received in its incomplete state by 
 tho assent of the employer: but if the employer insist on 
 full performance or decline to make compensation on ac- 
 count of some substantial imperfection in the workmanship 
 or some injury which the goods have sustained, the work- 
 man is not only entitled to no reward, but may even be held 
 liable for the original value of the goods. The acceptance 
 of tho goods by the employer is not of itself sufiicient to 
 constitute an assent to a deviation from the contract, since 
 an owner has a right to the possession of his goods. If the 
 property is destroyed by some unexpected casualty, with- 
 out any fault on the part of the workman, or is carried 
 away by robbers notwithstanding the use of reasonable 
 precautionary measures for security, since the absolute 
 ownership remains continually in the employer, he must 
 sustain the loss. If any labor has been expended upon it 
 before the disaster occurs, the workman is, according to the 
 general rule of tho common law, entitled to a proper recom- 
 pense for services actually rendered, unless the entire ful- 
 filment of his engagement had been made a condition pre- 
 cedent to payment. Under the French law and the Code 
 of Louisiana the employer in such a case loses the value 
 of his materials and the employe the value of bis labor. 
 But that the loss of the property in such instances may fall 
 upon the employer, it is necessary that the contract be 
 strictly in the nature of bailment; and interesting ques- 
 tions "sometinus arise as lo whether a delivery of articles 
 to a workman and an engagement of bis services constitutes 
 this relation. If cloth be given to a tailor or gold lo a jewel- 
 ler, and the identical piece of cloth is lo be returned in the 
 form of a suit, or the same gold to be made into an article 
 of ornauunt. it is a ease of bailment, even though addi- 
 tions be made to the original article delivered in the course 
 of its alteration. But if the workman has liberty to ex- 
 pend his labor upon other materials of the same kind as 
 those delivered, being under no further obligation than to 
 return articles similar to those which would be made if tho 
 employers goods were used, this is not generally considered 
 as constituting a bailment, but only a species of barter or 
 sale. The em[)loyer makes use of his goods to purchase 
 others of the same nature in an altered form. The work- 
 man, therefore, owns the goods until his labor is complete 
 and the finished product acee]ited; and if they are de- 
 stroyed before that time the loss is his alone, and the em- 
 ployer has still a claim for the delivery of the article or- 
 dered. A similar question arises when grain is deposited 
 in a warehouse or elevator with the understanding that a 
 similar amount of the same quality may bo returned in- 
 stead of the very same grain delivered. The courts have 
 generally adjudged an agreement of this kind to be a sale, 
 and not "a bailment, so as to make the bailee responsible in 
 ease of accidental loss. In all cases where a person is to 
 furnish materials himself, and expend labor upon them, the 
 contract is evidently not one of bailment, but rather one 
 of s.ale, so that the" employ^ is subject to all the obliga- 
 tions of a vendor. 
 I The law concerning warehousemen, wh:irfingcrs, and inn- 
 keepers is also included under the head of Locntio nperit 
 faciencli, since such persons ilevotc care and attention lo 
 I the objects entrusted lo them, but fbeir liabilities will bo 
 
 considered under these several names respectively. 
 I (iFoRfiE CntsE. KKVispn BV T. W. IiwicnT. 
 
 1 Hirpini, an ancient jieople of Italy of Samnito race, 
 1 inhabiliUL' the central group of the .\pennincs between Lu-
 
 lIlliSClIBKRG— HISTOLOGY. 
 
 931 
 
 cania, Apulia, and Campania, and deriving their name | 
 from liirput, the Sumnite nnnio of a wolf. Tliov were siib- 
 juRiitcd by tho Kouiaus (iirobably togi'tlier with llie oilier 
 .Sainnili; trilics) bc-furc L'fiS u. c, at which time the Roman 
 e.iloiiy of Bcntvenluiu, whiih formed the strategical key I 
 lo their couiilry, was established. Iniuicdialely after the 
 battle of Oannie (2Hi B. o.) they declared in favor of Han- | 
 nibiil, but when he (in 209 B. c.) was driven towards the 
 southern )iart of Italy, they bou;;ht peaco on good terms 
 from the Romans bv betraying the Carthaginian garrisons 
 in their citie?. In the Soiial war (ilU B. r.) Iliey were 
 among the first who took up arms against Rome, but they 
 were soon reduced by Sulla. an<l after the end of the war 
 their name as an independent nation is not mentioned. 
 
 Ilirsoh'bcrg, handsome town of Prussia, iu the prov- 
 inie of Silesia, on the Uober. It has considerable linen manu- 
 factures, and one Lutheran and three Catholic churches. 
 Pop. 11.773. 
 
 Hirst (Hkskv B.), b. in Philadelphia .\ug. S.'!, ISl.'!, 
 was admitted to the bar in 184.'., having previously to some 
 extent been occupied in mercantile pursuits. lie published 
 several volumes of poems which had a wide ]iopularity — 
 
 The (\,mxn<i i,f ihc Mtimmolli. cic. (1846), Eiulijmion (1S48), 
 
 and Th€ Pcnnucc „/ Ituluud (ISI'J). D. Mar. 30, 1S74. 
 
 Hir'tius (.Ati.is) belonged to a plebeian family, but 
 played a conspicuous part in Roman politics on account 
 of his personal friendship and intimate political connection 
 with CiEsar. He served him in (Jaul as legate, and was 
 often employed as negotiator. He lived mostly in Koine, 
 on his Tusciilan estates, in the neighborhood of tlie villa 
 of Cicero, with whom he was on friendly terms and held 
 frcriuent social intercourse. He was clioscn consul for the 
 year 4'! B. r,, and entered on his official duties .Jan. I. Of 
 the horrible convulsions into which the assassination of 
 Ca'sar threw the Roman republic. Ilirtius was by no means 
 the master, hut his moderation and freedom from personal 
 ambition e.tercised a beneficial influence; and when he fell 
 at the head of the army which was sent against Antony, 
 then besieging .Mutina, the people mourned him. He was 
 a man of refined tastes and literary aceomplishments, and 
 the eighth book of Cxsars Cumnirniariei is generally sup- 
 posed to have been written cither by him or by Oppius. 
 Ilivpnnia, the Latin name of Spain (which see). 
 IIi^•pa■liola. See Havti, by Mki.vil Bi.oxcotiiiT. 
 llistiic'a, one of the oldest and most important towns 
 of Enbica, became subject to Athens during the Persian 
 wars, but revolted in 44.) n. c. As a ])unishuient the Athe- 
 nians removed all the inhabitants, ri|)laced them with Attic 
 colonists, and changed Iho name of the placo to 0;v'i(». 
 
 Ilistin-'usi, tyrant of .Miletus, won the attachment and 
 gratitude of Darius by guarding faithfully the bridge of 
 boats over which the Persian army crossed the Danube on 
 its expedition into Scythia in .oil! B. c. — a service by which 
 ho saved the army and the life of the Persian king. His 
 adventurous and ambitious character, however, could not 
 help exciting suspicion, and ho was detained at the Persian 
 court for thirteen years. At last he succeeded in raising 
 his Oreek countrymen in Ionia in rebellion .against Persia, 
 but Darius had still so much confidence in him as to send 
 him down to quench it. The rebellion itself failed utterly, 
 and the treachery of Histia'us was discovered by .\rta- 
 phernes, the Persian satrap of Sardis. Ho now fled from 
 place to place, stirring the different (ireck colonies iu Asia 
 rlinor into premature insurrections ; but at last he was cap- 
 tured ami put to ileath by .Artaphernes, who scut his head 
 to the Persian king. Darius, however, mourned deeply, 
 buried Iho head with honors, and blamed Artaphcrnes for 
 having acted hastily. 
 
 Ilistol'ogy [Cir. icTTos, "web," and Aoyot, "discourse"] 
 is the branch of anatomy which treats of thu minute etrue- 
 tnre of the tissues of which living beings arc composed. It 
 is subdivided into Hiimiiu luHlnhiijy, which treats of the tis- 
 sues of man : (%tmparatirr hiHtfiliit/t/, which treats of the 
 tissues i>r the lower animals ; and Vei/elrthfr hixtoioifff, which 
 treats of the tissues of plants. Fjach of these subdivisions 
 may be again divided into Xumnil and I'lillinlmjirol his- 
 tology — the first referring to thc> healthy tissues, the sec- 
 ond investigating the changes they undergo in disease. 
 
 Histology may bo said lo date ba-k only lo the appear- 
 ance of the Annlomic Gfnhiih of Bichat in ISOI, lor al- 
 though many interesting observations had previously been 
 made by Malpighi (lfi2K-',ll), I,eeuwenhoek ( In;i2-I72:i ). 
 Swamm'erdam (ll!;!7-80), Rnysoh ( ir.:!8-l 7:!1 ), Meberkilhn 
 (1711-0^1, Hewsnn (17.10-74), and others, yet Hichat was 
 the first who treated Ihc Buhjeet in a comprehensive way. 
 clasxil'ving according to Iheir structure, so far as it was 
 then understood, all the tissues of the human bn.ly. and 
 giving a gi-neral view of Iheir relations, both in health and 
 disease. His work gave a great impulse to the study of 
 
 t^ 
 
 the tissues, but the imperfect condition of the compound 
 microscope at that time was a serious obstacle to progress, 
 and it was not until tho opticians succeeded in devising 
 eflicient methods of correcting the spherical and chromatic 
 aberrations of that instrument that histidogy made any 
 important advance beyond tho position in which Bichat 
 left it. 
 
 Tho next epoch in the developmeift of histology is marked 
 bv the appearance of the works of Schwann ( l.s;iS-39), who 
 endeavored to show that the observations of Schleiden in 
 vegetable histology were substantially true for animals also ; 
 that all tissues are formed by the transformation of nucle- 
 ated cells : and that these arise dc novo under favorable eir- 
 cumstauces in a formless nutritive fluid or blastema. This 
 theory was extended tf) pathological anatomy by .Johannes 
 Miiller, and continued to be almost universally accepted 
 until the appearance of the cellular pathology of Virchow 
 (1858), which was sjicedily followed by tjio very gene- 
 ral acceptance of his doctrine, that cells can only arise out 
 of pre-existing cells, and that in both normal and path- 
 ological growth tho cells of the growing part multiply by 
 division, and thus give birth to all the elements ultimately 
 produced. This doctrine sccincil to be permanently estab- 
 lished on a sure foundation, when the discovery of the 
 wanilering cells in living connective tissue by Von Reck- 
 linghausen (ISCi), and the demonstration by Cohnluini 
 (1SC7) that these movable elements are in fact white blood- 
 corpuscles which have migrated from the blood-vessels, 
 compelled a modification of opinion, and showed that the 
 actual details of the growth and nutrition of the tissues are 
 much more complex than had been previously supposed. 
 Since the time of Schwann the nundjer of histological in- 
 vestigators of reputation has multiplied so greatly that it 
 would occupy more space than can here be given even to 
 enumerate them. The names of a few of the more promi- 
 nent will appear in the list of .works appended. In the 
 present article a sketch of some of the more important and 
 best-established elementary facts with regard to human 
 histology is all that can be attempted, and greater )iromi- 
 nenee will he given to the normal than to the pathological 
 branch of tho subject. The reader who desires more de- 
 tailed information is referred to the special treatises and 
 essays. 
 
 Elrmnilan/ Crils. — The tissues are composed of element- 
 ary cells and their derivatives. According to the long- 
 receivcil views of Schwann, elementary cells aro hollow 
 vesicles composed of an external membrane or cell-wall, 
 which encloses, besides fluid or solid contents of various 
 characters, a smaller vesicle, the nucleus, in which again 
 is contained a still smaller body, the nucleolus. It has, 
 however, been shown that many kinds of cells have no dis- 
 tinct walls, and in ninny others Ihc existence of a wall is 
 in the highest degree problematical; Max Sehultze accord- 
 ingly defines the cell simply as a little mass of protoplasm 
 containing a nucleus, and Briicke and Strieker, going a 
 step farther, are disposed to regard the nucleus itself as 
 unessential. 
 
 Protoplasm, thus brought into prominence in our con- 
 ceptions of the ultimate structure of living organisms, is 
 an albuminoid body, which under the microscope either 
 appears to lie rpiite honiogeneous or presents a more or less 
 granular aspect. It may be fluid, semi-solid, or soliil. and 
 probably varies considerably in its composition in diflVrent 
 situations and under different circumstances. .\ll its forms, 
 however, possess certain special jiropcrlies in common, of 
 which the most inii>ortant are the capability of manifesting 
 spontaneous inovements : of taking uji nulritive materials 
 from tlic surrounding media and transforming them into its 
 own substance, orof growing: and of reproducing its kind by 
 detaching portions which are capable of iudependent exist- 
 ence and growth. The elementary cells of the human tis- 
 sues usually contain a nucleus. This is an oval or rounded 
 body generally between .Omi2" and .OOOli"* in long iliam- 
 eler, composed of a material that certainly difl'ers from tho 
 protoplasm of the body of the cell in ofl'ering greater resist- 
 ance to the artiiin of iicirls and alkalies, and in behaving 
 somewhat differently with various reagents, but the precise 
 composition of which has not been determined. The nu- 
 cleoli arc even less constant and more imperfectly known 
 than the nuclei. The spontaneous movements in the pro- 
 toplasm of the elementary cells are most constant and ncile- 
 wortbv while the cells are young. These inovements, during 
 which the nucleus remnins quite passive, occur in |>art as 
 changes in the form of the cells, in part in consequence of 
 these changes iu Iheir form ; the cells change place, or wan- 
 der, among the surrounding elements in ft manner which. 
 
 • In this nrllele dimensions will he given In deeunals of an 
 ineb. IndleatluK the inch by the sli;n ". It must be onderstomi 
 that llie ficures given arc onlv olTered as nppr.iximiilions to the 
 nrrrnijr size of the several elements, and that the individual ele- 
 ments vary greatly In dimensions.
 
 932 
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 OD account of its similarity to the movements of the amoeba, 
 has been called amoeboid. When, at a later period in the 
 history of certain cell!?, they acquire a eell-wall or outer 
 membrane, they become lixcd, and are no longer capable 
 of amicboid movements. 
 
 The various transformations which cells undergo in build- 
 ing up the several tissues will be indicated in connection 
 with e;u'h. Here, howA'er, a word must bo i-a'ui as to the 
 mode in which the reproduction of cells takes ]>Iaec. Cells 
 usually multiply by division. In so doiuj;, the nucleus 
 first elongates, then becomes constricted in the middle, and 
 finally separates into two parts, which recede from each 
 other ; fission of the protoplasm of the body of the cell sub- 
 sequently occurs. Besides this mode, endogenous cell- 
 multiplication, and multiplication by gemmation or bud- 
 ding, lire admitted by many liistologii-'ts. The first is, in 
 most instances, if not always, merely tlie result of the con- 
 tinued multi])lieatinn by division of a protojilasniic mass 
 contained witliin a membrane or capsule; the second has 
 been observeil chiefly in the case of certain low vegetable 
 forms; ns, for example, the ycast-fnngus. As already 
 mentioned, it was taught by Schwann th:it cells might also 
 arise spontaneously in a formless fluid of suitable eompo- 
 eition. This supposition was brought into disrepute by 
 Virrhnw, who held that cells could only arise from pre- 
 existing cells — omin't ccllnln r ccffnfd. Of late, however, 
 numerous investigations have been publishetl which appear 
 to favor the doctrine of the spontaneous generation of the 
 lower organisms under suitable conditions ; ami if this view 
 should be established, it may turn out that the theory of 
 Schwann has been too hastily condemned. 
 
 Coimecthe TlnHtie. — The designation connective tissue 
 {Biiirt-ijewcbe of the (Jerman histologists) is bestowed upon 
 the widely diffused tissue which unites together the organs 
 and their several parts, and includes not merely the cap- 
 sules, sheaths, fascia, tendons, and ligaments, but also the 
 more delicate tissue which forms the supporting framework 
 of the special elements of the complex organs. Connective 
 tissue consists of special fixed cells, the connective-tissue 
 corpuscles, united together by an intercellular substance or 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 (k>nnectivc tissue, 
 matrix. In the latter a series of minute passages are chan- 
 nelled, and through these granular cells, identical in struc- 
 ture and appearance with the white corpuscles of the blood, 
 wander freely. The fixed cells are usually either spindle- 
 formed or stellate, and are provided with nu elliptical 
 tran.-iparont nueleus, immediately around which the proto- 
 plasm of the cell is usually more granular than elsewhere. 
 They vary greatly in dimensions in diiTeront situations, 
 the nucleus averaging about .000 l" in long diameter, anrl 
 the ceils being from twice to five or six times as large. 
 From the extremities of the spindle-formed cells and all 
 parts of the stellate ones proceed branching processes, 
 which vary considerably in number and length. In the 
 living tis?uc slow changes in the form of these processes 
 may be eliserved, hut so far as can be ascGrtaine<l these do 
 not leail to any change in the position of the cells. The 
 wandering cells are much less nucnorous under normal con- 
 ililions than the fixed, but in inflammation increase in num- 
 ber often to an enormous extent. They are derived from 
 the blond, and cscupe into the channels of the connective 
 tissue through stiunata in the walls of the small blood-ves- 
 selo. A part of ihem, both in health and in inflammation, 
 find thoir way from the channels of the matrix into the 
 lymphatic capillaries. That others remain in the tissue and 
 become fixed corpuscles is a plausible suggestion not yet 
 positively established. 
 
 The matrix varies greatly in characters and arrangement 
 in different situations, and by these variations determines 
 the external characteristics of the several varieties of con- 
 
 nective tissue. The diversity consists not merely in the 
 conformation, but also in the chemical composition of the 
 matrix, as is shown by the fact th;it certain forms of con- 
 nective tissue yield gelatiue on boiling, while others do not. 
 To the former belongs the so-called fibrillar connective 
 tissue, which is the dominant form in ?nau and the verte- 
 brates, at least in the adult state. The latter includes the 
 delicate connective tissue in the interior of the kidneys, the 
 liver, and the lymphatic glands, that in the brain and spinal 
 cord {the neuroglia of VirehowJ, and the succulent trans- 
 lucent tissue of the umbilical cord, which has been called 
 mucous tissue because acetic acid produces in it, a precipi- 
 tate of mucin in threads and flocculi, which dissolve in an 
 excess of the acid. 
 
 In the form of fibrillar connective tissue, which occurs in 
 the ligaments and tendons, the matrix appears, when ex- 
 aniint'd in indifferent fluids (aqueous humor, amniotic fluid, 
 or bbxid-seruni), to be composed of indistinctly tibrillated 
 bundles .(UtOj" to J)(II" or more in diameter, lying parallel 
 to each other, and anastomosing at comparatively long in- 
 tervals. Long narrow anastomosing channels are thus left 
 between them, in which, on the margins of the bundles, lie 
 the spindlrformcd fixed cells. Wlien examined in water 
 or neutral saline solution the fibrillar nppeanincc is much 
 more distinct, and after maceration in lime-water or baryta- 
 water the bundles are easily split into their component 
 fibrils, .t)(l004" or less in tliameter. which cannot be satis- 
 factorily done in the fresh state, so (bat indeed some have 
 gone so far as to pronounce the fibiilla an altogether arti- 
 ficial product. On treatment with dilute acids the bundles 
 swell up and hour-glass contractions appear at intervals. 
 These have beon ascribed by some to spiral clastic fibres 
 wound around the bundles. Others have supposed each 
 bundle to be enveloped in a delicate sheath, which is par- 
 tially ruptured by the swelling produced by acids, the re- 
 maining portions producing the constrictions. The latter 
 view has received considerable support from the recent in- 
 vestigations of Boll, who has arrived at the conclusion that 
 the cells of connective tissue are in fact thin scale-like 
 plates which form an endothelial lining to the channels be- 
 tween the bundles, and ascribes the appearance of the cells, 
 as usually seen, to imperfect methods of investigation. In 
 the fascia, the skin, the subcutaneous, submucous, and 
 subserous membranes, the periosteum, and the perichon- 
 drium, the fibrillar bundles do not run parallel, but cross 
 each other in diverse directions and iiio-culate at various 
 angles, so as to leave irregular spaces of \arioi;s sizes, which 
 freely communicate with each other. Kxccpt in this more 
 areolar arrangement the matrix in tliese situations differs 
 little from that of the tendons and ligaments. 
 
 When fibrillar connective tissue is boiled or treated with 
 dilute acids, the fibrillin disappear, and certain sharply de- 
 fined, more or less spiral, fibres come into view, which are 
 known as clastic fihrcs. These vary from .00006" or less 
 to .0004". or even more, in thickness; they branch fre- 
 quently, and in some situations form intricate networks. 
 Characteristic coarse networks of this sort exist in the skin, 
 more delicate ones in the serous and mucous membranes. 
 In the elastic coats of the arteries, the yellow ligaments of 
 the vertebral column, and the liganientum nuch:v, tliey are 
 very coarse, and form the most conspicuous tissue-element. 
 The varieties of connective tissue which occur in the kid- 
 neys, the lymphatic glands, etc. will Vie described in con- 
 nection with the organs in whicli fhey exist ; a word must, 
 however, be said here with regard to the mucous tissue of 
 the umbilical cord. This, in early I'letal life, consists of a 
 transparent, apparently structureless matrix, in which arc 
 embedded delicate stellate cells with branching, freely in- 
 osculating processes. Interspersed throughout the matrix 
 a certain number of wandering corpuscles are found. At a 
 biter period fibrillar bundles begin to appear on the matrix. 
 The interest which attaches to this tissue is due in part to 
 the fact that it resembles the embrycmic condition of tht 
 fibrillar connective tissue, in part to its resemblance to cer- 
 tain pathological new formations. Connectivr tissue serves 
 as the substratum for the ramification of the blood-vessels, 
 Ivmphaties, and nerves of all parts of the body. It stands 
 indeed in special relations to the lymphatics, the channels 
 and spaces of its matrix being the ultimate lymphatic pas- 
 sages. 
 
 Development of Connective Tintine. — At an early period 
 of the history of the embryo conneetive tissue consists of 
 round formative cells in close juxtaposition. Between these 
 the matrix gradually makes its ap)»e:irance, pushing the 
 cells farther and farther apart. .'Simultaneously the cells 
 change their shape, becoming gradually spindle-formed or 
 stellate. In the tendons and ligaments the matrix is more 
 or less distinctly fibrillar from its first appearapce. in 
 most other sitimtions it is at first homogeneous, resembling 
 that of the mucous tissue described above, and only subse- 
 quently HL-quircs a fibrillar eluira'-tt-r. Considerable diver-
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 933 
 
 sit.v of opinion still exists as to the interpretation of theae 
 ph'tnoinena. Some hold still to the view of Schwann, that 
 the formative cells themselves elongate and split up into 
 the bundles of fibrils; eomc. like lieule, suppose the peri- 
 pheral portions of the protoplasms of the cells (germinal 
 matter) to be gradually transformed into matrix (formed 
 material), so that this is created by the continual growth 
 of the cells, the peripheral portions of which undergo con- 
 tinual transformation. This view is substantially that 
 adopted by Kollet as the most probable. Finally, it is 
 held by others that the matrix is independently formed 
 between the cells by the transformation of the nutritive 
 blood-plasma. That the elastic fibres originate by the 
 transformation of a portion of the formative cells was long 
 held us certain. Doubts as to the accuracy of this view 
 have, however, been expressed, and Uollet advocates the 
 opinion that they originate by a direct deposit from the 
 plasma in the form of fibres. The evidence on which this 
 opinion rests is, however, far from conclusive. 
 
 Adipose Tianuf, — In many parts of the body the areolar 
 connective tissue encloses in its meshes groups of cells con- 
 taining fat. These cells arc round or oval, Bometinies 
 polygonal, as from mutual pressure, and .001" to .005" in 
 diameter. The presence of the fat conceals their nuclei, 
 but after its extraction by aljsolute alcohol, and the stain- 
 ing of the tissue by carmine, a nucleus can generally bo 
 observed in each, attached to the interior of the cell-wall, 
 which here appears as an undoubted membrane. The 
 groups of fat-cells contained in individual areolie of the 
 connective tissue are designated fat-lobules. Kich is sup- 
 plied with blood by one or more arterial twigs, whence 
 proceed numerous capillaries so arranged that each of the 
 larger cells at least is surrounded by its own capillary loops. 
 In their embryological condition the fat-cells are at fust i 
 nucleated masses of protoplasm, like other formative cells. 
 The fa! makes its appearance in the substance of the pro- 
 toplasm in small dro])S, and there finally coalesces into a 
 single largo one, occupying the central portion of the cell. 
 As the fat-drops grow still larger, the protoplasm becomes 
 more scanty, until only a thin membrane remains, with the 
 nucleus embedded in it. In certain forms of dropsy and 
 some other diseases the adipose cells lose their fat, which 
 is replaced by serum. A similar disappearance of the fat 
 has been observed in animals deprived of food, the fat 
 promptly reappearing when food is again supplied. 
 
 Ctiruffi'je. — Cartilage, like connective tissue, consists of 
 cells imbcilded in an intercellular substance or matrix ; the 
 latter may be homogeneous or fibrous, and accordingly two 
 varieties of cartilage are recognized — hyaline cartilage and 
 fibro-eartilage. Hyaline cartilage forms the cartilages of 
 the ribs, the ensiform cartilage, the articular cartilages of 
 the bones, the cartilages covering the opposed surfaces of 
 the symphyses, the nasal cartilages, all tlie cartilages of the 
 larynx except the epiglottis and the cartilages of Wrisburg, 
 and the cartilaginous rings of the trachen and bronchial 
 tubes. In this variety of cartilage the cells (cartilage cor- 
 puscles), when single, are usually oval, on an average from 
 .OOOD" to .001" in long diameter, and consist of a delicate 
 granular protoplasm containing one or two large oval 
 nuclei. They lio iu cavities (cartilage cavities) hollowed 
 
 Cartilage. 
 
 out in tho eoli<! matrix. Sometimes the cavities are of 
 larger size, an<l contain two or more cells, and then the ad- 
 jacent sides of thf'se are flatteneil. Sf»metimes groups f)f 
 two, four, or more cells, with their adjacent sides flattened, 
 lie quite near together, hut are separated by a narrow 
 layer of matrix. In living or perfectly fresh cartilage tho 
 cells exactly fill tho cavities in which thoy lie, but on tho 
 
 addition of water, or even of indifferent fluids, as aqueous . 
 humor or blood-serum, the cells shrivel and separate from 
 the parietes of the cartilage cavities, so that they appear 
 to be surrounded by a clear transparent space ; or they may 
 shrivel irregularly, remaining attached ut points to [ho 
 parietes of the cavity, so as to present a stellate appearance. 
 At the same time the matrix becomes more or less ilistinctly 
 granular. These changes occur also shortly after dciith 
 without the addition of reagents. The matrix when fresh 
 is homogeneous and quite transparent, no traces of tho ex- 
 istence of layers or cell-territories being observable even 
 with the highest powers. After the action of certain re- 
 agents, however, such us dilute chromic acid, or after digest- 
 ing for some time iu acidulated water at a temperature of 
 about 100° F., the matrix may be split up into concentric 
 layers surrounding the cell-groups and individual cells. 
 If cartilage bo boiled in water for some time, the matrix is 
 entirely dissolved, the solution containing the substance 
 known as chondrin. 
 
 Where cartilage is continuous with connective tissue 
 there is no abrupt boundary between the two, but tho one 
 passes by a gradual transition into the other. As we pro- 
 ceed from the cartilage to the connective tissue, the matrix 
 ijceomes first indistinctly, then distinctly fibrillated, and is 
 continuous with the connective-tissue matrix, while tho 
 cells arc more and more elongated until they present tlie 
 character of connective-tissue corpuscles. In the inter- 
 articular cartilages little masses of hyaline cartilage arc 
 imbedded in fibrillatecl connective tissue. This has some- 
 times been considered a variety of fibro-cartilage, but is 
 simply a mixture of cartilage with connective tissue. 
 
 !• ibro-cartilnffr {Hcticulur Carlilcyc, Yf:lloic Cartifftffc), 
 — The cells of fibro-cartilage arc quite like those of hy- 
 aline cartilage, but the matrix consists chiefly of a plexus 
 of anastomosing fibres resembling elastic fibres. lielween 
 these, however, a homogeneous substance similar to the 
 matrix of reticular cartilage no doubt exists, since tlicso 
 cartilages yield a small proportion of chondrin on boilii.g. 
 This homogeneous substance, in certain situations, is most 
 abundant immediately around the cells, where it is visible 
 under the microscope as a clear or slightly gianular area 
 in which no fibres are discerned. When fibro-eartilagc is 
 anatomically continuous with connective tissue, the fibres 
 of the matrix are continuous with tho yellow elastic fibres. 
 Fibro-cartilage, us above described, forms the cartilages 
 of the ear and of the Eustachian tube, the epiglottis, tho 
 cartilages of Wrisburg, and a part of the intervertebral 
 cartilages. Neither hyaline nor fibro-cartilage contains 
 cither blood-vessels, lymphatics, or nerves. 
 
 Uevflopment of Cni-tiUnje. — In early embryonic life car- 
 tilage is composed of simple formative cells in immediate 
 juxtaposition. These enlarge, and arc transformed into 
 cartilage-cells, and meanwhile the matrix gradually makes 
 its appearance between them, at first as a thin layer sur- 
 rounding each cell. In this condition the cells can rcailily 
 be isolated with the capsule of matrix about them; after a 
 time, however, the capsules surrounding atljacent cells be- 
 come fused together, and can no longer be isolated except 
 by the aid of reagents. As in the case of connective tissue, 
 several interpretations of these facts have been ofl"ered. The 
 view of lieule, that the matrix is formed by the transforma- 
 tion of the peripheral portions of tho protoplasm of the 
 growing cells, is substantially accepted by many excellent 
 histologists — among others, by Max Schull/.e ; while on tho 
 other hand, the view that it is produced independently by 
 the direct transformation of the nutritive plasma is not 
 without supporters. During the jn-oeess of growth the car- 
 tilage cells multiply by division. Cells containing two nu- 
 clei are frequently observed, as well as groups of two or 
 more cells lying together in a single capsule, as if just 
 divided. Direct observation of the process of division 
 is, however, no easy mutter. Tho division of tho cells is 
 immediately followed by the formation of a thin layer of 
 matrix between the two resulting cells, and this will gener- 
 ally be found to exist when two or more cells appear to 
 lie together in tin? same capsule, if the cells be eausrd to 
 shrink as deseril'cd above. This thin partition-wall of 
 matrix groiiuuHy increases in thickness, pushing the new- 
 formed cells farther and farther apart. Tho fibres of tho 
 matrix of reticular cartilage are developed in tho sumo 
 way as the eloslic fibres. With advancing age a deposit 
 of iime-salls takes place in the matrix of certain cartiliii;fs, 
 as in those of the larynx and of the ribs. A similar chaitgo 
 takes place in ossifying curtilages and in certain morbid 
 conditions. It is known as the ealoification of earliliige. 
 
 Ifnnr, like eurtiluge, consists of cells imbedded in a 
 matrix. In thin seetifins of <lried bono tho position of tho 
 cells is marked by the presence of small stellate cavities 
 about .OOOS" iu average length, and rather lens than half 
 as broad — the bone-laounie, from which rudinlo delicate 
 canals, .00006" in diameter, the canaliouli. The cannliouli
 
 984 
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 of adjacent lacunae anastomose freely. Examined by trans- 
 mitted lij^ht, the lacuna' and canuliculi appear dark, the 
 matrix traiit-parent ; \>y redectcd liglit the finmcr appear 
 \?hito and opaque, the latter transUiceut. These appear- 
 ances depend upon the tact that in dried bono the lacunar 
 and ennallculi are hollow and contain air, as may be de- 
 monstrated by first tlowing turpentine upun a thin section 
 while under microscopical observation, antl tlien permitting 
 it to dry. In recent bone, and especially in growing bune, 
 the laeun.r are tilled with a mass of jinitoplasm containing 
 a nucleus, which sends processes into the canaliculi. 'XUe&e 
 
 Bone (loni^itiiiliuul ». 
 
 masses of protoplasm are the proper bone-cells. Osseous 
 tissue is very vascular, and the capillaries lie in the com- 
 pact substance of the long bones in a series of longitudinal 
 anastomosing channels — the canals of Havers — which are 
 continuous with the larger canals containing the nutritive 
 arteries, with the areolar spaces of the spongy extremities 
 of the bones, and with the marrow cavities. In transverse 
 sections of the compact shafts of tlie long bones, thcreibre, 
 the canals of Havers appear as rounded or oval openings, 
 disposed at tolerably regular intervals, with the lacuna; ar- 
 ranged regularly around them in coaccntrio rows. In lon- 
 FiG. 4. 
 
 Bone (,ir;ut-v' r-i- . treated with acid. 
 
 gitudinal sections the canals appear as a network with 
 elongated interspaces, in which the laeunie lie in rows par- 
 allel to the canals. In the extremities of the long bones 
 and in the spongy boncK thin sections display an areolar 
 structure, and the bone-lacuna.* are always arranged more 
 or less evidently in rows parallel to the margins of the are- 
 olar spaces. 
 
 If bone be treated with dilute acids the earthy matter 
 of the matrix is dissolved, and a material resembling car- 
 tilage is left behind, which, however, does not yield chon- 
 drin on boiling, but gelatine. When transverse sections 
 arc made through the shalt of a long bone, after the re- 
 moval of the eartliy matter by aciils the matrix no longer 
 appears homogeneous, but is disposed in a number of thin 
 concentric layers {Ilavcrsiau lunufta) around eaeh Haver- 
 sian canal. Tlie spaces between the systems of lamella) 
 thus formed are occupied by inttrmcdiatr lamcUfc, which 
 run parallel to each other without any definite relation to 
 the course of the adjoining Haversian lamella; : and, lastly, 
 just beneath the jicriosteum is a series of pcriphcntl la- 
 mc//.T, the course of which is 2>arallel to the surface of the 
 bone. 
 
 The medullary cavities of the long bones arc filled with 
 a delicate, very vascular connective tissue, rich in fat-cells 
 — the marrow. The areola; of the spongy extremities of 
 the lung bones and of the spongy bones also contain a del- 
 icate vascular connective tissue, in which, however, there 
 are few fat-cells; instead, it abounds in round granular 
 cells and masses of protoplasm containing many nuclei, the 
 myeloplaxis of Kobin. Wandering cells arc abundant in 
 this tissue, less numerous in the marrow, in which, how- 
 ever, they accumulate in certain pathological conditions. 
 
 Derelopvifut of Bone, — In early fwtal life the skeleton is 
 entirely cartilaginous, and bone first makes its ajipearance 
 by a transformation of the cartilaginous skeleton, com- 
 mencing at certain definite centres or points of ossification. 
 There are usually several such centres to each bone, which 
 are separated by earlilage until the growth of the bone is 
 complete. The cartilaginous septa thus left, of which those 
 between the epiphyses and shafts of the long bones may be 
 taken as types, maintain their dimensions by a continual 
 growth, while their margins are constantly being trans- 
 formed into bone. Lesidcs this development of bone in 
 cartilage, it is also developed in connective tissue. This 
 is the ease with the thin cranial bones, in which a primor- 
 dial cartilaginous stage docs not exist. A similar forma- 
 tion of bone out of connective tissue takes place beneath 
 the j)eriosteuni of all growing bones. It is by this jiroccss, 
 for example, that the long hones increase in thickness, 
 while their increase in length takes place by the growth 
 and ossification of the cartilages between the shaft and 
 epiphyses. The earlier hist()!ogists supposed that the for- 
 mation of bone out of cartilage occurred by a ilcjiosit of 
 earthy salts in the matrix of the cartilage, transforming it 
 into bone-matrix, while the cartilage-cells were metamor- 
 phosed into bone-cclls. Subserjuent observations have 
 shown, however, that the process is by no means so simple. 
 The first formation of bone in the facial cartilaginous skel- 
 eton is preceded by an ingrowth of blood-vessels, sur- 
 rounded by a delicate layer of cells (foetal marrow), into 
 the substance of the cartilage, which is absorbed to permit 
 the entrance of the new tissue. Shortly after a deposit of 
 earthy salts takes place in the matrix of the cartilage at 
 the point of ossification. Detailed observations as to the 
 earliest development of true bony tissue are yet wanting, 
 but it seems probable that from (he first, as certainly al- 
 ways occurs afterwards, the bone is farmed by the transfor- 
 mation of the peripheral portions of the fo;>tal marrow. 
 When, after the process is fairly under way, thin sections 
 are cut, including the developing bone on one side and the 
 foetal cartilage on the other, the following conditions are 
 observed: In the portion of the cartilage immediately ad- 
 joining (he already formed bone the cells are disposed in 
 closely packed rows perpendicular to the surface of ad- 
 vancing ossification. In these rows the cells which are 
 more distant from the bone are flattened and have flattened 
 nuclei; those nearer to it progressively more oval or 
 I rounded, with rounded nuclei. A deposit of lime-salts in 
 the matrix between these rows extends in the fttrm of fino 
 trabecular some little distance beyond the already formed 
 bone. The cartilage-cells nearest lo the ossifying territory 
 are always unusually large and clear, and immediately next 
 to them groups of small granular eelis. surrounding one or 
 more capillary loops, lie in the most external areola* of the 
 already formed bone. These groups of granular cells arc 
 the terminal buds of the fa'tal marrow. No transition 
 forms between them and the adjacent row of large clear 
 cartilage-cells have been observed, and it therefore seems 
 improbable that these become converted into the granular 
 cells by any process of tlivision. It has been suggested 
 by Ilcnke that the granular cells are formed from migrated 
 white corpuscles, hut it is more generally believed that from 
 the first the ftetal marrow intrudes into the cartilage along 
 with the blood-vessels by continued eell-multipUcation. 
 Both views lack the support f)f actual observation. It is 
 more positively established that the ])eripheral granular 
 cells become hone-eclls. These peripheral cells are known 
 as osteoblasts, and form a distinct layer (the osteoblastic
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 935 
 
 layer ) un the surface of the terminal buds of foetal marrow. 
 The dclaiU of the transformation have not been fully made 
 out; 8ome holding that all the osteoblasts become stellate 
 
 yiUi; cartilatro. 
 lionc-.-.-.i^. ■i.».-,ii xiiioh the bone-malrix accumulates as 
 the transformation proceeds, while others suppose that a 
 large proportion of them are transformed into bone-malrix, 
 and that this transformation, being limited in a certain 
 number to their peripheral portions only, leaves the stellate 
 bone-cells. It will be understood from the above that the 
 cartilage of the fa-tal skeleton is to be regarded as merely 
 a temporary formation, and that the multiplication of its 
 cells in rows, and the deposit of liuic-salts in the matrix 
 between them, are preliminary steps to its complete disap- 
 pearance before the growing? bone-tissue. The formation 
 of bono beneath the periosteum takes place in a manner 
 essentially similar to what has just been sketched. A layer 
 of ostcobiasis is developed between the connective tissue 
 of the periosteum and the part of the bono which has al- 
 ready been formed, and these are transformed into bone in 
 the same way as the osteoblasts of the foetal marrow. 
 
 Miitculiir Titt'ic. — There are two varieties of muscular 
 tissue, the non-striated and the striated. The uuu-slrinlcd 
 muscles are composed of spindlc-fornied contractile fibre- 
 cells with elongated or rod-like nuclei. These occur in the 
 muscular coats of the intestinal canal, the middle coat of 
 the arteries and veins, the posterior part of the walls ol the 
 trachea aud bronchial tubes, the ciliary muscle and the 
 iris, the skin (where Ihey constitute especially the crectorcs 
 pili muscles), the lymphatic glands and spleen, the walls 
 of the gall-bladder and biliary ducts, the ureters and uri- 
 nary bladder, the uterus and Fallopian tubes, etc. etc. The 
 fibre-cells are composed of a contractile substance, which 
 is either homogeneous or faintly striated longitudinally; 
 in this, besides the nucleus, a number of strongly refrac- 
 tive granules are imbedded, a pyramidal group of them 
 generally appearing at each extremity of the nucleus. 
 I'^omelimes the extremities of the fibre-cells are divided 
 into t\vo or more branches. In length these cells for the 
 most part range between .0010" and .OOS"; their average 
 breailtb is about .0001", and their nuclei range from .0006" 
 to .001" in long diameter. They are united into larger or 
 smaller fasciculi by a delicate eonneotivc tissue consist- 
 ing of a homogeneous matrix, with scattered stellate, 
 anastomo.xing cells. On a transverse section through these 
 fasciculi the divided fibre-cells present irregular polygonal 
 outlines. Tho fasciculi are united by septa of ordinary 
 fibrillar conueelivo tissue. The arteries and veins supply- 
 ing tho miiseiiiar tissue lie in these septa; tho capillaries 
 enter the muscular fasciculi and are distributed between the 
 fibro-cells. The relation of the inuseular fibre-eells to tho 
 nerves will bo described in connection with the nerves. The 
 tlrinlid miitctf consist of cylindrical or somowhal fusiform 
 fibres, .0004" to .002.')" in diameter, which in short muscles 
 
 extend from one insertion of the muscle to the other; in 
 long ones, seldom exceed an inch and a half in length. 
 These are marked transversely by close parallel lines, lliu 
 well-known transverse striie. Each fibre is invested by 
 a delicate structureless sheath, the sarcolemmn, beneath 
 which, aud on tho exterior of the muscular substanco 
 proper, oval nuclei, the so-called muscle-corpuscles, are 
 scattered at irregular intervals. 
 
 With proper management the muscular fibres may bo 
 split longitudinally into a bundle of minute fibrils, or trans- 
 versely into a series of narrow disks, lience, as was first 
 taught by Bowman, each fibre is composed of a great num- 
 ber of quadrangular particles, the sarcous elements. Colin- 
 heim, by the investigation of thin sections of frozen mus- 
 cles especially, has shown that these sarcous elements are 
 separated from each other by a transparent intervening 
 substance. Briicke has pointed out that the sarcous ele- 
 ments polarize light, while the intervening substance does 
 not. lie found their doubly refractive power to be uniaxial 
 and positive, and by a study of their behavior when exam- 
 ined with polarized light during contraction, arrived at the 
 conclusion that each consists of a group of smaller doubly 
 refractive bodies (disdiaclasts) capable of changing ]iosi- 
 tion with reference to each other during contraction, and 
 thus modifying tho form of the sarcous elements. To this 
 view Strieker appears to incline, though he expresses him- 
 self with a certain reserve. Various other views of tho 
 structure of muscular fibres have been offered, with regard 
 to which the render must consult the special treatises. The 
 muscular fibres are bound together into fasciculi by a del- 
 icate connective tissue resembling that which unites the 
 fibre-cells of organic muscles. The fasciculi arc united by 
 septa of ordinary fibrillar connective tissue, in which tho 
 nutritive blood-vessels lie. The latter give off a system of 
 capillaries which form a network between the individual 
 muscular fibres. The termination of the nerves in striated 
 muscular fibres will be described hereafter. All the volun- 
 tary muscles of tho body, aud certain of the involuntary 
 ones also, among which the most notable is the heart, con- 
 sist of striated muscular fibres. In the heart the muscular 
 fibres offer several marked peculiarities. They branch and 
 anastomose with each other, forming thus a ccmtinuous net- 
 work, and they are divided by highly refractive transverse 
 lines into segments .002" to .003" in length, each of which 
 has a single nucleus in its centre, so that they have been 
 described as chains of luusclc-cells. Besides this, they fre- 
 quently contain numerous fat-molecules, even when apjia- 
 rently quito healthy. In their transverse striation, and 
 most of tho details of their minute structure, however, they 
 resemble tho other striated muscles. 
 
 Kervea and lYerve-cenlrcs. — The nervous system consists 
 of a scries of branching cords, the nerves, which originate 
 in the brain, spinal marrow, and ganglia, ami are distrib- 
 uted to tho tissues, where, for the most part, they end in 
 certain special terminal 
 I'iG. 0. organs. The ncrvcH con- 
 
 sist cither of single nerve- 
 fibres or of fasciculi of 
 fibres united together by 
 vascular ciuinectivc tissue. 
 In most of the cerebro- 
 spinal nerves, with tho 
 exception of their central 
 and peripheral termina- 
 tions, the nerve-fibres con- 
 sist of a central ])ortion, 
 tho axis -cylinder, sur- 
 rounded by a medullary 
 .slieiilh, the white matter 
 of Schwann, and this 
 again covered by a deli- 
 cate investing membrane, 
 the slltnlh of Schwann. 
 .Such fibres arc ilesignated 
 niedullaled nerve- fibres. 
 The sheath of Schwann is 
 U 1(11 lllllIIIII "' tfi^tisparent strm;turo- 
 
 1 I IJl illl/lliil less membrane, like the 
 
 Barcolemma of the nuis- 
 eular fibres. Tho medul- 
 lary sheath is a peculiar, 
 highly refractive, oily 
 substance eontaining pro- 
 togon, which, when tho 
 fibres are torn across, 
 exudes from their cx- 
 treniiiics as tho so- 
 called myelin drops. Tho 
 axis-cylinder consists of a bundle of extremely minute 
 ftbrils'unitcd by a delicate granular material. Medul- 
 latod norve-fibrcs range for tho most part from .0002" 
 
 i7 
 
 Medullatcd ncrve-fibrcs.
 
 93(5 
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 to .OflOS" in diameter: when perfectly fresh they appear 
 smooth and round, with hero and there an oval nucleus, 
 but in a short time the medullary sheath undergoes a kind 
 of coagulation, changing it into a granular semi-transparent 
 mas?, which ."brinks away from the peripheral sheath in 
 some places, and encroaches upon the axis-cylinder in 
 others, so as to present very irregular contours. Mcdul- 
 lated ncrvc-fibrcs i>ranch frequently, especially towards 
 their peripheral terminations, the axis-cylinder dividing 
 into two or more portions, each of which is invested with 
 a mcdull:iry Inyer, and a sheath of Schwann continuous 
 with those of the primitive fibre. The secomlary nerve- 
 fibres thus produced arc individually smaller than the one 
 from which they spring, but in the aggregate the thickness 
 of the branches is usually greater than that of the original 
 fibre. Still farther towards the periphery both the sheath 
 of Schwann and the medullary sheath disappear, the latter 
 sometimes before the former, and the axis-cylinder which 
 alone remains then divides and subdivide-s until it is broken 
 up into its primitive fibrils, which are extremely minute, 
 .00002" or less in diameter, and often present a delicate 
 beaded appearance. Another variety of nen-e-fibres is 
 found in tlr.' branches of the great sympathetic nerve, 
 which, on account of the absence of the medullary sheath, 
 have been called non-meduUated fibres (also Remak's fibres). 
 These correspond in size for the most part to the medium 
 and smaller mcdulhited fibres, and when fresh are smooth 
 or somewhat granular, often marked by faint longitudinal 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Remak's nerve-fibres. 
 
 striations. They consist of a peripheral sheath, identical 
 with that of the medullated nerve-fibres, enveloping a 
 bundle of primitive nerve-fibres united by a finely granular 
 interfibrillar substance. Such non-medullated fibres exist 
 also in the olfactory nerves, and in the white matter of the 
 brain and spina! cord fibres are encountered which arc quite 
 similar, except that they do not possess the peripheral sheath 
 of Schwann. The medullated nerve-fibres of the brain and 
 spinal cord are also destitute of the sheath of Schwann, to 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 Myelin coagulated nerve-fibres. 
 
 the absence of which from both kinds of fibres, together 
 with the delicacy of the conncctivo tissue in which they 
 arc imbedded, the softness of tho white matter of the 
 nerve-centres is duo. 
 
 From the foregoing it will be understood that the primi- 
 tive nerve-fibrils are the characteristic elements of all nerve- 
 fibres, and that the various appearances of nerve-fibres in 
 diverse situations depend upun whether the fibrils occur 
 singly or in fasciculi, and are or are not invested with me- 
 dullary and pcriplieral sheaths. Max Schultzc has pro- 
 posed, on the basis of these circumstances, the following 
 classification of ncrve-fibres : I. Non-medullatcd fibres : 1, 
 
 primitive fibrils; 2, fasciculi of primitive fibrils; 3, these 
 last, with a sheath of Schwann. II. Medullated fibres : I, 
 primitivo^fibrils with medullary sheath ; 2, fasciculi of 
 primitive fibrils with medullary sheath j 3, these last, with 
 a sheath of Schwann. 
 
 The ycrve-ccntres. — The brain and spinal marrow con- 
 sist, as is well known, of two varieties of nerve-tissue, the 
 white and the gray. The characteristic elements of the 
 former are medullated and non-medullated nerve-fibres, 
 neither of which jjossess the sheath of Schwann ; in the 
 latter, besides similar fibres, nerve-cells are encountered, 
 whicli arc also the characteristic element of the several 
 ganglia. The nerve-cells are rounded, oval, or stellate 
 bodies .0002" to .COS" in diameter, consisting of a granular 
 protoplasm, with a round or oval nucleus which usually 
 contains a nucleolus. Fach cell gives off" one or more pro- 
 toplasmic processes twice to six times as long as the diam- 
 eter of the cell or layer. According to the number of these 
 the cells are called unipolar, bipolar, or multipolar. The 
 l.'irge multipolar nerve-cells in the anterior horns of tho 
 gray matter of the spinal cord are particularly available 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Nerve-cell. 
 
 for study. In each of these cells all the processes but one 
 branch "frequently, until finally the ramifications escape 
 observation. The exceptional process, as first demonstrated 
 by Deitcrs, pursues its course without branching, and be- 
 comes ultimately the axis-cylinder of the medullated nerve- 
 fibre. Like the axis-cylinder, this process consists of deli- 
 cate fibrils united by a granular interfibrillar material. The 
 fibrils can be traced into the substance of the nerve-cell. In- 
 deed, recent investigations have shown that all the proto- 
 plasmic processes of the ncrve-cclls contain similar fibrils 
 which interlace in the substance of the cell, and many of 
 which can be traced through it from one process to another. 
 Cells essentially similar to these, though smaller, arc found 
 in the gray substance of the cerebrum and cerebellum. IJe- 
 sides these, there are, in the gray subst.ince of the brain 
 especially, an immense number of small cells in which no 
 peripheral process has been demonstrated, all their ]>ro- 
 cesses branching until they become fine fibrils, or having 
 a fine fibrillar character from the very first. The desti- 
 nation of these fibrils is still a matter of uncertainty. 
 
 The nerve-cells and nerve-fibres of tho brain and si)inal 
 cord arc imbedded in a delicate connective tissue, the ncu-
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 937 
 
 roglia of Virchow. This consists of branching and anas- 
 tomosing connective-tissue cells and delicate elastic fibres 
 imbedded in a finely granular matrix. The sympathetic 
 ganglia are traversed by medulluted and nou-mcdullated 
 fibres, and contain numerous nerve-cells, which, like those 
 of the spinal cord, give origin to fibres, all being united to- 
 gether by ordinary fibrillated couneclivc tissue. Some of 
 the nerve-cells arc multipolar, like those of the spinal cord, 
 but it is impossible to follow their processes for any dis- 
 tance on account of the density of the connective tissue in 
 which they lie. Others arc unipolar, and in this case the 
 single )iroccss, like the peripheral process of the cells of the 
 spinal cord, is continuous with the axis-cylinder of a nerve- 
 fibre. Bcale has described a form of cell in the sympathetic 
 ganglia of the frog which gives off two processes, one of 
 which winds spirally around the other. 
 
 The I'eriphcrul Termiitaliiin:< nf ihc .Vines. — The periph- 
 Fio. 10. 
 
 v,v— - 
 
 
 Ttriiini.tii'iu v>i mrve in voluntary i.i...-^!v. 
 eral terminations of the nerves in the organs of special sense, 
 in the cornea, skin, and other situa- Yiq, \\. 
 
 tioni", will bo described in connection 
 with these several parts. Here, there- 
 fore, we shall sketch only the termina- 
 tion of the nerves in muscle and in the 
 Pacinian bodies. In the ca5e of the 
 voluntary muscles, medulla ted nerve- 
 fibres terminate in peculiar organs sit- 
 uated iinmc'iiiitely beneath the sar- 
 colcnima. At the point where the nerve- 
 fibre joins the muscular fibre the sheath 
 of Schwann becomes continuous with 
 the sarcolerama, while the medullary 
 sheath ends abruptly, and the axis-cyl- 
 inder, penetrating beneath the sarco- 
 Icmnia, expands into a delicate, trans- 
 parent, more or less branched terminal 
 plate, which is separated from the stri- 
 ated substance of the muscular fibre 
 by a little elliptical granular mass in 
 which several nuclei arc imbedded. 
 Every striated muscular fibre has at 
 least one of these nerve-tcrminatious ; 
 the longer fibres receive several of 
 them. In the ease of the non-striated 
 muscles the nerve-fibres first lose their 
 medullary sheaths, then branch, and 
 finally split up into their ultimate 
 fibrils, which form a plexus between 
 the fibre-cells of the muscle. From Organic muscle, 
 this plexus a series of short delicate branches is given 
 ofTf one or more of which enter the substanco of the 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 however, these knobs give off filaments which pasa 
 through the substance of the nucleus and fibre-cells to 
 join the iutermuseuiiir plexus again. The Pacinian bodies 
 are peculiar terminations of the sensor^' nerves, whirh in 
 man arc found in the subcutaneous connective tissue of the 
 sides of the fingers and toes, in the intermuscular space?, 
 and in the vicinity of joints. They are elliptical bodies 
 .Ul" to .1" iu long diameter, which consist of numerous 
 
 Fio. 13. 
 
 N' Mc-iirmlnatlon in orfjanlc muscle, 
 nucleus of each fibre-cell, and apj)arcntly terminate there 
 in a minute knob or granule. According to J. Arnold, 
 
 Pacinian body. 
 
 concentric layers of delicate connective tissue, forming a 
 laminated capsule with a narrow elongated central cavity. 
 A single medullatcd nerve-fibre enters one extremity of the 
 capsule. Its external and medullary sheaths disappear 
 shortly after its entrance, while the axis-cylinder penetrates 
 the central cavity, and having extended nearly its whole 
 length, forms a terminal knob, or breaks up into a knob- 
 like brush of terminal fibrils. 
 
 The lilood consists of a colorless liquid, the liquor san- 
 guinis or blood-plasma, in which float two kinds of cellular 
 elements, the red and white cor]>usclcs. When the blood 
 coagulates, fibrin in a more or less distinctly fibrillated con- 
 dition separates from the jilasma, entangling the corpuscles 
 in its meshes. The remaining fiuid portion, or serum, con- 
 sists of albumen and certain salts dissolved in water, Tho 
 red blood-corjmncUs in man arc flattened biconcave disks 
 the average diameter of which is usually stated at v,^^ of 
 an inch, Wclcker makes them rather larger, .00774 of a 
 milliniL'tre, or .OOO^J" very nearly, the usual variations be- 
 ing between .0004 and .OOSG of a millimr-trc. Their number 
 has been estimated by Vierordt at 5.000,000 to a cubic mil- 
 limetre. They consist of a homogeneous elastic substance, 
 are destitute of a nucleus, and, according to most modern 
 histologists, are not invested with a special membrane or 
 cell-wall. In the majority of mammals the l>lood-corpuscles 
 are similar in form to those of man, but differ somewhat in 
 size. On this diversity in size alone the attempts to iden- 
 tify human blood by the microscope for legal purposes arc 
 based. It should be remembered, however, that the cor- 
 puscles of certain animals, particularly tho monkey and the 
 Fio. 14. 
 
 TTumnn rod blood -corpuscles, 
 dog, BO closely approximate tho dimensions of those of 
 human blood that it is quite impossible to discriminate
 
 938 
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 them by the microscope even in fresh blood ; and as after 
 soalting out a blood-stain the original size of the blood-cor- 
 puscle is not always exactly re|)roduccd, it becomes dif5- 
 cult todi-stinguish human blood under such conditions from 
 the blood of a considerable number of animals the corpuscles 
 of which appro.\imatc those of r... .:; 
 
 man in size. It is also to be 
 noted that the dimensions as- 
 siguLMl to the corpuscles of man 
 and mammals by various au- 
 thors dilTer considerably. In 
 the camel and llama the corpus- 
 cles are elliptical, but possess 
 no nuclei. In bird,", reptiles, 
 and lishcs the corpuscles are el- 
 liptical flat disks possessed of an 
 oval nucleus, which, when the 
 edge of the corpuscle is turned 
 towards the eye, is seen to pro- 
 ject on each side above the sur- 
 taee of the disk. The following are the mean dimensions 
 of the corpuscles of a few animals, as given by Welcker, in 
 decimals of a millimetre : 
 
 Fio. 17. 
 
 Red blood-corpuscles : 
 Reptile. 
 
 Elliptical Corpn8clc8f long 
 diameters. 
 
 Llama 0080 
 
 Pigeon 0147 
 
 Frog 0223 
 
 Triton 0293 
 
 Proteus 05S2 
 
 Sturgeon 0134 
 
 The ichiie hlood-corpmchs, as seen circulating in the 
 living blood-vessels, are spherical granular bodies, most of 
 which in man have rather greater diameter than the red (on 
 the average nearly .0004"). Each is a little mass of proto- 
 plasm whieh contains one or more nuclei, \yhen a drop of 
 human blood is watched 
 
 Circular Corpuscles, 
 
 Man OOi'7 
 
 Bog oor;i 
 
 Cat 0005 
 
 Rabbit 0069 
 
 Sheep OOoO 
 
 Moschus Javanicus 0025 
 
 with the microscopo 
 while the temperature is 
 kept at about 100° F. 
 and evaporation is pre- 
 vented (by means of the 
 hot stage and moist 
 chamber), it will be ob- 
 served that the majority 
 of the white corpuscles 
 assume the most diverse 
 forms, and creep across 
 the field of view with a 
 motion resembling that 
 of the amteba. Similar 
 amoeboid motions are 
 observed in transparent 
 corpuscles which have ra 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 Amoeboid movement of white 
 blood-corpuscles. 
 
 living tissues in white blood- 
 rated from the vessels. Two 
 
 boundaries of which are best displayed by the imbibition 
 or injection of dilute solutions of nitrate of silver and sub- 
 sequent exposure to light. The 
 nuclei may afterwards bo demon- 
 strated by carmine staining. These 
 cells range usually from .001" to 
 .004" in length; the nuclei on an 
 average arc about .0006" long. The 
 walls of the true capillaries appear 
 to consist merely of this single 
 layer of cells, which are irregular 
 in outline, and vary considerably 
 in form in the capillaries of differ- 
 ent organs. As the capillaries pass 
 into tiie small arteries the endo- 
 thelial cells become fusifttrm ; in the 
 small veins they are irregularly 
 polygonal. In the line of junction 
 between these cells small irregular 
 openings, the so-called stomata, 
 are mapped out by the action of 
 silver, especially in the smaller 
 veins. As they ],roceed from the 
 capillaries towards the heart both 
 veins and arteries acquire an in- 
 vestment of connective ti.'^sue, in 
 which a layer of circular muscular 
 fibre-cells soon makes its ajipear- 
 ance. After this three distinct 
 coats can be distinguished in both 
 arteries and veins, consisting of 
 the epithelial lining, reposing upon 
 a thin layer of connective tissue, 
 ricli in elastic fitjrcs, many of which 
 run longitudinally; a middle or 
 muscular coat, consisting of mus- 
 cular fibre-cells disposed circularly 
 and united together by connective 
 tissue abounding in elastic fibre; 
 adventitia'; a', nucleus "■"' "■' external coat, or ndvcn- 
 of tunica adveniiiia; 6, titia, composed of fibrillatcd con- 
 musde nucleus; c. elas- nectivc tissue. The coats of the 
 
 cell ',u:,;^"b?i„xt,^u^: jr' T --■''--•^'v'''""" ";- 
 
 form cells. those of arteries of the same size, 
 
 and contain less elastic tissue. On 
 
 the other hand, the thick middle coat of the larger arteries 
 
 Small artery; a, tunica 
 
 Fio. 18. 
 
 varieties of these amoeboid corpuscles may bo distin- 
 guished — one coarsely, the other finely granular ; tliere is 
 besides a third variety of white corpuscles, which are 
 very delicately granular, smaller than the red corpuscles, 
 and e.viiibit no amoeboid motions. LastI}', the blood con- 
 tains considerable numbers of still more minute protoplas- 
 mic particles destitute of nuclei. The wliite corpuscles in 
 all vcrtebrated animals are essentially similar to those of 
 man, but the amoeboid motions in those of the cold-blooded 
 animals take place at a lower temperature. Their differ- 
 ences in dimensions in the various classes of animals arc 
 much lessthau in the case of the red corpuscles. The white 
 corpuscles are much less numerous than the red. Welcker 
 estimates the proportion at 1 to 335, but it varies with a^-o 
 and sex, and indeed in different individuals and in the same 
 individuals at different limes. The blood of the splenic 
 and hepatic veins contains a much larger proportion of 
 white corpuscles than that of the splenic ai^ory and portal 
 vein. 
 
 Verelopmcnt </ the Blood. — The earliest red corpuscles 
 are derived immediately from the primitive cells of the em- 
 bryo, and even in man and the mammals are nucleated. 
 The non-nucleated red corpuscles make their appearance 
 later, and entirely replace the nucleated ones before birth. 
 They appear to originate by the transformation of wliite 
 corpuscles, and the subsequent supply is kept up in the 
 same manner as has been shown in the case of the frog by 
 Von Recklinghausen and Gulubew. The white corpuscles 
 themselves originate in the lymphatic glands and the spleen 
 in a mode which as yet is undetermined, probably by the 
 mulliplication by division of the cells of the parenchyma. 
 Lastly, attention has been directed to the marrow of the 
 bones as a situation in which the transformation of white 
 corpuscles into reel is particularly active. 
 
 The lilood-renfirh. — The heart and blood-vessels, includ- 
 ing the capillaries, are lined throughout by an endothelium 
 consisting of a single layer of flattened nucleated cells, the 
 
 
 -■%!,:> 
 
 a 
 
 Lymphatics: central tendon diapbracm 
 of rabbit : n. lymph capillaries ; r. con- 
 nective tissue Willi serous canals; il, 
 flask-shaped dilatations. 
 
 is distinguished by 
 the great quantity 
 of elastic tissue 
 which it contains. 
 Longitudinal mus- 
 cular fibre-cells oc- 
 cur in the adven- 
 I titia of some of the 
 larger arteries and 
 veins. The coats 
 of the veins within 
 the cranium, in the 
 bones, and in the 
 maternal portion 
 of the placenta eon- 
 tain no muscular 
 fibres. The larger 
 arteries and veins 
 are nourished by a 
 system of vessels, 
 the vasft vasorum, 
 which ramify in 
 the external coat 
 and sentl capillary 
 branches to the 
 muscular layers 
 beneath. Nerves 
 enter the middle 
 coat of both larger 
 and smaller vessels 
 (with the excep- 
 ti(tn of the true ca- 
 pillaries), and ter- 
 minate in the mus- 
 cular fibre-cells in 
 the manner ol- 
 rcady described. 
 
 The lijviphaticn, 
 like the blood-ves- 
 sels, are lined by a 
 single layer of flat- 
 tened endothelial 
 cells, the bounda- 
 ries of which are 
 
 best displayed by the action of silver, while their nuclei
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 939 
 
 can I<c (lein*nistrated by tho nsc of carmine. In tho 
 smaller Ivinj^liaticH and in tho lymphatic capillaries those 
 cells are distinguished by the sinuous character of their 
 margtus and by tho large size and great number of the 
 stouiata betwcfu them. The larger lympliatics possess 
 a middle muscular and an external cunneciive-tissuo coat, 
 resembling the corresponding tunics of tlie veins. The 
 stomata of the lymphatic network communicate with the 
 By«tem of spaces already described a.s everywhere existing 
 in the connective tissue. These torm a system of canals 
 (plasmatic canals, serous canals), which vary in size and 
 form in various parts of the body, and which, as Von 
 Hocklinghausen has shown, arc best demonstrated by tho 
 action of silver, which blackens the intervening matrix, 
 leaving the plasmatic canals uncolored. The plasmatic 
 canals comnumicate also with the blond-vessels by the sto- 
 mata of the latter, and thus form the passages through 
 which the white corpuscles move when they migralo from 
 the vessels. 
 
 The hfmphatic tjfandn arc interposed in the course of the 
 lymphatics. When these, on their way from the peripheral 
 portions of the body, arrive at a ghmd (vasa aH'crentia). 
 thoy ramify on its surface and enter its substance frnni the 
 periphery. The i)ranchcs leatling friKn the gland towards 
 the larger lymphatics trunks (vasa etfcrentia) escape from 
 the hilus. The lymphatic glands arc invested by a capsule 
 of connective tissue, and consist essentially of a delicate 
 reticulum of branching connective-tissue cells, the meshes 
 (»f whicli are tilled with small granular cells resembling the 
 white corpuscles of the blood. When thin sections of 
 glands, hardened in alcohol, are pencilled with a brush, a 
 portion of these elements are detaclied, and the more tiriuly 
 attached cells which remain in situ appear as cord-like 
 masses (follicular ct)rds). which furm a plexus in tlic cen- 
 tral medullary portion of the gland, while in the cortical 
 portion thoy expand into rounded orclub-shaped dilatations. 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 St.. V 
 
 Lymphatic gland: a, follirmar >-\\A^ . /-, rr;iiM-(ii)a-;.', lymph-path. 
 If the pencilling be continued, the lymphoid cells are de- 
 tache<l irom these follicular cords also, and it is then seen 
 tliat tho meshes of the reticulum are smaller in them Ihan 
 in the intervening portions of the glaiirl. The coiinectivc- 
 tiifsue capsule gives off to tho interior of the gland a series 
 of trabecuUo which form an areolar network, interlacing 
 with tho plexus formed by the follicular cords in such a 
 way that in sections the trabeculaa appear to oecupy tho 
 centres of the spaees between the cords, with whi<-h they 
 are connected by the coarse reticulum above described. 
 This coarse reticulum between the trabeeuhe anrl the 
 fiillieiilar cords constitutes the lynipb-path. the easily de- 
 tached lymphoid elements of wbieh are eoiislaiitly carried 
 away by tho current of tho lymphatic circulation, and as 
 constanily renewed: it communicates directly with the 
 vasa afferenlia at the periphery of tho organ, nnd with 
 the vasa efl'erentia at the hilti". ('onnecled with the lym- 
 phatic plexuses of the mucms membrane of the nlimentnry 
 canal espeeially are eertiiin glandular borlies, the /i/tnphnti'r 
 /itlticfct, the parenchyma of which is very similar in its 
 structure to that r)f the follicular cords just described, and 
 which, for this reason, and on account of (heir relations lo 
 the l\mphatic vessels, are to be regarded as minute lym- 
 phatic glands. Tho solitary glanila and glands of Peyer 
 
 in the intestines, tho closed follicles of the tonsils, pharynx 
 and back of the tongue, are of this nature. 
 
 The Ijfinph is the colorless, slightly opalescent fluid con- 
 tained in the lymphatics. Its morphological elements, the 
 lymph-corpuseles, arc in all respects identical with the 
 white corpuscles of the blood, which in fact are continuallv 
 recruited by the lymph-corpuscles entering the subclavian 
 veins through the thoracic duct nnd the lymphatic duel of 
 the right side, while on the other hand, white blood-cor- 
 pnsclcs which have migrated from the blood-vessels into 
 the serous canals of the connective tissue continually enter 
 the lymphatic capillaries and became lymph-corpuscles. 
 The lymph which leaves the lymphatic glands by the vasa 
 efFerentia is so much richer in corpuscles than that which 
 enters them as to leave no doubt tliat these glands are ono 
 important seat of the formation of the lymph-corpuscles. 
 They probably originate by tho multiplicatiftu by division 
 of the cells of the parenchyma, but the details of the |iro- 
 cess have hitherto escaped observation. A sintilar forma- 
 tion of white corpuscles takes place in the spleen, and 
 probably also in the lymph- follicles and the marrow of tho 
 bones. 
 
 The sfrnufi niemhrnnes consist of a thin layer of connect- 
 ive tissue coated on the side next the serous cavity by a 
 single hxycr of endothelial colls. These are flattened 
 polyhedral, nucleated elements, generally with sinuous 
 margins, which are best displayed by the action of silver. 
 It is then seen, also, that numerous ^;harply defined, round- 
 ed, or irregular spaces, the so-called stomata, exist between 
 the margins of tho cells. Tho membrane on which this 
 endothelium reposes consists of a network of interlacing 
 bundles of fibrillar connective tissue with stellate fixed cor- 
 puscles and elastic elements. It contains, besides blood- 
 vessels and nerves, a rich plexus of lym}dnitic capillaries, 
 which appear to communicate freely with the serous cavi- 
 ties by means of tho stomata. In consequence of this ar- 
 rangement, milk or colored fluids, such as carmine solution, 
 introduced during Hie into serous cavities — as, for example, 
 the peritoneum or the pleural sacs — are speedily taken up 
 by the lymphatics, a natural injection of whicli may thus 
 be effected. Tho lymphatic cajiillarits may also bo demon- 
 strated by soaking the membrane in nitrate of silver and 
 exposing it to the light. The connective-tii^sue matrix is 
 thus blackened, while tho blood-vcs;;eIh and lymphatics ap- 
 pear as light-colored channels lined by their characteristic 
 endothelium. From the abundance of these lymphatics, and 
 the readiness with which they take up fluids introduced 
 into the serous cavities, the latter luu e been of late re- 
 garded by some as belonging to the lym])hatic system. 
 
 T/ie Splci.u. — The spleen is investerl externally by the 
 peritoneum, immediately beneath which is a firm connec- 
 tive-tissue capsule. From the inner surface of the capsule 
 numerous processes (traltecnbe ) proceed into ihe substiuico 
 of the organ, uniting with each other to form a network, 
 the areolar intersiiaces, which arc filled with the splenic 
 pulp, liolh the capsule and the trabeeuhu contain a con- 
 sidcralde number of muscular fibre-cells and elastic ele- 
 ments. Where they adjoin the veins the trabeculio become 
 continuous with the adventitia of these vessels, which thus 
 acquire unusual firmness and are preventiil Uu\\\ colla]>s- 
 ing. The splenic pulp consists of lymphoid elements re- 
 sembling those of the lymphatic glands, like which, when 
 examined fresh, they exhibit ama'-boid movements. These 
 elements are united by a faintly granular, tenacious iiiler- 
 cellular substance. In the mass thus formed, according to 
 Frey, an anastomosing .system of passages, lined by an 
 endothelium consisting of a single layer of spin<iIe-formed 
 cells, is hollowed out. These passages communicate with 
 both the arteries and veins, an-l serve for the transmission 
 of blood. In consequence of their existence tho splenic 
 pulp may be considered as itself disposed in a network, in 
 the meshes of which lie tho trabeeuljp, the blood-vessels, 
 and tho passages just described. The splenic artery after 
 entering the organ, breaks up into smaller and smaller 
 branches, which sotui become characterized by the large 
 numbers of lymphoid elemenls in their adventitia, and also 
 by the presence of peculiar oval structures, the Malpighinn 
 bodies. These are from .01" to .01" In diameter, and are 
 readily rccctgni/.ed by the naked eye <)n aecount of their 
 whilisii eidor. Tliey consist <d" cells resembKiig those uf 
 tho splenic pulp, behl together, like them, by an iutereel- 
 lular material, which, towards their peripheries, acquires a 
 resemblance to ordinary connective tissue, without, how- 
 ever, forming a complete capsule; the jiareneliyma of the 
 iMalpighian bodies being thus continuous with the >pIenio 
 pulp. Tho arteries nnd veins of the spleen are united by 
 a rieli }dexus of capillaries, which ramify in the substance 
 (»f Ihe splenic pulp, and form a wcll-develo|»ed network on 
 the periplieries of the iMalpighian bodies, into the interior 
 c»f which they also jienetrate, though with wi<ler meohcs. 
 Besides, according to Frey, as already mentioned, both
 
 940 
 
 histol(x;y. 
 
 arteries and veins open into tbe parenchymatous passages 
 described above. Tiiis view is, however, not universally 
 accepted, some histolugists lujUling tliiit the s^plenic arterits 
 communicate with the veins by capillaries iu the ordinary 
 way only. Further investigations are needed to reconcile 
 these conflicting views. The nerves of the spleen are de- 
 rived from the sympathetic system, and primarily accom- 
 pany the arleric;*. They terminate in the muscular fibre- 
 cells of the middle coats of the bluod-vcssols. and iu pecu- 
 liar ellipsoid organs described hy W. MUlicr, which are 
 well developed in carnivorous animals, but only rudiment- 
 ary iu man. The lymphatics of the splteu form a close 
 plexus in the capsule of the organ, whence numerous 
 branches are given olf into its interior; tliere a second 
 plexus is formed, the larger branches of which for the 
 most part accompany the arteries. 
 
 The Skin und irn Apptiiflu'/cs. — The skin consists of a 
 superficial epithelial layer, the epidermis, and a deeper 
 layer, the coiium ur true skin. The corium is from .02" to 
 .1" thick, and is composed of dense connective tissue, many 
 of the fixed corpuseics of which arc stellate, especially in 
 its more superficial portions, where also tiiey are smaller 
 and more numerous. The fibrillatcd matrix of this con- 
 nective tissue is so disposed as to form a dense network 
 with small intercommunicating meshes, which are largest 
 in the deeper parts of the corium, and there contain groups 
 of fat-cells, btill deeper, the network becomes continuous 
 with the loose connective tissue of tbe subcutaneous fat. 
 Interlacing with this connective-tissue network is a second 
 network of eoarse and fine elastic elements. On its ex- 
 terior surface the corium presents great numbers of little 
 elevations, tbe papilla}. These are merely rounded projec- 
 tions over tbe greater portion of the body, but in some 
 situations, especially in the palmar surface of tbe bands 
 and fingers, become conical elongated processes .004" in 
 length or longer. They are divided into vascular and ner- 
 vous, the first containing capillary loops, the second the 
 terminations of nerves. The blood-vessels of the corium 
 form in its deeper portion a close plexus, whence numerous 
 branches are given off towards the surface. These form, in 
 tbe most superficial portion of the corium, a second still 
 closer plexus, from which the capillary loojis of the ])apilla) 
 arc derived. There arc also two plexuses of lymphatics, a 
 superficial and a deep — the first situated just beneath the 
 superficial plexus of blood-vessels, the second just beneath 
 the deep vascular plexus. The lymphatic capillaries of 
 these plexuses communicate with the communicating areo- 
 lar interspaces of the connective tissue of the skin, which 
 here, as elsewhere, are to be regarded as lymphatic pas- 
 sages. 
 
 The nerves of tbe skin are composed of mcdullatcd 
 nerve-fibres, part of which terminate In the peculiar cor- 
 jmscles of Meissner and Pacini, while others lose their 
 medullatcd sheath, and, after breaking up into bundles of 
 fibrils, form a plexus in the superficial portion of tbe corium. 
 Innumerable single fibrils, given off from this plexus, pene- 
 trate the epidermis, and terminate with bulbous extremi- 
 ties in its deeper layers. The corpuscles of Meissner (tac- 
 Fjg. 20. 
 
 i 
 
 
 Tactile corpusoh's: a, vascular papilla ; fc, nerve-papilla; c, blood- 
 vessel ; rf, medullatcd nerve-fibre ; e. tactile corpuscle ; /, trans- 
 verse section of mcdullatcd nerve-fibre. 
 
 tile corpuscles) aro contained in the nervous papillie, and 
 
 are most numerous in the pnlmar surface of the hand and ! 
 
 fingers. They are oval bodies about as long as the pa}>illa} 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 ir.'.'l: 
 
 in which they are contained, but rather narrower, composed 
 of a modified connective tissue with transversely disposed 
 nuclei, and marked superficially with transverse lines. 
 Each is penetrated at its inferior extremity by one or more 
 medullated nerve-fibres which run towards tiio opposite ex- 
 tremity, cither straight or in a spiral manner, and termi- 
 nate there in a mode which is not yet fully madu out. 
 
 The epidermis varies in thickness from .002" to .15", and 
 is composed of numerous strata of ejitthelial cells, the 
 deeper ones being soft and rounded, while the more super- 
 ficial are flattened and horny ; it is hence divided into a 
 mucous and a horny layer. Tlie cells of the mucous layer 
 arc nucleated masses of granular protoplasms. Those of 
 them which are immediately in contact with the corium 
 are elongated or culun^nar, and about .0004" in average 
 length. Next above these the cells have about the same 
 diameter, but are rounded or polygonal from mutual pres- 
 sure, and succeeding strata increase in size towards the 
 surface of the mucous layer, becoming more and more flat- 
 tened, (ill the uppermost cells have a transverse diameter 
 of .001" or more, with less than half the thickness. Tbe 
 nuclei of the cells of tbe mucous layer vary with the size 
 of the cells from .OlUll" to .0004". Tbe horny layer con- 
 sists of strata of cells flattened into mere polygonal scales 
 .001" to .0015" or more in diameter, and extremely thin. 
 In most of them no nucleus can be made out. The most 
 superficial cells of this layer are constantly being thrown 
 <irt, while the superficial cells of the mucous layer con- 
 tinually undergo the horny transformation, and thus re- 
 place the loss. T<» maintain this process a constant de- 
 velopment of new elements goes on in the deeper parts of 
 
 tbe mucous layer. This 
 is generally believed to 
 take place by the mul- 
 tiplication of the epi- 
 thelial elements of the 
 deepest strata. Rceent- 
 ly, however, it has been 
 shown that wandering 
 corpuscles migrate from 
 the corium into the mu- 
 cous layer, where they 
 can ahvays be found in 
 thin sections between 
 the epithelial cells. It 
 has hence been suggest- 
 ed that the new ele- 
 ments arise, in part at 
 least, by the fixation 
 and transformation of 
 these migrated cells. 
 
 The dark color of the 
 skin in certain races is 
 due to the deposit of 
 pigment - granules in 
 the cells of the lower 
 part of the mucous 
 layer. 
 
 The hnirs vary con- 
 
 .••iderHliiy in thickness 
 
 in difierent situations. 
 
 'J'he long soft hairs of 
 
 the head, bcord, etc. 
 
 usually range between 
 
 .UOIJ'' aud^ .004" in 
 
 ihiekncss; the short 
 
 stiff hairs of the eyc- 
 
 lashis, eyebrows, no9- 
 
 irils. :ind auditory mea- 
 
 ri:s, from .0025" to 
 
 iMUi" ; and the downy 
 
 liuirs of the general 
 
 -urface of the body 
 
 from .0005" to .001''. 
 
 The proper substance 
 
 of nil these varieties of 
 
 hairs can be broken up, 
 
 by thenetiou of sulphu- 
 
 m- ric acid, into flat elon- 
 
 Ilair from beard: o. orifice of hair- gated fibre-cells .002" 
 
 foltiole; b, neck of follicle; r, dila- - ..verntre Icnt^th 
 
 taliou of follicle;./, outer follicular '" . 'V ^'P^® „ , !^" "* 
 
 sheath; ^ inner follicular sheath; tach hair is coated ex- 
 
 /, outer root-sheath; g, inner root- ternally by a cuticle 
 
 ^heath; A, cortical s\ibstance of hair ; composed of a single 
 
 k, medullary substance of hair; /, javerof flattened scales, 
 
 root of hair; «i. adipose eels; v „hich overlap each oth- 
 
 erector pih ; t, sebaceous frlanu; o, i , 
 
 papilla; of skin; s, mucous layer; er like the shingles on a 
 
 //^horny layer projecting into hair- roof; internally, in the 
 
 siic. coarser hairs at least, isa 
 
 central medulla composed of granular polygonal cells .0000" 
 
 to .0008" in diameter. The color of the hair is due to pig-
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 941 
 
 mcDt-graouIcs deposited both in the medulla and the proper 
 hair-subsr:inc*e. Kaeh hair grows from u vasculur papilla, 
 \7hieh projects into the bultom ot' the Iiair-folliclu. Iiiirac- 
 diately upou the surface of this papilla is a siuRlc layer 
 of columnar cells similar to those of the deepest layer of 
 the opiilerrais. To thcso succeed several strata of poly- 
 gonal o.ies. and Ihcsc. according; to their position, pass by 
 transition into the elements of the huir-cutit!e, hair-sub- 
 stance, and medulla. The growth of the hair is effected by 
 the multiplication of the cells in the immediate vicinity of 
 the pnpilln. The hair-foUiclcs are from .08" to .25" long, 
 and extend deep into the corium — in the ease of the larger 
 hairs, f|uite through it. The connective tissue of the corium 
 inline liately ailj<iining them is so condensed as to form an 
 external sheath, the fibres of which run parallel to the hair. 
 The portion of this sheath nearest to the follicle is more 
 homogeneous, and contains nuiseular ril>re-cells disposed 
 longitudinally; it is known as (he internal sheath of the 
 follicles: its very innermost part, being quite transparent. 
 is called the vitreous membrane. Both the mucous and 
 horny layers of the cpidorniis are continued into the sheath, 
 which they line as far as the papilla: the lirst lies next to 
 the vitreous nieuibrane. and is called the external root- 
 sheath ; the second is thinner, and is designated the internal 
 root-sheath. From near the orifice of the follicle to the 
 papilla the internal root-shcath is adherent to the outer- 
 mo.-Jt layer of celU on the surface of the root of the hair, 
 which is termed the sheath of Huxley. The hair-papilhe 
 are vascular processes of connective tissue which project 
 into the bottoms of the follicles ; they arc conical in shape, 
 with constricted necks. Two small arteries enter each 
 papilla; these usually unite to form a single trunk, which 
 breaks up into a capillary network from which two emerg- 
 ent veins proceed. A small artery an<l vein also ramify in 
 the substance of the external sheath of the follicle. Nerves 
 have been traced as far as the neck of the papilla, but 
 their mode of termination remains unknown. 
 
 The erector mn^rtes o/ the hair are narrow bands of mus- 
 cular fibre-cells .0018" to .0011" in thickness, which arise in 
 the upper part of the eoriurn ancl run obliquely inward to be 
 inserted into the internal sheath of the hair-follicles just 
 beloir the sebaceous glands. Each hair-follicle enters the 
 skin oliliquely, forming an acute angle with the surface, 
 and as the muscle lies in the corresponding obtuse angle, 
 its contraction erects the hairs. 
 
 One or more ncbaceuuH tjUnuh open into each hair-follicle 
 just below the level of the general surface of the corium. 
 Kach of these glands consists of from two to twenty some- 
 what oval sacculi .OOJ" to .01 1" in long diameter, com- 
 posed of a transparent nucleated membrane, filled with 
 nucleated gland-cells, resembling the cells of the mucous 
 layer of the epidermis. The cells nearest the walls of the 
 sacculi often contain no oil ; in the more central cells oil is 
 usually present in drops of various sizes imbedded in the 
 e«^ll-8ubstance. The size of the sebaceous glands is (luitc 
 independent of the sixc of the hairs with which they arc 
 connected, and sometimes, though rarely, they open direct- 
 ly upon the surface of the skin without being connected 
 with any hair. 
 
 The Hirrttt-ylunda arc simple tubular glands, each con- 
 sisting of a delicate nucleated shcalh, lined by a single 
 layer of columnar nucleated cells, which leave in the cen- 
 tre a narrow cylindrical passage. The diameter of the 
 (iiuc averages about .0t»26" ; its tlcepcst extremity forms a 
 coil or glomerulus .008" to .010" in diameter, which Is 
 surrounded by a plexus of blood-vessels, and lies in the 
 lower part of the corium or in the subjacent adipose tis- 
 sue. From this coil the tube pursues a nearly straight 
 path to the surface of the corium, where both the sheath 
 and the columnar cells terminate, and the central passage 
 becomes continuous with a spiral canal hollowed out be- 
 tween the cells of the epidermis, whi'-h oiiens on the ex- 
 ternal surface of the horny layer. The hairs, sebaceous 
 glands, and sweat-glands are developed from the mucous 
 layer of the epidermis, papillary outgrowths of which in- 
 vade the corium and undergo the requisite trnnsforniations. 
 .'>imiiltanenusly, the adjacent layers of (he corium are inet- 
 aniorphosed into the external sheaths of the hair-follicles 
 and glands. 
 
 The tmiU arc to be regarded as special modificationa of 
 the epidermis, and consist, like it, of a mneous and a horny 
 layer, llie latter being the true nail. In the fold of skiii 
 from which the root of the nail grows the corium is ele- 
 vated into papilla? projecting forward, which in the true 
 bed of the nail are replaced by a scries of panilhl longitu- 
 dinal ridges or laminio .002" to .OOK" high. These papilhe 
 and ridges are abnndanlly supplied with blood-vessels, and 
 nuineroiis medullated nerve-fibres exist in the subjacent 
 connective tissue, which lose iheir medullary sheath on 
 entering the corium, ancl break up into fine branches, the 
 ultimate termination of which is not fully known. An ac- 
 
 I tive development of cells takes place in the mucous layer 
 ! at the root of the nails: and as a similar development oe- 
 I curs, though less actively, in the mucous layer of the iiail- 
 , bed, the nails are at once pushed forward and increased in 
 thickness towards their free margins. The horny layer, or 
 Dail-substancc, is composed of irregular polygonal cells in- 
 timately united together, but which can be isolated bv re- 
 agents, as, for example, by maecration in solution of potash. 
 The Vitfcutiie Ortfaiis. — The month is lined by a mucous 
 mcmbrauo which is directly continuous with the skin, and 
 like it consists of a vascular layer of connective tissue be- 
 set with papilla? and a many-layered epithelium, the super- 
 ficial cells of which are llattencd scales, the deeper ones 
 polygonal, and those next the connective-tissue layer co- 
 lumnar. The connective-tissue layer, howe\er. is much thin- 
 ner than the corium ; in the epithelium u horny layer can- 
 not lie diseri^ninated as in the epidermis, and the large 
 superficial epithelial scales, .0016" to .OO.'l" in long diam- 
 eter, contain oval nuclei .00u;j" to .000-1" long. The papillie 
 of the mucous membrane vary in size and shape in diU'erent 
 parts of the oral cavity ; they arc particularly conspicuous 
 on the upper surface of the tongue, where three varieties 
 are discriminated — viz. the filiform, fungiform, and circum- 
 vallatc. The filiform papilla* are pretty uniformly distrib- 
 uted over all portions of this surface. They arc conical 
 elevations of the mucous membrane, the apices of which 
 terminate in a number of secondary papilhe. the whole be- 
 ing covered with a tlitck layer of epithelium, which, at the 
 apices, breaks up into a number of slender (irocesscs. each 
 composed of epilheliul cells adhering together. The fungi- 
 form papilla: arc situated at the anterior part of the tongue, 
 chiefly on its tip and edges. They are club shaped projec- 
 tions of the mucous membrane with narrow necks, beset 
 upon the surface witli small secondary papilhe. and smoothly 
 covered over with epithelium. The cireumvallate pnpilUc 
 arc arranged in the form of a V at the root of the tongue. 
 They are flattened elevations, somewhat constricted at their 
 bases, beset, like the fungiform, with smalt secondary pa- 
 pillae, and surrounded by a circular elevation of the mucous 
 membrane, from which they are separated by a narrow de- 
 pression. All these varieties of papilla^ are jn-ovided with 
 both blood-vessels and nerves. Connected with the nerves 
 are special organs of taste, the so-called gustatory bulbs, 
 which are situated chiefly ou tlie sides of the eircunivullate 
 papilla:, but also exist, though less plentifully, on the fungi- 
 form papilla?. They have the form of round-bellied flasks 
 
 about .OOIJ" long, and rather more than half as broad, which 
 occupy cavities in the epithelium, resting below on the con- 
 nective-tissue layer of the niueitus nirmbrane. They are 
 composed of flattened, spiudU-- shaped nucleated cells, which 
 enclose a number of m<tre <Ielieate Ihrcatl-like ones, and are 
 connected inferiorly with a plexus of non- medullated nerve - 
 fibrils. This plexus originates by the splitting up of (he 
 axis-ovlinders of the terminal mednUated fibres of the gus 
 tatory nerve in the substance of the papilla'. The central 
 cells of these bulbs arc belic\ cd to bo the true gustatory 
 cells, while the others are regarded as epilheliul in their 
 nature, and arc ^■o arranged as to leave at tin" apex of the 
 biilb a <rircular opening about .0001 t" in iliaiiieler. the gus- 
 tatory pore, through which sapid sr)liitions gain acci-ss to 
 the gustatory cells. The oral cavity Is provided with a 
 considerable number of small mucous glands .03" to .10" 
 in diameter, similar in structure (o Ihe salivary glands, and 
 <lesigua(ed, aeenrding to tliclr situation, labial, buccal. ]>al- 
 atine, and lingual glands. 
 
 The gn/iriirif iffmith are racemose glands, the ducts of 
 which are lined with a cylindrical epiihilium and branch 
 in a Irec-IIke manner, terminating finally in sacculi or al- 
 veoli .flOiri" lo.liu:'." in diameter, anrl linedwith polygonal 
 seereting cells .0001" to .0007" in diameter. The whole is 
 united into a mass by a delicate conncctivo tlssre in which 
 numerous blood-vessels and nerves ramify. On the surface 
 of the alveoli and smaller ducts this conncctivo tissue is
 
 942 
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 condensed into n delicate membrana propria, while in tfao 
 larger ducts it forms a cumparatively thick wall. The se- 
 cretins: cells are granuhir nucleated masses of protoplasm, 
 which line tiie alveoli, and so nearly fill them as to leave a 
 comparatively small central cavity. Tlie uerves of the sal- 
 ivary glands consist of both medutlated nud pale fibres. 
 According to Pfliiger, a portion of the former penetrate tlie 
 alveoli, and are continuous with the protoplasm of the se- 
 creting cells, while others terminate in small multipolar 
 cells, some of the processes of wliich are also continuous 
 with the secreting cells. A number of small ganglia, each 
 consisting of a group of round or oval nerve-cells, occur 
 in the course of the nerves. The oral fluid consists of the 
 secretion of the salivary glands mixed with that of the 
 small racemose glands above described. It always contains 
 large numbers of flattened epithelial cells, derived from the 
 surface of the oral mucous membrane, together with small 
 round granular cells resembling the white corpuscles of the 
 blood after they have been somewhat swollen by immersion 
 in :i fluid of the density of the saliva. The latter are 
 known as the salivary corpus:;Ies, and have been regarded 
 as undeveloped secreting cella cast olT by the salivary 
 glands: they are, ho^vever, more probably migrated white 
 corpuscles which escape into the cavity of tho mouth either 
 directly through the oral mucous membrane, or indirectly 
 by way of the salivary glands. 
 
 Tho tonsils .ire two glandular masses, each consisting of 
 from ten to twenty sacculated depressions of the mucocs 
 membrane, in the walls of which are numerous oval lym- 
 phatic follicles .008" to .02" in diameter. The parenchyma 
 of these follicles consist of a fine reticulum of connective 
 tissue, the meshes of which are stuffed with lymphoid ele- 
 ments. The sacculi with their follicles arc united together 
 by a connective tissue rich in blood-vessels and lympliatics. 
 At the root of the tongue there are a number of small fol- 
 licular glands similar in structure to the tonsils, but sim- 
 pler, each consisting of a single saccular depression of the 
 mucous membrane, in the walls of which are a number of 
 closed follicles resembling those of the tonsils. Bottchcr 
 has recently denied that these glands are of constant oc- 
 cnrrcnce, and regards them as ]>athological formations. 
 The oral mucous membrane is well supplied with lymphat- 
 ics, which are especially abundant on the surface of the 
 tongue and about the tonsils. 
 
 I'/ie 7'ccth. — Tho dentine which constitutes the principal 
 portion of the substance of the teeth consists of a calcareous 
 matrix containing great numbers of delicate dentinal ca- 
 nals .00005" to . 00015" 
 in diameter, which 
 branch and auasto- 
 mose as they radiate 
 from the pulp-cavity 
 towards the periphery 
 of the dentine. The 
 crown of the teeth is 
 covered with a harder 
 matt-rial, the enamel, 
 made up of hexagonal 
 prismatic enamel - fi- 
 bres .00012" to. 000 IS" 
 in diameter, arrangecl 
 perpendicularly to tho 
 surface, or nearly so. 
 The roots of the teeth 
 are covered with a thin 
 layer of true bone, the 
 crusta petrosum or ce- 
 mentum. The tooth- 
 pulp occupies the cen- 
 tral cavity of each 
 tooth, and is a delicato 
 mass of connective tis- 
 sue containing both 
 blood - vessels and 
 nerves. Its external 
 layer consists of large 
 nucleated cells, the 
 o'lontoblasts, provided 
 with long branching 
 processes which line 
 tho dentinal canals. 
 The investigations of 
 Uoll rendt-r it probable 
 that the delicnte ter- 
 minal fibrils of the 
 nerves of the pulp ac- Canine tooth: Transverse section of 
 company these pro- ro*'t: 1. cenient; t>, interglobular 
 cesses into the dm- substance; .% dentimU lubules.' 
 tinal cannls. In the development of tho teeth a longitu- 
 dinal furrow in the mucous membrane of the gum is first 
 formed, into which papillary outgrowths from the mucous 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 membrane sprout, and ultimately become the pulps of the 
 several teeth. The enamel originates by the trau>forma- 
 tion of ]>ortion8 of the epithelium of the primary dental 
 groove, while the peripheral cells of the pulp send out 
 branches and are transtormed into odontoblasts, between 
 the processes of which the calcareous matrix of tho dentine 
 is deposited. 
 
 Tho pharynx is lined by a mucous membrane resembling 
 that of the mouth, except in the portions adjoining the 
 posterior nares and the orifices of the Eustachian tubes, 
 where the pavement epithelium is replaced by one com- 
 posed of ciliated columnar cells like those of vhc nasal mu- 
 cous membrane. The mucous membrane is well supplied 
 with vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, and contains a con- 
 siderable number of racemose glands resembling those of 
 the oral cavity, as also numerous closed follicles, arranged 
 around sacculi like those at the root of the tongue or in the 
 tonsils. 
 
 A laminated pavement epithelium, like that of the pha- 
 rynx, also lines tho irnnphaijue as far as the cardiac orifice 
 of the stouiach, where it terminates with a dentatcd border, 
 and is replaced by the columnar epithelium of the stomach. 
 This epithelium reposes upon a vascular layer of delicate 
 connective tissue, tho proper mucous membrane, which is 
 separated from the more loosely meshed submucous con- 
 nective tissue by a thin stratum of muscular fibre-cells, the 
 muscle of tho mucous membrane, which commences with a 
 few scattered fibre-cells in the upper part of the oesophagus, 
 and becomes a continuous layer farther down. A few small 
 racemose glands He in the submucosa and open by minute 
 ducts on the mucous surface. The external muscular coat 
 of the oesophagus consists of an internal circular and ex- 
 ternal longitudinal layer; in its upper fourth these are 
 composed chiefly of striated muscular fibres, liut contain 
 also numerous bundles of muscular fibre-cells : in the ne.xt 
 fourth the latter elements preilomiuate ; and in the lower 
 half the muscular coat is wholly composed of them. Ex- 
 ternally tho muscular coat is invested by a sheath of fibril- 
 lated connective tissue. 
 
 The walls of the stomach consist of a mucous membrane, 
 a layer of submucous connective tissue, a muscular coat, 
 and the peritoneum. The epithelium of the mucous mem- 
 brane consists of a single layer of nuclcateil columnar cells 
 .OOOS" in average length, among which occur certain pecu- 
 liar cup-shaped elements, the so-called goblet-cells. Be- 
 neath the epithelium the mucous membrane is composed 
 of a tissue designated adenoid by His, consisting of a deli- 
 cate reticulum of branching cells, the meshes of which are 
 filled with lymphoid elements, as in the lymphatic glands 
 and follicles. In this adenoid tissue innumerable tubular 
 glands, .015" to .00" long and .002" to .003" broad, are ar- 
 ranged perpendicularly to the mucous surface, and ]daced 
 so closely side by side as to occupy more space than the in- 
 tervening adenoid tissue. In the vicinity of the cardiac 
 and pyloric orifices of the stomach these glands are lined 
 throughout by a columnar epithelium similar to that of the 
 surface of the mucous membrane. In the rest of the stom- 
 ach this epithelium only lines the upper portion of the 
 glands, the rest being filled with spheroidal granular ele- 
 ments, the so-called pepsin-cells. At the two extremities 
 of the stomach some of the glands are divided at their fun- 
 dus into two or more branches. The mucous membrane is 
 separated from the submucosa by a stratum of muscular 
 fibre-cells, on an average about .002" thick, the muscle of 
 the mucous membrane, or muscle of Briicke. consisting of 
 an internal circular and external muscular layer. The sub- 
 mucosa is a layer of rather loose connective tissue, which 
 unites the muscle of the mucous membrane to the external 
 muscular coat. The latter is .02" to .08" thick, and consists 
 most internally of a series ofoblique fasciculi, next of a circu- 
 lar layer, and still more externally of a longitudinal layer, all 
 composed of muscular fibre-cells. Lastly, the peritoneum, 
 which has tho structure of serous membranes generally, is 
 united to the external muscular coat by a thin layer of sub- 
 peritoneal connective tissue. Tho blood-vessels of the 
 stomach ramify in the submucosa. and there form a net- 
 work whence numerous small branches proceed to the mu- 
 cous membrane, where they form a close capillary plexus 
 around the tubular glands. The external muscular coat 
 and the peritoneum are partly sup()lied by branches given 
 off by the vessels as they pass through them, partly by 
 branches derived from the submucous plexus. The nerves 
 of the stomach form in the submucosa a plexus in which 
 numerous small ganglia are found. A second plexus, also 
 with numerous ganglia, exists between the circular and 
 longitudinal layers of the external muscular coat. The 
 ultimate relations of the nerves to the mucous membrane 
 are yet uncertain. The lymphatics form three networks — 
 one in the mui-ous membrane between tho tubular glands, 
 the second in (he submucosa. the third to the peritoneum. 
 
 The description of the coats of the stomach just given
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 943 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 S\ Pi'T' 
 
 
 d 
 
 applies, with certain modificBtions, to both small and largo 
 inttniiitct. The lining epithelium is similar throughout, as 
 is the structure of the mucous membrane, e.\eept that the 
 tubular glands, which in the intestines arc called the glands 
 or crypts of Lieberkiihn, are shorter, .Ul" to .02" long, do 
 not branch, and arc lined throughout by coluninar epithe- 
 lium. What has been said of the muscle of the mucous 
 membrani-, the submucosa, the external muscular coat, the 
 peritoneum, and the general distribution of blood-vessels, 
 lymphatics, and nerves of the stomach, will apply witli but 
 litllo alteration to the intestinal canal. The more important 
 points of dilTcrencc arc as follows: In the mmdl iMnUnc 
 the mueuus membrane, besides being thrown, on its upper 
 portion especially, into numerous transverse folds, the val- 
 vnhc connivcntcs, presents a great number of conical ele- 
 vations .niis" to .04" long, the so-called villi. These con- 
 sist of the adeniiid tissue of the mucous membr.ane, and are 
 coated e.\turnally by its cylindri- 
 cal epithelium. Haeli contains a 
 central lymph-sinus, which ter- 
 minates either by a blind e.strem- 
 ity or in a loop, and which is tho 
 eouimcnecment of tho lacteals. 
 Between this and the periphery 
 of the villus lie the blood-vessels, 
 consisting of one or more minute 
 arteries which break up into a 
 capillary network, the blood from 
 which is collected by a small vein. 
 Each villus also contains a num- 
 ber of longitudinally arranged 
 muscular librccclls, which arc 
 continuous below with the mus- 
 cle of the mucous membrane. Tho 
 crypts of I/icberkiihn open on 
 tho surface of the mucous mem- 
 brane between the villi, and are 
 80 arranged that the deeper por- 
 tions of those adjoining opposite 
 sides of the bases of the villi ap- 
 pear as close together as the 
 others. Lying partly in the mu- 
 cous membrane, partly in the 
 upper portion of the submucosa 
 
 of the small intestine, there arc Intestinal villus: a, cylin- 
 anumberoflyn,ph-n>mcles,..)l/,;' ;;['S!y^'^K^™'i;^'^ 
 to .08" in long diameter, which involuntary musclo-cclls; 
 cither occur singly (tho solitary d, central chyle radicle, 
 follicles), or arc aggregated to- 
 gether in groups consisting of twenty or more follicles placed 
 side by side (the patches of I'cyer). These follicles arc 
 somewhat flask-shaped, their .apices penetrating into the 
 mucous membrane almost or quite to the epithelium, while 
 their rounded b:ises lie in the sulmnicos.a. Their parenchyma 
 resembles the adenoid tissue of the mucous membrane, with 
 which it is continuous, except that the meshes of (he retic- 
 ulum in which the lymphoid elements lie arc rather finer. 
 Thev are surrounded by a vascular plexus which sends 
 capillary brauehes into their parenchyma, and arc partially 
 cnvelop'e.l inferiorly by rallier wide lymph sinuses. Im- 
 mediately above each follicle thn villi are absent. On 
 tho snrfiiic of the patches of I'cyer, however, villi are 
 found on the mucous membrane between tho individual 
 follicles. The solitary follicles are found in all parts of tho 
 small intestine; the patches of Peyer, on the other hand, 
 occur chiefly in its lower portion, and especially in the 
 ileum. In ihe upper part of tho small intestine the sub- 
 mucosa contains a number of small racemose glands about 
 .04" in average diameter, the glands of lirunner, llie ducts 
 of which perforate the mucous membrane anil open into the 
 intestiuiil ciinal. The muscular coal of tho small iuleslinc 
 is fniMi .lli:i" to .02" thick, and consists of an internal cir- 
 cular and external longitudinal layer; some oblique fasci- 
 culi exist also, chiefly in the duodenum. The lymphatics 
 form a network on the mucous membrane which surrounds 
 the crypts of l.ieberklihn. and are continuous with the cen- 
 tral lymph-sinnses of the villi and the coarser ]ilexus in tho 
 subiiiueosa. The peritoneum has its own plexus of lym- 
 phatics, as in the stomach. On account of the milky ap- 
 pearance of their contents during the digestion of fatly 
 matters, the lymphatics of tho intestinal mucous membrane 
 and the mesenteric lymphatic trunks with which they coni- 
 municnte arc known as lacteals. As in the stomach, there 
 are in both small and large intestines two nenous plexuses 
 proviiled with numerous ganglia: tho first, situated in tho 
 submucosa, is known as Ihe plexus of Meissner ; the second, 
 between the circular and limgitudinal layers of tho mus- 
 cular coal, is the plexus of Auerbach. In the \,irijc intflini- 
 there are no villi ; in other respects its mucous membrane 
 closely resembles that of the small intestine, except that it 
 is rather thiekrr. the crypts of LiebciUiihn somewhat loii'^-cr. 
 
 and tho muscle of the mucous membrane a little better de- 
 veloped. Solitary follicles rather larger than those of the 
 small intestine, but otherwise resembling them, and having 
 similar relations to the lymphatics, occur at intervals. Tho 
 external longitudinal layer of the muscular coat is much 
 thinner than the circular, except in three longitudinal 
 bands, in which the two layers are of equal thickness, to- 
 gether measuring about .025". 
 
 The Liccr. Two sets of blood-vessels enter tho liver and 
 
 ramify in it side by side— branches of the hepatic artery 
 and o'r the jiortal vein. The blood from these is carried 
 bv a common system of capillaries into the radicles of the 
 hepatic vein. The hepatic artery and portal vein are ac- 
 companied in their ramifications by the branches of the 
 biliary duct, and the three are united together by a deli- 
 cate connective tissue, the sheath or capsule of (Jlisson, in 
 which lie also the nerves and the deep lymphatics of the 
 organ. By the final ramifications of the hepatic artery and 
 portal vein the parenchyma of the liver is mapped out into 
 irregular polygonal lobiilcs or acini, .02.')" to .OS" in diam- 
 ctertwhicli, however, in the human liver arc not invested 
 with a connective-tissue capsule, as they are in the liver 
 of the pig and some other animals. The ramifications of 
 the hepatic vein lie in a direction perpendicular to the 
 cour.se of the oilier vessels, so that their ultimate radicles 
 occupy the centres of Ihe acini, and hence are called intra- 
 lobular veins: while the radicles of the portal veins lying 
 between the lobules arc called interlobular veins. A capil- 
 lary network with comparatively small meshes lies in the 
 substance of the acini, and conveys the blood from Ihe in- 
 terlobular to the intralobular vessels. The parenchyma of 
 the liver consists of granular polygon:il cells .11005" to 
 .001" in diameter, containing one or two rounded or oval 
 miclei .0002" to .0(iO:i" in diameter, and frequently one or 
 more oil-drops. Between these cells, which occupy the 
 meshes of the capillary plexus of the acini, there riimilics 
 a plexus of extremely fine capillary bile-ducts .011001" to 
 .00008" in diameter,"which do not, however, possess any 
 er walls, but arc bounded by the hepatic cells them- 
 selves. These lie between Ihe ailjoining faces of the he- 
 patic cells even more frequently than at their angles, and 
 are arranged in such a manner that every hepatic cell is 
 related, by at least one of its sides, to a eiipillary bile-duct, 
 and that the latter are always separated from the capillary 
 blood-vessels by the thickness of an hepatic cell. The ca- 
 Fio. 2.5. 
 
 Liver 
 
 Iver of rabbit : 1, part of a lobule— a, vena hcpiUicn ; /., portal 
 iwiir; c, bile-duels; d, capilluries of portal vein • r, blk-capil- 
 laries. 2. n, portal blood-eapitlaries ; h. bile-capillaries. . , <r, 
 b!U -capillaries; i-, hepatic cells; c, bile-ducts; d, capillary 
 blood-vessel, 
 pillary bile-ducls open into the finest interlobular bile- 
 ducts, which are passages cluinnellcd in the ennneclive 
 tissue accompanying the interlobular vessels, and lined by 
 a single layer of polygcmni cells. The larger duels are 
 lined bv a columnar epithelium, and have a wall ol con ■ 
 nectiyo'tissuo which becomes thicker as the tubes increase 
 in diiimetcr. In this wall numerous racemose mucous 
 glands are imbe.lded, the excretory canals of which open 
 into the bile-ducts. Tho liver is coated externally by a 
 very thin capsule of connective tissue, and this again is 
 covered, over the greater part of the surface of Ihe organ, 
 by the peritoneum. In the peritoneum and Ihe subjacent 
 connective tissue lies an abun.laiil plexus of superficuil 
 lymphatics. The deep lymphatics, which penetiato the 
 substance of tho organ, lie in the capsule of (ilisson, as has 
 already been menlioned. The nerves of the liver are coni- 
 posed "chiefly of non-medullated, with a few medullatcd, 
 fibres. They enter the liver with the portal vein, and for 
 tho most part accompany its branches. They have not 
 been traced into the sub'staneo of the acini, and their re- 
 lations to the hepatic cells remain undetennincil. 
 
 The <,nll.l,liid,l,r is lined throughout by a single layer 
 of colu'iNiiar epitbclial cells, sujiportcd upon a membrane
 
 944 
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 of conDCctivc tissue, in which there are numerous dccus- 
 satory fasciculi of muscular fibre-cells. Externally, it is 
 in part coated by the peritoneum, in part comes into im- 
 mediate contact with the hepatic tissue. 
 
 The paticrean agrees in its structure with tho salivary 
 glands so closely that no separate description of it need be 
 given. 
 
 The lifftpirntorif Orf/ans. — The cartilages of the larynx 
 arc all of the hyaline variety, except the e]iigIottis and 
 the cartilages of Wrisberg and Sanctoriui, wiiich arc com- 
 posed of fibro-eartilage. The musoles are of the striated 
 variety. The interior of the larynx is lined by a mucous 
 membrane connected with the cartilages, ligaments, and 
 muscles by a layer of submucous connective tissue. The 
 epithelium of the mucous membrane on the anterior sur- 
 face of the epiglottis resembles that of the oral cavity, but 
 at its borders the superficial layers of cells become fewer 
 and fewer, the cells of the deep columnar layer longer and 
 longer, and a transition is tluis effected on the posterior 
 surface of the epiglottis into the ciliated epithelium which 
 lines the larynx, and is continued through the trachea into 
 the bronchial tubes. The cili-ited epithelium consists of a 
 layer of columnar cells .001" to .OUIG" long, attached to 
 the mucous membrane by narrow elongated prolongations, 
 while on their free margins they are provided with a num- 
 ber of thread-like processes about .00015" long (the cilia), 
 which during life keep up a constant waving motion. Be- 
 tween the attached extremities of tho ciliated cells are nu- 
 merous smaller round 
 
 and oval cells. The 
 true vocal cords are 
 ligaments composed 
 chiefly of yellow cla-ti 
 tissue, which lie in fui'i- 
 of the mucous mem- 
 brane, on the surface 
 of which the ciliated 
 epithelium is replaced 
 witli a layer of pave- 
 ment cells. A number 
 of small racemose 
 
 Fig. 2r. 
 
 Kpillji'lium of bronchial tubes. 
 
 glands are found in the submucous connective tissue of 
 the larynx, and open by their ducts upon the free surface 
 of its mucous membrane. Similar glands occur abun- 
 dantly in the trachea, which is lined by a mucous mem- 
 brane in all respects resembling that of the larynx. The 
 rings of the traeliea are composed of hyaline cartilage, and 
 arc united together by a mixture of conneeiive tissue and 
 elastic fibres. Posteriorly, the rings are incomplete, the 
 spaces thus left being occupied by a layer of transverse 
 muscular fibre-cells. 
 
 The Lnufja. — On entering the lungs the bronchial tubes 
 branch in an arborescent manner, and finally terminate, 
 when about .01" in diameter, in groups of infundibula, or 
 funnel-shaped terminal expansions, each consisting of a 
 number of polygonal cavities, the air-vessels or alveoli, 
 which open into the central passage of the infundibulum. 
 The infundibula of each group arc connected with the small 
 bronchial tube to which they belong by tliin walled pas- 
 sages, the alveolar canals, which differ from the finest bron- 
 chial tubes chiefly in the character of their epithelium, and 
 in having their walls beset by air-vesicles which open into 
 them. Down to about .04" in diameter the bronchial tubes 
 consist of four layers — an external fibrous coat in which are 
 imbedded a scries of incomplete rings and plates of hya- 
 line cartilage: a thin layer of muscular fibre-cells; an in- 
 ternal fibrous coat rich in elastic fibres; and lastly, an epi- 
 thelium similar to that of the trachea. Scattered groups 
 of fat-cells lie in the outer portion of the external fibrous 
 coat; in its inner portion there are a number of racemose 
 mucous glands, the ducts of which open into the lumen of 
 the tube. In bronchial tubes of less than .04" in diameter 
 the external fibrous coat becomes thinner and thinner; the 
 plates of cartilage and the mucous glands become more 
 and more scanty, and finally disappear, and the muscular 
 layer is gradually reduced to a few scattered fasciculi: tho 
 elastic inner fibrous coat is, ho^yever, prolonged upon the 
 finest bronchial tubes, and is continuous with the clastic 
 walls of the alveoli. The ciliated epithelium also contin- 
 ues in the smallest bronchial tubes, but its cells become 
 shorter and shorter, and finally, at tho transition from the 
 bronchial tubes to the alveolar canals, lose their cilia and 
 acquire the characters of the epithelial lining of the alve- 
 oli. The bronchial tubes are nourished by branches of the 
 bronchial artery which supply the mucous membrane with a 
 close capillary plexus. Their walls also contain numerous 
 nerves and lymphatics. The air-vesicles, when undistendcd, 
 measure from .000" to .01" in diameter, but can be blown up 
 to twice these dimensions, or even more. Their walls are 
 composed of a transparent connective tis.-ue in which cha- 
 racteristically arching elastic fibres arc plentifully imbedded, 
 
 and in which the capillaries derived from the pulmonary 
 arteries form a close j)lexus with rounded or oval meshes. 
 They are lined at birth by a layer of flat granular, nucle- 
 ated hexagonal epithelial cells, which form a continuous 
 lining for both the air-vesicles and the alveolar passages. 
 In the adult only a part of the cells retain these characters, 
 the rest being transformed into thin structureless plates. 
 This epithelium, the existence of which has been a matter 
 of dispute until quite recently, is best demonstrated by tho 
 
 silver method. The 
 
 Fig 27 
 
 Epithelium ot" air- 
 
 1 lung. 
 
 ailjacent elastic walls 
 of air-vesicles belong- 
 ing to the same in- 
 tuo'libulum coalesce 
 to form a single sep- 
 V-^Z-v tum. Tlie walls of 
 _W J idjacent vesicles be- 
 '"^ ' I uiging to different 
 infundibula are for 
 [- the most part scpa- 
 lated by a small 
 quantity of intersti- 
 tial connective tissue, 
 riie whole lung is 
 made up of the bron- 
 chia and infundibula 
 described, with blood- 
 vessels, nerves, and 
 
 lymphatics, united together by connective tissue. The 
 nerves for the most part accompany the bronchial tubes 
 ami blood-vessels, and are largely distributed to their mus- 
 fular fibre-cells. The lymphatics commence as anastomos- 
 ing lacunte in the walls of the air-vesicles, whence proceed 
 lymphatic capillaries, which unite to form trunks accom- 
 jianying the bronchial tubes and the larger blood-vessels. 
 I'hcrc is, besides, an abundant superficial lymphatic net- 
 work which lies just beneath the pleura. 
 
 Vriuanj Organs. — The kidnry consists essentially of a 
 threat number of secreting tubes lined by epithelium, tbo 
 tubuii uriniferi. These, with the blood-vessels, nerves, and 
 
 Fig. 2S. 
 
 Diagram of course of uriniferous lubes in human kidney: p, 
 papillary portion ; g, boundary portion of medulla; r, cortex; 
 I., capsule of glomerulus; II., convoluted tubes; in., descend- 
 ing limb of Hi'nie's looped tube ; A. loop; IV.. ascending limb; 
 v., intercalated portion; k, summit of collecting tube; vi., 
 VH., VIII., collecting tubes; ix.. papillary duct. 
 
 lymphatics of the organ, are united together by a charac- 
 teristio connective tissue composed of a nearly homogene- 
 ous matri.x with stellate cells. The tubuii uriniferi com-
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 945 
 
 mcoco ID tho cortical portion of the organ as globular ex- 
 ]iansioiis, the eujisules ot* Kownmn, wliicb ciiibra,ec peculiar 
 lufrs of capillaries, the glomeruli of iMiilpigbi. These, 
 which aro usuiilly from .006" to .OOS" in diumetcr, consist 
 of a number of capillary looj'S united together by conneo- 
 live tissue. Tho capsules of Bowman^ which embrace 
 them, aro lined by a layer of large pavement epithelial 
 colls, best demonstrated by tho action of silver, and arc 
 eontinuous by constricted necks with the urinifcrous tubes. 
 Kaeh urinifcrous tube, whicli at first is about .0011" in aver- 
 ago diameter, pursues for a short distance a very tortuous 
 fourso : it then rather suddenly diminishes in size to half 
 its original diameter, or less, and runs in nearly a straight 
 lino into the base of the nearest pyramid, in which, at a 
 variable depth, it turns back upon itself, forming a narrow 
 loop (the loop of Ilcnic), and returns to the cortical portion, 
 where, after a time, it again becomes wide and tortuous, 
 then ag.ain cons'ricled, and finally unites with one or uioro 
 tubuli which have pursued a similar course to form a 
 straight collecting tube. This collecting tube runs towards 
 the pyramid, receiving at first a few additional tubuli. after 
 which it pursues a separate c(turso into the base of tho 
 pyramid, where adjacent collecting tubes coalesce in pairs; 
 BO that the number of passages which finally open at tho 
 apex of each pyramid is very much smaller than tho orig- 
 inal number of tubuli. When sections of the kidney arc 
 examined by the naked eye, a number of striaj {medullary 
 rays) aro seen proceeding from tho bases of the pyramids 
 almost to the surface of the cortical portion. These consist 
 in part of bundles of the straight collecting tubes, in part 
 of tho straight narrow portions of tubuli, returning 
 after having formed tho loops of Henlc. Tho glomeruli 
 and tho convoluted part of the tubuli lie in the parenchyma 
 between these medullary rays. The walls of tho tnl>uU 
 uriniferi consist of a transparent nucleated membrane lined 
 by a single layer of epithelial cells. Theso consist, in tho 
 first tortuous portion of the tubuli, of a granular proto- 
 plasm, without distinct cell-walis, and contain single, sjdier- 
 ical, sharply-dotined nuclei. In tho narrow part of tho 
 tubuli, forming the loop of llenle, the epithelium appears 
 as an attenuated layer of protoplasm, with swellings con- 
 taining nuclei at intervals. On tho other side of tho loop 
 tho cells assume more of a columnar character, and being 
 inclined to the axis of the tubuH, present an imbricated ar- 
 rangement. When the tube again becomes tortuous thocpi- 
 thelium again assumes the character it possessed in the first 
 tortuous portion, and finally, tho collecting tubes aro lined 
 by a single layer of well-defined columnar epithelial cells. 
 Tho renal arteries divide in the pelvis of tho fcidnei/ into 
 a number of branches, which, on reaching tho bases of tho 
 pyramids, ramify between theso and the cortical portion 
 of tho organ, and send into the latter a series of Btroight 
 twigs, tho arteria) intcrlobulares. These give off a number 
 of short side-branches, each of which supports a glomerulus 
 on its extremity. The efferent vein of each glomerulus, 
 after leaving it, speedily breaks up into a capillary plexus 
 continuous with that 
 
 formed by adjacent effer- 
 ent veins, and which sur- 
 rounds tho convoluted 
 portions of tho tubuli uri- 
 niferi. The venous rndi- 
 cles which collect tho 
 blood from this plexus 
 open into tho veins which 
 accompany tho inter- 
 lobular arteries. In tho 
 medullary portion of tho 
 kidneys tho capillary 
 network which surrounds 
 the urinifcrous tubules is 
 derived from a series of 
 etraight vessels, tho so- 
 called artcria; rectie, 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 Transverse section through a renal 
 ]>yramid: a, collecting tube; 0, 
 tlfsetMidinp »rrn <if looped tubt;; c, 
 rccurrc-nt ami ; d, blood-vessel; e, 
 connective tissue. 
 
 which in part arise from the arterial branches ramifying 
 between tho cortical substance and the bases of the pyra- 
 mids ; in part aro not arteries at all, but tlic unusually 
 prolonged efferent veins of tho glomeruli adjacent to the 
 bases of the pyramids. A superlicial plexus of lymphatics 
 is situated in the fibrous capsules fd' the kirlncys. Tlie deep 
 lymphatics accompany the larger blood-vcs-sels ; their ulti- 
 mate relations to the parenchyma of the organ arc not yet 
 known. Tho same remark applies to the nerves of tho kid- 
 neys, which altK) accompany the vessels. A number of small 
 ganglia occur in connection with these nerves. 
 
 The urftt^m and nrinnrtf hlnddrr are lined by an epithe- 
 lium consisting of several layers of cells. Tho most super- 
 ficial are polygonal and somewhat flattened; to theso suc- 
 ceed a layer of elongated cells, the upper pxtremities of 
 whieh are rather broad, while tho hiwer portionH are pro- 
 longed into narrow processes, between which is a tnird 
 V..T,. 11.- r.n 
 
 layer of oval cells. This epithelium rests on a layer of 
 rather dense connective tissue, beneath which is the mus- 
 cular coat composed of muscular tibre-cells. Kxtcruatly to 
 this is a second layer of couneclivo tissue. The fundus of 
 the bladder is, besides, coated by the peritoneum. 
 
 O'viicrtttivc OryiiHu. — The space assigned to this article 
 jiermils only a brief sketch of tho most characteristic organ 
 of each sex. The tcntivte consists essentially of a number 
 of secreting tubes lined by epithelium, the tubuli scminifcri. 
 Tho organ is enclosed in a dense capsule of connective 
 tissue, the tunica albugiuca. from the inner surface of which 
 a number of jiepta; proceed, dividing the gland into pear- 
 shaped lobules lUO to 260 in number, each containing ono 
 to three convoluted tubuli semitifcri. These unite in the 
 corpus Ilighmori, and form a network whence proceed 
 twelve to tourtcen canals, the convolutions of which consti- 
 tute the epididymis. In the epididymis these canals unite 
 and form finally a single excretory duct, the vas deferens. 
 Tho tubuli scminifcri in the lobules arc .008" in average 
 diameter, aiwl consist of a mcmbrana propria, lined by 
 secretory cells. The mcmbrana propria iscomi)Osedof homo- 
 geneous connective tissue with numerous nuclei imbedded. 
 On its inner surface is a layer of nucleated cells with branch- 
 ing, anastomosing protoplasmic processes. To these suc- 
 ceed several layers of rounded cells with one or several 
 nuclei, which, in fresh preparations, exhibit amoi-boid move- 
 ments, Theso arc tho so-called seminal cells, and it is in 
 their interior that the spermatozoa are developed. The 
 testicles arc abundantly supplied with blood-vessels, l^'m- 
 phatics, and nerves. The lymphatics originate in wide pas- 
 sages between tho tubuli scminifcri, lined by a character- 
 istic epithelium, which forms a })artial coating for the tubuli, 
 and which is best demonstrated by the action of silver. The 
 terminal branches of the nerves, according to Letzerich, 
 can be traced through the mcmbrana propria of the tubuli, 
 and terminate between it and the firs^t row of cells. The 
 spermatozoa, which aro tho cliaracteristic elements of tho 
 seminal fluid, arc. in tho human sulijcct, about .0010" in 
 average length, and have the form of thread-like filaments, 
 enlarged at ono extremity into an oval head .0U0I6" to 
 .0002" long. 
 
 Tho ovary consists of a stroma of vascular connective 
 tissue in which are imbedded numerous cyst-like forma- 
 tions of various sizes, tho Graafian follicles, containing the 
 ova in various stages of development. The portion of the 
 ovary which projects into the peritoneal cavity is not 
 covered by tho peritoneum, but by a layer of columnar 
 cells, tho so-called germ-epithelium. All the (Jraafian fol- 
 licles, and tho ova which they contain, are develojied from 
 ingrowing buds of this epithelium, which invade the eon- 
 ncctivc-tissuo stroma as gland-like tubules. A portion of 
 tho epithelial cells of these tubules arc transformed into 
 ova, while tho remainder retain their epithelial cliaracter. 
 Tho ova aro subsequently is<dated by the ingrowing of tho 
 connective-tissue stroma between the epithelial cells. Thin 
 sections of the adult ovary show great numbers of the most 
 unripo ova immediately beneath the surface of tho organ. 
 
 Flo. 30. 
 
 .-:n#^^^^.?P^'^^^. 
 
 They appear as oval, nucleated cells, surrounded by an 
 epithelium-liUo layer. Deeper in tho organ ova aro en- 
 countered in a more advanced stage of development, sur- 
 rounded by an ej^theJial layer of several rows of cells. 
 l-'inally, fluid aciMiniuIatea between thcFo cells, and the fol- 
 licles then rapidly increase in size. The total number of
 
 946 
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 Graafian follicles, in till stages of development, contained 
 in a young ovary has been variously cstimateil from 36,000 
 to 400,000. The fully-formed Graafian follicles are from 
 .02" to .2j" in diameter. They consist of a tunica propria 
 of connective tissue, which is merely a condensation of the 
 ovarian stroma, lined hy several strata of nucleateil opithe- 
 lium-likc cells — the epithelium of the follicle or the niotn- 
 brana granulosa — and filled with a transparent albumiii' u- 
 fluid. The elements of the epithelium of the follicles ;nr 
 accumulated at some one point into a little mass — the dis- 
 cus proligerus — in which the ovum is imbedded. \Vhere a 
 ping-lo follicle contains two or more ova, as occasionally 
 happens in man, and very generally in Mammalia, there is 
 a proligerous disk for each. 
 
 The human ovum, when fully developed, is a round or 
 slightly oval vesicle. OOS" to .01" in diameter. Its invest- 
 ing membrane exhibits distinct double contours, and is 
 known as the zona pcllucida : this encloses a granular pro- 
 toplasm, the vitcllus or yelk, in which is imbedded a dis- 
 tinct round nucleus .0016" in average diameter (the germ- 
 inal vesicle), and this again presents a round prominent 
 nucleolus — the germinal spot. The ovum of man and 
 mammals differs from the eggs of birds and reptiles in that 
 in these an ovum similar to that of the Mammalia is sur- 
 rounded by a quantity of secondary yelk, as well as by .id- 
 ditional layers acquired during its passage througli the ovi- 
 ducts. As fluid continues to accumulate in the cavity of the 
 ripe Graafian follicle, it approaches more and more to the 
 surface of the ovary, until finally it ruptures and permits 
 the ovum to escape. This is followed by hiemorrhagefrom 
 the vascular walls of the follicle, which is speedily filled 
 with coagulated blood; numbers of white corpuscles soon 
 migrate into the clot, and a retrograde metamorphosis of 
 its constituents takes place, by which it acquires a yellow 
 color, and is then known as the corpns lutoum. Subse- 
 quently, connective tissue is developed in the substance of 
 the corpus lutoum, which becomes smaller and smaller until 
 finally a mere cicatrix remains. 
 
 Organti uj Special Sense. — A brief account of the special 
 nerve-terminations in the organs of touch and taste has al- 
 ready been given. We recognize as the essential organs 
 of smell certain nerve-terminations in the nasal mucous 
 membrane. This mucous membrane is coated for the most 
 part by a ciliated epithelium, closely resembling that of 
 the respiratory organs ; but in the proper olfactory region, 
 which is limited to tiie uppermost part of the nasal cavities, 
 extending downward three-quarters of an inch to an inch 
 from the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, the cilia disap- 
 pear, and a columnar epithelium remains, between the cells 
 of which the proper olfactory cells appear in considerable 
 numbers. These are oval, nucleated cells, the two ex- 
 tremities of which are prolonged as delieate filaments. One 
 of these runs between the columnar cells of the epithelium 
 to the surface, where it terminates in a free extremity, which 
 gives off in most animals several fine, cilia-like projections ; 
 the other runs towards the connective-tissue layer of the 
 mucous membrane, where it is believed^ though not demon- 
 strated, to be continuous with the terminal fibrils of the 
 non-medullated fibres of the olfactory nerve. According 
 to Max Schultze, the ciliar projections of the superficial 
 extremities of the olfactory cells do not occur in man. 
 
 In the case of the eye our space permits only brief de- 
 scriptions of the cornea, the crystalline lens, and the retina. 
 The conien substance proper is composed of connective 
 tissue with stellate cells and a homogeneous matrix. It is 
 coated anteriorly with a laminated pavement epithelium, 
 which consists of a stratum of columnar cells, several lay- 
 ers of rounded or polygonal cells, and several layers of 
 flattened colls; posteriorly it is coated by the membrane 
 of Dcsccmet, which is a single layer of flattened cells. The 
 stellate cells of the proper substance of the cornea arc des- 
 ignated corneal corpuscles. They are granular, flattened 
 cells about .001" in long diameter, containing rounded, 
 oval, or irregular nuclei .0004" to .0006" or more long. 
 Each gives otf a variable number of protoplasmic processes 
 which anastomose with those of the adjacent cells. Besides 
 these fixed cells, a certain number of wandering corpuscles 
 arc always present, and from the motions of these, as ob- 
 served in recent cornea\ the existence of a series of pas- 
 sages or channels in the matrix may be inferred. The cor- 
 neal corpuscles are not visible in ])erfcctly fresh cornea^ 
 but become so after the lapse of a short time. They may 
 be displayed in an admirable manner by immersing the 
 cornea in a solution of chloride of gold, and subsequently 
 exposing it to light. The protoplasm of the cells and the 
 nuclei aro thus stained different shades of purple by the 
 reduction of the g<dd, while the matrix remains uncolored 
 or only slightly tinged. When the cornea is soaked in a 
 solution of nitrate of silver and exposed to sunlight, the 
 matrix is stained br*»wn. and a series of light-colored, stel- 
 late, anastomosing figures luako their appearance, which 
 
 agree in distribution with the corneal corpuscles, but are 
 
 rather larger, and have thicker, more varicose processes. 
 
 These represent the serous canals of the matrix, in which 
 
 Fig, 31. 
 
 the corneal corpuscles lie, as may be shown by the subse- 
 quent action of chloride of gold or of carmine. The cor- 
 nea is richly sujipHed with nerves, best demonstrated by 
 the action of gold, which gives them a dark purple color. 
 Twenty or thirty medullated nerve-fibres enter at its mar- 
 gin, and soon lose their medullary sheaths, while the axis- 
 cylinders break up into fasciculi composed of a number of 
 ultimate fibrils, with oval nuclei scattered along their 
 course. These fasciculi branch and anastomose, forming 
 a rich plexus in the corneal substance, and finally break 
 up into ultimate ner\'c-fibrils. the extremities of which 
 penetrate between the epithelial cells on the anterior face 
 of the cornea, and terminate by giving off laterally, among 
 the most superficial flattened cells of the epithelium, a 
 number of fine terminal branches, which, having divided 
 once or several times, terminate in somewhat swollen ex- 
 tremities. The vn/stfilliue Icus consists of an extremely thin 
 anterior and a thick posterior layer. The first is composed 
 of a single stratum of flattened, polygonal, nucleated cells, 
 which towards the margins of the lens become more and 
 more elongated, and finally, at its equator, pass by gradual 
 Fir,. 32. 
 
 
 Retina. 
 
 transitions into the fibres of which the thick posterior layer 
 is composed. The fibres of the lens arc flattened, six-sided 
 dements .0002" to .0004" iu breath, and rather less than
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 947 
 
 half as thick, and unite to form curved lamclhc which cover 
 each other coneeatrically, somewhat like the coats of an 
 onioD. In these lamella; a stellate raphe, radiating from 
 the axis of the lens, is observed both anteriorly and postO: 
 riorty, which marks the eommencciiient and termination 
 of the individual fibres. In the deeper strata of the human 
 lens this raphC* presents but three rays; more superficially 
 their number increases to ns many as ninu anteriorly and 
 ten or more posteriorly. In these rays the opposite ex- 
 tremities of the indiviilual fibres come into immediate jux- 
 taposition, and are not separated by a homogeneous trans- 
 parent substance, as was formerly believed. The lens is 
 developed from an ingrowjng bud of the epidermis of the 
 embryo, and its fibres are to be regarded as greatly elon- 
 gated epithelial cells. It is enclo-ed in a transparent, ap- 
 parently structureless capsule. The retina is composed of 
 the special terminal elements of the optic nerve, united to- 
 gether by delicate connective tissue, the whole forming a 
 layer .008" thick in its posterior portion, and less than 
 half as thick anteriorly. Its intricate structure has been 
 the object of many investigations, of which those of Max 
 Schultze arc mu?t noteworthy. According to this investi- 
 gator, the following layers of elements may be discrimin- 
 ated : (1) Most internally the membrana limitans interna, 
 a delicate layer of connective tissue which immediately 1 
 adjoins the vitreous humor. (2) The optic fibre-layer, I 
 composed of non-mcdullated nerve-fibres of various sizes, 
 continuous with the medullated fibres of the optic nerve. 
 {•i) The ganglion cell-layer, in which are imbedded numer- 
 ous nucleated, fur the most part multipolar, nerve-cells 
 ,0006" to .0012" in diameter. (4) The internal molecular 
 layer, consisting of an admixture of extremely fine nerve- 
 fibrils and delicate connective tissue. (6) Tiio internal 
 granular layer, composed of two kinds of elements, the first 
 and most numerous resembling small bipolar nerve-cells 
 with relatively large nuclei and scanty granular proto- 
 plasm; the second are oval, nuclear bodies, belonging to 
 the supporting connective tissue, (fi) The external mole- 
 cular layer or intergranule layer, which is similar in its 
 structure to the internal molecular layer, but much thinner. 
 (7) The external granular layer, in which are numerous 
 oval nucleated bodies, situated in the lower portion of the 
 rod and cone fibres, and scattered oval nuclei belonging to 
 the supporting connective tissue. (8) The mcmbrana lim- 
 itans externa, an extremely thin layer formed byacondcn- 
 sation of thfe supporting connective tissue. (0) The layer 
 of rods and cones. This consists of two kinds of fibres. 
 Each cone-fibre appears to commenco on the surface of the 
 
 external molecular layer as a conical enlargement, speedily 
 tapering to a fine smooth or varicose fibre, which runs in a 
 radial direction through the external granular layer, and 
 just before it reaches the membrana limituns externa pre- 
 sents a fusiform enlarirement in which an oval nucleus is 
 imbedded; it then penotratis the limiting membrane and 
 forms the cone, a ftask-likc body which terminates in a 
 coni<:al point. The rod-fibres also can he traced only as 
 far as the external molecular layer. In the external gran- 
 ule-layer they earh present one or several oval nucleated 
 enlargements, after which, penetrating the limiting mem- 
 brane, they form the rods, which arc cylindrical bodies 
 .002" in average length and .0001" or less in thickness, and 
 consist of an inner and outer portion, of which the latter is 
 more highly refractive than the former. The cones are 
 rather more than half as long as the rods, and their bases 
 three to four times as thick. As a rule, three or four rods 
 intervene between each pair of cones. (10) The last layer 
 enumerated b^' Max Schultze is the pigment-layer. It ia 
 usually known as the pigment epithelium of the choroid, 
 and consists of hexagonal elements containing the brown- 
 ish-black pigment in the form of granules. The deUcacy 
 of the retina and the intricacy of its structure are such that 
 the connections of the nervous elements in its several layers 
 with each other have not fully been made out; but it is 
 known that the non-mcdullated fibres of the optic fibre- 
 layer arc continuous with the cells of the ganglion cell- 
 layer, and it may be conjectured with probability that the 
 fine fibrils in which the processes of these terminate are 
 continuous through the remaining layer with the bases of 
 the rod and cone fibres. 
 
 In connection with the rar, space permits only a brief 
 mention of the on/ftit of Cnrti. which appears to be t<» the 
 sense of hearing what the retina is to the sense of .sight. 
 The spiral canal of the cochlea is nearly divided in two by 
 a thin plate of bone, the lamina spiralis. From the edge 
 of this lamina two membranes proeeeil to the walls of the 
 cochlear canal, which is thus divided into three passages — 
 the scala vestibuli, the central canal of the cochlea, and 
 the scala tympani. The membrane which divides the scala 
 vestibuli from the central canal of the cochlea is extremely 
 delicate, and is known as the membrane of Keissner. That 
 which divides the central canal from the scala tympani is 
 known as the membrana lamina spiralis, and is much 
 thicker, consisting on the side of the scala tympani of the 
 membrana basilaris, on the side of the central canal of the 
 membrana tectoria, and between the two of the organ of 
 Corti. The most remarkable elements id this complex 
 
 Vertical section ibr i. i f f*i»rii : A B, homogeneous layer of membrana basilaris; n. pedestal of inner pillar; r, pedestal 
 
 of pillar; d, bnirs ot inmr liair-cell; r,e,e, outer bair-cells; /, bundle of nervcfl; g, epithelium of sulcus spiralis interniis; h, 
 nerve-fibril to hair-cell; i, lamina reticularis. 
 
 structure are the rods or pillars of Corti, which arc elastic 
 elements of a somewhat sigraoiil form .002" lo .00:>" in 
 length, arranged in a double row in such a way that while 
 one extremity of the roda in each row rests upon the mem- 
 brana basilaris, the opposite extremities articulate so as to 
 form a scries of arches — the arches of Corti — enclosing a 
 triangular space between the rods and the membrana basi- 
 laris, which extends the whole length of the lamina spiralis. 
 The rods on the side of the arch next the bony lamina 
 Bpirfilis are spoken of as the inner rods, the opposite ones 
 as the outer rods; they arc so arranged that three inner 
 rods correspond to every pair of outer ones. Their total 
 number has been estimatc<l nt about .')2n0 inner and ^600 
 outer rods. According to I'ritehard, they progressively in- 
 crease in length from the base of the cochlea to its apex, 
 the differences being more marked in the outer than in the 
 inner rods. The arches of Corti support on each side a 
 complex arrangement of cells, of which the most conspicuous 
 
 are the hair-cells. One row of these is supported by the 
 inner rotls, and three rows by the outer ones. They are 
 elongated, somewhat conical, nucleated cells, provided at 
 their upper extremities with a brush of strong cilia-like 
 hairs. The cochlear nerve, a.i it passes up the modiolus or 
 central pillar of the cochlea, gives off branches which run 
 in canals in the bony lamina spiralis to the inimediatn 
 vicinity of the organ of Corti, where the fibres break up 
 into their ultimate fibrillar, and terminate in these hair- 
 cells. Besides the termination of the cochlear nerve in the 
 organ of Corti, special tc-rminntions of the fibres of the 
 auditory nerve in peculiar fusiform cells, with thrcad-liko 
 extremities, exist in the membranous labyrinth. 
 
 The foregoing outline, which is necessarily extremely 
 meagre, will, however, it is honed, servo to give the reader 
 accurate elementary ideas witli regard to normal human 
 histology. It now remains to offer a few remarks on patho- 
 logical histology.
 
 948 
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 Pathological Histology. — Tn this domain we have to 
 study, ou the one hand, the chan^^cs which take place in 
 the normal histological elements ol the tissues; on the other 
 hand, the development of new pathological elements which 
 cither occur diffused among the normal ones in the form of 
 infiltrations, or aro localized as morbid growths. Among 
 the morbid changes in the normal elements we may enu- 
 merate — cfotuh/ swelliitif, which takes place especially in the 
 early stages of inflammation, and in which the elements 
 increase in size and become more granular than normal; 
 /<ttti/ ilrifeticrntion, which may arise independently or occur 
 as a sequel to cloudy swelling, and in which a portion of 
 the substance of the affected elements is transformed into 
 molecular fat or into minute fat-drops ; mucoid dcf/cncra- 
 tioii, in which a portion of their substance is transformed 
 into a material possessing the reactions of mucin ; and col- 
 loid df;/cticrtttioH, in which a portion of their substance is 
 transformed into globules of a peculiar gelatinous charac- 
 ter. To the foregoing changes may be added those which 
 result from the infiltration uf the tissue-elements with va- 
 rious substances derived from the blood especially: cal- 
 careous infUtrattuti, in which lime-salts are deposited in 
 minute molecules: pitjment infiltration^ in which pigment- 
 granules are deposited ; fnttif iii/i/fnttion. which closely re- 
 sembles fatty degeneration in its appearances; and the so- 
 called nmi/loid infiltration, in which the affected elements 
 are infiltrated with a peculiar transparent albuminoid sub- 
 stance, characterized by acquiring a mahogany-red color 
 on treatment with iodine. Tliis latter change has also been 
 designated as lardaceous or waxy degeneration. Any of 
 these degenerations and infiltrations may occur also in 
 pathological new formations, as well as in tho normal 
 tissues. 
 
 The production of the pathological new formations is fre- 
 quently initiated by those nutritive and circulatory dis- 
 turbances which are embraced under the designation ?»- 
 fiammntiou. When this process takes place in a vascular 
 tissue a notable dilatation of the small arteries and veins 
 occurs, which is usually jireceded by their temi)orary con- 
 traction, and is followed by a diminution in the speed of 
 the blood-stream, and an accumulation of white blood-cor- 
 puscles in the peripheral portion of the stream in tho small 
 veins. Soon after, as demonstrated by Cohnheim, the white 
 corpuscles begin to migrate in considerable numbers, es- 
 caping not only from the small veins, but also from the 
 true capillaries. In the inflammation of non-vascular parts 
 a similar migration takes place from the nearest blood-ves- 
 sels — in the case of the inflamed cornea, for example, from 
 the blood-vessels of the sclerotic and conjunctiva. A por- 
 tion, at least, of tho cellular elements of the characteristic 
 products of inflammation, pus and lymi)h, arc simply these 
 migrated corpuscles. Wht-ther all of them have the same 
 origin is still a matter of discussion. It was formerly be- 
 lieved that in inflammation the elements of the tissues, es- 
 pecially as indicated by Virchow, the connective-tissue cor- 
 puscles, multiplied by division, and thus gave rise to the 
 pus and lymith cells as their progeny. The analogies of 
 vegetable growth, and much that had been observed of the 
 growth of animal tissue, favored this view. Unfortunately, 
 however, tho swarm of white corpuscles migrate so early 
 in inflammation that the proper tissue-elements are speedily 
 concealed by them, and it is difficult to trace with precision 
 the changes they undergo. Strieker and Xorris, however, 
 have clescribed appearances in tho inflametl cornea which 
 would seem to indicate that the wan<b'ring corpuscles may 
 originate by the division Of the fixed cells, as well as by 
 migration from tho blood-vessels. Whether by thus divid- 
 ing and producing new elements, or V>y falling into a con- 
 dition of fatty degeneration and perishing, the proper tis- 
 sue-elements of the inflamed part i»"y disappear, and be 
 replaced by an accumulation of pus, forming an nhacesH ; 
 or when the affected tissue is superficially situated, the loss 
 of substance may manifest itself as an idccr. In other 
 cases the inflammation terminates in remolution, ihc migrated 
 corpuscles finding their way back into the torrent of the cir- 
 culation through the lymphatics; or the inflammatory 
 products may anjnmze into new tissue. This at flrst re- 
 sembles embryonic connective tissue, and is subsequently 
 transformed into fully-developed connective tissue by a 
 process in all respects similar to that which occurs in nor- 
 mal development, and which is accompanied by an out- 
 growth of blood-vessels, lymphatics, and sometimes of 
 nerves, from the adjacent parts into the new tissue. Other 
 new formations may occur under favorable circumstances; 
 as, for example, epithelium may be developed out of the 
 lymph-cells on the surface of healing wounds and ulcers; 
 bone may be produced, as in the repair of fractures ; in in- 
 flammatory processes involving the periosteum, etc. etc. 
 By these various transformations of tho inflammatory 
 products, on the one hand, the repair of wounds and other 
 losses of substance is effected, and on the other hand, the 
 
 adhesions, indurations, and thickenings which result from in- 
 flammation are produced. Moreover, degenerative changes 
 may involve the new-formed tissue at any stage of its de- 
 velopment. Fatty degeneration is especially lrc<|uent. It 
 is prone to set in before the new elements have lost their 
 original lymphoid character, and often goes so far as to 
 convert the new formation into a cheesy mass of granular 
 detritus, in which shrunken and deformed nuclei aro all 
 that remain of the original cell-forms. 
 
 Besides the pathological new formations which result from 
 the inflammatory process, manifold new formations occur 
 without previous inflammation, appearing sometimes as 
 more or less extensive infiltrations, at other limes as isolated 
 masses or tumors. With regard to these also it is unde- 
 cided how far the new elements originate by the trans- 
 formation of migrated white c<»rpuscles, or how far they 
 may arise by the multiplication by divi3i(m of the normal 
 elements of tho affected parts. The more important of thcso 
 new formations are the following. 
 
 New Furmationa resembling Comiccttve Tissue in some 
 Stages of its Pevelopment. — These may occur as a more or 
 less widely disseminated increase or hyperplasia of the 
 connective tissue of the part affected — as, for example, in 
 certain chronic diseases of the liver and kidneys, in tho 
 peculiar thickening of the skin and subcutaneous tissue 
 I known as elephantiasis, etc. — or they may manifest thcm- 
 j selves as tumors. The group of tumors which resemble in 
 I their structure the embryonic stages of connective tissue is 
 I designated sarcoma, and several varieties are discriminated, 
 according to tho stage of development the cells have at- 
 tained, their arrangement, ami the characteristics of tho 
 matrix in which they are imbedded. According as llic 
 cells arc round or elongated, a round-celled sarcoma and a 
 spindle-celled sarcoma may be discriminated, and each of 
 these again may be divided into a small-celled and a large- 
 celled variety. The matrix may be homogeneous or more 
 or less distinctly fibrillateil, giving rise to considerable 
 variations in tho consistency and appearances of tho 
 growth, AVhen the matrix consists of a mucin-yielding 
 material, tho tumor is discriminated from sarcoma under 
 the designation mtfxoma. Certain tumors of the brain and 
 nervous system, which resemble in their structure the neu- 
 roglia or connective tissue of the nerve-centres, are also 
 separated from sarcoma under the designation glioma. 
 Sometimes spindle-celis, like those of spiudle-ccUcd sar- 
 coma, are so arranged as to form an areolar sfrueture, tho 
 meshes or alveoli of which are filled with cells resembling 
 those of round-celled sarcoma. The structure thus pro- 
 duced is so analogous to certain forms of cancer that it has 
 been called carcinomatous sarcoma. The cells of such 
 growths arc sometimes the seat of an abundant deposit of 
 black pigment, constituting one of the varieties of mela- 
 notic cancer. A similar pigment deposit also takes place 
 sometimes in spindle-celled sarcoma. Tumors which re- 
 semble fully-developed connective tissue are known as 
 fibroid tumors or fibroma. They are characterized by tho 
 abundant and distinctly fibrillated matrix in which Ihtir 
 oval or spindle-formed cells are imbedded. All the tumors 
 of the connective-tissue group are more or less abundantly 
 supplied with blood-vessels. In certain eases these aro 
 so numerous and so large as to constitute the most promi- 
 nent feature of the new formation. Such growths are em- 
 braced under the term angioma. 
 
 Xar formations of adipose tissue may occur cither as a 
 general hyperplasia of the fat of certain organs or of the 
 whole body, as in obesity, or as the form of tumor known 
 as lipoma, which is quite similar in its structure to normal 
 adipose tissue. Sometimes a development of groups of fat- 
 cells takes place in the substance of a sarcoma, constituting 
 the variety known as lipomatous sarcoma. 
 
 New formations of cartilat/e. occurring in tho form of 
 tumors, are designated enchoudroma. They most gener- 
 ally resemble hyaline cartilage in their minute structure, 
 but present considerable diversities in the size and form of 
 the cells and in the characters of the matrix. Portions of 
 the matrix are frequently calcified : other portions aro 
 often found to have undergone mucoid softening. Com- 
 binations in the same tumor of enchondroma with sarcoma 
 or with new-formed bone as osteoid-chondroma also occur. 
 Ncic fnrmnlioiis tf bone are observed in the formation of 
 outgrowths from existing bones, as osteophytes or e.roitoses, 
 which, when they acquire considerable size, are spoken of 
 as bony tumors — osteoma ; besides which, a partial ossifi- 
 cation of sarcomatous and enchondromatous tumors, or 
 even of cancerous gro^vths, may take place, and must bo 
 distinguished from calcification due to a mere deposit of 
 lime-salts. 
 
 New formationg of muscular fibres Eometimes occur, con- 
 stituting the form of tumor known as nn/oma. Tumors 
 composed chiefly of striated mtiscular fibres are rare, but 
 have been observed in the walls of the ventricles of tho
 
 HISTOLOGY. 
 
 949 
 
 heart. Those composed of muscular fibre-cells are more 
 coinmoD ; they are sometimes found in connection with tho 
 muscular coat of the alimeatary canal, and still more fre- 
 quently in the uterus. 
 
 XfW /iiniKitioiig of uevve-Jihres and nrrrc-rclh also OCCUr 
 in a rare lorni of tumor situated in the course <»f the nerves, 
 and designated nenroma. The same term has been applied 
 to sarcomatous tumors and various other growths situated 
 on the nerves, but should bo reserved for tho group just 
 indicated. 
 
 At'ir formntinnn of gfandtitititie have been presumed to 
 exist, constituting a variety of tumor known as affeuomn, 
 which is observed in the female breast, the salivary glands, 
 etc. These tumors consist of gland-duets an<l hibulcs, re- 
 sembling those of tho gland affected, but pushed apart by 
 an intervening tissue which presents the characters of sar- 
 coma. It has not been demonstrated, however, that the 
 glandular tissue in these growths is actually of new forma- 
 tion, and it appears on tho whole more probable that these 
 growths are simply sarcomata entangling a portion of tho 
 structure of the gland in which they arc seated. 
 
 Besides the foregoing new formations, tho histological 
 elements of which closely resemble those of the normal 
 tissue, there are certain growths in which tho resemblance 
 is much less striking. These aro vtirci'nomn or cancer and 
 tuftcrcfe. In fully-developed cancers the older portions of 
 tho growth consist of a stroma or framework which resem- 
 bles more or less developed connective tissue in its structure, 
 and which, being arranged in an areolar manner, has its 
 interspaces or alveoli filled with cells of a more or less de- 
 cidedly epithelial character. In the marginal or more re- 
 eently formed portions of the growth a network of elon- 
 gated cylindri(!al cell-masses are observed, which arc con- 
 tinuous with the cell-masses of the older portions of the 
 growth, and which evidently lie in the lymphatic passages 
 of tho part. The connective tissue between the terminal 
 extremities of tho cancer ciffiu<if:r/t is infiltrated with a 
 swarm of small elements resembling migrated white cor- 
 puscles, and a similar swarm infiltrates tho connective- 
 tissue stroma of all parts of the growth. In cancers of 
 the skin, and those mucous membranes which arc clad with 
 a pavement epithelium, tho elements of tho cell-masses 
 and cancer cylinders present a striking likeness to the cells 
 of the ilceper layers of the normal ej)itheliuni, a row of co- 
 lumnar cells I)eing situated next to the connectivc-tissuo 
 stroma, and tho remaining cells, which are oval or polyg- 
 onal in outline, becoming more and more flattened in pro- 
 portion as they are more removed from the columnar layer. 
 Tho most distant cells even undergo a horny transformation, 
 like that which occurs in the superfieial layers of the epi- 
 dermis, and accumulate in the midst of the older cell-masses 
 as peculiar concentric bodies, the so-called pearly globules, 
 
 or tflulicH epi 
 
 Growths presenting these charac- 
 
 ters are designated epithfJiomn or epithelial cancer. Ii 
 certain cancers commencing in the mucous membrane of 
 the stomach and other situations, in which the surface is 
 clad with a columnar or cylindrical epithelium, the cells 
 of tho alveoli and of tho cancer cylinders present similar 
 characters, constituting a variety of epithelial cancer known 
 as cfffinthomHy or cylindrical epithelial cancer. In most 
 other cancers — as, for example, in those commencing in tho 
 mammary gland — the resemblance of tho cells of the can- 
 cer cylin'lers to epithelium is not so striking. They have 
 comparaf ively small oval nuclei, an<l are surrounded by a 
 scanty protoplasm without any distinguishable cell-wall. 
 In tho older portions of the growth, however, the cells aro 
 larger, with larger nueici and irregular polygonal outlines. 
 so that they approxinmlo to the epithelial type. Such cells 
 wcro formerly called r(tnrpr-rrJh, and supjuiscd to be spe- 
 cific. When in cancers of this character the connective- 
 tissue stroma is firm and abuiulant, making tho tumors 
 dense and hard, they are ricsigtiatcd ttrin-fniH: when the 
 cell-masses of thn alveoli are relatively the most abundant, 
 tho connective-tissue stroma being scanty and often imper- 
 fectly developed, they arc known as mcdudary cnnrrr. All 
 the forms of cancer are characterized by tho tendency of 
 the prinmry growth to bo suceeerlcd by multiple growths 
 of the neighboring lymphatic glands and in the internal 
 organs, and by their ]tronencss to undergo various degen- 
 erative changes. Fatty degeneration, which is one of the 
 most freijuent of these latter, speedily goes on to c(miplelc 
 cheesy metamorphosis and destructioTi of tissue, resulting 
 in the cancerous ulcer. Colloid degeneration also occurs, 
 though less frequently, sometimes filling tho alveoli with 
 glue-like masses, and constituting what is known as colloid 
 rnnrrr. 
 
 Tuhrrcfc occurs primarily as minute nodules, tho so- 
 called gray granulations, situated most frequently in tho 
 adventitia of the minute arteries, 'fhey consist of lym- 
 phoid elements, smaller or larger cells, with sti-'uigty re- 
 iVactive nuclei, and Mimctinn-s still lar^'cr cell-like plates 
 
 with several nuclei, all united together by a finely fibrillated 
 matrix. These growths are especially prone to undergo 
 the cheesy metamorphosis, and arc also prone to be asso- 
 ciated with inflammatory processes in which the products 
 of the inflammatiou also undergo the same change. This 
 cheesy metamorphosis was formerly regarded us so cha- 
 racteristic of tubercle that intlammatury products which 
 had undergone it were generally spoken of as tubercular, 
 without reference to their association with the gray gran- 
 ulations. Especially was this the case in the chronic in- 
 flammations of the lym])hatic glands and of the smaller 
 bronchial tubes and lung alveoli. In the latter instance, 
 when the cheesy metamorphosis of the inflamnmtory pro- 
 duct involves also the entangled lung-tissue, giving rise to 
 the production of cavities, the disease has been very gen- 
 erally confounded with tubercular phthisis; from which, 
 however, most modern histologists would separate it. (Tho 
 reader, desir<ms of further iDformation, must bo referred 
 to the special treatises.) 
 
 liibfingrnpfn/. — P. Stri(d(cr, TTaiidhnch drr LrJirc von den 
 Grwrhtn dtt Afcnsrhoi iiitd dvr Thicre. (Leipzig, 1870-72), 
 translated (London, 1870-7'J), New York, 1872, is espe- 
 cially commendable for the thorough study of Iiistology. 
 The following works may bo used in connection with 
 
 it: IL Frey, IJondhnrh drr fflstt,fi>f/i€ tnid Uifiturhrviic den 
 AffUMrfirn (2te Aufl., Leipzig, 1807); J. Ilenle, Hnndhnch 
 der HyHtematiHchcn Auritomit: den Mriisehm (Braunschweig, 
 1856-71); A. Kollikcr, Ilandlufh dcr Ciewrbflcfire (Leip- 
 zig, 1867); also, by the same, MouKtil of Human Micro- 
 j sropt'c Anatoitnf (London, ISfiO). The following works are 
 especially devoted to the methods of research : Vi. Klein, 
 section on histology in JIandhouk f>>r the Physio{<i<jiciU 
 Laboratory, edited by J. Burdon-Sanderson (London, 
 187.'i); H. Frey, Dun Mihroskop iind die MikrosKopittcIie 
 Tcclniik (4te Aufl., Leipzig, 1871); also the same, trans- 
 lated by George R. Cutter (New York, 1872); Lionel S. 
 Beale, Hmv to Wor/c with the Microscope (-Jth ed., London, 
 1868; also American ed., Philadelphia. 1870); AVilliam B. 
 Carpenter, The Microscope and itH Itcrclntious (Ith ed., 
 London, 1868); Charles Robin. Traits du Microscope [Vavis, 
 1871). Those who desire to trace the progress of histology 
 from the commencement of the century may consult with 
 advantage the following works: X. Bitdiat, Auafomie 04- 
 ncrale (Paris, 1801); F. Ilildelirandt, Unndbnch der Anat- 
 omic dcs Menschen (-Itc Aufl. bcsorgt von E. IL Weber, ' 
 Braunschweig, 1880-32); Th. Schwann, Microscopical Jtc- 
 scarchcn into the Accordance in the Structure and Growth 
 of Auiwah and Pfantf^, and M. J. Sclileiden, Cojitributions 
 to Phi/to-ffcncnin (j)rintcrl for the Sydenham Society, Lon- 
 don, 1847) ; J. Berres, Ana tonne der Mi/cronhopinchcn 
 Gchi/dc dcs mennchfichen Korpern (Vienna, 1830-42) ; A. 
 Donn<^'. Court! dc Microicopie, with atlas (Paris, 1844); 
 C. J. M. Tjangenbeck, Mtkron/iOpisch-anatomischc Abbil- 
 duntjen (Gilttingen, 1846-50); L. Mandl. Afuitf)mic Micro- 
 Kcopique (Paris, 1838-57); F. Leydig. Lihrhuch der IHs- 
 tolofjie den Menschen und der Thicre (Frankfurt-am-^Iain, 
 1857) ; J. <icrlach, ffandburh dcr nl/iftnieinen und sjncicl- 
 len Gftrebcfchrc dtn mem^chltchen h'Hrpcru (2te Aufl. Vien- 
 na, I860); J. Quain and William Sharpey, Ihnuan Anatnmi/ 
 (London, 184.^^7; 6th ed. London, 18.')V)); A. H. Unssall, 
 Microscopic Anatomy of the Human liody (London, 1846- 
 40); J. Quekett, Lectures on /fisinfnf/y^hmnhm, 1852); 
 also by the same, Cata/nrfue of the /lintohr/ieaf. Serid in 
 the Royal Colleije of Surfjrf,uH of England (London, 1850); 
 R. 15. Todil and W. Bowman, The Physioloffical Anatomy 
 and Physiolofjy of Man (2d ed. liOndon. 1856); also new 
 edition of the same by L. S. Beafe ( London. ]8riC.). Among 
 tho works on pathological histology the following may bo 
 mentioned: J. IMiiller, Vbcr dm fcinern Itan und die J'or- 
 nicn der Kranhhaftcn GeHchienhte ( Berlin, 1838) ; F. Gucns- 
 burg, Die pathofof/fHche Geirebc/chrc (Leipzig, 1845-48); 
 J. Vogel. IconcR Histolotfin- Pfttholotjiie I Lcipsic, 1845-48); 
 Carl Wedl, Pudimoits of Patho/o;,iral lliHtohufy, translated 
 for the Sydenham Society (Lumlon, 1855); II. Lebert, 
 Traits d'anatomic patholmjique, gfn^rnle et sp/'cinlcs {Va- 
 ris, 1857-61); II. Virchow, J)i*f Ce/fufar Patholne/ie (Ber- 
 lin, 1858), translated by Frank Chance (Philadelphia, 
 1863); also by the same, hie KrauKliaftm firtehu U/xft 
 (Berlin, 1863-67) — a work which still reuuiins unfm 
 ished, but which is especially rich in tho bibliography of 
 tho subject ; Lionel S. Beale, The Microsropc in its Ap- 
 plication to Prnrticnl Mcdiciur (3d od. London, lS(i7); 
 also Amer. reprint (Philadelphia, 1867); T. Billroth, Die 
 a/lfpmeinr chirurfjischc Pathofotjic und Therapie (2lc Aufl. 
 Berlin, ls66); nUo translation of the 4th cd, by 0. E, 
 Ilaekley (New York. 1871); E. Rindflcisch, Lrhrbnvh der 
 patholofjiHchtn Grtcrhrlchrr (4te Aufl. Leipzig, I87;[); also 
 translation of the 2d ed. for tho New .*^ydenham Society 
 London, 1872-73); also American translation t Phila<lelphia, 
 
 A. Thicrfeldcr. Atlan drr Pathol o-jixrh^n I/ititofofjie 
 
 1S7 
 
 (Leipzig, 1872-73), unfinished. 
 
 J. J. WudOWAun.
 
 950 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 Ilis'tory [Or. i<rTopia, from io-Topew, to "learn by in- 
 quiry," to '■ examine ''), etyniologically, denotes ascertain- 
 ment by inqitin/, hence tlu' process of investigation ; hence, 
 further, an acuouut of the circumstances thus asccrtaineil. 
 In its most ordinary sense it is restricted to a narrative of 
 transactions in the order of time, with or without critical 
 and pi'.ilosophical commentary. As such alone we propose 
 to consider it. Wc shail commence with a hriuf account of 
 the progress of historical narrative from its primitive ori- 
 gin to our own times j we shall next enumerate the recent 
 modifications which are more and more transforming it 
 from a simple record to a complex department of study; 
 and shall conclude with a few words of advice on the 
 method of obtaining a competent acquaintance with it. 
 
 In its origin, history, considered us a method of record- 
 ing events, is indistinguishable from oral tradition, which 
 seldom preserves the memory of any but the most remark- 
 able occurrences beyond three or four generations. A con- 
 siderable advance was made when traditions assumed the 
 form of ballads, easily remembered and repeated, but no 
 really authentic record could exist ])rcvious to the inven- 
 tion of writing. The first application of this art was to 
 monumental purposes, and along with the invocation of 
 deities, chronicles of the actions of kings began to figure 
 npon Egyptian temples. The invention of papyrus as a 
 writing-material was a further step in advance, and from 
 this period (possibly about .'iUOO n. c.) the Egyptians may 
 be said to have possessed an historical literature. The 
 practice of recording events in writing spread in due time 
 to the Hebrews, the Pha^niciaus, the Chaldieans, and the 
 Assyrians, but the pursuit of" history as a branch of literary 
 art, and tho study of it as a department of intellectual cul- 
 ture, were reserved for the Greeks. About the middle of 
 the fifth century b. c, Herodotus of Halicarnassus composed 
 the first work fully answering to our present idea of his- 
 tory, presenting the results of his own inquiries into a 
 scries of previous transactions in a thoroughly artistic form. 
 As more narrative the work of Herodotus has never been 
 surpassed to this day, and, notwithstanding his occasional 
 credulity, he is fully impressed with the principle that the 
 historian's first duty is to ascertain and record tiie truth. 
 A considerable step in advance was taken by the next 
 great historian, Thucydidcs, who, not content with relating 
 the actions of men, endeavors to penetrate into their mo- 
 tives, and to investigate not merely the accompanying in- 
 cidents, but the determining causes of changes in human 
 affairs. As Herodotus is the first great narrator, so is 
 Thucydides tho first great philosophical hisEorian ; and 
 almost all good history since their time has been written 
 on the model afforded by one or the other. Some new ele- 
 ments were added to tho conception of Thucydides by tho 
 next distinguished philosophical historian, Polybius, who, 
 living in the age when all other states were succumbing to 
 the power of Rome, was enabled to investigate the causes 
 of national greatness and decay on a much larger scale than 
 his predecessor. Xcnophon's Anabusis and Cicsar's Com- 
 meittitn'rs arc perfect examples of pure narrative unaccom- 
 
 1>anicd by reflection. Of the two great Koman historians, 
 jivy, like Herodotus, aims principally at narrative, but 
 aims at another purpose alien to the simplicity of his 
 model — the glorification of his own people, whose prose 
 epic, in fact, he has written. He also follows the example 
 of Thucydides in interspersing his own reflections, fre- 
 quently in the form of speeches placed in the mouths of his- 
 torical personages; his work may be considered as the 
 finest ancient example of the eclectic or composite style. 
 Tacitus imitates Thucydides, but with tho addition of an 
 element distinctively his own — an intense uKtral purpose. 
 Escaped from an era of tyranny, the subject of his history, 
 he aims at painting it in the blackest colors to prevent any 
 subsequent relapse into it. He has thus become the typi- 
 cal representative of an important department of history. 
 Afany valuable historians flourished during the decline of 
 tho Koman empire, but wc meet with none of special mark 
 before Eusebius (a. d. 330), tho first great ecclesiastical 
 historian, and Procopius (a. d. 5.00), neither philosophical 
 nor eloquent, but the model of tho dry, impartial, business- 
 like historian. 
 
 During the Middle Ages history was entirely eclipsed, 
 except among the Saracens. Ignorance, superstition, the 
 slow circulation of intelligence, the barbarism of language, 
 and tho total loss of the critical spirit conspired to reduce 
 iiistorians for several centuries to mere annalists. Tho 
 intellectual revival of the twelfth century produced a 
 marked improvement, but History was not rejtlaced upon 
 her old footing until the resurrection of classical literature 
 iiad brought good models to light, and the invention of 
 printing rendered them generally accessible. Two great 
 Italian historians, JIacchiavelli and (iuicciardini, kindred 
 spirits to Thucytlides and Tacitus, traced, the former the 
 mediicval, the latter the contemporary* history of his coun- 
 
 try, with a mastery that fixed the standard of historical 
 composition for the language. Their example, though 
 not their style, was emulated by I>e Thou, the French, and 
 Davila, the Italian, historian of the wars of religion in 
 France; by J^luriana. the historian of Spain, and Strada, 
 the elegant but inaccurate narrator of the revolt of the 
 Low Countries ; Raleigh, the first Englishman to attempt a 
 history of tho world, and Clarendon, whose account of the 
 Uebellion is perhaps the best example of a partisan history. 
 These remain the only eminent English historians until 
 Hume, the magic of whose style and the symmetry of whose 
 narrative atones in some degree for his negligence and 
 prejudice. Robertson gave the first example of a high-class 
 English historian devoting himself to the transactions of 
 foreign nations. His knowledge of the world ensured him 
 a full measure of success as a political historian, thoutjh 
 his Hiaturif of America has been superseded by Prescott, 
 and his IJistori/ of Charles I', is marreil by his ignorance 
 of German. A far greater name is that of his contempo- 
 rary. Gibbon, whose Decline and Fall f>f the Jioman Empire 
 is perhaps tho greatest historical work ever ]truduced — tho 
 most signal example of diligence in the accumulation and 
 of mastery in the control of enormous materials. Gibbon's 
 judgment is almost infallible, and his historical portraits 
 arc as accurate as they are brilliant. His principal defect 
 is his insensibility to the sj)iritual side of man's nature. 
 
 Since the eighteenth century history has claimed more and 
 more the attention of superior minds, and we must be content 
 with a bare enumeration of some of the principal works. 
 Early English history has been treated by Freeman, that 
 of the Tudor dynasty by Fronde, the Commonwealth by 
 Guizot, the Revolution by the dazzling but too rhetorical 
 Macaulay, Scottish history by Tytler and Burton. France 
 boasts a constellation of the brightest historical names, 
 including Michelet, her general historian ; Thierry, the in- 
 vestigator of her early history; Thiers, the least scrupu- 
 lous, but the most genuinely national of all her writers; 
 Guizot, Barante, Lamartine, Louis Blanc, Henri Martin, 
 etc. The subordinate historical branch of memoir-writing 
 has also flourished more among the French than among 
 any other nation. In virtue of its subject, Mr. Carlyle's 
 French JUvolutifn may be included among French histories. 
 This extraordinary work, a poem rather than a narrative, 
 is the only modern book that has added an entirely new 
 type to history. 
 
 Some of the most valuable contributions to Italian his- 
 tory have been made by foreigners, Sismondi, Roscoc, Grc- 
 gorovius, but Italy also boasts her Botta, Cantil, and Col- 
 letta. Germany has ])roduced a national historian in Jor 
 hannes Miiller, and the greatest of merely political histo- 
 rians in Ranke ; her mediaeval history is recounted by Von 
 Raumer. Schlosser's general history of the eighteenth 
 century, Schiller's Thirty Yem-g \Var, and Heeren's Hia- 
 tortf of Commerce are additional instances of first-class 
 (jerman histories; the number of the simply meritorious is 
 legion. The American Motley ha^ immortalized himself 
 as the historian of the revolt of the Netherlands. The 
 history of Bohemia has been classically written by Pa- 
 lacky, of Russia by Karamsin, of S^veden by (»eijer, and 
 of Portugal by Hercolano. The story of the (ireek war of 
 independence has been told by Tricoupi. Bancroft is as 
 yet the standard historian of the T. S., though it is un- 
 likely that he will remain so. The best histories of the 
 Spanish conquest of South America are by Prescott and 
 Arthur Helps. \'ery great ability has been displayed in 
 technical military histories, of which we can only mention 
 that of the Peninsular war by Gen. W. F. P. Napier. 
 
 The reconstruction of philology and archaeology has di- 
 rected attention to classical history, which, with thcexcep- 
 tion of the era comprehended in Gibbon's work, ma^' be 
 said to have been completely rewritten during the present 
 century. Niebuhr, though sometimes unduly skeptical, 
 effectually disentangled the legendary from the authentic 
 portions of early Roman history. The history of the Re- 
 public has been written on a grand scale by .Alummsen, and 
 the interval between him and Gibbon has been ably bridged 
 by Dean Merivale. Grote has ])roduccd what will long re- 
 main the standard history of the Greek republics, although 
 its animation is by no means equal to its erudition and sa- 
 gacity. The history of tho Christian Church has been ad- 
 mirably told by Milraan. Dunckcr's History of the Aryan 
 Have gives a brilliant and comprehensive view of the early 
 historical period of this section of mankind. The history 
 {as yet so obscure) of Egypt is told by IJrugsoh, and that 
 of Assyria by Rawlinson. India has found eminent his- 
 torians in Mill and Orme, and its ancient annals have been 
 critically investigated by Lassen and his coadjutors. Tlie 
 rise of Mohammedanism has employed the pens of Muir, 
 Sprenger. and others. Nor ought we to omit the native 
 Oriental historians, among whom may particularly be 
 named Mirkhoud, the historian of Persi.a.
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 951 
 
 Finally, an important class of history, much cultivatej 
 in moJcrn times, may be described as cullHteral or auxil- 
 iary to history ]>roper. Its ofrico is to treat of tlie origin 
 ami progrc53 oi" human purcuits or iuMitiitinns, such as 
 comiufTce or law. whith involves a chrouuluf^ical arrange- 
 ment, though the mention of persons orevents is only^ub- 
 sitliary to the main design, llallam's Constitutional Ilia- 
 tortf is an example. 
 
 The spirit of modern times has modified the study of 
 history in four principal ways : (1) By the resort, as amain 
 source of information, to archives, including statutes, char- 
 ters, public documents of all kinds, diplomatic and even 
 private correspondence. (2) By the endeavor to recon- 
 struct the private as well as the public life of nations, in- 
 volving an intimate knowledge of the minutiae of their 
 daily existence. f;i) l!y the application of tho mythical 
 theory to fabulous, sometimes even to extraordinary, nar- 
 ratives, (4) Ity the attempt to frame a philosophy of his- 
 tory — I. <•. to discover tho general laws on which particular 
 events depend. 
 
 Ai'chivew, StHtutcHf etc. — It was long before it was recog- 
 nized that tho history of every civilized people was in 
 some sort written in its pubUc institutions, and that the 
 essential principles underlying groat struggles were di--^- 
 playcd in such manifestoes as tho Solemn League and Cov- 
 enant or the Declaration of Independence. Such were 
 comparatively rare in antiquity, during which period tho 
 value of documentary evidence as an aid to history was 
 very imperfectly recognized. Nor was it sufficiently at- 
 tended to among tho raodcrns until tho obscurity and im- 
 perfection of the annalists of the Mi'ldle Ages led histor- 
 ians to resort to the contemporary archives as a supple- 
 mentary source of information. It was soon discovered 
 (hat laws and charters not only filled up tlio outlines of 
 historians, but corrected their errors: and it is now uni- 
 versally admitteil that an authentic history of any period 
 must be based upon doeumentary testimony where such is 
 pracnrable. Tho principle is of course liable to exceptions 
 fr»m the occasional deliberate falsification of such testi- 
 mony, the preambles of laws frequently stating considera- 
 tions notoriously at variance with truth, and letters ex- 
 pressing the wishes and designs, rather tlian tho convic- 
 tions, of tho writer. It is uevertlieless certain that this 
 gclf-delincation presents, on tho whole, both a truer ami 
 livelier picture of an age than any formal narrative ; and 
 no history would now bo considered adequate where every 
 possible U90 liad not been made of documentary materials. 
 The researches of palajographical scholars, and the disclo- 
 sure of state archives long jealously secluded, havo im- 
 mensely increased tho resources of this nature at tho dis- 
 p(»«al of historical SL*holars. Tho valuable histories of 
 Hanke arc based almost entirely upon the examination of 
 coutidential state papers. Much has been dono and is 
 iloing in England by tho official publication of abstracts 
 of tlie eorresp<indencc preserved in the Record Office. 
 
 Jlittnrif in itn Hvffttloii to Private Life. — It was natural 
 that in its infancy the attention of history should be prin- 
 cipally fixed upon great public events and picturesque oc- 
 currences. " To rescue from oblivion tho memory of former 
 incidents, and to render a just tributeof renown to the many 
 great and wonderful actions both of (Irceks and barbarians, 
 Herodotus of Haliearnassns produces this historical essay." 
 The same prineiple actuated all ancient historians, and their 
 references to the "tatc of nmnners or the social condition of 
 (he people are in general merely incidental. Tho conviction 
 I hat the intrigues of cabinets and tho shocks of armies arc 
 only important in so far as they affect tho general well- 
 being originated with the humane philosophy of the eigh- 
 teenth century. It has now thorouglily leavened every 
 branch of historical research, and has ]>owerfully contrib- 
 uted to give birth to a philosophy *d" history. Kxternal in- 
 cidents, so far from being considered as the sole objects of 
 historical inquiry, are now chiefly valued for the light they 
 afford to tho primal causes on which tho march of history 
 depends, and, unless in the case of profensedly military or 
 political histories, no historian is satisfied unless he can 
 evhibit tho moral and sorial condition of a nation at a 
 given period with the same vividness as that with which 
 ho would detail a jMiblic occurrence or depiet a political 
 character. Macaulay's view nf the social state of Kngland 
 at tho Revolution, and Mill's picture of the condition of 
 India at (ho British conquest, are famous examples. This 
 expansion of (he pcopo of history hns necessarily introduced 
 the most imjiortant modifications into historical composition, 
 and greatly extended tho ran geof accomplishments requisite 
 for Iho liistorian. 
 
 Thr .\ft/tfiirnf Thrnrt(. — Tn tho earliest ages of historieni 
 authorship stories uf the supernatural, even if referrinj; tn 
 contemporaries, were accepted as intrinsieatly eroflible, and 
 all tho early history of nations was enveloped in a cloud of 
 legend. The existence of a critical spirit, however, soon 
 
 makes itself manifest, but the legendary element was scru- 
 tinized on no satisfactory prineiple. According to the theory 
 of Euhemcrus, improbable stories were regarded as distor- 
 tions of actual pros;iic occurrences; thus, when Hercules is 
 said to have slain the Lerna'an hydra, it is to be understood 
 that he drained the Lerntean marsh. Another theory, preva- 
 lent in the Middle .Vges. and of which Bryant is the most 
 characteristic modern representative, regards all legendary 
 fables as perversions of a really veracious archetype; thus, 
 Hercules is to be identified with Samson. Both these views 
 are now exploded, and legends regarded either as "the 
 natural effusions of the unlettered, imaginative, and believ- 
 ing man" {(irotf), or as anthropomorphic representations 
 of natural phenomena, whose original signification had been 
 forgotten. {Cox, Ma.r Miillcr. etc.) Whether their origin 
 be referred to nature or imagination, they aro cquolly re- 
 garded as poetry, only available in small measure and with 
 the utmost caution for the ascertainment of authentic his- 
 tory. Tho first ap])lication of this prineiide on a largo 
 scale was made by Xiebuhr in his Koman history, and the 
 result has been to clear our histories of iuuumcrable popular 
 legends, and to free ancient history in particular from for- 
 midable chronological ditlicultics. besides destroying one 
 great source of error in the construction of theories to ac- 
 count for what never took place. The study of folk-lore 
 has also discredited many occurrences not intrinsically in- 
 credible ; tho story of Tell and the nppic, for instance, loses 
 its claims to credence as soon as it is shown to be an ordi- 
 nary incident in popular mythology. It can scarcely be 
 disputed, on the other hand, that the interpretation of tra- 
 dition has frequently afforded pretexts for the most extrav- 
 agant theories, such as the resolution of the heroes of the 
 Ilinfl, liamai/aiia, and other epics into mere celestial and 
 atmospheric phenomena. It might be safe to admit, as a 
 general principle, that where go<ls alone arc introduced in 
 a legend the deification of Nature may be suspected, but 
 that there is room for the supposition of actual event where 
 mortals are also concerned. 
 
 PhiloKophy of Ilintonj. — The idea of a philosophy of 
 history could not arise until after the conception of a 
 universal history had been formed; and this was scarcely 
 possible until after the rculization of a universal empire. 
 Tho Roman empire, however, was hardly established ere it 
 began to decline, and tho accompanying decadence of in- 
 tclieetual power prevented any attempt at a general phi- 
 losophy of history until the days of iSt. Augustine, who 
 was led to undertake it by the necessity of exonerating his 
 religion, to whose prevalence tho downfall of the empire 
 ■was naturally attributed by its adversaries, from respon- 
 sibility for tiio political disasters of the time. From this 
 jiointof view his V'- Ciritatc JJci is a masterly performance, 
 but its inadequacy to afford a theory of the course of his- 
 torical development may be inferred from its regarding 
 tho whole course of occurrences merely in their relation to 
 tho (.'hrislian Chureh. and its consequent restriction to the 
 records of the Old and New Testaments, and of the heathen 
 nations affected by the promulgation of Christianity. Its 
 limitations, however, were unnoticed by the incurious spirit 
 of the Middle Ages; and no progress towards historical 
 philosophy was discernible until (in 1607) Jean Bodin 
 enunciated the proposition that the course of events is con- 
 trolled by definite laws admitting of investigation by the 
 human intellect. The next great writer who took up the 
 subject was Bossuet, but his Dincouracon Univcrmil llixtory, 
 often cited as the foundation of the science, is little more 
 than an improved repul)lication of Augustine. The true 
 founder of historical philosophy was tho Italian Vico, 
 I whose NciQ Science (172;'») first ottemptcd that scientific 
 I explanation (d* the course of events whoso possibility bad 
 t been asserted by Bodin. The author, who had reflected 
 
 [)rofoundly on tho phenomcua attending revolutions in 
 luman history, deduces from Uiein thejirinciples which regu- 
 i late tho origin and development of society. The germ of his 
 ■ political speculations exists in a memorable passage in 
 Plato's Ilejuth/ir, but what with Plato is mere assertion is 
 I with Vieo oorroborated by a command over the vast mass 
 i of experience which had accumulated since Plato's nge. 
 I His great problem is to reconcile the existence of a divine 
 I plan of history with tho frecilom of human agency, in 
 which be has perhaps been as successful as any of his suc- 
 cessors. The idea of a deduction of all human events from 
 I first principles being oneo admitted, various attempts tn 
 I ascertain these principles began to be made, leading to 
 1 the establishment of rival hist'uical cehools. The great 
 ' maxim, that the grand determining causes of history are 
 general laws which even the most distinguished individuals 
 obey while they seem to control, was placed in the clearest 
 lislii by Montesquieu (l7-t'0- The chief merit of his con- 
 temporary, Voltaire, is not the application of liny prineiide, 
 hut the fearless an"i indepenrlent spirit whicli elenred his- 
 tory of everything intrinsieally insignificant or dependent
 
 952 
 
 HIT— HITCHCOCK. 
 
 upon mere traditional sanction. With all his brilliancy of 
 detail, his general view of history is discouraging and ig- 
 noble. Condorcet ( 17U3) arrived at the opposite couclusiou, 
 and first laid it down distinctly that the operation of the 
 laws recognized by Vico leads detinitely and inevitably to 
 the elevation of humanity as a whole. This generalization 
 woulil now hardly be disputed by any philosophical writer, 
 but great differences still e.xistas to what tendencies should 
 be allowed to rank as laws, and as to the best method of 
 expressing and classifying them. The grandest attempt 
 ever made to sum up all historical principles under a single 
 formula is, so far, that of Hegel (18;{7). Hegel conceives 
 the development of history to represent the progress of the 
 principle of the universe itself from a condition of chaos 
 to one of self-consciousness. Every important stage in 
 history is identified with some ruling idea which it has 
 been its mission to express and exhaust, that humanity 
 may proceed to develop the next. Fricdrich von Schlcgel, 
 on the contrary, explains hi.story as the striving back of 
 mankind to a lost condition of original blessedness. It is 
 the great merit of Herder (1791) to have pointed out the 
 vast influence of external nature on mankind, and of St. 
 Simon (18i:j) to have shown the connection of history with 
 the physical sciences. St. Simon, borrowing jierhaps a hint 
 from Turgot, also enunciated the principle of two neces- 
 sary stages of human thought — the theological and the 
 physical — subsequently expanded by Couite into hi? famous 
 doctrine of the three stages — the theological, the metaphys- 
 ical, and the positive. The significance of this pregnant 
 suggestion is evinced by the debate which it has excited; 
 but itcertainly cannot be allowed to rank as a demonstrated 
 Jaw so long as all three of these hypothctically successive 
 stages continue to coexist in all civilized nations. Michelet 
 and Pierre Leroux have contributed valuable principles to 
 historical science by inristing on the fundamental unity of 
 all peoples in spite of national distinctions, and De Toc- 
 queville by his recognition of the fact that real progress 
 inevitably tends to democracy. Bonald, on the contrary, 
 has revived the theocratic conception of Augustine. To 
 Bunsen we are indebted for the proof of the degree to 
 which history ha:^ inscribed itself upon language; to 
 Buckle, for a demonstration of the paramount importance 
 of intellectual progress as an instrument of national de- 
 velopment. Mr. Lecky has exhibited in a most striking 
 manner the sudden and, as it almost appears, spontaneous 
 disappearance of accredited beliefs, whose hold upon men's 
 minds has long been imperceptibly loosening. The prin- 
 cipal danger of such speculations is their tendency to 
 subordinate individual action altogether to general laws, 
 and to overlook the diversities of human character as agen- 
 cies in shaping the destinies of nations. The American 
 and French Revolutions were no doubt equally inevitable, 
 but in the present state of our knowledge no satisfactory 
 reason can be given why one might not as well as the other 
 have brought forth a Washington. Russia owes her pres- 
 ent position to Peter, Prussia to Frederick, but no rule can 
 be deduced from historical science to show that either of 
 these sovereigns must necessarily have been a man of 
 genius. Mr. Carlyle, on the other hand, greatly exagger- 
 ates the hero's independence of circumstances. An ex- 
 cellent account of the chief writers on the philosophy of 
 histor}', by Prof. Flint of St. Andrew's, is now iu course 
 of publication. 
 
 The Study of Hisf'in/. — As there is no study more de- 
 lightful than that of history, so is there none more vitally 
 necessary to the citizen of a free state. The constitution 
 of a democratic republic especially, assuming as an indis- 
 pensable condition of its working that every citizen shall 
 take an intelligent interest in public atfairs, imposes the 
 study of history us a duty incumbent upon all. It is im- 
 possible to form a correct judgment of present circum- 
 stances without the means of comparison with the past 
 supplied by a knowledge of history. The stuilent must 
 bear in mind, however, that all such knowledge is not 
 equally useful. The annals of great military monarchies 
 supply comparatively little that the citizen of a free state 
 can turn to account, and some of the most attractive chap- 
 ters of human history — that of Egypt, for instance — are 
 chiefly im|>ortant to the cultivators of special studies. The 
 American citizen should especially familiarize himself with 
 the history of free states, his own country before all others; 
 then the great and free country from which it sprang, and 
 from whose institutions its own are derived ; then the pro- 
 totypes of freedom in ancient Greece and Rome. If possi- 
 ble, ho should also familiarize himself with the slow devel- 
 opment of Roman institutions into the feudalism of the 
 Middle Ages, and the continuous transformation undergone 
 by the latter. To state the conclusions which he might 
 probably deduce from such an inquiry would involve tres- 
 pass on the grouni of contemporary politics; nor need we 
 do more than allude to the splendid examples of excellence 
 
 with which history abounds, and their obvious tendency to 
 encourage a high standard of public and private virtue. 
 The host method of study is that which commences with an 
 outline or skeleton of the subject, serviceable even if the 
 student proceeds no further, but capable of being filled up 
 indefinitely. Commencing with simple and condensed nar- 
 ratives, such as the excellent series now appearing under 
 the editorship of Mr. Freeman, let the student proceed to 
 comprehensive histories likeGrotc's or <iibbon*s, tilling up, 
 as it were, the interstices of his knowledge by a resort to 
 memoirs and detached narratives of particular transac- 
 tions, and crowning his labors by the endeavor to compre- 
 hend and apply some system of the philosophy of history. 
 Such general conspectuses of a subject as Voltaire's £,*«««» 
 sur lea Mtenrs will save him much toilsome research; but 
 with these, even more than with regular historical narra- 
 tives, he will need to boon his guard against the idiosyn- 
 crasies of his author, no matter of what school. In con- 
 clusion, we may confidently affirm that the more progress 
 he is able to make towards recognizing all history as one 
 great whole pervaded by an absolute unity of plan, the 
 more reason will he have to congratulate himself on genuine 
 progress in his historical studies. R. G.\itSETT. 
 
 Hit [anc. /»], town of Asiatic Turkey, on the W. bank 
 of the Euphrates, about 90 miles AV. N. W. of Bagdad, still 
 noted for the fountains of naphtha and bitumen existing 
 in its neighborhood. This bitumen was used in the build- 
 ing of Babylon, and was carried to Egypt by Thothmes 
 III. of the eighteenth dynasty, some 151)0 or IHOO b. c. 
 The modern town is mean and dirty, and has a popula- 
 tion of about IMIOO. 
 
 Hitch'cockf county in the S. W. of Nebraska, bounded 
 S. by Kansas. It is traversed by the Republican River, 
 and affords good pasturage. Area, 720 square miles. Cap. 
 Culbertson. 
 
 Hitchcock (Charles Henry). A. M., Ph. D., b. at Am- 
 herst, Mass., Aug. 23, lS;i6 ; graduated at Amherst College, 
 Mass.; has been instructor in geology in that institution 
 and at Lafayette College, as also professor of geology at 
 Dartmouth College, N. H., 1S69; assistant geologist of 
 Vermont 1S57-6I; State geologist of Maine 1SC1-C2, and 
 of New Hampshire 1S68. He has written largely upon 
 geology, and in 1870-71 established the meteorological 
 observatory upon Mount AVashington, N. H., which has 
 since been adopted by the signal service of the U. S. army. 
 
 Hitchcock (Edward), D. D.. LL.D., b. in Dcerficid, 
 Franklin co., JIass., May 24, 1793. His father, Deacon 
 Justin Hitchcock, was a hatter in moderate circumstances. 
 His mother, Mrs. Mercy (Hoyt) Hiichcock, was a woman 
 of active mind and marked character. Interrujited in his 
 preparation for Harvard College by sickness and weakness 
 of the eyes, he educated himself while following the plough. 
 From 1S15 to 18IS he was principal of Dcerfield .\cademy, 
 assisted by Miss Orra White, the lady who afterwards be- 
 came his wife, who rendered him invaluable aid in illus- 
 trating his scientific works, and to whom he dedicated 
 his Itttiffion of Geolot/t/. His first piiblication was The 
 Douiifill of liomtpartc, a dramatic poem of 500 lines ; this 
 appeared in ISl j. From' that date till 1S18. while prin- 
 cipal of the academy, he furnished the calculations for the 
 Pitrmer'ti Almanac and frequent corrections to the Xautical 
 Afiiiaurtc. From 1821 to 1825 he was pastor of the Con- 
 gregational church in Conway, and meanwhile found ex- 
 ercise, health, and recreation in makingageological survey 
 of Western Massachusetts. From 1825 to 1844 he was pro- 
 fessor of chemistry and natural history in Amherst College. 
 In lS;tU he was appointed State geologist of Massnehiisetts, 
 having suggested the survey which he was appointed to 
 make. In IS.'iO he was commissioned to do the same work 
 in the first district of New York, hut resigned the oilice on 
 accountof his health. From 1844 to 1854 ho was president 
 of Amherst College and professor of natural theology and 
 geology, and the college never had a more inspiring lec- 
 turer nor a more popular and progressive president. lie 
 accepted the presidency when it was sinking under the 
 weight of poverty and debt : and having secured for it lib- 
 eral endowments, doubled the number of students in ten 
 years, and greatly increased itsliterary and scientific advan- 
 tages, ho resigned that office, and, retaining the ])rofe8Sor- 
 shiji, devoted the remainder of his life to his favorite science 
 of geology, but always in its connection with religion. 
 He was an eloquent preacher and the faithful pastor of the 
 college church. Religion was the inspiration of his writ- 
 ings and his life. Ho was a prolific writer. He left a record 
 of tbo titles and dates of 24 volumes, 35 pamphlets (in- 
 cluding sermons). 94 papers in the journals, and HO news- 
 jjaper articles — some 80U0 pages in all — on a great variety 
 of subjects, but chiefly on his favorite themes of science 
 and religion. His earliest publications in geology and 
 natural history were Geologtj of the Conuecticut Valley
 
 HITCHCOCK. 
 
 953 
 
 (1823) and Cnlaloyiie of J'lantt luilliitt Tire'ili/ Milts of 
 Amherst (1S21); new cd., revised by Prof. Tuckorman 
 1874). In IS.iU he nublislicd JJi/nprp'in Forenlulli-d ntid He- 
 titled, and about inc same time sevcriil other productions 
 on temporaneo. In ls:;2 appeared Firai Hi /mil on the 
 Economic fjcu/oifi/ of Matsncliusctts. and in ls;{.» the full 
 report on the Keoio;jy, zoolot;y, and botany of the State, 
 which have given Massachusetts the honor of bcini; the 
 first in Europe or America to provide at public expense for 
 the survey of an entire Stale. The final report on the ge- 
 ology of jiassachusetis was made in 1K41 in 2 vols, quarto 
 of S.'il pages, with jj plates. Further worlis on geology 
 arc /■'o««i7 Fooltlepi in the U. S. (1848), Outlines of the 
 Geoloi/i/ of the O'tobe, and of the U. S. in J'lirticnliir (1833), 
 lllutlratious of Surface Gcolof/i/, published by the Smith- 
 sonian In.«litulion (1856), and He/mrt to the O'oiernment 
 of Massachusetts on the Jchuolo;/;/ of Ac to Euffland (1858); 
 also reports on {\ifi Geoloffy of Vermont (1857-59), and 
 Final Heport (in part by his son. Prof. C. II. Ilitohcoclt) iu 
 ISCl (pp. 'JS8. 38 plates, and 3fi5 wood-cutsl. The Ele- 
 vu-ntnrif (jeolni/t/, which first appeared in ISll), has gone 
 through many editions in America and England, and has 
 been widely used as a textbook in schools and colleges. 
 The Jielitfion of (ieulot/t/ and its Connected Sciences (1851) 
 and lieiitjious Truths lUnstroled from Science (1S57), to- 
 gether with uunuTous kindred articles in the lilhllcal He- 
 positori/, the Ililjliniheca Sacra, and other journals, were 
 the works to which he gave the most thought and study. 
 Among the nui.-I popular of his books have been Jlislon/ 
 of a jiouloi/icat 1 emperance Convention in Central Africa 
 (1850), A 'Wreiith for the Tomb (1 839), and IhUijioiis Lec- 
 tures on the Peculiar Phenomena of the Four Seasnns (1850), 
 which illustrate his playful fancy, creative imagination, 
 and strong moral, philanthropic, and religious nature. 
 Several of Dr. ililchcoek's works have been reprinted in 
 England, and Ihey have been favorably noliceil by the 
 leading journals and scientific men of bolli countries. 
 (SeeA'.^mei-. «<■.'., .tlii. 422-448 ; lii. 10.3-107 ; Ivi. 435-451 ; 
 -liiic)-. yoicr. o/ Sci., i. 100; .\.\ii. 1; xli. 232; Land. Con<j. 
 Mar/., 1842, etc. ; and testimonies by l>r. .1. Pyc Smith, Dr. 
 Mantell, Dr. liueklaiid. and the elder Prof. .Silliman.) In 
 turn he furnished introductions to American editions of 
 Dennis Croflon's Genesis and Geolof/i/, mid to the l*luralilif 
 of Worlds, a new edition of the latter being published iu 
 1875. 
 
 Prcs. Hitchcock was one of the originators and founders 
 of Mount Ilolyokc Seminary and of the Massachusetts 
 Agricultural College. And in connection with tlicsc wo 
 may incnlion his Memoir of Mart/ Ljjon and his Heport to 
 the Massachusetts Lcijislature on the Affrieulturnl Schools of 
 Europe, which he visited and examined by appointment of 
 the government in 1850. He was for many yeiirs a mem- 
 ber of the Massachusetts board of agriculture, and was 
 invited to become its secretary. He was a favorite of tlie 
 farmers and the common people, who had very generally 
 made his acquaintance in his geological explorations. The 
 last book which he puldished was the Hemiuisccnces of Am- 
 herst Cotle</c (lS(',:i), in which he interweaves with history 
 and autobiography many valuable suggestions touching 
 college education. His most uiii(juc and enduring monu- 
 ment is tho Hitchcock Ichnological Museum of Amherst 
 College, crcafcd by his genius, science, and industry, and 
 containing a (roinplete collection, comprising every known 
 variety of those fossil footmarks from tho Connecticut \'al- 
 ley which he was the first scientifically to examine, classify, 
 and interpret. Dr. Hitchcock was among tho first and 
 foremost of the pioneers of American geology. Tho .Ameri- 
 can (ieological Society owes its existence to his suggestion, 
 and he was its first president. He left his mark especially 
 in the inauguration of new enterprises and institutions, 
 and in the origination of new doctrines anc! arguments in 
 geology and inilural theology. He d. Fi^b. 27, isfil,and 
 tho jiiiun and tiiassivo granite obelisk which murks tho 
 place of his burial is fitly inscribed with those favorite words 
 of his; "The cross in nature, ami nature in the cross," which 
 were the principal theme of his writings and the keynote 
 of his character and life. W. H. Tvlku. 
 
 Ilitrlicock (Ei)HARn), A. M., M. D., b. at Amherst, 
 
 Mass.. May 23, I82S; graduated at Amherst College 1S49, 
 and at Harvard Medical School lS.'i2: has since been an 
 instructor in the Williston Seminar}', Easthampton, Mass., 
 and in 1801 was ap|)ointed professor of hygiene and physi- 
 cal education in Amherst College. 
 
 Hitchcock (Ethan Ai.i.kn), b. at Vergennes, Vt., May 
 
 IS, 179S: graduated from the I'.S. Military Academy, and 
 entered tin- army as third lieutenant of artillery .July, IS 1 7. 
 Till 1S29, exeeitt for three years as assistant instructor of 
 infantry tactics at West Point, ho served on garrison luul 
 recruiting duty, at'tcr which he became commandant of 
 ca'lets at the .Military Academy. At tho outbreak of 
 
 tho Florida war, ho volunteered his services, and became 
 acting inspector-general in Gaines's campaign of 1836. 
 From Florida he returned with Gen. Gaines to the West- 
 ern department, from which ho was transferred to recruit- 
 ing service, and subsequently to Indian duty, where his 
 honest administration of affairs as disbursing agent was 
 of great value in protecting tho Indians against swindlers. 
 Promoted to be major Sth Infantry in ISo.'i, ho was placed 
 on garrison duty from 1839 until called to Washington in 
 1S41, and placed in charge of the Indian bureau. Leaving 
 Washington in 1842, he joined his regiment in Florida, 
 from which (in 1842-43) ho removed Paseofii's band of 
 hostile Indians. In the Mexican war he was inspector- 
 general of Gen. Scott's army, and for his services in 
 battle received the brevets of colonel and brigadier-gen- 
 eral. After the Mexican war he made an extended tour in 
 Europe and the East, and on his return was placed on duty 
 in Washington. In 1851, then colonel of the 2d Infantry, 
 ho was ordered to San Francisco, (,'al.,and eominuuded tho 
 military division of the Pacific till 1854. where his services 
 were most valuable. In consequence of (lersonal differ- 
 ences with the secretary of war he resigneil Oct. IS, 1855, 
 and made his home at St. Louis, where he devoted himself 
 to literature ami the peculiar pbilosophical investigations 
 which had for many years occupied bis thoughts. On tho 
 outbreak of the civil war he offered his services to the U. S. 
 government. Though not acce|ited at the time, in Feb., 
 1862, his merits were recognized by his ajipointment as 
 major-general of volunteers, which, though once declined 
 on "account of tailing health, he was induced to retain, and 
 was placed on duty in the war depiirlnicnt, and to which 
 duties were added in November those of comniissioncr for 
 exchange of prisoners of war and commissary-general of 
 prisoners. These duties he discharged ably and acceptably, 
 and was retained in service till Oct., 1807. Among tho pub- 
 lished works of this accomplished officer and student of tho 
 "problem of life" are — The Doctrines of Sircdcuhor,/ and 
 Spinoza Identified (l&iO), Hemarks upon Alchemy and the 
 Alchemists (1857), Swedenlwrij a Hermetic I'hilosopher 
 (185S). C/ii-i'»( the Spirit, hcinij an attempt to State the I'rim- 
 ilirc View of Christianity (1ii6\), Ueniarks on the Sonnets 
 of Shakspcare, and Colin Clout Explained (,lii(ia). Xulcs 
 on the Vita Nuova of Dante (1S6B). D. at Sparta, Ga., 
 Aug. 5, 1870. «• C. SiMMOSS. 
 
 Hitchcock (Hesry Lawrence), D. D., b. at liurton, 
 0., Oct. 31, 1813; son of Chicf-.Iusticc Peter Hitchcock 
 (17S0-IS53) of Ohio; graduated at Yale 1832; studied di- 
 vinity in Lane Seminary : held Presbyterian pastorates in 
 Morgan, 0., 1837-40, in Columbus 1840-55; president of 
 Western Reserve College 1855-71, a position which he filled 
 with great ability and usefulness. D. at Hudson, 0., July 
 0, 1873. 
 
 Hitchcock ( Peter), LL.D., b. at Cheshire, Conn., Oct. 
 19, 1780 ; graduated at Yalo 1801 ; was admitted to tho bar 
 1804 : removed to Ohio 1800; was chosen to the Ohio gen- 
 eral assembly ISIO; State senator 1812-10; iu Congress 
 1817-19; was afterwards for twenty-seven years a justice 
 of tho supreme court of the State, and a part of that time 
 chief-justice. D. at Painesvillc, 0., May 11, 1853. 
 
 Hitchcock (KoswELL Dwiciir), D. D., LL.D., was b. 
 in East Machias, Me., Aug. 15, 1817 ; joined the sophomore 
 class in Amherst College in 1833; graduated in 1830; was 
 principal of an academy in .laifrey, N. II., 1836-37; pur- 
 sued biblical an<l other studies under private tuition 1837- 
 38; entered Andover Theological Seminary in 1838; was 
 assistant teacher in Phillips Academy, Andover, for one 
 term; was tutor at Amherst 1839-42; and in 1809 was 
 elected one of tho trustees of the college. From 1812 to 
 1844 he wasaresident licentiate at Andover; then preached 
 for a year in Waterville, Me.; and was ordaineil and in- 
 stalled over the First Congregational church iu Exeter, 
 N. II., Nov. 19, 1845. One year (1847-18) was spent in 
 (icrinany nt the universities of Halle and lierlin. In 1852 
 he resigned his pastorate to accept the Collins professorship 
 of natural and revealed religion in Uowdoin College ; and 
 in 1855 ho was chosen Washburn professor of church his- 
 tory in lininn Theological Seminary, N. V., which position 
 ho still (1875) holds. In 1806 he visited Italy and Greece, 
 and in 1869-70 Egypt. Sinai, and Palestine. In 1871 he 
 was made president of the American Palestine Exploration 
 Society. Iluring the civil war he took a decided stand on 
 tho side of the general government. He received the de- 
 gree of I>. D. from Howiioin College in 18,'i5, and of LL.D. 
 from Williams College in 1873. From 1863 to 1870 he was 
 one of tho assistant editors of tho yl/iioi'rnii Throlfij/icat 
 /Irriew, for which, as jircviously for the I'rrilii/lcrian 
 (Quarterly, he has written many articles, mostly relating to 
 church history, llesides publishing numerous orati<m», ad- 
 dresses, and sermons, ho has also edited tho /.(/>, Charac- 
 ter, and Writimjs of Edward Hobiuson (1864) ; A Complete
 
 954 
 
 HITCHCOCK— HOARE. 
 
 \nahjsiH of thi: Ifilile (1869), and has edited (with Drs. 
 5ddy nndSchiitT) Ih/mns rind .S'oii(/« u/ J'rniac (1S74) and 
 
 A 
 
 Eddv - , „ - - 
 
 Hifmiia (mil .V..ii;/» /«)■ /Social and Nitbhalk Ifoi's/iip (1S75), 
 Hitchcock (Samim:i. A.), a prominent citizen of Brim- 
 field, M:i?s.. li. about 17S4; acquired great wealth, and was I 
 distinguished as the founder of the llitcheock Free Ilijih 
 School, Brimlicld. and as a liberal benefactor of Amherst 
 College, Mass., Tabor College, la., Illinois College, Ando- 
 vcr Theological Seminary, and of various churches and 
 charities. These gifts e".\cecded ?fi,in,U0O in aggregate 
 value. D. at Brimliclil Nov. 24, 1S73. 
 
 Hit'cliin, town of England, in Hertfordshire, on the 
 Ivel, has breweries, manufactures of straw-plaiting, and a 
 trade in corn, malt, and Hour. Pop., with surroundings, 
 27,6,)7. 
 
 Hitopade'sa [Sans., " good instruction "], a celebrated 
 eolkclion of fables of a didactic character and quite an- 
 cient origin, existing in the Sanscrit language. It is an 
 abbreviation of the old J'anchiitnntni. The text of the 
 Hilupadcsa was published by Von Schlegel and Lassen 
 (Bonn, 1829), a German translation by M. MUIlcr (Lcipsic, 
 1S44), and an English translation by Wilkins and .Jones 
 (17S7). In substance, the Hilopadcm is nearly identical 
 with the reputed fables of Pilpay, and obviously came from 
 the same source. 
 
 Ilit'teren. an island on the W. coast of Norway, be- 
 longing to the stift of Trondhjem, and important for its 
 fisheries. It is 30 miles long by 10 miles broad, and has 
 about 3700 inhabitants. 
 
 Hit'tites [Heb. Chitii, "descendants of Heth "], a Ca- 
 naanitish nation whose original seat was Hebron. They 
 were a commercial race, are frequently mentioned on the 
 Egvptian monuments, as well as in the Bible, and seem to 
 bo noticed in the cuneiform inscriptions. After the eon- 
 quest of Palestine it is almost certain that they established 
 a Uingdom in the Orontes valley. Numbers of them re- 
 mained with the Jews even as late as the time of Ezra and 
 Nehemiah. The Egyptian records contain the names of 
 several of the llittite kings. 
 
 Hit'tic, tp. of Tazewell co., 111. Pop. 940. 
 Hit'torff (J.vcorES Ig.vace), b. at Cologne Aug. 20, 
 179:i; studied in Paris; travelled through England, Ger- 
 many, and Italy, where he spent two years in archieologi- 
 cal studies in .Sicily; and d. in Paris JIar. 25, 1867. The 
 most prominent of his works as a practical architect are — 
 the Cirque de rimpcratriee. Hotel dc Louvre, and different 
 embellishments of the Place de la Concorde and Bois de 
 Boulogne. The most remarkable of his writings are — 
 Archilcrliirr nnliqitc dc In Sicih and Aii-hiti^fturc iimdcrne, 
 de la Sicilc, but especially his ArcliiUctiu-e Piih/clirame 
 chez lea (irecs. showing the connection, with the Greeks, 
 between painting, architecture, and sculpture. 
 
 Hit'zig (FEUniNAND), b. June 2.'!, 1807, at Ilaningen, 
 Baden ; studied after 1824 at the universities of Heidel- 
 berg, Halle, and Gilltingen, and was in ls:i:i appointed pro- 
 fessor at (ho University of Zurich, whence in ISfil he re- 
 moved to that of Heidelberg. In Halle he heard Gcsonius, 
 and from that time he concentrated his studies principally 
 on the e.xegesis of the Old Testament: and by his freedom 
 from dogmatic prejudices, by his comprehensive learning 
 and acuteness, he contributed much to the true understand- 
 ing especially of the Prophets and Psalms, on which he 
 published large cxegetioal works. He also wrote Die 
 Erfindnnii dm Alpluibrlii (1840), Urijesrliiclilc tind Mi/lhiilo- 
 i/ic dcr I'liilhliicr (1S45), etc., and Oachichlc dea Volkea 
 'hrncl. D. in 1875. 
 
 Ilivnna, an island in the Pacific Ocean, belonging to 
 the .Maniiicsas. It is the most fertile and most densely 
 peopled of the whole group, but its inhabitants, numbering 
 about (i.'iOO, are described as the wildest and most inacces- 
 sible to European civilization of all the Polynesian tribes. 
 All efforts of missionaries. Catholic and Protestant, have 
 go far been in vain. 
 
 Ili'vites [Heb. Chilli, "midlanders" or "villagers"]. 
 
 a Canaanitish race conquered by the Hebrews. A part of 
 
 them, the Oibeonites and their neighbors, became Jewish 
 
 proselytes, but the great mass of them, living in the region 
 
 of Tyre, seem to have been unconqm-red ; but Solomon 
 
 m:idc them tributaries, and even menial subjects. They 
 
 were a peaceful commercial race, of whom little is known. 
 
 HiAvas'scc, tp. of Clay co., N. C. Pop. 418. 
 
 llix'toiif post-tp. of Jackson co.. Wis. Pop. 899. 
 
 Iload'ley (Bksjamin), b. at Westerham, Kent, Nov. 
 
 14, l()7(i; was edui^ated at (^lare Hall, Cambridge, of which 
 
 he became a fellow in U197 ; took holy orders 1700; became 
 
 rector of St. I*cler-le-poor 1702 ; rector of .'^treatham 1710; 
 
 was distinguished by his advocacy of liow Church views 
 
 in a famous controversy ("the convocation controversy") 
 
 with Atterbury and others, Burnet and Wake being on 
 Hoadley's side. In 1715 he was made bishop of Bangor, 
 and in 1717 a sermon preached before the king on the words, 
 •• My kingdom is not of this world," led to the famous Ban- 
 goriau controversy, in which he was assailed by the non- 
 jurors and the High Church party, headed by William Law, 
 Archde;icon Warren, and Canon Suapc. This controversy 
 led to the prorogation of the convocations and the almost 
 complete extinction of their powers. In 1721 he was trans- 
 lated to the see of Hereford, to Salisbury 172:'., and to Win- 
 chester 17;U. 1). at Chelsea Apr. 17, 17GI. Among his 
 works are—Lcllera on Miracles (1702). Jieaionahlenem of 
 Ciinformilii (1703), Itrief Ue/enrc of £ptt(i>pal Ordinnlion 
 (1707), .-1 J'rescnntitm uijainsl the Pi-incipht of Auu-jiiiors 
 (171(5), Nnliire and End of the Lord's Siipp'-.r (1735).— His 
 two sons. Bexjamin and Johx, also distinguished them- 
 selves. The former was b. in London Feb. 10, 1706; stud- 
 ied at Cambridge; took his degree as doctor of medicine 
 in 1729 ; settled in London ; was appointed physician to 
 the royal household in 174G; and d. at Chelsea Aug. 10, 
 1757. Ho wrote in 1747 the comedy The SiiHpiriunt Hun- 
 hand, assisted Hogarth in his Aniilijiit of llcanii/, and pub- 
 lished in 1750 Uhnervittions on a Seriei of Kleclric.al Exper- 
 iments. — The younger brother, John, was b. in London Oct. 
 8, 1711; studied first law, and then theology: took orders, 
 and became chaplain to the prince of Wales; d. Mar^l7, 
 1770. He wrote several comedies — The Contrant (1731) 
 and Lores Reremje ( 1737)— several oratorios and pastor- 
 ales, and edited his father's works. 
 
 Hoaglin, tp. of Van Wert co., 0. Pop. 622. 
 Iloang-IIai. See Yellow Sea. 
 
 Hoailg-IIo ("yellow river"), one of the principal 
 rivers of China, rises In Thibet, flows first in a north-east- 
 ern direction into Mongolia, then in a scjuthern and south- 
 eastern direction through China proper, and enters into 
 the Yellow Sea in hit. 34" N. Its course is winding and 
 tortuous; its current rapid and turbulent, and when it 
 reaches the lowland it becomes almost unm;inageable, and 
 is scarcely navigable. The immense amount of yellow clay 
 which it "carries along with it, and from which it has re- 
 ceived its name, is deposited partly at its mouth, partly 
 along its bed. Thus, not only the level of its waters, but 
 even the level of its bed, is higher than the surrounding 
 hand, which must be protected against its inundations by 
 immense levees. It costs the Chinese government yearly 
 87,000,000 to keep these levees in good repair, and an ex- 
 tensive system of canals has been devised and constructed 
 in order to lead p.arts of its waters into other river-beds, 
 and prevent the devastations with which it threatens one 
 of the most fertile provinces of the empire. Its principal 
 affluent is Hoei-Ho ; among the large cities along its shores 
 are Lan-Choo and Kai-Fung. In 1853 the Hoang-Ho broke 
 from its old course, and began pouring its waters into the 
 Yellow Sea by a mouth some hundreds of miles N. of its 
 former one. 
 
 Hoar (EnnxEZEU RorKWoon), LL.D., b. at Concord, 
 Mass.. Feb. 21, ISIG, a son of Samuel Hoar (1778-1S56). 
 He graduated at Harvard in 1835, and was admitted to the 
 bar "in 1S40; was 1849-55 a judge in the court of common 
 pleas : a judge of the supreme judicial court 1859-69 ; U. S. 
 attornev-general 18(;U-7»; joint high commissioner on the 
 Washington treaty of 1S71 ; member of Congress from Mas- 
 sachusetts 1873-75. 
 
 Hoar (CiEonuE Frisbie), a son of Hon. Samuel Hoar, b. 
 at Concord. Mass., Aug. 29, 1826: graduated at Harvard 
 in 1846; was admitted to the bar in 1819. and settled at 
 Worcester, Mass. He was elected to the 41st Congress, and 
 re-elected to the 42<1, 43d, and 41th. In 1877 was elected 
 to the U. S. Senate from Massachusetts. 
 
 Hoar (Samuel), LL.D., b. in Lincoln, Mass., May 18, 
 177S ; graduated at Harvard, 1802 ; was a teacher in Vir- 
 ginia two years ; was admitted to the bar in 1805, and at- 
 tained great eminence as a lawyer; was in 1820 a member 
 of the State constitutional convention: a State senator 
 1825 and 1833: a State councillor 1815-40; and a member 
 of Congress 1835-:;". In 1844 he was sent by the legisla- 
 ture of Massachusetts to South Carolina to test the con- 
 stitutionality of certain acts authorizing the imprisonment 
 of free negroes from outside the Stale, and on Dee. 5 of 
 that year he was forcibly expelled from Charleston, the 
 State'legislaturo on the same day authorizing the governor 
 to expel him. D. at Concord. .Mass.. Nov. 2, 1856. Ho 
 was an active member of many charitable and religious 
 organizations. 
 
 Hoare (Sir Ruhard Colt), b. at Stourhead. England, 
 Dec. tl. 1758; d. May 19. 183S. He inherited a large for- 
 tune from his talher, and made extensive scientific travels 
 on the Continent and in his native country, of which he 
 published richly illustrated accounts: A Classical Tour
 
 HOABB— HOBBES. 
 
 955 
 
 tlirouijh /laly and .Sicili/ (181S) and Anciml Hitlurg of 
 South Witlihire (8 vols.'folio, ISlO-l'J aud 1S22-52, edited 
 by the aid uf other antiquanaDs). 
 
 Hoare (Wh.i.iam), b. near Ipswich in 1707: d. at Bath 
 in 17U2. lie was the first Englisli painter »hu \»ent to 
 Rome to finish his education, and lie was onf of the orig- 
 inal members of the Royal Academy. The best known of 
 his paintings arc his portraits of Pitt, Ureuville, Lord 
 Chesterfield, etc. — His son, I'uinck, was b. at Rath in 17J4, 
 and d. at Rrightun in lSo4. After studying at the Uoyal 
 Academy and in Rome, he succeeded Boswcll in 17'J'J as 
 foreign secretary to the Academy, and was a very prolific 
 dramatic writer, especially in the department of comic opera. 
 
 Ho'atziDf the Opinthnnimus crislDtus, a South Ameri- 
 can bird resembling somewhat the peacock in appearance. 
 It exhibits a number of peculiarities in structure, and is 
 the type of a group of (Jallinaceous birds of equal value 
 with the Alccteromorphu' (PhasianiJie), Ptcrocloniorpliaj, 
 and Tumicimorpha.'. It has a largo crop and a small giz- 
 rard, is gregarious, and frequents marshes, where it feeds 
 upon the leaves of -Irum arborctcciit. Its flesh has an in- 
 tolerably rank taste. 
 
 Ho'bart, tp. and post-v. of Lake co., Ind., on the Pitts- 
 burg Kort Wavne and Chicago R. R., 33 miles S. E. of 
 Chicago. Pop'. 1037. 
 
 Hobart, post-v. of Stamford tp., Delaware co., N. Y., 
 on the Delaware River, 4 miles below Stamford ; has a na- 
 tional bank. 
 
 Hobart (IlAnnisov C), b. at Ashburnham, Mass.; 
 graduated at Dartmouth College 1S42; removed to Wis- 
 consin in 1S46. and settled at Sheboygan ; was a member 
 of the Territorial legislature and of the first State senate ; 
 Speaker of the assembly ISjO; aceompanie<l the 4th Wis- 
 consin Vols, to tho seat of war as captain ; subsequently 
 appointed lieutenant-colonel and colonel of his regiment; 
 was captured and confined in I.ibby Prison, Richmond, 
 and one of tho party who escaped by means of tho famous 
 tunnel in 18C4. In 1SC5 ho was Democratic nominee for 
 governor of Wisconsin. 0. C. Siumons. 
 
 Hobart (Jonx IIf.xrv), S. T. D., an American bishop, 
 b. in Philadelphia Sept. 14. 177J ; graduated with honors 
 at Princeton in 1793; was tutor there KUii-yS: ordained 
 deacon of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 17"j;-, a priest 
 in ISOl; became assistant bishop of Xew York in ISU, 
 and bishop in ISIB. In 1799 he was made rector of Christ 
 church, New Brunswick, N. J.; in ISOO, for a short time 
 rector of St. Oeorge's, Hempstead, L. I., and in tho same 
 year assistant minister of Trinity church. New York, of 
 which in 1S12 ho became assistant rector, and in ISIO rec- 
 tor. In 1S21 ho became professor of pastoral theology and 
 pulpit eloquence in tho General Theological Seminary, 
 New York, of which ho was one of the founders. Among 
 bis \vrilings arc (Companion for the Altar (1S04), Apolotft/ 
 for Aponlolir Oril.r (1807), 2 vols, of sermons (1824). (Sco 
 Memoir by Wii.i.iAM Bkhiiias, IJ. D., published with his 
 posthumous works (3 vols., 1H.13) ; Tlic Eorln Ycart of 
 Iti-h,p Hobart f 1 834) and T/ie ProfonioHul Yearn of Ilithnp 
 Hobart. by J. McViCKAB (1836). D. at Auburn, N. Y., 
 Sept. 10, 1830. 
 
 Hobart (.lonx Si.oss), LL.D., b. at Fairfield, Conn., in 
 173S; graduated at Yale in 17J7: was in tho Xew York 
 Congress, and in Kfiii was appointed a member of a com- 
 mittee to prepare a State constitution: became in 1777 a 
 justice of the district court of Xew York, and afterwards 
 was on the bench of tho Slate supreme court; U. S. Sena- 
 tor in 179S; resigned in the same year, and became jus- 
 tice of tho U. S. district court for New York. D. Feb. 4, 
 ISUJ. 
 
 Hobart Town, or Ilobarton, capital of Van Die- 
 men's Land, on the navigable Derwent, which at its en- 
 trance into .Storm Bay forms an excellent harbor, safe and 
 accessible to the largest vessels. Hobart Town was ft>unded 
 in 1801. It is beautifully situated at tho foot of Welling- 
 ton Mountain, and well built with straight and broad 
 rtrccts and many handsome buildings, among which thero 
 a"e several Hpisco|)alian, llonian Catholic, ancl Presby- 
 fjrian churches and a Jewish synagogue, and fine gov- 
 ernment house, 4 banks, 3 public libraries. Has good 
 public schools, gas anil water works, etc. It is connected 
 with Mellunirno by steamers, and carries on quite a lively 
 trade. It has an Anglican and a Roman Catholio bishop. 
 Pop. 19,1192. 
 
 Hob'bcma, nrHobbima (MixnF.nnorT), a celebrated 
 Dutch landscape-painter. Of his personal life nothing is 
 known, but the circumstance that the figures in his land- 
 scapes are painted by Bi-rghem, Van der Velile. Lingelbaeh. 
 and I. van T^oo shows that he lived in the latter part of 
 tho seventeenth century, and by some be is believed to 
 have been a disciple of Ruysdaol. Hi- painted mo^tly for- 
 
 ests and ruins, and his pictures are found in all tho largo 
 galleries. 
 
 Uobbes (Thomas), one of the most distinguished think- 
 ers of the period of English emancipation from scholasti- 
 cism, b. Apr. 5, IciSS. at Malmesbury, in Wiltshire. His 
 father was a country clergyman. After a thorough jircpa- 
 ration, he was sent to tJxtord before his sixteenth year, and 
 there studied .\ristotle and scholastic philosophy for five 
 years, acquiring certain nominalistic principles which 
 marked all his subsequent thinking, although be early 
 assumed a hostile attitude towards scholasticism. Ho 
 became tutor to the future earl of Devonshire, and in 1010 
 travelled with his charge through France, Italy, and Savoy. 
 On his return, and on subsequent visits to the Continent, 
 he met the foremost thinkers of the time, and became moro 
 or less intimate with Lord Bacon, Ben Jonson, Lord Ed- 
 ward Herbert of Chcrbury, Descartes, tiassendi, Ualileo; 
 later in life with Selden, Cowley, and Dr. Harvey. In 
 102S he translated and published Thucydides, with the ex- 
 press purpose of showing his countrymen a warning ex- 
 ample of tho "fatal consequences of intestine troubles." 
 Just at this time the foundations of civil order were shaken 
 by tho struggle between the House of Stuart aud the sup- 
 porters of individual liberty and the rights of conscience. 
 Of an unusually timid disposition (congenital, arisiug 
 from premature birth at the fright occasioned by the ap- 
 proach of the Spanish Armada), Holibes felt very keenly 
 the lack of security which the state should atford, and this 
 subject (the state) "occupied his chief thoughts for tho rest 
 of his life. Retiring to Paris with tho royalists in 1010, 
 ho published a small edition of his Elcmciila J'liilotophiia 
 tie Che in 1042, tho work being reprinted, much enlarged, 
 in 1G17 at Amsterdam by the famous Elzevirs. In 1CJ7 
 ho became mathematical instructor to Charles, prince of 
 Wales, a relation which was broken in alarm upon tho 
 publication of his views on political, moral, and theological 
 subjects in tho treatises (I) Treatise on Human Xaliirc 
 in IGJO, (2) Dc Corpore Politico (London, IGjO), and (3) 
 his collected views in tho Leviathan, or the Matter, Power, 
 and Form of a Commonwealth, KcclcniaHtleal and Ciril, in 
 IGJl. lie escaped persecution by fleeing secretly from 
 Paris and taking refugo in England, where Cromwell's ab- 
 solute power in 1GJ3 furnished a government much in nc- 
 cordanco with Ilobbcs' doctrines. He published a remark- 
 able Lctlerupon Liberty and Kcccseiti/in lGo4,and tho first 
 and second divisions of his great work, Philosophieal itudi- 
 ments, in IGjJ-oS; tho first division treating of Body, tho 
 second division of Unman Katnrc, the third of the State. 
 His Lcriathnn and I>e Cue were censured in Parliament in 
 IGGG, and very many works were written to refute them, 
 tho most able of these being Cudworth's Jntclteetual ,'?yslem. 
 After tho Restoration, Hobbes received a pension of £100 
 from Charles II.. his former pupil. In lfi7J he published 
 a translation of Homer's Jliail and Odyssey, lie wrote his 
 autobiography in Latin vcr.sc. and his liehemolh, a dialogue 
 on tho civil wars between 1G40 and IfiCO, was finished in 
 tho year of his death, which occurred in Dec, 1G7U, at the 
 scat of tho earl of Devonshire, his constant friend and 
 supporter. 
 
 The literary stylo of Hobbes is pronounced admirable, 
 being always clear and never tedious. His system of phi- 
 losophy was a materialistic scaffolding built for the purpose 
 of suiijiorting and complementing his philosophy of tho 
 state, which is his only valuable contribution to human 
 thought, besides certain negative or skeptical principles 
 afterwards elaborated by Locke and Hume. He held sen- 
 sation to bo the basis of all knowledge; matter to be tho 
 only reality ; philosophy to be the knowledge of efl'eets in 
 their causes and of causes in their efl'eets ; scientific method, 
 consequently, to bo twofold (ii) inductive or analytical, and 
 (/.) deductive or synthetical. In his Prima I'hilutophia 
 he defines the ideas of space, time, thing, cause, etc. some- 
 what after the manner of the Schoolmen. But the subject 
 of philosophy is the two kinds of bodies, natural and arti- 
 ficial, the latter including human organizations, of which 
 tho slate is tho highest example. He held mind to bo 
 material ; thought to bo a process of adding and subtract- 
 ing representations produced by |ihysical iiii|ires8ions ; 
 language to be the most essential inslrumenlality to human 
 life, rendering possible tho existence of civil society and 
 tho state and the development of science and reason itself; 
 ideas of good and evil to have their origin in the sensations 
 of pleasure and pain; tho human will to be under thecon- 
 trol of circumstances and necessity. The state of nature 
 is not tho ideal slate of man, but a state of war on tho 
 part of each against all — brlfnm omnium in omnm — and its 
 result a condition of complete misery. .Self-interest im- 
 pels man to combine wilh bis fellows and insliliite govern- 
 ment, a " leviathan power" wbieh adjusts and subordinates 
 individual selfishness and produees the maximum of hap- 
 piness. Outside the state are found constant war, fear,
 
 9r)(} 
 
 HOBBS— HODGE. 
 
 poverty, filth, ignorance, and wretchedness; within the 
 state dwell peace, security, riches, science, and happiness. 
 Coercion is essential, and absolute monarchy is the must 
 perfect form of f;overnuicnt. Individual conviction should 
 not be considered. The state is the (irand iMan which 
 makes possible the rational development of the indi\'idual 
 man, like a mortal god subduing his caprice and passion, 
 and compelling obedience to law, developing the ideas of 
 justice, virtue, and religion, creating |)roperty and own- 
 ership, nurture and education, llobbcs was so uiucli im- 
 pressed with the importance of the authority of the state 
 that he could not appreciate the necessity of mediation by 
 which the individual will shall be adjusted an<l reconciled 
 to the universal will (of the state) through the principle 
 of popular representation. Complete U'«)7.«. cd. by Moles- 
 worth, IG vols, (a vols. Lat., 11 vols. Eng.), Loudon, IS'iil- 
 4i. Wm. T. Hariiis. 
 
 Ilobbs, tp. of Jefi'erson CO., Neb. Pop. 378. 
 
 Ilob'by, name given in Great Britain to certain small 
 falcons, especially to the Hi/pntriorrhis suhliiitco, a bird 
 about one foot in length and of very elegant shape. It was 
 once much employed in hawking. 
 
 Ilob'house ( Joiix Cam), Lorb Broi'chton', h. June 27, 
 ITSO; graduated at Cambridge in 180S ; entered the cab- 
 inet of Earl tlrey as secretary of war in \S?>\ ; was made 
 secretary of state for Ireland in lS.'i:i, and president of the 
 board of control from IS.^o to 1841 and from ISM to 1802 ; 
 was created a baron in 1851, and d. Juno 3, ISIiO. His 
 Jintninf tlirom/h Alhniiia and other Pi-nvinCfH of Tnrhtij 
 villi Lnrci llf/roii (1812). lUmtratiDnn of the Fourth Canto 
 of Cliililc llarold (1818), and Itulii (1859), attracted much 
 attention. 
 
 Ilo'bokcil, city of Iludson co., N. J., on the W. side 
 of the Hudson River, directly opposite New York City, and 
 N. of and adjoining Jersey City ; incorporated in 1855. 
 Four lines of European steamers start from this point, and 
 the jNIorris and Esse.x and the Delaware Lackawanna and 
 Western R. Ks. have their eastern termini here, and con- 
 nect the city with all the great railroad systems S. and W. 
 of New York City. Various lines of street-cars also con- 
 nect it with .Tersey City and the villages in the northern 
 part of the county. Its trade in coal is extensive, it being 
 one of the principal d^pOts from which New York City and 
 its shipping are supplied. It has 3 good public schools, 
 several academies, 12 churches, 3 weekly newspapers, the 
 St. Mary's Hospital, 2 savings and 1 national bank, several 
 foundries, and a large lead-pencil factory. Prominent 
 among its academics is tlie Stevens Institute of Technology, 
 which has very extensive, expensive, and complete appa- 
 ratus and arrangements for teaching the natural sciences 
 and their applications to the arts and industries. The 
 Franklin Lyceum Association has a library of over 2(100 
 volumes. Its jirincijial industries are connected with the 
 European steamers and the coal-docks. Pop. 20,297. 
 DoNALo Maxs, Ed. "Hidson County Democrat." 
 
 llob'son's Choice. It is related in the Spectator 
 (oO'.l ) that Tobias Hotjson, university carrier at Cambridge 
 and the subject of two jioems by Milton, was the first per- 
 son in England who kejit a hackney-stable. He always 
 politely asked his customers to take their choice of his 
 forty horses, but no matter which horse was chosen, Hob- 
 son always managed to put off tlie traveller with the horse 
 which stood nearest the door. Hence " Hobson's choice" 
 signifies a nominal choice with no real alternative. 
 
 Hoche (Lazark), b. June 25, 176S, at Montrcuil, the 
 son of a poor workman, who could give him no education. 
 In 1784 he enlisted in the army ; in 1791 he fought as ser- 
 gcjint in the regiment of Gardes Franyaises with the rab- 
 ble before the door of JLirie.\ntoinolte; in 1792 he became 
 lieutenant In the regiment of Rouerguo; and ii. 179.'! he 
 distinguished himself in the siege of ThionviUc and in tlie 
 battle of Neerwindcn. Having been imprisoned on sonic 
 suspicion, he sent a jilan of a campaign to the Committee 
 of l*ublic Safety, and he was immediately liberated, made 
 a brigadier-general, ami sent to serve in the army of Hou- 
 ehard. He soon received an independent command, and in 
 1793 he defeated the .\ustrians at Weissenburg. and com- 
 pelled them to withdraw from Alsace. In 1795 he foiled 
 the invasion of the royalists and the English, attempted 
 from the peninsula of Quiberon. In 179tj he pacified the 
 Vend6e, while his expedition to Ireland failed, as stormy 
 weather scattered his ships. In Apr., 1797, he again eom- 
 nnindcd against the .-Vustrians, and defeated them in three 
 battles; ho was at Wetzlar when the armistice of Lisbon 
 ended the war. In the fall of that year he was suddenly 
 taken ill. and d. Sept. IS. twenty-nine years old; a post- 
 mortem examination showed that he had been poisoned. 
 
 Hochela'^&9 county of Quebec, Canada, includes the 
 eastern part of the island of Montreal in the river St. 
 
 Lawrence. It territorially includes the city of Montreal, 
 which, however, does not belong to it. Cap. Hochclaga. 
 Pop. 25,1140. 
 
 tlocbelaga, the eounty-seat of Ilochelaga CO., Que- 
 bec, Cunada, is a beautiful suburb of Montreal, with which 
 it is connected by a street railway. Its convent of the 
 Holy Name is the largest nunnery in the province. Pop. 
 of sub-district, IDtil. 
 
 Hoch'heim, town of Prussia, in the province of IIcsso- 
 Nassau, is situated on the Main, and is celebrated for its 
 excellent wine. Pop. 2536. 
 
 noch'kirch, v. of Saxony. 7 miles S. E. of Bautzen. 
 Heri! Frederick the (Jreat was completely defeated by the 
 Austrians under Daun, Oct. 14, 1758, 
 
 llochst) town of Prussia, in the province of Hesso- 
 Nassau,at the influx of the Nidda into the .Main, is noted 
 for the battles fought here — June 20, 1(122, in which Tilly 
 defeated Duke Christian of Brunswick, and Oct. 11. I79.>, 
 in which the Austrians defeated the French under Jourdan. 
 Pop. 3013. 
 
 Iloch'stildt, town of Bavaria, on the Danube, is fa- 
 mous for the battle fought here Aug. 13. 1704, in which the 
 Austrians and English under Prince Eugjne and Marl- 
 borough utterly defeated the French and Bavarians. The 
 battle is by the English named after Blenheim (or Blind- 
 hcim). a small village near HochslUdt, at which one of the 
 most decisive episodes of the battle took place. 
 
 Hock, a popular name in Great Britain for all Rhenish 
 wines. It originally designated the wines of Hochheim, 
 in the Main Valley. Of the Hochheim vineyards, the small 
 Dcchancrei and Stein plantations, the property of the (jer- 
 mnn emperor, have the best reputation. Still and spark- 
 ling hocks are produced. (See RiiBNtsH Wines.) 
 
 Hock'ing, or Hockhocking, a river of Ohio, rises in 
 Fairfield co.. Hows S. E. through Hocking CO., and joins 
 the Ohio in .Vthens co., after a course of 80 miles. For 
 nearly 70 miles it is navigable for boats; the Hocking Ca- 
 nal connects with the Ohio Canal. 
 
 Hocking, county of S. E. Central Ohio. Area, about 
 390 square liiiles. It is hilly and fertile, and has mines of 
 coal and iron. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are sta|)lo 
 products. It is intersected by the Hocking Valley R. R. 
 and the Hocking River and Canal. Cap. Logan. P. 17,925. 
 
 Hocking, tp. of Fairfield co., 0. Pop. 2005. 
 
 Hock Tide, or Hoke Days, the Monday and Tues- 
 day occurring two weeks after Easter, a former English 
 festival in memory of Ethelred's great victory over the 
 Danes in 1002. Tolls were taken at the town-gates and 
 money was collected throughout the parish for the priest. 
 Traces of the old customs existed in some places in the 
 eighteenth century. 
 
 Hodcida', or El Hndaidah, seaport of Arabia, on 
 the Red Sea, in lat. 11^ 40' N., about 2 miles N. W. of 
 Jloeha. is of some importance for the transfer of jiilgrims 
 from India and for the exportation of coffee. , 
 
 Hodg'don, |iost-tp. of Aroostook co.. Me., on the New 
 Brunswick line, miles S. of Iloulton. It has 3 churches, 
 and manufactures of furniture and lumber. Pop. 989. 
 
 Hodge (ARciiinAi.n Alexaxoer), D. D., son of Dr. 
 Charles Hodge, noticed below, was b. in Princeton, N. .1., 
 July 18, 1823; graduated at the ('(dlege of New Jersey in 
 1841; was tutor 1844—10; graduated at Princeton Theo- 
 logical Seminary in 1847; went the same -year as a mis- 
 sionary to .Vllahabail, India; returned in 1850 on account 
 of the impaired health of his wife ; was settled as a pastor 
 in Lower West Nottingham, .Md., 1851-55; at Fredericks- 
 burg, Va., l855-(il ; and at Wilkesliarre, Pa., 18l)l-fi2. In 
 181)4 he was elected by the General Assembly of the Pres- 
 byteri.au Church to the chair of diilactic, historical, and 
 polemic theology in the Western Theological Seminary, 
 Allegheny, Pa. In connection with the professorship, ho 
 became in 18fiG pastor of tho North Presbyterian church 
 of the same city. In 1862 he received the degree of D. D. 
 from the College of New Jersey. He has published Out- 
 linen of Theoloi/!/ (1860), The Atonrmcnl {]>ia7), Comnieut- 
 ari/ oil the Coiifcniiion of Faith (1869). Ho wrote for this 
 work the admirable article on Calvinism. 
 
 . R. D. Hitchcock. 
 
 Hodge (Ciiari.es), D. D., LL.D.. of Scotch-Irish do- 
 scent, was b. in Philadelphia, Pa., Dec. 2.S 1797. His 
 father. Dr. Hugh Hodge, a physician of large practice and 
 great promise, d. early. In 1812 ho entered the sophomore 
 class in the College of New Jersey, and graduated with tho 
 highest honors in 1815. From 1816 to 1819 he was a stu- 
 dent in the Theological Seminary at Princeton, in the same 
 class with Bisho|)S McUvaine and Johns. In 1820 ho ac- 
 cepted tho ap|iointment of assistant teacher of the original 
 languages of Scripture in the seminary, and in 1822 was
 
 HODGE— HOEFER. 
 
 957 
 
 elected l>y tho Ocncrnl Assomblv professor of Oriental nnd 
 biblical literature. In 182S he returned to liis chnir, alter 
 an absence of some Ibree years spent in study at the uni- 
 versities of Paris, Halle, and lierlin. In 1810 he was 
 transferred to Ibe chair of exegetical and didactic theology, 
 to which, in 1S02, polemic theology was added. Dr. Archi- 
 bald Alexander, the incumbent of that prof.s.-orship, bav- 
 in- d in ISJl. He was moderator of the General Assem- 
 bly (Old School) at Philadelphia in ISKi, and in 1858 one 
 of a committee to revise the Unnk o/ Olsiiplnic The cel- 
 ebration at Princeton, Apr. 21, lS72,of the seini-centennml 
 anniversary "f his professorship was a memorable occasion, 
 the first of" its kind in American history. The patriarch 
 of our theological professors, he is still (1S7..) in active 
 service. His contributions to sacred literature have been 
 of the most scholarly and solid character. In 1S2j ho 
 founded the Jl,b!,\<,l Repertory, the scope of which was 
 enlar-ed and Princeton Jieview added to us title in ISi'J. 
 In \ST> it was united with the PrcHhjtiruin Qutirlerhj and 
 American Theot,„iic,d Rerie,e,x\ve organ of the New School 
 branch. Till then, for nearly forty years, ho had been not 
 only editor-in-chief of the Prineeinn Perlnr, but also chief 
 contributor, more than one-fifth of all that was written for 
 it coming from his pen. He has also published A t-.m- 
 menlnrn on the F.pixlh to the Aomn.n ( IMo ; .abridged 
 18:ill; rewritten and enlarged 1860), Connlilntiontil History 
 t,f the Pretbi/leridn Church in the V. S. (2 vols., 1810-41), 
 The W'nii of Life (1842), commentary on Ephc.^innii(K^f>), 
 Fir.l Corinthian, (1857), Second (V„n.Mm»« ( ISGO), Hhat 
 i, Daneini^mr (1874). But the great work of h.s life is 
 S«,lemalic Theoloq,, (3 vols., 1871-721. which is regarded as 
 one of the ablest expositions of Calvinism ever made. (See 
 Index Volume of the llib. Rep. and Princ. Her. from 1SS5 to 
 y.W.f ( 1 87 1 ) and Semi-Cenlennia! Commemoration of the Pro- 
 /e,.or,hip of CharlcH Hodge, D. U., LL.n.. Serf. U. 1873 
 (1S72).) D. .June 19, 1878. K- B. Hitchcock. 
 
 IIocl:;e (Hcfiii Lkxox), M. D., LL.D., b. in Philadel- 
 phia June 27, 1790, brother of Prof. Charles Ilodgo and 
 son of Dr. Hugh Ilodgc, an eminent practitioner ; gradu- 
 ated at Princeton with honors 1814; took tlie medical de- 
 gree in 1S17 at the University of Pennsylvania; professor 
 of obstetrics in that institution 1S35-0:1, when he became 
 emeritus professor. Author of a !<;ittem of Ohsietrto and 
 a work on DiteancD Peculiar to iroMcii, both standard 
 treatises of the first authority ; wrote much and ably for 
 the professional journals, and had a wide fame as a prao- 
 tition.r and instructor. D. at Philadelphia Feb. 23, 1873. 
 HodRC (H. Lksox), M. A., M. D., b. .luly 30, 1836, in 
 Philii.lclphia, Pa.; studied at the University of Pennsyl- 
 vania, and received the degrees of li. A. lH5o, M. A. 1S,->S, 
 and AI. D. 1S58: was resident physician in the Pennsyl- 
 vania Hospital 1858-fiU. In ISUl was appointed demon- 
 strator of surgery and chief of the surgical dispensary of 
 the U'nivcrsity of Penn.sylvania, and in 1870 was made 
 demonstrator of analoiuv. During llio war was one of the 
 surgeons attached to the U. S. Satterlee Hospital, belonged 
 to the Pennsylvania reserve corps of surgeons, and was 
 pension examining surgeon to the U. S. Sanitary Commis- 
 sion ; was present with the army in McClellan's campaign 
 before Uiehmond. in the tietlysburg campaign, and at Fred- 
 oricksburg in (irant's advance on Uiehmond ; has been at- 
 tending surgeon to the Children's Hospital since I8(il, and 
 attending surgeon to the Presbyterian Hospital since its 
 opening in 1872. He has written and pnldishcd a number 
 of articles in medical journals in connection with original 
 investigations on the sulijectsof metallic sutures, treatment 
 of fractures of the thigh by an improved apjiaratus, drain- 
 age of wounds by a solid metal probe insti-ad of Chas- 
 saignac's soft-rubber tube, deformities after liip disease, 
 tracheotomy in eases of pseudo-membranous croup, ovari- 
 otomy, and' a new form of trochar for the evacuation of 
 ovarian and oilier fluids, excision of the hip-joint, etc. 
 
 IloUgc'mnn, county of the W. of Kansas, in tho valley 
 of the Arkansas. Area, UOO square miles. It is well 
 adapted to gra/.ing. 
 
 Iloirgenvillc, post-v., county-scat of La Rue oo., Ivy. 
 pop. 4114. 
 
 Iloil'ces (.IamesI, h. at Qneenborough, Kent. England. 
 IKIil; was assistant engineer of the railway tunnels and 
 clifi'-works near Dover 183!I-I4 ; was employed upon tho 
 eonslruclion of Lowestoft harb.ir 1S41-48; eonslructing 
 on"ineer of the (Irand Trunk Railway. Canada. IS59 »■,,.; 
 and published in 1800 o folio account of tho Victoria Bridge 
 at .Monlrial. 
 
 Ilotlgcs (Wii.i.iAM).b. in London about 174-1; painted 
 landscapes and theatrical decorations; accompanied, in 
 1772, Cook on his South Sea voyage, and furnished the 
 illiistrntions to his account; went in 1784 to India on tho 
 invitation of Warren Hastings. Published in 1792 Traveh 
 til India, with plates, and d. liar. 0. 1797. 
 
 Ilodg'kinson (Eatos), b. at Andcrton, Cheshire, Feb. 
 26, 1789; evinced early a decided talent for tho study of 
 mechanics : made a series of experiments concerning tho 
 strength of iron when applied as eoUiuins, for an account 
 of which he received ihe gold medal of the lioyal Society; 
 made the calculations entering into the construction of tho 
 Britannia bridge, which were rewarded with a medal at 
 Paris in 1855; was appointed a memlier in 1S47 of the 
 royal commission on the application of iron in railway 
 buildings ; and communicated a number of valuable en- 
 gineering papers to the Trau«iicii„ni> of the British Asso- 
 ciation. D. at Broughton, near Manchester, June 18, 1861. 
 Ilodp'son (Jons E.),b. in London in 1811 ; made many 
 studies ill Venice and the East; and was in 1873 elected 
 an associate of the Royal Academy. Of his pictures, The 
 Rcorrjanizaliun of the Army of .Morocco and The ,Snake- 
 Charmcr arc the most widely known. 
 
 Hodsson (William Ballaxtyxk), a political econo- 
 mist, b. at Edinburgh in IS15; studied at the university 
 of his native city ; was princinal of the Liverpool Institute 
 from 1839 to 1847, and of the Chorlton High School in 
 Mani'hester from 1847 to 1851; traveled through France, 
 Italy, lleriiiaiiv, and Switzerland; resided from 1803 to 
 1870 in London, where ho acted as examiner in )iolitical 
 economy at the University of London ; and was in 1S71 
 appointed professor in political and cominereial economy 
 and mercantile law at the University of Edinlnirgh.^ His 
 principal writings are — Lecture on KdncoH'iu ( 1837 ), Cl(ti«i- 
 cal /ii«()-ii<7i'oii(i853). The Conditions of Health and Wealth 
 educaliouallii considered (1860), E-eam/eraled EHtinmtcsof 
 Reading anil Writinfi aa Means of Education (1807), II hat 
 is Capital ? (1868), True Scope of Economic Science (1870), 
 Competition (1870), and Turyot, his Life, Times, and Opin- 
 ions (1870). 
 
 Ho'dograph [iSit, " path," and y^dif^v, to "write" or 
 "describe"]. If from any fixed point lines be drawn at 
 every instant representing in magnitude and direction the 
 velocity of a point describing any path in any manner, 
 the cxiremiliej of these lines form a curve which is called 
 the hodoiiraph. The invention of this construction is due 
 to Sir W. R. Hamilton, and the most beautiful of tlie many 
 remnrkable theorems to which it leads is this: The hodo- 
 yraph for the motion of a planet or comet is always a circle, 
 lehatcrer he the form and dimensions of the orbit. Since the 
 radius-vector ol' the hodogiaph represents the velocity at 
 each instant, it is evident that an elementary are represents 
 the acceleration, and thus a finite arc represents the whole 
 acceleration of the moving point during the corresponding 
 time; and it is evident also that the tangent to the hodo- 
 gra|)h is parallel to the direction of the acceleration of the 
 moving point in the corresponding position of its orbit. 
 (J'/iom«oit and Tail.) The intensity of heat and light 
 emanating from a point, or from a uniformly radiating 
 spherical surface, diminishes with increasing distance ac- 
 cording to the same law as gravitation, llcncc the amount 
 of heat and light which a planet receives from the sun dur- 
 ing any interval is proportional to the whole acceleration 
 din-ing that interval— i'. e. to the corresponding arc of the 
 holograph. From this it is easy to see, for example, that 
 if a comet move in a parabola, the amount of heat it re- 
 ceives from the sun in any interval is proportional to tho 
 angle through which its direction of motion turns during 
 that interval. There is a corresponding theorem for a 
 planet moving in an ellipse, but somewhat more compli- 
 cated, {[bid.) 
 
 Ilodom'ctor [Gr. JSdt, a "road," and ^^rpov, "mea- 
 sure'], a more correct form of tho word OBoMKrEii (which 
 see). 
 
 Hoe, an instrument of farm-husbandry of various forms. 
 The best known is a plate of steel attached to a handle 
 at Bomewhat less than a right angle, and used for cutting 
 and drawing the earth. The shulllehoe is drawn and 
 thrust backward and forward for the purpose of cutting oil 
 weeds. Various forms of horse-hoe are used for cultiva- 
 ting those crops which arc jdanted in rows and drills. 
 
 Hoc (RiciiAnn March), an inventor, b. in New York 
 Sept. 12. 1812, Ihe son of Robert Hoc (1784-1833), an in- 
 genious English mechanician who became a maniifaclurer 
 of printing-presses in New Voik. li. .M. Hoc liecamenfter 
 his father's death a partner in the business, to which was 
 addeil the umnufacturc of saws, in which Mr. Hoc intro- 
 duced important improvements. In lSII,Mr. Hoe, with 
 his brothers, Uohert Hoe and Peter Smith Hoe, assumecl 
 the whole business, the former partners retiring. In 1816 
 he brought out " Hoe's lightning press," extensively cm- 
 ployed for ncwspa]icr-work. It has been since much im- 
 proved. He has also made many less celebrated inventions. 
 HooTcT (JoiiANN CiiiiisTUN Fkimuna Nil), b. Apr. 21, 
 181 1, at Dii.scbnitj, iu the princijiality of Scliwary.burg-Ru-
 
 958 
 
 HOEI^HIN— HOFFMAN. 
 
 dolstadt, aod educated at the gymnasium of Kudolstadt. 
 la 18;iU lie started, lor the sake of his health, on a rather 
 adventurous journey : went from Urcmen to Lille, where he 
 enlisted in the foreign legion as a soldier, and from LiHe to 
 Marseille?, wlience lie was sent to Xavarino, the station of 
 his regiment : returned in 1831 to France anci, taught for- 
 eign languages at the Colleges of Lyons, St. Ktienne. and 
 Jlnanne; co-operated with Cousin in translating Kant's 
 KritiK- der reinen Vcrnuuft in 1834, and removed to Paris, 
 where he began to study natural science and medicine, 
 while he made his living hy writing and translating for 
 ilitTerent periodicals. In IS40 he received the degree of 
 doctor, and in 1848 he was naturalized as a French citizen. 
 The most prominent of his writings arc — l/iittnire de la 
 Vhiinie (IS42), the first complete history of the science of 
 chemistry; Dtctionmtire d*- Pfiysit/ite ct de (^himic (1S46), 
 J)c ^ft'dt^>:ill€ pratitfuc (1847), De /iotaiiique {ISitO}^ D'Aijri- 
 culture et d' Hortivtdtnrc (1855), IHstoircs du Caf6, dtt Cho- 
 cofat, dc la Pomtne de Terre, dn Lotim, du Poivriery etc. 
 (1850-51), TftHfoire du Mnroc (1848); besides a great num- 
 ber of articles in the ISiograpkie GC-iiCratc, of which he is 
 editor-in "chief. 
 
 Hoci-Shiii, or Hui-Shen, a Booddhist monk from 
 China, who. according to his own narrative, regularly en- 
 tered on the Chinese Year-Books, returned a. n. 4U9 from 
 a long journey to the East, where, as he declared, ho had 
 visited a country which, according to the distances as 
 he gave them, would be California or Mexico. He de- 
 scribes a plant as being very common there which he calls 
 fu8an<i, and from which he named the country. From its 
 fruit, "like a red pear," and the description of the cloth 
 and paper made from its fibres, this appears to have been 
 the maguay or Agave Americana^ so cliaracteristic of the 
 country. ** No iron." he says, "is found in this land, but 
 copper, gold, and silver are not prized, and do not serve as 
 a medium of exchange in the market." In this and all 
 other particulars the narrative of Iloei-Shin applies ac- 
 curately to what is known in part of Mexico and in part 
 of Peru. The monk declares that he found Booddhistic 
 institutions which had been introduced fifty years before 
 him by five beggar-priests from Kipin (Beloochistan). 
 The writer in a work on this subject {Fn-sanfj, or the Dis- 
 covery of America bij Chinese Jiooddhist Priests in the ' 
 Fifth Ccntunj, London) explains the coincidence of certain 
 details in the narrative with what is known of Peru by the 
 probability that Peruvian customs derived from Mexico 
 descended to the South subsequent to the fifth century. 
 The account of Fusang w.as first introduced to Europe by 
 a learned Sinologist, De (iuignes, who in 17G1 published an 
 admirable memoir on the subject in the Memoiren dc VAca- 
 dimie des /nmcri/jtioiis et Pctlea-Lettrcs (vol. xxviii.). In 
 1S41, Prof. Karl Neumann translated Iloei-Shin's narrative 
 again more accurately from the original, adding to it 
 copious comments of his own. This work, translated by 
 the writer into English, with the aid and under the super- 
 intendence of Prof. Neumann, appeared in the New York 
 Knickerbocker Magazine in 1S50. Be Guigncs' memoir was 
 attacked by Klaprolh in his Annalca des Empereura du 
 Japan in a spirit very little to his credit: but Klaproth 
 was in turn refuted in a series of articles distinguished for 
 their moderate tone, but replete with sagacious criticism 
 and sound scholarship, by M. Gustavo d'Eichthal {Revue 
 Archiologique, Paris, 18r>2-f>.3). (See also L'Amvrique sous 
 Ic nam de pays du Pu-Sang, ait ctlc (tv cannue en Af^ic dts 
 Ic ciHquieme sierlc dc notre era, dans lrn f/randcs annalcs de 
 la Chine, Paris, by M. Tauavky ; also, by the same writer, 
 L' Amt'ritfue souH Ic nam dc Pu-Saug — \ourfillc8 eprcures que 
 la pat/s dc Fu-Sang est V AmSriquc (quoted by Andrae and 
 Geiger, 1804. Biblinthrca Sinilogicu).) Julius lleinrich 
 von Klaproth renewed his attack from the .1«jtrt/(« d'F. du 
 Japan in 1831 in a work entitled Rcchcrchcs snr It pays dc 
 Fou-sang mentionnS dans Ics Hvres chinnis et pria mat apr^s 
 pour une partie de VAmiriqnCy in Xouvelles Annales des 
 I'oi/agrs, t. 21, deuxii-mc .SV/'jc, 1851 ; also K. F. Neumann, 
 Ontanien nnd West-Antcrika, Zcllichrift fur allgemcinc Erd- 
 knndcf Apr., 1864, and an artielo by Jos6 Perez in the 
 Revue oricntalc ct Am^riruinc, No. 46, p. 189, 195. A few 
 minor articles on the subject were also published in the 
 NatcH and Qutrics for China and Japan, 1667-70, and the 
 VhincHc Recorder for 1870. A summary of all that has ap- 
 peared on the subject, with the most perfectly revised ver- 
 sion of the original Chinese narrative of Iloei-Shiu yet 
 made, including an article by Col. Barclay Kennon, late of 
 the North Pacific U. S. surveying expedition, on the feasi- 
 bility of a passage from China to California, may be found 
 in the work Fu-nang already cited. C. G. Leland. 
 
 Hoc'ven, van der (Jan), h. Feb. 9, 1801, at Rotter- 
 dam ; stuilie<I medicine at Leyden ; practised 1826 at Rot- 
 terdam ; became professor of zoology at Leyden in 1S35; 
 and d. there Mar. 10, 1868. Ho wrote a Handbook of 
 
 Zoology (1833). which was translated into German and 
 English, and liijdragen tot de natuur lijke Geachiedenia van 
 
 den Xegerstam (1842). 
 
 Hof, town of Bavaria, in Upper Franconia. on theSaalo. 
 It iias extensive manufactures of cotton, woollen, linen, 
 leather, and colors. Pop. 16,010. 
 
 Ho'i'er (Andreas), b. at St. Leonard, in the Tyrol, Nor. 
 22, 1767 : became a vintner and horse-merchant; took com- 
 mand of a party of riflemen serving against the French 
 1706 ; took a prominent part (1803-09) in the public affairs 
 of the Tyrol; led in the uprising of the people against the 
 French and Bavarians 1SU9; gained the important battles 
 of Sterzing and Innspruck : defeated Lefebvre and drove 
 him out of the province, and was declared ruler of the 
 Tyrol. Soon after, Austria having been reduced to submis- 
 sion by Napoleon, Hofer became unable to sustain himself. 
 Betrayed for money by one of his most trusted followers, 
 he was taken prisoner and shot by order of Napoleon at 
 Mantua Feb. 20, 1810. 
 
 liofl^man (Charles Fexxo), A. M.,b. in New York in 
 ISOG, and educated at Columbia College. In 1817 he met 
 with an accident which required the amputation of a log. 
 When twenty-one years of ago he was admitted to the bar, 
 and was afterwards editorially connected with the New 
 Y'ork American, the Knirkerbucker Magaziuc, the New York 
 J/iVror, etc. He published -4 M'intcr in the irc«( (1835), 
 Wild Scenes in the Forest and Prairie (1837), Greyslaer, a 
 novel (1840), The Vigil vf Faith and Other Poema (1842), 
 The Echo, poems (1844), Love's Calendar (1S4S), and an 
 edition of his poetical works, edited by E. F. Hoffman, ap- 
 peared in 1874. He was in 184G-47 editor of the literary 
 World, and soon after was attacked by a mental disease, in 
 consequence of which he has since lived in retirement. Ho 
 is a brother of Ogden Hoffman. 
 
 Hoffman (David), LL.D. Oxon.. J. U. D. Gottincen, 
 b. in Baltimore Dec. 25, 1784; was professor of law in the 
 University of Maryland 1817-36 ; after which he practised 
 law in Philadelphia, though passing some years in Europe, 
 from which he returned in 1853. He jiublished ^1 Course of 
 Legal Study (1836), Legal Outlines, Miscellaneous Thoughts, 
 etc., by Anthony Grumbler (1837), Viator (1841), Legal 
 Hints (1846), Chronicles from the Originals of Cnrtaphiluaf 
 the Wandering Jew. D. in New Y'ork Nov. 11, 1854. 
 
 Hoffman (John Thompsox). LL.D., b. at Sing-Sing, 
 N. Y., Jan. 10, 1828; graduated in 1846 at Union College; 
 was admitted to the bar in 1849 ; became in 1860, and again 
 in 1863, recorder of New York City ; was Democratic mayor 
 of New York 1866-09; governor of the SUte 1869-73. 
 
 Hofiman (MrRRAvl. b. in New Y'ork Sept. 29, 1791; 
 graduated in 1809 at Columbia College; was admitted to 
 the bar. and was (1839—13) assistant vice-chancellor, and 
 (1853-61) judge of the superior court of New York. Ho 
 has published Office and Duties of' Masters in Chancery 
 [WU), Practice in the Court o/ CAniiccn/ (1840-43, 3 vols.), 
 Treatise on the Corporation of Xcw York, Vice-Chancery 
 Reports (1839-40), On the Law of the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church (1850), Ecclesiastical Law in Xew York (1868), 
 The Ritual Law of the Church (1872). D. May 7, 1873. 
 
 Hoffman (Ocden). a son of Judge Josiah Ogden Hoff- 
 man, b. in New York in 1799, and graduated at Columbia 
 College in 1812; served three years as a midshipman in 
 the war with (treat Britain; was admitted to tbe bar of 
 Orange co., N. Y.; removed to New York City in 1826; 
 became a partner of Hugh JIaxwell, and held various im- 
 portant ottices ; was a member of Congress 1837-41, and 
 was again elected in 184S. In 1854 he was chosen attorney- 
 general of New Y'ork. D. May 1, 1S56. He was a most 
 able and eloquent jury-lawyer, and a prominent Whig 
 leader. 
 
 Hoffman (William), b. in the city of New York Dec. 
 2, 1SU7 ; graduated from the U. S. Military Academy, and 
 entered the army as brevet second lieutenant of infantry, 
 rising through successive grades to be colonel, 1S62; he 
 early saw much active service in the Black Hawk and 
 Florida wars against the Sac and Seminole Indians, being 
 thus engaged and on frontier duty till 1S46; in the war 
 with Mexico ho participated in the siege of Vera Cruz and 
 the various battles up to and including the final assault 
 and capture of the city of Mexico, receiving the brevets of 
 major and lieutenant-colonel for gallant conduct. Subse- 
 quently he commanded various expeditions, being on duty 
 in Texas at the outbreak of the civil war in 1861, where he 
 was made a prisoner of war; exchanged Aug., 1862. Ap- 
 pointed commissary-general of prisoners in 1862, ho super- 
 vised and controlled all captured and paroled prisoners until 
 thocIo«eof the war (brevetted brigadier-general and major- 
 general), when ho assumed command of his regiment. At 
 his own request he was in 1870 retired from active service. 
 
 G. C. SlUMO.NS.
 
 HOFFMANN— HOGAN. 
 
 959 
 
 HolTinann (Kiinst Tiieodob Wiliiklm), a German 
 novelist o( great lalciit, but of somewhat unsound cliarnc- 
 rer, b. at Konigsbcrg in 1770. lie stuilieil law, and held 
 for some years various judieial offices in I'osen and War- 
 saw. In isilJ he was upiioinlcd councillor of the court of 
 judicature in lierlin, in which city he d. iu 1S:.'2. Ilia life 
 was full of troubles and very unhappy. lUs father, who 
 deserted him, was a man of bad temper, and his uncle, who 
 educated him. >vasa man of pedantic character. Hchim.'^eir, 
 who had his father's temper, was Iriiincd to take his uncle's 
 habits, and the result was an unnaturaliiess and unsound- 
 ness of mind which he never outgrew. In his early man- 
 hood ho was thrown out of his position by Napoleon's in- 
 vasion, and for several years he was compelled to earn 
 an uncertain livelihood by giving lessons in music and 
 drawing, two arts of which he was a perfect master ; he 
 composed several operas. When ho was once more re- 
 instated in his judicial office ho evinced an irritability of 
 mind and had contracted habits which made him unfit for 
 society. He retired from the drawing-room to the tavern, 
 where his sparkling wit and brilliant imagination soon 
 gathered a circle of revellers around him. and where the 
 last of his fine gifts were as rapidly destroyed. His first 
 book, Plmntasie-tluchc in CiIIuI'k Mtiiiier (1S14), is a col- 
 lection of essays or papers chiefly on music, and iu spite 
 of a somewhat wilful singularity, both in slylo and ideiis, 
 they belong to the finest and most charining efforts of tier- 
 man genius. His next great work, Elexicrc ilea 'I'cii/eh 
 (1816), is still more brilliant and powerful, though it is 
 wild, weird, and eccentric. His last effort was Lcbcim 
 amichlen (/<■« A'<.(er-.Wurr (1S2I-22); but although this 
 book by many is considered his chief work, it is really only 
 the ruin of his mind. Its humor is forced, its pathos is 
 bombast, its irony is despair, and its passion is hardly 
 anything more th;m gesticulation. Among his minor nov- 
 els there arc many which may be considered as master- 
 pieces, such as Mchler .If.iifi'n, Fraiilfin .fciirftry, Dii'jc 
 wid Oii<ji:rrm,-, etc. : and for the student of (Jerman genius 
 and character his writings in general are of the greatest 
 
 importance. 
 
 t'l.KME.NS PeTEUSES. 
 
 IIotTmann (Friedricii), JI. !>.. F. K. S., b. at Halle, 
 Germany, Feb. I'J. lOliO; graduate.l .M. I), at Jena lOSl; 
 practised medicine with great renown at Minden and Ilal- 
 borstadt; became physician to the king of Prussia 170S; 
 was professor of medicine at Halle lGy.i-17-12. D. at Hallo 
 Nov. 12, 1742. Hoffmann is memorable as one of the first to 
 introduce the modern or scientific spirit into the Galenic or 
 regular meilical system of his time. His special medical 
 theories, however, were of only temporary value, and have 
 been long forgotten. His greatest work was Si/alcma Mcdi- 
 ciii/c Katinnalia (U vols.. 1718-40). Others were Mcdichm 
 Cunaullatoria (12 vols., 1721-:;9) and other works, includ- 
 ing 5 vols, of posthumous OpuacuUi. His name is perpetu- 
 ated by " HolTmann's anodyne" (SptriUit Ktherin cumpus- 
 ilw), a preparation devised by him. 
 
 HofTmann (.Iean Jacques), b. at Bile in 1835. He 
 studied in his native city, where he later on became profes- 
 sor in Greek and history, and where he d. May 10, 170fi. 
 His principal works arc— i«iVoii UuircriMle Hialnn'co- 
 
 (lr;;liai>lnr,i.Ch,ulloloriirr,-f'ortico-Phi!ijlo;liilim (1007) and 
 
 JIUlurM I'ltpiirHiii (I0S7), besides a great number of I'ocm- 
 alix and iJiitKrrlitliiiiiea. 
 
 IlalTmann (Wiliielm), D. D., b. at Kornthal ISOR; 
 sluilicd at Tubingen : president of the mission-house at 
 Bille for twelve years; chaplain to the king of Prussia, nnd 
 general superintendent of IJrandeuburg ; d. at Berlin Aug. 
 2S, 1S73. An able s.diolar anrl eloquent preacher. Wrote 
 against Strauss in defence of the gospel history, several 
 volumes of sermons, and on the mission of Prussia and 
 Germany. 
 
 Iloifmann von Fallorslpbcn (Air.rsT HEisnini). 
 b. Apr. 2, IT'.IH. at Fallersleben. in Hanover: studied at 
 Giittingen ami Bonn ; became libriirian in l.s2:i, and pro- 
 fessor of German language and literature in l»:iU at the 
 University of Brcsinu, but was dismissed in 1812 on ac- 
 count of his Vnpiililitchi- Lirilrr, and banished from Prus- 
 sia. For several years he led a wandering life, but settled 
 in lS4i in Mecklenburg; was rehabilitate.! in Pru.ssia in 
 1S4S and received a pension; edited 1854-07 the ll'iciimr 
 Jiilirhiich, and became in 1800 librarian at tho castle of 
 Corney. The most prominent of his linguistic and histor- 
 ical writings are— //...« /;.7./,-.ic (18:10-02), Fiimhjruhen fur 
 Oftihiclilr JJri,lH,-hrr Spniihr mid ii/cradir (ISIiO-.l"), J?c- 
 arhir-hlc dm IhiiUchi-n Kirrhetdkdit hit a«f Luther (18:!2), 
 Die Ijeul-rhrn (leielUchtiftilieder drt 16 nnd 17 Jahrhundcrl 
 (1800). Of his poems, besides tho above mentioned, f'li- 
 poliliiche Lieder (1811). AUrmiimiinehe. hicdcr (1843), Sul- 
 dnteuli.d.r (1851), h'Inderliedrr (1845), etc. 
 
 IIoirinailllN .VnOllyllC iSpirilua irlheria rnmpnailuii), 
 a valuable anndyin- mixture of eomniou ether, cthylic alco- 
 
 hol, and the heavy oil of wino. It overcomes spasm, pain, 
 ami nausea. It is very expensive, and consequently much 
 that is sold under this name is a oouiparativcly worthless 
 mixture. It was named from its inventor, FriedricL HofT- 
 mann (1000-1742). 
 
 Iloiriiiannscgs: (Joiian CEXTnnitis), Coi-nt, b. in 
 Dresden .May 2:i, 1706. and d. there Dec. 1.3, 1849. Ho 
 studied at Leipsic and Gottingcn, and spent four years in 
 Portugal exploring the flora of that country. From 1809 
 to 1833 he pui)lished in Berlin liis magnificent Flore l\>r~ 
 tuijniae in Latin and French, containing descriptions of sev- 
 eral hundred new plants. He also wrote Yofjuije en Furtu- 
 <jal (1805). 
 
 Ilofhof, or El Ilofhof, town of .\rabia, in thcLahsa 
 oasis, near lal. 25° 20' oG" N., Ion. 49° 40' 50" E., about 4 
 miles S. of Mebarraz. It is somewhatdecayed. Pop. 24,000. 
 Ilofland (Bahdaka), b. in 1770 at Sliefiield. Eng.. tho 
 daughter of Robert Wreaks, a inanutneturer ; married in 
 1790 Jlr. Hoole, who d. in 1798, and in 1808 Mr. Holland, 
 an artist; produced about 70 novels and moral tales; and 
 d. Nov. 9, 1844. The besl^known of her compositions are 
 The C/erffymau'a Widow and Tlic Son of tt Gcniua. 
 
 Ilo'llcr (Karl AnoLpn Konstaxtin), b. at Meminin- 
 gen, Bavaria ; studied at Munich and Giittingen ; visited 
 Italy; became professor of history at Munich iu IS 10. but 
 was removed in 1847 on account of his Ctmcordnt nnd Con- 
 stiluliiiiiaeid der Kiitliidiken in lliii/crn, and accepted in 1851 
 a chair of history at Prague. The most prominent of his 
 writings are — Die Deutaehcn PUpatc (1839), Frlinkiach Sin- 
 dim (1853), Die Geachichlaachreiber der huaaitiaehen Be- 
 Ke'jnnij (I85C-05). 
 
 Ilurmann (Arr.csT Wit.iiei.m), Ph. D., F. R. S., h. at 
 Giesseu. (iermany, Apr. 8, 1818 : studied philology and law, 
 and was trained as a chemist by Liebig ; was afterwards pro- 
 fessor of chemistry at Bonn, and then director of the Col- 
 lege of Chemistry ,'London. In 1864 he became a chemical 
 pr'ofessor at Berlin. He has made important discoveries in 
 chemistry, and is author of Einlcitnmj in die Modcnie 
 Cliemie (1865) and other works. 
 
 Ilorwyl, a V. of the canton of Berne, Switzerland. 6 
 miles N. of Berne, and near Schiinbuhl station on the Cen- 
 tral Railway to Bale. It is noted as the site of the educa- 
 tional estabiishmeuts founded and for many years conducted 
 by Fellenberg, and for some years after his death by his 
 sons. 
 
 Hog [a word of Cymric origin], the domestic swine,* 
 the remote offspring of tho wild swine (Sns sem/a; see 
 Boar). Its flesh, rejected as unclean liy Jews, Moham- 
 medans, and ancient Egyptians, and untouched by Hin- 
 doos and strict Booddhists, is a very important article of 
 food among most civilized and many barbarous nations. 
 This arises from the fact that the swine is easily kept and 
 fattened, and aflords an easy nnd profitable means of eon- 
 verting bulky and lr)W-priced farm-products into a portalile 
 and s;ilable cominodity. Tho flesh is not tho only valuable 
 product. The skin makes a leatlier valued by the saddler; 
 tho bristles make the best brushes ; tho fat supplies lani, 
 lard oil, glycerine, soap, and star candles. There are many 
 breeds of domestic swine, which difter greatly among them- 
 selves in size, fattening qualities, and profitableness in rais- 
 ing. Among these we may specify the Neapolitan stock ; 
 the large and coarse Berkshire swine; the deliealo and 
 easily fattened Chinese varieties, crosses of which with tho 
 old European stocks have led to great improvements in 
 swine, new breeds having been developed having more hard- 
 iness and greater size than Chinese pigs and far more valu- 
 able fattening qualities than the old breeds of Europe. Tho 
 Sussex and Bedford breeds are among the stocks thus im- 
 proved. The Chester whites, a breed which originated in 
 Penn.sylvania, and the Magie slock from Ohio, are among 
 the Ai'nerican breeds ; but some breeders deny that either 
 stock has characters suflicicntly marked and permanent 
 to warrant f.u- it a distinct name as a breed. When neg- 
 lected and bred in tho woods. a;ul fattened upon nuts and 
 acorns, the swine lends strongly to revert to the wild type. 
 Pigs for market should be fed when young upon a rela- 
 tively small auiount of grain, mixed with fruits, boiled 
 vegeiables. clover, grass, and weeds; ami when older they 
 should bo fed almost exclusively with grain, (i round (and 
 especially cooked) Indian corn, buckwheat, and barley are 
 oxeellent fattening materials. (For other sjieeics of the hog 
 family, Suidas seo Bauvroi-.ssa, Boscii-vakk, Peccarv, 
 Waut-hoc;, etc.) 
 
 Ilo'gan, tp. of Dearborn co., Ind. Pop. 949. 
 
 • In many parts of Ensland. and in most recent EnElish farm- 
 ing and niarltet literature, the word hot) denotes a yoiini; sheep, 
 a laoili in bis second year. Domestic swine arc there almost uni- 
 versally called pigs.
 
 960 
 
 HOGAN— HOHENSTAUFEN. 
 
 Hogan (John), b. at Tallow, Watorford, in 1800; stud- 
 \Q<\ nt Rome; aud d. at Dublin Mar. U7, 1858. Most of 
 his works are religions aud monumental; his Drunken 
 Fann became widely known. 
 
 Ho;;nrth (GEoriGK).b. about 1797 in Scotland: became 
 n wrirtT to the t^i<:jnot at Eilinlmrgh : was many years 
 dramatic and musical critic for the London Moru'nKj C/iroii- 
 icle; in 1S46 became associated with Charles Dickens, his 
 son-in-law, in conducting the Daily Ncwh. Author of 
 Mutficftl Ilistort/, fiiinjraphif and Cn'ticinm (2 vols., 1836), 
 Menioifs of the Mnaical Drama (IS.'IS), rcvise<l un<l repub- 
 lished its MrmoiKH of the Opera (2 vols., I851J, both works 
 of pcrinant-nt value. D. Feb. 12, 1870. 
 
 Hogarth (William), a celebrated English artist, forc- 
 mo6t in his line of subjects; b. in Loudon 1G97 or 1G9S, 
 date uncertain: d. Oct. 2fi, 17ti4. llis father, a school- 
 master, apprenticed him in 1712 to a silversmith as an en- 
 graver of armorial bc:irings on plate. A few years later 
 ho was engaged in engraving tor booksellers. Ilis first 
 profession was that of portrait-painter, where ho exhibited 
 great facility in catching likenesses and originality in 
 grouping figures: but his talent leading hiui in other 
 directions, he soon struck the vein that made hini famous. 
 The genius for delineating scenes in real life, which early 
 showed itself in grotesque forms, as in the Sniffle at Hujh- 
 ynfeiina otlier ludicrous sketches, burst forth in full splendor 
 in the remarkable series of plates entitled the I/<irlot's Prog- 
 ress, soon fuUowed by the Hake's Pror/rcss and Mttrn'ofjc d 
 la Mode, all done between 1734 and 1714. The rude prints 
 that he engraved and published from these paintings had 
 an immense sale. The paintings were the wonder of the 
 town. Sir James Thoruhiil forgave the genius who had 
 stolen his daughter. Hogarth's industry was indefatigable, 
 aud iiis achievements too numerous to be mentioned here 
 even by name. His works are legion. No phase or aspect 
 of life escaped him. Seven prints in illustration of Apu- 
 leius's (/o/</e;t ,A«s, twelve prints for Hndlbras : The Sltepij 
 Congregation, The Distrcsxed Poet, The Enraged Musieian, 
 Strotlinff Actresses in a Darn, Garrirk as itichard III., 
 The Stageeoach, The March to Pinchfei/ ; four prints of 
 The Election, Paul before Felix, Moses and Pharaoh's 
 Daughter, The Good Samaritan — display the breadth and 
 variety of his work. The Analgsis of lieauti/, a volume 
 published in 1753, contained much keen observation and 
 abountled in clever hints, but has not materially added to 
 his fame. The public galleries of London hold many of 
 Hogarth's great pictures, the best of which arc accessible 
 to everybody in prints from the artist's own plates. A list 
 of the most important of these may be found in Spooner's 
 Dictionari/ and Alrs. Clements' Handbook. Tiic estimate 
 of Hogarth's geuius and artistic ability has been steadily 
 on the rise since the beginning of the present century, 
 owing in large measure, probably, to tlie persuasive Essay 
 of Charles Lamb. The judgment of him as a coarse and 
 vulgar caricaturist has been superseded by the enthusiastic 
 and almost unqualilied praise of later generations, which 
 see in him one of the most eminent masters and powerful 
 moral teachers in the wiiole realm of art. (For the life of 
 Hogarth see the Eni-yelopo:dia Ilritanmea ; Irel.Wd's 
 HognrtJt Illitflrnted : Nichols's AVs/n/, including anecdotes; 
 Dlaekicood's Magazine, Aug., 18GU; Foreign Qnarterli/, 
 Jan., 183(). The best editions of his Works are I5ovdell's 
 folio, London, 1700; Nichols and Steevens's 4to, ISOS- 
 17; 12mo, London, 1S74.) 0. 13. Fkothingiiam. 
 
 Hog'buck, tp. of Transylvania co., N. C. Pop. 243. 
 
 Hog^ (James), "the Ettrick Shepherd," b. in Ettriek 
 pnrish, Selkirkshire, Scotland. Jan. 25, 1772; followed his 
 ancestral occupation of shepherd, and several times at- 
 tempted, with poor success, to gain a living as a farmer on 
 his own account. His school education was very slight, 
 but he was a great reader, and when twenty-four years old 
 began to compose songs, some of which attracted much 
 attention and gave him a local fame. In 1801 he published 
 Scottish Pastorals, Poems aud Songs, followed by 7'hc Monn- 
 tain Hard (1803); became in 1810 editor of The Spy, a 
 journal in Edinburgh. Here ho was the associate of Scott, 
 Wilson, and the other Tory men of letters, and a frequent 
 contributor to lilarku-oml. His figure in the Xoctcs Ant- 
 brosiaurr did not please him. but it added to his fame. In 
 1817 the duke of Ituccleugh settled him upon the farm of 
 Altrive. where his tinlucky business ventures brought him 
 many troubles; but here he lived for the greater part of 
 his remaining years, engaged mainly in literary work, 
 varied by field-sports, of which he was very fond ; and 
 here he d. Nov. 21, 1835, Hia best work. The Qncens 
 Wake (1813), was followed by a largo number of volumes 
 of prose and verse of very unequal merit, his best poems 
 and simplest tales evincing a rare gcntus. 
 
 Ho^g Island, tp. of Kusscll co., Ala. Pop. 885. 
 
 IIog-Gum, or I'Um Uog^ a variety of Bassora gum. 
 
 used in preparing paper for the marbling process. The 
 hog-gum of the West Indies, used in medicine and for pav- 
 ing boats, is furnished by various trees of the genera Clniia 
 and Moronobea, and perhaps by Rhus Mttopium aud liti- 
 tcigia halsamif'era. 
 
 Hog Island, an island off the coast of Northampton 
 CO., Va., extending from Great to Little Matchepungo 
 Inlet. It has a lighthouse in lat. 37** 23' IG" N., Ion. 75° 
 41' 35" W. 
 
 Hog Isle, off the coast of Hancock co., Me. Pop. C. 
 
 Hog Plum, the fruit of Spoudins Ivten, tubcrosa, pur- 
 purea, and Mombin of Brazil and the West Indies, so 
 called because hogs are fed upon the abundant and rather 
 agreeable fruits. The fruit of .S'. Pirrea of Senegal and 
 Abyssiniayields an intoxicating drink. That of *S'. dulcia 
 or Ponpartia, in the Society Islands, is very delicious. 
 Several of the above and other species have medicinal 
 qualities. They belong to the order Anacardiacese. 
 
 Hog-Rat, a name given to certain large rodents of the 
 rat tiiniily. and genus Capromys, mostly arboreal and na- 
 tives of Cuba. They are sometimes employed as food. 
 Some of the species are reported as having somewhat pre- 
 hensile tails. The hair is coarse, but not spiny. 
 
 Hogs'head [derivation uncertain], in wine-measure 
 one half a pipe, or fi3 wine-gallons. In beer-measure a 
 hogshead contains 54 beer-gallons. The first kind con- 
 tains b2h imperial gallons, nearly ; the second about 55 
 imperial gallons. Any large cask is in popular language 
 called a hogshead. A hogshead of tobacco weighs from 
 750 to 12tJ0 pounds, varying in the different States. 
 
 Hohenlin'dcn, a v. of Bavaria, in Upper Bavaria. 
 Hero the French under Moreau completely defeated the 
 Austrians Dec. 3, ISOO. 
 
 Hoh'cniohe, a princely family of Germany, sprung 
 from Francouia. where the castle of HoUoch was the family 
 seat; since the twelfih century the possessors of this castle 
 have called themselves lords of Holloch. They acquired 
 much landed property, became counts, and branched off 
 into various lines. In 177(j the counts of Ilohenlohe were 
 created princes of the empire. At present the family 
 comprises two principal lines — Hohenlohe-Neuenstein and 
 Hohenlohe-Waldenburg, of which the former is subdivided 
 into the lines of Hohenlohc-Langcnburg and Hobenlohe- 
 Oehringcn. the tatter into those of Hohenlohc-Bartenstein 
 and Huhenlohc-Schillingsfiirst ; these lines consist further- 
 more of many branches. The following members of the 
 family are known to history: (1) Fkiedricii Lrnwic, 
 prince of Hohenlohc-Ingelfingen, Prussian general, b. 174r>; 
 d. 1818. He is famous for the infamous capitulation at 
 Preuzlau, Oct. 28, 180G, where, having received the com- 
 mand of the Prussian army after the duke of Brunswick, 
 who was wounded in the battle of Jena, he made 17,000 
 men lay down their arms. (2) Lrnwir. Ai.ovsii's, prince 
 of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg Bartenstcin. b. 1705: d. 1829. 
 He distinguished himself in the French, Dutch, and Aus- 
 trian services as an able officer, and became marshal and 
 peer of France; he always fou^lit against Napoleon. (3) 
 ALEXANDEn Leopold Franz EMMERirn, prince of Ilohen- 
 lohe- Waldenburg-Schillingsfiirst, b. 1794: d. 1849. He 
 was educated by the Jesuits, became a priest, wrote mysti- 
 cal books, attracted great swarms of believing patients, 
 and had a great fame as a healer of the sick by mirac- 
 ulous power, and d. bishop of Sardiea in partibus. (4) 
 Chi.odwig, prince of Hohenlohc-Waldenburg-Schillings- 
 fiirst, ambassador of the (ierman emperor to France, was 
 b. j\Iar. 31, 1819, He entered the Bavarian service, pur- 
 sued a national policy, worked with success for a good un- 
 derstanding between Prussia and Bavaria, and became 
 president of the Bavarian ministry in ISGG. He has done 
 much for the unity of Germany, especially as vice-president 
 of the German Zoll-Parliamen't of 18G8 and 1809. But the 
 anti-union party in Bavaria became so hostile that ho re- 
 signed his office a short time before the Franco-Gorman 
 war broke out. In 1874 the German emperor appointed 
 him ambassador to the French government. A. Nieman.n'. 
 
 Hoh'enstaufpn was the name of a princely family in 
 (.ermany which arose in the middle of the eleventh cen- 
 tury, bore the imperial crown from 1138 to 1254, and died 
 out in tlie latter part of the thirteenth century. The foun- 
 der of the family was Friederich von Biiren, who in the 
 middle of the eleventh century moved his residence from 
 Biiren, a place in the valley, on the bank of the Danube, 
 in the present kingdom of Wiirtemberg. to the ca<itle of 
 Hohenstaufen, situated on the brow of the hill. With the 
 change of residence changed also the name of the family. 
 Fricdrich von Biiren's son, Frieprich von Staifes or 
 HonEMSTAt'FEN, followed Henry IV. as his true knight, 
 and distinguished himself so much by valor and military 
 talents^ especially in the battle of Merseburg (1080), that
 
 HOHENSTEIN— HOLBACH, \(iX. 
 
 961 
 
 the king mixlo him duko ofSuabin, gave him his daughter 
 Agnes in luarringc, and appointed hira regent in Germany 
 during his abscnee in Italy. By this rnpiil rise the family 
 of Uohen^taufen (also called by tho Italians Ghihvllinea, 
 from another of their possessions, the castle of Weiblin- 
 gen) could not help coming into collision with the power- 
 ful family of the Welfs or Ouelphs, which in Germany 
 held the duke'Iom of Bavaria, besides large possessions in 
 Italy. Friedrich had to defend his dukedom by armed 
 force, but was compelled by his enemies to renounce parts 
 of it. On bis dcatn in IIUJ ho left two sons, of whom the 
 eldest. Friedrich H., was confirmed as duke of Suabia by 
 Henry V., and tho younger created duke of Franconia in 
 1112. Both the brothers adhered with great fidelity to the 
 emperor, and when, in 11116, the Franconian dynasty died 
 out with Henry V.. the family of llohenstaufen inherited 
 a large part of the emperor's private fortune, whiuh greatly 
 increased its wealth and power. Friedrich II. even at- 
 tempted to obtain (he imperial dignity, but failed. Lothair 
 the iSttxon, an enemy of him and his family, was chosen 
 emperor, and at one time the Hohenstaufens were pressed 
 so hard that they had to sue for peace at the diet of MUhl- 
 hausen in WVj. Nevertheless, on the di'ath of Lothair in 
 1133, Friedrich II. 's brother, Conrad, duko of Franconia, 
 succeeded in beingelected emperor, um! the family now held 
 the dignity for more than a century in the persons of Conrad 
 III., li;j^62; Frederick I. Barbnrossa, 1152-90; Henry 
 VI., 1190-97; Philip, 1197-1203; Frederick 11.. ]2I2-:)0"; 
 Conrad IV., 1250~J2. The general charactor of these men, 
 whose biographies will be found in other places in this 
 book, was vigor and energy, tending towards despotism, 
 but generally allied with mugnanimity aud many brilliimt 
 qualities. The most pr<>minent feature of their reign wa^ 
 their perpetual contest with the Guelphs and the popes, 
 during which, however, the poetry and art of German chiv- 
 alry reached their highest perfection. In 1252, Conrad IV. 
 left Germany for Italy, in onler to consolidate his power in 
 his inherited countries in .Southern Italy, but in I2o4 he was 
 poisoned. His half-brother, Manfred, endeavored to sus- 
 tain the authority of the family, but was killed in the battle 
 at Bencvento in 1266, and when (126S) Conradin, tho son 
 of Conrad IV., tried once more to come into possession of 
 Naples, he was defeated at Tagliacazzo and beheaded. Tho 
 male line of the family of llohenstaufen died out with him, 
 and its possessions in (Jermany wore divided between Ba- 
 varia, Baden, an<l Wiirlemberg. A branch of tho family, 
 descending from Manfred's daughter, Constance, who mar- 
 ried Peter III., king of Aragon, ascended fourteen years 
 later tho throne of .Sicily. 
 
 Hoh'enstoin, town of 8axony, 12 miles N, E. of 
 Zwickau. It luis extensive manufactures of woollens and 
 linen. Pop. 5400. 
 
 Uohenzol'lern, a small territory of Germany, en- 
 tirely enclosed by Wiirtemberg and Baden, but belunging 
 to Prussia. Its area is 45;i square miles; it is mountain- 
 ous, but fertile, watered by the Neckar and the Danube. 
 Pop. 65,56S, mostly Roman Catholics. Until 1H49 it formed 
 two independent principalities, Ilechingcn and Sigmarin- 
 gcn, which represent the elder lino of tho house of Hohen- 
 zollcrn, while the younger lino is represented by the reign- 
 ing dynasty of Pru^^sia. In 1849 the king of Prussia 
 bought the sovereignty of tho country by paying tho two 
 princes an annual pension. 
 
 Ilohcnzollern^ a princely family of Germany, which 
 now occupies the imperial throne in the person of the etn- 
 peror Wilholm. Tlio history of tho family begins in tho 
 eighth century, at which time its ancestors possessed tho 
 castle of Hohenzollern. Thassilo, count of Ztdlern, was 
 tho oldest member of the family known to history; ho d. 
 about tho year SOO, and left four sons, of whom tho eldest, 
 Tharcho. propagated the family and d. in 806. His son 
 Rudolf rendered good .service in the war between the Ger- 
 man king. Henry I,, and tho Huns and Wends. A descend- 
 ant of hi-, Rvirlolf II., acquired much Ian<led property by 
 tho important services he rendered in the baltlu of Tubin- 
 gen between tho count palatine, Hugo of Tubingen, and 
 the Guelphs. On his death (1210) the family branclicd off 
 into two lines, of which the cMer kept tho paternal p«».-4- 
 scssions in Suabia, and conlintierl up to our days under 
 tho name of llohonzrdlerii, while tho younger line, called 
 the Ciinradino, settled in Franconia, founded tho house of 
 tho burgraves of Nuromborg. and formed the dynasty of 
 Brandenburg and Prussia. Count Kunrad I. of Zoliern, 
 tho younger son 'if Rudolph 1 1., married Maria, tho daiigli- I 
 tor and heiress of Count biebold of Vuhburg, and canio I 
 thereby into tho jjossession of tho burgravate of Nurom- I 
 berg, which belonged to Vohburg. The Suabian lino sepa- ! 
 rated in 1576 into two branches — Hohenzollern-Hechingen 
 and Hoh» nzoilern-Sigmaringen. The former was raised to ! 
 tho prinrolv rank Mar. 2X, lll2;i. bv the enijieror Ferdinand 
 Vur. II.— 61 
 
 II., but tho title of prince was bestowed only on tho chief 
 and the first-born; the other members of the family were 
 counts. The emperor Leopold I. gave the title of prince 
 to all members in 1692, In the same year a covenant of 
 inheritance was concluded between the two branches of tho 
 family, of which tho younger one had now assumed tho 
 name of Brandenburg. Hermann Friedrich Otto, sover- 
 eign prince of Hohonzollern-Hcchingen, joined in 1806 the 
 Rhenish confederation, but as the prince could not master 
 the revolution of 1849, ho concluded a treaty with Prussia. 
 by which he transferred his sovereignty to tho Prussian 
 crown, Apr. 8, 1850. The branch of Hohenzollern-Sigma- 
 ringeu obtained tho princely dignity in 16.18, joined tho 
 Rhenish confederation in 1806. became allied to tho impe- 
 rial house of Napoleon by the umrriage of Prince Carl with 
 the daughter of Murat, king of Naples, and ceded its sov- 
 ereignty to Prussia in consequence of the revolution of 
 1849. The male line of the branch of Hohenzollern-Hech- 
 ingen is now extinct; the princes of llohenzoUcrn-.Sigma- 
 ringen take rank as younger sons of the house of Prussia; 
 one of them is sovereign prince of Roumania. The younger 
 line, the Franconian. generally named after its cliief po: - 
 session, the burgravate of Nuremberg, obtained tlie princely 
 dignity in 127."i from the emperor Rudolf. Friedrich VI., 
 burgravo of Nuremberg, bought the margravate of Bran- 
 denburg from the emperor 8igismund for 250,000 gulden, 
 aud was created elector of Brandenburg in the sann- year. 
 In 1605, the elector Joachim Friedrich obtaine<l the re- 
 gency in the duchy of Prussia, and his successor, Joliann 
 Sigismund. secured for his family tho possession of that 
 country. Georg Wilhelm added the title of duke of Prus- 
 sia to his other titles, and his successor, Frederick ^Villian), 
 the"tJreat Elector," gave the country political intluence. 
 acquire<l new provinces, and left at his death (Apr. 29, 
 1688) a state with 1,500.000 inhabitants. His son, Fred- 
 erick III., attained the royal dignity, and was crowned 
 Jan. 18. 1701. in Konigsberg as Frederick I., king of Prus- 
 sia. He was followed by the thrifty Frederick William I.; 
 then Frederick II., "the Great," who left his state with 
 6,000,000 inhabitants: then Frederick William II.; then 
 Frederick William III., who was defeated by Napoleon, 
 but regained his country ; then his son, Frederick William 
 IV.; and then his younger son, William, who assumed tho 
 dignity of emperor of Germany Jan. IS, 1871. 
 
 ArOUST NlEMAN.V. 
 
 Hoho'kns, tp. and post-v. of Bergen co., N. J., on tho 
 Erie R. K., 2:i miles N, by W. of Jersey City. Pop. 26;{2. 
 
 Ho'kah, tp. and post-v. of Houston co., Minn., on the 
 Southern Minnesota R. R., 6 miles W. of La Crosse, Wis. 
 Pop. of V. 525: of tp. 1038. 
 
 Hokcndau'qtia, post-v. of Lehigh co., Pa., on the 
 Lehigh River and the Lehigh Valley R. R., 4 miles N. of 
 Allentown. 
 
 Hoke's Bluff, tp. of Etowah co., Ala. Pop. 1049. 
 
 Uol'bach, von (Pai i. Henri Tuvrv), Baiion, b. 
 at Heidelsheim, in the Palatinate, in 172.'l. He went at an 
 early ago to Paris, where ho married and spent his whole 
 life. D. Jan. 21, 17S9. His father had left him a lar;;o 
 fortune, and in his rich and elegant hou>e he gathered, with 
 the greatest hospitality, a large circle of literary men. At 
 his dinner-parties, which took plocc twice a week, Helvfi- 
 tius, D'Alembert, Diderot, Rayual, Grimm, ButTon. Rous- 
 seau, Marmontcl, and others met, learned to know each 
 otlior, and discussed their ideas witli the utmost freedom. 
 The baron himself was a man both of knowledge and 
 talent, and a very prolific author. His first works, Le 
 Vhrisiinniame (Uvoile (Amsterdam, 1767), Esprit tin (Jleryf 
 (Loudon, 1767), and iVc I'xntptntnrc aarrrtiotalc (.Amster- 
 dam, 1767). made an attack on Christianity more open, 
 direct, and vciicmcnt, than any to which it hitherto had 
 been exposed. Tho Christian doctrines arc declared to bo 
 an incoherent mass of fiction, the Christian morals to bo 
 inferior to most other moral .''ystems, and the influence of 
 Christianity to have been very detrimental to the develoj)- 
 nient of the human race in every social, polilical, and 
 moral respect. In a second series of writings, Le itifn- 
 ttine dv ill nature (Loudon, 1770], Lc ban sea*, on idfen 
 71 fit urclirt oppuafcn unx iit/cK guruatitrrllca ( Amsterdam, 
 1772), and L*7 KjfHt^mc Morittl (Amsterdam, 177;!), he gives 
 the positive, systematic development of those materialistic 
 and atheislic viewswhich in tho first scries are given under 
 form of criticism only. All these writings contain hardly 
 anything new or original. IVHolbach repeated the ideas of 
 Voltaire and |)'.Mrnibert. of Diderot an<l Uelv(''tius: ho 
 only pushed thrni farther. Indeed, he pushed ttic ideas of 
 tho Kncyclopa>di8t8 so far that tho Encyclopirdisls them- 
 selves would not acknowledge them. His stylo is dry or 
 sentimental, affected or trivial. But his intluence is said 
 to have been very great. He reached layers of society 
 to which philoHopby never before had ponetratetl, and his
 
 962 
 
 HOLBEIN-HOLDEN. 
 
 cjnicnl ideas are often recognizable during the first years 
 of the Revolution. Personally, he was a good and kind- 
 hearted man, without pretensions. He wrote his books 
 under diRerent pseudonyms, and for a long time even 
 his most intimate friends knew nothing of bis author- 
 
 ..hip. 
 
 Holbein (Hans), called the YoiT.NOEn, b. at Augsburg, 
 Bavaria, in 14Ut, or perhaps even a few years earlier, re- 
 ceived his first instruction from his father, a painter of 
 some note. The days of his youth were spent in Bale, 
 and ns early as 1512 his brilliant talent had attracted great 
 attention, and he received large or<lcrs both for private 
 houses and public buildings. Erasmus admired his work, 
 and witli a letter of introduction from him to Sir Thomas 
 More he went to England in 1626. After living three years 
 in ^lore's house, ho was introduced to the king, and Henry 
 VIII. was so charmed by his pictures that he made him 
 court-painter and heaped both honors and money on him. 
 L>. in London in 15 i;i, of the plague. In accuracy of draw- 
 ing, in truth and riehness of coloring. Holbein surpassed 
 all contemporary painters in Germany, and stivnds, indeed, 
 among the greatest painters of the world. His portraits 
 especially arc execllenf. and he produced a great number, 
 which are scattered among all the larger European galle- 
 ries. He painted a portrait of Erasmus which the latter 
 preterrcd to the one engraved by Diirer. One of his finest 
 pictures is the portrait of his friend and patron. Boniface 
 Amerbach, to whom we owe the collection of Holbein's 
 drawings and paintings now at Bale. While in England, 
 Holbein painted or drew not only the king, but his queens, 
 Jane Seymour and Anne of Cleves, Prince Edward, and 
 nearly every distinguished nobleman and noble woman of 
 his court, besides distinguished commoners. These pic- 
 tures and drawings are a splendid possession alike for art 
 and for history'. Holbein worked for the engravers, but to 
 what extent is not precisely known. Two important series. 
 The Jjfiuce *>/' Death (see Dancc of Dkath) and Pictures 
 from the Old Te&tameul, are ascribed to Holbein. One of 
 the most famous pictures by Holbein is the Madonna of the 
 Meyer Fnmilijy in the gallery of Dresden. This is now, 
 however, believed to be a copy, probably by Holbein's own 
 band, of the original in the palace of the dukes of Darm- 
 stadt. Many of Holljcin's best pictures have been en- 
 graved, and nearly all his finest drawings photographed, 
 the last chiefly by Braun. (See /fans Ifo/bein der jilngere, 
 von lllrieh Hegner (Berlin, 1S27). a well-executed, useful 
 work, which only needs revision to take its place among 
 the standarfi books on the suijject ; Holbein und seine Zeit, 
 by Alfred Woltmann (Leipsic, 1867,2 vols, and appendix; 
 2d ed. 1 vol., 1874), a book absolutely necessary to the stu- 
 dent for its facts, but ill-arranged, and, critically, little to 
 be depended on; the second ed. is full of contradictions of 
 the first; Life and Works of Holbein, by H. N. Wornam 
 (1 vol., London, 1867), almost useless from its want of ar- 
 rangement, its slipshod style, and its want of the critical 
 spirit.) Ci>ABENcE Cook. 
 
 Hol'berg (Ludvio). b. Nov. fi, 1684. in Bergen, Nor- 
 way : studied at the University of Copenhagen; travelled 
 in Holland, France, and Northern Italy, and stayer! for one 
 and a half years at the University of Oxford : w;»s in 1718 
 appointed professor at the University of Copenhagen ; 
 accumulated great wealth, which he bequeathed to an edu- 
 cational institution, the Academy of Soro ; was created a 
 baron in 1747, and d., unmarried. Jan. 27, 1754. His sound 
 practical ideas, and clear, solid reasoning, sustained by 
 lenrning and seasoned by humor, made his works on his- 
 tory, Kcrlrsiasticnl Histnnf, Hintorif nf Dcrnnnrfr, Jcicish 
 //iftortf, Liies of Great M^n and Wnmcn^ and on philoso- 
 phy. Kftintles and Moral Meditations, a, most influential ele- 
 ment in the Danish civilization. (For his comical writings 
 see Danish LANouAfiE and LixEUATruE.) 
 
 Uol'brook, a beautiful post-v. and tp. of Norfolk co., 
 Mass., on tlie Old Colony K. R., 14 miles S. of Boston. It 
 has a large manufacture of boots and shoes, a free library, 
 a town-hall, a fire department, and good public schools. It 
 was incorporated in 1872, before which time it was called 
 East llANnoLpn. 
 
 Ilolbrook (ALFHEn), b. at Derby, Conn., in 1816, son 
 of Josiah Holbrook, a prominent and philanthropic edu- 
 cator and inventor. The son was for a time pupil of Elixur 
 Wright in the academy at Groton, JIass. Though pos- 
 sessed of remarkable inventive talents and of a decided 
 taste for civil engineering, he devoted himself to the work 
 of instruction; founded a large and successful institution, 
 chiefly fur the training of teachers, at Lebanon, 0. Author 
 of a vulume of Lf:etnrtH on the subject of education. 
 
 Ilolbrook (John E.), M. D., b. in Beaufort. S. C, Deo. 
 31, 171)6; d. in Norfolk, Mass., Sept. 8, 1S71. He was 
 carried North when an infant ; graduated in 1815 at Brown 
 University, and tnuk tlie degree in medicine at the Uni- 
 
 I versity of Pennsylvania, After visiting the hospitals of 
 Europe, be commenced the practice of his profession in 
 Charleston, S. C, and upon the organization of the Medi- 
 cal College of South Carolina was assigned to the chair of 
 anatomy, which he occupied for more than thirty years. 
 Dr. Ilolbrook would never attend an obstetrical case nor 
 perform a surgical operation, yet as a lectufcr on anatomy 
 he was seldom equalled. Ho possessed a peculiar talent 
 for description, and a minute comprehension of compara- 
 tive anatomy. His reputation rests especially upon his 
 investigations as a naturalist. In 1842 be published his 
 great work on herpetology, and this, with the unfinished 
 one on the fishes of South Carolina, gave him high dis- 
 tinctiou. His friend, the late Prof. Agassiz. said before 
 the Natural History Societj' of Boston, " I well remember 
 the impression made in Europe, more than five and thirty 
 years ago, by his work on the North American reptiles. 
 Before then, the supercilious English question, so effect- 
 ually answered since, 'Who reads an American book?' 
 might have been repeated in another form, * Who ever taw 
 an American scientific work ? ' In that branch of investi- 
 gation Europe bad at that time nothing to compare with 
 it." Author of Amerieau Herpetoloffif (5 vols., 1842), and 
 of unfinished works on Southern Ichth>/oloffy and the hh- 
 tht/olotfi/ tif South Carolina. PAUL F. EvE. 
 
 Ilol'comb, tp. of Dunklin CO., Mo. Pop. 608. 
 
 HoTconibe (A>fASA), A. M., b. at Southwick, Mass., 
 June 18, 1787, a farmer's son; when nineteen years old 
 made surveyors' compasses, and at twenty began to com- 
 pile almanacs, several of which he published. AVhen twenty- 
 seven he began to teach engineering, astronomy, and sur- 
 veying; adopted the profession of civil engineer 1826; be- 
 gan to make telescopes in 1828, and had, it is believed, no 
 competition from any other maker in the U. S. until 1842. 
 He was a member of both branches of the State legislature, 
 and was the recipient of several medals and other distinc- 
 tions. The honorary degree of A. M. was conferred upon 
 him by AVilliaras College. 
 
 Holcombe ( Jamks P.), b. in Lynchburg. Va., in 1820 ; 
 was educated at Yale College and the University of Vir- 
 ginia, where he was for some years a law -professor. Au- 
 thor of Lending Cases upon Commercial Law (1S47), Dtijcsi 
 of Decisions of the U. S. Supreme Court (1848), Merchants 
 Book of Reference (1848), Literature in Letters (1868). 
 
 Holcombe (William Frederic), M. D., b. at Sterling, 
 Mass., Apr. 2, 1827: graduated at the Albany Medical 
 College in 1850, and studied several years in Europe; be- 
 came professor of ophtlialmic an<l aural surgery in the New 
 York Medical College, surgeon to the New York 0|ihthalmic 
 Hospital, and secretary and librarian of the New York 
 Genealogical and Biographical Society. 
 
 Holcombe (William IL), M. D., b. at Lynchburg, 
 Va., in 1S25: was educated at Washington College, Va., 
 and studied medicine in tlie University of Pennsylvania; 
 has practised his profession in Lynchburg, Cincinnati, and 
 New Orleans. In 1852 he became a homo-opathist. He 
 has published //otf / became a Ifomceopath (1867), Scientijic 
 Basis of IJumwopathy (1855), Yellow Fever (1856), Poems 
 (1860),' Oh/- Children in fftaren (1868), The Sexes (1860), 
 besides numerous brochures and contributions to homoe- 
 opathic and Swedenborgian periodical literature, 
 
 Ilorcroft (Thomas), b. in London Dec. 10, 1745, a 
 shoemaker's son ; served for a time as a stable-groom at 
 Newmarket; became an actor, and then an author: was 
 arrested for high treason in 1794, being a member of the 
 Society for Constitutional Information, but was released 
 without trial. D. Mar. 2.1, 1800. Author of .30 plays, be- 
 sides novels, poems, translations, etc.. some of which are 
 of an irreligious tendency. His noteworthy works arc The 
 Road to Ruin, a comedy (1792), still popular; The life of 
 Trenek (1788). from tlie (Jerman ; JJrmiann and Dorothea 
 (1801), translated from the (Jerman of (Joethe ; Menioirt bj 
 himself, finished by Hazlitt (.3 vols., 1816). 
 
 Hold, a compartment or scries of compartments in a 
 ship, below the lowermost deck. The hold extends fore 
 and aft the whole length of the ship. In it are stored por- 
 tions of the cargo, the ship's stores, ballast, etc. 
 
 Hold, a musical character /tv. placed over a note, sig- 
 nifying a pause, or the holding of the note longer than its 
 proper time. The hold may also be placed over a rest or 
 a double-bar, or as an indication of the end of a canon or 
 other piece. 
 
 Hold'brook's, tp. of Cabarrus co., N. C. Pop. 1115, 
 
 Ilorden, post-tp. of Penobscot co., Me., 6 miles S. G. 
 of Bangor. Pop. 758. 
 
 Holden, post-tp. of Worcester co., Mass., 52 miles from 
 Boston, on the Boston Barre and Gardner R. R. It is a 
 good farming town, with abundant water-power, manufac-
 
 UOLDEN-HOLLAND. 
 
 963 
 
 turcs of woollen, cotton, and other goods, 3 churches, and 
 numerous small villages. I'op. 2062. 
 
 Ilolden, po.stti). of tioodhuc co., Minn. Pop. 1199. 
 
 Ilulden, pust-v. of Johnson co.. Mo.. 50 miles S. E. of 
 Kansas City, on the Missouri Pacific and the Missouri 
 Kansas and Texas R. Rs. It has I churches, 2 b.inks, 1 
 newspaper, 4 dry -good slores, 2 hardware and ujjricultural 
 implement store's, 2 boot and shoe stores, :! jewelry stores, 
 2 hotels, 1 mill, etc. Uolden is situated in a line farming 
 section ; limber, coal, and liuilding-slonc are plenty. Pop. 
 lire. ti. N. RkiiAitus, Ei). " Entkiumiise." 
 
 IldUleii, tp. of New Hanover co., N. C. Pop. 2056. 
 
 IIoUU-ii, tp. of Wayne co., N. C. Pop. 751. 
 
 Ilolden (Oi.ivfr), the composer of tho psalm-tune 
 CniHiitUiii and other excellent pieces ; was a carpenter, and 
 afterwards a nuisic-teneher and tho keeper of a musical 
 bookstore; d. at Charlestown, Mass.. in IMil. Published 
 .■liii<TiV<in /^<(r»ioii_v(17y3), the WoriciUr Cotlcclion(\l'i'), 
 and other tune-books, and was ono of the pioneers of 
 American psalmody. 
 
 lloi'derness, post tp. of Grafton co., N. H., .36 mile's 
 N. of Concord. It has manufactures of lumber, bo.ves, etc. 
 
 Pop. va.t. 
 
 Hol'dich (Joseph), D. D., b. Apr. 20, 180J, at Thorncy, 
 Cambridi;eshire, Eng. : came in 181S to tho U. S. ; en- 
 tered the Methodist miui.«try in 1822; was stationed in 
 Philadelphia. New York, and other cities; received tho 
 degree of A. M. from Princeton in 1828 ; that of D. U. from 
 La (irangc College I81:S ; was 1835-31) assistant prulVssor, 
 and 1830-49 professor, of mor.al science and belles lettres 
 in the Wcsleyan University, Middletown, Conn.; becanio 
 in 1849 corresponding secretary of the American Biblo 
 ,<oeietv. Author of Life of WHImr J-'hk (1S42), of A. 
 II. Hiiril (1839), Iliblc Hiatory (1833), and other works. 
 
 Hold'ing-note, in nmsieal compositions of two or 
 more parts, a note sustained or prolonged in one of the 
 parts while the others arc in motion. In fugues, and in 
 adagio, andante, and legato movements, holding-notes are 
 of constant occurrence, and give unity, compactness, and 
 a binding effect to the general texture of the harmony. 
 Ilolcd, tp. of .Somerset co., Me. Pop. 1. 
 Ilolins'hed (Rwn vei. or Rm.imi), M. A., an English 
 chronicler who d. between l.)7S and 1JS2. He took tho 
 master's degree, probably at Cambridge, and was perba|.3 
 a clergyman. Almost nothing is known of his life, but his 
 fame is perpetuated by the Vhrimidcn of Erii/laiul, &ulln}i<l, 
 and Ireland (2 vols, folio, 1577), but ho was not the solo 
 author, for Harrison, Stow, Fleming, Stanihur.st, Thin, 
 Hooker, and others prepared largo portions. There is no 
 doubt th.xt .'hakspcare found abumlant material for his 
 historical plays in the pages of Holiushcd. 
 
 Ilol'kar, the name of a family of Mahratta chieftains 
 who have pl.iycd a conspicuous part in the history of India 
 during the two last centuries, and often proved tlienisehes 
 furniidable enemies of the Hritish empire in Hindustan. 
 .Mulhar Rao Holkar was the founder of the family. Ho 
 was born in 1693, received in 1730 the wes'ern part of 
 MaUvah, with Indorc for its caiiital, and d. 1705. liut the 
 most rcuiarkable member of llie family was Jcswunt Rao 
 Holkar, a natural son of Tokbagi Holkar. who reigned from 
 IsOl to lull. Although he was defeated at Indorc (Oct. 
 II, 18(11) by Dowlat Rao Sindia, his reputation for valor 
 and energy was so great that a part of tho victorious army 
 went over to his side, and next year (Oct. 25, 1802) ho en- 
 tirely routed Sindia at Poena Sindia took refuge with the 
 Rrilish, and now a, war began between Holkar and the 
 Brilisli, which was carried on with various success to Dec. 
 21, Isu.i, when peace was concluded and Holkar compelled 
 to give up some maritime distri<*ts, and bind himself to 
 lake no Europeans into his service. He d. insane, and was 
 succeeded by his son, Mulhar Rao Holkar, who reigned 
 from 1811 to 1833. Ho began war against the liritish in 
 IS 1 7, but was defeated, ami under the peace of Jan. 6, 1818, 
 an English residency was estalilished at Indorc. The pre- 
 sent ruler of Indorc, Mulkerji Rao Holkar. who came into 
 power in 1852 and remained true to the English in 1857, is 
 nol otihe Hdlkar family, though ho bears the name; with 
 Kumili Rao Holkar the family die<l out in 1852. 
 Iloriiind. See N^.TH^lll,A^r^s. 
 
 iloHiind, \orlli and South, two prnvineea of the 
 Netherlands, adjacent and very similar in all natural and 
 social relations. The grounil is very low, anil must be 
 protected against inundations of the North Sea and the 
 ZuyderZee by artificial dams and dykes. It is everywhere 
 intersecled by rivers, the Rhine, YsscI, Lek, Maas, and 
 Mervede, and canals. Hut the soil is very fertile, and mar- 
 vellously well euUivaled. The rearing of eatlle and the 
 production of butter and cheese are tile main pursuit' "f 
 
 tho inhabitants, but many other kinds of industry are car- 
 ried on with success. North Holland has an area of 95.i 
 square miles, with 002,539 inhabitants; the area of South 
 Holland is 1162 square miles, with 710,753 inhaoitanls. 
 The jirincipal towns of North Holland arc .\mstcrdam. 
 Haarlem, aiol .VlUniaar ; of South Holland, The Hag'?e, Ley- 
 den. R<ilterdam, and (Jouda. (Sec NouTH Holland Ca.val 
 and North Sea Canal of Holland.) 
 
 IIoMand, post-tp. of Shelby co.. III. Pop. 1352. 
 Holland, post-tp. of Hampden co., Mass., 70 miles 
 W. S. W. of Boston, on the Connecticut line. Pop. 344. 
 
 Holland, post-v. of Ottawa co., Mich., on the Chicago 
 and .Michigan Lake Shore R. R. It cont:tins I college, 1 
 public school, several churches, 5 papers, 2 tanneries, 1 
 savings bank, .'< hotels, 3 drug-stores, and I iron-ore smelt- 
 ing furnace, with the usual number of shops, etc. The 
 town was settled by Hollanders, who form throe-fourths 
 of the present population. Pop. of v. 23111; of tp. 2353. 
 Wm. Benjasiinse, Prn. " He Hoi.i.ANDEit." 
 Holland, tp. and post-v. of Erie co., N. Y., on the 
 Buflalo New York and Philadelphia R. R., 20 miles S. E. 
 of Hnlfalo. The township has 4 churches. 3 cheese-factories, 
 and manufactories of lumber, leather, etc. Pop. 1451. 
 
 Holland, post-tp. of Orleans co., Vt., on the Canada 
 line, 5'.l miles N. E. of Montpclicr. It has manufactures of 
 lunilier and sliiiigles. Pop. 881. 
 
 Holland, post-tp. of Brown co., Wis. Pop. 1279. 
 Holland, tp. of La Crosse co.. Wis. Pop. 819. 
 Holland, Ip. of Sheboygan co.. Wis. Pop. 2704. 
 Holland ^llENUv^ Bakt., M. D., D. C. L., F. R. S., 
 b. at Knulsl'ord, Cheshire, England, Oct. 27, 1788 ; grad- 
 uated M. D. at Edinburgh 1811 ; was for many years a 
 physician in ordinary to Queen Victoria, and one of the 
 most popular men, professionally and socially, in London. 
 He several times visited the U. S., and travelled extensively 
 in Europe and Asia. His second wife, a daughter of Syd- 
 ney Smith, and a writer of ability, d. Nov. 2, 1800. Sir 
 Henry was the author of several books on various subjects ; 
 tho most impnrtant are Mcdicid Nitirn mid JicJIeriimia and 
 Uecol/ccliMia .;/' I'usl life (1871). D. Oct. 28, 1873. 
 
 Holland (Henrv Rich Aim Vassal I- Holland ). Lonn, 
 b. in Wiltshire Nov. 21,1773; succeeded in 1774 to tho 
 peerage as the third Lord Holland of the Fox family, but 
 his patronymic was ch;inged from Fox to \'assall in 1797, 
 the latter being the family name of his wife, the divorced 
 Lady Websler, by whom he had had a son, the late (ien. 
 Charles R. Fox, b. before the divorce. Holland was a man 
 of line manners and most amiable character. His uncle, 
 Charles James Fox, trained him up to liberal iiolitieal prin- 
 ciples, and he was educated at Eton and Christ Church, 
 Oxford; ho was (1800) made a commissioner and pleni- 
 potentiary fur settling disputes with tho U. S. ; was lord 
 privy seal 1800-07; chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster 
 1830-iO. I), at Kensington Oct. 22, 1840. Lord Holland 
 v.as a most brilliant debater and parliamentary tactician, 
 the steady friend of every jtolitical reform, and h:id a largo 
 personal following of strongly attached social ancl {uilitical 
 friends. He did much to develop a taste for Spanish liter- 
 ature. Author of life and WritinijK af Ln/tc dc Vrija Carpio 
 (1800), Three f'amediea from the Hjiamih (1807), Foreign 
 Ileminiareneea (1850), Memoir) of the Whtij Parly (1852), 
 and other works. 
 
 Holland (Josiah GrLBEnr), M. I)., b. at Belchertown, 
 Mass., July 24, 1819; graduated at Berkshire Medical Col- 
 lege, Pittsficid, and practised medicine Ihreo years; was 
 for a short time an editor in Springfield, Mass., and (or one 
 I year superinlendent of schools Vieksburg, Miss. He was 
 (1849-00) editorially connected with the Springfield llepiib- 
 j ^Viin, and in 1870 became editor of Serihner't ilonthli/. 
 New York. His works, some of them published under the 
 name of " Timothy Tilcomb," are a llinlori/ of W'eKiern 
 Jlf.i»«(icAi(»r«» (1855), The Hay Path, a, novel (1S57), f.ef- 
 tera to the Yomni (1858), Hitler Sweet, a poem (1858), (jold 
 Foil ( 1859), ;l/i'«« nUbcrl'a Career, a novel (1800), I.eaaoiia 
 in life (1801), Letlera lo the Joneaea (1803), /'lain Talk on 
 Familiar Siihjrcia (|.'<65), Life of Lincoln (1800), Kallirina. 
 a poem (1807). The Marble I'rophcey (1872), Arlhnr llonui- 
 caalle (1873), (larnercd Sheacea, pocins (1873), The Mialreaa 
 
 of the Manar (1874). 
 
 Holland (Sir Nathaniel r)ANSE),h. in Lond<m in 1734; 
 studied in Rome, and painted porlrails and landscapes; 
 but ha\ing married a wealthy hidy and become a bar<uiet 
 and member of Parliamenl, ho gave up art. 1>. at Win- 
 chester in 1811. 
 
 Holland ( Philemon), b. at Chelmsford in 1551 ; studied 
 at Cambri'lge; became master of the free school of Coven- 
 try I and d. Feb. 9, 1030. He gave the first English Irans- 
 latiun of Livy, Suetonius, Ainmiaous Marcellinus, Pliny, 
 
 :iim1 I'llltareh's Moralia,
 
 96-t 
 
 HOLLAND LSLAND— HOLLYHOCK. 
 
 Hol'land Isrand, tp. of Dorchester co., Md., consist- 
 ing of Bloodworth Island, Holland Island, etc. Pop. 141. 
 
 Hol'land Pa'tent, post-v. of Trenton tp., Oneida co., 
 N. v.. on the Utica and Black River U. R., 12 miles N. 
 from I'tica. It has 6 churches. Pop. 320. 
 
 IIoTlansburg, a v. of Harrison tp., Darke co., 0. 
 Pop. T.VX 
 
 Horiar (WENZEL),b. at Prague in 1G07; attracted the 
 attention of the earl of Arundel, ambassador to the German 
 emperor, and followed him in IG.'ifi to England: became 
 implicated during the' time of the Commonwealth in polit- 
 ical affairs, and was imprisone<! for a short time ; joined 
 then the earl of Arundel at Anfrwerjt in 1645. and returned 
 with him in 1H52 to England, where he d. Mar. 28, 1677. 
 His most celebrated engraving is that of Holbein's Dance 
 <>/ Deuth. 
 
 HoTlcnback, tp. of Luzerne co., Pa. It has beds of 
 nnthraeitc coal. Pop. 1303. 
 
 Ilol'lengsworth, tp. of Montgomery CO., N. C. P. 695. 
 
 Ilol'ley, post-v. of Orleans co., N. Y. It has 4 churches, 
 1 weekly newspaper, 1 bank. 1 hotel, 1 furnace, foundry 
 and machine-shop, 2 lumber and coal van!?. Pop. about 
 1000. C. Marsh, Pub. *' Sta.vdard." 
 
 Holley (Alexander Lyman), C, E., b. July 20, 1S32, 
 at Lakeville, a part of Salisbury tp., Conn.; graduated at 
 Rrown University 1S53, and was technically educated at 
 the Corliss Steam-Engine Works. From lS5fi to 1861 he 
 edited and contributed to various engineering newspapers, 
 and ])ublished his liriihra}/ Economy, and, in connection 
 with the late Zerah Colburn, a Report on Emopean Jiail- 
 waya. In 1864 he published his Treatise on Ordnance and 
 Armor. In 1865 he introduced the Bessemer process into 
 America, and built the first steelworks at Troy. N. Y. He 
 afterwards built Bessemer steelworks and rolling-mills at 
 Harrisburg. Troy, Chicago, Joliet, and Pittsburg, and is 
 now consulting engineer to a number of iron and steel 
 works. 
 
 Holley (Horape), LL.D., b. at Salisbury, Conn., Feb, 
 13, 1781; graduated at Vale 1803; studied law. and then 
 divinity ; was pastor of the Hollis street church, Boston, 
 1809-18; became a Unitarian; president of Transylvania 
 University, Ky., 1818-27 ; went to Xew Orleans to take 
 charge of a seminary, but fell sick and d. on the passage 
 thence to New York July 31, 1827. 
 
 HolMidaysbur^, post-b., cap. of Blair co.. Pa., 7 miles 
 frnm Altoona. on a branch of the Pennsylvania R. R. It 
 has 2 rolling-mills. 2 nail-factories, 2 furnaces, and 3 foun- 
 dries, a large an<l flourishing female seminary. 2 news- 
 papers, 7 churches, a fine court-house and jail, and a na- 
 tional bank. Its industries are principally manufacturing. 
 Pop. 2'.I52. David Over, Ed. " Rkgister." 
 
 Hol'lins CGeorge N.), b. at Baltimore. Md., Sept. 20, 
 1799 ; appointed midshipman U. S. navy in 1*^14. and was 
 with Com. Decatur on the frigate President when she was 
 captured by the British, and held as prisoner at Bermuda 
 during the remainder of the war; subsequently served with 
 Decatur in the war with Algiers, and at its close com- 
 manded an East India merchant ship. In 1825 was com- 
 missioned lieutenant U. S. navy, rising to be captain 1855. 
 In 1854 he commanded the Cyane, and gained considerable 
 notoriety by the bombardment and destruction of the town 
 of (Jreytown (San Juan de Nicaragua). In 1861 he re- 
 signed from the U. S. navy, but his resignation was not 
 accepted, though he effected his escape, and, joining the 
 Southern cause, was appointed commodore in the Con- 
 federate navy. On the morning of Oct. 12, 1861, before 
 dawn, with the ram Manassas, three lire-rafts, and five 
 armed steamers, he surprised the U.S. squadron blockading 
 the mouths of the Mississippi, causing mueh confusion, but 
 in reality effecting scarcely any damage, although he sent 
 exaggerated despatches announcing a great victory, and 
 was made naval commandant at New Orleans. He was, 
 however, superseded before the decisive attack of Admiral 
 I'arragut in 1862. D. Jan. 18, 1878. G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Ilol'lis, tp. and v. of Peoria co.. Til., on the Illinois 
 River. 8 miles below Peoria, at the junction of the Peoria 
 Pckin and Jacksonville and the Toledo Peoria aud Warsaw 
 R. Rs. Pop. of tp. 980. 
 
 Hollis, post-tp. of York co.. Me., on the Portland and 
 Rochester R. R., 18 miles S. W. of Portland, has 3 churches, 
 and manufactures of woollens and lumber. Pop. 1541. 
 
 IlolliS) tp. and post-v. of Hillsborough eo., N, H., 7 
 miles from Nashua and 3 miles from the Worcester and 
 Nashua R. R. It has a liigh school, 1 church, a town-hall, 
 and a library containing 1800 volumes. Large quantities 
 of lumber and some 70,000 casks arc annually manufac- 
 tured. Principal occupation, farming. Pop. of tp.. 1079. 
 
 S. II. Kkkler. 
 
 Hollis (Thomas), a successful merchant of London, b. 
 in England in 1659. In 1721 he founded the Hollis pro- 
 fessorship of divinity in Harvard College, and in 1727 
 founded a professorship of mathematics and natural phil- 
 osophy : he also presented books for the library, and con- 
 sidcralile sums of money. Several others of the Hollis 
 family were benefactors of the college. A Life of Tfiomns 
 HoIUh was publislicd by T. B. Hollis (17S0i. Thomas Hol- 
 lis, Sr., was a Baptist, though a member of an Independent 
 church, and was distinguished for his charities both to Bap- 
 tist and ludependent churches. D. Feb., 1731. 
 
 HoTlistcr, post-v., cap. of San Benito eo., Cab, 94 miles 
 S. of San Francisco. It contains 1 seminary, a graded 
 public school, 5 church organizations, 3 public halls, and 
 2 telegraph and 1 express office. It derives its trade from 
 agriculture, stock-raising, and quicksilver-mining. There 
 are 2 weekly newspapers, about 30 business-houses, 1 
 steam flouring-mill, 1 brewery, 2 lumber-yards, and 4 hotels 
 and stables. The principal tobacco plantations of Califor- 
 nia are near the town, and the quicksilver and coal devel- 
 opments are rich and promising in the mountain-ranges. 
 Pop. about 2000. F. W. Blake, Ed. " Advanxe." 
 
 Horiiston, post-tp. of Middlesex co., Mass., 26 miles 
 S. W. of Boston, on the Milfurd branch cf t)ie Boston and 
 Albany R. R. It has important agricultural interests, 
 manufactures of boots, shoes, nails, pumps, wrenches, etc., 
 1 national and 1 savings bank, 4 churches, a high school, 
 and a free library. Pop. 3073. 
 
 Hol'loman, tp. of Darlington co., S. C. Pop. 1590, 
 
 Hol'low, tp. of Bladen co., N. C. Pop. 1243. 
 
 Horioway (Thomas), b. in London in 1748, and d. at 
 Coltishall, near Norwich, in 1827. He engraved the illus- 
 trations to the English translation of Lavater's Fhysiinj- 
 nomy, but his most celebrated work is his engravings of the 
 cartoons of Raphael. 
 
 Hol'loway's, tp. of Person co., N. C. Pop, 1279. 
 
 Hol'low Creek, post-tp., Lexington co,,S. C. P. 1315. 
 
 Horiow Pop'lar, tp. of Yancey co., N. C. Pop. 382. 
 
 Hol'low Square, tp. of Hale co., Ala. Pop. 3360. 
 
 Horiowville, or Smoky Hollow, post-v. of Cla- 
 verack tp., Columbia co., N. Y. It has manufactures of 
 woollens, candles, lumber, etc. 
 
 HoI'low-AVare includes cast and wrought iron domes- 
 tic utensils. The casting of the best kinds of hollow- ware is 
 followed by turning and annealing, and sometimes by enam- 
 elling, tinning, or japanning. Excellent wrought-iron ware 
 is now produced by jtressing, there being no joints left in the 
 work. {See Hardwark, by L. P. Brockett, A. M., M. D.) 
 
 Hol'ly, the name of various shrubs and small trees, 
 chiefly of the genus J/ex and order Aquiioliaceac. They 
 arc mostly evergreens, with rich green leaves and red ber- 
 ries. The typical species is /. Aqui/oh'um, the European 
 holly, whose leaves are so highly prized for Christmas dec- 
 oration. Its bark yields bird-lime, and has medicinal pow- 
 ers. The finest American species is the /. opaca, a small 
 tree, used also in Christmas decoration, but its appearance 
 is far inferior to that of the former species. The wood of 
 both the above species is very hard and white, and is used 
 by turners, inlayers, and carvers. /. Coattue and other 
 species yield the'*yaupon tea" of the CaroUnas and the 
 "black drink" of the Creek Indians. Paraguay tea (see 
 Mate) is produced hy certain South American hollies. 
 The U. S. nave some twelve or fourteen species of Jfex, 
 mostly unimportant shrubs, some with deciduous leaves, be- 
 sides one, the mountain holly, Xemopanthes Canadensis, of 
 another genus closely allied. The sca-hoIIy or sea-hulm of 
 Europe is the Erywjium maritiutum. 
 
 Holly, tp. of Van Buren co., Ark. Pop. 153. 
 
 Holly, tp. and post-v. of Oakland co., Mich., at the 
 crossing of the Flint and Pere Marquette and the Detroit 
 and Milwaukee R. Rs., 52 miles from Detroit. It has fine 
 schools and churches, a high-school building which cost 
 SfjO.OOO, 7 hotels, manufactures of flour, castings, furniture, 
 and other goods, and a large trade. Ice is extensively 
 shipped from this vicinity, which is one of the most fertile 
 and attractive in the State. A State insane asylum is to bo 
 opened in the vicinity. The village has 2 national hanks, 
 a weekly newspaper, railroad machine-shops, etc. Pop. 
 1421); of tp. 2437. Henuy Je.nkins, Kd. "Register." 
 
 Holly, tp. of Xew Hanover co., N. C. Pop. 1016. 
 
 Holly, tp. of Webster co., W. Va. Pop. 612. 
 
 Holly Grove, tp. of Gates co., N. C. Pop. 1213. 
 
 Hol'lyhock, tlio name of cert.iin biennial plants of the 
 genus Ail/lira {A. rosea, Jxcifolin, Chinrnsis), tall Old-World 
 herbs, much cultivated in gardens for their flowers, of 
 which there are many varieties, single and double. The
 
 nOLLY NECK-HOLM ESBURO. 
 
 9(i5 
 
 culture of these plants for forage purposes has been pro- 
 posed. Tho stalks abouud in a libro which may be utilized 
 as papcr-?tock. 
 
 Holly \rck, tp. of Nan?cmond co., Va. Pap. 3275. 
 
 Holly Springs, pof't-tp. of Dallas eo.. Ark. Pop. 63C. 
 
 Holly Springs, po8t-v., cap. of Marshall co.. Miss., 
 on the Ml.s»i!<!tippi Central H. U., -13 miles S. K. from Mem- 
 phis, Tenn. It has 1 foundry, I hub and spoke factory, 3 
 wagon-factories, 3 potteries, 1 marble manufactory, 1 sav- 
 ings bank, 2 newspapers, 2 holds, 6 schools. 7 churches, 
 and 42 stores. It ships annually 23,000 bales of cotton. 
 Pop. 240*'.. ('ai.iioox <t Holland, Eds. *' Ueporter." 
 
 lloriywood, tp. of Carver co., Minn. Pop. 534, 
 
 Ilol'inau City, a v. of Paris tp., Oneida co., N. Y. 
 I'o|,. 70. 
 
 Holman (James), " the blind traveller," b. in England 
 Kill: entered the royal navy I71>S; commissioDcd a lieu- 
 tenant 1807; invalidefl ISll); became blind 1812; was ap- 
 pointed a naval kui;;ht of Windsor, ami in 1819 began to 
 make his journeys, which extendecl to all parts of the world. 
 He published some seven volumes of travels, and his books 
 had at one lime considerable currency. D. in London July 
 21*. 1857. 
 
 Holman (Josepii Grorge), b. at London 1764; was 
 educated at Queen's College, Oxford ; appeared as Uomeo 
 at Covent Garden 1784, and soon became a rival of Kemble 
 on the British stage : eanic to the U. S. ; was for some time 
 manager of a theatre in Charleston. S. ('. ; was very suc- 
 ces.-fuj for some years in the V. S. D. at Kockaway, L. I., 
 of yellow fever, Aug. 24, 1817. Author of several comic 
 operas and comedies. 
 
 Holm'boe (CiiuisTOpnBn Andreas), b. at Vang, Nor- 
 way, in 17'Jfl; studied Oriental languages in Christiania 
 and Paris, and became in 1822 professor at the University 
 of Christiania. The most prominent of liis writings are — 
 
 J)f ftrinrti ve moiietiin'tt .Ynrretfiit (1841 ). Siiiinhn't unt/ Old- 
 unrnk (1H4('»). Dct Oldnomke Verbnm (I'^"*^). ''''' norttke 
 Sproffn roHtfiitfiiftte Ofdf'orrnnd, $ammcnfiffitrt mcd Sauthrit 
 ( 18.^2), Nornk Off Kettitik (1854). As a member of various 
 commissions he has exercised a great and beneficial infiu- 
 ence on edueational affairs in Norway. 
 
 Holm'delf tp. and post-v. of Monmouth co., N. J., 6 
 miles 8. of Karitan Bay. Pop. 1415. 
 
 Holmes, county of Florida, bounded on tho N. by 
 Alabama. Area, about ■V.)0 square miles. Much of its sur- 
 face is covered with heavy pine timber. It is traversed by 
 the navigable Choctawbatchio River. Rico and cotton are 
 the chief crops. Cup. Cerro (iordo. Pop. 1572. 
 
 Holmes, county in N. W. ('entral Mississippi. Area, 
 940 square miles. It is traversed by the navigable Yazoo 
 Uiver and tlie Mississippi Central R. R. Its surface is 
 diversified, its soil productive. Cotton and corn arc staple 
 crops. Cap. Le.\iugton. Pop. 19,370. 
 
 Holmes, county of N. E. Central Ohio. Area, 420 
 pqunre miles. Its surface is rolling, the soil ]iroiliictive. 
 Cattle, grain, wool, and il<iur arc staples. Coal has been 
 found. It is traversed by tho Cleveland Mt. Vernon and 
 Delaware R. U. Cap. Millcrsburg. Pop. 18,177. 
 
 Holmes, Ip. of Mackinac co., Mich., bounded on the 
 S. by Lake Huron. Pop. 938, 
 
 Holmes, tp. of Crawford eo., 0. Pop. 1572. 
 
 HolmeH (Ariel), I). I)., LL.D., h. at Woodstock, Conn., 
 I>e(r. 24, I7*J3; graduated at Yale in 1783. and was a tutor 
 there 178fi-87; held Congregational pastorates at Midwiiy, 
 Ua., 1785-91, and at Cumbridge, Mass.. 1792-1832. lie 
 married a daughter of President Stiles, and after her death 
 a daughter of IL.n. Oliver Wendell. Hi^ published Aumih 
 of Aiuf-rim, a work of permanent value (2 vols., 1805, en- 
 larged ed. IH29); Life *>/ I'r'iiflrut Stilri (17'Jli); papers 
 on Stephen I^lnnenius; on the Mohegan Indians ; biograiihy 
 of John Lothrop, antl many others in tho MunttnclinnffiH i/Ih- 
 tnrirnl CfdUrtionn. lie received the degree of I>. I), from 
 IMinburgh Universitv. I>. June 4, 1837. IIu was tho 
 father of Dr. Oliver Wcn<K'll Holmes. 
 
 Holmes (David), hod of t'ol. Joseph Holmes of Fred- 
 erick CO., Vo. ; was in Congress 1797-1809; governor of 
 Mississippi Territory 1809-17; governor of the Slate of 
 Mississippi lsi7-I9*and 1825-27; U. S. Senator 1820-25. 
 D. near Winchester Aug. 20, 1832. 
 
 Holmes (CAnniKL). b. in Sampson co., N. C. in 1769; 
 was edueaterl iit Hiirvard Collei;e ; became a lawyer; State 
 flcnator 1827; governor of North Carolina 1821-24; in 
 Congress 1825-29; also general of militia, besides holding 
 other public positions of huuor. D. in Sampson oo., N. C, 
 Sept. 2fi, 1829. 
 
 Holmes (flEoncr FnEDKRirK), b. in British Quiana in 
 1820; edueated in England at Durham University. AVhen 
 
 eighteen years old ho came io tho U. S., and was a teacher 
 in Virginia, Georgia, and South Carolina, and in 1842 was 
 admittcil to the b:ir of South Carolina by the legislature, 
 although not naturalized. He was for a time assistant 
 editor of the Southern QtiurUrhf Jicvt'cw, and in 1845 ac- 
 cepted a professorship in Richmond College, Va. In I84f> 
 he \vas chosen president of the University of Mississippi; 
 in 1847 professor of history, political economy, and inter- 
 national law in William and Mary College, and in 1857 
 professor of history and literature in the University of Vir- 
 ginia. He is the author of a series of school-books for tho 
 Southern States. 
 
 Holmes (Isaac EnwAnn), b. at Charleston, S. C, Apr. 
 0, I79(); graduated with honors at Yale 1815; became a 
 lawyer of his native town 1818; was one of the founders 
 of the South Cartdina Association and a leader of the ex- 
 treme Stales' Rights party; was an able and distinguished 
 member of Congress 1839-50; resided in California 1850- 
 til ; strove to avert the civil war in l8iJl. D. at Charleston 
 Feb. 24, lSt)7. Author of the Jiecreattonti of Oeon/e Tell- 
 tale, and, with R. J. Turnbull, of Carolincngia (1826), a 
 political work. 
 
 Holmes (Joii.v^, b. at Windsor, Vt., in 1799. While 
 preparing for the Methodist ministry he became a Roman 
 Catholic; afterwards studied in the Montreal Seminary; 
 was a professor in Nicolet College; became a priest imd 
 home missionary. In 1828 ho was appointed a professor, 
 and afterwards principal, of the Quebec Seminary, and in 
 1830-37 was government commissioner to Europe and tho 
 U, S. to examine the normal schools. After 18;')8 ho retired 
 from public life. D. at Lorette, Quebec, in 1852. He pub- 
 lished Minntrl ahr/iji' de t/^'of/rupkie and Cou/^rtiices de 
 Notre Duinc de QnfMcc (1850). 
 
 Holmes (John), b. at Kingston, Mass., Mar.. 1773; 
 graduated at Brown University 1790; removed in 1799 to 
 what is now Maine, and became .t j)rosperous lawyer of the 
 town of Alfred ; was very prominent in the convention 
 which drew up the constitution of Alaine 1820; was in 
 Congress 1817-20 ; U. R. Senator 1820-27 and 1829-33 ; in 
 the legislature 1829 and lS;;a-38; U. S. district attorney 
 1841-43 ; was distinguished for wit and elotjuence. Author 
 of The Stntcsmniiy or Principles of Lrt/i'slntion and L<iw 
 (1840), etc. D. at Portland, Me., July 7, 1843. 
 
 Holmes (Mary J.), b. in Brookficld, Mass. Her maiden 
 name was Hawes, and she is a niece of the late Joel Hawes, 
 D. D. She was married to J\Ir. Daniel Holmes, a Lawyer, 
 then of Richmond, Ontario eo., N. Y., and has since tiien 
 resided in \'ersaillcs, Ky., and at IJroekport, N. Y. Sho 
 has written a large number of very popular novels, mostly 
 of an unambitious or domestic character, and of excellent 
 moral tendency. 
 
 Holmes (Oliveu Wendell), M. D., a son of Dr. Abiel 
 Holmes, b. at Cambridge, Mass., Aug. 29, 1SU9 ; graduated 
 at Harvard in 1829: studied law for a time, and afterwards 
 medicine, receiving his doctor's degree in 1830, after sev- 
 eral years' attendance in tlie Eurojtcan hospitals. In 1838 
 he beeame proffssor of anatomy and physiology in Dart- 
 mouth, and in 1847 was called to tho same cliair in tho 
 Massachusetts Medical School, Boston. He is distinguished 
 as an accurate anatomist, a skilful mieroscopist and auscul- 
 tator, and a successful amateur photographer, but bis widest 
 fame is as a poet, wit, and man of letters. The first col- 
 lected edition of his poems appeared in IS.'iG. His Phi Beta 
 Kappa poems, Poetry (1836), Terpsichore (1843), Vrttuia 
 (184(1), and Antrtrn (1850), gave bim fresh laurels; and his 
 
 Autocrat of the Iirr<tf,'fant Tnhlc, I*rof.HKor at the Itrcok/(int 
 Tithlc,arni /*i>cf(itfhr lircnkfuHt '/'.f/^/*-, all originally publish- 
 ed in the Atlantic Mnuthlt/, were a series of brilliant prose 
 papers, with oceasioiuil poems, nearly all in bis ha(tpiest 
 vein of mingled humor, pathos, healthy sentiment, and 
 jiractical wisdom. His after-rjinner poems and other shurt 
 lyrics are among tho best of their kind in the language. 
 He has written also various medical addresses, papers, and 
 pamphlets: CitrmitHtnul dniutcr-rurrentt in iyfediral Srieuce 
 ( 1801 ), IJlKif Vrnnrr, a ronmnco ( 1801 ), .S'oin/s in Muni/ h'cifn 
 (1864), SoHndiutjn from the Atlantic (1804), The O'liardiau 
 yl»7e;( 1808), and Mechanimn in Thotujhtund Mornhi 1870 |. 
 
 Holmes (Thkocimi is HtNTEu), h. in North Carolina 
 in 18115; gr:iduiit.-il ut the V. S. Military Academy 1829; 
 first lieutenant 7th Inlantry 1835; captain 1838; brevet 
 major for conduct at Monterey 1840; major 8th Infantry 
 1855 ; resigned in 1801 ; commanded a Confederate brigadr 
 in reserve at Manassns, :ind afterwards bebl command al 
 Acquia ; with tho rank of lieutermnt-general be held i IS02- 
 01) a eommand in Arkansas; attacked Helena July '.*<, 
 IH03, and was repelled with heavy loss. D. Mar. 31, 1804. 
 He poHsossed a largo amount of property in his native 
 State. 
 
 Holmes'biir^, a v. of Philadelphia co.. Pa., now with- 
 in tho limits of Philadelphia, on the Pennsylvania R. R.
 
 966 
 
 HOLMES CITY— HOLTON. 
 
 it contaios good public aud private schools, 6 churches^ 
 public halls, a library, 1 newspaper, shovel and print 
 works, 1 steam saw and planing mill, n grist-mill, 2 hotels. 
 Principal oceup;ition, ugriciilturo and mechanical pursuits. 
 Pop. about 1 JUO. W. F. KsoTT, Eu. " IjAZETTk." 
 
 Holmes City, post-tp. of Douglas co., Minu. P. 452. 
 
 Holmes'ville, ])ost-v. of Prairie tp., Holmes co.. 0., on 
 tlie CIfVLl:\nd Mt. Vernon and Delaware K. H., miles N. 
 of Millersburg. Pop. 299. 
 
 Holm Oak, or Holly Oak (Qttcrcua IleXf the ilex ot 
 Roman authors), a beautiful evergreen oak tree of Southern 
 Europe and Northern Africa, prized for its beauty, as well 
 as for the great excelleaco and durability of its timber. 
 
 Holoceph'ali [from oAos, "entire," and«ef*)aA^. " head"], 
 an order of selachians distinguished by the confluence of 
 the hyomandibular bone with the cranium ; the coalescence 
 of the maxillary and palatine elements with the skull ; the 
 development of a rudimentary operculum ; aud the exist- 
 ence of a single external gill-openiugon each side behind the 
 head. To this order belongs a single existing family (Chi- 
 meriida}), represented by three living genera and numerous 
 extinct forms. In all the living forms the body is elongated, 
 and terminates in a slender fin. Theodore Gill. 
 
 Holofer'nes, See Judith. 
 
 Holopho'tal. Sec Lighthouse Illubiination, by Prof. 
 J. Hrnry, LL.D. 
 
 Holoptych'ius [Ttr. 5Ao?. "all," and n-Tvx>}. " wrinkle," 
 alluding to the appearance of the scale], an extinct genus 
 of lepidoganoid fishes with imbricated bony scales. There 
 arc numerous species found in Devonian aud Carboniferous 
 strata in both hemispheres. There are, however, marked 
 differences between the Carboniferous and the Devonian 
 species. Some of these fishes were of great size. 
 
 Holos'tomi [from oAos,"complete,'' and arofia, "mouth"], 
 a group, and probably sub-order, of eels, but distinguished 
 as an order by Prof. Cope, who has attributed to it the fol- 
 lowing characters: "Epiclavicle suspended to fourth ver- 
 tebra, post-temporal wanting. Parietals in contact. Mouth 
 bouuded by the premaxillaries, which are in contact medi- 
 ally, and bounded behind by maxillary. Symplectic pres- 
 ent ; vertebra} unaltered ; no pectoral fin. Third superior 
 pharyngeal not smaller than fourth." In addition to these 
 characters, the pectoral fins are absent, and the vertical 
 fins quite rudimentary and reduced to mere folds of the 
 integument: the anus is situated very far backward; the 
 gill-openings are confluent in a single outlet under or near 
 the throat; and the ovaries have oviducts. This group has 
 been formed for the reception of two families of eel-like 
 fishes confined to the tropical regions — viz. {!) Symbran- 
 chidie, represented in both the East Indies and America, 
 and (2) Amphipuoidie, confined to Bengal. Theo. Gill. 
 
 Holothu'rians [from Holothnrm, one of the genera; 
 Gr. o.Vos. '• whole," aud 0vpiov, a '' mouth," an "opening"], 
 or Holothiiroi'tlea, an order of echinodermatous radi- 
 ates, including the highest in rank of radiate animals, hav- 
 ing a long, eyliudroid. somewhat worm-like body, with no 
 calcareous shell, and with a row of appendages around the 
 inouth. Instead of a shell, there is a leathery rind, capa- 
 ble of much expansion and contraction, in which there are 
 calcareous particles. There arc several families, some of 
 which have locomotive suckers. The trepang or becke de 
 vter {ffolothnria cdnlis) and sea-cucumber (Pentacta /ron- 
 dosa) of the North Atlantic are typical species. The indi- 
 viiluals are bisexual. Some of the tropical kinds aro very 
 beautifully colored. 
 
 HoTstcin, a former duchy which belonged to Den- 
 mark, whoso king, us duke of Ilolstcin, was a member of 
 the (jcrnmn eonfoderation. but which in ISCO was annexed 
 to Prussia, and now, together with Sleswick, forms a part 
 of the North German confederation. It is situated between 
 the Ualtio and the German Ocean, and between the Elbe 
 and the Eider, which separate it respectively from Hanover 
 and Slcswick. Its western part is marshy, and so luw that 
 it must bo protected from inundation by dykes, but it is 
 very fertile and presents excellent grazing-grounds ; the 
 central part is heathy and sandy ; the eastern part fine soil 
 fitted for agriculture. The rearing of cattle and the produc 
 tion of butter and cheese, together with agriculture, arc the 
 main branches of industry. Area, .32.'J0 square miles. Pop. 
 592,182. Principal cities, Kiel and Altona. It now consti- 
 tutes a portion of Sleswick-Holstcln, a province of Prussia. 
 
 Holste'nius (Litas), b. at Hamburg in 1.006: studied 
 at Leyden; travelled in Italy aud Erance ; was converted 
 to Catholicism ; became librarian to the cardinal Barberini, 
 and afterwards at the Vatican: and d. at Home in 1661. 
 He wrote a great number of diH^rrtntinnes aud cpiatleSf 
 whieli have been published since his death. 
 
 Ilol'ston River rises in Smyth co., Va., by two heads. 
 
 the N. and S. forks, which unite at Holston boatyard, near 
 Kiugsport, Tenn., and flows S. W. 200 miles to Kingston, 
 Tenn., where it joins the Clinch and forms the Tennessee 
 Kiver. It is navigable for light-draft boats throughout, 
 aud for large steamers to Knoxville for nine months in the 
 year. It is a beautiful stream, with no dangerous rapids. 
 It is proposed to extend navigation by artificial means for 
 some distance up its forks. Its affluents, the French Broad, 
 the Little Tennessee, and the Watauga, are navigable to 
 some extent. 
 
 Holt, county in the N. W. of Missouri, separated by 
 the Missouri River, its S. W. boundary, from Kansas and 
 Nebraska. Area, -170 square miles. Its surface is varied. 
 Cattle, grain, wool, and lumber are the staple products. 
 The county is traversed by the Council BluSs and St. Jo- 
 seph 11. R. Cap. Oregon. Pop. 11,652. 
 
 Holty county of Nebraska, bounded N. by Dakota. 
 Area, 2515 square miles. Its N. border is washed by Keya 
 P.aya and Niobrara rivers. It is also traversed by the 
 Elkhorn and other streams, and contains choice farming aud 
 grazing lands. 
 
 Holt, post-tp. of Taylor co., la. Pop. 356. 
 
 Holt, tp. of Fillmore co., Minn. Pop. 784. 
 
 Holt (Col. John Saunders), b. in Mobile. Ala., in 1S26, 
 and comes of an old family of Bedford co., Va. ; was edu- 
 cated in New Orleans and at Centre College, Danville, Ky. ; 
 is a lawyer of Woodville, Miss. ; served both in the Mexi- 
 can and the civil wars; and has written three successful 
 tales of Southern life — Tht- Life of Abmhrtm Page, Eaq,, 
 What I Know about Ben Evclcs, and The Qnitie8. 
 
 Holt (Sir John), b. at Thame. Oxfordshire, England, 
 1042: studied law and became a prominent advocate: in 
 16S5 he was appointed recorder of London, administering 
 the responsible duties of his office with much ability until 
 the following year, when, by opposing a court measure, he 
 became unpopular and was removed. Subsequently he held 
 the office of sergeant-at-law. In the Convention Parliament 
 which proclaimed William and Mary as king and queen he 
 disj)layed such ability as to attract the notice of William 
 (prince of Orange), who upon his accession to the throne 
 (I68'J) apjiointed Holt lord chief-justice of the king's 
 bench. Subsequently the king offered him the office of the 
 great seal, but this he declined, and remained chief-justice 
 until his death, which occurred at London in 1709. He was 
 celebrated for his unbending firmness, strict integrity, and 
 justice. As a jurist he was also very highly regarded. 
 
 Holt (Joseph), b. in Brcckcnridgeco., Ky., Jan. 6.1807; 
 educated at St. Joseph's College, Bardstown,and at Centre 
 College, Danville; in IS2S he entered upon the practice of 
 law at Elizabethtown, Ky., removing to Louisville in 18.'i2, 
 and the following year was attorney for Jefferson circuit. 
 In 18;i5 he removed to Port (jlibson, Miss., where he prac- 
 tised his profession with great success until IS42, when he 
 returned to Louisville. In 1S57, Pres. Buchanan appointed 
 him commissioner of patents, and in 1859 to a seat in his 
 cabinet as postmaster-general. Upon the resignation of 
 John B. Floyd (Dec, 1S60), which Buchanan q.uietly ac- 
 cepted. Gen. Holt was appointed to succeed him as secretary 
 of war, and during the eventful months which preceded as 
 well as on the occasion of the inauguration of Pres. Lincoln, 
 he actively co-operated with the general-in-ehief in main- 
 taining order and suppressing threatened traitorous out- 
 bursts at tho capital. He subsequently made a report de- 
 tailing the facts of the intended seizure of the capital. His 
 next service was as a member of the commission appointed 
 to investigate the military claims against the department 
 of the West. In Sept., 1862, Pres. Lincoln selected him as 
 judgc-advocate-general of tho army, with the rank of colo- 
 nel, which he accepted, and upon the establishment of the 
 bureau of military justice in June. 1861, was retained at 
 its head with the same title, but with the increased rank 
 of brigadier-general. In this capacity he has borne a con- 
 sjiicuous part in the various imjiortant courts-martial, courls 
 of inquiry, and military commissions — notably that before' 
 which were arraigned tho assassins of Pres. Lincoln, lle- 
 tired Nov.. 1S75. G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Tlol'ton, city, cap. of Jackson co., Kan., on the Kansas 
 Central (narrow gauge) R. R., 50 miles AV. of Lravenworth. 
 It has 2 banks, 5 churches, a high school, 2 hotels, a steam 
 flouring-mill, and 1 weekly newspaper. It is in an excel- 
 lent fruit and stock region, has good timber, building- 
 stone, and fine streams. Poji. 426. 
 
 F. A. Root, Ed. " Express and News." 
 
 Holton (Sami-fl), h. at Danvers, Mass.. June 9, 1738; 
 was a physician of hi? native town : a prominent colonial 
 legislator and an ardent patriot, holding important public 
 offices in his province: assisted in forming the Ci>nft'deration 
 1777 : was in Congress 177S-S:i, 17S4-S7.and 179."i-95 : judge 
 of probate 1796-1815; twenty-sci'en years a State councillor.
 
 HOLTY— HOLY GHOST. 
 
 967 
 
 and was for a time a justice oftho common picas; was also 
 eminent as a practitioner. D. Jan. 2, 1S16. 
 
 lIuTty (Lri>wiG llKiSRif h CiiuisTOPii),b. at Maricnsec, 
 near llauuver, Dee. 21, 174S; ijtudicU tlieolugy at (iottiu- 
 gcn, hut was of a very delicate constitution, and d. at Han- 
 over iSept. 1, 1776. After his death his lyrical pocnis were 
 published by Voss and Stulberg in I7S.!, and attrnctcd 
 much attention on account of the sweet, elegiac feeling 
 which pervades them and the dclicato harmony of their 
 form. 
 
 Holtz'endorfT, von (Franz), b. at Victmannsdorf, 
 PruB!?iu. Oct. 14, 1S29; studied at Berlin, Heidelberg, and 
 Bonn, and became in I^Cl professor of jurisprudence at 
 tiic University of Berlin. He wrote FntuzuHinvhe licclits- 
 ZHntiinde (ISJU), Die Dtporfation «/s Slru/mittrl (1859), 
 J/rm irifichc (ic/iini/nisM-Ht/itttm ( I8i>9), Pn'iicipieu drr Podiik 
 (l-SfiK), Eiirifktopatlic dtr lievhtmrisnenacha/t (1870), Hnnd- 
 buch des DtHtechen Stra/rechts (1874). 
 
 Iloltzcndorff i Karl FiiiEDKRicn>. b. at Berlin Aug. 
 17. 1764; entered the milititry service in I77S under his 
 father, who was an eminent general of artillery ; became 
 lieutenant in 1781; distinguished himself in Poland in 
 1794 ; was wounded at Halle in ISOfl; took part in the de- 
 fence of liiintzic in 1S07; and commanded the artillery of 
 the army uf Biilow in 1814, and of that of Bliiober in 
 1815. 1>. at Berlin Sept. 29, 1828. 
 
 Iloltz'mann (At>oi,f), b. at Carlsrubc May 2, 1810; 
 studied theology at Berlin, Old German at MUnich, San- 
 scrit at Paris, and was in 1852 appointed professor of Ger- 
 man language and literature at (he University of Heidel- 
 berg. His most prominent writings are — U'her dcu Um- 
 !utit (1S4;1). Ceher dm Ablaut (1S44). Indf^rhc Snffen 
 ( IS4;t-45), Cfltf-n tind Gtnnanen (1855), Nicbcluiif/ciilied 
 (1855), Kfi'ifr (IS59). 
 
 Huly Aniance^ a compact entered into at Paris Sept. 
 26, 1S15. by the sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prus- 
 sia, joineil by most of the other European powers, and 
 published Feb. 2, ISlfi. It forever excluded all members 
 of the Bonaparte family from any throne in Europe, ex- 
 pressed the intention of the contracting powers to live to- 
 gether in Christian harmony, and exhorted the people to 
 faithful daily fulfilment of Uhristian duties. Thus they 
 concealed the chain they had welded with which to re- 
 slriiin the progress <»f liberal ideas in Europe. 
 
 Holy Coat of Treves, a garment preserved in the 
 cathedral of Treves, in Germany, which was declared by 
 Pope Leo X. in 1514 to be the veritable seamless garment 
 worn by Jesus Christ at his crucifixion, and for which the 
 soldiers cast lots. This coat, it is alleged, was left at 
 Treves by the empress Helena in the fourth century. No 
 less than nine other holy coats have been exhibited, and in 
 18il'., Pope (Jregory XVI. pronounced that of Argenteuil 
 in France to be the true one. The one at Treves was lost 
 for a season, and rediscovered in 119t>. It has been from 
 time to time exhibited, when hundreds of thousands of 
 pilgrims flock to sue it, as in 1844. Among the eonsie- 
 quences of this last exhibition was the secession of .)ohann 
 K'lugc and his nunterous followers from the Church. 
 
 Holy Communiou. Soo Eucharist, by F. A. P. 
 Baun Aun. 
 
 Holy Communion, Sisters of the, a society of 
 Indie- of the Protestant Episcopal Church, founded in Xew 
 York in jsi;, hy Iho Kcv. |)r. \V. A. iMnblenlierg. They 
 are not bound by vows, and do not wear a strictly uniform 
 habit. They are devoted to the caro of the sick in hos- 
 jfitals and to other charitable labors. 
 
 Holy Cross, Congregation of the, an associa- 
 tion of regular clerks, founded by the ;\bl)6 Morcau in 
 1XIJ4. Their present rule was apjiroved in ls.")(i, in which 
 ye;ir the lirntherhood of St. .losrph was merged into this 
 eonpregalion. They were introduced into the I'. S. in 
 1S42, and have now numerous estalilishments here. There 
 is a eongregation of Canons Regular of the Holy Cross 
 (anciently called Crutebed Friars in England ), fouiiiliMl by 
 Theodore de Celles 1211. They have a cdlege jil Water- 
 town. Wis., iind are numerous in continental Europe ; called 
 also Croisiers and Cross-bearers. 
 
 Holy Cross, Sisterhood of the, founded 1S34 by 
 th- Abb^ Morcau, at Alans, Belgium. Their rule was ap- 
 proved in 1857. There are two orders of " Daughters of 
 the Cross " and one of " Sisters of the Cross," independent 
 of the above. 
 
 Holy <;host, or Holy Spirit [Heb. fiuah Elohim 
 and linnh Jthovnh ; (Jr. nvtvua ayioi). the Spirit of (Jod, 
 of Christ, of the Lord, etc., is the third Person of the Trin- 
 ity, whose cxistcnee, character, and offices arc revenlcd in 
 the Bible. Sax. i/fmMt, Ger. yn'W, Dan. tind, Heb. rufih, 
 Greek nvrvfAa. ].»t . Mftiiitim, Eng. >ry»iViV, all origiuaMv mean 
 
 "wind," then "breath," then "life," then the self-con- 
 scious, intelligent, self-determined, thinking substance of 
 God, angels, and man. The term vytiina iyioi'. "Holy 
 Ghost," in Scripture and Christian theology, docs not des- 
 ignate the 8j)iritual substance common to the three Persons 
 of the Godhead, but the third Person or Hypostasis existing 
 in the unity of that substance. We propose here a con- 
 densed statement (I.) of the scriptural and Church doctrine 
 as to his personality, divinity, procession, andofticcs; (II.) 
 of the history of opinion on the subject^ (HI-) its litera- 
 ture. 
 
 1. SCRIPTrRAL AND CuuilCn DOCTRINE OF THK Hoi.Y 
 
 GnosT. 1. Ifis Pcmonalilr/. — The attributes of personality 
 are intelligence, will, individual subsistence; and in Scrip- 
 ture all of tlieso arc predicated of the Spirit, (1) He uses 
 the pronoun ** I," and the Father and Son use the pro- 
 nouns "ho" anil "him," when speaking of him (Acts xiii. 
 2 ; John xv. 20 and xvi. 1.1. 14) ; '• AVhen be (e^rci-o?) shall 
 come ... ho shall glorify me." {2} His functions all im- 
 ply distinct personal subsistence: he "speaks," "searches," 
 " selects," " reveals," " reproves," " testifies," " leads," 
 "comforts," "distributes to every man as ho wills," 
 "knows the deep tliinj^s of God," "is grieved." etc. (Acts 
 xiii. 2 ; I Cor. ii. 10, II and xii. 11 ; 1 Tim. iv. 1). {?,) All 
 Christians profess personal allegiance to the H0I3' Spirit 
 precisely as to Father and Son. They arc baptized fi<; to 
 ovofjia^'iutn the utniitj of the Fatlier, and of the Son, and f'f 
 the Holy (I'hfiHt (Matt, xxviii. liJ). If the two former are 
 Persons, the latter must be. Hence he is our Sanctifier 
 and Comforter. (4) Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, 
 and the possibility of " resisting," " grieving," and " doing 
 despite to " him, imply his personalitv f^Iatt. xii. ;jl, .■i2; 
 Mark iii. 28, 29 ; Luke Xii. 10; AcfsVii. ol; Heb. x. 2U ; 
 Eph. iv. 30). (5) This has been from the beginning the 
 common faith of all historical churches. (Sec Niccne and 
 Athiumsian Creeds ; Thivtif-ninc Articlrs of Church of Eng- 
 land ; Artirlcn of Methodist EjjihcojhiI Church ; WcMtmin- 
 8ter Conf. of faith, cli. 2, § 3 ; Aut/aOnrf/ Coufctssiou, art. 1.) 
 
 2. HtH Diriniii/. — ( I ) Ho is called by the exclusive names 
 of God. AVhat Jehovah says in the Old Testament tho 
 New Testament writers ascribe to the Holy Ghost. (Cf. 
 Isa. vi. 9 with Acts xxviii. 25, and Jer. xxxi. .'U-IU with 
 Heb. X. 15; see Acts v. 3, 4.) (2) Divine attributes are 
 predicated of bim : (o) omnipresence ( Pa. cxxxix. 7; I Cor. 
 xii. 13); (6) omniscience (1 Cor. ii. 10, 11); (c) omnipo- 
 tence (Luke i. 35 ; Rom. viii. 11). (3) Divine works are 
 ascribed to him: (o) creation (tien. i. 2; Job xxvi. 13; 
 Ps. civ. 30); (6) inspiration (Heb. iii. 7; 2 Pet. i. 21); 
 (c) miracles (1 Cor. xii. 9-11 ) ; (rf) spiritual regeneration 
 (John iii. fi ; Tit. iii. 5). (4) Divine worsliip is to be paid 
 to him (Mutt, xxviii. 19; 2 Cor. xiii. 1 I ; Matt. xii. 31, 32). 
 
 3. The Pi-occHfiifin of the Ilnlif iVAokMs a technical phrase, 
 originating in John xv. 20 ("the Spirit of truth which 
 procecdeth from the Father"), and used by theologians to 
 express the essential relations of the Holy Ghost to tho 
 other Persons of the Trinity. The teachings of Scripture 
 and of the whole Church, Roman and Protestant, involve 
 the follo^ving points: (1) There is but one God, and ho is 
 indivisilde. Therefore there is but one indivisible sub- 
 stance which is (jod. (2) This one whole substance sub- 
 sists eternally as three cq^ual Persons, the entire substance 
 subsisting as each Person concurrently. (3) The Scriptures 
 reveal (so far forth) the nature and relations of each Per- 
 son by their names and relative actions. The Father is al- 
 ways first, the Son second, and the Spirit third. The terms 
 Father and S(ui express an eternal reciprocal relation. Tho 
 Father eternally begets the Son. The Spirit is the infinite 
 personal " Breath " of God, as the Son is his infinite per- 
 sonal "Word." He is the "."Spirit of God" and "from 
 God " (((f Toi) ©coD, 1 Cor. ii. 12), and the "Spirit of tho 
 Father," " who procecdeth from the Father" (6 irapi tow 
 TToTpo? fKffopcyeTot, John XV. 20). Ho is abso tho Spirit "of 
 the Son " and "of Christ" (Uom. viii. 9; Gal. iv. (J). Ho 
 is sent by and acts for the Father; so lie is sent by and 
 acts for the Son (John xvi. 7-11). {4 ) Hence, the Athaiiasian 
 Creed concludes (^§ 20-22), the "Father was made from 
 none, nor created, nor begotten. Tho Son is from tho 
 Father alone, neither made nor created, but begotten. The 
 Holy Ghost is from the Father and tin- Son, neither niaiie 
 nor ercated nor begotten, but proceeding." This the 
 Church proposes not as an cxplanatiim. but simply as a 
 statement of scriptural data. (See Pkockssion.) 
 
 The Gknkhation of (he Son is an eternal constitutional 
 (non-voli(irtnal) act of the Father, whereby ho communi- 
 cates his whole divine essence Ut (he Hypostasis of the Son. 
 whereby the Son is tho "express inuigo of the Father's 
 Person " and " tho brightness of his glory," The Piukks- 
 sioN or Spiuation of the Holy (ihost is a like eternal act 
 'if the Father and of the Son. wh(>rel>y they nnnniunieato 
 llirir whole common substiiijc^' to the llypostiisis of tho 
 Holy Ghost, whereby ho becomes their consubstautial por-
 
 908 
 
 HOLY GHOST, ORDERS OF THE-HOLY LEAGUE. 
 
 sonal Breath. As these acts are eternal, they are neither 
 past nor future, but present, without beginning or enJing. 
 
 4. //,■« Offices in A'..(iue.— The " Siiirit " or personal 
 " Urealh " is the Executive of the Uodhcad, as the " Son 
 or "Word" is the Kevcaler. The .Spirit of God moved 
 upon the face of Chaos and developed Cosmos (Gen. i. 2). 
 Henceforth he is ahvavs represented as the author of order 
 and beauty in the natural as of holiness in the moral world. 
 He carnished the astronomical heavens (.Job .\xvi. 13). He 
 is the organizer and source of life to all provinces of vege- 
 table and animal nature (.lob xxxiii. 4; I's. civ. 29, aO ; 
 Isa xxxii. 14, 15), and of enlightenment to human intelli- 
 gence in all arts and sciences (Job xxxii. 8 and xxxv. 11; 
 Ex. xxxi. 2-4). . , , . ,. 
 
 5. ///» 0/fices in /fcrfcm;)(i'mi.— Christ promised his dis- 
 ciples on the eve of his crucifixion that he would send them 
 the Spirit of truth as another Comforter, 7rop(i«*»)T0!, Piuk- 
 vUte. Adruiatiit (I'atron, Counsel, Champion, Helper, etc. ; 
 also applied to Christ himself, 1 John ii. 1). -Mthough he 
 had been the divine agent effecting the salvation ot men 
 ever since Adam, it is said this Paraclete was not given 
 until after the ascension and glorification of Christ (John 
 vii. .-ill and Acts ii. 32, 33) ; that is, he is now given with a 
 universality, fulness, power, and clearness of manifestation 
 infinitelv surpassing that of the past. The present is the 
 dispensiition of the Spirit in contrast with the preceding 
 preparatory dispensation of the Law. (1) The Spirit 
 fa'^hioned the bo.ly of Christ in the womb of the \ irgin, 
 enriched and supported his human suul, and co-operated 
 with him in all the offices he performed in his estate of 
 humiliation (Luke i. 3.-. : Isa. xi. 1, 2 : John i. 32 and iii. 
 34. (2) He inspired the writers of both the Old and the 
 New Testaments as to thoughts and words (Mic. iii. S; 1 
 Cor ii. 10-13). (3) He teaches those who are spiritually 
 minded the meaning of Scripture (1 Cor. ii. 14, 15) and 
 applies to all the redemption purchased by Christ (John 
 xvi. 13, 14). Hence he is called the "Spirit of grace" 
 (Ileb X. 29\ " of wisdom and understanding" (Isa. xi. 2), 
 "of truth "(John xvi. 13), "of adoption" (Rom. viii. 15), 
 "of propheev" (Rev. xix. 10), "of promise" (Eph. i. l.i), 
 and -of glorv" (Pet. iv. 14). He regenerates, sanctifies, 
 and preserves' the souls and raises the dead bodies of the 
 saints (John iii. 6: Rom. xv. 16 and viii. 11). Ho is to 
 the Church and to the individual Christian the immanent 
 source of life— TO i^jtonowy, the Ll/e-Olver. (4) He is the 
 bond of life and the organizing principle of the historic 
 Church on earth (1 Cor. xii. 13), and Church teachers and 
 rulers are properly only the organs of the Holy Ghost 
 
 'fi ISUimhtmy aqaiml the Hohj Gho>t (Matt. xii. 31, 32; 
 Mark iii. 2y, 30 : Ileb. vi. 4-fi and x. 20, 27 ; 1 John v. 16). 
 —This appears to be an intelligent, deliberate, and malig- 
 nant " speaking against," and rejection of, the Spirit of 
 grace bv one who has been under his special induenee. It 
 is never pardoned, because of its peculiar guilt, aud because 
 it is a definite and final rejection of Christ's salvation. (See 
 SciIVFF, .SVu aijniiiHt the Iloty Ghoul (1S41).) 
 
 II. HisTOHY OF OiM.Nio.-J.- 1. The State of Opinion iii the 
 Enrhi Churrh, iiud the Definition of the Unii-ermil Chnreh 
 Doctrine hi/ the Conncil of Constantinople, A. D. 381.— Tho 
 Christian Church from the beginning expressed its faith in 
 the terms of the (so-called) Apostles' Creed, which acknow- 
 ledges a Trinity of divine Persons. Nevertheless, the pre- 
 valent conceptions were very vague and variable (see 
 testimony of GiiKGOnv Xazia.vzf.s, Oral. SI, De Spiritu 
 snncio, c'ap. 5), the majority regarding the Spirit as more 
 decidedly subordinate to the Son than the Son to the 
 Father. The complete statement of the final lailh of the 
 Church was introduced into the Nicene Creed by the 
 Council of Constantinople (A. n. 381) in these words: 
 " And 1 believe in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, tho Giver of 
 Life who proceedcth from the Father and the Son [this 
 Phrase, •' fiHoqne," was added by (he Council of Toledo 
 (A n 589), and was accepted bv the Latins and all Prot- 
 estants, and rejected bv the Greeksl, who with the Father 
 and Son is to be worshipped and glorified, who spake by 
 the prophets." For tho most detailed of the universally 
 received definitions seethe Athanasian Creed (cir. A. i). 4j0). 
 These Creeds, either in form or substance, have been 
 adopted bv all historical churches. 
 
 2. I/rre'iirol VIcirt. — Some of the Gnostics considered 
 the Holv Ghost and Christ two celestial yfo.u, generated 
 to restore tho disturbed harmony of the Pleroma. The 
 ^lo.'iansand other ancient deniers of the divinity of Christ 
 re.'arded the phrase Holv Ghost as another name for the 
 siiv'lc person of God. The Sabellians held that it desig- 
 nates one mode of divine operation aud the phase of divine 
 revelation peculiar to the present dispensation. The Arians 
 and Semi-Arians regarded the Holy Ghost as the first and 
 
 gre 
 
 called MncedonianH, Pneumatomachi, and Tropici. All 
 modern Arians and Socinians interpret the phrase Holy 
 Ghost as a designation of the energy of God manifested in 
 action. De Wetle says the Spirit is fiod operative in na- 
 ture ; Schleiermacher says he is God operative in tho 
 Church. 
 
 III. Literature. — Nicene and Athanasian Creeds; 
 Hase's Collection of Lnthcrun and NiemeVER's Collection 
 of Calrinistie Confessions; HAGENDACn's Hist, if Doctrines; 
 Shedd's Hist of Christ. Doctrines; JiEAXPEn'sand Schaff's 
 Histories of the Christian Church; Watson's 7'/ico. insti- 
 tutes; Hefele's Bistort/ of Councils; Owen's Discourse 
 eoncernin;/ the Holi/ S/iirit; JrLllS ClI. HaBe's Mission of 
 the Comforter; H.AnvEv's Hist, of the Three Creeds; The 
 Paraclete, anon.: PeaksoS On the Creed; American Quar- 
 terli/ Church Recieic. Apr., 181).'!, Art. 5. A. A. HoDGE. 
 
 Holy (ihost, Orders of the (Roman Catholic). (1) 
 An order, at first consisting of hospital knights of St. Au- 
 gustine, was founded in 1178 by Guido of .Montpellier, and 
 in part removed to Rome in 1204, receiving the hospital 
 of Sassia. Here they became in part canons regular, aud 
 after many vicissitudes the knightly branch of the order 
 ceased in 1700 to exist, but the canons regular are not yet 
 extinct. In 1254 the Hospitallers of the Holy Ghost, a 
 secular branch of the above, were organized, containing 
 both brethren and sisters. The latter, called White Sisters, 
 arc still numerous and active in benevolent works. With 
 them became connected another sisterhood of the Holy 
 Ghost, established in 1212. (2) Another congregation of 
 canons of the Holy Ghost was confirmed in 1588. (3) A 
 society of missionary priests of the Holy Ghost was found- 
 ed in 1700, and is still active. 
 
 Hol'yhead, seaport town of North Wales, on an island 
 of the same name as the town, forming the western part 
 of An<'lesea co., and connected with the main portion of 
 Anglesea by a huge causeway and a bridge. The island 
 is mainlv a barren rock, but the town contains numerous 
 fine buildings. It is a parlianieutaiy borough. Pop. IS. 
 Holyhead is most notable for the breakwater by which 
 harbor accommodation is provided for the packet service 
 between England and Ireland, and at the same lime an 
 important harbor of refuge is constituted. The successful 
 bridging for military purposes of the Menai Straits by 
 Stephenson's tubular" bridge decided a mooted question as 
 to the terminus of the great railway route between London 
 and Dublin and choice of site for harbor in favor of Holy- 
 head. The breakwater, commenced in 1S47, was planned 
 by the late J. M. Rendei. On his death. Mr. John Hawk- 
 shaw became the superintending engineer, under whom the 
 work was finally completed in 1873. As originally planned, 
 it was one mile in length, forming, in conjunction with 
 islands, an almost close harbor of 2B7 acres. A subsequent 
 extension of 2500 feel has added an area of 400 acres of 
 "sheltered roadstead." It consists of 7,000,000 tons of 
 stones thrown in " a picrre perdue," surmounted by a ver- 
 tical wall starting from low-water line near the inner edge 
 and rising 3Si feet above low water, three- fourths of its 
 height being masked aud protected by a long fore-shore of 
 "rip-rap." Behind this wall, and 12 feet lower than its 
 top, is a terrace or quay 40 feet wide. The average depth 
 of water being 40 feet and tidal rise 18 feet, tho stone 
 mound has necessarily great dimensions, averaging 225 
 feet width at low water and (in 50 feet depth) 400 feet at 
 base. Theenormous quantities of stone (quartz rook from 
 the neighboring Holyhead Mountain) required gave rise to 
 some of the largest and most interesting quarrying opera- 
 tions ever undertaken. Shafts or " headings " of large di- 
 mensions were run into the rock, in which charges amount- 
 ing sometimes to the enormous amount of ten tons of pow- 
 der were exploded. The breakwater cost £1,500,000. (See 
 article Breakwateii. and Enijinccrlmj, Sept. 26, 1873.) 
 Holy Innocents. See Ciiii.iiermas. 
 Holy Islimd, or Lindisfarne, an island (a penin- 
 sula at low tide) off the E. coast of England, in the county 
 of Durham ; lat. 55° 40' N., Ion. 1° 47' W. : 3 nautical 
 miles N. of the Fame Islands proper. Lindislarnc in fl.ia 
 became a bishop's see, and was tlie cjiiscopal seat of St. 
 Culhbert. In 900 tho sec was transferred to Durham. 
 Holy Island is a favorite bathing-place, and its old castle 
 and ruined abbey arc interesting objects. 
 
 Holy League, a name applied to several alliances of 
 ' European princes for war or defence, j 1 ) That of 151 1, be- 
 tween the pope. Julius II.. Spain, and Venice, to expel tho 
 French from Italy. It lasted till the Truce of Orthes 
 (1513). (2) That of Nuremberg (1538), between Charles V. 
 and the Catholic princes of Germany against the League of 
 Schmalkald. (3) That of 1571. of the pope, Venice, and 
 Spain against the Turks. (4) The great league ot the 
 Guises, the French Parliament, tho monks. Spain, and tho 
 
 .lest creature of Christ, of superangclic but not divine i uui:.e^, i..» '■■;;•—■ V 7i' "-k^ ~'7s.« I iAr-i\- Tut- ) 
 
 perfection After the Council of Nice these parties were | pope against the Huguenots (1..6). (See Leag. t, T.lt.)
 
 HOLY MAID OF KKNT-IIOME. 
 
 909 
 
 (5) That of 1(509 b<>twecn tho popo and the Catholic states 
 of Suahia and Bavaria. {6} That of lOSi, Polaud, Ger- 
 many, and Venice, ));j;uintit the Turks. 
 
 lluly Maid of Kent, an epileptic maid-servant of 
 an inu at Aldington, Kent, who in 1625 acquired a great 
 rojiutation for sanctity and prophetic gifts. lU-r name was 
 Klizaheth Burton. She became a nun of St. Sepulchre's, 
 Canterbury, and her pretensions were favored by Arch- 
 bishop Warham and Bishop Fisher. Presuming to do- 
 iiouuco the judgments of Heaven against King Henry 
 VIII. in ease of his persistence in his suit for divorce from 
 Catharine of Spain, she with five priests, her alleged ac- 
 compIi<^'e.4, was attainted of high treason and beheaded^ 
 Apr. 21. 15:M. 
 
 Holy Names of Jesiis and Mary, Sisters of tlie, 
 a lluruan Catholic sistcrho<»d. first establi-shcd at Longucuil, 
 near Montreal, in 1SI3, by Mmes. Durochcr, Dufresne, and 
 Ceri". Their special work is the instruction of young ladies. 
 
 Ilol'yoake (Gkokgk J.mob), b. at IJirmin;;hani. Eng- 
 land, Apr. I'.i, 1817; became a teacher of malln-uiatics at 
 the mechanics' institute of that city, and edited fur many 
 years The JiennoHcrf an organ of political and religious 
 radicalism. Intellectually a positivist, nnd morally a 
 utilitarian, he believes that there i;? a material state of the 
 wurld in which it is impo^jsiblo for man to be depraved and 
 pour ; and to produce this state is the aim of his reforms. 
 He published in 1874, in LoodoD, a Hintory of Co-operation 
 (2 vuls.). 
 
 Hol'yoke, city of Hampden co., Ma?s., on the Con- 
 necticut River U. H., and the terminus of the Holyoko 
 and Westfield K. K. It has 9 churches. 2 national banks, 
 2 savings banks, 'A hotels, a public library, 1 semi-weekly 
 and 1 weekly newspaper, 28 schools and 18U0 pupils, and 
 a granite city-hall costing above $370,000. It has an im- 
 mense water-piiwer, and contains 17 paper-mills, 8 cotton- 
 mi I U, -i woollen -mills, 1 wire- mil I, 1 grist -in ill, 1 recd- 
 faetory, i lumber manufactory, atul W planing-mills. New 
 waterworks have just been completed at a cost of $250,000. 
 It has a free bridge across the Connecticut River, couuect- 
 ing it with South Hadley. Pop. 10,7.'i3. 
 
 \V. S. LoOMis, Ki). "Transchipt." 
 
 Ilolyoke (Eowaud Ait«i:stis). M. 1)., LL.l)., a cen- 
 tenarian and eminent physician an<l purgeon of Salem, 
 Mass., was a son of the Kev. Edward Ilolyoke (IfiHil-UfiO), 
 who was president of Harvard Cullege. Dr. Ilolyoke was 
 b. at Miirbleheiid, Mass.. Aug. 1, 172S, and gra(iuated at 
 Harvard in 1740. In 1740 he began his practice at Salem, 
 where he remained nctively engaged in his profession 
 seventy-nine years. He was temperate in his habits, ate 
 much fruit, walked habitually in his professional business, 
 and took groat care to have abundant sleep. D. at Salem, 
 Mar. '.\\, 1829. aged one hundred years and eight mouths, 
 retaining his faculties in a good degree to the last. (See 
 his .l/'MioiV, 1S20.) 
 
 Ilolyoke, .Mounts a steep, narrow ridge of greenstone 
 trap in Hampshire co., Mass., separating the towns of 
 Hiidley and Amherst on the N. from South Hadley and 
 (Jranby on the S. It is 7 miles long, and terminates in 
 Belcherlown on the E. Its W. extremity is separated 
 from Mount Tom by a cleft through which the Connecticut 
 Iliver tlows. The name is uppropriatidy limited to the W. 
 extremity, where there is a hotel upon the summit, which 
 is reached by a railway whose cars are drawn up by a 
 stationary engine. The highest point is 1120 feet above 
 the sea. Mount Ilolyoke is well timbered, and some parts 
 formerly abounded in rattlesnakes, which are, however, be- 
 coming very rare. 
 
 Holy Hood. See TniK Cross. 
 
 Holy S<'|iiil(*lire« the tomb in whii-h our Lord lay. It 
 was hewn out of a rock in a garden in the place of the 
 crucilLxion. just outside the walls of Jerusalem. In the 
 opinion of many, the flpot has not yet been identilietl, and 
 never will be. The traditional site, fixed upon early in the 
 fourth century, is a cave unrii-rncalb the pile ol buildings 
 known as the Chureb of tite Holy Sepulchre. The edifice, 
 begun by Coiistaiitine in 1120 aiul rlt>dicatod in ■!•!.'>, was de- 
 stroyed by tin? PerstiuiH under Cbosroi-n in 014; rel»uilt 
 after about sixteen years; destroyed again by Khalif 
 Hakim, the Kalimile, in tOIO; again rebuilt in i04S; en- 
 larged and improved by the crusaders (after lO'JU) ; suffered 
 severely from lire in IHOH; imd in ISltl, after extensive re- 
 pairs, was eonsecrnte<l anew. In I'ergusson's opinion, the 
 arehit(!cture <jt" tin- edifi(H« is " wholly of an age subsequent 
 to that of the Crusatli-s, an<l without a Iraeo ul the 8tylu of 
 ('onstanline." It eonhiitis chapels for (jtreeks. Latins, and 
 Armenians, with smalbr apartments for CoptR, JneobileH, 
 an<l Maronites. Tlo* pretendeil miracle of the Holy Kire 'Ui 
 Easter Eve each year \-* one ol the gieatrst siMiiidals in his- 
 tory. The identity of this traditional site, first disputed by 
 
 Korto, the German bookseller, in 173S, has been ably ar- 
 gued for by Williams ( HtAy Citif, 1845), and ably argued 
 against by Robinson {Biblical HeHearchen, 1841 ; Liter ll.- 
 aearchcH, IS5ti; /Ublint/ieca Surra, 1S40). Fergusson (An- 
 cient Topojraphi/ uf JfrnHaff'iit, 1847") identifies the cave 
 underneath the mosque of Omar with the holy sepulchre. 
 Fisher How (1S7I) looks for it on the N. side of the city, 
 just outside of the Damascus gate. Barclay {Citi/ nf the 
 (jrcat K'iiif/, 1858) and others lor.k for it on the E. siilo of the 
 city, just outside of St. Stephen's gate, either N. of it or S. 
 
 of it. R. I). IIlTCIiOOCK. 
 
 Holy Sepulchre, Orders of the. (1) Canons 
 
 Hixi'i.Ait AM) Caxonkssks OF ( Augustiniau), founded at 
 Jerusalem in lOUU or 1114, spread throughout Europe. 
 The canons ceased to exist in tne seventeenth century, but 
 there are still some nuns who live in seclusion and instruct 
 children. (2) KsiriHTs of tiii; Holy St:i'ri.riiRF, perhaps 
 founded by Alexander III., and still foun<l in small num- 
 bers. They are now appointc<l liy tlie pope as guardian 
 father, and by the patriarch of Jerusalem. An order of 
 this name existed in England from 1174 to the seventeenth 
 century. The Franciscans once had the sole right to c()n- 
 fer this rank. At present the Latin patriarch of Jerusalem 
 is grand master. 
 
 Holy Spirit Plant, or Dove Plant, the Pcrinteria 
 alata, an orchidaceous plant of Central America, having 
 white symmetrical fictral envelopes, and the stamens and 
 pistil united into a column which curiously resembles a 
 bird with expanded wings. It is venerated in its native 
 regions as the symbol of the Holy Dove, the form in which 
 the Divine Spirit descended at the baptism of our Lord. 
 The plant is not uncommon in cultivation. 
 
 Holy Water, in the Greek, Roman Catholic, and the 
 various Oriental churches, water which has been consecrated 
 by a priest and is used in religious ceremonies. Its use in 
 churches is very ancient, and it is by many believed to bo 
 derived from a custom of the ancient Hebrews. In the 
 Church of Rome it is composed of pure spring-water in 
 which a little consecrated salt has been cast. The (ireeks 
 use pure water, and the faithful drink a portion of it at 
 Epijihany and Christmas. 
 
 Holy Week, the last seven days of Lent, the week 
 before Easter, popularly known in continental Eurojie as 
 Still Wec/c — often called FnnHinn Week, but that name is 
 also given to the week preceding it. It contains I*alm 
 Sunday, Spy Wednesday, Maundy or Holy Thursday, Goorl 
 Friday, and Holy Saturday. It is a penitential season, in 
 commemoration of our Lord's jiassion and death. 
 
 Ho'lywell, town of Flintshire, North Wales. It re- 
 ceived its name from tiio well of St. Winifred, which is said 
 to be the most copious spring in England. In its vicinity 
 are found the richest coal, lead, and copper mines in the 
 country, and besides its manufactures of cotton and flannel 
 Holywell has many establishments for lead an*! copper 
 smelting. It is a rapidly growing town. Pop. bWib ; with 
 surroundings, 1 1.0'J2. 
 
 Homalop^sidie [fromo^iaAo?. "flat," and oi/fi^.^faco"], 
 a family of colubroid serpents with regular large plates on 
 the head; plates on the al)domen uniserial, and behind bi- 
 serial ; and distinguished by the extension forward of the 
 postorbital bones over the superciliary region, and the de- 
 velopment of hypapophyses to the vertebrie as far back- 
 ward as the anal region. This family, diflorentiated espe- 
 cially by the last-nicntioned character, comprises a numoor 
 of genera, among which are the North American ones Tntpi- 
 doiiottia, ThamuophiH, Niniu, Storcria, etc., HaltUa, etc. 
 
 TnKoi>oui-: Gill. 
 
 Homalopter'idte [from 'onaK6<:, 'Mlat,'* and irrtpdi-, 
 "fin"], a laiuily (d" eventognathous teleooephalous fishes, 
 characlerized by the horizontal trend of the pectoral and 
 ventral fins, the abserue of an air-liludder, and the develop- 
 ment of the pharyngeal teeth to the number of from ten to 
 sixteen in a single series on each branch. The family in- 
 cludes two genera peculiar to the fresh waters of the East, 
 Indies, one of which { /fonmtufit' ra) has six barbels, and 
 the other {/'nilorhj/nchuM) has o'liie. The relations of the 
 latter genus, however, are still uneertaiu. and require con- 
 firmafion liy anatomical investigations. Tmfuoori; (in.L. 
 
 Hom'hiirg, or lIoinliiirR-vor-der-Holie, town 
 of (/cnlral (ieruuiny, capital of (be former landgraviate of 
 Hesse-Homburg. It is famous fur its mineral springs and 
 elegant bathing establishments, wiiioh. before the closing 
 of the gambling-saloons, attracted more than 10,000 visitors 
 annually, i'op. H020. 
 
 Homo, tp. of Nemaha eo., Knn. Pop. 710. 
 
 Home, tp. of M(uitoalm co.. Mich. Pop. 17.'I. 
 
 Home, post-tp. of Rrown oo., Minn. Pop. 770. 
 
 Home (David Dunolah), b. near Edinburgh, Scotland,
 
 970 
 
 IIOMl':-nOMER. 
 
 Mar. 20, 1833 ; came in childhood to the U. S., and became 
 distinguished as a :ipirituulistic medium, marvellous phe- 
 nomena having, it is nsserted, attended him from infancy. 
 Ho has resided mainly in Europe since \Sbt>; became a 
 Honian Catholic in 1S6('); has been twice married, both his 
 wives being Uussiiin ladies of high birth ; became secretary 
 of the Spiritual Athenaeum, London, in 1S60; is author of 
 three volumes of an autobiographical character. 
 
 Home (Sir EvKitAnn), b. at (irecnlaw Castle, Berwick- 
 sliire, ;?eotland. May fi, ]7j6 ; studied medicine under John 
 Hunter; jtractised in London 17'Jl); was appointed surgeon 
 to the court and professor of anatomy; created a baronet 
 in 1813; and d. at Chelsea Aug. .'!!, is;i2. His most promi- 
 nent work is his Lecturen on Comparative Anatomy (6 vols., 
 I814-2S). 
 
 Home (Henry). See Kames, Henry Home. 
 
 Home, or Uume (John), b. at Ancrum, Ro.\burghshirc, 
 Scotland, in 1722; studied theology at the University of 
 Edinburgh; fought on the Hanoverian side in the rebel- 
 lion of 1746; was appointed minister at Athclstaneford in 
 1740. In KTiG his tragedy of Dumjlas was produced at 
 Edinburgh with great success, but the circumstance that it 
 was written hy a clergyman caused such a scandal that 
 Home resigned his office in 1757. George III. gave him a 
 pension and a sinecure office, and he continued to write 
 tragedies — Alouzo, Alfred, Af/itt'leia. etc. He also wrote a 
 Hintory of the Jitbellion vf 2745, but his Dnutjlns and the 
 story connected with it have alone survived. D. in Edin- 
 burgh Sept. 5, ISOS. 
 
 Ho'melyn, Spotted Ray, or Sand Ray, the Raia 
 miraletus, a fish common in European seas. It is an 
 abundant food-fish. 
 
 Ho'mer, post-v., county-seat of Banks co., Ga,, 30 
 miles X. of Athens. Pop. 120. 
 
 Homer, citv of Champaign co.. 111., on the Toledo 
 Wabash and AVestern R. K.. 20 miles S. W. of Danville, 
 273 miles S. W. of Toledo, 0., and S9 miles E. of Springfield. 
 It has 1 savings bank. 1 newspaper, 3 churches, 1 hotel, 
 and 1 large flouring-mill. It is situated in a rich agricul- 
 tural district, ada]tted to raising grain and fruit, %vhich are 
 annually shipped from this point in large quantities. 1*. 707. 
 J. H.\itPER & Sons, Pubs. " Press." 
 
 Homer, tp. of Will co., 111. Pop. 1279. 
 
 Homer, tp. of Benton co., la. Pop. 567. 
 
 Homer, tp. of Buchanan co., la. Pop. 5S1. 
 
 Homer, post-v., cap. of Claiborne parish. La., 50 miles 
 from Shreveport. It has 2 institutions of learning, 3 
 churches, a large court-house, 2 newspapers, stores, shops, 
 etc. Principal business, cotton-buying and merchandising. 
 Pop. SO. D. B. Hayes, Ed. "Advocate." 
 
 Homer, post-v. and tp. of Calhoun co., Mich, on the 
 Lake Shore and Michigan Southern and the Michigan 
 Central R. Rs. It has an academy, 3 churches, large flour- 
 ing-mills, a savings bank, 1 newspaper, 2 hotels, and a 
 furnace. Pop. of v. 685; of tp. 1575. 
 
 W. A. Lane, Ed. " Index." 
 
 Homer, tp. of Midland co., Mich. Pop. 247. 
 
 Homer, tp. and post-v. of Winona co., Mina. Pop. 
 of v. 91 : of tp. 837. 
 
 Homer, tp. and post-v. of Cortland co., N. Y., 27 miles 
 S. of Syracuse, on the Syracuse Binghamton and New 
 York R. R. Area, about 49 square miles. It contains an 
 academy and graded school, 5 churches, a banking-house, 
 2 foundries, 4 tlry-goods stores, 3 llouriug-mills, 3 carriage 
 and 1 firkin factory, an axe-factory. 1 newspaper, and 4 
 hotels, with a variety of smaller stores. Poj). of v. 2008; 
 of tp. 3813. Jos. R. Dixo.N, Ed. '' Rkitblican." 
 
 Homer, post-v. of Burlington tp., Licking co., 0., 3 
 miles W. from Utica. Pop. 226. 
 
 Homer, tp. of Medina co., 0. Pop. 886. 
 
 Homer, tp. of Morgan co., 0. Pop. 1690. 
 
 Homer, tp. of Potter co.. Pa. Pop. 160. 
 
 Homer, post-v., county-seat of Angelina co., Tex., 90 
 miles from Marshall. Pop. 216. 
 
 Homer, the greatest of epic poets, and the earliest and 
 most eminent author in the literature of Greece. He lived 
 at so early a period that no certain record of its date has 
 come down to us, and lii;^ birthplace is equally a matter of 
 doubt. Herodotus places his birth about S50 years before 
 Christ, and Aristotle makes him contemporary with the 
 Ionian migration, about 140 years after the Trojan war. 
 That it was many years after that war may be inferred 
 from the frequent reference made by the poet to the 
 superior size and strength of the warriors engaged in the 
 siege of Troy, as a generation whieh had long before passed 
 awny. It is proverbially said that seven cities contended 
 
 for the honor of being Homer's birthplace, but. according 
 to Suidas, the list might be nearly doubled. Two difl'erent 
 traditions mentioned by tireek authors make him lo have 
 been born on the banks of the Meles, a little river, the 
 windings of which are seen from the highlands overlooking 
 Smyrna. It is inferred from the style and language of his 
 pctcms that, at all events, he was born in some part of Asia 
 Minor. One of the traditions concerning him is that he 
 was blind, which is not iniproimlile when we consider that 
 blindness is generally accompanied with great tenacity of 
 verbal memory — a quality essential to the minstrel who 
 like Homer sang his poems to the sound of the harp. The 
 tradition that in his later years he opened a school in the 
 island of Chios might have had no other foundation than 
 this, that after his time there existed in that island a 
 fraternity called Homcrir/B; or Sons of Homer, who pre- 
 served among them his poems, and were, like him, min- 
 strels by profession. 
 
 The fame of Homer rests upon his two great poems, the 
 Iliad and Odi/s»ey. Others have been ascribed to him — 
 several hymns to the gods, for example — but though some 
 of these were regarded by the ancients as genuine, they 
 are now rejected as the productions of a later age. Tho 
 common consent of the civilized world has placed his Iliad 
 and Odyeseif at an unapproachable height of poetic excel- 
 lence. All the qualities which make the great poet aro 
 there — sublimity, tire, pathos, grace, knowledge of tho 
 human heart, the power of vividly representing action to 
 the eye of the mind, and sweetness and majesty of num- 
 bers. The modern reader is sometimes oppressed or fatigued 
 with the passages describing minutely and at length the 
 bloody havoc which marked the path of Homer's warriors 
 on tho battlefield ; but in that age, when all greatness 
 consisted in military prowess, (he Greek audiences may bo 
 supposed to have listened to them with enlhusiasm. For 
 the long speeches, also, made by the heroes of the Iliad 
 when about to engage in combat, there must have been a 
 reason which satisfied the listening crowd ; for in that age, 
 as there was no room for affectation, we may be sure there 
 was no occasion for tediousness. The verses of Homer 
 were addressed to the genera! mind ; they were such as 
 deeply to move from the highest to the lowest class a rude 
 yet by nature a reflecting and highly endowed race of men. 
 
 Thus far in this article Homer has been sj)oken of as a 
 single author, to whom the composition of both these jiocms 
 has been truly ascribed. But about the time of the Chris- 
 tian era there were in iJreece certain critics called Separa- 
 tists, who maintained that the Iliad and the Odtf^aey were 
 the work of different poets. The difference, however, be- 
 tween the style and treatment of the subject in the two 
 poems is not greater than is observed between the Parudiae 
 Lost and Paradise lieijaiued of Millon, and Longinus ac- 
 counts for it with sufiicient probability by supposing the 
 Iliad to be the work of Homer's youth, and the Odi/iney 
 that of his declining years. But the personality of Homer 
 as the author of these j)oems has been made in modern times 
 the subject of a formidable attack. In 1795, F. A. Wolf, 
 a German scholar of great learning and ingenuity, brought 
 forward the theory that the Homeric poems were composed 
 in portions, while the art of writing was little practised, by 
 the ditTerent minstrels who sang them in the public as>:cm- 
 blies, and afterward, when the art of writing became more 
 general, collected and put together in the form and order 
 which they now present. It was impossible, he urged, for 
 one poet to compose and retain in memory works of such 
 great length; but this is simply begging the question, for 
 examples of recollection as remarkable as this are even now 
 to be met with. A more plausible argument was founded 
 on the discrepancies and inconsistencies in the narrative, 
 whieh a careful analysis showed to be not infrequent. If 
 these cannot be explained in any other way, the theory of 
 Wolf must be accepted. 
 
 But there is this explanation. About the year 560 before 
 Christ, Pisistratus. the tyrant of Athens, eauseil the difler- 
 ent hooks of the Homeric poems to be collected and ar- 
 ranged in their proper order. In arranging the dispersed 
 manuscripts chasms might occur, or ]»ortions might seem 
 to want a proper connection. Here was both the oppor- 
 tunity and the temptation to interpolate, and the interpo- 
 lation might be made without sufficient regard to the con- 
 text. All manuscripts, especially of works so often trans- 
 cribed as the Homeric poems in ancient times, are in dan- 
 ger of interpolation : ami if we admit this, it is quite un- 
 necessary to refer the different jiortions of the Iliad and 
 OdffHHf}/ to different authors. Besides, the universal con- 
 sent of antiquity in favor of the personality of Homer ought 
 to count for something; and still more forcible is the eon- 
 sideration that the theory of Wolf would oblige us to sup- 
 pose, what is hard to believe, that tJreeoc could in any ago 
 produce a fraternity of men all of whom could write like 
 Ilomcr.
 
 IIOMKK— II<)Mi:STEAD LEGISLATIOK IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 971 
 
 Notwithi^tanding the praiso which has Jiccn bt-stowed 
 upon the ItUtd for the perfection of its plot, there are those 
 who sec in it only part of the nurrativo of the siege of 
 Troy, without any proper conclusion or catn.strophe. In 
 his invocation the poet only promises to speak of the wrath 
 of Achilles, and the calamities which it brou;;ht upon the 
 (ireeks as a consequence of the quarrel between him and 
 Af^amemnon. But he gives us much more than this. Ho 
 relates the quarrel, the withdrawal of Achilles from the 
 army, and the bloody successes of the Trojans while ho in- 
 dul;;t'S his anger. liut in the nineteenth hook Achilles and 
 Agamemnon arc reconciled, and then begin the disasters 
 of the Trojans. Their soldiery is slaughtered, their cham- 
 pions arc slain — Glaucus. Sarpedon, and finally Hector — 
 and all Troy is in despair. The narrative breaks oiT at the 
 most interesting moment of the siege. To those who take 
 this view of the poem it seems not improbable that Pisis- 
 tratus, or those whom he employed to collect and edit the 
 books forming the lU'td, might have failed to recover the 
 concluding part of the original poem. 
 
 The editions of Homer are almost innumerable. His 
 commentaturs have found an ample storehouse from which 
 to obtain their notes in the work of Eustathius, bishop of 
 Thessalonica. The translations of the Homeric poems into 
 all the languages of civilized Europe have been numerous, 
 and are still multiplying. William Cullen Bhvant. 
 Homer (Winslow). See AppEsnix. 
 IIo'mcrvine,post-v., county-seat of Clinch eo., Ga., on 
 the Athintic and (Julf U. R., 122 miles S. W. of Savannah. 
 Homes (iU:.M{Y Art;isTis).l,Ii.D., b. at Boston, Mass., 
 Mar. I(t, l>12 : graduated at Amherst in \>^\\\ ; was ordained 
 in 1833 at Paris as a missionary of the K'jH»r. /if'/orwt'e tc 
 Turkey; served as a missionary of the American Board at 
 Constantinople IS.'lG-.'jO; was assistant dragoman in the 
 American legation to Ihf Porte 1850-5.1; became in 1854 
 librarian of the .Slate Library, Albany-, N. Y. 
 
 Home'stcad, post-v. of Iowa cc, la., on the Chicago 
 Rock Inland and Pacific R. R., 20 miles \V. of Iowa City. 
 Homestead, post-tp. of Benzie eo.. Mu-.h. IV.p. IG.'J. 
 Homestead Lef^islation in the Ignited States. 
 It is hardly necessary to remind the reader that in a large 
 proportion of the States the Knglish common law forms the 
 oasis of the body of the laws by which they arc respect- 
 ively governed. Among the dogmas of the common law 
 which were adopted hero with few or no limitations were 
 those by which the relations of husband and wife were 
 regulated in respect to the effect of marriage upon the 
 property of the wife. It was a practical disfranchisement 
 on her part, clothing the husband with the rit^ht of posses- 
 sion and enjoyment of her real estate, and of property in 
 her personality, and merging her individuality of action or 
 control over whatever she possessed at marriage in that of 
 her husband. 
 
 Another principle borrowed. In part at least, from the 
 laws of Englan*!. was from the first arlopted in the colonial 
 and provincial governments in this country ; anrl that was 
 the right of creditors to seize upon ami appropriate the 
 goods and estates of their debtors in satisfaction of their 
 debts. ,\or was there, in this respect, any distinction made 
 between what a debtor had inherited or acquired by his 
 own industry, and what had come to him from his wife by 
 virtue of his marital rights. As a natural consequence, it 
 not unfrequently occurred that wives found themselves 
 stripped of all their possessions by the folly or misconduct 
 of their husbands, and reduced to penury without any fault 
 of their own, and rendereil powerless to do anything to re- 
 trieve their fortunes by the incapacity which the law itself 
 had ini])Osed upon them. 
 
 That such a state of things should have been tolerated by 
 intelligent men and wcunen for one or two hundred years 
 serves to illustrate how strong an influence the laws of a 
 people exert over their ideas of legal and moral duty ; and 
 the change in the character of these laws which has been 
 made chi«'fly within the last fifty years is to be nscribcd to 
 (be progressive spirit of liberal legislation which has dis- 
 tinguished the century in which we live. In no way has it 
 been nifire marked than in its tendency to restore to women 
 a just and equal share in the management ()f property ; and 
 where, if married, they could not with propriety be en- 
 trusted with the control of a husliand's business, they 
 shouhl not be subjected to become passive sufferers, to- 
 gether with their children, with no chance of relief, if by 
 misfortune or otherwise his means <d' affordinj thom a com- 
 fortable support were cut off, by placing beyond his control, 
 nn<l that of his creditors, a nu)dieuin of property to servo 
 the immeiliate and pressing wants of his family. This has 
 been extensively carried out by provisions for securing, to 
 some extent, the enjoymiuit of a home and shelter for the 
 family under the name of a hniiinitrati, wliieh was to be held 
 exempt from the ordinary incidents of ownerships the right 
 
 of frco alienation by its owner, and a liability to bo seized 
 upon and sold for the payment of his debts. 
 
 It is proposed in the present article to examine the laws 
 of the different States upon this subject of homestead ex- 
 emption, which in some form have been incorporated into 
 the Iegislati<in of at least thirty-two of them, and in at 
 least fifteen of them the principio aimed at by these laws 
 has been more or less fully declared in their conetitutions 
 of government.* 
 
 In pursuing this inquiry it is oflen not a little difficult to 
 oscerlain the jirecisc limits within which the several States 
 have confined the application of the principle which per- 
 vades these laws, since no aid is to be foun<i in construing 
 their statutes upon the subject by a reference to the rules 
 of the common law. Nor can the legislation of one State 
 throw light upon that of another, since the pcdicy indicated 
 by the one diflcrs essentially irom that of another. Thus, 
 in some of these all that seems to be aimed at is to exempt 
 the smallest pittance which can serve to relieve iminediato 
 distress for a brief period, while in others the purpose is to 
 secure to every one who can command the means a com- 
 fortable competence, although it be at the expense of his 
 less fortunate creditors. In Arkansas, fur example. $5000 
 in real and $20011 in personal estate arc exempted from levy : 
 and in Georgia $2000 in real estate and $1000 in personal 
 chattels. And this, as calculated by a writer in the IK Am. 
 /^«?r /icff. 149, if shared by every family in the latter State 
 to the amount of $2000, would exceed the total value of the 
 lands within its limits by some $100,000,000. 
 
 So radical a change in what had been deemed the com- 
 mon-law rights of creditors of the States naturally led Ihem 
 to question the validity of these laws in the light of the 
 Constitution of the U. S., which forbids State legislatures 
 to enact laws which shall impair the obligation of contracts, 
 the ground being that so far as existing contracts at the 
 time of the passage of the law were concerned, it look from 
 the creditor what ho had previously had, his claim upon 
 the debtor's pr(»perty as a means of satisfying his debt. In 
 Wisconsin if was contended that it was an unconstitutional 
 act to declare a deed of a husband invalid unless executed 
 also by his wife, but this objection was not sustained by 
 the court. The homestead laws of South Carolina were 
 declared constitutional. So were those of North Carolina, 
 althougli in the latter they expressly extended the exemp- 
 tion to debts contracted before the adoption of her consti- 
 tution, which contains the provision. A like doctrine was 
 held in Alabama, Louisiana, (ieorgia, and Mississippi. But 
 in Nevada a statute declaring any mortgage or abandon- 
 ment of a homestead for securing a debt of the owner in- 
 valid was declared unconstitutional. In Virginia a law 
 exempting homesteads fr<»m debts contracted before the 
 passage of the act was held to be in violation of the Consti- 
 tution of the U. S. ; and a like decision in respect to tlio 
 laxvs of Georgia, so far as they extended the exemption to 
 cases of judgments recovered before the statute was parsed, 
 was recently adoptc<l by the Supremo Court of the U. S. 
 In several of the States questions of this kind arc obviated 
 by limiting the exemption to debts which are contracted 
 after the right of h(unestead in the debtor has attached to the 
 estate, while in others it does not extend to debts contracted 
 before the passage of the act. And it may be mentioned, 
 in passing, that in applying these statutes of faomestearj 
 exemption, diflercnt courts ailopt dilTerent rules as to the 
 degree of strictness with which they should be construed. 
 Being in derogation of conimon-law rights, some of these 
 courts restrict them to the precise language of the act ; 
 while others, regarding them as remedial in their character, 
 have had reference to what they regarded as the spirit and 
 intent of the law in ascertaining the meaning to bcuttnched 
 to such language. 
 
 One purpose seems, obviously, to bo aimed at by these 
 laxvs, however construed; and that is, to secure to every 
 man who has a family, and has provided a home for thcin, 
 the enjoyment of this home free from any right or power 
 in his creditors to deprive him thereof by seizing upon tho 
 same for the purpose of sati.vfying their debts. And tho 
 propriety of these local hiws is so far recognizetl in legis- 
 lating by t.'ongrcpsfor the whole Union that the U. S. bank- 
 rupt law exempts from its effect such property as, in tho 
 place of domicil of the bankrupt, is by law exemjited from 
 levy and sale under execution ; and this provision has hem 
 held to bo constitutional by the Supreme Court of tho U. S. 
 In carrying out this principle of securing for the family 
 what the head of it hos provided as a home, the statutes 
 of the various States differ essentially in tho limits which 
 
 •The State* in which there are no laws upon llie<*ubjcct are 
 ronncetieul, Deliinure. Orriron. Khode Island, ami West Vir- 
 cinla. Those In who<*c const i tut lon>* pnivlsj-uKi forsucli laws arc 
 rnndc nre Alabama. Arkansas, Calirornia. Florl'la, (Icortflii, In- 
 fliiinn, KansiiK. MIcldKan, Mlnnes(»(a. Nevada, North Curolina. 
 South Carolina, Toxas, Virginia, and Wisconsin.
 
 972 
 
 HOMESTEAD LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 they presoribo to the power of the owner to convey it away 
 or abandon it, or at his pleasure deprive his family of what 
 the law intendcil to (.'uard for them. In some of the States 
 it is left to the owner to decide to what extent this protec- 
 tion shall l«e enjoyed. In a large proportion of these, how- 
 ever, the wife is so farelothed with power over the home- 
 stead estate that it is not competent lor the husl)and to 
 convey, mortgage, or abandon the same for any purpose 
 or effect aifceting her, unless she voluntarily joins in the 
 act. 
 
 Another singular diversity in the laws of the different 
 States upon tliis subject is observable in the different kinds 
 of interests or estates which they create or assume to exist 
 in the house and land which are held by virtue of this 
 right of homestead. In some, this interest is regarded as 
 a Tife estate; in others it descends to children ; in some it 
 is of the nature of jin estate in the husband, and afterward 
 in his willow and children, with a reversion in himself 
 which may be reached by creditors; in others the entire 
 homestead is put out of the reach of creditors in any form 
 80 long as the exemption continues. But they seem to 
 agree in this, that the exemption of a homestead, as such, 
 continues no longer than there is a wife or widow, and 
 children under the age of twenty-one years, to enjoy it, or 
 if no wile or widow, there arc children under ago residing 
 upon the premises. liut what becomes of the estate when 
 there is neither wife, widow, nor minor children alive to 
 share it, seems to he left to be settled by its analogy to the 
 common law applicable to reversionary interests in land. 
 
 If, now, we pass from these general considerations of 
 homestead laws as a system to their respective provisions 
 in more spei'ific detail,' it may be remarked that with very 
 few exeeptiiins the exemption does not extend to taxes or 
 indebtedness for the purchase-money of the estate; and in 
 a majority of cases, it is believed, this is also true of me- 
 chanics' liens upon the same. And it may be further 
 stated that in many, if not most, of the States the exemp- 
 tion continues no longer than the homestead is occupied as 
 a residence by the family of the owner, and when aban- 
 doned by thein it at once becomes subject to be levied upon 
 by his creditors. 
 
 In treating of the subject more at length, it will be neces- 
 sary to consider — (1) what amounts of real estate, in value 
 or otherwise, are exempted as homesteads by the statutes 
 of the several States. (2) How far a homestead right, 
 when ascertained, avails in favor of a debtor or his wife 
 and children, and how far the agency of such wife is re- 
 quisite in releasing, abandoning, or aliening the same. In 
 Alabama the exemption is of 80 acres of land, with a 
 dwelling-house, if without a city, town, or village ; if within 
 it, a lot and dwelling-house, not exceeding $2000. In Ar- 
 kansas, Florida, Kansas, Louisiana, Nebraska, and Mis- 
 souri, IGO acres of land, with buildings, are exempt if sit- 
 uate outside of a city, town, or village, except that in 
 Louisiana, when taken with certain enumerated articles of 
 personal properly, the total shall not exceed $2000 in value, 
 and in Missouri the land must not exceed $1500 in value. 
 But if the homestead be taken in a city, town, or village, 
 the limit in .Arkansas is that the house and lot must not 
 exceed $oOOO; in Florida it is half an acre ; in Kansas it 
 is one acre ; in Missouri, if it he in a city of 40,(100 in- 
 habitants, it is limited to 18 square rods, not exceeding 
 $:!000 in value, and in one of a less number of inhiibitants 
 it may extend to :tO square rods, not exceeding $1500 in 
 value ; and in Nebraska a homestead in a city, town, etc. 
 is limited to two lots, or a single lot not exceeding 20 acres. 
 The exemption in California extends to a lot of land and 
 dwelling-house, not exceeding $5000 in value; the law is 
 the same in Nevada. The amount in value of homestead 
 exemption io (ieorgia is $2000 ; in Virginia it is to the same 
 amount. :ind may be taken by a debtor in either real or 
 personal estate. " In Illinois, Kentucky. New .Jersey, New 
 York, North (Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee the ex- 
 emption to each debtor is of lands and buildings not ex- 
 ceeding $1000 in value. In Indiana it may be in value 
 $:iOO, real or personal as the debtor may elect. In Mary- 
 land it is but $100, with the same right of election in the 
 debtor. In Iowa the debtor may claim one or more lots, 
 not exceeding half an acre in a city or town, with a house 
 thereon, or 10 acres of land outside of a town or city, not 
 exceeding in value $500, together with a shop or building 
 owned by him and used by him in his business, not exceed- 
 ing in value $:iOO. The exemption in Maine is of land and 
 a dwelling thereon, not exceeding in value $500; and the 
 same is the law of New ilauipshire, Ohio, and Vermont, 
 while in Pennsylvania it is limited to $:iO0 in value, and in 
 Massachusetts to $800. In Michigan 40 acres of agricul- 
 tural land and a dwelling-house are exempted, or, what is 
 equal, to a lot in a eity or town with a dwelling-house, not 
 exceeding in value $1500, It may not, however, include 
 two tenements, although together they do not exceed that 
 
 sum in v.alue. In Minnesota the exemption is of a city lot 
 and dwelling-house, or 80 acres of land with a dwelling- 
 house outside of a city, irrespective of the value of the 
 same. In Mississippi it covers 2+0 acres of land and a 
 dwelling-house if outside of a city or town, irrespective of 
 their value, or if in » city a pnqier homestead, together 
 with personal property enough to uutke a total of $-4000 in 
 value. In Texas 200 acres of agricultural land are exempt 
 without regard to value, or instead of it a city homestead 
 of the value of $2000: while in Wisconsin the exemption 
 is of 40 acres of agricultural land, or a quarter of an acre 
 within a city or village, with the houses thereon, without 
 respect to the value of the same. 
 
 In treating of the topics embraced in the second part of 
 this inquirv, it may be proper to remark that there are va- 
 rious modes of setting apart a debtor's ho;nostead from bis 
 other estate, the laws of some of the States requiring it to 
 be done by a formal declaration of the debtor and a record- 
 ing of the same; those of other States providing for set- 
 ting it out bv the officer holding an execution against the 
 doirtor which he is about to levy upon his estate, upon his 
 claiming the same. So provision is made in most of the 
 States tbr determining by appraisement any questions as 
 to the value of the part claimed as homestead if creditors 
 arc dissatisfied upon the point, and for moreover disposing 
 of the entire homestead if it is so connected with other 
 parts of the debtor's estate that it cannot be severed there- 
 from, and paying to the debtor the value of what had been 
 exempted in money, to he invested in a new homestead. 
 But the forms bvwhich these purposes are to be accom- 
 plished are so varied that it would occupy too much space 
 to attempt to give them in detail. In most cases, it may 
 be added, where the debtor has not set apart a homestead 
 durin>' his life, it is done bv the ordinary or judge of pro- 
 bate in favor of his widow and childreu upon her applica- 
 tion ; and in several of the St.ates, if the debtor neglects or 
 declines to claim or have set apart a homestead, his wife 
 may interpose and cause it to be done in his lifetime. In 
 sotne of the Stales, as will appear, the widow takes both 
 dower and homestead out of her husband's estate ; in others 
 she can claim but one. In some of the States ownership 
 on the part of the debtor of the homestead claimed is re- 
 quired ; in others a lease or a right of pos.-^cssion by con- 
 tract is sufficient. In some the exemption applies to estates 
 held in severalty alone ; in others it includes estates held 
 in common. The exemption in most of the States is from 
 "forced sale," which in some of them means any sale 
 under and by virtue of a legal process, including the fore- 
 closure of a "mortgage by a sale of the premises. 
 
 Taking up the several States in their order, the exemp- 
 tion in Alabama is to one who owns the estate and is the 
 head of a family, and at his death it is continued to his 
 children during'their minority, and if he have no ehildrcn 
 it comes to his widow. Nor can a husband mortgage or 
 convey the homestead unless the wife join in such convey- 
 ance. But it is not required that it should be occupied by 
 the one in whose favor the exemption is claimed in order 
 to hold it. ,11 
 
 In Arkansas it is to every householder, whether male or 
 female, who is the head of a family, and extends to lands 
 held in common. After the debtor's death the exemption 
 continues in favor of the widow and children of the owner 
 so long as they continue to occupy the homestead. 
 
 In California the exemption is in favor of " heads of fam- 
 ilies," but not to unmarried persons, unless they have the 
 charge of minor children of brothers and the like. And 
 if the debtor's wife dies without children, he may no longer 
 ohiim it. If he dies leaving a wi.low, she becomes entitled 
 to it for the benefit of herself and children ; and this is set 
 out to her bv the judge of probate if it had not been done 
 during the life of the husband. This selection may be 
 made bv the owner or his wife, by a de.laratum in writing 
 which is to be recorded; and when so selected the husband 
 and wife become joint tenants of it. A homestead may 
 be claimed of lands held by pos.session only or held m 
 common. The husband has charge and exercises protection 
 of the homestead, but he cannot convey it without the con- 
 sent of the wife if he have one. Upon the death of the 
 husband or wife the estate vests absolutely in the survivor, 
 exempt from anv debt contracted before that event. If the 
 debtor dies leaving a widow and children, one-half ot the 
 estate goes to her. and one-halt to the children. So essen- 
 tial is the joining of the wile with her luislmiid in a deed 
 in giving it validity, that it would not otherwise operate 
 even as an estoppel against him. 
 
 Ill Florida the exemption is in favor of the head ot a 
 family, and when he or she dies it descends to the issue of 
 the oivner. if anv. and if there be no child, but the owner 
 leaves a widow, it goes to her, unless he .lisposes of it by 
 will, which ho may do. If there is neither widow nor 
 children, the estate may be sold for the payment of debts.
 
 HOMESTEAD LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 973 
 
 The homesteail law of Georgia is in some respects pecu- 
 liar. The exemption is in favor of heads of families and 
 of trustees and {guardians of minor children, excluding 
 bachelors living alone. If the estate of the debtor exceeds 
 in value the amount of the exemption, he must, in order to 
 secure it, set it »>ut, or if he fails to do so his wife or her 
 next friend may have it done for him. Nor can a husband 
 defeat his wife's homestead right by conveying it or re- 
 moving from it unless he acquire a new one. Such exemp- 
 tion does not extend t» judgnienis recovered in actions of 
 tort. If a wirlow have no children, she cannot claim a 
 homestca<i. The homestead does not affect her claim to 
 dower, whirh must be iirst set out, and then the homestead, 
 if any, after deilucting the dower; and this the minor chil- 
 dren take, subject to the claim of dower, but free from the 
 claims of Ihc father's creditors, and hold it in connection 
 with the widow till she is married or dies. If, however, 
 the estate of the father is solvent, the children take the 
 estate independent of any homestead right, subject only to 
 tho dower of Ihc widow. A homestead can only be con- 
 veyed by the joint deed of the husband and wife, done 
 with the approbation of the onlinary. But if tho debtor 
 is declared a bankrupt before his homestead is set out, it 
 so far divests him of his estate that be cannot afterwards 
 avail himself of the exemption. 
 
 The provision in Illinois is made for householders with 
 families, and does not extend, as in some of the .States, to 
 houses standing upon another's land. Tho benefit of it 
 enures to the widow of a debtor during her life, and to her 
 children until they are of the ageof twenty-one years if they 
 occupy the premises. The husband, however," is tho only 
 one who can assert this right, but in so doing ho acts, in 
 some sense, as a trustee for his wife and children. No con- 
 veyance or mortgage of it can bo valid unless it be by deed 
 signed by the wife, in which the right of homestead is ex- 
 pressly released, and the same is acknowledged by her. If 
 the husband abamlon tho premises, his deed will have tho 
 effect to create a lien upon the estate for whatever may be 
 its value beyond that of the homestead right. And if both 
 husband and wife abandon the estate, their deed will effec- 
 tually convey it, although not executed so as to expressly 
 release it. If, however, he ceases to occupy the estate, but 
 leaves it in possession of his wife and children, it has not 
 this effect, and otherwise his homestead is thereby lost, as 
 it is if ho ceases to have a family. And a widow cannot 
 defeat the rights of her minor children after the husband's 
 death by abandoning possession of the homestead. Tho 
 statute of exemption extends to judgments in actions r.r 
 deliciit, as well as ex cniiiriiclii. It matters not whether tho 
 debtor owns his land in fee, for life, or for years, or simply 
 holds it under a contract for a dceil. But tho exemption 
 does not attach until the same is in his actual occujiation. 
 This homestead right is not an estate; it is distinct from 
 dower, and does not merge in it, and the widow may have 
 both. If a wife is divorced for his fault, she may claim a 
 homestead right in the premises if she continues to occupy 
 them. Treating an exemption of a homestead docs not 
 affect any debts contracted before that lakes effect. If a 
 husband convey the estate, but the wife do not join in 
 the deed, (ho grantee cannot disturb the occupant in the i 
 enjoyment of ihc estate so long as tho homestead right \ 
 continues; but such purchaser, or a creditor who shall levy [ 
 upon the same, may claim tho premi.ses when the houic- 
 stcad right ceases. And in such case, if the widr^w of Iho 
 debtor abandon the premises after his dcalh. the husliand's 
 deed lakes full effect and cuts off the rights of the children, 
 but her surrender would not give present effect to a salo 
 under a levy of an execution. 
 
 In Indiana the bumeslead exemption is in favor of " a 
 resident househobler," which may include a wife if she 
 owns the land and is her.«elf a debtor. If the debtor ne- 
 glects to make claim of this right when his land is levied 
 on, ho thereby waives it. Tho owner cannot convey or 
 mortgage the homestead without his wife joining in the 
 dec I and acknowledging it; but though she do not join in 
 a mortgage, if it be nuido by him it would not be com- 
 petent for him to set up a homestead right to avoid it. At 
 her husband's death Iho widow becomes entitled to tho en- 
 joyment of Iho homeslead estate independent of any pro- 
 visi<pn made for her by her husban.l by way of devise. 
 
 The subject of homestead has led to considerable legisla- 
 tion in Iowa, and to somewhat numerous decisions of her 
 courts. It exists there in favor of "a familv," which in- 
 cludes a widow or widower, though without children. It is 
 inciilent to oceupaticm, and Ihc right does not allaeh until 
 an occupation begins, nor even then so as to affect a ilebt 
 conlracled prior to that lime if that were the only property 
 the debtor then had. It is broad enough to cover a shop 
 or other building connected with the homeslead in whieli 
 Iho deblor carries on his business. The ileblor may select 
 the homesteail, and have tho same recorded, and if" he fail 
 
 to do this, it may be done by his wife. A debtor may make 
 his homestead liable for a debt if when ho conlracis it he 
 agrees that it shall not bo exempt ns to such debt. And a 
 judgment may attach as a lien upon tho homeslead when 
 it shall cease to be hcM as such, but a conveyance in the 
 mean time would defeat il. liut a mortgage or conveyance 
 made by the husband alone would bo void. On the death 
 of either husband or wife the property goes to Ihc survivor, 
 and descends to tho issue of whichovcr of these was Ihc 
 owner, unless he or she may have devised the same. Tho 
 right of a widow, as such, vests in her at marriage if her 
 husband tiien owns the estate, and by virtue of it she may 
 occupy tho estate during her life, whether she marries 
 again or not, and at her death the estate goes to the heirs 
 of tho owner. If the estate belongs to tho wife, and ho 
 survives her, ho takes it as her successor, although they 
 have no children, and the owner may devise the estate sub- 
 ject to the homeslead right. The husband has such a con- 
 trol over the subject of the homestead right that he mav, 
 at his election, change his residence, and if he abandon 
 the estate or gains a new homestead, the original home- 
 stead right is lost. Such would be the effect if the widow 
 abandons the estate; and if she sells Iho homestead, Iho 
 husband's heirs may come in and divide it among them- 
 selves; she cannot claim both homestead and dower, and 
 if she claims dower, she waives the homestead. 
 
 In Kansas the exemption is in favor of the familv of 
 the owner as a residence, ami it will be held exempt from 
 tho time he acquires his title if he begins to occupy it 
 within a reasonable time thereafter. If it is levied on, 
 the debtor or his wife may make claim for the homestead 
 of the officer. A juiigmcnt forms no lien upon the debt- 
 or's homestead, either in respect to his present or ]>ros- 
 peetivo interest therein. The husband and wife have to 
 join to convey the estate, and their joint deed would take 
 effect as against any deed or mortgage mado either by tho 
 husband or wife alone. 
 
 In Kentucky the law exempts a homestead in favor of 
 a hniia j'ulc housekeeper, whetlicr it be of one sex or tho 
 other. It is set out by the officer having an execution 
 against tho debtor if he claims the same. After his or her 
 death it goes to the survivor with bis or her children, to oc- 
 cupy until Iho youngest child is of age. Nor will any alian- 
 donment of it by a parent affect the rights of the children. 
 Accepting n, homestead by a widow does not affect her riijht 
 to dower, except that tho value of the homestead is taken 
 into account in setting off the dower. The estate may bo 
 sold subject to the homestead right, but no mortgage, 
 waiver, or release of tho homestead, as such, lias any va- 
 lidity, unless it be executed by the husband and wife and 
 rccordetl. 
 
 The l:iw of homestead in Louisiana is very brief. It se- 
 cures it to such as own hniia firlc residences, and have fam- 
 ilies or jiersons dependent upon lliem. And if a wife die, 
 leaving an estate ami a busiiand and children, he cannot 
 claim homestead out of the estate as against her creditors. 
 In Maine tho exemption is in favor of a householder in 
 actual possession, who shall file ill tho registry of deeds a 
 (lescription of what he claims as a homestead. Jiut it does 
 not extend to debts contracted before such claim and de- 
 scription is filed in the register's office. ,\fter the owner's 
 death his widow may occupy the premises during her widow- 
 hood, and her children during their minority ; and during 
 this time it is exempt from the debts of the deceased; but 
 no longer. 
 
 In iMassachusetts householders having families and actu- 
 ally occupying promises may claim homesteads out of tho 
 same, but it only takes effect when Ihoy shall have begun 
 to occupy the same, and does not afl'ect any liens or mort- 
 gages thereon llien existing. To iiiako an effectual claim 
 of such exemption there must be a declaration to that effect 
 in the deed conveying the premises, or it must be made by 
 the owner, and a recor*! of the same tluly entered. Tho 
 reversionary right of the debtor after the expiratiiui of tho 
 homestcinl right is subject to his ilebis, but a levy uptui the 
 homestead interest is void, even if done by the cons*nit of 
 the wife. Tho exemption is ns much in his favor as hers. 
 And if he c<uivey tho land, even with covenants of war- 
 ranty, it would not estop him from claiming a homestead 
 right out of it ihen existing in favor of his wife and ehil- 
 tlren. A mortgage or conveynnee by a husband, however, 
 will carry the reversion after the right of homestead has 
 been satisfied, although his wife docs not join in the ileed ; 
 and in order to ci>nvey Iho homestead right there must be 
 words in Iho deed expressly cunyiiig that right by name, 
 and the husband and wife must join in the same. The 
 right iloes not attach to lands held in common, nor does n 
 declaration of homestead become of any avail lill tho owner 
 has a house thereon which ho oeeiipies. .At the owner's 
 death his witiow, if he have one. bus a right to eoiitiiiite to 
 oei'tqiy the homestead, nor can he do auylhing by his will
 
 974 
 
 HOMESTEAD LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 which can curtail this right. The homestead, like her 
 dower, is set out to her in the same manner, and she is 
 entitlcfi to both. This right of hers continues durinj:; her 
 widowhood, and to any minor child who occupies the same 
 until twenty-one years of age: and it is the subject of sale 
 liy her and tlie guardians of the minor cliildren. Tliis 
 home:^tcad right is regarded as an estate of freehold, first 
 in the husband, afterwards in the widow and children until 
 the youngest is of ago. And the interest of the minor 
 children after her death may be sold by their guardian by 
 license of court : but neither the widow nor children can 
 convey their respective interests, exce])t with the consent 
 of the other. If a husband dies leaving only adult heirs, 
 she may claim the homestead as well as her dower, althougii 
 there arc no debt? to be satisfied. No abandonment of a 
 homestead after the right has once attached can effect a 
 claim to the same until a new one shall have been gained. 
 
 In Michigan, while tiic exemption is in favor of the 
 owner and occupant of an estate, no formal declaration of 
 homestead is required until some creditor is about to levy 
 upon bis land, and then it may be done orally. It may bo 
 claimed in a merely equitable as well as a legal estate. And 
 if it be the estate of the wife, and is occupied by both, it 
 may have the properties of a homestead. If the owner be 
 married, he cannot waive or defeat the homestead right, and 
 a mortgage or conveyance of the premises in order to bo 
 good must be signed by the wife; a deed by the husband 
 alone would not be suflieirnt, though made by her consent 
 orally expressed. After his death his widow is entitled to 
 the rents and profits of the estate, which she takes in con- 
 nection with his minor children, but to that end they must 
 be in occupation of the premises. 
 
 In Minnesota the exemption is in favor of a debtor, his 
 widow, and minor children, but continues only so long as 
 the premises are owned and occupied as such. It does not 
 require any formal declaration of claim of homestead be- 
 yond the notice which the debtor may give to the officer 
 when levying upon the same. The owner cannot convey 
 it if he ha^e a wife unless she joins with him in the con- 
 veyance, unless it be in mortgage to secure the purchase- 
 money or a lien for work on the premises. It may be lost 
 liv abandoning the premises, and the husband may forfeit 
 it by conveying the premises to his wife to defraud his 
 creditors. A judgment against the debtor becomes a Hen 
 on the land, and may be enforced by levy as soon as it 
 ceases to be occupied as a homestead, though the owner 
 may convey it or temporarily abandon it without subject- 
 ing it to a creditor's process. After the owner's death his 
 widow is entitled to it so long as she remains unmarried 
 and continues to occupy it ; and the children are also en- 
 titled to the premises until twenty-one years of age, if they 
 occupy them. 
 
 The laws of Mississippi secure homesteads to heads of 
 families without any formal act on (he part of the debtor, 
 who to avail himself of it must be in occupation of the 
 premises. The husband selects the homestead, and may 
 change it at his pleasure. But merely leaving it, while his 
 wife and children continue to occupy it, is not held to be 
 an abandonment. He may sell one homestead for the pur- 
 pose <»f reinvesting the proceeds in a new one, and have a 
 year in which to do it ; so he may sell it or any part of it 
 free from any judgment lien. After the debtor's death his 
 widow and children take it hy descent, ancl after her death 
 the children hold it by descent until they arc twenty-one 
 years of age. liut this docs not interfere with her right 
 of dower in the jtrcmises. During his life the wife has no 
 vested right in the jtremises; so with the children. The 
 estate is impressed with the character of homestead only 
 while and po long as the debtor is in occupation of it, ex- 
 cept that if the widow is not in a condition to carry on the 
 estate, she may let it to a tenant to occupy in her stead. 
 
 Every householder and head of a family in Missouri may 
 claim a homestead, and this right extends to household 
 estates. If a creditor levies upon his debtor's estate, the 
 latter may claim his homestead, and hold it exempt from 
 all debts and liabilities. At the debtor's death the estate 
 goes to his widow, and to his children until they are of age, 
 and if not set out in his lifetime, the same is set out to her 
 by the judge of probate. She may then have her dower 
 set out in the same estate, unless the homestead covers one- 
 third of its value; if it does, she cannot claim that and dower 
 also. 
 
 There is little detail in the law of homestead in Ne- 
 braska. It is limited to owners, occupants, and residents 
 as heads of families, and descends to heirs at law or goes 
 to devisees. It is exetnpt from sale so long as it is owned 
 by the debtor. If a creditor levies upon the land, the debtor 
 gives notice to the officer of what he claims as his home- 
 stead. The debtor by joining with his wife may mortgage 
 the homestead. The exemption does not extend to the 
 liabilities of an attornev for mou'-vs collected bv him. 
 
 The common provision in favor of heads of families who 
 occupy the premises in which a homestead is claimed is 
 adopted in New Hampshire, and the part so claimed may 
 be selected when an officer levies an cxccuticui u(>on the 
 debtor's estate. It still would be liable for debts contracted 
 before the homestead is set out. It can only be waived or 
 released hy a deed of husband and wife, if she be alive, or 
 if dead and there are minor children, by assent of the 
 judge of probate. If a levy is made upon the estate, the 
 husband or his wife or her next friend may claim the home- 
 stead, and the officer is tliereupon required to st-t it off by 
 metes and bounds. If no sueh claim is made, the creditor 
 who causes the levy to be inacle, takes tlir estate in common 
 with the homestead right, and the same may then be set 
 out by process of partition. If such partition cannot bo 
 made, and the homestead is sold with the rest of the estate, 
 the amount of the exemption is to be paid into a savings 
 bank, to be drawn out u])on the joint order of the husband 
 and wife, if she is living; otherwi;-e. of the husband and 
 the guardian of the children. A husViand can convey the 
 estate subject to the homestead right in the wife and chil- 
 dren, and bis covenants would est^p him. But the husband 
 and wife might, nevertheless, recover the land thus con- 
 veyed during her lifetime, and alter his death she and her 
 children might recover it. But tbe wife and children could 
 not recover the land during the life of the husband. If the 
 husband convoys his estate without his wife's joining in 
 the deed before a homestead has been set out, she may have 
 the homestead set out in the same even during his lifetime. 
 The estate of homestead is a conditional life estate. When 
 it is set out it is wholly exempt from levy, and this extends 
 to the reversionary interest there is after the homestead 
 right is determined. If the wife survive, and the husband 
 dies seised of the estate, the judge of probate sets out her 
 homestead in the same, in the same manner as dower is 
 set out. Otherwise, she may have partition against the 
 grantee of the estate, and have her homestead set out to 
 her. Her right, however, is inchoate until the homestead 
 has been set out to her in one of the forms above men- 
 tioned. This right is that of possession of the estate dur- 
 ing life, and a right in the children during their minority. 
 Ncir can the husband change or affect this by any dispo- 
 sition of it in his last will and testament, so long as the 
 widow or minor children continue to occupy the premises. 
 Leasing homestead land is not an abandonment of tbe right, 
 but upon acquiring a new homestead the prior one is lost. 
 
 In Nevada a homestead is selected by a husband and wife, 
 or either of them, or any one who is the bead of a family, 
 and is d(»ne by a declaration in writing, which is recorded. 
 Upon the death of cither husband or wife the homestead is 
 set apart for the survivor and their children ; and if the 
 tenant of the homestead liiive a wife, they together hold the 
 same as joint tenants. He cannot convey, mortgage, or 
 lease the premises without the concurrence of his wife, if 
 he have one, unless she is insane. In that case it may be 
 done by order of court, and the proceeds invested for her 
 benefit. If, because the homestead is not separable from 
 the rest of the debtor's estate, it is levied upon and sold, 
 the money is deposited with the court, and can only be 
 drawn by the order of the husband and wife. Nor can 
 there be an abandonment of a homestead otherwise than by 
 a written declaration signed, acknowledged, and recorded 
 by both husband ami wife, if there be one. 
 
 The exemption in New .Jersey is in favor of a householder 
 of what is occupied by him as a residence. It may be 
 claimed either by the deed conveying the estate, or by a 
 written declaration of the owner of such estate, duly re- 
 corded. When thus ascertained, it cannot be conveyed or 
 leased for a longer term than one year, unless the wife, if 
 there be one, joins in such deed or lease, and tlie i^ame is 
 conveyed for its full value, and the proceeds thereof are 
 invested in a new homestead. 
 
 New York, by its law, exempts a homestead in favor of 
 a householder for the purposes of a residence, and the 
 dedication of premises to that purpose must be contained 
 in the deed conveying the same to the claimant, or by a 
 written notice and deelaration on his part that it is to be 
 held as such ; and this must bo recorded. The exemption 
 docs not extend to claims for torts. It is for the benefit of 
 the debtor's widow ami children till the youngest is of age, 
 if they continue to occupy the same. But the debtor may 
 release the homestead by any of the ordinary modes of 
 conveyance: but though he is the owner of the estate to 
 most purposes, it remains exempt from his debts until his 
 death, and then for the benefit of his widow and family of 
 minor children if they shall continue to occupy the same. 
 A judgment is, nevertheless, so far a lien upon the debtor's 
 estate that as soon as the homestead interest is determined 
 it may be levied upon the land. A temporary cessation to 
 occupy the premises docs not defeat the right of homestead 
 therein.
 
 HOMESTEAD LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ho 
 
 A homestead exemption in North Carolina is in favor of 
 an owner ami occupant of an estate and his widow, if he 
 leaves one, :in<l continues during coverture, and afterwards 
 during her wi(lowh<»od and the minority of her children, 
 if she have any. If she have no children, the widow takes 
 it in her own rif^ht. But actual residence nnd occupancy 
 arc indispensahlo conditions to the cluim of a homestead 
 ezenipFion. It is a determinable fee, hut there is an in- 
 terest in the owner answering to a reversion, though it is 
 not the subject of levy for his debts. If when the husband 
 dies he leaves no debt?, no homestead can be set out, be- 
 cau?c the object of such exemption is to protect it from 
 creditors. Homestead does not interfere with the widow's 
 right of dower. The exemption docs not extend to claims 
 for torts done. Xo conveyance of a homestead can be of 
 any validity if the owner has a wife unless she join with 
 her hu;<band in the deed and its acknowledgment. If the 
 homestead is not set out to the husband during his life, the 
 widow, or his children under twenty-one year?, may have it 
 set out to her or them. .\ud among the kind« of interests 
 in which it may be claimed are included equities of re- 
 demption of mortgaged estates. 
 
 The right of homestead in Ohio extends to leasehold 
 estates ancl buildings standing upon another's land. If a 
 creditor levies upon the laud of his debtor, he may apply 
 to the officer holding the execution and have his homestead 
 set off by appraisers. If this is not done during the life of 
 the debtor, his widow may have it done in her favor after 
 bis fleecase. It thus enures to her benefit, or, if she bo 
 deail. to her minor children residing on the premises. A 
 temporary leaeing or removing from the estate does not 
 work a forfeiture of the right ; nor can a mortgage of a 
 bomostead be valid or effectual unless the wife join in it, 
 80 as to affect her right or that of the family. 
 
 Before a homestead exemption can attach to any pre- 
 mises in Pennsylvania the owner must have elected to hold 
 the some as his homestead. And if when a levy is made 
 upon a debtor's estate bo neglects to make claim for such 
 exemption, it is tieemed an entire waiver of it on his part. 
 He may also render the same liable to levy if, when he con- 
 tracts a debt, he expressly agrees as to that debt to waive 
 the right of homestcrnl. After the death of the deI>tor his 
 widow takes it for herself and cbilclrcn : and if she have 
 none, she takes it absulutely to herself, and can convey it 
 as her o\vn by her own deed. But if she do not claim her 
 homestead within a reasonable time after her husband's 
 death, she will be held to have waived it. The bankrupt 
 law doe? not reach a debtor's homestead estate. 
 
 The exemption in South Carolina is in favor of the head 
 of a family; and if a creditor is about to levy upon the 
 estate of such a person who claims his homestead of the 
 officer, the latter sets it off to him. But if he neglects then 
 to claim his homestead, he is taken to have waived it. If 
 it is not done in the life of the debtor, it will bo set off to 
 his widow by commissioners. When thus setoff it reverts 
 to the widow and the debtor's minor children until her death 
 or marriage and until the youngest child is of age. If the 
 husband and wife both die leaving ehihlren, whether minors 
 or not, they will hold the premises exempt from debts, just 
 as their parents held. But there still is a reversion after 
 the homestead estate is determined, which is the subject 
 of sale or devise by the owner. But sale of an intestate's 
 estate by order of the judge of probate does not cut off the 
 widow's right of homestead. No waiver of the right of 
 homestead by the head of a family will have the effect of 
 defeating the same. 
 
 As in most of the States already mentioned, the exemp- 
 tion in Tennessee is in favor of the head of a family. The 
 mode of claiming it is by a writing signed, scalc<l, and re- 
 cordf(I, and the same is set out by appraisers. It cannot 
 then be conveyed or mortgaged except by a joint deed of 
 husband and wife, if he have one. But if he cease to occupy 
 it, it becomes liable to he levied on by his creditors. At 
 bis death it goes to bis widow during life or till she in mar- 
 ried, when it goes to bis minor children. She cannot claim 
 flower a? well as homestead if the value of the latter is as 
 much as $1000. If her homestead is not of that value, she 
 may have enough out of the estate in the form of dower to 
 make it equal to that sum. 
 
 The exemption in Texas is to "a family," and by the 
 '•forced sale ' to which this applies, is meant any process 
 of court or manner prescribed by law. If the owner have 
 a wife, he cannot convey the estate except by her consent 
 expressed by joining in and aeknowlerlging a deed of the 
 premises. But if he sell the land, and then he ami his wife 
 abandon the estate, (bo pale becomes valid. So if he sell 
 his homestead and then acquire a new one, the salo becomes 
 valid ; and if he gain a new one, his former one becomes 
 liable for his debts. If ho contracts to sell hi.i homestead, 
 the cotirt will not enforce the conveyance so long as his 
 wife continues to ocnpy the |>.-(-niise^ ; but if she a!)andon 
 
 them the contract may be enforced. And if the debtor 
 abandons the homestead, it becomes liable for his debts. 
 By abandonment is meant the leaving the estate with an 
 intent not to return to claim the exemption. If the debtor 
 have no wife, though he may have children, the homestead 
 may be conveyed by him or be levied upon for his debts. 
 And whether children can lake a homestead after their 
 father's death depends upon bis leaving a widow to take it 
 in his stead. Even then, if she hail left her husband in his 
 lifetime without good cause, and had remained separate till 
 his death, her right would be lost. If, on the contrary, the 
 husband remove from the homestead, and thus abandons her 
 and his children, she would be remitted to her right of 
 homestead, and may resume possession thereof. And a 
 married woman i? competent to appear and litigate her 
 rights in court. Homestead may be claimed in lands held 
 in common. A sale of the homestead by the husband alone, 
 if the wife do not join with him in making the conveyance, 
 is a nullity; but if he convey it fraudulently to keep it 
 from his creditor.*:, and he then abandons possession, it be- 
 comes liable to levy by his creditors. If the owner die 
 leaving a widow and children, the children cannot have 
 partition thereof so lung as she lives; and if the court 
 grant her a divorce with the custody of the children, she 
 may claim the homestead to her own use. 
 
 In Vermont the exemption is in favor of a housekeeper 
 who is the actual occupant of the same himself. It is sub- 
 ject to any of the owner's debts which he owed at the time 
 of acquiring the homestead. If he acquire a new home- 
 stead, it defeats the prior one. The husband cannot im- 
 pair his wife's right to the homestead by conveying it unless 
 she joins in the conveyance. But the purchaser under such 
 a deed may hold the premises during the coverture. The 
 right of the wife is to enjoy the premises after the hus- 
 band's death, but this right docs not vest any title in her ; 
 it is only a kind of lien in her favor upon her liusbaud's 
 estate. She may enforce this after bis death if he shall 
 have conveyed it in his lifetime without her joining in the 
 deed. It is to be set out to him by the judge of jirobate, 
 and passes at once to the widow and cliiblren in the way 
 of descent. It is, however, to be held by them as one en- 
 tire thing, so that those who arc not in possession can claim 
 no rents out of the property. It is independent of her right 
 of dower, and belongs to her in fee, and at her death goes 
 to her heirs. It may, moreover, bo set out to lirr in the 
 same lands wliieh have already been assigned to her as her 
 dower ; and where both are claimed, the value of the home- 
 stead is to be deducted from that of the dower; and if tho 
 homestead is equal to one-third of tlie estate, she can claim 
 no dower. If she gives a deed of her homestead estate, she 
 does not thereby affect her right of dower. A homestead 
 may be set out in an equitable as well as a legal estate, and 
 in incumbered as well as unincumbered premises. If tho 
 husband conveys the homestead in the lifetime of his wife, 
 it would not have the effect tu disturb the occujiancy of the 
 household and family so long as they continue to retain 
 such actual occupancy. 
 
 It is a housekeeper and head of a family who may claim 
 a homestead in Virginia, and the exemption may cover 
 real or personal estate, at the election of tho debtor. It is 
 claimed either by inserting a clause to that effect in tbo 
 deerl conveying the estate to the debtor, or by a declaration 
 of tho owner describing what he claims, which is done by a 
 dee<l duly recorded. It may be claimed in a legal or nn 
 equitable estate, and it may be claimed and selected at the 
 time of a levy made upon it. The debtor when contract- 
 ing a debt may waive the exemption as to that specific 
 debt, and thereby render the estate liable for the same. 
 After the death of the owner, if the homestead has not been 
 set out, it may be done so at the request of the widow or tho 
 children of the deeea.'^cd, and she will be entitled to liis 
 homestead during her widowhood, in connection with tho 
 children, until the youngest shall have arrived at majority. 
 And tho same would be tho effect if she were divorced from 
 her husband; she would take it as if he were dead. 
 
 A married or unmarried nmn may claim a homestead ex- 
 emption in Wisconsin if ho has a family dependent upon 
 him ; but it doe^ not include estates held in common, though 
 it would cover a house standing upon anotlier's land. The 
 debtor selects his homestead, and notifies the offieer when 
 making a levy upon his estate, who sets it out by metis 
 and bounds. In order to convey it the wife must join with 
 the debtor in a deed which she must acknowledge. Nor 
 woubi a voluntary conveyance of a homestead by husband 
 and wife render the same liable to be levied on for his debi^. 
 although ma<le for the purpose of defrauding his creditors. 
 A temporary leasing or absence from the estate does not 
 affect the owner's right of homestead in the siime. Upon 
 tho death of tbo owner the luimestead descends to tho 
 widow during her widowhctod, and to her children until 
 they are of age. A wite does not lose h'-r right in the
 
 976 
 
 HOMICIDE. 
 
 homestead by abandoning it if she is driven from it by her 
 husband; nor would a husband and wife be taken to have 
 abandoned a homestead by taking in a son to occupy it 
 with Ihem and carry un the estate. If the wife is insane 
 the court may order the estate to be sold, and direct how 
 the proceeds shall be invested. And if when the debtor 
 dies the estate be under a mortgage or other lien, and the 
 same is sold for more than enough to pay this charge, the 
 judge may order enough of such surplus to be invested in 
 a homestead for the fiunily, and may. to that end, order 
 ?jOll to bo thus invested in a new homestead. (For a ref- 
 erence to the provisions of the laws of the U. S. concern- 
 ing the right* of individual settlers to acquire public lands 
 in the character of " heads of families." sen Land Laws op 
 Tin; U. J>. ; also Trrhitoiuks.) Emoky Washuurs. 
 
 Hoin'icide [Lat. homicitHnm, from homn, "a man/* 
 and cft'i/w, to "kill "]. the killing of one human being by 
 another. The word homicide is the most comprehensive 
 designation employed in law to denote the causing of a 
 person's death by human agency, and has reference to 
 every mode by which such an act may be committed, 
 whether it be innocent or criminal. There is no resulting 
 implication, therefore, from the mere use of this generic 
 appellation, that the act to which it is applied constitutes 
 a leg.al otfence or is attended \vith any legal responsibility. 
 Homicide, at common law, is divided into three classes — 
 justifiable, excusable, and felonious. In the ancient his- 
 tory of English jurisprudence there was an essential dis- 
 tinction between justifiable homicide and that termed ex- 
 cusable, since the former was regarded as involving no 
 imputation of guilt whatever, while the latter did partake, 
 in some slight degree, of criminality. As a consequence 
 of this distinction, acts of justitiable homicide received no 
 punishment, while those which were deemed excusable 
 merely were attended by a forfeiture of the offender's 
 goods. But at a very early period the imposition of this 
 or any penalty for acts which were either attributable to 
 pure accident or were done in necessary self-defence was 
 felt to be a sentence of unjust severity, and the person 
 charged with the offence escapee! the consequences by 
 being held entitled to a writ of pardon and restitution as | 
 a matter of course and right, or the judges, in order to re- i 
 licve him of the expense of suing out the writ, would per- ' 
 niit or direct a verdict of acquittal. Any practical diver- ' 
 sity between the two kinds of homicide therefore became \ 
 virtually obsolete, since both were adjudged equally unde- j 
 serving of punishment. The old names, however, were I 
 retained, and a difference was still asserted to exist between | 
 them, because excusable homicide did involve some trivial \ 
 element of hcinousness, though too slight to merit any i 
 legal penalty. But the distinction, if maintained at all. ' 
 is too vague and shadowy to bo of any importance, and i 
 all kinds of homicide not felonious are better termed de- j 
 fensible or innocent. As, however, the old designations 
 arc still employed in English law and in some of the 
 American States, they will be retained for the sake of con- I 
 venicnco in this article. Felonious homicide is the killing j 
 of a human creature without justification or excuse, and is 
 divided into manslaughter and murder. These two sub- 
 jects will be examined under their respective titles, so that 
 acts of a defensible nature will alone bo considered here. 
 (See Mi'RDKR, Manslaightkr.) 
 
 I. Jiititiftdb/e Hfjmiride. — This is of rorious kinds. (1) 
 AVhcre the proper officer executes a criminal in strict con- 
 formity with his sentence. Such an act is not only not 
 wrongful, but is obligatory upon the officer as a legal duty. 
 It is, however, necessary that the officer should follow tho 
 sentence precisely, otherwise the act may amount to murder. 
 (2) Where an officer of justice (or other person acting in 
 his aid), in the proper performance of a legal act which ho 
 is required to perform, kills a person who resists or pre- 
 vents him from executing it. An officer who has authority 
 to arrest and ini]>rison may repel foroc by force in the at- 
 tempted discharge of his duty, even to the extent of killing 
 his assailant if he cannot otherwise take tho person whom 
 he intends to arrest into custody, or it is necessary for self- 
 protection. So. if a person charged with a fehmy escapes 
 after arrest or flees to avoid an arrest, the officer is justi- 
 fied in killing him if it be impossible to effect his capture. 
 It is a further rule that a private individual may justify a 
 homicide necessarily committed in preventing the escape 
 of one who has actually committed a felony. There will 
 be no such justification, however, if tho alleged crime bo 
 merely a misdemeanor. (See Crimk. Fki.ony.) Jailers may 
 prevent the escape of prisoners by killing them if it be 
 necessary. But in all such cases killing must only be re- 
 sorted to as tho last alternative, without which the per- 
 formance of the officer's duty cannot be accomplished. (3) 
 AVhere tho prevention of a forcible and atrocious crime 
 renrlers the homicide necessary. Whenever any offence 
 of a felonious nature is attempted, such as murder, robbery, 
 
 burglary, arson, rape, etc., either the person whoso life or 
 property is endangered, or any one who has knowledge of 
 the intended crime, may use every effort to prevent its 
 commission, and causing the death of the offender is justi- 
 fiable if the imminent danger cannot otherwise be averted. 
 Nor is it essential to his justification to show that the crime 
 would actually have been perpetrated if the act of homi- 
 cide had not been performed. For a person under such 
 circumstances is warranted in acting upon a natural and 
 reasonable presumption, and if there be sufficient indica- 
 tions of a felonious design and of an immediate purpose to 
 carry it into execution, he may conclude tliat there is actual 
 premeditation, and use the same means for his protection 
 as would, if such were really the case, be allowable. There- 
 fore, if an empty pistol be {>ointed at any one who believes, 
 and has reason to believe, it to be loaded, and a threat is 
 made to fire it immediately, the person who supposes his 
 life to be in danger may kill his assailant with impunity. 
 But if he knew the weapon to be unloaded, he would not 
 bo justified jn such an action. Under no circumstances 
 can the homicide be committed if the crime can be averted 
 by less severe precautions, or unless the necessity continue 
 to the time when the felon is killed. Hence, if the killing 
 occur after a seizure of tho wrongdoer has been effected 
 and he has been properly secured, it will be murder. (4) 
 Killing of the enemy during time of war in the actual 
 prosecution of hostilities is, of course, justifiable on the 
 ground of military necessity. 
 
 II. Ejccnsable Houncidc. — This is of two kinds: (1) By 
 misadventure, or accident. This is, however, innocent only 
 when the person committing the homicide is engaged in a 
 lawful act, without any intention of inflicting injury upon 
 another, and without any failure to use proper precautions 
 to prevent danger. If the act is unlawful, the homicide 
 will bo felonious. If the head of a hatchet which a per- 
 son is using, and which ho has reason to believe is firmly 
 fastened, flies off and kills a Vjystander, or if a wagoner 
 drives over and kills a person lying on the road upon a 
 dark night, the homicide is accidental and excusable. The 
 degree of care and prudence to be exorcised is variable 
 under different conditions. The use of poisons or danger- 
 ous weapons would require much greater precaution than 
 the employment of articles not in themselves liable to oc- 
 casion injury, as, for instance, the common utensils in 
 every-day use. Tho lawful act which results in a person's 
 death may be the administering of reasonable and moderate 
 correction by a parent or school-teacher or other person 
 occupying a position of similar authority. But the homi- 
 cide is only innocent in such a case when the bounds of a 
 proper restraint upon tho severity of the punishment are 
 not exceeded. In like manner, if several persons should 
 engage amicably in athletic sports, and by some unfor- 
 tunate mischance one of them should be killed, be who 
 occasioned the death would be innocent. (2) Homicide in 
 self-defence, or in protection of one's property or his wife, 
 child, parent, or servant. But under this head arc not in- 
 cluded cases of defence against felonious crimes, which 
 have been already considered, but only against any other 
 modes of attack or injury which may bo attempted, as in 
 cases of common assault or trespass, where there is no in- 
 tention to commit a felony. The distinction is of con- 
 siderable importance, on account of the difference in the 
 nature of the legal obligation which is imposed upon tho 
 person against whom an offence is perpetrated to seek to 
 avoid the commission of homicide. AVhen an attack is 
 made with intent to kill, or any other felony is attempted, 
 tho person whose life or property is emlangered is under no 
 duty to seek to avoid the threatened injury by availing 
 himself of every practicable means of escape, but he may 
 stand his ground, use every possible means of defence, and 
 kill the wrongdoer if a reasonable and necessary precaution 
 requires such an act. But when the attempted injury is 
 not felonious, homicide cannot be committed in defence 
 unless all available measures arc first adopted to escape 
 from or avert the danger. Therefore, if a simple assault 
 be committed, though the persim assailed may protect 
 himself by blows, he must, as the old phrase expresses it, 
 *' retreat to tho wall," or forbear as long as is consistent 
 with safety before he ventures to kill his assailant. In tho 
 defrnce of property retreat is not necessary in order that 
 the homicide may be justified, since that would be a yield- 
 ing of the property without attempting protection ; but 
 tho wrongdoer must first be requested to leave a house or 
 to refrain from interfering with goods before preventive 
 measures can be adopted, and even then the trespasser 
 cannot be killed unless he persists so strenuously in effect- 
 ing his purpose that such a course is rendered necessary. 
 Only a reasonable degree of force can be used against an 
 intruder if that will prove sufficient. A felony is so hein- 
 ous an ofiVnce that the laws regard the destruction of life 
 no disproportionate penalty if the wrongful act be per-
 
 HOMILETICS— HOMINID^. 
 
 977 
 
 listed in ; but offences of any less degree ought not to en- 
 tail so fcurful a punishmenc unless they cun, by no practi- 
 cable lucuus, be uthenTise averted. In the I*, t*. crimes are 
 generally defined by :«tatute, and the |)rinci|iles relating to 
 homicide have therefore received various mudificatious. 
 Very essential alterations, however, have rarely been 
 made. The di.«tinctiou between justifiable and excusable 
 homicide has ia some States been discarded, but the same 
 classes of offences which were formerly included under 
 these respective designations have usually* to tho same 
 extent, been declared innocent. 
 
 Gkohgk Chase. Revised by T. W. Dwight. 
 Homilet'icSy following the etymology of the term 
 (oMtAia: t'ce IliniiLY). denotes the science and tho art of 
 preaching. It is that part of practical theology which re- 
 lates to the composition and delivery of sermons. It is the 
 technical synonym of ■' sacred rhetoric." The latter term 
 denotes the application of rhetorical canons to reliijioua 
 discourse. There are not two kinds of rhetoric, as there 
 are not two kinds of logic. Ilomiletics relate in the appli- 
 cation of the universal laws of conviction and persuasion 
 to the utterances of the pulpit. These laws have their 
 origin in the constitution of our intellectual and moral 
 nature. Hoiniletics, therefore, are not supposed to treat 
 ol the philosophy of rhetoric in general; but, presuppos- 
 ing some knowledge of this, it undertakes to show the 
 method in which rhetoric may successfully be employed in 
 tho restricted province of the Christian jtrcacher. As 
 preaching is admitted to be a divine apj)ointment, as it is 
 acknowledged to be the chief human instrumentality by 
 which revealed truth is to bo lodged in the convictions of 
 men. no subject deserves more careful study than sacred 
 rhetoric. Ilomiletics naturally recognize two general 
 divisions — (1) The Matter. (2) The Manser of preach- 
 ing. Ancient writers on rhetoric, particularly Qulntilian 
 and Cicero, make much of I'nvcith'on. Tho material of the 
 preacher is to be found in tho word of God. This is what 
 defines his office in distinction not only from the secular 
 orator, the advocate at the bar, but from even the ethical 
 lecturer. His official occupation is to interpret, proclaim. 
 and enforce the contents of revelation. It belongs there- 
 fore to the department of saere<l rhetoric to teach tho best 
 method of evolving tho truths contained in the sacred vol- 
 ume for popular impression. It aims to elucidate tho dif- 
 ferent kinds of preaching, such as expository, textual, and 
 topical, giving the history and examples of each, and the 
 rules by which each should be conducted. The chief ob- 
 ject of hoiniletics relates to the manner of ])reiiching, in- 
 cluding in this general term the structure of the discourse 
 and its enunciation. Truth depends for its power very 
 much on the mode of its presentation. Tho order of 
 thoughts may bo so confused tliat the thoughts themselves 
 l(tse half their force. Arguments and motives depend as 
 much upon their disposition as their intrinsic weight. Sa- 
 cred rhetoric looks to the urnni'fvmetit of material in ser- 
 mon!), the statement of propositions, tho different kinds of 
 proof by which they arc sustained, such as those drawn 
 from the authority of the Scriptures, the reason, conscious- 
 ncH, experience, the conscience, and processes of reasoning, 
 especially those exemplified by Christ and his apostles. 
 The methods of producing persuasion, as well as convic- 
 tion, of exciting emotion, moving the affections, all found- 
 C'\ in the laws of our nature, belong also to tho province 
 of homiiotics. Style, language, elocution, management of 
 the voice, tho carriage of tho person, manner, gesticula- 
 tion, different modes of preparing for tho pulpit, different 
 modes of delivery, with or without the manuscript, memo- 
 riter or extemporaneitus, all these and many other [)articu- 
 lars, arc included in this general designation of homilctical 
 instruction. Treatises on hoiniletics are numerous in all 
 languages, ancient and modern. Augustine in bis /Joc- 
 triiia ('hriHlianti treated the sultjcct systematically. Tho 
 German, French, and English tongues aro rich in this 
 species of literature. That would be a largo catalogue 
 which should include only the names of authors on tho art 
 of preaching who are distinguished and renowned, such as 
 Hossuet. Kt'nehm. Maury, Claude, Schott. Keinhard, There- 
 min, Campbell, and Vinct, The V. S. have given many 
 very valuable contributions to this department of author- 
 ship. All religious denominations appear to vie with each 
 other in the attention given to the art i»f preaehing. Ail 
 tho theological seminaries of this country give great promi- 
 nence to homiletics in tho curriculum of ministerial educa- 
 tion. All treatises on sacred rhetoric, ancient and modern, 
 regard self-eonviction as tho secret of all persuasive and 
 earnest speech. Personal experience, deepened and vivi- 
 fied by the Spirit of (Jod, is universally regarded as tho 
 prime force in sacred oratory, without which everything 
 else is of little avail. " I believe, therefore do I speak ;" 
 "Out of the abundance of tho heart thi' mouth ^poaketh." 
 
 William Adams. 
 Vor,. n. r>2 
 
 Uom'ily [Gr. oMiAi'a: Fr. Aow^/tc], a simple religious 
 discourse. The distinction between the Ao/HtV^and the ner- 
 inon, as made by writers on sacred rhetoric, is, that the 
 former is less elaborate, with less of method and disposi- 
 tion after rhetorical rules than the latter. A technical 
 sense attaches to the word in history which is not strictly 
 observed in ordinary usage. The Fnnch observe nice dis- 
 tinctions between homilies, conferences, discourses, and ser- 
 mons. IJy •' homilies," in modern English use, we should 
 understand that description of sermons which has more of 
 exposition than rhetorical system. So many are the forms 
 of pastoral instruction in tho present day, so frequent tho 
 occasions when ministers address the people, on the Sab- 
 bath, during the week, in churches, in leeture-rooms, in 
 Bible classes, and Sabbath schools, that the old distinction 
 between the homily and the sermon is nearly obliterated. 
 Historically, homilies were designed to supply the defi- 
 ciencies of an ignorant clergy and an ignorant people. 
 When philosopliical and rhetorical method had greatly 
 vitiated ])ulpil discourse, making it scholastic, subtle, and 
 cold, the homily was intended to provide a simpler mode 
 of conveying religious instruction. In the Roman Chundi 
 at that period, when few of the clergy were capable of mak- 
 ing discourses for themselves, collections cjf homilies, con- 
 sisting of compilations from the Fathers, were authorized 
 for their use. {See NeandkHjCA. JIht. iii. 174. concerning the 
 llomiliarittm of Charlemagne.) Similar collections were 
 prepared, at the Reformation, in the English Church by 
 Cranmcr and Jewell. Their use in the Church was au- 
 thorized (see MJth Article) as a means of religious instruc- 
 tion at a time of imperfect education. The language of 
 the Article enjoining their use requires them to be "read 
 in churches by the ministers, diligently and distinctly, 
 that they may be nndtrHUmdvd by the people." The first 
 volume of the HninUitH was published in the reign of Ed- 
 ward VI.; tho second volume was published in the reign 
 of Elizabeth. The substance of these English Ilomilitu 
 is generally accepted as good and wholesome doctrine, but 
 very considerable differences of opinion (sco Jh'shop Ihir- 
 tft) have long existed as to the aiit/i<irit^ attached to their 
 contents as parts of the constitution of the Anglican 
 Church. William Adams. 
 
 Homin'iilfv [from homo, -iuia, " man," and the patrony- 
 mic termination -idti], a family established for the recep- 
 tion of man, in contradistinct' ^n to the other families of 
 Primates. In contrast with those other families, man is 
 distinguished (1) by his haltitually erect form (excejit in 
 infancy), tho foro limbs being withdrawn completely from 
 the locoint)tivc series and transferred to tho 'ij/hafic ,- (2) the 
 foot has tho inner toe produced and develop "d as a "great 
 toe," and this is in the same jdancwith the others; (.'J) the 
 hair is scant, except upon the top ot the head, but it varies 
 in extent of development on other parts of tlie body accord- 
 ing to the race as well as to the indiviihial ; (4) the teeth 
 form an uninterrupted series in each jaw (there being no 
 diastcmata, or intcrruj)tions, for the reception of enlarged 
 canines in tho opposite jaws); and (6) they are in number 
 'A'2, of which each side of each jaw has two incisors (I. 2), 
 one canine (C. 1 ), two prcnudars ( P. AI. 2), which succeed 
 two deciduous molars, and tlirec permanent and later de- 
 veloped inohirs (M. :i); furthermore, {*>) a bony external 
 auditory meatus is developed, and at the bottom of this is 
 a membranum tympani; (7) the uo&c has its median sep- 
 tum thin and narrow, and the nostrils are correspondingly 
 approximated. In the first four mentioned characters man 
 contrasts with all the other members of his sub-order, but 
 in tho last three mentioned (5-7) he agrees with the ajies 
 nn<l monkeys of the Old Wurld. in contratlistinction witli 
 the monkeys of the New World. In his organization gen- 
 erally man agrees closely witli the higher apes (Simiidnc), 
 and this similarity extends to the brain as well as to the 
 other parts of the organization. The brain differs chiefiy 
 in size and the development of the gyri and sulci of the 
 cerebrum. Tho extent of agreement is expressed by the 
 association of man with the monkeys of the Old AVorld in 
 one group, opposed to the monkeys of the New World, and 
 the coniliination of all those in a nnijor group (sub-order 
 Anthropoidea), contrasted with tho lemurs (Lemuridie). 
 Tarsiidio and aye-aye ( Daubcntoniidie or Chiromyidiu), 
 which are combined in a corresponding sub-order (sub- 
 order Prosimiii' ). Such are the characters which distinguish 
 man as a member of the animal kingdom, and which have 
 induced naturalists to iidnpt the classification thus sketched ; 
 but it is to be remembered that in this case no attention is 
 given to psychological characters, fir to those other endow- 
 ments which distinguish man so trenchantly from all ih<> 
 other members of the animal kingdom, to which in his 
 purely pliysiologieul nature he belongs. These important 
 eharaeters moro fitly belong to another (jrovince, and will 
 be treated under the tillo Man, by PitoF. M. B. Anokkso.n, 
 LL.D. TnLODoKi; Gill.
 
 978 
 
 HOMCEOPATHY. 
 
 IIora<Eop'athy [Gr. o^oto<, "like," and tta9tiv, "to be 
 affected"], a methoil or pjstem of medical treatment based 
 upon the ]iecnliar iprineiplothat the therapeutic or curative 
 propcrlics of drugs and other medicinal agents are repre- 
 sented by their morbific effects upon the healthy. Hence 
 the name, in contradistinction to allopathy {dissimilar suf- 
 fcriuij), by which term the homwopathists designate the 
 ordinary methods of practice. This system was first pro- 
 pounded by Dr. Samuel Hahnem.vnn (which see) about 
 the end of "the last century, and although greeted at first 
 with little favor from the medical profession generally, has 
 gradually gained in popular estimation, and obtained ae- 
 eeptancc'with considerable numbers of reputable physicians, 
 not only in (jermany, where it originated, but in most 
 other countries of the Old and New World. It is not 
 claimed that Hahnemann was the first to observe or pro- 
 mulgate the therapeutic principles upon which his system 
 is founded. Indications of its recognition as a rule of occa- 
 sional though rare applicability in the treatment of the sick 
 are found in the medical literature of the past ; and even 
 the Greek equivalent of the fundamental maxim, si'mi'/m 
 similibiis ciiraiiliir. has heen discovered in writings attrib- 
 uted to Hippocrates, liut it is admitted that Hahnemann 
 was the first to adopt it as a general law in the practice of 
 medicine. 
 
 The alleged discovery of the real importance of this sup- 
 posed relation between the disease-exciting and the disease- 
 curing powers of drugs, and the gradual development of 
 the homceopathic system, are briefly, but perhaps suffi- 
 ciently, described in the article on Hahnemann, to which 
 the reader is referred. The following propositions, it is be- 
 lieved, comprise the essential points of tho homoeopathic 
 doctrine, as held and taught by the best and most recent 
 authorities of the school : ( I ) That the cure of disease is most 
 easily and completely effected by medicines that are them- 
 selves capable of producing in a healthy person morbid 
 conditions analogous to those of tho disease ; and the more 
 exact the similarity, the greater probability of a favorable 
 result. (2) Consequently, the most certain way of ascer- 
 taining the therapeutic value of medicinal agents is by re- 
 peated and carefully conducted trials of them, singly, upon 
 persons in ordinary health. (:'.) That in order to secure 
 the best results medicines should not be administered to the 
 sick in combination, but singly and in tho simplest prep- 
 arations. (4) That remedies prescribed according to the 
 homa>opathic method may be, and in fact generally require 
 to be, administered in smaller and more attenuated doses 
 than are necessary to produce their characteristic effects 
 upon the healthy. The practical application of these rules 
 to the treatment of diseases necessitates the individualiza- 
 tion of each jiarticular case. To bo strictly homoeopathic 
 a medicine should correspond not only to the general patho- 
 logical state, but also to the peculiar symptoms of the pa- 
 tient. 
 
 In order to furnish remedies for the great variety of pos- 
 sible morhid conditions, the work of " proving " drugs — as 
 the administration of them to persons in health for the pur- 
 pose of observing their effects is technically called — which 
 was begun by Hahnemann, has been diligently followed up 
 by his disciples ever since. The homceopathic materia mediea 
 consists of the collected and collated results of the " prov- 
 incs " of a large number of drugs, many of which, however, 
 require further verification. These experiments are con- 
 ducted partly by individuals and partly by numerous asso- 
 ciations formed for the purpose. Honueopathists condemn 
 the commixture of several medicines in one prescription. 
 When two or more remedies are required, they are usually 
 given in alternation, and at considerable intervals. They 
 have always avoided, as unnecessary and injurious, tho use 
 of bloodletiing, drastic purgatives, mercurial salivation, blis- 
 ters, and indeed all the so-called "heroic" expedients so 
 generally relied on a generation since. Particular atten- 
 tion is paid, however, to diet, exercise, bodily habits, and 
 all other sanitary and hygienic helps. 
 
 Upon the question of the proper ilosr, homoeopathic prac- 
 titioners arc, as yet, by no means agreed among themselves. 
 While all assent to the general statement contained in the 
 fourth of the above propositions, the extent to which the 
 dilution or attenuation of medicines may be advantageously 
 carried is still a moot ])oint, in regard to which the sehnul 
 is somewhat divided in opinion and ]iractioe. liut although 
 there are representatives of cither extreme who profess to 
 use exclusively in their practice "high" or "low" dilu- 
 tions respectively, it is probable that the greater number 
 of |)hyBician3 consider the question of the dose quite sub- 
 ordinate in importance to the choice of the remedy, and 
 that further experience is necessary to eettlo the range of 
 greatest efficiency for each drug. 
 
 Before the publication of Hahnemann's Mnlrria Mediea 
 Pura (1811 scq.) the practical application of the new law 
 of euro Wis necessarily limited to prescribing the very few 
 
 drugs of whose effects upon the healthy organism some 
 scanty particulars were known. Such facts were too few 
 and uncertain to answer the requirements of the art: con- 
 sequently, the systematic proving of even the best known 
 remedies was a necessity. The above-named work (in (1 
 vols.), containing the ascertained pathogenetic effects of 
 some fiO drugs, was the first fruit of this necessity. As 
 now the means of testing the truth of the homoeopathic 
 principle became accessible, the doctrine, and the ])ractice 
 based upon it, began to sjiread more rajiidly, and soon ob- 
 tained the support of a number of well-known medical men 
 of Germany. Its progress, however, was much impeded by 
 the state laws, which restricted the right of ])reparing and 
 dispensing medicines to the apothecaries, who, being natu- 
 rally opposed to a practice ealcubitcd to interfere materially 
 with their ancient franchise, did not hesitate to in\oke tho 
 aid of the law to harass its adherents. Gradually, how- 
 ever, these and other restrictive laws affecting the medical 
 profession were relaxed in favor of the new scdiool. Tho 
 court-physicians in several German states were among the 
 early disciples of Hahnemann, and were doubtless instru- 
 mental in promoting a more liberal policy. Hahnemann 
 himself was appointed physician and state councillor to tho 
 duke of Anhalt-Cocthen. Dr. Kau, physician to tho duke 
 of Hessc-Di'.rmstadt, Dr. Muhlenbein, physician to the duke 
 of Brunswick, Dr. Grieslich, surgeon to the grand duke of 
 Baden, and several others who held similar official and in- 
 timate relations to the ruling powers, were retained in their 
 positions, notwithst.andiug their adoption of homoeopathy. 
 From Germany the new medical doctrine extended itself to 
 other parts of the Continent, so that belbre IS40 hointcopa- 
 thy had its professional reiirescntalivcs and its lay i)atron3 
 in nearly every considerable town in Europe. Homoeopa- 
 thy was introduced into England about 182S by Dr. Quin, 
 physician to the king of Belgium. Not hmg after Scotland 
 and Ireland were also invaded by pioneers of the same 
 school. In all these countries the system has made con- 
 siderable progress. 
 
 The earliest practitioner of homoeopathy in the tJ. S. was 
 Dr. Hans B. Gram, an American by birth, though by pa- 
 rentage and education a Dane, who after many years' ab- 
 sence returned in 1S25 and estahlished himself in New 
 York. His tirst attempts to attract the attenticm of the 
 profession to the scientitic claims of the system of which 
 he was the pioneer were unsuccessful, but before his death, 
 in 1840, it had made decided progress in the metropolis, 
 and gained a foothold in Philadelphia, Boston, and other 
 cities. In 1844 was formed a national association of jihy- 
 sicians under the name of the .\nicrican Institute of lIomcE- 
 opathy, with about on members. This society now has a 
 membership of over 1000. The whole number of avowed 
 hointeopathic physicians in the U. S. is variously estimated 
 at from HOOO to 5000. State and county societies have been 
 established by law in most of tho States. In New York, 
 Philadelphia, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, St. Louis, 
 and Boston are fully-equipped medical colleges, in which 
 the therapeutics of the new school are taught in connection 
 with the usual branches of merlical instruction. Hospitals, 
 infirmaries, and dispensaries have been founded in many 
 cities and large towns for the benefit of the sick poor who 
 desire homoeopathic treatment. At Xliddletown, N. Y., a 
 homoeopathic insane asylum has been erected by the State, 
 and is in successful operation. 
 
 The literature of the new school is already remarkable 
 for its extent, comprising expository, controversial, jour- 
 nalistic, and practical publications in almost every depart- 
 ment of medical .science. The works of Hahnemann ulono 
 form a considerable collection, while some of his disciples 
 have also been prolific writers. The Oi<jamm has ajipeared 
 in numerous editions and in various languages. A collec- 
 tion of Hahnemann's Ltsur Wriiiiigs, edited by Dr. 
 Dudgeon of London, has also attained a large circulation. 
 As early as IS22 was founded at J-eipsic the first period- 
 ical of this school, the Anliir fur die H<imrvi,]Hilliische 
 Heilkiinsi. which eimtinued lor many years the leading ex- 
 ponent of the system in Germany. In 18;!D i\\a liihlio- 
 lliiqiic /lomiTupulhiqiie \sas commenced at Geneva. Switzer- 
 land. In 1834 the publication of the Arcliifm de In Mfde- 
 cine HnmtTnpnthiii>ic was begun in Paris. About the same 
 time The A,nericcn Jnnrnnl i,f Ilomicupnthia, by Drs. J. 
 F. Gray and A. Gerald Hull, appeared in New York— tho 
 pioneer of the homoeopathic periodical literature of this 
 country. The British Journal of H,„na-opail,i/ (London) 
 was fo'unded in 184.1. The following are the principal 
 publications of this class in the V. S. in l.STo: Aorih Amer- 
 ii-nu Journal nf llnmcropnili;/, quarterly. New York : I'. S. 
 Medical /iMT«'(r.7«(iir, bi-monthly, Chicago; Aiiierlenn Ob- 
 terver, monthly! Detroit : Hahnemannian. m<.nthly. Phila- 
 delphia; Am. Journal of Mai. .l/ci/.. monthly, Philadelphia; 
 Seir Km/land Medical Ij'azelle, monthly, Boston; Medical 
 <rai/.S'i(.-7iVii^/frjuorfii-, monthly, Cleveland. H.D. Paine.
 
 IIOMOGENK(USM<S— HOMOLOGY. 
 
 979 
 
 Uomoge'neoasness, or Homogene'ity [Gr. omov, 
 " suiue," auil ytvov, " kind '*]. An algebraical expression is 
 called homofjeiieitiis vihcix all its terms are of like " degree " 
 - — i. e. products of the same number of literal factors. 
 Were tlicso the symbols of abstract numbers onfy^ the 
 term would bo nearly destitute of important signification. 
 IJut the i»ri"i(ri'«/(; of humotjeutinttncsii applies to ecjuations 
 expressive of relations between pynibols for physical 
 magnitudes (as well as abstract numbers), and these 
 physical magnitudes of various kinds, incommensurable 
 with each other, are only made commensurable and suscep- 
 tible of mathematical relations by simulation to abstract 
 number-: through the agency of, for eaeh, some arbitrary 
 unit. Thus, we measure timt by d(itfn or hours; linear ex- 
 tension by mi7«* or ftrt, etc., or mttret, etc. — units, so-called, 
 of wholly arbitrary selection — while those of one kind {c g. 
 the hour) are wholly incommcDsuniblc with those of another 
 kind (c. *j. the mttrc), except that each is a unit and repre- 
 sented by the abstract number one. An equation express- 
 ing a relation between physical magnitudes should be true 
 whatever be the arbitrary unit taken for each ; and, indeed, 
 failure to bear this te-t is a conclusive evidence of error. 
 But a change of arbitrary unit will evidently cause a 
 change in the numerical value by which each particular 
 magnitude is expressed. Thus, if /.y, /, I', t, t', etc. sym- 
 bolize, respectively, _/orcf», /cH'yrAj?, and times, and n, n',u"f 
 etc. abstntct numbers, and we diminish the unit for each in 
 
 the ratio of -, , etc., these physical magnitudes will theu 
 « n' 
 
 be expressed by »/, n/*, n' I, n' V, etc., and the relation ex- 
 pressed by /' {j\f . . . I, I' . . . t,t% etc.) = 0, should become, 
 truthfully, F(nf, n'f . . . n' I, a' V , . . «" t, n" t' . . .) = 0, 
 in which F denotes any function of the magnitudes. 
 
 Literal homnycncvunucsv in general secures the existence 
 of this condition; unless, indeed, there be unit symbols 
 which involve in themselves the repetition of an inferior 
 unit in different senses (e. «/. a unit of «ur/<tcc and oi vol- 
 ume involve in themselves the repetition of the linear unit 
 iicti and three titnes, repeatedly, in different <lircrtiorin), in 
 which case their symbols will by the change suj)poscd above 
 involve the numbers n, h', etc. in higher powers. Thus, a 
 unit of surface « would become u' '^a, etc., and its symbol is 
 to bo ranked as iV«c// of that degree to which it involves 
 the inferior unit. 
 
 The principle nf ketmotjeneouaneas demands that, what- 
 ever bo the character of the unit symbols, the relation ex- 
 pressed by the above equations, if true for one form, shall 
 be true for the other, whatever be the value of the arbi- 
 trary numbers ii, ;i', etc. Important « prii^ri conclusions 
 may sometimes be de<luced. Thus, if a force f is to be 
 expressed in terms of hut one other force/ and symbols of 
 other kinds of physical magnitudes, it is required by the 
 above principle that the expression shall bo of tlie form 
 _/* = A/, in which A*" contains onbj symbols of the other 
 kinds of magnitudes which do not vary with the unit of 
 foruc, and/ enters as a factor of the first degree. 
 
 J. G. liAIlNARD. 
 
 Homol'ogy [Gr. oMoXoyia, "agreement"], in philosoph- 
 ical anatomy, the csaeutial structural correspondence of 
 different parts of the same organism, or of different or- 
 ganisms. Thuf. the arm of a man. the fore leg of an ox, 
 the wing of a bird, ainl the pectoral (in of a fish are homol- 
 ogous parts. Su, in the same animal, the foot is the liomo- 
 logue of the hand, because it is formed on the same typo. 
 
 Homology^ a term expressing a principle in the chem- 
 istry of organic compounds of high importance and sig- 
 nificance, first introduced by the illustrious (Jerhardt.* A 
 series of homologues, or /lonto/'H/oic* sericn, mnstilutes what, 
 in a ehis-iification of carbon compounds, niighl lie culled a 
 family or genus, of which the individual compounds aro 
 the species. Such a classification is a nntnral one. 
 
 A homologous scries is formed by additions to an clo- 
 menlary molecule or group of such — which constitutes a 
 nucleus or /iow»«/'>_»/cHiV radical — of successive equivalents 
 of a certain molecular group of hydrogen anil carbon 
 atoms represented by IPC. This group, \VK\ we may, for 
 convenience, call the homolotjnt. Whether such a com- 
 pouiul is capable of existing in an isolated form is un- 
 known- Methylene, or melhene, whicli has nut been yet 
 obtained, would have this empirical formula, but it is not 
 probable that the homologcn II^C is itself methylene. 
 
 *The dl-'eovery of the principle af hnmnhm/ Is generally given 
 to (ierbanlt. who developed nmi estahlish«'<f it ; but I>r. .1. Scliiel 
 of St. I^Hiis t\rst aiiiiiMinced in the Annnien (.luly, \Hi2i the ar- 
 raMiiemeril oforKanie compounds in what he called " iironressive 
 series," correspoiidiriK to series of homologues, (See l)r. Schiel's 
 nx^Iauiatiun in the Atn. Jour, of Srime*; July, ISf.l.l The prin- 
 ciple of honiriloKV was also extended to n»IncrnIoj;y by T. 
 Sterry Hunt in the Am. Jour, nf Science, Sept., lRr>4, ten years 
 before Tschcrniak. to whom it has been attributed. (See Sii.i- 
 t-Ait-s. t iii:mi>ikv and Classifuation ov.) 
 
 
 
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 980 
 
 HOMOTAXIS— HONDURAS. 
 
 In the extended tabic of examples of homologous series 
 herewith presented the formuUc wo have designated '* ho- 
 
 raologcnic" convey simply the theory which must be di- 
 rectly deduced from the facts of homology. It will ha ob- 
 served that the first four scries given are strictly ;j"''t/^V 
 in every way, the series found in each horizoutal line being 
 what HofuKinn has called '* isologous " series, or those 
 based upon the same number of carbcm equivalent:?. These 
 series may bo believe<l to have the same molecular deriva- 
 tion, in the sense of being compounds of the same elcnieut- 
 ary molecule, with different other elements and molecular 
 groups. Like the latter, the members of the:^o series of 
 is')U)gue3 arc altogether without chemical or physical rc- 
 spinblanccs and relations among each other. On the con- 
 trary, the homologues in each of the vertical columns have 
 strong chemical similarities and analogies one with an- 
 other, and frequently occur in ndinixture in products of 
 both natural and artifiirial chemical processes, being then 
 often difficult to isolate individually. They present a reg- 
 ular aud perfect gradation, or progression in degree, of 
 ]ihysical relations and iiroperties, from top to bottom of 
 the column, in correspondence with the increasing number 
 of ll'^C groups combined in the molecule. Thus, the vol- 
 atility constantly decreases, and the degree of fusion con- 
 stantl}' increases, from the top to the bottom of each series. 
 
 The most remarkable fact of this kind about homologues 
 was discovered by Kopp — namely, that generally each suc- 
 cessive addition of H'^C corresponds to a definite increase 
 of atomic ruhime of 22 units; which argues that if the 
 homologen is susceptible of isolation, it will be found to 
 possess this specific atomic volume. 
 
 In the last two series of homologues given in the table 
 it will be seen that there is nut the complete parallelism 
 and iaoloijij with the first four that is presented by the 
 latter between each other. Homologous series are not 
 therefore all parallel for the same number of homologen 
 groups. The admission of the theory of homology seems 
 to compel the admission of the existence in each series of 
 homologues of a fundamental or basal moleeule, -or group 
 of such ; which we have called here the radicul of the 
 series. The "organic radicals" of the earlier organic 
 chemists were but a series of homologues based upon one 
 atom of hvdrogen as their homologenic radical. Thus, 
 H + IVC=\VC (mothyle), H + 2H2C = H^C^ (ethyle), and 
 so on. Ammonia, NIP, constitutes also the radical of the 
 beautiful series of homologues discovered by Adolphc 
 Wurtz, the compound ammoniaSf or — 
 
 Monamine*. 
 NH»-f n(H2C). 
 
 Methylaraine C H2 NHS 
 
 Ethylamine CSfi*, NH3 
 
 rrupylaniine CHl\ NH3 
 
 Butylamine C*li». NH3 
 
 Amylamine ("SH'o.NHs 
 
 Hexylamine C6H»2, Nlla 
 
 Heptvlamine CH"*. NIP 
 
 Oclylamine „ C»Hi6, NH» 
 
 Nonylamine „ COH", NH3 
 
 Very many other such nuclear radicals appear to exist, 
 containing multij)Ie atoms or molecular groups of carbon, 
 and of carbon and oxygen, such as it is difficult, on our 
 ordinarily accepted views, to believe to be capable of ex- 
 isting. The following table illustrates two series of highly 
 iuijiurtant substances, with their constitution and structure 
 on the houiologic theory; and this table will serve also to 
 show how this theory enables us to predict the existence 
 anil composition of compounds yet unknown. Thus, it 
 may be deduced from the first column that coal-gas may 
 be expected to bo found to contain two gaseous compounds 
 as yet unknown, C*H'^ and C'^ll*. The aromatic aldehydes 
 also, of which the benzoic, toluic, and cumic aldehydes are 
 known, are based upon a homologenic radical C*0 (possibly 
 
 (:\ CO). 
 
 Geoerlc Names. 
 
 Coal -Tar. or 
 "Aromatic " HydrocarboQa. 
 
 "Aromatio" Aeldj. 
 
 Homologenic 
 Radicals. 
 
 c». 
 
 C«0«;or C», C0«). 
 
 Iloiiuilogenic 
 Kt;riiiul;c. 
 
 C»+n(H«C). 
 
 C«0» + n(H«C). 
 
 Series 
 
 (Unknown!.. ..(■< W 
 lUnlcnownl....r' 114 
 
 Benzone <« I[« 
 
 Toluene C H« 
 
 Xylene ('» H"i 
 
 (Unknown) C* W Oa 
 
 (Unknown) (?> n< 0« 
 
 Benzoic acid C H« oa 
 
 Toluic " .....C»H«0! 
 
 C'umene C* Hi= 
 
 Cymene C"'»IIi< 
 
 lumic ■' CioHiJtH 
 
 Cymic " C"H»oa 
 
 Laurene C"Hi« 
 
 The monatomic phenols, inchnling common />/ieno/, cvcuol^ 
 xylenol, thymol, etc., constitute a scries of the radical CO. 
 The ajjparent existence, in combination at least, of such 
 curious molecular grou])S will serve to suggest the import- 
 ance of the further pursuit of the somewhat neglected 
 study of homology. Hknhv '\Vi:rtz. 
 
 Ilomotax'is [(Jr. 6mos. "same," and Toft?, "arrange- 
 ment"], a word iiitrotluced into use by Prof. Huxley to ex- 
 press an idea in geology remotely analogous to that ex- 
 pressed by homology in zoology. H had been tacitly as- 
 sumed in geological reasoning that a stratum or a forma- 
 tion was throughout its horizontal extent of couteuipor- 
 aneous origin. The imposfsibiUty of this had long been 
 apprehended by the more philosophic geologists, as Ed- 
 ward Forbes, De la Beche, aud others, and Prof. Huxley 
 finally gave clear expression to the contradiction by ap- 
 plying the term homotaxis to signify similnrity nf position 
 in a scries of rocks, apart from auy question as to contem- 
 poraneity or sequence of origin of the parts of the series. 
 (See HuxLEV, Anniv. Addr. to the Geol. Soc. for 1862; 
 Quart. Journ. of Geol. Soc, vol. xviii., and EnsayB and lie- 
 views, Eng. ed., ISTI, p. 202.) 
 
 Homs, or Hums, the Einena of Strabo and Pliny, 
 town of Syria, in the valley of the Orontes, 1 mile E. of 
 the river and about GO miles N. E. of Baalbek. It was the 
 birthplace of the Roman emperors Elagabalus (218-222 land 
 his cousin, Alexander Severus (222-2;;a), and was noted for 
 its splendid temple of the Sun, in which these youths were 
 sharing between them the office of high priest when (in 
 218) the former was chosen Augustus and the latter was 
 made Ca?sar. The modern town is well built, of black ba- 
 .salt, with which also most of the streets are paved. It is 
 surrounded by a wall of no great strength, but which suf- 
 fices to keep off the prowling Bedouin. Nothing ancient 
 is now found there except some ruins and (ireek inscrip- 
 tions. It is a place of considerable trade, and has a popu- 
 lation of about 21».O00, including 7000 Greek Christians 
 and some 200 Jacobites. R. D. Hitchcock. 
 
 Ho'lian ('* southof the river"), province of China proper, 
 comprising the lowland S. of Hoang-Ho, between lat. ?>'2° 
 and 3"^ X., and between Ion. 110° and 110° E. Area, 
 05.114 square miles. Pop. 23,037,171. Cap. Kai-Fung. 
 
 Hon'da, town of Colombia, in the department of Cun- 
 dinamarca, on the Magdalena. Its climate, though hot, is 
 not unhealthy. It is the natural depot of the commercial 
 produce of the very fertile province. But its streets are 
 unfit for carriages and trucks; goods must be transported 
 to the warehouses by carriers, and consequently its com- 
 merce is steadily decreasing. It had formerly 10,000 in- 
 habitants. 
 
 Uondt, the name of a celebrated family of Flemish en- 
 gravers. The founder of the family, Jossk Hoxdt. b. at 
 Wackene, in Flanders, in 1J4I>. and d. in London Feb. It), 
 1611 ; spent a large part of his life in England, where ho 
 sought refuge from the religious persecutions of the Span- 
 iards. He was celebrated as an engraver of maps. — Of his 
 sons, He.vrv he Hondt, the Ei-Dek. b. at tihent in 1573, 
 and d. at the Hague in IGIO; Henry i>e Hondt, the 
 YotNCEn, b. in London about 1581, and d. at .\msterdam 
 about 1050; and William HoNnr, b. at the Hague in 1601, 
 and d. at Dantzic. A series of portraits by Henry do 
 Hondt the Elder of 144 artists, mostly Flemish, and of 
 Melanchthon. Bugenhagen, Wycliffe, Savonarola. Calvin, 
 and Knox, are widely known ; so are those by Henry de 
 Hondt the Younger of Queen Eliziibeth and William of 
 Orange, and a view of the Hague.— Abraham Ho.m>t, b. 
 at Rotterdam in 1C3S, and d. in London in lt'91, also be- 
 longed to the family. He acquired a great name as a 
 painter of animals. 
 
 Ilondu'ras, a republic of Central America, is situated 
 between lat. 13<* 10' and 16° 5' N.. and bounded by the 
 Caribbean Sea, Nicaragua, the Bay of Fonseca, San Sal- 
 vador, and Guatenmla. .\rea, about 50,000 square miles. 
 The Caribbean coast is low and marshy E. of Ion. 85°, 
 lined with extensive salt-water lagoons, such as Laguna do 
 Cartago and Laguna de Cartine; W. of Ion. 85° it is higher, 
 often rocky, and lined with islands, among which are the 
 Bay Islands, belonging to the juri.-'diction ofJamnicn. The 
 following rivers are found here : Segovia, also called Coco, 
 Oro, or Wanks, about 350 miles long, but navigable only 
 for canoes on account of rapids, forms the boundary be- 
 tween Honduras and Nicaragua ; the Patuca, navigable for 
 small steamers, receives the Guayape, famous for its rich 
 gold-washings; the Ulua, with U feet of water on the bar 
 traversing its mouth, and navigable for steamers and small 
 craft up to its junction with the Santiago, 70 miles from 
 its mouth. The principal ports along this coast are Omoa, 
 Trujillo, and Puerto Cortes, formerly Puerto Cabullos — all 
 commodious and safe. The P.acific coast, along the Bay 
 of Fonseca, is also low, even inundated at spring tides, but
 
 HONDURAS, BRITISH— HONEY-EATERS. 
 
 981 
 
 it presents several fine harbors, among which is Amnpala. 
 The Cholutoca, which flows into the liay of Fonscca, is 
 navigable for light craft for a considerable distiiDce from 
 its mouth. The interior is high, but niueh diverjilied by 
 niountain-riiugcs, plateaus, terraces, and valliys. The 
 Sierra .Madre enters the country from the W., and separates 
 at .Merendon into two branches, of which one runs eastward 
 under the name of Espiritu Santo and Urita, and ends in 
 the Oniua Mnunlains ; and the other runs S. and S. E., 
 forming the Selaque Mountains, whose highest peak rises 
 IO,UUO feet; the I'uca, .Santa Barbara, Sulaco. and Chili 
 mountains. The climate is hot, along the coasts very 
 unhealthy, and everywhere very capricious, .\pril, May, 
 and June are the liottesi, November, December, and Janu- 
 ary the coolest, months. The rainy season is generally 
 ushered in with violent hurricanes and thunderstorms. The 
 soil is exceedingly fertile. The valleys and lowlands are 
 covereil with an exuberant tropical vegetation, and on tlie 
 plateaus all the finest fruits and plants of the temperate 
 lone succeed. The sugar-cane is indigenous ; excellent to- 
 bacco is produced ; coll'ee, cotton, and cochineal succeed 
 well, but arc very little cultivated. Immense forests cover 
 the mountains, "and yield excellent timber, fine cabinet 
 woods, especially nuiliogany, gums, drugs, and dycstulfs. 
 The wealtli of the country, however, cousists in its mines. 
 Gold, silver, copper, coal, and excellent nnirble are found 
 in numy localities and in great quantities, but very few 
 mines are worked. Xonc of the rich resources are duly 
 utilized, and the reasons arc the total lack of roads, the 
 unsettled stale of society, the want of sufficient ca])ital, and 
 the comparatively small amount of energy which the in- 
 habitants dis]ilay. The principal occupation is caltle- 
 raising, and even this is done in a sluggish and careless 
 wav. The number of inhabitants is about lull, 0011, of whom 
 about lK0,O0Oare Indians, 200,1100 mesti/.oes, 6000 negroes, 
 and the rest whites of Spanish descent. The religion is 
 Uomnn Catlmlie, but there is very little public education. 
 The government is republican: the executive power is 
 veslcd in a president elected for four years; the legislative, 
 Id a senate and a chamber of deputies. The finances arc 
 in great disorder. The foreign debt amounted in 1S72 to 
 about $.',0.1100.000— loans which were raised for tlic con- 
 struction of an interoceanic railway. The value of the 
 annual exportation of bullion, indigo, cattle, timber, hides, 
 tobacco, etc. is estimated at $l,2:iU,000. Cotton and silk 
 fabrics are imported from England ; cutlery and machinery 
 from the U. S. Cap. Comayaguo, with 18,000 inhabitants. 
 Honduras, Dritish. Sec Bai.izk. 
 Ilundiirns, Hay of, a large inlet of the Caribbean Sea, 
 belwecn Vucalan, (iualeniala, and Honduras. It receives 
 many slreains, among which lieli/.e and Muntagua are the 
 largest, and contains many islands. 
 
 Hone, a name given to a stone of fine grain used for 
 giving a fine edge to steel blades. Hones arc usually of 
 much finer grain than ordinary whetstones and grindstones. 
 They are made of several kinds of stone, often of Palio- 
 ozoic age. Various greenstones, siliceoargillaeeims slates, 
 etc. arc used. One of the very best hone-stones now used 
 is the novaculitc of Arkansas, of Carboniferous age. There 
 are also excellent oil-stones from Turkey, Austria, Siberia, 
 England, Wales, and Scotland. For many purposes the 
 Turkey stone is considered the best. 
 
 Hone (Wii.i.iAiil, b. at liarth in I77I). His first at- 
 tempts in the literary field were unsuccessful, but in 1SI7 
 hi' made a great hit by bis painjihlets, illustrated by llcorgc 
 Cruiksbank. One of them, a parody on the lluuk <>/" Crnn- 
 nioii I'mt/rr, brought him before the courts. Ho was ac- 
 tiniltfd. however, and a public subscripticm was made for 
 bini, lie became a preacher to a congregation of dissenters, 
 and d. at T<iltenliain Nov. li, 1,S)2, in slraitencil eireum- 
 slanccs. The most prominent of his writings arc — The 
 Jiitri/.lJi,,, lluak. The 'l\Mc litmk. The )'t..c lliml.; The 
 I'oHiiviU llon»r Ihitt Jiick Hiiill, and A Slitp at Sli'/i ( l.SIO). 
 llo'nea Path, post-tp. of Anderson eo., S. ('., on the 
 tlreenvillc and Columbia H. K., 3.i miles from Greenville. 
 Pop. I'.l2ii. 
 
 Iloneoye', pos(-v. of Richmond tp., Ontario eo., N. Y., 
 at the outlet of Honcoyo Lake, 8) miles from Livonia, on 
 the Erie K. K. 
 
 Honcoye Falls, post-v. of Monroe eo., N". Y., 1(1 miles 
 S. of Kdihister, on the New York Central and Hudson 
 U. U. It contains a anion school, G ehurches, a bank, a 
 printing-ofiice. 1 newspaper and news-rouin, a eireuliiliiig 
 library, 2 flouring-mills, 1 plaster-mill, 1 sash and blind, a 
 stave and heading shop, a woollen, pump, and nxe-hantlle 
 factory, 2 wagon-shops, fimndry and machine-shops, 2 
 cooper shops, 1 Masonic lodge, stores, etc. The surround- 
 ing country is well adapted for agriculture. I'op.U2l. 
 S. F. JoKV, El). " Hosi'.oVK Fai.i.s Fiikk I'liicss." 
 
 Honeoyc Lake, in the tps. of Richmond and Cana- 
 dice, Ontario eo., N. V., discharges its waters by the Hone- 
 oyc outlet into Genesee River. The lake is 5 miles long, I 
 mile in breadth, and surrounded by high hills. 
 
 Hones'dale, |iost-b.. cap. of Wayne co.. Pa., ICO miles 
 N. v.. of llarrisburg, on the Delaware and Hudsnn Canal. 
 Delaware and Hudson and the Honcsdale branch of the 
 Erie R. Us., was incorporated as a borough I8.*J1 ; made the 
 county seat 18-12. It contains a lino graded school, 9 
 churches, finely shaded streets, gas and water works, 2 
 banks, 2 weekly newspapers, a public library, handsome 
 public grounds, manufactories of glass, axes, and edge 
 tools, woollen goods, pottery, leather, boots and shoes, lum- 
 ber, eanal-boats, and steam-engines. The "Stourbridge 
 Lion," the first locomotive made in America, made its trial- 
 trip from this place in 1828. Large quantities of coal are 
 shipped during the summer by the canal, and more than 
 500,000 tons are stored on the docks through the winter, 
 awaiting shiimicnt in the spring. Pop. 2fio4. 
 
 Thomas J. Ham, Ed. " Wav.ve Co. Hehai.!)." 
 Ilon'ey, the saccharine material collected from fiowers 
 by several kinds of insects for the food of themselves and 
 progeny, especially by the honey-bee (A/jis mcllijiia). In 
 bee-honey there have been reported as present four kinds 
 of sugar — common cane-sugar, or sucrose; glucose (dex- 
 trose), or fruit-sugar; locvulosc, or iincrtcd sugar (which 
 turns the plane of polarization to the left, or inverts the 
 action of glucose) ; the fourth being a sugar stated by 
 Soubeiran to be hevo-rotatory to a degree three times as 
 great as Uevuloso, but which is little known. There are 
 other substances present, among them an acid ferment, 
 which gradually changes the cnne-sngar into a mixture of 
 dextrose and lievulosc, so that the clear, liniiiid fresh 
 honey from the comb often becomes granular and opaque, 
 from the crystallizing out of the less soluble glucose. Wasp- 
 honey (of J'oli/hiu o/)Hi/). mil's) gives large crystals of 
 ordinary sucrose, and jlexiean ant-honey yielded to 
 C. M. VVetherill an uncrystallizablc sugar of composition 
 C'-H™0'*. Honey varies in aroma and flavor with the flow- 
 ers from which it has been collected; clover honey, buck- 
 wheat honey, and wild honey being readily distinguishable 
 in this respect ; and some eases are on record of poisonous 
 qualities derived from the like source. Honey is said to bo 
 now much adulterated witll glycerine, and even imitated, 
 as a whole, by combining the latter product with other ma- 
 terials, and Uavoring with appropriate essential oils. 
 
 H. WruTZ. 
 Honey-Ant, See Ant. 
 
 Houeybrook, post-v. and tp. of Chester co.. Pa. It 
 has a iiatiuiKil lumlv. Pop. 1UJ7. 
 
 Honey"Buzznrd,anaine given in Fiugland to /'tniia 
 apifonm, a chiclly insectivorous bird of the falcon family, 
 dift'ering from other birds of the family in its food, and in 
 having the space between its eyes and bill completely leath- 
 ered. I\-niln criatnttiH, the crested honey-buzzard, is an 
 Asiatic bird. Bees, wasps, and honey arc sought by them. 
 Honeycomb, t]i. of Marshall co., Ala. Pop. 247. 
 Honey-coinb Moth, or Uee Moth (On/ln-in rrre- 
 ciim and ir. tilrr<irin), are small lei^idopterous insects of the 
 Pyralidu', or snout-moth family. The larva> spin silken 
 galleries in beehives, running lietween the layers of honey- 
 comb, upon which the young insects feed. The moth 
 lays her eggs at evening, while tlie bees are at rest. It 
 appears thai neither molh nor larva' are ever stung by the 
 bees. The moth is a most fi>rnii<lable enemy to tlie bees. 
 Quite a number of kinds of moth-traps are employed, and 
 some arc very useful in destroying these pests. 
 
 Honey Creek, tp. of Adams co.. III. Pop. 1495. 
 Honey Creek, tp. of Crawford co.. III. Pop. 1808, 
 Honey Creek, post-v. of Fall Creek tp., Henry co., 
 Ind. I'.ip. 100. 
 
 Honey Creek, tp. of Howard co., Ind. Pop. 732. 
 Honey Creek, tp. of Vigo co., Ind. Pop. 1519. 
 Honey Creek, tp. of While co., Ind. Pop. fill. 
 Honey Creek, tp. of Delaware eo., la. Pop. 1088. 
 Honey Creek, tp. of Iowa co., la. Pop. 1081. 
 Honey Creek, tp. of Sauk co., Wis. Pop. 1180. 
 Honey <'nt, tp. of Macon co., Ala. Pop. 1708. 
 Iloneyeiltt's, tp. of Sampson co., N. C. Pop. I2S:!. 
 Iloni-y-dew, a sweet substance of uncertain origin 
 found on Niaiiy kinds of plants and frees. 
 
 Honey-Kilters, a largo Australasian family of pas- 
 serine birds, akin in habits, food, and other eharaeterislics 
 to the humming-birds of the New World, though of larger 
 size. They are also closely connected witli the sun birds 
 ( Proineropidie), the hiiiuiuing-birds of the Old- World 
 tropical lauds. Tlic honey-eaters are mostly very beuuti-
 
 982 
 
 HONEY GROVE— HONORS OF WAR. 
 
 ful. A few are good soni;s(prs. The name honey-eaters is 
 given to some of the sun-birds, and even to other birds 
 which arc, or are believed to be, fond of honey. 
 
 Honey Grove, post-v. of Fannin co., Tex., 18 miles 
 from Bon ham. Poj). .'{S2. 
 
 Honey-Guide, :i name given to certain birds of the 
 genus Jtidicator and of the cuckoo family, found in Africft, 
 Borneo, and India, and named fn.m their curious instinct 
 which prompts them to guide the hunter to a hive of wild 
 bees — a feat which it often, but by no means infallibly, ac- 
 complishes. 
 
 Honey Locust, the GUdiuchia triacanthos. a large 
 and well-known leguminous tree of the U. S. It takes its 
 name from its long pods filled when ripe with a sweet sub- 
 stance. The tree has stout, often triple thorns, and is used 
 as a hedge-plant. The wood is coarser tbau that of the 
 common locust {Ilobinia Peeudacacia), but is not much 
 inferior to it. {See Gleditsciiia.) 
 
 Hon'eysuckle, the popular name of many shrubs, erect 
 or twining, of the genera Ltmirera, DierviUa, etc., and of 
 the order Caprifoliacere. Many of them are common in 
 cultivation, being prized for the fragrance and beauty of 
 their flowers. The U. S. have several species, a few of 
 which are seen in cultivation. Most of the finest ones are 
 from Northern Asia or Europe. They have been much im- 
 proved by cultivation. Many other plants, azaleas, aqui- 
 legias, etc., arc locally known as honeysuckles. 
 
 Honflenr, town of France, in the department of Cal- 
 vados, on the left bank of the Seine, 7 miles S. E. of Havre. 
 It is busily engaged in fisheries, and carries on a lively 
 trade in eggs and fruits with England. Pop. 0o63. 
 
 Hong, a Chinese word meaning a "row" or "series," 
 was first applied to the European warehouses in the Chinese 
 ports, then to whole blocks of such houses, and at last to 
 the entire factory. 
 
 Hong*Kiang ("red river"), or Si-Kiang (" west 
 river "'), a large navigable stream of Southern China, enters 
 the China Sea through several mouths, of which that at 
 which Canton is situated is generally called Choo-Kiang 
 (*' pearl river"). 
 
 Hong-Kong ("red harbor"), an island off the south- 
 eastern coast of China, at the mouth of the Canton River. 
 75 miles S. E. of Canton. This ij^land, whose area is 29 
 square miles, was ceded to Great Britain in 1842, and to- 
 gether with a small strip of the opposite mainland, the 
 peninsula of Kooloon. which was ceded in ISGl, and from 
 which it is separated by a narrow strait, it forms a most 
 flourishing colony. The island itself is rocky and bare, 
 not able to grow so much as would feed its inhabitants one 
 day, but on its northern side it presents a fine harbor, deep 
 and safe, and here is built the city of Victoria, in lat. 22° 
 16' N., Ion. 114° 8' E., which in a few years has become a 
 place of the greatest commercial importance. Steamers 
 froln Bombay, Calcutta, San Francisco, Canton, JIacao, 
 and Singapore go and come daily, and thousands of sail- 
 ing-vessels, especially Chinese junks, throng the harbor. 
 In 1 St>9 the total tonnage of vessels entering was 2,52 J, 498 ; 
 in 1S72 it amounted to .'5.777,670. The jjrincipal articles 
 of importation are cotton goods, opium, and ships* sup- 
 plies, whose value is estimated at £4, 0(H). 000. The prin- 
 cipal article of exportation is tea, estimated at £2,000,000. 
 The transfer of passengers also forms an important item in 
 the business of the place. The city stretches for about 3 
 miles along the bay, from the foot of the hills to the edge of 
 the water, and contains several fine thoroughfares, with 
 large and elegant houses of brick ami stone, and surrounded 
 with beautiful gardens belonging to the merchants, and 
 with a number of stately public buildings — the cathedral, 
 the governor's house, the bishop's palace, tlic exchange, the 
 jail, the hospital, etc. Beautiful public gardens have been 
 laid out, and good free schools for the lower Chinese pop- 
 ulation established. A strong police force, consisting of 
 Indian Sepoj's, is kept, but in spite of the generous expen- 
 diture of the colony, its revenues bring annually a surplus. 
 Pop. in 1S72. 121.985, of whom 4931 were Europeans, 1490 
 Indians, and il5,.'>()4 Chinese, of whom about 13,000 live 
 on boats in the harbor. 
 
 Hon'itou, town of England, Devonshire, on the left 
 bank of the Utter. The celebrated lioniton lace received 
 its name from this place, though at present it is manufac- 
 tured in many other places. Pup. .1470, 
 
 Honolu'lu, capital of the Hawaiian Islands and the 
 residence of tlu' king, is situated on the southern side of 
 the island of Oahu, in lat. 21° IS' N.. Ion. 157° 55' W. 
 Its harbor is formed by a deep and spacious basin in the 
 coral reef which surrouncls the island. It is safe at all sea- 
 sons, and lined with substantial and commodious wharves. 
 In 1872 it was visited by 47 whalers and 138 merchant 
 vessels, of which 22 were Hawaiian and SO .\merican. The 
 
 steamers from San Francisco to Melbourne touch rcgulariy 
 at Honolulu. The city itself is situ.ated among beautiful 
 tropical surroundings, and enjoys an equable and healthy 
 climate, the heat ranging between 60° and 87° F. Among 
 its public buildings the most remarkable are the king's 
 palace, the parliament-house, the Konmn Catholic cathe- 
 dral, the treasury, the post-office, etc. It has 1 Anglican and 
 2 American churches, 2 hospitals, and a number of good 
 schools. It has a theatre, 5 printing establishments, a bank, 
 billiard-rooms, fine stores, etc., and its trade is quite con- 
 siderable. The value of its importations amounted in 1872 
 to SI, 583, 683, and of its exportations to $1,345,585. Pop. 
 14,852. 
 
 Hono'ria (.Trsr.v Grata), a daughter of Constantius 
 III. and Galla Placidia, and a sister to Valentinian III., 
 b. at C<)nstantinopIe in 418 a. d., lived after the death of 
 Honorius in 424 and the usurpation of Joannes in Rome, 
 at the court of Valentinian III. By a secret mission she 
 invited Attila, king of the Huns, to come to Italy and 
 marry her, and sent him her ring; but Attila ti)ok no no- 
 tice of the invitation. Having beci>mc pregnant by her 
 steward, Eugenius. she was sent to Constantinople, but re- 
 turned to Rome after the death of Theodosius II. in 450. 
 She now again invited Attila. and this time he saw fit to 
 accept the invitation. He claimed her as his betrothed 
 bride, together with her part of the empire; antl as his 
 claims were disregarded by Valentinian III., he invaded 
 Gaul. AVhat became of Honoria is nut known. Gibbon 
 says that she was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, 
 but he does not state his authority. 
 
 Honorius, Roman emperor from 395 to 423, b. at Con- 
 stantinople Sept. 9, 384. and d. at Ravenna Aug. 27, 423. 
 At the death of Theodosius the Great (395) the Roman 
 empire was divided between his two sons. Arcadius and 
 Honorius. Honorius received the western part — Italy. Af- 
 rica, Spain, Gaul, Brittany, and Illyrta — with Ravenna for 
 his residence ; and as he was only eleven years old, ho was 
 placed under the guardianshiji of Stilicho. Stilicho was a 
 vigorous and successful ruler, but when he was treacherous- 
 ly killed at Ravenna (408) the barbarian tribes poured in 
 over the frontiers and rebellion arose in all the provinces. 
 Brittany was entirely given up; Gaul was overrun by 
 Gothic and German invaders; Africa made itself inde- 
 pendent under Heraclian ; and Italy was thrice plundered, 
 and Rome besieged and taken by Alaric. The weak and 
 indolent emperor could do nothing, and when one of his 
 generals succeeded in defending the empire, he became 
 suspicious and had him killed. After Stilicho followed Con- 
 stantius. During the reign of Honorius a general perae- 
 cution was raised against paganism. 
 
 Hono'rius I., Pope, a Campanian, became pope in 
 625, and d. in 638. Special interest has arisen in this pope 
 since the promulgation of the doctrine of papal infallibility 
 from the fact that the letters of Honorius are conceived to 
 teach, ex catfiedrdy the Monothelite heresy, so called, for 
 which heresy he was anathematized by the third Council 
 General -ftf Constantinople, and afterwards was officially 
 pronounced a heretic by Leo II. — IIoNOitlfs II.. .AxTlPoPE, 
 bishop of Parma, was elected in 1061, and depo.-^ed in 1064. 
 D. in 1072. — HoNoiiirs II.. Pope, was chosen in 1124, and 
 d. Feb. 14, 1130.— Hosonirs III. (rencio .Vrtir//)). a Ro- 
 man, succeeded Innocent III. in 1216. andafter adisturbcd 
 pontificate d. Mar. 18, 1227. — HuNoitii s IV. {Gincomo iSa- 
 velli) became cardinal-deacon in 1261, became pope in 1285, 
 andd. Apr. .3, 1287. 
 
 Hon'ors of War, stipulated terms granted to a van- 
 quished enemy, by which he is permitteil to march out of 
 a town, from a camp or line of jntrenchments. with all the 
 insignia of military etiquette. In another sense they sig- 
 nify the comjdiment paid to distinguished personages, 
 military, etc., when they appear before any armed body 
 of men, or such as arc given to the remains of a deceased 
 officer. The circumstances attending the latter vary in 
 different countries, while respecting the former almost 
 everything depends upon the general granting the capitu- 
 lation. In some cases the troops of a besieged garrison 
 are permitted to march out with drums beating, colors fly- 
 j ing, etc.; in others, they are required to lay down their 
 I arms at a named spot, and then depart; wliile in still other 
 ! cases they arc required to march baek to their works, after 
 having been permitted to march out either silently or with 
 I drums beating, and pile their arms in front of their works. 
 I In our own late civil war at the first surrender (Apr. 14, 
 1861). that of Fort Sumter. Gen. Anderson, cummamling, 
 was allowed to march out of the fort with colors flying and 
 drums beating, bringing away company and private prop- 
 erty, and paying a salute of fifty guns to his flag. At tho 
 surrender of the army of Northern Virginia (Apr. 9, 1865) 
 the terms required the officers to give their individual pa- 
 roles not to take up arms against the U. S. until properly
 
 nONTHElM, VON— HOOD. 
 
 983 
 
 exchanged, and each company or regimental commander I 
 to sign 11 like p:irolo for the uu-u of his eoiunmnd ; the 
 arms, arlilk-rv, ami ]iuhlie [iro]itTty to bo |)ackcd and 
 st;u.-kcd, and "turned over to officers appointed to receive 
 them ; oflieer.", however, were permitted to retain their side- 
 arms, private horses, and baggage. Upon eoinpliance with 
 these terms each officer and man was allowed to return to 
 his home, not to be disturbed by the U. S. authorities "so 
 long as he observed his parole and the laws in force where 
 he "may resiilc." The surrender of the army of Gen. 
 Johnston was received .\pr. 20, ISGo, on the same basis. 
 
 Hon'theiin, von (Joiian Nicolais), b. at Treves 
 Jan. 27, 170! ; studied jurisprudence at Louvain and Ley- 
 den ; became ecclesiastical eounscllor to the consistory of 
 Treves in 172S, professor of civil law in 17:!2, and sulfragan 
 of the see of Treves in 1748. In 17S8 he resigned his of- 
 fices and retired to llontquentin, where he d. .Sept. 2, 1790. 
 .\uthor of Hiiloiin TrrrirniHiH [A vols., 1750) anil De Sliitu 
 AVe/i/r/iT (17(>:i), the latter attacking the Koman Catholic 
 Church, for which he was persecuted, ami lie retracted in 
 177."'; but his ideas had taken root. (Sec Fkuhonianisii.) 
 Ilonved, the Hungarian militia. The name was first 
 used in 1S4.S, when in order to combat the .Austrian su- 
 premacy the Ilungarian Diet called out about 200,000 men, 
 who were interspersed among the regular soldiers. This 
 militia was called //o)ie.''/«.';/. .Afterwards, when after the 
 defeat of 18G6 the .Austrio-llungarian government in- 
 creased the army according to the principle of universal 
 military duly, and likewise established an Hungarian mili- 
 tia, the name was retained from regard to the national feel- 
 ing of Hungary. It was determined by the law of Dec. 5, 
 Isti.H, that the hoiiv/''il should aid the regular army in times 
 of war. It should mit be employed, however, oulside the 
 country, unless with the consent of the Ilungarian Diet. 
 It should be composed of men who had served their time 
 in the reserve of volunteers, and of men who had made no 
 military service on aeeounf of (he fulness of the cadres. 
 Al present (1S75) the honved, thus organized, consists of 
 20(1.707 men — namely 00 men of the Hungarian crown- 
 guard; 124 battalions of infantry, comprising 187,812 
 men; 40 squadrons of cavalry, comprising 14,:i;-{8 men: 
 and 44U7 arliUerisls. The officers who drill and command 
 this army arc taken from the regular army. A. Niemann. 
 Hoo'bly, town of British India, in the presidency of 
 Bombay, is iioorly built, but carries on an important trade 
 in cotton. Pop. about 15,000. 
 
 Hood, county of N. Central Tc.\as. Area, 014 square 
 miles. It is traversed by the Brazos River. It is finely 
 diversified, fertile, well watered and timbered, has a good 
 climate, abuuilimt water-power, and excellent building- 
 stone. Live-stock, corn, ctitton, and wool arc staple pro- 
 ducts. Cap. Granbury. Pop. 2585. 
 
 Ilood, the name of two noted English admirals, sons 
 of a rector of Bath. The elder brother, ,Sami:k[„ b. Bee. 
 12, 1724, became admiral in 1780, Irish baron in 1782, 
 Knglish viscount in 1700, ancl d. Jan. 27, 1810. Ho fought 
 with great valor against the French during the North 
 American war of independence, and again in the war of 
 17'j:i. when he commanded in the iMediterianean, took Tou- 
 lon, which, however, he had to give up again, and e.\pelled 
 the French from Corsica. — The younger brother, Ai.KX- 
 AShKR, b. in 1727, became admiral in 1782, Irish baron in 
 1704, British peer in 1700, viscount in 18(10, and il. .May I!, 
 1814. Ill' commanded under Lord Howe at Gibraltar and 
 in the Channel in 1701, and gained in 1705 a victory over 
 a French fleet off L'Orieiit, which he attacked, though ho 
 was inferior in numlier to the enemy. 
 
 Hood (John- Bkii), b. at Owingsville, Bath CO., Ky., 
 June20, 18:tl : graduaterl from (he I'.S. Military Academy, 
 and appointed brevet second lieutenant of inl'ttutry July, 
 lS5:i : transferred to the cavalry as second lieutenant 1S5,% 
 and promotetl to he first lieutenant 1858. Lieut. Iloorl was 
 actively engagerl on frontier duty until |8(jl, when he en- 
 tered (he Confcderiife army, serving in every position from 
 first lieutenant to that <if eonmiander-in-chief ol" an army 
 with (he rank of lieutenant-general, serving ihroughout 
 the \*irginiii Peninsular campaign, at the second biitlle of 
 Bull Run, at Antietam.at Gettysburg, iiinl at Chiekiunaiiga, 
 where he suft'ered the loss of a leg: iu \^i\\ he succeed<-d Gen. 
 .lohnst'm in eommanil tif the army resisling (ien.Shermiin's 
 invasion of Georgia ; met the I'nion forces in battle at Frank- 
 lin Nov. :'.0, 1804, and at Nashville Dec. 15-10. shortly after 
 which ho was relieved by Gen. Richard Taylor. After the 
 war ho aettlcd in New Orleans. G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Hood ( Roiiiv). the hero of a great number of the most 
 popular among the old l''nglish ballads, was an outlaw and 
 a robber who lived in the beginning of the fourteenth cen- 
 tury in the (leplhs of .Sherwood Forest, Noltinghamshirc, 
 and Barnsdalo Forest, Yorkshire, with a company of sim- 
 
 ilar fellows — some say 100 — and among them Little John 
 and Friar Tuck, not to forget the Maid Marian. Although 
 a robber by profession, he had some gallant and magnani- 
 mous qualities, which won for him not only the admiration, 
 but even the aflfection, of the lower classes. He was the 
 best archer in the world, bis arrow never missing the aim. 
 He was brave; a fight with four knights and a victory over 
 two was a small matter with him. He was not cruel ; ho 
 never killed people when it was not necessary. He w:i3 
 rather jovial and good-hearte.l, and what he took from tho 
 rich he often gave to the poor. Nevertheless, if he had 
 been nothing but a simple robber, he would never have 
 attained that romantic glory which attached very early to 
 his name. It is probable, therefore, that he was driven 
 into this kind of life by some political circumstances which 
 naturally made him the knight of the lower classes; and 
 Mr. Hunter finds it likely that he was one of those yeomen 
 who under Edward II. joined the rebellion of the earl of 
 Lancaster, but failed and were ruined. According to tra- 
 dition, he was bled to death by a nun and buried in Kirk- 
 lees Park, Yorkshire. lie is first mentioned in the Vininn 
 iif Picra Vhiiiijhmnn, written between l.'i55 ami 1.105, and 
 next in the Si'ili'-hrfiitirim, written between i:i77 and i:i84. 
 In 1495, Wynkyn de Worde jmblished a long poem under 
 tho title Li'/tic (IcKlc (if llobyn Hood, which seems to be a 
 combiuaticin of several ballads. In tho sixteenth century 
 rustic sports and masqucra.lings were colobraled in many 
 places under the name of" Robin Hood games." In 1705, 
 Ritson published a collection of all the ballads and his- 
 torical anecdotes referring to Robin Hood; which collec- 
 tion was considerably enlarged in 1S47 by J. M. Gutch. 
 At one time most modern critics agreed in considering 
 Robin Hood ns a mythical creation, representative of tho 
 general relation between the Anglo-Saxon jiopulation and 
 the Norman-French b.aions in the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries, but without any in<livirlual and concrete histor- 
 ical foundation. A German mythologist, Adalbert Kulin, 
 even went so far as to identify the poor robber with the old 
 pagan god Wo.lcn { Ho„rJ— \Vm„i— \V.„hn). But in 1852, 
 Rev. Joseph Hunter publisheil in London a learned and 
 ingenious )>amphlet on the suliject, and although many of 
 the details of his researches are nothing more than hints 
 and suggestions, yet the whole goes far to establish an 
 historical basis for the tradition. 
 
 Hood (Thomas), b. in London May 2.1, 1790. His 
 father, who was a bookseller, d. in 1811, up to which time 
 the son had received but a very unprofitable preparatory 
 education; in 1812, however, his mother placed him at a 
 day school, where, under the care of a good teacher, ho 
 made rapid progress, and gained his first lee for literary 
 labor in revising a new edition of P<nd ft Virtfhtie, From 
 school he entered a counting-house, but his heuKh failing, 
 he was sent to Dundee, where he continued his reading 
 and contributed various pieces to the local publications. 
 Returning to Lon. Ion in I wo years with im|.ro\ed health, 
 he entered the service of his uncle to learn the art of en- 
 graving, in which he acquired sumo skill, which was of 
 value to him in his subsequent career. In 1821 the Aon. 
 rf.oi Marjiuinc fell into the hands of some friends, and 
 Hood became subeditor. In this position he formed tho 
 acquaintance of all the leading literary men of the time, 
 and with Charles Lamb an intimacy sjirang up which 
 lasted during the hitter's Hie. In this society his own 
 powers developed, and his first separate publication, Oi/,» 
 und Addirmieii. soon appeared, being, however, the joint 
 work of himself and J. H. Reynolds. Wliimn und Oddilkn 
 appeared in 1820, followed by .Witimial Talta (1827), I'kn 
 uf the Midtiimmn- /■'« I'ciC", /A c" and Lciindcr, Li/iiih the 
 (Jeiil<iui;iiud Olhir Piiema. In 1829 the ComiV -liiiiioJ was 
 issued, and continued nino years. For a year he edited 
 The (Urn. in which appeared his poem entitled /i'i/y,,ic 
 Arnm'a Drciim. In 18.11 he occupied Lake House, near 
 Wanstcad, where he wrote his novel TiiIikh /IidL In 18:!S 
 //oo./'« Ouii was started, a monthly publication consisting 
 chiefly of extracts from the t'omk- Annual series, with new 
 contributions. His health still being delicate, ho went to 
 the Condnenl. where ho remained for several years, and 
 from Belgium published his f'/i the Hhim:, constructed, as 
 he says in the preface, on the groundwork of llninjthmj 
 Clinker. On his return to Ungland he became editor of 
 tho New ihinthli) Mmjuzine, from which he retired in 184:). 
 In 1844 IltKid'a Maijuzinc Was started, for which he fur- 
 nisheil most of the best work until near his death. A short 
 time before his death, while on a bed of sickness which ho 
 never left alive, ho contributed to Pmich those t.iuehing 
 verses which have rcuilered his name immorliil -" The 
 Song of a Shirt," " Bridge of Sighs," and " The Lay ot a 
 ' Laborer." A short time before his death a government 
 pension of £100 waa secured to him by .Sir Robert Peel, 
 and euntinueil to his widow after his death, which occurred 
 . in London May 3, 1845.
 
 984 
 
 HOOD-HOOKER. 
 
 Hood (Thomas), son of the above, b. at Wan stead, Essex, 
 Jan. \[>, 18;i5 : educated at Oxford : his first literary work, 
 Pen and Pencil Pictitrcit, appeared in lS5-t-66, followed by 
 numerous books for juveniles ; ho was also the author of 
 several bright novels and a number of successful farces and 
 humorous ])ocms. In ISOo he was appointed editor of Fun, 
 a comic periodical and the most successful rival to Punch; 
 was a good designer, and illustrated bis father's comic 
 verses, " Precocious Peggy," etc. 1>. in Loudon Nov. 20, 
 
 is: I. 
 
 Ilootred Seal, the Cystophora crietata, a seal of the 
 ^t'lirtli Atlantic coasts, is about eight feet long, and is cha- 
 rai-terizi'(l by a cartilaginous inflated hood or erest, which 
 in the adult male is of considerable size. It may be a res- 
 ervoir of air for the service of the animal when diving. It 
 is a formidable biter, hut is hunted for its fur and oil. When 
 surpri.-ed by the hunter it sheds copious tears. 
 
 Hoof, the horny shell which covers the foot, or the sep- 
 arate digits of the foot, of certain herbivorous (or mostly 
 herbivorous) mammals. It is the homologue of finger and 
 toe nails of the claws of other vertebrates. It is, histo- 
 logically, composed of the agglutinated and dried cell-walls 
 of epithelium, with a small proportion of intercellular sub- 
 stance and of cell-contents. Chemically, it consists chiefly 
 of an albuminoid substance, of uncertain composition, pro- 
 visionally called keratin. The hoofs of beef-cattle are ex- 
 tensively used in making buttons, combs, and ornamental 
 articles. Horse-hoofs are used in making prussiate of pot- 
 ash and in case-hardening iron. 
 
 Hoogh'ly, town of British India, tho capital of tho 
 district of llooglily, in the presidency of Bengal, on tho 
 left hank of the Ilooghly. It has a college in which both 
 English and Asiatic literature is taught, and which was 
 founded by a native. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Hooghly River is the westernmost outlet of the Gan- 
 ges, formed in lat. 23° 2 J' N. and Ion. 8S° 22' E. by the con- 
 tinence of tho Bhagrutti and the Jelliughy, two branches 
 of the Ganges, and considered as the proper mouth of this 
 river. It is about 200 miles long, 10 miles broad at its en- 
 trance into the Bay of Bengal, and although its mouth and 
 shores are encumbered by mud-shoals, it is navigable for 
 the largest vessels, its draught being 1" feet up to Calcutta. 
 During tho S. W. monsoon the Bore (which see) appears 
 here, and generally the tide is felt 17 miles above Calcutta. 
 Its waters are considered holy by the natives. 
 
 Hoogstraten, von (Samuel), b. at Dort in 1627 ; be- 
 longed to a family of painters: received instruction from 
 Rembrandt: travelled in Germany, Italy, au'l England; 
 and d. in his native city in lt>78. He painted history, 
 ))ortraits, flowers, and animals, but became most celebrated 
 as a painter of still life. 
 
 Hook (TiiKonoRE Edward), b. in London Sept. 22, 
 17*JS ; at Harrow he appears to have been careless and in- 
 attentive to his jiroper studies; he was, however, extremely 
 precocious, and displayed at a very early age remarkable 
 aptitude in making verses and arranging them to music. 
 In 1S05 his first farce was produced. The So/ifirr'a Pctnrn, 
 a comic opera in two acts, which met with great success, 
 and was speedily followed by numerous farces and melo- 
 dramas. But it was his own life at this time which at- 
 tracted pulilic attention toward him. His pnictical jokes 
 were of the boldest kind, while his l>rilliant conversational 
 powers, his remarkable talent f<»r jiunning an<l improvisa- 
 tion, his convivial disposition, soon made him a favorite 
 in aristocratic society and gained him the friendship of the 
 prince regent, who in 1812 secured for him the apjtoint- 
 ment of accountant-general and treasurer of .Mauritius. In 
 IHIS irregularities were discovered in his accounts, and ho 
 was returned to England in arrest, but no gnmnds for a 
 criminal charge existing, he was soon liberated. In IS20 
 he assumed the editorship of the new journal, Jn/m Hufl, 
 which at once reached, and for some time maintained, a 
 large circulation. Tho board of audit declared him in lH2;t 
 a debtor to the Crown in the sum of £12,000, and he was 
 again arrested, and eunlincii for nearly two years. Although 
 no portion of the missing funds was ever traced to Hook, 
 ami it was believed the guilty jiarties were among his sub- 
 ordinates, the government never abated its claim, and at 
 tho death of Hook the small sum realized from tho sale 
 of his ertciMs was claimed by the Crown. In IS24 the first 
 scries of Sni/int/n niuf /ioiuffn appeared, followed by tho 
 second in 1S25. and third in 1S2S: Mtiswrfl was puldished 
 in 18:10; The Ptireon's Ihtufjhtrr in 183.3, etc. ; in lS:ifi he 
 became editor of tho Xm-' Mouthfif Mntpizine; in sixteen 
 years he published some ,1S vohimes. Hook retained his 
 position in society to the last, liut his high living, habit of 
 gambling, and forced mental labor overtaxed his powers, 
 and he d. deeply in debt at Fulhara Aug. 24, I.S41. 
 
 Hook (Waltf.r FAityriiAK), D. D., F. U. S., dean of 
 
 Chichester, b. in 1798, and educated at Winchester and 
 Oxford; was appointed in 1S27 chaplain in ordinary to the 
 king; was long incumbent of Leeds, where he accomplisheil 
 much in the erection of churches, school-houses, chapels, 
 parsonages, etc. His Chnrrfi Dlrt'umarif, Ecctesintttirfil 
 liiinji-ftphy, Livrn of the Arrhbishopn of Canterbitri/, and his 
 numerous published sermons, jiamjiblets on education, etc., 
 are all valuable. D. at London. Eng.. Oct, 21, 1875. 
 
 Hookc (NATiiANiKi,),b. in Ireland about IfiUO; lost his 
 fortune in the .South Sea Bubble ; was engaged by tho 
 duchess of Marlborough in arranging her memoirs; and 
 d. July 19, 17li:i. He was a friend of Pope, and wrote The 
 Ronmn Hhtnri/ from thf- Puiftfinrf of R<niie to the Jiui'n of 
 the Commonwealth (4 vols., 17j7-71), which was much read 
 in its time. 
 
 Hooke (RoBEnT), b. at Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, 
 July 18, IGoj. He was intended for tho Church, but his 
 instincts drew him to tho study of mathematics, astronomy, 
 and mechanics. In 1(>(U ho became professor of geometry 
 at Grcsham College, London ; in 1GG6 was appointed city 
 surveyor, on account of a |ilan ho presented for tho rebuild- 
 ing of London after the Great Fire, though the plan wa3 
 not followeil ; in 1077 was made secretary of tlic Royal So- 
 ciety. B. in London Mar, .3, 1703. While a young man 
 tho art of flying was the subject of his invent ivo sprcuh'-- 
 tions; he afterwards aeeuscd Huygcns of having stolen hi3 
 invention of regulating the balance of a watch by a spiral 
 spring, and laid claim to the first discovery of the princi- 
 ple of gravitation against A'ewton. The most prominent 
 of his writings are Mtcrographia (1666) and Zccfi ones Cui- 
 lerianw (1078-79). 
 
 Hook'er, tp. of Laclede co.. Mo. Pop. 1114. 
 
 Hooker (Edward), U. S, N.,b. Dec. 25, 1822, at Farm- 
 ington. Conn., entered the navy as an acting master July 
 19, 1801 ; was promoted to acting volunteer lieutenant " fur 
 gallantry in action " in 18(12, and became an acting volun- 
 teer lieutenant-commander in 1S05: was commissioned as 
 a lieutenant-commander in the navy in ISOS: served in 
 the North Atlantic squadron during 1801 and 1SG2, aud 
 commanded a division of vessels in tho Potomac flotilla 
 fur the remainder of the civil war: was severely wounded 
 in a boat expedition (Oct. 5, 1801), and behaved with dis- 
 tinguished bravery; is mentioned in the olficial rejiorts of 
 Rear-admiral Lee and Commanders Murray, Parker, and 
 Renshaw as a '* brave, cool, and able officer." Lieut. -com- 
 mander Hooker is descended from Rev. Thomjis Hooker, 
 who landed at Plymouth, I^Iass., in 1635, and afterward led 
 the colony which settled at Hartford. Conn, Many of the 
 name took an active part in the early Indian wars, and Col. 
 Noadiah Hooker, the grandfather of Lieut. -commander 
 Hooker, was an ofiicer of some distinction in the army of 
 the Revolution. FoxHALL A. Parkkr. 
 
 Hooker {Josn rn). b. at Hadley, Mass., Nov. 13, 1814 ; 
 graduated at West Point, and entered the army as second 
 lieutenant of artillery .luly 1, 1837; after a campaign in 
 Florida against the Seminoles. he ser\ed on frontier uml 
 garrison duty till* 18)0. and 1840-48 in the war with Mexico 
 on the staff of Gens. Persifer Smith, Hamer. and Butler: 
 in 1847 appointed .assistant adjutant-general, serving as 
 such in Pillow's division : brevetted captain, major, and 
 lieutenant-colonel for gallantry at Monterey, the National 
 Bridge, and Chapultejiec. In Feb., 1853. he resigned from 
 the army, and engaged in farming in t^alifornia. where for 
 two years previous he had served; also engaged as super- 
 intendent of military roads in Oregon. On the outbreak 
 of the civil war (1801) he tendered his services to tho gov- 
 ernment, and was appointed (May 17. 18('>1 ) brigadier-gen- 
 eral of vohmteers, serving in tho defences of Washington 
 and on the lower Potomac until Mar., 18G2. when he was 
 assigned to the command of a division of the 3d corps, Army 
 of the Potomac; in tho Virginia Peninsular campaign, 
 1802, was engaged in the siege of Vorktown. April-May; 
 battle of M''illjamsburg. May ."), where his division bore tho 
 brunt of the battle nearly all day : at Fair Oaks (second 
 day). Frazier's Farm, an<l Malvern Hill. Hooker was now 
 promoted to be major-general of volunteers, to date from 
 the battle of Williamsluirg. continuing in command uf a 
 division and engagetl at the battle of Manassas. Aug. 20-30, 
 and Chant illy. Sept. 1 ; appointed to command the 1st cor])? 
 .Sept, G, 1S02, he disjdayed great bravery at South Moun- 
 tain and Aniietara. being severely wounded at the latter 
 battle, nnd disaided until November, when he returned to 
 the field, having in the mean time (Sept. 20) been ap- 
 pointed brigadier-general in tho regular army, and on 
 Burnside's succession to the commnnd of the Army of 
 the Potomac was assigned to commaml the centre grand 
 division (3d and hX\\ corps) in the new organization of 
 that army, and held this command at the battle of Fred- 
 ericksburg. I)e?. 13, 18G2. In Jan., 1803. Hooker suc- 
 ceeded Burnsido in command of the Army of the Poto-
 
 HOOKER— HOOPER'S ISLAND. 
 
 985 
 
 mac, and in May following fought the battle of ChanccIIors- 
 villc. where, though outnumbering the enemy, he decidcrl 
 after two days' lighting to return to the X. bank of the 
 Kappahannock. At the time of the invasion of Pennsyl- 
 vania by tlie Confederate army the Armv of the Potomac, 
 following, had reached the vicinity of Frederi(-k. Mil., when, 
 owing to the refusal of *ien. llalleck to jilare the troops at 
 Harper's Ferry at the dispui>al of Hooker, tlie latter re- 
 quested to he (June 27), and was, relieved from command 
 of the army the next morning. For the t^kill and energy 
 by which he tirj-t covered \V'ashington and liitltimore from 
 the meditated blow of the advancing enemy (ien. Hooker 
 received the thanks of Congress. In Sept., 186:i, he was 
 assigned to the comuoand of the 2nth army corps (Array 
 of the Cumberlnnd"!, and was distingnishe*! at the capture 
 of Lookout Mountain, battle of Missionary Ridge (Nov. 
 24-25 1, pur^iuit of the ( onfedcrate army, and the action 
 of Ringgold, (Ja.. Nov. 27. 186.1. In the invasion of Geor- 
 gia by the army of Gen. Sherman, Hooker led his corps in 
 the alraoiit constant fighting up to and ineluding the siege 
 of Atlanta, until July ZO, lSfi4, when on a question of com- 
 mand he was relieve*! at his own request. He subsequently 
 commanded the northern department, the department of 
 the P^nst, and that of the T*akes ; brovetted major-general 
 U. S. A. for gallantry at Chattanooga, and Oet., 18GS, re- 
 tired upon full rank of major-general. G. 0. Simmons. 
 Hooker (JosEi-n Dai.ton). M. D.. P. C. L., LL.D., 
 
 C. II.. F. R. S., a son of Sir W. J. Hnokor. b. in 1S17,: 
 went in IS'VJ as botanist to the Erebus Antarctic expedition ; 
 was 1817-51 engaged in an expedition to the Himalayas; 
 became in 185o assistant director, and in ISfiS director, of 
 the Kew Gardens ; explored in 1S7I Morocco and the Great 
 Atlas Mountains; is a member of many learned societies. 
 Author of Flora Auturrticn (184^4—17), Crjiptmjnmin Ant- 
 (irrttra (IS (7), Rhododentfronti of the Sthkiin-flnnnlnya 
 (18(9-51), f/orrt o/" JV.ir Zealand (1852-54), Himalnyan 
 Jonrnnli (1854), S'd-kim-THmalajjan Plants (1855), pLrn 
 Taitmaiilra (1S55). The Stiulcnt'ti Flora (1870), with G. 
 Bentham, (ifucra /'AiM/ficKHf (publishing in 1875), and other 
 valuable works and many scientific papers. 
 
 Hooker (RicfiAitn), b. near Exeter about 1554; studied 
 at Oxfonl, and took orders in 1581. Shortly after ho mar- 
 ried rather unhappily, and held ecclesiastical offices in 
 Drayton- Hcauchaiup, Temple, Boscombe and Bishops- 
 bourne, where he d. Nov. 2. ICOO. His colleague in Temple 
 was Travcrs, one of the most zealous Puritans in the times 
 of Elizabeth, and between him and Hooker a sharp con- 
 troversy arose, which occasioned the famous work of the 
 latter, the Lair» of ErrlcHiantiral Pulit//. The four first 
 books were published in 1594; the fifth followed in 151<7; 
 the remaining three were posthumous. The work Is a de- 
 fence of the Church of England and Church establishments 
 in general, and its learning and style arc generally praised, 
 even by sucli as hold opposite views. 
 
 Hooker (Thomas), b. at Markfield. Leicestershire, Eng- 
 land, in l.'>Sl'i; studied theology at Cambridge; preached 
 in London, but left England in Ifi.'tO, persecuted f(»r non- 
 conformity. After preaching in Delft and Rotterdam, ho 
 came to America in IC^J.'J, and settled at Newtown (now Cam- 
 bridge), Mass., whence in IG^G he removed witli lUO others 
 to the present Hartford. Conn. He and Stone were the 
 first ministers at the church here, and his influence was 
 very large. D. here July 7, 1047. His principal work is 
 A Siirvfi/ of thr SniUfiip. if Church DinripHnr, written in 
 connection with John Cotton. Some of his sermons were 
 published in England. A selection of his works and a 
 memoir of his life were published by the Rev, E. W. Hooker 
 (Boston. ISIO). 
 
 Hooker (Sir Wii.mam Jackson), D. C. L.. F. R. S., b. 
 at Norwich. Eng., in 1785; became in youth a zeahms 
 botanist; travelled abroad in his favorite pursuit 180()-I4; 
 became regius jtrofessor of botany at Glasgow 1S2U ; cflited 
 i\\v liotaniral Minrellantf (I82S-:{:j); t\\c Luudon Journal 
 of //o/fiMr/( IS.'U-ril ) ; was knighted 18UG: became director 
 of Kcw tiardcns 1841 ; d. at Keiv Aug. 12, IH05. Author 
 of 7'nur in /rrlaml (1SI1|, /{n'tinh ./iiitf/rrmainit/r (18I(J), 
 ^fnfr^,ln^fia /tn'taiiiiira (with Taylor. 18IS), Flora Scotira 
 (182U, Exotic Flora {:i V(ds., lSl.':!-27), /roucM /'iViVk/ji (with 
 Grevillc, l820-:i7), Ivouri, Flniitarunt (10 vols., 18:jf»-54), 
 Flora Jiorcali. Americana (1829-10). /tritinh Flora (18.10), 
 Of^nrra of Fernn (lS:t8-12), .V/*fcic» Filicum (1846-53), 
 and many other botanical works. 
 
 Hooker ( WoHTiiiNr.TON), A. M., M. D.. b. at Pprlng- 
 fiobl, Ma*s., Mar. :t. iSOr, ; graduated at Yale in ls25; re- 
 ceived his medical doirree at Harvard in 1S2U: practised 
 at Norwich and Now Haven, Conn., ami was professor of 
 the theory and pra-'tice of medicine in Yule College 1S52- 
 07. He was the author of a series of scientific books for 
 the young, and of a number of professjoniil works which 
 gave him a wide reputation as a physician an*! scholar. 
 
 D. at New Haven. Conn., Nov. fi, iSrt". 
 
 Hook'crtoii, tp. and post-v. of Greene cc, N. C, 
 82 miles S. E. of Raleigh, on Moccasin River. Pop. of v. 
 ICu: of tp. 12S0. 
 
 Hooks and Kyes, for fastening garments upon the 
 person, have been worn for ages. Some forms of tlie Mo- 
 man fh II In- or clasps arc essentially the same as our modern 
 hooks and eyes, which are at present made with great 
 rapidity entirely by machinery. 
 
 Hook'sett) post-tp. of Merrimack co., N. H., on Mer- 
 rimack River an<l on the Boston Nashua and Concord R. U., 
 at the junction of the Suncook Valley R. R., 8 miles below 
 Concord. It has manufactures of brick, lumber, and cam- 
 brics. Pop. iu:;o, 
 
 Hook^Squidf a name given to certain ccphalopods 
 of the genera Om/rhoituthis and Enoplotntthis, mostly, as 
 far as known, of small size, but much dreaded for their 
 long hooked tentacles and suckers and their voracious habits. 
 There are nearly twenty known species, mostly found in 
 warm seas only. 0. Uanksii ranges through must seas, 
 warm and cold. 
 
 Hooks'town, post-b. of Grceno tp., Beaver co., Pa. 
 Pop. 259. 
 
 Hoop'er (Jonx), b. in Somersetshire about 1495 ; 
 studied theology at Oxford, but having a<loptcd the views 
 of the German Reformers, he was compelled to leave Ox- 
 ford, and went to Switzerland. On the accession of Edward 
 VI. in 1547, he returned to England, preached with great 
 success in London, and was in 1550 appointed bishop of 
 Gloucester. In the beginning of the reign of Mary, in 155o, 
 he was imprisoned, and as bo refused to retract, he was con- 
 demned as a heretic and burned at the stake at Gloucester, 
 Feb. 9, 1555. He wrote several works, among which was 
 Twch-e Lcctnrrg on the forced (1581) ; also several interest 
 ing letters from him have been discovered, and published 
 by Rev. C. Nevinson (Cambridge, 1852). 
 
 Hooper (.Johnson J.) was b. and br*^d in North Caro- 
 lina, but early became alawycrandan able Wliig journalist 
 of Alabama. He was (lS49-fi.'J) solicitor of the ninth Ala- 
 bama circuit, and in 18Ct secretary of the Provisional Con- 
 gress of the Confecleratc States. Ilis principal works :ire 
 M'idoio JiuijltyH Iliiibaud (18jl) and the Advfjitfttrcn of 
 Simon Siitjtfs, the last an exceedingly popular book. Mr. 
 Hooper was a man of convivial habit.*, and late in life be- 
 came a Roman Catholic. D. in 18(5.3. 
 
 Hooper (Lccv), b. at Newburyport, Mass.. Feb. 4, 
 181(5; removed at fifteen, with her father, to Brooklyn, 
 N. Y., where she wrote poems for the Long Island Star. 
 I). Aug. 1, 1841. Among her works were Scenes from Heal 
 Lift: (1840), Domentie Ilnppiuesit, a prize essay (1840), 
 Ladfa Book of Flo went ( 1845). Her }VitrkM, with a memoir 
 bv J')hu Keese, appeared in 1S42, and Complete Poetical 
 Works in IS48. 
 
 Hooper (Sami'Kl), M. A., b. at Marblehead, IMass., 
 Feb. '^. 18(1S. His father was engaged in the Eurnpean and 
 West Inilia tracle. and the son as his agent visited Kussia, 
 Spain, and the W'est Imlics. In 18^1;^ he beeame a partner 
 in the mercantile house of Bryant, Sturgis & Co., of Bos- 
 ton, who traded largely on the Pacific coast and in China, 
 sending their vessels to California for hides, to the N. W. 
 coast for furs, and to China for teas and silks. About 1842 
 he became a mcnilier (»f the firm of William Appleton & 
 Co.. who were also engaged in the China trade. Mr. 
 Hooper also was largely interested in the iron business, 
 and devoted much attention to questions of finance and 
 currency. In 1851 he was chosen a member of the Massa- 
 chusetts house of representatives, where he served three 
 years, when he declined a re-election ; in 1857 he was 
 chosen a member of the State senotc. In ISCl he was 
 elected to Congress to fill a vacancy, and was re-elected at 
 each successive biennial eleeti4ni, ancl was a member of 
 t Congress at the time of his death, at Washington. Feb. l;;, 
 1875. He served on the committees of ways and means. '•( 
 banking an<l currency, and of the war debts of the loyal 
 States, and to bis elftirts was in no small degree iluc (he 
 success of the national loan of Ajir., 18(51. and of the na- 
 tional banking system. He wrote two pamphlets on the 
 ■ currency question, which are notable for broad and com- 
 prcbensh'c views. Ho was the founder of the School nf 
 Mines in Howard Cniversity. from which in 1800 he re- 
 j ceivcd the degree of master of arts. 
 
 I Hooper (Wilmam), a signer of the Declaration of In- 
 ' depi'ii'lenee, b. at Bost(ut, Mass.. .Tune 17, I74L*; graduated 
 at Harvurd in 1700; studied law umler James Otis; re- 
 moved in 17(57 to North Carolina, where he held many im- 
 ' portant public positions, serving in the old Congress 1774— 
 I 77. D. at Hillsborough. X. C., Oct., 1790. 
 
 lloopfr's Crt'ck, tp. of Henderson co., N. C. P. 755. 
 
 Hooper's Islaiitl, tp. of Dorchester co., Md., consist-
 
 986 
 
 HOOPESTON— HOP-CULTURE. 
 
 ing chiefly of a long narrow peninsula between Hong 
 Kiver and Chesapeake Bay. Pop. 700. 
 
 Uoope'ston, post-v. of Vermilion co.. III., 104 miles 
 S. of Chi(^a;;o. on the Cliicago UanviDe and Vincennes and 
 the Lafayette IJioomington and ^lississippi U. Ry, It ha^j a 
 seminary, several churclies, abanlv, 1 newspaper, elevators, 
 public halls, 4 hotels, stores, etc. Principal occupation, 
 merchandising and trafficking in grain. Pop. about 1200. 
 SEAvtY &, AVai.i.aoi:, Ens. ** Ciiuonicle." 
 
 Hooping Cough. Sec Whoopinc Cough. 
 
 Iloop'oe (so named from its note), the Upupa epopa, a 
 slender-billed bird of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and of the 
 family Upupidie. It feeds on insects, and is the subject of 
 many popular superstitions, being regarded as ominous of 
 evil. It is in reality a very harmless and even useful bird. 
 It is (juite small, but very elegant in appearance. Other 
 sjx'cics are described, none of them American. 
 
 lloorn, town of the Netherlands, in the province of 
 North Holland, on the Zuyder-Zce. Its fortifications have 
 been transformed into promenades, and now it has import- 
 ance only as a trading and manufacturing place. It has 
 considerable shipbuilding and a naval college. Pop. 
 95 on. 
 
 Hoo'sac River rises in Lanesboro', Berkshire co., 
 Mass., flows N. and N. W., traverses the S. W. angle of 
 Vermont and Rensselaer and AVashington cos., N. Y., 
 affording abundant water-jtowcr, which is extensively 
 utilized. It is called IlooHirf: in New York. 
 
 Hoosac Tunnel. The Iloosac Tunnel is in the north- 
 western nart of the State of Massachusetts, and is contained 
 within the limits of the towns of Florida and Adams in Berk- 
 shire CO. It is on the railroad route from Boston, Mass., 
 via. Greenfield, to Troy, N. Y. The distance from Boston 
 to the E. portal is i;J7 miles, and thence to Troy 54 miles. 
 That part of the route in Massachusetts, W. of (irecnfield, 
 which embraces the Hoosac Tunnel, is called the Troy and 
 Greenfield R. R. Experimental work was first commenced 
 in 1851, but no actual tunnelling until ISjC. In 1862 the 
 State took possession, and has since prosecuted the work. 
 The tunnel is a little more than 4j^ miles long, and is made 
 large enough for the passage of two lines of railway trains. 
 It reaches through the Hoosac Mountain, which is the sum- 
 mit-range that extends southward into Massachusetts from 
 the (Trecn Mountains of Vermont. The greater part of the 
 rock penetrated is a micaceous seliist, exhibiting, however, 
 widely variant conditions and characteristics in ditTerent 
 portions of the length. A working-shaft 1028 feet deep, 
 which has been sunk near the centre of its length, will bo 
 the only one kept open for the purpose of aiding in the 
 ventilation of the tunnel. The work of excavating sinco 
 18G6 has been greatly expedited by the application of ma- 
 chine-drills. These have been driven by pneumatic power, 
 and in this, and also in availing of the force of percussion 
 in drilling, they resemble those which were employed in 
 the Mont Cenis Tunnel, and are believed to be of superior 
 advantage and efficiency. Near the E. end constructions 
 were made to utilize the flow of the Deerfield River for 
 driving the compressors. At the other points of supply 
 compression of air hiis been obtained entirely by steam- 
 power. The cost of the tunnel and 'Ad miles of adjoining 
 railroad, including the accumulatinn of interest, has been 
 about $i;i.OOO,000. Tlic tniinvl has b.-cn opened for limited 
 use, and trains pass through it d;iily, but the work of arch- 
 ing the portions in which the roof requires support is still 
 in progress (May, 1875). Bknmamin D. Frost. 
 
 Hoo'sick, post-tp. of Rcnsselaercn., N.Y. It is traversed 
 by thr Hoosick River, and is on the Troy and Boston and 
 Troy and Bennington 11. Rs., 30 miles from Troy. The 
 township has extensive water-power and several manufac- 
 turing villages. Lime and 8latc are procured here. The 
 so-called battle of Bennington (Aug. 10, 1777) was fought 
 in this town. Pop. 5728. 
 
 Hoosick Falls, post-v. of Rensselaer co., N. Y., 26 
 miles N. N. E. of Troy, on the Troy and Boston R. U. It 
 contains a graded school, d churches, a large mowing- 
 machine factory employing 800 hands, malleable iron-works, 
 1 newspaper, a steam saw-mill, and other manufactories, 
 and 2 hoti-ls, stores, etc. Pop. about 4000. 
 
 J. II. LivisGSTox, Ed. '• Ri:nssei.akk Co. Standard." 
 
 Hoo'sier Prai'rie, tp. of Clay co., III. Pop. 1179. 
 
 Hop Bottom, poHt-v. of Sustiuchanna co.. Pa., on the 
 Dclawiiro Lackawanna and Western R. R., 27 miles N. by 
 \V. of Serantnn. 
 
 Hop-culture. Hops (which see) grow wild in most parts 
 of the Northern U. S. and Europe. There is but one botani- 
 cal species — namely, /fniiiuhix Luputut — but this is broken 
 into varieties by cultivation. The plant belongs to the net- 
 tle family (Urticaceae). and like the hemp is dia'cious. It 
 is a climbing vine with harsh foliage and rough stems, 
 
 twining with the sun — that is, from left to right. In its 
 wild state it clambers up the stems of shrubs and copse- 
 wood, and reaches high up among the limbs of lofty trees. 
 The root is perennial, but the siems die in winter. Planta- 
 tions of hops are not profitable S. of lat. 40. 
 
 The soil of a hop-yard should be made deep and rich ; 
 good corn or wheat ground will serve. It should be dry at 
 all seasons, deeply and thoroughly worke<l, and subsoiling 
 is a great advantage. It should be on sunny and elevated 
 ground, where it may have the influenec of the sun and 
 air, and be exposed neither to high winds nor to early 
 frosts. The confined atmosphere of valleys or close prox- 
 imity to woods induces disease and favors parasitic insects. 
 Though there are several varieties of hops, possessing di- 
 versities of flavor and appearance, the market seems to 
 favor no particular kind as such. Hence, growers select 
 varieties which in their own localities enjoy a reputation 
 as yielding most or suffering least from rust and insects. 
 The best known varieties are the "'grape hop," which has 
 largo clusters, easily picked, the *' English cluster," a free- 
 fruiting, golden-yellow variety, with reddish stems, and 
 tho"Pompey hop," a rank grower, having medium-sized 
 clusters of long green, quadrangular fruit, of very marked 
 appearance, but said to be liable to rust and mildew. 
 
 Hops are cultivated in hills set 7^ to 8 feet apart. The 
 roots do not fill the ground until the end of the seoond or 
 third year. The fir^t year, therefore, any crop may be 
 raised to fill tl»e soil which will not interfere with the culti- 
 vation. The land being manured and ploughed in autumn, 
 and left rough, is ploughed again in the spring, and marked 
 off — best by furrows 8 feet apart each way. Stakes arc set 
 at the intersection of the lines to mark the hills. Cuttings 
 (•'sets") are obtained from some established and healthy 
 yard. They are the shoots which come from the crown of 
 the plant, and are removed at the annual pruning, cut in 
 lengths containing two joints or four eyes, and sold by the 
 bushel. They should be fresh, and maybe kept in the cel- 
 lar or in the ground until wanted. Two to four bushels are 
 required to plant an acre. Three or four sets are jdaced 
 equally distant near the centre of the hill, just below the 
 surface, thv^ir tops inclining together. As soon as con- 
 venient poles G or 8 feet high, like common bean-poles, are 
 set. If the soil is rich, the sets vigorous, and planted 
 early, a fair crop may be gathered the first year. In all 
 hop-yards there must be some male hops, in order that the 
 blossoms may become fruitful. The number required is 
 about one hill in GQ or 80. The male sets are therefore 
 kept separate, and every seventh or eighth hill each way 
 is set with male hops and distinctly marked. The ground 
 is cultivated the first year in connection with the accom- 
 panying crop, and kept free from weeds, e-pecially from 
 grass. At the close of the season one or two forkfuls of 
 coarse manure are thrown upon each hill, not only as a fer- 
 tilizer, but to protect the i)lants through the winter. Au- 
 tumn is the best time to cut jioles for setting the next 
 spring. These may be 10 to 25 feet in length, and of some 
 ilurable timber. In hop-growing regions young trees fit 
 for poles have long since been exhausted, and poles are 
 brought great distances at heavy cost. This has given rise 
 to certain jiatented systems of training whicli .arc more or 
 less in vogue. One of the simplest is to set light sawed 
 poles to stand about 8 feet high, one to each hill, and con- 
 nect them at their tops by tarred hempen twine. The vines 
 are trained upon these cords, except those of the male hills, 
 which run upon lofty poles, that their pollen may bo scat- 
 tered. The picking is much simpler and easier than pick- 
 ing from poles, and numerous advantages arc claimed, such 
 as freedom from disease and insects. The system has ob- 
 vious and important merits. 
 
 In the spring of the second and subsequent years the 
 earth is drawn away from the hills, the plants exposed, the 
 crowns cut back to the new sprouts, taking usually an inch 
 or two from the crowns. Tlu- poles, which arc prefenibly 
 18 feet long, are pointed, and holes being made with an 
 appropriately shaped eri>wbar. two and sometimes more 
 are set to each hill. 15 to IS inches apart and bending or 
 inclining slightly away from each otlicr. yet not so as to 
 come near to the poles of other hills. The largest and strong- 
 est poles are set in the direction of the highest winds and 
 around the outside. Ordinary corn-cultivators are gener- 
 ally used for hoeing hops, the ground being thoroughly 
 ploughed at least once early in each year. .As soon as the 
 vines arc two feet long they must be trained to the poles, 
 selecting two strong ones for each pole, ancl cutting the 
 rest away. The vines are tied to the poles with bast-mat- 
 ting, old yarn, or cheap strings, and should be looked to 
 fre(iuently until all cling well to the jiolcs, it being neces- 
 sary for some vines to use a light ladder or steps. Hop- 
 vines are very brittle in the morniug or evening, but may bo 
 handled when the sun is hot. They must always be wound 
 about the poles with thecoursu of the sun. Tillage in the hop-
 
 HOP-DEVOURING INSECTS— HOPEWELL. 
 
 987 
 
 yard continues until they bloom, and then, on account of 
 6omc prejudice, it is discontinued usually uutil tins is past 
 and the hops are set. It is best to cultivate or stir tho 
 ground as often as the weeds start, and enough to keep it 
 open and porous. 
 
 Hops arc usually ripe enough to pick by tho last week 
 in August, and ihc harvest continues several weeks. Tho 
 hop is known to be ripo when the seeds are hard and pur- 
 ple or beginning to get purple. Men take tho poles down, 
 first cutting the vines for smuo fcot above the ground and 
 loosening them from the pnles. which arc then laid upon 
 supports over the boxes or " bins." into which women and 
 girls pick the hops, taking care not to let leaves and stems 
 full in. If the picking comnicnees too early, tho vines 
 bleed, and not unlVequentU' are thus destroyed or receive 
 great injury. Tho *' horizontal " hop-yards, or those upon 
 cords, offer thus a great advantage, for tho strings aro 
 loosened at tho poles, and tho vines, thus lowered within 
 easy reach, allow «<f the hops being picked into large bas- 
 kets. Tho '* bins " before uientioncj usually hold 7 to 10 
 bushels. When full they aro emptied into immense bags, 
 and taken upon wagons to tho kiln, where they are dried 
 immediately after picking, for they spoil easily if they lie 
 in heaps. 
 
 The kiln is a building ordinarily of wood, containing 
 usually four rooms — a lofty stove-room, a low dryiug-loft 
 immediately above tho stove-room, a store-room on a 
 lower level than the drying-loft, and a press-room beneath 
 it. The kilns arc built to corrcsp<md with the size of the 
 yard, or two or more arc used, and they aro of various 
 plans. There arc several patent kilns or patented methods 
 of drying. The floor of the dryiug-loft is of slats covered 
 with a hempen carpet, tightly spun, but loosely woven to 
 allow the air to pass freely. The hops arc sprciid upon this 
 carpet to the depih of 12 to 14 inches, and stirred when 
 they become nearly dry. After from 12 to 22 hours' drying 
 they arc generally cured, and are shoved and swept off into 
 the store-room. In one of these patent kilns the carpet 
 rolls back and forth, thus carrying the dried hops and 
 depositing them on the floor of the store-room. In another 
 the carpet is on a frame which tilts when over the store- 
 room floor. Hops are dry enough when they crumble two- 
 thirds to pieces in the hand, and when the steins do not 
 fee! moist or cool when pressed by the lips. After the first 
 heat, and subsequently, flowers of sulphur are burned in the 
 stove-room. The fumes passing through the h<»ps serve to 
 liberate the moisture rapi'lly, and in case the hops aro rusty 
 the effect is very niarke'l. but much more suljdiur is need- 
 ed. For fair hops one pound to one and a half is sulphur 
 enough, but for rusty hops several pounds arc required. 
 It is important to get h»)ps<lry enough, and they should bo 
 stirred once during the drying, but not until all percepti- 
 ble steam has passed off. Should a charge get too dry, a 
 pan of coals is set in the store-room, the ventilators 
 are closed, and salt thrown upon them. Tins gives out 
 moisture, which toughens the overdried hops. The firo 
 must go down and the hops cool off considcral)ly before 
 tliey are removed to iho store-room, and the newly-dried 
 hops cannot be mingled with the others until the next day ; 
 and the best way is to leave them on the cooling floor, 
 shoving them back as space is neede.l, keeping two or 
 three charges spread over the floor all the time, and 
 putting the oldest daily into the bins. After ten days or 
 »o, and within six weeks, the hops should he baled, tho 
 press being in the room below the cooling floor. The usual 
 size of the hop bale is 20 or 24 inches, by 4 feet or there- 
 abouts ; screw-presses are generally employed. The press 
 is lined with cloth made for tho purpose called '* Dundee 
 sacking," and this is sewed tight after the pressing and 
 before the pressure is relieved. Hops arc mnrketetl through 
 commission merchants, and are consumed by the brewers 
 almost exclusively. 
 
 Hops arc raised in tho U. S. not only in sufficient quan- 
 lilios for home consumption, but for export. The produc- 
 tion has vastly increased within a few veiirs. it having 
 been in IH'jft about .'i. 500.000 pounds: in ISCII, 11.000.000; 
 and in iHTtl. according to the last census, 25,45ri,t>tl9. Over 
 22,01(0.(100 were produced within the Slates of New York 
 f 17,JJS,000) and Wisconsin (4.0:50.000). The principal hop- 
 produc'ng States named in rirder of prrKluction arc as fol- 
 lows; New York, Wisconsin. .Michigan, California, Ver- 
 mont. Maine. Minnesota, Iowa, and Illinois. (Sec IIoPS, 
 by PitoK. Hknuv Wt ktz, A. M.) M. C. Wki.d. 
 
 ]lop"dcvourinf; Insects are quite numerous in spe- 
 cies, and in simie sensons and plaees are extremely destruc- 
 tive. Among the more important kinds ari' firnptn intrr- 
 roifntiouin, (r\ C'arifrntrum, d. rammot and Thechi /tiimu/i', all 
 hop-butterflies ; /frpia/un hitnnifi, a Kuropean moth : //i/- 
 pnift hiiiinih', a very destructive hop-uKith. common in the 
 V. S. ; Aiiit/ii/rrpfitiliiK iiitrrrn/itiiii, a froth-fly; /Ittftim mn- 
 rinua, a flea-beetle ; Aphit hnmuli, a plant-louse, and other?. 
 
 Tho hest methods for treating them are hand-picking, tho 
 use of whale-oil soap, frequent shaking of the vines, etc. 
 Generous culture may enable vines to thrive in spite of in- 
 sect ravages. 
 
 IIopc, tp. of La Pallo co.. IH. Pop. 14;J7. 
 
 Hope, post-v. of Haw Creek tp., Bartholomew co., Ind. 
 Pop. Tfij. 
 
 Uope^ post-tp. of Knox CO., Me., 14 miles N. N. AV. of 
 Rockland. It has manufactures of sash, doors, furniture, 
 etc. Pop. 907. 
 
 Hope, Ip. of Barry co., Mich. Pop. 1143. 
 
 Hope, tp. and post-v. of Warren co., N.J. Pop. 1j42. 
 
 Hope, tp. of Hamilton co., N. Y. It has manufactures 
 of lumber and leather. Pop. OiiS. 
 
 Hope, tp. of Williamsburg CO., S. C. Pop. 1591. 
 
 Hope (Alexander James Bere.sforo), LL.I)., son of 
 the author of Anastaaiuty b. 1S20 ; educated at Harrow and 
 Cambridge, graduating at Trinity 1S41 ; memberof Parlia- 
 ment for Miiidstone lS41-i2, and again in I8J7; elected 
 for Stoke-upon-Trent IStjJ, and in 18GS for the University 
 of Cambridge, which he now (lS7o) represents ; was presi- 
 dent of the Koyal Institute of British Architects 18f.5-67. 
 Ho has taken an active part in the Church movement and 
 in artistic architectural questions, being strongly on tho 
 Gothic side. In 1S44 he purchased tho ancient buildings 
 of St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury, which he restored 
 and endowed as a college for missionary clergy. Author 
 of LtAtcrs on Church MatttrSf by I). C. L. ; The Em/lish 
 Cathedral of the Nineteenth Centiin/, and numerous pamph- 
 lets, etc, lu 1SJ4, by royal license, he assumed the name 
 of Beresford, the name of his mother, who married a second 
 husband, the viscount Beresford. 
 
 Hope (Admiral Sir James), G. C. B., b. at Edinburgh 
 in I80S : educated at the Royal Naval College; entered 
 the British navy as midshipman 1S22; became captain 
 1838; served near Buenos Ayres IS44— 1.>; in the Baltic 
 18o4-i>G ; in tho East Indian and Chinese waters 1859-GO; 
 was distinguished in the ojierations that led to the taking 
 of Peking; transferred to duty in the West Indies 186:i ; 
 became a G. C. B. 1805, a full admiral 1870; is deputy 
 lieutenant for Linlithgowshire, and also first and principal 
 naval aide-de-camp to the queen. 
 
 Hope (Thomas), b. in London in 1774: made extensive 
 travels througli Europe, Asia, and Africa, and attracted 
 considerable attention in ISOJ by his book on Homrhidd 
 Furniture and Inter mil Decoration. Less influence had 
 The CoHtumen of the AncicntH (1809), Designs of Modern 
 CoHtttmen (1812), and Architecture of Theatres; while his 
 romance, AuastnHins, or the Memoirs of a Modern Greek 
 (1819). made quite a sensation. D. in London Feb. :i, 18.11. 
 After his death an essay by him On the Origin and Pros- 
 pects if Man was published. 
 
 Hope (Thomas Chari.es), b. in Edinburgh July 21, 
 17*10 ; became professor of chemistry at the University of 
 Glasgow in 1787, and in 1799 at the University of Edin- 
 burgh. D.Juno 13, 1S44. 
 
 Hope & I'o., a firm of bankers at Amsterdam, luunded 
 before 170U by a Scotchman named Henry Hope. By 
 marriages and business alliances the house has had in- 
 timate connection with the Barings, and by blood and 
 marriage the house is uiso connected with several noble and 
 aristoeratie fumilies of Great Britain. 
 
 Hopo'dale, tp. and post-v. of Tazewell eo , UK, on tho 
 j Chicago and Alton R. 11., 25 miles W. by S. of Bloomington. 
 I Pop. lUOfi. 
 
 Ilopedale, a beautiful post-v. of Milford tp., Worcester 
 ' CO.. Mass.. the seat of the Hopedale Community. 
 
 Ilopedalo, post-v. of Cadiz tp., Harrison co., 0., 8 
 miles \. E. of Cadiz. Pop. 369. 
 
 Hope'field, tp. of Crittenden co., Ark. Pop. I:t7. 
 
 Hope Val'ley, p"»sl v. of Richmond tp., Washington 
 CO.. R. I., bus important manufactures. 
 
 nop<?'\V<'H, tp. of .Marshall co., 111. Pop. 75:i. 
 
 Ilopewrll, tp. <jf Cumberland co., N. .1. Pop. 1857. 
 
 HopeweH, ip.und post-v. of Mercer co., N. J., on tho 
 Mercer and Somerset brauch R. R. Pop. 4276, 
 
 Ilopi'wrll* post-tp. of Ontario co., N. Y.,on tho North- 
 ern Ci ninil 11. K., () miles S. E. of Cunandaigua. P. 1863. 
 
 Hopr\vi>H, tp. of Licking co., 0. Pop. 1009. 
 
 H4>l>i*u'<'H^ tp. of .Mercer co., 0. Pop. 894. 
 
 HopewrlU tp- and post-v. of Muskingum co., (^. Pnp. 
 of V. 7.'>; of tp. 1703. 
 
 IlopewrH, tp. of Perry co., 0. Pop. 1260. 
 
 Ht>pr\vi'H, tp- of Seneca CO., 0. Pop. 1370. 
 
 lioprwc'M, tp. of Beaver co., Pa. Pop. lOlJ.
 
 988 
 
 HOPEWELL— HOPKINS. 
 
 Hopewell, tp. of Bedford cc, Pa., on the Huntingdon 
 and liroad Top R. K. Tbe post-borough of lI«|icwoll on 
 the same railroad, is in the adjoining tp. of Broad lop. 
 Hopewell tp. contains ironworks. Pop. HITS. 
 
 Hopewell, a l>. of I'hester co., Pa. Pop. 2CS. _ 
 Hopewell, tp. of C'umlicrland Co., Pa. Pop. S"". 
 Hopewell, tp. of Huntingdon en.. Pa., on the Hun- 
 tin;;doii and Uroad Top R. U. It has iron-works. P. 412. 
 Hopewell, tp. of \Va,-hington co., Pa. Pop. 804. 
 Hopewell, tp. of York co., Pa. It contains the vil- 
 lage of .^tewartstown. Pop. 3830. 
 
 Ilopewell, tp. of Anderson co., S. C. Pop. 1206. 
 Hopewell, tp. of Orangeburg co., S. C. Pop. 29.1. 
 Hopewell Cape, post-v., the cap. of .\Ibert co., N. 13., 
 on Shepodv liav and the junction of tlie Meniramcook and 
 Pctitcodiac rivers, 21 miles S. W. of Dorchester. It has 
 some shipbuilding. Pop. about 500. 
 
 Hop'kins, counlv of W. Kentucky. Area, about 400 
 square miles. It is fertile, having a hilly surface, with 
 plenty of coal and iron ore. Live-stock, tobacco, and corn 
 are staple products. It is traversed by the Evansville 
 Henderson and Nashville and other railroads. Cap. Madi- 
 aonvillc. Pop. 13,S2r. 
 
 Hopkins, county in the N. K. of Texas. Area, 4S0 
 square miles. It is fertile and well timbered. Live-stock, 
 grain, cotton, and wool are staple products. Cap.Sulphur 
 Springs. Pop. 10,0jl. 
 
 Hopkins, tp. of Whitcsides co., 111. Pop. 1436. 
 Hopkins, post-tp. of Allegan co., Mich., on the .Mich- 
 igan .Southern R. R., 8 miles N. E. of Allegan. Pop. 1271. 
 Hopkins, post-v. of Nodaway co.. Mo., is the S. ter- 
 minus of the Crestou branch of the Burlington and Missouri 
 River R. R., and the N. terminus of the Maryville branch 
 of the Kansas City St. Joseph and Council Blufl's R. R. It 
 is near the Iowa line. 
 
 Hopkins (Anrnrn F.), b. in Virginia about 1790, was 
 well educated; removed in early life to Al.abama, and be- 
 came a prominent Whig politician ; a lawyer of Huntsville, 
 Tuscaloosa, and Mobile successively; was long in public 
 life, and for many years a judge of the supreme court of 
 the State, and afterwards president of the Mobile and Ohio 
 R. R. D. in 1S66. 
 
 Hopkins (EDWAnn), b. at Shrewsbury, England, in 
 IGOO; was a successful merchant of London: removed to 
 Boston. .Mass., in 1037 : was seven times governor of Con- 
 necticut between 1040 and Ifijl, and assisted in forming 
 the union of the colonies of New England 1043. He after- 
 wards returned to England, became a member of Parlia- 
 ment, and held important offices under the Commonwealth. 
 D. ill London Mar., 1GJ7, bequeathing a portion of his 
 estate to the support of schools in Hartford, New Haven, 
 Hadlev, and Cambridge in New Englan.l. The town of 
 Hopkinton, Mass., was named for bim, having been pur- 
 chased in 1700 of the "praying Indians" with moneys of 
 bis which fell to Harvard College. 
 
 Hopkins (Eskk), b. at Scituate, R. I., in 171S; was 
 commissioned by (lov. Cooke as brigadier-general at the 
 beginning of the war of independence. In 177.i be was ap- 
 pointed commander-in-ebief of the navy by the Continental 
 Congress, and addressed oQicially by Washington as ad- 
 miral. In the beginning he was very successful in his 
 undertakings, but afterwards he failed to fulfil the expeot- 
 atioiis of the government, ami. having neglected to appear 
 at Philadelphia when summoned, he was dismissed from 
 the service in 1777. He retired to North Providence, where 
 he resided till his death, Feb. 20, 1S02, taking part very ac- 
 tively in the politics of the State. 
 
 Hopkins (.Ions HEsav), D. C. L., LL.D., b. in Dub- 
 lin, Ireland. .Ian. 30. 1792; came in ISOO with his parents 
 to .America; received a gooil education, and assisted Alex- 
 ander Wilson in preparing the illustrations of four volumes 
 of his ()niitlial<><iij ; and afterwards was an iron manufac- 
 turer in Western Pennsylvania. He failed in business in 
 1817; was admitted tolhc bar at Pittsburg in IslS: in 
 1^2l became rector of Trinity church, Pittsburg (Protest- 
 ant Episcopal), of whose church edifice he was the arehi- 
 tcct. In 1S31 ho became assistant minister of Trinity 
 church, Boston, Mass., and professor of systematic divinity 
 in a theological seminary in Massachusetts. In 1832 he 
 was consecrated the first bishop of Vermont, became rector 
 of St. Paul's, Burlington, and afterwards devoted much 
 time to the establishment of the Vermont Episcopal Insti- 
 tute. He took a strung stand for the High-Cliureh move- 
 ment, and was an active member of the Pan-.\nglican 
 Synod. D. at Rock Point. Vt., .Tan. 9. ISOS. Among his 
 works are many brochures, sermons, etc.. besides Chrit- 
 liniiily Vindiratcd (1833), Primitive Creed Examined 
 (1834), The Primitive Church (1835), Eamy on Uvthic Ar- 
 
 chitecture (1S36), The Church of Home in her Primitive Pu- 
 rily (1837), Vindication of Slavery (1803), etc. etc. 
 
 Hopkins (.Iohn Hknkv), A. B., A. M., S. T. D., b. Oct. 
 28. 1820, at Pittsburg. Pa. ; graduated in 1839 at the Uni- 
 versity of Burlington, Vt.: appointed rector of St. .John's 
 chuicii, Essex, N. Y., in 1869, and uf Trinity church. Platts- 
 bur". N. Y.. in 1872; ordained priest in 1872; elected trustee 
 of the (.iencral Theological Seminary, N. Y.. in 1871, and 
 member of the board of missions in 1874. Besides minor 
 works, he wrote Decline and fall of the Loir Church Party 
 (1874), founded and edited 7'Ai- Church Journal ( I85.')-GS), 
 The Canticle, Noted (ISGO), Life of ]li"hoi, llopkiut of 
 Vermont (1872), and Works of the Iler. Milo Muhan, V. D. 
 (1872-75). 
 
 Hopkins (.Tonxs), b. in Anne Arundel co., Md., May 
 19. 1795, was carefully educated, became a wholesale gro- 
 cer, retired with an "ample fortune in 1S47, and became 
 president of the Merchants' Bank and a director of the 
 Baltimore and Ohio R. 11. He was never married, and was 
 a member of the Society of Friends. In 1873 he founded 
 the Hopkins free hospital, Baltimore, at a cost of some 
 $4,000.0110 ; an orphanage for colored youth, a convales- 
 cent hospital, and the Johns Hopkins University at Clif- 
 ton, near Baltimore, with 400 acres of land and an endow- 
 ment of $3,000,000. poor and deserving youth from Mary- 
 land and Virginia to receive free scholarships. These ben- 
 efactions exceeded $8,000,000 in aggregate value. D. at 
 Baltimore Dec. 24, 1873. 
 
 Hopkins (Lemi-el), b. at Waterbury, Conn., June 19, 
 1750; graduated at Y.ale College; practised medicine at 
 Litchfield, and removed to Hartford in 1784, where he d. 
 Apr. 14, 1801. With Trumbull, Barlow, and othcr.s, styled 
 tbe " Hartford wits." he put forth the Anarchiad, advoca- 
 ting an efficient federal constitution. He wrote several 
 satfres and other poems, among which arc The Political 
 GrcenhouK. The Guillotine, The Hypocrites Hope, and an 
 elegy on a Victim of a Cancer Quach. Author of a favorite 
 version of Ps;ilin cxxxii. » 
 
 Hopkins (M.irk), M. D., D. D., LL.D., b. at Stock- 
 brid"-c, Mass., Feb. 4, 1802, and graduated at \\ illiams 
 College in 1824: and M. D. in 1828; was professor of 
 moiar philosophy and rhetoric in Williams College 1830- 
 36; president of the college 1836-72; then resumed the 
 former position: in 1857 ho was also president of the 
 A. B. C. F. M., an office whose duties he still discharges. 
 Has published Eridcuces of Christianity (1840; new ed. 
 1861). Law of Love, and Lore as a i<iir(lS09l, An Outline 
 Study of Man (1873), and many occasional addresses, etc. 
 
 Hopkins (Samiei.), D. D., b. at Waterbury, Conn., 
 Sept. 17. 1721; graduated at Yale in 1711 ; studied Iheol- 
 ocy with Jonathan Edwards. In 1743 he was ordained 
 over a church at Housatonio, now (ireat Barriugton. Mass. ; 
 in 1770-76 minister of a church at Newport. R. I., and again 
 in 1779. In consequence of his labors against slavery tho 
 State of Rhode Island freed all her slaves born after Mar., 
 17^4. He published several works, the most noted ot 
 which is Si/stcm of Doctrines (1793), and his views have 
 had a wide inHueiiee. His complete works were published 
 in 1805, with a Life by Dr. Stephen West, and in 1852, 
 with a Memoir by E. A. Park. He is the hero of Mrs. 
 Stowc's novel, Thi Ministers Wooing. D. at Newport Dec. 
 20. 1803. 
 
 Hopkins (Stephen), LL.D.. a signer of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, b. at Scituate, R. I., Mar. 7, 1707; 
 was bred a farmer: removed in 1731 to Providence, where 
 he was a land-surveyor and merchant; Speaker of tho 
 Rhode Island Assemblv 1732-41 ; became ehierjuslice of 
 the common pleas 1739; chief-justice of the superior court 
 1751-51 ; ten times governor of Rhode Island between 17.i4 
 and 170S ; a niomher of the Continental Congress 1774-78. 
 Author of Itiyhts of the Colonics Examined (1705) and other 
 writings, and l.mg the chancellor of Brown University, then 
 Rhode Island College. D. at Providence July 19, 1785. 
 
 Hopkins (Wh.i.iam), .M. A., LL.D., F. R. S., b. in 
 1793. With little early education, and after an unsuccess- 
 ful attempt in business, he entered at the mature age of 
 thirty at St. Peter's College, Cambridge, where he graduated 
 as seventh wrangler, and, taking private pupils, became tho 
 most celebrated mathematical teacher of his day. Many 
 of tbe most eminent mathematicians now living were 
 trained by him. From Prof. Sedgwick he imbibed a 
 strong interest in geology, and his published works consist 
 chiefly of the application of the methods of mathematical 
 analysis to the elucidation of problems of physical geology, 
 such, chiefly, as the effects of clevatory forces from below 
 in producing faults and fissures in the rocks, on the forma- 
 tion of crevasses in glaciers, on the geological theories of 
 clevaliim and earthquakes, on the causes which may have 
 produced changes in the earth's superficial temperature,
 
 IIOPKIXS-HOPS. 
 
 989 
 
 and on the conductivity of rocks and some other substances 
 for heat. But his iinni'e is most widely known through his 
 uuijtcrly mathematical investigation {I'liil. 7V.in»., ls:('J- 
 40-^2) of the effects which internal fluidity sliould have 
 upon the " precession of the ei[uinoxes. " and the much- 
 quoted result which ho arrived at, that the solid ciii«( of 
 the earth must have a thickness of til linil SUO or 1000 
 miles. The erroneousness of this conclusion, and the ana- 
 lytical source of it, is pointed out in the Smilliuoiiliiii Con- 
 I'ributionn !<• KuoirUdijr. vol. .\ix. Mr. Hopkins was pres- 
 ident of the British .Association 18J3, and of the (ieological 
 Society 18jl and lSa2. \). Oct. Hi, 18(56. U. Fisher. 
 
 Hopkins (Wh.i.iam Fkn.s), A. M.. LL.D., b. in Con- 
 necticut 18IIJ: graduated from the I'. S. Military .Academy, 
 but retained as professor of chemistry, mineralogy, and 
 geology till I8:!i; resigned I8:!I3, and engaged in business, i 
 He subsequently held various professorships, and in ISoO 
 was appointed professor of natural and experimental philos- 
 ophy at the U. S. Naval Academy, which he retained until 
 aiipoiuted U.S. consul at Jamaica, W. I., where he d. .Inly 
 l'; 1859. tj- ' '■ SiMMoxs. 
 
 ilop'kinson (Fnixcis), a signer of the Declaralion of 
 Independence, b. in Philadelphia in 1737, and was a grand- 
 sou of the bishop of Worcester, Eng. He gra.lualed at 
 Princeton in 171!:!; in 17fi5 was admitted to the bar. Ho 
 held a profitable publiu office in New Jersey, whieb be was 
 deprived of for his republican jirinciples. He was a mem- 
 ber of Congress from New Jersey 1770-77, and a resident of 
 Bordentowli. His witty and satirical writings during and 
 after the Revolution had much influence in political aBairs. 
 He wasanadmiraltvjudgein Pennsylvania 1 779-8'.!; U. f^. 
 district jud-c for Pennsylvania 1790-91. D. in Philadel- 
 phia May 9, 1791. His humorous and patriotic pocticiil 
 and other pieces— T"/..- Tr,„l,j, The llmlr. ,./ ih,- Kr<j«, Ode 
 to Science, Eamij on Whll'^rK^himj, and many olliers---cn- 
 joyed an immense popularity, and were really meritorious. 
 Tliree volumes of his ll'.,/7.«' were published in 1792. Ho 
 had consideralile artistic and musical talent. 
 
 Ilonkiuson (Joskpii), M,.I)., a son of Francis Hop- 
 kinson, b. in Philadelphia Nov. 12, 1770; gra.lualed at the 
 University of Pennsylvania in 178(5. He became one of 
 the ablest lawvers of his time, residing mostly in Philadel- 
 phia. He is chiefly remembered as the author of " Hail 
 '■.dumbia." Ho was (181(5-20) a prominent member of 
 Congress, and in 1828 was appointed U. .S. district judge 
 for the eastern district of Pennsylvania. D. Jan. 15, 1842, 
 at Philadelphia. 
 
 Hop'kinsvillc,citv,cap.of Christian CO., Ky., 71 miles 
 N. W. of Nashville, Tenn., on the St. Louis and Soulli- 
 easlern 11. K.. situated in the most fertile section of Western 
 Kentucky. It contains an academy and 2 seminaries, 8 
 churches', 2 banks, 2 carriage-factories, 2 weekly newspa- 
 pers, a planing-mill, a plough-factory, 2 largo nulls, a pub- 
 lic library, a city-ball, and a Stale insane asylum. To- 
 bacco is the principal staple. Coal and iron are found in 
 the vicinilT. Pop. »13(5. 
 
 Sam. M. (iAiN-Ks, En. " KESTrcKV Ni-;w Eiia. 
 Hop'kinton, post-v. of Delaware co., la., I miles from 
 
 Sand Spring, a station « 
 
 on the Dubuque South-western U. K. 
 
 Mas 
 
 on the 
 
 Co 
 
 Ilopkilitnn, post-lii. of Middlesex eo. 
 II.ipkint..n an.l Milford K. U., 30 miles W. S. W. of Boston. 
 It has 4 churches, 1 national and 1 savings bank, a good 
 public-school system, and extensive manufactures of boots 
 and shoes. Pop. 4)19. 
 
 Ilopkinton, |)osl-lp. of Merrimack co., N. H., on the 
 ^„nluoeo.,k Uiver K. U., 7 miles S. W. of Concord. It 
 contains the village of CoSToonioK (which see), and has 7 
 churches and important manufactures. Pop. 1814. 
 
 Ilopkinton, tp. and post-v. of St. Lawrence co., N. Y. 
 It has 3 churches, and manufactures of starch, lumber, 
 cooperage, etc. The township is very extensive, compris- 
 ing large forests and numerous lakes. Pop. of v. 2U0 ; of 
 tp. 1907. 
 
 Ilopkinton, tp. and po»t-v. of Washington co., K. I., 
 3i miles S. W. of Providence. The township has good 
 water-power and several inanufacturing villages, where cot- 
 ton goods, machinery, etc. are made. Ilopkinton has a 
 national bank. Po|i. 2082. 
 
 Hoplegnatli'idic [from oitA^, "nail," and yviim, 
 "jaw"], a family of acnnlhoptcrous fislies, with the body 
 compressed and covered by ctenoid scales: the lateral lino 
 continuous; the spinous division of the dorsal tin longer 
 than the soft ; the ventrals thoracic, with one spine ami live 
 soft rays; and the intermaxillary and maxillary bones pro- 
 vided with a trenehaiit edge, with whieb the teeth, when 
 developed, arc continuous, and form then a serrated mar- 
 gin, somewhat as in the Searidie. The pharyngeal bones 
 arc separate. This family is limited, so tar as n.iw known, 
 to 1 single genus (//■■/.'■•i/ii"'"'". Uiehardsoi, 1, which has, 
 
 however, received several generic names, and is represented 
 by species in the Eastern .-Vsiatic and Australasian seas. 
 
 TiiEonuni: tJii.i,. 
 Hoplophor'idic [oirAo^opos, "armor-bearer"], an extinct 
 family of lorieatc eilentate mammals, most nearly related 
 to the existing pichiegos (Clilamydophoridic) and arma- 
 dillos (Dasyjiodida;), but also related to the extinct me- 
 gatheriids. They were of largo siie, and some of them 
 attained gigantic dimensions. (1) The carapace, instead of 
 being articulated, as in the armadillos, formed an inarticu- 
 lateif shell resembling in shape the carapace of the turtle; 
 (2) a breast-shield or plastron was also developed ; {'^^ the 
 teeth were uniform in number, there having been in all the 
 species five molars on each side of each jaw; and (4) llieso 
 characters were co-ordinated with numerous more or less 
 decided modifications of the skeleton. This family (which 
 has also been nameil (ilyploilontida;) was coiujiosed of a 
 number of species which existed in South America, and, 
 especially in the later Tertiary epoch, in the Argentine 
 Republic and Brazil. In external appearance they bore 
 eonsidei-iible resemblance to gigantic tortoises, and some 
 of them attained a length of fifteen feet or even more. 
 The various forms exhibited two decided modifications in 
 the structure of the members : ( I ) Some had four digits be- 
 fore as well .as behind, those corresponding to the thumb 
 and great toe of man being wanting, as in the group com- 
 prisiu" the genera fUpl:,i,h'<rm (Lund) and Piui'.rthna 
 (Burnreister): while (2) others had fmr digits before and 
 five behind, those corresponding to the thumb and great 
 toe being present, and the missing digit of the fore foot 
 being the outer of the other species, or, in other words, cor- 
 responding to the little finger of man. This group includes 
 one genus with two well-marked sub-genera ((J/i/ptnilon, 
 Owen, and Scl:!Hl„j,h'urnm, Nodot). The Ho|ilopbonda 
 have been the objects of special study on the part of emi- 
 nent naturalists. (See the 1st an<l 2d v. .Is. of the Awilcs 
 del Mniro PiMUii ill- riiii'iiiiH Airen.) Tni:oiioui; (iii.i,. 
 
 Hop'per (IsiM- Tatesi), a benevolent Hicksite Quaker, 
 b. at Deptford, N. J., Deo. 3, 1771; became a tailor in 
 Philadelphia, and afterwards a successful merchant and 
 bookseller of New York; was a (iroininent abolitionist, 
 and devoted a large i)art of his lifetime to works of benevo- 
 lence. D. in New York May 7, 1SJ2. (See his Life, by L. 
 M. Cnii.n, 1S.'.3.) 
 
 Hop'pin (,\irfirsTi-s), b. at Providence, R. I., July 13, 
 1828; graduated at Brown University 1848; became a 
 lawyer; studied art in F.urope, and became distinguished 
 as one of the first of American artists in his special depart- 
 ment, that of the illustration of bocdis. His female figures 
 and scenes from society are often full of spirit.— llis brother, 
 Thomas F. Hoi'ims (b. 1810). a pupil of Paul Delarouhe, 
 is also distinguished as an artist. 
 
 Iloppin (Rev. James .Mason), D. D., b. in Providence, 
 R. I., Jan. 17, 1820: graduated at Yule in ISIO; studied 
 law at Harvard, and afterward theology at Andover and 
 in (Jcrmany umler Neander; became (lastor of a church in 
 Salem, Mass., Mar. 27, 1850, and was ai.pointed professor 
 of homilcties in the theological department of Yale College 
 in 18(11. He received the degree .d' D. D. from Knox Col- 
 lege, III., in 1S70. He has published A'ofe« o/ o ThmliiiiuiU 
 St'iiiUnt (IS54). Old Emiliiiid, 111 Art, Scnini/, idiil /'.'"/</c 
 ( 1 8B7), riir. Ulliii' iind Wurk n/llir Clirislkin Miniflri/ ( 1 809), 
 li/'c of' Andriw Hull FiioU-. Ilinr-Admirnl l'. S. A'. ( 1874) : 
 has contributed many articles to Iho Ulhlinllnin .SVio.i and 
 the Xew Enijlandcr. K. D- HlTlHCOCK. 
 
 Hops rOer. //../>/V" ,■ Fr. himlinn : hot. IlnmnlnK Injm- 
 I,,,], a di.eei.ms plant. The pistillate flowers are clustered 
 in short axillary catkins; the two-Howered leafy bracts are 
 imbricated, and" in fruit form a kind of membranaceous 
 strobile. The fruiting calvx is sprinkled with yellow res- 
 inous grains(lupuline). The nervine, aromatic, bitter tonic, 
 and other supposed virlurs of the hops, as imparted to beer 
 etc., reside chiefly in this yellow powder, though t be scalcsof 
 the strobiles also possess most of them, to a tar less extent. 
 The constituents of commercial hops, which consist ol tho 
 dried strobiles, are a highly aromatic essential oil. residing 
 almost entirely in the yellow powder; a resinous substance, 
 a bitter crystalline principle, tannic acid (monntannie, 
 Wagner), gum, cellulose, extractive matter soluble in water, 
 nuercilrin, and, according to some, a waxy matter. 
 
 * .. 1 _ .II...1 I i:.... l'..r>t,iu 111 n 11111 
 
 Tho 
 
 yellow powder, called lupuline, forms in a pure state about 
 , 10 per cent, of the wh.de— a pr.ip.irtion overstated (up to IS 
 percent.) by some authorities. This, according to Pcr.soiiiio, 
 is of th.' nature of a glan.l, which secretes a resin. Iho 
 name was given to it by Dr. A. W. Ives of New York, who 
 first anulvzed it. an.l wlios name and analytical results 
 are strangely luis.iuote.l in the textbooks. Thus. »../(•« 
 nii-tiimurii. ■apparently f.dl.iwing E. Kopp, makes him 
 .U.bi.KHr ')>-■., a Frenchman, and gives \\i figures very 
 incorrectly.
 
 990 
 
 HOP TREE— HOREHOUND. 
 
 Anali/ses of 
 
 he Yellow Granule!, Lupuline. 
 
 
 
 Wlm- 
 mcr. 
 
 Cheviilller 
 and Payen. 
 
 Waitiicr. 
 
 Dr. 
 Ives. 
 
 AUatlao 
 
 hops, 
 C. Nijnc. 
 
 
 0.12 
 3.01 
 2.91 
 
 0.63 
 8.99 
 4.92 
 1.2B 
 78.16 
 
 "8.3tol2.5 
 •52.5 
 
 
 30.00 
 1.00 
 4.17 
 
 38.:« 
 8.33 
 
 0.50 
 
 Hiiier subsiance 
 
 Ki-siu 
 
 
 15.90 
 
 Wax 
 
 3"ito5.7 
 
 AstriiiK- constitueut.. 
 Ollulose 
 
 302 
 48..33 
 
 6.40 
 11.10 
 I4..50 
 
 2.1 
 
 Exiractive matter 
 
 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Soluble salts 
 
 
 
 
 100.00 
 
 
 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 Dr. Itcs's figures are misquoted in European works of 
 liigh autliority (under tlie name of Yve.s) as 11 percent, of 
 bitter. .'16 of resin, 12 of wax, 5 of tannic acid, 10 of extrac- 
 tive, and 26 of "residue insoluble in water" [ciIIhIok ?), 
 footing up just lUO, loilhuHi ani/ mitcr. The discrepancies 
 among tlie ditferent figures given, however, detract almost 
 wholly from their value. Another authority slates that 
 the whole hop contains two per cent, of volatile oil. ( Wiillf's 
 Di\Hm,aiy, art. " Lupulin.") Wimmer gives an analysis of 
 the scales of the strobiles, apart from the yellow granules, 
 in which he found no volatile oil, 5.83 of gum, 64 of cellu- 
 lose, and 12.22 of extractive matter. 
 
 The hop-crop is one which exhausts the soil rapidly. The 
 ashes of the strobiles contain from 20 to 2a ]icr cent, of pot- 
 ash (anhydrous), 15 to 20 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and 
 10 to 2.3 per cent, of silica. The potash is estimated to be 
 equivalent to an exhaustion from an acre of from 20 to 2:> 
 pounds of hydrate of potash annually. 
 
 Enwntial Oil nf Hupf, obtained usually bv distilling the 
 cones with water; but Prof. C. A. Seeley, of New York, 
 claims, with much reason, that this method alters its con- 
 stitution and greatly injures its natural arouia. Indeed, 
 Personne found the malodorous substance, valerianic acid, in 
 the products of distillation of lupuline with water. Soeley 
 has within a few years introduced and patented a new and 
 ingenious mode of procuring this oil. sufficiently economi- 
 cal to be used for the preparation of a commercial oil of 
 hops to be used for flavoring beer, for which purpose it is 
 said to be now coming largely into use. This consists in 
 dissolving out the essential oil by means of verv light pe- 
 troleum naphtha, or "gasoline," and then distilling off 
 the latter, which is as volatile as ether, and requires a tem- 
 perature so low as not to alter the essential oil. The oil 
 of hops obtained by the first method has an odor like 
 thyme, and contains, according to W.agner, a terpcne, T'OII'S, 
 and a conipounil, C«1I'»0, near to valeric acid, l'SHi"0=, and 
 coiivertiblc into the latter by oxidation. Hence, hops ac- 
 quire by age a valerianic odor. Personne considered this 
 essential oil as analogous to oil of valerian, the terpcne in 
 which is bonieene. No dextro-rotatory camphor, however, 
 like borneol (Borneo camphor) has been obtained from oil 
 of hops- II. Wlhtz. 
 
 Hop Troc (Piclm trifollntn), also called Shrubby 
 Trefoil, an American shrubof the rue family, found from 
 Pennsylvania southward and westward. When kept trim- 
 med to a single stem it attains a height of 30 or 40 feet. 
 The leaves are trifoliate, with leaflets ovate, pointed, and 
 downy when young. The flowers, borne in cvmes at the 
 ends of the new shoots, are greenish, small, aiid not con- 
 spicuous ; they arc polygamous — staminate, pistillate, and 
 perfect ones being found on the same plant. The fruit is 
 two-celled and two-sccdcd. having a broad wing, and re- 
 sembles that of the elm, whence its generic name ( Ur. irreAca, 
 "elm"). The flowers and bruised leaves have an unpleas- 
 ant odor. The fruit is intensely bitter, and is destitute of 
 the aromatic ])rinciple of the true hop, for which, however, 
 it is often substituted in tlic nianufaeture of beer. An in- 
 fusion of the leaves anil young shoots is used as a remedy 
 for worms. It is a neat ornamental shrub, not liable to the 
 attacks of insects, and from the compound character of its 
 leaves coutrastj well with other trees and shrubs. It is a 
 late plant, the branches remaining bare in spring long after 
 other shrubs arc clothed with foliage, but later in the season 
 its large clusters of winged fruit give it an attractive ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 Hor, a mountain of Arabia Petrwa, forming a part of 
 the range of .Seir or Edom, upon which Aaron died. The 
 summit which is generally conceded to bo the Mt. Hor of 
 this incident still bears the name of Mt. Aaron (Arab. Jebcl 
 HarCiii), and, rising to the height of 4SIIII feet above the 
 sea, is the most conspicuous summit of the range. The 
 mountain has a double top, and is surmounted by an edi- 
 fice, of later date than the Crus.ades, which is called Aaron's 
 tomb. There is another Mt. Hor. mentioned in Num. 
 xxxiv. 7, S as one of the marks of the N. boundary of the 
 land which the Israelites were to conquer. The word llor 
 
 means simply "mountain," and in this instance probably 
 designates the entire Lebanon range. 
 
 Hor'ace (Qtintis Houaths Flaccus), b. Dee. 8,65 
 B. c. at Venusia, in Apulia. His father, a freedman, was 
 a collector of money for tax-gatherers and bankers, and 
 owned a little farm, which he sold in order to give his son 
 a liberal education. Alter finishing his studies in Rome, 
 Horace went in 47 n. f. to Athens to study philosophy and 
 rhetoric, but the murder of Ca'sarand the civil war which 
 ensued made him a soldier, and he fought as a tribuncun- 
 dcr lirutus in the battle of Philijipi (42 ii. c). After the 
 defeat ho fled to Rome, and his ollencc was forgiven or for- 
 gotten. AVilh the rest of his patrimony he bought a posi- 
 tion as a registrator in the office of the pr;elor, but he soon 
 gave it up in order to devote himself entirely to literary 
 pursuits. His first productions were satires, or, as he calls 
 them himself, «<rj»(oif», on account of the colloquial tone 
 in which they are written. These he read to his friends, and 
 thus by degrees he was admitted to the literary circles of 
 Rome. He made the acquaintance of Varius and Virgil, 
 who introduced him to M;ccenas, who again introduced 
 him to Augustus ; and Maecenas appreciated his talent and 
 his friendship so much that ho gave him a fine country- 
 seat near Tivoli, in the Sabine Mountains, and also a com- 
 petency. After the satires (35 b. c.) followed the epodes 
 or iambi (30 b. c), then the odes or ciirmina (23 b. {_-.), 
 and at last the epistles (10 B. c), the second book of which 
 contains the long epistle Ad I'luoHca, generally known 
 under the title of Ars i'ociiia. I). Nov. 27, 8 b. c, and 
 was buried at the Esquiline Gate, beside Mieeenas. With 
 the great social and political movements of their time the 
 poems of Horace have no connection, but they possess an- 
 other (and to us a sliU greater) charm: they tell in a 
 thousand different ways, and always in an intimate and 
 pleasant manner, of private life. But for Horace we should 
 have a very imperfect and meagre iilea of refined and edu- 
 cated life in pagan Rome, its tastes and vanities, its con- 
 vivialities and extravagances, its forms and implements. 
 This, however, was not the secret of his wonderful success. 
 That which through eighteen centuries has made him the 
 most-read poet of antiquity was his representativeness. 
 Ho had exactly genius enough, and not too much, to ex- 
 press the instincts, moods, and methods of average hu- 
 manity. His imagination is not very great; he visits no 
 man's mind with strange visions ; but that which he has 
 is precise and gr.aceful. Nor is his feeling very warm either; 
 ho stirs no man's heart with excitement, bulthat which he 
 has is sound and pleasant. His principal faculty is his 
 power of reflection. His intellect, always clear, never deep, 
 always striking, never strong, makes him complete master 
 of himself — a decent and humorous cynic, a prudent and 
 elegant epicurean, always polite, seldom noble, always cor- 
 dial, seldom kind. And this genius, so well adapted to be 
 the representative of average humanity, was equally well 
 trained to fill its task. His verses have no music, perhaps 
 with the exception of a few drinking-songs. But they 
 have all a piquant, catching movement. His form has no 
 simplicity or naturalness, and it lacks almost entirely 
 plasticity. But the artificiality is so elaborate, so easy and 
 elegant, that the mind of average humanity is impressed 
 by this manner of expressing ideas and sentiments as would 
 be their body by a garment of velvet, satin, and lace. Since 
 the beginning of this century, however — that is, since the 
 predominance of the romantic school — the verses of Horace 
 have lost some of their poetical charm; their historical in- 
 terest they will, of course, never lose. Of recent editions 
 we mention those of Anthon (New York, 1830). Orclli 
 (Zurich. 1850), Lincoln (Boston, 1851), Rittcr (Leipsic, 
 1850), Didot (Paris, 1855), and Wickham (London, 1873). 
 
 Cl.KJIE.NS PETEIlSli.N. 
 
 Horae. See Horns. 
 
 Horanyi (Frasci.s Jcseph Alexis), b. at Buda, Hun- 
 gary, Feb. 15. 1736; d. at Pcsth, Sept. 11, 180'J. Author 
 of Mnnoria //nngarorum et Proi-incialinttl ecriptit et/itie 
 tiotoniin (1775-77) and Auva .\fcinoria (1792) ; edited Johnn- 
 nin liflliUmii flintiirirti trtniHlhutiirn (1782) and the Chron- 
 icon Humjarivttm of Simon of Keza (1782). 
 
 Iloraporion, or Ilorus Apollo, the name of the 
 author of a small (ireek essay entitled rtinoi/ti/pliira. which 
 is the only work on the interpretation of the Egyjitian 
 hieroglyphics which has come down to us from antiquity. 
 The book is believed to belong to the fourth century A. n. ; 
 of the author nothing is known. 
 
 Ho'rcb, according to some, a lower part or elevation of 
 Mt. Sinai : others consider it to be a general name for the 
 whole range of which Mt. Sinai was one of the principal 
 summits. The name itself in Hebrew means "desert." 
 
 Horf'hoiiiid, the name of several labiate herbs of tem- 
 perate climates. Marrnbiuiti vnftjiirf, the common or white 
 horchound, is naturalized in the Eastern l'. .S., but is a
 
 HORGEN— HORN. 
 
 991 
 
 native of Europe and Western America. It is on excel- 
 lent tonic remcdv, very useful in coughs aiul colds, and is 
 penonilly t.ik.n in syrup or candy. The fitid horchound 
 (llallnta iii<ji-u)is also a naturalized plant from Kurope. It 
 resembles the lornier in appearance, taste, and properties. 
 The water horchound ( /-^<<//^><» fi.reyw.K.) grows in burope 
 and America. It is considered a good tonic. I.>)cuj,m ) <r- 
 ,ji„un, (hugle-wort) nearly resembles it, and is sometimes 
 used on aoount of its expectorant properties. 
 
 Hor'een, or Hor'chen, town of Swil/crland, in the 
 cant..ii of Ziirich, on the Lake of Ziirich. has some maiiii- 
 factures of silk, cotton good-s and chen.icals. Pop. o.,ll. 
 Ilor'icon, post-tp. of Warren co.. N. Y. It abounds 
 in lakes and mountains, has 4 churches, and manulaetures 
 of leather and other goods. Pop. IJOO. 
 
 Horicon, post-v. of Dodge co. (Hubbard tp.). Wis, 
 on the Chicago Milwaukee and 8t. Paul R. 11., Similes iV. 
 W. of Milwaukee, at the junction of the Hipon branch, 
 and on Koek Kivcr at the outlet of Horicon Lake. It has 
 manulaetures and c.\tcnsive water-power. 
 Horicon I-ake. See George, Lake. 
 Horicon Lalif, in Do.lgo and Fond du Lao cos.. Wis., 
 is 15 miles long, and 5 miles across. Its waters flow into 
 Koek River, an.l liualiv fall into the Mississippi. It '9 a'hal- 
 loK, grassy basin, sometimes called the V, innebago Marsh. 
 Ho'rites, the aboriginal inhabitants of Mt. Peir before 
 the (^inaanites comiueied Palestine. Their name is de- 
 rived from llori, the grandsonof Seir (lien, xxxvi. J2), and 
 refers to their habit of dwelling in caves, of which there 
 still are many e.^tant in the clifl's of Edom. 
 
 Ilori'zon [h^H^,; the "bounding" (circle)], the line 
 formed bv the apparent contact of the sky and earth, lb is, 
 or more exactly, the circle upon the heavens bounding he 
 plane which is tangent to tho earth at the point where the 
 observer stan.ls. is the sr,„il,le horizon. The ni(i.oK<( 
 horizon is a circle on the celestial sphere bounding a plane 
 narallel to the sensilde horizon, which plane divides into 
 two equal parts both the terrestrial and the celestial spheres. 
 Except the moon, all the heavenly bodies may bo practi- 
 cally considered as always situated either above or below 
 each of the horizons alike. 
 
 Ilormis'clas, Pope, a native of Frosinone, became pope 
 in ill, and d. Aug. 0, 023. Eighty of his letters are extant. 
 
 Horn, a hard projection, diminishing from its hi'se to ! 
 a point, on the heads of many animals, especially the 
 cloven-footed ([uadrupeds. It is generally curved or spiral, 
 but that of the cow, bull, or ox, being most familiar, ha,s 
 become a familiar descriptive term for all similarly formi-d 
 projections—;, g. the horns of the moon. 1 he word in its 
 ori.-in is of very great antiquity, since it is found in both 
 Aryan and SemiVic tongues. In Sanscrit iv,r,..., it is true 
 pi.'"nifles an car, but the Latin corn,,, (.rc.'k Avro, and 
 k"r/:nef, (iothie h<nin,, Persian /.vinir. (•Mrui.ii)et I, ana 
 the Irish and Cymric r„ni, all in.lieato an Indian origin, 
 while the Hebrew h<rn, the ChalduMin giiruu. and the 
 Arabic 7-.n,, w"-"'"' »''"" "'"'■ '' '•"" "^""^'^ been known 
 to the soulbern branch of civilized liumanity. The word 
 is conjecture! by speculative philologists to be allied to a 
 large family of terms, such as the originals of rro,r„, corn, 
 et. \s a very prominent symbol in ancient literature the 
 horn signified strength, power, or dignity ( Jer. xlyiii. ; 1 
 Sam ii.), and with the (ireeks abniidaucc or lertility. as 
 was set forth in the cornucopia, or horn of plenty. 1 he 
 conn.'ction "f horns with sexual attributes appears to have 
 b.eu partly .lue to their association with the liull and the 
 ir.,it and their extraordinary increase in size in the ox, 
 who'in all countries was regarded as llie type of one whoso 
 privileges are usurped bv the bull. In all animals bearing 
 them ■' the formation of the horns has been long known to 
 be nioch inlluenced by the en,idili..n of ll>« «[!!';"» «' 
 generalion : in the deer they acpiire their full bulk and 
 c.implete form just before the season of rutting. 1 be 
 most dignified of the deities, whether Semitic or Aryan, 
 were repre-cnied as horned, and f<.r a diflcrent reason all 
 those which were most closely connected with rcproduotivo 
 nalure — as, for instance, the rural gods. 
 
 Horn, per »<■, is of f.uir kinds. That of the rhinoceros 
 "consists of a uniform, compact, or glutinate mass of ej.i- 
 dermal fibres, the slighlly concave base of which is attached 
 to the dermo-perioste of a slightly elevated or rug.ms tract 
 of bone." The second type is that of most ruminants, in 
 which the growth extends from the frontal bones, am the 
 dermo periosteum develops a sheath of horny fibres, the horn 
 bein" hollow The bone is termed the r„rr : it has usually j 
 a ru"ou< or grooved exterior. In llovida- and Ovida! the 
 frontal sinuses exiend therein; in Anielopida- the core is 
 solid The growth each year is marked by a circular groove 
 near the root, from which the age may be determined, be 
 giralTe ithird tvpe. Owen) has a pair of small, short, eyhn- 
 
 droid. unbrancho.l horns, which consist of bone covered by 
 hairy skin, terminated by a tuft of coarser hair. The bones 
 ore liot processes of the skull, but ore joined, like epiphyses, 
 by svncliondrosis to both frontal and parietal bones, tho 
 base crossing the coronal suture. The young are born wilh 
 such horns, and are the sole horned mammals that enter 
 tho world wilh such weapons. In deer (fourth type) the 
 horns consist wholly of bo,,.; which grows from Ibe Ironlal ; 
 the ))eriosteum and" finely haired integuments called ■■ vel- 
 vet" coextendiug therewith during the period of growlh ; 
 at the end of which the rormalive envelope loses its vascu- 
 larity, dries, and is stripped olT. leaving the bone as a hard, 
 insensible weapon. Alter some months these horns lose 
 all vascular connection with the skull, and ore shed ; alter 
 which the growth of a new pair commences. The reindeer 
 is one of the very few Cervidic in which antlers arc devel- 
 oped by the female. Thus, deer are tho only ungulates 
 that annually shedlheir horns; the prong-buck is the only 
 known hollo'w-horned ruminant that annually sheds tho 
 extra-vascular part of the horn, called the sheath. The horns 
 of un<'ulates may bo summarized as consisting cither of 
 horn only, as in' the rhinoceros; of bone only, as in tho 
 C'ervnn of deer genus ; of horn and bone, as illustrated by 
 tho bovine or ox genus; and of skin and bone, as in the 
 giraffe. From these facts it has been observed that in the 
 j English language we have in horn only one w..rd to ex- 
 I pre°s two quite different substances-the branched bony 
 1 horns of the stag genus, and the laminated horns of he 
 genus Ho, (ox). In French the antlcred kind are called 
 boh, or forest, from their branches, while the other kind, 
 as of tho ox, antelope, and goat, is called roruc 
 
 In olden times horns were extensively used, especially 
 amon^the Xortbern races, for drinking-cups, and in Saxon 
 an.l Norman sculptures it is the common goblet. 
 
 Mnuuroclnre o/ //orH.— The peculiar texture of horn, its 
 toughness and agreeable natural colors, have always caused 
 it to be a favorite material for many works, though ut late 
 years the increasing cheapness of glass, gutta percho, and 
 metal wares has caused a great disuse of it. At one time 
 there was held annually in England a fair at which every 
 object for sale was made of horn, and until withm a lew 
 years a large class of Scottish gypsies maintained them- 
 selves entirely by making and selling horn spoons. As 
 true horn consists, chemically, of albumen (keratin) and 
 a little iihosphate of lime, it is readily softened in boiling 
 water or by heat; sometimes the process is aided by the 
 addition of" quicklime. It is usual to prepare the horns ol 
 oxen and sheep by steeping them for several weeks in cold 
 water, which has the effect of separating the cored bony 
 part from the cover of true horn. The latter is then heated, 
 first for half an hour in boiling water, and then over hre. 
 In this condition it may be cut or moulded with great ease. 
 To make sheets for lanterns or combs, the horn is slit length- 
 ways at (Tie side, heated and pressed out, cilher betwecu 
 plates or by machines, of which several have been invented 
 for the puniosc. Care must, h.iwcvcr, be exercised as o 
 the application of both heat and pressure, since, owing to 
 its peculiarly laminated structure and the strue abounding 
 thrlu..h it--as may be specially observed in that of the 
 rhinoceros-horn has a tendency to split. It receives dyes 
 of different kinds, and is made to closely resemble tortoi e- 
 shcll, but this process also is apt to render it fragile. Its 
 softness may. however, be restored by 8tce|,ing it in glj- 
 cerinc and ^atcr; and if it be then treated with nitnc and 
 pyroligneous acids, tannin, potash, sulphate of '■•■o. » >d 
 water, it assumes a peculiar slrcnglh and great ola tici y. 
 As sheets or other pieces of horn may bo incorporated to- 
 gether, there is little waste in the manufacture. Of la o 
 years there has been an extensive manufacture in I..md. n 
 of so-called Abyssinian drinking-cups, made of segments 
 of i"rii slraightened and with a bottom, colored in imita- 
 tion of the beauliful gray an.l black cups brought rom tho 
 plunder of Magdala. The born of the rhinoceros has been 
 treaty esteemed in all ages in 'he East, partly from a l.c- 
 
 L( timt it neutralized poison in '''l"•;'^'"'^V'"■■'■:, ■;';;::,:: 
 
 rich natural colornnd great beauty. It is oUim clabo.atcly 
 carved by the Kgvptians and Chinese, and the writer has 
 ee" one"rrom Cant'on which, owing to its --l-'-'^J" ;_• 
 cost soil". He has in his possession one presented to lii.n 
 by a"weallliv Copt which was highly esteemed, owing to its 
 delicate „nii-transparency, and has seen another whoh 
 was supposed to be almost unique in Ibis respect. Some 
 Tears ago parasol-hondles of rhin...'eios horn became la>li- 
 fonablc in' Paris, and to this day they '."^;, '•••\"^';'""'>";,'^ 
 Stated in horn. The Romans made oll-fiasks both ot ox 
 an.l rhin.i.-eios horn, an.l tnoii an epigram lii '^l;"t;" " 
 mavbc inferrc.l that they too sometimes imltatc.l the latter 
 material with the former. The epigram is in rclercnce to a 
 lantern, anil might serve as its inscription : 
 
 ■■Thounb by a boll 1 b.-n' ..f late was borne 
 You'd say I "m "'' "oe rhinoceros horn.
 
 992 
 
 HORX— HOKNELLSVILLE. 
 
 Those cups require occasional oiling, or they will *' chip " 
 or crack. In the East this is a favorite material for the 
 hilts of weapon?), preference l)eing given to that which conies 
 fmni Sumatra. It is worked, like ivory, entirely with the 
 chisel and without heat. Deer or buck horn is used Jii ;l11 
 countries for kuife-handlcs. As it is simply hone, and of 
 coarse cellular structure within, it is seldom or never made 
 up except in such a manner as to j>rescrve iti part, at least, 
 its agreeahly colored and peculiar rugged structure. In 
 Germany thousands of artisans are devoted to making from 
 deer-horn ornaments which vary from carvings of almost 
 microscopic delicacy to large articles of furniture. Im- 
 mense numbers of deer-horns (of the Ajrh marulata) are 
 annually brought to Germany for such work, even England 
 recjuiring about 250,000. The h()rnsof the Eastern buffalo 
 and of the American bison arc in great demand; the latter, 
 frnm its color and fine hard grain, being especially prized 
 for the handles of dental instruments. The interior of ox- 
 horns is used to make *' bone-earth :" the refuse of .all kinds 
 is applied to the manufacture of jirussiate of j)otash and 
 aninioniacal salts ; while fragments of ox and hutTalo horn, 
 powdered, are of value as manure. C. ii. Leland. 
 
 Horiiy a wind instrument of music, usually of brasp, 
 much used in the orchestra. The French horn is usually 
 coiietl in such a way as to become portable, and its key 
 may be modified by the insertion or withdrawal of suitable 
 pieces. The sax-horn is a modification of the older in- 
 atruracnt. Various other wind instruments are called from 
 their shape " horns," and in ancient times the horns of ani- 
 mals were employed as trumpets, but they probably served 
 only as the means of calling. 
 
 Horn (Gi'STAF Caulsson). b. at Orbyhue, Sweden. Oct. 
 23, \S'J2 ; studied at Rostock, Jena, and Tubingen ; received 
 his military training in Holland under Prince Maurice of 
 Orange ; and entered the Swedish army in 1024. Gustavus 
 Ad'ilphus called him his right arm. and after the battle of 
 Liitzen he made a brilliant campaign in the Khenish Pal- 
 atinate, but was taken prisoner in the battle of Niirdlingen 
 in 1034. and kept for seven years in the fortresses of In- 
 goKlstadt and Burghausen. Having been exchanged in 
 1641, he returned to Sweden ; commanded in 1644 in Scania 
 against the Danes; was made a count and field-marshal in 
 16ol ; and d. at Skara May 16, 1057. 
 
 Horn, or Hoorne (Phii.ippk), Count of, b. in 1522, 
 a son of De Montmorency-Xivelle, a Flemish nobleman. 
 AVIien his mother, having become a widow, married Count 
 Horn, Philippe was adopted by his stepfather and assumed 
 his name. He distinguished himself both in the battles of 
 Sr.-Quentin and Gravelines and in the councils of Philip II. 
 and Margaret, viceregent of the Netherlands. Ho was a 
 g<iod Catholic, but he was tolerant. He was loyal to the 
 Spanis^h crown, but he would not deliver up the rights of his 
 native country without resistance. Thus, when Alva ar- 
 rived in the Netherlands, he was seized, together with Eg- 
 mont, at Hrussels in 1507, a case was made out against 
 him. and he was beheaded June 5, 1568. 
 
 Horn'beam, a name given to various trees. The horn- 
 beam of Europe is the Curphiua Utfuliiiifa. handsome forest 
 tree which has very tough, white wood, 
 highly prized by turners and joiners. It 
 is also excellent fire-wood, and makes 
 good charcoal. In the I'. S. the T'ar- 
 pinus Aincri'yiHO IS called hornbeam, 
 Icvcr-wood, iron-wood, and blue beach. 
 It is very hard, tough, and close-grained. 
 The hop-hornbeam, called also lever- 
 wood or iron-wood, is a slender tree, tho 
 Ostriftt Viiffiuicn, with wood of the same 
 qualities as those possessetl by that of 
 the former tree. Both grow extensively 
 throughout the U, S. All the above be- 
 long to the order Cupuliferie. 
 
 Horn-bilU See Blcekos. 
 
 Horn'blentlCy a term used in min- 
 eralogy, sometimes as synonymous with 
 amphibolc, sometimes to designate only 
 the dark-colored varieties of that very va- 
 riable mineral. In the former sense horn- 
 blende is a mineral crystallizing in tho 
 monoclinic sysU'm, but occurringalso im- 
 perfectly crystalli/ed.ormassive. fibrous, and granular. Its 
 hardness varies from 5 to 6, and its specific gravity from 2.9 to 
 .S.4. In composition it varies much, being, however, essen- 
 tially a silicate of magnesia and oxide of iron, with gen- 
 erally lime, and with or without alumina, manganese-oxide, 
 or soda. It is one of the more iinpcjrtant rock-forming 
 minerals, occurring especially in granitic ami metamorphic 
 rocks, and volcanic rocks o( deep-seated origin. It pre::«ent3 
 a great variety of forms and great differences in color; 
 
 black and dark-green varieties arc especially known as 
 hornblt'iuic; lighter green as artin'diu-; white varieties as 
 trcmolitt-, and fibrous forms as Anthui'Hyllite, Asbkstos, 
 and Amianthis (which see). Edward C. II. Day. 
 
 Ilorn'blower (Joseph Coirten), LL.D..asonof Judge 
 Josiah HnrnMower of New Jersey ( 172H-lS0*l). b. at Belle- 
 viiic, N. J., May 0, 1777; was admitted to the bar in ISOIt; 
 was chief-justice of the New Jersey supreme court ls;i2- 
 46 ; a prominent member of the constitutional convention 
 of ISJ4: and a man of practical benevolence. D. at Newark 
 Juno II, 1S04. 
 
 Horn'book, a written or printed tablet of parchment 
 or paper, covered with a thin transparent layer of horn, 
 j and framed in wood, containing the aljphabet in Homan or 
 black letter, with some other simple lessons, often fol- 
 lowed by the Lord's Prayer. Hornbooks appear to have 
 been chiefly English. Their use originated before the in- 
 vention of printing, and continued till about the middle of 
 the last century. There are but few existing specimens 
 known. 
 
 Horn^by, post-tp. of Steuben co., N. Y. It has several 
 manufactories. Pop. 1202. 
 
 Home (George), b. at Otham, Kent, England, Nov. 1, 
 17;^0: took orders in 175H: became chaplain to the king in 
 1771, dean of Canterbury in 17^1, bishop of Norwich Id 
 1790 ; and d. at Bath Jan. 17, 17U2. His principal work ia 
 his Connnentfirt/ oi) the PhuIihh (1776J; he also published 
 several volumes of sermons, Litter tit Dr. Prtentiei/. Let- 
 tere on Iiijiiich'ti/, and a letter to Adam Smith on David 
 Hume. 
 
 Horne (Ricninn Henry), b. in ISO.'l in London ; studied 
 in the college at Sandhurst, and became a midshipman in 
 the Mexican navy ; was in Australia lSo2-70, where he 
 held several local magistracies. Author of several trag- 
 edies, and a number of poems and miscelUincous works, 
 among which are a Life of SapoJcitn (2 vols., \S\\),Orinu, 
 an Epic (1843; of which three editions were sold at one 
 farthing a copy), Ausiralinn Facta and Fitjurca (1859). 
 
 Horne (Thomas Hartwell), D. D., b. in London Oct. 
 20, 1780; studied at Christ's Hospital 1789-95, and read 
 law; was suli-librarian of the Surrey Institution 1809-23; 
 took orders in the Church of England 1819; was senior 
 assistant librarian in the British Museum 1824— 60 ; became 
 rector of St. Edmund's and St. Nicholas's 1833: was made 
 a prebendary of St. Paul's 1841; d. in London June 27, 
 ls62. In early life he was a Methodist. His princijial 
 work is the Introilttclion to the Critical Studi/ of the 
 ^'cri/>/jo-^«(lSI8, latest edition, London. 1856,4 vols.); also 
 author of a Brief View of thr AeccHsitt/ of Revefation 
 (1800). Lakes of Lancashire, Wcatmorcland, and Cnniber- 
 iand (1810), Deiam lief'nttd (1819), Romanittm Contrary to 
 the /iihie {1^27), Manual far the Aj^irted (1832), Protestant 
 McmoriaHlSZb), Manual of JUblical IHblioyraphif (1839), 
 and Mariolatry ( 184U). (See Reminiscences of T. H. Ilorntf 
 by his daughter, S. A. Cheyne, London, 1802.) 
 
 Horned Toad ( Phrynosoma), a genus of true lizards, 
 of which ten or eleven species are found in Texas, Mexico, 
 
 Douglass's Phrynosoma. 
 
 California. Utah, etc. They are not toads at all. They 
 are rather sluggish, especially in captivity. They do not 
 leap, but crawl like other lizards. P. Douglasiii, lilain- 
 villii, and coruntum arc the best-known species. 
 
 Hor'nellsvilley post-v. of Steuben co., N. Y., 68 miles 
 S. of Uoehester, on the Eric R. K. It has good schools, 5 
 churches, extensive railway-shops, a mowing-machine fac- 
 tory, large boot and shoe, furniture, machine, and other 
 factories, planing-mills, 3 weekly and 1 tri-weekly news-
 
 IIOKNEK— IIORXEK'S METHOD OF SOLVING HIGHER EQUATIONS. 
 
 993 
 
 bank, eto. 
 
 paper, and a hnndsomo opera-house, I national 
 Pop. of V. 4bb'2; of tp. 5837. 
 
 11. H. GuKENUow, Ed. '* Evkmsg Tridune." 
 
 Hor'ner (FitANiis), b. at Edinburgh Auf;. 12, 177S; 
 studied hiw at Ihc university of his native city ; removed 
 to London in ISOii, and entered Parliament in ISOtJ. llo 
 soon acquired a conspicuous position in the House of Com- 
 mons by his business capacity, his insight into political 
 economy, and the nobleness of his character; but, having 
 injured his health by excessive labor, ho was obliged to 
 tra***!, and d. nt Pisa Feb. 8, 1817. A monument was 
 creotod to him in Westminster Abbey, and his Mcmoii-a and 
 Correspondence were edited by his brother (Loudon, ISlo). 
 
 Horner (William Edmonds), M. D., b. at Warrcnton, 
 Va., June 3, 17113; graduate<l at the University of Penn- 
 sylvania 1S14 ; served in the navy as a medical officer 
 l'<13-15; became a distinguished practitioner of Philudcl- 
 phia; was prosector and demonstrator of anatomy in the 
 Ihiiversity of Pennsylvania ; became adjunct professor of 
 anatomy in the same 1819; full professor 1831 ; announced 
 the discovery of the so-called Horner's muscle 1824; found- 
 ed St. Jo*ei>irs Hospital 1S17. D. in Philadelphia Mar. 
 12, 1853. Published a treatise on I\i(h'il<><jicnl Auatomif 
 (1820), Prnrtintf Aiintnnn/, Spmiaf Aiuftomi/ <i}i(f ffistnhxji/ 
 (2 vols., 1851), f. S. VltiMrrtor, and an Aimt'imtral Atlas. 
 
 Horner's Method ofDetached Coefficients. The 
 
 method of detached coefficients simplifies the processes of 
 algebraic multiplication and division when the coefficients 
 in the expressions to be operated upon are chiefly numerical. 
 It consists in omitting the letters (or at least the letter ac- 
 cording to the powers of which the ex press ions arc arranged), 
 and using the coefficients only of the successive powers. 
 Before employing the method the expressions must bo pre- 
 pared so that the exponent of the letter according to which 
 each expression is arranged must increase l>y one in each 
 term toward the right from to the highest given, or de- 
 crease in like manner, from the highest given to 0. 
 
 To illustrate the method in multiplication: Let it bo 
 required to multiply 5j* + 2x'^ — x + I by bjr^-~2x -f 1. 
 In the multiplicand the term containing .r* is wanting, and 
 in the multiplier the term containing j:^; these must be sup- 
 plied, so that the expressions, when properly prepared, 
 will read 5x* + O.x^ + 2x2 _ x + 1 ^nd 5x3 ^ q^j.2 _ 2x + 1. 
 The operation is performed as follows : 
 
 5 + 0+ 2 — 1 + 1 
 
 5 + 0— 2 + 1 
 
 25+0 + 10 — 0+5 
 
 — 10—0—4 + 2 — 2 
 ± 5 + 0+2—1 + 1 
 
 25 + 0+ 0+0 + 1+4 — 3 + 1 
 
 Since the expressions to be multiplied are arranged ac- 
 cording to the descending powers of x, the ])roduct will bo 
 so arranged, the highest power being that obtained by 
 multiplying x* by x^, or x'. The complete product will 
 then bo 25x7 + (l.a-« + 0.x5 + 0.x* + x^ + Ix^- 3x + 1, q^, 
 omitting the insignificant terms, 25x*^ + x^ + 4x2 — Zx ^ ]. 
 
 To illustrate the method in division: Let it be required 
 to divide x' - 2x* — 3x3 _x — \ by x^— 2x — 1. Supplying 
 the wanting terms in both the dividend and divisor, the 
 expressions will read x"' + O.x** f O.x^— 2x* — 3x3 + 0.x"'' — 
 X — 1 and x3 + 0.x' — 2x — 1, and the operation will read 
 as follows : 
 
 1 +0 + 0—2 — 3 + 0—1 — 1 |1 +0-2 — 1 
 
 1^.0-2-1 |l +0+2-1 + 1 
 
 2 — 1—3+0 
 2+0—4—2 
 
 — 1 +1+2 — 1 
 
 — 1—0+2 + 1 
 
 1+0 — 2—1 
 1+0—2—1 
 
 As there ore four terms in the divisor, four terms of the 
 dividend are first dealt with. To the first remainder 
 (2—1) (he next term of the dividend ( + 3) is annexed; 
 and pince the divisor of four terms is not contained in 
 2—1—3, is written in the quotient, and the next term 
 of the dividend (+UJ is brought down: the rest of the 
 operation needs no explanation. The power of x in the 
 first term of the quotient will be that obtained by dividing 
 x' by x3 or x* ; and the complete quotient will bo x* + O.x** 
 + 2x' - X + 1 , or X* I- 2x2 .. j. — ] . 
 
 The process of division by detached coefficients is the 
 inverse of that of multiplication by detache<l coefficients. 
 To exhibit this, let it be required to multiply 3x^— x + 2 by 
 x^ — 2x + 3, and then divide the product by x' — 2a: -J- 3 : 
 
 3 — 1+2 
 
 1—2 + 3 
 
 8—1+2 
 — fi + 2 —4 
 
 + 9_ —3 + 6 
 
 3 — 7 + 13 — 7+6 
 Vol. U.—r,:, 
 
 The first term of the product is obtained by multiplying 
 the first term of the multiplicand by the first term of the 
 multiplier; hence, the first term of the quotient in division 
 must bo obtained by dividing the first term of the dividend 
 by the first term of the divisor: the second term of the 
 product is obtained by adding together the product of the 
 second term of the multiplicand by the first term of Ihc 
 multiplier, and the product of the first term of the multi- 
 plicand by the second term of the multiplier; hence, the 
 second term of the quotient must l)c the result obtained by 
 subtracting from the second term of the dividend the pro- 
 duct of the first term of the quotient by the second term 
 of the divisor: the third term of the product is the sum 
 of the three products obtained by multiplying the third 
 term of the multiplicand liy the first term of the multiplier, 
 the scconcl term of the multiplicand liy the second term of 
 the multiplier, and the first term of the multiplicand by 
 the third term of the multiplier; hence, the third term of 
 the quotient must be the result obtained by subtracting, in 
 succession, from the third term of the dividend the product 
 of the second term of the divisor by the second term of the 
 quotient, and the product (pf the third term of the divisor 
 by the first term of the quotient; and so on. If, now, tho 
 terms of tho divisor, with the exccjition of the first, have 
 their signs changed, the successive subtractions may be 
 changed into additions, and the operation may be performed 
 thus (the example being to divide 3x* — 7x3 _)_ l3^^_7j;-^ (j 
 by x2-2x + 3): 
 
 3—7 + 13 — 7+6 
 + 6— 2 + 4 
 — 9+3 — 6 
 
 ■|{iil 
 
 '3—1+ 2,+ + 
 the quotient being Zx^ — x + 2. The method of proceed- 
 ing will bo apparent from what has gone before. Tho 
 method of division here exhibited was discovered, a little 
 more than fifty years ago, by W. G. Horner of Bath. Eng., 
 and is known as Horner's synthetic division or method of 
 division by detached coefiicients. It is of importance in 
 the solution of higher equations. 
 
 It has heretofore been stated that Horner's method of 
 division by detached coefficients is applicable only wlien 
 the coefficient of tho first term of the divisor is one. Mi'. 
 E. D. Hearn of England has recently shown that this is 
 not really the case, though when that coefficient is not one, 
 tho process has to be modified. The reason for the modi- 
 fication and the character of it will be apparent from an 
 example. Let it bo required to divide 12x*"l'J2 by 
 4x3 _|_ <ij.i _j, Kjj. _j. 32. Using the coefiicients alone, and 
 supplying the terms wanting in the dividend, the ordinary 
 process would be as follows : 
 
 12+ 0+ 0+ — 192 14 + 8 + 16 + 32 
 
 12 +■ 24 + 48 +9K I3H6 
 
 — 24--4S — 9G— 192 
 
 — 24 — 4 S— 9i>— 192 
 
 Since tho quotient of x* by x3 is x, the quotient will bo 
 3x — fi. It will be oViservcd that in this quotient the first 
 term is obtained, as before, V)y dividing the first term of tho 
 dividend by the first term of the divisor; the sc(!ond term 
 is not, however, the remainder left after subtracting from 
 the secoml term of tho dividend the jjroduct of the first 
 term of the quotient by the second term of the divisor, but, 
 instead, that remainder divided hy the first term of the di- 
 visor; and a similar remark will ap|)ly to tho remaining 
 terms of the quotient, if such there be. The operation, con- 
 ducted after Horner's method, would bo as follows: 
 4 '12 i- + + 0—192 
 
 — 16 
 
 — 32 
 
 — 21 + 48 
 
 — 48 + 96 
 96 + 192 
 
 — 24 
 
 3 — 
 
 f " Pnltie quotient tine," cnch tfrm In which 
 \ i» to be- divided bj tho Umt term gf 
 t tlic divisur. 
 
 True quoliciit line 
 
 Enw. David Hearn. Reviskdby J. H. Van Amrinoi;. 
 Horner's Method of Solving IIi{;hcr Fqnii- 
 
 tions. rntil lI<inMT.in ISI'J. eommunieated to the Kuviil 
 Society his method of solving algebraic ecpiations of all 
 degrees, no direct and reliable method of finding the roots 
 of equations beyond tlio fourth degree was known; by his 
 method the process is comparatively simple. It consists, 
 in principle, in transforming the equations by one or more 
 figures of the root at a time, nntl in a direct and relia)>ln 
 method of discovering those figures : whilst the operation 
 itself is performed by means ol detaelted eoefficients. Tho 
 explanation will be most facilitated by first enunciating 
 tho rule, and then elucidating the several steps or sections 
 of tho rule whilst working an example, 
 
 liuU 1. To Find It Punidvc Hoot. — Having found tho 
 number and situation of tho roots, transform the given 
 equation into another whose roots shall be less than thifse 
 of the given equation hy the initial figure of tho root ; thou
 
 994 
 
 HORNET— HORR. 
 
 divide the absolute term of the reduced equation by the 
 penultimate cociticient to find the next figure of the root, 
 with which trausfonn the recluced equation as before, :inj 
 repL-at the proems until the desired accuracy is attained. 
 
 linlr J. fo Finil ti .\<'/<itive Root. — Change the signs of 
 the alternate terms of the given equation, and proceed as 
 for a positive root. 
 
 Extiiupb\ — Find the roots in the equation 2a^ 4- .'i«''^ — 
 ■1(( — 10 — 0, where, as there are two permanences and one 
 variation of sign, there will, if all the roots arc real, be, 
 according to Harriot's rule of signs, two negative roots and 
 one positive root. The true number and situation of the 
 roots may be found by Stuhm's Method (which see). By 
 this method the following expressions arc obtained: 
 
 F = 2«3 + ;Ja- — 4a — 10 
 
 Fy = tiu- -I- (i« — 4 
 
 /S = 11a + 23 
 
 If, now, there be substituted in F, Fj, etc., for a, the values 
 0, 1, 2 in succession, the following changes of sign will 
 occur : 
 
 /•' F^, F., Ft 
 
 If (I = the sifjns + — ...2 var. 
 
 (I ^ 1 " •' h + —....2 var. 1 Hence there is a root 
 
 a^2 " " + 4- -i- — ...Ivar.J between 1 and 2. 
 Wo will now make a~X and a ~ 2 respectively, and trans- 
 form the functions by the synthetic division, thus: 
 /■= 4-2 + 3-4—10(0 = 1 F=+2+ 3— 4 — 10 (a = 2 
 + 2 + 5 + 1 + 4 + 14 +20 
 
 + 7+10+10 
 + 4 + 22 
 + 11+32 
 
 + 4 
 
 + 2+15+32 + 10 
 
 + 5 + 1- 9 
 + 2+7 
 
 + 7+8 
 + 2 
 
 +2+9+8—9 
 
 -Fi= + 0+ 6— 4 (o = 
 + 6+12 
 
 + 12+8 
 + 6 
 
 + 6+18 + 8 
 
 F.= +ll+28 (a=l 
 + 11 
 
 + 11 + 39 
 
 ^3 = - 
 
 -Fl- 
 
 = +6+ 6— < (o = 
 + 12+36 
 + 18 + 32 
 + 12 
 
 = 2 
 
 
 + 6 + 30+32 
 
 
 F2 
 
 = + 11+28(0=2 
 
 + 22 
 
 + 11+50 
 
 
 
 /•» = - 
 
 
 . a= 
 
 =2=F= 2n3+i3a2 
 F,= na2+3Ua 
 /<=lla +50 
 
 +32a + 10 
 
 . a=l=F = 2a3+ 9a2+8a— 9 
 Fi= 6o2 f iSa +8 .• 
 Fo==na +39 
 
 One variation is lost between 1 and 2, indicating that one 
 root has been passed over. Taking the transformed func- 
 tions just found (by making a = l and a = 2), and treat- 
 ing them in the same manner, we could ascertain whether 
 the root is between 1.1 and 1.2, or between 1.2 and 1.3, and 
 so on. In the given equation it is between 1.6 and 1.7. 
 Again, we might take this third series of functions and 
 treat them again, which would show us that it is between 
 1.02 and l.li.i, and so on to any degree of accuracy ; but it 
 is usually sufficient, when tlirec or four decimal ]>laces in 
 the root have been found, to continue the operation in the 
 same manner as contracted division, as much time and 
 labor is thereby saved. For the given equation the work- 
 ing will stand thus : 
 + 1 
 
 + 3 
 
 — 4 
 
 — 10 (1.6248190836 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 — 9a 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 8.472 
 
 7 
 
 8a 
 
 — .528 b 
 
 2 
 
 6.12 
 
 .424256 
 
 9A 
 
 14.12 
 
 — .103744 c 
 
 1.2 
 
 6.84 
 
 86069248 
 
 10.2 
 
 20.36 b 
 
 — 17074752 D 
 
 1.2 
 
 2V28 
 
 17262700 
 
 11.4 
 
 21.2128 
 
 — 411992 E 
 
 1.2 
 
 2536 
 
 zi.wss 
 
 12.6 U 
 
 21.4661c 
 
 — liHilO 1 F 
 
 04 
 
 50912 
 
 1911.'HU 
 
 12.64 
 
 ii.anm' 
 
 — ISO.-) 
 
 4 
 
 .10944 
 
 1726 
 
 
 
 
 1268 
 
 21.5GS20 6 D 
 1019 5 
 
 — 79 
 
 4 
 
 65 
 
 12.7;; c 
 
 21.5784.1 1 
 
 —14 
 
 008 
 
 1019 5 
 
 13 
 
 12.728 
 
 21.588614 B 
 
 — 1 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 12.736 
 
 21.0887 6 
 
 
 a 
 
 1 2 
 
 
 1|2.7|44D,E,F 
 
 21..188I8 P 
 2I..58I8 
 
 
 
 21.5|8 
 
 
 
 21 15 
 
 
 
 2|1 
 
 
 
 |2 
 
 
 Now, if we analyze this working, we shall observe that 
 the given equation was lirst depressed in order to eliminate 
 the first figure of the root; that this depressed equation 
 was further depressed to ciimitiate the second figure of the 
 root — that is, the first figure of the decimal portion — and 
 so on, until the desired approach to accuracy was attained. 
 In this case the root is correct to five places of decimals, 
 and approximately so to ten places of decimals. The 
 SMALL c'Ai'iT.VLS show the succcssivc depressions from the 
 given equation so far as the coefficients are concerned, thus : 
 
 Given equation F == 2a^ +3a2 — ia — 10 
 
 A rt =: 1 Ji = 2aS +9a2 +8a —9 
 
 B a = O.G F=2a3 +12.fi«2 +20.9Grt — 0.528 
 
 c = 0.02 F^ 2rt» +12.72«2 *^2I.^GG4rt — 0.1liS74|4 
 
 D a = 0.004 F = 2(1^ +12.744a2 + 2 1 ..'".GS2.")Ga —0.0176714 
 
 E a = 0.0008 F= 2a3 +12.74|-la2 +21.5G8G|4a —0.00041 1 1 
 
 and so on. 
 
 It should be mentioned, with regard to the application of 
 Sturm's theorem, that it (akes no notice of the duplication 
 of a root; theretoro, wlien the etjuation has equal roots, we 
 shall have a divisor which exactly measures a dividend, so 
 that the process will terminate without a remainder which 
 is independent of the unknown quantity. In this ease wo 
 can divide the several functions by the common measure, 
 and use the depressed functions to determine the distinct 
 roots, or we can employ the original functions, merely re- 
 membering that two of the roots are equal. (For an ex- 
 planation of Horner's "new method of solving numerical 
 equations of ail orders by continuous approximation," see 
 Philoiophiriil Traiisaclinns of the Rotjid Sort'rfi/ oj' Ijoudonf 
 
 for the year 1819, part ii.) Enw. Davhj TIeaien. 
 
 Revised by J. II. Van A.mhince. 
 
 Hor'net, a name applied to several large stinging in- 
 sects of the wasp family. The most common in the U. S. 
 is the Vcupa mdculdtaf which builds a great nest of brown 
 paper, and hangs it from the branches of a tree. Its paper 
 is made from the fibre of wood. Its sting is very severe. 
 The hornet is omnivorous, devouring fruits, honey, and in- 
 sects of many kinds. Some of the foreign species build 
 nests of paper, and some of clay. Some make only tho 
 cells of paper, housing the cells in a hollow tree. This is 
 the case with Vcspa <:rabro, the commonest European hor- 
 net, now naturalized to some extent in the U. S, 
 
 Horn^pipe, a musical instrument formerly common in 
 Wales, consisting of a wooden pipe, with holes at graduated 
 intervals, and a horn at each end. A lively tune and sev- 
 eral popular dances have been composed for this instru- 
 ment, and known l>y its name. The tune is in compound 
 triple time, with nine crotchets in a bar — six down and 
 three up. 
 
 Horn's Creek, tp. of Edgefield co., S. C. Pop. 1915. 
 
 Horoden'ka, town of Austro-IIungary, in llic prov- 
 ince of Galicia, near the Dniester, carries on an active gen- 
 eral trade. Tup. S4jl. 
 
 Hororogfy [Or. wpa, "hour," and Aoyo?, "treatise"], tho 
 science of the divisions and measurements of time, or, in a 
 narrower sense, the description of the construction of clocks, 
 watches, snn-dials, and other devices for measuring time. 
 Calendars, zodiacs, cycles, and the larger measurements of 
 time are not usually treated of as forming the subject of 
 any part of the science of horology. (Sec Clocks, by Linus 
 r. BuocKETT, A. M., M. D, ; and Watches.) 
 
 Hor'oscope [Or. dpa, "hour," and o-KOTrcif, to "ob- 
 serve"], a diagram of the position of the heavenly bodies, 
 especially of the planets and the twelve imaginary signs 
 of the zodiac, at the time of a person's birth, from which 
 was derived an augury of his career and fortunes. The 
 most important Ihingwas the sign of the zodiac which rose 
 at the moment of (he child's birth. Arbitrary significations 
 were given to the difi"ercnt heavenly bodies according as 
 they appeared singly or in conjunction, or as they were in 
 opposition. As a rule, one born under Jupiter would bo 
 powerful ; one under Mars, warlike ; one under Venus, suc- 
 cessful in love; one under the Pleiades, exposed to storms 
 at sea, etc. Horoscopes were also calculated upon tho 
 same general principles to foretell the issue of any import- 
 ant undertaking. 
 
 Ilorr (Asa). M. D., b. at Worthington. Franklin co., 0., 
 Sept. 2, 1S17; took his medical degree at Cleveland in lS-16 
 in the medical department of AVestern Kcserve College; has 
 practised medicine since 1S47 at Dubuque, la.; erected a 
 private astronomical observatory 1S04. and was the first to 
 determine accurately the longitude of Dubuque; has given 
 much attention to botany and the other natural sciences, and 
 to the perfecting of a system of phonographic shorthand. 
 Author of many professional and scientific papers; with 
 J. M. Bigelow published a catalogue of the plants of Frank- 
 lin CO., 0. ; is a member of many learned societies ; and has 
 been president of the Iowa Institute of Science and Arts
 
 HOKROCKS— HOKSE. 
 
 995 
 
 since ISGS, of which society he was (ISCS) ono of the 
 founders. 
 
 Hor'rocks, or Ilorrox (Jereuiah), b. at Toxteth, 
 
 LaDL-aiihirc, Englan<l, about 1015; studied as a sizar In Em- 
 manuel College. Cambridge: took holy orders and became 
 curate of Hoolc, where in ICIJU he made an observation of 
 the transit of Venus (Nov. 24). William Crabtrce was ap- 
 prised by Horrocks of the calculations which led him to 
 expect this transit (which not even Kepler had predicted), 
 and accordingly Crabtree and Ilorrocks both made obser- 
 vations (the first on record) of the transit of Vouus. The 
 tran.^it occurred on a Sunday, and Ilorrocks fell compelled 
 to attend divine service, and thus lost a part of the obser- 
 vation. D. at Hoolo Jan. .'i, 1041. Author of Vcmm in 
 Snfiri'ifn Observationutn i^celeitium Catnlnffttn (1G72), Nttvx 
 Thcurix Ltinari* txplicatnr, of published Letters to Crab- 
 tree in Latin, and of a few other posthumous papers. It is 
 possible that he was the iDvcDtor of tho micromotor, but 
 the point is uncertain. 
 
 Hor'ry, the easternmost county of iSouth Carolina, hav- 
 ing North Carolina on the N. E. and tho Atlantic OcL-an on 
 the S. E. A part of its surface is marshy, and a part is 
 sandy, with pine forests. Rico and pork are tho staple 
 products. Area, about 1000 square miles. Cap. Conway- 
 borough. Pop. 10,721. 
 
 Horry (Pcteh), a distinguished South Carolinian in tho 
 Revolutionary war cf 1770, was a brigadier-general under 
 the partisan command of tho celebrated Gen. Francis JMn- 
 rion. Gen. Horry was distinguished not only for his prow- 
 ess in arms, but for his achievements with the pen. Tho 
 life of Marion prepared by him and Weems, puljlishcd in 
 1S24 by Carey &, Lea of IMiiladelphia, has gone through 
 many editions, and will hold a permanent place in Amer- 
 ican Iit< rature. A. II. STEt'iinNs. 
 
 Horsn. Sec IlnxGisr. 
 
 Horse {Eqttun cnballtta of Linnfous), a well-known 
 domestic animal, non-ruminating and simple-hoofed, be- 
 longing to the soliped family of Cuvicr's order Pachyder- 
 mata (thick-skinned) ; but, according to the modern classi- 
 ticatiiin. the genus £t/nim belongs to tho family Equiilie, 
 sub-order Perissodactyla (odd-toed), order Ungulata (hoof- 
 ed), class Mammalia. The horse, with the ass, zebra, 
 quagga, and a few other similar animals, constitutes a 
 natural fatnily of hoofed quadrupeds, the forms now living 
 being closely related to each other, and widely separated 
 from all other existing mammals. Tho horse ditfers from 
 the other species of this family in having the tail covered 
 with long hairs from the base, instead of tufted at the end, 
 and in the presence of horny callosities on tho inner side 
 of tho hind legs below the " hock," as well as on tho foro 
 legs above tho " knee," where they are also found in the 
 other species. Tho pattern of coloration in tho horso is, 
 moreover, not striped, but in most respects he closely re- 
 sembles the other living representatives of the family. 
 Nearly all these animals may breed together, producing 
 hybrids, which are. however, usually sterile, as in tho case 
 of the well-known muic, the ofispring of an ass by a marc, 
 or tho hinny, the product of a stallion by a female ass. 
 
 The principal characteristics of the Equidic. as exempli- 
 fied by the horse, are the follo\ving : There are in the adult 
 3 incisors or cutting teeth, I canine, and 6 molars or grind- 
 ing teeth on each siile, above and below— 40 teeth in all. 
 The canines, however, arc usually wanting in mares. An 
 additional small tooth is occasionally found in advance of 
 the upper molar series. This tooth, when present, is the 
 smallest of all (ho teeth, and, as it has neither ])redeccssor 
 nor successor, its naturo is in doubt. The grinding teeth 
 are long, and have thick, square crowns. They aro deeply 
 implanted in the jaw, and without true fangs or roots, ex- 
 cept in old age. These teeth arc composed of interblendcd 
 enamel, dentine, and cement, and when their summits arc 
 worn down by mastication a peculiar and compli<'atod pat- 
 tern is presented, especially by the upper tetth. Tho 
 enamel, being much harder than the dentine or cement, 
 takes in the section the form of an irregular, elevated 
 ridge surrounding tho tooth ; outside this ridge is cement, 
 and within dentine. There are also in (he upper teeth two 
 cresccntic "lakes" of cement surrounded by a ridge of 
 eimmel, which often presents, especially in fomo fossil 
 species, very complicated foldings. The canines arc snmll 
 when present. The incisors are arranged close together in 
 a curve at tho end of the jaw. They differ from those of 
 ruminants by their greater length and curvature, and from 
 those of all other mammals by the fold of enamel, which 
 penetrates tho crown like the inverted finger of a glove. 
 When tho tooth begins to ho worn this fold becomes a ring 
 of enamel, enclosing a cavity filled by cement and particles 
 of food, and is calU-tl (he " mark." In " aged " horses tho 
 incisors aro worn down below (ho extent of (he fold, and 
 the "mark" disappears. This occurs in the lower mid- 
 
 incisors at the sixth year, and in tho next and outer pairs 
 in the seventh and eighth years respectively. The "mark" 
 remains somewhat longer in the upper teeth. The skull is 
 much elongated, chiefly in consequence of tho great size of 
 the face as compared with tho hinder or true cranial por- 
 tion. It is wide between the orbits, which arc small, and 
 closed behind by a bridge of bone, as in ruminants. The 
 prcmaxillaries project beyond the nasals. The condyle of 
 tho lower jaw is much elevated above its alveolar border. 
 Tho cervical vertebra* have their contra elongated, strongly 
 convex in front and concave behind. The iif/amcntum 
 uHcfur is a strong band of elastic tissue for the support of 
 tho head, extending from the spines of the anterior dorsal 
 verlobrsB to tho occiput. In the dorsal region the vertebrae 
 become gradually less convex anteriorly. The neural spines 
 increase in length to tho fourth or fifth. The dorso-luinbar 
 vertcbrie number 24, and there arc IS or 11) pairs of ribs. 
 There aro 5 sacral and about 17 caudal vertebric. The 
 clavicle is absent, as in all ungulates. The scapula, or 
 shoulder-blade, is long and narrow, the low spine has no 
 acromion, and tho coracoid process is small. The humerus 
 is short and strong, and the articulation with the radius 
 and ulna is a very perfect hinge-joint. The two bones of 
 tho fore arm are co-ossificd. Tho shaft of tho ulna is obso- 
 lete, and the distal end small, so that the articulation for tho 
 carpus or wrist, commonly called the "knee," is furnished 
 almost entirely by tlio radius. The carpus is composed of 
 seven bones in two rows--the first row of the usual four bones, 
 tho second of three bones — the trapezium being obsolete, or 
 sometimes represented by a small ossicle. The trapezoid and 
 unciform are small, and tlic magnum large. Three meta- 
 carpals only arc present, corresponding with those of the 
 index, midille, and fourth or "ring finger "of tho human 
 hand. Of those, the middle, articulating with the magnum, 
 is much t!io largest, supports the foot, and is called tho 
 cannon-bone. The other two metacarpals arc small, and 
 placed somewhat behind the middle one. They taj)er 
 rai)idly to a point, and, except in rare abnormal cases, 
 support no digits. They aro called splint-bones, and by 
 their displacement givo rise to the disease known os 
 " splint." The cannon-bone is nearly symmetrical on tho 
 opposite sides, and at its lower end, at the lotlock-joint, 
 articulates with the first phalanx, called the" great pastern- 
 bone." Tho second phalanx is the " little pastcrn-bone," 
 and the crescent-shaited ungual phalanx, supporting the 
 hoof, is tho "coffin-bone." The transversely elongated 
 sesamoid bone in the tendon of thcjlcxot- pcr/urann, at the 
 articulation of the two latter bones, is tho " navicular " of 
 veterinarians. 
 
 The pelvic bones arc elongated, and their long axis, on 
 tho length of which depends the proportional size of (ho 
 "([uarter," forms an acute angle with the back-bone. The 
 femur is short, stout, and included in the common integu- 
 ment of the body. Tlie third trochanter, as usual in odd- 
 toed ungulates, is well developed for tho insertion of the 
 j/lutciia tuiixinuts muscle, and there is a characteristic fossa 
 on the under surface of the bono above tho external con- 
 dyle. The fibula is rudimentary. In the ankle, or "hock," 
 joint, the astragalus is deeply and obliquely grooved. It 
 has a flat distal face, not borne upon any distinct neck, and 
 articulates almost entirely with the navicular, jiresenting 
 only a small face to tho cuboid. The internal and middle 
 cuneiform bones are small and united, and support the 
 inner splint-bone. The ectocunciform is largo, and with 
 tho cuboid supports tho cannon-bono, or metatarsal of the 
 middle toe. Tho outer splint-bono is also supported by 
 tho cuboid. Below this point tho structuro is tjiinilar to 
 that described in tho fore foot. It will thus be seen that 
 
 throughout the whole extent of bolh tho hind and foro 
 limbs, except in the proximal portions of the carpus and
 
 996 
 
 HORSE, FOSSIL. 
 
 other, and are usually confounded under the name of Ara- 
 bians. They are beautifully fnrraed. have fine legs and feet 
 and small bony heads, and are usually small, not over 15 
 hands high. The Flanders horse is a large, heavy, ooarse- 
 Ic'ed, slow horse, and the Tartar horse, which has been 
 ca"rned into Russia and Hungary, is a small, bony, rough 
 horse, with a large head and great endurance. From vari- 
 ous mixtures of these three types the modern horses arc 
 descended. The Barb blood spread into .Spain and It.aly, 
 and there met that of the other two races. The favorite 
 horses of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries seem to have 
 been various crosses of the liarh and the Pl.anders horses. 
 It is difficult to say what the original English horse was, 
 but he is spoken of in the highest terms by Markham iu 
 lOOit, who puts the brced.s iu the following order of merit: 
 English, Neapolitan, Corsican, Turk, Barb, Spanish, Po- 
 li.sh, German, Hungarian, Flanders, etc. The English 
 horse of that time was probably a cross between the Fl.^n- 
 ders and the Hungarian, and being early used for racing 
 and hunting purposes, he was swift and enduring. At 
 least as early as 1000 it was discovered that the cross of the 
 Barbary horse upon English mares was the best for pro- 
 ducing speed and bottom, and in the reign of James I. 
 Markham's Arabian and Place's White Turk were imported. 
 Charles II. imported what were known as the Royal mares 
 from Tangiers. The Darley Arabian was brought in during 
 the reign'of Queen Anne, and from this date (about 1705) 
 there were numerous importations, and by crossing them 
 with the native horses the foundation of the great family of 
 thoroughbreds was laid. These horses now undoubtedly sur- 
 pass all others for size, strength, bottom, beauty, and swift- 
 ness combined. The proper definition of a thoroughbred 
 at the present time is a horse whose progenitors for five 
 generations back are to be found iu the Slud Bnnk, which 
 is a record of horses bred for racing purposes since about 
 1700, the complete pedigrees commencing about 1750. The 
 first importations of thoroughbred horses into America 
 were about 1725-30, and the Sind Book of the American 
 alon/the inner border of the sole, are called branch is kept up on this side ot the water. This ebass ot 
 
 tarsus, development is principally confined to a single me- 
 dian series of bones, and thus, with the single solid hoof, 
 is formed the highest type of a purely locomotive organ 
 for progression over solid, even ground, and no mean 
 wea])on of defence. 
 
 The skin of the horse is thick, firmly adherent, especially 
 along the back, and well provided with sweat-glands. The 
 lips are very delicate tactile organs, and capalile of much 
 motion. They are set with long whiskers or bristles, the 
 bases of which arc lodged in the subculaneous muscular 
 tissue, and are furnished with sensory nerves. Respiration 
 is performed through the nostrils. The stomach is simple ; 
 the ca-cum very large, fully twice the size of the stomach. 
 The alimentary canal is about eight times as long as the 
 body. There is no gall-bladder. The principal peculiari- 
 ties of the muscular system are, as might be expected, in 
 the muscles of the limbs. The serralim mnrjniiK and the 
 lei'alor nui/idi scnpulm with the slenio-ncnpulnris form a 
 great sling, by which the weight of the body is transmitted 
 to the anterior extremities. Tho power of abduction and 
 adduction not being needed in a purely cursorial animal, 
 tho deltoid is much reduced. On tho other hand, the 
 pro- and re-traetors and the flexors and extensors are well 
 developed. Tho pronators and supinators are wanting, 
 the limb being fixed in a constant state of pronation. In 
 the hind leg the femoral muscles are the same as in man, 
 but enormously developed. The tlhinUa aniii/ua and poxli- 
 01(8 and the pcroneus loiirpis and brecis are wanting. The 
 flexor hallncis and tho flexor Iniir/m dlijitornm are united 
 into a single perfor.ating tendon fur the distal phalanx. In 
 this tendon is developed the sesamoid bone, known as the 
 "navicular," The epidermis covering the terminal pha- 
 lanx is developed into the hoof, a horny cylindrical or 
 somewhat conical case, separable by maceration into the 
 wall, tho sole, and the frog. The wall is that part of the 
 hoof that is seen when it rests upon the ground, and its 
 anterior portion is called the toe. The heels are formed by 
 the inflexion of its posterior extremities, and these extremi 
 ties, passing along the inn 
 
 the bars. The sole is a thick horny plate occupying the 
 inferior surface of the hoof, and the frog is a pyramidal 
 mass of horn lodged between the two posterior re-entering 
 angles of the wall. The hoof of the ass and mule is nar- 
 rower than that of the horse, the wall higher and thicker, 
 the sole more concave, and the horn harder. 
 
 The period of gestation in the horse is eleven months. 
 It often lives thirty years or more, but is usually service- 
 able fur less than half that time. lis perception is quick, 
 its memory retentive, and it is capable of much afl'ection. 
 It is surpassed in docility by no animal except the dog, 
 and perhaps the elephant. Its flesh is often used for food. 
 The original habitat of the horse is unknown. It is 
 found wild in Centr.al and Western Asia, and upon the 
 plains of both North and South America. In the liltter 
 country, especially upon tho pampas of Brazil and Buenos 
 Ayrcs,'it is abundant and lives in large herds. All these 
 animals arc, however, known to bo desccndeil from domestic 
 horses brought from Europe by the Spaniards, The horse 
 has been domesticated from a very early period, probably 
 first in Central Asia or Northern Africa. Its remains are 
 very rare in the Stone Age, but a few bones have been 
 found in tho Swiss lake-villages, enough to indicate its 
 presence. In the Bronze Period, however, its bones be- 
 come more numerous. Upon Egyptian monuments it is 
 not represented earlier than the eighteenth dynasty, but 
 the horse appears to have been abundant in Egypt after 
 that time. It is first mentioned in the Bible after the 
 children of Israel went into Egypt, no reference being 
 made to the horse in the full account of the pastoral lives 
 of tho early patriarchs. 
 
 The most celebrated races of the honso are those of 
 Ariibia, Turkey, and Barbary, and from these, by a thorough 
 and judicious system of breeding, has sprung tho English 
 race-horse, an anim.al that now so far surpasses the origi- 
 nals from which it has sprung that almost no benefit has 
 been derived from imported blood for the last three-quarters 
 of a century. A single mile ia IJ minutes is considered 
 fast running time for a racehorse. The height of a raee- 
 liorse is about 15.1 hands, or 5 feet 2 inches. A horse under 
 l:i hands high is called a pony, and some Welsh and Scotch 
 breeds of ponies are very celebrated for their endurance. 
 A Shetland pony IU hands high has carried a rider 41 
 miles in .3 hours and 45 minutes. In America more atten- 
 tion has been paid to the rearing and training of trotting- 
 borses, and the constant improvement is shown by the fact 
 that nearly every year the fastest time previously recorded 
 is surpassed. At present the best time for a single mile is 
 2 minutes 14 seconds, and was made by Goldsmith Maid 
 in 1874 at Mystic Park, Boston. 
 
 The horses of the N. part of Africa, from Barbary (hence 
 called Barbs), from Arabia, and from Turkey rescmhlccaoh 
 
 horses is bred and used primarily for racing purposes, but 
 the cross improves horses for all purposes, as is clearly 
 shown by the superior quality of the average horse of Vir- 
 ginia and New Jersey, into which States the taste for racing 
 introduced the thoroughbred horse at an early period. 
 Owing to three and four mile races and heat-races having 
 been kept up in America while short races and single dashes 
 have been in vogue in England for some years, the average 
 Americvn thoroughbred is probably a stouter and stronger 
 horse than his English cousin. It can hardly be said that 
 there are any distinct families of horses in America, al- 
 though those of different localities present some peculiari- 
 ties." The average horse of the New England States and 
 of Canada is small, hardy, good-tempered, a good traveller, 
 and very enduring. The Morgan horse of Vermont is one 
 of the best types. Lancaster eo.. Pa., possesses a breed ot 
 horses, now" somewhat scarce, called Conestogas— large, 
 well-made, slow draught-horses. In Virginia, Kentucky, 
 and the South generallv the thoroughbred and his connec- 
 tions predominate, anil in Texas, California, and Mexico 
 we find the mustang— a small horse, evidently descended 
 from the Spanish horses introduced by the early conquerors 
 of that region. 
 
 Horse, Fossil. Tho existing species of the horse fam- 
 ily are so closely related to each other as not to be dis- 
 tinguished gcnerically by any characters derived from the 
 skeleton, but a large number of extinct genera have lett 
 their remains in Quaternary and Tertiary strata of various 
 parts of the world, and especially of North America. At 
 the time of the discovery of this continent by Europcans.no 
 species of horse or ass existed in either North or South 
 America, but since the introduction of these animals the 
 climate and conditions of life have proved so favorable that 
 laro-c herds of wild horses arc now common on tho pamjias 
 and prairies of both continents, the descendants of those 
 that have escaped from domestication. This comiilcio 
 absence of indigenous species is the more remarkable in 
 view of the fact that not less than twelve species of i'lyiiru 
 have been described from Quaternary deposits, and more 
 than thirty other related forms from the Tertiary of Amer- 
 ica. Kome'of these are readily distinguished from the living 
 species by the greater complexity in the foldings of tho 
 enamel as they appear upon the worn surface of the molars. 
 In the Pliocene Tertiary, tho horse was represented by 
 several extinct genera, the best known being Ilippnnoii 
 (or Htppoiherimn), in which the body was supported, as m 
 EquuH. on the cxtremitv of the mid.lle toe of each foot, 
 which was also provided at the fetlock-joint wilh an ad- 
 ditional pair of small toes, not reaching the ground, and 
 resembling the dew-claws of cattle. In the upper niolar 
 teeth there is in Hippnrion. on the anterior portion of the 
 inner side, an isolated ellipse of enamel enclosing dentine,
 
 IIURSK-CIIESTNUT— HORSE-FLY. 
 
 9!)7 
 
 ttod DOt joiDcd with the main body of the tooth by an isth- 
 mus of dentine, as iu E(/uh», at least until the teeth arc 
 nearly wurn uut. The species arc small, a^ llie nuinc implies, 
 liippnrSnn bein;; a diminutive from the (jruik hippoa, a 
 "horse." Protuhippus and Pliohippun of the Pliocene arc 
 genera nearly related to llipparion and IC'piuH. Auchippuv, 
 also from the Pliocene, resembled in its teeth Auchitlurt'tim 
 of the Miocene, a genus now considered as typical of a 
 family distinct from that of the horse. In Aitehitkcritim 
 the shaft of the ulna is complete, modt-ratcly developed, 
 and more or less jieparatc from the radius. The fibula is 
 ankyloscd with the tibia. Tlie orbit is not closed behind, 
 aftd there is a deep ant-orbital fossa. The molars have 
 short crowns devoid of eement. and arc inserted by distinct 
 fangs. There are three digits in each foot, the middle being 
 much the largest, but all appear to have reached the ground. 
 Mt'ithippng, a\so from the Miocene, was closely related to 
 Anrhithei-inm. In this g<'nus the radius and ulna are free 
 or only loosely united. The tibia and fibula are co-ossi- 
 fied at the distal end. There were three digits in each 
 foot, all of which reached the ground, and they are more 
 nearly equal in size than in Auchithcrium. Another closely 
 related Miocene genus, Mtnohtppnn, had, besides the three 
 toes of the fore foot, ii splinl-bonc representing the outer 
 toe, or little finger of the human hand. The Miocene species 
 were not larger than a sheep. The Eocene representatives 
 of the group were still smaller, the largest hardly exceeding 
 a fox in size. Tlicy belong to the genus Orohxppua, which 
 has tour functional digits in the fore foot, and no ant- 
 orbital fossa. The orbit is open behind. The dentition is 
 very similar to that of Ancfiifherinniy but the first u])per 
 premolar is larger, and the succeeding ones smaller than in 
 that genus. The diastema, or"])lace for the bit," is distinct. 
 The canines arc large, and near the incisors. The crowns 
 of the molars are short and destitute of cement. The 
 skeleton is decidedly equine in its general features. The 
 raclius and ulna are distinct, the latter larger than in An- 
 cfiitfirrium. The carpal bones are eight in number, and 
 resemble those of the tapir, hut the trapezium is propor- 
 tionally much smaller. All the digits of the fore loot, ex- 
 cept the first are well developed. The third is the largest, 
 and its resemblance to that of the horse is clearly marked. 
 The terminal phalanx, or coflin-bonc, has a shallow median 
 groove in front, as iu many species of this group from the 
 Later Tertiary. The fourth digit exceeds the second in 
 size, and the fifth or outer toe is much the smallest of all, 
 ancl has its metacarpal bone consideriihly curved outward. 
 There are but three digits in the hind foot. The tibia and 
 lihula arc distinct. 
 
 All the above genera except Anchitfipnum are found in 
 the Tertiary and Quaternary of this continent, and Auchi- 
 therium is represented by the closely-allied genus McHnhip- 
 pH9. This large number of equine mammals and their 
 regular dislrilmtion in geological time afford a good oppor- 
 tunity to ascertain the probal)lc lineal descent of (he modern 
 hor.sc. The American representative of the latter is Equm 
 frateniut, a species almost, if not entirely, identical with 
 Kfjtnia cahniiiiM, to which the recent horse belongs, Iluxicy 
 has traced the later genealogy of the horse through Kuro- 
 poan extinct forms, but the Mine in America was a more 
 direct one and the record is more comphte. Taking, then, 
 as extremes of the series, Orohippnn atji/iN, from the Eocene, 
 and EipiHK /rntcmuH, from the Quaternary, the natural 
 line of descent, as indicated by over thirty intermediate 
 forms, would seem to bo through the following genera: 
 OiohippHH o{ the Eocene. MitJiipjiUM and Mcti<>fn'p{»m of the 
 Miocene, Anrhippnt, IUpparitniy and PliohippuH of the 
 Pliocene, and Kf/uuti, Quaternary and Recent, The most 
 marked changes undergone by these successive genera arc 
 the following : \nt, increase in size, from OrohippiiM, as large 
 as a fox, to the morlern horse ; 2t\, increase in speed through 
 concentration of the limb-bones ; .'!tl. elongation of the head 
 and neck and modification of the skull. The increase of 
 
 A, Orohijmux (Eocene); H, Mr^nhippuK (Miorene); C, Jfipparion 
 (I'llocene); D, />/»»« (Quaternary and lleccnt). 
 
 speed was a direct result of a gradual and striking modifi- 
 cation of the limbs. Thcso were slowly concentrated by 
 
 the reduction of their lateral elements and enlargement of 
 the axial one, until the force exerted by each limb came to 
 act directly through its axis in the line of motion. Tliis 
 conccntrutiun is well shown in the fore limb. There \vas, 
 1st, a change in the scapula and humerus, especially in the 
 latter, which facilitated motion in one plane only; 2d, nn 
 expansion of the radius and reduction of the ulna, until 
 the former alone remained entire and effective; .'Jd, a shttrt- 
 cuing of all the carpal bones and enlargement of the me- 
 dian ones, ensuring a firm wrist; 4th, an increase in size of 
 the third digit at the expense of those on each side, until 
 the former alone supported the limb. The latter change is 
 clearly seen in the above diagram, which represents the fore 
 feet of four typical genera in the equine series, taken in 
 succession from each of the geological periods in which this 
 group of mammals is known to have lived. The ancient 
 brohippiifi had all four digits of the fore feet well developed. 
 In Mrm>hipj)HH, of the next period, the filth t(»e is only rep- 
 resented by a rudiment, and the limb is supported by the 
 second, third, and fourth, the middle one being the largest. 
 Ilippnrion of the Later Tertiary still has three digits, but 
 the third is much stouter, and the outer toes have ceased 
 to be of use, as they do not touch the ground. In E*/vufi, 
 the last of the series, the lateral hoofs are gone, and the 
 digits themselves are represented only Ijy the rudimentary 
 splint-bones. The middle or third digit supports the limb, 
 and its size has increased cjcordingly. The correspond- 
 ing changes in the posterior limb of these genera arc very 
 similar, but not so striking, as the oldest type { Orohi/tpns) 
 had but three toes behind. An earlier ancestor of the 
 group, perhaps in the lowest Eocene, probably had four 
 toes on this i'oot and five in front. .Such a predecessor is 
 as clearly indicated by the feet of Orohippua, as the latter 
 is by its Miocene relative. A still older ancestor, possilily 
 in the Cretaceous, doubtless had five toes on cacli toot, the 
 typical number in mammals. This reduction in the num- 
 ber of toes may perhaps have been duo to elevation of the 
 region inhabited, which gradually led the animals to live 
 on higher ground, instead of the soft lowlands where a 
 many-toed loot would he most useful. 
 
 The gradual elongation of the head and neck may be said 
 to have already begun in OrohippuH, if we compare that 
 form with other most nearly allied mammals. The dias- 
 tema, or ** place for the bit," was well dcAcloptd in holh 
 jaws even then, but increased materially in succeeding 
 genera. The number of the teeth remained the same until 
 the Pliocene, when the front lower premolar was lost, and 
 subsequently the corresponding up])er tooth ceased to be 
 functionally developed. The next upper premolar, which 
 iu OrohlppiiH was the smallest of the six jiosterior teeth, 
 rapidly increased in size, and finally became in the horse 
 the largest of the scrier. The grinding teeth had at first 
 very short crowns, without cement, and were inserted by 
 distinct roots. In Pliocene species the molars became 
 longer, and were more or less coaled with cement. The 
 modern horse has extremely long grinders, without true 
 roots, and covered with a thick external layer of cement. 
 The large canines of OrufiippuH become gradually reduced 
 in the later genera, and Ihc characteristic "mark" ujton 
 tlic incisors is found only in (ho later forms. The bridge 
 of bone bounding the orbit behind first appears in the Plio- 
 cene genera. It is an interesting fact lliat Ihc peculiarly 
 equine features acquirctl by OmhijipuH are rctaineil per- 
 sistently throughout the entire series of succeeding forms. 
 Such, c. f/., is tin; form of the anterior part of the lower 
 jaw, and also the characteristic astragalus, with its nar- 
 row, oblique superior ridges^ and its small articular facet 
 for the cuboid. 
 
 Such is, in brief, a general outline oV the more marked 
 changes that sccin to have produced in America the highly 
 specialized modern Ei/nnx from its diminutive, four- toed 
 predecessor, the Eocene OrnhijipnH, The line of dc^eent 
 appears to have been direct, and the remains now known 
 supply every important intermediate form. Consitlering 
 the remarkable development of the group throughout the 
 entire Tertiary [leriod.and its cxisten(re even later, it seems 
 very strange that none of the species should have survi\ed. 
 and that we are indebted for our present horse to the did 
 World. 0. G. Maksm. 
 
 Ilorso'-Chcstnut. See .Saimndace*. 
 
 Horse ("reek, tp. of Marengo co., Ala. Pop. Ki;i7. 
 
 Il<»rse (reek, (p. of Kudc co., Mo. Pop. 51)7. 
 
 Horse Creek, post-tp. of Ashe co,, N. C, Pop. 8i;t. 
 
 Horse Distemper, a species of catarrh. As tlie dis- 
 ease is contagious, an animal having it should he kepi apart 
 from the others, and after a tliorough purge should be fed 
 on light bran mashes and kept warm until recovery. 
 
 Horsc-Fly, The females of many dipterous insects 
 
 of the family Tabanidie are called horse-flics, from the 
 
 I great annoyance their bito causes the horse. Among the
 
 998 
 
 HORSE GUARDS— HOKSE-RACING. 
 
 most common are Tabanua lineola, the green-headed fly, 
 which in hot weather has been known to worry horses and 
 cattle to death. The bite is severe, and even venomous, 
 always drawing blood, Tnhanug ntrnliia and ciMcdn, the 
 orange-belted fly, are also common. Their larva; are very 
 destructive of snails and of other larvse. The horso-fly of 
 Great Britain is Hlppnboscii equinn. (See FoREST-ri.v.) 
 
 Horse Guards. (See Gu.irds.) The term was used 
 to denote the head-quarters of the British army, White- 
 hall, London, in consequence of the building being guarded 
 by a squadron of horse guards, and of the striking appear- 
 ance of the mounted sentinels on duty at the entrance. 
 The head-quarters were changed in 1871 to the War Office, 
 I'all Mall ; ]iapors emanating therefrom are still headed 
 '•Horse (iuards," " W.ar Office, I'all Mall," being added. 
 Ilorse'hcad, t.p. of Johnson eo.. Ark. Pop. 995. 
 Ilorschcads, post-v. and tp. of Chemung co., N. Y., 
 ou the Northern Central and the Utica Ithaca and Elmira 
 E. Rs., has 6 churches, 2 weekly newspapers, 2 grist-mills, 
 a tannery, a sash .and blind factory, a steam saw-mill, a 
 woollen-mill, and the second largest brickyard in the U.S. 
 Pop. of v. 1410; of tp. 2901. 
 
 T. J. Taylou, Eu. '• HonsEHEADS JounxAL." 
 Hor.'^e Isl'and, an island in Lake Ontario, in Hounds- 
 field tp., .Icft'orson CO., N. Y., li miles from Sackett's Har- 
 bor. It has a lighthouse. Area, 27 acres. 
 
 Horse-Mackerel, a name given in Great Britain to 
 the ScAU (which see), but applied in the U. S. to Thymms 
 Hcvundo-dnianlin, called also albicore and American tunny. 
 It is often ten or twelve feet long, is very destructive to fish 
 and fishermen's nets, and is caught chiefly for its abundant 
 oil, although its flesh is pronounced excellent by good judges. 
 It is best killed by the harpoon. 
 
 Horse'manship. It seems quite proper to suppose, 
 taking into consideration the ancient myths relating to the 
 Centaurs and to Pegasus, that the horse was used by man 
 from the earliest periods for the purposes of war and the 
 chase. This was unquestionably true in India and in Persia. 
 The earliest regular treatise on horsemanship with which 
 we are acquainted is by Xenophon, and from that it ap- 
 pears that the horsemen of his time were accustomed to 
 feed, clean, and ride their horses much as we do. The sad- 
 dle was not, however, known to them, and their bit seems 
 to have been of the simplest possible form. The animal was 
 ridden either barebacked or with a cloth or skin secured by 
 a band. There were no stirrups, and the rider mounted by 
 vaulting on, or by stepping from a projection upon the shaft 
 of the lance. The saddle came into use iu the fourth cen- 
 tury, and the stirrup was no doubt invented soon after. 
 Erom that time, and through the , Middle Ages, the more 
 civilized nations used most elaborate horse-trappings, and 
 the art of riding was no doubt considerably advanced as 
 the equipments were improved. As a recognized art, re- 
 quiring long and difficult training, it seems to have had its 
 origin at Naples, whence its professors spread over Europe. 
 Spain took it up next to Italy, then France, and lastly 
 England. The tournaments which were in fashion from 
 tho^cloventh to the sixteenth century, and the Crusades, 
 brought the art into special prominence ; the carousals, 
 which succeeded the tournaments, kept up the interest, 
 and during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries equi- 
 tation held the first place in the education of a gentleman. 
 The riding-school was Iho fashionable lounge or club of 
 young men of rank, and some superb buildings were erected 
 in various places dedicated to this use alone. The interior 
 court of the Louvre was used as the place of instruction 
 of King Louis XIII. by his riding-master. Pluvinel. The 
 saddle in the time of the Crusades was made principally 
 of wood, very deep, and so formed that the rider sat upon 
 his fork perfectly straiglit up and down, as if standing. 
 Tho armor of man and horse was heavy, and a stout horse 
 was required to carry its weight. About 1509 the equip- 
 ments were somewhat modified to suit the purposes of 
 civil life, but the position of the rider remained nearly the 
 same until the time of I)e la Guerinierc, whose folio vol- 
 ume, with beautiful plates drawn by Ch. Parrocel, ap- 
 peared in 173:1, when the saddle assumed more nearly the 
 modern form, and tho seat of the rider was changed by 
 bending the knee and sitting down more in the saddle, 
 mueh in the manner of the ]iresent European military seat. 
 Tho Eastern nations Imvo from tho earliest times used a 
 deep saddle, but with a very short stirrup, rising in their 
 stirrups to use the javelin or lance. In the early part of 
 the eighteenth century the saddle by successive changes 
 approached nearly to tho present English saddle, and the 
 Engli.sh riders adopted the short stirrup which is now 
 cha°racteristic of their school of riding, most other nations 
 retaining tho military seat. The heavy curb bit of the 
 Middle Ages was retained until quite a late period, and the 
 equipments and mode of riding of the Mexican and South 
 
 American of the present day are almost exactly those of 
 the beginning of the eighteenth century. Among the con- 
 tinental European nations riding as a civil accomplishment 
 has declined, but in England it still holds its place in the 
 foremost rank among the amusements and accomplish- 
 ments of a gentleman. Faieimas Rogeks. 
 Horse Pasture, post-tp. of Henry co., Va. P. 2302. 
 Horse-Power. See Dynamic Units, by Proi?. W. P. 
 TnowBitiDCK, A. M. 
 
 Horse-Uacing. Though horse-racing has probably 
 been coeval with the possession of the hor.so by man, it 
 seems likely that tho Pcrsi.ans were the first to elevate the 
 sport to a great institution. Horses with them were iden- 
 tified with the sun or with the fiery chariot driven once a day 
 over the heavens. From the Persians the Greeks perhaps 
 derived the sacred races which were held at the Olympian, 
 Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean games. These races were 
 all conducted with clumsily-built chariots, without springs, 
 excecdinglv difficult to drive, the course involving as much 
 danger as skill. Great as was the difficulty of driving, it 
 was'much increased by the horses being all the time near 
 the spectators, who crowded close to the twenty short turns 
 of the ground, and maddened thr animals by their cries, 
 " while artifice was employed for the express purpose of 
 frightening the horses when they approached the statue of 
 tho'genius''Taraxippus." The charm of Greek races, apart 
 from the interest in the victor, consisted in the excitement 
 of seeing the chariots strike and shatter each other, tho 
 horses trampling on and killing the fallen drivers, and the 
 overturns, in which the whole population of refined Athens 
 delighted. The Roman races were much like the Greek, but 
 with this difference, that tho Romans cm|iloyed their slaves 
 as charioteers, instead of driving themselves. In tiine, 
 the Romans, however, introduced mounted races, and with 
 tho exception that the riders were often expected to perform 
 circus tricks and acrobatic feats, they were in many respects 
 strikingly like the modern. The horses were entered thirty 
 days in advance, and were trained, the jockeys wearing 
 four colors— green, red, white, and sea-color (rtiic(n), to 
 which Domitian added yellow and purple. There were 
 prizes given, but as betting was not practised, it would 
 appear that races among the Romans were a far more 
 creditable institution than those known at the present day. 
 The Romans did not use saddles (which, according to Beck- 
 mann, were invented in the fourth century), but they and 
 the Persians had thick saddlecloths. The jockeys were 
 called 8f)i«o/-e«, the trainers n;iilntnres. Caligula once gave 
 2000 sesterces to the jockey Eutychus. 
 
 An old French song describes a horse-race run m the 
 sixth century, the winner receiving for a prize the hand of a 
 Breton princess. From the twelfth to the fourteenth century 
 there appears in feudal grants mention of sums awarded at 
 annual and regularly established races, " but it is not until 
 the reign of Louis XV. that the history of horse-racing in 
 France" seriously considered, begins." There is good ground 
 for believing that in England the ancient Britons, decidedly 
 addicted to horsemanship, had races, and that the Mithraic 
 courses established by the Romans were continued by the 
 Saxons. It is certain that the latter had mounted races, 
 since "running horses" were among the presents sent by 
 Hugh Capet to Athelstan when suing for his sister Ethels- 
 nitha. This king took great pains to imnrove the breed of 
 the British horse bv importations from the Continent, par- 
 ticularly from Siiaiii, by which means a breed was produced, 
 says Bl'ainc. that flourished from the time of the Crusades 
 un'til tho days of the Tudors— a period which has been 
 called "the era of the great horse." In the romance of 
 /?^,/» of Soulhamplon we arc told that at AV lutsuntide tho 
 
 knights . . 
 
 "A conrs let them make on a daye, 
 Steeds and palfraye 10 assaye 
 Whicli horse that best may run." 
 Fitzstephen informs us that in the time of Henry II. there 
 was a great deal of racing on the ground where Smithfield 
 Market now stands. In the time of Henry VIII. turfed 
 courses were laid out and prizes allotted. The chict ol 
 these was a silver bell, whence perhaps comes the phrase 
 " to bear away tho bell." 
 
 Modern English horse-racing began strictly with James 
 I., who was very fond of it. In his reign public and 
 regular runnings were held in Yorkshire and Surrey. At- 
 tention was now paid to feeding and training horses and 
 instructing jockeys. Eastern horses were imported during 
 this rci<'n, but none of them proved to be of any value. 
 Duringlbe civil war and the Protectorate racing declined, 
 but with the Restoration there was a grand revival of all 
 fiehl-sports, and especially of this. Charles II. was an 
 entliusiastic admirer of the turf, even entering his horses in 
 his own name. He established races at Datchct Mead, that 
 he might more conveniently enjoy his favorite sport. Ho 
 was also regular in his attendance at Newmarket, now
 
 HORSE-RACING. 
 
 999 
 
 boasting every accommodation for the training of horses, 
 with an excellent race-course, which, as the system pro- 
 gressed, was apiiortioned into distances corresponding with 
 the several a;es and sujipiiscd powers of the horses. By 
 tliis arraiigonunt. as well as bv a judicious appropriation 
 of the weights to be carried, according to similar circum- 
 stances, a scale of equality was kept up highly to the credit 
 of the turf regulations. Indeed, much of the arrangement 
 and most of the rules and regulations since in force were 
 formed about this time and under the auspices of this 
 prince. William III. encouraged the turf, and George, 
 consort of Queen Anne, greatly aided it in every way. 
 During his reign Curwcn liaybad and the Darley Arabian 
 were imported. Charles II. introduced the silver prize 
 cup, value 1«0 guineas. " George I.." says '• Nimrod," '■ was 
 no racer, hut he discontinued silver plates as prizes, and 
 instituted the king's plates, being 100 guineas in cash." 
 Durin"- the reign of (ieorgo II. the Godolphin Arabian ap- 
 peared", the foun.ler of the best English •' blooded" horses. 
 George III. gave the lurf some encouragement. His brother, 
 the duke of ('urabcrlanil,was passionately addicted to racing. 
 From his stud came the famous horses Herod and Marak, 
 who sired the famous Eclipse, born in the fourth year of 
 George IV. O'lCelley, the great turfman of these tunes, 
 owned Eclipse, and w'as the breeder of Vohinleer and Dun- 
 gaiinon by Eclipse, who became the sire of HiO winning 
 horses. The earl of Grosvenor is also held in honor as one of 
 the great racing magnates of this reigu. He raised the two 
 famous mares Meteor and Violante. and lost his entire 
 f..rtune in the end. though he won £200,0110 by betting. 
 •• Honesty," savs lilaine, •' which ensures riches in most 
 other pursuits, is almost certain to occasion loss in racing.' 
 The king, George IV., bred Iho famous horses Whiskey, 
 Manfrcdrand Maria. This monarch, according to lilaine, 
 was very shrewd in lurf-niatters, and " surrounded himself 
 with men deeply versed in the ' mysteries' of racing. Tho 
 turf abounded iii rascals, and the prince found it necessary 
 to m<et the luanicuvns of such men by proper caution, 
 liy the exercise of this jiroper caution, he at last, in tho 
 alTair of the notorious Escape against Grey Dionied, " suc- 
 ceeded in getting the accusation of foul play affixed to his 
 name." His brother, the duke of York, was, however, a 
 heavy loser, being less suspicious. Cowper had long be- 
 fore said of England, 
 
 " We Justly boast 
 At le.Lst superior jockcysliip. and claim 
 The honors of llie turf as all our own." 
 
 rnforlunately, the dishonors of the turf must also bo 
 claimed, and it was during the reign of George IV. that 
 the turf became as noted for villainy as for sport. In tho 
 language of " Xiinrod," ■' A set of masked, unprincipled mis- 
 creanls''are now usurping the place of genllenien of integ- 
 rity. No honorable man can be successful for any length 
 of time against such a horde of determined depredators as 
 have lately been seen on our race-courses." Among tho 
 celebrated' jockeys employed by George IV. were Samuel 
 Chipiiey, who became rich ; .'^oulli, Goodson, Robinson, and 
 Nelson.' Earl Fitzwilliam, "a princely conductor of his 
 stud," bred the eminent racers Orville and Mulatto. Tho 
 earl of Derby raised Sir Peter Teazle, a descendant of the 
 Godolphin Arabian, as of Blank, Snap, and Reguliis. Ho 
 prorluced more winners than any English horse known ; 
 10,000 guineas were refused for him. Tho lale duke of 
 Dorset was a first-class jockey, an.l, like the duke of Graf- 
 ton, was a great winner. It is remarkable that severnl 
 racing authorities lay great stress on the fact that this no- 
 bleman was not a cheat, and always "ran to win." ( For a 
 fuller account of the great patrons of the turf from this 
 timiMo the year lf<:'.'i the reader may consult tho article 
 "The Turf" in the Quurtir/,/ JUricm, No. US.) 
 
 There are about 120 provincial r.ace-mcetings in England, 
 Scotland, and Wales, and some of these are held twice in 
 the year. Those of Newmarket, Epsom. Ascot, Vork, 
 Doncaaler, and Goodwood stand first in all respects. The 
 nnn.ual Derby (Epsom) ia the greal London holiday, where 
 :i.')0,'000 people often assemble. Tho Gooilwood is called 
 the " ladies' race," because it is specially visited by ladies, 
 many of the highest rank, in splendid toilette. The better 
 class of visitors sit and lunch in Ibeir carriages, while a 
 stream of female gypsies, clamorous to lell fortunes or beg, 
 itinerant musieiaiis and peddlers, go from one to the other, 
 anil the background is filled in with booths for eating, ex- 
 hibitions, eocoanut " sliys." "Aunt ,«allies," and similar 
 ruilc games, usuallv managed by gypsy men. It is said 
 that the telcgrnpliic deiiartment of the English post-offico 
 takes severnl hundred thousniul pounds annually from turf- 
 men, and that this "chief national pastime," which re- 
 ceives, in fact, nothing from the statr, or which against 
 £1000 received pays out £HOO0 excise-duty, "demands for 
 its support an expenditure equal to the revenue of such 
 email kingdoms as Portugal or Denmark." This is perhaps 
 
 the true reason why race-betting is not reformed out of ex- 
 istence, or rather why it exists as an anomaly and a national 
 reproach. It is not long since a poor man was sent to 
 prison for simply looking on at a game of pitch-penny in 
 London, while the belting on tho races fills columns not 
 only in "sporting papers," but is recorded more or less in 
 every daily journal. The usual pretext, that racing keeps 
 up the quality, strain, and value of horses, is a weak apol- 
 ogy; for, though it is true that that refined and highly ar- 
 tificial animal, the thoroughbred, executes the greatest 
 feats of running, it is as useless to the world at large, save 
 for bclliii'j oil, as the giraffes or lions in the zoological gar- 
 dens. Horses partly of this stock arc found, however, 
 to excel for almost "every purpose. There is a great de- 
 sire on tho part of the "English government to abolish 
 betting, but as the entire system of racing depends on 
 gambling, and as it involves such an immense amount 
 of capital, and is, moreover, so near and dear to at least 
 one-half the aristocracy, no violent reforms in it can at 
 present take place. M'uch has, however, been done, and 
 the Betting Act of the present year and other action 
 show that there is a settled determination to do away 
 with the greatest scandal which at present disgraces any 
 Christian country, excepting, perhaps, bull-fighting in 
 Spain. The most experienced writers on the turt admit 
 that if the best horse the world ever saw were to be run at 
 present " he would have no more chance to win than if ho 
 had but the use of three of his legs," if he were heavily 
 backed to lose. It is impossible to make the poor under- 
 stand that thev arc justly punished for trivial gambling, 
 when the journals with which they are most familiar repre- 
 sent the " plunging," or desperate betting-feats, of this and 
 that lord as his crowning glory. 
 
 Slm>!c-chris:iit;—?o called either from the slccp-lnU rid- 
 ing which it involves, or from a steeple in the distance 
 having been originallv the goal— consists of headlong rid- 
 ing over a ground abounding in ditches, hedges, gullies, 
 and all kinds of impediments. It is of Irish origin, and 
 no longer enjoys its former popularity in England. Ifiirdh- 
 racing was ori'ginally invented by George IV. on Brighton 
 Downs. Hurdles arc like segments of light fences or icK- 
 llcH of coarse basketwork. In a course of one or two miles 
 three or more hurdles may be placed to be leaped over. 
 
 Great efforts have been made in France to render racing 
 national, but it has always existed as a distinct imitation 
 of an English institution. During all the reign of Louis 
 XV. it was, as Larousse admits, the Fraii<:uiii AnylomaiirH 
 (or French who affected the English) who were fond of 
 horses. Extr.avagant belting became fashionable, and 
 races were abolished bv the Kcvolution. Napoleon re- 
 established them, and in 1833 a jockey-club was lounded by 
 Count Max Caecia, Do Cambis, Count Demidofi, JI. Lahtte, 
 and others. There are now in France sixty race-grounds, 
 the principal of whi.-.h are at the Bois do Boulogne and 
 Chantilly. As the French only admit native-bred horses 
 to their races, it seems hardly fair that they should send 
 runners of English extraction to compete at English races, 
 and then rejoice, as they do, over an occasional victory. 
 When it is considered that these horses arc generally 
 trained and perfected in France by English grooms and 
 jockeys, the ground for exulting over such triumphs as 
 "French" is seriously diminislied. Admiral Rous, tho 
 head of the turf in England, has recently endeavored, but 
 in vain, to induce the French to abolish this restriction. 
 
 Much deiiends in racing on the skill of the jockey— so 
 much, in fact, that a very good rider is sometimes almost 
 able to win with any horse entered. 
 
 Great eflorts have been made in America to perfect tho 
 race-horse or thoroughbred of Anglo-Arab origin, but tho 
 number is as yet far iiiferinr to that of English horses, 
 though, as the annals of our turf indicate, there are many 
 such among us perfectly qualified to compete at any Eng- 
 lish course. When it is considered, however, llrtil llie best 
 English writers on the subject are of the upiiiion that the 
 race-horse is among animals what a dandy is uiioing men, 
 it may be something more than pn.blematieal whether Amer- 
 icans" should not remain contented with trotting, in wliieli 
 they are unrivalled, save perhiii.s by the Russians, and which 
 has tho advantage of developing practically useful animals. 
 The trotting-horses of America have long been remark- 
 able. At first the breed appeared to be merely tht result 
 of n'ccidenl. but breeders now reeogiiizc the fact that Iho 
 best have a strong dash of thoroughbred blood. A large 
 number of the most successful among llicin are traced back 
 to Messenger (imported about 17Sa-!IO). Trotling-timo 
 has grailually been reduced from a mile in X minutes, which 
 used to be eonsidircd very good, to a mile in 2ni. 148., 
 which time was made in 1S71 by Goldsmith .Maid. I'p to 
 the end of that year, ilfi horses arc recorded as having 
 trotted in public in 2m. .'iOs. or less, tho ten fastest having 
 done it in less than 2m. I9s. Some of the lighter Norman
 
 1000 
 
 HORSE-RADISH— HORSLEY. 
 
 or Porcheron horses of Franco have shown trotting action, 
 and there is a family of horses in Russia, called '*Orlofl' 
 trotters." that has produced some onlj second to those of 
 the U. S. Owinj? to the great difference hetween the speed 
 of trolting-horses. it is necessary to divide them into classes, 
 sueh as those which have not " beaten '2.'MK 2.25, or 2.20," 
 as the ease may be; and very strict rules are made by 
 the Xutidiial Association regarding clianges of name or 
 any action which may cloud the idt;utity of horses which 
 trot for public money. Racing proper, as distinguished 
 from trotting, has always been a favorite sport in the 
 Southern States, and has lately been revived at the North 
 with grrat success, as the summer meetings at Jerome Park, 
 N. Y., Long Branch, and Saratoga show. Only thorough- 
 breds are fit for racing, and a part-bred horse would have 
 no chance whatever to win. There is no classification, as 
 in trotting, as all good race-horses can run within a few 
 seconds of the best speed. There is a classification, how- 
 ever, as to age, the youngi-st horses carrying (he least 
 weight in cases where horses of different ages are engaged 
 in the same races. Regular tables of weights are estab- 
 lished ; as, for instance, .'i-year olds, 90 pounds; 4-year olds, 
 108 pounds; 5-year. 11-4 pounds; fi-year, IIS pounds; 
 mnres being weighted about 3 pounds less than horses. 
 The best racing time made in the U. S. is that made by 
 Grey Planet in 1874 — oue mile in Im. 42ls. Until within 
 a few years Im. -Us. was the best, but that has now been 
 beaten by several horses. The best four-mile time for many 
 years was that of Lexington in 1855 in 7m. ID^s. : it wa*s 
 beaten in 1S74 by Fellowcraft in 7m. I'J^s. There is no 
 official time taken at English races, nnd therefore no means 
 of comparing their time with ours. No cimfidcuce is placed 
 by horsemen in the story that Flying Childers ran a mile 
 in a minute. English courses are usually straight or nearly 
 so, and over the turf. The regular American course is one 
 mile, made np of two semicircles, each a quarter of a mile 
 long, joined by two straight quarters, and is kept in order 
 by harrowing and scraping, as turf becomes too hard in the 
 dry summer for horses to run over. C. O. Lela.nd. 
 
 Horsc'-Radish (Xftsturtium Armoracin)^ a perennial 
 herb of the order Crucifcras, whose large white roots fur- 
 nish a well-known pungent condiment lor the table. The 
 roots yield a volatile oil which contains sulphur. The 
 plant is European, and half naturalized in the U. S. Horse- 
 radish leaves and roots are iised in medicine as local stim- 
 ulants. They have also antiscorbutic jiroperties. The young 
 leaves are boiled as potherbs, and are very delicate and 
 pleasant. 
 
 Horse-radish Tree, the Moriufjn ptert/f/nnperma, 
 a tree of the order Leguminosa>, so-called from the acrid 
 quality of its leaves. Its trunk yields a gum like that of 
 the acacias, and the leaf has medicinal qualities : but its 
 seeds, with those of M. aptera. are important as furnishing 
 the commercial oil of ben. These trees grow in the East 
 and West Indies, Arabia, Africa, and Southern Europe. 
 The expressed oil is of admirable keeping qualities, and is 
 used for oiling walelu-s and as a basis for perfumes. The 
 oil is mostly prepared in Europe. 
 
 Hor'sens, town of Denmark, in the province of Jutland, 
 on the Ilorsens Fjord. It is an old town, but neatly built, 
 thriving, and carrying on a lively trade. Pop. 10,501. 
 
 Horseshoe Crab. Sec King Crab. 
 
 Horseshoeing. Sec FAnniEav, by M. C. Wi:rr, Pn. B. 
 
 Ilorse'tail, Shave-grass, or Scouring; Rush 
 ('^eiius iC'inimlnm). There are eleven species of tliis plant, 
 the twu principal of which are denominated the great and 
 littL; horsetail, and belong to the cryptogamous or flower- 
 less scries. They have stems and branches, but neither 
 leaves nor flowers. The stems are rush-like, hollow, and 
 jointed, arising from running root-stocks, and terminated 
 by the fru^jtilication in the form of a cone or spike, com- 
 posed of shield-shaped stalked scales, with t^pore-eases 
 underneath. The great horsetail [E. Telmntein) has stems 
 as thick as a man's finger, the sheaths enlarging upward ; 
 is very rare, and only found on the shores of the ujiper 
 great lakes and north-westward. It is from the fact that 
 it contains so large a quantity of silex, and is consequently 
 much used for polishing, that it derives its name of" scour- 
 ing rush." The little, common, or field horsetail, as it is 
 variously called, is indigenous to Illinois and New Jersey, 
 but Is found on almost every continent. an<l in every coun- 
 try from .Africa to the Arctic zone, and is chiefly distin- 
 guished by its alleged poisonous influence on cattle which 
 partake of it, though no tangible proof of its toxic effects 
 has, as yet, been brought to light. One thing is certain 
 — that the plant, when dried, is perfeotly innocuous, from 
 the fact that it has frequently been largely mixed, in that 
 condition, with the hay nnd other food given to horses and 
 other animals. The other species are £. ;>rrt(cij«c, found 
 
 in Michigan, Wisconsin, and other northern districts; E. 
 di/fv'tticum, growing in wet, shady places in northern locali- 
 ties; E. put list re, prolific iu Wisconsin, Niagara Kiver, 
 and other moist localities; E. UmuHnm, rather common in 
 marshes and shallow water; E. liiviipitnm, indigenous to 
 dry, clayish soils, and found in Illinois and southward; E. 
 hi/einalc, used for scouring purposes generally, growing on 
 wet banks, and common in northward districts; E. van'e- 
 (/(itaiii, very rare, and found on j^hores and river-banks, 
 such as in New Hampshire and Niagara, to Wisconsin 
 northward; E. aviipnidcfi, a species peculiar to wooded 
 hillsides from New England to Pennsylvania. Michigan, 
 and northward. Finally, the nppn»priately-named E. 
 rohnntnuiy from three to six feet in height, and growing 
 along the river-banks from Ohio to IIIin<)is and southward, 
 is one of the most respectable members of the horsetail 
 family, 
 
 Ilors'ford (Eben Norton), M, D.. a chemist, h. at 
 Geneseo, N. Y., in 1818 ; became principal of the Albany 
 Female Academy; studied chemistry in (icrmany under 
 Baron Liebig ; was Kumford professor in Harvard Univer- 
 sity 1S47-G;J, and one of the founders of the Lawrence 
 Scientific School. He is the author of many scientific 
 jKipers, and has given much attention to improved methods 
 of making bread. — His wife, Mauv (GAitniSER), (1S24-56), 
 was the author of a volume of poems (1S55) and of con- 
 tributions to periodical literature. 
 
 Hors'ham, jmrliamcntary borough of England, in 
 Sussex, on the Adar. It has a fine old church and several 
 good educational institutions. Pop. 7S31. 
 
 Horsham, tp. of Montgomery co., Pa. Pop. 1.182. 
 
 Hors'ley (Charles EnwARn), son of William, h. at 
 Brompton, near London, Dec. 16, 1824. Ilis general edu- 
 cation was conducted at the Kensington grammar school, 
 and for a time his parents tried to check his evident love 
 for music, but a favorable opinion of Mcndelssolin, who 
 visited London in 1S.'52, decided the question, and after 
 some years of preliminary study under his father, Dr. 
 Crotch, and other eminent English musicians, young 
 Horsley was placed with the celebrated Moritz Haupt- 
 mann, then residing with Spohr at Cassel. Here for three 
 years (1838-41) he had the advantage of thorough theo- 
 retical instruction from llanptmann and the intimacy and 
 advice of Spohr. Before returning home. Horsley passed 
 several months with Mendelssohn in Leipsic, where the 
 great pleasure and usefulness of this part of his education 
 resulted in a lifelong friendship. Horsley returned to Lon- 
 don in 1842, where he remained until IStll, when, owing to 
 ill-health, he wont to Australia, residing for some years in 
 Melbourne, Victoria, where it may truly be said he created 
 the true taste for music which now exists. In 1S7I he re- 
 turned to England, and in 1872 proceeded to New York, 
 where as organist of St. John's chapel, Trinity parish, ho 
 pursued an active course of professional success. His prin- 
 cipal works are three oratorios, />f(ri'(/(lS49), Joticph ( 1852), 
 r;i(/eo»(ISOO) : cantatas. CV,m»«(1854), Euterpe {\9.'{)), liri- 
 dal Cautfttn (1S70), besides a large number of symphonies, 
 songs, glees, etc. As a composer. Horsley ranked on an 
 equality with the best men of his time in originality and 
 learning. D. Feb. 27, 1876. 
 
 Horsley ( Jmis Cai.ixott), K. A., eldest son of William, 
 an excellent painter nf the modern English school, b. in 
 London Jan. 29, 18IG. His great and early love for draw- 
 ing was observed and fostered by the celebrated painter 
 (Horsley's great-uncle), Sir A. W. Callcott, K. A., and at 
 I the age of fourteen the young student entered the drawing 
 academy of Mr. Sorsse, one of the best trainers of juvenile 
 artists, and subsequently was elected a stu<lcnt of the Royal 
 Academy of Arts. Here he gainetl all the best prizes for 
 drawing, etc.. nnd on the competition for cartoons for the 
 new Houses of Parliament he received a premium of £.S00 
 and two commissions for large frescoes in the same build- 
 ing. Since that time his career has had an uninterrupted 
 ; success. His works, too numerous to mention, command 
 I universal attention and very large prices. I^Ir. Horsley 
 became a Koyal Academician in 1805. One of his latest 
 1 and most admired paintings is a large altarpieeo for the 
 chapel of St. Thomas's Hospital in London, a commission 
 ordered by the will of Sir AV. Tite, the celebrated English 
 architect. Mr. Horsley resides in Loudon, where he is 
 greatly respected and honored. 
 
 Horsley (SAMri;i,), b. in 1733 at St. Martin's-in-the- 
 Fields. London, stmlietl at the University of Cambridge; 
 was appointed rector of Newington in 1759, bishop of St. 
 David's in 1788, of Rochester in 1793, nnd of St. Asaph in 
 1802: and d. at Brighton Oct. 4, 1S06. He gave new 
 editions of Apollonius Pergaeus (1770) and Newton (1779- 
 Sit) ; translated Hosea ; published Crittenl OiHffniHttimis on 
 tkr Riijhtrfntth Ch'iptcr uf Innitih ; and wrttte essays on 
 
 mathematics and the prosody of the (ireek and Latin Ian-
 
 IIORSLEY— HORVATH. 
 
 1001 
 
 gua^c!*. But his controversy with Dr. Priestley conccruing 
 the divinity of Christ, which lusted for several years, at- 
 tracted most attention. His theological works ircro col- 
 lected in G vols, in 1SJ5, and published in Loudon. 
 
 Ilorsley (William), h. at AVhitchavcn, in Cumberland, 
 Eii;;hind, Nov. 1 J, 1774. Shortly after his birth the parents 
 removed to London, and at a very early age the boy devel- 
 oped great talents for musical composition. His father's 
 means wore inadequate to afford Ills sou a i-omjilcte artistic 
 education, but the youth possessed suffieientscU'-rcliance to 
 prc-^ent himself to the distinguished cumpo.ser, l)r. J.W. Call- 
 cott, who, perceiving his talent?, took the lad under his pro- 
 tection, m;ide him his assistant at the orphan asylum, and 
 finally gave him his daughter in marriage, Jan. 12, 1S1.'J. 
 Mr. HorjiU-y proved himself worthy of such confidence, and 
 almost surpassed his father-in-law in the excelleuec of his 
 works and the correctness, learning, and effect of his com- 
 positions. For learning, his six Huoks of Cauous arc nn- 
 rivallcd by any similar specimens since Sebastian liach ; 
 as a glee-writer, " By Celia's Arbor," " See the Chariot at 
 Hand," " Blow. Wind, thou Balmy Air," and many others 
 testify in undying beauty to the greatness of this master 
 of the English school of music. Mr. Horsley took the de- 
 gree of Mus. Bae. Oxon. early in the present century ; was 
 organist of the female orphan asylum tor fifty years, also of 
 the Charter-house and Belgrave chapels. His house at 
 Kensington was tho favorite resort of Alenilelssohn, Spohr, 
 Thalberg, and all the great musicians of hi? day. His 
 eldest daughter marrietl 1. K. Brunei, the distinguished 
 engineer. His long life was one of great purity, industry, 
 and benevolence. D. June, 1S69. 
 
 Hor'ta^ the largest town of Fayal. one of tho Azorc 
 Islands, itself sometimes incorrectly called I'ayaL It has 
 a good trade. Pop. Sj4y. 
 
 Ilor'tcn, town of Norway, on the Gulf of Christiania, 
 the station of the Norwegian fleet, has an arsenal and good 
 shipbuilding yards. Pop. about 5Q00. 
 
 Hortense' (ErfiEMi: ni: Bi:AirnARNAis), b. in Paris 
 17H.!; d. ls.'i7; was daughter of the French general Alex- 
 andre <Ie Bcauharnais and of Josephine Tascher de la 
 Pagerie, who became the wile of Napoleon I. In 1802 she 
 married Louis Bonaparte, atterwards king of Holland, and 
 brother of Napoleon \. She ga\o him three sons, tho 
 youngest being afterwards Napoleon III., b. in 1808. 
 After the fall of the First Empire, Queen Hortense resided 
 usually in her chilteau of Areueuberg, Switzerland. She 
 wrote light poetry and is the author of one song — *' Partant 
 pour la Syrie," which under tho Third Empire was a kind 
 of national air for the Bonapartists. She is buried by tho 
 side of the empress Josephine at Hueil. a suburb of Paris, 
 near the chiLteau of Malmaison. Fklix Aucaigne. 
 
 Ilortcn'sius (Qhintis), son of L. Hortensius, a pnctor 
 of upright character. The son was b. Ill n. c. : made a 
 8pec'.-h in the forum when nineteen years old which gained 
 the applause of the ablest men of the republic, and at onco 
 gave him rank with the ablest advocates of his time; served 
 ('Jl-90 B. r.) in tho Social war, in which he became a mili- 
 tary tribune; defended the youthful Pompey (Sfi B.C.), 
 who was accused of the embezzlement of public booty ; at- 
 tached himself to the side of Sulla and the aristocrats, and 
 was the ablest advocate at Home until Cicero arose to dis- 
 tinction ; was qu:esl(ir B.C. 81 : ledilo in 7 J : pnctor ur- 
 banus 72; unsuccessfully defended Verres against Cicero 
 70; was consul C.) n. r. ; and aller this was a prominent 
 opponent of Pompey and a zealous defender of Milo in tho 
 qourr<l with Clod ins. Cicero was never a very hearty 
 friend of HortcnsiiL'^. whom he seems to have suspectcil un- 
 justly of evil designs. The moral character of Hortensius 
 was not altogether admirable. He was unscrupulous as to 
 tlie means by wlii<di liis successes were attained, and his | 
 private life was exceedingly luxurious, if not immoral ; 
 but his nature was kindly and generous, and ho had many 
 friends and tew enemies. 
 
 Ilor'ticiiltiirc [Lat. Aor/t(», a "garden," and cnlturo, 
 ** attendance," "care '*], tlio management of the garden, tlio 
 cultivation of a smaller area of land than a farm or lield. 
 Horticulture may bo divideil into FLOHrruLTimK (which 
 Hcr), ur the ciilii\atiori of flowers for profit, use, or orna- 
 ment, and kitchen atid market gardening: or the produc- 
 tion of vegetables too perishable to form part (d'lho staple 
 crops of agriculture, and hence either raise<l in small quan- 
 tities for (lie supply of a single family, or else grown as tho 
 product of a special branch of farming near largo titwns, 
 where there is a ready market an<l where manures are to bo 
 had in al>undance. Lasdscai'K-Gaudksixo and Fruit- 
 CrLTi'RK (which sec), and the care of botanic gardens, 
 form no part of general horticulture (except in tho ease of 
 sniall fruit'* and dwurtVd trees). Market -gardening is 
 ecparated from agriculture by no dofiuitu line. What Is 
 
 called trnck-farmiiuj in tho U. S. is market-gardening upon 
 a large scale, and is a department of agriculture. For 
 market-gardening the first essentials are abundant ferti- 
 lizers (intelligently applied) and an unfailing supply of 
 well-directed labor. The work of market-gardening is not 
 heavy, but it is wearisome and incessant. Almost any soil 
 can bo made to grow vegetables, but a very light soil will 
 usually afford but smiiU profits, if any; and a very heavy 
 soil requires thorough an<l expensive underdraining, and 
 even then is harder to work and docs not afford so early 
 crops as some others. A gootl exposure to the sun and pro- 
 tection from heavy winds by hills, forests, or screens of 
 trees arc very desirable. It is ordinarily best for the 
 market-gardener to raise a succession of products, the spin- 
 ach, asparagus, and rhubarb of early spring and tho 
 growths of early summer, etc. following each other in such 
 a way that there is something to sell throughout the season. 
 Frequently, two crops ni.ay bo raised from tiie same ground 
 in a single year. Many early crops arc greatly forwarded 
 by the proper use of hot-beds and cold-frames. In the ap- 
 plicati()n of fertilizers regard should be had to tho chem- 
 ical constitution of the j)lant to be raised; and tho samo 
 consideration ought to govern tho rotation of crops. Suc- 
 cess in market-gardening depends largely upon tact and 
 skill in buying and selling,and upon buying and selling at 
 the right time. Two days may niako a difference of 50 per 
 cent, in the prices of early products ; henco tho need of 
 promptness and energy. The bulk of a crop is often sold 
 at a smnll margin above cost; hence tho need of economy 
 and prudence. Two other most important things arc tho 
 use of tho best seeds of tho best varieties, and fair dealing 
 with nmrketnien and jobbers, for of two market-gardcnors 
 one may sell his goods at a fair price even when the mar- 
 ket is dull, while the other cannot sell his at any price, be- 
 cause the latter docs not supply products of unifr)rm qual- 
 ity; his berries do not "grow bigger downward through 
 the box." This principle holds good in every department 
 of trade, but in no business is it so important as in the one 
 we arc considering. (See Hl:nI)Kiison, Uardcniiuj for Profit 
 and Practical Horticulture; QuiNN, Moncif in the Garden,) 
 Horticulture has thriven from the earliest ages and in 
 every country that has had any claim to be called civilized. 
 In Japan. China, India, Persia, Home, Egypt, Palestine, 
 Assyria, ChahUua, from tho earliest times, great attention 
 was pai<l to gardens. At the very first man was put ** into 
 the garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it." Most elab- 
 orate and interesting representations of gardens exist on 
 the monuments of Egypt and Assyria. The (JId Testament 
 Scriptures abound in references to gardens, and in the lit- 
 erature of the East gardens are still a favorite theme. Tho 
 6'«/iW«ji (" llosc-tJarden ") and the /iotff«/i (*' Fruit-Gar- 
 den ") of Saadi arc names wliich illustrate the Oriental 
 fondness for gardens. The hanging gardens of Babylon 
 and the floating gardens of Caslimero and Mexico may bo 
 noticed. Hallowed associations surround the forever mem- 
 orable garden of (icthscmane. The gardens of Alcinous and 
 those of the Hespcridcs are a part of the traditions of tho 
 heroic age. The (ireeks, says Plutarch, sometimes planted 
 violets and roses among the onions and leeks. Of the Ro- 
 man gardens we have full accounts. Floriculture, kitchen- 
 gardening, landscape-gardening, antl topiary work were 
 carried by them to a high perfection. They had hot-houses 
 and conservatories also. In Charlemagne's time, when 
 gardening was one of the lost arts, the imperial edict com- 
 manded every man who could do so to have a garden, and 
 the very jjlants to l>e grown were named. Among others, 
 honse-leek was to beset upon every roof; and it is believed 
 that the geographical range of several herbs was greatly 
 wi<lened by the decree. Tho Saracens brought the love of 
 horticulture into Spain, France, and Sicily ; ami in later 
 times every monastery hail its well-kept garth. Italy and 
 the Low Cotintries especially excelled in gardening. Tlio 
 Dutch di'lighted in straight lines, clean eullure, and topiary 
 work. The Italian taste was mttre natural. In still later 
 times the S<'0(ch have excelled as gardeners, and at present 
 they take the tirst jilaco in this department of industry. 
 
 ClIAItLKS W. UrkKNE. 
 
 Ilor'ton, Ip. of Elk co.. Pa. Pop. (::il. 
 
 Ilorto'iiin, tp. of Outagamie co., Wis. Pop. 1080. 
 
 llo'nis [lir. 'npo?; Egyptian, //rtr, tho "day"], the 
 name of Kcveial Egyptian gods, of which the principal was 
 the son of Osiris and Isis. He was the sun-god, and is 
 often confounded with Harpoerates, who was culled the 
 Younger Horus; also with Ilaroeris, tho hawk-beaded gnd, 
 calleil tho Elder Horns. He is also confoundeil with the 
 god Ila and with the (Jrcek Ajiollo, whence Edfou was 
 called ApuUinopuIis Magna, since it was a great seat of tho 
 worship of Horns. 
 
 Ilorvfilh' (.Mihaly), b. Oct. .10, 1809, at Szentcs, Hun- 
 gary; studied theology .ut tho Seminary of Waizon 1825;
 
 1002 
 
 HOSACK— HOSPITAL. 
 
 took orders in 1S30 ; and was in 1S44 appointed professor 
 in Vienna of tlic Hungarian language and literature. 
 Durin" the Hungarian revolution in 1S18 he was made 
 bisiiop" of Csanid and minister of public edueation and 
 worship After the revolution he lived alternately in 
 France Italy, and Switzerland until intili, when he was 
 permitted to return to Hungary. His principal work is a 
 general lli.tm'j"/ Ilmuju,-,, (4 vols., 1S42-4G), but he has 
 also treated of several periods of Hungarian history sep- 
 arate! v. 
 
 Ilos'ack (D.ivin), M. D., LL.D., F. R. S., b. in New 
 York Aug. :!1, nr,9; graduated at New Jersey College 
 in 17sa, and in ITUl received his medical degree at Phila- 
 delphia; studied in Europe until 17U4; became ^«- ™J> 
 professor of botany in Columbia College; was (liJi- 
 1807) professor of materia mcdica ; professor of materia 
 racdica and midwifery in the College of Physicians and 
 Surgeons 1S07-11 ; after which he held other professorships 
 there until 182G. After this he was until KSoO connected 
 with Rutgers Medical College. He was one of the fast 
 mineralogists and botanists of his time, founded the first 
 botanic garden in .America, and was the author of several 
 medical treatises which long had a standard value. He 
 also wrote a Life of Dr. Hugh Williamson (1S20) and one 
 of DeWitt Clinton (ISi'J). U. Deo. 23, lS:io. 
 
 Ilosan'na, a Hebrew term of blessing, congratulation, 
 or well-wishing, adopted into use by the Christian Church. 
 The name is also given to one of the subdivisions ol musi- 
 cal masses, " Holy, holv, holy. Lord God of Sabaoth ; hea- 
 ven and earth are full of thy glory. Uosauna in the 
 highest." 
 
 Hose'a [ Heb. Hothen, " deliverance"], the Ose'e ['Otnie, 
 ■0,Ten] of the LXX.. Vulgate, and New Testament, the first 
 in order of arrangement, but apparently third in order of 
 time, of the twelve minor prophets. His prophetic ac- 
 tivity covers a period of about 60 years— say from 784 to 
 7'>4 B c He belonged to the northern kingdom of Israel, 
 and set himself against the idolatrous apostasy which 
 had seemed almost essential in order to political ludepcnd- 
 enoe In style he is the obscurest of all the Hebrew 
 prophets. In the Rom.an martyrology he is commemo- 
 rated with Haggai on the 4th of July. R. D. Hitchcock. 
 
 Hoshe'a (another form of Hoscn), the last king of Is- 
 rael was a son of Elah ; conspired against his predecessor, 
 Pek'ah, .and put him to death 737 B.C.; became established 
 on the throne after eight years of war. His reign was 
 much disturbed bv civil commotions and by the invasions 
 of the Assyrians." He very ]>robably perished at the de- 
 struction of Samaria (720 B. c). His name occurs on As- 
 syrian monuments. 
 
 Ho'siery [from hose, " stockings "], in a large sense, in- 
 cludes knit goods of all kinds. Stockings were originally 
 made of cloth and woven goods. The ancient Greeks cm- 
 ployed stockings of felt. The Romans, we are told, used 
 no stockings until after Hadrian's time. The Anglo-Saxons 
 used them, and so did the people of mediaeval Europe. 
 Trunk-hose were a combination of stockings and breeches. 
 The art of knittiug is reputed to be a Scottish invention 
 of the sixteenth ecnturv, and St. Fiacre, a Scoto-Irish saint, 
 was made patron of a French stocking-weavers' guild in 
 1527. It is almost certain, however, that the art of knit- 
 tin"' is older than this. Hosiery is now largely manufac- 
 tured in the U. S. bv machinery. Some of the most im- 
 portant improvements in knitting-machines are of Ameri- 
 can origin. 
 
 Ho'sius [Gr.'Offiot, "holy"], b. about 257 A. i)., per- 
 haps in Spain or perhaps in Egypt; became bishop of Cor- 
 dova about 29G: took part in the Council of Iliberi (about 
 300 A. 0.1 ; was persecuted under Diocletian and Maximian; 
 was highlv honored for integrity and faithfulness; was 
 sent by Constantino the Great to Alexandria to conciliate 
 the contending parties of Alexander the bishop and of 
 Arius; was present at the Council of Nice (325 a. i).). and 
 was, according to some writers, its president; induced 
 Constantino to ratifv the Nicenc Creed 325: was at the 
 Council of Sardica 317, and perhaps its president; was 
 directed by Constantius in 355 to write against Alhanasius, 
 but refused; was compelled by the emperor to attend the 
 
 HosKiNS, an Oxonian, an author, and a prebendary of Here- 
 ford, was a contemporary of the foregoing, and is stated 
 to have been his brother. 
 
 Ilos'incr (llAnniKT G.),b. atWatertown, Mass., Oct. 9, 
 1S30. Her mother d. when she was young, and her father, 
 anxious for the health nf his only child, insisted upon out- 
 door exercise and athletic sports. She became expert in 
 rowing, riding, and skating: had the spirit of adventure; 
 traveled alone in the West as far as the Falls of St. An- 
 thony: visited the Dakota Indians, and on her return was 
 distinguished by originality of min.l and independoneo of 
 manner. She took anatomical lessons in St. Louis, and 
 both worked in clay and chiselled marble at home. In 
 1852 she went to Rome with her father and Miss Charlotte 
 Cushman ; was received into Gibson's studio; studied hard 
 un^lcr him, and s"on won her way to public favor. Her 
 statue of /'lie/,-, sent to Roston in 1S50. made her reputa- 
 tion in her own country; it was frequently copied. Her 
 Bf<itr!cc Ccnci and Xcvuhin, both full-length statues, the 
 latter of colossal size, were more ambitious works, hut of 
 less originality. She exhibited at the I'aris Exposition in 
 18G7 a statue called The Sleepmj F'um. The legislature of 
 Missouri honored Miss Ilosmer with a commission to make 
 a statue of Thomas H. Benton. With the exception of a. 
 brief visit to her native country, the artist has remained 
 in Rome since her first visit. 0. li. Fiiotiiix<:iiam. 
 
 Ilosmcr (William llExny CvvLKn). A. M., b. at Avon, 
 N. Y., May 25, 1814; was educated at Genesee College; 
 became a lawyer of Avon and a master in chancery: re- 
 moved in 1854 to New York, and became a custom-house 
 officer. Author of The FM „f T.rmnHch (1830). )-,„i.,m- 
 dhm (1844). r/if Monlhn, llhd-iXolrt. Lryniih nj //i,.- Aelic- 
 ca„. I„<li<«, 7'i-,../i'(i'...i«">i<i.S''"'r/«(1850),etc.; Complete I'oct- 
 ical Worhi, (2 vols., 1S53). D. at Avon, N. Y., May 23, l.S,7. 
 Hos'pice [Fr. for " hospital"], the name given to the 
 houses maintained bv ecclesiastics for the relief of travel- 
 lers passing over the Alps in stormy weather. That of the 
 Great St. Bernard, founded in 962 and inhabited by Augus- 
 tinian monks, is the most celebrated. Others arc kept 
 up at the principal passes of the Alps. The name is also 
 applied to other charitable institutions, such as the former 
 asvlum upon the Abendberg, Switzerland, lor the treatment 
 of'eretius, and various establishments for those suffering 
 with ment.al disease. 
 
 Hospin'ian (RiDOLPn). b. at Altdorf Nov. 7, 1547; 
 studied at Marburg and Heidelberg; held different posi- 
 tions in the Reformed Church of his native country, and 
 d. at Zurich Mar. 11, 1626. The most prominent of his 
 works are— /)e .l/<yiiiu'/ii» (1588), Ih: Fctlie Chriatlaiiorum 
 (1593), De Festia JuJliorum el El!iiiirorum (1592\ C'oiicor- 
 dia Ditcora (1609), which occasioned much controversy 
 with the (Jerman Lutherans ; and Hitlnria Snerumenturia 
 (1598-1602). A collected edition of 'his works was pub- 
 lished in 7 vols. fol. at Geneva in 1681. 
 
 Hos'pital [from the Latin Aos/ji'faKs, " pertaining to 
 guests or strangers;" Fr. Iwpiial ; Gcr. A'lnii^ii/inin, Laz- 
 areth; It. oapedalr:]. Hospitals for the sick poor appear 
 to have been established in India, through the inllueneo 
 of Booddhist priests, about 220 ii. c. They are, however, 
 more especially characteristic of Christianity, and were 
 recognized institutions in the fourth century. (For account 
 of the first hospitals, properly so eallcd. consult H. Haser, 
 DisHcrtxtin de emu ayrolonim ptibliea a Chrialiauis Oriuuda, 
 Grvphiswald, 1856.) . ... 
 
 Hospitals, as now existing, are institutions intended pri- 
 marily for the care of the sick and wounded ; secondarily, 
 to furnish means of instruction to students of medicine, to 
 serve as monuments or memorials of their founders, or as 
 a means of support or excuse for the existence of a society, 
 charitable organization, or medical school. The general 
 principles of hospital location, arrangement, and eonstrue- 
 tion. with reference to the requirements of the sick and to 
 facility of administration, may be considered as fairly es- 
 tablished; but while, theoretically, these requirements out- 
 weigh all others, it will usually be found in piaetico that for 
 any^proposed hospital there will be somelhing in the site, 
 limit of cost, or purpose of the builder which will require a 
 modification of what may be termed the standard plan ; and 
 that in inanv eases the so-called secondary objects will be 
 
 Council of Siriuium, and afte'r wearisome persecution the \ really, though not perhaps avowedly, of primary import- 
 
 aged llosius felt eiinipelled to submit in part to the impe 
 rial will, and to take the communion with Arians, but he 
 would not condemn Athanasius. In 357 he was permitted 
 to return to Cordova, where he d. in 358 a. d. 
 
 Uos'kins, or Iloskyns (Jon.v), b. in Herefordshire; 
 was educated at Oxford ; became a fellow of New College, 
 scrgcant-at-law, and a justice itinerant in Wales ; was the 
 instructor of Ben Jonson. Author of the An of Memoii/, 
 of a Greek lexicon, unlinishcd, of legal writings, and ol 
 Latin and English epigrams. D. 1638.— Another John 
 
 ancc. Hospitals may be designed to receive patients of 
 both sexes and all ages, or may be more or less si>eeial- 
 ized, as for women, for the insane, for contagious dis- 
 eases, etc. 
 
 In some respects the simplest form of hospital is that 
 intended for ailult males only, as in the military and naval 
 service ; and it is now believed that in these, in which the 
 secondary objects above referred to need not be ruiisid- 
 ercd, the buildings should be temporary in character— that 
 is, not intended to last more than ten or twelve years.
 
 HOSPITAL. 
 
 1003 
 
 Such hu.-ipitals are found, by experience, to be more favor- 
 able to tbc recovery of the sick and wounded, because of 
 the less prevalence of erysipelas, ho.<pituI gangrene, and 
 other seplica^Ditc diseases, than the much mure urnanicntal, 
 pretentious, and cui^tly structures which are usually desired 
 by societies, municipalities, or private donors. In a linan- 
 ctal point of view, the temporary hospitals arc the most 
 economical, fur, as has been elsewhere shown,* if the 
 money required to construct a stone or elaborately orna- 
 mented brick hospital were divided into two equal parts, 
 one-hiilf being used to put up frame buildings ol the same 
 capacity, and the other half being invested at C per cent., 
 the income from the latter sum would suffice to furnish a 
 new hoiipital every twelve years for succeeding generations. 
 
 Tho true principles of hospital eonslruction, as first es- 
 tablished by a commission of tho French Academy of Sci- 
 ence? in 177S, and subsequently elaborated as to details 
 by Nightingale, (Jalton, Oppcrt, and others, may bo briefly 
 stated as follows : The important part of the hospital is 
 the ward, which should be separated from the administra- 
 tive part of the institution, and should be arranged in 
 pavilions, preferably of one story, and never more than 
 two, in height. These pavilion wards should be about 25 
 feet wide. If feet high, and of sufficient length to allow not 
 less than 100 square feet per bed. In warm climates the 
 height should be 15 feet and the floor-space per bed 120 
 square feel. Not more than 32 beds should bo placed in 
 each ward. The windows should bo opposite each other, 
 and reach from within three feet of the floor to one foot 
 from thec^■iling: tlicy should t)ccupy one-third of tho wall- 
 space, have a nearly E. and W. exposure, and in cold cli- 
 mates should be double sashed or of plate-glass. The floors 
 and other woodwork should be of hard pine or oak. with 
 impervious joints, waxed, oiled, or permeated with parat- 
 fine, an<l polished. It is usually stated that the wall-s should 
 be made as smooth and non-absorptive as jiossiblc by tho 
 use of parian cement, paraffine, silicates, oil-paint, etc. 
 It has been even proposed to make them of glass. The 
 advantage of this is doubtful. An ordinary plastered wall 
 absorbs gases and organic compounds to a very considera- 
 ble extent, and they arc then oxidized au<l reduced to more 
 stable compounds, much as sewage is atfected in a running 
 stream, and the ilcpuralivc and quasi-respiratory powers of 
 such walls should not bo overlooked. iMaking them im- 
 permeable is somewhat like varnishing an atiimal's skin, 
 and there is no satisfactory evidence as to its good efl"ccts. 
 For a permanent hospital it might be best to construct tho 
 walls with the ordinary hard finish — to have, as suggested 
 by Dr. George Derby, one ward always ernjity and ojien to 
 the outer air — each ward being tlius emptied and fresh- 
 ened in succession — and to have the old plaster torn out 
 and tho walls fresh plastered once iu five or six years. 
 
 The great object is to have the ward supplied with plenty 
 of light and fresh air, and to kee]) it at a proper tempera- 
 ture. The minimum amount of fresh air to be furnished is 
 3000 cubic feet of air per hour per m:in, and under some 
 circumstances it may bo desirable to double this amount. 
 The modes of cfTectiug this will bo discussed in the article 
 Vkntii.atiox. The ventilation of each ward, water-closet, 
 bath-n»om, and kitchen should be entirely inde|icndent 
 of all other rooms, halls, or parts of tho building. The 
 kittheii and laundry should be either iu a separate building, 
 or in the upper story of tho adtninistrativc building; they 
 should never be put beneath tho wards or ofliees. The va- 
 rious offices required for tho administrative department arc 
 necessarily much alike, whether the institution be largo or 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 pH 
 
 h 
 
 
 [71 
 
 ^sl 
 
 L^U L J 
 
 
 "L 
 
 1- J I 1 V 
 
 _r 
 
 FlQ. 2. 
 
 Regulation plan for a IT. S. post Imspital of 2-t beds. A, attcnd- 
 anl.H* I'liotu ; It, lialli-rufini ; C.cl()'trts; P, dinnensary ; K, earth 
 or water closets; H, hall; K, kilehon ; M, mes»-rooni ; N, 
 nurse; V, pantry; S, stores; St, steward; V, verandah; W. 
 ward ; I W, isolation ward. 
 
 * rironlar No. 4, War Deparltnent. Surpeon-Gcneral's Ofliee, 
 Washington, 1870 ; Report tm Barrackt and UotpitaU, pp. xxli., 
 xxiii. 
 
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 r'-bn 
 
 
 Plan of the Ilicks Hospital, near Baltimore, Md. 
 A, adniinistraliou buildings; M, messordinint;-rooin; K. kitchen 
 and laundry; At, attendants' quarters; L, linen anii ilotliin;;; 
 Qr, quartermaster's quarters; S, stores; <J, Kuard-bouse ami 
 quarters; W, wards; C'h W M, chief wardmaster's quarters; 
 N, nurses' quarters; D II. dead-house; W .S, workshop; C W, 
 ward for contagious diseases. N. B. The light portion (N B) 
 not built. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 
 
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 51 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Ground-plan of U. S. Army General Hospital, West Phila- 
 driphia, Pa.. 18f.2. 
 A, adminlHrntlon building; O, «»fflcors' quarters; W, wards; K, 
 kitchens; K I) K. exlia-<Iiet kitchen ; La.laundry; Ms, mess- 
 room ; M St, medical store-room; Com, connnissary store- 
 room; ('. corridor; Bd, band; Sm, smoking-room; H, builiT 
 and boiler-room: K, ent^iueer's gong, tire-pump, elr,; W (', 
 water-elosets; /. laboratory; L. lecture-room and lihrary; S, 
 sentry; Ga,nate; G, guard; G B. guard-barnicks ; r, Il.miaid- 
 houHe; P, printing-otfiee; G nmi ]>, clrrks' and driii,'u'i>l^' 
 mess-room; T, tanks; St, stables and sheds; F S, i\m; stall"; 
 Pa, parade. 
 
 A'o/'.— Capacity beds: rain. 2GC2; max. 3124. This includes 
 guard-barracks, 132. 
 
 The wiirds are each 21 feet wide, in feet high at the wall, and 
 19 feet at the nenk. The ward-iinislerV and .*^isiers' rooms in 
 front, and the bath-rootns and water-closets in the rear, take 20 
 feel from each ward. The wards are ventilated at the ridge. 
 Tho central or administrniion building, the store-houses, extra-
 
 1004 
 
 HOSPITALLERS-HOT-AIR ENGINE. 
 
 diet kilchen, and smnkins building are "f> »7° ^'°™^ '''f,';,; 
 The secon.l ilorv ofllie firsl n;inied lurnisiies < uai er> for t i. 
 officers lat or ti.e slore-roonis und extra-diet ^.tcl.eu lor the 
 S'lters of ri'arity, clerks, druggists, and l.osp.tal attendanls, 
 small; hence for small hospitals, such as those for maitary 
 posts in the U. S. army, which usually contain Irom I- to 
 24 beds, the ward becomes a comparatively small part ot 
 
 the buildinj;- (l''iS- !•) , -i j f„. 
 
 When a lar-e number of patients arc to be provided lor, 
 the pavilions mav be arranged to radiate from a common 
 centre, or from H-shaped corridors, or m ccliclm, m a tri- 
 angle. These plans are illustrated by Figs. 2, 3, 4 : 
 Fio. 4. 
 
 Plan of Lincoln Hospital, Washineton D. C. 
 A, administration buildinc; W, wards; L, laundry ;D,dimnB- 
 rooin; K, principal kitchen; W M, chief wardmasters quar- 
 ters; SC Sisters of Charity's quarters; E, *f »'"-''"?l"L'.*g' 
 store-room- WO, water-closets; C, cliapel ; bt, staljle, t>, 
 euard-house ; D U. dead-house ; Su, surgeons' quarters ; L, cor- 
 ?kb,r (covered); R, reservoir; CS, cow-stable; CA, colored 
 attendants. 
 
 ittcndants. , it » • 
 
 The three large hospitals above figured were all Ameri- 
 can arniv hospitals in use during the late war. Many other 
 ways of' arranging the pavilions can be easily devised to 
 suit locality, direction of prevailing winds, etc. 
 
 Besides the care of the sick, it is necessary in many hos- 
 pitals to provide for the supervision and restraint of the 
 vicious. A considerable portion of the applicants for hos- 
 pital relief in our large cities are suffering from the effects 
 of lust and drink, and if opportunity bo allowed will per- 
 petuate or ac-'ravate their maladies by repeating the origi- 
 nal cause, 'fhe proper restraint of patients without giving 
 the building a gloomy and prison-like aspect is best secured 
 by placing the hospital in such a location that access to 
 meins of dissipation shall be as difRcult as possible. On 
 this account a small island is a very desirable locality, and 
 especially so in seaport towns and for marine hospitals. 
 Floating temporary hospitals also have many advan ages 
 at such points. Whatever be th.. plan of the hospital, the 
 most important thing is that it shall be under the constant 
 hygienic supervision and management of a competent man 
 who should be a physician. A hospital under non-profes- 
 sional superintendence, or which is to rely on the occasional 
 advice of its attending physicians, who have other interes s, 
 will almost surely deteriorate, and the temporary barrack- 
 plan is specially" useful in such cases, as making the evil 
 results less permanent and costly. „ . , 
 
 (For details on this subject consult Oi-PF.nr, Ho>p<loh. 
 Infirnmno, and D;«p,n,„rU« (London, 1SG7), m which .3 
 giVen, pp. xiii.-xvi., a good bibliography; llfssov. i/r.-/c 
 ,„r Ir. U.'.p;i,u,x (Paris, 1S62): Nir.iiTiNOAT.F;, A.."-« "" 
 //„,,„■«-/. (T.ondon, 1808. lid ed.) : Essb, 2)^ Krankcn- 
 hiiu-rr (2d cd., Berlin, 1S6S) ; Bemocet (A.), Eli'd' nur In 
 cniinlnirllon den ambulnncci trmporaire: nous /■>rme rfe 
 Jl,tr<u„i<-mcnl» fuh'C r/'ioi cinni snr hn hupttniixciiili pcr- 
 „„u,r,'lH (Paris, 1871): il'porl of the Ho,,al Cov,m,»io>, 
 {Si;TiiEiii.ANn and Gai.ton) appnlnled for ^"'P™';'"' 'f 
 CmlitUm of lIoHpitnh nml «.„■,■«,/■« (London, 1863) ; liAi.- 
 Tf.N. Rnyrl Dr.criptii-,' of ,hc llrrl.crt Ho.p,tal {London 
 1 S(SM ; tiALTON, An Addrcm on ihc (irncn,/ I'nncpleKwIm-h 
 uhonld be Ohui-n-i-d in llie Contlruction of IlnipilnlH (\jon- 
 don ISO!)); Smith (Stepiies), Prmciph, of llo.pitnl Con- 
 ,ln,rlio» (New York, 186r.) ; R<-po^< """■"■"•f T ,'"" 
 p.V,,/,, Circular 4, Surgeon- Genenil's Office (Washington, 
 
 |g-Q> JOII.S S. Bll.LlNOS, M. i). 
 
 Ilos'pitallers, a name given to the members of various 
 fraternities and sisterhoods of the Roman Catholic Church 
 who join to the vows of perpetual poverty, chastity, and 
 obedience, another which binds them to serve the poor and 
 sick in hospitals. Some knightly orders also took the mo- 
 nastic and hospital vows-such as the Knights o St. John 
 of Jerusalem, Knights of the Holy Sepulchre, and the Teu- 
 tonic Knights ; but in the case of the tirst-mentioned order, 
 at least, i? appears that the ho.piu.l. they founded were 
 rather in the nature of honlds or public inns. There have 
 been twelve or more monastic congregations whose mem- 
 bers were popularly called Hospitallers but the erm more 
 generally Jenotes the Knights ol St. John of Jerusalem. 
 (See St. Jons of jEursALEM, KNuaiTS of.) 
 
 Ilos'liodar rSlavie], a former title of the governors 
 ofW Ulachbi and Moldivia under the Turks. The term 
 si..nilies •■ master." The same officers were also called 
 wSiwodes or wojewods-,'. c. dukes or leaders. Ihe cza 
 of Russia is popularly called Inmoodur or ,jo,pod.,, forms 
 of "hospodar;'' and equivalent titles were employed by 
 Polish kings and Lithuanian princes in former days. 
 
 Host [Lat. ho„l„. " victim," "sacrifice"], in the Roman 
 Catholic Church, the consecrated ^^^'^'^"'['^ ''/ZSord 
 licved by that Church to be the veritable body "f •'"= l-'™ 
 Je us Christ. As such, it is elevated by tlie priest at the 
 mass for the adoration of the people. It is a "rcular w.a cr 
 or cake of unleayened bread, having yarious emblematic 
 figures, made of the finest wheaten flour It is borne upon 
 a°plate called the paten, broken by the priest over the 
 chalice, and distributed to the laity. 
 
 Hos'tagcs arc persons placed under the control of the 
 govenimcnfo? a strte as pl'edges of the faithful fulfilment 
 of a treaty. The same custom has taken place when a cap- 
 tured vessel is allowed to go on its way upon what is called 
 a ransom contract, and also in other stipulations be ween 
 p.arties at war. The practice is going out of use in the 
 'Kr^-nientioned case. tL last instance known to the writer 
 of this article having been the detention of two B itish 
 noblemen on parole at Paris after the peace of A.x-la- 
 Clr pelle in 1748, who were, in fact, to remain in this con- 
 dition until Cape Breton should be restored t^o Fran^c^^^^ 
 
 Ho'strup (Jens CnniSTiAN), b. in 1819 : studied theol- 
 n.rv at the Un versity of Copenhagen, and took orders in 
 ?? 4 While vet a young .nan he became the fi.vor.te ol 
 the Danish people on account of hisconicdies-f^K"'"'"-.'''. 
 E^EL„ir \J, Fodrcisen, Me„er o,j Urhn.j, etc.--whieh 
 give a fresh original, and exquisitely humorous picture ot 
 fl e D^uiish middle classes. After taking orders he ceased 
 to wVite for the theatre. " Life has become too grave an 
 affair to me ; I have forgotten to laugh. 
 
 Hot-air En'gine, a prime mover in which the motive- 
 power is derived TroMi the expansion of atmospheric air by 
 IZi Numerous invcnti.ms' of this kind have been pro- 
 Succl, of which the earliest to excite intcres was hat of 
 the Rev. Dr. Stirling, now ..f tialston, Ayrshire, in i^cot- 
 and patented in 181C; though earlier air engines were 
 co^s'.rS^d by Sir eieo;ge Ca^ley and "'hers which seem 
 
 to bave ^^^^^^ix:z ::^t^'^y^^ 
 
 provement on btlUings cngini ».>.."„(, > 
 
 Lothcr, Mr. James Stirling ; and this "-s pa cn.ed ,n s - 
 and a^ain, with further improvements, in 1840. Among 
 ;^ore rfecnt inventions of this class which have been more 
 ^r less successful may be mentioned those of Lriesson. Wil- 
 e^ Rope and Slmws all of this country, and those of Lau- 
 beriu an 1 Belon of France. At the Vienna l^NP-J"'"" «[ 
 IS- 1 there was exhibited, by Friedrich Siemens "f B"I'°. 
 ind^r the name of a ...lorunoU.r, a working -'".l o a hot- 
 .' . .,„ ,.„;,,. ,, novel plan : more remarkable how- 
 
 ::;;;^iU ng^nuit^Z: J promise of utmty It would 
 be impossible within the limits of an article like the present 
 to gWe a detailed description of these various forms of 
 to gi^t II '^'^'„. __, ,^ Vi„...:„„ c.w.h nort (Millars, are re- 
 
 ne'lanisn, Those who desire such particulars, arc r - 
 ?e.rred to the lUport on th.- Morhinr^i <•'"'. .'"•"'"■^-f '''^ 
 l"Ltr-ial .1.-,., etc. in the Paris Exposition of 80,, by 
 the pre cm writer. In what follows, it is proposed to give 
 ^ly^'t'^l^dr characteristic Uffercnees, and <» -' '- -;;'^- 
 general principles relating to this mode of gcneiating mo 
 
 " Anfonns of the hot-air engine have certain advantages 
 in common, and all arc subject to certain <1'^-';"'''^K«^ 
 whSarc i .separable from the system. It is an advantage 
 hat iK-v require no boiler, and are exempt from the dan- 
 ge hfeh arise from that source. Coubl a_ir be emplo ed 
 a a pressure equal to that of steam, it would be an in, port- 
 aL^rdva. ta-e to be free from the great weight which .he 
 use o the l»iler necessitates, and -^-f^<^"''';^-^^l''' 
 bulk As yet, however, this condition has not been real- 
 i,.d, and bene; the dimensions of the 'forking par s of air- 
 onginos are necessarily so much more considerable th.m
 
 HOT-AIR ENGINE. 
 
 1005 
 
 those of steam-engines of corresponding power, as to ren- 
 Jtr llic g:iin in lliis direction, if there is any, unimportant. 
 It is, howcvir. :m advnntugo that air-engines are cheaper 
 of construc;lii)n lh:in those driven by steam, and that their 
 uianageinent is easier, and requires less constant watchful- 
 ness. It has generally been claimed for thiin that they 
 economize fuel. Theory might seem to justify Ibis claim, 
 but in practice it has not been generally sustained. The 
 disadvantages of air-engines consist in the ditficulty of 
 heating and cooling tho air employed, with the rapidity 
 necessary to secure the best performance ; and in tho fact 
 that the supply of the cylinder consumes more than half 
 the power developed. To this it may be added, that, while 
 the efhciency of the machine depends upon the ditierenco 
 between the ma.xinium and minimum tcmperatuics, there 
 are certain practical limits which neither of thcso temper- 
 atures can transcend. 
 
 Air-engines may bo arranged in two classes, of which 
 the first embraces those which draw their supplies directly 
 from the atmosphere, and discharge them into the atmo- 
 sphere again after they have produced their effect ; and tho 
 second, those which employ continually the same air, which 
 is alternately heated and cooled but is not allowed to es- 
 cape. Stirling's first engine belonged to the first of these 
 classes; his later forms, to the second. To tho first also 
 belong Ericsson's, Wilcox's. Roper's, Shaw's and lielou's;" 
 to the second, hauberau's. The second class have the ailvan- 
 tage that they admit the use of high pressures; but this is 
 attended with the disadvantage that they require refrigerat- 
 ing appliances, which, with the first, are whidly unnecessary. 
 
 In each of these classes a subordinate classification may 
 be made, according as the air is heated in the cylinder in 
 which it Dcrforms its work, or in a separate chamber. The 
 jdan of the Ericsson engine is the first of these. That of 
 Koper's, Shaw's and lielou's, the second. In Laubcrau's, 
 which docs not discharge the air, the heat is applied in one 
 cylinder, and the work is done in another. In this class of 
 engines the arrangements admit of a variety of modifica- 
 tions. The heater and the refrigerator, for example, may 
 be both independent of the working cylinder, and of each 
 other: presenting an analogy to the boiler and condenser 
 of the steam-engine ; or the refrigerator only m.iy bo sep- 
 arate; or finally, as in the engine of Lauberau, the heating 
 and refrigeration may take place at the opposite extrem- 
 ities of the same vessel, the air being driven from one end 
 to the other alternately by means of a plunger. 
 
 It is true of these, as of all engines operated by heat, 
 that there is a theoretic limit to the economy of which they 
 are capable — that is to say, whatever be the amount of heat 
 received from the source, a fraction only of this can under 
 any circumstances be converted into mechanical force : and 
 theory enables us to state definitely the maximum value 
 which this fraction can have. This maximum depends on 
 the extreme temperatures at the command of the engineer. 
 Suppose the highest of these temperatures, as referred to the 
 absolute zero (a point 2".'!° C. below the freezing-point of 
 water) to be represented by T, and the lowest, referred to 
 the same zero, by T'; then if Q be the entire quantity of 
 heat imparted to the air, steam, or vapor operating any 
 thermodynamic engine; and U, the portion of that quan- 
 tity capable of being converted into useful effect, it is true 
 in all cased that 
 
 U T - T' 
 
 Q" T ■ 
 This principle wo take at present for granted. For tho 
 demonstration of its truth see T/fcrmofti/numim. It follows 
 that, in proportion as the interval between T and T' is in- 
 creased, the machine will work with correspondingly greater 
 economy. This interval can bo increased by increasing T, 
 or by diminishing T', or by doing both at once. It is im- 
 practicable, however, to employ a refrigerator having a 
 temperature below that of the weather. We must therefore 
 take for a mean lower limit about 17° C, or t')2.i>° K., a tem- 
 perature which, referred to tho absolute zero, is equal to 
 21H»° ('. On tho other hand, a practical upper limit is im- 
 posed by the consideration that a red heat is reached for 
 solids at about 650° C, which is 923° C. above the absolute 
 zero. This limit coulil not be safely approached ; but sup- 
 posing it to be actually attained, the economical cocfhoient 
 would be 
 
 121- 2««^ 0.684, 
 923 
 
 or a little more than two-thirds of tho heat taken up by 
 
 the air. Probably no hot-air engine has yet been actually 
 
 employed in which tho temperature has been carrii-d much 
 
 alxive 3110° ('. ^Vith a maximum temperature of 307° C. — 
 
 .'iH{)° C. above the absolute zero, the economical coelEoioDt 
 
 would bo 
 
 680-290 „,„ 
 
 — 0.50, 
 
 5S0 ' 
 
 which would show a utilization of one-half the heat taken 
 up. The first Ericsson engine was designed to work at u 
 maximum temperature of about 460° F. = 232° C = 506° 
 above the absolute zero. The limit of economy realizable by 
 it, had it been successful, and provided tho air eould have 
 been made to pass through the complete cycle of changes 
 of temperature and pressure embraced in the theory, would 
 b&vo been 
 
 505-290 „ .„„ 
 
 — TX: = 0.426. 
 
 50o 
 
 But in point of fact, no hot-airenginefulfils, or can fulfil 
 completely, the theoretic conditions. In order to do so it 
 would be necessary that the air should leave the working 
 cylinder at the minimum temperature: that is to say, at a 
 temperature as low as that of the supply : or else that, by 
 some contrivance, the excess of heat which it retains should 
 be transferred to the supply on its way to the working cylin- 
 der. As tho first of these conditions — that is to say, tho 
 expansion of the air, in working, sufficiently to reduce the 
 temperature to the minimum — is practically unrealizable, 
 it is the second which inventors have in many instances 
 sought to secure. In order to accomplish this, the emer- 
 gent air has, in some eases, been made to jiass through 
 successive sheets of wire gauze, or between thin sheets of 
 metal, or has been in some other manner brought into con- 
 tact with metallic surfaces of large extent in proportion to 
 the weight of the mass, in order that the excess of heat 
 being transferred to these might be afterwards taken up by 
 the cold air of the supply as it enters. The first of the ex- 
 l)cdients here mentioned was employed by Ericsson, and the 
 second in the successive inventions of Stirling. In Shaw's 
 engine, the hot air escapes through a cluster of thin tubes, 
 while the cold air circulates between them. The term 
 " regenerator" was applied by Ericsson to this contrivance, 
 as applied to his original engine, and this term has come 
 into general use. 'The regenerator is applicable to any 
 form of engine, but it is not employed in all. The theoretic 
 advantage is considerable, but in practice is not fully real- 
 ized : and it is attended with the disadvantage of sensibly 
 increasing the amiiunt of the )iassive resistances of the 
 machine. In fact, in order that the regenerator, suppose 
 it for instance to be a succession of wire gauze sheets, 
 should entirely absorb the excess of heat of the escajiing 
 air, the number of sheets should be very considerable. It 
 is easily seen tluit if this number were quite unlimited, 
 there would be somewhere a point at which the air wouM 
 have no longer any heat to impart ; its temperature being 
 sensibly reduced to that of the metal. From this jioiiit 
 backward to the cylinder from which it was discharged, 
 the successive sheets of wire gauze would rise in temper- 
 ature, and the last one would have sensibly the same 
 temperature as that with which the air emerged. Tho 
 number of sheets which would be required effectually to 
 absorb the heat would depend for a given excess of temper- 
 ature upon the closeness of the meshes, and in any ease 
 must be considerable. The obstruction which every such 
 contrivance necessarily presents to tho free passage of tho 
 air, creates a resistance which makes its presence objection- 
 able, and which may go far to neutralize the advantage 
 which it is designed to secure. By diminishing the number 
 of the sheets and the closeness of the meshes, the resistance 
 is reduced, but the absorption of the heat is proportionally 
 less complete. Practically, where the regenerator continues 
 to bo used, a middle course is taken ; the economy is not 
 wholly realized, and the obstruction to circulatiun is not 
 very serious. This is the case in the engine of Shaw, in 
 which the regenerator consists, as above remarked, of a 
 series of tubes. It is to be considered, however, that tho 
 loss of heat suffered in operating engines driven by heated 
 air or steam is by no means limited to the fraction, largo 
 as it is, of the heat which, after being actually imparted to 
 tho medium, is unavailable for work. If this were true, 
 the cost of working such engines would fall to a very small 
 proportion of what it actually is. It is unfortunately the 
 case that by far the largest source of loss is to be found in 
 the escape of a great part of the heat which the comlnis- 
 tiblo develops, in other ways than in raising the lenijuT- 
 ature of the elastic medium which does tho work. And 
 the improvement of all these engines, so far aa economy is 
 concerned, is to bo sought in such forms of furnace and 
 such modes of applying heat as may reduce what is now 
 the sheer waste cd the chimneys or of the radiating surfaces, 
 rather than in tho endeavor to push to extremes the tem- 
 peratures employed in the working cylin<Ier. It is to 
 be observed that the difficulty of guarding against los.sea 
 by conduction and radiation is enormously iucrea.sid 
 when excessive tempi'ratures are employed : and al.-o that 
 such temperatures decompose lubricants, destroy packing, 
 and, by the large expansion which they give to metals, 
 loosen joints, and impair the strength of tho whole struc- 
 ture. Since the l;irgt.^t luuMi lor economy is evidi ntly in
 
 1006 
 
 HOT-AIR ENGINE. 
 
 the direction of preventing the useless waste at pres- 
 ent occurring, the effort should be to keep the maxi- 
 mum temperature as low, and not to push it as high, as 
 pussiljle. 
 
 In passing to particular forra:^ of hot-air engine, a few 
 words only can be given to each. 
 
 Ericftsou's Eiufhic. — This engine is more generally known 
 in this country than any other of its class. In its present 
 furni it differs essentially from that which it had when con- 
 structed on a largo scale, about the year ISoJ, to be em- 
 ployed as the motive-power of a sea-going vessel; or, 
 more properly, the present one is a different machine. In 
 the original model a working cylinder was placed imme- 
 diately over the fire of the furnace, and a cylinder of supply 
 of about two-thirds the capacity was placed immediately 
 over that. The engine was single-acting, the working 
 cylinders were quite open, and the working pistous were of 
 great bulk and formed of non-conducting substances, being 
 designed to fill the cylinders when at the point of the lowest 
 deiire^sion, so as to prevent their cooling by contact with 
 the air of the atmosphere. The bottom of each cylinder 
 was arched, forming a dome for a furnace, and the piston 
 received at its lower surface a corresponding figure. The 
 pistons of the supply cylinder and working cylinder were 
 liimly connected, and had therefore an equal length of 
 stroke. At the descent of the piston, the supply cylinder 
 was filled by aspiration from the atmosphere; and in the 
 ascent, the charge, after undergoing compression, was 
 driven into a reservoir, from which it passed subsequently 
 into the working cylinder. The upward stroke being com- 
 jdeted, the heated air escaped through a regenerator formed 
 of wire gauze, depositing there its excess of heat; and the 
 new charge from the reservoir, passing to the working 
 cylinder through the same regenerator, re-absorbed this 
 heat, and thus entered the heating-chamber already at an 
 elevated temperature. This engine performed very well in 
 practice, so far as its performance was merely a question of 
 mechanics. But it failed practically, because the heating 
 arrangements were inadequate to the demand made upon 
 them. Mr. Ericsson did not expect to be dependent on his 
 furnaces for the supply of more than a moderate fraction 
 of the heat which each successive charge of air was to re- 
 ceive. He supposed that the regenerators would serve to 
 transfer so large a quantity from each charge to the next, 
 that it would be necessary to provide for little more than 
 the always inevitable loss by mere radiation ; but this an- 
 ticipation was not realized. Superadded to this, however, 
 there was a further cause of failure, arising from the diffi- 
 culty of heating air at all by means of a furnace. Radiant 
 heat produces scarcely any impression upon air. The in- 
 ventors of all the air engines which have been to any degree 
 successful have recognized the necessity of applying their 
 heat as much as possible by conduction and actual contact. 
 Mr. Ericsson himself is no exception, as his more recent 
 and successful invention shows. This machine 'possesses a 
 special interest, from the fact that it was the first of its 
 class to secure for itself a recognized place in the indus- 
 trial world as a valuable aid to productive power. 
 
 The engine at present known as the Ericsson is far less 
 simple to appearance than the one above described. It has 
 a horizontal cylinder within which at one end, and occupy- 
 ing about two-fifths of its length, is the furnace, also cyl- 
 indrical, between whieli and the surrounding cylinder is an 
 annular space. AVithin the cylinder there are two pistons, 
 the inner, or that nearest the furnace, acting as a supply 
 ]iiston. and the other as the driving piston. The rods of the 
 supply piston pass through the driving piston. When, by 
 the action of the mechanism, the distance between the two 
 pistons is increased, the supply is received by inspiration 
 through valves opening inward in the driving piston. When 
 this distance is diminished, the charge is driven by compres- 
 sion thrju:^h valves in the supply j)iston opening towards 
 the furnac. Hut these valves open on the outside of a 
 sheet-iron cylindrical bell, carried by the supply piston, 
 which enters into the annular space above mentioned be- 
 tween the furnace wall and the externa! cylinder, and there- 
 fore the air in passing them is obliged to pass down outside 
 this bell to the extremity of the annular space, and to re- 
 turn inside the bell, in a thin annular sheet in close eon- 
 tact with the furnace wall. The working power is derived 
 from the heat thus imparted. Tliis}iower is effective through 
 not quite half the rev(dution. Through the remainder it is 
 zero, or the resistances predominate. Hence, a heavy fly- 
 wheel is necessary. 
 
 As to the economy of this engine, tests were made by 
 Mr. Tresca, sub-director of the Cotmervntoire dcB Arta ct 
 Metiers, of Paris, in 1801, upon a specimen engine of two- 
 I horse-power, in which the consumption of coal amounted 
 to 4^^ kilogrammes (about pounds) per horse power 
 per hour — two or three times that of a, g<jod steam-engine. 
 The mean maximum temperature of the heated air did not 
 
 exceed 270°, and the expansion of volume was hardly 60 
 percent. { 1^5). 
 
 S/iitw's Eti</itic. — Of this the jirincipal parts are a furnace, 
 cylindrical in form, of boiler iron, lined with refractory 
 brick; two single-acting cylinders working alternately; 
 and a regenerator, which consists of a chamber filled with 
 tubes similar to those of a tubular boiler, through which 
 the exhaust air escapes. The air is heated in the furnace 
 immediately in contact with the fuel, of which it at the 
 same time supports the combustion. This furnace is accord- 
 ingly closed air-tight, fuel being supplied when necessary 
 by means of a box or receiver on the toj*. between which 
 and the interior of the furnace, ciuuiiiunication can be 
 opened; the box itself being, in the mean time, tightly 
 closed. From the furnace, the air, along with the gaseous 
 ])rodacts of combustion, is admitted beneath the pistons 
 of the working cylinders alternately; and after it has 
 performed its function, it is discharged through the tubes 
 of the regenerator into the chimney. The upper ])ortions 
 of the working cylinders are employed to furnish the sup- 
 j)ly of cold air from the atmosphere. For this purpose each 
 piston is provided with a trunk considerably smaller in di- 
 ameter than the cylinder; and the annular space between 
 the trunk and the cylinder, being closed in at the top, forms 
 an air pump. As the piston descends, the air of the atmo- 
 •sphcre enters this annular space through valves opening 
 inward ; and on its ascent this air is forced into the regen- 
 erator, where it becomes partially heated by contact with 
 the lubes through which the dilated air is escaping, and 
 thence passes into the furnace. The brick lining of the 
 furnace is double, with a space between the walls ; and thi.^^ 
 space the cntcriug air from the regenerator is obliged to 
 traverse before it reaches the fire. Its temperature, which 
 is already somewhat raised by compression and by contact 
 with the tubes of the regenerator, becomes still more ele- 
 vated in its passage through this space ; and the additional 
 heat which is wanted to bring up the pressure to the point 
 required, is supplied by the fuel. In this engine, the diffi- 
 culty which impeded the success of most earlier inventions 
 of the kind, viz., that of adequately heating the air, is in- 
 geniously overcome. The heat developed by combustion 
 is necessarily taken up by the air which supports the com- 
 bustion, and by the gaseous products at the same time gen- 
 erated. Hence it has been found practicable to maintain 
 a pressure under the pistons averaging about an atmo- 
 sphere. But it must be observed that such ,a pressure can 
 only be secured by carrying the temperature to a point 
 destructive of lubricants and packing, and liable to cause 
 leaks by unequal expansion. 
 
 Roper's Eifjinc. — This is very compact and well adapted 
 to small industrial operations. The furnace is a cast-iron 
 cylinder lined with fire-brick. Immediately over the fur- 
 nace, and formed in the same casting, is the working cyl- 
 inder, smaller in diameter than the furnace, and open above. 
 The piston rod is kept vertical by means of a guide; and 
 two connecting rods, one on each side of the proper piston- 
 rod, operate balance levers united at their opposite ends 
 by a cross-bar, to the middle of which is attached the con- 
 necting rod which turns the crank of the main shaft. The 
 balance levers are pivoted in supports secured to the work- 
 ing cylinder itself, and they carry, also, a pair of rods 
 which operate the piston of the supply cylinder. The sup- 
 ply cylinder is immediately under the working shaft, and 
 is as conveniently near the furnace as practicable, stand- 
 ing upon the same base with it. The furnace is air-tight, 
 and the air supply is forced into it beneath the grate, pass- 
 ing through the fuel, and so upward into the working cyl- 
 inder. Provision is made to divide the air current so as 
 to allow a part, at pleasure, to enter the furnace above the 
 fuel, for the purpose of regulating the rapidity of com- 
 bustion, and the temperature of the charge. No provision 
 is made for introducing the fuel while the engine is in 
 operation. Occasiimal interruptions will therefore occur 
 in order to replenish the fire. In starting the machine it is 
 necessary to turn the fly-wheel for a few revolutions by 
 hand. And it is also necessary that the fire shall be well 
 lighted before the door of the ash-pit is closed. 
 
 Wifcnr's Eiiffinc. — A hot-air engine under this name was 
 exhibited at the International Exposition of London in 
 1862. The distinctive peculiarity of this consists in the 
 employment of two working cylinders through which the 
 air successively passes. The furnace is in the lower portion 
 of one of these cylinders, and the supply pump is in th.- 
 upper chamber of the same cylinder. The engine is furthtr 
 provided with a regenerator of thin metal plates. The air. 
 after being compressed in the supply pump, passes through 
 the regenerator, taking up the heat left there by (he last 
 charge of escaping air, and thence into the .second working 
 cylinder. In this it produces a partial effect, due to the 
 heat already absorbed, and then enters the first or prin- 
 cipal working cylinder, where it receives the heat of the
 
 HOT-AIR ENGINE. 
 
 1007 
 
 furnace. The ndvantago of admittiog the supply air to 
 the cylinder which c-uutains the furnace is very consider- 
 able, as it tciid^ to prevent that cylinder from being over- 
 heated, ivhilc it utilizes the heat which would otherwise bo 
 injurious. 
 
 Liiubentu'ii Eiujiue, — In this a certain volume of air is 
 enclosed in a cylinder of metal, in which there is also a large 
 moving plunger, which, by occupying alternaloly one end 
 and the other of the cylinder, displaces the air and drives 
 it in the opposite direction. The upper purliun of the cyl- 
 inder is surrounded b^' a jacket, between which and the 
 cylinder itself there is a constant circulation of cold water. 
 As the plunger itself is but slightly less in diameter than 
 the interior of the cylinder, the air during the transfer is 
 reduced to a thin cylindrical stratum, and is brought into 
 close contact \vith the cold walls. The eftVct of the engine 
 depends as much upon the efficiency of this cooling process 
 as upon the subsequent heating, and therefore it is desir- 
 able that the water of refrigeration should be as cold as 
 jiossiblc. Hut as this water must nt'oessarily be drawn 
 from natural sources, it is obvious that the engine will bo 
 more efficient in winter than in summer. The lower por> 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Laubcrau's engine, small model. 
 
 tion of the cylinder is occupied by a furnace resembling 
 the furnace of the Kricsstm engine ; viz. a cylinder smaller 
 than the air cylinder, with an annular space between the 
 walls of the two. The plunger also, like that of the Erics- 
 son engine, is provided with a bell-shapcd continuation, 
 which enters the annular space around the furnace. 
 
 Fig. 1, above, shows a section of one of these engines of 
 ^mall model, in which K is the furnacc-rooni ; but here the 
 heat is applied by means of a powerful gas-lamp, X. The 
 flame, reverberating, passes down the narrow annular space 
 X' X'.nnd the products of combustion are conducted otf at 
 Y. D is the plunger with its attached bell. For lightness 
 it is partially hollow. F is the space filled by the refrig- 
 erating water. A A on the left is the working cylinder, and 
 II the working piston. A communicating tube shown in 
 dotted lines admits the heated air to the space in A A be- 
 neath the piston when the plunger rises, and allows it to 
 return to G (i when the plunger descends. The plunger of 
 course receives its motion from the working piston. As 
 the engine is but single-acting, a fly-wheel is necessary. 
 Provision must bo made by a force-pump to maintain the 
 flow of the refrigerating water. If the conlincd air employed 
 is under more than tlie almospheric pressure, there must 
 also be some contrivance to make good the gracUial waste 
 by leaka<;e through the packings. If no superior pressure 
 is employecl, a small shifting vatvo on the cold sido will 
 sunice fur this purpose. 
 
 The main advantage, however, of using a confined body 
 (•f air in these engines, rather than to draw Ihc successive 
 charges directly from the atmosphere, is that we may thus 
 obtain a higher pressure, anrl consequently a greater power 
 within the same bulk. But this advantage brings with it 
 the attendant necessity of employing refrigerators, which 
 with the other class of engines are wholly unnecessary. 
 
 In the larger forms of Lauberau cntrines, the cylinders 
 arc horizontal. A test made by Air. Trcsca of the perform- 
 ance of one of these, having a horse-power of about four- 
 fifths, showed a consumption of •Ij'Y^th kilogrammes (about 
 10 pounds) of coal per horse-power per hour; while the 
 refrigeration reijuired THU kilolitres (IfSO gallons) of wat<.T 
 per hour also. It cannot, therefore, be called an econom- 
 
 ical source of power; but for many uses in which but a 
 small power is required, it may be practically such. 
 
 BcIoh'x Enffinc. — The only hot-air engine which has as 
 yet been employed on a large scale as the motive power of 
 an important industry, is that patented by Uelou, in France, 
 in 1800. This was introduced, ten or twelve years ago, 
 into a largo paper manufactory at Cusset; and as the e.\- 
 periments made with it there seem to have been econom- 
 ically successful, while little is known of it in this country, 
 it deserves a more particular description than wo have 
 given of tho others. Belou's engine in some respects re- 
 FiG. 2. 
 
 Kolou's hot-air engine — pian. 
 sembles Shaw's, but diff'ers from it in employing but ono 
 cylinder, which is double-acting, and in having an inde- 
 pendent supply-pumj) and no regenerator. The cylinder, 
 however, is surrounded by a jacket, between which and the 
 cylinder itself the air circulates in passing from the supply- 
 FiG. 3. 
 
 Ik-luu's bot-air engine — elevation and partial section.
 
 1008 
 
 HOT-BED— HOTEL. 
 
 pump to the furnace. The engine is represented in Figs. 
 2 and 3. The first is a general plan; and tho second, a 
 vertical section passing through tho axis of the cylinder and 
 of tlio supj)ly-pnnip. Tho furnace is at A, and tho hopper 
 for fuel at li. D is tho cylinder and F tho suj)ply-puuip. 
 The air, in passing from F to tho furnace, is driven through 
 tho ppacc (I hetwccn tho ■working cylinder and its envelop- 
 ingjacket. A portion of Iho air,largeror smaller as occa- 
 sion may require, may be made to pass into tho furuaeo 
 over (l»c fuel, and not through it. By this means tho in- 
 tensity of the heat may bo varied, and tho working ]>res- 
 suro increased or diminished. M is tho main shaft, N tho 
 fly-wheel, and Q Q' connecting rods wliich exphiin tiicm- 
 sclvos. Tho fly-wheel on the large cngineatCusset weighs 
 about fifteen tons. The fuel introduced into B is spread 
 over the grate by a mechanical contrivance operated by the 
 arbor D', connected with an eccentric on tho main shaft. 
 
 Two Cclou engines have been tested by Mr. Trcsca; one 
 of about four horse power, and the other (which is the en- 
 gine at Cusset) of nearly thirty. In tho smaller, tho con- 
 sumption of coal per liorse power per hour amounted to 
 2/jj'^ kilogrammes (nearly pounds) ; in the larger, only ir^^^ 
 kilograuinics (three pounds). The working cylinder of 
 this la'ter had a capacity of about eighty cubic feet; that 
 of the sup])ly cylinder was about half as great. In this 
 case the amount of force developed, as measured by tho in- 
 dications of the manometer, was equal to one hundred and 
 twenty-horse power, but of this the supply absorbed eighty- 
 horse power, or two-tliirds of tho whole; and more than 
 ten-horse power was estimated to be necessary to overcome 
 the passive resistances. Less than thirty-horse power, 
 therefore, or one-quarter of the whole, was actually utilized. 
 It is of course upon the horse power actually utilized, and 
 not upon the aggregate energy developed, that the loregoing 
 statement of consumption is founded. The performance 
 is therefore about equal to that of an economical steam 
 engine. 
 
 It is to be observed, however, that the heat was carried 
 to a height which could not but tend to deteriorate rapidly 
 the parts of the engine exposed to it; and especially the 
 interior of the working cylinder. In order to |)rotect this 
 surface, it was constantly lubricated with a solution of soap 
 in \vater. of which about five gallons were consumed per 
 hour. There was also a large final loss; the escaping air 
 in the chimney having a temperature of not less than 
 250° C. = 4oO°"f. above that of the atmosphere. Mr. Tres- 
 ca computes that fully seven-eighths of the heat produced 
 by the furnace was expended unproductively. Notwith- 
 standing these drawbacks the practical result actually ob- 
 tained is eminently encouraging to those who hope to see 
 steam-power advantageously replaced by something safer 
 and more universally available. 
 
 To the class of hot-air engines belongs properly the so- 
 called inflammable gas engine known as Braytou's Ready 
 Motor. For an account of this, see G.vs Esginf,. 
 
 F. A. P. BAnNARD. 
 
 Hot'"bed,a frame for forcing the early growth of plants 
 in cold regions. Its top is a glazed sash, sloping towards 
 tho y. The glass permits the sun's rays to enter and heat 
 the air, and at the same time prevents the escape of the 
 warm air. The heat of the sun is reinforced by that of 
 fermenting animal and vegetable matter — horse dung, wool- 
 waste, leaves, chopped straw, and the like — which fill a 
 trench beneath the soil of the hot-bed. These are very 
 necessary to prevent freezingat night and in cloudy weather. 
 When the sun shines brightly it is often necessary to admit 
 some cold air, or partly to cover the hot-bed with mats, 
 otherwise the sun's heat may blast the plants. In very 
 cold weather bast matting is spread over the glass to keep 
 from freezing. Hot-beds are very essential in market- 
 gardening in the Northern States. 
 
 Ilotcli'kiss {Vki.ona R.). D- D.. b. at Spafford, N. Y., 
 June I'l. IS16 ; educated at Madison University, N. Y. ; pas- 
 tor of Baptist churches in Poultnoy, Vt., ISIl'J-l'J: Rotfhes- 
 ter, N. Y., ISI2-lfi: Fall River, Mass., 1846-19: nutfalo. 
 N. v., 1811t-ot and 18f).'>-7:t; was professor of biblical lit- 
 erature in Rochester Theological Seminary 1854 to ISfiJ. 
 He is now (1876) pastor of the Washington street Baptist 
 church in Buffalo, X. Y. He is an accomplished theologian 
 and scholar. 
 
 Hot Creek, post4p. of Nye co., Nov. Pop. 40. 
 
 Hold' [Old Knf*. hostel ; Fr. /((I///, radical. A (Jf*-, " land- 
 lord " or '* guest." derived by some from the Latin kofipea, 
 by others from Aosftw, "guest " or '* enemy ;'* Middle Lat. 
 Ao«/f//orm], an inn or house for the accommodation of trav- 
 ellers, at present ajiplied in Kngland and America to the 
 larger or better class of such establishments. In Franco 
 the word is used not only in this sense, but also means, 
 as it did exclusively once, any largo or magnificent 
 residence, synonymous with chiitcau and palace. Tho 
 
 present English word hotel is rather of French than Eng- 
 lish origin. From the earliest ages, among the Jews and 
 other Semitic people, the house of entertainment for trav- 
 ellers was, like the caravanserai or khan of the present 
 day, simply a lodging, the occupants of which provided 
 their own food. People of rank or respectability were en- 
 tertained by tho local governor or by their friends, to whom 
 they took in some cases letters of introduction. For those 
 of a lower or poorer class there ar()se at an early period, in 
 addition to tho caravanserai, a tavern, at which food and 
 drink were sold, but which appears to have been invariably 
 also of so bad a char.acter in otlier respects that in Hebrew 
 there was but one word (HyU) for landlady and courtesan. 
 Recent investigation makes it probable that the inn or 
 khan at Bethlehem where Christ was born was the habita- 
 tion of Chimham (Jer. xli. 18), which had been an inn for 
 more than 600 years, and was p'-rhnps originally a dwell- 
 ing given by David to Chimham (2 Sam. xix. I'S). "In 
 these khans," says Olivier, '* the stables join the chambers, 
 and are better lighted. During the winter-time tlie former 
 are often preferred by travellers for night-lodging; and 
 when, as is often the case, they are of solid masonry or 
 oven real eaves, they are favorite summer retreats." Tho 
 Egyptians had lodging-taverns, but among the earlier 
 (Jreeks of rank travellers were entertained only by private 
 individuals. This was systematized by giving tickets 
 (trvfi^oKa, truacra- houpjtnh'tcitis)^ on presenting which the 
 guest was received: and these tesserre were handed down 
 from father to son. (Full details of classic inns arc given 
 by Michell ; also in Pollux.) The Romans, with their system 
 of roads and posting, developed post-houses or inns, which 
 under the Caesars were not inferior to those of the Mi'ldle 
 Ages. The emperors were accustomed to give to ambassa- 
 dors and others, as a great privilege, letters which not only 
 entitled the bearer to horses and lodging, but also com- 
 manded the postmaster to furnish bread, wine, beer, pigs, 
 poultry, sheep, fish, fruit, wax, and many other things in 
 abundance properly and promptly. Polybiu? states that 
 in his time inns abounded on the rna<ls. and that provisions 
 were so cheap that people were charged for all they ate in 
 a day only the fourth of an obolus. or three-fifths of a cent 
 per head. All the inns of the cities, whether good or bad, 
 were morally infamous. Whether it was a caupoun, ta- 
 bcnta, (livcrsvi-ium, (jrtnrn, or pnjnna (cook-shop), the Ro- 
 man tavern was invariably a brothel — none the less because 
 its female inmates \verc by law exempted from classification 
 with ordinary prostitutes. It appears from Plautus, Mar- 
 tial, Apuleius, and others that tavern-keepers were sup- 
 posed to murder their guests, and even to feed others on 
 their bodies — a story which passes current at the present 
 day in Spain, Italy, and Cuba. The Greek taverns, ac- 
 cording to Aristophanes, Lucian, Aristotle, and Athcna^us, 
 had signs; and the Romans often used the bush and jug- 
 handle [anna) to indicate the sale of wine. Other signs 
 were the Mice and Weasels, the Fighting Men, the Cock, 
 anri the Old Shepherd. In later times inns had the Cross 
 for Christian customers, while heathens were attracted by 
 the sun or the moon. 
 
 The inns of the Middle Ages long resembled the Roman, 
 and are invariably described as a pl.ice of vile debauchery, 
 where every device was used to induee guests to gamble, to 
 waste their money on wantons, or where Ihcy were robbed 
 outright. The evil character of onlinary inns caused the 
 establishment of houses of entertainment for men belong- 
 ing to different callings or nations. Thus, in Venice tlie 
 Germans established the Alhcrt/o dci Ti-Hftt-hi, at which 
 Germans only were accommodated, and in all towns there 
 were guild-taverns for the travelling members of their re- 
 spective crafts. So early, however, as the thirteenth cen- 
 tury public inns began to improve, especially on the grand 
 route from Venice rid Augsburg and Ghent, and in the 
 fourteenth century taverns nppear to have become more 
 and more " the general lounge even of the industrious." 
 There are many hotels in Europe ben ring the name of " The 
 Cross of Malta," the origin of wliich was as follows : Before 
 the Crusades hospitality had greatly declined throughout 
 Europe. The Templars, as well as the Knights of St. 
 John of Jerusalem, having been impressed in the East by 
 tho Arab /»»(///.■«, or inns for poor travellers, established 
 similar ones near their " comitianderies." llenee, the 
 Knights of St. John derived the name of llonpitalfrrK. 
 Many of these, as in Bavaria. Provence, and (""astile. were 
 really palaces, in which the young knights also lived. Tho 
 Crnix <fr Mftlta is familiar to all who have travelled on the 
 Continent. 
 
 The modern hotel dates from the peace which followed 
 tho downfall of Napoleon I, The annual streams of tour- 
 ists caused the establishment of a better class of accommo- 
 dation, and competition rapiflly made luxury commoner 
 and cheaper. To furnish a hotel in Switzerland or Ger- 
 many properly, according to Guyer {Das Ilutchccscn dtr
 
 HOTELS IX AMERICA— UOT SPRINGS. 
 
 1009 
 
 Geyeiiicnrt, Zurich, 1874), cost?, admittiog that tbo hotel is 
 
 to contain 31)0 boarders — 
 
 Furniture 1M.700 francs. 
 
 Bel.'" and carpt'la. 92,120 " 
 
 Mii.n -IV-'^O " 
 
 Srvicx'—fr.sUvor, metal, glass, and porcelain 6;Mttt " 
 
 KitcUen utcusib ■■ S.OOO " 
 
 SGo./m Trancs, 
 
 or about $72, 70S. But until railroads were rf;tab)isbed 
 botel-kueperi? on the i/ranile route — i'. e. from London to 
 Naples rid the Rhine — were generally amrnablo to the 
 charge of petty deception, as is indeed »tilt too much 
 the case in France and Italy. But the imnicnpo business 
 which grew on the route Hoon induced la wiser policy. It 
 was found more profitable to cstablij^h fixed rates for every- 
 thing — room?, tahfc d'hOtc, and service. Thirty years ago 
 it was usual to bargain for rooms, the -host often asking 
 three times as much as he intended to take. 
 
 The extraordinary increase of hotels of late years, cspc- 
 ciaJIy in summer resorts, has been such as to render pros- 
 perous many districts which at ono time seemed destined 
 to endless poverty ; and it ser ms at present as if in another 
 gcneratiou these public palaces will bo in sight of one an- 
 other all over the mountaiu-eountry of Europe. Thirty 
 years ago the wretchedness of Switzerland was painful ; at 
 present real poverty seems hardly known there to any ono 
 who can remember the old time ; and this chan^ic is due in 
 a great measure to the railroads, and with them the nume- 
 rous anfl excellent hotels and peminnit which annually at- 
 tract so many visitors. Ciiakles G. Leland. 
 
 Hotels in America. The hotel, in its strictest sense 
 as a pubtir-hnHHe, has reached its highest development in 
 the V. S., and particularly in our larger cities. This is no 
 American boast, but the united testimony of unprejudiced 
 travellers. The .\merican hotels are not perfect — very far 
 from it — but they excel all European hostelries in several 
 particulars. They are on a much larger scale; the ele- 
 vator, an American invention, and rendered necessary by 
 the great height to which the buildings arc carried, is now 
 conneeted with all first-class hotels. The charges at these 
 hotels of the first class are high, but when the service ren- 
 dered is considered they cannot be regarded as exorbitant. 
 It is certain that the expenses of the great hotels are so 
 heavy that even with their rooms generally filled, and often 
 crowded, the actual profit is very moderate, and in a dull 
 season they not unfrequently become bankrupts. The largest 
 hotels are not, as might have been supposed, in New York, 
 though some there are very large, but in some of the largest 
 of the Western cities. Chicago, St. Louis, aii*l San Francisco 
 taking the lead in this particular. Of the new I'alace Hotel 
 at the latter cily wo are told that it is to cover an area of 
 06,260 feet, to be six stories in height, and to afford com- 
 fortable accommoilution for 1200 guests. It is to have a 
 large open court in the centre with flower-gardens an'l 
 fountains, and is to cost, including the hind. ?2, 600,01)0. Ono 
 or two of the Chicago hotels, and one at least of the St. 
 Louis, have larger accommodations for guests than this, 
 though possilily not a larger area. The summer hotels at 
 Saratoga, Long Branch, and Newport are still larger, but 
 they are open merely fur three or four months. A very 
 elaborate and exhaustive article recently (Dec, 1874) pub- 
 lished in the New York Tribune gives very full statistics in 
 regard to fifteen of the leading hotelsof New York City (less 
 IhanonC'SCventb of the whole number, though, perhaps, from 
 their size ami accommodations, receiving one-fourth of the 
 guests). These hotels were the Albemarle, Ashland, Bre- 
 voort, Fifth Avenue, (Jilscy, Grand Central, (irand Union, 
 Hoffman, iMetropolitan, New York, St. Nicholas, Sturtc- 
 vant, I'nion Square, Winchester, and Windsor. Together, 
 they had 1002 rooms — five of them having less than l.'iO 
 rooms each. They could accommo'late comfortably GO.'JO 
 guests, an<I upon an emergency, 7*1 10. Their daily average 
 through the year was 3925; they employed 29^16 servants, 
 of whom \t.'>i) were females, 1179 males, and ha<i .'J90 
 coaches and carriages in attendance. The beef they con- 
 Bumed required the slaughter of 20,000 beeves every year, 
 and other meals almost as large a number of .iheep, calves, 
 and swine; 6on,0UO pounds of fish and I.. .000. 000 oysters 
 were also served up upon their tables ; 6,01)0,000 eggs and 
 1,.'>00,000 pounds of poultry and game; 10.000 barrels of 
 flour, 20,000 barrels of potatoes, and a vast amount of 
 green nnd root vegetables : 150.000 pounds of colTee, 3.'),000 
 pounds of tea. and "00,000 poun<ls of sugar. I,.'i00,000 
 quarts of milk, 17'*, 000 quarts of cream, more than l.M^OOO 
 pounds of butter, nltout 120,000 pounds of dried fruits, and 
 nearly TkI.OoO gallons nf canned fruits, jellies, etc. Of gas 
 60. 000. 000 feet were required for illumination, worth, at 
 the current price in New York. $106.000 ; 'J6,000 tons of 
 coal, 12,000 tons of ice, and. for various uses, 1,260.001) 
 pounds of soap, were among the other articles required. 
 Tbo washing of table-linen, bed linen, towels, etc. amounted 
 Vol. II.— r.( 
 
 to about 19,000,000 pieces a year. This was aside from tho 
 personal clothing of guests washed in the laundries. Tho 
 waste of these establishments is enormous. That from tho 
 tables is of two kinds--the broken meats, etc., much of 
 which, though good and wholesome, cannot be served up 
 a second time, and is given to tho charitable institutions 
 which have the feeding of the poor, or in some instances 
 disposed of to low eating-houses, etc.: the other kind, 
 coming under the general denominations of swill and gar- 
 bage, is nearly an absolute waste, nnd amounts in these 
 fifteen hotels to 11,000,000 pounrls annually, or 55,000 tons. 
 The wear and tear of hotel furniture is estimated at 20 per 
 cent, per annum, requiring refurnishing on an average 
 onco in five years. The receipts of these fifteen hotels 
 average about $40,000 per day, or $11,000,000 per year, but 
 the amount of net profit is not so large as it should bo for 
 such avast expenditure. These figures represent, as we havo 
 said, but 15 of the 108 hotels of New York City, and their 
 expenditures and receipts do not differ materially from 
 those of a like number of hotels of the first-class in tho 
 other large cities, especially those of the West. The hotels 
 of the second and third class fix their tariff of charges con- 
 siderably lower, and, really, giving less service and lux- 
 uries in proportion to their prices than the first-class ho- 
 tels, are generally more profitable. Some of these are well 
 managed, and with less liisplay are quite as comfortable and 
 home-like as the high-priced houses. The usual charge per 
 diem at the hotels of the first-class is from $4.60 to ^6 per 
 capita, but this includes no extras, such as wine, cigars, 
 fire in the room, etc. etc. Hotels of the second and third 
 classes, when not on " tho European plan "' — ('. e. affording 
 lodging only — charge from $2.50 to S.'i.50, and somewhat 
 less than the others for extras. 
 
 The management and keeping of hotels, as conducted in 
 this country, involves larger aggregate receipts and ex- 
 jienditures than any one branch of manufacture. Both re- 
 ceipts and expenditures are counted by hundreds of mil- 
 lions of dollars, and employ in various ways a vast number 
 of people. L. P. Brockett. 
 
 Hotel, tp. of Surry co., N. C. Pop. 709. 
 
 Ilo'tho (HKiNRiri! GiTSTAv), b. in Berlin May 22, 1802; 
 studied at the university of his native city, and became 
 professor of sesthetics at the same in LSIjO. He also held 
 different positions at the art-galleries of Berlin, and d. there 
 Dec. 25, 1873. He was a disciple of Hegel, and his books 
 — Gefichirhtc tier I)etttsvhen nnd Xirder/iiudhchcn Mitlarci 
 (1843), Die Malrrsrhule van EifrkH (1859), etc., as well as 
 his criticisms in the Morrjciifdatt and his lectures — bore 
 very strikiug marks of the ideas and of the terminology of 
 his master. But he deserves great praise for the manner 
 in which he edited Hegel's VorbttHnrfcn Uber ^-Esthetik [Z 
 vols., 1835-38), chiefly from notes taken by his hearers. 
 
 Hot-house. See Green-hoise. 
 
 Hot Ilou^e, tp. of Cherokee co., N. C. Pop. 645. 
 
 Hot'man (Francois), b. at Paris Aug. 23, 1524, and 
 began to lecture on Roman law at the university in 154G; 
 but having embraced the Reformed religion, he was com- 
 
 i)clled to leave his native city in 1647. and retired to Lyons, 
 ''rom this moment, and up to his death at Bale, Feb. 12, 
 1590, his life was wandering and adventurous, though gen- 
 erally brilliant, and his participation in the political in- 
 trigues of his time xvas very active, though not very hon- 
 orable. By his lectures on law at Lyons. Genera, Stras- 
 burg, Valence, Bourges, and Paris, and especially by his 
 work, Frnuco-tiiilliii (I573J, ho made a revolution in tho 
 political and social views of his time, and many of his 
 writings are still read with great interest; as, for instance, 
 Commeiitnrii iu A'.V F. Cii'crotiia Oratioues {\o5i) arid Com- 
 mcntftriuM in fV. lualitutinuum Lthron (15(30). 
 
 Hot Sprinf7, county of S. W. Central Arkansas. Area, 
 650 square miles. It is mountainous, well timbered, and 
 abounds in mineral wealth. Iron ores, novaculite (Arkan- 
 sas hone-stone), salt, and a great variety of other valuable 
 minerals are obtained. Corn, pork, nnd tobacco are staple 
 products. Cap. Roekport. Pop. in 1870, 5877. 
 
 Hot Spring IiUliC,a beautiful lake 3 miles N. of Salt 
 Lake City, Ut., fed by the hot springs near by. It is 3 
 miles long and over 1 mile broad. Its surface partly freezes 
 over in winter. 
 
 Hot Springs, post-v., cap. of Garland co.. Ark.. 55 
 miles S. W. of Little Rock. It has about sixty thermal 
 springs, much visited by invalids and others. The town 
 has a weekly newspaper, and several hotels and ehutehes. 
 The springs aro very copious, and some of them discharge 
 waters of tho temperature of 150° F. Pop. of v. 1270 ; of 
 tp. 1004. 
 
 Hot Sprinf^A, tp. of Napa co., Cal. Pop. 2120. 
 
 Hot Springs, posl-v. of Bath co., Va., 35 miles N. E. 
 of Wliito Sulphur Springs. It coutaina several thermal
 
 1010 
 
 HOTTENTOTS— HOUGHTON. 
 
 saline springs (of a temperature of lOC-lOB" F.), whose 
 waters are useful in a wide range of diseases. 
 
 Hot'tentots, the native race of Cape Colony, South 
 Africa. Their present territory extends northward from 
 Capo Colony to Orange River, and eastward from the At- 
 lantic to the boundaries of Cafi'raria. There are in this 
 vast territory some well-wooded regions and tracts of good 
 pasture-land, but generally it is an arid desert, miserable 
 is the race which inhabits it. The Hottentots look like a 
 mixture of the Mongolian and the negro race. They are 
 tall, meagre, with high check-bones, sallow complexion, 
 and oblique eyes, but they have thick lips, flat nose, and 
 ■woolly hair growing in tufts. When the Dutch first 
 settled at the Capo of Good Hope, in the middle of the 
 seventeenth century, the Hottentots were quite numerous. 
 They lived as herdsmen and hunters, and evinced some 
 skill" in rearing cattle and catching game ; but their huts 
 were miserable, they were nearly naked, their religious and 
 moral ideas very few and weak, and their customs and 
 habits often extremely savage. In contact with the Dutch 
 they sunk still lower— that is to say, they sunk below the 
 possibility of life. They sold their herds for rum, and died 
 from starvation ; their "number decreased at a fearful rate. 
 Under the English government they arc much better off. 
 Some of the tribes have become good and steady workmen, 
 and show receptibility of civilization, though others — as, 
 for instance, the Bushmen — have proved entirely uufit for 
 civilized life. The Bushmen are very small of stature, ugly 
 above description, and disgustingly degraded. They are 
 widely scattered through sill the English colonies in South- 
 ern Africa, but their number is rapidly decreasing. The 
 language of the Hottentots has several marked dialects, 
 all remarkable for the presence of clicking sounds. (See 
 Bleek, Comparative Grammar of the S. A/rJcau Lanrjuarjes, 
 1862-69.) Curious anatomical peculiarities, such as the 
 steatopyga, or prominent nates of the women, have been 
 observed in the Hottentot race, but are not universal. The 
 present number of Hottentots and Bushmen does not ex- 
 ceed 150,000. (See Fritsch, Drel Jahre in SUda/rika, 
 1869; Die Eingebornen Siida/rikas, 1872.) 
 
 Hottentot's Bread, a kind of yam ( TcMuiUnaria ele- 
 phaiitii.'n. order Dioscoreacea;) growing in South Africa. 
 It is a beautiful vine, growing from the back of the large, 
 rough, tortoise-like tuberous rhizoma, which grows half un- 
 covered. The rhizoma affords starchy food. 
 
 Hot'tinger, the name of a family of Swiss scholars, the 
 most prominent of whom were — Johann Heisrich, b. at Zii- 
 rich Mar. 10. 1020 ; studied at Groningcn and Leyden ; be- 
 came professor in church history and Oriental languages at 
 Ziirich and Heidelberg; and was drowned near the former 
 city June 5, 1607. By his writings, Grammalica Qnatuor 
 Li'iiguarwn flchraicv, Chaldeir, %)v'aca-, ef 4r«iic.T (1659), 
 and Eiifmuhr/tenm Orienlalc (1G61), etc., ho contributed 
 very much to a better understanding and a more general 
 study of the Semitic languages. — Johaxn .Tatob, a son of 
 the preceding, b. at Zurich in 1652, and d. Dec. 18, 1735, 
 as professor of theology at the university of his native city. 
 He wrote llchcliache KirchnrjeachichteXi vols., 1708-29), a 
 work still appreciated. — .Jon.vs\.lACOD. grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, b. at Zurich in 1750, and d. there Feb. 4, 1SI9. He 
 was professor in Latin and tireek, and took part very ac- 
 tively in the great literary movement in German Switzer- 
 land under the leader.^hip of Bodmer. — JoHAN':) Jacob, a 
 nephew of the preceding, b. at Zurich in 1783, and d. there 
 in 1859: wrote Ucschlchie der Schweizerischen Kirchen- 
 trenmwj {lS2a-27). 
 Uottonia. See FEATUEn-roir,. 
 
 Hou'brachen (Arnold), b. at Dort Mar. 28, 1660, and 
 d. in Amsterdam Oct. 14, 1719. Of great value are his 
 biogranhiea of Dutch painters, Grootc srhmiburgh der neder- 
 landsehc koimttchilderH en sckitdrcsien (1718). 
 
 Houdiii'(RoBERTl,b. atBlois in 1805; was apprenticed 
 to a watchmaker at I'aris ; studied mechanics, and won a 
 medal for his toys and automata at the Paris exhibition of 
 1841. In 1845 ho opened in the Palais Royal a series of 
 soirfies fantastiques, which he continued for ten years. In 
 1855 he retired to Blois with a large fortune. But in 1S56 
 ho went to Algeria on the invitation of the French govern- 
 ment, and entered into a competition in making miracles 
 with the marabouts or priests. His success was complete, 
 and he contributed much to the breaking down of the bad 
 influence of these impostors on their superstitious country- 
 men. After his return he published his Life (1857) and 
 his Cnufidenrr^ (1859). D. at Blois in 1871. 
 
 Houdon' I Jeas Axtoine), b. in Versailles Mar. 20, 
 1741; d. in Paris July 15, 1828. He spent ten years in 
 Rome as the king's pensioner, he having won the first 
 prize at the Royal .\eademy for sculpture, and there exe- 
 cuted the statuc'of St. Bruno in the S. Maria degli Angeli ; 
 
 afterwards, in Paris, made statues of Voltaire. Cicero, Tour- 
 ville, and busts of Napoleon, Josephine, Ney, Rousseau, 
 Diderot, D'.Ucmbert, Barthclfimy. Mirabeau, Franklin, 
 Turgot. and other eminent men of the time ; came to the 
 XJ. S. with Franklin in 17S5. and modelled the statue of 
 Washington in the capitol at Richmond. Va. While mak- 
 ing studies for the statue he was the guest of Wai-hington 
 at Mt. Vernon. The models of the human frame, without 
 the covering of skin, executed for the .Academy, exhibit his 
 knowledge of anatomv. His finished statue." and busts are 
 highly valued as portraits. 0. B. FROTni.xGii VM. 
 
 Hough (Fraxkli.v B.), A. M., M. D., b. at Martinsville, 
 N. v.. July 20, 1822 ; graduated at Union College in 1843, 
 and at Cleveland Medical College in 1849 ; practised his 
 profession 1848-52 at Somerville, N. V. He has since been 
 engaged in literary and scientific pursuits, and resides at 
 Lowvillc. N. V. Has published a Catahrjiie o/ Plants of 
 Leiois Co., N. Y. (1847), Hitlonj of St. Lawrence and Frank- 
 lin Cos., N. Y. (1853), of Jefl'erson eo. (1854), of Lewis co. 
 (1860). Meteorological Ohierrationa, 182C-50 (1854), New 
 York CivilList (1861), Gazetteer nf Nexe York (1872), and 
 many other works, principally historical. 
 
 Hough (Jons Stocktox), M. D., b. at Yardlcyville, 
 Bucks CO., Pa., Dec. 5, 1845 ; was educated at Trenton, N. J., 
 Fort Edward and Poughkeepsie, N. Y., and the Polytechnic 
 College of Pennsylvania; took his medical degree 1808 at 
 the University of Pcnn.syivania. Author of numerous 
 papers upon q"ueftions in biology, social science, pathology, 
 etc. ; was resident physician of the Philadelphia Hospital 
 1868-69, etc. 
 
 Hough'ton, county of the N. peninsula of Michigan, 
 bordering on Lake Superior. Its winter climate is severe. 
 It has abundance of valuable ores of eojiper, iron, and 
 silver, which are extensively wrought. Keweenaw Bay 
 and other iulets of Lake Superior break its outline, and 
 abound in excellent fish. The working of copper-mines is 
 the principal industry. The surface is broken. Cap. 
 Houghton. Pop. 13,879. 
 
 Houghton, post-v., cap. of Houghton co., Mich., on 
 Lake Portage, an arm of Lake Superior, is the centre of 
 the great copper-producing district, 15.000 tons being an- 
 nually shipped from this port; contains 3 churches, a 
 national bank, a newspaper and binding establishment, 2 
 hotels, machine-shops, stores, etc. Principal business, min- 
 ing. Pop. about 17U0. J. R. Devereaux, 
 
 Prop. " Portage Lake Mini.ng Gazette." 
 Houghton, tp. of Keweenaw co., Mich. Pop. 1325. 
 Houghton (Doi-GLAss), M. D., b. at Troy, N. Y., Sept. 
 21, 1809; graduated in 1829 at the Rensselaer Institute at 
 Troy, in which he was in 1S:!0 appointed assistant professor. 
 Ho made a valuable report of the botany of the I'ppcr 
 Mississippi region, to which he was sent with an expedi- 
 tion. He became a practising physician in Detroit, Mich. ; 
 State geologist in 1837; mayor of Detroit in 1842; a pro- 
 fessor in the Slate University; and a member of many 
 learned societies. While on a government survey ho was 
 drowned in Lake Superior, near Eagle River, Oct. 13,1845. 
 Houghton (George Frederick), b. at Guilford, Vt., 
 May 31, 1820 ; graduiitcd at the University of Vermont in 
 1839; became a lawyer in 1841 ; secretary of state of Ver- 
 mont 1848-49; State attorney for Franklin co. 1852-53; 
 founded the Vermont Transcripllf^ii, and became connected 
 with the Ctiureh Journal (N. Y.) soon after. D. at St. 
 Alban's. Vt., Sept. 22, 1870. 
 
 Houghton (Hexry Clark), M. D., b. at Roxbury 
 (Boston), Mass., Jan. 22, 1837; educated at Bridgcwatcr 
 Normal School: became an instructor; served two and a 
 half years in the late Christian Commission ; graduated 
 M. D. from New York University 1867 ; resident physician 
 to Five Points House of Industry 1867-69 ; surgeon to New 
 York Ophthalmic Hospital since 1868; professor of physi- 
 oloi'v in New York Homoeopathic College 1868-70; pro- 
 fcss'or of phvsiology in New York College for Women since 
 1869 : member .and officer of various professional societies. 
 Author of Lectures on the Diseases nf the Ear, etc. 
 
 Houghton (Richard Moscktos Milncs). Barox, 
 D. C. L., F. R. S., b. June 19, 1809 ; was educated at Cam- 
 bridge, and was long an independent and moderately con- 
 servative member of the House of Commons ; widely known 
 as a poet and an elegant critic. In 1803 he was raised to 
 the pcerace. He has published several volumes of poetry 
 and travels; The Heal Union of England and Ireland 
 (1845), Lil'e of Keats (1848), and other works. 
 
 Houghton (Rotall),!). at Guilford, Vt., Feb. 12, 1798, 
 and in J833 removed to New York, where he was (183o- 
 51 ) a prominent banker and broker, distinguished for honor 
 and probity. After leaving business he became a citizen 
 of St. Augustine, Fla., where he d. Mar. 22, 1873. 
 
 Houghton (William), b. at Norwich in 1807; grad-
 
 IIOL'LTUN— IIOUSSA. 
 
 1011 
 
 uatcd at Highbury College, LondoD, in 1832: became min- 
 iater of tlio Coiigregatioual church !it Wiiiil.^or in IS^JIi, of 
 the Congrc;;atioD:iI society at KciiKingtou iu 1S44, uml was 
 elected iu ISJJ chuiriuau of the Congregational Union of 
 England and Wales. He wrote The Ecctciiaiticnl HUtory 
 of Efigf'iml (4 vols., 1870) and Country U'uUff of a Xatu- 
 ratitt ictth hi$ Children (1869). 
 
 flourtODf po8t-v., cap. of Aroostook co., Mc., 120 miles 
 N. K. of Bangor, on ibo New Brunswick and Canada TX. R. 
 It is the rendezvous for the lumbermen of that region. 
 Has a savings bank, 2 weekly newspapers, 7 churches, 
 atores and shops. Pop. 2850. 
 
 W. S. GiLM.vN, Ed. "Aroostook Pioneeh." 
 Iloiil'towny tp, of Marion co., W. Va. Pop. 33, 
 llou'ma^ post-v„ cnpital of Tcrrc Ronnc parish. La., 
 70 miles S. \V. of New Orleans, with whieh it is connected 
 bv Morgan's R. U. It has several public and private 
 pchoots, a convent and an academy, 4 churches, and 2 
 weekly newspapers. I'op. .'i'Ki, 
 
 K. \V. Cu.NDON, Eu. " Tkuke Bonne Repcbmcan." 
 
 Hou-Xan% or Ilu-Xan^ province of China, situated 
 between Lit. '2i>° and 30° N., an.l between Ion. 109° and 
 114° E.. comprises an area of 74,32.') sriuaro miles, with 
 18,Cj2.j07 inhabitants. The surface is elevated, in many 
 places mountainous, but the country is very little known. 
 The northern part is very fertile, and produces largo quau- 
 tities of cotton. Metals are said to abound, but mines are 
 not worki d. Cap. Chaog-Sha. 
 
 Hound [Ger. Hand, a "dog"], a term properly ro- 
 strijtej to those dogs which luint by foIlowiDg the track 
 of the game by scent. This delinition includes the blood- 
 hound, staghound, foxhound, beagle, harrier, and a few 
 others, but docs not include the greyhound. Most hounds 
 arc muscular, strong, sagacious animals, with large j>cudu- 
 lous oars. The more important varieties are described 
 umlcr their aphabetical heads. 
 
 Uoqnd^'fish, a name given to some of the larger dog- 
 fishes (whit_'h are themselves small f^peeies of sharks), such 
 as the Mnn(rlu.t Lrviiiy or smooth bound-tish of European 
 8eas, two or three feet long, represented in America At- 
 lantic waters by M. canU, a rather larger fish. These fishes 
 have flat grinding teeth, adapted well to their food, which 
 consists of crustaceans and mollusks. 
 
 Houns'field, tp. of JcfTerson eo., N. Y., on Lake On- 
 tario. It includes Sackett's Hakbor (which see) and 
 several islands. Pop. 2630. 
 
 Houns'low, town of Middlesex, Eng., 10 miles W. of 
 London, cuusistiug mainly of a single street. Pop. 929-4, 
 
 Hour [Lat. horn], the twenty-fourth part of a day, or 
 of the interval between two consecutive meridian ])assages 
 of the mean sun ( mean solar day ), true sun (apparent solar 
 day), or of a fi\e<i star (sidereal day). As mean solar time 
 is the legally recognized time according to which the affairs 
 of business are regulated, anrl is the time kept by ordinary 
 clo.'ks and watches, the word hour, in its usual acceptance, 
 is understoorl to signify a mean solar hour. As the mean 
 solar merjilian ]ta!fsage commonly divides the interval be- 
 tween sunrise and sunset unequally, clocks are sometimes, 
 and for certain purposes, constructed to give apparent time. 
 Such clocks arc called equation clocks (see Eqcation op 
 Time), and are designed to mark exactly twelve when the 
 true sun is on the meridian. Astroiiomieal clocks (so 
 called), or the clocks of astronoraieal observatories, are 
 regulated to sidereal time for convenience in reconiing right 
 ascensions (which are measured in such time), or to facili- 
 tate the Hndin:? of celestial objects whose right ascenjiions 
 are known. (See Time.) F. A. P. Barnakd. 
 
 Honr'«f;IasH, a contrivance much used, before the in- 
 vention and iutroduclion into general use of clocks and 
 watches, for the measurement of time. It consists of a 
 hollow glass vessel blown into a form externally resem- 
 bling the figure 8, or presenting the appearance of two 
 spberico-conoidal bulbs united at their vertit;es. In the 
 bluwing, the coutraetion in (be mirbllr 1:4 rtuch as almost to 
 close communication between the bulbs. This passage is 
 then smunlhly drilled out. by passing the drill througli the 
 aperture left in the base in blowing; and a quantity of fine j 
 and dry sand is then introduced, suflic^ient to oecupy an 
 hour in running tlirough this pa.^^suge from one V)ulb to the 
 other wh<-n the instrument is held in a vertical position. 
 During the adjustment the external aperture is temporarily 
 closed by a cork. After the adjustment this aperture shoultl 
 bo sealed in siieh a manner as effectually to exclude moist- 
 ure. The whole should then be protected by a surround- 
 ing frame. The hour-glass is by no means a very exact 
 instrument. .\ pereeptilile difference will not unfrequenlly 
 be observed between the times of running out, aceording 
 as one or the other of the bulbs is uppermost. Tempera- 
 
 ture also affects its performance ; and in case of the absorp- 
 tion of moisture by the sand, in consequence of imperfect 
 sealing, its irregularities are much increased. Half-hour 
 glasses, minute-glasses, half-minute glasses, etc. are con- 
 structed on the same principle. The hour-glass is now 
 rarely used, more accurate and convenient timekeepers 
 having superseded it; but the half-minute glass is still 
 employed at sea to time the running of the log-line. 
 
 F. A. P. RinsAnn. 
 
 Hour'is (pi,), ((*. e. the "black-eyed"), the nymjihs of 
 Paradise, whoso society, according to the Koran, is to be 
 one of the great felicities of the Mobammedan believer 
 after death. These beings are of pure musk, and arc en- 
 dowed with perjictual youth, health, and beauty. 
 
 Hours* The [Cr.'llpat : Lat. U'^m]. in Greek mythol- 
 ogy, the goddesses of nature and the seasons of theycar; 
 in later times the personifications of justice and good order. 
 Their number nnd mythus are variously given. At Athens 
 there were two — Thallo (Spring) and Carpo (Autumn). 
 Ilesiod makes them three — Eunomia. Dice, and Irene. In 
 art they arc blooming nj-mphs, laden with fruits and 
 flowers. 
 
 Housatoti'iCy post-v. of Great Barrington tp., Berk- 
 shire CO., JIass., on the Ilousatonic K. II., 21 miles S. of 
 Pittsficid. It has manufactures of bank-note paper, etc. 
 
 HousatOllic River rises by several head-streams in 
 Berkshire co., Mass., tlows S., and traverses the State of 
 Connecticut, falling into Long Island Sound iu lat. 41° 9' 
 iV N., Ion. 73° 0' 53" \V. For 14 miles it is a tidal stream. 
 Its valley abounds in wild and beautiful scenery, aud it 
 affords water-p<»wer for numerous manufactories. 
 
 IIousc'-Fly, the Musm d<»mrHi!ra of Europe and prob- 
 ably of the U. 8. (though it is not quite certain that the 
 house-flies of the two eontinents are identical in species), a 
 very common household pest, brcetling as a maggot in heaps 
 of filth, upon which it feeds. It is regarded as a preventer 
 of disease because it acts as a scavenger, and thus defers 
 and distributes over much space and time the fermentation 
 and destruction of organic substances. Flies arc especially 
 abundant late in summer and early in autumn. They are 
 generally most numerous near stables and ill-kept dairies, 
 and their presence anywhere in numbers may be regarded 
 as indicating possible danger to health from putrefying 
 organic matter. Against the annoyance of flies, cleanli- 
 ness i.s the best preventive. 
 
 House'hold SuTfrage, Under the English law, the 
 right to vote in boroughs for members of Parliament is 
 granted to male persons of full age who during twelve 
 months preceiling the last day of July in any year, as well 
 as on that day, have been necupiers. either as owners or 
 tenants, of any dwelling-house within the borough, and 
 have been rated, and have paid tlie rates, in a speeilie<l way 
 for the relief of the poor iu respect to the premises. The 
 phrase "dwelling-house " is defined by the act to mean any 
 part of a house oecupied as a separate dwelling, aud sepa- 
 rately rated f(tr the relief of the poor. The right of suf- 
 frage is also extended to lodgers occupying the same lodg- 
 ings for a similar period to that jireseribed for oecupants 
 of dwelling-houses, such lodgings being of the clear yearly 
 value, if let unfurnished, of £10 a year antl upwards. (See 
 for the details of the subject .'10 and 31 Vict. c. 102, a. n. 
 1^07.) Rules of a similar nature in respect to the right of 
 voting as a burgess of a borough at municipal elections aro 
 found in 32 nnd 33 Vict. eh. 53. a. i). 18G9. T. W. Dwiunr. 
 
 Household Troops. Sec Giards. 
 
 Ilouse'-I.eek (Srnipcrvlvunt tcctorum), an herb of the 
 order Crassulaeeje, a native of Europe, often cultivated in 
 the V. S. It takes its trivial name from the fuel that it is 
 often set ujion the roofs of cottages, where it grows well, 
 propagating abnn<lantly by ofi'scts on short and thick run- 
 ners, rarely flowering. As a remedy for bee-stings, slight 
 burns, and the like the bruised leaves are very efficacious. 
 Tiie plant was once so highly esteenu-d as a cure for disease 
 that t'liarlemiigno by edict compelled his subjects to keep 
 it in their houses an<l plant it on their roofs. The name 
 house-leek is p<q>ularly applied to several other crussulace- 
 ouH iilanls. 
 
 House'mnid'8 Knee (so called because it is said, 
 though with little reas(u), to be most common among house- 
 maiils, who scrub stairs nnd flours upon their knees), an 
 acute or chronic dropsical effusion into the bursa before tlie 
 knee-pan. It is easily diagnosticated, and docs not eom- 
 nuinicalc with the knee-joint proper. Acute cases may bu 
 cured by rest and the application of iodine, mercurials, and 
 tight bandages ; chronic one?, by compression with suitable 
 splints, or even by evacuation and injection of iodine solu- 
 tion int<i the sac. 
 
 House's Creek, tp. of Wake eo., N. C. Pop. 2098. 
 
 Hous'saf or Haus'saf is the name of a largo tcrritorj
 
 1012 
 
 HOUSSAYE— HOVEN, 
 
 of Central Africa, extending between lat. 12° and 13° N., 
 and between Ion. 5° and 10° E., and consisting partly of 
 tracts of low laud inundated by the Niger and its affluents 
 during the rainy season, partly of ranges of rocky lulls en- 
 closing elevated table-land. The inhabitants have in some 
 places formed imlependcnt states, in others they have been 
 subjugated by neighboring tribes, cspeeially the Fellatahs, 
 and thus the name llaussa signifies a race and a language, 
 rather than a jioliticat unit. 
 
 Houssaye'(Aus£NE),b. at Bruyeres.in the department 
 of Aisnc, Mar, 28, ISlo, of a wealthy father, who had made 
 his fortune in the milling business. About 18;J5 young 
 lloussayc presented himself in the Paris fashionable and 
 literary circles, and was so fortunate as to become the 
 friend of Jules Janin, Theophile Gaulhicr, Jules Sandcau, 
 then the princes of criticism and light literature. Thanks 
 to them, Arsuno Houssaye soon attracted public attention 
 to bis first books, and afterwards conquered a well-earned 
 celebrity. In 1841) ho became director of the Theatre 
 Fran^aisc. and under the empire was appointed inspector- 
 general of the museums. Author of the periodical letters 
 on Paris life being published by the New York Tribune 
 (lS7o). Among his works arc — Philonophi^s et Com^di- 
 cnnen, Len jilles iV Err, Sons la Beijetire ct bohh la Terreitr, 
 lilanchc it Maryuen'tr, Nos r/ramiea damcfi, Ifhtory of the 
 Foriif-firftt FanteiiH of the French Acadenn/, ICing Voltaire^ 
 Ifistnri/ of French Art, etc. — Henri, his son, b. Feb. 24, 
 1848, is just beginning to make his mark in the literary 
 world of France, through the publication of his History of 
 Aprlh-H, Hintory of AlcibindcH, etc. Felix ArCAIGXE. 
 
 Ilous'toil) county of Central Georgia, bounded on the 
 E. by the Oemulgee River. Area, 650 square miles. It is 
 level, and has a fertile, calcareous, and well-cultivated soil. 
 Cotton, pork, and corn are staple products. It is traversed 
 by the South-western and other railroads. Cap. Perry. 
 Pop. 20,400. 
 
 Houston, the south-easternmost county of Minnesota, 
 having Iowa on the S. and the Mississippi River on the E. 
 Area. 570 square miles. It is well timbered and fertile, 
 and grain is its chief staple. Cap. Caledonia. P. 14,936, 
 
 Houston^ county of N". W. Central Tennessee. Area, 
 about ^fiO square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the 
 Tennessee River, and is traversed by the Memphis Clar!;s- 
 viile and Louisville R. R. It is diversified and fertile. 
 Cap. Erin. It was constituted since the census of 1870. 
 
 Houston,county of the E. of Texas. Area, 1090 square 
 miles. It is well timbered and watered, and generally 
 rolling and fertile. Coal and iron are found. The Inter- 
 national and Great Northern R. R. traverses the county, 
 which has the navigable Neches and Trinity rivers respec- 
 tively on its E. and W. borders. Cotton, corn, and live- 
 stock are largely produced. Cap. Crockett. Pop. S147. 
 
 Houston, post-v., county-seat of Winston co., Ala., 55 
 miles N. \V. of Elyton. Pop. of tp. 498. 
 
 Houston, tp. of Adams co., 111. Pop. 1239. 
 
 Houston, tp. and post-v. of Houston co., Minn., on 
 tlie Southern Minnesota R. R., 19 miles from La Crosse. 
 Pop. 1075. 
 
 Houston, post-v., cap. of Chickasaw co.. Miss., about 
 42 miles N. W. of Columbus. It has 2 academies. 2 
 churches, a newspaper, 2 hotels, stores, etc.; contains the 
 usual public buildings. Pop. 400. 
 
 Frank Burkitt, En. "Ciirkasaw Messenger." 
 
 Houston, post-v., cap. of Texas co., Mo., about 75 
 miles S.of JeiVersou City, situated in a mineral region ; has 
 large forests of pine and saw-mills in the neighborhood, an 
 acaiiemy, the county court-house, 3 hotels, 2 newspapers, 
 stores, shops, etc. It is 35 miles from the St. Louis Salem 
 and Little Rock R. R. Pop. about 200. 
 
 Iii:N. C. Lowell, En. "Texas Co. Pioneer." 
 
 Houston, post-v. of Shelby eo., 0., on the Cleveland 
 Columbus CiuL-iunati and Indiana]>oiis R. R. Pop. 5(>. 
 
 Houston, city, cap. of Harris co., Tex., in lat. 29° 30', 
 Ion. 94° 50', at the head of navigation on Buffalo Bayou, 
 60 miles N. W. of Galveston. It is the railroad centre of 
 Texas. The city is situated on both siilc.-* the bayou, on 
 gently undulating land, and has steamhnat c(<mmunication 
 with <ialvostim daily. It contains nuincnius schools, 2 
 academics for white and colored scholars respectively, 13 
 churches, 2 national, 5 private, and 1 savings bank, 2 home 
 insurance companies, the Masonic temple of the Grand 
 Lodge of Texas, in which the annual meetings arc held, a 
 eily-hall and market-house unsurpassed in the South. It 
 has cotton, car, soap, and Portland cement factories, whilo 
 its manufactories of wngons, carriages, ploughs, and other 
 agricultural implements are a source oj" large revenue; a 
 large ftouring-mill, 2 steam, 3 hand fire-f-ngincs, and 1 hook 
 and ladder cumpan}*. The annual State fair is held hero on 
 
 the fair-grounds, A horse railway from the general depots 
 through the principal streets to the fair-grounds is in suc- 
 cessful operation. There are 4 large hotels, 3 daily and 5 
 weekly newspapers, and its importance as a railroad and 
 manufacturing centre is rapidly being developed. Pop. 
 9.5S2. E. \V. Tavlor. 
 
 Houston (David C), b. in New York ; graduated at 
 the U. S. Military Academy 1.856, and assigned to the corps 
 of engineers with the rank of brevet second lieutenant; but 
 retained at the Academy as assistant professor of natural 
 and experimental philosophy until Sept., 1857, when ho 
 WHS plat-ed on construction duty at Hampton Roads, and 
 subsequently at Sandy Hook. In the civil war he was en- 
 gaged at iJlackburn's Ford and Bull Run as engineer of 
 Tyler's division ; assistant engineer on defences of Wash- 
 ington ; chief engineer 1st army corps, department of the 
 Rappahannock : of 3d army corps at Cedar Mountain and 
 second battle of Bull Run; of 1st army corps at South 
 Mountain and Antietam ; of department of the Gulf at 
 the siege of Port Hudson, Red River campaign, etc. ; brevet 
 captain, major, lieutenant-colonel, and ctdouel for gallantry 
 and meritorious conduct. Since the close of the war he 
 has had charge of the defences of Narragansett Bay, R. I., 
 and is at present in charge of extensive river and harbor 
 imj)ruvemcnts in the North-west. G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Houston (George P.), U. S. M. C. ; entered the marine 
 corps as a second lieutenant Oct. 23, ISCO; became a first 
 lieutenant in 1861; was brevettcd major for "gallant and 
 meritorious services" in the battle of Mobile Bay Aug. 5, 
 1S04, where he commanded a divisiou of the Brooklyn's 
 guns, which Capt. Alden, in his official report, says he 
 fought "nobly and well." Foxhai.l A. Parker. 
 
 Houston {George Smith), b. in Williamson co., Tenn., 
 Jan. 17, 1811; removed in youth to Limestone co., Ala. ; 
 was admitted to the bar in 1831 ; was chosen district solici- 
 tor in 1837; was in Congress 1841— 49 and 1851-01, taking 
 a prominent position : chosen in 1S65 to U. S. Senate, but did 
 not take his seat. In 1874 was elected governor of Alabama, 
 and in 1S78 was chosen U. S. Senator. D. Dec. 31, 1879. 
 
 Houston (Gen. Sam), b. in Rockbridge co., Va., Mar. 
 2, 1793. Left an orphan early in life by his father's 
 death, be went with his mother in destitute circumslances 
 to Tennessee, then the verge of civilization. Here he re- 
 ceived a scanty education, and spent most of his youth- 
 ful years among the Cherokee Indians. During a portion 
 of tins period he served as clerk to one of the traders, and 
 also taught a rustic school. In 1813 he enlisted as a pri- 
 vate in the U. S. army, and served under Gen. Jackson in 
 his famous campaign against the Creek Indians. He had 
 so distinguished himself on several occasions that at the 
 conclusion of the war he had risen to the rank of lieuten- 
 ant, but on the return of peace he resigned his com- 
 mission in the army, and took up the study of law at 
 Nashville. His political career now commenced. After 
 holding several minor otlices he was sent to Congress from 
 Tennessee in 1S23. and continued a member of the House 
 until 1827, when he was elected governor of the State. In 
 1829, he resigned this office before the expiration of his 
 term ; went to Arkansas and took up his abode among 
 the Cherokccs. He not long after became the agent of this 
 tribe to represent their interests at Wushington. On a tirst 
 visit to Texas, just before the election of delegates to the 
 convention called there to form a constitution preparatory 
 to the admission of Texns into the Mexican union, he was 
 unanimously chosen a delegate to that body. The consti- 
 tution so formed was rejected by the Mexican authorities, 
 and Texas was denied admission as a state into that union. 
 Santa Anna, the president of the Mexican confederated re- 
 public, demanded of the Texans a surrender of their arms. 
 Resistance to this demand was <letermined upon. A mili- 
 tary force was organized, and Houston, under the title of 
 general, was soon appointed commander-in-chief of it. Ho 
 comluctcd the war which ensued with great vigor, and 
 brought it to a successful termination by the battle of San 
 Jacinto in Apr., 1S36, in which Santa Anna was captured, 
 and by which the independence of Texns as a separate re- 
 public was achieved. In Oct., 1S36, (»en. Houston was in- 
 augurated the first president of the new republic. In 1845- 
 4G, Texas was admitted into our I'nion as one of the U.S., 
 and Gen. Houston was elected as one of the two Texas 
 members to the Senate of the U. S. This position he held 
 for twelve years. His decided opposition to the policy of 
 secession lost him the confidence of the people for whom 
 he had done so much. He went into retirement, and sur- 
 vived the outbreak of the war in 1801 for a short time. 
 Taken all in all, (Jen. Houston was one of the most remark- 
 able men who has ever figured in American history. D. at 
 Huntsville, Tex.. July 25, 1S63. A. H. Stei'UEXh. 
 
 Ho'vcn, or Hoove, a disease of cattle and sheep, 
 characterized by great distension of the stomach by car-
 
 HOVEY— HOWARD. 
 
 1013 
 
 bonic acid gas, derived Trom fermentation of food. It is 
 oflcn seen alur :i marked change from a mea^ro to » rich 
 pasture. A sin:irt purge, the administration uf linic-wuler 
 or weak ammunia-wMUT, and the introduction of tho stom- 
 ach-tube arc to be tried. If these fail, }iluu;;e a tiucar and 
 canula into the slumueh at a point halfway helwccD the 
 haunch-bonc uud the hist rib^ and near the back-bone. 
 There is some danger of fatal peritonitis aftor the operation, 
 but most animals recover. 
 
 Hov'ey (Alvah), D. D.. b. at Greene, N. Y., Mar. 5, 
 1820i graduated at Dartmouth College, N. H., 1S44. and 
 Newton (Ma.«s.) Thcolocical Institution in 1S4S; was Uap- 
 ti^t pastor at North tJloucester, -Mi'.; from 1S50 to 1SJ3 
 instructor in biblical literature at Newton Theological Sem- 
 inary ; from ISb'A to 1856 professor of eeelcsinstical his- 
 tory. Since ISjG he has been at the same institution pro- 
 fc.-^S'ir of Christian theology, and its president since 1S6S. 
 ilc has published, with Uev. I>. I>. Kurd, a translation uf 
 I'ertho's Lifttif Chrjfsogtom, anil by hirnself. Li/etnid Times 
 of Itfinc /?«'i-K»{lSjS), Shite of the /nipeuiUnt Dead ( ISb^}^ 
 The Afintrtr* uf Chritit (180-4), Scriptural Law of Divorce 
 (ISCSj, Ooii wit/t Us ( 1K72). and. privately, Lectures on The- 
 oluffif, Jieliffiinif aitU the Slate (IS74), 
 
 llovcy (Ai.viy P.).b. at Mt. Vernon, Tnd., May S, 1821 ; 
 Btu<lied law and practised his profc?sion with success. 
 Durin* the civil war he was appointed major of Indiana 
 volunteers, subsequently colonel, serving in the South-west 
 at Stiiloh and Corinth; promoted to be brigadier-general 
 of voluntevr^ Apr. 28, 1S02; commanded a tlivision at tho 
 battle of Champion Hills, contributing largrly to tho suc- 
 cess of that day; subsequently engaged in the Vieksburg 
 campaign. Brevctted major-general of volunteers Julv, 
 18ti4 J resigned Oct., 18G5. In 1SC6 he was appointed U. S. 
 minister to Peru. G. C. Simmons. 
 
 How fLvMAS Bartlrtt), a. M., M. I).. U. in New Bed- 
 ford, Mass., Feb. 2.i, 1838; graduated A. B. at Dartmouth 
 Cullogo ISfiO; studied medicine iu the medical department 
 of that college and in the New York College of Physicians 
 and Surgeons; took the medical degree in 1802; practises 
 at Maiiuhestcr, N. II.; became professor of anatomy and 
 physiology iu the meiiical department of Dartmouth Col- 
 lege I SOU, which position ho holds (187a). 
 
 llow'urd, county in the W. of Arkansas. Area. Ci2b 
 square miles. Its \V. border is washed by Saline Creek. 
 It is fertile, rolling, and well wooded. Cap. Centre Poiut. 
 
 Howard, county of Dakota, traversed by tho Missouri 
 and the Little Missouri rivers. Its N. W. corner extends 
 to tiic mouth of the Yellowstone, Area, 4320 square miles. 
 
 Howard, county of N. Central Indiana. Area, 310 
 square miles. It is level and very productive. Cattle, 
 grain, ivool, and lumbi r are stajilc products. It is inter- 
 sected by the Indiana(>olis Peru and Chicago and the Cin- 
 cinnati and Chicago II. Us. Cap. Kokomo. Pop. 15,847. 
 
 Howard, county of the N. E. of Iowa, bounded on tho 
 N. by Minnesota. Area. o70 square miles. It is partly 
 )iratrio and partly timbcr-Iand, and h:ts a fertile soil. 
 tirain is the staple product. It is intersected by the Mil- 
 waukee and St. i*aul K. K. Cap. New Oregon. Pop. 0282. 
 
 Howard, county of the S. K. of Kansas, bounded on 
 the S. by Indian Territory. Area, 1271 square miles. It 
 has great water-power and much fine tillage land, but is 
 especially adapted to pasturage. Cap, Peru. Pop. 271*1. 
 Divided since 1870 into KIk an'l Chautauqua counties. 
 
 Howard, county near the centre of Maryland. Area, 
 .100 square milrs. It has a good soil and undulatini; and 
 hilly surface, with abunciant water-power. (Jrain and to- 
 bacco are staple products. Cotton goods, flour, and iron 
 are manufa'dured. (Jranile and iron ores arc abundant. 
 Cap. Kllirnit City. Pop. M,I50. 
 
 Howard, county of N. Central Missouri. Area, 400 
 square miles. It is undulating, well cultivated, fertile, and 
 abounds in coal, sandstone, and limestone. Cattle, grain, 
 tobacco, and wool arc 8laj)Ie products. The Missouri lUtws 
 along thr W. and S. boundaries. Cap. Fayette. P. 17,2;J.^. 
 
 Howiird, county of Central Nebraska, drained by tho 
 Loup KiM'k of tho river Platte. Area, f»70 square miles. 
 It is well adapted to grazing. Cap. St. Paul. There is no 
 Btalemcut of its pop. in the census of 1870. 
 
 Howard, Ip. of Conway co., Ark. Pop. "t.'i. 
 
 Howard, tp. of Howard co., Ind. Pop. 1707. 
 
 Iloivard, post-tp. of Parke co., Ind. Pop. 55L 
 
 Howard, tp. of Washington co., Ind. Pop. 1108. 
 
 Howard, tp. of Howard co., la. Pop. 204. 
 
 Hc'Ward, tp. of Story co., la. Pop. 008. 
 
 Hfr.ward, tp. of Tanm co.. la. Pop. 10L3. 
 
 H iiftvard, tp. of Wayne en., la. Poji. J73. 
 
 Howard, tp. of Cass co., Mich., od the Michigan Cen- 
 tral K. R. Pop. 1171. 
 
 Howard, ip. of Gentry co., Mo. Pop. I.TIO. 
 
 Howard, tp. and post-v. of Steuben co., N. Y. Pop. 
 of v. 107: of tp. 2122. 
 
 Howard, post-tp. of Knox co., 0., on the Cleveland 
 Mt. Vernon and Columbus U. K. Pop. 800. 
 
 Howard, tp. of Centre co., Pa. Pop. 875. 
 
 Howard, post-b. of Centre co.. Pa., on the Lockbavcn 
 and Tyrone U. K., 1.1 miles S. W. of Lockhavon. It has 
 iron nianufaelurcs. Pop. 334. 
 
 Howard, tp. of Brown co., Wis. It contains the vil- 
 lage of Kurt Howard, Pop. 3020. 
 
 Howard (CATriAniNK), tho fifth wife of Henry VIII. 
 and (luecn of England for some months, b. in 1620, a 
 daughter of Kdniund Howard, third son of Thomas Howard, 
 duke of Norfolk. The king first saw !ier at a banquet given 
 by the bishop of Winchester in 1540. He had just married 
 Anno of Clevcs, and his dislike for that vulgar woman 
 grew into disgust by comparison with the graceful and 
 spirited Catharine. On July U, 1540. he was divorced front 
 Anne, and on Aug. S lie married Catliarine. The marriage 
 was very hap])y. The queen underttood how to dispel tho 
 gloom which gathered now and then in her husband's soul, 
 and to manage the nioroseness of his temper. But tho 
 happiness did not last more tluin five months. Arclibishop 
 Cranmer communicated to the king the confessions of a 
 certain LasccIIes, according to which Dereham and Man- 
 nook, two gentlemen in the service of the duchess of N(»r- 
 folk, had been Catharine's lovers before her marriage. Tho 
 king at fir-^t refused to believe. Nevertheless, Dereham 
 and Jlannoek were seized and questioned. They confessed, 
 and were executed. At last, even the queen confessed. 
 But as such a crime, committed before marriage, was not a 
 sufiicicnt reason of divorce, her conduct after marriage was 
 subjected to a most rigorous scrutiny. Very suspicious 
 circumstances came to light. She had taken Dereham into 
 her service after her marriage. Another of her former 
 lovers. Thomas ('ulpejipcr, a relative of hers on her mother's 
 side, she had admitted to her bed-chamber one night for 
 several hours, no other being present than Lady Rochford. 
 After a protracted trial she was sentenced, and decapi- 
 tated Feb. 13, 1542. Most historians admit the disso- 
 luteness of her conduct before her marriage, and few ])Ut 
 any confidence in her loyalty after that time, but there 
 seems to be an under-current of jiolitieal intrigue running 
 through her history. At the head of tho religious reform 
 party stood Cranmer. archbishop of Canterbury, while the 
 duke of Norfolk and IJisliop Gardiner represented a party 
 which wished a reaction in favor of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. Tho king's marriage to Anne of Cleves was the 
 work of the Reform party, which linped to bring tho king 
 entirely over to their side by placing him in more intimate 
 connection with theticrman Lutherans. Hut the plan had 
 failed. The Howards were in power. The Roman Cat Indie 
 cause was in the ascendant, and it is more than jirobable 
 that the fate which overtook Catharine Howard arose from 
 thtse eircuinsfances. 
 
 Howard ( Fi.onoARno), M. D., Pn. D., h. in Stafford co., 
 Va., Mar. II, ISIl: was cclucated at CoUimbian College 
 an<l (Jeorgetown College, I>. C. ; is professor of obsletries, 
 puerperal diseases, ami diseases of children in the medical 
 department of (Jeorgetown College, Washington. D. C. ; 
 president of the Medical Association of tlie District of Co- 
 lumbia 1874-75. 
 
 Howard (Hknrv), M. D., b. in Frederick co., Md., 
 May 2S, 1702 : d. at Charlottesville, Va.. Mar. 2. 1S74. He 
 took the degree of M. D. from the University of Pennsyl- 
 vania, and for twenty-four years practised in Maryland. 
 In 1837 he filled the jirofessorship of obstetrics and disea>e8 
 of women and eliibtren in the university of his native 
 State, and then was elected professor of practice and ob- 
 stetrics in tho University of Virginia, which he occupied to 
 1807, when the infirmities of age eompolled him to resign. 
 He left an enviable reputation for his devotion to the pro- 
 fession and zeal us a teacher. Pai i, F. Kvi;. 
 
 Howard (Jacob M.), LL.D.. b. at Shaftesburv, A't.. 
 1805; d. at Detroit in 1871. Graduated at AVillinn'is Col- 
 lege 1830 : taught tn academies in Massachusetts and Mich- 
 igan in 1832; was admitted to the bar in ls;i3; became a 
 member of tho legislature in ls;iS; member of Congress in 
 1841— n, and attorney-general of Michigan in 1855-01. 
 From 1802 to 1871 he represented Michigan as its Senator, 
 and was the sponsor of the Rejiublieiin party in 1854, tho 
 drawing uj» o\' the platform at tho first convention being 
 also attributed to him. lie is known in tho literary world 
 by his transhiti<m of the Secrtt Memoirs uf the Emprcn9 
 Junrphinr, from the Frciieli. 
 
 Howard (John), b. at Hackney, near London. Sept.
 
 1014- 
 
 HOWARD— HOWE. 
 
 2, 1726. From his father he inhcritcJ a considerable for- 
 tune, and he spent his y<uith in studying medicine anrl in 
 travelling. Having settled at rardiugton, Bedford.-^hire, 
 in 17oS, and having made himself conspicuous hy his 
 schools and model cottages for the peasantry, he was elect- 
 ed sheriff in l"7iJ. On visiting the jails he became ac- 
 quainted with the intolerable conditions under which 
 prisoners lived ; thus it often happened that a ntan spent 
 several years in jail because he could not pay the jailer's 
 fee for his deliverance. Howard now travelled through the 
 whole kingdom, visited all its jails, and presented in 1774 
 a report to the House of Commons, the result of which was 
 the passing of two reform bills. Next he went to the Con- 
 tinent, visited Franco, (Jcrniany, and Holland, examined 
 their prisons, and published on his return, in 1777, Slate 
 of the Prisons in EnffUiud and Wales, with Preliminarif 
 Observations and nn Arconut of some Foreir/n Prisons, to 
 which he afterward added supplements, having made new 
 travels and new researches. The immediate result was 
 the adoption, on trial, of the hard-labor system in some of 
 the English prisons. In 1785 he started on a new tour 
 through Italy. Turkey, and Asia Minor, in order to make 
 himself acquainted with the lazarettos, and on his return 
 published, in 1789, An Account of the Principal Lazarettos 
 of Europe. In order to push his researches into this sub- 
 ject still further, he ^:tarte^l in the same year on a tour to 
 Asia, but d. Jan. 20, 1790, at Kherson, Russia. 
 
 Howard (John Eager), b. in Baltimore co., Md., June 
 4, 1752 ; served throughout the Revolutionary war with the 
 greatest honor, and was present upon most of the important 
 battle-tields of the war, attaining the rank of lieutenant- 
 colonel, and receiving a medal from Congress for his valor 
 at the Cowpcns, Jan, 17, 1781. He was a member of Con- 
 gress 1787-88; governor of Maryland 1789-92; U. S. Sen- 
 ator 1796-1S0;{; and in 1798 was appointed a brigadier- 
 general by Washington. He was a man of wealth, and his 
 reputation for valor and patriotism made his old age one 
 of great honor. D. Oct. 12, 1827. 
 
 HOAVard (Oliver Otis), LL.B., b. at Leeds, Me,, Nov. 8, 
 1830 : graduated at Bowdoin College 1850, and at the Mili- 
 tary Academy 1854, when he was promoted in the army to 
 be brevet second lieutenant of ordnance ; promoted to be 
 second lieutenant Feb., 1855, first lieutenant July, l!S57; 
 served as assistant at, and in command of, arsenals 1S54— 
 56; as chief of ordnance against hostile Indians in Flor- 
 ida 1857; and at the Military Academy as assistant pro- 
 fessor of mathematics from Sept., 1857, to June 3. ISfil; 
 resigned June 7, 1861. Appointed colonel of the third 
 Maine Vols. June 4, 1861, and commanded a brigade in 
 the battle of Bull Run, July 21 : appointed brigadier- 
 general of volunteers Sept., 1861 : served in the Virginia 
 Peninsular campaign lSti2, and at the battle of Fair Oaks 
 (June 1) was twice wounded, losing his right arm; re- 
 joined the army Aug.. 1802, and was engaged in the battles 
 of Antietam and Fredericksburg ; appointed major-general 
 of volunteers Nov., lSti2; at the battle of Chancellorsville 
 (May, 1863) he commanded the 11th army corps, as also 
 at Gettysburg. July, lJ>63. Transferred with his command 
 to Tennessee Oct., 1S63, he was engaged in the battles of 
 Lookout Valley and Missionary Ridge. In Aj)r., 1801, the 
 11th and r2th Qorps were united to form the 2Uth corps, 
 and Gen. Howard was assigned to the command of the 4th 
 corps. Army of the Cumberland, and in the July following 
 to that of the Army of the Tennessee, being engaged 
 around Dalton, at Resaca, Kencsaw Mountain, siege and 
 occupation of Atlanta, and in the various actions and bat- 
 . tics during the famous march to the sea with Gen. Sher- 
 man, and subsequent invasion of the Carolina?, terminating 
 with the surrender of Gen. J. E. Johnston at Durham Sta- 
 tion, N. .C, Apr, 26, 1S65. Appointed commissioner of 
 Bureau of Refugees, Frcedmcn, and Abandoned Lands 
 May, 1865, which position he retained till June, 1872; 
 served as special commissioner of Indian affairs 1865, and 
 was president of Howard University 1869-73. Gen. How- 
 ard was appointed a brigadier-general in the U. S. army 
 Dec. 21, 1801, and brevet major-general U. S. A. 1865. 
 
 G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Howard (William A.), b. in Vermont; graduated at 
 Middlebury College 1830 ; moved to Michigan, from which 
 State he was a leading member of Congress on the anti- 
 slavery side 1855-61. Being a man i»f high order of 
 talents, strong convictions, and unquestioned integrity, ho 
 had not only the respect but the esteem of his most decided 
 opponents. Became postmaster of Detroit 1861. 
 
 A. H. Stephbns. 
 
 How'nrd Cen'tre, post-tp. of Howard co., la. P, 294. 
 
 How'ard <'it'y, post-v. of Montcalm eo., Mich., ."^3 
 miles N. of Grand Kitpids, on the Detroit Lansing and Lake 
 Michigan and the (Trand Rapids and Indiana R. Us. It 
 has good graded schools^ 3 churches, an exchange bank, 1 
 
 newspaper, several large lumber, shingle, and planing 
 mills, 2 hotels, and stores. Pop. about 1000. 
 
 W. E. Morris, Ed. ** Record." 
 
 Uow'ardsville, pc^t-v. of San Juan co., Col. 
 
 IIowardsviHc, post-v. of Scottsvilie tp., Albemarle 
 CO., Va. pup, 83, 
 
 How'ard I'niver'sity, an educational foundation sit- 
 uate at Seventh street, Washington, D. C, established by 
 virtue of a charter granted by Congress in 1867, and deriv- 
 ing its patronymic from one of its most prominent founders. 
 Gen. 0. 0. Howard, who continued to occupy the presi- 
 dential chair until 1873, when he resigned. Though neither 
 creed, color, nor sex is permitted to preclude admi.^sion to 
 the ranks of its alumni, the institution was sjiecially de- 
 signed for colored people, of which fully two-thirds of its 
 students consist. In 1872-73 the total number receiving 
 instruction in the several departments (the normal, pre- 
 paratory, collegiate, theological, legal, and medical) was 
 507. The university is placed under the management of 
 twenty-one trustees ; antl though the U. S. government 
 granted aid at its establishment, it is now entirely depend- 
 ent upon voluntary contributions and the fees of students 
 for its support. It possesses a library of 7500 volumes, 
 a picture-gallery, a niincralogical collection, and a mu- 
 seum of curiosities. The terms of study allotted for the 
 students in the various departments are — normal depart- 
 ment, 2 years; preparatory, .1 years ; collegiate, 4 years; 
 theological, 2 years; law, 2 years; and medical, 3 years. 
 Over fifty students have already graduated from this in- 
 stitution. 
 
 Howe, tp. of Forest co.. Pa. Pop. 78. 
 
 Howe, tp, of Perry co.. Pa. Pop. 410. 
 
 Howe (Albion Paris), b. at Standish, Me., Mar. 1.3, 
 1818; graduated from the U. S. Military Academy, and 
 appointed second lieutenant of artillery July 1, 1841 ; after 
 a term of two years passed on frontier and garrison duty, 
 he returned to West Point as assistant professor of mathe- 
 matics, where he remained until 1846; served throughout 
 the war with Mexico with credit from Vera Cruz to the city 
 of Mexico, winning the brevet of captain for Contrcras and 
 Churubusco. From 1S48 to 1801 the monotony of garrison- 
 life was relieved by occasional expeditions against Indians, 
 and in 1851) he was at Harper's Ferry during the John 
 Brown insurrection ; on the outbreak of the civil war ho 
 was a captain of artillery, and accomjianied Gen. MeClellan 
 in his campaign in West Virginia, at Rich Mountain, etc., 
 and throughout the Virginia Peninsular campaign (1862) 
 in command of light artillery brigade, having been ap- 
 pointed brigadier-general of volunteers June 11, ISfi2; 
 subsequently* in all the various battles of the Army of the 
 Potomac, in command of a brigade and division of the 
 0th army corps, until the spring of 1864, when he was as- 
 signed to duty in "Washington as inspector of artillery. At 
 present serving on the Pacific Coast with his regiment (1th 
 Artillery), of which he is major. G. C. SniMOXS. 
 
 Howe (Elias), inventor of the sewing-machine, b. 
 at Spencer, Mass., July 9, 1819; was the son of a farmer 
 and miller; went in 18115 to Lowell, and worked there, and 
 afterwards in Boston, in machine-shops. In 1845 ho com- 
 pleted his fir?t machine, and patented it in 1846, laboring 
 with the greatest persistency, in spite of poverty and 
 neglect, working for a time as an engine-driver on a rail- 
 road for small wages and with broken health. He spent 
 two years of unsuccessful exertion in England, striving in 
 vain to bring his invention into notice, lie returned to the 
 r. S. in almost hopeless poverty, to find that his patent 
 had been violated ; but he at last found friends who as- 
 sisted him with money, and after years of litigation he 
 made good his claims in the courts in 1854. He atterwards 
 realized a large fortune from his invention. During the 
 civil war he volunteered as a private of the 17lh Connecti- 
 cut volunteers, and served for some time. He received the 
 cross of the Legion of Honor and many medals. D. at 
 Brooklyn, N. Y,, Oct. 3, 1867. 
 
 Howe (Jonv), b. May 17. 1630, in Leicestershire, Eng- 
 land : d. A]tr, 2, 1705; completed his education at Cam- 
 bridge and Oxford. After holding for several years a rural 
 curacy, he was appointed (1654) domestic chaplain io Crom- 
 well, a position ho held until the death of the PVolcctor 
 (165S). He was an eloquent preacher, ami univerr'ally es- 
 teemed for his ability and Christian character. *He was 
 the friend of Baxter, and labored in the same lincwHh him 
 for Christian unity. Ho was one of tho leading <tontro- 
 versiftlist writers of his day among the noneonlformist 
 party, hut free from all animosity and bitterness^ His 
 principal works are — The Oracles of God, The Living 
 Triitple, The liefleemers Tears over I^ont Souls, and Thr\FilesS' 
 ednesk of the liiyhleons. Editions of his Complete^' Works 
 during the present century have been issued at Ot^'idon, 
 
 r
 
 HOWE— HOWITT. 
 
 1015 
 
 1810-22, 8 vols. ; ibid., 1S48, 3 vols. ; anil at Phila.lclphia, 
 2 vols. The best biograiihy is that of Rogers, Lonilou, 1830. 
 Howe (Il"ii. .I.)SKiMi). b. in Halifax, N. S., in lvS04, was 
 tlic son of Jolia Howe, a loyalist refugee from Boston. Ho 
 was bred a printer, and in 1827 became connected with the 
 Acn^llon newspaper, and in 1S28 cdilur and proprietor of 
 the -Vora Scoiiuii. As an outspoken liberal ami Iricud of 
 responsible (;overnuient he was invcUi-.l in a vexatious 
 libel-suit and fought a duel with iMr. llahburton. As a 
 mcni\)cr of the Provincial Parliament, colonial agent in 
 England, provincial secretary, etc., ho was long one of 
 the most prominent men in Nova Scotia, and was one of 
 the founders of resiionsible government in the jirovince. 
 He was (1803-72) secretary of state for the provinces in 
 the Dominion government, and superintendent of Indian 
 affairs and afterwards became a incniber of the Uominion 
 Parliament for Hants, N. S. ; was afterwards liculenant- 
 eovernor of Nova Scotia. He published two volumes of 
 
 V'''"'« "'«' •''«*''■"-• ^"'"'' (1^^**)- ^- "' ""''f"'' •'"'"' 
 1, IST.i. 
 
 Howe (JtxiA Ward), ihc daughter of Mr. Samuel 
 Ward and the wife of Dr. S. (1. Howe, b. in New\ork 
 May 27, ISl'J; married Dr. Howe in 1843. Her /'n«»,ou 
 l-lmctr, (lS.i4), Wo,;l. lor ihe Hour (1850), and Lalcr 
 /.uricn (18GG) contain her most important lyric poems. 
 Thr World; CI.C.. (I8Ji) and //.>,'"'.'/'"» < 18:iS) arc dramas. 
 Shu has also published two volumes of travel, and mouy 
 able papers upon social and philosophical subjects. Many 
 of her poems are of a high order of merit. She is an active 
 worker in the woman's sulTrago movement. 
 
 Howe (KicHARD), Eaki., b. Mar. 19, 1725, was the third 
 son of the second Viscount Howe; studied at Eton _nnd 
 Westminster; became a midshipman under Anson 1739; 
 post-captain for gallantry at Fort William 1715; captured 
 Cherbourg and Martignan 17i8: succeeded his brother as 
 viscount (Irish peerage) 1758; defeated Conflans 17o9; 
 treasurer of Ihe navy 17(!5 ; rear-admiral of the blue, with 
 chief command in the Mediterranean, 1770; with William 
 Howe, his brother, was appointed commissioner to avert 
 the war in the American colonies 177l>; fought D'Estaing 
 off Rhode Mand 1778; became admiral and viscount in 
 tho British peerage, bv creation, 1782; relieved Gibraltar 
 in 1782- first lord of the admiralty 1783; created earl 1788; 
 took command of the Channel licet 1793; defeated the 
 French off lirisl 1794; K. 0. and general ol marines 
 1795. D. in London Aug. 5, 1799. Howe was of a stock 
 related closely to the royal family by illegitimate descent. 
 Howe (Samiki, (Jumi.KV), M. D., b. in Boston Nov. 
 10 ISOl ; graduated at Brown University in 1821 ; was a 
 surgeon in the (ireck war for liberty 1824-27; organized 
 tho surgical service and was placed at its head. Ho then 
 returned to America for aid, and afterwards founded a 
 colony on the Isthmus of Corinth. In 1S31 ho visited 
 Europe again after his appointment to the superintendency 
 of the Perkins Asylum for the blind, an.l while there at- 
 tempted, as presiilent of the Pcilish cunmittce ..f Pans, to 
 carry aid to the struggling Poles, but was iiniinscmcd fur 
 six weeks in Prussia. After 1832 he had charge ol the 1 er- 
 kins Institute f.ir tho blind. South Boston. Mass. Ho was 
 long a prominent abolitionist. In 1871 ho was one of tho 
 U .S commissioners to Santo Domingo. Author of /lii //i«- 
 U,'r;,alSk^lrhofll,<-llrr.k llrrolnUo,, ns28), lUodcr for lliC 
 JUind (1839). 'D. at Boston, Mass., .Ian. 9, 1876. 
 
 Howe (TiMOTiiv 0.), b. at I.ivcrmorc, Me., Feb. 24, 
 ISKi- received an academic education: adopted tho pro- 
 fession of law and was admitted to the bar; member <.f 
 State legislature 1845; removed to Wisconsin late in IMJ, 
 and in 18511 was elected judge of the circuit an.l supremo 
 courts of Wisconsin, which position he hebl until 185j, 
 when ho resigned. Chosen U. S. Senator for Wisconsin m 
 181)1, and has been twice re-elected. 
 
 Howe (Sir William), VisioiST, b. Aug. 10, 1720, bro- 
 ther of Richard. Karl Howe; stiolied at Kion ; entered the 
 dragoons; served at liuebec under Wolfe; colonel of the 
 4th1'ool 17li I, and major-general 1772; took the chief cuin- 
 mand in North America 1775. after Gage's departure, Howe 
 having previously commanded at Bunker Hill; evacuated 
 Boston Mar.. 17711; went to Ilaliliix, and thence to Staten 
 Mand ; gained the battle of l.mig Island Aug. 27 ; occupied 
 New York Sept. 15 ; won the victory oi White Plains Oct. 28; 
 of Fort Washington Nov. 10; of Brandywine Sept, 11, 
 1777; occuided Philad.lidiiaSept. 2fi; repulsed W ashing- 
 ton at liermanlown Oct, 4 : was superseded by Sir H. Clin- 
 ton in 1778; returned to England, where his conduct was 
 vindicated alter a parliamentary investigation ; became a 
 lieutenant-general 1782; general 1780; succeeded to the 
 Irish peerage as viscount 1799. 1). July 12, 1814.— The 
 families both of Earl and Viscount Howe arc now «xtinct, 
 tho present Earls Howe being of tho Cur/.on family, enno- 
 bled in 1788 and raised to tho earldom in 1821. 
 
 How'cll, county of Missouri, bounded on the S. by 
 Arkansas. Area, 804 square miles. Its soil is fertile, and 
 it is extensively covered with pino forests. . Corn is the 
 principal product. Cap. West Plains. Pop. 4218. 
 
 Howcll,post-v., cap. of Livingston CO., Mich., 50 miles 
 N. W. of Detroit, on Ihe Detroit Lansing and Lake Michigan 
 R. R., is surrounded by a line agricultural district ; has 
 good educational advantages, 3 churches, 2 banks, foundry 
 and inachino shop, sash and door factory, 2 Hounng-nulls, 
 2 newspapers, stores, etc. Princijial occupation, dealing 
 in aTicultural products and impleinents. Pop. of Ip. 2o«3. 
 J. D. Smith. Ed. '•Livingston Rli'Uulican." 
 Howell, tp. of Howell co.. Mo. Pop. 970. 
 Howell, Ip. of Monmouth co., N. J. It contains a 
 number of villages. Pop. 3371. 
 
 Howell (DAVin). LL.D., a native of New Jersey, was 
 b. in 1747, and d. in July, 1824. At Ihe age of twenty- 
 thrco ho was appointed professor of natural iihilos"pby and 
 mathematics, and filled the chair of law at the Brown Uni- 
 versity from 1790 to 1S24. In the interval he hllcd the 
 several offices of attorney-general of the State, judge of 
 tho supreme court, member of tho Continental Congress, 
 commissioner for settling the eastern boundary of the U.S., 
 and district attorney, and was subsequently district ludge 
 for Rhode Island till his death. He was equally distiii- 
 l.ed as a classical scholar and political argumcntator. 
 Sec First Biennial Suitle- 
 
 gUl: 
 
 HoweH (James). 
 
 " Howell (John Apams), V. S. N., b. Mar 10, 1840, in 
 New York; graduated at the Naval Academy 185S; became 
 a lieutenant in 1861, a lieutenant-commander m 180o; 
 served as executive officer of the Ossipee at the battle of 
 Mobile Bav, Aug. 5. 1804, and is honorably mentioned in 
 the despatches of his commanding ofhcer. Com. W . i.. Lo 
 J, , ' Foxiiall A. Pakkku. 
 
 Howell (.Ions C), h. Nov. 24, 1819, in Philadelphia; 
 en"rcd the navy as a midshipman June 9 1836 ; became a 
 passed midshipman in 1842, a lieutenant in 1849, a com- 
 'mander in 1802. a captain in 1860 a commodore in IS,-, 
 was executive officer of tho steam-frigate Minnesota at the 
 battle of Hatteras Inlet, which resulted in the capture of 
 Forts Hatteras and Clark, and commanded the Nereus in 
 both Ihe Fort Fisher fights. For - cool pcrlormance of 
 duty ■■ recommended for promotion by Roar-admira 1 orlcr 
 Jan ^^ 1805; from 1808 to 1870 chief of staff of the Eu- 
 ropean fleet: from 1870 to 1S72 commandant of navy-yard 
 
 at League Island, Philadelphia; from 1872 to 1874 com- 
 mandant of navy-yard at Portsmouth, N "• ; '"J'j'" 
 1874, appointed chief of the bureau of yards and docks. 
 
 " FoXnALL A. PAKkLR. 
 
 HoAvell ( Robert BovTii Crawford), D. D., b. in Wayne 
 CO N C. Mar. 10. 1801; graduated at Columbian College 
 1820: pastor of Baptist church, N'"-f"ll<. }.'>■' .I'^-J.^'^ ' 
 Nashvi'lle, Tcnn., lS3'5-50 ; Richmond Va., 8.0-0, ; Nash- 
 ville Tenn., 1857-68: and rendered good service to the 
 cause of education. He wrote several works; the best 
 known is On the Vcm-omhip. I). Apr. J, 1808. 
 
 How'clls (William Dean), b. at Martinsville, Belmont 
 CO Mar 1 18:17 ; removed to Hamilton, O.. in 1840 Willi 
 his fai'her, who was a printer. His father w.is of Welsh, his 
 mother of Pennsvlvania-German stock. Mr. Howe Is learned 
 the TJrinter's trade of his father, and was afterwards edi ori- 
 ully connected with tho Cincinnati doz,,!,- and the Uluo 
 S,„U- Jommd. He was (1801-05) U. h. consul at \ enicc. 
 In 1871 he became editor-in-chief of tho Atlo„l,c Mo„tl,l,/. 
 He is one of Ihe most facile and readable authors of our 
 time,' a graceful iioet, and a writer of dainty, elegant prose. 
 His wo?ks are /'ormn of Tn., /.',■,■,,„/« (writ ten «'il i J. J. 
 Piatt 1800), Vniellon /. ./c ( 1 860 ), JUthoi, ./<„,rMr.v» ( 180l ), 
 A-o //ore Lo.t{m»), k-nburbw, iy,v;(,;/.c. (1870) /Ac,r 11 crf- 
 d;.i,j Journn, (1872), A Chance ^cj«ai»«(ince(18i3), and A 
 foriiioiif ('oncluiiun (1874). 
 
 Ilow'.'llsvillP, Ip. of Robeson CO., N. C. Pop. 1023. 
 
 llowo''s I'livc, posl-v. and station on the Albany and 
 
 Susquehanna R. R., in Cobleskill Ip., Schoharie co., N. Y. 
 
 It has a largo natural cave and important quarries and 
 
 limekilns. 
 
 llow'isoil (RonERT R.), b. at Fredericksburg, Va., in 
 18''0 has been since 1845 a prominent lawyer of Richmond. 
 He'h'as publishe.l a JliHlory of VmjMa (2 vols., 1S40-18), 
 / irr, of Morgan, Marion, and liates, Crimimil /ri«(» (1801), 
 ii' JI,Kt,.ni of the Wtir of UOl-llS, and other works. 
 
 How'itt (Mary), wife of William Howitt.b. at Uttoxc- 
 Icr En-land, about 1804, the daughter of a Mr, liolham, 
 a tjuaker: was married in 1823; has written many poems, 
 bvinlis, and ballads, some novels, and inflruetive books for 
 the young; Iranslalc.l .Miss Bremer's worksand some td those 
 of H C, Andersen, and was with her husband joint author
 
 1016 
 
 HOWITT— HUBBARD. 
 
 of The Literature and Roninnce of Northern Europe. (18521 
 aud other vaiiiable works. — Her daughter, Mrs, Anna 
 Maky Watts, is author of The Art Student in Muuirh 
 (lSj:i), The School of Lt'/i', etc.. and a painter of merit. — 
 Another dauj^htcr is a successful writer of books. 
 
 Ilowitt (AV1LI.IA.M), b. at Heanor, Derbyshire, in 1795, 
 of Quaker stock. His first books were written partly by 
 his wife, Mary Howitt. He also published a HiMtortf of 
 PrUvteraft (1834), Rnral Life in En;fhii,d {\^?>'i), Student 
 Life in Grrmaui/ (1S41), liural and Domtstic Life in Ger- 
 mniit/ (1842), Land, Labor, and (iidd (IS55), au account 
 of his experience!' in .Australia; lllstori/ of Ewjhi-nd (1854- 
 (51). and translations from the German. D. Mar. 2, 1879. 
 
 How'itzer [derived by Orinini and Littrfi from the 
 Bohemian hanfnicc, "catapult"], a short cannon for firing 
 shells horizoutally, differing in this from the mortar, which 
 is used for vertical fire. It was introduced by the Dutch 
 in ItJOfi, aud soon became of general use, except by tho 
 French, who, considerin;^ it of small value because of tho 
 short range and inaccurate fire, did not introduce it until 
 after Napoleon's wars had shown him its value. The how- 
 itzer was made with a chamber for the jiowdcr (of smaller 
 diuinetrr thiin tho bore), and with a length of bore regulated 
 to admit of the ithell being reached by the hand, to adjust 
 the fuze in the axis, after tho gun was loaded. After tho 
 adoption of sabotn (a block of wood to which the shell is 
 attached) this could be secured in long guns, and the how- 
 itzers for field and garrison service were then made of 
 greater length ancl came into universal use. The siege 
 howitzer, generally of S-in. diameter, is still made short, as 
 tho sabot cannot be safely used if the gun is fired over ad- 
 vance parties, as is necessary in sicgo firing. Tho first 
 cannon cast by the colonial authorities of America were 
 8-in. and 2-4-pdr. brass howitzers, some of which are now 
 preserved. The Russians in 1777 introduced tho Ucorne, 
 au improved howitzer. Howitzers, except for siege and 
 mountain service, are no longer manufactured in the U. S., 
 as our present guns are equally suitable for ?hell-firing in 
 field or garrison service. P. V. Hagner. 
 
 Ilow'land, post-tp. of Penobscot cc, Me., on the W. 
 side of the Fenob:^cot Kiver, 32 miles N. of Bangor, Me., 
 near the European and North American R. K, It has 
 manufactures of lumber. Pop. 170. 
 
 Ilowland, tp. of Trumbull co., 0. Pop. CGI. 
 Iluwlaud (Hon. William Pearce), C. B., b. in the 
 
 State of New York May 29, 1811. He removed when young 
 to Canada, and became one of the wealthiest merchants of 
 the Upper Province. In ISJS he was elected to the Parlia- 
 ment of Canada; in 1862 became minister of finance: in 
 I8fi;{ receiver-general; in IHGI postmaster-general; in 1806 
 minister of finance ; was si^nt as a delegate to England, and 
 was made a C. B. ; in 1868 became lieutenant-governor of 
 the province of Ontario. Ho is a liberal in politics. 
 
 HowI'ingMoil'keys, a genus of prehensile-tailed mon- 
 keys of Soutli America, of u low grade of intelligence, fierce 
 and untamable disposition, and large size. Some t^vclvo 
 or fourteen species are reported. The genus {.l/yce?t'« or 
 Alu<Ota) is distinguished from all others by tho presence 
 of a great chamber within the hyoid bono and communi- 
 cating with tho larynx. The possession of this chamber 
 gives these monkeys the power of jirodueing those tre- 
 mendous howls which in the night re-echo for half a league 
 through the Brazilian forests. This hideous roar is proba- 
 bly an amorous serenade. The ursine howler (.If. uminus) 
 is the best known species. 
 
 ISows (John A.), b. in New York City in 18.'51, and d. 
 in the same city Sept. 27. 187-1. He graduated at Columbia 
 College, and after studying first for the ministry, and after- 
 wards for the law, besides being connected with religious 
 and society journals, adopted art as his profession. Ho 
 painted several pictures which achieved considerable promi- 
 nence, but his best known works were his drawings on wood. 
 Among the books which were illustrated by him exclusively 
 were A Forcut Jli/mn, In the Woods, Forest Pictnrr.s in the 
 Adirondacks, A Chriatnias Carols and Co.xe's Chriniian lial- 
 tudn. J. B. Bishop. 
 
 How'son (.TonN- Savl), D. D.. b. in England in 1810 ; 
 graduated with high honors at Cambridge in 18.37; was or- 
 dained in 1815, and was principal of the Liverpool College 
 1849-(!5 ; became dean of Chester in 1807. nnd is examin- 
 ing chaplain to the bishop of Ely. With W. .1. Conybeare 
 he published (in 1S50-52) Tht-' Life and Epiillea of St. 
 I'anl, furnishing the principal part of tho geographical 
 and historical matter. He has also published The Charac- 
 tn- of St. f»a»/(lS02; .-id ed. 1871). The Metaphors of St, 
 /'.i.(>(18fi8). The CoN'panionit of St. Paul (1871). 
 
 Ilox'ter, town of Westphalia. Prussin, anciently a Hanse 
 town. It is 28 railed E. N. E. of Paderborn, and stands on \ 
 
 the Weser. It is a place of venerable antiquity, and has 
 brisk manufactures of flax, cotton, and paper. Pop, 5041. 
 
 lloy, one of the Orkney Islands, 2A miles from Pomo- 
 na. It presents a coast of wild, precipitous cliffs, in some 
 places more than 1000 feet high, but to the S. it has a fine 
 harbor at Longhopc. Pop. 1486. 1 
 
 Iloyle (Ei)Mi'Nn), author of sevenil works on games, 
 was an Englishman, b. 1672. and d. 1769. Since his death 
 there have been many much improved editions, British and 
 American, of lioyle'H (iftmeii. 
 
 lioyt (Benjamin Thomas), son of the Rev.Benj.R. Hoyt, 
 b. at Boston Oct. 18, 1S20: was sueces?ively teacher, pro- ' 
 
 fessor. and president in various collegiate and educational i 
 
 institutions, and editor of the /ndinna Slafi SrhoolJonmal. ! 
 
 From 1846 to 1852 ho occupied the position of principal in 
 the schools of Mid<lletown, Conn., and Chelsea, AlasB. 
 From 1852 to 1858 he was president of the institute of 
 Lawrenceburg, and of the College for Young Women in 
 Indianapolis. Ho was professor of Latin from 1858 to , 
 
 1803, and professor of belles-lettres aud history in the In- ! 
 
 diana Asbury University until his death at Greeneastle, J 
 
 Ind,, in 1867. His services to the cause of education in J 
 
 Indiana as superintendent of schools, as presideut of the I 
 
 State Teachers' Association, and as au educational Writer I 
 
 were invaluable. 
 
 Iloyt (Edwin), b. in Stamford, Conn., in May, 1805. 
 When nineteen years oUl lie became a dry -goods merchant 
 of Now York. In 18;J5 the firm of Hoyt & Bogart was 
 established, afterwards Hoyt, Tillinghast &, Co. In 18aS 
 the firm of Hoyt, Spragucs & Co, was constituted. Mr. 
 Hoyt d. in New York May lo, 1874. At the time of his 
 death he was the oldest dry-goods merchant in New York, 
 universally honored for probity and mercantile recfitudo. i 
 
 Hoyt (Francis Soithack), D. D., b. at Lyndon, Vt., 
 Nov. 6, 1822; graduated at Wesleyan University, Middle- 
 town, Conn., in 184-1; was presideut of \Villanietto Uni- 
 versity, Salem, Or., 18J4-6U; professor of clicmistry, etc. 
 in tho Ohio Wesleyan University 1800-72; and in 1872 
 became editor of tho Western Chrtntian Advocate, 
 
 Hoyt (Joseph Gibson), LL.D., b. at Bunbarton, N. H., 
 in Jan., ]81o; graduated at Yale College 1840; became in- 
 structor in mathematics ami natural jdiilosophy. and sub- 
 sequently for eighteen years fulfilled the duties of member 
 of tho faculty in Phillips Academy. Exeter, N. H.. from 
 1841 to 18.'»8; and was appointed chancellor antl pr<il"essor 
 of Greek in Washington University, St. Louis, from ISjU 
 to his decease at St. Louis. Mo., in 1862. His chief literary 
 labors comprised a carefully revised and enlarged Colton't 
 Greek Header, and a volume of miscellaneous writings, re- 1 
 
 views, lectures, aud addresses. 
 
 Ilaaca. Sec Guaca, by Com. Foxhall A. Pakker, 
 U. S. N. 
 
 Hualapais' Indians, ahostile tribe of Arizona, found 
 near the Colorado. N. of the Mohaves. They number somo ' 
 
 1500. ' 
 
 Hualla'sca, a river of Peru, rises in the Andes in hit. 
 11° S., and emj)ties itself into the Amazon after a northerly ; 
 
 course of nearly 600 miles. j 
 
 Huamanga. Sec AvArrrno. 
 
 Huancaveli'ca, or GuancabcUca, town of Peru, 
 situated in the Andes at au elevation of 11,000 feet, and 
 engaged chiefly in mining gold and (luickslhcr. It is reg- 
 ularly built, is tho capital of a province of the same name, ' 
 but is rather decreasing. Pop. 5000. ^ 
 
 Illian'taf a well-built town in the department of Aya- ' 
 
 cucho, Peru, abuut 200 miles S. E. of Lima. It has a largo 
 trade in drugs, grain, and cattle. Pop. 5000. | 
 
 Hua'nnco, or Gnanuco, town of Peru, situated in | 
 
 an exceedingly beautiful and fertile valley of the Andes. 
 Sugar and coffee are raised here, both of excellent quality, 
 but as there are no roads, they cannot be raised for expor- 
 tation. The town is decaying. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Iliiara/', town of Peru and the capital of the depart- ' 
 
 merit of Iluaraz. on the Santa. It is a beautifully situated 
 and well-built town, with about 8000 inhabitants, mostly 1 
 
 mestizoes, engaged in agriculture and garden cultivation. 
 
 Ilub'bard, tp. and post-v. of Trumbull eo., 0., on a I 
 
 branch of the Atlantic and Groat Western 11. K. Here arc 
 important coal mines. Pop. of v. 1120; of tji. 4588. 
 
 Hubbard, tp. of Dodge co., Wis. It contains the vil- 
 lage of HomcoN (which see). Pop. .'J008. 
 
 Ilnbbard (Davio), b. in Virginia, removed to Law- 
 rence CO., .Ma., nnd in 1842 entered the State legislature, 
 having previously for many years been connected with the 
 State government; was in Congress l>s;J0-41 an<l 1849-51; 
 a man of decided ability, and an extreme State rights man ; 
 wns a prominent State legislator, and after the war of 
 1861-05 removed to Nashville, Tenn.
 
 HUBBARD— HUBMEYER. 
 
 1017 
 
 Hubbard (Hkxky), b. at Cliarlestown, X. H., May 3, 
 1781; graliiiLtoiJ iit Dartmouth iu Ii^o:j; bccsiiuc a luwycr, 
 and waa st-vcral tinit'S Speaker of the New ilaiunt^hirc 
 House; Judi^o o( prubato in Sullivan co. 1S27--U; Uciiio- 
 oratic member ol" Congress IH2S'-.'»J, and for a short time 
 Speaker; U. S. Senator 1835—11 ; governor of New llamp- 
 ahire lsr2-4;i; U. S. assistant treasurer l«-lC-49. D. at 
 Charlestown, N. H., June 6, 1S57. 
 
 Hubbard (Joiis), M. D.. LL.D., b. at Keadficld. Mc., 
 Mar. 22, I7*J4; graduated at Dartmouth in IslG ; taught 
 in Maine and Virginia : practised medicine in Dinwiddio 
 CO., Va., lS22-21t, and in 1830 removed to Hallowell, Me. ; 
 was State menator 1S42-43 ; governor of Maine l.SjU-53, 
 and a Maiuc-Iaw Democrat; agent for the U. S. treasury 
 1857-oy ; commissioner under the Reciprocity Treaty 1859- 
 01. D.at Hallowell, Me., Feb. G, ISGU. 
 
 Plubbard (Joskph Stillman), b. Sept. 7, 1823, at New 
 Haven, Conn. ; graduated at Yale College in 1813 ; in 1844 
 was appointed an assi-^tant in the High School Observatory 
 at Philadelphia, thi'n in charge of the distinguished astron- 
 omer, Sears C. Walker. Tho next autumn he was em- 
 Eloycd by Capt. (afterwards Maj.-Gen.) Fremont to reduce 
 is Rocky Mountain obsjcrvations, and was invited to ac- 
 company him nn his next cxpcilition. Declining this offer, 
 be was uppoiu'eil and commissioned a professor of mathe- 
 matics in the V. S. navy May 7, IS4i, at tho instance of 
 Fremont and Senator Benton, and was at once assigned to 
 duty in the Naval Observatory at Washington, where ho 
 remained until the time of his death. He soon acquired a 
 brilliant reputation, and the printed volumes of the Wash- 
 iugtoD ob.servations are full of the evidences of his skill as 
 an observer and computer. He was a frequent contributor 
 to the A^tronomicftl Journal^ which contains his elaborate 
 investigations on Uiela's comet, as also those on the great 
 comet of 1843, on tho orbit of Kgeria, and on other sub- 
 jects. D. Aug. Ifi, 1SG3. G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Ilubbard (Sami-kl Dickinson), LL.D., b. at Middle- 
 town, Conn., Aug. 10, 17'J'J; graduated at Yale in 181U; 
 waa a lawyer and a wealthy and benevolent manufacturer; 
 a Whig member of Congress 1S46— 19; postmaster-general 
 1852-53. D. at .Middletown, Conn., Oct. 8, 1S55. 
 
 Hubbard (Wh.mam), b. in England in 1G21 ; came in 
 youth to New England; graduated at Harvard College 
 1042; settled as minister of Ipswich, Mass.. 1G5S; teni- 
 
 ?orary pn-sident of Harvard I'niversity in IG88: and d. at 
 pswieh Sept, 14, 1704. Author of fhv Prcnent State of 
 Ncie Kntfla II fl {1(j77), Mrmoirn of Maj.-Uvn. /Veju'ffon ( 1084), 
 and a /fiiton/ n/ Xcir Eiujlmul, for which the colonial 
 authorities paid him £50. Editions of this work were 
 printed in 1815 and 1848. 
 
 Hub'bardston, post-tp. of Worcester co., Mass., 04 
 miles W. X. W. nf Boston. It is traversed by the Boston 
 Uarre and Gardner and the Ware Uiver R. Us. ; has a fer- 
 tile soil and manufactures of chairs and boxes. It has 3 
 churchi-s and a public library. Pop. 1054. 
 
 llubbardston, post-v. of Ionia co., Mich., miles 
 from the Detroit and Milwaukee U. U. It has 3 churches, 
 a flouring-milt. foundry, and steam saw-mill, sash and 
 blind factory, 5 ilry-goods and clothing stores, 2 drug 
 stores, mineral springs, 1 newspaper, and good water- 
 power. Pop. 531. A. V. PiiisTKR, Ed, *' Advicutisek." 
 
 Ilub'bardsville, post-v. of Hamilton tp., Madison co., 
 
 N. V. Pop. 117. 
 
 Ilub'burdton, post-tp. of Rutland co., Vt., 7 miles 
 N. of Castlcton. It has 2 churebcs ami nianufaetures of 
 leather. Hero the Americans under Warner and Francis 
 were defeated bv tho Hrilish and Hessians under Eraser, 
 July 7, 1777. Pop. 000. 
 
 Ilub'ble, tp. of Capo Girardeau co., Mo. Pop. 1089. 
 
 Ilirber (Fn.iN(;ois), b. at Geneva July 2, 1750. IJeforo 
 the age of fifteen bo had completed a course of physics 
 under De Saussiire, and familiarised himself with jiraetieal 
 chemistry in (he laboratory of a relation. Inheritance and 
 education combined to awaken early in him a passion for 
 natural history, but intense applieatiun and study at night 
 by dim lamplight or moonlight forcccl liim for a time to 
 suspend his s'udies. His fniher took him to Paris, when 
 ho was just fifteen, to consult tho best physicians. Tron- 
 chin ordered him to 8pend some months in the performance 
 of comnxm farm-work, whieh soon restored his general 
 heallh, but hi« ophthalmia was declared incurable, and ho 
 beeanie. in a lew year><, totally blind. He marrietl Mario 
 K'wnf'i' l.ullin. a wife who proved unfailing in her tender- 
 ness and devotion. By tho aid of his wife, his son, and an 
 intelligent peasant iiameil Francis Burnens, whom ho train- 
 ed to the work of ob:»crvation. Hiibcr <IevoteiI his life to the 
 study of bees. He discovered (hut the fertili/alion of tho 
 quocn-boo lakes place in (he air. and but once, and that ii 
 
 queen whoso impregnation is deferred beyond the twcnty- 
 hrst day produces only drones. IJe conhrmed Schirach's 
 statement that bees when lett queenless can convert a 
 worker-larva into a queen by enlarging its cell and sup- 
 plying it with diflerenl food. He delermine<l the fact of 
 the yearly massacre of the drones, and thai it lakes place 
 only when swarming-timo ie> past and a fertile queen se- 
 cured. He observed that queens manifest bitter animosity 
 against each other, engage in combats if there are two in 
 tho hive at the same time, and destroy all royal pujia;. Ho 
 investigated the question of the modification of bees in 
 conse(|uence of the size of cells in whieli tliey are reared, 
 and witnessed through blown-glass cells all the processes 
 of tho cocoon-spinning. Ho examined into the senses of 
 bees, and determined their seat, and discovered that Ihey 
 use their anteuure for the communication of ideas and for 
 the accurate performance of their varied work within tho 
 darkened hive. He found that the workers were of two 
 kinds — wax-workers and nurse-bees — demontitrated the or- 
 igin of propolis, and discovered the whole secret of the se- 
 cretion and manipulation of wa.x for building purpo.^es. 
 He detected the Sphinx ittmpoH in its ravages in the hive, 
 and witnessed the bees' contrivances for their own protec- 
 tion. He funnel that bees respireJ, absorbing oxygen and 
 evolving carbonic acid, and that the purity of the air is 
 maintained by a system of ventilation, the currents of air 
 being induced by the rhythmic motion of their wing?. By 
 means of dissections niaile at his request by ^Mdlle. Jurino 
 he exploded the theory of neuters, and proved tlie worker 
 to be an imperfecth' developed female. The record of his 
 work he first gave to the world under the title of Lettren tX 
 67(. //ou;ic( (171)2). In 1700 other discoveries were added 
 to the former, and the new edition was entitled Nonveltcs 
 Ob»cn-ationH titir Ics Aht^ill<:». Later editions have included 
 his subsequent observations under the same title. In con- 
 nection with Scucbier he published the Mcnxn're i:iir Viiifln- 
 eticc tie I' air dtins Ic fjcnninnttonn dtt i/r<utin {Geneva, ISUl ). 
 To this last work he contributed only the materials, which 
 were worked into form and recorded by Sencbier. He d. 
 Dec. 22, 1831, in full possession of all his faculties. The 
 work done by Huber in his own department perhaps equals 
 that done by all observers before and since; his observa- 
 tions are almost without a flaw, and his generalizations 
 remarkably accurate. Mits. S. B. llKimiCK. 
 
 IIuber(JunANN Xepomuk), b. in .Munich Aug. IS, 1S30 ; 
 graduated at the university of his native city 1854 ; became 
 in 1851) professor of theology, at which time he published his 
 Philiimphit: (Icr Kirrhenrliter, which was soon alter placed 
 in the fndtx £,rinir;/alnrii(n. He was the avowed antago- 
 nist of the Ultruuiuutanisls ; and they, in turn, used every 
 effort to coerce him to silence, but without success. In 1871 
 he took a prominent part as a leader in the war against tho 
 Jesuits, and was an active and formidable opponent of tlio 
 dogma of papal infallibility, in connection with the Old 
 Catholic movement in Havaria. He wrote .'■cveral other 
 polemical works and j)amphlcts in support of his peculiar 
 views. D. Mar., 1879. 
 
 Ilubcr (Pifure), b. at Geneva Jan. 23, 1777. He made 
 investigations upon humble-bees, ants, butterflies, etc. His 
 work is recorded in sixteen memoirs, to be found in /tiH, 
 liritanniqnv (1>*0I and 181)5), and in the Minntin •* Sin\ Phtf*^ 
 (Geneva, from 1821 to 1843). He assisted his father in tho 
 observations and publieatirm of the second part of Nutt- 
 vfllfH ()bncrvatlnUH unr IcR Aheillea. His most valuable work 
 is translated undcrthc title fliiton/ o/thc Natinr and J/abits 
 o/AntH (1820). D. at Vvcrdun Dec. 22, 1840. 
 
 Mks. S. B. Heurick, 
 
 Ilub'ley, tp. of Schuylkill co.. Pa. Pop. 547. 
 
 llub'mcyer, or iliibmaier (Baltiiasak), one of tho 
 originators c)f tlio Anabaptist movement in Germany in 
 tho first part of tho sixteenth century, b. about 1480 at 
 Friedberg, near Augsburg; studied theology and philos- 
 ophy at Freiburg under Kek 1503: became professor of 
 tbcolngy in Ingolstadt in 1512, nntl in 1510 j.rcacher at tho 
 eatiicdral of Kegensbnrg, whence he removed in 1523 to 
 Waldshut. Hero he embraced the Refonnation, but began 
 soon to develop original, or rather separatist, ideas, especi- 
 ally after his acquaintance with Thomas Milmzer. Ho 
 tau^flit that it was wrong to bapti/c small children ; tho 
 baptij^m ought not to take place until the full-grown man 
 demands it as the external symbol of his faith. As Hub* 
 ineyer was a very gifted jireachcr, his whole congregation 
 ndopteil bis ideas, liut soon (lie Austrian government inter- 
 fered, and he (hen Ilcd (in 1525) to Zurich. Imprisoned 
 au'l pi-rsecuted here also, he went to Nikt)lsbcrg in .Sloravia, 
 where he formed a largo Anabaptist congregation. Al- 
 though ho was a sound and clear-minded man himself, be 
 eould not prevent the religious fanaticism and social ec- 
 centricities which generally oharaotcrized the Analiaptists 
 from breaking out in his uougrcgutiou. Disorders urose, and
 
 1018 
 
 HtJBNER— HUDSON. 
 
 when, at the death of Luilwig of Hungary, Moravia full to 
 FerJiuand of Austriii, llubmeyer was seized, carried to 
 Vienna, sentenced to death, and burned at the stake, Mar. 
 10, I52S. Some of liis writings were colleeled and jmb- 
 lished in 1746. (.Sec Anahai-tists and Bai'Tists.) 
 
 iliibner (Josrpii Ai-kxandek'I. IJahon, b. at Vienna 
 Nov. 2t), ISl 1. JIaving completed his studies at Vienna, he 
 travelled in Italy, and on his return (in 1833) was intro- 
 duced by Prince Mctternieh into the service of the govern- 
 ment, liis diplomatic career began at Paris in 1S37. After 
 several minor appointments he was sent ambassador to 
 Paris in ISH), and recalled in IS.iO. It was to him, on New 
 Yi-ar's liay, 1859, that Napoleon III. adflressed the remark 
 which foreshadowed the impending Kranco-Austriau war. 
 From 18G0 to 1867 he was a second time at the head of 
 the Austrian embassy at Home, lie has managed many 
 delicate and difficult matters with consummate ability and 
 tact, lie visilcil Ihe U. S. in 1870. and again in 1871, when 
 he went around the globe. He is now (187j) residing in 
 Rome. He has published an admirable work on Pope 
 t>ixtus V. — ^ixtusdcr Fiin/te (2 vols. 1871 ; English trans. 
 1872), and a charming account of his ramble around the 
 globe — Promrnafle Autoiir (In Monde (187^^; 3d cd. 1S74; 
 Eng. trans. 1874). R. D. Hitchcock. 
 
 Hue (Kvahiste Regis), b. Aug. 1, 1813, in Toulouse, 
 where he studied theology; entered the order of the Lazar- 
 ists and look holy orders in 1839. Immediately after he set 
 out for Macao, where he lived for eighteen months, studying 
 the Chinese language. With his skin dyed, his head shaved, 
 and in Chinese costume he then travelled from Canton 
 through the interior of the empire to Peking, anti from 
 Peking to He-Shuy in Mongolia. In 1S44 he started from 
 He-Shuy for Lhassa in Thibet, whicli he reached in 1846, 
 but had to leave after a stay of a few months. He now 
 travelled tlirough the southern parts of the empire to Can- 
 ton, and in 1852 he left China iu order to return home. His 
 health IkhI suffered very much, and he d. iu Paris Mar. 31, 
 1800. Published Souvenirs d'un royiiqe dnmi la Tnrtnric, 
 le Thihft. et la Chine (2 vols., 1852). L'Empire Cliinois (2 
 vols., 1Sj4), Le Chrititiiiniume en Chine, en TartarfCf et en 
 Thibet (4 vols., 1858), all translated into English. 
 
 Huck'Ieberry and Blueberry, names applied to the 
 North American representatives of the AVnoiiTLEBERUY 
 (which see) of Europe. Our huckleberry-bushes are erica- 
 ceous shrubs of the genera Gai/lnsmtvia and Vaccininm. The 
 berries are extensively marketed, and eaten as dessert fruit 
 and in pies and putldings. Gai/hisnacin hrachi/ccra, dumosft, 
 /rondoia, rcsinotn, and ttrsina furnisli most of the proper 
 huckleberries, mostly hard and dark-colored fruits; the 
 blueberries, generally lighter-colored, softer, and sweeter 
 than the huckleberries, are mostly from Vaccinimn Pmn- 
 vt/lranirum, Cnnndcn^Cf varillans^ coryinhosum, and others. 
 The annual product and the money-value of fruits of these 
 two genera are very great. 
 
 Ilild'ilorsficld, town of England, in the county of 
 York, at the continence of the Holme and the Colue. It 
 has very large mauufaetures of cloths, kerseymeres, flush- 
 ings, and serges, extensive coal-mines in the vicinity, and 
 easy communication with all important commercial points 
 of England. Pop. 70,253; of parliamentary borough, 74,358. 
 
 Iliid'son, county of the N. E, of New Jersey, bounded 
 on the E. by the Hudson River and New York harbor. 
 Area. ISO square miles. Its eastern border is marked by 
 the Palisades, a remarkable ridge of trap-rock. The 
 county is almost entirely suburban to New York City. It 
 has manufactures of cigars, clothing, and many other kinds 
 of goods. It is traversed by numerous railroads, centring 
 at Jersey City and Ilobokcn, its largest cities. Cap. Jer- 
 Bcy City. Pop. 12D.0G7. 
 
 Hudson, tp. and post-v. of McLean co., III., on the 
 Illinois Central R. R.,8 miles N.of Bloomington. P. 1392. 
 
 Hudson, tp. of La Porte co., Ind. Pop. G36. 
 
 Hudson, post-tp. of Penobscot co., Me., 15 miles 
 N. N. W. of IJangor. It manufactures lumber. Pop. 739. 
 
 Hudson, tp. and post-v. of Middlesex co.. Mass., 16 
 miles N. E. of Worcester, on the Fitchburg R. R. It con- 
 tains 3 churches, a savings bank, several large shoe-shops, 
 foundry, and pianoforte manufactory, 1 newspaper. 1 hotel, 
 stores, etc. Principal occupation, shocmaking and farming. 
 Po]t. 338t). >Vonr> &, Rawson, Eds. •'Pionekr." 
 
 Hudson, tp. and post-v. of Lcnawco co., Mich., 50 
 miles W. of Toledo, on the Lake Shore and Michigan South- 
 ern R. R, It has 2 union schools. 7 churches, 2 banks, 
 large ('poke and butter-tub factories, 2 newspapers, carriage- 
 shops, and other manufactories. P. of v. 2459: of tp. 4094. 
 W. T. B. ScnKUMKKHoitN, En. '■ Hcnsox Gazette." 
 
 Hudson, tp. of Douglas co., Minn. Pop. 448, 
 
 Hudson, tp. of Macon co., Mo. Pop. 137(3. 
 
 post-v. of Hillsborough co., N. H., 3 
 Pop. 106fi. 
 
 Hudson, tp. and 
 
 miles E. of Nashua. 
 
 Hudson, city, cap. of Columbia co., N. Y., situated on 
 the E. bank of the Hudson River, at the natural head of 
 navigation, 115 miles N. of New York, and 30 miles below 
 Albany, on the Huilson and IJostun ami the Hudjion River 
 R. Rs. It contains the Hudson Academy, one of the old- 
 est collegiate schools in the State. 15 churches, 4 banks, 
 largo manufactories of paper car-wheels, steam iire-engines, 
 and stoves, 2 iron furnaces, 2 daily and 3 weekly newspa- 
 pers, 6 hotels, and an orphan asylum. The city, covering 
 an area of about one sq^uare mile, is supplied with gas, and 
 water from the river is being introduced (1875) at an cx- 
 ]icnse of $250,000. It has an extensive trade by the river. 
 Pop. 8015. iM. Paiikeh Williams, 
 
 Ei). *' Daily Register " and " Weekly Gazette." 
 
 Hudson, tp.and post-v. of Summit co., 0., at the junc- 
 tion of the Cleveland and Pittsburg and the Cleveland Mt. 
 Vernon and Delaware R. Rs., 24 miles S. E. of Cleveland. 
 It is the seat of Western Reserve College. P. of tp. 1620. 
 
 Hudson, post-v., cap. of St. Croix co., Wis., IS miles 
 E. of St. Paul, Mo., on the West Wisconsin R. R. It has 
 an academy and other schools, 5 churches, 2 banks, 3 news- 
 papers. 3 hotels, railroad machine-shops, wagon and plough 
 manufactories, numerous wheat warehouses, flouring-miUs, 
 etc. Principal occupation, farming. Pop. of v. 1748; of 
 tp. 2203. II. A. Taylor, Ed. " Star and Times." 
 
 Hudson, tp. of Walworth co., Wis. Pop. 1312. 
 
 Hudson (Erasmus Darwin), M. D., b. Dec. 15, 1806, 
 at Torringford. Conn., was educated by private tutor and 
 at Torringford Academy; graduated in medicine at the 
 Berkshire Medical College 1S27 ; practised in Rloonificld, 
 Conn., and was a member of the Connecticut State Medical 
 Society, etc. In 1S2S he began to lecture on temperance. 
 From 1837 to 1849 he was lecturing agent of the Connecti- 
 cut Anti-slavery Society and general agent of the American 
 Anti-slavery Society, Since 1849 he has devoted himself 
 to mechanical and orthopaedic surgery, not only in private 
 practice, but in a majority of the government cases of gun- 
 shot injuries of bones, resections, ununited fractures, and 
 amputations at the knee and ankle joint. Ho has written 
 Essay on Temperance (1828); was a contril)utor to The 
 Liberator and Sational Anti-tilareri/ Standard (1837-40); 
 co-editor of The Charter Oak (1838-41); has published 
 monographs on JiescctiDns (IS70), Si/mc' it Amputat ion 1 1871), 
 Immobile Apparatus /vr Ununited Eractnrcs (IS72); and 
 has contributed numerous reported cases, published in the 
 Medieul and Snrtpcal Ilintori^ of the War of the liebelliun 
 (Washington, 1870-72). 
 
 Hudson (Erasmts Dauwin, Jr.), A.B., M. D., b. Nov. 
 10, 1843, at Northampton, Mass.; graduated at the College 
 of the City of New Y'ork in 18C4, and at the (^ollegc of Phy- 
 sicians and Surgeons, New York City, in lStJ7; in 1807 and 
 1808 was house-surgeon of Bellevuo Hospital; since 186S 
 has been engaged in the practice of medicine; served as 
 health inspector 1869-70; was attending physician to the 
 class for diseases of the eye, out-door department of Belle- 
 vue Hospital, same year; was attending physician at North- 
 western Dispensary 1S70-72 : attending physician to Trinity 
 chapel parish and Trinity Home 1870-75; and since 1872 
 has been professor of principles and ])raetico of medicine 
 at the AVoman's Medical College of the New York Infirmary. 
 Ho has jiublishcd lirpurt of Pnhe and liespiration of In- 
 fants in Klliufs Ob^trtric r/j"»("c (1872). and monograph on 
 I^he I'ri vention and Early Arrent of Pidmouan/ Phthisis. 
 He is a contributor to Johneon'H Universal Cyclopadia. 
 
 Hudson (FnEnERir), b. at Quincy, Mass., Apr. 2."), 
 1819; was educated in Boston; was for thirty years on 
 the editorial staff of the New York Herald. Author of 
 Juurnalisni in the U. S. D. Oct. 21, 1875. 
 
 Hudson (Georce), b. at York, England, about ISOO; 
 commenced life as a draper. He made a large fortune in 
 railway speculations during the railway excitement of 1845- 
 40, was known as the " railway king," and was regarded 
 in England and Franco as an oracle on the subject of rail- 
 way operations. He was a member of Parliament from 
 1845 to 1S59, and was three times elected lord mayor of 
 York. After exercising influence in every branch of so- 
 ciety, ho d. in reduced circumstances Dec. 14, 1871. 
 
 Hudson (Henry or Hendrik), an English discoverer 
 of whose birth and early history noliiing is known. In 
 1007 he made a voyage in search of the North-west pas- 
 sage. In 1008 ho sailed to Nova Zombla, and in 1009, in 
 the service of the Dutch India Company, he sailed in the 
 Half Moon for Davis" Straits; hut reached Cape Cod, 
 went to Chesapeake Bay, discovered the Hudson River, 
 up which he sailed as far as where Albany stands. In 
 ItilO he sailed again in an English ship, discovered Hud- 
 son's Strait and Hudson's Bay, in which ho wintered; but
 
 HUDSON— HUET. 
 
 lOl'J 
 
 after suffering many hardships his crew became mutinous 
 and «et him, witli his son John and seven infirm sailors, 
 adrift in a shallup : after whieh ho was never heard of. A 
 part of his crew arrived in England in IGll. Hudson 
 published Diicm Voi/utieii nnd Xiirlhrni /)i'«c.irtri'f» (1607) 
 and A Sccnml V«ya<je (ICOS). (Sec Oio. AsiiKit's mono- 
 graph (Hakluyt Soc., 1859), and J. JIekkditii Head, Jii.'s, 
 
 /utjitii-t/ couceritlmj Illtdmnl (Ibtifi). 
 
 Hudson (Heniiv Xokman), b. in Cornwall, Vt., Jan. 
 2S, ISU; was bred a farmer and coachmnker ; graduated 
 in 1S40 at .Middlebury College; he afterwards taught in 
 Keutucky, .-ilabama, and elsewhere, and beeamc a successful 
 lecturer on .Shakspcaro. In 1^49 he was onlaincd a priest 
 of the I'nilestant Episcopal Church : was for a time edi- 
 tor of the Churchiiiiin ; rector of a church at Litchfield, 
 Conn., 18J9-C0, and was an army chaplain during the civil 
 war. He has published Lertureit on Shnktprnrc (2 vols., 
 1.S4S), an edition of .Shakspearc (1 1 vols., ISiU-or), A Clmp- 
 i'tin't Viimpititjntcith Gun, /»u//cr ( ISfiJ), School Shaktpearc 
 (1870), Shid'/iiare, Ai's Li/c, etc. (l.'*72). Sermoiia (lS7t). 
 
 Ilildson River, called also North River in its lower 
 course, is one of the noblest of .American streams. It 
 rises some 3000 feet above tide-watcr in Essex co., N. Y., 
 among the .Adirundacks. After a ra]iid and devious course 
 among the mountains, it is joined by the Schroon River, 
 and 10 miles farther on by the Saaondaga. Thence its 
 course is generally eastward to Sandy Hill, from which 
 point it flows almost duo S. to its mouth. The Itatten Kill 
 and Hnosick join it from the E. At Cohocs it receives tlie 
 Mohawk, which more than doubles its volume. Three 
 miles below, at Troy, it becomes a navigable tidal stream. 
 Above this it is chiefly noteworthy for its romantic scenery 
 and its noble and unfailing water-power. I!ut it is pro- 
 pn.ted to open slack-water navigation, by means of locks 
 and dams, to Eort Edward. The largest affluent received 
 below Troy is the Walkill. The tidal rise at Albany is only 
 one foot, and below this point there aro some obstructions 
 to rapid navigation, the most noteworthy of which is the \ 
 " Overslaugh " or bar at Castleton. To remedy these difli- ! 
 eultics the U. S. have expended over SI, 500,000 (besides 
 largo Slate appropriations) in deepening and dredging 
 channels, building dykes, revetments, and the like, and the 
 work is not yet complete. There are also 21 lighthouses 
 and lighted beacons owned by the general government upon 
 the banks of this river. The appropriations have been 
 almost entirely expended above the city of Hudson, where 
 the obstructions cease. The river is navigable 117 miles 
 to this city for ships of the first class, and to Troy, IGfl 
 miles, for steamers and schooners. Tliirly miles below 
 Troy the river approaches the remarkably line scenery of 
 the CatskiU Mountains. At Xewburg, IJO miles from New 
 York, the Hudson enters the Highlands, through whoso 
 impressive scenery it flows for 20 miles. Helow Verplank's 
 I'oinI the river expands into Havcrslraw liay and the Tap- 
 paan .'^ea, a noble, lake-like expansion. Helow, the western 
 bank of the river is marked by the Palisades, a preci])ico 
 of lofty trap-rock, at some points jOO feet high. The fish- 
 eries of the Hudson are of consiil»!rable im])cM-tance. Shad, 
 bass, and sturgeon aro extensively taken, and several spe- 
 cies of fish native to the .St. Lawrence basin hav*- natural- 
 ized themselves in the Hudson since the opening of the 
 Champlain and Eric canals. It is probable that the Hud- 
 son was never a salmon stream, but sonio attempts have 
 been made to stock it with Sulmo /iftlar and .S'. f/iilnuat, tho 
 true and tho California salmon. The Erie Canal connects 
 the river with Luke Eri<', the (^'haniplain t'anal with Lake 
 Cham])lain, the I)elawaro and Hudson with the Pennsyl- 
 vaniacoal-rcgi<tns. The river is thus tho thnrouglifare for 
 large numbers of canal ami freight boats to and from New 
 York and the neighboring cities. Its passenger steamers 
 arc not excelled in splendor by any vessels afloat, and for 
 size and spe<'d tliey take a high rank. The waters of the 
 Hudson enter the inner bay of New York, flowing between 
 Now York City and Jersey City on the E. and ^V. respect- 
 ively. Tho river, with its canal connections, has done 
 much to make New York what it is inilustrially and oom- 
 mer.'ially. It is about ."iOO miles in length. It was naukcd 
 in honor of Henry Hudson, its first European explorer. 
 
 Ilmlsoii's liny, a great landlocked sea of Hritish 
 North Anierica, SOO miles long from N. to S., and 000 
 miles across, lying between 61° anil OP N. la(. and 7HO 
 ond 0.>° ^^^ ion. It is HO much ()bstriielcd by ieo that in 
 winter it is not navigable. At no time is its navigation 
 8;ifc or easy. It has many islands and shoals. Of late 
 there is a considerable summer whale-fishery within its 
 limits. Area, IlilO.llOO square miles. Hudson's Strait is 
 its outlet to tho Allanlio. 
 
 liudson'N Hay Company, the Inst of tho great Eng- 
 lish conini'-reial corporations, was chartered .May 2, 1070, by 
 Charles II., and ceased to oxereiso its monopoly Juno 2.'), 
 
 1870, after 200 years of authority in the northern parts of 
 North America. For many years after its foundation tho 
 French were in possession of Canada. The North-west Com- 
 pany of Montreal was a formidable rival from 1783 to 1821, 
 when the younger company was merged into the older. Tho 
 ]irincipal trade of the company was in furs, ond it was 
 uniformly a ]irofitable trade. It originally possessed a pro- 
 prietorship and a monopoly of trade throughout Hupert's 
 Land, as the land whose streams flow into Hudson's Uay 
 was called. This name was derived from the famous Prince 
 Rupert, the principal original corporator. In 1821 this 
 jurisdiction (with the original authority to govern and also 
 to make war upon savage nations) was extended westward 
 to tho Pacific — tho autliority for the new territory to last 
 only for periods of twenty years by royal license. From 
 1849 to 1859, ^'ancouvcr's Island was also licensed to this 
 company. .After 1.159 the company had no monopoly VV. 
 of the liocky Mountains. In IKIW the company was au- 
 thorized by act of the British Parliament to surrender its 
 powers and rights to the Crown and incorporate its terri- 
 tories with the Dominion of Canada. In 1SG9 this was 
 carried out, and in 1870 the full transfer was accomplished. 
 Hudson's Strait, connecting Hudson's Bay with 
 Davis's Strait and the Atlantic (Jccan, in British North 
 America, is situated between 60° and 64° N. lat. and 65° 
 and 77° AV. Ion. It is 450 miles long, and its breadth 
 averages 100 miles, the narrowest point being 60 miles. 
 
 Hue, thecajiital of Anam, on the Iluf, near its entrance 
 into the China Sea. In the beginning of the present cen- 
 tury it was regularly fortified by Frencdi engineers, and it 
 is generally well built, but it is accessible only to small- 
 vessels, on account of the shallowness of its harbor. Pop. 
 100,000. 
 
 HueI'va, town of Southern Spain, the capital of (ho 
 province of Iluclvn, at the junction of the Odiel and the 
 Tinto. It is a handsome town, but unhealthy on account 
 of the salt-marshes in its vicinity. It has a lively coasting- 
 trade, especially in fruits. Pop. 8423. 
 
 Huerfli'no, county of Southern Colorado, lying prin- 
 ciiially K. of the main Rocky Mountain range. Area, 
 about ICOO square miles. It is well watered, and contains 
 the Huerfano Park. The raising of cattle and wool is a 
 leading pursuit. Cap. AValsenburgh. Pop. 2250. 
 
 Hucr'ta,de la (A^icf.ntk Gaucia), b. at Zafra, in Es- 
 tremadura, in 1729, and d. in 1797 in Madrid, where ho 
 held the ofiicc of first librarian of tho royal library. In 
 the hot ccmtest which took place at that time in the Span- 
 ish literature between tho adherents of the French influence 
 and the defenders of tho old Spanish taste, Hucrta headed 
 the latter party, and exercised a considerable influence, 
 both by his tragedy, Iliiniic.l, which was first produced in 
 Madrid in 1778, and made a great success, and by his col- 
 lection of the best works of the cMer Spanish dramatists 
 (17 vols., 1784-85). He also published two volumes of 
 poems, Obras J'oeticas (1778-79). 
 
 Hues'ca, town of Spain, the capital of tho province of 
 the same name, on the Isuela. It is beautifully situated 
 on a jdain covered with vineyards and olive-forests, and 
 has many interesting buildings, among which are a (lolhio 
 cathedral built in 14110, a university founded in 1354 (not 
 now in operation), ond a circus for bull-fighting. It is a 
 bishop's sec. Pop. 10,069. 
 
 Hues'oar, town of Spain, in the province of Grenada, 
 on the Cuardal. It has some manufactures of linen goods. 
 Pop. 7332. 
 
 Huet' (FitANi;oi9), b. at Anilcau, department of Euro- 
 Ct-Loire, Dec, 1S14; d. July I, 1869. nt Paris, where ho 
 requested to bo buried ci'n'i'rmciil— that is, without the ac- 
 companiment of any religions ceremonies. Huet was ono 
 of tho precursors of Dilllingcr. Ilvacintho, and other (lid 
 Catholics, though his own doctrine, which found some ad- 
 herents in France, bore the name of NeoCotholicism, was 
 opposed to the ultra dictates of tho A'ntican, and claimed 
 to have realized the alliance of reason with religion. II net 
 was a pupil or disciple of liordas-Dcnioulin ; he held a 
 professorsbi|i in the Cnivcrsity of Ghent. About 1865 re- 
 turned to Paris, and was tutor lo Priin^c .Milan Obrenovitch, 
 whom he accompanied lo Servia when (he prince was ele- 
 vated to tho throne. Huet has published t'«ir(c«/fiiit'*;;(, or 
 Tntr Hfiiittviitioii of Srifnccit, Social Jt«itj» of Chnnllotnti/f 
 J5,'«mii/« oil llif (.'iiliiollc Uffiinn, oto. F£i.ix AdiAiciNK. 
 
 Huet (Pirnmi: DAXit;!.), b. at Caen Feb. S, 1B30, and 
 educated by the Jesuits ; nceoinpnnicd, in 1652, Boohart (o 
 the court of Queen (.'hristine of Sweden ; was in 1670 ap- 
 pointed sub-governor under Bossui't (o (he dauphin ; (ook 
 holv orders in 1676; became bishop of Avranohes in 1692; 
 retired in 1699 first to Caen, and (hen (o (he house of (he 
 Jesuits in Paris; and d. (hire .Ian. 26, 1721. As n young 
 man he cultivated polite litcratun', eom|iosed a romnnoo.
 
 1020 
 
 HUEY— HUGO. 
 
 Diane tte Cantro, piiblitihcd Carminn Lathtn et Grtecn (1664), 
 and wrote Snr t Orit/i'nr defi Rt>mnufi (1670). lie was also 
 an adherent of the Cartesian philosojdiy, but afterwards be- 
 came one of its adversaries : teuHnra /*!n'lo»opJtin- Cditcsiaufr 
 (IGS'Jj and Mt»ii>irra pmir servir u f flisfaire fin CartcHi'an- 
 ismr ( 1692). The most prominent of his other writings are 
 
 — Demount ratio Kvaiigclirn (1670), Hi/itinri: (fit Commerce 
 ct de l(t X*ivi(ffitinn des Aiictcus (1716), a book slill of great 
 value, and CommottariuH de Kthus ad earn pcrtincntibng 
 (171 S}, lately translated by Nizard. 
 
 Hu'ey, tp. of Calhoun co., Ark. Pop. 153. 
 Ilu'felnnd (CinusTorii Wimiki.m), b. Aug 12, 1762, at 
 Lan;;onsalza. in Thurinjjia: studied medicine at the uni- 
 versities of Jena and (Tiittingen ; was ajipointed a profes- 
 sor in nu'dicinc at the University of Jena in 1793, and re- 
 moved in 1798 to Uerlin. where in 1809, on the establish- 
 ment of the new university, he became professor in special 
 patholo;^y and tijorapeutirs ; d. Aug. 2b, 1836. lie was a 
 noble and kiml-hrarted man, of sound and comprehensive 
 view?, and, witii the exception of his Enchiridion mcdicum, 
 oder Aiiltitttntj zur mcdiciit. Prajcie (lS;i6), most of his 
 writings have a generally instructive, philanthropical, 
 rather than a scientific character, such as Makroliotik 
 ndrr dii; Kitust, das menschliche Lchcn zu i-erliinf/crn (1796), 
 (inter litith fin Mutter iihrr die wichtitjstcn Puukte der phi/- 
 nischcn ICrziehunff der Kinder (1799), etc. These books 
 were often republished, and exercised a beneficial influence. 
 HuflT, tp. of Spencer co., Ind. Pop. 1569. 
 Huff's Creek, tp. of Wyoming co,, W. Ya. P. 342, 
 IJil^ (Jon.VNN LE0>'nARD),b. at Constance June 1,1765; 
 an eminent Roman Catholic theologian and professor, au- 
 thor of numerous learned works in biblical criticism, of 
 which the l>cst known is an Introdnctinn to the Study of the 
 N. T, (1808; Eug. trans. 1827). D. Mar. 11, 1840. 
 
 Hii'gel, von ( Kaul At.exaxder Ansf.lm). Baron, b. at 
 Ratisbon Apr. 25, 1796; studied law at Heidelberg 1811 ; 
 entered the Austrian array in 1813, and was employed in 
 different diplomatic missions; retired in 1824 to devote 
 himself exclusively to the study of natural science; under- 
 took (18.'>l-37) very extensive travels through Western and 
 Southern Asia ; and d. at Brussels June 2, 1870. He wrote 
 Kaschmir iind das J'cich der Sikhs (4 vols.. 1840-42) and 
 Das liccken von ICabid (2 vols., 1851-52). His rich collec- 
 tions in cthnograpliy and natural science were bought by 
 the Austrian government and, incorporated with the collec- 
 tions of Vienna. 
 
 Hiiger' (Benjamin), b. at Santee, St. James parish, 
 S. C, Nov. 22, 1805 ; graduated at West Point, and entered 
 the array as second lieutenant of artillery July, 1825; 
 served on topographical and ordnance duty till May 1. 1832. 
 when he was promoted to be captain of ordnance. In the 
 war with Mexico ho was chief of or<lnance and artillery 
 with Gen. Scott's army, being in charge of the siege-train 
 at A'era Cruz, and present at the battles of Cerro Gordo, 
 Molino del Key, Chn]mUepec, and final capture of the city 
 of Mexico. For gallant conduct in battle he was brevettod 
 major, lieutuuiint-colonel, and colonel, and was presented 
 with a sword of honor by the State of South Carolina. 
 From 1848 to 1861 ho commanded various arsenals, and 
 was employed on important board duties. In Apr., 1861, 
 being ut that time a major of ordnance, ho resigned his 
 commission and espoused the Southern cause. He was 
 made a major-general of the Confederate army, and bore 
 a prominent but unsuccessful jiiirt in the early days of tho 
 civil war. Since 1809 ho was engaged in farming in Vir- 
 ginia. 1). at Charleston, S, C, Dec., IS77. 
 
 IIii£:'c:iiis, tp. of Gentry co.. Mo. Pop. 1112. 
 Iliigtiins (Wii.mah), F. R. S., D. C. L., LL.D., b. in 
 Loud*>n Feb. 7, 1824; w:is educated at the City School and 
 by private instructors, giving much attention to the ex- 
 perimental study of the physical sciences and to astron- 
 omy ; in 1852 was made a memher of the Microscopical So- 
 ciety, and became a student of biologv ; in 1855 established 
 a private astronomical ohservatory, where after 1862 ho 
 gave great attention to spectroscopic observations upon the 
 heavenly bodies, with important results, especially with re- 
 spect to the discovery of (he direction and rate of the 
 proper motions of tho fixed stars. 
 
 Hughes, post-v. of Arapahoe co.. Col., at the junction 
 of the Denver Pacific and the Boulder Valley R. Rs., 19 
 miles N. of Denver. 
 
 Hughes, post-tp. of Nodaway co.. Mo. Pop, 1420. 
 Hughes (Ball), b. in London Jan. 19, 1804; d, in 
 Boston, Mass., Mar. 5, 1868; studied with Edward Hodge 
 Bailey, and while a student won prizes awarded by the 
 Royal Academy, and other silver and gold medals; made 
 busts of George IV. and the dukes of York, Sussex, and 
 Cambridge; came to New York in 1829; made the marble 
 
 statue of Hamilton — the first work of the kind done in 
 America — for the Merchants' Exchange, which was de- 
 stroyed by fire in 1835; also the high relief of Bishop Ho- 
 bart in Trinity church : the casts of Little NcK and Uncle 
 Toby in the Boston Athcnieum are his work, and the bronze 
 statue of Dr. Bowditeh in the cemetery of Mt. Auhurn. 
 Other works from his studio are a bust of AVashinglou Irv- 
 ing, a statuette of Gen. Warren, a Crurijixiou, a model for 
 an equestrian statue of Washington. He was a man of 
 various ingenuity, a lecturer on art as well as an artist. 
 
 0. B. FUOTHINOIIAM. 
 
 Hlis:hes (Most Rev. John), D. D., b. at Annahoghan, 
 CO. Tyrone, Ireland. June 24,1797; emigrated to America in 
 1817, and worked for a timeas a gardener and nurseryman ; 
 was educated at Mt, St. Mary's College, Kmmittshurg, Md., 
 which he entered in 181'.), and where he sustained himself 
 for a time by the care of the college garden. Here he won 
 the lifelong esteem of Drs. Dubois and Brut6, both after- 
 wards bishops. In 1825 he was ordained a deacon of the Ro- 
 man Catholic Church, and in the siimeyeur a priest. He had 
 (1826-38) pastoral charges in Philadelphia, where he found- 
 ed St. John's Asylum in 1829, and established The i'lithdic 
 JSernId in 1S33. In 1838 he was made bishop of Basil- 
 eopolis f)( partihuf, and coadjutor to Bishop Dubois of New 
 Y'^ork, and in 1842 he became bishop of New Y'ork. In 1839 
 he founded St. John's College, Fordham. In 1850 he was 
 made archbishop of New York. In 1 861-62 he was a special 
 agent of the U. S. in Europe, and in 1863 publicly addressed 
 the draft-rioters in New York with a view of dii^suading 
 them from violence. He d. Jan. 3, 1SG4. Archbishop Hughes 
 early attracted much attention by his controversial corre- 
 spondence with Uev. John Breckinridge in 1833-35. In 
 1839-42 he was prominent in the struggle of the Roman 
 Catholics against the ])ublic school system of New York, 
 and in 1851 had a famous controversy with the Hon. Eras- 
 tus Brooks respecting the tenure of church property. Per- 
 sonally he was a kindly and genial man. His writings, 
 nearly complete, havo been published in two vols. 8vo, 
 (See his life by J. R. G. Hassard, 1S66.) 
 
 Hughes (Thomas), Q. C, b. Oct. 20. 1823, at Newbury, 
 Berks, Eng. ; was educated at Rugby and at Oriel College, 
 Oxford, where he graduated in 1845 ; studied at Lincoln's 
 Inn ; was called to the bar in 1 S4S : became queen's coun- 
 sel in 1869; was in Parliament from Lambeth 1865-68» 
 from Frome 1869-74. Author of Tom Jirown's School Daj/s 
 (1856), Scouring of the White J/orne (iHbS), Tom finnpn itt 
 Oxford (1861), Alfred the Great (1869), etc. Is (1874) 
 principal of the College for Workingmen and Women, Lon- 
 don, and prominent in practical reforms and questions of 
 social science. 
 
 Hughes'ville, post-b. of Lycoming co., Pa., in Wolf 
 tp., 19 miles E. of WilUamsport. It has a large lumber 
 trade. Pop. 456. 
 
 Hughs, county of Dakota, having the Missouri River 
 as its S. \V. boundary. It is not organized. Area, about 
 700 square miles. 
 
 Hughs, tp. of Tuscaloosa co., Ala. Pop. 637. 
 
 Hu'go (VirTOU Marie), A'Icomte, b. at Besaufon Feb. 
 26, l8l)2. His father was an officer in the array of Napo- 
 leon : his mother came from La Vendue, and was a staunch 
 royalist. In his childhood he led a rather errant life, mov- 
 ing from France to Italy, and from Italy to Spain, but ho 
 received, nevertheless, an excellent education. In 1817 an 
 ode he addressed to the Academy, tSnr Irn Aranta»/CH de 
 V£tnde, was highly commended by that institution, and in 
 181S he gave up his professional education to devote him- 
 self exclusively to literature. He was eminently successful. 
 In 1840, after publishing his novels, tian d' hlaude (1823), 
 Iiu»l-Jarffftl (1826), and Xtttre Dame de Air/s (1S31), his 
 dramas, Cromwell (1827), Marion Dcbtrme (1831), Le Jiui 
 s'amufte (1S32), Lucrice Bonjia (1833). Rmi HUtu (1838), 
 and Hcrnani (1839), and the two celebrated volumes of 
 lyrical poems, Lett FeuHles d' A ntumne ( 1 831 ) and Le» 
 C/tantu de Crtpniirule (1835), he stood as the founder of a 
 new literary scho(d in his country, and was acknowledged 
 as the greatest living poet of France, perhaps of Europe. 
 In 1823, Louis XVIII. gave him apension ; in 1845, Louis 
 Philippe created him a peer of France ; and in 1818 he was 
 elected a representative of the city of Paris both to the con- 
 stituent and to the legislative assembly. When, in 1851, 
 Napoleon banished him from France, lie took up his resi- 
 dence on the island of Guernsey, and in his exile he wrote 
 Ln Leifcnde den ttitcleit (1859), /,<« J/i«t'r«/</c« ( 1862), Lr$ 
 TravaiUeura de la Mer (l^GG), I'lfomme r/in' rit (IS69). and 
 Quatre-vintft treizr^ which works have extended his fame, 
 (hough without strengthening it. During the latter part of 
 his life a marked change has taken place in his social views. 
 He first changed from a royalist into a worshipper of Na- 
 poleon, and when he eame in actual contact with polities ho 
 became a republican with a peculiar touch of socialism. The
 
 HUGUENOT— HULIN. 
 
 1021 
 
 influence which this change exercised on bis litcrory pro- 
 (luctiun? was not good, llis political writings, iV<i;)t>/<?oii U 
 /'Hit and Let VhatimcntB, are nearly worthless ; his talent 
 broke down completely under his ire. And whenever his 
 social views hecoinc visililc in his romances and j>ocui3 the 
 effect is painful ; his ideas are obscure, because they are 
 ba.<:cd not on understanding, but on sympathy, and his sym- 
 pathy with the mass,thepoor, the depressed, tile persecuted, 
 is offensive to the reader, because it is violent and exagge- 
 rated. Of far greater and much more beneficial influence 
 was tlie change which early in his life took place in his ar- 
 tistic views. lie began a classicist, and ho became tlio 
 founder of the romantic school ; Madame do StaiM and 
 Chateaubriand wrought this change in him. The supreme 
 law of the classical school was, the idea shall be beautiful 
 and the expressions shall be polished : literature is a mir- 
 ror of good society. Agiinsl this maxim Victor Hugo pro- 
 claims that the idea shall be true and the expression natu- 
 ral ; literature is a mirror of nature. Ami although he had 
 to fight an authority of 200 years' standing, he carried his 
 point, and made his principles an actual influence in French 
 literature — not, like Goethe, by the magic of a fresh and 
 rich sensibility, for his taste is narrow and even a little 
 coarse, but by dint of a brilliant, creative power. His 
 imagination is his talent. His poems lack the moving 
 warmth of a full heart. His dramas lack the magical 
 presence of a complete characterization. His romances are 
 like turbulent seas, formless expanses of colossal forms. 
 And yet in all his writings, even the latest and weakest, he 
 gives pictures of nature in uproar ami of man in passion 
 which delight by their truth as much as they astonish by 
 their grandeur. The limits of his genius would never have 
 been visible but for the faults of his method. .Mtbough in 
 the famous preface to Cmmwrll, he tells us that ordir is the 
 principle of freedom in art, rcgulnriii/ that of thraldom, yet 
 Ills own method is too often a dead mechanical regularity, 
 lioth his plans of composition and his delineations of cha- 
 racters show it, and his style more than shoivs it ; it cries 
 it out alouil. There ore whole pages in his books in which 
 his " brilliant " antitheses sound like the monotonous, evcr- 
 reeurring grating of a plane, and which tell too plainly 
 that brilliancy, especially of style, is something which can 
 be made by machinery. Ci.kmens Pkterskn. 
 
 Ilu'gucnot, tp. of Powhatan co., \'n. Pop. 2527. 
 Huguenots, the name by which in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury the Roman Catholics designated the adherents of the 
 Calvinistio Keformation in France. It is of doubtful origin, 
 some deriving it from the (icrman Eitlr/eiioiucn, others from 
 the words J/itr ii.,*, with which one of the earliest jiublic 
 documents of French Protestantism begins, and others 
 again from //«//-) (or ///i'/i(.«) CiprI, the first king of the 
 Bourbon dynasty. Prof. Mahn (who quotes fifteen deriva- 
 tions) connects the name with //ic/iir*, an obscure heretic. 
 After the consolidation of the Reformation in France, it 
 fell into disuse, and the Protestant establislinient of that 
 country is now known under the name of the Reformed 
 Church of France. Protestantism was not introduced into 
 France from Germany. There were from olden times 
 dissenting elements in the (iallican Church, especially in 
 the southern parts of the eountry. where the Visigoths 
 had settled. The Visigoths were Arians, and in the course 
 of time one sect after the other arose in these regions 
 and protested against the authority of tho pope and tho 
 eloctrines of the Roman Catholic Church; as, for instance, 
 tho Albigenses. The general eommolion which at the 
 end of the fifteenth and in the beginning of the six- 
 teenth century took place within the Roman Catholic 
 Church itself was strongly felt in France, and showed it- 
 nclf even at the Sorboiine, which, next to the pope, was 
 the highest theological authority in Christendom. liut in 
 France, at tho court of Queen AJargucrito of Navarre, this 
 movement partly assumed a merely literary form, and be- 
 came a simple assertion of independence raiher than a ])ro. 
 test, until Calvin with his iron hands grasped the some- 
 what vague ten.lency anil gave it a more striking stamp 
 and a more decided direction than it received anywhere 
 else. Francis I. tried to slop the movement, and Hugue- 
 nots were burned. Hut during the reign of Henry II. 
 (I.VI7-.>'.I) Protestantism was rather favoreil, and at hia 
 death there existed a Protestant parly of great political 
 power; and a religious war began w'hiih lasted almost 
 without interruption to tho end df tho ccnturv. was re- 
 neweil in the following, and did not finally subside until 
 the spirit of tolerance, the best acquisition of the cigh- 
 leenlh eenlury, made religious persecutions an impossi- 
 bility in France. At the head of the Roman Catholic [larty 
 stood the famous family of tho tiuises, represented by 
 Huke Francis and the cardinal of Lorraine; at tho head 
 of the Protestants stood the family of lioiirbon, represented 
 by Ihc king of .\avarrc and the prince of ConiU-. lietween 
 the two parlies the rnyal jiower. represented first by Cath- 
 
 arino of Medici, last by Cardinal Richelieu, occupied an 
 intermediate position, using with great art the one to crush 
 tho other. Francis II., a son of Ucnry II. and Catharino 
 of Medici, married in Ijis Mary Stuart, a niece of the 
 cardinal of Lorraine. He was only fifteen years old when 
 in IJJO he ascended the throne, and with him the Guises 
 were brought to the court and came into power. Their ar- 
 rogance, ambition, and auducily caused immediately Ihc 
 formation of a Protestant jiarly, anil the war began. Next 
 year (IJtiO) Francis died, and in order to curb the (Juises, 
 Catharine, regent during the minority of her second son, 
 Charles IX., favored tho Protestants. The edict of Jan. 
 17, 1JG2, gave them freedom of conscience and a limited 
 liberty of worship, and to these rights were added scv 
 oral fortified cities, among which was Rochellc, as places 
 of safety, by the peace of St. Gcrmain-en-Layc, Aug. 8, 
 1570 — a peace which for a moment slopped the war that 
 was still raging in spile of all edicts and treaties. Cath- 
 arine, however, meant by no means to tolerate Protestant- 
 ism in her realm. She haled it as an abominable heresy, 
 and she began to fear the party since, during the preceding 
 wars, she saw how it was supported from England with 
 money and from (icrmany with troops. Imniediatelv after 
 the peace of St. Germain-en-Laye she concluded an alliance 
 with the Guises, which resulted in the massacre on the night 
 of St. Bartholomew (Aug. 25, 1572) of 5000 Protestants — 
 among whom was Coligny, their leader — in Paris, and 
 .30,000 in the provinces. The I'roteslauts fled to their 
 places of safety, and the war began again ; but the royal 
 army was repelled from Rochellc, and when in 1574 the 
 duke of Alciifon, the youngest son of Catharine, and a 
 large party of the Roman Catholic nobility, allied Ihem- 
 selves with the Protestants against the queen and tho 
 Guises, the cause of the Reformation stood better than ever 
 before. Treaties of peace were concluded and broken 
 several times, but when (in 1581) Henry of Navarre, the 
 head of the Protestant parly, became heir-apparent to tho 
 French throne on the death of the duke of Aiijou, it came 
 at last to a final battle. The Guises now openly avowed 
 that they aspired to the crown of France, and the king, 
 Henry III., had both Duke Henry and Cardinal Louis 
 murdered at Hlois in 15SS. Pursued by Ihc Roman Catho- 
 lic parly, he then fled to the Protestant eaiup, but next year 
 he was himself killed by a monk, and Henry IV. ascended 
 the throne. Henry entered the Roman Catholic Church 
 from political reasons, but by the Edict of Nantes in 15118 
 the position of the Reformed Church in Franco became 
 finally settled and secured, and there was peace for about 
 twenty years. But the Protestants possessed in their places 
 of safety and in their right of assembling a political power 
 which it was difficult for the royal authority to consent to; 
 and when the idea of the absolute jiowcr of royally found 
 an adequate representative in Cardinal Richelieu, a change 
 in the political position of the Proleslants was unavoidable. 
 The war lasted from 102i to lli21l. On Oct. 28, 1()2S. Ro- 
 chellc was taken after a siege of fourteen months; of its 
 24,000 inhabitants only 4000 were left ; the rest had fallen 
 or perished from hunger. Their other strongholds were 
 also taken, but their freedom of conscience, and even their 
 liberty of worship, were respected; Richelieu's measures 
 were purely political. Once more, however, the Proleslants 
 of Franco had to experience persecutions on account of 
 their religion. Louis XIV. and Madame Mainlenon, who 
 was herself bred a Protestant, were both very devout, and 
 after the death of Colbert (1GS4) their devotion showed 
 itself in the harshest and most cruel measures against tho 
 Protestants. Their churches were destroyed and their 
 property confiscateil ; bands of soldiers, accompanied by 
 fanatical monks, scoured the country, and such as would 
 not renounce their religion were exiled or killed. .Some 
 fled to the ('cvenncs. where they were butchereil ; others to 
 .Swil/erland, Holland, ami England. In tho three years 
 following immediately after the Revocation of the Edict of 
 Nantes (t>et. 2.'t. 1085) France is said to have lost nearly 
 1,000,1100 inhabitants. Louis XV. also tried to do some- 
 thing "to the glory of (iod," and issued in 1752 an edict 
 which <leclare<l the Protestant baptism and marriage in- 
 valifl ; but the edict caused such an indignation, even 
 among the Roman Catholics, that it had to be revoked. 
 I!y the d^ilr A'o/.n/Aoi, the Cliarlra of |s|5 and ls:',0, and 
 the coiislilulions of 184H and 1872, the social and political 
 position of the I'rolcslants in France has been made equal 
 to that of the Roman Catholics, and during the last twenty 
 years (heir s|jiritual life has developed with great energy 
 and exerciscfl a considerable influence on tho Protestant 
 churches of other countries. (Fklisk, Hininlie ilm I'lu- 
 Ictlanln de France ; Haao, La France Prolmlaiitr.) 
 
 Ci.KME.xs Pktkrsi;n. 
 Iliiirts. tp. of Edgefield Co., S. C. Pop. 2550. 
 Iliiliii', or lIuMin (Pii-rrf. At'ni:,sTix), Coist, b. at 
 Pans Sept. 0, 1758; enlisted in the army in 1771; distin-
 
 1022 
 
 HULL— HUMBLE-BEE. 
 
 guishod himself at the storming of the Bastilc July 14, 
 1789; was appointeil captain of the national guard Oct. S, 
 same year, but became ?u.''[>icious to Kobespierre on ac- 
 count of his moderation, and was imprisoned. Liberated 
 at the fall of Robespierre, ho entered the Italian army; was 
 made a bris-idicr-goneral in 1S03 : presided over the court- 
 martial which sentenced tho duke of Enghien to death Mar. 
 24, 1^01; was military governor of Vienna in 1806. of Ber- 
 lin in I>07, of Paris in 1SI2, and was created a count in 
 1808. On the restoration of the Bourbons he was banished 
 from Franco in 1 SI 6, but allowed to return in 1819; and d. 
 in Paris, blind. Jan. 9, 1841. In 1S23 he published Exp/i- 
 cati'fus it^KFten aiix homiufs impartitiiij- mt sujrt dc in com- 
 minsion mitttaire iiisti'tttfe en Van XII. pour Juf/cr le due 
 d' Enfjhicn. 
 
 llull, or Kin^ston^on-Hullf one of the commercial 
 centres of England, is situated in tho East riding of York- 
 shire, at the inllux of the Hull into the llumber, and is de- 
 fended by a citadel, conuuanding tho entrance of the Hull 
 roads, and by two forts lower down the Humber, at the vil- 
 lage of High Paul. The most rcuiarkablo of its public 
 buildings are tho church of the Holy Trinity, tho oldest 
 brick building in England, erected in 1.112, and the church 
 of St. Mary, Lowgate: of its monuments, an equestrian 
 statue of William III., standing in the markot-placc, and 
 a statue of Wilberforce, raised on a fluted Doric column SO 
 feet high. It has many benevolent and good educational 
 institutions, a Latin and a medical school, a school of navi- 
 gation, a botanical garden, museum, and several associa- 
 tions fur science and art. Its manufactures arc quite con- 
 siderable, especially of linen and cotton goods, cordage, 
 machinery, chemicals, leather, sugar, and pottery. In its 
 docks, which comprise an area of more than 8"^ acres, 
 much shipbuilding is carried on: in 1S70, 5S4 vessels, of 
 71,805 tons burden, were owned at Hull. But it is more 
 especially its commerce which gives Hull its great import- 
 ance. Nearly all the traffic between England and Xorthern 
 Europe is carried on through this port. It is connected by 
 regular steamship lines with St. Petersburg, Kiinigsberg, 
 Stettiu, Copenhagen, (Gothenburg, Hamburg, Bremen, Am- 
 sterdam, Ilotterdam, Antwerp, and Havre. Linen and cot- 
 ton goods, hardware, machinery, iron, and coal are ex- 
 ported ; corn, cotton, flax, hemp, timber, and bones are im- 
 ported. In 1871, 3-417 vessels, of 1.1S8,S11 tons, entered the 
 harbor, and 2911, of l,044,loS tous, cleared it. The total 
 value of imports was in the same year £15,076,095; of ex- 
 ports, £27,:i87,07r.. Pop. 84,690 'in 1S51 : 97,661 in 1361: 
 \2?,,\\\ in 1371. 
 
 Hull, a thriving v. of Ottawa co., Quebec, nearly op- 
 posite the city of Ottawa, with which it is connected by a 
 suspension bridge. It has a very great water-power, and 
 manufactures immense quantities of lumber and some 
 woollen goods, cooperage, axes, etc. There are valuable 
 iron -mines in the vicinity. Pop. of sub-district, 8.318. 
 
 HuU, a v. of Aviston tp., Clinton co., 111., on the Ohio 
 and Mississippi R. R., 25 miles W. of .Sandoval. Pop. .300. 
 Hull, post-tp. of Plymouth co., Ma^^s., consisting of a 
 peninsula connected with the mainland by a long isthmus 
 called Nantasket Beach. It is 9 miles S. E. of Boston, and 
 is an attractive summer resort. Pop. 261. 
 Hull, tp. of Portage co.. Wis. Pop. 621. 
 Hull (AsBcuv). son of Hope, b. in AVashington, Wilkes 
 CO., Ga., Jan. .30, 1797; graduated at the State University 
 1814; was for more than forty years secretary and trea- 
 surer of the board of trustees of the same; was often a 
 member of the legislature, and repeatedly Speaker of the 
 House; was a member of the secession convention of 1861, 
 but declined its presidency. He was a man of a high order 
 of talent and spotless purity of character. D. at his resi- 
 dence in Athens Jan. 25, 1866. A. H. STKriiKxs. 
 
 Hull (Henry), son of Hope, b. in Washington, Wilkes 
 CO., (ia., Oct. 20, 1798; graduated at tho State I'niversity 
 1815; studied medicine, and rose to distinction in its prac- 
 tice; afterwards was professor of mathematics in his alma 
 mater from 18.30 to 1S46, when he resigned, and has since 
 devoted his time to literary and scientific pursuits. 
 
 A. H. Stkpiiens. 
 Hull (HoPE),oneof the founders of Methodism in Creor- 
 gia ',son of an Englishman of the same name), b. in Wor- 
 cester CO.. ,Md.. Mar. l:t, I76:i ; moved to Georgia, and es- 
 tablished a high school at Washington in the latter part of 
 the last century. He was a man of great usefulness and 
 distinction in his day, an<l made an impression upon tho 
 times in Georgia that will remain for generations to come. 
 I), near Athens, Ga., Oct. 4, 1818. A. H. Stephens. 
 
 Hull (Isaac), b. at Derby, Conn., Mar. 9, 1775, the son 
 of a Revolutionary officer; became a mariner, and when 
 nineteen years of ago was master of a merchant ship in 
 the Loudon trade; became lieutenant U. S. na\"y 179S; 
 
 [ was made first lieutenant of the Constitution frigate ISO! ; 
 distinguished himself by valor and skill againtit the French 
 on the coast of Hayti; served with distinction in the Bar- 
 bary expeditions : sailed from Annapolis in command of 
 \ the Constitution .luly 12, 1812, and for three days was 
 j chased by a British squadron of five ships, from which he 
 ; escaped by bold and ingenious seamanship. On Aug. 19 
 he cni.'onntered the frigate Guerriere. Capt. I)a<Tes. one of 
 his late pursuers, and fought her for half an hour at close 
 quarters, when she surrendered, but was so much cut up 
 that she had to be burned. For this, the first naval ad- 
 1 vantage of the war. Hull received a gold medal from Con- 
 gress ; was afterwards made a naval commissioner, and had 
 command of various navy-yards. D. Phila. Feb. 13, 1843. 
 I Hull (Wim.iam), b. at Derby, Conn., June 24, 175.3; 
 ; graduated at Yale 1772; studied divinity one year; went 
 ' to Litchfield Law School, and in 1775 was admitted to the 
 bar; served with distinction throughout the Revolutionary 
 war, in which he rose from the rank of captain to that of 
 I colonel ; became a very successful lawyer of Xewton. Mass. ; 
 was major-general of militia in Shay's insurrection; com- 
 missioner to treat with the Indians of Upper Canada 1793; 
 was very prominent in the public affairs of Massachusetts, 
 , in which State he became a judge of common pleas; gov- 
 ernor of Michigan Territory 1805-14. As brigadier-gen- 
 eral commanding the army of the North-west he surren- 
 dered Detroit to Gen. Brock, for which he was court-mar- 
 tialed, found guilty of cowardice, and sentenced (1814) to 
 I be shot, but was pardoned in consideration of his age and 
 I former services. He published T/ic Campnif/n n/" the North - 
 ' west A rmi/ {IS2 A). D. at Newton. Mass.. Nov. 29, 1825. (Seo 
 his Life, by Maria Campbell and James Freeman Clarke 
 (1848), in which Hull's character is fully vindicated.) 
 
 Hull (William Hope), son of Asbury, b. in Athens, Ga., 
 Feb. 2, 1820: graduated at tho State University 1838; 
 studied law ; was elected solicitor-general of the western 
 judicial circuit ; held many positions of public trust : was 
 assistant in the U. S. attorney-general's office during Mr. 
 Buchanan's administration. When Georgia passed her 
 ordinance of secession he returned to his native State and 
 resumed his profession. D. in New York City Sept. 13, 
 1877. A. H. Stephens. 
 
 HuTlah (John), b. at Worcester, Eng., in 1812; drew 
 general attention in 1836 by his comic opera, The Village 
 Cof/iicttr.s, and began in 1838 to work for the establishment 
 of popular singing schools in England after the French 
 model. Having met with eminent success in this under- 
 taking, he was appointed musical inspector for the United 
 Kingdfim and leader of the orchestra and chorus of tho 
 Royal Academy of Music in Loudon. 
 
 Hulme'ville, post-v. of Bucks co., Pa., 20 miles from 
 Philadflphia. It contains a school, 2 churches, a large 
 cotton and grist mill, 1 newspaper, 3 building associations 
 and several societies, a steam-laundry, stores, etc. Pop. 
 about 400. William Tilton, Ed. " Hilmeville Beacon." 
 
 Hulse'ail IjCc'mres,anumberof lectures, not exceed- 
 ing six and not less than four annually, delivered at the 
 University of Cambridge, explanatory of the evidences of 
 Christianity and of the difficultii'S of Scripture. There are 
 also a Hulsean professorship of divinity, a Hulsean prize 
 and scholarships, etc. These were founded by the Rev. 
 John llulse (1708-90) in a will of 200 pages closely writ- 
 ten, with nine codicils. 
 
 Humane Society (Royal). See Resuscitation, by 
 B. Howard. A. M., M. D. 
 
 Humanita'rians^aname which sometimes designates 
 that school of Unitarians who consider .Icsus Christ to 
 have been a mere man, without superhuman attributes. It 
 also sometimes designates the professors of the so-called 
 " religiun of humanity."' 
 
 Ilum'bcr^ the estuary of the Trent and the Ouse, hav- 
 ing its entrance on the E. coast of England, in lat. 53° 3S' 
 N. Its average breadth is between 2 and 3 miles, and it 
 is navigable for the largest vessels up to Hull, 22 miles 
 from its mouth. 
 
 Humbert'^ prince of Piedmont, crown prince of Italy, 
 b. Mar. 14. 1844. Ho is u good stddier; took part in the 
 wars of 1859 and 1806 ; commanded a division in 1866, and 
 covered the retreat of the Italian army after the battle of 
 Custozza. He is married to the princess Margaret of Savoy. 
 Became king of Italy Jan. 9, 1878. A. Niemann. 
 
 Ilum'ble-bee, a name common to the hymenopterous 
 insects of the genus liombus, nearly fifty species of which 
 are known to live in North America alone, besides numerous 
 Old World species. The mother-bee hibernates, and in tho 
 spring selects a place for her nest in a wet, mossy place, or 
 in a mouse's nest, or under a stump. She collects pollen, 
 mixes honey with it. laying her eggs in the mass from time 
 to time, and meanwhllo busily adding to her store of food.
 
 HUMBOLDT. 
 
 1023 
 
 From tho egg to the perfect insect the transformatioD is 
 very gradual. The larvie cat out cells in the pollen mass, 
 spiouin;; a tining of i^ilk, which tho oUl hvc furtifies with 
 wax. The y<»uug bocs come I'orth from time to time and 
 add to tho stores. There are many ways, among so many 
 species, of constructing the nest. The males, females, and 
 working hoes appear to live together in harmony. The 
 aggregate number of injects in one community is usually 
 very small as compared with the numl)cr in one swarm of 
 honey-bees. The humble-beo is beset by numerous para- 
 sitic insects. Foxes, skunks, and bears, as well as boys, 
 know well how to extract the sweet treasures of tho humble- 
 beo from the earth ; for, though the sting is severe, most 
 species of hiimblo-bees aro less active in attack or dcfenco 
 than honey-bees, hornets, and yellow wasps. 
 
 IItim'boIdt,county of thcN. \V. of California, bounded 
 on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. Area, about I'SOO square 
 miles. Its climate is cool and moist, its surface broken, and 
 covered with forests of enormous reclwood and other trees. 
 Cattle, wool, potatoes, lumber, and grain arc staple prod- 
 ucts. Petroleum is found. Cap. Eureka. Pop. 0I4U. 
 
 Humboldt, county of N. \V. Central Iowa. Area, 4.'i2 
 square miles. Its surface is varied, its soil ])roduetive and 
 well watered. Coal, iron, gypsum, and limestone arc found. 
 Grain is tho staple agricultural product. It is traversed 
 by tho Dcs Moines Valley U. K. Cap. Dakota. Pop. 2690. 
 
 Humboldt, county of Nevada, bounded on the N. by 
 Oregon. Area, I0,50U square miles. It contains numliers 
 of lakes and streams having no connection with tho ecji. 
 Most of the surface is arid and broken desert-land, which 
 in some parts yields ]»asturagc. The eounty alTords silver, 
 gold, sulphur, and other minerals. It is traversed by tho 
 ilumbuldt Uiver and the Central Paeilic K. R. Cap. Win- 
 ncniucL-a. Pop. (exclusive of Indians), lUlG. 
 
 Humboldt, tp. of Coles co.. III. Pop. 2023. 
 
 Humboldt, tp. and post-v. of Humboldt co.. la., 17 
 miles \. of Fort Dodge, settled by a colony from Western 
 New York, their original constitution forbidding the exist- 
 ence of either liquor or gaming saloons, which has been 
 ri;;idly enforced to tho present time. It is the seat of 
 llutnboldt College, and has 1 ohureh, 2 mills, 1 newspaper, 
 1 hotel, stores, shops, etc. The Dcs Moines River fur- 
 nishes ample water-power, not utilized to any extent. The 
 village contains several fine ]»arks. Pop. ;i:i4. 
 
 Gko. Elliott, Ed. " Kosmos." 
 
 Humboldt, post-v. and tp. of Allen co., Kan., on the 
 Neoslio Uiver and on the Leavenworth Lawrence and Gal- 
 vestim and tho Missouri Kansas and Texas R. Rs., 80 miles 
 by rail S. of Lawrence. It has a weekly and a monthly 
 periodical, some fine business-houses, a bank, and manu- 
 factures of cigars, etc. The river is crossed here by a 
 bridge. Pop. 1202; of tp. 2035. 
 
 Humboldt, post-v. of Marquette co., Mich., on tho 
 MarqueUe Ilougnlon and Ontonagon R. R., 27 miles \V. 
 of Marquette, in the iron-region. 
 
 Humboldt, tp. and post-v. of Richardson co., Neb., 
 on tho AtehiMin and Nebraska 11. R., 21 miles N. AV. of 
 Falls City. Po]). 00.*). ' 
 
 Humboldt, a station of the Central Pacific R. R., 422 
 miles N. E. of San Francisco, Cal., is in Humboldt co., 
 Nev. Pop, of Humboldt tp. 136. 
 
 Humboldt, post-v. of Gibson co., Tenn., 12S miles W. 
 of \ashvilh-, at the crossing of the Mobile and Ohio and 
 Memphis and Louisville K. R^. It contains an Odd Fel- 
 lows' female institute nnd Masonic high school, churches, 
 and sc'veral largo mills and shops. It has 1 newspaper. 
 Pop. about .'UiOO. I). L. Rivkus, En. " Joitiinal." 
 
 Humboldt, Ip. of Brown co., Wis. Pop, 735. 
 
 Humboldt, von (FitiBiinicii Hkiniikii Ai.kxandkr). 
 R.UiON, b. Sept. 14. 1703, at Ilerlin, of a wealthy family, 
 received, together with his eldi-r brother, Karl Wilbelm, a 
 most careful education in his home under the direction of 
 his mother, his father having died very early. In 17^7 bo 
 studied at tho University of Frankfort-on-lhe-OdiT, and 
 after spending tho following year in Berlin, occupied in the 
 study of the technology of miinufactures and (he (Jreek lan- 
 guage, he passed two years iit tho University of (iottingen, 
 sturiying philology under Heyne and natural history un- 
 der Blumt'obacb. His first published work, I'vUfi- di>- Hn- 
 Hnll'-„m J!/if:t'n (Berlin. 17110), belongs t() this pcrioil. After 
 n rapid journey through Belgium, Holland. England, and 
 France, in company with George Foster, ho settled for some 
 timo in Hambiirg, studied tlio modern languages with 
 great zeal, and heard lectures on banking and bookkeeping, 
 having determined to devote himself to commorcial pur- 
 suits. His ]iiissiim for slmlios. especially of nature, was 
 too strong, however, and in 171*1 he entered the celebraled 
 mioing school at Freiberg, where bo studied under Woruer 
 
 and Leopold von Buch, and where he wrote his interesting 
 essay on the Flora Suhferrunen Friberr/eiisin, which ap- 
 peared in 1793. From 17'J2 to 1797 ho occupied a superior 
 position as a mining officer at Bayreuth, at the came time 
 exploring and conducting mines, making observations and 
 experiments in almost every field of natural flcience, study- 
 ing history and philology, making geognostic journeys, 
 filling diplomatic missions, and finishing his great work 
 Uvher dlcycrviztc Mnektl- und Xerven/aacr, tiehst ycrjinit/imt- 
 gcn uhcr den chcmi»chcn Procvun den Lcbens in dcr Tfiier- 
 Hitd PjUinzemvelt (2 vols., Berlin, 1797); which book is still 
 admired, in spite of the subsequent progress of physiologi- 
 cal knowledge, on account of the correctness of its observa- 
 tions, tho ingeniousness of its experiments, and the gen- 
 eral validity of its conclusions. On the death of his mother 
 {in 1797) he determined to gratify his desire and make a 
 scientific journey in the tropical /.ones. He bad prepared 
 himself for the task tlirougb several years. Ik' mastered 
 a great number of living languages; he understood how to 
 use all kinds of scientific instruments; ho was thoroughly 
 familiar with the present state of all branches of natural 
 science; be had a large experience in scientific travellin<»' 
 and in making observations and experiments; he had 
 health and be had money. He first ])lannod a tour to 
 Egypt with Lord Bristol; then he determined to join tho 
 expedition of Baudiu which the Directory of France sent 
 out; then be thought of accompanying the Swedish con- 
 sul, Skjoldebrund. to Tunis; but all the?c plans failed. It 
 was the generosity of the Spanish government which 
 at last brought him to America. On June 5, 1799, he 
 started from Corunna : on Aug. 3, 1804, he returned to 
 Bordenux. He spent tive years in the Spanish colonie9 
 of (Central and South America, walking, riding on horse- 
 back, sailing, rowing, always carrying along with him 
 a whole caravan with helpers and instruments. Tho 
 world had not seen anything like it since the days when 
 Alexander the Groat fitted out a scientific expedition lor 
 Aristotle. And the results corresjionded to the prepara- 
 tions. Humboldt brought back with him an immense store 
 of the most valuable scientific materials, astronomical de- 
 terminations of localities, barometric measurements, me- 
 tcorologic, climatologic, and magnetic obscrvatifms, maps, 
 profiles of mountains, herbariums, etc. He settled in Paris 
 as tho scientific centre of the world, and. although fre- 
 quently engaged in scientific travels or diplomatic mis- 
 sions, he resided here from LSO.'i to 1827, occupied with the 
 arrangement and publication of his scientific acquisitions, 
 which appeared successively during this period in twenty- 
 nine volumes, written in Frencli and translated into Ger- 
 man, and accompanied by upwards of 2U0U excpiisite illus- 
 trations. The world was astonished. The information was 
 new, exceedingly attractive, ranging over the whole field 
 of natural science; and it was c(*rrect. New ideas wero 
 started, the geography of plants, the isotiiermal lines, 
 etc.; new impulses were received by every branch of sci- 
 ence; nay, an infiuenee was felt even in poetry and art. 
 In 1827 ho removed to Berlin at the solicitation of the 
 king, and resided in his native city for the rest of his life, 
 occupying himself with diplomatic offices of a lighter de- 
 scription and the most severe studies. The two remark- 
 able events of this period of bis life were the Russian 
 expedition to Central Asia and tho ])ublieation of bis 
 Kofimotf. In 1829 the Russian emperor Nicholas fitted out 
 a most magnilicent expedition, which he placed under the 
 direction of Humboldt, and wliich went thruugb Moscow, 
 Kasan,and Tol)olsk to the Atlas lAIounlains and the Chinese 
 frontier, and thence back to the Caspian Sea. The results 
 of tliis journey Humbrddt coiumunieated in his Am'e Cen- 
 trah {.*{ vols., Paris, ISCi). The first volume of A'oxmo^ 
 appeared in IHl.'i; the fourth ami last was not published 
 till after tho death of tho author. May (>, 1859, KtmmuH is 
 Humboldt's chief work, the most perfect and tho most 
 characteristic. It gives a striking and attractive descrip- 
 tion of the numberless varieties of forms which the world 
 contains, but this multitude it gathers under total views, 
 anil represents tho world as one consistent existence; and 
 there is no mysticism or sentimentality in the repnsenta- 
 tion. There is only clear generalization. It is awonderlul 
 book, stupendous in its learning, admirable in its ease. 
 But it is a popular book, rather than a scientific one ; and 
 although we suppose that science is proud of having pro- 
 duced such a work, it occasioned a swarm of imitations 
 whicdi bad better have remained unwritten. There is a 
 peculiarity with Humboldt which posterity must remember 
 in order not to be unjust to him. '* With Iiim ends a groat 
 period in the history cd' science,*' says Agassiz : mid that 
 IS just his peculiarity ; ho was the end of a perioij. not llio 
 beginning. l!o was the plastic, forming power which 
 finishes, not tho weird, breaking force which starts. (Sco 
 Kl.KNKE, Alrxnnder von Ilninhuldt, cin hi*t<fraphischc9 
 Vaikmal, 18iiU.) Clemens Petersen.
 
 1024 
 
 HUMBOLDT, VON— HUME. 
 
 Huinboldtf von (Karl Wilhelm), Baron, brother of 
 the i>reu('diuj^. b. at l*otsiliim June 22. 1707. After finish- 
 ing his studiL's of philology and philosophy at Giittingcn, 
 be Ii\cd iiltcrnatciy at Erfurt, Weimar, Jena, and Berlin 
 in intimate intercourse with Suhiller, Goethe, F. H. Jacobi, 
 and otlicr celebrities of his time, and on the Thuriugian 
 estates of his wife, the spirited Karoline von Dacheroden, 
 whom he married in I7iH. From 1797 to 1799 he resided 
 with hi;< family in Paris, whence he made a journey into 
 Spain, spending his time partly in literary occupations, 
 poetical and critical, uf a lighter description, partly in 
 jienelrating and exhaustive linguistic studies. In 18U1 ho 
 was appointed Prussian ambassador to the court of Rome, 
 but returned in 1S08 to Berlin as minister of the interior, 
 in which oflice he developed great activity for the reorgan- 
 ieatiou of the Prussian state, more especially for the estab- 
 lishment of the University of Berlin. In 1810 he went as 
 minister plenipotentiary to Vienna, and he played a con- 
 spicuous part in the immense diplomatic stir which accom- 
 panied and followed the fall of Napoleon. He sat at the 
 congresses of Prague, Chatillon, A'icnna, and Aix-Ia-Cha- 
 pcUe ; ho signed the treaty of Paris, and represented Prus- 
 sia in the first German diet. lie was a member of the 
 Prussian council of state up to 1SI9 ; and ho exercised a 
 great and beneficial influence on the development of Ger- 
 man affairs. His influence was preventive, however, rather 
 than productive. As a statesman he possessed great busi- 
 ness capacity, industry, clearness, and tact, and he enter- 
 tained liberal and even largo views ; but he had no inven- 
 tion, hardly any ideas. His noble sentiments made him an 
 ally of everything noble, and the respect which his charac- 
 ter, his connections, and his talents commanded prevented 
 much evil from taking place: but there is hardly anything 
 positive which can be called his work. In general litera- 
 ture he occupied a similar position. He was a man of ex- 
 quisite taste, of warm interest, of ready sympathy, and his 
 correspondence with Schiller, Goethe, and others shows how 
 he brought light and elevation along with him wherever he 
 went. But his poems, his criticisms, his letters, have only 
 historical interest. The influence died out with the man. 
 Not so, however, with his scientific works. His merits in 
 the establishment and development of the science of com- 
 parative philology are lasting as they are great, and his 
 linguistic researches are in many points both ingenious and 
 exhaustive. His principal works in this line are — lien'ch- 
 tiijunffen und Zn»atzc zu AihJnntfH Mifhrtdateg iibcrdie cnn- 
 Utbrische oder bitM/,-i'nche Sprache ( 1817) ; Prli/uiig der Untcr- 
 SHchuuffen iibcr die Vrbcivohner Hinpnnicnit vcrjuittch der 
 haskischeti Sprnchf: (1821) ; Ucber Dnali's (1828) ; Ueher die 
 Vencandtschn/t der Ortnndrrrhieii mit dem Pronomcn (1830); 
 Uebcr die Kntcinprache (lS.'lG-40) ; Vocdbnlairr. in6dit de 
 In langue Tntirtine (1813), etc. This great and even bril- 
 liant scientific activity began after his removal from <ithce. 
 The Prussian king, like t!io other (Jorinan princes, broke 
 the promise of a representative constitution which he had 
 given during the war against Xapoleon. and under the pre- 
 text of putting down dcmagogism he persecuted liberty. 
 Humboldt understood the manoeuvre, and fought against 
 it with all his power. Suddenly (Dec. 31, 1S19) he was 
 dismissed in a signal manner. He afterwards lived on his 
 estate of Tegcl at the Lake of Spandau, where he d. Apr. 
 8. IS3o. (Sec SCHLESIEU, Eriniicrnngrn an Wilhelm von 
 Jlumboldt, 1846.) Clemens Petkiisen, 
 
 Iliimboldt River, the longest river of Nevada, rises 
 in Elko CO.. and flows :JS'i miles in a generally S. W. course. 
 Its w.ater8 arc alkaline, being charged with soda. It is 
 nowhere many yards in width, and is generally fordable. 
 Its banks have clumps of willows and other vegetation, 
 and there are some fertile alluvial plains. It finally ends 
 in Humboldt Sink, "a marshy spot in a sandy plain," not 
 really a lake except in high stages of the river. The river 
 is chiefly remarkable as furnishing the only K. and \V. val- 
 ley through this region, while N. and S. valleys are nume- 
 rous. The Central Pacific R. U. follows its valley for many 
 miles. The river-bottoms average a mile in width ; outside 
 of these the land is good, but needs irrigation. Numerous 
 streams approach the Humboldt, but sink after leaving 
 their canons. The Little Humboldt is its largest aflluent. 
 But in high water the Reese River passes its sink and flows 
 into the Humboldt. Some five miles above Humboldt Lake 
 are the " Big Meadows," with an area of 6000 acres, fur- 
 nishing great quantities of hay and some peat. The sink 
 is 3920 feet above the sea-level. 
 
 Humboldt Wells, tp. of Elko co., Nov., on the Cen- 
 tral Pacilic K. R. (Wells Station), fiG9 miles N. E. of San 
 Francisco. Here are some twenty very deep natural wells 
 of good water, supposed to be of volcanic origin. Silver, 
 lead, and copper ores are found and smelted here. Wood, 
 water, and grass are abundant. Pop. of tp. 42. 
 
 Ilum'bu^, tp. of Siskiyou co., Cal. Pop. 2Jl. 
 
 Hume, tp. of Whitesides co., HI, Pop. 676. 
 
 Hume, tp. of Huron co., Mich., on Lake Huron. P. 475. 
 
 Hume, tp. and post-v. of Allegany co., N. Y. The 
 township has several villages and very extensive water- 
 power. Pop. of Hume or Cuid Creek v. 254 ; of tp. 1^20. 
 
 Hume (David), the most noted of modern skeptical 
 philosophers and a distinguished essayist and historian, b. 
 Apr. 20, 1711, at Edinburgh. His father, Joseph Hume (or 
 Home), a member of the Faculty of Advocate.^, and pro- 
 prietor of the estate at Ninewells in the parish of Chirn- 
 side, Berwickshire, died leaving Duvid still an infant. At 
 the age of fifteen Hume entered Edinburgh University, 
 and, although he wa.s intended for the bar. his own inclina- 
 tion was toward literature, his favorite authors being Ci- 
 cero, Virgil, Seneca, and Plutarch. His slender means let! 
 him at the age of twenty-three to enter mercantile life at 
 Bristol, but after some nuuiths he resolved to pursue his 
 literary ])rujeets, and sought cheap living and retirement 
 in France at Rheims and La Fleehe, where he composed 
 his Treatise oji Human Xature, which he published in I73S, 
 after his return to England. ** It fell dead-born from the 
 press," says Hume, "without reaching such distinction as 
 even to e.xcite a murmur among the zealots." In 1741— 12 
 he published the first part of his Moral and Political Ea- 
 Sfii/f, which were favorably received. In 1744 his reputa- 
 tion for skepticism prevented the success of his application 
 for the chair of moral philosophy in the University of 
 Edinburgh. In 1747 he attended tJen. St. Clair on an em- 
 bassy to Vienna and Turin, where he recast the first part 
 of his Treatine, and yuiblishcd it as an Inquiry concerning 
 the Human Understnndinff. In 17r>l he became librarian 
 of the Advocates' Library in Edinburgh, which position ho 
 held for five years, and. availing himself of its resources, 
 undertook his Hi^tortf of England, publishing the first vol- 
 ume in 175-1, treating the reigns of James I. and Charles 
 I., and bringing much obloquy upon himself fur his leni- 
 ency shown towards Strafford and Charles I. ; but his sub- 
 sequent volumes achieved great popularity for the work. 
 His Political DisconrseSf published in 1752, obtained wide 
 fame on the Continent, and contributed largely to the cre- 
 ation of the science of political economy. His Inquiry 
 concerning the Principles of Morals appeared in 1752. He 
 accepted the carl of Hertford's invitation to attend him on 
 bis embassy to Paris in 1703, and on his arrival was 
 "loaded with civilities" by the nobility, foreign ambassa- 
 dors, the savants, and the royal family. He became inti- 
 mate in the circle of H'Alembert. iMarmontel. Diderot, Du- 
 clos, Helv6tius, Herault, Buffon, Malesherhes, Hoibach,and 
 Turgot, and was the special favorite of the ladies. In 
 17fi7-G.S he was under-secrctary of state, appointed by 
 Lord Conway, brother of the earl of Hertford, and had 
 charge of Scottish affairs, including the patronage of tbo 
 churches. He resided at Edinburgh, ami was chief of a 
 literary circle including Robertson, Blair, Lord Kames, 
 Adam Ferguson. Adam Smith, and others. Warned by an 
 incurable disease, he wrote his own Life and provided for 
 the publication of his Dialognrs on Natural Jiffigion, a 
 work written in early life, and calmly awaited death, which 
 came Aug. 25, 1770. His philosophy is the completest 
 statement of the ideas that produced the French Revolu- 
 tion, and may be regarded as the culmination of the re- 
 actionary movement towards individualism and naturalism 
 inaugurated in the era of Bacon and Locke, and reaching 
 its di'nt>u> incut in the eighteenth century. It has been the 
 stimulating cause of the notable systems since. Kant con- 
 fessed that " Hume's exception to the idea of causality 
 first interrupted my [Kant's] dogmatic slumber." Hume 
 exposes the basis of his system thus : "All the perceptions 
 of the human mind resolve themselves into two distinct 
 kinds, which I call impn-sKionn and ideas. The difference 
 betwixt them consists in the degrees offeree an'l liveliness 
 with which they strike upon the mind and make their way 
 into our thought and consciousness. Those perceptions 
 which enter with the most force and violence we may name 
 imprcHninns. and under this name include all our sensations, 
 passions, and emotions as they make their first appearance 
 in the soul. By idcng, I mean the faint images of these in 
 thinking and reasoning." Thus, ideas arc copies of im- 
 pressions of individual things, and the phase of universal- 
 ity belonging to them is completely ignored. He consist- 
 ently denies all objective validity to complex ideas, and 
 holds the conceptions of substances, modes, and relations 
 to be fictions of the mind. Hence, " the identity which wo 
 ascribe to the mind of man is only a fictitious one." The 
 complex idea of cause and effect is, as Hume says, "de- 
 rived from experience, which, presenting us with certain 
 objects constantly conjoined with each other, produces such 
 a habit of surveying them in that relation that we cannot, 
 without a senf^ible violence, survey them in any other." 
 Hubit is the sole universality and necessity, ilencc, the
 
 HUMERUS— HUMPHREY. 
 
 1025 
 
 doctrine of an Ahsoluto First Cause is unwarranted in phil- 
 osophy. Pleasure and pain form the basi« of moral prin- 
 ciples. His fiiinems arp;uinent a;:jainst miracles — invented 
 in 1736 at La I'lrfhe to silence a Jesuit who claimed the 
 recent occurrence of miracles at his convent — is this : *' In- 
 variable experience is in favor of the uniformity of nature, 
 while it is not in favor of the infallibility of human testi- 
 mony : hence there is, in all cases, a greater jirobabjlity of 
 the falsity of the testimony as to the occurrence of a mir- 
 acle than of the violation of a law of nature thereby im- 
 plied." (For best sources of information sec the A{/V and 
 Correnpntutenre of David /ftiinr, by JoiIN Hll.l. IJlUToy, 2 
 vols., Edinburgh, IS 16; also Mi/ Omn Lif'r, in ml. i. /fist, 
 of Kiifj., by I). lIiHK, Boston, 1S30.) Wm, T. Hauuis. 
 
 Illl'merus, the large cylindrical bone of the upper arm 
 from the shoulder to the elbow, forming at its upper ex- 
 tremity u hemispherical head, which is connected with the 
 scapula and two tuberosities fur the attachment of mus- 
 cle;'. The whole combination of the head of the l)umerus, 
 the scapula, and the clavicle is also called humerus. 
 
 Humes (Thomas William). S. T. D., b. at Knoxvillc, 
 Tenn., Apr. 22, ISIJ ; graduated in IS-'JO at East Tennessee 
 College (now a university): was rector of St. John's 
 church (Protestant Episcopal) lS16-61and lS6;j-69, aud 
 since I8G5 has been president of East Tennessee University. 
 Author of various published sermons and addresses. 
 
 II tun in ate Nuns, an order of Benedictine nuns, called 
 also .\uns ol" Blassoili^ from the name of their found- 
 ress. They served as nurses, etc. In 1571 they were sup- 
 pressed by Pius V. for some disorders, but a few convents, 
 greatly decayed, still exist in Italy. 
 
 Ilumiriatcs (I/Hmiliati), an order of canons and lay 
 brothers following the rule of St. Benedict. They were 
 originally lay brothers of a congregation founded about 
 113*. In 1151 they were reformed by St. John of Meda, 
 and became in part canons regular of St. Benedict. 
 
 Iluin'mel i Joiianv Nkpomik ), b. at Presl)urg Xov. 14, 
 177S; d. at Weimar Oct. 17, 18:{7. His father, a proficient 
 and an orchestra leader, commenced his son's musical ed- 
 ucation by teaching him the violin. But the eliild showed 
 little aptitude, and was thought to have no talent. He was 
 then taught tosingand tophiy the piano, and in these studies 
 his extraordinary gifts soon berame manifest. In one year 
 he acquired a skill that made liim a musical prodigy. The 
 Ilummels removed to Vienna, whore they found iMozart. 
 The talented boy so interested the celebrated man that ho took 
 the lad to his own liouse and gave him lessons, though such 
 work was much against Mozart's taste. At nine years of age 
 he was so much ailmired by all who hearil him that he and 
 his father made a concerting tour through (fernuiny, Den- 
 mark, and Scotland, The years 1791 and 171*2 he passed 
 in liondou, and there studied the pure, methodical style 
 under Clemenli. At tifteen years of ago he returned home, 
 and Bcttlctl down to hard stufly in Vienna under his severe 
 and exacting father, lie afterwards became tlie pupil of 
 Alhreehtsbcrger for harmony, and of Salieri for singing aud 
 the principles of dramatic composition; in 1803 entered 
 the service of Prince Nicholas Eslerhazy. for whom he 
 wrote his first mass, which was well received by Haydn. 
 In iHll he left the Esterhazy service, and for live years 
 gave piano-lessons in Vienna ; in 1816 was appointed 
 chapel-master to the king of Wiirtemberg; in 1820 re- 
 signeil that oflice and became ehapel-master to the grand 
 duke of Saxe-Weimar; in 1822 obtained leave of absence 
 to make a pedestrian tour in Itussia, where he was en- 
 thusiastically received; in 1S23 travelled through Hol- 
 land and Belgium on his way to Paris, where the artistic 
 world showed a wortliy appreciation of his fame and genius. 
 From Paris he returned to Weimar, which ho made his per- 
 manent home. Some altercation had estranged Beethoven 
 from Hummel. In 1827, when Beethoven's illness gave 
 anxiety. Hummel went to Vienna, and Iheir dilTerences were 
 lost in the fullest reconciliation. In 1820 he made asecond 
 visit to Paris, where, six years before, his reception had been 
 one of the most brilliant passages in art; but now his per- 
 formances were a failure. In London his presence was 
 scarcely remarked. One other tour, in Poland, was the last 
 of his wanderings; the rest of his life he passed quietly 
 lit Weimar. 
 
 In Hummel wore three artists — the performer, the im- 
 proviser, tlie composer — in eoeh respect ho was a genius 
 of liigh order. As a performer he founded a school which 
 is the rneiins liv wliieh most of his n<»ted sueeessors have 
 risen to eminence. His voluminouH Mrthnd for the piano 
 was a new and valuable creation in the field of studv, 
 classifying the dilheullies of fingering and other details of 
 piano practice. The greater volume and sonority atlaine<l 
 liy his successors made Hummel's touch appear weak and 
 t;imc perhiips, but no one surpassed him in jiurity. regu- 
 laritv. and citrreetness of execution, or in <lelioiite shading 
 Vol.. 11.— 6;-. 
 
 and beauty of phrasing. As an improvisor ho was very 
 remarkable; his inspirations, so regular in form, so finished, 
 yet so fresh an<l full of unexpected fancies, seemed like 
 meditated compositions. As a composer he is not generally 
 appreciated by the public. Had iJeethoven not been his 
 contemporary, ho jtrobably would stand as the first com- 
 poser of his age in instrumental music. In his works 
 nol>le. elegant, and graceful themes are treated with the 
 skill and experience of a consummate master. But the 
 most perfect finish was no match for the passion and power 
 of the unapproachable Beethoven. His most esteemed 
 works are — the Septuor in D minor Top. 74), the (juintct 
 for piano (op. 87), the'cnncerto? in A minor (op. 85), in 
 B minor (op. 80). in E major (op. ] 10), and in A flat major 
 (op. 113), and the grand sonata for piano for four hands 
 (op. 02). He wrote 11 dramatic compositions, including 
 operas, ballets, and cantatas ; 4 compositions for the church ; 
 2^ instrumental works, including overtures, concerted pieces 
 forthe piano, violin, violoncello; and many sonatas and other 
 compositions for the piano. C. H. FAnsuAM. 
 
 Hum'melstOAvn, post-b. of Dauphin co.. Pa., 9 miles 
 E. of Harrisburg. on Swatara Creek, the Union Canal, and 
 the Philadelphia anil Reading K. K. ; has fine schools, a 
 weekly newspaper, bank, 4 churches, several mills and 
 machine-shops, brownstone saw-mill, 2 carriage manu- 
 factories, terra-cotta works, hotels, etc. Pop. 837. 
 
 W. R. IIkndricks. Pl'B. **SUN." 
 
 Hum'ming'*Bird, the name of many genera of small 
 slender-billed American birds of the family Trochilidae. 
 They arc most numerous in species and individuals near 
 the equator, are very numerous in Mexico, and one species 
 is found northward in summer (^vcn in British America. 
 This species is the TrochiluH colnbrin, the only species often 
 seen in the Northern States. It is known as the ruby- 
 throated humming-bird. In its flight its wings produce 
 that well-known humming sound wiiieh is so characteristic 
 of the family. It h;is been supposed to live entirely upon 
 the honey which it is well known to gather from flowers, 
 but it has been known to swallow spiders and other species, 
 at least, certainly eat small insects. There can, however, 
 be no doubt that the long hill and the slcmier. almost pro- 
 jectile tongue, which is attached to the hyoid bone in a 
 very .singular manner, are especially adapted to the collec- 
 tion of honey from fiowers ; and the siglit of these brilliant 
 little birds darting about from flower to flower with light- 
 ning speed is one we are all familiar with. Its lichen- 
 covered nest, lined with a silky fibre, is a wonderfully neat 
 structure. In the far North-west the .Sr/anph<>nin ru/H»t, a 
 very brilliant red species, appears to replace the foregoing. 
 To enumerate even the genera of the humming-birds would 
 bo tedious. There are some 400 species. Of these only 
 eight or ten are ever found in the U. S. The largest known 
 species ( Ift/lDrhan'n (ji(iam, eight inches long) and the small- 
 est {MelUcaija nnnima, whose body is barely one and a 
 quarter inches long) are both tropical. 
 
 Illimp'bnck Whale, a name given hy sailors to those 
 fin-backed whah-s ( I'aheiiopterida?) which have the dorsal 
 ^\n represente<I by a hump or bunch, genernlly about tho 
 size of a man's head. They form a group, Megapterinie, 
 comprising three genera, M'-'fipdra, J'neHropiti. aud Efch- 
 richtiuH. One of the best known is Merfaptera longhnana, 
 calleil Johnston's bumpb.aek, found in the North Atlantic 
 and Arctic waters. It is fierce and dangerous, but is killed 
 for its oil, which is worth nearly as much as sperm oil. 
 The baleen is short and poor. 
 
 II 11 in 'phrcy, post -t p. of Cattaraugus CO., N. Y. P. IOCS. 
 
 Ililinphrry, tp, of Darlington co., S. C. Pop. 896. 
 
 Iliiinplirey (Edward PouTnit). D. I)., LI,.!)., oldest 
 son ol Hemau, noticed below, b. at Fairfield, Conn., Feb. 
 10, 1808; graduated at Amherst in 1828, and at Andover 
 in 1833; was tutor at Amherst 1832-33; Irom 183:1 to 1835 
 
 f)reached at Jeffersonville, Ind.; was pastor of Second Pres- 
 lyterian church in Ijouisville. Ky., 1835-53; was professor 
 of ecclesiastical history in l>anville( Ky.) Theological Semi- 
 nary 1853-66; and in 1866 took charge of Crtllege street 
 church in Louisville. He has published numerous dis- 
 courses and rf.'vievv articles. Although lining at the South 
 during the war, ho was loyal to tho Vnion. and bore an im- 
 portant |)art in the reunion of the two branches (Old an<l 
 New School I of the Presbyterian Church. W. S. Tvlkk. 
 
 Illlinphrry ( Hkman). D. D., b. in West Simshury, Hart- 
 ford CO., Conn., Mar. 26, 1779 : graduated at Yale College 
 in 1S05. He was pnslc)r of the Congregational church in 
 Fairfield. Conn., ten years; pastor of the church in Pitts- 
 field, Mass., five years; and jiresident of Amherst Col- 
 lege twenty-three years (1823—15). Taking charge of that 
 institution in its infancy, ho c*)nlributed largely to its 
 growth ami prosperity, aud impressed upon it much of hia 
 own character. \i tho aamo time ho exerted a leading in-
 
 1026 
 
 HUMPHREY— HUMUS. 
 
 fluence in the Congrcgationnl and Presbyterian churches, 
 and iu the revivals, missions, and national religious soci- 
 eties which had their origin in his day. He wrote often 
 for the religious uewspapers and journals, particularly 
 Thr l>iin<:liliKl. Till- ChrixliiinS/iecliilor.aml The Srw Yuri; 
 OliMi-riT. He gave to the jiuhlic some twenty-live or 
 thirty sermons and addresses on special occasions, ami left, 
 besides, piililished works to the number of eleven volumes. 
 Among the pamphlets, the most celebrated was his /'(iir/Z/c/ 
 AWirr.il liilrmpcraiice itiiri the S/fiiv- Trade, which, while it 
 struck a heavy blow at intemperance, was a scarcely less 
 formiilalde indictment of slavery. Of his books, the 7"iir 
 ill France, Ureut Jlrilain, and Uel;filim, in 2 vols., has had 
 the widest circulation. Dr. Humphrey's accurate observa- 
 tion, practical wisdom, and racv style all appear to advan- 
 tage in this work. D. at Pi'ttsticld Apr. :5. ISGl. (Sec 
 IllsUiry of Amherst Cnllciie, by the author of this sketch, 
 and Mriiiiirlal Sketcliea n'f llemiin and Siiphia Hiimphrci/, 
 by Z. M. HiMPHnEV and'll. Neii.l.) W. S. Tvlkh. 
 
 Humphrey (.Iames). a son of Dr. Heman Humphrey, 
 b. at Fiiirlicld, Conn.. Oct. 9. 1811 ; graduated at Amherst 
 in ISIil ; became a lawyer of Louisville, Ky. (where he re- 
 sided but one year), and of New York. He was (l,S:)S-riO 
 and isivt-lifi) a member of Congress from Xcw York. D. 
 at lirooklyn, N. Y., June 16, 1S66. W. S. Tvler. 
 
 Humphrey (Zei'Iianiaii Moore), D. D., fifth son of 
 Dr. Heman Humphrey, b. at Amherst, Jlass.. Aug. 311, 
 1824 ; graduated at Amherst College 184:1. and at .'Vndover 
 Theological Seminary ls4lt ; a popular preacher and pastor 
 of churches at Racine anil Milwaukee. Wis., 1850-59; of 
 First Presbyterian church, Chicago, 1S59-6S; of Calvary 
 Presbyleri:in church. Philadelphia, lSI)8-"a; is now pro- 
 fessor" of ecclesiastical history and eliurch polity at Lane 
 Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, 0. ; was connected with 
 the New School branch of the Presbyterian Church before 
 the reunion of 1SI\9 ; contributed his influence to the re- 
 union, and was elected moderator of the reunited Church 
 at Chicago in 1871. 
 
 Hum'phreys, county of N. W. Central Tennessee. 
 Area, 5ill square miles. It has the Tennessee Kiver for its 
 western Ijouudary. and is traversed by the Nashville and 
 North-western K. R. It is a fertile and undulating region. 
 Cattle, corn, and tobacco are staple products. Cap. Wav- 
 erly. Pop. 9320. 
 
 Hum'phreys (.\NnnFw .\TKt\soN). LL.D.. b. at Phila- 
 delphia, Pa.. Nov. 2. 1810: graduated at the U.S. Military 
 Academy, and appointed second lieutcn.ant of artillery .luly 
 1, 1S:',1 ;'began his military career with a season of garrison 
 duty at Tort Moultrie, S. C. : thereafter employed on varied 
 service, including a period in the Cherokee Nation and an 
 eight miinlhs' active campaign in Florida, participating in 
 several actions against the Seminides. until Sept., 18110, 
 when he resigned his commission. Returned to the service 
 of the government as civil engineer the following year, when 
 his health was restored, and reappointed in the army July 7, 
 18:!8, as first lieutenant topographical engineers ; promoted 
 to be captain 1848, major Aug., 18C1, serving during this 
 time on harlior improvements; again actively engaged for 
 eight months in Florida war, and for five years (1844-49) 
 in''charSc of the Coast Survey ofliceat Washington. In Nov., 
 1850, he commenced the topographic and hydrographio 
 survey of the delta of the Mississippi, directed l>y Congress 
 for tlie purpose of determining the most practicable plan 
 for securing it from inundation, as well as for deepening 
 the channels of the river. Compelled by sickness in 1851 
 to reliniiuish charge of this work, ho visited Kurnpe, and 
 from a |iersonal examination of its river-deltas informed 
 himself of the knowledge there acfpiired by the experience 
 of centuries as to methods of protection against inundation. 
 Returning in 1854, he was assigned to special service to de- 
 termine the most practicable and economical route for a rail- 
 roail from the Mississipjii River to the Pacific Ocean, upon 
 which he continued until 1801, meanwhile serving on the 
 lighthouse board and on various commissinns. anil in 1857 
 resumed the survey of the delta of the Mississippi, which 
 shortly after his retirement from the work in 1851 had been 
 discontinued, Lieut. Abbot being assigned to personal 
 direction of the work. The valuable report upon Iho 
 Physics and Hvdraulics of the Mississippi Kiver was sub- 
 mitted in Aug.i 1801, having been hastened to a close by 
 the outbreak of civil war. In Dec., 1861. Humphreys, now 
 major, was assigned to duty on the stafl' of Gen. McClellan, 
 and upon the transfer of the Army of the Potomac to 
 the Virginia Peninsula was apjioiuted its chief topographi- 
 cal engineer, serving as such throughout the campaign 
 
 having been promoted, however, to be colonel. A. A. D. C, 
 Mar., and brigadier-general of volunteers Apr., 1862. Upon 
 the return of Gen. McClellan to the command of the Army 
 of the Potomac. Gen. Humphreys was (Sept. l.'l. 1862) as- 
 signed to oommand a division of new troops attached to 
 
 the 5th corps as .Sd division, and followed the army, mak- 
 ing a night-march of 20 miles from Monoeacy Bridge, join- 
 ing it at Antictamon the morning of Sept. 18 ; made recon- 
 naissance from Sharpsburg to Lectown Oct. 16-17 ; engaged 
 at Fredericksburg. Dec, 1802. the battle closing with the as- 
 sault of bis division on the " stone wall " at Marye Heights; 
 iu command of his division at Chancellorsville, the time of 
 service of which expiring soon after, bo was (May 20) as- 
 signed to the 2d division :iil corps, which he commanded 
 with great ability at Gettysburg, extricating it from its per- 
 ilous position, tliough wiih great loss; on July 8 was pro- 
 moted to be m.ajor-general of volunteers and appointed 
 chief of staB' to the commanding general Army of the Po- 
 tomac, which important and responsible duty he performeil 
 wilh great credit until assigned to the command of the 2il 
 army corps, Nov. 25. 1804. a period when, though the close 
 was nigh, much hard fighting remained to bo done. In 
 the stirring events before Petersburg and subsequent pursuit 
 of the Confederate army the 2d corps continued to bear an 
 important part, up to tiic final action at Farmvillc Apr. 7, 
 its commander winning the brevet of major-general U. S. A. 
 for Sailor's Creek. Apr. 0, 1805. Continued in the volunteer 
 service until Aug. .SI, 1806, during the first half of the year 
 engaged on plans for the relief of the alluvial region of 
 the Mississippi from inundation: Aug. 8, 1800, appointed 
 chief of engineers, V. S. army, with the rank of brigadier- 
 general, which position he stiil retains (1875). In addition 
 to the high duties of his office has served on the light- 
 house board and on various commissions coneerning im- 
 portant engineering works. Is also member of various 
 American and foreign scientific societies. G. C. SiMMOxs. 
 
 Humphreys (DAVin), LL.D.. h. at Derby, Conn., in 
 1752: entered the ormy as a captain at the beginning of 
 the Revolutionary war; was appointed aide-de-camp to 
 AVashington in 1780 ; accompanied Jefferson to France in 
 1780 as secretary of legation: went in 1794 to Lisbon, and 
 in 1797 to Madrid, as ambassador, and returned to America 
 in 1802. He was one of the first to introduce merino sheep 
 to this country, and established a large woollen and cotton 
 factory in Derby. During the war of 1812 he commanded 
 the militia of Connecticut, and d. at New Haven Feb. 21, 
 1818. While residing at Hartford ( 1780-SS) he published, 
 together with Hopkins. Barlow, and Trumbull, tho .Aiuir- 
 
 cliiad. The most prominent of his other poems arc In 
 
 Addremi to the Avmiea of the U.S. (1782i, The Future lllori/ 
 of the U. S.. The Lore of Country, and The Death of II ii«A- 
 iiK/iou. He also wrote a I.U'e of Pnluam in 1 79S. His works 
 were collected and published in New York in 1790 and 1804. 
 Humphreys (Henry Noel), b. at Birmingham in 
 1810 : resided for several years on the Continent, especial- 
 ly in Rome: and puidisbed in 1840 his first work, the de- 
 scriptions to W. B. Cooke's VIeien in Home. Together wilh 
 I. O. Westwood. he published in the same year Driiiih 
 TlullerlheH. and their Trannformaliinm and BriHnh Moths, 
 and their Transformations. 'Among bis other publications 
 arc— .-lii.iViit Coins and Medals iu 1850, The Coiuage of the 
 British Fmplrc in 1854, and a number of anonymous novels. 
 Hum'phry ( Wim.iam Gii.son), M. A., b. in 1815 ; grad- 
 uated in 1837 at Cambridge : was Hulse.an lecturer at that 
 university in 1849-50; and was nomin.atcd vicar to St. 
 Martin-in-thc-Fields. London, 1855. His Ilulscan lectures 
 were on The Doelrinc of a Future Slate and The Early Proj- 
 ress of the Gospel. He has also written A Commcntar;/ on 
 the n'ool- of the Arts of the Apostles, The Character of Si. 
 Paul iu 1858, Thcophiliu of Anlioch, etc. 
 
 Hu'mus T'^er. ITnmin: Fr. huinine; from Lat. hwnus, 
 "moist earlli" (soil)]: Iluiiiii- .Vcid \Gkv. flumlnsUurc; 
 Fr. aeide /iiimiV/ii.-j ; lUmine [Ger. Flmin ; Fr. viminc; 
 from Lat. ulmus, the "elm tree"]: lUmic Acid (Ger. 
 UlminsUurc; Ft. acidc ,<lm!,,ue] : IJeiC .Vcid [tier, (iein- 
 sUnre: Fr. «cirf<- flcii/nr: from Gr. ri or r.a. tlic "earth ] j 
 Crcnic and Apocrenic Acids [Ger. Qnellsaure and 
 
 Qiiellsah.siiure : Fr. arides e,-,-,i/./.lc and ajMcrenyiue^ ; from 
 
 Gr. Kpiji'i. a ••well" or ••spring"); l\itrohnmic Acids, 
 Silico-nitrohumic Compounds, I'eat, etc. Tins 
 large class of substances — comprising the proximate or 
 more immediate products of decay, fermentation, and ero- 
 macausis of plant-tissues, under subacrial or subaqueous 
 agencies, or both— presents great' chemical difficulties in its 
 exact investigation. It has therefore, notwilhstauding its 
 essential import.ancc in connection with several sciences 
 ,„„1 arts — including (dant physiology, plant nutritiori, 
 chemical geology, ogrieulture. watcr-supjdy, etc.- received, 
 so far. the attention of but few chemists. Fortunately, 
 these few include some of the greatest and most reliable 
 names, such as Berzclius. Mulder. Bcrlhclot, Paul Tbi'nard, 
 etc. : so that our knowledge, imperfect and incomplcic as 
 it is. has especial value. The ulmic and humic subslances 
 found in soil and vegetable ••mould," rotten wood, peat, 
 etc. were chiefly investigated by Mulder about 1.840- 
 
 -45;
 
 HUMUS. 
 
 1027 
 
 the cronic and npocrenic compounds l)y Berzclius about 
 the same period, and later also by Mulder; while the highly 
 imporiant relatiuii? of the huinic suhslances to silica were 
 aunounccd only five years since by Paul Th6nard, and arc 
 but obscurely Ivnuwn. 
 
 Ulmiiir. — This is the name j»iven by Mulder to that por- 
 tion of brown decaying or decayed vegetable matter, such 
 as rotten wood. peat, etc., which is insoluble in water, adds, 
 and alkalies. The name uimfne originated with Klaproth, 
 who applied it to what was probably n gun-.my exudation 
 friini an idm tree. The propriety of its use here is not evi- 
 dent. Mulder found also that canc-sugur, when boiled 
 with acids, air being absent, yielded brown substances so 
 similar in composition and chemical characters that he 
 prepared mitst of his ulmino and ulmic acid for investiga- 
 tion in this way. Mulder's analyses of ulmine, both from 
 peat and from sugar, yielded him the formula (now nota- 
 tion) ('-.•oHigO;: which it will be useful to us to reduce to 
 nn expression ** isologous " (having the same carbon-num- 
 ber) with those now most commonly in use for cellulose, 
 the proximate plnnt-constitucnt from which natural ul- 
 mine is generally, or at least chiefly, formed — and for su- 
 crose. 
 
 Sucrose (cane-sugar) Ci^HcsOn. 
 
 Cellulose riiyijoOio. 
 
 XTlminc rjslIsGOi.s. " 
 
 There seems small ])robability that this so called ulmine is 
 composed of a single definite compound, and it is doubt- 
 less a mixture of two or more. 
 
 The illustrious Itcrthclot ]>ublished in ISOO some curious 
 experiments with Mulder's ulmine from sugar, consisting 
 in the application thereto of his new synthetic method of 
 hi/ilrnf/runtinn, by heating to 27.*° C, underpressure, with 
 concentrated bydriodic acid. {linllctin dc In Soci/^f^ Ch!- 
 mirjne df /*ori>, Apr.. ISfiO, p. 2^\.) The ulmino was 
 changed almost entirely into liquid hydrocarbons, from 
 which he obtained, by fractional distillation, the principal 
 one. boiling at about 200°, which gave him the composition 
 CttHsfi. He calls it hi/drtirrt '»/ tfiiodcr'/lcnc. This is evi- 
 dently a saturated hydrocarbon, homologous with marsh- 
 gas. CnHjn^?. Like the parafhnes and other pctroleum- 
 hydnM-arlnms. he found it to be indiflVrent to the action of 
 the most powerful reagents. These facts have an obvious 
 bearing on tho true theory of petroleum-genesis. 
 
 Uftnic Acid, — This is tho portion of brown peat, rotten 
 wood, sugar rotted by hot acids, etc. which is soluble in 
 alkalies. Mulder's formula, amended, is CjoiruOa, or re- 
 ducing, as before, to an isologuo of cellulose. Ci^IIt 40^6. 
 This is much more likely to bo a definite compound than 
 ulmine, and it will bo observed that it difTers from cellulose 
 by not very far from HIIjO, which difTerencc. if exact, 
 would give for ulmic acid (doubling tho formula) CimIIicOs, 
 anil would make the action of tlio acid one of simple de- 
 hydration, as usual. Another ehomist, namoil Ph-in. has 
 pjnce made analyses of ulmine and ulmic acid, and claims 
 that they are isomeric, both eorrespon<ling to C-nUtH^^g. 
 Ulmic acid, precipitated from alkaline solutions by a min- 
 eral acid, is a brownish jelly, which, as soon as the precip- 
 itating acid is washed out, begins to dissolve in the wash- 
 water. Its perfect S'dubility in pure water and in alkalies 
 is partly impaired by strong desiccation, ulmino being 
 probably formed. Nitric acid converts it into formic and 
 oxalic acids, and into nporretiatc of ammonia. Concen- 
 trated muriatic acirl, without access of air. converts it into 
 olminc. A nnmbrr of tdmnfrg were described by Mulder. 
 
 HumuH or //iimitir. — Mulder makes this to be a jiroduct 
 of oxidation of ulmine, with separation of water. His 
 derivation of humino from ulmine may be thus expressed : 
 Ci^HfteOij t- Oort-0.:tH20=»C,2no04.5 = humino. Hu- 
 minc is also obtained directly from sugar by long boiling 
 with aeids in tho presence of air, and dissolving out tlio 
 ulmic and humie acids formed from tho huniine by an al- 
 kali. It is eonvortod by strong alkalies into humic acid. 
 
 liumir Acid ( ('12H7 2'^3fi*. — Black peat contains humic 
 acid in combination with ammonia, a compound so strong 
 lliat boiling with soilic carbonate will not decompose it, 
 but only dissolve it to a double humato of soda and am- 
 monia. Potash expels the ammonia, but with destruction 
 of the humic acid. MuMor appears to have obtained pure 
 humic acid only artifiri:i|Iy, h\ Inntr bnilinu of sug:ir S 
 parts, sulphuric moriohydrate 2, and water 20, disi^olving 
 tho dark-brown produet in potash, and precipitating with 
 muriatic acirl— a brownish-blaek slimy mass, which when 
 dry is insolubh- in water, black, jet-like, amorphous, taste- 
 less, and inodorous. Nitric acid etrnverts it into apocrenate 
 of ammonia, with formation of formic and oxalio acids. 
 Concentrated sulphuric acid, without air, forms a now 
 black substance of curious properties, not named by Mul- 
 der. Mulder makes tho remarkablp statement that this 
 liumie acid, wholly fri'o from nitrogen, exposed in a moist 
 pla'-o fr.r «\x months to tho air. is then foimd to contain 
 
 considerable ammonia; inferring that during its oxidation 
 the aerial nitrogen is caused to combine with the hydro- 
 gen of the humic acid, and presumably also that in soils 
 this same process of ammonia-genesis must proceed by 
 virtue of their contained humic acid. Iloussin^ault's ex- 
 periments have appeared to disprove this ; but F. H. Storer 
 has shown ( liiif/rtin 0/ thf liuHnrif Af/riruftnral IiiHtiftition, 
 
 1874, pp. 2G2-2riS) that Boussingault's experiments were 
 not conclusive, and has reopened a number of questions 
 connected with this subject ; insomuch that a re-examina- 
 tion of the original rest-arches of Mulder seems desirable. 
 Mulder found rotten willow-wood to be composed, in part, 
 of humate of ammonia, evolving ammonia with potn?h. 
 In black garden-mould humic acid exists also as humate 
 of ammonia, with crenic and apocrenic salts, and is difficult 
 to isolate. From such soils Mulder obtained his </eicac!d, 
 which he makes to be Ci2^h.i^*.i' 
 
 Crenic and Aporretn'c Arida. — Berzelius discovered these 
 two compounds together in a mineral uprivff in Sweden, 
 whence these names. They arc now known t*) be eommon 
 products of vegetable decay. Mulder first found them in 
 soils, as above statecl. They are also found in some iron 
 ochres and bog ores ; and Berzelius recommends their 
 preparation from these latter by boiling with potash, add- 
 ing acetic acid and acetate of copper, which precipitates 
 brown apocren.ate of copper. On filtering, saturating with 
 carbonate of ammonia, and adding cupric acetate again in 
 excess, the greenish-white crcnate of copper goes down 
 completely on warming. For the composition of these 
 acids Berzclius's analyses afford 
 
 Crenic acid CjiHsoOig. 
 
 Apocrenic acid Cj^HuOig. 
 
 Mulder states that they cannot be obtained wholly free 
 from ammonia. Crenic acid, isolated from the cupric crc- 
 nate by sulphohydric acid, and dried, forms a hard, trans- 
 parent, yellowish, amorphous, inodorous mass, of acid and 
 astringent taste, solublo in all proportions in water and alco- 
 hol. Its aqueous solution absorbs oxygen, producing apo- 
 crenic acid; dissolves in eold nitric acid without reaction, 
 and is apparently not much acted on by the hoifiti^ acid. 
 Apocrenic acid is dark in color, dissolves with brown color 
 in water, also in aloohol, not in other; has an acid reaction 
 on litmus, but its taste is astringent, like tannin, and not 
 sour. Sal-ammr)niac and murintir acid both precipitate it 
 from aqueous solution as dark -brown flocks. 
 
 A recent experimenter. M. W. Detmcr. reports that ho 
 could not accomplish the absorption by the roots of plants, 
 or by a seawood, of solutions of humic acid or of soluble 
 huniates, but that crenic acid, on the contrary, was readily 
 absorbed. Ho attributes this to the possession, by the 
 humic compounds, of a coffoid nature; and he concludes 
 that humic matters in the soil must pass by oxidation into 
 crenntes and n(poorenatcs before nourishing plants. Ac- 
 c«»rding to a very ])Ossible hy])Othrsis, however, these humus- 
 matters merely act as ammonia-providers for the roots, 
 without any absorption thereinto on their own part, but by 
 forming ammonia from tho air. If this bo their function, 
 their incapacity of absorption by the roots becomes merely 
 a provision to secure their continuance of action. 
 
 Jfunn'r ^fnftrrH and SHira.—Jn 1S70, M. Paul ThC-nard 
 made a communication to the French Academy of Sciences 
 of a merely preliminary kind, which appears to promise an 
 era in the history of this subject, although it appears to 
 have awakened little attentirm. ( Coinptrt licndnn, vol. Ixx. 
 p. 1II2.) Ho claimed to have discovored that by certain 
 modes of fixing ammonia in humic compounrls by substi- 
 tution (as in tho formation of ethylamino, for example), he 
 had formed at least four new compounds of the humic type 
 which had tho power to dissolve groat quantities of silica. 
 These bodies possess a remarkable (ixity, not completely 
 losing their nitrogen at temperatures between 1000° and 
 1200° C. These new compounds, which he calls nitro-humic 
 acids {aciden uzhnmiffUfA, contain from 7.5 to 24 per cent, 
 of nitrogen, and the proporti()ns of silica which they are 
 oble to take up nrc proportional to these numbers. There 
 are thus formed new acids, which he calls silico-nitrohumio 
 {Hi/icn-azhuini«fu^n) acids. Ills nitrohumio acids exist nat- 
 urally in small proportion in soils. In his brief discus- 
 sion of the subject ho maintains that the silica which is 
 always found in solution in the colored li(|nids that leach 
 from soils (as had been shown analytically by MM. Verdcil 
 and Kisler) has entered into solution in the form of his 
 silieo-nitrohumic aeids; also distinctly favoring tho view 
 that the tiitrnf/rn uf thr nir enicrs here into the process for 
 the behoof of vegetation. 
 
 prat. — It is manifest that the above facts have an inti- 
 mate bearing upon the origin, history, composition, nature 
 and properties of the common material known by this name, 
 peat, aecording to the cirenmstances of its formatitm or 
 subsequent exposure to aerial oxidation, will contain either 
 ulmic or humic compounds, or both, in admixture with
 
 1028 
 
 HUNDRED— HUNGARY. 
 
 more or less of unaUe:cJ cellulose. These compounds will 
 contain more or loss ainiuonia already in combination — 
 even if the ammonia-making power be denied lo it — and 
 hence should have ils value, greater or less, as an agricul- 
 tural agent. The discussion of peat as a fuel, the condi- 
 tions of it.s growth and formation, with otlu-r points relat- 
 ing to peat, will be elsewhere treated of. IIknuv Wl'Iitz. 
 
 Hun'dred [perhaps because originally supposed to con- 
 tain a hundred families], a division of many English coun- 
 ties, is stated to have been first made by King Alfred. 
 Some of the counties have no hundreds, but have wapen- 
 tnkes. wards, or other similar di\'isi<ins. The counties of 
 Delaware are likewise divided into humireds. 
 
 Huner'ic ['Ovtupixo^], the second king of the Vandalic 
 empire in Africa, reigned from 477 to 4M a. n. He was a 
 son of Gcnseric, and married to a daughter of the emperor 
 Valentiuian. lie was cruel and cowardly, and became most 
 noted for the persecutions which he raised against the or- 
 thodox Christians. 
 
 Iluiifarvy (Pal), b. Mar. 12, 1810, at Nagy-Pzalok, in 
 Hungary: studied law ; was appointed professor in juris- 
 prudence in 1S!2 at the academy of Kasmark ; sat in the 
 Hungarian diet 1818-49, and has lived since in Pcsth. By 
 his philological and ethnological researches he has defined 
 the position of the Hungarian language in the Uro-AUaic 
 family, and explained its relations to the Finnish and 
 Turkish. In ISJG he founded Ma(ji/ar A't/ch-i-szrf, a period- 
 ical for the Hungarian language, in Peslh ; in 18(il he gave a 
 Cfnestontathiii Fonu'rii. — His brother, Janos Hl'NFALVY, b. 
 at Gross-Schlagcudorf June 8. 1820. became professor of sta- 
 tistics and history at Kasmark in lS4fi : took part in the Hun- 
 garian rising in 184S, and lives since 1S5.S in Buda as pro- 
 fessor of history at the Polytechnic School. He has written 
 a Uiiicei-Htil History (1862), a Geography of Hungary {Z 
 vols., 1803-66). etc. 
 
 Hunga'rian Grass, an annual grass much sown as a 
 forage-plant, is merely a variety of Sctaria Germanica, 
 the common millet. It is valuable for its quick, luxuriant 
 growth on even poor soils, and is much relished by horses 
 and cattle; but if overfed it appears to act as a diuretic, 
 and is hence by many considered injurious to horses. If 
 fed in reasonable quantity, it is very nutritious and quite 
 harmless. It gives a good weight of excellent hay. 
 
 Huu'gary, in the wider sense of the word, meaning the 
 countries of the Hungarian crown, consists of Hungary 
 proper, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slavonia, and com- 
 prises an area of 98,717 square miles, with a population of 
 15.609,45a, It forms an independent state, the kingdom 
 of Hungary, and constitutes one part of the Austrian em- 
 pire, the Transleithan kingdom, being connected with tho 
 German and t^lavic countries, which form the other, the 
 Cisleithan j)art of the empire, by a common dynasty, a 
 common army and navy, and a common representation in 
 foreign countries. The emperor of Austria bears the title 
 of king of Hungary, and governs tho kingdom of Hungary 
 by a responsible ministry and a diet, which assembles an- 
 nually and consists of 47.3 members, of whom 369 are re- 
 turned from Hungary proper, 96 from Transylvania, and 
 18 from Croatia and Slavonia. 
 
 Hungary, in tho narrower sense of the word, meaning 
 Hungary proper, comprises an area of 68.583 square miles, 
 with 1 1,630,397 inhabitants, of whom, with respect to races, 
 4.950,000 are Magyars. 2,:>&0,000 ^Slavi, 1,470,000 Rou- 
 manians, 1,430,000 Germans, and tho rest belonging to 
 other different nationalities; and with respect to religion, 
 6,933,813 are Roman Catholics, 2,607.983 Protestants, 
 2,395,81 8 belong to the Greek Church, and 51 7,338 arc Jews. 
 
 The surface of the country presents a vast plain sloping 
 down from tho Carpathian Mountains, which form tho 
 northern boundary, and the Alps, which cover the southern 
 frontier districts towards tho Danube, which, with its pow- 
 erful affluents, the Theiss, the Drave, and the Save, trav- 
 erses it and drains tho soil. The soil of this plain is in 
 some places sandy, almost desert-like, in others, especially 
 along the Theiss, swampy and marshy, but generally it is 
 extremely fertile, and by tho raj)id progress of agriculture 
 the unproduc'.ive portions of the soil arc annually dimin- 
 ished. Tho climate has also its drawbacks. Tho winters 
 are often severe and protracted; the summers are often 
 very hot, and droughts and destructive hailstorms are not 
 unfrequent. But in gener.al it is agreeable, healthful, and 
 favorable to agricultural pursuits. Of the soil, one-third is 
 covered with splendid oak forests, in which large flocks of 
 Bwine are fed, and which literally swarm with jiheasants, 
 partridges, deer, slags, wild-boars, and wolves. Another 
 third is under tillage, and although agriculture, in spite 
 of recent progress, is still in a backward state, between 
 60.000,000 and 70.000,000 bushels of wheat of first quality 
 are annually raised over the demand for home consumption. 
 The remaining portion is partly occupied by meadows, where 
 
 large herds of cattle, sheep, and horses of superior quality 
 are reared, partly by gardens, orchards, and fields uf llax 
 and hemp, and partly by vineyards, which produce the 
 tiacst wines and in sufficient quantity to supply the half 
 of Europe. No less abundant is the mineral wealth of the 
 country. The supply of rock-salt is inexhaustible ; and of 
 other useful minerals there were produced in 1858, 44,000 
 ounces of gold, 48,000 ounces of silver, 6300 cwts. of quick- 
 silver, 27,000 cwts. of lead, 36.760 cwts. of copper, 1,676.000 
 cwts. of iron, and over 7,000,000 cwts. of coal. What Hun- 
 gary lacks to beconu) one of the richest countries in the 
 world are, first, the tools of modern civilization — namely, 
 associations to create capital, machinery to cheapen pro- 
 duction, and railways to carry the products into the mar- 
 ket — and then a little more of that spirit which understands 
 how to use these tools, a little more of that modern spirit 
 which prefers the bustle and energy of enterprise to the 
 half-dreamy enchantment of the imagination. 
 
 Hungary is inhabited by several distinct races speaking 
 several distinct languages, but the predominant race is the 
 Magyar, a high-sj)iritcd, proud, and generous people, 
 richly gifted in every respect, in body strong, mentally 
 bright, and possessed of an inexhaustible energy. They 
 came into Hungary at the close of the ninth century. The 
 country had been a Roman possession, forming parts of the 
 two provinces of Pannonia and Dacia. After the fall of 
 the Roman empire it was overrun by different nations, 
 among which the Huns and the Avars sustained themselves 
 on the soil for the longest period, and are supposed to have 
 given the country its name. At the close of the ninth cen- 
 tury it was divided into many small kingdoms, and Wal- 
 lachs, Bulgarians, and (iermans formed a large portion of 
 the population. The Magyars are a Turanian per.ple, 
 allied to the Turks and to the Finns. For a long time they 
 dwelt first in Caucasus, and then in the region between tho 
 Don and the Dniester, but in 887 they descended under 
 Arpad into the plain of the Danube, and after ten years' 
 fighting they conquered tho country and ruled from tho 
 summits of the Carpathian Mountains to the foot of tho 
 Styrian Alps. Their history falls into three periods — under 
 tho dynasty of the Arpads to 1301; under tho elective mon- 
 archy from 1301 to 1526, and under the dynasty of the 
 house of Hapsburg from 1526 to our time — but during its 
 whole course, and in spite of the many splendid deeds and 
 great achievements which it contains, its general character 
 throughout is a peculiar backwardness, tending either to 
 enslave the nation by indolence or to break it into fac- 
 tions. The most remarkable of tho Arpad dynasty was 
 Stephen I., from 997 to 1U3S. He was crowned by Pope 
 Sylvester II. in 1000 as king of Hungary, and received tho 
 title of "His Apostolic JIajesty " (which since that time 
 has been the title of the Hungarian kings) as a reward for 
 his exertions in Lehalf of the Church. Under him Chris- 
 tianity was established among the people, tho country was 
 divided into bishoprics, and schools were founded for clas- 
 sical and theological learning. But it was also under him 
 that Latin became not only the official langunge of the 
 Hungarian government, but also tho only acknowledged 
 vehicle of Hungarian civilization ; and this ])itiful mistake, 
 this great calamity, stood unremedied for nearly 800 years, 
 and affected tho people like a somniferous potion. During 
 the next period the elements of faction were grafted on 
 the nation. Of all forms of government, the elective mon- 
 archy is the worst. People think it a privilege to choose for 
 their king him whom they like. But that privilege is a 
 curse. If a king were elected only for a limited time, the 
 election would be a privilege, for then it would be possible 
 for those interests which were defeated at tho election to 
 live and work on as a party. But as soon as the king is 
 elected for life the party, defeated at the election, immedi- 
 ately becomes a faction. Furthermore, the elective monarchy 
 gave the Hungarian nubility an opi)ortunity of carrying 
 changes into the constitution of the country which made it 
 possible for them to depress the peasantry into serfdom, and 
 prevent the formation of a powerful third estate living 
 independent in the cities; and the nobility did not for- 
 get to utilize the op])ortunity. The most backward period, 
 however, is that under the government of the house of Haps- 
 burg. Twice the Hungarians saved this house from utter ruin 
 — first, under Maria Thorrsa, when all Kurope felt a desiro 
 to divide her dominions ; and a second time, under Francis, 
 when Napoleon hesitated whether he would let this family 
 cease to reign, or whether he would marry one of its daugh- 
 ters. But this fidelity has more than once been rewarded 
 with infamous treachery. Up to the days of the present em- 
 peror it was always thn policy of Austria to try to dissolve 
 the Hungarian constitution, and recast the Hungarian nation 
 in German moulds. Tho effect of thispolicy wasjust opposite 
 to what was intended: it brought the different estates of the 
 Hungarian people, the haughty nobility and the poor serfs, 
 nearer together, and that political movement in modern
 
 HUNUARY. 
 
 1029 
 
 civilization which demands equal participation in tho gov- 
 ernment for all citizens of the state, equal taxation of all 
 tho members of the society, equal nckuowlcdgment ot all 
 religious denominations, and absolute abrogation of all 
 privileges and monopolies, was in Hungary brought about 
 by tho nobilitv itself. A constitution dictated by this spirit, 
 abolishing feudality, enacting a new election law, and pro- 
 claiming the liberty of the press, was sanctioned by the 
 diet an 1 by the Austrian crapernr in 184?, but at the very 
 same lime'thc Austrian government in Vienna began agi- 
 tatin". through its agents, the German, tJlavic. and Kou- 
 manian races living in Hungary, against the Magyars, and 
 it succeeded in creating such an uproar and confusion in 
 tho country that the abrogation of the free constitution by 
 Russian arms and tho establishment of an unmixed despot- 
 ism seemed the only means by « bich to procure order. The 
 relations between llungary and Austria were very near an 
 open rupture when the revolution of Feb., 1818. broke out 
 in Paris, and occasioned a similar rising in Vienna. On 
 Mar. 13, Prince Mctternich fell, and with hiin the old re- 
 gime. The emperor Ferdinand acceded in principle to all 
 the demands of the llungurians. An independent Hun- 
 garian ministry was formed under the presidency of Count 
 Batthyiinvi; Kossuth and Ueak were among its members, 
 and the Diet of Presburg dissolved after sanctioning the 
 necessary measures for tho convocation of a national as- 
 sembly at Pestb in .July. It can hardly be doubled, how- 
 ever, that the Austrian government began to undermine 
 this agreement almost from the very moment it made it. The 
 Slavonian, Itoumauian, and German parts of tho popula- 
 tion of Hungary were jealous of the predominance of the 
 Magyars. The Germans and .Slavonians of Hungary proper 
 protested against the separaticm from Austria, and Tran- 
 sylvania and Croatia demanded the same independence of 
 liie lluiigiirian crown as Hungary of the Austrian. This 
 mnvement was stirred up by secret emissaries from Vienna, 
 and in some cases — as, for instance, in the election of Jel- 
 hu-hich as ban of Croatia, and his defiant opposition to 
 the Hungarian government — it was openly encouraged. 
 Soon a war of races bndic out with fury within the boun- 
 daries of ilungary. The national assembly convened in 
 July, and, fired by the eloquence of Kossuth, it promptly 
 agreed on measures for the suppression of the Slavonian 
 rebellion: 42,0110, UOO florins were granted, 200,000 troops 
 were levied, tho Honviids were formed, the fortresses 
 equipped, cic. But from this time tho central government 
 at Vienna made greater and greater difficulties. It de- 
 clared a separation between Hungary and Austria in mili- 
 tary and financial respeels an impossibility, and it con- 
 tinued to employ the Hungarian troops for tho suppression 
 of tho insurrection in its Italian ]irovinces. At last it 
 plainly refused to sanction the measures of the national 
 assembly, and .lellachich crossed the Drave. In Septem- 
 ber the cabinet of DatthySnyi resigned, and a coniinittce 
 of defence under tho presidency of Kossuth was formed. 
 A vigorous resistance against the Slavonians on the one 
 siile and the central Austrian government on tho other was 
 organized; Jellachich was defeated; anil when a new ris- 
 ing took place in October at Vienna, the Hungarian cause 
 seemed to have won. IJut in December the emperor Fer- 
 dinand abdicated: Francis .Joseph acceded to the throne; 
 the Austrian arms were successful in Lombardy ; and in 
 the spring of ISI'.t an Austrian army under Prince Wind- 
 isehgriitz entered Ilungary. demanding unconditional obe- 
 dience 10 the Austrian aiitborily. The national assembly, 
 which had moved from Pestli to Debreczin, declared the 
 house of Uapsburg deposed, chose Kossuth governor-gen- 
 eral of the country, and a deadly struggle commenced. 
 The various successes, the military heroism, and the polit- 
 ical confusion with which it was carried on are described 
 in the articles on Bi;m, Dkmhinski, lioKc:i:i, Ki,ai-ka, Kos- 
 suth, etc. It was decided by the intervention of Russia. 
 One Kussian corps under Paniutine entered Hungary from 
 tho W., another under I^iiders from the K., while a third 
 army, numbcriug 130, 000 men. under Paskewieh. entered 
 tlio Hungarian plain from the N., Aug. 13, 1840. (iiirgei 
 surrendered at Vihiyos; Kossuth, MC'sziiros, and others 
 (led to Turkey ; and many of the richest and noblest men 
 of the nation became scattered all over tlio world. Bat- 
 thviinyi, Kis, and others were executed, and all tho dun- 
 geons of the empire were filled. Thus Austrian order was 
 once more restored. Nevertheless, in spite of the terrible 
 defeat, the resistance of the Hungarian people was by no 
 means broken. An opposition ogainst the Austrian rule 
 was soon formed on a broader basis and with a clearer 
 consciousness, and the demands for the constitution of 
 1818 became louder and louder every year. At last, 
 after the battle of Sadowa (.Tuly 3, 186(5), and the entire 
 separation of Austria from Germany, the Austrian gov- 
 crnmenl felt compelled to submit. In Feb., ISflV.an iinle- 
 pcndent Hungariuu ministry was formed under the leader- 
 
 ship of Count Andrdssy, and in December of the same year 
 the final emancipation of the Hungarian crown on the 
 basis of the constitution of 1S4S was accomplished. There 
 still reigns a good deal of confusion and some strife in the 
 relations of the country, both within and without, hut, 
 generally speaking, the country is now rapidly progressing 
 in material as well as intellectual respects. 
 
 When in the ninth century the Magyars settled in the 
 Hungarian plain, their language was already fixed, and 
 seems to have undergone comparatively few and unimport- 
 ant changes. The foreign words it lias adopted, Latin, 
 Greek, Slavic, licnnan, and Turkish, have been thor- 
 oughly remodelled. It belongs to the Turanian family, 
 is nearest akin to the Turkish and Finnish, and resembles 
 the latter closely in its )ihonetic system, especially in its 
 vocalization and in its grammatical formations. It has, 
 however, in its compound sibilants ca and c r, and gen- 
 erally in its accent, when spoken with passion, something 
 weird and wild which tho Finnish has not, and which 
 sounds very strange to a Saxon car. It is spoken, at 
 present, in tour dialects — the Gyori, on the Raab : the 
 Bihari, on tho Theiss; the PaI6cz, in the Mutra Moun- 
 tains; and the Sz6kely, in Transylvania. The last is said 
 to bo somewhat mixed with Tartar words, the third to 
 contain most ancient words, but tho difference between 
 them and the written language is not, great. It was not, 
 however, until the latter part of the eighteenth century 
 that this language liecame a truly literary language and 
 the bearer of a national civilization. With the introduc- 
 tion of Christianity, about 1000, Latin became the lan- 
 guage not only of the Church and its service, but also of 
 the Taw and all court proceedings. Tiicre were monasteries 
 and ecclesiastical seminaries in Hungary in the elcvcntll 
 century ; in the twelfth, Magyars frequented tho universi- 
 ties of Paris and Bologna; and in the Ihirtecnth, they 
 founded libraries and schools at home. But all communi- 
 cation with Western Europe, and, indeed, the whole pro- 
 cess of civilization, was carried on in the Latin language, 
 and the national tongue, so far as it appeared in public, 
 was confined to the eiunp and tho tavern. In this a change 
 took place with tho Reformation, which was introduced 
 into Hungary from Bohemia. Translations of the Bible 
 occur as early as 1382, but in tho sixteenlh they became 
 frequent; Konijati (li33), Pesti (1530), Sylvester (lo41), 
 Heltai (lo4G), Szekely (lO'lS), Melius (150,1), etc. The 
 chronicle of the country was written in the native tongue 
 by Szekely (1550), Tcmesvilri (1509), and Heltai (1572). 
 liymns, and even popular songs, were produced. The 
 development stopped very soon, however, here as in Ger- 
 many and the Scandinavian countries, though from differ- 
 ent causes. The accession of the house of Uapsburg to 
 the Hungarian throne afler tho death of Louis II. in 1526, 
 confirmed Latin as the oflicial language of the country. 
 Tho Reformation itself spread German widely among the 
 middle classes to the detriment of the native tongue, and 
 alter the introduction of the Jesuits in 1561 the Magyar 
 language was looked upon as a cover for heresy. In the 
 seventeenth and the first \r.u-i of tho eighteenth century 
 
 I 
 
 Latin predominated more than ever. The first regular 
 newspaper of the country, started in 1721, was published 
 in Latin. It was the school reforms of Jose]]h II. which 
 first awakened the ]iopiilar spirit, and it was his attempt 
 at Germanizing the people which made the awakened 
 spirit national; the attempt was met with the most de- 
 cided resislance. Laws ivero jjromulgalcd which intro- 
 duced the Hungarian language in schools and courts of all 
 degrees, and social life commenced to assume, in all its 
 various branches, a most decidedly national eliaiacter. In 
 1787, Matthias Rdth started in Presburg tho first Hunga- 
 rian newspaper, thereby inaugurating a journalistic liter- 
 ature which probably has employed greater talent and 
 exercised a deeper influence than that of any other Euro- 
 pean country. Its most brilliant period embraces the years 
 between 1840 and 1814, when Louis Kossulh edited the 
 /'.<i(i' lliilnp, and treated all vital questions involved in 
 the situation of the Hungarian people with a nobleness of 
 tone and elegance of manner wbiidi actually raised the lit- 
 erary standard of the nation. In 1788, Kiizinczy com- 
 menced his Arar/i/ar Miiiriim, and although this, as well as 
 its nearest descendants in the periodical press, was con- 
 fined to the rich and educated classes, from it sprung a 
 peculiar kind of annuals of misoellaneous contents. Kl/mih; 
 Kmlfuii, elc. wbieli became Very popular. In 1703, Raday 
 established a national Iheaire in Pestb; in 1817 appeared 
 the first comedy by Kdroly Kisliiliidy, and since (he debut 
 uf Joseph Szigligeli as a playwriler in 1831 the Magyar 
 theatre rests principally on the national drama. In 18311, 
 Baron Jnsikacomuieneed bis very i)rolific and successful ac- 
 tivity as a romance- writer, treating subjects of the history of 
 the .Slagyarsafler the mode of Waller Scott, and from 1842 to 
 1810 appeared the //(»(../ 1/ :■/ IIhdiihiii by Horvilh. Other
 
 1030 
 
 HUNGARY NECK— HUNT. 
 
 fit-Ms of literature and science, especially travelling sketches 
 and Innffuagc?, have been taken up and cultivated with equal 
 success during the course of the preseut century. But its 
 true inaufiuration as a literary language, ns Ihe bearer of 
 a national civilization, as the expression of a national ge- 
 nius, the Hungarian language received by the publication 
 in |s]7 of Iliiii/j/'n Low, by Sandor Kisfaludy. An un- 
 broken chain uf lyrical pmduclions or epics, with a strong 
 lyrif^al tone, of different character, but generally of great 
 merit, connects //('/;»/)/'« Love with our days, and culmi- 
 nated with Sdndor Petnfi. With Www all inspiration from 
 foreign ideas, all imitation of foreigu models, censed. The 
 Magyar genius stood fully revealed, free and independent, 
 in one of its phases, and a truly national school of po- 
 etry was formed; one of its chief members is Joliann 
 Ararcy. Nor was the check which this development 
 received from the failure of tho revolution of 1.S48 abso- 
 lute; on tho contrary, after a short and merely tem- 
 porary disturbance, it went on, as it seems, with renewed 
 vigor. Clemens PeteuseV. 
 
 Ilimigary Xeck, tp. of Somerset co., Md., on Chesa- 
 peake \i\i\. Pop. y3s. 
 
 Hungary Water, a perfume for the toilet, is simply 
 dilute alcohol aromatized with sage, rosemary, ginger-root, 
 or other fragrant substances, and then distilled. It has had 
 a limited use in medicine as a stiniulant. 
 
 Hun'ger [Ang. Sax. hmujcr'], the craving for food, tho 
 sensation which impels animals to eat. It is an intensifi- 
 cation of what is called the appetite. An abnormal condi- 
 tion of hunger is also induced in animals by the ablation 
 of the spleen, and perhaps by tho removal of other ductless 
 glands. Hunger is probably induced normally by the gen- 
 eral need of nutriment throughout the system, but the sen- 
 sation is chiefly referred to tho stomach. It may be dimin- 
 ished by the administration of various drugs and by the 
 use of tobacco. 
 
 Ilun'ncwell, post-v. of Jackson tp., Shelby co., Mo., 
 on the Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R., Zl miles W, of Han- 
 nibal. Pop. 327. 
 
 Huns, The [Lat. Hnnm'], were an extremely savage 
 and ugly tribe of warlike nomadcs, with dark complexions, 
 smrtll, deep-set, black eyes, broad shoulders, and flat noses. 
 They came from the vast barren plateaus of Kastcrn Asia, 
 N. of China, and while one part of them settled along tho 
 shores of the Caspian Sea, and later became known as tho 
 AVhite Uuns, the other part crosj^cd the Volga and con- 
 quered the Alani, who became incorporated with tlicm. In 
 370 they crossed the Dnieper, defeated the Goths, and drove 
 them over the Danube into the Roman province of Panno- 
 nia. In 434, under Attihi, they crossed tho Danube, and 
 tho Roman emperor, Thcodosius II., had no other means 
 of stopping them than by paying them an annual tribute. 
 When, after the death of Thcodosius, the tribute ceased 
 to be paid, Attihi pushed forward and visited Gaul, where 
 he was defeated on tho Catalaunian plain, and Italy, 
 where Pope Ken I. persuadeii liim to retreat. After the 
 death of Atlila the Huns dissolved and disappeared 
 among the other barbarian tribes. The Huns were proba- 
 bly Tartars, perhaps of tho Mongol branch, but the 
 term appears to have been used somewhat vaguely, and 
 to have included Turkish or Ugrian peoples, perhaps even 
 the Magyars. 
 
 Hunt, county of the N. E. of Texas. Area, 935 square 
 miles. It is a rolling country, with abundance of hard- 
 wood timber. The soil is generally fertile. Live-stock, 
 corn, cotton, and wool arc staple jtroducts. Cap. Green- 
 ville. Pop. 10,291. 
 
 Hunt, tp. of Scott CO., Ark. Pop. 2S0. 
 Hunt (KnwAnn B.), b. in Livingston co., N. Y., LS22 ; 
 graduated at West Point Military Acaflemy July 1, 1845, 
 ami entered the army as brevet second lieutenant of engi- 
 neers ; jiroMiuted to be second lieutenant Dec., 1S4 J. first lieu- 
 tenant July, 1803, captain July, lSij9, and major Mar., l.Stj3. 
 Upon entering the army in 1845 ho was ordered to New 
 York as assistant to the board of engineers fur coast de- 
 fence, and served in this capacity about one year, when he 
 was detailed for duty at West Point as assistant professor 
 of engineering, which position he retained till 1849, when 
 he was ordered to Boston, Mass., ns assistant engineer in 
 tho construction of Fort Warren. From 1S51 to 1855 he 
 was on duty in the ofi'ice of Prof. Baehe, superintendent 
 V. S. Coast Survey, and from 1855 to 1857 was engaged in 
 the construction of fortifications and lighthouses on the 
 coast of Rhode Island. He was transferred to Key West, 
 Fla., in IS57, and engaged in tho construction of Fort 
 Taylor until 18tJ2, when ho was relieved, and became chief 
 engineer of tho department of the Shenandoah, which po- 
 sition ho held hut a short time, being engaged from Apr., 
 1862, to Oct., 1863, in the construction of forlifioations in 
 
 I Connecticut and Rhode Island, and during the same time 
 on special duly under the navy department in perfecting 
 his invention of a submarine battery (the '* Sea-Miner ") ; 
 and it was while eonducting experiments at Brooklyn, 
 X. Y., with this device that he was overcome by escaping 
 gas, and, falling into the hold of the vessel, was killed, Oct. 
 2, ISfi.'J. Ho was a brother of ex-Gov. Washington Hunt 
 of New York, and a man of high scientific attainments, 
 and earnestly devoted to his country and profession; mem- 
 ber of several scientific associations, and a frequent con- 
 tributor to various literary and scientific publications. 
 
 G. C. Simmons. 
 Hunt (Freeman), b. at Quincy, Mass., Mar. 21, 1804; 
 entered in ISIG a printing-ofiiee in Boston ; established the 
 Ladies' Mafjaziiic and recommenced the publication of tho 
 Pcmn/ Mafjftzinc ; became managing director of the Be- 
 wick Company and edited The American Marjazine ; re- 
 moved in 1831 to New York, where he established The 
 Tratrflrr in 1S31 and the Mrrchaiit's Ma<jazinc in IS39. 
 He also published The Z,H»rari/ of Commerce (1856—57) and 
 The Lives of American Merchants. D. at Brooklyn Mar. 
 2, 185S. 
 
 Hunt (Helen), a daughter of the late Prof. N. W. 
 Fiske, b. at Amherst. Mass., in 1831, became the wife of 
 Maj. E. B. Hunt (1822-63) of the U. S. engineers. She 
 resides at Newport, 11. I. Her Verses hy //. //. (1871) and 
 Bitft iif Travel (1872) have won a brilliant popularity. 
 
 Hunt (IIexry Jatkson), b. in Detroit, Mich, (then a 
 Territory). Sept. 14, 1819; graduated at West Point Mili- 
 tary Academy July 1, 1839, ond entered the army as second 
 lieutenant of artillery ; promoted to be first lieutenant 1840, 
 captain 1852, mnjor 18GI, licuteuant-eolonel 18^3, and col- 
 onel ISfiO; served on frontier and garrison duty 1839-46; 
 in the Mexican -war 1840—48, at Vera Cruz. Cerro Gordo, 
 Churubusco, Molino del Rey (wounded), ChapuUcpec. and 
 the capture of tho city of Mexico (brevet captain and 
 mrvjor). During tho civil war served as aide-de-camp to 
 Gen. McClcIlan, and commanded the artillery reserves uf 
 the Army of the Potomac in the Peninsular campaign of 
 1SG2, r.nd commanded in chief the artillery of that army 
 from Sept. 18, 1CG2, to the close of tlie war. Appointed 
 brigadier-general of volunteers Sept. 15, 1862; brevet major- 
 general of volunteers and brevet colonel, brigadier-general, 
 and major-general of volunteers for gallant services in the 
 field. Author of various reports and papers on artillery, 
 artillery projectiles, tactics, army organization, and organi- 
 zation of artillery schools ; member of various hoanls for 
 the armament of fortification?, and president of the per- 
 manent artillery board for the army. G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Hunt (jAMrs HnNUV Leigh), b. at Southgato, Middle- 
 sex, England, Oct. 19, 17S4, the son of a clergyman who 
 had been a lawyer in Philadelphia. Leigh Hunt was edu- 
 cated at Christ's Hospital, read law for a time, and found 
 a place in the war ofiicc, which he left in IS08. His Jitvc- 
 nilia (poems, lt^01) was published by his father, and in 
 1805 ho became a critic for the JS'ews, a journal, and in 
 1808 established, with his brother John, The JCxaminrr, a 
 journal which became a power in the political world by 
 reason of the independent course of its editors. The bro- 
 thers were impri^^oned (1812-15) for using Irtnguage which 
 was regarded as lacking in respect for the prince regent, 
 but the kindness of Moore. Byron, and the AVhig literati 
 made Hunt's jail-Ufe a very ptensimt episode in his career. 
 His best poem, Thr Stori/ of Jiiwini {\^H)), was among tho 
 hooks written during his imprisonment. His literary life 
 was one of much activity; many volumes of poems, essays, 
 translations, and romance followed ; but in spite of his in- 
 dustry Hunt was always very poor. In 1822 he visited 
 Byron in Italy, ami quarrelled with him, but after tho lat- 
 te'r's death published ReeolhrtitmH uf Uxjrrm in 1828. Hunt 
 performed much editorial labor, and in 1S47 received a pen- 
 sion of £200. Hunt was a man of happy disposition, but was 
 of a character not altogether admirable. Dickens's Harold 
 Skimpole is believed to set forth Hunt's least aclmirablo 
 qualities. As a writer he had a felicitous style anil an 
 artistic way of putting things, but ho wrote too often when 
 he had nothing important to say, and most of his many 
 books are already forgotten. Among the best are .Ucii, 
 yVmnvn, nn<l linuks (1847) and J»^j6i*o_7ra7^/M/ ( 1850), ed- 
 ited by Thornton Hunt, his son. Leigh Hunt d. at Putney 
 Aug. 28. 1859. 
 
 Hunt (John), b. near Lincoln, England, Juno 13, 1S12; 
 joined the Wcsleyan conference in 1836, and in 1838 was 
 sent to the Fiji Islands, where for ten years ho travelled 
 and preached, introducing Christianity in many tribes. D. 
 there in 1S48, having translated the New Testament into 
 the Fiji tongue, besides writing in English a treatise on 
 
 Entirv Sanetijicatifitt. 
 
 Hunt (HirtiARn Monnis), b. in Brattlcboro', Vt.,^Oct. 
 28, 1828; went to Europe iu 1843; was a pupil at tho Ecolo
 
 HUNT— HUNTER. 
 
 1031 
 
 dcs Bcaax Arts in Paris, and attained distinction there; | 
 was made an inspector ot' the builJin;; between the Louvre ' 
 and the Tuilerics; returned to America in ISii; devoted 
 himself actively to his profession, and has been of service 
 in elevating the taste for architecture at home. He has 
 built villas in Newport, residences in liostou and New York, 
 the Stevens' apartment-house, the Lenox Library, the Di- 
 vinity College building at Vale, the Cnpitul extension at 1 
 Washington, and is the architect of the Trihtnn- building 
 in New York. His summer residence is at Newport; in 
 winter he lives in New York. O. B. Fiiotiiinuihu. 
 
 Hunt (RonERTt.b. at Dcvonporl, England, Sept. B, 180". 
 He is a self-educated man, but has acquired a great name, 
 partly by his annually published ilinrrnl Stntiniim for the 
 United Kingilom, which he was the first to establish, 
 partly by his researches on light, communicated to the 
 Tiiii',Mi,rtinnii <;/" lh<- Itritinh Amiodalifm, whence resulted 
 the discovery of several important photographic processes 
 and a better understanding of the chemical in8uences of 
 the solar rays. He is conservator of the Mu.seum of Geol- 
 ogy in Lonilon.and has published I'oclry of Science (1848) 
 and Paiiilici (1!<4'JJ. 
 
 Hunt (Tnoins). M. D.. b. in Charleston, S. C, May 18, 
 ISOS; d. in New Orleans Mar. 30, 1S07; graduated in the 
 medical department of the Tuiversity of Pennsylvania 182'.i, 
 and in ISGH the same degree was conferred upon him by the 
 Royal Univer.sily of Havana. Cuba. He was the first pro- 
 fessor of anatomy and physics in the medical department 
 of the University of Louisiana IS.U ; then its dean, and in 
 IS48 became professor of physiological and pathological 
 anatomy, which he held at his death. He was also house- 
 surgeon to the Charity Hospital: president of the Physico- 
 Medical Society of New Orleans, and became the presiilent 
 of the University of Louisiana 1SC6. Uc also contributed 
 largely to medical journals. P.\i!I, F. Eve. 
 
 Hunt (Thomas Stkkrv), F. R. S., LL.D., Ph. D., b. at 
 Norwich, Conn.. Sept. 5, 1S26 ; studied medicine and chem- 
 istry, and in ISli became assistant in chemistry to Prof. 
 Silliman: served under Sir W. E. Logan as chemist and 
 mineralogist for the geological survey of Canada ; was in 
 IHjjone of the English jurors at the Paris Exposition, 
 when ho received the cross of the Legion of Honor. In 
 185!) ho was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society. He ha.s 
 been professor of chemistry in the University of Quebec 
 anil in .Mctiill College, .Montreal, and now lISTa) holds a 
 similar position in the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
 nology. He has written many important papers upon min- 
 eralogy, chemistry, dynamic geology, and kindred topics. 
 
 Hunt (Waup". LL.r).,b. at Utica, N.Y., Juno U.ISIO; 
 educated at Hamilton and Union Colleges, graduating in 
 182H: was mayor of Utica and member of the New York 
 assembly ; was judge of the court of appeals of the State of 
 New York from 1S6S to 1873. when he became justice of 
 the Supreme Court of the U. S. 
 
 Hunt (Wasehsgton), b. at Windham, N. Y., Aug. 5, 
 181 1 : admitted to the bur at Loekport in 18:M ; appointed 
 first judge of Niagara Co. in l.s.'iil; member of Congress 
 |si:i-l'J; comptroller of New York 184il, and governor 
 18JI-53. He was one of the leaders of the conservative 
 wing of the Whig party, and when Ibis party was dissolved 
 ho became a Democrat. He was a delegate to the Chicago 
 Convention in 1804, and d. in New York Feb. 2, 18G7. 
 
 Hunt (William Hoi. man), b. in London in 1827; stud- 
 ied in the school of the Royal Academy, and exhibited for 
 the first time in 1840. In the first years he generally took 
 his subject from some poet, Keats, liulwer, and others, but 
 with his picture .4 Vnurirlrd lln'litih Fiinlili/ Slicllnintj a 
 ChriHtinn MUxioiutry from the /\ rteriition i// thi- DruidH, 
 exhibited in 18j0, a radical change had taken place, not 
 only in his choice of subjects, but also in his style of exe- 
 cution ; with this picture the new school of pre-Raphael- 
 ites was, if nitt fountled, at least announced. In US.'j.'l he 
 painted Our Entjlitlt C-m^tn; in 18J4, The .lira/.'riir(/ t'uii- 
 tcient-c and TIk: Light of thr Wurfti, explained in two letters 
 by Kuskiii, published in the Timirn; in 18ti7, After Snnnct 
 I'l'i Kfifi/il! and in 1872, The Shfuloio if Ih.ilh. 
 
 Hunt (William Mdiiiiis), brother of Richard M., b, in 
 Bratlleboro', \l.. Mar. 31. IS24 ; entered Harvard College 
 in l.sio, but did ntit eomidetc bis course: went to Diissel- 
 dorf in 18411: in 1848 was a pupil of Coutnre in Paris; re- 
 turned to the U.S. in 18.').i. and took up his residence in 
 Newport, but removed thence to .laniaica Plain, which is 
 now ineluiled in lloston. Hunt was one of the first to intro- 
 duce what is commonly known as the French school of art 
 into America, but he made it his own, and used it to ex- 
 press original ideas. His pictures are numerous and of 
 great variety in subject, genre-painting antl portrait being 
 his great excellence. Thr Ltmt Kid, The t hitriilern, tiirl 
 at the Ftiuiitaiu, Muri/iirritr, Mi, mini/ Slur, /ttit/ie Cult, 
 l>rn,nmtr Itui/ are well known, and have most, if not all. 
 
 been reproiluccd in lithograph. Some of his portraits — 
 those of Dana the poet, Chief-Justice Shaw, and several of 
 ladies— lire much admired, but in this work he was unequal, 
 his success depending greatly on his sympathy with the 
 sitter. For several years Mr. ilunt taught classes of ladies 
 in Boston, and awakened enthusiasm in the study of art. 
 D. Sept. 8, 1879. 0. B. Fkothixcham. 
 
 Hunt'cr, tp. of Edgar co., III. Pop. 1029. 
 
 Hunter^ post-tp. of Greene co., N. Y.. in the Catskill 
 Mountains. It was formerly celebrated for its extensive 
 tanneries, and is an attractive summer resort. Pop. 1524. 
 
 HuntCFf tp. of Laurens co., S. C. Pop. 2657. 
 
 Hunter (David), b. at Washington, D. C, July 21, 
 1802; graduated from the U. S. Military Academy, and 
 entered the army as second lieutenant of infantry July, 
 1822 : engaged for fourteen years on frontier duty, rising 
 to the rank of captain of dragoons 1833; resigned in 1836. 
 In 1842 he re-entered the service as paymaster, with the 
 radk of major, on which duty he served until ISCl, when 
 (May 14) he was appointed colonel 6th U. S. Cavalry, and 
 three days later brigadier-general of volunteers, as such 
 commanding division at Bull Kun (July 21), where he was 
 wounded : promoteil to be major-general of volunteers Aug., 
 1801. In May, 1802, while in command of the department 
 of the South, he issued au order declaring slavery abol- 
 ished in that department, which order was annulled by 
 Pres. Lincoln in a proclamation. In May, 1804, Hunter 
 succeeded Gen. Sigel in command of the department of 
 West Virginia; the battle of Piedmont and subsequent 
 march against Lynchburg riVi Lexington occurred the fol- 
 lowing month: a strong Confederate force arrived in good 
 time to the relief of that city, however, and Hunter's am- 
 munition giving out, he made a hasty retreat, closely pur- 
 sued by the enemy. In 1805 was member of the military 
 commission to try the conspirators engaged in the assassi- 
 nation of Lincoln. Retired from active service July, 1806. 
 
 G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Hunter (John), F. R. S., b. at Long Calderwood, near 
 Glasgow, Scotland, July 14,1728 ; youngest of ten children, 
 of whom one was the afterwards celebiated William Hun- 
 ter. John received very imperfect instruction at school ; 
 was apprenticed to a cabinetmaker ; went in 1748 to study 
 anatomy with his brother : studied at Oxford 1753-54 ; bo- 
 came asurgical pujiil at St. Bartholomew's 1751, and at St. 
 George's 1754 ; studied surgery under Cheseldcn and Pott ; 
 lectured upon anatomy 1754-5y ; attained great knowledge 
 of hunuin and comparative anatomy ; served in France and 
 Portugal as staff-surgeon 1701-03; began to practise sur- 
 gery in London 1703; was made F. K. S. 17117, in conse- 
 quence of the publication of important pajiers containing 
 new discoveries in pathology and physiology ; became 
 surgeon to St. George's Hospital 1708; surgeon extra- 
 ordinary to the king 1776 ; surgeon-general of the forces 
 and inspector-general of hospitals 1790. D. in London 
 Oct. 10, 1793. John Hunter was the boldest and best 
 operator of his time, an anatomist of marvellous know- 
 ledge, and one of the fathers of zoological science. His 
 stylo as a speaker and writer was bad. owing to his 
 defective early training. His manners were coarse and 
 repulsive and his temper violent, but ho possessed many 
 strong and noble moral qualities. He was one of the 
 fnundtrs of the modern school of surgery. Author of 
 Niilitriil llitl. of the Ilnmitn Teeth (1771-78), On Veueieal 
 iJiHeauc (1786), ObneriattoHa on Certniit I'lirtt of the Anitiial 
 Eeoniimii (1780), On the lllooil, Injliimmotion, and ffiiii- 
 tliot Womuli (1794). Ho was the collector of the great 
 Hunt.rian Museum, chiefly of pathological and anatomical 
 specimens, purchased by the British government and pre- 
 sented to the Koyal College of Surgeons. 
 
 Hunter (John- Kklso). b. at Dunkeith, Ayrshire. Dec. 
 15, IH02 ; was at first a cobbler, and afterwards a portrait- 
 painter of repute. Hcpublisheil The Itilronpeit oj iin Art- 
 iat't Life ( 1S07 I. Life-.Slndien „/ fhiiriietrr ( 1870). the last 
 highly valued as containing fresh information upon the 
 persons and places celebrated by Burns, Tannahill, and 
 other Scottish poets. D. at Pollockshield Feb. 3, 1S74. 
 
 Hunter (Jcuix W.), b. in Bedford (now in Brooklyn), 
 N. Y., Oi't. 15. 1^*07; became n clerk in the New York 
 custom-house Ix.'Jl; was assistant auditor there 1837-65; 
 was long prominent in the educational affairs of Brooklyn, 
 and was an oflicer of the Dime Savings Bank ; chosen to 
 Congress in 1800, and in 1874 became mayor of Brooklyn. 
 
 Hunter (Joshimi). See Ai-I'eniux. 
 
 Hunter ( Uobf.rt MeiickkTaliakkuho), b. in Essex CO., 
 Va., Apr. 21, IHO'.I, and was cilucated at the University of 
 Virginitt anil the WineheNler Law Sehocd ; member of the 
 Virginia house of delegates ; was a member of Congress 
 1S37-41 and 1845-47, taking u prominent position, and 
 being Speaker I839-tl. lie was (1847-01 ) a II. S. .Senator
 
 1032 
 
 HUNTER— HUNTING. 
 
 from Virginia, chairman of finance committee, find was 
 afterwards Confederate secretary of state, and t^till later a 
 member of (he Contederate Senate, and was one of the 
 commissioners wlio met Pres. Lincoln and iMr. Soward at 
 the Ham}tton lloads conference in Feb., 18G5. i 
 
 Hunter (William), M. D., F. R. S., elder brother of 
 .lolin Hunter, was b. at Long Calderwood, Scothmd, May 
 2;t. 1718: studied at (ilas^ow University ITMJ— 17, with a 
 view to the ministry .: became the medical jmpil of Cullen; 
 studied medicine in Edinburgh and Lontlon, wliither ho 
 went in 17-11; began to lecture on surgery anil anatomy 
 1710 ; acquired a wide fame as a surgeon and accoucheur, 
 devoting himself after 1719 chiefly to the practice of ob- 
 stetrics; took his degree at Glasgow 1750; became phys- 
 ician to the queen 1761; K. R. ^^ 17G7; professor of ana- 
 tomy 1770; president of the College of Physicians 1781 ; 
 associate of the Academy of Sciences. Paris, 17S2. D. in 
 London Mar. .'ifl, 17S:i. His splendid collection of ana- 
 tomical and pathological specimens, coins, books, etc^ is 
 now the Hunterian Museum of the University of Ulas- 
 gdW ; it was partly collected by John Hunter, from whom 
 he was for many years estranged. William Hunter sur- 
 passed his brother in scliolarship and courtesy, but was not 
 his equal in professional ability. His principal published 
 works WGve Medical Cniiimnitrirics {17(i2-fil) and the splen- 
 did Aiititttniia Hiimaiii Uteri Graridi {X77-i). 
 
 Hunter (William), D. D., b. May 20, 1811, in the 
 county of Antrim, Ireland; brought to- the U, S. in 1S17, 
 he entered Madison College in 1S:UI. In 1S:?:J he began his 
 ministry in connection with the Pittsburg (Pa.) conference. 
 He has edited the Pittsburg Conference Journal, also the 
 Pittsburg C/iriHtian Adrocate (M. E.), and was presiding 
 elder in the Clarksburg (Pa.) and Beaver (Pa.) districts. 
 In 1855 he became Kramer professor of Hebrew and bibli- 
 cal literature iu Allegheny College, Pa. In 1870 he re- 
 turnccl to pastoral work, and in 1872 to religious journalism, 
 being then re-elected as editor of the CItri>itiiin Aili-ornte. 
 He was the author of several books of hymns and spiritual 
 songs, an<l of a ])oem on American Method inm, « Plea for 
 Unift/. Some of his devotional songs have obtained a 
 wide popularity, and are sung in many lands. They have 
 been translated into various languages, as the Bulgarian, 
 several dialects of India, Africa, Ceylon, and China. D. 
 at Cleveland, 0., Oct. IS, 1877. A. Stkvens. 
 
 Hunter (William), LL.D., b. at Newport Nov. 20, 
 1774: graduated at Brown University in 1791; studied 
 me-lifine for some time under his celebrated kinsman, 
 John Hunter, in London, but left this study and adopted 
 that of law. aiul was admitted to practise in Newport on 
 his return in 171*5. He was member of Congress 179'.)- 
 1811, and U. S. Senator 1811-21. From 18;U to IS45 he 
 was chariff. d'aifnirex and minister plenipotentiary to 
 Brazil. D. at Newport Dec. 3, 1S49. 
 
 Hunt'crdon, county of New Jersey, bounded on the 
 S. W. by the Dt-Iaware Uiver. Area, about 400 square miles. 
 A part of its surfaei* is bndten, but its soil is generally very 
 fertile. Cattle, grain, fruit, and wool arc staple jiroducts. 
 It has manufactures of metallic wares, flour, harnesses, 
 carriages, lumber, and other goods, and is traversed by the 
 Central R. R. of New .lersey. the Belvidere Delaware, and 
 other railroads. Caj>, FU-mington. Pop. .*JO,yO^. 
 
 Iluut'er's, tp. of Tehama co., Cal. Pop. 40. 
 
 Hunter's Hill, tp. of Gates co., N. C. Pop. 1401. 
 
 Hunter's Point, tho S. W. portion of Long Island 
 CiTV (whi<'h sec). Queens co., N. Y. Pop. 1590. 
 
 Hunt'crsvillc, a v. of Spring Creek tp., Miami co., 0. 
 Pop. 2;i:j. 
 
 HuntorNvillc, post-v.,county-seat of Pocahontas co., 
 W. Va., cm a liui; plateau, 40 miles N. by E. of Whitt* Sul- 
 phur Sprini^s, a station of the Chesapeake anrl Ohio U. R. 
 
 Hunt'in^;, like war, is coeval in origin with man. " Be- 
 fore it was a pleasure," says E.^ Blaze, ''hunting was a ne- 
 cessity," since people wore urged to it not only by hunger, 
 but by the need of protecting themselves from wild beasts. 
 But though King David was respected for skill in tho 
 field, it is evident that of all jnojile the Jews were least 
 inclined to the chase, owing to their being religiously 
 I trained to avoid almost nil amusements, as savoring of 
 Gentilism. But among Greeks and Uomans hunting be- 
 came sacred, Apollo and Diana being its chief patrons, 
 while even its subordinate dvpartments had caeli a tutelary 
 deity. Pollux presiding over tho training of horses for the 
 chase, Orion of assembling dogs in packs, and Hippolytus 
 cf snares and toils. The influence of hunting on culture 
 has been very great, and, with a few tlrawbacks. very ben- 
 eficial to man. It is exhilarating, and in most forms very 
 condueivr to health, as it induiu-s much expusure to fresh 
 air and involves exercise in many forms; in fact, it may 
 bo assumed as a broad principle that those race's which tako 
 
 no interest in field-sports, and thereby become unfamiliar 
 with Nature in her wilder forms, are generally cowardly 
 and depraved. It is said that the chase induces cruelty, 
 but it lias been remarked that the Koraans as they left olV 
 hunting became more sanguinary in their games, and tho 
 French, who ridicule *• /e sport," and say that an Kngtish- 
 man always remarks if the weather is fine that ** one ought 
 to kill something," are themselves much bloudier and more 
 vindictive in their political outbursts and jiunishments. 
 This is also true of tlie Chinese. 
 
 A subject whose history is as old as that of humanity, 
 and which embraces the taking of almost all animals, from 
 the hare to the elephant, cannot be even sketched witliin 
 our limit, and we shall therefore simply spt-ak of what is at 
 tho jiresent day chiefly understood by hunting, or that 
 branch of it which involves such an outlay of capital as to 
 have almost entirely appropriated the word to itself. This 
 is the pursuit of the deer, fox, and hare on horseback, which 
 in Great Britain probably costs more every year than all 
 the games of ancient Rome did iu the same time. The 
 ancient Britons, in fact, were vigorous sportsmen, and Strabo 
 informs us that their dogs for deer were exported to tho 
 Continent, and particularly to Gaul. The iSaxon? were far 
 more addicted to hunting than the Romans. an<l at an early 
 period established those forest-restrictions which play such 
 an important part in Englisli history, and which, in fact, 
 did much to develop the art into that earnest form which 
 in Kugland is a serious part of most country gentlemen*s 
 lives. As early as the ninth century, says Strutt, and prob- 
 ably long before, hunting constituted an essential part of 
 the education of a young nobleman. Alfred tho Great, ac- 
 cording to Asserius, was most carefully trained in all tho 
 branches of the art, and excelled iu them before he was 
 twelve years old. It is somewhat remarkable that an- 
 tiquaries more familiar with MS3. than with nature have 
 doubted whether horses were ever employed iu hunting 
 previous to the Norman Conquest, since it is not probable 
 that people who, as we know, had horses both good and 
 fleet, would dismount in order to chase a deer or fox. 
 Tho very fact that fox-hunting was a special amusement 
 amonj; the Saxons would indicate its pursuit on horseback. 
 Tho fondness of every Saxon for tho chase, and the feeling 
 which appears to be innate with men that animals fcra 
 nnturm are common property, led to much resistance to 
 forest-laws through the Middle Ages, and incredible suft"er- 
 ing. Hundreds of villages were destroyed by tho Norman 
 kings to make immense parks; and so severe were the 
 penalties enforced for poaching that it was commonly said 
 that one might kill a man with more impunity than a deer. 
 This spirit of pre-emption and resistance has continued to 
 tho present day in England, and it is not many years since 
 Mr. Thomas Carlyle discovered that England had " more 
 garac-Iaws than poor-laws." Robin Hood and his followers 
 were in a great measure the result of forest-laws. Through 
 the Middle Ages hunting increased in importance, in lux- 
 urious details, and, so to speak, in science. It had from 
 remote times possessed a literature. Aristotle had at tho 
 command of Alexander the Great written on field-sports, 
 and tlie Ci/ncrfcticii'i (a treatise on dogs and hunting) of 
 Xenophon may still be read with pleasure. The Roman 
 writers on hunting embrace Pliny. Horace, Cicero, Virgil, 
 v^cneea, and Justin. Early in tho fourteenth century Eng- 
 land had several treatises on the subject. That of William 
 Twici. huntsman-in-ehief to Edward II., written in Norman 
 French, also exists iu an English translation. In it the 
 poet-sportsman thus speaks of animals : 
 
 "And for to setto young hunterys iu the way 
 
 To venery, I cast me tirst to go 
 Of which four bestes be. that is to say, 
 
 Tho hare, the herte. the wulf, and the wild boor. 
 But then there ben other bestes five of the chase, 
 
 Tlie buek the first, the seeonde is the do ; 
 The fox the third, wbieh hath ever hard grace; 
 
 The forthe theiuartyn, and the last the roe." 
 
 As these beasts disajqicared or became rare, the fox grad- 
 ually rose to be the first in consequence. "Nimrod" 
 (Charles James Apperly) observes that it was about 150 
 years ago when the fox was first considered an animal 
 of the higher chase. Hudibran, he observes, has a great 
 deal about the hare, but not cmc word about the fox. and in 
 Suincrvillc's poem of the Chncc, very little is said of tho 
 latter, but a great deal of the hare and deer. The reason 
 for this is that in England then, as now on the Continent, 
 the vfihtt of tho game, especially as an edible, was always 
 considered. This has entirely disappeared at present; all 
 that is eared for in the fox is his *• brush," while "puss" 
 (the hare) generally goes "to the dogs." Chaucer gave in 
 his time a spirited i)icturo of an improvised foot fox-hunt: 
 
 "Aha the fnx, and after him they ran, 
 And she with staves many another man. 
 Ran ('mII our dotj. and Talbot and (Jerlond, 
 And Mulkiu with her distatl" in her hund.
 
 HUNTINGBURG— HUNTINGDONSHIRE. 
 
 1033 
 
 Ran cow and calf, and ckc the veray hogges, 
 So fert*d w»to for barking of ilit'tio^ites, 
 And iduiuling of the men, and wunien eke, 
 They ruiiiR'u so, hem thought her hcrtes brake." 
 
 The first f'»x-liuntin^ was with so-called *' trencher do;is." 
 which one aulhority declares were an nsstmbly of any and 
 everythini^ iu do^ shape, but it i? more probable that they 
 were of the breed of broken-haired harriers which still 
 abound in Wale?, and are an excellent doc^. RIaino states 
 that "the first real steady pack of foxhounds" was that 
 of Thomas Fownes, Esq., of Stcpleton in l>orsctshirc, in 
 17;Ut. "They were," says a writer of ISIS, "as handsome 
 and fully a-? complete in every respect as most celebrated 
 packs of the present day" — an assertion which of itself 
 imlicatc:? that good packs had existed lon^ before; and 
 "Niinrod" tells us that a pack of foxhounds was kept by 
 Lord Arundel in Ifi'JO, and this pack subsequently con- 
 tributed materially to the celebrated Quorndon Hounds. 
 But this Arundel pack — as its excellence proves — was 
 probably far from beins: the first in Kn^land. With the 
 great improvement iu doj^s in modern times, and the con- 
 stant ertorts to secure better horses, the system of hunting 
 has changed, and instead of sounding the horn at cock- 
 crow, as soon as they could see to ride, ten, eleven, or even 
 twelve o'clock is now the hour for huntsmen's assembling. 
 la fact, in the old time gentlemen were often obliged to 
 ride many miles hrfore daybreak, but now the horses are 
 sent by "rail." whilo the rider takes the same conveyance. 
 In the old time hares and foxes were rare, but now they are 
 Fo carefully preserved that hunters arc sure of them. ' In 
 fact, foxes are often imported from the Continent when they 
 become scarce in any part of England, an<l the writer knows 
 of a gentleman who recently br<Migbt a number to Ireland, 
 lie also knows of another gentleman who, having bec-n 
 suspected of shooting or poisoning a troublesome fox, was 
 completely cut by the whole country and shunned like a 
 felon. The change in horses for hunting has also been very 
 great. A century ago the hunter was a half-breed animal^ 
 of great ?frenglh and handsome, powerful frame — "acom- 
 plete snaQlc-bridle horse, and a standing as well as a (ly- 
 ing Icaper.'' He had great endurance. At present the 
 thoroughbred. as shown in the "cock-tail," or three-fourths 
 pure bloo<I, delicate but fleet, is gra<lually taking the place 
 of the true hunter. The crpcnuc of hunting has accord- 
 ingly been increased in proportion to these changes. A 
 thoroughbred horse, though he can for a short time perform 
 greater feats of speed, and in fact of leaping, is soon dis- 
 abled, and must be kept from three to seven days quiet 
 after a hunt. (lentlemcn who can afford it have two and 
 even three horses brought for them to a hunt. In short, 
 hunting, like all other sports, is rapidly assuming in Eng- 
 land an intcn!<ely artificial an'l highly elaborate character, 
 entirely foreign to the spirit of the rfin^r as expressed by 
 poets and understood by the world at large. In old times 
 the buckskin breeches, well staincfl ami worn, were cha- 
 racteristic of hunting, but the ideal rider at a "meet" at 
 present i.<? an fUijnnt in primrose kid gloves and snow- 
 white cords. His hounds run faster, his horses leap, it is 
 said, higher than did those of old. but to one who has, like 
 the writer, hunted both buffalo in America anil foxes and 
 bares in Knglan'l, the latter compares with the former as a 
 walk d'twn Ilrmd street in the season does with a pedestrian 
 tour among the Alps, Hunting in Englaml, notwithstand- 
 ing the ()stentation of expense which is rapidly reducing it 
 more to a matter of money and style than is po]>ulurly 
 supposed, is still of incalculable benefit, since it pructicully 
 familiarizes hundreds of thousands of people with good 
 riding in its truest and fullest sense. The man has always 
 a physical— wc may say a nervous — superiority who can 
 without an emotion clear hedge anri <litch or keep the sad- 
 dle all day in a thorough chase. Were it not for hunting 
 many gentlemen would never get beyond a trot on tbo 
 highway, and that familiarity with the itorse in all his best 
 qualities which 'uakes a man mrinlier wuuld bo lost. It is 
 amusing to observe the manner in which the rules of sport 
 are carried out in foreign countries. It is not long since a 
 gentleman twenty five years a resident in India, and an 
 experienced tiger-hunter, assured the writer that anyone 
 known to have killed a tiger-cub would be "cut " by every 
 gentleman in his part of the country. It is but just to say 
 that (here has been of late a strong reaction against this 
 spirit of selfish cruelty, both in India and England. The 
 extent to which hunting is pursued may be judged from the 
 fact that during the week beginning with Nov. 2S, 1S7(. 
 170 packs were advertised to run in (In-at Ilritain. nn<l 
 that these met fiftni two to four times tluring the week. 
 Fifty pounds is the lowest price for an ordinary hunting- 
 horse; at many meets the average woubl be £l.'>0. In 18 tO 
 a writer estimated the average cost of fourteen hunters at 
 £700; at the siiine time, he wrote that incbulinij these 
 borsca the annual expense of a pack, but nut including the 
 
 value of the hounds, would be £22.'i5. It would be safe 
 to double this sum at present. A few years later "Nim- 
 rod" tells us that ten couple of hounds were sold for 1000 
 guineas, and that Lonl Mid«lIeton had many hounds for 
 which he would not take LMiO guineas apiece. Strangers 
 can, however, join in a hunt ut moderate expense. A 
 "tolerably lair," though seldom a really good, horse niiiy 
 be hired at a livery stable for £1 to follow the harriers, ami 
 £2 for the fox-hounds. During t*lic hunt an official will 
 demand from him from five to ten shillings as (he regular 
 fee. Stag-hounds arc larger than fox-hounds ; otherwise 
 they are nearly the same. The harrier, used for hunting 
 hares, "is the next remove after the stag or fox-hound 
 from the talbot," or old English hunting-dog. There are 
 thrco prominent varieties. The modern harrier is little 
 more than a dwarf fox-hound. The beagle is a very small 
 hound, used almost entirely for hares, and is frequently, if 
 not generally, followed on foot. Ciiaui,i:s (_J. Lkla.\d. 
 
 Hunt'in^bur§;, post-v. of Dubois co., Ind.,has manu- 
 factures of flour, lumber, carriages, wagons, woollens, fur- 
 niture, tobacco, saddlery, etc.: a weekly newspaper (Ger- 
 man), numerous stores, a line s,?hool-house, 5 churches; is 
 situated in a region abounding in block and canncl coal, 
 plumbago, iron ores, fine potter's clay, mineral paints, 
 lime, and sandstone, and is the centre of four projected rail- 
 roads. Tobacco is extensively produced here, as well as 
 grain, fruits, etc. E. PurKHAKOT, Prop. "Signal." 
 
 Ilunt'ingdon, borough of England, the capital of tbo 
 county of Huntingdon, on the left bank of the Ouse. Tho 
 bouse in which Oliver Cromwell was born still stands. 
 Pop. of parliamentary borough, 6600. 
 
 H.uiitingdon, a fertile county of Quebec, Canada, tho 
 westernmost of the counties S. of the St. Lawrence. Cap. 
 Huntingdon. P<.p. 10,301. 
 
 Iluiltillgdon, pr)st-v., cap. of Huntingdon co., Quebec, 
 Canatla, 50 miles S. W. of Montreal, in a good agricultural 
 region, has manufactures of farm-implements, eastings, 
 lumber, etc., an academy, a weekly newspaper, and a con- 
 vent. Pop. of sub-district, 70.1. 
 
 lilintiiigdon, county of S. Central Pennsylvania. 
 Area, I'M) square miles. It is traversed by grnnd moun- 
 tain-ranges, but has very fertile valleys. Bituminous coal, 
 iron ore, and limestone are abundant. Metallic wares, 
 leather, carriages, flour, and furniture arc among the lead- 
 ing articles of manufacture. Cattle, grain, and wool arc 
 staple products. It is traversecl by the .Juniata Uiver and 
 the Pennsylvania and the Huntingdon and Broad Top 
 K. Ks. Cap. Huntingdon. Pop. :il,2jl. 
 
 Huntingdon, post-l>., cap. of Huntingdon co.. Pa., on 
 the Juniata, at the junction of the Huntingdon and Broad 
 Top U. K. with the Pennsylvania R. K., 104 miles W. of 
 Harrisburg. It has a national and a private bank, 1 re- 
 ligious and 4 secular newspapers, 2 planing-mills. gas- 
 works, manufactures of brooms, boots and shoes, furniture, 
 etc., car-works, an academy, u select .«chool, and 8 churches, 
 and is in a region abounding in iron, lead, coal, fire-clay, 
 limestone, and fine timber. Pop. :i03i. 
 A. B. BiMMBAtfiH, Lit. Ed. " Jolrnai. " and *' Pilgrim." 
 
 Huntingdon, post-v., cap. of Carroll co., Tenn., on 
 the Xasliville Chattanooga and St. Louis R. R. It has a 
 weekly and semi-weekly newspaper. Pop. (lOtb 
 
 Huntingdon (Selina), Coisthss ok, daughter of 
 Washington Shirley, Earl Ferrers, b. 1707. and became 
 distinguished in the religious history of the time in which 
 she lived. In 172S ^hc was married to Theophilus Hastings, 
 earl of Huntingdnn. a man of great religions zeal, who 
 died Oct. LI, 17-lt>. Numerous children were the fruit of 
 this marriage, of whom four rlied young. Whether owing 
 to this aflliction or not, the countess became a very devout 
 and zealous Christian ; and as at this time tlie revivals un- 
 der Wesley and Whitcfield were at (heir height, a strong 
 religious excitement existed in England. The countess in- 
 clined to the (*alvinistic tenets of Whitcfield, whom sho 
 made her private chaplain, and she became the leader of 
 Calvinistic Methodism in Englund, and her followers were 
 known as the "Countess of Huntingdon's Connection." 
 Her large means were devoted to the ilissemination of her 
 religious views, and to this end she built and maintained i\ 
 college at Trevceca, Wales, for the education of Calvinistic 
 ministers; sho also built chapels throughout England, and 
 provided for their support. It is said that in all she erected 
 Gl chapels, the finest of which is at Bath, for tho manage- 
 ment of which she bequeathed the bulk of her fortune iu 
 trust. D. .Juno 17, 171'I. 
 
 Hunt'ingdonHhiro, county of England, bounde.l by 
 the enunties of Cambridge, Bedford, and Northampton. 
 It ettntains 22'.*,.^>ll acres of low, mostly level or slightly 
 hilly ground, watered by tho Otise and the Ncne, and well 
 adapted to agriculture. Pup. (ll.'JfiO.
 
 1034 
 
 HUNTING QUARTER— HUNTSVILLE. 
 
 Hun'ting Quar'ter, tp. of Carteret co.. N. C. P. 940. 
 Hunt'ington, county ot' the N. E. of Indiana. Arc.i, 
 400 square miles. It is'vcry fertile ami generally level. 
 Cattle, grain, wool, and lumber are staple products. It is 
 traversed by the Toledo Wubash and Western R. U. Cap. 
 Huntington. Pop. 19,0:;f,. 
 
 Ilmilinston, tp. of Elmore co., Ala. Pop. 1.117. 
 Iliintinstoii, tp. and post-v. of Fairfield co.. Conn., 
 1.') miles W. of New llaveu. Pop. 1527. 
 
 Illintlllgton, titv, tp., cap. of Huntington Co.. Ind., 
 on the Toledo Wabiish and Western 11. U. and the M abash 
 and Erie Canal, 24 mile.s S. W. of Fort Wayne and US 
 miles S. W. of Toledo. It contains 12 factories working 
 wood into various shapes, 2 iron-foundries, 1 national and 
 1 private bank, f< churches. 2 newspapers, a free graded 
 school, a public-school building costing $JO,000, the usual 
 number of stores, and is the dt-pot for a large lime-burn- 
 ing region operating :;0 kilns. A library, reading-room, 
 aiiTl museum are being cstablisheil in connection with the 
 iiublic school. The city is built on both banks of Little 
 River. Pop. of city. 202o ; of tp. 4449. 
 
 .loiiN F. MosKs, Ed. of '• IxnuxA IlF.n.\i.D. ' 
 Huntington, tp. and post-v. of Hampshire co., JIass., 
 on the Boston and Albany R. R., 1 1'J miles W. S. W. 
 of Boston. It has extensive water-power, and manufac- 
 tures of paper, flannels, etc. There are 4 churches. Pop. 
 11. ^ft. 
 
 Huntington, post-v. and tp. of Suffolk co., N. 1 .. on 
 Long Island R. R., .IS miles from New York, with wliieli 
 it is also connected by steamboat the greater part of the 
 year. It has S churches, a union graded school building 
 which cost $20,1100, 2 weekly newspapers, and some manu- 
 factures and trade. About .30.000.000 bricks arc annually 
 made in the vicinity. Pop. 24.3.3 ; of tp. 10.704. 
 
 G. H. Shf.pard, Ed. "Long Islander." 
 Huntington, tp. of Brown co., 0. Pop. S020. 
 Hiintiugton, tp. of Gallia co., 0. Pop. 1609. 
 Huntington, post-tp. of Lorain co., 0. Pop. 834. 
 Huntington, tp. of Ross co., 0. Pop. 2367. 
 Huntington, tp. of Adams co., Pa. Pop. 1595. 
 Huntington, tp. of Luzerne co.. Pa. Pop. 1847. 
 Huntington, post-tp. of Chittenden co., Vt., 19 miles 
 W. of Jlontpelier, has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 
 8C4. 
 
 Huntington, city of Cabell co.. West Va.. on Ohio 
 River, and on Chesapeake and Ohio R. R., was founded in 
 1S71. anil has extensive manufactures. It is the scat of 
 Marshall College, has 2 pulilic schools, 9 churches. 3 hotels, 
 and 2 newspapers. J. J. Gilbeut, Ed. '■ Advertiskk." 
 
 Huntington (Coi.i.is Potter), b. at Harwinton, Conn., 
 Oct. 22, lS2i : receiveil a common-school education, and be- 
 came interested early in life in the management of railroads ; 
 is president of the Soulliern Pacific Railroad Co.; vice- 
 president of the Central Pacific Railroad Co. ; trustee of the 
 Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Co., and a director of the 
 Occidental and Oriental Steamship Co. J. B. Bi.shop. 
 
 Huntington (C. P.), V. S. N., b. Jan. 2, 1.S41. in Illi- 
 nois: graduated at the Naval Academy in 1S61; became a 
 lieutenant in 1SG2. a lieutenant-commander in 1S66 ; was 
 in several actions on the Mississi]i)ii River in 1SG3 while 
 serving on board the Monongahela. and in ISfil, at the 
 battle of Mobile Bay, owing to the wounding of Command- 
 er Mullauy, was for a while in command of the Oneida, 
 during which period ho distinguished himself for his cool- 
 ness and bravery. Foxhai.l A. Paukeu. 
 
 Huntington (DANiET.),b. in New York Oct. 11, ISlfi; 
 educated at Hamilton College: was first .stimulated to the 
 pursuit of art by Charles L. Elliot, whom he met while a 
 stuilent : in 1S;!5 began to study under Morse; later was a 
 pupil of Inman ; in 1S36 traveller! and sketched in the 
 Highlands of the Hudson; in ls39 went to Italy and 
 painted figure-pieces; returned to New York, paintcil por- 
 traits and commenced illustrations of the Pihjrim'K I^i-mj- 
 rrnur which failure of eyesight crimpolled him to discon- 
 tinue; revisited Europe in 1S44, and ]iainled other etun- 
 position pictures, which added to his fame: on his return 
 resuuieil the painting of ])ortraits, but found lime to exe- 
 cute two or three historical pieces, JIniri/ Vl/f. <iud Onth- 
 arine Ptirr, Mori/ Siipihtrf the Ih-rtlli-wnn'aiit of Lniiif Jaiir 
 Grfi/, and Lmli/ June (Irei/ in the Tower. For many years 
 past his permanent resid-^nco has been in New York, where 
 his reputation is very high. Huntington has been suc- 
 cessful in several fields of art. He has painteil mountain 
 scenery, marine views, landscapes, historical compositions, 
 cabinet and genre pictures, groups and figures of fancy, 
 icleal heads, subjects of religious story ancl sentiment; but 
 his most distinguished work is in portraiture, .\mong his 
 numerous sitters have been Bishop Mcllvaine, Dr. Muhlen- 
 
 berg, Gulian Verplanck. Chancellor Kent, Lord Morpeth, 
 Sir Charles Eastlake, Agassiz. Bryant, Lincoln. R. B. Min- 
 turn— names that suggest a wide and eminent fame. Hunt- 
 ington's most ambitious picture is Tin- Ilepublieun ConrI in 
 
 the Time of Waahinr/ion. It contains sixty-four figures, all 
 portraits of men and women celebrated in the Revolution- 
 ary epoch— some copied from original j.aintings by Mal- 
 bone, Stuart, Copley, or less known artists, others con- 
 structed by the aid of family lineaments and traditions — 
 the wholcgrouped as naturally as the conditions allowed. 
 The picture \3 owned by A. T. Stewart. Mr. Huntington 
 h.as been greatly honored by his profession and by the pub- 
 lic. In ISJO aspccial exhibition was made in New York 
 of all the pictures of his that could be eollecteil, the best 
 known artists and citizens joining to make the tribute 
 worthily expressive of their regard. On May 14, 1862, ho 
 was elected president of the National Academy of Design, 
 a position to which none but artists of recognized ability 
 are chosen. 0. B. Frothixgham. 
 
 Huntington (Rizht Rev. Frederic Dan), D. D., b. 
 at ILidley, Jlass.. Jlay 2S, ISIU : graduated at Amherst in 
 1SS9 and at the Cambridge Divinity School in 1S42. En- 
 tering the Unitarian ministry, he held a p.asloratc in Bos- 
 ton iS42-55, when he became Plunimer professor of Chris- 
 tian morals and preacher to Harvard University. In 18.')9 
 he took orders in the Episcopal Church ; in Islil was one 
 of the founders of the Church Monthli/ ; and in ISG'J was 
 consecrated bishop of Central New York. He has pub- 
 lished 2 vols, of sermons, one of lectures on Ilwiian Soeirli/ 
 (1860). and Letsons oil the I'arcMea, and other works. 
 
 Huntington (Jedidiah Vinoent), M. D., b. in New 
 York Jan. 20, 1S15 : was educated at Yale College and the 
 University of New York, where he graduated in 1835; 
 graduated M. D. at the University of Pennsylvania 1838; 
 was professor of mental philosophy in St. John's College, 
 near Flushing. N. Y.. for three years ; rector of a Protestant 
 Episcopal church in Middlebury. Vt. ; in Europe 1846-49; 
 became a Roman Catholic in 1S50; was editor of the .IfWro- 
 polilon, Baltimore, 185.3-54; founded and edited (1855-57) 
 the Leader, St. Louis ; author of /■ociii« (1842), LikIi/ Mice, 
 a novel (1849), Alhan. The /■•orc«M1852), The Pretti/ Pl«le 
 (1852), Koecmarij (1860), nioiiile tuitl lirnnetle (1858), 
 Amerien Dieeoi-cred (1853), a poem, and some translations 
 from the French. D. at Pan, France, Mar. 10, 1862. Ho 
 was a brother of Daniel Huntington, the artist. 
 
 Huntington (Samiel), LL.D., a signer of the Decla- 
 ration of Independence, b. at Windham, Conn., July 3, 
 1731 ; learned the trade of a cooper; became in 1758 a law- 
 yer of Norwich, Conn.: held many important offices; was 
 a member of the Continental Congress 1776-83, and its 
 president 1779-81 ; judge of the Connecticut superior court 
 1774-84; its chief-justice 1784; lieutenant-governor of 
 Connecticut 1785; governor 1786-96. He received the 
 honorary degree of LL.D. from Yale in 1787. D. at Nor- 
 wich, Conn., Jan. 5, 1796. 
 
 Huntington (Samitel), a nephew of Gov. Samuel 
 Huntington j 1731-96), b. at Coventry, Conn., Oct. 4, 1765; 
 graduated at Yale in 1785 ; became a lawyer in 1793 ; set- 
 tled near Painesville, 0., in 1800; was a judge of tho 
 common pleas court 1802-03 ; of tho superior court in 1803, 
 and afterwards chief-justice; governor of Ohio 180.S-10; a 
 colonel and paymaster in the war of 1812-14. HewasaLso 
 a member of the first constitutional convention of Ohio, and 
 Speaker of the first State senate. D. at Painesville, 0., 
 June 8, 1817. 
 
 Huntington City, post-v. of Prince George co., Md., 
 16 miles from Washington, 1). ('.. at the junction of tho 
 Baltimore and Potomac ami the liowie and Pope's Creek 
 R. Rs. ; has 2 hotels, a weekly newspaper, railroad machine- 
 shops ; is situated in a farming and tobacco-growing region. 
 
 J. W. SioTT, El). •■ HlNTiyUToMAN." 
 
 Ilunt'ley Grove, posl-v. of Grafton ip., Jlcllenry co., 
 III., on the Galena division of the Chicago and North-west- 
 ern R. R., 7 miles N. W. of Elgin. 
 
 Iluntoon' (Jonathan O.), b. at Unity, N. H.. in 1781 ; 
 removed to JIaine, of which State he was governor 1830- 
 31. D. at Fairfield, Me., Oct. 14, 1851. 
 
 Ilunts'burg, posttp. of Geauga co., 0. Pop. 824. 
 
 Hunts'viUc, city, cap. of Madison co., Ala., tho 
 " tjueen city of the mountains," is one of the most beauti- 
 ful, thriving, and important towns in the State. It stands 
 upon the bench of a mountain which is a spur of the Cum- 
 berland Mountains; is on the Jlemphis and Charleston 
 R. R. : has a brass and iron foundry, railroad machine- 
 shops, planing mills, fire department, gas and water works, 
 a national and a savings bank, a female college (Mcth- 
 oilist). a female .seminary (Presbyterian), 9 churches, 3 
 weekly iiews]iapers. and fine public and private buildings. 
 It has a large spring, which supplies a copious stream,
 
 HUN'rSVlLLE— HUliON. 
 
 1035 
 
 tributary to the Tennessee, 10 miles distant. Pop. 4907; 
 of tp., exclusive of city. 3511. 
 
 «;. M. .loiissTox, Kn. and Pcd. "Advocate." 
 Huntsvillf, ])Ost-v., county-seat of Madison co., Ark. 
 Pup. 221. 
 
 Huotsville, post-tp. of Schuyler co., III. Pop. 1228. 
 Hnntsvillc, postv. of Madison co.. IncL.on the Clcvc- 
 Innd Columlms Cincinnati and Indianapolis R. R., and in 
 Fall Creek tp. Pop. 202. 
 
 Huntsvillc,ar. of West River tp., Randolph co., Ind. 
 Pop. i:in. 
 
 Uuntsvlllr, post-v., cap. of Randolph co., Mo., on the 
 .St. Louis Kansas City and Northern U. U.. Ij:! miles from 
 St. Louis. It has a college for both sexes, important coal- 
 mines, a woollen-mill, machine-shop, Houring-inill, public 
 high school, 4 churches. 2 hotels, 2 newspapers, etc. 
 
 liiicii: & HtxTEii, Pc lis. "Hkiiald." 
 Huntsville, tp. of Uockingliam co., N. C. Pop. 1S80. 
 Iluntsvillc, posl-v. of .Mc.Arlbur tp., Logan co., 0.,on 
 the Cincinnati .^andusky and Cleveland R. R. Pop. ;i22. 
 Hnntsvillc, piist-v., county-seat of Scott co., Tenn., on 
 New River. Pop. So. 
 
 Iluntsvillc, cily, cap. of Walker co., Tex., 200 miles 
 S. E. of .\uslin, on a branch of the Houston and Great 
 Northern R. 11. It is the scat of the State penitentiary, in 
 which arc manufactured elegant furniture, cotton and wool- 
 len goods, bouts, wagons, buggies, etc. There arc 8 churches. 
 It is the scat of.Vustin College (Presbyterian) and Andrew 
 Female Seminary : has 2 steam corn-mills and cotton-gins, 
 a newspaper, hotels, :! brickyards, and a largo tannery. 
 Here Oen. Sam lloustun was buried. Chief business, ship- 
 ping cotton. Pop. 159'J. G. RoDixsos, Ed. "Itkm." 
 
 Hunya'dy (Jaxos), b. in Hungary at the close of the 
 fonrlcenih century, but the year and the place of his birth, 
 as well as his parentage and the origin of his surname, 
 t'urri'iiii*, are unknown. I'nder Sigisniund and .\lbert ho 
 acquired great fame by the valor and military skill with 
 which he fought against the Turks, at that time the terror 
 of Europe; and by .Vlbort he was made governor of the 
 Hungarian provinces S. of the Danube. In 14.'i!), Albert 
 d.. and VlaJislas, king of Poland, was elected king of 
 Hungary. Under his reign the arms of Ilunyady were 
 still more successful. He drove the Turks behind the Bal- 
 kan, and compelled them to conclude an armistice of ten 
 years (July 12, 1441). But Vladislas broke this armistice, 
 and the result was the battle of Varna, in which the Hun- 
 garians were totally routed and tho king fell (Nov. 10, 
 Mil). During the ininority of Ladislas, a son of Albert, 
 who was elected king of Hungary in 1411, Hunyady gov- 
 erned the country, and he showed no less ability as a states- 
 man than as a warrior. Ho kept order in the country ; and 
 although in his contests with the Turks he met with some 
 severe reverses — as, for instance, in the three days' battle 
 of Kossova, Oct. 17, 1118 — ho nevertheless succeeded in 
 checking their progress and preventing them from over- 
 running the whole of Europe. His most brilliant exploit 
 was the attack on the Turkish camp at Belgrad (.Inly 14, 
 11 JC). Miihammed II. ha<l laid siege to this city with an 
 army of 1 jO.UOII men ami :100 cannons. But with a far in- 
 ferior force Ilunyady eumpcllcd him to break up the siego 
 and draw back, leaving behind him all his artillery. 
 Shortly after Hunyady died. Of his two suns, the oldest, 
 Ladislas, was beheaded at Buda fur having killed Count 
 Cilley, a personal enemy of his father: the younger, 
 Matthias Corvinus, was educaleil by (Jcorg Podiebrad of 
 Bohemia, and became king of Hungary after Ladislas. 
 
 IlupchS or Iloopeh, province of Central China, be- 
 tween lat. 20° and .1:!° .\., and between Ion. 108° and 110° 
 E., traversed by the river Yang-tze-Kiang. Area, 70,4^0 
 8<|uare miles. I'op. 2S, 0011,000. It is tho most fertile prov- 
 ince of the Chinese empire, and no corner of it is left un- 
 cultivated. Cap. WooChang. 
 
 Illip'IVId ( Hkumaxs), b. at Marburg Mar. 31, 1798; d. 
 Apr. 24, ]!<*jit; was successively professor at Marburg and 
 Halle, where he succeeded to the chair of Oriental lan- 
 guages on tho death of (lesenius, IS4:i. His most import- 
 ant work is a Commrtitfji-y on the I'nnlmH (4 vols., lS.^,o-i;2), 
 which is remarkable for its originality and scholarship. An 
 iJnglish translation is now (187.J) in process of preparation. 
 Ilnpp (,I(iiiN C), M. D., b. in Washington co.. Pa., Nov. 
 24, ISIU: gradualid at Wa«hinglun College. Pa.; look tho 
 degree of M. D. from tho .leffersun ,Mi'di<*al College. Phila- 
 delphia, 1847, and seltleil in Wheiling, Vn., where ho now 
 resides. He has coniributetl Iargel,v to tho Mfdicnl awl 
 Siiri/irnl Itrpnrlrr of I'hihwlelpbia ; has now a largo prac- 
 tice in West Virginia ami Ohio. Paii. F. Evk. 
 
 Ilu'ra, or Snntl-box Tree ( f/nrn rrrpioum, order 
 Euphorbiaceu^), a native of tropical America. When tho 
 
 seed is ripo tho woody capsule bursts with a load report. 
 It was once customary to mako sand-boxes of the unripe 
 woody fruit, and it is related that these boxes would some- 
 times spontaneously explode after being used for years. 
 The seeds are sharply purgative. 
 
 Hurd (RniiAnD), U. D., b. in Staffordshire, England, 
 in 1720 ; educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, where 
 he took his <lcgree in 1742, and continued to reside till 
 1767. when he was appointed rector of Thurcaston, in 
 Leicestershire, where he remained until 1705, when ho was 
 chosen preacher of Lincoln's Inn : promoted to the arch- 
 deaconry of Gloucester in 1707, and to the bishopric of 
 Lichliclil and Coventry in 177a, from whence he was trans- 
 ferred in 1781 to that of Worcester, where bo continued 
 until his death, declining the offer of the arcbbi.<hopric of 
 Canterbury on the deatli of Dr. Cornwallis in 1783. Ho 
 was the lifelong friend and admirer of Bishop Warburton, 
 whose biographer he also was, and wrote numerous pam- 
 phlets vindicatory of Warburtou's views. Of his writings, 
 which were very numerous, tlie most prominent are his 
 DitiloqncH, Li'ltpft on Homaticr. and Chii-fttry, Eiiijlinh Com- 
 mrntartj tin the Ejtintle of ILiiiii'ii on the Art of PorAni, 
 Tirelv: DincoursiH on the Projjhteice, his Sermona, and tho 
 life of Bishop Warburton. D. in ISOS. 
 
 Unr'dic, a flat rectangular framework of stakes and 
 wattles employed for fencing material by European farmers, 
 and sometimes used in warfare in the construction of earth- 
 works. Hurdles arc often set up in the race-course for 
 horses to lcai> over. 
 
 HurUwnr', a small town of Ilindostan, situated in lat. 
 29° 57' N. and Ion. 7tl° M' E., at an elevation of 102J feet 
 above tho sea, on the spot where the Ganges bursts from 
 the hill-country into the plain of Hindustan. During tho 
 latter part of March and the beginning of April this placo 
 is yearly visited by more than 200,000 pil:.;rlms, who cunio 
 to make their ablutions in tlio holy water, ami on some 
 occasiims tho number of visitors is said to increase to 
 2,0110,000. A large fair is held here at tho same lime, to 
 which the products of all tho neighboring countries are 
 brought. Pop. r>0U0. 
 
 Iliir'dy-gurdy, a musical instrument of tho stringed 
 kind, formerly much used by the European peasantry, but 
 now seldom seen except in the hands of Savuyard boys, 
 who play it in the streets. It consists of a flat sounding- 
 board, connected by tolerably deep ribs to a back of the 
 same size and shape. It has four strings of gut, which are 
 put into vibration by the erige of a wooden wheel turned 
 by a handle. It is suited only to very simple melodies. 
 
 Iliirrbiirt, tp. of Logan co., 111. Pup. 470. 
 
 Illirl'biit (.Stepiie.v A.), b. at Charleston, S. C, Nov. 29, 
 ISIJ; received a liberal education, studied law, and was 
 admitted to the bar in 1837 ; removed tu Illinois and settled 
 in Belviilere. In 1S47 he was eleclcil tu the Slate consti- 
 tutional cunventiun as a Whig ; Presidential elector on the 
 Whig ticket 1S48; member uf the State legislature IS,"i9, 
 1801, and 1807, and Presidential elcelor on the Republican 
 ticket 1808. During the civil war ho was appointed in 
 .May, 1801, a brigadier-general of volunteers, commanding 
 a division at the battle of Pittsburg Landing: promoted to 
 be mn.ior-gencral of volunteers Se]it., 1802, and commanded 
 the llitb army cor|is and department of the Gulf. In 1809 
 he wasa])poinlcd minister resident to the V. S. of Columbia, 
 which ollieo he held till 1872; elected member of the 43d 
 Congress from the 4th district of Illinois. G. C. Sim.moxs. 
 
 Ilurlbiit (Wii.i.iAM IlKN-nv), b. in Charleslon, S. C, 
 July 3, 1S27. He was graduated at Harvard College in 
 1817, at Harvarrl Divinity School in ISID; went the same 
 year to the University of ISerlin, and the next year to Rome 
 and Paris. In 1852 he entered Harvard Law School, and 
 in 1853 went to the West Indies; in 1864 published /'/<■- 
 tiirca of Ciili'i : in 1855 joined the staff of I'lilniim'n M,t,,,t- 
 zinc and the .1//ii'.ui ; in 1850 went to England; in ls.,7 
 ioinc* the New York Timet; in 185S travelled through 
 Englaml, Gcnitany, and Russia; in lsfi2 joined the New 
 York H'urW .• spent lSCB-07 in travelling through Mexico, 
 Austria, Hungary, and Italy; visited Suez in 1801); tho 
 (Ecumenical Cuuncil at Rome in l'<70, Santo Domingo in 
 1871 : revisited .Mexico in 1871, and again in 1^72; in 1873 
 visited Spanish .\nicricn, to Cape Horn, returning by Mun- 
 tevideo. Brazil, Portugal, and England. Author of don 
 Ellen (IS5I), Ocn. McClcllan and the Condnel of the War 
 (18011, etc. J. B, Bisilof. 
 
 Ilur'ley, post-lp, of Ulster co., N. Y., has extensive 
 quarries of flagging and building-stone. Pop. 2087. 
 
 iiii'ron, county of Ontario, Canailn, on tho E. side of 
 Lake Huron. Area, l.'i92 square miles. Tho soil is very 
 productive, and the scenery often (lieturesque. There are 
 2 ridings. The county is intersected by a branch of the 
 Graml Trunk Railway, Cap. (iudcrich. Pop. 00,105,
 
 1086 
 
 HURON— HUSH. 
 
 Plliron, county of Michifjan. having Lake Huron upon 
 the N. and E. and Saginaw Hay upon the W. Area, about 
 8."J0 square miles. It is mostly covered with pine forests. 
 Lumber and grain arc staple products. Cap. Port Austin. 
 Pop. OOl'J. 
 
 Huron, county of the N. of Ohio. Area. 464 square 
 miles. It is level, fertile, and well cultivated. Cattle, 
 grain, wool, and fruit are ])roduccd. The manufactures 
 include lumber, carriages, harnesses, cooperage, etc. It is 
 travcrsecl by the Cleveland and Columbus, the Sandusky 
 Mansfield and Newark, and the Cleveland and Toledo 11. Ks, 
 Cap. Norwalk. Pop. 28,j:J2. 
 
 Huron, post-tp. of Des Moines co., Ta. Pop. 807. 
 
 Huron, tp. of Houghton co., Mich. Pop. 7C0. 
 
 Huron, tp. of Huron co.. Mich. It contains the post-v. 
 of Huron City, on Lake Huron. Pop. 4U3. 
 
 Huron, tp. of Wayne co.. Mich. Pop. 126.^. 
 
 Huron, post-tp. of Wavne co., N. Y., on Lake Ontario. 
 Pop. 201)0. 
 
 Huron, post-v. of Eric co., 0., on Lake Erie and on the 
 
 Lake Shore R. R., 8 miles S. E. of Sandusky, at the mouth 
 of Huron River. It has a good trade, the river serving as 
 a harbor. Pop. G97 : of Huron tp. 14S:i. 
 
 Huron Indians, or Wyandots, a tribe of Iroquois 
 stock. They anciently occupied a large area in Canada, 
 from Montreal westward. Having joined the Roman Cath- 
 olics, they were set upon by the Six Nations, and, with the 
 Eries, were nearly exterminated by them in 16;i6. A large 
 party of them took refuge on St. Joseph's Island, and there 
 perished by hunger. A party of them settled at Ancienne 
 Lorctte, in Lower Canada, where some 200 of their descend- 
 ants remain. A large body settled S. of Lake Superior, 
 whence they were expelled by the Dakotas. We next find 
 tliem in Detroit, and then about Sandusky and N. of Luke 
 Erie. In 1704 they could muster ;i(lO fighting-mcn. They 
 served against the U. S. in 1812-15. In is;i2 they were 
 removed to a point near the mouth of the Kansas River. 
 They numbered in 1832, 6S7 : in 1S3G, 575 ; in 1S47, 6S7 ; 
 in I'SfiO, 435 ; in 1870,222. This loss is partly owing to the 
 adoption of U.S. citizenship by a portion of the tribe. 
 This portion is generally prosperous : the others by no 
 means so. Their reservation of 20,000 acres is in the In- 
 dian Territory, between the Shawnee and Seneca Indians. 
 Those of the U. S. bear the name of Wyandots, the name 
 by which they called themselves, while their long-sepa- 
 rated brethren of Canada are still called Hurons. 
 
 Huron, Lake, the third in area of the great lakes of 
 the St. Lawrence Basin. Its area is 23,800 square miles. 
 It lies between the State of Michigan on the W. and the 
 province of Ontario, which bounds it on the E. Lake 
 Huron has more bays and good harbors than any other of 
 the great lakes. The principal bay is Georgian Bay or 
 Lake Manitoulin, in Canadian territory. Near the entrance 
 to this bay is a chain of islands, of which the principal is 
 Great Manitoulin, a rocky and thinly inhabited region. 
 Lakes Superior and Michigan exceed it in area. The river 
 St. Mary connects it with the former, and Mackinac Straits 
 with the latter, while its outlet is the river St. Clair. Lake 
 Huron averages about 1000 feet deep, the maximum being 
 about ISOO fet't. Its waters are clear and cold, and abound 
 in fish, of which the white-fish is commercially the most 
 im])ortant. The lake is suliject to severe storms. The season 
 of navigation extends from about May 1st to abuut Dec. 
 5th. Its surface is 574 feet above the sea-level. The lake 
 receives the waters of numerous streams, which are mostly 
 not very large. 
 
 llur'ricane, tp. of Bradley co., Ark. Pop. 689. 
 
 Ilurrii-ano, tp. of Greene co., Ark. Pop. 385. 
 
 Hurriennr, post-tp. of Saline co., Ark. Pop. 390. 
 
 Hurricanr, tp. of Fayette co., 111. Pop. 1333. 
 
 Hurrirauc, post-tp. of Montgomery co., 111. 8- "24. 
 
 Hurrii-ane, tp. of Carroll co., Mo. Pop. 2285. 
 
 Hurricane, tp. of Lincoln co,, Mo. Pop. 3712. 
 
 Hurricane [originally a Carib word, signifying a 
 ** hi'^h wind "] is distinguishable from cyclones, storms, etc. 
 by its extreme fury and .'•udden change in character. It is 
 not neeessarily rotatory, as in a cyclone, or spiral, as in 
 whirlwinds, but may partake of all or any of these charac- 
 teri>tics. Hurricanes are unknown in the polar regions ; 
 of frequent occurrence in the torriil zone, where they are 
 especially violent ; and occasionally occur in the temperate 
 zone, either indejiendcntly or on their transit from the 
 torrid zone. They arc generally accompanied by rain, 
 thunder, and lightning. In the Pacific and Northern In- 
 dian oceans and the China Sea they arc called tvphoons, 
 but po.-scss the same distinctive elements as the hurricanes 
 of the districtft bounded by the Atlantic and Southern In- 
 
 dian oceans. The premonitory indications of a hurricane 
 arc a peculiar haziness of atmosphere, a general and om- 
 inous stillness or calmness of wind and tide, and a peculiar 
 feeling of physical lassitude or indolence. The barometer 
 falls sensibly, and gradually incrnising winds from sonic 
 unexpected quarters of the compass arise. The hurricane 
 arrives at its climax of strength in from four to twenty-four 
 hours, when the opposing currents of wind, rain, etc. sub- 
 side as gradually as they commenced, leaving a sad wreck 
 of property and life behind. In violence the hurricane ex- 
 ceeds the force of the strongest waves. The highest hur- 
 ricane winds on the British coast are recorded to have at- 
 tained a velocity of 130 miles per hour. In reference to 
 hurricane-tracks, their course appears to be. in the North 
 Atlantic Ocean, southerly, to the N. of the Windward 
 Islands; northwardly, over Newfoundland. Very few Imr- 
 ricanes occur in the South Atlantic Ocean. The most fre- 
 quently visited portions of the U.S. arc the coasts of Geor- 
 gia and South Carolina. The origin and cause of the hur- 
 ricanes of the Atlantic Ocean are but little known; they 
 have occurred in the neighborhood of Florida when a cold 
 N. wind has conflicted with the warm, moist air of the 
 Gulf and ocean. They have also occurred in the western 
 portion of the Gulf of JMexico afterthc presence of a Texan 
 norther. The great proportion of the Atlantic hurricanes 
 (both ns to number, extent, and violence) originate be- 
 tween the Windward Islands and the African coart, moving 
 along the American coast on its route to Iceland and Nor- 
 way. (See Winds.) 
 
 Hurst (John F.), D. D., b. Aug. 17,1SC4, in Dorchester 
 CO., Md. ; educated at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., and 
 Ilallo University, Germany J entered the Methodirt minis- 
 try in 1858, and in 1CC6 went to Germany to take charge of 
 the theological instruction in the Martin ?.Iission Inrtitutc, 
 Bremen. Ho remained five years in Germany, during wliich 
 time ho visited all the leading European countries, and in 
 1S70 made the tour of the Er.st. In the same year ho ac- 
 cepted the professorship of historical theology in the Drew 
 Theological Seminarv, Madison, N. J., made vacant by the 
 death of Rev. Dr. B. H. Nadal. In May, 1S73, he' was 
 elected president of the same seminary, a position which 
 he still occupies, retaining his connection, however, with 
 the chair of ecclesiastical history. Author of translations 
 of Ilagenbach's Hintory of the Church in the Eif/htrmth 
 and yinetefjiith Centuries (2 vols.), Langc's Comnicntftrt/ nn 
 Jiomans, Van Oosterzce's Lectures on John's Gonpcf, and of 
 an original ///w/ory o/ /f((f/o*ia^r«Hi, OutlincH of liiblr and 
 Church HiMtori/, and Martj/rs to the Tract Caune. lie has 
 in preparation a Hintorti of the Church, which will cover the 
 entire period down to the present day. 
 
 Hur'tcr, von fpRiFDuirn Emantel), b. at SchafT- 
 hauseu JMar. 19, 1787 ; stuflied theology at Giittingen ; 
 was appointed minister at Schaffhausen in 1824, but re- 
 signed his office in 1841, and embraced Catholicism in 1844. 
 In 1S4G he settled at Vienna, and was apjiointcd histori- 
 ographer to the emperor of Austria. D. at (iratz Aug. 27, 
 1865. The )>rincipal of his works are — GeschirUtc den ost- 
 ffothiHchm K'iulffs Thcodort'ch und seiner Jici/ieruuf/ (1807), 
 Genchichtc Pttpst lunocenz III, nnd seiner ZeitycnoHScn 
 (1834— 12), Geschichte A'atser Ferdinand If. und seiner El- 
 tern (1850-57), Die Bef'eliidunf/ dcr Katholischen Kirche in 
 der Schiccitz srit dem jahre 1S34 (1842-43), and Gehurt uud 
 Wiedvr.jeburt (1845). 
 
 Uurtes'ville, post-tp. of Russell co., Ala. Pop. 1440. 
 
 Hushaud and Wife. See M.\RiaAf;R, by Pitor. J. N. 
 Pomi:kov. LL.D. 
 
 Husbandry, Patrons of. See Patcons of Hrs- 
 DAMutv. by L. p. Brockett, a. M., M. D. 
 
 Ilus'bands fnEitMAN).b. in Pennsylvania, but removed 
 to Orange c<i.. N. C., where he became a member of the 
 legislature and leader of the Regulators, of which party he 
 published a full account in 1770. On May 10, 1771, a con- 
 flict took place between Gov. Tryon and the Regulators; 
 the latter were defeated, and Husbands flecl to IVnnsyl- 
 vania. In 1778 he was a metnber of the legislature there ; 
 wasconccrneci in the whisky insurrection in 171'4.and associ- 
 ated with iiallatin. Brackenridge, and others as a com- 
 mittee of safety. Having been imprisoned for a short time 
 in Philadelphia, he determined to return home, but d. o^ 
 the way. Mar., 1795. 
 
 Huscli'ke (GKonr. Pnii.ipp Eiu'ard), b. at Miinden 
 June 2(t, ISOI ; studied 1S17 at Gottingen, and was ap- 
 pointed professor of jurispruflenec at the I'niversity of 
 Breslau in 1827. His principal writings are — Stndhu dea 
 rowiichen lUchts (1840), Gains (1855), Die /i/uvischen 
 Ta/eln (1859). 
 
 Hush, town of Roumania (Moldavia), has a Greek 
 bishop, a normal school, and is a place of cotiimercial im- 
 portance. Pop. variously estimated at from 4000 to 16,000.
 
 HUSKISSON— HUXCHESON. 
 
 1037 
 
 llas'kisson (William), b. at Birch-Moreton, Worccs- 
 fcrsUirc, ICuglaud. iM:ir. II, 1770; r<;siili<l iis a student in 
 Paris 17S;;-'J2, ivIrto Iio was a ineuiln-T of the Soeiote tie 
 178'J, a liiuderatc repubiioan club, and at tlie fe'aiuc time 
 was private sccr,-tary to Lord Gowcr. the Uritish minister. 
 He witnc!?od the deslruetioo of tlic liasiilo and opposed 
 the issue of the assignats. In 17'JJ, Pitt appointed him 
 an undor-sccretary for war and for tlie coliMiies; in 1790 
 he entered Parliament; became secretary of the treasury 
 1804; commissioner of woods and forests ISIl; member 
 of the finance committee ISlC; president of the board of 
 trade and treasurer of the navy 1S23; was colonial sccre- 
 tarv 1S27-1!9. On the occasion of tlio opening of the Liv- 
 erpool and Manchester Railway (.Sept. lo, I.S.JO) ho was 
 struck by one of the engines, and d. on the same day. 
 lluskisson's brilliant state papers, his ability in public af- 
 fairs, and his liberal principles, which had (,'reat iutluence 
 upon the course of reform in Kngland. entitle liini to a per- 
 manent ]dace in history ; but throughout his public life he 
 hail to contend with the strong prejudices of the English 
 people, who generally regarded him as a dangerous inno- 
 vator, with deep designs against the interests of society. 
 
 Hus§ (.ToiiN), b. in l:i7.3 at Ilussinctz, in .Southern Bo- 
 hemia, near the Bavarian frontier; entered in i:!S'J the 
 Vniversity of Prague, where he took the degree of M. A. 
 in l.iOB, and begin to give lectures on theology and |)hi- 
 losophy in 13US. In 1401 ho became president of the faculty 
 of theology, and in 1409 rector of the university. In phi- 
 loiiophy he was a realist, and in opposition to the German 
 professors, who were nominalists. By reviving an olil ordi- 
 nance of Charles IV'., which gave the native students four 
 votes in all discussions of university matters, and the for- 
 eign only one, he caused a rupture, and the Polish, Saxon, 
 anl Bavarian students, with their professors. 50U0 in num- 
 ber, left the university. But those remaining, consisting 
 chiefly of native Bohemians, drew so much the more closely 
 around him. and in his contest with the Church, which now 
 began to grow hot, the university was one of his principal 
 supports. In 1 100 ho had taken holy orders, and in 1402 
 he ivas appointed preacher at the Bethlehem chapel at 
 Prague, lie delivered his sermons in the Bohemian lan- 
 guage, and gathered immense audiences, lie was a mild 
 and kind-hearted man, with a pure, spiritual enthusiasm, 
 hut his sympathy with the suffering and downtrodden was 
 impassioned, and his opposition to vice, fiilsehood, and 
 abuse was fierce. In a short time he became the idol of the 
 lower classes of Prague, and at court he was high in favor; 
 he was the confessor of (iueen Sophia, and King Wcnces- 
 laufl was his friend. Nor was he at first met with enmity 
 bv the Church, though his denunciations of the false doc- 
 trines ill her teaching and the vices in her discipline were 
 very loud. But by degrees .Vrchhishop Sbynko of Prague 
 became frightened at the commotion which lluss's preach- 
 ing caused, and as he knew the connection existing between 
 the ideas of llnss and the writings of Wyclifi'e, he ordered 
 all books by the latter to be deposited in his palace, and 
 appealed to the pope. Alexander V. sent a bull against 
 Wycliffc and all who held his opinions, and Sbynko had 
 Iho books, 200 volumes, publicly burnt. IIuss protested, 
 not against the pope, but against the measures of Sbynko, 
 and addresscil a brilliant exposition of the whole matter to 
 the new ]Mjpe, .John XXIII. A committee c»f cardinals was 
 appointed, and Sbynko's acts were denounced as transgres- 
 sions of his legitimate power, but at the same time lluss 
 was accused of heresy and summoned to appear before the 
 pope. The king, the f|neen, the university, the magistrates 
 of Prague, even the archbishop himself, wrote to the pope 
 to attest tiie orthodoxy of Huss, but in vain ; and. as he 
 rcfnscii to ap])eQr, he was condemned and excommunicated, 
 an<l a ban was placed on the city which received him within 
 its walls, lie left Prague, but the popular inovcinents be- 
 came so violent that Sbynko had to flee for his life, and 
 lluss returned to his chapel, where his preaching against 
 the pope and the Church became bolder and bolder; the 
 po|)c was compelled to acfiuicsce. But in 1412, . I ohn XXI 1 1, 
 preached a crusado against La.lislas, who fought with 
 Louis II. for the possession of Naples, ami the pope granted 
 indulgences to all who would take arms against Ladislas. 
 Pcandaliied at seeing the head of the Church meddle in 
 this way with secular affairs, lluss gave, in his Qiiimtin tir 
 Jtninfi/rutii^ nivc tic crucintit painr Jtntmiin XXIII. and 
 C'lulrit lliilliim pnpn- Junuuii XX III., an expnsiliim of the 
 frauds and lies, doctrinal and historical, on which the 
 whole Church establishment rested ; and in clearness and 
 conclusiveness of demonstration, and in simplicity ami im- 
 prcssiveness of representation, these writings have perhaps 
 never been surpassed. .\ new bull of ban was flung against 
 him. but he now appealed to a general council in open op. 
 position to the pope. Provided with a safeguard from tlie 
 emperor Sigismund, he repaired to Constance, where (Nov. 
 I'.i, 1 11 1 ! the general council opened. He " ■ ' 
 
 well received 
 
 both by the pope and the prelates, and seemed even to in- 
 spire confidence. But by the intrigues of his euemies 
 affairs soon took anothertnrn. He was imprisoucd first in 
 the cathedral, then in a iJoininican convent on an island 
 of the Lake of Constance, then in the castlu of Uottlebcn, 
 where chains were put on him ; and when at last (June, 
 1415) he actually appeared before the council, it was evi- 
 dent that he was condemned before ho was heard. On 
 July G he was sentenced, and the same day he was burnt 
 at the stake outside of the city, and his ashes were strewn 
 on the lihine. Many attempts were made to persuade him 
 to recant, but he refused, and he died singing with loud 
 voice the h'l/ric elelson. Of his collected works there aro 
 two editions, Strasburg (1525) and Nuvcmbcrg (1558). Of 
 his Bohemian writings there is an edition by Erben in 
 1804. His letters wero translated into French in 1810 by 
 Emile dc Bonneehosc. CLEMiixs Pkteiises. 
 
 Hussar' [Hung., from liiisz, "twenty;" every twenty 
 families were obliged to furni.sh a man], originally the irreg- 
 ular cavalry of Hungary and Croatia. The name is now ap- 
 plied to many light cavalry regiments in various armies. 
 The British army (187.3) had sixteen hussar regiments. 
 
 Ilus'sites is the name of the followers of Huss. Im- 
 mediately after his marlynlom they arose in Bohemia, and 
 took a frightful revenge <m flic priests, monks, and prelates of 
 the Konmn Catholic Church. King Wcnceslaus succeeded, 
 however, in appeasing the storm by granting them religious 
 freedom and a])propriatiug a number of churches for their 
 use. But when the' king died in 14 I'J, and the pope issued 
 an order for the conversion of the Hussites by force, a civil 
 war began. They assembled under the leadership of John 
 Ziska on Mount Tabor, captured Prague, pillaged and burnt 
 the monasteries, and defeated at Deutchbrod in 1422, and 
 in several other minor encounters, the troops of Sigismund, 
 the German emperor and the heir of Wcnceslaus. Ziska d. in 
 1424, but his successor, Procopius, a former monk, was still 
 more successful. He defeated Sigismund at Micss and Ta- 
 chau, and carried the war into Austria, Bavaria, Franconia, 
 and Saxony. Meanwhile, the Hussites had separated into 
 two parties', the Taboriles and the Calixtines. The former 
 were the most radical, and acknowledged no doctrine which 
 was not immediately given by the text of the Seriiiturcs; 
 while the latter held a more moderate position. In the be- 
 ginning, however, they acted in perfect concert with each 
 other. But in I4:i.'! the Council of Bale succeeded in com- 
 ing to an agreement with the Calixtines ami in drawing 
 them out of the contest, the result of which was that the 
 Tahorites were totally defeated at Biimischbrod in 14.'i4. 
 By the treafv of Iglau'(14.''.n) the einiiernr Sigismund grant- 
 ed to Bohcn'iia both religious and )><ilitical tVcedoin, but tho 
 civil war did not cease uutil 14S5, when King Ladislas, at 
 the diet of Kuttenbcrg. solemnly confirmed tho treaty of 
 Iglau. (Sec BoiiKMiA.s Buf.tiiiikx.) 
 
 Husson' (.!i:\N lloxoiif; AuiSTinn), h. at Paris July ."!, 
 180.", ; studied si-ulpture under David, and received the first 
 prize in l8:;o for his 7'Ac».'ri«, and the gold medal in ls:;7 
 for his Gitindinii Aiuitl. His most celebrated statues aro 
 lldiilfr, in the museum of liicnoble, and Siimmtr and Au- 
 tumn, in the Place de la Concorde, Paris. 
 
 Ilu'stocl ( JAMi:s W.), h. at Bedford, N. Y., Oct. 31, 1833; 
 graduated with honors at Vale 1854 ; was admitted to the bar 
 1857 ; early entercrl public life; was cho.scn school commis- 
 sioner for 'Westchester co., N. v., ill 1858; deputy superin- 
 tendent of insurirncc department 1800 ; was afterwards har- 
 bor-master and then deputy captain of the port of New 
 York; judge advocate for the 7lll brigade New York Na- 
 tional Guard, etc. ; became major-general of the 5tli divis- 
 ion New York National Guard in 1H73; Speaker of tho 
 assembly 1874; president of the New York State .Military 
 Association 1874; is a high oflicial of tho Masonic^ order 
 and a. successful lawyer. Itceidcncc, Pcckskill, N. \. 
 
 Illl'stisfonI, jiost-tp. of Uodgo CO., Wis. Pop. 1C96. 
 
 Ilu'stoii, tp. of Blair Co., Pa. Pop. 133S. 
 
 Huston, tp. of Centre co., Pa. Pop. 803. 
 
 Huston, tp. of Clearfield co.. Pa. Pop. 087. 
 
 Iln'stonvillP, post-v. of Lincoln co., Ky., 53 miles S. 
 by E. of I'r.iTikfort. Pop. 320. 
 
 IIut'«-lirson (FuAScis), b. Aug. 8, 1094, at Drumalig. 
 I'Ister. Ireland, whither his grandfather had inimigraled 
 from Scotland; studied theology at the University of Glas- 
 gow 1712-10; lived as a public teacher in Dublin 1717-29, 
 during which period he published Intjiitrif iitio Ihr Ort;fiitttt 
 at' our IiUim «J llcauli/ iiiiil Vhliii- (1720) and X'litKrc iiiid 
 ('iimluvt of thr /'.M«.oi.» iinrl .\ffi-rii,m<i (1728), an.l was in 
 1729 appointed professor of moral philosophy at the Uni- 
 versity of (Hasgow. He d. during a visit to Dublin Aug. 8, 
 1740.' His Stjnirm „/ Maial I'liilufjthii was publisbeil by his 
 son in 1755. In tho history of Scottish philosophy. Ilutehe- 
 son occupies a conspicuous place, though his books ceased to
 
 1038 
 
 HUTCHINS— HUTTEN, VON. 
 
 be generally read soon after his death. Ho was strongly op- 
 posed to Locko and the whole empirical tendency of the 
 English philosophy, and this may be considered as the 
 prc-eminentiy Scottish clement in his philosophy, as an an- 
 ticipation of Dr. Ueid. Hut by his own time he was, on 
 the otlicr hand, suspected as belonging to the " new lights," 
 and intending to put a new face on Scotch theology; and 
 the suspicion was right. Moral goodness he defines as the 
 right relation between the propensities; virtue he repre- 
 sents as hencvoleuce ; and the whole moral state of man he 
 rests on a sense jjceuliar to man, the moral sense. Uut the 
 assumption of a moral sense brought him in dangerous 
 propin(|uity to the opinion that man could be moral with- 
 out knowing God: which opinion evidently involved that 
 the hcatiien were not necessarily condemned: and for this 
 very sentence his former teacher. Prof. Jcdin Simsou, had 
 been dismissed from the University of (;iasgi»w in 1729. 
 llutcheson delivered his lectures in English, though the 
 banflbooks in logic, metaphysics, etc., which he published 
 for the use of his classes arc written in Latin. 
 
 Hut'chilis (Thomas), b. at Monmouth, N. J., about 1730. 
 At an early age he entere<I the British military service, and 
 became captain in the '* Iloyal American " regiment; acted 
 as engineer in (ien. Henry Bouquet's famous expedition 
 against the Shawnees (1764). and participated creditably 
 in a campaign against the Florida Indians. Being in Lon- 
 don in 1779, his known clevotion to American independence 
 led to an imprisonment for six weeks on a charge of main- 
 taining correspondence with Franklin, by which circum- 
 stance he is said to have lost £12,000. Soon afterward he 
 sailed from Franco to Charleston, S. C, and joined the 
 army under Gen. Greene, receiving the title of "geographer- 
 general." He furnished the maps and plates for Dr. Smith's 
 Arronnt of Bouquet's Ejcpvdition ( Phila., 1765; London, 
 1706); published A Toptajraphicnl Dcncriptiou of Virginia, 
 Pennni/lvatiin, Mavifhind, and Cnrnllnnj with mapti (London, 
 1778; in French, Paris, 17.S1); and An Historical and To- 
 pofjraphical Description uf Louisiana and West Florida 
 (Phiia., 1784), besides several papers in the Transactions 
 of the scientific societies at Philadelphia. His geographical 
 works were largely used by Dr. i\Iorse in the compilation 
 of his American tfnzetUcr. D. at Pittsburg Apr. 28, 1789. 
 
 Ilut'chinson, county in the S. E. of Dakota. Area, 
 about 720 square miles. It is intersected by the Dakota 
 lUver. Cap. Maxwell. Pop. 37. 
 
 Hutchinson, city, cap. of Reno eo.. Kan., on the 
 
 Arkansas and the Atchison Topeka and Santa Fc R. R., 
 
 has a weekly newspaper, a court-house, bank, churches and 
 
 schools, and is in a healthy, fertile region. Founded 1S71. 
 
 C. C. HrTCiirs'soN, En. " Resotrcks of Kaxsa.s." 
 
 Hutchinson, post-tp. of McLeod co., Minn. P. 440. 
 
 Hutchinson (Annk), a famous religious enthusiast, 
 founder of the .\ntinomian sect of Xcw England, b. at Al- 
 ford. Lincolnshire, England, in lJ9I,thedaughtcrof Francis 
 Marbury, a parish clergyman. On her mother's side she 
 was a second cousin of the poet Dryden. In 10;i4 shccame 
 to Boston, Mass., to enjoy the preaching of John Cotton. 
 Here she instituted meetings of women for the discussion 
 of doctrinal questions, and her influence crc:itcda powerful 
 faction and led to public disturbances. She even claimed 
 a measure of divine inspiration. In 10o7 she was ban- 
 ished to Rhode Island, where she was the leader of a small 
 sect until 1042. when, after her husband's death, she re- 
 moved to the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam, where (as 
 some say near Hell (iate, or according to others near Al- 
 bany) she was murdered by the Indians in KM.'i. Among 
 her followers was her brother-in-law, .John Wheelwright, the 
 founder of Exeter, N. H., and Sir Harry Vane, the govern- 
 or of Massachusetts, was her defender. Even John Cotton 
 seems to have been at one time favorably inclined to her 
 doctrine. 
 
 Hutchinson {John), b. about IGIG: married, in ICiS, 
 a daughter of Sir Allen Apsley, governor of the Tower of 
 London, and settled on liis estate atOwthorpe. In the be- 
 ginning of the civil war he was appointed governor of Not- 
 tingham Castle; represented Nottingham in the Parliament, 
 and was a member of the high court of judiciary which sen- 
 tenced the king to death, but retired from public life, dis- 
 agreeing with Cromwell. Shortly after the Restoration he 
 was arrested and detained in prison, first in the Tower, and 
 then in Sandown Castle. Kent, where ho d. Sept. 11, 1661. — 
 His wife, Lrov HrTciiissox. who survived him many years, 
 wrote a memoir of his life, which was published in London 
 in 1S06 from the original manuscript, and is considered a 
 valuable record of events. 
 
 Hutchinson (John), b. at Spennithorne, Yorkshire, 
 in 1674 : <1. in I7^>7. Me was first steward an<i then riding 
 purveyor to the duke of Somerset, and had dabbled a little 
 in many different things; as, for instance, mineralogy and 
 
 Hebrew. In 1724 he published the first volume of his 
 Moses's Principia, in 1727 the second, and then followed 
 a long series of miscellaneous writings, 12 vols, in all, in 
 whieli ho ridiculed and reduced od absHrdnm Newton's 
 views of nature and exjiuunded his own. These he pro- 
 fessed to have extracted from the Old Testament by means 
 of the only true and eomjietent method of interpreting the 
 Hebrew language, which he alone was possessed of. By 
 itself, this maze of craziness and ignorance has nothing 
 remarkable, but it is a curious fact that it found believers 
 and adherents in England. 
 
 Hutchinson (Thomas), b. at Boston Sept. 9, 1711; 
 graduated at Harvard College in 1727; studied law, and 
 served as representative for Boston in the general court for 
 ten years; was three times Speaker; iiecame lieutenant- 
 governor in 175S, chief-justice in 1760, acting governor in 
 1 769, and was commissioned full governor in 1771. Hutch- 
 inson early became obnoxious to the patriots on account of 
 his unwavering support of all the tyrannical measures of the 
 British ministry. In the Stamp Act riots of 1 765 his house 
 was twice attacked; on the second occasion (Aug. 26), his 
 furniture was burned in the street and an invaluable col- 
 lection of historical MSS. lost or destroyed. Brought into 
 constant collision with the assembly and council (luring the 
 stormy years preceding the Revolution, Hutchinson was 
 the most prominent mark in America for the invectives of 
 Otis, Bowdoin, Hancock, and the two Adams. Wearied 
 with the conflict, he saile<l f<jr England on leave of absence 
 June I, 1774, and never returned to America. His services 
 were rewarded by a pension from the Crown. Hutchinson 
 was an accomplishcil scholar, and his writings arc valuable 
 sources of information for New England liistory. He pub- 
 lished in 1764 and 1707 two volumes of a Jliatori/ of the 
 J*rovincf of Massacfinnttts liaj/, and in 1769 a VnlUction of 
 Oriffinal Papers relative to the History of th*! C'olont/ of 
 Massachusetts Bajf. A third volume of the History, com- 
 pleting the work to 1774, appeared in 1828, edited by the 
 author's grandson. Rev. John Hutchinson. D. at Bromp- 
 ton, Eng., June 3, 1780. 
 
 Hutchinson (Thomas Joseph), F. R. G. S., served as 
 senior surgeon on the English expedition in 1854-55 to 
 the rivers Niger. Tshadda. and Bine, and was appointed 
 British consul in this territory in 1855; in 1S61 ho was 
 transferred to Rosario in the Argentine Republic, and in 
 1870 to Callao. He has published Narrative of the Nifjcr 
 Expedition (1855), Impnssionfi of Western Africa ilS58), 
 Ten Years Amonif the Ethiopians (1861), Buenos Ayres 
 (1865), Parana (I'SOS), and Tico Years in Pern (1874). 
 
 Hut'sonriHe, ]>ost-tp. of Crawford co., III. Pop. 1S51. 
 
 Hut'ten, von ( Ulrich), was a kind of literary knight- 
 errant, whose influence it would be impossible to realize 
 unless his life were viewed in connection with a detailed 
 description of his time. He was b. in the castle of Steck- 
 elberg, near Fulda, in the electorate of Hesse, Apr. 20, 
 1488, and in 1498 lie was placed in a monastery in Fulda 
 in order to become a monk. But in 1504 he fled to Erfurt, 
 where he conversed with poets and schcdars : and when, in 
 the next year, a pestilential disease broke out and com- 
 pelled him to leave the city, he went to Cologne. Here he 
 made acquaintance with some of the most marked speci- 
 mens of the riri ohiruri — as. for insJance, lloogstraten — 
 and also with one of tbeirmost decided opponents, Johan- 
 nes Rhagius. He allied himself with the latter, and fol- 
 lowccl him in 1506 to Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where a new 
 university was just established. Here he received the de- 
 gree of M. A., and published his first poem. Carmen in 
 Laudrm Marchiir: but in 1508 he was attackecl himself by 
 the above-mentioned disease, and for several years he wan- 
 dered ar<tun<l in Northern Germany, experiencing numy 
 turns of fortune, courted to-da^' and beaten to-morrow. In 
 1511 ho was in Wittenberg, where he juildished his Ars 
 vcrsificatoria, siud in 1512 he went through Moravia and 
 Bohemia, through Vienna, to Pavia. in order to study law. 
 But after the conquest of Pavia he was jdundcred of all ho 
 owned, and was at last compelled by the danger of starva- 
 tion to enlist in the imperial army. He left it very soon, 
 however, and returned home to Germany, and during the 
 two following years (15L5-15) his denunciations of TUrich, 
 duko of Wiirtcmbcrg, and especially his defence of Rcuch- 
 lin, made bis name quite famous. The j>ublication of 
 Epistohc obscurorum vii-oi-urn, in the writing of which 
 he probably bore a part, is generally considered as hav- 
 ing furthered the cause of the Reformation. In 1515 he 
 once more went to Italy, but returned again in 1517: was 
 knighted by the emperor at the diet of Augsburg, and en- 
 tered the service of the archbishop of Mentz. Next year, 
 however, he retired from the court, and at this time he be- 
 gan the publieation of the severest attacks on the pope and 
 the eb-rgy written in German. The pope demanded his 
 surrender as a prisoner, and Huttcn fled, first from his own
 
 HUrrER— HYACINTHE. 
 
 1039 
 
 castle, and then from that of Frani von Sickingen, where 
 he found rcfuic. He went to Switierland. and here, again 
 attacked liv his old disease, he d. Aug. l!:i. lil.':J. in IJfenau, 
 an ijland in I-akc Zurich. A coUe.-lcd edition of his 
 works was published by Bucking (1S02), and a biography 
 by Slrnuss (1857). 
 
 Hut'ter (r.EOMTAiinT). h. at Xollinsen, Bavaria, in 156.1 ; 
 vludicd thcd.igv at PtrasliiirK, Leipsic. Iloidellierg, and 
 .Iina, and was appointed in l^'ufi pridVssor in Wittenberg, 
 where he d. Oct. 23, lOlfi- His most prominent works are 
 — /'.jneor./m r-ncort (1614). written in defence of the Lu- 
 theran system of doctrines, which had been atl.ieked by 
 llospinia'n in his CmcnUn ,li,c.,r>: and (•■.m,,,;i<l/iim l.,ro. 
 r.iiii ilicii/n./iranwi, a Lutheran dogmatic treatise, which has 
 been published several times; last ed. 180S. 
 
 Iliit'ton, post-lp. of Coles co., 111. Pop. 2196. 
 Iliitton, Ip. of Putnam CO., West Va. Pop. ljG8. 
 ilutton (riiARLKS). b. at Newcasllc-on-Tyne Aug. 14, 
 1737 ; lived at Newcastle as teacher from 1760 to 1773, dur- 
 ing which period he wrote his Ticuliie on ylii//imc(/c ami 
 «<7"*--ile,/).Fi7 (1764), Trrallie im Mfiiimrniivn (1771), and 
 Prliir!/,!,^ <,f Ilrkl'lfi and Malliciiialirut fjcmnnntralion of 
 Ihe Lair, „f Arche'n (1772) : was in 1773 appointed professor 
 of mathematics at the military acailcniy of Woolwich. and 
 in 1774 elected a member of the Royal Society. D. .Ian. 
 27, IS23. Besides a number of papers in the Traiuaclimt 
 of the Royal Society, in the I'/filonnpln'ral Traiisnctimm, 
 and the Ladiet' Oi'ari/. he published J'ahUa of PrndiKlt 
 and /'oicrrt «/" Xiimberii ( 17S1 ), Mathematical Tablel ( 1785), 
 r.mrie «f Malhematica (17'J8-1801), and Kecrcaliont 111 
 M'llhrmiitlct and Xnlarul Plii'liiiojihi/ (4 vols., 1S03). 
 
 Ilutton fJA>fF.s).b. in Edinburgh .Tunc 3.1726: studied 
 medicine in his native city, in I'aris. and at Lcyden, where 
 he look the decree of .M.' 1>. ; engaged after his return to 
 Knirland first in the manufacture of chemicals, then in 
 agricultural pursuits, concentrating his studies on tho fields 
 of natural science, especially geology. The principal re- 
 sults of his researches were a Tlirnri/ nf Iliin, cnmmuni- 
 caled to the TranMarilont of the Royal Society of Edin- 
 burgh, and a Thron/ ../" llir- Earth, in which he claims that 
 most geological phenomena which by Werner and his school 
 were explained as effected by aqueous influences were pro- 
 duced by igneous fusion. The former is still considered a 
 valuable contribution to the science of meteorology ; by tho 
 latter (2 vols., 17115-96) he established tho principle of 
 pliilonisin. I), in Edinburgh Mar. 26, 1797. 
 
 Hux'Icy (Thomas Hkshy), iM. B., Pn. I)., LL.D., 
 F. R. S., b. at Eiling, Middlesex, England. May 4, 1S25; 
 became a student of Charing Cross Hospital 1S42; gradu- 
 ated .M. B., with honors, from the University of London 
 ISli: was assistant surgeon of the royal navy 1816-53; 
 Failed around the world in II. .M. S. Rattlesnake, which 
 then perrormcd surveying service in Australasia, 1S46-50; 
 became V. R. S. IS51, in acknowledgment of tho value of 
 tho observations in natural science made by him while in 
 tlic naval service, concerning which ho had from time to 
 time sent papers to that society ; became in 1854 professor 
 of natural history in the School of Mines, which position 
 he retains in 1875 : Huntcrinn professor in the Royal Col- 
 lege of Surgeons 1S63-69; president of tho (ieological and 
 the Ethnological societies 1S69-7U ; was appointed one of 
 the royal commissioners im scientific instruction and the 
 advancement of science 1S70; was on the London school 
 boar<l 1876-72; secretary of the Royal Society 1S72; lord 
 rectnr of the I'uiversityof Aberdeen 1S72; and has twice 
 been named Fullerinn 'professor in the Royal Institution. 
 Prof. Huxley has for many years been one of the most la- 
 borious workers in biological science. The comparative 
 anatomy of both vertebrate and invertebrate animals, and 
 tho systematic arrangement of organisms, have been the 
 fields in which he has been chiefly distinguished. He has 
 proposed several bold rearrangements of animals into new 
 classes, orders, and has discovered some remarkable analo- 
 gies in the development of vertebrate and invertebrate 
 animals. His theory of protoplasm, his able advocacy of 
 the Darwinian hypothesis, and the doctrine lioldly ad- 
 vanceil by him in his address before the physiological sec- 
 tion of the British Association at its Belfast meeting in 
 1874, that the seemingly voluntary movements of animals, 
 and oven of men, are automatic ami independent of the 
 will, have attracted much attention. Author of Thr Orranir 
 I/i/drozoa (1S57), .Voii'» Phirr In Xalnrr (1863), On llir 
 PluiHiral Ilamt af Life (1868), Elrmcntari/ Plii/tiidiiriy 
 (1.866), fnlrndnrli,',n tn the ClaimlJIralinn nf ytiiinin/« (1869), 
 Lai/ .S>riiioii«. etc. (1870), 'Vi'(i./ii<-« and Addretnci (1873), 
 and of many important scientific papers. 
 
 Iliiy, town of Betginui, in the province of Lidge, at the 
 confluiuce of the Hoyoux and the .Maas. It is strongly 
 forlilied. and has rieii coiil and iron mines in its vicinity, 
 
 which is mountainous, almost alpine, in its character. Pop. 
 11,055. 
 
 Huydecop'erfBAi.TnASAn),b. in Amsterdam in 1695; 
 filled lor many years the office of sheriff of his native town, 
 and d. there Se[>t. 21, 1778. llis Latin poems and his Dutch 
 tragedies. Arltittm, Arnarrii, etc.. are not now read, but his 
 remarks on V'ondel's translation ui Oridii Mrttim<ir/>hnnri,and 
 his other critical and linguistic works, started in the Nether- 
 lands the grammatical cultivation of the Dutch language. 
 
 Hny'Rhcns (CnnisTiAx),b. at the Hague .Apr. 14. 1629, 
 and cilucated at the universities of Leydcn and Breda, 
 where he stvnlied law and mathematics. He made several 
 journeys to Denmark, France, and Englan<l. and resided 
 from 1665 to IGSl, at the invitation of Cdbert, at Paris, 
 where he w.as made a member of the .\cademy of .Science 
 and had apartments assigncif him in the royal library. 
 Tho latter part of his life he spent at the Hague, where he 
 d. July 8. 1695. .As a mathematician, especially as a geo- 
 metrician, he enjoyed the greatest fame, and his papers on 
 the calculus of probabilities and on the quadrature of a 
 portion of a cycloid were considered masterpieces. His 
 views on optics and mechanics also attracted great atten- 
 tion. He was the most able advocate of the nndulatory 
 hypothesis of light, which he developed in 1678. It was 
 not generally adopted, l)y reason, prol>alily, of the great 
 authority of Newtcm, who embraced the emission hypoth- 
 esis. By the later labors of Young, Frcsncl. and others the 
 doctrine of Iluyghens was restated, and is now universally 
 received. But it was more especially his astronomical dis- 
 coveries which made his name celebrated. -At different 
 times in his life he was much occujiied in making improve- 
 ments in the construction of telesc<)]>es, and in l(i5C he 
 discovered the first satellite of Saturn, and in 1659 the 
 ring; which discoveries he described in his Si/Ktrnia Sattir- 
 ninm (16591. He became still more widely known as the 
 inventor of the pendulum clock, which he described in his 
 /Inrolni/lum (Jncillatnrlum (1658). His works were pub- 
 lished in two collections. Opera varia (1724) and Opera 
 reliijna (1728). 
 
 Iliiy'sum, van (.Ian), b. at Amsterdam in 1682; re- 
 ceived instruction in landscape painting from his father, 
 but devoted himself exclusively to the painting of tiowcrs 
 and fruits, in which (jmre he becinie one of the greatest 
 masters, if not the very greatest. D. in his native city in 
 1749. lie was jiroud. jealous, and of a dithcult tempera- 
 ment ; kept his knowledge of the preparation of colors and 
 oilier tecliniealities a deep secret: worked slowly, Init ac- 
 quired a naturalness ami life in drawing and a warmth 
 and brilliancy of coloring which have never been surpassed. 
 His representation of dewdrops resting on the tips of 
 grass, of down floating iu the air, or of an insect crawling 
 over a leaf, arc often too true, making an impression as if 
 the fly were sittijig on tho picture and not on the flower. 
 His ]tainfings are found only in the greatest galleries. 
 
 Ily'ai'inth [so called from the youth Hyaciiithus, slain 
 by the quoit of AjioUo ; from his blood the flower was fabled 
 to have sprung], a genus of bullious-rootcd flowering plants 
 of the order Liliacea>. Several species are natives of tho 
 Old Worlil. Besides these, some species of Mnicari (globe- 
 hyacinths) and Srilla, or stiuill, are called hyacinths by 
 florists. The true hyacinths of cultivation arc varieties of 
 Hi/aiinthnii arirntalin. There are a great many kinds pro- 
 duced from seed, but for ordinary culture the bulbs are 
 planted. These bulbs come eliielly fioni Haarlem in tho 
 Netherlands. They do best in a rich but sandy soil. They 
 arc often planted in pots, and for house-culture they do 
 tolerably well in hyacinth-glasses with water only. Ac- 
 cording to tradition, the petals of the hyacinth are inscribed 
 with the llreek letters m. ai, .Apollo's exelamalion of grief 
 when he found that he liail slain the beautiful llyaeinthus; 
 or va, the first two letters of his name. Hence, .Milton calls 
 it •' tiiat sanguine flower inscribed with woe." Most people 
 fail to finil any such mark u|ion the hyacinth, and it is not 
 certain that the hyacinth of the ancients was identical with 
 ours. But ."^prengel iind others profess to have sei-u hya- 
 cinths with tlie inscription. //. noH'tcriptua is the bluebell 
 of lireat Britain. (See Br.i'RnKi.f..) 
 
 Ilyncinthf or Jacinth, is a term aj^plied to bright- 
 coloreil varieties of zircon, a mineral that crystallizes in the 
 rlinietrie system, and is in composition a silicate of zirconia. 
 The hvaeinth is used as a gem, and varies in color from 
 various shades of reil to orange. It is doiibll'nl, however, 
 whether this is the ua*cie5oc of the ancients, which may have 
 been the amethyst or the sapphire. 
 
 Ilyarintlie (CiiAni.ns Loyson, called Fatiii:r), b. at 
 
 Orleans in 1S27 ; after his regular course of studies in tho 
 
 ' college of Pan he entered the ecclesiastical college of St. 
 
 ' Sulpice. Four years after he was ordaim-tl priest, and was 
 
 professor of theology in several schools. Ilyacinthe wa.i
 
 1040 
 
 HY^NA— HYBRIDITY. 
 
 then attached, as a working priest, to the parish of St. Sul- 
 pice in Paris, l)ut he soon made himself a monk, and en- 
 tered the convent of the Carmelites in Lyons. From 1804 
 till ISIl'J he was one of the most celebrated preachers ever 
 licard, at liordeau.x, Xante^, and in Notre Dame of Paris. 
 But he was then suspected of uttering too liberal religious 
 doctrines, severely attacked by the I'ltramontanc papers, 
 and linally excommunicated by tile pope. Father llyacinthc 
 soon after ( ISOD) made a voyage to the U. S., where he was 
 warmly received. t.ln his return to France he married an 
 American lady, who bore him a son. Persecution, open 
 and concealed, com)ielled him to take refuge in Switzer- 
 land, where he established an Old Catholic church at Gene- 
 va, but here he was assailed by some dissenters of his own 
 Church, who thought he was not sufficiently radical in his 
 doctrine, because he contiuned to affirni liis faith in Ro- 
 man Catholicism, minus the maintenance of papal infal- 
 Hliility and other secondary dogmas. For some time F'alher 
 llyaciuthe did not preach, but he has recently found another 
 congregation, and again begun preaching in another church 
 at Ccneva. F'ki.ix Aucaigne. 
 
 Hytr'iia [Gr. iawa: Lat. hiimnn], a genus of carnivorous 
 mammals belonging to the -Eluroidca, or eat-like division 
 of the sub-order Fissipedia, order Fcric. As in the cats 
 and dogs, the feet are digitigrade, the weight of the body 
 being supported by the toes instead of by the whole foot, 
 
 as in the bears. Tlie dental formula is — incisors - — -, 
 canines — r, premolars ., ~, molars - — -. Iho last up- 
 per tooth, or true molar, is small, transversely elongated, 
 and tubercular: the last jircmolar, or succcssional tooth, 
 being the sectorial or flesh tooth. In the lower jaw the 
 true molar is the sectorial tooth. All the teeth, especially 
 the molars, are large and strong, and set in powerful jaws, 
 which are worked by muscles of corresponding develop- 
 ment. The hyivna is thus fitted to obtain its living by de- 
 vouring the cartilages, and even gnawing and crushing 
 the bones of animals killed by the lion and other aetivo 
 predaceous beasts; and most of its subsistence is thus ob- 
 tained, although it sometimes captures living prey by the 
 chase. The auditory bullie are destitute of the septum 
 found in the cats. The toes are straight, with blunt, non- 
 retractile claws. The hind legs are usually short, the tail 
 short and bushy, and the neck provided with a short bristly 
 mane, whence the classical name, signifying a *' sow." 
 Three living species are known: two of these are from 
 Southern Africa — viz. the brown hyicna (//. bntutiea), with 
 the fur clouded, rather long, brain-case compressed, a largo 
 and deep sub-caudal gland, and the legs of nearly equal 
 length; and the spotted hya'Ua (//. crociifn), with no sub- 
 caudal gland, and having the hinder legs short. The striped 
 or banded hya'na (/A »f)i<i((i) ranges over Africa and South- 
 ern Asia. The fur is striped, and there is a sub-caudal 
 gland. The brain-case is larger than in //. Itruiim^a. The 
 cave hyjcna was a large and fierce species that roamed over 
 the continent of Europe during the Quaternary, and left, 
 especially in the cave-deposits of Englaml, abundant fossil 
 remains of its own bones, mingled with those of otlicr ani- 
 mals licaring unmistakable marks of its powerful teeth. 
 This species, notwithstamling its large size, is now regarded 
 as identical with the spotted liy;cna of South Africa. No 
 species of hya-na, recent or fossil, is yet known from tho 
 continent of America. 0. C. Mar.sii. 
 
 Hyrcn'idte [from Gr. vmya, a "sow;" Lat. V/irim], n 
 family of fissipedc fera! belonging to the group ,151uroidea 
 (distinguished by the relations of the foramina of tho basis 
 of the skull and the relations of the auditory bulla to tho 
 paroccipital and mastoid processes), having the external 
 aiipearance of a dog, but with the. shoulders elevated : ."! 1 
 teeth (M. \; P. M. ^: C. {; 1.^X2). of which the molars 
 are large and approximate, tho true molars rerluced and 
 tubercular, and tho last upper premolar sectorial and like 
 tliat of the cat ; the true lucdar of the lower jaw sectorial; 
 the jaws and muscles thereof arc very powerful. This 
 family has been established fur the well-known hyienas, of 
 which there are two genera: (1) Ifi/iriia, including species 
 with a large sub-caudal gland, the tubercular grinders of 
 the upper jaw enlarged and with three roots, and colored 
 with clouded areas or bands; (2) Crocutn, with no sub- 
 caudal gland, the tubercular grinders of the upper jaw 
 small with only two roots, and tho color distributed in 
 spots. The three living recognized species of the family 
 are confined to Africa, and two of them (//i/.r?M( bntuiica 
 anci Crociita titacittnia] are restricted to South Africa. In 
 former times, however, forms scarcely distinguishable from 
 the living species existed in Northern Europe, and their 
 remains have been found in abundance in caves in Eng- 
 land, especially at Kirkdale in Yorkshire. 
 
 TnEononE Gill. 
 
 H yn-n'otlon [Gr. iatva, a " hyicna," and oSovt, a '• tooth"], 
 an exlinct genus of carnivorous mammals, the type of an 
 extinct family, Hya!nodontid8D, partaking, in jiart, of cha- 
 racters of the wolves, cats, and hyienas. The name was 
 first used for a species from Ihc Lower Miocene of France, 
 and the genus also occurs in the Upper Eocene of that 
 country. Dr. Leidy has also described three species frnm 
 the Miocene of Dakota. The largest of these, //. Iinnitlim, 
 is the largest known species of the genus, and equalled in 
 size n large black bear. The form of the skull is inter- 
 mediate between that of the wolf and that of the opossum, 
 tho brain-case being suiall,.ns in the latter animal. The 
 temporal fossae arc large, and the lower jaw is strong. The 
 
 ■A—^ 1—1 
 
 3cisors - — , , canines - — i, premolars 
 
 All the true molars, both above and 
 
 dental formula is— 
 3—3 , 3—3 
 4-4' ■"»'"" 3~3- 
 below, are sectorial in character, the posterior one being 
 much larger and stronger than the other two, and the series 
 is remarkable for the entire absence of the posterior tuber- 
 cular nndars usually found in Carnivores. The canines re- 
 semble those of the wolf. The H. trittntus and H. crncitin« 
 are smaller species, the latter a little larger than the red 
 foi. 0. C. Maksii. 
 
 Ilytrnodon'tida" [from vaira, "hywna," and oSovt, a 
 "tooth"], a family of mammals which has generally been 
 referred by some naturalists to the order Fera', and by 
 others to the order Marsupialia. They had apparently 44 
 teeth (M. |, P. M. $, C. j, I. i X 2), and the second and 
 third, as well as first, true molars were sectorial ; the last 
 premolar of the lower jaw was enlarged. The family has 
 been based upon the fossil remains of several species of 
 animals which have been found in the Lower and Jliddle 
 Tertiary deposits of F'ronce, and especially the Paris basin. 
 There has been considerable diversity of opinion as to the 
 systematic relations of these forms, but the latest original 
 investigator. Prof. Gervais, has recently obtained casts 
 from the interior of the cranium of one of the species, and 
 has shown that in the former the brain was much more like 
 that of a marsupial than that of a placental Carnivora: it 
 further agrees with the marsupiiil Thylaeinids iu the sec- 
 torial nature of all the true molars; but on the other hand 
 it apparently resembled the Carnivores in the development 
 of only six "incisor teeth in each jaw, and the absence of 
 the inilectcd margin of the lower jaw. Theodork Gii.l. 
 
 Ilya'lea [Gr. CrdAto?, " glassy "], a genus of transparent- 
 shelled pteropod niollusks, of which nineteen species arc 
 found in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and East Indian 
 waters. The mollusk has two long appendages to the 
 mantle. Ili/aha tridcntalu is the typical species. Some 
 five or six lossil species are known. 
 
 Hy'alitc, or MuUcr's Glass, a form of opal or hy- 
 drated silica, of glassy lustre. It occurs as an incrusta- 
 tion, generally in the form of pellucid drops. 
 
 Ilyan'nis, post-v., seaport, and harbor of refuge on 
 the S. side of Cape Cod, in liarnslable tp., Barnstable co., 
 Mass., is the S. terminus of the llyannis branch of the Capo 
 Cod K. R., and is 79 miles from ISoston. It has a national 
 hank. Its outer harbor is protected by a breakwater. Be- 
 siilis a harbor-light. llyannis has a fixed catroptric light 
 in Inl. 41° 3S' U" N., Ion. 70° IC tiW W. 
 Hybernation. See lIinKUNATiox. 
 Hybrid'ity, or Ily'bridism [Lat. hyhriila, a "mon- 
 grel : ' i)erhaps from the Gr. v^pn], treats of the issue of dis- 
 similar kinds of animals and plants, or, in other words, the 
 offspring of parents which belong respectively to different 
 varieties or species. FVw subjecis have been so much misun- 
 derstood or have given rise to so many superstitions as this. 
 In tho olden times, and indeed until quite recently, among 
 the educated as well as among the ignorant, thegrossest cre- 
 dulity prevailed respecting the possibility of offspring be- 
 tween the most dissimilar forms. Nor was this credulity 
 always an innocent one : it hiis even affected the laws and 
 customs of states. The belief prevailing that women could 
 become pregnant from intercourse with beasts, laws have 
 been framed condemning lo death the parents who were 
 judged guilty of the crime of such unnatural commerce. In 
 1543, c. </., a woman in .'\vignon, France, was delivered of 
 a child "which was thought to look like a dog, and this 
 supposed resemblance was sufficient evidence that tho 
 molher had had intercourse with the dog, and she was con- 
 sequently condemned, with her quadruped paramour, to 
 die at the stake, and was accordingly executed. Although 
 such beliefs have now been driven lo more obscure quarters, 
 they arc by no means extinct, and indeed are still very 
 prevalent; "in fact, extravagant accounts of animals of 
 mongrel origin arc frequently iniblished in the daily and 
 weekly newspapers. It may therefore be advisable lo enter 
 into some detail, and in advance to deny the truth of most 
 I of the reports.
 
 IIYBRIDITY. 
 
 1041 
 
 Under tho gorifral designation of hybrids arc embraced 
 all those forms whose parents belong to different varieties 
 or species, whether the offspring is fertile or not. The 
 word hybrid is thus essentially similnr in its meaning to 
 the Anglo- Sax on term montjrd, but for present use it has 
 superseded that term, leaving the latter for tlio offspring 
 between vnrtctim^ and, to a considerable extent, for fig- 
 urative expressiitns. French writers have classified the 
 forms embraced under this general term under three cate- 
 gories — viz. (1) Mi'ti? (mestizoes); (2) Hy brides (hybrids); 
 and (;{) Mulcts (mules). (1) Metis, originally specially em- 
 ployed to designate tho offspring of an Indian mother by 
 a white father, has been extended, as a generic term, to 
 animals and plants of mixed origin — i. c. to the offspring 
 of two races or vuriiticn of the same species, as well as of 
 two distinct Bpecit-H — and consequently to every organized 
 being owing its origin to dissimilar parents, or to every 
 product of u cross. (2) Hybrid is, in general terms, any ani- 
 mal or plant engendered of two different spedc/t. (3) Mulct, 
 originally applied to the offspring of a mare by a jackass, 
 is extended to embrace all those organized beings which are 
 analogous to it, as well in mixed origin as in ntfrilitt/, and 
 also to forms characterized by their sterility, even though 
 their origin may not be mixed, as in the case of bees, wasps, 
 etc.: thus, infecundity is the prime clement. 
 
 Such arc the distinctions employed by French authors, 
 and followed in the dictionary of the French Academy, but 
 they are not recognized by English writers, and indeed 
 scarcely aeem to be definite enough to warrant recognition. 
 It is only necessary to indicate that we use the word hybrid 
 in the same sense as the French do mftis. K distinctive 
 term is, however, needetl for the offspring of hybrids inter 
 ff, and the word mouf/rfi might be extended, in accordance 
 with analogy, to such forms. 
 
 Repeated and prolonged critical observations and ex- 
 periment- have amply demonstrated thai fruitful union i^ 
 impossible between animals or plants of widely different 
 ppecies (i.r. belonging to decidedly different families), and 
 tliat such is only possible within comparatively narrow 
 although uncertain limits. We may therefore at once dis- 
 tniss, as utterly unworthy of belief, the many re])ort8 of 
 offspring from such form-? wlui'Ii have been published by 
 even accredited writers of natural history in past times, such, 
 r. (/., as the alleged cases of hybrids between a hen and a 
 duck ; an opossum and a cat ; a boar and a camel ; an otter 
 and a rabbit ; an otter and a sheep ; an otter and a cat; 
 a raccoon and a eat ; a bear an<l a hog ; a bear and a dog ; 
 a cat and a rat ; a monkey and a slut ; and especially women 
 and apes, dogs, or other animals. Whatever details may bo 
 given iiavc been found to lack essential requisites, and in al- 
 most all cases the belief has had its origin in some vague exter- 
 nal cliaractoristics which suggested a similarity which had, 
 however, no real existence in structure. In the name catn- 
 clop'ird we have a term which is the expression of a past 
 belief that the animal in question was a hybrid between tho 
 camel and the leopard; and such was actually claimed to 
 bo the origin of that animal by some old writers — r. _</. Mat- 
 lliicu in the eleventh century. In the case of an alleged hy- 
 brid between a cat and a raccoon, scon at Taunton, Mass., 
 an Angola eat was the supposed hybrid: the cx]»lanation 
 lay in tho fact that the Angola cat is a large animal with 
 a bushy tail and color somewhat resembling the raccoon, 
 and thus it received the name of r.accoon cat; the step 
 thence to the belief that it was the offspring of a rac- 
 coon an<l cat was natural; this belief at a distance be- 
 came embodied in the assertion of such origin as a matter 
 of fact : such was the basis of a statement which was fully 
 examined into by the writer of this article. Another case 
 was simply the result of a intsconception of the meaning 
 of authors. (Jeoffroy St.-IIilaire ami Ilyrtl refer to an al- 
 leged hybrid between the axis deer and hog, said to have 
 been recorded by Hamilton Smith aud Morton, ancl very 
 properly urge that such an offspring would be impossible. 
 On referring to the two authors mentioned, however, it is 
 evident that they simply alluded to supposed hybrids be- 
 tween the axino buck (Ccrvuii n.r/*) and the hog deer (Ccr- 
 ii(» porcinug), designating tho latter under the name 
 "porcine species" (i". c. of deer), (itoffroy St.-Hiiairo in- 
 terpreted tho word ''porcine species" to mean hog, and 
 hence a belief quite venial (whatever may have been its 
 basis in truth) was exaggerated into one entirely unpar- 
 donable in a seientific man. The alleged eases of hybrids 
 between otters and other animals are doubtless tho expres- 
 sions of another scries of facts. There is somewhat of a tcml- 
 ency among animals towards a diminisheil size or an off- 
 turned position of tho legs which recalls tho form of an 
 otter, as is exemplified, r. tj., in tho turnspit dog and Ancon 
 sheep. These Ancon sheep (which have been especially 
 referred to by l>arwin in his Oriifin itf Sp'cirit) were also 
 called, on aeeuunt of this peculiarity, "ottor shi-cp," nnd 
 from this name was d'jubtkss developed the report of hy- 
 V..I,. 11.— IW, 
 
 brids between sheep and otters. Such has doubtless been 
 the origin of the belief in tho other otter-like animals. 
 
 Hybrids partake of tho characteristics of their parents, 
 and the extent to which they do so is, within a certain range, 
 definitely fixed for those of each kind; further, tho degree 
 in which the hybrid shares tho characters of the parent is 
 determined by the sex of each species contributing to tho 
 hybrid. Thus, in the case of hybrids between horses ami 
 asses, which arc the best known, wo have in the mule tho 
 offspring of the mare and jackass, and in the hiuny that 
 of the stud-horse and shc-ass : the mule resembles in many 
 of its characters the ass most, but is larger, while the 
 hinny more resembles the horse, but is smaller than tho 
 mule. These conditions will be found to affect tho in- 
 ternal organization and external appearance, and the like 
 is the case respecting other hybrids. Therefore, every al- 
 leged hybrid should exhibit positive evidences in its organ- 
 ization, as well as its external appearance, of the parentage 
 on both sides; and if such evidences are not afforded, or 
 if only a vague superficial similarity to some alleged spe- 
 cies exists, while the fundamental characters are all those 
 of another species, we are necessarily forced to conclude 
 that tho allegation as to hybridity has no real foundation, 
 and that the external indications are illusive. The natural 
 love of man for the marvellous prompts to a ready belief 
 in extraordinary hybrids. Pecuniary interests are also (dten 
 involved with this belief, and inducements are thus held 
 out to propagate it. Hence arc constantly arising fables 
 respecting hybrids of various kinds. 
 
 Hybrids have been classed in various categories; e. fj. 
 (1) according to general aftinities as expressed in their 
 structure; (2) according to tho degree of aflinity of tho 
 parents— I. e. whether congeneric with each other or bi- 
 generic (i. e, representatives of distinct genera) ; (iJ) accord- 
 ing to tho fertility of the progeny of the hybrids or other- 
 wise ; (4) according to the degree of prolificacy of the hy- 
 brids : and (o) according to the frequency or rarity of their 
 occurrence. Our present purpose will bo best subserved by 
 the consideration of the species arranged according to their 
 affinity. 
 
 Among the Primate mammals, or monkey order, nu- 
 merous hybrids have been obtained by congeneric spe- 
 cies of monkeys; c. g. (1) the common macaque or kra 
 {Mnrnrufi cynomnlijiin) and bonnet monkey {M'trncim sin- 
 icT(s); (2) the macaque and maimon or bruh {M. nemes- 
 triuus) ; and (.*?) the papion and chaema baboons { C. sphinx 
 and C. porrnriuH). Among the Carnivores also numerous 
 hybriils have been obtained, tho chief of which are those 
 
 (1) between domestic or feral common cats and the smaller 
 species of tho countries into which they been introduced; 
 
 (2) the lion and tiger; (3) the jaguar and panther; (4) 
 common dogs and native wild species — e. ij. wolves, jack- 
 als, etc.: and (a) dog and red fox. Among seals several 
 cases have been reported of hybrids between tho sea-lion 
 {Eiimetopiag alcflcri) and fur-seal ( Cnlorhiuus tirsinns), but 
 these require confirmation. Among the ungulates numer- 
 ous hybrids have also been produced, among which may 
 be especially enumerated of the horse family (Kquiilie) 
 (1) tho mule between the ass and marc; (2) ass and zebra; 
 
 (3) ass and dauw ; (4) quagga and horse; (5) kiang and 
 zebra; (G) kiang and dauw; (7) kiang and ass; (S) horse 
 and zebra; and (D) quagga nnd horse. Of the ox fam- 
 ily (IJovidie), hybrids have been raised from the tlomestio 
 cattle and almost all other well-known species and rep- 
 resentatives, even of different genera (r. y. buffalo, yak, 
 and bison), and also between these nncl so many other 
 forms that specification is unnecessary. Hybrids have also 
 been obtained from sheep and goats, ami various species 
 of each group. Among the rodents successful intercourse 
 has been effected between the hare and rabbit; and their 
 offspring have been ndvantajjeously raised even for the 
 market. Among tho birds hybridity is so frequent, and 
 has been effected between such widely distinct species, and 
 representatives of even markedly distinct genera, that in- 
 ability to hybridize is rather tho exception than the rule. 
 The most notahle cases are those bct\veen ditlVrent generic 
 types of the Phasianida? (common fowl, pheasants, etc.) 
 and Anatida> (ducks, geese, etc.). Little is known re- 
 specting hybridity in reptiles or amphibians; an<l the 
 only case that need be specifically alluded to i;* one that 
 has very recently been procured, by Prof. Paul (Jervais, 
 between the sircdon of Mexico and the Iriton ( Triton c/-»>- 
 tntiiH) of Europe, members of two different families. In 
 this case young were hafeluvl from the eci;s of females 
 of siredon iniprcf^nated I)y the triton, but did not live to 
 maturity, all having died within a short time after hatch- 
 ing. Among tho fishes also hybrids between diverse 
 genera have been obtained : ^. 7. between various species 
 of .'^almonoids and Cyprinoids. A number of very dis- 
 tinet forms, existing in a state of nature, have been de- 
 clared by certain auLliors of bii;h reputation (r. ff. Siebold
 
 1042 
 
 HYDASPES— HYDE PARK. 
 
 and Gunther)to be hybrids between representatives of dif- 
 ferent geiieru : such arc especially (I) Ourpio Kullarii, be- 
 tween Vffprinus carpio and V<irc.>i8iu8 vulfiuris ; (2) Abrami- 
 dopnis Ltmci'artii, between species of Ahmmia and Leitcis- 
 ciiH ; (3) Bficcopsi'* ohramo-rutiiHs, between a species of 
 Abritniis and ^Sriirtlinini cn/tkrt>pfithalniiu ; (■{) LeuciscuH 
 (lolabrntuH, between AlbnmuH liividits and S^jUftUiis ceph- 
 alus : and (5) Chondrutttoiua ryseUi, between Chondro- 
 stoiiia namiH and Tclcstcs AtjaHsizii. These, however, have 
 not been cxperinicntally determined to be hybrids (except, 
 perhaps, in the case of the first), and there is etill ground 
 fur i^kepticism. 
 
 Such are some of the best known and most characteristic 
 cases of hybridity among the; vertebrates. Among the in- 
 vertebrates there are less known and determined cases, but 
 hybrids have been obtained between difiorent species of 
 bees, butterflies, etc., and many intermediate forms found 
 in a state of nature have been supposed to be hybrids. 
 Several botanists — c. fj. C.artncr. Kiilreutcr, Herbert, No- 
 ble, etc. — have devoted much time and attention to the 
 subject, and their results, although affording some basis 
 for difference of opinion, essentially coincide with the facts 
 rehearsed as to the best known animals. The results thus 
 far obtained from all these various departments may be 
 summarized as I'uIIo^vs; (1) Allied species arc capable, as a 
 rule, uf pairing and producing ofispring, and this capa- 
 bility is in indefinite ratio to the degree of their likeness. 
 (2) Hybrids are frequently fertile with their parents when 
 those parents are closely related to each other. (3) Hy- 
 brids are more rarely fertile among themselves, and mostly 
 (but not always) in cases where the parents are very closely 
 and even suspiciously related. 
 
 The degree of fertility between original species and their 
 hybrids need not be in ratio to each other; c <■/. offspring 
 between certain species is very difficult to be obtained, but 
 hybrids which have been once obtained may be fertile 
 among themselves. On the other hand, certain species 
 will pair and have progeny without difficulty, but the hy- 
 brid offspring may be nearly or absolutely (?) infertile; and 
 this case may even occur in the same genus, as, for ex- 
 ample, in the plant-genus Dinuthns. 
 
 From all these facts it is plain that there is every degree 
 of difference between absolute sterility and perfect fertility 
 in the intercourse between different species; that, however, 
 infertility to some degree attends sexual intercourse be- 
 tween different species; that fertility is certainly no evidence 
 of specific unity. Fertility, it is equally plain, is almost 
 imjioysible between species of different families, and all 
 j)opulur accounts to the contrary may be at once set down 
 as destitute of a real foundation. The explanation of this 
 want of fertility between forms that are very dissimilar is 
 doubtless to be found in some liifference of structure in the 
 genital organs, although the differences may be so ohscuro 
 as to have escaped detection till the present time. These 
 difference?, at the same time, need not necessarily be co- 
 ordinated with other differences, at least to a greater extent 
 than in other parts of the animal economy; and hence wo 
 may find species that differ considerably in appearance 
 quite tertile, while others that resemble each other much 
 more closely may be less so. There must, however, be some 
 degree of co-ordination between the modification of the 
 genital organs and those of the other organs and parts, and 
 hence fertility is only possible within acertain limited range. 
 
 A noteworthy fact is that domestication and cultivation 
 exercise an appreciable effect upon the intercourse between 
 animals and plants of different species, and increase the 
 degree of fertility: in a state of nature members of dif- 
 ferent species rarely pair, and hence hybrids are excep- 
 tional, and thus specific forms are perpetuated pure and 
 undefiled : under the influence of man, however, mongrel 
 races readily arise and are indefinitely sustained. 
 
 Before dismissing the subject it is advisable to allude to 
 some very curious and, at first sight, inconsistent phenom- 
 ena exhibited by cross-breeding. Many plants depend for 
 impregnation upon pollen brought by insects from other 
 imlividuals ; and although the sexes may be combined in 
 the same individual ilower. the pollen of its stamens ap- 
 pears to be insulficient to iin]>regnatc its ovary. Kven niak* 
 ing allowance for the disturbing effects of manipulation, 
 enough is known to at least indicate that (hero is a less 
 degree of fertility between closely related individuals than 
 more distant ones. The evils of close breeding are even 
 recognized by man in the laws affecting the marriage state, 
 as well as in his usage in the rearing of his domestic ani- 
 mals. It may be. therefore, that even the difficulty of ob- 
 taining hybriils fertile among themselves may be in part 
 duo to the fact that those hybrids are too closely related by 
 consanguinity, and that the conditions for perfect exper- 
 iments have thus not been completely fuliilled. Much has 
 been done towards the elucidation of the subjeet, but much 
 still remains to be done. TiiLO. Gill. 
 
 Ilydas'pes, the name by which the Greeks and Romans 
 designated the present .Ijivlum (which see), an atfluent of 
 the Ganges. On its banks was fought the great battle be- 
 tween Alexander the Great and Porus in ;i27 b. c. 
 
 Hvdat'idf a morbid growth characterized by the devel- 
 opment of a cyst, which contains an aqueous and transpa- 
 rent lluid, in which floats a parasitic worm, generally the 
 acephalocyst. The term was formerly used to designate 
 any encysted tumor containing a transparent liquid, but 
 it is now restricted to that form which encli'sea a parasite. 
 The organs most commonly affected by this jieeuliar dis- 
 ease are the uterus, ovaries, and liver; next frequently wo 
 find it in the breast and testicles, but rarely in other parts 
 of the body. It generally appears as a round hard tumor, 
 which occasions more or less pain and inconvenience; this 
 tumor is made up of hydatids, although we sometimes have 
 it occurring singly, when it will be proportirmately large. 
 Each parasite consists of a body and head ; around the 
 latter we find a row of teeth which are hook-like and sharp. 
 The body is solid, and displays a number of ovoid bodies 
 beneath its coat, which giNc it a speckled appearance. As 
 the tumt)r increases in size, if it is near the surface, we can 
 feel fluctuation; the pressure under the skin causes it to 
 ulcerate, and the hydatids may thus perish. If they arc 
 situated in some internal organ, they may produce very 
 serious complications, as jieritonitis, osteitis, etc. The treat- 
 ment consists in excision if they are sufficiently superficial, 
 otherwise we can do nothing. Edward J. Beumingham. 
 
 Hyde, town of England, in the county of Chester. It 
 is a rapidly growing place, with numerous cotton-factories, 
 and in the neighborhood are extensive coal-mines. Pop., 
 with surroundings, 21,221. 
 
 Hyde, county of S. E. Central Dakota, Area, about 995 
 square miles. The Missouri Iliver flows for some distance 
 along its S. W. border, 
 
 Hyde, county of the E. of North Carolina, bounded on 
 the E. and S. by Pamlico Sound, Area, 720 square miles. 
 It abounds in marshes, lakes, and forests. Corn, rice, and 
 forest products are the staples. Cap. Swan Quarter. Pop, 
 6445, 
 
 Hyde (Alvan), D. D., LL.D.. b. at Franklin, Conn., 
 Feb. 2. 17t»S; graduated at Dartmouth College in 17S8; 
 studied theology, and in 17U2 was ordained pastor of the 
 Congregational church at Lee, Mass., where he remained the 
 rest of his life. He was an able and influential pastor, and 
 a zealous friend to Williams College, of which he was for 
 twenty-one years vice-president. Dr. Hyde published a 
 number of sermons. D. at Lee Dec. 4, 18.13. 
 
 Hyde (Ammi Bradford). D, D., b. at Oxford, N. Y., 
 JIar. I.'i, 1825; graduated at AVesleyan University in 1840; 
 entered the Methodist Episcopal ministry; taught (1846-Cl) 
 in the seminary at Cazcnovia, N. Y., and in ISfit became 
 jtrofessor of Greek in Allegheny College, Mcadville, Pa. 
 
 Hyde (.\nne). a daughter of Edward Hyde, earl of 
 Clarendon, b. in 1637, and lived at the Hague as maid-of- 
 honor to the princess of Orange, sister to Charles II. and 
 James II. Here James, at that time duke of York, formed 
 a liaison with her, and shortly after the restoration of his 
 family to the throne of England in 16*>0 he married her 
 clandestinely. For some time the royal family would not 
 recognize her, and much intriguing was going on for tho 
 purpose of breaking the marriage; but .Anne's perseverance 
 at last conquered all difficulties. She was not handsome, 
 but very prepossessing, spirited, and dignified, and she ex- 
 ercised a great influence on her husband. She was a Ro- 
 man Catholic, and converted him. Her two daughters, 
 however, Mary and Anne, who both became queens of Eng- 
 land, were educated in the Protestant religion. Anno d. in 
 1671. 
 
 Hyde (Edward). See Clarendon. 
 
 Hyde Park, an enclosure comprising 400 acres, and 
 extending from the western extremity of London to Ken- 
 sington Gardens. When the monasteries were dissolved 
 under Henry VIIT., these grounds became the property of 
 the Crown, and after the Restoration it became the favorite 
 drive and promenade of London. (Sec London.) 
 
 Hyde Park,post-tp. of Cook co., III., a southern suburb 
 of Chic;igo, now under village organization. It covers 49 
 square miles, and includes 4'J villages, towns, and hamlets; 
 has 25 churches. 23 schools, 13 post-offices, 30 manufacto- 
 ries, gas and water works, and all city conveniences. Ex- 
 cept in South Chicago, Hyde Park is chiefly inhabited by 
 persons who do business in Chicago, Pop. in 1870, 3644; 
 estimated jiop, in 1873, 35,000, 
 
 I. L, VAN.SANT, Ed. "Socth Side News." 
 
 Hyde Park, post-v. and tp. of Norfolk co„ Mass., 7 
 miles from Boston, on the river Xeponset. and on the Bos- 
 ton aud Providence and the New York and New England
 
 HYDE I'AKK— U\"DKA>GEA. 
 
 1048 
 
 R. Us.; has a savinga bank, public library, newspaper, 5 
 churohcs, excellent graded schools, and a good fire dcpart- 
 mtnt. It is ehiclly a plaeo of rcsidcni-c lor persons whoso 
 places of business arc in lioston. Pop. 4i;i6. 
 
 K. 0. Gktciiell, Ed. " Gazette." 
 llyAe Park,post-tp.of Wabashawco.,Minn. Pop..S80. 
 Hyde Park, Ip. and pnst-v. of Dutchess co., N. Y., on 
 the Hudson River and the Hudson Uivcr U. R., 5 miles N. 
 of Poughkeepsie. The township has many splendid coun- 
 try-houses. The village has 4 churches, and is beautifully 
 situated. Pop. 600 ; of tp. 2093. 
 
 Uyde Park, a portion of Scranton, Pa. (in Luterne 
 CO.), separated from the main part of the city by the river 
 Lackawanna. It has 8 churches (.S with M'clsh services), 
 S halls— Odd Fellows', Masons', and Red Men's — a savings 
 bank, 3 hotels, etc. Coal-mining is the principal industry. 
 Hyde Park embraces the 4th and 5th wards of the city, and 
 is built upon a hill. It has a weekly and a monthly period- 
 ical, both in the AVelsh language. 
 
 \V. RODERTS, En. OF " Y Cyfaill." 
 Hyde Park, postv., cap. of Lamoille CO., Vt., on the 
 Portland anil Ogdenshurg R. U., has a national bank, a 
 newspaper, an academy, a quarry of limestone, beds of 
 mineral paint, a copper-mine, S large saw-mills, besides 
 several smaller ones, manufactures of pails, tubs, pegs, 
 starch, and a very great water-power. There are 3 churches 
 and 3 hotels. The manufacturing, agricultural, and com- 
 mercial interests of the place are imporliint. The town- 
 ship has 1 1 small natur.%1 lakes and numerous streams, and 
 is a good place for fishing and as a summer resort. Pop. 
 of tp. 1624. I'. ('. Mouse, Ed. " XEWsnEALER." 
 
 Hyderabad' (or Haiderabad, as it is written in 
 official English papers), the capital of the nizam of tho 
 Deeean, the most powerful of the Indian princes under 
 English protection. The number of inhabitants is va- 
 riously given ; the best source, however (Thornton, Gazct- 
 Itrr of the Territorift under the Qoierument of the Bant 
 India Cnrnpiini/, London, 1R57), says 200,000. Tho city is 
 situated in the centre of tho plateau of the Deevan, about 
 520 metres above tho sea, on the Mussi River, which hero 
 is nearly IfiO mi-trcs broad, and presents a magnificent 
 prospect with its numerous mosques and surrounded by 
 granite cliffs of a strikingly picturesque form. The larger 
 part of the city, more especially tho old city, stands on tho 
 southern bank of the Mussi; on tho northern is that quar- 
 ter which by Englishmen is called tho Princess Bazaar, 
 and which contains the magnificent building of tho Eng- 
 lish residency. This building communicates directly with 
 the palace of the nizaui, standing on tho opposite bank of 
 the river, by a beautiful stone bridge constructed by Col. 
 Oliphant. The building of the English residency, which 
 was commenced in \sm, after a plan by T. Russell, and 
 executed in grand style and with great splendor, is tho 
 most beautiful and most important structure of tho city. 
 The palace of tho nizam is badly situated, and has 
 nothing striking about it. Amcmg the private houses 
 the palace of the influential minister, Salar Jung, is 
 the most remarkable ; tho pala-e of .'Ihumsul Umra, 
 who is at tho head of tho administration together 
 with Salar Jung, is also noteworthy. The city is prin- 
 cipallv Mohammedan, and tho most prominent of its 
 mosques arc the cathedral mosqui', with immensely high 
 minarets, and the mosque of the Prophet, a structure of 
 enormous dimensions. A very striking buiMin;; is tho 
 ("hahar Minar. formerly a university. Where the four 
 principal streets cross each other it rises on four immense 
 arches, so that the streets run below it. The city is very 
 extensive, but contains many small and poor houses in 
 narrow streets; it is surrounded by a wall, which, however, 
 is too weak and insignificant to make a real fortification. 
 The surrounding country is rich in magnificent gardens 
 with numerous ]>onds, pavilions, and villas. Hyderabad 
 was formerly the principal market for tho diamonds cut jn 
 the neighboring (iolcou'la; its manufactures of cotton and 
 paper arc still considerable; himkhtmt,, a silk embroidered 
 with g'dd. and turbans ore made. A railway is projected, 
 which will connect Hyderabad with Oulbarga on the one 
 side and Chnnda on tho other. 
 
 The city was founded in tho sixteenth century by Mo- 
 hammed kuli. who wagcrl many wars with the neighbor- 
 ing rajahs and formerl an alliani'e with Persia. Among 
 bis successors, .Vbdullah arid Abu llusain are noteworthy; 
 the latter was defeated in Ills; by Aurungzebe. The pres- 
 ent territory of the niiain is tho snnio as that of the subnh 
 of the Dcecau in Iho time of tho Mogul. Area, 0.i,337 
 square miles. Pop. 10,500,000. A grandson of one of tho 
 ablest generals of Aurungzebe, Asuf Jah, made himself in- 
 dependent lord of the country as subadar of the Doocan in 
 1724. and took Hyderabad for his capital. Ho founded tho 
 Asuf dynasty. His successors concluded an alliance with 
 
 Dupleix, tho Frcndh governor of PonJichcrry, and kept a 
 French army corps, commanded by Bussy. But on tho 
 outbreak of the war of 1756 the policy of the country 
 changed. On Mar. 14, 1759, tho first treaty was concluded 
 with the English ; the nizam, Salabut Jung, ceded the dis- 
 trict of Masulipatain and dismissed the French. Tho sec- 
 ond treaty was concluded Nov. 12, 17116; the nizam ceded 
 tho districts of Ellore, (iuntur, and Rajamandri. and bound 
 himself to furnish troops on the receipt of an annual sub- 
 sidy of £90,000. .Several wars, in which the nizam fur- 
 nished auxiliary troops to the English against Tippoo and 
 against the Pindarees, and several new treaties (Sept. I, 
 1798, July 13. 1799, Oct. 12, 1^00, and Dec. 12, 1822), 
 broui^ht the nizam more and more imder English author- 
 ity, and great misery came over the country, threat re- 
 forms were commenced, however, in 1853, when ,Salar Jung 
 became minister. According to a treaty which the resi- 
 dent. Col. Low, mediated, the nizam was to cede more land 
 in order to get rid of all his financial obligations to tho 
 English, and only furnish 5000 men, infantry, 2000 horses, 
 and 4 batteries. But Nasrn-d-Daulah would not consent 
 to the cession, and tho treaty was not ratified until under 
 his successor, Afzula-d-Daulah, when Salar .lung had be- 
 come minister. On Dec. 31, 1800, it was determined that 
 the nizam, as a reward for his services during the war of 
 1857-58, should receive the conquered territory of .Shora- 
 pur, that of the formerly ceded districts, those of Raiehur 
 Doab ami Dharasco should be restored to him, and his 
 debt, £500,000, cancelled. The English retained only so 
 much of the territory of the nizam as would yield an an- 
 nual revenue of £320,000, to pay for the contingent of 
 auxiliaries which the nizam was to furnish. This district 
 is called Haiderabad assigned districts, or lierar, and forms 
 a province with an area of 16.960 square miles and a popu- 
 lation of 2.231,565. Afzulu-d-Daulah d. Feb. 26, 1869, and 
 was succeeded by Mir Mahbub Ali Khan. 
 
 AuGi;sT Niemann. 
 Hyderabad, town of British India, the capital of tho 
 district of Sinde, in the presidency of Bombay, stands near 
 the Indus, in lat. 25° 22' N., lou. 68° 28' E. It is famous 
 for its manufactures of arms and cutlery. Pop. about 24,000. 
 Hy'der A'li, b. in 1728 at Bangalore, which his f.athcr 
 heldasafief of tho rajah of Mysore. In 1756 he inherited the 
 fief at tho death of his elder brother, and in X'Wi he made 
 himself actual ruler of Mysore, having to the rajah noth- 
 ing but his title and a portion of tho revenues, liydcr was 
 one of the most prominent of tho Mohammedan princes of 
 India, both with respect to talent and to character, lie 
 was mild and just, and had groat respect for all the inven- 
 tions of a higher civilization. Ho encouraged agriculture, 
 manufactures, and conuuercc. His army he organized on 
 tho Prussian plan, and had it commanded chiefly by Eu- 
 ropean oflicers, but he was himself possessed of great military 
 talent, and was eminently successful in his wars. He con- 
 quered Calicut, liednor. Onor, and Cananor, and threw off 
 the supremacy of the Mahraltas over Mysore. In his first 
 war with the English ho dictated peace under the walls of 
 Madras, Apr. 15, 1769, and in tho war between the English 
 and French he sided with tho latter, and fought with va- 
 rious success, butd. at Chitorc in 1782. before tho war was 
 over; his son, Tippoo Sahib, sueccedcd him. 
 Hydra (Polyp). Sec HvniiotnA. 
 
 Ily'dra, an island of Orcece, off tho E. coast of Morea, 
 II miles long and 3 miles broad. Pop. in 1871, 11,684. 
 It is high, rocky, and bare ; and almost all its inhabitants 
 live in the town of Hydra, situated on the northern coast 
 of tho island, with a good harbor. The island was unin- 
 habite<l in ancient times. In the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuri.-s fugitives from Albania, Argolis, and Attica, who 
 fled from Turkish oppression, founded tho city, and it soon 
 rose to a high degree of prosperity. Hydra is still one of 
 the finest cities of Greece. In 1825 the jiopulation of the 
 island was estimated at 40,000. 
 
 Hydrac'id [hif/rnycii and acid], a name formerly ap- 
 plied by chemists to those acids of which the base was 
 sui.iiose'd to bo hydrogen. The generally received theories 
 of the constitution of acids are quite at variance with those 
 oneo prevalent ; all acids, according to Dulong's hypothe- 
 sis, being regarded as compounds of hydrogen willi some 
 radical. Tlie term is at present u.sed (when usiil at all) to 
 designate acids formed upon tho liydroelilorio acid type. 
 (See Aims, by C. F. CiiANni,EK, Pii. D., M. D., LL.D.) 
 
 Hydran'Rca [Gr. iioip, " water," and iJYYot, a " vessel," 
 perhaps from the fondness of tho plants for water], a genus 
 of shrubs of the order Saxifrngaoeie. The V. S. have three 
 (Southern) species, all elegant shrubs iu cultivation—//. 
 radium, arhoretren; ami ijiierrifutia. Tho common hy- 
 drangea of the green bouse is //. Iiurten'in of China. It is 
 remarkable for the mutable color of its flowers. It requires 
 peaty earth and plenty of water, and is very hardy, ff.
 
 1044 
 
 HYDRASTIS CANADENSIS— HYDRAULIC ELEVATOR. 
 
 Thnnberfjii furnishes leaves which are highly prized in 
 Japan as a substitute for ten. There arc other species. 
 
 Ilydras'tis ranaclon'sis, the only known species 
 of its genus. (I rauuneuliiceous plant of the U. S., comraou 
 in many parts, and known as puccoon, yellow root, etc., is 
 used to n considerable extent in medicine, and has the 
 power of dyeiu;; a rich and permanent yellow. Its valu- 
 able tonic jtowers depend in part on the presence of ber- 
 berin and hydrastin. 
 
 llytlratc of Chloral. See Ciiloual. 
 
 Hy'drate of Cro'ton-Chlo'ral. By papsin^; dry chlo- 
 rine gas over pure aldehyde, there are formed hydrochloric 
 acid and the chlorated aldeliycle of crotonic acid, or croton- 
 chft'nil (('4113030). a body Imidinj;; the same place in the 
 allyl group that chloral docs in the ethyl. Obtained pure, 
 it is a dense oily liquid of peculiar odor. Mixed with 
 excess of warm water, it forms croton-chloral hydrate 
 (C^HaCIgO f il'jO), a crystalline substance almost insoluble 
 in cold, but soluble in hot water and in alcohol. By contact 
 with an alkali. croton-chloral first forms a trichloratcd com- 
 pound, allyl-chloroform, which speedily decomposes into 
 the biclilorated body bichlorallyleiie. Croton-chloral hy- 
 drate has been lately tried in medicine as a substitute for 
 chloral-hydrate in certain cases. Its asserted advantages 
 arc a greater freedom from danger of paralyzing the heart, 
 and a special ]H)wer of producing anicsthesia — and thus re- 
 lieving pain — in the parts of the head and face innervated 
 by the fifth pair of cranial nerves. Euward Curtis. 
 
 Hy'drates [Or. vSujp, "water"]. This term is applied 
 to compounds formerly supposed to contain water. Ac- 
 cording to the recent theories of chemistry, most hydrates 
 are supposed to be compounds of hydroxyl (Oil), and to 
 be produced by the replacement of half the hydrogen in 
 water (H2O). The following examples illustrate the two 
 views : 
 
 Sodic hydrate Na20.n20. Na(On). 
 
 Calcic " CaO.Il20. Ca(0H)2. 
 
 Bismuthic " 61203.31120. Bi(0H)3. 
 
 Aluininic " A^Os.^JII^O. Al2(OU)6. 
 
 Kthy lie alcohol CC2H5)20.H20. C2U5(0I1). 
 
 Ethene " C2H*0.}l20. CjHit 011)2. 
 
 Propenyl " (C3H5)203.:JFl20. CaHslOlHs- 
 
 Mannite " CeHsOa.aHaO. €6118(011)6. 
 
 Nitric acid H-.O.NaOs. (H0)N02. 
 
 Sulphuric acid H2O.SO3. (II0)2S02. 
 
 Phosphoric acid 3H2O.P2O. (HOJsPO. 
 
 The formation of hydrates from water by the replacement 
 
 of hydrogen is shown in the following formulas: 
 
 H.O f Na = Na(On)-^ U. 
 
 II2O is H ~ - H Sodic hydrate is Na - - H. 
 
 Nitric acid is H - - NO2. 
 2II2O is H2 = O2 = H2. Calcic hydrate is Ca - O2 = Ih- 
 
 Sulphuric acid is H2 = 02 = SO2. 
 3H3O is 113=^ 03 = 113. Bismuthic hydrate is Bi - O3- II3. 
 
 Phosphoric acid is 313^03^ PO. 
 4H2O is H4= 0*= H4. Stannic hydrate Su ^04= H4. 
 6H2O is He = 06^ He. Ferric •' Fe2iOciH6. 
 
 (See article Ciikmistuv.) 
 
 Hydrates maybe formed by — (1) The displacement of 
 hydrogen in water, as in the case of the alkaline metals, as 
 already shown for sodium. (2j By the direct union of the 
 anhydrous base or aeid (anhydride) with water, the combi- 
 nation being often attended with the evolution of heat: 
 
 n20 + Na.jO-2NaOH. 
 
 H2O + Ca0 - ra(0H)2. 
 
 2H2O ! .SO2"02SO." =2(H0)2S02. 
 
 3H2O + P0"'03P0"' ^ 2(HOl3l'0. 
 (3) By double decomposition, as when soluble metallic salts 
 are precipitated by alkaline or alkaline earthy hydrates: 
 MKS04 + ramHi2= MgfOII)-. fraS04. 
 FeaClG + eKOH =.Fc2fOH)o ' CKCl. 
 Hydrates retain their water with various degrees of force. 
 Some, as cupric hydrate, give up water at a moderate heat; 
 others, as calcic, ferric, and stannic hydrates, lose it at a red 
 heat: others, as sodic andpotassic hydrate. arc not decom- 
 posed by any degree of heat. Tribasic phosphoric aeid 
 loses, when exposed to a red heat, first one-third, then an- 
 other third, (pf its water, but the last third cannot be re- 
 moved. (See Piiospiionrs.) 
 
 The volatile acids exhibit peculiar relations to water. 
 They form a series of hydrates with one, two, three, four, 
 or more molecules of water, eaeh hydrate being permanent 
 under certain fixed ecmditions of temperature and pressure. 
 A weaker acid under these conditions gives off water, a 
 stronger gives off acid, till the most permanent compound 
 alone remains. Thus, we have H20.S03i H-SO4 or (H0)2 
 S02),2Il20.S03 and iUI-^O.SOj. The hydrate's of the alka- 
 line metals, of barium, strontium, and thallium, are very 
 
 soluble in water, forming strongly alkaline solutions. Hy- 
 drate of calcium, mercury, lead, and silver are slightly 
 soluble. The other metallic hydrates are insoluble, or 
 nearly so. The hydrates of the acid radieals (the acids) 
 and the alcoholic hydrates (the alcohols) arc nearly all 
 soluble, the exceptions being certain organic bodies of high 
 molecular weights, such as ])almitic, stearic, oleic acid, etc. 
 Many compounds contain water evidently as such. Thus, 
 crystallized baric hydrate is Ba(OIl)2.-in2b ; alum is K2SO4. 
 Al2(S04)3.24H20 ; gypsum is ('aSO4.2n20 ; cupric sulphate 
 is CuS04.i)ll20. Most of such water is expelled by a tem- 
 perature of 100° C, but some salts retain a portion of this 
 water with greater tenacity than the rest. Sulphate of 
 zinc, ZuSOi.THjO, becomes" Zn.SO4.H2O at 101)° C, and re- 
 tains the last H2O till heated to 238° C. This last molecule 
 of water may be replaced by another salt, thus : 
 
 Crystallized sulphate of zinc ZnPOi.IIaO + GH2O. 
 
 Sulphate of zinc and potassium...ZnS04.K2S04 -|- CIloO. 
 The water easily expelled is called water of crystallization; 
 the water in ZnS04.H20 is called by Graham fouititufioual 
 icdtci-f and such compounds are called by Liebig hnlhy- 
 drntcs. C. F. ClIAVDLEU. 
 
 Ily'dra^ The Lcrna^aiiy in Grecian mythology, was 
 a monster with the body of a serpent, but with many heads, 
 seven, nine, fifty, or even one hundred, which grew up again 
 as often as they were cut oft", and from whoso mouths issued 
 a deadly venom. It inhabited tlic marshes of Lerneea, in 
 Argolis, but was destroyed by Hercules. 
 
 Ilydraii'lic Crane, a device by which the enormous 
 power of the hydrostatic press is utilized in the working 
 of derricks, cranes, etc. It is chiefly employed in Great 
 Britain, where the *' hydraulic ** or hydrostatic press is a 
 favorite means of exerting great force. In unloading and 
 loading ships, and in filling railway cars with heavy goods, 
 it is sometimes convenient to have a considerable number 
 of cranes, which if managed by the direct application of 
 steam-power would require complicated and cumbrous ma- 
 chinery ; but a steam-engine working a hydrostatic press, 
 with r.n accumulator attached, is made to work the cranes 
 by very simple means, the necessary rapidity of motion 
 being gained by long leverage and the use of jiullcys. 
 
 Hydraulic £levator, or Jkscenscur Edoux. This 
 is an invention of M. Leon Edoux of Paris. France, de- 
 signed to lift weights by hydraulic pressure from level to 
 level, though in its actual application employed only to 
 elevate persons from story to story in public hotels or 
 other lofty buildings. Its construction may be understood 
 from the following description of an elevator of this kind 
 which was in ofieration during the Exposition of 1867 in 
 Paris, in the gallery of machines of the Exposition: The 
 essential parts of this apparatus consisted of a cylinder 20 
 metres (GO feet) long, sunken ])erpendicularly into the earth, 
 with a plunger descending into it to the same depth, and 
 packed water-tight at the top of the cylinder. Into this, 
 below the packing, water, from the source from which the 
 Exposition received its supply for general purposes, was 
 admitted, by means of a valve which was under the con- 
 trol of the attendant. The piston rose tinder the pressure 
 to the required height, and was maintained there by clos- 
 ing the Aalve. A car or kiosk, for the accommodation of 
 passengers, rested on the upper extremity of the piston, 
 and was elevated as it rose. The descent was effected by 
 opening another valve whieh allowed the water to escape 
 at the level of the earth's surface; when, the pressure be- 
 ing relieved, the car descended by its own weight. The 
 diameter of the piston i)lungcr was 0.25 metre (10 inches), 
 and that of the cylinder only sufficiently greater to allow 
 free water-way. The plunger was a hollow easting, turned 
 and polished on the exterior, anil closed at the bottom. It 
 was tormed of four lengths carefully united. A strong wire 
 cable extending through the interior from end to end firmly 
 bound the parts together, and served as a security for hold- 
 ing them in position in case of the occurrence of any acci- 
 dent. In its ascent, the car was guided by four cast-iron 
 columns, whieh formed a reetangular framework or tower 
 around it. These columns were hollow also, aft'ording space 
 for the ascent and descent of heavy weights within them, 
 by whieh the weight of the empty car was principally 
 counterpoised. Chains ])assing over pulleys at the top 
 connected these weights with the car at its four angles. 
 I Only sufiicient preponderance was given to the car to allow 
 , it to descend without a load. The resistance to whieh the 
 hydraulic pressure was opposed amounted, therefore, to 
 1 little more than the weight of the varying charge. It is to 
 ! be noticed, however, that as the car ascends the weight op- 
 i pused to the pressure virtually increases, since the plunger, 
 I so long as it is immersed, is buuycd by the weight of an 
 j equal bulk of water. A compeusjition for this increase of 
 I resistance is provided by Mr. Edoux, in giving to the 
 chains a weight per running foot equal to the eighth part
 
 HYDRAULIC ENGINES. 
 
 1045 
 
 of wciEht of the piston— that I dependent of public waterworks, and even of natural 
 
 of the thus accruinj! increase 
 
 is to say, about 2 kilograms, or a little more than 4 pounds. 
 There being (our chains, and each chain being diminished 
 one foot in length on the side of the car. and increased in 
 length on the side of the counterpoise, one foot for each 
 loo? of elevation, the counterpoise is thus increased at the 
 same time 15 kilograms, or about 31 pounds, which is 
 equal to the simultaneous increase in the virtual weight 
 of the piston. 
 
 The charge which an apparatus of (his kind will elevate, 
 the cross-section of the piston remaining the same, will de- 
 pend on the height of the hydraulic head. If we assume 
 the system of eounlerpoises to be such as to maintain the 
 whole moving apparatus (supposed to bo without a load) 
 in etiuilibrio when the pressure of the head is shut off and 
 (he escape-valve is open, or with only a slight predomi- 
 nance of weight in favor of descent, and to do this in 
 every part of the course, the elevating force will be found 
 by making the proper substitutions in the expression 
 y=,i,,r'irli, in which F represents the force, d the di- 
 ameter of the piston, w the weight of a cubic unit (metre 
 or foot as the ease may be) of water, and h the height of 
 the head. It was stated that the reservoir from which the 
 supply of water was received was situated at an elevation 
 of :1U "metres above the point of application. Putting, thore- 
 . fore, A = 30, rf = 0.2 j, and i(.= 1000 kilograms, we shall 
 obtain the result /' = 3.14IM X 0.062.i X 30 xKlOO ^- 4 = 
 1473 kilograms nearly. Putting the average weight of an 
 adult at 00 kilograms, say 130 pounds, the aacenaeur was 
 capable of carrying up twenty-four or twenty-five persons 
 at a time. 
 
 It will bo seen that the ingenious system of counter- 
 poises introduced by Mr. Kdoux makes the height to which 
 the charge is elevated quite independent of the height of 
 the hydraulic head. Other considerations, however, prac- 
 tically limit the extent to which the system can be applied. 
 In proportion as the length of the piston is increased it 
 becomes nceessary to increase its diameter and the thick- 
 ness of its walls, in order that it may preserve a sufficient 
 rigidity under the increasing strain and pressure to which 
 it'will be liable. Its weight will be correspondingly in- 
 creased, entailing the necessity of eriually increasing the 
 weight of the chains and counterpoises. Thus the appar- 
 atus will become too ponderous to be advantageously em- 
 |)loyed. The weight of the pistons of the uicemenrs in the 
 xposition was 2100 kilograms, or more than 2 tons each. 
 This weight exceeded, therefore, alone, not considering the 
 car.-, the whole force of elevation, by more than GOO kilo- 
 grams ; so that without the system of counterpoises the 
 apparatus would not have worked at all. 
 
 On the other hand, fur the ordinary purposes of a hotel 
 elevator, it is not necessary to have a source of water by 
 any means so high above the point of application as that 
 which operated the nucenaeura of the Exposition. It is 
 sufficient, we will suppose, that such an elevator may bo 
 capable of carrying up eight persons at a time, having a 
 total weight of ioOU to IKHI pounds. Assuming an outsido 
 weight of 1200, and, transforming the expression above for 
 
 iF 4S00 xl't 
 
 the value of h, wo have h 
 
 £' 
 
 mPw 3.14159X100X62.5 
 35 feet nearly, putting the diameter of the piston at 10 
 inches, and toking 02.5 pounds as the weight of a oubio 
 foot of water. 
 
 If the diameter of the piston bo enlarged to 12 inches, 
 the hydraulic head required will be but twenty-four feet. 
 .Such an elevator can therefore be introduced into any 
 house in which the water rises to a height of 35 feet, or 
 even 24 feet, above (he lowest point at which it can be eon- 
 ducted off after being discharged. It is desirable, of course, 
 to have a eupcrduity of force, but that can abundantly bo 
 obtained in any house in which water from the ]iublio 
 works is delivered in the third story, and communication 
 with the public drains can be established from the base- 
 ment. 
 
 Hydraulic elevators in dwellings have the advantage 
 over mechanical contrivances for (be same purpose worked 
 by sIcam-cngincB, turbines, or other motors, because of 
 their siinplieity of eonslruction, (heir extreme facility of 
 manngement. their perfectly smooth ami silent motion, 
 and, in general, their largo snneriority in point of economy 
 in operation. The economy, however, may not bo realized 
 in large eilics. where water rales are high ; but the advan- 
 tages are in nlber respects so much iu favor of these eleva- 
 tors, especially when (he security attending their use is also 
 taken into consideration, as to justify their introduction 
 oven in cases where it might bo necessary to creoto the 
 hydraulic head by means of steam-pumps. If steam- 
 p'ower has to be u«e.l at all. it may as well be employed in 
 elevating water as in direedy operating an elevator. And 
 if this plan is once adopted Iho cstablishmont bcoomos in- 
 
 sourccs altogether, after having provided a moderate origi- 
 nal supply, since the same water may bo constantly used 
 over and over again. It will be necessary for this purpose 
 to have a tank at the lowest level and another at the high- 
 est. And if we assume {as has been shown above to be 
 just) a height of 35 feet to be sufficient in ordinary ca.ses, 
 it is not difficult to compute the work which an engine 
 would have to perform in lifting the water required for the 
 daily service from the lower tank to the upper. 
 
 Supposing the course of the piston to be 60 feet, and its 
 diameter, as above, 10 inches, it will require an expendi- 
 ture of about 33 cubic feet of water for each ascension. 
 Supposing an ascension to take place every six minutes, or 
 ten every hour, which is about the fact at the Charing Cross 
 Hotel in London, and that the elevator is in operation 
 eighteen hours a day — i'. c. from six in the morning until 
 twelve at night — the total daily expenditure of water will 
 be 5940 cubic feet— say 8000- to raise which 35 feet gives 
 a total work of 13,125,000 foot-pounds. This work a one- 
 horse power engine would do in a little more than six hours 
 and a half. 
 
 It would not be desirable, however, to raise the whole 
 quantity at onee. nor even desirable to have so largo a 
 quantity at a time in the tanks, since the weight of fiOOO 
 cubic feet of water would be somewhere near 190 tons. A 
 tank capable of containing 200 cubic feet would suffice for 
 six ascents ; and if an engine should bo employed con- 
 stantly in raising the water as it is drawn down, onethird 
 of a single horse-power would exceed the demand. Such 
 an engine could probably be run at a much less cost than 
 is paid in London for the supply of the elevator of tho 
 Charinu Cross Hotel, which was stated to exceed £1 a day. 
 
 F. A. P. Baksaud. 
 Hydraulic Engines. The usual, and generally tho 
 most eligible, mode of employing water-power is to apply 
 it to the circumference of a wheel. (See WAiEn-wuiCKi. 
 and TiiRBisi;.) Occasionally, however, it may be more 
 advantageous to use it as steam is used, to act on a piston 
 in a cylinder. This mode of application is especially 
 adapted to the case of a small supply of water having a 
 large fall. Hydraulic engines, like steam-engines, may bo 
 cither reciprocating or rotary. Some niodilications arc 
 necessary in the constniclion of the parts, to accommodate 
 them to the different physical properties of the denser 
 fluid. The induction and eduction pi]ies,for instance, must 
 bo larger than arc required for steam, and should have no 
 abrupt angles. Freer valve-ways also are necessary ; the 
 eduction valve should open very promptly at the end of the 
 stroke, and tlie induction valve should not close until the 
 stroke is quite completed— that is to say, tho influx should 
 cease and the cfllux should begin exactly at the same mo- 
 ment. Any material error in making the adjustments de- 
 signed to accomplish this end, or any imperfect working 
 of" tho machinery which prevents its attainment, will pro- 
 duce coneussion's (, ■„»;)« (h hflicr, "water-ram blows," as 
 they are called by the French), which will very certainly 
 be injurious, and which may be destructive. In the hy- 
 draul'ic engines which have been most extensively intro- 
 duced, and most successful in practice, provision is mado 
 by relief valves or other expedients to mitigate or obvialo 
 tho evil resulting from this cause ; but in so far as it is 
 possible by the adjustments of the machine itself to permit 
 the column by which it is operated to maintain a uniform 
 vclocKy, both true economy of jiower and durabilily ol 
 arts will be best consulted. In the case of sleam, a(len- 
 to the particulars here jiointed out is not so rigid'" 
 
 1': 
 
 necessary7th'c'd'ifferenee arising from the fact that steam 
 is eminently compressible, while water is so only to a de- 
 gree which for ordinary purposes may bo regarded as 
 insensible. . , , , , ,• 
 
 It is only in some special industries that hydraulic en- 
 gines have as yet been extensively introduecd. In large 
 foundries they have been found very convenient in the 
 working of cranes and other heavy maohinery. lliey have 
 also been employed occasionally for the drainage of miius. 
 A remarkably ingenious illustration of their possible use- 
 fulness for this latter purpose may be seen at present in 
 operation at lluclgoat, in Brillany. The great waler-eii- 
 eino of lluilgoat, (he invention of Mr. Juncker, engineer 
 of the niiiK s it is employed to drain, has been oflen de- 
 scribed. A very full description is given by Mr. Dchuinay 
 in his Mrcliaiiii-n. This engine is single-acting, and it acts 
 directly lo lift Iho pisfon of the pump by which (he water 
 is drawn from tho mines. It makes five and a half slrokes 
 per minu(e. (he stroke being 2* mistres, or more than 8 
 feet in length. The pislon rod is 230 metres (767 foot) 
 long, and it weighs 16,000 kilograms— say 16 tons. Tho 
 power of (he engine is derived from a source at a height 
 lib mi>tres (370 feet) above its own level. In (his case, 
 though the direct apjilieation of the power reduces tho en-
 
 U)4ii 
 
 IIYDKAULIC FORGING. 
 
 gine to iu simplest furm, yet the great inertia of the mov- 
 ing columns of water requires that their movements should 
 be very carefully regulated. In a reciprocating eugiue 
 there are moments of rest, and successive periods in which 
 the piston moves in opposite directions. When the driv- 
 ing force is communicated to a machine through a crank, 
 it is a favorable circumstauce that crank-motion necessarily 
 retards the movement of the piston toward the end of the 
 stroke, and brings it insensibly to zero, while at the begin- 
 ning of the stroke it in like manner favors gradual acceler- 
 ation. But iu the engine at Huclgoat, withont some rac- 
 clianieal coutiivauce to rcdu^^e very gradually the volume 
 of intlowing water toward the end of the stroke, the piston 
 would reach the limit of its course with its maximum ve- 
 locity, and the sudden arrest of its motion would produce 
 a concussion which no strength of materials could resist. 
 The ingenuity and the simplicity of the contrivances by 
 which this powerful maeliine is made to regulate automati- 
 cally its own motions, so as to prevent the occurrence of 
 the slightest perceptible shock, has excited the highest ad- 
 miration of every engineer who has examined it. 
 
 irydraulic engines upon a smaller scale, and designed 
 for use in the operations of ordinary industry, have been 
 constructed in a variety of forms. Several of these — as, 
 for instance, the hydraulic motors of Perret and Coque of 
 France, and of Garret, Marshall & Co. and Ilamsbottom of 
 Great Britain — are described in full in the Jicport on the 
 Indtistrial Arts at the Paris Exposition, by the writer of 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Rarasbottom's water-engine, 
 this article. The latter, a high-pressure engine which has 
 rendered more important services to industry than any 
 other of its class, is represented in elevation and partial 
 seetion in Figs. 1 and 2. This engine is oscillating, and 
 employs two eylinders operating the same working shaft 
 by means of two cranks at right angles to each other. The 
 cylinders arc supported 
 in a stout framework of 
 cast iron. Fig. 1 is a sec- 
 tion through the cylin- 
 ders, which arc vertical, 
 and sliows the mode of 
 suspension of the cylin- 
 ders, and the elianncis of 
 indvi'-'tion and eduction, 
 which lire marked /, and 
 wliieh are east with the 
 cylinder. The doited cir- 
 cles c and c' show the 
 position of the supply 
 and discharge pipes. Fig. 
 .1 shows a cross-section 
 of the cylinders and their JT^ 
 pivots, and in this will ^Ji^ 
 be seen the places of at- 
 tachment of the pipes 
 just mentioned at K and 
 K'. The pivots are of 
 steel. Those intermediate 
 between the eylinders 
 are firmly fixed in the 
 support. The externul 
 pivots admit of adjust- Pwatusbottom's water-engine, 
 ment Iiy means of the screws and screw-nuts d and/", Fig. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 2, which is a section through the line 1 and 2. Fig. 1 
 
 shows the system of water-distribution. The apertures 
 of induction and eduction are represented at h and i, and 
 have the form of truncated circular sectors, whose centre 
 is the centre of motion. The spaces marked h arc divided 
 from those marked » by a sectoral partition, which is of 
 precisely the same area in cross-section as they. The aper- 
 tures of admission and discharge on the side of the cylin- 
 ders are also of the same form and dimensions. The sur- 
 faces of contact between the cylinders and the supjiort D 
 are perfectly plane and polished, and arc made water-tight 
 by means of the adjusting screws U and /of the pivots. 
 When the piston is at the end of its course in either direc- 
 tion the cylinder will be truly vertical. In this position 
 
 the piston is momen- 
 tarily at rest, and both 
 induction and eduction 
 valves should bo closed. 
 Accordingly, thedispo- 
 i sition of the parts is 
 n\^| such that, when the cy- 
 'Q Under is vertical, tiie 
 ^,^ openings by which the 
 channels j j communi- 
 cate with the supply 
 and discharge pipes, 
 present themselves ex- 
 actly opposite to the 
 Cross-section of cylinders and their solid sector dividing h 
 pivots. from i. In the next 
 
 moment the flow of water will recommence, the cylinder 
 discharging itself from the full side of the piston, and fill- 
 ing anew on the opposite side. 
 
 From this statement it is apparent that the influx and 
 efflux of the water proceed with more and more freedom 
 from the beginning to the middle of the stroke, when the 
 passages are at their maximum opening, and that from this 
 point to the end the reverse takes place. But it is to be 
 also observed that, from the nature of crank-motion, tiie 
 velocity of the piston varies correspondingly, and that the 
 relation of the supply of water to the demand is very nearly 
 constant. Very nice adjustment is evidently necessary in 
 these engines, in order that the moment of the absolute 
 closing of the valves may correspond to that of the com- 
 pletion of tho stroke ; and as it is possible that this perfect 
 coincidence may not be exactly secured or permanently 
 maintained, some provision against counter-pressure and 
 the eff"ects of hydraulic shocks is necessary. Air-chambers 
 and relief-valves are employed for this purpose. The re- 
 lief-valves open a backward communieation between the 
 cylinder and tho driving column, so that if there occurs an 
 obstruction to tho discharge, the pressure on tho two sides 
 of tho piston will be equilibrated by the opening of the 
 valve. The engines of this model heretofore in use are 
 generally small, some of them having cylinders of not more 
 than two inches in diameter. They have been used for a 
 variety of industrial purposes, as for operating printing- 
 presses, circular saws, lathes, etc.. as well as for cranes nod 
 other machinery in foundries. Their siiiiplieity and neat- 
 ness render them preferable to almost nny ether form of 
 small motor wherever the hydraulic head can be easily se- 
 cured for working them. But in general it is not a natu- 
 ral hydraulic head that is depended on; and indeed no 
 natural head could furnii^h. in machines of so small model 
 as those employed in foundries, anything like tho largo 
 power which they exert. The head is established in an 
 accumnhttor of power, which is a body of water driven into 
 a reservoir under heavy pressure by forcing-pumps worked 
 by steam. For lighter industries such expedients are un- 
 necessary. In cities in which the water-distribution is from 
 elevated reservoirs, and in which the water-supply is suffi- 
 ciently abundant to justify the applieiition of a porticm of 
 it to industrial uses, the water-engine is recommended by 
 the combined advantages of simplicity, neatness, compact- 
 ness, constant readiness for work, perfect safety, economy 
 while working. an<i the absolute cessation of expenditure 
 during interruptions and after the work of the day is ended. 
 
 F. A. P. Baknaiid. 
 Hydraulic Forgrinp. This process of forging con- 
 sists essentially in substituting the powerful and continu- 
 ous pressure of the hydraulic press for the repeated blows 
 of a hammer in shaping wrought iron ami steel. A swcdge, 
 or mould, of the desired object is necessary, and under tho 
 proper conditions of temperature the metal may be forced 
 into cverv angle and reeess as perfectly ns if made fluid by 
 fusion and cast : but objects so made are very much stronger 
 than castings, and are claimed to be even superior to forg- 
 ings made in the ordinary way. The process has been 
 carried to groat perfection, after years of patient experi- 
 mentin-r. by Mr. Haswell at the machine-shops of the Im- 
 perial State Railway Co. of Austria, in Vienna. It is used
 
 HYDKAULIC PRESS-HYDRAULIC RAM. 
 
 1047 
 
 there chieav for forming such parts of locomotives as 
 cross-heads,' link-bars, axle-box frames, and for ear-wheels 
 and various other intricately formed parts of railway roll- 
 ing slock, where superior strenglh and lightness arc import- 
 ant It is also used instead of heavy steam-hammers tor 
 drawing down large ingots of Bessemer steel. The results 
 appear to justify the conclusion that ingots so treated 
 give stronger and more homogeneous bars than are obtained 
 by hammeVing. At Vienna two large hydraulic presses arc 
 in use— one with a piston 24 inches in diameter, giving 
 I'HIO tons pressure, and one with an 18-inch piston, work- 
 ing up to COO tons pressure. The pressure m the pumps is 
 COJ atmospheres. The action is vertical; the piston de- 
 scends upon the work, and for forging ingots has a ham- 
 nier-likc head opposed to an anvil of the usual lorm below 
 In drawing down an ingot, say of one ton weight, of soft 
 Bessemer steel, the work commences at the end, and alter 
 each squeeze by the descending piston the mass is pushed 
 alon.' until the first half of the length of the ingot has been 
 acted on. when it is turned end for end. It is then turned 
 over and back and forth, as is usual under a hammer, until 
 the whole has been drawn down to the required size. In 
 this operation there is no noise or jar. The piston descends 
 slowly, but irresistibly, and forces the hot metal each way 
 as if 'it were a mass o'f soft putty. The work is effectively 
 pcrfurmed, and it requires less time than ordinary forging 
 or rolling. The pressure affects the very centre of the mass 
 of the in.'ot. Its action is by no means superficial, and it 
 is far more effectual in modifying the structural condition 
 of the bar than blows on the surface can he. There is no 
 distribution of the force of the blow through the anvil to 
 the foundation, as there is in (he violent impact of a steam- 
 hammer. The ingot yields gradually to the pressure, and 
 bulges out at the sides and end as in Fig. A, and is not 
 drawn over more at the surface than at the centre, so as to 
 give a ragged hollow end (Fig. B), such as is usually 
 formed under hammers and rollers. 
 
 c 
 
 Before the forging of an ingot is completed a distinct 
 structural arrangement of the steel is developed, and is 
 seen most distinctly when the h<.t steel sinks down under 
 the pressure. As the piston-head descends into the mass, 
 and squeezes it upon the anvil, the lines of structure visible 
 in the sides of the ingot bend downward, and are com- 
 pressed as shown in the annexed cut, the movement ex- 
 tending to the very centre of the mass. | | 
 This structure or " fibre " is doubtless 
 the result of a difference in chemical 
 constitution in planes approximately 
 parallel to the squeezing surfaces, and, | ^ 
 80 regarded, the process may be consid- 
 ered 10 be more favorable to the development of structure 
 or "grain" than ordinary forging. But, from whatever 
 cause it originates, this grain is an important factor of 
 strength in pressed forgings, and characterizes them in a 
 remarkable manner, as was beautifully exhibited at Vienna 
 in a series of forged objects which had been sawn asunder 
 and etched so as to show the grain. These structural pe- 
 culiarities are most distinct in the pressed forgings made 
 from piled iron masses, and are beautifully shown in etched 
 sections of irregular angular objects like cross-heads, as in 
 the figure, a section of ft cross-head, about i natural size, 
 after 21 hours' etching in aqua regia: 
 
 In forging such objects as the parts of machines weigh- 
 ing from 50 to 150 pounds or more, a mass or ball of metal 
 is cut as nearly as possible of the required weight from the 
 end of an ingot, and is heated nearly white hot prepara- 
 tory to being thrown into the mould. The moulds are 
 made of iron or steel, in several parts if necessary, and 
 these parts are securely held together by bands of wrought 
 iron. They are left open at the top for the reception of 
 the metal and for the descent of the plunger or follower, 
 which is attached to the piston-head of the hydraulic press. 
 The shape of this follower, called by the workmen the 
 "stamp," determines the shape of the inside of the object 
 to be formed. The mould is placed directly under the 
 piston-head. All the parts being properly adjusted, and 
 the inside of the mould and the surface of the plunger be- 
 ing smeared with thick oil or grease, a mass of hot steel is 
 thrown into the open top of the mould; the plunger is 
 brought slowly down, and pushes the hot metal before it 
 into every part and recess of the mould. The excess of 
 metal, if "any. after the mould is filled, rises on each side 
 of the plunger and protrudes. This leaves a wing or 
 "burr" which is afterwards easily cut off with chisels; but 
 a little practice enables the workmen to cut off masses so 
 near the required weight that there is but little excess to 
 bo trimmed off. When the stamp has reached the required 
 depth the pressure is removed; the key which attaches the 
 stamp-head to the piston is knocked out; the piston is 
 raised out of the way, and the mould and contents are re- 
 moved from the bed of- the press. A few blows of a sledge- 
 hammer detach the fastenings of the mould and liberate 
 the forging, which is thrown aside to cool. If the work 
 has been well done, all the angles of the object arc full and 
 solid. All pieces pressed in the same mould are alike m 
 dimensions, and there is no great excess of metal in any 
 part to be cut away; and consequently it requires less 
 labor and expense to fit up such forgings than it does for 
 those of irreplar dimensions made in the ordinary manner. 
 The rapidity with which intricate forgings are m.ide is 
 one of the greatest advantages of the method. It is es- 
 pecially adapted to heavy work, where there are many 
 anglcs'and interior surfaces to be shaped. Of such objects 
 as cross-heads for locomotives from twenty-five to thirty 
 or more can bo made in a day with hut little labor. The 
 moulds are mado of cast iron, and are used cold. The 
 stamp-heads are also of cast iron, and duplicates are kept 
 on hand to replace those which break. The wheels lor 
 locomotives and for railway carriages aro forged out in 
 this way in segments, which are afterwards united by 
 welding under the press. The process is also applied to 
 forming boiler-heads, steam-domes, etc., large plates of 
 Bessemer steel being forced through a ring. The total pro- 
 duction of pressed forgings at the railway-works, Vienna, 
 during nine months previous to 1873, was ^S.^O pieces, 
 weighing 1,071,200 pounds. W. P. Bl.-vkis. 
 
 Hydraulic I'ress. See HvDnosTATic Press, by .T. P. 
 FiuzKi.i., I'. K. 
 
 Hydraulic Ram, a well-known machine invented by 
 Montgollier for elevating a part of the water furnisbed by 
 a stream to a height greater than that of the source from 
 which it is drawn. ' Its action depends upon the property 
 of inertia which water, in common with all heavy bodies, 
 possesses. A heavy body, moving with a given velocity, 
 perforins, while being brought to rest, an amount of me- 
 chanical work suflieicnt to raise the body lo the height duo 
 to the velocity. A car. for instance, moving upon a track 
 with a velocity of 48 feet per second, or nearly Xi miles 
 per hour, and reaching a steep incline, would mount it to a 
 height of .'IS. 82 feet (friction and resistance of the air not 
 considered), that being the height which a heavy body must 
 fall to acquire a velocity of 48 feet per second. The me- 
 chanical work performed by a moving body in coming to 
 rest is represented by the resistance opposed to its motion, 
 miiUiplicil by the distance which the body moves against 
 this resistance; so that the resistance necessary lo stop a 
 moving body, or the pressure which itcan exert while stop- 
 ping, is great or small according as its motion is arrested 
 suddenly or slowly. , , . , e 
 
 In the hydraulic ram the moving body is the ninss ol 
 
 The lines of the grain, it will be seen, conform in ft remark- 
 able degree «o the form of the mnsB, winding in and out 
 around the curves and angles in such a manner as to give 
 the greatest strength where it is most needed. These lines 
 show in a very interesting way the flow or movement of the 
 viscid metal when under pressure. Kxpericneo has taught 
 that very sharp angles in some parts of moulds interfere 
 with the proper flow of thjomclnl. This difficulty is avoided 
 by rouniling off the angles, or by building Ihcm out so as 
 t<> give more space for the metal lo move in. The super- 
 fluous metal is cut away, leaving the internal curves of the 
 grain in the best shape for Iho strength of the object. 
 
 water contiiiued in a long pine, the exit of which is alter- 
 nately opened and closed. The resistance opposed to the 
 water's motion when its exit is closed, is the elastic force of 
 air eontined in a closed vessel, and the work performed by 
 it eonsist.s in compressing this air, which, by its tendency 
 to expand, forces the water to a higher level. The accom- 
 panying figure is a section of a hydraulin ram. showing 
 also' the chamber or pit in which it is placed, a is (he sup- 
 ply-pipe leading from the pond or other source of supply. 
 The longer this pipe is, the better, provided there is fall 
 enough to give the necessary velocity ; i is a cock for clos- 
 ing tbo supply-pipe; o is a plato to which the air-vessel d
 
 1048 
 
 HYDRAULICS OF RIVERS— IIYDKOCAREOXS. 
 
 is bolted. Ilclow this plato arc two compartments — one, r, 
 formiDfr a chauncl IhroM'-h \t|p.)i the water passes freely 
 when tho valve y is op- : i Mninicating with the air- 
 
 Hydraulic ram. 
 
 vessel by the valve /, which allows the water to enter the 
 air-vessfl, but not to return. The other compartment com- 
 municates freely with tho air-vessel, and with a rising pipe, 
 not shown in the figure, for conveying the water to the 
 higher level. The valve tj being in the position shown, the 
 water commences to move through the supply-pipe, escap- 
 ing at *7 and passing off through the waste-pipe h. The 
 velocity soon becomes so great as to lift tho valve jr, which 
 closes the outlet. While coming to rest the water in the 
 pipe exerts a pressure sufficient to lift the valve/", and com- 
 press air in the air-vessel by flowing into it. As soon as 
 the water comes to rest, the pressure censes, the valve /' 
 closes, the valve // opens, and tho same thing occurs again. 
 The expansion of the air in the air-vessel causes a uniform 
 flow through the rising pipe. J. P. Frizell. 
 
 Hydraulics of Rivers. See Rivers, Hvdrallics 
 OF, by Gln. II. L. Abbot, U. S. Army. 
 
 Hydrides [Gr. vSwp," water"], compounds of hydrogen 
 with metals, alcohol-radicals, organic acid radicals. 
 
 Met'illic HifdrideB. — Hydride of copper, Cu-iH or CcuII, 
 is produced by the action of hypophusphorous acid on 
 cupric sulphate. With HCl it yields CcuCI -f- H. Hydride 
 of iron is formed by the action of zinc-ethyl on ferrous 
 iodide. It is a black metallic powdor which evolves H in 
 water. Arseuurctted hydrogen ( HaAs) and antimouurctted 
 hydrogen (HgSb) are formed when solutions of thcso metals 
 are brought in contact with metallic zinc and dilute sul- 
 phuric or hydrochloric acid or potassio hydrate. They 
 are gases. (See Antimonv and Arsen'ious Oxidh.) 
 
 Hydrides of (he Alcohol Radicith* — The parafiins, as 
 marsh-gas, CH*. etc., are often viewed as hydrides, CH3II, 
 etc. (See Hydkucarijons and Paraffins.) 
 
 Hydrides of Acid Radicals, — The aldehydes referred to 
 the type HII constitute this class of compounds. Acetic 
 aldehyde C^iUO = C2II3O.II ; benzoic aldehyde, bitier-al- 
 mond oil, is the hydride of benzoyl, C7H5O.H. (See Alde- 
 nvi)i:s and Almonds, Oil of.) C. F. Chandler. 
 
 Hydriodic Acid. See Iodinf,, by E. Waller, E. M. 
 
 Hvdrobromic Acid. See Bromine, by Prof. C. F. 
 Chandlku, Ph. D., M. D., LL.D. 
 
 Hydrocar'bons [Gr. v5<,ip, "water," and Lat. carho, 
 "coal"], compounds consisting nf carbon and hydrogen 
 only. Many such compounds are found ready formed 
 in nature; most of tho essential oils, as turpentine, lemon, 
 orange, bergamot, neroli, etc., are hydrocarbons. (See 
 Essential Om^.) Caoutchouc (see India-Rcbber) and 
 Gitta-Perciia (which see) are hydrocarbons. Methane 
 (marsh-gas) is found in the mud of stagnant pools and in 
 coal-beds, and under the name ot jire-damp produces the 
 disastrous explosions in mines. Petroleum and ozocerite 
 are mixtures of several homologous hydrocarbons. (See 
 Petrolei'm.) The mo^t fruitful source of hydrocarbons is 
 the destructive distillation of vegetable and animal sub- 
 stances. This always results in the formation of tour dis- 
 tinct products : (1) the charcoal or coke which remains be- 
 hind in tho retort J (2) the fixed gases; (3) tho tar; (4) 
 the watery product, which is acid when distilled from non- 
 nitrogenous bodies, such as wood, etc., owing to the pres- 
 ence of acetic acid, and alkaline when derived from nitro- 
 genous bodies^ owing to the presence of ammonia. The 
 gas and tar consist largely of hydrocarbons, solid, liquid, 
 and gaseous. (For a detailed statement of the products of 
 the destructive distillation of coal, see article Gas-Ligbt- 
 
 ING.) 
 
 The hydrocarbons are the simplest of all organic com- 
 pounds, and are regarded as the starting-points from which 
 nil other organic bodies may be derived by substitution or 
 addition. (For the methud!* by which organic compounds 
 are formed from hydrooarbon-*. see articles Alojhol, Ali- 
 
 ZARESE, Aniline, and Aniline Colors.) The hydrocar- 
 bons may be formed (1) synthetically from carbon and 
 hydrogen, as when hydrogen is passed over carbon heated 
 to redness by the voltaic arc : 
 
 CarboQ. H^'dmgcD. Acetylene. 
 
 Cs + Uj = C2U2. 
 From acetylene other more complicated hydrocarbons may 
 be built up. (2) From compounds containing these ele- 
 ments: 
 
 Carbon Hydpogcn rnr^n-.. «-.»,««<. Cnnroua 
 
 dbulphldc. sOlpliidc. Copper. Methane. en,'phide. 
 
 CS2 -I- 211jS + 8Cu = CHi -H 4CU2S. 
 
 Methane (marsh-gas) may also be formed from carbon diox- 
 ide (CO2) by first converting this into carbon monoxide 
 (CO), converting this into formic acid (IlCIiOa), and then 
 subjecting a salt of this acid to destructive distillation. 
 Alcohol heated with an excess of sulphuric acid yields 
 ethylene (olefiaut gas) : 
 
 Alcohol. S"^f^""'= Ethylene. 
 
 CalleO + HaSbi = C2II4 + H2SO4 + HjO. 
 A hydrocarbon maybe transformed into another of greater 
 or less complexity; methane (CH*) may be changed to 
 acetylene (C2H2) by a scries of induction sparks, or to 
 naphthalene (CioHg) by a very high temperature. Methane 
 and carbon monoxide yield tritylene when jiassed through 
 a red-hot tube : 2V\\i -\- CO = CsHs r lU-O. In the process 
 of cracking (see PLTnoLEiM) the heavy hydrocarbons are 
 split up into lighter oils by exposure to temperatures near 
 their boiling-points. By substitution, the hydrocarbons 
 yield haloid ethers: CHi -h Cl2= CII3CI -|- HCI. These, in 
 turn, may be changed to alcohols by the action of potassio 
 hydrate : CH3CI -f- KIIO = CH3OH + KCl. Hydrocarbons 
 may be oxidized eitlier by the action uf the air, long con- 
 tinued, or by the action of powerful oxidizing agents. (See 
 article on the oxidation of petroleum, by W, P. Jenney, in 
 the Am. Chemiat, Apr., 187o, and also "Oxidation of Car- 
 bides of Hydrogen " (by chromic acid) in the Chem. News, 
 .\ix. 27.3.) 
 
 Classijication and Nomenclature of the Hydrocarbons, — 
 The simplest of all hydrocarbons is methane or marsh-gas, 
 Cn4. This is a saturated molecule, and is consequently 
 incapable of combining directly with chlorine, bromine, 
 etc., or of receiving any addition of hydrogen. It may, 
 however, unite with any number of dyad elements or rad- 
 icals, as such a radical introduced into a group of atoms 
 neutralizes one unit of equivalence, and introduces another, 
 leaving the combining power or equivalence of the group 
 the same as before. The saturated molecule, CH4, may 
 therefore take up any number of molecules of the dyad 
 group, Cn2, giving rise to a homologous series (sec Ilo- 
 MOLOGv) of saturated hydrocarbons: CH4.C2H6.C3Hs,C4llio 
 ....CnIT2n + 2- Thesc saturated hydrocarbons may be 
 deprived of two atoms or one molecule of hydrogen (Hj), 
 and thus produce a second series of homologous hydrocar- 
 bons: CH^-CzIuXsHe-C^Hs C„H2„. By a similar re- 
 moval of H2 from these bodies a third series mav bo pro- 
 duced: C2H2,C3H4.C4H6 C„H2«-2. Twelve'such suc- 
 cessive series are already known, containing even numbers 
 of hvdrogen atoms. The first six of these series, with the 
 names proposed for them by Hofinann {Proc. Roy. Soc, xv. 
 67), are given in the following table: 
 
 Uctfaaac. Methcnc. 
 
 CHi CH2 
 
 Ethane. 
 
 Elbcne. 
 
 Call, 
 
 F Ik inc. 
 C2II1 
 
 Propiinc. Propcoe. Proptnc. Propone. 
 
 fjUs Calls fjH, C3H2 
 
 QtmrtADC. Quartcne Qtmrltne. Qiiartonc. Qna7t<nio. 
 
 (■(llio C.Ils I'.IU C,H4 Cjlla 
 
 QiiinUtnc. Quintene. Quiniinc. Quintonc. Qulotune. 
 
 Csllii! CsHio C'slls Calls Csll, CsHj 
 
 S>'xtane. Soxtene. Scxtinc. Soxtooe. Se:(tune. 
 
 Csllu CsUia Csllio CsIIe Cells CsH, CsH2. 
 
 Fiml Serlea (Cnllflj + j) — Painffinn. — .Methane (marsh- 
 g!>s), Cllt, is the simpkst: ethane (C^lls) and propane 
 (Calls^ are also gases at ordinary temperatures. Butane 
 (CiHs) is a liquid above D4° F. The following fifteen or 
 twenty members of the series arc liquids, and constitute the 
 greater portion of petroleum : C27II56. and the higher mem- 
 bers of the group, constitute the beautiful white solid known 
 as Paraffin (which sec). 
 
 Sccnnd Series (CnHi.>„) — Olefinet.— The simplest mem- 
 ber of this series is ethylene (olefiant gas), CjH4, and tho 
 scries includes gases, liquids^ and solids. (See Etiivlkne 
 and Olkfinks.) 
 
 Third Series (C„Hi„ _ j). — Five members of this series 
 are known: ethine or acetylene (CjHj). propine ur ally- 
 lene (Cslli), quartine or crotonylenc (C4Hc), quintine or 
 valerylcne (CsIIs), and se.xtine or diullyl (t'ellio^. They 
 are readily formed by heating tho monobrouiinitfeU deriva-
 
 HYDROCELE— HYDROCHLORIC ACID. 
 
 1049 
 
 tivesof the oleBncs with gndium othjlate: CsIIiBj + CsHs- 
 NaO = NiiHr + CjlUOlI 4- CsiU. 
 
 Funtlh Scnei (('H„H2« - «) — Quintonc or valylene {C^He)' 
 — The terpcnes f«co Isomkkism) were supposed to belong 
 to thir< scries, but uil of turpentine is now believed to be a 
 hydride of cymol. 
 
 /V/V/f Series {CnH2n- g) — Aromatic Ilydrorarhonn. — 
 Benzol (CgIIg) is the simplest member of the series. Other 
 known members are toluol {C;Hsl. xylol (CgHio), cumol 
 (Cglln). cymol (Ciolfn). and laurol (CuIIic). This and 
 most of the following series of compounds ftre rcmarknblo 
 for the readiness with which the members exchange H for 
 NO^'aud form nitro-dcrivatives : 
 
 BcDiol. Nitro-bcneol. 
 
 C'elle + IIXO3 - CcIIsNOj-f HjO. 
 From these nitro-derivativcs the amines arc readily formed 
 by the action of nascent hydrogen (see Amines and Ani- 
 line) : 
 
 Nllr«-bpn/ol. Anilini.'. 
 
 C'ellsNOz 4- He = Cel^N f 21120. 
 Sixth Scriet ( C„H2n - 8).—Phenylcno (Celli^ styrol, or 
 cinnamcne (CgH^I. 
 
 Seventh Seri'ct (Cll^n - lo)- — Cholcstercnc (CofiH*,;). 
 Ei'jhth Series (Cnllsn - 12). — NAI'nTIIALKNB {CioHy), 
 
 (which see). 
 
 Ninth Series (CnH2« - h).— Diphcnyl (C12II10) and di- 
 benzvl (CuUu). 
 
 Tenth Series (Cnllan - le).— Stilbeno (CuHn). 
 
 Eleventh Series (CnHzn - w). — ANTHRACENE (CuUlo), 
 
 (which see). 
 
 Tieel/tk Series (CnHju - m). — No members known. 
 
 Thirteenth Series (CnH-jn - 22). — PYRENB (Ciellio)* 
 (which see). 
 
 Fourteenth Series (CnH2n- 2*)- — Chryscno (Cigllu). 
 
 HtfdrOritrbonH eont'tininfj Uneven Nnmbcr^ of lilfdro(jcn 
 
 Atoms. — The saturated hydrocarbons of the first series may 
 give up one, two. three, or more atoms of II in exchange 
 for n, Br, or I, producing haloid salts, from whicii the al- 
 cohols are readily derived, as already shown in this article. 
 The hydrocarbons existing in these haloid salts and al- 
 cohols are compound radicals, as raethvl (CII3}*, ethvl 
 (C2II5)', ethene {('■iU,)'*, propone (CallcA cthenyl (CjIfaA 
 propenyl {C3II5)'", olhine (C'zII-i)'', propino (Call*)'', ethinyl 
 (C^ll)', propinyl (C3H3)', propone (CsIIa)*', proponyl 
 (CjH)*^. etc. The radicals with even numbers of II atoms 
 are included in the series already mentioned: those with 
 uneven numbers of II atoms may bo included in a separate 
 group of scries. 
 
 Firnt .SVriM.— (C„H2„ + 1).— Methyl (CIIs), ethyl (C2TI5), 
 etc. These are the radicals of the common alcohols, 
 methyl hydrate, wood-naphtha (CII3OII), ethyl or com- 
 mon alcohol (t'jIlfiOII), etc. 
 
 Second Scn'en (C„II_»fi - 1). Mcthcnyl (CH), the radical 
 in chloroform (CHCI3) and iodoform (Cllla); propenyl 
 (C.1H5). the radical in propenyl alcohol, glyceriuo (C3II5 
 (OIII3). 
 
 Third Sf-ries (r„Il2„ _ 3).— Propinyl (C3H3). 
 
 Fourth Series {Vnlijn - b)- — Proponyl (0311). 
 
 C. F. CnANDI-EK. 
 
 Hy'drocelC [Lat. hydrocele ; Or. OSpok^Atj. from iiSwp, 
 "water." and itJJAij, " tumor"], an accumulation of water be- 
 tween the two serous coverings of thotesticles or of the sper- 
 matic cord, known as the tunica vaginalis. It may follow an 
 inflammation of the testes, but generally follows strains. It 
 may afTrct both siilcs at the .'»ainc time, but usually we find 
 the elTu^inn on one side only. It is a curious fact that musi- 
 cians who play on wind instruments are more subject to 
 this disease than any other class of individuals; it seems 
 to be due to the constant strain produced by blowing. It 
 forms a pear-shaped, painless tumor, wl)i<.-h causes uneasi- 
 ness to the patient only on account of its .«i/o; it sonic- 
 times grows BO lorge as to reach nearly down lo the knees. 
 Unless the sac in which the fluid is enclosed bo abnormally 
 thick and distended to its utmost by the contained fluid, 
 flucluiitidn can be felt. There is no impulse felt ujion 
 cnuKliiug. liy strclching tlio integuments over the tumor, 
 and placing a candle behind it in a dark room, the light 
 will be transmitted; this would not oceur if the swelling 
 were soliil. Another test to determine the consistence of it 
 is lo plunge a needle into the mass, and sec whether it falls 
 over to one side niid floats about, or retains the position in 
 which it was placeil. The treatment of hydrocele may bo di- 
 vided into the palliative nnd the radical. The former consists 
 in drawing olT the en"u8ed fluid by the trocar and eanula; 
 this relieves the patient for a lontrer or shorter time, but 
 the sac is apt to fill again, when the operation lias to bo 
 repeated. We find patients submitting to this operation 
 from onoo to four times annually thrnut^hont their lives, 
 rather than submit to a procedure which is jierfeotly harm- 
 less atii) wiMihl ensure their complete reci.vory. The radical 
 cure is ciTected by exciting an iuflummation in tho sac 
 
 which shall cause tho opposing surfaces to adhere, and thus 
 obliterate the cavity and prevent further cflTusion. This is 
 sometimes accomplished by irritating the surfaces with the 
 end of the eanula before it is withdrawn, but this method 
 is uncertain. Generally, it is done by injecting some stim- 
 ulating fluid; for this it was customary to use port wine or 
 zinc lotion, but more recently tincture of iodine seems to 
 be the favorite. A prominent New York surgeon has lately 
 used the lunar caustic for the same purpose; this causes 
 more general disturbance of the system, but it is never ne- 
 cessary to use it a second time. After the operation tho 
 patient should keep in bed for a few days and avoid all 
 stimulating articles of diet. If there is much inflamma- 
 tion, cold applications locally and opium internally aro the 
 indications. Edward J. BEUMiNcnAM. 
 
 Hydroccph'alus [Or. vBpoKi^ta^ov, from v5wp, " water,'* 
 and jccf^ttA^, " head "], a dropsical cflusion of fluids into tho 
 interior of the skull, occupying one or more of the ventricles 
 of the brain or tho sub-mcningcal space, or both. Acute 
 hydrocephalus is ordinarily a symptom of Meningitis 
 (which sec), particularly of tubercular meningitis; but 
 cases occur in which no tubercle can be discovered after 
 death. Tho causes of chronic hydrocepholus are various. 
 Gross states that, in his opinion, a sub-acute or chronic 
 ar.achnitis, usually congenital, is a frequent cause. It is 
 regarded as certain that arrest of development of the brain- 
 substance, pressure U]ion the veins of Gahn by masses of 
 tubercle or cancer, and in fact any condition which obstructs 
 the venous circulation in the brain, may lead to hydroccph- 
 nlio eft'usion, just as a contracted liver produces ascites. It 
 is probable also that in arrest of brain-development the in- 
 croaso of the normal sub-arachnoid fluid is a conservative 
 process, serving to keep full the space between the brain 
 and tho cranium, Tho largo ninjority of cases are congen- 
 ital, and hydrocephalus must be set dov.n as a disease (or 
 symptom) belonging to infantile life; but cases occasionally 
 occur in mature life or in old age. Dean Swil't, after three 
 years of illness, died with hydrocephalus, the result, doubt- 
 less, of organic brain-disease. The prognosis of chronic 
 hydrocephalus is very grave. The child may live for many 
 years, but (with rare exceptions) becomes idiotic, and in 
 some cases is epileptic. The head becomes distended, the 
 fontanels remain open, osna triquetra form in the courses 
 of tho cranial sutures, and in f(nne eases quarts of fluid are 
 effused, consisting of water, with earthy salts and a little 
 albumen; while in acute hydrocephalus there is sometimes 
 much albumen present, with some pus-corpuscles or a littlo 
 blood. "When the disease is detected early, mercurial in- 
 unctions, with the administration of the iodides, may pos- 
 sibly afi"ord benefit. Treatment by systematic compression 
 or by tapping the skull (the latter operation to be followed 
 by firm compression) has been tried in many cases, but tho 
 most common result has been tlie tpecdy death of the pa- 
 tient, although in a few instances it would appear that 
 moro or less advantage has been obtained by these means. 
 Tho term npuriouH hi/dronphahut is sometimes applied to 
 infantile tyi)h()id or other enteric disease, the general 
 symptoms of which may simulate those of acute menin- 
 gitis. C. ^^'. OltEENE. 
 
 Ilydrochlo'ric Acid, called also jlluriatic, Chlo- 
 rohydric, and Chlorhydric Acid [ancient names, 
 junrhte arid, spirit of siift; Vi\ aeidc muriotiquc, acid«- 
 chliirhifdrique ; tJcr. Snhtiiiure, Chloru-iiHseretoJfufiHrc^. The 
 muriatic or hydrochloric acid of commerce and of tho 
 laboratory is a solution in water of the gaseous compound, 
 HCI, of hydrogen and chlorine. It occurs in nature only 
 as an Irregular product of volcanic eruptions. It is, how- 
 ever, a natui'al constituent of gastric JuiccH. Artiflcially, 
 it is always prepareil by the action of sulphuric acid upon 
 common salt, tho chloride of sodium — an action evolving 
 tho gaseous chloride of hydrogen, tho latter being passed 
 into water kept cold, which absorbs it with groat avidity 
 to tho maximum extent of about llil) times its volume, in- 
 creasing in liulk one-third, and in weight about "j per cent. 
 In commerce, there are three distinct (|ualitic8 — the common 
 yellow commercial acid, which is suhl in carboys, an<l which 
 is usually quite impure, owing its yellow color, in part rtt 
 least, to iron, and usually containing sulphurous and sul- 
 phuric acids, with other contaminations; the grade calli'd 
 "jeweller's acid," which, when prepared with the use of 
 distilled water, is likely to bo a good article, suflicicntly so 
 even for medical uso ; and tho so-called "chemically pure'* 
 acid, U'v analytical uses, which should of course be made 
 from distilled water, and should justify its name. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid gas is colorless and transparent, and 
 of sufl^oeating odor. In tho air it forms white fumes by 
 condensing tho aqueous vapor to a liquid fog. It contains 
 by weight \)7.'2Ct per cent, of clilorine and 2.7 I of hydrogen, 
 and by vcdiiine equal measures of these two gases combined 
 without condensation. Under a pressure of -10 atmospheres
 
 1050 
 
 HYDROCHCERID.E— HYDRODYNAMICS. 
 
 it condenses into a liquid. Its density is 1.269, air being 
 ]. The iiffinity of IK'I for water iiso great that the latter, 
 when free to enter a vessel filled with the gas, will rush 
 thereinto with almost as much violence as into a vacuum, 
 and a piece of ice introduced into the gas will mcit ns rap- 
 idly as in a lire. ^Vhen saturated with the gas the liquid 
 
 acid has a density of 1.20 or 1.21. Such acid requires a 
 cold of 60° below zero F. to freeze it. Heated, it gives off 
 the gas, with appearance of einiliition, until its density 
 runs diiwn to 1.094, when it will distill over unchanged. 
 Tho following is one of Dr. Ure's tables, giving the compo- 
 sition for varying specific gravities: 
 
 Spcciflc gravity. 
 
 AquC0U4 acid 
 ofsp. gr. 1.2. 
 
 GaAcous acid. 
 
 Chlorine. 
 
 Specific gravitj. 
 
 Aqueous acid 
 ofep. gr. 1.2. 
 
 Gaseous acid. 
 
 ChlorlDC. 
 
 1.2000 
 
 100 
 
 40.777 
 
 39.675 
 
 1.1102 
 
 55 
 
 21.822 
 
 22.426 
 
 1.1910 
 
 9.1 
 
 38.738 
 
 37.692 
 
 I.IOOO 
 
 50 
 
 20..38S 
 
 19.837 
 
 1. 1 822 
 
 90 
 
 3G.700 
 
 35.707 
 
 1.0899 
 
 45 
 
 18.318 
 
 17.854 
 
 1.1721 
 
 85 
 
 .14.600 
 
 33.724 
 
 1.0793 
 
 40 
 
 IG.310 
 
 15.870 
 
 1.1701 
 
 84 
 
 34.252 
 
 33.328 
 
 1.0697 
 
 35 
 
 14.271 
 
 13.887 
 
 i.ir,2a 
 
 SO 
 
 82.621 
 
 31.746 
 
 1.0.597 
 
 30 
 
 12.233 
 
 11.903 
 
 i.i->;i9 
 
 79 
 
 32.213 
 
 31.343 
 
 1.0497 
 
 25 
 
 10.194 
 
 9.919 
 
 i.i'iig 
 
 75 
 
 39.582 
 
 29.757 
 
 1.0397 
 
 20 
 
 8.155 
 
 7.9:h 
 
 i.mo 
 
 70 
 
 28.544 
 
 27.772 
 
 1.0298 
 
 15 
 
 6.116 
 
 5.951 
 
 1.1308 
 
 &i 
 
 20.504 
 
 2.5.7S9 
 
 1.0200 
 
 10 
 
 4.078 
 
 3.908 
 
 1.120(i 
 
 60 
 
 24.466 
 
 23.805 
 
 1.0100 
 
 S 
 
 2.039 
 
 1.984 
 
 Testa for Purity. — Pure acid shouM leave no tache when 
 a drop is dried on briglit platinum foil and the latter ig- 
 nited. To test for sulplmrie iind sulphurous acids, evap- 
 orate in a clean porcelain dish after adding a crystal of 
 nitrate of baryta, or a little clilorate of potash and chlor- 
 ide of barium. The dry residue should then form a clear 
 solution in distilled water again. Any turbidity is sulphate 
 of baryta. After warming with a fragment of chlorate of 
 potash, saturation with ammonia should give no precipi- 
 tate (iron). It must not tarnish bright copper when boiled in 
 it (arsenic). It must not dissolve on boiling therewith tho 
 minutest speck of gokl-leaf {nitric and nitrous acids). For 
 most uses sulphurous acid is likely to be the most detrimental 
 impurity, and, unfortunately, is one of the most common. 
 
 In case of poisoning with muriatic acid, tho symptoms 
 of which are generally similar to tliosc of other corrosive 
 mineral acids, nnitfncsln, prepared ch<tlk, or even soap, may 
 be administered in large quantities us an immediate anti- 
 dote. H. WUUTZ. 
 
 (For the medicinal uses of hydrochloric acid sec Mineral 
 Acir>s. by Edward Curtis, M. D.) 
 
 Ilydrochflcr'idde [Gr. iiatup, "water," and x^'po?. 
 "hog"], a family of symplicidentate rodents distinguished 
 by the large size, the great oval anteorbital foramen, and 
 the structure of the four molar teeth (the posterior of whicli 
 is very much elongated, and transversely simply foldcrl, 
 while the others arc provided with transverse Y-shaped 
 folds), and especially by the union of the alveolar portion of 
 the maxillary bone with the squamosal about the level of 
 the condyle; tho clavicles are obsolete; the fibula and tibia 
 SL'parate from each other; and the nails are blunt and 
 somewhat hnof-like (whence they have been called sub- 
 ungulate); the hair is but little harsh. This family is es- 
 tablished for the reception of the capybara of South Ameri- 
 ca, which is by far the largest of living rodents. As indi- 
 cated by the name, it frequents the water, and its asjiect 
 st>mcwhat (but very slightly) resembles that of a hog. Un- 
 like other rodents, it has not a "squat" body, with limbs 
 much flexed, but it walks with its limbs extended from the 
 body at about the same angle as do the large quadrupeds. 
 
 Theodore Gill. 
 
 Ilydrocyan'ic Acid. Hydrocyanic acid is a most 
 deadly poison to both animals and plants. In the anhy- 
 drons state it is one of tho most active destroyers of life 
 known, a single drop put on the tongue killing a large dog 
 in a few seconds, and death being even caused by breathing 
 its fumes. Even the medicinal preparation, a dilute aqueous 
 solution containing 2 per cent, of the anhydrous acid, is a 
 tremendous poison, and must be used cautiously. In ex- 
 cessive dose the symptoms are merely those of the act of 
 death. The sufferer falls as if struck by lightning, all the 
 vital functions being apparently arrested simultaneously. 
 In less dose <Ieath ensues by failure of breathing after a 
 brief interval of from a few minutes to hnlf an hour of con- 
 vulsion or paralysis and collnpse. The nature of the poi- 
 sonous action is not yet thoroughly made out. There is no 
 chemical antidote, and in cases of poisoning by accident or 
 malice death is generally so speedy that all remedies are 
 too late. Ammonia, atrojiine by subcutaneous injection, 
 artificial respiration, and alternate dnshings of hot and 
 cold water on tho chest, are tho means that offer most hope. 
 Medicinally, tho dilute acid is useful to arrest nausea and 
 vomiting, nllay cough, and, locally applied, to relievo irri- 
 tati<ui and itching of the skin. Edward CfitTis. 
 
 Hydrodynamic Engines. See Hyduallic Engines, 
 
 by F, A. P. llAlJNAUD. 
 
 Ilydrodynam'ics [Gr. CSwp, "water," and Cwc^itKOf, 
 
 "power," from ^vfaaOax., to " be able'*], by most writers treats 
 of the laws governing the motion of fluids. Its applica- 
 tion, in what follows, is restricted to liquids, of which water 
 
 Fig. J. 
 
 is considered the representative. Water remains at rest only 
 when confined on all sides. In this condition the pressure 
 in any given direction, at any point in the liquid mass, is 
 balanced by an exactly equal jircssure in the opposite di- 
 rection. This equality of pre.-^surcs may be disturbed, in 
 water confined on all sides, by external forces acting inter- 
 mittently, as the wind acting upon the surface of large 
 bodies of water. This gives rise to oseiIhitor3' movements 
 called waves, but does not move any particle of water per- 
 manently away from its position of rest. Continued mo- 
 tion in any one direction takes [dace only when an open- 
 ing is made in the boundary ol the confining reservoir. 
 The liquid particles adjacent to the opening are no longer 
 sustained by the resistance of the boundary, and, yielding 
 to the pressure on the opposite Bide, are set in motion and 
 driven through the opening. Their displacement disturbs 
 the equilibrium of adjoining particles, and the movement 
 extends to all parts of the reservoir, being, if we suppose 
 the opening to be small as compared with the total bound- 
 ary of the reservoir, active in the vicinity of the opening 
 and slower in parts more remote. AVater thus moves when- 
 ever a way is opened by which its surface may reach a lower 
 level. Its velocity, other things being equal, is great or 
 small according as the descent of its surface during the 
 movement is great or small. This descent of the surface 
 is called the hend. 
 
 Velocity. — A heavy body falling freely, acquires velocity 
 at the rate of ;>L*.2 feet per second. This figure represents 
 the effect of gravity acting 
 without obstruction. A body 
 moving under a force greater 
 or less than its own weight 
 acquires a proportionally 
 greater or less velocity. The 
 velocity acquired in falling 
 through any given height is 
 found by multiplying the 
 height by twice this quantity 
 and extracting the square root 
 of the product. The velocity 
 acquired in falling 4 feet, for 
 instance, is the square root of 
 4 times 0-1.4, or IG.Ol feet per 
 second. In other words, Iti.Ol 
 feet per second is the velocity 
 due to a height of 4 feet. For 
 all ordinary purposes, it is sufficiently accurate to say that 
 the velocity is 8 times the square root of the height, and 
 
 the height is l-64th of 
 the square of the ve- 
 locity. The velocity im- 
 parted to water by a 
 given head is the same 
 as that acquired by a 
 heavy body in falling 
 through a height equal 
 to the head. A few words 
 of explanation are neces- 
 sary to avoid misappli- 
 cation of this term 
 " head." When water 
 issues from an orifice in 
 the vertical side of a ves- 
 sel, the head producing 
 the velocity with which 
 it leaves theorificc is the 
 height of the .surface of 
 water in the vessel above 
 the centre of the orifice. 
 If, after leaving the ori- 
 fice, it falls to a lower level C, tho head producing the 
 
 -^ 
 
 A 
 M... 
 
 H 
 
 \
 
 IIYDKODYNAMICS. 
 
 1051 
 
 velocity at such lower level is the height A C. When water 
 issues rroiQ an orifice under water, the head is the height 
 of the surt'aee in the discharging ahovc that in the receiving 
 basin. When water flows from one basin to another through 
 a long pipe, llje head producing the velocity in the pipe is 
 not the height of the surface in the discharging above that 
 in the receiving b.isin. The motion in this case is not free. 
 It is resisted, and a part of the head isexpended, not in pro- 
 ducing motiou, but in overcoming certain resistances. Let 
 Fig. 2 represent the entrance to the pipe. Sujiposo u small 
 vertical tube to be inserted in the pipe near its origin. The 
 head producing motion is the height at which the water in 
 the reservoir stands above that in the tul)e. The following 
 tabic gives the velocities due to heads up to 15 feet: 
 Table 1. 
 
 Hcul 
 
 Tclocit; 
 
 llrad 
 
 Velocity 
 
 Hntl 
 
 Velocity 
 
 Head 
 
 Velocity 
 
 In 
 
 Id fwt pcT 
 
 In 
 
 lu ftH-l per 
 
 In 
 
 IQ fivt per 
 
 ill 
 
 In rept per 
 
 (feci. 
 0.0 
 
 teconj. 
 
 tM. 
 
 weoDd. 
 
 rat. 
 
 •CCOQd. 
 
 feet. 
 
 second. 
 
 0.000 
 
 1.8 
 
 10.700 
 
 3.6 
 
 15.217 
 
 7.0 
 
 21.219 
 
 0.1 
 
 2.-536 
 
 1.9 
 
 11.055 
 
 3.7 
 
 15.427 
 
 7.5 
 
 21.904 
 
 0.2 
 
 3.587 
 
 2.0 
 
 11.342 
 
 3.8 
 
 15.634 
 
 8.0 
 
 22.085 
 
 0.3 
 
 4.393 
 
 2.1 
 
 11.622 
 
 3.9 
 
 15.839 
 
 8.5 
 
 23.383 
 
 0.4 
 
 5.072 
 
 2.2 
 
 11.896 
 
 4.0 
 
 16.040 
 
 9.0 
 
 24.01)1 
 
 0..') 
 
 S.671 
 
 2.3 
 
 12.163 
 
 4.1 
 
 16.240 
 
 9.5 
 
 21.720 
 
 O.f) 
 
 6.212 
 
 2.4 
 
 12.425 
 
 4.2 
 
 10.4:47 
 
 10.0 
 
 2.5.362 
 
 0.7 
 
 6.710 
 
 2.5 
 
 12.681 
 
 4.3 
 
 16.631 
 
 10.5 
 
 25.988 
 
 0.8 
 
 7.173 
 
 2.6 
 
 12.932 
 
 4.4 
 
 16.823 
 
 Il.O 
 
 26.i;no 
 
 0.9 
 
 7.609 
 
 2.7 
 
 13.179 
 
 4.5 
 
 17.013 
 
 11.5 
 
 27.193 
 
 1.0 
 
 8.020 
 
 2.8 
 
 13.420 
 
 4.6 
 
 17.201 
 
 12.0 
 
 27.783 
 
 1.1 
 
 8.412 
 
 2.9 
 
 13.658 
 
 4.7 
 
 17.387 
 
 12.5 
 
 2R.3.)6 
 
 1.2 
 
 8.786 
 
 3.0 
 
 13.891 
 
 4.8 
 
 17.571 
 
 13.0 
 
 28.917 
 
 1.3 
 
 9.144 
 
 ai 
 
 14.121 
 
 4.9 
 
 17.753 
 
 13.5 
 
 29.463 
 
 1.4 
 
 S.-190 
 
 3.2 
 
 14.347 
 
 5.0 
 
 17.931 
 
 14.0 
 
 30,009 
 
 1..1 
 
 9.S23 
 
 3.3 
 
 14..509 
 
 5.5 
 
 18.809 
 
 14.5 
 
 30.510 
 
 l.fi 
 
 10.14.5 
 
 3.4 
 
 11.789 
 
 6.0 
 
 19.615 
 
 lo.O 
 
 • 31.062 
 
 1.7 
 
 10.457 
 
 3.5 
 
 15.004 
 
 6.5 
 
 20.448 
 
 
 
 Ififftrantfc Heml. — It is shown in the article UvnitosTAT- 
 ics that the pressure per square inch at any point in a res- 
 ervoir of wati'r, when at rest, not counting the atmospheric 
 pressure, is equal to the weight of a column of water 1-iiich 
 square reaching vertically from the given point to the level 
 of the surface. This is not true of water in motion. The 
 head cannot exert its full static elTec-t of pressure and its 
 dynamic etfict of motion at tlie same time; any exertion 
 of one of these effects is accompanied by a corresponding 
 abatement of the other. Water moving with the full ve- 
 locity due the hydrostatic head is under no jiressure. The 
 diminution of pressure consequent upon the motion of water 
 is representi'tl by the head due the velocity. In Fig. 2, if 
 the velocity in the pipe 
 is \ feet per second, the 
 pressure upon the sides 
 of the pipe will be less 
 than that corresponding 
 to the height of the wa'er 
 in the reservoir by the 
 hca<l due the velocity of 
 4 feet per second — viz. 
 0.25 foot; t. r. the water 
 in the vertical tube will 
 stand 0.25 foot lower than 
 that in the reservoir. Let 
 water be flowing througli 
 a vessel of the form sliown 
 at Fig. 3, A H represent- 
 ing the surtax' Kuppos<d 
 to be maintained at an 
 invariable level. The 
 water will move fast in 
 the contracted and slow 
 in the expanded section. 
 In a tube r branching up- 
 ward from the widest part 
 the water will stand near- 
 ly as high as in the vessel; in the tube 
 lower. -H the narrowest part the 
 jtressurc may ho negative, or less 
 than that of the atmosphere, so 
 that water will enter tnc vessel 
 through a tube /'. brandling down- 
 war. I as indicated. 
 
 EJIiuSt in- the DtHrhftrfff nf Witfrr 
 
 from (frifircH, — An orifice, in its 
 simplest form, is an opening in the C 
 wall of a reservoir remote from 
 any other side, the wall being sup- 
 posed to have no s<'nsible thiek- 
 neas. This supjiositinn merely irn- i 
 
 plies, as in Fig. I, that the water 
 escapes as a jet. an<l does not 
 toucn the prolongation of the ori- 
 ficc after passing the plane A B. 
 
 (/, considerably 
 Fio, 4. 
 
 A 
 
 "A 
 
 Such an opening i« 
 
 called nn orifice in a thin plate, and when the term ori- 
 fice is used without qualification, this is usually understood. 
 C D is the axis of the orifice, A B the plane of the orifice. 
 Contract toil. — To compute the quantity of water dis- 
 charged from an orifice of known dimensions under a 
 known head would bo a very simple matter if the fluid 
 particles traversed the orifice in parallel directions and 
 without resistance. In that case the discharge would be 
 the product of the velocity due the head multiplied by the 
 area of the orifice. The fluid particles, however, approach 
 the orifice in converging tlirections, .sume in diametrically 
 opposite ones. Arrived at the plane of the orifice, they do 
 not instantly change their direction, hut still tend toward 
 the axis of the orifice. This produces what is called eon- 
 traction of the fluid-vein. At a distance from the plane 
 of the orifice equal to one-half its diameter the fluid par- 
 ticles assume parallel directions, and here the contraction 
 is greatest, the diameter of the stream being about eight- 
 tenths that of the orifice. The velocity in this section of 
 the stream is very nearly that due the head, falling short 
 of it, ordinarily, about 3 per cent. The ])roduct of the area 
 of the orifice by the velocity due the head is called the theo- 
 retical discharge. This term is used for lack id' a better, 
 though it implies what is not true. No rational theory in- 
 dicates this as the true discharge. The discharge from ori- 
 fices is always considerably less than this. It is found by 
 multiplying the theoretical discbarge by a certain fraction 
 called the coeftieicnt of efiUix. The coefticient of contrac- 
 tion is the fracti(tn Iiy which the area of the orifice must bo 
 multiplied to give the area of the most contracted section 
 of the stream : and the coeflicient of velocity is the fraction 
 by which the ^clocily due the head must be multiplied to 
 give the actual velocity in the most contraetcil section of 
 the stream. Very numerous and accurate experiments 
 have been made to determine these coefficients, particularly 
 the first. The most extended scries of experiments was 
 made in 1S28, under the auspices of the French govern- 
 ment by two of its military engineers, Poncelet and Les- 
 bros. It results from these experiments that the coefficient 
 of efflux is not constant for orifices in a thin plate, being 
 greater for small orifices and low velocities than for the 
 opposite conditions — that it is much greater for long, nar- 
 row orifices than for those with circular or nearly square 
 forms. For circular orifices Weisbach found the results 
 given in Table 2. 
 
 Table 2. 
 
 Diameter of orlQce, 
 reel. 
 
 Coefflclent of efflux Tor n bead of— 
 
 i.sesitet. 
 
 0.82 rcct. 
 
 0.032.8 
 O.O6.-16 
 0.0984 
 0.1312 
 
 0.628 
 0.021 
 0.014 
 0.607 
 
 0.637 
 0.6-19 
 0.622 
 0.614 
 
 It will be seen that the coefficient of efflux diminishes 
 slightly as the diameter of the orifice increases, and in- 
 creases as the head diminishes. 
 
 Table 3 gives values of the coefficient of efllux obtained 
 by Poncelet and Lesbros for rectangular orifices: 
 
 Table 3. 
 
 
 llcocfflolcntor ef- 
 
 
 Cocmclcnt of cmiix for an orlflce 0.656 feet wide, , llu,\ for nn orillco 
 
 
 Willi B helKlit of— 1 1.9T feet wide. 
 
 In 
 
 
 wlitiaiieiglit of— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o.eM 
 
 03J8 
 
 O.I6( 
 
 0098 
 
 0.066 
 
 0.033 
 
 ooto 
 
 0.066 
 
 
 feet. 
 
 feet. 
 
 feet. 
 
 feet. 
 
 feet. 
 
 feet. 
 
 feet. 
 
 tot. 
 
 0.033 
 
 
 
 0.007 
 
 0.030 
 
 0.600 
 
 0.701 
 
 
 0.644 
 
 0.060 
 
 0.572 
 
 0.596 
 
 0.015 
 
 0.034 
 
 o.6.'.n 
 
 0.691 
 
 
 0.643 
 
 0.161 
 
 0.58.-. 
 
 0.005 
 
 0.025 
 
 0.610 
 
 0.658 
 
 0.i;79 1 0..'i97 
 
 0.641 
 
 0.262 
 
 0.589 
 
 0.0 lU 
 
 0.029 
 
 0.638 
 
 O.050 
 
 0.070 O.OOI 
 
 0.640 
 
 0.32H 
 
 0.592 
 
 0.011 
 
 11.030 
 
 0.037 
 
 0.054 
 
 0.060 0.002 
 
 o.ao 
 
 0.820 
 
 0..599 
 
 0.616 
 
 0.0311 
 
 0.032 
 
 0.0)0 
 
 0.053 0.6110 
 
 0631 
 
 1.640 
 
 0.603 
 
 0.017 
 
 (I.IV.'8 
 
 0.030 
 
 0.610 
 
 0.011 
 
 0.007 
 
 o,o:!o 
 
 2.297 
 
 0.604 
 
 0.616 
 
 0.027 
 
 0.029 
 
 0.037 
 
 0.010 
 
 0.007 
 
 0.028 
 
 3.2R1 
 
 0.005 
 
 0.015 
 
 0.020 
 
 0.028 
 
 0.i;33 
 
 0.I13L' 
 
 00.-I 
 
 0.026 
 
 0.562 
 
 0.601 
 
 0.0117 
 
 0.1113 
 
 0.012 
 
 0.012 
 
 0.611 
 
 11.002 
 
 0.020 
 
 9.843 
 
 0.601 
 
 11.003 
 
 0.006 
 
 0.008 
 
 0.010 
 
 O.OOU 
 
 0.601 
 
 0.615 
 
 The head wns measured at a point in the reservoir where 
 the water was sensibly still. It wns measured from the 
 level of the upper edge of the orifice. 
 
 /iouttdril th-fficfH. — An orifice may be so rounded inter- 
 nally as to almost entirely obliterate the contraction; in 
 which case the coefficient of contraction becomes very 
 nearly equal to unity. The rounding shiMild he such as to 
 make the orifice conform in shape as nearly as jiossible to 
 the contrncted vein. Weisbauh found for a well-rounded 
 orifice about 0.4 inch in iliumeter (he following results : 
 
 I-'ora bend of. onr.tifi. i.r.i ft. U ■'■ ft. :.ti ft. 32H ft. 
 
 CloetlicUnt of etilux 0.'J5U 0.DG7 0.'J7."» O.'j'Jl 0.994
 
 1052 
 
 HYDKODYNAMICS. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to remark that the smallest sectioQ 
 of the opening is to bo regarded as the orifice. 
 
 To exemplir_y the use of these results, let the orifice at 
 Fig. bo square, 2 inches diameter ; let i ig. 5. 
 
 the head acting on the centre of the ori- 
 tice be ;i feet. The eoellicieiit of efflux 
 should be about 0.1'" ; area of the ori- 
 fice, 4 square inches = U. 028 square 
 foot ; velocity due head by Table 1, 
 n.S9 feel per pocond : theoretical di>- 
 rharge, 0.028 x 13.S9 = 0.:i89 ; actual 
 do. = 0.389 X 0.07 = 0..177 cubic foot 
 ]ier second. Vnr an orifice of the sanu- 
 size not rounded the coefficient, accord 
 ing to Table 3, should be 0.00, and th.- 
 discharge 0.389 x 0.60 = 0.233 cubiL- 
 fuot per second. The discharge is, there- 
 fore, increased Gl per cent, by rounding | 
 the orifice. 
 
 Difft-'f-vnt Degrees of Contraction. — 
 The more the direction of the water is changed in passing 
 the orifice, the smaller the coefficient of efflux. The greatest 
 Fig. 6. Fig. 7. 
 
 TabI/E 4. 
 
 Part of tlic I)cr!Inl^■ 
 ttr or tile iirilicc'Dti 
 which the conlruc- 
 tioQ is suppressed. 
 
 DiMihsrgc, R3 cum- 
 l.:ired Willi lli;a 
 from a simiJle ou- 
 nce uudcr the same 
 coaditioos. 
 
 0.1 
 0.2 
 0.3 
 0.4 
 0.5 
 O.G 
 0.7 
 
 1.01.5 
 1.031 
 1.045 
 1.052 
 1.077 
 
 i.ooa 
 
 1.108 
 
 change of direction undergone by any particle of water in 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 passing an orifice may 
 be as much as ISO de- 
 grees, and from that 
 down to nothing. In the 
 orifice Fig. it is 180 
 degrees; iu Fig. 7, be- 
 tween ISO and 90; in 
 Fig. 8, 90; in Fig. 9, less 
 than 'JO; and in Fig. 10, 
 nothing, this being a 
 rounded orifice involving no abrupt change in the direction 
 of the water. 
 
 Wcisbach gives the following as the result of his experi- 
 ments on this point : 
 
 Greatest eliaiifc nf direction- , »„ 
 
 IW^ 157^0 13i^ 1I2H^ W> 67^" «« 22M° "M^ 5«' (^ 
 
 Co. of cffl..0 5U 0.5« O.o7? O.GKl 0.632 0.681 0.7*1 0.882 OMii O.WJ 0.1«6 
 
 fnr 
 
 >m)] 
 
 Ictc Contraction. — An orifice may be so situated 
 
 with reference to the 
 sides of the reservoir that 
 the water cannot ap- 
 proach it from all direc- 
 tions. Thu^, in Fig. 11 
 the orifice tt can be ap- 
 proached from all sides 
 by the water; h can bo 
 approaehed on three 
 sides; c on two, and d 
 on one. The contraction 
 15 here said to be sup- 
 pressed on the sides from 
 which the approach of 
 the water is prevented. 
 tion i.s to give an increased 
 discharge, and also to in- 
 cline the direction of the 
 effluent stream toward the 
 sides on which the contrac- 
 tion is suppressed. In the 
 orifice Fig. 12 the tendency 
 which the water coming 
 from A, has, to approach 
 the axis, after passing the 
 orifice, is not balanced by a 
 similar tendency in thcop- 
 positedirection, and the re 
 
 Fig. n. 
 
 d 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 such an orifice, according to Weisbach, the axis C D of the 
 
 stream is inclined to E F, 
 the axis of the orifice, 
 about 9 degrees. Taljle 
 ■1 shows the eftect of sup- 
 pressed contraction, ac- 
 cording to Weisbach, up- 
 on the discharge. It ex- 
 plains itself. AVhen, f.r;., 
 the contraction is sup- 
 pres.«ed upon four-tenths 
 of the perimeter of the 
 orifice, the discharge is 
 fi per cent, greater than 
 from a simple orifice of 
 the same size and form, and under the same head. 
 
 Imperfect Contraction. — In wliat precedes, the orifice is 
 supposed to be small as compared witli the wall of the res- 
 ervoir in which it is placed. \Vhen. as in Fig. 13, the ori- 
 fice is but slightly less in area than the wall containing it, 
 the result is a diminished contraction, showing itself in an 
 increased discharge, and also in the apjjcarauce of the is- 
 suing stream, which is Fig. Vi. 
 opaque and troubled, , 
 while that from a sim- 
 ^ pie orifice is transpar- 
 ent. Table j shows tlie 
 effect of imperfect con- 
 traction, according to Weisbach. 
 
 This table requires no explanation. For an ori- 
 fice, c. <j.y thrce-tenlhs as large as the wall contain- 
 ing it, the discharge is per cent, greater for a 
 circular orifice. 7 per cent, for a rectangular one, 
 than for a simple orifice similarly circumstanced 
 as to size, form, and head, iu a wall of practically 
 unlimited extent. 
 
 Weirs. — This form of orifice is peculiarly adapt- 
 ed to the measurement of water, and has for that 
 reason been the subject of very numerous and 
 elaborate experiments, not only in the series un- 
 dertaken by Poncelet and Lcsbros. but also, upon 
 a larger scale an<l with every precaution necessary 
 to accuracy, by Francis of JIassachusetts. Table 
 is computed by him from the results of his experiments. It 
 
 Table 5. 
 
 
 Discharge as compared with thai Troin a 
 
 Area or the nriQco as 
 
 simple orifice under the same condilioDS. 
 
 COQipurcd with thatof 
 the side coDtaiDiog it. 
 
 
 Circular. 
 
 Rectaogular. 
 
 0.05 
 
 1.007 
 
 1.009 
 
 0.10 
 
 1.014 
 
 1.019 
 
 0.15 
 
 1.023 
 
 \sm 
 
 0.20 
 
 1.034 
 
 1.042 
 
 0.2S 
 
 1.045 
 
 1.056 
 
 0.30 
 
 1.059 
 
 1.071 
 
 0..iS 
 
 1.075 
 
 1.0R8 
 
 0.40 
 
 1.092 
 
 1.107 
 
 0.4S 
 
 1.112 
 
 1 128 
 
 0.50 
 
 1.134 
 
 1.152 
 
 0.55 
 
 1.161 
 
 1.178 
 
 0.60 
 
 1.189 
 
 1.208 
 
 0.65 
 
 1.223 
 
 1.241 
 
 0.70 
 
 1.260 
 
 1.278 
 
 0.75 
 
 1.303 
 
 1.319 
 
 0.80 
 
 1.351 
 
 I. SOS 
 
 0.85 
 
 1.408 
 
 1.416 
 
 0.90 
 
 1.471 
 
 1.473 
 
 0.95 
 
 1.546 
 
 1.537 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.631 
 
 1.031 
 
 Table 6. 
 
 The effect of 
 
 incomplete contrac- 
 Fio. 12. 
 
 w>-.^— ^ 
 
 a 
 
 Bult is an inclined direction of the effluent stream. In 
 
 
 nisoii. 
 
 Depth 
 
 nuch. 1 
 
 Depth 
 
 DIsch. 
 
 Depth DIseh. 
 
 Depth 
 
 Dlsoh. 
 
 In 
 
 
 In 
 
 eul>. ft. 
 
 In 
 
 cult. ft. 
 
 iu jcub. fl- 
 
 .'° 
 
 cuh. ft. 
 
 feci. 
 
 per sec. 
 0.105 
 
 feet. 
 0.10 
 
 per sec.l 
 0..^7 1 
 
 feet. 
 0.50 
 
 per sec. 
 1.177 
 
 feet per see. 
 
 
 pcrteo. 
 
 0.10 
 
 0.70 l.O.'.O 
 
 0.90 
 
 2.843 
 
 0.1 1 
 
 0.121 
 
 0.31 
 
 0.575 I 
 
 0.51 
 
 1.213 
 
 0.71 1 1.992 
 
 U.91 
 
 2.891 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.138 
 
 0.32 
 
 0.603 
 
 0.52 
 
 1.249 
 
 0.72 2.034 
 
 0.92 
 
 2.938 
 
 0.13 
 
 0.1.% 
 
 0.33 
 
 0.631 
 
 0.53 
 
 1.285 
 
 0.73 2.077 ' 
 
 0.93 
 
 2.9.96 
 
 0.14 
 
 0.174 
 
 0.34 
 
 0.660 
 
 0..i4 
 
 1.321 
 
 0.74 2.120 
 
 0.94 
 
 3.035 
 
 0.1.1 
 
 0.193 
 
 0.35 
 
 0.6S9 
 
 0.55 
 
 1.3.18 
 
 0.75 2.163 
 
 0.95 
 
 3.083 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.213 
 
 0.36 
 
 0.719 
 
 0.55 
 
 1.395 
 
 0.76 1 2.206 
 
 0.96 
 
 3.132 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.233 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.749 
 
 0..'i7 
 
 1.433 
 
 0.77 1 2.250 
 
 0.9; 
 
 3.181 
 
 0.1. S 
 
 0.254 
 
 0.38 
 
 0.7811 
 
 0.58 
 
 1.471 
 
 0.78 
 
 2.294 
 
 0.98 
 
 .3.231 
 
 0.1'J 
 
 0.276 
 
 0.39 
 
 0.811 
 
 fl..59 
 
 1.509 
 
 0.79 
 
 2.338 
 
 0.99 
 
 3.280 
 
 0.20 
 
 0.298 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.842 
 
 0.60 
 
 1.548 
 
 0.80 
 
 2.383 
 
 1.00 
 
 3.330 
 
 0.21 
 
 0.320 
 
 0.41 
 
 0.874 
 
 0.61 
 
 1..586 
 
 0.81 
 
 2.428 
 
 1.1 
 
 3.842 
 
 0.22 
 
 0.344 
 
 0.42 
 
 0.906 
 
 0.62 
 
 1.626 
 
 0.82 
 
 2.473 
 
 1.2 
 
 4..377 
 
 0.23 
 
 0.3C.7 
 
 0.43 
 
 0.939 
 
 0.63 
 
 1.665 
 
 0.83 
 
 2.518 
 
 1.3 
 
 4.936 
 
 0.24 
 
 0.391 
 
 0.44 
 
 0.972 
 
 0.64 
 
 1.705 
 
 0.84 
 
 2..564 
 
 1.4 
 
 6.516 
 
 0.2o 
 
 0.416 
 
 0.45 
 
 1.005 
 
 0.65 
 
 1.745 
 
 0.8.5 
 
 2.610 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.118 
 
 056 
 
 0.441 
 
 0.46 
 
 1.o:K) 
 
 0.66 
 
 1.78.5 
 
 0.80 
 
 2.656 
 
 1.6 
 
 6.739 
 
 0.27 
 
 0.467 
 
 047 
 
 1.073 
 
 0.67 
 
 1.826 
 
 0.87 
 
 2.702 
 
 1.7 
 
 7.381 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.493 
 
 0.48 
 
 1.107 
 
 0.68 
 
 1.867 
 
 0.88 
 
 2.749 
 
 1.8 
 
 8.042 
 
 0.29 
 
 0.520 
 
 0.49 
 
 1.142 
 
 0.69 
 
 1.909 
 
 0.89 
 
 2.796 
 
 1.9 
 2.0 
 
 8.721 1 
 9.419 1
 
 HYDRODYNAMICS. 
 
 1053 
 
 rio. 14. 
 
 gives the discbarge for different depth?, from a weir ono 
 foot in horizontal length. The depth is reckoned from the 
 level of the crest of the weir, and is taken at a point a little 
 up-stream or asirle. beyond the curve of the surface conse- 
 quent upon the discharjje. To correct the results for the 
 cfTi-ct of eon(rao(ioD nt the ends of the weir, the length is 
 to be diminished by one-tenth 
 of the depth for each end- 
 contraotion. If an end of Ibu 
 weir coincide with a vertical 
 wall of the canal or reser- 
 voir, the contraction at that 
 end is annulled. Fig. 11 
 shows the form of the hori- 
 zontal crest and vertical sidrs 
 or ends of the weir for which 
 this table is computed. The 
 computation by Mr. Francis's 
 
 ~\ 
 
 =^,:;i 
 
 formula is uncertain for depths less than 0.1 foot. A weir 
 for measuring water should always bo short enough to give 
 a greater depth than this. 
 
 To find, r. r/., the discharge from a weir with two end-con- 
 tractions with a depth of O.S:J foot, the length of tho weir 
 being 20 feet; length to be used in calculation, 20 — 2 X 
 0.8;ixO.l = iy.S34: discharge for ono foot in length, 2.51 S 
 cubic feet per second; total discharge = lU. 831 X 2.518 = 
 49.9-12 cubic feet per second. In the above table it is as- 
 sumed that the opening of the weir is inconsiderable, com- 
 pared with the cross-section of the channel through which 
 the water approaches it. Where this is not the case, the 
 water pa.-ses the weir with a velocity greater than that 
 generated by tho head, as measured at the weir, and tho 
 iliscliarge is consequently greater than indicated above. 
 The correction for this source of inaccuracy is made by tho 
 aid of Tablo 7, given by Weisbach. In the above example 
 let the section of the weir-stream be four-tenths that of the 
 approaching stream ; tho discharge, according to Weisbach's 
 table, will be 49.942 x 1-044 = 52. n9 cubic feet per second. 
 
 Table 7. 
 
 Section of »elr-itr«iiin 
 
 ni»chargc ai compared with tbat given ia 
 Tabic 6. 
 
 ..comparM nidi Ihat 
 
 
 
 
 which the wiitiT ap- 
 
 For a wotr witli end. 
 
 For a weir without 
 
 proujhc tba wclr. 
 
 contraetlooi. 
 
 cnd-contractiouH. 
 
 0.05 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.042 
 
 0.10 
 
 1. 000 
 
 1.04.5 
 
 0.1.) 
 
 1.001 
 
 1.049 
 
 0.20 
 
 1.0{« 
 
 1.056 
 
 O.iS 
 
 1.007 
 
 1.0G4 
 
 0.30 
 
 1.014 
 
 1.074 
 
 O.M 
 
 1.026 
 
 1.086 
 
 o.to 
 
 1.014 
 
 1.100 
 
 0.1.1 
 
 1.070 
 
 1.116 
 
 0.50 
 
 1.107 
 
 l.l:t3 
 
 Short Tabr9. — If wo apply a short tube externally to an 
 orifice, the conditions of the discharge are entirely changed. 
 From the simple orifice the issuing stream is contracted 
 and transparent; from tho tube it is uucontracted and 
 troubled. The velocity of tho stream is diminished, but 
 its cross-section is increased. A very raaterinl increase 
 takes place in tho quantity of water discharged. Tho tube 
 must have a length of 2^ or II times the diameter of tho 
 orifice, otherwise tho stream, when the head is consider- 
 able, is liable to issue without tourbiiig the lube, in which 
 case (he latter has no infiumrc tipori the discharge. Under 
 heads of from '.\ to 20 fret the coefiicient of efflux through 
 a short tube \\ to .3 inches diameter is about 0.815. It in- 
 creases somewhat if the size of the tube is increased or tho 
 head is diminished, being, in some cases, as much as O.8.05. 
 It is sufficiently correct for most purposes to say that the 
 discharge from an orifice in a thin plate is increased one- 
 third by the addition of a short tube. 
 
 I{t'ni»t finer to the Motion of Watrr. — Though Water moves 
 under tho acti<tn of tho slightest force, it? movement is al- 
 ways accompanied by a certain resistance, analogous to 
 that which solid bodies experience in sliding or moving 
 one upon another. There is this difference, however, be- 
 tween the friction of solids an<l that of fluids: the former 
 is the same whether the movement is rapid or slow; tho 
 latter iuerea'^cs with the velocity. A car, r. fj., runs down 
 a track of uniform grade. It moves because the force of 
 gravity exceoils tho resisting force of friction. This excess 
 takes effect in increasing the vdncity, an<i does not diminish 
 ns the velocity increases. The longer the car continues in 
 motion, the faster it moves. Thin, at least, would be the 
 case if it dirl not encounter a fluid resistance— that, namely, 
 of the air. When, on the contrary, water flows down an in- 
 clinnl channel or through an inclined pipe, or, what is tho 
 same thing, tlirough a horizontal pipe under the action of 
 a head, tho re-iisfuiKO incr<:is"S as the vrloritv ini*r"iis's. 
 
 Uniform velocity always establishes itself at such a rate ns 
 to make the resistance equal to the moving force. The head 
 or force of gravity is entirely expended in overcoming tho 
 resistance to tho water's motion. 
 
 M<itiou of Wnter in Lonij Pijjca. — The head expended in 
 overcoming the resistance to motion in long pipes is called 
 "frietional head,*' and sometimes ** lost head " or " loss of 
 bead." It is directly proportional to the length of the pipe, 
 and nearly, though not exactly, proportional to the square 
 of the velocity. It is less, cutcria paribus, for a large pipe 
 than for a small one, and depends grcatl)' upon the nature 
 of its internal surface, being much greater for rough than 
 for smooth surfaces. Table S, computed from the results 
 of experiments made by Henry Darcy at the expense of the 
 French government, serves for any calculations ordinarily 
 required as to the motion of water in pipes. The formula 
 is /i /— b V-, in which H is the radius of the pipe in feet; 
 /, the loss of head in feet per linear foot of pipe; r, the ve- 
 locity in feet per second; 6 is a number varying with tho 
 size of the pipe. It is given in the third column. If the 
 loss of head per foot is required, the velocity and size of 
 
 the pipe being known, /= — -. /is found by multiplying 
 
 the quantity in the fourth column by the square of the ve- 
 locity. If we desire to find the velocity corresponding to 
 a given loss of head per foot, we must multiply the square 
 root of the given loss of head by the quantity in the fifth 
 column. 
 
 Table 8. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 Diameter 
 
 of pi|ic, 
 
 feet. 
 
 Radius, 
 tect. 
 
 h. 
 
 It 
 
 VI 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.0004780 
 
 0,023900 
 
 G.4C646 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.U4 
 
 0.0003163 
 
 0.007908 
 
 11.24520 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.0002623 
 
 0.0O4372 
 
 15.1238 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.0002354 
 
 0.002942 
 
 18.4365 
 
 0.20 
 
 O.IO 
 
 0.0002192 
 
 0.002192 
 
 21..3589 
 
 0.24 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.00020S5 
 
 0.001737 
 
 23.9939 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.14 
 
 0.0002007 
 
 0.001434 
 
 26.4074 
 
 o.a2 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.00U1949 
 
 0.001218 
 
 28.6534 
 
 0.36 
 
 0.1. t 
 
 0,0001904 
 
 0.001058 
 
 30.7138 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.20 
 
 O.000IS69 
 
 0.000934 
 
 32.7210 
 
 0.44 
 
 0.22 
 
 0.0001339 
 
 0.000836 
 
 3-I..5857 
 
 0.48 
 
 0.24 
 
 0.0001K15 
 
 0.000756 
 
 36.3696 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.26 
 
 0.0001794 
 
 0.000690 
 
 38.0093 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.O0OI776 
 
 0.0006.34 
 
 39.7151 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.30 
 
 0.00U1761 
 
 0.000587 
 
 41.2744 
 
 0.64 
 
 0.32 
 
 0.0001747 
 
 0.000546 
 
 42.7900 
 
 0.68 
 
 0.34 
 
 0.00017:ri 
 
 0.000510 
 
 44.2,';08 
 
 0.72 
 
 0,36 
 
 0.0001725 
 
 0.000479 
 
 45.6912 
 
 0.76 
 
 0.38 
 
 0.0001715 
 
 0.000451 
 
 47.0882 
 
 0.80 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.0001707 
 
 0.000427 
 
 4S.,3934 
 
 0.84 
 
 0.42 
 
 0.0001699 
 
 0.000405 
 
 49.0904 
 
 0.88 
 
 0.44 
 
 0.0001G92 
 
 0.000385 
 
 60.9647 
 
 0.92 
 
 0.46 
 
 0.00016,S6 
 
 0.000367 
 
 62.199C 
 
 0.96 
 
 0.48 
 
 O.OOOlliSO 
 
 0.000350 
 
 63.4522 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.0001074 
 
 0.000335 
 
 64.6358 
 
 1.04 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.0001009 
 
 0.000321 
 
 55.816 
 
 1.08 
 
 0.54 
 
 0.0001665 
 
 0.000308 
 
 66,980 
 
 1.12 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.0001061 
 
 0.000297 
 
 68.020 
 
 1.16 
 
 0.58 
 
 0.0001657 
 
 0.0002,% 
 
 69.131 
 
 1.20 
 
 0,60 
 
 0.U001653 
 
 0.000275 
 
 60,302 
 
 1.24 
 
 0.62 
 
 0.0001649 
 
 0.000266 
 
 61.314 
 
 1.28 
 
 0.04 
 
 O.OOOIOIC 
 
 0.000257 
 
 C2.378 
 
 1.32 
 
 0.66 
 
 0.0001643 
 
 0.000249 
 
 03.372 
 
 1.36 
 
 0,tW 
 
 0.00011140 
 
 0.000241 
 
 64.4IG 
 
 1.40 
 
 0,70 
 
 0.0001637 
 
 0.000234 
 
 6,5.372 
 
 1.44 
 
 0.72 
 
 0.0001(i35 
 
 0.000227 
 
 60.372 
 
 1.48 
 
 0.74 
 
 0.0001032 
 
 0.000221 
 
 67.267 
 
 1.50 
 
 0.75 
 
 0.0001631 
 
 0.000217 
 
 67.S,S4 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.80 
 
 0.(H)01620 
 
 0.000203 
 
 70.186 
 
 1.70 
 
 0.85 
 
 0.0001621 
 
 0.000191 
 
 "2..'«7 
 
 1.80 
 
 0.90 
 
 0.0<1»I617 
 
 O.OOOIKO 
 
 74.636 
 
 1.90 
 
 0.95 
 
 0.0OOI6I3 
 
 0.000170 
 
 76.696 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.0001610 
 
 0.000161 
 
 78.811 
 
 2.10 
 
 1.05 
 
 0.0001007 
 
 0.0001.53 
 
 80.845 
 
 2.20 
 
 1.10 
 
 0.0001604 
 
 0.O0OI46 
 
 82.761 
 
 2.30 
 
 1.15 
 
 0.11001601 
 
 0.000139 
 
 84819 
 
 2.40 
 
 1.20 
 
 0.0001599 
 
 0.0001.33 
 
 86.711 
 
 2.50 
 
 1.25 
 
 0.0001597 
 
 O00012S 
 
 88.388 
 
 2.00 
 
 1,30 
 
 0.00Ol.'.95 
 
 0.000123 
 
 90.107 
 
 2.70 
 
 1.35 
 
 o.oooi.v.!;) 
 
 0.0001 IS 
 
 92.0,57 
 
 2.80 
 
 1.10 
 
 0.0O01.>91 
 
 0.000114 
 
 93.059 
 
 2.90 
 
 1,15 
 
 0.0001,590 
 
 0.000110 
 
 95,346 
 
 3.00 
 
 1,50 
 
 0,0001,588 
 
 0.000106 
 
 97.129 
 
 This tabic npplics to now riist-iron pipes. For pipes conloi 
 internally witli )>itun)eii or pitch tlio hiss of liead will ho 
 about two-tiiirils ns iiiiirh. and for uncoateti pipes, long in 
 use. twice as imnOi, iis imlicated b.v tiiis table. 
 
 Kxftmplr. — Wliat is the loss of IieaJ in a new ca.'^t-iron 
 pipe 1 foot in ilinnictcr, .'iOOO feet long, convoying 1 cuhio 
 foot >A water per second — cross-section of pipe, 0.7854 foot : 
 
 1 
 velocity, r-"^ = 1-273 feet per second ? /= los.s of head 
 
 per foot of pipe 
 
 
 »■■'= 0.000,1.35 X 1.273 X 1.273 
 
 0.000543. Total loss - 3000 y 0.000313 = 1.C29 feet. What
 
 1054 
 
 HYI)i:(>l>YXAMICS. 
 
 quantity of water would this pipe deliver with a loss of head 
 of 10 feet? / = 3J85.V7= 0.05773, » = 54.6358 X 0.0577:) 
 = 3.154. Quantity, 0.7854x3.154 = 2.477 cubic feet per 
 second. 
 
 Jctf. When water issues vertically up\7ard from an ori- 
 fice in a vessel under pressure, it would rise to a height 
 correspondiug to the pressure, if it encountered no resist- 
 ance from the air or in passing tlirough tlic orifice. Tho 
 last-named resistance, however, prevents the velocity from 
 being quite equal to that due the pressure, and tho first 
 prevents the stream from rising to the height due the ve- 
 locity. When the velocity of issue is from 3 to 20 feet, the 
 height of the jet is subslaiitially that due the velocity. For 
 higher velocities the resistance of the air has a greater in- 
 fluence. A contracted stream rises higher than an uneon- 
 tracted one of the same size and issuing under the same 
 pressure, tho ccuitracted stream having the greater initial 
 velocity. But an uncoutr.actrd stream will rise higher than 
 a contracted one of Ihe same initial velocity, as the latter 
 presents swells and bulges which increase the resistance of 
 tho air. Other things being equal, a thick stream rises 
 higher than a thin one. An orifice well rounded internally, 
 and provided externally with a conical converging tube, is 
 most favorable for a great height of jet. Table 9 gives, 
 upon the authority of Weisbach, the height of jet for dif- 
 ferent velocities and different forms of orifice : 
 
 Table 9. 
 
 No. of 
 
 orifice. 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 
 Height of jcl, the head due the velocity bcios— 
 
 10 feet. 
 
 a.fil 
 9.71 
 0.48 
 9.C,9 
 
 !0 feel. 
 
 30 fct. 
 
 40 feet. 
 
 50 feet. 60 feet. 70 feet. 
 
 1S.31 
 18.74 
 1S.53 
 19.08 
 
 25.93 
 23.7.i 
 23.77 
 28.02 
 
 32.58 
 33.77 
 33.97 
 3G.39 
 
 3S.12 42.76 45.99 
 39.72 1 41.63 4S.23 
 39.93 1 44.79 48.47 
 44.09 1 51.08 57.31 
 
 No. 1 was a circular orifice in a thin plate 0.4 inch diam- 
 eter ; No. 2 was a circular orifice 0. jB inch diameter ; No. 3 
 was a circular converging tube 5.9 inches long, I.IS inches 
 diameter at the inner end, n. 39 at the outer end; No. 4 was 
 a shorter tube with an e.-cternal orifice of 0.56 inch diameter. 
 Expandlmi Submerged Tubes. — When water flows through 
 an expanding tube AC ( Fig. 15), discharging under water, 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 alter passing the nar- 
 rowest part of tho tube 
 it moves with a con- 
 tinually iliiu in ish in g ve- 
 locity. Now, as a cer- 
 tain force nuist be ex- 
 erted upon water to ac- 
 celerate its nuition, a 
 certain force is exerted 
 by water when its mo- 
 tion is retarded. This 
 farce is here employed 
 iu diminishing the 
 pressure opposcil to the 
 movement of the water 
 — viz. that due to the subnicrgeuce of the tube, and the at- 
 mosphere. The result is a virtual increase of the head. 
 The velocity in this case may be greatly in excess of that 
 due the diff'crcnee of level between the discharging and re- 
 ceiving basins. Mr. Francis has made very careful and ac- 
 curate experiments upon this subject. Ho employed a tube 
 of the form shown at Fig. 15, diverging at an angle of 5 
 dcrecs. It was made in five parts, .\, IS, C, D. E, each one 
 foot in length. The mouthpiece A was 1.37 feet diameter 
 at tho inner end, rounded by a cycloidal curve to a diam- 
 eter of O.I foot at the outer end. The sections B, C, I), 
 Table 10. 
 
 ■'y^-y-^-'y-^ ' :<^^^'f^^ 
 
 
 Head or dl fference of level 
 
 Velocitr at the smallest 
 
 Parts of the tube iD use. 
 
 between the two bosloa, 
 
 section ns compared with 
 
 
 tcct. 
 
 that duo tho head. 
 
 A 
 
 0.0339 
 
 0.815 
 
 
 0.230 
 
 0.863 
 
 
 0.938 
 
 0.928 
 
 
 1.514 
 
 0.911 
 
 A B 
 
 0.020 
 0.100 
 
 1.151 
 
 
 1.S96 
 
 
 0.8.54 
 
 1..592 
 
 
 1.470 
 
 1.575 
 
 A B C 
 
 0.014 
 0.002 
 
 1.418 
 
 
 1.7S4 
 
 
 1.100 
 
 2.104 
 
 
 1.312 
 
 2.123 
 
 A, B, C, D 
 
 0.014 
 
 I.3S5 
 
 
 0.0.59 
 
 1.817 
 
 
 1.177 
 
 2.431 
 
 
 1.361 
 
 2.427 
 
 
 0.014 
 0.057 
 
 1.438 
 
 
 1.R7G 
 
 
 1.282 
 
 2.421 
 
 
 1.408 
 
 2.267 
 
 E, were respectively 0.145, 0.234, 0.321, 0.40S foot in di- 
 ameter at the outer ends. Table 10 is a summary of his 
 results. The principles of the flow of water tlinuigh di- 
 verging tubes find a useful npplicatiuu in the difl'user, an 
 appendage applied to Ihe turbine water-wheel by .Mr. Hoy- 
 den. The tvaler is discharged from tho wheel through an 
 expjinding passage, and the momentum which would other- 
 wise bo wasted is employed in increasing the velocity and 
 consequent effectiveness of the water jiassing the wheel. 
 
 Yar'unia llcsiiitnnceii to the Motion of It'ii(er. — Every ab- 
 rupt change of velocity or direction in the motion of water 
 is accompanied by a loss of head. 
 "■ ■ manifesting itself in pipes by a di- 
 
 minished pressure, and in channels 
 by a depression <d' the surface, after 
 passing the point of such change. 
 An abrupt change of velocity results 
 from an enlargement of the pipe 
 (Fig. 16). In this casethe head lost 
 is that due the change of velocily. 
 Thus, if the pipe IS have a diameter 
 3 times that of A, the velocity in A 
 
 ij^_|fSs|S=^ being 6 foot per second, the velocity 
 F=i3i?SS==ii will be I = 5 foot per second in B. 
 ^ <ii:££=^ The change of velocity is 6 - 0.67 = 
 
 A 
 
 .Xs 
 
 5.33 feet per second. The 
 due this velocity is 0.442 foot. 
 
 head 
 This 
 
 is the loss of head. If two small pipes a and h, reaching 
 Indefinitely upward, are inserted one in A and one in B, 
 the water in '< will stand 0.442 
 ' '°- "• foot lower than in n. This 
 
 -A loss of head may be avoided 
 
 g by making the enlargement 
 
 r=:= gradual. At the entrance to 
 a pipe from a reservoir or 
 from a larger ]iipe a loss of 
 - head takes place. If the 
 water enters through an ori- 
 fice smaller than the pipe B, 
 this loss may be very great. Table 11 is given by Weis- 
 bach as tho result of his experiments on this point. When, 
 c. g., the area of the orifice is one-half that of the pipe, the 
 head lost is 5.256 times that due the velocity. 
 
 Table II. Table 12. 
 
 Area of the 
 
 Loss of head, 
 
 
 as compared 
 
 compared 
 
 with that due 
 
 with that 
 
 the velocity iu 
 
 of the pipe. 
 
 the pipe. 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.480 
 
 0.9 
 
 • 0.734 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.109 
 
 0.7 
 
 l.STli 
 
 O.G 
 
 3.077 
 
 0.5 
 
 5.256 
 
 0.4 
 
 9.612 
 
 0.3 
 
 19.78 
 
 0.2 
 
 50.99 
 
 0.1 
 
 231.7 
 
 Angle of de- 
 viation, de- 
 grees. 
 
 Loss of head, 
 as compared 
 wl'h that due 
 the vetocity. 
 
 20 
 40 
 GO 
 80 
 90 
 100 
 110 
 120 
 130 
 140 
 
 0.046 
 0.139 
 
 0.3ii4 
 0740 
 0.984 
 1.260 
 1..5.^6 
 I.S61 
 2.1.58 
 2.431 
 
 Elbows or Atiijlcs in pipes occasion a loss of head depend- 
 ing upon the amount of deviation from a straight line. Ta- 
 ble 12 is given by Weisbach for a pipe a little less than IJ 
 inches in diameter. The loss of head is considerably greater 
 for smaller pipes. For a pipe 0.4 inch diameter, deviating 
 90 degrees, it was 1.536 times that duo the velocity. 
 
 Bends in pipes occasion a considerable loss of head, 
 though materially less than occurs with elbows. This loss 
 is found to depend upon the proporlinn which the semi- 
 diameter of the pipe bears to the radius uf Ihe bend. Table 
 13, given bv Weisbach. ap])lies to this case, the bends being 
 full quadrants, or what are called quarter turns: 
 
 Table 13. 
 
 
 Loss of bead, as compared with that due the 
 
 Semi-diameter of pipe. 
 
 velocity. 
 
 as compared with 
 radius of curve. 
 
 
 Recungular pipe. 
 
 Circular pipe. 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.124 
 
 0.131 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.135 
 
 0.138 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.1 SO 
 
 0.1.58 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.2,50 
 
 206 
 
 0.0 
 
 o.:»s 
 
 0.294 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.643 
 
 0.440 
 
 0.7 
 
 1.015 
 
 0.661 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.546 
 
 0.977 
 
 0.9 
 
 2.271 
 
 1.408 
 
 1.0 
 
 3.228 
 
 1.978 
 
 Resistance of Valves and Cocks.— A knowledge of the re- 
 sistance occasioned by the various contrivances for control- 
 ling the ftow of water in pipes is of great importanee. Tho 
 several tvpes of these contrivances are indicated by Figs.
 
 HYDROFLUORIC ACID. 
 
 1055 
 
 18 to 22. For largo pipes a. sliding gate (Fig. 18) is used. 
 It is niiscd into a chamber by a screw working through a 
 stuffing-box. Wlicn partly closed, it leaves a crescent- 
 shaped opening in circular pi|>cs, and a rectangular ono in 
 rectangular pipes. Fig. ID is a cock consisting of a cyliu- 
 
 FiG. 19. 
 
 Fig 18. 
 
 surface would not be nffectcd by the operation, and opening 
 an orifice in the vessel's bottom. It' the vessel Is of uniform 
 horizontal section, and the urilicc is of the same size in each 
 case, and the same form with reference to inward as to out- 
 ward flow, it would bo filled to tho level of the external 
 water in the same time that it would 
 require to empty itself when so filled 
 if suddenly raised clear of the water. 
 If the coefficient of cfllux were con- 
 stant, this time would be twice that 
 required to discharge the same quan- 
 tity of water through the saino ori- 
 
 drical or conical plug pierced with a rectangular opening. 
 It closes tho passage by turning about its centre. Fig. 20 
 is a throttle-valve, Fig. 21 a puppet-valve, and Fig. 22 a 
 clack-valve. Prof. Wcisbach gives the following results for 
 these different forms of valves: 
 
 Table 14. 
 
 SUUineymvci (Fig. 18). 
 
 Cocki (Fig. 19). 
 
 Cylindrical pipes. 
 
 RcctaDBular plp«>. 
 
 CyllDdHcal pipes. 
 
 Rectangular pipes. 
 
 Aroaof 
 
 Ill-ad loft. 
 
 Area of 
 
 Head lost, 
 
 Area of 
 
 Head lost, 
 
 Area of 
 
 Head lost. 
 
 opon'K, 
 
 an cofu- 
 
 .i|«:ti'g, 
 
 a* com- 
 
 opcn-g. 
 
 as com- 
 
 open's. 
 
 as com- 
 
 M com- 
 
 
 as com- 
 
 pared 
 
 as com- 
 
 pared 
 
 as com- 
 
 pared 
 
 pared 
 
 wlth that 
 
 pared 
 
 witii ttiat 
 
 pared 
 
 nltti ttiat 
 
 pared 
 
 Willi tliat 
 
 >Ull 
 
 duo tho 
 
 Willi 
 
 duo tlio 
 
 Witll 
 
 due tlic 
 
 with 
 
 duo the 
 
 Mx-tloa 
 
 vctocltylD 
 
 ■ PClioQ 
 
 vclocllyfn 
 
 section 
 
 velocity In 
 
 section 
 
 vclocityin 
 
 of pipv. 
 
 tbo pipe. 
 
 Of pipe. 
 
 tiio pi[>C. 
 
 of pipe. 
 
 the pipe. 
 
 of pipe. 
 
 the pipe. 
 
 1.000 
 
 n.noo 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.00 
 
 0-926 
 
 0.0.1 
 
 0.926 
 
 0.0.5 
 
 <J.9<S 
 
 0.07 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.S--.0 
 
 0.29 
 
 0.6-19 
 
 0.31 
 
 0.8.56 
 
 0.26 
 
 8 
 
 0..i9 
 
 0.772 
 
 0.7.5 
 
 0-709 
 
 0.88 
 
 (1.740 
 
 0.81 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.9.-. 
 
 0.C92 
 
 l..'ili 
 
 0.6S7 
 
 1.84 
 
 0.009 
 
 2.06 
 
 0.6 
 
 2.08 
 
 0.GI3 
 
 3.10 
 
 0.001 
 
 3.45 
 
 o.icr. 
 
 S.-W 
 
 0..') 
 
 4.02 
 
 o.ry.is 
 
 .V47 
 
 0..520 
 
 0.1.5 
 
 0.::15 
 
 17.00 
 
 0.4 
 
 8.12 
 
 0.4-18 
 
 9.08 
 
 0.436 
 
 11.2 
 
 0.159 
 
 97.8 
 
 0.3 
 
 17.8 
 
 o.:;s.i 
 
 17.3 
 
 0.3,';2 
 
 20.7 
 
 
 
 (1.2 
 
 41.5 
 
 o.:ii.i 
 
 31.2 
 
 0.2159 
 
 41.0 
 
 
 
 0.1 
 
 19:i.0 
 
 o.2.-,o 
 
 52.G 
 
 0.188 
 
 9.5.3 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.190 
 
 105. 
 
 0.110 
 
 273.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.1.)7 
 
 206. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.091 
 
 486. 
 
 
 
 T.MILE 15. 
 
 Tlirettic-valTM (Flj. 20), 
 
 Puppct-valvci 
 (Fig. -.11). 
 
 Ciacit-vnlvcs 
 (Fig- Tl,. 
 
 Area of 
 openlnn as 
 compared 
 
 Head io^l, as com. 
 
 parL-<i with that due 
 
 the velocity. 
 
 Area of 
 opcng. 
 
 Head lost, 
 etc. 
 
 Anglo of 
 
 opening, 
 
 Head lost, 
 
 with section 
 
 (Cylindri- 
 
 Kectang- 
 
 
 
 degrees. 
 
 
 of pipe. 
 
 cal pipe. 
 
 ular pipe. 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.913 
 
 0.2.J 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.69 
 
 1.5. 
 
 90. 
 
 0.826 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.4.5 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.10 
 
 20. 
 
 02. 
 
 0.741 
 
 0.90 
 
 0.77 
 
 0.7 
 
 1.82 
 
 25. 
 
 42. 
 
 0,0.-,8 
 
 1..54 
 
 1.34 
 
 0.0 
 
 3.03 
 
 30. 
 
 30. 
 
 0..577 
 
 2..51 
 
 2.16 
 
 0.5 
 
 5.24 
 
 3.5. 
 
 20. 
 
 0..500 
 
 3.91 
 
 3..'i4 
 
 0.4 
 
 9.67 
 
 40. 
 
 M. 
 
 0.426 
 
 6.22 
 
 5.70 
 
 0.3 
 
 20.0 
 
 45. 
 
 9..5 
 
 0.3.57 
 
 10.8 
 
 9.27 
 
 0.2 
 
 .52.0 
 
 .50. 
 
 6.6 
 
 0.293 
 
 18.7 
 
 1.5.07 
 
 0.1 
 
 239.0 
 
 55. 
 
 4.6 
 
 0.2*1 
 
 32.6 
 
 24.9 
 
 
 
 60. 
 
 3.2 
 
 0.181 
 
 .58.8 
 
 42.7 
 
 
 
 a5. 
 
 2.3 
 
 0.134 
 
 11.8.0 
 
 77.4 
 
 
 
 70. 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.094 
 
 2.->i5.0 
 
 IM. 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.030 
 
 751.0 
 
 368. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Efflux uuder Varinhle Pre^mire. — When a vessel ( Fig, 2'i) 
 cmjities itself through an orifice in its bottom, tho head, and 
 consequently the rapidity of the flow, diniini.'^lies as tho sur- 
 face falls. The same thing occurs when a vessel is filled 
 through an oriliee in its bottom, as, for instance, by sinking 
 it to a certain dentli in a body of water so large that its 
 
 fice under a constant head equal to 
 that acting at the commencement of 
 the flow ; or, in other words, to twice 
 the time required to discharge an equal 
 quantity of water at the initial rate. 
 Tho slight increase of the coefficient 
 of cffiux as the head diminishes modi- 
 fies this and the following statements 
 slightly, but not materially. For a 
 vessel larger or smaller at the toji than 
 at the bottom, the above proportion would not hold good, 
 neither would the time of emptying Ije equal to that of fill- 
 ing. A vessel larger at the top than the bottom requires 
 less time to empty and more to fill than one of uniform 
 horizontal section, and vice vcrnd. Such a vessel will empty 
 with its small end uppermost in the ,«ame lime that it will 
 fill in a reversed position, and \-icc vcrtid, the orifice and 
 initial head being tho same in both cases; the orifice being 
 in the face or extremity which forms the botlom for tho 
 time being. . A wedge-shaped vessel (Tig. 24) will empty 
 itself with its vertex uppermost in 25 
 times the time required to discharge 
 an equal quantily at the initial rale of 
 flow. In a rever.'^cd ]iositiou it will 
 empty itself in \\ times the time re- 
 quired to discharge an equal quan- 
 tity at the initial rate. A vessel liav- 
 ing the form of a pyramid or cone 
 will empty itself with its vertex upward in V,^, witli its 
 base upward in 1^ times tho time required to discharge an 
 equal quantity at the initial rate. 
 
 The commonest form of vessel for holding water is a 
 conical or pyramidal frustum. The contents of such a 
 vessel are separable into three parts: (1) a prism or cylin- 
 der; (2) a wedgo; {'.I) a pyramid. This will rearlily appear, 
 as regards a pyramidal fVuslum. from an inspection of Fig. 
 25. This is separable into — (1 ) a prism or parallelopipedonj 
 
 Fig. -24. 
 
 Fio. 25. 
 
 (2 ) two wedges, 
 whieh may be con- 
 sidered as ono; {'.\) 
 a pyramid. A con- 
 ical frustum or tub 
 contains apjiroxi- 
 niately — (I) a cy- 
 linder whoso base 
 is the small end ; 
 (2) a wedge whoso 
 base has a length 
 equal to tlio cir- 
 cumferenco of tho small end, and a breadth equal to tho ex- 
 cess of tho radius of tho large end over that of thi' small 
 end; and {;J) a pyramid whose base is half tlie product 
 of the difi"erence of the circumferences by the dinVreneo 
 of the radii. The common height of the prism, jiyramid, 
 and wedge is the depth of water in tho vessel. When a 
 vessel of this form stands ui)on its small end, the time re- 
 quired (o empty it is twice the time requited to discharge 
 tlic cylimier or prism of water, one and one-third that re- 
 qnire<I to discharge the wedge, and (uie and one-fifth that 
 required for the pyramid, at the initial rate. AVhen it 
 stanils on its larger end, the time is twice that required 
 for the prism or cylinder, two and two-thirds tiuuH that 
 for tho wedge, and three and one-fifth times tliat for the 
 pyrnniid, at the initial rate of flow. J. P. Fiti/.KLI,. 
 
 llyilrodiioric Acid. See Fi.ronvDitic Acii>, by Fkop. 
 C. V. CirANDi.iin, I'll. I>.. M. 1»., LL.D.
 
 1056 
 
 HYDBOGEN. 
 
 Hydro^TCn [Fr. ht/dyofjene; GcT. Wneseratofffjan; earlier 
 chemistti, inflammable «i>]. Hi'stori/. — The ancients believci! 
 water an elementary substance. In the sixteenth century 
 Paracelsus discovered that iron and sulphuric acid engen- 
 der tof^L'ther an ai-riform hody or gas. Not until 1G7- was 
 this ohserved, hy hoth Maycrnc and Boyle, to be combus- 
 tible. It was henceforward known as inflammable air, until 
 Lavoisier, after the discovery of its chemical nature and 
 origin, called it ht/droz/rn, or wator-gcnorator, from the 
 (ircek vBuip and ytwdta. In 1700, Lemery iliscovcred that 
 it explodes in admixture with air. Henceforth, it was re- 
 garded as being or conveying the principle of fire, and 
 under the fauxuis theory of Stahl was believed to be wholly 
 or chiefly composed of the so-called phlmjixton. In ITfifi 
 t!io groat Kngli-jh cheinist Cavendisli (irst took up its in- 
 vestigation, and qivickly discovered that when burned it 
 produces water. Two other chemists, Macquer and Do la 
 Motherie, recorded the same observation at tlie same date. 
 Nut till 17S1, however, did Cavcndi^i^h complete the discov- 
 ery by burning together o.ri/ffcu — previously discovered, in 
 1774, by Priestley — and hydrogen, and fimling that the sole 
 product was water. James Watt is also believed to liave 
 made the same discovery, independently, in this same year 
 (1781). 
 
 Occurrence in Xnture. — Many authorities assert that hy- 
 drogen is never found free in nature upon the earth. It 
 certainly exists, liowever, in volcanic gases. II. Rose and 
 others have asserted that the gas found compressed in the 
 decrepitating salt of Wieliczka contains free hydrogen. 
 Graham found it, in the condition be called "occlusion," 
 in the iron of aerolites. De Candoile made the remarkable 
 statement that certain fungi evolve free hydrogen night 
 and day. The spectroscope detects hydrogen in the chro- 
 mosphero of our sun and in many other stars ; also in cer- 
 tain nebula?. Water contains one-ninth of its weight, or 
 11.11 per cent., of hydrogen. Steam, and water in other 
 vaporous forms, contain an amount of hydrogen which, 
 when set free in gaseous form, is found to assume, at the 
 same temperature, exactly the volume of the vapor itself; 
 gaseous water being made up of two measures, or volumes, 
 of hydrogen, an*! one of oxygen ; the three measures con- 
 densing, in combining, to two measures. Steam therefore 
 contains its own volume of hydrogen. Liquid water, how- 
 ever, contains 12158 times its volume of free gaseous hydro- 
 gen. Hydrogen occurs also in nature in combination with 
 nitrogen, as ammonia ; with carbon, as marsh-gas, the chief 
 constituent of rhe gas of gas-wells and of the tire-damp of 
 coal-mines, which, of all known compounds, is the richest 
 in hydrogen, containing one-fourth of its weight, or more 
 than twice as much as water. It also contains twice 
 i(s own volume of hydrogen. With carbon also, as j)otro- 
 I('U[n and paraffine ; and as an essentia! constituent of most 
 of the solid tissues of organic beings, both animal and veg- 
 ntablc; and therefore of all mineral substances of organic 
 origin, such as coals, asphalts, bitumens, mineral resins 
 and resinoids, etc. In volcanic gases it occurs as muriatic 
 acid gas; also as sulphuretted hydrogen under many cir- 
 cumstances; and. some believe, also in combination with 
 phosphorus, as native phosphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 Prfparation. — Hydrogen gas may he obtained from water 
 by many methods, of which there are seven principal ones 
 that have been and may be useil, according to uircum- 
 slanccs: 1. The method of Paracelsus, with iron (or zinc, 
 which is oftener now used) and a dilute acid, generally 
 eitlier sulphuric or muriatic acid. This is the most com- 
 mon method, but yields generally an impure and very mal- 
 odorous hydrogen, contaminated by combination with the 
 impurities of the metal and acid used. In the case of iron, 
 important quantities of volatile and gaseous hydrocarbon 
 compounds are formed with the carbon of the iron, and it is 
 dnubtfiil whether pure hydrogen can be obtained by any 
 modification of this method, unless possibly by the use of 
 /inc of chemical purity, wliieh must then be mixed with 
 platinum to produce voltaic currents, or else it will decom- 
 jioso the acidulated water but very slowly. 2. Metals whose 
 oxides are soluble in caustic alkaline solutions, such ns zinc 
 and aluminum, will decomj)oso water and evolve hydrogen 
 when warmed with such alkaline solutions. With alumi- 
 num free from carbon, hydrogen thus prepared should bo 
 ]iure. 3. The alkali metals, such as potassium and sodium, 
 tiecomposc pure water directly by appropriating its oxygen 
 and setting the hydrogen free — a method useful only as a 
 lecture cx])erimen(. 4. Metallic iron, when incandescent, 
 will decompose steam, with formation of magnetic oxide 
 of iron nnd free hydrogen. This method is not to bo reo- 
 ommendt*d in practice. The action is very quickly retarded, 
 ami becomes sluggish, from the coating of oxide formed 
 over the iron, 'k A far more rapid and practicable method 
 is arrived at hy substituting for the iron some form of 
 mineral or artificial carbon. Hydrogen is thus obtained 
 in admixture with carbonic oxide. Unless the temperature 
 
 be very high, more or less carbonic acid is also formed. At 
 very high heats, a mixture of about two volumes of hydro- 
 gen with one volume of carbonic oxide, and but a small 
 percentage of carbonic acid, may in this way be prepared 
 on a large scale from steam. This is known technically as 
 " water-gas," and is used by some us a diluent for coal nnd 
 petroleum gases for illuminating purposes, anil is proposed 
 to be used by itself, on a large scale, for warming, cooking, 
 motor, and manufacturing purposes, fi. By "dissociation," 
 or the method discovered by Grove in 1S4G — that is, by the 
 direct decomposition of steam by a high heat, which will 
 furnish a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen. Prof. B. Sil- 
 liman discovered in 1S61) that this mode of preparation 
 may be effected on a considerable scale by forming beneath 
 the surface of pure water the voltaic arc from a battery of 
 considerable power, the mixed gases coming off in torrents. 
 Pure hydrogen may be procured by absorbing the oxygen 
 from such a mixecl gaseous product, 7. By electrolysis 
 of water containing in solution some substance which in- 
 creases its conducting power for the voltaic current. Hy- 
 drogen is then evolved from the cathode or negative elec- 
 trode, and may he collected in a state of purity. 
 
 Hydrogen is also a product of the destructive distillation, 
 at incandescent heats, of all organic substances. Tiius, 
 common coal-gas contains 40 per cent, or more of this gas 
 as a proximate constituent. 
 
 Hydrogen is the lightest known gas, and of course, there- 
 fore, the least dense of all known substances. Air being 1, 
 its density is 0.0693, but water being 1, its density is only 
 0.0000S07'4. One cubic foot weighs ?,\).\\)A:) grains, an 
 equal volume of air weighing 505 grains; hence its use 
 sometimes for filling balloons. Air is 14.48 times as heavy 
 as hydrogen, and water is 11,143 times as heavy. The 
 metallic mineral platiniridium, the heaviest known sub- 
 
 stance fsp. 
 
 is over 250,000 times as hoavv as 
 
 hydrogen, the lightest. Pure hydrogen is colorless, in- 
 odorous, and tasteless. It is not directly' poisonous when 
 inhaled pure, death ensuing from mere absence of oxygen ; 
 but it should never be inhaled unless certainly pure, the 
 contaminations that are incident to it being often highly 
 poisonous, and several chemists ha\ ing lost their lives 
 through reckless experiments of this kind. A person 
 breathing it speaks with a peculiar squeak. The great 
 tenuity of hydrogen gas gives it a great penetrative or rapid 
 diffusive power; many solid metals are even readily pene- 
 trated or permeated through their pores, iron being one of 
 these. When there is an adhesive attraction — or, it may 
 be, a feeble chemical affinity — between hydrogen and the 
 metal, the former may become largely c<m<lensed in the 
 pores of the latter. This condensation, called by (irnham 
 '•occlusion," occurs with iron (ns in meteoric iron), but 
 much more notably with palladium, which Graham caused 
 to condense nntl retain 600 or 700 times its volume of 
 hydrogen, forming what he imagined to bo of the nature 
 of a metallic alloy ; whence ho believed hydrogen passed 
 here into a mctnUiv form, called by him " hydrogenium." 
 Few chemists, however, have favored this hypothesis of 
 hydrogenium. When soft iron is permeated by condensed 
 hydrogen, its tenacity is greatly injured ; and Klein and 
 other chemists have obtained hy voltaic precipitation iron 
 otherwise cheuiieally pure, but so largely impregnated with 
 condenseil hyiirogen that it was ns brittle as glass, and 
 would take fire from a flame, and burn as if it were wet 
 with alcohol, from the hydrogen expelled by the heat. 
 Such iron becomes soft and malleable on losing its hydro- 
 gen. Iron wire often loses its tenacity when it is immersed 
 in acid "pickle," to remove films of oxide, through the 
 condensation of hydrogen in the substance of the nielal; 
 but the tenacity is said to return after a time, by reason 
 of the spontaneous escape of the hydrogen. 
 
 Hydrogen, in its tendency to combine directly under nor- 
 mal pressures and temperatures with oilier elements, is 
 almost as passive and inert as nitrogen; the only element 
 towards which it manifests much activity being chlorine. 
 With this it does not combine sjiontaneously in the dark, 
 but light causes an immediate combination to form muri- 
 atic acid gas; and direct sunshine will even set up rapid 
 and ex]»losivc combustion. When mix<!d with oxygen or 
 air no combination takes place spontaneously, but contact 
 with certain metals causes a condensation and combination. 
 to form water, on the surfaces of such metals, developing 
 heat ; which may easily be so managed as to raise the 
 metal to incandescence, and thus cause the gaseous mix- 
 ture to kinfllo throughout, with explosion if confined. This 
 phenomenon, discovered by Diibereiner, furnishea the 
 principle of what is known as Diiberciner's " liydrogen 
 lamp," in which a jet of hydrogen, generated in a self- 
 regulating reservoir of that gas, may be emitted into the 
 air, and the gaseous combustible mixture thus formed 
 caused to impinge on a small mass of platinum in spongy 
 form, which latter instantly becomes red hot and kindles
 
 IIYDKOCiEX, PEROXIDE OF— HYDROGRAPHY. 
 
 1057 
 
 the hydropen jet. Thus fire may l>c at any moment ob- 
 tainctl. At timperatures higher than nonnal, hydrogen will 
 combine with some other elements, as uith sulphur at the 
 boilin),!;-point uf the latter, to form snljihurottc*! hydrogen, 
 and with bromine and iodine, at a reil heat, to form the 
 hydracids corresponding. Kveu witii carbon, at the intense 
 temperature of the voltaic arc, it was found by IJcrthclot that 
 ft tendency to direct combination was deveIo|>c<l, one pro- 
 duct being acetylene gas. There are other eases in which 
 hydrogen aiipear;" to enter directly into coni}>ination — 
 namely, when in the act of bcingevolvod from wafer by the 
 agency of a metal, or of electrolysis, or in what has been 
 cuMed the "nascent state." Vndcr these conditions it will 
 even manifest sufficient activity to decompose other exist- 
 ing combinations present in tlie liquid, and ajijiropriato 
 their elements. It will thus take uj). for example, iirnni{c 
 and anttniiiiit/, and carry them along with itself in gaseous 
 combinations. This is the principle on which is founded the 
 well-known "Marsh's test" for arsenic and antimony, 
 which is of such immense toxicological importance. 
 
 Henry Wirtz. 
 Ily'droson, Peroxide of, called also Bioxicle, 
 Itiiioviile, Diovide, and Oeutoxidc of Hytlro;;en ; 
 al--o Oxv;;euated Water [Fr. rttn oxi/>j^ii»<e .- Oer. ira«- 
 Kerntoff Htfiirroxtfd, SdnerKtuff wit finer, Oxi/dirtcn ]Vns»rr]. 
 It was discovered in 1818 by the French chemist Thenard. 
 lie found, when peroxide of barium. BaO., was added in 
 the cold to dilute muriatic acid, IKM. instead of a decom- 
 position, such as might have been anticipated, IJaOz -h 
 2IlCl-BaCl.i + IliO + 0— that is, the formation of neutral 
 chloride of barium and water, with a setting free of the 
 second equivalent of oxygen of the peroxide — that no 
 oxygen appeared to be set free at all; and he was finally 
 led to comprehend that the rcactitm is as follows: na02 -|- 
 2nCl = BaCli f Hj**:. a new compound being formed, con- 
 taining twice as much oxygen as water. By a long, com- 
 plex, and laborious jtrocess of alternate jiurifications and 
 concentraticms Thenard finally obtained the hydrogen 
 peroxide almost free from excess of water, and almost of 
 the composition stated, containing -175 times its volume of 
 oxygen over and above that of the wafer itself. Polouze 
 afterwards devised a simpler methoil, founded on the uso 
 of hydrolluoric or hydrofluosilicic acid (instead of hydro- 
 chloric), which aci(ls precipitate the baryta at once in an 
 insoluble form. The final concentration, for separation of 
 intermixed water, is effected in mruo over oil of vitriol, by 
 reason of the fact that the new compound, though volatile 
 without decomposition, is nevertheless less so than water 
 itself. The resulting product is transparent and colorless, 
 with a density = 1.452, nearly half as high again as water; 
 not freezing at 22° V, below xero : tastes like tartar-cmcfic; 
 and makes itching sores on the skin. It breaks up spon- 
 taneously at ordinary temperatures into water and free 
 'ixygen when pure, but the presence of acids makes it more 
 stalile, and that r.f alkalies less so. Tidd preserves it. By 
 suddenly heating it to the temperafuro of boiling water 
 oxygen is evolved \Tith explosive rapidity. Mere contact 
 with certain substances, as charcoal, some metals, and some 
 oxides, sets up more or less violent ilecomposition, often 
 with strong evolution of heat. On many substances it 
 acts as a most powerful oxidizer, converting them into their 
 highest oxides. Among these are arsonious and sulphurous 
 acids. Sulphide of lead becomes sulphate. Arsenic, mo- 
 lybdenum, chromium, and selenium are at onco converted 
 into their highest oxides. On the oflicr hand, on another 
 class of substances this poculhir compound actually operates 
 as a powerful reducer, as on argentic; and mercurous oxides, 
 manganic and plumbic peroxides, chromic and permanganic 
 acids; oxygen being evolved simultaneously from theoxirlo 
 operated on and from the peroxide of hydrogen itself, 
 Bnuiie first (in I8.'J0), and Schiinbein afterwards, proposed 
 the view that in the cases in which peroxi<lo of hydrogen 
 and another oxido decomp(»se each other, the two com- 
 pounds contain oxygen in two dificrent "allotropic" mod- 
 ifications, re|irosente<l as positive and negative (-t-an(l — 
 oxygen ). and that the ordinary molecule of oxygen set free 
 was producrrl by the combination of these positive and 
 negative molecules. Schonbein showed that the peroxide 
 of hydrogen destro^-s ozone, and he viewed ozone as being 
 the negative oxygen O, and the sec(»nd equivalent of oxy- 
 gen in peroxide of hydrogen as positive oxygon <), which 
 ho also called *'antozone." These views may be regarded 
 as still in controversy. Meidinger. and subsef|uently Sclion- 
 bein, fimnd hydrogen-peroxide in water that has undergone 
 electrolysis. It has been fouml nls<i to be formed in many 
 cases of slow oxidatirm of moistened substances, such as 
 metals. It bleaches indigo and decomposes iodide of po- 
 tassium, with liberation of iodine, easily detectable by starch. 
 It alsi) decolorizes a solution itf permanganate of pcdash 
 bv reduciioii. With chromic acid it forms perchroniie acid ; 
 
 \..i,. 11.— i;: 
 
 and one method of detecting it in a liquid is to add chromic 
 acid and ether, whereupon the latter is colored bright blue 
 by perehromic acid, in its presence. 
 
 The diseovcrerofperoxideofhydrogcn, Thenard, proposed 
 its use — after testing it jtersonally — for restoring paintings 
 which had become <lim through the conversion of the wliile 
 lead-carbonate used in the pigments to black sulphide of 
 lead. The latter is at once converted by it into white lead- 
 sulphate. Of late years it is stated that it has been large- 
 ly sold, in France at least, for hhachiuff liriiuj human httir, 
 in accordance with certain dictates of fashion. 
 
 IIknuv Wurtz. 
 
 Hydrogen, Phosphides of. .See Piiosphorus. by 
 PROK. {'. V. CuANDi.Kit. Til. !>., M. D., LL.D. 
 
 Hvdrogen, Sulphides of. Sec Sulimitr, by Prof. 
 C. F. CnAN!>i.i:i(, Pn. D.. M. !>., LL.D, 
 
 lIvdrof;'raphy. Hydrography, a comparatively modern 
 term, is deriveil from two (Jreek words, one of which sig- 
 nifies " water,"' and the other to " write " or to " describe." 
 This science has for its object the measurement and de- 
 scription of all the surface-waters of the earth, together 
 with their coasts and islands, in so far as they are important 
 and useful for purposes of navigation and commerce. Hy- 
 drography embraces within its scope, therefore, marine 
 surveying, the construction of marine charts, and the col- 
 lection and publication, under various suitable forms, of 
 all physical and other information tending in any monner 
 to the perfecling of navigation. 
 
 Hydrography natnr.ally divides itself into three grand 
 and distinct branches — viz. Continental Hydrography, 
 having for its object the measurement and investigation of 
 the continental waters; Marine Hydrography, having for 
 its object the ordinary measurement and description of the 
 seas, coasts, and islands; and, lastly, Pliysicol Hydrog- 
 raphy, having for its object the determination of the 
 winds, currents, variation, and many other things respect- 
 ing the sea as a whole, which can only be discovered by 
 the careful and laborious study of a vast number of obser- 
 vations, taken in all quarters of the globe. 
 
 The early history of hydrography, like that of many 
 other of the art? and sciences, is involved in much obscurity. 
 AVe know, howe^er. that from the earliest times mariners 
 have made uso of charts; hence it may be said that hy- 
 drography is, in reality, as old as navigation. The charts 
 of the ancients were of the rudest description, being mere 
 sketches of the coasts, which were laid down according to 
 roughly estimated distances; hence, in such of them as 
 remain to us it is no unusual thing to find the coasts and 
 islands represented at many times in excess of their actual 
 extent. Owing to various causes, among which may be 
 mentioned superstition, timidity, the lack of proper instru- 
 ments for making observations and of prtiper ships for 
 making extended voyages, the acquisition to hydrographic 
 knowh'dge was, for many centuries, scarcely worth con- 
 sidering. I>own to the time of Homer, who flourished 
 '.>()7 B. ('., as little was known of the surface of the earth 
 as Is now known of the interior, (ireccc was then regarded 
 as the centre of the earth, which was surrtuindcd, at the 
 distance of &00 miles, by the Octau Jiiver ; later, the land 
 was extended farther, and a limited form given to the old 
 continent. In the time of Pliny (about a. n. 80) the 
 Mediterranean Sea was referred to as the centre of every- 
 thing; and even as late as I.'tOO the p(tpc gave to the king 
 of Spain all countries to the M'est as an exteniled plain ; the 
 theory of the rotundity of the earth was treated as a heresy, 
 and was not fully established until the completion of llio 
 first voyage of circumnavigation in I J22. 
 
 When, however, we consider that the mariner's compass 
 was not introduced into Furopo until about the twelfth 
 century, that the chronometer was only invented in 1(»7;"», 
 and reflecting instruments, for measuring angles, brought, 
 into use at somewliere near the same lime, we can readily 
 understand the backward state <d' hydrography at so 
 late a period; and we are prepared to accept the ilatc 
 commonly given as the one wlicn the first steps were 
 taken towards its erection into a science; this was about 
 I'liO, when Henry tho Navigattir. a Portuguese prince, 
 and son of King John I. <d' Portugal, founded an observa- 
 tory at i^agres. in Algarve, near t'ape St. Vincent, and by 
 causing persons to be instructed in the science of naviga- 
 tion, by sending out numerous expeditioTis of discovery, 
 by collecting hydrogrnphi<* inforniaiion from persons who 
 had made n<tted voyages, and by constructing nmny marine 
 charts worthy of the name, there laid the huindation for 
 the science of hy»lrogra)»hy. The charts in the time of 
 Henry, though a great improvement over those of an earlier 
 date, were yet rude and imperfect ; the instruments for de- 
 termining positions and measuring distances with accuracy 
 had not yet come into exislenrc ; the log was iinltiiown ; and 
 tho astrolabe, a graduatid ring with sights, was the only
 
 1058 
 
 HYDROGRAPHY. 
 
 instrument for takini; nltitudes. Henry, whom we may 
 Btyle the first hvilroijraphcr. died in HB.'i.and next to him, 
 as a noted laborer in the science, came Christopher Cohim- 
 bus, who. alter liaving obtained much hydrographic know- 
 ledge by study and an experience of many years at sea, 
 became a maker and seller of marine charts. While en- 
 ga;^ed in tliis occupation he conceiverl his «;rand design of 
 a voyage of discovery to the W., an<l in WJ'2 discovered 
 America, thus extending the field for hydrographic research 
 more, in a single voyage, than had the laliors of all the 
 preceding centuries. The way having been thus pointed 
 out, voyages of discovery were prosecuted in every direc- 
 tion, and the increase in hydrographic knowledge was vast 
 and rapid ; but the formation of hydrography into an ex- 
 act science, such as we find it at the present day, had 
 scarcely yet begun. Founded upon mathematics and as- 
 tronomy, and wrought out by means of many instruments 
 of the utmost precision, tho accuracy of liydrographic 
 work is now limited only by the accuracy of the observer. 
 
 Pursuing further the events connected witli the gradual 
 dcvclnptnent of the science of hydrography, we find many 
 of tlicm worthy of mention. Among the collections of tho 
 works of the French Academy of Sciences for tho year 1092 
 may be fcmnd a memoir by Pothonot. having for its aim to 
 fix the place occupied by an observer in relation to three 
 other neighboring ])oint-«, the positions of which arc known ; 
 this is the famous three-point problem, the very foundation 
 of marine surveying, and which, though thus early discov- 
 ered, does not seem to have been put in practice until many 
 years later. Camus, in his Course of Meithematir.s. in tho 
 year 1753, and Dairy mp!e, in a memoir published in 1771. 
 recommended to navigators, for surveying upon tho sea, tho 
 use of the circle .and the observation of three ])oints. To 
 the French hydrographic engineers is due the credit of 
 having first applied tho theorem of Pothenot, and they 
 made by it a great advance in hydrogr.aphy. Alexander 
 Dalrymple, as just mentioned, publislied in 1771 a memoir 
 entitled An Esattyon the Mnst Cummndions Modes nf Murine 
 Sxrrri/iuf/; this is considered as tho first hydrographical 
 work; and in it we find a description of tho construction 
 and adjustments of Hadlcy's quadrant. M. Beautemps- 
 Beaupr6. a celebrated French hydrographcr, published at 
 Paris in 1S08 a work called .-In /ji^-o(/»c//o» to t/ir Practice o/ 
 Marine Snrvrtfinfj und fli»: Constrnrtion of Sea-Charts, ii/nv- 
 triit'il f»f thlrtif-four 2>hit€»; this is considered astho second 
 hyilrographical work. Other early writers upon hydrog- 
 ra()hy were tho Jesuits Ricciolus, De Charles, and Four- 
 nicr. tlie latter of Avhora published in ISM the Manuel dn 
 f\ibut''nr. Cook, in tho remarkable voyages which have 
 immortalized his name, was the first to introduce the sys- 
 tem of running surveying; his running surveys, however, 
 were very defective, as they were based ujion compass-bear- 
 ings and other unreliable data; later fuHowers of Cook im- 
 proved upon his method by substitu'ing astronomical for 
 comj)ass-hearings ; but it was not until 1837, in tho hydro- 
 graphic surveys under M. Dumont d'lTrviilc, that reliable 
 running surveys were made, and tho present m.athematic.al 
 system introduced. Tn 1S23 the work of M. IJeautcmps- 
 l,teaupr6 was translated into English by ('apt. Richard 
 Copeland, R. N., aud in his preface this officer writes: " At 
 no period of our history has tiio attention of naval men 
 bnen so generally directed to tlio study of hydrography as 
 the present: yet this branch of nautical science has been 
 hitherto so little cultivated that it is dilncult to find ofiSccrs 
 qualified to undertake the duties of surveyors." 
 
 Although numberless discoveries had been cfTected, and 
 vast atiditions made to the stock of hydrograjdiic infor- 
 mation, prior to the commencement of tho jiresent century, 
 yet the great hydrographic works did not begin until tluit 
 time. Then Franco reorganized her corps of hydrographic 
 engineers, and began the survey of her coasts; and other 
 maritime powers, in imitation of her, created special corps 
 for hydrographic work, and tho true hydrographic survey 
 of the world began. For some time Franco took the lead 
 in the now established science of hydrography, but lier un- 
 fortunate political complications soon caused her to fall be- 
 hind some of her rivals in the work, and the lead was taken, 
 and has ever since been maintained, by Kngland; which 
 naticn at the present time docs more home and foreign 
 hydrograjibie work in each year than dr>es any otlier : and to 
 her are we at this time indebted for by far the greater por- 
 tion of all our foreign charts. 
 
 For about 300 years after the time of the discovery of Amer- 
 ica by Columbus the expeditions fitted out and sent abroad by 
 maritime powers in the interests of hydrograjihy, naviga- 
 tion, and commerce were more properly voyages of discov- 
 ery, and they did not result in great and permanent addi- 
 tions to hydrography; the surveys made during these voy- 
 ages were rough ones, and the charts rude in comparison 
 with those of tho present day. Of this nature were all tho 
 famous voyages completed np to 1791. ,\t this time was 
 
 fitted out the French expedition, under Rear-admiral d'En- 
 trecasteaux, to go in search of La Pcvousc. Writing of 
 this expedition, JM. Beautemps-Bcaupr^. wl)o was the prin- 
 ci])al marine surveyor ai' it, says : '• During the time which 
 has elapsed between the time of the first attempt at bring- 
 ing the art of navigation to perfection by means of reflect- 
 ing instruments and chronometers, and the year 1791. many 
 celebrated navigators have materially increased our know- 
 ledge of hydrography, and it has already become difficult 
 to exceed the point at which they have arrived; every sea 
 has been explored, and there remain no great discoveries to 
 be made." He then goes on to state that the aim of the 
 present expedition, in order that it might be of benefit to 
 hydrography, navigation, etc.. would be to give more accu- 
 rate surveys and more detailed information of the various 
 fijreign places visited by it. Here, then, ended the era of 
 reconnoissancc, so to speak, and began the era of thorough 
 hydrographical surveying; the discoverers were now suc- 
 ceeded by tho surveyors, who hold the field up to the pres- 
 ent time, and have yet a vast work before them, while the 
 field for marine discovery has been almost exhausted. 
 
 The vast accumulation of hydrographic information by 
 maritime powers led early to the establishment by them of 
 hydrographic offices, where this information was taken in 
 hand and wrought into marine charts, books of sailing- 
 directions, and other practical shapes, for the benefit of 
 navigation and commerce. These offices soon became, and 
 liave ever since continued, matters of prime concern to all 
 governments having a marine, and they form a most im- 
 portant branch of the naval administration. Without her 
 own efficient hydrographical establishment no maritime 
 nation can feel perfectly independent respecting her com- 
 merce, nor respecting herself, in tho event of foreign com- 
 plications, for if she be largely dependent upon foreign 
 hydrographical supplies, they are liable to be cut off at any 
 time, thus creating serious delay and embarrassment. The 
 largest, best appointed, and most important hydrographic 
 offices in the world are those of England and France ; these 
 together publish charts and sailing-directions for every 
 portion of tho known world : they each issue about 3000 
 diff'crcnt charts, almost all of which arc printed from en- 
 graved plates, and about 100 hydrographical works on va- 
 rious subjects. Both these offices arc under the direction 
 of naval officers of high rank and great ability in the spe- 
 cial branch in which they are serving. The original sur- 
 veys made by tho French and English during each 3"car 
 are much greater in extent and more numerous than are 
 those furnished by all the other maritime powers combined. 
 Tho French have now in hand a complete survey of the 
 coast of Brazil, besides many others in divers quarters of 
 the globe. The English arc constantly surveying all over 
 the world, and produce many new and original charts each 
 year, besides sending out many scientific expeditions in 
 various fields. All the home surveys are worked up and 
 converted into marine charts at the various hydrographic 
 offices, as are also all f<ireign surveys which may come into 
 their possession by exchange, tracing, etc. Here are writ- 
 ten the sailing-directions, and hence issue the light-lists, 
 notices to mariners, etc. 
 
 Tho U. S. support, at present, two hydrographical estab- 
 lishments — a regular Hydrographic Office and a Coast Sur- 
 vey Office. The former of these is of comparatively' recent 
 origin, having been founded only in ISOlJ, yet already it 
 issues many very important and valuable charts and works, 
 derived, in great measure, from the U. S. exploring and sur- 
 veying expeditions under Wilkes, Rodgers, Perry, Page, 
 and others, and from numerous surveys by in<liviilual ves- 
 sels in various quarters of the world. This office has now 
 in hand, besides its regular office-work, the survey of Lower 
 California and its gulf, tho survey of an extensive belt 
 across the Pacific, tho running of a line of soundings across 
 tho Pacific, the survey of the (iulf coast of Mexico, and tho 
 telegraphic cstablisluuent of longitudes in the West Indies. 
 It issues already some GOO charts of various kinds, and the 
 nnist com])leto works and charts ever produced on physical 
 hydrography. Besides tlic charts of its own issue, this of- 
 fice keeps constantly on hand some 20,0lM) English and many 
 French charts for the use of our navy, and requires annu- 
 ally not less than .0000 foreign charts to supply deficiencies 
 in this stock. Some 12,000 copies of its own charts, and 
 nmny humlred copies of its works, are sold annually by 
 this office, through its agents, to foreigners and to our mer- 
 cantile marine. 
 
 The Coast Survey office was created many years ago for 
 the purpose of executing the hydrography of the coasts 
 and inland waters of the V. S.. and it has made great prog- 
 ress in that work, which is the greatest hydrographical 
 work ever undertaken by any country. This office does no 
 foreign work whatever, being confined strictly t(y the home 
 field ; it issues about 700 charts and several hydrogrnphical 
 works, and keeps constantly employed a considerable sur-
 
 HYDROIDA. 
 
 10.59 
 
 Tcying force, both od our E. and W. coasts, making the 
 most exact anil elaborate surveys of any hydrographical 
 cstablisbmcnt in the world. 
 
 To give smuo idiu of the demand for charts and nautical 
 books uiion iMu- of the older oflicts by navies and luercautilo 
 marines, it may be slated that during the year ISOD the 
 English o6See alone sold 6S,2Sl) charts and U'JIS books of 
 sailing-directions, etc.; and even Ibis large amount would 
 fall verv far short of an annual sale at this date. 
 
 I!v reason of the very jierfect mail and telegraphic com- 
 munication between countries at the present day, hydrog- 
 raphers are enabled to keep themselves thoroughly posted 
 on all which takes place concerning the science in any quar- 
 ter of the globe. All new surveys arc published at oneo by 
 the offieo of the e(mntry making the survey, aud no new 
 light is established, nor any rock, shoal, or danger discov- 
 ercil, that is not immediately announced in a notice from 
 some one of the offices, and copied by all the rest ; all the 
 charts and plates alTccted by these notices are corrected at 
 once ; the notices are forwarded to all naval vessels in com- 
 mission, that they may correct their charts, and the contents 
 of the notices arc further puljlislicd in the leading papers, 
 for the benefit of the merchant marine. There is a perfect 
 system of exchange between all the hydrographic offices, so 
 tiiat all the publications of any one arc known to all the 
 rest as soon as they arc issueil. 
 
 Of the arLi embr.aced within the scope of hydrography, 
 the first and chief one is the art of marine surveying — an 
 art which, it is said, may be traced back to the time of the 
 Pharaohs — an art of very ancient origin, therefore, but 
 nevertheless of very recent perfection. iMarine surveys, 
 according to circumstances, arc conducted in two distinct 
 manners. When the surveyor is fully supplied with all the 
 necessary instruments, skilled assistants, etc., has ample 
 time and perfect command over the territory which he is to 
 survey, then he carries on a combined system of sea and 
 shore' observations, which should result in the production 
 of an almost faultless work. On the other hand, when 
 there is a lack of time, when a hostile coast is to bo sur- 
 veyed, or a coast of such a nature as to preclude the possi- 
 bility of landing, then the surveyor must resort to tho 
 method known as running surveying, and make all his ob- 
 servations from afloat: this method, when skilfully and 
 carefully executed, gives very reliable results, which, 
 though deficient in details, are sufficient for tho construc- 
 tion of charts for coasting purposes. The aim of the sur- 
 veyor is to furnish such plans and other data as will suffice 
 fir the determination of the following particulars of the 
 locality surveyed : tides, currents, depths, bottom, rocks, 
 shoals, channels, anchorages, variation, latitude, longitude, 
 landmarks, leading-marks, contour, and general topogra- 
 phy of coasts. These particulars concerning a locality, 
 being forwanleil to the hydrographic office, are there taken 
 in hand, carefully examined, verified, and finally constructed 
 into a marine chart. A marine chart is a representation, by 
 priiji'ction in piano, of a portion of water, \vi(h the land 
 which it surrfjunds or by which it is surrounded. These 
 cliarls give all the points of the compass, variation, merid- 
 ians, parallels, coasts, capes, bays, islands, shoals, depths, 
 channels, rocks, bottom, etc. in their proper positions and 
 proportions. The Mercator projection, which represents 
 all the meridians, parallels, and courses as straight lines, is 
 the one comnKJuly employed in the construction of marine 
 charts, except in Ihc high latitudes, where, owing to vari- 
 ous causes, it becomes absolutely necessary to employ some 
 one of the circular projections. 
 
 According to the use for which they arc intended, marine 
 charts are divi<led into three distinct classes — viz. general 
 charts, coast charls, and harbor cbarls. The first class, or 
 general charts, arc usually const meted upon a small scale — 
 that is, a small fraction of an inch to a degree of latitude. 
 They furnish only general outlines, ollen cover whole 
 oceans, and are used only for reference charts or for open 
 off shore navigation — say, to within iiO or 75 miles of a 
 coast. Tho second class, or const charts, are constructed 
 upon such a scale, depending much upon the nature of the 
 coast t(i be represented, as will enable a vessel to navigate 
 by them clear up to the very entrances to the harbors 
 thereon. The third class, or barber charts, arc upon a still 
 larger scale, and by them the navigator is cnableil to con- 
 duct his vessel through tho most intricate channels of en- 
 trance, and bring her to tho j)ropcr spot for anchoring in 
 any well-surveyed harbor. 
 
 Most charts arc printed from engraved copper or steel 
 plates; some few are lithographed; and. by a process of 
 photo-lithography of recent invention, wo arc ni»w enabled 
 to rcj)roduee hundreds of copies of any foreign chart which 
 we may desire in almost as short a space of time as would 
 be rcrjuired to print them had we the plates. The charts 
 of the present day. issued from tho leading hydrographic 
 offices and covering exact surveys, are so perfect in topog- 
 
 FlG. 1. 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 raphy, construction, and detail as to seem to leave nothing 
 more to be added to them which would be of any aid or 
 benefit to navigation. 
 
 Such, in brief, is the history of the origin, rise, progress, 
 and present state of the science of hydrography — a science 
 which, except in its physical department, has reached at 
 this time to such a state of perfection as to render it one of 
 the most exact of all the sciences. GkokgI': W. Sumskr. 
 
 Ilydroi'tla [Lat. hi/<lrn; (ir. vjpo, a "tnythological 
 monster," and tli<K, " form "], one of the orders of Acalephs, 
 remarkable for forming compound colonies, \isually ccin- 
 sisting of numerous individual zoiiids 
 of two or more distinct kinds, organi- 
 cally united together, one set of tho 
 zobids being, in all cases, devoted to 
 feeding the community, another to sex- 
 ual reproduction. The feeding or liydri- 
 form zoiiids are usually fixed, and origi- 
 nate from eggs produced by the re|iro- 
 ductive or medusifonn zoiiids, wliich 
 originate as buds from the former, and 
 may either remain permanently attached 
 to tliem or may finally become frec- 
 Syncoryn'- mirahiUs, swimming medusa; (Figs. 2 and .*!). Tho 
 with medusa- buds nutritive zoiiids usually consist of a more 
 (.^gassiz). ^j. ]|,jg sivollen, oval, or fusiform body, 
 
 changeable in form, containing a large digestive cavity, 
 with a simple terminal orifice or mouth, and bearing exter- 
 nally a number of more or less slender tentacles, either 
 scattered or in one or more circles. The tentacles aro 
 covered with peculiar minute stinging organs, known 
 as thread-cells or " lasso-cells," for seizing and killing 
 the minute animals upon which they prey. The body of 
 these zoiiids is usually supporteil upon a hollow slem (Fig. 
 2, «i), which is usually covered with a chitinous, flexible 
 sheath. It may be long or short, and is sometimes want- 
 ing; and then the body arises immediately from the creep- 
 ing root-like tubes serving for the attachment of the colony 
 to some solid support. The central tube of tho stem com- 
 municates freely with the digestive cavity of the zoiiids, 
 and with those of the branches 
 and basal tubes, so that all the 
 zoiiids of a colony arc intimately 
 connected. The luitriiivc lluitl is 
 circulated freely thriiugh the stems 
 and branches by means of vibrat- 
 ^ ., . . ing cilia that cover all tlie interior 
 . <g W^^ surfaces. There may be but one 
 i\ 'L y^S^ nutritive zoiiid, but in most cases 
 ^^Lj/y^/tl the primitive one, originating from 
 ?*/$r'!r9i^^ the egg. very soon gives rise to 
 ^^^^\\//^\^^ buds, either from its stem or from 
 ^ \ fil V hollow, stolon-like extensions of 
 
 its base; and these may develop 
 into other zoiiids, like tho first, 
 thus producing more or less com- 
 plex branching colonies, ofteti con- 
 sisting of hundreds, or even thou- 
 sands, of zoiiids. Such colonics 
 often grow to the height of one or 
 two feet on our sea-coasts, though 
 the zoiiids themselves may be very 
 minute. The buds destined to 
 form reproductive zoiiids, or mc- 
 tenlacles; i/, a medusa dusoids, are produced at certain 
 bud not fully developed reasons of the year, generally on 
 (Agassiz). particular parts of the body, stems, 
 
 or root-fibres, the position varying according to the species. 
 Thoy start ns hernia-like, hollow BWcllings. the cavity 
 communicating with that of the stem or zoiiid from which 
 the bud arises. In some species (Figs. 2, -1) the mcdusoid 
 buds arise directly from the nutritive zoiiids: in others they 
 arise from another kind of asexual zoiiid (Fig. 0, li), usu- 
 ally destitute of mouth and sto[n;ich, and apparently des- 
 tined for this particular olhee fl.lonluHti/lr). The reproduc- 
 tive zoiiids (d'len develop into perfect medusic (Figs. :;, 9), 
 provided with tentacles, loeouLotivc disk, proboscis, stom- 
 ach, radiating and circular tubes, and sometimes with 
 reproductive organs, even before Ihcy break away from 
 the i)odieels by which they were attached; but they com- 
 monly increase in size and ]icrfection of parts after they 
 become independent medusiv. In many species, however, 
 the mcdnsoiil buds never develop a mouth, stoumch, nor 
 locomotive disk (Figs. 4, l>). atid often neither tentnclcs 
 nor radiating and circular tubes (Fig. fi, (/, c). though these 
 Romotimes appear in a rudimentary state. Such mcdusoi<ls, 
 known as Hptirmmci, seldom become free, but dexelop their 
 reproductive organs, either male or female, and produce 
 embryos while still atliiehed to the colony, after which 
 they wither away and disappear. In one genus ( IHmripir) 
 the sporosacs become detached, and swim about by means 
 
 One of the zoolds of .S. 
 mirabllia, much enlarg- 
 ed: 0. mouth ; e, bndv ; /, 
 leans
 
 1060 
 
 HYDROIDA. 
 
 of tho cilia that cover the whole surface. The free mcdussD 
 of hydroids often grow to large size after becoming free, 
 in some species attaining the diameter of ten inches, 
 while others never exceed a quarter of an 
 inch. As a rule, large hydroid mcdusio 
 {■?■. g. Zi/'j'ittttcf>/Ui, Ltt/oitt) come from 
 small and inconspicuous hydroid colonies, 
 while those hydroids which produce large 
 branching colonies, or which have large 
 nutritive zoiiids, generally give rise to mi- 
 nute fixed medusoids (sporosacs) or to 
 small free medusje {^. </. Obvfia, Si^rtularui, 
 ICndeudrium, Tuhulana). The free hy- 
 droid medusa^ may be distinguished from 
 tlin?c of the DiHrophorre by tho presence 
 of a diaphragm-like meml»rane or vthim 
 (Fig. o. '^) partially closing the opening 
 of the umbrella or bell-shaped disk ; by 
 the simjile (rarely branched) radiating 
 canals; by the existence of either colored 
 ocelli or of spherical sense-organs (fitho- 
 '■i/)i(s), containing one or more hard gran- 
 ules, and attached to the margin of the 
 umbrella (Fig. 9) ; and by the position of 
 the reproductive organs, which are either 
 situated between the imter and inner walls 
 of tho digestive cavity (Fig. ^), or else 
 depend, in tho form of purse-like lobes, 
 from tho lower side of the radiating canals 
 (Fig. y}, and discharge their contents ex- 
 ternally through a rupture of the outer 
 wall. All the sexual zooids of one colony 
 arc also usually of one sex, though a few 
 exceptions to this occur (e. ff. Hydrny Di- 
 jthasia). The free medussQ of some species 
 
 Mature free me- 
 dusa of 5. r/n'm- 
 hiiis: 0, mouth ; 
 h, a radiating 
 tube; r, circu- 
 lar tube ; e, ve- 
 lum; /, tenta- 
 cles (AgassizJ. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Paryphacrf)cra,f>nGQ{ i\\Q A female sporosac, much cn- 
 
 zouids, with clusters of landed: a, tentacles; 6, 
 
 mcdiisoid buds (spore- pc^dicel; c, spadix; </, body 
 
 sacs), about natural of embryo; e, tentacles ; /, 
 
 size (.\gassiz), rudiment of stem of em- 
 
 bryo (Agassiz). 
 
 of Ilydroidea (c. fj. Lhzins Di/nmorpkoea, fft/bocodoUf etc.) 
 in thfir turn jiroduce medusae-buds, which bcconio de- 
 tached and develop into mc- Fig. G. 
 dusio similar to those from 
 which they originated. In 
 Jfi/bocodon these buds arise 
 from the base of tho large 
 solitary tentacle on the mar- 
 gin of tho disk J in the two 
 other genera named above 
 they are produced on the sides 
 of the digestive cavity or 
 "proboscis." These buds 
 may coexist with true ova in 
 the same medusa. A few in- 
 stances of reproduction by 
 spontaneous division liavo 
 been observed, both in the 
 medusic and in the nutritive 
 zotiids. 
 
 Two types of sexual rcpro- 
 ductinn have been observed. 
 Inmost of the species the eggs, 
 after fertilization by sperm- 
 ulcs, undergo complete seg- 
 
 i^"% 
 
 Jlfidraclinia pofycHna, part of fe- 
 malf colony enlarge<l: a, nu- 
 tritive zooiA ; 6, blaslostyie; c, 
 dt-feiisive zoiiid ; d, c, /, spuro- 
 sacs or medusoid buds con- 
 tain injjecgs in ditferent stages 
 of development (Agassiz). 
 
 mentation and develop directly into round and somewhat 
 elongated embryos (Fig. 10. «), which arc covered ex- 
 ternally with cilia, by means of which they swim ac- 
 tively about for a time: thc?e young embryt.-s are known 
 
 as phmufa. They consist of an outer layer (ectoderm) 
 
 made up of prismatic cells, and an inner layer {endo- 
 
 derm), of larger and more globular cells, which encloses 
 
 Fig. 7. Fig. 8. 
 
 ■^^ 
 
 
 Sertidaria pumila, on a Obelia cointulssnralis, a 
 
 sea-weed (Fucus), nat- gonotheca and two Iiy- 
 
 ural size. drothcoie, enlarged 
 
 (Agassiz). 
 
 the central cavity. In this stage there is no external 
 opening. The planulai soon attach themselves to some 
 object like a stone, shell, seaweed, or submerged timber, by 
 one end, which rapidly enlarges (Fig. 10, 6) into a flat- 
 tened disk-like form; the cilia disappear at the same time; 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 IT 
 
 the upper end then begins 
 to enlarge, and the interme- 
 diate portion becomes nar- 
 row and elongated to form 
 a stem; very soon the upper 
 end enlarges into a body, 
 and develops a mouth at 
 the end, and the central 
 cavity becomes a stomach; 
 at the same time tentacles 
 grow out around the mouth, 
 and a thin covering of ehit- 
 inous matter is deposited 
 over the stem and lower 
 ayita JoAni(ori(, the mature me- portion of the bodv (Fig. 
 dusa, enlarged. J^j. ^^ ^hat the little hy- 
 
 droids begin to resemble the adult nutritive zooids. 
 
 The second mode of sexual reproduction is only met with 
 in Tubularidiv, Hydrn, and a few other genera. In Tubn- 
 
 laridfc the mcdu- 
 ^- ^^^- ^"- ^- soids are small oval 
 
 sporosacs (Figs. 4, 
 5), arising in clus- 
 ters from the body 
 just above the long 
 tentacles. The apa- 
 dU (Fig. 5, c) be- 
 comes surrounded by 
 a celhilar mass of 
 Kmbryos of Melicertum campanula: n. p.pr„,iiii,l matter 
 planu!a;&,embrv..sjustattathed,much prminai manor, 
 Jmlarged (A. Agassiz). ^'-ow which, in the 
 
 female, irregular 
 egg-like masses are separated from time to time. Each 
 mass soon flattens into a concave disk, which rapidly 
 becomes angular, and then the angles elongate so tliat 
 tho form becomes star-shaped; the rays gradually elon- 
 gate into tentacles (Fig. 5, <■) ; the outer convex surface 
 protrudes, and shows an internal cavity ((/), and in some 
 cases small oral tentacles grow out around the end : iVom 
 the concave side a projection ( /') is devehiped, which will 
 ultimately form the stem. In this state the embryo hy- 
 droid (actiuulfi) is discharged. It then swims about, and 
 also creeps upon its tentacles, mouth downward; linally it 
 attaches itself by the opposite end (/), which expands into 
 a disk at tho base, and elongates into a stem ; a mouth and 
 stomach are formed, and it then lu'couies a nutritive zooid. 
 The existing Ilydroida may be divided into four princi- 
 pal sub-orders. TIio coral-forming species {MiUfpora) may 
 constitute a fifth, but arc little known. The extinct Grap- 
 toh'trH probably rejiresent a sixth sub-order. 
 
 I. The Thecopbora (or ('alyptoi)lastea), including the 
 families Sertularidic (Fig. 7), Campanularidie (Figs. 8, 9), 
 Plumularid*, etc.. are characterized by having all parts, 
 except the upper portion of the zooids. covered with a 
 chitinous sheath: around the body of each zoiiid this forms 
 a protective caliele, into which tho upper parts can be re- 
 tracted when disturbed. In Plumularida^ there are also 
 smaller cup-like calicles from which irregular ])rocesses 
 of naked sarcodo may be extended. The medusoid buds 
 arise from a blastostyle enclosed within a chitinous cap- 
 sule (•j'oiofh'ffi), which also serves to contain and protect
 
 HYDROMETER. 
 
 1061 
 
 the buds until developed cither into fixed sporosaes or free 
 nieduste. The latter usually have re)iroduclivo organs (re- 
 garded as sporosacs by Allinau) on the radiating tubes. 
 
 II. The Aiheeata (or tiym- Fic. 11. 
 noblasteal, including Coryn- 
 ida> (Figs. 1, 2. :i), Clavida>, 
 Ilydractinida; (Fig. C), Tubu- 
 laridiB (Figs. 4, 5), etc., usu- 
 ally have the root-fibres and 
 stems covered with a chitinous 
 shcalh, but this does not form 
 oalicles around the nutritive 
 zoijids. nor gonothcca- around 
 the mcdusoid buds, which are 
 naked, and become cither spo- 
 rosacs or free medusic. The 
 latter have their reproductive 
 organs on the digestive cavity, 
 and do not have lithocysts on 
 the margin. 
 
 III. The i?iphonot)hora. in- 
 cluding Physalia (the "Por- 
 tuguese man-of-war "),Velella, 
 Porpita, etc., are very complex, 
 
 free-swimming colonies, com- young hydroids of -V. c«m;>a- 
 posedofmanyunitedhydroids. mila, much enlarged (A. 
 In these one or more of the Agassiz). 
 Eooids becomes transformed into a floating apparatus, usu- 
 ally in the form of a vesicle or bladder filled with air; 
 others ai3 nutritive zoiiids ; others locomotive: and still 
 others reproductive. Some species produce free medusa;, 
 others fixed ones or sporosacs. 
 
 IV. The Gymnochroa, including only the fresh-water 
 Ilydrip.have the bodv naked and furnished with a sucking 
 disk for volunlarv adhesion at the posterior end. They 
 can creep about, and also float free in the water. The re- 
 productive zoiiids are very simple sporosacs, arising from 
 the sides of the body, both sexes often on the same hydra. 
 The male sporosacs are conical bodies just below the ten- 
 tacles; the female ones are irregular tuberculiform, and 
 situated toward the base. The eggs develop into ncinnil^, 
 which become Ilvdra;. The ordinary buds arise from the 
 sides of the Hi/tlrn as simple hernia; of the body-walls, 
 but Ihcy soon elongate and develop a mouth, stomach, and 
 tentacles like those of the parent; then the hollow pedicel 
 bv which they are united to the parent becomes constricted, 
 anil the voung hydra; detach themselves, and soon become 
 exactly like the first. The species of ffi/tira inhabit fresh 
 water, and are noted for their wonderful powers of repair- 
 ing injuries, restoring lost parts, and reproducing the entire 
 body even from minute fragments. A. E. Vebhii.l. 
 
 liydrom'oter [«r. v6ap. " water," and ^irpov, " 
 sure:" Kr. In/,lr,„iirir,], Ara-ometer, or 
 (Jravimctcri an instrument consisting of 
 three parts: (1) a graduated stem of uniform 
 diameter and cn.ss-scclion ; (2) a bulb ; (.'!) a 
 counlerpoise or ballast. On being placed in a 
 liquid it sinks until a certain point on the 
 scale is on a level with the surface of the 
 liquid, and from the reading of the scale at 
 that point the specific gravity of the liquid 
 is cither ascertained directly or by a simple 
 calculation. The principle of the hydrometer 
 is simply that of the law of floating bodies 
 —viz. that when a body flouts the weight of 
 the bulk of liqui<l displaced is equivalent to 
 the weight of the body floated. I'he bulb is 
 put on in order that the instrument may float, 
 anil the counterpoise or ballast ensures its 
 floating in an upright position. The stem is 
 of small diameter, in order that small difler- 
 cnees of specific gravities in liquids may show 
 conBidoralilo difl'erences on the scale. Hydro- 
 meters arc usually of glass, though they are 
 sometimes made of metal, (ilass has the ad- 
 vantage of cleanliness, resistance to corrosion, 
 incaiinbilitv of fraudulent alteration except by 
 an experienced worker in glass, and its facility 
 ofmaiiufaclure. Its fragility, however, is a point 
 against it. Some of the first hyilrometers con- 
 structed were mailo so that weights might j'" ji,.jr(,„,(.ter 
 aided to them, either in a pan at the top iif the • 
 stem, or attached between the bull, and counterpoise, and 
 
 hTdrometer, however, introduces considerable complication 
 into the instrument, and renders it difiicult of accurate ad- 
 justment. The .Sikes and Dycas instruments have, how- 
 ever been used as standards in the Uritish custom-house 
 for a considerable period. The Dycas hydrometer was or- 
 dered bv the U. S. Congress as the ofiicial instrument in 
 1790 and was still in use in ISW. This instrument pos- 
 sessed the advantage that by the addition of weights a 
 considerable range might be given to the instrument 
 Nicholson's hvdrometer is, like the preceding ones, ol 
 metal, and has not only a pan at the top of the stem for 
 the reception of weights, but has also a pan just above the 
 counterpoise for the reception of solids of which it may be 
 desirable to determine the specific gravity. The majority 
 of the hydrometers at present in use are invariable in size 
 and weight, and arc usually constructed of glass, borne 
 of these are graduated, so as to read ofl- directly in specific 
 gravities. The hydrometers of Schmidt of Berlin, con- 
 structed carefully on mathematical principles, have given 
 his name to some instruments, made on this plan ; but 
 usually hydrometers made on this plan have not the naino 
 of any individual attached to them. Wilsons or Lovi s 
 beads arc a peculiar form of hydrometer (if a number of 
 bodies can be spoken of in the singular -/"f '^'■)- J^jy 
 consist of a number of bead-like bulbs of glass, slightly 
 difl-ering from each other in weight or volume, each en- 
 graved with a number. On being thrown into a liquid, 
 some float, while others sink, while the figures on the imo 
 which neither floats nor sinks, or barely floats or sinks, show 
 the specific gravity of the liquid under examination. Most 
 hTdrLeters are, however, constructed with an arbitrary 
 scale, so that their readings contain no decimals. Iho 
 Twaddell hvdrometer is so graduated that the >">"''^" "f 
 desrces iniiicated, multiplied by o and added to 1000, 
 give the specific gravity of a liquid referred to water as 
 1000 The marine hvdrometer for sea-water has a range 
 of 40 degrees, the number of degrees indicating t^e third 
 place of decimals in expressing specific gravities; thus^ 5 
 'degrees indicate a sp. gr. of 1.005 ; 22 degrees, of 1.022 
 etc Hydrometers with an arbitrary scale are extensively 
 used in certain manufactures or for testing the products o 
 such manufactures, and are graduated with this object. 
 Thus that of Brix (sometimes called a saccharometer) is 
 graduated so as to indicate at once the percentage of sugar 
 fn an aqueous solution. This is used by sugar-refiners on 
 he Con'tineut. Southworth's hydrometer f^f^'^J"?^ 
 time since in the State of New York by act of the legisla- 
 ture, has the zero-point at the point to which t'.e instrn- 
 ment sinks in proof spirits (oO vols, of alcohol to 50 of 
 water), and the graduations above and below indicate the 
 percentages above or below proof. The hydrometer ot 
 Gay-Lussac (also called alcoholometer) is graduated so that 
 the readings give the percentage of alcoho by volume iii 
 an alcoholic solution, in which alone it is inlended to bo 
 used The temperature, which is an imiiortaiit laclor m 
 considering the indications of a hydrometer, is lor t.ay- 
 Lus-e' "n^strument, 1 o" C. or 50° F. A table of corrections 
 for temperature lias been P"bHshed. The a Icidmlon der 
 of Trallcs is essentially the same a. that ot ^'^. -l/";^^; 
 but is intended for a temperature of C0° F. This is now 
 the oflicial instrument for testing alccdiolic iquors in tho 
 U S Numerous other hydrometers for testing alcoholic 
 liquids have been devised, among which maybe ">ont,oned 
 Richter's, which reads in percentages by weight of alcohol: 
 Mcissner's, which has two scales, one giving percentage by 
 wei-ht, and the other by volume, etc. Dmacourt s galac- 
 ronfetc is intended for use in testing samples of milk for 
 watering. The of tho scale is at the point to which the 
 Tns rumcnt sinks in pure water; tho 100 tlie point o which 
 i^sinks in pure milk . which ordinarily has ■"^P-'ohe grav- 
 T ofl 02i' The space between is divided into 100 equal 
 parts, and the readings of the instrument show, with a 
 ?o'e approximation to the truth, the amount o pure milk 
 which he sample contains. The hydrometer ol lia ling s 
 arbitrarily graduated, its indications being converted into 
 
 3 
 
 therefore below the surface of tin 
 
 liqui 
 
 d. Fahrenheit's hy- 
 
 drometer is a sample of one having the pan at Iho top of 
 the stem, to which weights may be added lu order to sink 
 tho hydrometer to a certain mark. Tho bydromolers ol 
 Sikcs and nvcas are hydrometers where the weights arc 
 added to the portion immersed in the liquid The addi- 
 tion of weights in this way. by increasing the volume of 
 tho immersed portion, as well as the weight of tho entire 
 
 200 . ... 
 specific gravities by the formula sp. gr. = ^--, "i which 
 
 „ represents the reading of the hydrometer, the + sign 
 being used when the liquid is lighter than water, the - 
 sfgi; when it is heavier. This instrument is used by many 
 manufacturers, dyers, etc. in England. 
 
 The instrument, however, which is most generally used, 
 ,,„„i here and abroad, is that of UaunK^ ^'•'''^" "nT^V 
 in,, there arc two instruments bearing the name i.f "'"""'' 
 the one for liquids lighter than water, Ihe othiM- for those 
 heavier, and the seah;s do not correspond. For liquids 
 lighter than water the zero-point is the point '» ;>>"5'' 'J 
 instrument sinks in a solution eontaiuing parts of tom- 
 mou alt, bv weight, in 00 of water, while the lO-niark l. at 
 "he poin fo wMeh tho instrument sinks ,n pure water.
 
 1062 
 
 HYDROPATHY. 
 
 Tlic space between is divided into ten parts, and the 
 j^radations arc continued indefinitely. For liquids heavier 
 than water (lie zero-point is the point to which the instru- 
 ment $\nks in pure water, and 16*^ is at the point to which 
 il sinks tn a solution containing 15 parts by \vcight of coni- 
 
 For the pOse esprit, sp. gr.= ^,"|^ _ ] McCuUoh, iZrpori on 
 
 Hiidrometers, Pub. 
 For the pSse acide, sp. gr. = — i^''— I 1^"*^- ''"'". ^848. 
 
 mon salt in 86 of water. The space is divided into 15 
 parts, and the gradations arc continued indefinitely down- 
 ward. The first-mentioned instrument is called the p^se 
 t:nprity the hitter the yjtKc acidc. The formula) for convert- 
 ing the readings into specific gravities arc — 
 
 136+1 
 
 152 — X J 
 
 Numerous tables have been constructed by different scien- 
 tific men, showing the specific gravities corresponding to 
 the indications of the 13autne hydrometers. They diflTcr 
 somewhat among themselves, owing to the fact that the 
 common salt used to standardize the instruments often con- 
 tains impurities, which cause a slight difference in the in- 
 dications. Moreover, the liquids used, in consequence of 
 the attraction of the glass stem of the hydrometer, rise in 
 a curve against it, so that it is difficult to determine the 
 exact point which coincides with the level of the liquid, and 
 errors of manufacture are* thus introduced. The specific 
 gravities corresponding to the indications of the liaume 
 and Beck hydrometers arc given as follows ( Watta'a DUt., 
 vol. iii. pp.*2U9, 210): 
 
 CompariHitn of the Der/rccs of Baume'a Htfdmmetf.r iritk the 
 rctil Sp'cijic (ii-fnitics of Liquids heavier than water, cal- 
 culated hij G Hpin' 8 formula. 
 
 134+ 1 
 
 Sp. gr. = 
 
 144 
 144 — : 
 
 (iilpin, and 
 
 V. a. Visp. 
 
 Degrees 
 
 gravity. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Spccinc 
 
 gravity. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 SpcciOo 
 gravity. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 SpcciQo 
 gravity. 
 
 
 
 1.000 
 
 20 
 
 1.152 
 
 39 
 
 1.345 
 
 58 
 
 1.617 
 
 1 
 
 1.007 
 
 21 
 
 1.160 
 
 40 
 
 1.3.57 
 
 59 
 
 1.634 
 
 2 
 
 1.013 
 
 22 
 
 1.1C9 
 
 41 
 
 1.3G9 
 
 60 
 
 1.052 
 
 3 
 
 1.020 
 
 23 
 
 1.178 
 
 42 
 
 1.382 
 
 61 
 
 1.670 
 
 4 
 
 1.027 
 
 24 
 
 1.188 
 
 43 
 
 1.39.5 
 
 02 
 
 1.689 
 
 5 
 
 1.031 
 
 2.5 
 
 1.197 
 
 44 
 
 1.407 
 
 63 
 
 1.708 
 
 fi 
 
 1.041 
 
 2f. 
 
 1.20S 
 
 43 
 
 1.421 
 
 64 
 
 1.727 
 
 7 
 
 1.043 
 
 27 
 
 1.21G 
 
 46 
 
 1.434 
 
 Gj 
 
 1.747 
 
 8 
 
 1.055 
 
 28 
 
 1.22G 
 
 47 
 
 1.118 
 
 CG 
 
 1.767 
 
 
 
 1.0G3 
 
 2!) 
 
 1.23G 
 
 48 
 
 1.462 
 
 67 
 
 1.788 
 
 10 
 
 l.OTO 
 
 30 
 
 1.240 
 
 49 
 
 1.176 
 
 68 
 
 1.809 
 
 11 
 
 1.078 
 
 31 
 
 1.25G 
 
 50 
 
 1.490 
 
 69 
 
 1.831 
 
 12 
 
 1.08G 
 
 32 
 
 1.2G7 
 
 51 
 
 1.505 
 
 70 
 
 1.834 
 
 13 
 
 1.094 
 
 33 
 
 1.277 
 
 52 
 
 1.520 
 
 71 
 
 1.877 
 
 14 
 
 1.101 
 
 34 
 
 1.288 
 
 03 
 
 1.535 
 
 72 
 
 1.900 
 
 lo 
 
 1.109 
 
 3o 
 
 1.299 
 
 61 
 
 1..531 
 
 73 
 
 1.924 
 
 Ifi 
 
 I.IIS 
 
 3G 
 
 1.310 
 
 53 
 
 1.367 
 
 74 
 
 1,949 
 
 17 
 
 1.120 
 
 37 
 
 1.322 
 
 56 
 
 1.533 
 
 75 
 
 1.974 
 
 IS 
 
 1.134 
 
 38 
 
 1.333 
 
 57 
 
 l.GOO 
 
 76 
 
 2.000 
 
 19 
 
 1.143 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 liaumCe Hydrometer for Liquids Htjhter than Water, calcu- 
 lated by Gilpin's formula. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Spccilio ; 
 gravity. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Specific 
 gravity. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Specific 
 gravity. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 .Specillc 
 gravity. 
 
 10 
 
 1.000 
 
 23 
 
 .913 
 
 36 
 
 .849 
 
 49 
 
 .789 
 
 11 
 
 U.993 
 
 24 
 
 .913 
 
 37 
 
 .844 
 
 50 
 
 .785 
 
 12 
 
 .986 
 
 23 
 
 .937 
 
 33 
 
 .8.39 
 
 51 
 
 .781 
 
 13 
 
 .980 
 
 26 
 
 .901 
 
 39 
 
 .8S4 
 
 52 
 
 .777 
 
 14 
 
 .973 
 
 27 
 
 .896 
 
 40 
 
 .830 
 
 53 
 
 .773 
 
 15 
 
 .967 
 
 28 
 
 .890 
 
 41 
 
 .82.5 
 
 54 
 
 .768 
 
 16 
 
 .960 
 
 29 
 
 .885 
 
 42 
 
 .820 
 
 55 
 
 .764 
 
 17 
 
 .934 
 
 30 
 
 .880 
 
 43 
 
 .816 
 
 56 
 
 .760 
 
 18 
 
 .948 
 
 31 
 
 .874 
 
 41 
 
 .811 
 
 57 
 
 .757 
 
 19 
 
 .942 
 
 32 
 
 .8G9 
 
 43 
 
 .807 
 
 58 
 
 .753 
 
 20 
 
 .936 
 
 33 
 
 .864 
 
 4G 
 
 .802 
 
 59 
 
 .749 
 
 21 
 
 .930 
 
 34 
 
 .859 
 
 47 
 
 .798 
 
 60 
 
 .745 
 
 22 
 
 .924 
 
 35 
 
 .854 
 
 48 
 
 .794 
 
 
 
 Table for converting degrees of Beck's Hydrometer into real 
 Specific Gravities. 
 
 . 
 
 Speolflc gravity. 
 
 i 
 
 Speoiac gravity. | 
 
 
 SpceiQe gravity. 
 
 
 Greater 
 
 Less 
 tiiao 
 1.000. 
 
 .991 ! 
 
 Greater 
 
 Less 
 than 
 1.000. 
 
 E 
 
 Greater 
 
 Less 
 
 tlian 
 1.000. 
 
 ° 
 
 tbaul.OOO. 
 
 Q 
 23 
 
 Ibanl.OOO. 
 
 a 
 
 thauiOOO. 
 
 1 
 
 1.006 
 
 1.172 
 
 .872 1 
 
 48 
 
 1393 
 
 .7.80 
 
 2 
 
 I.0I2 
 
 .9S8 1 
 
 26 
 
 1.181 
 
 .867 
 
 49 
 
 1.4U3 
 
 .776 
 
 3 
 
 I.OIS 
 
 .983 > 
 
 27 
 
 1.1S9 
 
 .863 
 
 50 
 
 1.417 
 
 .773 
 
 4 
 
 1.024 
 
 .977 
 
 28 
 
 1.197 
 
 .859 
 
 51 
 
 1.429 
 
 .769 
 
 3 
 
 I.OiiO 
 
 .971 
 
 29 
 
 1.206 
 
 .854 
 
 52 
 
 1.441 
 
 .766 
 
 6 
 
 1.037 
 
 .956 
 
 30 
 
 1.214 
 
 .850 
 
 53 
 
 1.433 
 
 .762 
 
 7 
 
 1.043 
 
 .91)0 
 
 31 
 
 1.223 
 
 .846 
 
 54 
 
 1.466 
 
 .759 
 
 8 
 
 1.019 
 
 .933 
 
 32 
 
 1.232 
 
 .842 
 
 55 
 
 1.478 
 
 .7.56 
 
 9 
 
 1.0.56 
 
 .950 
 
 33 
 
 1.241 
 
 .837 
 
 .50 
 
 1.491 
 
 .752 
 
 10 
 
 1.063 
 
 .944 
 
 31 
 
 1.250 
 
 .833 
 
 .57 
 
 1.5M 
 
 .719 
 
 11 
 
 1.069 
 
 .939 
 
 35 
 
 1.2.59 
 
 .829 
 
 SS 
 
 1.518 
 
 .746 
 
 12 
 
 1.076 
 
 .934 
 
 36 
 
 1.268 
 
 .825 
 
 59 
 
 1.5-12 
 
 .742 
 
 13 
 
 1.1 183 
 
 .929 
 
 37 
 
 1.278 
 
 .821 
 
 60 
 
 1.516 
 
 .739 
 
 14 
 
 l.liOD 
 
 .924 
 
 38 
 
 1.288 
 
 .817 
 
 61 
 
 1..5G0 
 
 .736 
 
 13 
 
 1.097 
 
 .919 
 
 39 
 
 1.298 
 
 .813 
 
 G2 
 
 1.574 
 
 .733 
 
 16 
 
 1.104 
 
 .914 
 
 ! 40 
 
 1.303 
 
 .810 
 
 63 
 
 1..589 
 
 .730 
 
 IT 
 
 1.111 
 
 .909 
 
 41 
 
 1.318 
 
 .806 
 
 64 
 
 1.604 
 
 .727 
 
 IS 
 
 1.118 
 
 .904 
 
 42 
 
 1.328 
 
 .802 
 
 63 
 
 1.619 
 
 .723 
 
 19 
 
 1.120 
 
 .899 
 
 43 
 
 1.339 
 
 .798 
 
 66 
 
 1.635 
 
 .720 
 
 20 
 
 l.I.)3 
 
 .893 
 
 44 
 
 i.:M9 
 
 .794 
 
 07 
 
 1.631 
 
 .717 
 
 21 
 
 1.141 
 
 .890 
 
 43 
 
 1.360 
 
 .791 
 
 68 
 
 1.667 
 
 .714 
 
 22 
 
 1.119 
 
 .885 
 
 46 
 
 1.371 
 
 .787 
 
 69 
 
 1.683 
 
 .711 
 
 23 
 
 1.1.57 
 
 .881 
 
 47 
 
 1.382 
 
 .783 
 
 70 
 
 1.700 
 
 .708 
 
 24 
 
 1.104 
 
 .876 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The Holland hydrometer is essentially the same as 
 Kaume's, used, as its name implies, in Holland, where it is 
 the official standard. The instrument of Carticr. adopted 
 at one time by the French government, is essentially the 
 same as that of Buume. The 22°-mark of each is the same ; 
 for other points, either above or lielow, 15° of the Carlier 
 scale correspond with 16° of the Baum6 scale. The con- 
 struction of this instrument was really an infringement 
 upon Baum^, who was thereby deprived of the emoluments 
 wiiieh he would otherwise have receivcil had his instru- 
 ments, instead of Carticr's, been adopted by the government. 
 Beck's hydrometer is one having the zero-point corre- 
 sponding to a sp. gr, of 1, and 'M) to sp. gr. 0.850, and the 
 scale is extended by equal divisions both above and below 0. 
 Several other hydrometers with arbitrary scales have been 
 constructed, but as a general rule their use is so limited 
 that a further enumeration of the instruments is unim- 
 portant. 
 
 Temperature naturally has a considerable effect on the 
 indications of the hydrometer. All the above-mentioned 
 instruments are intended to be used at the ordinary tem- 
 perature, or about 00° F. 
 
 A hydrometer resembling a flute — in fact a graduated 
 brass tube closed and loaded at one end — is det-cribed, 
 under the name of hydroHcopittm, in a letter of Synesius to 
 llyjiatia. but Archimedes is claimed to be the real inventor. 
 It was not introduced into general use, however, until the 
 close of the seventeenth century. E. Wallkk. 
 
 Hydrop'athy [Gr. iiSup, " water." and naeelv, from 
 Traffxetf. to " sufi'er "]. The numerous health institutions in 
 the U. S. and other countries under ihe names of '• water- 
 cures," "hydropathic establishments," "hygienic insti- 
 tutes," and '* Iiygeian homes," where invalids of all classes 
 are treated by means of bathing, diet, exercise, and other 
 hygienic agencies to the exclusion of all drug medicines, 
 illustrate the extensive results that can often lie traced to 
 insignificant beginnings. The incident of a >prained wrist, 
 and the instinctive application of water IVom an adjacent 
 pum]», originated an entire system of the htaling art. 
 Vincent Priessnitz, a German peasant of Silesia, being then 
 thirteen years of age, sprained his wrist, and. finding that 
 water allayed the ])ain and inflammation, followed the ap- 
 plication with that of a wet cloth ( l'iii>irhl>i;/), from which 
 also he received much beneiit. Anotlier accident, Ihcerush- 
 ing of his thumb, enabled him soon after to repeat the ex- 
 periment of water-treatment with a similar result. But in 
 this ease the cure was attended with a rash on the skin, 
 which lie attributed to impurity of the blood, and at once 
 conceived the idea that water favored (he elimination of 
 morbid matter from Ihe system, and was therefore u puri- 
 fying as well as a soothing agent. This rash was the 
 origin of the idea of '■ crisis " which subsccjuently became 
 an important feature in the hydropathic treatment of 
 chronic diseases, although at the present lime crises aro 
 regarded as accidental complications, ralher than essential 
 conditions, of the eliminating processes. In his nineteenth 
 year Priessnitz met with an accident which fractured several 
 ribs, and so displaced the bones that the surgeons found it 
 difficult to rej)lace them satisfactorily. But the sufferer 
 was equal to the emergency. I..eaning over a window-sill 
 and inflating the lungs to the utUKtst, the ingenious patient 
 succeeded in bringing the broken ends of (lie bones in 
 juxtaposition. To alleviate the soreness and inflammation, 
 Priessnitz npplied his favorite wet bandage. This relieved, 
 and was followed by another rash, which confirmed him in 
 the theory that water was a powerful eliminating agent. 
 In his intercourse with his neighbors Priessnitz naturally 
 suggested the water-treatment to others in their various 
 accidents and ailments, and acquired considerable reputa- 
 tion as a*' water-doctor." But he soon learned that many 
 severe and protracted chronic diseases required a more 
 thorougli and careful management and a stricter regimen 
 than most jiersons were able or willing to attend to in con- 
 nection with business and family cares at home. This ob- 
 servation induced !iim to open an institution where patients 
 could have ])roper nursing facilities, and where the neces- 
 sary discipline could be enjoined ; and in IS^J'J the famtuis 
 Griifcnberg water-cure began to receive patients — whore, 
 reducing his ]dan to something like order and system, a 
 variety of baths, .adapted to ditTerent cases and constitu- 
 tions, was added to the remedial appliances. Among these
 
 IIYDK0P1I1D.E— IIYDKOI'IIOBIA. 
 
 1063 
 
 were the flin-turh, or rubbing wet sheet, the wct-shoctpack, 
 the dry-blaukct or sweating pack, the hip or *SVrs-bath, (he 
 head-bath, fout-bath, douche, spray, plunge, wave, etc. 
 batlis. 
 
 Patients were soon attracted to rirUfenberg from nearly 
 all parts of the civilized world, ani! the writinj^s uf Claridge, 
 Seudumore, Johnson, Wilson, and ( I ullyolKngland. I'ranckc, 
 Wfiss. and Munde of Germany, and Jlcnry ('. Wrij^ht and 
 Drs. Trail and Shew of the U. S., made the public tamiliar 
 with the leading features of the system. It has been 
 charged that some of the practice at Orafeuberg. in the 
 application of cold water, water-drinking, and exercise, 
 was too severe, especially for the feeble invalids suffering 
 from nervous and dyspeptic affections. It wuuld be very 
 strange if, in the infancy of the sy!>tera. such errurs did not 
 occur. But it is not true that his method was a " coftl 
 water-cure." nor that he treated all diseases with "water 
 alone." He attached great importance to the auxiliaries 
 of 8im|)lieity of diet, due exercise, a proper amount of 
 sleep, and other hygienic infiuences. Priessnitz was sus- 
 pected of using more or less medicine clandestinely, and on 
 that suspicion he was arrested and imprisoned fi)r prac- 
 tising medicine without a license : but as no meciicine of 
 any kind could be found by analyzing the water in which 
 his patients were bathed and the sponges through which 
 the patients drank while enveloped in the "pack," he was 
 acquitted and released. 
 
 A hydropathic society was organized in London in 1842, 
 and soon after institutions were opened at Malvern and 
 other places in (Jreat Britain. The system was introduced 
 into the U. S. in 1S4;J by the writings of Drs. Trail and 
 Shew. In the spring of ISU. Dr. Trail opened an institu- 
 ti<m in New York, and in the fall of the same year Dr. 
 Shew opened another. In the spring of 1845, Dr. Shew 
 opened an institution at Lebanon Springs, N. Y., in con- 
 nection with David Camphcll. In a few years thereafter 
 there were U'O similar institutions in the country. 
 
 The entire literature of the system embraces about 100 
 volumes, the most popular and com]trehcnsivo of which are 
 Dr. Trail's /fi/dropritftir Eiiri/cfopTtlia and Dr. Shcw's ////- 
 dropatfiir Fnmihf Plnjsirinti. Of European works, the best 
 known are rrnnche on the W'ntrr-mre, Johnmtn'n ffi/drop- 
 affiif, and O'ulft/ on Chronic DinrnHci. The W'ntcr-Cttrc 
 Joiinuit was slarted by Dr. Shew in LS44, and in 1S45 
 transferred to Fowler & Wells, who continued its publi- 
 cation for twenty years. About 1S7:1 S. H. Wells, who 
 succeeded the firm of Fowler A Wells, commcnctd the 
 publication of a monthly periodical entitled the Science 
 uf lirnlth, on the plan of the original Wtiter-Cnre Jourvnt, 
 and intended to be an exponent of the system. But it must 
 be observed that in the U. S. the term hi/dropitthj/, which 
 literally means " water-disease," is generally regarded as a 
 misnomer: and the majority of practitioners have adopted 
 the term hygienic, for the reason that tho system contem- 
 plates the treatment of diseases by means of all hygienic 
 agencies, of which water is only one. They claim, too, 
 that while in many cases — fevers and inllammations, for 
 example — water may he the leading remedy, in other 
 cases — dyspepsia, scrofula, plethora, etc. — diet, exercise, 
 rcMl. or some other agency may bo of much more relative 
 importance than water. K. T. Thall. 
 
 Ilydroph'id.T [fromr.Sujp," water/* and S^i^." serpent"], 
 n family of protcroglyph serpents (i. r. gcrpt-nts with front 
 teeth grooved to serve as canals for the contents of the poi- 
 8on-glnnds) distinguished by tho compression (»f tho caudal 
 vertebra) and the extension of their neural spines and liy- 
 papophysea to serve as a basis for a compressed tail, which 
 is udiipted for s^vimming by propulsion from side to side. 
 The serpents contained in this group are highly venomous, 
 and art- pre-eminently adnpted for aquatic life. They arc 
 ehirfly inhabitants of tho List Indian neas, but one s|>ccies 
 is also found on the Pacific coast of Central America. They 
 arc generally beautifully colored, and may at onco be rec- 
 ognized by their very compressed tail. Kcvcral genera 
 and a number of species have been described. 
 
 TnronoRE Gri,L. 
 
 Ily'drophilc, or Ilyilropliilidtr [from /fi/drophifui, 
 
 " water-lover," one of the genera], a name given to various 
 water beetles, coleopterous insects often having oar-like 
 legs for fiwiniming purposes. They constitute a family, 
 Ilydrophilidic, whose larvie arc carnivorous, while the per- 
 fect insects live on decaying vegetables. Thus they arc 
 important water-scavengers. The brown hydrophile (//y- 
 drophiluH pircHM) Is ono of tho largest Kuropvan beetles. 
 
 Ilydropho'bia (syns. W'ntt r-drrad, liuhic», Rnhiet 
 cnuiim, ttiihivM tunOitfioHti, Ltfftn, Li/nun, Cifindf/aMO, Ltfnna 
 cnniii'i, Entania li/tta, /ftfifraphithitt, Airophobin^ Enthi»- 
 tnuM hi/druphohin, Cfoium htfdrophitltiti, Ptiutophohift, Pttra- 
 ph'ifnti, Phohndiju^i'i, Phrinftfiinnt, Ci/ntitithrnpitt, litf^vatn- 
 ptmiit, Phrenitin tatraiiM ; Kr. Jiti'je, Hydrophobic, lirachy- 
 
 potir, Mftl de St. Hubert ; Gcr. Wttth der Huude, I/uudit. 
 WHthy llttndtoUheit, Wnthhrankhcit, WaHnerHchctir ; Dutch, 
 WntcrvrccH, Hondndolhcid ; Sp. Jiabia, Hidrofobin ; It. 
 Rabbia, Idro/obia ; Hung. Dwhobctft Kntyak diibouxfit/rh ; 
 Polish, li'itci'fX7i'nia; Roumanian, 7'urburea: Turk. Kinftiz. 
 Qiiodtiozfyy, KtiUh ; Arab. ( pure) Ifd ul htiUtb iiw til khucf 
 ntia alma: (Algiers) Mkloub; (IJarbaryl hith: Dan. ISnudn- 
 krock ; Swed. \\'attrjinknick ; Hind. Ifautdntl kiitta), [from 
 the Greek vBup, "water," and 4>o^o<;, "fear"] is a remark- 
 able disease to which both the human species and probably 
 all of the brute creation arc subject. In examining its 
 very interesting history we find that the Hebrew writers 
 are altogether silent in regard to it, and we can discover 
 only rare allusions to it among other authors previous to 
 the Christian era. Such references, however, are sufficient 
 to indicate that, although it may not have been so prevalent 
 among the nations of anti(juity as among those of more 
 modern periods, yet it was in very ancient times recognized 
 as a peculiar disorder iniesting certain animals, and even 
 man himself. The earliest distinct mention of the disease 
 occurs in a Hindoo medical work of great antiquity — dat- 
 ing probably as far back as nine or ten centuries before 
 Christ — written by a renowned i)hysieian named Susruta. 
 It is observed therein that when dogs, jackals, foxes, wolves, 
 bears, or tigers become rabid, they foam at the mouth, 
 which remains open and from which flows saliva; their 
 tails hang down; they do not hear or see well; they snap 
 at and bite one another, and thus communicate the same 
 malady* The symptoms of hydrophobia in human beings 
 who have been bitten arc likewise detailed briefly, and arc 
 said to terminate in convulsions and death. Scarification 
 of the wound and burning it with boiling (/her — a sort of 
 oil made from butter — are recommended, as well as various 
 antidotes to bo subsequently a<Jministcred. Tliis concise 
 and rem.arkably accurate dciicription of the affection, with 
 suggestions for treatment, may be regarded as an epitome 
 of all ancient and modern research upon the subject. Tho 
 extract given can be found in Wise's //ihtury of Medicine 
 ftinoutf the HindonH. Homer is supposed to allude to hydro- 
 phobia in the expression kuvo. Xvffffijr^pa of the fliud, where 
 Hector is compared to a raging dog. There are two pas- 
 sages in Hippocrates whieli appear to indicate that the 
 physician ot Cos had observed its charaetcristic symptoms 
 in man. but failed to regard it otherwise than as a variety 
 of idiopathic phrcnitis. His contemjiorary. Democritus, 
 howevci", who was a famous traveller, had probably encoun- 
 tered the disease in foreign regions, as he was evidently 
 well acquainted with its most striking peculiarities. Wo 
 arc informed by the distinguished jibysician Cu^lius Aure- 
 lianus that Democritus. in a treatise upon opisthotonos, had 
 described the affection in the human subject, admitting its 
 origin from the bite of rabid animals, but ctjiisiduriug it 
 simply as a form of tetanus. Theocritus and Plalo refer 
 to madness among wolves. Aristotle, in his Hittory of 
 Auimah, remarks that dogs are afllicted with madness. 
 quinsy, and gout; that the first renders them furious and 
 inclined to bite other animals, which thereupon also become 
 rabid; and that all animals execjit man are liable to bo 
 seized with and destroyed by the malady so engendered. 
 Artemidorus and Gains, who flourished some two centuries 
 B. c, allude to the disease, the former locating it in the 
 stomach, and the latter in the j)neumogastric. Aselepiades, 
 less than 100 years a. r., refers the chief cause of hydro- 
 phobia to irritation of the brain membranes. 
 
 In the early jiortion of the Christian era tho allusions to 
 this affection become more frequent. M. Artorius. tho 
 friend and medical attendant of .\ugustus. speaks of it in 
 a treatise on the subject as being situated in the st<)mach. 
 Gratius Faliscus. a poet of the same period, describes rabies 
 in a work entitletl the (\i/ue(/rticnn. Virgil, in his (ironjicit, 
 classes rabies among the di.'-tempcrs of cattle and sheep 
 induced by a pestilential condition of the atmosphere. 
 Ovid speaks of a rabid slie-wolf and rabid centaurs (ciiZ-m/i 
 /iiinenibrca), and Pliny <»f the bite of a nm<l dog. Ovid 
 states, moreover, that hydrtqdiobia and gout are incurable 
 maladies, while Pliny advises a number of specifies for the 
 prevention of the former. Horace employs the expression 
 rabicM canin in a figurative sense, applying it to the fierce 
 heat of the d(»g-slar. instead of using the ordinary phrase. 
 antuH nniiriifiT. The disease is mentioned by Columella, ii 
 writer on husbandry in the first century, who alludes to an 
 opinion eommon among shepherds that a dog may be en- 
 8ure<l against rabies by biting ofl' the last bone of its tail 
 on the fortieth day after birth. This is still a popular su- 
 perstition. Suetonius relers to wiM animals allVeted with 
 madness (/cnt rabidit ). Kumedes, a physician in the reign 
 of Tiberius, makes some interesting observations upon tho 
 discafie, remarking that even the shedding of tears will ex- 
 cite pharyngeal spasms in an affeetod person. Dioseor- 
 itle-. in the time of Nero, appears to be tlie first who claims 
 to huvo actually observed and treated the disease. Both
 
 1064 
 
 HYDROPHOBIA. 
 
 he and Galen desoribo it as attacking animals and men, 
 and agree in the opinion of its uommunicability from the 
 former to the hitter by contact of morbid saliva with the 
 second skin. But (lalen, and C'elsus as well, concern them- 
 .■^elves rather with the prevention and treatment of hydro- 
 phobia than with its history and progress. Their contem- 
 porary, Magnus of Ephesus, locates the affei-tion in the 
 stomach and diaphragm. According to Plutarch, it was 
 not until the time of Pompcy the Great that the rabific 
 )M>ison first began to manifest itself among human beings. 
 Andreas of Caryste, a physician of the Alexandrian school, 
 has left a work upon the disease, which he terms Kyt-oAvaao?. 
 CiKlius Aurclianus, whom we have mentioned, a distin- 
 guished physician of the reign of Trajan or Hadrian, or 
 perhaps as late as the fifth century, is the first to furnish 
 an accurate detailed description of the affection in man, 
 and of the various controversies regarding it. He men- 
 tions it as being endemic in Caria and Crete. He called it 
 pasHto hi/drophubica, and relates one instance of its occur- 
 rence in a seamstress who used her teeth to rip the cloak 
 of a hydropholiic patient. About the same period the 
 affection is treated of with more or less minuteness by 
 Pedanius Dioscorides the Cilician, Claudius ^Elianus. Clau- 
 dius Galeuus, Oribasius, and Vegetius Rcnatus. /Etius, a 
 Mesopotamian doctor of the sixth century, is the first to 
 furnish anything like an accurate description of rabies in 
 dogs. A century later the physician Paulas ^Egineta gives 
 an excellent account of hydrophobia, dividing it into two 
 varieties — viz. that arising from inoculation, always fatal, 
 and that due to nervous irritability, capable of cure. A 
 similar distinction is now sometimes made, particularly by 
 French authors. Among the Arabian physicians, Yahia- 
 ebn-Serapion, Rhazes, Africanus, and Avicenna mention the 
 disease. Yahia-ebn-Serapion, who lived in the ninth cen- 
 tury, expresses the opinion that the affection produced by 
 the bite of a mad dog is incurable. Rhazes affirms that a 
 certain hydrophobic man barked by night like a dog and 
 died, and that another when he beheld water was seized 
 with trembling, extreme terror, and rigors. Avicenna, at 
 the commencement of the eleventh century, describes hy- 
 drophobia with considerable fulness, noticing several of its 
 phenomena ignored by the (rreek and Roman authors. He 
 terms it simply canit rabi'di morsus. Since the time of 
 Paulus .Egineta we find the disease described by numerous 
 European writers, the study of its symptomatology es- 
 pecially keeping pace with the general progress of medical 
 science. In 1020 an outbreak of rabies among dogs is 
 mentioned in the laws of Uowel the Good. From that 
 time it appears to have been well known in England, nu- 
 merous specific remedies, charms, and incantations against 
 it being recommended in old Anglo-.Saxon manuscripts still 
 extant. On the continent of Europe the modern history 
 of rabies is obscure until the thirteenth century. One of 
 the earliest reports of scientific interest refers to wolves 
 afllicted with the disease in Franconia, Germany, in 1271, 
 where more than thirty shepherds and peasants fell victims 
 to their attacks. Since that period wo find frequent men- 
 tion of the affection as ])rcvailing in an epizootic form in 
 almost every country of Europe, but more particularly in 
 the wooded districts of Germany. Switzerland, and France, 
 appearing to attack principally wolves, dogs, and foxes. 
 \ ulpine mailness. however, was not noticed until the be- 
 ginning of the present century in Europe, although it had 
 appeared in the neighborhood of Boston, U. S., in 170S. 
 In 177t> rabies made its first appearance in the French 
 AV'est Indies, and in 178.? it became extremely prevalent 
 throughout the U. S., and since that time the disease in 
 br»th animals and men has occupied a prominent place in 
 our medical literature. It was unknown in South America 
 until 1^03, when it broke out in Peru. It has been recog- 
 nized for centuries in Northern Africa, hut its presence in 
 Western anil Southern Africa is denied upon the authority 
 of dii^tinguished travellers. In Asia its history, as we have 
 seen, is very ancient. It has never appeared in Australia 
 or New Zealand. 
 
 The popular belief that hydrophobia is in all animals 
 characterized by an nhhofrence o/ irnter was long since 
 proved to be erroneous. The mad dog laps it eagerly, and 
 will not hesitate to swim in it when it obstructs his course. 
 In the case of man, however, the attempt to ilrink, or what- 
 ever is suggestive in any manner of that act, induces such 
 dreadful spasms of the muscles of deglutition and respira- 
 tion, with sense of suffocation, that a horror of fluids, even 
 though associated with intolerable thirst, may be truly re- 
 garded as one of the most prominent and characteristic 
 features of the disease. For these reasons a distinct term, 
 nif/if". has been employed by some wrilers to designate this 
 affection as it prevails among the brute creation, the word 
 hi/drophobia being restricted to the disorder as manifested 
 in num. Such a distinction is observed by Fleming, a 
 recent English author, who has written certainly the best 
 
 work upon the subject. Others have spoken of rabirM in a 
 universal sense, while endeavoring to abolish entirely the 
 term hydrophobia. Numerous other more or less compre- 
 hensive terms have been proposed to distinguish the affec- 
 tion, but hydrophobia has continued, and will probably 
 always continue, to be its most popular and general name 
 among English-speaking nations. 
 
 Although the manifestations of hydrophobia are clearly 
 modified by character, habit, and temperament in various 
 species and varieties of animals, and even in individual.s, 
 it is undoubtedly the same disease in all, whatever its pecu- 
 liar form or mode of origin and propagation. It is almost 
 universally conceded that the introduction of a gpectjic vinit, 
 from a rabid animal, into the gysteni, through either an ac- 
 tual wound, an abraded KtirJ'iire, or a drlirate mucoiia mem- 
 brane, in an efmentiul preliminary to the licvrlopment of thin 
 affection in man. But its origin among brutes has always 
 been, and still is, a subject of much discussion, and one 
 worthy of our most serious consideration. Hydrophobia 
 certainly infests, and by many is regarded as originating 
 de n'ico among, certain Carnivora — viz. the dog, wolf. 
 jackal, cat, skunk, and raccoon — while herbivorous and 
 other creatures, including man, contract it by inoculation 
 atone. Of the various conditions asserted as favoring its 
 spontaneous development in the canine race, few have even 
 a probable foundation. They are principally repressed sex- 
 ual desire, extremes of atmospheric temperature, excitement 
 of anger, want of water, and putrid or insufficient food. 
 Ziegler fixes the origin of the disease in lack of the instinc- 
 tive degree of nourishment from blood and flesh, and hence 
 designates it Hfntdnrsf and Fleisclnjier. Still another pre- 
 sumed influence is the presence under the dog's tongue 
 of a worm-like appendage, whose extirpation in pnppy- 
 hood is considered an infallible preventive of the disease. 
 This idea may doubtless be referred to a very ancient myth. 
 Pliny speaks of it, terming the peculiar appendage lyssa. 
 The Germans term it ToHwiirm, or worm of madness, and 
 among them it has long been a popular superstition. The 
 practice of removing this so-called worm still exists in 
 Thrace, Turkey, Greece, Roumania, Moldo - Wallachia, 
 Spain, and even in the Southern U. S. Its efficacy has been 
 entirely disproved by scientific investigation, and the ojiera- 
 tion may be best cb.aracterized, in the expressive language 
 of Dr. Johnson, as " a substance — nobody knows what, ex- 
 tracted — nobody knows why." The other presumed causes 
 of spontaneous hydrophobia would appear to be equally 
 equivocal. Unsatisfied salacity, putrid food, hunger, thirst, 
 anger, and extremes of temperature are manifestly circum- 
 stances which obtain among dogs quite generally through- 
 out the world. But in some regions abounding in dogs 
 hydrophobia has always, so far as can be learned, been 
 either totally unknown or extremely rare, while in others 
 exempt from it for ages it has only recently appeared, and 
 in most instances can be traced positively to importation. 
 Such exemption has been particularly noticed in various 
 islands throughout the world and in isolated localities. It 
 is related that Mr. Meynell. the most eminent English sports- 
 man of the last century, preserved his kennel of hounds 
 from hydrophobia during many years by forcing every new 
 dog to undergo a rigid quarantine of several months pre- 
 paratory to his admission into the pack. There is little 
 doubt that were the universal adoption of such a system 
 of sequestration practicable, rabies would become extin- 
 guished. 
 
 Jiohiev caninn prevails indifferently in all seasons, as the 
 following figures prove most conclusively. They embody 
 the large number of 2620 distinct and authentic cases ob- 
 served in France, Italy, Austria, England, and the U. S. 
 The foreign statistics refer almost exclusively to cases in- 
 vestigated by distinguished veterinary surgeons; those of 
 our own country (1 01) are derived from a report on the 
 subject by Dr. Blatchford to the American Medical Asso- 
 ciation in 18.^6. Of the 2520 cases, there occurred 704 in 
 the spring, 621 in the summer. 60S in the autumn, and 587 
 in tlie winter. These figures demonstrate the absurdity of 
 repressive laws designed to be in operation only in the dog- 
 days, when the canine race is ]iopularly supposed, as Mr. 
 Mayo observes, to be afflicted with a sort of dog-lunacy, 
 having the same relation to Sirius that human insanity has 
 to the moon. 
 
 We must acknowledge our ignorance of any influences 
 concerned in the spontaneous development of this disorder, 
 and accept the theory of j'm reproduction nolely by inoml'i- 
 tion from one animnl to another. Such certainly is the 
 mode of its transmission in the rant mnjority of in^tancm; 
 and although it be urged that the disease must have sprung 
 from a beginning, such argument when used with regard 
 to any communicable affection can only remove us from the 
 sphere of susceptible proof hack to the confines of the mys- 
 terious and impenetrable domain of original causes. It 
 seems quite well established that all creatures liable to con-
 
 HYDROPHOBIA. 
 
 1065 
 
 tract the disease are also in a greater or less dcgrco compe- 
 tent to transmit it.and wcknowof noanimal.s exempt from it. 
 It is true that herbiv<irou.'* and runiiniiting beasts, owing to 
 the formation of their jaws and teeth, as well as to tlieir 
 seldom attempting to bite when rabid (sheep only except- 
 ed), rarely communicate the disease; and hence the belief, 
 entertained for some time by such eminent men as Sir 
 Astley Cooper and the veterinary professors Coleman and 
 Renault, that the power to propagate the atfectlon was con- 
 fincil to such animals as naturally employ their teeth for 
 weapons of offence. The fallacy of this opinion has bet*n 
 proved by numerous unrjuestionable experiments, and it is 
 now likewise conceded by the best authorities that the sa- 
 liva of a hydrophobic human being is capable of inoculat- 
 ini; the disease. 
 
 Among the various crcnturca subject to hydrophobia, 
 the dog, on account of its intimate association witV man. 
 is not only our greatest source of danger, but it affords us 
 the most frequent opportunities for observing the phenom- 
 ena of this redoubtable affection. A knowledge of the dis- 
 ease, therefore, as manifested in the canine race is of vital 
 importance in enabling us to recognize it promptly, and 
 thus to escape the dreadful consequences of its communica- 
 tion to ourselves. Hydrophobia in the dog has been by 
 sumo writers rlivided into two varieties, dumb and furiouit 
 rabies, according as the animal is silent and uuilcmonstra- 
 tive or noisy and fierce. Other authors recognize still a 
 third variety, which they term tntn^piH rabies, where the 
 animal is quiet, indifferent, and unaggressive. These dis- 
 tinctions, however, are by no means clear, and are alto- 
 gether denied by VircUow. who considers the different 
 forms merely as prolonged conditions or stages which, ac- 
 cording to him. are — 1st, the stage of mehini-hulif; 2d, the 
 irrit'thle and fnriouH: .'id, the purahjtlc stage, ft is often 
 very difficult to detect the existence of rabit;s in its nascent 
 state. This accounts for most oases of hydrophobia in per- 
 sons inoculated by dogs supposed not to have been mad 
 which dieil or were injudiciously destroyed before the full 
 development of the disease. Fortunately, however, the 
 disposition to bite is not apt to be exhibited until the 
 affection is well established. The disease is first mani- 
 fested by constant restlessness, uneasiness, and irritability 
 of temper, the dog of fondling and sociable dispo;>ition be- 
 coming snarly, morose, and shy, retiring under pieces of 
 furniture, into dark corners, or the interior of its kennel, but 
 not remaining long in any one spot, and being continually 
 engaged in licking, scrati-hing, or rubbing some portion of 
 its body. Costivcness and vomiting arc often present. The 
 appetite becomes depraved, such indigestible substances as 
 hits of thread, hair. wood, glass, straw, and dung being 
 swallowed by the animal, which also shows a propensity 
 to lap its own urino and oat its own excrement. It grows 
 quarrelsome towards its canine companions, and chases 
 and worries the eat. The countenance undergoes a marked 
 change; that of the doeilo and affectionate dog assumes an 
 earnest, inquiring, appealing expression ; that of the savage 
 brute becomes the very ])icture of ferocity. In the early 
 stages the animal's attachment for its master appears 
 greatly exaggerate»l, and as long as it retains its con- 
 ficiouHness it will refrain from injuring him. Two early 
 ancl characteristic signs of rabies arc a pei-nliar delirium, 
 causin.; the animal to snap at imaginary objects in the air, 
 and a remarkable alteration in its voice, the bark ending 
 very abruptly and singularly in a how] a fifth, sixth, or 
 eighth higher than at the conimeneeinent. Souu-tinn-s it 
 will utter a hoarse inward bark, rising slightly in tone at 
 the close. Common .symjitoms are strabismus and twitch- 
 ings of the face. In a couple of days the animal begins to 
 lose contri)l of its vohmtary muscles and experioncns diffi- 
 i-ulty in eating and drinking. In the early stages frothy 
 spume or slaver is generally seen <lripping from its jaws, 
 but this soon lessons in quantity and becomes thick and 
 glutinous, adhering to the corners of the mouth ami fauces, 
 and causing intense desire to drink. In its eagerness to 
 lap water the d<»g oflen overturns Ihe vessel containing it. 
 It is now insensible (o pain — will munch burning eoals or 
 even mutilate itself without apparent suffering. It exhibits 
 an inclination to escape from home, to which it will sometimes 
 return after many hours of absence. It is restless and sav- 
 ;i;^c, wandering about, attacking innigiimry objcetn or vent- 
 ing its fury upon real ones. If confined, it gives utterance 
 to the peculiar bark and howl described. When at large, 
 however, it pives forth no warning noise, but sroms only 
 determined upon a straightforward trot. If interfered 
 with, and more espfcinlly if struck, it will wreak its ven- 
 geance on the offender, but will seldom, as a rule, go ont 
 of its way to do a mischief, and if pursued will generally 
 endeavor to escape. This is not invariably the ease, as a 
 natvirally ferocious dog is apt to hunt out its pre}' dili- 
 gently, often attacking nmny animals and persons in its 
 fearful course. It does not continue its progress long, but 
 
 becomes exhausted, and moves with unsteady, tottering 
 gait, drooping tail, head toward the ground, mouth open, 
 and ]trotruiled tongue of a Icad-bluo color; finally paraly- 
 sis ensues, lirst of the hind quarters and then of the whole 
 body, which is promptly followed by death. The progress 
 of canine rabies is rapid, and its termination almost al- 
 ways fatal. Its duration rarely exceeds ten days ; the ordi- 
 nary time is from four to six days. Nothing has been jiosi- 
 tively determined with regard to the interval elapsing be- 
 tween the receipt of the injury and the appearance of rabies 
 in the dog and other animals. It seldom, however, exceeds 
 six nir)nths. 
 
 The phenomena of rabies in the cat arc gloominess of 
 disposition, restlessness, tendency to bite and keep aloof, 
 thirst, refusal of Ibod, and sometimes depraved ai>i)ctitc. 
 When the disease reaches the furious stage, the original 
 tigor-like ferocity of the animal becomes predominant; it 
 froths at the mouth; its eyes glare; its back is arched; its 
 tail boats its flanks: its claws are rigidly protruilcd. If 
 disturbed, it usually flies at the face. It soon gets hag- 
 gard and emaciated, its voice sounds hoarse aud sinister, 
 and paralysis and death finally supervene. The wolf and 
 fox, and in fact most wild t.'arnivora, when rabid become 
 extremely audacious, taking to the fields and roads, enter- 
 ing towns, and without hesitation furiously attacking men, 
 dogs, horses, herds, and flocks. They usually fly nt the 
 bands or face, and hence their wounds are nuieti more fre- 
 quently followed by inoculation than those of dogs, who 
 are apt to snap at the legs, and from whoso teeth the rabid 
 saliva is often absorbed by the clotliing. Renault, in a re- 
 port to the Paris Academy of Medicine in 1S,')2, presented 
 statistics of 2j4 persons bitten by mad wolves, of whom 
 104 perisiied from hydrophobiii ; wliiie, according to Nie- 
 Dieyer, of \Xl} persons bitten by rabid dogs in Wiirteniberg, 
 only 28 contracted the disease. In the jug, horse, sheep, 
 goat, and bovine species the general symptoms of rabies 
 are very similar. They arc manifestations of disagreeable 
 sensations at the seat of injury, restlessness, irascibility, 
 hallucinations, alteration in voice, salivation, exalta- 
 tion of sexual desire, great susceptibility to external in- 
 fluences, loss of appetite, difficulty in swallowing, dilata- 
 tion of pupil, congested eye, emaciation, and finally par- 
 alysis, C4)nia, aud death. The desire to bite is often exhib- 
 ited in the pig, horse, and particularly the sheep. All have 
 paroxysms of rage, during which inoy attack everything 
 within reach with their natural weapons. Fowls manifest 
 the disease by restlessness, excitability, mental delusions, 
 and frenzied movements — finally sraggering, convulsions, 
 and paralysis. They are often aggressive, and sometimes 
 endeavor to bite. 
 
 Hydrophobia in our own species possesses a deep and 
 melancholy interest on account of the peculiarity (d' its 
 mysterious and often prolonged latency, the horrible in- 
 tensity of its paroxysms, and its irresistible fatality. The 
 most venomous reptile or insect may inflict a wound for 
 whoso effects an antidote may be successfully administered, 
 but the virus of the rabid animal, when once its insidious 
 operation has begun, defies the most consummate thera- 
 peutical skill. When the rabifio poison has been depos- 
 ited within the body no extraonlinary appearances succeed 
 about the ])oint of rece]ition, which seems to heal and cica- 
 trize entirely in a natural manner. At that spot, however, 
 the virus remains prvdu, until at some uncertain period it 
 comes forth steallhily upon its deadly errand. Watson in- 
 fers that it is shut up in a nndule of lymidi. or detained in 
 temporary aii'l jtrccarions union with some of the tissues, 
 until liberated by an injury t<i the cicatrix or some consti- 
 tutional disturbance. The duration of this union is no less 
 variable in man than in the lower animals. According to 
 Thamhayn's statisti<*s of 220 cases of hydrophobia in tho 
 human subject (in Srfiwidt'n J(tUrhHrh>i\ IJiJU), the period 
 of incubation in 202 instances ranged fntni three days to 
 six months. In 1 l;'f, or the large majority, it extended to 
 from fonr to thirteen weeks, fine occurred after four years, 
 and anr»tlier after five and a half years. Many other un- 
 questionable eases of prolonged incubation have been re- 
 corded, and it is by no means improbable that Ihe poison 
 mav, if undisturbed by causes such as those mentioned, 
 remain latent until tlic oecurrenee of natural death. 
 
 Abr)ut the year 1S|S, Dr. Maroehetti. a Russian phy- 
 sician, announced that ho had discovered in a number of 
 eases which he had attended in tho Ukraine eharactoristiu 
 phenomena never previously noticed. These consisted of 
 pustules beneath the tongue, appearing ordinarily between 
 three and nine days ufter tlu' bite, and which contain the 
 virus transmitted from the point of injury, their iinmediato 
 destruction by cauterization being necessary in order to arrest 
 tho disease. Similar appearances, terin*'il Itf^mr, were said 
 to exist in rabid ilo^s. This announcement crcatt'd n great 
 sensation in the medie:il world, but Marochetti's opinions 
 were soon proven to bo entirely erroneous, tho su-called
 
 1066 
 
 HYDROSTATIC PRESS. 
 
 pustules Ijciiij; simply enlarged mucous follicles caused by 
 the disease. 
 
 One of tho earliest symptoms is usually a tingling sensa- 
 tion at tlic cicatrix, which sometimes opens and dit;chargos 
 a thin ichorous fluid, lu a short time the person grows 
 deji'ctcd, morose, taciturn, restless, and irritable; he seeks 
 solitude and shuns bright and sudden light. Within a 
 period varying from a few hours to gcveral days the more 
 serious and characteristic symptoms arc developed. The 
 patient is sensible of a stiiTuess or tightness about the 
 throat, and is troubled with some difliculty of swallowing, 
 espe?ially liquids. Deglutition soon becomes impossible 
 unless attempted with the utmost resolution. The real 
 paroxysms of the disease then supervene: they arc cither 
 spontaneous or produced by anytliing suggestive in the 
 slightest dcj;ree of the idea of drinking; they arc preceded 
 by chills and tremors. During these attacks sensations 
 of stricture about the throat and chest are experienced ; the 
 rcjipiration is painful and embarrassed, and interrupted 
 with sii;hs and sobs: in fact, there occur terribly violent 
 spasms of the muselesof the throat, almost intercepting the 
 entrance of air into the trachea. In the intervals between 
 the paroxysms the patient is sometimes calm and collected, 
 retaining full consciousness and knowledge of his condition, 
 but gener.iUy he exhibits more or less excitement and ir- 
 regularity, and occasionally has fits like those of insanity. 
 Frequently he is seized with a species of delirium ; lie seems 
 to see about him swarms of flies; he converses with imag- 
 inary persons or fancies himself in the midst of perils. 
 When suddenly addressed, liowever, his hallucinations are 
 for a time dispelled. 0^'casionally, in some of ins fits of 
 violence he will attempt to bite his attendants, will roar, 
 howl, curse, and endeavor to destroy anything in liis reach. 
 He often seems conscious of the approach of such iittacks, 
 and will beg to be restrained. Hypera^sthesia of the skin 
 and acute sensibility of the nerves distributed to tlie other 
 organs of the senses are usual. In some instances there is 
 developed unwonted loquacity, and in others a singular in- 
 crease of intelligence. The latter phenomenon is recorded 
 in the Gnzette den Ilofjitatix, Aug. 27, ISJ4, as having been 
 noticed in the case of a confirmed cretin, seventeen years 
 old, suffering from hydro])liobia. The paroxysms are some- 
 times attended with involuntary micturition, priapism, and 
 ^-emi^al emissions. A very characteristic symptom is the 
 cojiious secretion of a viscid, tenacious mucus in the fauces, 
 which the patient constantly hawks up and spits out with 
 vehomcn^-e in every direction, producing a sound some- 
 times imagined to resernlile a dug's bark. The tongue is 
 at first coated and red, afterwards dry and brown. Occa- 
 sionally, there is vomiting of a " cofl'ce-ground " fluid. The 
 pulse is quick and excited, becoming VQry frequent and 
 feeble before death. The urine is high-colored and scanty. 
 It generally contains albumen, sometimes sugar. The 
 temperature of the body is always elevated, which is eoin- 
 eldcnt with rapid waste of tissue. Often within a few 
 hours a plump and well-nourished patient grows shrunken 
 and emaciated, and the face of youth is transformed into 
 t'lo shrivelled visage of old age. As the disease atlvancos 
 cerebral disorder becomes more and more marked. The 
 eyes are staring, bloodsliot. and always open, with fre- 
 quently dilated pupil ; the speech is abrupt, rapid, and in- 
 coherent, and at length there is eonfirnicd delirium. Some- 
 times remissions oe^ur. and the patient cats and even 
 drinks — with great difliculty, however. Toward the end 
 such a remission, with complete subsidence of agony and 
 agitation, is not uncommon. But this relaxation is only a 
 delusive cahn, the prelude to dissolution, which is usually 
 unattended with violent symptoms. Death ordinarily en- 
 sues from asphyxia. The duration of the disease is gener- 
 ally from two to five days. It has been known to terminate 
 within twenty-four hours, four of such cases being recorded 
 by Thamh:vyn, while in a case mentioned by Tardieu life 
 was prolonged for nine days. 
 
 It is now quite generally admitted that although hydro- 
 phobia may be originally due to a blood-contamin:ition. its 
 :ictiou when developed is manifested exclusively through 
 tlie nervous sys'em, and princip.ally that ])ortion whose 
 functions are governed by the medulla oblongata. In 
 former times there was much diversity of opinion upon the 
 character of this disease. Some eminent men believed it 
 to be a c'lntinm-d fcrcTy while others even went so far as to 
 consider it a putrid fever. Some maintained its analogy to 
 yeUow fivrr, principally on account of the ''cofl'ee-ground " 
 or black vomit occasionally observed. Itocrhaavo regarded 
 it a5 an iiijidinntarort/ afi'eetion. and this idea was generally 
 accepted until the time of CuUen, who placed it in the class 
 J^'citrosiH, or<ler SpaHini. 
 
 The autopsieal appearances in both hydrophobic do^s and 
 human beings are variable and non-distinetive. Bruek- 
 miiller. after the most careful auttipsies of .'J75 rabid dogs 
 during a period of twenty years, arrived at the conclusion 
 
 that the evidence furnished by dissection is of no value in 
 defining or distinguishing the disease, and is worthless as 
 a foundation for any theory. In man the most careful ex- 
 aminations of those who have perished from hydntphobia 
 hnvv proved similarly inconclusive as to the pathogeny of 
 the disease. In some in.<tances the cerebrum, eerebellum, 
 medulla oblongata, spinal cord, and eighth jiair of nerves, 
 in both origin and distribution, have been fnund apparently 
 normal after the closest scrutiny with the naked eye as well 
 as skilful microscopical investigation. It is true that con- 
 gestion, effusion of lymph, and even softening, have occa- 
 sionally been observed in portions of the brain, medulla, or 
 cord, but these and all other lesions thus far discovered in 
 the body can only bo regarded as vchuNh of the dreadful 
 disturbance in the nervous centres and respiratory and cir- 
 culatory systems. The otlier morbid alterations noticed 
 may be briefly mentioned as follows: great vascularity of 
 the mucous membrane of the fauces and air-passages; in- 
 tense pulmonary congestion; injection of (he gastric ves- 
 sels; soniHimes ecchymoses and effusion of dark blood in 
 the stomach. The whole blood is usually dark and grumous. 
 There is apt to be more or less hypera-mia of all the paren- 
 chymatous organs. Autenreith, Brandreth.and Sallin have 
 seen the nerves communicating with the cicatrix inflamed. 
 Ilallier has recently aflirmed that he has discovered in the 
 blood of hydrophobic animals a micococcus which when 
 cultivated is transformed into a cryptogam, to which ho 
 gives the name Lyasuphyton. The (listinctive character, 
 however, of these disease-germs remains to be established. 
 The diseases with which hydrophobia in man may be con- 
 founded are tetanus and delirium tremens, and in dogs 
 anthrax, epilepsy, and distemper. An enumeration of the 
 distinctions between hydrophobia and these various affec- 
 tions would occupy more space than the limits of this article 
 will permit. Suffice it to say, that to those who are ac- 
 quainted with such disorders there can be little difficulty in 
 the differential diagnosis. There is, moreover, a special 
 hysterical or nuiital fiT/drophfdn'a, as Trousseau named it, 
 induced by emotion on seeing hydrojihobic patients, through 
 fear of the disease after having been bitten, or even in very 
 nervous people from simply hearing the description of a 
 case. In this spurious hydrophobia there is only difficulty 
 in swallowing, and no convulsions, scantiness of urine, or 
 elevation of temperature. It is very rarely fatal. 
 
 When once the rabific virus has declared its presence in 
 the human sj-stem, all measures hitherto adopted would 
 appear unavailing to arrest its course. It would be quite 
 useless to mention the almost numberless "specifies" which 
 have been proposed for the disease, and have been employed 
 without success, from time immemorial. The fact is, that 
 with our present knowledge the most satisfactory treatment 
 after the disease has appeared consists in simjdy fulfilling 
 rational indications — viz. by palliating the symptoms as 
 far as possible, excluding all controllable causes of mental 
 and physical disturbance, and supporting the powers of 
 the system with stimulants and appropriate alimentation. 
 There is no doubt, however, that we have at our command 
 eflVctual jiiuphiflnrtU- means for destroying the jioison, pro- 
 vided they be employed within a reasonable time after the 
 infliction of the injury. These precautions consist in (ho 
 application of a ligature, if possible, to impede the circu- 
 lation from the wound, in sucking the wound, and in its 
 thorougli cauterization, nitiafe of silver being the most 
 valuable agent; but if this be not available, the hot iron, a 
 burning coal, potassa fusa, or almost any acid may be used. 
 Mr. Youatt, the very best authority upon this subject, tes- 
 tified in 1S;;0, before a committee of the British House of 
 Commons, that he had been successful in arresting the in- 
 oculation of the virus by means of cauterization with ni- 
 trate of silver in some -100 human eases and in innumerable 
 dogs — in his own person, morrover. as he had been very 
 frequently wounded by rabid dogs, and once severely by a 
 mad cat. Ch.\ulks P. Kissel. 
 
 Hyilrostat'ic Press, a machine much employed in 
 the mechanic arts for producing great pressures. The 
 pressure apjdied to a small piston or jilunger is transmitted, 
 through the medium of water, to a larger one, and increased 
 in the same proportion in which the sectional area of the 
 latter exceeds tliat of the former. Fig. 1 shows the main 
 features of this machine. A is a very thick and strong 
 cylinder, generally of cast iron. A broad flange surrounds 
 its mouth, resting upon masonry. B is the plunger, with 
 .a water-tight packing at/. It carries the platform C, on 
 which is placed the body to be submitted to pressure. E, 
 a very strong plate confined by the uprights D D, receives 
 and resists the pressure exerted by B. F is a shaft turned 
 by a belt and pulley, which, by means of an eccentric, works 
 the plunger (i of the force-pump I. The force-pump and 
 its accessories are shown on a larger scale at Fig. 2. I is 
 the force-pump with its plunger tJ, working through a 
 stuffing-box. The valve II opens during the up stroke of
 
 IIYDKOSTATICS. 
 
 101)7 
 
 the plunger O, nnd closes during ils down stroke, prevent- 
 ing the w:iter from being driven bacliward through tho 
 supply-pipL- X. In like niiiii- 
 ncr, the valve K is closed 
 during the np stroke and 
 opens during the down stroke 
 of the plunger. The pipe 
 leads to the cvlindcr. L is a 
 safety-valve so weighted that 
 when the pressure becomes 
 great enough to endanger the 
 bursting of the cylinder, it 
 allows the water to escape 
 into the waste-pipe. M is a 
 branch communicating with 
 the wasle-jiipe. A cock in 
 this pip<^. upon being opened, 
 allows the water to escape 
 from the cylinder and tlio 
 plunger to descend. The 
 packing of the plunger con- 
 sists of a cupped leather col- 
 lar I Fig. ."5)- It is a chan- 
 nel-shaped collar encircling 
 the pluuger in a recess formed 
 in the mouth of the cylinder, 
 its open side being turned to- 
 ward the chamber of the cy- 
 linder. The water entering 
 it from the cylinder, and 
 tending to escape on the op- 
 posite siile, keeps it firmly 
 pressed against the surface 
 of the plunger. If the diam- 
 eter of the plunger (i bo 
 one inch, and that of tho plunger li one foot, the area of 
 the cross-section of tho latter will bo 144 times that of 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 characterizing that distinguished investigator. It will be 
 noticed that the density of water — f. e. its weight per cubic 
 foot — increases from :i2° up to .10° (in strictness, 39.1"), 
 and thence diminishes up to the boiling-point. This tem- 
 perature, 39.1°, is called the temperature of maximum 
 density. For ordinary temperatures, and for calculations 
 not requiring great exactness, the weight of water may bo 
 taken at G24 pounds, or 1000 ounces, per cubic foot. In 
 what follows the weight will be assumed as that correspond- 
 ing to a temperature of 60 degrees, being (j2.::7 pounds per 
 cubic foot. Water expands about ^., of ils volume iu 
 freezing. A cubic foot of ice weighs 57.5 ]>ouuds. 
 
 Table of the \Vci;iht of a Cubic Foot of Pure Wnlcr at 
 Different Temperalure$* 
 
 the former, and a pressure of 1 ton applied to G will exert 
 a pressure of 141 tons upon li. About 10 per cent, of the 
 power applied to li is abs(trbeii by the friction of the pack- 
 ing collar. These arc the essential parts of tho hydraulic 
 press, though in the different forms of the machine adapted 
 to ils numerous uses they occupy all conceivable positions 
 with reference lo one another. In presses for fixing car 
 and other wheels upon their axles the cylinder is sometinies 
 horizontal. In Diauy mochiues the force-pump is worked 
 by hand. J. I'. Fiuzkll. 
 
 Hydroslat'ics [(Jr. f-Swp. " water," and <TraTt«ij, "statics," 
 from i<rro<»9ai.lo" stand "]. The term hydrostatics is used by 
 most writers to mean the science which treats of the mechan- 
 ical properties of fluids in a state of rest. A lluid is a body 
 which offers no resistance to a change of form. Fluids arc 
 of two kinds: (1) elastic fluids, which may be compressed 
 to any extent by a sufficient force, recovering their original 
 volume upon the withdrawal of the force ; (1!) liquids which, 
 though strictly speaking, admitting of slight compression, 
 are for all practical purposes lo be regarded as incompressi- 
 ble. In this treatise the term hydrostatics is restricted to 
 liquids, of which water is taken as the representative, it 
 being understood that whatever is affirmed of water is true, 
 with certain modifications depending upon tho weight, for 
 any other liquid. 
 
 '(ifiin-nl I'ropcrtlci of U'titrr. — As indicated above, water 
 is slightly compressible. Its volume is <liniinislu-d about 
 TUtHioon ''•'*' " pressure equal lo that of the atmosphere, or 
 14.7 ptmnds per sriuarc inch, while the volume of air would 
 be reduced one-half by the same pressure. Water is ex- 
 pansible by lu-at. Its exact weight per cubic foot depends 
 upon ils temperature. Tho accompanying table gives Ihe 
 weight of a cubic foot of pure water, corresponiling lo dif- 
 ferent teiiiperalures by I'ahrenheirs scale. The weight of 
 a cubic foot of wati'r at the temperature of maximum den- 
 sity is taken upon tho authority of Uunkine. The weights 
 at other temperatures are c<»mpuled by tho aid of a table 
 given in the Trau^mlinuH of the Berlin Academy of .Sciences 
 lor IS.iS, by (i. Ilagen, deduced by him from his own cx- 
 ncriineuis, which were made with all the care and accuracy 
 
 Tdm. 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Tem. 
 
 Wcisht. 
 
 Tcm. 
 
 Wciglil, 
 
 Tern. WelEllt.l 
 
 Tcra. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Ibi 
 
 r«lir. 
 57 
 
 Ibi. 
 
 Kahr. 
 82 
 
 Iba. 
 
 FaUr. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 164 
 
 
 3? 
 
 62.417 
 
 62.382 
 
 62.201 
 
 114 
 
 61.807 
 
 60.920 
 
 X\ 
 
 62.419 
 
 .'■,8 
 
 62.377 
 
 83 
 
 62.191 
 
 116 
 
 01.777 
 
 106 
 
 00.879 
 
 .•M 
 
 02.421 
 
 .W 
 
 62.372 
 
 84 
 
 02.181 
 
 118 
 
 01.747 
 
 108 
 
 60.838 
 
 ■K\ 
 
 62.422 
 
 00 
 
 62.307 
 
 85 
 
 62.171 
 
 120 
 
 01.710 
 
 i;o 
 
 60.796 
 
 ar, 
 
 02.424 
 
 01 
 
 02..361 
 
 86 
 
 62.161 
 
 122 61.685 
 
 1V2 
 
 00.7.55 
 
 37 
 
 62.424 
 
 6! 
 
 62.356 
 
 87 
 
 62.150 
 
 124 61.6.53 
 
 1.4 
 
 60.712 
 
 «R 
 
 62.42.". 
 
 63 
 
 62.350 
 
 S8 
 
 62.140 
 
 120 61.621 
 
 176 
 
 00.070 
 
 39 
 
 62.42.5 
 
 04 
 
 62.344 
 
 89 
 
 02.129 
 
 128 6I.58S 
 
 1 178 
 
 00.627 
 
 40 
 
 62.425 
 
 ai 
 
 02.3,38 
 
 90 
 
 02.118 
 
 130 61..5.55 
 
 180 
 
 00.584 
 
 41 
 
 02.421 
 
 66 
 
 G2.:!31 
 
 91 
 
 62.107 
 
 132 61. .521 
 
 182 
 
 00.540 
 
 4'> 
 
 62.424 
 
 07 
 
 02.325 
 
 92 
 
 62.095 
 
 134 61.487 
 
 184 
 
 00.496 
 
 43 
 
 02.423 
 
 OS 
 
 02.318 
 
 93 
 
 62.084 
 
 136 161.4.52 
 
 186 
 
 00.452 
 
 44 
 
 62.421 
 
 69 
 
 02.311 
 
 94 
 
 62.072 
 
 i:i8 ! 61.417 
 
 1 188 
 
 60.407 
 
 4S 
 
 62.420 
 
 70 
 
 02.303 
 
 95 
 
 62.000 
 
 140 
 
 01.3,si 
 
 1110 
 
 60.303 
 
 4R 
 
 02.418 
 
 71 
 
 02.290 
 
 96 
 
 C2.04S 
 
 142 
 
 01. .345 
 
 192 
 
 00.318 
 
 47 
 
 02.416 
 
 7-,' 
 
 02.288 
 
 97 
 
 02.030 
 
 114 
 
 01.3(18 
 
 194 
 
 00.272 
 
 48 
 
 62.414 
 
 73 
 
 02.280 
 
 98 
 
 62.024 
 
 116 
 
 61.271 
 
 190 
 
 00.227 
 
 49 
 
 02.41 1 
 
 74 
 
 62.272 
 
 99 
 
 02.012 
 
 14S 
 
 61.231 
 
 198 
 
 60.181 
 
 50 
 
 62.403 
 
 
 62.261 
 
 100 
 
 61.990 
 
 1.50 .61. 1911 
 
 200 
 
 60.135 
 
 ill 
 
 62.-105 
 
 76 
 
 62.235 
 
 102 
 
 61.973 
 
 1.52 01.1.58 
 
 202 
 
 60.088 
 
 .")? 
 
 62.402 
 
 77 
 
 62.247 
 
 104 
 
 61.947 
 
 1.54 ,61.119 
 
 204 
 
 60.042 
 
 53 
 
 02.39S 
 
 7» 
 
 62.2.38 
 
 106 
 
 61.920 
 
 1.56 ,61.080 
 
 200 
 
 .59.995 
 
 .14 
 
 62.39 1 
 
 79 
 
 62.229 
 
 ins 
 
 61.893 
 
 1.58 61.041 
 
 208 
 
 .59.948 
 
 .5.1 
 
 62.390 
 
 .10 
 
 62.220 
 
 110 
 
 61.86.5 
 
 160 61.001 
 
 210 
 
 59.901 
 
 56 
 
 02.386 
 
 81 
 
 62.210 
 
 112 
 
 6I.8:i6 
 
 162 60.961 
 
 212 
 
 .59.853 
 
 PreMurc. — The condition of fluidity implies that tho 
 fluid particles move, with reference to one another, under 
 tho action of tho slightest force; one consequence of which 
 is, that a pressure apjilicd at any part of a fluid mass acts 
 at all parts of it and in all directions. If a vessel with a 
 horizontal bottom bo filled wilh water lo a depth of ono 
 foot, every square foot of its bottom will sustain a pressure 
 of 02.:'" pounds; every square inch will sustain a pressure 
 of G2.:!7 ^ 1U=0.4.'!3 pound. Let Fig. 1 be a prismatic 
 vessel containing water. \ IJ Ihe surface 
 of tho liquid, and C D a horizontal 
 plane. The fluid immediately below 
 B this plane sustains a pressure in jiounds 
 per square inch of 0.4;13 time the height 
 2) AC in fed. This is true not only of iho 
 vertical pressure, but also of that in 
 every otlicr direction. The fluid par- 
 ticles in tho plane C D exert the above 
 pressure against ono another and 
 ogainst the sides of the vessel. Tho 
 pressure now under ciinsideratioii is that 
 due to Ihe weight of Ihe water. If an 
 additional pressure be applied lo the surface, the pressure 
 at any point wilhin the vessel will be in- 
 creased by Ihe same number of pounds 
 per square inch. Such an additional 
 pressure is always present, consisting 
 in the weight of the atmosphere, which 
 in its ordinary stale, at heights not far 
 above the sea-level, exerts a pressure of 
 14.7 pountls per square inch. Thus, Ihe 
 ab.solute pressure at any point wilhin 
 a vessel is that due to the superincum- 
 bent water, increased by 11.7 pounds 
 per square inch. Inasiuuch, however, as 
 the atmospheric pressure acts u|ion tho 
 oulsido of tho vessel as well as the in- 
 side, it may, for most practical pur- 
 poses, bo neglected, and wo may reganl the pressure us 
 
 Unit duo to ihe weight 
 "°- •'• of Iho liquid. The pres- 
 
 sure at any jioini in a 
 mass of water does not 
 
 A 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 , J 
 
 
 ":^ 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 depend at all upon tho 
 form of the vessel con- 
 taining it. This may bo 
 n prismatieal vessel, as 
 in Fig. I, a vessel with 
 a vortical tubi- (Fig. 2), 
 with an inclined tube 
 (Fig. 3), or an entirely irregular form (Fig. 1 1. Iti either 
 case, if we neglect tho weight of tho atmosphere, Iho pres- 

 
 1068 
 
 HYDROSTATICS. 
 
 ure in any horizontal plane C D depends solely upon the 
 
 Fir,. 4. 
 
 It is often conveni- 
 
 vcrtical height from this plane to the 
 horizontal plane A U of the surface. 
 This vertical height is called the head. 
 In most hydraulic calculations the 
 pressure is designated as eo m.any feet 
 of head. Thus we say, a head of 10 
 feet. 20 feet, 100 feet, in preference to 
 saying a pressure of 4.33, S.66, 43. .3, 
 etc. pouu Js per square inch. 
 
 The foregoing considerations ap- 
 ply to vessels having free communi- 
 cation with the atmosphere. The 
 pressure in confined vessels depends 
 upon other conditions. In a steam- 
 hoiler, for instance, the pressure de- 
 pends upon the tension of the steam, 
 and this, again, upon the temperature. 
 
 ent to reduce such pressures to an equivalent head of water 
 by ilividing the pressure in pound? per square inch by 2..">. 
 Let B (Fig. 5) be a pipe communicating with the closed 
 vessel A, both filled with water. 
 Let P bo a piston fitting closely 
 in the tube B. -iVny pressure ap- 
 plied to this piston will be trans- p[ 
 milted to all parts of the vessel A. 
 If the area of the piston be 1 square 
 inch, and the pressure applied to 
 it be ID pounds, the pressure at 
 all points within the vessel .V will 
 be increased by 10 pounds per 
 square inch. The aggregate pres- 
 sure transmitted to the surface C 
 D will be as many times 10 pounds B 
 as the surface contains square 
 inches. If wc suppose A to be a 
 strong cylinder accurately bored, 
 and C Dto be a close-fitting piston 
 capable of moving therein, we have 
 a hydrostatic press, and may readily conceive what enorm- 
 ous pressures these machines are capable of exerting. 
 
 I'riasurfs upon the Surfaces of Immersed Solids. — To find 
 the pressure upon a horizontal immersed surface offers no 
 diSiculty. We simply multiply the area of the surface by 
 the pressure due the head. Thus, the pressure upon a 
 horizontal area 100 square inches in extent lying lU feet 
 below the surface of the water is 100 X 10 X 0.433 = 433 
 pounds. When the given surface is verticsil or inclined, 
 however, the question is not so simple, the head being dif- 
 ferent upon different jiarts of the surface ; and when the 
 surface is bounded by eurved lines, the operation becomes 
 very complicated, involving the more intricate processes of 
 mathematics. The general principle applicable to all plane 
 surfaces, whether bounded by straight lines or eurved lines, 
 and whether vertical or inclined, is this : If we understand 
 by Ar'i'/ the depth of the centre of gravity of the surface below 
 the surface of the water, the pressure may be found in the same 
 way as fur horizontal surfaces. For a piano surface partly 
 immersed the centre of gravity of the immersed portion is 
 to bo used. The pressure so found is the normal pressure, or 
 that perpendicular to the surface. In the case of an inclined 
 surface, it is often necessary to find the pressure in a hori- 
 zontal or vertical direction. Understanding the term head 
 as above, the horizontal or vertical pressure upon an in- 
 clined plane is found by multiplying its horizontal or ver- 
 tical projection by the pressure due the head. Thus, in 
 Fig. 6, let A C represent the inclined face of a dam, D the 
 
 Fig. G. 
 
 
 depend at all upon the extent of the body of water behind 
 it. The pressure upon A C is the same whether the body 
 of water confined by the dam is limited by a wall or surface 
 at F (i, or is practically unlimited in extent, as a great 
 pond or lake. 
 
 Preeturee upon Curved Surfaces. — In considering such 
 pressures, the object usually is to find the resultant pres- 
 sure, or that with which the fluid tends to give motion to 
 the surface, or to resist its motion in some particular direc- 
 tion, usually horizontal or vertical. The pressure, for in- 
 stance, tending to burst a water-pipe is not the entire jires- 
 sure upon the curved surface of the pipe, but the pressure 
 tending to separate one half the pipe from the ojiposite 
 half, and is represented by the pressure which the same 
 bead would exert upon a plane whose width is the diameter 
 of the pipe. The pressure acting upon a curved surface in 
 any given horizontal direction is the same as would be 
 exerted upon the projection of the surface on a vertical 
 plane perpendicular to the given direction. The ]iressure 
 u]ion a curved surface in a vertical direction is equal to the 
 weight of the mass of water lying vertically above the sur- 
 face. In finding, according to this principle, the upward 
 pressure upon the lower surface of an immersed solid, wo 
 must for a moment regard it as a surface merely, not per- 
 taining to a solid, and suppose the space between it and 
 the surface of the water to be wholly occujiied by water. 
 
 irri'7/l( Lnsl hi/ /mmerscd SoUdu; Sprrijic Ururili/.—The 
 
 upward pressure upon an immersed solid tends to raise it ; 
 the downward pressure tends to sink it. This latter is equal 
 to the weight of the mass of water lying vertically above 
 the upper surface. The excess of the upward over the down- 
 ward pressure is evidently equal to the weight of the mass 
 of water displaced hy the' solid. If the weight of the solid 
 is less than this, it floats; if greater, it sinks. In either 
 case, the weight lost bv the body is equal to that of the 
 mass of water displaced" by it. This property is emjdoyed 
 in determining the relation between the weight and volume 
 of solid bodies. If we weigh a body in air, or, more strictly, 
 in a vacuum, and again while suspended in water, the dif- 
 ference is the weight of a volume of water equal to that of 
 the body. Dividing the entire weight of the body hy 'he 
 loss of weight in water, we have the ratio of the weight of 
 the body to that of an equal volume of water. This ratio 
 is called the specific grariii/ of the substance. A body lighter 
 than water is immersed by attaching to it a body heavier 
 than water whose weight "and specific gravity are known. 
 The weight of a volume of water equal to that of the lighter 
 body is the loss of weight of the aggregate, less the loss of 
 weight of the heavy body. A piece of dry pine, e. g.. weighs 
 27 pounds. It is attached to a piece of lead. sp. gr. 1 1.33, 
 weighing 45 pounds. The aggregate weight in water is 8 
 pounds : loss of weight, 64 pounds ; loss of weight of the 
 lead, 45 -i- 11.33 = 3.97 pounds; loss of weight of the wood, 
 or weight of equivalent bulk of water, 04 — 3.97 = 60.03 
 pounds; sp. gr. 27 -:- 6U. 03 = 0.4498; weight per cubic foot, 
 62.37 X 0.449S = 28.05 pounds. 
 
 Stabllily of Floaliiiij Bodies. — When a solid floats in 
 water, it takes a position such that its centre of gravity is 
 in the same vertical line with the centre of gravity of the 
 fluid displaced by it. This position is called a position of 
 rest or equilibrium. Most floating bodies have more than 
 one jiosition of rest. A position of rest is said to be stable 
 when the body tends to return to it on being tilted or in- 
 clined : unstable, when it tends to rotate into another posi- 
 tion. One body has more or less stability than another ac- 
 cording as a greater or less inclination is necessary to over- 
 come its tendency to return to its position of rest, and a 
 greater or less force is necessary to produce that inclina- 
 tion. The theory of the stability of floating bodies is of the 
 greatest importance in shipbuilding. Let G (Figs. 7 and 8) 
 
 Fig. 7. Fio. 8. 
 
 centre of gravity of the part under water, F \ B the hori- 
 zontal lino of the bottom, C B a vertical line. Then, if 
 .K C represent the normal pressure upon the dam, C B will 
 represent the pressure tending to shove it horizontally, and 
 .K B that tending to load it down. It will he noticed that 
 the pressure tending to move an inclined dam is the same 
 as for a vertical dam of equal height. The advantage of 
 the former consists in the pressure tending to load it, whioh 
 has the same effect as an increase of its weight. It must 
 be observed that the pressure upon a weir or dam does not 
 
 be the centre of gravity of a floating body ; 11 the centre 
 of gravity of the fluid displaced by it in its position of rest ; 
 11' the corresponding point in an inclined jiosition. A line 
 II M drawn through II and tJ is vertical when the body is 
 in its position of rest. In the inclined position 11' M is 
 vertical. Two forces act upon the body : ( 1 ) its own weight, 
 acting vertically downward through I! ; (2) the pressure uf 
 the water, acting vertically upward through 11'. The direc- 
 tion of this latter force intersects the line II (1 in M. If 
 M lies above G, as in Fig. 7, it is evident that the two
 
 HYDROXYI^HYGIENE. 
 
 loi;;) 
 
 forces will tend to bring the body back to its position of 
 rest; if below G. iis in Fig. S. they will cause it to recede 
 farther frcmi tliat pusilion. Wlien the body is in its posi- 
 tion of rest, these forces act in the same line and have no 
 tendency to cause rotation. The position of M, correspond- 
 ing to li very slight inclination, is called the metacentrc. 
 A section of the body made hy a plane coincident wilh tho 
 surface of the water, the body being in its position of rest, 
 is called its plane of flotation. A Hoating body in rocking 
 or oscillating always tends to revolve around a horizontal 
 line drawn through the centre of gravity of its plane of 
 flotation. The height of the nictacen(re above the centre 
 of gravity of the displaced fluid is equal to the moment 
 of inertia of the plaue of flotation wilh reference to a hori- 
 zontal line drawn through its centre of gravity, divided by 
 the volume of the displaced fluid. The height of the meta- 
 ccntre above tho centre of gravity of tho body determines 
 its degree of stability. That is to say, among all the posi- 
 tions of equilibrium which can bo assumed by a body of 
 given weight, it will have the greatest relative stability in 
 that in which its metacentrc is highest. The absolute sta- 
 bility of a very light body is but slight in any position, 
 since the lighter the body the less the forces tending to re- 
 store it to its normal position when disturbed. Up to a 
 certain ]ioint tho stability of a floating body is increased 
 by increasing its weight. It is fur this reason that a vessel 
 returning without cargo from a distant port is obliged to 
 take on board a quantity of heavy material, usually sand, 
 to give her what seamen call "stiffness." On tho other 
 hand, beyond a certain point an increase of weight dimin- 
 ishes the stability of a floating body. A homogeneous body 
 when entirely submerged has no stability ; it rests indiffer- 
 ently in any position. 
 
 Surface vf LiiimiU. — It is a law of mechanics that tho 
 surface of a liquid in equilibrium under any forces what- 
 ever is, at any point, perpendicular to the resultant of tho 
 forces acting upon it at that point. When, as is commonly 
 the case, the only force acting upon water of limited e.vtcnt 
 is gravity, its surface, so far as our senses can perceive, as- 
 sumes the form of an exactly horizontal plane. In strict- 
 ness, however, since gravity does not act in parallel lines, 
 but in lines tending toward a common point — viz. the centre 
 of the earth — no liquid surface is auex.act plane, but forms 
 a part of the surface of avast sphere. 
 
 When water is contained in a vessel revolving around a 
 vertical axis, its surface is acted on at any point by two 
 forces — viz. gravity, act- 
 ing vertically, and tho 
 centrifugal force, acting 
 horizontally. The re- 
 sultant force is neither 
 horizontal nor vertical, 
 but inclined, anrl the 
 surface takes such a form 
 that the resultant force 
 is at all ))oints perpen- 
 dicular to it. A vertical 
 section of the surface of 
 water in a vessel (Kig. 9) revolving around the vertical axis 
 A B, is the curve called a parabola. J. P. Fhizf.i.l. 
 
 Hytlrox'yl f<!r. iJSajp, "water," ifw, "sharp," and 
 y)l, the aciil radical teruiinalion ), a univalent radical (Oil) 
 which in its chemical relations is analogous to chlorine, 
 bromine, and ioilinc, and may he substituted in compounds 
 for an atom of hydrogen or other monads. Water may bo 
 regnrdid as II. OH, analogous to IK'I; potassic hydrate, 
 K.OII, to Kl'l; liaric hydrate, lia(Oll).. lo fiaCli. (See 
 llvnuATKS. ) liy the substitution of Oil for II in hydro- 
 carbons the .alcohols arc produced; marsh-gas, CH«, yields 
 methylic alcohol, OII3OII : ethane, CjHo, yields ethylio 
 (cominon) alcohol, OjlUOU ; propane, CjHs, yields pro- 
 pcnylio alcohol (glycerine), ("3lIi(OII)3, etc. 
 
 C. F. CnAKDI.KR. 
 
 IlyJircs, town of Southern France, in the department 
 of Var. It is famous for its delicious climate, which scorns 
 to be an cverlasliug spring. Pop. l(l,!<7!<. 
 
 HvCiei'a, in ancient mythology, tho goddess of health, 
 was a daughter of .'Esculapius, and worshipped in connec- 
 tion wilh him. She is generally reproscnlid as a young 
 girl feeding a Hcr]ient, the synibid of health, from a cup 
 which she holds in her left hand, tho serpent winding 
 around the right arm. 
 
 Ily'uieiie, the science and art of preserving hcnllh and 
 preventing disease. Coming direclly from the French word 
 hy<iitii'-f the term may bo traced to tho ilrcek vyitu-o^, 
 "licallhy," Ilygicia, the ancient goddess of health, being 
 the daughter (some say tho wife) of yKsculapius, the god of 
 medicine. From the earliest times men must have observed 
 somewhat of the favorable or unfavorable influences of tho 
 ciroumslanccs under which they lived. As an art, in its 
 
 FiQ. 9. 
 
 B 
 
 rude beginnings, hygiene must have preceded medicine, 
 and even surgery. The early temples of iEsculapius, be- 
 fore Hippocrates, wcre»(iiii(oi'fri ratherthan medical schools. 
 Ilygicia was named, with other deities, in the oalh wliich 
 every physician was required to take as one of the Asclc- 
 piadne: "liy Apollo the physician, by jEsculapius, by 
 Hygieia, Panacea, and all the gods and goddesses." Hip- 
 jiocrates wrote the first hygienic treatise now e.\tant — on 
 yli'r*!, W'titri-n^ find f*Iart>i. He therein pointed out too 
 effects of climates and localities, not only upon health, but 
 olso upon the characters of races of men, anticipating at 
 so early a date (400 n. c.) the conclusions arrived at in 
 recent times by Montesquieu, Michelet, (?uyot. and Iluckle. 
 Positive sanitary measures were probably first instituted 
 by Acron of Crotona, of tho school of Pythagoras, who is 
 said to have dissi]tatcd the cause of a plague at .\tliens by 
 means of fires burned in the streets. Empedocles after- 
 wards found it possible to destroy or impede the action of 
 malaria, in one instance by draining a swamp, and in an- 
 other by building a high w.all to protect an exposed town. 
 Ilerodicus was so famous for his application of gymnastics 
 to the improvement of bcaltll that Plato accused him of 
 doing an ill service to the stale by keeping alive people 
 who ought to die, because, being valetudinariaus, they cost 
 more than they were worth to the community. The Sji.ar- 
 tans reversed this in their custom of exposing young chil- 
 dren to the dements, whereby only those survived and 
 grew up who were possessed of natural hardihood. Early 
 writers upon the preservation of health were Philiston, 
 Diodes, Plutarch, Oclsus, Galen, Oribasius, Aetius, and 
 Paulus .'Egincta. Ancient Rome showed an appreciation 
 of sanitary art by extensive drainage of the base of the 
 hills on which the city was built ; by the immense sewer, 
 Cloaca Maxima, of which a part is left, the oldest ruin in 
 Europe, thirteen feet in diameter at the outlet ; by the aque- 
 ducts ; by suburban interments, whose number is .still at- 
 tested all along the Appian Way ; and by the appointment 
 of oflicers (niiiU-s) whose duty it was to inspect and regu- 
 late tho construction, with a view to salubrity and safety, 
 of all private and public buildings. In Egypt the great 
 pyramid of Cheops has an arrangement showing an early 
 recognition of the principles of ventilation applied to its 
 interior chambers. Embalming the bodies of the dead, not 
 only of men but of animals, however it may have been as- 
 sociated with religious ideas, is so well adapted to the jire- 
 vention of in.salubrity in a populous land with a tropical 
 climate as to make it appear likely that it sprang, in part 
 at least, from the sanitary sagacity of the priesthood. Sinco 
 a resemblance is traceable in many particulars between 
 the Mosaic ceremonial law and the usages of the ancient 
 Egyptians, it is also likely that some measures fur the j>re- 
 servation of health, prescribed in the Levitical code, cor- 
 responded with usages known to the Israelites while in tho 
 land of bondage. Moses, however, must have much ex- 
 lendcil the provisions required fur the care of the health 
 of his people. His regulations concerning food, ablutions, 
 and other purifications, and segregation of persons having 
 certain diseases, were precise and imperative. 
 
 All tho most enlightened nations of antiquity held phys- 
 ical culture in high estimation. .'Socrates, the philosopher, 
 was of powerful bodily frame. Plato also was a superior 
 athlete, and so were Pericles and Alcibiades. It is not im- 
 probable that the intellectual supremacy of the Creeks was 
 in some part owing to their sedulous care of the develop- 
 ment of the whn/c vnjaitizaliiin, brain and body together. 
 Archiatcrs (chief physicians) were appointed imblicly by 
 the (ireeks for gratuitous attendance ujion the poor. In 
 most of the cities of ancient (ircece public baths existed, 
 for tho poor as well us tho rich. Itome also had, at one 
 period, hundreds of private and public balh.s, some of 
 which, as those of Caraculhi, were palatial in grandeur. 
 Although at first designed for hcallh, these degenerated 
 afterwards into cITcminatc luxuriuusness, ns the j/i/miinKiVi 
 did, at last, into the scenes of gladiaturial fights of men 
 and beasts. Imitating tho (Ireeks, the Itoman emjieror 
 Antoninus Pius niipointcd public medical officers of towns, 
 and Valcniinian and Valens confiri[ied the privileges of tho 
 colleges of arrliiiiiri pnpiilarcH in the larger cities of the em- 
 pire. Under the name of mcdici ciiii<l<,lli such oflicers con- 
 tinued to be maintained in Italy down to the fiftccnlh cen- 
 tury. About 1 fill the emperor .'^igismund createil the offices 
 of mcintcr ar:l in every chief city of (Jermany. Of this func- 
 tionary tho modern K'ninplii/Hicim an^l .Slaillaizt uiay be re- 
 gardc<i as in some sort tho successors. In (he school of Saler- 
 num, in Italy, tho oldest medical school of Europe, founded 
 in the ninth century, ins(ruc(ion was given u|ion tho |ire- 
 venliun of diseases, ns well as the preservation of health. 
 That institution gave forth in the twelfth century a very re- 
 markable^ treatise, tho llc/hncn SanllaliH Siilcniilaiilim, a 
 poem upon the maintenance of health, in " leonine "or rhym- 
 ing Latin verses. Many of the precepts in this " Code of Saler-
 
 1070 
 
 HYGIENE. 
 
 nura " are sound and good : some of tbera havo passed into 
 almost proverbial inodurn us^c. Tlic institution ot t/uttrun- 
 tinc in ihf Idurtecnth century in Italy, to exclude the 
 plajjuc, was an event in the history of sanitary progress. 
 From Florence this method of restriction of intercourse 
 with infected places sproail first to Venice and Sardinia, 
 and afterward?; throu<;hout Europe. In America the first 
 quarantine law was enacted xmcler William l*enu in 1700, 
 at Philatlelpiiia. (See Quakantink.) 
 
 Englancl was somewhat later than Itnly and Germany 
 to advance in sanitary improvements, yet some quite early 
 lc;;isla'ion was in this direction, as an ordinance in the 
 reijn of Edward II., forbiddinj: the sale of " muzzled 
 swine's flesh; " one under Richard II., to prevent the jiol- 
 lution of rivers, drains, etc. ; and others during the times 
 of Henry VI. and VII. and Elizabeth, for the inspection 
 anl cleansing of sewers, prohibiting the slaughtering of 
 cattle in towns, and interdicting the overcrowding of dwell- 
 in'j;s. Jenuer's introduction of vaccination for the preven- 
 tion of smallpox is perhaps the greatest of all the tri- 
 umphs of " preventive medicine," as sanitary science has 
 sometimes been called. This event dates from 1798. (See 
 VArciNATioN.) But the benefits conferred u])on mankind 
 through the advance of knowledge in regarJ to the causes 
 of disea^se and the cimditions necessary for health, es- 
 pecially in communities, have been obvious, great, and 
 numerous. In the time of the great medical author Syden- 
 ham (1024-S7) the largest part of the mortality of London 
 was produced by four diseases — plague, smallpox, scurvy, 
 and ilysentery. Of these, the first has long disappeared 
 from Groat Britain and the continent of Europe ; the second 
 has been, by prevention, shorn of most of its destructive 
 power: the third is now seldom known except in places 
 remote from civilized life; and the fourth is at least very 
 much less mortal than formerly, especially in cities. 
 Macauhiy, in his flt'st'tn/ nf Eni/lniKl, estimated that the 
 dilVerencc between London in the seventeenth and the same 
 c^y in the nineteenth century is as great, in regard to mor- 
 tality, as between that of the time of prevalence of epi- 
 demic ch<dera and that of ordinary years. In Constanti- 
 nople, in 513 A. P., 10,000 people died daily during one 
 season of plague alone; in l(i63, tiS.OOO died of that disease 
 in the city of London; in IfiSa, not a sickly year, the 
 deaths in London were 1 in 20 of the inhabitants; now 
 they average about 1 in 40. In France in 1772 the annuiil 
 proportion of deaths was 1 in 25 ; in IS 10, 1 in 45. The 
 mean duration of life in the same country was. in 1800, 2Si 
 years; now. :iU years. At Geneva the mean probability 
 of life in the sixteenth century was 8 or U years; in the 
 seventeenth century. 13 to 14 years; in the eighteenth, 
 about :J0 years; in the nineteenth, 40 to 45 years. Life 
 may bo safely said to have been, on the average, prolonged 
 25 per cent, during the last fifty years. While improve- 
 ments in medical and surgical practice no doubt have had 
 their share in effecting tiiis result, the greater part of this 
 very important change must be ascribed to increased 
 knowledge and appreciation of the laws of health. Yet 
 much remains to be done before the ideal of perfect sanita- 
 tion is attained. Yellow fever and cholera are still at 
 times the deadly scourges of cities and of some other 
 place* : malarial fevers render certain localities almost un- 
 inhabitable; and the mortality of towns, especially with 
 young children, continues to be far in excess of what it 
 ought to be were the conditions of liealth properly main- 
 tained. The best hope of the sanitarian and philanthropist 
 on this subject is that which is derived from the increased 
 and increasing interest in all that concerns health, now pre- 
 vailing in all civilized communities amongst educated men. 
 
 The modern literature of hygiene had its beginning 
 chieflvin Fr.ance. Bucrhaavoin Hollan<l { 1063-1 73S). Locke 
 (1032-1704) in England, and Cullen (17I2-'J0) in Scotland, 
 had written upon physical culture and other sanitary sub- 
 jects, but French writers first gave a definite form to the 
 soicncc. Prominent among those who havo dealt with it 
 in France have been Tourtelle. Halle. Du Chatelet, Tardieu, 
 Villenne. Foder^, Cabanis. Bomlin. Levy, and Motard. A ' 
 comparatively early English writer upon personal health 
 was Dr. Andrew Combe. Climatology has been ably treated ' 
 of by Johnson, Martin, and Johnston. Public hygiene has 
 had its later lights in threat Britain in Chadwick. South- | 
 wood. Smith, Simon, Letlieby, Uumscy, Groenhow, and I 
 Florence Nightingale. On the general subicct of hygiene 
 must be added the names of Angus Smith. Parkcs, Wilson, 
 Mapothcr, Guy, Cameron, and Tilt. On tlio continent 
 of Europe, outside of France, most noted as sanitarians 
 liavo been Quctelet. Friedlander, Miihry, Casper, Hufo- 
 land. Thiersch, and Pettenkofer. In America, Dr. Benja- 
 min Hush (174.>-1S13) wrote ably upon some sanitary 
 subjects. The first American treatise on the Eiemc»t9 of 
 Hytfiene was that of Prof. Robley Dunglison.of which a 
 second edition was published at Philadelphia in 1S44. No 
 
 second work with a similar title appeared until the issue 
 of a Treatise oh Ht/i/ienr, dr., by Dr. W. A. Hammond, 
 then surgeon-general of the I'. S. army, in KSfili. Di. John 
 Bell of Philadelphia wrote with much ability and learning 
 on iieijimen and Lotif/cvitif (1.S42), and not long after on 
 iJatha and Mineral Wtit^rn. The number of authors upon 
 subjects connected with personal and public health has lat- 
 terly become so large that to name a few may seem invid- 
 ious. It may be justly mentioned, however, that the late 
 Drs. Forrey and Gouverneur Emerson wrote usefully upon 
 climatology and vital statistics; the best treatise on men- 
 tal hygiene yet published has been that of Dr. Isaac Hay ; 
 and the late Dr. Wilson Jewell of Philailelphia, the Into 
 Dr. George Derby of Boston. Drs. H. I. Bowditch, Jarvis, 
 and Curtis of the latter city. Dr. Snow of Providence, U. I., 
 the late Dr. J. H. Griseom, and also Drs. E. Harris. A. N. 
 Bell, and others of New York. Dr. Barton of New Orleans, 
 and the late Dr. Drake of Cincinnati. 0., have contributed 
 much by their lahor.s to the ])rngrcss of sanitary science. 
 The oldest periodical published ehiclly \n the interest of 
 the same class of subjects is the AimalcH dc Hi/t/irnc J'tib- 
 liqnc, issued now for many years at Paris. Amongst other 
 journals at present in circulation arc Pnblic Ilvufth in 
 London, and the Sauitarinu, established in 1873 in New 
 York. Associations devoted to hygienic investigations and 
 to the promulgation of tlieir results are the Epidemiologi- 
 cal Society of London and the American Public Health 
 Association. The latter was founded in 1S72. The Social 
 Science Associations, both of Great Britain and of the 
 U. S., take cognizance of public health as constituting one 
 of their leading departments. No subject has of lateycars 
 advanced more rapidly in public interest, or in the actual 
 development of practical knowledge concerning it. 
 
 A natural classification of the departments belonging to 
 this branch of science is that into Personal, DoniCHtic, and 
 Public Hifrjienc. The second of these, however, may be 
 merged into the two others. Connected also with public 
 health is the hygiene of cncampmentu (military or other- 
 wise) unil maritime {or naval) hygiene. Moreover, certain 
 topics arc necessary to be cfmsidercil as atVording facts, 
 theoretical and practical, fundamental to the above depart- 
 ments; e.g. Vital Statistics and Etiidoijif, or the causation 
 of disease. Personal hygiene may either refer to adults 
 or to persons of all ages and both sexes, or it may be eon- 
 sidcred especially in reference to children or to women. 
 Most of its practical precepts, as well as its essential prin- 
 ciples, are common to all human beings. We may therefore 
 divide personal hygiene in a pliysiological manner, accord- 
 ing to the functions of the body, thus: alimentation (food 
 and drink); resi)iration, including all atmospheric influ- 
 ences; circulation of the blood ; clothing; bathing ; excre- 
 tion; reproduction (sexual hygiene); exercise and muscu- 
 lar development; and cerebro-nervous (including mental) 
 hygiene. Public hygiene embraces measures for the ex- 
 clusion of certain causes of disease from communities, com- 
 monly named under quarantine, and the methods of pre- 
 serving health by internal regulation and supervision, des- 
 ignated as sanitary police. The latter refers to the main- 
 tenance of cleanliness in streets, markets, dwellings, 
 wharves, etc. ; drainage and sewerage ; abatement of nui- 
 sances ; inspection of water and food supply; public vac- 
 cination ; oversight of certain avocations in reference to 
 health ; and medical attendance upon the poor. 
 
 In the present article, considering personal hygiene 
 chiefly, our space may be best occupied with a brief and 
 summary statement of some of the most important condi- 
 tions of health, in connection with the diflerent functions, 
 as well as with the causes of disease. 
 
 Alimentation. — Requisites in connection with food arc, 
 that material bo furnished to supply the needs of the body 
 for two purposes — ( 1 ) to form and repair its tisanen or solid 
 structures and fluid secretions for special uses; (2) to gen- 
 erate and maintain forct:. which is consumed in the rxter- 
 iiat activities of the body and also in its internal func- 
 tions — i. e. in external and internal work. The latter sort 
 of work is exemplified by the propulsive contraction of the 
 heart and the slower "peristaltic" movement of the stom- 
 ach and intestines; also by the chemical manufacturing 
 processes, from which result comjdex materials, such as the 
 gastric juice, milk, etc. Vor timtn* -ma Li nt/, food-substances 
 must be obtained which contain the elements of which the 
 bo(ly is composed (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, 
 sulphur, phosphorus, iron, calcium, etc.) ; these must be in 
 an organic state (vegetable or animal, n()t mineral, except 
 salt), and of such consistence as to be broken up or crushed 
 by the teeth and dissolved by the digestive fluids. The 
 same kinds of materials avail also for /'^rcf -food, the ttimmnt 
 of force, as manifested in animal heat, muscle-power, ncrvc- 
 force, growth-force, etc., being about equivalent to that 
 which may be obtained from the ox(V«/ioh of the samesub- 
 stftnces in ordinary combustion. For healthy alimentation
 
 HYGIENE. 
 
 1071 
 
 food must bo taken in sufficient (jnantitie* at such ttiferva^ 
 as will meet the waste of the body. It must also bo caton 
 sfotrh/, chctreii ihoroiii^hly. antl at a time of rrpogc both of 
 body and mind. Since the same ultimate elements exist, 
 in nearly the same states of elaboration, in )>lants and in 
 animals, it is sometimes assorted that vcE^ctaldc food alone 
 i? ncce^isary or advantageous to man. It may be iiduiittcd 
 that men can, under favorable oirc»m!>tancei>, exist through 
 Ion;; periods without meat. This is shown iu the instances 
 of many tribes in .'Vsia and Africa, who live almost entirely 
 on rice and other grains, and also by many of the peasantry 
 ef continental Europe and the Scotch Highlanders, who are 
 confined to a diet containing very little animal food. Yet 
 it is equally true that men can exist on meat alone, as is 
 done by the Indian riders of tho South Anicricnn pampas 
 for months together, and by some impoverished dwellers 
 by tlio sea. who live constantly on fish, as the IVchorais of 
 Terra del Fuego, the poorer Norwegians, and also the Es- 
 quimaux and other natives of the frlgiil zone. The teeth 
 and digestive organs of man, compared with those of other 
 animals, show him to be adapted to a mixed diet. Expe- 
 rience shows, moreover, that, at least in the artificial cir- 
 cumstances of ordinary civilization, such a diet is the most 
 favorable to the maintenance of full vigor in an active or 
 laborious life. Cunccntrated diet is especially needful for 
 those engaged in severe or protracted hmtn-tcorl-. Not moro 
 than one-fourth of the whole au.ount of food consumed 
 ought to consist of animal substances. Nature's model 
 foot! is milk, consisting of representatives of three classes 
 of substances — (1) caseine and albumen, nitroffruout {i. c. 
 containingcarbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen): sugar 
 of milk or lactin, ^(tccJtarinc (non-nitrogenous, composed 
 of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen); and fnttt/ substances 
 (making butter) ; these last also being non-nitrogenous. It 
 is an absolute rule in alimentation that with man and all 
 the higher animals life can be sustainod for a length of time 
 only by a diet containing nt least ttm of the above-named 
 three classes of food-principles. Milk contains also saline 
 ingredients (chloride of sodium, other chlorides, sulphates, 
 phosphates, and carbonates) ; and these arc requisite in 
 certain proportions eif her in our solid food or in our drink. 
 
 Errors concerning diet are chiefly the following: (1) 
 Eating too fust, thus promoting indigestion, which when 
 chronic or habitual is termed dyspepsia ; (2) excess in tho 
 amount of food taken; (3) insuniciency in amount or de- 
 fect of quality for full nutrition; (4) unwholesome condi- 
 tions of food — (T. y. commencing putrefaction, or changes 
 produced by disease in animals whose meat is caton. Cook- 
 ing our food aids digestion, extending the range of articles 
 available for human diet, besides often giving a moro agree- 
 able flavor to things which we eat. Raw ve:;otables. as 
 celery, loltuf'C. radishes, etc., and fruits in moderation, are 
 wholesome. Haw meat frozrti.tknd thus made tender, is so 
 also. One danger attends the consumption of underdone 
 muat — namely, that of thu-' rei:eiving parasites into the 
 body : in the case of beef, Timin, the tapeworm ; of pork, 
 the more dangerous, sometimes fatal, Trirhlnn. (See Tni- 
 rniKA.) This danger is entirely obviated by thoroughly 
 cooking meat. Smrvif is prorlucod especially by long de- 
 privation of frcHh rpf/rtnhh: fooii. Captain Cook first as- 
 certained this to bo the mode of causation of this disease 
 about 1770. 
 
 Coiifiimrnti aro articles used in diet in small amounts for 
 seasoning, as salt, vinegar, pepper, mustard. Salt is need- 
 ful as an ingredient in the blooil and secretions of tho body. 
 Vinegar is innocent at least, when moderately used. Pep- 
 per and mustard arc most serviceable in hot climates and 
 for persons of weak <ligestion, especially in old ago. For 
 the stomach, as for other organs, it is a true principle that 
 alf unnrrrnHtiri/ ittiiiniftitiiin involvci rt wa«tt oj force in pro- 
 pnrtioit to thr. dftjree of rrr.rHn. 
 
 Wntfr is inditipcnsablo to the sustenance of lifo. From 
 20 to -10 fluidounces of it, alone or in tho form of some 
 beverage, are nectled by every adult daily, tho greatest 
 amount umler active exercise or in warm weather. Its 
 purity is of great importance. Excess of mineral ingre- 
 dients (most commonly carbonate, sulphato, and chloride 
 of calcium, making hard waters) may irritate tho stomach 
 and bowels. Mori; injtirious is excess of organie nmtter, 
 as in rivers or wells poisoned by sewage, streams flowing 
 through graveyards, ete. Typhoid fever, ch<dera, and other 
 disorders arc thus produced or promoted. A ])uro and 
 abundant water-supply is one of the most essential requi- 
 sites for every habitation, an<l, on a largo scale, ffir every 
 city. Filtration through charcoal and gravel will improve 
 that which is defective; but if no good supply can be ob- 
 tainerl from terrestrial sources, rain-water may be used. 
 This also requires filtration when it pa^iacs through tho air 
 over a crowded eily. Spring-water is mostly the be.-it ; 
 well-water, free from contamination, is about equal to it. 
 Wells tor drinking-water should never bo placed near 
 
 privies, cess-pools, or barnyards. Artesian wells yield 
 wator free from organic matter, but often warm and con- 
 taining an excess of mineral matter. Good drinking water 
 should contain not more than \.h organic matter per gallon ; 
 total of solids, not more than 30 or 3j grains per gallon. 
 Variation in the mineral constituents, so perceptible in 
 many rivers (the Mississippi, Nile, and (langcs especially), 
 does not necessarily render water unwhobrsonie. The water 
 of a large, deep river is more generally desirable than that 
 of a small, shallow stream, as water grows purer as it flows 
 by oxidation of impurities and deposition of sediments. 
 Sea-water is absolutely undrinkable. At sea, sometimes 
 distillation is restirtcd to for a supply. Distilled water is 
 tasteless, but may be made more agreeable by agitation w ith 
 the air. 
 
 On tho subject of tho effects of stimulants, weaker and 
 stronger, as tea, cofTec, cocoa, alcohol, etc., on health, refer- 
 ence must be made to the articles in this work treating of 
 those substances. We may repeat, with emphasis, in con- 
 nection with them, the important hygienic law, that all 
 unnecessary or excessive stimulation involves a waste of 
 force in proportion to the degree of excess above the level 
 of natural, iiealthy action. Cocoa is scarcely to be called 
 a stimulant: it is, for most persons, an entirely wbolesumo 
 beverage. Black tea, in moderation, is innocent for all, 
 and under the wear and tear of ordinary life an often use- 
 ful means of refreshment. Cofi'cc is loo ]>owcrful an ex- 
 citant of the heart and nervous centres to be benefii-ial to 
 most persons us a daily drink. Its best place is that of a 
 jirop under special strain of muscular or mental fatigue. 
 Arctic travellers and navigators find tea and coffee the best 
 of stimulants under exposure to cold, wet, anxiety, and 
 exhaustion. Aleohol bus been and continues to be a sub- 
 ject of much contention. Avoiding extreme views, it may 
 bo stated that durintj perfect health it is never ncccusuri/, 
 and therefore never wholesome. In groat prostration from 
 disease it is often the most valuable of supjiorting agents. 
 Stales occur, also, between illness and full lieaUh, in which, 
 under the judgment of physicians, dilute alcoholic bever- 
 ages (ale. wine, etc.) may be emploj'ed in regulated quan- 
 tities with advantage. No such article does good wlien it 
 hurries the pulse, flushes the face, or disturbs the brain — 
 I. c. acts as an iiiebriaut narcotic. By actual observation, 
 Drs. Parkcs and B. W. Richardson, and Count Wollowicz, 
 have provc<I that alcohol unnecessarily used consumes force 
 by excessive action of the heart, reduces muscular strength, 
 and lowers the bodily temperature. Excess causes subse- 
 quent depression, begi-tting a craving for renewal of tho 
 stimulation; and thus grows the habit of indulgence, with 
 loss of power of the will to resist the increasing demand. 
 Intemperance in this manner becomes a frequently incura- 
 ble disease. (See Mktiiomasia.j 
 
 Hyfjicne of Respiration. — On this extensive topic we can 
 here remark but very briefly. The conditions necessary 
 for healthy respiration are as follows : ( 1 ) Sound lungs and 
 air-tul)os; (2) muscular power and nerve-force; (.'i) pure 
 atmosphero; (4) renewal of the air, including removal of 
 the exhaled carbonic acid and organic matter, and a suffi- 
 cient supply of oxygen. (See Atmosi'iieke, Di.sini'kction, 
 RKSPiiiATiitN, and Vkntii.ation.) 
 
 Clothiu,f.—l\nA must, for health, be— ( 1 ) suflieient ; (2) 
 not excessive in amount or pressure; (3) properly dis- 
 tributed over the body ; (i) permeable to air and moisture; 
 (5) changed frequently enough for cleanliness. Being in- 
 suffieiontly clad in cold weather is depressing to tho system, 
 inviting attacks of disease, especially of the organs within 
 tho chest. Wearing too much clothing makes the skin 
 delicate and the whole body morbidly susceptible to changes 
 of temperature. The order of warmth in materials is as fol- 
 lows: (l)fnrs and wool; (2) silk; (."l) entton, as muslin; 
 (4) linen. In clistribution over the body, the vhrst needs 
 especial protection in winter and in cold clinuites, tho ah- 
 d'tmrn in warm seasons and countries, and the feet in all 
 times and places, unless near the tropies. Habit of course 
 makes a difference in this respect with every one, but ex- 
 posure never hardens any one. unless the system reacts at 
 the time, so as to suffer no chilling or depression. It is 
 needful in hygiene, as in eonstruetivo engineering, to keep 
 within the limits of perfect recovery. Children should br 
 at least as warmly elad as adults, since their power of r*' 
 sisting exposure is less than that of grown persons. Aged 
 people also suffer moro from cold than adolescents or those 
 of middle age. 
 
 On /iathimf, see the article on Baths. 
 
 /Tj-rrr/ioii.— Health requires the eonstnnt or regularly 
 periinlie removal fro?n tho body of the results of waste »>t 
 tho tissues and combustion of nmterial for tho generation 
 of force. These aro analogous to the smoke and ashes of ibi! 
 locomolivc-engine. By the lungs wo exeretc carbonic aeid : 
 other matters by the skin, kidneys, and large intestine. If 
 cither of these eliminative processes be arrested, disorder
 
 1072 
 
 IIY(ilNUS— HYGROMKTKY. 
 
 must ftt once occur in the bod.vj a continued interruption 
 of either of thcui will be fatal. Insufficiency or irregular- 
 ity' in the ixction uf the kidneys or bowels promotes or 
 causes disease. Ke^lect of the proper action of the bowels 
 is a frequent error, often bringing on habitual constipiilion. 
 Kvils connected with this, alwavs endangered, though not 
 always resulting, arc — {1 ) irritation or infianiiiiatiou of the 
 liowels; (2) hernia or rupture, with jios.-^ihly fatal strangu- 
 lation; {'A) irremediable obstruction of ilie bowels; (4) 
 sympathetic disorder of other parts of the system, as the 
 liver, brain, etc. ; (5) blood-poisoning from uon-e.xcretion 
 of effete putrcliablc matter. To prevent constipation the 
 most important measures are — suthcipnt daily e.xercisc in 
 the open air; a varied diet, including a moderate amount 
 of fresh or dried fruit; bran bread: and, if these fail, rhu- 
 barb-root or some other laxative medicine. 
 
 Ese.rvise. — Referring, for much that might bo said on 
 this head to Gymnastics, the most general statements are 
 the following: Every organ, including the muscles, requires 
 for its healthy development while growing, and afterwards 
 for maintenance of vigor, these conditions: (1) a sufficient 
 supply of blood of good nourishing quality; (2) innerva- 
 tion — i. e. a supply of nerve-force; (3) exercise, according 
 to its function: (4) intervals of repose. Violent exereiso 
 is not conducive to health, because it tends to exhaust in- 
 stead of adding to the strength, and also because it agitates 
 the heart, sometimes, when often prolonged and repeated, 
 I)roducing morbid enlargement of that organ. Increase of 
 strength follows exercise only when it is followed by pfrjada 
 uf rent sulJirirnf to remove all the cffevta n/j'atifjur. I)r. Wind- 
 ship's rule has been never to exert himself up to the top of 
 bis capacity, and not to continue any very severe muscular 
 efforts long at a time. Upon this principle, by frequent 
 and considerable though still moderate daily exercise, the 
 strength of most persons may be doubled in a few months. 
 Invalids require to be very cautious in the amount of their 
 exercise. Many cases of feeble health require absolute 
 rest, or only passive exercisCj as riding in a carriage, sail- 
 ing, etc. 
 
 Sfj-u(d Hi/giene is a subject not adapted to this work. 
 Mental Ht/t/irne is too extensive a topic to be embraced 
 within the limits of the present article. The best treatise 
 upon it is that of Dr. Isaac Ray (Boston, 1S63). (See Vital 
 Statistics for facts of importance bearing upon hygiene; 
 a'.so, PiBLio Health and State Mkdici.ve.) 
 
 Hexry Hartshorne. 
 Ilv^i'nns, a name which occurs in Roman literature 
 pretixe'l to a variety of treatises, most of which are now 
 lost. Suetonius in his lives of distinguished grammarians 
 has given a brief account of C. Julius Hyginus. whom he 
 calls a freedman of Augustus and a Spaniard by birth, al- 
 though, he adds, some consider him a native of Alexandria, 
 and say thathe was broughtto Rmno when a boybyJulius 
 Cicsar. Ho studied under Cornelius Alexander, and was 
 jtlaced by Augustus over the library founded by him in the 
 temple of Apollo on the Palatine Hill. He was an intimate 
 friend of Ovid. Hvginus wrulc scholia on the poems of 
 Virgil and of Hclvius Cinna: lives of illustrious men, a 
 work similar to that of Cornelius Nepos, in at least six 
 books; on the cities of Italy; on the gods, and on agricul- 
 ture. These are all lost. To this writer also arc assigned 
 by some critics two works still extant — the first entitled 
 Ftihnfanim Uher, containing 277 fabuhe, considered by some 
 an extract from a work entitled Oencttlorjiir by C. J. Hygi- 
 nus ; and the second an astronomical treatise of the signs 
 and constellations, interspersed with fables, in four books, 
 entitled I'ofti'ran Astrouomic6n lihri IV. Many, however, 
 regard these as of much later date than the time of Au- 
 gustus. The best edition of the two works is in the Atic- 
 tores MiftJutijrnphi Lotitit ot Van Stavcrcn (Leyden. 1742, 
 4to). To a different writer, styled Hyginus (Jromaticus by 
 way of distinction, of the time of Trajan, are assigned sev- 
 eral treatises on surveying and mensuration and a work on 
 castrametation. The remains of the former treatises are 
 collected in hachmann's and Uudorff's Oromntiei Vetrrrg 
 (vol. i., Berlin, 1S48), and the work J)c Munitinnibna Chh. 
 frorum by C. C. L. Lange (Giittingcn, 1848). (See, for the 
 former writer, Tcuffel's Ifht. Latin Lit., ^257: and for the 
 latter, ? 3.3i>.) H. Drisler. 
 
 Hy$;iniiSf Saint, reckoned the ninth bishop of Rome. ' 
 is thought to have been an Athenian philosopher at one 
 time, and to have been bishop ir,U^142? A. v.; but very 
 little is certainly known of his life. ; 
 
 Ilygrom'etry [Gr. vyp6^, "moist," and fxirpov, "meas- , 
 uro"J. This terra is applied to the measurement of the 
 amount of vapor in the air. The atmosphere over every part 
 of the earth contains a greater or less quantity of invisible 
 vapor, which gives it the variable qualities denominated 
 humidity, dryness, dampness, and aridity. As these are ele- 
 ments ofclimate, and as the human body is very much affected 
 
 by these states of the air, the subject is one of much practical 
 importance. Before speaking of the methods which have 
 been devised for measuring the amount of vapor in the at- 
 mosphere, it will be necessary to say a few words in regard 
 to tiic relation which exists between air and vapor. In 
 former times it was supposed by the meteorologists that 
 water in the form of vapor was dissolved in the atmos]>herc', 
 and that it could hold in solution, at a given temperature, 
 only a definite quantity, and when this quantity was pres- 
 ent the air was said to be saturated. It was, however, 
 proved by Mr, I)alton that vapor exists in the atmosphere 
 in an almost independent state, its quantity depending, 
 where water is present for its generation, entirely on the 
 temperature. In studying this subjoet, ^Ir. Dalton placed 
 two barometers near each other in the same vessel, contain- 
 ing mercury. One of these barometers was used as a stand- 
 ard, and into the other was introduced n small quantity 
 of water, which ascended through the mercury up into the 
 vacuum at the top of the column. A portion of this water 
 immediately flashed into vapor, and by its elastic or ex- 
 pansive force depressed the column of mercury. The tube 
 and its contents were then gradually heated through a series 
 of degrees of the thermometer, and the diminution of the 
 height of the column corresponding to each degree, as com- 
 pared with the standard, was noted. At each increase of 
 temperature a new portion of vapor was given off from the 
 water, as shown by the diminution of the latter ; which vapor, 
 being forced into the same space, increased the density of 
 that already existing, and consequently its elastic force, in 
 accordance with the law of Marriotte ; the elastic force, 
 however, was also increased by the increase of tempera- 
 ture, and hence in the table formed from these exj)eriments 
 the increment of elastic force, or of tension of the vapor, as 
 it is callcti, as measured by the depression of the mercury 
 in the barometer-tube, was in a geometrical ratio, while 
 that of the temperature was only in an arithmetical ratio. 
 By making similar experiments with a small quantity of 
 air, not sufficient to drive the mercury entirely from tho 
 lube, and forming a table of the increase of expansive force 
 of the air for every degree of heat, and then allowing a 
 small quantity of water to ascend through the mercurial 
 column, a portion of this would spring into vapor less 
 rapidly than before, and would occupy the interstices of 
 the air, as it were, and, exerting its own elastic force, would 
 depress the mercury an additional quantity to that due to 
 the elasticity of the air. A new table being forn:ed of tho 
 elastic force of this mixture for different degrees of tho 
 thermometer, and the corresponding figures of the table of 
 elastic force of air subtracted from it, the result was found 
 precisely the same as that given by vapor alone. Another 
 point to be determined was the density or weight of a given 
 volume of vapor of a liquid formed at a given temperature. 
 For this purpose a large barometer-tube was employed by 
 (iay-Lussae, and a known volume of water, contained in a 
 bubble of very thin glass, was allowed to ascend to the toji 
 of the mercurial column, where, by a gentle increase of 
 heat, the buhble was burst, in consequence of the more 
 rapid expansion of the liquid than the glass. The water 
 thus exposed was then converted into vapor by gradually 
 increasing the heat, and at the moment the liquid entirely 
 disappeai'cd the elastic force was noted, and also the vol- 
 ume. By repeating this experiment with different quan- 
 tities of water at different temperatures, a table of the den- 
 sity of vapor was formed. A table of this kind indicates 
 the ratio of a given volume of the vapor to that of tho 
 same volume of air at the same pressure and temperature. 
 AVhat we have given in the jireceding is merely ageneral 
 view of the process by which the elastic force and density 
 of vapor at different temperatures existing over the water 
 from which it is formed is determined. To form accurate 
 tiiblcs exhibiting these relations requires more refined pro- 
 eesses, especially such as have been used by Rcgnault of 
 Paris, for \vhich we must refer to the articles Elastioitt, 
 Density, etc. Mr. Dalton inferred from his experiments 
 that air and vapor are vacuums to each other — that an 
 equal ([iiantity of each may exist in the same space at the 
 same time, each, however, exerting its own elastic pressure 
 on the sides of the containing vessel. He also arrived at 
 a similar conclusion in relation to the diffusion of different 
 gases through each other, each actingasif it were a vacuum 
 to the other, and repelling only its own atoms. This hy- 
 pothesis is in accordance with the dynamic theory of heat, 
 and also of the diffusion and elasticity of gases and vapors 
 through each other. That the air is a vacuum to the vapor 
 of water is true only in their statical condition, after time 
 has been allowed for the diffusion of the latter through the 
 former; during the process of diffusion a resistance has to 
 be overcome, and the air itself is expanded. 
 
 At no part of tho surface of the earth is the air entirely 
 devoid of moisture, and it is rarely at any jioint so charged 
 with aqueous vapor as that the quantity is equal to that
 
 HYGROMETRY. 
 
 107 
 
 wbich a given spacocouM contain at the gircn temperature. 
 This is owing to tbc prevalence of wind and the slow per- 
 meation of tbc air by vapor. If tbe air is entirely filled 
 with vapor— that is, if tbiro is as much vapor in it as tbc 
 space enn conlaiii at that temperature — the sligiUest ditui- 
 uution of the tiuiperature will cause a precipitation of tbc 
 vapor in the form of dew or mist. If, for instance, at a 
 higher temperature there be present not quite as much 
 vapor as the space can contain at that temperature, then, 
 if the air be cowled down only a few degrees, some of the 
 vapor will bo deposited in the liquid state. The tempera- 
 ture at whieh this takes place is called the dew-point. 
 From this it is evident tbut if tbe quantity of vapor in the 
 air at its exisling temperature be great, the dew-point will 
 be high. All substances exi>osed to tbc air will be affected 
 by tlio tloposition of moisture when the dew-point is reached, 
 but many substances will be affected long before this takes 
 place ; our bodies, for instance, will experience dampness, 
 although the vapor of the air is far above tbe dew-point. 
 On the other band, if tlic temperature bo far above that of 
 the deposition of moisture, the air will have a condition of 
 dryness. From these facts it may be inferred that the 
 sense of dryness or diimpness docs not depend upon tbc 
 absolute amount of aqueous vnpor present in a given quan- 
 tity of air. If tbe ternper.aturc be very low, although the 
 air does not contain much vapor, yet this may approach 
 very near to the maximum amount which the space can 
 contain at that temperature, and being near tbe point of 
 
 frccipitation, it will have the characteristics of wetness, 
 f the same mixture of air and vapor bo heated up many 
 degrees, the vapor will represent only a small fraction of 
 the amount which con be retained at the higher tempera- 
 ture, and hence tbc air will feel very dry. In a space sat- 
 urated wich vapor, water ceases to evaporate; and con- 
 versely, in a space where there is little vapor in relation to 
 the temperature, water evaporates rapidly. Tbc condition 
 of 'Iryness or dampness of the air is expressed numerically 
 by the conception of relative humidity which is the fraction 
 expressing the ratio between the tension {that is, elastic 
 force) of vapor actually present in the air at a given tom- 
 per.iture, and that of the greatest amount of vapor which 
 it can contain at that temperature. The amount repro- 
 sonliag complclc s:ituration is generally indicated as 100, 
 and on this principle 10, jO, ."O, etJ, will denote that the 
 air contains 40, jO, or ;10 per cent, of the maximum amount 
 which ciu be contained at that leinpcraturc. 
 
 We shall now proecod to describe various instruments 
 raadu use of in hygromctry. For determining the relative 
 dryness or dampness of tbe air various modes and instru- 
 ments have been employed: most of tbe latter in use pre- 
 vious to the expennicnis of Mr. Dalton would more appro- 
 priately be denominated hygrosjopc-s than hygrometers. 
 They consist principally of three different classes: Ist, 
 thos:; composed of substances which arc augmented or di- 
 minished in weight by a change in the humidity of the air ; 
 2d, those of substances which increase or dimiui.sh in vol- 
 ume : and '.^^, tbosoo4" substances which twist, or untwist by 
 changes of moisture. Of the lirst class are sul])buric acid ; 
 various deliquescent salts, such as the chlorate of potassa, 
 sulpbatoof soda, and nitrate and chlorate of lime ; sponges, 
 paper, etc. A given weight of these substances being sus- 
 pended from one end of the beam of a balance, countor- 
 jtoised at the other by a weight, so that the beam will bo 
 hurizonta) \vbcn the substance is in n state of extreme dry- 
 ness, or, in the ease of sulphuric acid, in the condition of a 
 given drgreo of density, by an increase in the moisture of 
 the air the weigbtecl end ol the beam rises, and by an inde.K 
 imlieates tbc change in tbc moisture of the atmosphere. 
 All the insirunients of this kind arc affected by tempera- 
 ture, ns well as by the moisture of tbc air. Tbc amount of 
 water absorbecl by sulphuric acid is less at a high tempera- 
 tun*, and the affinity of all substances for moisture varies 
 with the tempera' ore. llygrosoopes of tbc second class, 
 those that dnpcml upon ebange of volume of bodies, consist 
 chielly of hair, of threads of silk, of linen, of hemp cords, 
 of goMlteatcrs' skin, of slips of whalebone, of ivory, and 
 of wood. The most celebrated of these is that of the hy- 
 groseopo of Saussure, which consists of a human hair de- 
 prived (d" grease by boiling it in a weak solution of earbon- 
 ato of soda. This, heing.lixccl at its upper en<i, is stretched 
 by a small weight after passing round a delicate pulley 
 to which a hand is attached; by an increase of moisture 
 the hair expands, tbe weight at Ihc other end descends, and 
 the pnlU'v turns, giving motion to the hand or pointer, 
 whi*'h indicates the degree of moisture by pointing to the 
 division on a graduated arc. This instrument is graduated 
 experimentally by placing it in air which has been dried 
 by sulphuric acid, and afterward in a vessel saturatoil with 
 moisture: the extreme positions of the point(*r in these two 
 conditions Is divided into 100 parts called degrees. In 
 using the instrument a correction must bo applied for 
 Vol. jr.- 68 
 
 temperature, which is also ascertained by direct experi- 
 ment. A simple hygroscope which will serve to iudieatc a 
 greater or less degree of humidity is furmed by a long lish- 
 ing-line {previously boiled in a weak solution of carbonate 
 of soda), fastened at one end and passed backward and 
 \ forxvard along a corridor over pulleys, with a weight to keep 
 I it tense at the farther end. By increase of dampness a 
 ! greater amount of water is absorbed, tbc transverse diam- 
 I etcr of the cord is increased, its linear extent diminished, 
 ' and tbe weight consequently rises. A pointer ntlaclied to 
 the weight indicates changes in tbe moisture by an arbi- 
 trary scale. An amusing hygroscope of this class can bo 
 constructed of two pieces of wood glued together, one of 
 which is soft and readily absorbs moisture. For this pur- 
 pose a rectangle is formed of one piece of say (> or S inches 
 in length and 1* inches in width, the longer axis of which 
 is in the direction of tbc fibre of the wood; to this is glued 
 another jiieco of tbc same dimensions, of which the fibre is 
 at riglit angles to the length. If tbe gluing has been ef- 
 fected in a dry condition of the wood, the compound struc- 
 ture will be straight; if, however, the air is afterwards 
 charged with vapor, tbe wood will absorb moisture and 
 expand unequally in different directions, assuming the 
 form of a bow. if. now. into the slip of wood having lon- 
 gitudinal tibres four stiff wires, sharpened at tlic outer end, 
 be inserted, so as to resemble the legs of a table, with the 
 excc[)tion that each is inclined at an angle of ;iO*'or -10° to 
 the perpendicular, and then the arrangement be placed on 
 a long shelf of soft wood, it will travel in the course of a 
 season from ()nc end to tbe other, liy an increase of moist- 
 ure the upper surface will become convex, and the binder 
 feet will be drawn forward, while the fore ones, on account 
 of the direction of their action, remain fixed; when the 
 moisture diminishes, and the wood resumes its straight 
 form, the fixed points will be tbc hind feet, the fore ones 
 being projected forward. In this way a progressive mo- 
 tion will be produced with every variation of moisture. 
 The effect will be increased by making tlie lower slip of 
 some hard wood and covering it with varnish, while the 
 upper slip with transverse fibres is of soft wood and ex- 
 posed to the action of tbc air. The wood may be cut into 
 the shape of an animal. An example of the thiid class of by - 
 groscopcs is eatgnt, which untwists when moist and twists 
 wlicn dry. There is a well-known toy in which there arc 
 two figures, a man and a woman, sui-pcndcd by a piece of 
 this substoncc, and so adjusted that the man comes out of 
 the door when it is damp, and the woman when it is dry. 
 
 All these instruments, as we have said, indicate, riitbcr 
 than measure, the hygromctrie state of tlic air. We shall 
 now proceed to describe instruments by which the state of 
 the air with regard to moisture can bo dctcrnjined with pre- 
 cision ; and such arc denominated hygrometers. The lirst 
 of these is Daniell's dew-point hygrometer. This instru- 
 ment (Fig. 1) is composed of 
 two glass bulbs; the one. A, 
 is more than half filled with 
 ether, and contains a deli- 
 cate therniouuter, the bulb 
 of wiiich is plunged in the 
 liquid. The space above is 
 void of air and of everything 
 but tbe vapor of ether. The 
 bulb IS is covered with fine 
 muslin, upon which, during 
 the experiment, ether is drop- 
 ped. Tlio evaporation of this 
 produces intense cold, in eon- 
 sequence of which the ether 
 vapor inside IJ is rapidly cnu- 
 densed, and luncc the ether 
 in A ns rapidly cvnporales. 
 Danieirs dew-point hygrome- Ti,e evaporation of the elher 
 ^^■'^* in A cools the bulb until tbe 
 
 air surrounding it sinks below 
 tbc dew-point. Dew is theref<ire deposited on tbc nntsido 
 of A. which is made of hbiek glass, in order that this de- 
 position may be more readily observed. At tbc moment 
 of the deposition the tenifierature is read from tbe seale of 
 tbe tlu'rmometer in A. When the dew disappears as tbe 
 temperature rises by ceasing to drop ether on the bulb 11, 
 the same thermometer is read again, and the mean of the 
 two readings is liiken as the temperature of tbe dew-point. 
 A thermometer. C. placed on the outside of the column 
 which supports tbe instrument, gives tbe lemjierature of 
 the air nt iho moment of observation. Ity taking from a 
 table the elastic force or tension of vapor at the tempera- 
 ture of tbe air, as given by (', and also the tension of vapor 
 at the temperature of the dew-point, the ratio of the two 
 numbers, the first being called lOt), will give tho relative 
 bumiility. The dew-point may also be (ditninod approxi- 
 mately by suspending a thermometer in a bright metallic 
 
 Fro. 1.
 
 1074 
 
 HYKSOS— PIYLID^. 
 
 Regnault's dew-puiut hygrometer. 
 
 tumbler half full of water at a temperature a little above 
 tlio dew-point, and gradually cooling it by pouring in ice- 
 water until dew begins to appear on the surface of the 
 metal; at this moment tlic temperature of the dew-point 
 is indicated by that of the immersed tliennometer. In 
 making this experiment care must be taken to stir the 
 water in the tumbler, and not to suffer the moist breath to 
 f;ill upon the tumbler. The objection to this method is its 
 want uf d'jiioacy. and the liability to produce a local dew- 
 point by the evaporation of the wafer. 
 
 Regnault's dew-point hygrometer is an improvement 
 u]ion that of Daniell. It consists (Fig. 2) of two tubes or 
 «hort cylinders, closed at 
 
 the end, of polished silver, Fig. 2. 
 
 having glass tubes fixed 
 to them. The cylinder 
 A is half filled with ether. 
 It contains a thermom- 
 eter t', with its bulb 
 in the ether, and also a 
 fine glass tube open at 
 each end, the extremity 
 c being exposed to the 
 atmosphere, and the other 
 being plunged below the 
 ether in A. The cylinder 
 1> also contains a ther- 
 mometer f, the object of 
 which is to indicate the 
 temperature of the air. 
 There is a communica- 
 tion between the air in 
 A and an exhausting 
 tube D E. To the end E 
 of the latter tube is at- 
 tached an aspirator — that 
 i?, a vessel filled with wa- 
 ter, which being allowed 
 to run out through a stop- 
 cock near the bottom, an 
 Cfpial (piantity of air takes 
 it>: place, which, entering 
 at and bubbling up 
 through the ether, causes the latter rapidly to evaporate, 
 and a diminution of temperature is thus produced until at 
 length dew is deposited on the polished silver of A; and 
 if the temperature of t' be immediately noticed, the dew- 
 point may be obtained with great exactness, since the agi- 
 tation of the other renders it certain that the temperature 
 uf this thermometer is precisely the same as that of the 
 polished silver, while the thermometer ( gives the undis- 
 turbed temperature of the air. Although observations with 
 this instrument give the clastic force of vapor of the air 
 with great precision, yet it is not as convenient to use as 
 could be desired for the 
 daily registration of the 
 liygrometric condition 
 of tho air by ordinary 
 observers. To obviate 
 this difficulty the wet 
 and dry bulb hygrom- 
 eter has been invented. 
 It was devised by Ma- 
 son, and consists of two 
 thermometers, of the 
 same size of bulb and 
 bore, placed alongside of 
 each itther (Kig. -J)* "no 
 having a naked dry 
 bulb, and the other a 
 bulb covered with fine 
 muslin, moistened at the 
 time of observation, or 
 kept continually moist 
 by the ascent of water 
 in a cotton wick, as 
 shown in the figure. 
 Owing to the evapora- 
 tion from the covered 
 bulb, its temperature will 
 bo generally below that 
 of the naked bulb, and 
 this difTcrenco will be 
 greater when tho air i> 
 very dry. When it \> 
 wet, or near the dew- 
 point, the evaporation 
 will be very slow, and 
 the two thermometers 
 will indicate nearly tho 
 same temperature. It has been objected to this instru- 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Mason's wet and dry bulb hygrom- 
 eter. 
 
 ment that the evaporation is greater when there is a cur- 
 rent of air, but it must be remembered that the same cur- 
 rent tends to elevate the temperature of the covered bulb in 
 nearly the same proportion. By compiiring the indications 
 of this instrument with that of the Uegnault hygrometer, a 
 table may be formed experimentally by whieh the dew- 
 point and elastic tension of the air can be determined at 
 once by inspection. l>r. Apjohn of Trinity College, Dub- 
 lin, who has given much attention to this subject, has ob- 
 
 d h 
 tained the following formulas: f =f—^ ^.»7' '"^ which/ 
 
 denotes the maximum elasticity or tension of vapor corre- 
 sponding to the temperature of the wet-bulb thermometer; 
 r the elasticity of vapor present in the air which we de- 
 sire to find ; d denotes the difference in degrees of Fahren- 
 heit's scale between the two thermometers ; and /* the height 
 of the barometer when accuracy is required. This formula 
 is for temperatures above 32°. For temperatures below this 
 
 d h 
 point the formula ^^ /=/— r^X^T- Having found /. or 
 
 the elasticity or tension of vapor present in the air, wo have 
 only to look in our table for the temperature of saturated 
 vapor /", which gives the dew-point. A series of tables for 
 facilitating tho process of obtaining the relative humidity 
 by moans of tho wet and dry bulb thermometers, as well 
 as by the dew-point instrument, have been constructed for 
 the Smithsonian Institution by Prof. Guyot of Princeton 
 College, which are now in general use in this country and 
 in various parts of Europe. Joseph Henuy. 
 
 Hyk'sos, or Hykshos ("shepherd kings"), the name 
 given by Manctho to the kings of the fifteenth, sixteenth, 
 and seventeenth dynasties in Egypt. Their capital was 
 Tanis in the Delta, the " Zoan '* of the Old Testament, now 
 called Sdn. Important discoveries recently made there by 
 Mariette throw much light upon this very obscure portion 
 of Egyptian history. The Hyksos were not, as some have 
 supposed, the Hebrews, but probably a collection of the 
 nomadic hordes of Arabia and Syria, mostly Canaanitcs. 
 They were not mere savage conquerors, but adopted Egyp- 
 tian'manners and customs and worshipped Egyptian gods. 
 Thev held the country for about 000 years — according to 
 Mariette, from about 2200 b. c. to about 1700 B. c. ; Poole 
 and Wilkinson sjiy from about 2000 to about 1600 b. c. Tho 
 present inhabitants of SUn and tho shores of Lake Men- 
 zaleh have exactly the same Semitic cast of features as com- 
 pared with the regular Egyptian type. II. D. Hitchcock. 
 
 Hylirosau'rus [Gr. vX-q, a "forest," and <javpo%y a 
 "lizard"], a large extinct reptile fmni the Wealden of 
 England, belonging to the order Dinosauria. It was de- 
 scribed by Mantel! in 1832. Tho teeth are small in pro- 
 portion to the size of tho animal, close together, and set in 
 sockets, with a subcylindrieal fang and a somewhat com- 
 pressed, expanded, and incurved crown, having the bor- 
 ders of tho apical half straight and converging to a blunt 
 apex, but not serrate, and indicating, according to Owen, a 
 mixed or vegetable diet rather than a carnivorous one. 
 The skin appear? to have been defended by suhcircular 
 bony scales, and largo bony spines indicate the existence 
 of a strong crest along the back. Tho length of this ani- 
 mal may have boon twenty-five feet, and the i)artieulars 
 of its structure, so far as known, correspond with those of 
 other Dinosauria, for which sec article on IlAnitosAunus. 
 
 0. C. Marsh. 
 
 Ily'lidir [from If i/l a, the ancient name of the "tree- 
 frog "j. a family of biitraehians of tho order Salientia or 
 Anura. with the vertebra? proco.dian ; the sacral diiipophyses 
 dilated at their extremities; the coccyx articulated by con- 
 dyles : the external metacarpals bound together ; the ter- 
 minal phalanges .articulated below to the extremity of the 
 penultimate, swollen at the base, and with slender curved 
 and claw-like ends; fronto-parictal bones shortened an- 
 teriorlv, and usually embracing a fontanelle ; superior plate 
 of ethmoid never covered by fronto-parietals, and usually 
 produced anteriorly between the fronto-nasals. The family, 
 with the limits thus given, embraces the ordinary tree-fmgs 
 of America and forms related in structure inhabiting other 
 parts of the world. It has been thus limited by Prof. Cope, 
 independently of adaptation to arboreal life, and solely with 
 reference to the agreement of its members in the particu- 
 lars of structure implied in the definition. Atm<tst all the 
 species of the family, however, are arboreal, living among 
 the branches of trees. Some of them, at least, undergo 
 their development out of water, and come out from the egg 
 with tho form of the adult, the tadpole stage being very 
 transitory, or suppressed and limited to intraov.al life. 
 Tho toes arc dilated at the extremities into round pcllct- 
 like extensions which act as suckers. Prof. Cope lias re- 
 cognized 17 genera and \?>2 species with the characters as- 
 signed to the family. These are distributed in the northern
 
 IIYU)HATIN.E— HYMEXOPTERA. 
 
 1075 
 
 hcraisphero, as well as in Sonth America and Australia, bat 
 none are found in Africa, The types of structure, however, 
 are distributed in a very unequal manner: thus, of the 
 known species, more than half uelong to the genus Hyln^ 
 and most of these are Pouth American, a number, however, 
 being found in Australia and North America. Of the other 
 generic types, 13 arc peculiar to tropical America, and (ex- 
 cept TrachifrrphfiluM) have only one to three species each, 
 while Australia has only a single peculiar and monotypic 
 genus {Hnnoiflea), in addition to its ffi/ffr. Two genera 
 (Arrt'n, with one species, and Chorophiius, with fivel are pe- 
 culiar to North America, and twelve species of Hf/la are 
 also inhabitants thereof. (See Cope, Trans. Acad. Nnt. Sc. 
 Philn., n. ^.. vi. S3-SS, etc.) Theodore Gill. 
 
 Hy lobat'insc [Gr. uAtj, " wood," and ^aivttv, to " walk "], 
 a sub-family of apes (embracing the long-armed gibbons), 
 and contrasting with the group Simiinac (including the 
 gorilla and chimpanzee), and distinguished from them by 
 the slender form; the ilia) of the pelvis notalate; the cere- 
 brum scarcely or not at all projecting backward over the 
 cerebellum: the molars of the upper jaw with no oblique 
 rid:;e: and the buttocks provided with eallti:iities. The 
 gibbons thus form an intermediate link between the large 
 apes and the typical monkeys of the Old World, although 
 they are most nearly related to the apes. They live chiefly 
 among the trees, swinging to and fro with their very long 
 arms. They delight in fruit. When walking they gener- 
 ally apply their knuckles to the ground, and yet stoop but 
 little, but sometimes walk erect with their long arms thrown 
 upward and used as balancing-poles. To this group belong 
 two genera, Siamamja .and Ift/lobntcfi. Theodore (Jill. 
 
 Hy'men [Gr. 'Yttrjv or 'YM<Vato?]. the Greek god of mar- 
 riage, perhaps a personification of the nuptial song, called 
 also Ai/nicn, and probably related etymologically to hifmn. 
 The mythus of Hymen varies greatly. He is represented 
 as a comely youth bearing the bridal torch. 
 
 Hymenop'tera. This extensive and interesting group 
 of insects comprises the bees, paper, wood and sand wasps, 
 ants, ichneumon-flies, gall-flies, and saw-flies. There are 
 estimated to be 2.'»,000 specie?, of which perhaps oOOO spe- 
 cies inhabit the U. S.. the number of ichneumon-flies and 
 their allies carrying the number up. Their range is not 
 confined to the tropics and temperate zone alone, but a few 
 species occur near the North Pole, a humble-bee and sev- 
 eral species of ichneumon-flies having been found in Po- 
 laris Hay, the northernmost point yet reached. Their geo- 
 logical range is not great, the earliest species known occur- 
 ring in the Jurassic formation, while other well-developed 
 insects (Neuroptcra) have been found as low down as the 
 Devonian formation. 
 
 The llymenoptera fso called from vfi^v, a " membrane." 
 and irTfpdi-. a 'Mving") are usually characterized by the 
 four membranous, naked wings, with a peculiar arrange- 
 ment of the veins, the hinder pair being much smaller than 
 the others; by the large head: the complication of the 
 mouth-parts, the jaws being adapted for biting as well as 
 seizing prey, while the maxillie and labium are much elon- 
 gatccl and adapted for lapping the sweets of flowers: the 
 ligula. or so-called tongue, which is a prolongation of the 
 labium or under lip, sometimes attaining a great length; 
 by the presence of a well-developed ovipositor — in the ants, 
 wasps, and bees modificil to form a sting. The more im- 
 portant character separating the llymenoptera from other 
 insects is the fact that in all except the saw-flies the thorax 
 consists of four rings, the fourth being the basal ring of 
 the abdomen, which in tho course of the trunsformations 
 of tho bee or wasp i« thrown for\vard on to the thorax or 
 middle region of the body. This indicates a transfer of 
 foree headward, an atlrairnblc Instance of the law of eepha- 
 lization discovered by Prof. Dana. For these and other 
 anatomical features, their social instincts, the differentia- 
 tion of the sexes in certain grouj)8, and their complete 
 transformations, the Hymenoptora stand at tho head of the 
 insect series. The young, or larva', are white, soft, fleshy, 
 and worm-like, without feet, except in the young of the 
 saw-flies, which closely resemble caterpillars. All except 
 the liitter arc fed by the parent^ either directly or from 
 stores of honey and pollen or animal food laid up before 
 Ihi'ir birth by their parents. The pupa is inactive, closely 
 resembling the adult, and protected by a thin silken co- 
 coon, except in the saw-flies, which approach the Lcpi- 
 doptera in spinning a dense cocoon, as well as in the oatcr- 
 pillar-like form of tin* larvce. 
 
 The anatomy of the Hymenoptera is very complicated, 
 iin^l greatly modified in accordance with the varying hab- 
 its of the diflferent species. They have a sucking stomach 
 opening into the long «esoph»t;us. Tho salivary glands 
 consist of two short ramified tufis, often contained entirely 
 in the head. The honey is formed, by some chemical change 
 as jet unknown, from the food contained in tbo crop^ which 
 
 is regurgitated into the honey-cellp. A charaot eristic of 
 those species provided with a sting is the two large poison- 
 glands situated in the end of the abdomen. The poison se- 
 creted in them is discharged into a pear-shaped sac lodged 
 near the base of the sting, which is provided with a pecu- 
 liar muscular apparatus for its sudden extension and with- 
 drawal. The poison has as a base formic acid, which im- 
 parts the poisonous properties to the secretion. The sting 
 may be seen in a rudimentary condition under the infegu 
 raent of tho larva. At that period it consists of three pairs 
 of simple appendages or buds, which, by their increase in 
 length and by changes in the form of the segments at the 
 end of the body towards the close of the pupa state, form 
 the sting. Just previous to this period the three pairs of 
 long blades may be separated, the two outer pairs ensheath- 
 ing the inner, which are barbed, and constitute the sting 
 proper. 
 
 Another feature of much interest in the bees is their power 
 of secreting wax. This is accomplished by special mi- 
 nute one-celled glands lodged just under the skin, opening 
 externally by pores connecting with a fine chitinous tube 
 in the integument. In Uic honey-bee these pores and 
 glands are situated on the under side of the abdomen. In 
 the stingless bees (Trirfoua) the wax is secreted on the up- 
 per side. The jaws of the bees and wasps are rounded at 
 the extremity, with slightly marked teeth. This form is 
 of use in the honey ant! jiollen gathering bees, while in 
 those species which build clay nests they arc used as trow- 
 els. In the carnivorous wasps, such as the Sphex and 
 Pompxlns, the jaws are sharp and hooked, adapted for seiz- 
 ing and retaining large insects. The legs are also exposed 
 to much variation In the different genera. For example, 
 in the hind legs in the pollen-gathering bees, such as the 
 honey and humble-bee, the tibia or shank is very broad 
 and hollo^Tcd out on the outer side, while stiff bristles pro- 
 ject over the depression from each side, forming the honey- 
 basket [corbiruium) In which the masses of honey and pol- 
 len are piled up. The mode in which the bee collects tho 
 pollen is very curious. She gathers it from the flowers 
 with her mandible, from which it is removed by the an- 
 terior pair of legs. From there it is passed to the inter- 
 mediate pair of legs by manifold scrapings and twistings 
 of the limbs, whence it is by similar manteuvres deposited 
 on the hind legs. (Shuckard.) In the fossorial species, on 
 the contrary, the legs are slender, but very hairy. The 
 sand-wa?p, or Sphcr, for examjde, by tho aid of its large 
 sicklc-likc mandibles, which are of use in removing small 
 stones and gravel, digs a hole from four to six inches deep 
 in half an hour. The hairy legs are used much as a dog 
 docs its paws, and with perhaps nearly equal intelligence. 
 Tho carpenter-bee and wood-wasp by means of their power- 
 ful jaws tunnel regular holes several inches deep in solid 
 wood, the stems of plants and shrubs, or the trunks of 
 trees. The complicated, many-chambered nests of the ants 
 are familiar objects. Indeed, there are no insects which 
 in their structure are more highly difTerentiatcd than the 
 various genera of Hymenoptera. and we find in them an 
 intelligence and power of adaptation to new and unfore- 
 seen circumstances which evince something more than 
 "blind instinct," in fact, a reason perhaps not inferior to 
 that shown by many of the vertebrate animals, and dilTer- 
 ing but in degree from that of man. 
 
 Not only is tho individual structure of the Hymenoptera 
 highly complicated, but in certain genera of bees, wasps, 
 and ants there is a difl"erentiation of tho individual into 
 three instead of two sexual forms — i. e. males, females, ami 
 workers (wrongly called neuters), the latter being sexually 
 undeveloped females. In the bees and wasps the workers 
 difi"er from the queen in having undeveloped ovaries and 
 incomplete a<*cessory organs, but difl"er externally only in 
 size, being a little smaller than tho females. In the ants, 
 however, while the workers are much smaller, they arc also 
 wingless, and differ in the proportions of the body. 
 
 The honey-bees and certain wnsps and gall-flies lay eggs 
 which produce young without being fertilized by the male. 
 Von Siebold discovercl that only tho queens' and workers' 
 eggs are fertilized by the spermtitozoa stored in the rcrrp- 
 tac.ulum acntinin of the female. These she can fertilize ut 
 will (the only animal known to possess this power of pro- 
 ducing either sex at pleasure), and retains the power for a 
 period of five years, as tho muscles guarding the duct lead- 
 ing from tho sporm-bag are supplied with a nerve, being 
 thus rendered voluntary and subject to her will. When she 
 wishes to lay an egg lo produce a drone, the egg is allowed 
 to slip out of the oviduct past the orifice of (lie reccplacu- 
 lum seminis, kept closed by the voluntary muscle. Drone 
 eggs are also laid by unfertilized queen-bees, and in somo 
 cases even by worker-bees. It is well known that bees 
 when deprived of their queen select several worker eggs or 
 very young larva; for the purpose of rearing queens. " The 
 colls in which these oggs arc situated arc lengthened out
 
 1076 
 
 IIYMliTTUS-lIY-MNOLOGY. 
 
 and the end turned downward." Whether, as Lcitch (from 
 whom wc have quoted) thinks, the development into a 
 queen is caused hy the increased temperature of the queen- 
 cell or as Iluber previously thought, by being fed with 
 different food (the royal paste or jelly), is not entirely set- 
 tled Probably both causes—/, c. a higher temperature 
 and richer food— taken together, arc sufficient to produce 
 an increased development of the young and an acceleration 
 in the development of the ovaries. We know that the vir- 
 gin reproduction of the Apln^ is terminated on the approach 
 of cold weather, an.I that differences in temperature and ^ 
 the density of the saline lakes in which the Artemtu, a. 
 crustaceous animal, lives, causes it to develop either by 
 layin" eggs in the normal way or to reproduce partheno- 
 geneticallv. Von Siebold has .also ascertained that the 
 common European Polhic, Gallicn reproduces partheno- 
 gencticallv. the workers laying eggs without intercourse 
 with the 'males. The Cynipides, or gall-flies, have long 
 been supposed to reproduce in this manner, but it has re- 
 cently been proved to be the case by an .American entomol- 
 ogist' Mr Walsh. He ascertained that a species of Ci/iitps 
 in Illinois in the autumn is represented by females alone. 
 The«c lay e<"'S. and the spring brood consists of males and 
 females. HTprovcd this by colonizing certain trees with 
 a number of individuals of Cj/»!ps (p,ercm-nc,c,ilnta, and 
 finding the next spring that the eggs Laid hy them pro- 
 duced C. qnercus-ipom/jirn. The autumn brood ol Cu^nps 
 consists entirely of agamous females, while the vernal brood 
 consists of both males and females; and -Mr. \\ alsh de- 
 clares, after several experiments, that "the agamous au- 
 tumnal female form of this Cipiips (C. q. aclculal,,) sooner 
 or later reproduces the bi.se.xual vernal form, and is thus 
 " a mere dimorphous female form " of Cipilp" '}■ spoMjifica. 
 Mr H F. Bassett states in confirmation that in Connecti- 
 cut Cnunt qi<erc«,-operalor is double brooded ; thirty of 
 one brood of females ovipositing in the buds of Q,iercus 
 illc!f"lia. while some of a second brood oviposited m the 
 voun.r acorns of the same species of oak. From these and 
 'other" facts he infers "that all our species that are found 
 only in the female sex are represented in another gener.a- 
 tion bv both sexes, and that the two broods are, owing to 
 seasonal differences, produced from galls that are entirely 
 distinct from each other." Here again, we find tempera- 
 ture the main active agent in inducing an abnormal mode 
 of generation, the eggs laid by the fertilized female in the 
 heat of summer producing agamous females. 
 
 With the exception of the white ants, which belong to 
 the Neuroptcra, the Hvmenoptera is the only group of in- 
 sects affording species which are truly social .and live in 
 colonies. In the social species there are almost invariably 
 three sexual forms, the workers forming the large majority 
 and doing most of the work of the colony. They even 
 assist largely in rearing the young, the males and females 
 not usuallv laving up food or providing for their offspring. 
 This division of labor is carried on unequally in the ditlcr- 
 ent species, and is best marked in the honey-bee, whose 
 colony contains but one female, the queen. In tho colonics 
 of tho ants there are numerous males and females, and in 
 s.,me genera (/'/.'•.■.;"^-, &■'>"") two sorts of workers— one 
 with a lar-'e head, called a worker major or soldier, and the 
 usual form or worker minor. In the honey-ant of Texas 
 and Mexico, while the normal workers are of the usual 
 shape and perform the active duties of tho form.carmm or 
 nest the lar^e worker is inactive and does not quit the 
 nest but lies almost immovable in its gallery, and elabo- 
 rates a kind of honey in its abdomen, which swells up as 
 lir"-e as a pea. Certain ants also enslave other species, 
 makin.' them do the work of the colony. They also herd 
 ai.hidM in their underground nests, and entertain as per- 
 ,,'ancnt visitors certain beetles, thus adding much to their 
 labors and to the complexity of their social life. 
 
 The following synopsis presents briefly the characters of 
 the more important families of Hymcnoptera, beginning 
 with the lowest : 
 
 1. Body short, abdomen sessile, and provided with an 
 
 ovipositor forming a saw: larvae caterpillarOike, 
 with 9-11 pairs of legs: Tenthredinidx (saw-tlies). 
 
 2. Like saw-flies, but tho body longer; larva with six 
 
 thoracic legs, and abdomen ending in a horn : Uro- 
 ccri'rfir (horn-tails). 
 
 3. Minute, with a short compressed abdomen, and a slender 
 
 long ovipositor : ('viii/jiV/h- (gall-flics). 
 
 4. Body slender, with a long prominent ovipositor: Ich- 
 
 neumonifirr (ichneumon-flies). 
 
 5. Body usuallv short and small, ovipositor short, incon- 
 
 spicuous ;' antenna- elbowed; wings with one vein, 
 with metallic colors : Clialcidiila- (ichneumon-flies). 
 
 6. Minute ; wings with one or no veins : Prnctotrt/ptdx 
 
 (egg-parasites). 
 
 7. Body oblong ; skin very dense, with a powerful sting : 
 
 Chi-yaididx (cuckoo-flies). 
 
 IG 
 
 18. 
 
 8. Body slender; antenna) elbowed; wingless workers: 
 Formicidx (ants). 
 
 9. Ant-like; body very hairy, with a powerful sting: 
 MatHlidiT. 
 
 10. Body hirsute, with short, hairy, spiny legs; eyes often 
 lunate ; species ofccn of large size and gayly colored : 
 
 Sf:iiliidx. 
 
 11. Antenna; long; body compressed; color usually blue: 
 I'ompilidir (sand-wasps). 
 
 12. Like the Pompilidic, but the body not compressed, 
 and abdomen petiolated : SphajidK (sand and mud 
 wasps). 
 
 13. Somewhat like the Sphegidae, but with the abdomen 
 sessile and oval, conical : Lnirld.f. 
 
 U. He.adlarge,body flattened, highly colored: Bembccidir. 
 la! Body with a loiig, club-shaped, or a conical sessile ab- 
 domen ; antenn;e clavate : Ai/'inuidir. 
 Head large, cubical; fore legs of males variously modi- 
 fied in form; body high colored, like the wasps; 
 tongue short : Crnhmindir (wood-wasps). 
 Males, females, and workers; fore wings folded once 
 
 longitudinally : Veipid.r (paper-wasps). 
 Males, females, workers ; social in the higher genera. 
 Body usually hirsute ; tongue long ; living in nests 
 or underground tunnels : Apidiv (bees). 
 
 A. S. Fackakd, Jn. 
 Hvitiet'tus, a mountain-ridge of Greece, 4J miles S. E. 
 of Athens, 2i;Sll feet high. The honey collected here has 
 been famous from remote antiquity to the present time for 
 its exquisite flavor. 
 
 Hymnol'ogy [Gr. vmw, a "festive song" or "ode," 
 and Aoyos. " discourse "], the science of sacred lyrical poetry. 
 A hymn, according to St. Augustine, " must be praise to (Jod 
 in the form of song." By the looser definition which pre- 
 vails now, it is a lyric expressive of religious feeling, or 
 celebrating, howeve'r indirectly, the object of worship. The 
 Greek pai?an hvmns were in honor of gods and heroes, and 
 were usually sung at their festivals. (See a fine example, 
 translated, i'n Mr. Pai.crave's Lyricnl Poem«, p. 2o8.) A 
 parallel may be traced between these and the Christian 
 hymns for saints' days, etc. The more ancient Greek hymns, 
 as Homer's, aie chiefly descriptive, and are considered epic ; 
 the later ones, as of Callimachus and Pindar, lyric. In 
 most of these, to a modern mind, the devotional and cthi- 
 cal elements arc wanting; not, however, in Cleanthes' 
 •'Hymn to Zeus." and in the noble (unmetrical) outburst 
 of Epictetus, ■' Of Providence." end of chap, xvi., B. 1. The 
 Oriental sacred books, especially the Vcdas, contain many 
 hymns, which have received no little attention of late. Of 
 ail the sacred poems of antiquity, the Jewish Psalms of 
 course are the most familiar and most precious. They have 
 become practically incorporated with Christian hymnody, 
 and their influence has been great on all its developments. 
 Christian hvmnody is coeval with Christianity; from 
 the Christmas song oi' angels the lyrical element had large 
 place among the belongings of the new religion. Every 
 language in which the gospel was proclaimed had probably 
 very soon its own supjdy of sacred verse. The " Tersane- 
 tus" the "Gloria in Exeelsis," and the "Te Deum " are 
 of early though unknown date. The Syriac hymns of 
 Ephrem (d. 381) have been translated. (For primitive 
 Greek hymns in an English dress see The Voice <•/ Chrh- 
 li,ii, Life 111 .N'oiif/.) Clemens Alexandrinus and Gregory 
 Naziaiizen arc the earliest Christian bymnists or hymn- 
 writers known. In later times Analnlius. Andrew of Crete, 
 John Damascene, Cosmas, Stephen the Sabaite. Theodore 
 and Joseph of the Studium. Methodius. Tbeoctistus. Met- 
 rophanes, and others sup|died the wants of Greek worship 
 till the tenth century. Some of their productions are ex- 
 quisitely translated in Dn. Xeale'.s ////m..« oj the Easlcn, 
 Church. (See al-so Mrs. Biiowsixc'.s tfceft- CJirlsliau P„ei,.) 
 The seed of religious song was soon carried into Latin 
 soil where it bore yet more abundant though hardly richer 
 fruit (See Dr. Ne'ai.e's paper on "Sacred Latin Poetry," 
 J?i,ci;e/. Mcirop.. vol. "Roman Literature.") The great 
 name here is Ambrose (d. 397); he founded a school of 
 hvmn-wrilers, and had many now forgotten imitators, 
 whose work is often indistinguishable from his own. The 
 Ambrosian hymns are marked by a severe simplicity, which 
 to readers unfamiliar with them may seem hard and dry. 
 After him came Prudentius (d. about 413), Venantius For- 
 tunatus (d. 609), Gregory (d. 004). Bede (d. 73a). Ihco- 
 dulph (d. S21),Rabanus Maurus. Godeschcalcus.nnd many 
 others. By degrees these mcdiseval bymnists assume a 
 more ornate style and a more passionate devotion. St. Ber- 
 nard (d. llo3)'and his namesake, the monk of Cluny, have 
 given us glowing strains, than which none are more pre- 
 cious to English and American worshippers of our day. 
 Peter Damiaoi (d. 1072), Hildebert (d. 1133). Hildegarde 
 (d. 1179). Adam of St. Victor (d. 1192). and Thomas Aqui- 
 nas (d. 1274) were also no mean poets. Some of the world s
 
 IIYNKS— 11Y0P0TAMID.E. 
 
 10 
 
 i i 
 
 most famous hymns, produced at this period, are of doubt- 
 ful ori<;in or by authoris who arc known by a single piece; 
 thus, iMiiinent far (jrnndeur, " Vcui Creator Spiritus " uud 
 '• l>ics Ir;i' " (by Thomas a Cchinol. and for lnvclincss or 
 pathos, ** Vcni Sancte .Spiritus" (Kobert IF. of France). 
 **Stabat Mater" (by Jacopone), and "0 Dcus, Ego aino 
 Te," questionably ascribed to Xavier. One or two moJorns 
 have written good Latin hymns, as the biothcrs Satitolius 
 Maglorianas and Viclorinus (d. lt)S4, IGUT), and Clnirles 
 Cotfin {\\. KlU). For this department of literature see the 
 Roman and Parisian lirrviaricn and Daniki/s ThrHUHrwi ; 
 anil lor translations, the works of Newman, ClianiUer. Mant, 
 Isaac Williams, Caswall, Copeland, Campbell, Blew, Neale, 
 Chambers, Kynaston. 
 
 With the Ueformalion came a new birth of lyric fervor, 
 and great waves of saercd song in the vernacular rolled 
 over the Protestantizing lands. Clement Marot rendered 
 the Psalms into French metre, and Calvin himself wrote a 
 hymn or two. But the effect was naturally greatest in Ger- 
 niany, where arose by degrees what is probably the largest, 
 and claimed by many to be the finest, body of hymns in 
 any language. (For this subject see Miss WiNKWORTn's 
 Vhriitimi Snujcrs o/ fjermniii/ &nd Mu. KlfBLnn's Historical 
 Xot'-H to the Li/rtt (tcrnifinicft, an<l especially Ivocii's (ic- 
 Hchiffile (IcH DentHchfii Kirrhenllcd'i. '.U\ cd. 7 vols.) Lutlicr 
 led the van, and was closely followed by Hans S:ichs, Paul 
 Eber, M. Weiss and other *' Bohemian Brethren," N. Her- 
 mann. Sclnecker, Nicolai, etc. We can mention but a few 
 names of the following centuries, in chronological order: 
 Stegmann, Meyfart, John Heermann, Kinkart, Risf, (Jc- 
 senius, Clausnitzer, Alberti, Paul Gcrhardt (IfiOU-TG), by 
 common consent the greatest of German hymnists; John 
 Frank, Xcumark, Kcheffler or Angelas Silesius, Von Rosen- 
 roth, Tcrsteegen ; J. Xeander, Von Canitz, C. F. Richtcr, 
 Ro.Iigast, G. Arnold, Laurenti, A. If. Franke, Bogatzky, 
 Zinzendorf (who was fiillowcd by other Moravian writers), 
 S, Frank, S..-hmolkc; Gcllert, Klopstock, Novalls, Fouque, 
 Spitta. Knapp, Lange. Meta Heusscr. The various schools 
 among which these poets divide are elaborately discrim- 
 inated by Mr. Kiibler. An immense and valuable col- 
 lection of over liltOf) hymns has been made by Albert Knapp 
 — Li' tferm-hatz. Many tierman hymns have been rendered 
 into Knglish by John Wesley. I7mD-I0; by Jaciobi and 
 Ifabcrkorn, 1722-6(1; by the Moravians, 175 (, etc.; and 
 mure recently by Miss F. E. Cox, A. T. Russell, R. Massie, 
 Miss Borthwick. and others ; specially by Miss Winkworth, 
 whose Li/rn Genmtiiivrt (2 vols.) and Chorale Hook havo 
 added much to our English stock. 
 
 The Scandinavian countries have their own hymnic sup- 
 plies, and are proud of them, but these are little known to 
 English readers. In Italy and France there is not so much 
 material of tins sort. Many sacred lyrics of Madame 
 Guyon (d. 1717) were translated by Cowper in 1782. 
 
 In England hymnoily was a plant of late growth; its 
 plaeL- was long filled by psalmody. Mylcs Coverdalc, one 
 ol the Reformers, in I5."l- put furfh forty Ghostly pM<tliitcn ami 
 S/n'riftiall Si'iiiji-K, but there is no evidcn'^e of these having 
 com-.' into use. A better fortune attended Thomas Stern- 
 holJ's PanltM {1 J49), completed by Hopkins and others in 
 1602: this 0^^ Vrraiitn became popular, and was bound up 
 with the Prayer Book for nearly three centuries. It was 
 afli-rwards in part superseded by the Nrw Vcntinn of Tate 
 and Bra<ly (I'lyt;). .Aleantiinc, the Puritans usecl thcScotch 
 ver.^ion by Francis Rous (Ifilj). Hymns, as such, were 
 not written till later, for (Jeorge Herbert and his contem- 
 poraries were sacred poets rather than hymni-;ts. A begin- 
 ning on a small scahr was made by Bishop Jeremy Taylor 
 (lf..j.'>). and followed up by John Austin (K'.fiH). R. Baxter 
 (IftSi ), and eminently by .John Mason ( IfiS.'l), whose hymns 
 were perhaps the first to be sung (o any extent in Englaml 
 as accessories of worship. AVilMarn Harton. .losepli Sten- 
 nctt. an<l Bishop Ken had also the honor ftf pri-eeding Dr. 
 Watts. The latter is properlv the father of English hymn- 
 ody ; the appearance of his ffi/miifi in 1707-01», and of his 
 /*H'i/iiii in 1711>, introducetl a new era: they were hailed 
 with delight by the Inilk of Dissenters, and for a long time 
 by tbem used exclusively, or nearly so, in Britain and 
 America. The publication of Cbnrles Wesley's first hymns 
 in 17;ttt marked another era. He is the most voluminous of 
 sicred poets, ami one of the most gifted. Fur tifty years 
 he continued publishing, and his verses, recently collected, 
 fill thirteen volumes. The intliience of these lyrics was 
 great in promoting the Wesleyan revival. J(»hn Wesley 
 also wrote hymns, though but few. His great Coffrrtion 
 (1779). eomposetl chiefly of his brother's pieces, was hmg 
 used by the Methodists everywhere, and is still the basis 
 of their various hymn-books. The other hymnists of the 
 eighteenth century, except Addison. Pope, and Byrom. were 
 chiedy followers either of Wiitis or Wesley, or of both. To 
 the first school belong Simon Browne, the Scotch Paraphra- 
 sers, Gibbons, Boddume, Fuwoctt, Hawcis, S. Stonnott, T. 
 
 Scott, Necdham, Mrs. Barbauld ; to the second, Cenniek, 
 Hammond, Olivers, Toplady. Hart, Cowper, Newton. Med- 
 ley. W. Williams, Ryland. Grigg, Perrouet.Scagrave, Rob- 
 inson, Shirley, and others, show the intluence of both mas- 
 ters. (Much of our knowleilgo of these old authors is duo 
 to Mr. Daniel Sedgwick of Bisliojisgate, Lonclon, who for 
 many years has made hymnology a special study.) 
 
 With the present century arose James Montgomery, 
 whoso services and influence in this field were great, and 
 Thomas Kelly. The year 1827 was marked by the appear- 
 ance of Bishop Heber's Hyuiii'tiuul of Keble's Christian Vvav. 
 About the same time Sir J. B()wring, Sir R. Grant, Condcr. 
 Edraeston, Reed, Lyte, Miss Aubcr, and Mrs. Adams wrote; 
 more recently Charl(»fte Elliott, Dr. Bonar, George Rawson, 
 T. T. Lynch. T. II. (Jill, and many others. Faber, Cas- 
 wall, and Bridges belong to the Romish Church. That of 
 England, long negligent in this p.articular, was awakened 
 to its importance by the Oxford movement of IS.tIi, and a 
 fresh and increasing tide ot lyric life has since been jioured 
 in. Dr. Xcale. Dean Alfi)rd. Bishop Wordsworth. Dr. 
 Monsell, Mrs. .\lexaijdcr, Sir H. W. Baker, Earl Nelson. 
 F. T, Palgravc, W. C. Dix. J. Ellerton are noticeable 
 names. New and carefully prepared hymnals are con- 
 stantly appearing, ami the material for them is increasing 
 every day. lu no previous :ige, perhaps, were more and 
 better hymns written than now. 
 
 In America, having the literature of England at her 
 back, comj)aratively little has been done or was needed. 
 Davies. Dwight, Doane, Onderdonk, Muhlenberg, Bryant, 
 Alexander. Pierpont, Furness, Coxe, Ray Palmer, Sears, 
 and others have given us hymns, a few of which will not 
 die. Here, as in England, attention is being paid to 
 hymnology. and the improvement in this department of 
 knowledge and worship is alrcatly visible. We have better 
 hymnals than our ancestors hud, and the next generation 
 will have still better. Various books have been written on 
 the bibliograjthy of hymnology, but none that thoroughly 
 covers the entire ground. The best thus far is Josiah Mil- 
 ler's Siiujers and i^ou^s of the Church (1872). 
 
 Fredkiuc M. Bird. 
 
 Ilyncs, tp. of Russell co., Ala. Pop. 1120. 
 
 Ilyiiobi'idir [etymologj' uncertain], a family of sala- 
 niaaders cstaldished by Prof. Cope, and with the cranium 
 deficient in an anterior axial bone ; the palatines contigu- 
 ous and prolonged over the parasphcnoid, and with teeth 
 on their posterior external margins: the jirefrontals and 
 }>terygoids arc well de\'clopcd ; the frontal not embraced 
 by parictals and prefrontals ; the orbito-sphenoid separated 
 by a membranous wall from the prootic; the postfronto- 
 squamosal arch is atrophied, iind the occipital condyles avo 
 sessile. The family includes a single genus (IIi/uobitiH) 
 from Japan, and is most nearly related to the Desmog- 
 natbi<l:e and Pletliodonlidie of the U.S. Thkodori: Gill. 
 
 Ilyodon'tidjr [ from Y, /. c the U-shaped or hyitid bone, 
 and oSoii?, "totith '"]. a family of isospomlylous teleocepha- 
 lous fishes, having a herring-like form ; cycloid scales ; 
 head scaleless ; the margin of the upper jaw formed by tho 
 snpramaxillaries on the side, and with those bones articu- 
 lated to the extremities of the intermaxillaries ; and tho 
 dorsal fin behind the anus; the stomach is not ciecal, and 
 has only one ])yloric appendage ; the air-bladder is simple; 
 the ovaries (lischargc their eggs first into the abdomirml 
 cavity. This group has been constituted esnccially for tho 
 reception of the '" moon-eye heri'ing '' {f/i/oaoii tcrt/iitKu) of 
 tho lakes and Western rivers, to whicli it is peculiar. It is 
 most nearly related to the CUipeids (herrings, shad, etc.). 
 
 TuKonoiii-; Gill. 
 
 IIyog:aiioi'dea [from Y, i. c the U-shaped or byi>id 
 apparatus, and (innoidca], a super-order of ganoid fishes, 
 chanieteri/.ed by the completely ossified skeleton ; develop- 
 ment of the intermaxillary and supramaxillarv bones: tho 
 external nasal apertures; the development of tlie njierou- 
 liir apparatus: ami the complete hyoid apparatus (whence 
 the name). It embraces the existing families Ainiida' and 
 Eepidosteida', and numerous extinct forms. (Sec Fisni:s.) 
 
 Tiironoiti; tiii.i.. 
 
 Ily'oid Konc, a bono comparatively unimportant in 
 man, supporting the tongue, but represented either in an 
 osseous condition or by rudimentary cartilages throughout 
 tho Vertebral a, and of great iinportiince in the lower classes. 
 in which it is of increased coniplexity, forming the support 
 fur the lirancbial n]iparatus. 
 
 Ilyopoliim'idjr [from &«, n "hog," and ttotomo?. 
 ''river "J, a family of ungulate mammals belonging to the 
 sub-order Arliodactyla and the group with '• selenodont " 
 molars (f". r. like those of ruminants), with the ujipcr molars 
 crowned with five (.'tantoH- 2 post) well-developetl crescen- 
 tifortn lobes ; Ibo canines of the lower jaw simulating and 
 parallel with the incisors; incisors persistent (5x2) in 
 both jaws; dental series intorruptod by very long diaslo-
 
 1078 
 
 HYOPSODUS— HYPERBOLOID. 
 
 mata above and below ; and the canine teeth of the up- 
 per jaw well developed; the snout was correspondingly 
 elon<'atcd; the mastoid processes but slightly developed, 
 and the zvgomatic pnieesscs of the squamosals were direct- 
 ed forward aud backward from their bases: the lower 
 jaw had its rami produced backward, and frequently 
 armed with tubercles projecting outward from the sides 
 towards the front. This family was richly dcveloi>ed in 
 the early Tertiary period, an.l especially in the Eocene and 
 Miocene a"-e3. the name Anthracotherida; has been also 
 ^iveu to tie group. It embraces numerous genera and 
 Species, among which are Uyopotamm (with its synonyms 
 or sections, Ancdm, C,/clo;,,mtl,m, /lothnodon), AnlUraco- 
 Ihrrinm. T,<inmnl<m, Diplupm, etc. The richest field in 
 which their remains have been found arc the Miocene de- 
 posits of Auvcrgnc in France, and near relations have been 
 found in this country in the Orcodontid.c or Merycodoi- 
 dontid* The species varied in size, from dimensions little 
 more than those of a rat to those of an ass. The members 
 of this family have lately ( 1S75) been the subjects of a very 
 elaborate monograph by Dr. Kowalevsky ("On the Oste- 
 olo.'y of the Hvopotamida;," part i.) in the Philosophical 
 Tru,isacHum o(' ihe Royal Society of London (voh cl.'iin. 
 pp. 19-95, pi. 35-40). Theodore (.ill. 
 
 Hyop'sodus [(ir. t,. a" hog," 5*«, "appearance," and 
 iSovs a " tooth ■•], an extinct genus of small mammals from 
 the Eocene of Wvomiiig. named from its supposed resem- 
 blance to the suillines, but now known to belong to the 
 Quadrumana. (Sec Qi'.idkumana, Fossil.) 0. C. Marsh. 
 Hyoscyamus. See Henbane. 
 
 Hypa'tia [-V^aT.-a]. daughter of Theon, a Greek of Al- 
 exandria, no less renowned for her knowledge of mathe- 
 matics than of the \co-Platonic philosophy, which she 
 tau<'ht with applause in her native city. Her beauty and 
 modestv were also celebrated, but the clergy believed that 
 she made use of her influence with Orestes, prefect of Alex- 
 andria, to the injury of St. Cyril, then the archbishop of 
 Alexandria. Accordingly, she was set upon by a mob led 
 by priests, who carried her into a church, stripped her of 
 her clothes, and then tore her in pieces (+15 A. p.). Theod- 
 oret accuses Cyril of instigating this murder, but of his 
 guilt there is no proof. 
 
 Hyper'bola [(Jr. virep. " over," and giA^eii'. to '• throw "], 
 a plaue curve that mav be generated by a point moving in 
 such a manner that the difreicnce of its distances from two 
 fixed points is always equal to a given distance. The fixed 
 points arc called Jori, and a straight line drawn through 
 them and limited by the curve is called the trausvcracaxia. 
 The centre is that point of the transverse axis which is 
 midway between the foci, and a line through this point 
 perpendicular to the transverse axis is called the coiym/nlc 
 axis This axis does not cut the curve, but it is limited by 
 the condition that the diagonal of the rectangle describes 
 upon it and the transverse axis shall bo equal to the dis- 
 tance between the foci. The ecc.-ntrlcii;/ is the distance 
 from the centre to either focus, divided by the semi-trans- 
 verse axis. The diagonals of the rectangle described on 
 the axes indefinit.ly prolonged are anpnptote* to the curve; 
 as we recede from the centre the curve continually ap- 
 proaches these lines, becomes tangent to them at an infi- 
 nite distance, but never crosses them. These asymptotes 
 are the limits of the curve. If h is less than <i, the angle 
 between the asymptotes is acute and the hyperbola is 
 ncute • if fc is greater than a, the hyperbola is ohtunc ; if 6 
 i* equal to n, the hvpcrbola is rectangular or cpnlalerul. 
 
 The hypcrljula is one of the conic sections. The conic 
 Mirface from which every variety of hyperbola may bo cut 
 bv a secant plane is a surface that may bo generated by a 
 straight line moving in such a manner as to touch a given 
 circle and pass through a given point. The directing circle 
 is called the lm«c of the cone, the fixed point is callcil tlie 
 vrric..: the moving line is the y.iio-nO-ijr, any position ol 
 this line is an element, and a line through the vertex and 
 centre of the base is the axh. The surface thus described 
 consists of two parts, united at the vertex, which are called 
 vappen : the lower nappe is the ime that is on the side of 
 the base : the other one is called the upper napnc. By 
 varying the position of the vertex with respect to the base, 
 the' cone mav be made right or oblique, acute or obtuse. 
 If we pass a plane through the vertex of this general 
 cone, it will cut out two elements, and by suitably varying 
 the position of this plane these elements may be made to 
 have any inclination to each other. If we pass a second 
 =ecaui plane parallel to the first, it will cut from the cono 
 a hyperbola whose asymptotes are parallel to the elements 
 cut out by the first plane. The plane of the hyperbolacuts 
 all the elements of the cone except the two to which^^lt is 
 
 A system of planes parallel to the first cut out a system of 
 similar hyperbolas— that is, hyperbolas whose axes are in 
 a given ratio. If this system of hyperbolas is projected 
 on the plane through the vertex by jirojectors parallel to 
 the line that joins their centres with the vertex of the cone, 
 these projections ivill be equal, in all respects, to the curves 
 themselves, and will all have the same rectilineal asymp- 
 totes ; they will also be curvilinear asymptotes to one an- 
 other. The lines cut out by the plane through the vertex 
 maybe regarded as a hyperbola whose axes are infinitesi- 
 mal ; that is. they may be regarded as the limiting case of 
 this group of similar "hyperbolas. If we take the case of 
 an oblique cone, and suppose the vertex to move towards 
 the plaue of the base, and ultim.atcly to coincide with it, 
 the cone will reduce to a sector of that plane, the elements 
 cut out by the plane through the vertex will coincide with 
 each other, and planes parallel to the first plane will cut 
 out straight lines limited towards the centre; that is, in- 
 definite straight lines with a part removed. Such lines 
 may be regarded as hyperbolas whose foci are at the ver- 
 tices of the transverse axis. 
 
 Two hyperbolas which are so related that the transverse 
 axis of either is the conjugate axis of the other are called 
 conjngatc hvpcrbolas. Two conjugate hyperbolas have the 
 same asymptotes, and their four foci are all on the circum- 
 ference of the same circle. Conjugate hyperbolas arc so 
 related that a complete discussion of cither necessitates that 
 of the other; in fact, they ought to be regarded as a single 
 curve with four branches. From this point of view the 
 equation of the complete curve may bo written thus: 
 „2,y2 _ 6V2 = T «'-''^. in which a and 6 arc the semi-axes; 
 the upper sio-n corresponds to the branches whose semi- 
 transverse axis is a, and the lower sign to the branches 
 whose semi-transverse axis is b. An examination of the 
 above equation shows that there are four values of i/ for 
 each value of x, and that these values, taken in pairs, are 
 equal with contrary signs; also that there are four values 
 of X for each value of i/, and that these, taken m pairs, are 
 equal with contrary signs; consequently, the entire curve 
 is svmmetrical with respect to both axes. All values of x 
 between - a and + it render one pair of values of i/ imag- 
 inary and the other pair real ; all values of x less than - a, 
 or greater than -I- a, make both pairs of values of y real. 
 In like manner, all values of >/ between - 4 and -^ 4 make 
 one pair of values of x imaginary and the other pair real ; 
 all values of u less than - 6, and greater than -f h, make 
 both pairs of values of x real. The equation of the com- 
 
 mon asymptotes of the four branches is >^ = ±-^ x, as may 
 
 be shown by a discussion of the general etjuation of the 
 
 curve. 
 
 Two conjugate hyperbolas may be cut from a pair cl con- 
 jugate cones, or from a pair of conjugate hyperboloids. 
 Let there be two straight lines intersecting each other at 
 right angles, and let there be a third lino lying in their 
 plane and passing through their common point; if the last 
 line is revolved about each of the others in turn, it will 
 generate a pair of conjugate cones tangent to each other, 
 and any pl.ane parallel to their axes will cut from these 
 cones a pair of conjugate hyperbolas whose asymptotes 
 are parallel to the elements of contact. (For particular 
 properties of the hvpcrbola refer to special treatises on 
 conic sections, of which Sadiox's Conic Seeiioni is prob- 
 ably the most full and complete.) W. G. Peck. 
 
 Hyper'boloid, a surface such that the sections made 
 by passing planes in certain directions are hyperbolas, 
 there are two classes— tV/i/jdViti and parabolic hyperbo- 
 loids In the former all the plane sections that are not 
 hvpcrbolas are ellipses, and in the latter all the sections 
 that arc not hvpcrbolas are parabolas. The elliptical hy- 
 perboloids aro divided into two species— hyperboloids of 
 one nappe and hvperboloids of two nappes. The lormcr 
 are warped surfaces, and the latter are surfaces of double 
 curvature. In the hvperboloids of one nappe every section 
 made bv a plane parallel to a tangent plane is a hyper- 
 bola, and all other plane sections are ellipses ; in the hypcr- 
 boloid of two nappes everv section made by a plane parallel 
 to a tangent plane is an ellipse, and all other sections arc 
 hyperbolas. If two conjugate hyperbolas arc revolved 
 about either axis, they will generate a pair of conjugate 
 hvperboloids of revolution, and their common asymptotes 
 
 will generate a cone which separates the two and is a com- 
 mon asymptote to both. The hyperbola that revolves about 
 its conjugate axis generates a hyperboloid of one nappe; 
 that which revolves about its transverse axis generates a 
 hyperboloid of two nappes; and the asymptotic cone is 
 
 Eri sr sdi-j;: '.;;r:.t;:- r.E?r I ' ^iss'i^sr: . ..„- ..,.-. .«..
 
 IIYPKKBOREANS-HYPOCHLOROUS ANHY DRIDE; AND HYPOCHLORITES. 107 9 
 
 one genus, Afi/xinr, represented by species in the norlhcrn 
 and southern' hemispheres; and (2) Bdellostomida.'. whoso 
 ipeeics are confined to tho Pacific Ocean, one of them as- 
 lendinc as far northward as California. TiiEO. (iii.i.. 
 
 may bo generated by a straight lino moving so as to touch 
 two straight lines and be parallel to a given plane. The 
 fiXL-d lines, which must not be parallel, are called dlrcctriceg, 
 tlie plane is called the /il'inc direrUir, the moving lino is 
 ciilled the i/mcrulrix, and any position of tho directrix is 
 called an c'lcmrnl of the surface. If we take a new ]ilanc 
 director parallel to the given directrices, and any two ele- 
 ments of the surface as directrices, and generate a surface 
 in the same manner as before, it will coincide with tho sur- 
 face just described. The surface has therefore a double 
 mode of generation. Through any point of the surface 
 two straight lines can always be drawn that will coincide 
 witli the surface, and the plane of these lines will be tan- 
 gent to the surface at that point. Any plane parallel to a 
 tangent plane intersects the suxface in a hyperbola ; every 
 other plane, in a parabola. W. G. Peck. 
 
 Ilyperbo'reans [YirtpSifKiot, "beyond the north 
 wind." or lioreas], a mythical people who, as the an- 
 cient Oreoks supposed, dwelt in the far North in a happy 
 clime, where sickness, old age, and sorrow were unknown. 
 Herodotus believed that tho myth of tho Hyperboreans 
 was based upon facts; which opinion, it need not bo 
 said, is now known to bo incorrect. Tho myth is variously 
 
 given. 
 
 Ilypercor'acoid [(Jr. virtp, "upper," itopaf, -crow, 
 and <iJo5, "loriu"], the upper bono apposed to tho inner 
 surface of tho great scapular cincture of the typical fishes. 
 It is one of three bones which together are homologous 
 with a single cartilage in the more generalized fishes— i'. c. 
 ganoids— and was regarded by Cuvier as tlie radius; by 
 Owen, as tho ulna; and by GcgenbaUr .and Parker, .as tho 
 scapula. TuEODOEiE G11.L. 
 
 Ilypcri'des, a patriotic Athenian orator, b. about 100 
 n. c, a friend of Demosthenes and a pupil of Plato and 
 Isoerates ; began life as a practitioner of law ; was faithful 
 to the interests of the people in the contests with Philip, 
 and in H.'iS n. c. proposed to free all the slaves and enfran- 
 chise tho resident aliens and the disfranchised .\thcnians. 
 In .121 he was for a time at variance with llcmostlienes, 
 whom ho accused of receiving money from llarpalus. In 
 .122 II. r. he was cruelly murdered at .Egina by tho emissa- 
 ries of .\nlipator. His private character was not above 
 suspicion, but his public acts appear to have been uni- 
 fr)rnily disinterested and wise. The ancients speak in high 
 terms of the purity and grace of his style, but of his many 
 orations only slight fragments existed up to IS-I", when 
 f.>ur orations were discovered in Egypt, one of which, 
 iirJp r.v{ci';>rirou ("in defence of Euxenippus"), only was 
 entire. Published by liabington (in fac-simile), London. 
 IS.iO, ISo.'i, and I80.S; edited by Blass, Loipsic, ISliB, and 
 by Miiller in Ortitont Ailid, Ptiris, 1358. (Seo Journal 
 „/ I'lill:!;,,,/, vol. i. pp. 10'J-I24.) 
 
 Ilypcroar'tia [Gr. Jirepuia, "palate," and ipno?, "per- 
 fect"], an order of marsipobranchiates distinguished by 
 the .lovelopniene of the skull and the eceeal nature of tho 
 median external nasal aperture; no duct perforating tho 
 palate, which is therefore left entire (whence the name). 
 The branchial apertures are on each side hehiml the head, 
 and seven in number; the inner branchial ducts debouch 
 into a separate common tube. The ova are small, and su- 
 perliciallv like those of fishes. Tho young undergo a com- 
 plete metan\(irphosi3 after leaving the egg. The larvic have 
 an elongated slit-like mouth, and arc without teeth or eyes. 
 In this condition they were formerly considered to be mem- 
 bers of a peculiar group (Auiuimcirtr»). At maturity tho 
 mouth is circular, surroumled by a lip, and armed with 
 Jontigcrous lamellm on its disk, as well as with lingual 
 teeth; enlarged plates above and below the antrum of tho 
 oesophagus have been called maxillary and mandibular, 
 but they have no homologieal relation with the upper and 
 lower jiiws of ordinary fishes, and tho lower jaw in them is 
 absolutely wanting. This order embraces only a single 
 family of existing species (the Petromy/.ontidie or lam- 
 preys), of which there are at least five genera, three of 
 which are represented in North .\merica. TiiEo. Gii.i.. 
 
 Ilyperolrc'ta [Gr. uirtpua, "palate," and tptto«. "pcr- 
 forateil"]. an order of marsipobranchiates eharactcri7.cd by 
 the structure of the cranial cartilages iiinl tho complete 
 tubulation of the median nasal aperture, and its |)erforation 
 of (ho palate (and hoiico the nann')- 'I'be branchial a]ier- 
 tures are developed on each side far behind the head, and 
 are variable in number; the inner branchial ducts com- 
 municate directly with the oesophagus ; the ova arc largo, 
 and provided eac h with an oval horny case constricted at 
 each end, and with numerous filaments thereto. Tho em- 
 bryology is still unknown. In tho adult condition tho 
 mouth has no lips and no plates on the disk, but a median 
 tooth is above the entrance of the oesophagus, and two poo- 
 tiniform rows or teeth on the tongue. The order I bus de- 
 fined is composed of two families— vii. (1) Myxinidu), with 
 
 cending as I 
 
 Hy'pcrsthene [Gr. vni/i, intensive, and irS.Vot, 
 "strength "], the Labrador hornblende, or, more strictly, 
 the thin-leaved, brittle, and bronze-colored variety of py- 
 ro.xene, an impure ferro-silicatc of magnesia. It is often 
 quite handsome, and is cut as an ornamental stone. 
 
 Hyper'trophy [Gr. iin-cp, "over," and rpo-frq, "nourish- 
 ment"], in |iatliology,tho overgrowth of any part or organ, 
 or the disproportionately largo size of such an organ. Hy- 
 pertrophy is simple, horaccoplastic, heteroplastic, or hyper- 
 plastic, these terms defining the character of the added ma- 
 terial which gives tho increased size. It may be caused, 
 1st, by an increased exercise of the part, an exemplification 
 of which we have in the blacksmith's arm : 2dly, by an in- 
 creased supply of blood to a part, the part being healthy; 
 3dly, from some local derangement, as may be seen in ex- 
 ostoses, fatty tumors, etc. tho treatment of hypertrophy 
 has been very unsatisfactory; in fact, we can do next to 
 nothing for patients suffering from the first and second 
 varieties. The third should be removed by the knife if 
 any inconvenience is caused. EnwAiui J. Berminuiiam. 
 Ilypuotism. See Mesmerism. 
 
 Hvp'nuin [Gr. iinpai'], a very large genus of mosses of 
 tho sub-order Pleurocarpi and tribe Ilypnea;. Many of 
 them are large, and grow on wot ground or on old logs. 
 Tho U. S. have some 100 species, many of which are Euro- 
 pean also. There are many sub-genera, some of which arc 
 probably worthy of being considered genera. 
 
 HypoL-hlorous Anhydride; and Hypochlorites, 
 or Bleaching Salts. The compounds that belong iindi-r 
 these heads comprise many of the most valuable of our 
 bleaching and disinfecting agents. Hiipnchlormis aulii/- 
 dridc, formerly called hypochlorons acid (a name wc 
 now use for the product of its union with water), has the 
 composition C1»0, containing its own volume of gaseous 
 chlorine, and by weight 81.0 per cent, of that elcinenl. It 
 is a pale yellow gas, which explodes, though without mu.li 
 energy, when healed. It differs much in odor from chlo- 
 rine, and is condensed by snow and salt to a deep red, very 
 explosive liquid. It is prepared in the gaseous form by 
 reaction of dry prrrijiiintcd mercuric oxide on chlorine gas, 
 an oxyehlori'de of mercury being formed : 2IIgO + t'li = 
 HgCI2HgO + CljO. Both the liquid and the gas combine 
 with water to form hypochlorous acid: CI^^O n Hod = 
 ll^Cl-O-. Solutions of the acid in water may be ]ireparid 
 also by several other methods; as by distilling together, 
 with special precautions, bleaching salt and a mineral acid ; 
 by passing air and muriatic acid gas together through a 
 heated solution of permanganate of potash in a retort; by 
 passing chlorine into water in which carbonate of lime is 
 suspended. In tho latter caso carbonic acid is set free, and 
 tho reaction is as follows ; CaO,C02 -|- CU -I- H2O = CaClj 
 + CO2 + II2CI2O2. Tho aqueous hypochlorous acid that 
 distills over in each ease is yellowish, smells like the gas, 
 has a strong peculiar but not neid taste, and corrodes the 
 skin more rapidly than nitric acid. It cannot be preserved 
 in concentrated form, decomposing spontaneously in time, 
 though it is sufficiently stable to bo distilled. With hydro- 
 ehloric acid it evolves chlorine, as follows: H2t'l-..02 -1- 
 2IIC1 -= 2H2O ( C'U. It is of course a very powerful, and 
 would bo aVerv useful bleaching and oxidizing agent, wero 
 it not for its "instability, which unfits it for storage and 
 transportation. The immensely valuable properties of this 
 substance must be secured, Ihcref.iic. by means of com- 
 pounds, which arc capable of evolving or producing it. 
 
 Hill,;,lil;iilr „i' piilimh is the active ingredient of what 
 has been known as " JavMr wnlcr," or " rnu (/<• Jni^rllc ;" 
 also called " chloride of potash." This is a colorless liquid, 
 of peculiar smell, which is prepared by passing chlonno 
 iras through a cold solution of carbonate ot potash : 
 •!K,0,C02 +("U - 2CO2 I- 2K<'1 + K.CljOj. It, therefore, 
 contains both potassio hypochlorite and chloride of potas- 
 sium. Tho potassio carbonate solution must be kept cold. 
 and the operation must conse before an excess of chlorine 
 over two equivalents for each one of potash-carbonate has 
 been used: as. unless an excess of the latter is present, 
 potassio ehloriite and chlorite may be formed, with an in- 
 creased proportion of chloride of liotassium. Ilenee. strong 
 .lavelle water of necessity contains an excess of unchanged 
 potassio carbonate. Another method of preparing .lavello 
 water is by adding to a solution of " bleaching powder " or 
 "chloride'of lime" (see below) a soluliim of potassio car- 
 bonate, in quantity sufficient to precipitate all the lime as 
 calcic carbonate. Tho clear decanted liquid will contain 
 the same constituents as before, but will bo likely to bo less 
 potent, or to contain less, ill Jiroportion. of the active con- 
 stituent. Javello water is used lor taking out stains, such
 
 1080 
 
 HYPOCHONDRIA— HYPOPHOSPHOROUS ACID. 
 
 as those of fruit, from wbito textile fabrics, and for bleach- 
 ing wood, straw, etc. 
 
 Jfi/porliloritc of soda, in solution, constitutes what is 
 c:i11clI '* Labarraquc's disinfecting liquor," after a Parisian 
 druggist who niauufacturcd aiidsold it fDrdisinfe-cting pur- 
 poses. It is also called *' chloride of soda," and in medicine 
 '* chlorinated soda." The methods of preparation are pre- 
 cisely simihir to those given above for the potash-hypo- 
 ehlorite, u^ing sodic in:-tcad of potassic carbonate. In 
 making the Labarraquo solution, for whitdi sodic eariionatc 
 and gaseous chlorine are the materials, but half the amount 
 of chlorine needed for complete reaction is usimI, and no 
 cnrbonic aeid is evolved, being retained a(iparently as 
 sociic bicarbonate. This is stated to furnish a more per- 
 manent or stable preparation than the other method. The 
 sodic hypoc;lilorite solution, as prepared for commerce, has 
 a feeble chlorinc-Iiko odor, alkaline reaction, and strong 
 bleaching and disinfecting powers. It is considered a very 
 valuable m:'dicinal material. 
 
 H;ip>ch(nrit€ of Lime. — Under this head it is proper to 
 treat the important commercial product known as hlench- 
 iuj pnwih'r or chloride ttf lime (tier. Chlorkalk; Fr. chlo- 
 ruve de rhmtx). It is proved, however, by recent re- 
 searches th.it 8olid di'if bleaching powder docs not contain 
 cal(;ic hypochlorite, which is first formed by the action of 
 water or moisture upon it. The chloride of lime of com- 
 merce is |)re])arcd by exposure of dry or slightly damp 
 slacked lime to chlorine gas. The lime is spread on trays 
 placL'd in a stone chamber whoso interior can bo inspected 
 through glass windows. The gas must be passed in slowly 
 at first, to ]>revent heating of the lime, which would pro- 
 mote t!ic formation of chloride of calcium, to the detriment 
 of the proiUict. The wliole time required is about four 
 days. If the process he too rapid, and heating occurs, 
 there is formed, according to Schourcr-Kcstncr, some calcic 
 chlorite, CaCI-jOi. It forms a dry or slightly moist gray- 
 ish-white powder, having a peculiar, highly nauseous odor, 
 differing from, though suggesting, that of chlorine. It 
 gradually discomposes and deteriorates with time, and can- 
 not be preserved in sealed packages, by reason of slowly 
 evolved gas, probably chiefly oxygen. Barrcswil proposed 
 to corapre.'S it into cakes or blocks made as hard as stone, 
 asserting; that it was tnus rendered far more permanent. 
 
 Chemical Compusitlon nnd Cnn^titntion. — This has been 
 the subject of much controversy, and various theories havo 
 been successively supposed proved, adopted, and aban- 
 doned. Of these the one even now generally in vogue, and 
 taught in the textbooks of all countries, makes it to be a 
 mixture of calcic chloride aud calcic hypochlorite. CaCIa + 
 C.aCI-jOj, whi;di would be simply formed by the interaction 
 of 2CaO and -ICl. As long since, however, as 1SG2, Fre- 
 scnius showed that cold water, when first added, dissolves 
 from it chiefly calcic clilorido, and that to get much hypo- 
 chlorite requires successive washings and time. lie sug- 
 gested tiiat iiypochlorite may not pre-exist, but may ho 
 formed from some unknown ingredient by reaction with 
 the water. Since 1867 this fact has been confirmed, and 
 the view rendered certain by J. Kolb, who founcl that pure 
 dry hydrate of lime, when completely saturated by chlo- 
 rine, fiinns a mass containing .'JS.,') per cent, of the latter, 
 and having the empirical cr)mposition Cn3ll606Ci4, in which 
 the three equivalents of water and the three equivalents of 
 oxide of calcium (hypothetically or possibly present) are 
 wholly essential, and cannot be eliminated without a com- 
 plete destruction of the constitution of tlio bo Iv. Wafer, 
 by its solvent action, leads to a breaking up into hydrate, 
 chloride, and hypochlorite: CuallcOgCU -= CaO.IIaO + 
 CnCl2 + CaCloOj + 2II20. If we suppose the last factor of 
 this equation, the 21130. to pre-exist, as such, in tiie bleach- 
 ing powder, then the latter is a Iiydrato of an unknown 
 coni]>ound whose empirical formula is CasCUH^tOi. The 
 whole question of the true nature and constitution of this 
 product in the solid form would appear, therefore, to be 
 now reo])ened, and to be a matter for speculation and in- 
 vestigation. It is regarded now as proved that in the at- 
 mosphere, by virtue of its moisture, the same breaking up 
 occurs n:< represented above with liquid water, and that 
 then, by the carbonic acid of the air, hypochlorous acid is 
 set free from the hypochlorite that has been formed : to 
 which latter acid the diHin/cctiiif/ action is due, and not to 
 the evolution of free chlorine, as has been most genor.ally 
 believed. 
 
 Ohtoriinetrif — Tcntinff the Value of Tileaehinff Powder. — 
 This is n highly important laboratory operation. The 
 jiractical point to bo settled is of cour.se the rehitivc amount 
 of active chlorine, or its equivalent, that is present. At 
 the present day this must be. and is almost altogether, ef- 
 fected by rapid methodfi of the volumetric class, in which 
 very closely and accur.atcly mennnrcd quantities arc em- 
 ployed, of solutions of known strength or value, of appro- 
 priate reagents. One simple method that has been much 
 
 used is to prepare a solution of the lower oxide of iron 
 (ferrous oxidcj of known strength, and ascertain how much 
 of it a certain weight of tlie bleaching powder will oxidize 
 up to the higher, or ferric oxide; the jioint being deter- 
 mined by testing — after every addition otthe normal ferrous 
 solution — a drop of the solution cx;imined with red prus- 
 siatc of potash. Another method is to mix the weiglied 
 bleaching powder with muriatic acid an<l iodide of jiotas- 
 sium, iodine being thus set free in amount equivalent to the 
 effective clilorine, and coloring the liciuid brown. A nor- 
 mal solution of hi/poHidphite of soda is then added, in suc- 
 cessive measured quantities, until the color vanishes, when 
 the quantity of hyposulpliite that has been used will he a 
 datum for the calculation uf the value. ^Iitny other meth- 
 ods, similar in principle, have been used. A first-c^a.^s, 
 fresh-made ariiclo should furnish 28 to 30 per cent, of ef- 
 fective chlorine. 
 
 Ili/pochloiife of Mtigur^ia. — This, in solution — formed 
 either by passing chlorine into a mixture of magnesia with 
 water, or by precipitating a solution of chloride of lime 
 with sulphate of magnesia — is recommended for bleaching 
 uses by Bolley, on the grounds that its action is more rapid 
 tlian common bleachinp;-powder by reason of the more 
 ready decomposition of the magnesia compound, and that 
 magnesic hydrate is less caustic, and hence less liable to 
 injure delicate fabrics, than the calcic hydrate. 
 
 lIi:.\KY "WtrtTZ. 
 
 H^*pochon'dria (pl.)» [Gr. Ti vToxoi-Spta, the regions 
 "under the cariilagcs"], in an.atomy, the regions of the 
 abdomen on eilher side of tho e] igastrium. The name is 
 alro given to tho diseased condition of late more frequently 
 called hypochondriasis by the medical profession. 
 
 Hypochondri'asis [ro-callcd from tho old belief that 
 the hypochondria wcro the scats of tho disease], a morbid 
 state of mind, moro common in men than in women, in 
 which tho patient imagines that ho sutlers from diseases 
 which ho does not posrcss, and in which he sufTcrs froia 
 subjective sensations entirely unaccounted for by the ob- 
 jective signs of dircaso iu his case. Tho disease itself is 
 real. It may result from dyspepsia, from Ecxi;al excess, 
 or from other causes interfering with tb.o nutrition of tho 
 nerve-centres. Tl.c disease may amount to positive in- 
 sanity, and is then classed fis melancholia, J'cdicuio and 
 hygienic regimen often do but little good. Chccrfid com- 
 panionship, fichinr, hunting, and boating, long journeys, 
 even tho reading of well-sclcctcd novels — in fact, arything 
 which will divert the mind from its habit of morbid self- 
 observation — will bo found useful. 
 
 Ilypocor'acoid [Gr. vtto, " under," Kcipaf, "crow," and 
 c(6o?. *■ form "J, the inferior bone connccttd with tho inside 
 of tho great scapular girdle of the typical fishes. It is ono 
 of three bones which together arc homologous with tho 
 intrascapular or coracoid cartilage of the ganoid fishes, 
 and was regarded by Cuvier as the ulna; by Owen, as tho 
 radius : by Gegenbaiir, as the prccoraeoid ; and by Parker, 
 as the coracoid. Tiicodorc Gill. 
 
 Ilypocy'cloid [Or. un-o. " under," *' within," and kvk\o~ 
 ct6^s. *' circular''], a curve whose course is generatid by a 
 ]»oint iu the circumference of a circle roiling on the con- 
 cave side of a fixed circle. When the rolling circle has a 
 radius equal to just half that of the fixed circle, ono revo- 
 lution of the smaller circle will generate a hy])ocycIoid 
 equal to the diameter of the greater circle. If the rolling 
 circle is the larger, the hypoej'cloid becomes equivalent to 
 an epicycloid. If the generating point of a hypeeycloid 
 be in the plane of the rolling circle, but not in its circum- 
 ference, the curve generated is a hypotroehoid; and if tho 
 r.adius of the fixed circle is double that of the rolling one, 
 the liypotrochoid becomes an ellipse. 
 
 Ilyp'o^enc [from tho Or. vwd, •* under," and yiVoMoi, 
 *M<) be" or " to be born "]. a term in geology. ])ro])Osed by 
 Lyell to designate roeks tliat arc nether-formed, or formed 
 at great depths, nnd consequently underlie sedimentary 
 and ejected volcanic rocks, which are of superficial origin. 
 (Jranito, gneiss, and diorito arc examples of h^'pogcno 
 rocks. 
 
 Ilvponitric Acid. Pee NixRocrN, by PnoF. C. F. 
 rnvNPi.r.i!. Vu. I).. M. D., LL.D. 
 
 Ilypophos'phites, salts of hypophosphorousacid. In 
 medicme the term is currently used as referring to potas- 
 sium, sodium, and calcium hypophosphite, which arc con- 
 sidered by some to yield the mcdicinnl effects of phos- 
 phorus, while Uaa from the laffcr's jioisonous qualities. 
 They were not loni; since highly vaunted as remedies for 
 consumption, but have not sustained their reputation in 
 that particular. (See Pno<irnoRis.) EnwAim Cimitis. 
 
 Ilypophosphoroiis Acid and Ilypophosphiles, 
 Pee I'Hosi-iioKi s, by Pitor. C F. CuASDLnu, Pii. D., j>I. D., 
 LL.D.
 
 HYPOPHTHALMIDiE-HYPSOMETRY. 
 
 10«1 
 
 Ilypophthal'midoE [Gr. 6to." under —i. c. "inferior 
 or 1..W .l„wu "-i^aaAMM, "c.vc," »nd ill"; the family 
 terminal ion], a faiuilv of nemaloKnatiii or silurouls distin- 
 cuishca bv the persistent distinction and very sliclil mod- 
 ifieation of llic anterior dorsal vertebrie. and Willi the head 
 dcnresfcd; oiiereula dcvclu|,cd; Ihe inferior pharyngeal 
 holies united for their entire length ; branchioste-a rays 
 nnineroiis; the dorsal lin developed from the caudal por- 
 tion of the vertebral column: and the skin naked. Ihis 
 faniilv is confined to South America, and is represented 
 thcre'i.y two genera—//-//'"/''"''"'"'""-"'"' i^'^*''>"'' species 
 and //.•,'.,7e.„», with a single one. These differ from all 
 other repVesentatives of the order in the seiiaralion of the 
 anterior veriebric in contradistinction to their eonnucneo 
 into one, as in the other members of Ihe group ; the eyes 
 arc situated very low down behind and below the angle of 
 the mouth; and' from this peculiarity Ihe typical genusand 
 family have received their names. In other respects they 
 hue fonsiderablo superficial resemblance to the cat-fishes 
 of our own waters. TiiKOiJOUE Gill. 
 
 Ilyposul'pliitCS, salts of hyposulphurous acid. Me- 
 dicinally, the alkaline hyposulphites may be used for the 
 same purpose as the corresponding sulphites. (Sec .SuL- 
 PiiiTKs.) KowAuu Crims. 
 
 Ilyposulpliurous and Ilyposulphuric Acids, 
 Hyposulphites and Ilyposulphatcs. Sec Si Liiitit, 
 by I'll"!-, r. V. CiiANiii.Kii, Pit. !>., M- D-i LL-D- 
 
 Ilypotlicca'tion [Ur. iiro, ''under," and riSijui, to 
 "place"]. In the civil law this was a kind of pledge in 
 which the possession of the thing pledged remamed with 
 the .Icblor instead of being delivered to the creditor or 
 lender, as in eases of pledge properly so called. Strictly 
 speakin', it applies to iminovablo things, not susceptible 
 of delivery from hand to hand. (See Plkikik.) The tcrni 
 is but little used at common law, but is sometimes employed 
 with reference to bottomry bonds, which arc given to ob- 
 tain a loan of money by making a vessel security for tho 
 repayment. (See liorroMiiy.) 
 
 (;ko:iue Chask. Revised by T. W. Dwionr. 
 llypoth'csis [(Jr. irTdSetru, from vworWrii^i, to "place 
 under," to " sujipose"], a judgment which is provisionally 
 proposed as an explanation for some fact or group of lacts 
 in science, and which may he discarded if found untrue. 
 When an examination of a sufileicnt number of tho facts 
 of the case shows that the hypothesis will stand tho tests 
 of exporienee, and is not inconsistent with known facts and 
 prini-iples, it becomes a lhci>n/. Tho lii/potliciin is tho work 
 of illla^'inalion. the t/iroiy/ the fruit of observation and rea- 
 soning? The lii/jmihciU is the temporary scafl'olding by 
 means of which' the arch, tho perfect theory, is constructed. 
 Ilypsom'otry [l!r. i;i;<o!, " height," and ^irpov, " meas- 
 ure"), a. branch of geodesy which treats of the measure- 
 ment of heighls, cither absolute, when referring to the sea- 
 level, or relative, between any two distant jilaces on Iho 
 earth's surface. There arc three jirineipal and iiidepeiidenl 
 methods in use. Tho first and most aceuratc depends on llic 
 property of (luids when at rest to jirescnt their surfaces at 
 right angles to the direction of gravity ; the second depends 
 on the angular measure of elevation, in combination with 
 Iho kno'.vn distance of the object, and having regard to 
 tho effect of atmospheric refraction: tho third and least 
 accurate method depends on the law of tho decrease of pres- 
 sure of the atniosphcre willi an increase of altitude. The 
 first method cmplovs Ihe levelling instrument, the second 
 tho theodolilc, Ihe third the barometer. Since the intro- 
 duction of the aneroid baromeler (an inslrumont of pre- 
 cision and of great simplicity and iiortability) the molhod 
 of measuring differences of elevations by means of Iheteni- 
 peralnreof boiling water has almost been abandoned; it 
 depends on the kiiown relation between the variations in 
 the atnios]iheric pressure and the corresponding changes in 
 tho boiling-point of water, as measured by a very Bcnsilive 
 Iherinomcter; Ihe results, however, aro subject to eonsiiler- 
 ablc unecrlainly. The aenond or Irigononielrical method 
 is the only one applioablc in ease one or both stations aro 
 inaccessible. 
 
 (I) Spirit levelling is generally conducted as follows: 
 The levelling instrument is set up nearly midway between 
 any two oonsvcutivo stations, A and li, on the line of levels, 
 and after its ailjuslment the readings of the slaves placed 
 over Ihe stations aro siicceBsively taken : tho lino of sight 
 having been made horizontal, the difference in the readings 
 cquals'lhe differenecof heighls (A— I!). The inslrument is 
 next placed miilwav between stations li and (', and Iho 
 difference of heights (B— I') i» ascerlaine.l in a similar way ; 
 this process is repealed until Ihe lerminal point is reached, 
 which is freqiicully many hundred miles distiint from tho 
 starting point. Tlie principal adjustment of the inslrunient 
 consists in placing Ihe optical axis or lino of eollimation, 
 asdelerinincd by the centre of Ihe objective and tho intersec- 
 
 tion of the cross-threads, parallel to a tangent to the level, 
 
 thus rendering the sight-lino horiiontol. For aeeuralo 
 
 measure tho level must bo very sensitive; it is filled with 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Level, 
 alcohol or ether, and ils inner surface is generally ground 
 to a, radius between 50 and 250 metres, and its least count 
 usually varies between a few seconds and less than a single 
 second for the best levels. The magnifying jiower of Ihe 
 telescope emjiloyed is generally within the limits of :;0 and 
 JO for the better class of instruments. To render the effect 
 of any imperfection in tho yarious adjustments the least 
 possible, also to make the effect of redaction in the line of 
 sight and of the earth's curvature insensible, the instrument 
 is'placcd midway between any two stations; if this .should 
 not be the case, corrections for difference of refraction and 
 for difference of curvature for tho distances to the staves 
 must be ap)ilied. This is done readily by means of tables. 
 The distances maybe stepped off", or may be measured by 
 a tape-line, but arc most readily ascertained by a telemeter 
 arrangement in the telescope; such, for instance, as two 
 horizontal threads equidistant from the central thread. Iho 
 number of divisions on the staff includeil between them 
 being read oil', from which tho dislanee becomes known. 
 If tlu; distance between telescope and sliiff isnot limited by 
 Ihe slope or configuration of the ground, il should be taken 
 as great as the optical power of the instrument and the 
 sensibility of the level will permit without detrimenl to 
 accuracy : ordinarily, the distance varies hetwern !>» and 
 150 mitres, though occasionally it may even be ilouble the 
 last-mentioned distance. The staff should he divi.led deei- 
 mally (the unit being the metre or foot) ; and if rend by tho 
 observer Ihrough the telescope, which is preferable, should 
 ho divided into block epaces willi block figures, so as to be 
 seen at the greatest jiossible distance ; if Ihe pointing is lo 
 he made by means of a movable largcl, lime will be saved, 
 after the assistant has placed the target very nearly at the 
 correct height, by effecting tho exact pointing Ihrough dis- 
 levelling the instrument and eorreeliug Ihe result for change 
 of level? Uespecting tho accuracy atlainable, the mean 
 error may be staled to be about -jjoo "'' ""-' ''''*l'""''' f'"" 
 telescope's magnifying ten times, hut will decrease lo about 
 „..t... with the" best instruments. ]5y convention, tho 
 average surface of the ocean has been chosen as the zero- 
 level from which to count abscdule heighls: lo I'onueet a 
 lino of levels with it a scries <d' consecutive high and low 
 waters must be observed, from which the mean or halt-licle 
 level is to be deduced. It follows that if we could level 
 from the enualor to the pole, we would find no dillerciiee ol 
 height, though we ni)proaehed Ihe ei.rlh's cenlie by nearly 
 K! miles. The difference of height between any two distant 
 Blalions should be Ihe same, no matter over what route the 
 levels have been carried; Ihat is, the local defieclions ol 
 the direelion of gravity will not affect the result, provide.l 
 the inlermediate slalions have not been loi> hir aparl in 
 passin- over a region of rapidly ehangiiig deviations ol Ihe 
 plumbriine. (For detailed infornialion the reader may eon- 
 suit TlK-mrtiKhc widprurtlHchr A ulrilmi;/ sum NirelUm,. von 
 S. Stamiteii (Wien, ISI5); 7;ihl<„ „/ ll.-!,,l,t>. ,ic. </w.r. 
 iniiicd III/ llir (Imil rriijiinnmellu-iU .Sm-r,;/ ;/ fiiiliil (Cal- 
 cultn, ISfii!) ; Nmlhiimit ile prfcUion dc la Sinnac, nmn, In 
 dii;i-ilmi do. A. Hirtoh ct E. Pluntamour (Qcnive, liftle, 
 
 Lyon, IH71).) ' . . ... 
 
 (2) Trigonometrical levelling consists in measuring the 
 vertical angle bi'lween Ihe zenilli of Ihe slalion occupied mid 
 tho ilislallt ohiect Ihe beighl of which is lo be d.tcrmined : I he 
 hori/.onlal dislanee to Ihis object must he known, and is gen- 
 erally given by triangulati and the measureil angle must 
 
 bo increased iin account of refraclion, which may be taken 
 roughly ns proportional to the length of are of junclion, 
 and onlinarilv ei|nal to about ,', of the corresponrling 
 nnr-le al ihe earth's centre. Wc may either inensiire Iho 
 double zeiiilh distance— one-half of Ihe operation with
 
 1082 
 
 HYPSOMETRY. 
 
 position of theodolite, say circle left, the other half with 
 circle right (the instrameut having been turned 1S0° in 
 azimuth) — or if the zenith point (or horizontal point) of 
 the vertical circle be previously determiucil, it will suffice 
 to measure the single zenith distance {or altitude, a doprcs- 
 sion being a negative altitude). Irrespective of other ad- 
 
 justments of the theod- 
 olite, those for eolliina- 
 tion, for vertieality of 
 the vertical axis, and 
 for horizontality of the 
 horizontal axis of the 
 telescope must be care- 
 fully attended to ; the 
 observer should also ex- 
 amine the vertieality of 
 the plane of his circle 
 to the last-named axis. 
 The principle of rejieti- 
 tion (use of the repeat- 
 ing circle) is not recom- 
 mended unless the grad- 
 uation be very inferior 
 in comparison with the 
 optical power of the tel- 
 escope and the sensi- 
 tiveness of the level ; 
 the accuracy depends 
 mainly on the level, 
 which must be read be- 
 fore and after reversal. 
 We may also measure 
 ditferences of zenith 
 distances or small an- 
 
 KiG. 2. 
 
 Theodolite. 
 
 gles of elevation (or depression) micrometrically, either 
 by an eye-piece micrometer or by a micrometer screw, as 
 shown in the cut of the levelling instrument. All measures 
 of zenith distances are affected by any deflection of the 
 plumb-lines which may exist in the vertical planes of the 
 stations, but the uncertainties in the results for height de- 
 pend chiefly on the variations of the atmospheric refrac- 
 tion, on account of which, for accurate work, the distances 
 may be limited to about 20 and 2j kilometres (say 12 and 
 15 statute miles). For such distances very accurate results 
 may be had by observing only within about two hours of 
 apparent noon, during which period the refraction is steady 
 and is near its minimum value; observations taken on ob- 
 jects at great distances, say 100 kilometres and above, 
 should of necessity be restricted to this period of the day 
 (from 10 A. M. to 2' p. M.). Although the refraction exhibits 
 daily variation, and is a function of the temperature and 
 pressure of the atmosphere, yet it is extremely irregular; 
 in its ordinary variations the coefficient keeps within 
 the range of ^ to ^g, but occasionally and abnormally it 
 may be several times greater, or it may become zero, or 
 even take a negative value. The refraction is slightly 
 greater for lines crossing water than for lines over laud; 
 it diminishes with altitude and with increasing tempera- 
 ture, but increases with increasing atmospheric pressure; 
 in general, its value depends on the law of the distribution 
 of temperature with height. Thus, the more rapid the de- 
 crease of temperature the smaller the refraction, and the 
 slower the decrease of temperature the greater the refrac- 
 tion ; with a suihcicntly rapid decrease of temperature it 
 may become zero, with no decrease, or for a constant tem- 
 perature the refraction is large,and will still increase should 
 the temperature increase with height. If we measure only 
 one zenith distance, a value of the refraction must bo 
 adopted suitable to the circumstances; if we measure the 
 zenith distances at the two stations, the differeneo in the two 
 results for diflercnce of heights will indicate a change in 
 the value of the coeffieieut and the error of the assumed 
 value combined : if we measure reciprocal and simultaneous 
 zenith distances, the coefficient of refraction can bo elim- 
 inated under the supposition that it is the same at each 
 station, and that there is no effect from station errors, and 
 from such measures its value may bo determined. If, be- 
 sides, the difl"erence of level between the two stations has 
 been ascertained by the spirit-level, the angle of refraction 
 may be deduced for each station, and we shall generally 
 find the refraction at the upper station less than at the 
 lower one. Observations of the sea-horizon in connection 
 with au assumed value for the refraction will roughly de- 
 termine the height of the station ; the state of the tide may 
 also be cont^idered. (For the usual trigonometrical formula) 
 applying to these cases see art. Oeoi>ksy, also the account of 
 the principal triangulation of the ordnance survey of Great 
 Britain and Ireland, by Lieut. -Col. II. James (London 
 I85S).) 
 
 In Xo9. 147S-1480 and 1587-1500 of the Antronomiache 
 Nachrtchten (IStit'i), Dr. Bauernfeind has developed at 
 
 length the equation to the path of a ray of Tight passing 
 througli the atmosphere, based upon Laplace's differential 
 equation for the atmospheric refraction. {Mecuniqnc Celeste, 
 tome iv. p. 24G.) An application of this to experiments 
 made in California will be tound in Count Sttrvet/ licport for 
 1871, Appendix No. II. 
 
 (3) Passing now to the measure of heights by means of 
 the barometer {see IJauometek), this instrument, in the 
 form of a mercurial barometer, may be regarded as essen- 
 tially a balance in which, under the influence of gravity, 
 the mass of the superincumbent atmosphere is equilibrated 
 by a mass of mercury: in tlie Anehou) IIarometer (which 
 see), on the contrary, the atmospheric pressure is counter- 
 acted by the elasticity of a corrugated metallic vessel (gen- 
 erally filled with gas, sometimes supplied with a spring). A 
 change of gravity could not therefore be indicated by an 
 instrument of tlic lirst form, but would be by one of the 
 second form. Thus, if two such instruments, side by side, 
 were to read alike at the equator, they would, if they could 
 be trunsported to the Pole, differ at the latter jdace, the 
 mercurial barometer remaining unehnnged, but the aneroid 
 indicating the grentcr pressure existing at the Pole. This 
 distinction should be kept in view in hypsometry : the ane- 
 roid barometer, however, is generally used only as a difl"er- 
 eutial instrument, and as such maypo;^soss great accuracy, 
 especially when the following reductions arc carefully at- 
 tended to. 
 
 According to Mariottc's law, the elastic force of the at- 
 mosphere is proportional to its density: further, the den- 
 sities decrease in a geometrical progression when the alti- 
 ! tudcs increase in an arithmetical one; this leads directly 
 ; to the simple logarithmic formula for the difference of 
 
 height, //^= AT log —, where 6 and h' are the respective 
 
 heights of the mercurial columns at the lower and upper 
 stations, and N represents a numerical coefficient, found 
 either theoretically or practically by comparisons of results 
 by the spirit-level or vertical angles and the barometric 
 pressure. iV equals nearly IS, 400 metres. The mercurial 
 columns should be at the same temperature; if not, they 
 may be reduced to 0° C, or H may be corrected by means 
 
 log 7- — "TT:;^ )- Since wo must rise 
 6 1 2 ( o / 
 
 higher in warmer than in cooler air for the same decrease 
 in height of the mercurial column, a correction for tempera- 
 ture is needed; taking the cocflieicnt of expau>ion for air 
 = j^3 for the centigrade scale, and for t and t' the atmo- 
 spheric temperatures at the lower and upper stations, the 
 
 factor becomes jl-f 0.00367 ~^'~)? fm'tlitr, multiplying 
 
 with the factors (1 + 0.00262 cos 2.^) to allow for change of 
 
 / 2n -1- h\ 
 
 gravity with change of latitude <f), and with 1 1 H - I, to 
 
 allow for decrease of gravity with height, a being the 
 altitude of the lower station above the sea, R the earth's 
 radius (about 0.'i(U'i740 metres), and h an approximate value 
 for //, we obtain finally the expression — 
 
 ^=l84oo"^^log^,-Y^^^+y^^^^ 
 
 1 1 -H * I . This formula is only intended as a typical 
 
 one; numerous expressions have been given in various 
 forms, of greater or less complexity, with various numeri- 
 cal coefficients, for different units, and for use either with or 
 without logarithms, most of them accompanied by tables to 
 facilitate their application. They may be divided into two 
 classes — those adapted to a mean state of humidity of the 
 air, such as Laplace's (see Mecauiquc (VUstc, tome iv. p. 
 292), and those taking into consideration the actual amount 
 of the vapor pressure, such as Besscl's (see AHtnmoiitische 
 XnvhrU-htnt, Nos. 279, May, 1835. and :J56, 357, Sept., 1838), 
 which contain perhaps the most complete investigation 
 made on the subject. The first height determined baro- 
 metrically was that of the Puy de i>omo in 1(>48. at the 
 suggestion of Pascal, and I>r. Ilallcy was the first (in 1080} 
 to establish the correct theoretical basis for computation of 
 heights; many of the formula} coustruetcd since his time 
 have been collected by Dr. Kiihlmann. who also gives an ex- 
 tensive list of authors showing the great extent of the lit- 
 erature on the barometer. (See Vie harometyischcn Jl'dhen- 
 nicHnutiffen, etc., von Dk. R. Ht'HLMANN, Leipsic, 1870. For 
 a selection of formula) and tables, sec the Smithsonian 
 Mct^-oroloffical and Physiotojical Tables, by Dn. A. GUYOT, 
 AVasbington, 1850.) 
 
 Respecting the accuracy in resulting heights attainable 
 by means of the barometer very divergent opinions exist, 
 but it is believed that with close attention to sources of 
 error, instrumental and local, and especially to the efl"ect 
 of tho daily variation of the pressure and temperature,
 
 IIYRACEUM— HYRCANUS. 
 
 1083 
 
 Flo. 3. 
 
 great relative accuracy may bo reached. Errors of con- 
 siderable muguiiiidc may creep in if tlie two stations are 
 at a great di.-tuiice horizonlally, but tlicy will arise princi- 
 pally from the difiicully uf ascertaining the true tempera- 
 ture of the intervening stratum of air, whieh cannot be 
 taken equal to ihe mean of the temperature observed at 
 the lower and upper stations; indeed, the problem has 
 been inverted, ami from the known (by level or triangula- 
 tion) ditfercnec of height and tlio observed pressures the 
 temperature of the air has been inferred. In this way it 
 was ascertained that the intervening air partakes very con- 
 siderably less of Ihe daily varialion of tem|)er:iture than 
 what is found by direct observations near the eartli's sur- 
 face. Ramond (about 1810) appears to have been the first 
 to notice the relation betiveen barometrically-deduced 
 heights and the time of the day when these measures were 
 taken ; Kreil proposed the use of the annual meaus of 
 pressure and temperature to secure reliable results. I'lauta- 
 mour and Itiihlinann have given special attention to this 
 subject; it appears that diflercnccs of heights, barometri- 
 cally determined, reach their maximum value shortly be- 
 fore the time of the greatest heat of the day ; this is fully 
 developed on clear days, less so in cloudy weather ; in win- 
 ter, differences of heights are generally found too small, and 
 too great in summer; heights deduced from annual means 
 differ little from the truth. For accurate hypsometric 
 measures the hours recommended arc the following : begin- 
 ning with March and ending with October, S, 7A, 7, 6\, GJ, 
 7, S, 10 A. M., and 11. 7, 7, 9*, flj. 7J, r. M. (See Cuatl Sur- 
 vci/ Hepurl for I.S71, Appendi.i No. 11.) 
 
 To correct or reduce to a given place the reading (-4) of 
 an aneroid to the corresponding reading (B) of a mer- 
 curial barometer, we may use the relation It = A -^-x-^-y 
 ((_ („l + I {;) —/)„!, where J- is an index correction, y is a 
 temperature coelfieient, and z a pressure coefficient; which 
 three quantities have to be ascertained e.\perimentally for 
 each instrument, and require to be tested from time to time, 
 to make sure of their constancy, or otherwise allow for 
 change. In one of the latest forms of the instrument, in 
 whieh the elastic chamber is doing no mechanical work, it 
 baa been provided with a long index-arm, and the reading 
 is made after bringing two lines to coincidence by means 
 of a screw (made by J. Goldschmid of ZUrich). 
 
 When the temperature of the boiling-point of water has 
 been observeil, wo may linil the corresponding indication 
 of a mercurial barometer by means of Kegnault's table, 
 revised by A. Morit?,, as given by A. 
 
 Guyot in the Smilhmminn Mrtroro- 
 liiijlcal and Plii/nirnl Tuhlca {Mi»ccl- 
 laneoM Collecii'm Xo. 31, Washing- 
 ton, 1859). The idea of measuring 
 heights by means of the temperature 
 of boiling waleroriginatcd in the early 
 
 f)art of the last century with Fahrcn- 
 leit i/'lill. 7V.in»., vol. xxxiii.) and 
 Cavallo (/'/iiV. 7V'iii<i., vol. Ixxi.); the 
 apparatus itself is duo to Dr. Wollas- 
 ton (Pkil. rrriii.., 1817, part ii.). 
 I'ig. ;t presents the instrument as made 
 by Cascllaof Lon'Ion. 
 
 The idea of delineating a surface 
 by contour-lines, or lines of equal 
 level, originated in I7:(7 with the 
 Academician Buaehe, w ho applied the 
 principle to lines of eiiual depth, but 
 refers also to those of equal elevation. 
 A general hypsometric atlas was pub- 
 lished atWintcrthur in IS.^0 by J. M. 
 Zieglcr, hut beautiful and most in- 
 structive applications of tliis princi- 
 pie may bo seen in the hypsomctrio 
 
 charts in Dr. Petcrmann's Ocoyraphitclicn Milthribmiicii 
 (dotha) ; for instance, in No. ii., 1875. C. A. Scmott. 
 
 Ilyrn'ceiim, a substance imported from Ihe Capo of 
 
 (i J Il.qie. and now believed to bo Ihe excrement of the 
 
 klip-ilas (////r/ij- Cnpentin). ( ,'<ie IIvii.vx.) It is a brown 
 pitch like substance, having much the taste ami smell of 
 American castoronm, for which it has been used us a sub- 
 stitute. It was formerly collected by the colonists for a 
 ferlilizcr, but the supply has given out. 
 
 Ilyrac'id.TC [Or. iipof, "mouse," and idir, the family 
 termination], the only existing family of mammals of the 
 order llyracoidca, at oneo distinguishable by the rabbit- 
 like form of the body anil the small size of the animals 
 (about that of the rai.bill, combined with the peculiarities 
 noticed under the ordinal name. The best known species 
 of the family is Ili/ruj- .SViKiidcm, an inhabitant of Pales- 
 tine, known under the vernnoular designation of ii-iti', and 
 whoso ancient designation has bei'n translated in the ae- 
 oepted version of the liible, oouey — i. c. rabbit. The 
 
 species is frequent in rocky regions in Palestine. (See 
 Tristram's Xaturat Hifluri/O/ the Bible.) A number of 
 other species are found in Africa. Theodoiie tiii.i.. 
 
 Ifyracoi'dea [dr. vpof, " mouse," and oidt-n, the super- 
 family affix], an order of educabilian placental or mono- 
 dclph mammals, with feet whose inferior surfaces are fur- 
 nished with ]pads (as in rodents and carnivores), toes (four 
 to the front, three to the hind feet) with the terminal pha- 
 langes encased in hoofs (inner nail of hind foot curved) ; 
 fore feet with the carpal bones in two iutcrlocking rows, 
 the cuneiform extending inward and articulating with the 
 magnum, and thus forming an enlarged attachment for the 
 ulna, which is anirorscly produced, and the unciform and 
 lunar scparatcil by the interposition of the cuneiform and 
 magnum ; hind feet with the astragalus at the anterior 
 portion extended and much deflected inward, articulating 
 in front only with the navicular ; teeth ]icculiar, the molars 
 resembling those of the rhinoceros, and the incisors four 
 in each jaw, those of the upper jaw next to the symphysis 
 with persistent pul]is. long and curved, and those of the 
 lower straight and normal. The placenta is deciduous and 
 zonary. This order has been constituted for the reception 
 of the Hyraeida-, which were formerly supposed by natu- 
 ralists to be related to the rodents, but were later (c. </. by 
 Cuvier, etc.) referred next to the rhinoceros. 
 
 TjiEononr. Gii.L. 
 
 Ily'rax [Or. ipaf, "mouse"], a genus of herbivorous 
 mammals belonging to the order llyracoidca. These ani- 
 mals were formerly classed with the rodents on account of 
 superficial resemblances, and Cuvier considered them as 
 closely related to the rhinoceros from the form of the molar 
 teeth. They are now regarded as constituting a distinct 
 order. In fully adult animals the dental formula is — in- 
 1_1 . n— , 4—4 3—3 
 
 cisorsr^; canines— j; premolars ^— ; molars ^^. 
 
 The upper incisors arc large, triangular, and somewhat 
 tusk-like ; as in the rodents, they are curveil and grow from 
 persistent pulps. The lower incisors arc straight and nor- 
 mal in their mode of growth. The molar series strongly 
 resembles that of the rhinoceros in miniature. The soles 
 of the feet are furnishc<l with pads, as in the rodents and 
 carnivores, but the terminal joints arc furnished with hoofs 
 or flat nails, four in front and three behind. The inner- 
 most nailofthc hind foot is peculiarly curved. The astrag- 
 alus articulates in front only with the navicular. There are 
 from 29 to lU dorsolumbar verlebru", the greatest number 
 known in any terrestrial mammal. The tail is short or 
 wanting, the body is covered with fur, and the snout or 
 muffle is split, as in the rodents, .'icveral species have been 
 described, but they are found only in Syria and Africa, 
 where they inhabit rocky places and arc known as damans. 
 The best-known species is perhajis the klipdas ( //. cii;jc)i«i«) 
 from South .\friea. //. .SVimi'dein or J/. Si/n'tiriia is the 
 coney of the liil)le, where it is erroneously regarded as a 
 ruminant from its habit of moving the jaws constantly from 
 side to side. 0. C. M.\iisii. 
 
 Hyrca'llia, an ancient district of Asia, the present 
 Mazauderan, was bounded N. by the Caspian Sea, E. and 
 S. by Parthia, and W. by Media. It was inhabited by 
 nom'ades of rude and savage habits, and its extensive for- 
 ests swarmed with wild beasts, of whieh Ihe Ilyrcanian 
 tiger is often mentioned. The honey of its bees was much 
 appreciated. 
 
 Ilyrcail'us ['YpKaw], the name of several historic Jews 
 of the Maccaba;an period, of whom the most noteworthy are 
 
 (1) ,ToiiN llyni'AM-s, son and successor of Simon Macea- 
 
 banis, prince and high ]iriest of the .lews, restorer of the 
 independence of ,ludiEn, and founder of the monarchy, 
 which continued in his family till the accession of llerod. 
 When, in i:!7 ll. r., Antioehiis VI I. had established himself 
 on the throne of Syria, ho deterniincd to reiluee .luda'a to 
 its former condition of a tributary province of the Syrian 
 monarchy. Ills general, Cenilebeus, invailed the country 
 with a great force, but was ilcfeatcd by .Judas and John 
 Ilyrcanus, two sons of Simon Maecabieus. Shortly alter, 
 however, in 135 ii. n., Simon, together with his two sons, 
 Judas and Mattalhias, was assassinated liy his 8(.n in-law. 
 Ptolemy. Ilyrcanus now assumed Ihe title of prince and 
 high priest, and led an army against Ptolemy, whom he 
 shut up in the fortress of Dagon, Meanwhile, Antioehus 
 Sidetcs invaded Judica with a large army, anil Ilyrcanus, 
 unable to meet him in the field, retreated to Jerusalem, 
 where he was besieged and pressed hard by Antioehus. 
 At lust a treaty of peace was concluded in 133 n. c, accord- 
 ing to whieh tbo fortifications of Jerusalem were to be do- 
 molished and an annual tribute paid to Syria. Four years 
 aflerwanls he followed .\ntiochii8 with a force of .lewish 
 auxiliaries on his expedition against Parlliia. but was for- 
 tunate enough to escape Iho disaster which overtook the
 
 1084 
 
 HYRE, DE LA— HYSTERIA. 
 
 Syrian king and army by an earlier return to Judsea. As 
 soon as AnfioehuH was dead, Hyrcanus hastened to secure 
 t!ic independence of his own reahu, and sent an cmbas^sy 
 to Rome in order to get the alliance conL-kided during the 
 reign of Simon confirmed by the senate. In this he suc- 
 ceeded. He also conquered Siehem in Samaria, destroyed 
 the temple of Gerizim, subdued Idunia;n, and extended the 
 boundaries of Judfiea. Meanwhile, Demetrius II., the 
 brother and successor of Antiochus, returned from his cap- 
 tivity in Parthia, and prepared himself to invade .Iuda;a, 
 but was prevented by an internal war, in which he was 
 killed, 125 «. c. Hyrcanus now ruled for several years in 
 peace, but at last, deeming himself strong enough for the 
 task, he invaded Samaria with a great army and laid 
 siege to the capital. The Samarians invoked the assist- 
 ance oi' Antiochus Cyzicenus, but this king was defeated 
 by Antigonus and Aristobulus, two sons of Hyrcanus, 
 and Samaria was taken and razed to the ground, 109 
 B. c. Hyrcanus reigned three years longer, but these 
 latter years of his government were disturbed not a little 
 by the quarrels of the two powerful socts, the Pharisees 
 and SaJducccs. Hyrcanus belonged originally to the for- 
 mer party, but left it and allied himself to the latter; 
 he d. loii B. c. (2) Joii.v Hvrcanl's II., grandson of 
 the foregoing, son of Alexander Jannieus; was appointed 
 high priest by Alexandra, his mother, 7S b. r., and on her 
 death ((»9 B. c.) assumed the sovereignty, which in CO ho 
 resigned to his more energetic brother, Aristobulus : fled 
 for protection and assistance to Aretas, king of Stony Ara- 
 bia, fir> ; cng;iged in a civil war, but without success until 
 G3, when lie was reinstated by Pompey and made high 
 priest and ctlinarch ; was deprived of the latter title 49, 
 but in 47 the actual sovereignty was restored to him by 
 Julius ('xs:ir. Meanwhile, his brother Aristobulus and 
 Alexander, son of Aristobulus, who made him much trouble, 
 were put to death by the Romans. Antipater, the able 
 lieutenant of Hyrcanus, was poisoned with the consent of 
 the higli priest 44 d. c, and the young Herod, afterwards 
 called the Great, a son of Antipater, became the virtual 
 ruler. In 40 B. c, Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, induced 
 the Parthians to send an array against Hyrcanus, who was 
 by treachery taken prisoner, deprived of his cars, and then 
 allowed to live in peace at Babylon, where he remained 
 until 'S-i B. r., wlien he retarncd to Jerusalem, but, falling 
 under the suspicion of having plotted against Herod, he 
 was put to death ;J0 b. c. 
 
 Ilyre, de la (LAUHEXT),b. in France in IfiOo, and d.in 
 Ht.')tl. He belongeil to the so-called school of Fontainebleau, 
 wliose founders were Primatice and Rosso, and which de- 
 veloped chierty under Italian influence. 
 
 Hyria, or Ilyrium, an inland city of ancient Cala- 
 bria in Southern Italy, situated on the Appian Road, about 
 midway between Brundusium and Tareiitum. Herodotus 
 represents it as having been the metropolis of the Mcssa- 
 pians. ftiunded by a colony of Cretans on their return from 
 Sicily. Strabo mentions that a palace of one of the ancient 
 native kings was sliown there in Iiis time. In early times 
 it was a place of importance, and near the modern town 
 of Oria inscriptions have been found in the Messapian dia- 
 lect, and numerous coins in Roman charavters bearing the 
 name of Orra. There was at least one other place of the 
 same name in Southern Italy, ns is proved by coins of 
 another class found in Campania. 
 
 IIvnnciitrii(1e,or Krmentriidc, a daughter of Eude?, 
 eoutit of Orleans, was married Dee. 14. S42. to Charles the 
 Bald ; tl. Oct. ('», Sfil). She did not mix in p(dities, but many 
 religious institutions were founded and endowed by her. 
 
 llyrtacina, city of Crete, S. E. from Polyrrhenia, on 
 the southern const of the island, near the temple of Arte- 
 mis Dictynna. Ruins have been found by Mr. Pashley, 
 being numerous vestiges of polygonal masonry, on a hill 
 near the modern village of Temeuia. Coins of the ancient 
 city are also found. 
 
 Hyr'tl (Joskph), M. D., b. Dec. 7, 1811, at Eisenstadt, 
 Hungary; was educated at Vienna, where in 18;J:J he be- 
 came prosector in anatomy; was professor of anatomy at 
 Prague IS:;7-Jj: professor of anatomy at Vienna IS 15-74, 
 and for a part of the time was rector of the university. He 
 founded the Vienna Museum of Comparative Anatomy, and 
 made an incomparably fine private eolieetion of materials il- 
 lustrative of some defiartments of comparative anatomy 
 (now in possession of Prof. E. D. Cope, Haddonfield, N. J.). 
 Hyrtl was the first German to give much attention to regional 
 anatomy, ami has made many discoveries in human and 
 comparative histology. Author of J'tipof/mphiachc Aiinto- 
 mif (2 vols., 1S47), Lchrbuch tier Auntomic (1847; many 
 editions since), Ilnndbtivh tier pro/.- tisc hen Zfi'glietlerunfjM' 
 kniifit (1S60), Orhrr eiitllosf JVerifn (1805), Cebrr Amp\dlen 
 am Pnrtita Cynticut der FUche (18G8), />f> fihttf/r/tiHiie der 
 menachlichen Nachjeburt in normalen und abnormaien Ver- 
 
 hnltiiinsen {1S70), Daa Nierenbecken der Siiugethierc uud dea 
 Mcnschen (1870). 
 
 Uysia^9 town of Bceotia. at the northern foot of Mount 
 Cilhicron, was situated on the high-road from Thebes to 
 Athens, and formed an important point in the strategic dis- 
 position to the battle of l'lat:ea. In the time of Pausanins 
 it was in ruins; an unfinished temple of Apollo and a sacred 
 well were still extant; now nearly every trace of it has dis- 
 appeared. 
 
 Hys'sop [Gr. i;<Tau>iros ; Heb. f~o6]. the Hyasopug ojjfici- 
 naliH, a half-shrubby labiate plant, a native of Europe, 
 sparingly naturalized in the U. S. It is an aromatic stim- 
 ulant, abounding in a volatile oil. In domestic meilieine 
 it is a very useful expectorant. Hedge hyssop is tlie pop- 
 ular name of various species of ^/r<(f(o/«, of the order Seroph- 
 ulariaceffi. As the hyssop of (Jreek authors is conceded to 
 be the common plant of that name, it has been inferred 
 that it was also that of the Old and New Testaments, but 
 this is by no means certain. Celsius has enumerated eigh- 
 teen different plants wliich have been considered as the 
 scriptural hyssop. Dioseorides. a Greek botanist, described 
 two kinds, and the Talmudists have done the same, distin- 
 guishing the wild hyssop from the garden plant used for 
 food. It is mentioned of Solomon that he " spake of trees, 
 from the cedar tree that is in Lebanon even unto the hys- 
 sop that springeth out of the wall:'* and in Psalm li. it 
 is said. "' Purge me with hyssop and I shall be clean,'* etc. ; 
 from which indications Dr. J. F. Royle has, after a careful 
 study of the ancient and modern notices, identified the hys- 
 sop of Scrijifure with the modern eapcr-plant (Cappuria 
 spinom, Linn.), which is still found in abundance in Egypt, 
 Sinai, and Palestine. 
 
 llystaspt'S, author of a prophctico-apoealyptie work, 
 Vatictnia N/jfttaspis, which was much read by the early 
 Christians, and believed to contain predictions of Christ 
 and the future of his kingdom. Of his life nothing is 
 known, and the book itself has vanished; but it is often 
 mentioned by the early Christian Fathers. Justin says of 
 it that "the bad demons, in their efforts to pre\"ent man's 
 knowing the truth, succeeded in establishing a law whi'-h 
 forbids the reading of the j3i^AorYcrTao-T7ov. . . under penalty 
 of death; but the Christians, notwithstanding this law. not 
 only read the books themselves, but even incited the hea- 
 then to study them." Clement of Alexandria says of it 
 that '"the Christians found in it, even more plainly than 
 in the books of the Sibyllincs, references to Christ and the 
 future of his kingdom, and especially a reference to Christ's 
 divine Sonship, to the sufferings which awaited him and 
 his followers, and to his final return." 
 
 Hyste'ria [from uorepa. the " womb "], a peculiar nerv- 
 ous atfection which in former times was supposed to havo 
 had its seat in the womb, but at the present day Hasse's 
 theory of its origin is generally received — viz. that it arises 
 from a nutritive derangement of the general nervous sys- 
 tem, both central an<l peripheral. This may be caused by 
 anv organ of the body being diseased, and there can be no 
 doubt but that it is dependent most frequently upon disor- 
 ders of the uterus and ovaries, simply because these affcc- 
 tious produce a deejier impression upon the nervous system. 
 Sometimes irritation of the genitals, arising from excessive 
 sexual intercourse, has as marked an influence on the gen- 
 eral nervous system as a well-marked lesion of an internal 
 organ ; but we must not be too ready to ascribe a case of 
 hysteria to deranged sexual function, for Ilasse attributes 
 these cases to a ])sychical rather than to a physical cause. 
 This condition of the nervous system may also be produced 
 by improper nourishment. There is a predisposition to the 
 disease manifested. A tendency, either congenital or ac- 
 quired, plays a much more important part in inducing this 
 affection than all the causes enumerated. 
 
 Hysteria generally attacks women from the age of pu- 
 berty to the decline of menstruation. It is of rare occur- 
 rence among men, and in them is produced in a manner 
 similar to that in which it is produced in the opposite sex. 
 Hysteria may nmnifest itself in a great variety of ways; 
 in fact, it simulates almost every known disease, and often 
 with the greatest care the )>ractitioner is unable to ditler- 
 cntiatc them. The most common form, however, is llio 
 hysterical fit. In some cases this consists merely of the 
 twitching of the muscles of a particular region, as of the 
 face, arm, or leg. In other eases the whole body is affected 
 at once. The patient generally laughs and cries alternately; 
 this is due to spasm of the group of muscles which operate 
 in producing these acts. Another very common accompa- 
 niment of these paro.xysms is the so-called t/iobus ht/tftcn'rim; 
 this consists in the sensation as of a ball rising from the 
 uterus and ascending through the abdominal and thoracic 
 cavities (o the throat, and is caused by a spasmodic con- 
 traction of the oesophagus. The patient may scream, tear 
 her hair and clothes, and beat her breasts. In severe cases
 
 HYSTEROTOMY— HYTU. 
 
 1085 
 
 we sometimes havo loss of consciousness and convulsions; 
 when this occurs it is nimost impossible to distinguish it 
 from epilepsy. The (its usually terminate with the dis- 
 charge of a large quantity of almost colorless urine. Per- 
 haps the next most common manifestation of the disease is 
 hvpeneslhesia, either general or localized, hut most fre- 
 quently the lairer. Vnder this heading would come hys- 
 terical perilonilis, in which the patient will complain of 
 great pain and tenderness over the region of the abdomen ; 
 she will jump and cry "Ut upon the slightest touch. Ac- 
 companying this condition there will he a rft]>id pulse and 
 increaseil temperature. The characteristic of the hysterical 
 affLclion is that the pain is not aggravated upon deep pres- 
 sure, and if you distract the patient's attention from her 
 trouble, you can very often knead the abdnnien without the 
 least discomfort to her. The " stitch in the side '* of young 
 girls and women can generally bo ascribed to hysterical 
 livpenBslhcsia. The opposite condition, auLCsthcsia. may 
 occur, sometimes, to such an extent that the patient will 
 allow your finger to he thrust into her eye or needles to be 
 
 filunged deeply into the flesh without wincing. Hysterical 
 lemiplegia and paraplegia very often occur. They are 
 very perplexing cases, and can hardly be differentiated by 
 any but a careful ami experienced observer. Paralysis of 
 the muscular fibres of the bladder, or spasm of its sphinc- 
 ter, is sometimes simulated. Hysterical patients very often 
 protend that they are suffering intolerably from retention 
 of urine, and can only be relieved by the introduction of 
 the catheter several times a day; which, indeed, seems to 
 be all that they desire. When such an affection is made 
 out beyond a doubt to be feigned, it is best to leave the 
 patient to her own resources. Even in cases where this 
 has been dune, the patients have been known to drink their 
 own uriiiC in order to carry out the deception. Gravel and 
 stone in the bladder are other diseases simulated; the pa- 
 tient will put common gravel in the urine after it has been 
 voided and pretend to have i)asscd it, or she may even 
 place sand in the urethra. Watson records a ease in which 
 a young woman made the surgeons in one of the London 
 hospitals believe that she had stone in the bladder, and who 
 actually submitted to be tied upon a table in the position 
 usMally adopted for operations for lithotomy, before a the- 
 atre full of s'udents, before the deception was discovered. 
 Hysteria very commonly mimics affections of the spina and 
 joints. Paticn's have been known to have been kept on 
 their backs for months, and even years, and to have had 
 blisters, leeches, and issues almost constantly applied for 
 supposed disease of the spine, which subsequently was 
 a9^*crtained to be purely nervous. So with hip-joint dis- 
 ease, etc. 
 
 There arc many hysterical affections referred to the 
 fauces, aphonia or loss of voice, mock laryngitis or pha- 
 ryngitis, stricture of the oesophagus, aud many curious 
 sensations. One patient imagined that a number of tape- 
 worms came up from her stomach to licr throat, lillcd 
 her ears, and came out upon her tongue. Every time sho 
 attempted to cateh them with her finger they would dis- 
 appear. This occurreil several times a day, and it was im- 
 possible to persuade her that such a thing could not bap- 
 pen. Among the other more common affections simulated 
 by hysteria are pleurisy, consumption, cough, hiccough, in- 
 digestion, in which the patient swallows a quantity of air, 
 and then protends to be suffering from tympanitis and eruc- 
 tations ; vomiting also sometimes aeeoinpauies this hyster- 
 ical dyspepsia, simulating cancer of the stomach. Very 
 often patients Buffering from hysteria have a depraved 
 appetite; they eat very little of anything, especially at 
 table, and will hardly touch meat at all, except it he a little 
 ham ; they will devour slate-pencils, wafers, chalk, pickles, 
 lemons, and such "jut-of-Mic-way articles. Notwithstanding 
 this mode of life, their health does not materially deteriorate. 
 
 We next come to speak of the treatment. This nmy be 
 divided into two modes — viz. that of the paroxysm, and 
 that between the paroxysms. In the first variety the dress 
 should bo loosened and plenty of fresh air admitted into 
 the room. An emetic should then by administered and cold 
 water dashed in the face; sometimes it is necessary to con- 
 tinue iloing this for quite a while (fifteen or twenty min- 
 utes), but the patients will generally succumb at last. If 
 at the enil of this time no iniprovenienl be noticed, the 
 strong aqua-ammonia should be held to the nostrils, and 
 when the patient draws her head away, i( should bo fol- 
 lowed by the bottle. You should gel the confidence of the 
 attendants, and be very careful not to suy anything in the 
 
 Itrcsenee of the patient that you tin not wish her to hear, 
 laving done this, if there is still no improvement, order, 
 so that the patient can hear you. two or three flat-irons to 
 ho heated nearly red hot ; say that it is a very urgent case, 
 au'l tint you intend applying them along the ?pino. The 
 cases in which iho patients will give the irons time to heal 
 will bo verv few. and sonietitnes, when they have resisted 
 
 every other means, the mention of such harsh treatment will 
 make them start up instantly. However, should they still 
 resist, the irons should be applied ice-cold along the spine, 
 at intervals of two or three minutes. In tlic intervals be- 
 tween the paroxysms, or in the other forms of hysteria, 
 laxatives, tonics, and the correction of any diseased func- 
 tion should be our first care. Besides this, the patient may 
 take assafu?tida pills, infusion of quassia, or, what seems to 
 be much better now, the ammouiated tincture of guaiuc. 
 EnwAitit J. Hkumingham. 
 
 Hysterot'omy [Gr. v<rrepa, " womb," .-md rofi-q. •• a cut- 
 ting," from rV^i-ctf, '* to nut "], orCapsareaii Opera 'lion, 
 the delivery of a child by opening the abdomen of the 
 mother. Pliny (lib. vii. cap. ix.) says that Caisar was so 
 called from being taken by excision out of the womb of 
 his mother, and that such persons were called casonrH, from 
 the Lat. crrdu, to *• cut." There is an obvious improbability 
 in this story, for there were other Caesars in tlie family be- 
 fore the m;in who made the name illustrious. It may bo 
 that Julius Ca;sarwas born in the manner described, but it 
 is very unlikely that this was the origin of his name. If 
 the story be true, the mother must have survived, as Aurclia 
 was alive wlieii her son invaded liritain. The incision is 
 made in or near the middle line of the boily, to the length 
 of six or seven inches. The uterus is exposed, carefully 
 opened, the child lifted out, and then the atlcr-birth. The 
 uterus contracts, the wound is closed, and opium is given 
 to iilhiy pain and nervous irritabilit}'. Ana?sthctics should 
 of course be given. In recent times the (,ii?sarean opera- 
 tion has repeatedly been ])crformcd with complete success, 
 the life not only of the child but the mother having been 
 saved. Some women, indeed, have had several children, 
 ench removed through an abdominal incision; one woinan 
 submitted to it seven times. Practitioners arc not quite 
 agreed as to all the circumstances which justify the per- 
 formance of this operation. The late Dr. tiibson of Phil- 
 adelphia, who jierformcd the operation twice on the same 
 wom.'in with entire success, considered the operation com- 
 paratively safe if eomuieneed early, before the patient's 
 strength has been impaired by labor. It appears that out 
 of 17 o]>eralions jicrformed during or at the close of the 
 first day of labor, M of the children and 12 of the women 
 were saved. (Sec Ajucricau Jounial of Medical Seiencca 
 for July, 1872, pp. 290, 291.) 
 
 Rkvised by Wili.ard Parker. 
 
 Hystric'idac [Gr, varpi^, "porcupine"], a family of 
 symplicidcntale rodents, of moderate size, with a large 
 anteorbital foramen; four molar teeth (on each side of the 
 upper as well as lower jaw), traversed by re-entering 
 valleys from the inner as well as outer walls, and with pit- 
 liko excavations of the surface; the alveolar portion of the 
 Eupramaxillary normally connected; the clavicles rudi- 
 mentary or obsolete; the fibula and tibia separate from 
 each other; the claws of all the feet acute or little blunt, 
 and huirs developed as robust si)ines. To Ibis group be- 
 long the porcupines of the Old AVoiId, but nut those of the 
 New, they being distinguished from the former by the com- 
 pletely developed clavicles, as well as differences of Iho 
 skull and dentition. About a dozen species arc distributed 
 in the tropical as well as temjtcrale portions of ihe Old 
 World, and especially in Africa and India. Tlicy havo 
 been combined under three genera, J/ffsln'.r, A r audi ion, and 
 Athcrura. TlIKODoni: Gii.l.. 
 
 Ilythn [Ang.-*Sax. hi/dr, a "haven"], a parliamentary 
 and muniei|>al borough and market-town in the county of 
 Kent, England, 11 miles S. of Canterbury. Though for- 
 merly one of the Cinque Ports, it is now half a mile from the 
 sea, while the adjacent ancient Koman port of Lymne 
 {PvrtiiH LrmaniH) is now nearly -i miles troni the coast. In 
 ancient times an important battle must have taken place 
 here, as is shown by the jdlcs. containing miiny hundreds 
 of human bones mid skulls still to be seen under the elmn- 
 cel of the well-preserved Normiin chnreh. Many of the 
 skulls are of extraordinary f izc, and have deep sword-cuts in 
 them : local traditions make them Danes, and fix the dale 
 of the battle at abiml 10(10 a. d., but no certain account has 
 been iireservud. During the hist century smuggling was 
 carried on at Hythc to a great extent, but since it became 
 a summer watering-place and the seat of the national . •school 
 of musketry (1S.'>1) smuggling has ceased. Pop. of munici- 
 pal borough, about .'1000. 
 
 Ilytu^ Ilitiif or Iti'i, town of Brazil, in the province 
 of Sao Paulo, on Ihe Tiele, which Iwcomcs navigable here, 
 just below the great c;itariict, is neatly Imilt. and is <ineof 
 the most prosperous provincial towns of the country. Tho 
 plain in which the town stands extends along the Ticl6 at 
 tho foot of a plateau of considerable elevation, and is ex- 
 tremely fertile, covered with plantations of sugar and cot- 
 Ion. The trade in mules and asses is a considerable one. 
 Pop. about 10,000.
 
 1086 
 
 I— IBKAHIM PASHA. 
 
 I. 
 
 I, the ninth letter of the Roman alphabet, was once in- 
 terchangeable with J, which is a form of the same letter, 
 although at present of very difFcreut power. I is a vowel, 
 and in English has three well-marked sounds: (1) the 
 sound of long e, as in machine, niarinc ; this is the sound 
 almost invariably given to it in all other languages which 
 have this letter; (2) the "long sound. "that heard in mind, 
 «?V/i( ; this sound is strictly a diphthong between a broad 
 and long e ; and (3) the -short" sound, heard in pin, min- 
 ion. As a numeral, 1 stands for one (1). In chemistry it 
 is the symbol of iodine. 
 
 laba'dius, the name under which Ptolemy described 
 a vast island of the East Indies, near the tfolden Cher- 
 sonesus. It was fertile in grain and produced gold; the 
 capital was called Argyre. From the similarity of names, 
 both of which mean "barley," it is generally thought to 
 be identical with Java, though Humboldt argues for Su- 
 matra. 
 
 lac'chns, the mystic name of the god Dionysus at 
 Athens and Kleusis. (See Elkusinian MvsTEniEs.) It is 
 probable, however, that lacchus, the Roman liacchus, was 
 originally distinct from the Theban Dionysus; the former 
 being a Phrygian divinity, represented as a child, the son 
 of Zeus and Demctcr, while the latter was always called 
 the son of Zeus and Semele. 
 
 lal'ysus, one of the three principal Doric cities in 
 Rhodes, anciently the chief place of the island, and often 
 taken as a synonym of the island itself. It was very flour- 
 ishing in the time of the Homeric poems, and some remains 
 of its ancient greatness are still seen at the modern village 
 of laliso. The foundation of lalysus was ascribed to a 
 mythical personage of that name. 
 
 lani'bic [Lat. iamhicus, from iambus ; Gr. lafifSoy], a 
 poetic metre much used in Greek, Latin, and modern verse, 
 consisting of a succession of iambi. An iambic foot is 
 formed either of one short and one long syllable, as in 
 amdnH, or of an unaccented syllable followed by one ac- 
 CL'uted, as in esteem. 
 
 lam'blichus, a Neo-Platonic philosopher of the fourth 
 century after Christ, was a disciple of Porphyry, and re- 
 sided in Syria. With him that combination of Greek phi- 
 losophy with Oriental mysticism which was the character- 
 istic of the Neo-PIatonic philosophy became mere theurgy. 
 He taught that it was possible lor man to put himself in 
 direct communication with the Deity by means of certain 
 rites and ccremouics. Five books of his work on Pythag- 
 oras, and his book on the Egyptian theology, are still 
 extant. 
 
 lan'thina [Gr. ldv9tvo<;, "violet-colored"], a genus of 
 mollusks including the ocean-snails or violet snails. They 
 have a snail-like shell, and Ooat on the open sea, supported 
 by a cartilaginous raft, containing air-vcsiele?. The float 
 is a part of the operculum. They have no power of rising 
 or sinking in the water. The eggs and young are attached 
 below the float. They arc carnivorous gasteropods of the 
 family Ilaliotidie. and feed on little aciilephs. There are 
 six known species. They arc named from their jmrple 
 juice. 
 
 lap'etUS [Or. 'laiTfTo?], in Grecian mythology, a son of 
 Uranus and Ge, brother ot Kronos and Occanus, and father 
 of Atlas, Prometheus, and Epimetheus. Ho was regarded 
 by the (Jreeks as the father of all the human race, and the 
 name is supposed to be the same as the J.\I'HETII of Gen- 
 esis (which see). 
 
 Iatan% post-v. of Marshall tp., Platte co., Mo., on the 
 Missouri Itiver and on the Kansas City St. Joseph and 
 Council Bluffs K. 11. Pop. 129. 
 
 Iba'f^ne, town of Colombia, department of Cundina- 
 marca, 70 miles W. of Bogota. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Ibar'ra, town of Ecuador, at the foot of the volcano 
 Inibaburu, 00 miles N. E. of Quito. The surrounding 
 country is exceedingly fertile and the inhabitants are 
 mostly engaged in the cultivation of cotton and sugar. 
 It suffered severely from an earthquake ISflS. Pop. 13,200. 
 
 Ibcrdy or Yberii, a series of marshy lakes in the 
 province of Corricntes. Argentine Republic, between the 
 rivers Paran.'l and Uruguay. 
 
 Ibc'ria^ one of the names under which Spain was known 
 to (he ancients, was chiefly used by the Greeks, and prob- 
 ably derived from Iberus, the Ebro. 
 
 Iberia^ parish of Louisiana, bounded on the S. by tho 
 Gulf of Mexico. Area, ahout 000 square miles. It is di- 
 vided into three portions by Grand Lake and Vermilion 
 Bay. It has very important deposits of ruck-salt. The 
 soil is very fertile, the surface low. level, and well tim- 
 bered. Cottou, corn, rice, molasses, and sugar are staple 
 products. Cap. New Iberia. Pop. '.M142. 
 
 Iberia, post-v. of Washington tp.. Morrow co., 0., on 
 the Cleveland Columbus and Cincinnati 11. R. Pop. 238. 
 
 I'berville, fertile county of Quebec. Canada, on the E. 
 side of the river Richelieu. Area. ISU square miles. It is 
 traversed by the Stauslcad Shefford and Chambly R. R. 
 Cap. Iberville. Pop. 15,413. 
 
 Iben'ille, a v. (P. 0. St. Atoanase), cap. of Iberville 
 CO., Quebec, Canada, on the E. bank of the river Richelieu, 
 opposite St. Johns, with which it is connected by a tine 
 bridge. It is the seat of Canadian Institute. Pop. of 
 sub-district, 1497. 
 
 Iberville, parish of Louisiana, extending eastward 
 from the Atchafulaya River, and having the Mississipj)i as 
 a part of its eastern boundary. Area, about 450 square 
 miles. Its surface is low, but fertile, and it is sometimes 
 subject in part to inundations. Cotton, corn, sugar, molas- 
 ses, staple products. Cap. Plaquemines. Pop. 12,347. 
 
 Iberville, d' (Pierre Lemoine). the brother of tho 
 Sicur de Bienville and of five other able public men, b. at 
 Montreal July 20, IGGl; captured Fort Nelson 16SG ; 
 served in the Schenectady affair 1090 ; in 1G96 destroy»!d 
 St. Johns, and took nearly all of Newfoundland from the 
 British, whom he defeated in Hudson's Bay in the naval 
 fights of 1G97. In 1699 he fortified Bilox'i, and in 1700 
 ascended the Mississippi River. In 1702 he fortified Dau- 
 phin Island and founded a settlement near Mobile. In 
 170G, with three ships, he attacked and captured the Isle 
 of Nevis. D. at Havana, Cuba, July 9, 1706. 
 
 I'bex [Lat.], a genus or sub-genus of the goat family, 
 distinguished by very large horns and rather scanty beards. 
 The species of Ibex, as generally recognized, are /. Alpinun 
 (the Boi'QUETiN (which see) or ibex of the Alps), /. A/;c- 
 naieus, Hispanicns, Caucasicns, .SV^/rtVits, Siibiaiius, /limn- 
 layamts, and others; but it is likely that some or all are 
 mere varieties. The Alpine ibex breeds freely with the 
 goat. 
 
 Ibiapuba, a mountain-chain in Brazil, in the province 
 of Ceara. 
 
 Ibicui, a large river in the Brazilian province of Rio 
 Grande do Sul, flowing AV. into tho Uruguay. 
 
 I'bis [Gr. Tpt«], a genus of wading birds of the family 
 TantalidiB, allied to the snipes and herons, and having 
 very long legs, neck, and bill, and a very short tail. The 
 American species are I./alcinelfns, the glossy ibis, common 
 also to the Old World ; the white 
 ibis (/. aiba) of Florida (believ- 
 ed with some reason to be a 
 mere variety of the sacred ibis, 
 hereafter noticed), and tho sear- 
 let ihis (/. rubra). All these 
 arc handsome birds, found most- 
 ly in warm regions. The wood- 
 ibis of America is Tantulns loc- 
 vlator. The sacred ibis ( /. rc- 
 ligiosn) of Egypt, as well as tho 
 glossy ibis, is trequently found 
 " embalmed in tliat country. It 
 was regarded as an incarnation 
 of the god Thoth, and was looked 
 upon with peculiar reverence by 
 all classes of the people. The staw-neeked ibis ( d'cronticua 
 ttpinicof/ie) is a large Australian bird of this family. 
 
 Ib'rahim Pasha', a son of Mehemet Ali,b. at Kavala. 
 Roumelia, in 1789. His father was appointed viceroy of 
 Egypt in 1806, and Ibrahim very soon gave brilliant proof's 
 of the great personal qualities of which he was possessed 
 by subduing the wild tribes of Up])er Egypt in 1S12, l.y 
 reducing tho Wahabees and conquering a great part of 
 Arabia in 1819. by reorganizing the Egyptian army after 
 European models and founding a navy, and by his cam- 
 paign in the Peloponnesus from 1S24 to 182S. ilis great- 
 est exploit, ho^vever, was his Syrian can)]>aign in \!^'M. 
 Having defeated the Turks in decisive battles at Tripoli 
 and Horns, he conquered tho whole of Syria in one year.
 
 IBYCUS— ICE. 
 
 1087 
 
 and pushed forward into Asia Minor to Konieh. Hero he 
 coinpletfly routed the Turkish army. Dec. 20, 1S:12, and oa 
 liis tlcet had cliascd tho Turkish ilect from place to place, 
 the way to Constantiuoplc wns open to him. liul Ru9!!>ia 
 intcrfcrcil. Peace was concluded, and the whole of Syria 
 was ceded to Meliemet Ali. Ibrahim was appointed gov- 
 ernor of the new province, and in this position ho showed 
 that ho had talents not onl^' as a general, but also as a 
 statesman and admini.-trator. In 1839 war again broke 
 out between Kgypt and the Porte, and Ibrahim ajrain suc- 
 ceeded in routing the Turkish army compk-tely at Nezib, 
 June 21, Imt tiiis time too the Ottoman cmjiire was saved 
 by the interference of the European powers. Kngland. 
 Austria, an<l Russia agreed to compel Mohcraet Ali to givo 
 up Syria and Arabia, ancl content himself with the heredi- 
 tary possession of Egypt ; and after a short resistance Me- 
 hemet Ali had to submit. Ibrahim Pasha lived for several 
 years as a private gentleman on his estates at Ilcliopolis, 
 where ho established large and very fine cotton and oli%'e 
 plantations. Hut about l!^ II. Meliemet AH began to fall 
 into dotage, and the government now devolved on Ibrahim 
 Pasha. In IS IS he went to Constantinople, and was con- 
 firmed as viceroy of Egypt, but ho d. very soon after his 
 return, at Cairo,* Nov. 9,'lS48. 
 
 Ib'ycus, b. at Rhegium in the sixth century b. c, and 
 lived for some time in Samos at the court of Polycratcs. 
 Of his poems only a few fragments arc left, but the story 
 of his death is known by all. lie was attacked by robbers 
 and mortally wounded while travelling through a desert 
 place near Corinth, but before dying called upon a flock 
 of cranes flying over him to avenge his death. Shortly 
 after it happened at Corinth that a flock of cranes flew 
 over the theatre while a performance was going on, and 
 one of the murderers cried out involuntarily, *' Behold ttie 
 avengers of Ibycus!" which led to the discovery and pun- 
 ishment of tho crime. Edited by Schneidewin (Gottingen, 
 18.13), and in the Poctv Li/rici Orieci of Bergk. 
 
 I'^a, town of Peru, is situated in lat. 14° 41' S., and 
 connected by railway with Pisio on the Pacific Ocean, 
 through whicli it exports large quantities of wheat, maize, 
 wine, and brandy. Its diniato is very hot, but not un- 
 healthy. Pop. about 8000. 
 
 IcardS tp. of Burke co,. N. C. Pop. 929. 
 
 Ica'ria, or Ic'arus (Nikanu), an island of the /Egcan 
 Sea. W. iif Samos. It is some 15 miles long from N. E. to 
 S. W,, and rather narrow ; area, 50 square miles. It has a 
 population of 8000, and, as of old, is valued for its pas- 
 turage. 
 
 Ic'aruSy the son of Dncdalus, who forgot, according to 
 the old myth, bis father's advice on their flight from Crete, 
 and flew so high that the sun molted the wax with which 
 tho wings were attached to his shoulders, aud he foil down 
 and was dro\Tned in tho aca which after him is called the 
 Icarian. 
 
 Ice, The freezing-point of water is .32° F. or 0° C, 
 The presence of salt impedes congelation ; sea-.water, 
 thercfitre, requires a temperature strvoral degrees lower 
 than froHh water to solidify. Pure water placed in pol- 
 ished vessels may be reduced 17° below freezing-point (to 
 15° F.) without congealing if it bo kept perfectly still ; tho 
 slightest agitation or the introduction of a foreign body 
 will, however, cause it immediately to freeze: in which 
 case heat U engendered, and the frozen mass comes up to 
 the usual temperature, 32° F. Ice in assuming the solid 
 form expands by about one-ninth of its own vohinio, its 
 specific gravity being 0.9IS4 at the temperature 32° F. or 
 0° C. As cold increases, solid ice contracts; the ico on 
 ponds occasionally cracks from this cause with a loud re- 
 port. Ice sometimes forms at the bottom of streams when 
 the water above does not freeze; this is probably duo to 
 the extreme stillness below. This "anchor ice," if detached 
 from the body around which it has formed, rises and floats 
 on tho surface. 
 
 Ico is the normal condition of water. Ice, wator, steam, 
 aqueous vapor, fog, cloud, etc. are chemically identical; 
 their physical din"erencc is due, in the main, to the greater 
 or lesser separation of tho molecules by the action of heat. 
 As heat is withdrawn from water its constituent particles 
 approach, in accordance with tho general law that heat 
 expands and cold (or the absence of heat) contracts bodies. 
 When tho temperature 39° F, or 4° C. is reached, tho vol- 
 ume of water begins slowly to expand ; a now force, that 
 of crystallization, coming in to modify the re.^ult. Tho 
 particles of water are marshalled into orderly array, and 
 their arrangement is so changed that in uniting they leave 
 larger inter-atomic spaces than they possessed before freez- 
 ing began. The expansion of crystallization compensates. 
 an<l more than compensates, for the contra'-tinn of cold, and 
 tho mass expands by the diff'orencc of the opposing forces. 
 Water in freezing gives out heat — i. c. that molecular force 
 
 which had been devoted to the work of holding asunder the 
 particles of water and maintaining it in a liquid form, is 
 released from its work as the mass solidifies, and becomes 
 again the molecular motion known as heat. In crystalliz- 
 ing each molecule approaches every other under the con- 
 trolling power of a fixed law; each spicule, as it forms, 
 unites with every other at an angle of 00°. As a result, 
 ice-crystals are formed infinite in beauty and variety, but 
 all obedient to this law — six-rayed ice-blossoms and stars 
 and feathery foliage, whore every spine joins the central 
 stem at the invariable angle 60°. The ice which covers 
 every sea and lake and pond is built up of film upon film 
 of just such exquisite frostwork as sometimes covers the 
 inner surlaco of our window-panes. The architecture of 
 tho frost may bo slowly undone, and the process, in the re- 
 verse, watched. A slab of ice, cut with its faces parallel to 
 tho plane of freezing, is placed in the path of the electric 
 beam; liquid flowers and leaves start into view in the in- 
 terior of the slab. (See fig.) A brilliant central nucleus 
 
 Iceii yntalx 
 appears in each figure with an audible click. The ice as it 
 melts contracts ; the space filled by the frozen flower is not 
 quite filled by the liquid one, and the water, which has been 
 rendered very cohesive by the elimination of the air in 
 freezing, ruptures with a cound, producing the central 
 vacuum. A property of ice discovered by Faraday in 1S4I 
 (see Rkcelation) accounts for tho advance of the great 
 glacial ice-masses which move down the Alpine and Arctic 
 valleys. (See Olacikhs.) Tho magnificent icebergs of tho 
 northern seas are generally only the terniiiiiil nm>ses of tho 
 Arctic glaciers, which have crept over the beach to tho sea, 
 and there been worn away and broken ofl" by tho action of 
 the waves aud the tides. The ice-caves described by Alpine 
 travellers as existing in the glaciers are very beautiful; 
 stalactite and stalagmite of pellucid ice, cIuBtering branches, 
 pillars, Jind domes adorn their roofs, floors, ami walls. One 
 of them shows in every crevice and depression of its walls 
 the lovely blue tint eharacteristic of glacial ice in shadow, 
 while tho roof, which is thin enough to permit tho sun's 
 rays to penetrate it, glows with a delicate rosy tint. Ordi- 
 nary ice, though crystalline, is not prismatic, but that 
 which has frozen at a temperature below 32° F. shows a 
 decided prisnmtic structure. In many of tho ice-caves of 
 France and Switzerland this structure is found; sometimes 
 the stalactites are formed of common ico surrounded with a 
 shell of the prismatic. The interior, being the softer, melts. 
 leaving tho stalactite hollow. Some ice-prisms, as men- 
 tioned in Pof/(frti{/<tr/'it Aimiifcii (vol. iv. p. 475), when ex- 
 amined by polarized light, manifested a feeble double re- 
 fracting power. Tho sudden disappearance of enormous 
 sheets of lakc-ico is explained by the breaking up of the 
 vast mass into prismatic blocks. A stub of ice through 
 whiih the beam of tho electric lamp is sent will mark its 
 path by tho formation of innumerable little luminous 
 spots, as the motes mark tho path of a sunbeam. Tho 
 snots form in any plane, hut in those which arc parallel to 
 tno piano <d' freezing they shoot out spicules, nntl linally 
 produce the flowers before desi*ribed. The planes ;if freez- 
 ing of a bl'ick of ice may always be dctenuin^Ml by thus
 
 1088 
 
 ICE. 
 
 sending the beam through it and noting the formation of 
 the ilowcrs and leaves. 
 
 In laUe-icc liubhles may be seen, with solid layers be- 
 tween, evidently marking the limits of successive acts of 
 frcezin'.;, and with each block composed of such layers of 
 solid ice and bubbles, a surface layer is associated, which 
 gives evidence of h.aving been acted upon by external influ- 
 ences. In Ihis surface layer are numerous small nir-bubbles 
 around which a bleb of water CNists. This pheuomenon 
 Agassii! exjilaius as being due to the arrest of heat by the 
 air, and the melting of the surrounding ice by its elevation 
 of tempcratnre. Tyndall holds, and proves conclusively, 
 that the mcUing of the ice in the interior of the block is 
 due to its conducting power. In summer, ice is often only 
 a congeries of water-cells in a skeleton of ice: a saw will 
 go through the mass with comparative ease. In freezing, 
 water excludes the l.irgest p.irt of any solid held in solu- 
 tion l)y it; this quality is used in the arts to concentrate 
 certain liquids. As a" geologic agent ice has been very 
 prominent (see GLAcrEns), not only by means of glacial 
 ai^tion, but by the disintegration of rocks and niountain- 
 mas.scs, which have then been carried away and d;-posited 
 as lainiuatcd strata on the lowlands or the ocean's bed. 
 Hoar frost, one of the most familiar forms of ic:e, is only 
 frozen dew. (See Dew.) Mrs. S. B. IlERRirK. 
 
 Ice. Its /Irlalione In Navigation, Travel, and Trans- 
 portation. — The closing of rivers, bays, sounds, and estua- 
 ries by ice greatly impedes, .and sometimes completely pre- 
 vents, navig.ilion for several months of the year. N. of 
 the lOth degree of latitude in North .\merica, and of the 
 5»tli degree in Europe and Asia, the navigable rivers are 
 closed for three or four months, and in the higher latitudes 
 for six or seven, to all passage of steamers or sailing ves- 
 sels. In exceptionally cold seasons the estuaries, harbors, 
 bays, and saunds of these regions are sometimes closed for 
 several weeks. The obstruction of the East Kivcr. or the 
 estuary between Xew York and Brooklyn, and of the N.ar- 
 rows and inner harbor of New York, the Kill von Kull, 
 and Newark Bay fur same days is not a very infrequent 
 occurrence; the "winters of 1SJ7-58, of lS6o and ISfiti, and 
 of IS74-7a arc among recent instances of this obstruction, 
 and during the last-named severe season Long Island 
 Sound was" frozen over at its western extremity except a 
 narrow channel, and Cape Cod Bay was closed for two or 
 three weeks. In 1741 it is said that Long IsLand Sound 
 was frozen in its whole extent, and that an adventurous 
 citizen drove over it from New Y'ork to Greenpoi-t in his 
 sleigh or cutter. .\s we approach the Arctic regions tho 
 olisrructions to navigation from ice become more formidable. 
 The whaling licet has met with heavy losses by the crush- 
 ing of their vessels in the ice, and the numerous Arctic ex- 
 peditions have almost without exception been thwarted or 
 ]irevcnted by the ice from attaining their desired results. 
 But. though these obstructions to navigation cause serious 
 delays, and often occasion much suffering, they .are in other 
 respects a benefit. The Finns, Laplanders, Ostiaks, Kamt- 
 ehadalcs, Esquimaux, and other Northern tribes regard the 
 winter season as the most .agreeable of the year. Warmly 
 clad in furs which arc impenetrable by the intense cold, 
 thcv go firth from their huts built of the ice, and journey 
 long distances on sledges drawn by dogs or reindeer, pre- 
 ferring for rapid travel the comparatively snrooth ice of 
 the bays and sounds to the rougher surfaces of the drifted 
 snow and ice of tho shores. In more civilized countries 
 skating is not only a favorite amusement, but in Europe 
 is turned to practical account, the pack-pcd<llers, messen- 
 gers, and many of the servants performing their journeys 
 on skates witli great ease and rapidity. The ice boat, a 
 triangular platform rigged with large and strong skating 
 irons? and propelled by immense sails which enable it to 
 scud before a strong wind at the rate of 50, fiO, or even 70 
 miles an hour, is becoming a very popular though some- 
 what dangerous amusement on our Northern rivers; and 
 the ice-bridges which span the larger streams above the 
 4'2d degree of N. lat., often for several months of the win- 
 ter, furnish a safe and easy transit to thousands of teams 
 and tens of Ihons.ands of foot-passengers, though to the 
 manifest dissatisfaction of ferrymen and bridge-tenders. 
 
 As nn Artirle ../' Commerce. — There is a large demand 
 for ice as a commodity for three distinct purposes : viz. for 
 its cooling qualities, for its antiseptic or preserving po^yer, 
 and for its use in medicine and surgery. In all tropical 
 and semi-tro))ieal countries there has been a demand in all 
 ages for some means of cooling wine and other beverages, 
 and imparting to the drinking-water of those countries 
 sufficient coldness to make it pabatable. The means natu- 
 rallv suggested was the use of snow brought from the 
 mountains and stored up to be used in cooling the bever- 
 ages in use. Solomon undoubtedly refers to this practice 
 (which was even bef>rehis time in extensive use in Oriental 
 countries) in Prov. xxv. 1.1: "As the cold of snow in the 
 
 time of harvest, so is a faithful messenger to them that 
 send him ; for he refresheth the soul of his masters." Re- 
 peated references are made to the practice by Creek and 
 Konian writers. Theocritus. .Aristotle Horace, and Plutarch 
 all mention it, the last describing minutely the methods 
 adopted for preserving the snow. Nero cstablifhed store- 
 houses for ice and snow in Uunie, but they were not suffi- 
 cient to supply the demand. It is worthy of notice that 
 snow is still gathered for this purpose on the Apennines 
 by Italian peasants (or was, a very few years since), and 
 brought into Naples, Rome, and Florence, where it is stored 
 in cellars and sold to the wealthy inhabitants. Our coun- 
 tryman Mr. W. J. Stillman, when consul at Rome, under- 
 took to introduce American ice there, importing a cargo 
 of Wenham Lake ice, and ofl'ering it to the pcojde at the 
 price asked for this dirty snow; but he was informed that 
 he could not bo permitted to do this, as the right to 
 gather and vend this snow was one of the vested privi- 
 leges of tho Italian peasants, and must not be disturbed. 
 In Spain and Portugal, and in Sardinia and the S. of 
 France, snow, and sometimes ice, was gathered from the 
 mountains and stored to some extent in the cities and in 
 icehouses on the estates of wealthy nobles and grandees, 
 but was used very sparingly. In England and Scotland it 
 has been the practice for two or three centuries, among tho 
 wealthy, to have icehouses on their estates, and (ill them 
 with ice each year from the nearest accessible lake, river, 
 or mountain. In England, however, the ice was generally 
 thin and not very pure. Ice was not for sale, to private 
 customers generally, in London before l.'i4.i, and only a 
 few of the first-class fishmongers and confectioners made 
 use of it. Their supplies were brought from ponds, or after 
 lS2o from Norway. The wealthiest citizens and some of 
 the nobility had a' small supply brought from their country- 
 seats, lu this country icehouses have been very common 
 in the rur!il districts for almost two centuries. They were 
 cheap affairs — a cellar dug in the ground, floored with 
 stone on which straw or sawdust was thickly strewn : the 
 sides ceiled with rough boards placed nearly a foot from 
 the earthy wall, and the space between filled with spent Ian- 
 bark or sawdust: the peaked roof covered first with rough 
 boards, then heavily th.atehed with straw, and then another 
 roof of rough boards with broken joints; the ice jmt in 
 during the coldest weather of the winter, with layers of 
 sjiwdust or straw between, and then, if the weather was 
 cold enough, water thrown over each layer to freeze it into 
 a solid mass, and the whole covered closely, and the double 
 or triple roof put on. Access to it was generally indirect, 
 and it was onlv opened at night in hot weather. The ex- 
 pense was considerable, but the supply was generally suf- 
 ficient for several families. In our large cities at the North 
 as late as 1820 it was difficult to obtain ice even for tho 
 purpose of cooling water or other beverages, and the South- 
 ern cities were entirely without it. In the country, and to 
 some extent in the cities, those who bad no icehouses and 
 no interest in any. made use of cool cellars or deep wells for 
 keeping butter, milk, etc. cool, and for the preservation of 
 wines. ° The pitcher of water was wrapped with a moist- 
 ened napkin and cooled by the evaporation. lee became 
 a commercial product on a small scale in Boston about the 
 beginning of this century; i. c it was kept in storehouses, 
 and probablv carried around to the few customers who 
 were disposed to buy at about tiiat period. As early as 
 1,^05, as we shall see further on. ice was exported from that 
 city to the West Indies. In New York City it was not a com- 
 modity to be generally bought and sold before lS2.'i, though 
 it was used bv the butchers, fishmongers, and perhaps the 
 conrectioncrs."at an earlier date. The trafl^c has grown 
 enormously in fifty years. It now employs in the seven or 
 ei-ht companies in New York City u capital of nearly 
 $8,000,000, gathers from 1,000,000 to 1.600,000 tons of ice 
 annually (the ice-crop of 187o exceeded 2.000.000 lons^, em- 
 ployin"- over 10.000 men and over 4000 horses, and col- 
 leet"s from fO.OOO.OOO to .«10.000,I100 for its products, in- 
 cluding the ice exported. Portland, ISoston, Hartford. New 
 HavenT Philadelphia, AHiany. Rochester. Buflalo, Cleve- 
 land, Chicago, Cincinnati. Louisville, and St. Louis are all 
 largely concerned in the ice-trade, though the last three 
 ilraw "their supplies from a distance and ship little or none 
 to other points. Many of the smaller cities have a large 
 local trade in the conimoility, and a lew of them export 
 considerable quantities. The capital invested in the busi- 
 ness is estimated at about .'f:'.0. 1100,000. 
 
 The first demand for ice had reference solely to its cool- 
 ing qualities, but its .antiseptic properties soon created for 
 it a still larger market. Indeed, had men but comprc- 
 hcn.led tho lessons taught them by nature, the antiseptic 
 character of ice would have given it its fir.st v.aluc. That 
 meals and the carcases of animals intended for food could 
 be transported for a great distance when frozen, without 
 injury, was a fact well known ages ago ; but the practica-
 
 ICE. 
 
 10«9 
 
 bility of using ice to preserve such meats and carcases, even 
 withuut freezing tbeui, does not seem to have occurred even 
 to the keenest ohservers, though glimpaes of the truth camo 
 to their eyes, from tiuio to time; thus, in King Alfred's 
 Anglo-Saxon version of Orosius's I/istoriurum tKicergun 
 l*a*jano8, lib. vii., in an udditiuu by Alfred hiniseif, giving 
 the narrative of one Wulfstau, an early Northern naviga- 
 tor, in regard to the Esthoniani^, a Finnish tribe E. of the 
 Vistula, whom he had visited, we find an account of their 
 practice of keeping the bodies of their dead in their houses 
 ior a long time {frum one to six months, according to their 
 rank) unburnt and not embalmed; and then follows this 
 remarkable ])assage (we use Thorpe's translation) : "And 
 there is among the E.-<thonian!) a tribe that can produce 
 cold, and therefore the dead, in whom they proilure that 
 cold, lie so long there and do not putrefy : and if any one 
 sets two vc.^sels full of ale or water, they contrive that one 
 >^hall bo frozen, be it summer or bo it winter." This, bo it 
 remembered, was in the eighth century, or perhaps in the 
 latter part of the seventh. At a later perioci a more strik- 
 ing illuatra'ion of the antiseptic property of ice occurred. 
 In 170;i, after an unusually protracted period of rain and 
 tliaw, there was discovered near the mouth of the Yenisei 
 and along the shores of the Frozen Sea ^n Siberia a vast 
 deposit uf the carcases of the ma-ilodon and other pre-his- 
 toric quadrupeds, with their flesh untainted and edible, pre- 
 servecl from putrefaction and decay by the protecting intlu- 
 enco of the ice in which it had been imbedded for thousands 
 of years. This flesh was greedily devoured by the Samo- 
 icdes. as well as by their dogs, the wulves, and other car- 
 nivorous animals who gathered to prey upon this mighty 
 feast. In that region, according to Ernian. an attempt to 
 sink a well resulted in finding alternate layers of ice and 
 gravel to a depth of .3S2 feet. In this vast natural refrig- 
 erator, flesh not salted or prepared in any way had been 
 kept from jiutrefaclion, change, or decay for, at the very 
 least, several thousand years. Yet so slow are mankind to 
 loarn, that more than a century passed before the idea of 
 preserving dead bodies by surrounding them with ice, or 
 of preserving meats, fruits, butter, milk, etc. from putrefac- 
 tion, fermentation, or decay by an artificial unil'orm low 
 temperature produced by ice-packing, occurred to any one, 
 or, at all events, before it was reduced to practice. Now, 
 however, ice is regarded as absolutely necessary during the 
 summer months in jjroserving the boilies of the dead until 
 the time of burial; and it forms in the refrigerating closet 
 or chest one of the most inrlispensable articles of household 
 use for the preservation of meats, milk, butter, vegetables, 
 or fruits. IJut its antiseptic value does not stop here. Kc- 
 frigcrating cars bring to us from the Pacific coast choico 
 ripe fruits, game, and other articles which it would other- 
 wise be impossible to obtain in this market, and bear back 
 oysters and other shellfish, condensed milk, Imtter, and 
 other articles from the Atlantic coast. Steamers fitted up 
 with refrigerating chambers bring beef ancl mutton from 
 Texas, ripe oranges, lemons, bananas, and guavas from the 
 West Indies, South American fruits from Brazil, and carry 
 in return milk, butler, oysters, apples, peaches, pears, etc. 
 to tropical climates. Preserving-houses in several of our 
 '•ities preserve with a slight percentage of loss, oranges, 
 Irmons, grapes, apples, pcars^ peaches, etc. from quo to 
 thrrc years. 
 
 The exportation of ice, which commenced in 1805 by tho 
 shipment of i;tO tons to Martinique by Mr. Frederick Tu- 
 dor of Ho!4ton, had a slow growth. For the first ten yeara 
 Mr. Tudor made little or no profit by his ventures; in 1815 
 ho obtaineil some exclusive privileges from the Cuban au- 
 thorities, and between lSI7and lS20l)t>gan to send cargurs 
 also to Charleston, Savannah, and New Orleans; but in all 
 thf-c years he met with frequent disasters, and from the 
 lung passages of tho sailing vessels often lost tho greater 
 part of his cargoes. As lafe as 1h;12 his whole annual ship- 
 ments amounted to but ■l'io2 tons, all of which was taken 
 fr(»m Fresh Pond in Cambridge, .Mass. In ls:(;t bo sent his 
 first cargo to the Fast Indies, shipping ISO Ions to Calcutta. 
 Kighty tons melted before tho arrival of the cargo at that 
 port, but the remainder sold promjitly at a large profit. 
 From tliat time tho business began to thrive. In 18.*!6, 
 12,000 tons were exported from Hoston abinc ; in 18-10, 
 r.5,0()0 tons: in IH.'je. 1 Ift.OOO tons; in 1806, nearly 250,000 
 tons; and in 1871, though other ports were, and had been 
 for liventy years or more, partieiputing in the export trade, 
 the shipment from Ronton was more than itOO.OdU tuns. 
 Tlie entire export from thn Northern cities, aside from tho 
 supply of New Orleans and other cities along tho Missis- 
 sippi River, which was drawn nminly from the North-west, 
 was in IH70 about .'iUO.OOil tons, and in 1875 did not fall 
 below UOO.OOO tons. In using this term tj-purt, hfiwevcr. it 
 is proper to say that by far the largest portion of these 
 shipments are to the cities of our own coast and of tho in- 
 terior, tho entire export to foreign countries in tho year 
 \'nr.. II.— <'.'.t 
 
 ending June 30, 1873, being only 5.3,553 tons, and in 1874, 
 51.572 tons, having a declared value in 1873 of $1S8,0'J5, 
 and in 1874 of $1'J8,013, though probably realizing three 
 or four times those sums. Tho tra<le with (ircat Britain in 
 this commodity is increasing, though Norway is a large 
 competitor fur the traffic, and commenced it as early as 
 1821 ; and the Dominion of Canada is also competing. In 
 tho Southern cities of this country and of Europe, as well 
 as in the West Indies and South America, artificial ice is 
 supplying a considerable part of the demand. 
 
 Afi a Jicmedial Af/tnit in Medicine and Snrffcri/. — The use 
 of ico for medical and surgical purposes is one of the addi- 
 tions made to our materia medica in tho present century. 
 Tho Russians had, indeed, for 200 years or more passed 
 from their intensely hot steam-bnths into a bath of snow, 
 but this was rather an experiment in hygiene than an item 
 of medical treatment. Ice is now used medically, inter- 
 nally and externally ; in the former way, by breaking it up 
 into small bits to be swallowed by the patient, and in iced 
 drinks in gastritis and gastric fevers, as well as in some 
 diseases of tho pharynx, larynx, or bronchial tubes. Its 
 external uses are manifold; it is applied, pounded, in ice- 
 bags to the head in acute mania, iirain fever, or some inju- 
 ries of tho brain; to the temporal arteries and carotids in 
 some fevers and in eases of diphtheria and scarlet fever; 
 along the spine in ice-bags in cholera, yellow fever, etc.; 
 over the bowcKs in cholera; locally in rare cases, to dimin- 
 ish sensation preparatory to surgical or dental operations, 
 rhigolcnc and other frigorific jircparations being more easily 
 manageable and more convenient of application than iec. 
 It is a remedial agent of great value. 
 
 The- (tutherimj und Storimj of the Ice-crop. — Although 
 tho act of freezing expels from the crystallized mass the 
 salt and other mineral ingredients, leaving it when in a 
 frozen state very nearly pure fresh water, yet ico formed 
 from or floating in salt water gathers in the interstices be- 
 tween the crystals so much salt, brackish, or impure water 
 that it becomes unfit for houscliobl purposes. Hence, the 
 ice-crop must bo gathered from fresh-water ponds or lakes 
 or from rivers above tide-water. The supply of Boston, 
 both for home use and export, is derived from several small 
 lakes at no great distance from tho city, such as Fresh Pund 
 in Cambridge; Wenham Lake, about IS miles from tho 
 city ; Saugus Lake or Pond, etc. Portland and Bangor 
 derive their supply from tho Kennebec, Penobscot, and 
 Androscoggin rivers, .above tide-water, and from some of 
 tho great lakes of Maine; New York, from the Hudson 
 above tide-water, and from Koekland, Mahopjic. (Jrecn- 
 wood, and other lakes; Pbilndelpbia, from the Delaware 
 and Schuylkill above the Falls, and from several lakes of 
 Pennsylvania and New Jersey ; the North-western cities, 
 from the great lakes and the numerous smaller lakes of 
 Wisconsin. Minnesota, and Dakota. In mo'-t cases the ice- 
 companies have secured tho right to take tho ice from these 
 lakes and ponds by tho purchase of the lands bordering on 
 them, and have erected largo storehouses on the shores in 
 which to deposit tho crop. These icehouses are somctinics 
 of brick, but oftcner of wood, from 100 to 200 feet in width 
 and from 200 to -100 feet in length, with double, trij>le, or 
 quadru])le walls, and generally throe, four, or five stories 
 in height, with strong floors and doors closing tightly on 
 each floor, but no windows. There are numerous inclined 
 planes, movalilo and adapted to each story, and to service 
 without as well as within ; in tho larger storehouses a 
 steam-elevator is used to drag t)io blocks of ico up the 
 pianos. The capacity of these storehouses varies with the 
 locality and the conveniences fur shipping ieu from them, 
 many of them being cajiable of storing from 20.000 to 
 40,000 tons. Tho spaces between the walls are filled with 
 sawduat, spont tan-nark, or some other poor conductor of 
 heat. 
 
 When a favorable time has come for storing the ice, thoro 
 is a scene of great activity in the vicinity of iho store- 
 houses. On the Hudson and its neighborhood tho period 
 for gathering thu ico is rarely more than four or five days 
 at one time, and Si)metimea not more than ten or twelve in 
 all, and hence the greatest speed is necessary in securing 
 the crop. Tho thickness of tne ico being ascertained (and 
 this should not bo less than ten or twelve inches, and two 
 feet is better), the ice-field is temporarily fenced, tlie snow. 
 if there is any, scraped off by a broail scraper drawn by 
 one horse, and the ico planed by another scrajier armed 
 with a steel blade to thu di-ptli uf pcriui]>s two inches, to 
 remove the porous ice. In seasons like that of 1871-75, 
 where the ice has not been covered willi snow and is two 
 feet or more thick, clear, solid, and transparent, very little 
 scraping is retjuired. Tho surfaee being cleared, the nuirker 
 eommcnees his work, using a kind of ]iIough drawn by ono 
 horse, which makes a narrow groove about three inches 
 deep, and running tho lines five feet apart, and then turn- 
 ing and crussing these by another scries uf grooves, also
 
 1090 
 
 ICEBERG— ICELAND. 
 
 five feet apart, so as to make square blocks five feet each 
 way If the ice is thick, these blocks arc reduced by au 
 imiicment like a harrovT with three jiarallcl rows of long 
 sharp tooth, one row running in the groove, and '^""<f' 
 „1ohU, with a Ion-, sharp, and comparatively Ihin blade 
 , run rnpidly through the principal grooves. One row of 
 blocks is then cut through by means of hand-saws, he 
 blocks pushed under or hauled up on the ice, and run to the 
 inclined planes or loaded on sleds. The succeeding blocks 
 arc i.rie.l ofl" with a crowbar by one gang, and another 
 catches them with boat-hooks and drags them up, or tows 
 a sheet of perhaps fifty blocks, with a grappling-iron and 
 rope or chain, by horse-power, toward the storehouse, where 
 it is broken into blocks, run up the inclined plane by the 
 elevator, and packed away, the blocks standing on end and 
 bein.' seVaralld hv sawdust, shavings, rice-hulls, or spen 
 tan As soon as a floor or story is filled the doors are closed 
 ti-hily. and the inclined planes raised to the next story 
 which is filled in the same w.ay. There are g><"ers and 
 drainwavs near the walls which receive and carry off the 
 draii.ings from the melting of the ice. During the moon- 
 li..ht niihts the work is carried on by night and day until 
 the storehouse? arc filled, all parties working with a will. 
 The cutting and storing of 600 tons in an hour at a single 
 storehouse is not an uncommon feat. The cost of the labor 
 for gathering and storing the ice in a favorable season does 
 not e.\cecd eight or ten cents per ton. 
 
 Ice ii very perishable if exposed to the air m the summer 
 temperature', though that from Canada, Maine a"d Massa- 
 chusetts, being much more dense than that of the Hudson 
 River, melts less readily. On the Hudson it is kept in the 
 storehouses till just before it is wanted, and then loaded 
 into barges, which, if possible, are brought directly to the 
 storehouse, and a half dozen or more of these barges are 
 towed by a steamer to the company's city wharves, where 
 it is either received into a storehouse or loaded directly trom 
 the barges upon the heavy covered wagons which are wait- 
 ing to "eccive it. The net cost of the ice delivered to city 
 customers in New York or Brooklyn varies from S.2 to ?.i 
 T.er ton. and in unfavorable seasons may reach $4. It can 
 be shipped in large cargoes from their wharves in most sea- 
 son" profitably at ?1.50 to S2 per ton. The profits on the 
 business are immense, the prices to the large packing estab- 
 Vishments and the larger hotels ranging from bo to M J per 
 Ion • to butchers, grocers, druggists, and confectioners, from 
 ?S to S''0 per ton ; and to families and small consumers, 
 from «U to S3n. These prices have provoked such com- 
 petition that it is doubtful whether the maximum will again 
 be reached in those cities. In 1874 ice was brought m 
 large quantities from Maine and sold to consumers at halt 
 ■the prices which the New York companies had fixed, and a 
 -profitable business was done at those rates. Ice has within 
 the part few years become a necessity of lite, the loss ot 
 ■which entails great suffering, and should no more be subject 
 to the caprices of spceul-ating monopolies than wheat flour 
 i,i any other indispensable article of food or clothing. _ 
 
 A rdficml /ce.— That ice could be produced by mechanical 
 and chemieal processes has been long known, but until re- 
 cently it has not been possible to do this at so lo>y a cost as 
 to mike it profitable. Within the past fifteen years, how- 
 ever, there have been several processes patented and ma- 
 eliines constructed which accomplish this at a cost euffici- 
 ently moderate to warrant their use in regions below the 
 35th parallel of N. lat. Siebc's ether ice-machino was the 
 first of these, and made ice in thin plates by the vaporua- 
 tk>n of ether acting upon a strong brine which -^'J'^"'^"''! 
 through a cistern containing the ice-moulds. A better 
 machine was CarrC-'s ammonia ice-machine, which produce, 
 cvlindersof ice bv the vaporization of liquid ammonia, at 
 iinodcrateexpenJe, though with some dangerof explosions. 
 A German modification of this produced plates of i" with 
 k-= aan-er and somewhat less expense, but the cost ol the 
 marhiuel was so high as to prevent their general use; 
 «COOI» being the price of one which would produce ten tons 
 of ice per day bv vtry hard work. An American company 
 attempted the inanufaeture, using for the iiiirposo one ot 
 the most volatile and infiammable of the naphthasproduced 
 in the distillation and refining of petroleum. Their ina- 
 chinery was simpler than that of the foreign processes, but 
 it was rather a refrigerating than an icc-makiug process, 
 and required some motive-power to keep the relngerating 
 liquid in motion, and the material used was so explosive 
 and dangcroiw that their success was not great. By none 
 of those prneesses could ice be produced at a less cost than 
 ^lor$J at»n, and bvsome of them the cost was from *<• to 
 $8 per Ion. In the Southern cities, like Charlcsion, Sayan- 
 nah. Mobile, Now Orleaof, an.l Memphis, they could be 
 used to advantage, but not in Northern cities, where large 
 consumers could ordinarily, by combining, obtain their ice 
 from nature's manufactory at j;4 per ton. or even lower. 
 There is, however, a wide field for the inventive gcuius o: 
 
 man to signalize its power in the construction of a simple, 
 cheap, and effective ice-machine, employing no dangerous 
 or explosive chemicals, and making a pure ice in solid 
 cakes, at a price so low as to compete favorably with the 
 natural product. L. P. Bhockeit. 
 
 Icc'berg, a great mass of ice floating in the sea. Ice- 
 bergs arc huge fragments of glaciers detached by the action 
 of the water from the lower end of the glacier. Greenland, 
 from the great number of its glaciers, is the fatherland of 
 the iceberg. Icebergs are far more numerous in the northern 
 than in the southern polar regions. They bring with them 
 in their journeys masses of rock, earth, and sometimes 
 seeds of plants. Polar bears and seals are sometimes thus 
 transported from one region to another. Icebergs are often 
 of prodigious size and most remarkable shape. They have 
 often been observed to measure 300 feet in height. Only 
 one-eighth of the mass is above the surface of the water. 
 Icebergs are extremely dangerous to navigators in polar 
 seas. These dangers are extended southward by the Lab- 
 rador current, which brings great numbers of them into the 
 Atlantic, where they arc melted by the warmer waters ol 
 the Gulf Stream, and drop their loads of gravel and stone 
 upon the banks off Newfoundland. The streams of water 
 from their sides" are always fre.sh. 
 
 Ice'land [Dan. hlaud], a large island subject to the 
 rule of the king of Denmark, and situated between the 
 Atlantic and the Arctic oceans, between lat b., 24 and 
 66° 33' N., and between Ion. 13° 31' and 24° 1/ W., 600 
 miles distant from Norway, 250 from Greenland, and oOO 
 from Scotland. Area, 39,207 square miles. Pop. 6fl,,b3. 
 Cap. Revkiavik. Iceland is of volcanic formation, and the 
 double effects of the intense cold of a northern climate with 
 its long, bleak winter and short, dreamy summer, and the 
 tremeodous volcanic powers which, under one form or an- 
 other seem to be active at every minute and on every spot, 
 have given the whole island a most singular appearance- 
 desolate but grand, poor but interesting. With the excep- 
 tion of the southern part, which presents some tracts ol 
 low and level land, the whole coast is high and precipitous ; 
 on the eastern and northern sides barren and inhospitable, 
 on the southern and western sides indented with numerous 
 deep and narrow fjords, which afford excellent harbors, and 
 aloig which stretch the inhabited valleys. The interior is a 
 high table-land resting on Plutonic rocks covered with im- 
 mense beds of lava, and broken now and then by hot springs 
 (eeysers). which throw columns of boiling water sometimes 
 200 feet high into the air, and form steaming streams, which 
 after a short course disappear under the lava. It is studded 
 all over with conical hills of smoking ashes and boiling pits 
 of sulphur, and traversed by ranges of mountains whoso 
 summits are often connected with glaciers which lorm 
 wherever the ground rises above 4000 ieet, and which often 
 descend to the ocean, making it dangerous, almost im- 
 possible, to travel from one valley to the other. Oerafa 
 Jukul(/oi-«« being the Icelandic name for glacier) is the 
 hi -best point of the island, 6420 feet above the level of 
 the sen, and forms in the south-eastern part the centre of 
 an immense system of glaciers and volcanoes. Its first 
 eruption within the historic period took place in 1 '--i.^hcn 
 it suddenly burst forth, filling the valleys with red-hot lava, 
 riising up islets far off in the ocean, and sending its clouds 
 of ashes hundreds of miles over the sea. The famous 
 Hrn A and Gi:ysF.n (which see) are situated in the south- 
 western i.art: Krafla in the northern. The aofvity of 
 these volcanoes is not continuous: there seems to be lO or 
 80 years between each great eruption of Hec a. Jlean- 
 whi'lc. au innumerable multitude of smaller mud-volcanoes 
 and hot springs are playing, and these arc often of so 
 changeable a nature that they may be lormcd in one month 
 and disappear in the other. The climate of Iceland has 
 changed, and seems to be still changing. It would seem 
 UiatUie island had formerly large forests. ^"'P''"'«f 
 remains of them, forming a peculiar kind of brown coal, 
 arc found in many places, and arc used, together with the 
 white turf and drift-wood, for fuel. Now there is not more 
 than one tree on the whole island, the mountain-ash at 
 Akure" ri on the N. coast, 25 feet high. The Thingvalla 
 Forest; covering an area of about ten sq""^ "'■'"• ""^ 
 composed of willows and birches, consists of shrubs which 
 arc inlv between three and four feet high. Dfcrent sort= 
 of grain, which were extensively cultivated 300 years ago, 
 cannot now be raised at all. The winter is not extremely se- 
 en-, but it is very long ; in .Inly, and even in August, ce 
 may be found drifting along the coast. Only a few gar.lon 
 yegctables and potatoes can be raised, and bread made from 
 hnportod meal is a luxury. But in the valleys grow good 
 grils and many fine herbs, among which Icel"-! mos» 
 constitutes a e.uisiderable item of exportation. Therucrs 
 and the fjords abound in fish-salmon, trout, and cod 
 Numerous seals and whales gather along the coasU and
 
 ICELANDIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE— ICELAND MOSS. 
 
 1091 
 
 Birartns of wild sea-fowl?, among which arc the eider-duck 
 and the pwan. vi!*it the shores. Thus, huntinj;, fishing, 
 and rearing ol' sheep are the chief pursuits of the Ice- 
 hinder's life, and cider-down, dried aud salted fish, wool — 
 generally manufooturcd into socks and mittens — tallow, and 
 fish-oil arc the main articles he can give in exchange for 
 manufactured good?, coffee, tea. wine, tobacct), coal, and 
 grain. Among minerals, sulphur is found in enormous 
 quantities ; also iron, rock-crystals, and the famous double- 
 refracting spar, but the mineral wealth of the country is very 
 little developed. The value of the total annual exportation 
 is about ^.T.UOO.OOO. Iceland was discovered nud (-(donized 
 in the ninth century by the Norwegians, who here formed 
 an indrp-ndent republic. In a short time the country at- 
 tained a high degree of prosperity, and developed a civil- 
 ization which far surpassed that of the mother country. 
 But feuds between the different families, in whi'-h whole 
 estates, with all their oceupants and all the property be- 
 longing to them, were burned down, brought the independ- 
 ence of the republic to an end, aud made the country a 
 dependency of Norway. In l.'JSO it was. together with 
 Norway, united to Denmark, an'l remained so until 1811, 
 when N'orway was separated from that country. Iceland 
 was governed by a StiptawtmalSr, who had the executive 
 power, and waa appointed by the king, and an Altht'iif/, 
 which had the legislative power, and consisted of dep- 
 uties chosen by each county. It required an annual 
 support of $60,000 from Denmark. But in 1S7I, upon 
 the celebration of the one-thousandth anniversary of the 
 colonization of the island, Icclancl became entirely in- 
 dependent of Denmark, though subject to the king as tho 
 head of tho Icelandic government. Its new governmental 
 iDstitutions are entirely republican in spirit, all citizens 
 having equal rights and perfect religious liberty. 
 
 Tho Icelanders arc a noble race of people — bra%'e. of 
 pure morals, and intellectual in a very high degree. The 
 old tongue, which is the foundation of the three .Scandi- 
 navian languages, they have kept during 3000 years in its 
 original purity, and the humblest workman can read and 
 write, and is thoroughly conversant with the Saf;as, tho 
 history and the laws of his country, and with his Bible. 
 A comparatively large number of students cuuio yearly 
 to tho University of Copenhagen, and many of them have 
 aequired celebrated names in science. Nay, there are Ice- 
 landic poems so thoroughly imbued with the loftiest ideas 
 and sentiments of modern civilization, and so thoroughly 
 impregnated with the elegance and brilliancy of modern 
 art. that in reading them nobody would b-,'lieve that they 
 were written in a low but built of lava-bloeks and moss, 
 and looking out on tho dreary gloom of a winter of nine 
 months. Ci.EMKNs I'kterses. 
 
 Icelandic Language and Literature. Under 
 the iiiime of Vuwh titmjfi (" Danish tongue") or Xttrnrna 
 (" XurtluTu speech ") one language was generally spoken 
 throu;j;bout tho three Scantlinavian countries, Denmark, 
 iSwedcn, and Norway, during the pagan times and down to 
 about the eleventh century. There were no doubt local 
 modifications of this language, the more so as tlic Goths 
 hud come into the country in two difft-rL'nt swarms, on two 
 different roads, anr| probably also at two different periods. 
 But the skalds travelling from court to court, or visiting 
 the great jarls (earls) on their estates, were universally 
 understood, and the Uunic inscriptions spread over the 
 whole of Scandinavia show no differences. In the ninth cen- 
 tury this language was brought to Iceland by the Norwe- 
 gians who scttlc'l on the island, and here, in a distant cor- 
 ner of the world, wIuTe a little republic flourishetl for more 
 than three centuries ("from H2S to 12r>2l, it was consolidated 
 into a rich, and even brilliant literature, and has been [)rc- 
 serve<I, almost without any changes, up to this very day. 
 For tlie study of the languages of the Teutonic family this 
 lei'Iandic language, as it is now generally called, is of par- 
 amount importance; for although its literary monuments 
 ari' much younger than, for instance, Ulfila's translation 
 of the Bible, still its growth was more independent, its de- 
 velopment more energetic, than that of any of its stster- 
 ton;,;ues, and it is extant in a literature whose study is ne- 
 cessary for a full understanding of the history of Europe 
 during the Middle .4ges. Its most characteristic features, 
 when compared with other Teutonic languages, are these: 
 it has no indefinite article, and the definite is not put be- 
 fore the noun, but appended to the end of it : the first and 
 scQond personal pronouns have a dual form : the verbs have 
 a passive form unknown to otlicr Teutonic languages; ami 
 while in the (Jermanic tongues the infinitive always ends 
 with a consonant, it ends in Icelandic invariably in a vowel. 
 When compared with modern languages, its purity, flexi- 
 bility, and richness of forms give it a peculiar charm. 
 Etymology, which in EuRlish. for instance, is a dear! know- 
 ledge, employable only by a proeess of reflect i<pn, is in Ice- 
 landic a livinj; principle in the mind of the speaker, work- 
 
 ' ing instinctively. New words, expressive of new ideas or 
 I new shades, are formed with the greatest facility, univcr- 
 I sally understood, and easily kept alive as long as the idea 
 lives, but with the idea they die. Originally, this language 
 I was written with Uunic characters, but with the introduc- 
 tion of Christianity the Roman alphabet came into use. 
 The letters c and fj were dropped as fully represented by « 
 and ky and two new letters, Srand t>. were formed to repre- 
 sent the aspirated */ {th in thoufjh) and the aspirated t {th 
 in thtntijht). For the complete representation of the some- 
 what intricate system of vocalization the vowels were pro- 
 vided with dots and strokes. The oldest monument of 
 Icelandic literature is the poetical Edda, compiled by 
 Siemund Sigfusson (1054-li:t;i), but whose single parts 
 probably belong to the eighth or ninth century. This, as 
 well as the prose Edda, compiled or written by .Snorri 
 Sturleson {lITS-1241), is chiefly of religious or mytholog- 
 ical interest, giving a representation of tho contents of the 
 old pagan faith. The prose Edda, however, gives also a 
 kind of review of the art of poetry, of synonyms, of poetical 
 words and phrases, of metres and strophes, etc. Proofs of 
 this art have been left us, not only in the songs of tho 
 poetical Edda, and in fragments of songs occurring in tho 
 different prose works, where they are quoted as evidence 
 or applied as ornaments, but also in about twenty complete 
 
 {)oems or drnpitn. The Icelandic skalds and tbeirartwcro 
 lighly esteemed, and the names of Egill Skallagrimson, 
 Eyvind Finsson, Thord Kolbeinsson,and Ivar Ingimundar- 
 son were celebrated throughout Scandinavia as much as 
 thoso of the greatest kings and jarls. But most of their 
 productions have perished, and we may add that not much 
 seems to have been lost thereby, rcriphraec, not poetry, 
 artificiality, not art, were the character of these poems. 
 Nothing was called by its true name or represented in a 
 true manner. Figures, almost contorted into enigmas, 
 stalked along in difficult metres, ringing with alliterations 
 and rhymes. (Juite otherwise with the prose literature, the 
 Sttf/as. They are of great importance for the history of the 
 Scandinavian countries, of still greater interest to the his- 
 tory of European civilization, and perfect in their artistic 
 form. They are partly fictitious, taking their subjects from 
 old songs — as, for instance, V'OUninjfiH<njn and Fn'thJo/n- 
 aaf/ft— or from foreign talcs, such as K'urlunififfnusiifuja, 
 Tri'«/ftH(s»((7«, and Trojumanunannga; partly biographical, 
 narrating the history of some great and powerful Icelanclic 
 family, as, for instance, Xjtthnaijn, EtjifuMfifffi, Laxffnln- 
 (tatjn, YatnH<hrlann<jn and fj'retfiMnatfa ; and j)artly histor- 
 ical — as, f(>r instance. fCiij/th'iit/antrr/tt ar\dJ»iiiinn'kiitffasag(t, 
 treating Danish history, Hr.imakriutfla, treating Norwe- 
 gian, and Stur/inif/tntamt, treating Icelandic. But of these 
 three divisions of the sagas, the main importance rests on 
 the second one, the biographical. M'ith respect to form, the 
 /find has nothing to boast of before XJ'tfuKfufa, either in 
 plasticity anri precision of representation or in simplicity 
 and grandeur of style. The form of the Icelandic saga is 
 perfect, like that of the Greek epic, and probably produced 
 in the same manner, though under such very difterent cir- 
 cumstances. In the S(ditude of tliat island, far away from 
 the rest of the world, in the loneliness of that hearth, many 
 miles distant from the nearest neighbor, and separatedfrom 
 him by flaming volcanoes and boisteroufe fjords, in the 
 stillness of that long twilight, when people sat frostbound 
 or snowbound for months, the falln-r would t(dl about Njnl 
 slowly and with emphasis, and the son would listen, rapt 
 and pondering. Then, when the time came for the son to 
 tell the story to a younger generation, he would repeat it 
 word by word, just as it bad been fixed in his mind, and 
 making no other changes than such as were inspired by en- 
 thusiasm and reverence. Tlius worked out into perfection, 
 the saga was at last written down some time before the middle 
 I of the fifteenth century, at which period literary life utterly 
 I declined in Iceland. Great, however, as the lesthctic in- 
 terest <tf the sagas is. their historical interest is neverthe- 
 I less still greater. They are the only pure and unmixed 
 I source from which any knowledge' can bo had of tho jirim- 
 itivc character of the Scandinavian races. Those conceptions 
 ' of life and of the laws of life, and those representations of 
 \ passions and of the ideals of passions, which the pngas con- 
 ' tain, may he differently judged, but whether they areeon- 
 ' 8i<icred sublime or rude, it was nevertheless these which 
 formeil tho (»crman nation, and to some degree also the 
 French : it was tln-se which conquered Nornunidy and Enj;- 
 land. anrl it was these wliiidi made the Crusades and settled 
 down at last in feutlalism. The great importance of the 
 Icelandic sagas for the study of European civilization has 
 beer»nie more and more appreciated during; the course of tho 
 present century. Ci.p.mkns PrTKnsi:N. 
 
 Iceland IWosSf a lichen belonging to the genus (Vtra- 
 rin {(\ /«/(iH(/(Vfi), so called from its habitat, but found in 
 the northern parts of both continents. It is usecl as an 
 article of f<tod ; boiled, having liceu freed from its bitter-
 
 1092 
 
 ICELAND SPAR-ICHTHYOLOGY. 
 
 ness by repeated maceration, it forms a nutritious jelly, or ] 
 it may be powdered and mixed in cakes or bread. It is 
 also used as a medicine in pulmonary complaints. 
 
 Iceland Spar, transparent calc-spar, of which the beat 
 specimens are obtained from Iceland. It displays iu great 
 lierfcctiou the jihcnomcua of double refraction. 
 
 Icp-Plaiit, an herb of Southern Europe and Northern 
 and Western Africa, the Mcmitbn/dutlicmiim crygtallinum, 
 of the order Mesembryaceie. Its succulent leaves are cov- 
 ered with vesicles which appear like crystals of ice. It is 
 often seen in house-culture, aud has demulcent, diuretic, 
 and e,\pectorant properties. 
 
 Ichneu'mon [Gr. \.\vt<i^<.iv, the " tracker "]. a name in 
 its largest sense applicable to the numerous genera of small 
 quadrupeds of the family Vivcrridic, sub-family llcrpes- 
 tin.-c — all Old-World carnivorous mammals of active habits 
 and tierce disposition, preying upon serpents, birds, and 
 small game of many kinds. Hut strictly, the name desig- 
 nates the Uerpenlea'ivhnciiinon of Egypt. It is famous as 
 the devourer of the eggs of the crocodile and as a destroyer 
 of venomous serpents. Hence it was worshipped by the 
 ancient Egyptians. Spain has an ichneumon, Ilerpealea 
 Widdrimjltjuii. (See Mlxgoos.) 
 
 Ichneumon-flies (lehneumonidtc), a great family of 
 hymcnoptcrous insects which are of the greatest service to 
 tlie agriculturist and to mankind, since they deposit their 
 eggs either upon or within the eggs or larva; of larger in- 
 sects and spiders, the future larva of the ichneumon-fly 
 devouring the insect upon which it is hatched. Immense 
 numbers of noxious insects are thus destroyed. There are 
 nearly ."iOOO known species (one-half American), of which 
 .some 300 species belong to Ichneumon, the typical genus. 
 
 Ichnol'ogy px""'' " track," and Aoyot, " discourse "], or 
 the science of tracks, a name proposed by Dr. Buekland. 
 The animals whose existence is made known by their foot- 
 marks upon stone may be called Ichiiozon. President 
 Hitchcock has detailed sixteen permanent characters in 
 footmarks which serve to distinguish satisfactorily differ- 
 ent classes of animals. The following are examples of 
 them : whether tracks of feet; trails made by the body or 
 its caudal extremity drawn along in the mud ; width of the 
 track-way; relative size of hind and front feet; length of 
 step: number of toes; mode of progression ; spread of the 
 toes; character of the heel, claws, and pellets. (See fur- 
 ther under Fossil FooipnixTS.) C. H. Hitchcock. 
 
 Ich'thin, or Ichthulin, albuminoids found in the 
 eggs of cartilaginous fishes. 
 
 Ichthyocol, or Isinglass. See Gelatine. 
 Ichthyol'ogy [ixBii^, a " fish," .and Adyo!, " discourse "] is 
 that branch of zoology which treats of the vertebrated an- 
 imals formerly collectively known under the name of fishes, 
 but which are now distributed among the classes (1) 
 Fishes, (2) Selachlins or Elasmobraschiates, (3t Mau- 
 SIPOBBAXCHIATES, and (4) Leptocardia.ns. Referring to 
 the articles under those several heads, as well as that under 
 Vertebrates, for information respecting the structure and 
 relations of each, remarks will be here confined to the most 
 important facts in the bibliography and history of the 
 group of classes. In or<ler to ensure clearness of concep- 
 tion, (1) the gre.it general works on fishes will bo first no- 
 ticed, and then (2) the principal stages in the systematic 
 arrangement of the class or its primary constituents. 
 
 I. Gcuciiil Wrirkf and Nnmeriral Ai'i/uinilions. — Many 
 ancient and mediscval authors had published coin])ilations 
 containing descriptions of various species of fishes, but 
 none can be said to have advanced ichthyology. The chief 
 authors afler the revival of learning were Helon, Salviani, 
 Kondolet, Gcsner, etc. Their works, however, were chiefly 
 of local interest, and related mostly to the fishes of the 
 Jlcditerrancan. The first general work that deserves 
 special mention was the Hisloria Pitcium of Willoughby 
 and Ray, published in IfiSfi. In 1735, Linnseus, in the 
 first edition of the famous Siitlcmn JVntiinr, first introduced 
 to the world a synopsis of the arrangement of fishes and 
 digest of known species, which Artcdi, his fellow-student, 
 had elabor.atcd; but that author having come to an un- 
 timely death, his manuscripts were left to Linnajus, and 
 published under his eilitorship in I73.'< in five parts. In 
 these parts were successively considered in his own words 
 — ( 1) ichthyological bibliography, or the literary history of 
 fishes, in which was given an enumeration of the authors 
 who had written on fishes; (2) ichthyological philosophy, 
 in which were elucidated the fundamental principles of the 
 science ; (;i) the genera of fishes, in which a complete sys- 
 tem of ichthyology was proposed, with classes, orders, cha- 
 racters of genera, specific differences, and many observa- 
 tions; (4) the synonomy of almost all fishes, in which was 
 given an enumeration of the names of fishes mentioned by 
 
 all authors who had ever written of them; and (5) de- 
 scriptions of the species of fishes which Artedi had dis- 
 sccteil and examined alive : these subjects being entitled 
 at length in Latin, with corresponding titles. Artedi ad- 
 mitted into the system 212 nominal species under 52 genera, 
 but these are to be divided among 22.S species and 45 gen- 
 era of true fishes, and 14 species and 7 genera of Plagiuri 
 or cetaceans, Artedi having, like all his predecessors, con- 
 founded these two groups in the same class. Linnaus, in 
 (I) the first edition of the .S)y»(<nia -Vodirir, which was pub- 
 lished in 1735, enumerated 145 nominal species of fishes 
 under 36 genera, and 10 cetaceans in 5 genera; (2) in the 
 fourth titular (or second original) edition he had 23S spe- 
 cies of fishes under 4.S genera, and 8 cetaceans under 5 
 genera; (3) in the sixth titular (or third original) edition, 
 published in 174S, he recognized 2S1 species of fishes, dis- 
 tributed under 47 genera, and 12 cetaceans under R genera ; 
 (4) in the tenth titular (or fifth original i edition (wherein 
 the class was first restricted to the fishes proper, and the 
 cetaceans separated to be united with the mammals) ho 
 increased the number to 414 species (including, however, 
 the Amphibia Nantes), ranged under 57 genera; aud (5) 
 in the twelfth titular (or sixth original) edition (which was 
 the last one in the lifetime of Linnaeus) 477 nominal spe- 
 cies of fishes (including the Amphibia Nantes) were de- 
 scribed and placed in (Jl genera. The eighth titular (or 
 fifth original ) edition was limited to the vegetable kingdom. 
 
 Between 1740 and 1749, Jacob Theodor Klein, secretary 
 of state of Dantzic, published five numbers or " missus " 
 of a work on ichthyology, remarkable for its crudity, but 
 which has had a considerable reputation. In this work 
 51.'! nominal species of fishes were described, and referred 
 to 61 genera, quite dilTerent from those of Artcdi or Lin- 
 nteus. From 1782 to 1795 a great work on fishes was pub- 
 lished in two sections — one of three, "■''■ and the other of 
 ninet volumes — by Dr. Mark Elieser Block, a physician 
 of Berlin, in which about 418 species of fishes were de- 
 scribed and illustrated, in fine large oblong folio volumes 
 of plates, but the drawings are very inaccurate, and the 
 coloring still more erroneous. During the time the work 
 of Bloch was being published, several compilations were 
 issued from different European presses. 
 
 In 1787, Kene Just Haiiy (better known as "the crys- 
 tallographer")contriljuted, anonymously, a volumefto the 
 natural history department of the Eiici/ilapi'die ilflh<id- 
 iijiic, describing the fishes in an alphabetical sequence 
 under their French names, and with tabular synopses, 
 each on a special page, giving the classes, genera, and 
 species under their French names, in connection with the 
 descriptions. 
 
 In the foUowingyear (1788) the Abbg J. P. BonnaterreJ 
 contributed also to the same series a volume under the title 
 Ichthydotjit', in which the species were arranged according 
 to the Linntcan classification, and illustrated in 102 plates, 
 representing about 400 species, which he had collected 
 from all sources. Also in 1788, Johaun Friedrieh Gmelin 
 issued an edition of the Si/stema A^tturir of Linna?us, in 
 which he collected together from many sources descriptions 
 of species, which were, however, referred to their places 
 in the system with very little judgment; he raised the 
 apparent number of species to 826, which he grouped in 
 65 genera, but many of these were identical with each 
 other, and the number of real species was therefore much 
 less. A few years later (in 1792)the work of Linnaius's friend 
 (Artedi) also found an editor in Johann Julius Walbaum, 
 who used the dmera /'iscium as a nucleus around which 
 he brought, in the form of foot notes and appendices, all 
 the species which he could collect from all sources, and 
 which amounted to about »65. grouped under 228 genera; 
 of these also a considerable proportion were synonymous 
 with other species. , 
 
 Between I79S and 1803,lj Bernard Germain Kticnne do 
 la Ville-sur-Illon, Comic dc Lac6pi'de. published nn exten- 
 sive work on fishes in the French language, entitled Hii- 
 tnire Xaturellr den /'<»i»«on«, in which he introduced, with 
 very great modifications in the system, numerous generic 
 divisions and many species based on figures made chiefly 
 by French naturalists and travellers ; very little wholesome 
 criticism was exercised in this work. Fourteen hundred 
 and sixty-three (1463) nominal species were described. 
 
 •Blnrh's (D. Marcus) Oekonnmische Naturgeschichle der Fitr/ie 
 DeuUcMandi, Berlin, 1782-83 (text, 3 vols. 4to; atlas, 3 vols., obi. 
 Ibl.l. 
 
 t Bloch's (D. Marcus) Xnlurgeschichte der auslilndUclien Ffiche, 
 Berlin, 1783-9.') (text, 9 vols. 4to; atlas, 9 vols. fob). 
 
 JHaCly(Ren6Ju8t), Ennie.hipMie.MUhodiriHe.^HistaireNnlurdk. 
 Tome troislf'Tue ("onteniint les Poissons.— A Lifje, )7.'<7, 4to. 
 
 ?B(]nnaterre (J. 1'.). Tableau Enct/elopfdique el .WlAoiliipie des 
 Inns rir/na dr. la AaJure.—Jc/ilhyolOffie.—A Paris, 1788 (4to, with 
 lOJpl.i. 
 
 I' l.aci'ppde (Comie de). Ifistoire NatureWt de» Poisxom, Paris, 
 1798-1803 (4to, T, vols.).
 
 ICHTHYOLOGY. 
 
 10D3 
 
 In I SOI the Greek scholar, Johann Gottlieb Schneider,* 
 who hud puid considerable attention to natural history, 
 !ind cjpecially ichthyology, published a posthumous work 
 of Bhich's, hut which doubtless owed considonibic to him- 
 self, under the title Stfulema Ichthyoloyia- icuuihuH ex. illiia- 
 tratiiiit. In this work the species were primarily grouped 
 in clas^^cs, distinj^uished nominally by the number of fins, 
 although very often the species referred to the classes did 
 not support the characters attributed to them. The classes 
 were again divided into orders distinguished by the posi- 
 tion of the ventral fins. 
 
 In 1803 and 180t, George Shaw published the fourth and 
 fifth vulumes (in four parts) of his Geneml Zoitlinjjf, nr Si/n- 
 tcmitlic Xtitiiritt Iltmtftrxf, which were exclusively devoted to 
 the fishes. He adopted, with a few trifling modifications, 
 the system of Linnanis. as rectified by Gniclin, and described 
 12'50 nominal species of fishes. 
 
 With Shaw the age of mere compilations of descriptions 
 of species of fishes came to an end, nnd although the sub- 
 sequent works devoted to such descriptions were few, they 
 were far more valuable in every respect, and based chiefly 
 on original materials and observation, and a comparibon 
 of the fishes themselves. 
 
 In 1828, Baron Georges Cuvier commenced the publica- 
 tion, in connection with M. Aehillc Valenciennes, f of a 
 great work on fishes (ffinfoire Xatiirrf/c ties PoiHsous), 
 which was continued through many years (1828-(9), and 
 was only brought to a stop in ISC.i, when twenty-two vol- 
 umes had been published; all of the apochil fishes, almost 
 all of the ganoids, and all of the elasmobranchiates, inar- 
 sipobranohiates. and leptocardians being left undescribed. 
 The first ten volumes were prepared by Cuvier and Valen- 
 ciennes, each elaborating s])ecial groups, but on the <lcath 
 of Cuvier. and after the publieation of tlie manuscript he 
 left behind, the work was carried on by Valenciennes alone. 
 Owing to the length of time during which the work was 
 published, n great inctjuality in its proportions necessarily 
 resulted, the last volumes describing a larger proportion of 
 the uow known species than the earlier ones; 4514 nominal 
 species of fishes were described in the twenty-two volumes, 
 almost all of which belong to the typical fishes or to tho 
 order of Teleocephali. 
 
 In connection with the work of Cuvier and Valenciennes 
 may be considered one by A. Dum6ril,J bearing, in part, 
 the same title — r'. e. Ifititoii'e iVftturr/lt; f/c* /*>iiit»iiiin, on 
 /r/itfii/n{of/ie tj/n^rafr. This work is complementarv to the 
 preceding, as it embraces the selachians, ganoids, and lopho- 
 nranohiates, groups which had not been described by 
 r'uvier and Valenciennes. Two large volumes were pub- 
 lished between 1805 and 1870, when the death of its author 
 arrested its further progress. 626 nominal species wero 
 described in the volumes issued. 
 
 Between 1859 and 1870, in the form of a Catalogue of the. 
 Finheit in the Jiritinh Mitieum,, by Albert Olinther. M. D.,^ 
 all the species recognized by the author, ns well fr<ini au- 
 topsy OS descriptions of species unknown to him, wero de- 
 scribed. This is the only work published since the early 
 part of the century which contains a complete conspec- 
 tus of the living fishes. It is in eight volumes, which 
 were issued every one or two years. The author udopte<l 
 OSl.t Hpccies as established, while 1082 otliers are considered 
 a? doubtful, and refcrrerl to by name only in foot-notes to 
 the genera to which they are supposed to belong. It is 
 assumed that about 1000, however, of the dr)ubtfui species 
 will be ultimately confirmeil : and, allowing 1000 species to 
 have been described (luring the eonrse of publieation of 
 the pfries, it is estimated that \ve may put the total num- 
 ber of fishes known at present as about 9000. 
 
 II. Prof/rin» t,f CfnHHifirtttinii. — Norhing like a scientific 
 ola8.-<ification of fishes was known to tbi- ancient nr mediipval ' 
 authors, Aristotle in this respei-t being but little if any in ad- 
 vance of otliers, and none of his followers or successors nro 
 better. The first germ of a regular system based on any- 
 tliing like scientific principles was not j>ub|ished till near 
 the end of tho seventeenth century. In lOSfi, Kuy pub- 
 lished the f/iMtun'tt PtMciuut left by bin frien<l Willoughbv, 
 in which tho species wero dichotomously divided, prim- 
 arily, («) into (I.) CAnTii.AnivKi, and ( II.) Osski ; (h) tho 
 fortuer fl.) into Lmif/i (ineludintc sharks) and f.nii fin- 
 eluding rays): and tlie latter fll.l into Pi, \Nt nnd Non- 
 Pl.AM ; (rj the Pi.ASi included only the flat-fishes; the NoN- 
 i-LANi were distinguished uocordlng to tho form of (he 
 
 • nineliU (M. E.^ ftt/nlemn !rhthynU»fji(r irnnihux nr. Htuxfrattim 
 Pirnt fthitiitn nitetortJi upu» inrhoa/um nhsatvU, correxit, irUerpolavit 
 Ju. fw'ol/lirb Xr/m*'iV//T.— Kerolini. IHOI. Svn. 
 
 t Ciivler (Itarnn (leorif^i and Aebille Valenciennes. Ifistoire 
 S'alurrllr fif.t i\,ijisr,ns —A Pari-*. IK2H-I0 ('-"J vols. Kvo). 
 
 J nuin(iril (Aujtusl). itUtmrr Xa/nreUr deA PbiAsonn, on Irhlhy- 
 afoffie fjrnf^raU, ouvraRC necompnitnC de planches, Paris, 1865-^0 
 (text. "J vols. »vo ; atlas. Inr(;er 8vo). 
 
 <>(ianther (Albert C. L.G.t. OUatogne of tha FUhci intheBriiiih 
 iViueum.— lA>ndon, 18o9-7U (» vols. 8vo). 
 
 body, whether eel-shaped {Anguilliformea) or more con- 
 tracted ( rojyjore rojitrarr/orr), and [fl) those according to 
 the absence of ventrals [nine vcntralihuf) or their presence 
 {cum vfiitralifittg) : (c) those without ventrals were only 
 difFerentiatcd into genera; those with, into Malacoptcrr/^ii\ 
 or soft-rayed fishes, and Arnuthnpterytjii, or spiny-rnyed 
 fishes. This scheme exhibits some idea of system, but in 
 most respects, and in its details, it is quite defective. 
 
 Artedi classified the 45 genera known to him under 5 
 orders, accepting to a considerable extent the views an- 
 nounced in tho work of Willoughby and Ray. These 
 orders were (I) Malacopterygii, (2) Acanthoptcrygii, (3) 
 Branchiostegii, (I) rhoudropterygii, nnd (5) Plagiuri. 
 It is only necessary to observe that among the Malacop- 
 terygians ho included the genera Sifugnathus, Stromatctm, 
 and Aiutrrhichas, as well as the true Malacopterygians of 
 later authors ; and under the Branchiostegi he combined 
 the genera fialistrs, Ontyacio)}, Ci/doptcnut, and Lnphinn. 
 
 In 1758, Linnteus published an original system of ichthy- 
 *^^ogy> >ind («) rejected (as Brisson had previously done) 
 the cetaceans from the class of fishes; [h) applied the bi- 
 nomial system of nomenclature to the species: and ((•) intro- 
 duced a new system of classification, based chiefly upon tho 
 position of the ventral fins, and recognizing 5 orders, distin- 
 guished severally (1) by the supposed structure of the bran- 
 chiae (Branchiostegi), (2) the want of ventral fins (Apodes), 
 or their presence (3) under the throat (.lugulares), or (4) at 
 the thorax (Thoracici), or (5) behind the ventrals (Abdom- 
 inales). Linna-ns ran to an opposite extreme from his pre- 
 decessors in limiting the class, and not only excluded the 
 cetaceans, but committed a grave error in separating from 
 the fishes and referring to tlie amphibians the flinndrop- 
 ter3-gii of Artedi. He was led into this mistake by erro- 
 neous information respecting the air-bladder, communicated 
 to him by Dr. Garden of Charleston, S. C. ; and this error 
 was still further aggravated in the succeeding edition (the 
 twelfth, or the last published during bis life). 
 
 The true fishes were again brought together by Gmelin in 
 his edition of the Sifntcma Nnturrr^ and the class, remaining 
 purged of the cetaceans, was retained with the constituents 
 generally accorded to it till within the last few years. 
 
 In 1801, Bloch and Schneider published their Systemn 
 IchthifoliHjiiv, in which they distributed the genera under 
 1 1 classes, distinguished by the number of fins from eleven 
 down to one — )'. c. Ilendecapterygii, Decapterygii, Enne- 
 apterygii.Octoptcrygii, Hcptapterygii. Ilexapterygii. Pent- 
 apterygii, Tetrupterygii, Tripterygii, Diptcrygii, and Mon- 
 opterygii. Within the classes orders were recognized based 
 ujjon the ventral fins — i. c. whether jugular, thoracic, ab- 
 dominal, or wanting. This system had not even the merit of 
 being based upon a correct appreciation or count of the fins : 
 and independently of this, it was in the highest degree 
 unnatural, bringing together forms that were in nowise re- 
 lated, and separating others that were very closely allied, 
 or even congeneric It must be remembered, in this con- 
 nection, that a greater or less number of fins is often simply 
 tho expression of more or less abbreviated or shortened 
 raj"S, and more or less deeply incised membrane — r. y. dif- 
 ferences such as may be found between the species of black 
 bass or species nnd genera of Serranidn?, etc. 
 
 Nearly eontcmiioraneously, from 1799 to 1804, appeared 
 the work of Lue^'pedc, in which the classification adopted 
 is a proerustean system of (1) sub-classes, (2) divisions, and 
 (3) orders. Flrnt. — .SV6-c^(««f(t, based on the supposed con- 
 sistence of the skeleton {Sons-classes, (1) Poissons carti- 
 lagineux, (2) Poissons osseux.) Sreoud, — /ViViaiV.im, under 
 each sub-class, established on the supposed presence or ab- 
 sence and various combinations (•)) of the opcrcnia nnd 
 branchiostegal membrane — that is. the presence of both, of 
 one, or the other, or none. Thirii. — Ordtrfi, distinguished 
 by the presence of ventrals (Anodes), or their presence 
 at difl*erent regions (.lugulaires, Thoraciens, Abdominaux). 
 Several of these categories are non-existent in nature, and 
 the reference of species to them is due to erroneous obser- 
 vation or supposition. Numerous new genera were in this 
 work for the first time instituted, but most of them were 
 very bailly defined and congeneric species were frequently 
 combined with other types. 
 
 In ISOO. M. Dum^-rit. in his Znoforfir Auah/tt<inr, pub- 
 lished a system of fishes which was to a considerable ex- 
 tent siii»iily a modificatiitn of Lacepi>de, but be for the first 
 time introduced the category of '* families " in the classi- 
 fication of fishes: his arrangement, however, was as arti- 
 ficial as that of I.ac^'pt'^de. 
 
 .Several other authors published new arrangements or 
 introducecl modificatiims in the elassifientiitn of the class : 
 among them wero Hafincsque in ISIO, Piilhis in 1811. Bali 
 nesiiuc anew in 1815, Do Bhiinvillo and Gken in 1816. 
 Goldfur4s in 1820. and Risso in 1827. Almost all of their 
 modifications, however, were devoid of merit, and there- 
 fore need not detain us.
 
 1094 
 
 ICHTHYOLOGY. 
 
 In 1817, Cuvier, who had previously published numer- 
 ous special memoirs on fishes, and rectified many details in 
 their classification, introduced his complete system in the 
 first edition of the litynr Atn'maf. He primarily distin- 
 ^^uished fishes into 'H"]ioudroj)terygien8 " and "Osseux." 
 The ehondropterygian fishes were disintegrated into those 
 with attached brauchiaj ("a branchics fixes") and those 
 with free hranchiie ("a branchics libres ") : the former 
 were subdivided into *'Suceurs" (Marsipobranehiatce^, and 
 into "Selacicns" (Elasniobranchiates) ; the latter included 
 only the sturgeons and paddle-fish (" Sturioniens *'). The 
 osseous fishes were divided into the orders '* Plectogna- 
 thes," " Lophobranchcs/* ** Malacopterygiens abdomi- 
 naux," "Malacopterygiens sub-brachiens," "Malacopte- 
 rygiens apodes," and *' Acanthopti-rygiens." 
 
 The natural groups Plectognaths and Lophobranchs were 
 thus for the first time recognized: as to the rest, the merit 
 consisted chiefly in the criticism exercised in the elimina- 
 tion of doubtful forms and their proper identification, and 
 in approximations of minor groups, rather than in the ap- 
 lireciation of the outlines of classification. 
 
 In 184fi, Johann Miiller, the most able anatomist of the 
 ceutury, who had long been engaged on very elaborate an- 
 atomical investigations of difl"erent groups of fishes, gave 
 expression to the result of his studies in a remarkable 
 memoir on the classification of fishes. He recognized in 
 the class 6 distinct sub-classes — viz. {!) Leptocardii, (2) 
 INfarsiiiobranchii, (3) Elasmobranchii, (4) Ganoidea, (o) 
 Teleostei, and (6) Dipnoi. These sub-classes were based 
 upon weighty structural diff"erences, and the combinations 
 indicated by them were far superior to any that had been 
 previously proposed. Perhaps his most valuable results 
 were the recognition and characterization of the sub-class 
 of Ganoidea. The members of this group had previously 
 been cither (c, *;. by Cuvier and his followers) widely dis- 
 persed and their relations not at all appreciated, or (by 
 .\gassiz) very unlike forms had been combined with them 
 in one group, on account of partial agreement in characters 
 of very slight value. Miiller was the first to recognize a 
 natural group distinguished by definite characters; he also 
 defined, in a much more scientific manner than had been 
 previ(jusly done, the sub-classes which had already received 
 names adopted by him. On the whole, his classification 
 marks the most noteworthy epoch in the history of syste- 
 matic ichthyology. 
 
 The great majority of the other natural classifications 
 of fishes proposed within the last half century have been 
 either slight modifications of Cuvier's or iMUller's, or (e. g. 
 Owen's) eclectic ones combining seleclions from each. 
 
 To this generalization, however, there are several marked 
 exceptions, and notably the classifications of Prof. Agassi?, 
 and Dr. von Bleeker. The former has been so celebrated 
 that some reference to it may be demanded. Tn 1833, Prof. 
 Agassi/, published his views respecting the ichthyological 
 system, and, exclusively basing his arrangement on the 
 character of the scales, segregated all the existing and fos- 
 sil fishes into four orders: (1) Ganoidei, with enamel-cov- 
 ered scales; (2) Placoidei, with shagreen-like scales; (.3) 
 Ctcnoiilei, with ordinary scales pectinated at their free 
 margins: and {-i) Cycloidei, with ordinary scales entire at 
 their free margins. The illustrious and learned author re- 
 tained this classification till about 185". It was not. how- 
 ever, received with favor by any other original investigator, 
 and was justly objected to on account of (1) the characters 
 themselves being insufficient, (2) the distinctions being very 
 trivial and intergrading, ns well as (3) on account of defi- 
 ciency in diagnostic precision, large numbers of forms be- 
 ing left unprovided for, inasmuch as many fishes are en- 
 tirely destitute of scales. Very many fishes, also, have two 
 kinds of scales (cycloid and ctenoid) in different parts of 
 the body. 
 
 In 1871, Dr. Albert Giinther proposed a modification of 
 the system which has been much noticed. The tendency 
 among zoologists had always been towards a differentiation 
 of the fishes into the teleost and ganoid forms on one hand, 
 and on the other the selachian types, but Dr. (liinther re- 
 versed this, combining the ganoids and selachians in one 
 sub-class (" fourth sub-class, Pnlfcirfithift-s '*), contrasted 
 with that of the TeUosts. The Pahvichthyes were subdi- 
 vided into two "orders" — order 1, ("honclropterygii. with 
 two "sub-orders" (Plagiostomata and Holoecpbali). and 
 order 2, Ganoidei. with five "sub-orders" (Amioidei, Lepi- 
 dosteroiilei, Polypteroidei, '^hr)ndrostei, and Dipnoi). 
 
 Many other modifications have been proposed by vari- 
 ous authors, but scarcely require notice here. Only one 
 other system need detain us. In 1871, Prof. Edward 
 1>. Cope, after first recognizing three classes by most 
 authors confounded under the old term "Fishes" (Lepto- 
 curdii, Dermopteri. and Pisces), divided the fishes proper 
 primarily into 5 sub-classes — viz. (1) Ilolocephali (= Elas- 
 mobranchii bolooepbali, Miiller), (2) SeUcbii (== Elasmo- 
 
 branchii selachii, Miiller), (3) Dipnoi (Miiller), (4) Cros- 
 sopterygia {= Ganoidei erossopterygida?, Huxley), and 
 (5) Actinopteri (new). The Holocephali, Selachii, and 
 Dipnoi had the same limits as the homonymous sub- 
 classes or orders of Miiller. The Crossopterygia included 
 those having the " hyomandibular articulated, opercular 
 bones well developed, a single ceratohyal : no pelvic 
 elements; limbs having derivative radii of the primary 
 series on the extremity of the basal pieces, which are in 
 the pectoral, nietapterygium, mesopterygium, and prop- 
 terygium." Three orders were recognized — viz. llaplistia, 
 Cladistia, and Actiuistia. The Actinistia embraced such 
 forms as had *■ opercular bones well developed or separate 
 and complex suspensorium : a double ceratohyal, no pelvic 
 elements: primary radii of fore limb parallel" with basilar 
 elements, and entering the articulation with scapular arch ; 
 basilar elements reduced to metapterygium, and very rarely 
 mesopterygium ; primary radii of posterior generally re- 
 duced to one rudiment." This sub-class was primarily di- 
 vided into three tribes: Chondrostei (Miiller) with 2 orders; 
 Physostomi (Miiller), with 12; and Physoclvsti (Miiller), 
 with 10. 
 
 Cfasses. — From this point more lucid ideas may be ob- 
 tained by considering the primary subdivisions of the group 
 known under the general name of ''Fishes." Up to the 
 close of the eighteenth century, under this name all the 
 vertebrated inhabitants of the waters adapted for exclusive 
 progression through the liquid medium were confounded; 
 consequently, the true fishes and cetaceans had not been 
 decidedly separated. In 1756, for the first time, Mathurin 
 Brisson {lie^fnc animnf, (Ih-ise m neii/ chivsefi) removed the 
 cetaceans entirely from the fishes, distinguished them as a 
 class, and placed them immediately after the mammals ; he 
 therefore was the first naturalist who limited the class 
 Pisces to the typical branchiferous vertebrates. As pre- 
 viously indicated, Linnw^us never recognized anything like 
 the true limits of the class, at one time confounding with 
 them the cetaceans, and later, when he excluded them, also 
 excluding typical fishes which he referred to the class of 
 amphibians. Gmelin, however, rectified this error, and 
 thenceforth the fishes were recognized as a homogeneous 
 class until a comparatively recent date. To this statement, 
 however, several exceptions must be noted. E. Geoffroy St.- 
 Ililaire and Latreille (1825) difi'erentiated the fishes thus 
 understood into tim classes — viz. (1) Poissons (= Fishes 
 proper) and (2) Ichthyoderes (= Elasmobranchiates and 
 Mnrsipobranchiates), the Leptocardians being then un- 
 known. I. Gcoffroy St.-Hilaire, Bonaparte (18561. and 
 Moquin Tandon also recognized tiro classes, but with dif- 
 ferent limits — viz. Poissons (= Fishes, Elasmobranchiates 
 and Marsipobranchiates) and Myelozoa {= Leptocardians). 
 Agassiz has distinguished /"nc classes — viz. (I) iSIyzontes 
 (= Marsipobranchiates and Leptocardians). (2) Fishes, (3) 
 Ganoids (2 and 3 = Fishes proper), and (4) Selachians 
 {= Elasmobranchiates). Ha'ckel has likewise adopted/our 
 classes, but very different from those proposed by Agassiz 
 — viz. (1) Pisces, (2) Dipneusta (= Dipnoi), (3) Cyclostoma, 
 and (4) Leptocardii. (Jegenbaiir, Schmidt, Cope, and sev- 
 eral other recent naturalists recognize three classes — viz. 
 (1) Pisces, (2) Cyclostoma. Cyelostoioata, Dermopteri, or 
 Marsipobranchii. and (3) Leptocardii. 
 
 It will be tlius seen that the present tendency and the 
 weight of authority is decitleilly in favor of the recogni- 
 tion of class-value for the differences of structure exliibited 
 by several constituent groups of the old so-called class of 
 " Fishes," and the more thoroughly we enter upon the 
 comprehensive study of the anatomy of all the vertebrates, 
 the more disposed we must be to the recognition of the 
 naturalness of 6uch associations. 
 
 In fine, on a review of the various step? in the progress 
 of knowletlgc gained respecting these animals, it aj^pears 
 that the early Linnjean and post-Linniean authors rather 
 added to the confusion in which species were already in- 
 volved than advanced the science; that Cuvier and his 
 disciples did much to clear that confusion away, and intro- 
 duce sound methods of study : that Miiller made a great 
 advance in the rigorous application of anatomical ])rinci- 
 ples to the distinction of the several groups; and that sub- 
 se(|ucnt progress has chiefly resulted from the more or less 
 general recognition of the principle that the consideratiC'D 
 of the entire structure must be the paramount guide to a 
 correct appreciation of the true relations of the various 
 types of organization, and that telet*1ogical modifications 
 are quite unimportant in comparison with morphological. 
 
 (^/ftHniJirntlini. — In conclusion, we append a synopsis of 
 the primary and secondary groups, down to sub-orders, that 
 maybe most advantageously admitted among the fishes; 
 they arc arranged in an inverted ascending series: 
 Class Pisi'Ks, or Fishks I E. GeofFroy St.-Hiiaire, Latreille, 
 Agassiz (fraction), Cope, Gill). 
 Sub-class Teleostei.
 
 ICIITHYOKXIS— ICIITHYUSAURUS. 
 
 lO'J.j 
 
 Order Plecto^nathi. 
 
 Sub-urder Uymnodontes, 
 " ** Ostraeodermi, 
 " '* Sclerodcrmi. 
 Order Lopholtrawehii. 
 Sub-order Svngnathi, 
 " " Sulcnostomi. 
 Order Pediculati. 
 Order Hemibriinchii. 
 Order Teleocephali. 
 
 Sub-order lU'tcrosoniata. 
 " *' AuactiDtbini, or Jugularos, 
 " " Acanthopteri, 
 " " Pcrccsoce?, 
 " " Svnentognathi, 
 " " Ilaplomi, 
 *' " Isospondyli, 
 " " Eventngnnthi, 
 " " Gymnoiioti. 
 Order Scypht»piictri. 
 Order Xematognathi. 
 Order Apodes. 
 
 Sub-order Ichtbyocephali, 
 " " Ilolostonii. 
 " " Eiichclyccphali, 
 " " Colocephali, 
 Order Opistbomi. 
 Sub-clafi.s (tanoidei. 
 
 Super-order Hyoganoidci. 
 Order Cycloganoidei. 
 Order Rhonihogatioidei. 
 Super-order ChondrogaDoidci, 
 Order Chondrostei. 
 Order Sclacbostnmi. 
 Super-order Bracbioganoidci. 
 Order Cro««(iptcrygia. 
 Order Actinistia (extinct). 
 Super-order Dipnoi. 
 Order Sireuoidei. 
 (?) Order Placoganoidei (extinct). 
 Super-order (?) Aspidoganoidei (extinct). 
 Order Cepbalaspidoidea (extiuct)- 
 (?) Super-order Aeanlhogunuidea (extinct). 
 Order Acantbuduidea (extinct). 
 Class Selachians or Elasinubrauchiates. 
 Super-orrler rhini:ene. 
 
 Order Holoeephali. 
 Super-or<ier Pbigiostomi. 
 Order Rain?. 
 
 Sub-order Masticura, 
 '* Pacbyura. 
 
 Order Srjuali. 
 
 Sub-ordt-T lUiinic, 
 " Galei. 
 
 Class Marsipohranchii. 
 
 Order llyjjeroartia. 
 Order Hyperotreti. 
 Class Leptocurdii. 
 
 Order Cirrostomi. 
 Anthnritiea. — In addition to the general worke whose titles 
 have been sulynined in riH>t-noteH to thi.x account, the fullow- 
 ing artictcH may bo reft-rrcd to — viz. : " Iclitbyology," hy Sir 
 John K\i'AmuU*i\\,\\\ \\\e iCntiiehtfurtUn Jin'titiinicn ; *' Ob- 
 ccrvfttionH on the Systematic Relations of the Fishes, " by 
 Edward D. Cope, in the I'nirtrdimjt >,/ thr American Attso- 
 ci.ttinn fur the Advitnvrmt'itt uf Sri, urr /i,r 1S7 1 (IH72), pp. 
 ;il7-.1i;i: and '* Arranj^enK-nls of Ibe Families of Fishes," 
 by Theodore (Jill. Lists of all the fisbca of Nwrth America 
 havu been given by DeKay. Storer, and Gill ; those of Hrit- 
 ish America have been deweribed by Richardson, Forlin 
 Storer, Perley, ami Knight; (hose of Maine Ity Holmes; 
 of MassiuOmst-lts, by Siorer and others; those of Connec- 
 ticut, by Linslcy; of New York, by Mitchill, l>eKay. and 
 Ayres: of New Jersey, by Ruird and Aldnitt ; andof'South 
 Carolina, by llolbrook. The most iinjiortant of these for 
 the general student are tho-e of DeKay,*^ Ilolbrook.f and 
 .Slorer.J The latent list of (ho species' has been given by 
 (fill.? and In that work nforences will be ftinnd to other 
 authors. Numerous artieles on Anieriean fishrs will be 
 found in iho i^ruicfdintj* uf the Acttdruit/ nf Satural Sci- 
 
 encet of PhUadelphxa ; Proceed ttign of the Boston Society 
 of Xfiturfti Historif : ftoHton Jnumal of Xatural Niston^ ; 
 AnnaU of the Lt/vrum nf yntiirat Ilintoryj New York : 
 and especially in the HeportM nf the U. S. Commianioncr 
 of Fixh nnd FinherirH, Prof. .S. F. Raird. 
 
 The fossil fishes have been chieQy studied by Agassiz, 
 Pander, Egerton, Hugh Miller. Huxley, and Kner, and 
 those of the U. 8. have been well illustrated and received 
 much attention from Dr. Newberry, whose article on Fossil 
 FisuES in this volume will give further information. 
 
 TiiKoiKJitK Gill. 
 
 Tchthyor'nis [Gr. ix^v^, ** fish," and opfis, " bird "], an 
 extinct giiiiis of birds described by Prof. Marsh from the 
 Cretaceous of Kansas. Thoy pos'-essed teeth and biconcave 
 vertebriD, from which fish-like character the namo is derived. 
 
 (See OlWNTOKMTHES.) 
 
 Ichthyosau'rus [Gr. ix^"?- " ^"1^" and travpo^, "liz- 
 ard"], an extinct genus of marine reptiles having some 
 fish-Iiko characters, whence the name, meaning "fish- 
 lizard." In general form these reptiles were elongate, with 
 the head set inimciliately upon the body, without any con- 
 striction at the neck. They bad four (in-like pad'iles, and 
 the tail was flattened, nn<l probably expanded toward the 
 end into a powerful vortical tail-fin. as in the fislies. The 
 skull of the ichthyosaurus is elongated and tapering at the 
 
 •Dekay (Jamew E.), Znotofrtf of Xetr York, or thn New York 
 Ewna. part Iv.. Tithes (Albany, Ift-I?. -Ilo) ; 'XV, nomlnMl species 
 iin- deHcrilK-d aiul nio.sily fi^ored ns New York fl«lii>s. 
 
 tHo|l>roitk (.lolin r>lwarihi. Irht/n/ntni/i/ of S»iith niroiina 
 (Charleston. S. C. lit c-I. IKV. ; 'Jd i-il. ISfi'j.^to'. unrtnlishedi. 
 
 tSton-r I Havld lliun)>hr< vn), .1 llixtoni u( Ihr Hshe.i uf MoAJia- 
 chiufUn (Catiihrldk"* mid HoHton. \M,1 \ r<jirinl<'d from J/>i/i. Am. 
 Arml. Arf/i fin./.SVi., JH.V{-tl7, 4i«i; l:i:( hix'cIi'm tlifunil <»■) Mi plates! 
 
 ?'11II (Tb<'«Klon-i, tiUaioffHf uf the Fixhts of Ihr J-:„At (hiut of 
 ynrth Atu'^rirfi ( WiuhlnKtoii. I8T;l, Mn, pultllHbed by the Smlth- 
 Hoitlan InHtttiitioii); :MI iipeeics enum«rate<l. 
 
 lehUiyosaurus (head). 
 snout, which, in the upper jaw, is formed principally by 
 the much-cniargfd ])remaxillarics. The rami of the man- 
 dible arc also uuitcil in an elongated symphysis, as in (ho 
 moderu gavial. Tho (ce(b are simple, conical, of nearly 
 equal size, and in an unintcrruiited series. Their surface 
 is marked by longitudinal im*)ression8 antl ritlges, varying 
 in the ditferent species. The}' are inserted loosely in a 
 long and deep continuous furrow, and were retainecl by 
 slight ridges extending, between the teeth, along the sides 
 and bo((om of tho furrow, and Iiy the gum and the organ- 
 ized membranes continued into the groove nnd \i\Hm tlio 
 base of the teeth. The nostrils are small and near the 
 orbits, which are jiirge nnd evidently enclosed highly de- 
 veloped eyes. There is often found in front of the orbit in 
 fossil skulls a circular series of petrified thin bony phites 
 ranged round a circular aj^ertnre. Such a series of scle- 
 rotic plates is now found only in the eyes of turtles, lizards, 
 and birds, showing, writes Dr. lluckhind. "that the enor- 
 mous eye of which they formed the front was an optical 
 instrument of varied and ]>rodigious power, enabling tho 
 ichthyosaurus to ilcP(;ry its ]»rey at great or little distances, 
 in the oltscurity of night or in tl»e depths of tho sea." 
 There are in the skull large supratcmpural fossie, and tho 
 infratemporal fossuj are closed over by plates of bone 
 The centra of the vertebra* are short flattened disks and 
 deeply biconcave, resembling those of fishes. ']'hc only 
 transverse j)rocesses t\wy possess are tubercles de\'cl(»pe 1 
 from the sides of these centra. Tho neural arches are 
 forked bones, connected only by cartilage, with two flat 
 surfaces, one on each side of the middle line of tho upper 
 surfat^es of the centra ; ami in tho greater part of the boily 
 they are not articulated with (»ne another. The cerviciil 
 and dorsal series of vertebrie are not separated by any 
 marked characters; and there is no sacrum, but tho caudal 
 vertebra' are distinguished by the chevron bones which are 
 attached to their un<ler surfaces. The anterior ribs have ii 
 capitular nnd lubcreubir articulation. The seiipula is nar- 
 row. The coracoiils are broad, an<l meet on the iiiedinn 
 lino below. The clavicles are stout, curved, and uniterl 
 with a T-shaped interelavicle. The shouhler-girdle forim-d 
 by the union of these bones resembled that of the sini^ulnr 
 itquntie mammal <d' .Australia, the ornilhorbynchus, and 
 
 1)robably enabled the ichthyosaurus to visit tho shore, per- 
 mps to deposit it.t eggs, when it would crawl with its belly 
 dragging on tho grouncl. The humerus is short and 
 prismatic, nnd distally supports two bones repn'senling the 
 radius and ulna. Six or seven bones in tho two following 
 series are reckoned as cnrpals, and the next series ate 
 molaearpnls. They are foHowcd by not more than thr< e to 
 flvo compb'te series of pnlygonul bones, representing as 
 many dii;its. which, however, sometimes fork, nnd there 
 are in addition marginal series of Imuios upon mch side 
 uf the padillo. This construction, which is peculiar to tho 
 ichthyosauri, la repeated in the hind paddles, but they are 
 much smaller. Tlio pelvis consisted of the itrdinary three 
 bones on onob side, but was nut couneotcd with the verto-
 
 1096 
 
 ICHTHYOSIS— ICONOCLAST. 
 
 bral column. The ischium, as well as the pubis, met its 
 follow on the median line. The body seems to have been 
 covered with a i^mooth or finely wrinkled skin, imd desti- 
 tute of scak'S. These animals sometimes attained a length 
 of more than thirty feet, and were predaccous in their 
 habits, as is witncj*sed by the scales and bones of contem- 
 porary iishes sometimes found under the ribs of these 
 fossils. The composition of the singular spiral " copro- 
 litcs" affords additional evidence of this fact, which might 
 also be easily inferred from the construction of the jaws 
 and teeth. Ichthyosauri may have abounded in the Triassic 
 seas, but their remains have not been certainly identified 
 earlier than the Lias, and the latest species occur in the 
 Chalk. 0. C. Marsh, 
 
 Ichthyo'sis [Gr. Ix&vi, b, **fish;" i. e. "fish-skin dis- 
 ease "J. a disease of the human subject characterized by the 
 presence of scaly growths in or upon the integument. 
 Three distinct diseases have been called by this name: (1) 
 Intra-utcrino ichthyos-is, in whieh the remix caaeoau, or 
 glutinous secretion of the skin of the fcetus, becomes hard- 
 ened into a horny armor, crippling the development of the 
 child and leading io its death. (2) True ichthyosis is a 
 hypertrophy of the papillary layer of the skin and of the 
 epidermis. The patient is covered, as to a great part of 
 the body and limbs, with unsightly scales of forms varying 
 in different patients. This disease is thus far quite incu- 
 rable. It is generally hereditary, but is not always so. 
 Ichthyosis has been known to cover the skin of the knee 
 after recovery from severe destructive disease of the joint. 
 Frequent bathing and anointing are useful, but never 
 curative. (3) The so-called sebaceous ichthyosis depends 
 on excessive functional activity of the sebaceous glands, the 
 secretion of which rapidly hardens into scales. This dis- 
 ease is often caused by some reflex disturbance, and is 
 curable as a rule. Revised Br Willaru Parker. 
 
 Ic'ica Res'in, a resin from Guiana, similar to elemi. 
 
 I'co, town of Brazil, in the province of Ccara. on the 
 Salgado, is well built and thriving, carrying on a lively 
 trade in the products of the province and in European 
 manufactures. Pop. about 6000, 
 
 Ico'nilim [now Koutch], in Asia Minor, on the high- 
 road between Ephesus and Antioch of Syria, a place of 
 considerable importance in the time of the apostles (Acts 
 xiii. 61). An oasis in the desert, it was called the Damascus 
 of Lycaonia. In 1099 a. d. the Seljukian Turks made it 
 the capital of their kingdom of Roum. It was captured 
 by Frederick Barbarossa in 1189, and recovered by the 
 Turks in 1190. It has massive walls, between two and 
 three miles in circumference, with suburbs almost as popu- 
 lous as the city itself. Its most remarkable building is the 
 tomb of llazrct Mevlana. the founder of the Mevlevi Der- 
 vishes. Pop. nearly .'iO.OUO. R. D. Hitchcock, 
 
 Icon'^oclast [from Gr. cUwf, "image," and kAow, " I 
 break "], a name given in the eighth century to the de- 
 stroyers of images, distinguishing them from iconolaUrg, 
 image-worshippers. The excessive and ever-increasing 
 reverence paid to images in the Christian Church had 
 already been reproved by some of its most enlightened 
 members, but the great iconoclastic conflict was begun a. d. 
 72(3 by Leo the Isaurian, who had ascended the throne of 
 Byzantium in 71". As the writings of his partisans were 
 either destroyed by the iconolaters or lost tlirough neglect, 
 the emperor's motive for opposing image-wurship is un- 
 known to us. His opponents accused him of listening to 
 Jewish and Mohammedan advisers, especially to the rene- 
 gade IJeser ; and it may be that a contemplation of the 
 simpler Mohammedan worship led him to condemn the 
 semi-pagan Christianity of his subjects. His first edict 
 (720) forbade the adoration of images, and ordered that 
 such pictures as were movable sliould be hung higher, so 
 as no longer to receive kisses and other marks of devotion. 
 Authors disagree as to the chronology of these events, but 
 according to Theophanes and later Byzantine historians, 
 Pope (iregory II., upon Leo's publication of his edict, 
 wrote to him demanding its revocation, and when the em- 
 peror refused compliance, forbade tho Italians Io pay their 
 customary tribute. In 7U0, Leo held a council at Con- 
 stantinople, at whieh he commanded the destruction of 
 images in churches, imposing severe penalties on those 
 persons who should persist in worshipping them : he also 
 deposed the aged patriarch Gernianus, who disapproved of 
 his measures, and put Anastasius in his place. This second 
 edict excited the ieonotaters, among whom were nearly all 
 the clergy, to open revidt. An oflicer who. by Leo's order, 
 attcnipled to 4k'iiitroy a miracle-working image of Christ at 
 Constantinople, was bi-aten to de:ith by the populace. Tho 
 islanders of the Archipelago proclaimed a new emperor, 
 one Cosnias, and sailed against Constantinople; the rebels 
 were discomfited by the Greek fire, and Cosmas was made 
 prisoner and executed. In 731, Gregory II, was succeeded 
 
 by Gregory III., also an enemy to iconoclasm. This pope 
 and Leo the Isaurian both died in 741, The emperor was 
 succeeded by his son, Constantiue Copronymus, ^vho, hav- 
 ing defeated the usurper Artavasdus, continued the oppo- 
 sition to images. In 754 he convoked a council at Con- 
 stantinople, called by the Greeks the seventh general coun- 
 cil, but never recognized by the Roman Church. It was 
 composed of 338 Oriental bishops, who prohibited all 
 images, and anathematized those persons who should set 
 up any, either in a church or private house. They also 
 cursed by name the principal champions of image-worship 
 — Gcrmanus (who had not long survived his deposition), 
 George of Cyprus, and the learned John of Damascus. 
 The monks now took refuge in their cloisters or in deserts, 
 whence many of them were dragged to prison, torture, and 
 even death. The patriarch Constantiue, successor of Ana- 
 stasius, being accused of disrespect to the emperor, was pub- 
 licly degraded and beheaded. Constantiue Copronymus 
 died of fever in 775. His son and successor, Leo Chazarus, 
 though in weak health and of a mild disposition, enforced 
 the laws against iconolatry. After Leo's death (a. d. 780) his 
 wife, Irene, who was devoted to images, became guardian 
 of her young son, Constantino VI., and immediately pro- 
 claimed liberty of conscience. She promoted her secretary. 
 Tarasius, a layman, to the patriarchate, made friends with 
 the pope. Adrian, and assembled a council, first in 786 at 
 Constantinople, where it was dispersed by the iconoclasts, 
 then in the following year at Niciva. It was attended by 
 375 bishops, who set aside the decrees of the Council of 
 Constantinople (754), anathematized the persons who had 
 composed it, restored tho worship of images, and solemnly 
 cursed all iconoclasts. The churches of France, Germany, 
 England, and Spain took a middle course between the de- 
 struction and the adoration of images, which they regarded 
 simply as useful memorials of faith and history, A book 
 of controversy was composed and published in the name 
 of Charlemagne, who assembled a council of 300 bishops at 
 Frankfort. This assembly, while blaming iconoclasts, pro- 
 nounced a more severe censure against the Council of 
 Nicaia. In the Eastern Church the decrees of the Nicene 
 Council remained in force until 813, when Leo Armenus, an 
 enemy to images, became emperor, and treated the icono- 
 laters with great severity. Among those who suffered for 
 their doctrines was the historian Theophanes. Leo was 
 murdered in 820, and succeeded on the throne by Michael 
 the Stammerer, who restored image-worship and recalled 
 the monks banished by his predecessor. Michael's son, 
 Theophilus, became emperor in 829, and opposed image- 
 worship, which, after his death (in 842), was again estab- 
 lished by bis wife. Theodora, who governed the empire for 
 her voung son. Michael, afterwards called the Drunkard, 
 and "instituted a festival, still kept in the Greek Church, to 
 celebrate this final triumph over iconoclasm. 
 
 The original motive for iconoclasm is, as already said, 
 unknown to us; but whatever it may have been, and how- 
 ever much we may condemn the use of images, we must 
 allow that their overthroxv by Leo and his successors was a 
 mistake, "a (iremature rationalism," as Dean Milman ex- 
 presses it. It was a violent change, but not a reformation ; 
 a rooting up, unfollowed by any planting. Pictures aud 
 statues, sacred books for those who could read no others, 
 were destroyed, and nothing better was given to replace 
 them. The very fact that they frequently were not re- 
 garded simply as emblems, but adored for their own sakes, 
 made the unwisdom of their destruction so much tho 
 greater. Ignorant and superstitious persons would prob- 
 ably have cared little to defend mere symbols, hut they 
 clung obstinately to carvings and paintings which were to 
 them as present gods. The images worked miracles of 
 healing, wept tears, and shed blood — in short, lived, so be- 
 lieved their worshippers, as truly as the invisible Christ 
 and his saints in heaven. AVhcn Leo's edicts against 
 images were followed by rebellion, the hatred of the icono- 
 clasts was extended from ])ictures and statues to those who 
 adored thoni. AVo may suppose that each party in this 
 struggle was actively cruel towards the other, but tho em- 
 jierors had the army on their side, and eousequently greater 
 iiower of injury. Tho persecution of iconolaters became 
 particularly violent under Constantino Coi)ronymus, of 
 whose barbarities tho Byzantine historians give many ter- 
 rible examples. This emperor was chiefly incensed against 
 the monks. He destroyed or secularized the monasteries, 
 and subjected their inmates to every possible insult, caus- 
 ing them to break their vows of celibacy under pain of 
 exile or death. The governors of provinces were Constan- 
 tine's willing agents, the most zealous being Michael Lacha- 
 nodraco. prefect of Thraee. in whieh prefecture there was 
 soon left hardly one man bold enough to wear the monkish 
 dress. Andrew and Stephen were the two chief martyrs of this 
 reign. The former, having reproached the emperor for his 
 persecutions, was scourged to death. Stephen, an eloquent
 
 ICTINTS— IDAHO. 
 
 1097 
 
 preacher against iooDoclasm, was killed after a long inipris> 
 onmcut. The cause of his violent death is curiously like that 
 of Thoiniw u Beckefs. Cuustantine, hearing that even in 
 prison he spoke in defence of images, cried, '' Am I or is this 
 monk the emperor of the world!'" Some soldiers having 
 heard these words, took Stephen from his dungeon, fast- 
 ened thongs to his feet, and so draj^gcd him through the 
 streets until he died; they then cast his body into the 
 common grave of criminals. The patriarch Conslantinc, 
 though an iconoclast, was accused of conspiracy and of 
 using disrespectful words against the emperor. Having 
 been ileposcd from the patriarehutc and forced to acknow- 
 ledge a eunu«-h as his successor, he was banished from Con- 
 stantinople, liut the emperor, not content with this much 
 vengeance, had him brought back to he scourged, exposed 
 to tiie derision of the populace, an«l finally beheaded. 
 
 The term iconoclast has in modern times been used to 
 designate those reformers who, tiirough excess of zeal, de- 
 stroyed statues, painte<l windows, and other works of art 
 in Uoman Catholic churches. Jaskt TitKEY. 
 
 Icti'nns, a contemporary of Pericles, built, in connec- 
 tion with Cullicrates. the Parthenon in the Acropolis of 
 Athens, whirh was linished in 4.'iS b. c: alpo the temple 
 of Apollo Ejiicurius, near Phigalia in Arcadia, and the 
 building at Kleusis in which the mysteries wore celebrated. 
 All these were of the Doric order, 
 
 I'da [Or. if 'iSri], a mountain in Asia Minor, is a spur or 
 branch of the Taurus system, and traverses the ancient 
 Phrygia and Mysia, itself throwing out many spurs. From 
 it flow the (Jranicus, the Siuiois, the Seamander, and other 
 streams whose names are historic. Its highest point is 
 Mount (Jargarus. 46J0 feet high. — Another Ida [now called 
 Psiloriti], enually famous in song and story, is in the island 
 of Crete. It terminates in three peaks, and rises to the 
 height of 7674 feet. 
 
 Ida^ county in the W. of Iowa. Area, 432 square 
 miles. It is intersected by the Mapio River, and is very 
 fertile. Cap. Ida. Pop. 220. 
 
 Ida, post-v., cap. of Ida co., la., on the line of the un- 
 finished I. P. U. U. ; has a court-house, weekly newspaper, 
 graded schools, 2 churches, etc., and is in a very fertile re- 
 gion. Pop. oil, much increased since the census. 
 
 W, P. Evans, Ed. " Iha Coi ntv Pioneer." 
 
 Ida^ post-tp. of Monroe co., Mich., on the Michigan 
 Southern R. R. Pop. 1020. 
 
 Ida, tp. of Douglas CO.. I^finn. Pop. 224. 
 
 Ida'ciiiSf or Itha'i'ius, b. at Limica, in Galicia, 
 Spain, in the latter part of the fourth century, was ap- 
 pointed bishop of his native city about 427, but was deposed 
 by the invading Suevi in 401, and d. after 409. Ho wrote 
 ft Chrnnirinn, arranged according to the succession of em- 
 perors, and embracing the period from .'i7*J A. n. (at which 
 point Hieronymus breaks o(Tj to 429. It gives a brief ac- 
 count of events besides the enumeration of names and 
 dates, and is considered as a valuable repertory of facts. 
 It was first pul>lished complete in 1019 by Sirmond, and is 
 incorporated in Hosier's Cfironirtt Mrilii ylCrt (1798). 
 
 I'daho, a Territory of the Pacific slope of the U. S., 
 lying almost wholly in the upper Columbia River basin. It 
 is bounde<l on the N'. by British Columbia, where its breadth 
 Is but one degree of longitude, about 4S miles in that lati- 
 tude; on the K. it is bounded by M^mtana and Wyoming, 
 contributing also for about 26 miles to form the western 
 boundary of the National Yellowstone Park, a narrow strip 
 of which was contributed by this Territory ; the lino of its 
 Beparali»»n frnm Mnnfana is, in the X. K., the watershed or 
 divide of the Hitter Hoot Mountains, and lower d<<wn the 
 principal Kneky Mountain chain, which sweeps around the 
 liead-waters of the sources of the Missouri River. The 
 Teton range, a spur of the Rocky Mountains which branches 
 off almost due 8., coincides nearly with the boundary-lino 
 between Idaho and Wyoming T<*rritory ; on the .'^. it is 
 bounded by L'tah and Nevada, the boumlary-line b»ing the 
 42d parallel: on the W. by Oregon and Wusliingt<)n Ter- 
 ritory for about two-fifths of the distance (from Fort Ilois6 
 to the mouth of the Clearwater Uivor), the Snake River 
 forming the u'-tual boundary. The Territory lies between 
 the 12d and the 49th parallels of N. lat., anil between the 
 1 1 Ith an<l the 1 17th meridians of W. Ion. from (Jreenwich. 
 Its length from N. to .S. is about 442 miles; its breadth 
 varies from 4S miles at the northern boundary to :i08 on 
 the southern, the mean breadth at the parallel of 44° .10', 
 about 2.'>7 miles. Its area is 80,294 square miles, or 
 55,228,100 square acres. 
 
 /Vtce of the t%ntntrtf. — Idaho is for thr most part a moun- 
 tainous country. The ItiKcr Hoot Mountains, which from 
 their origin in Rritish Columbia form the weslerninost or 
 outlying rang)' <»f the iJreat Itocky M'luntain chain, form 
 at the north-eastern line of Idaho the divide between it and 
 
 Montana, and from the northern bank of the Columbia 
 River and its tributary, Clark's Fork, these mountains 
 have covered the whole country to the Sierra Nevada with 
 a succession of spurs or short ranges running nearly due 
 W. Prominent among these, both from their height and 
 breadth, are the Kootenai Mountains in the extreme N., the 
 Coeur d'Aleno Jlonntains near the 47th parallel, and the 
 Clearwater or Lapwai Mountains along the Clearwater 
 River and its tributaries. As the Ritter Root Mountains 
 near the M)X\\ parallel draw closer to the main chain of 
 the Rocky I^Iuuntains. a new range of outliers, forming 
 almost a distinct mountain-system of its own under the 
 name of the Salmon range, follows the course of the Salmon 
 River and its aflluents. The summits of this range are 
 mostly lufty, rugged, and snow-capi)ed. Many of them are 
 above 12,000 feet in altitude, and several of the loftiest over 
 KJ.OOO feet. The town of Klurence, in Florence Basin. 2000 
 feet below the summit of Florence Mountain, is 11,100 feet 
 above the sea, and is jirobably the highest town in the U. S. 
 Spurs from this range along the Snake River and its tribu- 
 taries have received the names of Wciser, Payette, Bois6, 
 Owyhee, and Sand Toofiii mountains. Below these, and 
 towards the S. E. along a part of the Snake River, is a 
 somewhat elevated plateau or prairie with two or three 
 terraces, as at the American and the Shoshone Falls, but 
 constituting a broad and tolerably fertile tract of arable 
 soil. S. of the Snake River Valley wo find the Bear River 
 Mountains, the Goose Creek Mountains, and other ranges 
 which form a part uf the rim of the (Ireat Salt Lake Basin, 
 while in the extreme S. E. of the Territory Bear River and 
 Bear River Lake arc within that basin. 
 
 Rivers, Lafccn, etc. — Although some of the summits of the 
 Salmon Mountains, and perhaps of the others, are higher 
 than those of the Rocky Alountains proper in the same lat- 
 itude, yet no portion of the waters of the Territory flows 
 eastward. With the exceptiitn of Bear River in the ex- 
 treme S. E., which discharges its waters into the tireat Salt 
 Lake, the entire drainage of the Territory is into the Co- 
 lumbia River, and the whole region is a part of the upper 
 basin of the Columbia. The Clark's or North Fork of tho 
 Columbia and its affluents, including the Vermilion River, 
 tho Pend d'Oreille Lake and its tributary streams, and the 
 outlet of the Iloo-doo or Tcssentines Lake; tlie Spokane 
 River, a smaller but considerable branch of the Columbia, 
 with the beautiful Ca'ur d'Alene Lake and its affluents, of 
 which it is the outlet; and, as the principal river of the 
 Territory, which lias a course of about 8o0 miles within it, 
 tho Lewis Fork or Snake River, which, with its branches, 
 tho Clearwater and tho Salmon, with their nunu-rous afflu- 
 ents, Wciser Creek, Payette River, Boise River, Owyhee 
 River, Bruneau Creek, Salmon Creek, Malade Hiver, Gooso 
 Creek, Raft River. Baunaek Creek, Pont Neuf River, Black- 
 foot River, Teton or Pierre's River, and Henry's Fork, 
 which has its source in Henry's Lake on the borders of 
 Montana, only a few miles from the Yellowstone Park, 
 drains nearly 70,000 square miles of the Territory. Tho 
 only other river of any size in the Territory is Bear River, 
 which drains the S. E. corner, and is, as wo have said, trib- 
 utary to Great Salt Lake. The principal lakes bcBides 
 Pend d'Oreille, Cu'ur d'Alt^ne, Tessen tines, Bear, and 
 Henry's lakes, already mentioned, are the Payette lakes in 
 Idaho CO., and several unnamed lakes in Alturasand Bois6 
 cos. Many of these rivers have fertile valleys, some of 
 them of considerable extent, which constitute the best ar- 
 able lands of tho Territory, and which yield even to a rude 
 cultivation large crops. Prominent among these valleys 
 are those of Wood River. North Mabide. Haft Uiver. Bear 
 River. Owyheo Uiver. the upper waters of Snake Uiver as 
 far dtiwn as Fort Hall, Long Valley around Payette lakes, 
 Round Valley, the Upper Payette valleys, Indian Valley, 
 Lower, rpper. and Weiser River valleys, Boisf' Valley, tho 
 (ireat and Little Camas Prairies, Goose Creek Valley, etc. 
 The Snako River is navigable without dilfieulty for about 
 2O0 miles of its course in the Territory — viz. from the 
 mouth of Powder Uiver to (he Salmon Falls, just above 
 tho mouth of Miiladc River. BeU'W the mouth of Powilcr 
 River for IjO miles to Lewiston, where it turns westward 
 into Washington Territory, tho Snake River navigation, 
 though not impossible in a high stage of water, is difiicult 
 and dangerous from the numerous obstructions, nipiils, etc. 
 Above the mouth of tlie Malade, and between that and the 
 junction of Bannack Creek, W. Ion. about 112° 40'. thero 
 are three remarkable cataracts — Salmon Falls, in W. htn. 
 about 114° 4.^)', Shoshone Falls, 111° 20', and American 
 Falls, about 112° .'lO'. Of these, Shoshone Falls arc Iho 
 most note«l. The river is here 000 feet wide, the descent a 
 little greater than that of Niagara, and at some seasons of 
 tho year the vtdumo of water nearly as large, while the sur- 
 rniitiding scenery is magnifiiMMit. There are numerous wa- 
 terfalls in the Territory of great beauty and inueb greater 
 height, though of smaller volume of water. In the K. S. E.
 
 1098 
 
 IDAHO. 
 
 the Territory contributes a small portion to that wonder of 
 the world, the Yellowstone National Park, and the region 
 adjacent, aliout Henry's Luke and the whole eourse of Hen- 
 ry's Fork iif the Snake Kiver to its delta-like junction with 
 that river near the Crater Buttes and the Lava Hills, is a 
 region full of \vondcrs and interest. In S. E. Idaho there 
 are a numher of sinks or tracts where the roofs of deep 
 caves have broken through, and considerable streams sud- 
 denly sink below the surface and become subterranean in 
 their subsequent course. The whole region is volcanic, and 
 must have been at some period of the remote past in a con- 
 dition of active eruption, though now the geysers, steam- 
 springs, and ^oda springs ancl the natural hot baths, give 
 but faint indications of its former activity. 
 
 GfoJoijji. — The geological system of Idaho is very simple. 
 The Eo7,oic rocks cover nearly three-fourths of the Terri- 
 tory, but the Snake River Valley, the valleys of the Lower 
 Salmon Hiver. the Owyhee, IJruneau, Maladc, McArthur, 
 and Weiser rivers are evidently volcanic. The ujjper wa- 
 ters of Salmon Ri^er and its tributaries, the S. fork of the 
 Clearwater, and Bear River, flow through valleys of con- 
 siderable width, whioh are wholly <»f Tertiary formation, 
 and there :ire also Tertiary plateaus of eonsiderablo extent 
 in Southern Idaho. There are eight or nine small jiatches 
 of Silurian rocks, none of them of any great extent, but 
 lying among the foot-hills on either side of the Bitter Root 
 Mountains. In the Bear River Valley, not far from the 
 Yellowstone Park, there is a small outcrop of Cretaceous 
 rocks. 
 
 Mineralogii. — Gold and silver ores are found abundantly 
 in Idaho. iJnld was first discovered in the Territory in 
 1S52, on the Pend d'Oreille River, and near the lake of the 
 same name, but there were no considerable mining opera- 
 tions commenced until ISRO, when placer-mining was be- 
 gun on the S. fork of Clearwater Kiver. There are now 
 mines of gold or silver at tlie sources of all the rivers and 
 in every county of the Territory, In Kootenai co. there 
 are extensive leads in the quartz veins, and many quartz- 
 mills have been established. The placer-mines of Shoshone, 
 Nez Perce?, Idaho, and Lemhi cos. yielded in 1S72 about 
 $500,000 gold in each county. In Bo'ise co. over $1,000,000 
 worth of gold-dust was taken out in the summer of 1872, 
 and several quartz gold-mines were opened and tunnelled 
 which yielded largely. In Ada, Alturas, Owyhee, and 
 Oneida cos. the mining is mostly for silver, the argentif- 
 erous galena and other silver ores of that region yielding 
 bountiful returns, ranging from ^120 to $280 the ton of ore. 
 Placer gold is found also in considerable quantities in Altu- 
 ras and Owyhee. New silver-mines of very rich ore have 
 recently been opened near the Utah line. The yield of gold 
 and silver in 1872 in the Territory was estimated at somewhat 
 more than S8, 000, 000. The placer-mines under the improved 
 methods of washing will give out in a few years, but before 
 that time there will be sutticient quartz-mines opened and 
 a sufficient number of quartz-mills in operation to keep up 
 and probably increase the gold production of the Territory, 
 But Idaho is rich in other metals, ores, and minerals, as 
 well as in gold and silver. The lead from the argentiferous 
 galena is so pure as to be worth saving for its own sake. 
 There are extensive deposits of coal and iron at various 
 points in the Territory ; quarries of valuable huilding- 
 stonc could bo opened at small expense; and the volcanic 
 region of S. E. Idaho yields sulphur, soda, magnesia, car- 
 bonates and sulphate of lime, very pure salt, and other 
 valuable minerals and alkalies, and the mineral springs of 
 that region bid fair to furnish healing to the nation. 
 
 Vegetation. — The mountains of the Territory are for the 
 most part covered with forests up nearly to the snowdine, 
 and the forests arc largely evergreen, having numerous va- 
 rieties and species of pine, spruce, hemlock, tamarack, and 
 fir, of which there are many on the western slope of the 
 Rocky Mountains and on the eastern slope of the Sierra 
 Nevada, but aside from these there are large tracts of red 
 cedar in Kootenai and Shoshone cos. on the Ontt-hills and 
 mountain-slopes. This is supposed to be the largest single 
 tract of red cedar in the U. S., and it is of excellent qual- 
 ity. In the more southern counties there are many decid- 
 uous trees, and in some districts vast sage-plains which 
 were at first supposed to be worthless, but it has been ascer- 
 tained that the white sage, which is the principal species, 
 after ripening its seed is preferred by cattle to any of the 
 grasses, and that they will fatten on it as a winter browse. 
 The soil of sage-lands is mostly a decomposed granite, with 
 a considerable quantity of vegetable humus, and when ir- 
 rigateil, for whioh the Territory offers extraordinary facil- 
 ities, they yield very large crops — from 'Mi to 45 bushels of 
 wheat and corresponding amounts of other cereals to the 
 acre. There are said to be nearly IB. 000, 000 acres of these 
 lands. The river-valleys are very fertile, and though some 
 of them require occadional irrigation they yield large crops. 
 Agriculturally, Idaho is, with the exception of these val- 
 
 leys, better adapted to grazing than to the culture of cereals. 
 Indian corn is not a sure crop, owing tn the late and early 
 frosts. The greater jiart of the Territory is from 3000 to 
 5000 feet above the sea, yet e\en in the northern counties 
 snow seldom lies to any considerable depth in the valleys, 
 and cattle can browse, and even fatten, through the winter 
 without being housed. The ordinary garden vegetables, 
 as well as potatoes, do well in the valleys, and fruit trees 
 generally yield fruit in great abundance and of fine flavor. 
 The smaller wild fruits are found in great profusion in the 
 fertile valleys and on the mountain-slopes. There are na- 
 tive wild grajies of the Vitin Itihrunrn or fox-grnjie species 
 which ripen in the valleys, but the cultivated species and 
 varieties rcqviire a higher temperature and less liability to 
 frosts during the summer and early autumn months than 
 are found in most sections of the Territnry. In the southern 
 part, however, on the mountain-slopes having a southern 
 aspect, and especially where there are considerable lakes 
 with steeply sloping banks, the culture of the grape may 
 be made very profitable. 
 
 Zoolorj}/. — The beasts of prey are those characteristic of 
 the Columbia basin and of the Pacific slope. The grizzly 
 bear ( Crstts hor rih His or feroj-) is the largest and most 
 formidable of them, and his congener, the black bear ( Ur- 
 siis Americanus), is also found in the forests of the Territory. 
 The raccoon, badger, wolverine [fr'u/o lusruH), iwa sjjecics 
 of skunk (the Californui and the little strijied skunk), the 
 fisher-marten, the American sable or marten, tlu' mink, the 
 pjinther, wild-eat or red lynx, and the banded lynx, rac- 
 coon-fox or mountain-cat, the gray wolf, the coyote or 
 barking wolf, and four or five species of fox, are found. 
 Among the rodents, there are beavers, moles, several species 
 of grounrl-squirrels, and at least three of the tree-squirrels, 
 the yellow-footed marmot, and at least three species of bat. 
 There are ten or twelve species of the mouse family, musk- 
 rats, gophers, one species of porcupine, and several new 
 species of rabbits and hares. Among the ruminants there 
 arc the bison or American buffalo, the moose (Afce Aineri- 
 cintiiii), the elk, the blaek-tailed and mule deer, the Rocky 
 Mountain or prong-liorn antelope, and the big-horn or 
 Rocky Mountain sheep ( Oris luoutajirt). The birds are 
 very numerous, and many of them of beautiful plumage. 
 Ninety-five species, including specimens of most of the 
 orders and families found on this continent, were shot by 
 the naturalists of the JIayden expedition either in or near 
 this Territory. The species of reptiles are not very numer- 
 ous, though some of the harmless snakes and batrachians 
 abound in the marshy portions of the Territory. There are 
 three, and possibly four, species of rattlesnake, fifteen or six- 
 teen species of harmless snakes, tw<i tortoises, at least fifteen 
 species of lizard, ten or twelve of frogs, several toads, newts, 
 etc. Fish of the usual fresh-water kinds are found in the 
 lakes and rivers. There are also several fresh-water mol- 
 lusks and testaeeans. The various geological ex])editions 
 which have traverr^ed this and the adjacent Territories have 
 unearthed numerous and very interesting fossils. Among 
 the larger mammals discovered are several of the mastodon, 
 elephant, and ta|)ir families; new fossils of the bear and 
 monkey families, ten or eleven genera allied to the horse, 
 marsupials, rodents, several genera of erocodiles, alligators, 
 and otlier saurians, tortoises and turtles in great numbers, 
 lizards, serpents, batrachians, and twenty-six species of 
 fish, many of them of large size. Not all, perhaps not the 
 greater part, of these were fovmd within the geogra])hical 
 limits of Idaho, but they occurred in the geological forma- 
 tion and the deposits which are eommon to S. E. Idaho 
 and the adjacent Tcrritoriea of Montana, "Wyoming, and 
 Dakota. 
 
 Climate. — Statistical tables of the climate of the greater 
 part of Idaho are wanting. AVe know, indeed, that W. of 
 the Rocky Mountains, especially in the upper Columbia 
 River basin, there is but a moderate amount of either snow 
 or rainfall, and that the climate is much milder, even though 
 the land is elevated, than E. of th«ise mountains. The an- 
 nual range of the thermometer in Northern Idaho, in the 
 river and lake valleys, is said to be between 5° and 03° F., 
 though in exceptional seasons it may surpass either bound- 
 ary by two or three degrees. The most of the central por- 
 tions of the Territory is very mountainous, though with 
 valleys from ten to fifteen miles in width wherever there 
 are streams of water. These valleys are from .3000 to 5000 
 feet above the sea, but the climate is very equable. Far- 
 ther S. are extensive plains covered with snge-bushes and 
 grease-wood, but these give way to fine crops when the 
 land can be irrigated. The rainfall is small here, though 
 greater than in Ci)b>rado, or perhaps than in Wyoming, but 
 the facilities for irrigation are much better, and on all the 
 higher summits there is perpetual snow. In S. E. Idaho, 
 which belongs really to the tJreat Salt Lake Basin, there is 
 a somewhat different climate, and perhaps a slightly greater 
 rainfall. At Fort Uall, 4754 feet above the sea, in 1871 the
 
 IDAHO. 
 
 1099 
 
 barometric range from June to October was but f^ of an 
 inch; the mean temperature for June was fi4.62'= F. ; of 
 July, 70.44°; of August, 70.90°: of September, 57.78°; 
 and of the first eighteen davs of October. .■)7.:'S°. The 
 average observations of the Hayden expedition the same 
 summer for June and July, from the southern boundary of 
 the Territory to the Montana line, corresponded very nearly 
 with the temperature at Fort Hall. 
 
 Agriciiltiiriil /'r<)(/u<(«.— .\ccording to the census of 1870, 
 there irere in that year only 77,l.'!y acres of land in farms 
 in the Territory, of which only 20.60:! were under tillage, 
 50,536 being woodland or other unimproved lands, being 
 65.5 per cent, of the entire land in farms. The average 
 siic of the farms was 186 acres, or a little more than a 
 iiuarler section. The value of the farms in the Territory 
 in 1870 was $492,860. and of farming implements and ma- 
 chinery, $59,295; the farm products of the same year were 
 valued" at $637.797 ; animals slaughtered or sold for 
 slaughter were valued at $57.9:12 ; home manufactures, at 
 $.'.(.730; the forest products, though of considerable 
 amount, were not reported ; market-garden products were 
 estimated at $24,577; orchard products, at $725; wages 
 paid to agricultural laborers, including board, $153,007. 
 In 1869, 75,650 bushels of wheat were harvested, almost all 
 of it spring wheal: 1756 bushels of rye; 5750 bushels of 
 Indian corn; 100,119 bushels of oats; 72,310 bushels of 
 barley. There were 2776 horses reported : 59,996 neat cat- 
 tle; 3415 pounds of wool; 6985 tons of hay; 21 pounds 
 of hops: 64.5.i4 bushels of potatoes: 610 bushels of peas 
 and beans; 14 bushels of grass-seed: the value of all live- 
 stock was $520,580. Besides the horses enumerated above, 
 there were 371 mules and asses: of the neat cattle, 4171 
 were milch cows, 522 working oxen; the remainder were 
 probably for the most part cattle driven into the Territory 
 lor pasturage: the number of sheep was 1021; of swine, 
 2316. The dairy products were 111.480 pounds of butter, 
 4464 pounils of cheese, and 11,250 gallons of milk sold. 
 The increase of population since 1870 has unquestionably 
 more than douldcd, perhaps quadrupled, all these amounts, 
 but there are no available returns which give even approx- 
 imately accurate figures of the actual production. 
 
 .W.iii.i/Vi'dirr. iiMil fii'liiatnal /'nidurta.— The inilustrial 
 progress of Idaho since 1870 has been rapid, but there are 
 not, we believe, any existing statistics to show its extent. 
 In 1870 there were 101 manufacturing establishments of all 
 kinds, in which II steam-engines of 311 aggregate horse- 
 power, and 16 water-wheels of 295 horse-power, furnished 
 the motive force; in these establishments 205 hands were 
 employed, a capital of $742,300 was invested. .$112,372 
 wages were paid, raw material to the value of $691,785 was 
 u.«ed, and the annual product was $1,047,624. Of this 
 amount, the greater part was the product of smelling fur- 
 naces for the extraction of silver and gold from the argent- 
 iferous galena and other ores, and Owyhee co. claimed 
 $464,116 of the product, .\da co., $317,025, and BoisC co., 
 $156,147. leaving only $110,000 bclween the other six coun- 
 ties. The milling of quart/., a branch of this smelting in- 
 dustry, yielded alone a i)niiluet of $523,100. 
 
 Hoilriinilf.—.Ki yet (.May, 1875) there is not a mile of 
 railroad in the Territory, though the Ogden and Franklin 
 branch of the I'nion Pacific comes lo its southern border. 
 The Xorlhern Pacific was intended lo traverse by two dis- 
 tinct ami widely separated lines the northern counties of 
 the Territory— one line f.)llowing the valley of the Clear- 
 water through .'hoshone co. and the northern border of Nci 
 Perees co. to Lewislon, at the junction of the t'lcarwater 
 ami .8nake rivers, while the other or more northern route, 
 striking north-westward near Freiichtown, .Mont., was to 
 follow the valley of Clark's Fork i>f the Columbia, around 
 the northerly shore of Lake Pend d'Orcillo, and then turn 
 south-westward till it reached the ,>;p(.knne lliver in Wash- 
 ington Territory, its whole course in Idaho being in Koote- 
 nai CO. Kventually this road will probably be built, but 
 whether it will follow either or both these roules is uncer- 
 tain. \ road is projected, in continuation of the Ogden 
 an<l Franklin branch already spr.ken of, to extend through 
 S. K. Idaho lo the Yellowstone National Park. II would 
 probably follow the valleys of the Bear Uiver, the upper 
 .Snake lliver, and Henry's Fork. Another road, projected, 
 is from .Monument Point or Terrace on the Central Pacific, 
 up the valley of .>5allnon Creek lo Silver Bar at the mouth 
 of .Maladi' Kiver, from whence the Snake River is naviga- 
 ble for 200 miles lo the moulh of Powder Hiver, and could 
 bo rendered navigable at a moderate expense to Lewiston 
 at the juncliim of the Clearwater. Eventually, probably, 
 this road would follow the valley of Snake River, and thus 
 connect the CenlrnI Paeilie nilh Ihe (iregun and Washing- 
 ton lines. All Ihese projects, however, have been postponed 
 almost indefinitely by Ihe failure of the great banking-house 
 which was engaged in promoting them. 
 
 Financr; etc. — The asaesjed valuation of Idaho Terri- 
 
 tory in 1870 was $5,292,205, and the true valuation was 
 estimated to be $6,552,081 ; of this, three-fifths were in the 
 two counties of Bois6 and Owyhee, and nearly four-fifths in 
 the throe counties of Boise, Owyhee, and Ada. The entire 
 taxes, not national, of the Territory were $174,711, of 
 which $40,594 were territorial and $132,171 county taxes. 
 In 1873 the internal revenue tax of the Territory was 
 $19,275.80. The jmblic debt of the counties in 1870 was 
 $218,522. and Bois6 City had besides a debt of $4099. The 
 Territory has an assay-office at Bois€ City which assays 
 several hundred thousand dollars of gold and casts it into 
 bars for trausportalion. The ]jrincipal exports of Idaho 
 arc gold and caltle. Of the former, about $7,500,000 is 
 sent from the Territory yearly ; of the latter, probably 
 about 20,000 head go to market. The imports are mostly 
 of manufactured products, which, owing to the great ex- 
 pense of tran.s]>ortation, bear a high price. There is one 
 national bank at Boise City, with a capital of $100,000 and 
 liberty to increase to $500,000: no savings banks, and 4 
 private banking-houses — 2 at Boisf City and 2 at Idaho 
 Cilv. There are no life or fire insurance companies in the 
 Territory. 
 
 Popiitntion. — The true population of Idaho Territory in 
 1870. including Indians, nomadic and on reservations, was 
 20,583, of whom 5631 were Indians, 3284 were on^the va- 
 rious Indian reservations of the Territory, 4274 were 
 Chinese. 10.618 whites, and 60 colored. As the Territory 
 was not organized until ISI'i3. and there was only a mere 
 handful of settlers within its limits in 1800, there is no 
 recor<l of population earlier than 1870. The density of 
 the po]iulation in the Territory in 1870, exclusive of tribal 
 Indians, was 0.17 to the square mile. Of the constitutional 
 population (14,999), 12,184 were males, 2815 females: 7114 
 were natives, of whom 5054 were males and 2060 females; 
 7885 were of foreign birth, of whom 7130 were males and 
 755 females; 10,61s were whites, of whom 7073 were males 
 and 2645 females. Of these lO.ClS white persons. 7018 were 
 natives (5002 males and 2016 females); 3000 were of for- 
 eign birth (2971 males and 029 females). Of the 00 of Af- 
 rican descent, 42 were males and 18 females; of these. 47 
 were natives of Ihe I'. .'^. and 13 of foreign birth. Of the 
 4274 Chinese, 4148 were males and 126 females; there were 
 47 civilized Indians. 21 males and 20 females. Of the to- 
 tal population, 1095 (897 males and 798 females) were of 
 school age. 9430 males were of military age (18 to 45), 
 10,313 males were 21 years old and upwards (citizen's age), 
 and 5557 males were actually eitiiens. 
 
 Education. — In 1870 there were 25 schools of all classes 
 in Idaho, having 23 male and 10 female teachers, and 602 
 male and 600 female pujiils ; Ihe income of these schools 
 for the year ending June 1, 1870, was $19,938, of which 
 $16,178 "was from taxation and public funds and $3700 
 from other sources, including tuition. Of lliesc schools, 21 
 were public, having 20 male and female teachers, and 
 1048 pupils and $16,178 income; there were 4 privalo 
 schools, having 7 teachers (3 male and 4 female) and ICO 
 scholars (75 male and 85 female), and $3760 income, mostly 
 from tuition. There was no college, scientific, professional, 
 or technical school. At the beginning of 1873 there were 
 37 school districts. 32 public schools, 00 teachers (20 male, 
 34 female) ; 20 school-houses ; the average mimllily pay 
 of teachers was $162.50 ; there were 1898 children of school 
 age, of whom 1416 were enrolled in school, with an average 
 attendance of nearly 1000. The sum of $22,490.81 was re- 
 ceiveil for school jiurposes from all sources, and $17,219.56 
 expended. There is a school law and school board, with 
 a superintendent, in each of the nine counties. 
 
 Lilnnriet, Xeicpnprrh, etc.— In 1870 there WCro 11 pub- 
 lic libraries, with 2860 volumes, and 32 private libraries, 
 with 7705 volumes, making in all 43 libraries, with 10,025 
 volumes. There were 6 newspapers in the Territory— 1 
 tri-weekly, 1 semi-weekly, and 4 weekly- wilh an aggre- 
 gate circulation of 2750, and an aggregalo annual issue of 
 200,200 copies. In the same year there were 15 churches 
 of all denominations. 12 church" edifices. 2150 sillings. ami 
 $18,200 estimated value of church jiroperly. Of these, 2 
 were Baptist, having 2 church edifices, 175 sillings, and 
 church property valued at $2000; 6 ProtestanI E^iiseopnl 
 churches, wilh 4 edifices, 600 sittings, and $1000 ol church 
 ' properly; 1 Presbyterian church; and 4 Roman Calholic 
 ' cougregalions. wilh 4 church edifices, 575 sillings, and 
 1 $11,000 of ehurih property. In 1873 Ihe number of con- 
 gregations had increased io 10, of which, however, 6 were 
 missions. There were also 6 missions of the Jesuit Fa- 
 thers ainiing Ihe In^liuns. Of the 9 regular priests, were 
 missionaries among Iho Indians, and one was the vicar 
 apostolic of the vicariate of Idaho. 
 
 CiniMtlluliutt, (''inrlit, lOpvptrntixtirrt Ml ConffrcK*, etc. — 
 The governor and seerelary of state arc appointed by Ihe 
 President for a term of four years; the treasurer, comptrol- 
 ler, and luporinloudent of publio instruction are elected by
 
 1100 
 
 IDAHO— IDEALISM. 
 
 the people. The legislature comprises a council of 13 mem- 
 bers, chosen for two ycaris, and a house of representatives 
 of 25 members, chosen for one year. The constitution of 
 the Territory is similar to other territorial constitutions, 
 and will be abrogated when the Territory becomes suffi- 
 ciently po])ulous for admission as a State. The su- 
 premo court consists of a chief-Justice and two associate 
 justices, appointed by the President for four years. It 
 holds at least one session annually at the territorial capi- 
 tal. The Territory is divided into three judicial districts, 
 in each of which one of the supremo mart justices holds a 
 district court session. The Territory has a delegate in 
 Congress, who is entitled to speak on any question, but not 
 to vote. 
 
 Cminfief. — The Territory is divided into ten counties, as 
 follows : 
 
 Pop. in 1870. 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Lemhi 988 
 
 Ncz Pcrces Ifi07 
 
 Oneida 1022 
 
 Owyhee 1713 
 
 Shoshone 722 
 
 Counties. Pop. in 1S70. 
 
 Ada 2fi75 
 
 Altnras 689 
 
 Hoist'' 38.34 
 
 Idaiio 849 
 
 Kootenai (new county taken 
 
 from Shoshone). 
 Prinripal Tutcns. — Bois6 City, the capital both of the 
 Territory and of Ada county, has a population of loOO to 
 20U0. Idaho City, county-seat of Boist'- county, is of about 
 the same population; Lcwiston, capital of Nez Perccs 
 county. Silver City, Malade City, and Florence are the 
 other towns of note. 
 
 IliHtnry. — The history of Idaho Territory is very brief. 
 AVith the exception of the bold explorers, Lewis and Clark, 
 who early in the present century followed up nearly to their 
 sources the two forks of the Columbia, Clark's and Lewis's 
 Forks, which traverse this Territory, the only white men 
 who had trodden its soil previous to 1S50 were some of the 
 trappers and hunters who had penetrated its mountains 
 and valleys in pursuit of their game. In 1852 gold was 
 disc;»vered in the extreme northern part of the Territory, 
 but it attracted few miners or settlers. It formed a por- 
 tion of the Territory of Oregon up to 1S03. Its first paying 
 gold-mine was opened at Oro Fino in 186(1, and others in 
 Owyhee county in 1862. When first organized it included 
 portions of the previous Territories of Oregon, Washington, 
 Utah, and Nebraska. In ISGl its boundaries were changed, 
 and a part set off to Montana. While it possesses as much 
 arable hind, as large a proportion of forest and grazing 
 lands, and as valuable mineral wealth as most of the Ter- 
 ritories, its settlement has been much impeded by its in- 
 accessibility. It has no railroads, and no good wagon- 
 roads traversing any great extent. Yet it is steadily and 
 healthily growing, and from its tine climate, its valuable 
 mines, and its large extent of grazing lands it must become 
 an important Territory and State. 
 Governors. — 
 
 William H. Wallace 18G3-f.4|David W. Ballard 1868-70 
 
 Caleb Lvon IHivl-CiGilHIman Marston 1870-71 
 
 Paviti W. Hallard l-^GG-67 Thomas W. Bennett 1871-75 
 
 Isaac L. Gibbs 1857-681 
 
 L. P. Brockrtt. 
 Idaho, county of Idaho, extending E. and W.from Ore- 
 gon to Montana. It is generally mountainous, and is very 
 dt'fi'-ient in roads. The river-valleys are generally deep, 
 fertile, and so well sheltered from winds that cattle need 
 no protection in winter. The Piiy<'tto Valley is a splendid 
 prairie, producing gr.ass, grain, cattle, and some timber. 
 It abounds in game and fish. Cap. Mount Idaho. P. 849. 
 Idaho, post-v., county-seat of Clear Creek co., Col., in 
 Clear Creek Valley, among the Rocky Mountains. l^A miles 
 W. of Denver and 5 miles from Cqncord, on the Colorado 
 Central R. U. It is in a most romantic region, and is well 
 known for its hot .and cold mineral springs, which are use- 
 ful in a very wide range of diseases. Idaho has ample 
 hotel accommodation, and is visited every summer by great 
 numbers for the purpose of regaining health by means of 
 the baths and tlie charming climate. 
 
 Idaho City, post-v.. cap. of Bois6 co., Id., in a valley 
 of a spur of the Salmon River Mountains ; lat. -13° 4o' N., 
 Ion. 115° 30' W. It is in the centre of a very important 
 mining region ; has a national bank, a weekly newspaper, 
 public and private schools, 2 churches, a court-house, jail, 
 and various manufacturing and business firms. 
 
 T. J. SiTToN, El). ''InAHo Woni.i)." 
 IdaMium (now Dali), a promontory of the E. coast of 
 Cyprus, on which was situated a celebrated temple of 
 Aphrodite; hence her surname, /dalia. 
 
 I'davillc, post-v. of Jackson tp., White co., Xnd., on 
 
 the Columbus Chicago and Indiana Centriil R. R. P. 197. 
 
 Ide, a fish of the carp family ( Cy prinida-), the Leiici»cu9 
 
 Idu>t, found in rocky lakes of Northern Europe. It is a 
 
 good table-fish. 
 
 Ide (George Barto.n), D. D., b. at Coventry, Vt., in 
 
 1806; graduated at Middlcbury College in 1830; entered 
 the ministry ; became pastor of a Baptist church in Albany, 
 N. y., in 1834, of the Old Federal street church in Boston 
 in 1835, of the First Bajitist church in Philadelphia in 
 1838. and of a church in Springfield, Mass., in 1852. Dr. 
 Ide was distinguished for scholarship, eloquence, and logi- 
 cal power; he was averse to writing for publication, but in 
 the course of a ministry of forty-two years quite a number 
 of his .sermons appeared separately or in volumes. D. at 
 Springfield, Mass., Apr. 16, 1872. 
 
 Idc'a, one of the most important terms in mental phil- 
 osophy (from the (ireek lUa or e'fio?, as employed by Plato 
 to signify what is objectivtdy permanent under changing 
 phenomena), used in modern times, especially since Des- 
 cartes, to designate subjective notions and representations 
 with or without objective validity. Plato discovered, as a 
 result of his "dialectic," that under the constant change 
 which goes on with individual things there is a permanent 
 form or type of the process, which abides — somewhat after 
 the manner of the " persistent force " or " law of nature " 
 described in modern science. These archetypal forms or 
 " ideas " he represented as existing prior to. and independ- 
 ent of. things manifest to the senses. Aristotle held to 
 the doctrine of a pure, self-active form {irpwrov etSo*). which 
 transcends material existence, but he opposed Plato's 
 doctrine of independent ideas. The doctrine of the exist- 
 ence of ideas as logical conditions of reality, and as con- 
 ditions of the possibility of all the general conceptions 
 which the mind forms, was held by Spinoza, Malebranche, 
 and Leibnitz, in a modified form. Descartes was so strongly 
 impressed with this doctrine that he attempted to prove 
 the existence of God from the subjective idea of a most 
 jierfeot being. The ancient philosophers investigated the 
 question. What is true in and for itself? The moderns 
 propose the problem of certitude. How to proceed from 
 thought to being? Since the time of Locke it has been 
 common usage to designate by the term "ideas" all 
 thoughts, notions, conceptions, images, perceptions, and 
 intuitions, whether necessary or arbitrary. According to 
 the sensational school of Locke and Hume, all ideas take 
 their rise in sensation, and immediate sensuous imj)res- 
 sions give the most adequate knowledge, while ideas, and 
 especially complex ideas, are fainter and less valid copies 
 of reality. Kant pointed out the objective validity of 
 universal and necessary ideas; they were to be regarded 
 as expressing logical conditions of reality in time and 
 space. But ideas proper were with him the product of 
 the reason in its regulative activity, llcgel gave the name 
 of idea (Ider) to the highest actuality — the universal form 
 of existence considered as a totality, self-related activity, 
 or thinking reason. This was a return to Plato's insight, 
 or rather to that of Aristotle. Taking "idea" in the 
 modern acceptation as the common term for all representa- 
 tions, it may signify — I. Sensuous ideas = images of sense 
 formed in the lowest stage of thinking; II. Abstract ideas 
 = general concepts formed by abstraction and generali- 
 zation from experience; III. Concrete ideas = synthetical 
 conceptions or notions formed by tracing out necessary re- 
 lations and correlations dialectieally ; IV. Absolute idea = 
 the comprehension of the totality in its self-determination 
 (what the Platonists speak of as "knowing by wholes"). 
 Ideas are spoken of as simple or complex, necessary or 
 contingent, absolute or relative, universal or particular, 
 innate or adventitious, clear or obscure, ad('<jiuitc or inade- 
 quate, etc. W. T. Harris. 
 
 Ido'alism, a philosophical doctrine defined (a) as hold- 
 ing that in external perception the objects immediately 
 known are ideas, or (h) as holding that the external world 
 is a mere phenomenon manifesting a superseusuous essence 
 which is (1) spirit, reason, or thinking intelligence and 
 will, or (2) force, law. or some unconscious principle of 
 evolution. According to the former definition, nearly all 
 philosophers, excepting those belonging to the Scottish 
 school, would fall in the class of idealists, thus numbering 
 such difterent systems as those of Locke. Hume, Kant, 
 Plato. Aristotle, Descartes, etc. all in one school. Accord- 
 ing to the latter definition, the theistic or spiritualistic 
 thinkers would be classed in one divi?i<»n (tf the idealistic 
 school, while the pantheistic thinkers (including even the 
 modern " positivists ") would belong to the other division : 
 and opposed to these would be the nominalistic branch of 
 matcrmlists and the .«elf-styled "common-sen.se" thinkers. 
 It has been contended, in fact, that all philosophy must be 
 impliedly idealistic in that it undertakes to explain im- 
 mediate things — or at least the knowledge of them — and 
 thereby presupposes a unity or ground for them u[ion 
 which they depend. All dependent things arc in a certain 
 sense ideal or potential, and underlying the external mul- 
 tiplicity of such things there is .a unity. AVere there no 
 interdependence or correlation among things, it is held that
 
 IDELER— IDIOCY. 
 
 1101 
 
 there could be no philosophy. Although Parmcnidcs, 
 Anuxagoras. and especially Pythagoras, arc to be regarded 
 ns idealists, yet Plato is the idealist par txccllciice, and the 
 father of that selmol of thiukers. His "ideas" or arehc- 
 lynal forms — irofoStiyiuiTii. — are immaterial and eternal cs- 
 seuces which arc shadowed forth or manifested by finite 
 realities. Finite things are " copies " of ideas, and by rea- 
 son of their inadequateness as copies they are in a state of 
 perpetual flux or transition from one phase to another, each 
 imperfection giving place to a more correct copy, which, 
 again, is defective in some other respect. Thus, the process 
 of finite things arises from their mutual imperfection, and 
 from the consequent struggle to attain adcquaieness. .Sub- 
 stantiallv identical with this is the doctrine of Aristotle, who 
 opposes the doctrine of " ideas " as separate archetypes, and 
 lays stress on an intelligent First Cause as the supreme 
 principle of explanation. The Nco-PIatonists were Aris- 
 totelian in the scientific form of their systems, but they 
 betray a strong Oriental influence upon their modes of i 
 thinking. Oriental idealism is unable to reconcile the in- 
 finite with the finite, holding the former to bo the uncon- 
 ditioned and indeterminate, consequently as impersonal. 
 The Neo-Platonists endeavor to seize a first principle 
 higher than intelligence or than consciousness ; they seek, 
 after the manner of Oriental idealism, an impersonal abso- 
 lute uuitv. The idealism of Plotinus and Proclus, and es- 
 pecially that of lamblichus and .'^ynesius, strives to reach 
 a primordial essence as the secret ineff'ablo cause and final 
 goal of all things. The visible world of time and space is 
 a creation i>f the soul in its "lapse" or descent from the 
 divine world of ideas or eternal verities. Valcntinian 
 Gnosticism undertook to furnish a Neo-Platonio basis for 
 Christianity, adding, however, a more explicit principle 
 of mediation or means of return from the " lapse" to the 
 highest principle, .\lcxander of Aphrodisi.is, and more 
 especially the .\rabian commentators of Aristotle, set up a 
 pantheistic idealism ; which indeed is the outcome of Ori- 
 ental monotheism as contrasted with the Christian Trini- 
 tarianism. The ideal principle to which all individual ex- 
 istences in the world arc subordinated, and before which 
 thov perish, is a world-soul conscious in individuals not en- 
 dowed with immortality, and not possessing, of itself, per- 
 sonality. Christian philosophy, as such, is essentially 
 idealistic, inasmuch as it has to provide a speculative basis 
 for the doctrine of a personal Creator and for an immortal 
 creature. Thomas Aquinas .says that Ood " eternally knows 
 all things as present, and through this knowledge these 
 things themselves arc caused." But with the disputes of 
 Nominalism and Uealism arose the distinction which sepa- 
 rates later philosophy into iikalism and materialism. The 
 "realism" of Anselm, Albertus .Magnus, and Aquinas, is 
 idealism in the ]iroper sense of tho term, holding to the 
 origin of the world from the thought of Ood, tlin.ugh his 
 eternal ideas which make possible our cognition of things 
 by means of general ideas, these being the subjective cor- 
 relates to the eternal ideas manifested in individual things. 
 Kcttlism thus holds the universe to exist oiitc rem in the 
 mind of Ood, in rem in tho phenomena of the world, and 
 poll rem in the human mind recognizing it by the act of 
 cognition. Numin.alism, as developed by Uoscellinns. .\bc- 
 lard, and Occam, looked upon general terms as arbitrary 
 creations! /liiliurneia) without objective reality correspond- 
 ing to the'in. Ilach individual thing exists in its isolated 
 independence, and there is no species or genus or class in 
 nature, but only individual beings. Hence, sensuous cer- 
 titude is the nearest approai h to truth, and abstract or 
 general ideas are tho fartnest removed from it. — But when 
 the mind perceives the existence of essential relations in na- 
 ture, such as it names force, /die, life, etc., indicating de- 
 pendence and interdependence among tho things in tho 
 world, it finds itself obliged to recognize, perforce, the ob- 
 jective validity of its complex or general ideas expressing 
 '•substances, modes, and relations." Powers and forces 
 give rise to indivbluals, and cause theni to vanish again. 
 While tho particular individuals begin and cease, the 
 power or force persists, and is mnni/cilett in the evanes- 
 cence of things as much as in their origination, and thus 
 proves itself to possess greater reality than tho particular 
 things which Nominalism supposes to bo the only reality. 
 The existence of processes which are generic in their na- 
 ture and corrcspoml to our general ideas, comes to con- 
 Rciousness in modern natural science as the doctrine of the 
 " persistence of force." In the first stage of idealism, ac- 
 cordingly, all individuality is looked upon ns transitory, 
 and an abstract unity of force is regarded ns the ultimate 
 reality which swallows up all special existences, spiritual 
 or material. From this pantheistic idealism to spiritual 
 idealism the transition lies in tho perception that all force 
 or essential relation is necessarily, in the last analysis, a 
 phase of sclf-determinalion, and hence of jiersonal being. 
 This insight is the key to the idealism of Aristotle, Lcib- 
 
 niti, Aquinas, Eckharl, Hegel, and of most thinkers who 
 have founded svstems that explain human institutions. 
 Idealism, accord'ing to Sir William Hamilton, deduces the 
 object from the subject, while materialism deduces tho 
 subject from the object. This would exclude the numer- 
 ous forms of idealism wherein both subject and object are 
 deduced from a spiritual principle. Among distinguished 
 modern philosophers, called idealists in accordance with 
 one or the other of the above definitions, are to be named 
 Berkeley and .Malebranche as theological idealists ; Des- 
 cartes, as )irobleinatieal idealist ; Hume, as skeptical 
 idealist: Kant, as transcendental idealist ; Fichte, as sub- 
 jective idealist ; Schelling, as objective idealist ; Hegel, as 
 absolute idealist: Schopenhauer, as theoretical idealist; 
 Jacobi and Schleiermacher, as sentimental idealists: Spi- 
 noza, as substantial idealist. These and similar designa- 
 tions arc liable to convey a false impression unless supple- 
 mented by reference to the full systems of those thinkers. 
 (Sec KnAiTii'.s /Icrkcle;/, Philadelphia, 1874: also the sev- 
 eral articles in this work on the philosophers above named, 
 on Sciiooi.MES, and on PniLOSoniv.) W. T. llARnis. 
 
 I'deler (CiiRisTrAX la-nwic.l, b. at Gross-Brese, in tho 
 Prussian province of Brandenburg, .<ept. 21, 17GB, and ap- 
 pointed professor of astronomy and chronology at the I ni- 
 versity of Berlin in 1821. His principal works arc — 
 llnmlbuch dcr miitliemalhcheii iinrf Icehniscliai Vhrnnotogic 
 (ISSIjand Die Zcitrcchmiy der Chinesen (1839); but his 
 earlier writings. Hitloritche UnlcrgKcliungen iibcr die a«- 
 Ironomiaehe Hcobiichlmn/en dcr Altai (1S06), Haudhuch dcr 
 Fronzmiaelicii Spraehc iwd Liltcralur (1852), etc., were also 
 well received. D. in Berlin Aug. 10, 1846. 
 
 Iden'tity, a philosophical term used to indicate unity 
 with persistence and continuity. By it is not meant ab- 
 stract unity, but unity in plurality, in multiplicity, succes- 
 sion, diversitv, or change. Hence it is predicablo of sub- 
 stance, and of tho quantity of force, matter, and other 
 essential relations in nature. It is more especially jiredi- 
 cable of life and of personality. Personal identity is at- 
 tested through conseionsness and memory. In conscious- 
 ness there is the antithesis of subject and object, and the 
 self is certain of the identity of itself as subject with itself 
 as object. This identity is a mystery, perhaps identical 
 with the mystery of the Trinity, or of the participation ol 
 tho particular thing in the generic or universal. Identity 
 may be regarded as existing in various degrees: I. As the 
 identity of the inorganic substances in nature— of the min- 
 eral, fo'r examidc. Here there is supposed to be an iden- 
 tity in material or substance— an identity of composition, 
 but scarcely any identity that might be called individual 
 identity, although in the" crystal this begins to be suggested. 
 II. In'tbo plant, according to Aristotle, dwells the 7ionii«i- 
 i.i.'/ soul, so that there is identity of life, and even of ]irop- 
 agation of species— identity of individual and identity of 
 genus. There is a preservation of identity under diverse 
 conditions and transmutations. III. In the animal tbeio 
 is a still more remarkable preservation of identity, iiias- 
 inucli as to tbiM-v, (ofiif soul is added the/cc/iiifl soul, and 
 the individual animal feels his identity even in his extrem- 
 ities. IV. Man thinks his identity, and consciousniss is 
 tho result. In his entire history man may bo regarded as 
 coming into identii v with himself— i. e. as realizing, by edu- 
 cation, in himself, his faculties and possibilities us mind, 
 and as making these actual in the world in the shape ol 
 institutions and social organizations. Man's uleiitity is 
 personal identity, and essentially difl'crent from the identity 
 of tho plant, wl'iich grows and reneats its s|)ecies in new 
 individuals, or from the animal, which also JeeU, but can- 
 not generalize. In man the species.or the generic process, 
 enters entire in each individual as consciousness, the uni- 
 versal and particular being identical with the iiolividuiil— 
 constituting subject, object, and union of tho two. Tho 
 doctrine of id.ntitv. as taught by Schelling (see Sciiki.- 
 I INU) holds the absolute to be the identity of the ideal and 
 real or of the subjective and objective— matter and mind 
 being the two poles of one infinite substance. The Prin- 
 ciple of Identity in logic slates in another form what the 
 PriiKiido of Contradiction lays d.iwn ns the lundaniental 
 law of thought— namely, that a thing cannot he and ii,.( ie 
 ot tho name time. (Sco Louie, oud Immortality.) 
 
 W. T. Harris. 
 Idos. Sco Cai-esds. 
 
 Id'iocy [from the Or. iJiuTijt, a "private person," hence 
 an unlettered man. and finally an idiot, or person without 
 mental enpacitv |. the want of a natural and harmonious 
 development ol' the menial, active, and moral powers and 
 faculties of a human being, dependent upon some defect or 
 infirmity of the nervous organization. It varies in degree, 
 ennlingent upon the exieni of nervous degeneracy, from a 
 slight iinpuinnent of the mental faculties, or imbecility, by 
 insensible gradations and shades, down to complete idiocy.
 
 1102 
 
 IDIOCY. 
 
 This maximum of imperfcclion and incapacity stops sliort 
 only at a condition of nerve degeneracy inconsistent with 
 thccontinuance of human life. Idiocy may exist with an 
 apparent condition of bodily health, but is more commonly 
 associated with obviously disoiused physical states or some 
 impairment of general physiological functions. There is a 
 notable form of idiocy that is known as cretinism, which is 
 a marked want of mental development, associated with ex- 
 treme scrofulous degeneracy and great bodily deformity. 
 This is more commonly prevalent in mountainous districts. 
 Idiocy is sometimes confounded with dementia, which is a 
 loss of mental powers and faculties once possessed. This 
 occurs at a period of life later than childhood. 
 
 Various methods of classification of idiocy have been 
 suggested, but these are either arbitrary or based upon 
 pathological distinctions that are valueless for any prac- 
 tical purposes of classilication. Of the first class, those 
 based upon differences in mental capacity, it may be said 
 that they have a certain convenience when it is fully under- 
 stood that thev are proposed only to define general degrees 
 of mental defi"ciencv that nevertheless run into each other 
 by insensible gradations. Of the latter, where idiocy is 
 classified bv known or probable pathological conditions 
 underlying "it, such distinctions are of little pr.actical value 
 in devising modes of obviating the resulting mental stales 
 or in predicting the results of such methods. A patholog- 
 ical classification may, however, be used to indicate the 
 ordinary and immediate causes which produce idiocy. 
 From such a study it would be seen to occur, first, as a 
 form of human degeneracy, the result of congenital or post- 
 natal influences; or, secondly, as a consequence of acci- 
 dental causes that have interrupted or checked the laws of 
 normal human growth. Of the former, a majority may be 
 classed as the result of hereditary neuroses in one or both 
 families. The intermarriage of near relatives is a not in- 
 frequent cause of idiocy, because it intensifies the family 
 defects and vices in the offspring. Again, ill-health, any 
 serious constitutional affection, or the intemperance of one 
 or both parents at the time of conception, insufficient food, 
 continued ill-health, depressing influences, or any sudden 
 shook to the mother during gestation. Of the latter, all in- 
 juries to the brain in infancy, whether the result of primary 
 or secondary disease or from accidental causes. Thus, on 
 the one hand there may be the ill efi'ects of convulsions, 
 epilepsy, hydrocephalus^ or any primary brain disease, or 
 the translation of eruptive diseases to the brain. On the 
 other hand, there may be injuries to the brain in partu- 
 rition from instrumental interference or otherwise, from 
 blows on the head or concussion in infancy, and in rare 
 instances from fright. Premature ossification of the skull 
 may prevent mental development by checking or stopping 
 cerebral growth. In many cases, however, the search for 
 causation is a blind one. 
 
 Idiocy has existed in all ages and in every country. The 
 relative number of idiots in any community will depend 
 upon the physical and social influences that lead towards 
 nerve-degeneracy, but the ratio to the general population 
 seems to be an increasing one. With the present imperfect 
 civilization of the civi/ized world, it is safe to estimate the 
 number as at least one to every thousand in the population. 
 The statistics of the sutiject would support this estimate, 
 after excluding all cases of dementia, and not including 
 those unrecognized as idiots on account of infancy. Their 
 status as subjects of law and objects of pity and charily 
 had been recognized from time immemorial, hut any known 
 attempts to ameliorate their condition were reserved for 
 quite recent times. In fact, systematic efforts for the im- 
 provement of their condition date back only some forty 
 years. There was a prior period of incubation, in which 
 circumstances combined to direct attention to this class, 
 to their peculiarities and their needs. Efforts to improve 
 the condition of the insane, to educate deaf-mutes and the 
 blind, had been attended with great success. In individ- 
 ual instances, where idiocy had been studied and some de- 
 gree of improvement had been attained, the facts had found 
 their way to the public ear. Scientific curiosity had been 
 awakened as to the nature of idiocy and the extent to 
 which remedial means might be rationally applied. Civil- 
 ized communities wero thus made ripe for an extension of 
 experimental measures of relief to the class of idiots. By 
 general consent the name of Dr. Edward 8eguin of Paris 
 stands at the head of European specialists in the manage- 
 ment and training of idiots. He organized a school for 
 the purpose in lS:iS. His intelligence, skill, and zeal, to- 
 gether with a happy faculty of presenting his principles 
 and methods of instruction and the results, attracted pub- 
 lic attention. The public authorities of Franco and scien- 
 tific bodies acknowledged the merits of his system. Visit- 
 ors from many nations went to see the wonderful results. 
 Thus were sown the seeds that have ripened into extended 
 labors in the same direction in many lands. His work on 
 
 the management, training, and education of idiots, pub- 
 lished in Paris in 1840, has been almost the only textbook 
 on the subject till the issue of a second treatise in English 
 published in 18G6 in New York, where he now resides. 
 
 Institutions have been established in many of the conti- 
 nental states of Europe. In Great Britain the growth and 
 spread of institutions for idiots has been almost unexam- 
 pled. Beginning with a small school founded by some 
 benevolent ladies in Bath but a little more than twenty- 
 five years ago, there are now eight institutions, public and 
 private, in England, three in Scotland, and one in Ireland. 
 More than 1000 idiots and imbeciles are now gathered in 
 institutions designed for their management and instruction, 
 supported by their friends or by the liberality of wealthy 
 and benevolent individuals. Besides these, several large 
 custodial establishments exist where indigent and pauper 
 eases of idiocy are properly cared for at the public expense. 
 In Great Britain, therefore, the cause of the amelioration 
 of the condition of idiots may be regarded as having been 
 fairly adopted and placed upon a firm foundation, both as 
 a charity and a measure of public policy. In the U. S. 
 efforts at instruction in individual cases of idiocy or imbe- 
 cility were undertaken as early as 181S. The first school, 
 however, was opened at Barre, Mass., in 1848. Only a few 
 months later, an experimental school, under the patronage 
 of the State of Massachusetts, was begun at Boston. To 
 this enterprise Dr. S. G. Howe, long identified with the 
 education of the blind and other works of philanthropy, 
 gave the prestige of his name. Thence followed the estab- 
 lishment of similar institutions in other States, a list of 
 which is here given : 
 
 Name BQdlocalioQ of Institution. 
 
 Priv.ins 
 
 stale " 
 
 State " 
 
 State " 
 
 State " 
 
 State " 
 
 State " 
 
 State ' 
 
 City " 
 
 Priv. ' 
 
 Slate ' 
 
 ..Barre, Mass 
 
 S.Boston, Mass.. 
 Syracuse, N. Y... 
 
 Media, Pa 
 
 Columbus, O 
 
 Lakeville, Conn. 
 Frankfort. Ky... 
 .Tacksonville.IlI. 
 New Y'orkCily.. 
 Fayville, Mass... 
 
 Glenwood, la 
 
 Total number 
 
 SuperintcodeQU 
 
 When 
 
 found- 
 
 cd. 
 
 1848 
 184S 
 1831 
 1863 
 1SS7 
 1858 
 1860 
 18G.5 
 1865 
 1870 
 1876 
 under instruction 
 
 No. or 
 
 pupils. 
 
 t)r. George Brown... 
 
 Dr. S. G. Howe 
 
 Dr. H. B. Wilbur 
 
 Dr. I. N. Kerlin 
 
 Dr. (i. A. Doren 
 
 Dr. II. .M. Knight.... 
 
 Dr. E. H. Black 
 
 Dr. C. T.Wilbur 
 
 Com. of Charities... 
 Mm'es Knight AGreen 
 
 120 
 198 
 22.-i 
 357 
 57 
 99 
 100 
 200 
 
 30 
 
 I4B8 
 
 The underlying or associated physical causes of idiocy 
 have been referred to. From the nature of the case, they 
 are, the most of them, not directly remediable; but in an 
 indirect way much may be done to obviate their conse- 
 quences, if lio more. These physical causes may be classed 
 either as defects or infirmities. As a defect, there may be 
 want of size or want of brain-capacity, from whatever 
 cause arising : a want of proper anatomical relation or 
 connection in the elementary parts of the brain, or various 
 abnormal modifications of its more intimate structure or 
 organization. As an infirmity, there may be a general de- 
 fault of normal functional activity. This statement includes 
 a variety of subtle conditions or influences that may be 
 suggested or inferred, rather than demonstrated, originat- 
 ing in the brain itself or derived from im]iairincnt of func- 
 tion of remote but correlated organs. Of these physical 
 causes of the first category, it will be seen that they cannot 
 absolutely he removed by any treatment. They are con- 
 genital, organic defects or abnormal organic conditions in- 
 duced by disease in a region and in tissues not susceptible 
 of much modification by remedial measures. In other 
 words, absorption and regeneration cannot bo rendered 
 active and operative. Of the second class of physical 
 states or influences, some degree of reformation under fa- 
 voring circumstances may be predicated. Thus, to estab- 
 lish a healthv functional activity of the nervous system and 
 other bodily organs, hygienic and remedial measures may 
 be undertaken with a reasonable hope of success. To bring 
 the brain and the nerves of relation into exercise, increas- 
 ing their forces, actual and potential, is the work of edu- 
 cation. And inasmuch as nil jiliysiological growth is the 
 result of reciprocal action between organ and function, 
 while size or capacity and perfection of organism controls 
 and determines the amount of functional activity, so im- 
 perfection of organic structure and want of size may be 
 the result of the absence of proper functional exercise in 
 the brain, as in any other organ. Education, then, may 
 have an indirect efl'ect in obviating even the profounder 
 causes of idiocy. Rational efforts for the amelioration of 
 the condition of idiots resolve themselves, first, into mea- 
 sures of management, training, and education. In insti- 
 tutions for this purpose the same general features are 
 everywhere seen : a gymnasium, to develop muscular power, 
 attention, dexterity and a proper carriage : a nursery, where 
 the younger and lower grailes of pupils are trained to habits 
 of cleanliness, decency, order, and self-care; a school-room.
 
 IDIOSYNCRASY— IDUM.EA. 
 
 1103 
 
 with a coQiplete Bcalo of mental exercises, from those ap- 
 plicable to the first dawning» of sense-power and sensc- 
 T.erceptiou up to the ordinary studies of an elementary 
 school The same principles of education are hero as in 
 any other system of instruction. But the special adapta- 
 tions of these principles to meet the peculiar needs of this 
 class of pupils mav bo quite varied. The will of the teacher 
 may be needed to'supplement an absence of spontaneous- 
 ness on the part of the pupil. The beginnings of instruc- 
 tion will he at such a point in the series of exercises as the 
 cxigeucies of each case may demand. The progress will 
 be bv such gradual steps as are within the reach of each 
 puniVs intelligence. The acquisitions of each day. in the 
 way of greater nerve-force, awakened intelligence, and in- 
 creased self-control, are applied to the practical matters 
 of everv-day life in the household or elsewhere. The ulti- 
 mate end of all these efforts is to establish good habits, to 
 impart a capacity and a willingness for some form of use- 
 ful occupation, to develop greater power of self-control 
 and if possible, to bring idiots under the sway of moral 
 obligation. The experience of institutiuns now for many 
 years in operation has established tho fact that the ma- 
 jority of idiots of a school attending age and condition 
 are susceptible of marked improvement, and may attain 
 the end proposed bv their education in the manner and by 
 the means thus briefly indicated. Ordinarily, tho precise 
 extent of iraprovability can be determined only by experi- 
 ment, as the actual physiological limitations of the mental 
 growth can only thus bo ascertained. Of some, unim- 
 provability may be predicted at the very outset; thus, 
 where the degeneracy is of a kind to be self-developing 
 with the progress of age; where there is an obviously un- 
 derlying pathological condition progressive in its nature ; 
 where there is such a degree of deformity as to prevent the [ 
 use of the various means of training, etc.; and, finally, 
 where there is an extreme nervous excitability, the natural 
 termination of which is in some form of insanity,— for all 
 such unimprovable cases there is needed another class of 
 institutions— namely, of a custodial character. As a ques- 
 tion of social science two practical principles may be laid 
 down as to the disposition of idiots. First, it involves less 
 trouble and no more actual expense to care for them by 
 themselves in the hands of competent persons, and with 
 proper surroundings and appliances, than in the public 
 almshouse with other socially dependent classes, or even lu 
 the homes of indigence. Secondly, whenever practicable 
 it is a wise public economy that provides for them appro- 
 nria'c means of management, training, and education. 
 •^ II. B. Wilbur. 
 
 Idiosyn'crasy [Or. ;«io(rvY«p«<ria. a "peculiar admix- 
 ture"], a marked individual trait of any function of body 
 or of mind which is possessed by only one or by very few per- 
 sons. Certain bodily idiosyncrasies appear to bo compat- 
 ible with perfect health. Others arise from diseased con- 
 ditions, and cease upon tho cure of the disease. Mental 
 idiosyncrasies may not amount to marks of insanity, and 
 yet it is impossible to draw a line between the two. 
 
 I'dlewild Cave, a large cave at White Pine, Nev. It 
 was discovered by miners who ran a shaft into it. It has 
 been but imperfectly explored. 
 
 I'docrase [Ur. «ISoi, "f„rm," and Jtpaai?, " mixture," 
 from its resemblances to other minerals], a mineral crystal- 
 lizing in the dimctric system, and essentially a silicate of 
 alumina and lime, with a smaller proportion of iron, and 
 in some cases also containing magnesia, etc. ; hardness, 
 6.5; specific gravity, . 1. 4. It occurs chiefly in lavas, but 
 is also met with in' gneiss, serpentine, aud granular lime- 
 stone. 
 
 Idol'atry [from the dr. «Koi, an " image." and XoTp«ii«ii 
 to "servo"] is distinguished from iMAr.K-Wuiisim' (whic 
 
 ich 
 see) or iconolatry in this, that tho former is applied to 
 literally worshipping the images themselves, whereas icon- 
 olatry is restricted to signifying simply the use of images 
 to direct the mind in worshiji to tho deity or saint repre- 
 sented. Tho ignorant find it difficult to distinguish between 
 the two, and end by believing that there arc sanctity and mi- 
 raculous or magical virtue in the image itself. Idolatry ap- 
 ]i. :ir3 to be of great antiquity. Tho Turanian races (/. <:. the 
 i ionic, Turkish, Tartar, aiid Iral-.Mlaic, Dravidian, and 
 .ognalc tribes, including perhaps tho Basque and Etruscan) 
 worshippod tho spirits of their ancestors, and represented 
 these by little images, as did tho Romans, who derived the 
 custom from the Etrurians. As soon as the belief was 
 established that tho departed were immortal, it would occur 
 to the survivors that their spirits might benefit them, and 
 that this might be made sure by worship. The beginning 
 of this < ii//ii« was before all history, since Boucher do Per- 
 thes found that the earliest races huried their dead in urns 
 with offerings. The more civilized branch of humanity 
 divided into tho Indo-European and tieiuilic. The former 
 
 appear to have been inspired with a deeply poetical and 
 pantheistic spirit, from which came the tcudeuey to deify 
 not only the principal forces in nature, but all their sub- 
 divisions, so that eventually there was a god or goddess for 
 every separate river or kindof jilant — all represented more 
 or less by images, which were worshipped. The Semitic 
 races limited their ideas, expressed in gods, to the first prin- 
 ciples of reproductiveness and death, especially the former, 
 whence resulted a sex-worship and obscene rites. But thoy 
 found in Moses and Mohammed reformers who vigorously 
 repressed all nature-worship and its resultant idolatry to 
 such an extent as to very strictly forbid the making of 
 graven images; Mohammed, with great practical shrewd- 
 ness, going 8o far as to forbid the making of any image what- 
 ever. It is a curious fact that the literal worship of images in 
 themselves ajipears to be in proportion to their monstrosity 
 and ugliness. The (jrecks maile statues of their gods, but 
 seem to have merely admired the former while thoy adored 
 the latter. In the Roman Catholic Church the Virgins of 
 Raphael and of the great artists genernlly serve merely fur 
 icnnolnln/, but where irlol<iln/\s developed it is common to 
 some barbarously adorned rural image or to one absolutely 
 hideous — e.f). the jet-blaek Virgin of Altiltting. The tend- 
 ency of humanity to invest material objects with magical 
 virtues is universal. A savage who has by chance always 
 killed his enemies or his game with a certain weapon soon 
 believes that it possesses a peculiar virtue, and this belief 
 readily extends to ornaments and amulets, which are sup- 
 posed to bring luck. From amulets — pebbles or beads — 
 the faith readily extends to human images, whether of an- 
 cestors or representing powers of nature. Idolaters of every 
 country endeavor to please their divinity by sacrifices, and 
 many punish it when their prayers are not answered. It 
 is not many years, as the writer can vouch, since the in- 
 habitants of Segni, in Italy, having prayed in vain to St. 
 Bruno for rain, took his image down, punished it with 
 stripes, and stuck it into the mu.l of a river heail down- 
 ward. A great shower happening to fall immediately after, 
 tho people came in solemn procession, took the imago up, 
 washed it. and reinstated it in its shrine. It is needless to 
 say that the Catholic Church does not sanction such idol- 
 atry, though it encourages iconolatry. A curious form of 
 idolatry is the totem-worship by which a certain sacred 
 animal is regarded as originating and protecting families 
 and tribes of a common descent. This was to be found, 
 <•. g.. among the Teutonic Wolfinge — whose names survive 
 inlludolf, Wolfgang, etc. — as also among North American 
 Indians. Sir .John Lubbock briefly explains this as fol- 
 lows : " In endeavoring to account for the worship of ani- 
 mals we must remember that names are very frequently 
 taken fnim them. Tho children ancl followers of a man 
 called the Bear or the Lion would make that a tribal name. 
 Hence the animal itself would bo first respected, then wor- 
 shipped." Mr. Herbert Spencer regards this as the origin 
 of fetichism, or the lowest forms of all idolatry. " He whose 
 family tradition is that his ancestor was the crab, will con- 
 ceive'thc crab as having a disguised inner power like his 
 own. Hence . . . multitudinous things around will acquire 
 imaginary personalities." Idols representing forms half 
 human, half brutal, also originate, in all probability, from 
 this source. There is more than one royal or noble family 
 in Europe and the East which has a tradition that it spi^ang 
 from the amours of a woman with an animal, the animal 
 having been simply a man named after one. According to 
 Max Miiller, races so rude as to have simply one word for 
 every one idea, cannot represent active powers, natural or 
 supernatural, in any but a personal and more or less human 
 form. This would also account for the origin of nuieh rude 
 idolatry. Iconolatry becomes idolatry when the image is 
 believed to wink, bow, or display signs of life, owing to the 
 actual presence in it of the spirit which it represents, or 
 when it is believed to possess healing or magical power. 
 Tho most extensively disseminated idols arc those of Boud- 
 dha and of the Chinese queen of heaven, which bears a 
 striking resemblance to Isis. Cii.uiles Q. Lelaxo. 
 
 Id'ria, town of Austria, in Carniola, on the Idriza. It 
 is situated in a kettle-shapeil valley, and is famous for its 
 quicksilver-mines, which arc said to be the richest in Eunqio. 
 producing annually 3000 cwts. Pop. 4;i00. 
 
 Id'stcdt, a y. of Sleswick, noteworthy on account of 
 the battle (.luly 21 and 2.i. 1S50) by which tho Hanes 
 crushed the Sleswick-IIolstein rebellion. 
 
 Idumic'a, territory of Western Asia, was bounded N. 
 bv .Judiea, \V. by tho Mediterranean. At one time it com- 
 prised parts of Judiea a.s far N. as Hebron, and in Arabia 
 the peninsula of Petrnja. It was inlmbiled by the descend- 
 
 ants of Esau, and was annexed to .ludxa by David, and 
 later by the .\Iaceabees. The relations between the .lews 
 and the Iduniwans (Edomiles) were always hostiloand full 
 of haired, even after the Jews had received an Idumican
 
 1104 
 
 lESI— IGNORAKTIA JURIS. 
 
 dynasty in the son of Herod the Great, in whose time the 
 Idumienns were, however, Jews in rehgion. 
 
 le'si, town of Italy, in the province of Ancona. It is 
 said to he of Pelasgian origin, and through the I mbnans 
 and Gauls it passed to the Unmans, traces of whose c,y,.- 
 lation arc everywhere seen. The city walls are Hanked hy 
 over" , and the place is well supplied with good water. 1 he 
 public 'buildings' are very respcetable, ".n''.~"l'"°;""'^^^^^: 
 Dietures, as well as some curious antiquil.es. Ihe trade 
 ^nd manufactures of this town are very considerable. 
 Pop. in IST-l, 18,912. 
 
 IfliantI (.\rr.isT Wilhei-m). b. at Hanover Apr in, 
 176'.l ; took to the stage at Gotha in 1777 ; acted ... M.an- 
 hcim I77il, and became in 179G director of the National 
 Th a.re of Berlin, where he d. Sep.. 22, ISU ."'^dramas 
 of which he wrote a great number, =^°d,7'"'^Vv and ScaT 
 were performed on all the stages of Germany and bcan- 
 dinavfa, are narrow, sentimental and affected P'o'";^;^^ <>/ 
 the trivialities of everyday life ; but hey "7"' ^ '"g"'*'^^^ 
 without psychological interest and ">''f.","^'.<=^^^^-^^^'i7 
 actor he was the perfection of th.at wh.ch b.s dramas in- 
 tended to represent-the natural, the noble, the true ; bu ho 
 was great only in the representation of that which m reality 
 Ts small- ■ CLCMP.N-S Petersen. 
 
 Igasu'ric -Vcid [Malay, igasura, •• vom.ting-nut ], 
 an acid fo.ind in \nx vomica and St. Ignat.us beans, and 
 in the root of Sln/rhnna colubrma. 
 
 leasu'rine [.Malay, .;7as".-i, "vomiting-nut"], an al- 
 kaloid which occurs in .Vnx vomica in company w.tli strych- 
 nine and brucine. It is intensely poisonous. (See Desno.x, 
 ,/ Pli„vm. [.■>.], XXV. 202. and Sehutzenbcrger, Compt.rend., 
 xivi. 1234; Ann. Ch. Ph-irm., cviii. .'US.) 
 
 lelau', town of Austria, in the province of Moravia, on 
 the Iglawa. It is an old but well-built town, w.th exten- 
 sive Tnanufactures of cloth, tobacco, and mach.ncry, and 
 rich silver-mines in the vicinity. Pop. 20,112. 
 
 Igle'sias, town of Sardinia, in the province of Cagliari. 
 It io a walled city, with crenelated towers and a castle, and 
 is situated in one of the most fertile portions of the island. 
 Silver and other mines are found in the vicinity, and sd 
 prosperous are the mining operations that tt.s town is 
 known in Sardinia as the "city of the mines. There is, 
 however, little general industry except among the women, 
 who make quantities of linen and woollen stuffs. P. 9816. 
 lelesias (Jose Mauia). See Ait-exdix. 
 Ig'lo, town of Hungary, in the county of Zips, on the 
 Hernad. has copper aud iron works, and a considerable 
 trade. Pop. o90U. 
 
 lena'tius, Smst, bishop and martyr. It is not known 
 whinher he was of Svrian or of Greek descent, nor whose 
 disciple he was. Eusebius (ff.Vf., iii. 22) makes h..n the 
 seco..d bishop of Antioch, Evodius having been the first 
 The Ap;,tolic. Co»,ltlulio„3 (vii. 46) ra.ake Evod.us .ind 
 Ic-natius bishops together— Evodius appo.nted by Peter, 
 aid Ignatius by Paul. Baronius and Natalis Alexander 
 think thev were bishops tojether— Evod.us of the Jews, 
 Ignatius of the Gentiles. That be was a martyr, hav.ng 
 b?cn condemned at Antioch, and taken to R»n.o to be 
 thrown to the lions, is hardly to be doubted. Tho dateot 
 his martyrdom is. however, a mooted question. The earliest 
 date is that recently given by Dresscl on the authority of 
 a now codex of the .Varf./r.nm, first edited by hl.n m Uj. 
 (••d ed ISi;:)). which begins : '• In the fifth year of tho reign 
 of the emperor Trajan," i. c. 102 A. D. The old M.,r,;,r,u,„, 
 which has the api.oarance of having been tampered with, 
 names Dec. 20, 107. Hut as it is now generally adm.ttc.l 
 that T,-aian did not go to the East till 114, winter.ng at 
 \ntioch' 114-15. critical opinion is now gravitating to- 
 wards 115. Perhaps we may say Dec. 20, Ho. Bear- 
 in.' the name of Ignatius there are fifteen £;)^«('c., 
 ei^ht of which (three in a Latin and five in a Greek 
 recension) are now generally considered spurious. The 
 rc.naining seven (A>/n'«K<«., Man""'""'- TraUinm, Ka- 
 ma,,- written at Smyrna; Philadrlphiam, i„„yn!taM, 
 f'ohrnrp, written at froas) are in two (Ireek reeons.ons : 
 (l)the longer, first published by Pacieus in los, ; (2) the 
 shorter, first published by Archbishop Usher in 1644. Three 
 of the seven (AyK„-..»», llo„,.;,». I'„l,r"n>) ""<> P."''- 
 lished. with a translation, in a still shorter Synac rpocnsion, 
 by Curcton in 1S45. Since then the Ignatmn controversy 
 has been renewed with great sharpness. The several opin- 
 ions are as follows : ( 1 ) KiUen thinks them all spur.ous, b..t 
 imagines that the Syriac three were the first to be forged. 
 in the time of Origen (18,5-254), soon after which they were 
 translated into Greek, expanded, and others added, belorc 
 the time of Eusebius, who had the seven. (2) Baur and 
 Hilgenfeld think them all spurious, but are of the opinion 
 that the seven shorter Greek epistles were the first to bo 
 forced after 150. The .Svriac three, it is contended, read 
 
 like extracts. (3) Cureton, Bunsen, Ritschl, and L.ps.us 
 advocate tho genuineness of the Syriac three. (4) A strung 
 array of the ablest critics, both Protestant and Roman 
 Catholic, such as Gicscler, Uhlhorn, Miihler, and llcfcle, 
 may still be reckoned on the side of the shorter Greek re- 
 cension. The longer Greek differ from tho shorter in tho 
 greater emphasis which is put— (1) upon episcopacy; (2) 
 the divinity of Christ. R. D- Hitchcock. 
 
 Ignatius, Loyola. See Loyola. 
 Ignatius' Bean, or Bean of St. Ignatius, the 
 beau-like seed of .SVn/r/in.w J.piatii. a rather large shrub 
 with curious vine-like branches growing in the Phil.pp.nes, 
 and belonging to tho order Loganiiieeic. The seed is an 
 inch long, half an inch thick, aud has the proper!. cs of 
 nux vo.uica. but more actively, for it contains a much larger 
 percentage of strychnin. Tlic commercial supply is irreg- 
 ular. The seed was named by the Jesuits in honor of 
 Ignatius Loyola, their founder. 
 
 I"'neous Rocks are those which have been formed by 
 the "cooling of melted materials, as distinguished from 
 sedimentan/ rocks, which are formed of mater.al depos.tcd 
 from water, and mrinmorphic rocks, scdin.cntary ... the.r 
 origin, but much changed in character by the action of 
 he^t and pressure. Igneous rocks arc formed by the cool- 
 ing of lavas from volcanoes or of the fused matters cast up 
 through fissures in the earth's crust, constituting dykes of 
 non-stratified rock. Igneous rocks are either /Mgpalhic 
 (white trap, porphyry, trachyte, phonolite, pitchstone, ob- 
 sidian, pumice, etc.) or .n.gilic (diorite, basalt, doler.tc, 
 etc ) Granite, greenstone, etc. are sometimes reckoned as 
 igneous rocks, but in many cases they appear to be truly 
 metamorphic. 
 
 le'nis Fat'uns [Lat. " vain or foolish light ;" Fr./cii- 
 fullcl- Ger. Inlifht or /rnci'sci], a luminous meteor, ap- 
 pearing during summer and autumn nights on marshy 
 land, ifear stagnant water, in graveyards and other places 
 where decomposition is going on. It is an unsteady blu.sb 
 light usually seen a few inches above the surface of the 
 gfound, sometimes stationary, but commonly moving with 
 great rapidity. It appears brightest at a distance, and re- 
 cedes from the observer as he tries to approach it ; thus 
 travellers have frequently lost their lives through being 
 deluded by it into dangerous bogs. From Us resemblance 
 to a li.'htcd wifp of straw or torch borne quickly aloiig. it 
 has received a number of names, such as Will-o -the-W.sp, 
 Jack- (or Peg-) o'-Lantern, Friar's Lantern, Kit-w.tb-thc- 
 Canstick (,-.c. candlestick), and has given r.se to many 
 popular legends. It was formerly attributed by the coun- 
 tr/-people to evil spirits, who found pleasure in lur.ng 
 hunian beings to destruction, but was sometimes supposed 
 to be souls escaped from purgatory, all in flames, with the 
 hope of inducing men to pray for their deliverance. •\\ hen 
 appearing in churchyards, the ignis fatuus is still m some 
 places called " corpse-candle,' a.id regarded as a presage 
 of speedv death, geuerallv to the person by whom .t .9 seen. 
 The English gypsies, to whom, owing to the.r out-of-door 
 life, the ignis fatuus is a familiar spectacle, call it mnWos 
 v„„„eU>. or ghost-light. A light of this species, called .n 
 Buckinghamshire "Ihe Wat," is said to haunt prisons, and 
 when seen bv a prisoner before his trial is considered an 
 unfavorable "omen. The cause of the ignis fatuus is not 
 fullv decided. Some meteorologists refer it to electricity ; 
 others to an issue of marsh-gas (light earburetted hydro- 
 gen I caused bv the decomposition of vegetable matter and 
 inflamed bv an electric spark. It is most generally sup- 
 posed to b'e phosphuretted hydrogen arising from decom- 
 posing animal matter; this gas takes fire spontaneously 
 upon coming into contact with atmospheric air. Beloro 
 the introduction of an improved agricultural syst^em, and 
 the almost universal drainage of marsh-lands, the ign.s 
 fatuus was a very ordinary phenomenon. .U present it is 
 more r.arolv seen, and is often vainly sought lor by students 
 of meteorology. Sir Isaac Newton defined it as • a vapor 
 shining without heat," but other observers havo described 
 it as producing a slight degree of warmth, and have even 
 succeeded in igniting flax at its flame. Janet 1 ucKtv. 
 Ignoramus. Sec Gbaxd Jury. 
 Ignonintia Facti. See Ic.sorantia Jims. 
 Ignoran'tiaJu'ris (Lat., "ignorance of the law"]. It 
 is a cardinal legal principle that ignorance of the law a - 
 fords no excuse for a violation of, or fa.lure to observe, its 
 requirements. Il is conclusively presumed that every ono 
 is acquainted with the established rules of law. and under- 
 stands that his eondtict should be regulated in accordance 
 with them, without regard to bis lack of opportunity to ac- 
 quire such knowledge. This presumption. tho..gh .t may 
 work great hardship in particular cases, is based upon the 
 necessitv of securing the practical and u..iform enforcement 
 of the liw, and is therefore demanded by cous.dcrat.ons ot
 
 lli.NUUANTlNKS— ILKIM. 
 
 1105 
 
 publlo policy. If a different rule were adopted, the desire 
 to avoid legal necountahility would lead to a general disre- 
 gard of the law, and it might therelorc be transgressed 
 with impunity, and would beeomo wholly ineffeetive. In 
 regard to itfiiornucc v/ /net, however, there is not the same 
 reason for a similar presumption, and a diflVrent rule is 
 established. Aets done or transactions entered into incon- 
 sequence of ignorance of material facts, when the lack of 
 knowledge is notatlributable to unreasonalile remissness in 
 inquiry or a disregard of readily available sources of in- 
 formation, will not, therefore, as a general rule, be held to 
 iniiiosc any legal liability, or at least the same degree of 
 liibility as would otherwise have been incurred. These 
 rules as to ignorance of law and of fact arc at ]iresent rec- 
 ognized in the common-law tribunals, as well as in courts 
 of equity. Kor examjile, in civil cases it is lu-ld that if 
 money is paid in any transaction with full knowledge of 
 the facts, but in ignorance of the doctrines of hiw applying 
 to the case, it cannot bo recovered back if there be nothing 
 unconscientious on other grounds in the retention of it; 
 but, on the other hand, if money be paid through ignorance 
 of the facts merely, ami without laches, it will in general 
 be recoverable. In like manner, in criminal law, if an 
 offence be committed which is in fact a crime, though not 
 known to be such by the wrongdoer, the plea of ignorance 
 that the law forbade such an act will not be accepted in 
 justification : but if a house-owner should, in the exercise 
 of a reasonable degree of caution, and in the belief that it 
 was necessary for self-protection, kill a person by night in 
 his house whom ho innocently but mistakenly believed to 
 bo a burglar, his ignorance would be upon a point of fact, 
 and would free him from responsibility. Ignorance of the 
 laws of a foreign state is deemed to bo ignorance of fact, 
 and the States of the I'nion are for this purpose deemed to 
 be foreign to one another. 
 
 Hut these rules in regard to the effect of ignorance are 
 modified at times by other principles of law, so that their 
 application is not invaria!>le. Thus, if a point of law bo 
 doubtful, and certainty of knowledge thereon cannot be 
 attained, a compromise of claims atVectcd by it will gen- 
 erally be sustained as estalilishing the rights of tho parlies, 
 since it is desirable that litigation be diminished. More- 
 over, if a person's ignorance of law has afforded another 
 opportunity to practice fraud or imposition upon him, his 
 ignorance will not preclude him fr(uu obtaining relief, since, 
 if such were the ease, the other party would bo permitted 
 to profit by his own wrong, .^gain, it is a salutary rulo 
 of law that when one of two innocent parties must Buflcr 
 the loss resulting from any act. the consequences should 
 fall upon the one who has caused or enable*! the act to be 
 committed, rather than upon tho other. Hence, if a person 
 assume to act as agent for another in conducting any trans- 
 action, believing that he has authority so to act, while ho 
 has no authority in reality, the interests of tho third person 
 with whom he deals upon such a basis will generally bo 
 protected, and the pretended agent will have no claim to 
 relief on the ground of ignorance of material facts. Tho 
 generally prevalent doctrine is, that he woubl be liable to 
 the third pcraim in such a case upon an implied warranty 
 of authority. In like manner, special considerations may 
 at times lead tho courts to modify tho application of tho 
 rules cimeerning the effect of ignorance, and courts of 
 equity particularly may, in peculiar cases of hardship, oc- 
 casionally grant special indulgence to one innocently vio- 
 lating tho law. (See Mistakk.) 
 
 (iKoucE CiiAsi:. Kevised dv T. W. DwionT. 
 
 Ipnornntincs. See Brethren or Tin: Ciiuistian 
 
 I Schools. 
 
 Igunln'cia, town of Spain, in tho province of Barce- 
 lona, on the Noya. It is an old and gloomy town, with a 
 bright and handsome suburb, a brisk trade in wine, oil, and 
 fruits, and extensive manufactures of weapons and cotton 
 and woollen goods, with several paper-mills iu the vicinity. 
 I'op. 14,000. 
 
 Igiin'nn [Sp.], a genus of lizards inhabiting Central 
 and Siiulh America ami the West In<lies. These animals 
 are of large size, often four or five feet in length to the end 
 
 ] of the tail, which is l(!ng, slender, compressed, and covered 
 with small, e(|\ml, imbricated, and carinated scales. The 
 body is also scaly, and provitlecl with a prominent median 
 fold of integument under the throat, forming a conspicuous 
 dewlap, which is serrated in front, with large scales, An- 
 othiT fold along the back is similarly raiseil into a deeply 
 and acutely sirrnleil crest, highest on the dorsal region and 
 extending upon the tail. There is a single row of femoral 
 pores. The tongue is short, contractile, and iHptehed at tho 
 lip. There is a ilouble row of small teeth upon the ptery- 
 goid bones of tho palate, and larger teeth upon tho usual 
 maxillary bones. These teeth have the crown compressed, 
 acute, arid with a scrruled margin. Tho external surfaoe 
 Vol.. II.— 711 
 
 of tho crown is coated with enamel ond traversed by a 
 median longitudinal ridge. The bases of tho teeth are 
 elongated, subrylindrical, and soldered to excavations on 
 the inner surface of the outer wall of a shalloiv, oblique 
 alveolar groove, thus exhibiting tho pleurodont type of 
 dentition. The vertebra;, besides the ordinary articulation 
 by the zygapophyses or oblique processes from the arches, 
 are further united by a process (zygosphene) from the front 
 part of each arch, which fits into a cavity {zygautnun) 
 upon the posterior face of the preceding arch; and in this 
 respect they resemble the vertebra; of serpents. There are 
 five well-developed toes on each foot, all provided with 
 claws. They are active animals, living mostly upon trees, 
 and are herbivorous. Their flesh is considered a delicacy. 
 The best-known species is Itjvana tnherculata, so named 
 from the tubercular scales upon the sides of the neck. 
 
 0. C. XlAusn. 
 Igrua'nodon [from Sp. ir^uana, a species of lizard, and 
 Gr. oSoiit, '•tooth"], a genus of extinct reptiles belonging 
 to tho order Dinosauria. and found in the Wealdeu and 
 Cretaceous of Europe. These reptiles were first discovered 
 by Dr. Mantell in the Wcalden of Tilgatc Forest, and Iho 
 remains fir.«t found consisted of teeth. The name of the 
 animal was intended to express the reseniblance of these 
 teeth to those of the iguana. As in that animal, the base 
 of tho tooth is elongated, the crown expanded and notched 
 on the margin ; at first it is acuminated and compressed, 
 its sloping sides serrated, and one surface, external in the 
 upper jaw, internal in the lower, is traversed by a median 
 longitudinal ridge and covered with a layer of enamel. 
 On each side of this ridge are one or two lower ridges, 
 separated from each other and from the serrated margin 
 by wide smooth grooves. The marginal serrations are seen 
 under a low magnifying power to be tr.'insverscly notched. 
 These teeth were set in sockets giving a firm support for 
 mastication, by which they seem to have been worn until 
 nearly tho whole crown was gone. In the earlier stages of 
 use a sharp, irregular edge was maintained by the layer of 
 enamel ; later, the ossified pulp, harder than tho dentine, 
 formed a transverse ridge, fitting the tooth for its work as 
 a molar for grinding and bruising the coarse vegetables 
 that formed the food of these animals. The vertebra; of 
 the neck were moderately convex in front, concave behind, 
 becoming concave on both faces in the dorsals, resembling 
 those of some mammals, while other points of structure 
 allied these animals with the birds. The ribs were bifurcate. 
 Tho shoulder-girdle resembled that of lizards, and the fore 
 legs were comparatively small. The pelvis had the ilium 
 extending far in front of the acetabulum, and furnishing 
 only a widily arebid roof to that cavity. Tho ischium was 
 much elongated, had an obturator process as in birds, and 
 probably united with its fellow in a median ventral sym- 
 physis. The unusually large bones of the hind limbs were 
 exeavatecl by a large medullary cavity, and fitted for ter- 
 restrial locomotion. The femur had a strong inner tro- 
 ch.anter. and its distal end was bird-like in the ilevelopinent 
 of a strong ridge, which played between the tit)ia and lilnila. 
 Tho metatarsals were elongated, and so fitted together as to 
 hardly if at all move on one another. The inner and outer 
 digits were short or rudimentary, leaving only three well- 
 developed toes, of which tho middle was the largest and 
 strongest. Large three-toed tracks iu tho Wealdcn aro 
 sncli as might have been made by these animals. A/uouo- 
 (loH Mtiiilclli (so named by Prof. Owen for its discoverer) 
 was thirty feet in length, with a bulky body, and was per. 
 haps tho largest of terrestrial animals. This genus has 
 not yet been identified from America. (Sec IlAnnosAiuus.) 
 
 0. C. Marsh. 
 
 Ili'Inne-Ili'lang [Tagel. for "flower of flowers"], Iho 
 rich and ]ir)\verful jurfume of t'noiiu niliiratintima, a noblo 
 forest tree of the Philipjiines and Malay Islamls. Tho 
 volatile oil of the flowers of the tree is largely em]iloyed in 
 making the rich hanrlkercbief-perfumc of I his name. This 
 oil is distilled in the East, and is worth about $2J0 a 
 pound. 
 
 Il'cliostcr, snmll town of England, in Somersetshire, 
 on the Ivel. is noteworthy as the birlhplaee of Koger liaeon, 
 and there are iu tho neighborhood many llomau remains. 
 Pop. 7!<I. 
 
 IIC-«lc»Fraiicc',an old province of France, with Paris 
 for its capital, is now divided into the departments of Seine, 
 Oisc, Aisne, Seine-et-Marne, and Scine-et-Oiso. 
 
 Ilcx'boro, a village of Washington tp., Hocking co., <). 
 Pop. iVl. 
 
 ireum [Or. »;*u, to "twist," from its convoluted np- 
 penrance]. tlie lowest portion of the small intestine, extend- 
 ing from the jejunum to the bend of the colon. In niiin it 
 is about twelve feet long, thus including some threc-fiftlis 
 of the length of the small intestine. It is one and a quar- 
 ter inches in calibre, is thinner and narrower than tho jo-
 
 110(5 
 
 ILEUS-ILLINOIS. 
 
 iunum, has less marked valvulm co„mvente,, and is ordi- 
 narily the only part of the intestine which has Peyer s 
 patches (agminatcd glands) upon its inner surface. 
 
 H'eus r«r- «;^'«' '^ " twisting ;" Lat. vol,:ulu>, or miserere 
 men i very painful disease of the intestine, produced by 
 mechanical obstruction, as by twisting, intussusception or 
 knotting of the cntrail. Intense pain, persistent vomiting 
 (sometimes stercoraceous), hiccough, etc. are characteristic 
 symptoms. Intussusception, or the passage of a part ot 
 tiie intestine into the cavity of another part, is one of he 
 most common conditions, as when the lower part of the 
 small intestine is slipped down into the large intestine 
 The disease is very often fatal. Spontaneous reduction of 
 the displacement may occur; the intussusceptcd part may 
 slou-h away and .in inflammatory process occur resulting 
 in rceoverv ; dilatation of the bowels by the bellows may 
 effect a cJre. As a last resort, gastrotomy may bo tried 
 with possible success. 
 
 Ilex. See Holm Oak and IIollv. 
 
 Ilha'vo, town of Portugal, in the province of Beira, is 
 well built and thriving. In its neighborhood is the cele- 
 brated glass and porcelain manufactory of Vista Alegre. 
 Pop. S215. ., ^ . , . 
 
 Ilic'ic Acid [Lat. ilex, "holly"], an acid contained m 
 the leaves of the holly, Ilex aqnifolnim. 
 
 Ilic'in [Lat. ilex, '• holly "], the bitter principle of holly. 
 
 Ilex (irjui/'olium. ,. i ., <■ 
 
 lliiats', or Iliyats', the name of the nomadic tribes ot 
 Persia Thev are of various descent, Turkish, Arabic, etc., 
 and most of them are Mohammedans of the Sunni see . 
 Each tribe has a district or graiing-ground appointed to it, 
 for which it pays a tribute in lambs, oxen, etc., money be- 
 in- unknown among them; but on account of the some- 
 what unsettled social state, it happens every now and then 
 that a tribe falls into habits of robbery and plunder. 
 
 Ilini'za, or Ilinis'sa, a volcano of the Cordilleras of 
 Ecuador, South America, 10 miles S. of Quito. Its two 
 peaks, from which smoke and flames have been seen to is- 
 sue, rise 17,:iS0 feet high. 
 
 Il'ion.post-v. of German Flats tp., Herkimer Co., N. Y., 
 on the S. hank of the Mohawk River and on the Eric Canal. 
 Hion Station, on the New York Central R. R., 70 miles from 
 Albany, is on the opposite side of the river, in Herkimer 
 tn liorse railroads connect Hion with Mohawk and Her- 
 kimer It has 4 churches, a national bank, 2 weekly news- 
 papers, and extensive manufactures of firearms, sewing-ma- 
 chines, agricultural implements, and other goods. P. 287b. 
 Hion, or Ilium. See Troy. 
 
 Ilis'sus, a river of Attica, rises near Hymettus and 
 flow= to the Phalcrie Bay. In ancient times it was cele- 
 brated for its beautiful scenery, but its waters have now 
 greatly decreased, and near Athens it is dry in summer. 
 
 Iliian'thin [Lat. i7ex, "holly," and Gr. fa^Sd,, "yel- 
 low "], C17II.2O11. a yellow dye contained in the leaves ot 
 hollv. Ilex aqulfoUum. 
 
 li'kcstou, town of England, in Derbyshire, 8 miles N. 
 E. of Derby. It has large manufactures of hosiery, l-><='=- and 
 §ilk. and rich coal and iron mines in the vicinity. P. Sbb.. 
 Illawa'ra, post-v. of Carroll parish. La. 
 ine-et-Vilaine',departincnt of North-western France, 
 in Brittany, bordering on the English Channel. Area, 2a04 
 square miles. Pop. 5S9,i:i2. The ground is mostly low 
 occupied along the sea by dunes and marshes, but much 
 of the soil is fertile, producing, besides good crops of gram, 
 lar-e quantities of hemp and flax, which are mannfacti.red 
 into thread, cordage, and woven goods. The oyster fish- 
 eries are considerable. Cap. Rennes. 
 
 irier, a river of Southern Germany, rises in the lyrol, 
 flows N. through Bavaria, and empties into the Danube. 
 
 Illima'ni, the highest peak of the Bolivian Andes, sit- 
 ua'ci ""a .. ih :i7' S^and Ton. 67° 49' W. It i; 2>.\49 ^ct 
 high, and covered with glaciers to the height of 10,350 feet. 
 mini, tp. of Macon co., 111. Pop. S21. 
 Illinois', one of the central Stales of the Union, lying 
 in the ui.pcr Mississippi Valley, extending from the par- 
 allel of -M" 59' N. lat. to that of 42° 30', and from 8, ° 
 35' to 91° 40' W. Ion. It is bounded N. by AVisconsin, E. 
 by Lake Michigan, Indiana (from which it is in part sep- 
 arated by the Wabash River), and by Kentucky, from 
 which it is separated on the S. E. and S. by the Ohio River. 
 It is also separated from Missouri for a short distance on 
 tho S by the Mississippi River, which forms its entire 
 western boundary, severing it from the States of Missouri 
 and Iowa. Its territory extends both on the Ohio and Mis- 
 sissippi rivers to the middle of those rivers. Its area is 
 55,410 square miles, or 35,462,400 acres. 
 
 Face of the Comi/ri/.— Illinois may be described m gen- 
 eral t«riii3 as a gently inclined plain sloping from Lake 
 
 Michigan toward the Mississippi and Ohio. A somewhat 
 elevated plateau extends from Wisconsin into tho N W. 
 section of the State, and is there manifest in some bluffs 
 
 Seal of Illinois. 
 
 and hills, and another moderate elevation includes Ford 
 and the adjacent counties : but neither of these secticms 
 rises to a greater height than SOO feet above the sea, while 
 the Grand'Prairie is not more than 500 feet above the sea, 
 and the lowest portion of the State, at the junction of the 
 Ohio and Mississippi, is 340 feet above tho Gulf of Me.xico. 
 The State is therefore very nearly level. The N. W . corner 
 is the most uneven portion of the State, though the^nvcrs 
 have in some instances cut such deep channels into the clay 
 and alluvial soil as to give a broken appearance to the sur- 
 face In the extreme S. there is a range of remarkable 
 hills crossing the State from Grand Tower to Shawncetown. 
 Rivers, Lake,. c(c.— The State is drained almost exclu- 
 sively by the Mississippi and its tributaries, the Ohio and 
 it< affluent the Wabash, the Kaskaskia, the Illinois, and 
 Rock rivers, and the smaller affluents and tributary streams 
 of the=e. A few short and inconsiderable streams flow into 
 Lake Michigan, but the largest of these, the Chicago River, 
 now flows bv an artificially deepened channe through the 
 HIinois Canil into one of the branches of the Hliiiois River. 
 The HIinois, formed by the junction of the Dcs Plaincs 
 River from Wisconsin and the Kankakee from Indiana, is 
 the largest river wholly within tho State. Its course is 
 nearly 500 miles in length, of which 245 are navigable, and 
 its principal affluents are Fox. Spoon, and La Mam nvers 
 and Crooked Creek from the N. and W.. and Vermilion, 
 Mackinaw, and Sangamon rivers and Macoupin Creek from 
 the S and E. In Woodford and Peoria cos. its bed ex- 
 pands and forms Peoria Lake. It enters the Mississippi 
 River 15 miles above Alton. The Kaskaskia River rises 
 in Champaign co., and runs in a nearly parallel course with 
 the Illinois for 250 miles, joining the Mississippi near Ches- 
 ter in Randolph co. Rock River enters the State from M is- 
 eonsin.and finds its way to the Missi.=sippi at Rock Island. 
 The Big Vermilion, Embarras. and Little W abash arc trib- 
 ularies of the Wabash ; the Saline and Cash of the Ohio 
 The Big Muddy is a smaller but considerable affluent of the 
 Mississippi. Lake Pishtaka in the N. E is the only con- 
 siderable lake, besides the expansion of Illinois River al- 
 ready mentioned, in the State. . 
 
 G^eolony.-^h^ greater part of the surface of II inois be- 
 longs to the Carboniferous era, the great coal-llcld of the 
 State extending 375 miles in length from N. W to S ^ , 
 and in breadth from St. Louis to the N. E. about 200 miles^ 
 The thickness of these coal-measures is much less than 
 those of the same formation in Ohio and Pennsylvania; 
 and as the strata are thrown into waves, tr.aversing the 
 State from N. W. to S. E., the limestones and sandstones 
 of tho formations below arc frequently brought to he sur- 
 face. The workable beds of coal are comparatu;e y small 
 for the large area occupied by the coal-measures. The N. L 
 portion of the State for a considerable distance from Lake 
 'Michigan belongs to the Post-tertiary formation. J''"°;'- 
 ley of the Illinois River (which has cut for itself a deep 
 channel) consists of successive terraces of limestone, indi- 
 cating that at a period not geologically remote the waters 
 of the great lakes found an outlet through this channel to 
 the Gulf of Mexico. In the S. E. strata belonging to the 
 Permian group have been discovered overlying the coal- 
 ; measures eonlirmahly. In the N. W. corner ot the State, 
 I in Jo Daviess Co.. there is a small distnol forming the ter- 
 minal portion of the great Western lead-bearmg belt. Tho
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 
 1107 
 
 argentiferous galena is found in the lower Silurian lime- 
 stones, and the mines are so productive as to form an im- 
 portant item in the products of the State. The soils of the 
 Slate are of diluvial origin, and seem to indicate that at an 
 carlv period the greater part of the surface of the State was 
 a po'rtion of the bed of an immense lake. The jirainc soils 
 are very deep and fertile; in some of the bottom-lands the 
 loam and mould are reported to be from 25 to 100 feet in 
 depth. Whatever the depth, the loam is underlaid by a 
 
 prevail, and in the vicinitv of the Ohio River yellow pine, 
 cypress, and cedar. The prairies in the spring and early 
 summer, where not under cultivation, are carpeted with a 
 profusion of flowers, those of the same or allied species 
 forming large masses of bloom, and then giving way to 
 those of an entirely different family. Later in the season 
 the intense heat of the sun renders these broad lands much 
 less attractive. The grasses in the rich and fertile soil 
 attain great height, and their stems are stiff and almost 
 The State abounds in fruit trees, and much of its 
 
 dense, almost entirely impervious, clay, which keeps the --''y-^f-^^^^,,^^^ ^„^,i,^.. ^hc apple, peach, pear, plum, 
 
 cherry, apricot, etc. are successfully cultivated; grapes of 
 all varieties do well, and the smaller fruits, as strawberries, 
 
 moisture from leaching away. , , o . • 
 
 Mineralo,,,/.— First among the minerals of the State 13 
 the coal. Wo have already spoken of the extent of the 
 great coal-field. Its area is estimated at 45,000 square 
 miles but much of it is not workable. The coal is bitu- 
 minous, containing from :i to 20 per cent, of incombustible 
 materials: and in some of the mines the cannel coal pre- 
 dominates; in others excellent smelting coals are found. 
 In 1S70 there were over 400 mines worked, and the product 
 amounted in round numbers to 2,500.000 tons. Ith.-is since 
 increased to a little more than .'^OOO.OOO tons. The position 
 of these coal-mines, readily accessible by railroads and 
 convenient to the Ohio, Mississippi, and Wabash, and fur- 
 nishiug to the vast manufacturing establishments of St. 
 Louis and Chicago, as well as to the countless steamers on 
 the Mississippi, abundant fuel for steam purposes, greatly 
 enhances their value. The iron ores of the State are not 
 very valuable, though they answer a good purpose when 
 mixed with the valuable specular, spathic, and ha3malitio 
 ores so readily and cheaply brought into the State from 
 Missouri and from the L.ako Superior iron-region. Lead 
 ore containing a considerable percentage of silver (ar- 
 gentiferous galena) is mined in large quantities in Jo 
 Daviess co., and the flourishing city of G.alena derives its 
 name from it. There are fine and productive veins of cop- 
 per ore in the northern part of the State, on the Peckaton- 
 ica River and I'lum Creek. Zinc is also mined in the 
 northern part of the State. Limestone of excellent quality, 
 both for burning and for building, a drab freestone of great 
 beauty, gypsum, and a fine variegated marble, are among 
 the other mineral treasures of economic value; there are 
 salt-springs in .Jackson, Vermilion, and Gallatin cos.; sul- 
 phur and'chalybca'e springs in Jefferson co., and other 
 meilicinal springs between Ottawa and Peru. A cave in 
 the rock in Hardin co., ou the Ohio, presents, as the place 
 is approached, a vast mass of rocks of a castellated appear- 
 ance, resembling the ruins of some fortress of the Middle 
 ;\gcs. The entrance to the cave, which is from the river, 
 ami ii but a little above high w.alcr, introduces the visitor 
 to a chamber 80 feet square and 25 feet high, with a farther 
 chamber of smaller size beyond. It was in the early year.s 
 of this century the resort and hiding-place of bands of 
 robbers, counterfeiters, ami river-pirates. Starved Rock, 
 the Lover's Leap, and Buffalo Rock are well-known points 
 on the Illinois River near Ottawa. 
 
 I',.;,<-(-,(i'.,;i.— Though not by any means a densely wooded 
 State, Illinois has a sufficiency of woodland for its present 
 homo requirements, but imports much timber from the 
 States farther N. Most of its prairies have islands of oak 
 and other forest trees, and where the limestones and sand- 
 stones have broken through the overlying coal-iucasurcs 
 there are wooded bolts of considerable extent. lUit for her 
 extensive coal production, however, the State would have 
 been long ere this completely denuded of its forests. .\s it 
 is, a little more than one-sixth (Ifi.9 percent.) of its surface 
 is wnodlauil. The forest trees most abundant are oak, black 
 walnut, sugar maple, ash, clin, locust, linden, hickory, per- 
 simmon, pecan, and in the bottom-lands cottonwood, syca- 
 more, buckeye, tulip tree, poplar, beach, and black birch 
 
 raspberries, blackberries, etc., arc raised in great quantities. 
 Ziiolofju. — There are a few deer left in the State, though 
 most of the larger game has disappeared. Bears, wild-eats, 
 and panthers arc very rare. The coyote or prairie wolf is 
 occasionally found in the sparsely settled districts ; there 
 are some foxes, mainly the fuscous or red fox, aud of the 
 rodents, the gopher, several species of squirrel, and numer- 
 ous field and dormice. There arc at least two species of 
 hares. The wild-turkey, stateliest of game-birds, the prai- 
 rie-hen, a species of grouse, and an abundance of other 
 feathered game, are slill found in great numbers on the 
 prairies and in the woodlands. The rivers and lakes abound 
 in fish of good quality— the white-fish, the great lake-trout, 
 black bass, catfish, and other species. The insect tribe are 
 in their usual variety, about 20,000 species having been 
 enumerated in the Slate, though less troublesome than far- 
 ther S., except the small number of species injurious to 
 vegetation. These in some years appear in countless num- 
 
 cii'mafe.— Stretching as Illinois docs over five and a half 
 degrees of latitude, there is of course considerable variety 
 in its climate. In the northern portion the annual range 
 of the thermometer is very great, the summer heat being at 
 times intense, and the cold of winter very severe. At Chi- 
 cago, and in the N. of the State generally, the prevalent 
 winds throughout the year are those from the S. W. and S., 
 though in the spring and summer N. and W. winds arc 
 moderately frequent. The wind blows almost constantly in 
 some direction, only 44 out of 1100 observations noting a 
 calm condition of tlic atmosphere. At Cairo, in the southern 
 extremity of the State, the most prevalent wind was that 
 from the' S., though closely followed by that from the N. E., 
 while those from the N. and the S. E. were less frequent. 
 About one-eleventh of the observations represented the ab- 
 sence of wind. At Rock Island the S. W. wind was the 
 prevalent one, though N. W. and N. K. winds were also 
 common. The annual range of the thermometer in Peoria 
 in 1859 and 1800 was 117° F. (the maximum being 104° in 
 July and the minimum -i:)° in December); in liiley, Mc- 
 Ilciiry CO., near the N. line of the State, 12:!° F. In 40 N. 
 lat. tiie mean temperature of the year is about 54°; of the 
 summer 77°. iuul of the winter 3:i° .lO'. At Beloit on the N. 
 line of the State the mean annual temperature is 47° :I0' ; 
 at Cairo 58° 30'. About 245 days of the year ore clear and 
 120 cloudy or rainy. The climate is generally healthy, the 
 paludal fevers which prevailed in the early settlement of 
 the State having mostly disappeared or become greatly 
 mitigated with more thorough cultivation and drainage. 
 In the low and swampy bottom-lands, especially in the 
 Bouthern part of the State, bilious and intermittent fevers 
 and diseases of the bowels are prevalent. The following 
 table, eomiiilcd from the signal service report of 1873, gives 
 the mean temperature, and range and barometer mean, to- 
 gether with the rainfall of each month, and the annual 
 rainfall and the annual means of barometer and thermom- 
 eter in 1872-73 for Chicago, Rock Island, and Cairo : 
 
 BABOurniR, monthljr nnd annual mean prcaoiira. 
 
 Ctil™ico» (lat. «" 
 
 52'. Inn. SJ" 3* ; 
 
 All- above Ma, 
 
 f,;,7 n. ) .10.093 30.080 30.1M 30.051 
 
 Rock Inland tilt. 
 
 IP aC, Ion. OOo 
 
 SA' ; nit. above 
 
 nea.GOS ft.).... 
 Cairo I (laL 370 
 
 Ion. 85^ la'; nil 
 
 nbove ■OB, 3.Vi ft.) 
 
 30.110 30.118 30.W5 
 Wl.lM IWl.llW IW.W30J30 
 
 30.000 
 90.010 
 
 ■ami a.soe 
 
 tt.SSS 20.683 
 3I>.DO!l'29.S0!> 
 
 30.000 
 
 29.034 
 30.004 
 
 30.012 
 
 30.000 
 30.028 
 
 30.003 30.022 
 
 30.040 30.0&1 
 
 TiiKiuJOMrrKR, monthly and annual mean tcmiicraUirc. 
 
 £>3.9|70.2 71.2 
 
 .6i77.»,Ii.« 
 IM.7 77.678.7 
 
 62.4 
 
 40.26 
 
 48.47 
 
 62.3 
 68.9135.67 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Rook Inland... 
 Cairo 
 
 TiiuuioMKTBR, monthly rangoa. 
 
 I><° 
 
 72° 
 
 W 
 
 Vio 1 Hfi I ii' I sV'> 1 41^' i IB'' 
 
 Raovitall. monthly and annual amouuta In Inobea, oto^ 
 
 n' 
 
 470 0.6.1! 1.06 
 
 .... O.filll.S'^ 
 
 jw'p 1 Si'^ 1 46^ III I6'0.f,7 
 
 n.47 O.Rt 
 
 0.77 1.4:1 
 
 6,fisl •1.27 3 64 
 
 6.37; 2.10 
 .',.6714.4 
 
 • Annualraago ot tborroomcter, lie", from »30 (July) u, -laf (Deo.). 
 
 If* ■'■■™ 
 Manual ranBOotlhcrmomelcr, 104", from OO" (July) to -B" (Jan.) 
 
 28.73 
 25.21 
 4I.I>S
 
 1108 
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 
 The report of the State department of agriculture, pre- 
 sented to the Illinois legislature in 1S74, throws adUitional 
 lio-ht on the climate of different parts of Central Illinois. 
 a" Sandwich, l)c Kalb co. (lat. 41° :U', Ion. SS° 30', eleva- 
 tion above sea-level, GT-l feet), the highest degree of heat 
 in 187:5 (..Tune 2-t) was 9S° ; the lowest (Jan. 2a) was —-^^, 
 the ranijo 12:!° ; the mean temperature of the year 48.7°; 
 mean temperature of summer mouths, 71.5°; of winter 
 months ''2.9°; the prevailing wind was W. for 10 months 
 of the 12 ; E. and N. W. for the other two. There were 
 r'7 fair and 2.'i8 cloudy davs, 143 days without frost; the 
 last frost of spring was April 24, and the tirst of autumn 
 Sent. 14. The total rainfall was 45.4 inches, April, July, 
 Dec. and Aug. being the months of greatest precipitation. 
 This town seems to be the centre of greatest precipitation 
 in the State, its average rainfall for sixteen years being 
 .M) 17 inches. Havana, in Mason co. (lat. 41° 14', Ion. 90° 
 W , elevation 465 feet above the sea), had for its maximum 
 temperature in 1872, 102° (in Aug.), for its minimum -2:, 
 in Dec— living an annual range of 125°. The mean tem- 
 perature of the year was 49..3° ; of the winter months 
 2'' 7°- of the summer months, 74.:i°. The annual rainfall 
 of the same year, 33.10 inches, of which 9.83 inches fell in 
 the month of" June. In 1S71 the rainfall was :W.90 inches, 
 and in the first nine months of lS7:i it was 33.42 inches. 
 Evanston, near Chicago, elevated 044 feet above the sea, 
 from observations taken for several successive years, has 
 the least rainfall of any town in the State, the average be- 
 ing 24.78 inches. 
 
 Anriciilturai ProdiKlloiis.—ln 1870, according to the 
 census the value of the farms in Illinois was $920,506,346 ; 
 of farming implements, .534,570,546; of forest products, 
 «!1 087 144- of home manufactures, $l,408,01o; of animals 
 slaughtered or sold for slaughter, $56,718,944: of all live- 
 stock, $149,756,698 ; of farm products, $210,800,585 ; of or- 
 chard products, $3,571,789; of marliet-gardens, t.76o,992 ; 
 makin.' a gr.and total of farming lands and productions of 
 ''I 3791:52,100. Vast as this aggregate is for a State which 
 sixty years ago had not 20,000 inhabitants, the four years 
 which have sfnce passed have greatly increased it. In 1873 
 the assessed value of cultivated farm-lands (stated by the 
 State auditor to be less than 40 per cent, of their real value) 
 was $642,912,908, representing a real value of not less than 
 $1,600,000,000: the assessed value of town and city lots 
 was $243,961,152: and these were similarly underrated. 
 The valuation of railroad property (70 per cent, of actual 
 valuation), the vast property of the Illinois Central R. K. 
 being excluded, that road paying a ^P""^''}^^'^.'^^ 
 $98 400.545.53, representing an actual value of &128,0U0,uuu ; 
 while tiie as.sessmcnt of personal property, which was of 
 course greatly underrated, was $302,778,499. The actual 
 propcrtv of the State, real and personal, was not less than 
 $■> ,800,000,000. The live-stock of the State was reported 
 as'foUuws by the State board of equalization in the summer 
 of 1873- ho'rses, 930,947 (the A'lricnltnml, Report of Jan., 
 1873 estimates them at 1,049,400, at the average price of 
 $66 31 ), averaging a value of $52.41 , and giving an aggregate 
 value of $48,790,933 (i\vi Aaricutlurnl Report above named 
 gives their value as $60,585,714); cattle, board of.<;qu=^'- 
 ization 2,014,801, valued at $17.74 per head = 4...o,r42,ol)3 
 (the Report makes the number 1,971.800, but the value 
 $51709,806): mules and asses, 98,316, average value, 
 $■,9 09 a<'"ro<'ate $5,809,404 (the Ayrlrulliirnl Report 
 makes' thrnumber about the same (98,800), but the valu- 
 ation $72.58, giving an aggregate of $(.i, 8,0-4). iho 
 State board gives the number of sheep as 1,092.080, and 
 the aggregate value, $2,140,474, while the A;iri"tllnrnl 
 /ffiKH-r makes the number 1,394,300, and their value 
 $4 461 460 The State board reports 3,360,083 hogs, 
 'averaging $3.17, and worth in the '^•iS'-<'g^'<: ^'V;^^''^^' 
 while the Ayrieultural Report makes the number 3,700,300, 
 averaging $1.30, and having an aggregate value ot 
 «l5 9t7 090 The aggregate value of the live-stock was 
 iirobahlV somewhat greater than the very largo sum stated 
 in the census report. We have not the full crop-returns 
 of 1873, but those of 1872 give 283,481,600 bushels of 
 corn, worth $68,035,584 : 25,329,027 bushels of wheat, 
 worth at a low estimate $31,154,703; 66,519.146 bushels 
 of oats, worth $13,303,829; 3,267,356 tons of hay. worth 
 $31 039 877: rye, barley, buckwheat, etc., worth $t, 240., ,10; 
 tobacco, valued at $1,276,000; hemp, flax, etc, $1,316,000 ; 
 dairy products, $13.79.8,630 ; pasture, valued at $24,..61,ob.!, 
 and other farm products, not specially enumerated in t he 
 returns for 1872, were valued at over $25,000,000. The 
 year 1873 showed a very considerable increase on these 
 
 large sums. 
 
 M,i„»i;,et„ri«y /nrfii.frv.— The State has made great 
 s'ridcs "in manufacturing since the census of 1870 was 
 taken especially in Chicago and the other cities; and 
 ther"'is good reason for believing that the manufacturing 
 statistics of the State, always ascertained with great diffi- 
 
 culty, and often onlv by crude estimates, are very inade- 
 quately represented in the ninth census ; still, these returns 
 are later and more comjilete than any other. In 1870 there 
 were reported in Illinois 12,597 manufacturing establish- 
 ments, emploving for motive-power 2330 steam-engines 
 having an aggregate of 73,091 horse-power, and 528 water- 
 wheels with an aggregate of 12,953 horse-power. These 
 establishments employed 82,979 hands, of whom 73.045 
 were men, 6717 women, and 3217 children ; the capital used 
 was reported as $94,368,057 ; the wages paid ^amounted_to 
 $:;l 100,244; the raw material purcha.sed to $127,600,077; 
 the' annual product to $205,620,672. The first rank in 
 these manufactures belongs to flouring-mill products, for 
 which there were 681 establishments, employing 3581 hands 
 and a capital of $12,931,000, paying wages to the amount 
 of $1,704,778, using raw material valued at $32,090,825, 
 and producing flour and meal valued at $39,413,618. Next 
 in importance was the p.acking of pork and other cut meats, 
 in which 33 establishments were reported as engaged, em- 
 ploying 2236 hands and a capital of $6,921,000, p.aying 
 $448,560 wages; using $16,836,541 of raw material, and 
 producing $19,818,851 of packed meats annually. In Jan., 
 1873, the°product of this branch of industry in the city of 
 Chicago alone for the previous year was $19,153,851. As 
 many of the smaller cities of the State are engaged in this 
 business, it is evident that it had largely increased, or that 
 the census report was much below the facts. JIalt and dis- 
 tilled liquors, in which 193 establishments were engaged, 
 employing 1955 hands and $7,397,900, paying $1,031,142 
 wat'cs usin.' $6,898,377 of raw material, and producing 
 li<|Sors valued at $12,042,975, came next; and lumber, 
 planed and sawed, is not far behind, 410 establishments 
 producing $11,382,649. Agricultural implements came 
 next. 294 establishments producing these to the value of 
 $8,880,390. The various manufactures of iron produced 
 in' 130 establishments wares valued at $7,738,443; 458 es- 
 tablishments produced clothing valued at $8,407,005; 1165 
 manufactories produced carriages and wagons valued at 
 $6 019 ■'91. Machinery of all descriptions was produced 
 in'l31 establishments to the value of $6,398,794 ; the man- 
 ufacture of tobacco in its various forms, in 274 factories, 
 produced goods of the value of $4,319,716 ; leather, tanned 
 and curried, in 97 establishments, was produced to the 
 value of $4,148,163; woollen goods, in 85 factories, were 
 produced to the value of $2,725,690 ; printing and publish- 
 in- in 129 offices, to the amount of $2,727,519; furniture, 
 37T factories, to the amount of $2,982,522 ; 391 cooper-shops 
 produced goods valued at $2,501,531 : hoots and shoes, in 
 88 factories, were made to the amount of $2,298,130; oils, 
 animal and vegetable, in 17 establishments, were produced 
 to the value of $2,642,733; saddlery and harness, in 687 
 establishments, to the amount of $2,581,416; sash, doori!, 
 and blinds, in 94 factories, to the value of $2,316,320; tin, 
 copper, and sheet-iron wares, in 478 shops, to the amount 
 of -*•' 194 812; 24 confectionery establishments produced 
 good's to 'the value of $1,948,710; 128 bakeries produced 
 Soods valued at $1,732,885 ; 240 brick-kilns made bricks 
 To the value of $1,638,761; marble and stone work, includ- 
 ing monuments and tombstones, were produced in 122 es- 
 tablishments to the value of $2,098,209; soap and candles, 
 in 24 factories, to the amount of $1 ,250,930 ; grease and tal- 
 low, in 5 rendering-factories, to the amount of $1,412,900; 
 paper was made in 16 mills to the amount of f'.T'MOO; 
 railroad cars, in 5 car-shops, to the amount ol $1,010,007. 
 The other branches of manufacture, though of large aggre- 
 gate amount, did not individually produce goods to the 
 value of $1,000,000. 
 
 Railrooih.—'Vhe railroad system of Illinois has acquired 
 a remarkable development, scarcely any county being un- 
 traversed by one or more lines. The number of miles ol 
 railroad now existing in Illinois exceeds that of any other 
 State of the Union, the increase having been especially 
 rapid since the close of the war, during which time the 
 mileage has more than doubled. In 1850 there were only 
 111 miles of track, while in 1855 there were 8b, ; in 1860, 
 "790 ■ in 1865, 3157; in 1870, 4823; in 1871, 5904; and in 
 187'^ 6361 This statement shows the remarkable tact that 
 more than 1000 miles of railroad track were constructed in 
 Illinois in a single year. The most important railroad the 
 Illinois Central, traverses the length of the State from Chi- 
 cago to Cairo, 705 miles: it was commenced in I80I, and 
 bv"the aid of an immense grant of public lands was coui- 
 pieted within about five years. The railway interests of 
 Illinois form so vast and complicated a portion of its ma- 
 terial wealth as to have become the subject of much special 
 legislation. By the constitutional convention of 18,0, 
 State control over the railroads was organized in consider- 
 able detail, and general supplementary laws for their gov- 
 ernment were enacted in 1871 and 1.873. The following 
 table gives the condition of all the railroads of the btato 
 to Jan. 1, 1874 :
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 
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 1110 
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 
 f, -nance*.— The assessed valuation of property in IS. J 
 was- real estate, $612,912,908; railroad property (not in- 
 cluding the Illinois Central, which pays annually into the 
 Stale treasury a certain percentage of its gross receipts), 
 S9S 400.54O.O.3. This was stated to be 70 per cent, ot the 
 true valuation, while that of real estate was only about 40 
 per cent. Personal property, certain specified kinds ot 
 propertv, including, besides stocks and bonds, live-stock, 
 fireproof safes, carriages and wagons, musical instruments, 
 plate and jewelry, diamonds, agricultural and manufactur- 
 in.- tools and machinery, watches and clocks, sewing-ma- 
 ehTnes,etc.,S?.02,S0:5,262; making the entire assessed valu- 
 ation 81,044,116,715.53. The increased assessment ot rail- 
 road property and stocks, and of stock of telegraph and 
 other corporations, ordered by the State board of equalua- 
 tion. brought the whole assessment of the year up to 
 SI 339,570,950, which is probably not quite one-hall the 
 actual value of real and personal estate of the btate. The 
 State tax on this valuation is three mills, and there are also 
 school fund and canal debt fund taxes, aside from the 
 county, town, and eitv taxes, which are of varying amount. 
 The other items of revenue to the State are— 7 per cent, ol 
 the gross earnings of the Illinois Central R. K, paid semi- 
 annually, and which now amounts to nearly S.oOO,000 per 
 annum : insurance fees and fines collected from agents, and 
 other fines and forfeitures ; tolls and rents from the State canal 
 and slack-water navigation ; and occasionally other sources. 
 
 The annual State expenditure for the fiscal years 18,1 and 
 1872 was $0,000,039.57, but this included the payment ot 
 ^53 408 470 of the State debt. In Jan., 1873, the entire 
 Stkte debt was $1,732,407.18, the treasury reserve having 
 been used for this reduction. In .Tan.. 1874. it had been 
 still further reduced, and then stood at Sl,706,, j0.o9. Ihe 
 amount of railroad bonds outstanding Jan. 1, IS, 4, which 
 had been issued by counties, townships, cities, and incor- 
 porated towns in the State, was $13,501,051.58; this was 
 apportioned as follows: 45 counties had bonds outstanding 
 to the amount of 85,380,904; 212 townships, bonds to the 
 amount of $6,003,147.58; 17 cities, bonds amounting to 
 81 019.500; 27 incorporated towns, bonds amounting to 
 ^467 500 But the counties, towns, and cities had other 
 debts besides these. In 1S70 the amount of these was for 
 the counties $12,817,922, and of the towns and cities 
 S"4 483 010. It has been considerably reduced since that 
 date, but more than one-half of the last item is the debt of 
 the city of Chicago. 
 
 Commerce.— Tha grand system of railroads which cross 
 the State in all directions and connect it with the great 
 lakes, with all the ports on the Ohio, the Mississippi, and 
 the Missouri, as well as with the opulent cities of the At- 
 lantic and the Pacific coasts; the Illinois Canal, 100 miles 
 in length, which connects Lake Michigan with the Missis- 
 
 sippi : the Mississippi River, navigable for the largest 
 steamers alon" the whole western boundary of the btatc; 
 and the Ohio and Wabash, which are navigable for one- 
 half the eastern and the whole southern boundary, together 
 with the other navigable rivers in the State,— give to Illinois 
 unsurpassed facilities for commerce which arc most indus- 
 triously improved. The entire amount of its internal 
 traflic cannot well be ascertained, for its surplus agricul- 
 tural and mechanical products are shipped from ports with- 
 out as well as from those within the State. Some idea of 
 their magnitude can be formed when wc state that the re- 
 ceipts and shipments of grain, flour, and other articles of 
 commerce in the port of Chicago alone in 1872 w-ere over 
 $370,000,000. A very considerable portion of the com- 
 merce of St. Louis is in the productions of Illinois, and 
 considerable quantities of its products find their way to 
 market through Indianapolis, Louisville. Cincinnati, and 
 Toledo while no small amount is shipped directly and 
 without breaking bulk to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, 
 Baltimore, and New Orleans. The direct foreign com- 
 merce of the State is mostly carried on through the port 
 of Chicago bv Ihe way of the great lakes, the AVelland 
 Canal, and the St. Lawrence River. This is large and con- 
 stantly increasing. ,. I 
 
 Bm,!.-s.— There were in Nov., 1874, 152 national banks 
 in the State, of which 10 were closing, leaving 142 in oper- 
 ation. The capital paid into these banks was $20,338,0,0 ; 
 the amount of bonds on deposit, $10,742,400; the circula- 
 tion issued, $23,296,405; the amount of actual circulabon, 
 $10,035,201; their assets, Sept. 12. 1873, $41,489,877.07; 
 their surplus and undivided profits, $3,790,083.84; and 
 their liabilities, $37,699,793.73. There were at the same 
 time 12 State banks and savings banks doing a discount 
 and deposit business; these had an aggregate capital of 
 $3,300,000. There were also 217 private banking-houses 
 doing business in the State. „ . „, . 
 
 Insurance Companics—Mt^^T the great fire m Chicago in 
 isn many of the fire insurance companies of the btate 
 
 went into liquidation, but in J""«' .18pv'«r-nr4m/and 
 operation, having an aggregate capital of $1,, 08,400 and 
 assets to the amount of $2,508,000. There were in July, 
 1873 life insurance companies, all in Chicago, having an 
 aggregate capital of $1,800,000, and assets to the amount 
 of $3,355,000. ., , .. 
 
 Pon„!alion.—'Thc following table shows the popn ation 
 at each census, beginning with 1800, when the population 
 of what was then the Nerth-west Territory was first distin- 
 guished bv districts, so that the inhabitants of what is now 
 the State "of Illinois could be distinguished from the other 
 inhabitants of that vast Territory ; it also includes the dis- 
 tinctions of color and nativity, and the density of popula- 
 tion, so far as obtainable : 
 
 year. 
 
 1800 
 1810 
 18-20 
 1830 
 1840 
 18.iO 
 1860 
 1865 
 1870 
 
 02 
 
 .0044 
 .22 
 1.00 
 2.84 
 8.59 
 15.37 
 30.90 
 38.64 
 45.34 
 
 ToUk) population. 
 
 2,458 
 
 12,282 
 
 .55,103 
 
 157,445 
 
 47<\,183 
 
 851.470 
 
 1,711,951 
 
 2.I4I.510 
 
 2,539,891 
 
 2 **" 
 
 4 
 
 5:! 
 1.55, 
 4 
 
 840 
 ,704, 
 1.124 
 :,.511 
 
 .501 
 783 
 ,061 
 ,254 
 .034 
 ,291 
 ,170 
 ,096 
 
 183 
 781 
 1,374 
 2.384 
 3,929 
 5,4:i6 
 7,628 
 17,340 
 28,702 
 
 736,149 
 1,387,308 
 
 2.024,693 
 
 111,892 
 324,643 
 
 515,198 
 
 168 slaves. 
 917 slaves. 
 747 slaves. 
 331 slaves. 
 3,429 of unknown nativity. 
 
 986,035 of foreign parentage. 
 
 Of those of foreign birth in 1870, 203,758 ^«" b"™ ■" 
 Germany ; 192,960 in Great Britain and Ireland 32,5o0 
 in BriUshAmeHca; 29,979 in Sweden, n^??' "'-^ZZY' 
 10911 in France; 89S0 in Swit^.erland ; 73o0in Bohemia 
 4180 in Holland; 3711 in Denmark ; 2099 in Austria ; 1690 
 in Poland ; 1071 in Belgium ; and 2033 in all other foreign 
 countries. In the enumeration of sexes, there were in ]8d0 
 44S321 males and 403,1 19 females; of these, 44o,o44 were 
 white males and 400,490 white females, 2777 colored ma es 
 and 2659 colored females. In ISCO there were 902,701 males 
 and 809,190 females; of these 898,941 were while males and 
 805,350 white females, 3809 colored males and u819 co ored 
 females. In 1805 there were 1,102,223 males and .0+1-2" 
 females, of whom 1,09.3,111 were white males, 1.033,059 
 white females, 9112 colored males, and 822S eoloredjemalos. 
 In 1870 there were of all races and colors l.p '»•.?, «,'""' 
 and 1,223,351 females in the Slate ; of these, 1,03.1,161 were 
 native males, and 991.532 native females; 283,3,6 males of 
 foreign birth and 231,822 females; 1,.301,5S3 white males 
 and 1,209,513 white females; 14,934 colored males and 
 13,828 colored females; 19 Indian males and 13 fcini^l'^s- 
 Of the total male population (1,316,537 males% 52o,8,3 
 were between the ages of 18 and 45 or of "'.''"^jiy "?« = "\ 
 these 346,564 were natives and 179,309 foreigners ; 518,924 
 
 white and 6941 colored ; 625,139 males were 21 years old and 
 upward, or of the voting age ; of these, 390,735 were natives 
 and 2:i4,4t;4 of foreign birth, and 542,833 were citizens. Of 
 school age— I. c. between 6 and 21 years- there were 414,547 
 males and 404,219 females. 
 
 Education.— In 1870 there were in the State 86,368 per- 
 sons of ten years old and over who could not read and 
 133,584 who could not write : of these, 90 o9j were of na- 
 tive and 42,989 of foreign birth ; 97.6ob whites (40,801 
 males and 56,857 females) were over 21 years of age while 
 8051 colored (3960 males and 4082 females) over 21 wero 
 equally illiterate. Of the persons attending schooI_ in 18, 
 {o4S ''■25 in number), 522.939 were natives and 2p,286 ol 
 foreig,; birth; 285,283 wero males (284,084 whites and 
 Te^coloredj'and '262,968 females (2'51/,1-„"h ''' wefe 
 1155 colored). According to the census of IS, there were 
 in the State 11.835 schools of all classes, with 2_4,0o6 teach- 
 ers (10,411 males, 13,645 females) and 767,i /5 pupils or 
 students (389,955 males and 377.820 females) The annual 
 income of these schools was $9,070,009, of "h,ch $252,569 
 was derived from endowments. $6,027,510 from taxation 
 and public funds, and $3,689,930 from other sources in- 
 cluding tuition. Of these schools, 11,050 were classed as 
 public schools, having 20,097 teachers (8,91 males and
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 
 1111 
 
 ll,.106 females) and C77,r)23 scholars (:il3,«5 males and 
 iis'l.l'S females). The incomeof these schoola wasS7,SlU,J(>a, 
 of which .•?,'..8i8.24y was from taxation and public funds, 
 and SI/JJL'.OIti from other sources, including tuition ; SO 
 schools were classical, professional, and techuical. having 
 671 teachers (^H males and 217 females) and 11.7o6 stu- 
 dents (72.-).') males, 4500 females), and $S'j6,n72 of income, 
 of which $222,374 was from endowment, $101,318 from 
 taxation and public funds, and $il2.6S0 from othersourccs, 
 including tuition : 705 were private schools of lower grade, 
 having 33SS teachers (12fifl males and 2122 females) and 
 T* 107 nunils (:!y.255 males and 39,142 females), and an 
 annual im.nno of $1,203,372, of which mi95 was from 
 endowment, $7943 from public funds, and Sl,22o 2.U from 
 other sources, including tuition. The sessions of the Illinois 
 k<.islaturo being only biennial, there is no report frnin the 
 smioriniendent of public instruction of later (late than .hui., 
 Irt73 and the statistics are only to the autumn ot \»iZ. 
 This' report gives the number of persons of school age (6 to 
 21 years) in the Slate in Sept., 1S72, as 882,093 ; the num- 
 berof school districts. 11,231, of which 10,707 had schools 
 in session si.t months or more of the year, and 2,5 for less 
 than six months, while 189 had no schools. There wore 
 II 390 public free schools, of which 91 were public high 
 sel'iools, 651 graded schools, and 10,414 ungraded schools. 
 In these schools there were 20.924 teachers, of whom 9094 
 were male teachers and 11,459 females ; and 002,049 schol- 
 ars nttcndcdihcm.of whom 345,023 were males and 310,426 
 females. The schools were maintained an average period 
 of 9 months. The number of private schools reported in 
 1S72 was 430, having 34,784 pupils. The total number of 
 public school-houses in the autumn of 1872 was 11,289, of 
 which 470 were built during the year at an average cost 
 of $1517 05 each! The estimated value of school-houses in 
 the State in the autumn of 1872 was $12,477,039 ; of the 
 school lots, grounds, and appurtenances, $2,603,938 ; of 
 other lands and properly belonging to districts. 52,537,917 ; 
 of furniture, apparatus, and libraries, $1,373,950; of re- 
 pairs and improvements, $883,204; making a total appro.x- 
 iniate value of $19,876,708. Thonumbcrof district school li- 
 braries was S30. and of volumes in them 54,280^ The aggre- 
 gale principal of township school funds was $1,808,555.01, 
 and the iniorest received $528,811.47. Thchighcst monthly 
 wa"e3 paid to teachers was, to males, $2uO ; to females, 
 $120; the lowest was, to males, $12; to females, $9.50. 
 The average monthly salaries were, to males, $50 ; to fe- 
 males, $39." In 75 of the 102 counties of the State the sal- 
 aries of the best male teachers range from $100 to $250, 
 and in SO counties the salaries of the best female teachers 
 range from SJOto $120. The total annual cost per scholar, 
 including tuition, incidental expenses, and per cent, in- 
 terest on the estimated valuation of school property, is, 
 upon the number enrolled, $9.25 ; upon the average daily 
 attendance, $18.58. In 1872, 100 teachers' instilutes were 
 held and attended by 7771 teachers, and instructed by 632 
 lecturers and instructors. They continued an average of 
 5.4 days, or, in effect, a week. The amount received from 
 all sources for school purposes in 1872 was $7,500,122.70, 
 and the expenditures for the s.amo year $7,480,889.24. The 
 whole amount of principal of the common school funds of 
 the State, Oct. I, 1872, was $0,382,248.08. For the in- 
 etruclion of the teachers of these schools, besides the teach- 
 ers' institutes, there is the Illinois State Teachers' Insti- 
 tute, which holds an annual session of fourteen days, gener- 
 ally devoted to natural science; two normal universities 
 —viz. the Illinois State Normal University at Normal, 
 founded in 1857, a most admirable institution, with every 
 facility for thorough instruction in the art of teaching, ex- 
 pending about $31,500 annually, and having an average 
 of 20ft7iornial pupils annually, besides tho large attend- 
 ance on its model school ; and the Southern Normal Uni- 
 versity, at Carbondale, which, foundcil in 1809, commenced 
 actual instruction in Doc., 1873. There are also other very 
 efrielcnl normal training schools— the Cook County Normal 
 School, at Englewood. 7 miles S. of Chicago court-house, 
 establLshed in 1807, which in 1872 had 207 pupils; the 
 Peoria County Normal School, in Peoria, established in 
 1908, and having about 85 pupils ; and tho Ocrman-Eng- 
 lish Normal School, at (lalena. etc. 
 
 The State has also provided lilicrally, in connection with 
 tho national agricultural college grant, for the scientific and 
 practical education of those desiring to obtain such educa- 
 tion. Tho Illinois Inilustrinl University, located at Urbana 
 and Champaign, is now in its seventh year of instruction, 
 anil is in most respects a moilel institution of its kind. In 
 Jan , 1874, it had lands valued at $80,000. buildings and 
 improvements valued at $175,000, furniture, library, cab- 
 inets and apparatus valued at $75,000. and funds and in- 
 ves'mentst.i the ninounl of $124,000. making its total assets 
 $700 Onn. Its annuiil eurnnt expcndilurc is about $08,000, 
 but of this about $27,000, belonging to tho expenses of tho 
 
 farm, gardens, and mechanical shops, is repaid from their 
 products. It has eleven distinct courses of study, agri- 
 cultural, mechanical, civil engineering, military, chemical, 
 mathematical, natural history, classical, etc., a_ faculty of 
 24 professors and other instructors, and in 1873 had 320 
 male and 74 female students, of whom 300 were from Illi- 
 nois, 33 from other States and Territories, and 7 from foreign 
 countries. There is also an efl'icieut and well-conducted 
 soldiers' college at Fulton. III. Of the other institutions of 
 hifhcr education in Illinois, there are C so-called univeisi- 
 tie°, 4 of them, as well as 3 of tho colleges, being universi- 
 ties in fact, in tho sense of having professional or scientific 
 schools connected with them; 19 colleges, several of them 
 with professional or scientific schools attached to them, and 
 nearly all under tho care and patronage of some religious 
 denomination. These institutions have about 220 ]iro- 
 fessors and over 4000 students. There are also 10 female 
 colleges and seminaries of the highest grade, having 98 
 professors and teachers and over 2300 pupils; and 40scnii- 
 uaries and academies of high grade for both sexes, having 
 about 300 professors and teachers and nearly 4200 pupils. 
 There are also, aside from the Illinois Industrial University, 
 3 scientific schools— tho scientific departments of Chicago 
 and Blackburn universities, at Chicago and Carlmvillc, 
 and tho Illinois Agricultural College at Irvington ; 10 theo- 
 logical schools or seminaries, 4 of them at Chicago, having 
 3.5'professors and .about 280 students ; 2 law schools, one at 
 Chicago and tho other at Lebanon ; 3 medical schools of 
 the reo-ular practice, 1 eclectic, and 1 homoeopathic, and 1 
 college of pharmacy. These have 75 professors and over 
 500 students. , . r » . 
 
 The institutions of special education for tho untortunate, 
 orphans, diseased, and endangered classes are— (1 ) the Illi- 
 nois Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, at 
 Jacksonville, founded in 1810, and having 25 teachers and 
 other officers, and 294 jnipils. lis current annual expendi- 
 ture is about $08,750 per annum, all of it opi.ropriatcd by 
 the State; (2) tho Illinois Institution for the Education 
 of tho Blind, also at Jacksonville, founded in 1848. and 
 having 9 teachers and other oflicers, and 00 pupils.and ex- 
 pending annually about $17,000, all of it appropriated by 
 the State; (3) the Illinois Charitable Eye and Ear luflrm- 
 ary, at Chicago, expending about $15,000 per annum, of 
 which $10,000 is derived from the Slate; (4) the Illuiois 
 Institution for tho Education of Fecblc-Minded Children, 
 at Jacksonville, founded in 1805. and incorporated in 1871 ; 
 it has 7 teachers and other officers, and 107 pupils: it 
 is now in rented premises, but is to have a new building 
 completed in the winter of 1875 ; its expenses arc about 
 $24,000, all furnished by the State; (5) the Illinois Sol- 
 diers' Orphans' Home, at Normal, founded in 1805. has 
 teachers and 320 pupils, and expends annually about 
 $52,000, all furnished by the State, besides the products 
 of tho farm and house, which arc njiplied to materially re- 
 duce the expense po- capita ; (0) the Illinois State Reform 
 School, at Ponliac, founded in 1870. which has 3 officers, 
 100 inmates, and expends about $33,000 per year, of which 
 $■'5 000 is derived from the State. There are other relorin 
 and industrial schools in the State, but they arc established 
 by cities or counties, and not by the State. That in ( hi- 
 cigo is a great success. It had 212 inmates in 18,2, most 
 of whom were reported reformed. 
 
 In this connection it is as well perhaps to speak ot I 10 
 charitable institutions of the Slate, which, though not di- 
 rectly educational in their character, have yet some eomiec- 
 tion with education. The Hospital for the Insane, at Jack- 
 sonville, founded 1847. has an average of 450 patients, and 
 its current expenses arc about $1 10.000 per annuin ; tho 
 Northern llnspilal and Asylum for the Insane, at Elgin, 
 founded in 1808, in 1873 luill 7 officers and an average of 
 about 200 patients, and its expcndilurc is in round numbers 
 $50,000 per annum: the Siiulhcrn Hospital lor the Insane 
 at Anna, is a new inslilulion. intemled for 250 patients, and 
 has nearly that number now. Its annual expenses aro 
 ab,)ut $2.50 per patient, and when it is full will rcMu.ro 
 $02,500 per annum. Tho two latter, when Iheir lmildin;,-s 
 are completcl. will acconimodnte 950 patients, llicre is 
 also an insane asylum for Cook eounly, really a part ol 
 Cook county almshouse, which has 200 patients, and 2 
 small private asylums. Tho number of insane persons in 
 the Slalo exceeds 3000. 
 
 /',M,7„v,».„ nn'( Cr.mr.- Of the 2303 paupers returned in 
 theeensusof 1870, 1213 were native whiles, 4 1 native colored, 
 1109 foreigners. Of 1795 persons in prison Juno 1, 1870, 
 1229 were native whiles, 143 nalivo colored, and 423 for- 
 eigners : 1552 persons were convicted during the year. The 
 Slate penitentiary, at Joliet, was for many years managed 
 at a heavy loss, hut since June, 1872. it has ciirncd a con- 
 siderable sum over its expenses, while its general condition 
 lias been greatly improved. There were in Jan., 1873, 
 1321 convicts in the penitentiary, 15 of them females. Tho
 
 1112 
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 
 prison has a, large library, and provision is made for the 
 instruction of the prisoners in elementary studies, as well 
 as for tlieir religious welfare. 
 
 l.iliraries. — There were in the State in 1870, 13,570 
 libraries of all classes, public and private, containing 
 3,32a, i)U volumes; of these, 3705, eontaining 924,513 vol- 
 umes, were public libraries; these included one State libra- 
 ry, with 10,000 vols.; 53 town and city libraries, with 
 35.010 vols. ; 135 court and law libraries, with 23,S32 vols.; 
 1122 school and college libraries, with 1+0,759 vols.; 2308 
 Sunday school and church libraries, with 480,100 vols. ; 7 
 literary and benevolent associations, with 153,492 vols.; 
 79 circulating libr.aries, with 75,352 vols. ; and 9SG5 private 
 libraries, with 2,399,309 volumes. 
 
 Newtpapera and Periodiciits. — There were in Illinois in 
 1870, 505 newspapers, having on aggregate circulation of 
 1,722.541, and an aggregate annual issue of 113,140,492 
 copies. Of these, 39 were dailies, with a circulation of 
 106,400; 10 were tri-weekly, with 40,570 circulation; 4 
 were semi-weekly, with 2950 circulation ; 364 were weekly, 
 with 890,913 circulation; 11 were semi-monthly, with 
 107,900 circulation; 72 were monthly, with 490,808 circu- 
 lation; 2 were bi-monthly, with 11,000 circulation; and 3 
 were quarterly, with 12,000 circulation. 
 
 C'Aiirc/ics.— There were in 1870 in the .=tate 4298 
 churches, of all denominations, 3459 church edifices, 
 1,201,403 sittings, and $22,01)4,283 of church property. Of 
 the churches at that date, 722 were Baptist, with 571 church 
 edifices. 181,454 sittings, and $2,601,612 of church property. 
 According to the Baptist Year Bool: for 1875, the number 
 of associations in 1874 was 44; of churches, 1056; of or- 
 dained ministers, 732; of communicants, 08,313; of addi- 
 tions. 7.333 ; of iSunday schools, 640 ; of teachers and schol- 
 ars, 59,700; of volumes in libraries, 01,088; of contribu- 
 tions for benevolent and church purposes, S924.179. The 
 Christian Connection and the Disciples, in 1870 had 350 
 churches, 251 church edifices, 85,175 sittings, and J621,450 
 of church property. They have incrca.sed somewhat in 
 four years, hut their statistics are so incomplete that it is 
 difficult to s.iy how much. The Congregationalists in 1870 
 had 212 churches, 188 church edifices, 66,137 sittings, and 
 $1,867,800 of church property. At the close of 1874 they 
 had 239 churches, 221 ordained ministers, 20,557 communi- 
 cants, and 25,766 scholars in the Sabbath schools. The 
 Protestant Episcopal Church had in the State in 1870, 105 
 parishes, 85 church edifices, 30,395 sittings, and ftl .426,300 
 of church property. In 1874 there were 101 parishes, 91 
 clergymen, 0785 communicants. 953 confirmations, (i838 
 Sunday school teachers and scholars, and the contributions 
 to benevolent and church purposes were 8149,812.97. The 
 Bvangelic:il .\ssoci!ition had in 1870, 68 churches, 56 church 
 edifices, 20,176 sittings, S329.650 of church property. In 
 1873 they had 73 itinerant and 72 local preachers, 94 
 churchetij 8171 members, and about $500,000 of church 
 property. The Friends had in 1870, 5 meetings, 4 meet- 
 ing-houses, with 1000 sittings, and $13,400 meeting- 
 house property. They have increased considerably within 
 the last four years." The Lutherans in 1870 had 230 
 churches, 207 church edifices, 74.301 sittings, 81,043,476 
 church property. The Lutheran church has so many dif- 
 ferent councils," ministeriums, and synods in the U. S. that 
 it is difficult to isolate the churches of any one State; but 
 as nearly as can be ascertained they had about 260 churches 
 and 25,.i00 members in Illinois in 1873. The Methodists 
 of all the Methodist bodies in 1870 had 1426 churches, 1124 
 church edifices, 357.073 sittings, and $5,206,620 of church 
 property. In 1874 the Methodist Episcopal Church alone 
 had in "the State about 1900 niinister.s of whom 998 were 
 itinerants, 1321 churches, 108,120 members, $5,700,731 of 
 church property, 1046 Sabbath schools, 145,861 teachers 
 and scholars ; while the other Methodist bodies had per- 
 haps one-third of that numbej. The Presbyterians, in- 
 cluding all branches, in 1870 had 595 churches, 523 church 
 edifices, 184,849 sittings, $3,637,625 of church property. 
 In 1S73 the Presbyterian General Assembly (Northern) 
 had 435 ordained m"inisters, 482 churches, and 38.557 mem 
 
 property. In 1874 there were in the State 313 priests, 459 
 congregations, and an adherent population of probably 
 226,000. The Second Adventists in 1S70 had 8 churches, 
 6 church edifices, 1300 sittings, $7100 of church property. 
 The Unitarians had 23 congregations, 17 church edifices, 
 5960 sittings, and $492,900 of church property. The Uni- 
 ted Brethren in Christ (German Methodists) had 125 
 churches, 58 church edifices, 17.996 sittings, and $126,800 
 of church property. In 1873 there were 324 churches, 210 
 ministers, and 11,351 members. The Universalists in 1870 
 had 62 congregations, 44 church edifices, 15,225 sittings, 
 and $543,300 of church property. In 1873 they reported 
 79 parishes, 52 congregations, 2776 members, and about 
 16,000 adherent population. There were also perhajis 200 
 congregations of the minor denominations, with 1511 church 
 edifices, 35,000 sittings, and $125,000 of church property. 
 Gonatilialon, Courts, etc. — The present constitution of 
 Illinois was adopted by a constitutional convention held 
 in 1870, and ratified by the people of the State the same 
 year. It contains a bill of rights based on the priucijilcs 
 of English constitutional law, defines the qualifications for 
 legislators, prescribes that the senate shall consist of 51 
 senators, elected for four years, but in two classes, those in 
 the odd-numbered districts being elected in 1874, and every 
 four years thereafter, and those in the even-numbered dis- 
 tricts" in 1872, and every four years thereafter; the house 
 of representatives to consist of 153 members, elected for 
 two years. The legislative sessions are biennial. They 
 are prohibited from special legislation ; the house of rep- 
 resentatives has the sole power of impeachment, but the 
 senate must be the trial court for the impeachment. Mi- 
 nority representation is provided for. The pay of senators 
 and representatives is $5 per day, 10 cents a mile for actual 
 mileage, and $50 per session for postage, stationery, etc. 
 The executive department consists of a governor, lieuten- 
 ant-governor, secretary of state, auditor of public accounts, 
 treasurer, superintendent of public instruction, and attor- 
 ney-general, all elected by the people, and all, except the 
 treasurer (whose term is two years), for four years. The 
 treasurer is ineligible for re-election for two years after the 
 expiration of his term. The governor has the veto power, 
 which can only be overridden by a vote of two-thirds of 
 all the members elected. The judicial powers of the gov- 
 ernment of the State are vested in one supreme court 
 (which is also a court of appeals), circuit courts (which 
 may have appellate jurisdiction to a certain extent), county 
 courts, justices of the peace, police magistrates, and such 
 courts as may he created by law in and for cities and in- 
 corporated towns. The supremo court eousists of seven 
 judges, one of whom shall be the chief-justice, and four 
 shall constitute a quorum. The judges of the supreme 
 court are elected by the people of their respective districts 
 for a term of nine years, and provision is made so that 
 their terms of office" shall expire at different times. The 
 chief-justice is chosen by his associates, and holds his office 
 till the expiration of his term. The circuit courts are held 
 in judicial circuits of 100,000 inhabitants, exccjit in Cook 
 county or other counties having more than 100,000 inhab- 
 itants (which form a single judicial circuit whatever their 
 population), and the circuit judges hold office for si.\ 
 years, .ludges of county courts hold office for four years. 
 Probate judges are elected for four years, and, except as 
 above, 1 to every 50.000 inhabitants. The minor judicial 
 offuicrs iire to be elected in such districts as the legislature 
 shall provide. Every person having resided in the State 
 one year, in the county 90 days, and in the election district 
 30 d'ays next preceding any election therein, who was an 
 elector in the State on Apr, 1, 1848, or obtained a certificate 
 of naturalization before any court of record in the Slate 
 prior to Jan, 1, 1870, or who is a male citizen of the U. S. 
 above the age of twenty-one years, shall be entitled to vote 
 at such election. All votes ore by ballot. No elector loses 
 his residence by reason of absence on business of the U. S. 
 or of the State of Illinois, or in the military and naval ser- 
 vice of the U. S., and no soldier, seaman, or marine in the 
 army or navy of the U. S. is deemed a resident of the State 
 - ' ■ ■ •■ ' therein. The general 
 
 hers- the United Presbyterians had 74 ministers, 87 : in eonsequcuoo of being stationed ,u- „;„,,, 
 
 ehur;he.'. and 6836 comm"unica„ts. There were also eon- \ assem_bly has power to pass Jaw-s excludmg from the r.ght 
 sidcrable numbers belonging to the Presbyterian Church, 
 South, to the Cumberland Presbyterians, and to the Kc- 
 formcd and other independent synods. The Reformed 
 Church in America (lato Dutch) in 1870 had 14 churches, 
 14 church edifices, 4880 sittings, and $160,200 of church 
 property. In 1873 the same Church had 20 ministers, 19 
 
 of sufrr.igc persons convicted of infamous crimes. An ef- 
 ficient system of free-school education is provided for. and 
 the legislature and counties, cities, towns, etc. arc for ever 
 prohibited from making any .appropriation or paying from 
 any public fund whatever anything in aid of any college, 
 seminary, literary or scientific institution which is con- 
 
 bmehos and 1 78- communicants. The Reformed Church i trolled by any Church or sectarian denomination whatever. 
 th^U^ (late German) in 1870 had 32 churches, 30 i No teacher or school officer is allowed to be .nfercsted .n 
 
 hurch edifices, 7170 sittings, $93,000 of church property. 
 
 It has since increased, but the arrangement of their statis- 
 tics is such that we cannot separate those of Illinois. The 
 Roman Catholic Church had 290 congregations, 219 
 church edifices, 136,900 sittings, $4,010,050 of church 
 
 the sale, proceeds, or profits of .any hook, apparatus, or 
 furniture used in any school. There arc also provisions 
 in relation to counties, to railroads, warehouses. State 
 revenues, etc. The State under the new apportionment has 
 19 members of the House of Representatives in Congress.
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 
 1113 
 
 Vniiutif-K. — The State is dividcil into 102 counties, whose 
 Dames and population in 1870, 186U, and 1S6U were Uv-i follows: 
 
 Cotmnu. 
 
 ToUlpop 
 ItlTO. 
 
 Uiilc, 
 
 imo. 
 
 Female, 
 
 i»;o. 
 
 Toul pop 
 ItttO. 
 
 TotJil pop. 
 1(00. 
 
 
 .30,305 
 
 10,564 
 
 13,152 
 
 12,942 
 
 12,20- 
 
 32,4ir 
 
 6,.362 
 
 16,703 
 
 11, .580 
 
 32,737 
 
 20,363 
 
 18,719 
 
 1.5,87.- 
 
 16,285 
 
 25,23.3 
 
 1 349,966 
 
 13,889 
 
 12,223 
 
 23,265 
 
 14,768 
 
 13,484 
 
 16,635 
 
 21,450 
 
 7,565 
 
 15,653 
 
 19,638 
 
 9,103 
 
 12,632 
 
 .33,291 
 
 ll,l:i4 
 
 20,277 
 
 14,938 
 
 13,014 
 
 85,935 
 
 5,113 
 
 12,582 
 
 3.5,506 
 
 25,782 
 
 19,634 
 
 11,234 
 
 17,864 
 
 1.3,054 
 
 27,820 
 
 11,248 
 
 39,091 
 
 24,352 
 
 12,399 
 
 39,322 
 
 21,014 
 
 60,792 
 
 12,3.i;i 
 
 27,171 
 
 31,471 
 
 23,053 
 
 26,431 
 
 32,726 
 
 41,131 
 
 20,622 
 
 10,9.36 
 
 16,181 
 
 9,581 
 
 2:;,.309 
 
 23,762 
 
 53,983 
 
 11,7.35 
 
 18,7u9 
 
 12,982 
 
 25,314 
 
 23,403 
 
 10,.383 
 
 27,492 
 
 47,310 
 
 13.723 
 
 10,953 
 
 .30,768 
 
 11,437 
 
 8,7.32 
 
 6,280 
 
 20,8.39 
 
 12.803 
 
 29,7.« 
 
 12,714 
 
 46,:i32 
 
 17,419 
 
 10,631 
 
 23,476 
 
 10,7.31 
 
 61,058 
 
 31,008 
 
 27,903 
 
 16,518 
 
 80,338 
 
 8,811 
 
 23,174 
 
 17,699 
 
 19,768 
 
 10,846 
 
 27,603 
 
 43,013 
 
 17,.329 
 
 29,301 
 
 I s,!136 
 
 j.519,891 
 
 28,52- 
 
 5,20< 
 
 6,765 
 
 6,S6j 
 
 6,2.39 
 
 16,898 
 
 3,562 
 
 8.70C 
 
 6,089 
 
 17,423 
 
 10,881 
 
 9,650 
 
 8,131 
 
 8,614 
 
 12,984 
 
 180,007 
 
 7,018 
 
 6,274 
 
 12,002 
 
 7,845 
 
 7,118 
 
 8,784 
 
 11,077 
 
 3,840 
 
 8,256 
 
 10,170 
 
 6,039 
 
 6,484 
 
 19,739 
 
 .3,716 
 
 10,677 
 
 7,741 
 
 6,532 
 
 18,309 
 
 2,670 
 
 6.801 
 
 18.487 
 
 13,481 
 
 10,331 
 
 5,738 
 
 9,010 
 
 7,932 
 
 14,196 
 
 5,713 
 
 19,836 
 
 12,703 
 
 0,435 
 
 20,014 
 
 10,096 
 
 31,228 
 
 0,383 
 
 14,220 
 
 16.632 
 
 12,445 
 
 13,690 
 
 16,963 
 
 22,8S8 
 
 10,501 
 
 8,334 
 
 8,083 
 
 4,890 
 
 13,540 
 
 12,174 
 
 28,310 
 
 6,237 
 
 9,789 
 
 6,815 
 
 13,235 
 
 14,579 
 
 5,481 
 
 14,.'J.35 
 
 21,244 
 
 7,133 
 
 6,632 
 
 13,811 
 
 6,794 
 
 4,571 
 
 3,223 
 
 10,889 
 
 6,439 
 
 1.3,369 
 
 6,378 
 
 24,010 
 
 9,479 
 
 6^37 
 
 1.3,231 
 
 5,663 
 
 27,323 
 
 1.3,598 
 
 14/.45 
 
 8,,3a7 
 
 1.3,702 
 
 4,427 
 
 12,100 
 
 9,1.37 
 
 10,201 
 
 8,407 
 
 14,371 
 
 23,221 
 
 9,062 
 
 14,762 
 
 9,993 
 
 1,316,637 
 
 27,835 
 
 5,298 
 
 6,387 
 
 6,377 
 
 5,946 
 
 15,517 
 
 3,000 
 
 8,003 
 
 6,491 
 
 15,314 
 
 9,482 
 
 9,069 
 
 7,744 
 
 7,671 
 
 12,251 
 
 169,959 
 
 0,871 
 
 5,949 
 
 11,263 
 
 6,923 
 
 6,306 
 
 7.901 
 
 10,373 
 
 3,723 
 
 7,397 
 
 9,468 
 
 4,064 
 
 6,163 
 
 18,.3.>2 
 
 5,418 
 
 9,600 
 
 7,197 
 
 6,432 
 
 17,420' 
 
 2,443 
 
 .5,781 1 
 
 17,019 
 
 12,301' 
 
 9,273 
 
 5,196, 
 
 8,854 
 
 7,092' 
 
 13.624 
 
 5,333 
 
 19,225 
 
 11,614 
 
 5,944' 
 
 19,503 
 
 10,318 
 
 29,.361 
 
 6,150 
 
 12,951 
 
 14,809 
 
 10,008 
 
 12,.39l! 
 
 1.3,701 
 
 21,243; 
 
 10,12ll 
 
 8,102! 
 
 7,.301 
 
 4,685 
 
 12,963 
 
 11,588 
 
 23,618 
 
 6,493 
 
 8,980 
 
 6,167 
 
 12,039 
 
 13,884 
 
 4,904 
 
 13,137 
 
 2i,29C 
 
 0,.388 
 
 6,101 
 
 14,9,37 
 
 5,613 
 
 4,181 
 
 3,037 1 
 
 9,970 
 
 6,304! 
 
 11,414' 
 
 6,326' 
 
 22,342' 
 
 7,940 
 
 4,973 
 
 12,2.!2 
 
 5.0S6 
 
 2:1,743 
 
 15,020' 
 
 13,,338 
 
 8,151 
 
 14,626 
 
 4,414' 
 
 11,074 
 
 8.442 
 
 9,.5,54 
 
 8,379 
 
 13,132 
 
 19,793' 
 
 8 267 
 
 14,539 
 
 89k; 
 
 1,223,354 
 
 41.32: 
 4,70- 
 981.' 
 11.67t 
 9,U38 
 26,<2C 
 5,144 
 11,73; 
 11,. 323 
 14.629 
 10,491. 
 14,987 
 9.:i3r 
 10,941 
 14,203 
 141,951 
 11,531 
 8,311 
 19,080 
 10,820 
 7,140 
 14,701 
 16,925 
 5,454 
 7,816 
 11,189 
 1,979 
 9,393 
 33,338 
 8,035 
 16,093 
 10,379 
 9,915 
 29,065 
 3,759 
 9,301 
 20,630 
 12,325 
 9,539 
 8,561 
 12,955 
 12,051 
 27,:i25 
 9,:!42 
 30,052 
 1.3,412 
 13,074 
 28,633 
 18,257 
 48,332 
 9,214 
 17,051 
 11,637 
 14,272 
 13,738 
 21,602 
 31,251 
 12,739 
 13,437 
 10,931 
 6,213 
 20,039 
 22,089 
 28,772 
 9,584 
 15,012 
 12,832 
 13,979 
 22.112 
 6,383 
 22,838 
 36,601 
 9,552 
 0,127 
 27,249 
 0,742 
 3,913 
 6,.387 
 17,205 
 9,711 
 21,005 
 9,331 
 32,274 
 14,681 
 9,059 
 14,613 
 9,004 
 37,691 
 2-3,112 
 21,470 
 11,181 
 19,800 
 7,313 
 18,336 
 13,731 
 13,223 
 12,403 
 18,737 
 29,331 
 12,203 
 21.491 
 13,283 
 1,711.951 
 
 26,508 
 
 
 2,484 
 
 Bund 
 
 6144 
 
 
 7,624 
 7,108 
 
 
 
 8,841 
 
 Calhoun « 
 
 Carroll 
 
 3,231 
 4 3S6 
 
 ra-<s 
 
 7,253 
 
 Charapnixn 
 
 2,619 
 3,203 
 
 riark 
 
 Hriy 
 
 9,5:12 
 4,289 
 
 .5,i;;9 
 
 Cok-s 
 
 9,:;35 
 
 C-Kjk 
 
 43,385 
 7,135 
 
 
 3,718 
 
 I). Kalb 
 
 7,540 
 
 I),. Witt 
 
 5,002 
 
 r>oii?las 
 
 
 
 9,290 
 
 rU'ar 
 
 Edwards „ 
 
 10,692 
 3,.324 
 3 799 
 
 
 8,075 
 
 Ford 
 
 
 Franklin 
 
 6 681 
 
 Fulton 
 
 Gallatin 
 
 22,508 
 ,5,443 
 
 12,429 
 3,023 
 6,362 
 
 
 
 
 14,6.52 
 2 887 
 
 
 H'^'odersoQ 
 
 4,612 
 
 Ilmrv 
 
 3,807 
 4,149 
 
 Iroquois 
 
 Ja'K:<on 
 
 ,Tasn'*r 
 
 5,832 
 3,220 
 
 
 8,109 
 
 .T,>rs-y 
 
 7,:;34 
 
 Jo Daviess 
 
 ,T'>hnson 
 
 18,691 
 4,114 
 
 
 10,703 
 
 7,730 
 
 l;!,279 
 
 14,226 
 
 17,815 
 
 0,121 
 
 6,292 
 
 1,.332 
 
 6,128 
 
 3,938 
 
 12,3.35 
 
 20,411 
 
 6,720 
 
 5, ISO 
 
 6,921 
 
 4,092 
 
 7,616 
 
 14,973 
 
 10,163 
 
 6,:M9 
 
 ,5,216 
 
 7,679 
 
 6,277 
 
 16,034 
 
 3,2:m 
 
 10,020 
 
 17,517 
 
 6,278 
 
 1,606 
 
 18,f!19 
 
 3,975 
 
 2,205 
 
 .3,921 
 
 11,079 
 
 4,012 
 
 6,937 
 
 5,3?3 
 
 19,228 
 
 10,373 
 
 7,914 
 
 7,P07 
 
 3,710 
 
 20, IPO 
 
 11,636 
 
 12,032 
 
 7,613 
 
 11, -'92 
 
 4,090 
 
 8,176 
 
 0,9.33 
 
 6,823 
 
 8,925 
 
 5,361 
 
 16,703 
 
 7.316 
 
 11,773 
 
 4,-15 
 
 8.51.470 
 
 Kankakee 
 
 Kndall 
 
 
 Lake 
 
 La Salle 
 
 
 1,-1- 
 
 Llvini^ston 
 
 r>»'ran 
 
 Ma-on 
 
 Mili^.iti 
 
 Marion 
 
 Mir^hall 
 
 M^<.n 
 
 Mi^sac 
 
 M -Donom-h 
 
 Mllonry 
 
 M Ivan 
 
 M nard 
 
 M-rCLT 1 
 
 M'tnt^onicry 
 
 Mnfjan 
 
 M'lUllrlo 
 
 Ofli- 
 
 P"nna 
 
 P"rrv 
 
 Plait 
 
 Piko 
 
 Popo 
 
 Pulaski 
 
 Uaii.li.Ipli 
 
 Ki -liland - 
 
 
 "^alinp 
 
 ^ari'^amon 
 
 ^ liuyler 
 
 ■ili'lliy'.!'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'."".'.'.'.!! 
 
 "ilark 
 
 <t. rblr 
 
 ^1 ■plii^nson 
 
 Ta7'MreU 
 
 
 
 Wiliaili 
 
 
 Wavno 
 
 Wliif 
 
 \Vliilcsiile« 
 
 Will 
 
 Williams'tn 
 
 Winn'-hat-o 
 
 V..o-lford 
 
 Total 
 
 Prinrtpnl TotciiM. — Chicap;** is t^^c largest city, not only 
 of Illinois, hut of the re-^ion formerly coinprised in the 
 North-west Territory, Its population in 1S7« was 298,977 
 and has since increased with great rapidity, notwithstand- 
 ing the terribly destructive lire of Oct.,' 1S7I. Quincy, 
 Peoria, and Springfield are cities of hctwecn 20,000 iind 
 30,000 inhahitants ; IJluominglon, Aurora, Uockford, Galcs- 
 burg, Jacksonville, and probably Alton, have more than 
 10,000 and less than 20.000: Belleville, Frecport. Calena, 
 Kock Island, Ottawa, Decatur, and Joliet, Irom SOOO to 
 10.000; Cairo. East St. Louis, Elgin. Pekin, and La Salle, 
 from 0000 (o SOOO : Chamjtaign. Danville, Dixon, >Vaukcgan, 
 Monmouth, Molinc, Litclifield, Mcndota, Peru, Sterling, 
 AVarsaw. Princeton. Morris, Bclvidcre, Canton, Geneseo, 
 and !*aris have about oOnO inhabitants each. 
 
 ///\/or^.— Tlie fir^rt white settlements in this State were 
 made by the French from Canada, and were the result of 
 the enterprise of the great explorer, the Sicur de la Snlle. 
 He set out from Canada in 1079. crosf-cd the lakes, and de- 
 scended a river, on the banks of which he found an Indian 
 tribe whom he names in his journal the Illini, and from 
 whom be gave the river the name Illinois. Gaining their 
 good-will, he establi^^hed a small fort at the mouth of the 
 river, and left the Chevalier doTonty there with a few men, 
 naming his little fort Creve Coeur. After descending the 
 Mississippi for some distance, be returned to Canada, but 
 in ir>S2 came again to the Illinois River with a colony 
 of Canadians, and made a beginning of settlements at 
 Kaskaskia, Kabokia, and some other towns. These settle- 
 ments increased, and (he Jesuit missionaries who visited the 
 region early in the eiglitecnth century were so delighted with 
 it that they described it as a new paradise. The colunists, 
 like most of the French emigrants of that period, main- 
 tained the most friendly relations with the Indians, and 
 cvcntuall3' so far degenerated as to bcuome very little above 
 the Indians among whom they dwelt. The vagabond and 
 reckless life of the half-breed Canadian vovageur is wdl 
 known, and the greater part of (lie c<»lonists were of this 
 class. In nc.'J the English government, by the conquest 
 of Canada, succeeded to the dominion over all this region, 
 to which the French had previously laid claim, but in the 
 twenty years that followed they seem to have paid very 
 littlo attention to this portion of their domain. At the 
 close of the Revolutionary war this region was ceded to the 
 U. S., and in 1787 the whole countr3" N. of the Ohio River 
 to the Canadian line was erected into the North-west Ter- 
 ritory. In 1?00, Ohio was made a separate Territory; in 
 ISOJ, Michigan was set off as a distinct Territory; and in 
 1809, Indiana Territory was organi/xd. This left for Illi- 
 nois Territory, as it was soon after organized, the present 
 States of Illinois and Wisconsin and part of Minnesota. 
 The census of ISIO reported 12.2S2 inhabilants in this 
 Territory. The Indians had fur several years been very 
 troublesome, and the settlement of the Territory liad been 
 hindered by their hostilities. In Aug.. 1812, they attacked 
 the fort at the mouth of Chicago River, and murdered most 
 of the garrisim and the settlers in the vicinity. They wero 
 severely punished for these outrages, and the hostile tribes 
 being finally driven away, the northern section began to at- 
 tract a largo body of immigrants. In 18IS it was found 
 that there were 35,220 inhabitants in the Territory, and all 
 but a very fc^r within the present limits of the Stale. In 
 that year Illinois was admitted with the present limits into 
 the Union as a State. Two years Inter it bad 6.'j,2ll in- 
 liabitants, and in 1S.30, I.'i7,'l'l5, a gain of 18'».2 per cent. 
 In 18:;2 the troubles with tlie Sac and Fox and other tribes 
 of Indians, which had existed for a year or two. culminated 
 in the RIack Hawk war and (he finnl removal of all (he In- 
 dians from the State. During the continuance of lutstilitics 
 there was much excitement ami alarm in the State, but llio 
 result was eminently beneficial in making more widely 
 known the great advantages the State offered to iuimi- 
 gr.ants. Congress granted an appropriation in 1S3( for 
 tho improvement of the harbor at Chicago, and in 1835 
 tbo Illinni.s and Lake Michigan Canal, conneding (he great 
 lakes with tho Mississippi River, was pntjectrd and the 
 State bank organlzeiL Jn July, 183fi, the canal was com- 
 menced and several railroad enterprises undertaken. Rut 
 tho financial panic of 1S:;7 fell with crushing effect upon 
 Illinois, and led to the abandonment of every work of in- 
 ternal improvement. Tbo growth of the State in popula- 
 tion conlinuerl. however. thr«iugli all (bis period of depres- 
 sion, and in |8|0 it had 470.183 inhabitants, a gain of 202.1 
 p"'r cent, from Is;i0. In 18(0 the Mormons removed from 
 Afissfiiiri to Naiivoo in Illinois, and. rapidly increasing in 
 numbers, commenced erecting their t'mple there. From 
 the first their lawlessness and their irregular and profligate 
 lives had prejudiced the people against them, and as their 
 offences became more tlajjrant there was manifested a very 
 general d'-teriuinafinn tu <Irivc (hrm out of the Sfa'*'. In 
 JuDCf 1841, tho brothers Joseph and Hyrum Smith, tlio
 
 1114 
 
 ILLINOIS— ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL. 
 
 leaders of the Mormons, having been arrested and con- 
 fined in €arlha_i;e jail, tlic jail was surrounded by a intib 
 on the 27th of that month, and the Smiths were both mur- 
 dered, lu the following autumn the iMormons. to the num- 
 ber of about L'O.IUIO. left the State under the leadership of 
 BriL^ham Vouii;;, and commenced their migration to Utah. 
 In i.SJ J (he population, according to the State census, was 
 043,482. In 1S47 a ne\v State constitution was ado])tcd. 
 In 1S50, the tide of emigration having set very strongly 
 toward Iowa and Wisconsin, tlic percentage of increase of 
 population had fallen oft' considerably, the census rupoit- 
 ing only Hj1,470 inhabitants, an increase of only SO. 7 per 
 cent, on the previous decade. In 18,'»li, Congress granted 
 a vast quantity of land to the Illinois Central llailroad Co. 
 for tlie construction of their railway through the whole 
 length of the State. This, and the other railroad enter- 
 prises which folhjwed it, gave a new impulse to the growth 
 of the State, and have made its development more rapid 
 than that of any State which had preceded it. A great 
 city was rapidly growing up on the shores of the lake, and 
 river and lake, canal and railroads, were all contributing 
 to its swift and irrcsistilde progress. In 18(10 the popula- 
 tion of the State was 1. 711.1)51, a little more than double 
 that of 1830, and it had but very little government land 
 remaining unsold. The civil war taxed the resources of 
 the State very severely, but her citizens rcspnnded most 
 nobly, and by the aid of improved agricultural machinery 
 she was able to send a very large force, more than her full 
 quota, into the field, and jet retain her pre-eminence as the 
 granary of the nation. Owing to the losses of the war the 
 
 increase of her population was proportionally less in 1S70 
 than in 18GU, though the actual increase was nearly the 
 same as in the previous decade. The census report gives 
 her in 1870, 2,639,S'J1, an addition of 827,940. Since 
 1870 she has enjoyed (except the great calamity of the 
 Chicago fire) uninterrupted prosjicrily, and her growth has 
 been as rapid as at any former period of her history. The 
 conflict in regard to policy which in 1873 and 1874 had 
 occurred between the farming pcfjjulatiou and the railway 
 comjKinies, though it may cause some bitterness of Iculiug 
 for a time, is di:stini.Ml to be settled on terms which will bo 
 fair and just to both parties, and in the end will result in 
 an increased business and a more satisfactory develojnncnt 
 of the vast resources of the State. In 1870 the State ngain 
 revised its constitution very thoroughly, and in the inter- 
 ests of an economical and wise government. 
 
 Coventors o/ Illinois. — 
 
 Term. 
 
 Territory. 
 
 Ninian Edwards 1809-18 
 
 State. 
 
 Shadrack Bond 1S18-22 
 
 Edward Coles lS22-*2r> 
 
 Ninian Edwards 182G-30 
 
 John R'-ynolds 1K30-:J4 
 
 Jnsepli Duncan I8:J4-38 
 
 Thomas Carlin 1838-42 
 
 Term. 
 
 Thomas Ford 1842-46 
 
 Aupuslus C. I'rtuch lS-lG-53 
 
 .Toil A. MatUbun 185»-57 
 
 WilliuHJ H, Kitsell 1857-Gl 
 
 Richard Yates 186I-fi5 
 
 Kiciiard J. OKlesby ISG-VeD 
 
 .Inhn M. Palmer 18C9-73 
 
 Richard .1, O^jlcsby 1*57:1-73 
 
 John L. Beveridge 1873- 
 
 Vntr at Presiflrntial Elcctioux. — Illinois not having been 
 admitted into thr Union as a State until 1818, her first voto 
 for President was cast in 1820, 
 
 as 
 
 1820 
 1824 
 
 1828 
 1832 
 183S 
 
 1840 
 1844 
 
 1848 
 1852 
 1856 
 18G0 
 1804' 
 18GS 
 18721 
 
 CaDdidale^ who received the 
 electoral vole. 
 
 James Monroe P 1 
 
 D. D. Tompkins V.-P.... ) 
 
 AnJrew Jackson P 
 
 John Quincv Adams P 
 
 lolin C. Calhoun V.-P 
 
 .\iulrew Jackson P 1 
 
 Joh n C. Calhoun V.-P... ) 
 
 .\nilrew Jackson P ) 
 
 M. Van Buren V.-P / 
 
 Martin Van Buron P 1 
 
 R. M. Johnson V.-P j 
 
 Martin Van Burcn P. 
 R. M. Johnson V.-P.., 
 
 JaniLS K. Polk P 
 
 G. M. Dallas V.-P 
 
 L'-'wis (.'ass P 1 
 
 \V. O. Butler V.-P f 
 
 Franklin Pierca P 
 
 William R. King V.-P.. 
 
 .lames liuchanan P 
 
 .I.e. BrcckiMiridse V.-F 
 
 .\braham Lincoln P 1 
 
 II. Uamlin V.-P f 
 
 Abraham Lincoln P ) 
 
 A. Jolinson V.-P / 
 
 U. S. Grant P 1 
 
 Schuvler Colfax V.-P J 
 
 U. S. "Grant P I 
 
 Henry Wilson V.-P J 
 
 u 
 
 Popular 
 vote. 
 
 3 
 
 Not rec. 
 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 
 1,901 
 1,642 
 
 3 
 
 6,763 
 
 5 
 
 14,147 
 
 5 
 
 17,275 
 
 5 
 
 47,476 
 
 9 
 
 57,920 
 
 9 
 
 56,300 
 
 11 
 
 80,597 
 
 11 
 
 105,348 
 
 11 
 
 172,161 
 
 16 
 
 189,490 
 
 16 
 
 250,303 
 
 21 
 
 241.944 
 
 J. Q. Adams P.. 
 R. Rush V.-P..., 
 
 John Quiney Adams P.. 
 
 .T. Q. Adams P 
 
 R. Rush V.-P 
 
 II. Clay P 
 
 John Sergeant V.-P.. 
 
 W.H.Harrison P 
 
 F. Granger V.-P 
 
 W. H.Harrison P > 
 
 J. Tyler V.-P f 
 
 H.Clay P 1 
 
 Th. Freliniibuvsen V.-P. ( 
 
 Zach. Taylor P ) 
 
 M. I-'iUmore V.-l' ( 
 
 Winfield Scott V | 
 
 W. A. Graham V.-P ) 
 
 iTohn C. Fremont P.... 
 
 W. L. Dayton V.-P 
 
 S. A. Douglas P 
 
 H. V. Johnson V.-P.. 
 
 (;. B. McClellan P > 
 
 G. II. Pendleton V.-P.../ 
 
 Horatio Seyniiiur P | 
 
 F. P. Blair V.-P f 
 
 Horace Greeley P \ 
 
 B. Gratz Brown V.-P j 
 
 Not rec. 
 
 1,542 
 
 1,581 
 5,429 
 14,292 
 
 4.5,537 
 
 45,528 
 53,047 
 64,934 
 96,189 
 160,215 
 158,730 
 199,143 
 184,938 
 
 /Crawford P.. 
 Ih. Clay P 
 
 ("John Floyd and Wilkins 
 
 \ Williiiui Wirt and Henry Lee.. 
 
 Hujch White and John Tyler... "l 
 
 Daniel Webster «... 
 
 W. P. Mangum and Smith J 
 
 J. G. Birnev P 
 
 J. G. Birney P 
 
 M. Van Burcn P 
 
 J. P. Hale P., and Julian V.-P 
 
 Fillmore P., and Donaldson V.-P. 
 
 ( Breckenridtje P., and Lane V.-P 
 1 Bell P., and Everett V.-P 
 
 C. O'Cbnor P.. 
 
 Popular 
 
 219 
 1,047 
 
 Not rep. 
 
 1-19 
 
 3,570 
 
 15,774 
 
 9,966 
 
 37,444 
 
 2.-J04 
 4.913 
 
 8,058 
 
 Illinois, tp. of Pope co., Ark. Pop. 16j7. 
 
 Illinois, tp. of Washington co.. Ark. Pop. 1200. 
 
 Illinois and i>licliigan Canal. This importantline 
 of commuuieation unites Lake Michigan with the navigable 
 waters uf the Illinois River — that is to say. the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence with the Gulf of Mexico — and the summit-level 
 of the canal lies about 580 feet above tide-water. The near 
 approach of these waters to each other was known to the 
 curly fur-traders and Indian misi^ionaries of Canada. By 
 the Fo.x River (by Green Bay) and the Wisconsin River, 
 Father Marquette, the Jesuit, passed from the lake to the 
 Mississippi, descending that river to the mouth of the 
 Illinois, lie returned to the lake by this last-named stream 
 and Chicago River, having to make but short portages at 
 the two intermediate points ; this in the year lli7.'i. Soon 
 after the formation of the State of Illinois from the North- 
 ■we.-it Territory — say, in the year 1S22 — Congress granted 
 the right of way through the public lands " for the route of 
 a canal connecting the Illinois River with the southern bend 
 of Lake ^Michigan," and in the year 1S27 a further grant 
 was made to aid the State in the construction of a canal — 
 viz. a quantity of land " equal to one-half of five sections 
 in width on each side of the canal, reserving each alternate 
 section to the U. S. from one end of the said canal to the 
 other;" this and a .^similar grant made to tlie State of In- 
 diana, also in 1-S27, for aid in the construction of the Erie 
 and Wabash Canal, constituted the first material support 
 by grants of public lands made by Congress under tlie sys- 
 tem of *' internal improvements," so called in that day. 
 The number of acres included in the grant to Illinois orig- 
 
 L. P. BnoCKETT. 
 
 inally was 280,000; but it having been discovered subse- 
 quently that the State had not received its full quota under 
 the terms of the law, an additional 32,895 acres was granted 
 in the year 1854, making the aggregate of 318,895 acres re- 
 ceived by the State. Prior to this grant of land by the 
 U. S., the State of Illinois, in the year 1825, had received 
 a rejiort from a board of commissioners appointed by tho 
 legislature to examine the route of the proposed canal, 
 favorable to tho project, stating tho estimated cost of five 
 several plans, varying in amount from $('ioll,000 to $71G,0(lO ; 
 the length of the canal being about 100 miles. In 1829 a 
 new board of commissioners was organized, with authority 
 to construct the canal and to dispose of the lands granted 
 by Congress to provide means for carrying on the work. 
 In the following year experimental surveys were made liv a 
 party of engineers acting under the orders of tho war de- 
 partment, but their investigations were confined principally 
 to the question of a supply of water. In the year 1833 
 other surveys and estimates were made by the State, and 
 tho engineers then employed reported the cost of a canal 
 40 feet wide and 4 feet deep at $4,04.'!,000. 
 
 It was not until 1830, however, that really efficient meas- 
 ures were adopted for the prosecution of the work. A board 
 of commissioners was again organized in that year, with 
 authority to construct the canal, an experienced engineer 
 was appointed, surveys were made, and estimates in detail 
 furnished for an enlarged work — to wit, for a canal 00 feet 
 wide at surface, 36 feet at bottom, and fi foet deep. The 
 estimate upon this basis for the work and its apju-ndages 
 was $S,G."t4,OllO. The work wa^ put und<T eontra'-t in June, 
 1830, and was prosecuted uninterruptedly until Mar., 1841,
 
 ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL. 
 
 1115 
 
 when operations wore suspended for the want of adequate 
 means to carrv on the same. In Feb., IS 13, the governor 
 was authorised bv hiw to negotiate a loan of $1,000,000 
 solely on the credit and pledge of the caual, its lolls, rev- 
 enues and lands, for the purpose of completing the work. 
 The n'sTotiation of this loan occupied more than two years, 
 fur it w°is not until June, 1S45, that the lull amount ol sub- 
 scriptions re.iuircd was secured. At that time a contract 
 wi^ a-rced upon and executed between the .State of Illinois 
 and the subscribers to the loan of $1,GUU,UU0. The canal 
 and all its works, with 225,000 acres ol land and LOOO lots 
 in rhica^o, Loi-kport, La Salle, etc., were placed in the 
 hands of three trustees, with full authority to complete the 
 canal, sell the lands and lots, and, possibly, to restore the 
 canal and remaining property (after payment of the loan 
 and the bonds) to the State of Illinois. . j. , 
 
 In the original plan of the canal it was designed to make 
 a through cut from the waters of Lake Michigan to the 
 main eastern branch of the Illinois Kiver (the Dcs Plaices : 
 bv this the summit-level, some SO miles in length, would 
 receive a never-ending supply of water from the lake for 
 navi<'atioa and for lockage of the inferior levels— say, to 
 the entrance of the main southern branch, the Kankakee, 
 cnterin" the Illinois Kiver 50 miles below Chicago, and 
 about midway of the canal. The formation of the land 
 between the iake and the Des Plaines presented nothing 
 formidable in appearance, being an almost flat prairie, 
 more or less wet, and rising only from 12 to 15 feet above 
 the ordinary level of Lake Michigan; hence the plan 
 adopted for" the construction of the lino of canal between 
 the two points named established itself, as it were, for there 
 seemed to bo no alternative to desire. However, during the 
 year 1837 (the second season of work) the cuttings proved 
 to be very difficult and e.-ipensive upon the summit division, 
 19 miles averaging IS feet in depth, the lower 12 feet, be- 
 ing ceincnlcd clay, next 8 miles (Saganski Loup) the cut- 
 ting was in magnesian limestone, U to IS feet in depth, 
 with abundance of water. These results, as developed dur- 
 ing the later progress of the work, le I to the modilication 
 of "the plan of ISlifi. by the act of the legislature of 1S43, in 
 a most important feature— to wit, authority to abandon the 
 through cut, to raise the summit-level one lock in height, 
 and to rely for the supply of water therefor upon tho trib- 
 utaries of the Illinois Kiver, the Calumet, Des Plaines, etc. 
 In .June, 1815, the trustees before referred to wein placed 
 in possession of the canal, lands, etc., and proceeded to 
 organize their work by distributing their duties among each 
 other, appointing a chief engineer and assistants (tho same 
 who had planned and constructed the work from the begin- 
 ning in 1836), a secretary, land-agents, etc. Under tho act 
 of lS-13 the lands and lots were valued by appraisers ap- 
 pointed for that purpose, contracts were entered into lor 
 the construction of the canal and feeders, and the work was 
 pushed forward diligently and successfully to its completion 
 and opening for purposes of navigation in Apr., 1848, tho 
 same falling within the period prescribed in tho act of 1843 
 jiy, three years — and it may bo added the cost of com- 
 pleting the canal and its subsidiary works fell within tho 
 estimate male by the chief engineer in tho year 1843— 
 $1,429, fine. Tills sum, added to the previous cost, esti- 
 mated'at S4,T40,fi20, exhibits tho entire cost at $6,170,220 
 at the opening of the canal for navigation, Apr., 1848. 
 
 VeHcrijiliou <>/ the dinrd aiiri iM lKor/«.— Tho eastern 
 terminus of the canal is at the S. branch of tho Chicago 
 River, anil 5 miles from the entrance of tho main stream 
 into the lake. The line is direct to the valley of tho Des 
 Plaines at Summit, about 8 miles distant ; thence it pursues 
 that valley uninterruptedly to the mouth of tho Kankakee 
 River, 42 miles, passing through the towns of Loekport 
 anri .I'oliet, and receiving within the tlistanco named four 
 fe„,icr3— Calumet, Des Plaints, Du Pag.-, and Kankakco; 
 between the junction of tho Kankakee and Des Plaines tho 
 combined rivers lake tho name of Illinois, and within this 
 valley tho canal pursues its course to its western terminus. 
 La Siille. passing through the towns of Morris and Ottawa, 
 and receiving tho important Fox River feeder at the last- 
 named place; tho entire length of tho canal proper being 
 90 miles. Tho difference of level between Lake Michigan 
 and the Illinois River at La Salic is 1 15 feet, and in tho 
 ori"inal or through-cut plan this fall was distributed 
 through 15 locks, varying in lift from 3} to I2i feet each. 
 Upon the modified or'raised-lovcl plan two additional locks 
 became necessary- one of 8 feel at the easlern end of tho 
 snmmit-level, and one of 10 feet at the western end, the 
 difTcrcncc, 2 feet, being given to the declivity between the 
 two locks. The canal is 96 miles in length. CO feet wide 
 at the surface, 34 feet at bottom, and 6 feet deep. The 17 
 locks arc 110 X 18 feet, designed fpr boats carrying 100 to 
 
 150 tons. , ,„„.., 
 
 There are flye feeders of the aggregate length of 2.) miles, 
 all navigable, and 40 feet wi.lo and 4 feet deep ; 4 aque- 
 
 ducts ; and 7 dams— two of tho last of stone at Joliet, for 
 crossing the river. There are e.xtensivo basins at Loekport, 
 Joliet, Du Page, Ottawa, and La Salle; three of these fur- 
 nishing ample water-power for manufacturing purpo.«cs. 
 
 Notwithstanding the full provision made for a supply 
 of water by feeders in the original plan, it was found ne- 
 cessary in the modified or raised-level to introduce a fur- 
 ther supply upon tho summit-level to meet wants which 
 might bo produced by droughts. So, in addition to the 
 Calumet and Des Plaines, it was decided to add two pump- 
 in"-engines (steam) at the eastern terminus of the canal 
 (Bridgeport), of power suflicient to raise any desired quan- 
 tity of water from the lake-level that might be needed for 
 the summit and for lockages below. As the lift was but 8 
 feet at an ordinary stage of tho lake, tho pumping appa- 
 ratus required was quite simple and not costly. It con- 
 sisted (finally) of two steam-engines, with the power ap- 
 plied to twowhecis of 38 feet diameter, with buckets of 10 
 feet length or width, called, in England, " scoop-whcels," 
 each wheel working in a stone cell or chamber, independ- 
 ently of each other, and each capable of delivering 15,000 
 cubic feet per minute upon the summit-level. The entire cost 
 of these two machines, with all the necessary buildings and 
 appendages, was about $55,000, and these were continued 
 in use every year, except the year 1855, from 1848 to 1870, 
 inclusive. In connection with this brief account of these 
 useful auxiliaries for purposes of the canal, they became 
 indispensable to the city of Chicago at an early day for 
 sanitary purposes. That is to say, the drainage and ^cw- 
 a-o of the city were discharged into the Chicago River 
 for a distance of five orsi.x miles, their only outlet being to 
 tho lake through the same river. Now, with the wind in 
 a certain direction, the wafer of the river could not find lis 
 way into the lake; on the contrary, it was forced back to- 
 wards tho interior, and if long continued the effect upon 
 the atmosphere was simply dreadful. To obviate this evil 
 an arrangement was made with the city aulhorities by 
 which the pumping-engines at Bridgijiort were brought 
 into use, thereby withdrawing the foul water from Ihe river, 
 emptying it in'to the summit-level of the canal, and as a 
 consequence substituting the pure water from the lake for 
 refilling the river. At a later day, when the drainiige 
 question became vital, the city of Chicago in the year 1865 
 obtained an act from the legislature providing for the com- 
 pletion of tho Illinois and Michigan Canal upon Ihe plan 
 adopted bv tho State in 1S3G. Under the authority of that 
 act tho original or through-cut plan was carried out— an 
 operation requiring about four years in time and an ex- 
 penditure of some $3,000,000 ; but the great object was sc- 
 „,„.„H_.lrninnirn for the city: for all that part of it, at 
 
 cured— drainage for the city; for all that pa 
 least, which lies upon the S. side of the river, and on tho 
 S. branch, is carried through the canal to the Des Plaines 
 River, and there discharged. Other means have been pro- 
 posed, it is understood, for cleansing and purifying the N. 
 branch, and, it is to be hoped, with like good results. 
 
 In connection with the Illinois and Michigan Canal, tho 
 improvement of the Illinois River by a system of locks 
 and dams has been inaugurated by the Stale of Illinois, 
 with some moneyed assistance from the general govern- 
 ment. This river, for its very moderate fall, some 45 feet 
 only from La Salle (outlet of the canal) to its mouth, a dis- 
 tance of 213 miles, is wonderfully well adapted to improve- 
 ment bv locks and dams, not more Ihan seven, perhaps, 
 being necessary to furnish an unbroken navigation from 
 Chicago to the Mississippi River. 
 
 The following schedule exhibits tho entire amount ol 
 money received and expended by the board of trustees of 
 the lUinois and Michigan Canal from the organization of 
 the trust in June, 1845, to Nov. 23, 1870-23 years: 
 
 OlnssillcaUoD. 
 
 Rocfllptfl. 
 
 Loan of Sl,600,000, principal and in 
 
 terest ■• ■ 
 
 Conslnictirm of canal, feeders, etc... 
 Canal-lands, sah-s, jirotection, etc... 
 Arrears of Interest on registered 
 
 bonds •- 
 
 Piinelpal of rcKislcred bonds. 
 
 Maintenance and repairs of canal 
 
 and feeders " 
 
 Tolls, collections, inspectioos and 
 
 salaries 
 
 Canal daniaKc.s. flowaRO, etc 
 
 (Jeneral expenses and contingencies 
 Premium on jrokl for dividends on 
 
 tioiids payable in London 
 
 Interest and exebanRP 
 
 Losses on "Wildcat" currency, 
 
 counlerfeit bills, broken banks, 
 
 etc., 1.14H to l.Ht;:i. Inclusive 
 
 Balanr.' in hands of treasurer Nov 
 
 30, 1S70 
 
 Total 
 
 $1,601,891.00 
 
 2,i;t2.25 
 
 4,698,320.02 
 
 111,003.97 
 4,385,675.77 
 
 S 
 
 923.27 
 179,911.00 
 
 $10,979,861.18 
 
 $2,153,771.31 
 
 1,429,606.21 
 115,023.23 
 
 2,l.'>.5,r,22.38 
 2,113,840.34 
 
 1,828,802.05 
 
 1!)7,S95.17 
 
 22,163.32 
 
 415,507.71 
 
 362,303.25 
 21,073.80 
 
 14,563.52
 
 11 IG 
 
 ILLINOIS INDIANS-ILLUMINATI. 
 
 By analysing the figures in this table the cost of mainten- 
 ance repairs, and renewals of the canal and all its works, 
 its feeder.-, iiumiiing-engiues, etc., for a long series of years. 
 
 can be usuVullv exhibited, to wit : 91! miles canal iiropcr; 
 25 miles navigable feeders; 2 pumping-engmcs, with uc- 
 cessary adjuncts of every description : tlie cost per mile 
 per annum was $010, the gross sum expende-d therelor hav- 
 nx' been Sl.Tl'.SOO. The canal reverted to the htate ol 
 Illinois in ISTI. the registered canal bonds, principal and 
 interest, and the loan of $1,000,000, princijial and mterest, 
 havin- been paid by the trustees uu.lcr the terms ot the 
 contract with the State. The amount of the hrsl was 
 $4,G:!l,7fi.^, and of the last, $2,1.^3,771; total of both 
 $8 7S5.j:i7. Since Mav, 1S71, the canal has been controlled 
 and worked by three commissioners appointed for that pur- 
 pose by the legislature of the State. W. U. Swikt. 
 
 Illinois Indians, a confederacy of tribes, including 
 the Cahokia, Peoria, IvasUaskia. Tamaroji, and Moingwcna 
 Indians, who were Algonkins, and the Micliigamcas, proba- 
 bly of Dakota race. Their principal territories were in 
 what is now Illinois, but they also occupied lands W ol the 
 Mississippi. They were faithful allies of the French, and 
 were often at war with the non-Algonkin tribes and with 
 the Sacs and Foxes. At present there are a few relics of 
 these once powerful tribes living in the Indian Territory. 
 The name Illinois means " superior people," according to 
 Gallatin. 
 
 Illinois Industrial University, at Urbana, county- 
 seat of Champaign co., Central Illinois. It was the first 
 collco established under the laws of Congress of July, 
 lS61°and .July, 1800, and under acts of the legislature of 
 Illinois bearing date Jan. 25, Feb. 2S, and Mar. 8 1S07, 
 " to teach in the most thorough manner such branches ot 
 learnin" as are related to agriculture and the mechanic 
 arts including military tactics, and not excluding other 
 scientific or literary studies." The Congressional land- 
 grant amounted to -180,000 acres, which was sold as scrip 
 and the proceeds invested in interest-bearing bonds, except 
 25 000 acres, which were located in Nebraska and Min- 
 nesota and are hold bv the university. The county of 
 Champai'-n made a donation of $450,000 in buildings, lands, 
 and farm?. The State of Illinois has for sever.al definite 
 purposes contributed nearly S.'.OO.OOO. The assets of the 
 university are nearly $1,000,000, with a regular income of 
 about SIO.OOO. The main university building is 21i feet 
 in length, with two wings extending 124 feet to the rear, 
 3 storfes hi-'h, with basement and mans.ards. It has one 
 fireproof wi'ng, with a library of nearly 10,000 volumes, a 
 lan'e cabinet of geological, zoological, and other specimens, 
 and a physical laboratory ; in the other parts of the build- 
 inf lecture and recitation rooms for 1000 students, a large 
 chapel society rooms, etc. The old university building 
 
 Illinois River, the largest stream in Illinois, nearly 
 bisects that .Slate. It is formed by the junction of tho Dea 
 Plaincs and Kankakee rivers, and flows S. W., Iravcvsiiig 
 Peoria Lake, and reaches the Mississippi Uiver 20 miles 
 above the mouth of the Missouri. It is navigable 215 
 miles by steamers, and, with the canal from Chicago to 
 La Salle, affords an all-water route from tlio Mississippi to 
 Lake Michigan. Its channel is to bo dredged to the miui- 
 mum depth of four feet. 
 
 Illiop'olis, tp. and post-v. of Sangamon co.. III., on 
 the Toledo Wabash and Western K. 11., 22 miles E. of 
 Spriuglield. Pop. of v. 305; of tp. 1829. 
 
 Illuminated .Manuscripts were very common among 
 the Egyptians, who employed many colored figures, gen- 
 erally red: and the art of illuminating manuscripts was 
 probably practised by all nations of antiquity in which 
 papyrus and parchment were used. It has been denied 
 that the ancient Romans illuminated their manuscripts, 
 but passages in Ovid and Pliny fully indicate that some 
 works were highly ornamented and illustrated, liyzanlino 
 and Italian illuminations arc no doubt simple deyclopmcnts 
 of an ancient classic art. Both stylos are gorgeous with 
 gold and bright colors, and deal very freely in idd Greek 
 and Roman architectural ornaments. Quite independent 
 of classic art an origin.al style of illuminating manuscripts 
 sprang up in Great Britain, especially in Ireland, whence 
 it was carried abroad by Irish munks, adopted in the 
 schools founded iiy Charlemagne, and spread all oyer Ku- 
 rope. There is doubt as to whether the elaborately inter- 
 twined knotwork. generally called Kunic, is purely of Irish 
 orifin, but there can be none that the most elegant appli- 
 cations of it were Iliberno-Saxon. Of these works Mr. 
 Digby Wyalt remarks, that in delicacy of handling and 
 minute but faultless execution the whole range of paloeog- 
 raphv offers nothing comparable; a detailed description is 
 found in Owen Jones's Grammar of Onmmctit. With the 
 invention and general introduction of the printing-press the 
 artol illumination vanished from Europe, but the Persians, 
 Arabs, Turks, and Chinese still produce very delicately 
 and beautifully illuminated works, charming as regards 
 industry and grace, but inferior to the European with re- 
 spect to strength and character. C. G. Lelaxb. 
 
 Illumina'ti [from the Lat. iUumuiatim. " those who are 
 enli-htcued"]. From early times, both in Asia and Eu- 
 rope, the mystics and thcosophists of different religions, 
 belicyin" that by abstraction and devotion to God a diviuo 
 li.'ht wal shed on the soul, have called themselves Illumi- 
 nati, or the Illuminated, in one language or another. Among 
 these were disciples of Jacob Bohme, Swedenborg. and 
 many others of tho scyentccnth and eighteenth centuries. 
 Aboit 100 years ago, when the most radical theories as to 
 eovernment, religion, and morals were inspiring all Eu- 
 two ideas became prevalent— the one of a skeptical 
 
 shops, iron and wood working machinery, a 20-horse-power 
 engine of the university make, mechanical cabinet, pattern 
 and paint room, foundry, etc. The upper story is one largo 
 drill-hall, with armories and artillery-rooms in towers. 
 There is a farm of 410 acres, with large barn and farm- 
 house, collection of agricultural implements, specimen herds 
 of Durham, Ayrshire, Herefordshire. Devon, and Jersey 
 cattle. Berkshire and Essex swine, Southdown sheep, etc. 
 The horticultural and experimental farms. 200 acres, with 
 specimen orchard of 3000 fruit trees, large nurseries, forest 
 plantation, experimental plots, farmhouse, large barn, and 
 erecnhouscs. The university was opened in 1809 ; in 1871 
 women were admilted, and the attendance was as follows : 
 1800, 78; 1870, 196; IS71 (254 men, 23 women), 277; 1872 
 
 Law in Ingolsladt, inspi.-,- , , , . . , i 
 
 with whom he had some personal quarrel, and instructed 
 by certain passages in the works of Bode, a professorin 
 Frankfort, conceived the idea of a secret society which 
 should unite all mankind in brotherly union, introduce 
 iustice, abolish all abuses resulting from priestcraft and 
 aristocracy, extend education, surround kings with wise 
 counsellors, and in short reform society. This union 
 foundcl, it is said. May 1, 1770, received at first for its 
 members the name of Pcrfectibilists, and then Illuminati 
 A mystical and m:.gical order, called the 11 umines of 
 Avr^non, had been already founded in 1760 by Pernety 
 and Grabianca. It does not appear that \\ e.shaupt in- 
 clined to magic or Rosicrucianism ; in fact, his quarrel 
 
 neering and architecture; (3) colleg 
 chemistry, and n.atural history: (4) college of literature 
 and art; (5) school of commerce; (fi) school of military 
 science: (7) school of domestic science (for women). Dr. 
 J. M. Gregory is regent of the university ; the faculty con- 
 sists of 13 professors, 9 assistants, and foremen in the 
 practical departments. The management of affairs is in 
 the hands of aboard of IrusteesofO members, who elect their 
 president. They arc appointed by the governor of the 
 State, who himself, with the president of the State Agricul- 
 tural Society, is an ex-officio member. This university is 
 forbi<lden by Slate law to e<mfer degrees, but gives certifi- 
 cates of scholarship, with record of all studies pursued, and 
 standing attained in each. S. W. SnATTtcK. 
 
 ind major. Scotch kniglil. epope or priest, regent or 
 prin«. illuminatus, magus, and king. -As >»»'> ■"-"•<■"" 
 'of old. Weishaupt led his pupils through different grades 
 of free thought up to complete " emancipa ion. A noted 
 writer. Baron Adolph Fii'inz Fried. Lndwig von knigge, 
 joined the order, and through his influence it rapidlj in- 
 creased Weishaupt, who was a weak man, could not re- 
 frain from expressing to his neophytes his ■advanced opiii- 
 i ions, and, moved by fear or jealousy, q'""-" '7\ " '^^ 
 Kni"K0. This resulted in complete exposure, and works 
 appeared revealing all the secrets of the order. On Jan. 
 ■>•' 1784 an edict was issued for its suppression in Bavaria. 
 W'^eishaupt was dismissed from the university, and retired
 
 ILLUMINATION— IMAGK-WOKSHIP. 
 
 1117 
 
 to Ratisbon and llalle, where he d. 1830, aged eighty-three. 
 He had use*! German Masonry to forwunl his views, hav- 
 ing been in advunuo of it as regards puliliciil radicalism; 
 French Freemasonry ia its turn borrowed largely from 
 Illumineeism, the latter being introduced into the seven 
 Musonic lodges of Paris by Ilode. who became ehief of the 
 order after \Vcisliaupt lost \u» influence. It is said that 
 llhnninati still exist; if so. they are probably to be found 
 in the ranks of the Communists. The name Illuminati 
 belongs rightly tr) the QriETisTs and Mystics (wliiih see), 
 who existi'il in one furm or the other under this name since 
 thL- earliest age of Christianity, but at present the word is 
 popularly understood as applicable only to Weishaupt's 
 order. (For works on this subject see I'Abb^ IJarrucI, 
 Mtmoi'rt; I'rof. John Robison, Pronfa nf « Connpiraci/j 
 etc., Kdinburgh, 1797; Pro*>f>t of the I'Jxintence of Illumin- 
 itm (an abstract of the works of Barruel and Robison), by 
 Seth Payson, Charlct^ton (America), ls02. These works, 
 however, arc so prejudiced as to be of little real value to 
 any save the most impartial reader. Also, Larousse. Diet. 
 CiiivrrnrUe, article " Illumin6es," and an article by the 
 writer on the same in iXid Princeton- KtiHKmt Monthly 18-12.) 
 
 ClIAItI.ES G. Lelanu. 
 
 Illumination. See iLLUMisATKn .Manusckipts, by 
 Chaui.ks G. Lkmni), a. M. 
 
 lllus'trated Puhlica'tions are those which combine 
 engravings and grapliic ligurcs with lctter-])ress. The old- 
 est form \>i book-illusIratii>n, that by wood-engravings, is 
 slill, on the whole, the best. During tho eighteenth cen- 
 tury, and still earlier, copper-plate engravings were fre- 
 quent in brioks, but liad to be separately printed. Aqua- 
 tint came next intct favor, but was open to the same objec- 
 tion. Finally, wood-cuts have been restored to favor, and 
 in the hands of the best engravers have fairly surpassed, 
 for illustrative purposes, an^'thing ever done by the old 
 masters of the art. Of late, photography, photozincography, 
 photolithography, nature-printing, and a variety of other 
 transfer processes have been considerably employed, and 
 arc valuable for special uses, but there is no process yet 
 ilcvised that is likely to supersede wood-engraving. 
 
 Illyr'ia, tp. of Fayette eo., Ia. Pop. 851. 
 
 Illyr'icum, or Illyria, a name which now has no geo- 
 graphical or political signification, but which at different 
 epochs has denoted important provinces of different em- 
 pires. It was in ancient times inhabited by a fierce, war- 
 like, and savage tribe, allied to the Thrncians anri addicted 
 to robbery and piracy. The eastern i)ortion of tho coun- 
 try, corresponding nearly to the modern Albania, was eon- 
 fpiered in ;ijy B. c. by Philip of Macedon, and annexed to 
 Slaeedonia. The western portion, comprising the modern 
 Datmatin, Croatia, Uer/egovina, and parts of Kosnia, re- 
 nmiue<l independent till the middle (»f the last century 
 before the Christian era, when it was conqueroil by tlio 
 Romans and raaile a Roman province. At the >livision of 
 the Roman empire both Illyris Gru'ca and Tllyris Romana 
 f*'!! tn tlic K;isfern em])ire, I)ut the Slavic tribes which had 
 fettled in Illyris Romana soon made themselves independ- 
 ent. l>iiring the .Middle Ages Illyricum was divided be- 
 tween the Venetians, the Hungarians, and the Turks, and 
 the name fell out of use until Xapoleon in ISO'J organized 
 the IMyrian provinces, consisting of (Jarlnthia, Carniola, 
 llalmatia, Istria, antl parts of t'roatia, and incorporated 
 Ihem with France. In ISl,') these provinces were formed 
 into a kingdom and annexed to Austria. The kingdom 
 has since been dissolved, and for administrative purposes 
 divided into provinces, but tho territories are still Austrian 
 possessions. 
 
 limcn'y a lake of N'orth-wcstern Russia, in tho govern- 
 ment of Novgorod. It is 'M^ miles long l>y 2\ broail, and 
 very rich in fisli, but untit for navigatictn on account of its 
 stormincsa. The Volchow connects it with the Lake of 
 Ladoga. 
 
 irinrnite, titanifcrous iron. See Titanates. 
 
 Ilnic'niiim [from //"ifn, a range of mountains in Sibo- 
 rin. vvhero the ore is found], a supposed element announced 
 by Hermann, regarded by Rose as impure niobium (eolum- 
 bium). 
 
 Ilopan'^o, a lake of Central America, in the republic 
 of San Salvador, bordering on the departments of La Paz, 
 San Salvador, and Cuscatlan, is situate<l in the centre of a 
 very terfile, well populated, and well-cultivated plain, and 
 eelelirated for its beuuly. 
 
 Im'a;;e-wor'ship, or IconolatrVf as distinguished 
 from ifiolatry, is the adoration r.f imiigt's or extreme honor 
 paid to them by the Roman Catholic Church. According 
 to ancient legemls, iniages of Christ are as old na Chris- 
 tianity ; St. Luke, say they, left portraits both of his divine 
 Master and of the \'irgin Mary ; our Lord himself gave to 
 St. Ver<)nica a liandkercbief upon which his face was mi- 
 
 raculously impressed : the woman who was healed by touch- 
 ing his garment (Mark v. 2j) set up his statue at Caisarea- 
 Philippi. Some Greek controversialists, whose assertion is 
 supported by Baronius, afiirm that a council of Aniioch in 
 opostolic times sanctioned the worshiji of images; but most 
 authorities, both Catholic and Protestant, agree that they 
 were little, if at all. used during the first three centuries 
 after Christ : and the correctness of this opinion ie borne 
 out by the silence of heathens on tho subject. They were 
 frequently reproached by the early Christians with ador- 
 ing lifeless gods, yet we read of no instance in which tliey 
 recriminated ; nor during tho hist persecution, when Chris- 
 tian churches were plundered, were any images seized in 
 them. Tho Council of Elvira, about a. d. "M^, decreed that 
 pictures were not to be in a ciiurch, lest ihey should be- 
 come objects of worship. In the same century Epiphanius, 
 bishop of Cyprus, having found before the door of a cer- 
 tain church in Palestine a veil or curtain whereon was a 
 picture of Christ, tore it down, and sent a plain one to he 
 used in its stead. St. Augustine disapproved of images, 
 which evidently were worshipped in liis time. "I have 
 known," he says, ''many adorers of tombs and pictures" 
 . . . whom "the Catholic Church condeiiuis and daily 
 studies to correct OS froward ehildrLii." Tlie pictures of 
 living persons were frequently put in churches. That of 
 Paulinus, bishop of Kola, was during his lifetime ])laced 
 in the church built by Scverus. Paulinus caused the ba- 
 silica of St. Felix to be adorned with paintings of Bibhs 
 stories, that the jieosants who assembled there niigbt have 
 their minds occupied with sacred sul>jeets. In Ihe sixth cen- 
 tury, Sercnus, bishop of Marseilles, seeing that his people 
 gave undue honor to images, caused those in his diocese to 
 be defaced or broken. For this deed, wliich offendeii many 
 ]iersons, he was censured by (Jregory the Great, who, how- 
 ever, praised his zeal against the worship of things made 
 by hands. From this time image-wtirship greatly increased, 
 and in the eighth century disputes respecting it caused that 
 great schism (see Iconoclast) which separated the Western 
 from the Eastern empire. The decrees of the Council of Nicje a 
 (a. d. 7S7) were rejected by nearly all Western nations, 
 who, while adorning their churches with images, refused 
 to worship them, and this decision was confirmed by tho 
 Councils of Frankfort (794), of Paris (S25), and of Aix-la- 
 Cliapellc (829). Rut iconolatry spread by degries through 
 the whole of Europe. Miracles were attributed to a par- 
 ticular picture or statue, around which Hocked crowds of 
 worshippers bringing rich ofl'erings to the church wherein 
 it was placed. This preference for some special image — a 
 remnant, doubtltss, of the old pagans' tutelary idolatry — 
 was discouraged by many wise ecclesiastics and condemned 
 by the Council of Mayeuce (16-19), which decreed that such 
 objects of peculiar devotion should be removed from 
 churches. The doctrine, still held by enlightened Roman 
 Catholics, that images are mere reminders of Christ and 
 the saints, was set forth by tho Councils of Poissy (liJCl) 
 and of Trent (lOCIi, .'sess. 25); the latter insisted tliat such 
 representations are to receive due veneration, not on ac- 
 count of any divinity or virtue in themselves, but because 
 honor is thus refleetcd on those whom tliey represent. Tiiis 
 same doctrine is very clearly explained by ^f. Sanders, a 
 divine of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Both pictures and statues are used in the Roman Catholic 
 Church. The Gretk Church forbids statues, but this pro- 
 hibition is comparatively modern, for one of the Virgin 
 was ])laecd by tlie emjicror .Ldianncs Zemisces (a. p. 970) 
 in tiie metropolitan elinreh. and was honored as the pal- 
 ladium of the state. And in tho eleventh century Alexis 
 Comncnus, needing money, caused many gold and silver 
 images to be taken from the churches and made into coin, 
 which act I^eo, bi^llop of Clialcedon, denounced as sacri- 
 lege. At tlie Reformation, images were condemned by 
 Zwinglinsand Calvin, but Luther regarded them as unim- 
 portant ornaments, useful for instructing the people; and 
 (lis followers still admit thim into their places of worship. 
 They are forbidden by the Church of England, though some 
 of the more advanced Ritualists defend their use. 
 
 Even after imagc-worshiii was sanctioned by the popes, 
 it was forbidclen to delineate God the Father. This may 
 be atlributeil partly (<> the influence nf Gnrtstic theories, 
 partly to a fear lest the idea of .Jupiter should lie recalled. 
 Paulinus describes a jiainting where the Father is rcpre- 
 aontcd by a voice : 
 
 " PIrno coruseat Trfnilas mysterlo: 
 Stat Cbrlslus anno; vox Patris ea-lo tonat ; 
 i;t per eolumbam Splritus Sanetus tiuit." 
 At a later jterind (iod the Father was represented by a 
 hand extended from clouds, generally in the attitude of 
 blessing. After tlic twelfth century ho was depicted as a 
 venerable man. frequently wearing royal or pupa! alt ire. 
 Christ was at first representeil as ii lamb or a lion : iifter- 
 wards as a man, generally of great beauty. \ dove has
 
 Ills 
 
 1MA(j1NAKIES. 
 
 always been emblematical of the Holy Ghost ; in the twelfth 
 ccntjry artists began to depict him as a human being, 
 somotinics very young, but more ooniuionly of mature age. 
 The cross is not merely a symbol of Christ's death, but in 
 itself is an object of veneration. It is pcrsonilied, as it 
 were, and the details of its history are given. It has been 
 made the subject of many poems, especially by Rabanus 
 Mauru.s bishop of Mcntz. Saints and martyrs arc repre- 
 sented with certain appropriate emblems, for details of 
 which see Didron's Iconnr/rapliic Chrctienne : Mrs. Jame- 
 son's Sacred and Legendary Art, etc. J.I.NET TucKEY. 
 
 Imag'iliarics (in mathematics). It is a very remark- 
 able and important attribute of all s;/mbnh that, while ab- 
 solutely c.-iscntial aids not only to reasoning, but to the 
 very exnres.sion of thought, they ever refuse to limit their 
 meaning to the particular idea for the expression of which 
 they were invented. From mere rn'ds, tliey become not only 
 provocatives of thought, hut, as it were, rcvealers of new 
 fields of investig.ation. Thus, the symbol of euhtractlnn, 
 from being the mere sign of a simple arithmetical opera- 
 tion, has become incentive to, and symbolic of, tho most 
 transcendental of mathematical conceptions. 
 
 If, passing from arithmetic to algebra (or universal arith- 
 metic), wo .?yraboli7.o magnitudes by letters a and b, and 
 tho operation of subtraction by the minus sign, tho expres- 
 sion n—b IS symbolic both of the operation performed and 
 of the result of the oper.ation. So long as b is less than a, 
 tho symbolism, without any stretch of meaning, is complete 
 and simple. But what if 6 exceed a? Since the given 
 magnitude can yield to the process of subtr.actioo no more 
 than itself, wh.at can a — b{b exceeding n) indicate but an 
 impossihilitij ? If we commence with considering hypo- 
 thetical values of 6 less than a, and go on increasing them, 
 the remainders become smaller and smaller, and finally {b 
 = ri) becomes zero (or nothing), reaching the absolute limit 
 of m.ignitude, considered ns such mcrehj. A quantity less 
 than nothing is simply an "impossibility," or a contradic- 
 tion in terms. Nevertheless, so long as our subtraction is 
 algebraic (that is, merely symbolic), and the quantities a 
 aa'd b are indeterminate— that is to say, represoutatis-es of 
 any pairs of single values we may have cause to assign — 
 wo operate algebraically upon the expression a — b with- 
 out concerning ourselves with their relative magnitude ; 
 and if we obtain a negative quantity as tho final result of 
 our operations, instead of reg.irding 'it as imaginary, or 
 involving in the problem data of impossible fulfilment, wo 
 evade thTs by an ints-rpretation which involves considera- 
 tions other than thoso of pure magnitude. The geometrical 
 idea of direction is one of the most common of these. If 
 n and b be supposed to represent linear extension (which 
 is but one of many notions of mn'jnitude), a + b must re- 
 present a length equal to the sum of the respective lengths. 
 But if a bo a distance measured in tjiren direction from a 
 given point. th= adding of .another distance implies the lay- 
 \n" off of the distance b from the extreme limit reached by a 
 in^the same direction: the subtracting will therefore imply 
 tho reverse direction ; and if 6 exceed a, the excess will ex- 
 tend in this reverse direction beyond the starting-point of 
 the distance a. Thus, we have the negative result a — b 
 interpreted as a distance equal to tho absolute difference, 
 but laid off as a distance in the rerrrse direction. 
 
 Now, it appears that if wo multiply together algebraical 
 or numerical expressions maiie up of several terms cto- 
 nected by the signs of addition and subtraction, + and — , 
 the individual products resulting from the combination of 
 terms Bf multiplier and multiplicand having like signs 
 must receive the plus sign : of unlike signs, tho minus sign. 
 Hence, the " rule of signs" of multiplication .and division. 
 But what meaning can we attach to multipUjing — n by — h, 
 or (reverting to numbers) — 4 by —5? Tho sign — was 
 invented simply to indicate subtraction without ulterior 
 reference; its existence, therefore, implies a minnend as 
 much as it does a subtrahend. We have already encoun- 
 tered the difficulty of assigning meaning to the isolated 
 expression — b, and now we have another logical problem ; 
 we have to use the negative sign as an integral part of a 
 multipHcr — i. c. to determine how it shall operate in an 
 "operation" quite alien to the idea of that particular one 
 to express which it was invented. Algebraists appreciate 
 very well the rationale of the (before-mentioned) "rule of 
 signs," and we need not dwell upon it. It is a logical nc- 
 cessitv of our agreeing to accept a — b a,s symbolizing both 
 the operation of subtraction and tho remainder, without 
 reo-ard to (still undetermined, perhaps) relative values of a 
 nn'l b. Wo have shown how the "impossibility" of a 
 " negative" quantity disappears when we call in besides the 
 ideas of ptiro phvsical magnitude some of its attributes, 
 such as that of direction. A negative dimension must be 
 interpreted as one laid off in the rercrsc direction to that 
 attributed to the positive one; i'. c. the negative sign re- 
 verses direction. This was arrived at without reference to 
 
 multijilication; we now see that it is in perfect accordance 
 with the logic of the latter algebraic operation. If multi- 
 plying by -(- 1, one be understood as taking the multipli- 
 caud unee,just as it is, multiplying by — 1 must be under- 
 stood as reversing its direction. Logical as all this is in its 
 geometrical interpretations, we must still remember that wc 
 have, in inventing a universal arithmetic, departed very 
 far from the simple meanings we assigned to the " opera- 
 tions" of common arithmetic. To "multiply " any thing, 
 or any magnitude, or any number, is to take or " repeat " 
 the thing, magnitude, or number a specified number of 
 times, llcnce, muUiplyiug hg anything but an arithmetical 
 number is unmeaning; still more unintelligible (abstractly) 
 would be multiplying by something itself less than nothing. 
 It very soon appears, however, thnt wc cannot make an 
 algebra without conceding wider n.caning to its symbols; 
 and in fact they have an inexorable logic of their own 
 which /o;*ce» such extension of meaning. 
 
 Since, by the rule of signs, a negative quantity multi- 
 plied by itself produces a positive product, we have no 
 means of representing the square root of a negatire (fuonttti/ 
 except by indicating upon it the operation itself, 
 square root of o'^ can be written either as -(- a or 
 for the square root " ' '* ^; -- i-- 
 
 Tho 
 but 
 - a^ we have no alternative but to write 
 
 (_ n2)i,or l/— a^; or, separating — «'•' into two factors, n' 
 and — 1, to perform the operation on the first and indicate 
 it on tho second, — 1 ; lhus<r>''— 1. Hence, the symbol K — 1 
 is the symbol of "impossibility," or, as more commonly 
 known, the symbol of an " imaginary quantity." Why? 
 Because we cniinot interpret it by any real representation 
 of magnitude associated or not with other .attributes? Wo 
 have seen how the absurdity of quantity less than nothing 
 was evaded (geometrically) by associating the idea of direc- 
 tion. Now, if we multiply a, considered as a line laid off 
 to the right, hy V^— 1, the analytic product is nl' — 1; 
 midtiply again, and the second product is — « ; i'. e. wc have, 
 by two successive operations, reversed the direction, as if 
 we had revolved the length a about its starting-point 
 through a semicircle. Is it not, therefore, perfectly logical 
 to consider one opei^ation of the V — \ to be half this rota- 
 tion — i'. e. that aV^ — l shall indicate the length laid off in 
 the direction perpendicular to the direction chosen for a? 
 
 So long as we deal with dimensions of ?f "•/(// only, and inter- 
 pret these, when real, geometrically by one single Hue of real 
 direction, this interpretation of V -1 is logical and consist- 
 ent. If we concede that the application v'- 1 be interpreted 
 as indicating a direction perpendicular thereto, and further- 
 more that the sum of a -|- ll^ — 1 be the distance accnm- 
 pVished from the origin, .after traversing the distance n in 
 the fixed direction, and then the distance 6 in a direction 
 perpendicular thereto, and call this accomplished distance 
 p (involving also the conception of its direction], and call 
 the linear distance r, we shall have p = (a -(- 1 V — l). Let 
 9 bo the angle which p makes with the direction o[_a; then 
 tho foregoing is equi\'alent top^= r (cos9 + sin «l/— l). If, 
 by Maclaurin's theorem, t*>'-i be developed (f being the Na- 
 
 pierian logarithmic base) into 1 + ''— l~'2~2;i 
 
 — — . etc., wc shall find two sets of terms — one real, and 
 
 2.3.4' 
 
 the other having V — 1 as a factor ; the sum of the first set 
 
 makes up the algebraic development of cos 9 ; the sum of 
 
 tho others that of sin e\/^l ; hence, the equation, which 
 
 is the connecting bond between exponentials and circuiar 
 
 functions (the so-called " transccndcntals "), 
 
 c»l'rT= cos9 + sin«l/-l. (1) 
 
 Hence also _ 
 
 r(cos e + sin ev'—\)^ re*' -> = p. 
 Wc must therefore interpret <•*''- ' as the symbol of rota- 
 tion through tho angls : and as 9 may be any angle wliat- 
 cver, it readily follows from (1) that 
 
 l/_ 1 = (cos » + sin 01 
 
 1 . 1 
 
 cos —8 + sin ^ e 
 
 ■1 
 
 (2) 
 
 a result well known as " Dc Moivrc's theorem." 
 
 Tho conception of multiple roots of unity— the assump- 
 tion of their necessary existence— is a secondari/ one ; and 
 tho conception and tlio assumption come not from the na- 
 ture of things, but as corollaries of the logic of our sym- 
 bolism. The idea of "powers" and "roofs" is based on 
 numbers; nothing can. in the strict and original meaning 
 of multiplication, multiply itself by itself, but a number. 
 Hence, there is no other root of unity Aiif unity. Our alge- 
 braical symbolism has carried with it an extension of the 
 idea of multiplication, and has created a "rule of signs " 
 by which we have come to regard - 1 also as a real root.
 
 IMAGINARIES. 
 
 1119 
 
 For the idea of $fiil more "roots" — of roots in number 
 equal to the degree — //m/ comes from other considerations. 
 Ir wp multiply l<>j;ether u factors of the form .r — a, a* — h, 
 X ~ c, etc., wc ohtiiin an anali/tical expression of the nth 
 degree in x of the form 
 x" + {a + 6 + c, ctc.)a-'*-* + {ab + nc + he +, etc.) a:»- ^ — 
 
 {abc -i-, etc.), x" ~ ', etc ± abed 
 
 A superficial examination will shoiv tho law by which 
 the coelfRMcnts of tho different powers of x arc formed from 
 the N symbols *7, It, r, etc. ; that the iudopeiuluiit term is 
 (abalractiun made of bujiim) iUq product o/ thnu ail. Con- 
 versely, given an expression of the Hth degree, 
 
 X" + vla-«-i -f Bx^-- .... JrQy 
 it should be resolvable into factors ar — «, x — 6, etc., of 
 which the n, ft, r, etc. would be determinable in terms of 
 tho n ijiren coofTicicnts A, li, C . . . . and Q ; just as, £/i'yc», 
 a, bj c, etc., w© have tho values of 
 
 A = - {'t + b + c ^ d, etc.), 
 
 B = + {ab -}- 6c + ac, etc.), 
 
 Q= iz{abcd ....); 
 so wo should, conversely, havo u ditfcrcnt expressions for 
 a, by c, etc., as onalt/fical comhinationfi o/ A, /i . . . . Q : 
 combinations which liave no reference to A, ft ... . etc., 
 as reprvsentations of ina'juitnde or ffunntttativc value (to 
 which, indeed, we havo made no reference), but which 
 should result from certain laws of nuali/tical combination. 
 For all analytical expressions of the 2d, 3d, and 4tb de- 
 grees, and, exceptionally, for some cases of tho higher de- 
 gree, we huno these combinati()ns ;- but whether wc know 
 them or not, they aro supposed to he determinable, and in 
 the sense of Kifinbolic determinations they would, if found, 
 all be real. Thus, for the 2d degree we would have 
 a = — 1 ^ + i/ 1 A'l—Q, 
 
 These arc tho two analytical or symbolic roots (as they 
 may properly be callc;!). Substituted for « and b in tho 
 factors X —a, x'— b, their product becomes x^ -f- Ax + Q, 
 (the given expression) ; and in like manner we should ob- 
 tain x" + Ax"—^ 4- lix"—^ .... 4- ^, had we the u cor- 
 responding expressions for a, ft, c, etc. If, now, wo pass 
 to (juantitatirn considerations, and ask for vulnrHof x which 
 shall render tho above expression "equal to zero," wc rec- 
 ognize that tho very "roots" we have obtained arc the 
 symbols of such values. Does it follow, therefore, that 
 there arc » diffcrcot quantitative values for x? By no 
 means. 
 
 If it turns out, on coming to assign values (that is, on 
 converting uur svmbols into specific magnitudes) that Q is 
 greater than ^A^ (in our expression of the 2d degree), 
 thrn the diffvyencc (which we may call D) must have the 
 minus sign, and the symbol of impnssihiliti/ V —I makes 
 its appearance, and wc havo 
 
 by which wo learn that tho partirulnr conditions cannot bo 
 fullilled by any linear magnitude; but all this is an after 
 consideration. The roots are " imaginary " because wo can- 
 not assign any idea of ''quantity" or "magnitude" to 
 them. Uut the two symbolic roots (.T) are the ral solutions 
 of the equation, nevertheless. And did we /:iioir how to com- 
 bine .4, // .... (^, etc. for the equation of ihe nth degree, 
 wc should have n symbolic expressions for a, ft, c, d . . . . 
 tho reolitt/ of which (as distinguished from " imaginary ") 
 is entirely a !>ubordinale question; as analytical or sym- 
 bolical expressions they would be always the same, and 
 alwayH real. If we deal directly with uinnhrrs in place of 
 tho letters A, //, C, etc, the positive or negative character 
 of quantities under the radical sign arc indeed forced into 
 notice at once. . Nevertheless, it is supposed that the sym- 
 bolic combinations which satisfy the conditions^whcthcr 
 we choose to call them real or not — nitiifl exist. Hence, tho 
 expression x" — 1 = (a particular case in which A, li, C, 
 etc. aro each icro, and ^^ — I) should be resolvable into 
 symbolic factors, ii, in number. It is in this sense that wo 
 assert tliat the number of '• routs of unity " must equal tho 
 indt'X of the degree of extraction. Analysts have not been 
 alile to disrorer the rtymbolic forma of llio roots of the gen- 
 eral equation of tho »th degree. Nor havo they been ablo 
 to solve (/(Vf//</ the particular form jr" — I = 0. They know, 
 however, that had they the tjcneral solutions for a, ft, c, 
 
 etc. in terms of A, It, (' Q, by making in them 
 
 ^^—1 and A, Ii, (\ etc, zero, they would obtain ii dif- 
 ferent symbolic expressions, each of which would havo 
 unity for its nth power; and, moreover, thoy would havo 
 
 • It U curiously illustrative that for tho cnso of three real 
 roots for equal iou.H of (he third dt'cn-e. Ihi-sc LoinliinallonH nro 
 so piindy inia/t/firitl that they caunot be interpreted as expres- 
 slotis of mai;nltude. 
 
 ^ = (— 1) for their product, and A (zero) for their sum, 
 and B (zero) for sum of products taken two and two, etc. 
 Inasmucii as none of them can be zero, and no combination 
 of + 1 and — 1 can meet these conditions, the sole remain- 
 ing symbol (for all even degrees of extraction resolve into 
 this) r — 1 must enter ; and the roots containing it must be 
 tn pairs involving like terms multiplied by it with contrary 
 signs, so that the sum of thum all (which constitutes the 
 coefficient A ), and the sum, in pairs (which constitutes Ii), 
 etc., shall all be zero. 
 
 But such tjencral analytic combinations have never been 
 arrived at (except for a few of the lower degrees) by alge- 
 braic solution. The real symholie relation tietwecn expo- 
 nentials and circular functions indicated by Be Moivre's 
 theorem (already given) led to the discovery of the roots 
 of the particular form ,r" —1. 
 
 Suppose d to be zero or2Tr, or any even multiple 2m of n- ; 
 
 the second member of (2) becomes 1" , while the first mcm- 
 
 2m 2m — - ^ ,'- , 
 
 bcr cos — It + sin — n i/— 1. For 1»* , therefore, we get 
 
 n n *^ 
 
 as many symbolic expressions for the Hth root of unity as 
 wc can give different forms to the first member by assign- 
 ing to ;/) values from zero to n. If, e. //., we take 12 for tho 
 value of j(, wc have the twplvc roots, grouping them in 
 pairs (since cos 30° = cos 330° and sin 30° = — sin 330°, etc.). 
 
 cos 0°±sin 0° V^ - 1 = -|- 1, 
 
 cos 30° ± sin 30°/-l = i V3±j /- 3, 
 cos 00° ± sin 00° l/-lj=i±^j/3l/— 1, 
 
 cos 90° i: sin 90° l/— J_= ± l/- 1, _ 
 
 cos I20°isin ]20°l/-l =-\h\V^V ~\, 
 cos 150° ± sin 1 J0° /-J_= - | l/3± J l/ — 1, 
 cos 1S0° ± sin 180° /- 1 = - 1. 
 
 In tho. sense of being symholic solutions, these expres- 
 sions aro truly and perfectly such, and therefore completely 
 real, ^\'e sec also how curiously these solutions knd them- 
 selves to interpretation — almost flow from — the geometri- 
 cal interpretation of direction, or the mechanical one of 
 rotation. Each one of these roots, thus interpreted, indi- 
 cates a unity-line, or radius, rotated from the normal -|- 1 
 direction tbrongh an angle which, tnelre times repeated, re- 
 stores that radius to that normal ])OsiXon. 
 
 For many fields of investigation this wholly logical in- 
 terpretation of V-^ — 1, or modifications of it, is fruitful of 
 results. Ajipliod to the study of certain funt-tions of a 
 eintjlc variable (that is, of a single gcotnetrical dimension), 
 it led to the discovery by Abel of douljlr periodiciti/ in cer- 
 tain important and well-known functions, the theory of 
 which, as developed by (.'auchy, has led to results of great 
 importance. From what goes before, it need excite no sur- 
 prise that the consideration of imnginarirs — so called — has 
 played so important a part as it Inis done in the theory of 
 equations, and it seems (le->tincd to equal potency in de- 
 veloping the theory of functions. " IJut," say the au- 
 thors f of the Theoric des fonctions douitlement p^riodique, 
 "to comprehend tho importance of this idea wc must do 
 away with the sort of antagonism or opposition which has 
 been permitted to subsist betwei-n what, up to the present 
 time, have been called real and iinaifinari/ quantities." 
 
 Would it not be more correct to say that when wo resort 
 to symbols as aids to reasoning, wo should dismiss tho idea 
 of quantiti/ (to which, after all, wc attach no very precise 
 notions, blending in various ways Ibc fundamental notions 
 of uui(fnitn>lr and numbr.r with sundry ineidiMituls thereto), 
 and simply accept all Ibc forms which under the laws of 
 symbolization mako their appearance, as real ; nt least so 
 long as they are merely serving their nurposc as aids to 
 reasoning. There should then never liave been a doubt 
 concerning tho legitimacy and (ruth of solutions obtained 
 through agencies or intervention of tho so-called imngi- 
 naries. 
 
 In thus claiming reality for tho imaginary forma ns le- 
 gitimate symbolic instrunu nis of investigation, it is not to 
 be understood that, though geometrical interpretation:" have 
 been found for imaginary expressions where only linear di- 
 mension is concerned, all imaginary forms are susceplililc 
 of or nrrd other interpretation than that of *' impo^9ibility." 
 
 Tho Cartesian equations of tho circle and the right lino 
 involve tiro dimensions of space measured by a common 
 linear unit. We cannot, therefore, use either as a direction 
 indicated by k— 1. If wo eliminate between them tho 
 symbol representing one of those dimensions (//, for in- 
 stance), wc havo an '* equation " of tho 2d degree in .r, tho 
 two roots of which are tliuso values of x for which t/ is tho 
 
 tBrlot ct Bouquet (Paris, 1859).
 
 1120 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 same in the two equations: in other words anil geometri- 
 cally spcakini. the two roots correspond to the abscissie of 
 the two inlersections of the line with the circle. 
 
 If the perpendicular distance of the lino from Iho centre 
 exceed the nuiius of the circle, there can be no intimeelion; 
 but (his ia a matter which results from assigning definite 
 values to the symbols by which these relations arc deter- 
 mined. Hence, these annli/iicnt roota must always exist 
 under forms irrespective of such assignment, and icliellicr 
 there he inlri-tectiiin or not. If there be no intersection, 
 there can be no linear value of .t, answering as an inter- 
 pretation of the result; if there were, it would be in direct 
 conflict with the geometrical fact, and prove our symbolic 
 logic wrong. The symbol V —1 which first revealed itself 
 as'one to which no "idea of pure magnitude could be as- 
 signed, hero comes in very logically {after specifying iidues) 
 as^the symbol of geometrical impossibility. Both planar 
 direclioiis of space have been appropriated otherwise, so 
 that our former interpretations are excluded, and whether 
 there may or may not he, nevertheless, some logical inter- 
 pretation, is another question. For such a case that of 
 " impossibility " is wholly sufficient, and the expression of 
 it neeetfiri/. Xeverthclcss, the processes of analysis — and 
 this is the point to be insisted on — take no account of the 
 distinction between real and imaginary, so important in 
 pure geometry. If. in the above example, wo take the 
 combined figure of circle and intersecting line and deduce 
 certain properties (e. //. those concerning poles and poliirs), 
 such properties may liobl true and be predicated on purely 
 analytical grounds (see Salmon, Coiii'e .S'ccfioim), though there 
 be no real intersections. This principle "of continuity" 
 is but another form of the proposition that the so-called 
 '• imaginary " forms of symbols are, in the purely symbolic 
 rcgioiTs ofthought to which they legitimately belong, as 
 real as any other symbolic forms. 
 
 It has been shown that the notion of " n roots " to every 
 equation of the nth degree is a purely analytical conception, 
 founiled upon the assumption that since the A, B, V, etc. 
 of the equation are easily derived from the n, b, c, etc. of 
 the factors (.r — n) (x— 6), etc., when the latter arc known, 
 the iitcertte openitiitn must tie practieabfe. But it is not. and 
 it may be safely asserted, I think, that our algebraic sym- 
 bols are iinl mi'aeeplibU of thi- required combinntiom. All 
 eflTorts to find them have failed for equations of higher than 
 the 4th degree. It is reasoned, indeed, that there viuH be 
 certain funeiloni of A, H, C to express such real values of 
 3- as will satisfy the equation, since these values depend 
 vpon those of the coefficients. But this is another ques- 
 tion : the hypothetieally realizable analytical solutions 
 could make no distinction between "real" and " imagi- 
 nary ;" they could differ from one another only by permn- 
 tnlioiis of letters and signs, while the distinction of " real " 
 and " imaginary " is an ofter result ensuing in the transi- 
 tion from the general to the particular.'^ I'lJiics, indeed 
 (if there be such), which satisfy the equation may be found 
 with all desired accuracy by the tentative and test pro- 
 cesses known to the "theory of equations" and "higher 
 ab'cbra." but these are not " roots " in the nuttli/tieni sense. 
 It°would, therefore, in the writer's opinion, be quite war- 
 rantable to say that, instead of " ii roots," there are (in 
 general) no rn'ola iil nil to an equation of the >ith degree, 
 where >i exceeds /our. Conceptions duo to symbolism, the 
 symbolism which should exhibit them, is, at yet, quite as 
 "imaginary " as the so-called " imaginaries " for which I 
 have claimed a logical ralson d'etre, and a reality not only 
 as agents of thought, but as true analytical solutions. That 
 a higher transcendental analysis may yet give, in visible 
 form, a "local habitation" to these "airy nothings," is 
 quite possible, and, indeed, is rendered, by the theorem of 
 Cauchy, and by other considerations, quite probable. 
 
 J. G. Barnard. 
 Ima^jina'tion [Lat. I'nm^o, an "imago;" imnfiimiri, 
 to " imagine"]. An image is simply the representation of 
 anything formed of real substance, but as in early times it 
 generally set forth some being which had only a fancied 
 existence, it soon became the base of a verb signifying not 
 only the voluntary creation in the mind of literal things, 
 but all formation of iileas or representations by modifying 
 and oombiuing conceptions. The first stage is clearly set 
 forth by Glauvil when he says, " Now. our simple appre- 
 hension of corporal objects, if present, we call gmite ; if 
 absent, we properly name it imnffination." From this root, 
 imatjo, which according to Vossius and Festus is derived 
 from imilor, to "imitate" 'ab imitatioue dietn), came sev- 
 eral words bearing varied meanings, as. for instance, imaijt- 
 notim, " whimsical, full of strange fancies " and " conceits," 
 
 and Smarflnntut, " fashioned or formed :" in all of which tho 
 English language has unfortunately not only followed tho 
 Latin, but even gone beyond it. as when, for instance, wo 
 hear " I imagine that you are in the right." instead of " I 
 think " or " believe." The consequence of this weakness, 
 so characteristic of Latin derivatives, has been to burden 
 a few words, all from the same source, with very difl'crcnt 
 meanings, the further result being frequently a great con- 
 fusion of ideas, even among good writers. .According to 
 Adilison. all that is pleasurable to the imagination — i. e. 
 all that engages its active powers — is reduced to greatness, 
 novelty, ancl beauty. Thus, the imaf/hiary here chiefly in- 
 volves three of the noblest attractions which can give value 
 to a work, while Blair, on the contrary, uses it to signify 
 simply the worthless. The German word for imagination, 
 Einhildmiij (i. c. in- or on-buildingi, is derived from liild, 
 an " image," but is more accurately defined and ripplied 
 than its English synonym. " It is," says Kant, " the power 
 to bring an image when absent before the perception ;" 
 while, according to Fichte, " it is the ability to imotje under 
 the name of imagination." In analyzing the faculty we 
 may first observe that when wc recall the image of any- 
 thing we simply remember, and do not in reality imagine 
 it, though many people would misuse the word in this 
 manner. If wc recall the image involuntarily, but in any 
 other relation than its own, we exert, so to speak, a passive 
 imagination. But if we deliberately vary and combine 
 ideas derived through observation or memory into iicm 
 forms and relations, wc then exert our active imagination. 
 When the mind devotes its active power to truthful and 
 )iraetical objects, wc recognize it as rensoii ; when it grati- 
 fies simply taste, as for the new, the beautiful, or what is 
 agreeable through association or culture, it acts as the im- 
 agination. In reasoning we select from or classify that 
 which already exists or is created ; in uuotjiniiiij we en- 
 deavor with this material to create. Hence, imagination 
 is identified with invention and originality. In verbal ex- 
 pression its chief form is poetry, the identification of which 
 reation is shown in the Greek origin of 
 
 'make;" also in the Old 
 
 •E 
 
 Even the appearance of an essentinth/ imaijinnrji form i' — (i^ 
 Id not prove non-reality; (or we have observed that in the 
 simplest case of the M degree real roots appear inextricably in- 
 volved in imaginary forms. 
 
 art with original crea 
 
 tho word poem's, from poet'}), to ' 
 
 English word mater, a "poet." 
 
 Imagination is the guiding power in art, as reason is of 
 science. In pure chemistry, geology, or astronomy the 
 only object is to ascertain what exists. As science becomes 
 technology — i. e. applied to specific wants, or creat vc — it 
 also assumes the character of art. Our reasoning power, 
 it may bo said, occupies itself with discovering that 
 which is true, which in turn is the basis of the useful; 
 but imagination ministers chiefly and directly to pleas- 
 ure. Between reason (or science) and art (or imagina- 
 tion) lies, however, a vast range of the ap]ilic:ition of 
 skill to the arig, by which plural we understand some- 
 thing more practical and useful than art in its higher 
 forms. But as no work of imagination can he successful 
 as to the end in view without an outline of reason, so no 
 rational investigation and no sciences ajipcal to human 
 sympathy unless they be inspired with that spirit of orig- 
 inality which is akin to imagination. It is not unusual 
 to say of men who write on the driest topics, though they 
 confine themselves strictly to the subject, that they are 
 (jenial — meaning that they m.anifcst the keen and active 
 interest caused by genius, and are quick to perceive and 
 set forth what is new. .^uch mind? arc those in which 
 imagination is active and makes itself felt, even while 
 strictly reasoning. The poet without reason becomes fan- 
 tastic, or so unreal that his works are most widely remote 
 from aim or usefulness ; while the man of science without 
 imagination sinks into the mere analyst and dull investi- 
 gator, who plays only a secondary part in the pursuit of 
 truth. The concurrent opinion of mankind establishes the 
 fact that there is such a thing as beauty, and a comparison 
 of human intellect and of natural laws, as developed in 
 form and color, gives us an approxiiiuite standard of tho 
 beautiful. The Venus of Milo is not only beautiful be- 
 cause people have been trained to think so. but because 
 anatomy has determined that practical perfection agrees 
 with the so-called rrstheiie. Now. as the exercise of tho 
 imagination is a pleasure, and as the beautiful is a pleas- 
 ure, the two possess a common ground : and it is with the 
 latter that the former is chiefly occupied. It is true that 
 the imagination, like nature, can, and often does, display 
 its power in that which is repulsive, but in precisely tho 
 same proportion both seem to act most naturally on the 
 agreeable, the harmonious, or, in a word, on the beautiful, 
 ifencc it is generally agreed that the greatest artists, 
 whether painters or sculptors, and the best poets, are also 
 the most imaginative of men; and it is certain that the 
 first among them have devoteil their powers to setting lorth 
 that which is most purely agreeable — that is. what is most 
 beautiful. The craving for novelty, variety, and contrast 
 is a deeply seated want. Nature herself indicating this in
 
 IMBECILITY. 
 
 1121 
 
 the constant chanson nnd effects which she makes in colors 
 ami ID ill! thing.s. When the imaginntion leaves the purely 
 beautiful, nnd busies itself more with widely viirifd ele- 
 ments for the sake of grotifying the taste for clianfje and 
 contrast, it <lovcIu|iP the appnlling, the sturtliiii:. the gro- 
 tesque or quaini ; :\nd when 6omc reinnrkable incongruity 
 presients at the same linio a resemblance to sonii-lhing con- 
 gruous and real, it gives us humor with its subordinate 
 form, wit. Hence we may say that a writer has a witty 
 imagination, or one which is humorous, grotesque, terrible, 
 or appalling. The same general faculty, that of ereative- 
 nes!", of originating fornix nnd combinations which never 
 e.xistcd, underlies all these different developments. It may 
 be observed that there are arts in which a great degree of 
 feeling, whether of beauty, humor, horror, or other senti- 
 ments, may bo excited with but little imagery — /. c. with 
 comparatively little creative imagination — as by music, 
 wliich a<;t8 through ill-defined a:>sociation ; and (hero are 
 also artists who can produce great effects without much 
 imaginative effort. For imagination is always creative in 
 ]iroportion to its integrity, and though groat effects may 
 be produced, they an; not due entirely to the imagination 
 of the artist when by suggesting he causes the beholder to 
 complete the work in bis own mind. Alany modern paint- 
 ings illustrate this. The connection of association with 
 imagination, as of actual thought and mere emotion, is dif- 
 ficult to analyze, and yet it is in this obscure realm that 
 our creative faculty, often with very little material, exerts 
 some of its most startling effoLits. A flash of light in dark- 
 ness or a mysterious whisper will excito the imagination 
 into presenting the most extraordinary forms or apprehen- 
 sions ; an<l of this we have remarkable illustrations in the 
 witch-manias, vampire-faiths, and similar mental epidem- 
 ics which have swept over Europe. When the brain is so 
 affected that imagination alone remains active, without the 
 guiding power of reason, insanity invariably exists, while 
 the mind utterly devoid of imagination is that of an i<liot. 
 It has been observed that .as the flower precedes the fruit, 
 so in the history of races the period in which imagination 
 exerts its principal influence always goes bi-foro a raoro 
 matured and rational age. Thus, the Middle Ages pre- 
 sented in contrast to the ninotconth century a carnival of 
 gay, be;iutifiil, and grotesque life, inspired by imagination, 
 on<l not without full development of all its darkest nnrl 
 most mysterious forms. Pno regard should be had to the 
 true meaning of the imagination in the use of certain words 
 which partake of its nature. One of these \s fnntnfty, from 
 which is derived "fantastic." It is gf-norally held that 
 the more a work of imagination is separated from tlio rea- 
 sonable, and the more it is devoid of actual moaning or 
 what is popularly understood by a moral, the more fantas- 
 tic does it become. A work may be highly imaginative 
 without being fantastic, but it is difficult to conceive of 
 any fantastic work pro-iceding from human will which is 
 nit of the imagination. Dreams in their relation to 
 thought and the colian harp in music are purely fantastic, 
 and the word is well applierl to such writings or paintings 
 as resemble them. Closely allied to the fantastic Is tlio 
 tfrntitf/nr, in which, however, th*^ cliief distint^tion is sim- 
 ply as lo form ami material. When the jtarts of a compo- 
 sition are extremely varieil, novel, and unexpected, it is 
 grotesque. It may have both meaning and moral, but 
 while it is in substance lik'' the fantastic, it differs from it 
 in this, that the fantastic nerd not necessarily be varied 
 and novel in its elements (»r inspired with startling incon- 
 gruities. Ity /(iiiri/ wo understand the imagination whon 
 it creates fantasies. Common usage, however, while it 
 allows to fancy an action in what is light and graceful, 
 seems to separate it from the fantastic, as though the latter 
 were more extravagant or more nearly allied to the gro- 
 tesrjun. To fancy nmy. in fact, be defined as to iumgino, 
 to believe, or to conceive without certainty. To fancy In 
 the sense of to Hke implies that a downright, deeply settled 
 desire is not i\'^ yet in being, but only that imagination has 
 surrouncled the object with ugrecalile associations. In one 
 sense, to fancy is used as a synonym for to imagine, which 
 is, strictly Kpeaking, ineorroct. since in expressing the not 
 of imagining wo should qualify it with sonio word indi- 
 cating whether it bo devoid of reason. 
 
 Charles G. Lrlanp. 
 Imbccil'ity. The term imbeeilily, at law, follows in 
 interpretation the etymology of the Latin ndjoolivo imie- 
 ciffii», from which it is deriverl, ami means "weakness of 
 min<l." liut inasmuch as its import, when npftlied to the 
 admeasurement of civil rights and responsibilities, is one 
 of variable character, the law treats it ns a condititm of 
 qiiofi/ird rather than nfmnlutf! ineompetencv. Hence, the 
 acts of imbeciles, whether in the nature of eontracls. wills, 
 or torts, are always open to the suspicion of lacking n 
 legally assenting niintl. and as stich tin' former are void- 
 able wherever things can be restored (o their previous con- 
 Vui.. II.— 71 
 
 dition. In the Roman law a refined distinction was made 
 between incapacity arising from mental weakness and that 
 arising from <lisease. In the former case it placed the 
 party under a tutm-, in the latter under a citrfttor. The 
 former wore regarded as mental infants, or minors whose 
 weakness age might cure if of the malo sex, while women 
 were held to be perpetual minors and always under guard 
 ianship. (Sec Insiit., lib. i., tit. xiii.. (A> Tutclia.) 
 
 The liberality of the common law has never tolerated 
 such refinements in mental discrimination between the 
 sexes as this, nor imported such subtle distinctions into 
 the field of guardianship. Under its canons imbecility 
 derives no special complexion from the sex of its subjects, 
 and their acts are never weighed per n'-, so mucli ns ifimttii 
 line, or in relation to the merits of a particular transac- 
 tion. Imbeciles being possessed of some share of mental 
 capacity, whatever may bo its degree, arc not therefore 
 disqualified from performing legal acts involving legal re- 
 sponsibilities. But their acts are always looked upon with 
 suspicion, ns likely to bo influenced by fraud or compul- 
 sion ; for it is particularly against extraneous influences 
 that such persons need to bo guarded. Says Mr. Justice 
 Story in this connection: "The acts and contracts of per- 
 sons who arc of weak understanding, and who are thereby 
 liable to impositions, will be held void in courts of equity 
 if the nature of Iho oct or contract justify the conclusion 
 that the party ha^ not exercised a deliberate judgment, but 
 has been inipot-cd upon, circumvented, or overcome by 
 cunning or undue influence." (1 JCc/. Jun'sp., ^ 2.18.) I'lider 
 this principle any misrepresentations, over-importnnities, 
 improper influences, or anything, in fact, which limits the 
 free moral agency, will tend to annul the acts of an imbe 
 eilc, although they might not bo suflleiont to operate coer- 
 civcly upon an ordinary mind; for legal competency must 
 bo estimated by the character of the act performed, as well 
 as by the mental power of the actor: and it is b.y this rule 
 alone that an equitable interpretation can be applied to the 
 Contracts of a person alleged to be imbecile. It will bo 
 goon by this that the contracts of such persons, whether of 
 marriage, purchase or sale, labor or hire, arc not neces- 
 sarily void, but simply voidable, upon proof that they were 
 made under eireumstnnces disarlvantageous to a right com- 
 j ]>robension of their full imjiort by Ibc party of weak un- 
 derstanding, and provided always that things can he re- 
 stored to their original status. But an imbecile has the 
 same right ns any other person knowingly to enter into a 
 contract where the advantages to bo gained arc not mutual. 
 The law can only ])rotcct him so far us he did not know the 
 true nature and consequences of the act ho was performing, 
 and to that same extent could not bo said to have given a 
 legal assent to the transaction. 
 
 The voidability of any contract made under such cir- 
 cumstances will turlher depend upon the fact of its present 
 condition. Is it still cxvutortf or is it cxrvutcd / And if 
 the latter, t(t what extent? If not completely so. and the 
 condition of the things operated ujion by the contract is not 
 materially altered, then the contract may be annulled, and 
 the parties restored to their previous condition. But in 
 tho case of wholly exeeuted contracts, this reilintegratinn 
 of parties cannot always Ito accomplished without serious 
 detriment to third ancl innocent parties, who have acted 
 l)ona Jifir nnd in ignorancoof the taint in the original con- 
 tract. Hence, in such cases the ccmtract will have to stand, 
 and the injured party must seek his remedy in another way, 
 for here equity follows the law. 
 
 In regard to in'fh made by imbeciles, whether the imbe- 
 cility be congenital or supervene ns a consequence of old 
 age. the general rule is to allow tho instrument to prove the 
 capacity of the testator, nnd not to set it aside as void »ifi 
 tin'tio because executed liy a person of weak understanding. 
 Tho subject-matter of wills differs so widely that an ini 
 hecile may often find it entirely within tho range of his 
 comprehension to dispose rationally of what he possesses. 
 Particularly is this tho case where pcrsoinil pnijurty i> iti 
 volved, and the leniency of cmstruetion jiut upon tjic en 
 dition of such testators has always been deemed wiser and 
 more humane than to insist upon the posscssif>n by them of 
 a mental power superior to tho necessities of the act lo be 
 performed. Hence, wills have been sustained where testa 
 tors were very ageil and greatly debilitated ; when* llicv 
 were very deaf and partially blind: where thev were so 
 paralyzecl ns to be unable to write or feed themselves; and 
 where they exhibited ridiculous eeoentricities in conduct or 
 religious belief. In all the above cases it was shown that 
 they had reason enough to kiMUT intelligently what tb-y 
 were doing. The low asks no more. Whatever, thereioje. 
 may be the physical condition «pf a testator, citherns fo age 
 or bodily intirmilics. so long as he has the mental ability to 
 perlorni the act intelligontly, his legal capacity cannot bo 
 called into question. 
 
 As luturtH committed by imbeciles, they nre placed upon
 
 1122 
 
 IMBERT-IMITATIVE MUSIC. 
 
 the same footing as those committed by the insane, and 
 their estates are responsiWc in civil damages to any party 
 ao-"Tievcd. Whenever the tort becomes a crime with a 
 iiersonal nenaltv afiixed.thcn the legal responsibility of the 
 wrongdoer wilfbe tested hy a similar standard to that ap- 
 plied'to those who labor under partial insanity. The an- 
 *^- •■ ■ "■- nil 
 
 alo-y upon which this rule is founded is not a perfect one 
 in any sense, since mental wealtness in the imbecile is not 
 contcinporarv with actual physical disease, as in the insane ; 
 but it serves the purposes of justice and humanity best to 
 associate these two classes into one category, because the 
 law does nut concern itself so much with the possible causes 
 of mental weakness as with their consequences upon human 
 conduct; and if an act be done by any mind incompetent 
 at the time to act intelligcntlv and as a free moral iigcnt. it 
 is alike the act of an irresponsible being, whether that being 
 be styled imbecile or insane. In either ease the law con- 
 siders the m,>/„« anhiiu, to be wanting. But this does not 
 negative the fact that both imbeciles and persons partially 
 insane are often found who are legally competent to commit 
 crimes, and if so are fit subjects lor punishment. 
 
 John OnnRONArx. 
 
 Imbert' (B.vrtholomew), b. at Nimes in 1747; studied 
 in liis native city, and removed in 1707 to Paris, where ho 
 en<'a"-ed in literary pursuits, and d. Aug. 23, 1790. Ilis 
 poenr Le J„.jemc„t\)r Purls (published in 1772), achieved a 
 great success, but in spite of the many small triumphs which 
 he enjoyed in nearly all fields of fiction, tragedy, comedy, 
 etc.. the onlv work which has jiroved to be of lasting in- 
 terest is his Choix (rniickne/abliaitx, in verse (2 vols., 17S8). 
 Im'bros ['In^poi. now Emhro], a Turkish island of the 
 jEca-an, U miles W. by N. of the entrance to tho Helles- 
 pont. It is 18 miles long from E. to W., and contains sev- 
 eral villages, though none of them are historically import- 
 ant. Theisland is rough and wooded, but very fertile, pro- 
 ducing corn, wine, oil, and cotton. The highest peak is 
 1S4J feet above the sea. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Imhof (Jacob AViliielm), b. at Nuremberg Mar. 8, 
 Ifiil ; studied at Altorf: travelled much in Germany, tho 
 Netherlands, France, and Italy, and settled in 1G73 in his 
 native city, where he devoted himself to genealogical 
 studies, andd. Dec. 20, 172S. His most important works 
 ate— SjiUUc'iium Ritlei-huaianniim (6 vols., Tubingen, 1683- 
 Sj), containing seventy new genealogical tables, and Xn- 
 tilta S. R. 0. Imperii procernm (2 vols., Tubingen, 1084), 
 of which a fifth edition was issued in 1732, containing fif- 
 teen plates of arms. He has also given numerous genealogi- 
 cal contributions to English, French, and Italian history. 
 
 Im'ides, monamides in which two atoms of hydro- 
 gen are replaced by a diatomic radical, as /tuccinimidc, 
 N(f',H402)"H, and pTro-tartrimide. N(C5ll60)"H. (See 
 Amioes, by PnoF. C. F. Chasdleh, Pn. D., M. D., LL.D.) 
 Imita'tion. In music, a subject, group of notes, or 
 short strain is said to be imilnlcd when, after its first ap- 
 pearance, it is repealed, with more or less exactness, by one 
 or more of tho various parts of the composition. Imita- 
 tions of a given theme may take pl.ace, under certain con- 
 ditions, on any of the intervals of the diatonic sealo, and 
 admit of great diversity in their treatment. Imitations 
 may be either strirl or free, clirril or inrcrsc, rctroijrutlc or 
 inrerHv-retroyrade. In strict imitation the answer must 
 correspond exactly with the theme, not only in movement, 
 degrees of the scale, and quality of notes, but also in tho 
 succession of tones and Ecmilones in each step of its prog- 
 ress. This rigid sjiccics of iinituliou is practicable only 
 under certain limitations, on account of the peculiar struc- 
 ture of the diatonic scale. If the scale consisted of a reg- 
 ular succession of irhult Imiet, it is evident that a given 
 theme might be repeated on any degree of such a scale 
 without undergoing any material change or distortion. 
 But as the scale really is a succession of (■./if« and mmi- 
 tonei in a certain fixed order, it follows that a theme when 
 moved from its place to a higher or lower one on the scale 
 (the octave excepted) will no longer be strictly true in the 
 succession of its intervals. In/rcc imitation all this pre- 
 caution is unnecessary, as a general resemblance to the 
 theme is suflieicnt. Uilliam Staiston. 
 
 Im'itative .Mu'sic. Under this term is comprehended 
 such music as is intended to be representative, descriptive, 
 or suggestive of certain ideas and things cj-ler}Hit to the 
 mrinic ilmlf—i. c. to music considcrcil as mere melody and 
 harmony. Music thus possesses two distinct properties t>r 
 oflices. \ strain of music may be beautiful, grand, and 
 impressive in its own nature, and capable of producing in 
 the mind certain peculiar feelings and sentiments not 
 obtainablo from any other agency ; or, on (he other hand, 
 music may be so contrived and ingeniously written as to 
 bear so near a resemblance to ]iartioular external objects, 
 sounds, motions, and even strongly-marked events, as to 
 
 recall them to the mind of the hearer, iii acldilifin to the 
 emotions arising out of its own intrinsic powers and em- 
 anating from itself alone. A similar effect may also result 
 from mere association of ideas — as, for instance, when 
 theatrical music reminds us of the theatre, and church 
 music of the church, because the music and the place 
 where it is generally heard have become associated to- 
 gether in our minds." lint such a case must not be con- 
 founded with what we call imitative music. Nor can the 
 mere reproduction of certain sounds under new conditions 
 
 as, for instance, when the actual notes of the hunter's 
 
 horn, the military bugle, or the chimes and changes of 
 church-bells are played on other instruments — be included 
 under this term ; they are mere copies. 
 
 The simplest kind of imitiitivc music is that which repre- 
 sents vtntinit. whether on an even jdane, or on ascending 
 and descending grades, or by leaps from high to low, and 
 low to high, etc. There seems to be some mysterious 
 analogy very generally felt between the grave or acute in 
 the musical "scale and the familiar idea of depth and height. 
 When we move from the graver jiart of the scale to tho 
 more acute we call it (iKcciuliiuj.a.nA progress from acute to 
 grave we call di^aceiidiiir/. A sound is .«aid to be hitjh or low 
 in proportion as it is acute or grave, and the extremes are 
 regarded as very deep, profound, and abysmal, or very 
 high, lofty, and "soaring. Advantage is taken of this im- 
 pression by composers when they connect with words sig- 
 nifying motion, height, depth, etc. notes suggesting corre- 
 sponding ideas. That this resemblance is not altogether 
 arbitrary or fanciful, but founded on some natural principle, 
 will appear from an examinatiim of Ex. 1, where at o the 
 music and the words seem to be in antagonism, while at 6 
 they mntualiy support each other : 
 Ex. 1.— n 
 
 ^^^^^P 
 
 i- 
 
 I rise. 
 
 Among imitations, properly so called, are those repre- 
 sentative—or at least suggestive— of a large class of m.iiie, 
 or iitimusical »oiin(/«, such as the roar of cannon, the clash- 
 ing of swords, the tramp of horses, the steady marching of 
 troops, tho cries of wounded men. the wails of the dis- 
 tressed, and the groans of the dying: the solemn move- 
 ment of a funeral procession, and the elastic spring id' mer- 
 riment in a ball-room; the familiar sounds uttered by do- 
 mestic animals, the lowing of cattle, the screams and roar- 
 ing of wild beasts, the croaking of frogs, and the buzz of 
 insects; the pattering of lain and the clatter of hail ; the 
 roll of dist.ant thunder, the moaning of the wind, and the 
 furious rushing of the storm. All these and many other 
 noises, including crying, sneezing, and uproarious laughter, 
 the hum of the ol'd spinning-wheel, the strokes on tho 
 smith's anvil, tho chirp of the cricket, and the rocking of 
 the cradle, have been imitated with more or less success in 
 musical compositions: or, in oilier words, musical forms 
 and combinations have been so used as to remind the hearer 
 of things which are essentially unmusical. 
 
 More nearly approaching the sounds represented on the 
 diatonic and chion-.atic scales are the songs or utterances of 
 certain birds, to which may be added the crowing of cocks, 
 the alarin-crv of hens, the cooing of doves, the solitary 
 notes of thc'ciukoo. and the dismal screech of the night- 
 owl; also the tap and roll of the military drum, the half- 
 mnsical cries of sailors in hoisting and of hawkers in tho 
 streets, together with the rude noises of barbaric music and 
 gypsy songs. Some of these may be imitated so closely as 
 to be"undcistood or rccognizeil by the hearer without effort 
 or previous admonition. With less distinctness music may 
 be ma.lo to represent the calmness of eventide, the sweets 
 of pastoral lilc. the tumult of war, the raging of the sea, 
 the noise of floods, earthquakes, tornadoes, etc. \ cry 
 few persons, on hearing the introductory movements to 
 Haydn's S,rcn Last Words and the Crc.tio,,. would sus- 
 pec"t thai the former was intended for an earthquake, or 
 that the latter was set forth as a" representation ol chaos. 
 
 The most extraordinary of all musical imitations arc 
 those which profess to deal with objects not of hearing but 
 of siaht There is an api>arent absurdity in all such at- 
 temots to represent through one sense things that belong 
 to another. And yet between sight and hearing a certain 
 correspondence has been found to exist, sufficient to form 
 a basis for a partial interchange of symbols. It is very 
 necessary, however, for complete success that thr hearer 
 ,ho<dd be iij,,jri,cd b,r„rchai,d, or by words annexed, ^- 
 
 ichttt
 
 I MLA Y— IMM ERMANN. 
 
 1123 
 
 1* f» that the mtuic i> intended to reprenent. Moro than half 
 of tho effect lies in the prcpariition of the hearer's miud ; 
 for Iho very same music inifjht have been used — had the 
 composer so pleaserl — for the stirring up of an entirely dif- 
 ferent class of emotions. Haydn's representation of the 
 creation of light, for example, has been both severely criti- 
 cised and entiiusiastieally admired. In itself, it is doubt- 
 less nothing more than a common nmjor triad coming with 
 sudden force on the car as the termination of a progression 
 in the minor mode. In any other connection, or in any 
 other piece, it would have attracted no special notice ; 
 but the hearer's mind having been prepared by the pre- 
 vious words and music, and brouglit into an attitude of 
 eager expectancy by tlio I)ivine command, " Let there be 
 liglit," he is forcibly struck with the outburst on the words, 
 **.\nil there was I.IGEIT," so that, as Hombet remarlis, his 
 eyes arc dazzletl, '* as by the Hash of the midday sun on 
 one just emerging from a dark cavern." Many otlier visual 
 objects arc thus successfully illustrated in musical works 
 by an appeal to the ear, as may he seen in the Crctitinn^ 
 the oratorios of Handel, Spohr's Lunt Jiiitijmrut, Mendels- 
 sohn's E/ijfih, etc. .-Vinong these objects are the brooding 
 of <larkness over the deep, the fall of the apostate nngels, 
 tho rushing floods, tho upheaval of mountains, the rising 
 of tho sun anil moon, tlio growth of ]dants, tho whirl of 
 insect life, the loa]>ing of doer, the dark and bright sides of 
 nature, decay and death, and finally the resurrection. But 
 music representing these, however skilfully written, cannot 
 bo its own interpreter from the very nature of the case. 
 When, however, its meaning is conveyed by words or other- 
 wise to the hearer's mind, there is no difficulty in tracing 
 resemblances, even though their viviilness must depend, 
 for tho most part, on the help of imagination. 
 
 AVii.i.iAU Staintox. 
 Iin'laV) posttp. of Lapeer CO., Mich. Pop. 121.'!. 
 
 Im'lay Cit'y, post-v. of Imlay tp., Lapeer co., Mich., 
 on the Chicago and I'oint Huron It. 11., :U miles W. of 
 Port Huron. It has a very large grain-elevator. 
 
 Immac'nlatc Conccp'tion or the Vircin Mary, 
 
 araodorn dogma of (he Roman Church, proclaimed by Pope 
 Pius IX. on tho feast of tho Conception, Deir. S, 1*851, in 
 the church of St. Peter, and in tho presence of more than 
 200 cardinals, bishops, and other dignitaries, in these words : 
 " That the most blessed \'irgin Mary, in the first moment 
 of her conception, by a special grace and privilege of Al- 
 mighty trod, in virtue of the merits of Christ, was preserved 
 immaculate from all stain of original sin" ('tli omni orii/i. 
 flrt/f* ritlpre Ifthf, prenrrriitnin tinmitrtriit). This the papal 
 bull " Ineffabilis iJcns" declares to bo a <livinely revealed 
 fact and dogma which must hereafter bo constantly be- 
 lieved by all Catholics, on pain of excommunication. Tho 
 dogma was not sanctioned by any (ecumenical council, but 
 since tho Vatican Council of 1S71I doclared the pope infal- 
 lible, independent of a council, tho decree of 1H.'jI must bo re- 
 ceived as an infalliblo utterance, and cannot bo changed. 
 Pins IX. had previously, by an encyclical of Fob. 2, ISI'J, 
 invited tho opinion of tho (!atholic bishops on tho subject, 
 and received more than (ittO affirmative answers : only 4 dis- 
 sented from tho pope's view, and 52, while agreeing with 
 him in tho dogma itself, deemed it inopportune to dcfino 
 and proclaim it. This shows that the t'Midcncy of the Ko- 
 man (^'hurch was strongly in this direction. The dogma of 
 the imiuaulato conception and the Vatican ilogmaof papal 
 infallibility are tho characteristic features of m»lern Ro- 
 manism, as distinct from tho Romanism of the Council of 
 Trent, and widen Iho breach between it and the (Ireck and 
 Protestant churches. By the ileereo of ISJI the Virgin 
 Mary is taken out of the family of tho redeemed, and de- 
 clarcil absolutely free from all complication with tho fall 
 of Adam and its consequences. The definition of such a 
 dogma presupposes a divine revelation, for (loil omniscient 
 alone knows the fact of tho imnmculatu eonoejition ; and as 
 the Ilible nowhere informs us of it, (lod must have revealed 
 it to Pius IX. in 1851, cither directly or through tho voice 
 of Iho fiOO bishops assenting to his view. But if he is 
 really infallible, ho did not need the advice of others. 
 
 From tho Roman standpoint this dogma cimpletes tho 
 Mariology and Mariolatry, which step by step proceeded 
 from the perpetual virginity of Mary to her frceilora from 
 actual sin after the conception of the .Saviour, then to free- 
 dom from sin after her birth, and at last to her freeilom from 
 original or hereditary sin. The only thing lift now is to 
 proclaim tho dogma of her assumption to bea\-en. which 
 has long since been n pious opinion in the Roman Church. 
 To this corresponds tlio progress in the worship of .Mary 
 and tho multiplication of her festivals. Her worship even 
 overshadows the worship of Christ. ,"she, the tender, com- 
 passionate, lovely woman, is invoked for her powerful in- 
 tercession, rather than her Pivino .Son. ,Shi' is made the 
 fountain of all grace, the mcdialri.x between Christ and tho 
 
 believer, and is virtually put in the place of the Holy 
 Ghost. There is scarcely an epithet of Christ which devout 
 Roman Catholics do not apply to the Virgin (sec St. I.igu- 
 ori's Gliirio c/ .1/(111/), and Pope Pius I.X., who is himself 
 an intense worshijipcr of Mary, has sanctioned the false 
 interpretation of (ien. iii. l.i, that she (not Christ) "crush- 
 ed the head of the ser|tent." 
 
 As to the history of the dogma, no passage in its favor 
 can be found in the Old or New Testament {for the inter- 
 pretation of the I'lulcranifcliiim just alluded to is clearly 
 ruled out by tho Hebrew text). On the contrary, the Bible 
 declares all men to be sinners and in need of redem)iti(m, 
 and exempts Christ alone, the sinless Redeemer, from this 
 universal rule. Mary herself calls fiod h<-r Savinuf (Luke 
 i. 47), and thereby includes herself in the number of the 
 saved ; which im]dies her sense of personal sin and guilt. 
 With this corresponds also the predicate given her bv the 
 
 angel ( i . 2,S ). cililmd irith r/riicr, h ighl;/ fiivnrcd (Kf^upiTcuMe'cl, 
 
 which the Vulgate has mischievousiy changed into the ac- 
 tive 'irnlin pleii'i. full of ijrnt-e). 'The Christian Fathers, 
 though many of them (even St. Augustine) exempted Mary 
 from actual transgression, know nothing of her freedom 
 from original sin, but ahvays imply, and often expressly 
 teach, the contrary. Some, as Irenieus. Tertullian. Origen, 
 and Chrysostom, interpret (^brisfs words at the wedding 
 of Cana (.lohn ii. 4) ns a rebuke of her unseasonable haste 
 and immoderate ambition. The origin of the dogma must 
 bo sought in the Ajioeryphal (iospels, which substituted 
 mythology for real history, and nourished superstition 
 rather than rational faith. 
 
 The doctrine crept into theology through tho door of 
 worship. The first clear trace of it is found in the twelfth 
 century, in the south of France, when the canons of Lyons 
 introduced the festival of the conception of the imniaeulatc 
 Mary, Dee. 1*, Ii;!'.l. This proves that the belief then ex- 
 isteil as a pious ojiinion, but by no means as a dogma. On 
 the contrary, St. Bernard, the greatest doctor and saint of 
 his age, opposed the new festival as an nnnnthorized inno. 
 vation, derogatory to the dienity of Christ, the only sinless 
 being in the world. He asked the canons of Lyons wlicnee 
 they discovered such a biilden fact. On the .slime ground 
 they might appoint festivals for the conception of the 
 mother, grandmother, and greal-grandmother of Mary, and 
 so back to the beginning. The same ground is taken es- 
 sentially by the greatest Sohiinlioen, as Anselm. Bonaven- 
 tura, Alberlus Magnus. Thomas .Aquinas. But during the 
 fourteenth century, through the influence ehieny of Duns 
 Scotns, "the subtle doctor." the doctrine of the iinniaeulate 
 conception became apart of (he theology of the Franciscans 
 orScotists. and was a bone ofcontrnlion between them and 
 the Dominicans or Thomisls. They charged each other 
 with heresy for holding the one view or the other. The 
 Council of Trent did not settle the question, but rather 
 leaned towards the Franciscan side. Soon afterwards the 
 .Tesuits took up the same side, and defended it against tho 
 .Innsenists. To their zeal and perseverance, and their in- 
 fluence over Pope Pius I.\., the recent triumph of the dog- 
 ma is eliiefly due. The whole Rnniau Catholic world qui- 
 etly acquiesced until the Vatican Council roused the " Old 
 Catholic " opposition against jiapal infallibility, which ex- 
 tended also to the dogma of the immaculate conception. 
 
 Litniitiire. — The papal bull hirfTiihilig /Iriin ( Dec. S, 
 1S54); Perrone, On ihr [nnnnnilfttr i'lmrrptinn (Latin, (!cr- 
 man, etc., 1840); Passaglia, he inimttr. Dfiprtrrr tnnpcr 
 Viri). cnnr, (l,'!54 «e(/., 3 vols.): Preuss, The Jtomlnh fine, 
 trine of' the fmmaeufrtte Cnnreptinn (German and ICnglish. 
 lsfi,'',)j Puscy, Eirenikan (part ii., ISr.Tl; H. B. Smith. 
 Melhnrl. Qiinrlerh/ Iter, for 1S55 ; Hnse, IIinKlh,,.,!.- „f P,„l- 
 eifant Pntemien (1871). Of older Catholic works we men- 
 tion .T.Turrecremata, De reritntr ennceptinniit hcttt. VtrtjiniH 
 n5l7: republished by Pusey, 18110), and .1. de Lnunoy, a 
 .lanscnist, J'r-rii:Ti/iti<:nei ile l\,iieeptii II. Mnriie Yiiij. 
 (1C77), both against tho immaculate conception. 
 
 PlIlI.IP .SrItAFK. 
 
 Im'mcrmann (Kahi. Li:ni;REriiT), b. at JIagdcburg 
 Apr. 24, 179r>; studied 181:! at Halle; took nart in the 
 campaign of 181.'), and wrote, in opposition to tlio political 
 enthusiasm prevailing at that time at all (lernian uni- 
 versities, I'rhrr ilir .Slriitiijhiileu Jtr Stndiiciiilen in Halle 
 fI817), which book was solemnly burnt at Warlburg by 
 Iho students. Shorlly after he received a government office 
 in his native eitv, whence ho removed to Miinster in IS2lt, 
 and to DiHselilorf in 1827. From 18:M to 18:;S he under- 
 took the nianagenient of the theatre of Dilsseldorf. in 
 which, boiviver. he succeeded only partly, though his per- 
 fect taste and pure enthusiasm exercised a beneficial in- 
 fluence on the (iermnn theatre. Tho most remarkable of 
 his many comcdios are — Don Anrje der l.irle 08211 and 
 Die Sehnle der Friimmen (1829); of his tragedio--, Mej-in 
 fI8:!2)and Ghimonda (18;19); of his romance^, Epupmrn 
 (18.10) and iUiiiicA/iomcii (181)8). As an author ho had
 
 1124 
 
 IMMORTALITY (OF THE SOUL)— IMPANATION. 
 
 inoro artistic training tlian natural talent, and a greater 
 power of reflection tlian of imagination or feeling: very 
 charming, however, is his tale, Talifiintchcn (ISoOi, on ac- 
 count of its naivete. His controversy with Platen made a 
 great sensation, or rather scandal, and brought no results. 
 D. Aug. 25, lS-10. 
 
 Immortarity (of the Soul), the doctrine that the 
 human soul is impcrishaljle, being .separable from the body 
 at dealli and destined to a conscious life beyond the grave. 
 The history of this doctrine is the history of the develop- 
 ment of the idea of substantiality, or, indeed, of the idea 
 of God. Without a personal (iod there could be no im- 
 mortality. If the substantial is found to be a rigid, lifeless 
 substance or an unconscious force, there can be no per- 
 sistent individuality. But, in spite of philosophical or 
 theological tenets, the belief in a future life is almost uni- 
 versally prevalent. Among degraded savages, as in Central 
 Africa." it takes the form of dcuiouology, or belief in spec- 
 tres or ghosts. In Asia, where the theological dogmas do 
 not reconcile the Universal or Absolute with the existence 
 of the individual being, making the Supremo Being an un- 
 conscious substance destined to absorb the individual man 
 at death, still the popular belief holds to the doctrine of 
 immortality. Egypt is especially noted as the country 
 where '»rcat stress was laid on the doctrine of immortality. 
 The temples, sphinxes, statues, and pyramids, all had some 
 suggestiou of the future life of the soul. The cycle of the 
 risTand fall of the Nile, and of the life of the seed in its 
 germination, growth, fruit-bearing, and decay, is closely 
 coiniectcd with the doctrine of immortality. The soul's 
 cvele is set at 3000 years, after which it returns from its 
 wanderings to the body again. Hence the care with 
 which the Egyptians preserved the body by embalming it, 
 and the extravagant outlay of human labor on the Pyra- 
 mids as tombs of the kings and symbols of their faith. 
 With Greece the Oriental idea of the subordination of the 
 soul to nature gives way for a more spiritual theory. The 
 Greek conceives the spiritual as something independent of, 
 or at least as a reaction against, nature. Spirit is essen- 
 tially self-determining and free. The portrayal of its ideals 
 of free activity gave to the world the forms of the divinities 
 of Olympus. The Titans or powers of nature are subdued 
 and made serviceable to .spirit. The Roman phase of civ- 
 ilization is devoted to the formulating of the will into laws 
 and defined rights. The subordination of the individual 
 to the general will as embodied in the state is the charivc- 
 teristic°Roman principle. Immortality, with Greece and 
 Home, assumed a definite shape, elevated far ivboye the 
 Oriental conception, inasmuch as it eliminated the principle 
 of transmigration. But there was not an adequate rcali- 
 /.ation as yet of the principle of infinite responsibility, 
 which the Christian religion first added to th.at of the im- 
 mortal destiny of the soul, making man, moreover, the ob- 
 ject of divine mediation. The growth of the idea of the 
 substantiality of the soul, as thus traced, is marked in the 
 world's history by the corresponding growth of institutions 
 of a humanitarian character. 
 
 Tlie proofs of immortality are numerous and of varying 
 degrees of strictness. Among those most relied upon by 
 the popular mind arc the following: I. The return or 
 resurrection from the dead. II. (Jeneral belief in the exist- 
 ence of the soul after death: probability that such general 
 beliefs of mankind are well founded. III. (ieneral desire 
 of man to live for ever, and his horror at annihilation. IV. 
 The infinite perfectibility of the human mind, never reach- 
 ing its full cap:icity in this life; contrary to the course of 
 n:Uure or to the Divine character to endow a being with 
 cajiaeities never to be developed. V. The fact that per- 
 fect justice is not dispensed in this life; the goml sun"er 
 and the wicked triumph: necessity of future retribution 
 to justify God's government.— The metaphysical doctrine 
 of immortality includes various positions, favorable and 
 unfavorable, the most important of which are the follow- 
 ing: I. The highest principle is regarded as indetermi- 
 nate pantheism ; consciousness considered to be a disease 
 
 or evil of which death or unconscionsness (Nirvana) is the 
 cure. II. Highest principle a rational intelligence— mono- 
 theism : the .soul a transient incarnation which vanishes in 
 death (Arabic interpretation of Aristotle). III. The soul 
 held to have pre-existed in an intelligible world, and to 
 have come hither through a lapse from holiness or for 
 necessary experience: death releases the imprisoned soul, 
 and it rejoins its former state or enters a new body 
 (emanation theory— Phito). IV. Aristotle's doctrine of 
 the pure reason (roiJc) as an unconditioned energy, im- 
 perishable, while the lower faculties of the soul, such as 
 sensation, imagination, feeling, memory, etc., are perish- 
 able. This doctrine has been the occasion of much contro- 
 versy. An immortality which should eut off an individual 
 from' his past would not preserve his identity. But the 
 experience of ordinary life exhibits to us a constant wan- 
 
 ing of the faculties of mere sensuous perception, of mere 
 mechanical memory, and of fancy, with a corresponding 
 increase of the higher faculty of inference or reason. 
 Hence, the lower faculties may be said correctly to be 
 perishable, while the faculty of insight, which sees in an 
 individual all its p.ast history at a gUvnee, is immortal or 
 continually on the incre:ise. The immortal life would use 
 the perishable faculties less and less, but might never lose 
 them altogether. The disputes of the Schoolmen over this 
 question were very essential to the support of the Christian 
 dogma. V. From the time of the Sehoolracn, arguments 
 in favor of immortality, drawn from the "simplicity of the 
 soul," were in vogue, and especbally elaborated by the 
 Leibnitzo-Wolflian philosophy. VI. Kant attacks all the- 
 oretic proofs of immortality as based on a paralogism in- 
 volving an unwarranted inference from the phenomenal 
 appearance of the soul as Ego to the same as Noumenon. 
 But he finds immortality to be established as a practical 
 postulate of the Will. VII. Hegel exhibited immortality 
 as the esscnti,al attribute of conscious beings, denying it to 
 animals (in the closing chajiter of his Plitlngoplii/ of Xalnre). 
 Recent discussions of the subject have been rather skeptical 
 in their tendency, espechally in Germany, England, France, 
 •and America, owing to the prevailing evolutional theories 
 in science. German literature was quite prolific in treatises 
 on immortality for several years alter the death of Hegel. 
 Feucrb;ieh, Strauss, Conradi, Michelct, F. Riehter, and oth- 
 ers held a negative attitude toward the doctrine, and con- 
 tended that the only immortality is th.at of the race or spe- 
 cies. Marheineke.Blasche, Weisse, Ilinriehs, Feehner. J. 
 H. Fichte, and, above all, Goschel, defended the doctrine 
 of individual immortality. W. T. Harrts. 
 
 Immortelles' [Fr., "immortal"], or Everlasting 
 Flowers, arc flowers largely employed in Europe, es)ieci- 
 ally in France, for the m.anufacture of wreaths and crosses 
 for the adornment of churches and cemeteries. The IleU- 
 cIin/Kum Or:ntt<dc, a native of Crete, but much cultivated 
 in Southern France, is the flower chiefly used for the abcive 
 purpose, though there are many other genera of plants, snch 
 as llhoclitiilhc, which arc also occasionally employed. The 
 use of immortelles in America is of recent origin, and they 
 are usually imported from France. 
 
 I'mola [Lat. Forum Conielii], town of Italy, in the 
 province of Bologna, about 20 miles E. S. E. of the city of 
 Bologna. It was enlarged and embellished, if not actually 
 founded, by the dictator Sulla, who sent a colony here about 
 80 B. c, and throughout the Roman period it was a town 
 of some importance. Cato had a villa here. During the 
 Middle Ages it was claimed by the see of Rome as a part 
 of the r/i'/'f o/" CuiitlniiUne. but was suliject to frequent as- 
 saults and occupations bv the rival powers that then divided 
 the Peninsula. From the time of Julius II. it formed a part 
 of the Roman states, except when held for a short time by 
 the French in 1737. until the whole papal territory was an- 
 nexed to the new kingdom of Italy. The town is well built, 
 and surrounded by its old walls with towers and trench. 
 Its manufactures, "leather, wax, glass, majolica, silk, and 
 hempen stuffs, are very considerable. A choice wine called 
 vino sniilo is made here. Pop. about 12,000. 
 
 Imola (Innopeszo FnASCuc-ci da), an Italian painter 
 of Bologna, an imitator of Raphael. D. 1549. 
 
 Impale'ment, or Empalement [Lat. in, and pnlM, 
 a "stake"], a form of capital punishment by means of a 
 stake thrust through the body. The victim was often raised 
 up from the earth, and one end of the stake was driven into 
 I the ground : hence the Greeks ajiplieil the name (rraiipuffit 
 ("stake-punishment") to crucifixion as well as impale- 
 ment. Impalement is still practised in half-civilized and 
 barbarous countries. The driving a stake through the heart 
 of a suicide and his burial under the cross-roads arose, it 
 is believed, from a fear that his spirit would otherwise walk 
 and frighten the living. 
 
 Impana'tion [I-at. I'li, and ?mMi'«, " bread"], a term 
 belonging to the Eucharistic controver.sy. invented soon 
 after."and in opposition to, that of Tian^nhiilnniintioti. It 
 was intended to express the intimate union of the bles.sed 
 body and blood with the consecrated eUmcnIs, without a 
 ileslruction of the substance of the bread and wine. Rupert, 
 abbot of Deutz near Cologne fd. ll.'JJ). who first used the 
 word, likened the mystery implied to that of the incarna- 
 tion, wherein the divine nature was conjoined with the 
 human nature in the one person of Christ. By body he 
 mnant that which hung upon the cross, and by blood, that 
 which flowed from the Crucified ; but yet he denied the real 
 presence in a gross and carnal sense: " Fit corpus Christi 
 et sanguis, mm mntatum in carnis saporcm sue san- 
 guinis horrorem, sed," etc. Impanation, like .all terms in- 
 tended to simplify our conception of a mystery, is liable to 
 misinterjirctation, and is not now used by anj^one as ex- 
 pressive of his own views. 
 
 W. F. Brand.
 
 IMPEACHMENT. 
 
 1125 
 
 Impeach'inent, in law, is commoDly used to denote a I 
 mode of trial of a crimiuul offence. The fame word is 
 used in the law of evidence to menu the act of discrediting I 
 a witness before a jury or court tryin<; a question of fact, j 
 by showing that Ik* is unworthy of belief. In this article ■ 
 it will bo employed exclusively in the sense first pointed 
 out. 
 
 Id the early English law when a crime was committed it 
 was regarded in three aspects — either as an injury to the 
 individual or his family, to the king, or to the state or na- 
 tion. The injury to the individual was prosecuted by a 
 proceeding called an appeal; that su,)posed to be done to 
 the king or executive officer, by indictment; while the 
 wrong done to the state was redressed by a proceeding 
 termed an impeachment. The appeal having become obso- 
 lete, there remained two great criminal proceedings — in- 
 dictment and impeachment. The resemblance between an 
 indictment and an impeachment should be briefly noticed. 
 The office of an indictment is to present to an ordinary 
 court of justice the opinion of a select body of citizens 
 that there is apparent reason to believe that there has been 
 a criminal violation of law hy a specifled person. Notwith- 
 standing tliis, the law still presumes his innocence, and 
 takes no action against him except that \vhich is necessary 
 to secure his attendance at the trial. Ultimately, tho case 
 is presented to another (or trial) jury, by whom tho result 
 is determined, either acquitting or convicting the person 
 charged in the indictment. It is apparent that an indict- 
 ment is but a mode of procedure adopted for the purpose 
 of securing caution and deliberation in judicial affairs. It 
 presupposes tho existence and definition of the crime for 
 whi<:h the prisoner is to be tried. 
 
 The same general train of thought is present in tho case 
 of an impeachment. Instead, however, of being made by 
 a fimall number of persons, it is a presentment of the House 
 of Commons as representing the state. It is made in writ- 
 ing under the name of "articles of impeachment." The 
 articles are presented before a tribunal acting judicially — 
 not, it is true, an ordinary court of justice, but the entire 
 House of Lords. The Commons may impeach for any 
 crime, whether it be a felony or misdemeanor, no matter by 
 whom committed, whether a peer or commoner, and may 
 attach to conviction tho ordinary punishments. There is 
 one important distinction that should bo noticed between 
 the two modes of proceeding. An indictment can only bo 
 found in a particular county, and in general only in that 
 where the offence was committed. An impeachment, from 
 tho nature of the case, is confined to no locality. It has 
 been sometimes resorted to in England for the prosecution 
 of an ordinary crime, to avoid the necessity that would 
 otherwinB exist of prosecuting tho case by inrlictment in a 
 
 Particular county. The effect of an impeachment by the 
 louse of Commons, like an indictment by a grand jury, is 
 only an affirmation that there is reason to believe that 
 there has been a violation of law by the person impeached. 
 It must be cnnducfed in accordance with rules of evidence. 
 The person impeached can only be convicted of a crime 
 already known to the law to which regular methods of pun- 
 ishment can be attached. 
 
 A court of impe:u-hment should be distinguished from 
 the "court of the lord high steward." This court is or- 
 ganized in the following case. Whenex-or a peer of the 
 realm is imlictcd in an ordinary court of justice, in order 
 that his case may be removed to be triiMl by hts peers, the 
 king issues a cunimission to a partii-ular nolileman to act 
 as jutlge, who is then calle<l, for the time being, ** lord high 
 steward." By the commission other noblemen arc asso- 
 ciated with him to decide the questions of fiict which mny 
 arise in tho case. The court is therefore substantially com- 
 poscil of a judge and jury. It differs from a court of ini- 
 |ieachmcnt in three respects: it can only dispose of the 
 questions arising upon an indictment found )>y a grand 
 jury; it may, and perhaps must, sit during a recess of 
 Parliament; and it may consist of a small number of peers 
 {r. (f. twelve), instead of the entire house. It is a court 
 that a king might easily pack with bis own creatures in 
 order to ruin an obnoxious nobleman. This is forbidden 
 by statute in cases of trial for treason, and (he entire 
 House of Lords must in that case be summoned. As tho 
 presiding officer of the court of impcnchment in capital 
 cases is also termed a "lord high stewartl," much caro is 
 sometimes requireil in reading legal history to distinguish 
 bct\Teen the two tribunals. 
 
 The Jtitliriftt nature of an impcnchmcnt is also readily 
 seen by contrasting it with a bill of attaimler or of pnins 
 and penalties. These latter are mere laws. The houses 
 of Parliament in passing such bills ena<*t that a person is 
 guilty of .1 crime. Though they may go tlimugb forms of 
 judicial inquiry, their tlocision is a law and not ajndffment. 
 Bills of attainder are wholly contrary to sound legislation, 
 as they are an assumption by a legislature of judicial power. 
 
 An impeachment is decided by the House of Lords alone. 
 Unless that bo dy^ were to follow judicial forms, and to give 
 their decisions upon evidence and inquiry as applied to a 
 violation of law. an impeachmeut would be more objection- 
 able than a bill of attainder, for it would need only the 
 arbitrary will of one house to lake away one's liberty or 
 life, instead of the concurrence of two. 
 
 The result is, that under the English law there have been 
 from time immemorial two parallel modes of reaching an 
 alleged criminal : he might be either indicted or impcacheil. 
 The two proceedings are deemed to bo wholly distinct. If 
 he is indicted first, he may be impeached afterwards; and, 
 conversely, an impeachment is no answer to an indictment. 
 It might seem, at first sight, that if this were so, an im- 
 peachment should never be resorted to. as this proceeding is 
 dilatory, cumbrous, and expensive. Tho reasons for adopt- 
 ing it in special cases have mainly been because it could 
 more readily be made an instrument of faction, or because it 
 was a powerful weapon in times of political disturbance or 
 revolution. Again, there have been instances of a salutary 
 effect from its use, where an alleged criminal was a man 
 of power and influence, and likely by tho weight of his 
 name and by his position to ilisturb the judgment of the 
 ordinary criminal courts. It is a weakness necessarily ap- 
 pertaining to this court that there is no appeal from or 
 review of its decisions. Unlike all other courts with which 
 men trained in English jurisprudence are familiar, it de- 
 cides at once and irreversibly lioth upon the law and tho 
 fact. The absence of repeated discussion and consideration, 
 which are, in general, so fully accorded to suitors through 
 the action of appellate courts, may in times of political 
 excitement lead to inconsiderate and unjust decisions, and 
 it is too much to expect from these tribunals that there 
 will be an unbroken adherence to wise and safe precedents. 
 
 One of the most important questions connected with Ibis 
 whole subject is, whether an impeachment can be had 
 where the act is of such a nature that it cannot be prose- 
 cuted by indictment. Can an impeachment be had for any 
 act unless it constitutes a criiin- against the general law of 
 the land ? Can this mode of trial be extended to mere acts 
 of indecorum having no fixed criminal aspects? Crimes 
 may, of course, exist either by the rules of the common 
 law or by statute. Can there be an impeachment in the 
 absence of any form of crime? If this question is to be 
 decided by the nile>; of the English law, it would have to 
 be said that prineiidcs and precedents are both opposed 
 to an impeachment except for a crime. The most recent 
 and leading cases upon this subject are those of the earl 
 of Macclcsfielil. of Warren Hastings, and of Lord Melville. 
 In Iho case of the carl of Macclesfield, who was impeached 
 for the sale of offices connected with the administration of 
 justice, the whole argument of counsel was, on the one 
 hand, to show, and on the other hand, to disprove, that 
 the sale of such an oflice was contrary cither to a rule of 
 tho common law or of an act of Parliament. He was de- 
 clared guilty, hut only on the ground that a statute jiasscd 
 in the reign of Edward VI. had been violated. Lord 
 Camjibell, a great jurist of our day, who defends the im- 
 pcaclimeut, rests its lawfulness solely on the ground that 
 tliis statute ha<l been violated. (4 Campbrll's L>>nl Climi- 
 c*7Ao>, 536; Ifi Howell's Stntt Triah. i<'2'^.) In the case 
 of Warren Hastings (1788), th^ Lords resolved that they 
 would insist on the same rules of evidence us were ajiplied 
 in tho inferior courts of justice. In the trial of Lord Mel- 
 ville in ISOfi for malversation in office, the(|ucstion was put 
 to the judges whether the acts with whieh he was charged 
 wero unlawful, so as to be the subject of information or 
 indictment. It having been decided that they were not, 
 Lord Melville was acquitted. (29 Howell's Sfnte 7'riah, 
 1170.) These decisions were made n( a time when there 
 was no party feeling, and wlun the House of Lords in- 
 tended to act with judicial Impartiality. They are there- 
 fore entitlerl to much weight. In nmnv instances it should 
 bo observed that tho court asks the opinion of the ordinary 
 judges upon the law of crime and the relevancy of evidence, 
 and closely follows their views. Reference may also bo 
 made to the opinion of leading text-writers and jurists. 
 Wooddeson is particularly clear and emphatic. He says: 
 "The trial differs not in essentials from criminal prosecu- 
 tions before Inferior courts. The same rules of evidence, 
 the same legal notions of crimes and punishments, ]trevail. 
 /'or I'niprfichmrntt are not /rtimrd to after thr htir, but tn 
 carrt/ it into more rffrciunl rjreetttian ichcrc it mitjht be t>b- 
 gtrtivtcff bif thr influence of ^*(> pnirerftd dch'nquvut*, or not 
 frt«i7v i/itraverefi in the courln of ordituinf f'uriiiflivttou by 
 renttfiU uf the prruHar tfUuHttf ti/ the tii/ci/rti criuirti. Tfic 
 jut/tpnrnl thereof in fn be Murh an i» irarrantetf b>/ irijal prin- 
 ciptr» nr prerrdrntK." (2 /.rrturra, fill.) The Same view 
 is well expressed by Lord Chancellor Cowpcr in the year 
 1715, who says: "Though one of your lonlships supposes 
 this impeachment to bo out of tho ordinary and common
 
 1126 
 
 IMPEACHMENT. 
 
 course of law and justice, it 13 yot as much a couvso of 
 prOL'CCciing according to the conimnn law as any other 
 whatever." (See also Cushing, Law and J'ructUc <>/ LeyiH- 
 titlitc Agscmbiirti, ^ 2oC>'J ; 4 Hlaekstonc's Comm.f 259 ; and 
 the able argument of Jlr. Webster, 5 Worka, pp. 613-jIj, 
 in ik-fcnco of Judge Prcscott.) 
 
 This subject has assumed great importance in recent 
 trial.s by impeachment in the U. S. It must be conceded 
 that public and professional opinion is here to some extent 
 divided upon it. Impeachment as used under American 
 law docs not have so wide a scope as in Kngland, though 
 we have derived it from the law of that country. Tlic ob- 
 ject of the trial licrc is to reach ofhcial delinquency, and 
 to remove the offending officer from oftico or to impose a 
 permanent disqualification upon him. it is, however, con- 
 ceived that this does not vary the case. The impeachment 
 is still fur a crime; thenfficcr is to be removed or disqualified 
 because ho has committed an act in the nature of a crime. 
 tJu no other theory can there bo a strictly judicial proceed- 
 ing. There must have licen a wrong committLd. but bow 
 can th:it be unless there has been a ^■iolation of law ? AVith- 
 out a crime how can there be a trial, and how is it possible 
 to apply any rules of evidence? Mr. Hallam contends, 
 with great force of reasoning, that not only must a crime 
 be committed, hut it must be set forlli in the articles of im- 
 peachment. Thu?, if there were an impeachment for trea- 
 son, the offence described should of itself, in jioiut of law, 
 constitute treason. His argument is that the court can 
 only trif an offender for an existing crime. It cannot create 
 an offence by its fiat. (2 Const. Hist.. 412, 413, Murray's ed. 
 ISiifi.) (An able presentation of an oppo.sitc view has been 
 made by Judge William Lawrence of Ohio. See American 
 Law Ih'jistrr, vol. vi. p. Gil.) 
 
 In the constitution of New York of the year 1777 im- 
 peachment and indictment are coupled together, as if they 
 were deemfd tu be only different modes of trial of tlic same 
 offence : " l\\ every trial on impeachment or indictment for 
 crimes or niisdemciinors the parly impeached or indicted 
 shall be alloweil counsel as in civil actions." (Art. 34.) In 
 the U. S. Constitution it is "declared that the President 
 and other civil officers of the U. S. sliall be removed from 
 office on impea(diment f(jr and conviction of treason, bribery, 
 and othur high crimes and misdemeanors." (.\rt, 2.^4.) 
 Who can doubt that the words *• treason " and '' bribery" 
 are here used to mean specific crimes. Ac:;ording to all 
 ordinary rules of construction, the words '■ other crimes" 
 must have a similur application. The same general ques- 
 tion was discussed to some extent by tlie judges of the New 
 York court of appeals in the recent case of the impeachment 
 of George G. liarnard as a judicial officer of the S^atc. The 
 drift of the opinions would seem to be that an act to be im- 
 jjcachable must bo of a criminal nature, and usually the 
 suhjtctof an indictment, though this rule might not always 
 apjdy to a judge. Thus, on grounds of public policy ho 
 may be exempt from ordinary criminal prosecutions for 
 acts affecting the administration of justice. (Sec ojiiuions 
 of Grover, Andrews, and Folger, judges, 7Vi'a/, etc., vol. iii. 
 pp. 2n:i7. 2ir.7, 2170.) 
 
 Minti' of Proccdnrc. — When an impeachment is resolved 
 upon in Englaml.a membcrof the House of Commons usu- 
 ally rises in his place and makes a charge of crime, which 
 he siipports by proofs, and ihen moves for an impeachment. 
 If this motion is susfained, the number is ordered to go to 
 the House of Lords in company with others to institute the 
 impeachment. Written articles are subsequently presented. 
 In this country the impeachment is commonly brought for- 
 ward by the report of a committee of the more popular 
 branch of the legislature. The matter of arrest of the per- 
 son impeached is of much consequence in the Knglish law, 
 as the proceeding may involve liberty or life. In the U. S. 
 no arrest is necessary, as, if the party has been properly 
 summoned, the trial may go forward in his absence, and the 
 whole object of the proceeding is achieved by removing 
 him from office or imposing a disqualification for the future, 
 or both. The subject of suspension from ofiice is. how- 
 ever, one of grave consequence, particularly in the case of 
 so imjcirtant an officer as that of President of the U. iS. 
 A consiitutinn may proviile for a suspension in office while 
 an impenchment is pending, when of course no question 
 arises. The U. .S. Constitution is silent upon the subject, 
 and the only source of information open to us is the prac- 
 tice arloptett in England. It is not necessary to consider 
 the ease which has frequently occurred in England, of the 
 impeachment of a member of either house of the legisla- 
 ture, as no such practice is adopted here, each house by 
 the r. S. Constitution having the nower of expulsion. The 
 inquiry will acconlingly be limited to the case of the sus- 
 pension of executive or judicial officers from office after 
 impeachment and before judgment. These cases are of 
 two general classes: (I) where the office is held at the 
 king's pleasure; (2) where the tenure of office is fixed, so 
 
 that the officer has a claim to continue in his office. In the 
 first class of cases the only way in which the impeaching 
 bodies coulil express their wishes to the king would bo 
 by an ''address" or joint resolution. Although the Com- 
 mons have frequently asked the House of Lords to concur 
 with them in sucli an address, that body has regularly re- 
 fused to do so while the iin]ieachment was pending. The 
 course (»f jjroeeeding is manifest in the case of the trial of 
 Lord Bacon while lord high chancellor. After he had been 
 imjieached, and had confessed his crime, we arc told by 
 historians that a difficulty remained in proceeding furtlicr 
 while he retaineil the great seal, for by the rules of the House 
 of Lords acting as a court of impeachment a defendant pro- 
 duced before them is to receive sentence <m his knees at Iho 
 bar, and the lord chancellor, if present, must preside on the 
 woolsack and render sentence. This rule made it necessary 
 that Lord Bacon should pronounce sentence on himself. 
 This embarrassment was only removed hy the Lords en- 
 treating the king, after Bacon's confession, on Apr. 30, 1021, 
 to sequester the great seal, i Lnrdn Jonrnali, Apr. .10, ir)21.) 
 The king requested its surrender, and received it on May 1. 
 This course of proceeding is a very potent argument against 
 the existence in the impeaching tribunal of any power of 
 suspension or removal. In fact, it is contrary to nUJudiciitl 
 theories that a court while a proceeding is pending should 
 do any act savoring of punishment or deprivation of rights. 
 Such an act is executive in its nature; and though it might 
 bo allowed by statute in England or by constitutional pro- 
 vision in this country, it would not be tolerated as an or- 
 dinary branch of judicial procedure. Reference may also 
 bo made to the case of the worthless and incapable Scroggs, 
 chief-iusticc of the king's bench in the reign of Charles H. 
 The House of Lords absolutely refuseil to join the Com- 
 mons in addressing the king to suspend liim from oflioc. It 
 was understood by the Commons to be a positive decision 
 upon the point that while an offieehnldcr was uncondeinned 
 he should not bo suspended from the administration of his 
 office. Their leaders complained in their places that the 
 ''Lords would not address to sequester Scroggs from his 
 place, but would leave it to his modrtttif whether ho would 
 exercise it or no." (8 Howell's Stnte Trinh, 21.'^, 214: LJ 
 Journals Uoune of Lords, 73; Foss, Liim of JndijfS, 170.) 
 
 In the second class of cases, where the tenure of office 
 is permanent, the argument is still stronger. Even the 
 Commons have not insisted on suspension or sequestration 
 in this class of cases. That house has drawn a distinction 
 between the two cases, refusing in a well-known instance 
 to address the king to remove the duke of Buckingham 
 from an office of a permanent nature, though it asked for 
 his dismissal from an office held at the royal pleasure. (6 
 Howell's Strife Trials, 1004.) 
 
 According to these principles, what rule should be ap- 
 plied in the ease of the inipeaidiment nf the President of 
 the U. S.? Undoubtedly, tlio people have a right to his 
 continuous services, of which they cannot be deprived by 
 either l)rane!i of Congress acting in an impeachment before 
 his conviction, unless by some constitutional provision, 
 either express or implied. There is certainly no express 
 clause in the Constitution, nor, according to what has been 
 seen, are there any im]ilications to be drawn from English 
 practice. It may bo added that there is evidence to be de- 
 rived from the debates of llie framers of the Constitution 
 that their opinion coincidetl with the English view, though 
 great stress shouKl not be laid on discussions of this kind. 
 (See 2 Madison r<ipcr«, 1 1 J4 ; 3 ib., 1572, 1573.) It seems 
 quite plain that an implied power to suspend the President 
 from office, beginning to operate at the very moment of his 
 impeachment by tlie House of Kepresentativcs, would bo 
 of a highly dangerous character, as a majority adverse to 
 that functionary might sci/e upon this mode of removing 
 a President obnoxious to them, and by dilatory processes 
 might prolong the trial so as substaniially to remove him 
 from othcc without any real cause. In this way, a mod© 
 of trial for grave crimes which was only intended to be 
 used in extreme cases when the majesty ut the people was 
 offended, might be resorted to on frivolous and absurd 
 pretexts, and as ft method of scourging or frightening a 
 political opponent; or an impatient legislature might re- 
 sort to this process to grasp at executive authority or to 
 overcome executive vetoes. 
 
 Assuming that articles of impeachment have been pre- 
 pared, and an answer received an<l reply made if necessary, 
 a day is fixed fnr the trial of the cause. The court in Eng- 
 land is organized with inueh pomp and solemnity. .\ 
 graphic description of it will be found in the case of the 
 trial of the earl of Stafford (7 Howell's Stntr Trials, 1194), 
 as well as in the essay of Lord iMaeaulay upon the life and 
 career of Warren Hastings. The proceedings on the part 
 of the House of Commons are conducted by a committee, 
 called *' managers." An opening speech having been made, 
 the trial proceeds much in the same way as in ordinary
 
 IMPENETRABILITY— IMPERATBIZ, VILLA DA. 
 
 1127 
 
 Criniiuiil proceeding;?. coudscI repre?on(in{^ tlic accused. And 
 evidence being adduced in ii formal and regular way. The 
 proceedings are Irequeutly dilatory, and u prorogation or 
 dis<iolutiuu of I'arliauient may intervene. It has been de- 
 cided that such an event docs not vitiate the proceedings 
 8o that it will be necessary to commence a;::iin, but that 
 they will continue until a conclusiou is reached. 1,1 May's 
 CoHHt. JJiat., 4;i7, and authorities cited.) 
 
 The rules attending judgment arc special. Questions 
 which are considered to involve the merits of the case hav- 
 ing been agreed upon, each member of the court is interro- 
 gated by the presi<ling officer a;» to his opinion in the pres- 
 ence of the accused and the House of Commons. The 
 peers, commencing with the one lowest in rnnk, as tho ques- 
 tions are put to them rise successively in their places, and 
 standing uncovered and placing their right hands upon 
 tlieir breasts, say. as the ease may be, "Guilty" or " S'ot 
 guilty, upon my honor." If the accused is found guilty, 
 the next step is for the Commons to dcnmnd judgment. 
 Impeachiueuts in England have within tho last one hun- 
 dred years been very rare, only tw« being known to have 
 taken place — that of Warren Hastings and that of Lord 
 Melville. (I May. Const. I/i'Mt., -llJo.) 
 
 Under the U. S. Constitution the House of Representa- 
 tives presents tlie impeachment. The trial is had before 
 the Senate, except that when the President of tho V. S. is 
 tried tho chief-justico of the iSupreme Court presides, the 
 Vice-President in that case not sitting. Tho Senators act- 
 ing as a court of impeachment are ref(uircd to taico an oath 
 or affirmation. There is less formaliiy in rendering judg- 
 ment. Ka?h member, rising in his place, votes guilty or 
 not guilty upon the respective ''articles of impeachment " 
 presented by the House of Representatives. Two-thirds 
 of the members present must concur to ensure a convic- 
 tion. I'ndcr the English law a par<lon by the king cannot 
 he pltmlt tl ill (jiir u( an impeachment. The effect of this 
 provision is that the king cannot prevent the trial and con- 
 viction of the accused. After judgment the onliuary rule 
 is unilerstood to apply, and the king may pardon. Under 
 the U. S. Constitution the President is deprived altogether 
 of the power to pardon. There seems to be a good reason 
 fur the distinction in the two countries, as under the Eng- 
 Ii>li law the jurisdiction of the court is both criminal and 
 political in its nature, while in the U. S. it is political. 
 having only to do with officers and their administration of 
 office. 
 
 In tlie various States of the Union it is the common 
 praetici? to provide in tlieir respective constitutions fcir the 
 organization of a court of inipcachmout to try State oHi- 
 cers. In the main, the general outlines <»f the clauses of 
 the IJ. S. Constitution are followcil. Tho more popular 
 hramdi of the legislature presents tlie impcaciiment, while 
 the upper house or senate tries it. In New V»jrk the judges 
 of the court of appeals and the lieiitenunt-govornor arc 
 joined with the senate, though the latter officer does not 
 sit when the governor is impeached. Some of tho States 
 proviile expressly in their constitutions for the suspension 
 of officers from office when on trial. In some there is a re- 
 quirement that tho eliief-jusiiee of the supremo or other 
 high court shall presiile when the governor is trieil. The 
 details must be sought in the resiiective State constitutions. 
 
 Reference is made bebtw to some nfihc more jirominent 
 cases of impeachment in ICnglniid and in this country: 
 Trial of I-ord Latimer, A. n. l.iTtJ; ib. of llie .lukeof Suffolk, 
 A. D. 1 (f)!t ; ib. of Mompes^on and ass^^tciates, temp. .Tames 
 1.; ib. of Lorcl Bacon, do.: trial of Lonl Inanity in the 
 reign of Charles II. : trial of earl of Macclcslielil. 172j; 
 trial of Warren Hastings, ITHM; ib. of Lord Melville. IsOfi. 
 Many of these and (»ther cases arc found in Howell's Sintr 
 TriaU. Ilatsell's U«j-/-«, and the journals of the two bouses 
 should be referrcfi to. Recent impeachments in the U. S. 
 are that of Andrew Johnson, President of the U. S., ISOH, 
 published in il vols.; also that of (leorge 0. Barnard, 
 judge in New York, 1872, publishcil in :i vols. Earlier 
 cases were Iho impeachment «d" William Itlount, a Renntor 
 of tho \}.i^., 17;)7. published in Whart<.n's Sintf Trinh, 
 2011 : tha* of .'^amind Chase, asstjciate justice Supreme Court 
 U. S.. I SOI. published by Smith .t Lloyd. 11 vols. ; ami that 
 of.lnhn Pickering, ilislrict juclgo of New Ham]ishire, lHO;i 
 (see 'i Hildreth's ///«/. /'. .S'.. ..IS). See also 2 Story's Cnmm. 
 on thr (\,nnlitntiim; Cuslling's L*iw ttnti /*rnrtirr uf I,rifi9- 
 int;rr AHMr,„hfir». T. W. D WIGHT. 
 
 Impcnetrabirity (Lat. imp^nrtrnhifin, "not to be 
 peni-trated "]. one of the essential properties of matter, 
 implying that no two bodies can oeeiipy (he sann' portion 
 of space in the snme instant of time. If a nail be driven 
 into a piece of wood, it does not, properly speaking, pt-nr- 
 trnfr tiie wood, for the fibres are driven aside before the 
 nail can enter. With regard to liquids, the property may 
 be jiroved by very simple experiments. I^et a vcswel bo 
 filled to tho brim with water, and a solid incapable of solu- 
 
 tion in water be plunged into it; a portion of tho water 
 will overflow, exactly equal in bulk to the body immersed. 
 If a cork be rammed hard into tho neck of a phial full of 
 water, the phial will burst, while its neck remains entire. 
 The disposition of air to resist penetration may be illus- 
 trated in the following manner: Let a tall glass vessel he 
 nearly tilled with water, on the surface of which a lighted 
 taper is set to lloat. Jf over this glass a smaller cylindi ieal 
 vessel, likewise of glass, be inverted and pressed downward, 
 .the contained :iir maintaining its place, the internal body 
 of tlic water will descend, while the rest will rise up at tho 
 sides, and the tajier will continue to burn for some seconds 
 encompassed by tho whole mass of liquid. (Leslie's L'/e- 
 incntu a/ A'atitnil Philosophy.) The lightest gases arc really 
 as impenetrable as tho densest solid, although, owing to 
 their compressibility, it is not reailily made apparent. 
 
 Strictly speaking, this property applies only to the «/om» 
 of a boily. In many phenomena, bodies apjtear to pene- 
 trate each other; thus, the volume of a compound body is 
 always less than the sum of the volumes of its constituents; 
 for instance, the volume of a mixture of water and sul- 
 phuric acid, or of water and alcohol, is less than the sum 
 of the volumes before mixture, in all these cases, how- 
 ever, the penetration is merely apparent, and arises from 
 tho fact that in every body there are interstices or spaces 
 unoccupied bv matter. (Ganot's Phyaice, cd. Atkinson, 
 Now York, 1S72.) 
 
 Impeii'nates, or Impcnnes [Lat. in, and pnina, "a 
 wing"j, the name of a tribe of swimming birds having shoft 
 wings covered with feathers resembling scales ; the penguin 
 {AptcnodifUit) and the great auk {Alrn intpcnuis) are exam- 
 ples of this group, wliich, however, is not a natural one. 
 
 Imperador% Villa do [Port., ''city of the emperor"], 
 large town in Rra/.il, province of Parahiba, 'J.) miles N. \V. 
 of Pcrnambueo. It has a considerable traffic in sugar, 
 cotton, coffee, Brazil wood, drugs, and timber. 
 
 Impcr'ative, Categorical or Moral. In the ter- 
 minology of the Kantian school of psycliologieal ethics, 
 this expression denotes tho idea of Duty. "Man, in the 
 consciousness of his moral liberty, recognizes two great 
 laws regulating his will; the first promjtts hiin to seek bis 
 own well-being: the second romuntn<h him to bo virtuous, 
 even at the sacrifice of happiness. From this opposition 
 in !iis moral nature between Desire and Conscience springs 
 up tho Idea of I)uty." otherwise the Moral Imperative, to 
 which term Kant added the epithet (ntet/oricft! to indicate 
 tlutt its commands are absolute and unconditional. 
 
 Imperative Mood [Lat. imprro. "I command"], in 
 grammar, tho form of tbo verb which denotes command, 
 entreaty, or, in general, desire, 
 
 Iinpera'to (Fi:itnAN'Ti;), b. in Naples. Italy, about ir)fir) ; 
 be<'anic a dru^gi^t ; made a fine collection of minerals ; 
 foundeil a butanieal garilen at Naples, and devoted himself 
 with great enthusiasm to natural history, on which subject 
 he ])ublislied a folio volume. Orfla /xtoriti Naturah- l.ihri 
 XXVUf. (Naples, iJiHlt. which was reprinted at Venice 
 in ir.7'J. and translated into Latin (Cologne. KlO.'i). It is 
 not so much a treatise upon natural history as a descriptive 
 catalogue of plants, minerals, and precious stones, having 
 no great seienliiic value. It was, however, the occasion of 
 a curious literary controversy,, it having been vigorously 
 asserted and denied that the work was written by one Ni- 
 colas Stelliola, who sold it to luipcrato for 100 dueats. Tho 
 authority of Tiraboschi is unfavorable to the claims of Im- 
 perato. wh(t was. however, on terms of intimacy nnd cor- 
 respomlcnce with several eminent naturalists. He lived far 
 into tlie seventeenth eentury. 
 
 Impcra'tor [Lat.. " commander"]. During the entire 
 existence of the Roman republic, of which the forms were 
 preserveil for bunrlreds of years after the republican spirit 
 had disappeared before tho eneroaehmcnt of centrati/ation 
 combinerl with universal dominion, the title imprmtor had 
 a meaning verv different from that of the Ryznntine, tho 
 mediieval. or the modern term "emperor." Originally of 
 purely military ap|die[»lion. it meant nearly tho same as 
 " captain " or " general," nnd the soldiers who on tlio bal- 
 tle-lield acclaimed their leader impn-ittor meant only to ex- 
 press their belief that he wtis worthy to exercise command. 
 The concentration of power in the hands (»f .\ugustus and 
 his successors, with which their title of imprmlor is ])opu- 
 larly associateil. was exercised not by virtue of that title, 
 l)ut bv accumulating in tlio bands of a single indivirluat 
 the additional offices of consul, proconsul, tribune, pontifex 
 maximus. and censor ; tho attribution of all these powers 
 to an imprvitinr is a later iib'a. 
 
 Iinperatri'/% Villa dn [Port., "city of thoemnress"], 
 town tif Brazil, province ttf Cearll, on the Serra Urubure- 
 lama. Medicinal plants are abundant in the mori/f (forest), 
 and gold, silver, iron, copper, nnci suit nre all found in 
 greater or less (|uantities in tho adjacent mountains.
 
 1128 
 
 IMPERFECT— IMPRISONMENT. 
 
 ImpcrTect, id music, a. term indicating deficiency or a 
 Tvunt (jf comjileteuess or finality. An impcriect iiitamtf is 
 one whicli is a ccmitoue less than the ])erfect. Thus, the 
 interval B — F is an imperfect htth ; but by the addition 
 of a semitone to eitiier the higher or lower term — l. c. by 
 flattening B or sharpening F — the interval becomes per- 
 fect. Thirds and sixths are commonly regarded as im- 
 perfect intervals, because they may bo readily changed 
 from major to minor, or from minor to major, by the use 
 of a flat, sharp, or natural. An imjierfect thind is one in 
 which some of its intervals are wanting; as when, in a chord 
 of the seventh, we occasionally omit the third, the fifth, or 
 even the root. In some cases tico of these intervals are 
 omitted. The imperfect cadence (or half cadence) is that 
 in which the harmony of the triad is followed by that of 
 the dominant, being the exact contrary of the perfect ca- 
 denee. lly some writers several other cadences, not final, 
 arc termed imperfect. William Staunton. 
 
 Iinpeti'$;o [La!, an "attack." from impcfn, to "rush 
 ui)on "J, a skin disease, resembling eczema in being more 
 or less diffuse jnllammation, but resulting, unlike eczema, 
 in pus-formation. T!ic rrneta Ittrten of young infants is 
 one of its forms, which are rather numerous. True im- 
 petigo is not contagious. It freiiuentiy is cured by time 
 alone, but if persistent should be treated with oxide-of- 
 zinc ointment or some other mild stimulant. The so-called 
 iinj/ctif/tt Jifjni-«tt<t is a distinct disease, depending on the 
 presence of Tiic/i>>phift(nt tnii»nraiiit, a parasitic vegetation. 
 Epilation of the part with irritant washes, as of corrosive 
 sublitiiate, will cure the disease, which is truly contagious. 
 
 Impey (Sir Elijah), chief-justice of Bengal in 1774, 
 ber:une infamous in history by liis atrocious perversion of 
 law. He sentenced the celebrated Nuncomar to death for 
 the assumed crime of forgery in 1775, w.as recalled in 17S2, 
 impeached in 17SS. and d. Feb. I, 1SI2. (See Macaulay's 
 
 Eumtif nit W'trrru Ilfistill'/M.) 
 
 lin'pcyaii Phoas'ant, the Lophnphonin fmpei/anuft, a 
 fine large jdieasant frijm the Himalayas, is nearly as large 
 as a turkey, splendidly cidored.and has been domesticated. 
 It is a native <if the higii. cold regions of the Himalaya. 
 
 Im'plements, Agricultural. Of these, the more 
 important are noticed under their alphabetical heads. 
 The manufacture of this class of goods is a very extensive 
 industry in the U. S. In 1870 there were reported 207fi 
 establishments, employing 2o,24'J persons, a capital of 
 $.'U.s:;4,600, paying $12,lol,J0-l as wages, and producing 
 goods worth $21, 170,025. 
 
 Imports. See CoMMRnrK, by ,J. S. Giijboxs. 
 
 Impos'tors, The Three (Dr tn'bns fmposton'btia), a 
 supposed work attacking the Jewish, Christian, and Mo- 
 hammedan religions, which at various times since the tenth 
 century has been written of by theologians and others. 
 The most diverse statements have been maile as to its au- 
 thorship and cliaracter, and it is very doubtful if a genuine 
 work of this title ever existed. But in later times there 
 have been many spurious works written, pretending to be 
 the real De tn'bua Impnstonhua. Not one of them is of 
 any great antiquity or of any possible value. 
 
 Impress'ment, in English law. is defined as the for- 
 cible levying of mariners in time of war for the king's ser- 
 vice at sea. It was formerly the usiuil method of manning 
 the liritish navy, and a similar procedure waa employed by 
 otlier maritime powers. The power of impressment was a 
 branch of the royal prerogative, first mentioned in the statute 
 2 Richard II. c. 4 as a recognized usage. .Many acts of 
 Parliament from the time of Queen Mary down to George 
 III. rcgubited the system of impressment and exempted 
 certain classes of mariners. The mariner? were seized by 
 an officer acting under an impress-warrant, and having 
 under his oifdcrs an armed party of picked men (the press- 
 gang), with which ho visited the usual haunts of seamen 
 and violently seized the most robust men, not without fro- 
 ({uent and bloody struggles. A merehant-vcasel or a priva- 
 teer was also liable to bo so depleted of sailors by any man- 
 of-war as to becrippled for all practical jiurposcs. The laws 
 sanctioning impressment are still unrepealol. but the sys- 
 tem of bounties lias practically taken its place. The im- 
 pressment of American sailors was an abuse practised for 
 several years by tJreat Britain during the great continental 
 war against the French empire, notwithstanding the con- 
 stant and earnest protest of the 1^ S. government : and this 
 finally became the immediate eause of the war of ISI2 be- 
 tween the two countries. It has been often noted that in 
 the treaty of peace signed at Ghent in IHU nothing was 
 stipulated regarding this original eauee of the war; never- 
 theless, the American doctrine achieveil a practical victory, 
 and impressment has not since been employed by Great 
 Britain, not even during the Crimean war. It will prob- 
 ably never be revived. roiiTEit C. Bliss. 
 
 Impris'onment. In the most comprehensive sense of 
 the term, imprisonment denotes any deprivation of per- 
 sonal liberty, whether by actual onfinement or simply by 
 forcible restraint or detention against a person's will. I)c- 
 taining a man in a public street or taking him into custody, 
 either by the exercise of actual force or by the exhibition 
 of such real or assumed authority as secures his submis- 
 sion, would, in this view, be a sutlieient imprisonment. 
 When no actual force is employcil the imprisonment is 
 termed constructive ; in other cases, actual. When the re- 
 straint upon a man's person is unlawful it is called "false 
 imprisonment," and this is a violation of personal rights 
 for which an action at law may be instituted and damages 
 recovered. (See False Impkisonmknt.) In its narrower 
 signification, however, and according to more popular 
 usage, imprisonment denotes an actual confinement of the 
 person under legal process in some prison or jail which la 
 specifically employed for such a purpose in accordance 
 with provisions of law. The power to imprison, using the 
 word in this narrower sense, is either inherent in courts or 
 magistrates as one of their essential prerogatives, or is 
 conferred upon them by statute. Imjirisonmtnt is em- 
 ployed in both civil and criminal proceedings. It may be 
 used as a form of civil remedy, as when a debtor is arrested 
 and held in custody for the purpose of securing the satis- 
 faction of some debt wliieh ho is under obligation to l)ay ; 
 or it may be adojiteil as a means of obtaining testimony, 
 as where, in criminal cases, witnesses are kept in confine- 
 ment that they may be forthcoming at the trial of a cause ; 
 or it may be cmi)Ioycd as a mode of punishment, as where 
 persons guilty of contempt of court or convicted of a crimi- 
 nal offence are sentenced to be kept in prison for particular 
 periods. These are the most imjiortant purposes fornfaioh 
 imprisonment under authority of law is employed, though 
 particular classes of persons may be placed in legal con- 
 finement for still different reasons, as, for instance, where 
 lunatics are confined in asylums; but places of this kind 
 are not usually known as prisons, and this kind of impris- 
 onment will not therefore be considered in this connec- 
 tion. (See Insanity.) Imprisonment for debt was at com- 
 mon law iu former times generally allowed at the suit of a 
 creditor as a matter of course, and became the regular 
 practice. But in recent times the tendency has been to 
 abolish it by statute, excc])t in relation to particular classes 
 of debts, among which arc usually included those founded 
 upon fraud or misfeasance, fines and penalties, etc. la 
 England the first statute of this kind was passed in 183H, 
 but the act which at present (1S7,")) regulates this subject 
 was enacted in IS(i9 {'.',2 and 33 Vict. eh. 62). This provides 
 that no person Shall be imprisoned for making default in 
 the jiayment of a sum of money except in cases of penal- 
 ties not arising upon contract, of default by trustees in 
 making iiayments directed by a court of equity, of default 
 in payment of a sum recoverable summarily before a jus- 
 tice, and in a few other cases of less importance. In these 
 excepted cases the imjirisonment cannot continue longer 
 than a year. There are also some further qualifications 
 of the general rule in special instances. Thus, when a 
 jjcrson makes default in the pavment of any debt due in 
 pursuance of the order or judgment of a competent court, 
 and is proved to have had the means to jiay since the order 
 or judgment was rendered, he may be committed to prison 
 for a term not exceeding six weeks, or until payment is 
 made. Arrest and imprisonment upon mesne i)roccss is 
 abolished entirely, with the single exception that where 
 the suit is for XoO or more, and there is reason to apprc- 
 heinl that tlie defendant will leave England, he may, on 
 proper evidence under oath of these and a few other 
 neeessary facts, be iniprisoneil for a term not exceeding 
 six months, or held to bail. In New York an act to abolish 
 imprisonment for debt was passed iu 1S3I, and is still in 
 force. This provides that no person shall he imprisoned 
 on civil process at law or on execution in equity founded 
 on contract except in the following cases: in proceedings as 
 for contempts to enforce civil remedies, in actions for fines 
 and penalties, or on promises to marry, or for moneys col- 
 lected bv any pul)lie ofTicer, and in actions for any miscon- 
 duct or negleet in ofliee or in any jM-ofessional employment. 
 Moreover, in eases of debt claimed in any suit or founded 
 upon any judgment or decree of a court of record, the de- 
 fendant may be arrested upon an aflidavit of the plaintiff 
 stating the sum due to be more than $51', ami charging the 
 commission of certain fraudulent aels; as, that the defenil- 
 ant is about to remove any of his proi)erty out of the 
 jurisdiction of the court to defraud his creditors, that he 
 frauilulently conceals property, or has assigned, removed, 
 or disposed of it with like intent, or that the debt was 
 fraudulently contracted. The defendant is thereupon eom- 
 milted to prison, unless he either pays the debt and custs 
 of the suit or gives security to pay them within a certain 
 time, or unless he makes an assignment of his property for
 
 IMPROVISATION. 
 
 1129 
 
 the benefit of his creditors, or gives security that ho will 
 . make such an assigninent or that he will not rlitipose of any 
 of his property until the demand against liJm is satisfied. 
 If he makes such an assignment uf his properly, there are 
 provisions in the act hy wliieh he may ho discharged from 
 his indebtedness. Further provisions of an analngous na- 
 ture to those contained in this act were embodied in the 
 New York code, adopted in ISIS, The debtnr may be ar- 
 rested and imprisoned cither on mesne or on final process. 
 The jirincipal grounds of arrest are, with a few exceptions, 
 the same as those enumerated in the previous act. The 
 defendant, witen arrested upon mesne ])rt>cess, may be ad- 
 mitted to bail. The imprisonment upon final process is for 
 the same causes, and is applicable when the execution 
 against the clcbtor's property has been returned unsatisfied, 
 in whole or in part. The most important difference be- 
 tween these provisions ancl those of the earlier statute is 
 that in (he later act means only are provided for securing 
 the paynien* uf the debt of an individual creditor, and there 
 is no ajjsignment provided for in behalf of all the creditors, 
 or any means afforded of obtaining a discharge of the 
 debtor from alt his obligations. A large number of the States 
 of the Union have acluptcd :*imilar statutes. (A compre- 
 hensive summary of these may be found in Kent's Comuuttt- 
 nrieSf vol. it. pp. .'J9S, .^99. For the rules regulating the 
 subject of arrest on civil process, see Arrest.) 
 
 In criminal proceedings, imprisonment is employed as a 
 means of detaining alleged offenders in custoily. in certain 
 cases, to ensure their appearance at the time of trial, and 
 also as a common form of punishment to which a convicted 
 prisoner maybe BcnteuccJ. It is the ordinary penalty both 
 in cases of felony and of misdetneanor. and the classes of 
 offences in which a sentence of this kincl may bo given, and 
 the terms of imprisonment which may be imposed, are gen- 
 erally determined by specific statutory provisions. A min- 
 imum and a maximum pcriotl are usually declared as ap- 
 propriate to any particular crime, ami the magistrate may 
 impose a greater or less term within these limits according 
 to his discretion. Fines arc frequently imposed in connec- 
 tion with imprisonment as an a*lditional penalty. (See 
 FiNR.) The means of adequately adapting the severity 
 of the penalty to the degree of heinousness in the (iflTcnce, 
 which is affordeil by the facility with whi'-h longer or 
 shorter terms of impris4inment may be meted out. nnd tho 
 opportunity which is given for tho reformation of offenders 
 when they arc confined in ])risons, render this one of tho 
 mc»3t salutary modes of punishment which the law provides. 
 (.Sec PrNisi!Mi:vT. For tho methods of pris<in manage- 
 ment and discipline, see Prisons, Phison I>isrM'i.iNK.) 
 
 Imprisonment in cases of contempt of court is discussed 
 under the topic Costkmpt. In regard to the imprisonment 
 of witnesses to secure their testimony, see Witskss. 
 
 The remedies which the law affords in cases of unlawful 
 imprisonment are of various kinds. Thus, the j)erson who 
 has wrongfully caused or procured the confinement of an- 
 other may, as has been stated, be sued by the latter in a 
 civil action for false imprisonment, or he may be subjected 
 to a criminal proseeution. When the prisoner desires to 
 obtain a release or ilisehargc. a petition upon h<thcnft cnrjmH 
 may bo marie by him or in his behalf to the proper court. 
 And a petition of this kind may even be resorterl to when 
 tho imprisonment is not unlawful, as in cases where a per- 
 son confined under legal process desires to be admitted to 
 bail, or to have the reasons for his detention investigated 
 and its validity determined. (The rules upon this subject 
 arc stated under the topie Habkas Corits.) 
 
 (fKounR Chask. Rkviskd dy T. W. Dwiciit. 
 
 Improvisa'tion is the art of composing poetry cxtem- 
 ])oraneonsly. Although the term embraces every rhythmic 
 form of impromptu song or recitation, and is sometimes 
 even applied to un])remeiUtated prose declamation, es- 
 pecially to that of a highly figurative and impassioned cha- 
 racter, yet it is restricted in jiopular use not merely to 
 metrical compositions, but to those which please by syllabic 
 consonance or corresp<>ndeiice of sound. The moilern ear, 
 in tho countries and clauses where improvisation is most 
 practised, has lieen trained to demand not only a regular 
 recurrence of metrical feet or accentual longs ami shorts, 
 but lull or half rhyme, assonance, or at least alliteration, 
 as an indispensable condition of this species of intellectual 
 entertainment. Hut even in Italy anrl Spain, especially in 
 the more olevateil and refined exercise of the art, that ^a- 
 tiety of rhyme whiidi led Trissino to invent modorn blank 
 verse — first emplnyeil in his S^iphnninhn in I. '('J I— sometimes 
 induces improvisators to dispense with this ornament, and 
 to content themselves with a simple iambic or trochaic ar- 
 rangement of nylhibles in verses of a determinate length. 
 There are, too, nations in whose extemporaneous ])oelry 
 parallelisms in sense or imagery, coupled with metre, sup- 
 ply the place of consonance. Keadcrs familiar with Kate, 
 vain and //mwalha will readily perceive that this varied 
 
 repetition of thought and illustration may bo used with 
 very happy effect in improvised as well as in deliberate 
 composition. Improvisation is doubtless the most primitive 
 and universal mode of expressing poetic feeling, and it 
 appears to have always existed among semi-barbarous 
 races sufficiently advanced in intellectual development to 
 derive pleasure from any form of poetry. The early poets 
 of Greece and of many other ancient c<nintries were min- 
 strels, and chantecl their compositions, which were in a 
 great degree extemporaneous in detail and expression, 
 though probably not often in subject and general treatment, 
 to a musical accompaniment, wJiich we must suppose too 
 simple to have served much other purpose than to mark 
 the time or metre. The improvisators of recent ages have 
 not generally availed themselves of this expedient. The 
 most genial examjilcs of modern improvisation are found 
 among peoples and in classes possessing a considerable 
 amount of traditional, though not of scholastic, culture. 
 With the diffusion of instruction, and of printed, and espe- 
 cially of periodical literature, and above all, with a wider 
 participation of the higher and mi<Idle ranks in active 
 business nnd political life, it gradually ceases to enjoy 
 favor, and the power of irnjtrovisation diminishes with tho 
 social demand for it. The rhetorical character of impro- 
 vised poetry depends less on the material condition and 
 mode of life than on the moral, intellectual, and social 
 training and habits of the composer and liis audience : its 
 special forms, as indeed those of all poetry, are determined, 
 or at least greatly intluenced, by tho orthoopical system 
 and the grammatical structure of the language emjdoyed 
 by the bard. It is noticeable that the jdiysical character- 
 istics of the scene of tho poem are less frequently re- 
 flected in unpremeditated verse than the actions and pas- 
 sions of the bard and his personages. Ileal nature is 
 too familiarly known to the uomade, the shepherd, and 
 the rustic cultivator as a hard and niggard landlord to 
 be an attractive feature in his imaginative recreations, and 
 
 his spontaneous lyrics teach i 
 
 1 more of the man him- 
 self than of Ins surroundings. This consideration furnishes 
 an argument againstthcautlienticity of the pretended poems 
 of Ossian. They have too much material coiifrur lorah 
 to bo accepted as genuine specimens of bardic song. The 
 most untrained ear readily seizes and soon learns to enjoy 
 accented rhythm, and a frequency of corresjjonding sounds 
 in a given language almost mechanically prompts a dispo- 
 sition to employ them as a means of giving a melodious 
 expression to feeling and to thought. A strongly marked 
 syllabic accent and an abundance of rhymes, therefore, are 
 circumstances favorable to the invention and free and ready 
 employment of ])oetical forms; and it is chiefly in languages 
 marked by these characteristics that impro\ isation is most 
 general. The modern languages of the Latin stock — with 
 tho exception of French, which is scarcely Latin otherwise 
 than in vocabulary — have a very distinctly acccnteil ])ro- 
 nunciation; they abound in rli\ nied endings, and they ac- 
 cordingly present great material facilities for the construc- 
 tion of verse. All inflected languages to a certain extent 
 supply rhymes, because words of the same class and in the 
 same grammatical category have generally the same final 
 syllabk' or syllables. But. on the otlior hand, the very fact 
 tiiat like endings occur only in like categories makes words 
 disparate which in nninflected tongues might freely be 
 paired in rhymes under almost any circumstances. To ex- 
 cm])li(y ; the Italian fftino is radically the same word as tho 
 Latin (oiniii: the Italian pnum* the same as the Latin pan- 
 unit. Now, anii't and paiiuo have each but one change of 
 form, the plurals mini and panui; auuuit and pauuun, in 
 their different cases and numbers, have each eight vari- 
 ations of ending. The Italian words, then, in their re- 
 spective singulars and jdurals. rhyme with each oilier in 
 all syntactical combinations; the I>atin,with the exception 
 of thccoincidence between the genitive singular ami nomi- 
 native plural, can be employed us rhymes only when they 
 happen to be in tho same case. Besides this, the regular 
 diminutive ami augmentative nninflected forms, in which 
 Italian is so rich, arc a great re^ouree to the rhymer. A 
 comi)arison between Italian and tho (!othic languages 
 would furnish analogous illustrations, and there is one pe- 
 culiarity of the inllectional system of the Icelandic which 
 merits notice as having profialdy influenced the poetic 
 forms of its literature in a curious way. S(>i>u>j iiifiections, 
 or those where etymological variations consist in vowel- 
 change, are more common in Icelandic than in the other 
 (iothic languages, and wore so in a still higher degree at 
 an earlier stage of the language. For example, tho nomi- 
 native singular hUnd has tho genitive hauJar, the dative 
 singular hrmlt. Laud singular has the nominative and 
 accusative plural fi'mtt. It is doubtless to this fact that wo 
 are to ascribe the adoption of /laf/ rfit/mr, which, as well as 
 allitoratitm, is now generally an indispensable feature of 
 Icelandic verse, oven when ordinary end-rhymes also aro
 
 1130 
 
 IMPUTATION. 
 
 employed, ffnf/ i-hi/nieM are syllables containing the same 
 final consonants with different vowels, and both they and 
 full rhymes arc introduced aecordiu!^ to certain rules, gene- 
 rally not at the close, but in the body of the verse. Thus, 
 while /li'iml singular and /Unti ])lural are full rhymes, both 
 those forms arc gctod half rhymes with the singular laud 
 and with the genitive and dative haudaf and hentH. A 
 vowel-ehange, tlicrcfore, which destroys a full rhyme often 
 maki's amends by sujiplying several linlf rhymes. But not- 
 withstantiing this and ])eculiar prosodicul advantages of 
 other tiothic languages, there is uo doubt that in facility 
 of versification Italian surpasses not only these, but the 
 Spanish also. The Spanish, indeed, gains in this respect 
 by allowing nRsonauce, or the corrcspoudence of vowels 
 while the final consonants difler; but its consonances ap- 
 ppur to be fewer than in Italian, and the rigor of its rules 
 in the employment of rhyme renders it less tractable as a 
 metrical medium than the sister speech. Reasoning from 
 analogy, wo should expect to find improvisation in all not 
 abs<>bitcly savage races whose languages exhibit uncommon 
 orthocpical facilities for melodious or harmonious expres- 
 sion. Hence the Cherokees — whose remarkable speech has 
 but eighty-five possible syllabic combinations of elementary 
 Boun<ls, and therefore supcrabouu<Js in rhymes, and who, 
 like the other Xorth American Indians, iiave great readi- 
 ness in extemporaneous prose harangue — ought, in their 
 present partially civilized condition, to excel in improvised 
 verso. But we do not know that any species of native poetry 
 is cultivated among them. 
 
 Our knowledgeof the extemporaneous poetry of unlettered 
 peoples amounts to little more than we have already stated. 
 Such races, of course, cannot commit their own effusions to 
 writing, and strangers rarely know enough of any unwritten 
 language to be able to seize and record its poetic accents. 
 Ancient compositions of this sort have indeed been handed 
 down and long preserved by tradition, but in this mode of 
 transmission the diction, thoughts, and imagery change 
 with changing generations, and after a longer or shorter 
 time the poem ceases to be identifiable with the original. 
 Probably the most authentic specimens we possess of primi- 
 tive improvised poetry are those which occur in the sagas 
 or narrative literature of Iceland. These usually extend 
 to but a few couplets, and, rhetorically speaking, are little 
 more than cjaculatory expressions of thought or feeling. 
 But, though they are generally frigid in tone and destitute 
 of real poetical merit, they are, to the last degree, artificial 
 and complicated in structure and figurative in diction. AVe 
 can scarcely suppose that such nuy.'v dij}iriha could have 
 been truly extemporaneous, and we cannot help suspecting 
 that most of them, like the sudden inspirations of many 
 professional modern orators, belong to the class of premedi- 
 tated impromptus, deliberately composed and stored up for 
 use wlicn the occasion should present itself, or that they 
 have been much elaborated by the historians who quote 
 tht-m. 
 
 There have been improvviaatori in almost all European 
 peoples, but in none of the Gothic or Latin countries, ex- 
 cept in Italy and perhaps Spain, have they been numerous 1 
 enough and gifted enough to have had any real literary ) 
 importance. Some of the Italian improvvisatori of the 
 sixteenth century composed in Latin as will as in their 
 native language, and many of those of thv' seventeenth and 
 eighteenth, as well ns of the present century, were persons 
 almost as remarkable for learning as for dexterity in the 
 production of unpremeditated verse. Perfetti in the seven- 
 teenth century, t'orilla in the eighteenth, Sgricci in the 
 early part of the nineteenth, were all persons of high cul- 
 ture, and in our own times Regaldi and Giannina Milli 
 combine with a surprisingly ready command of varied 
 versification a range of thought and of illustration which 
 shows a wide acquaintance with history, willi life, an«l with 
 literature. Some of the published works of Italian improv- 
 visatori are of unequivocal merit, and few of them are with- 
 out more or less frequent flashes of genius, but as a general 
 rule we admire the art rather than the product, tlio loom 
 rather than the tissue. As we have already hinted, im- 
 provisation is now much less common than formerly ns an 
 entertainment of highly cultivated circles in Italy. Though 
 still occasionally practised in fashionable society, it is, so 
 far as such society is concerned, substantially a thing of 
 the past, but it subsists with almost unabated vitality 
 among the peasantry of many provinces. Tigri's Cnnti 
 Popofari Titnl Giuliani's Z»V/»/rt'/'/tf> Vlvtnte defla Toacniia, 
 which contain many specimen? of impromptu verse taken 
 down as faithfully as possible from the lips of peasant re- 
 citers, are well worth the attention of the reader. The as- 
 tonishing quickness of intellect of the Italian people shows 
 itself as brilliantly in the unpremeditated lays of the rustic 
 as in animated discussion and action in the educated classes. 
 Improvisators ef lioth sexes, who are what the Italians call 
 anuh'aietiy or unable to read or write, extemporize, like their 
 
 brethren of higher culture and social condition, in every 
 metre, every structure of verse, couplet, and stanz.a, every 
 style of poetic composition, lyric, narrative, didactic, dia- 
 logue between two rival bards, nrradcH umbo, and dramatic; 
 and it is worth noticing that at many of the popular theatres 
 the playwright only furnishes the characters — which indeed 
 are usually regular stock )-6lc8 — and the skeleton of the 
 drama, leaving the personages to extemporize the dialogue, 
 which is often most genial and spirited, as the action pro- 
 ceeds. The rnstic bard has an inj])ortant advantage in the 
 childlike simplicity of his hearers, who. like real children, 
 are never tired of iteration. The child never objects to a 
 tale that is "twice told." The peasant extemporizer, in 
 his narrow range of thoughts, words, and imagery, may 
 use the same maxim or proverb, the same epithets, the 
 same similes, the same pairs of rhymes, indefinitely, and 
 his audience are as little wearied with his repetitions as 
 was the old German with hearing Gisclhcr always called 
 "the youthful" through a narrative which extends from 
 his boyhood to his old age, or the Fiulander with the ever- 
 repeated epithet of "old and truthful," which Kalevala 
 constantly applies to Wainamoiuen,even when he is lying. 
 The educated improvvisatore, with his m(»re multifarious 
 culture, has of course a larger and more diversified stock 
 of material, and, like the preacher and the popular speaker, 
 he habitually prepares at leisure new verbal combinations, 
 happy turns of expression, similes, and illustrations, to be 
 introduced into his recitations as occasion serves. But 
 these stores cannot be inexhaustible, and when the stock 
 grows thin and ins])iration flags, he cannot repeat himself 
 to his exacting audience, as the humble bard may do in 
 his rustic circle, and he usually retires from the field after 
 a short though, It may be, a brilliant career. 
 
 GnoRGH P. Marsh. 
 Imputa'tion of sin, guilt, and merit. This word is the 
 English equivalent of the Hebrew DuH, hanhar, which is 
 represented in theSeptuagint and the New Testament by the 
 Greek word Ao-yt'^o/xai. These words are of very frequent oc- 
 currence in the Scriptures, and are variously translated in 
 our version ; e. fj., to tkitik (Job xxxv. 2 and Rom. ii. 3 ) ; to 
 rcfjard iJsa. xxxiii. 8) ; ?o esteem (Isa. xxix. It), 17 and Rom. 
 xiv. 14) ; to rerlrnn (2 Sam. iv. 2) ; to be rerhoncdforor among 
 (Rom. iv. 4: Luke xxii. .*>7): to i/npiite (Lev. vii. 18 and 
 Rom. iv. G-S) ; to iaif to one's ckarf/e {2 Tim. iv. IC), etc. 
 Liddell and Scott deiine the general meaning of Aoyt^o/iai 
 to he "to count, deem, consider, that anything is." Crc- 
 
 mcr ifiib. T/ieo. Lex. of A. 7>«^ Greek) says /ioyi^eudai ti 
 
 TtVi, " to reckon anything to a person, to put to his account, 
 either in his favor or as what he must be answerable for." 
 lu Christian theology this word is used in connection with 
 the terras " sin," " guilt," *■ merit," *' righteousness," etc. 
 
 Shi includes two essential elements: (1) Mnculn, moral 
 pollution or defilement, as sin stands opposed to holiness; 
 (2) reatuB, 0"'^^^ ^^ it stands opposed to Justice. Again, 
 rectus or guilt must be distinguished as (I) reatus culpn-f 
 desert of blame, and (2) reatus ^a'na-, just obligation to 
 punishment. It is agreed by all parties that neither the 
 rnaciifa, ])ollution, nor the rentun cidpn\ desert of blame, can 
 be separated from the person sinning, and imputed or 
 charged to »he account of another person. But the whole 
 Christian Church, Roman, Lutheran, and Reformed, is 
 agreed that the rentns ptrute, or just liability to punish- 
 ment, may be charged to the account of other persons than 
 the actual transgressor when those other persons stand in 
 such a relation to the actual transgressor as. for any reason, 
 to be justly responsible for his action. *' To tn)|>ute sin or 
 guilt," therefore, is to charge the legal responsibility for 
 transgression upon any one as the ground «f judicial pro- 
 cess. ** Xot to impute sin " is to "cover it," remit its pun- 
 ishment, and so refuse to make it the substance of a penal 
 indictment (Rom. iv. G-8), Thus, though for very differ- 
 ent reasons, was the guilt (rmtus pwurr) of Adam's act of 
 apostasy imputed or charged to the account of nil his nat- 
 ural descendants, who are punished together with him ; 
 and the "many olTenees " uf all his peoj>Io were "la-d 
 upon" or charged to the account of the Lord Jesus, and 
 he suffered their punishment vicariously — i. c. in their 
 stead and behalf. " The Lord hath laid on him the iniqui- 
 ties of us all " (Isa. liii. f.-l2; Gal. iii. 13; 1 Pet. ii. 2-1); 
 " Therefore as by the offence of one. judgment came upon 
 all men to condemnation" (Rom. v. IS). 
 
 Merit must also be distinguished (1) as worthiness of 
 praise, which is inseparable from the person, and (2) wor- 
 thiness of reward, which may be "imputed" or credited to 
 all who by previous union or stipulation may have rights 
 involved in the action of the meritorious agent. HiijhttniiH- 
 nena means "that which satisfies law" (CVfWfr). all th:it 
 constitutes the condition of acceptance or of reward — i. e. 
 of forensic justification. This righteousness may bo 
 wrought out personally in behalf of one's self, or vi'-ari- 
 ously in behalf of another. Thus by the rewardableness
 
 INACHUS— IN'CLINED PLANE. 
 
 1131 
 
 of Cbrist's obedience, or his vicarious ri;;fhteousncss im- 
 puted lo all who hflieve, as the ;;roun(i of tlicir sins being 
 parJuned and thfir persona aueepted and treiiled as those 
 with re;;ard to whuiu all tlie demands of the hiw have been 
 fulfilleil. '* Even so by the ri;j;htL'OUMneiis of one the free 
 pift came upon ail men unto justilication of life;*' ".So by 
 the obedience of one shall many be made righteous " (Kom. 
 V. IS, 19 and iv. :i-a). 
 
 The entire Church agrees as to the fact, though difiercnt 
 theories exist as to the jrrounds. of the imputation of 
 Adam's first ."in. The imputation of Cliri^t's merits is 
 clearly hehl hy the Lutheran and Reformed churches, but 
 is obscured in the llonian Church by their doctrine of works, 
 subjective justification, etc. IJclhirniine. Ann'us. ;/rat., v. 17 : 
 "(The first sin) was iuij)ufed to all who were born from 
 Adam." Fonn. of Concord, p. I'lllit, ilase : '■ We all, on ac- 
 count of the disobedience o( Adam and Eve, are by na- 
 ture children of wrath." James Arminius ( 1000-1 (JOU); 
 "Whatever punishment therefore was inflicted ou our first 
 parents . . . now rests on all their posterity." I'onu. of 
 Conront, p. fiSJ, Hase : 'MVe believe that a sinner is justi- 
 fied before tiod . . . only on account of the single merit, 
 the perfect obedience and severe suffering, death, and resur- 
 rection of our Lord Jesus Christ, whoso obedience is im- 
 puted to us for righteousness." To the same effect see 
 
 Jfcidrlhr.rg C'lfrchifni, quos. ))(). and WrHtDiliister CouJ\ of 
 
 Faith, ch. ii. ^ 1, and all other Protestant symbols. 
 
 A. A. HODRF, 
 
 In'achuSy in Grecian mythology, the god of the river 
 Inaehiis in Argos. who in the dispute between Poseidon 
 and Here about the possession of Argos decidcil in favor 
 of the latter, and hence was deprived of his water by Po- 
 seidon and made dry exeept in the rainy reason. In otlier 
 places Ina^hus is referred to .as the first king of Argos. who 
 after the flood of Deucalion led I he Argivcsl'rom the moun- 
 tains down into the plains; hence Argos is often called 
 Inachian. 
 
 Inarching* Sec Aiicuation-. 
 
 In'ca [a Qiiichua worl. signifying *' chief"], in its 
 strictest sense, designates the aI>soliitc monarch of the an- 
 cient Peruvian empire, who was also chief jiriest and the 
 recipient of divine honors. He was the doscimdant, hy 
 unmixctl blood, of .Manco Capac and of the sun. The inca 
 mn^t, if possible, be the child of his predecessor by his own 
 sister— a custom which also prevailed in ancient Egypt, in 
 Persia, and in many other lands. In a larger sense, the 
 whole ruling and sacerdotal caste of ancient Peru were 
 called incas. They also received a superstitious reverence 
 from the lower ranks, and jiossosscd mnny social and jio- 
 litieij privil-gcs. It is claimed hy c-rtain South American 
 Indians that the old blof>d-royal is still ])reservcd. 
 
 Ilicanta'tion [from I'l/, "upon." "over," and rnuto, to 
 "ch;int"l Wits a lorni of magiif wliich was much believed in 
 durin'^ tlie Middle Ages by all (icrmanic and msiny other 
 nations, and of which some remnants are still extant in 
 certain popular superstitions in Rngliin'l, Scnndinavia, an*! 
 Germany. It consisted in the chanting or solemn recita- 
 tion or mys'ical murmuring of certain phrases, generally 
 of no incauin;;, but of a striking rhythm. In the mouths 
 of certain persons these jihrases had the power of killing or 
 curing a man, of blessing or blasting a field, of raising or 
 laying a storm; or they could compel the spirits of the 
 elements, or even the spirits of the dead, to apjicar and 
 make revelations. Most often, however, inc-aniation was 
 applied only as an accompaniment to other witchcraft, a-^, 
 fur instance, to the preparation of tovc-potions or similar 
 magical drugs; and remnants of this form arc still exist- 
 ing among the European peasantry. In many j)Iaces the 
 first use of a new tool, a new dress, etc. is invariably ac- 
 companied by the pronunciation of certain phrases; and 
 now and thf-n some old hag may bo met with in .Scothuwl, 
 Norway, Jutland, and certain parts of (Jermany who iie- 
 knowIedgi'H that she can euro fe\or, aches, rheumatism, 
 consumption, heart disease, etc. by means of a formula t<hii 
 has received in some m3'sterious way from another oM hnij. 
 The incantations in Mufhrth and, Fitunt give a very vivid 
 picture of this kinrl of magic. 
 
 Incnr'natc Word, Lnilics of the, a congregation 
 of nuns founded 1I>1.'.'> by .Jeanne Marie Chczan) do Matcl 
 (I^DtJ-ir>70), approved hy the pope in l(i:t;5. Their work 
 was at first one of instrnelion, but in IS(ifl they assumed 
 the caro of hospitals. Tiiey have (1S76; eight houses in 
 Texas. 
 
 Incnrna'tioii [Lat. I'a, and mro, cnmh, " flcwh "], a 
 term ap])liid grtK-rally to the presoneo of deity in a mortal 
 form; theologically, to the union of God and man in (he 
 person of Christ. The motives for the incarnation were — 
 (iod's li»vo for man. nnd will to save bim from the worst 
 coiisecptrnees of sin ( .John iii. 1 ti). his de«ire to raise human 
 nature by joining the divine nature to it^ and to show man- 
 
 kind "a perfect and exalted model of human excellence." 
 That Christ might be given to the world two princi])les 
 were united — the Holy Ghost from heaven, the Virgin 
 Mary on earth (Luke i. ;jj). Through his conception by 
 the Spirit he was entirely holy, " pericet God;" through 
 his human birth hu had capal>ility for all human infirmi- 
 ties exeept sin. was "perfect man," jiosscssing a "reason- 
 able soul." (See Nickxk and Athasasian Crickijs.) No 
 dogma has caused more dissension in the Christian Church, 
 Among its early oii])osers were the Sabellians; the Samo- 
 satencs, followers of Paul of Samosata; the Origenists; 
 the Manicha;ans; and, most important of all. the Arians 
 in the fourth century. (See Anns,) In the fifth century 
 arose the sect of Eutychians, who. while aeknriwledging 
 Christ's (lodheail, denied liis assumption of humanity. 
 In modern times tlic doctrine of Christ's incarnation has 
 been rejected by the Monnrehians, the PutrJpassians, and 
 the Unitarians. Many authors, among whom StrauFs and 
 Renan are eminent, have in our day written aldy to prove 
 the mere manhood of Christ ; and tlic more advanced of 
 the Broad Church ])arty are regarded as tending towards 
 their opinion. (See The /nrnnmtifni, etc., by J. Metdrum 
 (London, 1S07) ; Pull, JJr/etiHi'o Fidci Aiccnn-; Whately, 
 EsHftyn un some uf the Pecufiarities of the ChrUtitin licfiy- 
 ion.) Janct Tl'ckev. 
 
 In'cense [Lat. inrmda, to " burn "]. a substance burned 
 for the fragrance of its smoke, and used in the performance 
 of a relisious ceremony. Tlie ancient Egyptian, the He- 
 brew, the Crahmanical, and other religious ceremonials 
 made use of incense-burning. The Roman Catholics and 
 some of the Eastern churches use incense in their services. 
 Tlie Catholic Apostolic (Irvlngite) Cliurch has adopted the 
 practice. Various gums and spices are enijiloycd, but in 
 the Roman Catholic Ciiureh olilianum is used, mixed with 
 storax, cascarilla, and other ingredients. It is burned in a 
 thurible or censer swung by chains. 
 
 In'cest [Lat. inrcHtnm, from in, ** not," and castni, 
 "chaste"], cohabitation or carnal intercourse between a 
 man and a woman related to each other in any of the de- 
 grees within whi(di marriage is proiiibitcd by law. This 
 was not a criminal offence at common law, but, like adultery 
 and fornication, it was left to the cognizance of the ecclesi- 
 astical courts, which had power to annul incestuous mar- 
 riages aufl to require the offender to perform a public pen- 
 ance in the parish eluirch. Such a marriage was therefore 
 not void, but voidable, and sentence declaring its nullity 
 was required to he pronounced during the lifetime of both 
 of the |)arties or it couhl not be pronounced at all. But by 
 statute t) and William TV. ch. b\ ( lSr..'i-:;(i) murriages be- 
 tween jK-rsons within the prohiljited degrees are declared 
 absolutely null and void. What these degrees are is not 
 stated by the statute, and this point is to be determined 
 hy the previously established rules of the canon law and 
 older statutes. IleIationshii> both hy consanguinity anil 
 by affinity is coriiprehended within the prohibition in ac- 
 cordance with the .«o-ealled Lcviticai degrees. If is held 
 that marriage with a deceased wife's sister is within these 
 degrees, and consequently void. The disability by con- 
 sanguinity a[iplies to those who are of illegitiniiitc as well 
 as to those of legitimate birth. No statute has, however, 
 been passeil in Eni;land declaring incest to be a crime, so 
 that it is not indictable at present any more than formerly. 
 In the States of the Union incestuous nnirriages are gene- 
 rally pndiiliited by statute, anil the degrees of relationsliip 
 to wliieli the prohibition a)ii)lii s are. as a rule, specincally 
 declared. Connection by affinity is not usually marie a 
 cause of incapacity to marry. In New York, for instance, 
 marriages between ])arents and children, including grand- 
 parents and grandchildren, and between brothers and sis- 
 ters of the half as well as of tlic whole hlooil, are incest- 
 uous and voiil. This provision applies to illegilimato as 
 well as to legitimate ehihiren. Incct-t is also declared lo 
 be a crime by some of the Slates. In New York it is made 
 a felony, anil is pnnisliable by inij>risonment in a State 
 prison for a term not exceeding ton years. 
 
 (^i:or(m; Ciiask. Ri:visr:n dv T. W. DwiniiT. 
 
 Inch'bnid i Ki.i/. uu-.tii Simi'Son), h. Oct. If), 17:»3. at 
 Stannin'^lii'ld. Suffolkshire, Englaml; nmrricd in KT2 the 
 actor In<dibald, and went upon the stage the fame year; 
 acted in London and other English cities with considerable 
 success, luit retired from thr stngn in 17S1), and devoted 
 herself to literary pursuits. She translated a great number 
 of drannis fnon the French and German, and publi>hed 
 Thf /tritinh Thrittrr, a collection of dramas in 2o vols. 
 (LSOft-OK). The Modrrn Thfttlrc, a e.dlection in 10 vols. 
 (If^O!)), and a colli-elion of FnrvrH in 7 vols. Her greatest 
 success, howevf'r, was her romaiieo in l vols., .1 Si'mjifr 
 S'ort/. published in 17U1, and translated into several of tlie 
 Eur>>|M-iin lnngiiiit;es. I), in London Aug. I, lS'2l. 
 
 Inclined Plane, in mechanics (witli the wheel and
 
 1132 
 
 IN CCENA DOMINI— INDEPENDENCE OF STATES. 
 
 ftxie, the pulley, the screw, the wedge, and the lever), one 
 of the so-called "mechanical powers" or *' simple ma- 
 cliincs." by which a small force, nctinj^ throiiph a great 
 Icni^th of path, is made to overcome a greater force through 
 a short length of path, tho intensity of the rniallcr force re- 
 quired to the greater being inversely as the leni;tii r.f path 
 through which each acts. Thus, a heavy gun islit(ed through 
 a vertical height of say 10 feet (gravity or the weight of the 
 gun acting vertically), and its path being thus estimated by 
 a tractive force of ^th the weight of the gun acting along an 
 inclined plane (or romp) Kill feet long from foot to summit. 
 ■An inclined plane in general is an artificially-made nunp 
 or surface inclined at a small angle to the horizon. (For 
 inclined planes for railroads sec RAii.noAns; for canals, 
 SCO b;cr-iNKi> Tlanes for Canals, in Aitendix.) 
 
 In Cw'na Do'mini [Lat. for " at the Lord's Supper ;" 
 its first words as at one time written, it having after 1027 
 been read annually for many years on Ilnly Thursday, the 
 anniversary of tho first eucharistic feast], a famous bull 
 against heretics, schismatics, sacrilegious persons, pirates, 
 forgers, and others. This bull is of very ancient and un- 
 certain date. Opposed by several governments of Europe 
 ns an infringement upon royal privileges, thi? bull was de- 
 clared void in lylO by the Council of Tours; but it still was 
 annually read at Rome, though often modified in form, 
 until 1770, when its annual promulgation ceased, another 
 and more modest document taking its place. Easter Mon- 
 day was finally appointed for its annual promulgation. 
 
 In'come-Tax, a form of direct tax based upon the ac- 
 tual annual income of individual citizens. Theoretically, 
 it is the most equitable of all taxes, according most fully 
 with the generally accepted maxim of Adam Smith, that 
 "the subjects of every state ought to contribute to the sup- 
 port of the government as nearly as possible in proportion 
 to their res]>octive abilities; that is, in proportion to the 
 revenues which they respectively enjoy under the protec- 
 tion of the state.** It would seem fairest that a small per- 
 centage should be levied on all incomes. Cut most advo- 
 cates of this tax insist that incomes beluw a certain amount 
 should go altogether uutaxed, and that tho percentage 
 should be increased on the larger incomes. Usage has 
 adopted those two features. The chief objection to an in- 
 come-tax is the difficulty, almost impossibility, of ascer- 
 taining men's real incomes; partly because many keep no 
 accurate accounts, and partly bccnuse few, comparatively, 
 will make truthful report of their incomes, and the inquis- 
 itorial nature of the tax is offensive. Hence the honest 
 and conscientious bear the most of this burden. 
 
 In Great liritain an iu'-oiue-tax was first levied in 1798, 
 but it was abandoned soon after the close of the Xapoleouic 
 wars. Tt was again instituted in IS 12, and has been con- 
 tinued froui that time to the present (1S75), not without 
 mucli murmuring on the part of the people. Incomes 
 under £100 are exempt, and a lower percentage is levied 
 on those between £100 and £1.»0. It is estimated that 
 nearly one-sixth of the annual revenue of the kingclom is 
 derived from this source. In the l'. S. the national gov- 
 ernment collected an income-tax for ten years, from ISO;! 
 to 1872. The first law exempted $000, and levied 5 per 
 cent, on all incomes above that sum to ?jOOO, 7 per cent. 
 on all from $5000 to $10,000, and 10 per cent, on all above 
 $H>,O00. Whatever was ]>aid for rent or repairs was de- 
 ducted. Subsequent legislation increased the amount ex- 
 empted—first, to $1000. and later to $2000. The largest 
 amount raised in any one year from personal incomes wa3 
 in 1SG«— about $Gl,6u(l,Oo6, fnim 460.170 persons asscssc-l. 
 Actual experience under the law tended to relieve difficul- 
 ties an<l objections. When most efficiently carried out, con- 
 cealment and dishonesty wore certainly not greater under 
 this form of tax than under auy other form affecting per- 
 sonal property. A. L. Chaims. 
 
 Incoinmensurables* See Couuensurables, by F. A. 
 1*. Barn \in>. 
 
 Incorporeal lie reditaincnts. See IlEnEDiTAMEMs 
 iNconiuittAi., by I'ltoK. T. W. DwuJiiT, liL.D. 
 
 Iiiciibation. See IIatciiisg. 
 
 Incuin'brance, or Encumbrance, a burden, im- 
 pediment, a hindrance: in law, a legal claim on an estate, 
 for the discharge of which the estate is liable. The term 
 is a general name for liabilities by which an estate in lands 
 and hereditaments may be burdened, such as mortgages 
 and annuities. 
 
 Incunab'ula, the name given by bibliographers to 
 Iwoks printed betore IJtlO. and important not only for the 
 history of printing, but also in artistic and scientific re- 
 spects. The name is derived from the Latin rNCti;i<i6i(/M, a 
 '•cradle," hence generally "beginning." 
 
 Indenture. See Deed, by Pkof. T. W, Dwionr, 
 LL.D. 
 
 Independence, The, of the U. S. of America. 
 
 See Deilahatio.n of Isdei'Endence. 
 
 Indcpen'dence, county in thcN. E, of Arkansas, trav- 
 ersed by the navigable White Kivcr. .-Vrea. 1010 square 
 miles. It is iiilly and very f'^rtile, producing grain, to- 
 bacco, cotton, wool, cattle, ana hay. The county is well 
 timbered, and contains lead and other valuable minerals. 
 Cap. Batcsville. Pop. 14,.>;'.G. 
 
 Independence, tp. of Autaga co., Ala. Pop. Ii:;7. 
 
 Independence, tp. of Marion co., Ark. Pop. 220. 
 
 Independence, tp. of Pliillips co., Ark, Pop. 63S. 
 
 Independence, tp. of Pope co.. Ark. Pop. 210. 
 
 Independence, post-v., cap. of Inyo co.. Cab, 275 
 miles N. of Los Angeles, in the fertile Owens Valley, and 
 in a region abounding in gold, silver, and lead ores, both 
 quartz and galena. It is ;jj miles Is. E. of Mt. Whitney, 
 believed to be the highest mountain in the V. S. Its court- 
 house, destroyed by an earthquake in 1872, has been rebuilt 
 in fine style. It has a weekly newspaper and important 
 business interests. Pop. of tp. 400. 
 
 CUALFANT it PaIIKEU. PlBS. " InVO iNDEPEXnENT." 
 
 Independence, tp. of Saline co., III. Pop. G-IS. 
 Independence, a v. of Madison co., Ind., in Boono 
 
 tp. Poj). 40. 
 
 Independence, post-v. of Warren tp., Warren co., 
 Ind., on the W. t'ork of White River and on the Toledo 
 Wabash and Western U. K. Pop. 183. 
 
 Independence, tp. of Appanoose co., la. Pop.loriO. 
 
 Independence, city, cap. of Buchanan eo., la., on tho 
 river Wapsipinicon, and on the Illinois Central and the Bur- 
 lington Cedar Rapids and Minnesota R. Rs.. 65 miles AV. of 
 Dubuque. Its school buildings cost $75,000 ; it has 2 banks, 
 
 2 newspapers, 1* churches, apubUc library, :» fire companies, 
 
 3 parks, spacious fair-grounds, and very fine mills. It is 
 a very handsome town, and is the scat of a State insane 
 asylum, of which the buildings cost nearly $1,000,000. It is 
 in a rich agricultural region. Pop. 2945. 
 
 W. BaHMIAUT, Ed. " iNDnPFXDESCE CONSEUVATIVE." 
 
 Independence, tp. of Jasper co., la. Pop. 8:14. 
 
 Independence, post-v., cap. of Montgomery co.. Kan., 
 on a liranch of the Leavenworth Lawrence and tialvcston 
 R. R., Ili4 miles by rail 8. by W, of Lawrence, and on tho 
 river Verdigris. It was founded in 1870, has 5 churches, 3 
 banks, 3 weekly newspapers, a fine school-building, and is 
 an important business centre. Pop. 4.35 ; of tp. 131)4 ; much 
 increased since the census. W. T. YoE, Ed. ** Tribfxe." 
 
 Independence, post-v. of Kenton co., Ky., on the 
 Louisville and Cincinnati U. R. Pop. 134. 
 
 Indci)endcnce, tp. of Oakland co., Mich. Pop. 1586. 
 
 Independence, tj>. of Henncpiu co-.^Iinn. Pop. 502. 
 
 Independence, tp. of Dunklin co., Mo. Pop. 747. 
 
 Independence, city. can. of Jackson co.. Mo., 10 miles 
 E. of Kansas City, with which it is connected by a narrow- 
 gauge railroad. It is 3 miles from the Missouri River; is 
 the seat of 2 colleges and other important public and pri- 
 vate schools; is a well-built town: has 2 banks and 2 
 weekly newspapers. It has a historical fame as being for 
 many years the head-quarters of the overland routes to 
 Oregon, California, New Mexico, etc. Founded 1S27. Pop. 
 3184. J. N. SOLTHEKN, Ed. **Se.ntisel." 
 
 Independence, tp. of Macon co., Mo. Pop. 1120. 
 
 Independence, tp. of Nodaway co.. Mo. Pop. 670. 
 
 Independence, tp. of Schuyler co., Mo. Pop. 1 115. 
 
 Independence, tp. of Warren co., N. J. Pop. 1766. 
 
 Independence, tp. and post-v. of .\llegany co., N. Y. 
 It has considerable manufacturing interests. Po]). 1175. 
 
 Independence, tp. and post-v. of Cuyahoga co., 0., 4 
 miles from Clevclaud. Pop. 1701. 
 
 Independence, tp. of Washington co., 0. Pop. 1395. 
 
 Independence, tp. of Beaver co.. Pa. Pop, 728. 
 
 Independence, tp. and post-v. of Washington co., 
 Pa., 7 miles from Wellsburg, W. Va, Pop. of v. 144; of 
 tp. 077. 
 
 Independence, post-v. of Washington co., Tex., 25 
 miles from Hempstead on the Houston and Texas Central 
 11. R., 12 miles from Brenham on the Austin branch of 
 that line, and situated near the Yegua River. It is the 
 seat of Baylor I'niversity and Baylor Female College, be- 
 longing to the Baptists, the university containing a library 
 of 2700 volumes. It has public schools and 3 churches. 
 
 Independence, post-v., cap. of Grayson co., Va. 
 
 Independence of States. States are said, in polit- 
 ical science, and especially in international law. to be in- 
 dependent when they are self-governing as far us internal
 
 ^^^ii^^pi^^^^^E PLANTATION-INDEPENDENTS^ 
 
 1133 
 
 relations are concerned, and can perform towards other 1 
 states all inlcrn,itional nets. The term, denol.n^' the ne- 
 gaUonuf control, is the negative side of s„v,.rc,,„.y «_l.cn 
 fl?at term is tnk-,. in its strict sense. Thus, no Mute of the 
 U S isinJopcMdeut. because the separate .■stales are not 
 ttbsuiutelv so fKovorninir. and because they have properlj 
 :„7nu'rn^.ional character, while the qua „y belongs to the 
 V. S. as reallv as to any simple torm ol "■<"""■;>'>•. But 
 the „„rddoes-not imply the power of absolutely tree action 
 be!-a«se treaty, temporary or V'^V't-'^'' :^%''^ZlZ- 
 such free action. 
 
 Independence Plantation, a settlemeut in I'enob- j 
 soot CO., Me. IV'p. l'"^''- 
 
 Indenen'dents. I. A politico-religious party in the 
 tin "of the"o„M".nwealth of Kngland The conthct wh.ch , 
 became a civil war in tho reigu of Charles I was. po f- 
 callv a conflict between a king wh., thought himself a , 
 so erei-n bv divine right with absolute power, and a peo- | 
 «^ deU-rmined to mamtain the.r inherited liberty and to 
 Ca d with new securities. But tho poltical questions 
 ^f the time were intimately blended with religious and ec- 
 clesmstieal questions, which had been agitated lor a luu- 
 dred years. The English Reformation, il we regard . as 
 pocee^iing from the people, was characterized by a violen 
 kniipathv against the ecclesiastical system of the Middle 
 r.el, and therefore against all compromises with what was, 
 in" the view of the Reformers, a mischievous superstition. 
 Re-arded as proceeding from the government, it was mainly 
 l„7"l empt to make Knghmd independent ol n.n.<,hycon- 
 ?er ing upon the sovereign the ecclesiastical jimsdiction 
 wh -h had belonged to tho p.ipe. Consequently there 
 aro.e a conflict between tho ideal reformation, expected but 
 "„t vet attained, and the government nforma ion, abhoi- 
 rc, t of radicalism and disposed to retain whatever of the 
 an ent svslein was not incompatible with the supremacy 
 o? the Crown in ecclesiastical affairs. As tlio confl.c pro- 
 ceeded the I'uritan or reforming party became almost 
 identical with tho political party opposed to absolu ism in 
 he state ; and. on the other hand, the court party, devoted 
 „ tl o king, became the conservative I'^rty in the Church. 
 At he be^nningof the Long Parliament (lOiO) the par y 
 of law and liberty in the slate, and of reformation iii he 
 Churrb%ad no dennite plan for tho reconstruction of tho 
 eccnastical establishm'.nt, an,l all who were opposed to 
 Uiat establishment as then organized and administered 
 c 1 d act together. Hut when tho conllicl had become a 
 war between the king and tho Parliament and especially 
 I er "the Solemn League and ^^1"'']'^, nrZ' I i 
 Puritanism of England and that of Scotland (1G4J) had 
 b ,X a powerful Scottish influence into the southern 
 k ngdom, diversities of opinion as to the f"'"™ »";■•" " 
 of tlie Church of England began to bo '"M-'r '"'t '" lie 
 relation to public affairs. It was assume, t liat tl'c d irol 
 reformation of the national Church was to bo efrected by 
 the authority of the nation, as in the preeeding century 
 the reforinaiiou under Henry VIH. and Edward V ..a id 
 af.erwards under Elizabeth, had been eftected. Accordingly, 
 the Parliament had convened, not "/"'P'-"^^"'"^';"^"';'' 
 „r convocation that might as.nimo to bo the t ''".';f f""l " 
 .et up an aulhority co-ordinate or in conflict "'" '" ^'V, 
 thori y of the state, but only an •' Assembly ot Duines, 
 who were to consider such matters only as might bo refer ed 
 to them bv the Parliam.-nt, and to give advieo which he 
 Pa liamenl might accept or reject J he nienibers of t he 
 Assemblv were selecte.l with the evident design that all Prot- 
 fstat diversities of opinion con.-erning the eonsti..ition 
 a oriler of the Church should be fairly expressed and 
 considered. Such diversities of opinion developed parties 
 both in tho Assembly of Divines and m tho Parliamen . 
 .q.rne had for their ideal a r.:due"d episcopacy, will, a 1,1- 
 nriy expurgated in the inlce.t ollhorough 1 rolesta iitisni. 
 Others, formidable in number and in zeal, desired to see 
 tho national Church governed by presbvterial and synodi- 
 cal assemblies, alter the fashion of the llelormed or ( alvin- 
 ■ Stic churches on the Continent an.l in .Seo land. .S i 1 
 another party had heard of " the New Englaml way, and, 
 be", " in cor?espondenco with Puritan friends who had re- 
 moved to ^Llssaehusell3 and Connecticut, and were there 
 inslituting what thev deemed a more primitive system of 
 ..eelcsiastical order, they had learncl to recogni/.e no other 
 church government than that of vduntary churches self- 
 governed under Christ and mutually indepe.ident, yet 
 bound to each other in relations of comity and niutual in- 
 tercourse. Those who preferred that - New Kngla,.,! way 
 to tho scheme of a reformed and purilied national Church 
 
 were known as /ii</>v"'"''''""- 
 
 In both Houses of the Long Parliament there were some 
 eminent men who. while heartily agreeing with "-e niajor- 
 i,V in the subversion of tho eeclesiaslical system which md 
 been established in the reign of Elizabeth, were not willing 
 
 to establish in its place a presbyterian ^""P''"'^'''^'',' '"] 
 of Scotland. Among the peers. Lord Say and Seal, Lord 
 lirooke. and a few others were in full sympathy on relig- 
 ous grounds, with the " dissenting brethren." or Independ- 
 ents who were a small but able and persistent minority 
 in tl e Assemblv of Divines. In the House of Commons a 
 few men of eniinent ability had aceeptcl, with religious 
 faith, the New England church polity as better han any 
 reformed episcopate or any presbytcrial and synodical gov- 
 ernment. One of them was Sir Henry Vane, the younger 
 who ha.l lived a year or two in New England, where he h.wl 
 made his entrance into public life as governor of Massa- 
 ehusetts Another was Nathaniel Fiennes. who was a son 
 of Viscount Say and Seal, and a trusted lea.ler. and was 
 associated with his father in the Committee of bafe ty the 
 executive council through wliieb Parlianient governed Eng- 
 Hnd while in conflict with the king. Another was iver 
 Ciomwell, who was the kinsman and close friend ol .lohn 
 Ilamp.len, and had already succeeded to a large share of 
 ' that llnstrious patriot's influence in the House, lo these 
 i may added tlie name of Oliver St. John one of the nios 
 ' emfnent lawvers of England, who had been counsel lor 
 jZ Ian pden in the ship-money case, who was atlerwards 
 so Ic tor- Jneral, and who was no less a st.atesman thiin a 
 awver In the strictly ecclesiastical use of the name, the 
 Spendents,difl-eriug from the Presbyterians not on doc- 
 t"inaH oints,but only on church government, were a small 
 thoiul able minority in the nation, as well as m the As- 
 em.lv of Divines and in the Parliament. Their deman, 
 wTs not that their ecclesiastical system s liou d he establ.sl ed 
 bv law and all others suppressed, but only that the chnrche 
 wh ch thev were eonstiti.ting by voluntary agreement inight 
 bo to crated. Politically, however, the Independen s be- 
 came a numerous and powerful party. The Bap ists (or 
 :rthev were then opptobriously ^al'-l, ' - .A->"P<-^ 
 were Independents, religiously as well as politicallj . All 
 he swarmin- "sectaries" in that age ol excitement the 
 "secT and schisms" which so terrified those who had set 
 their hearts on national nniformity. were eoun cd with the 
 sue party, and the army was full of them. In the prog- 
 c o inqilirv and controversy about ecclesiastical reei- 
 s ruction the scheme preferred by the mnjonty of the 1 uil- 
 an clergy was not, on the whole, gaining favor in Parlia- 
 nent An increasing number of e„l ghtened men wero 
 determined that the Presbyterian discipline, enlorcing by 
 ehur™ cmirts its strict morality and its rigid dogmatism, 
 8 on not, wilh their consent, be established in England 
 a a sv"te n to vliieh all Englishmen must be by law suh- 
 ecred- Mostof tho laymen in the Assembly of Dtvincs- 
 fmong whom tho lawyers Sel.len and Whiteloeke were con- 
 s^ ous-seem to have favored the opinion that there ought 
 to be no distinction between ecclesiastical govcn.nien and 
 civil that participation in Christian sacramen s should be 
 "he r'i'ht of ever' citizen, and that there should be no ex- 
 co nmunicatiou or church censure but by the -S- •-'«• 
 These men were called Erastians ; and two ol tl e clergy- 
 men in the Assembly-.he two, ^f ''""'-'; ','';-"'J^: 
 were in some respects the most learned-held the same 
 heory The learning and ability of the Erastians. as well 
 as iK- veal ami enthuriasm of the •' sectaries." went to , n - 
 crea e the strength of the In.lependents as a poll ical party 
 rthe Parliament and in the nation. /^ ha had bee,, he 
 „reat I'uritan party, intent on the relormation of the im- 
 f^U'Zurch Ll -the vindication of KngHs h il^r.y was 
 ,iivi,i,.,l and br.dicn up. On one side were tho 1 lesbyte- 
 iai as al 1 o nliiformity of doctrine and disciplino 
 ; 1 ; nat onal Chmeh as (Jucen Eli.abi.h and her prelates 
 Ta,! ever been for unilormitv of ritual, and as abhorrent of 
 es. Are bishop Laud himself ha,l been. On the other 
 side were the In.lependents, inelu.ling all those who hoiight 
 or felt thi n„ e-clesiastieal government of E.iglan, by 
 pres vteries ami svnods might b,. as irksom.. as hat whi.'h 
 [lad been so l„telv-abolished. The division had been f,..m 
 he first inevitable, for it was the result ot pri„ei|.l,s hat 
 could m.tereeon;ile,l. an.l that c.uld n.d but come into 
 CO f^ c ov r anv definite pr.q.osal for eccles,ast,c,.l recon- 
 sm t m. Puritanism, looking to S.-.., an.l and relying ■« 
 Hi. ••S.demn League and Covenant," ha.l becnie Presby- 
 te ian s, ,. an.l, the king ami his party being va„.,u,she. , 
 Tf .1 a n.^w antagonist in the parly of the In.lepen.le its. 
 V .,, the cnln.lof afl-airs in the name ,d the Parlia- 
 ment i. passe,! from the Presbyterians lo the Indepen.l- 
 Tt" ek "g.whoha.l been for s..nie ,„ne a prison... and 
 who in his neg.,tia.b,ns with all parties I.a.l shown 
 loo faithless t.i be trust.'d. was brought lo trial b. tore a 
 e inn ission .■onstitute.l f..r the purpose, was con. eniiied to 
 3: ami »as beheade.l (.Ian. ■.'». IfilO). Eor tha runs^ 
 „rli.,nll.e In.lependents as a party were responsibh. In 
 ennneetion with it. and as preliminary to the ordinance 
 wle I onstitute.l the cmniilsion. th,. House of Comnioiis 
 "len reduce.! t.. a s.uall remnant of ,1s original number,
 
 1134 
 
 INDETERMINATE. 
 
 matlc a formal declaration that tlic people, under Go<l. arc ] 
 the nriginal of all just power; that the I'oninions House I 
 in Parliament, bein.i; ehoscn by and representing the peo- 
 ple, have the supreme power; and that whatever is by them j 
 enacted has the ibree of law, tliou-;!! tlie eonsent of kinj^ j 
 ancl pet-rs he not added to it. A few days alter the death j 
 of Charli'S I. (Feb. fi) it was voted in the same assembly i 
 thiit tlie House of Peers in Parliament is useless, danger- I 
 ous. and ouj^ht to be ab()lished. Tlie next day it was voted 
 that the office of a kinj; in the English nation, and to have 
 tlio power in a sin^^Ie |jerson, is unneecssary, burdensome, 
 anil dangerous to the liberty, safety, and pul)lic interest of 
 the people. A council of state, to be annunlly appointed, 
 was invested witii the executive power. Of that body, five | 
 were peers (for though tlio House of Lords had been abol- i 
 ished, such of the peers as had not adhered to the king in ' 
 his wjir against the Parliament were permitted to retain ] 
 Ihcir estates and their titles of honor) ; two were sons of 
 peers; five were baronets; two were keepers of the seal; 
 three were the chief judges respectively of the three great 
 courts of law ; three were eminent military commanders in 
 the service of the Parliament; five were knights, and the 
 remaining seventeen, untitled, were, all save one. members 
 of t)io body that appointed them. John Bradshaw, who 
 hnil presided in the trial of the king, was chosen president 
 of tlio council, and his kinsman, John Milton, was its 
 Latin secretary, for it had determined that its corrcsponcl- 
 ence with foreign governments should be only in the lan- 
 guage which was common to Christendom, 
 
 The attempt of the Imlependents to convert England 
 into a republic failed, os similar iittcmpts have failed in 
 other countries. It was the attempt of a republican mi- 
 nority against the will of the anti-republican majority. Of 
 the three parties into which the English nation was at that 
 time divided, the Independents, though strong in the abil- 
 ity and enthusinsm of their leaders and in their control of 
 a veteran and victorious army, were numerically the weak- 
 est. The most numerous party, when the residuary Par- 
 liament decreed the abolition of monarchy, was the Pres- 
 byterian, animated with zeal for a national Church and for 
 religious uniformity, hut abhorrent of that religious liberty 
 which the republic was to establish, and which to the aver- 
 age Englishman of that age seemed almost identical with 
 irreligion. But only less numerous was the party which, 
 having adhered to the king, retained its sympathy with the 
 lost cause, and which favored an episcopal rather than a 
 prosbyterial government over the national (^hurch. and the 
 beauty of a venerable liturgy rather than the fervor of ex- 
 temporaneous jirayers in the worshipping assembly. These 
 two parties together were in truth the body of the English 
 people; and as they were agreed in desiring a national 
 Churcli, together with the old government by king, lords, 
 and commons, they were also agreed in hating and fearing 
 the victorious Independents. In a (rue republic the ma- j 
 jority must rule, but the founders of "the Commonwealth j 
 of England '* attempted to establish a republican govern- t 
 ment over an anti-republican people. Conscious of being 1 
 sustained by only a small minority, the Parliament, a mere j 
 residuum of the great body which met in 1040, dared not i 
 ajipeal to the people by dissolving itself and calling for a \ 
 new election. All the ability with which it governed I 
 through its council of state enuld not win for it the conti- | 
 dcnce of the nation. It aimed at the establishment of lib- | 
 crty and justice, but by the great majority of Englishmen I 
 it was felt to be a usurpation supported hy military power. 
 
 In the fif'h year of the Commonwealth the republican ' 
 Parliament, derisively called "the Ilum[i." was working at | 
 a hill for its own dissolution, and wsis endeavoring to pro- j 
 vide such arrangements for the election of its successor as I 
 would secure the ascendency of its own ]>arty, when it was I 
 dissolved and dispersed (lt)5;i) by the military power which j 
 had made it what it was. Then followed the Protectorate I 
 of Oliveii Cuomwkm. (which see), who attempted in an- | 
 other way what the statesmen of the Uump were nnaiile to ! 
 do. H? was in fact a " king by the grace of (lod," though 
 without the crown or the name of king; and had his reign ' 
 been prolonged, the vigor and sjdcndor of his government 
 might have reconciled (he English people to that principle 
 of government which first made the Indepemlents a politi- 
 cal party: which was so abhorred by the Presbyterians i 
 that to escape from it they aided in the restoration of 
 Charles II.; which was only imperfectly recognized in the 
 *' Act of Toleration" (lOSil): nnd which is now triumphantly 
 marching toward the disestablishntent of the' national 
 Church in England — the principle of religious toleration. 
 On that principle the Independents were united, though it 
 is not to bo supposed that all of them — perhaps not that 
 any of them — saw clearly the reach, or consented to all the 
 legitimate applications, of the principle. (Sec the histories 
 of England, especially Godwin's Vuuimnnirciltb of JCmj- 
 l.iinl. Lkonaud Bacon. 
 
 II. A religious body in England holding that every 
 stated congregation of Christian believers associated under 
 a voluntary agreement, formal or informal, for Christian 
 worship and for mutual watchfulness and helpfulness in 
 the Christian life, is a complete Church, invested with 
 every prerogative wbi<di Christ has conferred on any 
 Church, and dependent for the exercit^e of ecclesiastical 
 funtitions on no authority exterior to itself, whether secidar 
 or hierarchical. (See Conguhgationai.ism.) The most con- 
 siderable difierenee between Independency in England and 
 Congregationalism in the U. 8. is that in the former the 
 principle of the fellowship and mutual responsibility of 
 churches, though recognized, is not so fully developetl 
 and made practical as in the latter. The ecclesiastical his- 
 tory of England gives no dcfiuite trace of a Church consti- 
 tuted on the platform of Indopendeney earlier than 1507. 
 More than ten years later, Robert Browne, a clergyman of 
 the EstaVdished Church, began to jireaeh against all na- 
 tional churches, and to urge the duty of falling back upon 
 the original constitution of Christian socii-ties as deduced 
 by him from the \ew Testament. Compelled by persecu- 
 tion to take refuge in the Netherlamls. he printed there 
 (l.')S2), for circulation in England, two books, in which he 
 propounded his new idea and method of church reformation 
 — a method as unwelcome to the Puritans, who were work- 
 ing and suffering for a reformation by act of Parliament, 
 as it was to the bitterest enemies of Puritanism. His idea 
 was '' reformation without tarrying for any." or separation 
 from the national Church as an essentially anti-Christian 
 institution, and the formation of independent churches. It 
 was impossible to suppre-s the idea, for, notwithstanding 
 the prison and the gallows, the early "separatists" woulil 
 not attend the parish churches, would hold their con- 
 venticles, would propagate their revolutionary opinions, 
 and persecution cxacerliated their enthusiasm into fanati- 
 cism. They were called " Brownists." though Browne had 
 deserted them. They were also called *• Barrowists." from 
 Henry Barrowc, another of their champions, who was one 
 of their martyrs. At a later date ( in the time of the Long 
 Parliament) (hey began to be called Independents, and they 
 accepted the name. By that name their successors have 
 ordinarily been designated till the present century, though 
 now they prefer to call themselves Congregationalists. 
 
 The Independents or Congregationalists in Great Britain 
 and the British colonies are a numerous and enter])rising 
 body of Christians. They have more than .'JOOO cliurches, 
 and the number is constantly increasing. The Lontlon 
 Missionary .Society, though not exclusiv<ly theirs, is the 
 organization through which they conduct their foreign 
 missions. They have a home missionary society for their 
 work in England, and a colonial missionary society to aid 
 their churches in the colonies. Exehuleil till within a few 
 years past from the universities, they lia\e established col- 
 leges of their own for the classical and theological educa- 
 tion of their ministers: and their colleges in England are 
 now affiliated with the London I'niversity. Several jour- 
 nals, weekly and monthly, are ojnductcd in their interest, 
 and the lin'tix/i Qmn-f' ifi/ Jinitw may be regarded as rep- 
 resenting, unofficially, their principles. (.See .Skeats's //("«- 
 tortf of the Ficc Cfiitrc/irt> nf Eixjluml.) LkoNARD Bacon. 
 
 Independent Treasury, See TuEAsiftv op Unitfd 
 
 Statks. 
 
 Indcter'minate. A mathematical quantity is said to 
 ho imictermitKitf when it admits of an infinite number of 
 values. An etfuntntu is said to be iitf/rtmniwtte when the 
 unknown quantities that enter it admit of an infinite num- 
 ber of values. Thus, the equation of a straight lino 
 y = r(.r -f fc is indeterminate; for, if we give to x any value, 
 we can find from the equation a corresponding value of y 
 such that the assnmeil and deduced values will satisfy the 
 equation; that is, there are infinite sets of values of .r 
 and ;/ that will satisfy the given equation. In like manner, 
 it may be shown that any equation which contains moro 
 than one unknown quantity is indeterniinale : it is obvious 
 that any group of simultaneous equations is indeterminate 
 when the group contains fewer equations than there arc 
 unknown quantities; hence, the equations of lines and sur- 
 faces used in analytical geometry are indeterminate. For 
 this reason analytical geometry is often called indeter- 
 minate geometry. A pn,hlt m is saitl to lie tuihterminnte 
 when it admits <if an infinite number of solutions. A prob- 
 lem will be indeterminate when the number of independent 
 ermditions is less than the number of required parts, for in 
 that ease the numberof equations tliat express the imjiosed 
 conditions will he less than the number of unknown quan- 
 tities ; the equations of the problem will therefore be in- 
 ileterminate, and consequently the problem itself will bo 
 iniletenninate. Thus, the problem in which it is required 
 to find a point from which the tangents to two given circles 
 shall be equal is indeterminate; the solution of the prob- 
 lem shows that there arc an infinite numberof such points.
 
 INDETERMINATE ANALYSIS— INDEX, CONCORDANCE, ETC. 
 
 113.3 
 
 which, taken together, lunke up a straight line cnllod the I 
 radical axis of the two circles. W. 0. Pkck. 
 
 Indeterminate Analysis is that branch of annlysis | 
 wliich treats of the si>luti«<a nf inilt'tiTininale problems. I 
 In most practical cases the ;;iven conditions limit llie num- i 
 ber of solutions, without iifTrcting the mode of treatment, j 
 The method of treatinjif indeterminate problems will he 
 best illustrated by means of a problem of this ehararter. 
 
 Let it he required to find what year of the current Julian ' 
 period corresponds to 1S75 A. n.. that year beini; the eighth ; 
 of the current nol<tr cifcle, the fourteenth of the current 
 huinr ri^^l>\ and (he third of the current cyctr of int/ictioii. 
 The statement of this problem depends on the following 
 definitions: the Mftfaf tt/r(e is a ])eriod of 28 years: the ! 
 tini'ir ci/cir is a period of 19 years ; the ci/ric of {u<llrtion i 
 is a period of 15 years; tlio D'fnujHiitn period is a period 
 of 2S X 19, or 532 years, whose first year is the first year 
 of a solar and also of a lunar cycle ; and the JtdUtn period 
 is a period of 2S X 19 X 1''. or T'JSO years, whoso first year 
 is the first year of a solar cycle, of a lunar cycle, and also 
 of a cycle nf indiction. 
 
 Firnt. To fin<l the year of the current Dionysian period, 
 let X denote the number of complete solar cycles that have I 
 elapsed since the begiuuin;; of this period, and tf the nuiii- ■■ 
 her of complete lunar cycles that have elapsed ; from the | 
 conditions of the problem we have I 
 
 I9y -f.ll^2S^ + 8, or 19^V = 28j-_G. (1) 
 
 It is required to find the least entire values of .r and y that 
 will satisfy equation (1) ; dividing by 19, we have 
 
 in which tho last term must be a whole number; placing 
 this equal to t, wc have 
 
 9*~6 = 19f, orx = 2/ + -^*, (:J) 
 
 in which tho last terra must be a whole number; tho least 
 vubio of ( that will satisfy this condition is ',\ ; this value 
 of / in (o) gives a:= 7, and this in (2) gives i/ = 10 ; hen-jc, 
 the year 187j is tho 204th year of tho current Dionysian 
 period. 
 
 Srrondli/. To find tho year of tho current Julian period, 
 let II denote the number of complete Dionysian periods that 
 have elapsed since the beginning of the current Julian 
 period, and z tho number of complete cycles of indiction; 
 wo shall have, as before, 
 
 155 + 3=-532u + 20-t, ors = 35w + 13 + — -^ *j (4) 
 
 placing tho fractioaal term equal to «, wo bavo 
 
 7k -h 6 =s 15», or H = 2» + — — . (5) 
 
 The least entire value of « that will satisfy (6) is « = H, 
 which gives ii = 12 ands— liJU. Hence, the year IS".") is 
 the 053.Sth year of the current Julian ]!eriod. We also find 
 that since the beginning of this jieriod 2;j5 conipluto solar 
 cycles have elapsed, and 439 complete lunar cycles. 
 
 W. G. Pi:cK. 
 
 Indeterminate ('ocflicicnts. An idmtir'tl etfun- 
 fion is nil equation that is true for all values of tho unknown 
 quantity or quantities that enter it. In every such equa- 
 tion the unknown quantity or quantities are indeterminate, 
 and the cot^fficients of the different powers and combina- 
 tions of powers of these quantities aro called indrttriniinUc 
 citrjjifi'riitg. If an identical equation containing any num- 
 ber of unknown quantities is cleared of fractions, tho co- 
 enielents id' the like powers and eoinljinations of powers in 
 the t wo nii'tnbfrs are rcs]>ectively iH|ual to each other. This 
 is tfifi pn'iiri/ilr «)/ iti<lctrfmiiuitt'. c'trj/irit'iitH: it is much used 
 in developing ((uantities into series and in resolving frac- 
 tions into partial fractions. W. (J. Pkck. 
 
 In'dcv, Concordanoo^ Digest, Talile of Con* 
 tents. In bililidgraphy, an index is an ulplmhetical list 
 or table of tho principal suhjects, facts, words, or names 
 discussed, employed, or noticed in the work to which it is 
 appeinb'd, with references to tho chapter, page, or para- 
 graph in which they occur. Indexes are usually printed 
 at the end of the last (or sometimes of each separate) vol- 
 unn- of tho book. An index may be general or special, 
 comprising in the latter ease suhjoets, nnf {u<lr.r ; words, 
 vrrhiti iudrx ; or personal ur geographical names. Tho 
 title '* index " is also applied to independf^nt lists of books 
 — c, tf. the Iiifirj' fCr/tiirijafitriuit or ludrx Lihronim t*rtt- 
 hihitorum of (he Komish Church: or to catalogues of nuh- 
 jccta, as tho manuscript tables in some libraries, which 
 refer tho student to all the works in the library in which 
 a given subject is treated of. Indexes separately jtrinted 
 sometimes embrace the contents of more than on« work, as 
 AVuber's valuable index to J.(irimin's Dnifaihc O'rammattk 
 and to his (Jesrhichtc drr Dmtnchrn S/>raffif\ 
 
 A concordance is an alphabetical list of words occurring 
 in a particular work or collection of works. It diflfers from 
 a verbal index by being somewhat more full, as it usually 
 cites enough of tho passage whore the word occurs to show 
 its grammatical relations to the period. (See CoNcoitDANrK.) 
 To the list there given may br addetl Fliigel's ('otimrdnnre 
 to the K'ttrmi, II. II. Furness's Cimcordfiticr to t/ir /^triiiit 
 uf S/niknprure, and that of Piendergast to the J'oems of 
 Miltun (Madras, 1.S57). 
 
 A digest is an alphabetical table of subjects, differing 
 from a real index or index of subjects by being suftieiently 
 copious to give a sutuinary of the doctrines of the littok on 
 each topic referred \o. Tho word is most frequently ap- 
 plied to tabular abstracts of points judieinlly decided in 
 books of legal reports. Digests are often published sep- 
 arately, and comprise tho contents of voluminous series of 
 reports. 
 
 A table of contents is a list of the subjects or important 
 facts discussed in tho work or volume to which it helongs, 
 arranged in tho order in which Ihey oeeur in the text. It 
 is usually printed after the preface or introduction. It in 
 some degree serves the jmrpose of an index, but its general 
 use is rather to give a conspectus or comprehensive view 
 of the matter and method of the work than to aid the stu- 
 dent to find particular passa<;cs. Tahles of contents are 
 doubtless older th:in indexes with references to folios or 
 pages. The jircpaiation ttf an index is a work of too much 
 labor to bo ordinarily performed for a single copy. Tho 
 manuscript copies of any work would not usually corre- 
 spond in column or page, and therefore a prige-referenec 
 index prejiared for one cojiy would nttt serve for another, 
 while a table of contents, following the method of the hook, 
 would answer equally well for all, however dilfcrently jiagcd. 
 The most familiarly known ancient table of contents is that 
 which forms the first book of the Xtittmil //iston/ of Pliny 
 tho Elder. This tabic, as Pliny says in the dedlt-ation, he 
 prepared in order that "as any man is desirous to know 
 this or that, he may. seek and readily fincl in what ])laee to 
 meet with the same." IIo adds: "This learned I of Va- 
 lerius Soranus, one of our own Latin writers, who hath 
 done tho like before me." Pliny therefore intended this 
 tabic to serve tho purpose of an index, and as the catalogue 
 of precious stones in chapter x. book xxxvii. of tlie JVut- 
 nral I/ixtori/ shows that be was acquainted with the valuo 
 of an alphabetical arrangement, it is singular that he 
 should not have employed it in his tai)le, referring to books 
 instead of pages. M"e should infer from Pliny's language 
 that ho knew no other examjile of a table of contents than 
 that of Soranus. but Cicero, \'arro, f^eneca. and Quintilian 
 use the word index in a way which shows that something 
 like tabular summaries or digests of the matter of philo- 
 sophical and other writings existed in their times. Tho 
 LartntitiiiH of 14()j (the first book printed in It;ily with a 
 date) has a table of contents following the order of the 
 chapters, but it refers also to the folios on which the chap- 
 ters commence. These numeral references are pn'utrd, hut 
 tho numeration of the folios, as well as the headiiit^s of tho 
 chajiters, is manuscript. At the end rif the second volume 
 of the Latin Hible printed hy Pannartz at llomein 1171 isa 
 copious niphabetical list of Hebrew proper names occurring 
 in the Scriptures, with interpretations of tho etymological 
 meaning. The early editions of ancient classics tire verj 
 commonly provided with tables of contents and with reg- 
 isters of the signatures, hut alphabetical reference intlexes 
 wore hardly known until the practice of numbering tho 
 folios or pages became general. Tho tables of contents in 
 fifteenth-century editions often refer U* the folios by printed 
 numerals, but in books of that age the folios themselves 
 aro rarely numbered typographically, and Aldus Manutius 
 in one of his i)refaecs advises students to numher them by 
 hand. The Aii/nn GrlUun puhlisheil at the press of Aldus 
 after his death in I.'il.'i lias its folios numbereil, and is one 
 of the earliest examples of completeness in indexes. It is 
 jirovi^lecl with an iudrr corviit i/iirr nnfitfn f/Zf/nn, etc. in six- 
 teen folios, containing not only sulijeel.H, but single words, 
 arranged in nc'arly exact nlphahetii'iil order, and with 
 printed references to tho folios ; also with an uttrr imfcc, or 
 table of matters, ffiiir nd f/nninmit train Hi'vr tid utiim nrtnt 
 prrtiinnnt,\n fifteen folios, arranged under chapters in the 
 order in which the subjects occur, and with relVTcnees lo 
 tho number of the folios. These two (ahles precede tho 
 text. After the text follow a list of the titles of the chap- 
 ters in the same order as in the volume, in twenty-lhreo 
 folios, without references to (he numbered folios, and an- 
 other li^l, in twenty-eight folicis, <if the Ctreek quotations 
 emjiloyed by Aulus (Jellius, with Latin translations, and 
 with references l<i the nufiiatnrrn of the sheets. In this book, 
 then, we find nearly all the forms of imlex known to nnidern 
 bihliography. It is probable that verbal imlexi's— and, wo 
 may add, glossaries and dictionaries — ori^inate<| in tho 
 practice of making glosses or notes explanatory of particu-
 
 1136 
 
 INDEX-INDEX LIBRORUM PROHIBITORUM. 
 
 lar words on the margin of manuscripts. When a scholiast j 
 had thus annotated a vohimc it would be an easy step to 
 collect the notes into a table. An alphabetical arrangement 
 would naturally suggest itself as the most convenient, and 
 the collection of glosses would grow until it embraced all 
 the obscure or otherwise noticeable words employed by the 
 author, and finally answer the purpose not only of a glossary 
 or special dictionary of the vocabulary or stock of words 
 of the writer, but also of an index. 
 
 Verbal indexes and concordances are most useful, not to 
 say indispensable, aids in philology and criticism, and real 
 indcNCS are not less so in llie study of works of science, 
 and even of general literature, especially history. If such 
 works conformed strictly to philosophical method, real in- 
 dexes would be less needed, and tables of contents would 
 sufficieullv answer the general purpose of a guide to the 
 matter of'a volume. Uut. unfortunately, French writers 
 alone seem to possess the science of method, and English 
 as well as German literature is conspicuous for the want of 
 this excellence. Besides this, the encyclopffidic learning 
 of German (and in late years of English) scholars both 
 tempts and facilitates the accumulation of an immense 
 mass of subsidiary, illustrative, and documentary material 
 in their works which it is impossible so to arrange that 
 any perfection of method could conduct the student to it. 
 It is perhaps to a consciousness of the want of a power of 
 orderly arrangement that we owe the English habit of sup- 
 plying all books of serious scientific or philosophical pre- 
 tcnsio'ns with full indexes; and the absence of these con- 
 veniences is one of the greatest annoyances a foreigner 
 experiences in the study of the graver literature and science 
 of Germany. The German editions of classical authors, 
 on the other hand, are gener.ally furnished with complete 
 indexes, and we can hardly point to any more satisfactory 
 labor of this sort than the inv.iluable re.tl and nominal 
 word-lists in the fourth volume of Groskurd's German 
 translation of Strabo. By the force of a habit which seems 
 almost like a conspiracy among authors the books which 
 perhaps above all others require verbal indexes are almost 
 always without them. Wc refer to grammars, especially 
 of foreign languages, among which it would bo hard to find 
 one provided with such an index as the student needs as a 
 help iu the actual use of the tongue he is acquiring. Un- 
 doubtedly, the habit of desultory reading, which is en- 
 couraged' by copious indexes, is an evil, but in the present 
 enormous multiplication of works which claim the atten- 
 tion of the scholar it is a necessary evil. Life is not long 
 enough, nor is the action of eye and mind swift enough, to 
 put i"s iu complete possession of the literature of any im- 
 portant subject. The old rule, miiltiim iioii miilta, is no 
 longer practicable for men of the comprehensive scholar- 
 ship required by our ago: and those who aspire to the pos- 
 session of what is called "general knowledge" must con- 
 tent themselves with little more than gleanings from the 
 works of special inquirers. For such persons — and they 
 must always be the vast majority — indexes are an indis- 
 pensable guide to literature and science. Nor is it merely 
 dilettanti and persons in pursuit of general iutelligenco 
 aluue who need such helps. The most tenacious memory of 
 the most )ihilosophic scholar can retain but a relatively 
 small proporticm of what he reads, and for refreshiiig his 
 recollection, as well as for the use of his learning in his 
 own compositions — for wc all build more or less on the 
 labors of our predecessors— he needs indexes almost as 
 much as the mere amateur. Authors ought, as a gener.al 
 rule, to be required to furnish these facilities for the study 
 of their works. Public opinion can do something to en- 
 force the ]perl'ormance of this duty; and in all cases when 
 an index is worth making critics should always stigmatize 
 the want of it as not only a serious defect, but as a grave 
 literary offence. Of course in works of ephemeral litera- 
 ture the result would not bo worth the labor, but in books 
 which aspire to a sufficiently wide and permanent circula- 
 tion to need tlie protection of copyright it would be neither 
 unjust nor unwise to make good indexes a legal requisite 
 for securing a monopoly to authors or publishers. 
 
 Gkorge p. M.\rsh. 
 Index, tp. of Cass co., Mo. Pop. 795. 
 Iii'dex Libro'rum Prohibitc'rum. This title is 
 applied to official lists issued from time to time, under papal 
 authoritv. by the Congregation of the Index at Konic, 
 enumerating' books, single sheets, engravings, and other 
 printed matter the use or even possession of which is for- 
 bidden by the Church. The proscription of books deemed 
 hereticalin religion, treasonable or seditious iu politics, or 
 corrupt in morals, is a practice of very ancient date. Not 
 to speak of examples under heathen and modern civil gov- 
 ernments, wo find that as early as the fifth century the 
 works of Arius were denounced .and i>ul)licly burnt by the 
 authorities of the Church, and the writings of other here- 
 tics often met with the same fate at different periods in the 
 
 course of the Middle Ages. The right of prohibiting the 
 use of such books is a necessary incident of the general 
 authority claimed by the Romish Church over the con- 
 sciences of the faithful, and not only popes and councils, 
 but inferior spiritual directors and confessors, have exer- 
 cised it at all times as a regular part of the discipline of 
 the Catholic Church. These prohibitions were naturally 
 at first special, and it docs not appear that any general 
 list of condemned books was promulgated before the year 
 1540, when the emperor Charles V. published a list of for- 
 bidden works, which was followed in 1548 and 1550 by new 
 imperial edicts prohibiting to his subject? the use of all 
 books contained in a catalogue drawn up by his order by 
 the doctors of the Tniversity of Eouvain. Lists of books 
 condemned by the theological faculty of the University of 
 Paris were issued by royal authority in 1545 and 1551, and 
 similar catalogues appeared about the same time under the 
 sanction of the theologians of other great European schools 
 of learning. The first formal pontifical index is said to be 
 that issued in 155" by Paul IV., and this, as revised and 
 enlarged in conformity with certain canons of the Council 
 of Trent, by the Congregation of the Index established 
 and charged with the censorship of books by Pius IV., was 
 reissued under his authority in 15f)4. New and more com- 
 prehensive lists apjieared under Gregory XIII.. Sixtus V., 
 Clement VIII., and .Alexander VII.. and many more or 
 less modified editions, supplemented from year to year by 
 the Congregation, have been published since. In the ear- 
 liest indexes the prohibition of the works enumerated was 
 absolute, but Sixtus V. organized a board of censure for 
 the preparation of a list of books which might be used after 
 due expurgation ; and this seems to have been printed un- 
 der the title of liiclrx librornm Ej-piirgniiclonim, or Ej-jntr- 
 rjatorhm, but wo believe that the same Congregation now 
 exercises the functions of both condemnati<m and expur- 
 g.ation. The I'egiitn- Iiullcln prescribed by the Council of 
 Trent, together with additional rules by Clement VIII. and 
 Alexander VII., are contained in many editions of the /»- 
 tiex. They forbid all books condemned by popes or cecu- 
 menical councils before the year 1515; all the works of 
 • heresiarehs, as Luther. Zuinglius, C;ilvin, Friedenberg. 
 Schwenkfeld. ami h!i si'miYo, whatever may be their titles 
 or subjects; the writings of all other heretics on religious 
 topics; books of immoral tendency, except the works of 
 •ancient heathen authors, which are permitted propter eer- 
 monis ehr/iiJitiain et proprielntcm, though not to boys; and 
 books on the various arts of divination, auguries, omens, 
 sorcery, and magic. They also contain provisions author- 
 izing "the bishop and confessor to allow to learned and 
 pious men the use of modern translations of the Old Tes- 
 tament, not made by heretics, by way of illustration of the 
 Vulgate text, though not as authoritative, as well as for 
 the permission of various other classes of books and for 
 the censure and expurg.ation of literary works. In modern 
 editions of the Index some of the publications are noted as 
 prohibited absolutely, others until corrected or expurgated 
 bv new editions, erasure or obliteration of condemned pass- 
 ages, or substitution of cartons for the leaves containing 
 such passages. The Intlr^x and supplements down to 1754 
 embrace about 20.000 titles, including flying sheets and 
 engravings. Many of these are repetitions, but, on the 
 other hand, in hundreds of cases these titles include all the 
 works of voluminous authors, so that, upon the whole, the 
 condemned publications greatly exceed the number wc have 
 stated. The Inrlt-x is not designed for the common use of 
 lay believers, but rather for the guidance of confessors ; and 
 as the vast multiplication of printed books now renders a 
 universal censorship of the literature of the world impos- 
 sible, spiritual directors are often obliged to avail them- 
 selves of the more comprehensive clauses of the rules, some 
 of which admit consideralilo latitude of interpretation. In 
 the recent supplements to the Imlcx the condemnation is 
 gencr.ally confined to publications (for the most part by 
 professedly Catholic writers) conspicuous as dangerous at- 
 tacks upon the doctrines, discipline, prerogatives, or privi- 
 leges of the Church, and as at the same time likely to ac- 
 quire a wide popular circulation. 
 
 The earlier Indexes furnish some interesting contribu- 
 tions to literary history by fixing the date of the original 
 jmblication of "books condemned, and by giving titles of 
 works no copies of which are now known to exist. At the 
 same time they illustrate, by what they insert and what 
 they omit, the" fluctuations of religious tendency in the 
 Catholic Church itself; but the value of all this informa- 
 tion is diminished by the vagueness of the indications, 
 which are frequently so bald that wc cannot now identify 
 the book intended. In earlier centuries the prohibitions 
 of the Index controlled the intellectual culture of the Cath- 
 olic world, and they incidentally caused the destruction of 
 great numbers of works of more or less importance in eccle- 
 siastical literature. Confessors deny absolution to penitents
 
 INDIA. 
 
 ii;i7 
 
 who refiisa to deliver up books oxpresslr or impliedly for- 
 bidden, and these, when surrendered, arc Konenilly burnt 
 or HO iiiutiliited as to be illegible. This explains the rarity 
 of many old books formerly widely read; as an illustration 
 of which wo may refer to the treatise on the lUnrfitH of' the 
 Deith It/ Chrint, as;;ribed lo Aonio Paleario. of which only 
 two or three copies are known to survive, thnuj^h not less 
 than lO.OOU or JO.OOO were sold within a very few years 
 after its publication in lo43. In the present state of pub- 
 lic opiniun in many Catholic countries the condemnation 
 of a book by the IndfW discourages few from reading it, 
 hut, on the contrary, it often serves as a recommendation 
 which increases instead of diminishing its popularity and 
 circulation. Gkorgk 1*. iMaksii. 
 
 In'clia: Its GnonRApnv and Ethn'oi.ogy, and its Las- 
 
 OUACKS AND LiTKRATURE OTHKR THAN SANSKRIT. India, a 
 
 lar*je peninsula of Southern Asia, otherwise called "The 
 E.ist Indies," and "Hindustan.*' The meaning of these 
 terms has frequently been strangely misconceived. Ilin- 
 duslan does not mean " the land of blacks," but " the coun- 
 try (if llie river Indus — the fertilizer." The river's name, 
 Siinlhu, is derived from tlie root «^ft»f^, to *' flow," " irri- 
 gate," ** fertilize." The manner in which the letter « has 
 dropped out of its place, and the letter A substituted, in 
 ffiri'Iimtan, opens up a strange leaf in the earliest history 
 of India. The old Persians, speaking Zend (see Parsees), 
 many centuries before the Christian era, crossing over from 
 Persia to India, were met by the broad waters of one of 
 the most magnificent rivers in the world. They asked its 
 name, and were tolil it was the Siiidiiu, the "irrigator" or 
 the ''fertilizer." liut. very curious to say, they could not 
 pronounce ", nor is that letter to be found in their alphabet. 
 The Zend-speaking people thus called the river the /find. 
 Stan being the Persian for ** land," wo thus have " Hindu- 
 stan," "the land of the fertilizing river." But there was 
 still to ensue another strange change. The iJrccks with 
 Alexander crossed over to India, and also came to the river 
 and asked its name. I'pon being told that it was /find, they 
 naturally added the on, making IHnditH. But the Greek af- 
 phabet itself is deficient of a letter, and that is A. So InditR 
 remained for the name of the river, and India or the /ndic» 
 for that of the country. The fact is a very strange one, 
 therefore, that were it not for a people living in ancient 
 times close to the north-western frontier of India being 
 uniible to pronounce the letter /f, wc should now be talking 
 and writing of the river t'^indus and the country Sindia. 
 
 Geiiijyuphy. — The India of the present day extends from 
 Peshawur, a frontier town in the N. W. of the Peninsula 
 {:v:,'= 57' iV. lat.. 71° -tn° E. Ion.), to the banks of the Bur- 
 mese river Salwin in the E.. and from the long chain of the 
 Ilimfltayas in the N. to Cape Comorin in the S. (lat. N. S° 
 C, Ion. E. 77° ■iO'). It is divided commonly into two great 
 ilivisions, Hither and Further India — namely, that portion 
 to (ho W, and th;it portion to the E. of the Ganges. Hither 
 India — that is, India within (he (Janges, otherwise called 
 Hindustan — is that pfirtion which mn^t almost wholly mo- 
 nopolize our attention. The rest consists of the Indo-Chi- 
 nese peninsula and the islands of the Indian Archipelago; 
 and it is a pity — though it was perhaps unavoidable — that 
 the gf'ography of this portion of the British dominions in 
 the East should have been in any way mixerl up with that 
 of 80 distinct a country as Hindustan. Inclu<liMg Further 
 India, geographers inform us that the extent of Inriia from 
 W. to E. is about HJOU miles, antl that from X. to S. it falls 
 little short of 2000 miles. India ontuins about 1,000,000 
 square miles. Of British India tho entire population, 
 as returned by tho census of 1.S71-72. is about 2S:i. 000,000. 
 (See Imua: Historv.) Leaving asitio tho Aryan and Ko- 
 larian inhabitants of India, the jiopulation of the Dra- 
 vidian peoples has been minutely and accurately ascertained 
 by the father of the writer — the Bev. Dr. Caldwell, author 
 of the f\nnp'irtttirr fintmmitr nf thr l)ntvidittn I^'innnnnrH. 
 The list is esjie^ially interesting, as it gives a clue to Iho 
 relative numerical strength at the present time of the chief 
 section <if (he aboriginal Indian races to that of Hindus 
 (if later origin. The Tamil-speaking rommuiiitv numbers 
 1I,.^00,000; the T<'lugu. 1 .'...'jOO.OOO : Ciinares.'. 'n.L'aO.OOO ; 
 Malayalam. :t,7.»0.000 : Tulu, .'tOO.OOO ; Co-»rg. I .'.0,000 ; Tuda, 
 7.)2;*Kotn. 1112; Gond, l,!:^,.'."^ : Ku. 2(i7,y01 : Kajma- 
 hal, U.OS'J; and Oraon, 2fi:!.000. Thus tho toliil number 
 of persons speaking the Drnvidiiin diiileets is estimated at 
 l.'i,ritiO,o:J2. However, a subtraction must be nnnle in this 
 sum-total, as the Tamils arc an enterprising and migratory 
 pi'oplc, and many of them arc (o be found scattered over 
 I lie globe. Th" numerical strength of the ethnological , 
 family of Indian Kolar^ans is much smaller ctill than that 
 nf the I>ravidians. Tho Aryans arc everywhere in enor- 
 uHtus mnjority. 
 
 Bri(ish Hindustan is made up, first, of districts wholly 
 umler the sway of Britain; aecontlly, of a few scattered 
 ports and townships belonging to other European nations; 
 Vol. II.— 72 
 
 I thirdly, of protected states; and fourthly, of allied inde- 
 pendent states. The whole country is formally divided in(o 
 three presidencies — that of Bengal, capital Calcutta; thnt 
 of Madras, capital iMadras: that of Bombay, capital Bom- 
 bay. Bengal is umlor a lieutenant-governor, but his pow- 
 ers are limited, in that he has only control over that portion 
 of tho presidency which comprises Xorth and South Behar. 
 Orissa, Assam, and Bengal ])ropcr. The North-west Prov- 
 inces, capital Allahabad, arc also under a lieutenant-gov- 
 ernor. Tho Panjaub has also its lieutenant-governor. Oudo 
 is under a chief commissioner, as is also Mysore. Indore, 
 in Central India, is under an agency. The Central Prov- 
 inces are under commissioners. Kajputina is governed by 
 a political agent, t'ommissioners, political residents, and 
 high oflicials deputed by tlie governments of tho various 
 presidencies overlook the interests of Travancore, Cochin, 
 Poodoocottah. Baroda. Kolapore, Cutch, Vizianagram. Jey- 
 pur, the states of (iuzcrat and Kattiawar. etc. The follow- 
 ing are tho titles of the rulers of the twelve i)rincipal feud- 
 atory states in India: the nizam of Hyderabad, maharajah 
 scindiah of Gwalior, the paikwar of Barmla. niaharajah 
 of Jeypur. maharajah of Travancore, maharajah of Cash- 
 mcer. maharajah (d" .Toodjioor, the holkar. the begum of 
 Bhopal. maharajah r>f Pultiala. maharajah (d" Oodevpore, 
 and maharajah <)f Bhurtpon-. The island of (Jna. with a 
 small scrap of the adjoining mainland, belrjugs to the Por- 
 tuguese. The inhabitants do not exceed 4(10,000. The 
 French still possess five small settlements in India, and the 
 population of all of them put together docs not amount to 
 250,000 inhabitants. They are ( I ) Pondicherry, on the Co- 
 romandel or eastern coast; (2) Knrikal, close to Pondi- 
 cherry; (.3) Vanaon, in Orissa; (4) Chandanngore, in Ben- 
 gal; and (5) MahC', on the Malabar or western coast. Tho 
 physical characteristics of the Indian Peninsula arc remark- 
 ably striking and simple for so largo a tract of country. 
 Hin<tustan is especially remarkable for the height of its 
 mountains, the breadth of its plains, and the size of its 
 rivers. Whilst other countries, however, can show plains 
 of vaster extent and rivers of greater volume, the Hiniii- 
 layas stand suj>reme amongst the mountains of the world. 
 The highest peak in them (Mount Everest, in Nepaul) 
 reaches 31,0flt} feet; and the Himiilayan chain possesses 
 thirty-nine other peaks taller than Chimbornzo. the height 
 of which is reckoned to be 21.124 fret. The other principal 
 mountain-ranges in Hinduslan are the Viiidhyas. wliiL-h 
 extend through Behar and the North-west Provinces, along 
 the N. bank of the Xerbudda River, to Broach; the East- 
 ern and Western (Jhauts. which, running stuithward, meet 
 at the Neilgherry Hills in the Madras presidency, and then 
 continue their united course to Cape (_'omorin ; the Sulei- 
 man and Hala Mountains, on the N. W. frontier; the ."^at- 
 poora Hills; the Bajmahal Hills; and the Garrows, to tho 
 E. of Bengal. Most of these great ranges are called " hills " 
 in common Indian parlance. For instance, the Neilgherry 
 Hilh — not Mfuntainft — are spoken of, and yet one of these 
 *' hills" rises to the height of 8700 feet. The river-sy.'stcm 
 of Hindustan is very extensive and ramitied. The great 
 rivers are the Indus, tho Ganges, the Brahmaputra, tho 
 Xcrbudda, the Taptee. the Malianuddee. the (iodaveri. tho 
 Kistna. the Peniulr. the Pulilr. and the Cauvcry. The trib- 
 utary rivers of the first two of tiiesc are such large and im- 
 portant streams in themselves that mention must be made 
 of them. The tributaries of the Indus are the Cabool and 
 the five rivers which irrigate and give its name to the Pan- 
 jaub — namely, tlie .Theluiu, the Chinab, the Bavi, the Bias, 
 and the Suthj. The tributaries of the (ianges are, first 
 and foremost, tho Jumna; then no less than fifteen other 
 rivers, each of large size, and in the rainy seasons, or 
 " monsoon.*," of great volume. 
 
 The vast peninsula of India is crowded with cities of 
 great size, fertile plains irrigated and cultivated, deserts 
 such as that (d' Bajpuluna, and wild, inaccessible jungles. 
 Kcmghly speaking, in all hulia there is only one European 
 to .'ijOO natives, and tho standing wonder is, how Britain 
 can keep its footing in tho East. One explanation of this 
 is to be found in the fact that the Hindus are, as a nation, 
 tho most disunited on the ("ace <d' the globe. Not only are 
 they separatcrl amongst themselves by natural ethnological 
 distinctions, but by greater barriers of their own raising. 
 Their innumerable religious divisions, and especially their 
 countless eiist^' distinctions, prevent them from becoming a 
 united people capable <d" governing Ihemselves. If Britain 
 were to leave India to-morrow, the Peninsula eould only 
 find safety from utter anarehv. and especially from bloody 
 internecine wars between Mohammedan and Hindu, by 
 seeking the protection of souk' other civilized power. 
 
 A few brii'f particulars may In- further added ere passing 
 from this epitome of Indian gcnpraphy. The western 
 coast of the Peninsula, washed by (he Indian Ocean, is 
 called the Malabar const ; the eastern shore, washed by tho 
 Bay of Bengal, ii? called the Coroinandel coast. All kind^
 
 lliJS 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 of climate prevail in different localities in India, nccord- 
 in" to their different situation and elevation. The line ol 
 CT?ate^t boat is said to pass through the city of Madras. 
 The heat of certain district.", such as IJensal proper and 
 the southern parts of the Malabar coast, where there is a 
 heavy rainfall, and consequently a natural exuberance of 
 troiiical vegetation, is moist and enervating, and the cli- 
 mate often malarious; the climate, however, of many other 
 parts of India is dry and cNliilarating. Then, .again, as 
 the peninsula of India narrows southward, it becomes more 
 open to and affected by the sea-breezes, and its climate 
 cunscnuentlv becomes more equable. All through India, 
 in the hiU-r'anges, are delightful sites for stations, canton- 
 ments, and retreats, whore the climate is balmy ""'l t^'"- 
 peratc. Tennvson writes of " the sweet half-English ^eil- 
 Lherry air;" "and bis description is thoroughly true to 
 nature. In these hill-ranges— from the llim.'llayas and 
 mo-intains of Assam to the southernmost spurs ot tho 
 Ghauts, overlooking the triple line of the breakers of Cape 
 Clomorin— tea, cotTee, and cinchona cultivation is rapidly 
 extendini'. Evervwhere throughout India a network of 
 roads is being spread, and great attention is being paid to 
 the linino- of those with avenue trees, to protect wayfarers 
 as much as possible against the tropical sun. Canals and 
 railwavs, too, are opening up the country in every direction. 
 One can now travel by rail from Negapatam to Calcutta, 
 and shortly one will be able to pass from the roots of the 
 Himilavas, at Darjceling. to Tuticorin. in Tinnevelly, only 
 a few niiles from Cape Comorin. The government has 
 been takin" ui> public works of every kind, and in a short 
 time several of the great irrigation works now in progress 
 are expected to .alter the face of hirge tracts in India, where 
 water means wealth. Change is rapidly following change, 
 and we can only dimly guess what tho India of a few years 
 
 hence may be. „ ^ ,. . . . , <• 
 
 Ethnology.— The ethnology of India may he treated ot 
 under three heads— namely, tho Aryan, the Kolarian, and 
 the Dravidian. But befo.e we enter upon a critical ex- 
 amination of the existing races and languages of India, the 
 oucstion natur.ally arises. What do we know of the peop c 
 of Hindustan in the very earliest times ? It is a very little 
 indeed that wo do know, but that little is extremely intcr- 
 estinn-, as it carries us back— just as in tho case of Egyp- 
 tian Sntiquitios— to the extreme youth of the world. Long 
 before the Aryans came into India tho Peninsula appears 
 to have been peopled by aborigines, and in vfls, in al 
 prob.ability, even densely. But when did tho Aryans first 
 enter Hindustan? It is impossible to tell, and all wo 
 know is that there appears to have been a succession ot 
 \ryan invasions, and that the Aryans did not como over ^ 
 in 'one vast flood at once. In all probability they were , 
 pourincr in, little bv little, wave after wave, even while the 
 PvramTds were being built. Yet when they did arrive in 
 India they undoubtedly found there those two great classes 
 of aboriginal inhabitants which still survive in the Penin- | 
 «ul.a— namely, the Kolarians and the Dravidians. This is 
 capable of clear proof. But setting this niatter for a while 
 aside, let us turn to a still more ancient pliaso of the sub- 
 io.-t How did the Dravidians and Kolarians themselves 
 get 'into India? or were they really from the first ahorig- 
 ines ' Here we come to questions affecting a time not long 
 subsequent to the building of th^ Tower of Babel All 
 kinds of theories have been advanced, but some are at least 
 plausible, and appear to be borne out by evidence of eon- 
 'iderable weight It has, for instance, been clearly ascer- 
 tained that the Dravidian dialects are of the s.amc stock, 
 and intimately connected with the .«cythic etc.; whereas 
 the Kolarian "dialects are distinctly Indo-thuiese. It is 
 probable, then, that the Dravidian was introduced into 
 India from the N. W., and that the KoUinan entere,l from 
 tho N E. But if thov so entered, what did they find be- 
 fore them in the land? It has been suggested that the 
 Negrito element evidently observ.ahle in some of tlieir tribes 
 can only be explained by supposing that the Dravidians 
 and Kolarians, on entering India, found ins ailed there 
 already a black race, with thick lips, no beards, high cheek- 
 bones/and woolly hair, and that to some extent they be- 
 came commingled with them. In the case of the Kolarians 
 =ome Orientalists insist on this theory very strongly. In 
 them the distinct Mongolian typo of face is ajiparent, yet 
 frequently the Xegrito type appears just as prominently ; 
 indeed, many of them appear to be simply Africans with 
 almond-shaped eves. But. taken as a whole, the Negrito 
 theory is more ingenious than reliable. The Negrito type 
 of phVsique, if observable in Hindustan, must be a corrupt 
 one for it is eharactcriied by diminutiveness, and many 
 African races are strong and powerful of build. However, 
 the Ncrito facial angle, the flatness of the nose, the woolly 
 head, the absence of beard, etc. are quite strikingly ob- 
 servable in many of the Indian aboriginal tribes. Col. 
 Dalton remarks them in the Orions. The African temj.er- 
 
 < ament, too, is to some extent observable in many of the 
 least civiliied Indian races— love for music, light-hearted- 
 ness, impulsiveness, and the rest. When examining into 
 the ethnology of any country, six considerations should 
 prevail with'the student—namely, (1) physical and (2) 
 mental characteristics, (3) religions, (4) languages, (5) 
 laws, and (0) habits and customs. Whatever may have 
 been tho origin of the Kolarians and Dravidians, by each 
 one of the above six points we can see clearly that they arc 
 distinctly non-Aryan classes of the Indian people. Notwith- 
 standing the theories to which allusion has been made, the 
 Kolarians and Dravidians may. speaking generally, be 
 termed without hesitation Indian abcn-igines, and Aryans 
 the invaders and civilizers. We know nothing of the state 
 of India before the Aryan invasion. In every prob.ability 
 society was in the rudest and most patriarchal state. The 
 earliest word for " monarch " in Southern India is. 70a (i. c.a 
 " cowherd," or a man of the shepherd caste) : and this evi- 
 dently points to a time when the possession of cattle was 
 considered to confer a dignity which is now attained by the 
 possession of an illustrious ancestry and gold and cities and 
 fortresses and armies and fleets. The changes which fol- 
 lowed upon the Aryan invasions from the N. W. have left 
 clear traces behind them, and thus we can speak with some 
 certainty concerning this part of the subject. The invaders, 
 not only by their numbers but by their civiliz.ation, appear 
 to have driven the aborigines everywhere before them, 
 especially in a southward direction. Not so, however, 
 with thc"Kolarians, as a whole, was this exactly the case ; 
 the advancing Aryan tide seems rather to have gradually 
 surrounded them," cut them off and islanded them, so to 
 speak. This appears also to have been the case with 
 one or two Dravidian tribes, such as that of Kajmahal. 
 Yet one more point must bo noticed. Not only did the 
 Aryans push the aborigines southward, hut to a con- 
 sid'erable extent followed with them and intermingled 
 with them. At a very early age Cape Comorin was as 
 well known to Brahmins as to the aboriginal Shauars 
 of Tinnevelly and Travancorc. Let us now take up the 
 threefold division of this part of our subject, first speak- 
 ing of tho languages and literature of the Kolarians (as this 
 may be dismissed very briefly); then, secondly, of tho 
 Prakrits of Northern India and the peoples speaking them ; 
 and then, thirdly, of the languages and literature of South- 
 ern India. , , , , 
 
 I. The Kolarians.— VndQV this general head may be 
 classed the Coours of Elliehpoor: the Korewahs of Sirgoo- 
 iah and Juspove: the Moondahs of Chutia Nagpur, also 
 the Keriahs of that district ; the Hos of Pingbhoora ; the 
 Bhoomij of Manbhoom and Dulbhoom ; the Nakales, the 
 Kodas; the Sonthals of Manbhoom, Singbhoom. Cuttack, 
 the tributary Mcbals, Ilazrrebagh, and the Sonthal Per- 
 gunnahs: th'e .Tuangs or Puttoons of Cuttack, Keonjur, Pal 
 Lehra, Dhenkanal. and Hindole; Ghatwals: Bendkurrs, 
 Birhoc=, Boyars; Kharwars and Rajwars in South Behar ; 
 Kaurs near Oodevporc; and the Koolees and Bheels ol 
 Guzernt and Raip"ulana. All these are undoubtedly Indian 
 aborigines, not of the Dravidian stock. Their languages 
 arc of tho rudest description. Literature they have none. 
 Many of the more civilized of these scattered tribes speak 
 Hindi and other Aryan dialects. As a rule they practice 
 most degraded customs, some living almost entirely naked. 
 " Puttoons," for instance, mean " the leaf-elad." (The render 
 who is curious to know more of these tribes should consult 
 Dalton's magnificent work on the Eil„iolog,i uj Ilcu,/al:kit: 
 George Campbell's interesting but inaccurate contributions 
 to hllla,, Elluwlogy (Journal of the IScn.jal AnlaUc Sor,cl,l. 
 vol. xxxv., part ii.. etc.).) Col. Dalton;s list of the Bengal 
 Kolarians is as follows: the .Tuangs. Kharrias, Mundahs, 
 Hos, Bhumii, Ho or Larka Kols. Sanlals. Birhors. Korwars, 
 Kurs, and Kurkus or Muasis. The particulars of the habits 
 and customs of these tribes given by the gallant author arc 
 very curious and interesting. He also furnishes a vocabu- 
 lary of familiar words in the Kolarian dialects, and photo- 
 graphs carefully de,iicting the typical characteristics of the 
 various tribes which speak those and other Bengal vernac- 
 
 II We have now to turn our attention to tho languages 
 and iitcrature, other than Sanskrit, of the Aryan inhabit- 
 ants of Hindustan. This is one of the most interesting 
 philological fields in the world, and is one which has re- 
 cently been wonderfully opened up by Mr. Beames in his 
 r.mmarative Grammar of the Mothrn Arr/an Languago oj 
 India. These languages .arc seven in number— namely, 
 Sindhi, Panjaubi, Marathi. Gujerati, Hmdi. Oriya. and 
 Bengali. Sindhi is sjioken in the extreme ^. " . of India, 
 and'next to it Panjaubi. in the land of the five rivers. In 
 the Bombay presidency Gujerati and .Marathi i.revail. 
 Hindi holds the great central position amongst the Aryan 
 lan"ua.'es of Hindustan. At the very outset it should be 
 renumbered that Hindustani, or Urdu, is simply Hindi
 
 INDIA. 
 
 1139 
 
 plni a great deal of Persinn. There is no doubt that Hin- 
 dustani liati a f;;re»t hold of Tntlia, in that it is tlie lingua 
 franco, SO to f;|)cak,of Hindustan ; it is tlie language which 
 is chiefly used everywhere in the Peninsula a.s a medium 
 of general eommunicatiuu ; but when treating of the lan- 
 guages and literatures of Hindu Aryans it must merely be 
 con?iiIered as a dialect of Hindi. Oriya is the language of 
 Orissa, and Ilengali of IJciigal. Each one of tlicse seven 
 vernaculars is ba^cd on the IVakrits of the Sanskrit. First, 
 let us glance at them as a whole, noting their origin from 
 the graml parent stem. It has been said that the Aryans 
 did not come over to India ali at once. There were suc- 
 cessive waves uf immigration, and the immigrants, in 
 every probability, spoke various dialects of the common 
 language. As Mr. IJeames says, "One only of these dia- 
 lects, however, became at an early period the vehicle of 
 religious sen'iment, au'l the hymns called the Vedas were 
 transmitted orally for centuries, in all probability with the 
 strictest accuracy. After a time the iJrahinans, consciously 
 and intentionally, set themselves to the task of constructing 
 a sacred language by preserving and reducing to rule the 
 grammatical elements of this Vcdic tongue. Wc cannot 
 tell whether in carrying out this task they availed them- 
 selves of the stores of one dialect alone — probably they did 
 not — but with that rare power of analysis for which (hey 
 have ever been distinguished they seized on the salient 
 features of Aryan speech as contained in all the dialects, 
 and moulded them into one harmonious whole; thus, for 
 the first time in their history, giving to the Aryan tribes 
 one common language, designed to be used as the instru- 
 ment fur expressing thoughts of such a nature as should 
 be deemed worthy of preservation to all time." All this 
 was before the art of writing, but when that art was dis- 
 covered, it was chiefly used to reproduce works in Sanskrit, 
 that sacred queen of all Aryan languages. But all this 
 time, whilst Panini an<l others were engaged in fossilizing, 
 polishing, and perfecting Sanskrit, the local dialects con- 
 tinued to exist. As they had been anterior, in their rude 
 shapes, to the pcrfectecl sacred tongue, so after Sanskrit 
 ceased to be spoken — save perhaps by a few of the holiest 
 and most learned of the Brahuiaus — they continued to be 
 generally spoken by the common people, and were being 
 continually developed into now verna'-ular forms. These 
 forms of Aryan speech, other than Sanskrit, and spoken by 
 the masses, are the Prakrits. They were all of the same 
 stock as the Sanskrit, but they went on changing like 
 clouds, whilst Sanskrit remained within its own fixed 
 limits like the sea. So holy was the language ()f the Vedas 
 that many of (he formuhe wont to be repeated by Brahmans 
 were regarded by thcin to be composed of letters each one 
 of which was a divinity. The Prakrits, on the other hand. 
 were conslantly being changc'l as they carao in contact with 
 foreign tongues or with each other. At one time they are 
 said to have numbcreil no less than twenty-two. However, 
 in the earliest records we find that they are generally classed 
 under five distinct heads. First, there was Mahiir;"Lshtri, 
 the chief of the five, mainly spoken iu Southern Uajputilna 
 uml the northern portions of that part of India which we 
 roughly term now "iMahratta country." The second was 
 the Sauraseni. which was spoken near Malhura. The 
 third was the Magadhi, the dialc?t which was spoken in 
 I!ehar, and which is the parent of Ceylonese Pali. Fourth- 
 ly, there was the Pais.Vjhi : and fifthly, there was the 
 Apabhransa, or '* corrupt" Prakrit, of Siu<lh and Western 
 Uajput^na. Ucames remarks : " In the Sanskrit <lramas a 
 s'ill more artificial distinction prevails, a different dialect 
 being attributed to each class 'of chara<'lers. Thus, kings 
 and IJrahmans speak Sanskrit, ladies of high rank Mah:\- 
 rlshtri, whilst servants, soldiers, buffoons, and the like, 
 use one or other of the inferior dialects." But one of the 
 Prakrits has come down to u?* embalmed in a more note- 
 worthy way. Magadhi will not be forgotten as long as the 
 Itlernlures of the Kast rcmiiin unobliterated. It was used 
 in the sixth century before Christ to preserve the teaching 
 of .Sakyamuni, 'MJotanuv Buddha," the founder of a relig- 
 ious system which overran all India and crushed nearly 
 all the life out of Urahmanism for ten eeuttirirs. Mngadhi 
 is simply Pali, the sa'-rcd ''written" language of Ceylon. 
 Sakyamuni died in 'i-l^ n. r., in *)ya in Southern Behar, 
 and his teachings, preserved to us in Magadhi, give us a 
 ciciir insight into that Pnikrit in its form in those days. 
 Buddhists, even at that early time, protlu'-cd nuiiiy ami 
 voluminous works, and Jains to n greiit extent copied 
 them, for wo have many .laina sacred writincs in the Ma- 
 hirilshtri prakrit. The last point which need he mentioned 
 about the prakrits is that tncy are ** syntheticul or inllec- 
 tional langua(;es." Out of these prakrits sprnn;; the mod- 
 ern seven Aryan vernaculars of India. In the composition 
 of each of these dialects wc havu three elements : ( 1 ) words 
 the same as Sanskrit words; (2) words like Sanskrit; (li) a 
 number of non-Aryuu wurd.i. The difference between the 
 
 non-Aryan vernaculars of India seems mainly to consist in 
 the different apportionment amongst each of these three 
 diflcrent classes of words — ^words which are severally called 
 by the felicitous Sanskrit appellations of Tatenma, Tad- 
 bhfiva, and Devaja, Of the modern Aryan vernaculars it 
 may be said — 
 
 "These lauftuaseA 
 Are one at root. Their natures- are alike; 
 But, being grafted into ilivcrse soils. 
 In sliapc of leafy bouvjlis dissimilar seem, 
 Differ in hue aii'd fravjraiire of their (lowers, 
 And vary in taste of their abundant fruit." 
 Let us take each of them in turn. First. Sindhi. the most 
 north-westerly of the modern Aryan dialects of India, and 
 perhaps the roughest and least Sanskriti/.ed. The first 
 jiroviuce in India which was contjucred by invaders from 
 the N. AV. was undoubtedly Sindh, and next the Panjaub. 
 It was in these provinces that Mohammedanism was rooted 
 the earliest. Brahmins, from the earliest times, appear to 
 have avoided these two provinces to a considerable extent. 
 So we learn that the earliest Prakrits spoken in Sindh were 
 noted for their corruptness. The country seems to have 
 been left by the Brahmins to pastoral tribes, such as the 
 Abhiri. the (Injars, and afterwards to the excommunicated 
 Ksbatriva Juts. The whole land from the earliest times 
 appears to have been in a state of chronic convulsion. 
 Towns were constantly pillaged, cultivated tracts desolated, 
 cattle slaughtered, tribes broken up, and the pojiulation 
 seems to have carried on a stormy and precarious existence 
 under the shadow of perennial wars. It was hut natural 
 that in such a case little time could be devoted by loeiil 
 pundits to the improvement of the language, by correcting 
 it from time to time, and by introducing into it, to give it 
 fresh vitality, new blood fripm the old and yet vigorously 
 healthy language of the Vedic hymns and great dramas. 
 So Sindhi is still a rough aud in many ways :in anomalous 
 language. For instance, whilst Hindi is content with only 
 three f(»rm8 of the genitive particle, Sindhi demands no less 
 than twenty. (Sec D. Trumpp's St'ui/hi Oram mar.) But 
 there is something charming about the roughness of Sindhi 
 to some scholars, just as some wine-tasters revel in the 
 roughness of some wines. Beanies, for instance, speaks of 
 Sindhi as having " somewhat the charm of wild flowers in 
 a hedge, whose untamed luxuriance pleases more than the 
 regular splcn4lor of the parterre. . . . There is a flavor of 
 wheaten flour and a reek of cottage smcdvc about Panjaubi 
 and Sindhi, which is infinitely more natural and cajitivating 
 than anything which the hide-bound, pundit-ridden lan- 
 guages of the eastern parts of India can show us." But 
 this is, perhajis. more prettily juit than true, just as some 
 poets imagine that there is more real soul-music in the 
 ]irattle of a child than in tlie trained voice of a prima 
 donna. Sindhi has three dialects— the Sirai, in the N. of 
 Sindh; Viehohii, in the central parts; and Lari, in the S. 
 and along the sea-coast. There are many other dialects, 
 but only the above need be mentioned. It remains to lie 
 mentioned that Sindhi bus very Httlo literature and no 
 fixed system of writing. M'c must now pass on to Panjaubi, 
 but a great deal of what has been said of Simlhi applies to 
 it. It must be borne in mind that the Mohammedan power 
 was in a measure consolidated iu the Panjaub -JflO years be- 
 fore such was the case in the lands where Hindi is spoken. 
 Thus, the Prakrit had U ss time in its infancy to become 
 trained and guided, and the Mussulman iu\ aders found a 
 more virgin soil to plant their own idioms. They brought 
 numbers of their own words with tliem. which became en- 
 grafted into Panjaubi before the Sanskrit equivalents had 
 time to s)>rintc up in the language. Yet it has been truly 
 said that the Panjaubi of the present day is, after all. an idd 
 Hindi dialect. In Panjaubi. for reasons already relVrred to. 
 there is a great ndniixture of Arabic aud Persian, and but 
 little " Tatsania" Sanskrit terms, such as are to be found in 
 Bengali and Oriyn. Panjaubi is similar to Hindi in rcganl 
 to the nouns in the language, which have the same sim- 
 plicity of declension. The verbs too arc alike, with only 
 faint dialectic differences. The pronouns alto are nearly 
 the same in both languages. Th- claims of Panjaubi to be 
 considcre.l an indepcmlent languaKc rest upon its phonetic 
 system aud upon its peculiarities of phraseology. The 
 character in which Panjaubi Is written is called (ninmiukfii. 
 It employs thirty-fivo letters. As ft)r its literature, it is 
 very searitv. Nanak. the relicions reformer and founder 
 of the Sikh creed, is the earliest author in the binffua^e, 
 vet nothing of his is extant which is distinctively Panjaubi. 
 The iHaleets of Punjnubi are almost innumerable, but are 
 hardly distinguishable one from the other. But on the 
 borders of the Paiijaubi-speiiking country, on all sides, the 
 language almost imperceptibly dovetails with other ver- 
 naculars. This has given great trouble to superficial lin- 
 guists, and has led to many mistakes. Wc now c«imo to 
 Maratbi. It must not be too hastily coneludi'd that Mnra- 
 thi is the direct lineal descendant of the Mahlrasbtri Pra 
 
 I
 
 1140 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 krit. Indeed, these two have little in common save the 
 name. Magadhi and Saurascni Prakrits mainly He at the 
 base of Marathi. It is ou the wliule an elegant and cul- 
 tured tongue. Mahratta Brahmans took great care ot the 
 language Tn its somewhat rude inlancy, and the wave of 
 Mohanunedan invasion was somewhat late in sweeping 
 over the country where it had its central hold. Marathi 
 contains a good many " Tutmma" Sanskrit words, and is 
 a pleasing fluent tongue. The language is a playlul one; 
 it delichts in assonances and harmonious phrases and 
 •'jin.'lin' formations." In structure it is comparatively 
 oomplicatcd. Its phraseology is copious and beautiful. 
 Grammatically considered, Marathi is as much the German 
 of the Aryan vernaculars of India as Hindi is the English. 
 It possesses a great array of terminations and mflcctiuns. 
 It is just as difficult to determine the gender of a noun in 
 Marathi as in German. In every part the language shows 
 the effects of the labors of learned pundits who worked lor 
 centuries to beautify and polish it. The Mar.athi pronoun 
 is nearly the pure Prakrit. The verb is participial m its 
 formation. The literature of the language is copious, ihe 
 following mav be taken as a brief yet fair summary of it : 
 "Namadeva,'the first poet, whose date is uncertain, but 
 probably about 1290 A. i>.. drew his inspiration, as was the 
 case with so many poets of his time, from the writings of 
 Kabir and other reformers. Contemporary with hun was 
 the famous Dynilnadeva, who wrote a poem called Dni/dn- 
 calnrari. Then follows a long string of more or less ob- 
 scure poets, among whom Sridhar deserves notice on ac- 
 count of his voluminous Pauranic paraphrases. Tukaram, 
 the most celebrated Marathi author, was (A. D. 1609) a eon- 
 temporary of the illustrious Sivaji. (See India : its His- 
 tory.) An admirably printed edition of Tukaram s poems 
 has been produced at Bombay recently by two pundits. 
 The poems are called Ahhaiu/ns, or ' Unbroken:' probably 
 from their being of indefinite length and strung together 
 in a loose flowing metre. Tukaram was a half-crazed de- 
 votee such as we see so commonly in India, who began life 
 as a petty shopkeeper, but, being unsuccessful, devoted 
 himself to the worship of the idol Vitoba, whose ohiet 
 shrine is at Pandharpur. At the temple of this idol at 
 Dehu, near Poena, Tukaram spent the greater part of his 
 life in improvising these endless Abhtunjns, which were co ■ 
 lected by his disciples. Ho eventually started ofi' on a pil- 
 grimat'e, and, as he never returned, he probably died on the 
 road, l)ut his followers chose to believe that he had ascended 
 to heaven." There is nothing very original or striking m 
 Tukaram's poems. They are like the ordinary run of In- 
 dian religious poems. Here is a specimen : 
 "Torches, unihrellas, liorses— these are ot no value. 
 Wliy now O lord of Pandhari, dost thou entanscle me in them . 
 Honor, pomp, sliow-tliese are merely the excrement of swine. 
 Tukaram says, O Lord, hasten thou to deliver me! 
 The reader will see that all this is rank commonplace, but 
 ill JIarathi the mellifluous diction atones for much, and 
 Tukaram's jmems are household words in the Bombay 
 presidency. Ne.xt to Tukaram came Moropaut (a. D. liLO), 
 ami his poems arc preferred by some to those of Tukaram. 
 There is aisp a wide Anacreontic literature in Marathi, 
 which may be styled " Rabelaisian without the wit, and 
 with twice the amount of impurity." The chief prose 
 works in Marathi are the Bahhars, or " Chroniclea of 
 Kin-rs ■• much of which is legendary and impossible. Me 
 must now pass on to speak of Gujerati. This language 
 has a greater admi.'cturc of Arabic and Persian in it tlian 
 Marathi has. It is avowedly a dialect of the Saurasom 
 Prakrit, and .ns a language is only partially developed. It 
 retains throe genders, whereas Hindi and Panjaubi have 
 only two. The pronouns are almost identical with those 
 in Hindi. According to some grammarians, the Gujerati 
 verb rejoices in five presents, seventeen preterites, and four 
 futures, but these, in practice, can be greatly reduced and 
 simplified. Of lato days Gujerati is becoming more and 
 more emploved as a commercial language, especially by 
 the P.ar3ees'of Bombay, and thus it is becoming rapidly 
 impregnated with foreign phrases and idioms, to the detri- 
 ment of the purity of the language. The first Gujerati 
 author of note is Xarsingh Mchta, who flourished in llo7 
 A. D. His writings are religious, and arc east in the form 
 of short poems somewhat i-esembling sonnets. After hiiii 
 the chief Gujerati writers arc Vi.shnu Das, Shiv Das, and 
 Samal Bhatt. It is a remarkable fact that the Gujerati of 
 the present day is strikingly similar to that language when 
 it was first written. We now come to Hindi. This lan- 
 gua^'O is justly regarded as the first of the modern Aryan 
 languages of India. It is spoken in the great valley of the 
 (ian"-es from the source of the Jumna to Rajmahal. In a 
 wor.r Hindi holds the central position of all of the Aryan 
 lan^-uar-es of India, and the country in which it is spoken 
 has' ever been the centre of Aryan Hinduism. »e have 
 lUreadv mentioned the close relationship which exists be- 
 
 tween Hindi and Urdu or Hindustani. It has been truly 
 said that Hindi is to modcru India what Sanskrit was to 
 the ancient. The central scat of Hindi itself has ever been 
 Delhi. Mr. Beames savs : " In respect of 'ladbhnien>, Hindi 
 stands pre-eminent, whether it be that form of Hindi which 
 relies principally ou indigenous sources for its words, or 
 that other widcfy employed form which has incorporated 
 the flower and grace of Persian and Arabic nouns, and 
 which is sometimes called Urdu, sometimes Hindustani." 
 The multiform strength of Hindi is in a measure owing to 
 the fact that the great central area of India in which that 
 lancuafc is spoken has always been occupied by Hindus 
 and' M°ussulmans. in tolerably equal proportions; thus, 
 whilst Sanskrit has not been forgotten, Arable and Per- 
 sian words have been allowed, in due measure, to enrich 
 the vernacular. Of the seven modern Aryan languages, 
 Hindi is the most advanced, as it shows the most marked 
 r^so from the synthetical to the analytical state. In its 
 verbs Hindi has greatly rejected the Sanskrit inflectional 
 system. Only one Hindi tense is synthetical— namely, the 
 indefinite present, which has been corrupted from the pres- 
 ent indicative of the Sanskrit. The date of the earliest 
 Hindi poem is A. n. 1200. It is a famous one— namely, 
 the Prithlrdh linsan of Chand Bardili. This Chand was 
 a native of Lahore. He was a professional bhat or min- 
 strel and was attached to the court of the Kajput king 
 Prithirai, the last Hindu monarch of Delhi. The poem is 
 the record of the ancestry, birth, life, heroic deeds, and 
 final overthrow of Prithir.aj ; but upon the history which 
 thus forms the basis of the work Chand Bardii builds a 
 fantastic structure of religion and mythology. The gods 
 come down to earth: celestial garlands descend on the 
 brows of heroes : Siva follows the war-path and drinks the 
 blood of the wounded ; the power obtained by sacrifice and 
 penance, even over deities, is magical ; and birds and beasts 
 converse like men. Subsequent to Chand Bardai, Hindi lit- 
 erature became crowded with long, verbose, dull, religious 
 poems. Tulsi Das adapted from the Sanskrit the Jidmai/aim 
 of Valmiki. Bebari Lai was a correct and elegant Hindi 
 writer whose poems are concise, pretty, graceful, and some- 
 times meritoriously thoughtful. We now come to the Oriya 
 language. This language, like the Bengali, is higlily im- 
 pregnated with Sanskrit, and overflows with Tnt«a,mi 
 woi°ds. But it is a neglected tongue, and retains to the 
 present day many rude archaic forms. The mountainous 
 character o"f the country of Orissa. stretching along a lonely 
 shore-line, peopled bv men accustomed to a solitary life in 
 great measure, often decimated by famine and disease or 
 devastated bv periodical cyclones, itself furnishes a reason 
 for the very partial cultivation and polish of the language 
 spoken there. The literature of Oriyacommenecs with Upen- 
 dro Bhauj, who composed a large number of religious poems 
 which are held of high account. The poet was the brother of 
 the rajah of Gumsar, a small hill-state, which has always 
 maintained its reputation for preserving the Oriya language 
 within its borders in the most perfect and pure state. Upen- 
 dro Bhaiij did not live more than 300 years ago. He com- 
 posed two rhyming dictionaries, the SiihrUmuU, and the 
 ChitahkiddHo'. Many of his minor poems arc superlatively 
 indecent, and withal filled with puerile verbal quibbles. 
 Nearly contemporaneously with Upendro Bhanj flourished 
 another Oriya poet, named Dinkrishno Dis, who wrote the 
 RanakiiUulii, the most famous poem in the language, fho 
 poem owes its celebrity to its mellifluous and harmonious 
 versification; as for the rest, it is simply a farrago of ob- 
 «c-nity The Ilhayav,idc,!lu, RdrndynM, Padma Furami, 
 and L<,hsh,„i Puraim arc albreprcsented in Oriya by adap. 
 tations more or less felicitous. In conclusion, it should be 
 mentioned that the Oriya character is the clumsiest of In- 
 dian alphabets. We have now to refer, briefly, to the last 
 of the seven modern Aryan languages of India— namely, 
 Bengali. Occupying the most easterly iiosition of these 
 laiig°uages, it possesses the largest share ot the pure y ,^an- 
 skrit element in its composition. The origin ol the lan- 
 guage was a very obscure one, and for centuries it was 
 c.-ctrtmelv rude. It is only lately that Bengali literature 
 has, with marvellous success, sprung up. Four centuries 
 a»o Bengali was unwritten. Then it closely resembled 
 ifindi, but since that time a marked change has crept over 
 it. The i.overty of the laiigu.agc began to be so e early, 
 from the first, apparent to Bengali pundits that they had o 
 have recourse to an enormous number of l„lmma words to 
 patch up their difliculties. The Bengali noun has a purely 
 'nfleetional genitive. There is no preparalion of the base 
 (iender is practically neglected. The verb is simple and 
 i constructed on the participial system. The pronouns are 
 I almost the same as in the Prakrit. The singular of he 
 \ pronoun and of the verb has been banished l.om use, the 
 1 ilural being u.scd for politeness' sake, and two new plurals 
 being added for convenience' sake. The alphabet of the 
 Bengali is very elegant and facile: the typogr.aphy of a
 
 INDIA. 
 
 1141 
 
 Bengali book is simply charming to look at and read. The 
 alphabet may be described a? " very little changed from 
 the Kutila brought down from Kanaiij by the Hrahmans 
 whom King Adi-sur invited to Bengal in the latter part of 
 the eleventh century." The literature of liengali, as it is 
 at present, is far ahead of all other portions of Aryan India. 
 The reformer Cliaitanya first gave it its imjictus in the fif- 
 teenth century. The Kirtnns or lyrics which he collected 
 soon became popular. But the first Bengali poet was prob- 
 ably Vidyipati. Some writers have ascribed to him a date 
 as early as a. n. i;!20, but he probably flourished consider- 
 ably later. Another famous Bengali writer of the earliest 
 period of its literature is Kabi Kankau, The adapters of 
 the Raiiitif/nud and Mufiuf'fi'hotn in Bengali were the poets 
 Kftsidas and Kritibas. Another Bengali j)Oct of note is 
 Bh&rat Thandra Uai, Kabi, or satirical poemi^. have much 
 popularitj' in Bengal, and have been composed by different 
 authors at different times. Iswar Chandra (Jupta, the Ben- 
 gali Rabclai?, was famous half a century ago for his spark- 
 ling wit. Three great modern Bengali writers may be 
 mentioned. The first is Babu Piari Chandra Mittra. who 
 is the author of AUahr Ohnrcr DuhU ("Tlie Spoilt Child 
 of the House of A'lil"). a clever novel, which is by far 
 the best fiction in the language, and abounds in wit and 
 humor. The sccon<I is Michael Madhusiidan Datt, a native 
 Christian, whose voluminous works have gained for him 
 a very high rank in Bengali. And the third is Kali Pra- 
 sauna Singh, a clever but sometimes coarse writer, who has 
 the art of depicting in the most felicitous way the main 
 characteristics and foibles of his countrymen. The most 
 modern developments of Aryan literature may bo spoken 
 of, together with the latest phases of Dravidian letters, 
 after we have glanced at the South Indian family of lan- 
 guages, which coDstituto the third great division of Indian 
 tongues. 
 
 Iir. Dravidian Lanffuat/c» and Literature. — This family 
 of languages consi.^Es of the following mem'jcrs: Tamil. 
 TcluRu, Canarese, Malayalam, Tulu, Coorg, Tudn, Gond, 
 Ku, Rajmahal, and Oraon. In this brief epitome the last 
 seven of these dialects need only be mentioned. They 
 have no literature, and the interest which attaches to the 
 four dialects mentioned first wholly eclipses any thf^so seven 
 might possess were they the only representatives of Dra- 
 vidian speech in India. For the same reason wc ouly need 
 make a passing allusion to Brahui, a language wliieli has a 
 strong Dravidian clement in it, though not Dravidian. nor 
 spoken on the Indian side of the north-western frontier, but 
 which, however, somewhat attracts attention, as it forms an 
 important link in t ho chain which binds the Dravidian pro])cr 
 to the Scythian group of tongues. With this group all tho 
 Dravidian languages of India arc radically connected, and 
 the Scj'thian family to which they are the mott intimately 
 allied is the Finnish or Ugrian. {See tho introduction to 
 the Rev. Dr. Caldwell's Cnrnptirfittvc Grauimar of the Dra- 
 ridi'in Lftnffiiufft*.) The m'tst important of tho four prin- 
 cipal Dravidian languages is undoubtedly Tamil. Next to 
 Sanskrit, it stands supreme as an Indian language, both in 
 regard to its structure, its genius, and its varied, ancient, 
 and original literature. However, our notice of Tamil will 
 at present bo very cursory, as particular mention of it is 
 m:ide elsewhere. (See Tamil.) Speaking generally. Dra- 
 virlian India is tho whole of that portion of tho Peninsula 
 which lies to tho S. of the Nerbuddi River and the Vindhya 
 Mountains. There are, of course, offshoots from this broad 
 ba«ie, and wo find Driividian words in use amongst the 
 mountain-fastnesses of Bi.-looehistan, in tho northernmost 
 jungles of the Rajmabal hills, and in parts of Ceylon. Tho 
 term "Dravidian" is of Sanskrit origin. It means "be- 
 longing to the country of the Dravidas." The country of 
 tho Dravidas properly means Tamil-land. The Dravidas 
 arc described in Sanskrit dictionaries as "men of an out- 
 cast tribe, descended from degraded Kshatriyas." Of course 
 this simply exemplifies the low opinitm which was at first 
 entertained by the .Aryan invaders of the aboriginal in- 
 habitants of India. Indeed, as represented In great Brah- 
 man poems, the Dravidians were uncouth, savage, given to 
 horriliic rites, caters of raw meat, cannibals, disturbers of 
 bidy hermits engaged in contemplation, and giants or apes 
 in form. Even in thefninous KtlmCn/ftun, in xThichpoem the 
 Dravidian chief, Hanunirin, is represented as RuinnV most 
 devoted and useful ally, that South Indian king is ridiculed 
 at the same time that he iw praised by being portrayed as a 
 monkey-god. The Tamils, of all the Dravidas, first expe- 
 rienced the dawn of Dravidian civilization : ond with this 
 epoch tho name of Agastynr, the " snge." the " Cnnopus " 
 of Snulhern India, is insepnrably connected. The <lnte of 
 this epoch mny bo fixrd at about the sixth century B. c. 
 But notwithstanding the comparative antiquity of this date, 
 it was not till more than twelve centuries subsequently 
 that, in all probability, Tamil literature began to spring 
 up, and of all Dravidian literature the Tamil is the oldest 
 
 as well as most important. In the case of Tamil, just as 
 in the case of Telugu and Canarese, the period of the dom- 
 ination of the .Jainas was that in which the vernacular lit- 
 erature sprung up and flourished. Malayalam literature is 
 not more than three centuries and a half old. That lan- 
 guage has in its composition a very large admixture of San- 
 skrit, and its literature mainly consists in translations and 
 adaptations from the Sanskrit. This must also be affirmed 
 of Telugu an<l Canarese, only the literature of these lan- 
 guages dates from several centuries jirevious to the rise of 
 Malayalam literature. The first Telugu grammar is said 
 to have been written by Kanva, in the days of Andhra- 
 raya. the king in whose reign Sanskrit was first introduced 
 into the Telu;^u country. But his work is not extant, and 
 the oldest which exists is by a Brahman called Nannnppa; 
 but this grammar, though about Telugu. is written in San- 
 skrit. ?fantm])pa translated the MnhCibhtirnta into Telugu; 
 and this is the earliest work extant in the language. Its 
 date is probably the twelfth century. Telugu is a sweet 
 and sonorous language, but has not the logical precision, 
 sturdincss, and great copiousness of Tamil. Mr. C. P. 
 Brown's admirable Grammar and Dirtioimn/ of TehnjH 
 should be consulted by every student of that language. 
 Canarese uses a character identical with that of Telugu, 
 but differs very widely in most other particulars. It lacks 
 the wonderful richness of Tamil, a language remarkably 
 full of synonyms and exact in its grammatical structure. 
 The Jaina period, during which litcratui*.- flourished most 
 conspicuously in Tamil-land, extended from the end of the 
 seventh to the thirteenth century of the Christian era. The 
 oldest work extant in tho language is the Tid-Kuppit/am 
 {" Tho Old Composition "). This is a grammar of the lan- 
 guage, and was probably written in the close of the seventh 
 century, but in it arc to be found quotations from poems 
 of a still earlier date, though these have not come down (o 
 us intact. The JCural of Tiruvalluvar, the greatest work 
 in the Tamil language in the opinion of many, was prob- 
 ably written before the close of the eighth century. It is a 
 great storehouse of polished distichs on all subjects con- 
 nected with morals and political economy. The Chiui&- 
 mani, a great Tamil epic poem, containing some 15,000 
 lines, was probably written not a century later; and shortly 
 afterwards tho Nan-ntkly a High Tamil grammar, appears 
 to have been composed. By this time, too, several of the 
 works ascribed to Auvvei (''the matron "), a distinguished 
 Tamil poetess, were probably written. (For further par- 
 ticulars regarding Tamil and its literature see Tamil.) 
 
 In conclufion, we must m::ke several general remarks 
 concerning Hindu literature as a whole. First, the greater 
 part of it is incontestably poetical in form. That is. Hin- 
 dus from time immemorial have been accustomed to throw 
 their thoughts — no matter on what subject, and no matter 
 whether using an Aryan or Dravidian language — into verse 
 instead of prose. If, for instance, in the N., Chand Barddi 
 wishes to perpetuate in writing the history of the glories 
 and sorrows of tho heroic Prithiraj, he does so in Hindi 
 verse; and if in the S., Tiruvalluvar desires to teach the 
 priests and sages of Madura the principles of political 
 economy, be does so in Tamil verse. Thus, Hindu liter- 
 aure is chiefly poetical. AVe have poems on astronomy, 
 and poems on medicine, and poems on grammar. This, 
 after all, was but to be expected, for, just as children are 
 imaginative, nations in their infancy arc naturally poetical. 
 But now, everywhere in India, a sound sturdy prose liter- 
 ature is springing up. This is especially the ease in Ben- 
 gali and Tamil. Tricks of style, ossonanees, mimetic words, 
 flowery metaphors and similes, j'ugling rhymes, and vapor- 
 ous expletives, — all these arc being gradually exchanged for 
 a sober, robust diction, and simple, straightforward lan- 
 guage which clearly expresses llie thoughts meant to bo 
 conveyed by it. Secondly. Indian poetry, os a whole, is 
 poor. Hindu poets constantly aim more at writing beauti- 
 fully than at thinking deeply. There is a great deal of glit- 
 ter, but little intrinsic value. Of course there are some ex- 
 ceptions. I should plaeo Tamil poetry, with that of San- 
 skrit, wholly outsidoof Ibis category : that is, taking Tamil 
 poetry as a whole. The thonghtful couplets of Tiruval- 
 luvar. tho descriptive power of Kamban's gorgeous verse, 
 Bcrchi'fl stalely and splendid periods, Auvveiyar's chaste 
 and elegant stanzas, TiLyum^nnvar's pure and sidemn 
 strains of meditative poesy, tho exuberant fancy displayed 
 in the ChintAmani, the roughly-expressed home-truths of 
 the Siltars or poetical quietists of Tamil-land, tho earnest 
 sadness of Pnttiragiriyar. and the jiassionate volubility of 
 Sivavaykkiar, hater of latler-ilny Brahmanieal supcrsli- 
 tions. — all these and many more are phases of Tamil poetry 
 which raise it as a wh'de — if we eoubl only forget tho 
 beauty and majesty of Ihe .'^ansk^il dntma — higher not only 
 than the poetry of any other Dravidian or modern Aryan 
 language, but also than Sanskrit itself. In the last place, 
 any notice, however brief, of Indian literature would bo iu-
 
 1142 
 
 INDIA: ITS HISTOBY. 
 
 complete if no allusion were made to two effects which have 
 been produced by the introduction of English civilization 
 into Hindustan. Translations in the various vernaculars 
 arc everywhere appearing of the works of the leading 
 thinkers of Christendom, and the native press has lieeomc 
 an established fact. It is quite true Ihat many of these 
 translation.'! are in wretched taste, and arc worse than 
 merely worthless : it is quite true that many of the triins- 
 lators are foreigners, and barbarize the language into which 
 thev translate by flooding it with unnatural idioms and 
 terms: and it is quite true that, in Bengal especially, the 
 vernacular press is in too great a hurry, and works of a 
 trashy nature arc being flung in cartloads upon the public. 
 But notwithstanding all this tlic benefit is incalculably 
 c-rcatcr than the mischief. The effect now being ]>roduced 
 mion the languages and liter.ature of India resell bles that 
 wonderful quickening power which began suddenly to 
 exert itself in Europe immediately after the art of printing 
 was discovered; and though much evil may have resulted 
 from the discovery of this art. who can think of that when 
 the untold good it has effected is taken into consideration.' 
 The vernacular journalistic literature of India is daily as- 
 suming wider proportions, and in Calcutta .and Bombay, 
 and to°a very slight extent in Madras, the newspaper press 
 is already a power. In Calcutta the Bengalis have what 
 we should call a farthing daily paper, and m Bombay tlie 
 Parsees have their Puwh. The number of daily, weekly, 
 and monthlv native periodicals throughout India, already 
 very great, is rapidly increasing. The statistics, if given 
 to-day, would have to be added to to-morrow. The publi- 
 cation of tracts, books, and Bibles by missionary societies 
 forms a large item in tbo modern literary activity of India. 
 The schoolbook and vernacular literary societies of India, 
 patronized by the English government, arc also aiding m 
 the work of civilization. Attempts have from time to time 
 been made to adapt the Roman character to the vernacu- 
 lars, many of which employ cumbrous and clumsy alpha- 
 bets but as yet such attempts have failed in gaining the 
 approval of Hindus themselves. Many Hindu books were 
 of old written on palmyra-palm leaves: paper,now bccom- 
 in" plentiful, is being widely employed instead. The know- 
 Icdfo of English is rapidly extending, and there has been 
 much discussion as to the ultimate effect of this. French is 
 used in the French settlements, and Portuguese is spoken 
 at Goa In conclusion, it may be mentioned that a small 
 but very interesting colony of Jews at Cochin on the Mala- 
 bar use' Hebrew much in the same way that modern Brah- 
 maos in India use Sanskrit. R- C. C.iLDWr.LL. 
 
 India : its History. There can bo little doubt that 
 the iiopulation of the whole of the Indian em))ire must be 
 estimated a:', at present, not under 300,000.00(1. This re- 
 markable fact is made obvious by the results of the Indian 
 census of 1S71-72. These results (at the time oi the pen- 
 nin.' of this paper) have not yet been published, but it is 
 known that the number of inhabitants in British India 
 has been computed at 28:1,000,000, and that in this number 
 the inhabitants of all of the independent provinces,of sev- 
 eral Indian protected states, of remote hill and forest trilies. 
 and of the tribes peopling the north-eastern frontier of 
 India have unavoidably not been included. India is the 
 molt thickly populated country in the world to which the 
 census has yet been apjilied : and now that it has been ap- 
 plied, the startling question arises if it be not, after all. the 
 inost populous country iu the globe, not excepting China 
 itself. The po|mlation of China was some time ago sup- 
 priaed to be 500,000,000 ; now it is computed at 400,000,000. 
 But there has been no census of China, and geographers 
 ami ethnologists will begin to ask themselves the question, 
 '• On what grounds do wo give the pre-eminence in the 
 matter of population to China over India ?" In writing a 
 brief epitome of the history of India, we advisedly draw 
 attention thus prominently to the present slate of the pop- 
 ulation of that country. India has never been so thickly 
 populated .as it now is, and there are clear signs that its pres- 
 ent population is daily increasing at a swift rate. I'rom 
 this fact, as from a (linnacle, we look down on the past. 
 Here is a country which from the earliest ages has been the 
 scene of national convulsions. It hrs Iieen the prey of 
 successive invasions and the vicliin of constant intestine 
 strife. Then a civilized ]>ower from Europe set its foot on 
 the soil. After a brief and necessary struggle the reign ol 
 order began. What is the result ? The country is protected 
 from foreign raids, and internal warfare is gradually and 
 thoroughly repressed. Trade and commerce spring up and 
 flourish: "wealth and education spread more among 
 masses ; the weak and outcast begin to enjoy safety- 
 peace. Canals fertilize the country they open up 
 
 prevented. Is it a wonder, then, that such a change in the 
 history of a country should be followed by a marked in- 
 crease in its population, and that this increase should be 
 pointed to as one of the evidences of the beneficial nature 
 of that change? The past of India, though writers may 
 describe its glory in some things, has been, after all, only 
 a glorious night'. Even now we have only a dawn. The 
 Aay is yet to come when the full effects of Ihe i)resent civil- 
 ized government of India will bo realized. 
 
 In tracing the history of India from the earliest times, 
 we are necessarily led to speak of its ethnology. It may 
 be premised that' the conglomerate character of the inhab- 
 itants of India is only less remarkable than their number. 
 (With regard to Indian ethnological questions not touched 
 upon in "this article, see India : its ClEOGitAPDV, Ethnol- 
 ogy. LaNGTAGES, ANn LiTERATfUE.) 
 
 The history of India may best be written of under ten 
 distinct head's: I. The history of ancient India till the time 
 of Mahmud of Ghazni, A.D. "lOOl. II. The history of India 
 from this first Mohammedan invasion to the date of the 
 first battle of Panipat, A. n. 1 J2G. III. The history of the 
 Mon-nl empire from the first battle of Punipat to the death 
 of The last Mogul emperor, in 1859. IV. The history of 
 the Mahrattas from the birth of Sivaji (a. p. 1027) to the 
 present time. V. The history of the Carnatic from the date 
 of the Mohammedan invasion of 129+ A. D. YI. The his- 
 tory of the Portuguese in India since the landing of Yasco 
 da'Gama in 1408 A. n. YII. The history of the European 
 companies which vied with each other in the strugslo 
 to get a share in Indian trade before 1744 A. D. YIII. 
 The history of the English and French in India till the 
 surrender of Pondicherry. A. d. 1761. IX. The history of 
 the British power in India, leading up to the appointment 
 of the first governor-general. X. The history of the Brit- 
 ish power in India, as marked out by the successive rfiguncs 
 of different goyernors-gencral, since the days of Warren 
 Hastings to the present day. 
 
 I. The Ancient History of India. — The earliest history 
 of India is involved in the "deepest obscurity. No date of 
 a public event can be fi.xcd before B.C. 327, and no connected 
 narrative of Indian national transactions can be attempted 
 till 1300 years .after. We have only traditions and legends 
 to guidc'us, and the very heterogeneous character of the 
 races which from time immemorial have peopled India adds 
 another obstacle to research. However, everything is not 
 guesswork, and authorities who h.ave entered deeply into 
 the subject arrive at a number of conclusions winch may 
 be regarded as at least approximately accurate. ( I ) The 
 VciIaZ which are the oldest sacred hymns of the Aryan 
 Hindus, were probably arranged in their present form as 
 early as 1400 n.c. Their actual antiquity is much greater, 
 but cannot bo decided on, even a)iproxiinatcly. (See Sak- 
 SKRiT.) (21 Even before the time of Moses (b. 1574 B. c.) 
 India and Europe were in active communication by sea. 
 Yessels used to plv between India and the ports of the Red 
 8ca and Persian Gulf, and the Saba-an and the Phoenician 
 commerce of those old days with Hindustan was probably 
 the most lucrative in the whole world at that time. (3) In 
 the days of Solomon we read of the ships of Tarshish trad- 
 ing with Ophir. and bringing from thence to Jerus.alem 
 '• gold and ivory, apes and peacocks." Sir Emerson Teii- 
 ne'ut, in his admirable work on Ceylon, considers that the 
 port of (ialle in Ceylon is Ophir. In the earliest days 
 Galle was one of the greatest of Eastern emporiums. But 
 wherever Ophir may have been situated, one thing is cer- 
 tain— namely, that the Hebrew equivalent for " peacock, 
 which appears in the Bible, is simply Ihe Tamil word ta-ei. 
 (4) The history of the Solar and Lunar dynasties of India 
 is in a great measure founded on fact, as clear traces of 
 the invasions recorded in connection with them now remain. 
 The magnificent Hindu epic, the Jlum,',i,„„>,, records the 
 adventures of Rami-i.thc hero of the Solar race, who con- 
 quered Ceylon, probably in the year 1200 b. v. The Malia- 
 hharatn is the great record of the Lunar dynasty. It de- 
 scribes the wars of Ihe Pandus and Kurus, which were prob- 
 ably fought between 1400 and l."00 b. c. The great battle 
 was fought at Taneshwar, 30 miles W. of Delhi, (a) Go- 
 tama Buddha, the fouuderof Buddhism, d. at Uya. in South 
 Behar, about 543 b. c. (0) The conquest of India by Bae- 
 
 tbc 
 and 
 Every- 
 wirero sanitary measures are adopted for the security of 
 the people from the ravages of pestilence. Rewards are 
 given for the destruction of snakes and tigers. A terriW^ 
 famine appears, and it is promptly relieved and loss of life 
 
 conquered the Punjaub and Scinde, and made it a satraj.y. 
 The tribute paid to him by this satrapy i'/i"'' '." , '''^^ 
 been wholly in gold, and to have amounted to 1,-..0.00U 
 pounds sterling. (8) Alexander the Great, having defealed 
 Parius and conquered Persia, proceeded to India. In n. c. 
 ■:.:m he founded the city of Herat on the frontier. Three 
 years later he crossed the Khyber Pass and the Indus at
 
 INDIA: ITS HISTORY. 
 
 1143 
 
 \t.ock. He fought and overcame Porus at Gujirat on the 1 own son-in-law, because of which he himself was assassi; 
 ■^ B _ _ . — ,^ , Dated, anil his iissassm, named the ■' Durnei ot lue « oria. 
 
 ,TclMm. assisted l.vTnxiles, a prince of the country between 
 the .frlum aud Indus. Thence he advanced to the Sutlej, 
 but had to return because his soldiers, alarmed at his rapid 
 progress into such unknown countries, superstitiously re- 
 fused to advance. We know this much of the India of 
 Alexander, that the Hindus at thai time were considered to 
 be wonderfully civilized. Their cities were most opulent 
 and arts andscionces flourished. (9) About this time in 
 Bengal there were dynasties of Pala and Sena kings. Other 
 little-known dynasties reigned at Delhi. Ajmecr. Mewar, 
 and (iuierat. The latter, in the second century A ' ' 
 a Riijput dvnastv called Balabhi. The Persians, under 
 Nushirvan. are supposed to have conquered and driven 
 these jirinccs out of Newar, where they had emigrated in 
 the sixth century A. D. 
 
 Concerning ancient India few other particulars are 
 known, but we have yet to touch on an important subject 
 connected with the general colonization of the peninsula 
 of Ilindostan from the earliest times. In the very earliest 
 a'cs, long before the writing of the Vednn or the entry 
 of the Arvan races into India, there appears to have ex- 
 isted in the eouiitrv an aboriginal people, thoroughly non- 
 Aryan in their c'haraclcrislies, and who were possibly 
 of "the same familv as the Mongols and other tribes of 
 Central Asia. Invasion after invasion poured down like 
 successive tides into India, and always from the N. W.. 
 and the aboriginal inhabitants were either pushed down 
 southward or left, here and there, in isolated districts of 
 hill and forest land, like islands, surrounded by the ad- 
 vancing wave of colonization. The first invasion we know 
 of is tiio .\rvan. and this may have taken place in the 
 times of the'llebrew patriarchs. Then came the Moham- 
 medan and mixe.l invasions, also from the >'. W.. pushing 
 the Indian aborigines still farther southward, or islanding 
 them still more completely in the impenetrable jungles and 
 mountainous regions of the Peninsula. Here we have one 
 great clue to the ethnological puzzles which India of the 
 present day places before the student. But the whole of 
 this subject will be found fully entered into in India: its 
 Gkochapiiv. ETiixoi.or.Y, Laxguark, and Literatitre. 
 
 II. The Hiilnni of the ilnhnmmcdiin Pntirr in /iitlin/rom 
 itt Firtt Ettitbtiiliment !n 1001, hij Mnlimiid of Ghnzni, la 
 in OierlhroK and llii- Etinhllilimcnt of the Mi.yul Empire 
 in iJ-'ff.— The period of Indian history we now enter upon 
 is certainly one of the ghastliest epochs which could be 
 presented to the reader's mind. For more than .')00 years. 
 Intlia, or at least the northern, and especially the norlb- 
 western, portions of the Peninsula, literally reeked with 
 blood. One sovereign overturned another, one dynasty 
 supplanted another, and again and again recurred the 
 same old story. The first act of a monarch on ascending 
 his throne was to murder his relatives, spoil a city, desolate 
 a province, and .slaughter, immolate, or iin])ale certain 
 given thousands— men. women, and children— of his pre- 
 decessor's adherents. Except in rare instances mercy was 
 not known. The glory of the .Mohammedan dynasties 
 
 which preceded the establi.shment of the .Moguls— .1fo)i(/M/«. 
 as they ought to be termed — consisted in the sacking of 
 cities, "in the plunder of temples, and in a series of bloody 
 vii-tories. Nearly all the Mohammedan invaders of India 
 at this time were Afghans or Pathans. Originally fire- 
 worshippers, thev were converted to Islam, and in bigotry 
 soon surpassed those who converted them. They first, for 
 several centuries, contented Iheniselvcs with feeble raids 
 into India. Hui Mahinud of (ihazni was more fortunate, 
 and after ten raids succeeded in annexing Lahore and its 
 fertile territories. His standard was black, fit enildem of 
 his crimes. Ho stormed Batinda, a fortress of enormous 
 strength, whereupon ,Ii-i|>al, king of Lahore, abdicated and 
 committed suicide. After this he eugagcl in nine more 
 bloody raids before making Lahore his residence, and 
 thus finally laying the foundation of Mohammedan power 
 in India. " During this period he gained many victories, 
 and still further did he subsequently signalize himself He 
 attacked Somnath in (iuzerat. This was the most ancient 
 and opulent shrine of the Uajpuls. A terrible battle was 
 fought. All the R.ajput princes banded together, and op- 
 posed, with desperate bravery, the iconoclast of (ihazni. 
 But their efforts were unavailing. Somnath was captured, 
 and the booty obtained in gold and precious stones was 
 simidy incalculahle. For more than 100 years subse- 
 quently the desolation of .<omnalh remained as a monu- 
 ment to the desperate and fanatical couniffe of .Mahmud. 
 Ho d. in lO.'iO. His son, Ma«auil. sueeeeded bim. after 
 having blinded bis twin-brother, but Masaud was after- 
 wards depnseil. and the blind prince rose to the throne. In a 
 few years all was in confusion again, and there was a 1-apid 
 aeriei of assassinations in the royal households. In HIS, 
 Beirain ascended the throne. He was an estimable prince, 
 as things then went, but could not resist murdering his 
 
 introduced the (ihoriar dynasty and reigned in his steed. 
 A Turki slave. Kutb-ud-Deen, succeeded him, and founded 
 the first Indian slave dynasty. His son, Ar.am, succeeded 
 him, and was in a year deposed by .\ltainish. When Altaiuii-h 
 in his turn died, liis sou succeeded him, but in seven months 
 was depo.sed by his beautiful and clever sister, Rezia, who 
 is known to have been the only female who has ever ruled 
 personally in Delhi. Her Britannic Majesty, Queen Vic- 
 ..!,:,.<... toria. is '•empress of India," but tjueen Rezia is the only 
 . p., had I female potentate who has ruled, as the head of all Indian 
 sovereigns, in the capital of Hindoslan, for such Delhi was 
 then reckoned. It is narrated of her that she adopted a 
 very ultra-Bloomer costume, and went about administering 
 justice amougst men as if she herself were a man. A 
 Turki chief, Altunia. rebelled against her. There was a 
 severe battle, and she was defeated : but she soon con- 
 quered her conqueror — by marrying him. Shortly after- 
 wards she and her husband fell victims to a rising of 
 nobles. Beiram, her brother, ascended the throne of Delhi 
 after her, but was soon quietly assassinated. His succes- 
 sor Masaud, was deposed. Nasir-ud-din-Mahmud and 
 Balin followed after him. and were themselves succeeded 
 by Kei Kobad. With him ended the dynasty of the slaves 
 of the sultan of Ghor. Kobad's life appears not to have 
 been remarkable for anything but vice. He poisoned his 
 prime minister, plunged into the wildest debaucheries, aud 
 ended his life miserably after an attack of palsy. He was 
 followed bv Feroz Shah, who inaugurated a new dynasty 
 of these Pathan kings of India in the year 12kS. He was 
 followed bv a prince of great ability, who reigned for 
 twenty-one' vears. and on the whole successfully and glor- 
 iouslv". but w"as rightly termed, Ijy Mohammedan historians, 
 "the" Sanguinary." Alla-ud-din-Khilji— such was his 
 name— began his" reign by murdering his aged uucle just 
 as the old man was patting him affectionately on his check 
 and assuring bim of his friendship. He next distinguished 
 himself by killing the two sons of Feroz Shah, his prede- 
 cessor. Constantly, at this time, the Moguls were attempt- 
 in" to establish themselves in India. Alla-ud-din sent out 
 his able general. Zafur Khan, against them, and was com- 
 pletely victorious. But the "sanguinary " potentate was 
 jealous, and allowed the valiant soldier who had saved his 
 kingdom to be sacrificed, just in such a manner as we are 
 informed in the Holv Scriptures Uriah was. He then con- 
 quered Rajputfina. When the Rajputs found his army at 
 the gates of Chitoor. the queen aud all the women of the 
 city, with their children, flung themselves on an immenso 
 pv'ro that had been previously prepared, and died in the 
 fl'amcs they themselves kindled, whilst the Rajput men, 
 fin-hting to"the last, allowed Ibemselves to be slain, one by 
 one, outside the walls, rather than yield. Padmani. the 
 queen, was a woman of rare beauty, and the Rajputs still 
 remember her name with devotion. Alla-ud-din captured, 
 during the course of his wars, a young, handsome eunuch 
 named Malik Kafur. whom he appointed his prime min- 
 ister, fiebl-niarshal, and viceroy. Malik subsequently poi- 
 soned his master and rose to his throne. Malik kafur next 
 blinded the two sons of Alla-ud-din, but the third escaped, 
 raised the armv, and killed the treacherous eunuch. The 
 name of this sin of Alla-ud-din was Mubank. The very 
 first thing this sovereign did was to murder those who fore- 
 warned him of Malik Kafur's purpose and protected him, 
 and the second thing he did was to put out his infant 
 brother's eyes. The rest of his life JIubarik spent in de- 
 baucheries "and flavine his enemies alive. Kliusru khan, 
 whom he made bis vizier, was a Gujcrat Parwary slave. 
 After ablv conducting his master's aftairs, be assassinated 
 him and reigned in his stead, but was soon himself assassi- 
 nated and in l.'t21, Ohiaz-ud-dcen-Tughlak. his murderer, 
 sat himself on the vacant lhr..nc aud began the dynasty 
 of the Tiighlaks. which is cninmonly known as the filth 
 \firhan dvnisly -Tuna Khan, the son of Ghiaz, contrived 
 to ki'll his fallier bv the lall of a gorgeous pavilion into 
 which the uiisuspeeiiug king was induced to enter. .luna 
 Khan was a verv Icarne.l but inilTiciuit ruler: his state 
 grew insolvent aiid everywhere rebellions menaced bun. 
 We need not refer to the remaining kings of this miserable 
 dvnastv The seventh dvnasly was more wretched flill 
 under ih'e weak sway of the four Syeds. The last dyna.«ly 
 of the Mohammedan power, before the .Mogul empire ab- 
 sorbed all. was that of the three Lo.lis. The last of these 
 Ibrahim, f.oight Sultan Baber, the Tartar governor of 
 f'abonl. The latter sacked nnil burnt Lahore, and over- 
 threw IlM-nhiin at the famous battle of Panipat. Ibr.allim 
 was killed. Dilhi and Agra were taken, and from this tiino 
 (l.'>2fi) must he ilnted tho rise and progress of the Mogul 
 empire in India. 
 
 irr. The ffinlnni a/Ihe M„^,il Empire.— The Jlogul em- 
 pire was one of the most splendid dominations India hat
 
 1144 
 
 INDIA: ITS HISTORY. 
 
 over known. In its i)almiest days it was a sovircc of real 
 and wide good to Hindustan. According to Mohammedan 
 aulliorilies there were fifteen eni]ierors of tliis dynasty; 
 some later authorities say seventeen, for as tlic tenth and 
 eleventh rulers of this line they include two Rafis, who.se 
 comhined rule only extended over a period of three months 
 in 17111. Omitting these, we have the following emjierors : 
 Baber, who ruled from 1526 to 1.^)30; Humayun, li.JO-oG; 
 Akbar. Ij5(i-1605; Jehangir, 16U3-28; Shah Jchan, 1028- 
 58: Aurungzccb, 105.8-1707; Shah Alam I., 1707-12 ; Je- 
 handar Shah. 1712-13; Farukshir, 1713-lU; Mubammed 
 Shah, 1710-48; Ahmed Shah, 1748-54; Alamgir, 1754-59; 
 Shah Ahim II., 1759-1806; Akbar II., 1800-37; Moham- 
 med Bahadur, 1837-57. Baber, the founder of this noblo 
 nice of kin"s, was descended from the Tartar Tamerlane, 
 bis mother being a Mongol. He hated the Mongols, yet 
 his dynasty obtained the name of that race under the cor- 
 rupt form of " Mogul." His life was one long battle. Pani- 
 pat secured bis footing in India. The plunder of Agra find 
 Debi in 1526 at once raised him to a position of immense 
 power, for opulence means power in the East, as a rule. 
 In 1529 be conquered Behar and Bengal. His death (in 
 1530J was a romance iu itself. His eldest son, Humayun, 
 ■was mortally sick. Baber pr.iyed that his own life might 
 be accepted 'for that of bis son. Strange to say, from that 
 hour the son recovered .ind the father's health declined. 
 A beautiful tomb in Cabul covers his remains. Humayun 
 now ascended the throne, but in stormy times, lie was 
 defeated by bis enemies, and during his lligbt from India 
 his son. the famous Akbar, the glory of the Mogul dynasty, 
 was born. After many years of exile and suO'ering, during 
 which time India was" convulsed under unsettled govern- 
 ments, he returned, invaded India, took Lahore, and shortly 
 afterwards met with a fatal accident in his palace. His 
 son, Akbar. was now only thirteen years old. Under the 
 able generalship of Beiram Khan, a Persban, Akbar's hotly- 
 contested position was established. In 15CU, Boir.am Khan, 
 who had gradually been usurping too much power, at- 
 tempted a revolt against AUbar, but was defeated, cap- 
 tured, and generously pardoned, but on his way to re- 
 lii^ious retirement in Mecca was assassinated in Guzerat. 
 Akbar, then in bis eighteenth year, was at length recog- 
 nized as the real as well as nominal emperor of Delhi. He 
 had Ijeen nursed in warfare from his childhood, and under- 
 gone a wonderfully successful training for his difficult posi- 
 tion. He entered upon a number of campaigns immediately 
 after Beiram's death, proved successful iu almost all his 
 undertakings, and e.xhibited, in the midst of all his most 
 e.xhilarating victories, an equable temper and a liberality 
 and mercifulness quite remarkable in those savage times. 
 The reader must not forget that all the Mogul emperors 
 were Mohammedans. Some of them were exceedingly 
 bigoted ones, and oppressed the Hindus iu the most cruel 
 w.ay. But .\kbar set before him a policy of conciliation 
 which has never been paralleled in Indian history till Eu- 
 rope claimed India for her own. In 1592, Akbar obliter- 
 ated evcrv trace of the Afghan dynasty in India. All over 
 India — ainongst the Rajputs, in Cashmeer, Scinde, and 
 Kandahar — the armies of Akbar were victorious. Akbar 
 next anne.ted Khandeisb and took .\hmednuggur in the 
 Deccan. At length (in 1605) this wise pcditician, great 
 monarch, and large-hearted man died, and was buried near 
 Agra, and Jebaugir, his son, reigned in his stead. He was 
 inTemperate, violent, and soiled his hands with blood as 
 his father never did before him. He was a bigoted Mus- 
 sulman, and alienated the Hindus by reversing his father'^ 
 well-advised policy. This emperor is chiefly known as the 
 husband of a beautiful and wise woman, Nur .Jchan, or 
 " Light of the World." The name of that mighty empress 
 upheld the dynasty like a spell. Even when, after a ter- 
 rible disaster, her "unworthy husband had been captured, 
 she rushed to share his captivity, plotted his escape, over- 
 threw the enemy, iind restored to the emperor bis throne. 
 At length he died, and Shah Jchan succeeded him. Little 
 need be said of this emperor. He lived surrounded by 
 battles with the Deccan in the S., decimated by pestilence 
 and f;vniine. Suddenly he fell dangerously sick. His sons 
 fought for the throne "while the parent was still alive. Au- 
 rungzeeb was the most successful of these, and assumed the 
 imperial dignity in 1G5S, putling nearly all his opponents 
 and relations to death, and his aged father in prison, where 
 ho died eight years after. Thus began the most super- 
 ficially magnificent reign India has ever known — a reign 
 to laud which to the utmost JIuhammedan chroniclers can 
 find no words sufficient. Aurungzeeb utterly revoked the 
 policy of Akbar. He was a most narrow-minded Mussul- 
 man, and the slaughter of infidels was his supreme delight. 
 Everywhere Hindus fled before his h.ateful power. But he 
 was .a man of immense resource, ability, self-relianee, and 
 resolution. His armies, minutely under his personal su- 
 pervision, carried all before them. Every detail of civil or 
 
 military government passed under his eye. He spared no 
 labor himself, and enforced in certain military matters the 
 most rigid diseipliue, whilst in others he gave his fanatical 
 troops the utmost license. But it was dangerous for one 
 of bis subjects to become too successful. He was morbidly 
 jealous, and the general who rose to too great eminence 
 after a campaign was as a rule assassinated fur bis pains. 
 Mosques, mausoleums, minarets, and palaces rose rapidly 
 in the great ceutres of Muhammcd.auism, but works of gen- 
 eral utility were neglected. Enormous wealth flowed into 
 the coffers of the emperor, and flowed out as fast without 
 doing any good, further than aggrandizing the dynasty. 
 At length, in the eighty-ninth year of his age, Aurungzccb 
 died, and with him, it has been said, the Mogul empire 
 passed away. Internal divisions rent it ; a constant suc- 
 cession of wars between different pretenders to the throne 
 set the vvholc land aflame; the Mahratlas grew up to be a 
 mighty and warlike people, who defied the power of the 
 kiiigs of Delhi; the llujputs rose and won for themselves 
 independence ; the Carnatie became the great battle-ground 
 of India. So change succeeded change, as one Mogul em- 
 peror succeeded another, till in 1857 the last miserable ruler 
 of the house, Mohammed Bahadur Shah, rose against Brit- 
 ain and abetted the mutineers. His sons and grandson 
 were shot, and he himself transported for life to Burmah, 
 where, in Maulmain, he died. Such was the close of the 
 Mogul empire. 
 
 IV. Tlic Illclun/o/lJie Cni-iiaHc. — ^Vc must briefly glance 
 at this, without entering into any detail. Hitherto, the In- 
 dian history we have gone over has related almost wholly 
 to North-western and Northern India. Southern India 
 now claims a word Jor itself. It was hero that, after the 
 first Aryan invasion thousands of years ago, the aborigines 
 chiefly 'took shelter and became massed in dense commu- 
 nities. Then afterwards, when other invasions from the 
 N. W. succeeded, and the Afghans and the hordes of Baber 
 poured, in wave after wave, into India, still Southern In- 
 dia remained as the great refuge for the earliest inhabitants 
 of the Peninsula. Curious references to Southern India ap- 
 pear in the writings of Ctesias, the Persian court-physieian 
 IB. c. 400). Several )io"rts on the Coromandcl coast of South- 
 ern India have been identified with those mentioned in the 
 famous Pcutingerian Tables. The Carnatie, till A. B. 1294, 
 was wholly ruled by Hindu rajahs. After that it became 
 successively a Mohammedan, Mabratta, French, and Eng- 
 lish battle-"field. Tlie Carnatie is interesting as having been 
 the scene of the glories of the Pandiyan .and Chola dynas- 
 ties. The capital of the Chola dynasty was Conjevcram. 
 The Pandiya rajahs took Madura in the S. for their cajnlal, 
 and the batter city has been regarded as the Benares of the 
 Deccan. It was the great Carnatie centre of Hindu activity 
 from the eighth century till quite recently. It was the fos- 
 ter-mother of art, science, literature, and religion. From 
 the earliest times Southern India has lieen one vast gran- 
 ary. It was boasted by the chroniclers of six centuries ago 
 th"at " not a span of land in the Deccan was free from cul- 
 tivation under the Chola and Pandiya kings." Every- 
 where stately temples arose, and in the present day the 
 sculptured shrines of Srirangam, Chillambram, the Seven 
 Pagodas, Madura, Tanjore, and Ramcswaram vie, in their 
 way, with the most famous specimens of ancient architec- 
 ture in the Bombay or Calcutta presidencies— with the 
 caves of Elephanta or the Taj at Agra. The Carnatie is 
 the scene of Nizain-ul-Mulk's enduring successes. The fa- 
 mous Vizian.agar Hindu kingdom, once occupying nearly 
 the whole of the countrv now called the JIadras presidency, 
 has still a limited jilaee in Soulbcrn India. The fertile 
 provinces of Mysore and Travancorc have an interesting 
 history ; and it was in the Carnatie that the English had 
 to figlit to the death— first with Hyder AM, and then with 
 Tippoii Sultan. 
 
 V The IlUtorv of the Mahratlas.— Mai. ere passing on, 
 we must at least allude to the Mahrattas, without a men- 
 tion of whose astonishing successes as a brave, warlike 
 power the briefest epitome of Indian hisb.ry would be im- 
 perfect. The founder of the Mabratta p..wer was the great 
 Sivaji, a man who was at the same time as bravo and in- 
 trepid as a lion and cunning and wary as a serpent. He 
 was born in 1027 a. d. The .Mahrattas at that time were 
 good fighters and thorough balers of the Mohammedans. 
 Their militarv tactics were formcil upon plans which ad- 
 mirably suited the countrv they inh;ibited: and these tac- 
 tics Sivaji perfected. Tlieir ciuntry is one which presents 
 a constant sueeession of rooky hills and masses of boulders, 
 rising above alluvial plains. In these elevations the people 
 constructed their most impregnable hill-forts. The race 
 themselves were hardv, naturally active and brave, capital 
 skirmishers, and rea"dv to go to the world's end, so to 
 si.eak for plunder. Their svstem of warfare was of the 
 rough and impetuous kind, and the (Ian of Mabratta cav- 
 alry rendered them dreaded everywhere. Tennyson, the
 
 INDIA: ITS HISTOEY. 
 
 1145 
 
 poct-laureate of England, is quite felicitous when he 
 writes — 
 
 '■ Whtu in iriW Mahratla batlle fell ray father, evil-starr'd. 
 Sivaji began his career at the early age of nineteen in 
 eeiiing the hill-fort of Tornca and then in building an- 
 other. He next took in succession several other forts, and 
 attacked the Vizianagar government, and also carried his 
 frecbooting expeditions even into Mogul territory, then | 
 under Shah Jchan. The Vizianagar power sent Afzal 
 Khan to crush Sivaji, but the wily Mahralta entrapped * 
 the general, plaved lihud to his Eglon, and destroyed the : 
 whole of his armv. After three years the ^ izuinagar j 
 government was glad to make peace with the man whose 
 name was a terror from the Malabar to the Coromandel ' 
 coast; whereupon, at once, Sivaji turned his attention to 
 the Moguls and ravaged their territories to the very gates ; 
 of Aurifngabad. Then, to inspirit his troops, he performed | 
 an exploH of incredil.le daring. At midnight he slipped, j 
 whollv by himself, into the city, joined in some marriage 
 festivities, surprised the Mogul viceroy and wounded him, 
 killed his son and attendants, and escaped to his own force 
 scot-free. For many years he carried on this war during 
 the reign of Aurungzeeb at Delhi. Siv.iji attacked Surat, 
 got together a fleet of 8j sail, and became the terror of 
 the whole Malabar coast, and annoyed the Mussulmans 
 by constantly chasing and destroying their Arabian pil- 
 grim-vessels. At length, by weight of numbers, Sivaji 
 was partially subdued, and was actually induced to Join 
 the Mogul forces as their ally. This he did, and, as he 
 could never live without fighting, attacked the Vizianagar 
 power and gained a series of brilliant engagements. Shortly 
 afterwards, breaking again with the iMoguls, he caused 
 himself to be solemnly enthroned in Rligliur. He weighed 
 himself agaiust gold, and gave the ten stone of the precious 
 inetal which represented his weight to his lirahman sub- 
 jects. Ho next engaged in a raid in the South, and re- 
 turned with great plunder to Raighur. his capital. He d. 
 Apr. j. 11)80. Sambagi succeeded him, but he was the weak 
 f.)n of a great father. At length ( in lOS'J) Aurungzeeb cap- 
 tured hiin, i)Ut a red-hot iron to his eyes, had his tongue lorn 
 out by the roots, and then decapitated him. From those 
 days to the present, though the character and fortunes of 
 their successive chiefs have changed, the Mahratlas have 
 still remained a warlike people. They measured swords 
 bravely with the Portuguese and English, and were not 
 thoroughly taken in band till, after having been over and 
 over agaiii hopelessly vanquished by the British arms, the 
 " subsidiary system " was put in force, and the land is now 
 
 [it IlCUCC. 
 
 VI. The Hilton/ of the Portngueae in Indiu. — Whilst 
 treating of this portion of our subject, we may also speak 
 of (VII.) the history of the various Indo-European com- 
 panies ; of (VIM. > the history of the French in India till 
 their surrender of Pondiehcrry ; and of (IX.) Anglo-Indian 
 history till the npiiointment of the first governor-general. 
 In 1 197, Vaseo da llama rounded the Cape of Good IIo])e, 
 procured a pilot at Melinda, struck out boldly across the 
 Indian Ocean, and landed at f'alicut on the Malabar coast, 
 where ho was received with great pomp by the rajah. Dsx 
 liama, having thus o].ened up the way to India, returned i 
 to Portugal, and in 151)0 a second expedition was sent out 
 to India under Alvarez Cabral. Eight friars were sent 
 with this expedition to propagate Christianity in India, 
 but on arrival they used the sword as freely as the gospel. 
 V/ar naturally followed, and the Portuguese bombarded 
 Calient and burnt the shii.ping in the harbor, and then 
 withdrew to Cochin. In a year's time they returned to 
 Portugal, eminently suceessful for the time being, as far as 
 mere trade went, for the whole Inilian Ocean was now at 
 the ecimman.l of their ficet. liut their arrogant policy 
 made them hated in India. In Io02, Vaseo da liama re- 
 turned to Calicut, and .some of bis first acts were to burn a 
 ship with all its crew and to cut off the hands and feet of 
 fifty natives of various classes collected from the native 
 vesVels in Calicut harbor. He returned to Europe without 
 accomiilishing anything better. In l.^OJ the Portuguese 
 sent out their first viceroy. Almeyda. In 1 JOS, Albuquer- 
 que, the greatest name in Portuguese Indian history, suc- 
 ceeded Alineyda, and in the next year he captured the city 
 and fine harbor of (Ina, and at once the power of Portugal 
 rose to importance in Inilia. liut soiui wars sprung up on 
 every side, and alter Albuquerque's death the Mahratlas and 
 Mohammedans pressed the colony very sorely, anil within 
 a century the Portuguece empire in the East— in Ceylon 
 and the .Sloluecas as well as at Goa— may be sai.l to have 
 almost utterly collapsed. With it also, fortunately, ool- 
 lapsed the Inquisition and other peculiar institutions which 
 Ihe Portuguese introduced into India for the " benefit of 
 Hindus, "shortly after the first nppeaianee of the Portu- 
 euesc in India four European East India coinimnies fol- 
 lowcl them— namely, the Hutch in liUl, the English in 
 
 1600, the French in 1C6S, and the Danish in IGIC. The 
 Dutch settlements in India have never been very iiuporlaut, 
 and have subseciueutly all been ceded to England. Tliesc 
 were Negapatani. Bimlipatam, Pulicat, and Sadras. Tho 
 Danes established themselves at Tranquebar and Ser- 
 ampore, and sold these places subsequently to the English 
 in 1845. At tho present da_y it is most curious to notice 
 these quaint Dutch and Danish towns in India, which have 
 a curious Oid-World air about them. In l.'»7'J i 
 
 a curious uiu- >i oriu air aoouL iiieiii. xu i./i .» an Euglish- 
 man named Thomas Stevens travelled to Goa, and pub- 
 lished a narrative of his travels in England. The book 
 attracted great attention. Other English travellers re- 
 counted their adventures, and some of them travelled t" the 
 court of Akbar with letters from the English queen Eliza- 
 beth: and then (in lliOO) Queen Elizabeth determined on 
 incorporating by charter the famous P.rilish East India 
 Compauy. The company was to be tho medium of all 
 trade-communication between Britain and India ; was to 
 have twenty-four directors and one chairman ; and in lfi24 
 the company was formally authorized to punish, even cap- 
 itally, their .servants, and' thus were regarded as a govern- 
 ment as well as a trading association. lu IGU the first 
 English factory was established at Surat, ou the western 
 coast, and five years later, besides several other factories, 
 the company had one on the eastern coast, at Masulipatam. 
 In 11139, Fort St. George, at Madras, was built. In 1G4» the 
 first Bengal factory was established at Hooglily. Everywhere 
 along the sea-line factories, more or less fortified, sprung 
 up. and did a rapidly increasing business. At length, in 
 1664, Sivaji attacked"Surat, and the natives first learned to 
 appreciate the bravery and aptitude for war of the English, 
 who successfully drove the victorious Mahratlas back, and 
 protected the town of Surat in a manner which so delighted 
 Aurungzeeb that he forthwith gave the English tinders 
 great concessions. In lOOS, Bombay wa« made into a pres- 
 idency. It had been given to England as a part ol the 
 dowry of Catharine of Braganza. In 1098 a fort was 
 ordered to he built in Bengal : it was called Fort William. 
 Thus begins the history of Calcutta. But bclore this tlie 
 French had lauded iu India. The famous Colbert organ- 
 ized a company on a firm basis in 1CG4. under the patron- 
 age of Louis XIV. This company began rapidly to estab- 
 lish factories near existing British ones; for instance, in 
 Masulipatam and Surat. In 1G74 the French bought Pon- 
 diehcrry, on the Coromandel coast, which still belongs to 
 their government; Francois Martin was the founder. In 
 109:) Pondicherry was attacked and taken by the Dutch, 
 but was subsequc'ntlv returned after the Peace of Ryswick. 
 It was then more eiaborately fortified by the French, and 
 soon rose into great importance as a mart and port on tlie 
 Coromandel coast. In IGSS, Aurungzeeb gave the Freiich 
 Chandanagore, in Bengal, a small settlement which they 
 possess at the present day. In 17:il. Dupleix, the French 
 Clive, was appointed director of Chandanagore. Every- 
 where the French factories rose and flourished, and it was 
 not long before it was seen that the supremacy of !■ ranee 
 or that of England in India must be decided by force of 
 arms. From the first there had been no boundaries between 
 Ihe rival companies, and their factories were indiscrimi- 
 nately dotted over the Peninsula. When war between Eng- 
 land "and France broke out in Europe, Ihe spark would 
 naturally fly to India and the whole country be ablaze. 
 This was clearly anticipated, and thus French and English 
 vied with each other to obtain influence and form alliances 
 with those native potentates who happened to possess at 
 the time large standing armies. At length war did break 
 out between England and France in Europe, and the flame 
 spread to India. Dupleix and Ea Bourdoiinais thelieuch 
 admiral, attacked Madras in 174G, took it and the garrison 
 and compelled the English to redeem it with a ransom of 
 four lakhs and 40,000 rupees. The English cantives were 
 sent as prisoners to Pondicherry, saving a few who escaped 
 Among these latter was the future hero of India, I live. At 
 this brilliant French success the nawab ol Arcot grew 
 jealous, and sent 10,0011 men against them. But the wlu.lo 
 of this armv was overthrown by 2.10 Ircnchmen under Du- 
 pleix and Paradis, assisted by only 700 native troops Plie 
 fame of this splendid achievement spread through all Imlia. 
 The French wore rcgarde.l as the greatest Euroiiean pow-er 
 in India. This state of afl-airs continued till 1.4S, when by 
 Ihe Peace of Aix-ln-Cliapelle England and 1 ranee were 
 once more at unity. Dupleix, mortified and chagrined, had 
 to deliver back Madras to the Knglish. Peace was nothing 
 to continue between the two European powers in India. 
 The throne uf Arcot was the subject of a war helwecn the 
 occupier. Anwar-ud-deen, and Chanda Sahib, the aspirant. 
 Tho latter had the symiiathies and assistance of the Frciicli, 
 and was at first successful. Anwar-uddeen was killed. 1 lie 
 British then supported tho succession of his son as against 
 Chanda Sahibs claims, and inarched GOO Englishmen, un- 
 I der Lawrence and Clive, together with a vast native army
 
 1146 
 
 INDIA: ITS HISTORY, 
 
 (a largo part of wliich was composed of Mahratta soldiers), j 
 towards Pondicherry. Now the tables were turned, and i 
 the Kn;;lish won the day. But in a short time the French, j 
 under the able and irrepressible Duj)U'ix, suddenly mur- 
 dcreil Xazir Jung, the viceroy of the Deccan whom the 
 English had appointed, and in a great measure regained 
 their jjrcstige in Snuthorti India. In 1751 the Freneli were | 
 still the real rulers of the Carnatic. But now a terrible ; 
 strugi^Iecoinnicnccd. Tlio Knglish were thoroughly aroused. I 
 ('live with ;120 men and i officers took Arcot, and held it j 
 lor seven weeks against 10,000 of Chanda Sahib's troops. 
 At length the garrison was relieved by Sauiulers after a ' 
 desperate fight ; Chanda Sahib fled. Tlie prestige of Eng- j 
 land rose anew. In 1762, ("live followed up his victories. I 
 Dupleix had built a town and pillar to commemorate his 
 successes; these Clivc deinolislied, and thereby greatly 
 impressed the minds of the superstitious Hindus. Next, 
 the rock of Trichinopoly, beleaguered by the French, was 
 relieved. The French army was caught in a trap in an 
 island between the Cauvcry and Colcroon rivers, and Law, 
 the general, "Hj FrctichTncn. and 2000 native troops were 
 captured by Lawrence an<l Cl.ivo. Chanda Sahib fled to 
 Tanjiire, and was there soon after assassinated. After 
 this, for several years, Du})lcix did his best to retrieve tho 
 French cause, but failed. In 175fi the news reached India 
 that Eu'/land and France were again at war. The French 
 general Lally came and took the field, and unsuccessfully 
 besieged Madras. The English commanclcr, VA're Coote, 
 soon after landed, and opened the campaign against tho | 
 French. The decisive battle of Wandewash was fought. Tho I 
 French power was for ever utterly crushed in India. But | 
 two years before this the great battle of Plassey had been 
 fought in tho North, and all India was already virtually 
 nt the mercy of England. At first the English factories 
 had been unimportant in Bengal, as compared witli Madras. 
 In 17.')0 a new native ruler ascended the throne of Bengal, 
 Behar, and <.>rissa. This was that most infamous name in 
 all Indian history — Nawab Surajah Dowlah. This man 
 suddenly attacked the English in Bengal, first at Cossira- 
 bazaar, and then at Calcutta. Drake, the governor, found 
 no means of resisting the overwiiolming enemy. Sending 
 all tho women and children out of the settlement by ship, 
 he himself followed, leaving Mr. Holwell and 145 Euro- 
 peans behind to treat with Surajah Dowlah. The infuriated 
 nawab now entered Calcutta. That evening — a sultry one 
 in tho hot month of June — the entire number of the 146 
 I'nglish captives was crammed into a dungeon eighteen 
 IVct square, with only two small breathing-hides in it. In 
 such a climate as that of India in the month of June, tho 
 j.rison would have been found very oppressive for one 
 European prisoner, but here were 146 thrust into it. The 
 horrors of that night can scarcely be even imagined. In 
 the morning all of the captives were dead with the excep- 
 tion of 2.'}, and these were at the last gasp and i)resented a 
 s:id sight. Such is the memorable episode of the Black 
 Hole of Calcutta. The news of the atrocity quickly flew to 
 Madras, and soon Clive was in Bengal, where he carried 
 tvcrything before him, A hollow ])eace was made in 1767, 
 liut soon broken. The nawab must be deposed. In tho 
 intrigues necessary to obtain native co-operation towards 
 this end, a wily Bengalee named Oinichund was employed. 
 The plot grew ripe, whon suddenly thuichund informed 
 Clivc that he woubl n-veal nil uuless lie were jiromisod, by 
 a clause in the treaty nominating Meer .Taflir to tho throne 
 of Surajah Dowlah. the sum of ;i. 000. 000 rupees. Clivo 
 now k-nt his hand to the one ignoble action of his life. 
 Two treaties were drawn up — one on red and one on white 
 jiaper. The one on red was tho false treaty, with tho 
 clause which Omichund required inserted in it. This was 
 shown to tho Bengalee, and he was satisfied. Clive now 
 wrote to tho Nawab Surajah Dowlah dnnanding instant 
 satisfaction for all the injuries which had been incurred by 
 the Eufi^lish, stating that he must answer to tho British 
 army for his crimes unless he at once satisfied each one of 
 the claims which shr)uhl be made. Of course the nawab 
 sprang to arms, and with 50,000 infantry, 18,000 cavalry, 
 and an immense train of artillery, ]ioured down on tho 
 English general with his (\'>Q European infantry, 1.^)0 gun- 
 ners, 2100 Sepoys, a few Portuguese, and 10 j>ioccs of ar- 
 tillery. On the evening of .Tune 22, Clive held the only 
 council he summoned in nil his campaigns. It was a very 
 anxioua one. Thirteen of the members of it voted against 
 attacking the immense army of Surajah. Seven — one of 
 whom was the sagu'-ious anil intrepid Coote — voted in favor 
 of the attack. After the council liad risen Clive took a 
 lonely walk on the rivor-bnnk. The whole scene is an his- 
 torical one. The next morning was to eee the vast penin- 
 sula of Hindustan, from tho Ilimalayas to Cape Comorin, 
 virtually won for Britain. CHve and his little army at- 
 tacked the nawab with the dawn. Plassey was fought and 
 won on .lune 21^, K.''*". The victory was terrible and com- 
 
 plete, though the English only lost 72 killed and wounded. 
 Surajah was seized and jiut to death by his successor. But 
 the English soon had occasion to dethrone Meer Jaffir and 
 to appoint Meer Kassim, his sou-in-la\v, as nawab. But 
 ho soon rebelled, ami at Patna massacred 14S English 
 gentlemen and soldiers in cold blood. He was, however, 
 soon vanquished. By successful wars and tho natural oper- 
 ations of trade the English power in India went on increas- 
 ing and consolidating, till (in 1774) Warren Hastings be- 
 came tho first govcruor-gcnerjil rtf British India. 
 
 X. The (jovrruorH-ffcneruf nf /ntfifi. — A\'arr('n Hastings, 
 as ho was tiie first, may bo regarded as also undoubtedly 
 the greatest, of the governors-general of India. Whatever 
 may have been his mistakes, he was brave, honest, disin- 
 terested, and of great ability as a statesman and soldier. 
 His governorship extended from 1774 to I7S5. Tho chief 
 events of this time may thus be briefly summed up. Tho 
 famous Regulating Act was passed, by which the Parliament 
 of Britain formally recognized the East India Company as 
 a ruling body, it being agreed in the charter that the gov- 
 ernor-general should be paid £26.000 ji year and have a 
 supremo council of four, and that India should possess a 
 supreme court of Judicature. It was at the same time 
 stipulated that England should receive from tho East India 
 Company forty lakhs of rupees annually. It was in virtue 
 of this act. and under the provisions of it, that Hastings 
 became governor general. Col. Monson, Gen. Clavcring, 
 Philip Francis, and Jlr. Barwell were his council of four. 
 The first three of these did everything they could to thwart 
 the governor-general. Francis was their leader. He is 
 ■well known to English history as that Sir Philip Francia 
 who is supposed to have been the author of the Lettcra of 
 Jatiiua. An implacable hater, in social life a heartless vil- 
 lain and debauchee, in public life a shrewd and calculating 
 politician, he was an unscrupulous enemy of great poaver; 
 and to him must chiefly be traced Hastings' final impeach- 
 ment. To proceed, Shujah-ud-Dowlah. nawab-vizier of 
 Oude. died in 1775. His mother and widow, called begums, 
 claimed his treasures, 2,000,000 rupees, and for a time they 
 got possession of them. Thus, the young nawab entered 
 upon his reign with an empty treasury, g(d into debt, and 
 accused the begums of plotting against Hastings. The lat- 
 ter suddenly cut the knot of the difficulty by making tho 
 begums pay 0,700.000 ru)>ecs to the East India Company. 
 Shortly before this a wily native named Nuncoomar tried 
 to crush Hastings by ascribing to the governor-general 
 crimes of various kinds. The three members in the su- 
 preme council inimical to Hastings actually believed this 
 accuser, and favored him in his designs against their com- 
 mon foe. But Hastings was equal to the occasion. Tho 
 Brahmin had supported his evidence against Hastings by 
 documents palpably forged. An eminent native merchant 
 suddenly brought a suit against Nuncoomar for forgery. 
 The case was heard before the chief-justice of Calcuttii, Sir 
 Elijah Impey. The real prosecutor of course was Hastings. 
 Nune<K)mar was fouud guilly and sentenced to be hanged. 
 To the horror of all Bengal, the lioly Brahmin was not rc- 
 ])rievrd. The execution was not forgotten for many a day. 
 On the pari of Hastings it was a stroke as politic as it was 
 pitiless. It at once asserted his power even against the 
 majority of his council, and this was needed at a time when 
 the Mysoreans. the Dutch, the French, and the Mahrattas 
 were all fighting together against the English. At length 
 {in 17S6) Hastings retired to England, jlis impeachment 
 belongs to English history. In 1780, Lord Cornwallis went 
 out to India as the second governor-geueral. He had done 
 nothing to justify his appointment, unless his delivering 
 himself and his army in America to Washington only five 
 years previously may have been regarded as a sign of his 
 good sense. During his governorship he did nothing re- 
 markable, save to give his im])rimatur to an excellent sys- 
 tem of land settlement. The third governor-general was 
 Sir John Shore (UlKUHS). Tho fourth was the Marquis of 
 Wellesley, whose r6gime extended from 171*8 to 1805. The 
 marquis was one of the ablest men who ever set foot in In- 
 dia. He acted with great decisicm of character in his deal- 
 ings with native potentates, and by everywhere pursuing 
 a wise policy of friendly intervention, using violent inter- 
 vention when absolutely necessary, he aggrandized tho 
 British power and firmly consolidated it. Hydcr Ali in tho 
 Cjirnatic had been overthrown. Under the marquis Welles- 
 ley the fourth Mysore war, against Tipjioo Sultan. s<m of 
 Hydcr. was successfully terminated in 1700. Scringapatam 
 was taken. It would require n history in itself to describe 
 seriatim the struggles of the British power in India in the 
 Carnatic with Hyder Ali and the " Tiger of tho Deccan," 
 his son. But it was in this year (17ltO) that the stronghold 
 of the latter, Serin(;apataiu. was stormed, and Tippoo him- 
 self slain under a heap of his fierce defenders. In ISOl tho 
 aflTairs of Oude were regulated. Shortly afterwards the 
 second Mahratta war was sueccssfully brought to a close.
 
 INDIA INK-IXDIAXA. 
 
 1147 
 
 Everywhere the Britifh arras were victorious. Lord Corn- 
 wallis, for the sefon.l time covcrnor-gcncral. succeeded 
 Marquis Wcllcsli-v in ISOj. His policy was that of peace 
 at any price, lie did not live loug euough to do serious 
 mi'chicf, an.l Sir (Jcorgc Barlow suceeedcl him in the 
 same vcar, and governed till 1807. lie was inclined lo 
 cniiv Lord Cornwallis. with certain laudable exceptions. 
 On '.July 10. ISllO. at 2 a. «.. the Sepoys of the Carnatic 
 icilitary station of Vellore mutinied, and massacred in 
 European troops. Their reasons for thus rising against 
 the British Government were stated to be that the new 
 „„7.;,-.e sanctioned as a head-dress for the troops was 
 really a European hat. and that the emblem of the cross 
 had been introduced into their uniforms: Jjy which the Se- 
 poys auderstood they were to be made forcibly Chris- 
 tian" "So great a fire a little spark kiudlcth. They 
 were'nuicklv overcome. Earl Minto succeeded Barlow 
 in l"*!); and his governor-generalship lasted till IM... 
 The Travaneore war broke out and was riuellcd during 
 this period. The marquis of Hastings succeeded Earl 
 Minti in ISU, and his rule lasted till lS2:i lie, like 
 his predecessor, was a man of statesmanlike ability, llie 
 war of Ncpaul was entered into at this time, and termi- 1 
 nated in a measure favorably for the British arm«. The 
 eighth governor-general was Lord Amherst (182.i-LiS). His 
 rfeimo was first distinguished by the hazardous under- 
 taking, yet successful termination, of the Burmese war. 
 In 182i, Malacca and Singapore were ceded by the Dutch 
 to the British empire in the East. Lord Bcntinck was (he 
 ninth governor-general (1828-35). At this time the Thugs j 
 were repressed and the horrible practice of the self-immola- 
 tion of Hindu widows isee Sittkf.) forbidden. Lord Auck- , 
 land was the tenth governor-general. The fatal Afghan 
 expedition and the Chinese war marked his r.-gime. I'rom 
 I14' to IS 1 1, Lord Ellenborough ruled as the eleventh . 
 governor-general. During this time Sir Charles Napier | 
 conquere.l and quieted Scinde. His laconic despatch after 
 taking the countrv will be remembered : " /'err„n . —i. e. 
 •• I have sinned ""i Scinde). The twelfth governor-general 
 was Lord llardmge (ISH-IT). The first Puujaub war was 
 now fought, and four great battles were won in 54 days. 
 The thirteenth governor-gcnetal was the earl of Dalhousie 
 (184S-5G). Oudc was now annexed, the second Burmese 
 and the second Punj.aub wars fought, and the system of 
 Indian railways and telegraphs organized. The fourteenth 
 governor-general was Lord Canning (ISofi-Cl), and his r6- 
 L'irao is not likely to be forgotten in the annals ol Hind'>s- 
 tan, because of the great Indian Sepoy mutiny of ISo,. 
 Hero again we enter upon an episode of Indian history 
 upon which hundr.'.l-i of volumes have been written The 
 s'pov regiments were getting dissatisfied. They felt their 
 numerical power. They had been furnished with new 
 Enfield rifles. Bigoted Mussulmans among them declared 
 that the new cartridges which had been supplied to the 
 lro(,ps ha.l been smeared with the fat of pigs and cows. 
 On Mar. 10 the mutiny began at Berhampore. Everywhere 
 throughout India fanatics, ascetics, fakirs, and moulvics 
 ru«hed about spreading disaffection, and prophesying the 
 fill of the British power and the extermination of white 
 men from the face of India. Especially the Mobainiiie.hins 
 considered that they were to regain their cmimc in the 
 East The last .M.igul emperor headed them. The signal 
 for war was circulated from the Himalayas to Cape Como- 
 rin in the form of flat flour-cakes called .liup/iniiir,. At 
 Meerut the first great outbreak took place. 1 he eyes ot 
 the European officers throughout India were fata y 
 blinded They believe<l in their men, and their naturally 
 honest Anglo-Saxon character could not fathom the depths 
 of the treachery of the wily Asiatic. The European part 
 of Mcernt was burnt, and every English man, woman, an.l 
 child massacred. At Delhi the commissioner, military 
 coniniandant, the chaplain and his poor daughter first 
 met their doom in the sight of the last Mogul emperor. 
 Everywhere the land was in flames against the white inan. 
 Tlo- lii>rrible massaere of ( 'awnjiore forms one ol the blackest 
 ni.'es i>f the history of the world, and was perloriued un- 
 diTihc supervision of that supremest of miscreants, Nana 
 >Jahib The garrison defended themselves, but were prom- 
 ised tiieir lives if they would depart and give up the treas- 
 ures of the place to liie muline.rs. Alter a long struggle 
 thev consenlcl. When they were once in the boats which 
 were to convey them nwav. Nana Sahib and the treacher- 
 ous mulineers'on the bank of the river opene.l fire. Men, 
 women, and children were killed, mutilated, and w.mndcd. 
 Many were .Iragged back to the shore. Fair and noble 
 Euroiiean ladies were carried back to the ei y, sumred pol- 
 lulioii worse than death, and were flung with their children 
 down the now famous well of Cawnpore. Sir Henry Have- 
 lock soon avenged their .leath. Outram aiul C yde and 
 Lawrence and Neill arc a few of the l.onorab e names 
 which shine in that dark and stormy time. Lucknow 
 
 and Delhi were stormed. The mutiny was quelled, but the 
 shadow of it has not vet passed from the hearts of living 
 men who have ha.l anything to do with India. In l.s,,s. 
 (he year after the mutiny, a great change was inaugunited. 
 India was placed under" the direct authority of the eiown 
 of Britain : the East India Company was done away with ; 
 the governor-general was made "viceroy;" the Indian 
 European army, as such, was abolished; the Indian civil 
 service was thrown open to competition. Tho governor- 
 general is now responsible, not to a board of East India 
 Company directors, but to the secretary of state for India, 
 assisted bv a council of fifteen members. Queen Victoria 
 issued, on all this being determined, a solemn proclamation 
 to India, which now the native princes and Hindus gener- 
 ally regard a.s the supreme charter of (heir liberlies. After 
 Lord Canning's rf-gime. Lord Elgin. Sir .lohn Lawrence, 
 the earl of Mayo (assassinated at the Andaman Islands), 
 and Lord Nor'thbrook have followed as governors-gener.al 
 and viceroys. Lord Xorthbrook is now (1875) in power, 
 and his governnien( has been especially marked by the wis- 
 dom and thoroughness with which a fearful Indian famine 
 in Bchar and Bengal has been met and finally overcome. 
 
 R. C. Caldweli-. 
 India (or Chinal Ink is of two kinds : (1) the dried 
 pigment frimi certain cuttle-fishes. When browned by tho 
 action of an alkali it bceomes sepia. It is prepared in 
 1 Italy, in Turkey, and in Asia. (2) A mixture o( fine lamp- 
 black with glue'or size and a little camphor. It is prepared 
 in China, and is a very useful pigment. Bo(h of tlie above 
 1 arc used in Asia as writing inks, and both are practically 
 
 indelible. (See I.vK, by I'ltoF. B. Sii.i.niAN-, M. D.) 
 
 1 India Matting, a material largely employed ns a 
 
 summer carpeting and for the covering of the floors of 
 
 , sleeping chambers. It is imported from Bengal, where it 
 
 I is woven from the stems of Papyrus Pangurci or coi-jni- 
 
 hositft. 
 
 In'dian, tp. of I'lumas co.. Cal. Pop. 8S0. 
 
 Indian, tp. of Washington co.. Me. Pop. 14. 
 
 Indiiin, tp. of Williamsburg co., S. C. Pop. 1147. 
 
 India'na, one of the central States of the American 
 Union, Iving between tho parallels of .'57° 46' and 41° 4G' 
 N lat., and the meridians of 84° 49' and 88° 2' W. Ion. 
 
 Seal of Indiana. 
 Its ereatest lenglli from \. to S. is 277 miles, and its great- 
 est brea.Kh from E. to W. 176 miles, while its average 
 breadlh is about 1 10 miles. It is bounded N by Lake 
 Michigan and the State of Michigan, the parallel of 41 
 46' being the boundurv-line ; E. by Ohio, its eastern limit 
 being a line drawn due N. from the mouth of the (.reat 
 Miami niver: S. E. an.l S. by Keiilueky, from which it is 
 divided by the llliio River; W. by Illinois, the boundary 
 being tho meridian of 87° :UI' W. until (hat meridian strikes 
 the Wabash River, and thoneo through the inid.Ue ol the 
 main channel of the Wabash River to its entrance int.. (he 
 Ohio The area of the State is :!:i,S01l square miles, or 
 '21,6:17,760 acres. In 1870 it ha.l 40.75 inhabitants to the 
 
 square mile. . • • r„ 
 
 /•'.I.-. ../' Ihe Countri/. — There are no mountains in In- 
 diana, and n.i hills of'consi.lerahle height except what are 
 ealle.l' the river-hills. The rivers which drain the Slat.- 
 have in the pn.gress of ages ero.lcd valleys of e..nsi.leial.le 
 dei.th an.l uiucli greater width than (heir ].resent ehonn.ls, 
 ' an.l the slopes which bound these valleys give (h.- appcar- 
 ftuce of hills varying from 200 („ 400 feet in heighl above 
 the river-vallevs, an.l at (ho highest points being ab..ul 600 
 feet above the level of the sea. The highest p..rli..n8 
 of (he State are on its E. an.l W. si.Ies, some of the river- 
 hills along tho Wabash Valley attaining (he alliludo of
 
 1148 
 
 INDIANA. 
 
 GOO feet above the sea : and from these points to the Ohio 
 below the falls near Louisville there is a gradual slope ot 
 somewhat more than 100 feet. There is. however no 
 marked or distinct watershed in any part ot tlie M.ue. 
 About two-thirds of the State is very level, the remainder 
 broken or ndlinj:. but with no high elevations. But owing 
 to this re.ature of river-hills an aeeount of the nver-systems 
 of the Slate and their valleys is necessary to a full umlcr- 
 standing of the face of the country Beginning ">""'';; 
 S we have first the Ohio River Valley, including that ol 
 the White Water River, whicb occupies a tract of aliout 
 5.500 square miles in the State. The Ohio River borders 
 the State for a distance, by the course of the river, of about 
 3S0 miles. The Ohio River Valley on the Indiana side 
 was originally covered with heavy forests. The river-hils 
 are rugged and broken, a.i.l about a dn/eu -'"■^■;'«^' ""j^' ^ 
 small and not navigablc-Ihe Great Miami and the Wa a h 
 being the only c.oeptions-break thi^igh the "ver-^lulls 
 on the X. sidean.l form bold bluffs. The valleys of the E. 
 and W. forks of White River, and the prairie-lands which 
 thev enclose, extend from the Wabash to the Ohio line, 
 coverin" a little more than a degree of latitude and an area 
 of aboiil 9000 square miles, or somewhat more than one- 
 fourth of the area of the State. The region is almost uni- 
 versally level, and the eastern part was originally heavily 
 timbered, while the W. is prairie, with oceasiona ly some 
 low, broken hills. The streams are generally clear and 
 unfailing, and there are sufficient falls to furnish a^""' »" 
 water-power. The soil is very rich-much better than that 
 of the Ohio River Valley. The valley of the Wabash 
 River and its affluents is the largest in the State, covering 
 an area of over 12,000 squ.are miles. It interlocks with the 
 M-hite River V.alley, and resembles it in its fertility. The 
 K portion is somewhat more rolling and broken. There 
 are considerable waterfalls in the middle portion of the vab 
 lev The Wabash has a course of COO miles, and, though 
 much obstructed by drift-wood and silt, might be made 
 navi-rable for steamboats of light draft to Wabash in W a- 
 ba^h°co., about 400 miles, though only by a heavy expendi- 
 ture The valley of the Maumec and its principal trilnitary, 
 the St. Joseph." occupies a tract of about 2000 miles in the 
 N E part of the State, and slopes gently toward Lake 
 Eric'into which the Maumee discharges its waters. An- 
 other and larger St. .Joseph's River, from Michigan, dip- 
 pin- down into Elkhart and St. Joseph cos. and returning 
 to Michigan, drains those counties into Lake Michigan: 
 while in the N. W. the Kankakee, an affluent of the llli- 
 nni. with its branches, drains eight counties into that river. 
 The Kankakee Valley is somewhat swampy, and the river 
 expands at several points into broad marshy lakes, iho 
 soil is generally good, though near Lake Michigan it is 
 sandy a^d barren. The tributaries of the Ohio .n the State 
 are the Great .Miami, which touches its S. E border, and 
 its main affluent, the White Water, the Laugbery, Indian 
 Kentucky, Fourteen Mile. Silver, Buck Creek. Indiai. Blue, 
 Great Blue, Little Blue, Oil Creek, Anderson s. Little Pig- 
 eon, Big Pigeon, and the Wabash: of these only the f.r.t 
 and last are navigable <.r of much importance. Tlie Wa- 
 rces in Ohio. Its course is N. W. to Hun- 
 
 bash has its sources in Ohio. Its course . - - 
 
 tiu.'ton CO., thence W. by S. to Amsterdam m Cass co., 
 thence S W. to Baltimore in Warren cA., and thence !r., 
 biarii..' sli-btlv W.. till it enters the Ohio. Its principal 
 ?i?, aaries-areifrom the S. and E the Salamon.e Mis^ 
 8is,inewa, Deer Creek, Wildcat Creek. Sugar or Rock, Big 
 
 and Little Raccoon rivers, Otter ""■<"■'•/''''"'';•,''"',„ e^ 
 creeks, and White River: from the N. and W.. Ee . Tip pe- 
 ~ Little, Vermilion, Embarras, and Little Wabash, the 
 fa three bJing mainly in Illinois. The E and ^^ .forks 
 vhich, uniting: form the White River, the largest affluent 
 of the Wabash, have themselves a number of tributaries of 
 considerable size. Among those of the E fork a>e fie Sal , 
 Mus.atatuck, Sand, Clifty. Flat K'^k. SuK-"- ^I'^^'V'' 
 and Lick Creek, while th.- W. fork has Fall Creek, Big .- 
 dian Bean Bhissom, Richland, and Prairie creeks, and hel 
 River The St. Joseph's and the St. Mary's unite to form 
 the Maumee in the N. E., and the Michigan St. Joseph >:c- 
 eoives the Pigeon River and the Little and Big K"^l>art m 
 the State. The Kankakee has several small fecdeis in the 
 State, and its principal branch, the Iroquois after a con- 
 siderable course in Indiana, unites with ,t in Illinois. Deep 
 and Calumet rivers, small streams which flow into Lake 
 Michigan, run very near its shores. The State is well wa- 
 tered. There are numerous small lakes and ponds, but none 
 of large size. Beaver Lake, the largest, is in Newton eo., 
 an.l covers about 10.000 acres. The southern shore has an 
 extensive marsh. There are also several very pretty s.iiall 
 lakes in Noble. Kosciusko, Marshal, S'»'^' »">'„I';. ^^-^J^ 
 COS., and three or four in Knox co. in the S. W. part ot tbe 
 
 ^"o'°'.?o.,w.-Indiana has not a great variety of geological . 
 formations on or near the surface. The Silurian system .» 1 
 
 the oldest in the State, and, proceeding in a direction about 
 S W by S. from bmh Lakes .Michigan and Erie, it appears 
 in the e'xtreme N. W. and S. E. of the State. In both eiises 
 il dil.s under the Devonian rocks, which occupy with their 
 formations about three-fiflhs of the surface of the btate. 
 In Benton co. the Illinois coal-field enters the State, the 
 Devonian rocks dipping b.neath it. The coal-m.asurcs 
 extend from the Wabash River to Crawford eo. on the 
 Ohio, and crossing the Ohio enter Kentucky. Their area 
 in Indiana is .about 7700 square miles. There are many 
 different qualities and varieties of this coal. At Cannel on 
 and other points on the river it is found high up on the 
 river-bluffs as cannel coal, and is in great demand |..r 
 river-steamers and for domestic purjioses. and at various 
 points along the Wabash and Erie (anal, from Evonsville 
 northward, seams of free-burning bituminous coal of good 
 quality are worked. In Spencer co.. and thence N. N. » . 
 to Clav eo. and above, the block coal (so named from its 
 occurring in quadrangular blocks of varying thickness) is 
 abundant. It is easily mined, and is found to be superior 
 to anv other coal known, and even to charcoal, for the pro- 
 duction of pig iron and steel. Two specimens of this block 
 coal analyzed by Prof. Dclafontaine gave the following rc- 
 
 ' Water at "12° F l.SC-3.91 ; Fixed carbon ^;?2;:^X'?', 
 
 VolaMk. n^atte? 37.11-:!0.K4 Ash, while 2.80-2.44 
 
 ' On distillation in a closed vessel the following resulU were 
 
 obtained: . 
 
 (•o);e G3.05 I Water, approximately.... 15.11 
 
 Tar, approximately 15.30 , Gas • •_ 
 
 The water contained ammonia and other soluble chcnii- 
 cals besides a small amount of hydrosulphate of ammonia. 
 The amount of phosphoric acid was 0.3 per cent., and ot 
 sulphuric acid. 0.0 per cent. The amount of phosphoric 
 acid is verv much less than that of the best English smell- 
 ing coals, "those of Pontypool, Bcdwas, Eborvale. etc., and 
 there was an entire absence of sulphur, of which there was 
 a notable percentage in the English coals. Tbe importance 
 of these facts to iron-masters is very evident, as_^the phos- 
 phorus (or phosphoric acid) and sulphur are the two in- 
 eiedicnts which have most seriously injured the quality o 
 American iron. It is found, too, that there is very m.ch 
 less phosphorus than in charcoal, that from elm. oak, and 
 appli tree wood yielding from 4 to V per cent of phosphorus, 
 while the block coal yielded but three-tenths of 1 per cent. 
 This coal is said to make also the best Bessemer steel. Salt- 
 springs are found along the borders of the coal formation. 
 There are also many quarries of white limestone of excel- 
 lent quality for building purposes, a fine sandstone like the 
 Chen.ung or Portsmouth (0.) sandstone, slate, brick, and 
 norcelain clays. Some grindstones, small deposits of gyp- 
 Cu. and bog-iron ore. though not sufficiently abundant to 
 pay for working, are the other principal minerals of the 
 
 '^' "vVr/ftnt.-on.— The State in its earlier history was largely 
 cover'ed with forests, having much less open prairie than 
 Illinois, but under the influence of settlements, the demands 
 of its railroads, and the requirements for fuel these forests 
 are rapidly disappearing, and less attention is given to the 
 culture of forest trees than should be. A careful investiga- 
 tion bv the agricultural department gives the entire average 
 in woodland in the State at 7..S41,145 acres or 34.8 per 
 cent, of the entire area. The forests are mainly deciduous 
 trees, such as black walnut, white, red. burr, and black oak, 
 hickorv, sugar, and red maple, ash, beech, linden, svea. 
 more, el «. and tulip or whitewood. There is very li He 
 native pine, spruce' or hemlock in the State. The under- 
 growths are principally dogwood, pawpaw, wild plum. 
 Thorn, persiininon, erab-anple. etc. 1 he "'^""^"ke ( /.....- 
 ,,l„,ll„;„) and some of tKe species of ■'"»"''^^'' »",,[' "^ 
 along the streams. Wild flowers are abundant, although 
 Tin. number of species is not large. W ild aiumals. espe- 
 ciallv the Carnivora. are nearly extinct in the Mate Bears 
 are very seldom seen ; the coyote or prairie-wolf is becon,- 
 inir rare : and occasionally the raccoon, opossum, and skunk, 
 as well as the woodchiiek or ground hog and the gopher 
 are found. Hares or rabbits and squirrels abound ni the 
 forests, and the smaller rodents are sufticenlly picnt.v. -The 
 Erouse or prairie-hen has been bunted so relnitless ly that 
 ft is comparatively scarce. Pigeons, partridges, and occa- 
 sionallv wild-turkeys are found. 
 
 CV,Lle -The climate is liable to sudden and frequent 
 changes. The range of the thermometer each ■^""t';. '« 
 very great. The heat in summer is intense, and the win- 
 ter'i cold equally severe. These extremes »>«. ";i""' 
 greater in the northern than the southern part of the State. 
 The following table gives the monthly and annual "^"'P''™- 
 ture, range of the thermometer monthly, average annua 
 pressure of barometer,- direction of winds, and annual 
 maximum and minimum temperature in M"=>l'gan C t.^ 
 Logansport, Indianapolis, and New Albany-four poinU
 
 INDIANA. 
 
 1149 
 
 nearly cquiUistant from each other, and fairly representing 
 tha different climates of the State — in the years 1S72-73 : 
 
 
 UtCTituin 
 City. 
 
 LoOAJtHPOBT. 
 
 [ifUUKAPOLU. 
 
 .Vbw .iLIANY. 
 
 Ob«ervftUoilt. 
 
 L«. JI'ss-.N. 
 
 I.!>1. (0° « N. 
 
 L«l. S90 «' S. 
 
 L»t. M' 20' X. 
 
 
 Ixm.UGJiT'W. 
 
 l.on.(i<r>2.'W. 
 
 Un .«;'(»»•. 
 
 Loh.7:P03'W. 
 
 Ann'l mean 
 
 Klcr.,G5ifcet. 
 
 Klc«-.,510tc<!l. 
 
 Elcv., 746.7 n. 
 
 Elcv., <96 IM. 
 
 
 
 
 
 pr>.'&iure ba- 
 
 
 
 
 
 rniueter 
 
 30.033 
 
 
 30.023 
 
 30.060 
 
 Monthly 
 
 
 
 
 
 range of 
 
 
 
 
 
 temperature: 
 
 
 
 
 
 October 
 
 54° 
 
 64° 
 
 54° 
 
 52° 
 
 Xovembcr.. 
 
 61° 
 
 48° 
 
 42° 
 
 53° 
 
 December... 
 
 69^ 
 
 
 
 35° 
 
 65° 
 
 January 
 
 07" 
 
 
 
 38° 
 
 0j.5° 
 
 February... 
 
 71° 
 
 54° 
 
 50° 
 
 01.0° 
 
 March 
 
 72° 
 
 71° 
 
 60° 
 
 6.S.0° 
 
 ■\pril 
 
 5S° 
 52° 
 48° 
 
 asP 
 
 30° 
 
 ■trp 
 40° 
 
 32° 
 4.3° 
 
 48° 
 41° 
 40° 
 35° 
 41° 
 
 52.0° 
 
 I rfav 
 
 43.0° 
 
 
 41.0° 
 
 July 
 
 35.0° 
 
 1 Auj^ust 
 
 31.0° 
 
 1 ,'Septcinber.. 
 
 47° 
 
 4-1° 
 
 53° 
 
 52.0° 
 
 j Monthly 
 
 
 
 
 
 mean temp- 
 
 
 
 
 
 erature: 
 
 
 
 
 
 October 
 
 50.8° 
 
 44..'!° 
 
 50.0° 
 
 56.0° 
 
 November.. 
 
 32.5° 
 
 35.2° 
 
 36.0° 
 
 37.5° 
 
 December... 
 
 20.3° 
 
 
 24.4° 
 
 '29.4° 
 
 January 
 
 20.7° 
 
 
 25.0° 
 
 31.1° 
 
 Februa'ry... 
 
 24.0° 
 
 31.3° 
 
 30.4° 
 
 36.8° 
 
 March. 
 
 34.6° 
 
 31.7° 
 
 :i8.5° 
 
 43.3° 
 
 .\pril 
 
 42.3° 
 53.9° 
 70.2° 
 71.2° 
 71.7° 
 
 47.7° 
 53.1° 
 
 7i!i'° 
 
 73.5° 
 
 50.3° 
 04.0° 
 77.0° 
 73.5° 
 75.0° 
 
 51.0° 
 
 May 
 
 07° 
 
 
 78° 
 
 July 
 
 79° 
 
 .\USU3l 
 
 78° 
 
 September.. 
 
 62.4° 
 
 62.7° 
 
 64.0° 
 
 69.5° 
 
 Ann'l mean 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 temperature. 
 
 46.25' 
 
 53.0° 
 
 50.84° 
 
 55.23° 
 
 .Monthly 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! rainfall; 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' October 
 
 0.05 
 
 \ ^-'^ 
 
 f 1.07 
 
 3.92 
 
 I N'tvorabcr.. 
 
 l.OC 
 
 1 0.80 
 
 0.56 
 
 December... 
 
 0.19 
 
 t 
 
 ? 2.10 
 
 2..'iS 
 
 January 
 
 2.53 
 
 V 12.3 
 
 J 4.50 
 
 2.93 
 
 F.:bruary... 
 
 0..17 
 
 i 
 
 •2.85 
 
 5.42 
 
 Mar.-^h 
 
 0..'i9 
 
 ) 
 
 343 
 
 3.39 
 
 April 
 
 12 
 
 V 10.5 
 ■ 12.8 
 
 ■J 5.91 
 
 3.05 
 
 May- 
 
 7.20 
 1.44 
 4.04 
 1.SS 
 
 1 3.89 
 f 3.70 
 J 11.23. 
 1. 1.32 
 
 5.73 
 
 
 3.87 
 
 July 
 
 3.43 
 
 August 
 
 3.04 
 
 S.:ptcmbpr.. 
 
 2.511 
 
 -.... 
 
 1.76 
 
 2.51) 
 
 .\n. rainfall... 
 
 23.75 
 
 42.8 
 
 42.o6 
 
 40.42 
 
 Prev. winds: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Parts of davs 
 
 
 
 
 
 of N. wind. 
 
 128 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 96 
 
 " N. W. " 
 
 85 
 
 
 147 
 
 188 
 
 " \V. " 
 
 141 
 
 
 142 
 
 113 
 
 " S. W. " 
 
 213 
 
 
 176 
 
 l.")0 
 
 " 8. 
 
 117 
 
 
 180 
 
 192 
 
 " S. E. " 
 
 79 
 
 
 78 
 
 8S 
 
 " E. " 
 
 79 
 
 
 64 
 
 143 
 
 " N. E. " 
 
 Ml 
 
 
 83 
 
 100 
 
 " Calm " 
 
 44 
 
 
 133 
 
 1-27 
 
 Max. temp.... 
 
 102° 
 
 Wi" 
 
 101° 
 
 9.-.0 
 
 Minimum 
 
 -■ifi 
 
 — 1U° 
 
 -8° 
 
 -4° 
 
 A'jfirAiltnrnl Pivdncts. — Indiana belongs to tlic grain- 
 growinj5 Statos, and in some of the grains takes a very 
 high rank. Its production of cereals in the year ISli'J-TO, 
 aocr>rding to the census, was — uf wheat, 27,7 17,222 huslieU; 
 of rvc, •iD7,l'>'S ; of Indian eurn, i}\,Wl,y.iS ; of oatH, 
 S.5'j6,409; of barley, ;i0rp,2r»2 ; of buckwheat, 80,2111. 
 Four years later thct^o crops were reported as follows: 
 wheat, 2U.k;{2,O00 bushels (a decided falling off); rye, 
 ;;'.I7. 111)0 : Indian corn, G7,>< 10.000 fa gain of ncarlv 
 ir.,7lfi,000 buMhcls); oats, ll.HIO.OOO (a gain of 10 per 
 cent.): barley, 608,000; buckwheat, irt'J.UOO (or almost 
 double). The crop of Irish potatoes in 18011-70 was 
 .'...IIMJ.OU bushels: in l-s;:!, only 2,520.000 ; tobacco in 1809- 
 70, 0,:t2j.3'J2 pounds: in 187;t, 16,(100,1)00; hay in Isfill. 
 1.070,708 tons; in 1S7:J, S'.Kt.liOU. The value of these 
 nine crops in 187-'* was $70,66fi,260, tliese constituting not 
 nioro than one-half of all farm productions in value. The 
 value of all farm proiluctions in ISO't-70 was $122.91 4, ^^02, 
 and this incliicled, besides otl)cr iniporhint items to bo men- 
 tioned nre?enlly, $2,868,080 of orchard products, $187,179 
 of market-garden products, $2.15(6.079 of forest products, 
 $r»06,fi:!y of homo manufactures, and $30,240,902 of animals 
 >laiightcre)l or nold for slaughter ; nearly $r»7. 1*00, 000 in 
 all. In lSOll-7", aTording to the census, Indiana pro- 
 duced 5.029.02."t poinuls of wool, 36,620 buslicts of peas and 
 beans. 160,706 bufshels of sweet potatoes, 19,479 gallons of 
 wine, 22,916,386 pounds of butler, 283,807 pound J" of cheese; 
 and sold 930. 9S3 gallons of milk. The iflablishmcnt of 
 butter and cheese factories since that time in the State, 
 nearly IiiO being now in operation, hits tloubled the pro- 
 
 duction of butter and cheese. Among the other agricul- 
 tural products of 1869 were Cl,li>S bushels of clover seed, 
 17.377 bu.^hels of other grass-seed, 03,884 pounds of hops, 
 22 tons of hemp, 37.771 pounds of flax, 401,931 bushels of 
 Qaxsecd, 1,332,332 pounds of maple-sugar, 227,880 gallons 
 of maple-molasses. 2,020,212 gallons of sorglium molasses, 
 12,0('J pounds of beeswax, and 396,278 pounds of honey. 
 In 1870 there were in the State 497,883 horses, 43,260 
 mules and asses. 393.730 mileli cows, 14,088 working oxen, 
 018,300 other cattle, 1.012.080 sheep, and 1,872,230 hogs. 
 The value of all the live-stock was estimated to be 
 $83,780,782. In 1874 the numbers of each were as fol- 
 lows : Horses, 049,600 ; mules and asses, 68,600 ; jnilch 
 cows, 448,100; oxen and other cattle, 780,300; sheep, 
 1,722.500: hogs, 2,490,700. The value of this live-stock 
 was estimated at $91,401,474. 
 
 M'i)ntf<trtiir>"i. — Manufacturing industry has been of slow 
 growth in Indiana, but has now attained to a considerable 
 magnitude, and is rapi'lly increasing. The largest branches 
 of manufacture arc (lour and flouring-raill proilnct?. lumber, 
 woollen goods, machinery, cars and carriages, iron and iron 
 goods (now rapidly increasing), furniture, boot.s and shoes, 
 clothing, agricultural implements, packed meats, and sad- 
 dlery and harness. In 1870 there were 11,847 manufactories 
 in the State, in running which there were used 2881 steam- 
 engines of 76,851 horse-power, and 1090 water-wheels of 
 23,618 horse-power; employing 68,862 hands, of whom 
 61,112 were men, 2272 women, ancl 2108 cbildreu; using a 
 capital (undor-cstimated) of $62,062,426 ; paying wages to 
 the amount of $18,360,780 ; working up raw material of tlie 
 value of $63,136,192; and producing to the amount of 
 $108,017,278. The largest industry was that of flouring 
 and grist mill i>roducts, in wKifh 902 establishments, era- 
 l)loying 3214 persons and a capital estimated at $8,516,627, 
 produced goods of the value of $26,371,322. Next came 
 lumber, planed and sawed, and sash, doors, and blinds, 
 which together, in 2006 mills and factories, employed 
 10.724 persons, and produced lumber, etc. to the value of 
 $1 1,788,203. In wool-carding and dressing and the manu- 
 facture of woollen goods there were 176 mills, em])loying 
 2409 hands, and producing goods to the value of $4,329,71 1. 
 In the way of machinery, 98 machine-shops, employing 2592 
 hanils, produced wares of the value of 5^l.l4il,3S4. In the 
 manufacture of carriages and wagons, 770 t^hops, employ- 
 ing 3326 hands, produced goods to the value of $3,()lti,068, 
 and 10 car-shops, employing 1403 hands, made cars for p.as- 
 sengers and freight valued at $2,677,720. In the manufac- 
 ture of furniture 362 establishments, employing 3190 hands, 
 niaile goods of the value of $3,820,930. Carpentering and 
 building, in 996 establishments, employing 2893 hands, pro- 
 duced houses, etc. to the value of $3,44"8,959. Distilled and 
 malt liquors were produced in 136 distilleries and breweries, 
 with the aid of 723 men, to the amount of $3,363,560. Iron 
 in the various forms of manufacture was produced in 122 
 establishments, em])loying 2101 hanils. to the amount of 
 $7,447,147; the present amount exceeds $12,000,000. 
 Packed meats (Ijeef and pork) were produced in 12 cstab- 
 lishincnt.s. employing 407 men, to the value of $2,826,021 ; 
 boots and shoes, in 988 shops, employing 2702 hands, pro- 
 duccil goods to the value of $2,099,114. Clothing for men 
 and women was produced in 267 establishments, emjiloying 
 1019 hands, to the value of $2,329,787. Agricultural im- 
 plements were produced in 124 establishments, employing 
 1208 hands, to the amount of .$2,128,791. (^JOper^lge was 
 carried on in 367 sliops. employing 1S08 hands, to the 
 amount of $1,921,878. Saddlery and harness, in 430 es- 
 tablishments, em]»loying 1833 hands, to the amount of 
 $1,064,311. Tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware, in 322 es- 
 tablishments, to the value of $1,293,200. Printing and 
 publishing, in 09 establif^hnu-nts, to the amount of 
 ^1,(08,142. Placksmithing, in 1332 establishments, em- 
 ploying 2G62 men and boys, to tho amount of $1,910,037. 
 
 iinilrnndn amf Ctuifih. — Indiana is interlaced with a 
 complete network of railroads, traversing nearly every 
 county. Acfvirding to Poor's UtiHioad Mttuntil for 1874- 
 76. at the beginning of 1874 there were 22 railroatls par- 
 tially or wholly within tho State, showing tho total length 
 of railway track to be 3837.06 miles. In Jan., 1876, the 
 number of miles of railroad in the State had increased 
 to 4,378.06 miles, though the cost of roads and eipiip- 
 ment was re])resented Ijy about tho same figures an tlio 
 year before. There arc two canals in the State. The 
 Wabash and Kric, from Kvansville to Toledo, a part, of 
 the way by plaek-water navigation of the Wabash and 
 Maumce. is 407 miles in length, 379 of which nre in In- 
 diana. It is no^v unu><ed beyond Lafayette. Tho White 
 Water Cjinal is 76 miles in length, from Lawrcnccburg on 
 the Ohio to Hagerstown. It is of more service thnn the 
 other. The statiNtiea of the compbted railroad) in the 
 State at the beginning of tho year 1874 are presented in 
 the tabic on tho next page.
 
 1150 
 
 INDIANA. 
 
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 Fmnjiccs.— The State debt of Indiana on Oct. 31, 1S73, 
 was $4,895,81.'i.31. Of this. $9!14,0.".U.I2 was held abroad, 
 but wa9 paj-able on presentation, a sufficient balance being 
 retained in the treasury to meet the bonds as fast as they 
 are surrendered. The "remainder of the debt. $3,904,783.22, 
 is held by tho Stale for the school fund, and is not negoti- 
 able, the State paving the interest on it annually to tho 
 schools. The receipts of the Stale treasury for the year 
 ending Oct. 31. 1S73, were, including the balance on hand 
 at the close of the preceding year, $4,3(IU,G03 
 
 ance from the previous year was $755,024.87. Tho dis- 
 bursements of the year, which included the redemption of 
 the unsurrendered bonds of 1S3C. the reimbursement of 
 over 890,000 of illegal ta.\es, and the payment of a large 
 portion of the expenses of the legislature of 1871, in 
 addition to the ordinary expenses, amounted in all to 
 §4,115,457.55. The assessed valuation of real and personal 
 estate in 1870 was S0r.3.4.)5.044, of which f4r,O,120,974 was 
 of real estate and $203,334,070 of per.s<inal estate. The 
 true valuation of that year, according to the estimates of 
 the r. S. marshals, was' $1,2(58,180,543. 
 
 C'immcrri:. — Indiana has no foreign commerce CTCcpt 
 that transacted through the ports of Chicago, 111., and 
 Miami and .^andusky. 0.: the amount of this is very con- 
 siderable, but not easily separable from that of the adja- 
 cent Stales. The intei-Statc commerce of the State is very 
 large. The gross earnings of its railroads from freights in 
 1873 were $1(;,915,744. which could hardly represent less 
 than $1,000,000,000 of freight shipped and received, while 
 to this is to be added ils'lake and river freights. The 
 transportation of iron ores from Lake Superior and from 
 Missouri to the newly-established blast furnaces of the 
 block-coal region for smelting is a branch of commerce 
 which has made great progress within the past three years, 
 while the moving of its vast crop of cereals, its million or 
 more of hogs for slaughter, and its immense droves of caltle. 
 task even Ihe large capacity of its numerous railways. The 
 return freights of manufactured goods, imported and do- 
 mestic, adcflargely to the mighty aggregate. There were in 
 Nov., 1874, 104 national banks in the State, 6 of which were 
 closing. These had an aggregate capital of $18,278,8110; 
 $16,575,300 of bonds on deposit, $21,333,075 circulation 
 issued, and an actual circulation of $14,905,206. There 
 were also 19 State banks, under special charters, having a 
 capital of $2,080,000 (savings banks' amount of deposits 
 not stated), and 96 private banking-houses, including 2 
 insurance companies which did also a banking business. 
 
 /n/iiiraiicf.— There were in July. 1873. 2 fire insurance 
 companies in the State, both at Indiana|ioIis, one of them 
 mutual, the other with a capital of $250,000, and the two 
 having assets amounting to $600,402. There was 1 life 
 insurance company (mutual), also at Indianapolis, with as- 
 sets to the amount of $303,159. 
 
 Ediii-nti'ni. — In 1870 there were, according to the cen- 
 sus, 395,263 children and ycmlh who atteuded school some 
 portion of the year: of these. 391,524 were of native and 
 3739 of foreign birth; 207,996 were males (206,363 whiles, 
 1620 colored, and 13 Indians). 187,267 females (185,777 
 white. 1469 colored, and 21 Indians). In the same year 
 there were 76,634 persons, ten years of age and over, who 
 could not read, and 127,124 who could not write. Of the 
 latter number. 113,185 were natives of the State and 13,939 
 of foreign birlh ; 118,761 were whiles, 8258 colored, 105 
 Indians; 5938 males between 10 and 15 years old, and 5134 
 females between the same ages ; 7878 males were between 
 15 and 21 years, and 7752 females between the same ages; 
 36,543 males were over 21 years of age, and 60,839 females 
 were over 21. There were in 1870, 9073 schools of all 
 classes in the Stale, with 11,652 teachers (6678 males and 
 4974 females) and 464.477 pupils (237,664 males and 226,813 
 females). The total income of these scho(ds for the year 
 ending .June I, 1870, was $2,499,511. of which $50,620 was 
 derived from endowment, $2,126,502 from taxation and the 
 public funds, .and $322,389 from other sources, including 
 tuition. Of these schools, 8871 were public, or belonging 
 to the coinnion-sehool system of the State. These had 
 11,042 teachers (6402 males and 4640 females) and 446.076 
 pupils (228,189 males and 217.887 females). Their income 
 was $2,063,599, of which $2,002,052 was from taxation and 
 the public funds, and $61,547 from other sources, includ- 
 ing tuition. There were 50 classical, professional, or tech- 
 nical schools (inelu.ling colleges), having 325 instructors 
 (184 males and 141 females) and 8337 students (4930 males 
 and .3401 females). The total income of these schools was 
 $366,511, of which $50,620 was from endowment, $118,250 
 from' taxation or public funds. $197,041 from other sources, 
 including tuition ; and 152 other schools, with 285 teachers 
 (92 males and 193 females) and 10,1164 scholars (4539 males 
 and 5525 females), with an income of $09,401, of which 
 $6200 was derived from taxation or Ihe public funds, and 
 $0,3,201 from tuition. Of the public schools, there were 1 
 normal, with teachers (3 male and 3 female) and 49 male 
 an.l 54 female students: 69 high schools, with 229 teachers 
 (106 male and 123 femalcl and 5228 male aud 4845 female 
 pupils: 371 grammar and graded common schools, wjlh 
 171 male and 558 female teachers, and 17,578 male, 18,751 
 female scholars: and S430 ungraded common schools, with 
 6122 male and 3956 female teachers, and 205,334 male and 
 194,237 female scholars. Of tho schools not public, there 
 were 6 universities (so named), with 06 male and 7 female 
 
 Tho bal- ' professors or instructors, 1428 male and 239 female stu-
 
 IXDIANA. 
 
 ll.H 
 
 deoLs, and an income of $;>2,S00 from endowment, $17,700 
 from Iho public funds, and $17,OaO from tuition, etc. There 
 wore I.'J colleges, witU 116 mule and 2S fcmalu iostructors, 
 21,U male and 071 female students, and au iucomc of 
 $I8,J20 from endowment, $17,700 from the public funds, 
 and $l't»,o;jO from tuition, etc. There were 10 academies, 
 with 20 male and 00 female teachers, i:!0j male and 2275 
 female pupiU, and $7;nOOO iucomc, of which SIOOO was 
 from endowment and $S0J0 from the public fun^ls. There 
 were I law school, with 2 professors and 51 students; 1 
 medical school, with 5 prt)fessors and I'.i students; 2 the- 
 ological schools, with -J professors and -Ui students. There 
 were 7 eommereial schools or colleges, with 15 instructors, 
 and 782 male and '.VA female |>upils; I institute for the 
 blind, with .1 male and -1 female teachers, .and 4:) male aud 
 57 female pupils, which received from the ^tatc $;I2,500 
 annually ; I institution for the deaf and dunil>. with 8 male 
 and 5 female teachers, 143 male aud 120 female pupils, 
 which received $00,000 from the .'»tate annimllv. There 
 were also 4 schools of art and music, with 4 male and 5 
 female teachers. .'M male aud 218 female pupils, and an in- 
 come of $8720 from tuition. There was alst) 1 other tech- 
 nical school, with .'I teachers, Gl male and 18 female pupils, 
 and an income of $1720, of which SI 100 was from endow- 
 ment. Of the other private schools of the State. 124 were 
 day and boarding schools, with 58 male and 143 female 
 teachers, and 2802 male ancl 3404 female pupils, and a 
 revenue from tuition of $47,427 ; 28 were ]iarochial and 
 charity schools, with ,'!4 male and 50 female teachers, 17.37 
 male and 2031 female scholars, and a revenue of $0200 
 from the public funds and $15,774 from other sources. 
 There was consitlerable progress made in the next two 
 years foUtiwing the census. The State has the largest 
 school fund (though it is not quite all productive) of any 
 
 State in the Union; it amounted in 1874 to $8,616,031. 
 The amount of revenue for the public schools in 1S72 was 
 $1,717,443.34. The legal school age is from 6 to 21 years, 
 and there were in the State 031,540 persons between these 
 ages. The number enrolled in the schools was 450,451, and 
 the average attendance 208,056. The total number of dis- 
 tricts was 0100, aud schools were taught in all but 70 of 
 these. There were 145 graded schools; the average length 
 of the schools in days was 116 days, or 23 school weeks and 
 1 day. The whole number of teachers in 1872 was 12,248 
 (7430 males and 481s females). The male primary-school 
 teachers receive an average of $1.05 per day, the female 
 primary-school teachers, $1.47 per day ; male high-school 
 teachers, S3. 77 per day; female high-school teachers, $2.40 
 per day. The whole number of school-houses in 1872 was 
 U080 ; of these, 88 were of stone, 877 of brick, 7568 of frame, 
 547 of logs. The total valuation of school property for 1872 
 was $0,100,480.15. In the matter of higher education there 
 are 10 colleges and universities, so called, and 3 collegiate 
 institutions exclusively for the instruction of women. The 
 State university is a university in the sense of having ]>ro- 
 fessional and scientific schools connected with it ; and, 
 though they have not all the professional schools attached 
 to each, yet as having some schools of post-graduate in- 
 struction. Wabash College. Hanover College, the Univer- 
 sity of Notre Dame, the Xorth-western Christian Univer- 
 sity, and Howard College may be reckoned as universities. 
 Hartsville University has a United Brethren theological 
 seminary connected with it. but Indiana Asbury Univer- 
 sity has no post-graduate schools. 
 
 Population. — The following table exhibits the population 
 at each period, jiccording to the census, since the organ- 
 ization of the Territory in the various relations of race, 
 sex, and color : 
 
 Ceoaui 
 jrcar*. 
 
 1800 
 IKIO 
 
 Hl.i 
 
 isjn 
 
 ISM 
 18:W 
 13:i5 
 1811) 
 1845 
 13:iO 
 lS-,4 
 18M 
 IS.iS 
 1870 
 
 5.3 W 
 
 2J,sao 
 
 l'-i.V,T38 
 
 saoiii'ra 
 
 678,098 
 
 on.V.M 
 
 l,338,7io 
 
 1,03'5,837 
 
 free eolortd. 
 
 Slaves. 
 
 Indians. 
 
 163 
 303 
 
 135 
 237 
 
 ioii 
 
 "ij 
 ■'"3 
 
 
 
 290 
 240 
 
 1,230 
 
 3,629 
 "7,Va5 
 
 11, -.'Gi 
 
 11,428 
 
 24,560 
 
 Tout. 
 
 5,641 
 
 24,520 
 
 00,074 
 
 147,178 
 
 224,717 
 
 343,031 
 
 485,053 
 
 685,800 
 
 82.'i,410 
 
 988,410 
 
 1,143,905 
 
 1,:»0,42S 
 
 1,.")3 1.080 
 
 1,080,637 
 
 2,574 
 12,570 
 
 77,303 
 
 177,742 
 
 357,704 
 
 611,893 
 
 699,200 
 
 857,994 
 
 2,003 
 11,320 
 
 69,685 
 
 165,286 
 
 329,339 
 
 476,523 
 
 651,168 
 
 822,643 
 
 930,458 
 1,232,144 
 1,539,103 
 
 Foretgncrs. 
 
 55,572 
 118,284 
 141,474 
 
 Of the native population in 1870, 770,009 were males and 
 760.151 females; of the foreign population, 78,085 were 
 males and 62,480 females : of the white population, 845,307 
 were males aud 810,530 were females; of the colored race, 
 12,585 were males and 11,075 females. Of the 567,175 per- 
 sons of scho(d age (5 to 18 years) in the State in 1870, 
 287,357 were males antl 270,818 females; of those of native 
 birth, 282,424 were males and 274,080 females ; of those of 
 foreign birth, 1033 were males and '4832 females; of the 
 white population of school age, 283,486 were males and 
 275,1121 liMuales. There were 3830 colored males and 3842 
 culured females of school age, 41 luilian mule children and 
 55 female children. Of the military age (18 tr» 45), there 
 wore of all classes 310, G>8 males; of these 274,618 were 
 natives, 45,010 of foreign birth, 314,329 whites, 5294 col- 
 ored, and 35 Indians. Of the ago of citizenship (21 years 
 and upwards), there were 388,2.31 unties, of whom 318.055 
 were natives. 70,176 foreigners, 382,070 whites. 0113 col- 
 ored, 48 Indians, and .370,780 actual citizens. The density 
 of the population to the square mile was in 1850,29.24; in 
 1800, 30.04; in 1870, 49.71. The number of families in 
 the .State in 1850 was 171,501; the number of ilwellings, 
 170,178; in 1800, the number of families was 2ls,60l, and 
 r>f dwellings, 256.946 ; in 1870, the number of families was 
 320,100, and of dwellings, 318,469. The number of per- 
 sons to a family at these three periods was respectively 
 5.70, 5. 1.3, and 5.25. The number of persons to n dwelling, 
 5.81, 5.26, and 5.28. 
 
 Mtifufiitnr, t*iittpri-iitm, and Cn'mr. — The State liaa a 
 well-comlueted hospital for the insane, though overcrowded 
 with patients; on Nov. I, 1873, it harl 474 inmates, and its 
 expenilitures for the year were $155, 170. .'[3. In the two 
 .State prisons, at Micliigan City an<l .leffersonxille, there 
 were res|iectivcly 295 and 3S7 prisi>ners ; these prisons 
 are self-supporting. The house of refuge IukI 216 boys in 
 charge; its expenditures for I 873 were $56,508,06, of which 
 $31,900 was from the State tretuiury. There is also a re- 
 formatory institute for women and girls, and a homo for 
 soldiers' orphans, both supported by the .^tale. The census 
 reports but 3(>52 paupers, an cstitiiate so far below the truth 
 that it is of no value for statistical purposes. During the 
 
 year ending June 1, 1870, 1374 persons were convicted in 
 the criiuiinil courts of the State, and 907 persons were con- 
 fined in the county jails on the 1st of .lune of that year. 
 Of these, 091 were native whites, 04 native colored, and 152 
 foreigners. 
 
 Libriirlea. — There were reported by the ninth census 
 2333 ]iublic libraries, containing 027,894 volumes, of which 
 1 was a Sliite library, with 17,^70 vtdumcs; 52 town :nid 
 city libraries, with 39,029 volumes; 92 court and law li- 
 braries, with 10,308 volumes ; 1000 school and college libra- 
 ries, with 323,391 volumes: 1075 Sabbath-.school libiaries, 
 with 201.692 volumes; 87 church libraries, with 24,356 vol- 
 umes ; 20 circulating, with 8248 volumes ; and 2968 private 
 libraries, with 497,059 volumes. 
 
 Acicspapt-i-H ami Prriotiirai». — In 1870 the number of 
 ncwspajicrs and pcriotlicals of all classes in the State was 
 293, having an aggregate circulation of 303,542, and issuing 
 annually 20,964,984 copies. Oflliese. 20 were dailies, with 
 a circulation of 42,300; 3 tri-wccklics, circulation 2200; 1 
 semi-weekly, circulation 350; 2.33 weeklies, circulation 
 239,.342; 6 semi-monthlies, circulation 9200; 28 nuinthlies, 
 circulation 64,150; 2 bi-monthlies, circulation 6000, There 
 were 6 advertising sheets, with 8700 circulation ; 5 agricul- 
 tural and horticultural, with a circulation of 11,500; or- 
 gans of ben<'\ olcnt or secret societies, with 7250 circula- 
 tion ; 4 cotnniercial and financial, with 13,000 circulation; 
 16 illustralcrl literary or miscellaneous, with 27,350 circula- 
 tion ; 2 10, including all the dailies and most of the weeklitNS, 
 political, with a circulation of 256,342; 9 religious, with 
 29,600 circulation ; 7 technical or professional, with a cir- 
 cuhitifui of 9800. There has been a considerable a<lvaiu'o 
 in the number t>f periodicals in the State since IS70, espe- 
 cially in the agricultural anil miscellaneous class. 
 
 t'Aiirt7/i».— There were in I870, according to the census, 
 3698 churches of all ih'nominatiuns, with .'ilOO ihurch 
 edifices, 1,008,380 sittings, and $11,912,227 of church prop- 
 erty. Of these, there were 552 regular liaptist churches, 
 476 church edifices, 1.35,575 sittings, and $1,047,625 of 
 church ijroperty. In 1874, according to the llapiinl Yrnr- 
 //.I"/- for 1875, there were 30 associations, 56.3 Ihiplist 
 churches, 333 ordained ministers, and 39,352 members of
 
 11.52 
 
 INDIANA. 
 
 the churches: .jg.i Sunday schools, with 11,1119 teachers 
 ,ind sciiolars : li;J,Si;j volumes in Sunday-school libraries : 
 and the amount expended for benevolent contributions and 
 church purpopcs was S;t(il,763. The census of ISTO re- 
 ported fi8 churches of minor Baptist denominations, 15 
 church edifices, HJ.SOU sittings, $S'J.700 of church prop- 
 erty. Of the Christian Connection, which in the census in- 
 cludes also the Disciples, unci probably to some extent the 
 Christian Union churches, the report of 1S70 gave 455 
 churches, 37" church edifices, 122,775 sittiners.and SS10,S75 
 of church property. In 1870 the Congregationalists in In- 
 diana were reported as having IS churches. 12 church edi- 
 fices, isno sittings, and $ll'.I.StOO of church property. In 
 lS7t they had 25 churches, 19 ordained ministers, and 
 12.).'} members. The Protestant Episcopal Church had in 
 1S70, 19 parishes, .IS church edifices. in,:i00sittings,$4y2. 500 
 of church projierty. The Prntrntant Epitrtipttl Almnnnc 
 for 1S75 gives liut -12 parishes. ;^.9 ordained clergymen, 3210 
 communicants, 3S11 Sumlay-school teachers and scholars, 
 and $1 17,50.3 of contributions for benevolent and church 
 purposes. The Evangelical Association (AHiright Method- 
 ists) had 47 churches, 40 church edifices. 10,925 sittings, 
 and S124,G00 of church property. In 1873 they had 85 
 ministers, 80 churches, 5909 members. The Society of 
 Friends in 1870 had 81 meetings, 76 meeting-houses, 29.500 
 sittings, $203,800 of church property. The Jews had 5 so- 
 cieties, 4 synagogues, 1900 sittings. $113,000 of church 
 property. The Lutherans in 187(1 had 195 churches. 180 
 church "edifices, 62,285 sittings, and SB1»,600 of church 
 property. There has been a decided increase since that 
 time, but owing to the formation of their synods it is im- 
 possible to give accurate statistics. Their membership is 
 probably about 12.000. The Methodists of all classes had, 
 according to the census in 1870, 1403 churches. 1121 church 
 edifices. 346.125 sittings, and $3,291,427 of church prop- 
 erty. In 1873 the Methodist Episcopal Church alone had 
 605 travelling preachers, 1361 church edifices, 100,434 mem- 
 bers, $3,672,215 of church property. The Moravians in 
 1870 had 2 churches, 2 church edifices, 650 sittings, and 
 $5000 of church property. The New Jerusalem Church 
 (Swodenborgians) had 1 church, 1 church edifice, 100 sit- 
 tings. $4000 of church property. The Presbyterians (Pres- 
 byterian (lencral Assembly, North, and United Presby- 
 terians) in 1870 had .333 churches, 315 church edifices, 
 116.500 sittings, and $2,000,550 of church property. In 
 1873 the Northern General .Assembly had 2 synods, 8 pres- 
 byteries. 210 ordained ministers, 297 churches, and 21.644 
 members. The United Presbyterians had 9 presbyteries, 
 72 ministers, 98 churches, and 8517 communicants. There 
 was also a considerable number of Ueformcil and Cum- 
 berland Presbyterian churches. Of the minor Presbyterian 
 bodies, the census reports 42 churches. 42 church edifices, 
 12.100 sittings. $71,550 of eluirch property. There were in 
 1870 two Reformed churches (late Dutch). 2 (dlurch edi- 
 fices, 500 sittings, $8200 of church property: 34 Reformed 
 (late German) churches, 33 church edifices, 8880 sittings, 
 $97,300 of church property. In 1870 there were 204 Ro- 
 man Catholic congregations, 201 church edifices, 86.830 
 sittings, $2,511,700 of church property." In 1874 there 
 were 2 dioceses. 2 bishops, 183 priests, 243 churches and 
 chapels. 94- congregations and stations, and an adherent 
 population in the two dioceses of somewhat more than 
 130,000. There was in 1870, 1 Unitarian society in the 
 .State. Tlie United Brethren in Christ (trcrman Method- 
 ists) in 1870 hacl ISl churches, 12! cliureh edifices, 33.975 
 sitting.?, $188,000 of church jiropcrty. In 1874 ihcy li:id 
 507 churches, 270 ministers, and 21,521 members. The 
 Univcrsalists in 1870 h;id48 congregations, 15 church edi- 
 fices, 6300 sittings, .$73,100 of church property. Their 
 present numbers are (1874) 40 congregations. 24 ministi-rs. 
 and 2.334 members. There were also in 1870, 4 union orgjin- 
 izations, with 5 church edifices, 1200 sittings, and $.3500 of 
 church property. 
 
 CotiHtitHtion, Courts, nrprcsentfitiret in Cimr/resn, etc. — The 
 
 f)rescnt constitution of Indiana was adopted in 1851, but 
 las undergone some amendment from time to time. Its 
 genera! provisions arc similar to those of most of the West- 
 ern States. The governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary 
 of state, treasurer, auditor, attorney-general, and supcrin- 
 tcn<lent of pulilic instruction arc chosen by the people at 
 elections heUl lui the 2(1 of October in each alternate year. 
 The govern(tr and lieutenant-governor hold office for four 
 years: the otht'r officers for two years only. The legisla- 
 ture, which consists of a senate of 50 members, chosen for 
 four years, one-half being elected every second year, and a 
 house of representatives of 98 members, elected biennially, 
 meets regularly in January in the odd years, 1875, 1877, etc. 
 By an amendment to the constitution ratified in 1873. the 
 courts of common picas were abolished, and the judiciary 
 now consists of a supreme court of four judges, chosen by 
 the people for seven years, and 38 circuit courts meeting in 
 
 their several districts, the judges of whioh are elected for 
 six years. There are no county courts. The divorce laws, 
 which have been for many years a reproach to the State, 
 were materially modified and remodelled by the legislature 
 of 1873. Under the new apportionment of 1872, Indiana 
 has 13 members of Congress. 
 
 Cinnitirn. — The .State has 92 counties ; the following table 
 gives the names and popul:iti<m (male and iemale) and 
 total of each in 1870, and the total population of each in 
 1860 and 1850: 
 
 CoUDttCJ. 
 
 Adams 
 
 Alien 
 
 Bartholomew 
 
 Ucnton 
 
 Blackford 
 
 Boone 
 
 Brown 
 
 Carroll 
 
 Cass 
 
 darke 
 
 Clay 
 
 Clinton 
 
 Crawford 
 
 Daviess 
 
 Dearborn 
 
 Decatur 
 
 Dc Kalb 
 
 Delaware 
 
 .Dubois 
 
 Elkhart 
 
 Fayette 
 
 Floyd 
 
 Fountain 
 
 Franklin 
 
 Fulton 
 
 Gibson 
 
 Grant 
 
 Greene 
 
 Hamilton 
 
 Hancock 
 
 Harrison 
 
 Hendricks 
 
 Henry 
 
 Howard 
 
 Huntington 
 
 Jackson 
 
 .Tasper...^ 
 
 .lay 
 
 .leifersou 
 
 .Jennings 
 
 .Tubnson 
 
 Knox 
 
 Kosciusko 
 
 La Grange , 
 
 Lake 
 
 Laj>orte 
 
 Lawrence 
 
 Madison 
 
 Marion 
 
 Marshall 
 
 Martin 
 
 Miami 
 
 Monroe 
 
 Montgomery 
 
 Jlorgan 
 
 Newton 
 
 Noble 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Orange 
 
 Owen 
 
 Parke 
 
 IVrrv 
 
 Pike. 
 
 Porter 
 
 Posey 
 
 Pulaski 
 
 Putnam 
 
 linlnlolph 
 
 "ipley 
 
 Rush 
 
 ScotI 
 
 Shelby 
 
 Spencer 
 
 Starke 
 
 Steuben 
 
 St. Joseph 
 
 Sullivan 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Tippecanoe 
 
 Tipton 
 
 rninn 
 
 Vanderburgh 
 
 Vermilion 
 
 \v:n 
 
 AVabasb 
 
 Warren 
 
 W;irwick 
 
 WasbingtOD ™ 
 
 \\'avne 
 
 Weils 
 
 While 
 
 Whitlev I 
 
 Male pop- 
 
 ulatiou. 
 
 1870. 
 
 R.m 
 
 22,474 
 
 10,763 
 
 3,113 
 
 3.24.5 
 
 11..510 
 
 4.412 
 
 R,.3.|6 
 
 12,472 
 
 12.7.3-1 
 
 D.908 
 
 8.S18 
 
 4,978 
 
 8,37.5 
 
 12.162 
 
 9,098 
 
 8.805 
 
 9.763 
 
 0,390 
 
 13,318 
 
 0,258 
 
 11.4.39 
 
 8,.53S 
 
 10,183 
 
 C.G06 
 
 8,893 
 
 9.461 
 
 9,782 
 
 10,700 
 
 7.740 
 
 10.10.5 
 
 10..363 
 
 ll.OSS 
 
 8.005 
 
 9,702 
 
 9.-5-1 
 
 3,226 
 
 7,G2C 
 
 1.5,063 
 
 8,117 
 
 9.:i.57 
 
 11,039 
 
 11,946 
 
 7,219 
 
 6,4;«) 
 
 13,970 
 
 7,391 
 
 11.700 
 
 .36.920 
 
 10,420 
 
 5.696 
 
 10,7.50 
 
 7,059 
 
 12,.301 
 
 8,925 
 
 3,109 
 
 10..383 
 
 2,944 
 
 6,851 
 
 8.147 
 
 9.407 
 
 7.490 
 
 7,070 
 
 7,199 
 
 9,886 
 
 3,943 
 
 11,009 
 
 11,018 
 
 10,062 
 
 8,906 
 
 3,998 
 
 11,2.50 
 
 9,247 
 
 2,076 
 
 6,593 
 
 i:!,061 
 
 9,:i29 
 
 6,045 
 
 17,396 
 
 6,117 
 
 3.244 
 
 16.797 
 
 6,639 
 
 17,008 
 
 10,840 
 
 5,.309 
 
 9,098 
 
 9.:!.5.5 
 
 16.866 
 
 6,954 
 
 .5.519 
 
 .:«.3 
 
 Female Total pop- 1 Total pop- 
 popiila- uluUon, ulatloR, 
 
 popiila- 
 tioD.lSTO. 
 
 .5.671 
 
 21,020 
 
 10.370 
 2,502 
 3,027 
 
 11.053 
 4,209 
 7,806 
 
 11.721 
 
 12,0.36 
 9,176 
 8,512 
 4,873 
 8,372 
 
 11,954 
 9,8.55 
 8,862 
 9,267 
 6,207 
 
 12.708 
 5,218 
 
 11,861 
 7,854 
 
 10,040 
 6,120 
 8,478 
 9,020 
 9,732 
 
 10,176 
 7,383 
 9,808 
 9,914 
 
 11,298 
 7,842 
 9,331 
 9.403 
 3,128 
 7.374 
 
 14,678 
 8,101 
 9.009 
 
 10.523 
 
 11,5.85 
 li,929 
 5.900 
 
 13,092 
 7,2:17 
 
 11,070 
 
 a5.019 
 9,791 
 5.407 
 
 10.:i02 
 7.109 
 
 11,464 
 8,603 
 2.720 
 
 10,006 
 2.893 
 6,046 ! 
 7,990 
 8.7.59 
 7,311 I 
 6,709 I 
 6,743 
 
 9,299 
 
 S,*JS 
 
 10.505 I 
 
 11.244 
 
 10,315 
 
 8,6(>0 
 
 3.875 
 10,642 
 
 8,751 
 
 1,812 
 
 6,261 
 12.261 
 
 9,124 
 
 6,0S9 
 16,119 
 
 6,8.36 
 
 3,097 
 16..'H8 
 
 5,201 
 16,i>ll 
 10,465 
 
 4.895 
 
 8,.555 
 
 9,140 
 17,182 
 
 6,631 
 
 6,0*5 
 
 7,0.56 
 
 uluUon, 
 I8T0. 
 
 Totals 8.57.994 822,643 1, 6,80,6.37 |,l,i50.428i 988,4 ir. | 
 
 ll,:!82i 
 43,491 
 21,i:i:!j 
 5,615 
 6.2721 
 22..593 
 8,681 
 16,1.52 
 24.193 
 24,770 
 19.084 
 
 l7,:i;io 
 
 9,851 
 16,74 
 24,116 
 19.053 
 17,167 
 19,030 
 12,.59' 
 26.026 
 10,476 
 23.:S00 
 16,389 
 20,223 
 12,726 
 17.37: 
 18.48; 
 19,514 
 20,882 
 1.5,123 
 19,913 
 20,277 
 22,9.% 
 1.5,84" 
 19.030 
 18,974 
 
 G,;i54 
 15,000 
 29.741 
 16.218 
 18,366 
 21, .502 
 23.531 
 14.148 
 12,339 
 27,062 
 14,628 
 22,770 
 71,939 
 20,211 
 11,103 
 21.052 
 14.168 
 23,705 
 17,528 
 
 5,829 
 20,389 
 
 5,837 
 13,497 
 16,137 
 18,106 
 1-1,801 i 
 13,779| 
 13.912 
 I9,185i 
 7.801 
 21.514 
 22.802 
 20,9! 
 17,62i; 
 7.87: 
 
 21. .sg; 
 
 17,99.>i 
 3.888 
 12,854 
 2.5.:!r- 
 18.453 
 12.1.34 
 33,5: 
 11,953 
 6,341 
 33,115 
 10,,'<40 
 3.!,.5.19 
 21.305 
 10.20! 
 17,6.53 
 18,495 
 34,0*8 
 13,,585 
 10,.5.5t 
 14.4991 
 
 I UM. pull 
 
 ulatloR, 
 1B60. 
 
 9,252 
 29,;!28 
 17,865 
 
 2,809 
 
 4,122 
 16,753 
 
 6,.507 
 13.189 
 16,813 
 20,502 
 12.161 
 14.5a5 
 
 8,226 
 13,323 
 24,406 
 17,294 
 13,880 
 16,753 
 10,394 
 20,986 
 10,225 
 20,li!3 
 15,.560 
 19.519 
 
 9^422 
 14,.532 
 15,797 
 16,041 
 17,310 
 12,802 
 18,521 
 16,953 
 20,119 
 12,.524 
 14,807 
 16,286 
 
 4,291 
 11,399 
 25,030 
 14,749 
 14,654 
 16,056 
 17,418 
 11,366 
 
 9,145 
 22,919 
 13,09; 
 16,518 
 39,855 
 12,722 
 
 8,975 
 10,8:51 
 12,847 
 20,888 
 16,110 
 
 2,300 
 14,915 
 
 5,402 
 12,076 
 14.370 
 15,5;i8 
 11,847 
 10,078 
 10,313 
 16,167 
 5,711 
 20,081 
 18,997 
 19,054 
 16,193 
 7,303 
 19,509 
 14,.556 
 2,195 
 10,374 
 18,455 
 15,004 
 12,098; 
 25,7261 
 8,170 
 7,109 
 20,.552 
 9,4221 
 22.517 
 :7,.547 
 10,057 
 13,261 
 17,909 1 
 29..558| 
 10,844 
 8,2.58 
 10.730 
 
 Tola! pop 
 
 ulalioD, 
 
 1850. 
 
 5.797 
 10,919 
 12,428 
 
 1,144 
 
 2,860 
 11,031 
 
 4,s-46 
 11,(115 
 ll,(l:il 
 15.S-J8 
 
 7,944 
 11,.SG9 
 
 0,524 
 10,:'.52 
 20.100 
 1-5,107 
 
 8,251 
 10,843 
 
 6,321 
 12,690 
 10.217 
 14,875 
 13,253 
 17,908 
 
 5,982 
 10,771 
 11,092 
 12,313 
 12,084 
 
 9,098 
 15,286 
 1-1 .083 
 17,605 
 
 6,057 
 
 7,S,50 
 11.017 
 
 3,-540 
 
 7,017 
 2:j,916 
 12,096 
 12,101 
 11,084 
 10,24:1 
 
 8,3H7 
 
 3.991 
 12,145 
 12,097 
 12,375 
 24,103 
 
 5,348 
 
 5,i)41 
 11,:)34 
 II, 286 
 1S,0,V4 
 14,576 
 
 7.940 
 5,:i0S 
 10,809 
 12.106 
 14.908 
 7,268 
 7,720 
 
 5,2:m 
 
 12,519 
 
 2,095 
 18,615 
 14,725 
 1-1.820 
 10.415 
 
 5.885 
 15,.5n2 
 
 8,616 
 557 
 
 6,101 
 ln,'.l51 
 10,141 
 12,!132 
 19,377 
 
 3,5:!2 
 
 G 91 1 
 1I,!14 
 
 S.GGl 
 15,289 
 12.138 
 
 7,387 
 
 8,811 
 17,040 
 25.:wo 
 
 6.1.52 
 
 4,701 
 
 5. inn
 
 INDIANA. 
 
 ll.V] 
 
 Pn'ncipnt Totcnt. — Indianapolis, the capital, lias some- 
 what more thau 50.000 iuhiibitants; Evansvjlle, Fort 
 Wayne, Tt-rrc Iluutr, and New AMjudv range between 
 ]S,doO and L'j.OOO iuluibiiuDt:* : LuniycLtc, MnJison, and 
 Uichmond, between U'.UUO and KS.OOO ; Logansport, Jef- 
 lersonville, Suurh Bend, Laporte* and Vinceuues, between 
 bOOU and 12,000, while Michigan City, Aurora, Columbus, 
 
 Crawfordsville, Elkhart, Goshen, Grecncasllc, Lawrence- 
 burg, and Peru each contain from 1000 to SOOO inhab- 
 itant:<. 
 
 KUctoral nnd Popular Vote at President utl Ehrtioun. — 
 Indiana was admitted to the Union as a State in ISHi, and 
 the same year participated for tbo first time in a presiden- 
 tial election : 
 
 1S16 
 1820 
 1S2-1 
 1828 
 18.12 
 I33G 
 IS40 
 1814 
 1813, 
 13.'.2j 
 I8oC 
 ISCO' 
 1864* 
 1868 
 1872 
 
 CaodliLitea wbo reccivrd iho 
 slcxtoral vote of UK Slaic 
 
 James Monroe P. ) 
 
 D.I). Tompkins V.-P.... f 
 
 Janit-8 MonnM* P | 
 
 D. I>. Tompkins V.-P... / 
 
 Andrew .hickson P I 
 
 J. C.CiiMiDiin V.-P ] 
 
 Andrt*w Jackson P I 
 
 J. r. Ciillionn V.-P ( 
 
 Aiuirewr Jackson P 
 
 M. Van Biiren V.-P 
 
 \\\ H. Harrison P 
 
 F. (Jran-,'Lr V.-P 
 
 W. H. HarriMm P 
 
 John TvbT V.-P 
 
 James k. Polk P 
 
 (i. M. Dalhis V.-P 
 
 Lewis('a.ss P 
 
 W. O.Huller V.-P 
 
 Franklin Pierce P 
 
 W. R. Kinfi V.-P 
 
 James Itiu'hanan P 
 
 J. ('. Itreekfnrid;;e V.-P. 
 
 .\braliam Lincoln P 
 
 II. Hamlin V.-P 
 
 Abraham Lincoln P 
 
 A. Johnson V.-P 
 
 U. S. (irant P 
 
 S. Culfax V.-P „ 
 
 U. S. (Jranl V 
 
 Henry WiUua V,-P 
 
 Not rec 
 
 Not rec 
 
 7,a4;l 
 
 22,2.37 
 
 31,552 
 
 41,281 
 
 65,302 
 
 70,131 
 
 74,74.5 
 
 95,340 
 
 118,670 
 
 139,040 
 
 150,422 
 
 176,552 
 
 186,147 
 
 Ritfns Kinc: P \ 
 
 J. MarshairV.-P J 
 
 John Qiiiucy Adams P... 
 
 .Tohn Quincv Adams P.. 1 
 
 N. Saulurd V.-P ] 
 
 John Quincv Adams P.. I 
 
 R. Rush V.-P J 
 
 Henry Clay P. I 
 
 J. Sergeant V.-I* ( 
 
 M. Van lUiren P 1 
 
 U. M. Johnson V.-P f 
 
 M. Van Karen P 1 
 
 R. M. Johnson V.-P ' 
 
 Henry Clay P 
 
 T. Frelinuhuysen V.-P.. 
 
 Zachary Taylor P 
 
 M. Fillinorc V.-P 
 
 Winfield Scott P 
 
 W. A. Graham V.-P 
 
 J.C. Fremont P 
 
 \V. L. Dayton V.-P 
 
 S. A. Douglas P 
 
 H. V. Johnson V.-P 
 
 if. B. McCIellan P 
 
 <;. H. Pendleton V.-P... 
 
 H. Sevinour P 
 
 F. P.iJIair V.-P 
 
 Horace (ireelev P 
 
 B.Gratz Brown V.-P 
 
 Not rec 
 Not rec. 
 
 3,095 
 
 17,052 
 
 15,472 
 
 32,478 
 
 51,701 
 
 67,807 
 
 69,907 
 
 80,901 
 
 94,375 
 
 115,509 
 
 130,233 
 
 166,980 
 
 163,632 
 
 Henry Chiy P.. 
 
 J. Ci. Birnoy P 
 
 M. Van Buren P > 
 
 C. F. Adams V.-P f 
 
 John P. Hide P 1 
 
 G. W. Julian V.-P / 
 
 M. Fillmore P j 
 
 A.J. Donelson V.-P J 
 
 {Breckenridge and Lane 
 Bell and Everett 
 
 Charles O'Conor P 
 
 Popular 
 vote. 
 
 8,100 
 
 0,929 
 
 22,386 
 12.295 
 5,306 
 
 Histonj. — Indiana was originally a part of the French 
 possession?, and probably a Canadian French colony had 
 established one or more trading-posts within its present 
 boundaries before the close of the sevcntecnih century. In 
 1702 there wa.'' a fresh migration of cousiclerablc numbers, 
 who settled at Vineeunes, Corydon, and other points. They 
 speedily made friends of the Indian tribes then inhabiting 
 the country, and so far amalgamated with, them as to adopt 
 (heir habits antl customs. Nothing was heard of (hem till 
 the cession of the territory to the English in I7IJ'!, when by 
 the treaty their territorial rights were confirmed. By tho 
 treaty of 17H:1 this, as well as the whole North-west Terri- 
 tory, was transferred to the C »S. In 178S there was trou- 
 ble witli the Indians, and a local war en.>ued which caused 
 great distress among the .settlers at Vincenncs, The In- 
 dians were attacked at the mouth of tho Tippecanoe by 
 Gen. Wilkinson in I7'.n. anil through his judicious man- 
 agement and that of <ien. Wayne several victories were 
 gained, the Indians were compelled to submit, and a dan- 
 gerous confederation of the tribes was broken up. A time of 
 greater peace and quietness followe*!. very little disturbed by 
 the rai'ls of hostile Indians. In 17'J3 tho l'. S. obtained sev- 
 eral eliijiblc tracts of land by the treaty of Greenville, and 
 It considerable number of emigrants settled in the Territory. 
 Ohio was erected into a separate Territory May 7, 1800, 
 and all tho country W\ and N. of it organized as tbo new 
 government of Indiana. The same year, according to the 
 IL S. census, there were ISTo inhabitants in the (irchent 
 limits of the State. Michigan Territory was set off from 
 it in IS05, and Illinois Territory in ISOU. leaving Indiana 
 Territory with its present boundaries. In IHIO, notwith- 
 Btanding some Indian troubles in tho five or six years pre- 
 ceding, the jiopnlation had increased to 24.520. In ISll 
 the Shawnees. one of the largest tribes of Indians in the 
 Territory, were excited to a eomjdete frenzy by the elo- 
 (punec of their propliet and leader, Tccuraseh, and com- 
 menced a scries of raitis and outrnires against the settlers. 
 The governor of tho Territory, William Henry Harrison 
 (afterwards President of the U. S.), assembled a fcrco of 
 regulars and militia at Vincenncs, and on Nov. fl, ISll, 
 marched to Tippecanoe on the Wabash, the prophet*s town, 
 nnd demamled the restoration of the property which the 
 Imliuus had taken from the settlers. After a parley the 
 Indians proposed a delay till the next morning, nnd gave 
 intimations of their readiness to enter into an amicable ar- 
 rangement. During the nigh(, liowever. they nmde a sud- 
 ilen and violent attack on the forces under Gov. Harrison, 
 but, to their surprise, found them watchful and prepared. 
 A short but sanguiimry battle ensued; the In'lians, untler 
 tlio shouts and encouragements of their propliet leader, 
 fought with tho utmost desperation; but they could not 
 resist the steady and resolute advance of the white troops, 
 and after a terrible slaughter they fled, sullen, bnt thor- 
 oughly defeated; and soon after, their town having been 
 
 Vol.. 11.—::; 
 
 burned and tho surrounding country laid waste by the vic- 
 torious troops, the Shawnces sued for peace. The war with 
 Great Britain, which soon followed, gave a fresh impulse 
 to Indian hostilities, but the tribes were again thoroughly 
 bumbled and subdued, and after the peace of 1815 never 
 molested the Indiana settlers again. In Dec 1815, tho 
 subject of admission into the Union as a 8tatc began to bo 
 agitated throughout the Territory ; in Apr., ISItJ. an en- 
 abling act was passed by Congress; a convention was 
 called, and the first constitution of Indiana adopted Juno 
 21), and on Doc. II, 1815, Indiana was admitted into tho 
 Union. Her growth from this time onward was very rapid, 
 the census (»f 1S21) .-^bowing an increase of 500.2 ])er cent, 
 during the preceding decade. The completion of the Erie 
 Canal and tho building of tho National Road stimulatctl 
 immigration Into the fertile and beautiful State, and moro 
 than :i, 500.000 acres of government lands were purchased 
 within the Slate in tho ten years ending witli 1S;10, and 
 the population had increased I.'!;}. I per cent. Then com- 
 menced an era of wild speculation. Eight railroad com- 
 panies were incorporated, the AVabash and Erie Canal 
 was begun and driven forward with great rapidity, a 
 State bank with thirteen branches organized, antl numer- 
 ous other great enterprises fostered by the State and its 
 banks. When the crash came in 18^7 there was general 
 bankruptcy and a State debt of $14,057,000, tho interest 
 of which was not paid wholly or in part till 1816. Yet in 
 lS-10 it was found that the population of the State hat! 
 doubled, and that immigrants to tho State had taken up 
 9,122,688 acres of government lands. In I8 1(J arrange- 
 ments were made for the resumption of interest on iho 
 State debt, and prosperity began to return. In 1850 tho 
 increase of population during the previous deca<lc was 
 found to be 44.1 per cent. In iSjl a new constitution was 
 adopted, and in 185;'. a free-banking law nasscd. The de- 
 cade from 1850 to 1800 was marked by tiic completion of 
 its great canal from the lakes to the Ohio, as well as by tho 
 execution of other important public works, and by the great 
 increase of its railroad facilities, from 228 miles in 1850 to 
 2163 miles in 1800. Tho financial panic of 185" made 
 havoc of (he free banks of the State, but produced far less 
 di-saster than that of IS.'t". In the late civil war Indiana 
 sent her full quota to the field, and though there was some 
 trouble at first through the machinations of those opposecl 
 to the war. which necessitated tho assumption of unusual 
 war-pnwers by the governor, tho general record of tho 
 State for patritdism and efficient service was in the highest 
 degree honorable to it. In two or three instances its leg- 
 islature, under the influence of unwise and partisan leaders, 
 has attempted something in the nature of a coup d'/tat, 
 but the result of these efforts has so soon returned to plague 
 and injure their contrivers that it is hardly possible that 
 they will ever again be attempted. Like some of its sister 
 States, Indiana has been agitated of late on the question
 
 11.J4 
 
 INDIANA— INDIANAPOLIS. 
 
 of cheap transportation of produce, but it has not de- 
 veloped in that State so decidod an antagonism between 
 tlic raih'oad companies and the farmers as in some of the 
 other Stales, mainly perhaps because her facilities fin- 
 transportation are less dependent upon tlie railroads than 
 some, and in part, also, because that her railroad compa- 
 nies have been less liostilc to the producing classes from 
 uhom they derive their support. The National Congress 
 (if Agriculture which mot at Indianapolis in May, 1873, 
 discussed this question very tborouglily and in an excellent 
 j^pirit. 
 
 (jovcrnors. — 
 
 Term. 
 
 TERRITORY. 
 
 William U. Harrison ISOO-lt 
 
 John CiUsoii (acting) I811-i:{ 
 
 Thuinas Posi-'y 1S13-16 
 
 State. 
 
 Jonathan Jennings 18IG-22 
 
 William Hendricks 1822-25 
 
 James B. Rav 182r>-31 
 
 Noah Noble.! 1831-37 
 
 Intliaiin, county of S. W 
 
 Term. 
 
 David Wallace 1837-40 
 
 Samuel Iliuger 1840-43 
 
 James Whilcomb 184:i-48 
 
 Paris C. Dtiuning 1848-19 
 
 Joscpli A. Wrisht 1849-57 
 
 Aslihfl P. Wilhird lS.-)7-61 
 
 Oliver P. Morton ISfil-G? 
 
 Conrad Baker 18fi7-73 
 
 Thomas A. Hendricks... 1873- 
 L. P. Brockett. 
 Central Pennsvlvania. Area, 
 
 77tl square miles. It is hilly, but for the most part quite 
 fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. Bitu- 
 minous coal, iron ore. and salt-springs are found. Metal- 
 lic wares, wagons, leather, lumber, furniture, castings, and 
 farm implements are leading articles of manufacture. Its 
 soutbern part is traversed by the Pennsvlvania R. R. Cap. 
 Indiana. Pop. 30.1:JS. '* 
 
 Iniliaiia, tp. of Marion co., la. Pop. 1332. 
 
 Intliana, tp. of Allegheny co., Pa. Pop. 2S06. 
 
 Iniliana, post-b., cap. of Indiana co., Pa., 72 miles 
 N. K. (if Pittsburg, at the terminus of the Indiana branch 
 of the Pennsylvania R. R., has 2 banks. 3 planing-mills, 2 
 foundries, I machine-shop, a fine court-house, 3 newspa- 
 pers, a national bank, several churches, and a large trade 
 in lumber and agricultural products. It is the seat of a 
 State normal school erected at a cost of $!25.000. Pop. 
 1005. S. A. Smith, En. "Messenger." 
 
 Indianap'olis, city, capital of Indiana, and seat of 
 justice of Marion co., is situated near the geographical 
 centre of the State, UKistly on a plain, on the E. bank of 
 ■White River, in 3'J° 55' N. lat. and 86° 05' W. Ion. Its 
 first settlement was made in 1S19. It was settled as the 
 
 seat of government in 1820, laid out in 1821, and occupied 
 as the capital in lS2i. Its streets, lined with forest trees, arc 
 from 00 to 100 feet wide, crossing each other at right angles, 
 except four broad diagonal avenues, which converge towards 
 a circular park in (he centre. Numerous railways have 
 opened communication with every portion of the State and 
 the great commercial eities. Its first railroad, the Jladison, 
 was built in 18-17. The population then was about lOUIt. 
 It now has 13 rjiilroads in operation, and one in process of 
 construction, with their numerous branthes and connec- 
 tions giving direct access to all but t> of the i!2 counties 
 of the State. These roads centre in the Union depot, where 
 82 passenger-trains and 328 passenger-cars enter and leave 
 daily, with an average of 10,000 persons daily, and 3.000,000 
 yearly. The number of freight-cars for the last eight 
 months of 1S74 was 470,000, making for the year more than 
 700,000. These railroads traverse localities unsurpassed 
 in agriculture and mineral resources, thus furnishing facil- 
 ities for supjdying the raw material to the manufacturers 
 and for distributing the jiroducts of the city. Situated 
 near the centre of the great corn-belt, it is the natural 
 grain-market for a vast area. There are two large grain- 
 elevators and ten fiouring-mills. There are 8 pork-packing 
 houses, and 1 for packing beef. The total hog-])roduct fur 
 1874 was valued at SS. 500, 000. Indianapolis possesses pe- 
 culiar advantages for manufactures of iron and wood. Im- 
 mense forests of timber, beds of coal, and mines of iron ore 
 abound in the State. Five railroads in three hours' run 
 reach eoal-fields of nearly 8000 square miles. Excellent 
 for fuel, the block coal is unrivalled for working iron and 
 steel. Its manufacturing interests are specially represented 
 by 2 rolling-mills, malleable-iron works, car-works, saw- 
 factories, 18 or 20 foundries, maehiiic-shops, and shops for 
 various branches of iron and brass work, numerous saw 
 andjdaning mills, and sash, door, and blind factories, manu- 
 iactories for agricultural implements, carriages, sewing- 
 machines, household furniture, school furniture, church and 
 parlor organs, pianos, boots and shoes, cotton and woollen 
 goods, glass, starch, glue, '• Sarven wheels," step-ladders, 
 and wooden ware, ami many others. There are 30 incor- 
 porated manufacturing institutions. The entire manufac- 
 turing capital invested is not less than $12,000,000. The 
 number of buildings erected in 1874 was 2900, in value 
 nearly $8,000,000. 
 
 The Belt Railway now (1875) building around the city 
 
 Statu CapitoL, 
 
 will more completely connect the various lines of railroad ' 
 anil aid the transfer of freight, location of workshops, ware- 
 biiuscs. stockyards, etc. The Central Canal, cutting a bend 
 of White Uivcr, furnishes partial water-power for llouring- 
 niills and factories. The tire dcjiartmcnt has 7 steam lire- 
 engines, with 100 men, and an electric alarm telegraph. 
 AValer is furnished by the Holly system, having 45 miles 
 of pipe. The street railw.ay has 18 miles of track, 50 cars 
 an<i 150 men. There are G national, 10 private, and 2 
 sa\ ings banks, with a united capital of about $5,000,000. 
 A manufaclurcrs' and real estate exchange, meeting weekly ; 
 a board of trade, meeting daily, exchanging products and 
 
 Indianapolis. 
 
 securing market reports from the great marts of trade; 7 
 home insurance companies ; 118 American and foreign 
 companies represented here; numerous lodges of Masons 
 ami Odd Fellows ancl orders of secret and benevolent 
 societies; acity hospital ; free dispensary : board of health ; 
 national surgical institute; home for friendless women ; 3 
 homes for orphans ; sisters of Providence; Bible society; 
 V. M. C A., etc. Here are State institution*! for the deaf 
 and dumb, the blind, and insane, and the women's prison 
 an<l reformatory institute. There are 5 English and 2 CJer- 
 maii daily newspapers. 12 English and 5 (Jerman weeklies, 
 and 12 monthly publications ; 17 job printing and publish-
 
 INDIAN Ai:aill'KLAUO— INDIAN LANGUAGES OF AMKIUCA. 
 
 1155 
 
 !ng establishments ; 6 libraries (the city library ha? 17,000 
 vols.); a reading-room, with the leaOing American and 
 European periodicals. This and the library are supported 
 by a Slate tax. They are open daily, an<i free to all. 
 There arc a universiity, law school, 2 medical colleges, a 
 Catholic theylogicul seminary, 6 (lermaii and several select 
 and private school?. The free-school system is maintained 
 by local and State taxation and by its .vhare of the State 
 school fund uf $H, 000. 000, which is larger, by more than 
 $*_', 01)0. 000. than that of any other State; a city high school, 
 training s-hool, and 20 district schools. The number of 
 school cliildren enumerated is over 20,000; value of city 
 school property, $700,000; assessed value of taxable?, 
 $72,000,0110 ; rate of city tax 187I.SI.10 on S100,Statc and 
 county tax, 71 cents on $100. Tht'rc are 70 churches — 12 
 Pre-byterian, is Methodi-t, 7 Baptist, b Episcopal, 5 
 Chrisiian. 5 Lutheran, 4 Catholic. 2 Congregational, 2 
 Hebrew; all others, 10. Crown Hill Cemetery, 2 miles 
 N. \V. of the city, opened in 1S(U, enclo.-:es w.'iO acres. 
 Among the puidic buildings is the Statc-hou^c, built 
 in IS.'Io, of brick, in the tirecian style, containing the 
 legislative chamber. State library, State agricultural so- 
 ciety and geological cabinet. It being in a decaying 
 condition, measures have been taken to replace it. The 
 State building, of brick, contains rooms for the State 
 ancl supreme court oflicers. The State benevolent institu- 
 tions are located in or near the city, ancl are monuments 
 of the munificence of the State. The U. S. court-house and 
 post-ofR<^'e is of iron and dressed stone, costing $200,000 : 
 on an elevation just E. of the city are the U. S. arsenal 
 buildings, four in number, in an enclosure of 70 acres, com- 
 m:tn<ling and beautiful. The county court-house surpasses 
 any building here in dimensions and tasteful design, of 
 dressed stone and iron, 275 by I'M) feet, three stories with 
 ccntriil tower of 200 feet, high basement, and mansard roof 
 in the Renaissance style of architecture. The immense Ex- 
 position building, built in 1873 by the State agricultural 
 society, is of brick, :108 by 150 foot, two stories high, with 
 elovafed galleries. It is N. of the city, in the State fair- 
 grounds, and cost $I.'.0,000. The Union dCpAt, of brick, 
 sfone and iron, although 420 by 200 feet, is too small for 
 the local trains. The chamber of commerce building, sub- 
 stantial and imposing, erected last year, cost .$";>, OOO. 
 Among other structures worthy of note are the Odd Fel- 
 lows' Hall and the Masonic Hall, the Academy of Music, 
 many of its churches and massive business-blocks, not a 
 few of whicli are models of construction and tinish. The 
 h'^-alth record of Indianapolis will compare favorably with 
 th:it of any citv East or West. Population in 1850." 8091; 
 in Isr.O, 18.000'; in 1870, 48,244. Charlfs N. Todd. 
 
 Indinii Archipelago. See Eastkus Auchipki.ago, 
 
 Indian ArcliiU'rtnrc. See Auciiitkctiri: of the 
 Ami KM \\ AiiMi:i.;iNi:s, by Hon. L. H. Morgan, LL.D. 
 
 Indian Hran. Sec Catai.pa. 
 
 Indian Corn, or Maize [Zm maijH, Linn.], the most 
 nbundsint of the cereals, and most important grain raised 
 by American farmers, belongs to the tribe Phiilarid;c of 
 the naturul order (Inimineai or grasses. It is indigenous 
 t<» Americu, where it luifn alw.iys formed the chief food of 
 tlic Indian races, from which the name is derived. Its cul- 
 tivation was introduced from America to Southern Europe 
 and Asia and to Northern Africa, where it spread with 
 great rapidity. It is alleged that this grain wiis known in 
 very ancient times (o the Chinese, but if so it fell into com- 
 plete oblivion. Indian corn is properly a sub-tropical grain, 
 a native probably of the table-lands of Mexico or Peru, the 
 great height of which gives them a distinct character from 
 the lowlands in the same latitude. It thrives best under a 
 hot summer sun, and its rapid growth and ripening give 
 it a peculiar value for high Northern latitudes, where the 
 summer hi-at is as intense as the winter cold. In England 
 the summer heat is not sufficiently intense to favor its pro- 
 duction. The chemical ingredients of Indian corn are 
 chietly starch and oil; it yields abundance of phosphorus, 
 and is n most nutritious and heallhful diet. There are 
 many varieties, presenting great differences and possessing 
 very unequal value. The original type was probably the 
 wild variety, having a separate husk to each grain; the 
 lowest variant types appear to ho the small riee-corn and 
 nop corn, and the highest is perhaps the '• Improved King 
 Philip." The lower types hybridi/.e very readily; not so 
 the higher, which appear lo have nearly or quite reached 
 the limit of perfecrihility. New varieties are constantly 
 appearing, and with proper care most valuable improve- 
 ments might bo introduced. As food for man there is a 
 great difference in the varieties. Tusearora corn contains 
 no oil. rice-corn contains the most, pop-corn next, Canada 
 corn ranks third, and brown corn fourth. It thus appears 
 that the effect of careful cultivation is to augment the 
 starchy at the expense of the fatty contonts. The lato- 
 
 ripening kind called sweet corn furnishes when green a 
 savory article of food for several months (say from July 15 
 to Oct. 15), either boiled or roasted. Indian corn in the 
 U. S.'is emphatically the poor man's crop. licing hardy 
 and easily cultivated, it is the first grain planted by the 
 new settler amid stuutjis and iullen trees, by the aid of the 
 hoe alone. The yield ranges from 10 bushels to the acre, 
 which is the average on the worn lands of the Gulf States, 
 to 200 bushels, the apparent maximum yield which in a 
 few instances has been produced under very exceptional 
 circumstances from small and carefully-tended patches in 
 Kentucky and Tennessee. In the Central States the aver- 
 age yield is from 25 to 30 bushels per acre. The price has 
 fluctuated from 5 or 10 cents per bushel, at which it was 
 often sold in Kentucky and Ohitt early in the j)resent cen- 
 tury, to $1 ami njore, at which it has been sold in the East- 
 ern cities. The height of the full-grown corn varies, accord- 
 ing to species and soil, from three to eighteen feet. The 
 method of cultivation formerly in universal use was plant- 
 ing in rows of hills some five feet apart, but ibis has been 
 replaced to a great extent of late years by the more advan- 
 tageous system of sowing in drills, economizing manual 
 labor by the use of imjiroved ploughs and other imple- 
 ments. The yield and quality of the grain are much im- 
 proved by careful selection of the best ears for seed, and 
 by soaking the seed-corn in copperas or Unic-water, which 
 hastens the process of sprouting and protects the seed from 
 certain insects. The average time of planting is May 20 
 to June 1. The total yield in the U. S. in 1870 was 
 7G0.*J44,549 bushels; the largest yield in a single State was 
 that of Illinois, 12".),02],:iU5 buslu-ls. (For further statistics 
 see articles upon the several Stales.) Porter C. Buss. 
 Indian Creek, tp. of liullock co., Ala. Pop. 11G2. 
 
 Indian Creek, a v. and tp. of Trinity co., Cal. Pop. 
 of V. I8:i; of tp. 78;j. 
 
 Indian Creek, tp. of Cass co., III. Pop. 433, 
 Indian Creek, tp. of White co.. 111. Pop. 2U10. 
 Indian Creek, tp. of Lawrence co., Ind. Pop. 1348. 
 Indian Creek, tp. of Monroe co., Ind. Pop. 988. 
 Indian Creek, tp. of Pulaski co., Ind. Pop. 812. 
 Indian Creek, tp. of Mills co., la. Pop. GUO. 
 Indian Creek, tp. of Story co., la. Pop. 1074. 
 Indian Creek, post-tp. of Monroe co.. Mo. Pop. 654. 
 Indian Creek, tp. of Pike co.. Mo. Pop. 1103. 
 Indian Cress, See Tuoi'-KOLACE-f;. 
 Indian Cnenniber. Sec Medeola. 
 Indian Dye. See Puccoon. 
 
 Indian Fields, tp. of Tuscola co., Mich. Pop. 825. 
 Indian Fifj. See Caotace.*;. 
 
 Indian <;r»>ve, tp. of Livingston co., 111. Pop. 2G35. 
 En ilia II II<Mnp. See Cannabis, Hasiiism, Arocv.vACE.t:. 
 Indian Hill, tp. of Abbeville co., S. C. Pop. 1920. 
 
 Indian Lake, post-tp. of Hamilton co., N. Y., in the 
 Adirondac region. The tp. incUules many lakes (among 
 them Indian and the Eckford lakes). Pop. 202. 
 
 Indian Land, (p. of Lancaster co., S. C. Pop. 9G9. 
 
 Indian Liui;;uages of America. In a general 
 view of the languages of the Western World their number 
 and variety are at first more remarkable than is that ap- 
 proach to uniformity in plan of thought nu'i verbal struc- 
 ture which establishes something like a family likeness 
 among them all. No accurate enumeration of these lan- 
 guages has been or can be made. Kirclier in 1075, on such 
 information as he could gather from Jesuit missionaries, 
 ( stimated the number at abctut 5<MI. Garcia cited authority 
 for reckoning more than 50t)0. Ilerrera had been told that 
 every village in Mexico bad a language of its own. anil 
 Ilervas adopted a statement that the number of South 
 American languages and dialects was between 1500 and 
 2000. One estimate is as good as another, since none can 
 be based on suflicient data. Somewhat nearer approxima- 
 tir>n may be bad to the number of gftnfcs or families of 
 speech in North America. In ISlfi, Mr. (iallalin enume- 
 rated thirty-two distinct families in and N. of the U. S., 
 not including the languages of California, which were not 
 then — and arc not even yet — sutliciently well known to 
 Justify their arnmgement by families. T!io acquisition of 
 New Slexicn by the V. S. made a eonsiderabto addition to 
 Mr. (lallatin's list. His classification, so far as it goes, has 
 been generally accepted by philologists, subse({uent inves- 
 tigations having confirmed ni'ift of his conclusions, or at 
 least havintr faileil (with perhaps two exceptions) lo estab- 
 lish affinity between the linguistic groups he separated. 
 
 At least four-fifths of North America K. of the Rocky 
 Mountains and N. of Mexico was occupied by nations and
 
 1156 
 
 INDIAN LANGUAGES OF AMERICA. 
 
 wandering tribes speaking dialects of not more than four 
 radically distinct languages — namely, the EsKiuu, Atha- 
 bascan, Algoxkin, and Sioux or Dakota. The Eskimo 
 was spoken, in various dialects, near the shores at' the 
 Northern Ocean, from the E. coast of Greenland to Beh- 
 riu^'s .Straits, a distance of nut less than j4t)0 miles, and it 
 extended southward on the Atlantic to the Straits of Bell- 
 isle and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. S. of the Eskimos the 
 territory between Hudson's Bay and the Kocky Mountains, 
 and stretchini; westward, between 5U° and IJU° N. lat., 
 nearly to the Pacific, was occupied by the .Athabasias 
 family in numerous tribes, among which may be named the 
 Chepewyans (see Northern I.ndians). and the nearly-re- 
 lated ■• bog Ribs." the Slave and the Beaver Indians, the 
 Takulliis, anil probably the Loucheux. E. of the lloeky 
 Mountains the most southerly of known .-Vthabasean tribes 
 is that of the Sussees, near the head-waters of the Sas- 
 katchewan Uiver, about 51° N. lat.; but W. of the moun- 
 tains offsets from this stook have been traced as far S. as 
 Mexico. Small tribes and bands of Athabascans were 
 found near the Pacific in Soathern Oregon and Northern 
 California, and Prof W. W. Turner showed that the Apache 
 nation of .Arizona and New Mexico, including the Navajos, 
 Pinalenos, and Jicarillas, belong to the same great family 
 of speech. (See Dr. J. C. E. Buschmanu's Der AlhnpaH- 
 kisrhe Spruchatamm dunjealellt, Berlin, ISJo, and his Uas 
 Apache, mit einer ai/atem. Wurtta/cl d. Athap. liprach- 
 stamms, 18f)0-63.) E. of the Mississippi, and of a line 
 drawn north-westerly from the head-waters of that river to 
 those of the Missinipi (Churchill's) Kiver, was the vast 
 territory of the .\lgonkins, within the bounds of which, 
 however, was comprehended that of two groups of Iroquois 
 tribes, speaking a radically ditferent language. 'When 
 North America became known to Europeans the .■VIgonkin 
 country was hounded on the N. by the Athabascan, Hud- 
 son's Bay, and the Labrador Eskimos; E.by the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence and the .Atlantic as far S. at least as Cape Hatteras ; 
 S. by an irregular line running westwardly from that cape 
 to the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi or its vicinity. 
 One Algonkin tribe, the SaUiknn or Blru:kf:mt,\s found far 
 W., between the head-waters of the Saskatchewan and the 
 Missouri, at the foot of the Rocky .Mountains, and another, 
 the Oiei/cnnc or .S'/iyejoic, roameil till lately the country that 
 borders the North and South Platte rivers, to which region 
 they seem to have strayed from the far N. " The most 
 widely diffused and the most fertile in dialects " of all North 
 .American languages, the Algonkin, was (in the words of 
 Mr. Bancroft) "the mother-tongue of those who greeted 
 the colonists of Raleigh at Roanoke and of those who wel- 
 comed the Pilgrims to Plymouth. It was heard from the 
 Bay of Gaspc to the valley of the Dcs Moines; from Cape 
 Fear, and it may bo from the Savannah, to the land of the 
 Eskimos; from the Cumberland River of Kentucky to the 
 southern bank of the Missinipi. It was spoken, though 
 not exclusively, in a territory that extended through sixty 
 degrees of longitude and more th.an twenty degrees of lati- 
 tude." In some of its numerous dialects the polysynthetic 
 type or plan of structure seems to have attained its highest 
 expression and the grammatical apparatus its nicest adjust- 
 ment. Some of its characteristic features will be noticed 
 hereafter. The fourth great North .American family, the 
 Dakota, or Sionx (the latter being an abbreviation of 
 Xiuidemcwioiijc, itself a French corruption of the name 
 given to the D.akota3 by their rivals and enemies, the Al- 
 gonkins), claimed most of the region between the Missis- 
 sippi and the Rooky Mountains, from the Saskatchewan 
 on the X. to .Arkansas Kiver at the S. A detached tribe, 
 the HViiiutn^oM, were found (with a tradition of a removal 
 from the W.) near Green Bay and Lake .Michigan. .Another 
 Sioux tribe, the Amiiiibuiiis, wandered N. along the upper 
 Missouri and the Assiniboin rivers to the W. side of Luke 
 AVinnipeg and the Saskatchewan, and became allies of the 
 Algonkins. Next to the Algonkin language, that of the 
 Dakotas, perhaps, has been most thoroughly investigated, 
 and the labors of missionaries of the American Board of 
 Foreign Missions, liberally seconded by the Smithsonian 
 Institution in the publication of a grammar and copious 
 dictionary (edited by the Rev. S. R. Riggs), have brought 
 this language prominently to the notice of .American and 
 European philologists. (See Dakota Ixdiaxs.) To the 
 tribes named in that article as speaking languages of the 
 Dakota stock may be added the Omnhas, Ponkas, loways, 
 Otos, .Mandans, and Minitaris or Hidatsii. The /'<iirnec« 
 and Coynanrftr^ were included by mistake. An loicai/ 
 Grammar, by Rev. W. Hamilton and S. M. Irwin, was 
 printed in 1S48, and a Ormnmar and Dn-tionary of the 
 Jlalattn Lanijnatje by Dr. W. Matthews in 1873 (J. G. 
 .Shea. New York). 
 
 Next after these four principal families, those of the Iro- 
 quois, the CiiAIiTA-.MusKOKi, and the Chkrokek (if the last 
 two may not ultimately bo reduced to one) were the most 
 
 considerable. The Iroquois-speaking tribes were, as has 
 been stated, nearly enclosed within the territory of the Al- 
 gonkins. Their northern group comprised the " Five Na- 
 tions" living S.of Lakes Va-\v and Ontario and of the river 
 St. Lawrence, and W. of the Hudson and Lake Champlain, 
 and. further N., the Huron s or Wyandots, the Attiwandarons 
 ("Neutral Nation"), the Eries, and the Andastcs. The 
 southern Iroquois, separateil from their congeners by inter- 
 vening .Algonkin tribes, were the Nottoways, and perhaps 
 the Meherrins or Tnteloes, of Southern Virgini.a and North 
 Carolina, and S. of these the Tuscaroras. who removed 
 northward early in the eighteenth century and joined the 
 confederated Five (thereattcr known as the Six) Nations. 
 (.See lltoguois, and L. II. Morgan's Lriit/iit: of thr. Iroijuoin.) 
 Recent investigations by Mr. Horatio Hale have thrown 
 doubts on the hitherto accepted affinity of the Tnteloes and 
 Iroquois, if they have not fully established the connection 
 of the former with the Dakota slock. Mr. Hale regards 
 the Tutelo as a Dakota dialect, and inclines to the belief 
 that formerly '• the whole of what is now the central por- 
 tion of the U. S., from the Mississippi nearly to the Atlan- 
 tic, was occupied by Dakota tribes, who have been cut uj* 
 and gradually exterminated by the intrusive and more en- 
 ergetic Algonkins and Iroquois." (.Sec Proceed in(/i of Am. 
 Philolotjival Socielij, 1871, p. 15. For a general view of the 
 Iroquois language, sec (iailatin's SynopsU of the Indian 
 Tribes, pp. U32-2;J8, and Etudes philoUnjiqueH snr queltfucs 
 Laiiijuea Sanvarjes, par N. 0., Montreal, 1866.) TheCHAiiTA- 
 MusKOKi family, comprising the Choctaws and Chicasas, 
 Muskokis or Creeks, Seminoles, Coassattis, Alabamns, and 
 Hitchitis, oecujjied the territory now constituting the States 
 of Georgia, .Alabama. ^lississippi, and Florida, with a jior- 
 tion of Louisiana E. of the Mississijipi, except the shore of 
 the Gulf from Mobile westward and the banks of the Mis- 
 sissippi, inhabited by various small tribes, and a tract in 
 Northern .Alabama, on both sides of the Tennessee River, 
 which belonged to the Cherokees. The Choctaws and 
 Chicasas speak nearly related dialects of the same lan- 
 guage, to which probably the llitchiti also belongs. The 
 Creeks, Seminoles, and small tribes of Coassattis and Ala- 
 bamas speak dialects of another language of the same 
 stock. (For the Choctaw, sec Byington's Choctaw Gram- 
 mar, edited by Dr. D. G. Brinton, 1870, and his EntiUsh 
 and Choctaw Definer. 1852; Rev. A. Wright's vocabulary 
 and grammatical notes, in Gallatin's Synopsis. Extensive 
 vocabularies of the Muskoki. Coassaiti,. Alabama, Chitctaw, 
 and llitchiti are preparing for publication by the Smith- 
 sonian Institution.) The Cherokees {Tsalatfi) lived in 
 villages along the Tennessee River and its tributaries, 
 their country extending over the mountainous regions of 
 East Tennessee and the ni)rthern portions of Georgia and 
 -Alabama. In the Cherokee language every syllable ends 
 in a vowel or a nasal, and this peculiarity, with the ab- 
 sence (with rare exceptions) of double consonants, inclined 
 Mr. Gallatin to adopt Barton's suggestion of the affinity 
 of the Cherokee and Iroquois. .At present, however, such 
 affinity cannot be considered as established. The inven- 
 tion of a syllabic alphabet by George Guess (or Sequoyah), 
 a half-breed Cherokee, in 1826, has promoted the general 
 education of that nation, but for those to whom the lan- 
 guage is not vernacular the necessity of learning eighty- 
 live arbitrarily-chosen characters interposes an additional 
 obstacle to its study. (See Mr. Pickering's Remarks on 
 the Indian Lanrjnatjes of America, from the Eneyctopixdia 
 Americana, vol. vi.; Rev. S. A. Worcester's Jlemarks on 
 the Principles of the Cherokee, in Schoolcraft's Indian 
 Tribes, ii., 413; H. C. von Gabelentz's Grainmatik d. 
 Tscherokesischen Sprache.) 
 
 The seven families which have been mentioned were 
 spread over more than nine-tenths of the territory N. of 
 Mexico, E.of the Rocky Mountains. Between these moun- 
 tains and the .Sierra Nevaila the most important family is 
 that of the SnosiioNK. occupying Utah, Ne\ ada, the southern 
 part of Idaho ami Oregon, including the Kizh and Netcia 
 of iSouthcrn California and the Conmnches of the prairies 
 of New Mexico and Texas, with the Shoshtmes or Snake In- 
 dians, Wihinasht, and Bannacks in the valleys of Snake and 
 Owvhee rivers, and the several divisions of the Ute (Utah) 
 nation. Dr. J. C. E. Buschmann has endeavored, but as 
 yet with questionable success, to establish the connection 
 of this family with the Sonora stock of Northern Mexico. 
 N. of the Shoshones, between 45° and 52° XO' N. lat., are 
 two considerable families, the Saiiaptix and the Sni.isn 
 (TsinAii.i-SEi.isn of Hale). The former includes, besides 
 the Sahaptins proper (NcJ Percys), the Walla-Wallns, 
 Yakamas, Pelouse, and Kliketats, in Northern Oregon, the 
 south-eastern portion of Washington, and the western bor- 
 der of Idaho. The Tsiiiaii.i-Sklish are distributed by 
 Mr. Hale in four groups, represented by (1) the Shushwaps 
 or .Atnahs of British Columbia, and the " Flatheads," or 
 Selish proper, on the upper Columbia and its tributaiics,
 
 IXDIAN LANGUAGES OF AMERICA. 
 
 1157 
 
 including the Pend d'Oreillcs. Caeurf< d'Alenc, Spokanes, 
 nnd Piskous; (2) the N'skwally, on Piigcl Sound; (3) the 
 T^ilIailish or Cliihailish, bclwotn the N'skwally and tho 
 ocean, and the Kowelitsk or Cowlitz, S. of the N'skwally; 
 and (4) the KiMainuks (Tilhiinookti). alonj; the coast of 
 Norlh-wc?tern Oregon. Of these, only the first group, tho 
 Selish and Shushwaps, arc inland tribes?, the other three 
 divisions iK-ing ineluded geogra]>hicaIIy with the Sound 
 Indians. Little prngrc?? in elassification of the languages 
 of numerous small tribes of the Pacific coast has been made 
 since the publication of Mr. Hale's vocabularies. ( U. S. Ex- 
 pforiti'f E.rprifit!',n,vo].\u.," Ethnography and Philology.") 
 Kor all that is known of their territorial divisions, past and 
 present, see the first volume of Mr. JI. H. Bancmft's iWitive 
 /iitrcn xtf the Pacijir Stntce, 1874. Of the structure of tho 
 Sahaptin and Selish languages, Mr. Ilale's grammatical 
 notes to vocabularies give the best general account. Seo 
 also M. C. Pandosy's (I'mmmttr and Dictiouart/ »f On: )'«- 
 k'tmn (a Sahaptin dialect), and Mengarini's (i'rammatica 
 /.tntjn.T ScticiF^ both printed in J. G. Shea's scries of Amcr- 
 iVfin Linffiiintiea, 
 
 Of langunges spoken near tho southern border of the 
 U.S., two or three have already been mentioned as belong- 
 ing to the Athabascan and Shoshone stocks. The Caddocs 
 (properly, Cado-hadacho), Adais, (.'hctimachas, and Atta- 
 capas. tribes or remnants of tribes W. of the Mississippi, on 
 the Red River and between it and tho (lulf, speak four 
 hinguages, which Mr. (Jiillatin classes as railically distinct. 
 To the Caddo belong the dialects of tho Nandakoes. tho 
 Nabedaches, and tlie Inics or Ttirhir.n, who have given 
 their name to the State of Texas. The Yitma language is 
 sp'>ken on both sides of the (Colorado River, above and 
 below the junction of the (lila. To it belong the dialects 
 of the Coco-Maricopas, now living in a village on the N. 
 bank of tho (Jihi: the Cuchans, near the Colorado; tho 
 Mohavt'S, farther N. ; the ilualapais, Yampais, in Arizona; 
 and the Dieguenos, near the Pacific in Southern California. 
 The Pima, with its dialects, spoken on the Gila and its 
 southern affluents, is included by Buschmann in his Sonora 
 family, of which the Taraluimara, Tepeguana, Cora, and 
 Cahita of North-western Mexico constitute tho first group ; 
 tho Tubar, Iliaqui, Kudcve, and Opata of Sonora make the 
 second; tho I'iina the third; and the Kizh, Comanche, 
 Shoshone, elc. tho fourth. (Sec Buschmann's Die Spnmt 
 d. AztekinchiH Sprnrftc, otc, Uerlin, ISaO, and his Die Pima 
 Sprnchc, 1857. A grammar of the Pima or Nevome, trans- 
 lated by Iluckinghani Smith, has been printed in Shea's 
 Amrrirnn Lint/nittica, vol. V.) The isolated languages of 
 tho Pitrfj/'iH or V'illagc Indians of New Mexico and Arizona, 
 near the Rio Grande, and between it and the upper Colo- 
 rado, ])resent problems of special interest to ethnologists 
 and philologists which still remain unsolved. In these 
 scattered villages dialects arc spoken of four or five distinct 
 languages, between no two of which have genetic relations 
 been established. 
 
 The picture-writings of tho Aztecs, the incised symbols 
 on the atones of Palenquc, Copan,and Yucatan, with other 
 evidences of a higher civilization than appears to have been 
 attained by northern nations, impart peculiar interest to 
 tho languages of Mnxiro and ('i;ntrai. Amkuica. Since 
 tho publication in 1815 of Mr. (jtallatin's A^»^■'^ on the S'tnii- 
 civilized jWafioiiti of Mexico, etc. ( Trann. Am. ICfhnof. Soc^ 
 vol. 1.), much has been done for the comparative philology 
 of these tongues, particularly by Pimcnlol's i'nndro dt:- 
 Hrripfirtt t/ rump'irtitino dc Ihh IrnffnnH ile Mexico (1862-05) 
 anil the flvtxjrtifitt dr Inn hnipmH dc Mfxint of Orozco y 
 Ilorra (Mex., IKCI). The most important family is that of 
 which (he Mexican proper, Xtthutttl or Aztv, is the reoog- 
 nized type. This appears to have been spoken by tlic 
 Nahuatlacs in the valley of Mexico, and in the adjacent 
 country to the K. and S., and in numerous dialects it ex- 
 tended throughout the Mexican empire. Ruschinann in 
 his principal work, /^iV .Syxrrcji d. Aztrh. Sprnchc, main- 
 tains the northern origin of tho Toltecs and Nahuatlacs, 
 and has collected tho evidence of affrnity of the Aztec with 
 the languages of North-western Mexico, and of the latter 
 with the languages of Sonora and Lower California. De 
 Charencey, A'o/tVc •itr qurlqurt fnmiUra dc litutpun dii Mrx- 
 iqitr (1S7U), accepting Puschmann's chissirication, recog- 
 nizes in tlic " Chichimecan family " two groups — tho north- 
 ern or "Oregon," comprising the Ctunanehe, Kizh, Sho- 
 shone, Uto, etc.; tho southern or "Mexican," including 
 the Pima and other languages of Sunora, with the Cora 
 and the .A/.tec. The Otomi or Uin hni. spoken by tribes 
 N. and \V. of the valley of Mexico, differs widely from 
 other languages of this region, and its jjresumcd monosyl- 
 labi(: character, together with certain peculiarities of struc- 
 ture, has leil some writers to regard it as utterly discordant 
 from the general typo of American speech, and as probably 
 of foreign origin. But tho monosyllabic character is much 
 less apparent in tho J/azd/iui', a dialect of tho Otomi, and 
 
 disappears in tho Matlazinga or Pirinda of Toluca, tho 
 affinity of which to the Otimi sceras established by recent 
 investigations. Other Mexican languages of undetermined 
 affinities are represented by the Tarasca (of Miehoaean), 
 Tlapanec (Puebia), Totonaco (Puelda and Vera Cruz), Za- 
 poteco and Mixteco ((_)axaca), Zotjui and Mixe {in parts 
 of Oaxaca, Tabasco, and Chiapas). The lluaxteco or Hu- 
 astee, which is spoken in the N. of Vera Cruz and in Puebia, 
 has fexv coincidences with the Mexican or the Otomi, but 
 is allied to tho great Maya family. To tho Moi/ft stock 
 belong tho Quieh6, Kakchiquel. Zutugil, Ixil. Choi (or Pu- 
 tum), JIame, and IVikonchi of Guatemala; Tzcndal, Zot- 
 zil (Chamula), Chorti, and Liicandon of Chiajias; Chontal 
 of Tabasco ; with the Maya of Yucatan. The Abb^- liras- 
 seur de Bourbourg, an enthusiastic and indefatigable stu- 
 dent of Central American antiquities and languages, pub- 
 lished, besides a grammar an<l vocabulary of the Quiehf* 
 (Paris, 1SG2), translations of tho Pojad Vnh, or sacred 
 book, and of a Quiche drama, Hahinal-Avhi. His discov- 
 ery in 18C3 of an ancient phonetic alphabet employed by 
 the Mayas of Yucatan, preserved in manuscript by Bishop 
 Landa, excited hopes that the pictured annals and seutj)- 
 tured stones of Central America must soon give up their 
 secrets. The hope is not yet realized, 'f'lie AbV'6 Bras- 
 seur's attempt at translation of a part of the Troano manu- 
 script by means of Landa's alphabet was, as ho subsecfucntly 
 admitted, unsuccessful. More ample materials for tho 
 study of the Maya language and its dialects may hereafter 
 enable scholars to use the key which his discovery supplied. 
 Dr. n. Berendt, who has given many years to the investi- 
 gation of Central American languages, has compiled from 
 ancient manuscripts a copious Maya dictionary, which it 
 is hoped will soon be published. (For the literature of 
 Central American languages, seo E. G.Squier's Monof/raph 
 of Authors nh't have written on the Lauffuagea of Central 
 Amcricoy 1861.) 
 
 In SorTi! Amkrica the numlier and diversity of idioms arc 
 much greater than in the North. " Of no part of the world," 
 says Latham, "is the comjiarativc philology more uncer- 
 tain nnd obscure." For a general classification, that of A. 
 d'Orbigny (//Ifnmme Am/^rivaiu, Paris, 18;j*J) has been 
 accepted provisionally, though it is founded on the physi- 
 cal types of races which the author regards as distinct, and 
 not primarily on language. Varying (with Dr. Prichard 
 and other recent writers) (he order of D'Orbigny "s groups, 
 the South American nations may be divided as follows: 
 I. A.NDO-PKitrviAN, from the Isthmus of Darien to Capo 
 Horn, comprising (1) the /'eruviaji — Quiehuas or Kcchuas 
 (whose language was spoken by all tribes subject to tho 
 Incas) and the near-related Ayniaras; Atacamas orOlipes; 
 and Changes: (2) the AntiHinu (of the Eastern Andes) — 
 Yuracaros of Bolivia, Moceteniis, Tacanas, Marojms, Apo- 
 listas. and various isolated tribes of unknown atlinitios; 
 (:J) South-Aiidi'in—Araucans of Chili, Patiigonians (Te- 
 huelhet), and Fucgians (Yacana-cunny, Aliklmolips, Peche- 
 rays, etc.). — H. Kastkkn Nations (Hrasilio-(«uaranian of 
 D'Orbigny); (1) Tupi-Uuaranian — including many tribes 
 speaking languages distinct from the Guarnni, and of un- 
 known affinities; (2) O/W^trffii — comprising nations of 
 the northern coast of South America, Guiana, and Vene- 
 zuela, allied to the Caribs of tho Antilles, Tamanacas, 
 Cbaymns, Guarafinas, Cuinanagotos, etc. ; (ii) nations and 
 isolated tribes speaking languages which seem not to belong 
 to the Tupi-Guarani or the Carib stock, but whieh. with 
 few exceptions, have never been adequately investigated. 
 Among these are tlie '* Botoeudos" (AimorC-s, GuaymarC's), 
 Goyatacas, Paris, (iuatos, Parcels, etc. (For tho names 
 and what little is known of the languages of these nations 
 see Von Marti tis's important HeitrUije z, Ethnog. uud 
 Sprnchcul-nudr Aimriku'ii. with a volume of vocabularies. 
 lS()7.j — III. MiOLANi) nations, including (1) those on the 
 Lower Paraguay and tho great plain of Cham — the (luay- 
 curfls, Lengoas, Tohas, Abipones, Mbocobis, Mbayas, Guay- 
 anos or (Juiilaches, Guatrts, Payaguas or Payaquofis, and 
 others; and (2) tho C/iifptitnf and the Moxoh — between 
 Potosi an<l t\w upper streams of the Parana — with whom 
 D'Orbigny groups seventeen other tribes attached to the 
 Chiquito and Moxo missions, speaking different languages. 
 
 Looking back to the vast field which has been only par- 
 tially surveyeil, the (ptestion presents itself: Ls there any 
 bond of union between these numerous families of lan- 
 guages radically distinct? any characteristic features com- 
 mon to th<'in all whieh testify to tho original unity of all, 
 or at least distinguish them as a class from languages of 
 the Kastern hemisphere? The answer must be given less 
 confiiiently now than it might have been fifty years ago, 
 when the attention of scholars ha*! been directed to only a 
 few of tlie American families of speech, and it was easy to 
 assume that tho structural and grammatical characteristics 
 of these were common to all Indian languages. At present, 
 broad generalizations are felt to be hazardous. As the
 
 1158 
 
 INDIAN LANGUAGES OF AMERICA. 
 
 range of observation bus widened, and new linguistic ] 
 groups and isolated dialects have been brought to notice, I 
 it has been disc-overed not only that American tongues 
 difl'er among themselves in some of the features which 
 formerly were regarded as distinctive of the class, but that 
 no one of these features is, in kind if in degree, peculiarly 
 American. After twenty-five years' stuiiy Mr. Gallatin 
 reached the conclusion in which scholars have been obliged 
 to rest — that '' although he perceived and was satisfied of 
 the similarity of character in the structure of all the known 
 Anierican languages, he could not define with precision 
 the general features common to all." No morpholof/icil 
 classification which has yet been proposed provides a place 
 for American languages exclusively, nor in fact can their 
 separation as a class be established by morphological cha- 
 racteristics or external peculiarities of structure. Their 
 common likeness is in theW plan <>/ thomfht, rather than in 
 their methods of combining elements of words or annexing 
 formatives to roots. Mr. Duponcoau was the first to sug- 
 gest this in his correspondence with Mr. Heckeweidcr in 
 1816. and more explicitly in the report of the historical 
 and literary committee of the American Philosophical So- 
 ciety in 1819. He observed in all known American lan- 
 guages, from Greenland to Cape Horn, a common type or 
 plan of construction, for which he proposed the name of 
 '■syntactic,'* or '* polysynthetlc," as being that *■ in which 
 the greatest number of ideas are comprised in the least 
 numl)er of words," this being effected principally in two 
 ways: (1) By a peculiar mode of compounding locations 
 "by interweaving together the most significant sounds or 
 syllables of each simple word" employed in composition; 
 (2) by " an analogous combination of the various parts of 
 speech, particularly by means of the verb, so that its va- 
 rious forms and inflections will express not only the prin- 
 cipal action, but the greatest possible number of the moral 
 ideas and physical objects connected with it, and will com- 
 bine itself to the greatest extent with those conceptions 
 which are the subjects of other parts of speech, and in 
 other languages require to be expressed by separate and 
 distinct words." It is to the union of these two methods of 
 synthesis, or more accurately to the constant trmUncif to 
 extreme synthesis which underlies them both, that American 
 languages owe that common likeness which seems to indi- 
 cate genetic relationship. The class-distinction founded 
 merely on the peculiar mo(ie of compounding words — which 
 was not quite accurately stated by Mr. Duponceau — was 
 not generally accepted by European scholars. W. von 
 Uumbuldt in 1822, suggesting a threefold division of hu- 
 man language, as isolating, agglutinative, or inflectional, 
 referred the American tongues to the second or** aggluti- 
 native" oriler, associating them with the so-called Turanian, 
 and denving them the possession of true inflections and 
 grammatical forms. This classification has been generally 
 adopted as sufficient for practical purposes, though mani- 
 festly inexact, for ''when we analyze each language more 
 carefully, we find there is none exclusively isolating, or ex- 
 clusively agglutinative, or exclusively inflectional." (Prof. 
 M. Miillcr, On the Strati ftcdtion of Lnnf/iiftf/e, p. IS. Other 
 defects of Humboldt's threefoM division are noticed by 
 Prof. Whitney, fjaitf/uafje aud the Science of Lnufjunrje, 
 ;;t)0 ff.) If the American languages must be brought under 
 this classification, a considerable number of them certainly 
 are as fairly entitled to inclusion in the inflectional class as 
 are the Semitic or the Indo-European. No definition of an 
 inflectional Language has been given that will exclude the 
 Algonkin while including the Hebrew. The modification 
 of the root by varying vocalization is as well-marked a 
 feature of one' language as of the other. And if the appli- 
 cation of the term " j)olysynthetic " is to be restricted to the 
 morphological features of language, it may bo given as 
 appropriately to the Turkish, and perhaps to the Basque, 
 as to the American. Mr. Duponceau was mistaken in sup- 
 posing that in the mode of componmlinq words the Algon- 
 kin materially differed from the Indo-European. There is 
 no *' interweaving together the most significant sounds or 
 syllaldes of each simple word" to form the compound in 
 any other sense than is true of the Latin or the English 
 language. The runts of each simple word enter intb com- 
 position, divested of grammatical formatives, but entire 
 and unchanged. 
 
 "The fundamental characteristic of the Indian lan- 
 guages" was first clearly pointed out by Mr. Gallatin 
 [Siinopnin of the Indian fribeii, 164) AS "a universal tend- 
 ency to express in the same word not only all that modi- 
 fies or relates to the same object i>r action, but both the ac- 
 tion and the object, thus concentrating in a single expres- 
 sion a complex idea or several ideas among which there is 
 a natural connection. All the other features of the lan- 
 guage seem to be subordinate to that general principle." 
 This tendency charaettrizes the whole plan of thought, and 
 is at the very roots of language. It is found everywhere 
 
 in American speech, and, so far as the languages of the 
 world have been investigated, it is found in the same de- 
 gree nowhere else. The word-clusters all gather about 
 verbal roots or assume verbal forms. It may almost be 
 said with truth that Indian languages — pronouns and a 
 few particles excepted — are all verbs. Every word may be 
 conjugated by moods aU'I tenses; every so-called noun has 
 its preterite and future, its indicative and subjunctive ; and 
 many nouns have active and passive voices. Every syn- 
 thesis is predicative, and. however long and cumbrous, is 
 built on a verbal theme and assumes one of the conjuga- 
 tion-forms of a derivative or compound verb. The Chip- 
 pewa language (said Bishop Baraga, who had attained a 
 remarkable proficiency in its study) "is a language of 
 verbs. All depends on the verb, and almost all is or can 
 be transformed into verbs." Father Lacombe {Grammaire 
 CrlHc, p. 53) characterizes the Cree in nearly the same 
 words. The Rev. Mr. Byington, after fifty years' acquaint- 
 ance with the Choctaw, asked, " Cannot all Choctaw nouns 
 be treated as verbs?" ( ''Ao<?f«iP tfrfi*H»iar, p. 45.) Prof. 
 Steintbal has, it is true, taken the opposite view, and he is 
 followed by Fr. Miiller and some others in denying to the 
 Algonkin languages true verb-forms, and treating the 
 synthesis as a noun and its prefixed pronoun as always 
 possessive : but no long or very intimate acquaintance with 
 any Algonkin dialect is required fur showing the error of 
 this position. Mr. Gallatin justly regarded *' the happy 
 manner by which, through the insertion of a single parti- 
 cle, not only tenses and our common moods, but almost 
 every modification of the action, is specially expressed," as 
 the chief excellence of Indian speech. The nature of the 
 polysynthetlc structure, and some of the grammatical de- 
 vices employed in its composition, can best be shown by 
 examples. It must be rentembered, however, that these 
 syntheses were framed by missionaries, not by the Indians 
 themselves, to express conceptions foreign to the Imlian 
 nature and language, or in some instances merely to exhibit 
 the resources of these languages and the almost infinite 
 possibilities of verbal eomjtosition. 
 
 Eliot, in his translation of the Bible into the Algonkin 
 dialect of Massachusetts, uses for "our lusts" the word 
 nHm-mnlch-e-kod-tan'ta-nioo-on-f/a-nitn-no-nask. It was not 
 easy to give an Indian the Puritan conception of lust as 
 "sinful longing." Eliot's synthesis is a verbal, with the 
 affixes of the double plural — i'. e. of the pronoun and the 
 action or desire. The verb kvdtantam means "to long for, 
 to greatly desire ;" malche-kodtantajn is " badly to desire ;" 
 mntrhc'kodtantam-oo'onk is a verbal, "badly longing or 
 desiring;" num (for n) is the possessive pronoun "my," 
 which becomes plural, " our," by the insertion of -fmuoa 
 before the final -ash, which is the plural termination of the 
 verbal. The whole expresses "our evil longings." If for 
 matrhe, tcunni should be substituted, the meaning becomes 
 " our good (or pleasing) longings ;" if -ji»h be substituted 
 for kodt, it will be "our evil hatings;" and so on. La- 
 combe, in his Grammaire de la Lnnqite dea Crin (1874), 
 gives examples of more cumbrous and exaggerated syn- 
 thesis. In Western Cree, Kit-ondicd-aonit/aw-i-iru'taKKnten- 
 {■fjan-ubisk-n-m-i-s-iai-uotc-ok means " our small gold can- 
 dlesticks." (The hyphens here divide elcraents of synthe- 
 sis and euphonic connectives, not syllables.) Lacombc'a 
 analysis is too long to be given here. The literal transla- 
 tion is something like this: "Our yellow-silver lighting- 
 instruments of metal, the very small ;" but the first letter, 
 A-, is the characteristic of the incluaive plural, and, in con- 
 nection with the urn (after ubink), gives the meaning, " be- 
 longing to all of tin" "yours and mine," which the Eng- 
 lish pronoun does not express. The Rev. Experience May- 
 hew, a missionary to the Indians of Martha's Vineyard in 
 1722, gave a similar specimen of word-building: Nup- 
 pahk- nuh- td -pc- pe- nan -wiit-ckut-chiih-qnS - ka-Jtch-cha- 
 ufh-cha-c-nin-uu-innn-no-nOK; *' our well-skilled looking- 
 glass-makers." Of the twenty-two syllables, eight are re- 
 quired for the name of "looking-glass." which, like every 
 Indian name, conveys a specific description of the object 
 as a "clearly-reflecting instrument." In the preceding 
 examples the'process of forming highly compounded words 
 bv combining several significant roots is nearly the same — 
 the pronominal affixes excepted— as in the Lai in, German, 
 or English language. Such compounds as " imperturba- 
 bilis." "expergefactus," " incomprehcnsibleness, ' do not 
 difl'er essentially (as Mr. Gallatin observes), "cither in the 
 number, nature, or arrangement of their elements, from a 
 large portion of the Indian compounded words." Of an- 
 other mode of synthesis, and one more characteristic of 
 American speech, some of the conjugation-forms of Algon- 
 kin verbs supply good illustrations. Baraga gives, in the 
 Chippewa, rfe^i'm/itAiimrfo'/, meaning. "I think what they 
 say of that poor fellow is but too true." The significant 
 roiit here is deb-i (in the Massachusetts dialect tapi), " it 
 , satisfies, it equals," hence, " it is true." The primary verb
 
 IXDIAN LANGUAGES OF AMKRICA. 
 
 1159 
 
 is (l^hice, "he speaks true;" the Iransitivc-animate form is 
 dfhinmn^ ** he Speaks th<" truth o/' another pirHou ,*" and of 
 this the '* pitting form" (us liaraga caMs it) is dt'himitHhij 
 "he speaks the (ruth of another, poor fellow!'* or imper- 
 sonally, "what tlipy say of liini i^ unfortuniiIf!y true;" in 
 the " lUihitative " form, this bcctunes d.'biiiinufn'n-adtiff, ** I 
 think what they say," etc. All cxoept the radical ili'b is 
 grammar, and each successive modification of the meaning 
 is given hy regular conjugation-forms. In another family 
 of language we have, as a specimen of Choctaw synthesis 
 (Gallatin's Sifitopsh, '24*.*), \Vi-ni-taw'-ti-<fr'(ji'nn'li-sK-nw'- 
 luutj-ta-tuttc-ne-li-'ti-fie-ttti ,* translated, *' They will by that 
 time have nearly done granting [favors] from a distance to 
 thee and rac." The same capacity of synthesis is found in 
 languages of the Pacific coast, of Mexico, and of South 
 America. In the Sahaptin (Nez Perce) of Ore^^on the 
 word K'i-thnp-tau-tn-af-n-ivihnnn-knH-nn-ui'Uin signifies "he 
 travelled hy on foot in a rainy night." The jirimary verb 
 is iciknay " to travel on foot :" tntt and tunln. are adverbial 
 prefixes, meaning, respectively, " by night" and "in the 
 rain;" hnu denotes a "passing by;"?(rt is the characteristic 
 of the indicative mood, hi of the third person, etc. (Ilule's 
 Nfitcn nil Lntufxaffcn o/ the ytirth-iccst.) Paredes observes 
 that Mexican compounds usually consist of two words only, 
 occasionally of three, and that such as exceed the latter 
 number are principally used with reference to sacred things, 
 having been formed by the missionaries. Of these, tlovn- 
 tziiitifiztffitlacoUi, for " original sin," is un example. This 
 is compoumlcd from tlncatl, "a person," tzinti/htfi, " com- 
 mencement " or "principle," anil fffilfacolfi, "sin." The 
 name srcnis a long one. tint perhaps the doctrine has never 
 been clearly taught in fewer syllai)le9. 
 
 The process of word-growth will be most conveniently 
 cxhibite<l by bringing together some of the <ierivatives of 
 a single root. The following are selected from Chippewa 
 words (in HaragaV* Dictionttn/) formed on the verbal root 
 WAn, "to see." With the verb in the indicative is given 
 the conditional participle, which is used as a noun to de- 
 note ono who may or habitually does perform the act ex- 
 pressed by the verb, or who is vonceirvd ax performing it. 
 To fnrm this nomm nctnrifi, and generally in conditional 
 statements, the principal vowel of the root is strengthened ; 
 thus, wAh'iy " he sees." makes icniabid, " a seer " — /. r. one 
 conceived as seeing, who may, can, or habitually does sec; 
 ilhif "he remains," makes /AiV, "ono who remains;'* viOn, 
 "ho dies," n/hrtd, "a dead person;*' ^iossr, " he hunts," 
 f}finH)if,d ^ "a hunter," etc. If the verb has an adverbial or 
 other prefix, the ehan<;e takes place in the vowel of the 
 prefix, and that of the principal root is not afTected. This 
 vowel-change, a characteristic feature of Algonkin lan- 
 guages, is in itself a sufficient reason for regarding them 
 as iiijh'rtitnitif, and a sufficient proof that they are not des- 
 titute of true verb-forms. 
 
 The root wab is found in the prim.iry verb mAb-t, "ho 
 sees;" and by the passive sense, "to be seen," come the 
 meanings " to be light, bright, white," or otherwise visible, 
 Mcnce. 
 
 WAiuc't. it dawns, lit. "there is seeing;" w.innfuf, to-mor- 
 row, lit. "at the dawn;" conditional (with change of 
 vowel) WAiAB'»",7, at dawning — i.e, whenever it daivns. 
 WAOrtHi (n.), dawn, the ea-^t ; WAii'/n-ony, in the east ; hence, 
 
 a name fif the mornin;; star. 
 hiwKVi'ni, dawn (lit. "seeing") comes, 
 nin WAnrrni", I sco (an animate object); WAiABffmrtt/, one 
 
 who sees, etc. 
 nm \VA'B«»*/'fn, I aeo (an inanimate object) : WAiA'Daiirfant/, 
 
 ono who sees, etc. 
 nin bftn'\\'.(ind<nt, I lose sight of (it); benKHandanrj, i)HQ 
 
 wh(» loses sight, etc. 
 nin wxwbftndiH^ I sec myself: part. wwAvinudiaed. 
 uln WAttnuditft;, I sec something (intrans.); part* iptnub- 
 
 audiffrd. 
 
 nin WAWiiufjr^ I see, look on (indof. intrana.); part, icfn'/ii- 
 auijrd. 
 
 nin offA'a, r see from a distance: p. whintthid. 
 
 \\ KVitinmri, he is a sorcerer (seer) ; p. tnaiAbnnowid. 
 
 nin WAHi'ft. I make him see; p. trninbind. 
 
 iii'nwAii'"'. I am seeing — /. c. I survive the night. 
 
 in/i wA'n'HiiV*, I (with difTiculty) Rurvivo the winter, 
 
 wabm/, a swan (literally, "ho is while"). 
 
 WAii"«, a hare. 
 
 \v\i\iffini, a blossom (lit. " it is seen "). 
 
 V, AViif/itn, while clay ; irAbiijuiifr, he plasters with elay. 
 
 WA'nAR/</'(;i (intens.t. lime — /. r. very white clay; tcubabi' 
 (jitniif, he whitens with lime. 
 
 iVA'B'V//n, white fiannel. 
 
 WAB"»*ni, a blanket. 
 
 WAB'f'"'/-. tin — f. r. white metal : nhik i? not nn independ- 
 ent word, but a generic formative of names for rocks 
 and minerals. 
 
 viAfiiithhi. it becomes white, is whitish or gray. 
 
 WABjWiA'iHt", he is whitish; part. waiCibiihhinid, a whitish 
 
 man. 
 WAHtHhkiice, ho is (by nature) whitish; part, tcai/ibinh' 
 
 kitcedf a white (whitish) man. 
 In the greater number of the derivatives here given, tbo 
 root has its secondary or passive sense, " seen "= while, or 
 distinctly visible. Still more numerous arc the verbs ex- 
 pressing inodtH of seeing and relations of the subject to the 
 object of sight. The variety of conjugation-forms that any 
 of these verbs may assume is practically without limits. A 
 paradigm of the primary nin nmb — in Schoolcraft's orthog- 
 ra))hy ne wnnh — fills 90 quarto pages (2'.iy-;>SS) of the olh 
 vol. of his Information renpectivij, etc. the Indian Tribes. 
 A manuscript paradigm of the same verb, by the llcv. 
 Thomas Ilurlburt. is still more extensive, and he declares, 
 moreover, that having estimated as nearly as he eould all 
 the p<tssible "inficctions of this one root wab, he finds 
 about 20,0110,000." Evidently, however, he uses the term 
 "inflections" in a larger sense than grammarians will al- 
 low it. making it include such modifications of the action 
 as arc elTeeted by prefixing or incorporating adverbial par- 
 ticles. But apart from all these, which belong rather to 
 the composition of words than to grammar, Indian conju- 
 gational forms arc prodigiously numerous. They may bo 
 referred to three classes: (1) ;>»r«f>*((i/, expressing by the 
 so-called "transitions'* the grammatical person of the ob- 
 ject as well as of the subject of the verb; (2) animat<^ and 
 inanimate, distinguishing the object or subject, or both, as 
 belonging to ono or the other of these two classes; (3) mo- 
 da( and irirrnnistnntial, corresponding more nearly to the 
 Scmitie than to Indo-Kuropean forms of conjugation, though 
 far exceeding the former in number and variety. The per- 
 sonal conjugations, in which the pronouns of the subject 
 and the object are united with the verb, are found in all 
 American languages that have been investigated, and may 
 be regarded as one of the characteristics of the class. Tho 
 division of nouns into animate antl inanimate is not pecu- 
 liar to, nor is it recognized in all, these languages. Such a 
 distinction is observed in the (new) Persian, and by Kafir 
 tribes in South Africa; and there is something like it in 
 the Tamil and other Dravidian tongues of Southern India, 
 which divide nouns into " high caste " or "rational," and 
 "no-caste" or "irrational." It pervades the entire struc- 
 ture of Algonkin languages, aiul is pcrhiips their most 
 striking feature, modifying the inficctions of all nouns and 
 the conjugations of every verb, according as the action is 
 exerted by or upon an animate or inanimate object. Thus, 
 a Cliippcwa Indian says, nin pahitrint, " I strike him " — 
 e. ,'/. a man or a horse ; nin pakid'aii, " I strike it," a stone, 
 a block, or other inanimate thing; jimi pakiteiffe, '^ I am 
 striking " (somebody or something indefinite) ; ni'ii pakitfo- 
 man, " I Strike (an animate object) belonging to him" — 
 e.f/. his child, his horse : pokitfitfan, "it strikes" (and, used 
 as a noun, "a hammer"); pakit{:itisKin, "it strikes some- 
 thing" (unintentionally), etc. In some cases the distinc- 
 tion is not merely a granimatieal one, but inheres in tho 
 root — r. <f. nin niidjiu, "I cat" something inanimate, 
 whence, impersonally, midjim, "it is eaten" or "they eat 
 it," used as a noun meaning " food," and the participial 
 niadjid, "an cater:" but nin amwa, "I eat" somctliing of 
 the animate class (which includes bread, corn, jiotatocs, 
 fruits, as well as the Hesh of certain animals), and tinirad, 
 "an eater." In no other American family is this distinc- 
 tion so stronj;ly marked or of so extended application as 
 in the Alt;onkin, but it is found in the Iroquois, less promi- 
 nently in the (Mierokee, in some Jlcxican langunges, in tho 
 Arrawak of Cuiana, the Quiehmi of Peru, the Tupi ((lun- 
 rani) of Ilrazil. etc. In the Dakota it is indicated only in 
 the plural of animate nouns. 
 
 Algonkin verbs have not only conjugation-forms corre- 
 sponding to the active, middle, nnd jiassive voices of Indo- 
 European languages, but a great variety of niudal and 
 circumstantial conjugations, such as the ineepli\e, causa- 
 tive, dcsidcralivc, frequentative, habitual, mutual, involun- 
 tary, simulative ('■.,7. niha, *' ho sleeps;" uibA/cano, "ho 
 feigns sleep**), compulsive, deteriorative or derogative, 
 etc.; and many of these forms may bo conjugated alfirma- 
 tively, negatively. an<l donhtinrffi/. the system of personal 
 " transitions " ami the distinction between animate and in- 
 animate, in subject and object, being maintained through- 
 out. Similar richness of verbal expression brlonK^ *" 
 other American tongues. Von Tschudi enumerates thir- 
 teen classes or forms of Quiehua verbs, all formed from the 
 primary by cftnjugational suflixes. 
 
 In nniny languages nouns have tho same form in tho 
 plural as in tho singular, })lurality being expressed by an 
 independent W()rd mcanint; " many.** by n numeral, or only 
 by the foibtwini; verb. Others, like the Sioux-DaUoIa. have 
 a plural form U*r anitnatr ntiuns. but not for the inanittmte. 
 In tin- Algonkin each of these two classes has its charac- 
 teristic plural, that of animate nouns being nearly the samo
 
 1160 
 
 INDIAN LANGUAGES OF AMERICA. 
 
 in all dialects of the family, while the termination of the 
 inanimate iilural varies considerably. Cherokee nouns, 
 pronouns, and vcrlis huve dual as well as plural forms. an(l 
 the Iroquois has in addition to these an "indeterminate" 
 or collective plural. The distinction of prranim, as first, 
 second, and third, is so well established in Kut'lish gram- 
 mar that it SCCIU3 to us the only natural one. In many 
 Indian languages there is no pronoun of the third person, 
 its iilace being supplied by a demonstrative. In many 
 others there are Iwn pronouns of the first person ]ilural, 
 wliich. combinin'^ with nouns and verbs, form the inrhisirv 
 and exrliiHirr, or "general" and "limited," plurals, tlie 
 former including both the speaker and those l<> whom he 
 speaks ("you and I"), the latter including only the 
 •speaker and those /'w whom he speaks, and excluding all 
 others (" we, not you "). The Cherokee distinguishes two 
 tlilr<l persons as ";)rc»t"( or ab^-cnl. and has also two first 
 persons, dual and plural; and the same distinction is ob- 
 served in the Cliavma (and perhaps other Caribi-Tamana- 
 eau dialects 1, the" Quichua. etc. The double first person 
 plural (inclusive and exclusive) belongs to all Algonkin 
 languages, to the Iroquo- '^' '■" ''' 
 
 Cherokee, Choctaw, Pahaptin 
 
 (i» doing, the act expressed by the verb, corresponding to 
 the English iiomeii iiciorii in -rr. This name is formed as 
 a coniii'tional particijile, or as the third person singular of 
 the conditional present, with a change of the vowel of the 
 root: thus, from Chip. iiu>«i<; "he huut.<," comes ;i/iiMal, 
 " a hunter ;" from ijimotli, " he steals," iji'moilid, " one who 
 steals, a thief" (anil if the name is intended to convey a re- 
 proach, ff^mof/isHKiii. "one who too much steals, an habit- 
 ual thief ") ; from ujl(nn, " he makes it," w<Jili>'l. •■ one who 
 makes," etc. Another very large class of nouns is formed 
 from the indicative present, to denote the action of the verb, 
 answering to the English substantive participle in -iii<i: <•. </. 
 (Chip.)'/i'm'!(''', "he steals;" ii!mM!-irin, "stealing, theft;" 
 mi'./(i(/i'.'"he fights;" m/'/^li/iin'/i. " fighting, war;" muiikwc, 
 " lie drinks ;" miiiihii-hrhi, "drinking " (so, miiiilcirHnfiMvin, 
 "too much drinking, intemperance:" minikuH'S.Mriii, "not 
 drinking, abstinence"). Other verb-nouns serve to name 
 instruments for performing the act exjiressed by the verb; 
 as from C\\\f.pakll(lrii:, " he strikes," is formed pahih n/nn, 
 " a hammer," literally " it strikes ;" from pMikIti, " it ex- 
 plodes, bursts" (with noise), comes pAiilikixiijan, "a gun' 
 ■ can exploding instrument; from //i' 
 
 instrument; from j'ibdinbandan, "he 
 
 (Ne°z PotcM, Ouichua. and others. It is found also in the ! looks through something, j,l,„u,b„ndj,,pw, an instru 
 
 Dravidian languages of Southern India, in the Manchu, in 
 Polynesian aiid some .Australian dialects, and in those of 
 Hottentot tribes of South ,\frica. and would seem to have 
 been verv "pncrally resorted to, at one stage of the devel- 
 opment of language, in finding a way from the primitive 
 dual to the conception of unlimited plur.ility. In the 
 Cherokee, as has been said, the dual as well as the plural 
 has inclusive and exclusive forms for the first person — " we 
 two" it. <: "he and I"), and "wo two" (i. e. "thou and 
 I, and not be "I; but in the ibtrd person there is no dis- 
 tinction made between dual and plural. 
 
 In some Indian languages, and particularly in the Al- 
 gonkin family, both transitive verbs and the (animate) 
 nouns and pronouns they govern have two or three third- 
 persrm.al forms, distinguishing degrees of rel.atioo to the 
 subject of the verb. Baraga ( Otvlnpwe Ornmmnr) and 
 Lacombe (Grammaire Crlae) call these the simple, the 
 second, and the third-third persons; Cuoq (Eiitdet plulo- 
 lii,,:,iiics) denominates the second as the third person "ob- 
 viatif," and the third as the " sur-obviatif " To take an 
 example from the English: in "John struck Paul," John 
 is the first-third and Paul the second-third person; in 
 "John struck Paul's son," "son" is the third-third, or 
 " sur-obviatif." If the subject of the verb is in the first 
 or second person, the governed noun (if in the third per- 
 son) has the first or simple form: '(Chip.) nin sagia iintu, 
 " I love my-fathcr; " if there are two third persons in the 
 sentence, one takes the second-third form— e. g. aw inini 
 nd-amikilav-au iiossAN', "that man works for (serves) my 
 father;" if there arc three or more third persons, tho 
 first is in the simple form, the second in the second third 
 or obviative. the third and all others in the third-third or 
 super-obviative; e. .7. Jnscp o-r/i-odaplnan abintidil'i.KS 
 nt/lni-fiaie, "Joseph took the young child and A/« mother." [ 
 (This example is t;ikeu from Baraga, p. 72. i In the Chip- 
 pewa, the second-third person ends in 11, an, or 011, the 
 third-third in «/, aul, or oiii', and a corresponding change 
 is made in tho form of tho governing verb ; e. <j. Jak ,it- 
 ttlcemAN o-«r,/.-,7l,\N-ISI Sabrl\s of -f.aiVlNI, "The sister of 
 ,Tacques loved the daughter of Elizabeth;" lit. "Jacques 
 his-sister she-loved Elizabeth her-daughter," where " sis- 
 ter" and Elizabeth .are in the second-third person, 
 "dauo'hter" in the third-third, and tho verb has the dou- 
 ble affix of second and third, a»-hn. (Cuoq,) The Eskimo 
 has two forms for the third person, one of which, accord- 
 in" to Egedc, is used only when tho object of the verb be- 
 lonc/H In \he subject; thus, kitnrnX UirnivS., "he gave it to 
 his'(anotlier person's) child," but kilornl lurniva, " he gave 
 it to his (own) child." Eliot, in his Massachusetts version 
 of the Bible, makes use of the "obviative" form, but has 
 not mentioned it in his grammar of the language; and as 
 Zeisbergcr seems not to have discovered it in the so-called 
 Delaware, it was not brought to the notice of Duponeeau, 
 Gallatin, or Pickering. It is probable that some such dis- 
 tinction between the principal ami the ilependent third 
 persons inav be found in most American dialects. Pandosy 
 in his Yakiima ( Sahaptin ) grammar notices a difference of 
 inflection " when the governing substantive is itself gov- 
 erned by a verb," In the Quichua the distinction is effected 
 by special forms of the demonstrative; in the Tupi of 
 Brazil, bv a "reflexive particle." 
 
 Not tlie least remarkable feature of these languages is 
 the facility with which concrete and abstract names may 
 be formed not only from every verb, but from the several 
 voices, moods, and tenses of tho verb. One species of 
 vcrb.nouu, of very frequent use in Algonkin speech, has 
 been mentioned liefnre— that, namely, which designates a 
 person who habitually docs, or may do, or who is conceived 
 
 and 
 s^giidi 
 
 ment made for looking through, a spy-glass," etc. Since 
 everv so-called adjective may be conjugated as a verb, from 
 which nouns may be formed for designating the actor, 
 action, and instrument, ami since the formation of all such 
 verb-nouns is regular, so that every new name is self-de- 
 fining, it is plain that the possible enlargement of the vo- 
 cabulary is absolutely without limit. The Inilian languages 
 are far richer in concrete and special than in abstract and 
 general names ; but this is not because they are inadequate 
 to the expression of abstract ideas or generalizations, but 
 because the Indian aims always at the attainment of abso- 
 lute precision, and at an exactness of denotation w-bich 
 higher culture and larger intelligence permit Indo Euro- 
 peans to disregard. There is an illustration of this in the 
 nicety of the distinction made between the active and pas- 
 sive substantive-participle in many American languages. 
 Tho Indian has no expression for abslracl love, hate, truth, 
 fear, anger, etc. Love, for instance, is either " a loving" or 
 "a being-loved," according as it is referred to its subject 
 or objcc', and it is named by an active or passive verb- 
 noun. In English "the love of God" may mean cither 
 man's love to God, or God's love to m.an. The Algonkin 
 avoids this ambiguity. In the Chippewa, for example, _ 
 from tagiiice, " he loves," is formed suijiimuin, " a loving 
 
 (love giveyt) ; 
 from sfi'jiUjoiii, " he is loved," is formed s&gHgoaiiein, " a 
 being-loved" (love received); 
 from mlgiidiii, "he loves himself," is formed a&glidisiwhi, 
 " self-loving ;" 
 d from the miitu.al conjugation-form of the same verb, 
 liwhi, "mutual loving." So, from pnkitfige, "he 
 strikes," come pak'itdqewin, "a beating given." and paki- 
 lligowin, "a beating "received." And the form of these 
 veib-nouns may be modified according as the object of the 
 action or emotion is animate or inanimate. Similar dis- 
 tinctions are found in other American languages. Paredes 
 (quoted by Gallatin) notes the double forms of verbal nouns 
 in the Mexican, "both of which exjiress tlie acts of doing 
 that which the verb signifies." the former actively, tho 
 latter passively ; thus, " tella <,•"<'" i-"-"-' is ' the love I have 
 for another.' iivtla rollmvw is 'the love another has for 
 me.' " In the (Juichua. Von Tschudi notices four kinds of 
 verb-nouns, formed respectively from the active participle 
 and the imperfect, perfect, and future of tho innuitivc, in 
 both active and passive voices— c, 7. from apa. " to bear," 
 come apuk, "bearer," apa,j. "the burden" (that which is 
 borne), apnsca, "he who has borne," apanca or apana, 
 " that which is to be borne," etc. 
 
 "Scmic learned Europeans have not disdained to study 
 tho structure of the idioms of America with the same care 
 as they study those of the Semitic languages and of the 
 Greek 'and Latin. They no longer." said Baron von Hum- 
 boldt, "attribute to the imperfection of a language what 
 belon-'S to the rudeness of the nation. It is acknowledged 
 that almost evervwhere tho Indian idioms display greater 
 richness and more delicate gradations than might be sup- 
 posed from the uncultivated state of the people by whom 
 thev are spoken ;" and he observed as evidence of this that 
 ihe Idi/h of Theocritus "had been translated, with grace- 
 ful simplieitv, into the language of the Incas, and that he 
 was assured' that, excepting treatises on science and phi- 
 losophy, there is scarcely anv work of modern literature 
 that might not be translated into the Peruvian." Vixera 
 has "iv'en a translation of an ode of Anaercnn into Olmni. 
 The Abb6 Brasseur de Bourbourg. by his French version of 
 the Itabmnl-Achi. from the Quiche of Guatemala, has shown 
 i that lan"ua''e to he not ill-furnished for poetical and dra- 
 I matic cSmp'osition. In the Algonkin, Iroquois, Chahta-
 
 INDIAN OCEAN— INDIAN RED. 
 
 IIGI 
 
 Muskoki, Dakota, and other North American families the 
 rcailineas aud taae with which new words have been lormed 
 for ideas and objects previouply uiiknuwn — the funnation 
 being always in strict accordance with (he structural laws 
 of the lan^ua;;c — j;ive sufficient evidence (as Mr. Gallatin 
 remarked) that these Indian tongues " had within them- 
 sclve:< the po\ver of progressive iuiproveineut whenever 
 required by an advance in knowledge or civilization." The 
 author of /^tudea phtloiofjir/ws mtr fftif/quex Lanynei Sun- 
 vnijfM tie VAm^r!'/ue (Montreal, 1800) and oi Jvfjtment frron6 
 de M. Enirnt /Irnnn sur lea Lnngnm Snuvatjcn (1SG9), who 
 wriic3 with oxcollent knowledge of his subject so far as the 
 northern Ab^onkin and the Iroquois dialects are concerned, 
 has shown h<tw •iili2:ht foundation there is for the opinions 
 expressed l>y M. Ilenan and some other eminent philologists 
 of Europe, that these languages are incapable of exi)ressing 
 abstract idea?, that their richness in forms and in special 
 terms is at the expense of accuracy in denotation, and that 
 they are destitute of true inflections. On this last point 
 something has already been said in this article, but it may 
 be well to add the weil-considcred statement of Mr. Galla- 
 tin in his last work, that "the Indian languages abound 
 with inflections, having precisely the same character with 
 those which are universally considered as such in other" 
 —or, as he says elsewhere — '* in the classical languages." 
 
 However numerous may be the derivatives and possible 
 syntheses, the number of n>'»/* in any Indian dialect is 
 small. Those, of course, are common to all languaces of 
 the same family, but they are not exempt from phonetic 
 change in passing from one dialect to another. Their 
 identity may thus be nearly lost, and perhaps cannot be 
 established except by extensive comparison of dialects. 
 Th? Dakota name for "ten." for example, is in the Sioux 
 wl-hrhe-inrm; in the Winnebago, kh'ra-pun; in the Ponka, 
 (jlhe-bn. Those (rejecting a prefix in the Sioux) are merely 
 phonetic variations of the same name; kche, kU'ra, anjl 
 tjfhe are equivalent, and so are mnn, puiif and b'l. In the 
 Alg<mkin family the range of divergence is less wide, yet 
 still considerable: the Abnaki areni, "man," and the Illi- 
 nois i7/i«i, are nut far a[»art or from Chippewa i'hi'h/; in 
 Micmac I'un (or c/*hiO and Quinnipi ten the difference is 
 more apparent, and still more in Hudson's Bay Cree ethin'u, 
 Wi-stern Oreo ii/i'nti. and .Shyeunc it'mi. 
 
 Till the comparative grammar of the languages of each 
 of the principal American families shall have been investi- 
 gated, and the laws and limits of jthonetic change are bet- 
 ter un'lerstood than at present, questions as to the genetic 
 relation of one of these families to another must remain un- 
 answered. As yet, philology has no sufiicient data for de- 
 termining either the fact or the degree of such relationship. 
 SMII less is the philologist competent to decide, on evidence 
 now supplied by langua-xc, that any family of American 
 speech is, or is not, of Asiatic, European, or African deri- 
 vation. In support of difTereut theories rcspcctiitg the 
 origin of the Indian races, various resemblances and analo- 
 gies have been pointed out between American dialects and 
 one or another of the languages of the OM World. Those 
 who believed the Indians to be descendants of the lost 
 tribes of Israel, discovered in their languages striking af- 
 finities to the Hebrew, and one writer conjectured that the 
 Mohawks were of the tribe of Levi, because their name cor- 
 responds so nearly to Hebrew ^fri^■f|„f:r/:, translated "law- 
 giver" in Gen. xlix. 10. Vater in Mithriffatci gave a long 
 r^t of words of similar sound and meaning in Indian and 
 Asiatic languages, as evidence that America was peopled 
 by emigration from North-eastern Asia. The vocabulary 
 of the Caribs ha:* been made to give ovidonceof their African 
 origin. M.deCharencey, impressed by structural unci gram- 
 matical resemblances between certain American dialects — 
 particul.irly the Eastern Algonkin — and the Hasque, is led 
 to believe that the New Worbl was peopled by Iberian colo- 
 nists fromAVestern Europe. ( l>r^ AjjimtfHtlr (e f'tn'jne linirfHe 
 nvrc ten hfiomcn flu \<nirrnti-}finir/e, 1807.) The Supposed 
 
 likeness of some Indian words to Greek, I*atin, and San- 
 scrit has more (ban once been pointed out; as, for exomplo, 
 Algonkin iritfirnm and <lr. oiicoc, L'lt. virni; Aztec f^nt/ and 
 (Jr. 9^09. Kviflence satisfactory to such as were predis- 
 pn-icd to accept it has been found of the genetic connection 
 netween American speech and Egyptian, Mongolian. Tun- 
 gusic, Sanioyedic, Malayan, and Polynesian, and in fact 
 almost every known language of the world. On the other 
 band, ethnologists of the school of Morton, Nott, and GHd- 
 don attach litdo weight to any such evidence of extra- 
 American afTinify, and regard the languages of the Indians, 
 like their raee, as autochthonous. 
 
 For a general view of the structure and comparative 
 grammar of North American languages, Mr. flallatin's 
 S'fnnpiiiii n/ the Indian Ti'ihen {TrnnMfictionn of the Am. 
 Aiftifj, Sftriehf, vol. ii.). Supplemented by his notes on 
 
 Hale"fl Vornhu/nrirn ( Trann. Am. Ethnnl. .S'onV/y, vol. ii.), 
 
 are still the best guides. Mr. Pickering's excellent paper 
 
 I on Indian Lang^iageg of America (in the Appendix to the 
 Enci/ct. Ainerivfuut, vol. vi., and separately' printed iSol), 
 and his notes to the reprint of Eliot's Indian Grammar 
 I liegiui (in il/«««. I/iit. Cotiet:tit*us, 2d series, vol. ix.), should 
 i be consulted, and a paper by Dr. F. Lieber On the Plan of 
 I Thotitfht in Amcricitn Lanijmtgei^y in vol. li. (pp. 340-i.'M9) 
 j of Schoolcraft's great collection of /JiHlitrical and Statia- 
 1 lical Iii/ormati'in rcHpcctiug the Indian TrihcH (6 vols. 4tO, 
 ' 1851-66) — a work which contains much valuable material, 
 though this, unfortunately, cannot easily be separated from 
 I the worthless mass in which it is buried. The third vol- 
 I umc of MithridatcH, by Adelung and Vatcr (1:^12-10), eup- 
 I plies much valuable information, particularly as to South 
 I American languages. For the general bibliography sec 
 ' Triibner's edition of Ludewig's Littiniturc of American 
 ' Abtjriffinal Lanf/uaj/ett, with Prof. W. M'. Turner's addi- 
 tions and corrections. An Ensat/ tounrdi an Indian Ilib- 
 ' litujrapbify by Mr. T. W. Field (New York, IST.'J), though 
 ' primarily designed only as the catalogue of a private 
 library, is a convenient and useful b(.ok of relerence. 
 For languages of the Pacific coast, Horatio Hale's col- 
 lected vocabularies and grammatical notes in vol. vii. 
 {Ethnorjraphij and P/iilolof/i/) of the Ih pint of the U. S. 
 Ej'ploriny Ejpedition, supplied much valuable material, to 
 which W. H. Dall's Alanl-a and its liesourecs maile im- 
 portant additions. The best authorities for the Dakota 
 and Athabascan languages have been mentioned elsewhere 
 in this article. For the Eskimo sec the Uroenlamhk Oram- 
 matica of 0. Fabricius (Copenhagen, l"i)l). and Klcin- 
 Schmidt's Gramnmtik d. (iroenl. Sprache (Berlin, lKf)l). 
 For the Algonkin, besides the works of Duponceau, Pick- 
 ering, and Gallatin, see Baraga's Otcfiipin- Grammar and 
 Dictionary^ J. Howe's Cree Grammar, Lacombc's Gram- 
 mnirc de la Lantjne dee CrU (Montreal, 1874) and accom- 
 panying Diet ionary f and the two works previously jncn- 
 tioncd by **N. 0., ancieu missiounaire " (M. Cuoq). Etndcn 
 philoioffiqncit, etc. and Jufjcmrnt erronf de M.Ernei^t Itcnan, 
 etc., which give a good outline of Iroquois as well as Al- 
 gonkin grammar. For the languages of South .America 
 generally see C. F. P. von Marlins's HeitrUf/cznrEthiiof/raphie 
 iind Spracheuknndc Amerifca'n (Leipsic, 1867), and A. d'Or- 
 bigny, I/IIomme Amerirain, etc. (Paris, 1839); an<i as an 
 aid to the comparison of South with North American lan- 
 guages, .r. J. von Tschudi's Vic Qnirhna Sprache (Wien, 
 186;;) is of special value. J. Hamhonh TitrMBirr.L. 
 
 Indian Ocean is tlio name of the vast sheet of water 
 between Africa, Asia, and Australia, traversed by the equa- 
 torial current, flowing from E. to W. with a somewhat 
 varying velocity, and forming a very rapid current along 
 the eastern coast of Africa. 
 
 Indiano'la, post -v., cap. of Warren co., la., on the 
 Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. R., Indiauola branch, 
 20 miles S. of Dcs Moines. It is the seat of Simpson Cen- 
 tenary College (Methodist Episcopal), has a national and 
 a private bank, graded school, grist-mill, pinning mill, 
 manufactures of farming implements, several chuichcs, 'A 
 weekly newspapers, etc., and is situated in a beautiful and 
 fertile region. Pop. 1428. 
 
 Graiiasi & Knox, Prns. " Herald." 
 Indiauola, port of entry, cap. of Calhoun co., Tex., on 
 the W. ^;hore of Matagorda liay, 10 miles from the Gulf 
 of Mexico. Its harbor is large and commodious ; it has 
 steamers thrice a week from New Orleiins, and two lines of 
 sailing vessels ply regularly to New York, and there arc 
 many other domestic ports with which it has a trade. 
 About ten vessels bring lumlicr from Florida and I-ouisiana. 
 Cattle, wool, hides, cotton, ct-. are extensively .^hipped 
 from this point, from which the Gulf. Western Texas and 
 Paeific H. K. already extends over 70 miles into the in- 
 terior. The town has two banks, a weekly ncwspnncr. and 
 several lari;e importing ami wholesale establisliments. 
 Pop. lOUO: of Old Indianola, 200. On Sept. 15, 1H7.*". a 
 severe storm, lasting live days, visited the coast from Gal- 
 vestitn to Indianola, causing the waters to rise and flood the 
 more exposed places, sweeping away several smoll villages, 
 with great loss of life, and destroying much properly in *ial- 
 veston, Matiigorda, and other towns. Indianola was sub- 
 merged, and except the larger business-houses, was entirely 
 swept away. The loss of life throughout this section is be- 
 lieved to have been over 200, 
 
 CiiARi.PS A. OosntRV, En. "Bri.i.ETiN." 
 Indian Orchard, a pleasant manufacturing postv., 
 constifntimr a part of SprincOeld. Mass. (Hampden eo.l. It 
 is miles N. E. of Springfleld. on the Boston and Alliany 
 and the Sprimrfield ,\thol and North-eastern K. Ks. 
 Indian I'oiiil, tp. of Knox co., HI. Pop. 18.14. 
 Indian I'rairic, tp. of Wayne co.. III. Pop. 1727. 
 Indian Hod, a mineral pigment from Persia, consist- 
 ing of ferric oxide and silica.
 
 1162 
 
 INDIAN RIDGE— INDIAN TERRITORY. 
 
 Indian Ridge, tp. of Clarke co., Ala. Pop. 31G. 
 Indian River, in lirevard and Volusia cos.. Fla., is a 
 narrow tidal channel parutU'l and usually only half a luile 
 from the coast. It extends S. S. E. from a point some IS 
 mile3 N. \V. of Cape Canaveral to Indian Kivcr Inlet, 
 100 miles distant, and is continuous southward 60 miles to 
 Jupiter Inlet as St. Lucie's Sound. It is in a beautiful 
 and healthful region, and the river abounds in fish. It is 
 n:Lvif;able, and the inlet will admit vessels of 5 fectdraught. 
 The river is becoming a resort for invalids and sportsmen. 
 Indian River, hundred of Sussex eo., Del. P. 1GG7. 
 Indians, American. At the time of the discovery 
 of America the whnlc continent was oecujtied by scattered 
 tribes, and as the land was supposed to be a part of Asia, 
 and called India or India beyond the Ganges, the inhab- 
 itants received the name of Indians. The question of the 
 origin of this population was for centuries a much-disputed 
 one. Some tribes — for instance, the Athabascans — i)Os- 
 sessed a tradition concerning their emigration across the 
 P.aeific, and different scholars endeavored to establish a 
 connection between the American Indians and the Jews, 
 Welsh. Mongols, Malays, and other races of the eastern 
 continent. The attempts were nf)t successful; and while 
 the modes of living and the implements of the American 
 Indians resemble very much those belonging to the earlier 
 stages of European and Asiatic races, no link of connec- 
 tion has been found between the respective languages. The 
 dilTcrent dialects or languages spoken by the American 
 aborigines seem, in spite of all variations, to have origin- 
 ated from one common stock, and an identity of race seems 
 furthermore to be confirmed by an extensive community 
 in physiological traits and in the general character of their 
 civilizaMon. At the time of the discovery there was a 
 great diiTercnce between the tribes living in Peru. Central 
 America. Mexico, and New Mexico, and those living far- 
 ther to the S. or to the N., with respect to the stage of 
 civilization which they respectively represented. The for- 
 mer had domesticated the llama; they cultivated maize, 
 squashes, beans, tobacco, plantains, etc. ; they built houses 
 of adobe and temples of stone ; they understood the art of 
 pottery, of making bronze, etc. The latter were sometimes 
 almost wh'dly savage, living in holes in the ground, and eat- 
 ing their fish and game raw. And yet there were certain 
 common traits in religious ideas, in moral character.in form 
 of government, in industry and mode of living, etc., which 
 pervaded the whole race from the savage to the semi-civil- 
 ized, (For more particular information see Am-HiTECTnuE 
 OF THK American Abdiuoines, M.\n and his Migrations, 
 Indian IjANGUAOKS, Tuibk, etc., and the names of the dif- 
 ferent tribes.) 
 
 Indian Shot. See Canna. 
 
 Indian Springs, post-v. of Butts co., Ga.. has saline 
 suljihur springs, much visited for the cure of rheumatism 
 and stomach and liver disorders. It has 1 weekly news- 
 paper. Pop. 24S. 
 
 Indian Springs, tp. and post-v. of Washington co., 
 Md. I'u]). \i>i>o. 
 
 Indian Springes, tp. of Wayne co., N. C. Pop. 12S0. 
 Indian Summer. Sec Dark Day, in Appendix. 
 Indian Territory, a tract of land originally belong- 
 ing to the Louisiana purchase, and which was set apart by 
 the government of the U. S. as a permanent home for such 
 of the Indian tribes as could be induced to settle there. It 
 included at first all the unorganized portion of the Loui- 
 siana cession lying W. of its eastern meridian, and in ISjO 
 its area was stated at 105,274 miles; but Kansas and a 
 part of Nebraska were subsequently taken from it, and the 
 bounilary between North-western Texas and the north- 
 wciitern portion of this Territory was carefully surveyed. 
 As it exists at present, its northern boundary is the 117th 
 parallel of N. lat., which separates it from Kansas and for 
 one degree of longitude from Colorado ; its eastern bound- 
 ary is the meritlian of 94° 30' W. Ion., which divides it 
 from Arkansas and for a short distance from Missouri; 
 the lied River, which separates it from Texas, is its 
 southern boundary as far as to the 100th meridian, which 
 it follows northward for its western boundary to the par- 
 allel of .30° 30', and then turns westward on this par- 
 allel to the 10;',d meridian (the eastern boundary of New 
 Mexico^, when it again runs N. along that meridian to the 
 37th parallel. It has thus Texas for its southern and 
 western boundary, except for a distance of 35 miles on the 
 103d meridian, where it joins New Mexico. Its area is 
 stated at 0H,001 square miles, or 44,164.2-10 acres, which is 
 probably a near approximation to the actual area. The 
 greater part of the Territory has been granted in districts 
 proportioned lo their numbers to those Indi.an tribes which 
 wiuld confine themselves to their respective tracts, either 
 cultivating them or using them as hunting-grounds, but 
 
 about one-fifth of the present area (8,947,473 acres) was 
 ceded back by the Chickasaws, Cherokces, Creeks, and 
 Seminoles to the U. S. in ISGG and 1S67, and is now held 
 by the government to be u:^ed as a home by other Indian 
 tribes when they can be induced to settle down upon these 
 lands as a (permanent home. 
 
 Fact of the C'niutn/. — There is a gentle declination from 
 the foot-hills of the Rocky M<mntains. which occupy the 
 extreme X. W. portion of this Territory, towards the Mis- 
 sissippi River, and this general slope trends also somewhat 
 towards the S. E., so as to reach the valley of the lower Red 
 River. Between the Red and Canadian rivers there arc 
 several groujis and ranees of mountains of no very great 
 elevation, as the Washita Mountains, the Potcau and tlio 
 Sans Bois mountains. In theeastirn pari of the Territory 
 the rivers have broad and fertile bottom-lands, sometimes 
 overflowed in spring or early summer, which are usually 
 shut in by blufis more or less abrupt, which form the 
 boundaries of the undulating uplamls. The western por- 
 tion, especially the narrow strip ext* nding from the 100th 
 to the 103d meridian, is arid and for the most part treeless, 
 forming a portion of that gradually diminishing region 
 formerly known as the dreat American Desert. Tlio Ar- 
 kansas and Red rivers, with their affluents, drain the Ter- 
 ritory. Some of these affluents are nearly as large as the 
 main rivers. The Arkansas enters the Tcrritoiy near the 
 97th meridian, ami leaves it at Fort Smith, in lat. about 
 35° 30', but its principal tributary, the Canadian River, 
 traverses the entire Territory from W. to E., as do also 
 its N. fork and the Cimarron or Red fork of the Arkansas. 
 The other alilucnts of the Arkansas are, from the N., Ver- 
 digris and Little Verdigris and Neosho rivers and Flint 
 Creek; from the W.. Little Arkansas, Black Bear, Wolf 
 Creek, and Poteau River, a branch of the Canadian. The 
 tributaries of the Red River in the Territory are the N. 
 fork of Red River, Cedar Creek, with numerous branches, 
 tHe Washita River, a large and long stream. Muddy Creek, 
 Walnut Creek, Baggy River, and Kianashi River. 
 
 Gcologi/. — E. of the 97th meridian most of the Territory 
 belongs to the coal-measures, though we believe but littlo 
 coal has as yet been mined there. There is, however, a 
 small tract of Eozoic rocks on the Arkansas River between 
 the Cherokee and (he Creek countries, about lat. 35° 30', 
 and another in the S. W., crossed by the 35th parallel and 
 Ion. 99^ W. All the rest of the Territory belongs to tho 
 Triassic and Jurassic formations, except a little tract of 
 Cretaceous rocks in the extreme N. W., on the borders of 
 New Mexico. The barren and sandy table-lands of tho 
 narrow strip in the N. W. arc often covered, especially in 
 summer, with saline efflorescence. 
 
 Vegetation. — The eastern part of the Territory has much 
 rich and fertile land, not only on the river-bottoms, but on 
 the upland prairies and woodlands. A bolt of forest, known 
 as the ■** Cross Timbers," from 5 to 30 miles in width, ex- 
 tends along the border of the t^'arboniferous formation from 
 tho Arkansas River to the Brazos, and separates the fertile 
 and rich prairie-lands from the dry and sterile table-lands 
 of the N. W. W. of these there are few trees except in tho 
 river-bottom?:, and the soil grows more and more arid and 
 unproductive, till at last there arc only thorny cacti, yuc- 
 cas, and the gray sagebush to be seen, and even these only 
 in scattered and widely separated ])atclics. 
 
 Animals. — This is still, especially in its central and west- 
 ern portions, the favorite haunt of the buffalo, Ihenutclopc, 
 and to some extent of the wild horse; deer and other game 
 abound; the black or brown bear is found in the " Cross 
 Timbers:" and the prairie dog. the wild-turkcy, the prairie- 
 hen, the sage-hen. and a great variety of birds of prey, as 
 well as those noted for beautiful jdumago or for melodious 
 song, are found in all parts of the Territory. There are 
 not many fish in the rivers, which, except the Arkansas 
 and Red, are usually dry, except in pools, in the summer. 
 
 CT(Hjarf.— Like that of most of the region between tho 
 same parallels W. of the Mississippi, the climate is warm 
 and inclined to drought. In the S. E. it is more moist, tho 
 average rainfall being 52 inches, but it is also hot, tho 
 mean annual temperature exceeding 00° F. In the central 
 portion there is not quite so much heat, the mean annual 
 temperature ranging from 57° to 59°, and tho rainfall hav- 
 ing diminished to 35 inches. In the N. W, the menn tem- 
 perature of the year is lower, not exceeding 55°, being 
 reduced by tho cold ** northers " from the Rocky Mountains, 
 and the rainfall docs not average more than 20 inches for 
 the year. 
 
 ProductionM. — The Cherokees, Creeks, Chickasaws, Choc- 
 taws, Pcnecas. Quapaws, and Shawnees have settled on their 
 reservations, ami many of them have good farms and have 
 made considerable jirogress in civilization. These tribes 
 had before (he late w.ar many slaves, ami raised largo crops 
 which they sent to market. Since the emancipation of the 
 slaves many of them still hire laborers and are wealthy;
 
 INDIAN TEKRITOKY. 
 
 11(J3 
 
 but as no taxes arc levied on either their personal or real 
 c^itute, the census does not report their productions. The 
 other tribes are nomadic, and make little or no efTort to till 
 the soil or engage in any branch of civilized industry- The 
 following statistics were gathered in relation to the Terri- 
 tory in 1-S72: Acres of improved land. 204,(17-1 ; bu.^hels of 
 wheat, etc., C,7'Jy,.iJ5; value of farm ](roduce, SI.GO.'i,(J10 ; 
 numbor of horses, cattle, etc., *101,4li;>: their value, 
 $I,!U7,101; total value of real and pcrsoniil property, 
 $Ifi.l>S7.S18. Land is held ia common, and is not included 
 in this valuation. 
 
 There is one railroad, which traverses this Territory from 
 N. to S. — the Missouri Kansas and Texas Railway — 200 
 miles of it within the Territory. The Atlantic and Pacific 
 Railway also extends from Seneca to Vir.ita, a distance of 
 about ?f5 miles in the Territory, connecting there with the 
 Mis^souri Kansas and Texa?. Numerous other railroads 
 have been projected, and one, a Pacific Railway to follow 
 the ."loth parallel, has been endeavoring to obtain from Con- 
 gress the right of way anrl a grant of lands through the 
 Territory, but the Indians oppose it. 
 
 IhmKii, rtc. — There are no banks, savings banks, insu- 
 rance companies, or. so far as we can learn, private bank- 
 ing-houst?s, ID the Territory. 
 
 Population, — Until the census of 1S70 there had been no 
 attempt to take a full census of the inhabitants of the In- 
 dian Territory. As the Indians v/ere not taxed, and had 
 no interest as voters, etc. in tho giivcrnmcnt of the V. S., 
 there seemed no other motive except that of curiosify for 
 such enumeration. The number of white persons and of 
 persons of African descent in tho Territory was enume- 
 rated. In ISfiO these together numbered 9701. In 1870 tho 
 change wliicli had taken place in tho relations of sonic of 
 the tribes during and consequ'-nt upon the late civil war 
 made an enumeration necessary. The U. S. marshal re- 
 ported in 1S70 that there wore in the Territory CS,Iii2 in- 
 habitants. Of these, 2 107 were white?, 0.173 colored per- 
 sons of African descent. .'>9,.'JC7 Indians sustaining tribal 
 relations, of whom 19,007 wcro on reservations an<l at 
 agencies and more or less civilized. (Of these, 388-i wcro 
 m^n, 4t85 women, 51 It) male children, and 5592 female 
 children.) There were also 5900 reported as estimated 
 luembers of these reservations and agencies, but not ac- 
 tually enumerated by the as-sistant marshals. Tho c^^ti- 
 matcd number of nomadic Indians (i". c. notou reservations 
 or located at or near agencies) in the Territory was ;>4,400. 
 Later statistic?, taken in IS72, give a materially dificrcnt 
 statement. They make the number of civilized Indians, 
 including the Cbcrokccs, Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, 
 Seminoles, Quapaws, Senecas, Wyandots, Shawnee?, etc., 
 5.'),S74, occupying reservations of 19,018,095 acres, of which 
 216,850 acres arc under cultivation by individuals and 4 155 
 by iho government. These Indians occupy 5;M4 dwelling- 
 houses. The uncivilized Indians, including stragglers and 
 Osages, Caildoes, Kiowas, Comanchcs, Apaches and Dela- 
 warcs, Chc-yennes, Arapahoes and Apaches, numbered 
 I 1.515, making an aggregate of 70,^89 Indians, or about 
 11,000 more than the census reported. The Osages, Kio- 
 was, Comanches, and stragglers had reservations amount- 
 ing to 9,544,720 acres, of which only 2G0;i acres wcro culti- 
 vated by individuals and 006 by tho government. The 
 other uncivilized Indians, numbering 0:VJ2, had no definito 
 reservations, but roamed at will through tho 15,000,000 
 acres of unallotted lands*. Tlio uncivilized Indians had in 
 all but 250 ]>ermanent buildings. Tho total amount of 
 funds held in trust by tho U. S. government fur all these 
 tribes, civilized and uncivilized, is about $8,000,000. 
 
 Edncntion. — The schools are mostly contlned to tho 
 Chcrokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, and Seminoles, 
 the other tribes caring little for schools. In these five 
 tribes there were in 187.T, 15H sehools, with 4700 sehohirs. 
 Tho Cherokeos had in 1H7.T, 00 of these schools, attended 
 by 2'iOO children, and besides, an orphan school, with 90 
 pupils, 1 female high school, and 1 (Moravian) missionary 
 school. Their school fuu'l amounts to $520,1.11,04, and 
 their orphan fund to $218,000.51. The Creiks had in 187.'!, 
 1 boarding school and .'il day schools, attended by 800 
 pupils. The Choctaws and Chickasaws had 2 boarding 
 schools and 4S day schools. an<! ll*;»9 scholars. The Semi- 
 noles, 5 day schools ancl 20" s;^bolars. The school funds 
 for all tho tribes except the Chcrokees amount to about 
 $251,000. Tho leading chiefs of the Cherokees, Creeks, 
 and Choctaws advocate the abolition of tho tribal system, 
 tho holding of the lands in severalty, and tho education of 
 tho children to tit them for citi/.ensliip. 
 
 /irligton. — Tho Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws. and Chick- 
 asaws have been for half a century under missionary in- 
 struction, and n very considerable proportion of thorn arc 
 membrrs of ("hrislian churches. The nggr^'Kate number 
 of church members in tbc>;e four tribes somewhat exceeds 
 7.*>(in, of tlu'S<*. over ilUKl are Chcrokees, 2050 Creeks, 
 
 2500 Chickasaws and Choctaws. lu tbo entire Territory 
 the Baptists in 1«74 had 3 ossooiatious, 61 churches, 47 
 ministers, and 3910 members. The Methodist Church, 
 South, has also a considerable number of churches and 
 communicants in the Territory, and several missions 
 j among the less civilized Indians. Their report of thuir 
 I conferences in 1874 gives for the Indian mission (not all, 
 ! we think, in this Territory) 20 travelling preachers. 82 
 ! local preachers, 172 while, 454 colored, and 4590 Indian 
 members. Tho Presbyterians, both Xortb and South, have 
 mission stations in the Territory, as have also the Cougre- 
 gationalists. The Roman Catholics have two nii.'sion sta- 
 tions, and there arc several Moravian congregations. 
 
 yewspapem. — There are three or four newspapers print- 
 ed in the Territory. One. at Tahlcr|uali. is partly in the 
 Cherokee language, and one at Caddo is. we believe, in the 
 Creek or Choctaw. Konc of these papers have a very largo 
 circulation. 
 
 The fjovcrnment of the civilized Indians, and indeed of 
 all the Indian tribes of the Territory, is one of independent 
 chiefs, whose ])Ower is, however, limited. The tribes are 
 the wards of the U. S. government, which nevertheless in- 
 terferes as seldom as possiI)le. For the purpose of punish- 
 ing crimes against citizens of the V . S. the Territory is 
 annexed to the judicial districts of Arkansas and I^Iissouri. 
 Tho Chcrokees have a legislature or council of their own, 
 as do some of the other civilized tribes, thougli not so com- 
 pletely organized. They have also courts and a code of 
 laws, few and simple, but suflk-icnt for their purposes. 
 They aro not represented, even by a delegate, in Congress, 
 but occasionally, when tliey desire some change in their 
 arrangements with the U. S. governnunt, they send some 
 of their most intelligent chiefs to Washington to rejircsent 
 their case before tho President, the secretary of the inte- 
 rior, or a congressional committee. 
 
 Divisionft of the Tcrritonj. — There are. of course, no 
 counties or townships in the Territory, but all the civiliztd 
 tribes, and sonio of the uncivilized, have their reservations 
 — considcrablo trarts of land. lying each in ono body, which 
 is tho joint property of tho whole tribe. Some of the tribes, 
 having diminished in numbers, had more land than they 
 needed, and have ceded it back to the U. S. for a liberal 
 sum of money, which is invested and the income applitd 
 to tho use of the tribe. 
 
 Tho reservations set apart for tho tribes now there are as 
 follows : 
 
 Cherokees 
 
 ChocCaw8 
 
 Ciceks 
 
 Chickasaws 
 
 Seminciles 
 
 Quapaws, Senecas, Wy 
 anduts, Shawnees, etc.' 
 
 Osages 
 
 Caddoes 
 
 Kiuwas 
 
 Comanches 
 
 Frayments of tribes set- 
 tled luKetber 
 
 No. of 
 booses. 
 
 879 
 83 
 
 9 
 104 
 
 Popula- 
 tion, 
 OS I'd. 
 
 17,217 
 16,000 
 12,295 
 6,000 
 2,438 
 
 1.219 
 
 2,823 
 1,52^ 
 2.000 
 2,198 
 
 1.192 
 
 Acrca of | Improved 
 rcscrva- b^ tiidi 
 tion. viduals. 
 
 89,250 
 50,000 
 31,000 
 SO.OOfJ 
 7,600 
 
 90 
 92.'* 
 186 
 
 60 
 
 1.342 
 
 Imi»r'd 
 ))j- gov 
 orDiD't. 
 
 4,390 
 
 65 
 116 
 ISO 
 
 70 
 250 
 
 Tho two branches of the .Apache tribe (Pima and Coyote) 
 or BO many of them as aro in this Territory, the Delaware?, 
 Cheyennes, and Arapahoes, numbering together 4774 per- 
 sons, have as yet no definite reservations. 
 
 7'o,r,M. — There are no large towns in the Territory. 
 Tahleqnab, tbo capital of the Cherokee country: Caddo, 
 the largest settlement in the Choctaw nation; Vinita, tho 
 point of junction of the Missouri Kansas and Texas and, 
 the S. W. branch of the Pacitic railroads; IJlue Jacket, 
 on the former road: Muf^eogte, in the Creek country; and 
 Tishomingo, in the Chickasaw Nation, — are settlements of 
 moderate size. Tho U. S. government has ten or twelve 
 forts, some of thein of considerable size, in the Territory. 
 
 //inton/. — The history of the Territory is very brief. 
 Though a part of tho Louisiana purchase, it does not seem 
 to have had at any time any considerable population. It 
 was occasionally traversed by the Apaches, Comanches, or 
 Arapahoes, and perhaps by the Cheyennes, in the pur.-^uit 
 of tlie buffalo or the wild' horse. It was sehcted by tho 
 V. S. Kovernment in 1H;12 as the homo of tho tribes E. of 
 the Mississippi, principally on account of its remoteness 
 from while settlements, and the Creeks, Choctaws, Cliieka- 
 flaws, ami Cherokees were removed thither from 18,'{.'i to 
 IH.'tS.and the Seminoles and some fragments of other tribes 
 a little later. Tho first grunts of land secured to them by 
 treaty were mmdi larger than thuse they now li'dd, and 
 embraced portions of Kansas and Nebraska. By subse- 
 quent treaties these were ceded back to tho V. S. During 
 
 'These havo each a sepnrnle though small reserTAtlon.
 
 11G4 
 
 INDIAN TOHACCO— INDIA EUBBER. 
 
 the late civil war several of the more civilized tribes took 
 the side of the South, and were at first held to have for- 
 feited their lands, but were finally reinstated in their pos- 
 session. L. P. BnOCKETT. 
 
 Iniliiin Tobacco. See Lobelia. 
 
 In'diantowu, a thriving suburb of St. John, N. B., 
 near the moulh of the St. John River. }lere the river 
 steamers have their wharves, A steam-ferry connects it 
 with Point Pleasant. Indiantown has large steam saw- 
 mills and an extensive lumber-trade. Pop. about 2oOU. 
 
 Indian Town, tp. of Bureau co., III. Pop. lOGO. 
 
 Indian Valley, post-tp. of Floyd co., Va. Pop. 1+75. 
 
 Indian Village, tp. of Tama co., la. Pop. 1523. 
 
 Indian Yellow, or Pnrree, a yellow pigment, oon- 
 sistins essentially of euxanthato of magnesium. (See 
 
 PlKlTEE.) 
 
 India Rubber, Caoutchouc (from cachuchu of the 
 
 South .American Indians), or (iuin Elastic [Ger. Aawf- 
 «c/iii/.- Feilci-liai-z; Fr. caviilchoiic], a peculiar substance, 
 composed of carbon and hvdrogeu, found in suspension in 
 the milky juice of a great many difi'erent families oi plants. 
 It has been stated that all milky vegetable juices contain 
 it, but this is not the ease, many of these juices yield gum- 
 resins free from caoutchouc. 
 
 //,«(,„.,y._AlthoU','h known at a very early date to the 
 Peruvians and thethinese, it was not brought to Europe 
 till the beginning of the eighteenth century. The first 
 scientific notice with resard to it appeared in the Traiiaac- 
 (ion» of the French Academy of Sciences in 1735 from the 
 pen of M. dc la Condamine, who had noticed it, under the 
 name of cnclnichu, on his voyage down the Amazon. He 
 describes it as in constant use among the natives in the 
 form of bottles, boots, etc., and for making cloth water- 
 proof. In 1751 he again called attention to "the elastic 
 resin" of Cayenne {Mem. tie V Acad. Eni/ale, 1751, pp. 17, 
 319), his friend M. Fresncau having reported its occurrence 
 in the French colonv of Cavenne. Herissant and Macquer 
 (Mem. <le V Acad. R-<j., 1703, p. 49) published their chem- 
 ical investigations on " solution of caoutchouc," and Mac- 
 quer in 1 7G8, " on means of dissolving the resin caoutchouc." 
 Priestley (1770) mentioned the use of the gum for erasing 
 lead-pencil marks, its cost being three shillings fo- " " ""l"- 
 
 'a cubi- 
 
 cal piece of about half an inch." Berniard published in- 
 vestigations in 17S1 ; Fourcroy, on the sap in 1790; tiros- 
 sart. " on the means of making instruments of gum elastic 
 in 1791 . Important contributions to the chemistry of caout- 
 chouc have been made by Faraday, Xees von Eisenbach and 
 Marquart, .\driani, Ilimly, Payen, Bouchardat, and others, 
 while the practical applications have been made by Mack- 
 intosh, llandcock, Goodyear, A. G. Day, and other invent- 
 ors. The first use made of caoutchouc in Europe was for 
 crasin" pencil-marks; it was then used in solution in oil 
 of iurpentine and alcohol and in coal-tar naphtha for water- 
 proofinc cloth, the most important industry of this kind 
 havin^^been founded in 1823 by M.ackintosh at Glasgow. 
 Rubber overshoes, made by the natives of pure gum, wore 
 imported from Pari in 1S25, and formed an important ar- 
 ticle of commerce till the increased price of the gum made 
 it necessary to limit its use to a minimum in the manufac- 
 ture of the cloth overshoes covered with rubber much di- 
 luted with litharge, whiting, etc., and vulcanized with sul- 
 phur which are now in use. In 1826, Rattier and Gmbal 
 introduced machinery for cutting threads of rubber for the 
 manufacture of elastic fabrics, which have since been exten- 
 sivclv produced. The most important invention in regard 
 to rubber was made bv Charles Goodyear of Massachusetts 
 in 1><:'.9, and patented" June 15, ISM. It consisted in mix- 
 ing with the rubber a small quantity of sulphur, fashioning 
 the articles from the plastic material, and curimj or ndcnn- 
 izimi the mixture by exposure to a temperature of 205° to 
 270° F. The product, known as vulcanized rubber, pos- 
 sessed all the desirable properties of rubber with none of 
 its objectionable qualities, and soon found a thousand im- 
 portant applications. The next great step in the rubber 
 inrlustry was the invention of hard rubber or vulcanite. 
 The invention is claimed for Kelson Goodyear, but the 
 writer, after the most careful investigation of the subject, 
 believes that the real inventor of flexible " whalebone " 
 rubber was Austin G. Day of Connecticut. Nelson Good- 
 year's caveat, filed Dec. 31, 1819. and his patent, granted 
 May 6. 1851, are for a hard, stifl", inflexible compound, 
 which he says is best obtained by heating a mixture of 
 rubber, sulphur, magnesia, etc. Day patented .Aug. 10, 
 1S58, a mixture of 2 parts of rubber and 1 of sulphur, 
 275° to 300° F., which he describes as flexible 
 
 though his representatives have succeeded in monopolizing 
 Day's invention under the plea that it was covered by 
 Goodyear's patent. (See Am. Cliemht, ii. 329.) 
 
 Doinny. — Caoutchouc is produced by numerous trees and 
 shrubs of the families Euphorbiaccoe, Urticacea:, Arto- 
 carpacea;, Asclepiadcic, and (inchonacea;. The best rub- 
 ber, which is brought from Para, South America, is ob- 
 tained from the Hiphonia diislica of Persoon, Siphoiiia 
 Cachiichii of Rich, JtUropha clantica of Linnaius, and Hevea 
 Gmnnensis of Aublet. Six or seven other species ofSiphonia 
 furnish caoutchouc in Central and South .\meriea. In In- 
 dia the most abundant rubber tree is the /'I'ciM c?a«(i'ca. It 
 occurs on tiie coast of Coromandel, and is abundant over 
 more than 10,000 square miles in Assam: grows solitary or 
 in twofold or threefold groups. The main trunk of one 
 measured 71 feet in eircumfercnce, while the girth of the 
 main trunk with the supjiorts immediately around it was 
 120 feet. The area covered by the expanded branches was 
 610 square feet, and the height of the central tree was 100 
 feet. It was computed that 43,310 of these trees grew wilhin 
 a length of 30 miles and a breadth of S miles in the forest 
 near Forozepoor, in the district of Chardwar, in Assam. 
 The same tree was said to be equally abundant in the dis- 
 trict of Naudwar. The geographical range in Assam 
 seemed to be between 25° 10' and 27° 20' N. lat., and 90° 
 40' and 95° 30' E. Ion. It grows on the slopes of hills up 
 to an elevation of probably 2250 feet. The I'rccnla elatlica 
 abounds in the islands oi' the Indian Archipelago, at Su- 
 matra and Pcnang: produces the ginlawau of the Malays. 
 It is described as a creeper of growth so rapid that in five 
 years it extends 200 feet, and is from 20 to 30 inches in 
 "girth ; can yield by tapping, without being injured. 50 to 
 60 pounds of caoutchouc in one season. The families of 
 plants yielding caoutchouc thrive in tropical parts of the 
 world where high tem])eraturo is combined with moisture. 
 The belt of land around the globe 500 miles N. and 500 
 miles S. of the equator abounds in trees producing the gum 
 of India rubber. "We find, accordingly, that caoutchouc is 
 imported from Para and other places in South America, 
 from Central America, India, Singapore, Vera Cruz. Sierra 
 Leone, Java, Sumatra, and Pcnang. The caoutchouc of 
 Para. South America, is produced by Sipliaiiia elaalica ; 
 Central America. Siphoin'n caontchouc, Castlfleja elastica ; 
 Penang, Urceola elastica; Sumatra, I'rcrnhi cloHlica; Java, 
 a species of Ficua ; continent of India, Ficua elaalica; 
 Sierra Leone, a species of Siphraiia. The industrial de- 
 mands for India rubber are so important that experiments 
 have been made in Brazil with a view to cultivate the trees, 
 as the cinchonas have been grown in the Himalaya. Caout- 
 chouc occurs in opium to the extent of 4 or 5 per cent. : 
 also in the juice of the milkweed (Aaclepiaa), which grows 
 abundantly in the T'. S. and Canada. Efforts have been 
 made to extract it from milkweed, and it is said that a 
 company has been recently organized for this purpose in 
 Canada. 
 
 Sources of Supply.— Most of the rubber of commerce is 
 derived from South America, from Par.'i, Central America, 
 Mexico. Carthagena, etc. ; smaller quantities from Java, Pe- 
 nang. Singapore, Assam, and Natal. 
 
 VoUectiiuj the Cilice.— The juice is obtained by tapping, 
 that drawn from old trees in the cold season being pre- 
 ferred, and the flow being greater the higher the incisions 
 are made in the tree. AVhen the bleeding is confined to the 
 cold months, and not repeated too often, the trees do not 
 appear to suffer in consequence. 
 
 Propertiea and Cumpoaition of the Juice. — Caoutchouc 
 juice or sap has been imported from time to time into 
 England in considerable quantities, but it is found more 
 economical to prepare the crude rubber where the juice is 
 collected. It resembles ordinary cow's milk in color and 
 consistence. Its sp. gr. varies from 1.012 to 1.041. Sev- 
 eral circumstances may conduce to give the commercial 
 juice a gravish-brown, milky-gray, or pale-yellow color, 
 but the pure" juice, as it issues from the tree, is white. Dr. 
 Adriani, who made some valuable (Chem. Neioa. ii. 277, 
 289) experiments upon the fresh juice of the Ficua elaalica, 
 apped bv himself, says that as the general result of bis 
 
 tapj.^.. --. ---, — ., - 
 
 experiments the quantity of solid matter contained in the 
 niilkv juice decreases according to its being collected from 
 incisions made in the higher and consequently younger 
 parts of the plant. The tree which yielded the juice for 
 his experiments was a young plant 2.25 metres in height. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 25.15 
 24.05 
 20.98 
 17.70 
 
 
 Height ut which 
 
 ToUl 
 
 cvaportttod. 
 
 il was talccn. 
 
 residue. 
 
 OMiX cnns. 
 
 0.30 metres. 
 
 0.04(5 grms 
 
 0.?.9.'» 
 
 1.74 " 
 
 0.09.5 " 
 
 0.M3 •' 
 
 2.10 " 
 
 0.030 " 
 
 0.S2.'i " 
 
 Top. 
 
 0.145 " 
 
 heated to *J7j" to .^uu" r., wuicn ne acscnutrs as ihjajmi^ i • . , , , ..i i, lu - .:„-s ;» ti,^ 
 
 and ehastie. This produc , correctly described by Day, is \ These figures prove, as stated above, that the J •>« " 'he 
 
 Urn vurcantte or ha?d rubber whieh"is so extensively man- ' older parts of the ,,lant does contain more ™l'd matt" 
 
 factuVed for combs, pen-holders, jewelrv. etc. lioodycar's than that in the younger parts O'd trees, then, furnish 
 
 bUtle compound hv.s never been an arUcle of commerce. ' the richest juice, and Mr. Grifliths states that the juice of
 
 INDIA RUBBER. 
 
 11G5 
 
 the reflex roots, which lie exposed, is richer in gum than I cream. This is removed, diffused through a fresli quanl.ly 
 any 'vhiel. is ubscquen.lv druwn ofT. If the juice be left ' of water, and again left to rise to the .urfaee By repca - 
 arrest for a few hours, the globules of the gum rise to the I ing this operation til the wash-water .8 perleetly lMn,.ul, 
 surface and float like cream on milk. Heat and agitation the caoutchouc may be obta.ned very nearly pure. It i 
 also cause the juice to coagulate. 
 
 statements concerning the action of alcohol, .\ilriani affirm- 
 
 atcs that in 
 
 There is a conflict in the j then to be spread upon a plate of unglazed earthenware 
 to absorb the water, and afterwards pressed. 'llic 
 crude rubber of commerce presents difl'ercnt shapes ami 
 structure according to the method and care employed in 
 its preparation. The purest from Pari is much mure 
 valuable than that from other localities. It appears in 
 lar^e bottles and thick plates, often entirely free from im- 
 purities, and very light colored within. The Carthagcna 
 
 lent. 
 
 ing that it produces coagulation, while Ire slates that 
 two samples of juice containing, respectively, 20 per een 
 and :i" per cent, of solid caoutchouc, alcohol of 0.82:') s 
 gr. afforded no appearance of coagulum when mixed with 
 them in any proportion. The juice of the Ocjnca, and 
 
 possiblv tha't of other plants, produces coagulation of the ; , , •,- , „ •,■ ,nn „ „„^c 
 
 caoutchouc juice. The"^ emulsive juice mixes readily with ] gum comes in very large lumps, often weighing ^OOfoanAs, 
 . .■'. , ,: :_:. ,1 1, ;. ,i„„i. ,„>t i^n. ! and evidently formed by pressing thin sheets together. It 
 
 water, alcohol, and pvroxylic spirit, though it does not be- 
 come at all clearer; it will not mix with eaoutebine. naph- 
 tha, nor, indeed, with any of the usual solvents of solid 
 caoutchouc, but remains a"t the bottom of these liquids as 
 distinct as mercury does under water. When caoutchouc 
 has once been coagulated it is not possible to bring it back 
 a<;ain to the emulsive state. Ammonia prevents coagula- 
 tion, and was used for this purpose in the importation of 
 
 I black within as well as without. The East Indian gum 
 appears as a conglomerate of light and dark reddish- 
 brown masses, often mixed with much wood, bark, leaves, 
 gravel, etc. Crude impure rubber often undergoes a very 
 injurious change, especially when exposed to the direct 
 rays of the sun. It softens, becomes smeary and semi- 
 fluid like tar. African gum is said to be more liable to 
 
 inuid caoutchouc prior to Isoi The following physical i suffer in this way than any other In the interior of many 
 17 . . , '....,..._. • - .~! r , A.^1,.; ,^f tUn hnll« wl»n>b comc from Hrazil and the jiast liniies 
 
 and chemical properties of the juice are taken from Adri- 
 ani's paper: Under the microscope caoutchouc juice is 
 seen to consist of a clear liquid wherein float a largo num- 
 ber of spherical globules. These globules strongly refract 
 light, and present, consequently, black circumferences by 
 transmitted light, while they reflect the light with a white 
 color. The diameter of the globules varies from ^iJuu to 
 5X5 of an inch, averaging about yulisij. The reaction of 
 the iuico is slightly acid. The addition of water produces 
 no change. Alcohol does not change the appearance of the 
 globules? but causes the formation of groups of needle- 
 shaped crystals. Ether causes the globules to adhere to- 
 gether and form an amorphous mass, and also develops 
 crystals, which appear to be a magnesian salt of a pe- 
 culiar organic acid. The following analyses have been 
 published: 
 
 Juiee of Ficus claatica (Adriani). 
 
 Water 
 
 f'aoiitchouc 
 
 R sin, soluble in alcohol, but not in ether 
 
 Magnesia, combined with peculiar organic acid 
 
 A lubstance soluble in water and alcohol, but not in ether 
 
 An organic substance, soluble in water, takes a yellow 
 tinae with alkalies (dextrine), and traces of salts of hme 
 and soda i_ 
 
 82.30 
 
 1.58 
 4.49 
 
 0.36 
 
 ^Hi'ce 0/ Siphonia cachachu {^Faraday). 
 Water, acid, etc ^-^ 
 
 ('aoutehouc 
 
 31.70 
 
 Siibitauccs soluljle in water, not in alcohol 2.90 
 
 Albuminous precipitate l.JO 
 
 Peculiar bitter coloring-matter, a highly azotized body I ^ jj 
 
 Wai > L- 
 
 100.00 
 
 Dr. Urc found in two specimens 20 per cent, and .37 per 
 cent., respectively, of caoutchouc. Alcohol of 0.825 sp. gr. 
 failed to afford any appearance of coagulum when mixed 
 in any proportion ; whence he infers, contrary to the con- 
 clusions of Faraday, that albumen is not a necessary con- 
 stituent of the juice. A. (Jirard (Cniiipl. rend., 07, 523) dis- 
 covered a crvstalli'/alilo saccharine substance, damhanUe 
 (CjIIs'Ja). in the white liquid found in the interior of tho 
 loaves of caoutchouc from fi.aboon on tho W. coast of 
 Africa. Later, he noticed another saccharine substance, 
 hnn<i;it<: (r,Il;Oo). {Cnmpl. rend.. 7:!, 420.) Both these 
 bodies may be sublimed without decomposition. 
 
 Prepiiritllon of llic Crude Cnnnlchoiic. — The juice is dried 
 over a fire, when it becomes blackened by smoke, or in tho 
 sun. iThen it is very light-colored, on moulds of clay, pad- 
 dbs, or (formerly) on lasts imported from tho U. S. for 
 ov.'rshoes. According to Mr. Edwards, the last, on the 
 end of a stick, was dipped into tho milk, and immediately 
 held over the smoke to dry; it was then redipped, and tho 
 pr (cess repeatoil till the shoo was of sufhcieiit thickness. 
 When clay moulds arc used, tlwy are subspqucnlly bri>kcn 
 and shaken out of the rubber bottles pro luccd upon them. 
 The juice is sometimes evaporated by solar heat, a pellicle 
 of rubber forming on the surface, and being renewed as 
 fast as it is removed until all the rubber is removed. Those 
 sheets are rolled into balls and combined into masses. In 
 Nicaragua the juice is coagulated by an application of tho 
 juice of tho bojuca vine. Tho coagulatcil mass is pressed 
 in'o cakes by hand, and rolled out into a sheet on a hoard 
 with a wooden roller. These .sheets are called lorlillas; 
 they arc about 2 feet in diameter and 2 inches thick. Fara- 
 nends for the i>urification of eaoiitchouc to dilute 
 
 of the balls which come from Brazil and the East Indies 
 spots are often found of a viscid, tarry matter, which when 
 exposed to the air seems to act like a ferment and decom- 
 poses the whole m:vss into a viscid, sticky, .semi-fluid sub- 
 stance which is good for nothing. 
 
 Plii/aieiii Prnperlies of Caoutchouc. — Pure caoutchouc 
 freshiy prepared is colorless and translucent. The dark 
 color which it generally exhibits is attributed to soot 
 and to aloctic and other impurities, and to tho action 
 of sunlight and oxygen. It is a bad conductor of beat 
 and a non-conductor of electricity. It develops electricity 
 by friction. Its specific gravity varies from 0.'J20 to 0.902. 
 "Its texture is not fibrous, but under the microscope it is 
 seen to contain pores, irregularly rounded and very numer- 
 ous, which communicate with each other, and become dis- 
 tended by capillary attraction in those liquids in which 
 caoutchouc is not soluble. Thin sections of different qual- 
 ities of gum, immersed iu water during thirty days, ab- 
 sorbed from 18.7 to 2G.t per cent. Their volumes were in- 
 creased from yjjj to jJS^, and their tenacity aud adhesive- 
 ness wore impaired. It takes a very long time to eliminate 
 water from thick masses of gum, since the exterior pores 
 contract in drying, and thus retard the desiccation of tho 
 interior. Anhydrous alcohol, especially when warm, easily 
 penetrates thin sections of caoutchouc. Immersed during 
 eight days and warmed at intervals, the sections become 
 opaque lind more adhesive, even in the midst of the liquid ; 
 their volume was increased 9.4 per cent., and the weight 13 
 per cent., although the alcohol had dissolved ^^jj of an 
 oily, yellowish, fatty matter. After evaporation of the ab- 
 sorbed alcohol, the caoutchouc was less tenacious, more 
 translucent and adhesive than before treatment." (Poi/ni.) 
 Freshly-cut surfaces adhere easily and firmly when pressed 
 together — a property which is made available in forming 
 tubes and vessels out of sheet caoutchouc. By cold or long 
 quiescence it becomes hard and stiff, but not brittle. It is 
 capable of condensation under compression. A cube of 2J 
 inches was compressed ^ under a pressure of 200 tons. It 
 is perfectly elastic, becoming turbid and fibrous when 
 strongly stretched. Gerald observed that fibres which may 
 be extended to six times their length, might again be ex- 
 tended six times after exposure to a temperature of 212° F., 
 and that the original length could thus be extended from 1 
 to llir)25. The diameter being of course at the same time 
 diminished, fibres of remarkable fineness arc obtained m 
 this way. Rubber mav bo temporarily deprived of its elas- 
 ticity. If a strip be forcibly stretched, and while in this 
 condition be quicklv cooled, it will lose its clnslicity, and 
 may be left for an indefinite time without regaining it. A 
 siinplo way of cooling the strip is to wet it and evaporate 
 the water by vibrating it rapidly in the air. In the above 
 condition tlic caoutchouc resembles frozen rubber, though it 
 is not quite so rigid as it might be in such a state. It somi 
 regains its clnslieily on being subjected to an atmosphire 
 of "0° F.. or even much below this; but rubber deprived 
 of its latent bent by compression has been kept several 
 weeks in an atmosphere of 80° F. without returning to its 
 normal condition. If the heat be raised much above Ml". 
 or if the rubber be placed in contact with a good conduct. .r 
 at S0°, it grailually recovers its latent heal, and in a few 
 minutes is restored to ils original dimensions. If succes- 
 sive portions of the inelastic strip be pinched between Iho 
 fingers, it conlrnets powerfully in these parts, leaving the 
 others unaff<clerl, thereby preserving the nppeararce of a 
 string of knots or beads, which may be preserved in this 
 slate fnr any length of time if not handled and if kept at a 
 
 thJ natural juic" with four times its weight of water, and ' moderate temperature. The junctions of the different por- 
 leave it at rest for tw.nty-four hours. The caontchouo 1 tions continue abrupt and well defined, showing that there 
 then separates and rises to tho surface in tho form of a 1 is no tendency to distribution or equilibrium of the latent
 
 11G6 
 
 INDIA KUBBEK. 
 
 beat. When the inelustic strip is enclosed in the hand a 
 slight degree t>f coolness i? felt from the rapid absorption 
 of heat. The above peculiarity is slated to belong to the 
 native gum, and to be hardly perceptible in the rubber pre- 
 pared in either of the following methods: (I) solution in 
 turpentine and subsequent drying. :uid (2) merely grind- 
 ing the crude material to a pasty mass and reducing to 
 thin sheets between heated rollers. Another nietho<l of 
 rendering caoutchouc inelastic was employed in IS 10 in 
 the man ufacrt lire of "clastic tissues," to jircparc the threads 
 for receiving a sheath upon the braiding-machine. The 
 threads were stretched by hand, in the act of winding upon 
 the reel, to seven or eight times their natural length, and 
 left (wo or three weeks in a state of tension. The elasticity 
 in this case also may be restored by warming tlie rubber — 
 rubbing it between the palms of tlic liaTuls. for instance. 
 Considerable heat is developed in the sudden extension of 
 caoutchouc. Mr. Brockedon states that ho raised the tem- 
 perature of an ounce of water two degrees in fifteen min- 
 utes, by collecting the heat evolved by the extension of 
 caoutchouc thread. { FlfnnNt,m.) An apparent pai-mhu- lias 
 been announced in the fact that India rubber, when stretched 
 and exposed to the heat, contracts instead of expanding — 
 a fact very contrary to common experience as the result of 
 the application of heat. This is explained, however, by tlie 
 fact tliat the rubber is very porous and filled with air-cells, 
 which, when the rubber is stretched, assume an elongated 
 shape. AVhen heat is applied it of course expands the rub- 
 ber to a certain degree, but at the same time it expands the 
 air-cells, which, liy shortening their longitudinal axes, pro- 
 duces a virtual cimtraction of the rubber. 
 
 Elfect of Heat on Caoutchouc. — " Below 0° C. it becomes 
 hard and rigid. When heated it gradually softens, and at 
 120*^ C. (21^° F.) begins to melt; when it is fused it re- 
 mains greasy and semi-fluid after cooling, but if exposed 
 to the air in thin layers gradually dries up and recovers its 
 original properties, provided it has not been heated much 
 ab'.ive its melting-point. If, however, it be heated to 200° C. 
 (:VJS° F.). it begins to fume, and is converted into a viscid 
 mass which no longer dries up. If mixed in this state with 
 half its weight of lime slaked to powder, it forms a tena- 
 cious non-drying cement, which serves admirably for at- 
 taching glass jdates to vessels with ground lips, such as aro 
 used for preserving anatomical preparations, as it forms an 
 air-tight but cnsily-loosened joint; if a drying cement be 
 required, a quantity of red lead may be added equal in 
 weight to the lime." { \\'aftf>.) By destructive distillation 
 caoutchouc yields an empyreumatic oil called oil of eaout- 
 cAoKc, which is a mixture of a considerable number of h}'- 
 drocarbons. The following compounds have been recog- 
 nized by Bouchardat, Himly, and G. AVilliams : 
 
 CoTn[>nsUioa. Sp. gr. Boiling- point. 
 
 Tetrylene C^U^ 0.G30 32° F. 
 
 Caoutchenc C4H8 0.650 58° F. 
 
 Faradavin 0.654 91° F. 
 
 Isoprenc C5H- 0.6S2 100° F. 
 
 Cauutehin t^'ioHie 0.842 352° F. 
 
 Hoveene t'nHo^ 0.921 599° F. 
 
 Creosote, resin, etc. 
 From impure gum small quantities of carbon dioxide, car- 
 bon monoxide, water, and ammonia are also produced. The 
 residue left in the retort forms, when dissolved in oil, a var- 
 nish impervious to moisture and very elastic. Exposed at 
 once to a reel heat, caoutchouc yields .10.000 cubic feet of 
 extremely rich gas to the ton, which is free from ammonia 
 and sulphur compounds. Ignited in contact with the air, 
 it burns with a sooty flame. 
 
 F^\:rt 4,/ Water on Caoutchouc, — Water, whether hot or 
 cold, has no solvent action upon it, but by long boiling in 
 this liquid it swells to some extent, in which state it is af- 
 fected by some solvents with greater facility than in its 
 ordinary condition. Exposed to the air, the caoutchouc 
 resumes after a timo its original form, though the desicca- 
 tion proceeds very slowly. The absorption of water by 
 thin sheets has been already alluded to. W. A. Miller no- 
 ticed that when a sheet of the best masticated rubber was 
 exposed in water, open to the air, to diffused light, it finally 
 absorbed 87 per cent, of water, becoming white, opaque, 
 slimy, and sticky. In this condition water could be squeezed 
 out of it. In sea-water, under like conditions, it absorbed 
 only per cent. 
 
 Si*fubifit}/ uf Caoutchouc. — In alcohol it swells and soft- 
 ens, but docs not dissolve. Alcohol precipitates it from its 
 solutions. It .sometimes extracts a fatty, fusible yellow 
 matter, which is probably an oxidation product. Ether, 
 freed from alcohol by washing with water, dissolves caout- 
 chouc in moderate quantity, leaving it on evaporation 
 with its original properties, except that it adheres firmly 
 like a sheet newly cut. "No solvent appears to make a 
 complete solutir)n of caoutchouc, but a mixture formed by 
 the interposition of the dissolved portion between the pores 
 of the insoluble substance, which is considerably swelled 
 
 up, and has thus become easy to disintegrate. By employ- 
 ing a sufficient quantity of these .solvents, renewed from 
 timo to time, without agitation, so as not tu break the tume- 
 fied portion, the caoutchouc may be completely separated into 
 two parts — viz. a substance perfectly soluble, ductile, and 
 adhering strongly to the surface of bodies to which it is. ap- 
 plied; and anothorsubstance, elastic, tenacious, and sparing- 
 ly soluble. The proportions of these two principles vary with 
 the quantity of the caoutchouc and the nature of thcsolvent 
 employed. Anhydrous ether extract? from amber-colored 
 caoutchoucCil percent, of white soluble matter: oil of turpen- 
 tine separates from common caoutchouc -10 per cent, of sol- 
 uble matter having a yellow color." ( M'atts.) Chloroform, 
 oil of caoutchouc, oil of turpentine, oil of lavender, and 
 many other essential oils aro solvents for caoutchouc. A 
 mixture of 1 part of caoutchouc with 1 1 of oil uf turpentine, 
 worked up to a thin paste, to which is then added i part of 
 allot concentrated .solution of sulphide of jtotassium (K2S5), 
 leaves the caoutchouc on evaporation perfectly clastic and 
 without viscosity. Bisulphide of carbon is one of the best 
 solvents, particularly when mixed with fi to 8 per cent, of 
 absolute alcohol. ''If the alcohol be mixed with a little 
 water, a dough is obtained, from which the caoutchouc may 
 be drawn out into threads and spun. By Gerard's process 
 gutta ]>ercha is also soluble in the above mixtures of sul- 
 phurct of carbon and alcohol." ( Urc.) Considerable dis- 
 crepancy exists among writers with regard to the solubility 
 I of caoutchouc in the fixed oils, especially in linseed oil. 
 According to Booth, linseed oil has no efifect. J. Sjiiller 
 exposed virgin, unmanufaeturcd rubber for nine months to 
 the action of boiled and of imboilcd linseed oil. *' It re- 
 sisted the action of the solvents," he says, "almost per- 
 fectly retaining its toughness, except in tliosc parts which 
 were al)0ve the surface of the liquid and exposed to light. 
 A'irgin rubber, masticated and treated in the same way, 
 was in each case greatly swollen and gelatinized, and, in- 
 deed, in the case of the unboiled oil, was completely dis- 
 solved." Perfectly dissolved by boiling linseed oil. {Hcun- 
 ler,) Linseed oil dissolves caoutchouc, forming a varnish 
 which, according to Ure and Parnell, has not the property 
 of depositing the gum on exposure to the air. Vnrrcntrapp. 
 in the Ilaudirortetbuch, says linseed oil behaves like other 
 fatty oils, which take up a little caoutchouc when healed. 
 He also remarks that different varieties of gum behave very 
 differently with regard to solvents, some being with difli- 
 culty soluble even in bisulphide of carbon. He attributes this 
 difference to the presence of more or less water. Coal tar 
 naphtha, benzol, coal and shale oil naphthas, and petro- 
 leum naphtha arc all solvents for caoutchouc. The naphtha 
 solution or varnish was used in pre])aring the waterproof 
 cloth of Mackintosh, being placed between two thicknesses 
 of the cloth. A mixture of 60 parts of benzol and 70 parts 
 of rectified turpentine has been recently recommended as a 
 solvent for 2(> parts of caoutchouc. The crude gum must 
 first be boiled in water to remove dirt, etc., cut underwater 
 into sheets about one-third of an inch thick, rolled out into 
 thin strips, and thoroughly dried in a heated room. The 
 mixture of gum, etc. must be passed through a mill. The 
 benzol and turpentine must be free from fat. 
 
 Action of Hraffiiitft on Cftoiitrhouc. — .■\cids and alkalies 
 have no effect on it when dilute, and little when concen- 
 trated imless heated. Sulphuric acid carbonizes it slightly 
 on the surface when cold, but entirely decomposes it when 
 hot, with the formation of carbonic and sulphurous acids. 
 Strong nitric acid decomposes it, especially when heated, 
 forming carbonic and oxalic acids, and evolving nitric 
 oxide. The strongest potash lye dors not attack it at a 
 boiling heat. (lasos, such as chlorine, sulphurous acid, and 
 fluo-siiicic acid, have no action upon it, but nitrous acid 
 vapor readily attacks it. Ammonia, after a eont.act pro- 
 longed several months, seems to exert the curious influ- 
 ence of bringing it back to the state of an emulsion, in 
 which form it may be used as a varnish, as it recovers its 
 peculiar qualities on drying. Thoroughly kneaded with 
 sulphur and exposed to hcnt for several hours, it is con- 
 verted into vufcanizcd rubber, which, with less than 1 of 
 sulphur to l of gum, is soft and pliable ; with half its 
 weight of sulphur, after c.xi)Osure to a temperature above 
 2S0° F., it is hard and flexible, like whalebone — vufennite, 
 W. A. Miller has shown {J, Loud. Chcni. Soc, ISfio, p. 
 273), in an investigation on the Decay o/Gutta Pcreha and 
 Caoutchouc, that caoutchouc is liable to deterioration by 
 exposure to the action of oxygen in the presence of solar 
 light, but the gum is less rapidly injured by their influence 
 when in the native state than when it has been previously 
 masticated. When subjected to the action of air, excluded 
 from light, it docs not experience any marked change, even 
 during very long periods. It is, however, important to ob- 
 serve that the masticated rubber is much more porous than 
 (he unmanufaeturcd caoutchouc. A sample of the best 
 Pari rubber after nine months' exposure had gained 2.S
 
 INDIA RUBBER. 
 
 Iti7 
 
 per cent., had become brown and sttckj, and yielded to al- 
 cohol 1 1. SI per cent, ol' a resin containing C. 6'.2'i, II. y.d4, 
 0. 2.^.23. 
 
 CJtemind Compotitidn of Caoutchouc. — According to the 
 experiments of Ore {Fhit. Traim., 1S22), confirineil by those 
 of Famday {Quart. Journal of Sc.^ Lit., and Art^ .xi. IK), 
 caoutchouc is composed wholly of carbon and hydrogen, 
 containing S7.5 per cent, of carbon and 12. j bydro;;en. It 
 is not, however, a simple proximate principle, but chielly a 
 mixture of two substances, one much more sulublo in ether, 
 benzole, and other liquids than the other. The following 
 analyses have been published (Ure's Phil. Trajm.^ 1822; 
 Faraday "f Q. .J. Sci., 1826, xxi. 19; G. Williams's J. Chem. 
 Sue, XV. \2.',): 
 
 TjT6. 
 
 Carbon 90. 
 
 Hvdrogen 9.12 
 
 Oxygen 0.88 
 
 Nilrosen „ 
 
 Loss „... 
 
 Ash 
 
 Faradaj. 
 
 S7.2 
 
 i; 
 
 ^O.lViUlams.-, 
 Browa. VeUow. 
 
 SG.l 
 12.S 
 
 100.0 
 
 l 0.7 
 
 0.9 
 
 100.0 
 
 S7.2 
 12.8 
 
 lOO.O 
 
 100.00 
 
 The following are the results of W. A. Miller's analyses of 
 pure manufactured ParA rubber, compared with a sample 
 of good sheet masticated or manufactured rubber (J. Chem. 
 Soc, 1865, iii. 273): 
 
 VlrglD. 
 
 Pure caoutchouc 96.(50 
 
 Ucsin 1.80 
 
 MoUture 1.30 
 
 Ash ^0.30 
 
 iooloo 
 
 Deducting moisture and ash, the elementary composition 
 gave — 
 
 virgin. 
 
 Carbon 8.5.S2 
 
 Hydrogen 11.11 
 
 Oxygen 3.07 
 
 100.00 
 
 Masticated. 
 
 9G.i;4 
 
 2.06 
 
 0.82 
 
 _0^ 
 
 loo.nb 
 
 Uastlcated. 
 
 85.53 
 
 12.06 
 
 2.41 
 
 100.00 
 
 Fig, 
 
 Adrian! {Chem. A'cict, ii., 1860, 314) found the following 
 composition for a sample of caoutchouc which had brcii 
 dried for months over sulphuric acid. The specimen was 
 in part readily reduced to powder, and cuutaincd C. 87. 2j, 
 H. 10.34, 0. 11.40; total, 99.99. This sample also con- 
 tained nitrogen, but its quantity was not deterniine.i. 
 Several chemists report the presence of nitrogen in com- 
 mercial caoutchouc. Adriani found that a sample of the 
 above caoutchouc, after having been confined in very dry 
 air for some weeks, lost its most prominent physical proper- 
 tics, and that a change set in which Payen compares with 
 the growing rancid of fats and oils. " Perhaps," Adriani 
 says, '• the decom])OsitioM starts from that eonslituent por- 
 tion which contains nitrogen, although this element is 
 present in only minute quantity." 
 
 Caoutchouc luanu/acturca have of late years acquired 
 enormous importance, and are found in every department 
 of the industrial arts. The caoutchouc is used (1) in 
 blooUs, cakes, sheets, etc. ; (2) in tapes or threads in woven 
 fabrics for the production of elastic tissues: (3) as a var- 
 nish between two surfaces of cloth or on one surface, for 
 the production of waterproof fabrics: (4) in solution alone 
 or combined with other substances as a cement ; (5) com- 
 bined with a small quantity of sulphur and mixed with 
 other substances, as tio/t vulcanized rubbet; lor the manu- 
 facture of overshoes, boots, gloves, waterproof clolhing, and 
 other goods, life-preservers, gas-bags, steam and water 
 packing, belting, tire-hose, tubing, springs, artificial sponge, 
 etc. ; (6) combined with a larger prujjortion of sulpliur. and 
 cured at .a higher temperature, as hard vulcanized rubber, 
 or vulcanite, lor the mauutacture of combs, pen and pencil 
 holders, rulers, inkstands, buttons, canes, syringes, jewelry, 
 and colored with vermilion for mountings for artificial 
 teeth, etc.: (7) combined with asphalts, oils, sulphur, etc., 
 and vulcanized, as the kerite of A. G. Day, for covering 
 telegraph wire— a most valuable substitute for gutta pcrcha 
 for air-lines, as it is not affected by atmospheric intlueuces, 
 which so quickly destroy the latter substance. 
 1. 
 
 ->tieatlng rolls. 
 Purijicalion of the Crude Gum. — The crude gum is soaked 
 in hill water, to tvbich is frequently added ?"me soda-lev 
 in order to .«ol'len and cleanse it. It is then masticated 
 
 between most powerful rolls made of chilled iron, under 
 streams of cold water. By this operation it is lorn into 
 
 shreds and cleansed of its impurities, and finally appears 
 as a loose mat composed of shreds. These mats are placed 
 in drying-rooms heated by steam for several weeks, to re- 
 move the moisture. When ready for use they are kneaded 
 botwoen smooth rolls, which aro hollow and warmed by
 
 1108 
 
 INDIA KUBIJKK. 
 
 steam, one of which revolves much faster than the other. 
 Ilt're the gum is thoroughly mixed and reduced to a homo- 
 geneous mass, ready for cutting into any desired lurni, or 
 for mixture with the materials necessary to convert it iuto 
 soft or hard vulcanized rubber. 
 
 Cutting into t/hccts is performed by a self-acting machine, 
 in which a straight steel bhidc, kept cool witli water, vi- 
 brates in a horizontal position. tStripn or bamis arc cut 
 from disks by circular shears, like those used in paper- 
 works. Thi'cudft of India rnbher for %?caviug into elastic 
 fabrics are cither natural or vulcanized ; they are cut from 
 ribbons or bands by circular cutting edges. "They are 
 stretfht'd. and kept extended till nciirly deprived of their 
 cbisticity, and till they furm a thread of moderate tiueness. 
 Tliis thread is pnt into a braid-machine and covered with 
 a sheath of cotton, silk, linen, or worsted. The clothed 
 caoutchouc is then laid as warp in a loom and woven into 
 an elegant ribbon. AVhen woven, it is exposed upon a table 
 to the action of a hot smoothing-iron, which restoring to 
 the caoutchouc oil its primitive elasticity, the ribbon re- 
 tracts considerably in length, and the braiding corrugates 
 equally upon the caoutchouc cores. Such bauds possess a 
 remarkable elasticity, combined with any desired degree 
 of softness. Sometimes cloth is made of these braided 
 strands of caoutchouc^ used both as warp and as weft, 
 
 which is therefore elastic in alt directions. When a light 
 fabric is required, the strands of caoutchouc, either naked 
 or braided, are alternated withcommon wurpyarns." ( Ure.) 
 Hound threads are made from a mixture of India rubber 
 and bisulphide of carbon, with a little absolute alcohol. 
 This jiaste is put into a vertical cylinder, somewhat similar 
 to those which are used by the vennicelH-niakcrs. The 
 elastic matter, forced through by the piston, comes out in 
 threads through small lioles placed in a single row, in order 
 that they may not overlie cacli other — a precaution that is 
 not required in the making of vermicelli. The threads arc 
 received on an endless web of velvet in motion, and trav- 
 erse in this way a course of V\ feet ; they are then taken 
 up by a web of common cloth, which passes over a space 
 ot 600 to GGO feet in about ten minutes. At the end of this 
 journey they are sufficiently dried ; the solvent is in great 
 measure separated : the threads then quit the web, and are 
 received into channels or grooves, whicli conduct them into 
 small cups disposed in seven rows, in such manner that 
 each one has its own particular cup. When the cups are 
 full the filament is taken out, and is left for some days ex- 
 posed to the action ot" the air. The threads prcluced by 
 pressure have any required thickness, and this may be 
 made to var}' at ]tleasure. Experience has shoivn that a 
 thickness of .0394 of an inch is preferable for regular work, 
 
 Mixing 
 
 but these do not suffice for all kinds of fabrics : in a great I 
 number of cases they must be used finer. For this pur- 
 pose annealing is resorted to. The caoutchouc, being drawn j 
 out and exposed to a temperature of 239° F., no longer 
 shrinks, but retains the leni^th it has acquired, and more- ; 
 over may even be drawn out anew. By thus stretching and 
 annealing it successively a thread of caoutchouc may be 
 brought to a degree of fineness limited only by the dex- ■ 
 tcrity of the workman, and may, for example, be repre- 
 sented by a length of 'JK.-|nO feet to 2.20h pounds. The 
 thread thus obtained is of common caoutchouc, but noth- 
 ing is simpler tlmn to make, in the same manner, thread 
 of vulcanized caoutchouc; for this purpose it is only ne- 
 cessary to incorporate the caoutchouc into a paste with 
 flowers of sulphur, and to heat to the temperature of 2GG° 
 or 2S4°. I.ct it be noted in passing that at the tempera- 
 ture of 239°. necessary for the annealing of the stretched 
 thread, no vuhranization takes place, i hfmtjtratt.) 
 
 Wdterprof,/ f'ttbriri are made by jdacing a varnish or 
 paste of caoutchouc, dissolved in any of its solventSj be- 
 tween two layers of cloth (doubh^-trxture fnhrim) or on one 
 side of the cloth [einffU-ttxtnre fabrim). The poorest kind 
 of rubber may be used for this purpose. An objection ex- 
 isted to the single- texture fabrics, as the rubber surface was 
 
 rolls. 
 
 liable to become sticky and adhere when exposed to the 
 sun, closely packed, or brought in contact with perspira- 
 tion, hot surfaces, grease, etc. This was prevented by the 
 sincalor process (nine m/orc. " without heat "), the nature 
 of which was kept secret. It is also prevented by using 
 vulcanized rubber, the mixture of rubber, sulphur, etc. be- 
 ing applied to the cloth by means of calender rolls, and 
 vulcanized afterwards. 
 
 liuhhrr cenuniM^ possessing astonishing adhesive proper- 
 ties, are made by combining solutions of caoutcliouc in 
 naphtha or other suitable s»dvent with other materials of a 
 resinous character. Jeffrey's marine glue is made by dis- 
 solving 1 pound of caoutchouc in 1 gallon coal-tar naphtha, 
 and adding 20 pounds shell-lac. The mixture is gently 
 hoatecl till uniform, and is then pourcci nut upon platts of 
 iron to solidify. For use it is melted at a ttmperature of 
 about 2j0° F. It is insoluble in water, and wood joined 
 by it breaks sooner across the fibres than at the joint. A 
 cheaper marine glue is made by substituting asphalt for the 
 shell-lac. A liquid marine glue is made by increasing the 
 quantity of the solvent. 
 
 Su/f rufrnnized rnoiitchoucwas invented by Charles Good 
 year of Mnssnehusetts. In the early introduction of In- 
 dia-rubber goods it was found that the articles were not
 
 INDIA RUBBER. 
 
 11 oy 
 
 only liable to serious injury from various causes, but they 
 were often fouud to <ielcriorate and become almu.st useless 
 after a few years of the most careful use. The following 
 arc some of the most serious disadvantages of the uuvul- 
 caiiizcd gum : (Ij It becomes rigid and iullexiblc in cold 
 weather. (2) It is softened and decompo.^ed in tlie sun 
 and hot weather, (o) It is very soluble, and quickly dis- 
 solved when brought iu contact with any kind of grease, 
 ess.'utial or fatty oils, and, though more slowly, yet as 
 eurely, cli.-<sulveU by jierspiration. (1) It is, in its native 
 state, so very adhesive that when any two surfaces are 
 brought in contact they become, by slight pressure, one 
 mass that cannot be separated. (5) It loses its elasticity 
 by continued tension or constant use. (GJ It has a very 
 unpleasant odor. The Mackintosh goods made in England, 
 and in which a solvent was used, were less liable tu damage 
 and decomposition, because the gum was protected by be- 
 ing spread between two cloths. Even iu these goods, liow- 
 ever, the gum was found to melt and penetrate through the 
 meshes of the cloth iu a warm climate, or when much worn 
 
 by those who perspire freely, and purchasers were cautioned 
 against approaching too near the fire with the goods. The 
 inability to overcome these defects caused the failure of 
 many manufacturers in Boston, South Boston, Chelsea, 
 Woburn, anil Eramingham, Mass., and in Staten Island 
 and Troy, X. Y. Factories had been started in these 
 places with capitals varying from 850,000 to $500,000. 
 In thcsummer of Isllfi, Mr. Uoodyear became acquainted 
 with Xathauiel Ilayward, who had been em]iloycd as lore- 
 man of the Eagle Company at Wobuin, where he had made 
 use of sulphur by imi)regnating the solvent with it. It was 
 through him that Mr. (joo.lycar received the first kncjw- 
 ledge of the use of sulphur as a ilrii r of guni-elustic. Mr. 
 Goodyear purchased the claim for combining suljihur wilh 
 India rubber, for which a |)atent was taken out Feb. 24, 
 18o0. "It should be remarked," says Mr. G., "that this 
 claim was for the use of sulphur, and not for the heating or 
 vulcanizing j)rocess, which he subsequently discovered." 
 Mr. G. manufactured a large lot of goods containing sul- 
 phur, but they all decomposed iu a short time. While cx- 
 
 perinienllng upon sciuiu of tlie material, after the failure of 
 the compound, to ascertain tho effect of heat upon it, he was 
 surprised to find that the specimen, being carelessly brought 
 iu contact with a hot stove, charreil like leather. Ho in- 
 ferre.l .lircctly that if the process of charring could bo 
 stopped at the right point, it might divest the gum of its 
 native adhesiveness Ihrougboul. Upon further trial he was 
 convinced of the correctness of this inference by fin. ling that 
 India rubber could not be melted in boiling sul|ihur iit any 
 heat ever so great, but always charred. On heating one of 
 his specimens before an open fire, ho noticed upon tho edge 
 of tho charreil iiorlions of the fabric a line or border that 
 was not eharreil, but perfectly cured. Ilis discovery was 
 now estalilisheil ; it renuiined only to complete it in detail. 
 In speaking previously of Ihc obstacles that stood in his 
 way, Mr. Goodyear says : " No one who had any knowledge 
 of tho nature of the gum would bo likely to apply a high 
 degree of heat to it fnini design, when it was so well known 
 that it would melt {il ii low lempcralure." Tho process of 
 treating caoutchouc which .Mr. (ioodycar thus discovered is 
 
 Vnr.. ri— r-i 
 
 known as vulcanization. Tho product of his manufacture 
 is known as tin/t ruhhrr. Since there are to-day other jiro- 
 cesseg for treating caoutcltouc difl'erent from that of Charles 
 tioodyear. and which in sonie instances yield an entirely 
 different product, but all i>f which pass under Ihc same gen- 
 oral designation of "vulcanization." tho latter term must 
 ho understood as embracing thr trrulmrtii a/ caoiilrlintii: irith 
 Komf /ontt nf Htilphur fn iji'rrt {'irtm'tt cftant/en in tin prfij}crticHj 
 (uiil i/ifld If ifdf't or tt httrif priitUict, 
 
 The folhiwing vahmble properties of tho soft vulcanized 
 rubber are enumerated by Mr. tioodyear: (1) Kt'mfirifi/. — 
 Improved and increased as regards strength and continu- 
 ance, and also made available in all climates and in all cir- 
 cumsliinci'S. {'2) I'linln'/i'li/. — Pliable in the highest degree, 
 not being alTected or made rigid by the greatest cold. (.1) 
 J)nraln'lifi/. — Unchanged by time, whether kept in a wet or 
 dry slate. (1) /im^lnhili'lt/. — Not absolutely in.soluble. be- 
 cause it can be snfteiied, and even dissolved, by pnwcrful 
 solvents of tho gum when heated and boiled. Its power of 
 rosistaoco to solvents and other destructive chemical agents
 
 1170 
 
 INDIA RUBBER. 
 
 is, however, truly great. In a few words, it is either im- 
 proved or remaius uuinjured when exposed to destructive 
 Uciits that destroy other fabrics, and even wood, leaiher, 
 and the metals, such as iron, coiipcr, and brass. (») Vh- 
 altemhilUii by Climate and Ailijicial i/caf.— tudurancc of 
 artificial iica't very great ; when eompouudcd with partic- 
 ular reference to this quality, and with a larger proportion 
 of sulphur than is ordinarily used, it will bear a ''cat ol 
 •iOO° F Above this chars, but does not melt. {6) Iiiadhc- 
 8,-,-«irs».— Entirely free from this objection, no way being 
 vet found to unite it firmly, even when it is desired. (() 
 '/mue.meabHUy lo Air. Gu^es, n>,d /,,V/H/rf».— Improved lor 
 retaining water and other liquids, as it is not sottencd by 
 thi-iu, but it cannot bo stated that it is more impervious to 
 air and gases. (8) Plu^lidti/.—'ihc facility with which it 
 is lormed into any shape before being heated in the oven 
 i^ not surpassed by wax or by lead, or any other material. 
 i9)Xan-dectnc Projieri,/.— One of the best non-conductors 
 of electricity. (10) Odw:— Mr. Goodyear says that vul- 
 canized India rubber is, to a very great extent, freed Irom 
 the natural offensive odor of the native gum. 
 
 Tluon/ ut' Viilcanhal!oi,.—T:he sulphur appears to com- 
 bine directly with the rubber ; the total chaugo in jiroper- 
 ties and insolubility in the ordinary solvents for rubber 
 makes the theory of mere mechanical mixture untenable; 
 while the fact tliat no appreciable quantity of sulphuretted 
 hvdroo-en is evolved during the operation makes it improb- 
 able that a substitution of sulphur for hydrogen ocsurs. 
 In experiments conducted by Prof. B. PiUimao and the 
 writer it was found that mixtures of sulphur, even when 
 vulcanized into hard vulcanite, lost only 2 to 3 per cent, in 
 weii'ht, of which much was moisture: in two eases the 
 ll-jS'produeed amounted to 0.36-0.5y per cent, of the weight j 
 
 of the mixture. a- . , i i 
 
 The mnniifaetiire of soft vulcanite ffoods is cBected by 
 simple mechanical means. The purified and masticated j 
 gum is kneaded on the warm rolls with the proper proper- ^ 
 tion of sulphur; less than one-fourth the weight of the gum, ; 
 (ioodvear's patent states, generally o or 6 iier cent, in prac- i 
 ti^e. " Various other substances are added to increase the | 
 volume of the product and make the caoutchouc, which is ^ 
 the most expensive material, go further. The following is | 
 a mixture in common use: rubber 16, sulphur 1, whitmg 
 14 white lead 2i, litharge 2. Lead compounds blacken the 
 ('oods by forming black sulphide of lead ; oxide of zinc is 
 Sometimes used in its place. Refuse vulcanized rubber 
 and fabrics composed of rubber and cloth are torn up on 
 the masticating rolls and incorporated with the mass for 
 some goods. After the mass is kneaded into a uniform 
 mixture, it is taken from the rolls in the form of a thick 
 sheet and rolled into smooth sheets between calender rolls. 
 From these plastic sheets articles of any desired shape are 
 readily formed by simple mechanical means. The mixture 
 may also be applied on the calender rolls to one or both 
 sides of cloth or canvas. As the mixture is in this con- 
 dilion very adhesive, the coated cloth can be cut and fash- 
 ioned into" overshoes, boots, fire-hose, etc., each article con- i 
 sistin" pr.actieally of one single piece after vulcanization. 
 The combination with the rubber of cloth or canvas gives 
 great strength to the manufactured articles, while the rub- 
 ber gives tbe waterproof properties. Fire-hose made of 
 several layers of rubber-coated cotton duck was found by 
 Prof. Henry Morton and the writer to withstand an internal 
 water-pressure of from 375 to -13o pounds to the square 
 inch. To prevent the decay of the canvas of this hose, 
 Mr. John Murphy of the New York Gutta Pcrcha and 
 Rubber Manufacturing Co. uses carbolic acid, which is 
 simply incorporated with the rubber mixture before it is 
 applied to the cloth. Sheets built up of successive layers 
 of canvas and rubber are extensively employed for valves 
 and for [lacking. 
 
 The heali'mi or vuhaniz!ng is conducted in very strong 
 horizontal cast-iron cylinders {the healert). one end of 
 which is movable and serves as a door. The goods to be 
 vulcanized arc loaded upon a car and run in on a railway 
 which extends along the bottom of the healer. To prevent 
 adhesion of the different articles, powdered soapslone (stea- 
 tite) is freely used, the goods being often packed in boxes 
 filled with this substance. When the heater is charged the 
 door is securely fastened, and steam from a high-jiressure 
 boiler let in till the desired temperature is secured. The 
 
 ited extent, though, owing to the fact that the sulphuri- 
 zation of the caoutchouc is more or less superficial, the 
 manufactured articles arc inferior to those yulcauized by 
 Goodyear's process; in fact, they arc sometimes almost 
 worthless. The caoutchouc articles are simply immersed 
 in a mixture of 10 parts of sulphide of carbon and 1 part 
 of chloride of sulphur: they are next placed in a room 
 heated to 70° F.. and when all the sulphide of carbon has 
 been volatilized, the jiroccss is in so far complete that it is 
 only requisite to boil them in a solution of 1 pound of 
 caustic potassa to 3 gallons of water, the vulcanized caout- 
 chouc being next washed to remove excess of alkali. Hum- 
 phrey in 1S70 introduced the use of gasolene from petro- 
 leum', instead of sulphide of carbon, as the former fluid 
 dissolves chloride of sulphur readily. 
 
 Other methods of rukaiihoiiun have been tried, but with 
 little success: (1) Bv immersing the sheet caoutchouc in 
 sulphur heated to 233° F. till it has absorbed about ,"5 of 
 its weight, and then heating it for a short time to 302° F.^ 
 or by immersing the caoutchouc in sulphur heated to 302 
 F., a'nd keefiing up that temiieraturc till the sulphuration is 
 complete. (2) Handeoek : exposing the rubber in sheets to 
 vapors of sulphur. (3) II. Gaultier do Claubry ( l!-GO) vul- 
 canizes caoutchouc by the aid of bleaehing-powder and 
 flowers of sulphur. This mixture produces chloride of sul- 
 phur, and the caoutchouc treated by it contains some chlo- 
 ride of calcium. (4), Gerard: by immersing articles ol 
 caoutchouc in a solution of polysulphide of calcium or po- 
 tassium, marking 2.5° Baumc, keeping them in it for three 
 hours at a temi>erature of 300° F. under a pressure ol » 
 atmospheres or 7o pounds to the square inch. The goods 
 are finally washed with an alkaline ley of G0° B. (0) 
 Burke : mixing the rubber with o to li per cent, of orange 
 sulphide of antimony (kermm). and heating the articles 
 fashioned from it to 2i0°-2S0° F. , , . 
 
 Hard vulcanized caoutchouc, vulcanite, chonile, hard rub- 
 ber, is prciiared by kneading together 10 parts of rubber 
 and S of suliduir in the manner already described for soft 
 rubber, rolling the pKastic mixture into sheets, rods, tubes, 
 and other forms, and vulcanizing in a steam-tight heater. 
 To secure a smooth, polished surface each article may be 
 enveloped in thick tin-foil, which is stripped off after vul- 
 canization. The articles are placed in the heater in trays 
 filled with powdered soapstone or water. The product is 
 very hard, .and possesses a spring-like elasticity, like that 
 of whalebone. It may be sawed, filed, and worked in a 
 lathe like ivory, and admits a very high polish. Its color 
 is dark brown, nearly black. It may be colored jet black 
 by the addition of a"little litharge, red by vermilion. A 
 mixture of 10 parts of rubber, G of sulphur, and 12 ol ver- 
 milion is bright red, and is mucb used. AVhcn properly 
 made, vulcanite is not brittle: an elastic shred may be cut 
 with a penknife from its edge. The careful regulation 
 of the temiierature of the heater during its vulcanization 
 is necessary to secure the best product. The following 
 heat gives cxeellent results: 1 hour at 275° F.; 3 hours at 
 300°: 3 hours at 30.1°. Vulcanite differs from soft rubber 
 in the proportion of sulphur used, in the high heats used 
 in curing it, and in its hardness. The turnings and bor- 
 ings of vulcanite are reduced to a fine powder and pressed 
 in^hot iron moulds for the manufacture of buttons, strips 
 for knife-handles, etc. The vulcanite is not attacked by 
 solvents, neither those which dissolve the pure caoutchouc 
 nor the mineral acids and alkalies. On this account it is 
 used in place of glass for cups for galvanic batteries. It 
 is also especially distinguished by the largo quantity of 
 electricity which it evolves when rubbed ; hence it makes 
 an excellent material for the plates of electrical machines. 
 It will be impossible to enumerate the various applica- 
 tions of this material; some of them have been already 
 mentioned. An important application is for the manufac- 
 ture of emery-wheels and hones for sharpening scythes, 
 sickles, etc. For this purpose it is mixed before vulcaniz- 
 ing with emery or quartz. The following proportions give 
 excellent results: rubber, 11 parts; sulphur, 5 parts; em- 
 ery, 100 parts. , , , . 
 
 Nelson Goodyear is generally considered to have been 
 the discoverer of flexible vulcanite, and was claimed to be 
 such by Henry E. Goodyear, the administrator of his 
 estiite. No one will dispu'io his claim to the discovery of 
 hard rubber, but the writer and others who have carelully 
 of the case believe that Austin (.. 
 
 temperature employed and the time of exposure vary some- , cxamiiied the history.. ---,--„„;,:,,,„ „,,i,,„nUe which 
 what according to he character of the articles: 5 hours at Day of Connee, cut invented the A?^''' ''J"' ""'/^rJ'i'^J 
 
 ■- ■ is the only kind that ever possessed any practical value or 
 
 commercial importance. Nelson Goodyear's original pat- 
 ent was granted May 0, 1S51. In this he says : •■ I he na- 
 ture of my invention consists in so compounding caout- 
 choue with other substances that the composition thus 
 formed, when subjected to the heating or curing process 
 described in the patent of Charles Goodyear, dato^d Juno 
 16, 1844, and in the reissue of said patent, dated Dec. 25, 
 
 210° F. is stated to be the temperature employed for fire- 
 hose. The following 4i-hour "heat" is used in some of 
 the factories where smaller articles are made : 1 hour at 
 255° F. : 1 hour at 260° ; 1 hour at 265° : 1 hour at 270° : 
 J hour at 275°. The temperature should never exceed 
 230° F. 
 
 Parket'a cold vulcanizing proeem was patented by Alex- 
 ander Parkes of Birmingham, and has been used to a lim-
 
 INDIBILIS— INDICOPLELSTKS. 
 
 1171 
 
 1849, will form a bard, stiff substance hitherto unknown 
 ,cte. The indispcnsal)le ingredients used in my coui- 
 position are caoutchouc and sulphur : and when only these 
 two ingredients are used, the best proportions will be about 
 equal parts bv wci'.'ht of each of them ; indeed, a much 
 less proportion of sulpliur will not suHiee. But though the 
 combination of so largo a proportion of sulphur with the 
 caoutchouc will produce, when cured, a hard substance, a 
 still better result will be obtained by the introduction of 
 magnesia, lime, carbonate of magnesia or lime, or sulphate 
 of mainesia or lime, into the composition, in which case 
 the fo'Tbnving pr"i>ortion will be found a highly .advan- 
 tageous one— uamclv, 1 pound of caoutchouc, J pound of 
 EuTphur. and i pounil of magnesia or lime, or carbonate 
 of nui'niesia or lime, or sulphate of magnesia or lime . . . , 
 etc. The compound must be subjected to the heating or 
 curiu" process already mentioned as patented by Charles 
 Goodyear, and to which reference is hereby made for a par- 
 ticula'r description thereof: in most cases the heat will be 
 required to be raised as high as 260° or 275" F., and the 
 time of exposure to the heat will range from three to six 
 hours or even longer . . . , etc. What I do claim as my 
 invention, and desire to secure by letters patent, is the com- 
 bining of India rubber and sulphur, either with or without 
 shell-Tae. for making a hard and indexible substance hith- 
 erto unknown, substanlially as herein set forth. And I 
 also claim the combining of India rubber, sulphur, and 
 magnesia or lime, or a carbonate or a sulphate of magnesia 
 or of lime, either with or without shell-lac, for making a 
 hard and inflexible substance hitherto unknown, substan- 
 tially as herein set forth." The product of the foregoing 
 specifications is distinctly stated to be an inflexible sub- 
 stance. 
 
 On the death of Nelson Goodyear, Henry B. Goodyear, 
 his administrator, obtained two separate reissues of the 
 oriiinal patent— ono for the process of manufacture, and 
 the~othcr for the product, both hearing date of May 8, 1858. ! 
 In both these reissues we find an entirely new property 
 claimed for the product— viz.. theeprimj-like properly, under 
 flrriire. fonnd in irlmlebonc. The writer has discussed 
 this subject with the men who worked in the factory when 
 Goodyear made his experiments, and who say that he never 
 made '■ whalebone rubber," but simply a hard, brittle com- 
 pound. He used a large proportion of magnesia in all bis 
 cnmiiounds, and did not heat them above 275° F. ; both of 
 which facts are fatal to the theory that he made whalebone 
 rubber. His specimens were cured in a heater used for 
 soft-rubber goods, which was run at heats from 255° to 
 275° F. ; a higher temperature would h.avc ruined the goods. 
 In an elaborate series of experiments on this subject, made 
 on a large scale by Prof. B. Silliman and the writer, it was 
 found that a mixture of rubber Hi. sulphur 8, and mag- 
 nesia 8 was converted into a hard, brittle compound by a 
 temperature of 275° F., but under no conditions into 
 whalebone rubber; while a mixture of rubber 10 and sul- 
 phur 8 could not bo hardened at all unless heated above 
 275° F. This conliruis the other statements with regard to 
 (ioodyear'a hard, brittle, and useless product. Day has 
 never" been able to vindicate his claims to this invention iu 
 t he courts against the powerful combination of capital which 
 hoMs the Goodyear patents. (.«co .41/1. Clieminl, ii. 329.) 
 
 IhnliU rwlcnnite. consisting of rubber l(i, sulphur 6 to 
 8. vermilion 12 to Iti. was mixed and sold to the dentists, 
 who used it for plates lor mounting artificial teeth. This 
 is ono of the most important applications of hard rubber 
 ever made, as it greatly reduced the cost of artificial teeth. 
 The dentist makes a mould of the mouth in plaster of Paris, 
 sets a plate of the plastic-rubber mixture in it, arranges 
 the porcL-lain teeth in proper position, and heats the whole 
 in a small vulcani/.er over a gas-burner, thus converting 
 the whole into a light plate of teeth which fits the mouth 
 of the patient. The high charges of the patentees of this 
 application of vulcanite drove the dentists to seek to evade 
 the pilents. The greatest success attended the eiforls of J. 
 B. Newl>rongh and E. Fagali of New York, who obtained 
 patents for hardening rubber by means of iodine and bro- 
 mine. Considerable litigation resulted, which finally ter- 
 minatcil in a compromise. It was found that rubber could 
 be hardene 1 by iodine .and colored with oxide of iron with- 
 out the aid of any sulphur, but when colored with vermil- 
 ion a certain addition of sulphur was required — less, how- 
 ever, than the minimum of the hard-rubber patents. (See 
 Am. Cliemini, ii. :!73.) Newbrough also sucecedeil in hard- 
 ening rubber with a product obtained by treating oil of 
 turpentine with oil of vitriol. 
 
 Cumpanndi nf coitl-lnr, n'pfiiill. etc. with caoutchouc have 
 been frequently tested, but they can bo used only for very 
 inferior goods. 
 
 Kirltc is a compound containing coal-tar and asphalt, 
 with several other substances, the exact nature of which is 
 a secret. It was invented by Austin G. Day, and is exten- 
 
 sively used for covering telegraph wire. It is cheaper than 
 gutta percha. and possesses the additional advantage of re- 
 sisting the atmospheric influences which destroy this sub- 
 stance. 
 
 Knmptnllcon is the name that was given to a mixture ot 
 India rubber, gutta pereha. and cork or wood sawdust. It 
 was rolled iuto sheets, vulcanized by contact with sulphur, 
 and used for floor-cloth. 
 
 Arlifieial caonleliouc has been made from oil, chloride of 
 sulphur, and collodion (/'nr/t-ueiic), and from the resinous 
 body produced by the oxidation of linseed oil (Camptienn). 
 
 S'talislii'H of the India rubber industry arc given in the 
 9th census report. The capital invested in this industry 
 in the U. S. in 1870 was $7,4S6,G00, the number of estab- 
 lishments SG, hands employed 6025, the value of the prod- 
 ucts S14,566,:i74. ,. . . 
 
 Literature. — Gnm-elnslic ond its Vnneties, trilli a De- 
 tailed Account of ilv Applicalionis and Vies, and of the Dis- 
 covery of Vulcanization by Charlcn Goodyear (New Haven, 
 Conn., iSo.l); The Caoutchouc or India Jtnlber Monnjuc- 
 ture in England, by Thomas Handcoek (London, 1857); 
 The Hoot and Sho'e Manufacturer's (inide (including a his- 
 tory of India rubber and gutta percha), by W. H. Kiehard- 
 son (Boston, 1858) ; Nouvcan manuel complel du Fabricant 
 d\ 
 pa 
 
 Vobjets en Caoutchouc, en Irutia percha et en Uommefactice, 
 jarM. Paulin Desormeaux (Manuel Roret, Paris, 1855); 
 'Caoutchouc and Gutta Percha considered chiefly in their 
 Chemical Relations, by T. M. Blossom (a most valuable 
 series of papers, written largely from notes collected by the 
 writer of this article, and extensively quoted here); Aw. 
 Chemist, ii. 81, 137, 173, 225. 287, 329, 373. (See also Ure's 
 Diet , Payen's Precis de Chimie Industrielle, Handle, d. 
 Chemie, Muspratt's CTicni., especially the last German edi- 
 (iou ) C. F. CuANDLEit. 
 
 Indi'bilis, a Spanish prince of the tribe of Ilergetes, 
 first mentioned in B. c. 218 as commanding the native aux- 
 iliaries under llanuo, the Carthaginian governor. In 212, 
 Indibilis led a force of 7500 men to the aid of Hasdrubal 
 .against P. Cornelius Scipio, who was killed in b.attle. Soon 
 afterward he came iuto conflict with the Carthaginian gov- 
 ernor, who required the surrender of his daughters as pledges 
 of fidelity. These hostages were captured by the younger 
 Scipio (A"fricanus) in 210, and thehonorabletreatineut given 
 them so impressed Indibilis that in the following year (209) 
 he joined his forces to the Romans. In 200 they revolted 
 from Rome, but were conquered and pardoned; again revolt- 
 ed in the following year (205), when he was defeated and 
 killed. 
 
 In'dican. Pee Ixdigo. by Vvmv. C. F. Citasdliir, Pii. 
 D., M. I)., LL.D. 
 
 Indicoplcus'tcs (Cosm.\5). an Egyptian trader in the 
 sixth century; in early life made extensive voyages in the 
 East, visiting Syria, Arabia, Ethiopia, Persia, and India, 
 carefully observing the modes of life, manners, and customs 
 of all tlio ncoplcs with whom he opened a tralfic. and prob- 
 ably kecp'ing a journal of his wanderings. After many 
 years spent in this manner. Cosmas renounced the world, 
 and, entering a monastery, devoted himself to contempla- 
 tion and study. His store of personal knowledge of geog- 
 raphy, whiehhad' gained him the surname of ludico-pleus- 
 les (" the Indian navigator"), was increased by the study 
 of Scripture and the ancient writers, until he became the 
 oracle of Egypt upon all matters of cosmography. In his 
 old age ho wrote in Greek a work in twelve books upon 
 universal geography, usually cited by the Latin title. 7'.<- 
 porjraphia Chriiliu'na sire Chrisliailorum Opinio de Mundn, 
 of which the chief object was to combat the opinion of the 
 astronomers that the earth is a spherical body. According 
 to Cosmas. the shape and proportions of the earth an- 
 shadowed forth in Scripture by the description of the Jew- 
 ish labernaelr. It is a vast cdiloug plain enclosed by tlir 
 ocean, the length from E. t.. W. being just twice that froin 
 N. to S. Multitudes of proofs were adduced in support ot 
 this oiiinion from Scripture, reason, testimony, and the au- 
 thority of the Fathers of the Church. In the part of his 
 work ba.sed upon personal observation. Cosmas described 
 the countries ho had visited with consiilerablo accuracy, 
 and inserts by way of episodes many curious pieces of in- 
 formation, the most important of which related to an in- 
 scribed marble throne set up by Ptolemy Euergetes (217- 
 222 n. r.) at .\iliilis in Nubia, near the coast ol the Ued 
 Sea. He also preserved some fragments of ancient wiileis 
 otherwise unknown. The book of Cosmas was written at 
 different times, and the manuscripts vary much in com- 
 pleteness. It was first published by Montfaucon in his Cid- 
 lerllo A''*i'a I'atrum rt Scriptorum Grircorum. vol. ii. (Paris, 
 17001. and this is still the best edition. Cosmas wrote other 
 works, commentaries on Psalms and Canticles, a treatise of 
 Universal Cosmoijraphy, and .UdoiioMi'di/ 7Vi4/e«, no longer 
 extant.
 
 ll; 
 
 INUICTION— INDIGESTION. 
 
 Indic'tion [Lat. inrficfio, "proclamation"], the name | 
 used in clironology for a certain method of reckoning time j 
 by periods of fifteen years. This method was occasioned hy 
 a tax which was Icvijd in the Roman empire every tifteenth 
 year, and the point of time from which the indictions be- | 
 gan was Sept. 15, .•?12. lis use in reckoning time was 
 cummcnced chiefly by ecclesiastical historians during the 
 life of Athanasius. Later on, when the method was adopt- i 
 ed by the popes, Jan. 1, HID, was fixed as the slartiug-point, 
 and tliis change was called the papal indiction. During 
 the Middle Ages reckoning by indictions was commonly 
 used, not only by writers, but in practical life, in charters [ 
 and public deeds. (As to the historical coinmelicement of 
 the era of indictions, sec Gibbon's Utclinc uiid Fall.) 
 
 Indict'ment [Lat. indtco, to " show "], a written accu- 
 sation of one or more persons of an indictable offence, 
 consisting of a felony or misdemeanor, preferred to, and i 
 prc.=entccf upon oath by, a grand jury. (See Granu i 
 Jiiitv, Crime.) A draught of the indictment, prepared 
 by the attorney-general,' district attorney, or other proper 
 officer representing the government, is laid before the 
 grand jury when they are lawfully convened, and if 
 twelve or more of them" are satisfied, from the ei parte evi- 
 dence presented to them, that there is ;)ri'ma /noie reason to 
 conclude that the alleged offender is guilty, the words " A 
 true bill" are written upon the back of the draught, and 
 the indictment is then said to be " found;" and upon the 
 basis of the charges therein cont.ained the prisoner is placed 
 on trial, at a regular session of the proper court, before a 
 petit jury. (Sec JfRV.) When a presentment is made by 
 the grand jurv, an indictment containing the charges pre- 
 sented is drawn up subsequently, and upon this the party 
 .accused is tried. (For a definition of "presentment" see 
 (jRANn JiRY.) An indictment commences with a formal 
 preliminary statement termed the " caption," contains 
 next the special charge or accusation, sometimes termed 
 technically the " statement" or the " body of the indictment," 
 and terminates with a formal ending, called the "conclu- 
 sion." The caption, which is, strictly speaking, in the 
 nature of a preamble only, and no part of the indictment 
 proper, states the name and term of the court in which the 
 indictment was found, the names of the justices, and the 
 fact that the grand jurv was lawfully convened, and that 
 they were duly sworn and charged. It shows .an observ- 
 ance of such "forms and rules of law as must be complied 
 with before the finding of the indictment, in order that the 
 court may aciiuirc jurisdiction in the particular instance. 
 The " statement " or body of the indictment is a narrative 
 of the offence charged, and must contain a full and partic- 
 ular deseriiition of the alleged crime, and have such a de- 
 gree of certainty ami precision in the accusation that it 
 may he seen by" the court that the act charged, if true, 
 woiild constitut'c a crime. The name of the prisonershnuld 
 be stated, or if that is not known, he should be so described 
 as to bo adequately identified. The time and place at which 
 the ofTcneo was committed should also be alleged, though 
 it is not generally necessary that allegations on these par- 
 ticular points should be jiroved exactly as charged. It is, 
 however, essential that in staling the time the offence should 
 appear to have been committed before the finding of the 
 in<lictment, ami within the period prescribed bylaw for the 
 iirosceution of the particular crime alleged. Moreover, in 
 certain classes of cases the time must be specified correctly, 
 and any variance between the allegation and the proof will 
 lie fatal. Thus, in the indictment for perjury, the day on 
 which the perjury was committed must be truly staled. 
 When murder is "charged, the death must be described as 
 occurring within a year and a day from the time when the 
 fatal injury is alleged to have been committed. The place 
 namcil must be within the jurisdiction of the court. When 
 several persons engage in the commission of an offence, they 
 may be indicted cither jointly or separately. It is an al- 
 lowable and frequent practice to describe the same offence 
 in the indictment in several difi'erent ways, the successive 
 statements being termed " counts;" the object of this is to 
 prevent the possibility of a variance or failure of proof. 
 liy variously modifying the terms of the accusation in this 
 way, it is rendered more likely that some one of the counts 
 will accurately correspond with the evidence to bo adduced, 
 and if any count is sustained, the ])risoner may be con- 
 victed. Whenever an indictment charges an offence created 
 or declared by statute, it must be accurately framed in ac- 
 cordance wilii the provisions of the statute. There are 
 also various rules of law which must be observed to prevent 
 the allegations of an indictment from being absurd, incon- 
 sistent, or repugnant. Particular technical averments are 
 sometimes necessary to be employed. Thus, in a charge of 
 felony, the word " fVloniously " must be used ; in a case of 
 burglary, the word " burglariously." So larceny is alleged 
 by the words " took and carried away." Hut though there 
 are certain formalities to be observed in framing every in- 
 
 dictment, the allegation of the nature of the offence and 
 the acts constituting it will afl"ord scope for the exercise of 
 special discretion and professional skill. The general rule 
 is that the indictment must charge explicitly everything 
 that is necessary to constitute the offence; every material 
 circumstance embraced within the definition of the alleged 
 crime must be stated. The '•conclusion " of the indictment 
 is a formal statement with which the law requires that it 
 should end. The usual phraseology is. "against the peace 
 and dignity " of the king or commonwealth. In indict- 
 ments for a statutory offence it is customary to use also the 
 phrase " contrary to the form of the statute in such case 
 made and provided." Since in the U. S. crimes arc gen- 
 erally defined by statute, this mode of concluding the in- 
 dictment is commonly employed. The mode of framing the 
 body of the indictment is also sometimes modified by statu- 
 tory" provisions. Only the common-law rules upon the sub- 
 ject have been here stated. 
 
 At common law. the defendant was not, in eases of treason 
 and felony, entitled to a copy of the indictment. In prose- 
 cutions fo"r high treason the rule was changed in England by 
 statute, and it was provided that a copy should be given to 
 him ten days before the trial. But in other cases of felony the 
 rule remained unaltered. The court at the time of the ar- 
 raignment would order the indictment to be read over slowly 
 to the prisoner, but would grant no further privilege in this 
 respect. This harsh rule has been abolished in several of 
 the States of the Union by statute. Thus, in New York 
 every person indicted for any offence, who shall have been 
 arrested or held to bail, "shall on demand, and on paying 
 the fees allowed by law therefor, be entitled to a copy of 
 the indictment and" of all indorsements thereon." Similar 
 statutes have been enacted in New Hampshire, 'Vermont, 
 Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Georgia, Texas, and a 
 few other States. 
 
 Gkorge Chase. Revised bv T. W. Dwight. 
 Indies, East. See India, Ixdo-China, and Eastern 
 
 ARCnU'ELACO. 
 
 Indies, West. Sec Antili.i:s. and West Indies. 
 Indiges'tion, or Dyspepsia [Gr. SiJs, "bad," and 
 
 i TTfTTTu, to " digest "]. Indigestion has many forms, and in- 
 
 I eludes groups of symptoms indicative of departure from 
 one or many of the conditions of healthy digestion. The 
 
 i digestive process is complex, and is performed by the 
 agency of the saliva, the g.astric juice, and the intestinal, 
 pancreatic, and biliary secretions. For the proper secre- 
 tion of these several digestive fluids the blood must be in a 
 
 I healthy state, and be freely supplied to the glandular struc- 
 
 i lure of the stomach and intestines. The innervation es- 
 sential to the digeflive process demands moderation of 
 
 j mental activity, emolion.al tranquillity, vigor and healthful 
 
 I action of the liervous centres, especially of the sympathetic 
 system. Tonicity of the muscular walls of the stomach 
 and intestine is essential for the thorough contact and ad- 
 mixture of food with the digestive fluids, for its transit 
 through the intestinal tract, and for the regular evacualion 
 
 i from the bowels of undigested and excretory mailer. In- 
 digestion may be gastric or inteslinal — often the two com- 
 bined. It i.s either primary — an essential disorder of Iho 
 
 I digestive ap])aratus — or secondary and symptomatic of 
 disease in other organs. Obstruction of the circulation of 
 the blood by chronic disease of a large vascular organ— as, 
 the liver, spleen, or kidney — induces ]iassive congestion 
 of the mucous surfaces. Heart disease, rapidity of circula- 
 tion, and elevation of temperature in fevers and febrile dis- 
 orders cause gastro-intestinal engorgement, catarrh, and in- 
 digestion. When bile is imperfectly eliminated, when urea is 
 imperfectly excreted by the kidneys, when fa-ca! matter is 
 retained and absorbed", the efl'cic elements circulating in 
 
 I the blood excite gastric or intestinal or gastrointestinal ca- 
 tarrh. Primary or idiopathic indigestion includes all oases 
 in which careful investigation has failed to discover a de- 
 pendency on other disease. It may be a simple functional 
 
 I disorder of digestion, or due to an organic cause in some part 
 of the digestive tract. Functional dyspepsia is termed atonic. 
 Organic dyspepsia, if mild and due to temporary and slight 
 lesions of the secretory surface, is termed irritative ; if severe, 
 it is designated chronic gastritis, a condition which by as- 
 sociated symptoms and physical exploration may be found 
 to depend upon ulcer, cancer, or inflammatory thickening. 
 Atonic dyspepsia may be due to defective innervation — 
 from continuous and exhaustive mental action ; from emo- 
 tional disturbances, as excitement, sorrow, fear: from pro- 
 longed exercise and fatigue; from dissipation. It may bo 
 caused by deficient supjily and quality of the blood, inac- 
 tive circulation from indolence and neglect of exercise, 
 ana-mia and impoverished blood from privation or recent 
 sickness. Deficient or perverted secretion of digestive 
 fluids results. Reversely, digestion may be interfered wilh 
 by excess of blood and gastric catarrh, when neglected
 
 INDIGHIRKA. 
 
 117:; 
 
 cleanliness or chilling of the skin or cold extremities dc- 
 tcruiiuu bluod to internal parts. Obesity, indolence, gen- 
 eral debility may lower the tonicity of the muscular struc- 
 ture of the stomach and intestines, and weaken the peri- 
 staltic movcuienls. causing failure in the contact of food 
 with digestive fluids, and resulting in its accumulation and 
 fermentation. .As a rule, however, nervo-force. bluod-sup- 
 ply, and digestive apparatus are not primarily at fault, and 
 arc adequate to ordinary digestion, the majority of indi- 
 gestions being the result of gross excesses of diet and vio- 
 lations of hygienic law, excess of food, too frequent meals, 
 rapid eating with incomplete mastication and insalivation, 
 food unfit for digestion or improperly and insuiliciently 
 cooked, the habitual use of condiments, rendering the 
 peptic glands dependent upon their stimulus, the imbibi- 
 tion in excess of liquids, as water, tea. or coffee, at meals, 
 causing ililulion of the gastric juice. .Alcoholic stimulants 
 create temporary and artificial appetite, but soon destroy 
 healthy digestifin. Tea, coffee, and tobacco impair the in- 
 nervation of the stomach. 
 
 The chief symptoms of gastric indigestion are sense of 
 fulness, weight, distress, and dull ])ain over the stomach, 
 coated or irritable tongue, foul breath, perverted appetite 
 — usually poor in the morning, and often morbid and ir- 
 regular — sometimes nau.sea and vomiting, eructations of 
 gas, regurgitation of acid or alkaline liquids and of food, 
 often constipation, and less often colicky pain, with irregu- 
 larity and looseness. There may exist lassitude, mental 
 inactivity, drowsiness, cranial oppression, headache, ver- 
 tigo, sometimes clouded vision, diplopia or double vision, 
 and numerous nervous symptoms and perversions of the 
 senses may exist: shortness of breath, sighing respiration. 
 prwoordial distress, palpitation and irregular action of the 
 ncarl. There may be poor circulation ; relaxed and pallid 
 or sallow surface and complexion ; cold hands and feet ; in 
 women, menstrual disorders. With the more marked and 
 aggravated symptoms there may bo mental depression, 
 anxiety, ilespondoncy, and apprehension, constituting hy- 
 pochimilria. A diagnosis of the form of dyspepsia is es- 
 sential to a correct treatment. Atonic may bo distinguished 
 from irritative dyspepsia by the following differences: 
 
 In Functional or Atonic DyS' 
 pcpxia. 
 
 1. Deficiency or irregularity 
 
 of appetite, absence of 
 thirst. 
 
 2. IngL-stion of food affords 
 
 sense of comfort for a 
 time. 
 
 3. Food retained. 
 
 4. Condiments and stiiiitilants 
 
 craved, aid dii^estion, and 
 cause sensr- of comfort. 
 
 5. Languor and inaptitude for 
 
 exertion during diges- 
 tion. 
 
 6. Tongue pale, broad, flabby, 
 
 thinlv furred. 
 
 7. nreathVoul. 
 «. No fever. 
 
 9. IVrsons In general good 
 health and flesli. 
 
 In Irritative Dyspepsia. 
 
 food, 
 
 10. Constitutional 
 few. 
 
 1. Morbid craving for 
 
 morbid thirst. 
 
 2. Ingestion of food causes dis- 
 
 tress. 
 
 3. Food often ejected when 
 
 taken, or soon after. 
 
 4. Condiments and stimulants 
 
 create or intensify dis- 
 t ress. 
 .5. Pain and mental distress 
 during diu'estion. 
 
 6. Tont;ue small, comiiact, red, 
 
 with elevated papilla* or 
 sensitive abradi-cl patches. 
 
 7. Breath may or may not be 
 
 foul. 
 
 «. Often slight fever. 
 
 9. Reduced health, bad nutri- 
 tion, and emaciation. 
 
 symptoms 10. Variable general cllects. 
 
 The symptoms of functional and irritative dyspepsia often 
 coexist. In functional dyspepsia the fermentation of food 
 develops gases. Kructalions may be of carbonic acid gas 
 from acetous fermentation, of hydrogen and carbonic acid 
 gas from ileconiposition <)f hydrocarbons or fatty food, or 
 of sulphuretted hydrogen from decomposition of nitrog- 
 enous substances, as meats, eggs. f)f regurgitated liquiils, 
 the most common is a clear, opalescent. ii]si|,id. alkaline 
 liquid, sometimes saltish or brackish, probably the accumu- 
 lation in the oesophagus of saliva, and its frequent rising 
 in the throat is known as watcrbrash or pyrosis. In gas- 
 trie catarrh gelatinous mucus may rise in the throat. Tho 
 regurgitation of acid, acrid liquid, causes sense of burning 
 in the sfomach, beneath tho slernum, ami in the throat, 
 technically cardialgia, popularly termed heartburn. Such 
 fluid is usually serum or sero-mueus, containing ncclie or 
 lactic acid. If brown, acrid, bitter, rancid, and offcnsii-e, 
 it is due tr) the conversion of fatty food inio butyric acid. 
 Food may be regurgitated at various stages of i'ls diges- 
 tion. When fioil is ejected many hours after ingestion, it 
 may present products of fermentation— sporules of Ttirnhi 
 cercrlii!ir,or sporules aggregated into segmentated, cubical 
 masses, known as Snrcintr rrtitricn/i tt'irrinn, a *• wool- 
 pack "). tJoffee. ground substance in ejecta is due to blood 
 which has undergone gastric digestion, and indicates an 
 abraded, ulcerated, bleeding surl^ace. The aceumulatitm 
 of food and its ejection en mnniif hours after ingestion 
 denote obstruction at the lower or pyloric orifice. Tho 
 prevalent idea that gastric juice is often regurgilnted is 
 erroneous. Bile appears in regurgitated fluids seldom, 
 
 and in vomited matter only after prolonged or violent cme- 
 sis. In aged persons a steadily progressive loss of appe- 
 tite, progressive inanition and emaciation, and death from 
 slow asthenia, without other symptoms of indigestion or 
 evidence of disease in other organs, result from degene- 
 ration of the gastric and intestinal tubules, the peptic 
 glands. When fatty food passes in the fa-ces undi<'cstcd 
 disease of the pancreas may be suspected. " ' 
 
 Atonic dyspepsia predis|ioses to acute indigestion, sub- 
 acute gastritis, gastroenteric catarrh— the cholera morbus 
 of adults and cholera infantum of children whenever ex- 
 citing causes are superadded, as the imbibition of cold 
 water or eating acrid fruit.s, chilling of the heated bodv in 
 summer. Indigestion may at first induce looseness of'ihe 
 bowels, irregular action, or diarrhiea. but ultimately pro- 
 duces constipation. Indigestion, by developing lactic acid 
 in excess, is the frequent cause of rheumatism. It is the 
 source of the lithic acid or gouty diathesis. Indigestion is 
 tho frequent cause of urinary precipitates. Imperfect di- 
 gestion of nitrogenous food gives rise to oxalic acbl. oxalate 
 of lime in the urine, irritation and congestion of the kid- 
 neys and bla<lder. Indigestion in young and susceptible 
 children and infants is the most frequent cause of convul- 
 sions and sudden febrile attacks. It may be the chief or 
 only cause of chorea (.St. Vilus's dance). Chronic irrila- 
 tive dyspepsia is most often the result of alcoholic excess, 
 less often of excessive errors of diet, or may he symp- 
 tomatic of gastric ulcer, pyloric constriction, or malignant 
 disease. 
 
 In the treatment of indigestion regulation of diet alone 
 often effects a cure. The diet should be nutritious, mod- 
 erate in quantity, taken at regular intervals, and slowly 
 eaten. The food at breakfast should be simple and laxa- 
 tive, at dinner substantial, at supper light. Of dishes there 
 should be variety, yet simplicity, including animal food, 
 vegetables, nndfruits in rcslricted quantities. ISread should 
 be stale or aerated. Milk may be freely taken, corrected 
 with soda or lime-water. Fatty food, grease, sugar, and 
 pastry should bo avoided. Artificial adjuvants to the diet, 
 as Licbig's prepared food. Ridge's food, and malt extract 
 are of value. Drink of any kind a( meals should be very 
 limited. Attention to general regimen is essential. There 
 must bo outdoor exercise, freedom from mental stress, from 
 physical fatigue, and dissipation in any form. liy cloth- 
 ing, aclivo friction, and judicious bathing the external cir- 
 culation is ke|it vigorous. Tendency of the fcod to decom- 
 pose demands correctives. For the acid stomach, bicar- 
 bonate of soda, the bicarbonate of potash, or lime-water : for 
 alkaline fluid and gastric mucus, diluie mineral acids and 
 acidulated drinks. Bisniulh, either (he subnitrate or sub- 
 carbonate, is the remedy for pyrosis. When the stomach 
 fails to digest albuminoids, pepsinc may be given. I'au- 
 creatino will aid the intestinal digestion of fat. Ferment- 
 ation of food, with fetid products and foul breath, may be 
 treated by the sulphite, bisulphite, <u- hyposnlphilc- of soda, 
 the sulpho-carbolale of soda; eharcoar is also efficacious. 
 In atony of the stomach. eariiiinati\'cs. as ginger, calamus, 
 capsicum, and compound tincture of cardamum sfimulatc 
 glandular secretion; bider vegelable tonics, chnnioniile, 
 quassia, calumbo, gentian, wild-cherry bark, casearilla, and 
 cinchona barks create nppelite, and nux vomica increases 
 the muscular tone ami activity of the stomach and intes- 
 tines and prevents flatulence. Quinine and ferruginous 
 tonics, ns the citrate of iron and quinine, the biotophos- 
 phate and carbonate of iron, and lilaud's pills produce gen- 
 eral vigor, improve the blood, and aid digestion. Laxa- 
 tives are essential when constipation exists ; violent eaihar- 
 tics are to be avoided. Laxative food, as the coarse cereals 
 and ripe fruit before breakfast, may be tried. Tamarinds 
 and figs, ,St. (iermain tea, senna, and magnesia may be 
 used to stiiuulato the bowels to action, fiflcn active exer- 
 cise, walking, or horseback riding will sufllee. Hubbing 
 and kneading the bowels or the ajiplicalion of electricitv 
 to the nbdouiiiial muscles will cure obstinate constipation. 
 Rhubarb, podophyllin, or dried ox bile in small quantities 
 may be needed fo increase the secretion of bile, aloes to 
 unload the reclum, belladonna and nux vomica to create 
 ])Crmaneiit tonicity ami regular action of the bowels. A 
 judicious combiiialion of these remedies in a fonic-laxativo 
 tiill may be taken until the slomaeh and intestines resume 
 lieallhy and vigortuis activity. i<alino purges are to be 
 avoided. Rut the milder mineral wafers may be taken when 
 acid indigestion is present or there is a personal tendency 
 to rheumalisiu or gout. K. D.uiwi.v UriisoN, Jii. 
 
 Indighir'ka, or /npndnnin Kolimn, a river of 
 Easlcm .Liberia, rises in the Yablonoi Mountains, in Ibe 
 government of .lakoolsk, and enters fbe Arctic Ocean in 
 Ion. 1J0° E.. after a course of 7on miles, mostlv Ihiough 
 deserts and froion marshfs. A few villages are' senflered 
 along its banks, whoso inhabitants live exclusively by 
 hunting.
 
 1174 
 
 INDIGO. 
 
 In'di|;o (Indicum of the ancients), the most important 
 blue dvo known. It is olilaincti from several epecies of the 
 genus /ii(/iV/"."'''n which grow princi])ally in warm elimales. 
 it has also been noticed in uiorbiil urine, and Dr. Sehnnek 
 has shown that it may be obtained from the urine of healthy 
 men and animals by the action of strong acids. It has 
 also been observed in the milk of cows. 
 
 JJhlori/. — This most valuable dyeing substance was used 
 as a dyesluff in India and Kgyptlong before the Christian 
 era, and the Romans were acquainted with it, although 
 Ihi-y only used it as a pigment, not knowing how to render 
 it soluble, and so available for dyeing. It is only since the 
 sixteenth century, or from the time of the discovery of the 
 passage to India" rouml the Capo of Ciood Hope, that it has 
 become generally known in Europe; and its emjdoyment 
 as a dye was greatly retarded by the opposition it met with 
 from the large vested interests of the woad-cultivatnrs. wlio 
 induced the English, French, and (Jerman governments to 
 )iromulgate several enactments against its use. So severe 
 were some of them that Henry IV. of France issued an 
 edict condemning to death any one who used that perni- 
 cious drug called the '• devil's food." It is only since the 
 year 17:i7 that the French dyers have had the right of 
 "using indigo without restriction. It was urged against 
 this dye that it was fugitive, and even prejudicial to tho 
 wool. " The Dutch were the first to introduce it. 
 
 Indigofera. 
 
 liotanrj. — This coloring matter is furnished by the leaves 
 of several species of plants belonging to very different 
 genera and orders— from Indiijofcra lincloria. I. Anil, I. 
 dinpermn, and /. pieudolincloria, cultivated especially in 
 the East and West Indies; also from Ntriiim liiictoiiiim 
 and Calanthe rcrndi/o/i'd, natives of Hindostan ; Aaclqiiua 
 lincloria and Mursdrnin liiirlorin of Sumatra; Pubjrimmm 
 tinclniium, hatis iiidiijulica, Jntdcia tincluria, and lildia 
 Tankenilliir of China; and Amorpha fruticoiia of South 
 Carolina. The only European plant which yields true in- 
 digo-blue is Imlis (i'iif(ori'«,WoAn (which see). This plant 
 was mucli used in ICuropc before the introduction of indigo, 
 but it is inferior in quality and small in quantity, and is 
 now used only as an addition to the indigo-vat. jMany 
 other European plants yield blue coloring-matters, but they 
 arc not believed to be identical with indigo. 
 
 Cidliiatiim. — The indigo-planis require a warm climate, 
 with not too much rain. The seeds arc sown about the 
 first of -April, and in tho latter part of June the flower- 
 buds burst and the plants will bear cutting. Two months 
 later a second inferior cutting is taken, and a third and 
 fourth of diminished value may be made. 
 
 Jndicaii. — The jlants do not contain the indigo when 
 they arc gathered, but a peculiar substance, indican, which 
 is a yellow, transparent, glutinous solid, soluble in alc()hf>l, 
 ether, and water. Indican is a glucosidc, and is converted 
 
 by fermentation or by boiling with sulphuric or hydrochlo- 
 ric acid into indigo-blue, indigo-red, etc., and a peculiar 
 glucose-like body, indigluein: 
 
 Inillcnn. IrnJiRO-btuc. Indiglucin. 
 
 CmHsiNOh -f 2II2O = CsHiNO -r SCeHioOe. 
 Fermentation does not appear to be essential, as a mere in- 
 fusion of the plant in hot water deposits indigo on standing 
 in the air. Indican yields by decomposition, besides indi- 
 go-blue and indigo-red. a variety of bodies, as o.\indicanine, 
 oxindieasin. indicasin. indieanin. indifulvin, indihumin, 
 etc. (See H'oKs's />lc^, article "Indican.") Indican has 
 been found in human blood and urine. 
 
 The crlraiiiun 0/ the iiidif/o in Bengal is effected cither 
 from fresh or dry leaves. (1) From thr Fi-esh Leaves, — 
 Two large stone cisterns are provided — the sleeper, or fer- 
 menting vat, about 20 feet square and .3 feet deep, and the 
 healer^ standing lower, of the same width, but a third 
 longer. The fresh plants, tied in bundles, are siratilio.l in 
 the steeper and fastened down by beams. They are then 
 covered »vith water, when fermentalion begins at once, and 
 is completed in fourteen or fifteen hours. The liquid is at 
 first yellow, but bectunt-s dark green, and exhibits a blue 
 scum. It is drawn oil' into the beater, and ten men beat it 
 with oars or shovels called bmf/itets. Paddle-wlieels or 
 dashers have been used. After being beaten for an hour 
 •and a half, if the previous fermentation has been satisfac- 
 tory the indigo agglomerates into flocks and settles as a 
 precipitate. Tho object of the beating is to introduce 
 oxygen. The precipitation may bo hastened by the ad- 
 dition of lime-water, but this throws down extractive mat- 
 ter, and makes the indigo hard and reil. The precipitate 
 is allowed to subside, the supernatant water is drawn off, 
 and the moist precipitate is strained through a coarse bag. 
 It is then boiled to separate a yellow exiraetive matter and 
 increase the density and intensity of its color. It is then 
 .sent to the dripping or filtering vat, which contains a per- 
 forated false bottom covered with cotton cloth. The drain- 
 ed magma is placed in a strong bag and squeezed in a 
 press, and the moist mass is cut with a brass wire into 
 cubes about three inches each way. The cubes arc dried 
 in the air, a white cftiorescencc which appears during tho 
 drying being removed with a brush; 1000- parts of tho 
 liquor from the steeping vat yield 0.50 to 0.7;i indigo. (2) 
 Frum Dried Leaves. — The cuttings are dried in the sun, 
 the leaves separated from the stems by thrashing, ami 
 stored away for convenient treatment. To obtain the in- 
 digo they arc macerated for two hours with six times their 
 bulk of water. Tho solution is treated as when obtained 
 from wet leaves. As the use of dry leaves makes it pos- 
 sible to select the most suitable weather for macerating, 
 the indigo produced is more uniform, and the fermenta- 
 tion, capricious in its course, is superseded by simple ma- 
 ceration. 
 
 In the hilly regions of India the leaves of the Xerium 
 tincloriiini, a small tree, are treated for the extraction of 
 indigo. It is necessary to use hot water for steeping ; 
 L'oO pounds of fresh leaves yield 1 pound of indigo. Dr. 
 Schunck has explained why if the indigo-manufacturer 
 does not manage the fermenttition with great care the in- 
 digo will be poor in quality and small in quantity, and 
 even in some cases entirely lose the eoloring-malfer. Tlie 
 indiglucin produced by the decomposition of the indican 
 is liable to pass by fermentation into alcohol and acetic 
 acid, and these bodies unite with the indigo and form a 
 body which resists oxidation, and consequently fails to 
 furnish indigo: 
 
 Indigo. Alcohol. Acetic add. 
 
 CslIsNO -f SCjHcO -(- SCjHiOa -1- COj 
 
 New compound. Walter. 
 = C3lU39NOl-|-lall20. 
 
 The eommereinl t^nrielics of indigo .arc very numerous. 
 The Bengal indigo ranks first in quality ; it is classified 
 as — fine blue, fine purple and violet, fine red and violet, 
 good |)urple and violet, middling violet, middling defec- 
 tive, consuming fine, middling and good, ordinary, and ordi- 
 nary and lean trash. Some merchants recogni/.c sixteen 
 distinct grades. Besides the Bengal, there occurs in com- 
 merce the Java, twenty-one grades. The Bengal and Java 
 range from 40 to SO per cent, of indigo-blue; the remain- 
 ing varieties vary from 10 to .17 per cent.; they arc Coro- 
 mandel, Oude, Madras, Manila, Egyptian, Guatemala, 
 Caraceas, and Mexican. 
 
 J'rnperlies 0/ ihe Crude Indigo. — The color is deep blue, 
 with a shade more or less purple or violet. It is devoid 
 of smell and taste* It may be dry or moist, hard or soft, 
 compact or porous. Being always more or less porous, it 
 adheres slightly to the tongue." Its fracture is dull and 
 earthy. The streak )>rodueed by the nail is glossy and 
 purplish-red in the best qualities; when it is dull, and the 
 indigo furrows on each side of the streak, tho qualify is 
 poor. The best indigo floats upon walcr.
 
 INDIGO. 
 
 1175 
 
 0)m/)o«i7iono/Priu/e/iirfi<7o.— Besides indigo-bIue(indigo. 
 tine), which is the characteristic constituent of indigo, and 
 which varies in quantity from 10 to SO per cent., a variety 
 of other bodies are present, either derived from the plant 
 or aided intentionally. Among these are ( 1 ) indigo-gluten, 
 a nitrogenous body resembling ordinary vegetable gluten. 
 It is extracted bT treating the indigo with aeiil ami then 
 boiling with wate'r. (2) Indigo-brown, extracted by alka- 
 lies. The indigo-green of some authors is supposed to be 
 a mixture of indigo-brown and a little indigo-blue. {Xj In- 
 digo-red, extracted bv boiling alcohol. (4) Brown resinous 
 bodies, (b) .Mineral matters (ash), usually from to 12 per 
 cent., but sometimes SO to 40 per cent, in Madras indigo. 
 They arc composed of carbonate and phosphate of lime, 
 oxide of iron, alumina, soda-salts, clay. sand, .and some- 
 times a trace of copper and lead. ffi> Water, from .I to 10 
 per cent. Chevreul gives the following analysis of a fair 
 samplo of Guatemala indigo: 
 
 Indigotine 
 
 .Soluble in water: gum, etc., deoxidized indigo, a green 
 
 matter combined with ammonia, etc 12. 
 
 ."Soluble in alcohol : resin, green matters, a trace of 
 
 indigo-blue ■"■;• 
 
 A red resin, soluble in hydrochloric acid o. 
 
 Carbonate of lime ^• 
 
 Oxide of iron and alumina 
 
 Silica (sand) and clay 
 
 4o. 
 
 _3. 
 
 100^ 
 The nduUeranU are starch (most common), rosin, Prus- 
 sian blue, smalt, ground dyewoods, etc. 
 
 The pnr!fi<-nt!on nf iiuliyo is effected by boiling it succes- 
 sively with dilute acid, water, and alcohol. The pure in- 
 digotine mav be extracted by changing it to soluble white 
 indigo by reducing agents, as explained further on, and 
 subsequently reoxidizing it. 
 
 Inrliiin hlue, iiitlignline, oxidized indigo (CbHsNO), may 
 be obtained nearly pure by exhausting indigo by solvents 
 as above mentioned. It may also be obtained (1 ) by sub- 
 limation, in crvstals. mixing the powdered indigo with 
 plaster of Paris and water, spreading it on an iron plate to 
 harden, and carefully heating the dry cake: (2) by solution 
 in boiling aniline, which deposits it in crystals on cooling; 
 (3) by reducing it to soluble white indigo by contact with 
 gr.-ipe'-sugar, soda-ley, water, and alcohol, or by contact 
 with slaked lime, copperas, and water. The yellow solu- 
 tion obtained deposits indigotine as a blue powder when 
 expoacil to the air. Indigotine appears as blue crystals 
 with a coppery lustre, or as a dark-blue powder, .acquiring 
 this lustre when rubbed with a hard body. It h:is neither 
 tasic nor smell, acid nor basic properties: sn. gr. 1.500. 
 Ilealed in the open air. it melts, boils, and burns with a 
 smoky flame. Heated in a current of air at about .SfiO" F., 
 it volatilizes without decomposition ns a purple vapor. It 
 is insoluble in water, in dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric 
 acids, and in alkaline lyes, in cold ether, alcohol, oil of 
 turpentine, and fatly oil's. Its best solvent is boiling ani- 
 line. It is soluble to a greater or less extent in hot creosote, 
 phenol, benzol, chloroform, alcohol, ether, cssenti.il oils, 
 falty oils, petroleum, amylic alcohol ; in the acetates, chlor- 
 ides, etc. of aniline, morphine, cle,, bees' wax. .lapan wax, 
 Canauba wax, parafhn. spermaceti, and stearic acid. It 
 is soluble in anhvdrous acetic acid to which a very small 
 quantity of sulphuric acid has been added, and is precipi- 
 tated from the solution by the addition of water. This is 
 the only process known by which indigotine can ho repro- 
 duced in its priinilive state on fabrics, without previous 
 rcduelion to S'dnble while indigo. 
 
 Tlie aclimi nf Htilphiiic arid mi indigo gives rise to three 
 distinct compounds, the production nf which depends upon 
 the strength and ratio of the acid, the temperature, and the 
 duration of thecontiicl : it is diffieult to conduct the renclion 
 sn as to prevent the formation of at least a small portion 
 of each. If powdered indigo is digested with oil of vitriol, 
 and the deep-blue liquid poured into 40 or ofl purls of cold 
 water, a purple powder remains umlissolved which is (1) 
 suhdiophfcnicic acid, while the deep-blue solution contains 
 (2) sulphindigotic and (.T) hy)io5ulphindigolio acid. By 
 forming the ammonium-salts of the Inst two acids, evapor- 
 ating t') dryness, and digesting with alcohol, the hypo- 
 sulphindigotalc only is dissolved. 
 
 kdphnphfrniric Arid (2r,IUX0.Sn.,), S,dphnpnr,mr,e 
 Arid. rndi<tn.l':irplr. r/imiiViii.— This acid is best prepared 
 by adding 1 part of indigo to 4 parls of oil of vitriol, and 
 healing from .10 minutes to an hour, or until a drop gives 
 a deep purido color with a large quantity of coM water. 
 Too high a temperature or too long digestion causes the 
 formation of mucli sulphindigotic acid. The acid mixture 
 is thrown into 40 to .'iO parls cold water, and the beaulifiil 
 purple precipitate is collecleil on a filter and washed with 
 weak hvdrochlorio acid. It forms a blue mass or ft purple- 
 
 red powder. It is soluble in water, and soluble in strong 
 sulphuric acid, especially in the fuming acid : both grad- 
 ually change it into sulphindigotic acid, more rapidly if 
 heated. It is insoluble in dilute acids. The salts of this 
 acid are prepared by adding its solution to an aqueous 
 solution of anv salt." They ajipear as purple nocks, which 
 are but slightly soluble in water. When dry they arc red. 
 Their solutions are blue: are reduced to yellow liquids by 
 sulphydric acid, copperas, and lime, or by caustic alkalies. 
 I but become blue again on exposure to the air. Wool may 
 ! be dyed with this acid by immersing it in an aqueous solu- 
 tion and adding a little hydrochloric acid. By passing the 
 wool so dyed through a weak bath of carbonate of soda 
 various shades of purple may be produced, a small quantity 
 of sulphindisrotic. which is always present, being removed, 
 and the sulphophcenicate of soda being formed, which is a 
 faster dye than the acid. .\ peculiar purple-blue, consisting 
 probablv of the soda-salt of this acid, has been invented by 
 I,, and E. Boilley {Tlinrjl. pnl. ./.. clix. ."18), and patented 
 in England bv .lohnson^ It is m.ade by dropping powdered 
 indigo into 20 times its weight of fused acid sulphate of 
 soda, pouring the product into a large quantity of water. 
 and adding common salt. It separates as a precipitate of 
 silky crystals, possessing a beautiful coppery lustre when 
 dry. Sec samples dyed with it in Rep. Cliim. app., 1861, 
 p. 21.1. 
 
 Sulphindiqotir Arid (rsIIsNO.POs). Sulphote of hidujn. 
 Soluble nine Imlitjo. Sidphiudylir Acid, Sulphoranilir 
 Arid. — This acid is prepared by dissolving 1 part of in- 
 digo in 10 or 12 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid (0 
 parts of fuming acid answer the same purpose), and heat- 
 ing the whole for several hours at 120' F. The operation 
 is "complete when a portion dissolves completely in cold 
 water. The product is a mixture of this acid with hypo- 
 sulphindigotic acid. To free it from this, and the impuri- 
 ties derived from the indigo, well-washed wool is allowed 
 to absorb the dvcs from the solution. This is washed in 
 water and digested in a dilute solution of carbonate of 
 ammonia, which dissolves both acids. On evaporating to 
 dryness the two Rmmonia-snlts may be separated by alco- 
 hol (8.1 per cent.) in which the sulphindigotate is insoluble. 
 This separation is not resorted to in prnelice. the mixture 
 of the two acids being used directly. The sulphindigolio 
 acid may be freed from the excess of sulphuric acid by 
 adding an excess of a solution of common salt. It is then 
 obtained as a blue precipitate which may bo drained on a 
 filter. Sulphindigotic acid is very soluble in water and in 
 alcohol, but not in strong saline solutions. Charcoal, espe- 
 cially that from blood, removes it completely from its aque- 
 ous "solution, but yields it to alkaline carbonates. It is 
 decomposed by an excess of caustic alkali, and ihe color 
 cannot be restored. Reducing agents, as stannous and 
 ferrous salts, sulphydric acid, nascent hydrogen, etc., de- 
 colorize it. the color being restored by exposure to the air. 
 Sulphindigotatcs arc formed by neutralizing the free acid 
 or by double decomposition. They do not crystallize, are 
 dark blue with a coppery lustre, and taste feebly saline and 
 decidedly of indigo. The alkaline sulphindigolntes are 
 slightly 'soluble in cold water (requiring 100 lo 150 parts), 
 more so in hot water. The lime, magnesia, and alumina 
 salts arc freely soluble. The solution is blue by reflected 
 light, red by transmitted light. 
 
 Alknlitir Sidphivdirjolaltl. IndirfO-Carmitie, TUnc-Carmine, 
 SnUihle fndii/o. and Prrclpltnird Indiijo are prepared by 
 adding alkaline carbonates to the diluted solution of llio 
 acid. They appear as precipitates, being insoluble in 
 saline solutions ; Ihe alkaline sulphates formed at the same 
 time arc sufficient for the purpose. The potassium-salt 
 di««olves in MO parts of cold water, and in inucli less boil- 
 ing water: I ]iart of salt gives a blue odor lo 500,000 parts 
 of water, about ^^ grain per gallon. Water containing 1 
 per cent, of acetate of sodium does not dissolve it in the 
 cold. It is soluble in sulphuric acid, insoluble in concen- 
 traled hydrochloric and in alcohol of sp. gr. 0.800. The 
 sodium-sail rescnibles Ihe potassium-salt, and is used fur 
 similar purposes, much more extensively. It is more solu- 
 ble in saline solutions. Besides being useful as a dye. Ihe 
 indigo-carmine is used ns a water-color pigment, and made 
 into balls with starch and a little gum-water it is used ns 
 wa.shing blue. 
 
 /fiipoKidpliiiidii/olie Arid. HtlpoHidphornridir And. — Tins 
 acid, the compiisition of wliich is not known, has been 
 already menticmed as always occurring in Ihe solulion ob- 
 tained by Irentiug indigo wilh sulphuric ncid. The acid 
 differs little from sulphindigolic ncid. and Ihe sails arc 
 distinguished chiefly by their solubility in alcohol of 84 
 per cent. 
 
 CnmmrrrinI Prrpnrnltonn of Indigo and flidphurir And 
 are mixtures of the three acirls above mentioned or their 
 salts. There are three distinct kinds of preparation : (I) 
 The simple solution of Ihe aciib in water, known as .'^n.mn
 
 1176 
 
 INDIGO. 
 
 blue ( having been first iutroduced by Barth at (irossenhayn 
 in Saxony in 174.')). chemic, chemic blue, sour extract of in- 
 diffo, Hiilpluttcof indi'jo, etc. Numerous receipts are given 
 for its preparation. Tcrsoz saj's mix 1 poumi each of in- 
 digo, lumin;; sulphuric acid, and uil of vitriol. Aft'T 
 standing 48 hours, heat the mixture over a water-bath till 
 it gives no precipitate in cold water. Dilute to 1.134 or 
 1S° B. Haussmimn uses indigo 1, fuming acid 0.5. An- 
 other adds gradually 1 part indigo to 5 or fuming acid 
 or 10 to 12 common acid, allnwr^ it to stand 24 to 48 hours, 
 pours into cold water, and liltcrs. Another: 1 pound in- 
 digo in 15 pounds common acid; keep at 120-140° F. for 
 tliree days. (2) The precipitated acids. pnHte,sirrct extract, 
 made by adding a strong solution of salt to the diluted and 
 liltcrcd solution of indigo in sulphuric acid. Ji'cti/»ts. — 1 
 jtnund indigo, 5 acid, 10 to 13 hours at 100" V., dihited 
 with 3 gallons water, filtered, concentrated to .'i gallons, 
 treated with 4 pounds of common salt, drained on a filter. 
 Another: 10 pounds indigo, 80 acid, 24 hours at 80° F., 
 diluted with 5 gallons water, treated with solution of 80 
 pounds salt in smallest quantity of water. (3) Neutral 
 soda-salts, inditfO'Carminr, fmlnble iuditjo, solid bine, chemic, 
 centfciu, centho-nidphtitr, extrnrt of indiffn. This is made 
 by neutralizing the solution of indig<i in sulphuric acid by 
 carbonate of soda; being insoluble in saline solutions, it 
 appears as a jirecipitate, which is washed on a filter with 
 solution of salt, and sold as a paste or as a dry powder. 
 The washing with salt-solutiou removes green matters 
 (cblorophyTO and improves the shades. Jicrdpts. — .Add 
 37 pounds acid to 4 pounds indigo, keep at fi0°-70^ F. for 
 8 days. Pour into it a solution of 40 pounds salt, then a 
 solution of t)0 puunds carbonate-of-soda crystals: add 2 
 pounds precipitated carbonate of lime; filter, wash with 
 salt-solution. The yield is 120 pounds. Adding acid to 
 indigo secures a richer and purer color. An inferior quality 
 is made with 8 pounds indigo, 74 acid. 144 salt, 112 ear- 
 bonate-of-soda crystals, and 4 chalk, in same manner. A 
 fair sample of carmine of indigo gave water 86., indigo 
 10.2, saline residue 4.8. 
 
 I)i/cing with S'tilphuric-Acid Compounds of Indigo, — (1) 
 Cotton has no atfinity for these compounds, and they are 
 never used except for a faint bluing for market, as in wash- 
 ing clothes. For this purpose the free sulphuric acid is 
 removed by acetate of lead, or neutralized by acetate of 
 soda, the product being erroneously called "acetate of in- 
 digo." (2) Wool is dyed only in the aeids or in carmines 
 .ii-i'lulated, as alkalies, and even soap, are liable to remove 
 tlic color. Saxon blue (acid) was formerly used with alum 
 and cream of tartar. Carmine is now preferred with alum 
 and cream of tartar, used warm. For printing, so-called 
 "acetate of indigo" is used. These colors are fugitive, 
 and are now generally replaced by Prussian blue, etc., ex- 
 cept for compound colors, as green, olive, gray, black, etc. 
 (I!) .Silk is dyed in the same manner as wool, but is gener- 
 ally first alumed. Carntincis generally used, as it is easily 
 fixed, and is free from the green tinge of the acids. For 
 printing, a solution of carmine, with oxalic acid and gum, 
 with sometimes a little alum, is used. 
 
 Indigo-White (C16II12N2O2), Jndigogen, White Indigo, 
 Reduced or Deoxidized Indigo. — The sulphuric-acid com- 
 pounds of indigo already described are not suitable for 
 dyeing cotton, and as they do not give colors on wool and 
 silk that can be considered fast, indigo would have but a 
 limited ajiplication in dyeing and calico-printing wero it 
 not fur the indigo-wbite. This compound is produced by 
 the action of reducing agents on indigo, and results in the 
 addition to a double molecule of indigotine of a double 
 atom or molecule of hydrogen, H2; 
 
 Indigotine IndlffOKCH- 
 
 2C8H5NO2 -h H2 = C16H12N2O2. 
 
 Chcvreul supposed that indigogcn existed ready formed in 
 the indigo-plants, but this was shown by Pchunck to be 
 erroneous, (1 ) because indigogcn is soluble only in alkaline 
 solutions, while the juices of these plants are acid: (2) be- 
 cause indigogcn turns blue on exposure to the air by oxi- 
 dation, forming indigotine; (3) he determined the com- 
 ]iound existing in the plants to be the glucosidc indican 
 (CjolhiXOiT), as ;ilready slated. The indigogcn being 
 soluble in alkalies, the dyer has only to impregnate his 
 yarns and fabrics with the solution and expose them to the 
 atmosphere, when the insoluble blue indigotine is formcil 
 throughout their substance, and they arc uniformly dyed 
 with the most permanent and insoluble blue. 
 
 ImliitrtKcn. Owsen- Indlitnllnc. Wmcr. 
 
 CieHnNjOj + b = 2CeIliX0 + H2O. 
 (For advanced views on the constitution of indigotine and 
 indigogcn see Liiwcnthal (J. pr. Ch., Ixx. 468); Bacyer 
 (Her. Phem. Gm., ISGf*, 17), and A. Sireckcr (Jnhrrth. li. 
 Chem., 1808, 789).) A great variety of reducing agents ac- 
 complish this change in indigotine : 
 
 (1) Alkaline metals which decompose water, as sodium, 
 
 potassium, sodium amalgam, etc. 
 
 (2) Metals which doconipose water in the presence of an 
 allvuiine base, as tin, antimony, aluminum, zinc, and phos- 
 pljorus. 
 
 (:i) Metallic o\idcs capable of higher oxidation, as fer- 
 rous, manganous, and stannous o.xides. 
 
 (4) Acids capable of higher oxidaliim, as phosphorous, 
 hypophosphorous. hyposulphurous. and sulphurous acids. 
 
 {.i) Some sulphurets. pliosphuret?, ami arscnurets, as 
 realgar, orpimcnt, stannous sulphide, sulphides of anti- 
 mony, potassium, sodium, hydrogen, etc. 
 
 (G) Organic bodies oxidizablo in presence of alkalies, as 
 glucose, gallic acid, etc. 
 
 (7) Reducing and alkaline fermentations, as the butyrous 
 and urinous. 
 
 Liiwenthal denies the production of indigogcn by sul- 
 phurous and phosphorous aeids, sulphiclc of potassium, 
 and some of the other substances mentioned above. {J.pr. 
 a,.. Ixx. U,?,.) 
 
 Indigogcn may be prepared from indigo purified by hy- 
 drochloric acid by mixing it with slaked lime, ferrous sul- 
 phate, and water in vessels so arranged that air is excludLd. 
 The clear yellow solution produced is transferred to an- 
 other vessel, and tlie indigogcn precipitated by hydro- 
 chloric acid. The precipitate is filtered in un atmosphere 
 of carbonic acid, and washed with dilute sulphurous acid. 
 It is a grayish-white, lustrous body, insoluble in water and 
 acids, soluble in alkalies, alcohol, and ether. lis solutions 
 are yellow, and turn blue and deposit indigotine when ex- 
 posed to the air. Indigogcn forms with lime a neutral 
 compound readily soluble in water, and a basic compound 
 almost insoluble. The latter is precipitated from a solu- 
 tion of the neutral compound by digestion with an excess 
 of lime. It is also formed when indigo is digested with 
 copperas and «» extf-ss of lime in making the solution of 
 indigogcn. It is a lemon-yellow compound, which in the 
 air becomes first green, then blue. Most metallic salts 
 produce in solutions of indigogcn precipitates which arc 
 generally white, but become blue in the air, Berzelius 
 supposed from these properties of the lime-compounds that 
 an excess of lime should be carefully avoided, but .Schlum- 
 berger has shown that in practice other conditions occur 
 which not only prevent any injurious results from such 
 excess, but make its ]ircscnee very desirable. 
 
 Applicaflon 0/ ludltjfujrn in Dyeing and CftUco-printinff. 
 — This form of indigo being soluble, can be made to pene- 
 trate textile fibres, and when by oxidation the indigogcn is 
 converted into insoluble blue indigotine, the color is fixed 
 in the pores of the fibres, so as to adhere firmly and resist 
 the action of washing and soap. Indigogcn is employed as 
 follows : 
 
 (1) Orclluari/ "Vat-dyeinr)." — The indigo is reduced and 
 dissolved, and the yarn or cloth is immersed, and then ex- 
 posed to the air. Figures in white, which may even be col- 
 ored, are produced by printing on resiKta beforehand, which 
 prevent the penclration of the dye, or discharges after 
 dyeing, which remove the color, 
 
 (2) " Pencil Illue." — The solution of reduced indigo is 
 printed or painted on certain portions only of the cloth 
 with a "pencil," a small flat, blunt-|iointed piece of wood. 
 
 (?,) " Precipilitleil III- Faut Illiir." — Indigogcn is precip- 
 itated as a paste in combination with strongly reducing 
 metallic oxides, as hydrated stannous oxide, to prevent 
 too rapid oxidation. This paste, properly thickened, is 
 jirinled on the goods, and the cloth is then passed through 
 lime-water or soda-Icy to replace the stannous oxide and 
 form a soluble compound of indigogcn, which penetrates 
 the fibre and is fixed by subsequent exposure. 
 
 (■I) " Chinii llhie." — Pulverized indigo is printed on tho 
 cloth, and theu so treated, by passing it successively through 
 milk of lime, copperas, soda-ley, ami sulphuric acid, as to 
 fix the color by causing local reduction and solution, and 
 subsequent oxidation. 
 
 The inrfiV/o tin(» or solutions employed by dyers and cal- 
 ico-printers are varied according to the character of the 
 
 goods. 
 
 Cnid rain are produced by reducing agents of a mineral 
 origin, while warm rain are produced by organic matters 
 which undergo fermentation, and thus develop indigogcn. 
 
 fl) The Cnpptras Viil. — To 2000 gallons water arc added 
 \ CO pounds indigo, 180 slaked lime, 120 ferrous sul[ihatc 
 (copperas), which must be free from every trace of copper- 
 salt. This vat is used for calico, linen yarn, linen thread, 
 and hemp yarn and thread. After exposure to the air the 
 color of the goods can be improved by passing them through 
 hot milk of lime or caustic alkali, by which some yellow 
 matters are eliminated. 
 
 (2) The Tin Vat, commonly used for calico-printing.— 
 The indigo is reduced by a solution of stannous oxide in 
 soda-ley. By adding to this an acid solution of tin, a pre-
 
 INDIGO. 
 
 1177 
 
 cipitato is obtained consisting of indigogcu and stannous 
 oxide, which i^ u^cd in printing. 
 
 (3) The Orpimeiit \'tit is uiude by mixing indigo^ sulphide 
 of arsenic^ and potasli. It is ciiiefly used in calico-prititiug. 
 
 (4) The Zinc Vitt has recently been introduced by R. 
 Schloesser it Co. of Manchester, Eng., as a luarlccd iin- 
 provctnent on ibo copperas vat. It is free froui the bulky 
 precipitate of oxide of iron, and avoids the loss of indigo 
 due to its combination with this oxide. It is composed of 
 2000 giillous of water. 20 pounds indigo. 30 iron horings, 
 30 of their remarkable powdered zinc, 36 quicklime. The 
 zinc furnishes hydrogen by decomposing water. 
 
 (5) The Ifi/poMiifphite Vat was introduced by Schiitzen- 
 berger and be Lalande (Chem. Ciutr., 1873, 735). The 
 authors employ a solution of sodium hyposulphite as the 
 reducing agent for the indigo. A Sfihitiou of sodium bi- 
 sulphite of 30° to 3j° B., is agitated with pieces of sheet 
 or granulated 7,inc in a closed vessel. The quantity of zinc 
 should till about one-fourth of the internal space of the 
 ves-jcl. After about an hour the solution is mixed with 
 milk of lime in excess, which precipitates the zinc-salt. 
 After agitation and the addition of water, the liquid is fil- 
 tered or the clear solution decanted, tl»e whole operation 
 being conducted with as complete exclusion of air as pos- 
 sible. The hyposulphite solution so obtaineil is added to 
 the indic;o, together with the necessary amount of lime and 
 soda. The yellow solution obtained contains, as insoluble 
 constituents, only the earthy matters in the indigo. From 
 1 kilo, indigo a very concentrated vat of from 10 to \b 
 litres can be prepared. The dyeing of cotton take? place 
 in the cold, that of woollens with gentle warmth. The ex- 
 cess of sodium hyposulphite is said to reduce the froth 
 which forms on the surface of the bath, Uy adopting the 
 foregoing method in the case of woollens, clearer and fresher 
 tints are obtainable. A new method of printing with a. 
 concentrated and thickened alkaline solution of indigo re- 
 duced with great excess of sodium hyposulphite, gives uni- 
 versal satisfaction, and is certain to supersede the older 
 costly and troublesome process in whicli tin and tin-salts 
 are employeil. For oxidation, the printed pieces are hung 
 out in the air 12 to It hours, and then washed and soa[)ed. 
 In comparison with the older method, 50 to CO per cent, 
 of intligo is economized, the shades arc liner and more 
 permanent, and the definition sharper. 
 
 (tJ) The W'uad or Pastei Val. — In former timcs woad was 
 the only material known to the dyers of Europe for pro- 
 ducing the blue color of indigo. For this jiurposc it was 
 previously submitted to a peculiar process of fermentation, 
 and the product was named pastel in France. For most 
 purposes indigo has taken the j>lace of woad in the dye- 
 house, and for cotton goods it is now used alone. In the 
 dyeing of woollen goods, however, the use of woad has 
 been retained to the present day, for the purpose rather 
 of exciting fermentation, and thus reducing the indigo 
 which is employed at the same time, than of imparting any 
 color to the material to bo dyed. Indeed, the woad used 
 by wooden dyers in this country contains no trace of col- 
 oring-matter. \'ariou8 substitutes, such as rhubarb-leaves, 
 turnip-tops, weld, an'l other vegetable matters, have ac- 
 cordingly been tried, but without success, since the fer- 
 mentation is more steadily maintained by means of woad 
 than by any other material. Pastel, whit-h does contain a 
 little blue coloring-matter, is preferred to woad by many 
 of the French dyers. The materials employed in the ordi- 
 nary woad or pastel vat, in aiblitton to woad and indigo, 
 arc mad<ler, bran, and lime. The chemical action which 
 takes Jdace in the woad vat is not diflicult to understand. 
 The nitrogenous matters of the woad begin, when the tem- 
 perature is raised, to enter into a slate of fermentation, 
 which is kept up by means of the sugar, starch, extractive 
 matter, etc. of the madder and bran. In consequence of 
 the f<'rmentation, the indigo-bhie becomes reduced, and is 
 then dissolved by the lime, thus rendering the liquid fit for 
 dyeing. Great care is necessary in order to prevent the 
 process of fermentation from passing into one of putrefac- 
 tion, which if allowed to proceed wouhl lead to tne entire 
 destruction of the indigo-blue in the liquor. If any tend- 
 ency to do so is observed, it is arrested by the addition 
 of lime, which combines with the acetic, lactic, and other 
 orf^anic acids that commence to form when putrefaction 
 sets in. On the other hand, an excess of lime must also be 
 avoided, since the reduced indigo-blue is thereby rendered 
 insoluble, an<l unfit to combine with the material. In set- 
 tinga vat the following materials are used : 5 cwt. woad. 30 
 pounds indigo. 5(» bran, 7 madder, and 10 (juarts lime. The 
 vat is first filled with water heatecl to 1 H)° F. ; the materials 
 are then added and well mixed. The whole is covered, and 
 allowed to stand over night. At 6 o'clock the next morning 
 5 quarts more lime are addecl ; at 10 o'clock, ;'> pints more: 
 at 1*2, the vat is hcuteil to 120° F. ; and at 3, another quart 
 of lime is added. The vat is now ready for use. (6Vf.) 
 
 (7) The Potash or Indian Fnf.^Eight pounds of pow- 
 dered indigo are added to a bath containing 3i pounds 
 bran, 3* pounds madder, and 12 pounds potash, which is 
 maintained for several hours at a temperature of 2UU° F. 
 It is then allowed to cool to IUU° F., when fermentation 
 ensues. After about -48 hours the indigo is rendered solu- 
 ble, being reduced by the decomposition of the sugar and 
 other products contained in the bran and the madder-root 
 during the process of fermentation. The bath should have 
 a greenish-yellow appearance, having a frothy scum of a 
 blue coppery hue. (C'tfrrrt.) 
 
 (8) The German Vut. — Of late years improvements have 
 been made in this class of vats, by which the expense of 
 using madder is avoided. They are now prepared by add- 
 ing to water, at a temperature of 200° F.. 2i) hnekets* bran, 
 2C pounds soda crystals. 12 pounds indigo, and f> pounds 
 slaked lime. After five hours the bath is allowed to cool 
 to 100° F.. when fermentation ensues and the indigo is dis- 
 solved in the alkali. ( Ca/vrrt.) 
 
 (0) The i'n'nc Vat is employed only in small dvc-housea 
 and in certain localities, as at Vcrviers, for the dyeing of 
 wool. The putrefying urine furnishes at once the reducing 
 agents to convert the blue into white indigo, and the am- 
 monia necessary to dissolve the latter. ( Wfrtlx'tt Diet,) 
 
 Jicgists for printing on cloth to prevent the dying of cer- 
 tain portions, aud thus |)roducc figures on a blue ground, 
 act eitiier mechanically, as wax. pipeclay, etc., or chem- 
 ically, by oxidizing the indigogen before it can penetrate 
 the fibre, as salts of copper, mercuric chloride, etc. The 
 following are receipts for difierent results (Crooks, p. 474) : 
 (1) For Deep Ulue. — Water, 4 litres; sulphate of copper, 
 1.26 kilos.: acetate of copper, 500 grms. ; nitrate of copper, 
 875 grms.; alum. 240 grms.; pipeclay, 2.125 kilos.; dex- 
 trine, 1.25 kilos. (2) For Medium Iifu>\ — Water, 4 litres; 
 sulphate of co[)per, 500 grms. ; acetate of copper, 250 grms. ; 
 nitrate of copper. 500 grms. ; alum. 2-JO grms. : pipeclay, 2 
 kilos.; dextrine. 1 kilo. (3) Jird Rrsist,go-rttUid Lapis. — 
 Red liquor (acetate of alumina), sp. gr. 1.07, 12 litres; 
 gum Senegal. 2 to 3 kilos.; pipeclay, 4 to 6 kilos.; olive 
 oil. 1 kilo.: sulphate of copper. 1 kilo.; nitrate of copper, 
 500 grms. ; sal-ammoniac, 1.5 kilos. (4) White l.apitt. No. 
 1, — Lime-juice, sp. gr. I.IOO, 5 litres ; thickened lime-juice, 
 thickened with 1.5 kilos, of gum upon 2 Hires, 1.5 litres; 
 sulphate of copper, 1 kilo. ; pipeclay. 3 kilos. No. £, — 
 Water, 2 litres; sulphate of zinc, 1 kilo.; pipeclny, 725 
 grms.; gum Senegal, 500 grms.; solution of nitrate of cop- 
 per, sp. gr. 1.52, 0.12 litre. (5) Far While UndcvniurdtnitH 
 and for lilne Cuntnurs. — Caustic soda solution, sp. gr. 1.070, 
 8 litres; arseniatc of polassa. 3.5 kilos. ; corrosive suhlimate, 
 500 grms.; pipeclay, 3 kilos.; gum Senegal, 1.5 kilos. 
 
 f)i^chnr//c Puttern»t are ])roduce<l by dyeing the cotton 
 cloth of a uniform blue in the copperas vat. and then print- 
 ing upon it the desired figures with some powerful oxidizing 
 agent, which will destroy the blue indigotine by converting 
 it into soluble jsatin. leaving the figure in white. The 
 most useful discharge is chromic acid, but as it would be 
 exhausted by the thickener before it reaehed the cloth, a 
 circuitous proces? must be resorted to in order to secure its 
 action. On the blue cloth hichromote or chromatc of pot- 
 ash is padded (see Cai.ico-I'UI.nti.vg}, and when this has 
 been dried in the dark, the figures to be discharged arc 
 printed with a mixture of acid ; oxalic, tartaric, nitric, or 
 sulphuric: a thickener, gum, dextrine, or starch: and some 
 ]>ipeclay. The chromic acid is set free and the color dis- 
 charged at once, and the goods are washed in warm water 
 to which s<»me chalk has been added to neutralize the ex- 
 cess of acid. Another plan is to print on iho blue cloth 
 chromatc of lead properly thickened, and pass through 
 warm hydrochl*»rie acid, when chromic acid and chlorine 
 are liberated, which discharge the color. Hvdrated binox- 
 ido of manganese may be substituted for ehroniate of lead. 
 The discharges can be made to include mordants, Fr> that 
 colored designs on a blue ground may be produced. Thus, 
 if acetate of alumina or of iron, or both together, bo mixed 
 with a discharge, and the alumina fixed in the washing oflT, 
 the goods may be dyed in madder or garuneino with the 
 prorluetiun of red, lilac, purple, or chocolate designs. Pome- 
 times the discharge and resist are comliined together ; for 
 instance, on a light-blue ground are printed simultaneously, 
 first, an ordinary resist ; second, the same resist, lo whieh 
 have been added hichromate of potash and hydrochloric 
 acid ; on vutling again a pattern of light blue and white 
 will be found on a deep-blue ground. liwript^. — ( i) 
 Chrome liquor: water. 2 litres; yellow cliromate of potasli, 
 500 grms. f2i Acid composition: tartaric acid, 3 kilos.; 
 oxalic aeiil. 250 grms.; dextrine, 4 kilos.; nitric neid, 500 
 grms. ; woter, 4 litres. 
 
 Printimj /'enrif fttur, for which the orpimcnt vat is used, 
 was formerly cfTeeted hy hand, but is now acconiplished 
 from rolls by the aid of the "doctor box," I»y which the 
 blue oxidized layer of color la removed and the roll works
 
 1178 
 
 INDIGO. 
 
 last in the green solution cont.aining the indigogen. carry- j 
 
 ing it at once to the cloth. lUrfipt fnr iiii Orplmnil Mijc- i 
 
 (1,,-e for Ihirk Pcnril /?/.i«-.— Inrtigo-pulp. HI gallons, con- 
 
 tiVinin" 40 pounils indigo; vcllow orpiment, 4(1 iiounds ; 
 
 soda-lov. 70° Tw.. lU g.allons ; water, 1st gall.ms: lime, I 
 
 4 pounds. Coil till vellow, when sprea.l on glass: let .set- 
 tle, and thicken the clear liquor with 120 pounds gum sonc- 
 
 gai. I l-'or further details with regard to use of indigo in : 
 
 calico-printing see works mentioned at end of this article.) 
 PiodiiclH i>f Ihc Ikcnmponitiiin of /iiidv,...— Chhuine de- 
 stroys moist indigo, as well as its sulphuric-acid com- 
 pounds, with the formation of a variety of jiroducls which 
 
 vary with tlie conditions of the treatment. Among them 
 
 have heen noticed trichlor-.aniline, trichlor-phcnol. chlor- 
 
 isatin, and ilichlor-isatin. Dilute nitric acid produces 
 
 isatin (CsHsNOj) and a hrown resin; a stronger acid 
 
 forms indimitic (nitrosalievlic) acid (C7ll3{NO.hO:)) ; very 
 
 stron" acid (sp. gr. 1.43) yields picric acid (trinitrophenol) 
 
 (CellafNO.ViO), forming at the same time carbonic, prus- 
 
 sic, and oxalic acids, and the so-called artificial indigo- 
 
 rcsin : 5 parts fuming nitric acid become so heated with 1 
 
 part indigo that the mass takes fire. Chromic acid de- 
 stroys indi"o. with the formation of isatin. Boiled with 
 
 dilute potash, indigo is but slightly attacked, but with 
 
 strong potash it is completely dccomjiosed, with the forma- 
 tion of indigogcn and isatate of potassium. KChIIcN'^s 
 
 (Gcrhardt, liev. Sr'icnI., x. 371). of ehrys.anilic acid 
 
 (Fritzsche). Fused with potassic hydrate, it yields, first, 
 
 isatic acid (CkHtXOjI : then, from this, phcnyl-carhamic 
 
 acid (CtIItNiIj); and further salicylic acid (CvHeOa), and 
 
 phenvlamine (aniline), CeHjX. 
 
 Ariifirlal AirfiV/".— The nature of the products derived 
 
 from indigo as iiist mentioned has created the imjiression 
 in the minds of'ch'-.niss that indigo will be prepared arti- 
 ficially from carbolic :icid. Recently, Emmerling and Eng- 
 Icr have actually produced indigotiue from a com|iound 
 acetone discovered in 1S57 by Friedel, which they call 
 acclophrnmic. Indigotino is isomeric with cyanide of ben- 
 zoyl, C,Il50.CN. „ . , 
 
 'TesUiici and Vahmtwn nf TntHfin.—Wnter is determined 
 hy drying a weighed sample at 212° F. in a platinum cru- 
 cible. After weighing, the whole is ignited for the per- 
 centage of ash. Starch may bo detected by boiling with 
 sliMitly alkaline water, and testing the cold filtrate with 
 iodine." Older methods for determining appro.ximately the 
 percentage of indigotine were based upou oxidation— more 
 recent methods on reduction. The following methods are 
 given in n'alti'a Did. : 
 
 (1) Willi Clilnrim; Wttter.^A. weighed quantity of the 
 finely pulverized indigo is added by small portions to a 
 measured quantity of a saturated aqueous solution of chlo- 
 rine as long as it'dissolves with yellow color, and the qnan- 
 
 titv thus dissolved is ascertained by weighing the residue. { NoOj + lc203= ^ic"-' + 
 A similar trial is then made with perfectly pure indigo-blue, , the sample of indigo i 
 
 and a comparison of the two results gives the proportion -' "" "" 
 
 of coloring-matter in the sample of commercial indigo un- 
 der examination. As the strength of the chlorine-water 
 alters very quickly, it cannot be titrated long beforehand. 
 
 ('•')' 117/// Chloride of ii'mc— The indigo is first dissolved 
 bv digestion for five or six hours at 60° or 00° with fuming 
 sulphuric acid; the solution is thoroughly mixed with dis- 
 tilled water, and poured into a gradu.ated burette, and from 
 this vessel it is added drop bv drop to a measured quantity 
 of aqueous chloride of lime, till the blue color just becomes 
 permanent. A similar experiment being then made with 
 an equal weight of pure indigo-blue, the coloring power 
 of the two samples is in the inverse ratio of the quantities 
 of the blue solution consumed in the two experiments. 
 (Schlumberger. Ilidl. Sor. Inditstr. dc MidUniiiu: vol. xv.) 
 
 ({'.) Willi' lliidnirhlnrir Arid and Chlorate of folasitiitm. 
 —1 "-rm. of finely pulverized indigo is digested for some 
 hour" with 10 grms. of fuming sulphuric oeid, agitating 
 from lime to time to assist the solution. The liquid is 
 then poured into a basin containing a kilogramme of water ; 
 ."iO grms. of strong hydrochloric acid are addcil, and the 
 liquid ia heated to the boiling-point. On the other hand, 
 0.2.') grin, of chlorate of potassium is dissolved in 100 grms. 
 of water, and the solution is poured into a graduated bu- 
 rette, and added drop by drop to the boiling indigo solution 
 till the blue ccdor changes to red-brown. The richness of the 
 sample of indigo is directly proportional to the quantity of 
 chlorate consumed. (Bolley, Ann. Ch. I'harm., Ixxv. 242.) 
 (4) tt',V/i .S'lilphiirir Arid and Arid Chromale of Potail- 
 ,,-„„,._The mo.le of proceeding is the same as that just 
 described: 10 grms. of pure indigo-blue prepared by 
 Fritzschc's method require for decoloration exactly 7J 
 parts of the acid ehromate. (Penny, Chcm. Soe. J., v. 297.) 
 All these methods are liable to the objection that it is 
 diflicult to institute an exact comparison between the dif- 
 ferent shades of color rejulting from the oxidation of the 
 
 indigo in different cases, the pure green tint thus jiroducfd 
 in solutions of pure indigo-blue giving place to a dirty 
 olive or broivnisli-green when crude indigo is used, in eon- 
 sequence of the impurities contained in it. Moreover, in 
 dissolving indigo in strimg sull>hiiric acid it is scarcely 
 possible to avoid the formation of suljilnirous acid, the 
 jiresence of which will of course raise the apparent per- 
 centage of indigo-blue in the sample. By employing thc.so 
 methods, indeed, it is common to find in a good sample of 
 indigo more than 80 per cent, of pure indigo-blue, whereas 
 the best qualities seldom contain above fiO per cent., and 
 average qualities not more than 40 to .SO per cent. 
 
 The following methods, which depend upon the reduc- 
 tion instead of the oxidation of the indigo, give more ex- 
 act results : 
 
 (5) Wilh Prolosulphale of Iron. — A weighed quantity of 
 the finely pulverized indigo is well mixed with an equal 
 weight of pure lime jireviously slaked with water. The 
 inix'ture is poured into a stopjiered bottle of known capa- 
 city, and the mortar is well rinsed with water, which is 
 adiled to (he rest. The bottle is now heated in a water- 
 bath for several hours, and a quantity i>f finely powdered 
 sulphate of iron is added ; the bottle is then filled up with 
 water; the stopper is inserted : and after the contents have 
 been well shaken, the whole is loft at rest for several hours, 
 till the indigo is reduced and the sediment has sunk to the 
 bottom. A portion of the clear liquor is then drawn ofi" 
 with a siphon, and the quantity of liquid having been ac- 
 curately measured, it is mixed with an excess of hydro- 
 chloric acid, and the precipitate, after having been oxidized 
 (by exposure to the airi, is collected on a weighed filter and 
 washed with water. Lastly, the filter with the indigo-blue 
 is dried at the heat of the water-bath and weighed : and 
 the weight of the filter having been siibtractcd from that 
 of the whole, the weight of the indigo-lilue is ascertained. 
 Suppose, for example, that the whole quiintity of liquid 
 was 200 measures, and that .'iO measures have been drawn 
 off, yielding 10 grains of indigo-blue; then the total quan- 
 tity" of indigo-blue in the sample is 40 grains. For 60 
 grains of indigo it is necessary to take from 1 pound to 2 
 pounds of water. This method, though rather tedious, 
 gives better results than any of the preceding. The quan- 
 tity of indigo-blue indicated by it is usually somewhat less 
 than the actual quantity contained in the sample. 
 
 Leuchs {Zcilschr. /.'Chcni. [2]. v. 150) converts the in- 
 digo into indigo-white by digestion with ferrous sulphate 
 ami milk of lime, mixes the clear solution, acidulated with 
 sulphuric acid, with a solution of amnionio-ferric sulphate, 
 and determines the quantity of ferrous salt thereby pro- 
 duced by means of a -[Jj normal solution of potassium ehro- 
 mate. The conversion of indigo-white into indigo-blue by 
 ferric salts takes place as shown by the equation : ("isHi!- 
 ~ -*- II..0 + CicIIioXiO,.. l.:!l grm. of 
 mixed, in a tall cylindrical, well- 
 closed vessel, with a quantity of lime and solution of fer- 
 rous .=ulphate occupying .100 cub. cent.; 100 c. c. of the 
 clear solution are tlien added to C,r<^ c. c. of a solution of 
 ammnniacal iron-alum acidulated with sniidiuric aci.l : the 
 liquid is filtered, and 100 c. c. of it titrated with the ^th 
 chrome-solution. If the hitter be added from a measuring 
 tube divided into J c. c, each division will correspond to 1 
 p. c. indigo-blue in the sample under examination. 
 
 (6) Wilh S'laininim Chlioidr.—Thc tin-solntion is titrated 
 with a solution of pure indigo-blue, ]ircparcd by dissolving 
 the substance dried at 21(i°-2M° C. (410°-44fi° F.) in ir, 
 parts of strong sulphuric acid, with the addition of pounded 
 glass to divide the indigo and facilitate Ihc solution. The 
 indigo-solution thus obtained is diluted with water till a 
 litre of it contains exactly 1 grm. of indigo-blue. The in- 
 digo to be examined is then dissolved in a similar manner, 
 and the titrated tin-solution is added to it from a burette 
 till the blue color changes through green to light yellow. 
 Iron, if present in the indigo, must first be removed by di- 
 gestion in hydrochloric acid, with addition of pounded 
 glass. (E. Mulder, Scheik. Onderz., iii. [1], 37 ; Jahretber., 
 1860, p. 613.) 
 
 (7) Wilh Zinc. — A solution of indigo in sulphuric acid 
 is diluted with water and hydrochloric aci.l. and decolor- 
 ized by zinc in an atmosphere of carbonic anhydride. A 
 measured volume of this solution is then introduced into a 
 graduated tube filled with air or oxygen gas. and the vol- 
 ume of oxygen absorbed is read olT after a few hours. A 
 similar exp'erimcnt is then made with pure indigo-blue, and 
 the value of the commercial sample is determined by ciun- 
 parison of the results. _ .... 
 
 /.i/enidii-c— In addition to the works mentioned at the 
 
 end of Camco-prixtixc, see AV,(f« upon Indiifo. by.Tolin Q. 
 
 Hayes, in the BuUelin of the Xalionul Aiiocialion of 11 ool 
 
 .V<."iM,/Vic(»ivr» (Boston, 187.3) : Lecture by Dr. Crnce Calvert. 
 
 ■ Am. ('h',ni>l. iii. 221; Handbook of Dyeinn and Cnhrn. 
 
 ; priniinq. bv W. Crooks (London. 1874). C. F. Cii.vNnLEn.
 
 INDIGO BIRD— INDIVIDUALITY. 
 
 1179 
 
 Indiffo Birdy Ctfanoapiza ctfanen, one of our most beau- 
 tiful native finches, is of u rich grceuish-blue. feeds on seeds 
 and insect?, nests in the L*. S., usually on n low bush or oa 
 tnll grass, and winters in tropical America. The bird is 
 nearly six inched loDg> and has a brief but very pleasant 
 song. 
 
 Iiulisotinc. See Indigo, by Pnop. C. F. CnANDi-ER, 
 Vu. 1).. M. I>., LL.D. 
 
 Indirect'. In music, consecutive unisons, fifths and 
 octaves, arc said to be indirect when thoy arc not aetuiilly 
 expressed in form, but still implied or involved in the pro- 
 gres?ion. 
 
 In'dium [Or. ivSiKovy "dark-bluo dyo"], a metal dis- 
 covered by means of the spectroscope in Freiberg zinc- 
 blcndc by Keich and Riehter in lS(j:i. It has since been 
 found in various zinc mineral;^ and in wolfram, also in the 
 flue-dust of the furnaces in which zinc ores are treated, as 
 well as in the zinc itself. The zinc-blende of Roxbury. 
 Conn., was found by Pruf. Cornwall to contain a con.-^iiler- 
 able proportion of indium. The Freiberg zinc contains 
 about U.OJ per cent, of indium. liiittgcr found the flue- 
 dust of the (iosler furnaces to contain about 0.1 per cent, 
 of the oxide In203. Metallic indium is obtained by dis- 
 solving the ores or metal in acid and udciing pieces of 
 metallic zinc to the solution. The indium, together with 
 some small amounts uf other metals, is thereby precipi- 
 tated in the metallic state. ^Vhcn purified the metal is 
 found to have a bluish-silvery lustre, resembling lead in its 
 softness and ductility. Its specific gravity is 7A2\. atomic 
 weight li:J.4. It tarnishes slo^vly in air. Its melting-point 
 is 170° C. (3iy° F.). Its very low fusion-point compared 
 with other metals permanent in air is a striking peculiarity. 
 It is not very volatile, and resists oxidation at tempera- 
 tures considerably above its point of fusion. The spectrum 
 consists of two blue lines. E. Wallek. 
 
 IndividuaTity [Lat. {tnliv{dnu8,"tha.t cannot be di- 
 vided"], in the ordinary sense of the word, is defined as 
 "a state of oneness *' (Arbnthnfit), or " the quality of being 
 individual; separate or distinct existence" { Wovccufer) ; 
 and the idea obtained is of a complete unit which is itself 
 indivisible without mutilation. The current idea, inasmuch 
 as it is based chiefly upon a contemplation of the higher 
 forms of life, is so distinct in this respect that it assumes 
 an axiomatic cliaracter, but, far from being thus self-evi- 
 dent, there are few questions involved in such uncertainty, 
 and concerning wliich opinions have varied so widely, as 
 respecting this very subject. Some of tlic definitions that 
 have been given are radically antagonistic. Thus, on one 
 hand. Sehultz-.Schultzonstcin, in the consideration of plants, 
 has regarded " not only the shoot, but even its single parts, 
 the internodes. with their leaves, as series of individuals 
 shooting out of each other, or intimately connected by 
 continuablc bu(l formation." On the other hand, Huxley, 
 by the study of the phenomena of increase in the lower 
 animals, was led to believe that "the inUiriilHal animal is 
 the sum of the phenomena presented by a single life; in 
 other words, it is all those animal forms which proceed 
 from a single egg, taken together." The many inter- 
 mediate views have been based upon a partial consider- 
 ation of the facts in the case, and take their shade from 
 the nature of the phenomena studied. If we attempt to 
 opply either of the definitions cited, the results will often 
 appear to be absurd in view of the conventional idea of 
 individuality. Thus, if wo accept the signification of 
 tSchultz-Schultzcnstein for the plant, for the coral animal, 
 or for the protozoon. not only will the flowers and the 
 leaves, as well as the distinct animals, be individuals, 
 but the intermediate spaces will represent indefinite indi- 
 viduals : in this case potentiality of individualism, or the 
 possible future development of a more or less perfect plant 
 or nnitnal from the space in question, is contounded with 
 actual indtvi'luality, or the positive developnient of a plant 
 or animal. Rut if we accept Huxley's definition it becomes, 
 in the lower forms of life, equally impnssildo to recognize 
 either the constituents of the individual or the complete 
 individual. Inasmuch as (he sum of the production of an 
 egg or a seed constitutes the *' individual " in tho caso of 
 |»olyps, hydroids, etc., which are capable of indefinite re- 
 proilucli<)U by budiliiig and by excised parts, the traces of 
 individuality would bo only evi4lent if the entire life-phe- 
 nomena, from the moment of exclusion from the egg to tho 
 death of the last constituent, could bo observed: in tho 
 case of plants, too, the constituents of the Individual may 
 be propngatecl lor centuries, and may he spread over the 
 ghdie — r. ;/. tho weeping willows, and the many plants 
 that are almost exclusively raised from buds or shoots — 
 and although they may be thus entirely disconnected, and 
 many of the derivative plants dead, inasmuch as thoy were 
 derivetl from the same germ, they are only parts of an in- 
 dividual. Su'd) arc tlie contrary views that have hern 
 
 entertained, and such the logical results of the opposite 
 views. At first, both views might appear equally absurd, 
 but they are really not so, and both arc worthy of serious 
 consideration. They follow naturally from different ways 
 of viewing the dift'used or limited individuality in the 
 lower forms of life, which diflfers thus widely from the 
 specific individuality in the higher and more familiar 
 forms. Nevertheless, the mind revolts from such exten- 
 sion of the idea of individuality, and a study of certain 
 phenomena, and the terms generally applied to them in 
 the higher forms of life, may furnish hints for a moro 
 satisfactory restriction of the term " individual." 
 
 In the domain of teratology, or the science which treats 
 of monsters, there is a special department of double mon- 
 sters — i". c the undoubted product of a single egg or ovum, 
 but the contents of whicli were early segregated into two 
 more or less distinct components, and both developed 
 therefrom. There is, among such monsters, every grade 
 of differentiation up to those twin organisms, such as tho 
 "Siamese Twins," which severally manifest differences of 
 habit and temperament, as well as possess a nearlv or 
 quite com])lete and independent set of organs. Xow, 
 whatever we might call the other double monsters, and 
 wherever we might be disposed to draw the line of dis- 
 tinction, the world would undoubtedly regard each of the 
 constituents of the compound organism known as the 
 "Siamese Twins" as an indivitlual man. 
 
 If we also view the female of any vertebrate animal, wo 
 shall find a greater or less number of well-developed eggs, 
 and potentially each of those is an individual, as under 
 certain exciting causes it may develop into an organism 
 similar to the parent. Nevertheless, there is room for 
 much difference of opinion as to when, exactly, the indi- 
 vidual conies into existence, for there are all grades from 
 tho formation of the egg to its maturity as a simple egg, 
 its fecundation, and the development thereafter of a foptus. 
 A similar although less obvious difiiculty as to tho precise 
 identification of the individual thus may or does j)revaii in 
 the vertebrates as in the lowest of animals and plants. It 
 may also be recalled that the body of man as well as all 
 other animals is subject to constant changes by molecular 
 action. Distinguishing, however, between potential and 
 fully-developed individuality, wc may, from tho consider- 
 ation and appreciation of tiie phenomena which would be 
 generally recognized as individuality in the higher ani- 
 mals, be furnished with a clue for its recognition in tho 
 lower. 
 
 If, now, we are prepared to admit, e. ff., the "Siamese 
 Twins" as true individuals, notwithstanding their union 
 and their origin from a single ovum, we must be prepared 
 to apply the same principles to other forms, and designate 
 as individuals forms which resemble and arc homologous 
 with others possessing all the elements of individuality. 
 Thus, in the case of tho couiuion "sea-flowers" or ** sea- 
 anemones " ( Actiniida*, etc.) wc have undoubted individual- 
 ity exhibited in the single product of each egg, and which 
 does not increase by budding. Rut in the case of tho 
 colony of coral animals wc have a number of similar forms 
 connected together and constituting a trcc-liUe combina- 
 tion. Inasmuch as there is in all except their union an 
 exact homology between tho Actiuiidx' and each of the coral 
 animals, we arc therefore compelled to recognize each ci>n- 
 stitucut of the colony as an individual. In like manner 
 are we obliged to recognize the individuality of tho several 
 constituents of the colony among acalephs, but in the caso 
 of many of these there is every gradatimj between a 
 specialized individual and a mere permanent bud. On the 
 whole, however, the recognition of individuality for the 
 several components in these instances is attended with less 
 cniliarrassnient than an extreme course either way. Indi- 
 viduality, it must, however, be remembered, is much less 
 defined In these budding and composite types than in tho 
 nionogenotic-egged animals. 
 
 Still less is individuality developed in tho vegetal king- 
 d<un. In plants generally, the elements of generation and 
 repntduction (flowers, etc.) are developed periodically, and 
 apparently as secondary products of tho seed. Tho 
 " flowers " and " fruit," e, g., are simply tho outgrowth of 
 the '• plant ;" in composite animals, on the other hand, tlio 
 *• zoiJids " are the prominent objects, and are simply con- 
 nected by a continuous basis. Nevertheless, the term '" in- 
 dividual " is better applicable to tho organisms which arc 
 destined io continue tho species, and which perform the 
 samo rule in the vegetal kingdom as do tho sexes in tho 
 animal kingdom, than ( 1 ) to the undifferentiated as well as 
 dificrentiated part of the plant, or than (2) to the sum of 
 the products (which maybe scattered throughout the world) 
 from a single seed. It will bo, however, in any case, im- 
 possible to always discriminate exactly the individual, for 
 the adage " Natura wu\\ facit saltum " is as applicable in 
 lliis case as in others. Rut by recalling the phenomena
 
 1180 
 
 INDIVISIBLES— INDO-CHINA, FARTHER INDIA, ETC. 
 
 connected with reproduction in the several departments of 
 nature, and attending to the distinction between putential 
 and actual individuality, there will be few coses where 
 serious doubt will practieally exist. 
 
 Although the npi)Iication of the term " individual" to 
 eatrh more or less jierfect expression or simulacrum of the 
 reproduelivc organism seems thus to bo most ad\ isable, 
 it is important to distinguish the difference in the physi- 
 ological as well as morphological value of the individuals. 
 Thus, the specialized single product of an egg is the per- 
 fect *'2oo7i" or animal, while (he separate constituents of a 
 colony derived from a single egg are called by jiuxicy 
 '^z-ioii/n," or auimal-like organisms. 
 
 The principal differences in the inter-relations of indi- 
 viduals among various nnimals are the following: 
 
 I. The simple product of an egg incapable o\' multipli- 
 cation by budding or fission, i, «■. typical animals. 
 
 a. The sexes differentiated in distinct individuals: ver- 
 tebrates generally, most articulates, majority of mollusks, 
 many radiates, cte. 
 
 b. The sexes united in the same individual : a few fishes, 
 many worms, many mollusks, many radiates, etc. 
 
 II. The compound product of an egg capable of multi- 
 plication by budding or fission, giving rise to new indi- 
 viduals or " zociids.'' 
 
 a. The zooids undergo little change, the egg-bearing 
 form being an ordinary individual. Example, Hydra. 
 
 h. The zoiiids undergo great change, the egg-bearing 
 form being a specialized individual. Example, most 
 acalephs. 
 
 Thus the individual, as one separate animal, is very def- 
 inite in the higher types and quite indefinite in the lower. 
 In the Coelenterates, etc. the jihenomena of individuality 
 may be best considered in connection with their reproduc- 
 tion. (See Repkodlxtion.) Theodore Gill. 
 
 Indivis'ibles. In the mediaeval geometry the victhoff of 
 itulirhib/ci was essentially the same as the modern method 
 of infinitesimals. It proceeds on the supposition that lines 
 arc made up of an infinite number of ioHnitcsimal points, 
 that surfaces are made up of an infinite number of lines, and 
 that volumes are maile up of an infinite number of surfaces. 
 The method of indivisibles holds the same relation to tho 
 infinitesimal calculus, as devised by Leibnitz, that the an- 
 cient method of exhaustions does to tho method of limits, 
 as employed by Newton, As an example of tho method 
 of indivisibles, lot it be required to deduce an e.^pression 
 for tlie volume of a right eone with a circular base. De- 
 note tho area of the base by A, the altitude of tho cone by 
 /(. and let h be divided into an infinite number of equal 
 parts; through each point of division supjiose a piano to 
 be passed, cutting out a section parallel to the base, and 
 denote the distance of any such section from the vertex by 
 h'. Then, if we denote the area of this section by a, we 
 shall have, from the principles of elementary geometry, 
 
 a: A: : h'^ : 7i^, or a = ^^X h'^. 
 
 From the nature of indivisibles wo shall have tho volume 
 of the cone equal to the sum of all the sections from tho 
 
 vortex to tho base; that is, the volume will be equal to '-- 
 
 multiplied by the sum of tho squares of all the values of /(' 
 from tho vertex to the base. If we take one of (he equal 
 divisions of the altitude as a unit, and call it 1, the differ- 
 ent values of A' will be the series of natural numbers from 
 (I to h; but the limit of the sum of the squares of the na- 
 tural numbers from to A, when h approaches co, is equal 
 
 A3 A A3 
 
 to - ; hence, the required volume is equal to -X ' or to 
 
 A - ; that is, the volume is equal to the base multiplied 
 
 by one-third of the altitude. This result agrees with the 
 ■well-known expression for tho volume of a right eone with 
 a circular base. W, G. Peck. 
 
 In'do-Chi'na, Farther India^ and India-be- | 
 yond-the-(>an§;es are the names given to that portion 
 
 of the south-eastern peninsula of Asia which is bounded 
 on tho N. by Thibet and China, on tho W. by the Gulf of 
 Tonquin and the China Sea. S. and S. W. by the China j 
 Sea, the Strait of Malacca, the Gulf of Martaban, and \ 
 the Bay of Bengal, and on the N. \\\ by Hindustan. Its ' 
 area is about S50,0()0 square miles, and tho population is j 
 estimated at 2J.000.0un. The adjacent islands of Andaman, 
 .Mergui, Nicobar. and Prince of Wales belong to the Indo- 
 Chinese peninsula. 
 
 PhtfDical Friiturrx. — A bold, picturesque chain of moun- 
 tains runs through the country in a continuous and unbro- 
 ken ridge parallel with the coast, increasing in altitude as 
 it approaches the city of Hue. the cnjiital of Cochin-China. 
 The northern jtrovince of Tonquin consists of a vast j)lain 
 
 watered by the Songkha Kivor. Cochin-China proper 
 stretches along the coast, and exhibits every diversity of 
 scenery between 11° and 18° N. lat. The ^Meikhoug. or 
 Cambodia, which is tho largest river of the Indo-Chiucso 
 peninsula, takes its rise in Yun-nan on the frontiers of 
 S'efan, where it is called Lan-Tsang: towards the S. it is 
 renamed Kew-Iung-Keang, or Nino Dragon River. Tho 
 volume of water which it receives from the stupendous 
 mountains through which it forces its way renders it a 
 ' mighty stream. It not only traverses tho kingdoms of 
 I Laos and Cambodia, but after a course of more ;han l.')00 
 I miles separates into several distinct branches before empty- 
 I ing itself into the China Sea. Cochin-China, from its 
 I many navigable rivers, its central position, and its numer- 
 ous excellent harbors, possesses extraordin:iry advantages 
 for commerce. The Bay of Turon, situated in lat. 10° 7' 
 N.. is equalled by few in the Eastern World for its beauty 
 of scenery; and for the security and convenience which it 
 affords to shipping it can he surpassed by none in tho 
 world. The chief town is Hue. or " the head." situated on 
 a river navigable for sliips of moderate buidcn. It is for- 
 tified, and all its arrangoincDts are carried on in a style in 
 which both magnitude and neatness are observed, showing 
 a bold and warlike people. The other important towns are 
 Cachoa in Tonquin, Saigon in Cambodia Ta mercantilo 
 town of some importance, situatcil on a branch of the Sai- 
 gon River), Faifi. now in ruins, and Turon. once the chief 
 mart of trade between China and Japan. Udong, tho 
 present capital of Cambodia, is situated N. E. of Kom- 
 put, one of its ports, and about 4^ miles from that 
 arm of the j\Icikhong wliich forms the great lake Tala- 
 Sarp, lying KJ5 miles from Koraput. A marshy plain 
 covered with a dense but magnificent forest stretches in an 
 nnlirokcn lino almost to the very gates of the city of 
 Udong. The Songkha. or "great river" of Tonquin, has 
 a course of nearly 400 miles, while Hue. the river of Cochin- 
 China proper, flows through a cultivated country and 
 abounds in the finest scenery aflorded by any of tlie rivers 
 of Asi.i. The changes of climate in these regions are sud- 
 den. Heavy rains tall during the summer, which produce 
 a general inundation at the end of October, after which 
 the climate is pleasant for about three months and best 
 fitted for European travel. Biitish Burmah or Arraean, 
 I Pegu, Martaban, and Tenasserim. including all the AV. or 
 frontier lands, with their rivers and ports, are permanent 
 portions of British territory and under tho direct control 
 of British authorities. Tho kingdom of Slam lies in tho 
 middle, extends to tho Gulf of Siam. and comprises some 
 portions of tho Malayan peninsula. To the E. and N. E. 
 of tho frontier of British Burmah and around some portion 
 of the iSalwcen River arc found several tribes of Karens, 
 more properly Khtiricns, some of which acknowledge Brit- 
 ish, some Siamese, and others Burmese suzerainty, while 
 there are other tribes which are not only really but nomi- 
 nally independent, and arc said to be as wild as the moun- 
 tains they Mihabit. Passing over the Salween valley, and 
 approaching tho northern portions of Cambodia, there are 
 found the Shan states, tributary to Burmah, and acknow- 
 ledging their vassalage in the inverse ratio of their distance 
 from the Burmese capital. To the W. of these Shan states 
 are other tribes whose comparative ])roximity to the Irra- 
 waddeo makes them more substantially submissive to the 
 Burmese government : and. strange to say, in crossing the 
 Mcikhong River other Shan states are met with which 
 are tributary to China. But within the boundary of tho 
 Siamese territory, near the western frontiers of Anam, tho 
 southern limits of China proper, and the eastern boundaries 
 of tho Burman emjdre, are all occupied by Shan states 
 whose allegiance to any of these four powers seems to bo 
 very ill defined. Tlio Kakhyans arc a portion of the vast 
 horde of Singphoos which inhabits the mountains N. of 
 Assam. They have succeeded in ousting many of the Shan 
 tribes, particularly the l*aloungs, from the hill-districts. 
 The commercial state of the Kakhyans, which is the name 
 given to the Singphoos by the Burmese, is in some re- 
 spects very remarkable. They grow cotton in part of tho 
 country, out of wliich they manufacture a strong fabric for 
 exjiort and for their own consumption, which is of such 
 excellent quality that Manchester could not attempt to 
 compete with it in cheajtness and durability, owing, no 
 doubt, to the nominal value of labor among them. Tho 
 Kakhyans constantly levy black-mail even to within 6 
 miles of Bamho, the seat of a Burman governor of tho rank 
 of wongyee. Everywhere they inspire the people with such 
 terror that no Burmese or Siamese will travel alone in their 
 vicinity. The general population of Northern Burmah is 
 Shan; there are also several other tribes along the upper 
 defile, such as the Pawons, Katha, Khadoos, etc. AM these 
 tribes are Booddhists, bearing a good character for quiet, 
 orderly conduct, with some enterprise in trade and agri- 
 culture. The mineral products arc yet undeveloped ; the
 
 IXDO-CIIIXA, FARTHER INDIA, ETC. 
 
 1181 
 
 lead and silver of Burmah, however, are found in the Shan 
 Blati'S. The Shans are a fine, athletic, larjije-boned race, 
 with hing hair, which ihuy twist into a knot licliind, after 
 the fai<hinn <A' the Uuriufse; their dress i^ simply a coarse 
 bag. with holes cut in it for the head and arms. Their 
 language is a dialect between that of the Burmese and the 
 Laotians. The hitter call them Khonpah, " wild forest- 
 mrn." The Mai Longec teak-forests are fnuud in this 
 region; (hey have three large streams running through 
 them, the Salueng, tlie Ma Home, and Ma N'oi. These 
 large streams are supplied by numerous small ones which 
 the pt'ople call hueiH. Through those lesser streams most 
 of the teak-tiraber is floated into the hirgcr streams, by 
 which it is carried for sale into the Miiulmein River. Many 
 thousands of logs are thus floated annually into the great 
 markets of Buruiah, Maulmein. and Siam from the famous 
 Mai Longce forests. These forests, which pro<luce unfail- 
 ing supplies of the finest teak-wood in the world, are owned 
 by a few hereditary princes of Chiengmai. The Laos iron- 
 works are next in importance. Ban Boor, the home of 
 iron, is a Laotian mining-town. The iron-works arc about 
 two days' journey from tlie town ; the reason the miners 
 live so fur from their work is that the grounil in the locality 
 of the mines is sterile, and they believe the jihicc to bo in- 
 fested with evil spirits. Tbey always offer fowls and a 
 variety of other offerings to the place before they commence 
 operations, from a superstition that if they did not do so 
 they would be afilicted with some dreadful mahi'ly. The 
 iron is very abundant here ; it is smelted at tlio mines, an<i 
 conveyed to the town by means of elephants. The process 
 of working the iron is very simple, the heaviest of the work 
 being ilone by tlie women. The young men are the miners, 
 the elderly men arc the blacksmitlis. the young women use 
 the sle'lgc-hammers, and the old women and children are 
 the bellows-blowers. Taking the slender means they have 
 for working iron into consideration, it is surprising to sec 
 the variety of tools they make. Chiengmai is the capital 
 of the Laos. The surrounding scenery is very beautiful. 
 To the westwaril, about 3 miles from the capital, are the 
 Doic .Sua Tape Hills, about snO to 1000 feet high. Tho 
 female popul.ation of Chiengmai are a hard-working, in- 
 dustrious people. They are all weavers and spinners. 
 The whole process of spinning, weaving, and dyeing the 
 cotton and silk is performed by tho Laos women. They 
 make silk saroangs of a strong, duraldc. and excellent 
 texture. They arc dyed after the fashion of tho Scotch 
 tartan, only of a broader pattern. The woollen patooarps 
 are also made by them, many of which are ex])ortcd. The 
 whole of tlie market business is carried on by women. Tho 
 market-girls come from the suburbs of Chiengmai, bringing 
 with them vegetables, fruit, flowers, eggs, preserves, anil 
 fowls for sale, or for exchange for salt and salt fish, which 
 arc very dear here. Tho Laos are a hardy, industrious. 
 and peaceable people, having a wholesome sense of what 
 is right and just. The laws are severe; tlioft is invariably 
 punished hy death, drunkenness by imprisonment. Tho 
 persons of the females are held sacred. The Laos form of 
 niarringo is in most cases performed and recorded hy tho 
 Mrti'. or magistrate : a divorce may be obtained where tho 
 parlies arc not comfortably suiteil to eaeh other ; morality 
 IS nowhere better observed. Tho Laos are a decidedly 
 musical people, and certainly ono of the most interesting 
 of the Imlo-Chincso race?. 
 
 French or Lower Cochin-China lies in tho southern ex- 
 tromity of tho enstcrn portion of the rndo-Cliinese penin- 
 sula, lilt. 'J^ 5'-10'' N., Ion. 10J='-I(I7*' E. This vast terri- 
 tory has been gradually aciiuired by tho French after tho 
 dreadful war sai<l to be provoked by the continuous perse- 
 cution of tho Christians by the king of Anani, who is sup- 
 posfil lo have secretly instigated the cruel murder of cer- 
 tain French and Spanish missionaries in his kingdom. At : 
 tho conelusion of this war, whleb very greatly increased I 
 the military presligfi of the French army in Cochin-China, : 
 three rich provinces, called Ban-IIoa, Meitho, and Saigon, \ 
 with the islands of Puloh, Candour, and a few others off ' 
 the coast, oamo into the French possession (IStU). In 1867 
 new hostilities led to fresh annexations of three provinces, j 
 A new treaty was formed ceding Vinchalong, Chandour, 
 and Ihiytieng, thus yieMing lo the colony of Coehin-Chino 
 Franfiiise an area of 21.000 sfjuarc miles, and a population 
 in LS7U-72 of I.20l,-S7. Aceoniing to the established sys- 
 tem of the Indo-Chinese govcrnnn'iits, every male belongs 
 to the king, and must either enlist in his unny, or work 
 one-third, if not one-half, of the year for the sovereign 
 without any pay. In urging (m the vigorous measures 
 which led to tho French ami Cochin Chinese wars Napo- 
 leon III. seems to iiavc been inspired with the tradition 
 that Franco had prior elaims to be adjusted, ami far greiiter 
 wrongs to bo redressed, than even those which ostensibly 
 led the French and Spanish governments to resolve on war. 
 Cambodia was formerly a large, powerful, and indcpcDdcnt 
 
 nation, and its kings were often at war with Anam and 
 Siam. On some occasions the Cambodians were victorious, 
 and succeeded in subjugating tho provinces, at other times 
 the Anamitcs or the Siamese had tho advantage. During 
 the reign of His Siamese Majesty P'hra-Chow-Maha-Cha- 
 krapi\t. who rcignctl in the old capital of Ayodhya in the 
 year 16-10 (.v. n.), the Siamese, being at war with Pegu, 
 were laid siege to hy the Cambodians. Having subdued 
 the Peguans, the king of Siam pursued the Cambodians, 
 marched to the very capital of Cambodia, and besieged it, 
 cutting off all supplies, until the king of Cambodia ac- 
 knowledged himself vanquished, and offered to become 
 tributary to Siam ; on which the king of Siam returned to 
 Ayodhya. taking with him as hostages the two sons of tho 
 king of Cambodia, the elder of whom was appointed gov- 
 ernor of the Siamese province of Savankalok. On the 
 death of the king of Cambodia the king of Siam was about 
 to ai)point as his successor the governor of Savankalok, 
 when he learned that a relative of the deceased king, as- 
 sisted by the Cochin-Chinese, had resolved to throw off his 
 allegiance to the monarch of Siam. The latter sent a large 
 army against the insurgents, but the Siamese were defeated 
 and Camboilia became a province of Cocliin-China. Fi- 
 nally, the king of Siam. having once more repelled the in- 
 vasion of the Peguans and Burmese, marched to Cambodia, 
 captured the capital, put tho king to death, and appointed 
 king in his stead one of the princes, P'hra-Narai-Raina, 
 who was friendly to Siam. From that time fur the space 
 of 300 years the kings of Siam have held the right to es- 
 tablish the rulers of Cambodia and to the payment of an 
 annual tribute. In 17S7. Ghialong, the king of Anam, de- 
 sirous of securing his throne against the joint armies of 
 Cambodia and Siam, entered into the famous treaty with 
 Louis XIV. of France, by which he agreed, in return for 
 French ai<l. to cede to his allies the beautiful town and 
 harbor of Turon Kwang Han and two atljacent islands. 
 The vigorous help afforded by France proved effective not 
 only in establishing (Ihialong on the throne, hut in adding 
 to his dominions the rich provinces of Tonquln and Cam- 
 bodia. But the promises made in the treaty to Franco 
 were never fulfille<l. with the exception that the French 
 Christian missionaries enjoyed perfect civil and religious 
 freedom. After the death of Ghialong. and during the 
 reigns of the three successive emperors who followed him, 
 Cochin-China was once more ])lmiged into a series of wars, 
 which led to the persecution of French Catholic mission- 
 aries, and which continued uff and on for several years, 
 until the establishment of Lower or French Cochin-China, 
 when the kingdom of Cambodia was onec more declared 
 independent of Siam. Tho ruler of this kingdom, in real- 
 ity only a viceroy aj)]iointed by the king of Siam, was 
 crowned king in tlie jtresencc of the French and Siamese 
 representatives, at his capital of Udong. under the title of 
 P'lira-Xarodom. etc.. in June, IStVl. P'hra-Xarodom has 
 lately ceded to the French authorities the right of forming 
 a settlement on tlie banks of the Meikhong Kiver at the 
 junction where its four arms divide before falling into tho 
 China Sea, said to bo one of the most delightful sites in 
 the entire kingdom. Ever since the instalment of P'hra- 
 Narodom under the French jtrotectorate nothing has been 
 left undone to secure the good-will of the natives. Tho 
 laws and customs of the ancient regime are resjiectcd, and 
 even upheld: tlic natural municipalities are carefully pre- 
 served; the laud-tax, which has always been obnoxiuus to 
 the cultivator of the suil, has been lowered : and, above all, 
 tho proportion of able-bodied men annually required for 
 mililary and police service has been considerably lessened. 
 In ISnt) a new law was issued regulating civil ofliccs. The 
 resources of the country, however, are as yet but poorly 
 developed, although rice of a very fine quality is produced 
 in great abundance; cotton, sugar, indigo, silk, and to- 
 bacco are also successfully cultivated, but not with their 
 utmost possible results. The dwarf mulberry grows freely ; 
 silkworms are raised with great facility, even with the poor 
 attention given to this branch of industry; hemp, the betel, 
 and the areca-nut are also abundant. The natives j)artic- 
 ularly excel in naval architecture, owing no doubt to tlio 
 magnificent size and qualify of tho timber employcii for 
 that purpose; their row-galleys and i>leasure-bargrs are 
 often from ;'»0 to 80 feet in length, composed of fine single 
 planks, each extending from one extremity to the other. 
 They empli>y various descriptions of vessels in their coast- 
 ing-trade, in fishing, and in eidleeting the hvthr-de-mfr, or 
 Kea-slug. and the swallows' nests among the cluster of islands 
 ealh'il the Paracels. Their tracling vessels are built on tho 
 plan of the Chinese junks. The religion of the most part 
 of the inliabitanis of (lie Indo('bines<> jieninsula is a niod- 
 itioatittn of the system of Booddha. A yearly contrihution 
 is levied by the government for tho sujiport of a certain 
 number of temples, priests, and monasteries, in which tho 
 priests invoke tho deity for the public welfare. Voluntary
 
 1182 
 
 INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES— INDRA. 
 
 contributions of the people for the support of the priests 
 are very groat, as they are extremely superstitious. 
 
 Iiulu- Cliiiiii'- Rncrs and L<iii;iitiiiieii. — The chief character- 
 istics of the various races inhabiting llic Indo-Chinese pcn- 
 insuhi arc mainly two: (1) Ihey arc move or less of Mon- 
 golian type: (2) they speak languages classed as monosyl- 
 labic. These races are now divided into seven groups: 
 The ThiheHyan and liholyali, who inhabit Thibet proper 
 N. of the Himalaya Mountains, comprise the first group. 
 Tlic most important of the races under this head arc Hhors, 
 Dliciplilas, Lepchas, Bhutans, Kharatis, Semboos, Nawars, 
 with many others. The second group comprises the liur- 
 mcsc and'the Lohyla races, now in possession of the west- 
 ern ]iortion of the Indo-Chinese peninsula. A number of 
 wild tribes, commonly called Lohyta, arc offshoots of these 
 respective races. The third group is the numerous Nagha 
 tribes, or serpent-worshippers. They style themselves 
 Kli:iwphcc, and nre founil scattered all along the regions 
 W. iif the river Kho])hccli. The remaining tribes worthy 
 of mention are the Khycngs, who inhabit the Yoomahdong 
 Mountains, which separate Assam from the beautiful valley 
 of the Irrawaddcc: the Kharicns, a wild but remarkable 
 hill-tribe, who occupy the mountains of Pegu and the 
 southern part of Burinah (the more civilized Kbaricns arc 
 found scattered in the valleys of the Irrawaddeo and the 
 Salween) : the Sabaing, who occupy the valley of the Sitta- 
 wong, may be classed with this group. All the various 
 tribes which are found among the mountain-regions and 
 river-valleys of this province arc probably the aborigines 
 of the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Another ancient and abo- 
 riginal tribe inhabiting the delta of the Irrawaddee is the 
 Mongs, called Talaengs by the Burmese. The Khamains, 
 or inhabitants of Cambodia; Shans, called Penonis by the 
 Cambodians, Kho by the Siamese, and Moio by the Anam- 
 ites — all these names simply mean savages. The whole 
 chain of mountains which extends from the N. of Tonqnin 
 to the S. of Cochin-China is inhabited by wild primitive 
 tribes speaking many different dialects. The savage Stiens 
 also inhabit these mountain-regions. The Siamese, or 
 rather the Thais ("free men"), arc one of the most im- 
 portant of these Indo-Chinese nations. (See SiAM.) The 
 Laos inhabit the interior; they are classed under two 
 heads — Laou poouk khoa, "white" or "not tattooed" 
 Laos, and the Laou poouk dun, " tattooed Laos." 
 
 The Indo-Chinese langu.agcs are of monosyllabic charac- 
 ter. On the primitive language of the Anamitcs was grafted 
 the Chinese. Booddhism had specially selected the ver- 
 naculars of the day as the vehicle for its teaching; thus, all 
 over Tndo-China are found in use a stratum of words having 
 no affinity with their languages, but which have been in- 
 troduced by the early Booddhist missionaries. All the 
 Indo-Chinese languages are distinguished by certain rising 
 ;md falling accents, and a great number of words when thus 
 moiliiicd cx]iress entirely different meanings. There are 
 eight of these accentuations, properly speaking— the soft, 
 the abrupt, the grave, the sharp, the circumllex, the broad, 
 the rising, and the falling; only five are used in common. 
 Without some knowledge of the musical inflections and 
 modilications of sound it is impossible to understand any 
 of the Imlo-Chincse languages. All the other languages 
 of this group were originally dialects. In this sense the 
 Cambodian, Siamese, and Burmese represent the most 
 wiilely diffused form of the Indo-Chinese languages. But 
 there" is a marked dilTcrenee between the speech of the 
 Siamese, the Cambodians, and the Burmese. The Burmese 
 alphabet employs a grc:it number of double and tripb' con- 
 sonants; the f/i sound is used with a marked guttural bre:itb- 
 ing, which the Siamese and Cambodians render into «/>. In 
 all these dialects not oidy the words, but the vowels them- 
 selves, arc so complicated liy virtue of a system of tones, 
 like those of music, that a single vowel has several dis- 
 tinct methods of utterance, and unless the word be pro- 
 nouncerl correctly, not only as to sound but to tone, the 
 meaning is entirely changed. The alphabets of the Bur- 
 mese and Siamese are very different in character. The 
 Burmese use a round character supposed to be derived 
 from Ceylon. The Siamese use a very handsome upright 
 character, borrowed from the ancient Cambodians, which 
 is still iiscd for their saered books, and sometimes called 
 Maghadhi and at others Pali. I'ali means simply writing, 
 not language. The Laos, in the N. of Siam. speak a dialect 
 peculiar to themselves, but with many Siamese and Cam- 
 bodian affixes, and the alphabet is like that of the Burmese. 
 (See Asinlir Joimiul; Slum and Cmlnn-Chtnii, by John 
 Crawfurd; Trnrela in Indo-Chlna, by M. H. Mouhot ; and 
 Tiniiih in the Kiiiijdom of Chicnymni. by Lieut. S. 11. I'oole.) 
 JIiis. A. II. Leoxowess. 
 Indo-Gcrmanic LanguaKcs. See Laxgu.ige, by 
 Pniu-. W. D. WiiiTNMV. I'll. 1)., LL.I). 
 
 Iiitlo'rei a subsidiary or protected state of Hindustan, 
 belon-iug to the family of Holkar, and consisting of sev- 
 
 eral almost insulated territories situated on the slope of the 
 Vindhya Mountains along the river Nevbudda. Area, 42.')0 
 square miles. Pop. SI;;. 01 J. The inhabitants belong mostly 
 to the aboriginal tribe of the Bheels, one of the wildest and 
 most savage of India. Cap. Indore, situated in lat. 22° 42' 
 N. and Ion. 75° 5U' E., with l.i.DOO inhabitants. 
 
 Indorsement. See Bill oi- Excu.tNGi:, by Piior. T. 
 W. DwiciiT, l.L.D. 
 
 lu'dra. The ancient Hindus, in the Vedic period of 
 their religion, did not worship the Indian Triad or heroes, 
 but deified and worshipped the sky, the sun, the dawn, fire, 
 lightning, wiml, and other elements. Indra was the chief 
 of the deities then worshipped. His name is from the .San- 
 skrit root id, to "sec, discover, or discern." Indra denoted 
 the sky, which, from overhanging the world, was supposed 
 to discern all. It also ajipears from the name given to the 
 sapphire, Indra-iiila, or " ludra-blue," and from other con- 
 siderations, that it was on account of the blue color of the 
 sky that the stone received the name of the Hindu deity. 
 The primitive Aryans of India believed that it was the sky 
 which caused rain, and they therefore regarded Indra, or 
 the sky. as the chief of the gods. From all that we find 
 narrated about Indra, it is evident that his causing rain 
 was regarded by Hindus as the most important evidence 
 of his divine power. M'atcr means wealth in the East, and 
 Indr.a's compelling the fleeting clouds to pause over the 
 riee-cl.ad country, and drop their precious burdens on the 
 earth, was esteemed as the ehiefest of his godlike exploits. 
 In offering him praise as the author of rain, Hindus fancied 
 that the cloud which failed to bring rain was an osiira, OJ 
 demon. Sueli a cloud was ])articuhirly a rrifra (from vri, 
 to " hide or envelop "), because it spread over the face of 
 the heaven and tried to obscure the face of the sun. Hin- 
 dus pictured Indra's undertaking to cause rain as his going 
 forth to do battle with this evil vritro: and they represented 
 rain to be caused by his cleaving the demon-cloud with his 
 i-a;Vo, or thunderbolt, and thereby slaying the nsiirn. With 
 reference to this feat, numberless songs were composed in 
 praise of the sky-god ; and inasmuch as Indra was com- 
 pletely victorious in every one of his contests with the 
 cloud-demons, he gradually came to be regarded generally 
 as the giver of victory, and in particular as the god who 
 enabled the .\ryan invaders of India to conquer the abo- 
 rigines; and sohis worship rapidly became more and more 
 popular. In the epic and Puranie periods of the Hindu 
 religion, Indra enjoyed great legendary fame, but he grad- 
 ually lust his place in the Indian Pantheon as the chief of 
 the gods. In Vedic times, however, he was supreme, or 
 only shared his throne with ^.^iii' (fire), Siii;/u (the sun), 
 the Miiniix (winds), and f'sAiis (the dawnb The hymns in 
 praise of Indra arc amongst the most spirited and beautiful 
 in the Jlii)- Vrda. It is impossible to introduce lengthy ex- 
 tr.acts into this place, but one famous one may be given. In 
 the .12d Sakta of the 1st Maudala of the Ulij-Veda it is 
 written as follows : 
 
 1. I declare the former valorous deeds ofludni— deeds which the 
 
 tbunderer has achieved. He cast the waters down to earth ; 
 he broke a way for the torrents of the mountains. 
 
 2. He clove the torrent which sought refuse on the mountain. 
 
 Tr.islilru ilbe smith) sharpened for bim his far-whirling 
 thunderbolt; the fullowinK waters quickly hasteucd to the 
 ocean, like cows hasleuiug to their calves. 
 
 « « » * 
 
 3. Inasmuch, Indra, as thou hast divided the first-born of the 
 
 elouds, thou bast deslroved the delusions of the delnders, 
 and then causing the siin, the dawn, the sky, to api)Car, 
 thou hast not left an enemy to oppose thee. . , ., 
 
 4 With his vast and destructive thunderbolt Tudra struck the 
 
 dark, mutilated Vrilni. As the trunks of trees are felled by 
 the axe, so lies Ahi prostrate on the earlh. 
 
 * * • * 
 
 5 The mother of Vriira was bending over her son, when Indra 
 
 struck her back with his bolt. So they lay, the iii..llier 
 above, the son below; and Danu slept with her son, like a 
 cow witli its calf 
 
 . « • • 
 
 6 Then Indra, the wielder of the thunderbolt, became the sov- 
 
 erci-.;ii of all that is movable and iiuuiovable, of bunied and 
 of bornless cattle ; and as be abides the monarch of men, he 
 comprehended all things within him, as the circumlerence 
 comprehends the spokes of the wheel. 
 As the sky. though changeable, constantly reverts to its 
 perfection of cloudless beauty, so Indra was celebrated as 
 the " ever-youthful " and " the unfading." As he was sup- 
 poscil cspe"ciallv to protect the Aryans, he was praised as 
 •' the discoinfiteV of those who neglect religious rites ' and 
 "b.rd of the devout." But as time went by the worship- 
 pers of Indra gradually regarded him us more a god of 
 war than anything else: and so, by a natural transition, 
 they passed on to anthropomorphize their deity, and im- 
 agined him at length to be a brave, imperious, impetuous 
 monarch. In i\\e Ailnrnin-lin'ihmiimt (an anciellt_ ex- 
 planatory eommeularv on' the .1/.i.i(r<i» of the ICuj Vrda) 
 Indra is'reg.arded as the ruler of the inferior gods, and the
 
 INDKE -IXDL'CTIOX AND ABSTKACTION. 
 
 urn 
 
 personification of all that n mortal king should be. Indra 
 afterwards bccamu luss an object of wor^^hip than of ad- 
 miration, and in the epic and Puranic period of Hindu 
 literature ho was made a favorite subject lor the ehibornte 
 and extravagant eulogies of poets. The>e gradually in- 
 vcsNd him with a peculiar splendor, whirh again attracted 
 to the gud the langui.ihiiig attention of Uiuduslan, and re- 
 vived his ciiltitH. He was now represented as enthroned in 
 the east as one of the eight guardians of the world. He 
 divflt in an ineflably luxurious paradij^c. Sirtirifii, the hoaven 
 of the inferior divinities, and the final blissful goal of all 
 pious mortal.'^ who had attained sanctity hy a life spent on 
 earth devoted to the due performance of religious duties. 
 It was hero that Iho Gundhnrvaa gang in chorus songs 
 sweeter tlian any ever heard by man ; and it was here that 
 the lovely dancing-girls, the A}}9<ttusn», displayed those 
 blushing charms which tlie austerest of mortal hermits 
 could scarcely resist. Here, too, rose the turrets of the 
 most glorious of cities. Am&ravitti ; and here spread that 
 most exquisite of gardens, Xmnfannf with its five all-yield- 
 ing trees. Surrounded by all this happiness and beauty, 
 Indra still sent the sweet rain upon the earth, and struck 
 the cloud-demons who refused to obey his behests with his 
 unerring vajni. We now find him being represented in 
 paintings and sculptures. He possesses innumerable eyes.. 
 as the sky-god who discerns all. These eyes are repre- 
 sented as thickly covering his body. He has four arms, 
 perhaps typical of the four quarters of the sky. In one 
 famous painting he is represented as riding on an elephant 
 with three trunks. In another he is depicted as standing 
 on an elephant, whilst a tree grows out of his head and 
 peacocks nestle in its branches. The eyes in the tails of 
 the peacocks may n-prcscnt the stars of the firmament. 
 Indra figures in four Interesting drawings in Moor's //i'ik/h 
 Pantheon. Sculptures of the god are to be found in the 
 caves of Elephanta and Ellura. The characteristics and 
 attributes ascribed to Indra in Indian mythology are capi- 
 tally reproduced by Sir W. Junes in his famous hymn to 
 the god, who is represented as 
 
 "Mounted on the sun's brl^lit beam, 
 Darter of the swilt blue bolt. 
 Sprinkler of gonial dews and fruitful rains 
 O'er hills and tbirsly plains.'* 
 The following lines may also be quoted, as they vividly 
 bring before the reader the god himself, his appearance, bis 
 "robes of changing dyes" (perhaps the variable clouds), 
 and the deities which act as his servants. The story to 
 which the lines arc a sequel is this: Indra on one occasion 
 assumed the form of a shepherd-lad, that he might steal 
 some pomegranate-flowers from a garden ** to detrk the dark 
 tresses of his charming consort, ludrani.'' Whereupon, 
 "The reckless peasant, who these glowinc flowers, 
 
 Hopeful of rubi«*d fruit, had fostered long, 
 
 Si-i/.t'd, and with cordaw strong 
 
 SbackltH! thp ^f»d who irave him showers. 
 
 Hlr:ii.:ht from st-vt-n winrls iuimortal ^cnii flew: 
 
 Vakin'a ijreen, whom foamy waves obey; 
 
 Itriijbt Vahni, fluiiiint; like the lamp of day ; 
 
 KrviiKA, sou^'ht by all, <'njoye<l by tuw; 
 
 M \ttT"T. who bills the wiiiu'M brc-zrs play ; 
 
 Si. Til ^'am\, rulhlfHs ju(li.'tv, and ls.\coId; 
 
 \\"\l\\ Naiukit, mildly hold; — 
 
 They, with the rud<ly Ibish whieh points his thunder. 
 
 It -nd his vain bands u^'^under. 
 
 Th' rxidting C'hI resuuies hin thousand eyes. 
 
 Four arms divine, and lob^'S of cbauging'dyes." 
 
 These lines allude to a late period of the cultus of Indra, 
 as he is represented as taking the form of a shepherd-boy. 
 Still, the idea of Indra breomiiig occasionally incarnate is 
 oni* which does not seem foreign to the spirit of even some 
 of the Vedic hymns, in which he is lauded as the destroyer 
 of certain chiefs who arc aetually mentioned by name. One 
 feature of his earliest worship was the ofl'iTing to him, by 
 
 f>iou^ IJrahumns, of the juice of the soma-phint. The later 
 egends about Indra are not all creilitablc to him. The 
 sl«'ry of his seduction of Ahilya, the handsome consort of 
 Gotama, is narrated in all its coarseness in the :'.8th chap- 
 ter of the itnmQifnmt. Hntced, Indra became in Puranic 
 timt.'S noted for his profligacy. He constantly sent Ap- 
 iKu-aitftM (Iho beautiful dancing-girlH of his paradise) to 
 tempt ascctifs. When the holy hermit, Viswamitra, had 
 been cngage<l for thousands of years in praetising the most 
 rigorous austerities, Indra fent the moi't beautiful yrnnhi 
 to him. The unfortunate sage was immediately overcome, 
 '• for, seeing her bathing, of surprising form, uii|mrallelcd in 
 beauty, her clothes wetted by the stream exhibiting her 
 fascinating symmetry of frame, he. subdued by the arrows 
 of Kttfi(f<trf,a, approacheil her, and five times five years 
 spent in dalliance with her passed away like a moment." 
 At length, however, (he ascetic exclaimed, "What ! are my 
 wisdom, my firm resolution, my nusterities, all destroyed 
 at onee, and by a woman ? Seduced by the crime in which 
 Indra delights, I am stripped of the advantages arising 
 
 from all my austerities.*' (Jiamiit/aua, section 60.) Indra 
 is also called by the names of Sak-rOf Vajrapani, Siitakratii, 
 VritnihuHf Vuanva, and Makcmira. K. C. Caldwkll. 
 
 Indrc, department of Central France, on the Intlre, a 
 tributary to the Loire. Area, 2024 square miles. Pop. 
 277, til*:;. Although a part of the surface is barren or 
 swampy, considerable quantities of wine and wheat arc 
 niised for exportation. Among articles of industry arc 
 cutlery, earthenware, leather, and cotton cloths. Of ;J4,0tlO 
 children between seven and thirteen years, Ill.OOO did not 
 receive any school education in iSo". Cap. Chatcauroux. 
 Indre, a river of France, chiefly in the department of 
 the same name, flows into the Loire S. W. of Tours, after 
 a X. AV. course of 1 16 miles. It is navigable from Locbcs 
 to the Loire, 45 miles, 
 
 Indre-et-IiOire, department of Central France, on 
 the Loire, along which high dykes have been built to pre- 
 vent inundations. Area, 2332 square miles. Pop. 317,027. 
 Wine and wheat are produced, trufilcs and fruits are raised, 
 and the culture and nmnufacturc of silk are steadily in- 
 creasing. Of 39,809 children between seven and thirteen 
 years, 8645 did not receive any school education at all in 
 1857. Cap. Tours. 
 
 Induction and Abstrac'tion arc the two forms of 
 Genke:.\i,i/,ation (wliich see), abstraction comparing ]ihe- 
 nometia with respect to the similarity of their substance, 
 and establishing a class; induction comparing jthcnomcna 
 with respect to the similarity of their cause, and establish- 
 ing a law as the result "of the generalization. As reduction 
 is the opposite to abstraction, deduction is the opposite to 
 induction. Cy abstraction the definition of a species is 
 established; by reduction a specimen is referred to its spe- 
 cies. By induction the law is established which governs cer- 
 tain phenomena; by deduction a phenomenon is explained 
 as governed by a certain law. The establishment of the 
 law of gravitation from the fact that ajiples fall to the 
 earth is an induction ; the explanation of the ]>benonienon 
 of ebb and flood from the law of gravitation is a deduction. 
 It must be noticed, however, that although these disti net ions 
 arcof great importance as means of understanding thorough- 
 ly the logical operations of the human mind, yet in actual 
 thinking the^' occur very seldom, if ever, in a perfectly un- 
 mixed state. In thinking we generally use the two o]»po- 
 site methods of operation at once, just as in seeing we use 
 both the eyes, in iiearing both the ejirs, in working both 
 the hands, and in walking both the legs. It is true, in 
 general, that inventions are the fruits of deduction, and dis- 
 coveries of induction ; and as it is the natural order tliat the 
 law shall be fouml by induction before it can be applied by 
 deduction, we find, as a general rule, that discoveries pre- 
 cede inventions. First came Oersted's discovery of elect ro- 
 magnetism, then Morse's inveution of the telegraph. Kut 
 was the invention of the lightning-rod a mere deduction? 
 or was the discovery of the globular form of the earth a 
 more induction ? With Ptolemy, who after Hipparchus 
 assumed that the earth is a globe from the movements of 
 the heavenly bodies, it is as impossible to reduce the rea- 
 soning process to a merely inductive or merely deductive 
 
 ' method as it would be to say whether it is the right hand 
 which washes the Icit or the left which washes the right. 
 
 The inductive process of reasoning has received its most 
 thorough analysis from Stuart Mill in his Si/nlim *>/ Lni/lc. 
 
 I He distinguishes between four different methods in which 
 the inductive operation can he carried on — namely, Iho 
 
 , methods of agreement, of diirerence, of residues, and of 
 concomitant variations— and he condenses the descrijition 
 of each method into a formal cnn(»n or rule of in<luetion. 
 Thus, tho first canon, or the rule of the method of agree- 
 ment, pronounces that )'/ two or mure iiiKtaiit-cH of the phe- 
 nomenon under invfttiyntion have onfi/ one circnnititanec mi 
 
 j common, the circitviHtiincc in ichivh ahnic aft the inntitnee^ 
 atfrce {» the cnnae of the ffiiin phenomenon. IJut ns in many 
 
 ' cases it would be n difl'ieult and liiborious. not to say end- 
 less and impracticable task, out of the millions vi' eircum- 
 stances whieh may accompany a phenomenon in dilferent 
 instances, to eliminate (hose whieli arc accidental, because 
 
 , they do not occur in all instances, and single out that one 
 which must be the cause, because it is ever recurring, it is 
 necessary (o follow another method in carrying on the ope- 
 ration of induction. In such eases it will be found more 
 expedient to single out that one circumstance by the ex- 
 clusion of which the phenomenon disappears, and which 
 consequently must bo its cause. The rule of Ibis method, 
 the method of diflferonce, is expressed in the following 
 canon : //* mi tnntnner in trkieh the phenomenon ntult r in- 
 ventiiftttion oceurn^ and an i'iit/«uirr in rr/n'r/i it doen not oe- 
 riir, htirit ccerif eircnmntnnce exrrpt one in common (that one 
 o'tnrrinif oii/y t'li the former), the eiicumatance in tchieh 
 itluui- thf two inxtfineeg differ in the caune, or ft uerrsgnrif 
 
 . p'lrt *f the cuime, of the phenomenon. Tlicrc are phenomena,
 
 IIM 
 
 INDULGENCE— INES DE CASTRO. 
 
 however — and as our knowledge extends they become more 
 frequent — of which the causes are partly known, ])artly un- 
 known. In such cases the method of residues must bo re- 
 sorted to, for which the rule is: Subduct from any phcnomcn>tn 
 stirh pnrt as is kvown bi/ }>rrrtouH iiitliiction to br the tffect 
 of certain antecedents, and the residue o/ the p!i<nonicnvn /« 
 the rifcrt of the remuinintf antecedents. Finally, there are 
 phononicna of which the cause cannot be found out by any 
 kind of elimination, because the causal a;j;ency is universal. 
 Thus, the laws governing; jihcnumf-na caused by the earth's 
 attrai-tiou or by heat cannot be ascertained by any of the 
 tbree former methods of induction, because we cannot get 
 out of the sphere of the earth's attraction, and because 
 there is nothing in which heat is absent. In such cases 
 the method of concomitant variations must be applied, the 
 rule fur which is: Whatever phenomenon raries in ant/ tnan- 
 jier irh> nrrrr another phenomenon varies in some particular 
 mannrr, in either a cause of that phenomenon, or is connected 
 irith it throuffh some fact of causation. The precision and 
 exhaust iveness of these rules arc striking, but it is also ob- 
 vious that real thinking seldom, if ever, follows any of these 
 tracks exclusively. As induction and deduction generally 
 walk together, hand in hand^ so also the different methods 
 of induction. Clemens Petersen. 
 
 Indulgence meant originally a release from the tem- 
 poral penalties which remain due for a sin after the sin 
 itself has been remitted by confession and absolution, and 
 was granted during the first centuries of the Christian 
 Church not only by the pope, but by all the bishops, to in- 
 firm persons or to those penitents who showed extraordi- 
 nary contrition. I3y degrees, the practice of remitting 
 punishment for money was introduced, the bishops allow- 
 ing offenders to buy off the canonical penalties by bestow- 
 ing gifts for some religious purpose: and from this time 
 the popes began to reserve for themselves the right of 
 granting, or rather selling, indulgences. In the fourteenth 
 and fifteenth centuries this right was extended in an enor- 
 mous degree. After the establishment of the doctrine of 
 Oi'EitA SiPEiiEUOttATORiA (whichsce) the pope arrogated not 
 only the privilege of releasing from temporal penalties, but 
 the power of forgiving sin; and this enormous extension 
 was accompanied in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries 
 with the most scandalous practices. (See Reformation, 
 Tetzel.) 
 
 In'dus, the great river of Southern Asia which separates 
 Hindustan from Afghanistan. It rises in the Himalayas in 
 lat. ."il° 20' N. and Ion. 81° 15' E., on the northern side of 
 the Kailas, at an elevation of 18,000 feet. After receiving 
 the (Jartope, it bursts through the Himalayas and flows 
 through the lowland to the Arabian Sea. At Attock, the 
 point where Alexander entered into India, \m) miles from 
 its outlet, and at an elevation of only 1000 feet, it receives 
 the Cabool and becomes navigable: 470 miles from the 
 ocean it is joined by the Punjaub, which is formed by the 
 conniicneo of five large rivers; but at Migani, S miles N. 
 of Hyderabad and 75 miles from the ocean, it divides and 
 forms a delta whose breadth along the coast is 130 miles. 
 It enters the Arabian Sea through a great number of 
 mouths, of which the Koree is the widest and deepest, but 
 even that one is not accessible forvcj^sols of more than fifty 
 tons, the channel being much encumbered by shoals and 
 mud-banks. The Indus abounds in fish, but is much in- 
 fested with crocodiles. 
 
 Industrial Kxhibitions. See Exposition, Inter- 
 national ANh I'sivKUsAi., by F. A. P. IJausahd: and 
 Km'iisition, Tim-: International Universal, by Prof. 
 W. P. Ulaki:. a. M., Pii. B. 
 
 Indus'trinI Schools, a term which may have several 
 applications, hut of which the strict legal meaning in Great 
 Britain is confined to institutions, established or recognized 
 by the government, to which juvenile offenders may be sent 
 by a magistrate. Attempts to ingraft the industrial feature 
 upon voluntary schools have not been rewarded with much 
 success, at least as regards their usefulness to the lower 
 classes; and in the British revised code the grants for- 
 merly made to such schools were discontinued. It seems 
 necessary to the usefulness of industrial schools that the 
 chiMren be wholly withilrawn from the control of parents, 
 and their entire direction assumed by the school author- 
 ities, in which carsc they naturally become assimilated to 
 reform schools or houses of correction, thus suppressing the 
 element of sjjontaneity which alone can entitle industrial 
 schools to a classification ajiart from discijdinary institu- 
 tions. The number of industrial seliools in England and 
 Scotland in ISGl was only oil, with iilSU pupils. 
 
 Industry, tp. and post-v. of McDonough co., 111., 8 
 miles from Macomb City. Pop 37S ; of tp. 1533. 
 
 Industry, post-tp. of Franklin co.. Jle.. 10 miles N.E. 
 of Fitrmington. It has -1 churches, and manufactures of 
 agricultural tools. Pop. 725. 
 
 Industry, a v. of York tp., Belmont co., 0., ^ mile 
 from Powhatan Point, on the Ohio River. Pop. 58. 
 
 Industry, post-tp. of Beaver co.. Pa., on the Ohio 
 River and the Cleveland and Pittsburg R. R. Pop. "96. 
 
 luebri'cty [Lat. inebriare, "to make drunk"], in the 
 present acceptation of the term, is used to denote the dis- 
 eased condition of the system produced by the habitual use 
 of alcohol. Its synonyms are ahohofism. di/psomania, and 
 oinomnnifi. Alcohol introduced into the circulation acts 
 upon, and to a certain extent destroys, the red corpuscles 
 of the blood, and thus, secondarily, affects all the organs 
 of the body. Its most common moilc of introduction into 
 the system is in the form of s]iirituous and fermented 
 drinks: and in those addicted to its habitual use the prin- 
 cipal lesions arc chronic hypcra^mia and subsequent 
 softening of the brain, cirrhosis and fatty degeneration 
 of the liver, fatty degeneration of the kidneys, and fatty 
 degeneration of the heart. Formerly, inebriety was re- 
 garded as a crime, but within a few years science has 
 shown it to be a disease, and institutions have been es- 
 tablished for its treatment and cure. Statistics f:-om 
 these institutions have demonstrated — I. Inebriety is a dis- 
 ease, and is curable. 11. Relapses may or may not occur. 
 The patients in hospitals for the treatment of inebriates 
 may be divided into three classes — viz. I. Those who by 
 social indulgence, without hereditary taint, have become 
 inebriates. These, as a class, are curable by the aid of an 
 institution. II. Those in whom the disease is inherited, 
 in which cases it manifests itself in paroxysms ("sprees") 
 at variable intervals. These are more difficult to restore 
 to health. III. Those who seem totally depraved in all 
 their instincts, and exhibit no desire for restoration to 
 health. These, as a class, are incurable, and should, for 
 the ])rotection of society, be placed under permanent re- 
 straint in institutions distinct from those of a reformatory 
 character. Carefully prepared reports from hospitals for 
 inebriates show that a very large percentage (between 50 
 and fiO) of the patients treated in them are restored per- 
 manently. WiLLARD Parker. 
 
 InequaTity [Lat. in, and rrqualitas']. An inequality 
 is an algebraic expression indicating that one quantity is 
 greater or less than another. The sign > is called the sign 
 of inequality: when placed between two quantities, it in- 
 dicates that the quantity at the opening is greater than the 
 other. Thus, the expressions 3>2 and 5<9 arc inequal- 
 ities; the former is read 3 is greater than 2, and the latter, 
 5 is frus than 9. The parts connected by the sign are called 
 members; that on the left of the sign is called the /rr»/ mem- 
 ber, and that on the right the second member. Of two un- 
 equal quantities, that is algebraically the greater whose 
 value is nearer to -(■ co. Two inequalities are said to sub- 
 sist in the same nmxe when the greater quantity is in the 
 first member of both, or in the second member of both; they 
 subsist in a contrari/ sense when the greater quantity is in 
 the first member of one and in the second member of the 
 other. Thus, the inequalities 3>7 and 4>9subsist in the 
 same sense, but the inequalities 3>7and 9<I4 subsist in 
 a contrary sense. 
 
 Inequalities may bo transformed in accordance with Iho 
 following principles: (1) If we add the same quantity to, 
 or subtract it fr<)m, both members, the resulting inequality 
 will subsist in the same sense. (2) If two inequalities 
 subsist in the same sense, and if we add them member to 
 member, the resulting inequality will subsist in the same 
 sense. (3) If both members of^ an inequality are multi- 
 plied or divided by the same positive quantity, the result- 
 ing inequality will subsist in the same sense. If both 
 members are multiplied or divided by the sumo negative 
 quantity, the resulting inequality will subsist in a contrary 
 sense. (I) If both members of an inequality are positive, 
 and if both are raised to any power, the resulting inequal- 
 ity will subsist in the same sense. 
 
 These principles enable us to reduce an inequality to 
 another in which one member is the unknown (piantity; 
 the other member is then a limiting value of that nuantily. 
 
 W. (i. Peck. 
 
 Iner'tia, or Vis Iner'tiro [Lat., the "power of inac- 
 tivity "], a universal properly of matter by reason of which 
 if in motion it will for ever continue in motion, or if at rest 
 it will for ever continue at rest, unless operated upon by 
 some external force, 
 
 I'nes de Cas'tro, descended from one of the richest 
 and noblest families of <!alicia. when her cousin. Donna 
 Coustantia, married Don Pedro, the crown prince of Portu- 
 gal, nceompanied her as maid-of-honor. Incs was very 
 beautiful ; she was called *' Incs with the heron-neck." At 
 the first glance I>on Pedro fell in love with her, and when, 
 in 13tl. Honna Cimstantia died, ho secretly married her. 
 In 135.'i. Don Pedro's father, the old king of Portugal, Al- 
 fonso IV., had her assassinated for political reasons; and
 
 INFALLIBILIST— INFALLIBILITY OF THE POPE. 
 
 1185 
 
 the passioDato depth and wild character of the lore which 
 Don Pedro bnd entcrtaiued for her became nppareut in his 
 sorrow and in his revenge. AVhen Alfonso died iu 1367 
 and Pedro became kiu}^, the corpse of Ines was placed on 
 the throne in royal attire and received royal homan;e ; then 
 it was solemnly entombed under a niagnificenl munumeut 
 and with f^or^eous jirocessioiial pomp, llcrassassins were 
 put to deiilh in a most cruel manner. 
 
 Infal'libiliHt [Lat. mi, " not." and /.t/Zjfc/^ "capable 
 of erring "], one who believes in the infallibility of the pope. 
 The term is of recent origin, and was brought into use in 
 1870, during the Vatican Council, which at first was divided 
 between iuf'-tiUhiUftH and nnti-in/affibiHita, but at last de- 
 cided that the pope was infallible — »'. c. free from all error — 
 in his official utterances as the head of the Catholic Church 
 on questions of faith and morals. Theanti-infallibilists were 
 divided into two parties — those who opposed the doctrine 
 of papal infallibility from principle, as false (Bishops Ilefele, 
 Marct. Kenriok. Darboy), and those who oppo:?cd it only 
 from expediency, deeming it inopportune, or untimely and 
 unwise to define and to declare the dogma ; hence the latter 
 were called also tnopportiini^t^y as distinct from the oppor- 
 tHHtata. (See I.vfallibihtv and Vatican Cor.voii,.) 
 
 Philip Schaff. 
 
 Infallibil'ity of the Pope, Infallibility [It. inj\d~ 
 
 lihilitii; i^]^Vkn. iii/alihilidnd: Yt. in/aHdhUitf.; Ger. I n/al- 
 lihiUtlU, C^t/ehlbftrkeit] is exemption from error (incrra- 
 bility), and corresponds to impeccnhllity, or exemption from 
 8in (sinlcssnessl ; the former is the perfection of knowledge. 
 the latter tho perfection of will or character; both are 
 united in (Jod and in Christ, but not in any human being 
 in this world of sin and error. The word is chiefly used 
 in connection with tho Church and tho bishop of Home. 
 All Christians believe that tho word of Uod in the Bible is 
 inspired, and hence infallible. The Greek Church holds, in 
 addition to this, that the Church universal, as represented 
 in a truly cecumenical council, is infallible, but restricts 
 this to the first seven councils from .32 j to 787. The Roman 
 Church goes still farther, and declares the pope, even with- 
 out an oecumenical council, infallible, not indeed in his in- 
 dividual but in his official character, whenever he speaks 
 ex rafAr(/i-<i— that is, whenever he addresses tho whole 
 Catholic world on a matter touching Christian faith or 
 morals. This view was formerly a disputed opinion, stronglv 
 opposed by the Galileans and all liberal Catholics, but is 
 now by a decree of the Vatican Council a dogma of faith 
 which must bo believed by every Catholic on pain of ex- 
 communication and damnation. Tho Vatican decree of 
 July IS, isTfl, thus states the new dogma: *' Therefore, 
 faithfully adhering to tho tradition received from tho be- 
 ginning of tho Christian faith, for the glory of God our 
 Saviour, tho exaltation of the Catholic religion, and the 
 salvation of Christian ]icople. the Sacred Council approv- 
 ing, wo teach and define that it is a dogma divinely re- 
 vealed ; that the liomnn pontiff, when ho speiiks ex cathrdnt 
 — that is, when in discharge of the office of pastor and doc- 
 tor of all Christians, by virtue of his supremo apostolic au- 
 thority, he defines a doctrine regarding faith or morals to 
 bo held by tho universal Church, by tho divine assistance 
 promised to him in bles>'e<l Peter — is pofiPitirff of that infal- 
 lihifiti/ icilfi irfu'rh thr divine /icdeemer teHfed thnt kit f-hnrch 
 nhonld he endmrrd /or drjinxng doctrine rcfjardinfj faith or 
 moraf»; and that, therefore, such definitions of the Roman 
 pontiff are irrr/'ormahfc of' themielreii,nn<\ not from tho con- 
 sent of the Church. But if any one — which may (iod avert ! 
 — presume to contradict this our definition, let him bo 
 anathemn." 
 
 Papal infallibility was the chief topic of tho Vatican Coun- 
 cil ; it was <liscussed under powerful opposition for several 
 months, and carried at last by the infiuencc of thepope and 
 the Jesuits. When tho vote was first taken in ?ecrct session 
 (July 13, 1S70). 451 bishops voted in tho aflirmativc (pinret), 
 88 in the negative (non phieet), (12 voted with u qualification 
 ( pfarrt jurta mo'/iim), and over SO. though present in Rome, 
 ai)stained from voting. On tho evening of the same day 
 the minority, which inelud«d the alilost and most influen- 
 tial prelates fas Darboy of Paris. Schwnrzenbcrg of Prague, 
 Hnuscher of Vienna. I>upanloup of OrK-ans, Forster of 
 Preplan. Ketleler of .Mayence, Strossmeyer of Bosnia, 
 Hefelo of Hottenburg. Kenrick of St. Louis^, sent a depu- 
 tation to the pope, which begged him on their knees to 
 modify the proposed decree ami to nnike some concession 
 for the pearo and unity of tho Church; but Pius IX. sur- 
 prised tno deputiition with the assurnnce that tho Church 
 h:id always believed in tho unconditional infnllibility of 
 tho pope, file claims to be the infallible judge of the 
 Church's teaching, aeeording to the saying attributed to 
 him, ** I am tho trarlition.") In tho secret session of July 
 1ft, on motion of some Spanish bishop, an addition was in- 
 serted, which makes the decree still more obnoxious by de- 
 claring tho pope infallible hr/m-c and icithout tho consont 
 X(i.. ir.— 7.i 
 
 of the Church (non antem ex comienaH ecclena). On the 
 17th of July, 56 bishops opposed to the new dogma sent a 
 written protest to the pope, declaring their firm adherence 
 to their conviction, but also their reluctance to vuto against 
 him in his face on a matter aff"ecting him personally, and 
 asking leave to return home. On the evening of the same 
 day the signers of this protest, and 60 additional members 
 of the opposition, left Rome (taking advantage of the ru- 
 mors of war), and by this cowardly act they gave an easy 
 victory to the majority and the triumph of error. In the 
 public session, held July 18, there were but 535 members 
 present, and all voted pfaeet except two (Bishop Riccio of 
 Sicily and Bishop Fitzgerald of Arkansas), who changed 
 their vote before the close of the session. After the vote 
 the pope, amidst a fearful thunderstorm and flashes of 
 lightning, read by candlelight in St. Peter's cathedral the 
 decree. of his own infallibility. The ilay after. Napoleon 
 III., his chief politic:il support, declared war against (ler- 
 many ; tins war in a few weeks swept away both his tlirone 
 and that of tho pope, and resulted in the prostration of 
 France, the unification of Italy, and the rise of the Ger- 
 man empire under the lead of Protestant Prussia, Tho 
 proclamation of this new dogma is the cause of secession 
 of the "Old Catholics" under the lead of Doliingcr (here- 
 tofore the prido of the Roman Church in Germany) and 
 other eminent Catholic scholars. It is also the cause of the 
 renewal of the serious conflict between the pope and tho 
 emperor, since no independent government can treat with 
 an infallible pope on terms of equality. It may yet lead to 
 a religious war in Kurope. The Old Catholic movement 
 would have become much more formidable if some, at least, 
 of the protesting members of tho council had remained 
 faithful to their convictions, but all of them submitted, even 
 those who during tho council bad made an unanswerable 
 argument against papal infallibility. As they all professed 
 to believe in the infallibility of an oecumenical council, 
 they had either to give up this faith and virtually become 
 Protestants, or to admit the infallibility of the pope after 
 it had been so decreed by the Vatican Council, which they 
 admitted to be oecumenical. To a Protestant this very 
 council furnishes the best argument against the infallibility 
 of an opcumenical council, since it solemnly affirms what 
 three other oecumenical councils positively denied — viz. tho 
 infallibility of the p0])c. Either the council is fallible or 
 the pope is fallible, or both are fallible. It is impossible 
 that both are infallible, since they contradict each other. 
 
 This new dogma is the apex of the pyramid of the Ro- 
 man hierarchy. Logically, it is more consistent than tho 
 Gallican theory, as an absolute monarchy is more consist- 
 ent than a constitutional monarcliy. It teaches an unbro- 
 ken and cvcr-activo infallibility, while (lallicanism secures 
 only a periodic and intermittent infallibility, which re- 
 veals itself in an wuumcuical council. But neither theory 
 can stand the test of history, and is a mere pretension. 
 Papal infallibility especially is unknown to the Bible and 
 unknown to the ancient Church, and was never heard of 
 till the period of the forged decretals in the ninth century. 
 It lacks every one of the three essential marks of catho- 
 licity (the ftcnipcr, the uhif/ue. and the ab omtiibns). It is 
 not taught by any of the Fathers, (ireck or Latin, nor by 
 any of the oecumenical creeds, nor any of the oecumenical 
 councils. On tho contrary, the sixth tccumenieal council, 
 which was held in Constuntinoplo OSO, nud is universally 
 acknowledged in the Kiist and the West, condemned and 
 excommunicated Pope Monorius I. ((i2."t-ri3S) *' as a heretic 
 (Monothclite), %vho, with the help of the old serpent, had 
 scattered deadly error." This anathema was solemnly re- 
 peated by tho seventh and by the eighth oecumenical coun- 
 cils (787 and 8fi9). and even by the popes themselves, who 
 down to the eleventh century, in a solemn oath at their ac- 
 cession, endorsc'l the sixth oecumenical council and pro- 
 nounced "an eternal anathema" on the authors of tho 
 Monothclito heresy, tngelhcr with Pope Ilonorius, *• be- 
 cause he had given aid and comfort to the perverse doc- 
 trines of the heretics." This papal oath was probably 
 prescribed by Gregctry If. at the beginning of the eighth 
 century, and is prinlerl in the Liter dinrnu« and Liber pon- 
 tiJira/iH ilown to the eleventh century. Even the editions 
 of the Roman Breviary before the sixteenth century re- 
 iterated the charge of heresy against Ilonorius. Pope Leo 
 II. strongly confirmed the decree of the couneil against his 
 precleeessor Monorius. and denounced him as one who "en- 
 deavored by profane treason to overthrow the immaculate 
 faith of the Roman Church " (" yi/i" hanc apoatoUinm eccte- 
 tiinm non aponto/irte traditionin dortrina inHtntrit, ned pro- 
 ffinn prodifionr innnaeitlatnin Jidi m tinbverterc rtnintnH eit "). 
 (See Mansi, t'onci/in, torn. xi. p. 731.) This case of Ilono- 
 rius is as clear as daylight (according to tho triumphant 
 argument even of Roman Catholic scholars before the pas- 
 sage of the decree, such as Marct, Gratry, Kenrick, and 
 Hofole), and is alono suflioiont to overthrow the colossal
 
 1186 
 
 INFANT. 
 
 claim as a historical lie {" si falttu in uno,/ahiia in om- 
 nibus"). , 
 
 But history knows of other heretical popes: Zc]ihirinus 
 (201-219) unci Callistus (219-22u) were Patripassians ; 
 liibcriiis (."ioS) signed an Arian creed and condcinned Ath- 
 anasius, "the father of orthodoxy." who mentions tlie fact 
 with indignation ; Feli.x II. was a decided Arian : Zosimus 
 ( tIT) at li"rst endorsed the heresy of Pelagiusand Coclestius, 
 whom his predecessor. Innocent I., had condemned: Vigil- 
 ius (5;!8-55.i) vacillated between two opposite decisions 
 durin» the Three Chapter controversy, and therehy pro- 
 duccd'a long schism in the West; .lohn XXII. (d. l:i34) 
 denounced an opinion of .Nicholas III. and Clement V. as 
 heretical : several popes taught the universal depravity of 
 men in a manner tlnlt clearly includes the Virgin Mary, 
 and is irreconcilable with the recent dogma of the immacu- 
 late conception; Si.xtus V. issued an edition of the Latin 
 liiblc with innumerable blunders, |iartly of his own mak- 
 ing, and declared it the only true authentic text. Bel- 
 larmin, the great Roman controversialist and infallibilist, 
 could not deny the facts, and advised the printing of a new 
 edition with :v Iving statement in the preface, charging the 
 errors of the infallible pope upon the fallible printer, though 
 the )>opo had himself corrected the proofs. The present 
 pope started out as a political reformer and advocate of 
 Italian unity, which he now detests as the worst enemy 
 of the Church. 
 
 The Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals first set up the claim of 
 infambility, and by a monstrous forgery, long since ex- 
 ploded, put it with other falsehoods into the mouths of the 
 oldest popes in barbarous French Latin and with glaring 
 anachronisms. Other hierarchical fictions, as the legend 
 of the donation of Constantino and his baptism by Popo 
 Sylvester, arose in the same uncritical and superstitious 
 a^e, and were readily believed. But there was no time 
 wTicn these claims were not resisted. The famous oecu- 
 menical Council of Constance (1414-18) asserted its supe- 
 riority over the pope by deposing one pope (.John XXIII.) 
 for infamous crimes, and another pope (Benedict XIII.) 
 for heresy, and electing a third one in their place (.Martin 
 v.). Tlicre is no escape here from the logical dilemma, 
 either to admit the vali'lity of the council or to invalidate 
 the election of Martin V. and his successors; both alterna- 
 tives are fatal to papal infallibility. After the Reformation 
 the Jesuits became the unscrupulous and untiring cham- 
 pions of this doctrine, but they failed in their eWort to com- j 
 mit the Council of Trent. All the .Jansenists and the I 
 greatest modern ch.ampions of Romanism, as Bossuet, 
 Mcihler. and the principal popular catechisms used before 
 Ism, deny the infallibility of the pope. The Irish bishops 
 Doyle, .Murray, Kelly, affirracd under oath before a com- 
 mittee of the British Parliament in 182.i, and openly dc- 
 chired in a Pastnml Aildreus to their clergy and laity in 
 182(), that the infallibility of the popo is "not an .article 
 of the Catholic faith." It was on this explicit testimony 
 th.at tho Catholic emancipation liill was carried through 
 Parliament. The Vatican Council was convened chiefly 
 hy .Jesuitical influence for the purpose of defining this now 
 dogma and killing (Jallicanism : but tho arguments and 
 facts were on the part of the opposition, which might have 
 triumphed it' its moral courage had been equal to its learn- 
 ing and ability. Liberal Catholicism is now crushed by 
 au"hority. The Vatican system requires tho slaughter of 
 private judgment and individual conscience, and divides 
 tho allegiance between the popo and the home government 
 whenever they come in collision (as may be the case in the 
 questions of education, marriage, and the restoration of the 
 temporal power). We must indeed respect the higher law 
 and "obey God, more tha^ m.an," but tho pope, far from 
 hein" God .\lmighty. is a mortal, sinful man; anil the gov- 
 ernment which the apostles disobeyed was not the state, 
 but tho cccUtinnticnl government of the ,Tcwish hierarchy, 
 which forbade them to preach tho gospel (.\cts v. 29), and 
 set a bad example to the Roman hierarchy, 
 
 Litcraliirr. — 1. In favor of papal infallibility: Arch- 
 bishop Cardoni, E/nrubratto tic doffmnfira liomani Poitlijiris 
 infallibitiinie (Rome, 1870, semi-oflieial) ; Archbishop 
 Manning, Pari Prinilrrjium (London, 1871) ; also his reply 
 to Gladstone (1874) : ,\rchbishop Deehamps, l.'Infnillibiliif 
 et le Cnncilr Gfniral (Paris, 1SI59) ; Weninger, tlir In/ull/- 
 bilili/o/lhr Pope (German and French. 1809): .T, 11. New- 
 man, Leiur In the Duke i,f Norfidk. in reply to Gladstone's 
 Valirfin Drerers (London and New York, 1874), ft very 
 qualified defence of infallibility, with a reserve of the 
 rights of conscience. Older champions of infallibility are 
 Bellarmin, Litta, Liguori, and Count do Maislre. 2. Against 
 papal infallibility : (a) By members of the Vatican Council 
 —Bishop Maret (dean of the theological faculty in Paris), 
 Iht Cnncile (Ifntnil el He la pair reUijieuse (Paris, 18fi9, 2 
 vols,) ; Archbishop Darboy, Ln libcrif du Conrileet I'in/ail- 
 Ubiliti (in Friedrich's jjocumenta, i. 129-1S6) ; Bishop 
 
 Hefele, the author of the best history of councils, Cnma 
 Htinorii Paps' { Neap.. 1870) ; and Ilonorius mid das seeltste 
 aWjemeine Vuncit (Tubingen, IS70; trans, by H. B. Smilh 
 in the Presbi/t. Qimrt. Jtcr. for Apr., 1872, p. 273) ; Arch- 
 bishop Kenrick of .St. Louis. Coucio in Concilia Valicano 
 habcnda al nnn habita (Naples. 1870; reprinted in Fried- 
 rich's /Jo'umciifo, i. I87-22U). (t) By Catholics not mem- 
 bers of tho council, now mostly Old Catholic sccedcrs— 
 Janus (pseudonymous). 7Vic Pope and the Council (German 
 and English, Leips. and London, I8C9) ; Dlillingcr, I'cber 
 die Unfchllmrluits-Adresse (Munich, 1870): Rciukens, 
 now Old Catholic bishop, Vcbcr piipulliche Unfvhlbarkeil 
 (Munich, 1870) : A, Gratry, Four Letters to the Ilinhop of 
 Orleans (Uupanloup) and the Archbishop of Malincs (De- 
 champs), (in French, German, and English, 1870. Gratry 
 recanted on his deathbed), (c) By Protestants— W. E. 
 Gladstone, The Vatican Decrees in their liearinij on Ciril 
 Allegiance (Lond., 1874), wilh a history of the council and 
 the text of the decrees, by Philip Schaff (New York, Har- 
 pers, 1875) ; Gladstone, Vaticanism, nii Ansieer to Ucpronfs 
 and Replies, oi JIanning, Ncwm.an, and others (Lond. and 
 New York, lS7a). Comp. also the literature on the Vatican 
 CoixciL. Philip Sciiapf. 
 
 In'fant, in law, is a person whoonaceount of youth and 
 inexperience is incapacitated either wholly or in part from 
 entering into contracts or performing specific acts. The 
 incapacity may be natural or artificial, and is affected by 
 rules of positive law. Thus, under some systems of law a 
 person has not full capacity until attaining the ago of 
 twenty-five ; under the rules of the common law full ca- 
 pacity is attained at the age of twenty-one; though by a 
 special rule a marriage m:iy be contracted by a male at the 
 age of fourteen, and l^y a female at the age of twelve. Wills 
 of personal property may be made at the same age. These 
 rules were borrowed from the ecclesiastical courts, where 
 questions concerning the validity of marriages and of wills 
 of personal property were disposed of. This matter in the 
 V. 18. is to some extent regulated by statute. A promise 
 to marry is not binding unless the promiser is of full age. 
 By an ancient rule which is still law a person becomes 
 twenty-one on the day preceding the anniversary of his 
 birthday. This is on account of the legal pro]iosition that 
 the law" recognizes no fraction of a day. and as full nuijor- 
 ity would be reached at the close of the preceding day, it 
 is attained by this rule at any time on that day. In some 
 states females attain majority at an earlier age than males. 
 This diversity of rules in the difi"erent states or nations 
 leads to interesting questions in private international law. 
 (See Intf.rnatioxat. Law. Privatf..) Thus, if a person 
 not of age in a country where he is domiciled hajipcns to 
 be temporarily in a country where he is of sufficient age to 
 make contracts, and docs in fact assume to contract, the 
 question will be whether the validity of his contract is to 
 be tested bv the law of his domicile or of the place where 
 the contract is niailc or to be performed. Under the Eng- 
 lish and American law the law of the place where the con- 
 tract is made is assumed to govern. In testing the validity 
 of a will of personal property reference will be liad to tho 
 law of the domicile, and of a like disposition of land to the 
 law of the place where the Land is situated. 
 
 The subject maybe considered under the following prin- 
 cipal divisions : 1. The capacity of infants to make eon- 
 tracts, and to do o'thcr acts of a civil nature involving judg- 
 ment and discretion: II. Their liability fur wrongs (torls) ; 
 III. Their rcsponsil.ilitv for crimes ; I V. Tlicir rights in a 
 court of equity; V. Their liability as properly -owners to 
 bear the legal burdens imposed on property. 
 
 I. It is a general rule that an infant's contract is not 
 binding upon him. There has been great controversy upon 
 the point whcllier his ai'ts arc void or voidable. The elfce.t 
 of this distinction is. tlial if the contract is void, it is inca- 
 piililo of confirmation by the infant on ;ittaining majority. 
 On the other hand, if voidable, the infant has the power 
 of confirmation. There is a strong tendency in modern 
 law to construe the act to be voidable rather than voul, and 
 there arc but few contracts made by infants at the present 
 ilay which are incapable of ciuifirmation. This rule makes 
 the subject of confirmation of much importance, ond fre- 
 iiuentlv'queslinns arise as to the point whether it may take 
 place by implication as well as by express agreement. It 
 has often been decided by the courts that confirmation may 
 be inferred in certain cases from acquiescence for a consul- 
 erable time after mnjoritv, particularly where the Iruits of 
 the transaction are still enjoyed by the infant, as in the 
 case of purchase of property or the execution of a lease. 
 In the latter case the reception of rent would be strong 
 evidence of confirmation. This doctrine would not he so 
 readily admitted in (he case of the sale of the inf:vnt's land, 
 and there arc authorities of high respeelabibty which 
 maintain that the title will not bo perfect in this ca^e. in 
 the absence of direct confirmation, until there has betn pes-
 
 INFANT. 
 
 lis? 
 
 Bession by tho grantee for the time required by the statute 
 of limitations. (See Limitations. Stati'tk ok.) A person 
 will not be liable to pay a <Iebt conlractod during infancy 
 without a promise to pay made after majority. 
 
 Under these doctrines it is plain that an infant at his 
 majority may, except in special instances to be hereafter 
 mentioned, repudiate his contract at will. In doinsj this 
 bo must^ in general, return to the other party what he has 
 received from him. His infancy is to bu used "as a shield 
 and not as a sword." Should he repudiate the contract, it 
 would seem that he would be under a legal duty to make 
 restitution only in case the property was under his control. 
 In other words, he nui.^t. on rescinding a contract, put the 
 opposite party back in his original position, if that is in 
 his power. If he makes a contract to serve another for a 
 epecificd time, he may repudiate the contract, and still ex- 
 act payment for what he may have dono under it. 
 
 The principal exception to tho voidable nature of the in- 
 fant's contract consists in the fact that he may bind him- 
 Felf for "necessaries." This term refers to contracts for 
 fooci, clothing, shelter, medical attendance, and proper in- 
 struction or education. There will, of course, bo a wide 
 ranze in respect to these articles, depenrling upon the in- 
 fant's wealth and position in society. While the judge? 
 determine as matter of law the classes of things for whicli 
 infants arc liable, they refer special cases to the jury to 
 decide whether, under all the circumstances, the expendi- 
 ture was proper. There may. however, be cases of such a 
 glaring character as to show that the goods could not on 
 any theory be necessary, when the judge will dismiss the 
 case. It should be added that while the infant may be 
 bound by his contract in respect to such articles, it does not 
 follow that he will be required to pay the price which is 
 charged to his account or which he has agreed to pay. He 
 can only be held for tho real value of tho goods, without 
 reference to the price fixed, though that be stipulated by 
 his note or bond. Under these rules, if an infant should 
 borrow money with an intention expressed to tho lender to 
 purchase necessaries, he could not be made to repay the 
 money unless it wore actually used for that purpose. These 
 rules, being designed for the infant's protection, are liber- 
 ally construe! by the courts. The doctrines applicable to 
 necessaries would be extended to his wife and children, and 
 he could contract for their support. There? may sometimes 
 be a question whether the price of supplies is to be paid by 
 the infant or liis parent. Tho true line of inquiry in such 
 a case is, To whom wis the credit ffiven f If given to the 
 parent, tho tradesman cannot recover of the infant, though 
 the parent should prove pecuniarily irresponsible. 
 
 Witliout pursuing this branch of tho subject further, 
 mention may be made of certain ofher ca^es in which the 
 infant will be bound by his acts. It is a general rule that 
 he will be hound whenever he voluntarily does that which 
 ho could have legally been compelled (o ilo : r. 7. if ho 
 could have been refjiiired. as a trustee, to execute a dee<i, 
 his voluntary execution of it will be sufficient. Tho same 
 rule will be .applied if statute law gives him in special in- 
 Btanr-es an exceptional capacity to act, as where ho is au- 
 thorized by law to enlii^t in the army or navy or required 
 to support an illegitimate chihl. 
 
 In th™ following instances an infant is hv the law of this 
 country usually incapable. He cannot hold a public office 
 or act as an exe?'itoror administrator until he is seventeen, 
 and in some States until twenty-one Mhough ho may be 
 appointed), nor can the doctrine of estoppel be applied to 
 him in a court of law. though it may be in some instances 
 inequity: nor can he in general npp<Mnt, an attorney or 
 appear in court by an attorney, though a next friend or 
 guardian may act for him. who may appoint an attorney; 
 nor will tho statuteof limitationn begin to run against hiin. 
 The explanation of the la>Jt branch of this statement is. that 
 if a cause of action should arise during his infancy, neglect 
 cannot be imputed to him for failing to vin*licate his rights 
 by nctitm. Accordingly, the statuteof limitations, which 
 is framed to prevent undue tlelay in litigation, will not ap- 
 ply to him until his infaney ha« ceased. The rule, how- 
 ever, does not extend to the case where the infant takes by 
 succession from another a right which might during the 
 ownership of his predecessor have been enforced by action. 
 
 n. LinhiUhf of the fii/ant /or MVom/A/ .!r/* (torts).— In 
 this class of cases the ground of liability is a wrongful act 
 and consequent damage to another. The reason for the in- 
 fant's exemption from liahilily here fails. There is no longer 
 any policy of the law to protect him from responsibility. 
 Tho artificial rule of incapacity is dispensed witn, and if nn 
 infant having sufTirient di««cretion commits a wrongful aet 
 and causes injiirv, he will he liable to an action as though he 
 were an adult. There will frequently he eases in which it will 
 be difficult to rlraw the line between liability upon contract 
 and responsibility for a tort. It is in a certain sense true 
 that a wrong may arise out of a contract, and tho inquiry 
 
 must be made as to tho rule to be applied in such a case. For 
 example, nn infant may hire a horse, and from his youth 
 and inexperience may treat the animal injudiciously by 
 overdriving hira or watering him when heated, and thus 
 cause damage. To hold the infant liable in such a case 
 would be substantially to break down all the safeguards 
 which the law has e.slabliished for his protection. On the 
 other hand, if the infant simply use<l the contract as an 
 opportunity or an occasion to commit a wrong, or if, in the 
 case supposed, ho wilfully abused the animal, the wrong 
 could in no proper sense be said to arise out of the contract, 
 and the infant would be responsible. Owing to this dis- 
 tinction a prolonged controversy has existed among jurists 
 as to the point whether an infant is liable for fraud prac- 
 tised by him in the making of a contract. On the one hand, 
 it is claimed that the fraud is so inseparable from the eon- 
 tract that the right to plead his infancy includes the right 
 to exempt himself from responsibility for the fraud. On 
 this view, the only remedy of the injured party would bo 
 to annul the contract on account of the fraud, and to de- 
 mand a return by the infant of what be bad receivecl under 
 it. This is the view prevailing in the Knglish courts. On 
 tho other hand, it has been nmintained in some of the Amer- 
 ican courts that the fraud is such a wrongful act as to give 
 a substantive ground for an action of damages. The weight 
 of reason would seem to be with the Knglish view, and the 
 opposite doctrine can scarcely be considered as established 
 in this country. Courts of equity have held in some in- 
 stances that an infant who has fraudulently represented 
 himself ns of full age. and has obtained property on that 
 basis, is estopped from denying that he is of full age, and 
 have thus by this artificial rule indirectly held him respon- 
 sible for his fraud. This doctrine is not very satisfactory, 
 and rests more upon authority than u]ion 5oli<l jirincijile. 
 The law upon the whole subject of the distinction between 
 tho infant's liability for a wrong, whether considered as 
 connected with a contract or as independent of it. is in an 
 obscure and perhaps transitional state, and only general 
 and probable results can be given. A clear instance of 
 liability may he found in the case of the wilful use of a 
 chattel entrusted to him under a contract in a way pro- 
 hibited by the owner, and consequent damage. An Kng- 
 lish illustration is the act of hiring a horse, with a pro- 
 hibition by the owner against using it to jump fences, and 
 the deliberate use of it by him notwithstanding, followed 
 by damage. This is really an exercise of an act of owner- 
 ship inconsistent with the contract of hiring, and substan- 
 tially an appropriation of the chattel to the infant's own 
 use, and thus the act is a wrong unconnected with the con- 
 tract. 
 
 III. Cnpacittj of Infants to Commit Crimes. — Tho same 
 act which when regarded from the point of view that an 
 individual is injured constitutes a tort, may in reference to 
 society be regarded as a crime. There is no good reason 
 why if there is sufficient intelligence on the part of tho 
 infant he should not be responsible. The arbitrary rule 
 established for his protection in the case of contracts 
 should be discarderl, and the sole point of inquiry should 
 concern his actual capacity to understand the nature and 
 consequcnecs of (be act done. The criminal law. however, 
 contains the arbitrary rule that under seven years (pf ago 
 he cannot commit a felonious crime. When he is between 
 seven and fourteen years of age there is no presumption 
 either in his favor or against him: his actual capacity is 
 fully open to investigation. When fourteen years of ago 
 and upwards he is presumed to be capable, and the burden 
 is cast npon him to produce evidence of incapacity. For 
 physical reasons a male infant under fourteen years of ago 
 is conclusively presumed in Kngland to be incapable of 
 committing the crime of rape. This rule has been dis- 
 carded in the State of New York, and ])crhaps elsewhere, 
 on the ground that puberty is attained hero at an earlier 
 age than in Englanrl. Tho older law-books are disfigured 
 with accounts of children of tender years who have been 
 executed for capital crimes. The more humane policy of 
 modern times is to sentence juvenile criminals to houses 
 of refug** or correction, where educational and disciplinary 
 measures are resorted to with a view to eradicate, or at least 
 to ameliorate, their vicious dispositions. 
 
 IV. The PoHitinii of an Infant ill a Court of Eqnit\f. — 
 Infants are favorites of this court, and are frequently under 
 its special proteetion ns being its wards. The court has 
 abundant power to protect them by means of its ability to 
 
 funish for contempt those who interfere with its orders, 
 n thot court the authority of a parent is regarded rather 
 as a trust than ns a power, and the court may for good 
 reasons withdraw a child from its parent's custody, and 
 give it over to persons deemed capable to train and educate 
 it. (See PAnKNT ami CiiiKn.) When the property of nn 
 infant is before this os well as other einirts, a guardian for 
 tho purposes of tho litigation {ad litem) may bo appointed
 
 1188 
 
 INFANTADO-INFANTRY. 
 
 to look uftcr his interests. He at the same time will not 
 be alloweil by his negligence or inattention to aficct injuri- 
 ously the infant's estate, and any untoward admissions in 
 an action jircjudicial to his ri-^hts will not be regarded. 
 The validity of his marringo settlements frequently come 
 before this court. It is a wcll-settlcd rule of the Knglish 
 law that a female infant may on the eve of marriage, by a 
 proper settlement, bar herself of all claim of dower in her 
 husband's land. This may be done under a statute as early 
 as the reign of Henry VIII., known as the "statute of 
 jointures." The same general rule prevails in this country. 
 Her right to part with h^r utcii rftt caiatr in this way is 
 much more restricted, and a settlement having that effect 
 may he avoided by her after attaining majority, and after 
 the termination of the marriage, and. according to the 
 views of some jurists, even during its continuance. The 
 same rule would bo applied to the case of a male infant 
 making a settlement of his real estate. The power of both 
 classes of infants in respect to personal properly is much 
 less restricted. The whole subject is at present regulated 
 in England by statute. 
 
 V. An infant considered as an owner of property is liable 
 to the burdens incident to ownership. Thus, he would be 
 bound to pay taxes or other assessments of a legal nature. 
 His land can be taken under the rules of eminent domain 
 in the same manner as that of an adult. There would bo 
 a distinction between property cast upon him by a rule of 
 law — e. {/. by descent — and that which be has acquired by 
 his own act. In the first case, the law would make him 
 competent to hear the burden, and ho could only shift it 
 off by a sale. On the other hand, where he had acquired it 
 by his own act, he could reputliate the transaction, and 
 thus relieve himself from liability. But even in this ease, 
 so long as he remained owner his liability to such burdens 
 would continue. { Reference may be had for further informa- 
 tion to the treatisesof Bingham and Jlacpherson on f>\fanrif; 
 Forsyth on the Custody of In/aiitu; Chambers on Chancery 
 Jnriftdiction ; and to the treatises of Reeve and Schooler 
 on the Domestic lielnfionn, as well as to more general 
 works, such as Kent's Comnienturien, and Story on Eqiiittj 
 Jurinpiudence. See also GiARDiAN and Parent and Child.) 
 
 T. AV. DWIGHT. 
 
 Infanta'dOf a district in Spain which formerly consti- 
 tuted the personal domain of the infantes or royal princes, 
 aod which gave title to a dukedom, created in 1403, which 
 was held by several of the most powerful of the Spanish 
 nobles. It was composed of the four villages of Penas de 
 San Pedro, Alcoccr, Salmeron, and Valdeolivas, situated in 
 the province of Guadalajara, about 50 miles due E. from 
 Madrid. 
 
 Iiifan'te [Lat. in/ans, "an infant"], in Spain and Por- 
 tugal the official title of the princes of the blood-royal, the 
 princesses being called iu/antafi. The heir-apparent to the 
 throne, however, was not called an infante,- in Spain his 
 title was principe de Anttirtai, or simply fl principr, " the 
 prince;" and in Portugal, until the separation of the Amer- 
 ican colony, he was called the prince of Brazil. The name 
 infante was also applied in Spain at an early period to the 
 children of the nobility, and the "seven infants of Lara," 
 who were killecl in an attempt to rescue their father, the 
 8€?lt)y or lord of Lara, from Moorish captivity in Cordova, 
 arc famous in Spanish ballad-poetry and romance. 
 
 Infante (Jose MifiUKi,), b. in Santiago de Chili in 
 177S, was one of the leaders of the revolutionary move- 
 ment of 1810, which resulted in the independence of Span- 
 ish America ; a member of several of i\\Q jnnta» of govern- 
 ment established by the insurgents; was president of the 
 provisional juntas of 182.3 and 1S2.); member of the '"con- 
 gress of plenipotentiaries" in IS.'U, and chief-justice in 
 1S1;I. Infante was the founder of one of the earliest po- 
 litical newspapers of Chili, and was prominent in organ- 
 izing the common-school system of his country. 1>. in 
 Santiago Apr. 9, 1841. 
 
 Infan'ticidc, Law concerning. Infanticide, at 
 common law, consists in the doing of any act whereby the 
 death of an infant child is caused after it is fully born 
 alive. It is to be distinguished from the killing of a child 
 within its mother's womb, which is now known as fivticide. 
 When the death of the new-born infant is occasioned by an 
 unlawful act, as distinguished from mere accident or un- 
 avoidable casualty, such act will constitute the crime of 
 felonious homicide (see Homicide), nnd may be either mur- 
 der or manslaughter, according to the circumstances of the 
 particular case. (See Mirdkr, Mas.slai'«htkk.) In every 
 instance, however, the death must occur after the actual 
 birth of the child, or no crime is committed. If means be 
 used for the procurement of an abortion upon the person 
 of the mother, either by the administering of medicines or 
 by the use of instruments, or in any other way whatever, 
 and the foetus is destroyed before birth, the aot is neither 
 
 murder nor manslaughter at common law. This defect in 
 the law has, however, been generally remedied in recent 
 times by the enactment of statutes for the prevention and 
 punishment of abortion. (Sec Adortion.) The doctrine of 
 the common law is that when a child is fully born he first 
 becomes a human being within the scope of that rule in the 
 law of homicide which requires that the person killed shall 
 be '* a reasonable creature in being," in order that the act 
 of killing may be iclonious. The infant is said to be actu- 
 ally and fully born when eirri/part of it is wholly produced 
 or separated from the body of its mother in a living state. 
 It is not necessary that the umbilical cord be severed, nor 
 that the child should ever have hroalhecl before being killed, 
 if it was fully delivered and alive. On the other hand, if 
 it be proved that the child did breathe before its death, this 
 will not be sufficient evidence that its birth was eomplete, 
 as breathing sometimes begins during the progress of tlio 
 delivery. It is only requisite to constitute criminal infanti- 
 cide that death occur after actual birth. The injuries may 
 have been inflicted previously. Thus, if a child is born 
 alive, but subsequently dies from the effect of bruises which 
 it received wliile in the womb, the person inflicting the in- 
 juries is chargeable with murder or manslaughter. But 
 if the dealh occur during the progress of the delivery, 
 though a portion of the child's person has been removed 
 from its mother's body, no crime is committed. It is not, 
 however, necessary that the full period of gestation should 
 be completed, for if a person intending to procure an abor- 
 tion does an act which causes a child to be born before the 
 expiration of the natural time, and it dies in consequence 
 of its exposure to the external world or from the injuries 
 it has received, he will be guilty of murder. (See the works 
 of Bishop, of Wharton, of Russell on Criminal Lnic; Whar- 
 ton on Homicide: Archbold's Criminal Practice, For tho 
 various medical tests employed to determine the cause of 
 a child's death, and whether it has occurred before or after 
 birth, such works may be consulted as Wharton and Stille's 
 Medical Juritprudence: Beck OR the same subject ; and also 
 Taylor.) George Chase. Revised by T. W. Bwigiit. 
 
 In'fant Je'sns, Daughters of the, an order of nuns 
 in the Roman Catholic Church. Founded at Rome by Anna 
 Moroni of Lucca for the industrial instruction of poor girls ; 
 it was first acknowledged in 1673 by Clement X. No con- 
 vent can have more than thirty-three members, that being 
 the number of years Jesus was on the earth. There was 
 also an older order called "Sisters of the Good Jesus," 
 which a])pears to have been long extinct. 
 
 In'fantry [Lat. infana, "child" or "servant," applied to 
 servants who went on foot, and infanteria^ to foot-soldiers 
 generally] is that portion of a military establishment armed 
 and equipped for marching and fighting on foot, in contra- 
 distinction to artillery and cavalry. It is the oldest of the 
 "three arms" into which armies arc conventionally divided; 
 was the favorite of the Greeks, the Gauls, the (ierinans, and 
 the Franks, and was that mainly with which Rome con- 
 quered the world. Under Grecian and Roman civilization 
 it attained pre-eminence as the arm of battle, but fell into 
 contempt and comparative desuetude early in tho Middle 
 Ages, and did not emerge from that obscurity till the de- 
 cline of the feudal system. It steadily increased in power 
 from the tirst years of the fourteenth century, and is now 
 recognized as constituting the principal strength of mili- 
 tary organizations. This importance results from the fact 
 that it can be used everywhere, " in mountains or on plains, 
 in woody or open countries, in cities or in fiehls. on rivers 
 or at sea, in the redoubt or in the attack on the breach." 
 It is tho self-sustaining arm in the field of battle, and is 
 moreover less expensive, man for man, than its auxiliaries. 
 j Aitcitnt Infantry. — The primitive fonnation of heavy in- 
 fantry was massive, as is shown in the solid squares of 
 I 10,000 men portrayed in Egy])tian history, and this order 
 I was gradually reduced in depth through the Persian and 
 Dorian formations till it reached the phalangial systems 
 of Sparta, Thebes, and Athens. These systems became 
 ! homologous under the Macedonian empire, and the ])halan.\ 
 as it existed under that domination is now described. The 
 I foot -soldiers were divided into three classes — ihe hopl it ea, 
 or heavy infantry, in complete armor and carrying the 
 sarissa. a spear over twenty feet in length ; the peltaetrH, or 
 light infantry, with shorter spears and less eomplete armor; 
 and tho puilif, or sharpshooters, who wore no armor and 
 carried only missile weapons. Tlie pfiolanjc. comparable, in 
 size at least, to a modern division, consisted nominally of 
 4ii:Kt hoplites, organized into two ^e/f/rc/uVf (or brigades), 
 each consisting of two cftiUnrrhra (regiments or battalions), 
 ■ and these in turn divided into four ftyntagmata (battalions 
 or companies). Tho syntagma combined sixteen files, 
 I each file (lovhos) containing sixteen men; and thus in line 
 I of battle tho phalanx presented a nominal front of 2i>{\ men 
 1 and a depth of IG men. In open order, as for the march,
 
 INFANTRY. 
 
 1189 
 
 there were intervals of about six feet between the files; in 
 close order, us in advancing to the attack, the spaces be- 
 tween ranks and files were reduced to about three leet ; and 
 in the locked, or dcfent;ive order, the men closed shoulder 
 to shouhler on the front rank, overlappint; tlieir shields; 
 and in this order presented an almost iniponetralile hedge 
 of steel to the enemy. The peltastes bad a similiar forma- 
 tion, though of less depth and under ditlVrcnt denomina- 
 tions, but it is not clear that tlie psilse Imd any MSlcmatic 
 orgnnization. Four of these elementary phalanges, with 
 their complement of light infantry and cavalry, formed the 
 grand phalanx, or army corps. 
 
 But a rival system, substantially anticipated in tlie He- 
 brew armies of Joshua, reappeared in |{otnau infantry. 
 The fcgion was coetanoous with the foundation of Rome, 
 and, in so far as it combined all the constituent eletnents, 
 was a prototype of the corps d'armee of to-day. Originally, 
 legionary infantry was massed according to the phahingial 
 method, but as early as 340 u. r. that formation had been 
 superseded by a system of heavy lines so divided into tac- 
 tical units, called tnanipuH, tliat while each line and each 
 unit could act separately, they could execute combined 
 movements with celerity and precision. The complement 
 of infantry for each legion gradually increased from .'iOOO 
 to 6000. and in the details of equipment and organization 
 changes were frequent. As existing in the First Punic war, 
 and consisting nominally of 4200 pidH'H, the heavy in- 
 fantry was formed in three lines — in the first line l-IH) hni>. 
 tafi, young and inexi)erienced warriors ; in the second. 1200 
 pniicipen, men in full vigor of life; and in the third^OOO 
 trinrii, the veteran trotips. Kach line was divided into ten 
 fnaM(7)i(^(' (companies), tbe first two lines being in ten ranks 
 and the third in six ranks; and in each company the space 
 between ranks and files was about three feet, the men in 
 rear of the front rank standing opposite the intervals of 
 the rank next in their front. To this force was attached a 
 corp of 12U0 celiten (skirmishers), who probably had neither 
 company organization nor fixed position in the legion. At 
 this period all of the heavy infantry were equipped in com- 
 plete armor, and were armed with the short straight sword ; 
 the haatati and principes also carried heavy javelins, and 
 the triarii had long spears. The velites wore no armor, 
 and used none but missile weapons. l*rior to this period 
 the long spear had been borne by the hastati, and the pi- 
 htmy a heavy javelin, by the triarii ; hence the name of the 
 first line, and the designation of that and tho second line as 
 antepilani. These misnomers obtained, however, till these 
 classifications of heavy infantry ceased. In tho Second 
 Punic war the manipuli of a legion were grouped into ten 
 rohorlen (battalions), consisting each of a eornj)any of has- 
 tati, one of principes. and one of triarii, with probably a 
 corresponding proportion of velites. About 100 h. c. the 
 heavy infantry, ceasing to bo divided into classes, are 
 armed and equipped alike, the velites disappear from the 
 legion, separate corps of light infantry are formed from tho 
 auxiliary forces, and the cohort, becoming the tactical unit, 
 resembles more closely the morlern battalion. This was tho 
 formation employed by Maritis and Ciesar, and maintained 
 till about the time of Hadrian: and subsequent modifiea- 
 tinns did not destroy the distinctive features of tho system. 
 
 Tho contrast between the rival systems of antiquity is 
 confined to the heavy infantry, or troops of tho line, and 
 is, briefly, that of large masses comparatively inert, with 
 smaller force-units of corresponding mobility. The pha- 
 lanx, thougli equal t<j a modern division in numbers, was, 
 tactically speaking, simply a huge battalion, and its usual 
 figure was that of an oblong rectangle (Fig. 1). This for- 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 I 
 
 tL. 
 
 ^HZEES 
 
 mation cniiM chanjjo. iind pxleml or onnlnict its front, nnd 
 form roliiniiK'i, sqiuircy. wcij^rx. etc. ft wiis peculijirly for- 
 miilalilr in ilffonKivc nlliludp. nnd was ovorivhdniinK in an 
 onHlnuglit over finorutilc grounil and for short distancos ; 
 hut there scorns ttt have lieen no provision for mantnivor- 
 ing hy fractional parts except to form masses of greater 
 depth, and the phalanx ongnKed at all was enitaged as a 
 whole. On tho other hand, the taelieal units of the legion 
 never exccedecl fillO men, and these could he maniruvcred 
 separately, in croups, or as a whole. The formations most 
 cbaractcristio of tho Uoman system were the manipular ar- 
 
 mumQ Mmmmm M 
 
 ray in quincunx order (Fig. 2). and the later formation in 
 two or more lines of ecdiorts, with small intervals in each 
 
 line for the passage of light troops ; and from either of these 
 orders, columns, continuous lines, hollow and solid sqnares. 
 etc. were readily derived. The manipular system gave grent 
 flexibility to the legionary infantry, but at tho expense of 
 its powers of resistance, and the later cohort formation as 
 arranged by Csesar (Fig. ;i) was a partial reversion to the 
 Ki.;. :i. 
 
 T I I 
 
 phftlangial order. iModern criticism is pronounced in favor 
 of the Roman cohort, but in its renaissance infantry was 
 again displayed after the rival methods of Alexander and 
 Ciesar; and in conijiaring the two systems there is danger 
 of overestimating the effect of purely tactical combinations 
 upon the fortunes of ancient armies. At Marathon an 
 Athenian line only four deep and at "double time" suc- 
 eessfnlly charged great odds in dense masses; at Leuctra 
 the Spartan line, eight deep, is pierced by tiie Theban col- 
 umn : Greeks in phalanx conquer the Persians in like order, 
 but finally succumb to the Roman cohort, hut that in turn 
 was annihilated by tho barbarian hosts in phalangial ar- 
 ray ; and it is significant in this connection that while 
 Pyrrhus and Hannibal adopted Roman wenpons, ihey did 
 not discard the niassi\e formation. 
 
 In the Miffillc A(jrn infantry eontinued to constitute the 
 principal strength of the dominant powers of Europe till 
 the feudal system was established. In the seven days' 
 battle of Tours (a. n. 7.'52} we find tho heavy battalions of 
 the Franks defying the fury of the Saracenic cavalry, and 
 for ever turning back the northern tide of Moslem inva- 
 sion: this, however, was its last creditable appearance for 
 several centuries. I>uring the period of its aliasement, war 
 was pre-eminently the occupation of mankind, but military 
 science was in abeyance. Armies worthy of tho name 
 ceased to exist, and all discipline disap])eareii ; cavalry be- 
 came the principal arm, and for over 400 yenrs the mnn-at- 
 arms in conijiarative security trani]>led the despised infant- 
 ry, then a tumultuous mob that pillaged or fled as fortune 
 served their mounted musters. But feudalism forced roy- 
 alty into alliance with the commons; to curb the nol)Ie iho 
 king armed and disciplined the peasant. ''Communal" 
 militia was organized, and soon proved superior to the ba- 
 ronial followlngs, and as early as 1214 some of the German 
 infantry is ilescribed as " very good, and trained to fight 
 on the level vrm <tijniuH( cnralry." In the next century 
 Flemish infantry with crossbow and ])artisan overthrows 
 the chivalry of France at Courtrai (Ki02), the Austrian 
 man-at-arms comes to signal grief on the Swiss pike at 
 Morgarten (i:il.'>). Sempach (i;'.8fi),and Nafels (i:i88), and 
 the Knglish knight dismounts to fight beside the victorious 
 archer at Cressy and Poitiers (l.'!4fi-f)n). The prestige thus 
 re-established, though often challenged, was never lost; 
 corps of pikemen and archers became essential elements in 
 all military organizations : ami in the standing armies 
 raised nbout the miiidle (if the fifteenth century these troops 
 attained such steadiness and dexterity that cavalry, in its 
 last crustnceons security, soon fared but indifl"erently in 
 disputing precedence with infantry; and when the weap- 
 ons of the latter delivered missiles through the heaviest 
 plate-armor that man and beast ctuild bear, the issue was 
 decided. Cavulry was still important, but was relegated 
 to an auxiliary position. 
 
 From the fall of the Western empire till about the battle 
 of Pavia (1.02.'i) defnils of military formations are exceed- 
 ingly meagre. While systematic arrangements obtained, 
 there appears to have been adherence t(t the systems of 
 Greece and Rome. At Casilinum (a. n. UbX) the Franks 
 in phalangial wedge are defeated by the cohorts of Narses ; 
 at Tours they are victorious in massive square; ot Hast- 
 ings tlie Anghf-Saxons adopt<'d n similar order; at Ron- 
 vines (1214) the Gernnins were in hollow square; the iUhut 
 of Swiss infantry ts in Grecian wedges and sqnares; wliilc 
 the Spanish infantry, eqimlly famous a few years later, fir?t 
 appears in the Rinuan order, and. like its prototype, ex- 
 hibits a pnrtiiil reversion to the (Jreek method when con- 
 fronted with the Swiss copy. The principal infantry 
 weapons, ofl'ensive and defensive, during this period were 
 straight swords, pikes, axes, spiked clubs, hmgbows, hal- 
 berds, crossbows, parlisa?is. helmets, ntail-jackets, corselets, 
 and shields. As in former perioils. the use of missile arms 
 is almost exclusively confined to light troops. 
 
 Mmlcrn iit/autn/ is conveniently nssumecl to date from 
 the general introduction of firearms — not because that 
 event at once revolutionized military methoils.bnt because 
 from that period there is aullientie record of the gnidnal 
 revival of military science. Firearms were in general use
 
 1190 
 
 INFANTRY. 
 
 when tho battle of Pavia occurred, but for many years 
 these weapons were unwieiay, uncertain of aim, and lim- 
 ited in range. They did not entirely supersede the bow 
 till about tho middle of the sixteenth century, and the 
 musket did not become tho sole arm of civilucd infantry 
 till at the beginning of tho eighteenth century, it became, 
 with the socU'ct l)ayonet, a pyro-ballistic Jiikc. In the in- 
 fantry "bands" organized by Francis I. in laii, and 
 promptly imitated by other nations, the arquebusiers and 
 archers'in equal proportion to each other, constituted two- 
 fifths of the entire force; in 1562. "regiments'' of about 
 3000 men become common, and, the bow disajipeanng, the 
 proportion of firearms is soon increased to one-hall. At 
 the bc^'inning of the Thirty Yeais' war "battalions of 
 about 500 men had been organized, which in extended or- 
 der presented a line of contiguous company squares, ten or 
 twelve r.anks in depth, with the light infantry (then mus- 
 keteers) on the flank.-!. But notwithstanding the steadily 
 increasing destructiveness of artillery and small-arms these 
 battalions were still habitually massed for action into close 
 columns of twenty, and even thirty, files; and these un- 
 wieldy imitations of tho phalanx suffered an additional 
 incunilirance in the immediate pro.ximity of the enemy 
 from the huddling of their own musketeers within the pro- 
 tection of their pikes. The impotence of this system was 
 rudely exposed by tho genius of Gustavus Adolphus, who 
 seems to have been the first to awaken Europe to the value 
 of infantry fire. His innovations consisted simply in so 
 adaptini' "his battalion formation and gr.and tactical com- 
 bination's as to develop tho full force of his own fire with 
 the least possible exposure to that from the enemy. To 
 accomplish this result, he formed battalions of mobile di- 
 mensions, reduced the depth of his ranks to six men, in- 
 creased the proportion of firearms to about three-fifths, 
 li-rhtened the musket, shortcnc.i the pike, discarded useless 
 annor, and introduced the cartridge and cartridge-bo.x. 
 Moreover, bis men were taught to use the spade as well as 
 their legs. His usual order of battle was in two lines, re- 
 sembling the quincunx system of the Romans (Fig. i). The 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Peace of Paris to the present day but trifling differences 
 
 have existed in the organizations of difl'erent nations. The 
 
 English were probably the first to adopt a habitual forma- 
 
 FiG. .5. 
 
 ^OFFICERS ■N.COfFICEflS 
 
 (File-closers and supernu- 
 meraries omitted.) 
 
 ^1 n^dJisD ^ 
 
 ^ piKEMEN DmUSKETEERS 
 
 superiority of the Swedish system was so forcibly demon- 
 strated at Breitenfeld and Lutzen (1031-32) as to be gen- 
 erally and speedily adopted. 
 
 About 1670 the bayonet was generally introduced, and 
 the proportion of pikemen was correspondingly reduced, 
 till in 1075 it did not exceed one-fourth in any of the prin- 
 cipal armies. The socket bayonet appeared in IfiO'J, and 
 within six ycar.s tho pike virtually disappeared from the 
 battle-field; and while all infantry is armed with the same 
 weapon, the distinction between heavy and light corps, 
 originating in the incompatibility of the ancient wielded 
 and missile weapons, remains nominal. AVith the discard- 
 in.' of pikes came a reduction of lineal formations to four 
 ranks, but the distance between the ranks was yariable; 
 in them the elbow-touch was not preserved, and the ca- 
 dence step, common from the most remote period of Egyp- 
 tian history till the extinction of classic civilization, was 
 not yet revived. This contrivance for securing mobility 
 in cohesive order was adopted by Marshal gaxe, whose 
 battalions thereupon astonished both Iricnd and toe by the 
 aggressiye use of their legs. 
 
 Frederick the Gteat is generally considered as the next 
 reformer of military methods, and the maneuvering of his 
 battalions and their evolutions in line of battle certainly 
 reconciled celerity with precision of combination to a de- 
 gree till then comparatively, if not totally, unknown. At- 
 taching greater importance to the fire of his infantry than 
 to thei" use of the bayonet, he increased the volume of fire 
 by extending the battalion in three ranks, and by thorough 
 drill so accustomed his troops to tho use of their weapons 
 and to steadiness in marching that in unwavering lines, 
 advancing or retreating, they could pour well-sustained 
 volleys upon the enemy. His battalion, two of which con- 
 stituted a regiment, consisted of six companies, five of fu- 
 .silicrs, and one of grenadiers, and its nominal strength was 
 090 men, rank and file. Each battalion was divided for 
 tactical purposes into eight divisions, and each"company 
 into four sections, but, unfortunately, his division embraced 
 sections of three different cuinpanies (Fig. 5). A force of 
 supernumeraries accompanied each battalion to fill vacan- 
 cies in the ranks. The Seven Years' war made the Prus- 
 sian infantry tho arohotypo for Christendom, and from tho 
 
 tion in two ranks, and the propriety of reduction to one 
 rank is now seriously discussed, and is provided for in the 
 U. S. tactics. 
 
 The division of infantry into light and heavy troops, 
 that had become nominal about the year 1700, was revived, 
 first by placing the new arms, as muskets were improved 
 in range and accuracy, in the hands of picked men from 
 each battalion or in special corps (fusiliers, grenadiers, 
 etc.). and subsequently by the introduction of rifled arms, 
 which as first employed were deemed unsuitable for " troops 
 of tho line." Corps of riflemen were accordingly organ- 
 ized under various denominations (chasseurs, tirailleurs, 
 etc.), were trained in gymnastic exercises, and specially 
 drilled for marching and fighting in open order as sharp- 
 shooters. But in the present day the distinction is again 
 nominal. The rifle is universal, and all infantry is really 
 light infantry. . . ^ 
 
 The present organization of infantry is in Companif.s, 
 Battalions, and Regiments (which see); for tactical pur- 
 poses the companies are generally divided into platoous, 
 the battalions into wings and divisions; and for like pur- 
 poses the battalions are grouped into Brigaues and Divis- 
 ions (which see). Regimental organizations are purely 
 administrative; in the armies of Europe they generally 
 consist of two or more battalions, and the nominal battal- 
 ion strength, rank and file, ranges from 500 to UlOO men. 
 
 In the army of the U. S. the infantry is organized into 
 twenty-five regiments, each consisting of one battalion of 
 ten co"inpanies. To each regiment there is a colonel, lieu- 
 tenant-colonel, major, adjutant, quartermaster, sergeant- 
 major, quartermaster-sergeant, chief musician, and two 
 principal musicians, and to the two " colored regiments 
 a chaplain each. 
 
 Each company has a captain, two lieu- 
 tenants, five sergeants, four corporals, two musicians, two 
 artificers, a wagoner, and, under the organic law, from oO 
 to 100 privates, but under temiioiary restrictions in the an- 
 nual appropriation for the army the number of privates 
 avera.'cs only 34. which gives a regimental strength, rank 
 and hie, of about 4S0 men. The companies arc permanently 
 designated bv Iclters of the alphabet, and are so posted in 
 the battalion as to have the senior captain on the right, 
 the next in rank on the left, the third in the centre, and so 
 on The lieutenants, when not commanding subdivisions, 
 and the sergeants, when not acting as guides, constitute 
 the "file-closers." and are stationed in rear of tlieir re- 
 spective companies. The various distinctive formations 
 of our battalion and of a company are indicated m ligs. 
 6 and 7. The individual soldier is armed with a brecch- 
 FiG. 6. 
 
 A. HUE OF OATTLE. 
 
 B. CtCSC COLUMN BY DIVISIOM. 
 
 C.RALLY AGWMST CAVALRTf, 
 
 loading rifle and triangular bayonet, and is now experi- 
 menting with a contrivance designed to combine the dan- 
 gerous qualities of the bayonet with the protective virtues 
 of the spade. His uniform is distinguished by light-blue 
 trimmings, and in heavy marching order he carries a knap- 
 sack with complete change of clothing, a blanket great- 
 coat, several days' rations in haversack, a canteen of water, 
 and 00 rounds of ammunition. 
 
 Theoretically, the proportion of infantry in all properly 
 organized armies sliould be from two-thirds to three-four hs 
 of the permanent establishment, but as efficient infantry 
 can bo created moio readily than serviceable artillery or
 
 INFANT SCHOOLS— INFINITE. 
 
 1191 
 
 cavalry, thi» proportion is rarely maintained i» a peace 
 c.ttablif^limcnt. In the U. S. service the proportion of the 
 three arms is about — artillery ODC-eighth, cavalry three- 
 
 Fio. 7. 
 
 A. 
 
 ~li- 
 
 □ 
 
 6 
 
 □ 
 
 3 
 
 cm 
 
 C3 
 
 7 
 
 DCZ2C3 
 
 2 9 6 
 
 n r 
 
 1 1 
 
 r 
 
 
 T 
 
 B 
 
 -1 
 
 -] 
 
 1 
 
 1 n 
 
 5 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 El D Q D □ 
 
 A, in line; B, column of fours. 1, captain; 2, first lieutenant; 3. 
 second lieutenant ; 4. first sergeant; 5, second sergeant; 6, lliird 
 sergeant; 7, fourlb sergeant; 8, lil'lh sergeant; 9, musicianfi. 
 
 eighths, and infantry unc-half, but the exigencies of this 
 service demand a cuDstant interchange of duties between 
 the three arms. Kdbeut N. tScoTX. 
 
 InTant Schools were originally charitable institutions 
 that sprang up in the early part of the present century, 
 simply to relieve the mothers of the laboring classes of the 
 care of their little children when they are away at day 
 labor. Their value was merely that they kept the children 
 out of the streets and physically comfortable. They got 
 the name of »cAoo/« because among the devices for keeping 
 them quiet by circumventing their spontaneous activity, 
 they were taught to march and some gymnastic exercises, 
 ond to sing in rhyme or intone the multiplication table, 
 the names of the days of the week, of the months of the 
 year, and other things of that kind. The best thing taught 
 in the infant schools was to sing hymns, for music is the 
 natural language of piety, and little children thus get the 
 notion of religion and some of its most suggestive sym- 
 bols into their ''chambers of imagery." Some of the dis- 
 ciples of I'estalozzi. and especially Wildcrspin. endeavored 
 to develop something educational out of these charitable 
 institutions, introducing some object-teaching, lint they 
 were not even the germ of the kindartjartcn (see KlioRltEL 
 and KiNDKRtJARTKN), becausc they were not founded on any 
 study of the nature of childhood, and tlieir methori was 
 simply ronliti'T, which is the opposite of cnldvatimj; so far 
 from preparing children for the schools of instruction, as 
 the kindergarten education docs, their substitution of memo- 
 rized words for observed things renders children less sus- 
 ceptible of being taught the way to discover facts and 
 truth. Our countryman, jMr. A. B. Alcott, in articles 
 written in the first Journal of EdncntloH published in 
 America — which was edited by William Uussell in Boston 
 in the years 1820-29 — pointed out the radical defect of the 
 infant school method of dealing with children's minds. lie 
 made experiments of a more vital one. His wonderful 
 success in touching into activity the moral sense of the 
 neglected children in the cellars of Broad strcci, gathered 
 by some charitable ladies of Buston into an infant school in 
 182G, atfracted the attention of (ho cultivated classes, and 
 led to the establishment of a school, of which a volume 
 called the Record of n School gives an account, and which 
 contains a genuine study of childhood and a high appre- 
 ciation of Mr. Alcott. But in the last edition of this book 
 the author is seen to have bei-omr the disciple of Froebel's 
 broailer and more natural method, whoso scope involves all 
 that is good in the infant school, corrects its errors, and 
 supplies its deficiencies. Klizabrth P. Pkaiioov. 
 
 Infanzona'dOf a district comprising 72 villages in the 
 plain-country of (he Spani.-^h province of Vizcaya or Bis- 
 cay ; it was eonsiilered as tlic noblest region of tlie Itncquo 
 country, and its reprcBentattvcs enjoyed a preference at the 
 juntttH. The name is supposed to imply that this territory 
 was once the flomain of the iuftnzonrx — liir-rally, the 
 "great infants" — of the royal family. The territory is 
 divided into the five merindudet of Uribe, Busturia, Ar- 
 ratin, Bi-<Iia, and .Marquina. 
 
 Infi'ction. See Contagion. 
 
 In'lidel [Lat. in/?^/*:/!'*, "unfaithful," "unbelieving"], 
 a term a]»plied, usually with something of reproach, (1) to 
 disbelievers in the Thristian religion, whether atheists or 
 deists (see ArnEtsM. Dfists); (2) to non-believers, such as 
 Mohammedans and heathens, but this uflo of the word is 
 antif|uated an<l nnw unfrequent; while (;'. ) the skeptic or 
 dovibter (soe Skki'TIcism), as a non-believiT, is aNo io some 
 
 extent liable to the reproach of infidelity ; and in popular 
 parlance the term free-thinker is synonymous with iutidel. 
 (See FnEi:-TniSKEKs, by 0. B. Fkothinguam.) 
 
 In'finitc [t'ri^ negative, and _^«i>, "end "]. In music, 
 certain canonical compositions which have no proper close 
 arc called infinite (or without termination), because each 
 part, on arriving at the last note, immediately returns to 
 the first and proceeds as before, the number of repetitions 
 being at the pleasure of the performers and terminated by 
 an arbitrary signal. The real ending should always be on 
 the chord of the tonic or one of its inversions, and this 
 also on a principal accented part of a bar or measure. 
 Sometimes a final cadence is expressly added to the canon, 
 or is a part of its construction, and forms the proper ter- 
 mination. The canon is, in such case, said to be finite. 
 Kohner remarks that " an infinite unrestricted canon is 
 easily made finite, and a finite made infinite: it is required 
 only to add a cadence in the one case, and to take it away 
 in the other." William Staixton. 
 
 Inflnitej in philosophy. As a philosophical term, 
 "infinite" expresses the form of Being which is self- 
 related and contains no implied contrast to other-being. 
 If the term is used to ex])ress a contrast with the finite 
 or indefinite, and the infinite is regarded as a " beyond" 
 to the finite, the thought of the infinite is inadequate, 
 and the conception is really that of one finite over 
 against another. The infinite must be conceived as con- 
 taining the finite within it as an essential element of its 
 self-relation. There arc three significations in which the 
 term "infinite" is employed, corresponding to the three 
 stages of theoretical reflection: («) the dogmatic, (/>) the 
 skeptical, (r) the speculative. I. As merely negative of 
 the finite, in which case the finite expresses concrete reality 
 and fulness of relations, while the infinite expresses a mere- 
 ly abstract and negative notion. '■ conceived only by think- 
 ing away the very conditions under which thought itself is 
 realized." The infinite in this sense is. according to Sir 
 William Hamilton, " the unconditionally unlimited;" the 
 absolute, defined as "the unconditionally limited," being 
 the other species constituting the genus of the "uncon- 
 ditioned." Such an Infinite, being indeterminate, and de- 
 void of all properties or attributes, and without distinction 
 or difference from anything else or within itself, is an empty 
 abstraction. The very thought of it involves self-contra- 
 diction ; the form of its definition places it in relation or 
 contrast, as excluding the finite, while the content of its 
 definition denies all relation or determination whatsoever. 
 The attempt to conceive such a thought results in a sort of 
 ideal oscillation between the determined and undetermined 
 — the thought of the Indefinite, or Infinite Progress. II. 
 The "infinite progress" is the form under wliich the infi- 
 nite is most commonly thought. The infinite divisibility 
 of space, its infinite extent, the infinite regress of causes or 
 conditions in the search of a First Cause, the doctrine of 
 moral perfectibility, etc., furnish practical examples. The 
 mind passes from one phase to its opposite, and returns 
 again only to repeat the process; for it finds in eucli phaso 
 its other, and endeavors analytically to separate them. 
 Each cause, inasmuch as it begins to act, must have an- 
 other cause to explain the occasion of its action at this 
 particular time; each space divided furnishes two spaces 
 which are in all respects like the first space, and capable 
 of division :igain ; beyond any space which wo may con- 
 ceive or picture in our minds there is still other (<paco ; 
 whatever is, is finite iiud imperfect, and therefore ought to 
 bo reformed or improved. \n the thought of the infinite 
 as a progress there is an unconscious dual activity in tho 
 mind, in which the inuiginatiiui and reflection take part. 
 Tho famous " antinomies " of Kant arise in this way. Tho 
 finite is pictured to the mind, and tho pure reflection tran- 
 scends the picture or image, and defines for itself tho logi- 
 cal conditions of the finite, but immediately applies these 
 conditions to a finite realization and renews its mental im- 
 age. Sir William Ilamillon held that "all that is conceiv- 
 able in thought lies between two extremes, which, as con- 
 tradictory oi' each other, cannot bulb be true, but of which 
 as mutual contradictories one must be true." His proof is 
 "by application to the |)henomena." In regard to space, 
 for example, he finds, on tho one hand, that we are unable 
 to conceive space as hounded, for then it would be surruund- 
 cd by space: on the other hanil, wo cannot conceive it as 
 infinite, fur we arc unable to "realize in thought" unlimit- 
 ed space by "transcending in fancy " tho finite, or even by 
 "exhausting imagination" in tho attempt to image it. In 
 this we have (ho representative faculty t'liilitig to produce 
 an adequate picture of infinite space. Since even mental 
 pictures must be finite, a successful picture of space as a 
 whole would prove its finitude, and thus contradict the in- 
 ference of pure reflection, which pronounces space infitiitc, 
 on the ground that any limitatir.n nf space must be made hy
 
 1192 
 
 INFINITES AND INFINITESIMALS— INFLAMMATION. 
 
 space itself and thus continue it instead of ending it. Since, 
 however, an image or pielure of space is impossible, the two 
 results harmonize, and tli<TC is no antinomy. III. t'uder 
 the thought of the "infinite progress" lies, therefore, the 
 thought of the positive infinite. Spinoza culled this the 
 infinitum octti vcf rati'onin, to disttnguiiili it from the infini- 
 tuih. itnnfftnationtu, already described. The infinite recur- 
 rence of the same limits implies the necessary self-relntion 
 of the process. To affirm that beyond every conceivable 
 boundary or assignable limit there is still more space, im- 
 plies an insight into the self-limiting or self-continuing 
 nature of space. If it related to something else, it were 
 finite; to be infinite, it must be its own limit or rtZ/^ritm. 
 The highest example of this is to be found in conscious 
 being, wherein the subject is its o\vn object, knowing and 
 known being identical. Aristotle makes the Infinite and 
 highest truth to be vorja-i^ rojjo-ew?. — Dr. Noah Porter {The 
 Hum. Int., p. 057) gives this standpoint clearly: "The 
 'antinomies' of Kant and the * essential contradictories' 
 of Hamilton, each of which seems necessary to the mind, 
 and each of which excludes the other, are all made by the 
 mind itself in the attempt to illustrate the infinite by the 
 finite. The antinomies of Kant are incompatibilities be- 
 tween an {muf/e and a relation which the image exempli- 
 fies, or between two images adduced to illustrate different 
 relations, or between two concepts which are not both ne- 
 cessary to the mind. The solution of them is to be found 
 in the restatement of the conceptions between which these 
 incompatibilities are said to exist." ''When Hamilton 
 says we must conceive of space as a bounded or not bound- 
 ed sphere, he introduces the image of an object existing in 
 space and limited in space, in order to illustrate space it- 
 self, and confounds the one with the other. To introduce 
 the image of an extended object to show that space exists 
 and holds some relation to every extended object, is legiti- 
 mate, but to substitute the limited — i. c. an extended ob- 
 ject — for the true unlimited — i. e. space which makes ex- 
 tension possible — and then to be embarrassed by the incom- 
 patibilities of our own creation, is to fall into the very se- 
 rious error of confouuding the image with the notion (an- 
 Hchauunff with the Berfriff) against which Hamilton ex- 
 pressly cautions his pupils." While nominalists and ma- 
 terialists have generally denied the possibility of knowing 
 the infinite, for subjective or objective reasons, most real- 
 ists and idealists have claimed a knowledge of it more or 
 less adequate. W. T. Harris. 
 
 Infinites and Infinitesimals. In mathematics, an 
 infinite quitntiti/ is a quantity greater than any assignable 
 quantity of the same kind, and an iufinitetinial is a quan- 
 tity less than any assignable quantity' of the same kind. 
 To illustrate the meaning of the terms infinite and in- 
 finitesimal, let us take the fraction —, whose numerator is a 
 
 finite constant — that is, a quantity that contains a definite 
 number of known units — and whose denominator is ran a - 
 hie. As X diminishes, the value of the fraction increases; 
 when X becomes exceedingly small, the value of the frac- 
 tion becomes exceedingly large; in all cases we can give to 
 X a value so small as to make the fraction greater than any 
 assignable quantity of the same kind. The value towards 
 which the fraction tends as .r tends toward is said to bo 
 infinite, and is denoted by the symbol :c. Again, as x in- 
 creases, the value of the fraction diminishes; when x be- 
 comes exceedingly great, the value of the fraction becomes 
 exceedingly small : in all cases we can give a value to x 
 so great that it will make the fraction less than any as- 
 signable quantity of the same kind. The value towards 
 which the fraction tends when x tends towartls infinity is 
 said to be infinitc^inifil, and is often, though not properly, 
 denoted by the symbol 0. These relations are expressed by 
 saying that a finite quantity divided by an infinitesimal is 
 infinite, and a finite quantity divided by infinity is an in- 
 finitesimal: that is, !- = '» and — = 0. Neither an infi- 
 00 
 
 nitc nor an infinitesimal can bo expressed in terms of a 
 finite unit. 
 
 The terms infinite and infinitesimal, as above explained, 
 are purely technical, and their signification must not bo 
 confounded with their absolute or popular meanings. Thus, 
 the or naught of common language is an absolute nega- 
 tion of quantity, whereas the infinitesimal, or the as wo 
 have described it, is a quantity, but it is a quantity so 
 small that it is inappreciable in comparison with any finite 
 quiintily. 
 
 Infinites and infinitesimals, according to their technical 
 signification, may be compared with each other; that is, 
 they may have definite ratios. Thus, if we take the cx- 
 
 rt 2a :ia ... 
 
 pressions — , — , — , etc., x being the same in all, and then 
 
 if we suppose x to become infinitely small, thero will result 
 
 a series of infinites of which the second is twice the first, 
 the third three times the first, and so on. Again, if we 
 suppose X to become infinitely great, there will result a 
 scries of infinitesimals in which each bears a definite ratio 
 to every other one. The principle here enunciated is the 
 basis of the infinitesimal calculus; thus, the ratio of the 
 infinitesimal increment of the variable to the correspond- 
 ing increment of the functiun is a definite ratio, and is 
 calleil the differential coefficient of the function. The ratio 
 of these simultaneous increments can be found from the re- 
 lation between the function and its variable, and conversely 
 the relation between the function and variable may be 
 found from the ratio of their infinitesimal increments. 
 
 The terms infinite and infinite.-imal are purely relative, 
 so that we may have infinites that are infinitely great with 
 respect to other infinites, and infinitesimals that are in- 
 finitely small with respect to oftier infinitesimals. For, let 
 
 1 X x*-* 
 us take the continued identical equation, — = — = —r-> etc.; 
 
 if we suppose x to be infinitely great with respect to 1, then 
 will J- be infinitely great with respect to r. j^ will be in- 
 finitely great with respect to x^, and so on : if we suppose 
 X to be infinitely small with respect to 1, then will x^ be in- 
 finitely small with respect to x, x^ will be infinitely small 
 with respect to x^, and so on. Infinites and infinitesimals 
 may be either positive or negative. Thus, if n divided by 
 X is a positive infinite or infinitesimal, then will —a divided 
 by X be a negative infinite or infinitesimal. 
 
 Infinites and infinitesimals are subject to definite rules, 
 and the resulting calculus is as rigorous and true as the 
 calculus of finite quantities. In fact, many of the processes 
 of geometry are based on the ideas of infinites and in- 
 finitesimals as above explained. Thus, if we inscribe a 
 regular polygon in a circle, and then bisect the arcs sub- 
 tended by each side of the polygon, and join the points of 
 bisection with the adjacent vertices of the polygon, there 
 will be inscribed a second regular polygon having twice as 
 many sides as the given one; this polygon will coincide 
 more nearly with the circle than the first. If we form a 
 third regular polygon in the same manner, having t^vice as 
 many sides as the second, it will coincide still more nearly 
 with the circle than the second, and so on indefinitely. If 
 we conceive this process of bisection and formation of 
 polygons, each having twice as many sides as the preced- 
 ing one, to be continued, the varying polygon will con- 
 tinually approach the circle, and finally, when the number 
 of sides of the polygon becomes infinite, the polygon will 
 coincide with the circle. Hence, we say that a circle is a 
 regular polygon having an infinite number of siilcs, and 
 consequently whatever can be predicated of regular poly- 
 gons can also be predicated of the circle. Thus, the area 
 of a regular polygon is equal to its perimeter multiplied by 
 one-half of its apothem ; but the perimeter of a circle is its 
 circumference, and the apothem of a circle is its radius; 
 hence, the area of a circle is equal to its circumference mul- 
 tiplied by one-half of its radius. W. G. Peck. 
 
 luflammable-gas Engine* See Gas-Exgive. 
 
 Inflamma'tion l'l4nt. infimn mo. infiatnmntnJn,to " kin- 
 dle, " yfa»JH)«, *' flame"], a morbid process characterized 
 by heat, redness, pain, and swelling. The predisposing 
 cause may be anything which tends to influence injuri- 
 ously the animal economy — plethora or aniemia. When 
 a part has once been the seat of inflammation, it is very 
 liable to be affected again under the slightest exciting 
 cause. Ago is a predisposing cause of inflammation ; in 
 infancy the parts most subject to become inflamed are the 
 bowels, pharynx, larynx, and brain, whereas during adult 
 life these parts are seldom affected, the favorite seat then 
 being the lungs, heart, urinary ap])aratus, etc. Sex exerts 
 a certain influence; a female is more apt to suffer from 
 peritonitis, phlebitis, or cellulitis in consequence of the par- 
 turient act. So the tcm])erament, food, occupation, climate, 
 etc. ail influence, to a greater or less extent, the suscepti- 
 bility of the individual to be attacked by inflammation. 
 The exciting causes may be divided into the constitutional 
 and local : the former includes all those agents which are 
 capable of rendering the blood impure, as poisonous gases, 
 cold. heat. etc. The loc.il cause is generally an injury of 
 some kind, cither chemical or mechanical. Every vascular 
 part may be the seat of inflammation, and usually in pro- 
 portion to the amount of its vascularity. It also seems 
 necessary that nerves should be present. Cartilage con- 
 tains no nerves and but few vessels, and is therefore rarely 
 the seat of inflammation. Epidermis, hair, and the nails 
 arc never inflamed, being destitute of blood-vessels, nerves, 
 and lymphatics. Inflammation may extend from one part 
 to another in one of the following ways: By continuity of 
 tissue; thus wo find that in inflammation of the arachnoid 
 the inflammatory action after a few days extends to the 
 brain-substance and causes delirium; through the agency of
 
 INFLECTION— INFLEXION. 
 
 1193 
 
 tho blood-vessels, ihcy carrying the products of the inflnm- 
 matory actiou to heulthy jiarts, nnd exciting therein a dis- 
 eased action; and through the nervous system ; but the 
 last way is probably more theoretical than borne out by 
 fact. Tho inlhimmation more likely arisi's de novo than 
 that it is produced through nervous sympathy. 
 
 Inflammation is generally divided into the acute and 
 chronic varieties; the former runs a rapid course and is 
 attended by well-marked symptoms — pain, heat, redness, 
 and swelling. The.-c have been given as the symptoms of 
 intlammalion from tho time of Hippocratus. The swelling 
 is caused by enlargement of the vessels, and more particu- 
 larly from serous effusion, whicli takes place into the ad- 
 jacent tissues: at a later period we have plastic exuda- 
 tion, which in the end tends to lessen tho size of a part. 
 Tho redness is a leading feature, and is due to enlarge- 
 ment of the vessels and an increase of the coloring-matter 
 of the blood. Pain is not essential to the disease — pneu- 
 monia and encephalitis are not painful diseases — but ex- 
 ternal inflammations are always attended with pain, which 
 is line to pressure upon the ultimate sensitive nervous fila- 
 ments. Serous membranes stand next to fibrous structures 
 of joints in tlie severity of innamniafion, altliough we may 
 have serous membranes inflamed without pain, as in puer- 
 peral peritonitis. The heat is a direct result of hypcra^mia. 
 It is chiefly felt in external inflammations ; the part re- 
 ceives more blood, and is consequently of a higher temper- 
 ature than the rest of tho surface, but it never- rises above 
 tho heat of the blood. Acute iuflammatiou is always at- 
 tended by more or less fever, which may bo ushered in by a 
 chill. The pulse runs up to 100-120, the respirations are 
 increased in number to 2;') or ;iO per minute, and the tem- 
 perature is raised to 10li°-10l° F. ; tho secretions are sup- 
 pressed, and there is headache and sometimes delirium. 
 Many attempts have been made to ascertain the exact 
 changes which take place in a part attacked by inflamma- 
 tion by artificially producing an inflammation in the web 
 of a frog's foot or the wing of a bat, and closely watching 
 tho changes under a powerful microscope; these observa- 
 tions have led to the t'ollowing conclusions : In inflamma- 
 tion the first change is in tho ganglionic system of nerves, 
 but of this system we know nothing except its efl'erts. This 
 nervous system influences the variou.s ilelerminations of 
 blood, as seen in blushing and the local temporary engorge- 
 ment of nervous women; as also congestions, which aro 
 not mechanical in their cauHC, but occur from a passive 
 atato of tho vessels. Next we will notice the changes which 
 arc seen to occur in the blood- ve^sr-ls. There is at first 
 active congestion of the part, and this condition is causetl 
 by internal or external irritation. Soon stagnation is ob- 
 served to take place at points. In the natural state the red 
 blood-corpuscles never touch the walls of the capillaries, 
 but in intlainmation this rule no longer obtains, ancl they 
 begin to adhere to the walls and to each other. This is 
 known as tho nfasia ; as it increases tho vessels continue to 
 dilate, and very soon after tho stasis is established tho 
 vessels begin to cxu'lo their contents, which makes its ap- 
 pearance amongst tho tissues. This exudation is not a 
 coagulation of tho blood as seen outsitio tho body ; it is 
 serous at first, but is 80<»n followed by an efl"usion of lymph 
 or li(|uor sanguinis, which, according to the old theory, 
 might be organized into false membrane or degenerate into 
 pus, it depenrling on the tissues involved and the consti- 
 tution of tho patient. At the present time, however, 
 Cohnheim's theory of the formation of pus is tho one gen- 
 erally received — viz. that tho corpuscles arc identical with 
 tho white blood-corpuscles, which arc exuded through tho 
 walls of the vessels. In process of tiuio the false membranu 
 becomes smooth. It has not yet been ascertained whether 
 nerves aro f<)rmed in tho tissues or not. Two theories aro 
 given to account for the formati'in of vessels in these now 
 productions — viz. Vogol's and JIunter's. Vogel believes 
 that ho has seen tho membrane itself produce the blood, 
 and afterwards the vessels to contain this blood, and ho 
 gays that finally these new vessels communicate with the 
 old ones. Hunter believes that tho new vessels are given 
 off from tho old ones. After vessels have been formed in 
 these new tissues contraction commences, and both tho 
 membrane and the vessels become smaller and firmer. This 
 contraction sometimes proves a serious nuLtter, as in tho 
 contraction of hands around tho intestines, especially in 
 tho neighborhood of tho rectum : the elTerts of the contrac- 
 tion are also serious about tho pericardium, causing at times 
 hypertriipliy of the lieiirt; the pleura sufl'ers least from it. 
 
 Tho duratif.n and character of tho inflammation vary 
 with the eiindition of the part afl'eetcd and the constitution 
 of the patient. When once fairly established, it may de- 
 stroy life by exhaustion or by interfering with tho function 
 of S(tme importunt organ, as the lungs or heart. It may 
 aN'o terminate in resolution, suppuration, or murtifieation, 
 |{'--^olution consists in the restoration of tho alicctcd part 
 
 to its normal condition, without suppuration having taken 
 place. It is by far the most favorable termination of in- 
 flammatory action. Suppuration consistsof the formation 
 of a fluid called pus, as described above : it is a yellowish 
 liquid, in which float numerous small round granular cor- 
 puscles. When the pus is thin, dirty, and acrid, it is called 
 ichor. When suppuration continues fur any length of 
 time, it gives rise to a fever known as hectic fever. Tliis 
 is diurnal in character, commencing with a chill, followed 
 by a fever, and then sweating. The chill lasts from half an 
 hour to an hour, the fever from one to tw«f hours. In a 
 great many cases the three stages arc not well marked, one, 
 or even two, of them being often times omitted. The in- 
 flammatory action may be so intense as to deprive the part 
 of its proper supply of blood, and so cause ulceration and 
 mortification (see Gangiikni;) ; this condition is attended 
 by a symptomatic typhoid fever, the sym])toms of which 
 are — dry tongue with sordes, trembling, restlessness, de- 
 lirium, muscio volitantes, pulse feeble, small, and frequent, 
 involuntary evacuations. 
 
 Truttmcnt of /iijlaviinnti'on. — We havo local and consti- 
 tution.al means for combating this ctmdition ; sometimes 
 one abme will do the work, but generally we emjiloy them 
 conjointly. The first thing to be done is to rcnunc tho 
 cause, if discoverable; if not, the bowels should be freely 
 moved once a day, and the skin and kidneys be made to 
 act by the adminir^tration of diajihorctics and diuretics. 
 Careful attention sliould be paid to the diet and regimen 
 of the patient, and beat and moisture applied to tlie in- 
 flamed part, either in the form of poultices or spongio- 
 peline or the hot-water bath. If the ])aticnt be plctlioric, 
 it will be a great benefit at times to bleed him to the amount 
 of about sixteen ounces. This practice has been greatly 
 decried of late, but prac^titioners are too apt to swing from 
 one extreme to the other; from tho practice of almost 
 bleeding a person to death for the most trivial ailment tbey 
 havo come to discard the lancet altogether. How the benefit 
 arising from the moderate abstraction of lilood from a ro- 
 bust, healthy individual who has been stricken down with 
 pneumonia or any acute inflammation, can be questioned, 
 is a mystery. Surgeons, however, aro not so averse to 
 local blood-letting, which may be done by scarifications 
 with a lancet, by wet or dry cujiping, (tr leeches. It seems 
 to afl"ord instant relief to the patient by removing pressure 
 and consecjuent irritation of the inflamed part. Cold evap- 
 orating lotions (MJiitinuously applied arc a great relief. They 
 cause the capillaries to contract, and thereby diminish tho 
 afflux of blood, EnwAitn J. liKitMi.NGiiAM. 
 
 Indcc'tion [Lat. itijirftn, iuftxum, to "bend"], tho 
 general term eoniprising all Ihe various modifications of a 
 word {declension, conjugation, etc.) by which modifications 
 of the idea (plurality, past and future tense, etc.) are ox- 
 pressed. In the monosyllabic languages any change which 
 tho iili'a undergoes is expressed by the addition of an inde- 
 pendent word ; in the agglutinative, these additions do not 
 remain independent, but conibine with the j)rimitive sig- 
 nification and form composite wonls ; but in the inflectional 
 languages a change of tho end of the word — with or with- 
 out some phonetic change in the root itself — suffices to ex- 
 press the various modifications of the idea. It must bo ob- 
 served, however, that these inflectional endings are not mere- 
 ly arbitrary signs ; they were originally independent words 
 themselves. Thus, the ending </ found in the nominative sin- 
 gular of many nouns in the (Jreek and l^atin languages is 
 a remnant of the personal pronoun of the third person; 
 and the endings forming the oblique cases wore originally 
 pronouns indicative of some direction of motion — wheve 
 (dative and ablative), trfiithcr (accusative), and whcnve 
 (genitive). Or, to take an example from a conjugation, tho 
 endings hat and vll, inilicating tliejiast tenses in the Latin 
 language, are simply phonetic modifieations of the aux- 
 iliary verb f'li'it and f'tn't. Hut as the laws of ])honetio 
 change aro very diff'ereni in the diflferent languages, and 
 imperfectly known in them all, and as a still greater uncer- 
 tainty prevails with respect to tho laws of phonetic decay, 
 tho whole subject of inflection is as yet very obscure. 
 
 Inflcx'ion* A point of inflexion is a point nt which a 
 curve from being concave in 
 ^ any direction becomes con- 
 
 y^ cave in the opposite direetio>i. 
 
 Thus, in tho curve V S Q, 
 tho concavity is turned down- 
 ward from P to S and upward 
 from S to Q; hence, S is a 
 point of inflexion. In passing 
 a point of inflexion tho ra- 
 dius of curvature of the curve 
 changes sign by passing 
 through »; but this requires 
 that the second difl'erential uf the ordinate should change sign 
 
 y 
 
 ^y ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 X
 
 1194 
 
 INFLORESCENCE— INFLUENZA. 
 
 by passinj? through 0; henco, we may deteruiiue the num- 
 ber and pusitioiis of the points of inllexiou on acurve whose 
 equation is given by the Ibllowing process: DifiLTenliatc 
 the equation of the curve twice,' then from these equations 
 and the equation of the curve find the value of the second 
 dilTcrential of y in lerni.s of ^, and place the result equal to 
 0; from (he resulting equation find the values ot" j-; these 
 will indicate the positions of all the points that can by pos- 
 sibility be points of inflexion. Then test these values of j- 
 as follows: substitute each value of j-, first diminishol by, 
 and sccondltf increased In', an inlinitcly small quantity for 
 X in the second differential of//, and see if the re;*ults have 
 contrary signs; if so, the corresponding value is the 
 abscissa of a point of inflexion; if not, it does not corre- 
 spond to a point of inflexion. \V. G. Peck. 
 
 Inflores'cence [Lat. injlorcgco, to "begin to blos- 
 som"], the term which botanists use to designate the ar- 
 rangement of flowers upon a plant. Flowers and branches 
 arc evolved from buds. These two kinds of buds agree in 
 the positions which they occupy; consequently, flower- 
 buds, like leaf-bud?, may terminate the stem or branches 
 or may rise from the axils of leaves. The former arc called 
 terminttf, the latter axUlury. AVhen one fluwer only occu- 
 pies the summit of tiie stem, it is tfymimtl nnd Holitnnj ; 
 when only one occurs in the axil of a leaf, it is oxifUtrt/ 
 niifl oh'tai-}/. If several flowers are developed near each 
 other on a stem or branch, so as to form a cluster, the con- 
 tiguous leaves arc generally unlike ordinary foliage, and 
 are known as bravt.'t. The stalk which supports a Ho\ver 
 or a flower-cluster is its pcdiiueff\ and the stalk of each 
 flower of a cluster, its pedicel. When flowers have no sup- 
 porting stalks, they are sessile. The axis of inflorescence 
 is the name given to that part of the stalk on which the 
 flowers of a cluster are arranged. AVhen it bears sessile 
 flowers, it is called the rhachis; when it is very much short- 
 ened and thickened, the rereptnde. All forms of inflores- 
 cence are referred to two types, or to a combination of the 
 two. These plans are known under the following names: 
 (1) indefinite, indetcrmiu'ite, or ccntriprtnl ; (2) d'jinite, 
 determinnte, or centrifugal ; (;i) mixed, in which the main 
 axis develops in one way, and the separate flower-clusters 
 in the other. 
 
 1. fndr/inite injlorescence is characterized by the spring- 
 ing of flowers from axillary buds, while the terminal bud 
 of the stem develops as an ortiJnary branch, by winch the 
 main axis may be indefinitely prolonged. The simplest 
 ease is that in which the flowers are axillary and solitary. 
 Many such solitary flowers may appear as the main axis 
 lengthens. If approximateJ, and the leaves are di- 
 minished to bract;;, tiiey form a flower-cluster of the in- 
 definite sort. Such clusters are simple when the pe- 
 duncle is unbranched, compound when tlie peduncle 
 branches to support smaller clusters of the same kind. 
 Simple, indefinite clusters may have (1) the flowers borne 
 on pedicels along the sides of an elongated axis {raceme); 
 f2) along a shorter axis, the lower pedicels length- 
 ened {corymb)'. {'6) clustered on an axis which is so short 
 that all the flower-stalks appear to spring from the 
 same point {umbel). If the flowers are sessile and ar- 
 
 I ranged along a lengthened axis, the cluster is a npike ; if 
 
 the axis is very short, a head. The ament or catkin is a 
 I peculiar scaly and usually drooping spike. The spadix 
 
 I is a fleshy spike or head with inconspicuous flowers, the 
 
 whole frequently enveloped by a showy bract, a sjmthc. 
 
 The raceme, corymb, and umbel may become compound. 
 
 If the two former branch irregularly, they form a panicle ; 
 
 if this is crowded into a compact cluster, it is sometimes 
 I called thi/rsus. The little clusters of a compound umhcl 
 
 I are ttmbclle.ts. When several bracts are grouped closely 
 
 together at the base of a cluster, they constitute an /»i- 
 
 volncre ; if they occur at the base of partial clusters, i')t- 
 
 volncels. 
 
 2. Definite Infloreacence. — In this the main stem, or each 
 successive independent branch, is terminated by a flower. 
 When a blossom is evolved from a terminal bud, growth of 
 the stem or branch is of Cfiurse arrested, and all further 
 growth depends upon the development of other axes or 
 branches from axils below, which in turn are arrested in 
 the same way. The simplest definite inflorescence is that 
 of a solitary and terminal flower. When several branches 
 
 I from the axils underneath have been successively termi- 
 
 ; nated by blossoms, the cluster so produced may be distin- 
 
 I guished from one of the indefinite kind by the reversal of 
 
 the order in which the flowers expand. The upper flowers 
 bloom earlier than thoge which arc below. Such a cluster 
 is a ci/me. Cymes may be simple or compound. The clus- 
 ters of a compound cyme are termed et/mules. A very com- 
 pact cyme is called a fascicle or glomerule. Cymes of an 
 anomalous character result from tlie suppression of the cen- 
 tral flower or one of the side hranches. 
 
 3. Mixed lufiortsccnce. — Indefinite and definite inflores- 
 
 cence may occur in the same plant, and in two ways: first 
 (as in Composita}), by centrifugal development of tbo 
 branches which bear the heads, while the flowers of each 
 iiead expand centripetally ; second, the reverse of this, has 
 the main axis(as in Labiatio) producing, in centripetal or- 
 der, clusters which develop centrifugally. 
 
 The following table exhibits the principal sorts of in- 
 florescence at one view : 
 
 A. Indefinite, from axillary buds. 
 Simple : 
 
 Flowers on pedicels : 
 
 On the sides of a lengthened axis, raceme. 
 
 On a short axis, lower pedicels lengthened, corymb. 
 
 On an extremely short axis, umbel. 
 Flowers sessile: 
 
 On an elongated axis, spike. 
 
 On a very short axis, head. 
 
 With their varieties, apadix and catkin. 
 Compound: 
 
 Branching regularly, compound raceme^ corymhy and 
 
 umbel. 
 Branching irregularly, T^ajuV^c and thi/raua. 
 
 B. DcfiititCy from terminal buds: 
 
 Open, mostly flat-topped, at'mjj/e and comjjownti cyme. 
 Contracted, fascicle. 
 
 C. Mixed. G. L. GooDAi.n. 
 Influen'za [It.; as if produced by the influence of 
 
 the stars], an essential, intecrtious, epidemic, febrile dis- 
 ease, characterized by a variable degree of constitutional 
 disturbance, especially nervous depression, and having a 
 local expression in irritation and catarrhal inflammation of 
 the air-passages and their appendages. The name " influ- 
 enza" is Italian, indicating "the influence" of a prevail- 
 ing atmospheric cause. In Fr:vnce it is termed la yrippe, 
 from eifjrijiper, to "seize," indicating the sudden, precipi- 
 tate onset of the epidemic and of the individual attack. 
 It is also termed epidemic catarrh, epidemic bronchitis, and, 
 better, epidemic catarrhal fever. It is described as first 
 prevailing in Europe in the tenth century, and later in tho 
 years 1.311, 1387, and 1403. But its certain and undoubted 
 record begins with the epidemic of 1610. Since that time 
 to the year 187o there have been ninety-two epidemics, of 
 variable severity and at. irregular intervals. These epi- 
 demics are singularly uniform in identity of characteristics 
 and in obedience to law of origin and dilVusion. The dis- 
 ease appears suddenly in the E. or N. E.. usually in the N. 
 of Europe, exceptionally in the Indies or Northern Asia, 
 and travels to the W. It travels in cycles, invading tho 
 whole of Northern Europe, often extending to America, 
 and exceptionally fell in the equatorial regions and the 
 southern hemisphere. Unlike cholera, its diflusion docs not 
 depend on human commerce. Its progress is rapid, a great 
 wave from E. to W. precipitating itself upon communities 
 and countries with a suddenness warranting the names 
 popularly applied to it — "lightning catarrh," *'Ic petit 
 courricr," "la grippe." Less often it appears coincidently 
 at places far removed, as at the Cape of Good Hope and 
 London in 18;!0. In its zone of progress it often ajtpears 
 simultaneously at many isolated foci, from which it seems 
 to radiate until disseminated over vast areas. Its influ- 
 ence is not confined to the continents, but is immediately 
 exerted at mid-sea upon all who sail into the districts of 
 atmospheric infection. Appearing in a community, it at- 
 tacks a majority of its members, of both sexes, of all ages 
 ami social position, and with a rapidity precluding the idea 
 of communicability. No nationality is exempt, and as a 
 rule only a fractional part of the population escapes its 
 effects. *It would a])pear to attack preferably women, next 
 adult males, and lastly children. In some epidemics chil- 
 dren are exeni])t. During the prevalence of influenza tho 
 animal vitality is lowered, tho type of other diseases is 
 modified, assuming adynamic or typhoid forms, and tend- 
 ing to a greater general mortality. Influenza is not con- 
 fined to man. but often extends its epidemic influences to 
 the domesticated animals, especially the horse, and is known 
 as the fpizoiitic. In England the epidemics of 172S, 1732, 
 1733, 1737, 1743, IS03, 183!, and 1837 were accompanied 
 by the epizootic among cows, horses, and dogs. The pesti- 
 lential epizootic extending throughout the II. S. in 1872- 
 73, attacking in New York ltl,(U)U horses, was an epidemic 
 of influenza, prevailing with less severity among men. 
 The influenza is first recorded in America in 1577. Tho 
 chief epidemics in Europe have extended to this country. 
 The most noticeable ones are that at the close of the war 
 of 1SI2. that of 1843, of 1872. and tho recent season 1874- 
 7J, in which pneumonia has existed as a frequent and fatal 
 complication. Of the intimate nature of the subtle atmo- 
 spheric or telluric cause of influenza nothing is definitely 
 known. Schonbein regarded an excess of ozone in the air 
 as producing bronchial irritation. Prout attributed the 
 disease to selenuretted hvdrogen. Much has been written
 
 INFORMATION. 
 
 1195 
 
 of its concurrence with the appearance of comets and 
 meteoric showers, and the opinion \» in favor that electrical 
 and magnetic disturbances of the atmosphere arc related 
 to the epidemics. The advocates of the "germ-iheory of 
 disease " regard influenza as due to the wide dis^eniination, 
 by air-curreni?". nt" animalcula or crvptogaiiiic vegetable 
 products — malarial emanations. Elircnberg describes 
 " dust-fog cnrrf^nls " in the higher strata of the atmosphere, 
 from whicii many genera of animalcules may be collected. 
 The epidemic of influenza occurs at nil seasons of the year, 
 often in the spring, and in both warm and cold, in dry and 
 damp or foggy weather. The usual duration, in one local- 
 ity, of an epidemic is from four to six weeks, exceptionally 
 much longer. There may be local recurrences in the same 
 season, but as a rule the victims of the first are exempt 
 from the second attack. 
 
 As regards the disease, it is thought that a specific poison 
 is absorbed and circulates in the blood, irritating the nerve- 
 centres, producing prostration and febrile disturbance, and 
 causing hypersecretion and inflammation of the mucous 
 lining of the air-passages. The symptoms vary in severitj' 
 in different epidemics and in individual cases. The onset 
 is sudden. anuouncciJ in severe cases by a marked rigor, 
 more often by chill and shivering alternating with flashes 
 of heat. Then follow general lassitude, debility, nervous 
 prostration, soreness and stiffness of the limbs, pains in the 
 neck, back, and loins, hcatlachc. frontal oppression, pain in 
 the orbits, cheek-bones, and root of the nose, injection and 
 sensilivencs of the eyes, with copious flow of tears — often 
 heated, the '* fiery tears'* of the early records — sneezing 
 and tingling, followed by watery and often acrid discharge 
 from the nose, soreness of the tonsils. Eustachian tubes, and 
 ears, experienced in swallowing, hoarseness, u short, fre- 
 quent, harassing cough, with slight cxpeotoratinn, and a 
 slight fever of the remittent form, having its exacerbation 
 towards evening. The fever is seldom pronounced, but the 
 restlessness, irritabiliiy, exhaustion, an*! mental depression 
 arc mnrkcil. and usually disproportionate to the bronchial 
 complication. In other cases there is soreness, tightness, 
 and pain beneath the sternum, dyspnoea, sense of suffoca- 
 tion, and danger of capillary bronchitis or pneumonia. 
 The?e unfortunate complications are the chief causes of 
 death from iiifliieiizn, and occur mainly in the aged, in inva- 
 lids, and in delicate rhildren. The usual duration of raild 
 cases is from .three to five ilays, of grave cases from seven 
 to ten days. The termination of the disease is often as 
 sudden as its onset, and frequently occurs with a critical 
 and profuse perspiration or liiarrhoea. The mortality from 
 uncomplicated influenza in healthy persons is very slight. 
 Influenza has no pathology indicarive of its specific nature, 
 and presents only the lesions of the associated catarrh — 
 tumefaction and redness of the mucous lining of the nose, 
 the tear-duct, anri eyelids, the frontal and maxillary sinuses, 
 of the throat, Kustachian tube, and mcnibrana tympani, of 
 the larynx and bronchial tubes, and the lesions t»f pneumo- 
 nia when it exists. The majority of cases are mild and 
 require no treatment. A purge at the outset may shorten 
 their duration. More marked eases require a preliminary 
 purgative, a tow diet, the avoidance of exposure to cold, 
 resort to hot draughts, as of lemonailo or elder-bloom ten, 
 to stimulating foot-baths, to the use of Dover's powder, 
 Tully's powder, spiritus Mindereri. or other remedies to 
 secure free perspiration, and the relief of bronchial conges- 
 tion by inhalation of steam, by ammonia, or l»y stimulating 
 expectorants. Ileailache and <lislress in the nose and or- 
 bits, duo to irritation of the Schneiderian membrane and 
 its processes, may bo relieved by the inunction of oil or 
 grease or by the insufllation of warm ano>lyno solutions. 
 Quinine in doses of five grains three times a day. if taken 
 at the beginning, may cut short the attack. When the 
 bronchitis tends I<» become capillary, i|uinine or tincture of 
 bark is indicated to support the strength, ammonia to favor 
 the liquidity ami discnargo of mucus, and the oil-silk 
 jacket to favor free secretion. The extensions of pneumo- 
 nia may be limited by arterial seihttivrs, earbnnat4> of am- 
 monia, quinine, and anodyne jjoullicrs or fomentations. 
 It \9 essential to ftroper treatment to rrmember (hat blood- 
 infection is primary ami bronchitis or pnnumonia is sec- 
 ondary ; the constitutional disease will admit of no de- 
 pressing remedies, and the speedy termination of the in- 
 flammatory complications will follow supporting measures. 
 During epidemics of influenza the aged and feeble should 
 keep within-doors in well-warmed rooms, and partake of 
 quinine, ammonia, and guardfd but nourishing diet, as 
 measures of prevention. E. Dakwin IhnsoN. Jr. 
 
 Informa'tionv in law, a written charge or aceu«ation 
 made against a defendant in a suit or pr'H-c'ding which is 
 <lircctly instituted against him in behalf of the state or gov- 
 ernment by the attorney-general or other proper law-oflieer 
 ropresenting the government. It is so ealled bi-caupr it is 
 founded upon iu/nnuittiitn given, or supposed to bo given, 
 
 by the prosecuting oflliccr. This form of legal process is 
 employed in proceedings of various kinds, being used either 
 as a mode of criminal prosecution, a form of civil remeily, 
 or a particular method of instituting a suit in equity in 
 certain cases. These various modes of legal procedure may 
 be considered separately. 
 
 I. In criminal prosecutions the proceeding by informa- 
 tion at common law i.«, in cases of misdemeanor (except 
 misprision of treason), a mode of remedy which may be 
 adopted, if deemed desirable, in jdace of an indictment, 
 which is the usual method of prosecuting in cases both of 
 felony and of misdemeanor. The difference between an in- 
 formation and an indictment is that in the former the accu- 
 sation or charge is presented directly by the attorney-gen- 
 eral or prosecuting officer, while in the latter the accusation 
 proceeds directly from a grnnrl Jury, upon whose oath it is 
 based, (.'^ee Indiptment, Ueiand Jrnv.) They do not, how- 
 ever, differ materially in form and substance. There must 
 be the same rlegrec of particularity and precision in stating 
 the offence charged, the same observance of the ordinary 
 rules of pleading. It is only in some merely formal and 
 comparatively unimportant statements at the commence- 
 ment and the close that a diversity exists in the general 
 nature of the contents ; and whether the prosecution be in- 
 stituted in the one way or in the other, the charge must be 
 tried before a petit jury. Criminal informations in the 
 English law arc cither such as are partly at the suit of the 
 Crown and partly at that of a subject, or such as are wholly 
 at the suit (d' the Crown. The former arc brought upon 
 certain penal statutes at the instance of common informers. 
 The latter arc of two kinds: (I) Those filed ex-n^rin by 
 the attorney-general, or, in the Viicaney of his office, by the 
 solicitor-general, solely in behalf of the Crown; and 1 2) 
 those filed by the king's coroner and attorney in the court 
 of king's bench, usually called the master of the crown 
 office, at the relation of some private per.son or common in- 
 former. These two varieties of proceeding by information 
 in the name of the king alone may bo resorted to in all 
 cases of misdemeanor (with the single exception already 
 mentioned), but in practice are commonly employed when 
 the offence is of a particularly grave and serious character, 
 or has an especial tendency to disturb the administration 
 of the government, or when a more speedy mode of prose- 
 cution is desired than a proceeding by regular indictment. 
 In both these classes of cases the prosecuting officer in 
 early times possessed authority to file an information at his 
 own option, without obtaining permission from the chief 
 court of criminal jurisdiction, the king's bench; and this 
 independent j)rerogative is still retained in regard to such 
 informations as are included within the first chiss, where 
 the Crown is the actual jirosecutor. But in relation to in- 
 formations presented at the instance of some private per- 
 son, in which the Crown appears only as the nominal 
 prosecutor, the practice has been changed. It had become 
 customary to instifute a proceeding of this kind as a mat- 
 ter of course at the application of any one; and. as no 
 penalty was imposed upon the applicant in case the accu- 
 sation proved groundless, this method of prosecution was 
 often adopted for purposes of vexation and oppression. To 
 remedy tliis evil a statute was passed in 161*2 (-1 and 5 
 Will, anil M. ell. IS), providing that informations should 
 not be filed at the suit of a private person except by leave 
 of the court, and on such persons giving security to tho 
 party proceeded against for costs. 
 
 In tliis country several of the Slates have retained the 
 English practice of prosecution by information, though tho 
 extent of its application and the mode of procedure are 
 variously modified by statute. Thus, informations may 
 be presenteil for all offences declared to be misdemeanors, 
 as distinguished from felonies, in New York, Connecti- 
 cut, Massaehusetts, New Ilanijisbire, and a few other 
 Slates. Tho officer by whom it is usually jirovidcd that tho 
 information shall be filed is the attorney-general of the 
 State. This mode of procedure is, however, much less fre- 
 quent in this country than the proceeding by indictment. 
 In Pennsylvania anrI a few other States there can be ]»ro- 
 eccding by information where an indictment lies. In the 
 Federal courts informations have sometimes been resorted 
 to in cases of illegal exportation of goods, smuggling, etc., 
 but havi; never been especially authorized by any laws of 
 Congress. Uy the provisions of the U. S. Constitution no 
 offence which is capital or infamous can bo prosecuted by 
 information, but only by indictment. 
 
 IT. The use of an information as n form of civil remedy 
 is most common in the proceeding which is technically 
 known as an " information in the nature of a quo tvnnanto." 
 The ancient oommon-taw writ of tfuo icnrranto has been 
 fluperscded by this more convenient practice. (See Quo 
 WAunASTo.) The object of such informations is to inquire by 
 what authority or warrant tho defendant exercises certain 
 official or corporate powers, or assorts a right to certain fran-
 
 1196 
 
 INFORMER— INFUSORIA. 
 
 chises or offices which are alleged to be unlawfully claimed 
 or to have been forleited, Thiis. for example, an informa- 
 tion may be presented against an unincorporated associa- 
 tion for assuming corporate powers; against a lawfully or- 
 ganized corporation for non-user, long neglect, or misuse 
 of it:^ franchises or powers, or for a violation of its charter 
 or the provisions of any law ; against any ])crson for a 
 usurpation of or intrusion into a public office, or for the 
 exercise of any franchise not conferred upon him by law, 
 or for the performance of otficiai duties after his office has 
 bfcn forfeite<i, or after the term for which he was appointed 
 or elected has expired. This is a common form of pro- 
 cedure against corporations to deprive them of their fran- 
 chises and obtain their dissolution, on the ground that cor- 
 porate powers have been forfeited by misfeasance. The 
 remedy by information in these cases was originally a 
 criminal proceeding, in analogy with its use in the prose- 
 cution of offences strictly criiniual. and it still remains so 
 in form. Its object was to secure the imposition of a line 
 upon the defendant if convicted, as well as an ouster from 
 the office or franchise unlawfully claimed. But in sub- 
 stance it is a civil jirocecding. the purpose of which is to 
 try and determine the defendant's right to the franchise, 
 and to secure its forfeiture if wrongfully exercised. In 
 England, informations in the nature of a <jno warranto 
 may be presented in three ways: they may be filed (1) by 
 the attorucy-gencral of his own authority, and in the ex- 
 ercise of an iiidependt'Ht discretion: (2) by the master of 
 the crown office under the permission or direction of the 
 court of king's bench ; and (3) by the proper officer upon 
 leave of the court at the relation of some person or persons 
 who desire to prosecute the defendant. The first two modes 
 of presentation are the same as those which have been 
 already mentioned as appropriate to the prosecution of 
 misdemeanors in criminal procedure. The third is a form 
 of practice established by the statute of Anne, ch. 20. It 
 affords the means of determining controversies between 
 private parties in regard to the right to corporate or other 
 franchises, public offices, ete. The Crown or state, repre- 
 sented by the attorney-general or other officer, is only tho 
 nominal prosecutor, the party at whose instance the pro- 
 ceeding is instituted being the actual prosecutor. It is 
 provided by the statute that this party shall be technically 
 designated in the proceeding as the " relator," because from 
 him the relation proceeds upon which the inform.ation is 
 based. At common law no such party as a relator is 
 known in a proceeding upon information. This form of 
 practice was originally introduced by the statute. Infor- 
 mations at the suit of a private person can be presented 
 only by leave of the court, which will be granted, not ar- 
 bitrarily nor as a matter of course, but in the exercise of a 
 sound discretion. Permission will usually be granted when 
 the right upon which the suit is based is disputed or uncer- 
 tain, or depends upon a point of doubtful law, or where 
 there is no other remedy. 
 
 In several of the American States the proceeding by in- 
 formation in the nature of a fjuo irnrranto is still in use, 
 and corresponds very closely with the English practice. 
 The suit is usually instituted by the attorney-general of 
 the State of his own authority, or by the private prosecutor 
 or ''relator," who employs the name of the attorney-gen- 
 eral in the proceeding as a matter of form. When the suit 
 is at the instance of a private person the case is regularly en- 
 titled " The People" (or " The Attorney- General ") *' ex ref, 
 (i. c. €jc ri'liittonr, " from the relation of") A. B. r*. C. D.," 
 A. B. being the relator and C. D. tho dofi-udant. The 
 power to file an information of this kind in some States 
 depends upon special statutes corresponding with the Eng- 
 lish statute of Anne, while in otliers the same practice is 
 adopted, irrespective of any statute, as part of their com- 
 mon-law system of procedure. It is the usual rule that the 
 leave of the court shall be obtained in cases of this kind, 
 as in England. In New York informations in the nature 
 of a qito tcarrant<» were in use until 1S4S, but the (_'()de of 
 Civil Procedure adopted in that ye.ar abolished the pro- 
 ceeding, substituting in its place a special form of civil 
 action, which nevertheless accomplishes tho same results 
 by a very similar mode of practice. 
 
 Another instance of the use of the proceeding by infor- 
 mation as a form of civil remedy is found in the common- 
 law practice in England of filing an information in the 
 court of exchequer for the recovery of money or other 
 chattels claimed by the Crown, or to obtain damages for 
 any injury committed upon tho lands or the possessions 
 of the Crown. The attorney. general institutes the suit of 
 his own authority and at his own discretion. The most 
 common informations of this kind are the information of 
 intrnsion and the information of debt, the former being 
 presented for any trespass upon the lands of the Crown, 
 the latter upon any contract for moneys due to the Crown 
 or for forfeitures under penal statutes. In the U. S. in- 
 
 formations are not unfrequently employed in the Federal 
 courts for the recovery of penalties and forfeitures, as, e, tf., 
 in cases of violation of the revenue laws. These are usu- 
 ally civil proceedings iu rem. (See In Rem.) 
 
 III. The method of instituting suits in equity by means 
 of an information exhibits much the same form ot practice 
 as in the common-law courts. In England the suit may 
 be wholly in the interests of the Crown, in which ease it is 
 institutcii directly by the attorney-general or solicitor-gen- 
 eral of his own authority, or it may concern the rights and 
 interests of other parties than tlic Crown. In cases of this 
 latter kind the government officer sometimes acts at his 
 own discretion, but generally upon the relation of the party 
 wliose rights are involved, who is then termed the " relator." 
 When the interests of idiots or lunatics are concerned the 
 attorney-general may exhibit informations in their behalf 
 ejC'Ojficio, representing the Crown as pnrms pain'ir. It is 
 the common practice in England to regulate the adminis- 
 tration of charities by proceedings upon information. As 
 the Crown has the general supervision of charities, the 
 attorney-general may act of his own authority, no relator 
 being necessary. Generally, however, he only proceeds at 
 the instance of some relator, who is made responsible for 
 costs in case the information has been improperly filed. 
 There has been some discussion among jurists upon the 
 point whether the power of the attorney -general to file an 
 information for the purpose of establishing or administer- 
 ing a "charity" was a regular part of English jurispru- 
 dence, or was derived from the statute of 4:i Eliz. ch. 4, 
 concerning charities. The inquiry has assumed importance 
 in some of the States in which that statute has not been 
 re-enacted or recognized. Careful investigation shows that 
 the information has its roots in equity as well as in strict 
 common law. The authorities are collected in Dwight's 
 Argument in the Rose Will Caite (New York, 1S63), pp. 257- 
 270. Informations were used for this purpose in this 
 country during the colonial period. An interesting illus- 
 tration is Cullen's charity in the court of chancery in the 
 province of Xcw York Sept. 7, 1707. There was a leg- 
 acy '* to the poor of the city of New York and of Albania " 
 ( Albany), which was enforced in their favor by the attorney- 
 general. The proceedings and information are found at 
 length in the same volume f pp. .'U4-;i.iI ). In the C S. 
 informations may be euiploycd as a mode of instituting 
 equitable suits in some of the States, but tbe practice is 
 not so common as in England. (On this whole subject see 
 Cole on Informat'tonfty Angell and Ames on Cin'pnrationSf 
 Bishop's Criminal Procedure. DanicH's Chancery Practice, 
 Tudor on Charitable f/sc*, Boyle on Charities.) 
 
 GEoitr.F, Chase. Revised bv T. W. Dwight. 
 
 Inform'er* This word is employed in law as a techni- 
 cal designation, denoting a person who brings suit or pre- 
 fers an accusation against another for the violation of some 
 penal statute. It is sometimes provided in a statute of 
 this kind that the whole or a certain portion of the penalty 
 recovered from the pers-m who shall be convicted of vio- 
 lating its provisions shall be given to any one who will sue 
 for the same, or who will give information of the offence to 
 the proper prosecuting officer. The party by whom the 
 proceeding may be instigated is sometimes termed not 
 merely "informer,** but "common informer," because he 
 may be any member of the community. The object of 
 such legislation is to elicit the active efforts of the people 
 generally in the detection and punishment of wrongdoers 
 by the prospect of a reward. Actions brought by an in- 
 former under such a statute, when the penalty is recovera- 
 ble partly for himself and partly for the benefit of the state, 
 are technically termed f/ui tarn actions (f/nf" tarn, I.at., " who 
 as well"), because tho plaintiff is described in the suit as 
 one ir/io Hxirs as well for the king or commonwealth as for 
 himself. This peculiar Latin phrase was adopted at a 
 time when legal pleadings were expressed in that language, 
 and these words formed the commencement of the allega- 
 tion in which the plaintiff described the character in which 
 he appeared in the action. Statutes authorizing 71*/ tarn 
 actions are more common in England than in this country. 
 Gkoroe Chase. Revisfo uy T. W. Dwigiit. 
 
 InfllSO'ria [Lat. in/undo, infusum, to "pour over," to 
 "make an infusion." because these organisms wrrc first ob- 
 served in infusions]. If organic substances, either animal 
 or vegetable, are soaked in water, the liquid dissolves por- 
 tions of the solid mnttcr, forming an "organic infusion." 
 If Ibis be exposed to the air, a scum or pellicle forms upon 
 the surface, which, when examined under the microscope, 
 is found to be composed of minute molecules. Presently 
 thesemoleculesunitetoform short filaments called bacteria, 
 or, if the segments are of considerahle length and jointed, 
 they are known as vibrioneii. When perfectly developed, these 
 two organisms exhibit vibratile movements. After a while 
 they disintegrate, and there result small spherical bodies 
 moving actively through the fluid, which are called monads.
 
 INGALLS— INGEKSOLL. 
 
 iiy? 
 
 These arc often ciliated and possess a mouth. Two theories 
 explain this growth: (1) Tncse or^^anisnis are produced 
 spontaneuu^^ly, and arc not ilcrivod IVom any pre-existing 
 
 Infusoria in mud of the Antarcilc Ocran, greatly magnified. 
 
 (Capi. James RussJ 
 
 germs; (2) they originate from germs of extremely minute 
 size, di!<}>cminated tlirougli the atmosphere and in various 
 solid Buhstanccs. whioh develop into these fungus organ- 
 isms under favorable conditions. Klahorate experiments 
 have hecn instituted to show whether these organisms will 
 germinate in infu'jioiis which have been subjected to great 
 iipjit and deprived of air, with ro--*uIts favoring the second 
 theory, though observers are not yet agreed. It is estab- 
 lished, hiiwcvcr, that the bacteria and vibriones are alga', 
 or the simplest kind of plant, while the monatls are ani- 
 mals, sometimes the larval forma of tlie higher Infusoria. 
 They are never generated except in organic solutions. 
 Later writers restrict the name of Infusoria to the higher 
 division of the Protozoa, excluding the forms already spe- 
 cified. They possess a mouth, rudimentary digestive cavity, 
 and vibratile cilia or contractile filaments. They are ex- 
 tremely minute, and their bodies consist of three distinct 
 layers, (ienerally, they have the power of swimming about 
 freely, while some are fixcil in the adult period, and others 
 constitute colonies by budrling. The outer layer is a trans- 
 parent cuticle. The central mass is a soft, semi-fluid sub- 
 stance, c:ipable of receiving particles of forxl, and is known 
 as sareode. An intermediate layer is of firm and consistent 
 sarcodc. The Infusoria are <livided into the three orders of 
 Ciliata, Suctoria, and Klagdlata. They arc most abundant 
 in fresh water in every country upon the face of the earth 
 wherever organic matter is held in solution. They also 
 occur in the ocean. The higher forms are to be sought for 
 on the stems of aquatic plants, not in artificial infusions. 
 
 C. JI. Hm iicoi'K. 
 IircnIlR (UiTFi's), b. at Denmark, Me., 1820 ; graduated 
 from the 1'. J<. Military Academy in ISJ.'S. and entered the 
 army as brevet second lieutenant of rifles; transferred to 
 the dragoons ISi/i, and to the quartermaster's department, 
 with the rank of captain, in ISIM, rising through succes- 
 fllvo grades to be ( IH71 ) ctdoncl and assistant quartermas- 
 ter-general U. S. A. From the date of his graduation In- 
 galls served with his regiment on quartermaster duty almost 
 constantly on the frontier, participating in the war with 
 Mexico and various expeditions, up to ISliO, when he was 
 ordered to Washington, I>. C, where, on the outbreak of 
 civil war in IStil. ho was at once called u|ton to assume re- 
 sponsible duties as chief i|uartermaster of the ra]»idly arriv- 
 ing volunteers, in proviiling for the embarkation of the 
 Army of the I'otomac to the Virginia Peninsula, in trans- 
 ferring the vast supplies of that army from the Vork to 
 the James Uiver, and as chief quarlermnster nl' (hat army 
 in the suh«iequent evacuation of the Peninstila, the estab- 
 lishment of a new base of supplies at Acquia Creek, and, 
 as chief i(uar(ermnster of the armies of tlio I'otomac and 
 of the James, of establishing a d<''pot of stipplies at City 
 Point ami supply of Iho-^o armies. Kis duties, ennstantly 
 increasing in magnitude and responsibility, were diseharg- 
 ed with great ability and despatch. Hreveltcd lieutenant- 
 colonel to major-general. At the chtso of the war served at 
 head-quarters of the army, and in 18fi7 at New York City 
 as chief quarternmster of military division'of the Atlantic. 
 
 (1. C. J^IMMONS. 
 
 Inf^nil'ni [Gr.'lYyavvoi], a Lignrian tribe inhabiting 
 the sea-eoast and mountains W. of (Jenoa in the first and 
 second centuries B.C. Their capital was Albium Ingaununi, 
 now called Albenga. They boro a prominent part in the 
 
 long-continued wars between the Komans and the Ligur 
 ians, and in the Second Punie war they were effeetivo allies 
 of the Carthaginians. They were routed in a great battle 
 by the proconsul .Kniilius Paulus (B. r. ISl). losing l.'i.OOO 
 killed. From this time little more is heard of the Ingauni, 
 but they were still recognized as a separate tribe in the 
 time of Strabo an4l Pliny. 
 
 Ins'bcrt, or Sanct Iii$;l>ort, town of Germany, in 
 Rhenish liavaria, on the Kohrbaeh, has largo coal, iron, 
 and quicksilver mines. Pop. 8433. 
 
 Iii^$;elmun8ter, town of Belgium, province of AYcst 
 Flanders, 7V miles N. of Courtrai, noted for a victory 
 gained by the French over the allied Knglish and lluno- 
 verians. May 10. 1701. Pop. 5Q00. 
 
 In'selo\V(Ji:AN), daughter of William Ingelow, b. 1830 
 at Boston, England ; has published several volumes of verse 
 (1863, 18t)7, 1871 ). besides prose works of fiction, including 
 Talcs of Orrh (18G0), Studiea for ,Stor!rti (18(U). //„ni€ 
 Thouf/htfi and Home Scenes (i8(;7), OJ}' the Sfcrllnja 
 (1872), etc. Immediately on the publication of her first 
 volume of poems she was recognized as an original poet, 
 and her fame has grown wider ever since. Sometimes her 
 poems have something scattered and romantically vague 
 in the total representation of the idea, as is the case in one 
 of her most celebrated poems. '* High Tide on the Coast of 
 Lincolnshire." liut the details iioth of human character 
 and of nature are often painted with a most exquisite del- 
 icacy, as, for instance, in *' Tiie Letter L ;" and there is 
 always in her verses a genuine warmth and noble natural- 
 ness, connected with simplicity and grace. 
 
 Iii'f;<!inaiin (Pkiinhaiu) Skvf.uin), b. May 2S. 17>^0; 
 studied at tlie tniversity of Copenhagen ; travelled 181S-IU 
 through (Jermany, France, Switzerland, and Italy, ami was 
 appointed in 1SJ2 professor of Banish literature and lan- 
 guage at the Academy of Soriie, which position he filled 
 till his death. Feb. 24."isr.2. In 1811 he ]>ubli>hed his first 
 volume of poems, and afterwards attempted almost every 
 kind of fiction; his collected works comprise ijy volumes. 
 But he became eminent only in two directions. Inspired 
 by Walter Scott, ho treated the most brilliant and rcunantic 
 period of the history of Denmark in a series of romances — 
 Va/dtmur Scier (1^20), Erik McnvcWn Barndom (I82S), 
 Kitutj Erik o'j de Frcdliisc (1833), and Prindn Otto »;/ hmis 
 tSaiiitid { 1835) : and these romances, though inferior to their 
 model in historical truth and in jiowcr of characterization 
 and description, became truly popular. There existsperhaps 
 no Dane who bus not read them ; they were also translated 
 into (Jerman and Knglisb, and are fVe{juently found among 
 the Scandinavians in the Wc>^t. An etjual impression he 
 produced by his hymns and religious songs, of which some 
 morning and evening songs were unsurpassable for tender- 
 ness and purity of feeling. Ci-emkns Pktkrsen. 
 
 In'gt'lihousz (.Iax). h, at Rreda. Holland, in 1730; 
 studied medicine, and after practising in Hnlland went to 
 England in 1707; travelled in Franco and Italy, and re- 
 turned to London, where he devoted himself to seientilio 
 research, and became a fellow of the Royal Society, in 
 whoso Tr<ii\8<totit,un he published several important essays. 
 To Dr. Ingenhousz is ascribed the first medical use of car- 
 bonic acid and the invention of tiie plate electrical machine; 
 he discovered that plants when exposed to light exhale 
 oxygen, and when dej>rived of light exhale carbonic ncid. 
 He d. at Rowood, the seat of the marquis of Lansdown, 
 Sept. 7. 1709. 
 
 In'gcrsall, town of Oxford co.. Out., Canada, on tho 
 Thames and the Creat Western Railway. 10 miles liy rail 
 from London, has a heavy trade in grain and lumber, im- 
 portant manufactures of farm implements, woollen goods, 
 eheeso, and lumber. 1 branch bank, and 2 weekly newspa- 
 pers. It has fine public buildings, and is rapidly increasing 
 in ini])ortan<'e. lN>p. ftf sub-district, 1022. 
 
 liigersoll, tp. of Miillund co., Mich. Pop. 402. 
 
 IllCcrsoll (Chaui.ks Anthon v). A. M., b. at New. Haven. 
 Conn., in l70^^ ; held a high rank at the bar, and after hi»td- 
 ing various important oflices was appointed judge of tho 
 U. S. district court by President Pierce. D. Feb. 9, 1800. 
 
 In^erHoll (Ciiaklks Jakiid), h. in Philadelphia Od. 3, 
 17^i'.', was a son of Jared Ingersoll (1710-1822). He ro- 
 ceivetl a eollegiate educati^ui ; became a lawyer, and was a 
 member of Congress 1813-14 and 1811-4"; l'. S. district 
 attorney lSi;i-20, and held varittus important oflTices. Ho 
 wrote ('fii'imnrn, n. poem ( ISOtt). InrhiifuiuK Lcttrrg ( 1810), 
 J/inliiririil Skrtrh *\f the Srruud War with Grcnf Hritain 
 f 1 vols.. |8if)-,'»2), anil several other works, chiefly liistor- 
 ieal and )ioelical. D. in Philadelphia Jan. 14, lS(i2. 
 
 Ilif^rrHOll (CiiAiti.is RoBcnrsK LL.D.. b. at Ni-w Ha- 
 ven. Conn., Sept. Ifi, I82I ; graduated at Yale College in 
 1810. and at the Yalo liaw School in 1844. since which lime 
 he has been a practising lawyer in his native city, which ho
 
 1198 
 
 INGERSOLL— INGRES. 
 
 has several times represented in the general assembly of 
 the State. He was elected governor of Connecticut by the 
 Democratic party in 1S73, was re-elected in 1874, and again 
 in IST.i. 
 
 Ingcrsoll f.T,\REr)t. LL.D..b. in Connecticut in 17(0, and 
 gradunfcd at Yale in I7(J6. He studied law in Lotidonjand 
 settled in Phihidi'lphin, whore he became a prominent law- 
 yer, lie was a member of Congres'S T7'^0-SI ; n member 
 of tbe convention which framed the V. S. Constitution in 
 1787. Ho afterwards licid many important public positions; 
 was often atturney-geueral of Tennsylvania ; and at tbe 
 time of his death was presiding judge of the district court 
 for Philadelphia CO., Pa. D. Oct. -i!, 1S22. 
 
 Ili^crsoll (JosKPH RF.Er»). LL.D., D. C. L.. a son of 
 Jarcd lugcrsoU, b. in Philadelphia June II, 17^0: j^rad- 
 uatcd at Princeton in 1804, and became a prominent law- 
 yer of Piiiladelphia. He was a Whig member of Congress 
 1835-37 and IN42-4U, and U. S. minister to Eughmd 18J0- 
 53. He published a memoir of Samuel Breck (18ri3) and 
 *SVcc««/on a Folly and a Crime. D. in Philadelphia Feb, 
 20, ISC.S. 
 
 Ingersoll (Ralph Isaacs), LL.D., b. at New Haven, 
 Conn., in 17.S8; graduated at Yale in 1808; studied law, 
 and took high rank at the bar of his native city; was the 
 Democratic leader in the Connecticut legislature in the 
 tempestuous session of 1819, and afterward until 1825, 
 when he was chosen to the lower house of Congress, re- 
 maining there four terms, and taking liigh rank in tho 
 practical machinery of legislation. In 1833 he declined a 
 re-election in order to devote himself to his ]irofession, 
 which he continued to do with great ability and success 
 for tlie remainder of his life, refusing "all temptations to 
 accept jtolitical appointments, except on one occasion iu 
 1840. when, at the personal solicitation of Pres. Polk, he 
 accepted and filled for two years the post of minister to 
 Rus.^ia. D. at New Haven Aug. 27, 1872. 
 
 Ins^'ham, county of S. Central Michigan. Area, 576 
 square miles. It is level, fertile, and well timbered, and 
 produces coal and iron ore. Cattle, grain, and wool aro 
 staple products. Lumber, carriages, brick, ami saddlery 
 are leading articles of manufacture. The county is trav- 
 ersed by various railroads, centring at Lansing, the cap- 
 ital of .Michigan, which is io this county. Cap. Mason. 
 Pop. 2;..20S. 
 
 Iiis^ham, post-tp. of Franklin co., la. Pop. 293. 
 
 Ingham, tp. of Ingham co., Mich. Pop. 1392. 
 
 Ingham (Bknjamis), b. at Ossett, Yorkshire, England, 
 June 11. 1712; was educated at Batley School and at Queen's 
 College, Oxford, where in 1733 he became .associated with 
 John and Charles Wesley, the founders of Methodism. Ho 
 was ordained and accompanied Joiin We:?ley to Georgia in 
 1735, remaining two years in America, returning with Wes- 
 ley, and accompanying him in his visit to the IMoravians 
 io (Jermany. So strong was his attraction to that body of 
 Christians that he wished to assimilate the rising Method- 
 ism to their type, and he actually foun>Icd in Yorkshire 
 several congregations of what might be called Moravian 
 Methodists, otherwise " Ingbaraites,*' and in a few years 
 there were in England 84 of these societies. In process of 
 time Ingham, who had married a sister of the earl of Hunt- 
 ingdon, removed to Abberford and evangelized the whole 
 surrounding region, being elected a bisliop or tjeucral orcr- 
 eeer hy the Church he bad founded, which was long in fel- 
 lowship with Methodism, but in 1759 and the succeeding 
 years three-fourths of the societies, and finally Ingham 
 himself, went over to tho Sandemanians (which sec). lie 
 d. in 1772. 
 
 Ingham (Charles C), b. in Dublin, Ireland, in 179C; 
 belonged to an artistic family, and early developed a ge- 
 nius for painting: gained a prize from the Dublin Academy 
 when only twenty years of age ; came to the U. S., and with 
 a brother attained the first rank of portrait-painters in New 
 York ( 'ity, where he was one of the founders of the National 
 Academy of Design. D. in New York City Dec. 10, 18ti3. 
 
 In^hira'mi (Chevalier Francksco), b. at Volterra, It- 
 aly, in 1772. was sent in boyhood to Naples to study at the 
 military scIiodI ; the examination of the Museo Rorbonico 
 determined his vocation for the study of antiquities. His 
 Mounmeuti Etrusrhi, in 10 vols. ( 1821-27), is the most com- 
 plete account of Etruscan antiquities. Ho wrote also (ral- 
 Icria Omericn, in 3 vols. (1827-28), Mumco Etntnco-Chiu- 
 Rino, in 4 vols. (1833), a Jfintori/ of 7\tMffitjt/, in 16 vols. 
 (1841-45), and numerous other works which gained him a 
 Kuropoan reputation. D. at Florence May 17, IS4G. 
 
 In'glcby (Clk^!knt Mansfiklo). b. Oct. 29, 1S2.1, at 
 Edg'mston. near Birmingham. England: studied at Cam- 
 bridge : became professor in philosophy in 1855 at the Mid- 
 land Institute of Birmingham, and foreign secretary to tho 
 Roval Institute of Literature in 1870. He wrote The Skak' 
 
 gpeare Fabrications (1S59), Vieic of the Shal'gpeare Contro- 
 
 vcrsj/ (1861), Introttartiou to i^fetapht/sics (IS^^J). 
 
 In'glis (Davih). LL.D., D. D.. b. June 8, 1825, at Green- 
 law, Berwickshire, Scotland ; educated in the University of 
 Edinburgh, where he graduated in 1841, and completed his 
 theological studies there in 1S44; in 1816 was ordained 
 pastor of the Presbyterian church of Bedford, Westchester 
 CO., N. Y. ; in 1849 accepted a call to St. (Jabricl street 
 church, Montreal: and in 1851 became pastor of tho Mc- 
 Nab street cliurch, Hamiltiui. Ont. After a pastorate of 
 sixteen years hereraove*! to Toronto, having been called by 
 the (Jeneral Assembly of the Presbyterian Church of Can- 
 ada to the chair c)f systematic theology in Knox College. 
 From Toronto be removed in 1872 to Brooklyn, L. I., and 
 bceamc pastor of Reformed (Dutch ) church on the Heights. 
 He was the author of Tri-Cinteunni nud TlKnifcugivinfj Ser- 
 mons, liiyhti-oneneHs Exaltrfh a A'atimi, Si/ftematic Thfolotjtj 
 ill its JiclativH to Modern Thought, etc. D. Dec. 15, 1877. 
 
 Inglis (Hf.nrv David), b. in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 
 1795; travelled extensively in various countries in Europe, 
 and under the pseudonym of '* Derwent Conway" pub- 
 lished some very entertaining works — Talcs of ArdenneSf 
 Solitari/ Walks ihrontjh Af<tiiif Lnnds. Joun\e>f through Nor- 
 iCfty, Siccdt II. and Dvitmurk, Tour through Sicitzerland, etc., 
 Spain in ISSO, New Gtl lilas^ or Pedro of Ptnajlor, Jonr- 
 ney thronifhout Ireland in lA'34- The Tyrol, and Rambles in 
 the Fontsteps of Don Qni.rote. The works of Mr. IngUs aro 
 filled with information which is generally sought in vain 
 in works of travel ; they have been frequently reprinted, 
 and have become, in a measure, authoritative. D. in Lon- 
 don Mar. 20, 1835. 
 
 lu'golstadt, town of Bavaria, in the province of Upper 
 Bavaria, on the Danube. Its fortifications, which were de- 
 stroyed by Moreau in 1800, were rebuilt in 1830, and aro 
 considered very strong. It has some manufactures of 
 leather and paper. It was once the seiLt of a famous uni- 
 versity, ^vbich was founded in 1472. transferred to Land- 
 shut in lst)(l, and thence to Munich in 1S26. Pop. 15,025. 
 
 Ili^graham, tp. of Mills co., la. Pop. 318. 
 
 Ingraham (Di-ntan N.), b. Dec. 6. 1802, at Charleston, 
 S. C. ; entered tho U. S. navy in 1812 as midshipman : rose 
 to the rank of cnptain, and rendered himself famous in tho 
 Martin Koszta affair at Smyrna in 1S53: for his conduct 
 in this matter he was voted thanks and a medal by Con- 
 gress. Afterwards he Avas appointed chief of the ordnance 
 bureau of the naval dep.artment, which position he held 
 until South Carolina passed her ordinance of secession in 
 1860; he then resigned his commission in tho U. S. navy 
 and took service under the Confederate States, in which ho 
 ruse to tbe rank of commodore. A. H. Stepiikns. 
 
 Ingraham (.Joseph H.), b. in PorHand. Me., in 1809; 
 early engaged in mercantile pursuits, but afterwards became 
 an instructor in Washington College, Miss. He published 
 The S'otith-tcest, by n Yankee (1836). which was followed 
 by a considerable number of romances, some of which bad 
 a very wide popularity. He afterwards took orders in the 
 Protestant Episcopal Church, and was in charge of a par- 
 ish at Holly Springs, Miss., where he had also a boys' 
 school. Besides the above works ho wrote The Prince of 
 the /fouse of Darid (1855). The Pillar of Fire (1859), and 
 Thr Throne of D^fiid. D. in 1861. 
 
 In'gram Cross-RoadSy tp. of Lauderdale co., Ala. 
 Pup. 511. 
 
 Ingram's, tp. of Johnston co., N. C. Pop. 1326. 
 
 In'gres ^Jran Dominiqte Ai'custin), b. at Montauban, 
 France, Sept. 15. 1781 :d.at Paris Jan. 14. 1867. His father, a 
 painter and sculptor, had him instructed in music, hut the 
 passi(m for painting was early awakened ; he studied un<ier 
 MI\I. Roquc and Briant. and at nineteen entered the stucUo 
 of David ; at twenty-one gained tlie second grau'I prize ; .it 
 t^vonty-two gained the first grand prize for the painting of 
 Achilles in hin Tent receiving the Ambassadors of Agamem- 
 non, in the Kcolo des Beaux-Arts; in 1806 visited Rome, 
 took up his residence there, and sent thence to Paris seve- 
 ral canvases, wliieh were not received with special favt)r. 
 Between 1814 and 1832 many works wercfinislicd and sent 
 to the exhibitions at the Louvre, historical pieces mostly 
 from classical and modern story — Virgil reading the 
 yFneid to Augwtns, Franccnca de I'iniini, Philip V. of 
 Spain bentnirittif the Golden Flreee on thr Marshal dc Uer- 
 trick — but none of his works had the reputation in Paris 
 that they had in Italy. M. Ingrcs*s fame dated from works 
 executed in Florence — 77(c Entrance of Charles V. into 
 Paris and The Vow of Louis XI IT. The artist received the 
 decoration of the cross from the king, and was nia<le suc- 
 cessor of Baron Denon in the Academy of Fine Arts. The 
 Apotheosis of Homer (1827) and The Martyrdom of St. Sym- 
 phorian excited much controversy among the critics. Sen- 
 sitive to assault, the artist left France lor Italy, where he
 
 INGRIANS— INJU.N'CTION. 
 
 1199 
 
 was made director of the Villa do' Modici. In Italy his 
 productive period returned. The Venuv Aunilt/otnctic, Jesus 
 aitionrf the IfnctofM. Mnliere in Am Librnrtj, iittrtuf- in Court 
 Cuntume, Jcau d' Arc at the C*mn€crittiun of Chnrlm VII., 
 were amonj? bis more celebrated compositions. Tiidcr the 
 Third Napoleon. lDi;res painted on the coiling of the Hfttcl 
 do Villc a f;ri'at picture. The Apothi:o«iH <>/ Kapulcon /., 
 with the legend. In nepote rrdiriviin. At the Exposition of 
 ISjj the artist's works were displayed in a room devoted 
 exclusively to them. A museum at Montaubun bears his 
 name. He received a grand medal irnm tiie jury of the 
 Internationnl Exhibition, was made an nflicer in the Legion 
 of Honor ( 1S41 ). commander (IS-IJ), liigh officer (ISSJ). 
 senator ( I StllH. and was also elected member ol the imperial 
 council uf public instruction. 0. U. FitoxniscnAM. 
 
 In'grians, a Finnish or Ugrian race, inhabiting Ingria, 
 or Ingermannlancl. a portion of Russia now mostly included 
 in the government of St. Petersburg. They arc mainly 
 Lutherans, very poor and ignorant, but the process of 
 Russiani/ing in manners and religion is going on. The 
 true Ingrians (Votlj are estimatctl to number 17,>^0fl, but 
 there are reported in the district 42,97'J Savakot and !?'.>, ">M 
 Auramoiset — Finnish peoples allied by language with the 
 Karclians rather than with the Ingriansand the true Finn?. 
 
 Intiamban% Iiihamba'na, or Inhambaucy a 
 
 Portuguese town of .Mozambique, lat. 2.'J° o'J' iS., Ion. .'Jj" 
 51' K., near the mouth of the river of the same name. It 
 has a trade by sea in wa.\, ivory, etc. Pop. IU,II00, 
 
 Inheritance* See Heir. 
 
 In^a, a genus of toothed delphinoid cetaceans of tho 
 family Iniida>, which contains one known living species 
 and several fossil genera. Tlie Im'n /Ittfiriemtiit, of the 
 rivers and lakes of the interior of South America, is from 
 seven to frmrteen feet long, is carnivorous an<l gregarious, 
 and is caught for its oil. The females care tenderly for 
 their young. 
 
 Injaya, The Logical School. Sec Hindu Pni- 
 Losoi-nv, by Piiof. John XJowsu.v. 
 
 Injnnc'tion [Lat. injnnctio], in its more general sense, 
 as a law term, is an order mado by a court possessing 
 equitable powers, atldressed to a designated person, and 
 commanding him either (I) not to commit some act which 
 he threatens to commit, or (2) to desist from the further 
 prosecution of somo act which he has already commenced, 
 or (.*1) to restore to its former condition something which 
 has been interfered with and altered by his act. This judi- 
 cial instrument for tlie prevention of wrong was, like many 
 other remedies and forms of proceeding, borrowed directly 
 from the Roman law. in which it was extensively used un- 
 der the name of *• interdict." Interdicts were commands 
 issued by the prietor or other magistrate, in which he or- 
 dered something to be done or not to bo done. 7'ho num- 
 ber of particular instances in wliieb they n)ight be used 
 was very great, and inrleed tliey might be resorted to for 
 tho protection of all species of property, public and private. 
 The certainty and ease with which threatened wrongs could 
 bo prevented by their means, and a restoration of rights 
 could bo effected, raised the remedial department of the 
 Raman law to a high position of practical etficacy which 
 has been surpassed by no mofU-rn system of jurisprudence. 
 The primary division of interdicts was into three classes: 
 (1) Prohibitory, which prohiltiterl something Crom being 
 done; (2) rcstoratory, wliich cnminamlfd sometbing to be 
 restored; and (3) exhibitorv, which directed some person 
 or thing to be prorluced and exiiibited. In this last class 
 wa« one. i/c fihei'o honiine ej-hihem/o, which was used to pre- 
 vent a freeman from being restrained of his liberty by any 
 person whatsoever, and which therefore bore some resem- 
 blance to our writ of habeas corpus. 
 
 Tlic only speeics of injunction for a long time used hy 
 the Eiiirlish and American courts as a part of the equita- 
 ble relief administered by them resembled and was bor- 
 rowed from tho prohibitory interdict of tho Roman juris- 
 prudence, since it merely forbade the commission of some 
 act; but a modified form has been recently introrluccd 
 under tho name of *' mandatory injunetion," which is sim- 
 ilar in its design and etVecIs to the restorntory interdict. 
 Tho ancient common law furnished no remerlies which 
 were directly preventive: its reliefs, in all (trdiiiary ]>rivatc 
 coiitro\ ersies, were either (1) the recovery <d* money as a 
 compensation f'>r the wrong complained <»f. or (2) the re- 
 covery of a specific tract of land, or (II| the recovery of a 
 specific chattel. Tho court of chancery, untrammelled hy 
 the arbitrary and technical forms and doctrines of the law- 
 courts, and administering a remedial system which those 
 triliunals could not or would nr>t administer, was ablo to 
 introduce a preventive moilo of relief, and from tho very 
 outset the injunction became the most potent instrument 
 in building up its peculiar jurisprudence. Tho flrst im- 
 
 portant and constant use to which it was put was tho re- 
 straining the prosecution of suits in courts of law. As the 
 doctrines of equity arc often quite different from those 
 which prevail at law. and since from the same facts and 
 circumstances involved in a given controversy it frequently 
 happens that the law would regard one party as possessing 
 the legal right, while equity would look u|)on the other as 
 the one entitled to relief, it necessarily follows that the 
 courts of law would decide stich controversy when brought 
 before them in favor of one litigant, and the court of equity 
 would render its decree in favor of his antagonist. If, 
 therefore, the person who held the legal right should bring 
 an action in a coinm<in-hnv court, ho would necessarily re- 
 cover a judgment, while at the same time if his adversary 
 should prosecute his demand in chancery, a decree would 
 be rendered in his favor establishing his claim in direct 
 antagonism to the decision made by the court of law. In 
 this manner an unseemly confiict might have arisen and 
 been perpefuatecl between the two classes of tribunals, had 
 the chancellor not posscssc<l the preventive instrument of 
 injunction which enabled him to enforce his own decrees 
 and uphold his own jurisdiction. The ]>rohibition was 
 not, however, directctl ai;aiiist the courts of law nor the 
 judges thereof personally, but against tlic suitors before 
 those courts. The theory of the court was, that it was un- 
 just and inequitable for the suitor in the particular case 
 to make use of his strict legal remedies. Tlic mandate of 
 the court was accordingly addressed to him to refrain from 
 doing an act whicdi in right and conscience he ought not 
 to do. By the use of the injunction the chancellor, when a 
 proceeding was instituted before him to establish an equi- 
 table right, forbade the opposing party from commencing 
 orcarrying on any action in a court of law based ujum the 
 same facts an<l circumstances, and thus a conflict of juris- 
 diction in all cases wns prevented. In this manner and 
 for this purpose an injunction to stay the prosecution of 
 suits at law became, from the very commencement of his 
 judicial functions, an ordinary remedial instrument in the 
 hands of the chancellor, anrl by its means alone was ho 
 finally enableil to establish his jurisdiction and to create 
 the system of equity jurisprudence as a co-ordinate branch 
 of English law. 
 
 The question as to the power to interfere by injunction 
 being decided favorably, the court of chancery at length 
 established the ftdlowing general principle, which deter- 
 mined the occasions in whicii it would resort to such pre- 
 ventive remedy. In all cases where the courts of law can 
 furnish an adequate relief "Tor the wrong done or about to 
 be done, equity will not interjiose its restraining power, but 
 j will leave the injured (tarty to his legal action. By tho 
 term "adequate relief" is meant the recovery of a judg- 
 ment at law which is considered asufHcicnt satisfaction for 
 the wrong done or contemplated : and it embraces, in gen- 
 eral, all those cases in which pecuniary compensation can 
 be awarded in the form of debt or damages, and those in 
 which tin- thing itself, land or chattels, can be restored to 
 the rightful possessor. The most important occasions to 
 which this principle docs not npply. and in which, there- 
 fore, an injunction will be granted in order to prevent a 
 threatencrl wrong or tt) restrain the further commission of 
 an incquit,;iblc act. arc the following : ( I ) To restrain pro- 
 ceedings at law. This general class embraces many par- 
 ticular instances. Among tho grounds for such interfer- 
 ence, tho most imjiortant arc when the legal right and tho 
 proceedings to enforce it arc aft"ecled by fraud, mistake, or 
 accident ; when they require a long accounting; when tho 
 litigation is vexatious; when the controversy involves tho 
 rights and duties of trustees, partners, executors, admin- 
 istrators, sureties. uHirtgagors. ancl mortgagees, or requires 
 the nmrshallinir of assets, or depends upon tlie effects (if an 
 equitable set-idV or assignment. In these, and in certain 
 other similar instances, the litigant parlies and their at- 
 torneys and agents will be restrained from carrying on 
 proceedings not only in courts having full common-taw 
 powers, but also in tribunals of an inferi<»r or special juris- 
 diction. In addition to this use of the injunction, it is 
 also resorted to in eerljiin well-defined clashes of eases to 
 prevent the commission of acts which would bo so perma- 
 nently injurious to property that no adequate relief could 
 ho given by the common law remedy of damages. It is 
 true that in all the instances about to be mentioned somo 
 pecuniary compcnsati<ni could bo obtained, hut from the 
 very continuous and lasting nature of (he wrongful act 
 done, repeated and perhaps innumerable suitsat law would 
 be necessary, uidess it could be stcqjped at once by some 
 preventive relief. Tho classes of cases thus described, in 
 which a wrong will bo prevented beenuse the law can give 
 no suthcient remedy, are as follows: (2) to restrain tho 
 conimission of waste, which is necessarily a permanent in- 
 jury to tho land wasted; (.1) to restrain continuous or re- 
 peated trespasses upon land. Although an injunction will
 
 1200 
 
 INK. 
 
 not be granted to prevent violence to the person nor to 
 chattels, nor single acts of injury to lands, yet if the tres- 
 pass to land is vontinuons. so that it becomes analogous in 
 its effects to wasti'. courts of equity will now interfere, by 
 a liberal use of the injunction, both to ])revent the further 
 wrong and to compel a restoration of the ])reniiscs to their 
 original condition; (-1) to restrain the creation and main- 
 tenance of nuisances ; (5) to prevent the infringement of 
 patents and copyrights, and the unlawful use or piracy of 
 tratle-marks ; (G) to restrain the breach of covenants or 
 agreements in a few special instances. In general, the 
 breach of an agreement will not bo enjoined, but in a few 
 cases, where the injury would be of such a character that 
 damages would be no adequate relief, courts of equity will 
 interfere by injunction. In some eases an injunction is 
 used as a moans of enforcing an agreement. Thus, where 
 a parly has agreed that be will iu>l do a particular thing, 
 an injunction will causo him to fullil his contract; (7) to 
 restrain a disposition of their property by debtors so as to 
 hinder, delay, or defraud their creditors; (S) to restrain 
 assignments and transfers of property which would inter- 
 fere with the settlement of bankrupts' estates. These arc 
 the most important and usual cases in which the power of 
 eqviity triluinals to issue an injunction is now firmly estab- 
 lished. There are somo other special and exceptional in- 
 stances which it is not necessary to enumer.ale. 
 
 In respect to their effects, injunctions are either prohib- 
 itory or m.andatory. In the former class the order of the 
 court is negative, and commands the party vnt to do the 
 specified act; in the latter, it is aflirmative, and commands 
 the party to Jo the specified act. The object of a manda- 
 torv injunction is generally to compel the defendant to re- 
 move some structure which he has wrongfully erected, and 
 which is a nuisance or a trespass, and to restore the premises 
 to their original condition. 
 
 In respect to their form and the manner of granting them, 
 injunctions are either final and perpetual or interlocutory 
 and temporary. Final injunctions aro granted after the 
 hearing and decision of the cause, anfl form a part of tbo 
 decree which <letermines the rights of the parties. Inter- 
 locutory or temjjorary injunctions aro orders made at the 
 commencement of the action or during its pendency, on 
 the application of the plaintiff. Their object is to prevent 
 the defendant from so interfering with or disposing of the 
 subject-matter in controversy as to render a final decree 
 against him ineffectual. 
 
 The reformed system of procedure which has been 
 ailoptcd in many of the V. i^. has to a great extent obviated 
 one most important use of the injunction as above described. 
 According to that procedure, equitable defence can bo set 
 up and maintained in legal actions; the whole matter in 
 dispute, the legal and equitable rights and claims of tho 
 parties, can be presented and adjudicated upon in one con- 
 troversy, and the holder of the equitable right is no longer 
 forced to institute a separ.ate suit in chancery and to enjoin 
 the adverse action brought against him in a court of law. 
 AVhenever this ])rocedure prevails, therefore, the employ- 
 ment of the injunction to restrain the prosecution of suits 
 at law is in most cases no longer necessary or proper. 
 With this single exception tiie preventive remedy of in- 
 junction is freely usecl by our courts, although in most of 
 the .'itates the same tribunals are clothed with both equit- 
 able and common-law powers and jurisdiction. 
 
 ■Tonx NollTON POMEBOV. 
 
 Ink [Fr. encre ; Ger. Tinle ; Lat. alrnmciiliim]. Any 
 colored fluid used in writing or printing is an ink. Tho 
 essential difference in composition between writing inks 
 and printing inks leads to a natural division of tbo sub- 
 ject. We will consider first writing inks, and subsequently 
 printing inks. 
 
 I. AViiiTiso Inks. //i«(orica?.— Very little is definitely 
 known of the composition of the inks used I)y tho ancients, 
 but it is generally conceded that the use of the stylus indi- 
 cates the use also of carbon inks, not unlike, probably, 
 the China or India ink which is still the almost exclusive 
 atramontal substance used among the Chinese and other 
 Asiatic peoples. Tho use of iron salts is certainly very 
 ancient. Dr. IJIagdcu (Phil. Trnna., vol. Ixxvii.) found 
 that the faded cljaractcrs of very ancient MSS. could 
 bo restored by the use of prussiato of jxttash and diluti- 
 muriatic or sulphuric acid, or less ])erfectly by infusion 
 of galls, redevelojiing tho iron black. Pliny, Dioscorides, 
 and other ancient writers give evidence, however, that car- 
 bon in the form of soot was the essential constituent of 
 ancient ink. 
 
 flliick Ink-9. — Tho black ink in common use in modern 
 times is made from the action of infusion of gallnuts upon 
 green vitriol, exposing the product to the influence of air, 
 and hohling the precipitate in suspension by gum, sugar, 
 or mucilage. This fluid, the production of which is more 
 particularly described beyond, is far from being chemically 
 
 perfect, and is open to the objections that it corrodes steel 
 pens, is prone to mould in warm weather, and to deposit a 
 sediment on standing. The writing is also liable to grow 
 yellow or brown with age, and, when not carefully pre- 
 ])ared. to destroy the paper on which it is used, liut these 
 dilficulties arc in great part capable of correction by skilful 
 nnmufaeture and tho use of proper ])recautions. The fact 
 that well-made iron inks stain tho substance of the paper 
 with a stain diftieult of removal, and speedily growing 
 darker with age up to a certain time, has rendered their 
 use verv general in sjiite of their acknowledged defects. 
 The carbon writing inks are liable also to the objection 
 that they arc not true solutions, and usually are wanting 
 in fluidity. Tbo logwood chrome ink is a true solution, 
 but open to some serious objections. Stephens's and Ar- 
 nold's writing fluids are true solutions with an iron base, 
 pale when first written with, but rapidly growing darker 
 to a fine black, and possessing many exeellfuccs. Tho 
 aniline dyes also aiTord some good black or blue-black inks, 
 which have many good qualities. Somo of these are mea- 
 tioned beyond. 
 
 Nulgoll Iron Iiil-n. — Both gallic and gallo-tannic acids, 
 which co-exist in the infusion of galls, especially after con- 
 siderable exposure to air. produce deep-black precipitates 
 with ferric salts, but with ferrous salts whitish |irecipilates, 
 becoming black by exposure to air. As gallic acid pro- 
 duces a much deeper black with ferric salts than tannic or 
 tanno-gallic acid, we sec why it is advantageous to leave 
 the infusion exposed for many days to air, in order that 
 the tannic may be changed to gallic acid, fium arable or 
 gum Senegal is added to retain the precipitate in suspen- 
 sion, prevents the formation of a sediment, and adds a cer- 
 tain degree of lustre. To prevent the growth of mould 
 somo essential oil, carbolic acid in small quantity, and 
 rarely corrosive sublimate, are used. Other vegetables 
 containing tannin aro often substitutes for gallnuts, chiefly 
 from motives of economy, but only with a loss of quality. 
 Logwood is, however, used in certain inks, as giving 
 not only tannin, but a peculiar color. Recipes without 
 number" exist in the technical books for the prepara- 
 tion of iron black ink, and each manufacturer boasts his 
 own. Many of them arc worthless, as containing too much 
 acid or too little g.all-infusion, too much gum or some other 
 objectionable ingredient in excess, or some defect in manu- 
 facture. We will select a few only of tho best, and such as 
 have been prepared with some regard to the chemical 
 character of tho ingredients. Dr. Lewis, at the close of tho 
 last centurv. who seems to have been tho first chemist to 
 study ink quantitatively, found that equal weights of gulls 
 and sulphate of iron gave an ink which, although of a good 
 color when used, subsequently heeamo yellowish-brown ; 
 that as tho quantity of sulphate was increased the inks 
 were less durable in color; and that those in which the 
 galls predominated were most persistent. The proportions 
 which ho found best by experiment were — 
 
 Powdered sulphate of iron 1 ounce. 
 
 < .round loswood 1 " 
 
 Itruiscd palls 3 " 
 
 <jum arable , I " 
 
 Wldto wine, or acetic acid 1 quart. 
 
 lie found that although water answered for all ordinary 
 purposes, white wine gave a deeper-colored product, and 
 the ink made with acetic acid was still blacker. Alcidiol 
 was injurious to tho color, causing a dcjtosition of the tinc- 
 torial precipitate. A decoction of logwood, substituted for 
 water, improved the black both in richness and depth of 
 tint. Ho directs tho materials to be put into a glass, earth- 
 enware, or other non-metallic vessel, and the mixture agi- 
 tated four or five times every day. In ten or twelve days 
 it is ready for use — ^if placed in a warm situation consider- 
 ably earlier; but if the ink is allowed to remain on tbo 
 materiel it continues to improve for a lengthened period. 
 When decanted it may be kept in good order with greater 
 certainty if a few broken — not bruised — galls and tivo or 
 three fragments of iron arc placed in it. {Mimpralt.) Dr. 
 Urc, whoinade careful researches upon inks, gives the fol- 
 lowing directions for the best black ink : To make 12 gal- 
 lons of ink we may take 12 pounds of nutgalls, 5 pounds 
 of green sulphate of iron, 5 pounds of gum Senegal, 12 gal- 
 lons of water. The bruised nutgalls are to be put into a 
 cylindrical copper of a depth equal to its diameter, and 
 
 I boiled during three hours with three-fourths of the above 
 
 1 ([uaulitvof water, taking care to add fresh water to replace 
 what is'lost by cva]ioration. The decoction is to be emp- 
 
 I tied into a tub, allowed to settle, and the clear liquid being 
 drawn off, the lees are to be drained. The gum is to he 
 
 i dissolved in a sm.all quantity of hot water, and the muci- 
 lage thus formed, being filtered, is added to tho clear de- 
 coction. The sulphiite of iron must likewise be scp.arately 
 dissolved and well mixe.l with the above. The color dark- 
 
 1 ens by degrees, in consequence of the peroxidation of tho
 
 INK. 
 
 12IJ1 
 
 iron, on exposing the ink to the nctioD of the air. But ink 
 afforJa a more durable writing when used lu the pale state, 
 because ita particlfis are then tiner and penetrate the paper 
 more intimately. M'hen ink cunsists chiefly of taunnte of 
 peroxide of iron, however black, it is merely euperfieial, 
 and is easily erased or effaced. Therefore, whenever the 
 liquid made by the ab<ive recipe ha.-* arquircd a moderately 
 deep tint it should be drawn off clear into bottles and well 
 corked up. Pome ink-makers allow it to mould a little in 
 the casks before bottling:, and suppose that it will thereby 
 bo not so liable to become mouldy in the bottle?. The ink 
 made by the recijie piven above i? niucb more rich and 
 powerful than many of the inks commonly sold. To bring 
 it to their standard a half more water may safely be added, 
 or even 20 gallons of tolerable ink may bo made from 
 that weight of materials, as I have ascertained. Sumach 
 and logwood admit of only about one-half of the copperas 
 that galls will take to bring out the maximum amount of 
 black dye. M'utts has tabulated various recipes for the 
 preparation of black ink, calculated for 1(100 parts of 
 water, as follows : 
 
 a. h. e. d. t. f. g. 
 
 Galls 225 187 133 125 66 62 31 
 
 Copperas 75 73 55 24 22 31 19 
 
 Oumarabic 25 73 55 24 111 31 8 
 
 h. i, k. I. m. 
 
 Galls 50 174 50 60 42 
 
 Logwood 100 20 21 
 
 Copperas 32 87 10 20 21 
 
 Sulphate of copper ... 5 
 
 Gum 9 43 47 20 10 
 
 Sugar 23 1000 
 
 Vinegar 125 135 
 
 Of the genuine inks {*t-(j). a, b, and c arc too strong for or- 
 "linary use ; ft, r, and / are perhaps the best ; y would bo 
 somewhat too pale. The re-t (h-m) cannot he recommend- 
 ed, excepting for special purposes. Sulphate of copper 
 deepens the color of the precipitate, but renders it more 
 compact an<l heavy, anci therefore more apt to settle down. 
 A certain quantity of sugar renders the ink more fluid, and 
 permits the addition of a larger proportion of gum. It like- 
 wise renders the ink adhesive when dry, so that a copy of 
 the writing may easily be taken off l)y the copying-press. 
 .An ink containing lorjwood with the galls has been much 
 used in Germany, and is mafle as follows : 1 kilo, of coarsely 
 pulverized nutgalls and l.')0 grms. of logwood chips are ex- 
 hausted with 5 litres of hot water ; 600 grms. of gum arable 
 are dissolved in 25 litres of water: and 500 grms. of sul- 
 ph.ite of iron in some litres of water; each of these solu- 
 tions being made separately. This done, the gall-logwood 
 infusion is mixed with those of the gum and copperas; a 
 few drop3 of es«<ential oil of cloves or of gaultheria (winter- 
 green oil) having been added, there is added as much water 
 lis will bring the bulk of the liquid up tr> II litres. M'liilo 
 this kind of ink attacks nml corrodes steel pens, it has the 
 adilitional disailvantago that after a time the writing be- 
 rnmes yellow. Booth gives the following formula) : For su- 
 perior black ink, take 12 pounds Aleppo galls. 4 pounds 
 'iilphate of iron, 3^ pounds of gum, ami 18 gallons of water. 
 For a fine exchequer ink, fO pounds of Aleppo galls, 9 
 pounds of sulphate of iron. HI pounds of gum, and (5 gal- 
 lons of water. In both these cases it is directed that the 
 bruised galls be exhausted by three consecutive boilings, 
 each time diminishing the quantity of water, and supply- 
 ing by fresh aildition any loss by evaporatitm. The eop- 
 ])cras and gum in solution are added to the strained decoc- 
 tion of galls whilst both are yet warm, and the whole is 
 allowed to repose for several weeks, when the fluid is drawn 
 off from the sediment. A few cloves, or some drops of cre- 
 osote, are added (o prevent any parasitic growth. The best 
 fluid to dilute ink which has become too thick for use is a 
 strong decoction of coffre, which improvcfl the lufltro and 
 c<dor of ink without decomposing it. 
 
 The imperfections inherent in the ordinary black ink 
 from gulls and iron salts became more manifest on the in- 
 trodui'tion of the steel pen, which, aside from its being cor- 
 roded more or less rapidly, caused, the ink to concrete and 
 deposit its coloring-matter. These imperfections have been 
 sought to bo avoided by the introduction of various Jhiid 
 iiif.-M, H-hirh are true s<dutions. The first of these in order 
 of time was the flni<l of Henry Stephens of London, who 
 prepared a blue liquid wliieli iiossesses the property of 
 turning in a few hours after writing to nn Intense black. 
 It biis the advantage of perfeet fluidity, flowing easily from 
 the pen upon the paper, with which it forms a tenacious 
 combination. These properties were imparted to the ordi- 
 nary gallic ink by adding to it sulphate of indigo, which 
 holds the coloring-matters in solution. The so-called ali- 
 z'triu hikii (a mere commercial name, by no means imply- 
 ing that they contain the alizarin of madder) cmsist of 
 common ink mixed with :i litfle free sulphur!'' acid, which, 
 V..r.. II.— n; 
 
 like other acids, retards the oxidation of the ferrous precipi- 
 tate (see Ikon. Salts of), so that the writing becomes 
 block only after exposure to the air; the change being, 
 perhaps, accelerated by the neutralization of the sulphuric 
 acid by the basic substances contained in the paper; the 
 ink blackens very quickly when exposed to ammouiacal 
 vapors. A certain quantity of sulphindigotic acid or its 
 sodium-salt (indigo-carmine) is usually added, so that the 
 ink may not appear too ]iale in writing. An ink of this 
 kind may be prepared by exhausting 40 parts by weight 
 of nutgalls with 112 parts water, and then adding 7 parts 
 copperas and i part oxalic acid. At the same time, 1 part 
 of finely pulverized indigo-blue is dissolved In 4 parts fum- 
 ing sulphuric acid; the solution after twenty-four hours is 
 diluted with water, and mixed with a small quantity of 
 carbonate of soda; the precipitate is collected, washed to 
 remove the saline solution, then suspended in water; and 
 this liquid is added to the former till the whole exhibit? a 
 rather deep greenish-blue color. Stark, after manufactur- 
 ing and testing for fourteen years 22'J different kinds of 
 ink, states that he found nothing for durability of writing 
 and genera! excellence to compare with gallnut-copperas 
 ink, with a certain amount of sulf)hate of indigo. He gives 
 as his final preference for the best ink : To each 1 gallon, 
 12 ounces of best gallnuts, 8 ounces of copperas, 8 fluid- 
 ounces of sulphate of indigo. 4 to 6 ounces of gum arabic, 
 and a few cloves. As metallic iron impairs the quality of 
 all iron inks, he recommends that all legal and other im- 
 portant documents be written with a gold or quill pen. 
 ( Ch\ Etuj. <md Arch. Jour., Aug., 1855.) 
 
 Chrome ink is preparer! by adding 1 part of chromate of 
 potassa to 1000 jiarts of a saturated solution of logwood, 
 made by boiling 22 pounds of logwood in a suflicicnt quan- 
 tity of water to give 14 gallons of decoction ; to this men- 
 struum, when cold, the chromate is gradually added and 
 the mixture well stirred. The addition of gum is injurious. 
 If care is taken not to permit the ]iroportion of chrome salt 
 to exceed 1 part for 1000 parts of decoction of logwood, a 
 deep blue-black writing fluid is formed which drops no de- 
 posit, like the ordinary gallate-of-iron ink. Paper written 
 upon with it may be washed with a s])onge or be left twenty- 
 four hours under water without the marks being erased. 
 "Weak acids do not destroy the writing, nor do they even 
 change the shade, whilst that made from galls is effaced, 
 and the ink made with logwood and sulphate of iron is 
 turned red. Runge, the discoverer of this ink. used it with 
 steel pens for two years without their becoming rusty or 
 obstructe<l by solid njatter. It is not liable to turn mouldy, 
 but. on the other hand, it is incompatible to use it with 
 pens which are dipi)ed in ordinary ink, and it is prone to 
 gelatinize. A much-esteemed French fluid ink, *• the black- 
 violet ink of Houcn," is prepared by boiling 750 ]»art8 of 
 logwood with 6000 parts of water, 35 parts of alum, 31 
 parts of gum arable, and 15 parts of sngar-candv, leaving 
 the mixture to stand for two or three days, and straining 
 through a linen cloth. A chnuiio ink unlike Kunge's 
 chromate-of-potash ink has been proposed by C. Puscher 
 in Nuremberg, 1S67, thus: Take 10 loths of logwood ex- 
 tract with four times its volume of water, boiled till half 
 the water is evaporatcil ; 2 loths of ebrome alum are then 
 dissolved in half the same volume of water, and both solu- 
 tions mixed and boiled for fifteen minutes, in which lime 
 it should be in solution. Add further 1 bithof gum arabic, 
 end we have 25 loths of a clear deep violrt-blue eolution. 
 which Boon writes black. To convert this into a good 
 cojiying ink, add 1 loth gum arabic and * loth of glucose 
 or glycerine. (Wagner. */"Arc«-/?erjVAr, xiii. IS67.) 
 
 Vanndhtm BInrk Ink. — Berzelius advised the UBO of 
 vanadate of ammonia with infusion of gallnuts. A sur- 
 ]irisinglv small quantity of the vanadium salt suffices to 
 produce a perfectly black ink — so small, as lierzelius says, 
 it will not bo worth consi<!erlng when ranadium is more 
 generally known. The writing obtained with this ink is 
 perfectly black. Xo sediment forms from it. It flows read- 
 ily from the pen. ancl does not ci)rrode steel ; is not attacked 
 by dilute alkalies, but is turned red by acids. Dr. A. A. 
 liayes (Prorml. Am. A caff., lt<75) has lately shown the 
 vanadium comi»ound9 to bo far more widely diffused than 
 was before known. Althougli this ink cannot be said to bo 
 absolutely indelible, yet it strongly resists reagents which 
 cause common ink to disappear. 
 
 An excellent rxtrmporuur<,tin ink is nmde oa follows : 
 Take of taniiie an<l gallic acids each 20 grains ; dissolve in 
 two fluid-ounee« of water; also take crystallized green vit- 
 riol (sulfdiale of iron I and of tirlrd eulpbate {tuif/than /V/ti 
 exHirrntum \. of eoch 15 grains, and dissedve these separately 
 in a like quantity of water (best distilled) : mix the two so- 
 lutions and add of mucilage {mnvilngo ffummi nrnhiri) 2\ 
 fluid-drachms, of oil of cloves 2 drtips. This is by no nieiins 
 a cheap ink. but is very permanent, and of a beautiful black 
 color.
 
 1202 
 
 INK. 
 
 For travcllincf expeditions it is convenient to have ink in 
 cakes and iitk-puirdvra; two of tlic following recipes for these 
 are quoted from AVatts's iJictiomtry: Ink in (^aketf. — 42 parts 
 of f^ood nnt_;;;allsand .'J parts of madder are boiled in about Fix 
 times their \veight of water; tlic filtered decocticm is mixed 
 with ;">i parts copperas and 2 parts pyrolijnaie of iron ; I J 
 parts solution of in<li<;o (in sulphuric acid, diluted with water) 
 are then added ; the nnxturc is evaporated nearly to dryness 
 at a j;entle heat and with constant stirring; and the pasty 
 iiiasi^ is then made intoeakes nndtliorou^hly tlricd. This ink, 
 dissolved In 6 parts of hot water, is said to make an excellent 
 ropyin;; ink, and in 10 or 12 parts water a very fine writing 
 ink. Portfihfe luk. — At a recent meeting of the Pnlytceh- 
 nic Association of Frankfort. M. Bnttj*cr exhibited a new 
 kind of ink which is convenient for travellers. It is prc- 
 pired by saturating white bibulous paper with aniline 
 blaek. and then pressing several sheets together, so as to 
 form a compact block. Other aniline colors may be om- 
 jiloyed for making red, violet, green, and other inks. A 
 piece of the prepared jiaper two or three centimetres eqnaro 
 will furnish sufficient ink for a long correspondence by sim- 
 ply steeping it in a li'flc water. Ink Poicdcr. — A solid 
 chrome ink may be made by triturating together to a fine 
 powder lOD parts extract of logwood. 1 part neutral chro- 
 mate of potassium, and -^^ indigo-carmine; 1 part of this 
 powder, added to .".2 parts water, is said to make very good 
 ink. A mixture of 4 parts pounded galls, 2 parts copperas, 
 and 1 part gum arabic is also frequently sold as an ink- 
 powder. 
 
 Cnpying inks are only concentrated common inks, to 
 which more gum and sugar or a portion of glycerine is 
 added. If the body is good, thrco or four legible copies 
 may br taken from the same writing by the copying-press. 
 A very much esteemed French copying ink is made thus: 
 Take 30 grms. of extract of logwood. 7. J grms. of crystal- 
 lized carbon.atc of soda ; boil this with 210 grins, of water, 
 and add. while vif^orously stirring, ;i0 grms. of glycerine. 
 When the fluid has become cold, dissolve in it 1 grm. of 
 neutral chromate of potassa. and add. lastly, 7.6 grms. of 
 gura arabic, previously m.ade into a thick mucilage with 
 water. The paper upon which it is desired to transfer a 
 capy need not be moistened if this ink is used. The fol- 
 lowing preparation is much recommended : 4 parts by 
 weight of logwood extract arc dissolved in a mixture of fiO 
 parts vinegar and 70 parts water; and .T parts copperas, 2 
 parts alum, 2 parts gum arabic, and 4 parts sugar are then 
 added. This ink is at first more violet than the Rouen ink, 
 which is also used as a copying ink. Another like prep.ara- 
 tion of American origin is as follows: Take V a pound of 
 extract of lo:;wood (Sanford's is best), 2 ounces of alum, 4 
 drachms of blue and as much of green vitriol, and 1 ounce 
 of sugar: boil thcpo ingredients with 4 pints of water, filter 
 the ilocoetion through flannel, and add to it a solution of 4 
 draclims of yellow chromate of potassa in -1 ounces of wa- 
 ter, and finally 2 ounces of ehemic blue in 2 ounces of 
 glycerine. The ehemic blue, also called '* blue dye." is the 
 solution of indigo in oil of vitriol, and otherwise used for 
 dyeing wool. Letter-books, with pajicr kept moist by gly- 
 cerine, have been prepared which are said to avoid the 
 necessity of using a brush or sponge in copying U'ttcrs. A 
 good copying ink is said in the Chcm. Cent. lifaft (for 1S().^, j 
 'My'2) to be obtained by using 16 grammes of logwood ox- I 
 triiet, 2 of alum, | ouch of green vitriol and blue vitriol, 
 antl 1 of .sugar, boiled in .*' pints of water; strain and add 
 ) of chromate of potassa in 4 of water. Then add 2 of i 
 sulphate of indigo and 2 of glycerine. The indi*;o solution 
 is made by treating \ powdered indigo with 5 Nordhausen 
 acid, and rlilute with '.'> pints of water. 
 
 Nnthe Vrfffrfnlifr fnkn. — The juice of Con'an'a tki/mi/oli'a, 
 or ink-plant of New (Inmada, locally called chnnchi, is at 
 first of a somewhat reddish color, but becomes intensely 
 I'lack in a few hours. This juice can bo used for writing 
 without requiring any further preparation. It corrodes 
 ftcel pens less than ordinary ink, and resists chemical 
 agents better. All the old documents under the Spanish ' 
 dominion in America were written with chauchi. Pea-\s'ater I 
 does not affect it. Experiments are being made in Europe ' 
 to acclimate this ink-plant. The Srqnniit f/i;/(nitra, or 
 '' big trees," of the Sierra Nevada furnish a peculi.ar sort 
 of tannin, highly colored ami largely soluble in wnfer. fur- ' 
 nishing a strong deep reddish-black liquid whieli I find to 
 be a quite tolerable natural ink when used alone, and with , 
 a steel pen the color is rendered much darker. This 
 coloring-matter is found only in the cones, the seeds being 
 implanted in it, and it also fills the spaces between the 
 scales of tiic cone. A gum resin accompanies the tunnin 
 which is quite soluble in ililuted alcohol. Boiling injures ' 
 the color of this natural ink, which cold water sufiiccs to i 
 exhaust. It is highly ]irobable that observations to this 
 end will discover other valuable native inks. (Sec beyond 
 In(fr-fil,fr .\fni-kif>;j Inkdoin anacardium nut.> The Deuteche 
 
 I Ind. Zcitnutj gives the following recipe for an old and well- 
 known natural ink: lilnck Ink J'ruia Elder Ticnicn. — The 
 I bruised berries arc ])Iaccd in an earthen vessel, and kei»t in 
 ■ a warm place for three days, then pressed out and filtered. 
 , The filtered juice is of such an intense dark color that it 
 , takes 200 parts of water to reduce it to the shade of dark 
 I red wine. Add to the 12^ quarts of this filtered juice 1 
 ounce of sulphato of iron and the same quantity of crude 
 I pyroligneous acid, and an ink is prepared which» when 
 I first used, has a violet color, but when dry is indigo blue- 
 black. This ink is superior in many respect? to that pre- 
 pared with galls : it docs not become thick so .soon, it flows 
 easier from the pen without gumming, and in writing the 
 letters do not run into one another. There is quite a list 
 of plants whose seeds give a lasting black color as inks 
 and dyes of silk and linen fabrics or hair. Such are,4m^ri> 
 toxifcra, Camovhtdia hilCffn'/olia, C dciitatn and C. pnnc- 
 tnafa, Cotida tdhn (or EcHpta cvcctn), the seeds of which 
 the inhabitants of Cochin-Cliiua use to color their hair of 
 a permanent black. Jidicofjict cane^ccnn bears juicy ber- 
 ries, the juice of which alone can be used as ink, and leaves 
 permanent stains on linen, etc. 
 
 Colored Writnif/ Ink^. — Ink may he made of almost any 
 desired color, and the variety., richness, and permanence 
 of colored inks have been greatly increased of late by the 
 introduction of aniline colors, many of which may be used 
 with great advantage, and have already u. wide circulation 
 under various trade-names. 
 
 Hed ink is usually made from cither cochineal or Brazil- 
 wood, the latter being the nunc permanent. But some of 
 the aniline reds are rapidly replacing the former sorts. Tbo 
 cochineal inks are the brightest, but at the same time the 
 dearest and most fugitive. The best is a solution of pure 
 carmine in caustic ammonia; it must be preserved in well- 
 stopped vessels. Buttger recommends 1 part of good car- 
 mine, 120 caustic ammonia, and H parts gum arabic. A 
 cheaper but less brightly colored ink is made by drenching 
 12 parts of pulverized cochineal and 4 parts of carbonate 
 of ammonia (or pearl-aslO with .'12 parts hot water, then 
 digesting and pouring off the clear liquid. Addition of 
 cream of tartar and st.annic chloride renders the ink more 
 scarlet; cream of tartar and an equal weight of alum give 
 it a crimson tint. Brftzil'innod inks arc made by boiling 
 the wood in water, adiUng tin-salt (stannous chloride) or 
 cream of tartar and alum to modify the tint, and thicken- 
 ing with gum arabic; e. </. -l j)arls Brazil-wood boiled in 
 fiO parts of water, the decoction boiled down to ."C parts, 
 filtered, and mixed with i part of tin-salt and i part gum 
 arabic ; or 8 parts Brazil-wood, boiled with 2 [larts alura 
 and 2 parts cream of tartar in 120 parts water; the liquid 
 concentrated to parts by weight, and mixed with 2 parts 
 gum arabic and 2 parts sugar. Ucade's patent red ink 
 (1847) is made as follows: Cochineal is first boiled in suc- 
 cessive quantities of ])urc water till it ceases, or nearly so, 
 to afford tinctorial matter. It is then subjected to ebullition 
 with dilute ammonia, which dissolves the remainder of tbo 
 tint-giving principle, leaving the animal matter nearly 
 white. These aqueous and ammoniacal decoctions aro 
 then mixcfl in an earthenware vessel, and the crdoring- 
 matter is then thrown down I>y means of the double chloride 
 of ammonium and tin. The compound thus formed is sub- 
 sequently boiled in ammonia, and iodide of tin is then 
 added till the required degree of brilliancy of hue is ob- 
 tained : this completes the (noecss, the degree of body rc- 
 quircti in tlie ink being given by an ad libitum addition of 
 w.ater. This ink, says the patentee, is greatly superior to 
 the common solutions from peach and Brazil-wood, not 
 only in permanent richness of color, but also in its free- 
 dom from acid, and couscqucnt fitness for uso with steel 
 pens. 
 
 lilue Inks. — The most familiar blue ink is Stephens's 
 patent blue writing fluid, which is ,^0 parts of soluble Prus- 
 sian blue (Paris blue) dissolved in 4 jiarts of oxalic acid 
 in 1000 parts of water. Common Prussian blue is digested 
 in successive portions of hydrochloric acid until the solu- 
 tion ceases to react for iron with fcrrocyanidc of potassium. 
 It is then washed completely neutral with water, gently 
 dried, and carefully mixed with oxalic acid in fine powder, 
 drenched with pure cold water added in small portions 
 at a time, making a solution more or less dense according 
 to the intensity of color desired. For a concentrated solu- 
 tion, parts of Prussian blue, weighed before the acid 
 treatment, will after digestion be taken up by 1 part of 
 oxalic acitl and a proportional aimuint of water. Stephens's 
 Prussian blue ink fa<les in the light, but is restored in the 
 dark — a fact familiarly known to dyers as true of textile 
 fabrics dyed with Prussian blue. This blue ink resists the 
 action of chlorine ancl strong acids, but it yields to oxalic 
 acid and alkalies. Reade's patent blue ink is nothing more 
 than soluble Prussian blue prepared by a costly reaction 
 between ferric iodide and potassium fcrrocyanidc. Dr.
 
 INK. 
 
 1203 
 
 Xormandy prepared also a blue ink from ferrocyanide of 
 iron macerated in potassium binoxalatc, but it is not better 
 than Stephens's. Ohmc's blue ink is also soluble Prus- 
 si:in blue. It is curious to sec the recent revival of the sol- 
 uble Prussian blue iuk iu II.N. Nissen's patent, which was 
 nothin;^ new. ( ir</_7*i<T, 187-1.) The aniUnc Unc in/en arc 
 not quite equal to the color of a well-made Berlin blue ink, 
 showing usually of a little ^ray cast. But any one who knows 
 the trouble it costs to make the Berlin blue ink, and how easily 
 thi-i aniline ink is made, will prefer the nearly equal indi;;o 
 and blue-red aniline ink. To produce it take 1 part ot'6/e« tfc 
 niiit (bleu do Paris) in 200-2.30 parts boilinj; water. If it 
 shows the coppery sheen on the paper, add more water. In 
 use this ink holds like the fuchsinc ink. The alkali blue (it B. 
 or 6 B.) furnishciii a blue ink of a most delicate shade, but- 
 this ink is rather costly. Xormandy's pnrpfr ink is a log- 
 wood ink, prepared as follows: To 12 pounds of Campeachy 
 logwood add as many gallons of boiling water ; pour the in- 
 fusion through a funnel, with a strainer made of coarse flan- 
 nel, on 1 pound of hydrate or acetate of copper (verdigris) 
 finely powdered; at the bottom of the funnel a sponge is 
 placed; then aild immediately 14 pounds of alum, and for 
 each 17 gallon? of liquid add l pounds of gum arable or 
 senega!; lot these remain for three or four days, and a 
 beautiful purple will be produced. The aniline jturple and 
 violet inks far exceed all others in brilliancy, are free from 
 corrosive action, quite sufficiently permanent, and may be 
 ren«lcred practically indelible. The same is true of tho 
 aniline green. Viofct nnift'ne ink is most easily made of 
 all aniline inks. Take 1 part of violpt blue anilino to .100 
 parts water. The solution is of a vivid and beautiful vio- 
 let color, never lets fall a precipitate, flows smoothly, and 
 dries quickly. It is greatly to be preferred to tho common 
 copying ink made from logwood, alum, cuprio sulphate, 
 sulphate of indigo, and glycerine. A pen that has been 
 used for such copying ink if dipped in aniline violet ink 
 ins'antly impairs its Ciilor and granulates it. Orccn itniluic 
 ink is the finest color, but most costly, of all thcso brilliant 
 inks. Take 1 part of methyl green (methyl iodide), solu- 
 ble in water, to 100-110 parts of boiling water: this gives 
 a shining blue green ; if a yellow green is desired, add a 
 little picric acid. It will by its remarkable beauty displace 
 all existing green inks. Chrome ffrren ink, after AVincklcr : 
 Disj^olvc 180 grains of bichromate of potassa in 1 fluid- 
 ounce of water; add to tho menstruum, while warm, J an 
 ounce of spirit of wine; then decompose the mixture with 
 concentrated sulphuric acid until it assumes a brown color. 
 Tho liquor is now evaporated lill it is reduced In quantity 
 to one-half, when it is diluted with 2 ounces of distilled 
 water, filtered, mixed with S an ounce of alcohol, subse- 
 quently with a few drops of strong sulphuric acid, and then 
 allowed to rest till after some time it assumes a beautiful 
 green color. It is finally adapted for use by the addition 
 of a small quantity of gum arabic. Vrflow anifine ink is 
 not to bo commendotl. The mixture of 1 part picric acid 
 in 120-110 parts water is almost never used. Much yet 
 remains to be done to perfect and develop tho anilino inks, 
 for which ample materials already exist. 
 
 C'lt'bon (Hid other nn-cnllr-il Intlrlibte Writinfj <iud Mark- 
 inrj fnkn.—T\\Q resistance ofTcred by car'mn to tho action 
 of chemical agents is well known, and it is honco tho basis 
 of tho most permanent and unchangeable inks, cdiiefly 
 printing inks, as carbon cannot bo brought into solution. 
 All inks on this basis must be, like China or India ink, 
 serlinifnts held in suspension by some vehicle, and conse- 
 quently less fluiil than is desirable for ca-^y and constant 
 use with a pen of inod?rn construction. Ilenco, wo find 
 Oriental nations writing chiefly with a pencil of camel's 
 hair, and the ancient nations with a stylus of split reed. 
 Tho elaborate engrossing on parchment in both ancient 
 and mo b^rn times, in inks of all colors and in gold and 
 silver sizing, is performed with liko implement^) and tho 
 uso of colors held up in vehicles of various kinds, and al- 
 ways of a certain consistence nnauited to uso in an ordinary 
 pen. XL-vertheless, the ingenuity of prantieal chemists and 
 mauufii "turers has dev iscd numerous carlion and other in- 
 deliblo or permanent inks, of which we will mcntitm some 
 of tho most important. Jndinn Iuk nr Cfiinn Ink. — This 
 well-known pigment is prepared from finely divide! earbon, 
 chiefly lam|>ldnek or tlio soot of the oil of sesam/"*, formed 
 into cakes by tho use of some glutinous vehicle or adhesive 
 substanct*. suf'h an gum-water or glue. Mcrim^-e says in hia 
 work ( hr la Printiirr d f'lliiif' ) the Chinese do not uso gluo 
 in tlio fabrication of Ihnir ink, but certain vegetable juices, 
 which render it more brilliant and more indelible on paper. 
 Other authentic accounts of the manufacture of this famous 
 ink by tho Thinnse state in substance as follows: The basis 
 of all the different kinds and qualities of Fndia ink is lamp- 
 black, the best of which is obtaincrl from pig's-fo,»t and other 
 oils, and sometimes fr«im resins, while an inferior sort is made 
 from pine wood. The materials are burned iu a furnace 
 
 about 100 feet long, along tho sides and top of which tho 
 smoke condenses. That most remote from tho fire and 
 nearest the top is the liuest. and is carefully kept separate 
 from the rest. Glue made from the skin of the bufi'alo of 
 the country is soaked in water for a time until it is much 
 swollen, and afterwards completely dissolved. The lamp- 
 black is then introduced and worked in until it forms a 
 soft paste. When the materials are thoroughly mixed a 
 quantity of the oil of pens is added, and the tenij)crature 
 maintained for a time iit from 110° to 1(0°. until the paste 
 is homogeneous in character. It is then removed and sepa- 
 rated into little cakes, which arc allowed to remain for some 
 time drying and becoming mellow, after which they are 
 strongly compressed in wooden moulds, on the interior of 
 which arc engraved tho characters which arc seen u])on the 
 cakes. The surface of the cakes is finally coated with a 
 kind of animal wax, which gives a polish and prevents tho 
 ink from staining the hands. The peculiar odor of India 
 ink is produced by adding to it, during the process of 
 preparation, a mixture of Borneo camphor and musk. 
 Only the finer qualities, however, receive this addition. 
 Merim^c (before quoted) gives the following directions for 
 preparing this ink with glue. A concentrated infusion of 
 gallniits is turned into a solution of glue. Tho elastic, re- 
 sinous-looking product (artificial leather) is immediately 
 washed clear of the mother-liquor by hot water, and is then 
 dissolved in a thin solution of clarified glue. Kilter this 
 Folntion, and concentrate to the proper degree for incorpo- 
 rating it with purified lampblack. Infusion of galls renders 
 the iuk permanent on paper, otherwise it might be removed 
 mechanically. Provost says that lamphlack purified by pot- 
 ash ley. when mixed with a solution of refined glue and 
 dried, formed an ink which was preferred by artists to that 
 of China. Ritfault in his treatise on the jifaiui/adure of 
 Colors gives the following formula for the preparation of 
 China ink, by which this color, it is said, is now largely pro- 
 duced in rur;)pc and sold as the original article: Calcined 
 lampblack, 100 parts; boghead shaleblack, in imjtalpablo 
 powder. 50 parts; indigo-carmine, in cakes, 10 parts; car- 
 mine lake, 5 parts; gum arabic (first quality), 10 parts; 
 purified oxgall, 20 parts ; alcoholic extract of musk, 5 parts. 
 The gum is dissolved in 50 to GO parts of pure water, and 
 tho solution filtered through a cloth. The indigo-carmine, 
 lake, lampblack, and shalc!)lack arc incorporated with this 
 liquor, and tho whole ground upon a slab with a muller, 
 in the same manner as ordinary colors; but in this case the 
 grinding takes much longer. AVhen tho paste is thoroughly 
 homogeneous the oxgall is gradually added, and then the 
 alcoholic extract of musk. The more the black is ground 
 tho finer it is. The black is then allowed to dry in the air 
 until it has acquired sufficient consistency to be moulded 
 into cakes, which in their turn are still further dried in tho 
 air out of the reach of dust. When quite firm these cakes 
 aro compressed in bronze moulds, having appropriate de- 
 signs engraved upon them. The mouhlcd ink is then 
 wrapped in tin-foil with a second envelope of gilt paper. 
 Tho ink which has been prepared in this manner possesses 
 all tho properties of the real Chinese article. Its grain is 
 smooth, it flows very well, mixes perfectly with many other 
 colors, and becomes so firmly fixed to the jiaper that other 
 colors may he spread over it without washing it out. The 
 indf-lihli'. ink tif the Acutlcuii/ of SririirrH of Paris was pre- 
 pared in l^"j by a commission culled for by the minister of 
 finance, charged with the duty of discovering a truly indel- 
 ible writing ink for use on the public securities, banli-notcs, 
 etc. The result was an ink formed by dissolving China iuk 
 in dihtle ht/firochloric arid. It appears, therefore, that tho 
 Academy ink described below from Prof. Johnson is in a 
 sense the same as this, substituting an alkaline for an acid 
 vehicle, both very dilute. Either of these vehicles will 
 serve to penetrate the paper and prevent the easy mechan- 
 ical removal of (he coloring-matter. The alkaline vehicle 
 has tho advantage of not attacking sttel pens, and of over- 
 coming a certain unetuousncss of surface found on some 
 highly-finished papers or imparted by the fingers of some 
 persona in tho act of writing. I do not find mention of 
 these inks in any of tho cyclopip»lias. The little manual 
 Uoret of MM. Champour ct F. Malepeyre (Xourcnii 
 ninnttrf romptrt dr ht /uhrtrafion dm rncrrn, Purls, l^^O) 
 gives tho report of the commission of the Aoadcmy, hut it 
 does not .«peak of the nlkiiline menstruum. The Avadcmtf 
 ink, so called, is China ink lieM in sohition by about 1 per 
 cent, of potassic hydrate. Pritf. S. W. Johnson, who has 
 used this ink for some time, informs me that it is made 
 cither by rubbing up tho India cake in polash-wntt r. or 
 more easily by placing a small lump of the India ink in a 
 bottle with loss than its bulk of stick potash and a little 
 water. The ink slowly dissolves in the strong potash lyc, 
 and is then largely Ihinneil with water. This ink holds up 
 its carbon in the veh'ele almost without precipitation, flows 
 freely from the pen, writes perfectly black, and is completely
 
 1204 
 
 INK. 
 
 unalterable by time or chemical agents. A good permanent 
 writing ink may be made extemporaneously by mixing any 
 good ink with a little genuine China ink. It will resist 
 washing with a camel's hair brush and the action of oxalic 
 acid, chlorine, etc. It writes well also with a pen. and may 
 be used on both paper and textile fabrics. The vanadium 
 ink already mentioned is a good iudelililc ink. Other in- 
 delible carbon inks arc made as follows: Traill (Kdiiilir/. 
 Phil. Tnuis:.) says: Gluten, obtained in the ordinary way, 
 is kept from twenty-four to thirty-six hours in water, and 
 is then digested in acetic acid having the specific gravity 
 1 0:):i or 1.0.34, in the proportion of ?, parts of gluten to .0 
 parts of the acid. Bv the aid of a gentle heat a grayish- 
 white, saponaceous fluid, which may be kept for some time, 
 , . ■ > T7, Q ... lo ^-..;.,n nf *lio fin(.st liiinnblack 
 
 ; obtained. 
 
 iceous iiuiu, «iiii.w lu.ij "^ ...J-. — 
 
 From 8 to 12 grains of the finest lampblack 
 of indigo form the coloring-matter for each 
 
 antl z grams oi luuigo luim lu,. vvjiv-i.^g, ......... -- 
 
 fluid-ounce of the vehicle, with which it must be thoroughly 
 incorporated. An agreeable aroma may be communicated 
 bv di>'esting bruised cloves, pimento, or cinnamon in a 
 portion of the original acid. This ink may bo used with 
 a steel pen, but should not be left in it. It resists water, 
 chlorine, and dilute acids, but it is not calculated for wnt- 
 in" im parchment. Henry .Stephens's varbou ink has be- 
 come famous, and is made by boiling shell-lac, or common 
 resin, in carbonate of soda, potassa, or ammonia solution, 
 in about equal proportions, until all the resin is dissolved. 
 This solution is then mixed with finely-levigated lampblack 
 until it has the proper consistence. This alkaline liquid 
 may also be mixed with other colors to form an indelible 
 ink. Dr. Normandy has suggested an indelible writing 
 ink which cannot be obliterated or defaced by any known 
 chemical a^ent : 24 pounds of Frankfort black must be 
 ground with mucilage— formed by adding 20 pounds of 
 gum to 00 gallons of water— and the mixture strained 
 through a coarse flannel, or passed through a funnel the 
 tube of which is closed by a sponge ; 4 pounds of oxalic 
 acid are then added, together with as much decoction of 
 cochineal and sulphate of indigo as will give the required 
 shade. Bossin's indelible ink is made of 2 parts of pow- 
 dered acetate of copper, 4 parts of sal-ammoniac, 1 part 
 of lampblack, and 20 parts of water, well mixed together. 
 They make a good indelible ink, which, however, must al- 
 ways be shaken before using. Scott has patented (1S40) 
 .an "indelible ink in which gas-carbon (/. e. carbon from the 
 burning of coal-tar) and indigo or Prussian blue in very 
 fine powder are incorporated in a logwood and gallnut ink. 
 Imlelihle Markinq f„lcs.—Dr. BiMsev (Bnijenschea Iiid. 
 „„,; {Icwrrb-Blatt, Dec, 1872) states that the juice of the 
 anacardinin nut (Auacnrrliiin Orientale) contains an oily 
 matter which by exposure to air gradually assumes an in- 
 tense black color; this color is acted on neither by acids, 
 alkalies, chlorine, nor cyanide of potassium. The powdered 
 nut is treated in a closed glass bottle with gasoline, and 
 after so digesting some lime is left exposed to air for spon- 
 taneous evaporation. The remaining fluid, which is tbick- 
 ish is used either by writing or stamping by a die upon 
 linen or cotton. The color is at first dirty brown, but it 
 gradually becomes intensely black— an efl'ect produced in- 
 stantly by moistening the linen or cotton with liquid am- 
 monia. The same author also gives the following lormula 
 for an indclihti- aniline- hUtrk wriiinf/ ink (Din.jhr, Jan., 
 IST'l) ■ 3 65 grammes of aniline black are rubbed fine in a 
 liorcclain mortar with 00 drops of hydrochloric acid and 2'2 
 grammes of alcohol. This solution is mixed with a h.d 
 solution of 1.S2 grammes of gum arable in 8j grammes ol 
 hot water. This ink does not attack steel pens, and is not 
 acted on by strong mineral acids or by alkalies. If the 
 .aniline black solution is diluted with shell-lac solution (21 
 grammes in Sfi of alcidiol ). an aniline black lake is obtained 
 which is suited for coloring wood and leather. An indelible 
 marking ink, described by Jacobson {.MireK-liinrh. xii. 
 BS), is prepared from aniline by mixing the two foMowmg 
 solutions : (n) cupreous solution— 8.52 grm. of crystallized 
 chloride of copper, 10.65 grm. of chlorate of soda, and j.-.j 
 grm. of chloride of aniinonium arc dissolved in BO grm. 
 of distilled water; (h) aniline solution— 20 grm. of hydro- 
 chlorate of aniline are dissolved in :'.0 grm. of distilled 
 water, and 20 grm. of a solution of gum arable (1 of gum 
 to 2 of water) with 10 grm. of glycerine are added. By 
 mixing in the cold 4 parts of the aniline solution with 1 
 part of the cupreous solution, a green liquiil is obtained 
 which can be used immediatelv for tracing characters upon 
 linen ; the marks, however, alter after the lapse of a few 
 davs. It is neccssarv to keep the solutions separate until 
 required for use. If'ihe fluid does not flow easily from the 
 pen, it may bo diluted without fear of diminishing the in- 
 tensity of the tint, which, at first green, gradually darkens 
 and becomes black. Heat causes the change to take place 
 instantaneously ; a steam heat is sufiicient, and is better 
 for the fabric 'than a hot iron. Afterwards the linen is 
 washed in warm soap and water. 
 
 Indelible Bine Mol,,bdeniLm /at.- Roder directs (/o/^( 
 Xoiizblall, 185B, 112) to dissolve five parts of oxide ol 
 racdybdenum in the smallest necessary quantity of murnatic 
 acid; also diss..lve 2 parts of extract of licence and (. 
 of gum arable in 210 parts of water. Mix the solutions, 
 and write with them on the linen to be marked. After 
 writing, moisten with a solution of chloride of zmc in wa er. 
 This is an ink not only indelible in ordinary washing, but 
 in acids and alkalies.' It is said this ink cannot possibly 
 be removed, except by destroying the article written upon 
 In fact, it is an utterly indelible blue dye, while the so-ca led 
 indelible silver inks may be removed by cyanide of potas- 
 sium, and other chemical agents. Mirate-of-sdeer mark- 
 inn ink,, although commonly called indelible, yield readily 
 to the solvent power of cyanide of potassium (ammonia and 
 chlorine). One of the best is Red,eood;. made as fol- 
 lows : Dissolve 1 ounce of nitrate of silver and li of 
 crystallized carbonate of soda in separate portions of dis- 
 til'led water, and mix the solutions: collect the resulting 
 precipitate on a filter, edulcorate it well with distilled water, 
 and introduce it, while still moist, into a « edgewood-ware 
 mortar; add 8 scruples of tartaric acid, and triturate the 
 whole until eff-ervesceuce has ceased : next add a sufficient 
 quantity of ammonia to dissolve the tartrate of silver; 
 mix in 4 fluid-drachms of archil, i drachms of white sugar, 
 and 12 of finelv-powdered gum arable; and pour in as 
 much water as'will make 6 ounces of mixture. By this 
 r.rocess the nitric acid, which is essential to a good mark- 
 ing ink, is retained, and the tartrate of silver formed is 
 soluble in half the quantity of ammonia ordinarily required 
 when nitrate of silver is the basis of the ink. This flu d 
 requires no preparation on the cloth, and becomes instantly 
 da\ on application of a gentle heat. It does not a tack 
 the most delicate tissues. M. Kuhr (Co.mo, June, 1.S69) 
 recommends the following preparation : 1 part of hypophos- 
 phite of soda and 2 parts of gum arable are dissolved in 
 16 parts of distilled water. The tissue, linen or cotton, to 
 be marked is thoroughly moistened with this liquid, and 
 then left to dry. After having become well dried the fol- 
 lowing liquid, composed of 1 part of nitrate of silver and 
 6 parts of gum dis'solved in 6 parts of distdled water, is 
 used as marking ink with a quill-pen The mixtures here 
 described are stated to yield an indelible and very deep 
 black-colored ink. Numerous other ""l"'« f"'',,""";';^:' ,^ 
 ink from nitrate of silver might be cited, but these will 
 suflice, espeoiallv as the more modern improvements in this 
 art render them no longer of so much use as fo""^'";'^-' 
 Gold, ph„inn,n, pallndinm, iridinn,, and other metals of the 
 same class are used to produce indelible marking inks by 
 usiugthe chloride solutions. Merget, in h.s researches upon 
 gaset as developers in photographic work has ^bowii hat 
 the salts of this scries of metals are reduced by certain 
 gases in presence of moisture, and that vapor of mercury 
 Ih-en off at as h,w a temperature as 40° f. will serve to 
 reduce gold, etc. in the substance of tissues, paper c e., 
 producing indelible stains of a color corresponding to the 
 metal. The dampness of the tissue must be preserved by 
 a solution of ferric tartrate, ammonic nitrate, or some other 
 hvgrosopic salt. ( r„m;,(f» Z^"-/., .xxvi. 14,0.) _ 
 
 ■ I good permanent ink may be made by mixing a strong 
 solution of chloride of platinum with a little pot..sh, sugar 
 and gum to thicken. The writing made therewith should 
 be passed over with a hot smoothing-iron to fix i . An ink 
 for writing on -Jne plant-lal.el, may be made by dissolving 
 equal parts acetate of copper and sal-ainmoniac ■> distilled 
 water. When characters are written with this solution on a 
 zinc plate the copper is precipitated forming deep black, 
 very durable marks. Ink for marking copper and ,<he, 
 •es els may be made by boiling suljdiide o antimony in 
 strong potash ley, leaving the liquid to cool and fi tering 
 from Separated kermes. As this iquid does not act upon 
 iron, steel pens may be used for writing with ,t on the metal. 
 The characters on copper and silver ain- black and yer, d - 
 able ; on tin, lead, and zinc less durable. Ink Jo, 11 , ,l,na 
 on ff/o.,-A solution of fluoride ol ammonia is recom- 
 mended as furnishing a ready means of writing with a pen 
 of any kind upon glass, and is especially "'i»P "^ f" "^^ j 
 lin-' bottles, cylinder-tubes, etc. m the laboratory , as well 
 as for marking the degrees upon hydrometers and apparatus 
 of similar construction. , , vi ■ .„;,i rt;i„(e 
 
 Bemov.d of /„/r-.^'(o/M..-Dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute 
 sulphuric acid, and oxalic acid will destroy and rcno e 
 the color of most gall and logwood inks. CWoruie s. lu- 
 tion or as bleaching-powder acts in a similar manner 1 o- 
 tassie, sodic, and ammonic hydrate attack many c°'"^' '""'• 
 alternated with the acids, destroy stains "h><=l> »" ""Re- 
 moved from paper and tissues by either ■^l"'"'-,.^" /^.^^^j 
 plication of chemical agents to paper requires that it should 
 L free from the binding of a volume. Ozone 'P^^ Powerhil 
 bleaching agent, and has been recommended for removing 
 stains from engravings. Bottger recommends the use ol
 
 INK. 
 
 120o 
 
 pyrophosphate of soda to remove ink-flecks from colored 
 goods which will not allow the employment of bleacbing- 
 powdors and oxalic acid. 
 
 Si/mpatfi'dc inki arc those fluid? which, when used to 
 write upon paper, arc invisible until broujrht out by heat 
 or the influence of some chemical aj^ent. Acetate-of-lead 
 solution leaves no trace of the marks made by the pen 
 nnlil exposed to sulphydric acid vapor, when it suddenly 
 develops an intense brown-Mack incluliblo color. A weak 
 i*«/ii«r«ii o/ 'jiilU leaves no sign of the writing until dctel- 
 oped by a solution of iron. Even milk (mentioned by Ovid) 
 will develop visible characters by gently heating the paper, 
 or even by dusting it over with some dark powder. The 
 Kame \a true of ftuyar-wftter. Water made aci'l with dilute 
 gufphun'r nri'fi. Written with a quill or gold pen, is quite 
 invisible till by a slight warming the evaporation of the 
 water leaves the acid in a form sufficiently concentrated to 
 char the paper in black characters. Dilute yrllmr pruti»utte 
 of potnah develop*" blue with a ferric salt. The metal 
 cobalt is remarkable for the fine blue-greeu tint it develops 
 on paper written with a jtolution of its chloride, while the 
 acetate of cobalt develops pink when helil to the fire. A 
 winter landscape-drawing may thus be made to show ver- 
 dure and pink flowers, which disappear again on cooling. 
 Nitrate of cobalt, with ')xalic acid as a mordant, develops 
 hfue. Chloride of anlimon.v develops ycUow by decoction 
 of galls. Subacetate of lead also develops yellow by hy- 
 driodic acid, and a dilute solution of eupric eliloride forms a 
 beautiful sympathetic ink. developing afiuoycllow colorby 
 heat, and fading out ag:iin when cooled. Colorless arsenito 
 of potassa solution develojis a lively green when washerl 
 over with a dilute solution of a eupric salt. Chloride of 
 gold turns to purple of Cassius when washed with stannous 
 chloride. An acid solution of ferric chloride, so dilute as to 
 he quite invisible when written on paper, becomes blood- 
 red on washing with sulphocyanide of potassium, and again 
 invisible by vapor of ammonia, and these changes can be 
 alternated at pleasure. Linen stained with nitrate of silver 
 or indelible ink may l)e bleached by first moistening the 
 spots with tincture of iodine, which is followed soon after 
 with solution of sodic hyposulpliite. This removes the 
 silver stain, and also the blue color duo to the iodide of 
 starch. Another method is by treating the spot first with 
 eupric chloride (not too strong), and then with hyposulphite 
 of sodium, and in any case washing well after in ample 
 water. 
 
 Ink which has become faded out by ago may often bo 
 redeveloped by tracing the characters with a pencil wet 
 with gallic acid. If the ink was an iron ink, it will be tlnis 
 plainly developed. Ink which has been too long written to 
 allow of copying by the press may be rendered transferable 
 again by using water slightly acidulated with hydrochloric 
 acid with which to moisten the copy paper. This method, 
 however, fails on very old writing — r.rj. a century. Such 
 documents, says M. Niepce do ,St. Victor, may bo repro- 
 duced by using copy paper wetted with a dilute solu- 
 tion of glucose or honey instead of water. After pressing, 
 this paper is exposed to the fumes of strong ammonia, 
 which brings out clearly lines otherwise quite invisible. 
 The fading out of old MSS. occurs ehielly when the writ- 
 ing is removed from the presence of light into a dark 
 Rn<l damp place. An old MS. written in IMO a. n. is now 
 preserved in the abbey of Cluny in France, and is to-day 
 as fine a black color as can be seen, in spite of the rav- 
 ages nf time. An eflort has been made by M. Carre to 
 fix (he relative age of old MSS. by the use of dilute H('l. 
 (1 : Ul), which has the power of changing the color of log. 
 wood inks red. and alters also the gallnnt inks, while it has 
 no eff"cct on carbon ink. But some of the ancient MSS. of 
 the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries changed red by this 
 treatment. But such methods are very unsatisfactory, and 
 may bo completely illusory. 
 
 Lith'tfjrttphic Writintj Ink. — Tho lithographic art is de- 
 scribe I under Litiiogkaimiv. Two kinds of ink are used 
 in this art — one, eallcil lithographic crayons or chalk, forms 
 the pencil with which the artist traces bis designs. Tho 
 composition of these crayons has received much attention, 
 as the success of the art depends upon them. The compo- 
 sition of which they are formed must be firm enough to 
 hold a fine point to secure delieney in drawing, and yet 
 adhere strongly to the stone. Tho French crayons of Ber- 
 nard and helarue i>f Paris are made of best quality wax \ 
 parts, dry white tallow poap 2 parts, white (alhpw 2 parts, 
 gum-lac 2 parts, lampblack 1 part, copal varnish I part. 
 The wax is melted over a gentle fire, the laf broken small, 
 added as it melts, then the soup in fine Hha\ings, the tallow, 
 and lastly the copal and liimpblurk, stirring nil the time 
 with a spatula. Il is ca«<t in brass cylindrical moulds. An- 
 other preparation is as follows: For \\ ounces of shoU-lao 
 take 2 ounces of soap, 3 ounces of white wax, and about 1 
 ounce of tallow ; add about :i tablcspoonfuls of a strong 
 
 solution of gum sandarach, and when ready color with 
 lampblack. The lithographic jtrinting ink is describeil 
 under Ln iiofiitAi-nv ; its composition is similar to tin- 
 crayon ink, but it is made thinner, and acts as an emul- 
 sion. 
 
 II. Printing Ink (Fr. Enere d'imprtmt^re: Gcr. liuch- 
 driicker/nrbc). — Printer's ink is a carbon ink in an oily and 
 resinous vehicle. The carbon is lamplilack. sometimes 
 ivory-black, and with a little indigo or Prussian blue. The 
 oil is generally boiled and burned linseed oil, or in some Eu- 
 ropean countries nut oil. In addition to thesechief ingre- 
 dients, rosin and turpentine are used, more rarely balsam 
 copaiba, and lastly soap (common yellow rosin soap) is a 
 very essential ingredient. Tho preparation of these in- 
 gredients requires care, and every manufacturer has his 
 own methods and technical secrets in the manufacture of 
 his ink, which printers in these days seldom or never make 
 for themselves, Tho conditions required of a good ink are 
 chiefly — (1| that it distribute it^elf easily and well over 
 the rollers and typof (2) it must give a sharp and clean 
 impression, without adhering to the type tenaciously or 
 blurring the paper with excels of oil : ('■**)\i must dry rap- 
 idly on the ]>aper, but remain soft upon the type and roll- 
 ers ; this is especially important for the rapid-moving 
 printing-maehines of modern times and the exigencies of 
 great newspapers, jirinting .'JO.OdU to HIO.OOO im]>reFsion8 
 in two or three hours ; (4) it must be black, and not brown 
 in color; and, lastly, it must be proof against all the rav- 
 ages of time and the power of chemical agents. It is not. 
 however, to be understood that even the best |>rinter's ink 
 is incapable of being removed by means of chemical skill, 
 as such is not the case. The linseed oil is clarified from 
 the fatty matters, and the pure oil is boiled with great care 
 at a carefully regulated temperature; and during the boil- 
 ing the best pale yellow soap is aclded to give it consist- 
 ency, and the require<l dryers arc also now mixed with it. 
 The best black is that olttainctl from the smoke of naphtha, 
 the combustion being carefully regulated. This black is 
 grountl up carefully with the drying oil. which has assumed 
 the character of a varnish, and the ink is comjilete. The 
 oil demands particular attention. It is clarified from the 
 fatty and useless matters, and is better if old, and must not 
 only beh)ng boiled, but burned by setting fire to the vapors 
 floating over it, tho flames being extinguished by a tight- 
 fitting metallic cover shut over the boiler, which should 
 never be more than half full. The following account of 
 Savage's process (of England) is condensed from Ure by 
 Watts: 10 or 12 gallons of the oil are set over the fire in 
 an iron pot cajtablc of holding at least half as much more, 
 for the oil swells up greatly, and its boiling over into the 
 fire would be very dangerous. When it boils, it is con- 
 tinually stirred with an iron ladle; and if it do not itself 
 take fire, it is kinillcd with a piece of flaming paper or 
 wood ; for simple boiling, without the actual inflammation 
 of the oil, does not communicate a sufficient degree of the 
 drying quality required. The oil is suffered to burn for 
 half an houror luore, and the flame being then extinguished 
 by covering the vessel close, the boiling is afterwards con- 
 tinued with a gentle heat till the oil appears of a proper 
 consistence: in this state it is called varnish. Mr. Savage 
 in his work on the /'rrpnratitm nf Priutintj luk [ London, 
 \^'\2) says that good varnish for printing ink cannot bo 
 made without allowing the oil to burn. The (lerman prac- 
 tice appears, however, to be somewhat diff"erent ; for in tho 
 I/fitifliri'irtrrhurh ifef Chenn'r ( Bd. vii. p. ;tlM ) it is stated 
 that the oil should be heated only till the vapor which rises 
 from it can be set <in fire with a piece of burning paper, 
 but will cease to burn of itself after a little while, or at 
 least will be easily extinguished by putting on tho cover; 
 further, that if this temperature be exceeded there is great 
 danger of the oil getting into a state of violent combustion, 
 which cannot be extinguished even by covering tho vessel, 
 and may occasion an enorntous loss of oil. Il is necessary 
 to have two kinds of this varnish, a thicker and a thinner, 
 from the greater or less boiling, to be occasionally mixed 
 together as diflV-rent purposes may require, that which an 
 swers wril in hot weather being too thick in cold, and large 
 characters not rctpiiring so stifi'an ink as small ones. 'I'hc 
 thickest varnish, when cold, may be drawn into threads 
 like weak glue, by which criterion the workmen judge of 
 the due boiling, small quantities being from time to time 
 taken out an«i dr<»ppei| upon a tile for this purpose. It is 
 very viscid and tenacious, like tho soft resinous juices or 
 thick turpentine. Neither water nor alcohol dissolves it, 
 hnt it mingles readily enough with fresh oil, and unites 
 with mueilaires into a mass diffusible in water in an emul- 
 sive form. The oil loses from one-tenth to one-eighth of 
 its weight by boiling into the thick varnish. For lelter- 
 presB printing ink the addition of soap to the varnish is 
 indispensable, to enable the ink to bo taken up clearly from 
 tho types by tho moistened paper without smearing. Tho
 
 1206 
 
 INKBERRY— INNKEEPERS. 
 
 soap useil for the purpose is yellow resin soap ; it is cut 
 into thin slices, well dried, rubbed to coarse powder, and 
 incorporated by small portions at a time with the varnish, 
 which is then once uiorc ])Iaced over the fire, to expel any 
 remaining moisture. The coloring-matter of black print- 
 ing ink is the best lampblack, previously calcined to free 
 it from empyrcumatic oils and resins. Its somewhat brown- 
 ish color is corrected by the addition of a little Prussian 
 blue or indigo. 
 
 The ink used by copper-plate printers differs in the oil, 
 which is not so much boiled aa to acquire the adhesive 
 quality. This would render it less disposed to enter the 
 cavities of the engraving, and more difficult either to be 
 spread or wiped off. ( Ure.) * The black is likewise of a dif- 
 Jerent kind. Instead of lampblack or sublimed charcoal, 
 the Frankfort-black is used, which is a residual or denser 
 charcoal, said to be made from vine-twigs. Lampblack is 
 $n'nl to give a degree of toughness to the ink which the 
 I'rankfort does not, but the goodness of the color seems to 
 \)G the leading inducement fur the use of the latter. One 
 pound of a superfine printing ink may be made by the fol- 
 lowing recipe of Mr. Savage : Balsam of copaiba, D ounces ; 
 lampblack, ."i ounces; indigo and Prussian blue together, 
 p. leq. li ounces: Indian red, 3 ounce; turpentine (yellow) 
 soap, dry, ?> ounces. This mixture is to be ground upon a 
 slab with a muUer to an impalpable smoothness. 
 
 Colored prhitinij inkn arc made by using in place of car- 
 bon any desired color to mix with the varnish. Ink of any 
 tint of color may thus bo obtained, and by the use of the 
 bronze powders, made now ofalmost all colors, everj- metallic 
 effect required by ornamental printing may be readily pro- 
 ducod. In the use of bronzes a nearly colorless size is 
 used in place of ink, and the bronze powder is dusted on 
 while the size is yet fresh. B. Silliman. 
 
 Ink'berry (Ilex glabra), the popular name of an elegant 
 shrub, generally from two to four feet high, with slender 
 and flexible stems, brilliant, evergreen leaves, leathery and 
 shining on the nurface and of a lanceolate form, and pro- 
 ducing small black berries. It is found on the Atlantic 
 coast of North America, and is now much cultivated by 
 florists. 
 
 Inkerman', a small Tartar village in the Crimea, near 
 the E. extremity of the harbor of Scbastopol. It is built 
 on the ruins of an ancient city, supposed to bo the Ctenos 
 mentioned by Strabo, at the foot of a perpendicular hill, 
 which rises several hundred feet above the valley of the 
 river Tchernaya, and is covered with remains of walls and 
 towers, while in the sides are numerous eaves hewn in the 
 pnlid rock, with traces of altars, chapels, and paintings. 
 The heights of Inkerman opposite to thi? hill, across 
 tlie valley of the Tchernaya, arc memorable as the scene 
 of one of the most desperate battles of recent times (Xov. 
 .'j, 1854), in which 11,000 allied English and French troops 
 (chiefly the former) heM their ground for many hours 
 against 00,000 Russians, ultimately driving them from tho 
 field with great loss. The action began early in tlie morn- 
 ing by the Russians attempting to carry the allied posi- 
 tions by assault. Tho fifth volume of Kinglake's graphic 
 HtHtori} of the Cfinintn Wnr. recently |>ublished (1S76), is 
 entirely occupied with the battle of Inkerman. 
 
 InMiind, post-tp. of Cedar co., la. Pop. 1112. 
 
 Inlaiitl, post-tp. of IJenzic co., Mich. Pop. 204. 
 
 Inland Navigation. Sec Navigation, Islasd (Ca- 
 NAi.si. by .1. ,J. K. CuoKs. and Navigation, I.nland (Rivers 
 AND Lakks), by W. E. iMkkkm.i,. 
 
 Inlay 'ing, the ornamentation of surfaces of wood, metal, 
 shell, stone, etc. with pieces of a different color. Marquet- 
 crie, Florentine work ov pivtra dura, damaskeening, mosaic- 
 work, etc. are forms of this art. Italy, mcdiirval Byzan- 
 tium, Damascus, Russia, India, China, and Japan have 
 all had schools of these arts, where most nu-ritorions work 
 has been done. Russia, Italy, and the East are the most 
 iui])ortnnt seats at present of the inlaycr's art. 
 
 In'man (Hiary), b. in TItica, N. Y.. Oct. 2«. 1801; 
 d. in New York Jan. 17, lS4fi. His earliest inclination 
 was towanis a military life; he !iad already secured a com- 
 mission to enter the Academy at M'est Point, when tho 
 8ight of Westmiillcr's fJmiae deter.mined his bent to another 
 career. He studied with John Wesley Jarvis ; went to 
 Boston as a portrait-painter in 1822; in 1S;12 removed to 
 Philadelphia: from thence, chiefly in order to be in tho 
 country, he went to Mount Holly. N. J.; returned to New 
 York, but, being disabled by ill-health, was induced to visit 
 England with commissions to paint for American friends 
 portraits of Chalmers, Mncaulay, and Wordsworth. In 
 1845, resisting strong professional and social temptations 
 
 ♦ In the Hiindir/'irttrhueh dfr f7irv}ifi (\'ii.^99) it is stated, on the 
 contrary, that ink for copper-plate print iiic is prepared with the 
 thickest linsced-oil varnish, which has been allowed to burn. 
 
 to remain in England, where his success as an artist and 
 his popularity as a man had been eminent, ho returned to 
 his native land, to sicken again and die. Inman's reputa- 
 tion was established early, and continued to increase. 
 Among his sitters were Bishops Mclh-aine and White, Dr. 
 Hawks, William Wirt, Nicholas Biddle, Judge Bctts, Col. 
 Johnson, Horace Binney, Audubon, Chief-Justice Nelson, 
 De Witt Clinton, Martin Van Buren, and William H. 
 Seward. His portraits were life size, cabinet size, and in 
 miniature. The subjects of his other pieces were various 
 — Birutini Wood, Hi/dal Water, Lake of the Disiiiaf Swamp, 
 Trout-FUhiiifj, The Xewahni/, Hip Van Winkle Atcakinij, 
 Scene from the Jiridc of Lnmmcrmoor, Family Gruitpn, 
 Sterne's ^farill, Mnmhlc-the- I*cfj, and others of unequal 
 merit. He executed a great deal in crayon and with the 
 pen, and did work in litliograph. He was a pleasing writer 
 also of sketches antl letters, a man of fine literary taste 
 and poetic feeling. His best works are portraits, in private 
 bouses, not easily seen. They entitle their author to a very 
 high rank among artists. 0. B. FROiiiiNGnAM. 
 
 Inman (J. O'B.l, son of Henry, as an artist known 
 chieily by delicate flower-pieces and genre pictures, pleas- 
 ing in color and graceful in sentiment; has lived several 
 years in Rome, where his work has elicited praise from 
 critics. 
 
 Inman TThomas). M. D., a physician and botanist of 
 Liverpool, England, was for some years professor nt medi- 
 cal institutions in London ; wrote numerous medical works, 
 but is chiefly known as author of a very remarkable and 
 learned but eccentric book, Ancient Faiths Embodied in 
 Ancient Tiamcs (ISOtl). 
 
 Inn. See Hotel, by C. G. Leland, A. M., and Inn- 
 
 KEEPF.RS, by J. N. POMEROY. 
 
 Inn [Lat. (Enus']. a river of S. Germany, and the largest 
 Alpine tributary of the Danube, takes its rise in the Swiss 
 canton of Orisons from the Lake of Longhino, nearly TOUO 
 feet above the sea; flows N. E. through that canton, form- 
 ing the valley of the Engadine ; enters the Tyrol at Fin- 
 stermunz ; flows with great violence through Northern Ty- 
 rol by lunspruck ; flows through Bavaria for about 90 miles 
 to Braunau. whence it continues nearly N., forming tho 
 boundary between Upper Austria and Bavaria, and enters 
 the Danube at Passau, after a course of Z\b miles. It re- 
 ceives tho river Salzach from the S. ; is navigable as far as 
 Innspruck for small vessels, and to Hall, S miles below, for 
 steamboats. Engadine is the name of the Upper Inn in 
 tho Romansch language, spoken by a small remnant of an 
 ancient nation near the head of this river. The Inn is 
 broader than the Danube at their junction. 
 
 In'nes (Thomas), b. in ]rpr)2, of a noble Scottish family ; 
 was educated in the College of Navarre in Paris; became 
 a Catholic priest, and succeeded his brother Louis as princi- 
 pal of the Scotch college at Paris. He was the author of 
 a highly esteemed ethnological work, A Critical Fitsny on 
 the Ancient Inhnbitantu uf thr \orthrrn Pttrts of Britain 
 (17211), and divides with his brother Louis tlie reputed 
 authorship of the Mrmoim of James //., published in 1816 
 by Dr. Clarke. D. at ParisFeb. 9, 1744. 
 
 In'ncss (George), b. in Newburg, Orange co., N. Y., 
 May 1, 1S2j ; took lessons in art ; came to New York at six- 
 teen, and studied engraving; was prevented by ill-health 
 from pursuing his object ; returned to his home in Newark, 
 N. J. ; emerged four years later; spent a month with Re- 
 gis Gignoux, and then began his career as a landscape- 
 artist. Inness has been called a disciple of Theodore 
 Rousseau, whoso pictures his own in sentiment resemble. 
 His landscapes arc touched with imagination and charged 
 with poetic feeling. His themes are imaginative: Pence 
 and I*leutif. The Sign of Promise, A Viniou of Faith, The 
 Valley of the Shadow of Death, The Apocalyptic Vision of 
 the Xcw Jerusalem and the Jttrer of Life. His less am- 
 bitious works, A Pasiing Storm, Summer Afternoon, Tici- 
 li'jht, Snnshinc and Shftdow, Moist (Jreen Level trith Trees, 
 show a tender sympathy with nature. Inness has twice 
 visited Europe, but never studied there with a master. Ho 
 now (1S75) resides at Boston, Mass. 0. B. Frotiilngham. 
 
 Inn'keepers. An innkeeper is one who carries on tho 
 business of receiving into his house and entertaining guests. 
 An inn, which is the technical legal name, and includes tho 
 tavern and hotel, is the house in which he thus receives and 
 furnishes entertainment. The word "guests" is used in 
 this definition in its technical legal sense, which will be here- 
 after defined. It is not necessary that a person should confine 
 his entertainment to actual travellers in order that iiis house 
 should be an inn and himself an innkeeper. It is enough 
 that ho keeps a public-house, and holds himself out as 
 ready to receive all who come, and to furnish them general 
 entertainment, including lodging and food. Provision need 
 not be made for horses and carriages and cattle, although
 
 INNKEEPERS. 
 
 1207 
 
 this is customary, and probably universal in country 
 taverns. There is a legal clistinction between an inn and 
 a boardin;;-house and a restaurant. A boarding-huuse is 
 not an inn, because (he |iroprictor does not hold himself 
 out generally to take all who apply, but only receives thoFO 
 with whom ho chooses tn make an agreement. A special 
 contract is the basis of all the legal relations between the 
 keeper of a boarding-house and his boarder, while a com- 
 mon-law public duty is the basis of all the kgul relations 
 between the innkeeper and his guest. Still, an innkeeper 
 may. in the same house in which ho entertains guest?, also 
 have boarders. As to the one class of persons, he willhuld tlio 
 relation of innkeeper, and as to the other that of boarding- 
 house keeper. The proprietor of a restaurant, like the inn- 
 keeper, holds liimself out to the public at large, but not as 
 one who furnishes general accommodation and entertain- 
 ment, for he furnishes only food. A person, however, docs 
 not lose his legal character as an innkeeper because he docs 
 not actually supply all his guests by a laUc-d'hotf. If he 
 furnishes lorlginga to all who come, and means by which 
 they may all obtain meals at bis house if they choose, ho 
 keeps an inn. In fact, the common-law doctrines in refer- 
 ence to this entire subject giew up at a time when meals 
 were furnished at inns only as they wcro ordered, and tho 
 tabU-ii'hotc system was unknown. 
 
 Before describing tho legal rights and obligations of tho 
 innkeeper, it is important to determine who is a '**/»<?«(" 
 at an inn, for it is only towards his guests that tho inn- 
 keeper's peculiar and severe liabilities exist. All persons 
 who apply for entertainment or refreshment to him as an 
 intilrceprr — that is, in virtue of his inn — and obtain it. are 
 guests, and his common-law duty to them arises. On tho 
 other hand, if an innkeeper has a restaurant also in con- 
 nection with his inn, and a person only procures refreshment 
 thereat; or if ho maintains a stable for public accommoda- 
 tion, and a person simply leaves his horses or cattle to be 
 taken care of, without himself becoming a-guest; or, finally, 
 if tho innkeeper by a special contract receives a person into 
 his house in tho character of a boarder — in neither of these 
 cases do tho legal rights of a guest c.\ist in favor of tho one 
 party, or the legal responsibilities of an innkeeper devolve 
 upon tho other. These propositions may be better illus- 
 trated and explained by a roferenco to tho facts of a few 
 judicial decisions than by any general discussion. I pur- 
 posely select those whicli aro extreme, in order to nhow tho 
 extent to which the common-law obligations have been car- 
 ried by the courts. There can be no possible doubt or dif- 
 ficulty in respect to tho relations of tlie parties where trav- 
 ellers and others are actually received into an inn, and nre 
 entertiiineil in the ordinary manner and under ordinary eir- 
 curastances : it is tho extreme and somewhat exceptional 
 instances which indicate tho limits of the legal rule. In an 
 early case decided by tho Knglish court of king's bench a 
 person came into an inn situated in a market-town and re- 
 quested permission to leavo a box of giod-* until the next 
 markot-day. The request being refused, ho sat down in 
 tho public-room and ordered some liquor. This was sup- 
 plied, and he remained a 8h<irt time drinking it, having 
 plft''cd the box on tho floor behind him. When ho arr)se 
 and was about to go, it was discovered that the goo*ls had 
 been stolen. For this Io.ss the keeper of the inn was held 
 responsible; tho procuring and iiartaking of tho liquor in 
 his house made the owner of the box a guest for tho timo 
 being, and subjectetl tho other, while that relation lasted, 
 to the eommon-law liability in respect of the property wliieh 
 had been constructively jilaced in liis custody. Tho facts 
 of an analogous case dc^ddcd a few years past by tho su- 
 premo court of New York show that the same severe rule 
 is still enforced. A person came into an inn about seven 
 o'clock in the morning and procured souje liquor at the bar 
 for himself and for others in his company. Taking off his 
 overcoat, and directing it to bo hung up, ho immediately 
 left tho house, and was absent tho entire day. Upon his 
 return lato in tho nftern<ton the coat was gone, and tho inn- 
 keeper was adjudged bound to mako good this loss. Tho 
 facts of still another case are given to illustrate the dis- 
 tineriun already mentioned between the furnishing enter- 
 tainment by an innkeeper, (i* uttrft, which makes the |>arty 
 entertained a guest, and the furnishing it in some other 
 capacity, which does not givo rise to the same legal condi- 
 tion. The owner of a eily hotel hud in connection with it 
 a saloou or restaurant. On a certain oemsion a public ball 
 was given at his bouse. One of the eompany in attetnlance 
 at tho ball upon bis arrival took off his cont and other 
 outside wrappings and left them in charge of a servant of 
 tho proprietor. iMiring the evening he visited the restau- 
 rant and obtained liquor and other rcfrephment. The arti- 
 cles which he hud entrusted to the servant were missing, 
 cither lost or stolon ; hut as tho ftict« narrated diti not o()n- 
 stitute their owner n guest of tho inn, he was not ablo to 
 fix any responsibility for them upon tho innkeeper. 
 
 The peculiar duties and obligations which aro imposed 
 upon the innkeeper in virtue of his public occupation are 
 two in number; the first being in respect of tho gueyts 
 personally, and the second in respect of their goods. 
 
 (1) In Jicspcct of the Guests Pfisfmally, — The keeper of 
 an inn is bound to receive all travellers and wayfaring men 
 and other applicants, and to entertain them for a reason- 
 able compensation if he has room, and if they aro well 
 behaved and free from any special personal qualities 
 which might disturb the good order and well-being of his 
 house. The " reasonable compensation " hero spoken of 
 means tho prices customary at that particular house. A 
 '•Fifth Avenue hotel** is not compelled to receive persons 
 at tho rates charged by a country tavern. The duty to re- 
 ceive depends also upon the conduct of the applicant and 
 the condition of the inn. If the latter is full, no ono has 
 a legal right to bo received, and the law does not prescribe 
 tho amount or limit of accommodalion in this respect. Nor 
 is the landlord obliged to admit a person who is intoxi- 
 cated or disorderly, or wlio is inflicted with a contagiou.-^ or 
 infectious disease wliich would be dangerous to the hcaltli 
 of the inmates, nor, perhaps, a person of notoriously bad 
 character and reputation, whose presence would be highly 
 offensive to other guests. A refusal to comply with the ob- 
 ligation thus described — that is. to receive an npplleant 
 against whom no legal objection existed, and when there 
 was roou\ for his accommodation — gives a right of action 
 in favor of tho injured party against the innkeeper to re- 
 cover tho damages caused by the unlawful rejection. Such 
 actions are of course very infrequent, but the right to 
 maintain them is recognized by tho highest authorities, an- 
 cient and modern. At tho common law an indictment for 
 a misdemeanor also lay against the innkeeper wlio should 
 violate this his public duty. 
 
 (2) In JicRprct of the Giirsffi' (joods.— The eommon-law 
 doctrine is well established that the innkeeper is responsi- 
 ble for all tho goods received into his custody — or, as it is 
 often Baid, received within tho curtilage of the inn — from 
 a guest; in other words, he is liable for all losses of and 
 injuries to such goods, even in the absence of his own 
 or his servant's negligence or other wrong, except where 
 tho loss is directly occasioned by the *' act of God,*' or by 
 tho " act of public enemies," or by tho fraud or negligence 
 of the guest himself or his servant or companion. Ilr is, 
 therefore, in fact, an insurer o( his guest's goods, while in 
 his custody, against all losses and iujr.rics whatsoever, un- 
 less resulting from some one of the three causes jusl men- 
 tioned. This rigorous rule of the common law, originating 
 at a very ancient period in English history, when all trav- 
 elling was dangerous, and when it was supposed that inn- 
 keepers were often in league with robbers, has been main- 
 tained to the present day, and is still enforced in all tho 
 States of tho Union, with one or two exceptions, unless 
 modified by tho legislature. In Vermont, however, a less 
 stringent rule prc\ails as the result of judicial decision, 
 and the innkeeper is not held responsible for losses occa- 
 sioned by casualties over which he bad no control, such as 
 incendiary fires. Tho term ''act of God" is not synony- 
 mous with "inevitable accident." It is an occurrence 
 which arises entirely from natural causes outsido of tho 
 ordinary course of events, and in whicli human agency 
 could not by possiliility have intervened. The most famil- 
 iar examples aro lightning, storms, unusual fre.-^hets, earth- 
 quakes, and the like. The term "public enemies" implies 
 actual war, and it docs not include mere robbers, rioters, 
 or mobs. If an insurrection should attain such magnitude 
 that it amounted to a war, the rebels would become public 
 enemies within the meaning of tho phrase ns hero used. 
 Applying these explanations, tho innkeeper is seen lo bo 
 responsililo for all losses of tho goods while in his custody 
 except those which result immediately from extraordinary 
 natural events, such ns lighlning-slrokes, earthquakes, etc., 
 or from the violence of the hostile forces in time of war, or 
 from tho fraud or negligence of the guest himself. In 
 order that the liability thus deseribed should arise, the ar- 
 ticles must be under the control, actual or constructive, of 
 tho innkeeper. In respect lo the extent of the liability, 
 and tho kind of gooils to which it applies, an attempt Inis 
 been made in a few recent decisions to restrict it to tho 
 personal baggage of the guest, including such an amount 
 of money only as may bo reasonably necessary for his 
 travelling expenses, ami thus to place tlio responsibility 
 of the innkeeper for his guest's goods and that of tho 
 common carrier of passengers for their luggage upon 
 exactly tho same footing. This limitation, however, is 
 opposed to tho rule as established by an overwhelming 
 army »if deei'lcd ca«es. No restriction has been placed 
 eithi-r upon tho extent of tho liability or upon the kind 
 of goods ombraood within it. Innkeepors have been 
 hold responsible for baggage, for nuinry in largo sums 
 wbothor in trunks or in separate packages, for nicrchan-
 
 1208 
 
 INNOCENT. 
 
 dise of aU sorts, for animals, for vehicles; in short, for i 
 o erv snecies of personal property which can be brough . 
 witLin?he curtilage of th*; inn and left in the.r legal 
 Tu todv It "ill be seen from the foregomg that this strm- j 
 eent obiigation imposed upon the innkeeper extends only 
 f,! a,e ffoods of hi guests! In respect to those plaeed ,n 
 h,s care and eustod/by persons other than guests, h.slega 
 dutv" far ess onemus : he is responsible for them only a 
 a knoMt" or as a bailee for hire-that is. for losses and 
 fnUes caused bv the wrongful or negligent acts and om.s- 
 8ions of hituself or his agents and servants, and no l^u 1 er 
 ]""„t Su.Morn M.nlificallun^.-'Ihe common-law l.ab.l.ty 
 of unkeepers has beci partially relieved by legislation. A 
 statute pa-ed in Xew York in 1855 enacts that «hen an inn- 
 keeper hall provide a safe for the deposit of any moneys, 
 fewc" or oriaments belonging to a guest, and shall notify 
 him thereof bv posting a notice stating the existence of 
 'Th Ife in Uie roo.n occupied by such guest, and such 
 cue.t shall neglect to deposit his moneys, jewels, or orna- 
 ments in the safe so furnished, the innkeeper shall not be 
 "sponsible for the loss of such moneys, jewels, or ornaments 
 A sLilar statute has been passed in many, and V^fMy 
 fo rst, of the other States, as well as in England (26 and 
 07 v"; ch. 41, ? I). Only one method, it will be seen, s 
 here expressly mentioned of communicating information to 
 a gue' t'^^hat i safe has been provided m compliance with 
 "he law-namelv. by a written or printed n°f™ P'jf,'' '° 
 he room occupied by him. It is very properly held, how- 
 ever, that in the absence of this construe ive mode of m- 
 part ng the knowledge, a direct, personal notification will 
 L wer'the same purpose. The relief 'bus given to,,^ 
 innkeeper extends only to '•■moneys, jewels, and orna- 
 ments!" AU other articles placed in his custody by a gues 
 "e left to the operation of the common-law r_ulee^^^U,at 
 
 ■•nioneVs! jewelF, and ornaments'' are within the meaning 
 ot the statite ? Xo exception is made in its language, but 
 some of the courts have attempted to engraft one upon its 
 tlZs- and there arc cases which hold that an amount of 
 monev' sufficient for daily expenses, and the P"--^ J«- 
 els and ornaments ordinarily worn are not mcluded, and 
 need not be deposited in the safe in order that the innkeeper 
 should be responsible for their loss. These decisions have 
 not been generallv followed, and the better opinion is, that 
 "ll moncjs, jewels, and ornaments must be plaeed in the 
 safe or no n'.ponsibilitv for their safety arises except, of 
 CO rse. the lia^nlity which would result from the wrong ul 
 at Jo the landlord himself. When the P™"^"'" °f l^" 
 stilute have been complied with by the guest, and the de.- 
 -nate'l ardcles have been delivered to the innkeeper or his 
 ervan ts in order that they may bo deposited •" tlic «-fe 
 bis eommon-law obligation in respect to their safety at once 
 a taches to its full extent, and continues as long as the spc- 
 ei vl cu' tody lasts. There is a tendency to relax by leg.sla- 
 t.'n the severe ,,,,,onsibilities of au innkeeper. Thus, m 
 X w York itTs pro'vided by statute that he is "ot l.ab e for 
 g,ods destroyed by ^re in an outbuilding, where he .s no 
 . f„„li «nd the fire is the work of an incendiary, f-till 
 b'dr legislation is to be noticed in England in the stat- 
 
 KH:i;rts^^:srwS^:u!^:=-- 
 
 1,;^ in his room, h. ;nn;^ceper hav.g no rea» <o_^sup- 
 
 l;:?:!" "^moX no'^^':;!:r r-^oods on.oa.lL. 
 l;:^Ln is sometimes given bj^s^t^e, as. xew Wk. 
 
 (See Bailment.) •'""• . ■ .■ u^ 
 
 ,„„„ce„t . , S.,^ h ^.t AH;an. was^.lec,ed bis^ 
 
 :!i,^rS:l.n^^.:^'-;^;Kast..nbeh^f^fthepa^. 
 
 -^tf?^=o:'iu::i:^':m::^^::^-^tk; 
 
 ecute Ihc Donatists. who were excoramuni at b the 
 Council of Carthage (4»5|: made e«rt.ons t,. sine Kome 
 from Aliric and his Vis goths. who nevertheless saiKcu 
 [ iTeVtv Aug 2tNl"= condemned the doctrines of the 
 Pelagians and the Xovatians ; first practised the system 
 ^f'se'^d^ng legates to represent the m^f^^^^y^^.^%1 
 districts: was vigorous in maintaining ^^e "g" "J » ' ^ 
 ,„ exercise appellant jurisdiction over "'^er bishopric 
 and enforced the celibacy of the clcrgv. D. Mar. 1-, -i}' 
 
 of France. Germany, and England: was supported by St. 
 liernard and by the Council of Khemis ; was forcibly re^- 
 stored to power at Rome by Lothaire, whom he crowned 
 emperor in^he church of St. John Lateran "f^ >--.»?.';- 
 driven from Rome the same year; held a counci at I isa 
 and excommunicated his rival; was again restored by 
 Lothaire 1137. and was finally recognized by the rebc lou 
 cardinals after the death of Anaeletus in "Ss. Innocent 
 convoked in 1139 the second Council of Lateran attended 
 by lOUO bishops; condemned the opinions of Arnold of 
 Brescia and of Abelard (ll-KM: pronounced an interdict 
 upon the kingdom of France, and had bis temporal au- 
 XrUy overthrown bv an insurrection of the Romans, who 
 rest"rld the senate and the tribunes of ancient Rome^ D^ 
 «ent 21 1143.— IxsocEST III. I /.-'oi-i" f «'""). b- 'n 
 n1^ 'at Anagni; studied at Rome, Par s, and Bo^gna: 
 became a cardinal-deacon in 1189 ; succeeded Ce lestine I II. 
 
 riaces of the kings of France and Leon, and in both in- 
 st. fees the pope was victorious; '='!'»I'-"i,I^'°.\t'? "/ 
 En!'land bv the same means, to give up the right of in- 
 yc"titnre' and make his possessions the tributary fiet of 
 RomeTeaused himself t!. '-,-knowledged suzerain of 
 Sicily^ Bavaria^ and^D.^a.^ = ^i;^-ef,-^j^: 
 
 SrndJr'th'rL^Un' empire - Cons.nHnople ; eon 
 
 the no es in temporal matters, his power being as much 
 lUe ^Uof avorLg condiHons ^;;^^^ -,?--« 
 and ambition.— 1NN0I.NT ^i';- "V. _ ,,'-K_sn and d. in 
 
 I cniorceo loe ti-iiijin.. ,V ,,t ■ r> 
 
 i feast iseelebrated.-IxsooEXT II. ( l.reynru.l .< 
 
 •I""' 
 
 ,rhi\ 
 
 ?1^^rr;?l^^^r;o;i,'a;;da«orw„rds abbot 
 lnheconven.of.«..Xi.h...as;;vas.ega. 
 
 r br/evci; '.^ etiina/s. but Peter de Leon was put 
 JorWar^l as pope by a minority of the electoral body under 
 [he^Ule of Anleletus II. Innocent was driven from Rome 
 „en to C unyin France; was recognized by the monarchs 
 
 and ambition.— INNOi I.M ii»-. -»■■■• '_ , , . 
 
 bishop of EjonsKi., ana Author of numer- 
 
 chosenpopo.n 1;' « •/■ J"°f^,\:; Vl. (£<ln,ue Aul.-,Kh. 
 
 ^^1Sr4i"o^>:'^S:o '^ll^kli^t al. ar^- 
 hi ho, orRavennl became cardinal in 13S9 pope in 1404. 
 I) X-'v fi 140G: was a man of learning and of mai^- Mr- 
 U. JNo\. o. ^* "' .. r f,-/..rniiiii'«""i«'" '''"')• ''-'n Genoa 
 
 lri4T2rGr: k oek wL: a man of irregular life, the 
 :th r of many bastard children, and -- '»--^/,';^° 
 ordained; became bishop ot Savoue and .^l""' "inrt ear 
 d na in 1453; obtained the papacy by simony in 1484. 
 
 ri -1 iVrrr under ook" o\evive the ancient discipline 
 
 i::f';^;^,^:;landh..^arr.swithT...^ 
 
 '-F?^S^S^\:3eni.:-ri:s 
 - p-r? ?2iSr:;gi;f7:;vr :r^^^ 
 
 li,hed a brief abolishing the nghi . ^^^ 
 
 exercised by foreign "■"'."'f'!"^":' ! ' ( , '„ ,t \nd entered 
 
 ; French envoy, who "n''"'»'°"'"'^./f; condemnation 
 
 i Rome with a military escort ; '""^['""'I'^J",-,,^ ., joined 
 
 l,v ,be Inquisition of Mol-o s d-tniie of «^^e _ J 
 
 the League of AuRsburg and d. Aug^l-^ !«»«• ^^,
 
 IXNOCENTIUS— INNS OF COURT. 
 
 1209 
 
 D. Sept. 27. 1700.— Innocent XIII. {Michel Angeto Conti), 
 b. at Rome May US, 1055: became archbi.-ihop of Tarsus 
 in 1695, car>liDul in 1707, and bishop of Viterho in 1712; 
 succeeded Clement XI. in 1721 ; and d. Mar. 7, 1724. He 
 was virtuous and devitut, but not a very capable ponliff. and 
 there is reu.'Jon to believe that he was poisoned in conse- 
 quence of his determination to suppress the Jesuits. 
 
 C'HARI.KS W. (iltEKNE. 
 
 Innocen'tius, a Roman jurist of the times of Constan- 
 tine the (ireat and his sons Constantius and Constans. by 
 whom his wrilings and opinions were invested with a kind 
 of legislative force. None of his works has survived, and 
 their tenor is known only bj' a few references of later writers. 
 
 Innocents' Day [in Old Enj^lish. Chi/derman'], the day 
 on which the Culholic and Ansli<^au churches celebrate the 
 ma!>sacre of the children at Bethlehem, who are called the 
 Jf"fy [nnoreutt and considered as the earliest Christian 
 martyrs (Dec. 28). The Society of Lincoln's Inn, London, 
 used to choose a Kimj uf the Covkneyt on this day ; children 
 were permitted to wear the clothes of thoir elders and ex- 
 erci!>e a mook authority- ; in the convent the youngest nun 
 became lady superior for the nonce, etc. The priest on this 
 day wears a blue gown in church. In some Catholic coun- 
 tries the festival of the Holy Innocents is even now cele- 
 brated by playing practical jokes, precisely as in the U. S. 
 the 1st of .April is reckoned ,-1// Fooin Dni/. In Spanish- 
 American countries, after a practical joke has been ])layed, 
 the expression equivalent to ** April fool" is, Qur la ino- 
 cenria le viiftja — t. e. " May your innocence protect you !" 
 
 Inns of Court, colleges in London designed for the 
 education of students for practice at the bar, and having 
 at the same time the right to admit persons to practice. 
 These institutions do not govern attorneys, who arc 
 admitted to practice under the direction of the courts. 
 The Inns of Court were situated between the city of Lon- 
 don and Westminster. They are four in number, having 
 preparatory schools called Inns of Chancery. At the pres- 
 ent time the Inns of Chancery are only used as chaniners. 
 The Inns of Court arc the Inner Temple, the Middle Tem- 
 ple, Lincoln's Inn, and (iray's Inn. To the first of these 
 are attached the Inns of Chancery, called respectively 
 Clement's, Clifford's, and Lyon's Inn; to the Midf'le Tem- 
 ple, New Inn : to Lincoln's Inn, Fumival's, Thavies^, and 
 byrnHiid's Inn ; while to (Iray's Inn arc added Barnard's 
 and Staples' Inn. The Inns of Court are voluntary soci- 
 eties and unincorporated. They are thus described by 
 Pearce : ''They are voluntary societies, for ages submitting 
 to government analogous to other seminaries of learning; 
 from lime immemorial enjoying the protection of the Cro\vn ; 
 at common law suhject to the visitorial powers of the judges 
 of the superior courts, who possess a domestic jurisdiction 
 over these bodies, to whom an appeal lies in every case 
 against orders affecting members of these societies, form- 
 ing a university with power to grant degrees in the munici- 
 pal law of Knglan<l, which constitute indispensable qual- 
 ifications for practice in the superior courts of law; no 
 corporations, and possessing no charters from the Crown ; 
 by the policy of the common law permitted self-govern- 
 ment, suhject to the qualifications mentioned in order to 
 secure the independence of the bar." They were called inns, 
 or in the Latin records ** Ao«/>»'rm,'* as distinguished from 
 public lodging-houses (f/i'(vr«oriVi). The meaning of the 
 term is well shown by an order of the judges issued in the 
 reign of Charles I., wherein it being set forth that as the 
 institution of these societies was chiefly ordained for the 
 profession of the law. and in a secondary degree for the 
 sons and youth of riper years of the nobility and gentry of 
 ,the realm, and in no sort f"ir lodging or abode of country 
 gentlemen, which if it should he sufferc)! would turn them 
 from konpitin to diremnrifi, it was j>rovided that no person 
 who 4lid not belong to the society should bo admitted or 
 allowed to lodge in the houses. Being unincorporatc<l, the 
 momhers have heen oblig'^d to resort to speoml methods 
 to keep the title to the yiroperly in the society. The first 
 grant was made to a select numl»er in trust for the society 
 at large. This select number forms the bench. As the 
 members die, others are chosen from the society, nnd new 
 conveyances are iinide from time to time, the suceecsion hav- 
 ing heen thus kept up lor hundreds of years. (She/ford on 
 Afortmain, p. :t3.) 
 
 These colleges existed at a remote period in English his- 
 tory. Kortescue, writing in the reign of Henry VI., gives 
 a pleasing account of them as they existed in his time. Ho 
 says: "The students resorted thither in Ereut numbers to 
 bo taught as in common schools. Hero they Irarn to sing 
 and to exorcise themselves in all kind-< of harmony. On 
 the working day(» they study law, and on the h<tly days 
 Rcripture, and their demeanor is like the hchnvlor of suoh 
 as are coupled together in prrfeel amity. There* is no place 
 where are found so many students past childhood as here." 
 
 The early modes of instruction in these institutions were 
 disputations (or moor*) and readings or lectures. The mem- 
 bers were divided into four grades — benchers, utter barris- 
 ters, inner barristers, and students. The government nf 
 the society was committed to the benchers, or seniors, the 
 discussions and readings appertaining to the barristers. In 
 the course of time the office of reader came to be attended 
 with great expense. 8towe informs us that the reader in 
 his day for upwards of three weeks kept a splendid taMe. 
 feasting the nobility, judges, hishops. principal oflicers of 
 state, and sometimes the king himself, insomuch that it has 
 cost a reader above £1000 — certainly a large sura of money 
 at that day. Curious details are given by tbc authors 
 cited at the end of this article as to the masquerades and 
 revcllings at the inns, growing more numerous and attrac- 
 tive as the business of instruction declined. The requisi- 
 tions for admission to the society became nominal. *' The 
 applicants were examined in the classics to ascertain how 
 they had spent their time before coming to the inn, and 
 whether they had the manners of gentlemen." After the 
 stutlent period had jiasscd the requisites for admission to 
 practice consisted mainly in the fact that the student had 
 eaten a certain nunihcr of dinners in each year for a fixed 
 number of years in the common hall. Until within a few 
 years all instruction was dispensed with. This entire tle- 
 parture from the original theory of the schools attracted 
 until recently but little attention, and where it was no- 
 ticed only elicited mild expressitpns of dissatisfaction. Her- 
 bert, writing in ISO*, says: " It may be worth a question, 
 however, whether the total rejection of every restraint in 
 professed seminaries of instniction is an improvement or a 
 disadvantage." Latterly, the hest professional sentiment 
 has strongly tended in favor of making these institutions 
 [ true seminaries of learning, and amjile courses of lectures 
 ! have been introduced, and opportunities given to those 
 I students who may desire careful instruction to receive it. 
 The rules adopted hy the benchers provide for a prelimi- 
 I nary examination, testing the student's general culture. It 
 j is quite certain that the result of the renewed interest in 
 j legal education, nf which the present lord chancellor is 
 I a distinguished exponent, will be to produce a class of law- 
 I yers not only versed in the rules of the common law, but 
 I well informed as to the principles of the Roman law and 
 I the doctrines of general jurisprudence. 
 
 I The benchers not only have the ]>ower of admitting per- 
 sons to the bar. hut also of disbarring those whom they 
 deem unfit to practise. From their decision no appeal lies 
 I to any court as such, but only to the judges, exercising a 
 limited power of review in the cdiaraeter of visitors. By 
 : this means the general sentiment of the profession, as rep- 
 I resented by the benchers, may exercise a most salutary con- 
 trol over delinquent members, while, owing to the super- 
 vision of the judges, there is but little danger that so great 
 ! a power will be wantonly or capriciously exercised. These 
 I principles are well illustrated in a recent case (187-1), where 
 j a barrister brought a suit in eciuity against his inn, pray- 
 ing, among other things, that he might he adjudged to ho 
 entitled to retire from the inn without undertaking not to 
 practise at the bar. The c-ourt decided that it had no juris- 
 (Jiction over the subject ; the whole matter was between a 
 voluntary society and a member. The sole question was, 
 whether he had couijilied with the rules of the society, and 
 that point the court had no power to determine. His ap- 
 peal was to the judges as visitors. The object of the bar- 
 rister in bringing this suit was avowedly to obtain a de- 
 cision that the monopoly enjoyed by the inns to admit 
 barristers was not founded upon any rule of law, but dc- 
 jiended solely on the sufferance of the judges. The judg- 
 ment must be regarded as an emphatic reaflirmanoe of the 
 authority of the Inns of Court. 
 
 The beauty and quiet rejiose of the grounds where the 
 inns are situated are justly celebrated. Herbert, writing 
 in 1804, gives a pleasing description of them as they ap- 
 pear to one looking from the Inner Temple: "A beautiful 
 garclen on the Thames side, ehielly covered with green- 
 sward and having a spacious gravel walk or terrace on the 
 woter's edge, fronts the hall. This is laid out with great 
 taste and kept in perfect order, and in summer-time forms 
 a crowded prninenatle ; from whence the view up and down 
 the river is extremely rich. Blaekfriars bridge, part of 
 Westminster bridge, and the elegant back frimt of Somerset 
 House, with the winding Thames, the opposite busy shore, 
 nnd the beautiful swell of the distant Surrey hills, all to- 
 gether form nn assemblage of objects unrivalled in variety 
 ami mngnifleence." Otoferenoe may ho made for further 
 information to Herbert's Antiquitirn of the Inut of (.'iturt 
 ttuff Chiturrrtf (London, 1S04); Poaroo's Ifi^tmy tf ihr fnna 
 of' Court nnd Chnnffry (J.nndon, I8IS); Ireland's fiiii» of 
 Court; Wharton's Low Dictionnri/, title " Inns of Ctotrt." 
 For Information as to the inns of Ireland nee I>uhigg*s 
 Kin'/t Inu».) T. W. iJwiOHT.
 
 1210 
 
 INNSPRUCK-INQUISITION. 
 
 Inns'priick, or Innsbruck, town of Austria, the cap- 
 ital of the Tyrol, on the Inn. It is beautifully situated at 
 an elevation of I SOU feet above the level of the sea, and en- 
 circled bv mountains from (1000 to 8000 feet high. The 
 five suburbs which form the new part of the town arc finely 
 laid out and well built. The cathedral contains the cele- 
 brated monument of Maximilian I., of marble and bronze, 
 and aNo that of Andreas Hofer. Innspruck has a wcll- 
 frequtnlod univcrsily and extensive manufactures of cloth, 
 silk, iind gloves. Pup. 1C,S10. 
 Inniiit. Pec EsgiJiMAUx. 
 
 Ino, in Oreeian nivthology, was secretly married to 
 Athanias, kin' of OichomenuF, to whom she bore two sons, 
 Loar.hus and Mclicertes. Having accepted from Hermes 
 the voun" Dionysus to nurse. Here visited her and her hus- 
 band with madness, when Ath.amas slew Learchus. Ino 
 did with Mclicertes in her arms and leaped into (he sea. 
 where she was changed into a sea-goddess, Leucolhca. As 
 the myth of Ino was much used by the Greek dramatists, 
 it received many enlargements and augmentations, and ex- 
 ists in many different versions. 
 
 Inocar'pus edu'lis, a stately evergreen tree of the 
 Pacific Islands, and of (he order Thymclaceie, producing a 
 nut which after roasting is a palatable and important food. 
 The tree puts out from its trunk curious plank-likc but- 
 tresses, which arc very convenient to the natives for use as 
 natural boards, after peeling off the bark. Some of these 
 planks are four feet wide at the base. 
 
 Inocilla'tion \h^l. !m,cuh, to "bud"], in general, the 
 intentional or accidental conveyance of disease to an indi- 
 vidual by means of the actual application of morbific ma- 
 terial tohis person, especially upon a wound ; in particular, 
 it signifies such a transfer of variola, or smallpox ; which 
 proceeding is also known by the more specific term of rnn- 
 oh.Hon. Inoculated smallpox differs from natural smallpox 
 chiefly in its course being milder and shorter, the mortality 
 of the former being less than 1 per cent., whereas that of the 
 latter ran"cs from 10 to ;.0 per cent. This comparatively 
 mild character of the inoculated disease seems to have ex- 
 cited the attention of the Chinese and certain other Oriental 
 peoples at a very early period, and hence they have prac- 
 tised intentional inoculation from time immemorial for the 
 Tiurpose of procuring immunity from the natural smallpox. 
 The practice found its way into Europe by way of Con- 
 stantinople, where it was openly introduced in ^\^ p" \ 
 1701 The influence possessed by Drs. Timoni and I yla- : 
 riui overcame the religious scruples of the Turks, an.l , 
 inonilation became a recognized practice. AlthouKh ;t , 
 was favorably spoken of in England as early as I, 14, i 1 
 was not until' 1722 that the first inoculation vvas performed j 
 in that country— upon the daughter of L.a.ly >Iary \V orlley j 
 Montagu, wife of the British ambassador at Constantino- 
 ple At first it met with some opposition in England, Init j 
 after a few years it was extensively practised, and rapidly 1 
 spread to France, Germany, and other continental coun- 
 ties In America it was advocated by the Rev^ Cot on 
 Mather, and first practised in 1721 by Dr. Zabdiel Boylston 
 of Boston The proceeding consisted essentially in the in- 
 sertion of lymph from a smallpox pustule into an incision 
 or abrasion made for the purpose. In Asiatic countries, 
 h.iwevcr.the practice was somewhat difTcrent : for instance, 
 the Chinese inserted a variolous crust or a bit of linen from 
 the clothing of a smallpox patient into the nostrils. This 
 was called " buying the smallpox," and the proceeding was 
 invested with a quasi-religious sort of rays cry. Inocula- 
 tiun stood the test of experience as regarded the protection 
 of the individual inoculated, but it proved the source of 
 disaster to the communily at large, since inoculated small- 
 pox was found to be as infectious as the natural disease, 
 and therefore served to spread the latter broadcast to a 
 ereater extent than would otherwise have occurred Owing 
 Shiellv to this fact, but partly also to other considerations 
 which need not he mentioned here, inoculation was rapidly 
 sunplaiitcd bv the announcement of Jenncr's discovery ot 
 VA.rivvTiox'twhiehsec). in the year UOS, and has now 
 fallen into complete desuetude. Although perhaps some- 
 what more cfiicient than vaccination, it was fraught wiin 
 such danger that it does not deserve to be revncd. 
 
 FnANK P. FoSTEIt. 
 Ino'sic Acid [Gr. U, iy^. "muselc," —fihrc"], 
 CsIlsXjOe. an acid found in the mother-liquor m prepar- 
 ing creatine from flcsh-juioc. 
 
 In'osite [Gr. U. i^w, "muscle," "fibre"], or PlinsP- 
 omannitc, CoHijOo. a variety of glneoso found in the 
 heart lun"s. kidneys, liver, spleen, and brain, and in tlie 
 urine in a case of Urighfs disease; also in kidnoy-beane, 
 common peas, cabbage, potato-shoots, asparagus, etc. 1 
 is soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol and ethor: i» not 
 discolored by boiling with potassic hydrate; does not ler- 
 mcnt in contact with yeast ; undergoes lacteous fermentation 
 
 under the influence of cheese, flesh, or decaying membrane 
 and chalk. Evaporated nearly to dryness with nitric acid, 
 treated with ammonia and calcic chloride, and again evap- 
 orated, it yields a characteristic rose-tint. 
 
 C. F. CllASDLKR. 
 
 luowrnc'law, town of Prussi.a, in the province of Po- 
 sen. It has luaiuilaeturcsof saltpetre and a rauch-fiequentcd 
 cattlcfair. Here are great beds of rock-salt. Poji. 7429. 
 
 In Par'libus Infidel'ium ("in the regions of the 
 unbelievers"). .Since the Church of Rome in theory still 
 holds ecclesiastical sway in those countries wlicme the 
 Church has been expelled (such as parts of Asia and North 
 Africa), the custom has long prevailed of giving to suflra- 
 gans, coadjutors, vicars-general, missionary bishops, and 
 other inferior dignitaries the nominal bishoprics of jilaces 
 far remote from their scene of duty. Thus, for example, 
 the two missionary bishops at jiresent (IS75) serving in 
 North-western British America are respectively bishops of 
 Satala and Anemurium, cities of Asia Minor. Such prel- 
 ates are called bishops j'li parlibuD tnfulvlium, or simply 
 bishops in jxirtlbiis. 
 
 In Perso'nam. Sec Ix Reh. 
 
 In'quest of Office. In English practice this is an 
 inquiry made by the king's (or queen's) ofl'icer, his sheriff, 
 coroner, or eschcator, virltitc officii or by writ sent to them 
 for that purpose, or bv commissioners specially appointed, 
 concerning any matter that entitles the king to the ,.os- 
 session of lands or tenements, goods or chattels. The in- 
 vestigation is made with the aid of a jury, which is not 
 required to consist of any specific number of persons, but 
 may have either twelve or more or lAs, The most im- 
 portant cases in which inquiries of this kind arc instituted 
 relate to the escheat and forfeiture of lands to (he ( rown, 
 cither by reason of the alienage of their owner, who ac- 
 quired them by conveyance or devise, or because llierc are 
 no heirs of a "deceased person to inherit the land of which 
 he died seized. Upon a finding by the jury that the owner 
 is an alien, or that he has died leaving no heirs, the prop- 
 erty vests immediately in the Crown without any lurther 
 proceeding being necessary. As the inquiry terminates 
 with a fii"li"9 «'■ certain facts by the jury, the proceeding 
 is sometimes termed "office found," which is aii abbrevia- 
 tion for the fuller expression, " inquest of office found. 
 Inquests of oSice were originally devised as an authentic 
 means of giving the king his right by solemn matter of 
 record, and in order that by the intervention of a jury 
 the subject might be protected against arbitrary seizures 
 of his property. In the U. S. this form of procedure .3 
 still retained in a number of the States, though it is not 
 uniformly made applicable to the same classes of cases as 
 in English practice. It is only resorted to when real prop- 
 erty is to be forfeited to the Slate and does not apply to 
 pefsonaltv. It is a proceeding employed chiefly when lands 
 escheat to the State for want of heirs. In some of tho 
 States also, the common-law rules regarding the right ot 
 aliens to hold lands still prevail, and in these an inquest 
 of office would generally be applicable to vest lands ac- 
 quired bv purchase in the State, unless a different mode of 
 procedure has been adojited by statute. In a number of 
 the States, however, statutes have been enacted enabling 
 aliens to hold lands by an indefeasible title An inquest 
 of office in the Slates following the New \ork code ol pro- 
 cedure is an action instituted by the attorney-general of 
 the Stale. (Sec J\'c«> YmI.- Code, ? 447.) 
 
 Georck Chase. REVisEn bv T. W. Dwicht. 
 Innuisi'tion [l.at. in^.n-itio, a " seeking" or "searcli- 
 in- for," "inquiring into." "examination;" used in the 
 Vulgate. Acts xii. 1'.']. in law. a seeking for proof in sup- 
 port of an accusation, a legal investigation, invorving tho 
 examin-atioii of the inquisitors anJ."" ""l"'^"""'; P^»- 
 cess. (See Carpzov, /'n-c „ov. m,,,n-n,L Ao.r. Hcv. Cnm., ed. 
 Quint 1 fiG5, index. ) In history, first a process of investi- 
 gation, then a tribunal under various forms ""J "Yd.hea- 
 Tions, then a fixed institution of a twolo d type, bearing 
 
 the names h„,u'''i^<> >""■"''='' I""";""'': ^"nT"rfTZ' 
 II Sauto Officio. La Co«i,,(<:,aiioi. .„ S..„„ Ojff,cc. <•'^•'^'■^'- 
 nrrichl. K ncnjcrici,!. established in some parts of the Ro- 
 man Catholic Church and slates to protect "'f. f''>'l' J-/ 
 searching out and bringing to penance or I'"";f ;"« ^"^T 
 ties, unbelievers, and certain classes of <>«'="'"»»«%"'' 
 I morals and tho canon law. (See Du Cange, «/o.-n';. Med 
 Hiufim. L.tiuiio,.. iii. S44.) ( For the early relations of 
 the Church to errorists see Heresy.) 
 
 .\ careful defining and classification may help us to avoid 
 some of tho confusion which marks many of the accounts 
 
 °'l n:t;;:w"i /„,..,./o„.-This was nm alriliu.^ 
 bu a civil process. The emperor Theodosius the Great 
 r-:C4\) used inquisitors or inquirers after tho heretics 
 for the detection especially of the Mauichaeans (382). They
 
 INQUISITION. 
 
 1:211 
 
 were appointed hy the prefect of the prtetoriuni. Aggra- 
 vated cases of leaJcrsliip in certain specified forms of heresy 
 were punislied witli dealli. (Theodorut:, //I'ff. EvxUt.t v. Itj.) 
 Justinian ( J25-a05) employed similar officers to search for 
 heretics in general (62!)). The Christian doctrine, as de- 
 fined hy the four hidy synods general, and the canons framed 
 by them, were acknowledged as part of the law of the en)- 
 pire, and heresy thus hecaine a civil olTence, the trial and 
 penal visitation of which belonged solely to the civil mag- 
 istrate. The whole matter was confined lo the ordinary 
 courts, and the bishops exercised for centuries no tcnijioral 
 jurisiliction. The bishop Ithaeius reached Priscilian 
 through the civil powers. But the Church had not then 
 learned to make the subtle distinction which afterwards 
 became so general. Though Priscilian was a very danger- 
 ous hercsiarch, and though his trial and torture were con- 
 ducted by the prefect, and his behcailing was ordered by the 
 emperor' (^Sj), the issue was regarded with widespread 
 horror, Ithaeius was degraded, excommunicated, and died 
 in exile, and the best men in the Church refused commu- 
 nion with his supporters. (Baronius, Aniialcn, ann, ;i,Sl, 
 38 J, :isri, :i!)7. i^ce Ukresv.) 
 
 II. Thr Di'oceanii fii>jnisll!i>ii gradually arose out of the 
 imperial, relieved it of part of its duties, and gave it a 
 subordinate character in the infliction of penally. This 
 iniuisition was not a tribunal, but an ecclesiastical process 
 or function. As the penalties visited upon olfenders under 
 the codes of Theodosius .and ,Iustinian wore largely of an ec- 
 clesiastical nature, and the bishops were more and more 
 recognised as governmental aids, the civil powers coni- 
 mittoil the jurisdiction in inquisitorial cases to the bishops 
 in their several dioceses (.about 800). Tho bishops used 
 for this purpose their synodal courts. There tho accused 
 were examined. If found guilty, they wero instructed and 
 admonished. If they remained obdurate, Ihey were loft in 
 the hands of tho secular court to bo ])unishc 1 under tlio 
 common law. This sort of function assumed a far wider 
 significancy in the twelfth century. Pope Lucius III. ( llSl- 
 8j) at the synod of Verona (llSl) prepared » decree 
 against tho heretics of that time. He puts them under per- 
 petual anathema. Laymen arc to be delivered into tho 
 hands of the scsular judges to be ]>unished unless they 
 abjure at once. Tho relapsed are not to bo allowed a 
 second pardon. The bishops are to make at least an an- 
 nual visitation to dcS!:over such heretics. All tho secular 
 authorities are to render every ]>03sible aid in tho work 
 under pain of excommunication and forfciluro of dignities. 
 " In this decree," says Fleury, " we see tho concurrence of 
 the two powers — tho ecclesiastical and civil — for tho extir- 
 pation of heresies." He considers this decree a* involving 
 the germ of the Inquisition. (Fleury, Hist. Ecrlcs., iv. 700; 
 Du Pin, Twelfth Century, ch. ix.) 
 
 III. The Papal I.eijalhie fiiqitinitioii, for which tho way 
 was preparing, became independent of the diocesan, though 
 coexistent in part with it. It was create 1 by special com- 
 mission, was not permanent, was not an institution. The 
 disalTeetion toward tho Church whitdi marked the close of the 
 twelfth century spread more and more rapidly. In .South- 
 ern Franco her opponents ha<l become almost tho dominant 
 
 arty. To Innocent III. (llUS-rjlO) it seemed that tho 
 
 ishons wero carrying on proceedings against these heretics 
 in quite too languishing a stylo. Whatever might bo tho 
 
 ihilosophy of it, their lack of success was beyond dispute. 
 
 le sent, therefore, as papal Irgalei, tho Cistercians Raineri 
 ond (iuido into .Southern France tr) give more energy to tho 
 repression of tho Wal lenses ( 1 ISIS), with authority to em- 
 ploy the interdict in coercing the civil powers. Peter of 
 Caslclnau was appointed associate inquisitor in Southern 
 Franco (1200), and was active, in conjunction with other 
 Cistercians, against the heretics, from Toulouse as a centre 
 (120:1). The powers of tho papal legates wero further 
 enlarged, so as to reach tho easo of non-compliant bishops. 
 To meet tho popular aversion created by tho dissolute 
 lives of the clergy, Diego, bishop of Osma, and Dominic, 
 by permission of the pope, went on foot and in poverty 
 to preach among the heretics. Peter anil Raoul were sent 
 on a mission among the Albigenses (1200). Count Ray- 
 mond humbled himself before tho legate, Peter of Castcl- 
 nau (1207), and promised to aid in extirpating the heretics 
 ho had been protecting. Dominie urged the crnsndc against 
 tho Albigenses (I20S|. Tho Icgatine inquisitors to a largo 
 degree acted indepenilcntly of the bishop of the diocese; 
 they held n court of their own, and by authority of tho 
 pope wont on to try. to condemn, and to inflict penalties, 
 anil, with the concurrence of the magistracy, even death 
 itself. Raonl feigned himself one of the heretics, and got 
 possession of their secrets. Many priests, monks, laymen, 
 and women were thus detected, and conrlemned in a coun- 
 cil at Paris. Ten were burned ami four imprisoned for lifo 
 (1200). Proceedings so crafty, unsernpulous. and vigorous 
 had all the success of which their nature allows. Tho search 
 
 was very thorough, and the remedy seemed temporarily 
 almost complete. Peter do Castelnau, by a baud never 
 traced, was murdered near Toulouso (120S). (Guillaumc do 
 Nangis, 67ir»iii<;iic ,■ lluizot, Coll. d. Memoins, xiii. 1)7.) 
 But his death helped ti) complete tho work of his life. In- 
 nocent, exasperated to the last degree by the death of his 
 faithful servant, hurled against tho .\lbigcuscs a crusade, 
 in part under Arnold (afterwards archbishop of Narbonne) 
 as legate (1209), which after a bloody struggle ended in 
 their extermination. 
 
 IV. Jlitir of' the hiquisitioii an a Permanent fiigU'titlion — 
 Acta of the I'niin-iU.^Tha vigor with which tho Icgatine 
 inquisition had acted, the success of its mission, and tho 
 enormous jircssure on the Church, which ihc old mode of 
 procedure had allowcil to increase, and of which the new 
 measures had been but a local and temporary jtalliativc, 
 strengthened the tendency to give system antl permanence 
 to some institution which should furnish the specific relief 
 required in the time of crisis. The olTicinl initiative in 
 this work may be said to have been made by the Twelfth 
 General Council, the Fourth Latcran (1215). Innocent III. 
 presiding. It took the first steps in the direction of a i)er- 
 mancnt inquisition. It virtually gave something of tho 
 character ot an inquisitoi-ial tril>nnal to the synodal courts 
 of the bishops. Provincial synods were to be held an- 
 nually, and violations of the Latcran canons were to bo 
 rigorously punished. The punitive discijdine was no longer 
 to bo a spontaneous and irresponsible matter, but the 
 courls were to be under Church decree — by pre-eminence, 
 courts for the searching ont, trial, and punishment of here- 
 tics. The condemned were to be left in the hands of tho 
 secular power, and their goods were to be confiscated. Tho 
 secular powers were to be admonished and induced, and, 
 should it prove necessary, were to bo eoinpcllcd (eompellnu- 
 lur) to the utmost of their power to exterminate all who 
 wero pointed out os heretics by the Church (ttnlrcmos hirre- 
 ticoti ub eccfceia (taiiotatnu. pro ririhicn cxtenniuttrr). Any 
 prince declining thus to purge his land of heresy wag to bo 
 excommunicated. If he persisted, complaint was to bo 
 made to the pope, who was then to absolve his vassals from 
 their allegiance and allow the country lo be seiy.cd by Catho- 
 lics who should extcrminale the heretics. Those who joined 
 in tho crusade for the extermination of heretics {hrrre- 
 (iVonini e.rtcniiuiiiim) were to have the same indulgence as 
 tho crusaders who went to tho Holy Land. Every bishop 
 was to sec to the carrying out of these provisions under 
 pain of canonical vengeance (ultionls). lie was to be de- 
 posed for neglect to cleanse his diocese of the leaven of 
 heretical ])ravity, and his successor was lo be one who had 
 both the will and i>ower to destroy it. The mclhod of 
 proceeding against olVcnders was by accusation, denun- 
 ciation, and inquisition. (Carrania, Suiiima Conciliorum, 
 Antwerp, 1550, liS5, 336; cd. .Schram, August. Vindelic, 
 1778, vol. iii. 3G-3U; Fleury, ///«(. Ecclcxlasti'qiie, Paris, 
 1840, V. 123.) Tho Council'of Toulouso (1220) adopted a 
 number of canons tending to give permanent character lo 
 tho Inquisition as an institution. It was ordained that tho 
 bishop should make an annual visitation, and sec lo it that 
 in all parishes one priest and three laymen of good repute 
 shoubl be appointed lo ilcvolc their entire time lo the mak- 
 ing the iiiquisitiou for heretics. The local magistracy was 
 to unite in this search. Any one permitting a hrrctic to re- 
 main in his country, or who in any way shiehh d him, was 
 to be punished by forfeiture of land, personal properly, and 
 official position.' All heretics were to be luuuUd over lo 
 the archbishop, bishop, or local authorities, 'llie houses 
 in which they wero found were lo bo levelled with tho 
 ground. Heretics, and those under charge or suspicion of 
 heresy, wero to be excluded from medical ]iraclicc {offirin 
 medlri noil utcntiir). Any one could make ii:quisilion and 
 seiuo heretics in Ihc country of anollier. Genuine penitents 
 wero lo he removed from the tainted ncigliloiliood, wero 
 to wear two crosses on their clothing, diUcrent in color 
 from it. till the bishop allowed Ihcm to be laid aside. 
 Their forl'iiturc of |)ublic ri);hls could only be rcliKUcI by a 
 papal dispensation. Ili relics driven to penitence by fear 
 were lo be imprisoned, so as to prevent their corrupting 
 others. Men from the ago of fourteen, and women from 
 twelve, were lo nuiko oath, and renew it every two years, 
 that they woulil inlorm on heretics. The laity were strictly 
 prohibited from having the Holy Scriptures. (Carrania- 
 .Schram. .Vuniiiio, iii. 70-72; Ilarduin, /ctn Coneiliorum, 
 Paris, 1711, xii. 173; Mansi, Cnlleriln, Vcnct., 1778, xxiii. 
 1SI2; Fleury, V. 21 1: Du Pin, Thirlrcnth Cent.) 
 
 The local councils of this era I'olloweil up Ihc work of tho 
 Fourth Latcran with special provisions in its rpirit. Thus, 
 tho Council of ChiVteau-Oontier ( Mayenoe, 1231 ), .lews can- 
 not testify against Christians; tho Counoil of Bezifres 
 (1233), tho laying olT of Ihc crosses shall be ennsidercd suf- 
 ficient proof of heresy ( Fleury, v. 252) ; the Council of 
 Aries (1231) convicted heretics to bo imprisoned for life.
 
 1212 
 
 INQUISITION. 
 
 the heretic detected after death to be exhumed and given , 
 to the secular judgment (Fleury, v. 266). The Council of 
 Narbonno (12:'.5), under direction of the pope, laid down j 
 rules for the Dominican inquisitors. Prisons were to be 
 constructed for the converts who had not properly to sup- 
 port them in .iuil. Those \vho relapsed into heresy were, 
 with<uU furlher hearing, to be left to the secular judges for 
 punishment. No one was to be e.vcused from imprisonment I 
 because of old age, of wife, parents, or children : the names 
 of witnesses were not to be made known by word or sign. ■ 
 Even the infamous and convicts were eligible as witnesses. I 
 (Carranza-Schram, iii. S3; Fleury, v. 271; Du Pin, Cent. 
 Xlll.. ch. vi.) 
 
 V. Oninnic Euinhliithment of the Inquintton. — Gregory J. A. 
 (1227-41) found that not even the multiplication of rigorous 
 canonscould overcome the scrupulosity, the mildness, or, per- 
 haps, sometimes, the indolence of the bishops. In Aug., 1231, 
 he placed the Inquisition in the charge of the Dominicans, 
 an order specially founded for the defence of the Church 
 against heresy. Papal inquisitors ofthat order were appoint- 
 ed for Germany, .\ragon, and Austria (1232). and for Lom- 
 bardy and Southern France(1233). They were made formally 
 free from all restrictive dependency on the bishops (1233), 
 and could in certain cases summon the bishops themselves 
 before them. The Inquisition then became an org.anized 
 institution, a permanent tribunal, papal in its supreme au- 
 thority, and administered mainly, though not exclusively, 
 by the' Dominican order. Under its jurisdiction persistent 
 heresy was treated with unsparing severity. But "the 
 Church does not thirst for blood." That maxim was too 
 fixed to be disregarded. Blood had to be shed, the Church's 
 need required it, but the Church could not shed it with her 
 own hands. The casuists and divines hardly discuss the 
 question whether the Church, as such, can shed blood; it 
 is agreed that she cannot. That the Church might not 
 even' wear the ajipearance of staining herself with blood it 
 was necessary that the princes should obligate themselves 
 toco-work with her in carrying out the measures designed to 
 repress heresy. Louis IX. of France (afterwards canon- 
 ized) had shown his willingness, out of a pious mind, to 
 use the powers of the state against the Albigenses (122S). 
 Raymond VII. of Toulouse (1233) and Frederick II. of 
 Germany (1234) followed up the work by the requisite 
 laws, but neither of them with the unsuspected zeal of St. 
 Louis. As these movements in the state followed in a 
 secondary way \ipon the suggestions of the Church, the 
 Inquisition of this type may properly bo called an eccle- 
 siastico-political tribunal. Both Church and state co-op- 
 erated in it, but the Church was supreme, and used the 
 state. The relation was reversed in the Inquisition as it 
 existed at a later period, especially in Spain : there Church 
 and state still co-operated, but the state was supreme and 
 used the Church. , m . 
 
 VI. Method and Laws nf the Ecr-leniagtico-political Tri- 
 hwnnl, the " Andeut" Iiiquinltion.—Wo have seen the regu- 
 lations established by the councils, under which the seizure 
 and trial of persons "suspected of heresy and other crimes 
 took place. Their fellows in guilt, and even common con- 
 victs, were accepted as witnesses against them. The ac- 
 cused were to know nothing of them. Confession was 
 wrung from them by torture. The torture of those sus- 
 iiected of heresy was sanctioneil by Innocent IV. (1202). 
 The torture was at the beginning applied by the civil au- 
 thorities, but as the requisite secrecy was impossible with 
 this arrangement, the Inquisition subsequently took the 
 matter into its own hands, under direction of I'rban IV. 
 (1261-61). The penalties inflicted were penances of various 
 kinds, forfeiture of civil and ecclesiastical rights, confisca- 
 tion of property, imprisonment or the galleys, sometimes 
 for life, and capital punishment, usually by burning alive. 
 In mitigated cases persons were strangled first and burned 
 afterwards. Rigorous as the Inquisition was even in this 
 form, it was in many respects less arbitrary and severe than 
 the politico-eccIesiastic.ll Inquisition of after times. The 
 bishops. were not wholly ignored, the law of secrecy was not 
 ns strictly enforced, the means of defence were more ample. 
 In Aragon and even in other countries conviction of heresy 
 was not followed by sequestration of property. In a word, 
 the Inquisition in its prevailingly ecclesiastical form was 
 more dependent, more open to the influence of public senti- 
 ment, less compact and centralized, rather local than na- 
 tional, and altogether less terrible. 
 
 VII. The Ere!,-iifi»l!ro-pol :i!cal hquxnition, Bx'lory nf. — 
 1. In France.— T\\o special sphereof the Inquisition in the 
 period of its earliest organization was in Southern France 
 (1229-34'!. Its proceedings were marked with such severity 
 that an insurrection of the people took place, and it was 
 driven out of Toulouse and Narbonne. Four of the in- 
 quisitors were put to death in Toulouse, and the pope was 
 compelled to withdraw the Inquisition from that place. It 
 was again restored, and again fell into its earlier cruelty. 
 
 It was. however, put under some restrictions by Philip the 
 Fair (12SO-1314). In the fourteenth century it died out in 
 France. When, two centuries later, an attempt was made, 
 under cover of the intense passions excited by the Reforma- 
 tion, to bring it in again and use it against the Huguenots, 
 the ministers of Henry II. I l.i47-o9) assured him that per- 
 sistence in the movement would bring on a civil war. His 
 queen, Catharine de' Medici, and others, Roman Catholics 
 and ardent opposers of Protestantism, resisted the restora- 
 tion of the Inquisition. But. though the Inquisition was 
 not allowed a formal estaiilishmcnt in France, its in- 
 fluence, though with a certain furtiveness. has been very 
 great there at times. The Cn.\MBRE Aupkxte (which see) 
 (1535) was associated with an inquisitorial tribunal, of 
 which the pope was a corresponding member. Both were 
 established by Francis I. (1515-47), who more than once, 
 with his mistress, enjoyed the excitement of the public 
 burning of heretics. '.Several heretics were burned when 
 Henry II. entered Paris in 1540, and the cruelties of the 
 conjo'int tribunal aided in bringing on the religious war of 
 1560. 
 
 2. Germany. — The Inquisition was introduced into a num- 
 ber of other countries. In some it was unable to obtain a 
 permanent footing, and in all its spirit and history were in 
 some measure modified by the character of the nationality. 
 Conrad of Marlnirg, a Dominican, was appointed by Greg- 
 ory IX. grand inquisitor of Germany (1231). He aroused 
 the pope to a crusade against the STEnixGEKS (which see), 
 while the Inquisition proceeded with judicial measures 
 against them as heretics. The cruel earnestness of Conrad, 
 w'hich imperilled the lives even of those who gave their 
 souls to his keeping, directed itself alike against the high 
 and the low with an impartiality which intensified the 
 common aversion of people, princes, and bishops toward 
 the Inquisition, and made it for ever impossible that it 
 should find a permanent home in Geriuany. The pope was 
 appealed to, and, expressing wonder at the long endurance 
 of such atrocities, disavowed the excesses of his official. 
 Before his reply was received Conrad was assassinated Ijy 
 some German iobles (Julv 30, 1233). Droso, a Dominican, 
 was associated in spirit and work with him. (See Hofler in 
 Wetzcr and Weltes' Kireh-Lexic., and Wagenmann in 
 Herzog's Real Encjldop.. '• Konrad.") For more than a 
 century the Inquisition seemed robbed ot its vitality in 
 Germa'nv by its own excesses, but in the fourteenth century 
 the BEr.'HARns and Beguises (which see) were persecuted 
 with great severity (1367) by AValter Karling and another 
 inquisitor, both Dominicans, sent by I'rban V. (1362-70). 
 Their work was legalized and efficiently sustained by three 
 edicts granted by Charles IV. (136(1). Gregory XI. en- 
 larged the number of inquisitors for Germany to five 
 (1372). and Boniface IX. sent six for North Germany 
 (about' 1399). Toward the close of Ihe fifteenth century it 
 received a new impetus from the bull '• Summis desiderantes 
 affcctibns," isfued bv Innocent VIII. (Dec. 5. 14S41. in 
 which he alarmed all Germany, and stimulated to the last 
 degree the superstitions of the peojde, by informing them 
 that their country was overrun with witchcraft, and in the 
 hands of magicians who were in covenant with the devil. 
 For the extirpation of these criminals he appointed two 
 inquisitors. Heinrich Kfimcr {In^tHor, '-merchant," is the 
 I.al inizcd form in which it often occurs ) and .lakob .Spreugcr. 
 Out of the confessions of those charged with witchcraft, 
 aided bv suggestive questions and the torture, was built up 
 ft complete system of demonology. The jirocesses and re- 
 sults of thcs'e examinations were wrought up by Sprenger 
 in the Mallens Malefiearum, the " Hammer of Witches, 
 who were assumed to be for the most part feminine ( Cologne. 
 14^9) This book long remained an authority in the pro- 
 ceedings against that class of ofl-enders. The repression 
 became the excitant. The temptation of sulTering and 
 publicity alwars swells the number of crimes of the imagi- 
 nation. "An epidemical mania swejit over (.crmany. Ihou- 
 sandsof women were burned or tortured to death, some- 
 timcs'confessing, ofltimes boasting, that they were witches. 
 Science, authoritv, and law made superstition almost invin- 
 cible, and one o{ the latest roots of medurval thinking 
 whi.-h clung to the soil of Germany and of other parts ol 
 the Protestant in common with the Catholic world was the 
 belief in witches. The Reformation com]ilctcly broke the 
 power of the Inquisition in Germany. The Jesuits en- 
 deavored to restore it in Austria and Bohemia. In Bavaria 
 (1.599) it was formally established, but it lacked vitality, 
 and soon vanished from all parts of Germany. 
 
 3 Italy— Itnme.— In Italv its life was protracted, though 
 political'complications prevented its assuming the seventy 
 I of character displayed wherever the government completely 
 controlled it or it controlled the goi-ernment. It was in- 
 troduce,! into Italy by Gregory IX- < •-''f 'Vv A rT- rii 
 tribunal at Rome was employed by Paul IV. (155o-59) 
 against Protestantism. He declared in his last hours
 
 INQUISITION. 
 
 1213 
 
 that he found in it the onlv roenns of rescuing the Roman 
 Catholic religi.in an.l the authority of the aiic.=tnlie see 
 from (lostruclion. i (Jnuphrius. quoted in Hoi.legiicr, //i«(or. 
 I'Hutit., I09S, 2lt.) lu conjuuelion with the liinuisilion 
 .too.l Ihe Connrefc'iition of the Holy Office, whi.h a short 
 time heforo ha.l heen established by Paul ill. (Ija4-a0), 
 xvhoso action in so doing had been influenced by Cardinal 
 CaralTa, afterwards I'aul IV. Sixlus V. (1,-.S5-'JII I enlarged 
 the powers of the Congregation (I.'.SSi. The Koinan In- 
 qui"ition was eomiiosed of twelve cardinals and ot ofllcials 
 styled consultors or riualifiealors. The chief inquisitor was 
 alVavs a Dominieau. The pope himself met with the court 
 at leiit once a week, and eontlrmed its .lecisions. Inqui- 
 sitorial courts, with a general similarity of ..rgani/.atinn, 
 but with a varying number of members, chosen by the 
 Congregation of the IIolv Office, were introduced through- 
 out Italy. The Inquisition in Italy was abolished by Na- 
 poleon ("l80.'<), was sanctioned again by Pius VII. (l^lt|. 
 but was used after that time mainly as a disciplinary tri- 
 bunal fur the clergy, and was cstinguisbed by the oonsoli- | 
 dation of the kingdom of Italy, Oct. '.>. 17S70. 
 
 4. IV.iiVf.— The re|iublic of Venice refused to receivo 
 from the pope an inquisition dependent on him, but insti- 
 tuted one under stale control (llisff). The papal nuncio j 
 pre-id-d indeed in it. but with him were associated the 
 patriarch, the pater inquisitor, who was always a Francis- ! 
 can. and three civil judges, without whose concurrence , 
 nothing could be decided (12S9 1. The Venetian Inquisition 
 mi"ht indeed ho classified as politico-ecclesiastical, as the i 
 poUtical was in some sense the primary element, and so 
 take its place with Spain. But the Inquisition of Venice 
 was really in the main an ecclesiastical tribunal, kept such I 
 bv the stale. While Spain stimulated the In.iuisition, and 
 g'avo it the largest powers. Venice restrained it, confined 1 
 its iurisdiction to cases of heresy, did not allow it to deprive 
 the" heirs of the condemned of the properly, and gave it 
 no censorship of books. The Creeks and Armenians had 
 froe.lom of worship, the .lews were tolerated, and the 
 University of Pa.lua was not limited to Roman Catholics 
 in conferring its degrees in divinity. The ecclesiastical 
 Inquisition of Venice is not to he confounded with the 
 stale Inquisition. (See Fra Paolo. M»r>i<,U!er ; Fleury, d. 
 96; Darn, ff/.f. rfe Venhe (1819), i. 405-+I2; ii. 532; iv. 
 342, 160.) 
 
 .i. Xnplrt. Sidli/, Tiincnni/.—The Inquisition was never 
 established in Naples. It was prevented on the one side 
 bv (he dim -ulties with the pope, and on the other by the 
 unwillingness of the pope that an Inquisition should ba 
 established independent of his own control. The Inquisi- 
 tion which was established in Niijiles under the control ol 
 the general inquisitor of Spain was abrogated 17S2. It 
 was restore.I in Sardinia by (iregory XVI. (l.'*:;.'!), and 
 stood until 1.848. In Tuscany, the grand duke had re- 
 luctantly given up (ialileo to the Roman Inc|uisition ( Ifif.;!). 
 The Tuscan In(|uisition was supjircsscl by the gniiid duke 
 Leopold II. (|h2I-.'>9). In the political reaction following 
 the year 1819 the Inquisition exhibited tokens of a re- 
 vivcl life in Tuscanv. An evidence of this which aroused 
 Chrislenrlom was the sentencing of FitAVcKsm and Ros v 
 Mauiai (which see) lo the galleys (18.-i2 1 for having be- 
 come Protcsiauls. The incorporation of Tuscany into the 
 united kin,' bun of Italy under Victor Emmanuel (1859) 
 put an end lo its Iii([uisitiop. , , . 
 
 « Oih.r r,„„if,iV«.— In Poland it was introduced by 
 Pope .lohn X.KII. (i:'.2-), but was soon abolished. All 
 the efforts of the pope to introduce it as on institution into 
 England were fulile. Inquisitors were sent thither, but 
 exercised lilile influence, as Knglaii.l, with a very decided 
 disposition to exterminate heresy, preferred to do it in her 
 own independent fashion. ,,,,,, 
 
 VIII. Tllf /'nllllfn-Kfrlfiatllrill /lliyill'ldoM — llir "Mntl- 
 
 /ii./iiMiVio".— 1. S'/miii. The ecelcsias- 
 
 tico political Inquisition had been fixed in Spain in Ara 
 gon, and lo its central inquisitor, Nicolaus Eyineric (d. 
 1399), wo owe the Dhrclnrlum lui/iiinilnntm, which is a 
 voucher for Ihe substantial unity of the spirit and method 
 of the In<|uisition under its two forms, P.ut the old In- 
 quisition of Aragon is almost forgotten in the ni'W Iuc|ui- 
 silion of Castile. The great thealri' of the most terrible 
 form of this Inquisition ami of its highest activity has been 
 Spain. The whole purpose and strength of the Church and 
 Sl;ile has never been so centralized as there, in the reprcs- i 
 sion of what was regardetl as a common evil Ihrcatening 
 the life of both, A vigorous absolutism on the throne 
 found a congenial mind in the Church, for State and Church 
 were welded together in Spain in a theocratic conjunction 
 
 almost without parallel in i Icrn history. The primary 
 
 rei-ons of all these facts are connected with the entire 
 eirlier history of that land an.l with civil and religious 
 necessities, largely real, and always phiiisible, which rose 
 out of that history. The long struggle with the Moors had 
 
 been one in which Ihe antagonisms of races bad been vivi- 
 fied by the antagonisms of religions. The Moors had been 
 beaten in the field, but their conquerors felt that there 
 could be no abiding security for Spain till the vanquished 
 accepted the faith of the victors. The Jews had from an 
 ancient period been a numerous, active, and influential 
 element in Spain. .\s between Christianity and Moham- 
 medanism, they had been more sympalhetic with the lat- 
 ter than with tiic former. Jew and Mohammedan had been 
 compelled toward the end of the fourteenth century ( 1391 ) 
 to make a profession of Christianily. These reluctant con- 
 verts, Moorish and Jewish, were more than suspected of 
 clinging in secret lo the faith they had pulilicly renounced. 
 They w'crc charged with atrocious ads and dangerous de- 
 signs involving the government and the Church. A com- 
 pulsory fidelity is the natural sequence of a compulsory 
 profession. Of this compulsion the Inquisition became the 
 organ. One of the earliest distinctive movements in this 
 direclion wa.s made by Cardinal Pedro Gonzales de Men- 
 doza. archbishop first 'of Seville, and afterwards of Toledo, 
 who (1470) gathered together the legal maxims and regu- 
 lations bv which a sifting of these pretended converts might 
 be made.' This collection was circulated among the clergy 
 to arouse and give precision to their cfiorts to repress the 
 imminent mischief and peril. As this measure lacked Ihe 
 cogency in which relief alone could be found, the cardinal 
 proceeded (1477) to punish in Seville a number of persons 
 of Jewish origin who were charged with maintaining in 
 secret the laws and usages of their fathers. He then sub- 
 mitted to the government the sketch of a permanent eccle- 
 siastical court, in which the early vigor of Ihe older In- 
 quisition, which had been allowed to languish, should bo 
 restored. Inn which should possess larger powers and more 
 effectual methods. In short, it was to he the Inquisition 
 reformed. The plan met with the approval of Ferdinand 
 and (after a temporary hes'italion 1 of Isabella. At the car- 
 dinal's suggestion, which was all-potent (he was called 
 "third king of Spain"), the jdaii was submitted lo the 
 Cortes at Toledo ( 1480 i, and. despite the opposition of a 
 number of the states of the kingdom, was adopted. The 
 king and queen loved the Church and loved their people. 
 They meant to strengthen the throne by the altar, and the 
 alta'r bv the throne. Thev meant to serve the Church and 
 to use the Church. They wished to secure the goodwill of 
 the pope, and to gain by it. In their motives were mingled 
 fear, piety, patriotism, absolutism, and ambition. Heresy 
 waste he repressed : the dangerous races were to be kept 
 under ; the arrogance of the hereditary nobility and of the 
 clergy was to be held in check ; and the royal wealth and 
 prerogative enlarged and made sure. In no permanent 
 forms of persecution has there ever heen a comiilcte sc]ia- 
 ration of political from religious motives. On petition ol the 
 sovereigns. Sixlus IV. had issued a bull I Nov. 1. 14,81 
 outhorizing them to appoint and depose iiii|iiisilors. and 
 to possess Ihemsclvcs of the property of the condciiinc<l 
 for the royal treasury. The Inquisition assumed the cha- 
 racter of a predoniin'aiillv. though not exclusively, stale in- 
 stitution, in which the' tbr.uic was largely allowed lo define 
 for itscll how it would use the Church, yet under such 
 bonils of fealty lo the Church as made it qncstionablo 
 which wnuM be master if llicir councils should ever be di- 
 vided. The papal permission was not formally acted upon 
 till Sept 17. 1480, when Ihe king and queen nominale.l as 
 inquisitors two Dominicans. Morill,. (previously inquisitor 
 in Aragon) ami St. Marlin. AVith them was conjmncd 
 as asscss.ir Mclina, the queen's counsellor, and as procura- 
 tor-fiscal, Lopez, her ehuplain. This court began Us offi- 
 cial work (.Ian. 2. 14*1 1 by the publication of an edict 
 which gave directions in regard to the arrest of heretics. 
 These were f,ir the most part the "new Christians. Jews 
 who hail professcil conversion. The entire body of nobles 
 was threatened with loss of title and estate if they neglect- 
 ed the orders of the Inquisition. Numbers ol Jews were 
 accused. F.iur days after Ihe first edict. II of the condcniiied 
 were burncl. 17 in'ore in March, an.l by Nov. I 27.^j>ersons 
 had been sacrificcl in the autos-da-f.- ol Seville. The .lead 
 were accused and convicted, an.l their remains dug up and 
 bnrn.-.I. Many of the convicts were .if high position. 
 Wealth secme.l'nilher to invite than turn asi.le the stroke. 
 The i.laguc called the Inqui-ilion t.i a.lj.uirn lo Aracena, 
 but di.l not relax its energy. In that year (or. according 
 to one inleri. relation of .Mariana (xxiv. 17). within several 
 years) Ihe total iiumher burnc.I alive is computed at 20110. 
 'Many nior.' were burneil in effigy ; 17.000 were reconcile.I— 
 that is. ha.l the capital sentence c.immuliMl I., iniprisonment 
 for life, c.mfiscalion, anil other nenallics. The Jews fl.d 
 in great numbers. Some bore their sorrow I.. Ihe iiontill 
 himself. Sixlus IV. (1481) wrote lo Ferdinand rebuking 
 the iiKiuisitors for their severity, an.l llircalene.l them with 
 deprivati.m. Hut in 1 (8.T he quietcl the scruples of Isa- 
 bella an, 1 encouraged Fcr.linau.l an.l her lo continue the
 
 1214 
 
 INQUISITION. 
 
 good work. In this samn year(I48:t) he appointccl Thomas 
 dc Torqucmada. a Dominican prior, inqui.-'itor-general of 
 Castile and Ara<2:on. This nmn was confessor of tlie queen, 
 and had prepared her mind to shake off its womanly aver- 
 sion to tile cNlirpalion of heresy by force. lie was now 
 invested with full powers to give the coniplotest unity, 
 method, and cfliciency to the Holy Office. The estimate 
 of the number burnt aiivc — principally nominally Christian 
 Jews — in the eighteen years of his ministry ranges from 
 about '.mou to lli.dllO; between nOOO and TDUII werc^ burned 
 in effigy. This was not the triflinc, the almost ludicrous 
 tiling which the words suggest to the modern mind, but 
 invoTvcd infamv to the dead, and to the living the loss of 
 all that makes life dear. Nearly 100,0(10 were punished in 
 other ways. Overawed by the grand inquisitor, the Span- 
 ish sovereign signed the edict for the expulsion of the .lews 
 (Mar. :iU, 1492). Fearing because he had in.ado himself to 
 be so feared, guarding against poison at homo and against 
 assassination when he went abroad, the "confessor of sov- 
 ereigns" died in quiet at the age of seventy-eight (149S). 
 (Pee Preseott's Fcnliii'ind mul hiibrUa, i. 25i-2G8, and 
 Wctzer u. Wclte's A'. L.. v. (iil.) Diego de Dcga, a Do- 
 minican friar, the friend of Columbus, archbishop of Seville, 
 Ferdinand's confessor, and preceptor of his son John, suc- 
 ceeded Torqucmada as gr.and inquisitor (1499). lie issued 
 statutes or instructions for the regulation of the tribunals 
 ( 1500-0 t). .-Vn insurrection excited by the extreme meas- 
 ures of the inquisitors led to his removal (150(5). Under 
 his administration 1004 were burned alive, 8:i2 in effigy, 
 and :i2,450 punished in other ways. ( Herzog, Jlt-nl- Enci/kl. 
 xviii. X.\2.) The third inquisitor-general was Cardinal 
 Francis Xiinenes do Cisneros (1507-17). In those ten 
 years Morciite (iv. 255. cd. 1818) computes that 2530 were 
 burned alive. 1.3G8 in effigy, 47,20.'! were punished in other 
 wavs; but in this estimate is included those who suffered 
 in Aragon, whose Inquisition was not subject to Ximcnes. 
 (Hcrzog, li. E.. vi. 687; Hefele's Xi'mnim, tr. by Calton, 
 .'!'.I9.) 'riie Inquisition in Spain long maintained its orig- 
 inal rigor. Philip II. (1555-98) used it with effect to the 
 crusbing out of Protestantism. 
 
 The style of procedure in the trials of the Spanish In- 
 quisition was very thoroughly mcthoilizcd. It was the 
 business of subordinate officials, called " familiars," to ar- 
 rest the heretics and bring them to the place of judgment. 
 The familiars were supposed to take the place of a godfather 
 (padrino) to the accused. -\s the position had various 
 prerogatives of an ecclesiastical and temporal nature, it was 
 greatly sought for. The various tribunals which were es- 
 tablished in the provinces and colonies were formed on the 
 general model furnished in Madrid. They consisted of 
 three inquisitors, three secretaries, an alguazil (constable), 
 three receivers and assessors, together with the familiars 
 and jailers. Every inquisitor was obliged to submit to the 
 test of the fasct limpia (''pure family"): that is, w.as 
 obliged to show that he sprang from an old and unsuspect- 
 ed Christian ancestry, none of whom had ever been brought 
 before the Inquisition. Ho was also sworn to secrecy. In 
 its earlier history, as the " ancient " Inquisition, it had con- 
 fined itself to charges of heresy or the suspicion of holding 
 or conniving at it, of astrology, fortune-telling and witch- 
 craft, of blasphemy, of offenctts against the Holy Office itself 
 or its officials. In its Later form the civil power, with the 
 concurrence of the popes, extended its jurisdiction over 
 professed converts from the Jews. Mohammedans, and over 
 unbelievers, in as far as any of these classes gave offence to 
 the Holy Office. The immediate process in Spain was as 
 follows:' The person suspected or indicted wa^ summoned 
 three times (eilifialilur)—!. e. by a public judicial citation. 
 If be failed to a|ipear, he was, under reservation of a yet 
 severer punislimenf. excommunicated in cttutiimtiriam and 
 fined. .Vn o])porlunity of escape was rarely allowed to those 
 who were criminated. The familiars, the holy l/crmaiidfid 
 (the government police fraternity), and the Fraternity of the 
 Conciada followed pitilessly on the lr.acks of all who had been 
 designated by the Inquisition. If the person criminated 
 appeared, he was at once put under arrest. The suspicion 
 of the crime was enough to cause his desertion by kindred and 
 friends. They did not dare even to make their appearance 
 with proof of his innocence, lest sympathy with his person 
 should be construed as evidence of sympathy willi his heresy. 
 After the prisoner had been rigorously examined, a list 
 was made of his effects, especially of his books and papers, 
 and his property was confiscated so far as was necessary 
 to cover the preliminary investigation. To render recog- 
 nition easy in case he should escape, his head was shaven. 
 He was committed to a dark prison. If ho promptly con- 
 fessed his guilt, real or alleged, he was as a penitent spared 
 the penalty of death. But even in that case he and his 
 entire kindred were ilishonored and declared incompetent 
 to bear anv office of public trust. If be denied the charge, 
 and the proofs were insufficient, ho was dismissed, but as a 
 
 person suspected he remained under the surveillance of the 
 familiars. The ordinary result of this was, that he was ar- 
 rested a second time, and then began the lingering process 
 of the Inquisition proper. This was conducted in general 
 accordance with the prescriptions which are found in the 
 DirccUii-ium Iiuiuinltorum of IS'ICOI.AIS EvMKRIC (which 
 sec). If the prisoner refused to confess at the first hear- 
 ing, he was remanded to prison, and after the lapse of 
 several months was requirc<i to make oath before the cruci- 
 fix that he would acknowledge the whole truth. If he re- 
 fused to do this, he was condemned without any further 
 eviilence. If he took the oath, leading questions were put 
 to him well calculated to entangle him. The lcg.al coun- 
 sellor was not to act in the interest of his client, nor see 
 him in private, but was to urge him to the confession of 
 the truth. The accused was not to know who were wit- 
 nesses against him. Their testimony was received on 
 their unsubstantiated word, and was laid before the ac- 
 cused in such a fragmentary form as was necessary to keep 
 him ignorant who his accusers were. Even in this shape 
 it was frequently postponed for years. Any one was re- 
 ceived as witness against him. Two hearsay witnesses 
 counted as one eye-witness. The testimony of the informer 
 himself was admitted. The domestics and the family of the 
 accused were allowed to testify against hiu), but not in his 
 favor. If, after all this, the attainted one stood firm in his 
 refusal to confess, he was subjected to the three grades of 
 torture— the cord, the water, and the fire — under the direc- 
 tion of the inquisitors and the bishop of the diocese. If the 
 wretched being was brought to confession, he was put to 
 the torture a second time to ascertain his motives. A third 
 time ho was tortured to lead him to betray those who were 
 his accomplices and .sympathizers. 'When everything had 
 been extorted from him he was left to his angui.sh without 
 medical care. After these confessions he was regarded as 
 a penitent, but a solemn abjuration was required of him. 
 If it was his acts which had brought upon him an impu- 
 tation of heresy, his abjuration was said to be de levi — 
 '■ from a light suspicion." If after the testimony of two 
 witnesses he had acknowledged himself guilty of Judaism 
 or heresv. it was dc rchcmcnt! — of a grave or violent sus- 
 picion. If he made his peace with the Church, including 
 a promise voluntarily to subject himself to all the punish- 
 ments which might yet be in reserve, it was in forma. Tho 
 person convicted was generally condemned to imprisonment 
 or to the galleys for life, his goods were confiscated, and his 
 family stamped as infamous. Any one who both confessed 
 and abjured was punished by being compelled for a fixed 
 period to wear over a black undergarment the Knmbeiiito 
 (the French form of the word is »<iii h(nil»), a slccvtlcss 
 coat, with a red St. Andrew's cross (substituted by Ximenes 
 (1514) for the ordinary cross) on its back and breast. Tho 
 penitent {saiiibntii'ido] who attempted to lay off this coat 
 before the time appointed was punished as impenitent. 
 AVhcn the time of his penance was over the coat was hung 
 up in the church, with his name and a statement of his of- 
 fences attached to it. Relapse into his crime was punished 
 with death. If the three grailes of torture failed to extort 
 a confession, the accused was thrown into a more wretched 
 prison. Of prisons there were three grades — public, inter- 
 mediary, and secret. If even this produced no results, tho 
 opposite policy was tried. Relatives and friends were per- 
 mitted to see him : the hope was excited in his mind that 
 a penitent confession might yet secure pardon or pity for 
 him. If any one died under suspicion, or if suspicion was 
 first excited after his death, the trial went on as if he were 
 living. If forty years had passed between his decease and 
 his conviction, his heirs retained his property, but were in- 
 famous and incapable of bearing public office. If the re- 
 mains of the suspected dead could bo found, they were 
 burned: if not, the burning in efiigy was substituted. 
 
 When the various formalities had been gone through the 
 Aiito-da-Fk (which see) was held. The most appalling 
 feature of this, and the most attractive to the thousands 
 whom it brought together, was the burning to death of 
 the eondeinncd. But the autos-da-fe were not exclusively 
 scenes of death. In some there were no executions. Re- 
 lief was brought to burdened hearts by the announcement 
 of release or pen.ance, or of punishments short of death, 
 and the tenderer passions, as well as the fiercer, drew crowds 
 logelher. The autos-da-fe were a climax to the solemn autos 
 of'thc religious drama. They were dramas of awful reali- 
 ties, and seemed to the people an epitome and anticipation 
 of the terrors and pardons of the Last Judgment. In the 
 seventeenth, and vet more in the oighlecntli, century these 
 •'acts of faith" became rarer. The material had been re- 
 latively burned out. But. more than this, better convictions 
 as to the true mode of dealing with error had become more 
 general. The penalties were executed privately. The tri- 
 bunal lost more and more of its most drea.lful characterislics, 
 and finally came to fight with books rather than with men.
 
 INQUISITION. 
 
 1215 
 
 Charles Til. (17Jtf-8S) imposed legal restrictions on it. No 
 final tentcoce could be passed without the concurrence of 
 the kinf^, and no new regulations could bo established with- 
 out his sanction. The ^riind inquisitor was relegated ( 17f>2) 
 to a monastery for coudeniniug a book contrary to the 
 wishes of the king. Count Aranda, minister of state, 
 limited the powers of the Inquisition still further in 1770. 
 Though Aranda was overthrown in 177.'t by the influeuec of 
 the clergy, public opinion sustained the spirit in which he 
 had acted toward the Inquisition. The pope himself or- 
 dcrcl various restrictions of its powers. IJy an edict of 
 Joseph IJonnpartc. is?uod from Madrid Dee. 4, ISOS, it was 
 abrogated as prejudicial to the civil government. Krom 
 the period of its introduction in its later form into Spain 
 (14S1 ) to tho time of its abrogation f ISOS) it is estimated 
 by Llorente that tho Inquisition had burned alive .■J1,912 
 of those whom it had tried, had burned in efiigy 17,G09, 
 and had inflicted severe punishments of other kinds on 
 291.!."jri persons. These direct sufferings involved sorrow 
 and calamity to millions. On tho return of Ferdinand VII. 
 to tho thpme(lSM)ho restored tho Inquisition. In the 
 rcvolutTon of \^20 one of the first objects of the pojiular 
 fury was the Casa Santa, the palace of the Inf(uisition at 
 Miulrid. Tho tribunal itself was again abolished by tho 
 Cortes. The clerical or "apostolic" party considered tho 
 restoration of the Inquisition a matter of vital necessity, 
 and labored energetically to bring it about. In ]S2a a 
 junta favorable to tho Inquisition came in, and in lS20thc 
 InqnUition was re-cstablisbcd in Valeneia. After the deatJi 
 of Ferdinand VII. tl.S:i:!),the law of July 15, 1S;J4, again 
 abolished it, and by a royal edict of ISlJj its property was 
 confi.'cated and devoted to tho payment of tho jiublic debt. 
 In the now constitution of 1855 tho Roman Catholic re- 
 ligion i.-i cstablislied by law, private freedom of faith is 
 protected from jiorsecution, but liberty of worship is not 
 granted. In .*pite of this, in i8o7 very active proceedings 
 wore ontured into against all persons and books suspected 
 of tho taint of Protestantism. By the new constitution of 
 18u9 tho nation binds itself to sustain in good faith the 
 Roman Catholic wormhip and the Roman Catholic clergy. 
 Foreigners nf other eonfessicms resident in Spain arc tole- 
 rated in both the private and public rights of religion, lim- 
 ited only by tho general rules of morality and law. Span- 
 iards who fttrsakc the Roman Catholic faitfi arc tolerated 
 under the pamo general provision. 
 
 2. The Xcthrrlfinfin. — From Spain, where the Inquisition 
 had been so efficient an instrument of tho slate. Clmrles V. 
 flJlO-jft) and Philip IT. (IjjG-'J.'I) endeavored to transfer 
 it to the Netherlands, to be used against the Reformation. 
 "The number of Netherlanders burned, strangled, behead- 
 ed, or buried alive in obedience to tho edict of Charles V. 
 . , . has been placed as high as 100,1)00 by distinguished 
 autliorities. and has never been put at a lower mark than 
 50,000. Charlt'S was no fanatic. It was political rather 
 than religious heterodoxy which the despot wishecl to sup- 
 press." (Motley, Itinf of the lintck firpithlic, i. 114.) The 
 result of the policy of which the Inquisition was a jire- 
 cminent part was tho revolt of the Xcfhcrlands. After an 
 eighty years' war. in tho course of which millions of lives 
 wore sacrificed, the country almost depopulated by the sav- 
 agery of .\Iva, the remnant of tho pcuple condemned to death 
 in a mass by the Inquisition, tho institution of horror was 
 rooted from the land, ami the lanil itself lost for over to 
 Spain. The .Tew lives. Protestantism lives, free govern- 
 ment live^.but tho system centring tn tho Spanish Inquisi- 
 tion, robbing of life all to which it clung, lies, a withered 
 parasite, on the tree it exhausted. (Sco Prescott, PhSlip If. 
 (I8jj), and his edition of Robertson's C/iftrfcH ]'.; Rrandl, 
 I/itt. of Itcfitrmntiun in lloUand ( IG7I) ; Motley, Llorente, 
 Puighlanch.) 
 
 .3. Anirririi, — Soon after tho discovery of America the 
 Spaniards Introduced tho Inquisiti(»n into it. Mexico, 
 Carthagena, and Lima were the principal scuts of its juris- 
 diction. (See Prescolt's Mvxicn a.v\{\ l\ru.) 
 
 A. /*oriiit/fif. — The Intjuisition was intr'>duccd into Por- 
 tugal under Spanish domination (loi>7) after a protracted 
 resistance. Its supremo court was in Lisbon. The grand 
 inquisitor was nominated by tho king and confirmed by 
 tho pope. .John IV. nf Uragnnza. after the liberation of his 
 country fnun tho Spanish "sixty years' captivity " (IfilO), 
 was anxiou:* to abolish the Inquisition, and withdrew from 
 it tho right of confiscation. John himself was put, after his 
 death ( l(i.'>0), under (ho ban, and not for Rome time was a sol- 
 emn abs'dution pronounced over his body. The Portuguese 
 Inquisition exhibited special severity in Iho Kawt IniiicH; 
 Ooa was its centre. Pombal (1750-«2) repressed or used tho 
 Inquisition as might best promote bis political reforms. 
 Neverlhfloss. by his influence tho Inquisition was obliged 
 to state the charge and give the names of the witnesses to the 
 accused, who was entitled to (he choice of a lawyer as his 
 advocate, and had the right of conferring with him. No 
 
 gentcncG could be executed until it was confirmed by the 
 royal council. John VI. (17y2-iy20) abolished the In- 
 quisition both at hume and in the colonics. Dun Miguel 
 (1828-.'J4) showed a strong di.^position to restore it, but was 
 not able to do so. The WDrld over, the Inquisition, in both 
 its forms, has fallen. U'hatcvcr may be tho difierence in 
 their details, the historical conditions of its life in both 
 forms arc substantially the ^ainc. 
 
 IX. Defences of the. Inquinition. — Paramo, in his work on 
 ihz Sacr eft liKfuiaidon { 1 .')!)8), treats of its "dignity and util- 
 ity," and in 1 JlMJ he published an answer to the objections 
 made against it. But tho best defences of the Inquisition 
 belong for the most part to the period of ii.s decline and 
 extinction. The two best known arc from the hands of 
 Count do Maislre and of Mefcle. So far as these defences 
 rest upon the cxjtosure of the confusion in clasfilication and 
 mi.stakes in facts fairly chargeable upon writers on the In- 
 quisition, they will be found accepted and embodied in this 
 article. Baudri has very compactly and forcibly presented 
 the argument for his Church in these words: *• There are 
 three points which wo arc carefully to hold in view : I. As 
 a distinctly spiritual institution for (he preservation of purity 
 of faith and sound discijdinc (he Inrjuisilion needs no vin-. 
 dication. In this aspect it is wholly correspondent with 
 the plan and spirit of Christ. II. When it has been united 
 with tho civil power, or has been shaped into a state In- 
 quisition, as in Spain, it was the State, not tho Church, 
 which sought the conjunction. III. As to the abuses and 
 abominations of the Inquisition, the reply to be made is, 
 first, (bat these have sometimes been overstated ; further, 
 that what are called the victims of the Inquisition were 
 either common criminals, who would have been punished 
 in accordiince with the laws and spirit of the time bad there 
 been no Inquisition, or if they were licretics they were 
 
 ?unisbed by civil law as ofi'cndcrs against the public weal." 
 n All pern'. Kireh. lexik., v. Ascbbach (iii. 4S0, 1850), 
 Ilefele has argued on the same general basis, and with 
 great circumstantialitv of detail in Cnrdiunl Xiineuen (Tiib., 
 184!: 2d ed. 18.M. pp. 207-370: Eng. transl. by Dalton, 
 ISGO, 270-400) and in his article "Inquisition" in Wetzer 
 and Welte's Kirrhin- Lex ikon (l-SjO). The main points 
 made by him. and the spirit in which they are received by 
 intelligent Protestants, are well presented by Ilerzog : 
 " Ilofelc has made (be effort to put (he Spanish Inquisition 
 in its true light. He has done this partly by showing that 
 its character was rather political than ecclesiastical, partly 
 by exposing unjust crimination of it, an<l ]iarlly by correct- 
 ing mistaken allegations as tt) its ])roccdures. Such an 
 effort deserves," in general, a thorough acknowUdgmcnt and 
 praise. It is not fair to paint the Spanish Inquisition 
 blacker than it really was. In its very nature, withont a 
 single tonch of the pencil, its hues arc sunibre enough. It is 
 especially necessary to bring into relief the influence exer- 
 cised n])on the Sjianish Inquisition by the royal authority, 
 and, wc might aild, iiy the national character. Ilefele begins 
 by carefully showing that the Inquisition was at once the 
 creature and the organ of the royal absolutism. It is unde- 
 niable that, at the beginning especially, it was this in a 
 liigher flegrcc than it was an ecclesiastical institution. 
 (The conference between the king and the grand inquisitor 
 in Schiller's Vint Cuilott rests, (lierefore, upon a mistaken 
 impression as to their mutual I'clations.) On this ground 
 Ilefele relieves tho Thurch of all the odious and fciirlul as- 
 sociations which cling to the name of the Inquisition. I(e 
 then points out carefully h(tw often nml liow strongly, 
 though usually without result, the po[ies endeavored to put 
 a check u])on the cruel and initniKous nets of the Inqui- 
 sition. There has been, in fact, no other institution of tho 
 Catholic Church on which the papal censures have been so 
 earnestly and repeatedly directed. No fact could more 
 strikingly illustrate the spirit of the Spanish Inquisition, 
 aufl show tho pertinacious severity of its procedure; for it 
 will hardly be nmintained by Ciitholics themselves that the 
 tendency of the popes has been toward undue leniency to- 
 ward those who refused obedience to tho Church. Hcfcle 
 goes on to correct the excessive estimates of the number 
 of the victims of (he Inquisition. He corrects the chief 
 mistake which Llorenle made on this point when ho stated 
 that Torquemada alone, in the first year of his administra- 
 tion at Seville, burned to deii'tli 2000 persons, while accord- 
 ing to Mariana these 2000 nre to be divided among all the 
 years of his rule and the whole body of inquisitorial tri- 
 bunals uiuier him. The words of Mariana quote«l by Ilefelo 
 do not, however, necessarily bear the sense he puts on them : 
 A Toniiienntiln nirninrmif tluo miUiticrfmntnn »"*/»*-. etc. ( Ma- 
 riana, xxiv. 1 7.) Ilcfclo further directs attention to thr fact 
 that tho proccfUiro of tho Inquisition, in fact its entire 
 nietho<), was no worse, and indeed was in nmny respects far 
 milder, than that of the criminal law of tho era. whoso 
 severity and inhumanity iire bevnud dispute. True as tliis 
 is in general, yet wc must be careful not too readily to infer
 
 1216 
 
 IN REM. 
 
 that the course of procedure was always in keeping with 
 special mitigations. It is in this as in other parts of the 
 same system, which in the written account wear a less re- 
 pulsive air, hut in whirh the contrast is great between 
 theory uml practice. The nit-thud. for exampU\ by which 
 the rule that forhaclc mon- th:in one applieutitin of the Inr- 
 ture wa!" evaded, shows of iiow illtle value were those miti- 
 gations on which Ilefele relies. The wretch who had been 
 almost tortured to death was allowed to rest for a couple 
 of days until he was sufficiently recovered to endure new 
 tnrtures. This was styled tlie interruption and resump- 
 tion of the one torture. But why need we argue? Sad 
 as is the theme, yet it is hard to avoid a smile when 
 Ht'fi'lc treats as if it were made in serious earnest the 
 official request of the inquisitors, when they gave over the 
 condemned to the civil power, that their lives should be 
 spared, and puts it exclusively to the account of the secular 
 ]>ower that this petition sank to an empty formality. It 
 seems that even in Germany there is a man who could 
 persuade ns that in those days the maxim was held in good 
 faith, Errlrnia nhhiirri't <t mniffninc / — ' The Church shrinks 
 from bloodshed.' Hefele further adopts the opinion of 
 Joseph le Maistre that the Inquisition was not detrimental 
 to the intellectual life of S|>ain — an opinion with which 
 Huber, a Protestant author, has recently concurred. The 
 clumsy manner in which the opposite view has often been 
 maintained gave some color to this opinion. The com- 
 mission of the Cortes which (1812) introduced the motion 
 to abolish the Inquisition, for example, says. 'From the 
 moment the Inquisition appeared authors vanished.* There 
 is no disputing that precisely at the time- at which the In- 
 quisition entered on its work, there began in Spain an ac- 
 tive intellectual life, and that even poetry bloomed in new 
 beauty. Hefele of coarse does not go to the extreme of re- 
 garding this as the work of the Inquisition, but he claims 
 that it proves that the Inquisition did not have the repres- 
 sive effect charged on it. But in the nature of the case it 
 was involved that the fruits of the Inquisition could only 
 ripen at a later period. Is it necessary to say what these 
 fruits are? What has Spain been for the last two centu- 
 ries ? In answering this question we must indeed he care- 
 ful not to charge all the misery of Spain on the Inquisi- 
 tion. Nevertheless, so much stands fast that the ecclesias- 
 tical and political absolutism by which Spain has been sunk 
 so low has been bound up with the working of the Inqui- 
 sition. But Hefele goes on, and it is impossible to avoid 
 a feeling of profound astonishment when we read that the 
 Inquisition so far wrought beneficently when, as with an 
 inspired vocation, it saved Spain from innumerable errors 
 and heresies, and fmm the horrors of the religions wars oc- 
 casioned by the Reformation. Ilefele does not indeed put 
 forth these views directly. He urges them not in his own 
 name, but under the authority of the most cultivated, the 
 noblest intellects among the authors of Spain. It is clear, 
 however, that he is not ready unreservedly to contradict 
 them, and though he doi-s not entirely adopt them, yet 
 there is an unmistakalilo effort on his part to commend 
 them as judgments which carry with them great weight. 
 Thut a (ierman Roman Catholic, who should be familiar, 
 alike from history antl personal observation, with the hap- 
 py inlluence which Protestantism has exercised on Roman 
 Catholicism itself, should envy Spain the repose of the 
 grave, once deep, but now long broken, proves most clearly 
 that the old spirit of Rouian Catholicism is not extinct. 
 This, inch-ed. is made manifest by many other signs of the 
 times. Mefele also reviews the work of Llorentc. That 
 this book is fairly open to many sorts of censure is demon- 
 strated, and yet it may be said that Hefele involuntarily 
 becomes its apologist, for every fact which he adduces to 
 set the Inquisition in a fairer light is drawn from Llorentc 
 himself. This shows very clearly that hlorente's work was 
 not written purely for the making out of a case." (lical- 
 Eiiriikhipadie f. protest Thcolof/ic tt. Kirche, 1856, vi. 690- 
 fH»2.') 
 
 X. JiihUogrnphtf and litrrotiirr, — The bibliography, di- 
 rect and collateral, of the Inquisition is large. Lists of 
 the most important works will be found in Lipenius. liibf. 
 Theuin,,., 1685, ii. 100: ib., iiibl. Fhih.M.. 1081, i. r^'^•, ib., 
 lillf. .fund., iri79. 2.11: Walch. lUhf. Thcnf. StL. I75K-62. 
 ii. lilt; iii. T.'t" ; Xnsselt, yl/urci'* zn. K. fiUcher, 1800,8, 
 .'50 : Fuhrmann, Iluudirihicrhiich Reluj. h. Kirrhvtuje- 
 srhiehtc, 1828, ii. 458: Winer, Handbuch Theofoff. Lttrrat., 
 18.38, i. 096; Urasse, Lrhrb. d, Litnilnfeschich'te, 1840, ii. 
 I, 3; Danz. Unirmi. WUrterburh, 1848, 451 ; Clericus, 
 liihlir. StHdrnt'ii AnniHtnnt, Ediub.. 1844. 48; PooIc. Iiulcj- 
 
 to Ptriod. Lit., 185H, 240, 457; Denis, Pinion, Martonno, 
 Nouv. Man. dc liibliotjr. Vn\ver*eUr, 1857, ii. .39; Pierer, 
 Unir. Ltxik.y 1859, viii. 928; Pfirenn^s. Dirtinnnaire d. 
 Bib/iftfjinphif^ Cnthnh'f/ur. 1859. iji. 545, 671 : Branct, ^fa- 
 huei dii Libraire, 1865, vi. 1164; Malcom, Throlotjiml In- 
 dex, 1868, 241 : Kurtz. Lrhrinuh d. K'irchfii'jrttrh., 1874. i. 
 
 374, 399. Among the most important works may be men- 
 tioned : (1) those which are documentary, embracing rules. 
 methods of procedure, and instructions. Qiii^fitioueM ( Fifteen 
 Questions for the Inquisition ) prepared by Cardinal Falcodi, 
 afterwards Clement IV. ( 1265-68). edited with the annota- 
 tions of Carrera, an<l his treatise of the mode of procedure 
 in the Holy Office (1641), with the Pntxin infjuiMitorum of 
 Pegna, and additions by Carrera (1669). Clement V. 
 (1305-14) presented to the council at Vienne (1311-12) 
 special instructions for the inquisitors. These form a ])art 
 of the Cl'-mriitinet, v. iii. 1, 2. 3 i t'ot-fiuH JuriM, Colon, ftlun. 
 1730). Eymeric, forforty-four years inquisitor-general of 
 Aragon (d. 1399), wrote the Ifirtrtnyimu InquiMitornm. The 
 first part gives the ancient Church laws and decretals ; the 
 second part, the papal laws concerning heretics and inqui- 
 sitors; the tiiird part details the methods to be observed 
 by the inquisitors: first published 1503. with commentary 
 of Pegna, 1578. Simanca, Praxin hiFrenfon, Venet., 1568- 
 73: ib. De CathoUcin fuMtitiitlonibus, 1575; Reuss, .Vnwm- 
 liit}</ {CoffrctinH of fuHtrnctiiinn from the SpaiiiMh, colferted 
 bif order of (\irdiiiaf Mnnrttjue), %vith a sketch by Spittler, 
 1*788. 2. Histories: Xiffrhnot, 1582; Paramo. 1598; Mar.'ol- 
 lier, 1013: Limhoreh (best of the old worksl. 1692. Me- 
 moires: 1716, Baker, TifTensee, Baumgarten. 1741 ; Cramer, 
 1784; liai'sonu. Erz'dbh. 1784; Caused Celebren ftntnrjPreK, 
 1827; Rule's Hifitori/ of the Inquisition from its Entahligh- 
 ment in the Tirelfih Centnri/ to ita Extinetion in tkf Aine- 
 teenth, 1874. The French Inquisition. De la JMothe-Largon, 
 1829; the Venetian Inquisition. Paul (Sarpi), 1638; the 
 Spanish Inquisition. Oonsalvi, 1567; Arnold, 1609; Ursi- 
 nus. 1611 : Bebel. 1692; luqniiition in Spnnien it. Achtfu- 
 stiirken, Leipsic. 1810: Puigblanch, Inqniaition VumnKked, 
 tr. by Walton, 1816: Lloreute, 1815. 1818. 1820 ; De Mais- 
 tre, Lettrrit snr V hiffuis, Enparjuole, 1822; Hefele, AV»*ifne«, 
 2d ed. 1851 ; transl. by Dalton, 1860. The Portuguese In- 
 quisition, Herculano,* 1858; at Go'a, Dellon, 1668. The 
 histories of the heretics, councils, martyrs, the papacy, the 
 religious orders, are of importance here. The best general 
 church histories arc also useful. Among those of the most 
 importance on the history of the Inquisition are Bzovius, 
 Spondanus, Raynaldus. and Fleury among the Roman 
 Catholic writers, and Mosheim and Sehriickh among Prot- 
 estant church historians. Some of the monographs on 
 special eras and ]>artieular nations are also important : 
 Brandt's Netherlaudm, Milman's Latin Christianity, Mac- 
 Crie's Spain and Itafi/, Ranke's Popes, the works of Pres- 
 cott and Jlotley. Prescott's statements in regard to the 
 In((uisition have been reviewed by Archbishop Spalding, 
 Miitrcllanea, 1866. A thorough history of the Inquisition 
 is greatly needed. Mr. H. C. Lea, of Philadelphia, is en- 
 gaged upon such a work, which will doubtless prove worthy 
 nf the distinguished reputation he has won by his other 
 monographs on ecclesiastical history. C. P. KitArxH. 
 
 In Rem [Lat., ''against the thing"], a technical legal 
 term used to designate an action or proceeding directly in- 
 stituted against the thing or property the title to which is 
 in question, or upon which some lien or claim is made, or 
 to denote the judgment or decree which is the result of 
 such an action or jiroceeding. It is also applied to decis- 
 ions directly determining the legal stntun of a party before 
 the court with reference to marriage, divorce, bastardy, 
 settlement, and other similar personal relations. Actions 
 against the person, which are the ordinary forms of suit in 
 courts of general jurisdiction, are termed, by way of con- 
 tradistinction, proceedings in firrsouam. Suits in rem fre- 
 quently occur in courts of n<lmiralty an«l in proceedings 
 under revenue laws. Of this nature are proceedings for 
 the enforcement of maritime liens against a vessel or cargo, 
 for the recovery of salvage, for the condemnation and for- 
 feiture of property on account of a violation of the revenue 
 laws, or as prize in time of war. and, in general, all actions 
 in admiralty whereaclaim is madedirectly against specific 
 property. The title which such an admiralty cause receives 
 indicates that the action is in rem, since the properly is 
 represented as if it were made defendant in the jiroceeding, 
 as, e. fj., *' The V. S. vx. The Ship Osjtrey." The jiroccedings 
 to enforce the judgment or decree of the court in such cases 
 are confined to the property which is made the subject of 
 the claim in the aoti<in. On the contrary, in suits in per- 
 sonam the judgment of the court is carrierl into effect by 
 the levy of an execution, and all the property of the de- 
 fendant, with the exception of a few classes of articles ex- 
 empted by statute, may. if necessary, be sold to satisfy the 
 judgment. A judgment or decree in rtm, whether the suit 
 be against specific jiropcrty or with reference to personal 
 sttttHs, is, in general, binding and conclusive, not only upon 
 the parties in the cause, hut upon all persons. It will, sub- 
 ject to some exceptions, be deemed valid and binding in 
 foreign countries if the court by which it was rendered ha'l 
 jurisdiction of the proceeding. The judgment may, how- 
 ever, be invalidated unless it were obtained honfi fidp and
 
 INSANITY. 
 
 1217 
 
 without fraudulent means, and unless the suit was con- 
 ducted with an observance of the regular and requisite 
 forms. Whiitcvcr di.'sposi'.ion, therefore, a court having 
 jurisdiction makes of property by a judgment in rem, or 
 whatever determination it makes in regard to ntntut, set- 
 tles the question generally as to all the world. This ob- 
 ligatory force of judgments in rem is based chiefly upon 
 considerations of public policy, since it ia desirable that Iho 
 title to propcrlv which has been the subject of litigation 
 should not be left doubtful, ami also that the personal re- 
 lations of every member of the community .should be defin- 
 itively settled. (Sen . I iDOinNT.) This doctrine also rests 
 partly upon the ground that in most cases in which judg- 
 ments of this kind can be rendered all persons who have any 
 interest in the subject in controversy may appear and assert 
 their rights. Gkokge Chase. Revised bv T. W. Dwight. 
 
 Insan'ity' [Lat. intanilng, "unsoundness "] is a mani- 
 festation of disease of the brain, characterized by a gen- 
 eral or ]iartial derangement of one or more faculties of the 
 mind, and in which, while consciousness is not abolished, 
 mental freedom is perverted, weakened, or destroyed. An 
 essential feature of the definition here given is, that insaii- 
 ity depends upon a diseased condition of the brain. It is 
 therefore only a symptom, like paralysis, coma, or any other 
 phenomenon of cerebral disorder; but as wc cannot in the 
 present state of our knowledge alBrm with any degree of 
 accuracy what part of the brain is affected in any given case 
 of insanity, or even say how it is disordered, wc arc ob- 
 liged to take the manifestation for the disease. It is not 
 many years ago that cough was regarded as a disease, and \ 
 bv niany paralvsis still is. In reality, these arc symptoms 
 referable to disease of some part of the respiratory or ner- 
 vous apparatus, and are not diseases in themselves. But it 
 is questioned by some even at the present time whether 
 in.sanity may not exist and the brain be in a perfectly 
 healthy condition. The relation of mental aberration to 
 cerebral derangement certainly cannot be invariable, unless 
 the normal mind is directly dependent upon a normal stato 
 of the brain. If. however, it can be shown that the mind 
 comes from the brain, or. what amounts to the same thing 
 in physiology, is manifested through the brain, it follows 
 lo"ic!illv, as well as pathologically, that ins.anity is the re- 
 stiit of "cerebral disorder. The proofs of this relation arc 
 the following: . ,- . 
 
 (1) The action of on organ, even within the limits of 
 health, frequently gives rise to sensations of various kinds, 
 and slight functional derangements are very distinctly felt. 
 Thus, the pain of indigestion is referred to the stomach or 
 howcis, as the case maybe; difficulties with the urinary 
 excretion are accompanied by uneasiness in the kidneys; 
 derangements in the secretion of the bile are often only in- 
 dicated by pain in the liver; loud noises produce unpleas- 
 ant feelings in the ears, and excessive or improper use of 
 the eyes causes pain in these organs. So it is with the 
 brain. Though ordinarily we are not conscious of any 
 particular sensation when we use it in thinking (and the 
 same is true, mulnliM mulaniliii, of the other organs men- 
 tioned), yet inordinate mental exertion gives rise to head- 
 ache, vertigo, and other derangements of sensibility rcfcra- 
 bio to Iho brain. In some persons even slight mental ac- 
 tion invariably iiroduccs pain in the head, and it is well 
 known that the brain becomes diseascil when it is unduly 
 taxed, just as d'lcs the stomach, the eye, or a muscle. 
 
 (2) injury or disease of the brain impairs in some way 
 or other the powers of the mind. A blow on tlio head 
 causes confusion of ideas, and if hard enough may destroy 
 consciousness or the power of thought altogether. A piece 
 of hone or a bullet pressing on the brain likewise destroys 
 the ability to think ; and though examples are not wanting 
 of terrible wounds of tho brain in which there is for a 
 time no well-marked impairment of the mind, careful ex- 
 amination will reveal Ibe existence of deterioration from 
 tho first, and eventually tho patients die with head-symp- 
 toms. The various diseases of tho brain likewise produce 
 at some time or other of their course derangement in tho 
 evolution of mind, and insanity is generally shown after 
 death to have been accompanied by structural changes in 
 tho brain, 
 
 (3) Tho notion of the brain, like tho functionation of 
 
 •The writer of this vorv at)lc article has einploycil the lan- 
 cuaKC commonly used liv ilie wboi.l of pby»iol<.i;isls who hold 
 the doctrine of the correlation of nirntal and physical foreen. 
 To those who, like the editors of Ibis wiirk, do not cntcrlnin that 
 vlnw the interest of the article will not be Impaired by tills 
 circumstance; while those to whom the doctrine Is ncccplablo 
 will esteem il on this account as more strictly in harmony 
 with Ibe actual slate of advanced physloloRical science. It is to 
 be observed that the writer, and many others who regard the 
 mind as a funeticu of the brain, disclaim the Inipulatlon of 
 materbilisin east upon them bv some ; and Ibis diselainier should 
 beconsiderol in judginj; ufthelrmodes of speaking— l-DS. JOHN- 
 SOS'S t'vi i.or.KruA. 
 
 Vol,. II.— 77 
 
 other organs, results in tho disintegration of its substance, 
 and this destruction of tissue is in direct proportion to Hie 
 amount of mental work done. We find, therefore, that tho 
 alkaline phosphates, which arc mainly derived from the 
 destructive metamorphosis of ihe nervous tissue, and which 
 arc excreted by the kidneys, are increased in quantity after 
 severe intellectual labor, and are diminished by mental 
 quietude. In a memoir published several years ago I gave 
 the results of experiments performed upon myself, which 
 show very conclusively that increased use of the brain 
 causes increased decay of its substance. 
 
 (4) The si/e of the brain is well known to have a direct 
 relation to the intelligence of the individual; and when 
 all other conditions are alike it may be said that the largest 
 brain will produce tho greatest amount of mental energy. 
 Quality is, however, an important factor, and when witn 
 great size there is also a large amount of gray matter, tho 
 intellectual capacity is at its maximum. Thus, Dr. Thur- 
 nani has shown tliat the average weight of tho brain in 
 Europeans is 411 ounces, while in ten men rcraarkaldc for 
 their intellectual development it was 64.7 ounces. Of these, 
 the brain of Cuvier, the celebrated naturalist, weighed C4.5 
 ounces. Spurzheim's 5J.00. and Daniel Webster's 53.5. On 
 the other hand, the brain is small in idiots. Of three idiots 
 whose ages were sixteen, forty, and fifty years respectively, 
 Tiedemann found the weight of their brains to bo 19J, 2Jj, 
 and 22* ounces. Mr. Gore has reported the case of a wo- 
 man forty-two years of age whose intellect was infantine, 
 who couid scarcely speak a few words, whoso gait was un- 
 steady, and whose chief occupation was carrying and nurs- 
 ing a' doll. After death her brain was found lo weigh but 
 10 ounces and 5 grains. Mr. Mar.shall has also reported a 
 case of microcephaly in the person of a boy twelve years 
 old whose brain weighed but S< ounces. The convolutions 
 were stronglv marked, though narrow and few in number. 
 (5) Exjieriments performed upon the nerves and nerve- 
 centres show that from the brain proceeds the force by 
 which muscles arc mrivcil. and tliat it is the organ by which 
 sensations are perceived. Thus, division of a nerve sup- 
 plying a certain muscle cuts off the connection between tho 
 brain and thai muscle, and hence the will can no longer 
 cause it to contract. Division of the optic nerve prevents 
 the perception of visional images, and so likewise for the 
 other nerves of special sense. 
 
 From all of which considerations the connection between 
 the brain and the mind is as clearly made out as any other 
 fact in jihvsiology. The miii'l differs from forces in gen- 
 eral in being compoun<l — that is, in being niado up of 
 several other forces. These arc perception, the intellcel, 
 the emotions, and Ihe will. All the mental manifestations 
 of which Ihe brain is capable are embraced in one or inoro 
 of these parts. Either one of them may bo exercised in- 
 dependently of the other, though they are very intimately 
 connected, and in all continuous mental jiroccsscs are 
 brought more or less into relative and consecutive action. 
 As constituting the basis of the classification of the several 
 forms of insanitv to be considered in this article, it is ex- 
 pedient to describe briefly these four sub-forces of tho 
 
 1. I'crrepli'in.— 'By perception is to bo understood that 
 part of Iho mind whoso oflico it is to place the individual 
 in relation with external objecls. For Ihccvolulion of this 
 force the mind is in iutimale relation with certain special 
 organs which servo the purpose of receiving impressions 
 of objects. Thus, an image is formed upon the retina, 
 anil the optic nerve transmits the excitation lo its ganglion 
 or part of Ihe brain. This at once functionates, tho force 
 called perception is tvolved, and the image is perceived. 
 If the retina bo sufiicienlly diseased the image i» not formed ; 
 if the opiic nerve be in an abnormal condiliim, Iho excita- 
 tion is not transmitted ; if the ganglion be disordered, the 
 pereeptivo force is rot evolved. I-iko reasoning is appli- 
 cable to the other senses, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. 
 Perception may bo exercised without any su|ierior intelleo- 
 tuul act— without anv ideation whatever. Thus, if Iho 
 cerebrum of a pigeon be removed, the animal is still cajiablo 
 of seeing and of hearing, but it obtains no idea from these 
 senses. Tho mind, with tho exception of perception, is 
 
 lost. ,. , 1 ■ 
 
 2. Tlic Inlrllret.—Xn the normal condition of the lirain 
 tho excitation of a sense and tho consequent perception do 
 not stop at the special ganglion of llint sense, but are 
 transmitted to a inoro complex pari of Iho brain, where 
 tho perception is resolved into an idea. Thus, the imago 
 impressed upon tho retina, Ihe perception of which has 
 been formed bv a sensory ganglion, ullimalely causes tho 
 evolution of another force, by which all its nllribulcs ca- 
 pable of being represented upon Ihe retina are more or less 
 perfectlv appreciated accoriling to tho slruclural qualities 
 of tho ideational centre. To the formation of tho idea 
 several important faculties and modes of expression of the
 
 1218 
 
 INSANITY. 
 
 intellect contribute. Tlius, if we suppose the retina to have 
 received the image of a ball, a higher ganglion converts 
 this into a perception, and a still higher one into an idea; 
 and this idea relates to the size, the form, the color, the 
 material, etc. primarily, and to the origin, uses, ownership, 
 etc. secondarilv. In gaining this conception of the thing 
 impressed upon the retina, the memory, judgment, and 
 other faculties of the intellect are brought into action, and 
 the process of reasoning is carried on. 
 
 3. The. Emntiom. — .\n idea in its turn excites another 
 part of the brain to action, and an emotion is produced, or 
 this last-named force may be evolveil under certain circum- 
 stances witliout the intermediation of the idea, but solely 
 from tlie transmission of a perception to the emotional 
 ganglion. An emotion is that pleasurable or painful feel- 
 ing which arises in us in consequence of sensorial impres- 
 siims or intellectual action. .According to Bain, the word 
 ^million is used to comprehend all that is understood by 
 feelings, states of feeling, pleasure, pain, passion, senti- 
 ments, affection, etc. Within the limits of health the emo- 
 tions act powerfully on certain organs of the body, and 
 thus express their liwn activity. Thus, grief is exhil)ited 
 bv the flow of tears from the over-excitation of the l.achry- 
 ninl gland; extreme joy may also cause weeping: the jaw 
 falls and the angles of the mouth curl downward in morti- 
 fication or sorrow, while in pleasure the face expands late- 
 rally. The eyes, the nose, and the mouth are the three 
 facial centres from which emotional expression is mainly 
 produced. Other organs of the body, as the salivary 
 glands, the heart, the mammary gliinds, the liver, the kid- 
 neys, and in fact nearly every viscus of the body, may 
 exhibit the effects of emotion by the transmission of exci- 
 tations through the sympathetic nerve. Most of the result- 
 ing effects are due to the fact that the sympathetic nerve 
 especially presides over the vaso-motor system, and thus 
 regulates the calibre of the blood-vessels. 
 
 4. Thf Will. — By volition acts are performed. Some 
 acts are automatic, but all done in consequence of intellec- 
 tion are the result of willing, and are for some specific pur- 
 pose connected with an idea. Volition in the scries of 
 mental manifestations may precede emotion, but it always 
 follows perception and ideation. 
 
 To sum up these outlines : a person walking in the street 
 sees a man on the opposite side of the way — jicrceptiou; he 
 recognizes him as a friend whom he has not met for many 
 years — liilelkri; he determines to go across and speak to 
 him — will; he does so, and exhibits joy at the rcuuion^ 
 ciiKiluiii. Or, to alter the sequence somewhat, a person at 
 a theatre sees and hears an actor on the stage — pc-eeptioii; 
 the attitudes, gestures, .and words of the player call up cer- 
 tain ideas— Intellect; he is moved to great joy or grief — 
 emotion; and determining to recognize the aliility of the 
 actor — wilt — claps his hands or throws him a bouquet. 
 
 In individuals whose brains are well formed, free from 
 structural changes, and .are nourished with a duo supply, 
 neither excessive nor deficient, of healthy blood, the per- 
 ception, the intellect, the emotions, ami the will are mani- 
 fested in a manner common to mankind in general. Slight 
 changes in the formation or nutrition of the brain induce 
 corresponding changes in the several parts of the mind or 
 in it as a whole. As no two brains are precisely alike, so no 
 two persons are exactly alike in their mental processes. 
 So long, however, as the deviations are not directly at 
 variance with the average human mind, the individual is 
 sane ; if they are at variance, ho is insane. But within the 
 limits of mental health marked irregularities are met with 
 in different parts of the mind. Thus, some persons are 
 noted for never perceiving things as the majority of people 
 perceive them; others have the emotional system inordi- 
 nately or deficiently developed; others are weak in judg- 
 ment, defective in memory, feeble in powers of application 
 or vacillating in their opinions; others, again, are lacking 
 in volitional power — in the ability to perform cert;iin acts, 
 to refrain from others, or to follow a definite course of ac- 
 tion which the intellect tells them is expedient or wise. 
 Persons whose minds deviate in some one or more notable 
 respects from the ordinary standard, but yet whose mental 
 processes are not directly at variance with that standard, 
 are said to be eccentric. It is not always easy to draw the 
 line between strong eccentricity and n\ild insanity. About 
 the former, however, there is this marked chnracteristic — 
 that its manifestations are according to a fixed system, are 
 not founiied on delusions, and are generally excited by those 
 emotions or desires which are reficcted ba^'k to the individ- 
 ual, such as pride, vanity, the love of ai>|irol)alion or of 
 notoriety, etc. Eccentric persons stand upon the verge of 
 insanity, with a decided ]>redisposition to mental disease, 
 and ordinarily if they do not pass the limit it is for want 
 t)f a sufficient exciting cause. Instances of eccentricity 
 I'lssing into positive insanity arc common enough, and in- 
 'iuirv will frequcu'ty disclose the fact that the insane have 
 
 been eccentric for several years before becoming affected 
 with cerebral disease to such an extent as to produce de- 
 cided mental aberration. 
 
 Many classifications have been made of the various phe- 
 nomena met with in insanity. Obviously, the only proper 
 arrangement would be one based on the actual brain-lesions, 
 but in the present state of our knowledge it is impossible 
 to make such a one. We cannot say, for instance, that 
 when an individual hiis a delusion, such or such a part of 
 his brain is nflectcd, nor that when he is melancholio 
 another part is involved. We arc obliged, therefore, either 
 to arrange the symptoms into groups without any philo- 
 sophical basis, orto classify them according to the relation 
 which they bear to the several parts of the mind. Follow- 
 ing this latter jdan, we have — I. l\rrr],iioniil intnnlty, cha- 
 racterized by the tendency to the formation of erroneous 
 perceptions, cither from false impressions of real objects 
 (illusions), or from no external excitation whatever (hallu- 
 cinations). II. Intellecliiol iimnnil;/, char,actcrized by the 
 existence of delusions. III. Euiotionnl insuniii/, charac- 
 terized by the uncontrolled or imperfectly controlled pre- 
 dominance of one or more of the emotions. IV. VoUlionnl 
 innnnlty, in which there is an inability to exert the full 
 will-po"wer. either affirmatively or negatively. V. .V<i)ii'i, 
 characterized by the union of two or more of these forms 
 in the same individual. VI. General pnnitijHis, a peculiar 
 form of insanity attended with progressively advancing 
 loss of mental and motor power. VII. Idiocy and de- 
 meniin, the first due to the fact that there are original 
 structural defects in the brain; the second resulting from 
 the supervention of organic changes in a brain originally 
 of normal power. 
 
 Before proceeding to describe these several types, it is 
 necessary to touch upon certain important symptoms of 
 mental disorder, the character and import of which must 
 be clearly understood. These are illusion, hallucination, 
 delusion, incoherence, and delirium. 
 
 Illusion. — .\n illusion is a false perception of a real sen- 
 sori;vl impression. Thus, a person seeing a ball roll over 
 the floor, and imagining it to be a mouse, has an illusion 
 of the sense of sight; another, hearing the pattering of 
 the rain on the roof, and perceiving in this sound the voice 
 of some one calling him, has an illusion of the sense of 
 hearing; another, having some bitter substance placed 
 upon his tongue, and forming the perception of a sweet 
 flavor, has an illusion of the sense of taste; and so on as 
 regards the other senses. In all such eases there is a ma- 
 terial basis for the perception, but this latter is not in exact 
 relation with the former. Illusions arc not always indica- 
 tive of cerebral disorder: indeed, they are very common 
 with all of us under certain circumstances. It is, |)crhap?, 
 never the case that the perception is precisely in accord- 
 ance with the real projierties of the substance making the 
 sensorial impression. We never see, hear, taste, smell, or 
 feel things exactly as they are. This imperfection may be 
 due to surrounding circumstances not being favorable. 
 Insuflicicnt light may thus make our vision imperfect ; loud 
 noises may render us incapable of appreciating gentle 
 sounds : a strongly sa]iid substance previously rubbed over 
 the tongue and faiiecs prevents our distinguishing delicate 
 flavors; a powerful odor may make such an impression on 
 the Schneiderian membr.ane that other odors for a long time 
 smell like it; and exposure to very cold weather interferes 
 markedlv with the discriminating |iowcr of the sense of 
 touch, "imperfect perceptions are often formed in conse- 
 quence of the perceptive ganglia being otherwise occupied. 
 Thus, if we arc looking intently at some object of interest, 
 we arc apt not to attend to the sounds which reach our ears, 
 and consequently no clear perception of them is formed. 
 Illusions of all tlie senses, but especially of sight and hear- 
 ing, are met with in insanity, and particularly in those 
 acuteforms characterized by the presence of delirium. 
 
 Hnllncinntiiin.—A hallucination is a false perception 
 without any material basis, and is centric in its origin. It 
 is more, therefore, than an erroneous interpretation of a 
 real object, for it is entirely forme. 1 by the mind. An 
 individual who on looking at a blank wall perceives it to 
 he covered with pictures has a hallucination ; another 
 who when no sound reaches his ears hears voices whisper- 
 ing to him also suffers from a hiillueinalion ; and such 
 fafse perceptions may be created as regards all kinds of 
 ! sensorial excitations. The organs of the senses, in f.ict, arc 
 not necessarv to the existence of hallucinations. T'""'' '' 
 the eyes be closed, images mav still be seen : if the hearing 
 be lost, voices mav still be heard; and the reason for this 
 is found in the fact that the erroneous perception consli- 
 tuiiiig the hallucination is formed in that part of the braiii 
 which ordinarilv requires the excitation of a sensorial im- 
 pression for its'funetionation. Hallucinations arc always 
 I evidence of cerebral derangement, and are common phe- 
 . nomena of insanity. They may be exc;t-:d by emotions of
 
 INSANITY. 
 
 1219 
 
 various kinds, by which the chnroctcr or quantity of the 
 blood circulatin<; in the braiu is changed, by intellectual 
 exertion, by cerliiiu drugs, and many other factors to bo 
 presently more fully considered. 
 
 DofiiMioii. — Illusions and balluciuations may exist, and 
 the individual be perfeelly sensible that they arc not reali- 
 ties. In such ca^:es the intellect is not involved. IjuI if he 
 accepts his false perceptions as facts, his intellei-t partici- 
 pates, and he has delusions. A delusion is. therefore, a 
 faL-^c belief. It may be based upon an illusion or a baU 
 lucination, may result from false reasoning in regard to 
 real oecurroDccs, or be evolved out of the intellect spon- 
 taneously by the result of imperfect infurniation or of- 
 an inability to weigh evidence or to discriminate between 
 the true and the false. Delusions arc not a lost for insan- 
 ity, as most lawyers and many physicians believe. If thoy 
 were, one-half the world would bo trying to put the other 
 half in luualie a^vlums. They may be present without co- 
 existent insanity, and many c:ises run their course without 
 them. To be indicative of insanity a delusion must be 
 in regard to a matter of fact, and contrary to the custom- 
 ary moilo of thought of the individual. Thus, a believer 
 in Spiritualism is not necessarily insane because he sees 
 and converses with the spirit of Benjamin Franklin, for 
 bis delusion is one not capable of proof or disproof, and it 
 is a part of his mentality to believe in the existouco of 
 spirits :iiid In the possibility of evoking them so as to see 
 tln-m and talk with them. But, if a non-he!i(*ver in Ppirit- 
 ualisin should imagine that ho was in the habit of seeing 
 Franklin's spirit, and of conversing with it, it would be 
 good evidence of his insanity. And, further, though the 
 Spiritualist might think he had interviews with Franklin, 
 and still be sane, yet if he believed, without foumlalion and 
 contr.ary to evidence, that his brother tiad tried to poison 
 him, he would have a delusion sufiicicnt to indicate insanity. 
 
 At a former period of the world's history a belief in the 
 possibility of seeing devils and demons of various kinds, 
 and of suffering from (heir torments, was commonly enter- 
 tained. Indeed, it is religiously held now by a great many 
 otherwise sensible people. Such a belief is, according to 
 our mode of thought, a delusion, and probably nine-tenths 
 of those who rcail this article will agree with mc in so re- 
 garding it. But it certainly would not be safe to consider 
 every one holding such a creed as insane. A like reason- 
 ing applies to the holders of every other form of belief not 
 in aci!ordance with our own. A delusion, to be Indicative 
 of insanity, must bo such a belief ns would not be enter- 
 tained in the ordinary normal condition of the individual, 
 must relate to a matter of fa-'t, must have been formed 
 without such evidence as would have been necessary to 
 convince in health, anci must be held against such positive 
 testimony as would have in health sufliccd to eradiciito it. 
 Insanity may exist without delusions at any time being 
 pre?ent. Thus, there may bo emotional insanity, the main 
 feiiture of which consists of mental depression with an un- 
 reasoning tendency to suicide; or there may be volitional 
 insanity, characterized by an inability to refrain from set- 
 ting fire to neighbors* houscs'or from committing homicide. 
 
 /nrohrrriirr. — A person is said to be incoherent when the 
 words he utters are without proper relation to each other, 
 or when his language is not in accordance with h'.s ideas. 
 Incoherence is a prominent feature of delirium, and is some- 
 times met with in the chronic insane. It is directly due 
 either to the impossibility of keeping the attention suffi- 
 ciontly long on one idea for its full consi'li-ration. or to a 
 like difficulty in co-ordinating those parts of tho brain 
 whii'h arc eoncernod in the formation and expression of 
 thoughts. 
 
 D' fi'riiiin. — Delirium is that condition in which there arc 
 illusions, lialluoinalions, delusions, iiml incohereneo, to- 
 gether with a general excess of motility, an inability to 
 sleep, and an acceleration of pulse. In acute delirium 
 these phenomena are xtcII marked ; in the low and chronic 
 firms they arc less strongly indicated. Srimetimes one or 
 the other of these elements notably preitouiiiiates. De- 
 lirium is present in the early stages uf acute mania, and 
 mny exist ns an oet^ompaniment of certain disea<<es uf tho 
 brain which do not ordinarily cause insanity, such as eer- 
 cbnil congestion or aniemin. It is alsi common in fovors 
 and in several other disorders of the system. 
 
 I. f*rrcrftlifnifif fimnnfttf. — In uncomplicated peroop- 
 tional insanity those parts of the brain only are disordered 
 whi-'h are concerned in tho formation of )percepti<)ns. It 
 constitutes the primary form of mental aberration, and of 
 itself is not of sudi ii character as t<i lessen the responsibil- 
 ity of the individual or to warrant any interftrenco with 
 his right'*. It consists entirely in false perceptions, and if 
 the intellect is for a moment deceived, the error is im- 
 tnoiliately corrected. As already stated, these are either 
 illusi(ms or hallucinations. In some cases the erroneous 
 pnr*' pfions m;iy cocr.i>'t in tbe sriinc individual. They 
 
 may bo related to all tho senses, but are especially common 
 as regards sight and bearing. Illusions, as already men- 
 tioned, arc not necessarily due to any centric difficulty, 
 though such an origin is common. Thus, it is an illusion 
 if a person on looking at an object sees two images. This 
 result is due to sonic cause destroying the parallelism of 
 the visual axes, and may be produced by a tumor of tho 
 orbit or by i>aralysis of one or the other of the ocular mus- 
 cles. Even in such a case, if the paralysis were due to 
 central lesion the higher ganglia of the brain might escape 
 implication. Illusions arc often exciteil by emotional dis- 
 turbances, and are then probably directly due to some dc- 
 rangetncnt of the cerebral circulation. The false percep- 
 tions Galled hallucinations are of more importance than 
 illusions in the symptomatology of insanity in general. In 
 the purely perceptional form of mental aberration they are 
 also exceedingly interesting, and arc very often troublesome 
 symptoms. Thus, a gentleman who had overworked himself 
 in financial business was subject to hallucinations of hear- 
 ing, which, however, did not in the least impose on his in- 
 tellect. As he walked through the streets to his place of 
 business lie heard a voice continually whispering to him, 
 "Take care! take care!" So strong was the impression 
 made that he often involuntarily turned round to sec who 
 was speaking to him. In another case a gcntlemiin saw 
 images of various kinds as soon as his head touched the 
 pillow, though they were never present when he was stand- 
 ing or sitting. The case of Nicohii, the German bookseller 
 of tho last century, is well known as remarkable, and others 
 are afforded in the eases of Jerome Cardan, Pascal, and 
 many other noted personages. Like illusions, the imme- 
 diate cause of hallucinations is generally derangement of 
 the cerebral circulation, either as regards quantity or qual- 
 ity. As is well known, they are frequently produced by 
 alcoholic liquors, opium, belladonna. Indian hemp, and 
 other drugs. They may also result from mental exertion 
 and emotional disturbances, from an overloaded stomach, 
 or may occur in the course of various diseases, especially 
 those of a febrile or exhausting character. Perceptional 
 insanity may make its appearance suddenly, the first evi- 
 dence of its presence being the illusion or hallucination. 
 Usually, hovvever, there are prodromata indicating cerebral 
 derangement. These are pain in the head, irritiibility of 
 temper, suffusion of tho eyes, noises in the ears, a general 
 restlessness, and some febrile excitement. The skin is gen- 
 erally dry, the mouth parched, the bowels costive, and the 
 urine high-colored and scanty. If not arrested, it may 
 pass into one or the other of the following types of mental 
 aberration. 
 
 II. fiitrlfvcticaf Inifuit'ti/. — The essential feature of intel- 
 lectual insanity is delusion. It may be developed suddenly, 
 or, as is generally the case, is preceded by evidences of 
 cerebral disorder, which, though at the time of their occur- 
 rence not attracting particular attention, arc called to mind 
 by the oi)Scrver3 after the disease has become fully devel- 
 oped. In tho first stages of intellectual insanity it is not 
 often that the delusions are fixed, and they may succeed 
 each other with such rapidity that the patient resembles 
 one affected with mania. They may be based on illusions 
 or hallucinations, or may arise froni the reasoning of the 
 patient from purely imaginary premises not connected with 
 the senses. Sometimes they are spontaneous, and at othi-rs 
 they appear to come from dreams. Thus, a gentleman who 
 bad for several days Iiccn singular in bis behavior awoke 
 in the night and imagined that he saw his wife standing 
 by his bcdsido with a phial of prussic acid, which she was 
 about to empty into his mouth. The hallueination took 
 such strong nold of him that ho went into the ailjoining 
 roi»ui, wlnTc his wile slept, to see if she were there or not, 
 and, th<iugh he fouml her sleeping quietly, be awoke h r 
 and accusi-d her of having attempted lo poison him. No 
 an)ount of argument or persuasion could eradicate the false 
 belief from bis mind. Another for several days had been 
 spending money very freely in articles of little or no usvi 
 to him, when one morning be announced lo bis faniily that 
 for several days ho had been thinking a great mistake had 
 been committed in his conception, and that his soul had 
 got into the wrong body. Ho was therefore convinced that 
 ho was not the man he should have been, ami hence be had 
 done a great many things which were altogether repugnant 
 to his physical senses : so long as the antagonism eontinui d 
 between his mind and his body there was no hope of any 
 happiness for him in tbifl world. In this ease there had 
 never been any hallucination or illusion of any of the 
 senses. The dohnion was therefore entirely the result of 
 the patient's own perverted thoughts. When rapidly fol- 
 lowing each other, delusions are clearly spontaneous, are 
 not tho result of any series of thoughts, but come on the 
 spur of the mnnient and upon very nlight suggestions. As 
 they arc rearlily fiirmcil, they are not fixed in character. 
 A lady, for instauL-e, after receiving some very sorrowful
 
 1220 
 
 INSANITY. 
 
 news relative to her husband, imagined that she had lost 
 her eyesight. For a few hours she remained w.th her eyes 
 shut alleging that there were two deep cavities behind the 
 lids Suddenly she opened them, said she saw perfectly 
 well, but that the top of her head had been cut oft ; and 
 this was almost immediately changed to the belief that 
 she was perishing with cold ; and so on, no one delusion 
 lastin" lunger than a few minutes. In many cases like 
 this the erroneous beliefs are excited by sensations m va- 
 rious parts of the body, but this was not so in the present 
 
 instance. , . ... „ 
 
 The connection between dreams and insanity is very 
 close. Most of us have at times had such vivid dreams 
 that they have been removed from our mind with difficulty. 
 There appears to bo no doubt that many of the de usions 
 of the insane have dreams for their cause. The delusions 
 of the insane are in a great majority of cases connected 
 more or less directly with themselves. Thus, a person be- 
 lieves that his leg is made of glass, that his head is reversed 
 on his shoulders, that he is some great personage, that a 
 lar-e fortune has been left to him, or that some misfortune 
 has deprived him of his property or his friends. He will 
 often reason logically and forcibly from the premises he 
 has assumed, and will give no evidence ol insanity outs.de 
 of his delusion. Such cases are embraced under the term 
 "reasoning mania." and the skill and .acumen exhibited 
 by persons thus affected are often surprising. « hen it is 
 important, in their estimation, for them to conceal their 
 delusion, they will often do so for a long time, and strata- 
 gems of various kinds are necessary to their speedy detec- 
 tion. Sooner or later, however, the delusion comes out. 
 
 The designation monomania can properly be applied to 
 many of the cases of intellectual insanity In the uncom- 
 plicated form of the disease it is rare, after it is fully es- 
 tablished, that more than a single object or a small class 
 of objects is the subject of the delusion. The delusions of 
 the insane may be comprehended under two categories— 
 those which are of a pleasant or exalted character and 
 those which are unpleasant or morbid. These usually leave 
 their impress on the countenance of the patient, and his 
 actions and manner are in accordance with them. It would 
 be strange if this were not the case. The only guide which 
 man has for his actions is his reason. lie weighs argu- 
 ments and motives, and determines according to the bear- 
 in-' which they may have on his mental processes. A 
 deTusion is, in many cases, simply a false premise ; the 
 conclusions which the individual draws from it are entirely 
 lo.'ical. Taking, for instance, the case of the gentleman 
 who had imbibed the idea that his wife had attempted to 
 pni.son him, and admitting that he was correct in this no- 
 tion, his subsequent actions— his denunciations, his re usal 
 to live with her, his efforts to have her imprisoned, etc.— 
 are perfectly reasonable. The line of conduct was such as 
 most men would have pursued under like eircumstances 
 In such cases, therefore, there is no fault in the intellectual 
 process after the fir.st step is taken. It is this first step 
 'vhich constitutes the disease; it is the delusion which en- 
 slaves the mind. ,. . , i .», ■ 
 Intellectual insanity is often uncomplicated by any other 
 form of mental derangement. There are no illusions no 
 halhioinations. no overpowering uiHuence of 'ho emouons, 
 and no loss of control over the will. Even when the de- 
 lusion is of such a character as apparently to be connected 
 with some one of the senses, and thus to be based upon a 
 false perception, full inquiry will often show that there is 
 no error of the sensorial processes centric or eccentric. 
 Thus a lady had the delusion that she had lost her palate, 
 as she called it. A mirror was held to her face, and while 
 she opened her mouth the fact was pointed out to her tha 
 all the parts were present. '• Yes," she replied, " I see all 
 that ; the form is there, I know very well, but the substance 
 is .rone ;" and no arguments could convince her to the eon- 
 traTy A gentleman conceived that his right hand was 
 made of glass, and therefore, to prevent its being broken 
 he kept it earcfullv enclosed in a stout case made to fit it 
 accurately. On calling his attention to the physical qual- 
 ities of his hand, and pointing out how they differed Irom 
 those of glass, he said, " I once thought just as you do 
 Mv brain was then incapable of appreciating minute dil- 
 ferences as well as it can now ; and though I confess that 
 my senses still convey to me the idea that my hand is like 
 other people's, yet I know the conception is erroneous, and 
 I correct it at once by my reason. My hand looks like 
 flesh and blood, but it is glass for all that, ^"thlng is 
 more calculated to deceive than the senses.' Persons al- 
 tVKod with uncomplicated intellectual insanity may go 
 throu^'h the world without giving any considerable evi- 
 dcnee of mental derangement unless the subject of their 
 delusion be touched upon. Still, there is no telling to 
 what extremes a delusion may carry its subject. SucU a 
 person, for instance, imagines that he is the emperor of 
 
 Russia. At first he does not comprehend the full import- 
 ance of his supposed position, and if of moderate reason- 
 in"- power, possessing deficient information, and naturally 
 of'a quiet disposition, he may never go further than dress- 
 ing himself in some tawdry finery and strutting pompously 
 through the wards of the hospital. But under other cir- 
 cumstances he reflects upon the greatness of his station, 
 and thus from time to time conceives new ideas of his 
 powers and importance, and may thus become a very trouble- 
 some patient, lie comes to believe, perhaps, that he has 
 the power of life and death, and may attempt to exercise 
 his imaginary prerogative. Delusions in regard to relatives 
 and friends are very common, and hence the conduct of the 
 person entertaining them is changed as it relates to the ob- 
 jects of his erroneous ideas. It is a usual thing, therefore, 
 for such an insane person to disinherit those who would 
 naturally be heirs to his property. This point is of im- 
 portance in its medico-legal relations. 
 
 Delusions may be of such a character as to aftect the 
 emotions secondarily. A very common delusion is that of 
 having committed the unpardonable sin, and accordingly 
 the patient suffers great emotional disturbance. This in- 
 fluence upon the emotions is perfectly natural and logical, 
 for if the person really has committed a sin for which there 
 is no hope of pardon, and has thus incurred the punish- 
 ment of eternal damnation, it would be strange if the emo- 
 tions of sorrow and despair were not excited into activity. 
 Such cases, however, are not to be embraced under the head 
 of emotional insanity : and though at first sight they may 
 appear to be of that type, inquiry will reveal the fact ot 
 the pro-existence of the delusion. 
 
 III. Emolwinil /nsniiiV^.- The emotions are at all times 
 difBcultto control, but thev may acquire such undue promi- 
 nence as to dominate over the intellect and the will, and 
 assume the entire mastery of the actions in one or more re- 
 spects This effect mav be produced suddenly, from the 
 operation of some cause capable of disturbing the normal 
 balance which exists among the several parts of the mind, 
 or it may result from influences which act slowly, but with 
 gradually increasing efi'ect. In either ease there is not 
 necessarily either delusion or error of judgment, but it very 
 generally happens that the intellect sooner or later becomes 
 ' involved. Emotional insanity may be produced without 
 there being any discoverable cause, and without the patient 
 being able to allege a motive. Some emotions arc more 
 frequently disordered than others. Those of a sorrowful 
 character are pre-eminent in this respect, and when they 
 are afl-ectcd the tyjie of insanity called melancholia is the 
 result This may be either acute or chronic in its course. 
 The first is rarely uncomplicated, and hence will be more 
 properly considered under the head of Mann,. Homicide 
 suicide'and other crimes may be the result of emotional 
 insanity as well as of intellectual insanity. The most com- 
 mon of these is undoubtedly suicide, the individual com- 
 mitting self-destruction in order to escape from the depress- 
 ing influences which act upon him. A person, for instance, 
 to'eite the example previously given, imbibes the delusion 
 that he has committed the unpardonable sin or that God 
 has deserted him, and in consequence passes into a condi- 
 tion of settled melancholy, during which he may attempt 
 self-destruction to escape from his harrowing thoughts, or 
 commit a homicide in order that the same end may be ac- 
 complished by his being hanged for murder. Other emo- 
 tions may of course be excited into morbid activity by de- 
 rangement of the intellect. Delusional jealousy, anger, 
 hatred, or love may thus urge their unfortunate victim to 
 the periietration of crime, plunge him into a depth ol un- 
 hapiiiness from which Ihero is no escape, or lift him into 
 an ecstasy of bliss far exceeding that derivable irom the 
 i realization of all his wishes. j ,„,.„, i 
 
 Under the head of moral insanity, Dr. Prichard several 
 years a^o described a form of mental derangement which 
 imbrac?s several species which are now more proper y 
 placed under other heads. ,«everal of these are c early 
 [motional in character, and most of them relate o altered 
 modes of feeling or of the affective faculties and therefore, 
 in the largest sense of the word, may also be called emo- 
 tional. Careful and thorough inquiry will, however, often 
 show that the primary difficulty is one ot defect not of 
 aberration or exaggeration, and that, therefore, t he e in- 
 stances of deficient moral sense, leading the subjects to he 
 perpetration of crimes of various kinds, sh«""l.''°, «'f ;,!^ 
 mider the head of imbecility. Many cases of 1^ hat are 
 called temporary insanity, mania ephemera, transitory 
 mania, and morbid impulse are really instances of cmo lonal 
 insanity. That such a condition exists there can be no 
 doubt, and it is important, both as regards the subject and 
 society, to be able to recognize or to disprove its presence 
 A few words, therefore, on this point will not be out ot 
 place The state with which transitory emotional insanity 
 is 'most apt to be confounded is that which has been desig-
 
 INSANITY. 
 
 1221 
 
 natcd *' beat of passion." Pnssion is cmotiunnl activity. It 
 refers to that niodo of the mind in which certain imprcs- 
 siunii or emotioD.s arc felt, and which is accuinpiuiicd by a 
 tendency or impulse, often irresistible, to act in accordance 
 with these impressions or emotions irrespective of the in- 
 tellect. An act performed in tho heat of passion is one 
 prompted by an emotion which for the moment controls the 
 will, the intellect not being called into action. It is an act, 
 thercfure. performed without reflection. The passions are, 
 to a certain extent, under the control of the will, and this 
 power of checkin;^ their manifestations is capable of being 
 greatly increased by self-discipline. Some persons hold 
 their passions in entire subjugation ; others are led away 
 by very slight emotional disturbances. Tho law recognizes 
 the natural weakness of man in this respect, and wisely 
 discriminates between acts done after duo reflection and 
 tho«c committed in tlio midst of passional excitement. 
 
 The acts performed during temporary emotional insanity, 
 in their more obvious aspects and when viewecl isolatedly, 
 resemble those done in the heat of passion. But they are 
 so only as regards the acts themselves. Thus, a person 
 entering the room at tiio very moment when one man was 
 in tho act of shooting another would be unable to tell 
 whether the homicide was done in the heat of passion or 
 under tho influeneo of an attack of temporary insanity; 
 he would be equally unable to say whether it was committed 
 in malice aforethought or in self-defence. The act, there- 
 fore, by itself, can teach us nothing. Wo must look to tho 
 attentling eircum.stances and to tho antecedents of the per- 
 petrator for the facts which are to enlighten us as to tho 
 state of mind of the actor. Now, tho conditions of tem- 
 porary emotional insanity are so well market! that tho act 
 which indicates the height of tho paroxysm may almost bo 
 disregarded, for it is always preceded by symptoms of 
 mental aberration, while acts done in tho heat of passion 
 are notthtis foreshadowed. And as regards the subsequent 
 state of tho inrlividual tho distinction is equally apparent. 
 Tho one who has committed a criminal act in tlic heat of 
 passion soon subsides to his ordinary condition of equa- 
 nimity, and generally begins to think of his safety. Tiio 
 one who has pcrpetrate<l a similar act during an attack of 
 temporary emotional insanity never thinks of escape, nor 
 even avoids publicity. He may even boast of his Tonduct 
 or deliver himself into the bands of tho law. What is, 
 however, of greater importance is tho fact that though ho 
 may subside into a condition of comparative sanity, tho 
 evidences of disease are still present, and remain iu him 
 for days, weeks, or even months and years. These symp- 
 tonu arc generally those of cerebral congestion, ta which 
 attention has already been directed. In the heat, of passion 
 the act follows immediately on tho excitation of whicli it 
 is tho logical sequence. In temporary insanity the act is 
 tho culmination of a series of disordered physical and men- 
 tal manifestations, and may or may not be in relation with 
 tho emotional cause. Tho distinction 'm therefore clear 
 and preoise. 
 
 IV, Volitional liiaaniti/, — In uncomplicated volitional 
 insanity there arc no delusions and no emotional disturb- 
 ances, but solely an inability to exert the will in accordaneo 
 with the intellect. Many cases of inrtrbid impulse arc in- 
 stances of volitional insanity, in which an idea suddenly 
 flashes across tho mind and is immediately carried out by 
 tho individual, although his intellect and his emotions arc 
 strongly exerted against it. Thus, a ]»ers(m who previously 
 has not exhibited any very obvious aymptoins of mental 
 derangement — though careful inquiry will invariably show 
 that slight evidences of cerebral disease have been present 
 for some days — instanta.neously feels a morbid impulse to 
 commit a murder or perpetrate some other criminal act, 
 and is forced to yield, notwithstanding all the efforts ho 
 may make. Numerous cases of this kind arc on record. 
 Thus, l^.squirol relates the case of a man thirty-two years old, 
 of a nervous temperament and quiet disposition, who had 
 been well educated and who was fotid of tho fine arts. Ho had 
 sufl^ered from a brain disorder, but had been several months 
 cured. After being in Paris for about two months, during 
 which time he led a perfectly regular life, ho one day en- 
 tered the Palais do Justice and attacked an advoca'o with 
 great fury. Tho next morning when seen by I-isquirol he 
 was perfectly tranquil and erunposed, showed no onger 
 whatever, and had slept well all night. Tho same day he 
 designed a landscape. He recoUeelcMl what be had done 
 the previous day, and spoke of it with coolness. He de- 
 clared that ho had entertained no ill-will against tho a<lvo- 
 eatc, had never even seen him before, and had no t)usiness 
 with bim or any other lawver. He eouM not understand, 
 ho said, what had aetuate<l him to umke the af<sault. Sub- 
 setpiently ho exhibited no intlioatifms whatever of being 
 insane. Many instances of so-called moral insanity may 
 properly be placed under the head of volitional insanity, 
 fur tliey arc characterized by an inability to so exert tho 
 
 nill OS to refrain from the perpetration of acts known to bo 
 crimes. Of such are cases of kleptomania, dipsomania, 
 pyromania, etc. The will in insanity is often secondarily 
 affected through disturbance originating in the intellect or 
 the emotions, and acts are hence performed which give 
 evidence of the existence of mental aberration. In mania 
 of all kinds, and especially in dementia and general paral- 
 ; ysis, there is either a loss of volitional control or an in- 
 ability to exert the normal wilI-])ower. 
 I V. Mania. — In mania the mind is affected in several, 
 ' generally all of its parts. There are illusions, hallucina- 
 ' tions, delusions, emotional disturbance, and loss of voli- 
 I tional power or control. The patient is either morbidly 
 excited or depressed, and is often violent in his language 
 and actions. Acute mania is the more common species of 
 mental aberration, and in its two types of exaltation and 
 depression constitutes the form most commonly met witli. 
 
 Ai*nte Mania ivith Exaltation has its prodromatic stage, 
 the symptoms of which arc very similar to those which 
 precede an attack of fully developed cerebral congestion. 
 These, in the main, are pain and fulness in the head, eon- 
 fusion of ideas, increased irritability of the mind, and, 
 above all, wakefulness. In addition, there arc restlessness 
 of body and a singularity of btrhavior which strikes those 
 thrown into intimate relations with the subject, and causes 
 them to suspect that something is wrong with him. The 
 character and disposition undergo a change, ami it is very 
 common for unfounded prejudices to bo formed against 
 persons formerly highly esteemed. Before very long there 
 are illusions and hallucinations. At first the patient strug- 
 gles against them, but eventually ho accepts them as true, 
 and hcucc becomes subject to delusions. These are rarely 
 fixed in tho earlier stages, and may not be so through tho 
 whole course of tho disorder. Willi these symptoms there 
 arc derangements in other organs besides the brain. Thus, 
 the appetite is lessened, the bowels are torpid, the kidneys 
 fail to eliminate the normal quantity of urine, the heart 
 becomes irregular in its actions and beats with increased 
 frequency — a certain sign of a weak and excited nervous 
 system — and the skin is cither bathed in persjiiration or is 
 dry and hard. AVilh the full development of the disorder 
 the ])atlcnt becoracs incoherent and rambling, showing a 
 great disposition to talk, to laugh, and to sing, and to in- 
 dulge in antics of various kinds. His delusions mainly 
 have reference to himself; he imagines that he is some 
 great personage, that he has suddenly become very rich, or 
 that ho has been specially singled out for some other piece 
 of good fortune. Not unfrequcntly ho is exceedingly trou- 
 blesome, clestroying the furniture of his room, tearing his 
 clothes, attacking those around liim, and making all kimis 
 of attempts to escape from rcslraiiit; but at the same time 
 there is rarely any serious effort to do great bodily harm 
 either to himself or others. Sometimes, however — and this 
 fact should always be boruc in mind by the attendants — 
 there isadispositiun to perpetrate acts of extreme violence, 
 and such a tendency, even when not previously manifested, 
 may very suddenly bo developed. As a rule, patients with 
 acute mania lose all sense of decency, and become exceed- 
 ingly filthy in their habits and obscene in their language 
 and conducl. ,\t times such hinatios exhibit a surprising 
 degree of cunning, and arc able to exercise great control 
 over their conduct when they have an end to accomplish. 
 They may thus deceive tho young and inexperienced jdiy- 
 sieian, and induce liim to forego the idea of jiulting them 
 under permanent restraint, or they may so impose on 
 him as to inrluce him to relax his vigilance, and thus allow 
 of their committing some outrageous act. It must bo re- 
 membered tliat acute mania is not suddenly cured, hut runs 
 a definite and allotted course. It is rare that the memory of 
 tho patient suffers to any eonsiderahlo extent in acuto 
 mania. The patients are perfectly conscious of their i^ur- 
 rountlings, and are seldom deceived by the subterfuge so 
 frequently and so unjustifiably employed that they are to 
 be taken to a hotel or a country-seat when about to depart 
 for an asylum. If the stratagem does for a moment impose 
 upon them, they recollect the frauil, and will not again re- 
 pose confidence in those who have perpetrated it. Their 
 a]>petites are generally unchanged. If in the habit <if 
 smoking ()r drinking, they still want their tobacco and their 
 wine, and are usually able to eat a full allowance of food. 
 After tlieir entrance into the asylum the main object of 
 their lives is to get out again as soon as possible. They 
 often recognize their condition, and will call attention to 
 any indications of improvement they may exhibit. They 
 ore not for a moment deceived by tho delusions of their 
 fellow-Iunaties, It is rarely the case that tho sleep is regu- 
 lar an«I sound. Often they will lie awake at night talking 
 over their plans, or else will annoy their attenilants in every 
 conceivable way. Although Imving usually um-omfortablo 
 feelings in the head, they rarely suffer from ucule ])ain in 
 that part of the body.
 
 1222 
 
 INSANITY. 
 
 Acule Mania with Depreuion.—'Tha acute melancholia 
 of many authors is a very terrible form of mental aberra- 
 tion. Lilie that just described, it is generally preceded by 
 proJriimata, which indicate by their character the type ol 
 insanity which is about to be developed, but it often ap- 
 pears with great suddenness. In the case of a lady the 
 
 hand 
 ever 
 
 tir.-it eviilencc of menial disorder was a violent scream, due 
 to the fact that an idea had instantaneously (lashed through 
 her mind that she had committed the unpardonable sin, and 
 had consequently lost all hope of saving her soul. For sev- 
 eral days she continued, with scarcely an intermission, to 
 scream, to cry, and to sob, at the same time showing the 
 greatest terror from apprehension that the devils were ap- 
 proaching her. Graduallv this extreme state became less 
 violent, but she still continued to be actuated by intense 
 fear, and paced the floor night and day, wringing her 
 s, weeping, and exclaiming, " Lost ! lost ! lost for 
 In another case of a lady the idea suddenly oc- 
 curred to her that she was about to bo killed. She screamed 
 and begged and prayed to those around her not to allow her 
 to bo injured. In the furniture and attendants she saw her 
 murderers, and to escape from them made several attempts 
 to throw herself out of the window. Then she believed 
 that she was to be poisoned, and refused all food with the 
 utmost pertinacity, closing her teeth so firmly together that 
 it was only by the use of great strength that they could be 
 opened. Of all the forms of insanity, this is the ono in 
 which illusions and hallucinations of the senses are most 
 common. Those are particularly so as regards sight and 
 hearing, and do not, as a general thing, refer to the body 
 of the'patient, although generally in direct relation with 
 his delusion. In all cases of acute mania with depression 
 too great care cannot be taken to prevent self-injury or 
 suicide. It must bo constantly kept in mind that the idea 
 is a very common ono with this class of patients, and that 
 frequently they manifest great astuteness in concealing it 
 till they are ready to make the attempt. 
 
 VI. Gem-ral Pnrnlii^ia. — The affection known as general | 
 paralysis was first described by Delaye in 1822, by Baylc 
 in the same year, and, with much more thoroughness and 
 exactness, by Calmeil in 1820. It is a very common form 
 of mental derangement, and, aside from the implication 
 of the mind, presents the very striking feature of a grad- 
 ually advancing paralysis, which derives its name from the 
 fact" that it involves, "sooner or later, nearly every muscle 
 of the body. This paralysis may show itself at the same 
 time that the insanity is manifested, it may precede the 
 mental derangement, or it may be subsequent thereto. The 
 latter is much the more usual order. The mental .symp- 
 toms differ in several important respects from those which 
 occur in other forms of insanity. The first indication of 
 disease is generally an excessive .anxiety in regard to mat- 
 ters which are really of no great importance. Of the cases 
 which have come under my care, one was first made ap- 
 parent by a morbid apprehension on the part of the patient 
 that he was not managing some trust-funds in the best pos- 
 sible way : another, by the idea that he was constantly 
 wounding the feelings "of his friends ; and another was con- 
 stantly changing his mind about the most trivial things, 
 and a"piiarently thinking that the world watched with great 
 anxiety all his movementa. At first, the general mental 
 type is" that of depression. The emotions are easily excited, 
 and the delusions which soon make their appearance are of 
 the melancholic form. The idea of propriety in the every- 
 day acts of life seems to be lost, and the patient will com- 
 mit all kinds of indecent acts without appearing to bo aware 
 that he is doing anything unusual. His memory fails 
 rapidly, and his" intellectual vigor declines from the very 
 first. "Hence, he is not able to argue in defence of his de- 
 lusions, but attacks with physical force those who venture 
 to differ with him. His acts are in other respects eccentric 
 and absurd. He spends money in things which arc of no 
 manner of use to him, and at the same time refuses to pay 
 his small debts; he harasses in every possible way those 
 who are about him, gives them impossible orders, and then 
 abuses them if they are not at once obeyed ; he is whimsical 
 at the table, and drinks vor.aciously, or declares that noth- 
 ing is cooked to suit him, and leaves the table in a rage, 
 (iradually the form of his mental aberration changes; he 
 becomes more cheerful, forms all kinds of impossible 
 schemes for suddenly acquiring great wealth, and these 
 are quickly abandoned for others equally impracticable. 
 Thus, delusion after delusion rapidly succeeds each other, 
 and those, in the great majority of cases, relate to the 
 grandeur, the wealth, the physical strength, or some other 
 great quality of the patient, constituting the dclire dc>i 
 ,jnaule\ir» of the French. Ono will tell of his immense 
 palaces built of gold and inlaid with precious stones, and 
 in the next breath will descant on his great weight or his 
 extreme lightness, or on the number of children he has, or 
 on the millions of operas ho has composed. Another urges 
 
 his great importance in the political world— tells us that 
 he has elected all the members of Congress himself, that ho 
 has paid off the national debt, and that in consequence ho 
 is to be made emperor of the United States, witli a salary 
 of a thousand millions a year; fh.at he is goiug to have a 
 thousand physicians, who are to be clothed in blue velvet 
 uniforms embroidered with gold and diamonds; that he 
 has chartered the Great Eastern for a pleasure-trip, and 
 engaged ten thousand musiciiins and a similar number of 
 ballet-dancers to go with him. The next day he has for- 
 gotten all these fancies, and is off on another series of ab- 
 surd ideas. In no respect is he restrained in the extent of 
 his delusions. Impossibilities arc not regarded. While 
 scarcely able to drag one leg after the other, he will brag 
 of his "great flcetness of foot, and in the very death-gnsp 
 will mutter about his extreme strength or endurance. The 
 .symptoms connected with sensation are equally well marked. 
 In the early stage headache is often very severe— so much 
 so that, as Westphal has remarked in his excellent mono- 
 graph on the subject of general paralysis, the patient often 
 dashes his head against the wall. At other times the feel- 
 ing in the head is that of fulness or tightness, and these 
 sensations are often accompanied with vertigo. Neuralgia 
 
 .'/'■' 
 
 in various parts of the body is common, and some of my 
 patients have complained of the different degrees of numb- 
 ness, especially in the hands and feet. But still more 
 strongly manifested are the disorders of motility, duo to 
 the progressive paralysis. Ono which is very often ob- 
 served before any mental derangement is perceived is a 
 slight defect of .articulation, due to paralysis of the lips. 
 At''fir3t this is scarcely perceptible ; there is merely a little 
 trembling— an action such as that seen in persons who arc 
 endcavorlnc to restrain their emotions— but it is suflicient 
 to give indistinctness to the utterance of those words which 
 contain labial letters. The tongue is the next to be affect- 
 ed Examination shows that there are fibrillary contrac- 
 tions of the muscles, and the organ is moved with less fa- 
 cility. The articulation is slovenly, words are slurred over, 
 and"there are both stammering and stuttering. The patient 
 notices these difficulties, and in endeavoring to obviate them 
 makes matters worse by his inability to be exact, contrast- 
 ing strongly with his efforts. The paralysis of the tongue 
 graduallv becomes more complete, and at last this organ 
 can only" be moved with great difficulty. The other facial 
 muscles" participate, and a blank, somewhat sorrowl'ul ex- 
 pression is constantly present. The voice loses its fulness 
 and there is great difficultv of swallowing. The muscles 
 of the eye are also generally involved, producing ptosis 
 from paralvsis of the levator palpebraj superiosus, diplopia 
 from impli'cation of the internal rcctu.s, and contraction of 
 the pupil ; all of these effects, except the last, being due 
 to lesion existing at the point of origin or in the course of 
 the third nerve. The pupils arc often unequal, ami Austin 
 declares, with all seriousness, that contraction of the right 
 pupil is associated with melancholic delusions, and con- 
 traction of the left pupil with elation. Further investiga- 
 tion has not confirmed this theory. The gait of patients 
 affected with paralvsis is very peculiar, and is of two dis- 
 tinct kinds. In the one it is similar to that of a person 
 suffering from sclerosis of the posterior columns of the S])i- 
 nal cord" (locomotor ataxia). The feet are lifted high, anil 
 are thrown down with a great deal of force, the heel strik- 
 inc the ground first. As Westphal remarks, patients with 
 th?s gait cannot stand with the eyes shut and the feet close 
 tcether. In the other kind the feet are scarcely lifted from 
 the ground, but are shuffled over it, and the action is some- 
 what like that of a person attempting to balance himself 
 on a tio-ht-rope. Patients with this gait can without d.lli- 
 culty st°and with the eyes shut. As regards the upjicr ex- 
 tremities, the fingers lose their strength and delicate co- 
 ordinating power. The handwriting is shaky, and there 18 
 awkwardness in buttoning the clothing. The grip of the 
 hand is still strong, but there is an impossibility, as shown 
 bv the dynainograph, of maintaining a continuous muscu- 
 lar contraction for even a few seconds. The senses, with 
 the exception of sight, do not often become materially af- 
 fected. Atrophy of the optic nerve causes amaurosis or 
 amblvopia. t)phthalinoscopic examination will very gene- 
 rallv"detect this condition of iho papilla at a very early 
 sta^e of the disease, together with retinal and choroidal 
 anl?inia. Convulsive seizures occur, and these are gene- 
 rally epileptiform in character, though occasionally they 
 are of the nature of apoplexy. They vary greatly in cha- 
 racter, sometimes resembling the petit mnl of epilepsy, at 
 others characterized bv strong convulsive movements or 
 coma Besides these, there are attacks of complete paraly- 
 sis of certain muscles, which, however, rarely leave any 
 permanent effects, the usual degree of power being regained 
 in a few davs. , , , 
 
 The course of general paralysis is often marked by pe- 
 riods of great improvement, and the patient's friends im-
 
 INSANITY. 
 
 1223 
 
 n.rine that he is certainly recovering. The symptoms, men- 
 tiTl un.l phvficttl, all abate in violence, ami may even dis- 
 appear to such an cttent as not to bo evuknt to general 
 oii'crvcrs. lint the phvsieian must not bo deceived, for 
 the amelioration is merely tem|.urary. and sooner or later 
 the disease regains its former ascendency. M no time, 
 even during the height of the remission, is the mind of the 
 patient in such a condition as to admit of any consKlerable 
 intclleolual exertion. There may be an absence of delu- 
 f iuns, but mental weakness still exists. Progressively, this 
 decline in the force of the mind becomes more strongly 
 marked, until at last a condition of extreme aementia is 
 reached. Simullaucouslv, tho physical power diminishes, 
 until finallv the patient, unlible to walk, to stand, or even 
 to sit is cunfined to his bed for the rest of his existence, 
 lied ■■■ores form ami deglutition becomes more ami more 
 difficult From this cause the food may become impacted 
 in the fauces. and thus death bo produced by interruption of 
 tho rcspiratcry process, or the food may enter the larynx. 
 The sensibility of tho lining menibr:inc of the checks and 
 fauces is notablv diminished, and hence the patient in eat- 
 in"- goes on filling his mouth, not knowing that he is doing 
 •^o" When he at last attempts to swallow, the mass of food 
 is greater than can pass down tho o?sopliagus, and unless 
 some one is near to assist him ho chokes to death. Death 
 may otherwise take place from a gradual cessation of tlic 
 respiratory process or from sheer exhaustion. The dura- 
 tion of general paralysis is variable. Sometimes death re- 
 sults in a few months, and in others it may bo deferred for 
 five or six years. The average period is about three years. 
 General paralvsis is not likely to be confounded with any 
 other affection than chronic aleoliolic intoxication, from 
 which the hislorv "f the case and its general progress will 
 suffice to distinguish it. With lead-paralysis it has scarcely 
 anv features in common, (iencral paralysis is almost invan- 
 abiv fatal. A few cases of recovery have been reported, 
 but there is room for doubting that most of them were 
 actual cases of the disease, and the others were probably, 
 as (Jriesingcr suggests, instances in which tho remission 
 was long. , 
 
 VII. f'li'on/ mid ncmnil!rt.—ln idiocy there la such an 
 abnormal organization of the nervous system or arrest of 
 development that deficiency of mind results as a natural 
 conscquenco. Many idiots are possessed of less intellectual 
 force than well-trained dogs or other animals. Occasion- 
 ally, iiliols show an excessive development of some one 
 menial faculty, which has appeared Ui grow at the expense 
 of all the rest. This is especially seen as regards tho ca- 
 pacity for appreciating and remembering musical tones 
 and f'or acnuiring the ability to perform automatically, as 
 it were, upon some musical instrument. There is scarcely 
 an idiot whose mental status cannot be elevated by systom- 
 tttic and appropriate education, though where tho cranial 
 development is small no very material progress is to bo ex- 
 pected. 
 
 />.mf).(m.— Dementia may be primary, hut such is very 
 rarely the case, it being in the vast maj.irity of instances 
 the conscquenco of an acute attack of insanity or incident 
 to old a-c. The characteristic feature of dementia is mental 
 weakneiTs, and this is shown as regards the emotions, tho 
 intellect, and the will. The former are not held under con- 
 trol ■ slight matters bring them into inordinate action, and 
 tears are shcil and laughter excited when there is no ade- 
 quate cause for the one or the other. The intellect is af- 
 fected in all its parts. The power of application or of fixing 
 the attention is materially lessened : and this is doubtless 
 ono reason whv iiiiperfeet ideas arc formed of very simple 
 matters, and «hv it is so difficult to conceive a series of 
 connected thoughts. The memory, especially for recent 
 events, is weakened to an extreme degree, and the delu- 
 sions of the patient, if still preseiil. are constantly under- 
 going change from the impossibility of reeolbeling them. 
 Volition is almost entirely abolished. The patient is al- 
 together controlled by others, the idea of otTering opposition 
 to their wishes never entering his mind. Tho facial ex- 
 pression of a ]ialicnt affected with ileminlia is not always 
 characterislic.and this mainly for the iiason that the ]ihys- 
 ical health is generally good. The deficiency of mental 
 power is, however, readily perceived in the majority of 
 cases when the attempt is made to excite the brain to action. 
 Tho failure of the face to respond to the ideas sought to bo 
 conveyed beeoines very evident. 
 
 CiiiifH. .\mong the causes inherent in the individual 
 
 none is so powerful in its action as here.litary tendency. 
 This may show itself not only by the fact that ancestors 
 hnvo been insane, but that insanity in the de-eendaiitsniay 
 have resulted from hysteria, epilepsy, catalepsy, or some 
 other general nervous affection in them. It ofleii hamicns, 
 too, that the .lisease, like many others known to be hered- 
 itary skips a generation. Insanity is more common in 
 males than in females, though tho diffcronco is not eo groat 
 
 as ronny suppose. The period of life between twenty-five 
 and forty-five is that at which insanity is most liable to 
 make its appearance. Cases are on record of infants having 
 manifested unequivocal symptoms of mental aberration, 
 but the affection is not often met with under the age of 
 puberty. The civil condition of the individual as regards 
 marriage or celibacy exercises an effect over the causation 
 of insanity. Statistics show that celibates of both sexes aro 
 more liable tlian the married. So far as males are con- 
 cerned, this result is probably due to the fact that in celi- 
 bacy, as a rule, the mode of lifu is more irregular. In- 
 sanity is assuredly more common among civili/.ed than un- 
 civilized nations, but as regards the dirt'erent classes of in- 
 dividuals who go to make up a civili/.ed community, it is 
 very certain that the refined, educated, and wealthy classes 
 arc not so liable to insanity as the lower orders. The ex- 
 citin" causes are both moral and physical. Of the former, 
 emotional disturbance, grief, tenor, disappointed aflec- 
 tion. anxiety, ^rcat joy. etc. stand first in infiuence. It is 
 doubtful if "moderate intellectual exertion ever, of itself, 
 causes insanity. It is only when the brain is worked night 
 and day, to the depriv.ati<m of sleep and without sufficient 
 change, that insanity results from mental labor. Continual 
 thinking on one subject is the most effectual way of produ- 
 cing insanity by the action of the brain, .'\mongthephys- 
 icaf causes, drunkenness, the use of opium and other nar- 
 cotics excessive sexual indulgence, blows on the head, ex- 
 posure to severe heat or cold, tho puerperal state, and cer- 
 tain diseases may be referred to. 
 
 Other points in tho natural history of insanity, such as 
 the diagnosis, the prognosis, tho morbid anatomy, and the 
 treatment, would lead too much into the domain of medical 
 science to warrant consideration here. 
 
 Prci'idrncc iif Iiimnilij. — The question whether insanity 
 is or is not on the increase has for many years been dis- 
 cussed, but with no very definite result. Tho weight of 
 evidence, however, appears to bo to the effect that, although 
 tho number of the insane reported in official documents is 
 greater every veor, this increase is apparent only, and is 
 duo to tho facts that the registry is constantly becoming 
 more complete, that eases of insanity are, through the ad- 
 vance of medical science, more readily recognized, and 
 that through the same cause there aro fewer deaths, and 
 that hence tho same cases are counted every year. Thus, 
 in a paper read before the .Medico- Psycliologieal Associa- 
 tion of Great Britain by Dr. Maudsley in Dec, 1S71, it is 
 shown that in 1.S44 there were in England and Wales, 
 20,011 registered insane persons, including idiots, or 1 in 
 802 of the population; on Jan. 1. 18;)!), tho total number 
 I was ;>0,7G2, or 1 in b?,i; in ISO.'), tho number was J:'),!!.")!!, 
 or 1 in 431; and on Jan. 1, ISTl, the total number was 
 50,75.'), or 1 in 400. 
 
 Now, it is very clearly shown, by inquiring as to the num- 
 ber of new cascsOccurriiig every year, that the great increase 
 in tho number borne on the registers is not thte result of 
 any markcil increase in the number of persons becoming 
 insane in any one year. Thus, Dr. Maudsley gives tho 
 following table, showing tho proportion of admissions to 
 the population in each of tho twelve years from '""■" '" 
 1870, inclusive: 
 
 1850 to 
 
 In lsr,.->, 1 in.. 
 In isilii, 1 in.. 
 In ISCT, 1 in.. 
 In im'.s. 1 in.. 
 Ill l>^i>'.', 1 ill.. 
 In 1*170, 1 ill.. 
 
 ,...2,013 
 ....2,111 
 
 2.01.1 
 
 ....l.9:m 
 
 ....l.U.Vi 
 1,901 
 
 In 18r,0, 1 in 2,114 
 
 In isr.o, 1 in 2,092 
 
 In isni. 1 in 2,15G 
 
 III lH(,i, 1 ill 2,240 
 
 In l.si;:i, 1 in 2,307 
 
 In ISOl, 1 in 2,192 
 
 This table shows a slight increase during the last throo 
 years, but it is fully accounted for by the greater diligence 
 cxerciseil in finding ca.ses, ami by the fact that many cases 
 of mental disease are recognized and counted as such when 
 formerly they were not. , - ,, 
 
 Upon the wliole. Dr. Maudsley draws the following eon- 
 elusions: "(11 There is no satisfactory evidence of an in- 
 crease in the proportion of cases of insanity lo llie [lopula- 
 tion; and no evidence, therefore, of an inercnsrd halnhly 
 to insanity. (2) It is not necessary to assume such an iii- 
 erease in I.nler to account for the undoubted great increase 
 in the niiml.er of registered insane persons. (3) The dif- 
 ference between I insane person in 812 of the poi.ulalion 
 in 1841, and 1 in 100 in 1870, is mainly, if not entirely, 
 owing to the fact that in the former year the returns in- 
 clmled only liiilf tho existing insane persons in the country, 
 while in llie latter year nearly all of them have been regis- 
 tered. (4) Some part of the difference is owing lo the laet 
 that certain patients aro registered as lunatics now who 
 would never have been thought so in times past. (5) A 
 lower rale of mortality and a lower pereentago of recov- 
 eries may account for' a part of the increase in the total 
 amount of insanity. (6) Tho proportion of admissions 
 lo tho population, which rcprescnis approximalely tho 
 occurring cases of insanity, does not, when tho ncecs-
 
 1224 
 
 INSANITY BEFORE THE LAW. 
 
 sary allowances are made, yield evidence of any serious 
 
 increase.'* . , i ti 
 
 In the U P. similar conditions have existed, and like 
 results have hecn obtained. Thus, in 1S60 the total num- 
 ber of the insane, including idiots, was— of males 22,841, 
 and of females I'J.SS.'i, being a total of 42,824; while m 
 1S70 the numbers were— for males 30,S0o, and for iemales 
 29 772, total 59,677. Now, in ISGO the total population 
 was ai, 185,741, giving a ratio of insane to the population 
 of 1 in about 728; in 1S70 the population was 3S,Uo,G41, 
 or 1 in about every 637. Hero the apparent ratio is not to 
 be ascribed to anv actual increase, but to the fact that the 
 researches were more thorough in 1870 than in 1860, and 
 that hence a greater number of the insane were discovered 
 than in the previous census. There is no reason for be- 
 lieving that insanity is more common in England than the 
 V. S., "though a superficial consideration of the foregoing 
 statistics would lead to this conclusion; but it is very cer- 
 tain that the registry in the former country is much more 
 thorough. But, as will readily be admitted by all neurol- 
 ogists, there are periods during which insanity is more 
 common than at others, and hence it is not safe to take any 
 statistics which do not extend over a long series of years. 
 If, for instance, the number of insane in Franco for the 
 vear before the recent war with Germany bo compared 
 with the number existing in the year after the war, the latter 
 will be found to be much the greater ; and the like is true 
 of our own recent civil war, and of all other periods of 
 political excitement. Still, taking the civilized world as a 
 whole, it will be found that the exciting and restraining 
 influences about b.alance one another, and that insanity is 
 not more frequent now than it was at any former period 
 duriu" which records have been kept. 
 
 Cure or' the Insane.—In every State of the Union, with 
 the exception of Delaware, Florida, and Nevada, there 
 are suitable asylums for the reception and treatment of 
 cases of insanity. All the States, with the exception of 
 those named, have one or more public institutions, and in 
 addition there arc a number of private asylums in various 
 parts of the countrv. The U. S. has thus not notably fail- 
 ed in its duty to the unfortunate class of individuals under 
 consideration, and a great deal of the interest which liaj 
 been manifested, and which has in numerous instances led 
 to the construction of .asylums, has been due to the dis- 
 interested exertions of Miss D. L. Dix, which have led to 
 the action of State legislatures in the direction mentioned. 
 It is not to be doubted, however, that here, as every- 
 where else, the provision is not so full as it ought to 
 be, and this is especially to be noted as regards the pau- 
 per insane, who in many States are still kept in the county 
 poorhouscs or boarded out. The whole question of such 
 provision is still somewhat unsettled in relation to the ex- 
 act kind of protection and treatment certain of the insane 
 should receive. The advocates of entire non-restraint — 
 which in reality docs not exist— have gone so far as to 
 recommend thc'cstablishnient of colonies of the insane m 
 villages ; and one such has been for some time in operation 
 at (iiieel in Belgium, with but moderate success. 
 
 Whether or not the insane should be treated in separate 
 and distinct institutions, or in general hospitals more or 
 less isolated from the other patients, is a subject well worthy 
 the fullest consideration. At a time when insanity was 
 considered to bo a disease of the mind, and not of tlio 
 brain, asylums were well enough, for the treatment thought 
 to be necessary could be more advantageously carried out 
 bv metaphysicians than by physicians. But at the present 
 day more practical and far more scientific notions are 
 prevalent, and it is beginning to be a recognized principle 
 that insanity is not to be treated from any very different 
 thenuieutical standpoint than that proper for gastritis or 
 intermittent fever. Hence, the insane require medical 
 treatment; and the more thoroughly educated the physi- 
 cian is in his science as a whole, the higher will bo his 
 qualifications for ministering to the unfortunate class of 
 beings under consideration. So far as curative influences 
 extend, it is not to be denied that the insane may be better 
 treated in their own homes than in asylums. But owing 
 to the character of the insanity, or to the impossibility of 
 providing the necessary restraint and care, a certain num- 
 ber of lunatics absolutely require sequestration. 
 
 Ilibliorirapliii.— The number of monographs and treatises 
 devoted to the' subject of insanity is very large. The most 
 that can be done here is to cite the more important published 
 during the last 100 years : Crichton, An Inijuiri/ inlo llir^ A"o- 
 Ifire and Orii/iu of Meulal DernniicmenI, r.li\ ( London, 1798) ; 
 Arnold, Obacnatinna on the Nulure, Kind', Causes, and 
 /'reventton of Jtuiiniti/ (London, 1806); Haslam, Observa- 
 tions on Afnilness and Melancholy (London, 1809); Pinel, 
 TraiK medico-philosnpliique enr I'alKnation mentalc 
 (Paris 1809); Rash. Med leal Inquiries and Observations 
 upon Diseases of the Mind (Philadelphia, 1812); Georgot, 
 
 Discussion medicn-legale sur la folic oil alienation mcnlale 
 (Paris, 1826): Calmeil, JJe la parabjsic considirie chez 
 ies aliinia (Vans, l>ii6) ; Guislain, Traite sur I'alienalton 
 mentale (.\msterdam, 1,826) ; Conolly, An Inquiry Cunccrn- 
 inij the Indications of Insanity (Loudon, 1830); Pritohard, 
 A Treatise on Insanity and other Affections of the Mind 
 (London, 1835); Broussais, Ue I'irritation el de la folic 
 (Paris, 1839); Calmeil, Ue la folic, etc. (Paris, 1845); Es- 
 quirol, Bes maladies mcntalcs, etc. (Paris, 1838); Kiescr, 
 Elemente der Paychiatrik (Breslau and Bonn, 1855); 
 Brigham, Observalions on the Injluencc of lieH'jion upon the 
 Health and Physical Welfare of Mankind (Boston, 1835); 
 Griesinger, Pathologic und Therapic des psyehischen 
 Krankheiten (Stuttgart, ISGl).; Schriidcr van der Kolk, 
 Die Pathologic und Therapic der Geisteakrunkheiten auf 
 anatomisch physiologisch 6'ri/iuHn</c (Braunschweig, 186.1) ; 
 Bucknill and Tukc, A Manual of I'syvhological Medicine 
 (London, 1858); Winslow, Obscure Diseases of the Brain 
 and Disorders of the Mind (London, 1860) ; Morel, Traitl 
 des maladies mcntalcs (Paris, 1860) ; Ray, Menial Hygiene 
 (Boston, 1863) ; also various important papers collected 
 and published with the title Contributions to Menial Path- 
 ology ; also Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity (5th cd., 
 Boston, 1S71); Lcidesdrorf, Lehrbuch der psyehischen 
 Krankheiten (Erlangen, 1875): Sankcy, Lectures on Men- 
 tal Diseases (London, ISGG); Maudsley, The Physiology, 
 and Pathology ol' the Mind (London, 1867); Blandford, 
 Insanity, and it's Treatment (Edinburgh, 1871) ; Dickson, 
 Medicine in Relation to Mind (London, 1874) ; Ham^mond, 
 Insanity in its Relations to Crime (New York, 1873), A 
 Treatise on Diseases of the Nervous System (6th ed.. New 
 York, 1875), Morbid Impulse (New York, 1874), and va- 
 rious monographs in the Psychological Journal. 
 
 William A. Hammond. 
 Insanity before the Law. The term insanity, al- 
 though unsusceptible of a strict definition, hasyet received 
 at law a convenient interpretation in the phrase noii cu))i;)08 
 Mentis. By this is meant a condition of mind, resulting 
 from the influences of bodily disease, in which the individual 
 has lost control of his faculties. Ho cannot think as ho 
 either wants to or needs to. and consequently as he would 
 think if in the enjoyment of mental health. He is under 
 coercion to a greater or less degree, and cannot, although 
 at times conscious of his infirmity, overpower it by any 
 eflfort of the will. He is the slave of his mental faculties, 
 whose caprices henceforth rule him and give color to his 
 actions. But however good may bo the legal phrase iion 
 compos mentis when used in its general application to the 
 insane, the attempt to subdivide this class into four cate- 
 gories, as made by Lord Coke, is one resting upon ignor- 
 ance of the nature of the disease, and therefore confound- 
 ing symptoms with sources. In his first category he places 
 idiots or natural fools. But, properly speaking, many 
 idiots are teachable, and can use their faculties to the ex- 
 tent of their possession of them, so that they are not neces- 
 sarily noil compos, any more than is an infant. Their pos- 
 sibilities are. like his, a question for future demonstration ; 
 and while they may always need guardians, this does not 
 per sc constitute them insane. So with his third category 
 of lunatics. Science docs not at this day admit that lunar 
 influences can singly or conjointly tend to produce insanity. 
 Speaking with technical accuracy, there are no lunatics, 
 however otherwise insane any person so called may be. So 
 also with Lord Coke's fourth category of drunkards. Such 
 people, having voluntarily placed themselves in this con- 
 dition, arc not legally insane, since the law holds them ac- 
 countable for all acts" done while in that slate. It is only 
 in his second category that Coke properly describes (he in- 
 sane, according to modern views of the sources of thcircon- 
 dition, by describing them as persons who were of good 
 and sound memory, but by sickness, grief, or other accident 
 wholly lose their memory and understanding. 
 
 The presence of the basic element of disease is, there- 
 fore, the indispensable prerequisite to any legal recognition 
 of insanity ; and no other form of insanity than that which 
 springs from bodily disease is known to the law. Hence, 
 it can lake no cognizance of any forms of moral disorder, 
 regarding them purely as varieties of dcpr.avity until they 
 are shown to be the offspring of physical disease. Then, 
 and then only, it considers these in their bearing upon 
 questions of intention and responsibility. It is true that 
 in medical investigations inio the symptoms of insanity, 
 moral acts arc allowed much weight, as tending to show the 
 progress rather than the existence of the disease ; but in mcdi- 
 eineno more than in law are such acts, ;;«• «c, considered 
 primd facie evidence of mental disorder. For in all cases 
 the individual must bo gauged by his own standard, and 
 questions of mental strength and competency in this direc- 
 tion or that are questions of der/rcea relating to facts. There 
 is scarcely a lunatic to be found who cannot perform some 
 acts in a "rational way, and were those acts alone to bo oh-
 
 INSANITY BEFORE THE LAW. 
 
 125 
 
 served nothinE would bo discovered in them evidencing 1 «anc, as in the State of New 1 ork where they are clasM- 
 inslnit'v I is ow°n" to those varieties in the complexion lied as cither pr.r„,e patients, ,„</w.,(.. or /.--y-e,-,. Rut 
 of Z-Ji'ordrZloV aifrerinKan.lesundoribichit i tho common law knows nothmg of th,s k.nd, .ts ,nq«,ry 
 
 is viewed, that the law has recognized the necessity of vary- 
 ing the legal significance of the acts of persons medically 
 adjadired to bo insane. They arc not to bo absolutely dis- 
 franchised on this account, but their acts will be weighed 
 apart from their condition, and if found proper and right 
 will be sustained. The scrutiny of such acts is directed to 
 the discovcrv of how far the actor was at the time an in- 
 telligent and free moral agent : and while merely impor- 
 tuning a person would bo considered no just ground for 
 invalidating the acts of ono who was sane, it would tend to 
 raise a presumption of undue influence in the case of one 
 who was insane. The phrase '■ mental unsoundness," which 
 is the modern svnonvin of tho ancient term iioii com/)o» 
 moilU. has, therefore, been very generally adopted, because 
 it expresses, like its Latin analogue, the fact that the mind 
 is unbalanced, and the party not possessed of the same 
 power of regulating its functions as formerly. 'Vet to the 
 cTtent and within the limits of that power many rational 
 acts mav bo done. , , .i 
 
 Under the shadow of these principles it follows that both 
 mental unsoundness and weakness of mind may vary in 
 the degrees of their manifestation to such an extent as to 
 render their border-lines wholly indiscernible. Exactly 
 when tho transit occurs from mere eccentricity to loss of 
 mental equilibrium, exactly when weakness of mind passes 
 into conlirmod imbecility, are moments not to be ascer- 
 tained witli dcliniteness from any single act committed. 
 Signs, symptoms, and acts must be grouped, evidence must 
 he'cumulativo and plenary before any judgment can be 
 safely pronounced, since in no department of human evi. 
 donc'o is there such a field for debate and contention over 
 premises, over the relative weight of facts, and over the 
 conclusions which can logically be deduced from them. It 
 is here that most commonly occurs the fallacy of commut- 
 ing the subjective with tho objective, of thinking as we 
 feel, and of reasoning al')ne from our consciousness; for it 
 is incidental to our nature to believe implicitly tho testi- 
 mony of our senses, and necessarily of discrediting that 
 which contradicts their report. Thus, many persons squan- 
 der their propertv through extravagance who are not in- 
 sane, and raauv persons legally adjudged insane are dis- 
 posed to bo frugal : the former, so far as properly is con- 
 cerned, need guardians more than the latter, and yet the 
 law cannot interfere with their sovereign rights over their 
 own so long as they are not insane. According to tho 
 standard by which tlic miser regulates his conduct, tho ex- 
 travagant are insane; according to the opinion of the ex- 
 travagant, the miser is insane. Each juilges the other by 
 the rule of his own life and the standard of his own feel- 
 ings, and thus it is that each may judge erroneously. 
 
 Tho modern phrase "mental unsoundness" is intended 
 to cover the same ground as the varieties of nm com/yo» 
 metmfi did at common law. It is to ho distinguished, 
 therefore, from the phrase " insanity," which implies the 
 highest grade of unsoundness as tested in any particular 
 direction. Thus, the term '• partial insanity at law "is the 
 equivalent of monomania in medicine, and imports limita- 
 tion in the nlcni rather than in the (/«//<■<■ of insanity. It 
 is complete insanitv as far as it goes, and as such tends to 
 nullify all civil acts infcolcd by it. In mental unsound- 
 ness wo have rather an inappotcney than a strict disorder 
 of mind founde.l upon bodily disease. We can apply tho 
 term with proprietv to any adult mind in which there is 
 present a manifest incapacity to deal with the ordinary 
 contingencies of life. Hence, we may speak of an idiot or 
 imbecile as being mentally unsound, meaning thereby that 
 such person is unequal to the ordinary strains of complex 
 business relation-, although able to feed, clollie, and pro- 
 tect himself. In him the incapacity consists in not being 
 able to rise above a fixed plane of action, while in the par- 
 tially insane tho mind can attempt, and does generally, to 
 execute, but does this in a faulty way, obedient to the co- 
 ercion of some disordered foculty or overpowering delu- 
 sion. The law, adapting its principles to these varying 
 phenomena of mental action, therefore recognizes innnnili/. 
 parllnl iinnni'/i/, and mrnlnl miiomxlnrtt as varieties of 
 mental incapacity, passing from simple weakness to com- 
 plete delirium and incoherence of ideas. 
 
 /iMdiii'i/. or Minin. — Insanity proper is distinguishable, 
 both in law anil medicine, from the merely temporary de- 
 lirium of fever, and is only recognized as a condition of 
 legal incompetency when hecomo on established habit of 
 lift. Tho common law takes no special ciignizance of oouto 
 stages as set opposite to chronic, tho prcibkin to bo solved 
 in every inquisition of lunacy being simply that of eompon 
 onion c"om/.o«. Statutes mny. for purposes of hospital elassi- 
 fication or equitable regard for individual and pecuniary 
 circumstances, establish special distinctions among tho in- 
 
 being directed to the question of saue or Hoii-«aiic as an 
 established condition. Hence, even a habitual drunkard 
 or an imbecile is not considered legally insane, but only 
 weak-minded to the extent that evidence ni.ay show him to 
 he unfitted to manage his own affairs. Little need be said, 
 therefore, to show that insanity, under whatever name re- 
 cognized in medicine, has but one designation in law, and 
 that designation is founded upon the fact that mental in- 
 competency exists in such permanent form that there is 
 continuous enslavement or duress of the reasoning faculties. 
 Consequently, every act performed by such a mind which 
 involves responsibility at law is voiilnhlc. although not ne- 
 cessarily void. There may bo acts which, without injury 
 to other parties, enure to tho benefit of the lunatic, and it 
 would be manifestly a wrong to him to set them aside 
 merely because of the condition of mind in which he per- 
 formed them. Thus, a lunatic may purcha.so necessaries 
 or employ a physician or any other skilled labor, and his 
 contract would be sustained if otherwise reasonable. The 
 law always permits the exercise of every right which an 
 individual can enjoy without injury to others or himself. 
 Hence, persons legally insane and in charge of committees 
 have been allowed to perform many acts of a character iiii- 
 plying the possession of mental competency to a certain 
 degree. Nor is there nnythiug paradoxical in this, since 
 it is simply following tho law of our mental constitution, 
 which presents us with great disparities of strength in tho 
 faculties of the same mind even in health. In law no per- 
 son is presumably insane until .after office found, and par- 
 tics may deal with him as though sane, provided nothing 
 in his manner or language be calculated to give warning 
 of his real condition. In such cases, as elsewhere slated, 
 his contracts are not even voidable if their subject-matter 
 has passed into such a condition that it cannot be re- 
 stored to its previous stale. It would be a great hard- 
 .ship and a manifest wrong to a bona Jhle purchaser from a 
 lunatic for a valuable consideration, who had subsequently 
 disposed of the ])roperty, to compel him to restore it spe- 
 cifically ; and it is difficult to conceive of any principle of 
 equity upon which this could be demanded from the mere 
 incident of the partv's lunacy. If the transaction is un- 
 tainted by fraud, whv should it be set aside? If it be a reason- 
 able act i-easonablv performed, that is all which the law can 
 or does exact. But as the act is always open to suspicion 
 derived from the menial condition of one of the parties, it 
 behooves men to know whom they are dealing with, and to 
 what extent their transactions may be subsequently voidable. 
 Whence it follows that whenever a person is in charge of a 
 committee, this constitutes to the world notice of his mental 
 incompetenev, and all jiersons deal with him at their peril. 
 It is not competent for them to plead ignorance of these 
 facts, because tlu-y are barred by a judicial record; and 
 although it may bo that nothing in the conduct of tho lu- 
 natic or the character of the transaction is suggestive of 
 insanity, still courts of equity will readily inteh-eno to an- 
 nul the contract if tho least cloud of suspicion is 6cen to 
 
 rest upon it. , , , . 1 i • 
 
 PorHut /,i»«iii'(i/.— It is unquestionably demonstrated in 
 medicine that such a condition as that known under tho name 
 of moiiumiiiiia or piirlial iiiaunili/ cannot exist «(rir(,«.i,iii» 
 vcrliiH " We are mad or not mad ; wo cannot he hall deranged 
 or three quarters, full face or profile." Such is the languago 
 of one of the leading Europeon authorities in psycholog- 
 ical medicine. These aro facts which all experience of in- 
 sanity certifies to. But, practically speaking, an insane 
 
 person mav do many reasonable things which, having no 
 flavor of insanitv in" them, the law will not set aside. To 
 that extent, therefore, it legalizes a sane act by whomsoever 
 committed. And if a person being notoriously insane is 
 capable of doing habitually a majority of his acis in a rea- 
 sonable way. and only a few in a persistently insane way, 
 there seems to he no just objection in law, particularly lor 
 convenience of description, to designating such person as 
 parHall,/ insane. For, after all, insanity is largely a ques- 
 tion of <Jc<;r-,-» of more or less mental power, and it cannot 
 bo gauged bv the same standards which medicine applies 
 to it. Municipal law must rest of necessity very largely 
 upon artificial reasons, including convenience as among its 
 chief ones. And since insanity proper has its varying tem- 
 peratures and seasons, during which tho indivi.lual hceonies 
 more or less competent to perform ordinary octs in a rea- 
 sonable wuv, it follows us a cori.llary that one who has never 
 exhibited this form of disease in any other than a mild 
 typo is entitled to as much more freedom of legal action, 
 ns bo would be to as much more freedom of personal liberty 
 if in an asylum. The simple question nt law is lliis 
 
 viz. T" what extent aro bis acta rational? If they bo 
 
 BO in the majority of instances, then in the mojority of in-
 
 12-2G 
 
 INSANITY BEFORE THE LAW. 
 
 stances his acts do not differ from those of a sane man, and 
 to that extent thev deserve to be sustained. It is only for 
 convenience' sake that the term " partial insanity is used, 
 for the le^al principles governing it are all found applying 
 to insanity in its larger sense, and the latter includes the 
 former both legally as well as medically. iMunicipal law 
 looks only to the remlta of disease in its psychological in- 
 auiries, and does not concern itself with specific names or 
 phoscs of insanity, both which are often but symptoms ot 
 a common disease arrived at different stages of progress. 
 Hence, courts cannot make judicial distinctions m the eivil 
 or criminal responsibility of the insane based upon med- 
 ical designations of the particular form of that disorder 
 under which they may labor. It is sufficient for them that 
 the rry„lt of sucii disorder has been to degrade or to over- 
 throw the reason, because the condition of the remnn and 
 the win are the only standards by which the law judges 
 human responsibility. It might happen, indeed, that^in a 
 question relating to the existence or non-existence of lucnl 
 intervals the prcdieabililv of such could not bo determined 
 without knowing the degree or form of mental disorder 
 which the party exhibited, but it is clear that even in such 
 cases courts would venture to give no opinions of their own, 
 relyin" solely upon those of medical experts. Therefore, 
 there arc no legal grounds upon which to discuss such top- 
 ics as melancholia or ihmentin. since they are not specific 
 diseases, but only symptoms of insanity, either in its in- 
 cipient, its middle, or its last stage. Formerly, these were 
 treated as rnrletkt of partial insanity ; now a better com- 
 prehension of the pathology of that disease has classified 
 them where thev belong, among symptoms. It is for tliese 
 reasons that American courts have not followed the dicta 
 of En"li3h tribunals in passing upon questions involving 
 partia? insanity. All our decisions, whenever this point 
 has been nino'ed. have reaffirmed the one cardinal principle 
 that the law cannot concern itself with degrees of insanity, 
 and that it is sufficient, in the interests of true equity, to 
 lay down the rule that wherever the subject-matter of the 
 transaction, be it contract or will, is not infected with in- 
 sanity, the act even of one alleged to be partially insane 
 is only voidable, and not ah inlilo void. In England this 
 was also the rule, repeated and reaffirmed in all those de- 
 cisions which have immortalized the name of .Sir .John Nic- 
 oll nor was it ever questioned until the year IS+S, when 
 Lord Brougham, in a case before the privy council, ruled 
 that it was'crroneous to suppose that a mind shown to bo 
 partially insane could be really sound upon any subject, 
 and therefore competent to make a will. This decision was 
 the first introduction of a purely psychological dogma into 
 the elements of a legal judgment, and while abstractly sus- 
 tainable on the basis of fahm in imo, faUiis In omnibus. 
 has not, as before stated, secured any favor before our 
 courts. Hence, with us partial insanity does not nccesaarily 
 invalidate an executed contract, nor testamentary capacity, 
 unless it enters into and infects the subject-matter of the 
 contract or will. Where no evidence of such mental dis- 
 order appears upon the face or in the texture of the instru- 
 ment the partial ins.anitv of the testator at the time of its 
 execution, although a matter of general notoriety, as where 
 he was in charge of a cominittcc, will not. Ipm fnctn. in- 
 validate his will. Nor do defects of the senses incapacitate 
 if the testator possesses sufficient mind to perform a valid 
 testamentary act; but in such cases it must be proved that 
 the mind accompanied the will, particularly where such in- 
 strument is neither holoiraphic nor officious. These doc- 
 trines of American law, it will be seen, are far in advance 
 of those of the civil law. which rendered the deaf and 
 dumb intestable if the infirmity was congenital, or of Brit- 
 ish courts, which adopt the rule that every act of an un- 
 sound mind is necessarily an irrational one. 
 
 •So, too, in relation to responsibility for crimes committed 
 by persons alleged to be partially insane or temporarily 
 insane, the law has discarded all those terms of medical 
 designation which imputed insanity to the instincts alone. 
 Kegarding these, when perverted, as exponents either of 
 voluntary depravity or as states of mental duress and loss 
 of self-control arising from disease, it requires to know sim- 
 ply whether the party is capable of discerning the true na- 
 ture and consequences of his acts, coupled with the power of 
 acting or abstaining from acting in a particular way. .^nd 
 if not, why not? The true test of criminal responsibility 
 before the law is the possession of reason and frec-wiU. 
 When both these are present the party is responsible ; when 
 either is absent, he is not. By reason is meant an intelli- 
 gent comprehension of the circumstances in the midst of 
 which one is placed: and by free-will is meant the power 
 of doing or abstaining from doing a particular act. No 
 mental duress can be pleaded as insanity which has not its 
 foundation in disease. Hence, drunkenness or heat of 
 blood, both which work loss of self-control and possibly 
 reason, are not bars to criminal responsibility, for they do 
 
 not, in their uncomplicated form, rest upon disease as their 
 foundation; and yet a case may be imagined where a sane 
 epileptic might become insane through drink or heat of 
 blood to such an extent as to be an irresponsible agent. 
 Here the foundations of mental power are already under- 
 mined, and a cause of insufficient magnitude to overthrow 
 a healthy brain becomes the dcteriniuiug factor in the pro- 
 duction "of insanity; for. after .all, the only physiological 
 test of mental power is the ability to bear strain. 
 
 Mental Unsomidnejis.—lhe condition known as mental 
 unsoundness at law is one which is easily confounded with 
 imbecility wherever the congenital character of this slate 
 is overlooked. There are those, too, who may think that 
 the attempt to distinguish them by name is an attempt to 
 establish a distinction without a diffeicnce in fact. But it 
 will be seen upon reflection that a born imbecile does not 
 necessarily present us with a ease of unsound mind, for 
 every chi'ld, if his mind does not develop proportionally 
 with" his body, but remains infantile after adult age, repre- 
 sents to a certain extent imbecility in some one of its 
 phases. There may be weakness in intensity or cxtensity 
 of action in minds otherwise sound, without, however, 
 there bein" absolute imbecility, for there arc as in.any va- 
 rieties of original constitntion among healthy minds as 
 there are among healthy bodies, and every one must bo 
 
 I 1 
 
 ip< 
 
 indeed by a standard w'hich is derived from observations 
 maife upo'n the majority of men. What constitutes abso- 
 lute mental health or absolute mental sti-englh is a very 
 difficult question to answer categorically. Mental un- 
 soundness is frequently used also as synonymous with in- 
 sanity, and in medicine there is no improiiricty in com- 
 muting these terms, but at law there is a distinetioii be- 
 tween them, resting upon the fact that mental unsoundness 
 may be, and frequently is, due to other causes than disease, 
 wh"creas insanity, whether manifested as mama, melan- 
 eholla. or epileptic vertiqo, has always a foundation ot 
 physical disease to rest upon. Thus, mental unsoundness 
 may arise from age, from habitual drunkenness or other 
 vic"es producing precocious senility, or from a natural ex- 
 haustion of the mental powers as a consequence of inherited 
 weakness, though unaccompanied by appreciable bodily 
 disease. Its subjects not being necessarily dangerous to 
 themselves or the community, it would be wrong to de- 
 i.rive them of their liberty or the control of their property 
 from the simple fact of mental unsoundness, until it was 
 first shown that some form of guardianship was necessary 
 for their well-being. And while in an individual pursuing 
 a mechanical vocation mental unsoundness, to even a very 
 considerable degree, might not impair his usefulness, in a 
 professional man like a judge, a lawyer, or a physician t he 
 least dimming of the mental mirror might jeopardize the 
 entire value of his personal services, and require also, finm 
 the more enlarged character of his possessions, that their 
 care should be assigned to a guardian or committee The 
 necessity for thus differentiating men according to the ex- 
 tent of power present in them for self-guidance or the care 
 of property forms one of the most delicate and difficult 
 problems with which courts of equity have to deal : for it 
 is always reducible to a question of plus or minus power, 
 measured both in action and at rest, in the midst of such 
 variable factors as age, health, previous education, habitual 
 employment, future exigencies, and the like, all of which 
 have ri disturbing influence in reading the scale of any hu- 
 man being's character and possibilities. Nevertheless, the 
 
 distinctions between simple mental unsoundness and posi- 
 tive insanity may be drawn with sufficient clearness to en- 
 able us to classify an individual with relation to his civil 
 responsibility, because the law will always secure hiin his 
 personal rights to the fullest extent commensurate with liis 
 ability to enjoy them, treating him not as an imbecile ab- 
 solutely, but as one over whose mind a him has come ot 
 unequ.;i density and of varying consequences. His power 
 over property, and much more over his own person, wil 
 not be taken" from him until it is abundantly shown that 
 its further exercise is incompatible with personal safely 
 
 or pecuniary welfare. 
 
 In determining criminal responsibility in connection 
 with mental unsoundness a different standard has to bo 
 employed. The peace and safely of society requiring that 
 every individual should restrain his passions m their tend- 
 ency" to overpower his self-control, the mere fact of mental 
 weakness is not an answer to an indictment for ermie un- 
 less that weakness or unsoundness be the direct offsi.ring 
 of disease, and the disease overpower the reason and the 
 free-will at the moment of committing the offence. A weaK 
 mind is not absolved from the duty of watching over its 
 own conduct and restraining its evil propensities; and 
 while it mi-'ht not merit the same degree of punishment 
 for offendin" as a strong one. it would bo wrong to assert 
 that it was wholly dispunishable cither in law or ,„ foro 
 i comoienti^. J""" Ohdronaux.
 
 INSANITY BEKORE THE LAW-INSCKIFTION. 
 
 1227 
 
 Insanity before the Law (Supplemental). Jarit- 
 
 dlcliml of C'ouriM of Chmicfrij at U ike Ciittmii/ and Control 
 of Iiisant /'t/soin.— Tlio court of clinnccr.v in England has, 
 from a vcrv rarlv period, exercised a general power of 
 supervision" and Jimtrol in relation to tlio interests of per 
 sons of unsound mind, their custody, and protection. Tl 
 
 'his 
 
 power, though its origin is si.ininhal obscure, is generally 
 deemed bv writers upon equity jurispru.lcncc to have had 
 its source in the general delegation to the court of the in- 
 herent prorojative of the Crown as /ki/-cii» i>aiiliv to pro- 
 tect those who arc incapable of protecting and caring for 
 themselves. But as tho result of legislation in the reign 
 of Edward II. (KiOl), tho authority of the chancellor m 
 regard to insane persons has hcen in many respects con- 
 ferred since that time l)V special commission Irom the 
 Crown under the king's sign-manual. This warrant gives 
 to the chancellor the right to provi.lo for their maintenance 
 and for tho care of their persons and estates. The chief 
 objects for which this special jurisdiction of the court is 
 exercised arc the ascertainment of the fact of insanity by 
 a judicial investigation, tho placing of a person judicially 
 declared to bo insane under the guardianship of one or 
 more persons termed a "coinmitlce." and Ihc subsequent 
 control of the committee in the management of the insane 
 person's property and the custody of his person. In mak- 
 ing an inquiry in regard to a person's insanity, the practice 
 is to issue a commission out of the court of chancery, upon 
 a proper petition addressed to the chancellor, authoriiing 
 the commissioners therein designated to examine into the 
 person's mental condition with the aid of a jury, and com- 
 manding them to report to the court the result of the in- 
 quisition. This commission is said to be " in the nature 
 of a writ </c hiiiiiii'ro iiiqnimido." The commissioners have 
 power to summon witnesses and to examine the person 
 tiimsrlf who is supposed to he insane, if he thinks fit to be 
 present. The commission may issue even against a non- 
 resident if he have lands or other property within the juris- 
 diction of Ihc court. The degree of mental unsoundness 
 which will justify the appointment of a committee need 
 not be so great as to amount to idiocy or lunacy. Mental 
 imbecility, resulting from age, inlirmily, disease, or the de- 
 cay of the natural powers, may bo sullieicnt. Tho finding 
 of the jury, however, must show that the person is to such 
 an extent of unsound mind as to bo incapable of governing 
 himself and managing his property and directing his 
 affairs. And this conclusion must be directly stated in the 
 report as Ihc result of the investigation, and appear as a 
 positive verdict by the jury. It will not be enough to 
 state the facts proved which indicate tho existence of in- I 
 sanity, leaving it for the court to draw tho conclusion that 
 it actually exists, since this is the appropriate province of | 
 tho jury.' If there be any irregularily in conduc-ling the in- , 
 quisition. or if the return he insullicicnt in law, or if the 
 verdict rendcrc<l be attributable to mistake or partiality, 
 the inquisition may be quashed and a new commission l)o 
 issued. If the return untruly finds the party insane, it 
 may bo traversed (or allcgeil to be false) by himself or, on 
 proper terms, by any one who has a claim against him upon 
 contract; and the court may in its discretion allow funds 
 out of the estate for Iho trial of the issue thus formed. In. 
 tho appointment of a cominittce. relalives of the ])erson ad- 
 judged insane are usually chosen, though this is not neces- 
 sary^ It is the duty of the committee to manage the prop- 
 erly entrusted to their charge carefully and prudently, to 
 mako such investments as may be necessary to keep tho 
 estate reasonably profitable, and lo account for the manner 
 of adininistraticin when required by the court. All gills 
 or contracts made by the insane person himself after tho 
 actual finding of the inquisition arc utterly void. Tho 
 power of tho committeo to deal with the property in the 
 oxcrciso of an in(b'pendent discretion is very limited. 
 In most instances special aulhority to charge or dispose 
 of the property must be nbtaincd from tho court. In tho 
 management of the estate under tho direction of the court 
 tho interest of the insane person is to be regarded ralhcr 
 than the interest of those who are enlilled lo the succession. 
 An order may be made autbori7.ing a cliango of personal 
 property into real or of real into personal, if it be deemed 
 for his advantage. So, in making provision for those who 
 are dependent upon him, the same principle is followerl, 
 and expenditures may be made ont of his properly which 
 ho is not legally bound to incur if Hoy are substanti- 
 ally for his a Ivanlage. Thus, if the falber of a family bo 
 a lunatic ami under tho charge of a committee, tho moro 
 legal right of bis n ife and children will not be regarded by 
 the court, but an allowance may be made suilable to their 
 station in life. Provision may even be made in some cases 
 for Iho support of persons who arc nut related lo the insane 
 person, and have no legal claim upon him for mninlenanco, 
 as. r. If., persons whom he has ndoplcd as chililren, or 
 his brothers and sisters. This is on tho ground that it is 
 
 reasonably presumable that the owner of the properly 
 would have made a like disposition of tho income under 
 such circumslanees. and that his interests are promoted by 
 assisling those whom he lias made dependent upon him- 
 self, or who arc intimately related to him. In such cases 
 the court exercises its own discretion in fixing tho amount 
 of tho .allowaiicc which it authorizes to be made. The 
 education of tho children of the insane person and a rea- 
 sonable provision for the ordinary expenditures of his 
 family will be deemed of special importance by tho court. 
 After a proper allowance has been made for the maintcn- 
 anco of a lunatic and his family, any surplus remaining 
 will be appropriated to the payment of his debts. I'pon 
 a petition bv a crcdilor a reference will be ordered to dc- 
 teriniuo the amount of the debt and its validity, and if a 
 report be made in favor of the creditor, the court will order 
 the debt to be discharged if there are sufficient assets. 
 After the appointment of a committee, suits in belialf of tho 
 lunatic must be instituted in tho name of tho committee, 
 who are responsible for the conduct of the suit. The luna- 
 tic, however, is usually joined as a p.arly plaintiff. So 
 suits against the lunatic are brought against the comniillce. 
 On thc"death of the insane person the power of a.lniinis- 
 tration ceases, though the committee still continue under 
 the control of the court until there has been a final account- 
 in". Should an insane person after being ])laccd under the 
 guardianship of a committee be restored to sounrlncss of 
 mind, the court may either remove the committee altogether, 
 or suspend its authority until it can be ascertained whether 
 tho restoration to sanity will be permanent or temporary. 
 The members of a committee are not allowed, as a general 
 rule, any compensation for their services, but arc only en- 
 titled to" receive remuneration for necessary disbursements. 
 The question has recently arisen whether if a person has 
 become permanently insane, but no inquisilicm has been 
 held and no committee appointed, a suit can be brought in 
 his behalf by his next friend; and it is held that this may 
 be done. 
 
 In this country courts of equity in some of tho btates 
 exercise the samejurisdiction in relation to persons of un- 
 sound mind as the English court of chancery. This is the 
 case in New York. In other States such persons arc placed 
 under the charge of guardians appointed by courts ofiiro- 
 bale, as in iMassachusctts. Tho mode of nppointing a com- 
 mitteo or guardian anil the extent of their authority aro 
 usually regulated to a great degree by statute. Tho same 
 general principles prevail in regard to the power ol the 
 court exercising such jurisrliction, and its control over tho 
 management and disposition of property, as have been es- 
 tablished in the English procedure, though minor ilifier- 
 ences exist which need not be here delaiUd. In some of 
 ' tho States the same power is exercised in regard lo the cus- 
 tody and control of habitual drunkards and spcndlhrifis as 
 in relation to insane persons. (SecShclford on Lunacy; 
 Willard on E'lnilij .Inrinprndrwr ; Adams on B/m'/.i/.) 
 
 (!i:oni:K CiiASi;. Ukviskh bv T. W. Dwiciit. 
 Inscrip'tion [ I.at. iii, " on," and tr.rihcrc, to " write "], 
 language inscribed, sculptured, written, or impressed upon 
 clay tablets, metals, wood, stone, or other niatenal except 
 papyrus, paper, or other fragile subslances used for books. 
 Stone was principally used for the purpose, and rocks at 
 tho very earliest period, some nations, as the Egyptians, 
 Assyria"ns, Creeks, and Ilomans. using inscriptions for 
 ofiiJial and other records. In the East the oldest nabylo- 
 nian and Assyrian inscriptions, cut in the cuneiform or 
 wodge-sbaped characters, dale as early as Hie oldest liaby- 
 loniaii (or Assyrian) reign, being Ihal of Urukli, about 2000 
 n (■ These were continued as late as the Roman empire, 
 and tho most remarkable is that of Parius Ilyslaspis at 
 liehistun, giving an accouni of his subjeclion oi the dif- 
 ferent nations and rivals to his power. It is in lli»e kinds 
 of cuneiform and languages-lho Persian. Median, and 
 Habylonian. Another remarkable inscniilion is that of 
 Had'ii Abad, in a character called Pehlevi— which later 
 came into use in Persia-and is supposed to refer to tho 
 Parthian monarch Sapor. The inscrii.lions of the Egyp- 
 tians are as old as Hie Pabyloni.iu, and are in the li.ero- 
 glynhic cliaractcr. the oldest known being a slab of the 
 reign of the monarch Sent of tho seccuid dymisly, accord- 
 ing lo some chronologisis above 3000 n. r. In Egyjil tho 
 n«o of inscriiilb.ns more extensively prevailed than else- 
 where, the walls of l.mibs. temples, and oilier buddings, be- 
 sides objects of use or attire, being covered with I hem. The 
 most remarkable aro those recording tho working of the 
 mines at Ml. Sinai from tho third to (ho eighteenth dy- 
 nasty, others detailing ibe expulsion of the Shepherd rulers 
 or invaders, the wars ..f Tlmllimes III. un.l I!iimese« II., 
 Ibe invasion of Egypt by Ihc Ethiopian king Pianchi, tho 
 tablet of San or decree of tho synod of priests lieM at 
 Canopm 2.1.S n. c, and the llosetta Stone, or synodical dc- 
 oroo of priests at Memphis lUO u. c, both of which aro
 
 12 J« 
 
 INSECT FERTILIZATION— INSOLVENCY. 
 
 in three languages, Egyptian hieroglyphic, Demotic, and 
 Greek, and which are keys to the decipherment and inter- 
 pretation of the hieroglyphs. Amongst the Semitic na- 
 tions of Palestine iuscriptiuus were more rarely used, and 
 seldom of any length. Of these, the best known are the in- 
 scription on the coffin of Asmunazar, king of f^idon, and 
 the Dhiban Tablet or Moabite Stone of Mcsha. king of 
 Moab, about DOO b. c, the oldest known in the Phrcnician 
 charaetcr. Numerous inscriptions arc found in the Wady 
 JMokatteb at Sinai, supposed by some to have been the 
 work of the Israelites after the Exodus, but now referred 
 to a later date, about 300 B.C. or later, and attributed to 
 the N:ib:itheans. Many lliniyaritic inscriptions of a still 
 later datu have been found at the dyke of Mareb and Sanaa 
 in Southern Arabia, some on bronze plates which hove been 
 affixed as votive offerings to the temples of the gods. Be- 
 yond the rule of the Egyptians few or no inscriptions have 
 "been fi)und in Central and Southern Africa, but at the sites 
 of Carthage and Utica, Punic inscriptions, chiefly votive, in 
 a Phoenician character, have been found, and at Dugga 
 and other places, in a peculiar script called Libyan, one 
 bilingual in both characters. Another remarkable inscrip- 
 tion is a bilingual one in the Cypriote and Phoenician 
 character found at Dall, dated in the reign of Melekiathon, 
 king of Cittium and Idalium. The Jews appear not to 
 have used inscriptions at an early period, and none are 
 known earlier than the Christian era. It is in Greece that 
 inscriptions of all classes and on all objects abounded, the 
 oldest to which a date can be given being that of Abu- 
 simbcl in the reign of Psammetiehus I., about B. c. 665. 
 They have continued in use till the present day, and some 
 of the most remarkable have been found at Athens ; but on 
 the whole, the Greek inscriptions, although throwing con- 
 siderable light on the municipal and social life of the 
 Greeks, are not of great historical value. The Roman in- 
 scriptions, which commence with the republic about the 
 time of the fall of Corinth, 145 b. c, continue till the ex- 
 tinction of the Latin language. There arc also above 2000 
 Etruscan inscriptions, but the language has not been de- 
 ciphered. In India no inscriptions have been discovered 
 earlier than the age of Asoka, about 400 b. c. but in China 
 that of Vu has been referred to 2205 b. c, although its au- 
 thenticity is more than doubtful. Inscriptions of 1200 b c, 
 however, exist. Those of Indo-China and Japan are much 
 more recent. In America the inscribed monuments of 
 Mexico and Yucatan are of an undefined antiquity. For 
 pala'ography, the verification of history, chronology, geo- 
 graphical sites, the appreciation of the social and municipal 
 condition of nations, and the relative antiquity of monu- 
 ments, inscriptions are of the highest importance. In 
 numismatics, iuacription means the letters in the area, not 
 round the device. Inscriptions are more sparingly used in 
 modern times, except for sepulchral purposes, printing 
 having superseded their public employment. They are 
 sometimes found in relief or in bronze letters attached by 
 plugs to marble or other material, and were often painted 
 for greater distinctness. S. Biitcii. 
 
 In'scct Fertiliza'tion. One of the most significant 
 modern discoveries in the domain of vegetable physiology 
 is that the services of insects are indispensable for the fer- 
 tilization of numerous kinds of flowers, which are so con- 
 structed that the pollen cannot pass without external aid 
 from the stamens to the pistils of the same plant, much less 
 to those of other plants. Hence, these flowers are provided 
 with a nectar which attracts insects, and is so placed that 
 to reacli it they must first come in contact with the stamen, 
 from which the ptdlen adheres to (he insect's body, and is 
 communicated in the same manner to the pistils of the same 
 or of other flowers. The popularization of these fuets is 
 chiefly due to Mr. Charles Dnrwin. who, in his monograph 
 on Fcrtifizati'on of Orchids {18fi2). has exhaustively traced 
 the operations of insects in relation to a single botanical 
 family. 
 
 Iiiscctiv'ora [Lat. i»i«fcf«, "insects," and vorai-c, to 
 '* eat "], an order of jneducabilian placental mammals whoso 
 anterior as well as posterior limbs are primarily adapted 
 for walking, although they may be secondarily modified 
 for other purposes. The carpal bones of the jiroximal as 
 well as distal rows, ami the metacarpal as well as pha- 
 lange;il bones, are normally diiToreutiatcd and developed; 
 the ulna and radius arc more or less distinct; clavicles are 
 always present and well developed ; the hind limbs are 
 normally related to the pelvis, and their elements to each 
 other ; no calcar or spur-like appendage above the ankle is 
 developed; the lower jaw has well-defined condyles, which 
 are more or less transverse, and arc received into special 
 glenoid pockets. The teeth arc diphyodont, and are of 
 three kinds {i. c. canines, molars, and incisors), but arc 
 more or less aberrant from the typical forms: the molars 
 in tbo most familiar types have sharp-pointed cusps. The 
 
 placenta is deciduate and discoidal. The order is divisible 
 
 into two sub-orders — (1) Dermoptcra, including the Galco- 
 pithecid;c ; and (2) liestioe, including all the other mem- 
 bers of the order. These sub-orders are chiefly based on 
 modifications of the anterior members and of the dentition. 
 (1) The Dermoptcra are Insectivores with members modi- 
 fied for flight or progression in the air, the limbs being 
 much elongated and very slender, and connected by an 
 extension of the skin which involves the wrists and ankles 
 and advances forward to the neck, and backward inclosing 
 the tail; the condylar portion of the lower jaw extends 
 outward ; the incisor teeth of the lower jaw are palmate 
 and deeply pectinated, while those of the upper jaw, as 
 well as the autcrior molars of both jaws, are compressed, 
 and have multicuspid crests. (2) The Bestia; are Insect- 
 ivores with members modified for walking or progression on 
 the ground, the limbs being comparatively short and robust, 
 and tree: the condylar portion of the lower jaw does not 
 extend outward ; the incisor teeth of the lower jaw are con- 
 ical and not pectinated ; those of the upper jaw, as well as 
 the anterior molars of both jaws, more or less conic, and 
 with unilobate crowns. The licstin- are divided into eight 
 families — viz. Tupayidse, Macroscclida^ Erinaceida?, Tal- 
 pidse, Soricidip, Centetids, Potamogalidip, and Chryso- 
 chlorida?. These types are limited to the northern hemi- 
 sphere, Asia, and Africa, only one (Centetida^) being rep- 
 resented in Cuba and Hayti, and none in South America 
 or Australia. Theodore Gill. 
 
 Insectivorous Plants capture insects and consume 
 them. That some plants capture insects has long been 
 I known : that a few might possibly make use of their prey 
 I as food was suspected long ago; but it is only of late that 
 i the suspicion has deepened into certainty. The clearest 
 j case is that of Dinntrn mttncipttla. (Sec DiON,tA.) An 
 I allied plant. Droskka (which see) or Sundew, efl"ects its 
 j captures by the aid of bristles which arc somewhat sensi- 
 j tive, and have at their glandular tips drops of a glutinous 
 exudation. This insect-lime holds its victim while the sur- 
 1 rounding tips converge towards the insect. Pitcher-plttutu 
 i (see DAULiXGTONiAJof different families attractinsects to the 
 i open mouth of their hollow leaves. The mouth is guarded 
 ! by short stiff needles which point downward. Over these 
 ! the descent of the insect is easy, a return difficult. In the 
 ' liquid of the hollow leaf insects are drowned, and scon de- 
 I compose. That the liquid thus enriched serves as food for 
 I the plant is not proved, but is probable. Minute ai>imals 
 j in water are entrapped by the leaf-appendages of hladder- 
 I icort. The stomach-shaped sacs have a mouth provided 
 with delicate hairs which converge within to form a funnel. 
 Through this guard minute organisms can pass in, but not 
 I readily out. The mechanism for entrapping is elaborate; 
 ' it is unlikely that the captures effected by it are not of ser- 
 I vice to the plant. Mr. Charles Darwin published an clab- 
 ; orate work on Itisectivoroua Plants [iSlo). G. L. GooDALE. 
 Insects. See Entomology, and the names of the orders 
 , and of impffftant species of insects. 
 
 j Insesso'res [pi., the Lat. for *'perchers**],a term used 
 by ornithologists in various senses. Some systematists 
 apply the term to a great sub-class, including the order 
 , Posseres (Oscincs, or "singers," Clamatores, or " crying- 
 i birds," etc.). the order Strisores.or ** shrieking birds," and 
 I the order Raptores, or "birds of prey." Others exclude 
 I the Kaptores from the order. But most popular authors 
 I make the term synonymous with "passerine birds," and 
 I consequently make the term a comparatively narrow one. 
 Insolvency [Lat. in, and solrrre, to " pay "], the state 
 of a person who is unable to pay his debts as they fall duo 
 or in the usual course of trade or business. Tliis is the 
 general and most comprehensive sense in which the term 
 is used, but in the English law until recently it was usually 
 employed in a restricted technical meaning, and was care- 
 fully distinguished from bankruptcy. A bankrupt under 
 the English system was a trader or merchant who had be- 
 come unable to pay his debts. Those only were termed 
 insolvents who were not traders or merchants, and could 
 not meet their obligations. In the legislation regulating 
 the distribution of a failing debtor's property among his 
 creditors the same distinction was preserved, and laws were 
 termed bankrupt or insolvent laws according as they ap- 
 plied to one or the other class of persons. The additional 
 distinction was also established that bankrupt laws ope- 
 rated to relievo a trader absolutely from his present in- 
 debtedness, while insolvent laws only discharged a debtor 
 from imprisonment, while they left his future acquisitions 
 still liable to the claims of his creditors. But even in Eng- 
 land these precise distinctions arc disregarded in recent 
 legislation, and it is declared in the latest bankrupt act, 
 which took effect on .Tan. 1, 1870, that all persons may be 
 I adjudged bankrupts whether they are traders or not. This 
 I statute contains the same general jtrovisions concerning the
 
 INSOLVENCY. 
 
 122'J 
 
 \ 
 
 adjudication of bnnkruptcy in reference to all classes of I 
 failing debtors, and makes no distincliou between them in 
 regard to the riglil to <.l,tain a discharge and the method of 
 procuring it. In the V. S. the accurate discrimination bc- 
 tvreen bankruptcy and insolvency which formerly prevailed I 
 in England has licvcr been observed in legislation. Stat- | 
 utes of the Slates have been termed insidvent luws which ] 
 were similar in their objects and the general nature of : 
 their provisions to the English bankrupt acts. There has, 
 however, been a somewhat different application of the | 
 terms bankrupt and insolvent in actual usage, though this 
 has depended upon other grounds of distinction. l!y the 
 U. S. Constitution power is given to Congress to establish 
 a uniform rule on the subject of bankruptcies throughout 
 the U. R. In pursuance of the authority given by this 
 provision, statutes have from time to time been enacted by 
 Congress which have been designated distinctively bank- 
 rupt acts. Those enacted before the act which is at pres- 
 ent in force were repealed within a few years after their 
 pa'^sage. and laws passed in the Slates severally upon the 
 subject took their place. These Slate statutes were gener- 
 ally termed insolvent laws by way of distinction from the 
 legislation of Congress, even though there was no material 
 difference in the general character of the provisions which 
 they contained. The discrimination, therefore, did not de- 
 pend upon the diverse nature of the laws adopted, nor upon 
 the different classes of persons affected by their provisions, 
 but upon the circumstance whether the legislature by which 
 they were enacted was a State body or the I'. S. Congress. 
 This distinction, however. <lid not rest upon any substan- 
 tial basis, and the terms '• bankruptcy " and " in.solvency " 
 were oflen employed interchangeably. It was decided 
 that a bankrupt law might contain those regulations which 
 were generally found in insolvent laws, and an insolvent 
 law might contain those which arc common to a bankrupt 
 law. The power given to Congress to establish a sysleni 
 of bankruptcy laws causes its legislation ujion the subject 
 to supersede that of the Stales. This was the effect of the 
 resent bankrupt act. which went into ojieration in ISO". 
 .t would, therefore, be of little imporlance to consider the 
 insolvent svstems of the several States as they prevailed 
 licforo the a"doplion of this act. They were all enacted for 
 the same general inirpose, to secure tho division of a fail- 
 ing debtor's assets proportionally among bis creditors, 
 liiough the regulations prescribed for the adainment of 
 this object were somewhat diverse. The provisions of tho 
 present bankrupt law will be found under the title li.iNK- 
 uiiPT. The supcrscdurc of the State insolvent laws by the 
 II. S. system of bankruptcy has been a salutary change, 
 since the regulations thus estalilisbcd by Congress have a 
 uniform effect and operation throughout all the States, and 
 controversies similar to those which previously arose in 
 regard to the effect in one Slate of decisions under tho in- 
 solvency laws of another can no longer occur. The opera- 
 tion of 'the law of ca.-h Slate upon the subject was conlined 
 to ils own limits, and a debtor's discharge obtained in one 
 Stale might be of no validity in another. 
 
 It is not an uncommon practice for insolvent debtors to 
 avoid the necessity of a resort to tho methods of obtaining 
 a discharge from "their indebtedness established by bank- 
 rupt laws, by a voluntary arrangement with their creditors, 
 who agree to accept a |iart paynieut in full satisfaction of 
 their claims, ami grant tho debtor a complete release. .Vn 
 agreement of this kind is technically termed " an agree- 
 ment for a composition," or simply " a composilion." This 
 is usually made by deed termed a "composilion deed," 
 though n'hen the indebtedness is based upon simple con- 
 tract the agreement may be made by jiarol— i'. r. cither 
 orally or by an instrument not under seal. The composi- 
 tion must in all cases be founded upon a sufficient consid- 
 eration or it will have no valiility. When the arrangement 
 is made with a single creditor, tho agreement which bo 
 makes to accept a certain percentage of the delit in full 
 satisfaction, even though it be followed by an acceptance of 
 the amount fixed upon, will not eonsliluto a consideration 
 and the arrangement will bo void. Even if a receipt be 
 given whiidi is expressed as being in full discharge of tho 
 claim, the debtor will still bo liable for tho entire debt. 
 That tho agreement may bo binding in such a case there 
 must be a new and independent consideration, such as tho 
 paynieut of a sum of money by a third jierson, or an en- 
 gagement by the debtor lo ]>ay the reilueed sum in a man- 
 ner or at a time more advantageous lo the creditor than was 
 originallv agreed upon, or there must be a release under 
 scab which imports a consideration. Hut nn arrangement 
 for a coni|iosition made with more than a single creditor 
 will be valid, though there be no independent consideration. 
 The benefit which each credilor gains by the engngemcnt 
 of the others to forbear, and tho conncqiienl securing of a 
 fund for the mutual benefit of nil, is a sufficient considera- 
 tion to sustain the agreement into which they mutually 
 
 enter. Tho composition deed or agreement is not required 
 to be of any special form. It may contain such reserva- 
 tions or conditions as the parties may choose to insert ami 
 make binding upon tlieinselves, provided these are not 
 fraudulent nor invaliil by general rules of law. Thus, it 
 is sometimes provided tiiat the agreement shall not bo 
 binding upon any of the creditors executing it until each 
 and every creditor who has a claim against the dcblor shall 
 also enter into the same compromise. So there may be a 
 reservation in the deed preserving the rights of a creditor 
 against the debtor's sureties, though it provides for an ab- 
 solute release of the dcblor himself, and contains a cove- 
 nant not to sue him. Such conditions will be held valid, 
 and will be enforced according to their terms. If they are 
 not fully complied with, the debtor will be liable to the ex- 
 tent of his original indebtedness. It is not necessary that 
 all the creditors of an insolvent enter into the composition 
 deed. If any less number agree to its terms. Ihey will be 
 bound by it, "anil will only be entitled to the perccniage 
 agreed lipon, unless they have qualified their acceptance 
 by the stipulation that the consent of all must be obtained 
 before any shall he bound. One partner may agree to a 
 composition of a partnership debt, and tho agreement will 
 bo binding upon the firm. A creditor's assent to a com- 
 position may be signified as well by surrendering debts 
 and taking composition notes as by executing a composi- 
 tion deed." But after such assent has once been given, in 
 whatever pro]>er modo it may be indicated, it cannot bo 
 subsequently withdrawn by the creditor without the debt- 
 or's consent if the agreement bo originally valid and be 
 properly fulfilled, liut if any one of the creditors be after- 
 wards refused the benefit which a faithful performance of 
 tho agreement would afford him, it will cease to be binding 
 upon him. So. unless payment of the sum stipulated in 
 the agreement for composition be made at the time ap- 
 pointed, the original debt is revived. Any creditor who joins 
 in a composition is not allowed to include in it only a portion 
 of his claim against the debtor, and sue for (he amount of 
 the residue. He must agree to a compromise of the entire 
 claim, or else avoid entering into the composition arrange- 
 ment. When a creditor signs his name to a composition 
 deed without specifying the amount of the indebtedness, 
 the agreement will be Inld ap]ilieable to the full amount of 
 his existing claim. After a eom|iOsition has been agreed upon 
 with several creditors, every agreement or arrangement by 
 which an advantage is secretly secured to any one of them 
 which is withheld from tho others is a fraud upon the credi- 
 tors from whom it is concealed, and consequently invalid. 
 No securities given in pursuance of such an agiecment will 
 bo enforceable. So, when there is an arrangement for a com- 
 position it is a fraud in any one credilor to sue the insolvent 
 contrary to tho terms of Ihc coni|ironiisc. Composilion 
 deeds and other agrecmcnls of a similar nature, if fairly 
 made and executed, and not invalidated b.y any subsequent 
 fraudulent transactions, will be duly carried into cfi'ect by 
 the courts. Tho validity of such arrangeiuenis depends 
 upon tho same principles as Ihe legal doctrine of accord 
 and satisfaction. (See Accoun ANn Satisfaction.) They 
 acconi)ilish practically the same results as bankrupt and 
 insolvent laws, by securing a ratable division of an iiistd- 
 vent debtor's assets among his creditors as a condition of his 
 full discharge. 
 
 Another modo by which insolvent debtors are accustomed 
 to secure a division of I heir property among their creditors, 
 without taking ailvanlage of bankrujit laws, is by making 
 an assignment in trust for the benefit of their creditors. 
 Tho assignee of tho property becomes a trustee, and the 
 creditors are ccs/iii's i/iie Inttl. Such a transaction is gov- 
 erned by the general rules jiertaining to all modes of as- 
 signment in trust, and the assignee slanils in the same posi- 
 tion with reference to his rights and defences against third 
 persons as tho assignor. He is under the same responsi- 
 bility as nil persons who are authorized to admiuislera trust 
 fund, and is held to a failbful discharge of his duly. Tho 
 mode of making the assignment and of distributing the 
 assets recciveil is frequently regululed by slalule. It is 
 also sometimes jirovided that a schedule of the debts paya- 
 ble and the available assets bo delivered losome magistrate. 
 with an aflidavil as lo ils accuracy, and also that the as- 
 signee shall give a bond with sufficient sureties. If the 
 assignment is fiauilulent, it may be set aside. liefore the 
 cnaelmcnt of tho U. S. bankrupt law a debtor might make 
 in some of Ihe Slates what were known as )iieferenlial as- 
 signments, by which the claim of one creditor might be 
 preferred lo that of anolher; but this act prohibits the 
 making of such nssignnionts within a specified time (two 
 in<tnths) before the filing of the petition in baukrupley. 
 Such an assignment, if made, is void, and Ihe assignee in 
 bankruptcy may recover the properly from the parl_\ receiv- 
 ing it. The claims of all the crcilitors must be paid propor- 
 tiolialcly. (iKouGi; CiiAsi;. Ki;visi;n uy T. W . IHvight.
 
 1230 
 
 INSPIRATION. 
 
 Iiispira'tiou [from the Lat. iiispinttio; Gr. eftn-f«vffi? 
 or iiirvtiv, to •• brciithe into " or " upon," to infuse into, to 
 inspire (llic soul) from some supernatural source. In tho 
 classics it may be the mind under the iulluence of any 
 divinity, but the New Testament, by the use of the adjec- 
 tive fltd:ri'eu(7T05 (2 Tim. iii. IC), defines this source to 
 be the one personal God], that superintending influence of 
 tho Holy Spirit over tlic minds of Scripture writers which 
 secures such a record as t!od designs. The subject is im- 
 portant, as attempting to answer the question. Have we in 
 tho Bible an infallible guide to religious belief and prac- 
 tice ? The method best adapted to an impartial considera- 
 tion of the moral evidence is — //■.■^ indications of the 
 superhuman origin of the Bible; moiirf, objections to the 
 same; and lliirti, specific inspiration. 
 
 I. SliPERlIt'MAN OltlGIS OF THE SlUIPTUBES. Of tho 
 
 lines of argument indicating this, tho following may here 
 bo given. 
 
 1. The Scripliirea nf the Old and iVew Tcftamnts coiisti- 
 lute a iinltjuc book, being (") the product of many writers 
 scattered over a pei-iod of ten centuries, and so without 
 tho possibility of consulting as to the design or character 
 of each other's writings; and yet, (h) though independent 
 compositions of many men in different ages, still a self- 
 consistent whole — a nniiij in doctrine and method, in both 
 respects unlike all other hooks. At the same time, (o) it 
 has a thoroughly historic basis and application, thus ren- 
 dering a unity, on the one hand, more difficult, and afford- 
 ing on the otlicr a valuable test of credibility. " This 
 alono sharply discriminates it from all other so-called 
 sacred books, from which the historic element is almost 
 wholly wanting." (Raijem.) (d) Tlirough great vencr.ition 
 for it. especially on the part of tho Jews, it has been pre- 
 served in such marvellous purity that the most careful 
 criticism and collation of manuscripts finds occasion for 
 few important, and very rarely of fundamental, ch.anges. 
 Furthermore, (c) that is true of the Bible which has been 
 realized in no other book — it can be translated into all 
 languages and still retain its import, its force, and, to 
 great extent, its beauty. 
 
 2. The ThiirovijUhi Mnnnlheistic Character of the Scrip- 
 tures in nr/alnsl the Siippoeitinii of their Unmun Orir/iii. — 
 For I'l) they were written at a time or times when all 
 nations were poly theists, and yet from beginning to end they 
 assert the existence of >,iie onli/ true God. Moreover, (b) 
 liow is it to be explained that monotheism should be taught 
 by a people whose " fathers worshipped other gods," and 
 who, once reclaimed, were disposed to relapse into idolatry ? 
 
 .'!. The Moralili/ a/ the llible nhnwH n Siipcriorili/ in ihear 
 reiprriii. — (a) It makes God supreme as «iic/i, and will not 
 allow human virtue to become separated from him or his 
 honor. Connecting morality with theology, it subordinates 
 virtue to religion, (b) In Scripture the heroic virtues most 
 highly applauded by men are regarded as inferior to the 
 pitn'.ire ones of forgiveness, patience, and submission, (c) 
 Its incentives to virtue are duty, God's will, his holiness, 
 his favor, and blessedness the fruit of holiness— quite un- 
 like those urged in the schools of philcisophy. It is to bo 
 allied (d) that its superior morality is nevertheless one 
 which, in its process of nllitinmciil, is in conflict with the 
 sentiments and current maxims of mankind. 
 
 •4. The Ileliqidm TcnchiiKj and Method of Scripture arc 
 Peculiar to iltelf. — If not in making God everywhere 
 supreme, and having for its dc«ign to set men right with 
 God, that Christianity, its religion, which is pre-eminently 
 the sum of its teachings, has many things that are «iii 
 r/cncriii. («) Its aii(/ior appears in a character altogether 
 his own— human, divine, man. God, both in one: without 
 beginning of days, yet in time inearnalo : sinless, yet dying 
 for^sinncrs. As the infidel Diderot confessed, it lies not 
 within the possibility of human genius to invent such a 
 character. (A) Tho Bible teaches salvation — impossible 
 without him — secured by and in the incarnate Son of God. 
 Hence, both as a possibility and in its method, salvation, 
 aa taught in Scripture, is divine and supernatural. {<■) 
 Notwithstanding this, rather in consequence of it, Chris- 
 tianity is represented to be exclusive of .all other religions. 
 But (rf) it allows no coercion, but leaves its claims, though 
 universal and morally inflexible, to the intelligent and 
 voluntary acceiitance of all, while yet, ('■) though allowing 
 no compromise of doctrine or metliod, an<l requiring faith 
 as the test of either, it boldly announces a certain and 
 abundant future «mccc»» to the Christianity which it advo- 
 cates. 
 
 5. Could the ITumnn Intellect Produce tuck a Hook .' — It 
 has, to a greater extent than any other book, held the at- 
 tention and enlisted the interest of mankind for centuries : 
 has shown itself adapted to the wants of all; "has gone 
 hand in hand with the moral and intellectual cnltivation 
 of the species ;" and *' its very presence as ,a believed book 
 has rendered tho nations emphatically a chosen race." 
 
 {Coleridge.) And if not from God. the Bible presents tho 
 fourfold anomaly; (") It would substitute for all human 
 the one God-ordained system, although the tendency of tho 
 race has ever been /ram God to man-devised religions. (A) 
 Nowhere else is human nature willing to represent itself, 
 as the Bible does, destitute of restorative energy, and re- 
 quiring a divine interposition to save it from itself. And 
 if proiluced by men, then (c) by a people whoso history it 
 condemns, whose belief it opposes, and whose morality was 
 not adapted to receive it ; and ((/) as no other hook has been 
 able to do even approximately, it has impressed the difl'er- 
 cnt chisses of its readers in all ages with a sincere and 
 reverential conviction of its diriuc ori;/lu. 
 
 II. Odjections. — These m.ay be jmt into three classes: 
 
 1. Those which seem to Invalidate the Claim of the llible 
 as bciiir/ from Hod. — Examples: Since all from the first 
 needed it, why was revelation delayed so long, and then 
 given to so few? If from God, why has the Bible, on tho 
 one hand, so many things insignificant, and, on the other, 
 many that are obscure? And how can a book which is 
 from God sanction cruelty and injustice? This whole 
 class of objections may first be met by analogy, like that 
 of Butler. Similar and equally weighty objections lie 
 against "the constitution and course of nature;" hence, 
 why should those who admit theism object to the word of 
 God because of what is found equally in the system nf 
 thini/s which he h.as ordained and controls? Analogy, in- 
 deed, can only silence objections by showing Xljust as rea- 
 sonable to admit the Bible as the course of nature to be 
 from God ; while the word of God often aids in surmount- 
 ing difficulties which Nature herself cannot do even in her 
 own sphere. For example ; in the course of nature war, 
 famine, and earthquake destroy the good and bad alike, but 
 when God orders Amaick destroyed the judgment is seen 
 to be penal, because that people is declared ripe for de- 
 struction. If the innocent Son of God is permitted to 
 sufTer for the guilty, this is justified by the work of grace 
 as a whole, which satisfies law and justice, and rises 
 higher than the possibility of pure law. And if it is for 
 man's good that many things lie before him in obscurity, 
 requiring patient study, as nature does, revelation is given, 
 it must be remembered, to those on probation, and that an 
 intellectual is necessary before and in order to a moral pro- 
 bation, and that both are best secured by a communication 
 of God's will neither too clear nor too obscure. 
 
 2. Objections Presumptive ufjainst Plenary Infpiratiou. — 
 Apparent discrepancies, inaccuracies, seeming conflict with 
 science. Tho objections cannot be here discussed seriatim, 
 hut the following remarks may indicate tho proper treat- 
 ment of them: (a) The language of sense and sight, not 
 of science, is alone adapted to all peoples and times, and 
 Scripture writers — who arc to be interpreted accordingly — 
 have wisely chosen the former. ('>) If a mistake is really 
 found in the Bible, if a date, a reading, a historic state- 
 ment, is prored to be wrong, tho correction is, in so far ^ to 
 be made, and can be, without invalidating other parts, (r) 
 Nothing is to be feared from the most thorough scientific 
 inquiry if it bo honest, but assumptions and hypotheses 
 should not disturb the biblical student until fully verified 
 and accepted in their appropriate field of science, (rf) Ki 
 in the past the most careful inquiry has lessened the num- 
 ber of supposed errors, so we have reason to believe it will 
 be in the future, and that science and Scripture will in the 
 end be admitted not to conflict. "With all the pains and 
 ingenuity which have been bestowed upon the subject, no 
 charge of error, even in matters of human knowledge, has 
 ever yet been substantiated against any of the writers of 
 Scripture. But even if it had been otherwise, is it not 
 conceivable that there might be infallible divine teaching 
 in all things spiritual and heavenly, whilst on mere mat- 
 ters of history or of daily life prophets and evangelists 
 might have been suffered to write as men?" (Prof. Brotme 
 of Cambridge, Eng.) " We have no means of settling def- 
 initely whether a posse pcccare in minor matters may or 
 may iiot be compatible with a divine revelation communi- 
 
 I eati-d through human media; but certainly till inaccuracies, 
 fairly and incontcstably proved to be so, are brought home 
 to tiie Scripture, wo seem logically justified in believing 
 that as it is with nine-tenths of the alleged contradictions in 
 Scripture, so it is with the alleged inaccuracy." (Ellicolt.) 
 :!. Objections from the Xotnre itself of Inspiration.— ll 
 has been said that a full inspiration should give idcniiii/ 
 of expression when tho same events arc narrated by differ- 
 ent writers: which is evidently not the case. And again, 
 that inspiration must involve a suspension of the writer's 
 own powers, but that intimation is given (hat they arc still 
 free. Further, that men. being themselves fallible, could 
 not be the media of infallible truth. And, moreover, as by 
 Kant, that the writers could not clearly distinguish a state 
 of inspiration from their own thought. To which class of 
 objections it is replied («) that iusjjiration must he neces-
 
 INSPIRED, THE— INSTALLATION. 
 
 1231 
 
 sarily a secret miracle, not cognizable by common con- 
 sciousness, but yet clearly so by those made the subjects 
 of it, and to be received on their testimony if credible men. 
 (6) No theory of inj-piration can be (enable which docs not 
 allow freedom and individuality in the writers. At the 
 same time («■) it is claimed f<»r the Scripture writers that. 
 though in themselves fallible, they arc kept from error in 
 that /or tchirh they are employed by the divine Spirit. 
 "Human instrumentality . . . has been moulded by the 
 Holy Spirit into the orj^anism of revelation — each ray of (he 
 divine li'^ht has hcen borne to mnDkind through the me- 
 dium best suited for its trunsmission ; and yet. while bor- 
 rowing in its course that particular hue which the medium 
 lends through which it passes, it retains, no less sensibly, 
 the purity of the source from wiiich it streams.*' (Lcr.) It 
 may be observed that objections to the inspiration of Scrip- 
 ture arc raised in one way or another from its human ele- 
 ment, and that it depends largely on the use made of this 
 what theory shall he adopted— whether the Bible shall be 
 received, and how fur. as infiillible. 
 
 III. SrKriFic iNsniRATioN. — The theories need to be dis- 
 tinguished and the proof given. 
 
 A. TiiDJRiEs. — These would group themselves into three 
 classes, according as the Bible is held to be not at ail from 
 Gotlf pnrt/i/ from him. or tthuUy from him. 
 
 1. Tlir liible h, t'n no Pccnh'itr Seuitr.from God, — Natural~ 
 inm or /'oHt'tirt'sin, ignoring a personal God, logically rejects 
 revelation; Panthchm, regarding everything alike divine 
 and inspired, can admit nothing to be peculiarly so; and 
 /iittionafitriii linds as much in Homer and Plato to call in- 
 spired as in Isaiah or Paul. 
 
 2, T/ie fiiblc in Partially fnnpired, since it CONTAINS, hut 
 IS SOT, a Hrrclatiun from dod. — Varieties are — {a) parts 
 only are inspired: (h) the writers possess a consciousness, 
 however high, differing, not in kind but in dctjrce only, 
 from* that of others, (c) There must be a '* unifying fac- 
 ulty" which is subjective. This class, in all its varieties, 
 finds it not difficult to assume dcf/rcrn of inspiration, but 
 not easy to determine the authority for Scripture; while, 
 moreover, the subjective state of tho individual becomes 
 the critrrion in each particular case. 
 
 It. T/ic fiihh, hriiiij fmm Gnd, poHHCHscs a Full luipfrn- 
 tion. — («) The mechanical theory of dictation, the writers 
 being mere amanuenses, would indeed give plenary in- 
 spiration, but not the manifold human clement, nor the 
 variety in style and freedom of the writers which every- 
 where prevail. It is hence to be rejected for (h) the dy- 
 namir theory, whieli holds to the divine superintendence 
 throui^hdut, but affirms the result to be gainecl through the 
 free activity of the writers' own minds. '* Inspiration is 
 that divine influence under which all parts of the Bible 
 have been committed to writing, whether they contain an 
 account of ordinary historical facts or the narrative of su- 
 jiernatural revelation." (Lcc.) If (Jod communicates his 
 will, it is through, as well as to, man, and in a genuinely 
 human form. But a distinction is to be made between 
 rrrrlntioit and tunpiration. The former refers rather to the 
 divine thought communicated — nut otherwise knowiiblc ; 
 the hitter, to the record of whatever truth (iod would have 
 recorderl. Hence, there may be revelation without inspira- 
 tion, as to Malaam and Xehuchadncz7.ar ; and inspiration 
 without revelation, as through all parts not directly re- 
 vealed. Tho Bible thus contains a rcrc^atioji, and is an 
 
 inspiration. 
 
 B. PnooF. — I. Presumptive. — f«) All the lines of argument 
 showing the Bible to bo superhuman ; r. <j. its brief, graphic, 
 but unaflorncd narrative, as in the Gospels; its simple com- 
 prehensiveness, as tho Ten Commandments, which con- 
 vinced an able but infidel Inwyer that they could not bo 
 human. (Sec under I. of this article.) {h) A revelatiim 
 grants d.nncl this because supernatural instruction is need- 
 ed, inspiration may bo presumed, since a mere human rec- 
 ord of whatever truth would not bo an infallible guide. 
 {'■) Tho doubtful attitude into which wc are tlirown by 
 denying inspirnlir»n favors it, since without this we could 
 have n<) uhjrctirc standard of religious truth binding on 
 all, and i<h inspiration may be precumed from the thor- 
 oughly harmonious commingling of the prophetic and 
 miraenlous with tho historic and diilactic ]>ortions, which 
 is evervwhcro found. If Scripture is the divine in the hu- 
 man, the human seems at all points nervadeil by the divine 
 like an incarnation. (.ScoT. \t<iw\9, hirinr- Human in Scrips 
 fure; also I. Taylor's Hrhrrw Poetry, and H. Uogers's Hit- 
 prrhuman f frit/in nf the lUldr.) 
 
 2. Mnrr Dirrrt. — (a) Tho Scripture writerfl distinguish 
 between a divine communication and their own subjective 
 sfate, false prophecy being subjective only, " prophets of 
 tho deceit of their own heart," the true having a valid 
 ground outside of their Own mind, like the rul] of a bonk 
 in whieh wa« written " the word of the Lord " (rf. .ler. xxiii. 
 L'.'i, L'l;, and Ezek. ii. 0, 10). (h) The wtitcis imply their 
 
 belief in the organic unity of Scripture by quoting and 
 using what others had said, all such utterances being treated 
 as binding; also, by assuming often a pregnancy of mean- 
 ing in the original words, (c) Inspiration of the Xcw 
 Testament writers. [Xutc. Paul, one of the most important 
 writers, was an apontU miravuluunly prejmrcd for this ofliec 
 (Gal. i. 11. 12). which he c^(j"mc</ f I Cor. ix. 1-6), and which 
 was admitted by others (Gal. ii. 0). Alt other New Testa- 
 ment writers were apostles, save Mark ami Luke. Whether 
 they wrote. .Mark under the supervision of Peter, and Luko 
 under that of Paul, or were t/i'rcct/y inspired, their writings 
 certainly have been more readily received than some other 
 portions. Hence, the argument for the inspiration of tho 
 New Testament is substantially that for tlie inspiration of 
 the apostles as such, and is summarily this :] ( 1 ) The apos- 
 tles were promised divine direction when arraigned as wit- 
 nesses : *' Take no thought how or what ye shall speak. It 
 is not ye that speak, but the Spirit of your Father that 
 f!peaketh in you "* (Mark x. 19, 20). (2) And were to ho 
 kept from mistakes in their ofliciai testimony: "The Spirit 
 of truth . . . will guide you into all truth, and he will 
 show you things to come" (John xvi. i:*.). Also in respect 
 to the past: "He shall bring all things to your rcinein- 
 brance" (John xiv. 2C). And (T.) The Spirit was to co- 
 operate in their testimony (cf. John xv. 2C, 27, with Acts i. 
 6-8). (4) They affirm their own inspiration: " Wc have 
 received . . . the Sjiirit which is of (Jod . . . that wc 
 might know the things of (iod, which things we speak, 
 not in words which man's wis<iom teaclieth. but whieh tho 
 Holy Ghost tcacheth" (I Cor. ii. 12, III; Eph. iii. 2-;>) ; 
 while (6) They assume without argument that others will 
 admit their inspiration: 'MVhen _ve received the word of 
 God which ye heard of us. ye received it not as the word 
 of men, but as it is in truth the word of God" (1 Thc?s. 
 ii. 13; iv. 8). Accordingly, (0) they speak and write 
 as for God and with his authority: " Maketh manifest 
 the savor of his knowledge by us in every place." (See Rom. 
 XV. l.'i-Ill: 2 Cor. ii. 11 : iii'.S ; iv. 5: v. 20.) (d) Inspira- 
 tion of the Old Testament. (I) The New Testament gives 
 proof of the inspiration of the Old, recognizing the three 
 parts of the Jewish Scriptures- — the Lnw or Pentateuch, by 
 referring to or quoting various passages, and saying. "God 
 commandcil," or "Ye reject the commandment of God;" 
 the Psalms ( Ilagiographa), as in Mark xii.36, '■* David said 
 by the Holy Ghost ;" and the Prophets, Luke xviii. .^1, etc. 
 Moreover, our Lord speaks of the customary divisions, and 
 then combines the three as *' Scrijjfurcs :" "An things must 
 be fulfilled which were written in the law of Moses and in 
 tho prophets and in the ptahus concerning me. Then 
 opened he their understandings, that they might under- 
 stand the SWiptures" (Luke xxiv. 44. 45). (2) Tiie Old 
 Testament contains in itself corroborative proof. For ex- 
 ample, the prophet jnust speak, though he might die ineon- 
 s'.qucnce. (Sec Jer. xxvi. 1 1-1 1.) Pn trudrrs wcvc to bo 
 severely punished even by dealli (cf. Deut. xiii. I-o with 
 Zcch. xiii. .*i and Jer. xxviii. 11-17). It is further sugges- 
 tive that direction was given to record hintorienl events: 
 " Moses wrote their goings out according to their journey- 
 
 ings, by thr rtanmnud/nrut of the Lord" {^utu. XXXlii. 1.2), 
 Finally, the Old Testament writers, like those of the New, 
 affirm that they speak in the name of the Lord: "Tho 
 Spirit of the Lord spake by me, and his word was in my 
 tongue. Tho God of Israel said :*' " Lest they should hear 
 the law and the words which the Lord of hosts hath sent in 
 his Spirit by the former prophets" (2 Sam. xxiii. 2, .'i ; 
 Zeeh. vii. 12). 
 
 Sueh is the outline of proof — necessarily of a moral eha- 
 racler. but found to bo cumulative — that in the ScripfnrcH 
 of the Old o;k/ AVip Testaments ice hare nn objective standard 
 /troriflrd by Hod himself a« an infallible yuidc to rvligious 
 belief nnd prarticc. J. It. IlruiiKK. 
 
 InspirotU The, or The Coinnninity of True I«- 
 
 spiniiion, a small sect of ('hristians who trace lluir 
 origin both to the old (icrman Mvsties and Pietists, and 
 through the" French Prophets" to thcCamisardsof France. 
 They accept the teaching of Bohmo anci Schwenkenfeld. 
 They reject the sacraments, (iractisc to some extent com- 
 munism in respect of property, nnd are evangelical in doc- 
 trine. They profess at times to receive divine inspiration, 
 passing into a somiuimbulistio state. They liave commu- 
 nities in Iowa nn<l Canada. From 1814 to 18j4 they had a 
 flourishing eoinmunity at Kbeni'zer, Wc^t Seneca tjt.. Erie 
 CO., N. v., u hence they removed to Amana, la. 
 
 Instnllil'tioii [Low Lat. r'li.and stallum, a " seat "], tho 
 oeremoniul act by which nn ordained minister is furnmlly 
 put in pos.'^ession of his ofllco and empowered to exercise 
 its functions and receive its emoluments. Tn the English 
 Church the <'eremoniul form differs according to the ofilco 
 conferred, and alsti the name, inthronitotion being the 
 tcchuioiil term in rcfercuco to a bishop, and iuduction for
 
 1232 
 
 INSTERBURG— INSTINCT. 
 
 the lower clergy, while iimtallalion properly refers to the 
 office of a canon or prebendary in a cathedral ehurch. In 
 the Congregational Church ol America the term applies to 
 all ministers, and is distinguished from orrfiimd'oii as being 
 the conlcning "f the pastoral office over a particular church. 
 Ill'stcrbiirg, town of I'russia, in the province of Prussia. 
 at the conftucncc of the Angerap and the Insler. It carries 
 on a considerable industry in weaving, tanning, brewing. 
 and distilling, and a brisk trade in corn and linseed. It 
 owes a great deal of its pmsperity to a number of Scottish 
 families which settled here in the seventeenth century. 
 Top. riSa. 
 
 lu'stilict [Lat. insliiiclwi. "incitement "]. Instinct, in 
 popular language, is generally contrasted with reason. It 
 is spoken of as an entity, a principle controlling the lower 
 animals, and peculiar to'thcm. Instinct more properly im- 
 jilies a peculiar mode of action which may ])rcvail in the 
 lower animals or man. It is a name for a class of impulses 
 and capabilities that give rise to actions apparently con- 
 nected with voluntary powers— actions for the benctil of 
 the actor, hut independent of intelligence. Instinctive acts 
 thus simulate intelligent action, while there is no compre- 
 hension by the actor of ends, or of means in relation to 
 ends. Such comprehension, wherever found, is the work 
 of intelligence. But instead of attempting at the outset to 
 frame a concise definition of instinct, we shall give a series 
 of definitions and explanations which will aid us in under- 
 standing the nature of instinctive actions, and their rela- 
 tions to functional and reflex action on the one hand, and 
 intelligent action on the other. 
 
 1. An iiitliiiri may be defined as .an impulse to a particu- 
 lar kind of action which the being needs to perform as an 
 individual or representative of a species, but which it could 
 not possibly learn to perform before it needs to act. In- 
 stinct, as a general term, jiroperly includes all the original 
 impulses (excepting the appetites) and that apparent 
 knowledge and skill which animals have without experi- 
 ence. There are some actions which have been regarded 
 as instinctive that are probably only refle.x; that is, actions 
 produced without volition, as the immediate eilect of some 
 stimulus. The stinging by a bee is plainly a reflex action, be- 
 cause the abdomen of the bee when severed from the thorax 
 will not only thrust out the sting, but will direct the sting 
 towards th J part that is ton died. But when the bee flics at 
 an enemy in defence of its nest, the act is instinctive, as that 
 term is generally nsed. The definition of reflex action has 
 been so extended by some as to embrace all the acts which 
 wo terra instinctive. ( Demnrtcs, Hirhi-rl .Spencer.) We can- 
 not, however, regard the return of fishes to their breeding- 
 places, the migration of birds, or the storing up of food by 
 animals of difl'cront kinds as in any proper sense reflex 
 actions. They are so complex, involve so much of timo 
 and space for their completion, and so simulate the wisest 
 and most skilful actions of intelligent beings, that they at 
 least deserve a specific name, which we have in the word 
 itiHlinctive. The activities properly denominated instinct- 
 ive may be classified into four grou)is: (n) Impulses aris- 
 ing beyond the sjiherc of the appetites, or ministering to 
 the appetites, as the impulse to migrate, to store food for 
 winter; also the desires so called in man. U') .Ability 
 (knowledge?) without instruction for meeting the demands 
 of the appetites and desires, and for doing those things 
 essential for the continuance of the individual and the 
 species, (c) Ability (skill?) without instruction or prac- 
 tice to carry out the plans necessary for the good of the 
 species, as the various methods of securing food, the build- 
 ing of nests, and care of young, (il) -Ability (knowledge?) 
 arising independently of any demand of the appetites, as 
 recognition of certain enemies without instruction or ex- 
 perience. 
 
 Three things are involved in the highest manifestations 
 of those activities which are together labelled Ixstixct — 
 impnhi'. kiioirlnlyc, and aki'll. or an iihiHiii that in action 
 simulates both knowledge and skill. In the animal king- 
 dom, as now existing, wo find impulses to .specific actions, 
 and so much of apparent knowledge and skill belonging 
 to each species as shall enable its members at birth to he- 
 gin life successfully; just as a certain completeness of or- 
 gans is given to them at birth that the vital processes may 
 go on to perfection. .\s the physical .system develops, new 
 instincts are developed to secure the proper use of organs 
 and the proper relations of the whole being to the world. 
 However the result may have been securctl, we now find, as 
 a matter of fact, that structure, function, and instinct in 
 all species supplement each other in a wonderful manner. 
 The special manifestations of instinctive action illustrative 
 of these general propositions are exhibited by animals, 
 chiefly, in the following manner: (1) By those acts that 
 supplement physiological functions, as in the choice of 
 food, the methods of securing it, and the union of the sexes. 
 
 (2) By the natural recognition of certain enemies, and by 
 those specific acts to avoid them, common to all members 
 of the same species. (3) By the use of special structures, 
 as the fang of the rattlesnake for defence and the use of 
 the oil-gland by fowls in dressing their feathers. (J) By 
 those acts necessary for the existence of communities of 
 difterent kinds of individuals, as in the ease of bees and 
 ants, where individuals from the same mother have difl"er- 
 ent instincts, but all working together for the welfare of 
 the .s])ecies. (Sec Bke and .\nt. ) (5) By the development 
 of special impulses incidental to the ])arcntal relation for 
 providing for and defending the young. (See Daibdii.) 
 (G) By the structure of complicated homes characteristic 
 of difi'ercnt species. (7) By the peculiar impulses of the 
 young, by which they are at once brought into proper re- 
 lations to their parents and the world. The young of our 
 hoof-bearing aninmls, for instance, must seek the udder for 
 themselves, as the m'jther cannot aid them. (8) By the 
 change of impulse and habit in different stages of existence 
 of tho same individual for its own advantage, as among 
 insects. (0) By those impulses and actions of animals de- 
 manding certain changes in other beings to complete their 
 work, as the formation of oak-galls to complete the work 
 of the insect in providing for its young. (10) By tho 
 many cases in which the instinctive act exactly supple- 
 ments structure and function, as in the honey-bee, which 
 has the function in the rings of its body of secreting wax, 
 and in its m.andibks instruments for forming a cell. In- 
 stinct prompts the bee to use the iustrunient and the prod- 
 uct of its function to construct its comb. {Sec Bkk.) (11) 
 Bv the interaction of tho instiuct of the mother and that 
 of the young, as when the fowl gives the note of warning, 
 and the young instantly scatter from her and hide, because 
 she cannot protect them. (12) By those cases, as among 
 fishes and many insects, in which the young never sec the 
 parent, never have an opportunity to learn from one of 
 their kind, and yet instinctive impulse directs them in the 
 same way and in the best way in all the exigencies of life. 
 A careful study of the subject shows the great difliculty 
 of distinguishing instinctive action from reflex on the one 
 hand and from intelligent on the other. This difliculty 
 arises from the fact that the difi'ercnt kinds of acts are often 
 alike in their results; and in the chief fielil of their mani- 
 festations — that is. among the lower animals — wo have no 
 means of determining their nature but observation as to the 
 method and the condition of the action. Whether there is 
 among them conscious relation of the actor to the act it is 
 imjiossible for us to learn, except by inference. Reflex 
 and instinctive acts are both in the same line, for the ben- 
 efit of the individual in whieli they appear, or when against 
 the welfare of the individual they are for the welfare of 
 the species to which he belongs. As bnth classes of acts 
 are in the same line, and are alike in their results, it be- 
 comes diflienlt, not to say impossible, to apply a satisfac- 
 tory test for determining the class to which certain acts 
 belong. The young bird jnst from the egg raises its head 
 and opens its bill to receive food. Whether that act is sim- 
 ply reflex, or belongs to those acts properly denominated 
 instinctive, we cannot certainly determine. But tho act is 
 in tho same line as the instinctive work of the bird when, 
 becoming older, it seeks food for itself. Instinctive acts 
 commend themselves to reason as tho best possible for the 
 being that performs them : and in the lower animals they 
 so simulate intelligent action, and seem to be so intimately 
 joined to it in man, that it is here also very diflienlt to 
 apply in a satisfactory manner any test for distinguishing 
 one kind from the other. Hence arises the difficulty of 
 proving that the lower animals ever perform any acts 
 higher in kind than instinctive. They plainly learn by 
 experience, and as a consequence of that experience per- 
 form acts that they would fail to perform without it. They 
 come to have great power in interpreting the actions and 
 words of men. Many facts seem to imply that there is in 
 some of the higher animals an apprehension of means in 
 relation to ends. As before intimated, such an apprehen- 
 sion is inlclligence. 
 
 Instinctive impulses appear in man, and the instinctive 
 principle of action plays an important part even in his 
 higher nature. Hamilton says: "We can hardly find o 
 more snitablo expression to indicate those incomprehensi- 
 ble spontaneities themselves, of which the primary facts of 
 consciousness are the manifestation, than rational or hitct- 
 heliinl iiitlinrte." (.Vt^o/)., Bowen's ed.. p. 205.) I'res. Hop- 
 kins says: " What is conscience but a rational instinct, a 
 guide without comprehension, but rational, because it re- 
 veals itself as the voice of Hod, which all instinct is with- 
 out thus revealing itself?" {Mor. Science, 1st ed., p. 244.) 
 The impulse of worship seems to be plainly instinctive. It 
 is sure to appear in some form under proper conditions. 
 
 Tliciirici. — The prevailing theories in regard to instinct- 
 ive action may in the main be reduced to three: (1) That
 
 INSTITUTE OF FRAN'CE, TIIK. 
 
 12:!;] 
 
 these impulses nnd capabiliiios were the direct c<ff of the 
 Creator to each species a.-* its essential outtit. This theory 
 would be satisfied with the doctrine of special creations, or 
 the doctrine of evolution according to a plan, by which new 
 organs and new instincts are co-ordinated in the evolution 
 of new species from one form, as the organs and instincts 
 of the individual are co-ordinated in its evolution from the 
 e»». The essential thing in this theory is tliat each species 
 shall have as an original gift all tho:jc instinctive powers 
 and capabilities essential to its existence as a species and 
 the development of its members as individuals. (Sec 
 EvouTiov.) (2) That what we call instinct is simply the 
 accumulate'! results of individual exjieriouce, fixed by rep- 
 etition and received by the living races by inheritance. 
 Kvery instinct, according to Lewes, is an "organized ex- 
 perience," a "lapsed intelligence" (A'n^fre, Apr., 1873); 
 **it^ genesis fis] from actions that at first were tentative, 
 in other words intelligent " fA-'>/(/*>nM n/ Li/f nwl Mind, 
 vol. i. pp. 20S, 209). {.1) Mr. Darwin, while allowing that 
 some intelligent actions may become converted into in- 
 sfincts, and bo inherited, claims for the greater number of 
 complex instincts an entirely different origin; that is, 
 "through the natural selection of variations of simpler in- 
 s*inctive actions" (Ihireut o/ .IA/m, vol. i. p. :J7)— varia- 
 tions that arise from unknown causes. IIo thus attempts 
 tu explain the most complex ca.«es of instinctive action. 
 The full discuRsioD of his theory as a whcdc, and the spe- 
 cific oases under it, would require more space than we can 
 give. (See Chadboume's InntSnct in Atiimatit and Man.) 
 
 The impulses of animal life arc functional, as the appe- 
 tites, or instinctive, as the desires. In the animal king- 
 dom, as it now exists, the impulses find their expression 
 through complex directing powers that supply for these 
 lower animals the place of acquired knowledge and skill in 
 man. In specific simple acts instinctive action depends 
 upon the impression made upon the senses. Instinct may 
 thus bo deceived by appearances. In many cases we find 
 instincts the exercise of which immediately after birth is 
 essential to life, as the instinct of the young mammal to 
 seek the udder. We cannot conceive of a time when such 
 an instinct was not essential to all such animals. If wo 
 attempt, with Darwin, to explain the comb-making instinct 
 of the honey-bee by the influence of natural selection in 
 preserving those swarms that built best, because they used 
 less honey in making wax {Orifjin nf Spf^riet), wo cannot 
 help asking how we shall account for the similar six-sided 
 cells in the nest of the wasp, where no honey is used for 
 making wax and no food stored for winter. We can only 
 state as a fact that we find each species as it now exists 
 endowed with such instincts as enable it as a whole to hold 
 its place in the world against all ordinary contingencies. 
 We find these impulses and directive powers arising in in- 
 dividuals as naturally as the difi'erent organs develop by 
 growth. The young animal comes into the world with a 
 physical organization suflicient for carrying on the work 
 <»f the physical system to perfection, and with instinctive 
 impulses and capabilities sufficient for beginning and car- 
 rying on the same work. While physiological forces carry 
 on the growth within the body, instinctive forces adjust 
 the relations of the animal to the external world. Through 
 flii'se impulses and activities all animals are urgeil on to 
 their end in that course best for the species as a whole. 
 
 lu man the instinctive impulses are never wholly self- 
 directive, but are conditional for the action of that rational 
 niiture through which man as a free agent seeks his own 
 en»l. (Consult Kirby's /irii/ffeicnt^'r Trrntiiir: Wood (J. G.), 
 IfnnicM irith'tut Ihiufh: Bain, The. Sruttm and the fntrlirrt.- 
 Lewes (<i. H.), I'l-'tbitmn o/ Lift- and Mind; Diirwin, Oi'i- 
 fjin of S fir r tin, De»c*iit of Man, etc. ; Wallace, Xatural Sc- 
 ffit'tion; Spalding, Mncmiilan'n Mag., Feb., 1873 ; Flourens 
 (P.), I)e I'lit/itinct ft r/iiteffiffrnrr d't Animaitx; Chad- 
 bourne. fnntinrt in AnimrtU and Man,) P. A. CiiAluiorRNK. 
 
 In'MtituCe of Francey The, occupies a unique posi- 
 tion amongst the learned societies and academies of Ku- 
 r(»pe. " Many countries," says Ernest Uenan (himself a 
 member of the Institute), "have academies which may 
 rival ours by the fame of their members and by the im- 
 piirtance of their works. France only has an In»iitut 
 where all the efforts of the humiin mind are bound together 
 in one shenf ; where the poet, the philosopher, the histo- 
 ri;in, the phibdogist, the critic, the mathematician, the 
 physician, the astronomer, the naturnlist. the chemist, the 
 lawyer, the sculptor, the painter, and the musician may 
 call themselves comrades." 
 
 As early as l.'i7li, Franco had begun to imitate the Ital- 
 inn^ in the matter «f academies, but it was half a century 
 later before its famous Academy arose. In a time of in- 
 tellectual activity literary coteries and clubs naturally 
 flourish. To one of these knots of literary men Uichclicu 
 made a proposition that they should be converted into a 
 corporate body. With some hesitation tbo ofTor was oo- 
 Vol.. IT.— 7A 
 
 oepted. The king's letters patent were issued early in 1G35, 
 nnd after two years an<i a half more the sanction of the 
 Piirliamrnt of Paris was obtained, and the Aradftntc 
 Frant;aiin- came into existence, the first learned society 
 endowed and erected into a corporation. Its chief aim was 
 to fix the standard of the language, and a dictionary was 
 the thing first thought of. This has notatlvanced very far, 
 and is less likely to be completed now than when it was 
 first undertaken. A less elaborate dictionary was issued 
 under its supervision in Hi'J4, and has since been frequently 
 reprinted. In order to flatter the inordinate vanity of 
 Louis XIV. a committee of the Aeatlemie were entrusted 
 with the task of drawing inscriptions for medals, etc. in 
 commemoration of his glories. In this manner ci>mmenccd 
 the Acadtmicdes InncriptiouH et //r//c«-A<'^/re«, which after- 
 wards devoted itself with great spirit to the study of an- 
 tiquities. In IfiOO, Colbert founded the Acadrmie dea Sct- 
 encfg; between IGtS and 1671 arose three more academies, 
 sculpture and painting, music, and architecture, which at 
 the last-named date became the Arad^mi*: den licanr Artft. 
 These learned societies were all <lissolved by the National 
 Convention in 1791. The Revolution did not seek to dis- 
 courage literature and learning, but to break the conti- 
 nuity which bound thera to the royal and aristocratic past 
 of Freneli history. For the continuance of their work the 
 same c<mvention in 1795 called into existence the Institut, 
 which was in almost every way the heir of the older asso- 
 ciations. The three men who had the greatest share in the 
 framing of its constitution were Lakaual, Daunou, and 
 Carnot. It was divided into three classes, which were re- 
 spectively charged with the advancement of ( I ) physical 
 sciences and mathematics, (2) moral and political sciences, 
 (.1) literature and fine arts. The Directory nominated 48 
 persons, a third of the members, and these elected the re- 
 mainder. Some changes were introduced by the First Con- 
 sul, wlio looked with suspicion ujion a body which might 
 be expected to unite intellect and independence. The 
 modifications of 1803 were in some respects improvements. 
 They involved, h<)wcver, approval of the chief of the state 
 for each election, and provided that moral and political sci- 
 ences shonid only be studied in their relation to history. 
 Whilst mathematics and physics flourishcil by the aid of 
 Lagrange, Bertbollet, etc., the literary sections displayed 
 comparatively little spirit. In 1807 they undertook the 
 continuation of the Ilistoire liltrrairt- dc Ai France, com- 
 menced by the Benedictines. The Restoration was as 
 eager to link the institutions of Franco with its monarch- 
 icalpast as the Revolution had been anxious to destroy their 
 continuity. Tho Institute indeed escaped destruction, but 
 a roval ordnnnaucc in ISIG, after naming the foundation 
 of tbo old academies as one of the glories of tho ancestors 
 of Louis XVIII., declared that it was right and proper 
 {cnm^enahlr) to restore to each class of tho Institute its 
 original name, in order to bind together their ancient glory 
 with that which they had since acquired. Tho opportu- 
 nity was taken of depriving twenty-two persons of their 
 right of membership. David tho painter, Monge, Lakanal, 
 and Siey^s were amongst the illustrious victims of royal 
 spitefulness, an<l their places were supplied by nominees of 
 the Crown. Tbo unity which had been one of the aims of 
 tho Institute was l)roken. During tho Restoration it lan- 
 guished. Tho revolution of July (lid something to improve 
 upon tho feebleness and intriguing spirit with which it 
 hail become infected. Guizot in 1832 restored the class 
 which Napoleon had supjiresscd. Ten of its old members 
 were fouml, and they constituted the nucleus of the present 
 Arailrmiv drn SciciiccH moral* s ft p(ditii/iit>'. The fear of 
 socialism, which reigns perennial in the well to-do French- 
 man's breast, led Cavaignao to ask tho aid of this Academy 
 in combating the communistic ideas of the wearer.s of 
 blouses. They complied, and produced a volume of small 
 treatises which, as Renan remarks, j.robably had not a 
 single reader amongst those whom ibey wanted to convert. 
 In its present organization the Institute is made uj) of five 
 distinct academies, each having its own officers, meetings, 
 publications, etc.: (H Tho Aradrmir Franraitir. Its origin 
 has alreiidy been given. The number of members is re- 
 stricted tn forty. The elections have not always depended 
 upon merit alone. The old Academy rejected Moli("^rc, and 
 tho influence of Monsignor Dujianloup, bishop of Orleans, 
 suflleed to procure the rejection of LittrC' on bis first can- 
 didature. Tliat the Academy which in 2011 years has not 
 got past the letter (! of its dictionary should blackball tlie 
 man who single-handed accomplished the neglected labor, 
 is indeed a striking proof that the highest culture is not 
 suffleiont to ensure eitiier the presence of justice or tho 
 absence of bigotry. A body like the .Academy is generally 
 conservative, yet in 1827 it had the courage to address the 
 king in opposition to the laws for tho restriction of the 
 press. The Academy has the functions of a high jury. 
 The French, with their passion for liberty, have also a pro-
 
 1234 
 
 INSTITUTES-INSURANCE. 
 
 dilection for authority, and the approhation of the Academy 
 is one of the prices to which young authors look forward. 
 The Academy is rich. The annual allowance fron, the 
 state is about" Si.OOO francs, a good part of wh.ch goes m 
 member"- allowances. The prices for eloquence and poetry 
 X"rb 1000 francs. Whether any prii^j poem wdl ever go 
 down to posterity may be doubted. The Montyon pr.ze 
 for™rtue is well known: 20,000 francs "e .vearly d.v d.^ 
 amon-t poor persons who have distinguished themselves 
 r some s'^eeiallv virtuous act. Montyon also left a yearly 
 •ri^eTo rew.ard the publication of the book most eondncn-e 
 public morality. De Toef,uevillc-s work on An,er.ean 
 de^c acy is perhaps the most not,0,le book wh.eh has re- 
 ceived this diltinction. The prU- Gohert. founded m IS.W, 
 's for the most eloquent work relating o the h.story of 
 Fr'nee Thierry and H. Martin have been amongst its 
 Faureale^. It amounts to 10,000 francs. There are many 
 other prizes. In ISBfl the emperor created a f and b.en- 
 niarnri e of 20,000 francs to be awarded m turn to he 
 special Tudes represented by each of the five academies. 
 T^l e n s tTwhom^t was awarded was M. Tluers. who un- 
 meaiately presented it to the Academy for the foundation 
 of an annual prize of :i000 francs. 
 
 (2) The Arn.U'mie rf« I„s«-;pl!ous el Ilel!c.-Lclt,-es.--lt 
 has 40 ordinary, f honor.ary. 8 foreign assncates and oO 
 correspondingmembers. It has the distr.bnt.on ot variou 
 pre the most important being that fonndod by Gobert 
 Fo th^most learned'work relating to the h.story of France 
 (31 The Acndlmk dcs .SV,V„c.», having 6o ordinary 10 
 honorary. 8 foreign, and 100 corresponding members. The 
 r^t brilliant names in French science have adorned the 
 roll of this academy. Arago, Ampere Gay-Lussac in the 
 new, as Lagrange, Laplace, Ilauy in the old have made it 
 °rtrTo„s.° The descriptions of French '/f .^'. .h". '"^^P^- 
 etc issued by the old academy were useful in their da^ 
 and have still their value. In the new academy assoc.ated 
 tork has been left aside, and it is the indu-idual labors of 
 Us members which are chronicled in the Complcs revdm 
 This, by its frequent publication, is now the most^important 
 scientific periodical. The eight foreign members of the 
 academy may be regarded as those whom a eompetent 
 though not always nnprejudiced jury regard ^^ 'he most em- 
 inent men of science out of France. It is related tha when 
 Dalton, during his visit to Paris, attended a session (in his 
 en acitV of foreign member), those present stood up in h, 
 honor, a compliment which was not paid to the emperor 
 when he joined their body. , , .a j- „.„ in 
 
 (4) The Arademie cU, Beaux Arts has 40 ordinary, 10 
 honorary, 10 foreign associate, and 40 eorrespoud.ng mem- 
 bers. It distributes a number of prizes and has published 
 
 a dictionary of the tine arts. 
 
 (51 The 'Ae,«{fmie dca Seieuces morales et pnhtuiues has 
 40 ordinary, B honorary, 6 foreign associate, and 40 corrc- 
 
 ^''"^i'chfs'th'e"manner in which the Institute i. divided. 
 All the year there are five academies but on the 14th oi 
 Au-ust the Institute holds a general meeting of all the 
 secUons of which it is composed. There ,s a line and rare 
 mriry attached to the Ins.itut. Each member receives 
 a salary of 1500 francs, and the s6creta,res perpeluels Imo 
 fifloV francs per year. The Institute is a creation of which 
 FraLmay'wel be proud. Beyond the personal renown 
 oi its members and the value of their labors, the organiza- 
 tion of the Institute shows that Its founders had a clear 
 sense of the udidarite of knowledge-a unity sometimes lost 
 sight of in our own age, when nearly every savant is a 
 spec alist. The tr.adition of the old academies lias stereo- 
 typed the Internal form of the Institute, and probably pre- 
 vented a -rowth and classification of its sections more in 
 accordance with the present state o^^-;';-;-^, ^ ^^^^ 
 
 Institntes (of Jistini.in). See Law, by Prof. T. W. 
 DwiGiiT, LL.D. „. 
 
 Institii'tion [Lat. >laU,ere in, "to establish on J, a 
 word which is especially used in the plural, and applied to 
 a scries of doctrines and to some establishments. 1 or in- 
 stance, there are political, judicial, theological, medical 
 charitable, and other inslitutions. It applies more to the 
 immaterial aim than to the material and practical repre- 
 sentalion of said institutions. A political institution mean 
 a whole set of such or such doctrines, rather than the kind 
 of government entrusted with their application. A med- 
 ical institution applies to the intellectual part of the con- 
 cern, and not to the building in which the intellectual and 
 medical programme is carried out. When ""-Vhi'dy speaks 
 of the " poUtical institutions - of the U. S., he thinks more 
 of the .,).>.•( of the political principles embodied in he 
 American Constitution than of the letter of that Consti- 
 tution, which provides for the organization of a Congrc s 
 of a supreme court, and other practical .applications of the 
 Dcclar-ation of Independence. FiiLix Av'CAloE. 
 
 Insnr'ance [from in and «iirp], in its most general def- 
 inition, is a contract whereby one agrees, for a suui of money, 
 to indemnify another in case the latter shall suffer loss by 
 certain specified risks. It is termed vmrme or J,re accord- 
 in.' as it is applied to maritime or fire risks. It was un- 
 known to the ancients, and had its origin in the exigences 
 of modern commerce. It was first applied to mercantile 
 adventures. The fear of pecuniary rum by the loss ot 
 ship or cargo checked the spirit of enterprise. Few were 
 so wealthy as to he able to hear alone so great a loss, but 
 bv dividing the risk amongst many it was seen that the in- 
 convenience to each of the proportion of loss which he as- 
 sumed might become trivial. Thus originated the practice 
 of insurance, which has for its purpose to break the force 
 1 of the blow of calamity by increasing the power of resist- 
 i ance Though known and practised amongst th" commer- 
 1 cial communities of Southern Europe at a much earlier pc- 
 ; riod it was a comparative novelty in England in the time 
 ! of Elizabeth. During the last century, however, it has 
 1 received an immense development, until now every prudent 
 I person who has property at risk takes care to seek shelter 
 i under a p.dicv of insurance. Tlie principles which under- 
 lie the contract are substantially the same to whatever sub- 
 ieet-matter they may be applied, modified only as the 
 peculiarities of the different risks assumed may require. 
 Its fundamental principle is indemnity for loss; and so 
 far as it is made the means of accomplishing more than 
 this it pas!-es over into the domain of speculation and leads 
 to the mischiefs of gambling. It is a personal «!>'■•."<"- 
 I insuring not the thing, but the person interested m Us 
 preservation, against loss to him by reason of injury to it 
 The person who undertakes to pay in crise of loss is termed 
 the insurer; the danger against which he undertakes, the 
 risk- the person protected, the insured; the sum which he 
 pays for the protection, the premium ; and the con raet it- 
 .elf when reduced to form, the policy. So general if not 
 universal, was the use of a policy in the early history of 
 the contract that until quite recently it has been doub ed 
 whether writing was not essential to the vali.lUy of the 
 contract- but it is now conceded that both a verbal agree- 
 ment to issue a policy and a verbal agreement to insure are 
 valid, even though the contract covers a period of tunc 
 longer than one year, as the contract may be determined 
 by the happcnin'g of the event insured against^ within a 
 year, and 'so is not within the statute of frauds. Even 
 corporations, which, under the ancient stringency of the 
 common law, could only bind themselves Kv a con ract 
 under seal, it is now held, may contract verbally by then 
 officers or other agents. All persons competent to make 
 other contracts may be parties to this. Formerly, and to 
 some extent at the present day, as in the case of the 
 "Lloyd's"— a society of private capitalists who meet at 
 Lloyd's subscription-rooms in London, and subscribe to 
 such proportions of the risks there offered as they may 
 feel inclined to-the business was carried on by private 
 underwriters; but the superior advantages of public com- 
 panies now give them the chief control. Policies are for 
 
 panics now give mem me cu,... ^„,.,.«.. - ■ ■■ 
 k sum agreed upon to be paid in ease of loss, hence called 
 valued- or for whatever the amount of the loss may prove 
 to be, hence called open : for a fixed time or for the voyage, 
 hence called time or voyage as the case may be The con- 
 tract is complete and binding when the parties have agreed 
 upon all its terms, and, if entered into by correspondence, 
 when the letter accepting the terms offered is depositetl in 
 the oflice for transmission in due course of mail If the 
 terms are agreed upon and the policy is made, it will bo 
 valid and bimling without delivery if it be the understand- 
 in- of the parties that it shall become operative from and 
 affer a certain act. The law will not permit an illegal bus- 
 iness or an unlawful enterprise to be encouraged by insu- 
 rance Nor will U permit the insurance of an interest the 
 protection of which would manifestly tend to evils which 
 would more than counterbalance the advantages of insu- 
 ranee. Seamen's wages, for instancc^eannot be insured as 
 this would tend to render them indifl-crent o the safety of 
 the ship upon which their wages depend. W hatever, how- 
 ever, does not contravene good morals or sound public 
 po V may receive protection. Subject to these l'""'"''""^- 
 Lv propertv or interest in its preservation may be the sub- 
 1 1ect-ra'tter-of the contract. Policies without -his ,n erest 
 io support them are wager policies, and are prohUii cd as a 
 specierof gambling and a temptation to fraud and crime 
 ; T^he insurance, however, in the same policy o a lawful "'.d 
 i a prohibited interest will not vitiate the policy as to the 
 ulZl interest if it be separate and distinct. Insurable 
 interests are as manifold as the relations of indu uhials to 
 propertv. Whoever owns property, whether by an abso- 
 ute^ r qualified, legal or equitable title, or any . uteres in 
 propertv, or has upon him the duty or in him the right to 
 rrofect and preserve if. may insure it to the extent of his 
 nterest or liability. The owner of a vessel or house, the
 
 INSURANCE. 
 
 12o 
 
 moves on her way. ami ends, in the absence of express 
 stipulation, when she has been moored in safety nt her port 
 of desi illation. Like a voluntary deviation, a substantial 
 alteration in the property insured against fire, such as to 
 make the risk in kind a'dilfcreiit one from that assunK<l, 
 
 mortgagee or lessee, e.tccators, administrators, and trus- 
 tees, common carriers and bailees generally, consignors, 
 supurcargties, whose compensation depends upon the suc- 
 cess of the voya^je, or under instructions to land goods and 
 wait for a market, captors and salvors having a well- 
 founded expectation of an allowance out of the property 
 captured or saved, and sheriffs and l^ther officers of the law 
 having the care and custody of property, may severally 
 insure their respective interests. The insurability of the 
 
 interest depends not at all upon its value, provided it has . , . ,,„„„.,.,., 
 
 some value- nor is it any objection .hat several interests in ! terations. the insured could neillur ,,reser>e his pro pirtj 
 fomewiiuL, iiui 15 in...., V J _ ___^ ^^^^^ decay nor avail himself of improved methods of 
 
 will avoid the policy. Ordinary uml reasonable changes 
 and repairs, however, made in gooil faith for the due pres- 
 ervation of the property or prosecution of the business, 
 will not vitiate the jiolicy, although alterations increasing 
 the risk are forbidden. If such rejiairs were deemed al- 
 
 tho same property are coineidenlally insured. The mort 
 gagor may insure' to the full value of the jiroperty, and the 
 mortgagee or successive mortgagees may nt the same time 
 insure t'o the amount of their several interests, and each 
 may recover, in ease of loss, to the extent of the several 
 amounts insured, though the aggregate of these may much 
 exceed the entire value of the property. .V iiartnir may 
 insure the entire stork of the copartnership, being inter- 
 ested in the whole, out of which to realize his share, and 
 for the same reason, no doubt, a stockhobler in an incorpo- 
 rated company may insure the entire property of the com- 
 pany to the amount and for the protection of his interest. 
 The vendee in possession of real estate under a contract 
 partly perf.inncd, but not enforceable at law or in equity, 
 since" the venilor may not refuse to perform, an insolvent 
 debtor, in the possible surplus which may come to him after 
 payment of his deiits. and the niechanic who has a lien 
 upon the building for labor or materials furnished, have also 
 insurable interests. The interest must subsist at the time 
 of elTccling the policy ancl at the time of the loss, though 
 it need not continue the same in amount or wiihnut inter- 
 ruption. If an insured vessel be solil, ami repurchased 
 during the time covered by the policy, the policy will cease 
 to protect during the period of alienation, but will reat- 
 tach anil protect after the repurchase. Slocks of goods 
 may be sold anil replaced by others under the same ]iolicy. 
 The shifting interests of a mortgagee who makes advances 
 and receives payments from time to time may likewise bo 
 prnteeted. 
 
 The policy is generally issued upon an application con- 
 taining certain statements descriptive of the property in- 
 sured and the circumstances affecting the risk. These 
 statements are termed representations, and if by reference 
 or otherwise they arc made part of the policy, they are 
 termed warranties. A warranty is an agreement that a 
 fact is as stated, or some future act or omission shall bo as 
 promised, upon penally of forfeiture of all rights under the 
 poli.'y if the statement prove untrue or the iironii.so be not 
 kepi : while a representaiiun, being no jiart of the contract, 
 but only an inducement thereto, need be true only so far as 
 is material to the risk. Untruthfulness or mistake in a 
 
 , will not avoiil 
 
 business— a result which neither party can be presumed 
 to contemplate. Alterations in the surrounding circum- 
 stances, as in the erection of new buildings and changes 
 not under the control of the insured, unless by special 
 stipul.ation. are not imputable to him. If the insurer will 
 i.rotect himself to this cxient, he must so stipulate in 
 clear and express terms. In point of fact, however, the 
 rates of premium are based upon an assumed liability for 
 such risks; nor would any (irudent person accept a |Mp!icy 
 which did not protect him" from dangers beyond his control, 
 the most perilous perhaps to which he is exposed. It is 
 common to except from the risk such articles, uses, and 
 tr.ades as are regarded ns specially hazardous, and the risk 
 of which the insurer docs not wish to assume. This is 
 done by including them in a memorandum of articles ex- 
 cluded, in which case nothing can be claimed as indemnity 
 in case of loss of, or damage to, such excluded articles; or 
 it may be done by a clause in the policy prohibiting the 
 use of the premises for such and such inocesscs, Irailes, or 
 businesses, or for keeping or storing sueli and such goods, 
 on penally, unless specially aulhorized by Ihe policy, of 
 avoidonce'of the policy. In Ibis case special aulliority is 
 deemed to be given if the subject-matter of insurance, by 
 fair intcrprelation and according to usage, includes the ex- 
 cepted article or use. The insurance of a stock in trade, 
 for instance, "such as is usually kept in a country store." 
 will permit the keeping of all such goods as are usually 
 kept in such stores, although some of them may. Iiy Ihe 
 terms of the policy, bo iirohibitc.I as hazardous. The in- 
 surance of a "furniture business" will likewise permit 
 the use of such oils and varnishes as are customarily useil 
 in the manufacture and preparation of furniture for sale, 
 although tlio keeping and use of such oils and varnishes may 
 be expressly prohiliited. And if. during the period of insur- 
 ance. s<iine'new process not used or known before comes into 
 vogue, it may be adopted by Ihe insureil wiUnuil prejudice 
 to his rights, unless it be of such a characler as manifcslly 
 to makc'the risk greater than cither party ciuild have eon- 
 temlilalcd. It cannot be sujiposed that in such cases it is 
 the intention of Ihe parties that the iiisureil shall be tied 
 down to the methods and iiroce-scs of Ihe dale of the 
 
 sured'of an unlawful act upon the ]iremiscs a use of the 
 f expre'ssiin'or otiier cireumslanco there premises for that purpose. I'laying a single game of cards 
 
 rcnrcscntali.m. unless material to the risk, ...i. ..".. ....u... ........ -- .■■- - - . i,;„,c,.lf nf kocIi 
 
 Ihe l.olicv, while cither in a warrantv, unless imputable to policy, and deprived of the right to a ail lunisell ol suUi 
 
 I e f u o he insurer, will be fatal, whether material to the , improvements as may bo nceessary to the successful prose- 
 
 ineiauii Ol in. in.ur r, . . e,„ion of the business. " Use and keeping " mean habitual 
 
 use and keeping. A mere casual use of a prohibited arti- 
 cle as, for instance, benzine or naphtha to lie niixe.l with 
 
 paint while repairs aro going on, or Ihe building a tire 
 for the purpose of heating tar to bo used in the course 
 of such repairs— does not conlrnvenc a policy prohibiting 
 the kcoiiing of fire or the introduction of hazardous arti- 
 cles njion the premises. Nor is the permission by the in- 
 ■ - ■ " ' t upon the ]iremi 
 
 , _L>. I'laying a sing 
 Iocs not make the premises a gambling-saloon. Unless 
 otherwise agreed, houses may bo left vacant, tenants may 
 be changed, factories may he worked or shut il.iwn. and 
 properly may bo watched and cared for, heated, and lighted 
 at the (iiscre'tion of the insured; an. I slipulalions for tho 
 use of care an.l i.rccaution against lire arc generally not 
 warranties, but representations to be earric.I out by sub- 
 stantially doing that which is jirovidcd. In such ease 
 cnniTale'nts will do. Keeping ashes in any rcceplaele 
 made of crpiallv incombuslibl'- nialeriiil is a fulfilment of 
 on agreement to k. cp llieni in an iron receplaele. Notice 
 is fre(pienHy rei|uired of any changes in Ihe circumslanees 
 or surroundings of the insured property aflecting the risk, 
 in oriler that the insurer may have the option to continue 
 or cancel the policy. I'lider lliis n-quirement notice nerd 
 be given only of such changes as arc material : an.l if 
 within a reasonable lime after notice the option to cancel 
 is not signifieil, all objection to Ihe change will be presumed 
 to be waiveil. and Ihe policy will remain a valid sccurily. 
 Anil, generally, it may bo sai.l that whenever a eondilion 
 
 risk or not. A warranty that a ship is American, or that 
 she will sail at a given time, will bo violated if she bo 
 liritish or sail at a ilifforent time. A representation that 
 a buililing is occupie.l in its several parts for certain spe- 
 cified purposes will not be vilialcd though it appear tliat 
 Olio of the aparlmcnts bo ililferenlly occupied, or not occu- 
 piel at all, if the dilTcrenco bo not material to the risk. 
 Warranties are not favored, because they work forfeitures 
 ami somelimcs operate very harshly; and for this reason, 
 if from Ihe form of expressioi 
 
 is chance for doubt, a statement will be rogar.led as a repre- 
 s.'nlation rather than a warranty. It is sometimes said 
 that representations shouhl bo more full in marine than in 
 fire policies, since in the former there is less opportunity 
 for personal inspecli.in. liut this .lepcnds upon cireum- 
 flnnces. and is no rul.' of law. That representation is ma- 
 terial which induces the insurer to lake a risk upon terms 
 less fav.irable to himself than ho would liavo ina.le had he 
 known Ihe trulli. The same test applies to a concealment, 
 which is Ihe wilhhol.ling a fact which ought to bo mado 
 known, if auili fact be not known or ought not to be ex- 
 pcclc I 1.1 be known, to the insurer, an.l is known, or ought 
 t.) be kn.iwii, to the insured. Mere silence about a matter 
 which is unknown, or about which it is not to bo expected 
 that the insured wouM know, is no concealment. War- 
 ranties specially stated in tho contract are express. There 
 arc als.i implied warranlics. as of ownership, scaworlhi- 
 ness at the eiunnieneemcnl of a v.iyage policy, and against 
 deviation — which is a voluntary departure from Ihe usual 
 course of Ihe voyage without necessity or juslificalion. 
 
 1 the right to Ir.-at 
 
 as for instance, to avoid capture or lo save lifc-nnd such has been vi..laled, giving lo the insure 
 
 ^s bstanlial al,-ralion as 'to change the identity of Ihe the policy as yoid, any subse,,uent recognition by I hen, 
 
 ?i.k ssum .Seaworthiness is ntness for Ihe parlicular , after knowledge of the breach of the policy as a subsisting 
 
 service and is one thing at one time and place and another , and valid contract, as by Ihe „cc,-|,laMcc of premiums o: 
 '" ■ '^ . The voyage com- the .loing of any oilier ad Irom wliieli il may bo fairly in 
 
 at another, according to cireiimstanecs 
 monccs w 
 
 r. according lo cireiimsiiui.-es. i ...- »-.>..^.; ^ -* ....... , . . „ „.,«„(• 
 
 hen tho vessel casts loose from her fastenings and . ferred that the insurers do not mean to take advantage of
 
 1230 
 
 INSURANCE. 
 
 the breach, will bo a sufficient answer to any attempt by 
 them to set up the breach against a claim for Ing!«. Aliciui- 
 tion or i*alc of course suspends the ojjcratioii of the p<)Iicv, 
 as when the property passes out of the hands of the insured, 
 having nothing at risk he can suffer no loss; and if the 
 alienation continue till the time of loss, nothing can he re- 
 covered hy the insured. Having lost nothing, he can claim 
 no indemnity. But there is no alienation so Kuig a?' tlie iii- 
 suroil retains an interest in the suhject-matter, altlinugh 
 that interest may have undergone a change or even suffered 
 a great diminution. A mortgage is not an alienation, nor 
 is a written agreement, with or without seal, to convey, nor 
 is a deseent of property to heirs; and such qualified 
 changes in the title or interest will not work a forfeiture 
 unless specifically so agreed upon. Even an absolute sale 
 bv one partner of his interest to his copartner is not to hn 
 regarded as an alienation, but rather a shifting of interests 
 among joint-owners, so long as no stranger is admitted. 
 As any substantial change in the relation which the insured 
 holds to the property insured is a matter of consequence 
 affecting the judgment of the insurer as to the quality of 
 the risk and the propriety of continuing it. the charaeter 
 of the person insured being oftentimes an important ele- 
 ment in making up the estimation, so it is of consequence 
 to him to know the true state of the title and interest of 
 the insured in the property insured, whether absolute or 
 qualifie'l or incumbered, or how otherwise, to the end that 
 in adjusting the amount to be insured so much in value 
 shall be left unprotected as to make the insured himself 
 also interested in guarding against loss. 
 
 The sound principle of insurance is that the insured must 
 be in such position that in case of total loss ho must him- 
 self necessarily suffer loss. If he be insured to the full 
 value of possible loss, he may be tempted to carelessness, 
 or even fraud and crime. He may not only neglect all pre- 
 caution to prevent the happening of the peril insured 
 against, but he may be tempted to scuttle his own ship or 
 set fire to his own house. To inquiries made touching 
 these and various other circumstances affecting the judg- 
 ment of the insurer upon the value of the risk the answers 
 must be with precision and certainty if they amount to 
 warranties, or only with substantial truth if they are rep- 
 resentations merely. If no specific title be required, then 
 any form or extent of title or ownership will he sufficient. 
 A declaration of ownership sim])ly is but a declaration that 
 the applicant is in some form or sense an owner. In mutual 
 insurance the true state of the title is more especially ma- 
 terial, since the lien which such companies usually have 
 upon the real estate they insure constitutes to some extent 
 the capital of the company. It is therefore of importance 
 that the title should be such that a lien will attach. Hence, 
 a misrepresentation as to the title may he material in a 
 mutual company, while it might lie quite immaterial in a 
 stock company. It is also material, and for the same rea- 
 sons, that the insurer should know nut only w1iat insurance 
 may already exist upon the property upon which insurance 
 is applied for, but also whether any and what furtlier in- 
 surance may thereafter be obtained. I'pon these points, 
 therefore, inquiries and stipulations are usually made. 
 Other insurance is additional, prior, or sul>sequent insurance 
 effected hy the same person, or for his benefit and with his 
 consent, upon the same subject-matter, risk, ami interest. 
 Owners of different interests may insure them respectively 
 without violating the condition against other insurance. 
 The additional insurance must also bo valid, or it is no in- 
 surance. A policy by its own terms void if there he prior 
 insurance without notice, will not he a breach of the terms 
 of a prior policy to be void if other insurance be obtained 
 without notice. When notice of subsequent insurance is 
 required, it must be given within reasonable time, and if 
 the insurers, having the option to cancel the policy upon 
 such nntiee, neglect so to do for an unreasonable time, or 
 meanwhile recognize the validity of the policy as a subsist- 
 ing contract, they will be held to have waived the right to 
 insist upon a forfeiture. 
 
 Ovor-valuation of the property insured is another mode 
 in which the insurer may be misled into making a contract 
 which he would not otherwise have made. While intending 
 only to make the prudent contract of insuring one-iialf the 
 value of the property, he may be led by over-valuation into 
 the risky contract of insuring the property up to, or even 
 beyond, its full value. If this over-valuation be fraudu- 
 lent, or so gross as to justify the inference of fraucl, the 
 policy will ho void, whether there be or be not any stipula- 
 tion therein upon this point of over-valuation. 
 
 The assignment of the policy without the consent of the 
 insurers is often forbi<Men. and is objectionable upon the 
 same grounds as alienation is objectionable. The insurers 
 may be quite willing to insure one person, while they might 
 bo quite unwilling to insure another, or that to that other 
 should be transferred the interest in the policy. Strictly 
 
 speakings a policy is not assignable or negotiable, so as to 
 give the assignee the right, in his own name, to claim the 
 benefit of the contract. In order to this there must be an 
 assent of the insurers to enter into direct relations with the 
 assignee, as by consenting to the assignment and to pay 
 the assignee in ease of loss. In such cases the assignee 
 will be substituted for the assignor, and may recover as he, 
 and only as he. could recover; so that if the assignor after 
 the assignment violate any of the conditions of tho con- 
 tract, this violation will work a forfeiture of the right of both 
 the assignor and assignee to recover under the policy. To 
 avoid this result, the polii'v and property may both be 
 transferred to the same person with the assent of the in- 
 surer, the assignee securing by a new note or otlier memo- 
 randum the obligations of the assignor towards the insurer. 
 The transaction thus becomes substantially a new contract. 
 rather than nn assignment of an old one. and is not subject 
 to be ilefeated by the delinquencies of the assignor, the 
 original insured. 
 
 The premium is the consideration which (he insurer re- 
 ceives for the risk he assumes, and is greater or less ac- 
 cording as experience and tibscrvation have shown that tho 
 chances of loss upon the particular risk are greater or less. 
 The premium is usually paid when the policy is delivered, 
 but this is not necessarily so. And even though by the 
 terms of the policy it can only become operative on J*ay- 
 nient of the premium, a delivery of the ]iolicy wilhont in- 
 sisting upon this condition will make it operative. It is » 
 conditiim for the benefit of the insurer, and like other sim- 
 ilar conditions he may waive it if he will. In the absence 
 of express sti|)ulatinn as to tlie modes of payment, a note 
 or check sent hy mail, if so requested, or any other ordi- 
 nary mode of payment acceded to by the insurer or his 
 agent having authority in the premises, will he sufficient. 
 Should it so hapjien that the property insured is never ex- 
 posed to the perils insured against — in other words, if the 
 risk never attaches — the insurer may demand a return of 
 the premium if he has not been guilty of any fraud. The 
 whole premium, however, is earned if the risk attaches even 
 for a moment. 
 
 In marine policies, unless restricted, the risk extends fo 
 all losses proximately caused hy the perils of the sea — that 
 is. all losses which happen fortuitously from the extraor- 
 dinary action of the winds and waves, stranding, collision, 
 lightning, and other like natural and unavoidable aocidents 
 connected with navigation. Besides these perils, it is usual 
 in marine policies to insure against loss by fire, barratry — 
 7. e. tho fraudulent misconduct of the master or crew — theft, 
 piracy, capture, arrests, and detentions. As uo one can 
 stipulate for immunity from the consequences of his own 
 fraudulent or criminal misconduct, where the master of n 
 vessel is also owner, barratry is not covered by the policy 
 any more than a house is protectetl to the owner against 
 loss by fire set purposely by himself. But in both marine 
 and fire insurance loss by mere negligence of the owner or 
 of his servants will be covered by the policy. In fact, ng 
 it is inij>ossible for any one who has even a moderately ex- 
 tendeil business to give his personal attention to all Ihe 
 details, one of the prime objects of insurance is to guard 
 against the negligence of servants. An<I negligence of the 
 insured himself, not so gross as to warrant the inference of 
 fraud, will also be within the risk. All losses directly at- 
 tributable to the risk insured against come within tho 
 sweep of the p<dicy unless there be nn exceptitm stated in 
 the policy itself. Damage by fire may happen without 
 actual ignition, as by cranking of glass, or the blistering of 
 pictures, or the scorching of paint, or heating and thus 
 ilestroying the value of certain articles of commerce. Dam- 
 age by fire produced by lightning is within the risk, but 
 damage or demolition by liglitning without burning is not. 
 To protect in such a case the insurance must be against 
 loss by lightning. So damage by fire resulting from ex- 
 plosion, as of gunpowder, for instance, is within the risk. 
 Explosion is but the burning of the gunpowder by sudden 
 combustion, and if damage results by concussion from such 
 an explosion it is damage by fire. But loss occasioned V)y 
 theexpl'ision of a steam-hoiK-r. the bursting itself not being 
 occasioned by unusual fire, and no fire supervening, is not 
 a loss by fire. Whether such loss would be a loss by ex- 
 plosion is a mooted question, some holding that explosion 
 is the remote and fire the immediate cause, while others 
 luild that explosion is the immediate cause through fire. 
 Damages and expenses in reasonable efforts to save the in- 
 sured property from destruction, as by water, removal, 
 covering up, or any other suitable means, are included 
 within the risk of a fire policy. So arc damages by falling 
 walls if the walls fall by reason of the fire. If, however, 
 they fall by their own inherent weakness, crushing the in- 
 sured property in tho ruins, whence fire supervenes, this is 
 not a loss by fire, as the property is destroyed by the fall 
 and not by fire. So loss by the bursting of a boiler, where-
 
 INSUKAXCE. 
 
 l-S.il 
 
 by a vcascl ^oes down at once, is not loss "subsequent to | 
 and in consequence of such bursting," the bursting and the ! 
 loss being pnictically simultaneous. When a vessel sinks 
 till the water reaches htr furnaces and drives out the firo 
 upon her w(>odwork,5o that the vessel is burned to the wa- 
 ter's edi:e. the loss is attributable to the lire if, but for the | 
 supervention n{ the fire, she would not have sunk ; other- | 
 wise not. When tlicre arc two concurrent causes to which 
 the loss may l>e attributed, the predominating and cflicicnt 
 cause where the damage is indiscriminate will be deemed to 
 be the true cause. 
 
 If it be doubtful what property is covered by the policy, 
 the doubt will be resolved in favor of the insured. A house I 
 or building includes all the appurtenances m-cessury to the ! 
 ordinary use of the principal building, and a mill includes 
 the machinery by which it is operated. Property in trust ' 
 is not limiteil to property technically held in trust, but in- 
 cludes all such property as the insured m:iy have the cus- i 
 toily and care of for special purposes; and a ])olicy may ' 
 be so wor<l('d as to follow and protect jiroporty as it passes 
 through divers hands, as by expressly insuring goods , 
 "sold, but not removed." 
 
 When there is an actual total loss, the insured recovers I 
 to the foil amount of his insurance if the property be worth 
 so much, and there be no express limitation to a proportion i 
 of the loss. Tn marine insurance there is a constructive , 
 total loss whereby, when the property, though not entirely j 
 destroyed, is dama^xed to such an apparent extent as prnc- i 
 tically to render the voyage worthless as a pecuniary ad- 
 venture, as where the damage exceeds one-half of the value 
 of the vessel or of the gon<Is, or the vessel be captured or 
 detained by embargo, the insured may abandon the dam- 
 aged or detained property to the underwriter and claim lor 
 a total loss, leaving the latter from that time forth to get 
 what he can by sale or use out of the abandoned property. 
 This rule promotes commerco by reinstating the insured ; 
 immediately in his capital, wherewith to engage in new 
 a'lvcntures. rather than to subji-ct him to delay and possi- i 
 lile ruin by further efforts to restore his shattered fortunes. 
 It is at the option of the insurer whether he will abandon, | 
 and this option must be made within reasonable time, and , 
 notice thereof given to the insurer in onlerthat he may at 
 once avad himself of his right to treat the pntperty as his , 
 own and make the most out of it. The abandonment car- 
 ries with it all rights and claims on account of ship or 1 
 cari;o, so that if the ship be recovered aiul the voyage com- | 
 pb'lc'I and niadii productive, the insurer will have all the i 
 benefit both of the property recovered and of the ])rofits in : 
 the way of freights carne'l. or citherwise. In the U. S., ■ 
 however, only so much of freight goes to the insurer as is 
 earned after the abandonment. When the loss is jiartial 
 the rule in marine insurance is that the cost of repairing 
 the vessel, less one-third for the greater value of the new 
 subfllituted for the old. may be recovered. But in fire in- 
 puranee there is no right of abandonment, and no rule 
 of proportionate deduction <m account <»f the greater 
 value of the new, actual indemnity being the limit of 
 the rij;ht to recover. In either case, when goods are 
 dania[;ed, the insured recovers the difference lietweeu the 
 value of the damaged goods as they are ami the market 
 prieeof sound goojs of like kind. The adjustment of ma- 
 rine losses, when all the interests saved are to contrilnite 
 their proportion of indemnity lor those lost, is oftentimes a 
 matter of great nicety, and comes under the head of gen- 
 eral average, a peculiar and intricate branch of mnri- 
 limo law. There is less difViculty in adjusting losses 
 under fire pojieies, where general average contribution is 
 unknown. I'nder both kinds of insurance, however, there 
 may be (livers policies upon the same subject-matter, in 
 whieh case, if the loss be less than the aggregate insurance, 
 either insurer may be held for the entire lous, unless there 
 be an average clause, as it is called, limiting bis liabilities 
 to his pro)i(!rtion of tho loss. In case he pays it. ho will 
 have his claim over for his inrlcniniry against each of his 
 co-insurers. Only tho actual loss can, however, be recovered 
 by the insured from all the insurers. The amount of loss 
 recoverable within the limits of the amount insured iloes 
 not always depend on the vulue nf the interest to the in- 
 sured. If the insured has any insurable interest, and that 
 interest attaches to tho whole property, he may recover for 
 the whole value. Thus, n commission merchant, netuatly 
 interested only to the amount of his advances iind com- 
 MiissifMix, may recover to the full value of the j;oods lost, 
 hobling any lialaneo for his consignor. A mortgagor may 
 insure lo the full value of the property, and recover the 
 whole loss, althnugh the insureil mortgagee may also re- 
 cover to the full amount of his interest, and thus tho in- 
 sured he compelled to pay mucdi more than thewbolc value 
 of the property ilestroycil. The respective enntracls are 
 indepenrlent, an<l cover distinct interests, eaeh of whieh 
 mny extend to tho whole value of tho property. Special 
 
 and extraordinary circumstances — as that the building in- 
 sured is on leased land, and must be soon removed at great 
 cost or forfeited, or that a house is about to be sold on exe- 
 cution, or that duties have or have not been paid on im- 
 ported articles — do U'li v;iry the rule of damages. The fair 
 market-value of the jirupcrty, without regard to such cir- 
 cumstances, is the criterion of tho amount of the loss. 
 Sometimes tho policy stipulates that the insured, in case of 
 loss, shall recover only a certain projiortion — two-thirds, 
 for instance — of the actual damage. In such case the in- 
 sured will be entitled to the whole amount of his loss if 
 that does not exceed two-thirds of the whole loss. A part- 
 ner after the death of his co-partner can tmly recover for 
 loss to the partnership property as it was at the time of tho 
 dissolution by <lcatli. Goods bought after the dissolution 
 will not be covered unless by special agreement. When tho 
 right to repair or rebuild is reserved to tho insurer, as it 
 sometimes is, as a mode of payment to which they may re- 
 sort if they deem the claim for loss exorbitant, it is optional 
 with him whether he will or will not avail himself of his 
 right; and if he do not. the rule of clamages is the actual 
 loss, and not the cost of restoration, which may be, as in the 
 case of an old and dilapidated building, greatly above the 
 actual loss. If a new building be erected by the insured, it 
 is not the cost of the new, but the value of the old one de- 
 stroyed, that is recoverable. And the option of rebuilding 
 must bo mado known without unreasonable delay. An 
 agreement to replace goods stands u])on the same footing. 
 The insured is to he indemnified, and no more. If the in- 
 surer be prevented from rebuilding or replacing without the 
 fault of the insured, as by the intervention of the jiublic 
 authorities, that is his misfortune, but no defence against 
 the claim of the insured. When the insured is not desig- 
 nated by name in the policy, but is referred to indefinitely 
 as *• the estate of A " or " whom it may concern." tho loss 
 will be payable to all such persons as can bring themselves 
 within the scope of the designation ; and if the policy be 
 to A for the benefit of whom it may concern, A will tako 
 the loss and hold it for the parties in interest. Sometimes 
 disputes arise as to the disposition of the loss after it is 
 paid or as to the right of the several parties in interest. 
 But as a rule neither con claim anything from the other 
 unless by the terms of the policy it appears that it was the 
 intention of tho parties that one should be heuefiteil by the 
 payment to another. If the loss be paid to a mortgiigec, 
 the insurer can neither require liim to assign the mortgage, 
 nor can the mortgagor require the money to be applied to- 
 wards the reduction of the mortgage or to repairing tho 
 damage. Each party stands on his own contract as against 
 the other, unless it appears to be intended that some third 
 party shall have an interest, as where a mortgagee insures 
 at the expense of the mortgagor. But when the insurer 
 pays a loss caused by the wrongful act of some thirtl person, 
 against whom tho insured might have brought an action, 
 the insurer is said to be subrogated to the right of the in- 
 sured against the wrongdoer, and may, in the name of tho 
 latter, recover against him whatever sum the insureil might 
 have recovered. This right is based u]»on the ground that 
 it is just that the wrongdoer shall be made to bear the loss 
 which he has occasioned. Tlic liability of the wrongiloer is 
 ! first and chief: and if the insured insists, as he may, upon 
 I proceeding against the insurer, he is in fairness bound to 
 i allow the insurer to use his name in proceeding against tho 
 I wrongdoer. But if the insurer pay tho loss, and nfterwards 
 I the insured jiroeceds against the wrongdoer, tho latter can 
 I claim no advimtage by the payment. If A sets fire (o B's 
 house, and B gels his insurance, A cannot avail himself of 
 , this fact as a defence to a suit by B against A for damages. 
 j After loss the insurers must be notified, and generally agree 
 to pay in so many days after proof of the loss. If no 
 ■ form of notice he agreed upon, any notice, verbal or writ- 
 , ten, will answer. Notice " forthwith " is notice without 
 I unreasonable delay, and should be given to the person desig- 
 ' nated in the policy, or, this wanting, to some officer of tho 
 ' insurance company or to some agent acting in its behalf. 
 The proofs of loss must also be such as are required by the 
 terms of the policy, and substantiiilly in the form required 
 and within the time specified. If the certificate of the min- 
 ister of the parish or <if the nearest magistrate to any par- 
 ticular fact, or that the loss is as stated, be required, sucli 
 i certificate miift be ]iroduced before payment con ho dc- 
 ! manded ; ond if the minister or the magistrate in some sense 
 I nearest will not so certify, the insured must fail in bis 
 I claim. It is his misfortune that he cannot ccunply with the 
 I terms of the ctmtraet into which he has voluntarily entereil. 
 and which seems to be perleclly proper and fair. Such 
 I agreements shouhl bo avoiiled. or provision maiic for some 
 ' snbfititute<l niodo of proof; ns. for instance, the rertificoto 
 of some other satisfactory person. In fact, as these arbi- 
 trary ccmditions ore mode by insurers in their own special 
 interest, they may waive them if they please either in form
 
 1238 
 
 INSURANCE, LIFE— INTEREST. 
 
 or substance : and if they receive notice or proof, however 
 inforniJiI or imperfect or out of accord with the requtre- 
 meiits of the jioHcy, without objection, and do not give the 
 in?urod to uii<ifr.<tand thiit Ihcj- are insufficient and unsatis- 
 factory, and in what respect, so that he may have an oppor- 
 tunity to supply thedcticiencies, or if the insurers, by silence 
 or otherwise, induce in the mind of the in^ureil the belief 
 that they are sufficient, they will not be permitted to inter- 
 pose such insufliciency against a claim for loss. If upon 
 ihe receipt of verbal notice of a loss the insurers declare 
 they will not ])ay, this will relievo the insured from the duty 
 of further notice or proof. The law does not require a use- 
 less formality. If stipulation be made that suit shall not be 
 brought against the insurer unless within a limited time, 
 the insured will be bound by it. It isreasouable to require 
 that disputed claims should be brought to an early trial, 
 while the facts are comparatively fresh and the witnesses 
 are at hand. But an agreement that a suit shall be brought 
 in a certain place or court, or that the whole matter in lUs- 
 pute shall bo submitted to arbitration, has no validity. The 
 law determines how and where suits shall bo tried, and 
 parlies cannot by their agreements settle or unsettle the 
 jurisdiction of the courts. And when to an action to re- 
 cover a loss the insurers set up in defence any breach of 
 condition, misrepresentation, or other matter, it is always 
 a good reply that such breach or other delinquency is 
 chargeable to the act or omission of the insurers themselves 
 or (heir agent. 
 
 In mutual insurance the holders of policies besides being 
 insured are also insurers. They are members of the com- 
 pany, and by virtue of their membership arc oldigcd to 
 contrilnite to the losses of their associates, and have the 
 right to claim from them by way of assessment or contri- 
 bution, in proportion to the amounts for which they are 
 severally insured, indemnity for their respective losses. 
 Rightly managed, it is the safest and cheapest form of in- 
 surance, since, whatever be the rate of premium, the asso- 
 ciates participate in the profits ; and if the premium be tixed 
 sufficiently high the aggregate amount of premiums, paid 
 or promised by deposit notes, will constitute a capital 
 adequate under any but most extraordinary circumstances 
 to meet contingent losses. J. Wilder Mav. 
 
 Insurance, Life, See Life Assurance. 
 
 Integral Calculus. See Calci^ls. 
 
 Intellect. Sec JIixD, by IIox. W. T. Harris, A. M., 
 LL.D. 
 
 Intemperance. See Inebriety, by Prof. Witr,ARD 
 Parker, M. I>., LL.D., and Intoxication, by E. J, Ber- 
 
 MINGHAM, M. D. 
 
 Intercala'tif>n [Lat. intercal'trr, to "insert"], the in- 
 sertiou of supplementary days or months into the calendar 
 in order to cfiVct an adjustment between the civil and tho 
 natural year. (See Calendar, by F. A. P. Barnard.) 
 
 In'tcrconrse, tp. of Sumter co., Ala. I'uj). 440. 
 
 Intercourse (Ri^ht of) between Slates. This 
 expression can include political and cnninieicial inter- 
 course, togetlier with the right of individuals to pass into 
 or through a given country. No text-writer on the law of 
 nations, so far as wo kni>w, maintains that nations are 
 bound to have commuuieatiun with one another by am- 
 bassadors; least of all would the claim to send resident 
 ambassadors be admitted as having the nature of strict 
 right. As for tho right of commercial intercourse, it is 
 hard to maintain that a nation may rightfully force an- 
 other into such a relation. It must begin in a voluntary 
 way, on terms agreeable to both parties. If, now, one of 
 the states wants nothing that the other can furnish, with 
 what right can tho other, to satisfy its wants, compel it to 
 take certain products? But if there is a theoretical diffi- 
 culty in such demands, intercourse is pretty sure to begin 
 wlienever an honest, peaceable way of bringing it about be 
 tried, because all men iovo to exchange, and can be soon 
 made to see the advantages of so doing. As for the right 
 of travelling into or across a country, if this be necessary 
 in onler that a nation may have access to the rest of tho 
 world, it seems to be a right, subject to such precautions 
 ns may prevent dangers from foreigners. T, I>. Woolsey. 
 
 In'terdict [Lat. intcrUirtum, a *■ prohibition"], in Eu- 
 ropean history, censure ])ronounced liy the pope, by a syn- 
 od, or by a bishop, withdrawing from particular persons or 
 places, or both, certain religious privileges. It still exists 
 in theory as one of t)ie ecclesiastical censures of the Roman 
 Catholic Church, but is seldom exercised, except towanla 
 individuals, who may be, for example, interdicted from en- 
 tering a chureh. It is also sometimes pronounced against 
 places whore liorribic crimes have been committed. In the 
 Dark Ages tlie interdict was the most terrible of punish- 
 ments. Every man's hand was against the interdicted per- 
 son, and even great princes have been humbled by tho power 
 
 of this censure. At one time no bell might ring or organ 
 be played in an interdicted district: the church doors were 
 locked ; services were performed without solemnities and in 
 secret ; all crosses and ornaments were hidden ; Lenten food 
 only could be eaten : no one could give or receive a kiss : 
 the Kucharist was not given except to the dying; no man 
 could shave his beard or brush his hair until the interdict 
 was raised. But few interdicts, however, were so severe as 
 this, though at the best an interdict was regarded as a se- 
 vere measure. The Church licrsclf from time to time miti- 
 gateil the terrors of this dreadful visitation. Among the 
 most celebrated interdicts were that laid upon all France by 
 Gregory V. in 1)9S ; that laid on England by Alexander III. 
 in 1171 as a punishment for the murder of A'Becket : that 
 laid liy the same pontiff upon Scotland in llSO; by Inno- 
 cent III. on France, 1200; on England in 1209 under King 
 John ; on Venice by Paul V. in lt)06. 
 
 Interesse Termini. See Landlord and Tenant. 
 
 In'terest [Lat. interest (an impersonal verbal form), 
 "it is of advantage"], the compensation paid for the use 
 of money borrowed. The most c<mvenient form of capital 
 to. bo loaned, for both lender and borrower, is money. 
 Hence, loans arc most commonly made in money. an<l in- 
 terest is always reckoned at a certain per cent, of a defined 
 sura of money, which is called the prinripnf: the per cent, 
 paid is called the ma-, and is usually stated as the rate per 
 annum, though often payable at sliorter intervals than a 
 year. The compensation for the use of capital in the form 
 of land and fixed improvements upon land is called rent. 
 This is determined In* other considerations than the 
 money-value of the property loaned or leased. (See Rent.) 
 But in tho case of other kinds of property an estimate 
 is commonly made of the value in money, and interest 
 is charged accordingly at the current rate. Thus, one 
 may purchase a steam-engine for a mill, or cotton to be 
 worked u]i in a mill, and give his note for its value, to 
 be paid at tho end of six months, with interest. Or he 
 may borrow of a friend the money with which, as an in- 
 strument of exchange, to make either purchase, and give 
 his note on interest. Tho transactions arc essentially the 
 same. The engine or the material is what he wants, and 
 what he actually borrows and uses as a part of the capital 
 of his business. 
 
 The rightfulnessof interest rests upon two facts : (1) The 
 fact tb.at capital is the result of past labor, preserved by 
 self-denial in saving. One's right of property in that which 
 he has earned and saved is indefeasible, and it is but simple 
 justice that if the owner allows another to use his property 
 instead of using it himself, he should be compensated. This 
 is all plain enough in the case of the engine or the cotton, 
 and the principle certainly holds good when by a sinijde 
 exchange the jiroperty saved takes the form of money. It 
 is tho ]>roperty-right which is to be recognized, tho same 
 always, whatever may be the material form in which it is 
 embodied. (2) The fact that in the production of values 
 present labor is crippled, almost fruitless, witliout the prod- 
 ucts of ])ast labor — /.c. capital — to work upon and to work 
 with. Tho effectiveness of labor is increased many fold by 
 tho capital joined with it. Hence, he who provides the 
 capital may rightly claim to share with the laborer in the 
 profit of tho joint result : and the labcirer can well afford to 
 pay for the advantage he gains. The loan is made for Ihe 
 sake of bringing present labor into union with past lalmr, 
 all the same whether it is money or that which money can 
 buy that passes from borrower to lender. The etymology 
 of the term *• interest," and its fitness in this applietition, 
 imply such a mutual advantage to b(»rrower and lender. 
 Where mouey is burrowed to provide for the immediate 
 su])port of an individual or a family, or for some |)rosent 
 gratification, the property which it represents is consumed 
 at once, without a profit ; but the loan is made in some an- 
 ticipation of mean.s to be realized from labor or other sources 
 at a t'uture day. and the consideration is. even then, a sup- 
 posed advantage to the borrower as well as to the lender. 
 This iutereat or mutual advantage marks the prime differ- 
 ence between a loan and a gift. 
 
 The genera! rate of interest in a community is deter- 
 mined by three considerations: (1) The average produc- 
 tiveness of industry: (2) the jiroporfion between tho sup- 
 ply of capital and the demand for it; (.'i) the degree of 
 security given to contracts by the protection of law and 
 prevalent moral sentiment. In a new country these con- 
 siderations combine. Lalior is very jiroductive in develop- 
 ing new and rich resources; capital is scarce, because the 
 hardships of pioneer-life repel the rich ; and contracts are 
 insecure, because law and social order and mutual con- 
 fidence are not well established. Hence, tho rate of interest 
 in a new country is high. It declines gradually as. in the 
 course of time, population increases, society bec«»mes organ- 
 ized, wealth is accumulated, and tho fertility of the virgin
 
 INTEREST, HISTORY OF— INTEREST, LAW CONCERNING. 
 
 1239 
 
 soil ond other priiuitive rcs'jurces of nature are exhausted. 
 In particular case.*', especially of speculation, tlio rate of 
 interest is affected hy risk on the one hand and the ex- 
 pectation of great i)rofits on the other. The j:tueral rate 
 of interest is lowest in an old country, where the aeuumu- 
 lation of wealth is large, industry is active, exchanges are 
 rapid, and men's integrity and honor are sustained by 
 found public sentiment and guarded by good laws well 
 executed. (Jreat fluctuations in the rate of interest arise 
 chiefly from the infusion of the element of credit in the 
 currency of a country, and the consequent expansion and 
 contraction of the volume of currency, with the reckless 
 siieculations, panics, and commercial crises incident thereto. 
 \\'hfttcver imparts instability to the instrument of exchange 
 must cause fluctuation in all prices and uncertainty to all 
 contracts; and to all such influences interest is most sen- 
 sitive. -A. L. Chaimn'. 
 
 Interest, History of. From the time of Thespis 
 'lownward. as has been remarked by Bentham. there is 
 scarcely an instance where a lender and a borrower of 
 money appear upnn the stage without the sympathies of 
 the audience being enlisted for the latter. The ])hilos- 
 ophers of Greece and Rome never emancipated themselves 
 from the current of popular opinion upon this subject, and 
 their extant writings afl"ord abundant proofs of the odium 
 which they contributed to fasten upon the money-lender. 
 Iloth the philosophers and the common people usually 
 r.randed the money-lenders as the main cause of the de- 
 cline of the Roman empire. The laws of Rome expressly 
 authorized the practice, but the legislators were constantly 
 attempting to regulate the terms of interest. The severity 
 'if Roman law against insolvent debtors drove men to ex- 
 haust every resource to maintain their credit ; and the 
 exorbitant interest exacted from the unfortunate confirmed 
 the popular idea that " interest is wealth made from the 
 poverty of others." The evils above indicatccl had become 
 an important feature of society at the time when the au- 
 thority of the Christian Church was first brought into the 
 scale. The Christians of the first two centuries were poor, 
 industrious, and ofsiniple tastes and habits ; hence they had 
 little occasion for availing themselves of the services of the 
 money-lender. Accordingly, the writings of the Christian 
 Fathers unanimously reflect an intense condemnation of 
 ••u?urv,"and when Christian ascendency stamped its imago 
 upon the earliest legislative codes of semi-barbarian and 
 mediccval Eurfti»e, divine and human anathemas were alike 
 incorporated thi-rein. The ''usury" of the .Middle Ages 
 wiis simjdy what the name implies, the price of the »«*' 
 of money at whatever rate; it was strictly synonymous 
 with intercut. It cannot be doubted that the rates of in- 
 terest then current would now be deemed exorbitant. The 
 monopoly of usury which the Jews long enjoyed was owing 
 not more to their peculiar genius for monetary transactions 
 than to the fact that they alone had no conscientious scru- 
 ples against the practice. It was not until the eleventh 
 century that the Lombards, and still later that the Chris- 
 tian merchants of Florence, became the rivals of the Jew- 
 ish usurers. It was the revival of the commercial spirit 
 among the republics of Northern Italy that initiated that 
 conflict of opinion between the Church and the world which 
 has finally culminated during the present century in a gen- 
 eral recognition of the lawfulness and usefulness of money- 
 lending. When the Eastern commercial enterprises of 
 Venice, Pisa, (Jenoa, and Anmlfi proved the possibility of 
 obtaining from cajMtal in legitimate traffic a rich return, 
 it was no longer thouglit a hardship to pay handsomely 
 for the control of capital for investment. The old idea 
 was that men would only borrow irtoney from usurers un- 
 der the impulse of hanl necessity ; thus, when the business 
 was presented in another and an agreeable light, as a 
 means of obtaining a share of the '* wealth of Ormus or of 
 ind," the credit system of the modern world wns founded. 
 It is true that the earliest Reformers did not innovate up<m 
 the current theological view of usury, and some Trotestant 
 writers, like the celebrated secretary of slate of t^ueen 
 Elizabeth, Sir Thomas Wilson, vehemently denounced it 
 119 contrary to the law of nature; but the eommercial en- 
 terprise (if ProtC!4tant countries silently and speedily pro- 
 ■liu'cd a healthful change of sentiment. Salmasius and 
 (irotius lent the great weight of their names to the same 
 scale, ami by tbo middle of the seventeenth eenlury the 
 lawfulness of money-lending was generally admitted in 
 Protestant countries. The battle was Imrfjer among the 
 Cntholies, from the immense mass of theological tradition 
 which had to be overoine. The means linally employed 
 for eiTecting a change of opinion consiHte<l of subtleties of 
 casuistry as to permissible cases of usury ; then n distino- 
 tion was drawn between a fair and an excessive rate of 
 interest ; the former was justitied, and the odium embodied 
 in the word uiturt/ was exclusively attached to Ihe latter. 
 Ity an easy gradation of thought the modern meaning of 
 
 the word was ascribed to the Fathers of the Church and to 
 the canons of medi:eval councils in their denunciations of 
 usury. Finally, the civil and canon laws were held to ini- 
 ])ly merely tlur right to regulate the umoitiit of interest, 
 which has accordingly been the sole object of recent legis- 
 lation thereupon. It was reserved for the economists of 
 the school of Locke, Hume, and Adam Smith to exjiosc, 
 and ultimately to overthrow, a legislative folly which had 
 been current for so many centuries. The final demonstra- 
 tion of the utility of interest was made by Jeremy Benthani 
 in his famous Ltttern on Vmiry (1787). It only remains to 
 add a few statistical data upon legislative enactments af- 
 fecting the rate of interest. In the earliest Roman law- 
 code, the Ttceli-fi Tables (b. c. 460), the rate of interest was 
 established; the restrictions were removed by the Licinian 
 laws '166-;i6j ; the former law was re-established 357 : the 
 rate was again lowered '.'A7 ; all interest was prohibited by 
 the Genusi.in law 341; the Sempronian law extended a 
 uniform legislation to the allied Italian nations 193; the 
 rate was fixed at 6 per cent, by Justinian a. n. 529. In 
 England, the rate was fixed at 10 per cent, by act 37 Hen. 
 Vni. c. 9, 1543—14: the taking of interest was prohibited 
 by acts 5 and fi Edw. VI. c. 20, 1652; the latter was re- 
 pealed by 13 Eliz. c. 8, 1570; interest was restricted to 8 
 per cent, by act 21 Jac. I. c. 17, 1G23 ; to G per cent, by act 
 12 Car. II. c. 13. 16GU : to 5 per cent, by act 12 Ann. st. 2, 
 c. IG, 1713; finally, most of the preceding legislation was 
 repealed by act 17 and act l-S Vict. c. 90, of Aug. 10, 1S54. 
 (See the works of Locke. Hume. A. Smith, Turgot. Ucn- 
 tham, J. B. J^ay, M. Chevalier, J. S. .Mill, and W. E. H. 
 Lecky.) PoitiEit C. Bliss. 
 
 Interest, Law Concerning. In tlie comprehensive 
 sense in which the word iutcrtnt is popularly used, it denotes 
 any compensation for the use of money which a debtor pays 
 to the creditor, but in legal usage it has obtained also a 
 technical meaning by which it is distinguished from usury, 
 and denotes such a measure or rale of com])ensation as is 
 allowecl by law. Usury, on the other hand, is an excess 
 of compensation above the rate established by law. This 
 is a distinction whose original introduction into legislation 
 is attributable to the belief which was generally prevalent 
 in the early history of the Christian Church and in tlie 
 Middle Ages that it was wrongful and contrary to the ex- 
 press teachings of Scripture to receive any payment for 
 the use of money. The necessities of trade caused legal 
 sanction to be given at an early period to the taking of a 
 certain specified percentage upon the sum loaned, but the 
 common conviction that there was an element of extortion 
 and oppression in requiring compensation for money still 
 remained a]iparent in the stringent laws which were en- 
 acted to jiruvent the taking of higher rates than that which 
 was established as legal. (See Ust'RV.) The results of this 
 theory are abundantly manifest in the law even at the 
 present day. Until within a few years nearly all of the 
 States of this country had laws prohibiting the taking of 
 more than an established rate of interest, and though the 
 ]iroliibition has been removed in a few of them by recent 
 legislation, in the majority of them such laws are still in 
 force. In England there was an established legal rate 
 until 1854, but in that year all the laws against usury were 
 repealed. In the U. S. the lawful rate generally jirevailing 
 is G per cent, upon the sum loaned, or ]»rincipal. In New 
 York it is 7 per cent. In some of the States there is a 
 particular rate declared applicable to ordinary transactions 
 in the absence of any special agreement, but the parties 
 arc allowed to stipulate for a higher rate if they desire. 
 Laws to prohibit the taking of usury never i.revenl an 
 agreement being made for a lower rale than that estab- 
 lished by law, but only forbid Ihe parties from stipulating 
 for a higher rate. The obligation of u debtor to jiay inter- 
 est ujion the sum which ho owes may either arise out of 
 contract, in which he expressly or impliedly agrees to its 
 payment, or may be in the nature of a jienalty imposed 
 ujKin him for default in Ihe payment of the principal at 
 the time when it was due, or for the misuse of trust funds 
 committed to his charge. In the one case, interest is said 
 to be pii-yublo by contract, while in the other it is given by 
 wav of damages, notwitlislanding there is no agreement 
 for its payment. A contract to pay interest may l>e either 
 express or implied. It is vxprmH when there is a positive 
 stipulation between the parlies thai Ihe amount ])aynble to 
 the creditor shall bear interest, and the lime from which it 
 shall be reck<»nei|, the manner in which it fihall be jmyable, 
 and the rate al which it shall be estimated may be directly 
 specified in Ihe agreement. If no rate is mentioned, the 
 legal rate is underslond. No higher rate, however, can bo 
 agreed upon than that established as legal unless such an 
 agreement is expressly authorized by statute. If by the 
 terms of the contract the debt is to bear interest, but Ihe 
 time from which it is to be reckoned is not staled, interest 
 will generally bo computed from the date of the contract
 
 1240 
 
 INTERFERENCE. 
 
 or the time when it is made. The stipulations of the par- 
 ties may relate to the computation of interest not only 
 until the time of the maturity of the deht, but after the 
 debt has become due and in case of default in payment. 
 If a rate be fixed upon not obnoxious to the laws a^^ainst 
 usurv. and it ifl provided by the terms of the contrnct that 
 intercs^t shall continue to he reckoned iit the same rate if 
 the debt be not dischar<;ed when payable, the computation 
 ivill be made at this uniform rate until the time of actual 
 payment. If. however, there is no stipulation as Ui the rate 
 of interest which the debt shall bear after maturity, it be- 
 comes an important question whether the rate agreed upon 
 as computable before maturity shall continue after that 
 time, or the rate fixed by statute. I'pon this point the 
 decisions are still in conflict, so that no settled rule can be 
 stated. The prevailinij doctrine appears to be that inter- 
 est shall be reckoned at the statutory rate after the default, 
 since the provision in the contract can have no force after 
 that time in the absence of express specification, and in- 
 terest must be given, if at all. by operation of hiw.and by 
 way of damages for the debtor's failure to pay at the time 
 appointed. A contract to pay interest is imph'tti when nn 
 agreement is entered into of such a nature that an obliga- 
 tion to pay interest is naturally inci<leutal to it, and is to 
 be presumed as within the contemplation of the parlies. 
 Thus, it may bo inferred from the course of dealing be- 
 tween the ])arties. as where interest has before been charged 
 and allowed under like circumstances, or where it has been 
 the uniform practice of the creditor to charge interest, and 
 this was known to the debtor at the time of the transaction 
 bv which the debt was incurred. So. where there is a 
 general usage in any particular trade or branch of business 
 to charge and allow interest, parties having knowledge of 
 the usage are deemed to contract with reference to it. For 
 example, interest is not usually recoverable on an open 
 running account for goods sold, but if there be a usage in 
 any particular Slate or locality for merchants to charge 
 interest upon such accounts at the expirati(m of a certain 
 term of credit, and the purchaser can reasonably be pre- 
 sumed to be acquainted with such usage, he will be charge- 
 able with interest, which will usually be computed at the 
 legal rate. 
 
 interest recoverable as damages is given by operation of 
 law, and does not depend upon contract, express or im- 
 plied. It is the general practice in the courts of this coun- 
 try to award interest, computed at the legal rate, for de- 
 fault in the payment of any liquidaletl debt or claim at 
 the time it becomes due. The time from \vhich it is reck- 
 oned is the d.ate when payment should properly have been 
 made. This practice depends partly upon the ground that 
 the debtor in retaining the amount due gains the benefit of 
 its use, and should justly reimburse the creditor at a rate 
 of interest which measures the iucome which might ordi- 
 narily be derived from the money, and partly upon the 
 ground that the debtor should be punished for his default 
 by increasing the amount of the debt. The time when the 
 debt becomes payable is frequently fixed upon by the par- 
 ties when the transact i(m occurs out of which the debt 
 arises, and the interest will be computed in such cases from 
 the date ajipointed. Interest will be given as damages 
 whether the deht bore interest before maturity or not. In 
 many instances the time when the debt originally becomes 
 pavable does not depend upon agreement, and must be de- 
 termined by special rules. The general principle is that 
 interest will be c<un])Uled from the lime when the creditor 
 might have brought action to enforce his claim. Thus. 
 when money is lent to another or paid to his use. interest 
 accrues from the time of the loan or payment. When goods 
 arc sold, and no time of payment is specified or credit 
 given, interest is coiu|iutable from the day of the sale. A 
 note payable on demand draws interest from the time of 
 the demand. It shouhl be, however, noted that for some 
 purposes a note on deruaml is due immediately : e. g. for 
 the running of the statute of limitations. (See Limitations, 
 Stati TK oF.l So, generally, wherever there is an unsettled 
 claim with no ileterminate time for payment, the creditor 
 may demnnd payment, and, if it be refiiscd, inieircsl will 
 run from the time of the demand. When eredit is given, 
 interest will bo calculated from the expiration of the time 
 of credit. Tpon a judgment it is reckoned from the time 
 when the judgment was rendered, .hulgments did not hear 
 interest at common law, but this rule has been generally 
 changed in this country. T'pon unliquidated demands in- 
 terest is not, in general, collectible, since there is no specific 
 sum upon which it can bo reekimed until the amount of the 
 claim is liquidated or ascertained, and usually no definite 
 time at which payment is to be made and from which the 
 interest can be computed. Thus, a debt for board and 
 lodging, where there was no price or time of payment ex- 
 pr'^csly or impliedly fixed, will not draw interest until it is 
 leduced to a judgment, or its amount otherwise liquidated. 
 
 AVhile. as has already been seen, interest cannot be charged 
 upon the items of a running account for goods sold or ser- 
 vices rendered unless there be a particular usage to the con 
 trary, still, after there has been a mutual agreement of the 
 parlies upon a balance struck, and the amount due thus as- 
 certained, interest may generally be computed upon this 
 balance. It is a common practice for creditors, when they 
 desire to secure the settlement of an open account, to send to 
 the debtor a statement of the items of the account, and of iho 
 amount computed to be payable, and the assent of the debtor 
 to the correctness ()f the balance may be presumed from his 
 failure to make objection to its accuracy after a reasonable 
 opportunity for examination. This presumption, however, 
 is not conclusive, but may be rebutted. Generally, after the 
 lapse of a reasonable time, interest will commence to run 
 upon the balance stated. Tn cases where the debt arises from 
 an unliquidated claim, but the time of payment was deter- 
 minate, and the amount then due could have been ascer- 
 tained by computation, it is the law in New York, and gen- 
 erally in this country, that interest may be collected upon 
 that amount from the appointed time, upon the principle 
 that that is certain which can be rendered certain. The 
 English courts, however, do not allow interest in such cases. 
 It is on the ground that a creditor's claim is unliquidated 
 that interest is not generally given in actions for damages 
 for tortious injury. In cases of the conversion of personal 
 property, however, interest is usually recoverable upon its 
 value from the time of conversion, since that value is in 
 general readily ascertainable, and the retention of the prop- 
 erty is a continued wrongful act from the time it is taken 
 or wrongfully detained. The same rule is also applied in 
 some other cases of injury to property where the amount 
 of the claim can be computed. It is not so general a prac- 
 tice in the courts of England as in this country to award 
 interest as damages for the wrongful detention of a debt. 
 It is only in relation to particular modes of incurring in- 
 debtedness that interest is held collectible on this ground. 
 
 Interest given by way of damages for the maladminis- 
 tration of trust funds is not grounded upon the detention 
 of a debt after it is regularly payable, hut depends, in the 
 main, upon the same principles — viz. that the owner of the 
 properly or debt is entitled to the percentage which might 
 be obtained upon it by a faithful administration of the 
 trust, and that interest may be chargeable as a means of 
 punishment. Thus, guardians, executors and administra- 
 tors, and trustees of every kind will be charged interest 
 upon all trust funds in their hands which it is their duty 
 to invest, upon failure on their part to do so within a rea- 
 sonable time or with proper jirecautions against loss. 
 (lenerally. simple interest will be charged against them, or 
 the rate which would have been obtained by a judicious 
 investment, but in cases of gross delinquency compound 
 interest may even be recovered. 
 
 Compound interest, by which is meant interest computed 
 upon a sura consisting of the principal and previously ac- 
 crued interest, is not in general recoverable at law. To 
 require its payment is thought to savor of usury and to bo 
 unduly oppressive upon the debtor. P^ven though there be 
 an express agreement that compound interest shall be paid, 
 the contract will not be usually enforceable for more than 
 simple interest. When, however, interest has already ac- 
 crued and become payable, nn agreement that it shall be 
 added to the principal, and that interest shall be subse- 
 quently computed upon the new principal thus formed, will 
 generally bo deemeil valid. In like manner, compound in- 
 terest may be payable in certain kinds of inereautile trans- 
 actions by virtue of usage. And even where it would not 
 generally be recoverable upon an ordinary contract in 
 which its payment was agreed upon, yet if it is actually 
 ]>aid it cannot he recovered hack. When]>ar(ial payments 
 are made from time to time upon an interest-bearing debt, 
 it is necessary tn apply them towards the discharge of the 
 debt in such a way that interest shall never be reckoned 
 upon interest. The following is the rule which has been 
 generally uflopted : Compute the intcrct-t on the principal 
 from the time when interest became I'ayalde to the first 
 time when a payment alone, or in conjunction with pre- 
 ceding payments, shall equal or exceed the interest due od 
 the principal, deduct this sum. and compute interest on 
 the balance as before. By this rule there is never any 
 balance of interest remaining after dctlucting a payment 
 upoD which subsequent interest can be reckoned. 
 
 tiKOHRK Chase. Rkvised bv T. W. DwionT. 
 
 Tnterfer'ence [Lat. inter, "between," and fen're, "to 
 strike"], a term used in hydrodynamics, acoustics, and op- 
 tics to denote the mutual intluence of different undulations 
 which conspire or conflict in consequence of (he superposi- 
 tion of one upon the other. A gross illustration often em- 
 ployed in explaining this Idea is to refer to the appearances 
 presented by the intersecting rings formed in water into 
 which two jiebbles have been thrown. The elevated rings
 
 INTERFEREN'CE. 
 
 1241 
 
 and their iDtervening depressions are undulations: the 
 mulecular muvemeuls ure verlical, uliile the undulation 
 ](rogre53 is liorizuntut. AVheu thu riuj^s intersect, ihc points 
 where two ridgt;* crusy are doubly eU'vated ; the jioiuts 
 where two hollows cross arc doubly depressed ; while the 
 points in which a ridge in one syt-teni crosses a hollow of 
 the other are neither elevated nor depressed. The term 
 applied to this influence of one undulation upon another is 
 
 intfrfemtrr. 
 
 The interferences of liquid waves are finely illustriited in 
 the undulations of mercury contained in a vessel of ellipti- 
 cal figure. If a disturbance be produced at one of the focal 
 points of the ellipse, the circular waves proceeding from 
 this will, by reflection from the sides of the vessel, form a 
 second similar system having for its centre the other focus. 
 If the corresponding points of interference be connected, 
 they will form, as the figure shows, two sets of curves, el- 
 liptical and hyperbolic, having for their common foci the 
 foci of the original ellipse. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Tho interference of u i , - u n i i nften very percepti- 
 
 ble. It is observed only in niiisK-;il ^^imiids. because it t'<(ii 
 only be observed in those whose undulations are continuous i 
 and uniform: and such sounds are musical. It is best ob- | 
 served when the waves are long — as in the case of the grave 
 tones of (he heavier organ-pipes. The sinking anil swelling 
 of the sound, called by musicians the hf-nt, is owing to one 
 of tho interfering waves being slightly longer or shorter 
 than the other. In many repetitions this slight dificrcnce 
 of length accumulates until it reaches half an undulation ; 
 when, if tho two waves originally conspired — that is (to 
 borrow again an illustration from the water), if their two 
 crests were originally superposed— they will, after this dif- 
 ference has crept in, be in conflict; or the crest of one will 
 fall upon the hollow of tlio other. During this interval, a 
 sinking of tho sound will have been observed: but imme- 
 diately after, as the ilifference of path goes on increasing 
 from a half to a whole undulation, the sound will swell ! 
 again as the two crests once more approach superposition. ' 
 It need hardly bo remarked that the interference of waves ' 
 of fioun'l of it^r/frtti/ rifiiii/ Irinjih would not be perceptible , 
 to a person stanrling motionless; for, in that case, the re- 
 sultant sounil would be a co»i*Mii/. Should he endeavor, by ! 
 moving about while two boflies of precisi-ly similar jiitch j 
 are sounding, to j)ass from the jioinls of cr»nspiring to those ! 
 of conflieliiig undulation, he would not find it easy to detect , 
 these points for several reasons. In the first |dace, when | 
 tho molecular movements are normal to the wave front, as 
 in tho case of sound, there is no cnmpfttt- interference, or 
 approaeh to comphte interference, except where the waves 
 are tangential, or apppiximately so, to each other; except, 
 therefore, in or near the line of the centres; and except, it 
 may be added, when the <Iistance between the centres is an 
 exact number of half undulations. Again, at the iiift-nivc- 
 tinii^ of sonorous waves, whether the nioIe<-ular movements 
 conspiroorconrtict, the resultant of these movements is never 
 BO great as the sum, nor so small as the diff^erencc, of the 
 two components. The difference of intensity between tho 
 maxima and minima of sonu'l in such eiises will not bo 
 striking, unl« ss they succeed titr-Ii other with brief inter- 
 vening intervals of time, as in the case of the hmtn.^ 
 
 It 18, however, by this second method that we detect tho 
 interferences of light, and not at all by the first. That is 
 to say, wo discover these interferences by moving the eye 
 through the space where they exist, in the course of which 
 
 •The rather dilTtcult experiment of local i:tn(j tho Interfer- 
 ences of sound from iwn pipcn hi perfect unison was successfully 
 acconiplisbcil by Mr. Pespreiz. 
 
 movement the points of maximum and minimum brightness 
 are easily observed : or we let fall the interfering rays upon 
 a white surface, when the same points will become manifest 
 by their diflcreuce of illuminating power. The first method 
 is best, especially if tho eye be assisted by a lens; hut the 
 second is that which was used l)y the earliest observers. 
 Wc cannot detect the interferences of light by observing 
 periodical maxima or minima, like the beats in music, be- 
 cause of the almost inconceivable shortness of the undu- 
 lations. But if the waves of light were as long as the waves 
 of sound, interferences might easily be made to manifest 
 themselves in this manner. 
 
 The phenomena attending tiie interferences of luminous 
 waves are such as to compel us to assume that the molecular 
 movements are not, as in sound-waves, normal to the wave 
 front, but are, as in liquid-waves, in the wave front itself, 
 and normal to the direction of progress. In liquid-waves 
 gra^'ity determines the azimuthal direction of these move- 
 ments, confining them to the vertical plane y)asging through 
 the wave centre, or origin of molecular disturbance. In 
 the case of luminous waves, there is no such determining 
 or constraining force; and hence it happens tiiat ordinary 
 light has no determinate plane or azimuth of vibration ; 
 but its successive undulations assume every variety of azi- 
 muth. There is no proof, however, that changes of azimuth 
 arc incessant ; in other words, that many undulations, in 
 fact many thousands or perhaps millions, do not follow 
 each other, usually, in tho same azimuth, between tho 
 changes. This, indeed, is probable, since the ethereal vi- 
 brations take their character from those of tho luminous 
 body; and these may reasonably be presumed to have a 
 certain jiersistence in their modes of viliration, or at Icust 
 not to undergo incessant and abrupt changes. Beyond a 
 certain limit, however, this persistency could not continue; 
 nor could there, among the changes which occur, be a pre- 
 dominating disjiosition to return to one azimuth oftrncr 
 than to another, or to remain in it longer, without impart- 
 ing to the light, more or less decidedly, the character of 
 polarization. If five hundrccl millions of the mean undu- 
 lations of white light were to follow eacli other in a single 
 azimuth, they would occupy It s.s than the one-niilliontli part 
 of a second ; and, accordingly, if five hundred millions of 
 such undulations should take place in each of a million 
 difl'crent azimuths successively, the whole would be per- 
 formed in one second, and no instrumental tist could de- 
 tect polarization in the aggregate beam. The polarization 
 of light consists, therefore, in the determination of all its 
 vibrations to a single plane. (See Poi.akization.) 
 
 AVhen two polarized rays f(dIow each other in the same 
 path, or intersect uiuler a very acute angle, it is obvious 
 that, if their planes of polarization agree in azimuth, they 
 arc in condition to interfere. If in phase of undulation 
 they are perfectly accordant, the two waves will be super- 
 posed, and the ni'decular velocity of the resultant wave 
 will be equal to the sum of the velocities tif the two com- 
 ])onents; but if there is a ditVerence of pliasc between tlicm 
 amounting to exactly half an undulation, then the crest of 
 one wave will fall on the hollo\v of the other, and tho re- 
 sultant molecular velocity will be equal to the diflerenco 
 of velocities of the com|)oncnls. If tlie dificrcnce of phase 
 is any other fraction of an nmlulatiun. the resultant molec- 
 ular velocity, and eonse(|uently the resultant intensity of the 
 luminous eliect. may be deduced by means (tfii mathematical 
 formula into which this diflVrence of jdiase enters as an ele- 
 ment. If the azimuths of molecular motion are difi'ercut, 
 the effect of interference on nii>leeulur velocity and luminous 
 intensity will vary with this dilVcrencc: and the character 
 of the niovemeiit itself will change with difierence of phase, 
 becoming elliptical or even circular, instead of remaining 
 as originally rectilinear. If the difference in azimuth is 
 l»0°, the luminous intensity is not afiVctcd by diflVrence of 
 jiliase, and lienec the interference is insensible to direct ob- 
 servation ; but on testing the condition of the light by 
 suitable optical methods, the molecular movement may 
 always be resolved into its two component rectilinear move- 
 ments. 
 
 Kays of common light, if the diflferencc of their paths 
 be not very great, will interfere, notwithstanding the fact 
 that their umlulations are confined to no determinate 
 azimuth. This fact proves, what has been above assumed, 
 that the changes of azimuth in common light cannot bo 
 incessant. Hut there is one condition absolutely indispen- 
 sable to protluce interference in any case: it is that tho 
 rays shall have a common origin. If the light subjected 
 to experiment be unpolarized, the necessity of the condition 
 is easily explained. The changes of the azimuth of vibra- 
 tion in two sudi rays eould not, except upon a supposition 
 which has an infinity of chances against it. take place at 
 tho same intervals and in the ,>.amo order; and if they did, 
 the chances would be equally great against the coincidence 
 of those planes. But as it is true of polarized as well as
 
 ]:i42 
 
 IXTERFEEENCE— INTERMITTENT FEVER, ETC. 
 
 of ordinary liglit. wo must look for a different explanation, 
 and we find it in the fact that light is not homogeneous hut 
 (MiniT»oun<l : there being present, in every lumiiious emana- 
 tion, undulations insensibly difleriug from each other in 
 length through a range ai)proaehiiig the ratio of I to 2. 
 When two minute and isolated portions of a wave thus 
 constituted are brought together by rcileetion, by refraction, 
 or by ditfraclion, at a very minute angle and with a very 
 slightly difl'erent length of path, interferences of aulago- 
 nism will take place between some of these elementary 
 movements, and interferences of reinforcement between 
 others. Coloreil stripes or fringes will therefore make their 
 appearance ; but these, owing to the diflerenees of interval 
 between those of different colors, will at each repetition be 
 less and less distinctly separated from neighboring ones, and 
 llie whole will soon overrun each other, producing while 
 by the blending of their colors, and uniformity of inlcnsily 
 by the nverbipping of the brighter and fainter stripes. 
 Even with wave elements from the same source, sensible 
 interference cannot be produced when the paths of the 
 uniting waves differ by more than a very few units in the 
 number of their undulations. The jxissibility of their 
 sensibly interfering at all therefore depends on their abso- 
 lute identity of conilition at a distance from the point of 
 interference" differing by only this small amount, .'^ueh 
 identity will necessarily be found at contiguous points of 
 a wave front from a single centre; but the chances are in- 
 tinitely against its occurrence in points taken in two wave 
 fronts" from different centres. To this it maybe added, 
 that the actual sources in nature of luminous emanations 
 are not jierfectly fi.'sed points. There are irregularities at 
 the very origin of the uudulatious. or at the surface of the 
 luminous body, which are propagated with the undulations, 
 and which ]irevent the permanent eoineideuce or conflict 
 of two sets of undulations, unless both arc equilUy affected 
 by the same irregularities. An instability, for example, 
 .affecting the position of the origin of two successive sets 
 of undulations to the e.itent of a single one-hundred-thou- 
 sandlh part of an inch, would put tlicm into entirely oppo- 
 site jihases. (^'onsidcring the activity and energy of the 
 forces .at work at the surfaces of incamlcsceut bodies, it is 
 impossible to believe that the waves they generate can have 
 their origins absolutely invariable in position. 
 
 Interference is the cause of the colors of thin plates or 
 films (as those of soap-bubbles) of Newton's rings (which 
 see), of ruled-plate spectra (see Spectkim), and of the 
 iridescence which distinguishes many objects in the mineral 
 anil organic world. In the earlier history of optics, most 
 or all of these ]>henomena were accounted for more or less 
 satisfactorily, upon hy]iolheses having nothing in common 
 with the theory of umluhitioii. Of the truth of the undu- 
 lalory theory itself, Kresncl jiroposcd an experimental test, 
 whieil he afterwards successfully em]iloyed as follows: 
 — Two mirrors of polished metal arc placed edge to edge 
 and very nearly. l>ut not (piile in the same plane. A small 
 solar beam brought into a dark room and concentrated by 
 a lens of short focus forms a radiant before these mirrors. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 The light from this radiant reflected by these mirrors, 
 forms, after reflection, two intersecting waves, which, being 
 received upon a screen, produce precisely the scries of 
 
 parallel bright and dark stripes which theory leads us to 
 anticipate. 
 
 In the figure, R is the radiant, A B and A C are the 
 mirrors. S and S' are the apparent sources of the reflected 
 undulations. The circular ares described with these |iuints 
 as centres represent the intersecting waves, the full lines 
 representing the crests and the dotted lines the hollows. 
 Where two full lines or two dotted lines intersect, as at o 
 and I. there is reinforcement, and a bright stripe is seen ; 
 where the intersectiim takes ]dace between a full line and 
 a dotted line, there is conflict, and the stripe is dark. 
 
 Further and quite conclusive confirmation of the truth 
 of this theory of interference has been derived from the 
 chromatic phenomena of polarized light. (See Poi..\iiiZA- 
 Tiox "I- I.ic^iiT.) F. A. P. Bah.nard. 
 
 Inlcrfer'ciice [Lat. iuifr, "between," and /cn're, to 
 '•strike ■■]. or IiiU-rvculiou [Lat. i;i(.rrcii(iVj, '-coming 
 between"]. In international law these words are used of 
 the measures which one stale takes to prevent injury to 
 itself arising from the political measures of another state, 
 or growing for some other reason out of the other sovereign's 
 coniluct. The principal cases of interference are — first, 
 that for the purjiose of ]ireserving the balance of power — 
 that is, of preventing a state from gaining, by ]iolilical 
 means or by force, an accession of power which would be 
 dangerous to its neighbors. Many alliances and wars have 
 take°i place in Euroiie on this ground within the last four 
 centuries. The plea here is self-preservaticm. A second 
 class of instances of interference, all or nearly all of a 
 modern age. have grown out of the efforts of nations to 
 right themselves against tyrannical governments by revo- 
 lution. The plea here also is sell-preservation— that no 
 government can stand ag.ainst the revolutionary fever of 
 neighboring countries. But the plea is made for the benefit 
 of The powers that be, and not lor that of the people. As 
 a practical rule, it does not ai)ply to great nations like 
 France, which changes its political forms at will, without 
 standing in fear of other states. It is also a dangerous 
 rule to those who follow it. for it only intensifies revolutions 
 within and without by exciting the feeling that there is a 
 radical, endless antagonism between the interest and \yill 
 of legitimate governments, so called, and the nations which 
 they^rv to keep down. A llihil and more righteous kind 
 of "interference is that used when a government commits 
 great inhumanitv in punishing revolutionists, or great cru- 
 elty against rebels in war. (In the whole, there is a some- 
 what viigue border-line, beyond which, in extreme cases, 
 nations having common interests and a common civilija- 
 tion will pass, in order to put an end to evil or to avert 
 danger from themselves. T. I). Wool.SEY. 
 
 In'terim, the name of certain formulas or confessions 
 of faith adopted by the Reformation in (iermany at the in- 
 stance of Charles v.. with the object of maintaining the 
 «fii/ii« </iin until a general council could dcciile all questions 
 between Catholics and Protestants. There were three such : 
 the Interim of Hatishon (loll i. of Augsburg (May 15, 
 l.i4.S), and of Lcijisic (iJec. 22. 1518). each being the result 
 of conferences between Catholic and Protestant theologians 
 upon the points at issue. These interims were in reality des- 
 potic ordinances of Charles V,. forbidding the Protestants to 
 innovate n|ion the doctrines or rites they had once professed 
 or agreed to. No permanent result could be expected from 
 such attempts at compromise ; accordingly, the Leipsic In- 
 terim was generally disobeyed and resisted by arms, was 
 abrogated by Charles in 15i2, and was finally superseded 
 by the Angsiiurg Confession, confirmed to the Protestant 
 slates in l.i5.i by the diet of .\ugsburg. 
 
 In'terlakcil, a v. of .-Jwitzerland. in the canton of Berne, 
 on the Aar. It has only InOU or 20011 inhabitants, and 
 consists mostly of hotels" and boanling-houses. As it is 
 beautifuUv situ.ated. and its surroumlings presc ut some of 
 the finest prospects of Switzerland (the Slanbbach and the 
 Jungfrau), it is visited during the summer by many thou- 
 sand tourists. 
 
 In'lcrlutlc. This term, which originally meant certain 
 short pieces of music inserted between the acts of a drama 
 or in any other intervals of a public performance, is now 
 more coilimonlv applied to the brief strains usually played 
 by organists between the verses of metre iisalms and hymns 
 in divine worship. Interludes are now jiassing out of use 
 as a needless interruption, or are introduced only once or 
 twice in long hymns for the relief of the singers. 
 
 Iiitormit'tciit Fe'vcr, Agiic-roviM, and Apuc, 
 an essential, periodic fever resulting In.m infection ol the 
 blood by malaria or marsh-miasm. JIalaria emanates from 
 decomp'osing vegetable matter exposed to the action of the 
 air and the sun's heat. It exists in swampy districts and 
 in low, damp, umlrained places, upon the banks of rivers, 
 upon inlets of salt water, where variable water-level and 
 tides expose a saturated soil to the atmosphere. Malaria
 
 INTKRXAL KKVKNUE-INTEKXATIOXAL LAW. 
 
 124:'. 
 
 is most concentrated and intermittent fever most prevalent 
 and severe in the tropic?, where vegetation is luxuriant, 
 ami 11 soil enriched by decaying plants and falling foliage 
 is subjected to the extreme influences of alternate seasons 
 of rain and drought. In temperate regions it is present in 
 new districts. ,!isappcnring as the land is populated, culti- , 
 vatcd, and drained. It may appear in cities by the expo- 
 sure of marshv subsoil when excavating to build, or by the 
 escape of maiarial air from defective street sewers con- 
 structed in a swampv substratum or emptying on a malarial 
 water-course, whose tidal changes ilam back inarsh-iniasni i 
 to escape in the various quarters from which the sewers 
 extend. Intermittent fever occurs in paroxysms separated 
 by intermissions or non-febrile periods. The paroxysms 
 niay recur dailv. constituting the "quotidian" form, or on 
 nlternale days! the ■•tertian" form, since it recurs on the 
 third day, including the previous attack. There is also a 
 " ((uartan " form. Kxccptiimally, there may bo a " double 
 quotidian," with one strong and one mild attack each day; ^ 
 a " double tertian," with a daily onset, that of every second , 
 day being relatively weak: a'Moublc quartan," having 
 two attacks in every three days. Febrile paroxysms | 
 usually recur at a definite hour each day or alternate day. 
 A recurrence of successive paroxysms at an earlier hour , 
 for each attack is termed "anticipating." and indicates an I 
 increasing malarial influence. When the paroxysms come 
 at a later period, with successive attacks, it is termed 
 "postponing" or "retarding," and indicates a subsidence 
 of the malarial influence. Paroxysms may occur a fen- 
 hours after cx]posurc to malaria or after a period of incu- 
 bation as long as two weeks. A paroxysm has three dis- 
 tinct periods or stages : (l)cold stage; (2) hot stage: (3) 
 sweating stage. The average duration of the cold stage is I 
 one-half to three-quarters of an hour; it may be a few 
 moments or two to three hours. It begins with shivering, 
 chilliness in the loins, extending to back and limbs, mus- 
 cular tremor, the lips quiver, teeth chatter, and the whole 
 bodv is shaken. The respiration is sighing, the pulse feeble, 
 the "face pale or livid, the nails livid, the lingers waxen and 
 cold. The general surface is (lale, cold, often shrivelled. 
 The thermometer in the mouth or armpit, however, reveals 
 an increased temperature of the blood even in the cold 
 sl.age, the blood having been expelled from the skin and 
 extremities by the involuntary contraction of the elastic 
 tissues of the skin. During the first stage there is therefore 
 a determination of blood to internal organs, which may bo 
 dangerously congested, constituting the "pernicious" or 
 " congestive " forms. Headache, vomiting, tenderness over 
 the liver and spleen, arc 9yin|itomalic of such congestion. 
 The transition from the cold to the hot stage is gradual ; 
 chilliness ceases, flushings of he.al are felt, " the coldness 
 melts away." The skin becomes hot and red, pulse full 
 and bounding, the face flushed, headache increases, the 
 lem|ierature of the surface may be 10o° or 100° F. The 
 duration of the hot stage is from three to eight hours. The 
 third or sweating singe at lirsl is gradual ; moisture appears 
 on the face, snon on the trunk and extremities. Ileat. 
 headache, thirst, and restlessness subsiile, the temperature 
 falls nipidlv, the person is drowsy, falls into long and re- 
 freshing sleep, with profuse or slight sweating. The dura- 
 tion of this stage is from three to four hours. During the 
 intermissions or apyrexial periiuls there may be good health, 
 or in graver cases impaired digestion, debility, pallor, or 
 sallow cachectic complexion. Malaria ininoverishes the 
 red corpuscles ami lessens the albumen of the blood. In- 
 termiltent fever tends to recur when incompletely cured, 
 either in marked paroxysms or in less pronounced " latent," 
 "masked," "concealed" forms, vague symptoms of ehilli- 
 ncsa and weariness known as "dumb ague" or in periodic 
 neuralgia. The spleen is often |iermanently enlarged, and 
 is termed " .igue cake." The periodical recurrence of the 
 iiaroxvsms is due to successive en"orls at elimination, the 
 
 nierval being the time required for the zymotic material 
 f malaria to redevelop and impress the system. 
 
 tie time reqiui 
 
 develop and it 
 
 The paroxysms recpiiro no treatment other than warm 
 drinks an.l blanketing .luring the cold stage, cooling ilrinks 
 and sponging during the febrile or hot stage. The treal- 
 locnt for the prevention of the paroxysms is to be in the 
 periods of intermission. The i hief of remedies is the 
 Peruvian or cinchona bark, and the alkaloids derived from 
 it. (iuinine is mostly nseil in the form if the sulphate ami 
 Uisulphate, less oflen'the muriate, t'inchoniiie is an alkaloi.l 
 resembling quinine, but less powerful. The niotbcr-liquor 
 from which these nlkaloi.ls are precipitated is evaporated, 
 and an impure, eru.lc sediment, in part i|uinine and ein- 
 ehonine, and mainlv qiiini"idia ami cioclomioidin, or 
 amorphous alkaloids. 'is .ditained, and is mneb used— known 
 as "chinoidine." Salicine. the alkaloid of willow bark, 
 berberinc, piperine, api"l. eucalyptus, and other vegetable 
 substitutes are w.aker and less eflicacious than quinine. 
 (rode "r unblcaebed quinine, an inexpensive arliolo, has 
 
 recently been ascertained to have the full efficacy. Quinine 
 is given either in one full dose of ten or more grains or in 
 divided doses of live grains three times a day to break the 
 jiaroxysms, and continued in smaller doses for many days 
 to prevent their recurrence. Fowler's solution of arseuite 
 of potash is second only to quinine in power. Nitric acid, 
 sulphites of soda, ferrocyanidc of iron, chloride of aniuio- 
 niuni are al.«o uscil. The patient may be more efliciently 
 and permanently cured by combining eholagogue cathartics, 
 and subsequently employing iron and tonics generally. 
 The prevention of intermittent fever is to be sought by 
 soil-drainage, by avoiding damp night air, and sleeping in 
 closed rooms well above the ground. The sunflower freely 
 planted adjacent to dwellings has been considered protec- 
 tive by absorbing malaria, and more recently the £iica- 
 li/pliis'glnhiiliu, or Australian fever tree, has been exten- 
 sively planted in Algiers, at the Capo of Good Hope, and in 
 Cuba, and is asserted to lessen, or even eradicate, malaria 
 by its presence. K. D.inwis Hi Dso.v, Ju. 
 
 Internal Revenue. See Kevexi e. 
 
 Interna'tional L.a\v,lNTRoiuTTioNTo. International 
 law is a collection of rules by which nations, and their 
 members respectively, arc supposed to be governed in their 
 relations with each other. In its exact sense, law is a rule 
 of properlv and of conduct prescribed by sovereign power. 
 Strictly speaking, therefore, as nations have no ecnnmon 
 superior, thev cannot be said to be subject to human law. 
 But there is "nevertheless a body of rules, more or less gen- 
 erally recognized, by which nations profess to regulate 
 their own ccmduct towards each other, and the conduct of 
 their citizens respectively. Being rules of jiropcrly and 
 of conduct, though not prescribed by a superior, they are 
 somewhat looselv designated as laws: and taken together 
 they form whtit is called international law. and as such are 
 enforced bv each nation separately upon persons and things 
 within its jurisdiction. This body of rules is derived from 
 custom or treaty. From the earliest times there must have 
 been some .«ort of rule, tacit or expressed. f<ir the inter- 
 course, however small, which must have existed between 
 nations, and must have begun with the beginning of na- 
 tions. No community has ever yet existed, and none could 
 exist, so independent: and isolated as to have no communi- 
 cation whatever with its neighbors ; and intercourse between 
 communities, as between individuals, necessarily required 
 some kind of regulation. We find, accordingly, in the 
 oldest historical records, mention of messengers or em- 
 bassies .sent bv nation or king to another nation or king, 
 1 and of compacts between them. Treaties followed the iin- 
 i written regulations as a matter of course, for the necessity 
 i of changing or of adding to existing rules led to express 
 stipulations. These were expressed as stipulations between 
 individuals were expressed ; orally before a written lan- 
 guage was known, and orally or in writing afterwards. Of 
 these treaties or compacts between nations there are many 
 and mullil'orni records. Various collections of them have 
 been made, the most important and coinidele of which 
 are those of Domont, Kousset. Martens. M<.rliard. Saiuwer, 
 Calvo, and I>e Clercq. Notwithstanding the treaties ol 
 every kind and form that have been entered into, the 
 greater part of international law is to this day customary 
 only. These customs have been declared and enforced by 
 judicial decisions, and .set forth in the writings of publi- 
 cists in all the languages of Euro]ie. 
 
 The b.idy of law which we have thus described is some- 
 times also' called public law, or the law of nations. Its 
 formation has been gradual, and its history is curious and 
 instructive. Thev err greatly who say that it is the sole 
 product of modcrii times. It is the product of all times ever 
 since there were nations upon the earth, though its greatest 
 development is unquestionably modern. The .Anipbietyonic 
 Council enforced a kind of international law among the 
 (ireeks, by which, among other things, an exchange of 
 prisoners of war and a truce after a battle fir the burial 
 of the dead were enjoined. The Humans, improving »]'"n 
 the (Jrccks, instituted a college of heralds for the declara- 
 tion of war. and established one important and bcnefieeni 
 rnle : thai none but a soldier sworn into the service could 
 fight the common enemy. Christianity wrought, with il^ 
 other changes, a great change in public law. The spirit 
 of Christian brotherhood found its way into cabinets and 
 camps. The citir.eii ol iinotbcr stale or the subject of an- 
 other king was yet a brother in Christ, and the barriers 
 which separated natiims were, in part at least, tbriiwn 
 down. The influence of the Christian Church upon the 
 public law of the world cannot be overestimated. .As soon 
 as the brotherhood id' man came to be aeeepted as a re- 
 ligious tenet, it was inevitable that the old doctrine of the 
 natural antipathy of nations shoubl, sr>oner or later, dis- 
 appear. In the "earliest ages the stranger had been sc- 
 oounled an enemy, and even the victims of shipwreck
 
 1244 
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 might lawfully have boon plundered. Such barbarities fell 
 before the gnjpti : and othtrs (less gross), which kept their 
 hold in spite of the Bible and the Church, gradually Ussened 
 in intensity and in number. The laws of slates, the ordi- 
 nances of kings, and the writings of publicists have mod- 
 erated the severity of earlier times, while every new treaty 
 between nations lias been an addition to public law. Start- 
 ing from the theory of the natural rights of men and the 
 equality of nations", publicists have striven lo establish the 
 code of ethics as the law of nations. Montesquieu de- 
 clared it as a maxim that nations .should do each other as 
 muuh good in peace and as little harm in war as possible 
 without injury to their own interests. The rules of the 
 Ihinseatie Leiigue, the laws of Wisby ami of Oleron, the 
 I'onsolato del Mare, and the Ordinances of Louis XIV. were 
 all so many contributions to international law. A host of 
 writers have discussed its principles and enforced its pre- 
 cepts. .Aristotle, I'ieero, Bacon, tJrotius, Barbeyrac, I'uf- 
 IVn.V.rf, Wolfius, Burlamaqui, Rutherforth, Bynkershoek, 
 and \attel before our times, and in our own days Kent, 
 Wheaton, Phillimorc, Twiss, Lawrence, Wharton, Woolsey, 
 llalleck. Field, lleffter. Bluntschli. Hautefeuille, Cauchy, 
 Paricu, Masse, Calv", Mancini. lloltzendorf, tiiraud. Gold- 
 schmidt, .\sser, Lorimer, Westlake, Bernard, and Pieran- 
 toni are among those who have written on the subject. Of 
 all these writers, lirotius stands as the acknowledged head. 
 As now existing, international law is a science of which 
 the major part is generally understood and accepted. The 
 residue consists of propositions more or less dis]iuted or 
 unsettled. Kegarded as a whole, it consists of two main 
 divisions ; one treating of peace, and the other of war, or 
 rather of the relations of nations and of their members to 
 each other, excejit as they are modified by a state of war, 
 and the modifications of "these relations produced by war. 
 
 The portion of international law relating to peace is nat- 
 urally subdivided into two divisions; one public and the 
 other private. Public international law contains the rules 
 respecting the relations of nations to each other, and to the 
 members of other nations ; private international law con- 
 tains the rules respecting the relations of the members of 
 a nation to the members of other nations. Only tlie briefest 
 possil)le enumeration of the subjects treated in the various 
 subdivisions of these two departments can here be given. 
 In respect to the first department, they relate to the essen- 
 tial rights of nations, such as their sovereignty, equality, 
 ]]crpetuity, territory, projierty : to their extra-territorial 
 action in regard to navigation, discovery, exploration, and 
 colonization; to fisheries and )iiracy ; to the intercourse of 
 nations with each other by means of accredited agents ; to 
 international compacts, asylum and extradition, national 
 character and jurisiliction, and domicile; and to the re- 
 ciprocal duties of nations to foreigners, and of foreigners 
 to the nation where they live, in respect of residence, occu- 
 pation, religion, obedience to the laws, taxation, civil and 
 military service. To the subject of private internationni 
 law belong provisions respecting private rights and the ad- 
 ministration of justice. Hero may be groujied together 
 regulations concerning personal c.Tpacily, social condition, 
 the validity and iuterpretatiou of contracts, the ell'cel of 
 marriages and divorces, the devolution of property at 
 death, the administration of justice, procedure and evi- 
 denee, as these subjects apply to the persons and property 
 of foreigners. 
 
 This brief enumeration shows how vast is the scope, 
 and how varicil are the details, of international law. 
 The tenilency of the science is strongly towards ameliora- 
 tion. Various causes are working to produce this result, 
 such as increasing intercourse between dift'erent parts of 
 the world and the waste and suffering of war. Men are 
 perceiving more and more the need of reforming and of 
 defining clearly the rights and duties of nations, that war 
 may be discouraged, international controversies avoided, 
 ami international intercourse increased. The changing 
 circumstances of men always require a corresponding 
 change in the rules which guide and restrain them. The 
 opjircssion of standing armies, the tyranny of conscrip- 
 tions, the burden of taxation to meet the interest of debts 
 contracted for war. are all so many moti\'es to modify, if 
 it be possible, and to define with exactness, the rules by 
 which nations are to be guided in their intercourse with 
 each other. Of all the measures taken in our time for the 
 civilization of international intercourse and the settlement 
 of internati<uml difTerenees. none is comparable to that of 
 international arbitration. The idea is not new — indeed it 
 is as old as Henry IV. of France — but the practice is mod- 
 ern. America has the honor, on whi<di she nmy justly pride 
 herself, of having oftenest taught by ]ireeept and t»ftenest 
 ailopteil in jtractiee the closing of international controver- 
 sies by the intervention of irnjiartial arbiters. There arc 
 many" instances of international arbitration, and among 
 them the following: One in 17'J4, between the U. S. and 
 
 Great Britain to decide what river is the river St. Croix ; 
 one in 1SU2, between the V. S. and Spain respecting the ex- 
 cesses committed during the previous war ; one in 1S22 be- 
 tween the U. S. and Great Britain respecting slaves taken 
 during the war of 1S12 ; ami another afterwards between 
 the same powers respecting the limits of the J^latecjf Maine: 
 then in 1S4:;, between Great Britain and France respecting 
 the capture of British ships on the western coast of Africa; 
 in 1S:!'J and in I CfiS, between the U.S. and Mexico respect- 
 ing claims upon the latter: in lS5:t. between the V . S. and 
 Great Britain respect ing certain questions under former tren- 
 tics ; in IS.'iti, the international commission at the mouths of 
 the Danube; in 18o7, the arbitr;ition between Prussia and 
 Switzerland in the affair of Xeuichatel ; in INiS, between 
 the U. S. and Chili respecting captures by the latter; in 
 LSCn, between the V. S. and New Grenada, and between 
 the U. S. and Costa Rica; in l.-<6:i, between the U. S. and 
 Peru respecting the vessels Lizzie Thompson and Georgi- 
 ana; in 184'.l, between the U. S. and Brazil: and in 1.S67. 
 respecting the grand duehy of Luxemb.purg. The most 
 memorable instance is the arbitration of Geneva between 
 the r. S. and Great Britain for the settlement of the dis- 
 pute growing out of the deprediitions of the .Mabama and 
 other Confederate cruisers built and sent from England 
 during the civil war. This arbitration was preceded by a 
 joint''high commission of the two governments, by which 
 a treaty called the Treaty of Washington was negotiated, 
 and aii arbitrntion at Geneva agreed ujion, to proceed ac- 
 cording to three rules of neutrality then first formally 
 enunciated. 
 
 A provision for arbitration has been introduced into 
 several treaties: in one between Spain and the Hawaiian 
 Islands : in another between Spain and Sweden ; in another 
 between Spain and Uruguay ; and in seven different trea- 
 ties negotiated by Sir John Bowring. 
 
 The arbitration of Geneva was followed by ft TOtc of the 
 British House of Commons on July S, 1873, by which, on 
 the motion of Mr. Henry Rieh.ard, it was resolved : " That 
 an humble address be presented to Her Majesty, praying 
 that she will be graciously pleased to instruct her principal 
 secretary of state for foreign affairs to enter into commu- 
 nication with foreign powers with a view to further im- 
 provement in international law and the establishment of a 
 general and permanent system of international arbitra- 
 tion." The measures which have been lately taken for the 
 codificaticm of international law are of much significance. 
 At the meeting of the British Association for the Promo- 
 tion of Social Science, held at Manchester in Oct., 18IJfi. » 
 motion was made by Mr. David Dudley Field for the tt))- 
 pointment of a committee to prepare the outlines of an 
 international code. The proposal was agreed to, and a 
 committee appointed, comprising jurists of different coun- 
 tries. Some circumstances, however, led Mr. Field to pre- 
 pare and to publish in 1872 a draft of the whole work, 
 which he entitled Hi-til'l Oulliiict of iiii Intrrniitional Votlr. 
 In 18(18 Prof. Illunt.sehli of Heidelberg published a work 
 (M;ili:rncii V,ill.-'ii;rlil ilcr L'hilisi'rlin Stnlrii. ah lieclilt- 
 hmh LarijcKUlIt) which has been translated into French 
 under the title of I)i„it Inlimuiiuiml Cui/i/it. On Sept. 8, 
 187:1, eleven publicists .assembled at Ghent and founded »u 
 institute of international law. The number of members is 
 limited to fifty. The next meeting of the institute was 
 held at Geneva in Aug., 1874, and the Ibllowing three sub- 
 jects were there more or less examined, anil reports there- 
 on were made: uainelv, international arbitration ; the three 
 rules of the Treaty of Washington ; and private interna- 
 tional law. On 0"ct. 10, 1873, upon the invitation of an 
 American committee, a conference was held at Brussels, 
 where was founded an association for the reform and eodi- 
 fieutiou of the law of nations. This conference was at- 
 tended by representatives from America. Kngland, France, 
 Germany, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Holland, and Belgium, 
 comprising soi'ne of the most eminent authorities on inter- 
 national law. The two following res.dutions were unani- 
 mously adopted : "I. The conference declares that an in- 
 ternational code, defining with as much precision as pos- 
 
 sible the rights and duties of nations and of their members, 
 is eminently desirable in the interest of peace, public order, 
 and gcnera'l prosperity. It is therefore of opinion that no 
 effort should be neglected to obtain the preparation and 
 adoption of such a code. The conference reserve the ques- 
 tion as lo how far the codification of interimtional law 
 should be simply scientific, and how far it should be incor- 
 porated into treaties or conventions formally accepted l>y 
 s,.vereign slates. H. The conference declares that it re- 
 gar<l» arbilnilion as the means essentially just, reasonalde, 
 and even obligatory upon nations, for the settlement of in- 
 tcrniitional differences which cannot be settled by negotia- 
 tion. It abstains from affirming that in all eases without 
 exception these means are applicable, but it believes that 
 the exceptions are rare. It is convinced that no difference
 
 INTERXATIONAL LAW. 
 
 1245 
 
 own 1' 
 
 same 
 
 •hould be considered as insoluble until after a clear expla- 
 nation of the matter in difterence, u sufficient delay, and i 
 the exhauatiou of all |.acific means uf acconimodution. 
 This association had another meeting in 1S7I. at which I 
 t.apcrs were ..resented on various branches of international | 
 law That the steps thus taken may lead to such a reform 
 and codification of internati..nal law as will define, with all 
 the precision possible, the rights and duiies of nations, and 
 thus lesson the occasions of dispute and the ,.pp..rlunilies 
 of conflict, the wise and good of all countries must de- 
 voullvhope. DAVm D, I.I.KV Hkld. 
 
 International I.aAV, Simmarv or its Pkixciples. 
 
 —I ICi.ihlt .1:1./ (M;,,„lluns «( \almis, cjcrpt ».- Jar n« 
 /*,,■ „r/ Modijhd I.J iy„r.— \. Hero we speak, first, of the 
 essential nature of a slate, and of the parties to inter- 
 national law. (.<) An individual man cannot bo a party 
 of this kind, but can only claim, if a stranger, humane 
 treatment. The law of nature will be respected by the 
 courts, but the law of nations is not as broad nor does it 
 cover the same ground as the law of nature. « hen certain 
 blacks, imported against Spanish law into Cuba, rose on 
 the crew, killed the captain, and came into the waters of 
 the U. S., our Supremo Court held that if not slaves they 
 were not eommitting piracy in getting the vessel into their 
 ower; and so thcv were not delivered up. liy the 
 application of the'laws of humanity, persons fleeing 
 fr.mi cruelty at home, or shipwrecko.l mariners from a 
 country not under our law of nations, would be treated 
 with the same kindness as those with whose countries we 
 had treaty relations. 
 
 None are parties to international law except independent 
 oreaniie.i communities— that is. nations properly so speak- 
 in-, communilios having the full power of making treaty 
 contracts with other nations. This definition will exclude 
 from active partnership in international law all protected 
 or dependent states, all provinces and colonies, all eon- 
 tcdcracies, the members of which by their organic law form 
 3 close union, and the separate kingdoms which become 
 one by a perpetual compact. Thus, the separate States ot 
 the U. S. have no more power than private persons have 
 of making arrang.-menls with foreign nations, unless per- 
 haps that ol selling Slate lands to them for purposes not 
 inconsistent with the Federal Union. On the other hand, 
 no form of governinont or of religion excludes an inde- 
 pendent state from participation in international law; 
 there are examples of all forms of government among the 
 nations which acknowlc.l-e this law, and of various forms 
 of a common Christian religion; even Turkey, a Moham- 
 medan state, belongs to this international brotherhood, and 
 there are si^ns that other stales more remote from our civ- 
 iliiation will move in the same direction. Although the 
 present international law originated within the circle ot 
 Christian nations, there is no reason why it should not ein- ; 
 brace heathen states if they could consent to come under 
 its iirovisions. 
 
 (h) Independent states arc said to be norerci./ii ami c/iiof. 
 The latter term dioiolcs r<iHnl!l,i in rights and obligations, 
 which is the same as saying that they are all equally states, 
 r,r a slate has certain fixed relations towards the members 
 of it, and towards other states, out of which rights and obli- 
 gations grow. Si/.f, therefore, and rank or dignity according 
 to the etiquette of courts, have nothing to do with this slate 
 cqaalitv. .VovrciViif^, again, denotes properly the condition 
 of havi'n" no superior in the political sj.here, and is insepa- 
 rable from in li'pcn.lonce. It is an unfortunate word, espe- 
 cially in the U. S., because we have been in the habit of 
 talkin" of qualified and divided sovereignly. But as far 
 as inlernali.inal law is concerned, only the Union or state 
 cilled the United States is sovereign; the separate States 
 in this sense have not a particle of sovereignty. But the 
 Slates have local powers of great moment, and might com- 
 mit a crime against the law of nations. Who is respon- 
 sible? Clearly the U. S. Some one must be, and no one 
 else, under our Constilution, can bo called to account. 
 
 (e) Kvery state which is capable by its organization of 
 fiiUilling the ends fur which states exist, and especially 
 that of entering into treaty relations to others, is /r./iti'mn/c. 
 International law knows onlv states dc facto: it does not 
 iretend to decide that allhough they exist they have no 
 ridil to exist, nor dois it pretend to deny such right to 
 an organized communilv that has begun to exist by revo- 
 Intionarv means. In fact, a large part of the slates of Eu- 
 rope anil America have in violent ways passed through 
 scparalions or unions or changis of form within the last 
 century. It mav happen, however, that an organized com- 
 munity, which lias heretofore been a portion or a depend- 
 ence of another, is acting as an independent body, and re- 
 sistin" efforls to force it back into its former condition. 
 Whatsis the legal attitude of old stales toward such a new- 
 comer' They have no relations lo it whatever, and have 
 acknowledged the state from which it has separated as one 
 
 of their bodv. Thev can, if they please, aid the parent 
 state to subdue it: a'gainst this help from one state to an- 
 other there is no law. Or they can remain neutral while a 
 contest is going on. But they cannot aid the insurrection- 
 ists wilhoul thereliy engaging in war with the parent stale ; 
 and if the new coniniuuity has so far become inde]iendent 
 that the parent state gives up endeavors to bring it back 
 into subjection— if. in short, the new state is without ques- 
 tion a slate dc fuctv — they cannot, with any reason or pro- 
 priety, refuse to concede to the eiunmunily thus born a place 
 among the parlies to international law. A slate being a 
 miirdFiii pert'iiia. capable of taking obligations upon itself, 
 cannot destrov the obligations by any change of eonstitn- 
 tion. Thus, the V . S. acknowledged that it was bound to 
 pay the debts of the old Confederation, and when Denmark 
 and Norway separated in 1S14 they look each an equitable 
 share of the debt of the old kingdom. 
 
 (</) A state's independence is exercised especially in the 
 free management of internal affairs. The right of inter- 
 ference in the internal policy of a state, or even in its ex- 
 ternal peaceful policv. is so inconsistent with the end for 
 which separate states exist in the world that such inde- 
 pendence is universally aeknowledgid. Yet there are sev- 
 eral exceptions to the rule of non-interferrnce cither en- 
 dorsed or admitted by international law. The first of these 
 that we mention is interference for the preservation of the 
 balance of power. That is, -whrn. by diplomatic means, a 
 state is bec.iming dangerous to the peace of its neighbors, it 
 is held that thev mav fake combined measures lo check such 
 growth. Thus! when by management in 1 TiMi the throne of 
 Spain passed over to a grandson of Louis XVI.. a large part 
 of the European powers combined to prevent it. and wilb 
 this the war of Succession was begun. Intervention for this 
 purpose will not be resorted to unless the aggrandizeiueut 
 takes place bv political measures, unless those who arc par- 
 ties to it live" near enough to fear each other's increase of 
 power, and unless such increase takes place on the land. 
 Commercial growth, colonial growth in remote parts, fur- 
 nish little ground for apprehension. The jiica lor inter- 
 vention in this case is self-preservation. The same plea, 
 after the French Kevolulion and the fall of NaiioUon, was 
 made for iuterference in the hitnuul afi'airs of oilier states. 
 It was urged that the right of a peoide to alter lis govern- 
 ment against the will of the reigning dynasty is danger- 
 ous, anil that revolution is opposed to lbs peace of all sjatcs 
 in the neighborhood. On this plea some ot the leading pow- 
 ers of Europe put down revolutions in Italy and Spnui. al- 
 though they did not venture to obstruct the way ol rcMJu- 
 tion in France after the restoialiiui of Ihe Bourbons. 'Ihe 
 principle has never been admitted by England: it is con- 
 trary to the principle of national sovereignty, and it only 
 delays and intensifies revolution. A princi|.le just the op- 
 posite of such intervention, and intended to prevent lis 
 application to the Spanish South American republics, lay 
 at the bottom of the "Monroe Doctrine "-that is. of the 
 declaration, made bv Pres. Jlonroe in 1^23, that the U. S. 
 would ''consider anv attempt on the part of the allied Eu- 
 ropean powers to extend their system to any portion ol our 
 hemisphere as dangenms to our peace ami salely. Ibis 
 declaration, highly jusi and timely, against political inlcr- 
 fcrenco was made in concurrence with English policy, at a 
 time when Mr. Canning opposed the measures ol the had- 
 ing eontinenlal states, and it had a decided eflect. JSor has 
 the policv on our part ever been altered. lo this righteous 
 ound for interlerence we add anolher. diclated by feel- 
 of humanilv, when anv great cruelly or barharily is 
 
 I" 
 
 comm'itledr'such was Vhepret"ext f..r interfering on behalf 
 of the Creeks in their struggle for liberly in l^.. . 1 ic 
 three great iiowers. tircat Britain. France, and Hussia. by 
 their efl-cclua: aid destroyed the Turkish power in .'-oulbern 
 (Ireeco and built up a Creek monarchy. It is held. als... 
 that atrocious barbarities in war, csneeially in civil war, 
 
 but measures lor Ihe 
 
 will justify not onlv reinonstranees, 
 prolection" of the weaker power, to the extent even ol an 
 earlier recognili.in of its independence on that account. 
 But all thcso instances of interference, so lar as they arc 
 to be iuslificd at all. are to be regarded as extreme and 
 exceptional cases. T^ie exception must bo looked at wilh 
 severe impartiality, as a measure of necessity, and not be 
 
 made Ihe rule. , n- ■ 
 
 2. Anolher right of a state is that of Prnperlf/niKl hn-i- 
 ton/ A stale cannot exist wilhoul being sovereign wilhin 
 eer'lnin limits. A slate may hold properly like a private 
 person, such as public buildings, ships and forts, ulioecu- 
 pied lands, etc.; it is Ihe protector id' all private property 
 within its limits, and has the right of taxing its ciiizens or 
 subjects: and it is also territorial sovereign within the 
 "same limits, by which is intended that it exercises juris- 
 .liclion there over properly, territory, etc. to the exclusion 
 of all foreicn powers. A state's territory consists ol all the 
 surface uf the earth, land or water, wiiliin such l.coindaries ;
 
 124(5 
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 of the sea-line to the dislancc of a marine league from the | 
 shore: and of harbors, gulfs, and straits within certain not 
 very reniole headlands. Jlere observe (n) that the elaiui 
 of control over the sea for a marine league is a rule dictated 
 by sclf-nreservalion and the necessities of conuucrce. If, 
 for instance, war between two other powers could be waged 
 within sight of land, serious evils to the nation inhabiting 
 the land would grow out of it ; and if there were no control 
 over the i>|>erations of commerce within a moderate distance 
 from the shore, there would be room for many evasions of 
 the laws touching the revenue. The eontr<il over such an 
 extent of sea is an iuiiilmi to the occupation of the coast. I 
 (4) There is no absolute rule as to the remoteness of the 
 headlands within which the waters are subject to territorial 
 laws. It is perh.aps enough to say that they ought to bo 
 near enough to enable vessels to ascertain when they arc j 
 within territorial jurisdiction, and that a very considerable i 
 interval would obstruct the freedom of the seas and be un- 
 necessary for national self-defence, (e) Outside of such 
 limits tlie sea is free to all nations, so that the right of 
 using it for commerce or for fishing purposes is eomiuon. | 
 But wliilc fishing— c.;/. on the banks of Xewfouudland, as 
 being a part of the ocean— is free, the power of spreading 
 and drying nets and of curing fish on adjoining coasts caii 
 be lawfully exercised by foreigners only under sanction of 
 treaties, (tl) It was claimed by llUbuer and other writers 
 in the interest of neutrals in the last century that HhqM on 
 the high seas were territory. This, however, was an un- 
 fouudctl position, taken for the purpose of preventing, as 
 far as theory could, the cxcrcisoof war-rights, such as that 
 of searching neutral vessels. A commercial vessel on the 
 high sea, so long as it retains the national character and 
 commits no )iiratical act, is under the exclusive juris- 
 diction of its own courts, but its deck is not properly 
 territory. The vessel is sim]dy private property under 
 the jiroteetion of its own country. Hence, when it lies 
 in a foreign port it may be attached for debt, and its 
 crew may be amenable to the laws of the port and of the 
 foreign country, (ci Ilivcrs bounding two states, unless 
 treaty pronounces otherwise, are common to both, and the 
 boundary-line passes ahmg the principal channel. (/) 
 Rivers rising in one state, and having their entrances 
 into the sea in another, have been treated by international 
 law as subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of the state 
 within whose boundaries they are contained. Thus, the 
 dwellers on the upper waters have no right to descend to 
 the sea through other territory except by concession ; and 
 yet there seciiis to be the highest equity, amounting almost 
 to a right, in their free use of the entire river. The conflict 
 between strict territoriiil right and this equitable claim has 
 been settled by a succession of treaties, chiefly made within 
 the last sixty years, which have now opencil all or nearly 
 all the navigable rivers of the Christian world to those who 
 live in states situated on their uiiper waters, and some of 
 them to outside nations. The Rhine and the .Scheldt were 
 opened at the Congress of Vienna in lSl.i; the Danube by 
 the Peace of Paris in l.S.')li: the La Plata and its great 
 system of waters by treaties from 18 jl! onward; the Ama- 
 zon in isfifi ; and the St. Lawrence, after varying arrange- 
 ments, by the Treaty of Washington in isri, which treaty 
 also provided for the free navigation of the Yukon, Porcu- 
 pine, and .Stikine, rivers of Alaska, as an earlier one had 
 provided for that of a principal branch of the Columbia 
 rising in British territory, 
 
 '.). The Rrlaliiina of t'lireijitern in'lliin n Coiiiiln/ to ils 
 Laim and Hurernmeut.—lUve: we eomo to a department of 
 international law where the rules of comity, or of humanity 
 and comity — that is, not of strict right and obligation, but 
 of equity "and duty — determine the shape of the science. 
 Of course, these rules express themselves with some diller- 
 ences in a multitude of treaties, but the general tendency 
 of modern times is towards increased privilege, so that all 
 the disadvantages of one foreign nation as compared with 
 another arc disappearing with every new treaty. It has 
 been contendcil that no nation has a ri'jht to shut its ports 
 to the rest of the world or to prevent their passage through 
 its territory, if this should be necessary for their interests. 
 It has even been said that there is no right of cutting off 
 other nations from the use of necessaries that cannot be ob- 
 tained elsewhere. But intercourse can hariUy be called a 
 right between nations, any more Ihau between individuals 
 of the same nation. I nni not bound to trade with anyone, 
 but may raise everything which I use. I have the right of 
 contract, but nobody is bound to make a contract with me. 
 The most civilized nations obstruct the way of free trade 
 by highly protective tariffs. The true view seems to bo 
 that a nation may shut itself out from the society of the 
 world, and that there is no right to force it from auch a 
 position. And in truth intercourse takes care of itself: it 
 is so natural, a savage even is so ready to accept that which 
 he cannot produce in exchange for that of which ho has an 
 
 abundance, that only an ojiportunity of awakening a sense 
 of want, and fair treatment afterward, are needc(L The 
 ])riucipal jioints to be noticed under this head are — («)lhat 
 aliens eutering a country are subject to its laws, unless ex- 
 empted by treiity or internaticjnal usage, (b) Their con- 
 dition is not necessarily tlnit of citizens — in fact, ordinarily 
 they cannot vote nor hold re;il property — but they have a 
 secure enjoyment of their proj)erty, subject to ordinary tax- 
 ation, the use of the courts, and the same rights of contract 
 and eomniuuication with others. Sometimes they are called 
 on to aid the country by persoiuil service in time of war, but 
 this, we believe, is not common unless they are domiciled, 
 nor does it seem to be right. They can make wills in 
 favor of heirs abroad, transmit property to their own land, 
 and have consuls as well as aml>:isPadors of their native 
 country as their protectors, (c) There are several de- 
 scriptions of persons who enjoy what is called exterrito- 
 riality — that is, they arc exempt, in whole or in part, from 
 the action of local laws — such as sovereigns travelling 
 through a foreign friendly country, ships of war in its 
 ports, foreign armies if allowed to pass through its borders, 
 and ambassadors accredited to its government. The crews 
 of ships of war, when on shore, arc under the control of the 
 ptdice; and it seems that police ])Owcr may be exercised 
 when soldiers in transit stray away from the army or from 
 their corps. The exterritori:ility of ambassadors will be 
 considered hereafter, {it) There are some nations where, 
 by special treaties, the residents from Christian lands are 
 exempt from the local laws, and ]daccd under the protec- 
 tion of consuls or other representatives of their own nation. 
 This practice first arose in the Jliddlc Ages, when there 
 seemed to be a wide gulf between the Turks and the Chris- 
 tians, and when personal, instead of territorial, law did not 
 seem as strange as it docs now. Such nations are Turkey, 
 JIuscat, Japan, and China. Thus, by the treaty of 1858 
 criminal acts of Chinese subjects towards citizens of the 
 U. 8. are punishable by the Chinese authorities according 
 to the law of China, and "citizens of the U. S., either on 
 shore or in any merchant vessel, who may insult, trouble, 
 or wound the persons or injure the property of Chinese, or 
 commit any other im]iroper act in China, shall be punished 
 only by the consul or other public functionary thereto 
 authorized according to the laws of the V. S." The saino 
 provision is found in our treaty of 18j8 with Japan, by 
 which also the courts of Japan and the consular courts are 
 respectively opened for the recovery of just claims, (e) 
 Foreigners may have privileges in Christian states, if mere 
 residents or travellers. But there is also a condition known 
 to the law called ilfimirilc, the criterion of which consists in 
 residence with no intention of returning to one's native 
 country or departing elsewhere except for temporary pur- 
 poses. This status is of inqtortance where the question is. 
 Who is an enemy aiul who a neutral ? It is also of import- 
 ance in IxTEn.NATioNAi. PuivATi: Law (which sec). (/) 
 There is still a closer relation which an alien may form 
 with the country of his residence, called mititni/lzfition. By 
 this process he becomes a citizen, ha^■ing all or nearly all 
 the rights of native-born citizens. In England it was for- 
 merly held that no English native-born subject could ex- 
 patriate himself, nor could a foreigner be naturalized with- 
 out a special act of Parliament. But by an act of 1814 a 
 principal secretary of state, on petition from a foreigner 
 desirous of being naturalized, can grant him all the ca|)a- 
 citics and rights of a natural-born British subject except 
 that of being a member of the privy council or a member 
 of either house of Parliament. The secretary may except 
 other rights also. In the U. S. five years' residence is neces- 
 sary before naturalization, and three years' residence after 
 a U'gal ileclaration of intention to become n citizen and to 
 renounce former nationality. (;/) As the laws of countries 
 difl'er in regard to the hold they have upon native-born 
 persons, it may happen that one is legally a citizen or sub- 
 ject of two states, and collisions of jurisdiction can thence 
 arise. Recent arrangements with the North Oerman Con- 
 feeleralion, with Bavaria, and with (ireat Britain have re- 
 moved a great part of the possibility of such collisions. 
 (/,) Aliens taking refuge in any country on account of 
 crime form a class by themselves. If the crime is political 
 the freest nations now give to such persims their protection. 
 If it is a gross crime against person or ])roperty, treaties of 
 extradition provide for their being delivered up. This sub- 
 ject, which has a connection with international private 
 law, will be considered under that title. (0 The rights of 
 copy and patent which persons enjoy in their own country 
 are "to a considerable extent granted to them in other coun- 
 tries according to a rule of reciprocity. 
 
 4. A. The Riiihta iif Lnjulinti anil Urprcscntalion, or Ain- 
 bnitnilorn niirf Comiils. — Every party to international law 
 is a treaty-making power, and every such power must act 
 by some representative. No inferior community, no body 
 of lower grade than a stale, no organization trying to be-
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 l'>47 
 
 come a state but not yet reeostniied as such, is entitled to ! 
 scnil reprcscnl-.itivfj abroad who have international rights. 
 A province vr colony or city may have agents in foreign 
 lands, but such persons have none of the rights of aiiihai- 
 tailori. This term, iimbiitimi'ir, iniiy bo used generically 
 to include various grades or kinds of diplonialic ministers, 
 and it is often used also to denote mif, and generally the 
 hiiihcti. class of such ministers. Other words arc Itijulet 
 Olid iiH/iriV,«. usually denoting rcprescutatives of the pope; 
 chnnjfn d'nffnirrt, si word for a lower grade of ambassadors ; 
 c»r«i/« and pleuiiMlrnli'iriet. which latter term generally 
 means less than its derivation implies. There are again 
 ambassador? sent for a particular object, and others whose 
 functions relate to all the political transactions of a nation 
 with another; there arc temporary and resident ambassa- 
 dors; there are also persons who discharge the office with- 
 out taking the name, as kings or commanders of armies 
 sometimes negotiate treaties. .All ambassadors, of what- 
 ever rank they may bo, have the privileges ivhich belong 
 to this class of persons by the law of nations. j 
 
 Ambassadors have had from very early times a sacred I 
 character, which has been sometimes accounted for by their | 
 being origin.ally persons of a religious order : but it is bet- 
 ter to say that the office was protected by religious sanc- 
 tions on account of its great importance. The ancient 
 herald became a sacred person because ho could not other- j 
 wise safelv mediate between armctl men. The ambassador 
 needs for his protection the same sanctions, and, as he 
 represents the highest interests of a state, it is a great 
 crime to treat him with indignity or injury. There is a 
 difference between the ambassadors of ancient and those 
 of modern times, consisting especially in iliin — that the 
 former were sent for a temporary purpose, and relumed 
 after completing their work, but the latter, since the time 
 of Louis XI. of France and Ferdinand Ihc Catholic of 
 Spain, have generally resided in the foreign country for a 
 considerable time. The resident minister is now expected 
 to make himself acquainted with the piditics nf the country 
 where he lives, to calculate the chances of war and peace, 
 to use a constant influence in behalf of his own country: 
 and thus, since this custom began, nations have felt them- 
 selves more secure than before. As intercourse is suspended 
 by war. ambassadors, on the outbreak of a war or in ex- 
 pectation of it. are either dismissed or summoned home. 
 When peace returns, the renewal of intercourse is marked 
 by the parties receiving each other's diplomatic represent- 
 atives. 
 
 .\n ambassador represents the sovereign or the sov- 
 ereignty of his country. In a republic Ihc power of ap- 
 p.iinting such officers is determined by Ihc constitution or 
 the laws, but instructions are given by the executive au- 
 thority. In most monarchies the king or emperor appoints 
 those who represent him in foreign courts, but this he docs 
 as the head of the government. Hence, when a sovereign 
 is deposed, and is no longer the aetual bead of the ailiuin- 
 islration, other ccuintrics are not bound to recognize bis 
 ambassadors, nor on the other hand are they bound to re- 
 ceive those of a new sovereign tie i'hHo. The rule here, 
 apart from dynas'ie and political preferences, is the same 
 which holds good when new slates are recognized. When 
 the lie I'lirln government is ncfiuicsced in by a country, and 
 is in orderly operation, other countries will enter into neiv 
 diplomatic relations with it. If agents of the old and dis- 
 placeil anihorily are received also, they will have no rank, 
 and to do thisal all after an established stale of things 
 exists in the revolutionized country is an unfriemlly pro- 
 ceeding, implying a hope that there may bo a countor- 
 rcvnbition. 
 
 The privileges of anibaosadors may be comprised under 
 the terms inviidabilily and exterritoriality. As llie privi- 
 leges Ihemselvcs arc, in great part at least, due to comity, 
 and as the feelings of men \vill change from age to ago 
 with changes of civilization and greater closeness of inter- 
 course, these terms, especially the second, may vary some- 
 what in their extent of meaning. It will not be safe to give 
 to exterritoriality the broarlcst meaning it can bear, an<l 
 then from that meaning deduce the privileges accorded. 
 ^\'e must inquire what is the general umlerstanding of the 
 present age in regard to the position which an ambassador 
 may lake in a foreign land, and then ])erha|»s it may bap- 
 pen that his own country will somewhat contract his lati- 
 tude of privilege. The privileges in fiuestion arc (a) in- 
 viidabilily of person ; that is, exemption from all violence, 
 whether proceeding from Ihc public authority or from pri- 
 vate persons. The exceptions to this rule are that Iho 
 public nnthority, when be has commilteil a gross crime, 
 may send him beyond the borders, using so much force as 
 is necessary for Ibis end; and that private persons do not 
 lose Iheir rights of self-defence if he is an aggressor. ('>) 
 He has various privileges, summed up in llie word exterri- 
 toriality, which amount to cxeniplion from Ihc operation 
 
 of foreign law. There is no departure from Iho theory of 
 his office if when he returns home he is called to account 
 for transactions pronounced to be illegal by his country's 
 laws which take place while he resides abroad ; but usually 
 he is not called lo account. His first privilege — which may 
 be referred to his inviolable character, as well as to his ex- 
 territorial — is his exeiiiptioli /rom (he criminal jurisdietion 
 of the country where he is resident. If there he commits 
 crimes, acknowledged to be such by the moral sense of 
 mankind, he cannot be tried nor punished, but can be re- 
 quired to leave the land, and only in an extreme case, if 
 he refuses to do this, can force bo applied, lie cannot 
 commit treason, but he can abet treason an<l be a party to 
 revolutionary measures, yet his punishment must be left 
 to his own sovereign and country. iSoine of the older 
 British lawyers, as fir Matthew liale, thought that any 
 capital offence except treason, as rape, munlcr, or theft, 
 might subject an ambassador to indictment and trial like 
 other aliens ; and still later it was held that for crimes com- 
 mitted by them against those moral laws which keep all 
 societies together they might be brought to justice like 
 other offenders. Hut this opinion would hanlly find favor 
 at present. Both the law and the feeling of England have 
 increased in the rcs|iect they attach to these foreign repre- 
 sentatives. The need of a rule is obvious, for if subject to 
 arrest and trial an ambassador might not be able to dis- 
 charge his functions. (<■) The nnil>assador is exempt from 
 the civil jurisdiction of the land where he is resident. This 
 exem])tion is conceded to him everywhere, although it is 
 not strictly necessary for the discharge of hisdulies. If he 
 contracts ilebls. the only remedy is by appeal to his sov- 
 ereign or by suit in his country's courts after his return 
 home. The laws of the U. S. include distress for rent 
 among other legal remedies which arc denied lo the cred- 
 itors of a foreign minister, (f/) The hotel also and the 
 goods of the ambassador have the same immunity from 
 local jurisdiction. As far as he himself and bis retinue are 
 concerned, his house is a sanctuary, but the iluinunity will 
 not allow him lo defy the law of the land by sheltering 
 transgressors. It is admitted, we believe, at the present 
 day, on all hands, Ih.at criminals belonging to the coun- 
 try of bis residence, if not his servants at the time of 
 llie crime, may be searched for and seized in his hotel, 
 and Hull all Ihc force necessary for effecting an entrance 
 for this purpose may he applied, (c) By national com- 
 ! ity the personal efl'tcts of the foreign minister and the 
 ■ ai-licles from abroad which he needs for himself and his 
 family arc cxcmjit from duties. lie may. however, be re- 
 quired to pay taxes on his hotel if it belongs to him or 
 to his government, and he is liable to the payment of 
 i tolls and postage, but cannot be compelled to have troops 
 quartered upon him. Formerly, ambassadors abused their 
 privilege of having goods passed free of duty through the 
 cuslom-house. and, as Bynkershoek, near the beginning of 
 the eighteenth century, charges upon them, they imported 
 merchandise which they afterwards sold. The same abuse 
 I continued for sonic lime afterward, and was, when diseov 
 I cred, complained of in more than imo country. Within a 
 few years a minister of Ihc V. ■^. in .<pain has been charge.! 
 with making imporliilions for himself on account of certain 
 mcrcliants. It is plain that exemptions from duties were 
 never intended to cover any articles besides those intended 
 for the use of the embassy, and it would be no breach ol 
 comilv to have even this privilege taken away. (./) Lib 
 eriy of worship. This is allowed in all Christian lands, 
 anil even beyond their borders, lo ambassadors, Iheir fami 
 lies, and, by a stretch of comity, to oilier persons belonging 
 to Ihc same nation, but coreligionists with the ambassador, 
 if subiects of the slate in whose biuinds he resides, arc per- 
 mitted only by sufferance to be present. This exemption, 
 of course, has no signilicauco wh< re, as in the V . S., all re- 
 ligions are free; and it has, at least in one instance, been 
 claimed that, where Ihere was already a church of the re- 
 ligion which the foreign minister professes, the permission 
 to set up another for himself might be denied him. The 
 jealousies of Catholic and Protestant Christians, in times 
 past, have led lo the rule that the ambassador's worship 
 must he pririilr. and even /roii.c worship, wilboul hell, or- 
 gan, or other sign making it known to the public, anil that 
 the cliapliiin must not appear in his canonicals. The rea- 
 sons for this frceilom of worship are obvious. No sinic 
 could with any regard for its own dignity consent to send 
 a minister lo another court, where he was forbidden to ex- 
 ercise his own or his country's religion, and no honest or 
 honorable man would be willing to represent bis govern- 
 ment where such prohibition existed. (;/) That Ihc foreign 
 minister may freely discharge his functions he must have 
 some assurance of having his retinue at command. Ac- 
 cordingly, his family, the secretary of legation, ami Iho 
 other officials who compose his train have the snnie exemp- 
 tions which are couccded lo him. In this privilege bis
 
 1248 
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 servants are included, and as these may bo subjects of the 
 countrv. nnd '• Imd subjects'* besides, this usage creates 
 some difficulty. If it shuuld appear that he took a knave. 
 or even a political luvpccff into his service in order to shield 
 him from the law, this would at least bo a ground of com- 
 plaint against him to his own government. A custom for- 
 merlv ob^icrved. then disused, then again brought into vogue 
 in later time-;, is that of requiring from ambassadors official 
 lists of their servants, to secure to the latter the protection 
 desired. (A) If the state itself has no direct enntrol over 
 an ambassador's suite, it is evident that he ought to have, 
 but how much power he may use over them is a matter, in 
 part, fur his own country to decide. In former times the 
 jurisdiction of foreign ministers was almost as great as 
 that of consuls from Christian states in Mohammedan 
 countries. When Sully, tlien marquis of Uosny, repre- 
 sented the French court in England in 100:1, one of his 
 train having killed an Knglishman in a quarrel, a jury of 
 Frenchmen being called together found the man guilty, and 
 delivered him over to the English authorities for execution. 
 It is evident that the exercise of high justice would not 
 now be allowed in any Christian state, and no notice would 
 be taken of such a procedure. The ambassador now can 
 only collect evidence in criminal eases and send a member 
 of his suite home for trial. Nor has he properly any cii-i'l 
 jurisdiction except that of a voluntary kind, such as re- 
 ceiving and legalizing testaments and affixing his seal. 
 "The right of contentious jurisdiction is nowhere." accord- 
 ing to Hcffter ({* 21G), "conceded to ambassadors in Chris- 
 tian countries, even over the people of his suite." (() An 
 ambassador can be also a merchant, and merchants in 
 former times not infre([uently represented small states, or, 
 it might be, the same person acted for several states. Fur- 
 thermore, a native of a state formerly acted as the repre- 
 sentative of a foreign state in his own country. None of 
 these usages are common now, and some of them are almost 
 unknown. While they existed, the douI)le character of the 
 ambassador gave rise to various questions. Thus, it was 
 asked whether the ambassador had any more rights as a 
 merchant than others of his class. The answer given to 
 this was that as far as his commercial relations were con- 
 cerned, he stood on the same level with everybody else, 
 although, of course, his person still remained inviolate. 
 Again, if he were an ambassador to his own government, 
 and withal a resident there, while it might be free to refuse 
 him recognition in this capacity, yet, as soon as his own 
 country consented to receive him, it admitted that he had 
 nil the rights of other like persons. The case of Wicque- 
 fort, the author of L'ttmltnitHadeitr et hcs funviions, was 
 unique. He was not only a native of the United Prov- 
 inces when he represented the duke of I^iineburg, but he 
 also held an office under the States General, and was accused 
 of betraying state secrets to foreigners. For this he was 
 tried, condemned, and sentenced to confiscation of goods 
 and imprisonment for life. The case so far diflered from 
 that of other natives employed by foreigners that, while 
 they are in the act of accepting them in the character of 
 agents clothed with the rights of agents, he could not di- 
 vest himself uf the responsibility which his being a public 
 officer iraposcil on him. For aught that appeared, the Dutch 
 had as much right to punish him for this crime as the duke 
 of Liineburg would have had if he had detected him in 
 gross violations of his duty as an ambassador, and had 
 been able to secure his person within the duchy. ( /) Has 
 the ambassador such a kind of inviolability that third par- 
 ties — for instance, enemies of his country — are bound to 
 respect his official immunities ? The answer given by his- 
 tory is that one enemy has had no scruple at cajituring 
 negotiators of the other, and at treating them like every 
 other foe in war. Further, although a friendly power 
 would bo regarded as c<)mmitting a hostile act if it seized 
 or imprisoned such a person, yet it might refuse him transit 
 through its territory, and in the act of transit, if ho were 
 found past-ing into a hostile country, he might bo prevented 
 from pursuing his journey. Cases have occurred also 
 where foreign ministers were arrested in a third country on 
 account of pecuniary obligations contracted there. But 
 there is no right to seize even an enemy's ambassador on a 
 neutral ship, much less on neutral soil, (k) The ambassa- 
 dor's rights begin when he lands in the country to which he 
 is sent, and continue until he leaves its soil ; and tliis whether 
 he is received or not, and whether peaceful relations con- 
 tinue between his country and that to which he is sent or not. 
 On his arrival at the court to which he is commissioned he 
 is expected to produce his letter of credence — which is some- 
 times accompanied by one of recommendation — and his 
 /»///>oirrr, which indicates the subjects on which he is au- 
 thorized to treat and the amount of j)ower with which ho is 
 invested. According to their rank, somo envoys are ac- 
 credited directly to the sovereign of the country, and somo 
 to the minister or secretary for foreign affairs. AVhcn his 
 
 mission, for any cause not involving personal or natiooal 
 misunderstanding, is terminated, according to general usage 
 the ambassador presents a letter of reuall, and requests 
 audience in order to take leave. Also when hii» rank is 
 changed without his retiring from his mission he presents 
 a letter of credence. As for the relative rank of ambassa- 
 dors, the rules laid down by the i>lenipoteutiaries of the 
 eiglit leading powers concerned in the Congress at Vienna 
 are generally followed, together with the supplementary 
 rule od<»pted at Aix-la-Chapellc in 1818. The ranks are— 
 (I) ambassadors, legates, or nuncios; (2) envoys, minis- 
 ters, or others accredited to sovereigns; (li) resident minis- 
 ters; (4) charges d'affaires accredited to ministers of foreign 
 affairs or secretaries of state. In each class or rank the 
 diplomatic employes take ])recedence annmg themselves 
 according to the date of the official notification of their ar- 
 rival. When the ministers of several powers sign acts or 
 treaties in common the order of signature is determined by 
 lot. These rules cut off some of the quarrels between am- 
 bassadors of different nations in regard to rank and 
 national honor, which were not infrequent in earlier times. 
 B. Consuh. — These are agents clothed with no diplo- 
 matic or political power, residing in a certain district in 
 order to protect the interests, chiefly commercial, of the 
 country which commissions thera. Their special duties 
 are determined by their own government, and they receive 
 a permission to perform their duties from the foreign au- 
 thorities. This is called an exequatur, and may be with- 
 drawn for reasons judged sufficient by the same autliorities. 
 Consuls have no exterritoriality unless by special treaty, 
 but are subject to the laws of the country where they reside. 
 A gross insult to the consular flag would be a ground of 
 complaint, and so an insult to the consul's person might 
 be resented as an insult to his country, but in general, and 
 where his representative character is not attacked, he is 
 like other men in his privileges. In Mohammedan lands, 
 however, where f<>r a long time diplomatic intercourse fell 
 into consuls' hands, they liave nearly the same rights as am- 
 bassadors. The duties imposed by the U. S. on their con- 
 suls are principally to receive the protests and other papers 
 of masters of vessels, to aid destitute seamen and reclaim 
 deserters, to act on behalf of the owners of stranded vessels, 
 and administer upon the ])roperty of persons who have died 
 within their consular province. The office of consul bears 
 some analogy to that of ihc proj^f-nitM in (I reck states, whose 
 business it was to aid the citizens anil pay attention to the 
 envoys of the city wliich apjwintcd them. They were, 
 however, always citizens of t!ie place where they acted 
 as pmxeni, and tlie office, which was an extension of the 
 relation between host and guest, remained in the same 
 family. But the true origin of the consul, in the modern 
 acceptation of the word, is to be traced to the times when 
 commerce began to be active in the Middle Ages. The 
 merchants of the cities on the Mediterranean had already 
 officers who were called by this name, and who settled dis- 
 putes that arose in the course of business. It was a short 
 step, when bodies of merchants from the same place went 
 for business purposes to the eastern parts of the Mediter- 
 ranean, that a consul should go out with them or should he 
 sent to live among them, invested with similar powers. We 
 have spoken in another place of the office of consuls in the 
 East, which much resembles this institution of the Middle 
 Ages. 
 
 5. Treaties. — There could bo no intercourse between na- 
 tions without some understanding in the form of a contract 
 or treaty, and a confidence that it would bo observed. The 
 main work of foreign ministers is to make arrangements 
 of this kind, either temporary or permanent. The history 
 of international law is in great meiisure to be gathered 
 from such arrangements between nations. The subject of 
 treaties is one attended, in its general principle, with little 
 difficulty, and the interpretation of them follows substan- 
 tially the rules wliieh settle the meaning of other written con- 
 I tracts. We pass over these ])oints to dwell for a moment on 
 ' one or two which need some explanation, (a) The treaty- 
 j making power is determined by the constitution of each sepa- 
 I rate state. In the U. S. treaties made by the executive and 
 submitted to the Senate need two-thirds of the votes of 
 I that body for their ratification, and if the payment of a sum 
 1 of money forms one of the conditions of a treaty a majority 
 of the House of Representatives must concur. In this way 
 I it would be possible, in certain cases, to defeat the ac- 
 I tion of the Senate; hut to do this, except in extreme cases, 
 , would oppose the spirit of the Constitution, which evidently 
 j intended to invest the President and Senate finally and ab- 
 1 solutely with the treaty-making power. A similar conflict 
 might take jjlace when in (Jrcat Britain the king's minis- 
 ters had made similar agreements with foreign powers, for, 
 as money is voted for particular p\irposes and not in a lump, 
 the Parliament might refuse to sanction a payment to which 
 the treaty had pledged the country. A question has been
 
 INTKRXATIONAL LAW. 
 
 l-24!» 
 
 discussed as to the extent of power lodged in the hands of 
 the President and Senate liy oiirCouslitutiou. as it respects 
 the cession bv treatv of land bclon-ini; to a State. Very 
 hi"h authorities on constitutional law have taken ground 
 whi.h would sanction the idea that the treaty-making 
 iiowcr is practically omnipotent. But surely uo treaty 
 could alter Ihe relations of the general government to the 
 .States, and as to cessions of land, the better opinion seems 
 to be 'that nhilo treaty can determine boundaries and so 
 take away from a Slato what was supposed to ho its terri- 
 tory it cannot dispose of territory admitted to belong to a 
 8ta"te without ils consent, unless in the extreme c«se of 
 connuest, when treaty simply admits the fact of actual 
 transfer of territory to the jurisdiction of another pr.wer, j 
 and declares this to be inevitable, (h) The legitimate au- 
 thorities of a nation may weakly or wickedly make a treaty 
 greatly to ils disadvantage. What is to be said ot this 
 ease, ind of treaties obtained by force? The true answer 
 is that, as in Ihe case of agencies, where both parties ought I 
 to be supposed to know the extent of the agent's power and 
 the nature of a contract, so here, where a State's repre- 
 sentative really transcends his power or acts under com- | 
 pulsion, the agreement is void. It is implied in all agree- 
 ments that the parties are acting freely : to which we may 
 adil, and not under deception lor which one of the parties i 
 is responsible. Hut the jdea of compulsion must not be j 
 used to coyer very wrong motives, such as may be sup- 
 posed to have acted on Francis I. ot France, when, to efl'cct I 
 liis liberation from captivity in Spain, he made a treaty 
 which he renounced alter he had procured his Irecdoni. For 
 it was not necessary for the French nation that he should 
 be set free, nor was force, in the pioiier sense of the word, 
 used upon him. Sometimes a subordinate authority, as a 
 general, makes an agreement without having the requisite 
 authority. .\ noted case of this kind, often referred to, 
 was the" »/>""•'■"• so called, of the consul Postumius (n. c. 
 3211. when ho delivered his army from captivity by a 
 peace, which the senate of Komc afterwards declared null. 
 This declaration was constitutional, but in good faith 
 the whole army should have been given over to the Sam- 
 nites as prisoners of war. (c) It is needless to say that, 
 as an agreement to do a wrong thing can never make 
 it right.'a treaty for iniquilims purposes is invalid. (<l) 
 The "term lrciil<i includes various transactions, such as 
 treaties of peace or of alliance, truces, conventions. Trea- 
 ties may bo for political or for commercial purposes, in 
 which latter form they are usually temporary. In short, 
 all the relations into which states enter between themselves 
 take this form. Among the forms of treaty we mention 
 only treaties of >,ii,ir(inl,/. in which a third parly becomes 
 a pledge for the 'g"od faith of one of the contracting (low- 
 ers. This kind of security for the faith of treaties was 
 once much more common llian it is now. The party giving 
 this security is not considered as engaging to jiay a sum 
 of money, iii case of the failure of tho contracting parly to 
 discharge his obligation, nor as engaging to compel liiin 
 to do this, unless one or the other of these acts were ex- 
 pressly mentioned, but as using his best endeavors to efl'cct 
 this end by urgent persuasion. He must in general induce 
 the other parly to perform his stipulated duly, but is not 
 rciiuired to perform it himself, (iuarantics therefore may 
 mean comparatively little. They .arc a way of interesting 
 the honorable sentiment of another state in tho lullilinciil 
 of an agreement, and possibly tho non-fulfilment may be 
 a ground for unfriendly relations or even for force. This 
 last is true wh-n a strong power guaranties the indc|)end- 
 ence of another. We can say as much, at least, as this— 
 that an attempt to ilcstroy tho independence thus stipu- 
 lated gives ground for interference. (<•! Treaties go into 
 efTcct when they are signed, unless they contain .«omo other 
 specification of th<' lime when tlicy begin to be operative. 
 In treaties of peace and of truce (to which we shall return 
 when treating of war) it is customary, where tho operations 
 of war are scattered over a wide space, to fix on separate 
 dates at which tho treaty shall come into elfect in diflcrent 
 quarters. ( /" ) A treaty becomes valid when the constitu- 
 tional treaty-making power gives its consent. Here we may 
 touch on tiio question whether, in forms of government 
 where the executive is authorized to conclude a treaty, ho 
 is bound by the action of his negotiator, provided the latter 
 proceeds according to instructions. It was formerly held 
 that, if the agent who made the treaty proceecUd according 
 to his /'nil piiirri- but not acconling to secret instructions, 
 tho princiiial was bound by his action, since the full power, 
 being known to the other party, was tho motive in consid- 
 eration of which he consented to treat. Hut at present 
 it is hel.l by the best authorities that the principal may 
 withhcdd his ratification, in certain circumstances, even 
 when the negotiator lias followed his private inslnietions. 
 The refusal is justified in eases like these (see Whealon, iii. 
 oh. ii., ilii 2o6-2«3): (1) "On tho ground of tho impossi- 
 Vcli.. II.— Til 
 
 bility, physical or moral, of fulfilling the stipulations;" 
 (2) "on tho groun<l of mutual error in the parties respect- 
 ing a matter of fact, which, if it had been known in its 
 true circumstances, would have prevented the conclusion 
 of the treaty ;" (:*.) on the ground of " a change of circum- 
 stances on which the validity of the treaty is made to de- 
 pend, either by an express stipulation or by the nature of 
 the treaty itself." To wliiidi may be added the case where 
 the treaty would involve injury to a third party. 
 
 II. In'tenuiliiiuiil Rclnlwiti tin Ajf'eclcil hi/ H'or. — Almost 
 all the important questions and discussions of international 
 law are connected with a state of war between two or more 
 nations. War, of course, must interrupt intercourse between 
 the belligerents, and it may also prevent neutrals from pur- 
 suing the same kindof comineice with either of the bellige- 
 rents as before. It is thus an act or a state of relation of 
 two nations by which other nations also may be seriously 
 alTected. Hence, we have to consider war first as if tho 
 belligerents were alone affected by it, and then what other 
 nations must consent to endure, and what they have a. 
 right to do. Thus, the rights of war in the limited sense, 
 tlie rights and duties of neutrals, and how far the bel- 
 ligerents may wage war to the prejudice of neutrals, aro 
 the principal subjects of consideration in this part of in- 
 ternational law. 
 
 Wiir itself is armed contention between two organized 
 communities, and a jnsl war is such a contention for tho 
 purpose of obtaining justice which has been denied. The 
 power of waging it, and the decision when to wage it, must 
 he left by the nature of the case to each of the independent 
 cominunitics of the world. If a state can wrong another 
 and refuses to redress the wrong, the injured party, having 
 no superior, must decide for itself wh.at it will do. It may 
 decide to take no steps to recover its rights, but to waive 
 them as being trilling in the particular case or as not worth 
 tho cost of prosecuting them ; or it may ask others, its 
 equals, to interpose by way of mediation, or, if the other 
 state will consent, of arbitration ; or it may make use of 
 armed force. The choice belongs to the injured party, just 
 as, in disputes between man and man, if appeal to tho 
 courts and single combat were allowed, the olTeniiing party 
 might emiiloy cither of the alternative methods he thought 
 best. No one therefore can interfere in a just war, other- 
 wise every war might become universal. But, as was said 
 in the ease of interference, so we must say here— that in 
 wars judged by third parties to be unjust there may be 
 armed interference in oxtreiuo cases oo tho part of tho 
 injured. 
 
 Tho particular causes of war are as many as the rights 
 of an organized conimunity or of tho individuals under 
 its protection which have been invaded; and to these must 
 bo added that an apprehension of intended injury may bo 
 so great as to justify the jiarty concerned in striking the 
 fust blow. But war" can never be right, although it may 
 bo undertaken to vindicate just claims, unless nieasuies 
 have been taken to obtain reparation in a ]icaccahle way. 
 I This, of course, applies to the active party, as the passive 
 or defensive party accepts a fact and wards olT attempted 
 I harm. Wlien two parties are in an alliance involving mu- 
 tual protection or rlefence, each must judge whether tho 
 casHu l\v(lcrig has occurred— that is, whether the assistalico 
 is called for by the other in order to prevent a wrong which 
 tho alliance contemplated. All these rules, however, aro 
 I violated, especially by strong nations; and the most friv 
 olous pretexts for w'ar, for joining others in war, for re- 
 fusing to abide by treaty-obligation, and in this way or 
 by some other wrong bringing on war, have been employed 
 niany times over in the history of nations. 
 
 When nations have complaints against one another, thoro 
 ore several summary |irocesscs by which justice has boon 
 sought without recourse to actual war. These are hotiiU 
 rmhnrqocii, rrprlmiln, pncljic hlockailcH. (>i) Wo aay lin,- 
 lilr einbargoes, because there aro what may be called 
 peaceful or civil embargoes. An embargo being a stop- 
 page or prevention of a vessel's quitting u port, there may 
 bo occasions where such a measure can be adopted in order 
 to prevent war by keeping the vessels of a country safe 
 from collision witii the rules of belligerent powers. In this 
 cnso the complete non-intercourse does not generally begin 
 until vessels, especially of foreign powers, have liberty to 
 leave the ports, ladeii or in ballast. This was formerly 
 thought to be an unexceptionnblo measure, but it is not 
 much in use. and apparently will go out of use, for it puts 
 obstacles in the way of comnierco which all friendly stales 
 foci and must complain of. Tho /i<i»^'/c cmbarg.i here con- 
 temiilatcd is a detention of the vessels of a (larticular na- 
 tion which may hajipin to he in tho ports of the injured 
 country. These are detained by way of olTset for a wrong 
 done by Iho olher country, in Ihe hope that this attach- 
 ment of tho property of its subjects may lead to a peaceful 
 eeltlcment and prevent actual war. (b) This is a form of
 
 1250 
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 reprisals— a word which, taken in its large sense, denotes 
 any seifaire and detention of property for the same pur- 
 nose for which ships of a foreign power would be detained 
 in the case already mentioned. Reprisals imply an at- 
 tempt to obtain justice without having recourse to war, 
 while ,-elors!o„ or retnliativn is not an attempt to obtain 
 iusticc hut rather to express wounded feeling by uninendly 
 treatment similar to that which has been received Irom tlie 
 other nartv. Keprisals have often been made the subject 
 of treatv.'and in many instances it has been agreed that a 
 nation will not resort to them until several months— lour 
 months are named in a number of treaties-shall have 
 elapsed after the threat to make use ot them. The evil ot 
 embargo and reprisals consists in this-lhat an innoeen 
 subject or citizen suffers loss for the wrong or pretended 
 wrong of his government. This evil can be prevente^d or 
 compensated for only by distributing the harm which he 
 «uflers over the whole political body, and making him a 
 compensation, (c) Padfic blockaden are an invention of one 
 or two of the leading nations of the present age, the object 
 of which has been to prevent neutral vessels from entering or 
 issuin" from certain ports of an offending state just as in 
 war with the same rules of proclamation and arrest tor 
 violation of the rules as in war, while yet war ,s declared 
 not to ccist. The examples of the application of such a 
 pretended rule all occurred between 1827 and 1S3S : that is 
 to sav, two of them continued for some time in or after the 
 year last mentioned, but none began before or since the 
 period mentioned. They may be said to have become ob- 
 solete alreadv. Of the writers on international law who 
 mention them at all, most do this to condemn them as an 
 experiment unjust to neutrals. This appears to us to be 
 evidently the correct opinion, because if any measure im- 
 plies a state of war, blockade does so most decidedly ; and no 
 such new measure can be introduced into the law of nations 
 without the consent of all. Neutrals, therefore, would have 
 the ri'^ht of making complaints against such a principle, 
 which affects their commerce. In fact, when a Brazilian 
 vessel was condemned in a lower French court for breaking 
 .uch a blockade-France and England being nearly alone 
 in this new experiment— on the ground of attempting to 
 take contraband of war into a blockaded port, the higher 
 court decided that as there was no war there was no contra- 
 hand of war, and restored the article thus condemned. 11a 
 «tate of war did not exist, there was as much obligation to 
 allow the vessel to go into her port as there was to restore 
 the eoods condemned on this ground afterward. _ 
 
 Besides these measures for the purpose of bringing an- 
 other state to act justly, taken by the injured state itself 
 there are others attempted by one of the states, or through 
 friends of both parties, the object of which is to commit 
 the difference complained of to some impartial counsellor 
 or iud^e. These measures are mediation and arbitration. 
 lW.-n(°V,a is the intervention of a friend volunteering to 
 nacifv the minds of his friends, and offering them his ad- 
 ^k-e towards a settlement of their difficulties Wh™ 'wo 
 nations want a pretext for avoiding a war to which they 
 are tending, this is a way of getting them out of their un- 
 pleasant position and yet saving their honor. But media- 
 ion binds no one: it is mere advice, without any pledge 
 on either part of listening to it Such a course woY^T; 
 mended in the protocol of the Congress at Paris, Apr. 14, 
 "™ in these words, which might include arbitration as 
 well ■ " The plenipotentiaries do not hesitate to express in 
 the name of their governments the wish that states, between 
 which a serious disagreement might arise, should, before 
 rppealingto arms, have recourse, as far as circiimstances 
 should permit, to the good offices of some friendly power. 
 ITlu-ation, to which in the introduction to this article 
 Tefe once has been made, is of two kinds-that oy mean 
 of a permanent international court, and that by ">e^P<-"al 
 action of the states which are at variance. The fir^t is a 
 cumbrous, unwieldy thing in the present state of he wor d 
 and would hardly work very well if a few of the statts 
 governed, by Christian international law should hold aloof. 
 The other is simple, easy in its operations, and has often 
 been tried with success. The parties agree on "'<;;»";' jj 
 arbitrators, on the points to he submitted, on the place 
 time, etc., on. the law which is to govern the decision, and 
 pledge themselves to abide by the result ; it being under- 
 stood that the decision does not go beyond or aside troiu 
 the points submitted, and that the arbitrators arc honest 
 and impartial. The success of the late arbitration a Ge- 
 neva between Great Britain and the V. S. has brought this 
 kind of arbitration, by compromise as it is called, int.. 
 greater notice, and inspired many with the hope hat war. 
 ^m be more frequently avoided hereafter in that method. 
 The Parliament of Italy, on motion of one of the deputies. 
 Prof. Maneini, a distinguished P"W«;^M^f <^f 'i'"/".!'"": 
 ing resolution in their session of Nov, 24, l*'^- /"^ 
 ehlmber c.vpresses the wish that the king's government, in 
 
 its foreign relations, may endeavor to render arbitration an 
 accepted and frequent means of settling, according to jus- 
 tice, international controversies in matters susceptible of 
 arbitration ; that it may propose on fit occasions to intro- 
 duce into the stipulations of treaties the condition of sub- 
 mitting' to arbitrators such questions as may arise in the 
 interpretation and execution of the same ; and may consent 
 to persevere in the praiseworthy initiative which it adopted 
 a number of years since of promoting between Italy and 
 the other civilized nations conventions for the purpose of 
 makin.' uniform and obligatory, in the interests ot tho re- 
 spective peoples, the essential rules of international private 
 law ■' The unanimous acceptance of this resolution, ac- 
 companied by the advocacy of it by the minister of foreign 
 affairs, the vote of the British House of Commons, to he 
 same effect substantially, in the summer of 1!m3, and the 
 Earnest wish still more recently expressed of vast num- 
 bers, that arbitration may at length be an efficient and 
 formally adopted wav of terminating disputes between na- 
 tions, make us hope that a better time is coming, when 
 wars shall be less frequent. 
 
 AVar is an „pc,i,p»bUc, not a secret, covert, way of at- 
 tempting to obtain justice. Not only must a demand have 
 been made beforehand, which the complaining party con- 
 ceives to be just, and a denial of justice, as he eonceivcs 
 it to be, have come from the other party, but there must be 
 an open withdrawal from intercourse, an open commenee- 
 ment of hostile relations. The way of doing this is called 
 a declaroiwn of war. In the old times no war was thought 
 to be ri.'htfuUy commenced without such a declaration lui 
 the pari of the assailing state. The Greeks made their 
 declaration by a herald or by an ambassador and a herald. 
 The Romans" in their early times had a formal and cere- 
 monial way of making complaint and declaring war through 
 a college of fetiaU>. The notice here seems to hav e been 
 ..iven for the purpose of allowing time forreaect.on to the 
 enemy. In the Middle Ages the declaration, accompanied, 
 it might be, by challenge to combat, seemed intended to 
 remove all suspicion of cowardly, underhanded conduct. A 
 true knight, according to the ideal rule of knightly feudal 
 honor, cSuld take no advantage of his enemy. Open dec- 
 larations continued until long after the practice of having 
 resident ambassadors at foreign courts came to be the rule 
 but in modern times such declarations, formally made to 
 the enemy, have ceased to be accounted necessary^ although 
 they have not always ceased to be desirable. Diplomatic 
 correspondence and the increased publicity of political re- 
 lations make nations aware of each other s intentions ; and 
 when two states are at variance, and military prepo.rations 
 are going on in one of them, the other is apt to demand 
 the reason through its ambassador; it is thus possible o 
 have earlier information of hostile intentions than could 
 be obtained by simple declarations, and often the fin.i 
 breach is indicated by tho ambassador s demand of his 
 
 passports. Still, a war begun on slight grounds and pre- 
 cipitated upon the other party, like that of Napoleon III. 
 in 1870, shows an intention to get the start ol an enemy 
 and attack him when he is unprepared. But, although 
 declarations of war to an enemy are not now thought to be 
 required by honor between nations, it is a very frequent 
 practice to'issue to other courts, or in some more directly 
 public way, a justification of the determination to declare 
 war It is also common to give notice to one s own sub- 
 jects in different parts of the world, so that they may pro- 
 tect their commercial interests against the loe, and make 
 ready for a change of affairs. In our country, as war >s in 
 the hands of Congress, a resolution of the national legisla- 
 ture is all that is needed. .-a j 
 The commencement of foreign wars is now often notified 
 by a neutral government to its own subjects in documents, 
 to wldch the name of proclamatiom of uculrah,)/ has been 
 gi,"n These papers make known the fact of the foreign 
 war, recite or refer to the laws of the nation made for t lie 
 purpose of preserving its own neutrality, and warn its ub 
 iect« of the penalties which they may incur by unneutra 
 act and sometimes give notice to belligerent powers what 
 wVll'be allowed and what forbidden in neutral wafers. By 
 these proclamations a nation screens its subjects from tho 
 ,enalt?es for"iracy in case they should be ^^n^^onUari 
 ,f a belligerent vessel engaged m the work »t ""• ^'^ f 
 takes from itself the power of «»'"P''''°'"S ''.f V'JXl 
 and goods are visited with the ordinary effects of lawlu 
 war. as the declaration of the fact of war is good aga nst 
 u"e f Puch announcements are of little use eomparatn cly 
 when two states, already long known as ""•''I '"j^rf «f 
 international law, begin to carry on war against one an- 
 other bit thev are of great use when organizations calling 
 thtn elv s stites rise up suddenly hy a revolutionary pro- 
 cess, because in this case there is generally no definite com- 
 mencement of war, no point of time when what seemed a 
 sedition blossoms into rebellion, and generally no willing-
 
 IXTEKNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 1251 
 
 nc68 on the part of the old state, against whieh the revolu- 
 lionary proceedings are directed, to acknowledge that war 
 exists. Proclamations of neutrality have not heen long in 
 use. nor do thcv carry with them any especial authority. 
 They niav. however, in the case last supposed, bo galling to 
 a slate a'tleniptiiig to quell a revolt, because, according to 
 the rule now usually adi>ptcd by nations— but adopted 
 without necessity, as we think— the Hag of the revolution- 
 ary organization meets with the same reception in the ports 
 ..f'the nations as any other (lug. On the whole, although 
 such proclamations iiiav be issued too soon, and so may 
 encourage a revolt that' would otherwise be crushed, they 
 do much more gooil than evil. 
 
 The effects of a stale of war next demand our notice. 
 The first of these isniiii-itilercmiriic between the individuals 
 belonging to the two belligerents. That is, all relations 
 of comineree. all rights to reside in a country conceded by 
 irenty—unless in express terras perpetual— every means 
 of communication by direct channels belwccD the snb- 
 jecls of the opposing parties, come to an end. It follows 
 that in strictness houses of business, in which one of the 
 partners is a belligerent enemy's subject, must be sus- j 
 pendcd or dissolved, and that the portion of profits due j 
 to him. or in general debts duo to a person pertaining 
 to a hostile country, cannot be paid over. Sometimes 
 slight exceptions arc made by the government of a bellig- 
 erelit to this total non-intercourse by granting licenses to 
 trade, which, however, do not make such trade interna- 
 tionally lawful, nor protect it against capture without 
 the other hostile parly's consent. There arc abso permis- 
 sions, often given and sometimes conceded in treaties, that 
 an enemy's subjects may reside during the war under pro- 
 tection of the other hostile government if conducting them- 
 selves peaceably: and generally time is given to them, on 
 the outbreak of"a war. to remove with their effects from the 
 country. liut this is a concession indicating the progress 
 of hunifinily. and not a strict right. The strict rule would 
 be that foreign residents, as soon as their hostile character 
 began, were bnble to be detained or deprived of their liberty, 
 and their property exposed to confiscation. The Supreme 
 Court of the V. P. decided, in accordance with the prev- 
 alent opinion of text-writers, that the property of enemy's 
 subjects and debts due to them are confiscable, but added 
 that an act of Congress was necessary to carry such a 
 measure into effect. And the treaty of 171I4 (ratified in 
 17!ij) with (ireat Britain ])rovides that •'neither the debts 
 due from individuals of the one nation to indiviiluals of the 
 other, nor shares nor moneys which they may have in the 
 public funds or in the |.ublic or private banks, shall ever, 
 in any event of war or national difference, be sequestered 
 or confiscated; it being unjust and impolitic that debts 
 and engagements contracted and made by individuals, 
 having confidence in each other and in their respective 
 governments, shoubl ever bo destroyed or im))aired liy 
 national authority on account of national differences and 
 ilisconlcnts." Tliis is a permanent article of the treaty, and 
 important as a declaration of what the U. S. regarded to be 
 just. Many similar stipulations are contained in the treaties 
 of other nations, and no example of confiscation of debts 
 occurred for a century and a half before the French Uevo- 
 hition, with the exception of the Silesian loan in I75:i. No 
 exiimple. we believe, has ever been known of ;,ii///rc ilihl, 
 whi'lherduc to the other belligerent or to his sulijeets, hav- 
 ing been confiscated. As for the persons of the subjects 
 of one enemy within the jurisdiction of the other, the treaty 
 just now cited expresses itself to the effect that in case of a 
 rupture merchants and ollicrs. sulyccts of the enemy, may 
 remain and continue their trade so long as they behave 
 peaceably: and in case their conduct should render them 
 suspected, and the respective goyernments should think 
 • to remove them, the term of twelvo moiilbs frinn the 
 
 pro| 
 
 »;.' 
 
 ubiicalion of the order should be nllowed for that purpose. 
 
 'fhis provision, however, unlike the other before cited, is 
 limited in its operation to twelvo years. A multitude of 
 similar provisions can be found in the treaties of other 
 powers. It maybe said. then, that at present— ( 1 ) debts 
 and other items'of property belonging to an enemy's sub- 
 jecis before the breaking out of a war remain intact; 
 but (2) the owner has no power, while the war continues, 
 of getting at his own by nny process of law or in any way 
 perinitled by law. unless sjiecinl treaties grant him the lib- 
 erty: and tiiat (Hi at the end of the war the power is re- 
 stored to him of prosecuting all claims for property held by 
 him before its commencement. Also(l), that I he enemy's sub- 
 jects are generally nllowed to remain in the other enemy's 
 country if there resident before the war ; and (:>). if Ihought 
 necess:'iry to require their removal, that ample time be given 
 to them "to withdraw, taking their effects with them. 
 
 The effect of a war on previous treaties between the two 
 helligercnt powers deserves notice. Provisions of treaties, 
 it is clear, which relate to the rules of war to be observed 
 
 betireen the parties, cannot be suspended by the fact of 
 war, since only then can they eome into operation. It is 
 also clear that certain arrangements in their very nature 
 are perpetual, and so do not terminate at the eommencc- 
 ment of a war. Thus, the recognition of a slate like the 
 U.S., made by Great liritain in 178:!, or of the South Amer- 
 ican republics by .'^pain, would not need to bo renewed after 
 the war was over, on the ground that such a transaction is 
 in itself final, and that such a state has become an inter- 
 national entity, unless, indeed, conquest or some act of such 
 a stale as itself jiuts an cud to its international character. 
 The same may be said of boundary-lines and of rights 
 named iu a treaty deducildc from the existence of a state 
 as such. But when we depart from these clear cases, we 
 find some diversity of opinion. Kent says that "as a gen- 
 eral rule the obligations of treaties are dissipated by hos- 
 tilities." Ilalleck says, inter alio, that "treaties of com- 
 merce and navigation are generally either suspended or 
 extinguished by a war between the parties" to them. Of 
 course they must be suspended at least, or war could not 
 exist. Calvo says that " as for postal and custom-house 
 arrangements. conventions relating to navigation and com- 
 merce, agreements relative to private interests, they arc 
 generally reg.ardcd as suspended until the cessation of hos- 
 tilities." As commercial, postal, and similar conventions 
 are yery often limited in time by their express terms, it 
 seems safe to say that such orrangement.«, and others, like 
 them, liable to be changed in these particulars in a few 
 years of peace, ought to be regarded as broken off by war. 
 which brings with it new feelings and interests. W e adil 
 from Calvo that opinions agree "in favor of admitting the 
 tlcfiiiitire riijjiure of conventional obligations entered into 
 expressly in view of a state of peace, of such as have it for 
 their special object to favor the relations of good harmony 
 between nation and nation, such as treaties of friendship, 
 of alliance, and other acts of the same nature, having a 
 political character." A distinction was made by some of 
 the older writers between the efl'ects of a new war arising 
 from a cause independent <pf a treaty, which they thought 
 would not affect the provisions of a treaty, and a war grow- 
 ing out of the breach of a treaty by which its provisions 
 would be annulled. Hence, in a given treaty, if one of the 
 articles had been broken, and a war arose out of the breach, 
 the rest of the treaty would be unaffected. It is easy to 
 see that this distinction would complicate affairs between 
 parties wishing to make peace. The practical rule sug- 
 gested by these doubts is, that as silence may be misinter- 
 preted, it is best always to make mention of the old treaties 
 by way of renewing and confirming them. It is said by 
 Dr. Twiss that Great Britain "in practice admits of no ex- 
 ception to the rule that all treaties, as such, arc put an end 
 to by a subsequent war between the eoutcnding parties." 
 In conformity wilh this rule, orto prevent doubt, the I'cace 
 of Westphalia and the Treaty of Utrecht were renewed a 
 number of times over when the parties to them after war 
 made new treaties with one another. It may be added to 
 what has been said, that private rights, resulting from 
 rules of admitted justice, are not extinguished by a war; 
 and so a debt due bv one nation to another, where the same 
 rules of right prevail as are acknowledged in municipal 
 law, survives a war. An interesling discussion arose be- 
 tween Great Britain and the V. S. aftertlie warof 1M2-Ia 
 whether the colonies, after the recognition of their inde- 
 pendence, retained the rights of fishery on British coasts, 
 as a matter of course, which they bad had while depend- 
 encies of Great Britain. Mr. .lohutjuiney Adams and others 
 contended that they retained these rights, and in the d.s- 
 cussion the question of the effect of war on treaties came 
 up To us it seems that the British side of the question 
 had the .soundest arguments in its favor. We jilaced our- 
 selves on the footing of an in.lependeni nation and had no 
 more rights than others: nay, even if we had been obliged 
 to submit again to the Brili.sh crown, this right of fishery 
 might have been taken away. 
 
 A very important distinction, not always ohserycd, but 
 founded' both in justice and in humanity, is that between 
 active and passive enemies, or those who prosecute the war 
 either as the responsible government of a country or as 
 combatants, and those who obey the laws of the land in 
 relation to a stale of hostilities without any active pnrloi- 
 iiation in them. The latter being by far the most iiiiiner- 
 ous class, and making no resistance to the enemy, can bo 
 saiil to be in a slate of non-intercourse only, and are really 
 not enemies. They suffer the ills of war so far as the 
 unity of interests and .lesliuies in a p<ililieal body makes 
 this necessary, but they are not in modern warfare even 
 expected to annoy an invader, and arc secure against de- 
 vastation, and for the most part against requisition, while 
 they remain in that )mssive slate. The interests of human- 
 ity'thus reipiire that on the land, the Ireatment of non- 
 combatants should be such as lo interfere, as little as the
 
 1252 
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 necessary meosures for prosecuting war will allow, with the 
 occupations of peaceful industry and with the quiet of do- 
 mestic life. On the sea, however, the rules of war have 
 been much more free: the peaceful use of the sea l>y 
 enemies' vessels has never yet been permitted, .'^liiiis and 
 their cargoes have been lawful plunder until nniv. although 
 to despoil an unoffending householder of his goods and to 
 burn his house would be considered barbarous. This dif- 
 ference is .iue partly to the greater suffering of families 
 produced by carrying the rigor of war to an extreme, and 
 partly in this— that capture of vessels and goods weakens 
 the capacity of an enemv to sustain a war. Not a few voices 
 have been "lifted up in favor of removing innocent traffic 
 on the sea, whether belonging to friends or enemies, from 
 liability to capture. So many steps have been taken in 
 this direction, that capture of enemies' vessels engaged in 
 innocent trade on the sea will henceforth be hardly worth 
 the expense of employing cruisers for this purpose, and 
 must ere long come to an end. 
 
 The t'i>rce» lawfully employed on the land and on the sea 
 in times past have been somewhat alike, with important 
 differences. On land they are national or standing armies, 
 and a militia, as well as' volunteers: which latter bodies 
 arc often commanded by officers of the regular army. On 
 the sea Ihey are national vessels and privateers. The cit- 
 izen soldier and the privateer armed vessel arc as legiti- 
 mate forces of war as national armies and navies. In fact, 
 privateers date from a time in Europe when there were few 
 or no navies, except such as were improvised out of mer- 
 chant vessels. These vessels, with their crews, might be 
 hired by the governments, or impressed into the sovereign's 
 service, whether owned by natives or by foreigners — that 
 which was called the jus mtynriif or droit (Vnngnrlc — or 
 thoy might be vessels owned and manned by private per- 
 sons, but kept up at the public expense; or public vessels 
 with a crew and outfit provided for by.private persons; or, 
 finally, private vessels officered and sent to sea at the 
 charges and risk of private persons under a government's 
 commission. Of these four ways of sending vessels out to 
 sea, the latter only has been in vogue in the most recent 
 times. In commercial states this has been a favorite way 
 of employing sailors and merchant ships when trade was 
 crippled by war, and to a nation, with a small navy but 
 with a large seafaring class, offered the prospect of some- 
 thing like equality on the sea with a nation possessing a 
 good-sized fleet. The plan was for the government to put 
 the owners and captains of such privateers under bonds. A 
 letter of marque is given, which alone entitles a vessel to 
 any share in a capture made from the enemy, and the ab- 
 sence of which cxpo.ses a vessel calling itself a privateer, 
 with its crew, to harsh treatment, as almost having a pirat- 
 ical character. Any great irregularity or lawlessness will 
 involve forfeiture of vessels and other penalties. But, in 
 truth, lawlessness and harsh treatment of the enemy could 
 never he prevented. The motive of the expedition being 
 plunder, the captain and officers having no professional 
 honor, the crews being often a motley collection of .adven- 
 turers, privateering was long felt to be a great evil, and 
 earnest voices were raised against it, especially by enlight- 
 ened men belr>nging to our own country. At length, in 
 1856, the parties to the Declaration of Paris brought about 
 a new era in international law by the four rules relating to 
 warfare on the sea, one of which was that "privateering is 
 and remains abolished." Other nations were invited to 
 give their assent to these rules on the condition of accept- 
 ing all or none, and nearly all Christian states accepted 
 them. Several of them were such as the V. P. had always 
 contended for, but our government refused to give in its 
 adhesion, on the ground that wo should have no adequate 
 force, if we abandoned privateering, to cope with nations 
 possessing a large navy, as our own policy was to have a 
 small one. The offer, however, was m.ade— but without ef- 
 fect— to adopt the rules, provided that the signers of the 
 Declaration of Paris would go further and exempt all inno- 
 cent traffic of enemies on the sea from capture. In 1S6I, 
 Mr. Seward, being secretary of state, made offer to two of 
 the principal European powers, on the part of the li. ,*., 
 to come under the operation of the four rules: but as it 
 was understood that the stipulation would bo for the entire 
 republic— for the Confederate States, as well as for theloyal 
 ones- and as thus these powers would be parties in impos- 
 ingarulo of warfare on the Confederate States, as, in short, 
 it was a scheme to prevent them from using privateers by 
 the aid of international law, the offer was declined. 
 
 The abandonment of the use of jirivateers by so large a 
 number of states, together wilh the .safety of enemies' 
 goods on neutral vessels provided for in the same document, 
 puts a new face on maritime warfare. At the outbreak of 
 a war, if the risk of capture is great enough, neutral ves- 
 sels henceforth will take the place of belligerent ones for 
 commercial purposes, and the motive of capture is greatly 
 
 diminished for public cruisers, the only ones now remaining. 
 Thus, it can be no very great concession that belligerents 
 mav safelv use their own merchant ships, unless neutrals 
 regard it of importance for ihem to get the business of 
 times of contest into their hands. Wo add to this, as a 
 hint in regard to the meaning of the four rules, that tho 
 parties to them may still legitimately employ privateers 
 against the V. S. and other non-signers of the rules, the 
 obligation to observe them being only a reciprocal one be- 
 tween the signers. 
 
 The General Umyet of ^yar,especiallt| on Laiirf, although 
 somewhat vague, and dependent upon the temper of the 
 be]li<'creuts. or still more upon the character ol^ the com- 
 manding officer, deserve our consideration. We have no 
 space to compare the present manner of conducting war 
 with that of past ages, and to illustrate thereby the in- 
 creased humanity that has taken possession of the Chris- 
 tian world. The principles of a humane and yet efficient 
 war-code are principally these: that war is a way of ob- 
 taining justice when other means have failed : that it is 
 waged between governments; that quiet inhabitants of a 
 eoiuitry are to ho treated with humanity and with as little 
 severity as will allow of the effective prosecution of the 
 conflict; that, as soon as justice can be secured, armed con- 
 test ought to cease ; and that retaliation, if necessary on 
 accounrof the inhuman or deceitful conduct of an adver- 
 sary, cannot go to the extreme of justifying that which is 
 morally wrong. The cinises which have brought on a more 
 humane mode of warfare are various, such as the increased 
 sway of the Christian spirit: the professional feeling in 
 standing armies, coming down from the officers, which 
 looks on the military forces of the foe rather as servants 
 of the state than as enemies: the general practice of carry- 
 ing supplies for troops on the march, and the system of 
 commissaries and quartermasters, which prevents recourse 
 to plunder in a great degree : and the use of weapons which 
 do their work at a distance without exciting a feeling of 
 rage between man and man. The rules of warfare have 
 been codified in our country in Inslmctinns for the Gmrm- 
 menl of the V. S. in the Field— -i manual prepared by the 
 late Dr. Lieber, and which, we believe, is the first war-code, 
 properly speaking, that has ever been prepared. AVhat we 
 aim at here is nothing more than to give a brief summary 
 of tho leading provisions for preventing the excesses to 
 which war is liable: lor) One of these relates to the weap- 
 ons to be employed, as well as the other means for injuring 
 the enemy. Here much is vague. On the sea a greater 
 license is "allowed than on the land. Torpedoes were used 
 extensively in the late war between France and Prussia 
 to protect the harbors of North tlcrmany. On the land, 
 weapons are to be condemned which merely give a ghastly 
 wound without otherwise adding to the efficiency of war. 
 (h) The troops employed in war must be such only as can be 
 under military disci)Iline. Hence, to employ savages, like 
 our .\mericanlndians or like the Turcos used by the French, 
 is. to say the least, questionable; and it increases the gen- 
 eral ferocity of war, as the opposite parly will return to 
 regular soldiers the brutalities inflicted on them by this 
 part of the foe's army, (c) Perfidy and solicitations to com- 
 mit crime are not allowable. Military necessity, as our 
 war-rules express il, admits " of such deception as does not 
 involve the breaking of good faith, either positively pledged 
 regarding agreements entered into during the war, or sup- 
 posed by modern law of war to exist. Men who take up 
 arms against one another in public war do not cease on this 
 account to be moral beings, responsible to one another and 
 to God" (iSi. l.''l. And, again ((* i. Ifil, " military necessity 
 does not admit of cruelty.— that is, the infliction of suffering 
 for the sake of suffering or for revenge— nor of maiming or 
 wounding except in tight, nor of torlure to extort confes- 
 sions. It does not admit of the use of poison in any way, 
 nor of the wanton devastation of a district. It admits 
 of deception, but disclaims acts of perfidy." (rf) When 
 prisoners of war arc made, they must be humanely treated 
 as it respects food and quarters. It is customary to allow 
 officers their libertv, on parole of honor not to serve again 
 until exchanged. " Deserters, found among the prisoners 
 taken from the enemv, may be dealt with as having com- 
 mitted a high crime. Escaped prisoners have committed 
 no crime in seeking to regain their liberty, but wl'en re- 
 taken may be subjected to more rigorous confinement. The 
 treatment", however, of irregular troops, especially of guer- 
 rilla-parties and of " bushwhackers," who lay aside the sol- 
 dier's character or put it on at pleasure, is much more se- 
 vere than that of regular troops. (<■) Of the trealmeut ol 
 non-combatants and of their property we have already 
 spoken in part. We add here, on this most important of 
 all the points rebating to the conduct of war, that nothing 
 1 but military necessity can justify the seizure of private 
 ' property, that domestic privacy is lo be respected, and that 
 I the persons of unoffending individuals are to be considered
 
 INTERXATIONAL LAW. 
 
 1253 
 
 sacred. The code before referred to speaks thus of private 
 property : " I'niess forfeited by crimes or by offences of the 
 owner, it can be gtized only by the way of military neces- 
 sity for tlie support or other benefit of the army or of the 
 U. vS. If the owner has not fled, the cominauding officer 
 will cause receipts to be given, which may serve the spoli- 
 ated owner to ohtain indemuity.** {/) As fur property not 
 private, hospitals, even thuse for military purposes, and 
 other humane or relii;ious institution!?, arc to be respected. 
 Public buildings and works of art are not to be wantonly 
 destroyed, nor the latter scattered or given away by the 
 coptor. Booty taken on the field of battle is generally con- 
 sidered the property of the conc|uering army ; but prisoners, 
 aoconling to our code, are not to be desp<»iled of valuables 
 found on their persons or ot extra clothing. It is, however, 
 added that large sums found on the persons or in the pos- 
 session of prisoners may be taken from them after leaving 
 enough for their support. (*/) In storming fortified towns 
 the practice, even under humane commanders, has been to 
 put little restraint on their troops. lint nowhere is greater 
 humanity needed, since the inhabitants are liable to a 
 triple curse — to the horrors of bombardment, to the suf- 
 ferings and discomforts arising from a nuiltitudo of troops 
 cooped up within the same walls, and to tlic final storm. The 
 forces of war can and ought to protect houses and persons 
 from plunder at such a season. (A) The rules of war allow 
 of certain communications between hostile countries or hos- 
 tile armies, such as those by flags of truce, heralds, cartels 
 for the exchange of prisoners. These persons, if admitted 
 within the enecny's lines, have a sacred character, but it 
 may bo inexpedient to receive them, and of this the party 
 visited must judge. 
 
 A few remarks need to be added here in respect to cer- 
 tain kinds of war, on account of something peculiar in one 
 of the parties. One of these is war with Hnvaffen. where 
 the simple rule of humanity is all that can be required of 
 the civilized combatant. The parties being uuequnl. and 
 one of thcro ignorant, distrustful, and perfidious, there can 
 be no law of nations to govern their intercourse. Another 
 is war with pirattn. A pirate is a sea-rover who jireys on 
 the vessels and goods of any nation that ho falls in with, 
 or makes descents on the land for a similar purpose of 
 plunder. A privateer exceeding its commission might not 
 be accounted as a piratical vessel, but one with a commis- 
 sion from the tico opprmitf belligerents would be obnoxious 
 to this character, since the only motive for such a double 
 commission is plunder of both parties and of vessels bound 
 to the ports of cither. The vessel of a part of a stnte, or- 
 ganized for rebellion and independence, has been held to bo 
 )>iratical, because, although it may have received a com- 
 mission from the rebel government, it carries a flag un- 
 known to international law, and commits treason against 
 its legitimate country. But the better opinion is that as 
 such a vessel docs not scour tho sea for tho purpose of 
 pluhtler, and wages war with but one nation, it wauls two 
 important characteristics of piracy. Piracy, in tho inter- 
 national sense of tho word, is a crime against all nations, 
 but each nation in its own criminal code may class other 
 crimes under this heai! : thus, tho V. S. made the slave- 
 trade (o be piracy for all citizens on any ship, and for per- 
 sons not citizens on our vessels ; yet, for all that, the slave- 
 trade, though it might be made criminal by the laws of 
 all civilized nati<Mis, is not piratic:il in an international 
 sense. A slave-trading vessel from this country could not 
 bo captured by the cruisers of any other country without 
 special treaty to that efl'ect ; but an act of strict piracy 
 could be tried everywhere, for a piratical ship, as being at 
 war with the world, could be captured by tho vessel of any 
 nation. Still a third kind of war with marked peculiar- 
 ities is that bctirtfii ft nifitfirr-ciiuitht/ nm/ a rrvultrd rtttntn/, 
 or a state and the people of a seceding territory. Jlere Iho 
 first question is. Does war exist? for the commencement 
 of such a war is often diflicult to bo determined. It may 
 bo a sell it ion or an insurrection ; it may need only the civil 
 jiower to quell it or a slight military movement. Itut or- 
 ganization under a new government, njiparent determina- 
 tion (o make the secession complete, laws and practical ef- 
 forts for creating an army or a navy, positive acts of war 
 following all this, can give such an aspect to the move- 
 ment that other nations will have a right to regnrd tho fact 
 of war as manifest. For, be it obsr-rved. other nations 
 have the sumc right ((f judging wlictlur civil war or re- 
 bellion exists, as tliey have of judging when it has ceased 
 to exist, and when the in<iependence of the rebels ought to 
 be practically acknowlcdgeil. And this judgment of theirs 
 is Iho more justifiaMe, if the mother country sanctions it by 
 belligerent acts, such us proclnmiilions of bloekiide or levies 
 of troops. When, now. such a kind of war exists, the re- 
 lation between tho parties to it is peculiar in this — that 
 every rebel is technically a traitor, waging war against 
 his own lawful government, giving aid and comfort to its 
 
 eneiaics. Those, therefore, who are not killed in war may 
 be hanged by sentence military or civil. But in general, 
 at the present day, when so many revolutions are attempted, 
 such severity would only awaken the spirit of retaliation 
 or of revenge; and so also to act on tho principle that 
 rebel cruisers are piratical would only embitter the feelings 
 of the rebels, shock foreigners, and provoke remonstrance, 
 if not interference. The true policy is to treat such rebels 
 as jituli hasten on land and on the sea, entitled to the same 
 rules of war as other belligerents. A nation can employ 
 also against its rebels the same means of war as if they 
 had been foreigners from the beginning — can obstruct tho 
 avenues of trade with them, and, after due notice, seize ou 
 foreign vessels attempting such trade. All this being in- 
 cident to an international war, foreigners are bound to re- 
 spect such proceedings. Further than this, What is the rela- 
 tion of foreigners to the two contestants ? One of these is an 
 acknowledged stiitc : the otherhas no (ji^f^rnn/jotia/cxistcnce, 
 and so towards the latter foreigners have no hitcnuitt'onai 
 obligations whatever. If they give it aid, this is a cause 
 of war for the jiarent state: if they recognize it, and so 
 concede to it an international stitfus, this too is a cause of 
 war; but, on the otlier hand, they may help in its subju- 
 gation if they please, thus rendering service to a friend; 
 they may refuse its ships admittance into their harbors; 
 they may decline to acknowledge title gained by sales made 
 of captured vessels under its authority. All that they are 
 bound to do is to exercise towards its troops or ships the same 
 spirit of humanity with which they would treat refugees 
 from a battle or from a storm at sea. Tho common practice, 
 however, as far as there is any. is to take a neutral atti- 
 tude ; to acknowledge the revoltcrs' vessels as engaged ia 
 regular war; to give both parties the same privileges that 
 are conceded to belligerents in any other contest. That such 
 concessions must tend to encourage revolutionary govern- 
 ments, to give them the feeling of having reached the dig- 
 nity of a world-power, is manifest. 
 
 War, whoever the parties to it are, contemplates capture 
 and conquest. These are so far morally justifiable in a 
 just war as they have it for their object to procure tho 
 means of compensation for wrong ])reviously inflicted, to 
 pay the exjienses of obtaining justice, and to provide some 
 security fur the future. But as both belligerents generally 
 claim to have the right on their side, and as there is no ar- 
 biter between nations, the facts an<l results of war are ac- 
 quiesced in, unless outrages are committed, or wrong done 
 which excites in a high degree the moral sense of the worhl. 
 As for capture, which has been a tide of the law of natitnis 
 discussed and shaped by the courts more than any other in 
 times past, its inijxirtance will be much less in times to 
 come, since now neutral ships may carry enemies' goods 
 with impunity, and therefore to a greater extent than here- 
 tofore will be used for that purpose. The motives of gov- 
 ernments in sending cruisers out upon the sea for purposes 
 of capture are to distress and uniioy the enemy — to pro- 
 duce such derangements in the commerce of his subjects as 
 to make him willing to come to equitable terms of peace. 
 No one, as we have seen, can make captures unless under 
 authority from a government. When a capture is made, a 
 question may arise as to its validity, and then no property 
 can be passed by sale with a good title, unless tho pr<incr 
 court of the country to which the captor and his vessel bo- 
 lting, gives a title after examination of the facts. The ship 
 and goods taken, however, belong presumptively to tho 
 government or country in tho interval between capture and 
 such judicial decision. Ilenee, if for any reason it is in- 
 convenient for a captor to carry or send his prize into port, 
 a very barbarous usage allows him to burn it. A great 
 deal of destruction of ships and goods took place in con- 
 formity with this usage in our late war of secession, as the 
 
 j Confederates hat! no ports into which they could take their 
 prizes. It has been sanctioned by the Knglish courts under 
 the condition, however, of responsibility of the captor or his 
 government, and was prnctised by us in the Uevolutionary 
 war, anil by Franco in the wars of the first part of this 
 century. It is a dangerous jiraclice if a neutral vessel is 
 80 treated. A better way of treating prizes, which it is 
 
 ! verv inconvenient to convey into port, is to allow them to 
 
 ' proceed on their voyage under what is called a ransom 
 contract. That is. as a prisoner of war or his friends for- 
 
 j mcrlv paid a sum of money for his Hberatiiin. or bargained 
 BO to do, so a captured vessel could be redeemed from cap- 
 tivity <>» similar conditions. The validity of such aeon- 
 tract is recognized by the law of nations, but may bo 
 against the laws of particular nations, whose cruisers, tliere- 
 
 I fore, are under especial temptation to burn their prizes. 
 
 ! The ransom-contract secures the captured ship against fur- 
 ther ea]ituro from tho vessels of the captor's country or of 
 its allies, provided it goes on a specified course, so far as 
 violence of the weatlier does not prevent. To secure tho 
 payment of tho contract a hostage is sometimes delivered
 
 1254 
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 over to the captor. Tho contract is forfeited if the cap- ] 
 turin" cruiser is itself taken with that Jccuraent or the ' 
 hostage on l>oard. The various questions relating to ran- 
 som which may come lieforc courts must be left to larger 
 treatises, cspcciallv to sueh as Wildman's Inalitidcn, written | 
 especially for lawyers practising in pri/.e-eourts. Nor have 
 wc any space for the doctrine of salvage or tlie reward 
 paid for saving a vessel, which, altliough it comes within 
 the province of international law, is lor the most part de- 
 termined by the law of each particular country, and has 
 little more to do with war than with peace. 
 
 Recapture, or the recovery of a captured vessel by a 
 cruiser of the same country or of its ally, has been treated of 
 by most text-writers under tho form of the Koman doctrine 
 of postliminy. As, however, the principles of recapture 
 differ almost' as much from those of postliminy as they 
 resemble them, we must refer the reader for the meaning of 
 that term to the article on it in this C'l/rlojvrdiit. and content 
 ourselves with giving the briefest explanation possible of rc- 
 turc. If a vessel, having been talicn, is carried m/ra 
 
 captu 
 
 vherc by international law a 
 
 prasltlui — that is, to a place w 
 
 capture cannot be made— and is condemned as lawful prize 
 of war, its former owner's right of property ceases. II cap- 
 tured again after this, it is like any other property t.aken 
 from a hostile owner. Recapture, then, holds good only 
 when a prize is on tho way to a place of security; if it is 
 effecteil within these limits, the property reverts to the 
 original owner, subject to the payment of such salvage as 
 the" law of tho land prescribes. If men arc recaptured, 
 there is no salvage or ransom-money, as far as we arc 
 aware, that can bo demanded for them according to inter- 
 national usage. If prisoners of war in a port of a neutral 
 escape to the shore, they cannot lawfully be surrendered; 
 and this is a point where Roman and modern law agrees. 
 There is also a case bearing analogy to recapture on a large 
 scale where after conquest a government is set up and the 
 country is again recovered by its own troops or those of 
 its ally. The°point of difficulty here is, What are the rights 
 of the restored government, and what respect is due to the 
 ordinances of the conqueror during his temporary sway ? 
 It is easily seen that some very perplexing political ques- 
 tions may arise in such a state of things : we may refer the 
 reader to Phillimore for the extended consideration of some 
 of them. Supposing the conqueror to have not only occu- 
 pied, but also politically organized, the land before being 
 driven out, we may say, in general, (1) that whatever in 
 this interim he does by virtue of his political power, legit- 
 imately exercised, is valid. Taxes paid to his collectors 
 cannot be recovered from them on the ground of the unlaw- 
 fulness of the government. Legal acts, done by officials or 
 subordinates of his during his supremacy, are justifiable on 
 their part. If he sells state property or borrows money on 
 the credit of the state, this too is valid if done for ordinary 
 state purposes, and not with a manifestly flagitious object 
 in view. Thus, the acts of Napoleon as head tie ftirtn of 
 France between his arrival at Paris in Mar., 1S15, and his 
 surrender to Capt. Maitland in July, had validity : taxes 
 already imposed, but collected by his officials, were legally 
 collected, and new taxes, if collected in this interval and 
 paid over, could not be recovered by private persons. But 
 (2) none of bis changes in the eonstituti.m or law have any 
 claim to pennanonee; and (31 the restored or legitimate 
 government has not the authority of going back of its res- 
 toration and claiming whatever services or dues it could 
 have claimed during the intermission. It is manifest that 
 some such rules are necessary to avoid the perplexity of 
 private persons in regard to obedience, and to mitigate tho 
 sway of a tyr.annical conqueror. 
 
 The hist point relating to war, as considered in relation 
 only t» the belligerents, is its suspension and termination. 
 (1) There are suspensions of war with a special and par- 
 ticular iitiject in view, or having elTeet only so far as cer- 
 tain individuals are concerned. Here belong licenses to 
 trade, which need no explanation, except tho remark that 
 they arc of strict interpretation, which is true also of pass- 
 ports and safe-conducts or permissions to enter a hostile 
 territory for certain specific and temporary purposes. Hero 
 we may mention also conventions relating to the war. such 
 03 a commander is allowed to make, or makes under neces- 
 sity, arrangements respecting the manner of carrying on 
 war, cartels and ransom-contracts (before mentioned), ca- 
 pitulations, conventions relating to exchange of prisoners or 
 to requisitions. (2) Tni<-r. — This is a suspension either of 
 all the operations of war, or of those in a particular quarter 
 or before a particular place, .''uch agreements arc made by 
 o sovereign, or by a military commander so far as he has 
 authority for such a purpose. They commence and termi- 
 nate at a certain day, and need no notice of their expiration. 
 Or, if the truce is general, different days may be appointed 
 fir the beginning and end in different quarters of the world. 
 Truce allows generally a return to peaceful (or rather 
 
 to non-warlike) relations for a definite period, but does not 
 involve withdrawal of armies from before a fortress or from 
 a special theatre of war. A question on which considerable 
 difl'erenco of opinion prevails is. What can be done during 
 a truce, and especially whether a besieged place may repair 
 its walls and construct new works in such an interval? An 
 answer which would perhaps fail of removing all difficulty 
 might be, that anything might be done wbieh would have 
 liecn directly prevented by war, or which is not in itself a 
 directly hostile movement. Thus, a besieging army cannot 
 lawfully add to its works of siege, and a fortress cannot be 
 repaired — at least in places wliieh would have been com- 
 manded by the guns of the enemy. {'■') TrcalicH of Pence. 
 — The only rational object of war is to secure a state of 
 justice involving reparation and security for the future. 
 Treaties of peace, being appeals to force, do not always 
 bring the adversaries to just terms, but, whatever their re- 
 sult, they are tho most im]iortant acts of treaty-making 
 powers ; they often form epochs in national or in continental 
 history. To n;iine only one or two: the Peace of West- 
 phalia, those of Nimcguen, Ryswick, and Utrccht-Badcn, 
 the Treaties of Paris and of llubertsbcrg in ITIi.'i, the Peace 
 of Paris and that of Versailles in I7s:i, the two treaties of 
 Paris in 1814 and IS15 respectively, the Peace of Zurich 
 in 1859 and of Prague in IStili. and the Peace of Paris in 
 1856 (on account especially of its international character), 
 indicate memorable changes of relative strength, or mark a 
 new policy, or bring in a new dynasty, or are in some way 
 the eras of some kind of progress. They arc the hands of a 
 clock, but the war was the moving force. 
 
 Treaties of peace are subject to the same rules of in- 
 terpretation with others made by the constitutional power 
 in tho state, etc. — Wc have already considered the effect of 
 war on previous treaties, and on particular arrangements 
 of those treaties. Only two additional points remain to 
 be considered : (<i) When do treaties go into effect ? Tlicy 
 bind the parties, as wc have seen, when they arc signed or 
 when they are ratified. They bind individuals when they 
 receive news that such treaties have been made. In the 
 interval between ratification and knowledge of the peace 
 by military officers or by cruisers, injuries must be made 
 good by the country to which the party committing the in- 
 jury belongs. Captures made after a peace, but without 
 knowledge of it. have been held to subject tho capturing 
 officer to civil damages, for which he would have a right to 
 demand compensation from his government. Captures, 
 again, made before the time for the termination of hostili- 
 ties, but with knowledge that peace has been concluded, 
 are held to be invalid and subject to restoration. (6) Tho 
 effect of peace is to put an end not only to a war, but also to 
 all complainls relating to the subject for which war was 
 undertaken. It is an oblivion or amnesty of all past difli- 
 cultics. A new war can be undertaken for similar causes 
 of comjilaint. but not for the same. They are forgotten 
 and forgiven, whether menlioncd in the treaty or passed 
 over in silence. In regard to the state in which the war 
 leaves the parties, if the treaty makes no mention of this 
 point, the principle of ii(i jmsniihlls is admitted. Terri- 
 torv stays in the actual occupant's hands unless passed 
 over by express agreement, and a strong place must be re- 
 storedwithout injury to its works. When a part of a coun- 
 try is yiehled up at ])eaco to the enemy, the former sov- 
 ereign is neither bound to make compensation to those who 
 suffer by the change of jurisdiction, nor to secure the new 
 sovereign ag.ainst resistance from the inhabitants to liis au- 
 thority. All he does is to renounce his own sovereignty 
 and jurisdiction. 
 
 Tivo topics remain to be considered, both of which are 
 of jirimc importance — the rliihla nuil oJiUiitUirmH <>/ netilnd 
 nnliinm, and the liabililien atirl riijhlii of uculra/ tratle. In 
 m.idern times neutral interests have become of such mo- 
 ment that a war between any two slates under our modern 
 international law produces wide-swceiiing effects such as 
 ancient history never knew. All industry and finance is 
 filled with apprehension; the neutral asks what he can do 
 to avert the effects of war from his borders by changing 
 the course of trade, or how he can interfere by influence to 
 prevent or abridge war. And i< may ere long become a 
 serious question whether, considering the increased amount 
 of disaster that war brings on tho world in modern times, 
 the nations should have unlimited power to declare war— 
 whether neutrals ought not to have a voice in the matter 
 — whether, in short, as civilized nations are brought by 
 their closeness of interest into something like a confederacy, 
 they ought not to have something like tho political authority 
 of a confederacy, so as to have a deciding infiuencc, at 
 least, in all external wars. 
 
 A neutral is a state which is a friend to both the bellig- 
 erents and takes no part in the war. Sometimes, according 
 to an earlier treaty, a power of Europe has been bound, on 
 1 tho breaking out of war, to furnish troops to one of the
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 1255 
 
 llanil in IS-IO. 
 tances 
 
 belligerents : but it is plnin that the other may regard this 
 as llic act of an ally if be chooses. There is also a neu- 
 trality or ii«-ii(r<i/i.:<i(iV.ii now known to jmblic law. by which 
 a certain territory and its inhabitants have put on the cha- 
 racter of permanent neutrality, so that no armies can cross 
 the boundaries of such a st.ite. and it can itself engage in 
 no war. .«ui-h. since the vear ISli.bas been the condition 
 of Swilzerlan.l and of I>art of Savoy— which last-mentioned 
 country, so far a.s it was placed in this condition, continues 
 in it since its cession to Franco in lf<GO : such also that of 
 Belgium became, after its disruption from Holland in 
 And, again, the northern powers of Kuropc in two iiist; 
 (in 17S0 ami in ISOO) formed what was called armnl iicii- 
 (ro/i'v for the iiurpose of maintaining certain alleged mari- 
 time rights against both the belligerents j but a league like 
 this ni^ght turn into a secondary war. A neutral state 
 must be impartial in rendering the same favors to both bel- 
 ligerents, hut this is far from being enough. It must stand 
 nIo<.f. and keep its territory and its subjects aloof from 
 the war as far as possible. Impartiality may, in fact, bo 
 a great privilege and assistance to one of the parties, 
 but none at all to the other. For this reason especially 
 the modern idea of neutrality is stricter than that of a ecn- 
 t'lry or of two centuries ago. While the neutral slate thus 
 stands aloof, it must be humane to both parties, receiving 
 their vessels into its ports when driven in by stress of 
 weather or, as it would receive fugitive troops on the land, 
 admitting them into its waters when escaping from the 
 enemy ; yet in such sort that on the land the troops are 
 disarmed, while the vessels can do nothing more than make 
 the necessary repairs and procure provisions. The neu- 
 tral is not bound to allow cruisers to enter its ports with 
 prizes unless obligated by treaty ; and the safest, most 
 neutral course, is not to iiUow this. Much less can ves- 
 sels of war of the enemy procure military stores. Coal 
 is an article of use in both war and peace; by modern ; 
 practice— and there is no other— vessels of war are fur- 1 
 nished with enough to take them to the nearest port of 
 their own country; but war steamers arc too modern for j 
 any well-understood rule to have grown up in this respect. 
 It "was formcrlv not thought to be unneutral to allow tran- 
 sit to foreign 'armies in a time of war; and Switzerland 
 supplied by treaty more than one state of Europe with 
 mercenaries, but the age of such concessions has passed. 
 
 It has become of far more importance in the present age 
 than it over was before to decide what ncutr.als may not do 
 and may allow to bo done within their territories that may 
 have a bearing on the fortunes of a war. Looking first at 
 the second point, what neutrals may allow or suffer, wo re- 
 mark that a distinction is to bo made between those private 
 transactions and those ordinary proceedings of trade which 
 cannot bo prevented without consiilerablc »itrviill<ince, and 
 those acts of individuals which arc open to inspection. If 
 a neutnirs subject lends money or goes abroad privately to 
 serve as a soldier. <ir exports articles to a blockaded |iort, 
 or such as are contraband of war to any belligerent port, he 
 does these things without sanction oflaw; and thecourls both 
 in (Ircat liritaiu and in the V. S. will refuse to help him to 
 recover money lent to a belligerent, on the ground tliat tlic 
 transaction is contrary to the law of nations. (Sec I'hillimorc, 
 iii. J l.'il.) liut hitherto, neutrals, whilst forbidding or 
 warning against most of these things, do not make them 
 punishable. It is otherwise with more public acts, such as 
 building war-vessels for a belligerent or enlisting men for 
 his service. Even hero commercial ciipi.lity and the tricks 
 of foreign agents can often prevent the purpose which they 
 ore attempting to accomplish from coining to light. A 
 neutral, however, if it he bis duty to prevent his territory 
 from becoming tho starting-place for carrying on war 
 against friends, can make effectual laws and maintain an 
 active police. It is not the office of foreign ambassadors 
 and consuls, but of the home government, to look into such 
 trespasses, and tho more, because they otherwise expose 
 themselves to complaints from tho injured belligerent. 
 On the other hand, the conduct of neutral governments 
 themselves is tolerably clear. They cannot lend money or 
 troops to either belligerent, or open their ports for hostile 
 purposes, or permit their courts to be used for deciding 
 nucstions of prize whore cither of the belligerents is con- 
 cerned. To secure the neutral conduct of their subjects, 
 neutrality laws arc enacted by several nations, perhaps by 
 all who arc under the Christian law of nations. Thus, tho 
 l'. S. passed one in 1S17 which is still in force, and (ircat 
 Britain one (M) (leo. III. oh. (>'.>) which continueil in force 
 until 1S70, when a new act was passeil, entitled, like tho 
 first, a " foreign enlisllnent act." but far more stringent and 
 conceding far more power to the administration. Vndcr 
 the nril Ilritish act vessels destined to prey on tho com- 
 merce of the V. S. in tho interest of the Confederates 
 slipped out from British port.s and did their work effect- 
 ually. (ircat complaints arose on our side, until in May, 
 
 1871, the Treaty of Washington was effected, containing 
 three rules which the parties agreed to have applied in 
 deciding their past difficulties, to observe for the future be- 
 tween themselves, and to urge on the acceptance of other 
 nations. These rules arc — that "a neutral government is 
 bound, ./ir«(, to use duo diligence to prevent tho fitting out, 
 arming, or equipping, within its jurisdiction, of any vessel 
 which it has reasonable ground to bclicyo is intended to 
 cruise or to carry on war against a power with which it is 
 at peace; and also to use like diligence to prevent the de- 
 parture from its jurisdiction of any vessel intended to 
 cruise or carry on war as above, such vessel having been 
 specially adapted, in whole or in part, within such juris- 
 diction to warlike use; nccoiirf/i/. not to permit or suffer 
 either belligerent to make use of its ports or waters as tho 
 base of naval operations against the other, or for tlie pur- 
 pose of the renewal or augmentation of military supjilics 
 or arms, or tho recruitment of men ; ihirilly, to exercise due 
 diligence in its own ports and waters, and as to all persons 
 within its jurisdiction, to prevent any violation of the fore- 
 going obligations and duties." In regard to the meaning 
 of these rules, we observe that -'due diligence." as well as 
 "reasonable grounds of belief," is necessarily indefinite; 
 only the facts of the case can determine whether one neu- 
 tral has reason to complain of the other as to these points. 
 A most important question of interpretation is whetlier " to 
 prevent the departure from its jurisdiction " relates only to 
 the original departure, when the vessel is ready for sea, or 
 to any future departure, if it should enter the ports of tho 
 same neutral. Wo have good reason to believe that the 
 commissioners of the U. S. understood the words in tho 
 latter sense, and so also did the judges, or the majority of 
 the judges, at the tribunal of (iencva. In other words, the 
 crime rests on the vessel, and the flag which it floats does 
 not protect it: which is thus true of tho vessel of uiiii ch- 
 Uihliihrd government, but much mme of a vessel belonging 
 to an organized revolutionary body, which has no rights or 
 status under the law of nations. 
 
 Neutrals, on the other hand, have important rights 
 against belligerents, the principal one of which is that 
 their territory or tho sea withiu their jurisdiction shall not 
 be touched by operations of war. Accordingly, a capture 
 made within neutral waters, even if in hot pursuit and 
 flight the contending vessels pass out of the open sea, is 
 vitiated; and the same is to be said of captures following 
 a contest in neutral waters which is completed on the high 
 seas. The neutral has a right to demand from the bellig- 
 erent captor satisfaction for such invasion of his rights, to 
 seize the prize if brought within its waters, and perhaps to 
 chase and arrest the captor on his way from tho scene of 
 , the offence. So any attempt to conipromiso tho neutral's 
 : position by enlisting men to servo in war. or by inducing 
 I them to go aboard for the purpose of enlisting, is an in- 
 fraction of tho law of nations, connivance at which on 
 the part of the British ambassador in 180G led the U. S. to 
 demand his removal.— Tho subject of arresting neutral 
 yessels on the high seas will bo considered under tho head 
 i of Scfirih iiutl Viaitdliiiii. 
 
 ' Thr /.inbililif'n itml Riuhta <,/ Xeuliul Trn(lc.—(a) Here, 
 I when we 8]ieak of neutral owners and neutral (iroperty, tho 
 ! word nrulral is taken in a qualified sense. He is a neutral 
 owner who is resident in a neutral country, and that is 
 neutral properly which is owned by a neutral and is tho 
 pro.luct of iiculnil soil. That, on tho contrary, is hostile 
 : property which belongs to a person resident in a hostile 
 country, and hostile property is liis properly or the produc- 
 1 lion of hostile soil. It may happen that one partner is 
 i hostile and one neutral ; if capture takes place, their rc- 
 speelivo intcrcsls in the concern will decide how much is 
 exempt from, and how much is liable to, tho laws of cap- 
 ture If a person resident in a neutral country has n place 
 of business and cajiital in a hostile one, ho has so far 
 1 forth a hostile character: but the English courts have ruled 
 ' that a person domiciled in a hostile country, but having a 
 commercial liouse in a neutral one. is not neutral, but lios- 
 tile. To these particulars we add that a hostile flag or 
 license to trado makes a ship hostile: that papers relating 
 to the nationality of a vessel cannot bo changed .luring a 
 voyage williout strong evidence of fraud : and that proiluoc 
 ofsoil whicli a neutral owns in a hostile country follows 
 the character of the soil. 
 
 (H A subject of a neutral may identify himself with one 
 of tho belligerents in several ways: ho may carry contra- 
 band of war. or try to break blockade, or lake out a trad- 
 ing license, nhethe'r between the belligerent mother-country 
 and a colcmy or between ports along the belligerent's coast. 
 Most of these actions would bo regarded us oriminal. and 
 \ OS exposing a vessel to pains and penalties. But the ques- 
 tions arise. What may a neutral vessel do? what may it 
 noldo? That it can do unneutral acts is uuiloubtcd ; that 
 the belligcrcnla ought not to stop neutral trade, unless iu
 
 1256 
 
 INTEENATIONAL LAW. 
 
 self-defence, will bo gcDcrally admitted. The great diffi- 
 culty always was. until the Declaration of Paris, to decide 
 whose goods the neutral trader might take on board of his 
 vessel. Numberless were the contentious, the diverse ar- 
 rangements by treaty, on that subject. The second and 
 third rules of that Declaration laid the basis for uniformity 
 of practice among the signers : and as they are such as the 
 U. S. always strove to have come into operation, they may 
 be said to be all but universal, although we have never 
 given our adhesion to tlicm. They arc, that the "neutral 
 tlag covers the enemy's goods with the exception of con- 
 traband of war," and that " neutral goods, with the excep- 
 tion of contraband of war, are not liable to capture under 
 an enemy's flag." Enemies' goods on enemies' vessels arc 
 still liable to capture, whatever be their quality ; hut as the 
 cautious trader, to avoid risk, would employ a neutral ves- 
 sel, the amount of property on the open sea exposed to the 
 vessels of the other enemy will be very small; the number 
 of captures hereafter may be expected to be very t;mall ; 
 and as privateers will cease to be employed as an auxiliary 
 to national vessels, it is not unlikely that ere long no goods 
 or shijjs will be exposed to capture but such as directly aid 
 in war. The law of the future, in short, will provide that 
 there shall be no difference between neutrals and enemies 
 in regard to the right of undisturbed passage over the 
 sea. 
 
 (c) The history of past rules and opinions touching lia- 
 bility to capture is too large a subject, and withal too anti- 
 quated, for us to enter into in an article like this. We will 
 only add on that point one or two sentences which may 
 serve to aid in xmderstanding former practice and histori- 
 cal allusions to it. Two rules, then, may be said to have 
 been in contlict heretofore — one making capture to depend 
 on the tintiimrtlittf o/ prnpcrfi/ convei/ed over the sea; the 
 other, on the natiunaUtif of the coiiveyiiiff vessel. By the 
 first rule the neutral's goods were aa/e on any vessel, the 
 belligerent's intsit/e on any vessel. By the second, the 
 neutral's sliip protected the goods, the belligerent's exposed 
 them to capture: or, to put this into another form, free 
 ships made free goods, enemies' ships made goods hostile. 
 As for the last part of this rule, it was of slight importance 
 wh.it usage should prevail in regard to enemies' ships car- 
 rying neutrals' goods, for in war the neutral would naturally 
 do more of his own carrying than before. But it was of 
 great importance to the belligerent that the neutral flag 
 should not protect his enemy's goods, while it was of great 
 importance to the neutral that a rich carrying-trade should 
 be opened to him in time of war. In this conflict of pr.ic- 
 ticc the belligerent interests, especially those of a nation, 
 like Great Britain, with a naval force strong enough to 
 protect itself antl annoy its foe, prevailed; and so, on the 
 whole, the first of these twi> rules had the most vogue 
 when treaty did not intervene — the rule, namely, that the 
 property of a neutral is safe under any flag, ami that of an 
 enemy unsafe under any flag. This rule exposed the neu- 
 tral to great annoyance, as his cargo might be mainly hos- 
 tile : but we must regard it. after all, as most just that not 
 the vehicle but the j)roperty should determine liability to 
 capture. For the reason for capture is — apart from cases 
 of blockade and contraband — that the thing in question 
 belongs to an enemy; and a neutral certainly has a right 
 to lake his friend's goods on his vessels, and to use his 
 friend's vessel for the same purpose. The war-right of his 
 friend's enemy may subject him to inconvenience, but 
 neither his property nor his right of payment for freight 
 (Might to be taken from him. The present rules — that is, 
 the rules of ISofi — are not more just, but they are more hu- 
 mane, than those which iJrcat Britain and our Supremo 
 Court held to be the true law of nations. (See fntroduc- 
 tion to /iifernalional Laic, by the author of this article, §g 
 lO'J A— 171.) 
 
 {d) When, under the old rules of capture, a neutral ship 
 was found with an enemy's goods on board, freight was 
 paid by the captor fc»r the voyage, capture being considered 
 equivalent to delivery : but when a hostile vessel was cap- 
 tured with neutral goods on board, if the captor conveyed 
 them to their original destination, ho was allowed to charge 
 freight, otherwise no freight was duo, 
 
 (e) When a neutral used an armed vessel of the enemy 
 for conveying his goods, he exposed them to capture, ac- 
 cording to British doctrine, as thereby showing an intention 
 to resist the inconveniences of search and capture. But 
 our courts held a different language, for why would the 
 neutral run the risk of (he total destruction of his goods in 
 consequence of an engagement, as ho was safe already from 
 capture? A rule for this case is now of no great import- 
 ance, whichever way it be decided, since privateering has 
 ceased in great measure, and ships of war arc not much in 
 the practice of carrying the goods of private persons. 
 
 ( /*) Cnntrahnnd »>/ War. — The word " contraband," orig- 
 inally signifying that which it was against a ban, edict, or 
 
 I proclamation to export or to import, now denotes those arti- 
 I eles which a neutral cannot send to a country in a state of 
 I war consistently with the neutral character or without vio- 
 ' lating the law of nations. These are articles which directly 
 j aid the operations of war, and to send these to an enemy 
 I identifies the neutral with him. I may assist in \var as 
 I eff'ectually by sending arms or gunpowder as by getting 
 ! men to enlist in a belligerent's service. What these arti- 
 cles are is, for the most part, pretty generally admitted, 
 although there is a dispute about several of the more im- 
 portant ones. The U. .S. have a formula whieh has been 
 inserted into a number of treaties with South American 
 republics. This list includes — "(I) cannons, mortars, how- 
 itzers, swivels, blunderbusses, muskets, fusees, rifles, car- 
 bines, pistols, pikes, swords, sabres, lances, spears, halbcrts, 
 hand-grenades, bombs, powder, matches, balls, and all 
 other things belonging to the use of these arms; (2) buck- 
 lers, helmets, breastplates, coats-of-mail, infantry belts, 
 and clothes made up in a military form and for a military 
 use; (3) cavalry belts and horses, with their furniture ; (4) 
 and generally, all kinds of arms and instruments of iron, 
 steel, brass, and copper, or of any other material, manu- 
 factured, prepared, and formed to make war by sea or 
 land." Besides these, on which there would be a very 
 general agreement, naval stores and materials for ship- 
 building are mentioned in a number of treaties as haviug 
 this character, and provisions may assume it, according to 
 some authorities, when there is a prospect of reducing an 
 enemy by famine. Ships made ready for war are not found 
 in some lists, but would probably be regarded as contraband 
 ptir cmtneitce. So the nmchinery for steam-ships, an arti- 
 cle of modern times, might be classed in the same list. 
 Whatever article is of contraband character, thus much 
 may be said — that belligerents have no right to add to the 
 list, nor neutrals to take away from it. To restrict the 
 trade of neutrals, especially by an arbitrary act, is not a 
 thing to be endured in the present age. AVe are thus jire- 
 pared to condemn the doctrine of occasimial contraband, 
 — which has not received the assent, nor been sanctioned by 
 the practice, of all nations, — according to which naval stores, 
 and provisions especially, are declared contraband by a bel- 
 ligerent when the circumstances seem to require it. The 
 fluctuating character of such a doctrine is shown by the 
 rules of the English judges in the early part of this cen- 
 tury, as that such articles were viewed with greater indul- 
 gence if they were the produce of the country from which 
 they were exported, or if unmanufactured or destined to a 
 commercial port, than if shipped from a country where 
 they were not grown, or in a manufactured state or destined 
 to a naval station. Afterwards the English judge. Sir Wil- 
 liam Scott (subsequently Lord Stowell). withdrew this in- 
 dulgence as to the commercial jtart. on the ground that the 
 articles might there be used to fit out privateers. (See the 
 author's Introd., ^ ISO.) The complaints of neutrals led to 
 a new modification of the harsh practice in regard to pro- 
 visions and navul stores. Their whole trade might consist 
 in such articles, and the belligerent doctrine be ruinous to 
 them. The rule of pre-emption, %vhieh had some sujiport 
 from ancient precedents not strictly applicable, was now 
 applied by way of relaxation of the rule, and consisted in 
 this — that a cruiser at sea was allowed to detain vessels 
 laden with provisions or naval stores, and bound for the 
 enemy's ports, and to take them into a port of his own 
 country. The articles thus intercepted were paid for at 
 the market-price, and with a fair profit added, but not at 
 the ]>rice which the neutral expected to obtain in the coun- 
 try to which he was conveying them. The U. S. in one 
 treaty, that of 1794, sanctioned this principle. AVhen a 
 vessel is taken with contraband articles on board, the mod- 
 ern very mild rule is to confiscate such .articles, and let the 
 vessel with the other goods go free, unless both or either 
 of them belong to the owner of the contraband, in which 
 ease, or where false papers show privity in carrying them, 
 the guilt passes over to the remainder of the property of the 
 same owner, or also to the owner of the vessel. 
 
 Special eases of contraband trade are the conveyance of 
 ships of war or of transports with their crews, of persons 
 in the military service, and of despatches. All but the last 
 would have been considered by older writers and by courts 
 as highly criminal. Despatches do not seem to have been 
 sj>oken of before the beginning of the present century. 
 The doctrine, first brought out in the English courts, but 
 now pretty generally accepted, is that a shipmaster who 
 knowingly conveys hostile despatches exposes his vessel 
 and the cargo, if he is the agent of it, to confiscation. But 
 what are hostile despatches? They are in substance de- 
 fined to be "official communications of official persons re- 
 specting the public affairs of government.'' Such despatches 
 as keep up the intercourse between a belligerent and a 
 neutral country are not hostile despatches, nor ha^* the oth* r 
 belligerent the right to obstruct it. It seems likely that
 
 IXTKRNATIOXAL LAW. 
 
 1257 
 
 vessels carrying the public mails, especially if on a certain 
 staled course, would not be exposed to suffer from the oper- 
 ation of this rule. 
 
 According to received doctrine, neutral governments are 
 under no responsibility to restrict private pcrsuns from 
 conveying any kind of contraband to either or both of the 
 belligerents. The articles are not contraband until they 
 have left the neutral limits, it has been said, and the neu- 
 tral is not obliged to maintain an expensive police of the 
 sea. If two nations choose to fight, they must guard their 
 own coasts: the world suffers enough from their contests 
 without aiding them in any respect. But there is another 
 side to the doctrine of the responsibility of neutnils. They 
 thrive by the rpiarrels -tf their friends; they supply the 
 materials for death : and in so doing they demoralize society 
 almost as much as if they entered upon tho slave-trade. 
 Furthermore, tho articles that arc contraband arc in some 
 cases almost indistinguishable from those which could not 
 bo sent abrojid without exposing the nation itself to charges 
 of unneutral conduct. A ship of war made to bo sold in 
 the ports of a belligerent, if without a crew, is contraband, 
 but a ship made by contract for the belligerent government 
 is more — it is something which neutrals must not allow to 
 slip ont from their harbors. The difference between the 
 two cases is almost annihilated if the neutral merchant has 
 a secret understanding with tlie belligerent to make the 
 ship for him while acting as the owner himself. Add to 
 this, that nations rush tho more readily into war if tboy 
 know that a supply of arms and ammunition will be on 
 hand when they wunt it. For these reasons we think that 
 not only what Dr. Phillimore contends for — the making it 
 unlawful for belligerent private vessels to get materials of 
 war — should come to be a rule of international law. but 
 also that no neutral ve.'fsel should be allowed to export such 
 articles to either of tho belligerents. This might bo effected 
 by requiring sufficient bonds from all vessels before sailing 
 that they have no contraband on board, and imposing a 
 penalty besides in case of transgression. Let all merchant 
 ships of every nation be freo to carry innocent articles to 
 tho theiiii-r of war ; let no ships of any kind bo allowed to 
 carry articles contraband of war. 
 
 (7) There was formerly a special pndiibition against a 
 certain kind of tnirle. called tho rule of IT-'iO, which Eng- 
 land insijited and acted upon, but which never fully passed 
 into international law. and has now become of no signifi- 
 cance. It related to trade closed in peace, but open in war. 
 Such tra<lo might be cofintiuf/ or cohniiai, the first of wliich 
 nati'ms generally do not open to foreigners, while it was 
 for a long time a principle to confine tho other to native- 
 born sufjjects or open it only under limitations. .Such trade 
 at first was allowed, we believe, in all cases, only to foreign 
 vessels that had obtained a license. There was reason 
 enough to regard a licensed vessel as identified with tho 
 belligerent's interests, and so far the rule was not harsh; 
 but when tho trade was opent-d to all neutral vessels, the 
 same rule was urged with somewhat less of justice ; tho 
 neutral saverl a slate from some of the embarrassments intu 
 which it might bo brought by its enemy. Our government 
 contended against tho rule in its apjdioation both to coast- 
 ing and to cfilonial trade, but some of our publicists were 
 willing to let the rule have fnrre in regar<l to coasting trade 
 whifh has an especially nati<mal character. Since tho 
 Declaration of Paris of ISofi, by which the neutral ship 
 has a right to take enemies' goods, this rule has necessarily 
 expired. 
 
 (A) /tf'irkmlr. — This word might be usetl of nil obstruc- 
 tions put in tho way of approach either to a besieged town 
 on the land or to a besieged piece of water; but, as facility 
 of approach is confined ehiefiy to water, all the questions 
 under this titlo r'-latc t»» that element and to iHMitral vessels 
 upon it. Tho riglit of blockade is admitted on .all sides ; 
 the true ground Utr ilefending it is the same that would 
 make it dangerous to bring supplies to a besieged place in 
 Ihn interior. If F allow neutrals tu ai'l my enemy by pro- 
 visions and military st'ires. I can never terminate a war. 
 Ifo assists his friend to my injury, and this, if there be any 
 rights in war, I ought to have a right to prevent. Only 
 harbors and mouths of rivers, and perhaps passages through 
 straits, can bo blockaded. A stretch of const does nota'Imit 
 of this nnlcs the nutnber of vesf;els is augmented in pro- 
 portion to tho local limits of tho blockade. Mouths of 
 rivers cannot bo so blockaded as to obstruct the commerce 
 of the riparian states that are neutral. A blockinle is a fact 
 or event that may begin or end, and ther<'("i>re there must 
 bo Hoin/r nftlifh-iitinn «/ 1'/ to traders, to neutral governments, 
 or to both. The French rule is to give two notifications — 
 the diplmnatin imo, an'l that eonimunicnted to the ves«cl at 
 the mouth of the harbor — and at no stage of the operation 
 to nogleet tho bitter. .M. MoK-, nnnister of foreign affairs, 
 writes in I M.'tS to another Frerieh minister of stale : " \ will 
 not recall here tho rea.-ons why, independently of tho offi- 
 
 cial and diplomatic notice of a blockade, every ship show- 
 ing itself before the blockaded port ought to receive the 
 warning from tho ci)mmanding squadron." Tho French, 
 however, hold, if we are not mistaken, that at the outset of a 
 war, before notice has had time to travel over the commer- 
 cial world, a simple warning to a sliip is sufllcicnt, and that 
 an attempt to break through into the port after this would 
 expose tho vessel to seizure and trial. Tho English and our 
 own rule does not require the double notice. It is enough 
 to send the diplomatic notice to all neutrals, and only at 
 tho very commencement of a war, especially before notice 
 has had time to rty abroad, to warn off any approaching 
 vessel. If, meanwhile, a vessel should seek to enter tho 
 blockaded harbor under the plea of ignorance, the length 
 of its voyage and other circumstances must decide whether 
 the plea is just. The diplomatic notice must be sent every- 
 where, and if only common fame has carried it to a partic- 
 ular country, that is not sufficient to involve in guilt a ves- 
 sel of that country, when seeking the blockaded port. If wo 
 compare tho two rules, we shall give the preference to the 
 Englisli. The diplomatic notice is intended to prevent 
 voyages, which may be useless or losing, to places in an 
 actual condition of siege. Should a vessel now appear at 
 the harbor's mouth with the claim of not knowing tho 
 state of facts, tho presumption is against the story, and 
 she must prove her words a3 she can. But why give a new 
 warning here, any more than to a burglar at your door? 
 It is highly criminal to break bluekade ; the purpose to do 
 it is a hostile purpose, and no indulgence is called for by 
 such traffic. 
 
 T/ie amount of force necessary to make blockade legal 
 and effective is somewhat indefinite. Tho fourth rule of 
 the Declaration of iSfiO is that "blockades, in oriler to be 
 binding, must be effective : that is to say, maintained by a 
 force sufficient really to prevent access to the coast of the 
 enemy." It may be asked what '* sufficient to prevent ac- 
 cess " means. Suppose a number of trim, swift blockade- 
 runners slip through a cordon of ships, does this destroy 
 the effectiveness of the measure? Certainly not. Appar- 
 ently, as far as its afiirmativo meaning is concerned, this 
 rule loft things as they were before. If there is real danger 
 of capture, and a force is stationed before the harbor in- 
 tended to create such danger, tho blockade would be con- 
 sidered effective. On the other hand, ail paper blockades, 
 like those of the Berlin Decrees, the two liritisli Orders in 
 Council, andthejMilan Decrees, all of 1S07, by which whole 
 coasts for hundreds of leagues were put under a blockade- 
 ban — tho two parties concerned, Na]toleon and the British 
 government, in turn going beyond each other in their 
 (iiplomatic war — arc entirely forbidden. 
 
 A blockaile. being a fact, luHtn ouhf ho long as tho vessels 
 are on hand to make it such, unless, indeed, a temporary 
 storm drives them frtun their posts, to which they return as 
 soon as possible. When they are driven off by the aupcrior 
 poKcr of the enemy, or iHscontiuur their operations by 
 orders of the government or commander of the squadron, 
 the blockade ceases, and needs the same fonnatitics for its 
 renewal as for its commencement. 
 
 When a vessel in tnkeu, and foiiml by the proper court 
 f/nilti/ of attempting to enter or (put the blockaded port 
 during the blockade, tho jienalty is confiscation of the ves- 
 sel, and tho cargo shares tho same fate, unless some proof 
 can be given that the breach was against its owner's will. 
 The liiibility to bo tried and condemned rests on the vessel, 
 according to English decisions, until the end of the retitrn 
 voj/a;/r. 
 
 On the doctrine of blockade and of contraband has horn 
 engrafted that of contintiouH voi/iti/i:fi. The English courts, 
 in order to prevent neutral captains froui evading the rule 
 of 1"6C in regard to colonial trade by stopping at a neutral 
 port, there landing and rclading cargoes, and getting a new 
 clearance, made tho decision that if nn original intention 
 could bo proved of carrying the goods from the colony to 
 tho nuilher-country, the proceedings at the neutral port 
 were to be regardeil as a mere sham, and the ullinnxle des- 
 tination was to deeiile in regard to the nature of the trade. 
 In our late war with the Confederates many vessels brought 
 contraband of war or other articles to a port in tho West 
 Indies, espi'cially to the port tif Nassau, and eilher took a 
 new start from tliere or put the goods on blixkade-runners 
 better fitle<I to semi hy a squadron that might be upon tho 
 lookout. To avoid the mischiefs growing out of these pro- 
 ceedings (nir government applied the English doctrine just 
 now mi'iitioned to ihip* elastt of eases. Consignment to some 
 one at Nassau, or any papers making that the destination 
 of the vessel, would not screen it if an original destination 
 could be estaldished of sending the goods ultimalely to a 
 bloekaded port, or, in the oaso of contraband of war, of a 
 drfltination for tho hostile coast. Such intention would 
 subject them to capture from the time <»f setting sail. Still 
 more stringent was tho application of the rulo to goods
 
 12.36 
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 bound up tbo Rio Grande for Matamoraa on the Mexican 
 side of the river, if, when tliey were intercepted, it could be 
 made to appear that there «as an intention alter laiidms 
 them to earrv them overland into territory ol the U .S. 
 (Comp. note 27 in the author's work, before cited, p. 4bb, 
 
 " I i) Search —To carry out the rules of nations respecting 
 contraband goods, blockade, and enemies' goods on enemies 
 vessels, search is necessary : that is, the process by which 
 it is ascertained in war what is the nationality of the ves- 
 sel and the nature of her freight. This right is essential 
 to the others, so tliat if certain writers, as Ilubner (1 ,39), 
 could have made it out that a ship on the open sea is under 
 the same law as territorv. a great part ol the effectiveness 
 of war on the sea would have ceased. Being, however, an 
 acknowledged right, it must be submitted to, and resist- 
 .ance would authorise force on the part of the eriiiser: the 
 search, however, must not be made annoying. II me ves- 
 sel is on an innocent, lawful voyage, she is to pursue her 
 way • if otherwise, she may bo seized and taken into a port 
 for'thc purpose of adjudication. Search being a very irri- 
 tating' process for the neutral, the northern states of Europe 
 around the Baltic attempcd to introduce the so-called right 
 of c.oiioi/. by which a public vessel, escorting merchant 
 vessels and liaving their papers on board, could be a secur- 
 ity for their being engaged in a commerce permitted to 
 neutrals, aud thus might free them from the necessity of 
 bein" vi=ited. This was a rule which the armed neutrality 
 of 1800 endeavored without success to establish It has 
 hitherto been unable to find a place in the law of nations, 
 although a large number of treaties have provided for it. 
 It is attended with the practical difficulty that a fleet ol 
 merchant vessels under escort may often got separated 
 from the convoying ship of war, and thus a bel igerent 
 cruiser may mc'ct one of the merchant ships at a distance 
 from such convoying ship. . , . u 
 
 The ri<'ht of search is properly a war-nght, to be exer- 
 cised in the case of merchant ships only. It is still a war- 
 rit-ht whenever vessels smjieclcd of piraci/ are required to 
 Ii?to'aad submit to examination, because pirates are ene- 
 mies of the human race. It may happen that such suspi- 
 cion uniustlv attaches to a particular vessel. This is like 
 the arri-t of an innocent person at night under suspicious 
 circumstances by the police. He is bound not to resist 
 and to give an account of himself for the sake of the peace 
 of societv So the vessel is bound to satisfy those who are 
 enf a^ed' in the search, because it is for the good of the 
 wodd; aud if the detention can be shown to be unreason- 
 able, or to have been made annoying without reason, tho 
 commander has a right to complain. In one case a small 
 Spanish government ship was stopped in order to ascertain 
 whether she were or were not a pirate, and the court ot the 
 U S., in speaking of this, says that ships of war acting 
 nnder the authority to arrest pirates or other offenders, 
 •'may approach any vessels descried at sea for the purpose 
 of ascertaining the^r real character." There is likewise a 
 permissible search on tho high seas in peace when frauds 
 kre suspected against the revem.e. This may take efiect , 
 when a vessel that has committed an oftenee within the , 
 waters of a country flees from justice, in which case ho 
 public ship may chase her into the high sea and arrest her 
 there An English ordinance prohibits the transshiiwnent 
 of foreign goods within four leagues of the coast without 
 paying diUies, and a law of Congress of 1799 contains | 
 iimiUir regulations, " The exercise of jurisdiction to that , 
 distance for the safety and protection of the revenue laws 
 was declared by tho Supreme Court to be conformable to 
 the laws and usages of nations." (kent s (uiii., i. ^I, 
 
 '^\n"lhe early part of this century England claimed tho 
 right of detaining and visiting neutral vessels in war, in 
 order to ascertain whether any of her subjects were on 
 board, and, if so, of taking them out, that they might ren- 
 der military or naval service to the British sovereign. Ihis 
 claim was"founded on the doctrine that an Englishman 
 owed perpetual and indissoluble allegiance to his country. 
 The evils of such a summary process bore hardest on tho 
 V S as many emigrants or residents in England were 
 ainon'g our sailors. This was one of the causes of the war 
 of l.'<12. The claim was distinctly stated by Lord Ashbur- 
 ton at tho Treaty of Washington in 1S42, but since then 
 the supply of seamen for the navy by the impressment ot 
 persons on British soil has gone into disuse. As for the 
 rirrht involved, it must be most emphatically denied. A 
 seaman, or even a criminal, can no more be forcibly <^n"ied 
 off from a neutral vessel than a similar iicrson could be 
 taken by force from a neutral territory. The fact of war, 
 al^o had properly nothing to do with tho case. The ncu- 
 iral'was not violating a war-right, but had hired a roan to 
 be a sailor on his vessel. The rights to require indefeasible al- 
 legiance and military duty are as truly such in peaoe as in 
 
 war, so that the picas for their exercise would apply to a state 
 of peace as well. But it is not probable that tho English 
 principle in regard to allegiance would be equally rigid 
 now, since a treaty of 1S70 with the U. S. allows renoun- 
 cing allegiance and resuming it, and since an act ot tho 
 BriTish Parliament, passed in 1S44. gives authority to one 
 of the principal secretaries of state to grant to an alien, 
 on his petition, nearly all the rights and capacities of tho 
 native-born subject. .Moreover, as far as taking a person 
 out of a neutral vessel on the sea is concerncil, in the case 
 of the Trent the British government committed itself to 
 the principle, that it is illegal to detain a neutral vessel and 
 take from her even persons at war with their country and 
 liable to the penalties of treason. 
 
 A right of search, on suspicion that a vessel was engaged 
 in the slave-trade, was mutuallv conceded by (ireat Britain 
 and the U. S. in 181)2. Tlie treaty confined the right to 
 certain tracts of the sea near Africa and Cuba ; it was care- 
 fully "uarded ; it granted damages for losses incurred by 
 the wrongful detention of vessels ; and could be terminated 
 after ten years. Before this there had been several discus- 
 sions between the governments, the British government 
 claiming that there is a distinction between ii«i'( and «c«i-<-A, 
 of which the first relates merely to the nationality of the 
 vessel, the other to the character of the cargo and what- 
 ever else needs to be found out. It was said that a British 
 police-vessel on the coast of Africa could uol have control 
 over slave-traders breaking the laws of England if the fly- 
 ing of tho American flag was a security against visiting 
 any ship that might hoist it. On the American side it was 
 contended that no distinction was made, in text-writers on 
 international law or elsewhere, between visit and search, 
 and that a ship of war stopping a reputed slave-trader ot 
 another nation.ality must do so at its peril. In a certain 
 sense both views can be justified. An innocent vessel de- 
 tained on the high seas has a claim for any damages aris- 
 ing out of the detention, and its government, on complaint, 
 would naturally inquire into the matter. But the flag that 
 is hoisted is no" good evidence of the nationality of the ves- 
 sel or crew. There is, then, a real distinction, and a neces- 
 sary one, between visit and search ; or, in other words, there 
 is a kind of search, call it what you will, which does its 
 work when the nationality of the vessel is ascertained. 
 (Jrcat Britain had treaties with Portugal, Spain, the 
 Netherlands, and Sweden concerning the uuitua right ol 
 searching vessels suspected of slave-trading, Ilow cou d 
 a Spanish ship be searched if the hoisting of our flag could 
 prevent it? Then, again, a nation has a right to search its 
 own merchant vessels on the seas in time of peace. Sup- 
 pose an English ship should grossly break the law just be- 
 fore sailing with the intent to go out on an illegal expedi- 
 tion The nation must have the right of sending out a 
 cruiser in pursuit of it. and a vessel supposed to be tho 
 offendin" one could bo made to lie to until the fact could 
 be ascertained, or else all police over vessels is nugatory. 
 Suppose, again (see the author's Inlrod., ? 201 ), two nations 
 mutually to give up the right of search in war. W ould it 
 not stili he necessary for the cruisers of one of them, if 
 war should break out with a third party, to ascertain the 
 nationality of the merchant ships fallen in with, in order to 
 give to the vessels of the other the s.de benefit of tho provis- 
 ions of the treaty? Otherwise, such nati.uis would have 
 to abandon the right altogetber, as everything afloat won .1 
 wear tho protected flag. We conclude, then, that search, 
 so far as to discover the nationality of the vessel carrying 
 a certain fla<', is oftentimes necessary, and is just, but that 
 for mistakes in carrying out this right the government of 
 the cruisers making such a search are responsible. 
 
 We have given a brief account of the principal rules ol 
 international law, and wo close with one or two brief re- 
 marks- (1) International law is f.uiudcd on justice, and 
 contains the noble idea that universal, world-wide justice 
 can be realized. (2) Its principal division is that respect- 
 in.' a state of war, hut its whole spirit is to avoid war, 
 b.iTh l.v having fixed rules and by the possibility of arbi- 
 tration thr.uigh the help of some im).arlial pc.wer or court. 
 (3) Its progress is greatly encouraging. It has grown lu 
 detiniteness, in humanity, in justice, in tho extent of its 
 sphere of operation. (4) It is, however, .lestined to be- 
 come less important with the increasing humanity ol the 
 world. As laws and courts would sink in tlicir importance 
 if all men became thoroughly just and unselfish ; as law, 
 according to the apostle. •' is not made for the righteous 
 man, but for the lawless and disobedient : —since the love 
 in the righteous man's heart is the fulfilling of the law,- 
 "., a day may come when men shall wonder at the mass ol 
 controversies between nations, at the numberless trealiscs 
 r,n international law— above all. at the prominence given 
 to tbo laws and usages of war, because in their belter age 
 tbev will look abroad on universal peace and righteousness. 
 
 TUEODOBl! 1). "OOLSEY.
 
 INTKKNATIOXAL PRIVATE LAW. 
 
 12.39 
 
 Interna'tionnI Private Law is the branch of 
 jurisprudence which regulates the reciprocal relations of 
 8ul)jecls (transienll>- or otherwise) of different states. The 
 notion of such a community of law was foreign to the 
 ancients. To su|iply its felt need the Roman jurists and 
 their successors fashioned congeries of precepts concerning 
 the conflict of laws, whence the maxims ami nomeuelature 
 now in use have been largely drawn. Much is indeed still 
 lacking and doubtful in the science, but there is so marked 
 a tendency toward a unity of civil and commercial legis- 
 lation that certain publicists look for the recognition by all 
 civiliied states of a common system, affording all men 
 cvervwherc liberty and security in private transactions. 
 To this three conditions seem necessary: 1st, every one 
 should be assured of the enjoyment of his civil rights 
 abroad as well as at home ; 2d, every one should be able to 
 foresee, with tolerable certainty, what laws will govern the 
 rights attaching his person, his property, and his acts; Sd, 
 the basis of international regulations shouM be conform- 
 able to right, reason, and the nature of things, so as to 
 ensure permanence to the rules themselves, and the rights 
 acfjuired under them. 
 
 The first and most general maxim of international private 
 law results directly from the independence of states, and 
 is — Kach state has" an exclusive sovereignty and jurisdic- 
 tion wilhiu its own territory. Consequently, the la\ys of 
 every state govern all persons and all properly within its 
 limits. The second general principle is the converse of 
 the former, and — Xo state can by its laws bind persons or 
 objects outside its own territory. An important conse- 
 quence of these two general principles, or converse sides 
 of the same principle, is that all deference paid to foreign 
 laws depends upon domestic regulations — upon the consent, 
 express or implied, of the state where the foreign laws are 
 applied. International private law rests, then, for its sanc- 
 tion upon considerations of utility and reciprocal conve- 
 nience or comity. " It is not a question of the comity of 
 courts, but of states, in that the legislature decrees what 
 effect shall be given to foreign laws, and leaves the courts 
 nothing to do but to carry out the directions of the statutes." 
 When the legislature has supplied a law for the case, the 
 applicability of a foreign statute cannot come in question. 
 Its pertinence can only be assumed by a judge in the ab- 
 sence of express provision, and when conformable to estab- 
 lished custom or tho analogy of his own jurisprudence. 
 
 The applicability of a particular law to a given case 
 mainly dcpen<ls upon the connection of tho person con- 
 cerned with a certain legal territory. To determine this 
 two rrilcria arc contended for — nationality or domicile. 
 
 NnlinnnUly is the quality attaching by birth in, or for- 
 mal adoption into, a particular community. It has of late 
 lost so much of its significance (by the adoption of the Ro- 
 man principle that children follow tho condition of their 
 parents, and that adults are free to choose their own coun- 
 try) as to be considered by some solely of political moment. 
 Nationality, however, remains of importance concerning 
 rights not political; <•. 7. claims under treaty stipulations 
 securing special rights to citizens, and tho whole category 
 of the disabilities of aliens. Tho character impressed by 
 birth is so indelible that it, upon a duo change of residence 
 and intention, easily effaces the 8U]iervcning character of 
 domicile. It has also the advantage of being directly as- 
 certainable, while domiciles are divided by very indistinct 
 lines. 
 
 Domicile may be dofinod as "a residence at a particular 
 place, accompanied by positive or presumptive proof of 
 continuing there for an unlimited time." Thus, it answers 
 very much to the common meaning of the wonl Immc. 
 Where it may be said of a person having two residences 
 that he makes one his home, that is to be taken as his 
 domicile. Intent, the element which determines the ques- 
 tion of domicile, may be evidenced in various ways. If 
 such intent be proved, the fact of residince lor the briefest 
 time will suffice. A person may elect to regard his place 
 of business as his domicile, and he may even have differ- 
 ent domiciles for difl'erent specific pnr|ioses, but he can only 
 have one principal domicile. This is the accepted test of 
 the general national character of his business relations, 
 and impresses itself upon his affairs and property. 
 
 Minor children, if legitimate, lake ami follow the dorai- 
 cilo of their father until competent to choose one for them- 
 selves. Illegitimate children generally follow the domicile 
 of the mother. It is usually held on the continent of Ku- 
 rope that the death of the father fixes the domicile of a 
 legitimate child, so as not to be changed by tho mother or 
 guardian without net of law. The domicile of a wife gen- 
 erally merges in that of her husband, unless he sufl'er for a 
 crime or be under restraint for lunacy or like incapacity. 
 Knvoys, consuls, prisoners, lunatics, exiles, students, and, 
 in general, officers, acquire no new domicile. 
 SlalM is tho sum of special rights and duties belonging 
 
 to a person, over and above tho general rights and duties 
 which he shares with all the members of the community. 
 To determine the status of a person outside of the country 
 of his domicile many theories have been proposed. Tlie 
 one most accepted is. that status is determined by domi- 
 cile, with the qualification that in case of doubt laws 
 favoring cajiacity are favored, and the contrary disfavored. 
 Laws abridging capacity for rights — r. tj. concerning sla- 
 very — have admittedly no extra-territorial force. Natural 
 incapacity, such as lunacy, accompanies the person every- 
 where. In other respects, the general tendency is to respect 
 the law of the place of tho transaction, as that imposes the 
 least burden upon business. 
 
 Oicnership and Propi:rtij. — Whether any particular thing 
 bo an object of ownership is admittedly delenniucd by the 
 law of the place of controversy. The capacity of a person 
 to ai-quirc and dispose of property generally depends upon 
 tho law of his domicile. A distinction which reconciles 
 many embarrassing contradictions in tho books is into a 
 capacity to act and a capacity for rights. The former, 
 proceeding from the personal status, depends upon the 
 law of tho domicile; the latter, upon the law of the situ- 
 ation : c. g. the inability of aliens in New York to transmit 
 projierty resulLs from a local incapacity for rights. Tho 
 elder jurists sharply distinguished immovables from mov- 
 ables and other means of estate. The former, including 
 not only land, hut also all dismemberments of the prop- 
 erty in land and the rights to their enjoyment, are admitted 
 to be under the domination of tlio law of their situ.ation, 
 except when massed for purposes of succession and tho 
 like. By the tremendous fiction that movables cleave to 
 tho person, all personal property, however ponderous and 
 permanent it might be, was subjected to the law of tho 
 domicile of the owner. The increase of ]iersonal projierty 
 in comparative value and importance, with other consider- 
 ations, has. however, led to a rejection of this distinction, 
 so that outside of England and the 1". .S. the now prevail- 
 ing rule is that " movables, when not massed for the pur- 
 poses of succession or marriage-transfer, and when not in , 
 transit or following the owner's person, are governed by 
 tho law of the situation, except so far as the parties inter- 
 ostcd may select some other law." Like considerations, 
 particularly those of public interest, arc tending to incor- 
 porate the "same rule into .^nglo- American jurisprudence. 
 
 Itttil /liijliin, or claims upon things obtaining against all 
 persons, are, for the most part, governed by the law of the 
 
 {ilace where the subservient property, movable or immova- 
 )lc, exists. Implied real rights are not favored inter- 
 nationally, and are not upheld unless recognized by tho 
 laws of both places. Thus, tho hypothecation of an ob- 
 ligor's entire estate, implied by certain contracts in certain 
 countries, is not recognized in others where such conslruc- 
 tivecovenants are not known, although such a claim might 
 support an equitable action to compel the obligor to ex- 
 ecute a formal hypothecation. Liens on movables arc 
 extinguished by removal, though eminent jurists have 
 maintained that real rights should not be so defeated. It is 
 also admitted that a lien unknown at the place of contract 
 cannot bo croatcil by a mere removal of a chattel. Whether 
 it may be asserted by special proceedings dejicnds upon 
 whether the lien be regnnled as a jiart of the contract, or 
 as extraneous to it, anil simply a matter of procedure. 
 The priority of liens "depends upon tho place where the 
 property lies, and where the court sits." 
 
 Ineniimriul Cli'itlcli—cj. letters patent, copyrights, and 
 trademarks— are the creatures of local laws and clearly 
 have no validity beyond the territory of the authority con- 
 ferring them, unless extended by treaty stipulations. Thus, 
 it has been held in France by the court of last resort that 
 a Frenchman may stani]i the unprotected trademark of a 
 foreign nianufaetiirer upon his wares with impunity. 
 
 Ohlii/iiii'iiiii, in the sense of international jurisprudence, 
 include all legally coercible duties, whether arising by 
 act or accident, voluntarily or involuntarily, conformably 
 to good morals or tho reverse. A normal or unilateral ob- 
 ligation restricts tho liberty of one party, debtor, obligor, 
 and enlarges tho rights of the otbor, creditor, obligee. 
 While tho essential properties of obligations are, from 
 motives of public policy, held beyond the interference of 
 parties making engagements, no small freedom is allowed 
 in the determination id' their natural properties. Among 
 the latter is the law by which the obligation is to be gov- 
 erned, and which, under certain restrictions, is left to the 
 choice of the parties themselves. Whenever, therefore, it 
 may be assumed or shown that the parties have chosen a 
 particular territorial law, their obligations are to bo deter- 
 mined by that, so t'ar as they are at liberty so to elect, 
 and have their will respeete*! at the place of suit. Two 
 palpable facts are distinguisbablo in every obligation — in- 
 oe]itinn and fulfilment, 'fhe law cd" tho place of inception 
 uniler most circumstances regulates, according to very geu-
 
 1200 
 
 INTEKNATIOXAL PRIVATE LAW. 
 
 oral agreement, the formal conditions of a transaction. It 
 is commonly said, therefore, that an obligation valid at the 
 place of its origin is valid everywhere. The eonver.se, that 
 a transaction invalid at the place of origin is invalid every- 
 where, is also asserted, though subject to more e.\cc|)tions, 
 in that courts are disposed to recognize engagements in ac- 
 cordance with their own laws, even if formally defective 
 under the law where actually entered into. The law of the 
 place of performance governs, according to most jurists, 
 the obligation itself. I'lausible and ingenious arguments 
 are put forward for other rules, particularly that of the 
 debtor's domicile, but it is urged in opposition and with 
 re:ison that tlie parties presumably purpose, uuless stipu- 
 lating otherwise, to be governed by the law of the place 
 where a specific act is to bo done or thing delivered. 
 Where other indications of an intended submission to a 
 particular law arc at hand, these are to be respected: thus, 
 the obligations arising out of a continuous course of busi- 
 ness are to be determined by the law obtaining at the 
 permanent seat of that business; e.g. liabilities under a 
 foreign ])olicy of insurance arc subject to tho law of the 
 place of the permanent seat or principal office of the com- 
 pany whence it is issued, tliougb the obligation to pay the 
 premium is subject to the law of the domicile of the in- 
 sured. So, again, an obligation arising under circum- 
 stances warranting tho ex}>ectation tiiat it will be dis- 
 charged at the same place is governed by the local law ; 
 e. (J. that of a guest to pay his hotel-bill. In other cases 
 the applicatory law is that of the debtor's domicile at the 
 time of contracting the obligation. 
 
 Obligations arising from delicts or torts — wrongful acta 
 as connected with private redress — cannot, of course, be 
 considered subject to a certain law because the same 
 has been chosen by the obligor {wrongdoer, tnrt/cagcr). 
 The principle of many of tlic foregoing conclusions is 
 therefore inapplicable to them. Wherever a wrong is 
 done, there the perpetrator of it, whether a transient pas- 
 senf'er or a domiciled subject, is justiciable, and must 
 answer for the consequences. The law of the place of com- 
 mission of an admittedly wrongful act determines the mea- 
 sure of damages. It has been judicially intimated that an 
 act unnoticed by the law of the place of perpetration, but 
 treatecl as tortious by tho English law, would sustain a 
 suit for damages in England. The more approved doctrine 
 is, that what is legally innocent where it occurs cannot be 
 made a delict elsewhere. English and American courts 
 have assumed jurisdiction over torts committed abroad, 
 even where the suitors were non-resident foreigners. There 
 is a growing inclination to disfavor such suits. 
 
 The consideration of every valid obligation should be 
 meritorious. To vitiate an engagement on its account the 
 moving cause must offentl against universally accepted 
 views of public morals and public safety, and not be illegal 
 only by reason of special statutes. Thus, claims arising 
 from sales of lottery-tickets in Kentucky arc enforced in 
 New York, where such sales are contrary to law. Still 
 further, a foreigner, unless he be an accomplice, can re- 
 cover in England the |)rice of goods sold with the explicit 
 understanding that they were to be smuggled into the lat- 
 ter country. What is intrinsically contrary to )iublie 
 morals is far from well settled. It might be supposed that 
 a polygannuis promise would be disregarded throughout 
 Christendom, but a learned and respected judge has said 
 from the bench that the proclivities of a Turk would be 
 protected in North Carolina. Tho belief as to the best 
 means to attain tho same end is as varied as nationality. 
 In this wise the consideration of illicit cohabitation is so 
 variously treated that it has given rise to more conflicts 
 than any other. In France and some other countries re- 
 gard for decency and morality interdicts all inquest con- 
 cerning paternity; in others, as Scotland, obligations aris- 
 ing therefrom arc considered but " (ibedicntial and natural." 
 In actual practice the application of recognized legal 
 principles is embarrassed by the fact that a majority of ob- 
 ligations are not simple or unilateral, but reciprocal or bi- 
 lateral. However involved the process, the separation of 
 the latter into the several unilateral obligations of which 
 they are composed will often prove the most convenient if 
 not the sole solution of the problem. Thus, each party to 
 eommorcinl paper is liable according to the law governing 
 his particular engagement ; so again, as has been intimated 
 already, prcuiium for insurance may be collectible by a 
 very different law from that deciding claims under tho 
 policy — often a vital distinction in states forbidding inen- 
 ranco by foreign companies. 
 
 Mnrriarje is 60 hedged about, from reasons of moral and 
 religious ])olicy. by p<isitive eoereitive statutes as to lose 
 much of the nature of a contract, and become an institu- 
 tion differing widely in different states. Admittedly, it 
 must be a conjugal union between competent parties for 
 life. Tho conditions — or, as they are commonly discussed, 
 
 the impediments — to it depend, according to the Anglo- 
 American and elder doctrine, upon the capacity of the 
 spouses under the laws of their respective domiciles. On tho 
 ground that the bride submits herself to the bridegroom's 
 domicile, this is regarded by the later (icrman opinion as 
 controlling both, excepting where her domicile cannot be 
 changed by her own act. The formal conclusion of mar- 
 riage is reguhiteil by the law of the jilace of celebration. 
 The true seat of the relation (wherever contracted) is the 
 domicile of the recognized head of the family, the husband. 
 Mutual rights of property are fixed by the man's domicile 
 at the consummatKin of the marriage, for it could not be 
 endured that the husband should bo able to change the 
 rights of his wife over her own property by a change of 
 residence. Laws restricting liberality during marriage 
 depend upon the domicile at the time of the act ; being 
 intended for the protection of moral purity, they arc de- 
 signed to control all persons in the territory. Intestate 
 succession between the spouses is regulated by the last 
 domicile of the deceased. 
 
 Dhnrce is governed by the law of the country where it 
 is sought, in that the law. resting upon the moral nature 
 of the union, is strictly positive and compulsory upon the 
 court, which, too, must be that of the actual domicile, as it 
 alone can have jurisdiction. 
 
 Paternal power over legitimate children depends upon 
 the law of the domicile of the father at the time of the 
 birth; over children legitimated by subsequent marriage, 
 upon the domicile of the father at the time of filiation. 
 
 (/nnrdiaiiship is to be instituted under the law of the 
 ward's domicile. There is a strong presumption in favor 
 of tho competency of an administering court. 
 
 Succession, testamentary and intestate, to immovables is 
 governed by the law of their situation. Movables com- 
 monly pass by tho law of the decedent's last domicile. But 
 tho disposition of personalty in a will validly executed un- 
 der the law of a former domicile is respected in Europe ; it 
 is otherwise in most of the U. S. 
 
 Ciril jurisilietion is called contentious or voluntary ac- 
 cording as it is exercised in litigated causes and the exe- 
 cution of decisions, or in affording public authentication to 
 matters not in controversy. Of the voluntary jurisdiction 
 of magistrates and oflicials the foreigner may commonly 
 avail himself equally with tho native, and a compliance 
 with formalities required by local law is accepted every 
 other where as sufiicient. In most countries, and saving 
 such restrictions as giving security for costs, an alien can 
 ordinarily contend in the courts on the same footing as a 
 subject. In France, however, non-domiciled foreigners 
 can sue their fellows only for certain causes of action ; e.g. 
 commercial obligations. Subjection to a certain jurisdic- 
 tion is a question of territory. Nothing, movable or im- 
 movable, can be judicially disposed of unles.s it lie within 
 the purview of tho court. Power to pass upon property 
 abroad has been asserted in England and in some States of 
 tho American Union, but such decrees are of no foreign 
 force. Judicial power over persons can be had only 
 through personal service and domiciliation in the country ; 
 domicile in tho lesser sense of commorancy will suffice. By 
 English law English courts assume jurisdiction over causes 
 of action arising iu England, although the assumption is 
 disregarded elsewhere. Procedure is regulated solely by 
 the place of suit: if a particular remedy be essential to 
 the enforcement of a right, resort must be had to a court 
 administering the remedy. Evidcneo is admissible or in- 
 admissible according to tho law of tho country of the court, 
 albeit tribunals are prono to admit foreign modes of proof 
 when indispensable to tho judicial establishment of facts. 
 Foreign judgments have no effect unless sanctioned by 
 domestic authority. If the competency of the court pro- 
 nouncing them be unimpoiichable, they may, as conclusive 
 upon the merits, be enforced by new judgments of the same 
 tenor or made directly executory. 
 
 Vrimiiial jnristliclion depends upon the relatiim of the 
 government to the place of the oftcnce and to the person 
 of the offender. The former consideration has been mag- 
 nified in lireat Britain and the U. S.— the latter upon the 
 European continent. To meet modern exigencies, both 
 systems have been modified, by statute and interpretation, 
 iiito a vcrv general approach to the rule that courts of the 
 country of arrest have jurisdiction over all offences com- 
 mitted' within its territory, ond also over those perpetrated 
 abroad distinctively against its sovereignty. Independent 
 slates administer only their own penal laws. Tlicy assist 
 the enforcement of others by surrendering foreigners upon 
 presumptive proof of crimes not political. That the ob- 
 ligation so to do does not arise purely from treaty provis- 
 ions was aptly set forth when an eminent Frenchman said, 
 "Le prineipe de Vextrndition est Ic principe de. la loliilarite, 
 de la t&reti riciproque . . . contre I'uliiqnilf du mat." 
 
 Charles F. MacLe.\n.
 
 INTERNATIONAL WORKINGMEN'S ASSOCIATION— INTERPLEADER. 
 
 1261 
 
 International Workin^men^s Association, 
 The, was fouu<l-(l Sept. 1*S. Is(;4, at a large meeting of 
 workingnien from nearly all European countrie;", in St. 
 Martin's Hall, London, at which the manifesto an4l statutes, [ 
 as drawn up by Dr. Carl Marx, were adopted tor puhlica- i 
 tion, and a provisory administration established. It is an ! 
 association of trades' unions, intended for the defence of 
 the interests of workingmcn against the encroachments of ; 
 the power of capital, and aiming ultimately at the aboli- ] 
 tion of all labor paid with wages as a form of slave-labor, i 
 and the establishment of ai-soeiatcd labor ou a national ' 
 scale. The statutes of the association were not finally cs- ! 
 tablished. however, until sanctioned by the first general ' 
 congress, held at ttencva Sept. :^-7, lS(i6. Here the pro- j 
 grammes of Mazzini and Bakunin were rejected, and that i 
 of Marx adopted. As reason? for the formation of such 
 an association it was proehiimcd that the emancipation of 
 the working classes must be conquered by the working 
 classes themselves ; that the struggle for the emancipation 
 of the working classes means not a struggle for class priv- 
 ileges and monopolies, but for equal rights and duties and 
 the abolition of all class rule; that the economicnl sub- 
 jection of the mass of labor to the monopolizer of the 
 means of labor — that is. the sources of lite — lies at the 
 bottom of servitude in all its forms, of ail social misery, [ 
 mental degradation, and political dependence; that the 
 economical emancipation of the working classes is there- , 
 fore the great eml to which every political movement ought 
 to be subordinated as a means ; that all efforts aiming at i 
 that great end have hitherto failed from want of solidarity | 
 between the manifold divisions of labor in each country, 
 and from the absence of a fraternal bond of union between I 
 the working classes of different countries: that the eman- i 
 cipation of labor is neither a local n<»r a national, but a 
 social problem, embracing all countries in which modern 
 society exists, and depending for its solutii)n on the con- 
 currence, practical and theoretical, of the most advanced 
 countries ; and that the present revival of the working 
 classes in the most industrious countries of Europe, while 
 it raises a new hope, gives solemn warning against a re- 
 lapse into the old errors, and calls for the immediate com- 
 bination of the still disconnected movements. A constitu- 
 tion was then adopted, and the association was actually 
 started. It held its next general congress at Lausanne, 
 Sept., 1S67; the third in Brnsstls, Sept., IHfiS; the fourth 
 in Bile, Sept.. 18fi9 ; but the fifth, destined to take place 
 in Paris, Sept., 1H70, was prevented from meeting by the 
 Franco-Prussian war. Meanwhile, its intluenec was widely 
 fell. The strikes of the brouze-workers in Paris in 18G7, 
 and of the builders in Geneva in iSfiS, were suppr)rted and 
 carried through by English money, and in England, where 
 trades' unions and strikes were institutions of older stand- 
 ing, they were made much more effective, as the association 
 pr<diibited cheap labor from being imported from France, 
 Belgium, and (lermany. In different countries, especially 
 in France and Austria, the government began to interfere, 
 but this only made the association more popular among 
 the workingmcn. It received a severe cheek from the 
 Franco-Prussian war. No general congress hns been held 
 since. Many members of the Paris Commune belonged to 
 the association, and the excesses of the Commune were 
 defended by tho association, both in a pamphlet written 
 bv -Marx and published by tho general council in London, 
 and in other ways. Nevertheless, in spite of tho less con- 
 spicuous part which the association has played in public 
 life during the last four year^. its importance can hardly 
 be said to have decreased. The number of its members is 
 inen-asing, and in most countries it has established organs 
 of its own for the diffusion of its ideas. C Pktkhskn. 
 
 Intrrpleatrer, in law, is tho right which a person who 
 hobls a fund, or has possession of any item of property, or 
 owes a duty or <d)ligation, has, when there arc rival claim- 
 ants to the fund, etc., and he cannot determine to whom 
 it belongs, to require them to settle in court their conflict- 
 ing claims as between themselves, and to be allowed on 
 his part to make over the |)ropcrty, etc. to the court, to 
 abide the events of the litigation or to hold it under its di- 
 rection. The jurisdiction of courts of law over this sub- 
 ject is very limited nnd imperfect, and this branch of ju- 
 risprudence may now, in practice, in the absence of stat- 
 utes, bo said to be exclusively administ<Ted in courts of 
 equity. Tho method in which relief is obtained is by bill 
 in equity. (See Bin, iv EgriTY.) These bills arc of two 
 kinds — strict interpleader, nnd bills in tho nature of aD 
 interpleader. 
 
 (1 ) ,1 Stn'rt nut of Intrrptrndrr. — The function of 8Uch 
 a bill can be most clearly slateil by putting the proposi- 
 tions ajipertaining to it in the form of rubs. ItnU I. 
 There must be two or more persons claiming from tho 
 plaintiff the same debt, duty, or thing. This rule is of 
 easy application when an item of property is in dispute. 
 
 It is, however, quite difficult in some cases to ascertain 
 whether the same debt or duty is claimed. An illustration 
 may be found in the case where a tenaut under a lease is 
 called upon by his lessor for rent, and at the same limo 
 a third person asserts that he is tho owner, and that the 
 amount of the rent should bo paid to him. This woulcl nut 
 be a proper case for a bill of interpleader, since the lessor 
 claims under a contract, while the stranger asserts that tho 
 tenant is in possession by wrong. Some other method must 
 accordingly he resorted to in order to determine the rights 
 of the parties. On tlie other hand, if a piTson is taxeil in 
 two different towns for the same projierty when he is only 
 liable to be taxed in one. and it is doubtful to which town 
 the right to tax belongs, he moy file a bill of interpleader to 
 compel the tax-collectors or towns to settle the rights as 
 between themselves. In this case the del>t or duty is the 
 same. Jlufr J. As a general rule, a bill of internleailer will 
 not lie when tho holder of a fund stands in confidential rela- 
 tions towards one of the claimants, and the other is a 
 mere stranger, claiming by an independent and para- 
 mount title. Thus, if an agent, consignee, or bailee have 
 goods committed to his care, in legal phrase there is a 
 "privity of contract" created, which will prevent him 
 while ho retains possession from disputing the title of the 
 person for whom he acts. The agent or bailee must 
 defend himself from conflicting claims as well as he may. 
 Ilufe S. The second rule must be confined to the case where 
 the agent, consignee, etc. seeks to dispute or test the orif/- 
 inal title of his principal or consignor. It frequently hap- 
 pens that after such a contract relation has been created 
 the title by subsequent acts of the principal or employer 
 becomes complicated. lie might, for example, make con- 
 flicting assignments of doubtful validity to different per- 
 sons. So his assignee in bankruptcy might claim the goods 
 as against one to whom it was insisted that the owner had 
 made a transfer in fraud of the bankruptcy act. In such 
 cases as these the holder of the goods might demand an 
 interpleader. It is manifest that he in no respect contro- 
 verts or denies the fiduciary relation, but, while he admits 
 its existence, asserts that tho acts of his principal have 
 9inrc itH creation so complicated their relations that he is 
 uncertain how to proceed. Jitiic 4- I" cases where both 
 claimants assert wholly distinct ond independent titles, ac- 
 cording to the weight of authorities no interpleader will 
 lie. The ground of this rule apjicars to be that there is an 
 objection to the interference of a court of equity in trying 
 legal titles upon a dispute between parties where there is 
 no privity of contract. It has been held (hat a sheriff 
 who seizes property on an execution cannot bring an action 
 of interpleader upon account of an adverse claim existing 
 to the property seized by him ; for as to one of the claim- 
 ants he necessarily arlmits himself to l>e a wrongdoer. 
 This rule appears to be highly technical, and tho narrow 
 construction put upon the jurisdiction of the court is much 
 to bo regretted. This action is plainly a beneficial one, 
 and should have been encouraged rather than discounte- 
 nanced. There is certainly room for legislation whereby the 
 power of courts to allow an interpleader may be jihiced 
 upon a more satisfactory foundation. litiir 5. It is not 
 necessary that the claims of the respective parties should 
 be both legal in the sense of being recognized in courts of 
 law. Ono may be legal, and the other equitalde, or both 
 may bo equitable. Huff 0. Tho rights of the respective 
 claimants must bo doubtful. If the ease shows no claim 
 of right in one of tho co-defendants, there is no ground for 
 an interpleader. liuh ?. The holder of tho fund, etc. may 
 commence an action, although he has not yet been molested 
 by either of the claimants. It is enough that he is in 
 danger of sustaining injury from conflicting rights. lie 
 may, however, wait until an action is brought against him 
 bv ono of tho claimants, and then in turn commence his 
 action of interpleader, making all of tho rival claimants 
 parties. Jlnle 8. A matter of iletail should bo referred to 
 in this connection. There should be in tho bill an aflidavit 
 that there is no collusion between the plaintiff ond any of 
 thu other parties; an<l in tho case of money it should be 
 brought into court, or there should be at least an ofler to 
 bring it in. (Further details may be found in the books on 
 equity or chancery practice. See DnnielTa Chtinccn/ Pntc- 
 j tirr: Barbtuir's do.) 
 
 (2) /{iff in tfif Aatiirc of an Tnterplcadrt: — A suit of this 
 I kind may be instituted by ono who is not strictly a stake- 
 holder. It may ho brought by a person who is interested 
 ' in a fund to ascertain his own rights. and at the same time 
 to settle tho conflicting rights of third jiersons. An illus- 
 j tration is supplied by the case of a mortgagor who desires 
 to pay off a mortgage, while different )>arties lay claim to 
 the mortgage-money. It is plain that he would naturally 
 siek to neeomplish a double result — to redeem his property 
 from the lien of the mortgage. and at tho same time to pay 
 , tho money to tho party who was really entitled to it. An
 
 1262 
 
 INTERPOLATIOX— INTERPRETATION. 
 
 important instance of a bill in the nature of an interpleader 
 is one filed by an executor or trustee to obtain the eon- 
 structioQ of a will when there is a doubt or uncertainty as 
 to the meaning: of its provisions. In this case the pro- 
 visions of the will are set forth, and the confiictinj; claims 
 of the parties interested, accompanied by the statement 
 that the executor cannot safely proceed in the matter with- 
 out the direction and judgment of the court. In these 
 cases the duty of the executor is said to be performed when 
 ho has brought the parties in interest before the court, and 
 thev may ajtpear by counsel, who represent their respective 
 claims under the will. As a general rule, in a strict bill 
 of interpleader, the stakeholder is entitled to bo paid his 
 costs from the fund in controversy as a matter of right; 
 costs in a bill of the nature of an interpleader are discre- 
 tionary. 
 
 IJy recent legislation tn England the courts of law have 
 jurisdiction to a certain extent in matters of interpleader. 
 (f=ec 23 and 24 Vict. ch. 12G, ^12.) So, under the New 
 York Code of Procedure, and that of other States resem- 
 bling it, a defendant against whom an action is pending 
 upon contract or for specific property may at any time before 
 answer, upon affidavit, that a person not a party to the 
 action, and without collusion with him. makes against him 
 a demand for the same debt or property, upon notice to 
 such person and to the adverse party to the action, apply 
 to the court for an order to substitute such person in his 
 place and discharge him from liability on his depositing 
 with the court the amount of the debt, etc. This statute 
 does not supersede the regular jurisdiction in equity, but 
 is an additional remedy given to a stakeholder who has 
 been actually sued, by allowing him to assert his rights in 
 an antwer, and byway of defence, instead of instituting 
 an action. The rules applied are substantially the same as 
 in the bill of interpleader. T. SV. Dwight. 
 
 Interpola'tion [Lat. nt^erpo^*], the operation of insert- 
 ing a term bL'tween two consecutive terms of a tabulated 
 function that shall conform to the law of the function. A 
 table of tho kind referred to is generally computed from a 
 formula containing two variables — one of which is the 
 ftijicti'on, and the other the independent variable, or, as it 
 is usually called, the an/umeut. The table is formed by 
 f iving successive equidifferent values to the argument, 
 computing the corresponding v.alucs of the function, and 
 then \vriting tho results in a table ; this operation is called 
 tubiifdti'itg the function. Thus, to compute a table of log- 
 arithms, we assume some convenient formula expressing 
 the relation between any number and the corresponding 
 logarithm; in this case, the quantity that represents the 
 number is the argument, and the quantity that represents 
 the logarithm is i)iQ function. We next make the argument 
 equal to all the successive natural numbers from 1 up to the 
 limits of tho table, and compute the corresponding values 
 of the function ; these results, when properly arranged, con- 
 stitute a tnhh <>/ logarithms, from which we may. by simple 
 inspection, take out the logarithm of any whole number 
 within the limits of the table. We may find the logarithm 
 of a mixed number, as 2^. by the method of interp«)lati'm. 
 The oliject to be obtained may be illustrated graphically: 
 let .1 A' be the logarithmic 
 curve whose equation is 
 ?/ = log J-, and let B K, C i, 
 I) M, etc. be ordinates cor- 
 responding to the abscis- 
 sas 2, 3, 4, etc. Knowing 
 these ordinates. we have 
 the points A", L, .If, etc. of 
 the curve; it is then re- 
 quired to find an ordinate, 
 St, whose abscissa is 2g. 
 This ordinate might be computed from the formula used in 
 computing the tables, but this would, in most cases, bo en- 
 tirely too tedious. What we actually do is to pass a ])arabola 
 through a sufficient number of the points A", Ly M, etc., and 
 then compute the ordinate of this parabola corresponding 
 to the given abscissa. This ordinate will approximate the 
 more closely to the required ordinate the greater the num- 
 ber of points taken. If we take two points, A' and L, the 
 parabola is of the first order — that is, it is a straight line, 
 whose equation is of the form if =t p -:- i^x; if we take three 
 point*, the parabola is of the second order, whose equation 
 is of the form j/=^ p H- f/x + rx*; if we take four points, the 
 parabola is of the third order, whose equation is of the 
 form t/= p + '/-r + rx + sj^, and so on. By taking a suffi- 
 cient number of points, as m + I, we have a parabola of tho 
 mth order, which may be made to coincide with the curve 
 of the given function to any degree of approximation in 
 the neighborhood of tho required ordinate. In most cases 
 a parabola of the third or fourth order is amply sufficient. 
 We can find the equation of the auxiliary parabola by the 
 method of finite differences r\s follows: Let the successive 
 
 ordinates, jB AT, C L, etc., be denoted by a, b, c, etc.; then 
 let each be subtracted from the one following; the remain- 
 ders thus found form a new series called tho first order of 
 differences. Now. let each term of the new series be sub- 
 tracted from the following one; the remainders will form a 
 series called the second order of differences ; and so on, as 
 indicated below: 
 
 rt, b, c, d, etc., 
 
 6 — CI, c — b, (/ — c, etc., 
 
 c— 26 + a, rf — 2r -f b, etc., 
 d_3c-f 3i — a, etc. 
 etc. 
 If we denote the first terras of each of the orders of differ- 
 ences by d\y d^y dzt etc., we shall have 
 
 rfi = 6 — a, whence, 6 = a -f rfi ; 
 
 rf2 = c — 26 -f a, whence, c = o -f 2d\ + rfj ; 
 
 rfa = (/ — 3c -f 36 - a. whence, rf = a -h 3rfi + 3^2 + ^3, 
 and so on. If we denote the ordinate which has « ordinates 
 before it by y, we have, by continuing the above process, 
 
 „{n-l) , „("-!)(»« -2) ^ 
 y = a + «rfi+ '^g V g-f 'Yz <'s + ,ctc. 
 
 If we now regard n as a variable abscissa, this will be 
 the equation of a parabola of the 7)th order, passing through 
 the extremities of h -i- 1 of the consecutive ordinates a, h, c, 
 etc. In this case the origin of co-ordinates is at the foot 
 of the first ordinate, and ii is expressed in terms of the dis- 
 tance between two consecutive ordinates taken as a unit. 
 By giving a suitable value to n, we may interpolate an or- 
 dinate between the first and second, or between any two 
 consecutive ordinates of the series a, b, r, etc. The result 
 will usually be more accurate if we take the values of o, 6, c, 
 etc., so that the interpolated term shall fall about midway 
 between the extremes. As an illustration of this mode of 
 nsing the formula, let it be required to find the right as- 
 cension of Venus at midnight between the 2d and 3d days 
 of Nov., 1S75, knowing her right ascensions at noon on the 
 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th of November, as follows : 
 
 1st difTs. 2d difTs. 3d diff. 
 
 Nov. 1 15A. 5m. 47.27». r « ,o 
 
 " 2 15 10 47.40 T ^A'' '^S*. nn 
 
 " 3 15 15 48.76 ? *'^^ 1.23 ""*• 
 
 " 4 15 20 51.35 ^ ^-^-^ 
 
 Finding the successive orders of differences as already ex- 
 plained, we have d\ = bm. 0.13«.. di = 1.23«.. and rfs = 0.0«. ; 
 since the first right ascension corresponds to noon of Nov. 
 1, the value of n is lA; the value of a is loA. 5m. 47.27«. 
 Substituting in the formula, we have if = ISh. bm. 47.27*. -f 
 1.5 X 5'". 0.13(r. -f- .75 X 1-23*. = 15A. ISm. 18.39*. ; which is 
 the required right ascension. 
 
 Other formulas for interpolation have been deduced, but 
 tho one just explained is, in a majority of cases, the one 
 most readily applied. W. G. Peck. 
 
 Interpreta'tion [Lat.], in law, is the application of 
 legal rules to the ascertainment of the meaning of language 
 or other signs of thought. In its ordinary signification it is 
 confined to the meaning of written language; in its legal 
 aspect it is but a branch of a larger subject, since the same 
 general principles must bo adopted in every department of 
 literature and science to discover an author's meaning. 
 The subject may be considered under two general divis- 
 ions: I. The principles of interpretation; II. Their appli- 
 cation to particular cases, e. </., statutes, contracts, wills, etc. 
 
 I. The great object of interpretation is to ascertain the 
 meaning of a writing, or, in technical phrase, of a " text." 
 This is not to be obtained by conjecture, but only by tho 
 application of settled rules. A distinction has been drawn 
 between interpretation and construction. The former word 
 has been taken to mean the sense of the writer as included 
 within his language. Construction, on the other hand, 
 would embrace the inquiry whether topics that were not 
 expressed in the writing wero not included within the gen- 
 eral intent of the author, or, as is sometimes said, within 
 "the spirit" of the text. So, in some instances, the law 
 forbids the e.xact accomplishment of the author's intent. 
 It then becomes important to know whether the intent 
 shall be carried out, though not precisely, yet as nearly as 
 the law will permit. There is an important branch of law 
 depending upon this distinction, known as the doctrine of 
 cy pres. or of approximation. It is frequently resorted to 
 in tho construction of wills or of statutes. Thus, if a per- 
 son should be prohibited by law from creating a trust in 
 property for a child whereby the income of a fund should 
 be converted into principal beyond the attainment by the 
 child of the age of twenty-one, and the parent should di- 
 rect the accumulation of the profits until the child reached 
 the age of twenty-five, the last four years might be dis- 
 carded by the courts, and the direction be sustained until 
 the age of twenty-one. This doctrine requires that the 
 illegal direction should be in its nature capable of separa- 
 tifiQ from that which is legal. Otherwise, the entire pro-
 
 INTERPRETATION. 
 
 1263 
 
 vision will be void. This doctrine has had in England a 
 Inrgo application in the construction of wills endowing 
 i-hiiritablc institutions or creating charitable trusts, c. j., 
 for Ihe support of colleges, hospitals, schools, etc. (See 
 Tiii'STS.) The intention of a donor, instead of bcina: car- 
 ried out, has frequently been perverted by the court ; yet 
 when properly applied, the doctrine is both rational and 
 useful. Having pointed out the distinction between intcr- 
 prelalion and constrnction as made by some authors, no 
 further use will be made of it in this article. Text-writers 
 upon this ."ubjcct enter into various nice and minute dis- 
 tinctions. They speak of interpretation as being either 
 close, or extensive, or free, or limited, or predestined, or 
 extravagant. These terms arc used to point out the gen- 
 eral tlilterence bet^vcen correct and erroneous principles. 
 Interpretation cannot properly be " jiredestined" or ''ex- 
 travagant." In the one case, the supposed interpreter has 
 preconceived views and is laboring under a strong bias, 
 and thus make.' the writing subservient to his wishes. In 
 an extravagant interpretation one ceases to follow rules, 
 and, in fact, docs not iitlrrprct, but guesses or conjectures. 
 The distinction, however, between a close and an extensive 
 interpretation is founded in reason. There are cases in 
 which it is proper that words shotild be taken in their nar- 
 rowest meaning, while in others a broader and moro com- 
 prehensive signification should be adopted. 
 
 The leading rules of interpretation will now bo referred 
 to. Hiilf t. The meaning of a writer is to be ascertained 
 not merely from what he states, but also from all that is 
 implied by usage or otherwise. It would be intolerable if 
 every subordinate pro])osition included within the written 
 statement were required to be expressed. Tliis distinction 
 frequently becomes of political consequence. A striking 
 illustration is found in the diflerenee betiveen the powers 
 conferred upon Congress by the old "Articles of Confeder- 
 ation" and the present Constitution. In the former instru- 
 ment it was provided that each State retained every power, 
 pirisdiction, etc. which was not esprettfh] delegated to the 
 V. ,S. in Congress assembled. In the present Constitution 
 (Art. X. of Ainenilmcnls) the word "expressly" was de- 
 signedly omitted from the corresponding clause, thus leav- 
 ing open to the powers expressly conceded the doctrines 
 of ini|.lication. In this way the Supreme Court of the U. S., 
 as the final interpreter of the Constitution, has frequently 
 been called upon to decide as to the implications to be de- 
 rived from the words used in that instrument, link If. 
 The whole of the writing bearing upon the subject in hand 
 must be taken into account. In other words, the inter- 
 preter must have rcganl to the context. It will not do to 
 wrench a particular sentence from its connections. In this 
 way an author's meaning may bo wholly perverted. This 
 rule, as will be seen hereafter, is of gnat consequence in 
 the interpretation of statutes. IlnUIII. Only the writing 
 and its implications arc to bo eonsidercil. It will not do 
 for the interpreter to go beyond the writing in search of a 
 supposed sense. The true view is that it is of no eonse- 
 ql>ence what the intent was, so long as it is not expressed 
 or reasonably to be implied from the words used. This rule 
 is applied with great inflexibility in courts of law. There 
 is a well-known rule to the effect that oral evidence is not 
 to bo resorted to in order to add to or to vary the terms of 
 a written instrument. .Accordingly, the courts cannot sup- 
 ply by interpretation an unexpressed intent of tlic legisla- 
 ture or of a testator. This rule does not prevent the courts 
 in certain cases from correcting mistakes; that is, from 
 supplying or omitting words that wero inadvertently in- 
 Bortcii or omitted. Hide IV, Wliero there is nothing in the 
 writing or its surroundings to lead to the contrary, the gen- 
 eral rule is that words are to be taken in their ordinary and 
 popular sense. On the other hand, if the subject of the 
 writing is a matter of art or of scieuco or other technical 
 nature, the prcsum]ition is that the words are used in a 
 special and technical sense. Itutr. V. tJood faith is to bo 
 observed and sound sense exercised by an interpreter. The 
 great object is to ascertain the intent and to carry it, if 
 proper, into effect. Out of this principle spring a number 
 of subordinate rules; such as, that where two senses arc 
 possible, one of which is agreeaiilo to law and the other 
 opposed to it, Ihe former is to be preferred. So inadver- 
 tent omissions are to bo overlookcrl ; apparent repug- 
 nancies, if possible, are to bo reconciled; words inconsist- 
 ent with the main intention arc to bo rejected: stress is 
 not to be laid on aeeurato grammar or orthography. It is 
 a further rule that the situation of the writi-r and the eir- 
 cunistancos surrounding him may be presented so as to put 
 the interpreter in the position of the author. For example, 
 if a testator should ilircct his property to be divided equal- 
 ly "among his children," it would be impossible for a court 
 to carry out his direction without tiseertaining from extra- 
 neous evidence the number of his children antl identifying 
 them. It is plain that this testimony would not alter the 
 
 instrument, but would enable the court to regard the sub- 
 ject from the testator's point of view. It should be added 
 that in ordinary eases the meaning of a written instrument 
 is a matter of law for the court rather than the jury. In 
 this way fixed rules are established and an erroneous in- 
 terpretation by a lower court becomes the subject of review 
 by an appellate tribunal. "Where the words are technical, 
 it may be necessary to ascertain their meaning through the 
 testimony of experts, and to submit the matter to the jury 
 as a question of fact. 
 
 II. Application of the Rules of Interpretation to Special 
 Casen. — The leading cases in which the subject is presented 
 to courts of justice arc treaties, political constitutions, leg- 
 islative acts, contracts, and wills. It will not bo possible 
 to consider the special rules governing all of these cases. 
 A few will be referred to in connection with the last three 
 of tho instances mentioned. (1) Statitten, — The intention 
 of a legislature in passing a statute is to be ascertained by 
 tho application of tho general rules already stated, together 
 with others of a special or subordinate nature. {«) It is a 
 general rule that (be words of a statute are to bo taken in 
 their ordinary and |iopular sense. This is just, as they are 
 intended to govern tho action of tho public, who would nat- 
 urally give them such a signification. Still, if tho statute 
 wero intended to govern the action of a special class of per- 
 sons, another rule might prevail. For example, a commer- 
 cial tariff law, enacted by Congress to prescribe duties to 
 bo paid upon imports, would be in the main intended to 
 govern the conduct of importing merch.ants, and technical 
 words would bo used, requiring a corresponding interpre- 
 tation. (It) It frequently happens that a scries of statutes 
 is enacted to govern a particular subject. These may be 
 called into existence from time to time during a long period 
 of years. Such statutes are said to bo I'lt pari materia — 
 upon the same general subject. The ascertainment of the 
 meaning of the latest in the series may require the exam- 
 ination of all. ('■) The rule that the meaning must be 
 found in the text to be interpreted has its full application 
 in tho case of statutes. Tho courts cannot ascertain the 
 legislative will by conjecture. If not cxpresseil or implied 
 from tho words used, tho supposed meaning must be dis- 
 carded. The technical expression is, voluit aid non dixit — 
 the legislature may have had an intention, but it remains 
 uncxiiressed. Where, however, words that are obscure are 
 used, it is a strong argument in favor of a particular sig- 
 nification (if that is possible) that, unless it be adopted, 
 there will be no rational meaning, (d) In the inter|ircta- 
 tion of a statute it is often essential for the court to know 
 the circumstances existing at the time of its enactment, or. 
 in other words, to becomo familiar with contem)iorary his- 
 tory, to understand existing defects in the law, ami to as- 
 certain what evils the legislature designed to remedy. This 
 rule is well illustrated by the interpretation of the recent 
 suffrage law in England, where the question was. nhclher 
 tho word " man " as used in tho act included " woman," so 
 as to give her tho right to vote. The court, in deciding Ihe 
 case, had much recourse to the general history of the right 
 of suffrage in England as tending to show the legislative 
 intent. Tho words in a statute, though of a general cha- 
 racter, must bo confined in their application to the defects 
 to be remedied. One branch of this rule is referred to by 
 law writers in the technical expression that regard must bo 
 paid to the "old law, tho miscliiel. and the renuily." .\ 
 single illustration may be useful. Suppose that a former 
 law permits Ihe bishop of an established church to lease 
 church lands for any length of time and any rent that ho 
 may see lit. The "mischief" of this rule may ho that ho 
 may lease them for a very long term and at a low rent, and 
 thus impiiverinh hin Kuceennnrii in the bisho])ric, whoso in- 
 come may bo reduced to a minimum. A statute is passed 
 preventing a bishop from making a lease for more than 
 twenty-one years. After this a lease is made for Ihe bish- 
 op's own liie. which may, of course, exceed t«eiity-ono 
 years. This lease is not within the "mischief" of the 
 statute, as it does not tend to " impoverish his successors." 
 It is thus necessary in many instances to go beyond tho 
 letter of tho slatute'and to discern its true intent and spirit. 
 Thus, if a law should prescribe Hint when two vehieles 
 were passing along an orilinary highway in opposite direc- 
 tions, each shouM turn to the right with a view to avoid col- 
 lision, it coulil have no applicaticm to the case of an oniiii- 
 hns and a street-car, as there could be no danger of collis- 
 ion bv the non-observance of tho rule. Accordingly. Ihe 
 omnibus might pass either to the right or to Ihe left of the 
 car. (••) I'enal statutes ( i. r. those which inflict jiunishment) 
 arc to be interpreted with much strictness. This rule was 
 formerly carried to absurd lengths, but in n rational sense 
 still prevails. It is founded in reason, since punishments 
 should not be inflicted unless Uie transgressor of llie law 
 was able clearly to know its meaning and to ascertain the 
 ; legal cuusequcucca of his acts. (/) Statutes to prevent
 
 1264 
 
 INTERPRKTATION. 
 
 frauds are, on the other hand, interpreted liberallj', 
 in order to relieve the injured party from the conse- 
 quences of the fraud. The same statute may have a double 
 aspect, or bo both remedial and penal, when the applica- 
 tion of thc-'-e ilistiuet rules may lead to opposite conclu- 
 sions derived from the same phraseology. For example, 
 if a statute should provide that if one of two gamesters 
 should win from the other more than fifty dollars at *'onc 
 Bitting," he should not only restore the money won, but 
 should forfeit three times the amount, and afterwards a 
 game should take place which was interrupted by an ad- 
 journment for dinner, and subsequently continued, the two 
 periods might be reganled as " one sitting " for the purpose 
 <ff returning the money, as that would be remedial, while 
 it w()uld Dot bo so considered in reference to the for- 
 feiture, (rj) It is a cardinal rule of interpretation that a 
 statute shall in general be construed to operate as a rule 
 for the future, and thus not have a retrospective operation. 
 The rule is particularly strong when the retrospective opera- 
 tion would destroy vested rights. In that case the words 
 giving a retrospective operation t() the act must be ex- 
 tremely clear. On the other hand, if the words are used 
 to confirm existing rights defective in form or to add to 
 the means of enforcing existing obligations, a retrospec- 
 tive effect will readily be allowed. Under American law, 
 if the words are plainly retrospective and attect vested 
 rights, another question may arise. They may be repug- 
 nant to some provision of the U. S. or State constitution, 
 and for that reason be inoperative, (h) Another instance 
 of the desire of the courts to protect vested rights is found 
 in tho rule that all statutes in derogation of private rights 
 must be strictly construed and their provisions closely fol- 
 lowed. This rule finds much practical illustration in the 
 sale, under statutory pro visions, of land for the non-payment 
 of taxes. Where the authority is not strictly pursued the 
 sale is void. This rule has been carried to such extreme 
 lengths in some instances as almost to embarrass the 
 operations of guvernmcnt. (Sec Blackwell on Trtj- Titles.) 
 There is a tendency in some parts of tho country, e.g., 
 New York, so to frame the tax laws as to give less practical 
 oi)eration to this rule than formerly. (/) A distinction of 
 some importance is taken between words that are simply 
 directory and such as are mandatory. The former class 
 are not obligatory in the same sense as tho latter. Thus, 
 if an act is directed to be performed on a given day, it 
 may, in general, bo performed on some other day : the 
 words are ''directory." On the other hand, when the in- 
 terests of the public are concerned or the rights of indi- 
 viduals are involved, even permissive words may be re- 
 garded as obligatory or '• mandatory :" tho word** may" 
 will perhaps be construed to mean "must." ij) If an un- 
 lawful act be committed fur which there is, in behalf of tho 
 public, an existing remedy, and a new mode of redress be 
 given by statute, the former one will not in general bo dis- 
 placed. The remedies become cumulative, and resort may 
 be had to either. This would not be the case if tho new 
 provision wore inconsistent with the former law, for the 
 latter would then he repealed by implication. On the other 
 hand, if the act be made unlawful by tho statute, and a 
 specific mode of redress be provided, tliat must be resorted 
 to. {k) Where a statute prescribes a penalty for the com- 
 mission of an act, it is thereby made unlawful, and a con- 
 tract to perform tho act in question will be declared void. 
 A penalty implies a prohibition. (/) It is a general remark 
 that tho courts strive as far as possible to effectuate tho 
 legislative will : discordant clauses or statutes will, if pos- 
 sible, be reconciled. Where there is a plain repugnancy, 
 the later statute, so far as it is inconsistent with an earlier 
 one. displaces or repeals it. The same rule is applied even 
 to inconsistent clauses or sections in the same statute. So 
 a saving clause repugnant to the general scope of the act 
 is void. A repealing statute of course does away with that 
 which it repeals. Where a repealing statute is itself re- 
 pealed, tho former law revives without express words of 
 revival. It may be adtlcd that in arriving at conclusions 
 by way of interpretation, the general opinion of the legal 
 profession is considered as of importance. (See also Dwar- 
 ris on Stntntcs.) 
 
 (2) In tho case of Wriftcn CoutrnctJt. the court seeks to 
 ascertain the intention of tho parties, and. having found it, 
 to carry it into effect if tho rules of law and public policy 
 will permit. The intention, however, must be found in the 
 wrilintf itHfJfhy the application of rules of interpretation. 
 If it is claimed that the intention was really different from 
 that which the words indicate, it is not a case of interpre- 
 tation, but rather of a mistake, which, if material, must 
 cither bo corrected or must vitiate tho contract. If the 
 mistake he material, a court of equity will "reform" or 
 correct the instrument by supplying or omitting words, so 
 a^ to make it express the real intention of the parties. If 
 the minds of the parties did not concur in the writing, it 
 
 will be a case of no contract either through fraud or mis- 
 take. Assuming that there is no question of this kind, but 
 that the writing contains what was intended, the court re- 
 sorts to fixed rules in ascertaining the intent. These rules 
 are numerous and complex in their operation, and cannot 
 be fully stated in an article such as the present. A few 
 of them will bo indicated. {<i) Words are, according to 
 the general rule, to be taken in their ordinary and pop- 
 ular sense. In many cases the contract concerns a par- 
 ticular trade or calling, when the meaning is ascertained 
 through the testimony of merchants who are skilled in it. 
 (6) If the contract cannot be carried into effect precisely 
 as the p.arties intended, the eourt will strive to uphold it on 
 some other theory which will render substantial justice to 
 the parties. This rule becomes of much importance in tho 
 construction of instruments of a t( chnical character, such as 
 deeds. These instruments frequently assume a special form, 
 known as a " bargain and sale." or a *' release," or a " con- 
 firmation." etc. etc., as the case may be. It is a well-settled 
 rule that if the parties should erroneously resort to one of 
 these instruments when they should have adopted another, 
 the courts will effectuate tho intent hy construing the in- 
 strument wrongly selected as practically amounting to the 
 one which should have been adopted : as, for example, con- 
 struing a deed of bargain and sale to be equivalent to a 
 release. This rule is one most beneficent in its operation 
 and is highly favored, and tends practically to obliterate, 
 or at least to make harmless, useless legal distinctions, (c) 
 It is frequently necessary to determine whether an instru- 
 ment is executed or executory; as, for examjile, whether 
 it is a lease or an agreement for a lease, a deed or aeon- 
 tract for a deed. This is ascertained not so much by inter- 
 preting particular words us by a view of the entire instru- 
 ment and of the main intention of the parties, {d) An 
 instrument is in some cases of doubt to be taken most 
 strongly against the party who executes it {contra profe- 
 rentem). Not so much use of this rule is made as formerly. 
 Many instruments arc of such a mutual character that it is 
 inapplicable. Still, in special cases it may be resorteii to. 
 It has never been applied to grants by the sovereign power. 
 Whatever is not contained in tho words of such a grant is 
 not conceded by the grantor. It was at one time supposed 
 by some jurists that if a grant was ma<lc by the sovereign 
 power of the right to have a public ferry or a bridge, there 
 was an implied contract on its part that it v/ould make no 
 grant of another right of a similar kind that would inter- 
 fere with the franchise conferred. (See FuANraiSE.) This 
 doctrine is now exploded, and no exclusive right can be 
 claimed unless it is shown by a fair construction of the 
 words of the grant itself, (t) Instruments are sometimes 
 partly printed and partly written. If there is a conflict 
 between the two, the written are to be preferred, as being 
 more clearly indicative of the intention of the parties, the 
 printed words being regarded as a general formula, while 
 those which are written are specially employed for the oc- 
 casion in hand. {/) Usage is of much importance in the 
 interpretation of written contracts. Where a contract co'n- 
 ccrns a matter in any trade or business in which there arc 
 known and well-defined usages, there is a presumption of 
 la\v that the contract was made in reference to the usage. 
 This doctrine has been in some instances carried very far; 
 its exact limits have not yet been fixed by tho courts. A 
 well-known Knglish case illustrates the diflieulty. There 
 being a written contract for the sale of rabbits at a fixed 
 price per thousand, the court allowed eviilence of a custom 
 in the trade that "thousand" meant "twelve hundred." 
 This decision has not met with universal acceptance. There 
 is a disposition in some courts to hobl that such evidence 
 is inadmissible to cimtradict the plain and ordinary mean- 
 ing of written words, e. </., words of niiniber. Rules are 
 laiil down by tho courts to test the validity of a custom; 
 such as, that it must bo certain, reasonable, rstaldished, and 
 undisputed. There is only a presumption that parties in- 
 tend to follow tho custom, an<l it may accordingly bo ex- 
 cluded by sufficient evidence of their intent. The words 
 *' usage " and "custom" are often used indiscriminately, 
 but in accurate language the former is rather evidence of 
 the latter. (7) There arc other presumi»tions or implica- 
 tions acknowledged by law ; such as, that a contract binds 
 the representatives of the parties as well as the parties them- 
 selves, or that a contract made by two ]>crsons is joint 
 rather than several, or if no time is mentioned for perform- 
 ance that it must take place within a reasonable time. 
 Pome of the rules above stated, as is manifest, apply to 
 unwritten as well as to written contracts, (h) Reference 
 has already been made to a rule of law that extrinsic evi- 
 dence of the intent of tho parties is not to be allowed to 
 alter the terms of a written instrument. This rule means 
 that the parties arc to be conclusively supposed to have 
 merged all their stipulations and propositions anterior to 
 the contract in tho instrument itself. That is the final and
 
 I.^■TERPR^:TA'rIOK 
 
 1205 
 
 111 
 
 HOle repository of their intentinn?. This rule is of great 
 consequence both in tlie interprctsilion of contracts and of 
 will?. While, in its correct furm, it is inflcxiMy applied^ 
 there arc j<oine qualifications or apparent exceptions to it 
 which should he stateiJ. It does nut include evidence by 
 Wiiy of explanation of obscure or technical terms in the con- 
 tract. It allows all cunteuiporaneuus writing; to which the 
 contract refers to be introduced. It docs not bear upon 
 clauses which arc iDtentiunally left incomplete. It permits 
 evidence of the circum^itances surrounding llie parties when 
 the eonlrjiet wai* execnfcd. t^o that the court cnn stand in 
 their poi^ition and see with their eyes. Under it there may 
 be evidence olfcred to show that the supposed contract is 
 wholly void for fraud or other legal ground, for then there 
 is no contract. Nor docs the rule interfere with tlic correc- 
 tion of mistakes, such as the insertion of clauses acciden- 
 tally omitted. "What is really meant is, that one of the par- 
 ties shall not be allowed as against the other to introduce 
 any evidence by wny of interpretation, where a written 
 contract is in its exterior form complete, of clauses which 
 were not iuteoded to bo inserted, but to be left to oral un- 
 derstanding. If thnt were allowed, the certainty and pre- 
 cision which a written contract was intended to secure 
 would be wholly lost. The rule con, however, be pressed 
 no further than its circumstances will warrant. Accord- 
 iD;;:ly, it cannot exclude or.il evidence of avt^cquent modi- 
 fications of or additions to the contract, as these could not 
 po.-'sibly have been included in the contract when it was 
 executed. There is an important inquiry applicable both | 
 to contracts and wills concerning the exphinntion of am- j 
 biguitics and uncertain clauses which enn be more conve- ; 
 niently considvred under the next head ( Willv). (i) Subject 
 to the rules already stated, there is a strong disposition l 
 to effectuate the will of the parties so far as that accords ! 
 with the rules of law. Incorrect grammar and spelling are j 
 hut of littlo importance if the sense is not obgcurc. Clauses 
 niny be transp<iscd in construction, if necessary, and the ' 
 intent so!i;^ht an to the most solemn instruments, without [ 
 reference to regularity of form. Still, it is unwise to draw 
 important instruments in an inartificial manner, as it may 
 lend to obscurity or perversion of the meaning. The courts 
 will prefer a construction that will make the instrument 
 Icg.il rather than illegnl, a'? they will ono that will uphold 
 and effectuate it rather than one that will destroy it. 
 
 (.1) W'iiln. — This is a very important subject for inter- 
 pretation, and specinl rules prevail. In executing these 
 instrumi-nlfl the testator is frequently without legal advice, 
 and the courts seek to give Feopc to his intention, however 
 inariificiaily it may be expressed. Still, it remains true 
 that the intention must he found in the instrument. Con- 
 jecturf, no matter how plausible, cannot be resorted to. 
 The rule alrendy referred to in the expression vo/m't unl 
 noil iitj-lt hiis full application. The following among other 
 rules may he laid down n<! proper t'> ho followed : liulc I, 
 Tcchnicnl words arc not necessary to give cdcct to any dis- 
 osilion in a will. Still, if the testator n^^es those words, 
 lie will be presumed to employ them in that sense, unless 
 there is evidence from the context to the contrary. Rulf: 
 If. Words are in general to be tnken in their ordinary and 
 grammatical sense, unless an intention can be shown to the 
 contrary. This rule, where langnacje is unambiguous, is 
 Dot to he d'partr-d from, though it should result in incon- 
 venience or absurdity, or in consequences which the testa- 
 tor did not foresee. Still, where the intention is obscure, 
 it is to be sought in a rntional and consistent rather than 
 in an irrational and inconsistent purpose. Ru(e Ilf, All 
 the parts of n will are to be e<mstrued in relation to each 
 other, and so as, if possible, to form one ctmsistont whole. 
 Word-* nnd limitations may ho transposed, supplied, or re- 
 jected where that course is warranted by the context or the 
 general schemo of the will. Words obviously miswritten 
 may be corrected. So the word *'or" has been mndo in 
 many eases to read *'nnd." and conversely. Where the in- I 
 tention cannot operate to its full extent, it must bo mafic to 
 operate as far as it can. While a construction is not to bo ! 
 strained to bring a devise within the rule of law, if two ' 
 con*<truelions are admissible, one of which will render it 
 vfiid nnd the other valid, that is to ho preferred which will ! 
 mnke it valid. Huh' IV. I'ndcr tho siime general view as ] 
 prevails in Hulc III., the- following special statements mny i 
 ne matle. Words occurring more thnn once in a will ns (o j 
 the same subject aro presumed to be used in the same sense ' 
 unless there is something to show the contrary. Express 
 and positive devises aro not to be eontrollecl by the reasons 
 assii^ned, nor is a plain devise to be nffeclefl by a subse- 
 quent innecurate reference to its contents. I>evises not 
 grammatically connected or united by the expression of a 
 eommon purpose must he construed sepiirately and with- 
 out relation to en''h other, unlen»i there is a manifi'st inten- 
 tion to connect them. Huh I*. An heir is not to b*> disin- 
 herited without nn express devise or necessary impllcatioQ. 
 Vol.. ir.— 80 
 
 Nor can ho be disinherited by an expression of an inten- 
 tion that he should take nothing; the estate must bo given 
 to some other person. Rule VI. A will of real estate, wher- 
 ever made, must ho construed according to tho law of tho 
 place where the land is situated ; one of personal property, 
 according to the law of the testator's domicile, liulc YII. 
 A will speaks for some purposes from tho time of its execu- 
 tion, but does not take effect until the testator's death. 
 Rule VIII. Extrinsic evidence is not to be resorted to for tho 
 purpose of adding to or altering the terms of a will, though 
 tho court mny receive it to show the circumstances under 
 which it was made ; such ns, the state of the testator's pnip- 
 crty, his family, and the like. This branch of the law was 
 first reduced to symmetrical form by Vice-Chancellor Wi- 
 gram in his admirable work on the AihniFf^ion of Extrinsic 
 Evideurein Aid of the luterpretntiou of Wlflt. The princi- 
 ples are in a masterly form reduced to a number of leading 
 rules. Without stating them at length, the substaneeof them 
 is that where words in a will have two senses, a primary nnd 
 a secondary sense, ihcy arc presumed in general to ho used 
 in the primary sense, unless there is some evidence in tho 
 context to the contrary. If there is no such context, and 
 the testator's words arc aruiiblc tcith reference to ertrimtic 
 circvmfitnnceg, the rule is inflexible that no evidence will 
 be allowed to show that the words arc used in a secondary 
 sense. On the other hand, if the words aro not sensible in 
 reference to extrinsic circumstances, it may bo made to ap- 
 pear that the wonls arc used in a secondary signification. 
 A single illustration will show the bearing of these propo- 
 sitions: If a tesfator should direct his property to be di- 
 vided among his "children," tho primary scnso would be 
 intended. If the fact were shown that ho had legitimate 
 children, it would ho impossible to introduce any extrinsic 
 evidence, no matter hov/ strong, that he intended illegiti- 
 mate children. On the other hand, if ho had none that were 
 legitimate, it might be shown that the illegitimate were in- 
 tended. While it is proper, and sometimes ncecssarj', to 
 introduce evidence relating to the person claiming to he in- 
 terestecl under the will, as well as to the cireurastances of tho 
 testator nnd bis affairs, yet if after this it is uncertain who 
 was intended (except in special eases, to be hereafter no- 
 ticed), no evidence of intent ion will bo allowed, and the will is 
 void for imcertainty. Tho special cases in which the evi- 
 dence of intention is allowed aro whcro tho object of the 
 testator's bounty or the thing intended to bo bestowed is 
 described in words which are equally applicable to more 
 than one person or thing. This last proposition leads to 
 tho long-recognized dir'tinetion between latent and patent 
 ambiguities, on which much stress is laid by Lord IJacon. 
 The charaetcristic distinction, as bo understood it, between 
 tho two is that the one appears on the face of the instru- 
 ment and the other does not. Thu;--, if a testator should 
 give his property to William Gonlon of New York, and ex- 
 trinsic evidence should show that there were two persons 
 of that name, there would be a latent umhiguity not ap- 
 pearing on the instrument. If the will itself should show 
 by its different provisions that there were two such William 
 Oordotis, it wouhl be patrut. Such a distinction is plainly 
 useless and unfruitful. Bacon would bold that extrinsic evi- 
 dence of tho person intended offered in the first ease, and 
 not in the last. No such distinction is maintainable in 
 reason, nnd it is just ns proper to idmtiftfhy extrinsic evi- 
 deneo the person really intended in the one case ns in tho 
 other. Tho real distinction is between nn omhiijuStti ns 
 here used and an unerrtuinttf appearing on the face of the 
 will. This last admits of no correction. A bequest of a 
 sword to ''the bravest general in tho American army" 
 would be incurably void, unles'^ the testator on the face of 
 the will supplied the mode of determination. 
 
 Under these rules the courts of equity cannot supply an 
 omission in a will ns they can in a contract. This juris- 
 diction has never been assumed, ns a will is a mere bounty, 
 and tho beneficiary has no claim as a party to a contract 
 would have. It is thi-refore nn important practical remark, 
 applicable to drau'.;htsun'n of wills, that the greatest earo 
 should bo taken to include all the provisions intended by 
 tho testator. 
 
 It is proper to add, ns a general rule Applicable to nil 
 branches of the law, that tho rules of interpretation are tho 
 snmo both in courts of law antl equity. While the latter 
 courts assume a special power to correct mistakes, when 
 they are simply engaged in ascertaining the meaning of 
 words nse<i they adopt the same rules ns courts of Inw. 
 (In addition to the works already mentioned in the course 
 of this article, see Liidjer's Irfjnt nnd l*<ditirnl llrnurwu- 
 ticB ; Se<lgwiek on the Con»trurtii>n ff Stntufm, ete. ; ,^mith, 
 Stntiitr and Oni^litntional Line ; and Chitly or Parsons or 
 Addiscm on Cuutrnet», nnd Jarman or Uedfield on With, 
 ete. ete. Uef'-rencc should also he mad<* to approved di- 
 gests and volumes of law reports for the application of 
 principles to adjudged cases.) T. W. l)w»:nT.
 
 1266 
 
 INTERRUPTED— INTERVAL. 
 
 Intcrrupt'ed. Certain musical cadences are called in- 
 terr"p" Vtn .hey terminate in a manner foreign to that 
 n.turillv fi.-L'o:^tcd hv the previous hannonv In the tol- 
 "owin? example seethe perfect cadence at 1, and several in- 
 terrupted cadences at 2, 3, and 4: 
 
 Es.l.-l 2 3 , * 
 
 a I 1 ■■ I . ' ■ 
 
 Fourths. 
 
 Fifths. 
 
 SI.XTHS. 
 
 Perfect. Dim. Aug. Perf. Dim. Aug. Maj. Min. D im. Aug. 
 
 -■■ - .^^ -<SK go- 5(&- 
 
 ^^^^^^^i^^ 
 
 The cadences called dfceptire differ little from the inter- 
 rupted. They are often found succeeding each o her in a 
 flowing movement, an.l .urprisiug the hearer by the unes- 
 pccted turns assumed by the harmony. See i..x. *, at J, A 
 and 3: 
 Ex" ' 2 3 
 
 William Staistox. 
 
 In'tcrval, in music, the distance or difference between 
 anv two s.uinds in respect to gravity or aeutcness. or of 
 anV two notes as measured on the degrees of the d.atonio 
 scale, both extremes being counted. Thus from A to 13 
 above is a second : from A to C. a third ; from A to D, a 
 fourth, and so on. Intervals are either s„«p!r or ro„,po,o<d, 
 the former being tliose which are comprised wUli.n the 
 limits of an octave, as the second, third, lourth, fifth, sixth, 
 seventh, and eighth; and the latter those which CNtend 
 more or less into the region of a second octave, as the ninth, 
 tenth, eleventh, etc., as in Ex. 1 : 
 Ex 1 Simple InUn-ah. Cnrnpoimd Inlm-als. 
 
 ' 'unison. 2d. 3d. 4th. 5th. 6th. 7th. SIh. 9th. 10th. 11th. 12th. 
 
 ^Tr~r r r r r r 
 
 r r r 
 
 In another sense the term " simple interval is applied to 
 a .<■„„■(„,.., because this interval is practically indivisible n 
 the modern svstem of music, and Mr tones, ns thirds, 
 fourths etc., are said to be "compound,' because they com- 
 prise two or more semitones. Of semitones also there are 
 wo denominations-viz. the rfm(„,..V and the chro,„af,c 
 called also „.«;or and minor. When4he semitone includes 
 an advance from one degree of the scale to another (as from 
 (' to nw or VS to r». it is diatonic, but when the degree on 
 the scalels unaltered (as from C to CS or Eb to Bfl, it is 
 
 "'""inThTclassification of intervals they are regarded as 
 per,W,, Impcrfcrt. Mminishcd. or au^,,,.<„cd: to '^hich some 
 "d,i the <touUc (or .^tr.mc) dimuMr,!. In Ex. 2 the na- 
 ture of most of these distinctions will be perceived '>y reck- 
 oning the number of tones or semitones comprised in the 
 vario'us thirds, fourths, fifths, etc.: 
 
 Intervals larger than these, as tenths, elevenths, etc., are 
 (except in a few peculiar eases) regarded and treated as 
 merely octaves of the third, fourth, etc. The m„„m, though 
 not strietlv an interval, being merely the concurrence of 
 two similaV sounds, or of two notes on the same grade ot 
 the scale, is nevertheless treated in harmony ns an interval, 
 because it frequently happens that two parts or ymces meet 
 on the same degree, and such eases are subject to certain 
 rules regulating their progression. By a close analysis ol 
 Ex 3 it will be found that several of the intervals are iden- 
 tical in the nunilicr of tones and semitones which they 
 comprise, though named and treated as of different mag- 
 nitude. Thus.^the augmented ,rr,n„l and the minor tiirrf, 
 or the augmented fourth and the diminished J,_/ih, arc 
 struck upon the same keys on the organ or pianotorte. and 
 appear thus to be identical. But they are not so in reality 
 because thev belong to the scales of different keys, and 
 take their designations from such scales. For the same 
 reason each particular finger-key on the organ, etc. is used 
 for several distiuct notes, according as the music per- 
 formed is in one key or another. Thus the finger key for 
 F is used also for E sharp, and a D key may become C 
 double-sharp or E double-flat. In Ex. 4 the very same 
 keys are stnick for each of the chords, and yet different 
 intervals are made, as is evident to the eye : 
 
 Ex.4. 
 
 To aid stin further in the analysis of Ex. 3, we give in the 
 following table the contents of the principal >"'">■'' ^'° 
 tones and semitones. It should be borne in mind that he 
 diatonic scale, whether major or minor, contains in the 
 octave five lone:, and (iro sem!lonr>. Consequently, any 
 ^ther interval and its inversion, when added together, will 
 make up the same amount ns the octave, because such in- 
 terval is a portio,, <,f the octave, and its inversion is the 
 remaining portion or complement: 
 
 Ex.5 
 
 Semi- a ri — 
 tones. 
 Tines. =■ ■= " 
 
 Ex. 2. 
 
 3 ■= 
 
 •S .5 -S- :S S 
 
 5 3 2 -S 
 
 -v m u ^ 
 
 . £ o 
 
 Sf a ■ - 
 
 .S '5" .- =« S 3 - 5 a ,5 s .s .a 
 
 J 1 L 
 
 
 I J , I 1 1 1 '—a 
 
 Of each of these intervals, except the augmented fourth 
 and the diminished fiflh, the scale furnishes several in- 
 stances Tlius, e. ff., the perfect fifth is made not only by 
 C-G, hut also by' D— A, E— B, F— C, and in two other 
 
 "^^ A more full and accurate view of intervals, as now recog- 
 niied bv all ompnscrs and schools of music, we proceed to 
 give in'Ex. 3 (in which abbreviations arc used for the terms 
 major, minor, diminished, and augmented): 
 Ex.3. I'sisoss. Seconds. Thirds. 
 
 Perfect. Dim. Aug. Maj. Min. Aug. Maj. Min. Dim. 
 
 ^ ^- i^ -^ ^ 
 
 fH pC iiei *^ A 
 
 A perfect or major interval becomes auymenled by the ad- 
 dllion of a semitone, and a perfect or minor interval be- 
 comes diminMed when rednred one semitone. 
 
 The next distinction of intervals is into conmnant and 
 dhsonant. The Car immediately recognizes a difference 
 lietwecn one interval and another in regard to their con- 
 nection and relation. Some are pleasing, sat.sfactor, . and 
 eonelnsive in themselves: while "'^■■■■'\"',"fv.T /I 
 pleasing, are so indefinite as to create a kind of yearning 
 for something further, or rather for a line of progression 
 n a partieulSr direetinu, forming what is called their r«o- 
 /„/,-o,'. Those intervals, then, which are more or less con- 
 clusive or independent are said to be co„«,,m..cc., while 
 the others are known as dismnanre,. There is also a dis- 
 tinction of consonances themselves into per/ce and t.n- 
 TU-I, as alreadv noticed. The former arc he perfect 
 unison, fourth, fifth, and octave, which cannot «'l""' "f 
 change without converting them into dissouanees. The 
 latter, or imperfect, arc the minor and major third and he 
 maior and niinor sixth. Among consonances also are the 
 fiflh in the diminished triad, and lis inversions. The dis- 
 sonanecs are the remaining intervals-v.7.. "'».""■ ""d mi- 
 nor seconds, major and minor sevenths, ninths, elevenths.
 
 INTESTACY— INTRENCI I ED C.V M PS. 
 
 120 
 
 and (ill (Itininished and augmeoted intervals. By some 
 theorists, fourths of nil kinds arc ranked among the disso- 
 nances, while hy others the pcr/rct fourth ifl treated as a 
 pcrfeet consonance. 
 
 Intervals nre also either /iindamental {i. c. when tho 
 lower tortn is the prime or root) or hivertrtl (when tho prime, 
 on which the harmony depends, is moved so far upward as 
 to become the hijrher term). The rundamentiil iutervala 
 are four in number — viz. tlie unison, fifth, third, and sev- 
 enth. When inverted, their corresponding intervals will 
 be the octave, fourth, sixth, and second. 
 
 E»h<frmtn\i<- intervals, or those which are less than a 
 semitone, are not practically in use, except in the case of 
 organs like those of the Tenijdc church, London, and St. 
 John's, Ciilcutta, which instruments are specially con- 
 structed to express fpiarter tones, or even smaller divisions 
 of the scale. Tii point of fact, there is a real difTcrenco 
 between rj and Dfy, (J t and A b. etc., but by tlio modern 
 system of temperament a mi<Mle sound (in the way of a 
 compromise) is adopted and used as representative of both 
 those elements, though it is really neither C5 nor Dtj, etc. 
 Theoretically, and in musical composition, the distinction 
 is still observed, as, r. (f., in cases of enharmonic changes, 
 where one and the same chord for component of a chord) 
 is taken in two difTcrcnt relations, thereby serving to effect 
 a transition into some unexpected key. Thus, in Ex. fi Hie 
 seventh on the dominant at « is assumed to be tlie txtreme 
 nhfirp Hi'.rth on Eb (which it exactly resembles in sound), 
 and the harmony is then suddenly thrown into tho key of 
 a major. In this case, the I)(y at a is supposed, whilo 
 sounding, to change into CJI, as explained at b : 
 
 Ex. C. a b 
 
 J — T\,„ I- 
 
 (i^ ^^^^ jj^^^g^ il 
 
 William Stauntom. 
 
 Intostary. Pee AnMiNismATioN and ExKcrroR, by 
 Prior. T. W. DwifiiiT. LL.D. 
 
 Intes'tinal Jiiioo, the mucous secretion of the intes- 
 tinal canal. It contains granulutt d cells and cell-nuclei, 
 and usually fat ami epithelium. When filtered it is a tol- 
 erably clear, mucous, alkaline liquid, which does not co- 
 agulate \*v boat. Its constituents arc the same as those of 
 mucus. In 1000 parts of the juice from a dog were found 
 — water, on.'). fi ; solids, 'M.7 ; pancreatic and intestinal fer- 
 ments, with insoluble salts, 9.(5: biliary matters, 10. (1: tan- 
 nin, a.'.i ; fat, 0.7, etc. Intestinal juice converts starch into 
 pugar, and digests albuminous substances, flesh, etc., though 
 much more slowly than gastric juice. (See U'^/rtV Diet.) 
 
 V. F. CHANhLKR. 
 
 Intcs'tine [Lat. t»r^Wi'/i»«, "that which is within"]. 
 that portion of (he alimentary canal wliich extends from 
 the stomach to the anus. It consists of two distinct por- 
 tions, the email and the large intestine. The former passes 
 from tho pyloric orifice of the stomach to the ileo-cwcal 
 fold. The intestine consists itf tliree layers: fl) an outer, 
 pcrous layer, continuous with the jieritoneum by means of 
 the mesentery, a fold of serous membrane which connects 
 the bowel to the spinal column; (2) a muscular coat of 
 pale, non-striated, involuntary muscle-fibre, whoso contrac- 
 tions give the small intestine a peculiar movement called 
 "vermicular motion;" (3) an inner or mucous coat, having 
 (n) folils called vdlnt/iv ronnifriitt:n; (h) the glands called 
 glands of Itrunn ; (c) tho follicles of Lieberkubn : (d) the 
 solitary glands; (r) the agminated glamls called *' Peyer's 
 palehcs;" and (/) tho intestinal villi. The small intestine 
 is divided into the duodenum, the jejunnin, ami the ileum ; 
 tho large, into the eiecuni,tbo colon, and the rectum. The 
 total length in man is not far from 10 feel, three-fifths of 
 which length pertains to the small inti-stinc. The more im- 
 portant of the above-mentioned divisions arc described 
 under their alphabetical heads. 
 
 Iiitoiia'tion. A musical term denoting, in a general 
 scii-^c. the utterance or delivery <*f any series of sounds 
 formed on the scale. This, when correct in time, accurate 
 in pitch, and refined in taste and expressiim, is said to bo 
 /<((<•<■. The contrary, but more especially a failure in cor- 
 rectness of pitch, is called /"(r/w intonation^ In church 
 music the name of •' inttmation " is given to certain intro- 
 ductory notes in (Jregorian chants which arc sung to each 
 Torso of a psalm or canticlo on festivals, but only to tho 
 first verso on other days. 
 
 Intone'. This word is popularly used for tho recital 
 of prayers, psalms, vi-rsiele-*, etc. in monotone, with or 
 without inllcctions. Properly, it refers only to tho recital 
 
 of a fow notes called the " intonation " standing at tho bo- 
 ginning of a chant. 
 
 Intoxication [Lat. i*n, and foxiciim, *' poison"], the 
 cumulative efi"cct of an acro-narcotic poison on the nervous 
 centres. The term is most commonly used to designate tlic 
 condition of a person who has been brought nmlcr tlie in- 
 fluence of tifrnhol by successive imbibitions during a short 
 space of time, but should not bo confined exclusively to 
 the poisoning by alcohol; opium, stramonium, cannabis 
 indica, and all the poisons belonging to Ihe above-mentioned 
 class, will produce intoxication when taken in sufficient 
 quantity. 
 
 Intoxication may bo divided into tho acute, sub-acute, 
 and chronic varieties. Acute intoxication is a disease very 
 rarely seen, even by tho physician. It is produced by 
 drinking a large quantity of some spirituous liquor in a 
 very short space of time. This is followed soon afterwards 
 by sudden coma (loss of sense, sensation, and voluntary 
 motion (Afouzn Cfnrk, ^F. I).)), wliich may be com])lcte or 
 incomplete. Wo have present here the symptoms of eonia 
 — viz. stertorous respiration, deviation of pujiils. frothing 
 at the mouth, etc. l^nless assistance speedily arrives these 
 symptoms generally terminate in death in from half an hour 
 to five or six hours. Every endeavor should be made to 
 arouse the patient from his lethargic condition. An active 
 emetic, as sulphate of zinc, may be administered, or, better 
 still, the stomach-pump should bo used to evacuate tho 
 stomach. Ammonia may be given as an antidote, and if 
 the patient be able to swallow he should take large drauglits 
 of tea. The sub-acute form may bo seen any and every 
 day in the week. It is the ordinary form of intoxication 
 indulged in by persons either voluntarily, for the pleasant 
 and exhilarating effect on Ihe senses during one of its 
 stages, or in\oluntarily. in consequence of a depraved ap- 
 petite growing out of the former method. We see some 
 men — and, unhapi)iiy, women also' — who are seldom or 
 never in a sober condition ; others who imbibe a little at 
 all times, and get intoxicated whenever they are under 
 undue excitement or depression ; and still others who "go 
 on a l)urst " once every three, six. or twelve months, and in 
 the mean time totally abstain from any of the intoxicants. 
 To this last class belong those individuals who inherit the 
 tendency to inebriation. Alcohol, taken to a de^rree to 
 produce sub-acute intoxication, excites tho vascular and 
 nervous systems; all the secrctiftns are at first arresteil, and 
 the temperature <»f tho body is lowered, and not. as has 
 been generally believed, increased. If taken by a person 
 who is not accustomccl to it. it occasions derangement of 
 the stomach, and nausea and vomiting are the result. Tho 
 prin<'ipal effect, however, is noticeable iquiu the nervous 
 system. There is a general feeling of increased physical 
 power, and the mental faculties are exhilarated. The 
 patient at first talks rationally, but is very verboge and 
 grows confidential. Incoherence follows upon this, and 
 then delirium and sopor. The effect is also seen on tho 
 cerebellum by the impairment of the power of co-ordina- 
 tion, causing at first the staggerintr gait, and ending in 
 complete loss of muscular power. When this stage occurs 
 the individual generally falls into a deeji sleep, from which 
 it is almost impossible to waken him. When consciousness 
 is restored tlierc is a feeling of depression, which the patient 
 seeks to relieve by a resort to stimulants. Little can be 
 said of the jialliativc treatment of this variety of intoxi- 
 cation. With the exception of the employment of emetics 
 to unload the stomach, and the administration of ammonia 
 and tea as antidotes, the patient should be allowed to 
 "sleep it off." (Vuv (he chronic eflect of iicro-narcotio 
 poisons, see lNi:iiitii:TV.) EnwAHi> J. liKioiiNcnAM. 
 
 IntrenchrtI Camps. From the earliest times armies 
 have enveloped by inirenchmcnts positions which they dc- 
 fen<l or which they temporarily occupy. Such camps or sucli 
 fortificcl ])ositions. of which tho Romans nmde frequent and 
 remarkable use, do not, however, constitute what are known 
 at the present day as httrt nvhril rtinifii. The term was first 
 applied to intrenched areas connecteil with, and under ]>ro- 
 tcction of. fortified places; it has subsequently been ex- 
 tended to large intrenched areas containing in llieir ccMitrc 
 a fortified nucleus. An intrenchc<l position without nu- 
 cleus, but defended by permanent W()rks, as that of Lint?, 
 takes likewise Ihe designation of nn " intrenched camp." 
 Taraps whiidi, though intrenched, arc to.be occupied merely 
 for the period of a campaign, or which serve as refuge 
 for II few days only to an inferior army, are styled "lines" 
 *ir " temporary positions."* To the camp of Uuntzelwitr, 
 nnd the " lines " of Torres \'edras. constructed by order of 
 Fp'derick II. and of Wellington, these designations apply. 
 
 Permanent "intrenched camps," destined to servo as 
 
 • " Camnmlf xfi'our" ou " de passage;" the French phroscology 
 can only be rendered as above.— Tr.
 
 1268 
 
 INTKENCIIKD CAMPS. 
 
 pivots of operations or as places of refuge to an army opc- 
 ittting in the Jield, are of mudern creation. Not the gcriti 
 even is to be fouuil in the memoir of \'auban (ICiUO) upon 
 Xt'» cfinif/9 rttrnncln's. In tlii.s memoir t\u\ illu.siriuiis au- 
 thor advocates small provisional camps for 10,001) or 12.000 
 men, connected with and au.xiliary to fortresses. More 
 recent writers, as Moutalcmbcrt, D'Arfon, IJonsmard, Car- 
 not, Xoizet de St. Paul, Dufuur, etc., recogniicd only in 
 intrenched camps an agency for prolonging the defence of 
 places, and of giving to small fortresses properties inliereut 
 to those of the first order. Modern strategy has singularly 
 augmcntcrl the importance of intrenched eani])s. In the 
 time of Vanban what were so styled were merely excres- 
 cences, so to speak {'* fniiiexcn'')^ of fortresses, which eon- 
 8cquently played the principal part. " They must," said 
 Feuqni^rcs, " be protected by the place wliich they protect, 
 and their flanks must be .secured by the artillery of the 
 place and outworks, and under the lire of musketry from 
 the 'covered way.'" Such is exemplified in the typical 
 plan of Vauban in his last work, Trrilif tie la tli'/cuHt: ilea 
 places. (See Fig. 1.) The camps of this epoch served to 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 augment the defensive and offensive power of fortresses; 
 and Ihcy were, in the language of Vauban, "the surest ex- 
 pedient for hiudering the siege of a place." 
 
 Modern intrenched camps, on the other hand, have for 
 their sole object the augmentation of the defensive and 
 olfensive powers of unnicn in the Jiclil : and in them the 
 fortress, instead of being the principal, become only an ac- 
 cessory of so little importance even that, as at Lintz, it is 
 sometimes suppressed, while quite recently distinguished 
 engineers have proposed vast intrenched camps irithuiil a 
 fortified nucleus. It should be rcrnarkecl, however, that 
 Vauban took a larger view of the question, and that in 
 connection with the defence of Paris he laid down princi- 
 ples which have since been carried into effect in the con- 
 struction of intrenched camps destined to serve as i>i\'ots 
 of manoeuvres or places of refuge to entire armies. These 
 principles are set forth in bis remarkable memoir entitled 
 A' i'iinpoytanee (Unit I*iifis c^t n In Fninn , in which arc ' 
 found the fundamental ideas which in ISIO received the 
 sanction of the French legislature in its nrilonnuncen con- 
 cerning the then initiated f.irlifications of Paris. Vauban 
 counted, however, on having for the defence of that capital 
 an army of only :!0,non regular troops and of 10,000 indif- 
 ferently good auxiliaries raised within the walls, estimating 
 that this force would suffice to render Paris (provisioned im 
 one year! iiirrpiitpiable even though besieged by an army of 
 2.'i0.noo men. Hut in l.'^IO it was assumed that the capital 
 of France would have, in such an emergency, a much larger 
 garrison ; hence the substitution fur Ihe external enceinte, 
 pro])osed by Vauban. of a girdle of large forts with free 
 intervals of 1500 to 2o00 metres. 
 
 The first engineer to set forth Ihe properties of camps 
 inlrenche<l by isolated works with intervals was the gen- 
 eral Rogniilt in his work (';miitcrntiinia xnr I'ait ilr li, 
 ,7nciv<-. published in ISlfi. '•Intrenched camps should he 
 capable," he says, "of containing, at need, 100,000 men, 
 while they demand but few Iroops for mere defence; thev 
 should allow for Ihe army that takes m(unenlary refuge 
 in them perfect liberty of action and free ilevclopment 
 when it desires to resume the offensive. These conditions 
 arc Lest fulfillc.l by establishing four forls about each place 
 (fovtressl, forming an immense square of which the place 
 occupies the centre." "These forts, wholly enclosed, 
 
 should be established on the most advantageous sumiiiita 
 
 or commanding points, at distances of about 12110 to 1600 
 toisc5« from the works of the jilace. and of 200 to ::00 toises 
 from e.ach other." " The interval between one fort and the 
 next would form a position of battle for an army of from 
 60,000 to 100,000 men. i./i/c/, mm/ he considemi aa incjr. 
 piti/iiiible." "The forts armed with heavy cannon would 
 give perfect support lo the wings. As to the centre, where, 
 on account of their distance, the aid of the forls would bo 
 little felt, it may be strengthened by field-works thrown up 
 for Ihe emergency and supported by the guns of the place. 
 Thus, these four forts would conslilule about the place a 
 vast intrenched camp |ircsenting four diflVrcnt positions of 
 baltie, in which lo confront a hostile army coming from 
 whichever quarter." The ruling idea of this project is the 
 creation of four fields (or positions) for balllc around fort- 
 resses, having their wings sustained by forls and their 
 front by field-works. That the idea should be realized, it 
 I would be necessary that the four posilions ccnslituting the 
 
 "intrcncheil camp" should be as Ihcy arc aflirmed tolic 
 
 incj-piirjniihle ; which is far from being the ease. Small 
 forts 2000 to :in0O loises apart and field-works along Ihc 
 interval woubl doubllcss furnish eflicaeious support lo Ihe 
 centre and wings of Ihe defensive army, without, however, 
 rendering the ])osilion inexpugnable; especially if the 
 army had fallen back after a reverse, disorganized and 
 shaken in mnrnle. The designers of the fortifications of 
 Paris of 1810 have not drawn their inspiration from the 
 ideas of Itogniat; they have preferred rather to improve 
 upon the project of Vauban in substiluling a line of forts 
 for the external enceinte of that )iroject. Better advised 
 than the author of the ('nimiilerrilioiiasiir I'lirl lie la ijiierre, 
 they have spaced the forts 1.S00 and 2500 mitres apart, in- 
 stead of 2000 and :;000 loises. giving atlhesame time totho 
 detached works more development and delcnsive strength. 
 The only intrenched camps established before Ihe publi- 
 cation of Rogniat, and realizing in some degree the emn- 
 binalions now received as essential for the fortification of 
 great strategic pivots, are that of Ulm, which enabled 
 Kr.ay with 80,000 men to arrest for five weeks the advance 
 of Morcau (with an army equal in numbers, but greatly 
 superior in the viorale of success) upon the Danube; and 
 that of flenoa.f in which Masscna was able with lo.OOO 
 men not only to bold his own for two months against quad- 
 ruple forces, but to harass tbeni incessantly, to ]iursuo 
 them to considerable distances, killing or making prisoners 
 in his different sorties 18,000 Austrians. These camps, 
 more especially those of Genoa, approximated more lo 
 modern intrenched camps than that of JJunlzelwitz con- 
 structed by Frederick II. upon nn eminence two miles dis- 
 tant from the fortress of Schweidnitz; more also than that 
 of Torres Vedras, constructed by Wellington from the 
 Tagus to the ocean, covering Lisbon. 
 
 The camp of liuntzcUvitz was composed of a line of tem- 
 porary works skirting the crest of the plateau on which 
 the Prussian army had taken iiosition, making a rectangle 
 of about 3000 metres base and 5000 metres depth. Large 
 intervals were reserved in Ibis line to facilitate the exit and 
 entree of the troops. In advance of all. and upon eom- 
 m.anding ))oints, there were lunettes and redoubts fcr takiuL- 
 in reverse all practicable approaches. This camp, defended 
 by 400 guns, enabled Frederick with fill,nil0 men to arrest 
 the march of KIO.OOO Austrians, and finally to compel tin ir 
 retreat (1701). It was, however, rather a /(ronWoimie amp, 
 like those of the Romans, than a i/real strategic pici,t ;d the 
 modern acceptation. 
 
 The lines of Torres Vedras approximate more nearly this 
 last type, not only by the disposition of their works, b.il by 
 the part they played. They were composed of two lircs 
 of redoubts. The first had a length of 9J leagues,^ an 1 the 
 second. 12 kilometres in rear, a length of Sleiigues. .Vt 25 
 kilometres in rear of the second line was another inlrencli- 
 ment enveloping the Fort St. Julien, destined to cover, if 
 necessary. Ihc re-embarkation of the Iroops. When M.tp- 
 sfna arrived before these lines in ISIO, Ihey comprised 12(1 
 closed works, defended by 2!l,"51 men and 217 canm n. In 
 1812. when entirely finisheel. there were 152 feirfs. aruied 
 with b?,~ cannon and dcfcnilcd by :il,I25men. The works 
 of St. .Julien had an armament of 91 guns and a garrison 
 of 5.150 men. 
 
 We have deemed it necessary to give a sketch of tbese 
 camps, all prior in date to the pretjcci e)f (Icn. KogninI, to 
 show thai the last is far from ce)nstituting a progressive 
 step, and that, though its author may have been instru- 
 mental in bringing to notice the tactical properties of in- 
 trenched camps, it is the essay of Vauban on the defence 
 
 * The French Inise exceeels sHslitly f. English feel.— Tr. 
 
 t A chain of forts liad been e-onstructeel around Genoa in 17-17 
 to prevent the close investment of the place; thus was consti- 
 lote'il the inlrrrtr/ieit camp. 
 
 X The French league (/i>mc) is about 2! English miles.
 
 INTKKNCIIKD CAMPS. 
 
 12tiy 
 
 of Paris which more than any olher writing haa established j 
 tho principles applied to the construction of modern in- 
 tremhcd camp?. The triumph of these principles was the 
 risult i>( Ion? and arduous discussions, in which tho most I 
 distinguished engineers of Europe have taken part, and by j 
 which tho arguments adduced in favorof a f.vstcm of which 
 the works should consist of a single enceinte have been j 
 dfmonstratcd to he untenable. At tho present day. when 
 the armies of occupation, instead of consisting of 50,000, 
 as Vauban contemplated, rcnch three or four times that 
 number, and when mortars of 2:-00 or oOOO metres range are 
 replaced bv ritled ca-inon of SOflO metres range, the last- 
 named system is totally out uf tho question, owing to tho 
 enormous development' required for the enceinte. It has 
 become now indispensable to constitute intrenched camps 
 of del ached works established at distances sufficiently great 
 lo shelter tho place which they environ from bombardment. 
 " Hetached works with large intervals, can alone prevent 
 blockade, prevent olTensive returns, and oblige the enemy 
 to abaii.lon the position." On this there is no longer ques- 
 tion, but not so as to other conditions to be fulfilled. The 
 questions in confrovcrsv are: 1st. Ought intrenched camps 
 to be constituted bv a line of forts only, or by a line of 
 forts n«'l an enceinte? 2d. AVhat should be the character 
 of the enceinte? .Id. And what that of tho intrenched 
 camp? We will examine in succession these questions, 
 whijh subdivide into several others. 
 
 I, Concerning ihefiml. Since the timcof Vauban to the 
 present tho most distinguished generals and cnsineers have, 
 with rare exceptions, pronounced in favorof the combina- 
 lio^i of a line of detached forts nnd a continuous enceinte. 
 Nevertheless, the recent investments of Metz and Paris 
 have given rise to indications ofopinion,suniciently marked, 
 in favorof the suppression of tho enceinte. Wo must, there- 
 fore, ilis-uss thoqueslion from the standpoint of governing 
 principles. When there is on^/ a line efforts, or when there 
 is on?v an enceinte, the decisive battle will be waged (after 
 tho fall of one or two of the forts or after the assault of the 
 enceinte) in tho interior of tho place, and always under un- 
 favorable conditions for tho defence. To avoid this, Vauban 
 provided his grand enceinte with a fortified nucleus, whicli 
 would allDW tho defensive army to dc-liver battle outside 
 of tho place upon ground well adapted to the action of the 
 three arms. The ireat utility of enceintes was clearly ex- 
 hibited in 1S70 at .Met/, and at Paris. There is no doubt 
 that if these two intrenched camps had been destitute of a 
 fortified nucleus, tho Prussians might, aficr the liattlo of 
 Oravclotle and the combat of Chatillon. have at once made 
 themselves masters of the two cities, and forced the beaten 
 armies to capitulate or to evacu.ate their positions. Tiio 
 inlrenchcrl camp of Liniz (now condemned and partially 
 demolished ) is the only one wliicli lias not a fortified nucleus. 
 In the work (by iho writer) published in ISCJ. iViirfe* 
 trir la <lr/'inii'- ilm' l^iiiln, etc., we suggested, in addition to 
 argum'-nts already furnished by (Icn. .Toinini and others, 
 tho following consideration, which alono would decide for 
 the system of Paris in preference to tliatof Lint/,: '-After a 
 falalclisaster, such as those of Ulm, Jena, Leipsic, or 
 Waterloo, it may happen that tho defensive army falls 
 back, precipilaleiv and in disorder, on one of the places of 
 refuge or on the fortified capital. In such a case it is by no 
 means impossible that an energetic pursuit may enable the 
 victor to penetrate into the intrenched camp before the 
 beaten army can olfcr effectual resistance. Tho wider the 
 in'crvals between tho firls tlio greater this danger. A new 
 battle must be nec-pter| therefore in rear of the defensive 
 envelope, and as the defensive army must necessarily be, 
 physically and mor.ally, inferior to that of its enemy, it can- 
 not bo f xpected that its .advantages of position will counter- 
 poise this double inferiority. SufT-ring nnollicr defeat — 
 'this time without placeof refuge — it cannot fail to become 
 — men, material, everything — the prey of tho victor. An 
 intrenched camp witliout nucleus is oidy a line of defence 
 rc'uming into itself: now, every line onee forced is irrc- 
 tri-vably lost. Hence, the duUe of V.'ellineton took the 
 precaution to construct behind his first lino of Torres Vedras 
 a lecond line, ami in rear of Ibis last the eontinnous in- 
 trr-ncbments of St, Julien, destined to cover a forced re- 
 embarka*i'3n." 
 
 In writing these lines it could not be foreseen that the 
 disasters of the French army in 1^70 would furnish such 
 vivid illustration of tho correctu'ss of the ideas expressed. 
 If Metz and P.iris had been fortified only by a lino of de- 
 tnehcil forts, the first of the places would not for two and 
 a half months, the so"ond for four months, have held at 
 bay (ho victorious Ormnn armies. These armies, after 
 Oravelotto and rhalilbm, must have penetrated within tho 
 lino of tho forts, clo«ely pursuing the defeated forces, nnd 
 would have compelled them to lay down llieir arm", or to 
 continu'^ their reireni in abiindnning to their lute the groat 
 df'pftt nnd capital which these intrenched camps enclosed. 
 
 The existence of an interior enceinte, armed with cannon 
 aud proof agaiust assault, sufficed to render impossible this 
 prompt solution. 
 
 II. We have now to consider the character which should 
 be given to this enceinte or nucleus. This enceinte to an 
 intrenched camp, destined to serve .as a pivot of manoeuvre 
 or place of refuge for the army of a great military power, 
 will fulfil all necessary conditions if it be proof agaiust as- 
 sault ("a«of/iic </-• rtir force"). Such was tho opinion of 
 Vauban. of the generals Bernard, .'Schneider, I'aixhans, and 
 
 Rogniat of Marshal Soull and of the various " couiuiis- 
 
 sions " which since ISIS have been named in France for 
 tho study of the defence of Paris. The nttutil enceinte of 
 that capital is on a greater scale (" a plnn d'lmporlunce ") 
 than necessary. This is duo to the necessity of enlisting 
 in support of the project of the government tho advocates 
 of an cnecinic alnnc made strong enough for protracted de- 
 fence. That government mi.ght have contented itself with 
 a much simpler and (hence) less costly enceinte. The type 
 which it adoptcil is not only heavy and costly (," onfmi:r"). 
 but at the same time very defective. In fact, it presents 
 high scarps exposed to plunging fires, flanks subject to 
 ricochet, uncovered guns ("a cicl oiii'crt"), ramparts with- 
 out Irtiverscs or sheltering masses ("a4ri'«"), and an in- 
 terior {'■ corps (h place") destitute of casemates and bomb- 
 proof quarters. As a mere enceinte of support it would 
 have accomplished its purpose at half the expense if it hud 
 been composed of rectilineal fronts, each of about a kilo- 
 metre in length, flanked by sm.all eaponnicrcs, and secured 
 against escalade by a detached scarp. 
 
 An exception to the principle just laid down for the con- 
 stitution of tho enceinte may bo made in the ease of in- 
 trenched camps destined as tho place of refuge for the 
 troops, in field, of small states, and especially when these 
 camps arc near the frontiers. Surprised by a sudden inva- 
 sion in the midst of preparations for hostilities, the sole 
 army may be defeated or cut ofi" from its pivot. In this 
 case an enceinte is desirable which can be held by the usual 
 r/arrlson alone till tho succor of friendly powers be re- 
 ceived. Such are the reasons which have induced the Bel- 
 gian engineers to provide tho intrenelicd camp of Antwerp 
 with an enceinte capable of sustaining a siege. 
 
 III. We have now to consider the manner of constituting 
 tho perimeter of the intrenched camp. This problem has 
 received different solutions. At limes a system of small 
 forts, reciprocally flanking and defending each other, has 
 been advocated: at others, a system of forts each self-de- 
 fensive. Tho lowers of Lintz, connected by a palissaded 
 covered way, and the little forts of (icn. I'aixhans con- 
 nected by epaulments, belong to the first system. The 
 forts of Paris, of Verona, Cracow, and Antwerp belong to 
 the second. The best intrenched camji being that which 
 offers the greatest resistance to an assault {"dllaque tir rirr 
 force") preceded by a hot cannonade, the system of large 
 forts, self-flanking, is preferable to that of little forts, re- 
 ciprocally flanking. This last mode of flanking fails to 
 give coniidcncc to the defenders, because it is more disliint, 
 more uncertain, nnd sometimes wholly inefl"cctual, as at 
 night aud in time of fog or snow. The garrison of a little 
 fort will never have a high >iio/-n(c, depending as it does on 
 tho ability and vigilance of Iho commanders of the neigh- 
 boring forts, and being necessarily weak in its own num- 
 bers. ' For such and other rcasnns it is now conceded that 
 intrenched camps should bo constilulcd of a line of forls 
 of sufiieient magnitude to be scU-dcfcnsive; but Ihcre is 
 yet room to discuss — Isl. the dimensions of the forls. Iheir 
 trac6, anil their internal organization : 2d, the intervals 
 between Ibcm ; .Id. their distances from the eneeinle. 
 
 A fort will possess its maximum value when, while oc- 
 cupying a favorable position, tho neighboring forts cross 
 their fires before its fronts of attack. The iii(ciia/« of the 
 forls must therefore be regulated by the cfiective range of 
 artillery; lliis finds a limit in the difiieully of clearly dis- 
 tinguishing troops nnd works of attack at more than liOOO 
 metres. Hence, Iho intervals from fort to fort will be taken 
 at about 2Jno mi^tres,iu order to secure a thorough mutual 
 protection; but rref|uenlly the nature of the site and the 
 too great multiplication of works justifies a deparlure from 
 this rule. In this eiise the following rule is obligatory: 
 Tlic forlt onrfht nut to he '<> far trparatrd that the iinnn uf 
 the lateral fronts cannot rljlraci'omli) sipccp the intermit. Un- 
 der this rule Iho forls may have about .lOOO mitres distance 
 between their axes. In determining the dimensions of the 
 forts and Iheir internal organization it must siitricc here to 
 state in general terms that the greater Iho distance of a 
 fort from its neighboring works ami from the plncc (or 
 nucleus), the grenier tho strength (or power of resistance) 
 it should have. In virtue of this principle, to the fori of 
 JIr.nl Vab'rien — the nuisl remote and the most isolated 
 work of the inirenebed enmp of Paris — has been given 
 dimensions greatly cxeeeding those of the other forts. The
 
 1270 
 
 INTRENCHED CAMPS. 
 
 distance from the forts to the enceinte must be sufiicicnt to 
 place the cnclosetl area of the enceinte out of reach of 
 bombarilment. lieforc Paris it proved that the h>ng rifliMl 
 gun of 15 continietrcs (0 inches) calibre of the Prussian 
 gystom has a ran<j:e of 75U0 nit^tres (8250 yards), and more 
 recent experimental firings have indicated that still greater 
 ranges must bo guarded against. Ilencc, our intrenched 
 camps should have a deptli of 7000 metres (from enceinte 
 to line of forts), by which there will be about HOOO metres 
 distance between the enceinte and the enemy's batteries, 
 which cannot bo established under favorable conditions 
 nearer than 2000 metres from the line of forts.- 
 
 Si) far as tiiere may be choice, the more remote points 
 f'lr locations of forts should be prefcrrccl, tn give more area 
 and to allow of the troops being encam])ed out of range of 
 shells; but this choice will be especially determined by the 
 necessity of sweeping with fire all the ground in advance 
 of the line to a distance of 2000 or ;iO(lO metres. The more 
 perfectly this external zone is exposed the greater will be 
 the difiieult}' of investment or of regular attacks (siege). 
 Hence, sites in rear of ground furrowed by ravines or 
 wooded should be avoided. To .sweep jiortions of the ground 
 whieh may esc.ijje the action of the guns of the fi)rts, tem- 
 porary batteries may be thrown i\\) in the intervals, or 
 perm'itient Ixittcrirs, according as they may or may n<tt be 
 near enough to cfiectually protect them. The enormous 
 depth now required for intrenched camps has this advan- 
 tage, that it renders more difiicult the investment; but it 
 has also the disadvantage of increasing the number of the 
 forts, and of exacting for their ordinary garrison too great 
 a proportion of the defensive army. 
 
 To the end of diminishing the cost of construction, the 
 armament, and the ordinary garrison, it has been proposed 
 to substitute for the (jraud permanent fnrtu little forts des- 
 tined to servo as rtdintx to tfrnnd ficfd (or provisional) 
 forts, to bo thrown up at the outbreak of war. But this 
 solution, so seductive in appearance, is inadmissible, be- 
 cause the time is, in most cases, not allowed for their con- 
 struction. The experience of erecting such works at 
 Florisdorf. at Dresden, and at Paris in ISOfi and lf^70 jiroves 
 that to construct works of the character required {" hoiinc 
 fortification mijcte") six to nine weeks arc necessary : now, 
 modern wars run their course so rapidly that it would bo 
 rash to count upon being allowed such a period of time. 
 Besides, temporary works are ill suited to resisting a reg- 
 ular attack {*' pied d pittV), or even a prolonged cannon- 
 ade. Their parapets of fresh earth offer less resistance to 
 projectiles than those of permanent works ; their gun-plat- 
 foruis have less stability, their batteries less command 
 above the natural ground, their ditches less depth, their 
 scarps and fianking batteries less resistance against plung- 
 ing fires; finally, their traverses, covering masses, maga- 
 zines, and barraeks arc weak against the action of rifled 
 irojectiles, so formiilable for blindages and new masonry. 
 Moreover, the weaker a work is in i)rotile and internal 
 organization, the greater number of troops and guns it 
 needs for its defence. The resort to temporary works is 
 therefore not an effectual means of diminishing the pecu- 
 niary expenditure for intrenched camps, nor the number 
 of troo])S for their ordinary garrisons. It will, tlicn, be 
 proper to construct beforehand the forts of the intrenehed 
 camp, and to reserve for the moment of war only the bat- 
 teries and intrenchments necessary to complete the defences 
 of the intervals. With \vhatever care the forts be con- 
 structed, there will always he some external area which 
 their batteries will not see or will but imperfectly sweep. 
 It will, hence, generally bo necessary to throw up epaul- 
 ments between the forts, not only for this reason, but also 
 in order to divide the fire of the attacking batteries, which 
 otherwise will be concentrated on ihf batteries of tlie forts, 
 which they will promptly silence. The experience of the 
 siege of Paris has proved tluit it is a matter of great im- 
 portance ; it has also proved that these low batteries, thrown 
 up during the siege, the trace and internal organization of 
 which are unknown to the enemy, are more difiicult to de- 
 stroy than the elevated batteries of the forts. 
 
 We now consider the principles which determine the 
 disposition of the works, or, in other words, the form of 
 intrcnclied camps. f The application of the foregoing 
 statement of principles leads to the circ»?(ir, or approxi- 
 mately circular, form of these camps. Such are the in- 
 trenched camps of Paris, Verona, Cracow, Mctz, Ports- 
 
 • Peculiar circumstances rendered it practicable to establish 
 the batteries much nearer at Paris, but such will not present 
 tiiem^clves in future. 
 
 tWe ni-eessarilyomil hero all that concerns tlie tracf, internal 
 or;janizatic)u, dimensions, profiles, llie arranuement of the ram- 
 parts and of flankini; batteries, and the computation of garri- 
 sons, etc., as belonttiuK to h more teehnieal treatment of the 
 subject, and also to that of permanent fortification. (See FORT- 
 IFICATION.) 
 
 I 
 
 mouth, and Antwerp ; such are likewise to be those which 
 the (xcrmans have, since 1S70, decided to construct. The 
 writings recently published in France and England upon 
 the defence of Paris and of London are all based on the 
 same notions. The project of the commandant Ferron, 
 who proposes to surround Paris with a girdle of 37 forts 
 on a perimeter of ?>'2 leagues; that of Oen. Tripicr, who 
 proposes for the same capital, with a tardcaf h'ue of de/'t nrc 
 (a girdle of forts to protect from bombardment) and a 
 fttrntcgical line nf defence (a line of 150 kilometres, or .*iO 
 leagues development), serving as base of operations to the 
 defensive army when it moves outside of the intrenched 
 camp (properly .'^o called); that of ('<d. Jervois, for the 
 defence of London (oO forts on a circumference of 4 leagues 
 radius); that of Maj. Paliser of 31 forts on an elliptic 
 perimeter (of 20 and 10 leagues, major and minor axes re- 
 spectively), are all illustrations. The authors of these 
 projects have removed the forts farther than mere security 
 of the enceinte against bombardment alisolutely demands. 
 This is to be commended; where it concerns the defence 
 of a great strategical pivot (the political or military cap- 
 ital of a nation), thecaptureof which marks the termination 
 of national resistance, an excess of precautions can hardly 
 be taken to retard the fall or to render the attack imprac- 
 ticable. Now, the events of the recent war (Franco-Ger- 
 man) have proved that the principal if not the only danger 
 to which intrenched camps are exposed is that of invest- 
 ment {'' hlovus")'. an operation of which the ditfieulties are 
 proportioned to the extent of the zone of investment. To 
 successfully defend an investing line against the sorties of 
 an energetic garrison requires, generally stated, four men 
 to every metre of development. That of the Prussian line 
 before Paris had S;J kilometres, and the numerical force of 
 the investing army did not exceed 230,000 men, or 2^ 
 men per metre. At Mctz the line of investment was aiiout 
 50 kilometres in development, and the besieging army had 
 a maximum eff'ective strength of 200,000 men. or 4 men per 
 metre. Doubtless, increment of perimeter for the intrenched 
 camp entails increased numbers of inactive troops (for 
 garrisons), but these dis.advautages arc largely compensated 
 by the obligation imposed on the enemy to increase the 
 numerical strength of his army by 4000 men for every ad- 
 ditional kilometre of line of investment. 
 
 Admitting the great depth of intrenched camps as on im- 
 perious necessity, and accepting as a consequence the obli- 
 gation of separating the forts by intervals of 4000 to 5000 
 metres, the question has occurred to us whether a better 
 arrangement might not be made than to dispose the forts 
 on a line enveloping the capital to lie fortified. Such aline 
 has the disadvantage of oiVering the enemy a large gap as 
 soon as he has gained possession of one or more of the forts. 
 To remedy that, we ]>roposed asearly as 1803 J to construct, 
 in rear of the forts, transversal lines of defence, dividing 
 the intrenched camp into several sectors. These lines 
 were composed of a donhlc epaulment, forming a kind of 
 caponniere, the anterior extremity of whieh was covered by 
 a fort, and the rear extremity was within range of small- 
 arms of the enceinte. That this line (which would some- 
 times be 3000 or 4000 metres long) sliould be defensible 
 throughout {pied d picd)^ it could be interrupted at inter- 
 vals by redoubts destined to serve as traverses to the double 
 caponniere and to flank the epaulments of which it is con- 
 structed. At the epoch when we wrote it was not admis- 
 sible to remove the forts more than 3000 or 4000 metres 
 from the enceinte. At the present day, when double, triple, 
 and even quadruple these distances arc allowed, the palli- 
 ative offered by these lines of double defence can no longer 
 be entertained. For this reason, in generalizing the idea 
 we advanced in lS6i), to defend London by means of an in- 
 trenched camp at Croydon, and three dr)uble tiffs-dr-pont 
 on the Thames at Gravesend. Wo(dwieli, and Kingston, 
 wo recently ji proposed to fortify great capitals by means of 
 two or three intrenched camps, disposed as indicated by 
 Fig. 2 (abstraction made of topographical features of the 
 ground, whieh must necessarily influence the form and loca- 
 tion of the camps). The three camps would be established 
 with approximate symmetry at such a distance that be- 
 tween the interior forts and the place there would be a zone 
 of -SflOO or SMttlO metres (extreme range of the cannons of the 
 jdace) of width. The movable troops would be encamped 
 or placed in cantonments in this zone, in rear of the camps, 
 or preferably in their intervals. A triple railway and two 
 or three paved roads would unite all these camps. By aid 
 of such dispositions one of the three fractions of the defen- 
 sive army could, in a siufjle night, be reinforced by the 
 other two, even without recourse to the encircling railways. 
 
 The form of these camps, the number, location, and cha- 
 racter of the forts, will be regulated by the following con- 
 
 t Slude sur la df-fenxe dex Eyats, etc. 
 
 § ^ude sur la fortification rfe* QjpUaU (1873).
 
 IXTKKXCHED CAMPS. 
 
 1271 
 
 siderntions: A. Each camp will have Tour sides. The most 
 important, f:\cing the encmv, will be called the ejcterior 
 side; the opposite odc, facing the place, the i/orjre; the two 
 
 others, facing the intervals between the camps, htteral siilcs. 
 B. The exterior side will be longer than the others, and the 
 forts which constitute it will be the most important ; the 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 ,--1»^ ZONE or <NVes^ 
 .--p- of OUTPOSTS ^ "■- 
 
 TS tj 
 
 "vH, 
 
 iNQ 
 
 ■-.3s 
 
 5-.Le_A_G_UES _D_EV!!:?-' 
 
 
 intervals will ho about 5000 m&tres. If for local causes 
 greater intervals be given, one or two permanent butteries, 
 proof n^^ninst assault, will be interpolated. C. Besides 
 these batteries, there will bo provided, in all the intervals 
 of Ihrpatfncil attack, epaulnicnts for siege and light guns 
 to be thrown up simultaneously wilh other preparations for 
 immediate defence ('(ii uwmrnt dc la mini: m /tut dtt <h'- 
 /fime). \Vg recommend likewise the use of low batteries 
 established on each side of the forts, at the foot of the 
 glacis of the lateral fronts in the proloui^ation of the gorge 
 front. D. The forts of the gorge will be arranged to serve 
 as d^pAts of provisions, arms, ammunition, and s^upplics 
 of all kinds. On account of this destination, and so that 
 there may bo in each camp a zone exempt, by distance, 
 from the fires of the attiieU, theno forts will be placed at 
 more than cannun range froni the line of the exterior forts. 
 To these forts of the gorge will be given simjdy that degree 
 of resistance to exempt them from being carried by coupde 
 tiKtiii. They may be placed 7000 to sunfl kilometres apart. 
 liCt us assume that the capital city has a radius of 6 Kilo- 
 metres, and the central zone i) kilometres of depili. The 
 circumference which defines the position of the "gorges" 
 of tho camps will have a development of about Ht kilo- 
 mMrcs. (living to these gorges a length of 11 kiloniMres, 
 oecujiied by three forts, nnd to the exterior sides a length 
 of I'U kilometres, occupied by live forts, fln<l supposing that 
 the mean <listancc between the sides be '.> kilr»s., wc shall 
 have the arrangement shown \*y Fig. 2. The lateral sides 
 are broken intervals, so that tho forts x, x are thrown for- 
 ward into the intervals, the better to sustain the contiguous 
 forts //, t/. Tho troops of the defence nre divided into three 
 armies of two corps each. One of each of the two corps is 
 employed, alternately, on the external line {" vordon dc 
 nnrvfillatice")', tho other is established in close ennton- 
 mcnts, or in barracks constructed either in rear of the 
 camps (rt, h, c, Fig. 2l, or in rear of tho intervals («', h',c'). 
 E. If the zone of investment has "JOO metres of depth, and 
 
 if ii is 2500 metres beyond tho exterior forts, tho axis of 
 this zone will have about 35 leagues of development. Suf- 
 fice it to gay, that it would be impossible for tho largest 
 army in the world, and even to an aggregate of several 
 allied armies, to invest a place like Paris, London, IJerlin, 
 or Vienna to which has been applied the model plan hero 
 sketched. 
 
 This plan would doubtless require a greater number of 
 forts than that for a single camp constituted by a girdle of 
 forts, and therefore more expensive, m<)re guns, more troops 
 for garrison ; but, on the other hand, it would afford much 
 greater certainty to the defence. In the one ease the be- 
 sieging army after having carried two or three of the forts 
 of the single camp, may crush the army within, and com- 
 mence his approaches upon the interior enceinte if there bo 
 one, or if not, penetrate at once into the city. lu the other, 
 these operations would be impossible on the hypothesis of a 
 triple intrenched eamp : for if the enemy, after taking two 
 or three forts, should seek to penetrate into one of theso 
 camps, ho would be taken in flank by the forts of the hit- 
 enil sides an.l confronted by the forts of the gorge. Tho 
 defending army may decline battle by withdrawing into 
 tho other camps, without detriment to its own safety or 
 that of the place ('* ricn tit'itiort nc nrrail conipromis"). Tho 
 besiegers must obtain possession of the lateral forts and of 
 the forts of the gorge in order to niuke themselves nia.-'ters 
 of the evacuated eamp; then recomnicnec the same oper- 
 ations against the other camps. Such a succession of 
 efftirls and of sacrifices would exhaust tho most powerful 
 army. 
 
 To givo tho same properties to an intrenched camp con- 
 stituted by a gifdle of forts, it would bo necessary — 1st, to 
 provide tho capital with a safety-enceinto {" tucciutr de 
 nurrff"); 2d, to construct several rndiatiiitf time of forts 
 from tho enceinte to the line of forts, enabling the defen- 
 sive army to withdraw laterally in order to continue tho 
 struggle. These radiating lines, by dividing tho single
 
 1272 
 
 INTROIT— INUNDATIONS, MARITIME. 
 
 camp into several intrenched and juxtaposed camps, would 
 realize indeed, though in an incomplete and defective man- 
 ner, the germinal idea of our model plan. One great ad- 
 vantage uf this latter plan is the exemption of the defen- 
 sive army from the dangerous agitations of the population, 
 and to make its existence independent of the seditions 
 whieli sometimes break out in the populace before or dur- 
 ing the siege: for if there be three camps the capital is not 
 included in any one of them ; whereas if there be but one 
 it occupies the centre of that single camp. Finally, when 
 there is only a girdle of forts, the great depots of supplies 
 and arms arc exposed to the attacks (coups <lc main) of the 
 enemy as soon as the lino is pierced by the capture of two 
 or throe forts, and X6 the enterprises of a populace desirous 
 of hastening the surrender by obstructing the defence. On 
 the hypothesis of three isolated camps tliis double danger 
 is not to be feared, because the d6p<1ts comprised in the 
 forts of their gorges are secured against such enterprises 
 {cniips tie main). 
 
 While the armies are operating in open field the garrison 
 of this great central camp ('' pirot crnind") will be made 
 up of (he troops essential to the guard of the forts, and of 
 a reserve of three divisions. These divisions will estab- 
 lish themselves in the intervals of the intrenched camps 
 (rt, by r, Fig. 2), so that they can be promptly united to con- 
 front and repulse hostile corps which miglit seek to pen- 
 etrate the capital to lay contributions or to produce a moral 
 effect by a bold dash. The possibility of invading the city 
 after beating tlio central reserve seems to afford a power- 
 ful argument for a safety-enceiute ; but there arc so many 
 chances against such an enterprise — which, besides, if suc- 
 cessful, is so little tiecisivc — that this possibility need not 
 be dwelt upon. It may, too, be guarded against by throw- 
 ing up intrenchments in time of war covering the most ex- 
 posed portions of the perimeter, as a substitute for a safcty- 
 enceintc. A. Bnr.VLMONT. 
 
 [Trtinslated from the French MS. of Gen. Brialmokt 
 by J. G. Barnard.] 
 
 Intromit, in .-^acred music, a composition for voices to be 
 sung nr chanted while the officiating minister is entering 
 within the railing of the chancel. 
 
 Intussusception. See Ileus. 
 
 In'ulin (("(jHioOs). a substance isomeric with and similar 
 to starch. It is widely distributed in ])Iant5, occurring 
 especially in tlie roots of elecampane, dandelion, chicory, 
 feverfew, meadow saffron ; in the tubers of the potato, the 
 dahlia, and the Jerusalem artichoke: in Scrp manna, in 
 certain lichens, and probably in the seeds of the sunflower 
 and of mustard, etc. It is jirepared by washing the rasped 
 root on a sieve, and allowing the inulin to settle from tho 
 liquid, or by boiling the sliced root with water and filter- 
 ing while hot; the inulin separates on cooling. The juice 
 of dahlia-tubers pressed in the winter becomes semi-solid 
 on stanrling from the s:>paration of inuHn. Inulin is a 
 soft, white, tasteless, odorless powder, resembling starch, 
 whicli it appears to replace in plants. TTnlike starch, it 
 exists in plants in a solution whicli has the consistence of 
 a thin oil. If a slice of tho plant is soaked in alcohol, the 
 inulin separates in spherical granules which can be recog- 
 nized by the microscope. It is very hydroscopic, and ad- 
 heres to the teeth and to moist paper. It is but slightly 
 soluble in cold water, freely in boiling water, from which it 
 goparates, on cooling, witliout forming a jelly. It is in- 
 soluble in alcohol, which precipitates it from its solution 
 in water. Heated with water, it is changed slowly to 
 liovulosc (grape-sugar). Dilute acids change it to sugar 
 even in the cold. Inulin is not altercil by diastase nor by 
 other ferments. It is colored brown by iodine, is soluble 
 in cuprainmonia and in nickclammonia, and it reduces 
 salts of lead, coppL-r, and silver. C. F. Ciiandlkr. 
 
 InundaHionSf Mar'itime. The sea., not content with 
 the sncritiL-es which it exacts from those v/ho voluntarily 
 throw thcrasolves upon its mercy, often wages battle with 
 man on his own domain. So terrible have been the dis- 
 asters caused by tlie unforeseen ovc;-no\7 of the ocean waters 
 that even races of men otherwise most destitute of histor- 
 ical records date their origin from some great flood. Tho 
 mythic narratives which tell of sucli show often so curious 
 a conformity to those of the biblical deluge that theolog- 
 ians do not hesitate to receive them as concurrent evidences 
 of the same event. The most noted of these are the floods of 
 XvsYTiinus.OfiYCES.andDErrcALioN (for which consult those 
 titles). Of the revolutions which have caused the formation 
 of great islands and large seas we know nothing. The evi- 
 dence adduced in proof nf the recurrence of what is called the 
 Cimbric flood (that which is said to have insulated England, 
 and to have considerably changed the condition of the low- 
 lan<ls of Holland) amounts only to a vague statement by 
 Isphorns (B. r. n')0) and Clitarehus. that the rimbrians were 
 driven from their scats by a cataclysm of this kind. As Ar- 
 
 istotle mentions that the Celts opposed the floods with arms, 
 and as several ancient historians record the continual en- 
 croachments of the sea, this mythic Cimbric flood must be 
 presumed to have been made up of several (»f greater or lesser 
 magnitude occurring in pre-historic times, by which Eng- 
 land was at length severed from France and a communica- 
 tion was opened between the ocean and the North Sea. 
 This channel once established, the tidal currents tended to 
 increase its breadth till natural barriers arrested the pro- 
 cess. The Netherlands, presenting no such barriers, would 
 have been totally swallowed up but for the forming of 
 " downs "^' from the sand cast by the waves upon the sliore. 
 These downs, however, furnish only a partial and temjiorary 
 protection. The sands, chased by the sea-winds, encroach 
 farther and farlher upon the fertile plains, forming new 
 lines of downs, and the sea advances in their rear. Two 
 centuries ago foundations of villages and of Roman castles, 
 laid bare at a time of extreme low water, furnished visible 
 evidence of the magnitude of such encroachments even 
 within the historic period. 
 
 Since tho coasts of the Netherlands are the most exposed 
 of the Northern lowlands to the predominating north- 
 western winds, it is not surprising that they have suffered 
 most from inundations, or that many of these have effected 
 extraordinary changes in the face of this country, while 
 others, more numerous, though less destructive, have 
 plunged the inhabitants for the time being into inexpres- 
 sible wretchedness. It is to geology, and not to history, 
 that wc must look for information as to the earlier and more 
 formidable of these catastrophes. The map of the Nether- 
 lands shows the coast to be sheltered by a line of downs, 
 which also extends along the seaward shores of the islands 
 at the entrance of the Zuyder-Zee. This Zuyder-Zee in pre- 
 historic ages was much larger than at present, but its mouth 
 became gradually obstructed. The existing belt of islands 
 are the remnants of what was then continuous coast j tho 
 Zuyder-Zee subsided into a lake, of which the area was 
 rapidly reilured by the deposits of the Rhine, which ])rob- 
 ably discharged into it the greater part of its waters through 
 the Yssel, and perhaps some other branch (of which only 
 dubious vestiges remain). Thus, this lake, then called Flevo, 
 dwindled rapidly, and would have totally disajipeared but 
 for the storms of the tenth and twelfth centuries, which bat- 
 tered large breaches in the line of downs, submerged the 
 greater part of the newly-formed land, and, gradually re- 
 opening the channels between the islands, caused the Lake 
 of Flevo to expand again into the Zuyder-Zee. For though 
 the inhabitjinls, now considerably advance*! in civilization, 
 did their utmost to restrain the waters, they found their toil 
 and skill alike ineffectual, and many towns, villages, and 
 monasteries were swallowed up for ever. 
 
 At what period dikes were invented as a protection 
 against floods is not certainly known ; the Romans may 
 possibly have learned their use from Egypt ; they certainly 
 employed ihcm ns causeways over martliy lands. Tacitus 
 informs us that Nero's lieutenant. I'ompcius. constructed a 
 dike to prevent the overflow of tlie Rhine, and the aborig'- 
 ines of Germany sometimes flooded the country by bar- 
 ring the rivers in order to prevent invasion. It appears 
 that the province of Fricsland was diked in the seventh 
 century by King Adgillus; the province of Zeeland was 
 diked by the Danes and Goths in the eighth century; while 
 Oldenburg was enclosed about ttS4 by Count Ofho. Ear- 
 lier, the natives lived on small hills or elevations called 
 "terpen." Such a '"tcrp" offered a place of security for 
 men and cattle, and such exist still in some parts of this 
 country, where recently a certain number have been erected 
 by order of the government to serve as temporary refuges 
 in case of the failure of the dikes. 
 
 Of the storms which have caused notable revolutions, tho 
 first recorded in authentic history is that of SnO. which 
 carried away a great jmrt of the western coast of the 
 Netherlands, and gave a more southern direction to that 
 branch of the Rhine wliich formerly discharged its waters 
 near Catwyk. On St. Michael's Day. KHI, a great part 
 of England and of tho Netherlands was flood-'d. In 1134 
 a part of Flanders was s^vallowed up. Of the coasts of 
 Fricsland (which then consisted of the Dutch provinces of 
 North Ilolliind. the Zuyder-Zee, (Jroningen. Fricsland. part 
 of Hanover, and Oldenburg), a certain part disappeared 
 during the St. Juliana's flood of lIGI.and nil the lowlands 
 of the Elbe and the M'cser were submerged. Still more 
 disastrous was the All Saints* flood of 1170, tho first of 
 that name. The formatinn of the Zuyder-Zcc and tho 
 separation of Texel and AVieringen are erroneously attrib- 
 uted to this calamity, for the Zuyder-Zcc had been already 
 formed by more ancient floods, and the islands were more 
 recently severed. 
 
 In continuing this enumeration only the more important 
 
 • Dutch dairvt, Fr. dunea.
 
 INUNDATIONS AND FLOODS OF RIVERS. 
 
 1273 
 
 of the almost ntimlicrlcas floods mentioned in tlio anuals 
 will reciivc aiiiulion. In 1'21S» occurfL-d the M;ircellus 
 nood, which was imly "f temporary charactir: luit in lliT? 
 the gnlf of the Oiillart at Ilic mouth of the Kerns was 
 formed, while in I:tfi2 the Mandruiikc's flood (the " men- 
 drovvnin'^" flood) snatched away more than 'M villages on 
 the coasTs of Sleswiek (Xordstrand). The gulf of Dicr- 
 vlicl in Dnteh Flanders, then much wider and deeper than 
 at present, was formed in i:!77. But the most disastrous 
 flood hv which in later times the .Southern Netherlands 
 have hcen visited was the (second) St. Eli/.alieth flood. 
 which formed the Uiesbosch, submersed Tli villages, 
 changed totally the lower course of the Rhine and Maas, 
 and altered s') profoundly the conditions of these rivers 
 that its influence is slill'felt, though modified, and in a 
 meifture controlled, hv costly engineering works constructed 
 in later years. This disaster resulted from the combination 
 of a maritime and a fluvial inundation. The branch of 
 the Khine cilled Waal previously to that event discharged 
 its waters near the town of Bridle, and formed with the 
 other branch, called LeU, the outlet of the Maas. It now i 
 took the much shorter direction of tho outlets of Brouwer- 
 shaven nn.l II ■llevoe'sluis, wJicre, moreover, the tide-range 
 is greater famounting to 2"':i, while at Bridle it is only i 
 l»-s). Th? fall per mile of the Waal being thus superior 
 to that of the I.ek, the llhine was drained by the former, 
 while the latter grew shallow. On this account the wide 
 outlet of the -Maas gradually filled, an. I tho communication 
 of Rotterdam with the s;>a became seriously im|iaired. In 
 mil a flood occurred which formed in the Zuyder-Zco 
 a practicable channel for vessels of heavy drauglit be- 
 tween Enkhuizen and .Amsterdam, and thus gave to the 
 latter town its commerce and its importance. Till then, 
 the southern part of that sea hid been too shallow to allow 
 more than a limited Iraflic. whieh was eonfined to the then 
 flourishing cities of lloorn, .Medcmblik, and Enkhuizen. 
 
 From this time onward, though tho floods increase in 
 number, their violence diminishes and their effects arc less 
 disastrous. Thus, the flood of All Saints' Day. li'O, 
 though only surpassed in magnitude by that which oc- 
 curre^l in MTU oa the same day, destroyed no land, though 
 it submerge 1 llruges, .Antwerp, almost all tho islands which 
 form the province of Zceland, Dordrecht, Rolterdam. Am- 
 sterdam, part of the provinces of Friesland and (ironingcn, 
 the coast of Oldenburg, Bremen, and tho city of Hamburg, 
 and drowned at the lowest estimate IIO.OOII inhabitants. 
 Before the breaches of the dikes could bo stopped new 
 storms flooded tho country, .and within tho eight years en- 
 suing the unfortunate provinces of (Ironingen and Friesland 
 wore not less than six times partially submerged. These 
 oontinunlly recurring disasters must bo attributed in great 
 measure to the bad state of repair in which the dikes wero 
 kept. Notwithstanding its importance, this matter had 
 never been well regulated. Every village being independ- 
 ent, Ihero existed no authority competent to coerce the 
 delinquent, and so the negligence of some proved the ruin 
 of all. Later, the Dutch republic was impotent to estab- 
 lish proper no-opera'ion, and in such a state of afi'airs tho 
 iron hand of a Napoleon was nccde<l to reduce the petty 
 magistracies into obedience to a common superior. Tho 
 new regulations established by him produced results so sat- 
 isfactory as to ensure their ]iermanenco; ami, though there 
 still arise frequent disputes concerning this vital point of 
 Dutch economy, tho state usually succoods in accomplish- 
 ing the projects of improvement which it proposes. 
 
 The .•^punish douii:iaticm, though generally so disastrous 
 In this country, |. roved in 1.J7.S of singular benefit to tho 
 Frisians; for the Spanish governor of Friesland, tho emi- 
 nent engineer Caspar do Rubles, lord of Billy, addressed 
 liimself witli great energy to the repair of the dikes, cm- 
 ploying hi.s soldiers in the work, ami forcing the Frisians 
 to posTpone their dilTeriMures and ply the spaile. Many 
 farmers and landowners (ileaded exemption, sujiporting 
 their claims by ancient titles and patents. Ilobles took 
 these deeds and cast them into the crevasse, saying. " There 
 they go: if thev slop the gap. 'lis well; if they don't, you 
 shall." Kobles further inereas.'d the r-trength of thi' dikes 
 by giving them a height of 12 feel, and a lireadih at sum- 
 mit of feel, with slopes of 1 : 1 on the sea-side, and of 
 21 : I on the biinl-side. As much greater dimensions than 
 (hose are giv.n at the present ilay — viz. : a total height of 
 16 feet, Willi slopes of li : 1 and 2* ; 1 respectively, the 
 dikes being also strongly protected nt the sca-sido by pal- 
 isades and breakwaters — we can easily account for the eom- 
 |.arative immunity from disastrous floods enjoyed by these 
 enunlries in recent years. 
 
 In Itl07 the eoiiniy of .'omerset (England) was partially 
 flooded, but a inueh more serious enlamily befel the Danish 
 diiinains in ir>:'.t. Part of the const, called Nordhind and 
 its villages, which, though often destroyed, had as often, 
 with undaunted resolution, been again rebuilt, was swept 
 
 away, together with tho greater part of the population 
 ( I I.IWS people and 00,;iS7 cattle). Hamburg. Bremen, and 
 the coast of Oldeni>urg were also much injured. More 
 than 10,S2S human beings and yu,IIOO cattle were drowned. 
 In the great Christinas flood of 1717, which covered the 
 whole northern coast, and even some parts of England, 
 5000 dwellings were totally and :i^00 partially ruined. 
 Owing to the prevalent neglect of repairs already men- 
 tioned, the years 171^, 17111. and (specially 1720. saw these 
 countries flooded again. The most recent inundation of 
 importance was that of IS2o, in which the waieis reached 
 a height which was not asccriained. This flood in several 
 respects dilfeied from any recently observed before; and on 
 
 that account it lias been ascribed, with a semblance of proba- 
 bility, to a submarine earlhciuake. Similar parliculurs had 
 been recorded in ancient chronieles, but as no modern ob- 
 servation had confirmed lliem, th.-y had jiaseed into dis- 
 credit. The sea-water was very muddy, and seemed as if 
 boiling; the waves wero not high, but short and eddying; 
 the wind, W. N. AV., was not violent; and finally the posi- 
 tion of the moon was not such as to favor an extraordinary 
 tide. .Some days before the event certain springs dried up, 
 and others became muddy, yellow, and brackish. Largo 
 fragments of amber were also east up on the const of Jut- 
 land. Facts corresponding to these had been observed 
 during the floods of IBllO and lOfij, during the Christinas 
 flood of 1717. and finally in 175.) during the famous earth- 
 quake of Lisbon. The 'principal ell'eel of this most recent 
 flood was the insulation of the iiorihern part oi' Julland. 
 
 Tho floods thus far noticed arc such as have been caused 
 by storms ami high tides, accompanied usually by wido de- 
 struction, in which niulliiuiies perished and other multitudes 
 escaped only with their bare lives, the inundations ordinarily 
 occurring during the night. But, besides these, there aro 
 others which, though local, aro not unattended with dan- 
 ger, and which deserve a moment's attention. These aro 
 the inundations which threaten especially the coasts of the 
 tidal rivers. The powerful streams which separate tho 
 islands of Zceland and of part of South Holland, being 
 connected with the Scheldt, the Khine, and the Maas, form 
 largo estuaries, which at flood-tide aie filled with tho water 
 of fho North Sea, and during ebb discharge Ihc flood-water 
 along with the drainage, the tble-water varying between 3 
 and + mi'-tres. Strong currents, especially during ebb, 
 accordingly prevail in these streams, undermining tho 
 southern shores of the islands. By observing the direc- 
 tion of the ebb from N. K. to S. W., while that of the flood 
 is opposite, we are enabled to account for the fact that all 
 tho islands arc attacked in the same way and exllibit 
 the same form— viz. a concave S. and a convex N. coast, 
 tho latter augmenting by the undisturbed deposit of tho 
 rivers and the detritus of the southern shores. The W. 
 coast of the province of Holland is attacked in a similar 
 manner, though with less force, the sea-cnrrents not being 
 confined within narrow ehaniiels. The system of eoast- 
 defencc of the Nelherlamls must therefore embrace two 
 distinct objects — defenco against currents, and derenco 
 against high seas and storms. The coasts of Fneshiiid, 
 (ir.mingen, and tho Zuyder-Zec need only iiroteetions ot 
 the latter class, while the dikes and downs of the W. coast 
 of Holland and those defending llie islands must be con- 
 sidered from both points of view. This portion ot our 
 subject is reserved to be treated under the head ol Lkvkes 
 (which see). 1'. Cai.ani.. 
 
 Iniintlntioiis niid Floods of Kivors. These two 
 terms are often used as svnonymous, but they are conveni- 
 ently distinguishable, thus: an iiiiinrlailnn is the stale of a 
 river when its waters rise to such a height as to spread be- 
 yond its normal channel, overflow its banks, and cover the 
 low grounils along llieni : a llmnl is Ihc ciuiditnm ol a river 
 when its current, though rising above its mean level and 
 filling the canal which il has excavated for itsell, slill re- 
 mains within its banks, or, in other word,s, is '-without 
 o'erflowing, full." Perhaps the nearest approach we can 
 make to iirecision of distinction is to say that a flood be- 
 eoin.s an inundation when the stream rises seuMbly above 
 its mean high-water level, and spreads in considerable vol- 
 ume beyond the limits of its natural channel as bouiub.lby 
 the growth of spcmlaneous perennial land planls. It is, 
 however, impossible to draw any sharp line i>( diseriniina- 
 tion between floods and inundations as applicable to the 
 whole course of rivers, because a river may be eonfined by 
 high banks at one point, bordered by low flats at another, 
 and these riparian conditions may be nltirnated many 
 limes in the same stream; and hence il may be siinply at 
 1 flood in eerlnin ]iarls of its channel, in inumlalion at 
 othiTs. I'sing the words in the general sense we have as- 
 cribed In them, a flood is ordinarily a beneficial state of a 
 river, heeause iis supply of water for meehanieal power, for 
 feeding canals and aqiiednets, and for navigation is then 
 ample, and yet not in excess. The nugmented volume and
 
 1274 
 
 INUNDATIONS AND FLOODS OF RIVERS. 
 
 velocity of the water are, espeoially in new ooontriea, a 
 considerable advantage to navigation, because they par- 
 ticularly favor the downward trade, which i? ordiuarilv 
 the heaviest, if not the mo^^t valuable, and they not unfre- 
 qucntly render a further useful service by preventing the 
 closing of the stream by ice. Hence, measures hs.ve oft?n 
 been proposed, and sometimes adopted, for keeping rivers 
 permiUK'Utly at flood by introducing into them additional 
 supplies of water from lakes or artiticial reservoirs, or by 
 the diversion of other water-courses into their bed. Thus, 
 the Illinois Canal, when enlarged, will furnish the means 
 of maintaining at all dcs^irablc seasons a fluod-Ievcl in the 
 Illinois, and even pcriiaps in the Mississippi; and it is be- 
 lieved that a judicious husbandry of the natural sources of 
 supply of the Hudson and of the waters of some of the Ad- 
 irondack lakes may be made in the same way greatly to 
 improve the navigation of the upper portion of that im- 
 portant river. 
 
 Inundations of great rivers, when they are of regular 
 character both in volume and in peritjdic rccnrrcncc. are 
 often not merely highly advantageous to human interests, 
 but even essential to the permanent occupation of their 
 banks by man. Of such rivers the Nile is the type. The 
 seasons and the height of its rise are approximately con- 
 stant, and therefore readily foreseen ; the inundation satu- 
 rates with moisture the alluvial plains along its banks, and 
 it deposits on them a supply of organic and mineral sedi- 
 ment abundant enough and fertilizing enough to render 
 the artificial application of manures in general su]ierfluous. 
 But even here nature must be aided by human art, and 
 from thv earliest ages the Egyptians have employed dikes 
 and canals for retaining and distributing the waters of the 
 inundation. (See Nile.) The more irregular inundations 
 of smaller rivers sometimes render similar service to man, 
 but with few exceptions river inundations are a highly de- 
 struetive agency: and it is principally in this light that 
 we shall consider them. The river-inundations of modern 
 times, in both America and the Old World, even if not more 
 frequent or more violent than those of earlier ages, have 
 been more disastrous, because in many eases the beds of the 
 streams have been elevated by sedimentary deposits faster 
 than their banks, and because greatly augmented and more 
 diversified moral and material interests are aflFected by them. 
 Larger towns, vaster mechanical establishments, as well jis 
 agricultural and commercial arrangements, great networks I 
 of canal, railway, and telegraphic communication, more 
 numerous common roads and bridges, arc now exposed to i 
 their ravages, and of course the social interests endangered 
 by them arc immensely multiplied. AVhilc. then, floods \ 
 are to be promoted, inundations are to be controlled and as 
 far as possible prevented. The best method of eftecting 
 this is a very complicated problem, and for various rea- 
 sons — among which the fact that the sources of consid- 
 erable streams are often in one State or Territory, their 
 middle and lower courses in another, is the most familiar — 
 the contrivance of systems applicable to the entire flow of 
 rivers has but recently engaged the attention of engineers, 
 and it is not yet even theoretically completely solved. 
 
 The moans of defence against river-inundations are di- 
 visible into two classes — the preventive and the remedial, 
 the former being designed to operate against their causes, 
 the latter to protect valuable interests against their efi'ects. 
 The immediate cause of river-inundations is the discharge 
 of water into river-channels faster than those channels can 
 carry it off. The insufficiency of tlie channel for this func- 
 tion may be occasioned — {n) by excess of supply; {/») by 
 obstructions in its bed; or(c) by the reduction of its inclina- 
 tion. («) The excess of supply may bo due to abnormal 
 and exceptional causes, such as the bursting of the barriers 
 of natural or artiflcial accumulations of water, lakes, reser- 
 voirs, or mill-ponds, but it is usually derived from rains 
 and melting suows ; and as a general rule it may be said 
 that it does not proceed from the down-fall in the great ; 
 valleys which border the middle course of the stream, but 
 from winter snows or equinoctial rains in the smaller I 
 basins of the upland tributaries, whose inclination is more j 
 rapid, whose fan-like expansion embraces a wider surface , 
 than that of the main valley of the general recipient of 
 them all. and which, moreover, often lie in elevated regions 
 where the precipitation is greater than on the plains. The 
 flow from the uplantl? is probably in the largest pniportion 
 superficial, but it is now known that great quantities of 
 mountain-water sink to a moderate depth into the earth, 
 and then descend, by infiltration or other underground 
 conduction, to lower points in the basins, and are there 
 discharged into the river-<:hannels. High water rarely 
 occurs at the same time in all the tributaries of large rivers, 
 but there are instances, as the Seine and the Po, where the i 
 floods of the nfiluenls are usually contemporaneous, not 
 successive, and inundations of rivers are generally destruc- , 
 tiro in proportion to the degree of coinoidonce in the floods I 
 
 of their tributaries. (6) Obstructions which reduce the 
 capacity of delivery of water-courses may be artificial, as 
 the piers of bridges, dams, weirs, riparian spurs or wing- 
 walls, the waste from mines and metallurgical establish- 
 ments, or they may arise from the natural deposit of ter- 
 restrial sediment in the channel, from the caviug-in of Ihc 
 banks, from the accumulation of trunks of trees and other 
 floating matter lodged on shoals, from the growth of aquatic 
 vegetation, or from ice, which sometimes forms almost com- 
 plete though temporary barriers in both European and 
 American rivers, (r) The inclination of the bed of a river 
 may be reduced by geological upheaval of its outlet or its 
 lower course, by the lilling-up of its estuary by its own de- 
 posits or by sand washed in by the sea. and sometimes by 
 the elevation of parts of its bottom from sand or earth let 
 fall in consequence of the cheeking of the velocity of its 
 current from changes in the course of the channel, or as a 
 result of artificial processes of improvement. 
 
 A prcveutire system applicable to the whole course of a 
 stream wouldcommcnceits operations at or near the sources 
 of the tributaries, and its general aim in this division of 
 the work would be first to check the discharge of surface- 
 water into those tributaries by planting the declivities of 
 the valleys with trees or shrubs, terracing their hillsides, 
 running low embankments across sloping grounds, collect- 
 ing the water in snmll reservoirs, and in short by any 
 measures which tend to detain the water of precipitation 
 a certain time upon the surface. In agricultural and pop- 
 ulous districts the adoption of this part of the .«ystem can- 
 not be general, because it would conflict with many indis- 
 pensable arrangements of improved rural economy and 
 civilized life. Agriculture requires a general grading or 
 smoothing of the ground by filling up small dejiressious of 
 the soil, and the removal of stumps, clumps of shrubs, 
 rocks, little ridges, and other impeiliments to the plough, 
 and it must be drained by superficial or underground con- 
 duits: railways and common roads must be provided with 
 ditches; streets must be j^aved or otherwise made imper- 
 vious to water: and habitations and other buildings must 
 be covered with roofs, which shed all the precipitation that 
 falls upon them. All these artificial contrivances tend 
 powerfully to promote the flow of surface and ground water 
 into the natural channels of discharge ; and in the opinion 
 of some able inquirers they arc the most active of all causes 
 of inundations in highly improved countries. Hence, in 
 such countries there is great difficulty in reconciling the 
 adoption of the measures we speak of with interests not less 
 important than those they are designed to protect; and in 
 most cases we are reduced to a question of choice of evils. 
 Some of them, nevertheless, such as clothing hillsides too 
 steep for cultivation with trees or shrubs, circling/ or ter- 
 racing rapid declivities, and the temporary flooding of 
 fields by means of low ridges or embankments, are widely 
 applicable not only without injury, but with positive bene- 
 fit to agriculture. The next step slmuld be to retard the 
 flow of the current in the lesser affluents by dams, barriers 
 or traverses, heaps of rocks, and impediments of every de- 
 scription. Such measures are of course applicable chiefly 
 to the smaller rivulets in u]tland districts, an<l at points 
 where, from the character of the channel and other circum- 
 stances, no evil consequences are to be apprehended from 
 their adoption. 
 
 Thus far, (he immediate aim is to retain the water on the 
 surface or in the beds of small affluents, but when we come 
 to larger tributaries bordered by fiehls. t(iwns. and indus- 
 trial establishments, and especially to the main trunk, the 
 direct object is reversed, and increased velocity, and of 
 course delivery, quite down to the point of ultimate dis- 
 charge, is sought to be promoted. This is efl"ected by the 
 removal of rock, sedimentary deposit, and, so far as prac- 
 ticable, all other obstructions in the bed, by confining the 
 channel to narrower limits at convenient points, and by 
 excavating a deeper canal within it, and especially by 
 cutting off loops and bends in its course, and thus at once 
 diminishing the length and increasing the inclination of 
 its bed. (See Rivkrs, Rkgi'lation op.) Although meas- 
 ures are in progress in France and elsewhere for the appli- 
 cation of these and other subsidiary processes to the entire 
 flow of rivers, and though there is no doubt that the violence 
 of inundations might be greatly mitigated, if not wholly 
 prevented by such means, yet thus far we do not know that 
 the system has been applied to the whole course of any 
 great river; and in general, effort is directed, not to the 
 prevention of inun<lations, but to the confinement of their 
 spread within certain limits. Various plans have been 
 sn^gcstcd for this purpose, among which the creation of 
 great reservoirs for receiving the overflowing waters is one 
 of the most specious, because it is an imitation of the econ- 
 omy of Xature, who so often hollows out great lakes on the 
 upper courses of rivers, and sometimes accumulates with- 
 in them flood-water enough to drown the whole country
 
 INVALIDES, HOTEL DES— INVARIABLE PLANE, THE. 
 
 1-J70 
 
 below, but for tbe cbcck they oppose to its too rapid dis- 
 charge. 
 
 liemfflinf Mennurfn. — For rcnsons which cannot ho given 
 here, the nietho'l of reservoirs la capable ofoiily exceptional 
 application, and in tbe present state of our knowledge and 
 our means wc must, in moft cases, content ourselves with 
 snob palliatives as are affor<led by dikes or cm)>ankTnents 
 high enough ami solid enough to protect the grounds they 
 enclose, or rather front, against oneroaebmcnt l>y high 
 water. Emhankments have been employed from time im- 
 memorial in the East, and the recently constructed dikes 
 or levees of the Mississippi are among the grandest mnilern 
 works of hydraulic improvement. liul the nri/iui, or em- 
 baukmcnts <d' the I*o, are perhap-^ the oldest wiili which we 
 arc thoroughly ac<]uainted, and the theory and practice of 
 emhanking as a defence against river-inundatinns have 
 been more exhaustively considered and more skilfully ap- 
 plied in Lomhanly than elsewhere, though in the classic 
 studies of Ilumjdireys and Abbot on the Mississippi wo 
 have now a work not surpassed in the whole compass of 
 potamulogical literature. The embankments of the Po are 
 suhstantially parallel to each other and to the axis of the 
 river, hut they do not follow all its windings, an^l for the 
 sake of pursuing a shorter course, and at the same time 
 allowing greater space for the swelling waters, they some- 
 times diverge so far from the channel as to leave a space 
 of three or four miles, often including valuable cultivated 
 land, between them. Their height ami thickness are regu- 
 lated by the varying level of the ground and the force of the 
 current as known by experience; but they arc designed to 
 be everywhere sufficiently elevated and sufheiently solid to 
 confine the waters wittiin the limits which they enclose at the 
 highest level to which the river ever rises. They are com- 
 posed of earth, and with rare exceptions not rerftrd or 
 faced with stone or protected by sheet piling, but simply 
 turfed or planted with willows. In general, they serve as 
 an efficient protection to the land hchind them, hut there 
 have been numerous cases of breach orercvasse followed by 
 disajitrous inundations. (See Po.) This method of defence 
 against inundations is objectionable chiefly on those 
 grounds : The construction and maintenance of embank- 
 ments involve a great original and annual expenditure; 
 by con lining the current they increase its volo'Mty and 
 transporting power, and hence it conveys to the lower 
 course and outlet of the rivera larger quantity of sediment- 
 ary material, which tends to fill up its estuary and raise 
 the level of its hed ; for the same reason, the grounds which 
 Mkirt the river are di-prived of the fertilizing nuitler which 
 the inundations would spread over it, and which would at 
 the same time raise their surface in jirojinrtiori to the rise 
 of the river-bed; they interfere with roads and the con- 
 venience of navigation; ancl, in spite of every precaution, 
 they will occasionally burst, and in such case inflict far 
 greater injury on the adjacent country than would be caused 
 by any natural inundation. 
 
 Many engineers are now of opinion that the system of 
 high ciMitinuous emhankments ought to be abandoned, and 
 low dikes, barely suflicient to keep the current from over- 
 flowing at every slight elevation of its level, suhstitulcd. 
 In great inundalion!<, then, all the huvlanils along (he bunks 
 would be overllnwed, and hoth enriched and gradually 
 raised by the sediment deposited by the water. This plan 
 is recommended hy powerful reasons, and where high dikes 
 have not alr4'ftdy heen constructed and rural arrangements 
 accommodated to them, ought, no doubt, in very many 
 cases to be adnpted. 
 
 Lomliardini, the highest authority on this subject, lays 
 down the fnllowing propositions on the subject of river- 
 embankments : The immediate en"ecl of embanking a river 
 '\* generally an increase in the height of its floods or inun- 
 dations, but at the same time a depression t}{ IIfi bed ; the 
 current, hy reason of the incrcasecl vtdocity resulting from 
 its confinement, transports coarse material farther; the 
 emhanknient of the upper trihutaries of a river increases 
 tlicir velocity anil dtlivery, and therefore augments the 
 height of the inundations in the middle and lower course ; 
 embankments, before the beti of a river becomes established 
 and constant, ullimalely tend to raise its level; the ein- 
 l>ankiiient of the lower course of a river causes the eleva- 
 tion of the bed. holh as a direct effect of ineren!>ed deposit 
 ami because the deposit at and near the point of ilischargo 
 into the sea prolongs the course, onri eoiiser]uently dimin- 
 ishes the inclination of the becj and the transporting powor 
 of the current. 
 
 The literature of this subject is very I'oluminons. Spe- 
 cially deserving of notice are the nmny hyrlrologieal essays 
 of the eminent Milanese engineer Elia Ijomhurdini, among 
 which wo particularize — /niportanzit dttfH Sfmlf ^u/ta Stn- I 
 titilictt ilfi Fiiimi; I)i i f^iiiifi'tttnriiticniHaf/ifinrifiir V ittrttulirti \ 
 cnuflizionrtft / Pti ; Siitf*' Iii'nit/itzitnti arvenufr nt Iht Fnttifin ; i 
 Dfir On'ifhii f lir/ f*,-"frrH>>n tlrlht Sri*-iizfi /(Iniiih'rii in Italia; \ 
 
 Guida alio Studio deW fdroloff in ; Champion, Les Inondatinnn 
 en Francp (Paris, 1S5S-64, 6 vols. Svo) ; the very valuable 
 Report of Humphreys and Ahbot On the Phtfuics aud Hy- 
 draulics o/' thv MinniMMippi Jiivcr (1S61, foiio) ; and T/,' 
 Enrth as M'tdtjtfd hi/ Human Action, by the present writer 
 (New York, 1874, Svo); in enumerating which works we 
 refer also to the numerous authorities cited in them. (On 
 the whole suhjcct see UiVKits. KKnn.ATioN of; for his- 
 torical notices of memorable river-inundations, the articles 
 on the rivers where they have occurred ; and on inunda- 
 tions by the sea, and defences against them, see Ini;nda- 
 
 TIONS, MAItlTIME.) GeoKCK P. MaHSH. 
 
 Iiivali(U>s% liutcl des, at Paris, was founded in If.Tl 
 by Louis XIV., and served until 1775 both as an asylum 
 for maimed and wounded oflieers and 8(ddiers, and as a 
 refuge for the old servants of the courtiers. At present 
 it affords quarters for some thousands of disabled soldiers. 
 It is a stately building and contains the tomb of Napoleon 
 I., whose remains were jilaccd here in ISIO. 
 
 Inva'riable Plane, The, a term of theoretical dy- 
 namics, used pre-eminently in regard to the solar system. 
 There is in mathematical relation with every s^'stem of ma- 
 terial particles, subject only to their mutual actions and to 
 forces directed towards a fixed point, or a point in uniform 
 rcctilineor motion, a certain plane passing through the 
 p<iint which preserves a fixed direction in space, remaining 
 ahsolutely fixed if the point remain fixed, and moving 
 parallel to itself if the point move; and which Laplace, 
 who made it the subject of a memoir, named the invariable 
 plane of the system. To obtain an idea of the characteristic 
 property of this plane by which it is determined, su])pose 
 lines (called radii ^cctorcs) drawn from the point in ques- 
 tion to each of the difi'crcnt particles of the system, and 
 then projected orthogonally upon any plane passing 
 through the point. These several projections will vary in 
 length as the direction of the plane on wliich they nrc 
 made varies, and the areas descrihed hy them on the piano 
 during any given time, in virtue of the motions of the par- 
 ticles abruit the point, will therefore also vaiy. Now, at- 
 tributing proper signs to these areas, according to the 
 directions in wliieli the lines describing them move about 
 the point, there is, among the infinite number of planes 
 passing through the point, ntir for which t!ie algebraic sum 
 of the products fornn-d by multiplying the area described 
 by the projection of the radius vector of each particle by 
 its mass, is greater than for any other, or a innximum. 
 This is the invariable plane of the system. On account 
 of the property just stated it is often called the plunr of 
 7»aximum fircas. Knowing the masses and motions of the 
 particles, the ])osition of the invariable piano relative to 
 assumed planes of reference passing through tlie origin of 
 radii vcctorcs can be determined at any time by the appro- 
 ]»riate mathematical forniuhr. If there are no extraneous 
 torees acting on the system, any jcnnt in sjiacc may be as- 
 sumed as an origin, and an in\ariable plane be determined 
 for the system relative to it, in the same manner. The 
 different planes which may thus ho determined for the 
 same system with reference to difierent assumed points 
 are all parallel. The existence of the invariable plane, 
 it will be observed, is independent of the law of action 
 between the particles and of the law of tho extraneous 
 forces, and it preserves its constantly of direction whatever 
 changes take place in the system under the action of tho 
 specified forces. Theoretically, the particles of tho system 
 may be isolated or aggregated, and, if aggregated, in any 
 mannor. In a system of natural bodies tho rigorous deter- 
 mination of the invariable plane depends upon (ho figures 
 of tho bodies, and tlie biws according to which their dcn- 
 sitv varies in (heir interior, ns well as upon their masses. 
 
 Tin- fnntrlnh/r I'/nu.- of thr Sofnr Si/tlr,„. — 'Yho theory 
 of the invariable plane derives its chief interest from the 
 application Liiplaee nnidc of it to the sohir system. The 
 fundamentiil planes to which astronomers refer the posi- 
 tions and iiiofions of tin- henvenly bodies are subject to 
 slow seeuliir changes; and even the stars, which we ordi- 
 narily call fixed, and which would seem to furnish ns with 
 natural jioints to which to refer (hese changes, have them- 
 selves been found to have small "proper motions." Con- 
 sidering these eirciimstanees, and tbe eniharrasstnent he 
 anticipated astronomers woulil one day experience in enn- 
 sequeneo of them in comparing observations made in 
 widely separated ages, Laplace suggested (hat tho invaria- 
 ble ]>bino of the solar system, determined relative to the 
 contro iff the sun, might ho u-ied as one of reference in as- 
 certaining these changes, and enleulated its position with 
 referen(!e to (ho ooliptic at ilifferent epochs. It is implied, 
 in speaking of Ibis invariable plane, that Laptaco consid- 
 ered the sidar system in his eiilculation an independent 
 one. pubject only t<i the mutual a'-tion of its memhers; or, 
 in other words, that the action of tho stars upon it is in-
 
 127G 
 
 INVARIAMT— INVERNESS. 
 
 sensible. He also neglected the comets, whose masses nre 
 unknown, but which he had good reason to believe very 
 small. Lastly, he supposed the masses of the sun and the 
 planets ciincentiated at their respective centres of gravity — 
 the satellites, with their primaries. This last supposition, 
 though not in strict accordance with the rigorous theory of 
 the invariable i)lanc given above, obviated an insuperable 
 diflicHlly in applying immediately the latter to the case in 
 question, arising from our ignorance of the laws according 
 to which the densities of the bodies of the system change 
 from their surfaces inward, and was regarded by Liiplaco 
 as furnishing an adequate npproxinuilion. The result of 
 his calculation upon liiese suppositions places the invaria- 
 ble plane with reference to the ecliptic at the beginning of 
 1700 as follows : 
 
 Inclination of the invariable plane to the eclip- 
 tic al this epoch 1° 3.V 31" 
 
 Longitude of its ascending node 102^ .17' ir," 
 
 The results of his calculation for tho epoch of 1950 agree 
 very closely with the foregoing. 
 
 Since the time of Laplace the planet Neptune has been 
 discovered, and a multitude of asteroids. Different masses 
 have also been assigned to the planets from those be used. 
 S'ocUwoll in his memoir on the secular variations of the or- 
 bits of the eight principal planets, recently ]iublishcd by the 
 Smithsonian Institution, adopting masses received at pres- 
 ent, including that of Neptune, and using the formula! of 
 Laplace, makes the position of the invariable plane with 
 reference to the ecliptic at the beginning of 1860 to be as 
 follows; 
 
 Inclination 1° ^V ^9"A 
 
 Longiludc of ascending node 10li° 14' 06" 
 
 StockwcU's calculation, it may be added, does not include 
 the asteroids, whose masses ore unknown, but believed to 
 be in tho aggregate small. 
 
 The eminent geometer Poinsot made the formula; of 
 Laplace the subject of considerable criticism, maintaining 
 that in treating the sun and planets as massive points, and 
 in thus neglecting the areas proceeding from the rotations 
 of these bodies upon their axes, and from the revolution 
 of the satellites about their primaries, ho had not only 
 failed to determine a truly invariable ))lane, but one even 
 whose variations could be neglected in comparison with 
 those which it should make known. Poisson and Ponl6- 
 coulant, on tho other h:iud. hold that the analysis of La- 
 place nevertheless detcrjnines a plane practically invariable, 
 which was all he had in mind to do. It would require 
 some space to give a just view of this difl'crence of opinion; 
 here, we can only refer to it. 
 
 Poinsot gives a rigorous rule for determining tho truly 
 invariable plane, if there be one, which he proposes to call 
 the equator of the solar system. But the unknown laws 
 of density previously referred to entering it in the form 
 of the moments of inertia of the bodies of the system, 
 it does not furnish tho means of an iuimeiliate cleterinina- 
 tion. Poinsot suggests, however, that by forming, at dif- 
 ferent epochs sufficiently scp.araled. certain equations in 
 which the masses and moments of inertia of the bodies 
 considered appear as unknown quantities with coetTicicnts 
 furnished by observation, these unknown quantities may 
 ultimately be found, and thus the data obtained for the de- 
 termination desired. This method, if actually applied suc- 
 cessfullv. woubl, as Poinsot obser\'os, furnish us the masses 
 of the bodies of our system independently of the New- 
 tonian law of gravitation, from which we derive our present 
 knowledge regarding them. Repealed dclerininations of 
 the invariable plane maile in this way with precision would 
 show by the accordance or iliscordance of their results 
 whether we were right in our original assumptions regard- 
 ing the system, or whether we had neglected actions which 
 for long periods ought not to be disregarded. 
 
 But if a truly invariable plane were exactly found for 
 our system, in the present state of our knowledge it would 
 after all be of limited utility for the purpose for which it 
 was proposed. For, su]>posing it actually located in the 
 heavens, it coubl (tf itself only serve to verify and deter- 
 mine motions perpendicular to it, or, as we may say, 
 ' changes of tniittith. To determine moti<ins parallel to it. 
 or, as we may again say, changes of lontfittiffr. we should 
 further need to know a right line of invariable direction iu 
 tho invariahle plane whence to estimate the angular value 
 of such motions. To make it truly useful, we should also 
 bo able to determine precisely the position at any time with 
 reference to it of the present natural planes of reference, 
 such as the equator and the ecliptic, so that positions re- 
 ferred to these might lie rodueed to it when desirable. 
 Now. to d<» this we should equally need the direction of the 
 fixed line named. To determine, for instance, the position 
 of tho ecliptic with reference to the invariable piano, wc 
 should not only' require its inclination — which we may sup- 
 pose found by tho methods previously spoken of — but also 
 
 the line of intersection of the two planes; and to locate 
 this we should again need the fixed line on the invariable 
 ]dane to measure from. Poisson has suggested that if it 
 were sufficiently well determined, we might use the projec- 
 tion on the invariable plane of the line which the centre of 
 gravity of the solar system tlescribes in space, which, upon 
 tho supposition implied in speaking of the invariable 
 plane, that the system is uninfluenced by the action of the 
 stars, is straight. But while we have an approximate 
 knowledge of the points in the heavens towards which this 
 line appears to be directed, thev arc by no means deter- 
 mined with sufficient certainty and precision for so delicate 
 a use as the one in question, and it may be doubted if they 
 ever will be. There is no other line in the invariable plane 
 which we can imagine it possible to determine for this pur- 
 pose. This plane, then, is likely to remain in tho future, 
 as it has hitherto been, chiefly a matter of theoretical in- 
 terest, rather than one of much practical utility. For- 
 tunately, the means of astronomical observation are now 
 so excellent, and the heavens are so faithfully, skilfully, 
 and widely observed, and the resources of astronomical 
 theory already so higldy developed, that in all pnd)ability 
 the astronomer of the remote future will be able to compare 
 the places of the heavenly bodies with those they occupy 
 now, despite the clianges of his fundamental planes, with 
 a precision fully commensurate with all the needs of his 
 time, unless, inijccd, these shall augment beyond our pres- 
 ent power to conceive. 
 
 flc/'crcticcs. — Laplace, in the Journal dc VEcnh: Poll/- 
 technique, tome. ii. ; Laplace, Mfniuiqiic Cfhvie, liv.i.ch. 5; 
 liv. ii. eh. 7; liv. vi. eh. 17: Poisson. Mfeanlque, cd. 18.33, 
 liv. iv. eh. 9: Poinsot, M^mnire .ff/r /a Thforic et la Deter- 
 mhuitlon tie VEijUfttrur (In Si/Hleiiie Sitlnire, appended to 
 the later editions of the autllor's JilemcntH de Stnliqne ; 
 PonlccoulanI, TUeorie Anuhjtiiine dn Synlemc dn Monde, 
 2d cd.. liv. i. ch. 4; liv. ii. ch. 8, and note vi. at end of 
 tome i. John E. Ci.AnK. 
 
 Iliva'riatit. .-V ra,tional algebraic expression of any 
 degree in two or more variables is said to be linearly trans- 
 formed when for each variable, .r. ;/. :. linear functions of 
 new variables, such as Ai.V-t- m >'+ viX for .r ; Ai.\ -t- (<2l 
 ■f viZ, for//, etc., are substituted. If the expression be hom- 
 ogeneous in the variables, any function of its coefficients 
 is called an iiivaridtil, if, after such transformation, the 
 same function of the iieio coefficients is equal to the old 
 function multiplied by some power of the mudulnt of tranv- 
 fornitttion (which is afunction of the enejfieientn v/ trane/or- 
 matlon, only, A| m v\ : Aj. n2, etc.). It is an til/nohile in- 
 rnriinil when, the value of this power being unity, the 
 function is absolutely unaltered hy transformation. The 
 invarianee of discriminants® was first pointed out by Dr. 
 Boole (Ciiinbi-idfie Moth. Jour.. Nov., 1841) : and " modern 
 algebra" may be said to have had its origin in this dis- 
 coverv. Mr. Cayley took up the more general problem, 
 ic/io( functions possessed this property of invarianee, and 
 brought to light many others (some of which involving the 
 variables) which arc' unaffected by linear transformation. 
 Those containing the variables are called eo-rnrionts, or 
 eontrn-vnn'ants, according as the substitution is direct (as 
 above) or i'iii-cr«e (a distinction which cannot here be ex- 
 plainedV The important uses of these functions can only 
 be briefly illustrated. If. for example, the equations of 
 two conic sections are, by transformation, brought to their 
 simplest (or "cnnonicai") forms, and their invariants 
 ( which for these forms are comparatively simple) calculated, 
 any homogeneous relation found to exist between them 
 may be predicted for them, no matter to what axes the 
 equations are referred. By this means we can with facility 
 obtain i/eneral solutions for— e. . 7. the condition that two 
 conies shall touch each other: that a triangle inscribed in 
 one shall circumscribe the other: the equations of tangents 
 to a conic at its intersection with any right line : the equa- 
 tions of the four common tangents to any two conies, etc. 
 etc. The first-named condition — or. more generally, the 
 condition that any two curves should (one/,— is expressed 
 by the vanishing of an invariant function of the coefficients 
 of the curve-equations, called the tHci-inrarfanl. 
 
 J. G. BAHNAnD. 
 
 In'vcr GrovP, tp. of D,akota co., Minn. Pop. 971. 
 
 Inverness', town of Scotland, the capital of Inverness- 
 shire, on the Ness, near its entrance into the Jloray Frith. 
 It has considerable manufactures of linen and hemp stuUs 
 and extensive shipbuilding docks. Pop. 14,463. 
 
 •If a liomoffcncous function in 1- variables be differenliaied 
 wirli respect to each, 1 he resultant expression nrlsine rroui the 
 .liMMuation of the variables from the t- differentials is c:>l ed 
 the ill.frrimintml of the function ; as it is also t1ieWimin^«r ol the 
 it- expressions, arisini frcmi the dilTerentiation It nuiy he 
 written BS a Petkrminant (which see\ of whuh each row is 
 formed of the coetBeients of one of the * differentials.
 
 INVERNESS— IXVEKTKBKATA. 
 
 1277 
 
 Inverness* the westerDinnsi co. of Cape Breton Islnnd* 
 belonging to Nova Suotia. It has u fertile soil and beds 
 of froofl coal. Cattle, produce, and fish arc exported. Cap. 
 Port Hood. Pop. 2:j,41u. 
 
 Inverness, post-v.,cap. of Megantic co., Quohcc, Can- 
 a'la. it has a largo trade, a tanner^', and a weekly news- 
 paper. Pup. of sub-district, 2741. 
 
 InvcrnosSy tp. of Cheboygan co., Mich., on the S. side 
 of Mackinaw Straits. Pop. V2'JZ. 
 
 Inverncss'-shirc, county of Scotland, bounded N. and 
 W. by Ilo-s shire an"i the Atlantic, and S. and E. by the 
 counties of Perth, Aberdeen, and Nairn. Some of the 
 Western Islands, among which arc Skyc and Harris, be- 
 long to it. Area, 4200 square miles. 'Pop. S7,IS0. The 
 western part is wibl, rug'j;ed, but well- wooded mountain- 
 land: Ben Nevis, the highest peak in Great Britain, is 
 •i 106 feet high. In the eastern part arc extensive tracts of 
 heath, yet about 43.000 acres Arc under a regular rotation 
 of crops, wheat, barley, and oats, and the county contains 
 excellent pastures, especially for sheep, of wliich it pos- 
 sessed 4j2,79'> in 1S.VJ. Wool and oats arc its chief ex- 
 pr)rts. The tiaelic language predominates in this county. 
 
 Inverse' [Lat. iuverto]. If two mathematical operations 
 arc exactly contrary to each other, either is said to be tlio 
 inverse of the other. Thus, addition an<l subtraction, mul- 
 tiplication and division, diiTcrcntiation and integration, arc 
 inverse oper.ations. If two varying quantities are so con- 
 nected that either is a funetion of tlio other, and if one is 
 called the ttircrt function, the other is called the iuvasc 
 function. Thus, if wc regard a sine as a direct function of 
 the cnrrespoading arc, the fire is an inverse function of the 
 sine; this relation is syuibolizcd by the expressions ;/ -^t sin jr, 
 and .*• ^ sin "*y. If wc denote the form of any direct func- 
 tion by Ihc symbol »>, and the form of the corresponding 
 inverse function by >^~', there may be two cases: (I) when 
 both of (ho equations, «>[«^ i(j*)]=ar, and 0-'[«^(j-)] =ar, 
 are satisfied; and (2) when botli these equations arc not 
 satisfied. In the former case the direct and inverse aro 
 said to be convertible; in the latter case thoy aro said to bo 
 iHcuuvcrtiblc. Every direct function has one convertible 
 invcrxe. and in addition may have one or more that arc in- 
 convertible. Thus, if wc liave the relation 
 
 .V-x2._2x, (1) 
 
 and regard y as the direct function, wo have, by solution, 
 
 j-= 1 + l/l ^-I/ and x^\- V \ + y. (2) 
 
 Both these values of x, when substitutec! in equation (!) 
 
 verify it, but the value of // taken from (I) does not verify 
 
 both of equations (2) ; hence, both values of a arc inverse 
 
 functions of j-'- — 2x, but both nrc not convertible. Let us 
 
 replace if in tlie second member of equations (2) ; we have 
 
 I 4- j/ 1 4."(j:f-2.r) = 1 -f- (x - 1) = a:, and 
 
 \ ~V\-\-{x^-2x) = \ ~{x-\)==2-x. 
 
 The first result shows that the Hrst value of x is convertible, 
 
 and the t^ccond result shows that the second value of x is 
 
 inconvertible. There is a class of functions each of which 
 
 is its own inverse, as 1 — a*, — , V I — x"^. W, G. Peck. 
 
 X 
 
 Inver'sion, in music, a term of frequent use to denote 
 cerlain i-hangts in meh)dies, chords, or harmonics, hy which 
 ( 1 ) the motion of an air is rt'versed, or (2) an intereliangc 
 \9 mad*! between the upper and lower terms of single chords, 
 or of voices in a composition conjjisting iif two or more pari?. 
 A iiieinf/if is said to bo invrrled when its motitDi upward or 
 downward is reversed, as if it were turned upside down. 
 This is also called rerertiiim. A flmrd is inverted wlien the 
 lower note is not the root or fundamental bass, but is the 
 original third, fifth, or seventh, elc. ; just ns, in an arrange- 
 ment i»f tho figures I, ?,, [>, we might *' invert" them thus, 
 ^, 1, .'», or .0, 3, I . A hfirmouizrd themr or Fuhjcct is inverted 
 when any two or more of its parts change places, (ho higher 
 bceontiiig the lower, and tho lower the higher. 
 
 1. The invrrsinn of a m/7of/r/ affects nothing but the up- 
 warcl or <lnwuward motion in its progre??. I'^aeh vpivnrd 
 step is answered in the inversion by a dotrntrttnl step cor- 
 responding to it, interval for interval. Of such inversions 
 (or reversions) of melody there aro two kinds — viz. tho 
 nimfilr and the atrirt. In " simple " inversion it is suflieient 
 tliiif the same motion from dt-grce to degree on th<' scale 
 siioiild be preserved, even though a step of a wliole tone in 
 the theme may often become a semitone in the reply, and 
 vice r*T«/(. In ** strict " inversion the reply is the rxrift cou- 
 trary of the theme. Tho wbolr tones are aiiswend liy whole 
 tones, and semitones by semitones, so that the intervals 
 mntle from note to note in the progress of the invrrsioii aro 
 precisely like those of tho original theme. or sulijeot. 
 
 2. Invfrnittn uf i^hurdn. — The normal or natural position 
 of a chord is that in which tho lowest note is its funda- 
 mental liass, prime, or root, the other several elements 
 (third, fifOi, etc.) heing built upon this, and deriving from 
 
 it their names, uses, and relations. So long as the nctutil 
 bass of a chord is the prime or root, such chord retains its 
 fundamental form, whatever may be the "changes of posi- 
 tion" assumed liy the upper parts. But when a new form 
 is given to Ilie chord by placing its original third, fifth, etc. 
 in the bass, and putting the fundamental note among tho 
 higher parts, the chord is said to be imcrlcd. 
 
 3. Tho inversion of a harmonized snljcrt consisting of 
 two or more parts or voices is when a higher and a lower 
 part change places — r.'j. when the bass is so elevated as to 
 become the Irclile, and the treble so lowered as to become 
 the buss. Inversions of this nature constitute what is called 
 "double counterpoint," and the simplest kind is that in 
 which one of the parts is removed an orUtvf: towards tho 
 other. Of course, in this process all the intervals are re- 
 versed, a third becoming a sixth, a fourth a third, and so 
 on. By such inversions major intervals become minor, and 
 minor become major; diminished intervals are changed 
 into augmented, and r.ice versa. 
 
 Anotiier species of inversion is that called retroffrndc, 
 in which a composition is so ingeniously constructed as 
 to be read, first, in tho usual manner, and second, in a 
 backward direction. Reverse rctrntpode is that in wliich 
 the parts arc not only to be read backward, but are also 
 
 inverted. 
 
 There is also a donhle reverse retrograde, in which tho 
 construction is siicli that the copy may be turned njisidc 
 down, rend then played with good effect. Under such a 
 process it is evident that not only are the notes read back- 
 ward, but the upper and the lower parts change places, tho 
 order of letters on the stave is changed, the clefs are al- 
 tered, and the rhythmical movement of the notes exactly 
 reversed. William ^^tatnton. 
 
 Invertebra'ta, a term in zoology applied collectively 
 to the various subdivisions of the animal kingdom that 
 differ from thcVcrfebrata in wanting all trace of an osseous 
 (or cartilaginous) spinal column, or back-bone, made up of 
 numerous distinct bones termed vertebra?. Aristotle, .TIC 
 years before our era, recognized this distinction in the 
 animal kingdom where he says ; " All sanguineous animals 
 have either a bony or a spinous column;" but it was not 
 until the time of Cuvier thai the terms vertebrate and in- 
 vertebrate came into use amongst naturalists. Cuvicr and 
 Lamarck, after introrUieing those terms, speedily a[iprc- 
 hcndcd that the divisions thus designated were by no means 
 of equal value, and that the Invcrtcbratn, as a group, con- 
 tained animals construct eil on Severn 1 widely diiVercnt 
 types, any one of which presented distinctive characters 
 equal in importance to those of the Vertebrafn. Linntcus 
 had constructed four of his six great clas.^es out of what 
 Cuvier now unificM as Ihc vertebrates, the remaining two, 
 /nsecta ami \'enneii, including the heterogeneous inverte- 
 brates. Cuvier, regarding tho former as a single sub-king- 
 dom, subdivided the laltcr into thre*^ other suh-kingdoms, 
 which he respectively termed from the arrangenienls of 
 their parts Jiodinta, Articuialfi,iUid Mnlhf<-a. This triplo 
 division of the invertebrates was for a time universally 
 accepted, and is even now, with one modification, very 
 generally received. It was soon noticed that Cu\'ier'3 
 Uadiata contained forms that could not he niiturally asso- 
 ciated together hy structural clmraeters : in fact, in many 
 cases the organization was so undefined that the creatures 
 could not reasonnhlv he assigned to any of the sub-king- 
 doms ; a new sub-kingdom was therefore established, to 
 whieh these lowest of animals were relegated. This lifth 
 suh-kingdom was named Protitzoa.^' 
 
 But tho rapid inercaso of zoological knowledge, and (ho 
 desire to arrive at a natural classification, havo from time 
 to time suggested the necessity of further essential modifi- 
 cations of the Cuvierian groups. Classes, or groups of 
 classes, have been elevated to the rank of suh-kingdoma 
 (or hranchcHy as they arc now termed by some authors) ; and 
 in tho course of those changes tho Hacliafa havo been 
 broken up au'l the name expunged altogether from Ihc list 
 of primary divisions. As yet, no one of (he new ehissifi- 
 eations has been found allogether satisfactory, hut. beiui; 
 founded on etahorate investigations on tho embryology nntl 
 lifo-history of tho various forms, they are each and all slcjis 
 in the right direction, since it is only by applying our 
 knowh'clge i.f the laws of development that we can Impe to 
 attain to classifications that shall express the true relation- 
 ships of living heings. To enable tho inquirer to realize 
 tho changes that havo been proposed in the classifienlion 
 of Ihe Inverlehrata. aiul to eorrelnte the different arrange- 
 ments, we apjMMid the ehissillealion ]irop»uiTnled hy Prof. 
 Huxley in lii.s Introdxrtinn to the Cfiianijiruti^n uf Animah, 
 and that given by Prof. Rolloston in hiH Furm» of Animal 
 
 • Simio authors, n« Brown, have snb!4iitiile<l the terms Am- 
 nrphiizott for I'rolo/oa; Actinozoa for Kiidiala ; MaUicuzoa for 
 Mnlhisca; /■^ntvinozoa for Arlicutata; and Spomlt/lozoa for Verte- 
 l)r;ita.
 
 1278 
 
 INVESTITURE— INVOLUTE. 
 
 Liff, founded upon the sub-kingdoms of Gcgenbaur. The 
 former will serve to show the differences between the mod- 
 ern and tiie Cuvierian systems, whilst the latter will indi- 
 cate by means of the connecting linesthc affinities that may 
 be supposed to exist between the various sub-kingdoms; 
 Tabh of the Primary Grnupn of the fiiixrtebrata, after 
 Huxley. 
 II. Mollusea. IV. Annulosa. 
 
 III. JloUuseoidea. V. Annuloida. 
 
 VI. Cielcnterata. VII. Infusoria. 
 
 VIII. Protozoa. 
 
 Trihle of the Claitees of the hivertehrntrt, after Huxley. 
 ("The limits of the Cuvierian sub-kini,'<h>ms are indicated by 
 dottrf lines 1 of Huxley's primary groups by brackets with 
 numbers.) 
 
 . MrilliLWa, Cuv. Artiailata, CVr. . 
 
 I [II. repbalopoda. | (IV. Insectif. > 
 
 I PtfTopoda. I Myriapoda. | 
 
 I Pulinocasteropoda. ' Araclinida. i 
 
 I Itraiicliiocasteropoda. 1 Crustacea. ' 
 
 I Lamellibranchiala.] • Annelida. | 
 
 ' Chietognatha.] . 
 
 I [III. Ascidioida. 1 ' 
 
 I Braehiopoda. i I 
 I [V. Scoleeida. 
 
 I. 
 
 Polyzoa.] 
 
 I fVI. Actinozoa. 
 I Hydrozoa.] 
 
 Echinoderraata.] 
 Ha'imta, Cuv. [^^I. lafusoria.] 
 
 I. 
 
 fVIII. Gregarinidte. 
 
 Rhizopoda. 
 Radinlaria. 
 Spongidffi.] 
 
 Tabular View of the Cfastifirnflon of the Tnvcrtehratn (as 
 adopted by Prof. RoUeston ; the arraugemcnt of sub-king- 
 doms after Gegcnbaur) : 
 In sent a, 
 Aracbnida. Myriapodft. 
 Arthropod A. 
 Crustacea. 
 
 IIolotluiToidpa. Echinoidea. 
 
 ECHINODERSIATA. 
 
 Crinoidea. Astcroidca. 
 
 Cephalopoda 
 Pteropoda. 
 
 Gasteropoda. 
 MOLLCSCA. Lamcilibranchiata. 
 
 Tunicata. 
 Braehiopoda. 
 Polyzoa. 
 
 Gephyrea. Annulata.— 
 Rotifcra. 
 
 Vermes. 
 Neniatelmintlies. 
 Piatyelminthes. 
 
 Infusoria. Spon^adse.^ 
 Protozoa.'' 
 Rhizopoda. 
 Gregarinte. 
 
 Ctenophora. 
 C<eli:nterata. 
 Anthozoa. 
 
 Hydrozoa. 
 
 Edward 0. 11. Day. 
 
 Inves'titure [Lat. inr«f("o, to "clothe**], as a feudal 
 custom, was the open delivery of possession ("the livery 
 of seisin ") of a fief by the lord to his vassal. This, in an 
 age when writing was rare, was etT'eeted by means of some 
 visible ceremonial and symbol, such as giving the branch 
 of a tree or some material object that would evidence the 
 convcyauco to public knowledge and permanent remem- 
 brance. In the Church, after the analogy of feudal cus- 
 tom, investiture was an open confirmation in ecclesiastical 
 office by some symbolical act or emblem, such as the be- 
 stownient of the'palHum or crosier and ring, as ensigns of 
 official honor or of pastoral charge and spiritual espousals. 
 The claim of the prerogative of such investiture of an ec- 
 clesiastic by the political ruler was for centuries matter of 
 controversy between the hierarchy and the monarchy — a 
 controversy which interests not only as an important factor 
 in the history of mcditeval Europe, but as a reflex of its 
 condition and ideas as respects the relations between the 
 secular and spiritual powers. This right of investiture was 
 claimed in behalf of secular power as an appanage of the 
 monarchy inherited from the old Roman empire, and also 
 on the ground that the episcopal office, with the temporal- 
 ities attaching in the feudal ages of manorial estates, priv- 
 ileges, honors, and cniolumenls, was to be regarded in the 
 nature of a fief, and to be bestowed with a like ceremonial 
 by the lord paramount. The claim was resisted on the al- 
 legation that laymen could not bestow the authority for 
 priestly functions, a.** was tokened by the ring and the cro- 
 sier, and that the degradation and corruption of the Church 
 sprang from this usurpation and the simoniacal practices 
 
 and oppressive exactions inevitably attendant on lay in- 
 vestiture. 
 
 In the early Church, Constantino and the Christian em- 
 perors, as iiiheriturs of the ]>ontifieal rights of their pagan 
 predecessors, undoulitedly exercised the prerogative of con- 
 firmation after episci>pal elections. After the fall of tho 
 empire of the West the Gothic and Lombard kings claimed 
 the same power as successors to the prerogatives of the Ro- 
 man empire. After them this claim was exercised by tho 
 Frank monarchy — by the Merovingians, the prerogative 
 of even direct episcopal nomination : by the Carlovingians, 
 that of the investiture of the pope himself. It was the aim 
 of Charlemagne to establish a theocratic monarchy, in which 
 the emperor was to bo supreme lord so far as earthly or- 
 ganization or administration was rcfiuired. The successors 
 of Charlemagne claimed, and often exercised, the same 
 rights of suzerainty over the Church. This claim, how- 
 ever, was contesteil, resisted, or eluded on every opportu- 
 nity ; and such opportunity constantly offered during tho 
 dissensions of the descendants of Charlemagne, which often 
 led them to seek the aid of tho clergy and to appeal to tho 
 Church and the pope as arbiters in their controversies with 
 each other. So for centuries tlie prerogative of investiture 
 was asserted and exercised, denied antl resisted, according 
 to the character and position of individual monarchs and 
 popes. In 876, Charles tho Raid formally renounced his 
 claims as superior of the states of the Church and all con- 
 trol of elections to the papacy, and aceeptdl a papal viear 
 as priraate for all Germany. In OS.'i, Otlio I. made tho 
 Romans swear on the relics of St. Peter they would never 
 afterwards elect or consecrate a pope without the permis- 
 sion ami approbation of the emperor. Sylvester II. (999- 
 100.3). on the other hand, directly assailed lay investiture 
 as the source of simony and the cancer of the Church, and 
 himself sent the crosier and the ring directly to Arnulf, 
 elected as archbishop of Rheims. Again, Henry HI. in 
 1047 received of tho Romans the admission of his perpet- 
 ual right of choosing the pope, and their oath that they 
 would never consecrate a pope without the emperor's con- 
 sent. This controversy was brought to a crisis when 
 Hildebrand, as prime-mover of the papacy, or as pop© 
 (Gregory VII.. 1073-So). developed his policy of mak- 
 ing the Church independent of all secular power, and 
 ultimately supreme amid the governments of the worhl. 
 Under his instigation, Alexander II. (lOCl-72) issued a 
 decree against all lay investiture. Tn the Lateran Council, 
 held by himself as Gregory VII. (1075), it was again de- 
 nounced, and every bishop or abbot accepting it was ile- 
 posed and those bestowing it were excommunicated. These 
 decrees brought the papal and imperial power at direct 
 issue, and the factions that arose therefrom, the Guelphs 
 ami the Gbibellines — the former the party of the pope, tho 
 latter that of the emperor — distracted Germany and con- 
 vulsed and wasted Italy for a long period with eivil dis- 
 cord and war. The fortunes of tins controversy were 
 various. Tn its course Henry IV. was reduced (1077) to 
 tho humiliation of .standing in a cold winter from the 25th 
 to the 27th of January, barefoot and in the garb of a peni- 
 tent, fasting the whole day, in the open court of the castle 
 of Canossa, before the pope would accept his repentance 
 and submission and give him absolution. Presently, tho 
 strife was renewed still more fiercely, and the pope died in 
 ejile. The dispute was continued under his successors, 
 until, under Henry A', aud Calixtus II., it was settled by 
 the enncordat of Worms (112;J) that henceforth all episco- 
 pal elections should be conducted by the laws of the 
 Church, but in the presence of the emperor, and that 
 spiritual investiture by the crosier aud the riug should bo 
 bestowed by the pope, but for temporalities, enfeoffment 
 should be by the emperor with the sceptre. In other coun- 
 tries of Europe the controversy respecting lay investiture 
 had like fortunes and results. In France investiture by 
 the ring and crosier was relinquished by the monarchs, 
 and episcopal benefices were bestowed through written in- 
 struments or orally. In England. Gregory VII.. during 
 the controversy with Germany on his hands, forebore to 
 press the question to an open breach with the iron will of 
 William the Conqueror. It came to open quarrel between 
 William Rufus and .Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury. 
 and pope Paschal II.. but was finally adjusted by an 
 agreement that for investiture with the crosier and ring 
 should bo substituted the simple oath of fealty. Thus 
 everywhere, in the issue, the symbols of strictly priestly 
 investiture were relinquished by the secular authority, but 
 the feudal obligation was asserted for temporalities at- 
 tached to ecclesiastical benefices. T. iSl. Post. 
 
 In'volllte [Lat. i it vol nt to]. If we wrap a string around 
 a given curve, and then unwrap it, keeping the string 
 stretched, each pctint of the string will generate a curve 
 called an involute of the given curve. This mode of gene-
 
 INYO-IODOFORM. 
 
 1279 
 
 ration implies that the given curve is represented by a 
 pattern cut out of some r'l^ul material, as wood or metal. 
 Thus, to draw au involute of a circle, we cut out a circular 
 pattern, around which we wrap a strinj;: we then lay the 
 pattorn on a plane surface, attach a pt-nril or tracing-point 
 at some point of the string, and unwrap the string; the 
 pencil or point will trace out the rt'(|uired involute. It 
 IS obvious that the same curve may have an infinite num- 
 ber of involutes; hence, to find any particular involute 
 we must know one of its points. To find the erjuation of 
 an involute, let the equation of the given cvolutc be 
 
 .V=/(«./3). . ..(1) 
 
 anil nssiimc (he second and tliird equations of coDdition for 
 an osculatory circle, whicb arc 
 
 ,-3 = -^^, (2) 
 
 ' — = -%(!l-^). (3) 
 
 in which a and 3 arc the co-ordinates of the centre of any 
 circle that is o^L-ulatnry to the required involute. Com- 
 bining (1), (2}f and (.T), so as to eliminate a and p. we have 
 a differential equation of the second order, which is com- 
 mon to the whole class of involutes. Integrating this 
 equation twice, and determining the values of the con- 
 stants, so as to conform to the given conditions, we find the 
 equation of the requirecl involute. W. G. Peck. 
 
 In'yo, county of California, lying mostly E. of the 
 Sierra Nevada. It is bounded on the N. E. by Nevada, 
 Area, 1725 square miles. It is a great basin whoso waters 
 do not flow into the sea. Owen's Lake is ihe largest body 
 of water. The valleys contain much fertile land. Gold- 
 boaring quartz is niine<l and milled. Salt is found in some 
 
 farts. Wool, grain, and p<jrk are staple products. Cap. 
 nJcpendence. Pop. Htj)>. 
 I'o, in Grecian mythology, was a daughter of Tnaehus, 
 bnt was transformed into a beautiful white cow by Zeus, 
 who was enamored of her. and wished to conceal the affair 
 from his jealous wife. Here, however, became suspicious, 
 anil set -Vrgos with the humlred eyes to watch her; and 
 when Hermes slew Argos, she sent a gad-fly, which pur- 
 sued lo from place to ])lace all over the earth, until at last 
 she found rest in Egypt. She appears in Prnmrthrui an»i 
 The SnppiiftntH by i-Eschylus. By the synil)olioal school 
 of modern inythologists she is identified with the moon, as 
 Argos with the starry sky and Hermes with the morning. 
 
 I'odine [Gr. twiri?, ''violet-like," from lov, **a violet," 
 and fl6o«, ''form "I (atomic weight, 127; symbol I), an 
 element discovered by M. Court<»i3 of Paris in l>^12 in the 
 mother-liquor from the kelp or ash of seaweed which had 
 been burned in order to obtain sodium carbonate. It has 
 since been found in many mineral waters, in sea-water, in 
 seaweeds, especially Laminari:e and Fucoids — in sponges, 
 oysters, and other forms of marine life. Cod-liver oil con- 
 tains from fl.f);J to 0.0 1 per cent, of ioclinc' It is found also 
 in many land-plants, as toltaceo and water-cresses, nn<l 
 even in potatoes, beans, barley, and oats, f'ertain min- 
 erals also contain it, though those containing it as an essen- 
 tial constituent are comparatively rare. Such are iodyritc, 
 or silver iorlide, found among silver deposits in Mexico, 
 Chili, and Spain, and coccinite, or mercury iodide, found 
 in Mexico, Iodine also oecurs as an accidental constitu- 
 ent in some dolomites, where it is combined with calcium 
 and magnesium: in several deposits of alkaline salts, as 
 Chili saltpetre and rock-salt. In some cases it has been 
 found in tho products from gasworks, as the ammonia- 
 liquor. Chalin claimed to have found it in tlie waters of 
 several rivers, and in the rain-water, and even the atmo- 
 sphere, of certain localities. It has been claimed, however, 
 that tho reagents used by him themselves contained minute 
 traces of iodine. 
 
 iWpnraiitin <»/ fodi'ne. — Tho sources from which tho 
 iodine of commerce is derived are kelp and Chili saltpetre. 
 The former contains 0.1G2 to 0.17j per cent. Tho carboni- 
 zation of the seaweed is usually conducted in closed ves- 
 sels, in order to prevent loss by volatilization. Tho kelp 
 i^ lixivialc'l, ami the liquors arc concentrated and cooled, 
 in order to crystallize out tho sulphates, ehloricles. and car- 
 bonates of potassium and sodium: and frrun the niorhcr- 
 liquor tho iodine is extractcil either liy heating with con- 
 centrated sulphuric acid', with or without nmnganese di- 
 oxide, or by precipitation as copper subiodide by iron and 
 a salt of copper ; i^rom which product the imline is expelled 
 by treatment with sulphuric nr-id and manganese dioxide. 
 The use of sulphuric acid without the manganese com- 
 pound is not advantageous, ns sulphurous acid forms, which 
 reacts upon the iodine and cau.ses a loss of iodine. Chlorine 
 is also somctinies used to precipitate the io.Iine from the 
 mother-liqui»rs. An excess of chlorine must be carefully 
 avoided, since that would cause the iodine to go into solu- 
 
 tion again as iodine chloride. Washing and a second sub- 
 limation of the iodine is usually resorted to in order to 
 purify tho product for market. Glasgow is the chief port 
 for tho manufacture and export of iodine from kelp. Tho 
 process of extraction of iodine from the Chili saltpetre is 
 essentially the same as that pursued with the kelp. 
 
 Propcrtien. — Commercial iodine, especially when obtained 
 from kelp, often contains cyanogen iodide, sometimes to 
 the extent of 1 per cent ; it also may contain up to 15 or 
 20 per cent, of water. It is sometimes adulterated with 
 coal, charcoal, plnnibago, or manganese dioxide. Iodine 
 ie a dark crystalline solid, with a color and lustre resem- 
 bling plumbago. Its odor is like that of chlorine. It 
 fuses at 107° C. (=22^.fi° F.), and boils between 17j** and 
 180° C. (.347-:t6G° F.). It is volatile At ordinary temper- 
 atures, tho vapor having a fine violet color, whence the 
 name is derived (Gr. iuiiij?, "violet-colored"). In a state 
 of vapor it is one of the heaviest vapors known, its 
 gravity referred to air being S.7I6. It dissolves in alcohol, 
 ether, and. carbon disulphide, also in water contjiining 
 soluble iodides or aminoniuni chloride or nitrate. In pure 
 water it dissolves only in the proportion of I part in llHUl. 
 AVifh starch it forms an intensely blue compound, and this 
 is one of tho most delicate tests used for the detection of 
 its presence, as the color is app.arent when but 1 part of 
 incline is present in 450.000 of water. It is displaced from 
 its compounds by chlorine and bromine. It destro^'s vege- 
 table colors but slowly; its action on organized tissue is 
 more rapid. Taken into the stomach in large quantity, it 
 produces ulceration of the mucous membrane, and death. 
 Starch or starchy substances are the usual antidotes. 
 
 Conipounrlt. — Iodine combines with hydrogen, forming 
 hydriodic acid, which has very similar ])roperties to hydro- 
 chloric (muriatic) acid. It also combines directly with met- 
 als, forming iodides. The principal compounds with oxy- 
 gen and the metals are the iodntes and pcriodates. The 
 oxides corresponding to these salts arc I2O5 and I-jO;, 
 These comi>ounds decompose reaiUly. giving up their oxy- 
 gen, and some explode violently on being struck or heated. 
 With ammonia, iodine forms a compound, NI3. which when 
 dry explodes violently with tho slightest friction. Cad- 
 mium iodide is used in ])hotograi)l)y. usually in conjunction 
 with iodide of potassium, for sensitizing collodion. (See 
 PnoTocJKAi'UV.) One of tho most important ap]>lication3 
 of iodine is in tho manufacture of some of tho aniline 
 colors. (See Anili.ve Colors.) E. Waller. 
 
 Iodine, Medicinal Uses of. Iodine is used in medi- 
 cine in simple schuioii in alcohol or dissolved in water by 
 the aid of potassium io{lido {Lugol's solution). Locally, 
 iodine is a powerfal irritant, and its S(»lutions stain the skin 
 yellowish brown. Inhaled, its vapor is irritant to the 
 mouth, throat, and air-passages, causing coryza, cough, 
 watering of the eyes, and headache. Internally, in single 
 (lose, tho effects vary according to the quantity swallowed, 
 from mere uneasiness in the stomach to severe gastric pain, 
 with vomiting and purging, headache, giildiness, and, 
 though rarely, even general prostration and death. In 
 eontinue<l administration of considerable doses a form of 
 chronic poisoning called itxIiHin occurs. In mild cases tho 
 effects arc more or less gas-trie disturbance with increase of 
 tho secretions, irritation of the mucous racmhrano of tho 
 eyes, nose, iind throat, with frontal heaiiache, and sometimes 
 on eruption on tho face around tho eyes and about the nose 
 and chin. In severe types there may be also a general 
 febrile condition, vomiting and purging with abdominal 
 pain, various nervous disturbances, and, according to some 
 of the continental observers, a tendency to absorption of 
 some of tho tissues of the body, shown by emaciation and 
 wasting of certain glands. This latter effect, however, 
 must ho very exceittiona!, as it is seblom seen. Iodine is 
 rapidlv eliminated from the body, and tho poisonous effects 
 just described speedily cease on discontinuance of the drug. 
 Preparations of iodine are used locally ns counter-irritants, 
 and internally they have smne unknown influence over nu- 
 trition, pniving useful in goitre, certain forms of scrofulous 
 disease, affections of the iilir<t«s and muscular tissues, etc. 
 For internal ailniinistratioii. however, the alkaline iodiiles. 
 especially potassium ioiliile, are now far more frequently 
 used than solutions of ioiline. These salts are free from 
 tho irritant local effect of iodine, but in continued ilosc may 
 cause some of the milder symptoms of iodism describcil 
 above. Medieiiniliy. tliey are used in the conditions ju«t 
 mentioned untler iodine and in tertiary syphilis, chronic 
 mercury and lead poisoning, and indeed in a great variety 
 of diseases. They are often given in \k\t\ large quantities 
 and with perfect safety. EnwAnn Ci'RTIs. 
 
 lod'oform, amethenylethcr, CHI.i, formed by the mix- 
 ing of alcoholic solutions of jiotassa and iodine. It is in 
 the torm of small glittering, scaly, yellow crystals of a 
 sweet taste, and strong, peculiar, very persistent saffron-
 
 12.^0 
 
 lOLA— IONIC ORDER. 
 
 like odor. It is slowly volatile, nearly insoluble in water, 
 hut soluble in alcoliol, ether, and uils. It i;* deoomposed 
 by :iikalies and by a heat of 2 JU°. Iodoform is a valuai>lo 
 medicine, being anicsthetic like chloroform. Unlike the 
 latter, however, it is totally uuirritating, even to nuicous 
 mombraiics or abraded surfaces. On account of its solid 
 form it cannot be employed as a general ana-sthctic by in- 
 habit ion, but it is exceedingly useful as a local application 
 to rt'liove pain, as in painful ulcers, sores, irritated or in- 
 flamed mucous membranes. It seems also in many such 
 cases to directly promote healing. EowAnn CntTis. 
 
 lo'la, post-v.. cap. of Allen co., Kan., on the Lcavcn- 
 WMiih I-riwrcnee nnd Galveston R. R., 78 miles by rail S. 
 of Lawrence. It is in a fine agricultural region: has a 
 bank. ."> churches, and manufactures of furniture and other 
 goorb. The Neosho furnishes water-power, and there is 
 ail unfailing artesian well which affords a mineral water 
 useful in a wide range uf disease, and which also supplies 
 iiillainmable gas enough to afford light and fuel lor a large 
 town. It has I weekly newspaper. Pop. of tp. Ka'J. 
 
 L. Walker. En. " Xnosno Vallky Register." 
 lola, ]iost-tp. of Waupacca co., M' is. Pop. 729. 
 lola'us [(Jr. 'I<iAao«], in Grecian mythology, the cha- 
 rioteer and companion of Hercules, to whom ho was the 
 first to pay divine honors after his death. He was said to 
 have been the first victor at the Olympian chariot-r.ices, 
 and to haveconriucred and civilized the island ol' Sardinia, 
 where he died and was worshipped as a hero. 
 
 I'olitCf a mineral crystallizing in the triraetric system, 
 and being essentially a silicate of alumina, magnesia, and 
 protoxide of iron. Its hardness is from 7.0 to 7.5; specific 
 gravity. 2. (J ; in color it occurs of various shades of blue, 
 and exhibits in a marked manner the property of dichroism, 
 or of presenting, when viewed in different directions, dif- 
 ferent colors, llcnce, one of its synonyms is dichroite. 
 It is soinetinies used as a gem, being the sapphire d'cau of 
 jewellers, obtained from Ceylon. 
 
 I'on, in iirecian mythology, was a son of Apollo and 
 Crcusa. the daughter of King Ercchtheus of Athens, and 
 was brought by Hermes to his father's temple at Delphi, 
 where he was edaeatcd. AVhen Crcusa married Xulhos, 
 but bore him no children, a false oraclo made Xiithos be- 
 lieve that Ion was his son, and he took the youth into his 
 house. Crcusa. not recognizing him, tried to poison him, 
 and lied to Delphi, where a priestess told her that Ion was 
 her own son. This myth has been treated by Euripides in 
 his tragedy Ion. 
 
 Ion, a native of the island of Chios, ranked as one of 
 the five jirineipal tragic poets of the Atbeni.iii canon, and 
 was alsii a composer of other kinds of poetry. He was 
 contemporary with yEs;;hylus, Sophocles, and Pericles, was 
 an intimate friend of Cimon. and on one occasion carried 
 off bnth the ditliynunbic and the tragic prizes. The num- 
 ber of hi.^ tragedies is variously stated at twelve, thirty, 
 and forty. A few fragments of eleven remain, also some 
 passages of other poems and prose-writings, preserved 
 ehielly in Atheniuus. Nieberding (IS.'iG) and Kopkc(lS3G) 
 liave eilited the fragments of Ion, with notices of hid life. 
 lo'na, or IcolmUiir, the most famous island of the 
 Hebridi-s, W miles long by \\ broad, was colonized in udW 
 by St. Coluiiiba of Ireland with twelve disciples, it having 
 been grantecl him liy the kings both of the Scots and of 
 tlic Picts. He built there the celebrated monastery, whit^h 
 was regarded by (he Picts as their mother church, and from 
 wliich Christianity was introduced into Scotland and tlio 
 N. c)f England. lona was ravaged l>y the Norsemen in 
 7'.>,'), S02. SDO, 825, and S'JO, on three of which occasions 
 most of the monks wore martyred. In the eleventh cen- 
 tury the monastery xvas repaired by Queen Margaret the 
 Saint, and in 10U7 a pilgrimage was made to it by King 
 Magnus of Norway. For two centuries thereafter the 
 jurisdiction was disputed between the bishoprics of Scot 
 land, Ireland, and the Isle of Man. At the end of the fif- 
 teenth century it became the seat of the bishopric of the 
 Sc(»ttish isles, and was repeopled with monks from Chiny. 
 Many kings of the isles, some of Northumbria, and even 
 of Norway, were buried on this sacred island, which has 
 been long nearly deserted, the present population being 
 less than 'iOO. Of late it has become a resort of tourists. 
 The oldest buildings uf which ruins exist appear to be (tf 
 the eleventh and twelfth centuries. (See Dr. Jolmson's 
 interesting account of his pilgrimage to lona in the Tour 
 to (fir I/'hridcs.) 
 
 lona Island, in the Hudson River, 47 miles N. of 
 New York. It belongs to Cornwall tp., Orange co., N. Y., has 
 o.\tensivc vineyards, and is a favorite point for picnics and 
 excursions from New York. 
 
 lo'nc, Ip. of Amador co., Cal. Pop. 1779. 
 
 lone, tp. of Nye co., Ncv. Pop. 52. 
 
 lone Valley, post-v. of Amador co., Cal., 40 miles 
 S. E. of Sacramento, on Sutter Creek. It has copper-mines, 
 lo'nia^ the ancient name of a portion of the western 
 sca-eoast of Asia Minor, upon the ^^gcan Sea. It derived 
 its name from its inliabitants, the supposed descendants 
 of a mythic hero. Ion, son of Apollo. Ionia extended 
 from the river Hermus to the Ma^indcr, and was the seat 
 of the Ionian league of tnvelvc cities, chief of wliich were 
 Ephosus, Smyrna, Clazonieuiij. Eryfhra;, Colophon, and 
 Miletus. According to tradition, Ionia was colonized 
 about Ul.'iO B. r. by settlers from Attica; hut Dr. E. Cur- 
 tius in his Illstori/ o/" (irrrrc has shown reasons for believ- 
 ing that the loiiiansliad resided therefrom time immcmoria!. 
 Ionia, county of W. Central Michigan. Area, 570 
 square miles. It is a well-timbered, fertile, undulating 
 region. Cattle, gr.ain, and wool arc staple products. Lum- 
 ber, castings, carriages, and farming implements arc lead- 
 ing articles of manufacture. The county is traversed by 
 the Detroit and Milwaukee and the Detroit Lansing and 
 Lake Michigan R. Rs. Cap. Ionia. Pop. 27,681. 
 
 Ionia, post-v. of Chickasaw co., la., on the Iowa and 
 Dakota division of the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R. 
 
 Ionia, post-v., cap. of Ionia co., Mich., on Grand 
 River and on the Detroit aud Milwaukee and the Detr*>it 
 Lansing and Lake Michigan R. Us., and on the Stanton 
 branch of the last-named road: has 2 national banks, rail- 
 road repair-shops, over 15 other manufactories and mills, 8 
 churches, 2 newspapers, a public park, free reading-room, 
 good schools, etc. Agriculture aud the lumber busiuess are 
 leading interests. Pop. 2500 ; of tp. 4158. 
 
 Ci.ARiv Tavlor, Ed. '• Sfntixel." 
 Ionia, post-tp. of Dixon co., Neb. Pop. o34. 
 lo'nian, in music, the name of one of the ancient ec- 
 clesiastical modes. The Ionian scalcisnsually understood to 
 be that which resembles in form the modern scale of C major. 
 Ionian Islands, a chain of islands extending al<u)g the 
 western and soulhcrn coast of Greece, of which the largest 
 are Corfu, Paxo, Santa !Maura, Theaki. Cephalonia, Zanle, 
 and Cerigo. Area. 10-11 square miles. Pop. 251.712. From 
 the commencement of the fifteentli century to 1797 they 
 belonged to Venetia. From 1797 to J 815 they changed 
 masters five times, but were then formed into a republic 
 under English protection. In 1804 they xvcre annexed to 
 Greece, the inhabitants being (Jrecks. They are fertile 
 and well adapted to the cultivation of vines and olive trees. 
 Currants and oiivo oil arc their main exports. 
 
 lo'nians [Gr.'Iwfc?, sometimes lengthened into'Iaoi'cc], 
 a ra^'o of Greek descent who resided chiefly in Asia Minor 
 and the adjacent islands, but spread themselves to all parts 
 of the Eastern Mediterranean, to the delta of the Nile, and 
 to India as far as Orissa. According to the prevailing le- 
 gend, their ancestor was Ion ['Iwc]. the son of Apollo and 
 Crcusa, who may perhaps be identified with the Javan of 
 the Mosaic table of the founders of nations. The Greek 
 legends speak of the loniaus as migrating from Attica about 
 the eleventh century it. c, and settling in Asia Minor, in- 
 corporating with themselves some of the original inhabit- 
 ants and driving out the others. The lonians were always 
 I a maritime race, and some recent writers urge with much 
 I plausibility that they came to Attica from the East, and 
 j that their migration to the shores of .A-^ia I\Iinor was a re- 
 migration to their original abode; and indeed the Egyp- 
 i tian monuments of the fifteenth century d. c. contain the 
 I same group of liieroglyphics by which the Greeks were 
 designated in the time of tlic Ptolemies. The ancient San- 
 1 skrit books speak of the Y'avanas, who are supposed to be 
 lonians v/ho penetrated India from the region of the I'iU- 
 phrates, by way of Cashmere. The Greeks who were left 
 behind by Alexander the Great to hold his fortress on the 
 banks of tlic Indus were also called Yavunas; and in 
 Nurthern India all Mohammedans are thus designated. 
 It would thus seem that the Sanskrit term came to bo 
 applied in time to all foreign races, of whom the lonians 
 were tlic earliest, who reached India from the West, just 
 as throughout the Orient all Europeans are designated as 
 Franks. 
 
 Ionian Sea is the name of that part of the >Icditerra- 
 neau which lies between Italy and Sicily to the \V. and 
 European Turkey and Greece to the E. It forms the gulfs 
 of Taranto and "Patras, and comnftjnicatcs with the Adri- 
 atic by the Strait of Otrauto. 
 
 lon'ic Order, in Greek architecture, is regarded as of 
 Asiatic origin. It is now conceded that its use was as old 
 as (or even older than) that of the Doric. Its principal 
 seat was in Asia Minor. The temple of Diana at Ephesus, 
 that of Apollo at Miletus, the temple of Wingless Victory 
 an-l the Erechfhfutn at .Athens, and the temples at Tens, 
 Priene, and Sardis, were .among the most famous examples 
 of this stylo. Its rude beginnings are diseerniblo in As-
 
 IOXII-: INDIANS— IOWA. 
 
 lliSl 
 
 jyrian and Por?tnn niin" ?MI! cTi^ting. In its perfect form 
 thel'in.i- : :; : - i' : nlnv ■limii' !■ i e. a h;isc of 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 lle 
 
 M 
 
 \cr. v.iiMil form, twenty-four flutes on the shaft, sepa- 
 rjlL'l by lilk'ls, nmi a capital formed by volutes. 
 
 lo'nie In'Uians, a tribe of the Texas cuiifcdoration, 
 allied by ra'c with the Caddoes. They removed early 
 from the Hot Spring region of Arkansas to Texas, and 
 their descenihinis (S5 in number in 1872) reside on the 
 Washita Uiver, Indian Territory. They are self support- 
 inj;. and have always been a peaceable and friendly race. 
 
 I'OS [■!<«. iVi'<], an inland of the -■Egean, now, but not 
 anciently, reckoned as one of the Cyclades. It lies N. of 
 Thora and S. W. of N'axos, and is 1 1 miles long and 6 
 broad. Area, 20 square miles. It is rough, but quite pro- 
 duL'tive, and has a fine harbor and some -lUUU inha)>itant8. 
 
 los'co» county of Michigan, bounded on the K. by Lake 
 llitron. Area, ^60 square miles. It has largo forests of 
 jiiiic, and is generally level. Agriculture is not much cor- 
 rietl on. Lumbering is the principal industry. It is be- 
 coming a resort of anglers, on account of the prescneo of 
 the grayling in its streams. Cap. Tawas City. Pop. 3163. 
 
 Iosco, tp. of Livingston co., .Mich. Pop. 904. 
 
 I0SCO9 tp. of Waseca co., Minn. Pop. 913. 
 
 I'owa, a central State of tlie upper Mississippi Valley, 
 
 .'v.al of 
 
 Ivlng between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, between 
 Vol. n.— SI 
 
 the parallels of 40° 36' and 43° 30' N. lat., and between 
 the meridians of S3° 5' and 96° 31' W. Ion. It is bounded 
 on the X. by Minnesota; on the E. by the .Missi8sip|ii 
 Kiver. which separates it from Wisconsin and Illinois; on 
 the S. by Missouri, the Dcs Moines River being the bound- 
 ary-line for a short distance; on the W. the Missouri River 
 is its boundary, dividing it from Nebraska as far as Sioux 
 City and the mouth of the Big Sioux River, which then be- 
 comes its western limit, and separates it from Dakota Ter- 
 ritory as far N. as the line of 43° 30' N. lat. The form of 
 the State is irregularly trapcz.oidal. Its area is stated at 
 .')5,045 square miles, or 35,22S,SflO acres. Its greatest lenglli 
 from N. to |S. is 208 miles ; its greatest width from E. to W. 
 a little more than 300 miles. 
 
 Face of the Conntiy. — Iowa may be described in general 
 as very level ; there are no mountains and no considerable 
 hills in the State. Its average elevation above the level of 
 the sea is between SOO and 'JOO feet. Yet within the Stale 
 is the great watershed dividing the streams flowing into the 
 Mississippi from those discharging their waters into the 
 Missouri. This watershed passes through the N. N. W. por- 
 tion of the Slate in a direction nearly S. by E., through 
 Dickinson, Clay, Buena Vista, Sac, Carroll, Audubon, (i utli- 
 ric, and Adair cos., turning in the latter county sharply to 
 the S. E. through Miulison. Union, Clarke, Lucas, aud Ap- 
 panoose COS. to the Jlissouri line. A secondary watershed, 
 somewhat higher at points than this, continues S. from 
 Adair co. through Union and Ringgold eos. There is there- 
 fore not only a gradual slope of the whole State from the 
 N. to tho S., but eastern and western drainage-slopes from 
 thli great watershed toward tho Mississippi and Jlisfouri 
 rivers. Tho rivers have worn valleys sometimes through 
 tho earthy material, and sometimes through some of the 
 underlying rocky strata beneath: these valleys have in 
 many plr-ecs abrupt and rocky blnfis along the river-banks, 
 tlius giving an appearance of hills, which, strictly speak- 
 ing, do not exist, as these steep banks are rather valley- 
 sides than hillsides, being in all cases depressions below 
 the general level. The ])lain or plateau of which Iowa 
 forms a largo portion is at all points considcraldy elevated 
 above tho level of the sea. Tho surface of the Mississi]ipi 
 at low water at the S. E. corner of the State is 441 fict 
 above the sea, at tho N. E. corner of the State it is 660 
 feet, showing a descent in the river of 210 feet, or about 
 one foot to a mile. The surface of tho Missouri at low 
 water at tho S, W. corner of tlic State is 954 feet; of the 
 Big Sioux at low water at tho N. W. corner of the State, 
 1344 feet; the surface of the great watershed at the north- 
 ern State boundary, near Spirit Lake in Dickinson Co.. is 
 1694 feet, aud at tiie southern State boundary, in Ringgold 
 CO., about 1220 feet. Tho descent from the highest point in 
 tho State (near Spirit Lake) to the lowest point in the S. E. 
 corner of the State does not exceed 5 feet 7 inches per mile, 
 and in most directions it is not more than from 2 to 4 feet 
 per mile. The whole country is therefore eminently adapted 
 for tho construction of good roads and railroads, aud, as wo 
 shall see, the State, young ns it is. is traversed in all direc- 
 tions by railways. Most of the Slate wa.' originally what 
 tho settlers call "rolling prairie" — j*. e. it had long wave- 
 like depressions and elevations, resulting from the drain- 
 ago of tho surface-water into the upper branches of tho 
 rivers. It is now losing mncli of its prairie character, tho 
 prevention of tho annual lire* buvingeaused tlio forest trees 
 to encroach npon the prairies, and tho settlers also having 
 planted many trees. 
 
 Rivers. L'fl.ri; rie. — All the rivers and slrettins of tho 
 .Stato arc aflluenls of either the Mississippi or tho Mis- 
 souri; the former, draining the widest territory in the 
 State, has tributaries of greater length and larger volume 
 than tho latter. Among the streams flowing into the Mis- 
 sissippi within the State are the I'pper Iowa, a stream of 
 considerable rapidity, and having a deep valley which has 
 eroded tho rocky strata to a considerable depth throughout 
 its entire eour.se; Turkey Uivcr, which has also high onrl 
 rooky bluffs along its banks; Maquoketa and Wapsipini- 
 con rivers: tho Iowa River, a large and navigable streani : 
 the Cedar River, which has rapiils and falls in a part of ils 
 course; tho Cheeauqua or Skunk River, a broad but not 
 very deep river; and tho Des Moines, a large and navigablo 
 river which enters the Mississippi at the S. E. corner of 
 the Slate. The rivers of \\w western drainage-slope, fall- 
 ing into the Missouri, are generjilly small. .Several ftf them, 
 as the Chariton, (irand, Platte, the Nodaway lurks, and 
 Nishnabatona rivers, rise in Iowa, but flow southward into 
 Missouri, and enter the Missouri River in that Stale; the 
 Little Sioux ami I'loyd are streams of moderate siie and 
 with broad fertile valleys, with few or no rocks or boulders 
 in their course, Thi' Ilig Sioux, which rises in D;ikota and 
 forms a considcraltlp portion of tho western boundary of 
 Iowa, is a large stream, with high and steep bluffs along a 
 portion of its course, but without rocks. It is navigable to
 
 1282 
 
 IOWA. 
 
 a poitit a little above the N. line of Iowa, where thero is a 
 series of rapids by which it descends 60 feet in the course 
 of h:ilf a mile. The Mississippi has two stretches of 
 rapids opposite Iowa — the lower, called the I)es Moines 
 Rapids, from Keokuk to Montrose, 12 miles in Icnjfth and 
 with a total descent of 25 feet ; and the upper, from Daven- 
 port to he Clairo. about 15 miles in icni^th, and having a 
 total cioscent of 26 feet. Tlie lakes are mostly small, and 
 in lhi> Kastcrn States would be called ponils; the jirincipal 
 are Spirit Lake, in Dickinson co., about 4 miles hmg, and 
 of the same width. It contains between 10 and 12 square 
 miles. It was the place of a terril)Ie tujissacrc of whites by 
 Indians in 1Sj7. Okoboji Lake in the same county is of 
 horseshoe form, and drains S[>irit Lake. It is narrow, but 
 the outside of the horseshoe is about lii miles in length. 
 Clear Lake in Cerro (rordo co. is -i miles long and 2 wide. 
 Storm Lake in Buena Vista co. is still smaller, having only 
 square miles, but of great beauty. There are also two or 
 three yet smaller lakes in Wright and Sac cos., which have 
 barriers of boulders, sand, and peat which have given them 
 the name of Walled Lakes. 
 
 Geoloffif. — With the exception of the rivcr-vallcys and 
 some small tracts, the surface of the State is covered to a 
 greater or less depth with diluvial or drift deposits, and 
 these again in some sections, as in the river-bottoms of the 
 great rivers, with alluvium or loam. But an examination 
 of the bluffs and rocky strata of the river-channels indi- 
 cates that there are accessible at least twenty different 
 geological formations, all of them, except a small outcrop 
 of Azoic rocks — Siou.x quartzite (in the extreme N. W. cor- 
 ner of the State) — occurring in regular succession from the 
 N. E. to the S. W. portion of the State, and being inclined at 
 such an angle or dip that each formation laps over the one 
 next below it in very regular order. In the N. E. there is 
 a tract extending from the sources of the Turkey River to 
 the mouth of the Maquoketa which belongs wholly to the 
 Lower Silurian system; all the formations of this system 
 dip toward the S. W. at such an angle that the Upper Si- 
 lurian laps over them just S. of the Turkey River. The 
 groups of Lower Silurian here developed are the Primor- 
 dial, represented successively by the Potsdam sandstone, 
 Lower Magnesian limestone, and St. Peter's sandstone; 
 the Trenton group, represented by the Trenton limestone 
 and the Galena limestone; and the Cincinnati group, of 
 which only the Maquoketa shales are recognizable here. 
 Tlie Upper Siluri.an system, which follows immediately 
 and overlaps the Lower Silurian, extends on the Missis- 
 sippi from just above the mouth of the Maquoketa River 
 to Davenport, but, though covering a breadth of two or 
 three counties near the river, narrows as it approaches tho 
 upper lino of tho State into a strip of not more than 6 or 
 8 miles in breadth. Hut one group and one formation of 
 this system is represented — viz. the Niagara limestone. A 
 broader band, and one of pretty uniform width, extending 
 on the Mississippi from Davenport to Muscatine, and run- 
 ning diagonally to tho northern boundary of the State, con- 
 sists of the Hamilton limestrjnc and shales, tho representa- 
 tive rocks of the Hamilton group of the Devonian system. 
 This, in turn, is overlapped by the Sub-carboniferous 
 group, represented here successively by the Kinderhook 
 beds, tho Burlington, the Keokuk, and the St. Louis lime- 
 stone. This extends from Muscatine to the Des Moines 
 River, and, following the Skunk River valley to the source 
 of that stream, stretches westward from Clear Lake in Cerro 
 Gordo CO. through Butler. Franklin, Wright, and Humboldt 
 cos. Tho Lower and Middle Coal-measures, which come 
 next, occupy a broad belt in the niidillc of the State, being 
 divided into two nearly equal portions by tho Des Moines 
 River. They yield large quantities of bituminous coal of 
 good quality. The Upper Coal-measures occupy tho whole 
 S. W. portion of the State except a tract in Montgomery 
 and Cass cos., where there is an outcrop of the Nishna- 
 batona sandstone, the lowest member of the Earlier Creta- 
 ceous group. In Woodbury and Plymouth cos. thero is 
 also an outcrop of Cretaceous rocks, consisting of the Wood- 
 bury sandstone and shales; and in <Iuthricand Greene cos. 
 there arc two others, in which the chalky beds arc very 
 prominent. Tho remainder of the State, comprising the 
 whole N. W., and inchiding tho greater part of twenty-six 
 counties, is covered so deeply with the overlying drift to a 
 thickness of from loO to 200'fcet that it may' fairly be con- 
 sidered as behmging to the Post-tertiary group. The 
 Sioux quartzite, a very bard brick-red rock belonging to 
 the Azoic system, is found only in ledges on the banks of 
 the Big Sioux, just before it crosses the boundary. In 
 Dakota and Minnesota this rock is abundant, and some 
 strata of it are used by the Indians for making redstoDc 
 pipes. 
 
 Minrrnfntfif. — The Iowa coal-field contains at least 7000 
 square miles, and on its S. AV. border dips down at a very 
 sm-ill au^lc under the upper or unproductive Coal-measures, 
 
 and may be mined in the section covered by these. A very 
 large number of coal-mines have been opened, mostly by 
 dri/titnj from the valley-side, though in some instances 
 shafts are sunk. The coal is bituminous ; canncl coal has 
 occasionally been found, but is too impure to be of any 
 value. Lead, the argentiferous galena ore, found in the 
 galena limestone, is mined in great quantities at Dubuque 
 and its vicinity, and smelted at the mines. There is 
 lead also in the Lower Magnesian limestone on the T'ppcr 
 Iowa River, but not in sufficient quantity to make mining 
 profitable. There are few other metals in Iowa. The iron oro 
 met with in various parts of the State is of good quality, but 
 the quantity is small and the mining unprofitable. Gyp- 
 sum is found in very great quantities at Fort Dodge and its 
 vicinity in the condition of stratified rock, and quarried 
 like ordinary limestone. It is largely exported. Building- 
 stone of fair quality is found E. of the Des Jloines River. 
 The Hamilton limestone, the sandstone of the Kinderhook 
 beds at Burlington, the Keokuk limestone, and the gray St. 
 Louis limcstoue. all furnish very good building-material. 
 Gypsum is also used for this purpose as it comes from the 
 quarries. Lime is manufactured largely from the lime- 
 stones and from the chalky beds. Brick-clay, potters' clay, 
 ami good building-sand are plentiful. 
 
 Vft/rtatiini. — The State contains a greater proportion of 
 tillable and fertile soil than almost any other in the Union. 
 With the exception of the small portion occupied by rivers, 
 lakes, ponds, and rocky bluffs, the whole surface is arable 
 and yields everywhere libera! crops. The surface is so 
 nearly level that agricultural machinery can be used every- 
 where, and the labor of planting and gathering crops is 
 thereby much facilitated. There are three descriptions of 
 soil in the State, all fertile, yet differing somewhat in their 
 characteristics: (1) The drift soil, formed of the surface 
 portion of the drift or diluvial deposit, consists of a dark 
 loam from one to three feet deep, and is found mostly on 
 the prairies. There are no stumps and very seldom any 
 stones in it, and it is very easily ploughed and cultivated 
 by machinery. It is so fertile that in many places, after 
 twenty years' cultivation without manure, it still vields 
 abundant crops ; it contains considerable clay, and is there- 
 fore classed as a moderately stiff soil. (2) The bluff soil is 
 the surface portion of the bluff deposit ; it is very fine, con- 
 tains less clay than the drift soil, and no stones or boulders. 
 It can be ploughed earlier than the drift, being drier, and 
 is fully as fertile, while it is deeper. (3) The alluvial soil, 
 found in the river-bottoms, consisting of the soil and de- 
 composed vegetable and animal matters brought down by 
 the floods, is the richest and most productive and durable 
 soil in the world. The area occupied by forests and wood- 
 land in Iowa is stated by the agricultural department to be 
 4.98J,G6S acres, or about one-eighth of the entire surface 
 of the State. The breadth of the State being but about 200 
 miles from N. to S., and the variations in its elevation so 
 trifling, there is very little climatic difference in the vege- 
 tation of the State. The persimmon and pawpaw do not 
 rijien their fruit N. of the parallel of Burlington, but there 
 are few other instances in which trees or plants do not 
 flourish equally well in all parts of the State, The most 
 common forest trees arc four or five kinds of oak, the com- 
 mon elm. Cottonwood, black walnut, hickory, sugar-maple, 
 soft maple, and linden. The buckeye, asjien. water-birch, 
 wild-::hcrry, ash, box-elder, white walnut or butternut, syc- 
 amore, and slippery elm, though occasionally found, are 
 less abundant. There arc a few pine trees in Ea.stern Iowa 
 on the sandstone bluffs, and some red cedar in similar sit- 
 uations. The chestnut, beech, and tulip tree arc not natives 
 of Iowa. The principal native fruits are wild grapes, 
 plums, crab-apples, cherries, blackberries, raspberries, 
 gooseberries, and strawberries, and among the nuts are 
 hickory and hazel nuts, black walnuts, butternuts, and a 
 few pecan nuts in the S. E. counties. The prairie-grass, 
 which is of fair quality, is used not only for pasturage, but 
 to a largo extent for ha^*, and is distinguished from that 
 obtained from tho cultivated grasses by the name of wifd 
 hai/. Thero is also a wild rice, of sonic value for nutriment, 
 and which is in great demand by aquatic and otlu'r birds, 
 which grows in the shallow ponds of Northern Iowa. The 
 cultivated crops are, among the grains, corn, wheat, oats, 
 barley, rye, and buckwheat. Of the first four the State ex- 
 ports very large quantities annually. Hay. ]»rincipally 
 timothy and red clover, is extensively made and exported, 
 and blue grass and white clover aro cultivated for lawns 
 and pasturage. Flax. hemp, and hops are crops of cou- 
 sid'^rablo importance. Sorghum is not so largely cultivated 
 as formerly. Potatoes are raised in great quantities both 
 for home consumption and export. Sweet potatoes are 
 grown successfully in the southern part of the State. Gar- 
 den vegetables of all kinds grow well in all parts Among 
 cultivated f-uits. appl*-? are very abundant and of excellent 
 quality. Three dozen varieties are recommended by the
 
 IOWA. 
 
 ris;] 
 
 ngricultural society, and largely raised throughout the 
 State. IVars grow well, and nre becoming plcutit'iiU but 
 peach trees are liable tw be killed by the jievore winters. 
 Grapes are grown snecessfully in all parts of tlie State, the 
 Catawba and t'oneofl bein-j; the most common varieties. 
 Plums succeed wpM where the eurculio docs not dc^^troy the 
 fruit. The small fruits, gooseberries, raspberries, currants, 
 and strawberries, are cultivated with great success. Much 
 attention is paid to tree-culture, ami many foreign trees 
 have been introduced with excellent result. The Osngc 
 orange is much used for hedges in Southern Iowa, but docs 
 not succeed so well in the nortliern counties. 
 
 Zooloffy. — The rapicl settlement of the State has driven 
 out most of the larger wild animals; the buffalo nnd elk, 
 both formerly abundant in Iowa, have now disapjiearcd, 
 thouijh at long intervals a .«tray elk from l)akota appears 
 in the X. W. of the State. Doer are occasionally found in 
 the wooded districts, but they arc not plentiful. The blaek 
 liear was never very abundant in tlic State, and both lie 
 and the panther liave long since disapi)cared. The large 
 gray wolf and the wild-cat are very rare, and the mischiev- 
 ous coyote or prairie wolf is fast disappearing. There are 
 a very few beavers and otters in some of the rivers, and 
 tnuskrats, minks, raccoons, foxes, and opo^^sunis are not 
 very rare. The bir<ls common in all the Northern States 
 arc plentiful in Iowa, and there arc a few which ;ire rare 
 in other States. Havens arc occasionally seen in tlie nortli- 
 ern counties, the yellow-headed blackhinl in the north- 
 western ])art of the State, and paroquets in the southern 
 tier of counties: among the game hinls, wild-turkeys and 
 partridges or ruffed grouse are often found in the wooded 
 districts, and prairie-hens in great number in the prairies 
 which are as yet unreclaimed. Quails, snipe, and wood- 
 cock are plentiful in their season, and some curlews are 
 found, (rfcse. swans, and ducks visit the ponds and rivers 
 of the State in spring and autumn in great numbers. The 
 rivers of the .State yieM great quantities of excellent fisli, 
 among which are found the salmon, the lake-trout, white- 
 fish, brook-trout, troutlct, brown and commoa catfish, 
 perch, roach, etc. 
 
 nimntt. — The very slight differcnee of elevation in tho 
 surface of the State causi-s the climate to be very uniform, 
 tho variety being only that of the diffcrenco in latitude and 
 the small variation in altitude. The growing season of vege- 
 tation commences about ten days carlicron the southern than 
 on the northern boundary. The average amount of rainfall 
 docs not vnry so much as has been supposed from that on 
 tho Atlantic coast. Observations continued for thirty-two 
 years make tho mean annual rainfall fincluding the rciluc- 
 tion of the snow to water) 12 inches for Iowa, while that 
 of the same latitude on tho Atlantic coast is about 4^) inches. 
 Less snow falls in Towa than upon tin; Atlantic coast, but 
 there is sufficient for several weeks' sleighing every winter. 
 Both tho Mississippi and Missouri generally freeze over 
 opposite Iowa, and remain closed for two or three months 
 in the winter. There have been but two winters in the past 
 thirty-two in whieh they rliil not freeze over entirely, and 
 in both these they remained open only below Davenport. 
 All the small rivers freeze over solidly every winter. Ob- 
 servations of temperature continued from IS.'iS to 1870 at 
 Muscatine and Iowa City, both on nearly tlie same parallel, 
 give the following results : The maximum of summrr heat 
 occurred in July. 1870, when it reached 100° F., and the 
 greatest winter cold in Jan., 1857, when the mercury in tlic 
 thermometer stood at —'10° F. The mean average tempera- 
 ture for each month of theyear for the whole thirty -two years 
 was as follows: Jan., I'oo F. : Feb., 1.':*° ; Miir.,* ."ij^ ; Apr., 
 -19°; Mav, .Vjo ; June. r.fi° ; July. 7:1°: Aug., 71°; Sept.. 
 6rt°; Oct., .^0°; Nov.. 20° ; Dec, 24°. The average annual 
 temjierattirc for the whole thirty-two years was 47° 57' F. 
 The mean temperature of the spring wns 47° 41' ; of the 
 summer. 70° IS"' ; of autunin, 44° It'l' ; and of winter 2;'.° 
 "^'i'. Tho following items in regard to the temperature of 
 Keokuk, in tho extreme S. K. corner of tlio State, are for 
 the year from Oct., 1872, to Oct.. 187.*{, and are from the 
 chief stgnal-oflicer'a report : Monthly rnngo of the ther- 
 mometer, Oct.. 58° ; Nov., fi;t° : Dec, 71°; .Ian., 7.^° ; Feb., 
 r>0°: Mar.. 74°: Apr., 51°; May, 4:!° ; June. 47° ; Julv, 
 40°; Aug.. 4fi°; Sept.. 49°. Mean monthly temperature, 
 0?t.. 5.x5°; Nov.. :U.ft° ; Dec. 20.5°; Jan.. 17.fi°; Feb.. 
 20.1°: Mar.,:!S.7°; Apr., 48.5°: May. 01.5°; Junc.77.9°: 
 July, 70.:i°; Aug.. 78.7° ; Sept.. 0.1.9°. Monthly rainfall. 
 0-t., 0.42; Nov., 0.74; Dec, 0.50; Jan., .l.:tl : Feb., 0..W ; 
 Mar., 0.51; Apr., 5.05 : May, :{ri2 ; June, 1. 21: July, 8.77; 
 Aug., 0.54; Sept.. It. ^7 — anniml rainfall, 28.97. Iowa is 
 witliin the zone of variable winds. In the thirly-l wo years 
 referred to the wind blew on an average 70 days from the 
 N. X. E. : 70 from the K. S. IC. ; 105 from the S. S. W. ; 
 II t from the AV. nnd \. X. W.. making 219 <lay« of west- 
 erly winds and 1 10 of easterly winds. The avt-rajre time 
 of the first flowering of ajqile trees at Muscatine is May 0; 
 
 at Dubuque, about a degree N., May 12. Iowa ranks high 
 among the healthiest States of the I'nion. 
 
 Af/riciiitiintl Products. — The amount of land in farms in 
 1870, according to the census, was 15,541,79.'! acres. Of 
 this, 9. .'590,467, or a little more than one-fourth of the area 
 of tlie State, were improved, and G,I45,.'J20acres unimproved 
 land. The average size of farms was i.'i4 acres. The value 
 of farms was $:!92.fifi2,441. and of farming implements and 
 machinery, ?20, 509,582. The value of all farm productions 
 was $114,380,441 ; of animals slaughtered and sold for 
 slaughter, $25,781,22.3; of home manufactures, $521,404; 
 of forest products, $1,200. 4(58; of market-garden products, 
 $244,903; of orchard products. $1,075,109; amount of 
 wages paid during the year, $9,377,878. Towa was in 1870 
 the largest wheat-growing State in the Vnion except Illi- 
 nois, her wheat crop that j'ear amounting to 28.708,312 
 bushels of spring wheat and 727,380 bushels of winter 
 wheat. The rye crop amounted to 505,807 bushels : that 
 of lu'lian corn to 68,935,005 bushels, being second only to 
 Illinois in this crop; the oat crop was 21,005,142 bushels; 
 the barley crop, 1,900,779 bushels; nnd the buckwlieat, 
 109,432 bushels. In 1872 the production of wheat had 
 fallen off somewhat, and Iowa occupied tlie fifth place, her 
 wheat product being in round numliers 22.080.01)1) liushcls. 
 Her Indinn corn prtiduct iiad increased, but that of other 
 Stat?s h;id increased in a still greater ratio, and she ranked 
 third in that crop, producing 101,989.000 bushels. Of rye 
 the crop of 1872 was 533,000 bushels; of oats. 19.934,000 
 bushels, a falling off of over 1,000,000 bushels : of harlev, 
 2,104,000 bushels; of buckwheat. 102,000 bushels; the po- 
 tato crop, which in 1870 was 5.914,020 bushels, had in- 
 creased in 1872 to 0,031,000 bushels, aside from about 
 50,000 bushels of sweet potatoes raised in Southern Iowa. 
 The hay crop, whieh in 1870 was 1.777,339 tons, in 1S72 
 had fallen oft' to 1,001,000 tons. The value of these prod- 
 ucts in 1872 was estimated (prolialily an untlercsti- 
 matc) at $53,158,530, Of other agrieullural products we 
 have no statistics later than those of the census of 1S70. 
 when tho State produced 095,518 pounds of flax, 2,907,043 
 pounds of wool, 171.113 pounds i>f hops, 71.792 pounds of 
 tobacco, 15 hogsheads of sorghum-sugar, 140.490 pounds of 
 maple-sugar, 1.218,630 ga lion sofsorghum -molasses ( the crop 
 of sorghum-molasses in 1872 was reported aj 3,500,500 gal- 
 lons), 9315 gallons of maple-mtilasses. 42,313 bushels of 
 peas and beans, 2225 pounds of beeswax, 853.213 pounds 
 of honey, 37,518 gallons of domestic wine, 2475 bushels of 
 clover-sced, 88.021 bushels of flaxseed. 53,432 bushels of 
 grass-seed. The value of all live-stock in tlie State in 1870 
 was reported as $82,987,133; the number of horses as 
 433.042; of mules and asses, 25.485; of milch cows as 
 369.811; of working oxen. 22,058; of other cattle, 014,300 ; 
 of siiccp. 855,493 ; of swine, 1,353,908. In 1873. according 
 to the report of tho Iowa State Agricultural Society, tho 
 following were the numbers and aggregate value of the 
 live-stock: horses, 634,400, valued at $(0,506,440; mules 
 and asses, 36,400, valued at $2,054,052; oxen and other 
 cattle. 820,000, worth $19,196,200; niileh cows. 537,300, 
 valued at $15,130,368; sheep. 1.708,000, worth $1,278,500; 
 swine, 3,817,700, valued at $17,199,219; making the entire 
 valuation of live-stock in Jan.. 1873, of $98,984,439. The 
 dairy products of Iowa in 1870 were 27.512,179 jjounds of 
 butter, 1.087,741 pounds of cheese, 088.800 gallons of milk 
 sold. These have been very largely increased within tho 
 past four years. 
 
 Afftnu/dt'titrhiff Indni^try. — The increase in manufacturcB 
 in Iowa has been very rapid. The very imperfeet returns 
 of manufactures in the census of 1870 give the State 0566 
 manufacturing estaldishments, driven by 899 steam-engines 
 of 25.298 horse-[)ower. anrl 720 water wheels of 14.240 
 horse-po\vcr, employiuf; in all 25,0;t2 operatives, of whom 
 23,395 were men. 951 women, and 080 children, using cap- 
 ital estimated (very mueh bebiw the Irulb) at $22.120, 1S3, 
 paying for wages $6,893,292. using raw material to the value 
 of* $27,682,096. and producing K*»"ds worth $16,534,322. 
 The prohal)iIity is that the annual product of the man- 
 ufaetoriesof the State is now not less than $100,000.1)00. ' 
 Of ihese products, the first in rank nre flour and flour- 
 ing-mill products : in 1870 tlui'C were 300 flouring-njills, 
 employin;; 1298 hands and $4,351,233 ciipital, using 
 $9,385,363 of raw material, and producing $1 2.298,882 of 
 flour and meol. Xext in importance was the manufacture 
 of lumber, whieh was eonducteil in 339 milts, emidoying 
 3128 hands, auii a capital estimated at $3,711,031. u'sin;,' 
 raw materiiil valued at $3,803,405, and jiroducint; luinl-er 
 valued at $6,237,415. (^arriages ami wagons were rep-irted 
 matio in 419 establishments, by 1602 emplny6s, of the an- 
 nual value of $1,952,143; woollen goods, in 68 mills, by 
 1038 hands, to the value of $1,501,341. Cut meats were 
 paeked in 10 eslal)lishments. by 328 hands, to the value nf 
 $1.19O.4H0; sadiUery and harness in 325 establishments, bv 
 879 hands, to tho value of $1.1 10,852 ; clothing, 190 cstal-
 
 1284 
 
 IOWA. 
 
 lishmcnts, to the value of $1,003,732; agricultural imple- 
 ments and machinery iu 56 establishments, by 562 hands, 
 to the value of $SL*y,y05 ; malt liquors in 101 breweries, to 
 the value of $992,818 ; furniture in 223 establishments, by 
 959 hands, to the amount of $981,091 ; tin, copper, and 
 sheet-iron ware, in 231 shops, employing 609 hands, to the 
 amount of $758,011 ; printinf;^ and publishing in 07 offices, 
 to the amount of $618,752; 20 machine-shops, etnploying 
 500 hands, jiroduced steam-engines, etc. to tiie value of 
 $017,113: iron eastings, to the amount of $532,789; sash, 
 doors, and blinds, 31 factories, producing $467,586 ; coop- 
 erage, 136 shops, producing $452,388; brick, 110 kilns, 
 making bricks to the value of $425,919 ; and 53 boot and 
 shoe shops, producing goods to the value of $423,283. The 
 only other considerable industries were ihe bakeries, 58 in 
 number, whicli produced gooils to the value of $315,530, 
 and tobacco and cigar factories, of which there were 71, 
 producing cigars, etc. to the amount of $377,773. 
 
 Minhifj /m/iistrt/. — Iowa has a considerable mining and 
 quarrying interest, conilnod almost exclusively to coal, lead, 
 and gypsum. In 1870 there were 131 of these mining es- 
 tablishments, employing 1028 hands and an estimated cap- 
 ital of $756,224, paying wages to the amount of .$656,714, 
 and producing the articles mined or quarried to the value 
 of $1,063,484. 
 
 Rnilrutuls. — .\t the close of the year 1873 there were 
 3800 miles of completed railroad in the State, 409 miles 
 having been added since Jan., 1872. The principal rail- 
 
 roads are summarized in the following — the Chicago Rock 
 Island and Pacific, connecting iJavenport with Council 
 Bluffs. 300 miles; the Burlingt<in Cedar Rapids and Min- 
 nesota, connecting Burlington with Plymouth, 229 miles, 
 and Plymouth with Austin, 32 miles; the Burlington and 
 Missouri River, 349 miles ; the Cedar Falls and Minnesota, 
 running from Waterloo to the Minnesota t-tate line, 75.5 
 miles : the Cedar Rapids and Missouri, connecting Cedar 
 Rapids with Omaha. \cb., 271.5 miles, and Clinton with 
 Lyons, 2.5 miles; the Central Iowa, running from the 
 northern to the southern State line, and forming a portion 
 of the line connecting St. Paul, Minn., with St. Louis, 203 
 miles ; the Chicago Iowa and JJebraska, connecting Clinton 
 with Cedar Rapids, 81.5 miles; the Chicago and South- 
 western, from Washingtnn to Leavenworth. Kan.. 271 
 miles ; the Dos Moines Valley, from Keokuk to Des Moines, 
 248.5 miles; the Dubuque and Siiiu.v City. 143 miles; the 
 Dubuque .and South-western, from Farley to Cedar Rapids, 
 54.75 miles; the Iowa Falls and Sioux City, 184 miles; 
 ' and the .Sioux City and Pacific, from Sioux City to Fre- 
 mont, Neb., 107 miles. Besides these there are numerous 
 I short connecting lines. With these great highways trav- 
 j ersing every part of the State, and her eastern and western 
 I boundaries washed by two great rivers, Iowa has excol- 
 ] lent commercial facilities. The following table, compiled 
 from Poor's Unilrund ^^^nnal far 1S74-75, gives the condi- 
 tion of the railroads of Iowa about the beginning of Jan., 
 I 1874 :'« 
 
 NAum OF 
 
 Bailkoads. 
 
 Mnia All 
 
 and I otber 
 
 braocb. tracks. 
 
 BurlingtoQ Cedar Rapids 
 aod MianesciU 
 
 Burlingtoti and South- 
 western 
 
 Cednr Falls and MIddc- 
 sola 
 
 Cednr Rapids and Mis- 
 suuri River 
 
 Central (of Iowa) 
 
 Chicago Clinton and Du- 
 btiquc I 
 
 Chicago Dubuque aud 
 Minnesota 
 
 Cliicago Iowa and Ne- 
 braska 
 
 Davvnporl and St. Paul 
 
 Des Moiaea and Port, 
 Dodge ! 
 
 De3 Moines Valley f . . . . ' 
 
 Dubuque and iSioux City 
 
 Dubuque South -western 
 
 Iowa Fall.t and Sioux 
 
 City 
 
 Iowa Midland 
 
 Keokuk and Dei Moines 
 Missouri Iowa and Ne- 
 braska 
 
 Sioux City and PaciBc. 
 ToWl. 
 
 Milea. 
 
 389.73 
 
 1 16.60 
 
 73.60 
 
 274.00 
 189.00 
 
 60.00 
 
 ISi.OO 
 
 81.80 
 156.00 
 
 147.90 
 55. UO 
 
 IB4.00 
 71.40 
 161.50 
 
 Miles. 
 
 14.00 
 40.00 
 3.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 15.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 11.00 
 
 17.90 
 10.00 
 
 14.60 
 
 3.70 
 
 6.60 
 14.00 
 
 3.373.55 ' 'J01.50 
 
 OBMBRAL LtABILtTISS. 
 
 2,000,000 
 1,587,000 
 7,6:90.000 
 
 960.000 
 3.500.000 
 3,916,200 
 
 4.000,000 
 
 6,000.000 
 1,180.805 
 
 4.625,000 
 
 3.9^4,666 
 
 1. 500.000 
 2,Oeft.5O0 
 
 882,000 5.882.000 
 
 5-i8,500 I 1.709,305 
 
 2.960.000 7.585.000 
 
 1. 314.000 I 1.311.000 
 
 2.153.720 1 6,078,320 
 
 2,000.000 
 1.628.000 I 
 
 3.500.000 
 3.696,500 
 
 43.292.010 '84.174.115 
 
 2.000.000 
 3,6%,500 
 
 87,941 
 33,316 
 61,360 
 
 
 300.000 
 
 40,000 
 
 1SJ,I«8 
 
 si.oei 
 
 114,942 
 
 400.000 
 133,000 
 
 30,013 
 9!.020 
 
 300,000 
 50,000 
 
 2;i,199 
 41,31'i 
 
 146,318 
 30,000 
 
 Gboss Ear-mnqs. 
 
 
 From 
 freight. 
 
 S 
 
 All 
 other. 
 
 ToUI 
 amouDt. 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 700,000 
 
 59,809 
 
 1,059,809 
 
 69,135 
 
 
 
 109,135 
 
 85,074 
 
 
 129,750 
 
 1,250.000 
 441,000 
 
 .■,1.773 
 41,053 
 
 1.701,773 
 615,053 
 
 65,103 
 
 4,16S 
 
 108,172 
 
 1011,9.18 
 
 22,901 
 
 313,859 
 
 700,000 
 130,000 
 
 5«,-'92 
 9,369 
 
 1,056, '292 
 189.369 
 
 551.000 
 
 
 751.000 
 
 800.287 
 73,120 
 
 'fts-a 
 
 1,071.486 
 
 122,961 
 
 262.250 
 50.000 
 
 'V.rei 
 
 408.568 
 84.781 
 
 169,507 
 
 8,962 
 
 261,930 
 
 2.790,279 
 
 145,422 
 
 7,983,988 
 
 Earningg 
 
 le<* 
 opcraling 
 expenses. 
 
 % 
 
 414,415 
 
 112,000 
 559,555 
 
 31.312 
 153,802 
 396,110 
 
 149.413 
 
 142.999 
 
 1.980 
 
 Fimtnces. — In 1870 the assessed valuation of real and 
 personal estate was $.302, .51.5, 418, and the estimated true 
 valuation, $717,644,750. The taxation for all ]iur|ioses, 
 8tate, county, city, town, etc., was $9, OS,'!, 014. of which the 
 State received only $8.32,918, the counties, $3,0:>2,y:il. and 
 the towns, cities, etc., $.0,169,703. The .State had no debt, 
 but the debts of the counties were $.3,732,929, and of the 
 towns, cities, etc., $3,775,706. The fiscal reports of the 
 treasurer and auditor are made up biennially. The latest 
 is that of Nov. 15, 1873. The treasurer had received dur- 
 ing the two years ending with that date, including a bal- 
 ance of $81,740.84 on hand at the beginning of the bien- 
 nial period, $2,211,318.35, and had disbursed in the same 
 time $2,180,100.69, leaving at the close of the fiscal year a 
 balance of $31,217.60. The estimated receipts for the next 
 two years were $1,973,800, and the expenditures provided 
 for by law amounted to $1,474,000, leaving $499,800 to be 
 applied for sgieeial purposes. The amount of taxation for 
 all purposes under Ihe levy of 1872 was $10,711,925.49, or 
 2.94 per cent, of the valuation. This valuation amounted 
 to $3G9.S49.503.9I, which would make the true valuation 
 about $863,11110, out). The amount of the permanent school 
 fund is $3,294,742.83, an increase of $133,249.82 since 1871. 
 There were patented in 1871-73. 48,817.08 acres of achool 
 lands, 2320 acres of university lands, and 1 1,013.43 acres of 
 swamp-lands. The selection of swamp-lands made in the 
 several counties under the act of Congress of 1872 amount- 
 ed to 865,770.46 acres. The entire grants made within the 
 State for railroads and other internal improvements now 
 amount to 4,898,608.88 acres. 
 
 Commerrt, — The .State has a port of entry at Dubuque, 
 with a fine custom-house built by the l". .S. government. 
 Its internal and inter-.State commerce has been estimated 
 on good authority to exceed $500,000,000 annually. 
 
 Bauki, Savings ]ia»f:8 lusurancc CompcinieSf c/c— There 
 
 are 80 national banks in operation in Iowa. They had, Nov. 
 1, 1874. $6,261,480 capital paid in. $0,095,000 bonds on 
 deposit, $7,984,805 circulation issued, of which $5,002,869 
 was outstanding. There were also 20 .State banks, having 
 an aggregate capital of $1,200,000, and deposits amount- 
 ing to $2,898,954.58. There were IS savings banks, with 
 capital and deposits of $1,247,600. There were also 163 
 private banking-houses. There were 8 fire insurance com- 
 panies in the State in July. 1873, 2 of them mutual; the 
 capital of the stock companies was $.335,025. and the 
 assets of all about $908,000. During the year ending 
 May 15, 1873. the amount of premiums received by these 
 companies was $362,026.15, the amount of losses paid, 
 $90,016.95. The aggregate expenditures were $273,978.09, 
 the aggregate income from all sources, $425,943.74. Fifty 
 companies from other States received during the same year 
 $1,029,102.94 in premiums, and paid for losses $386,378.14. 
 There is but one life insurance ei)mpany in the ,^tate, organ- 
 ized in 1807 with $100,000 cai)ilal, which had $180,650 as- 
 sets in .Tuly, 1873. In the year precc<ling it had issued 282 
 new policies and received $45,813.29 in premiums, covering 
 insurances to the amount of $425,021. Forty-one life in- 
 surance companies of other .States did business in Iowa, re- 
 ceiving $1,037,622.34 in premiums and paying $231,531.09 
 in losses. 
 
 Populnlitm. — Iowa has but a brief history, and its record 
 of population dates back but about forty years. The 
 whites were first permitted to settle within the present 
 limits of the State in .lune, 1833, and very few actual set- 
 tlements were made before 1834. In 1840 there were 43,112 
 
 •In the year 1R74 the railroads had increased till their mileage 
 in Jan.. IR75, was 4314.4:), and the cost of roads, equipment, etc., 
 $142,:n9,729. 
 
 t Operated by the Burlington and South-western It. R.
 
 IOWA. 
 
 12S.3 
 
 iobabitanU; in 184G^ when it was admitted ns a State, 
 97,588; in I860 the number of inhabitiints was 192.214; 
 iu 1860. 671,913; in 1870, 1,194,020; in IS7;J, by State 
 census, I,2Jl,.'i:;.'J. The immij^ration, except in the new 
 counties, is very nearly balanced by the emitrrntinu to Mis- 
 souri and the States and Territories farther \V. The density 
 of the population to the square mile was in 1830, 3,49 : in 
 1860, 12.26 ; in 1870, 21.69 ; iu 1873, 22.73. The number 
 of families in 1S50 was 33,517, areragin;; 5.73 persons to 
 a family; in i860. 124,098 families, averaging 5.44 to a 
 family : in 1870. 222.430 families, averaging 5.37 to a fam- 
 ily. Of the 1.194.020 inhabitants of the Slate in 1870, 
 939,323 were natives of the U. S., and 204,692 of foreign 
 birth. Of those born in the U. S.. 410,139 were partially 
 or wholly of foreign parentage, and 360,971 h:id both 
 fatlier and mother of foreign birth. Of tluigc who were 
 natives of the U. S., 428,620 were born in the State, 126,285 
 in Ohio, 79,143 in New York, 73,435 in Pennsylvania, 
 65,391 in Illinois, 64,083 in Indiana, 24.309 in Wisconsin, 
 19,563 in Virginia, 14.|Sfi jn Kentmtky, 13,831 in Misi^uuri. 
 12,204 in Vermont, 8929 in Massachusetts, 8918 in Michi- 
 ffan, 5185 in Connecticut, 5688 in New Jersey, 5090 in 
 North Carolina, 5060 in New Hampshire, 5943 in Maine, 
 5972 in Maryland, and less than 11)1)0 in any other State. 
 Of the 204,692 persons of foreign birth in the State, 66,102 
 were from the different German states, 65,442 from Great 
 Britain and Ireland (of whom 40,124 were from Ireland, 
 17,907 from British America, mostly from Canada), 17,556 
 from Norway, 10,796 from Sweden, 2827 from Denmark, 
 6766 from Bohemia. 4513 from Holland, 3937 from Switz- 
 erland, 3130 from France. 2691 from Austria, 1314 from 
 Luxemburg, 050 from Belgium, and 598 from all other 
 countries. There wore 5762 colored persons (3099 males 
 and 2663 females) in the State, Of the white population, 
 which numbered 1,188,207, 622.786 were males and 565,421 
 females. Of the native population, 510,864 were males and 
 478,464 females; of the foreign-born, 115,053 were males 
 and 89,630 females. There were but 48 Indians in the 
 State, of whom 29 were males and 19 females. Of the 
 625,917 males in Iowa, 210,769 were of military age (be- 
 tween 18 and 45 years); of these, 173,060 were of native 
 and 67,709 of foreign birth; 1425 were colored; 290,717 
 were of the age of citizenship (21 years old and upward), 
 and of these, 255,802 were citizens. There were 394,696 
 persons of school ago (5 to 18 years), of whom 201,531 
 were males and 193,165 females. According to the State 
 census of 1873. there were at that time 491,344 persons of 
 school age in the Sdite. but the school age prescribed by 
 the State is between 5 and 21 years. 
 
 Educntiun. — In 1S70 there were, according to the census, 
 306.353 persons who attended the schools of the State, pub- 
 lic and private, during some portion of the year. Of these, 
 13,000 were of foreign birth. There were 160.269 while 
 male and 1 15.121 white female scholars; and 661 colored, 
 of whom 346 were males and 315 females; there were also 
 2 Indiiin j)itpils. The number of inhabitants of all races, 
 10 years old and over, unable to read and write wiis 45.671, 
 of whom 20.092 were of foreign birth and 44,145 were 
 whites ; of these, 5858 (3401 males and 2-157 females) were 
 from 10 to 15 years of ago: 3680 (2014 males and 1636 
 females) were from 15 to 21 years of age ; and 34,007 
 (11,782 males imd I9,S25 females) were over 21 years of 
 age. Of the 1524 colored illiterates, 70 (32 males and 38 
 females) were from 10 to 15 years of age; 146 (71 males 
 and 75 females) were from 15 to 21 years of age, and 1308 
 (635 males and 673 females ) were over 21 years. The wholo 
 n urn her of educational institutions in 1870 was 7496, having 
 9319 teachers (3650 males and 5663 females) and 217.654 
 pupils (105,665 males and I1I.9S9 females). The total in- 
 come of these was $3,570,093, of whirdi $63,150 was derived 
 from endowment, $3,347,029 fr«:n taxation and public 
 funds, ami $159,314 from tuition and other sources. Thoro 
 were 7322 public schools, with 8S66 teachers (of whom 
 3381 were males and 5|S5 females), and 205,923 pupils 
 (100,308 males and 105.615 females). The total income of 
 these public Schools was $3,245,352. of which $3100 was 
 derived from end<»wment, $3,241,752 from taxation and 
 public funds, and $500 from tuition ami other sources. 
 According to the census, there were 21 colleges, with 139 
 teacher.'? (109 males and 30 females) and 3061 students 
 (1685 nmles and 1376 females). The tniul income of thcso 
 colleges was $101,950, of which $54,000 was derived from 
 endowment, $10,000 from taxation and public funds, and 
 $37,950 from tuition and other source;'. There wore 34 
 acailcmies. with 10;[ teachers ( 40 nuiles and 57 females) and 
 2333 pupils (1019 males and 1314 females), and an income 
 of $55,880, derived from tuition nnd other sources. There 
 were also 100 hoarding and day schools (private schools), 
 having 136 teachers (61 males and 72 femalefjand 4872 
 pupils (1741 males ami 3131 females), and an income of 
 $38,550, derived from tuition and other sources. The pub- 
 
 lic-school statistics to the beginning of the year 1873 were : 
 number of ungraded schools, 8163 ; of graded schools. 400 ; 
 of persons between 5 and 21 years of age, 474,350 (males 
 243.522, females 230.828) ; scholars enrolled in Iho schools, 
 349,633 ; average attendance, 21S.13I : average time schools 
 are taught. 6 months and 14 days; number of teachers, 
 15,193 (males 5888, females 9305); average compensation 
 of male teachers, $36 per month ; of female teachers, $29.32 
 
 per month : average cost of tuition per week for each pupi 
 5>0.42 ; number of school-houses, 8235 ; total value of school 
 houses, $7,460,3SI,I9. By the State census of 1873 the 
 number of persons of school ago in the State was reported 
 as 491.344, and there was an increase of 932 school districts. 
 The total amount expended in 1S73-74 for school purposes 
 was $1,229,455. There is a State university at Iowa City, 
 which has 32 professors, 263 .sturlents, besides the normal 
 class, and 4 departments — collegiate, normal, law. and med- 
 ical. Its assets are $232,221.50. and its income for the two 
 years ending June 3, 1873, $122,041.29. Its expenses from 
 June21,lS7I,to(>et.I, 1873, were$103,4 15.93. There is to bo 
 a department of dental medicine established iu connection 
 with it. It still holds 7810 acres of its land-grant, which 
 are valued at nearly $30,000. The agricultural college at 
 Ames was organized iu 1869. It ha? 12 professors, 220 
 students, and has good buildings and the avails of 240,000 
 acres of government lands, of which, however, 22,765 are 
 not yet leased or sold. It has received considerable appro- 
 priations from the State. There are 16 universities and 
 colleges (only 3 of them, however, having post-graduate 
 or professional schools — viz. Iowa AVcsleyan University, 
 Cornell College, and (Iriswold College) which are not Stato 
 institutions. Of these, 4 are under the patronage of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church. 3 under that of the Bajitists, 
 % Lutheran, 2 Congregational, I Friends, 1 Episcopal, 1 
 Christian, and I undenominational. Iowa College, the 
 oldest, dates back to 1848; the others range between 1854 
 and 1870. Thc!-c colleges have about 130 professors, and 
 about 1850 students, and libraries containing over 40,000 
 volumes. There is a scientific department to Cornell Col- 
 lego; theological departments to (iriswold College and 
 Iowa Wcsleyan I'niversity, the Wartburg Lutheran Thcti- 
 logical Seminary at Casstown, and the German Hcfurrncd 
 Theological Seminary of the Norlh-wcst at I>uliuquc ; law 
 departments to Iowa State and to Iowa Weslcyau univer- 
 sities ; a medical department of Iowa State University at 
 Iowa City ; a college of physicians and surgeons at Keokuk ; 
 an<l a department of pharmacy of the I<»wa Wcsleyan Uni- 
 versity at Mount Pleasant. There are 5 or 6 academies of 
 high grade at Davenport, Duhuquc, Denmark, and Irving. 
 Of training or normal schools, there are dejiurtmenis at- 
 tached to tile State University, to Iowa College at (irinnell, 
 and to M'hittier College nt Salem. In theto in 1872 there 
 wore 225 students. Of special schools of education, there 
 is the Iowa college for the blind at Vinton, with 112 stu- 
 dents and 32 teachers and empIoy«^s, property of the es- 
 timated value of $250,000, and an annual inconie Uiwix the 
 State of $24,000 : the institution for the deaf ami dumb at 
 Council Bluffs, with 6 instructors and 119 pupils, juuperty 
 valued at $179,000, and an income of $25,000 from the 
 State; the soldiers' orjdian homes, three in number, at 
 Daven]i(nt, Cedar Ealls, and Glenwood, with 508 children 
 in their care and nn annual expense of $146,050; n State 
 reform school for boys at Eldora. on a farm of 44 acres, 
 the buildings costing $90,000. and having 145 boys in 
 charge; a girls* reform school near Salem In Lee eo., on a 
 small farm, with II Inmates. The State prison at Fort 
 Madison has 276 prisoners ; a new one has been established 
 at Anamosa. where there arc 25 prisoners. There are 2 in- 
 sane hospitals in the Slate; that at Mt. Pleasant had in 
 Nov., 1873, 495 patients, and its expenses for the two years 
 preceding had hecn $229,441.25. The new hospital at In- 
 dependence is not yet completed, but at the close of 1873 
 had 152 patients. 
 
 StatiKtirit of Cn'mc. — The whido number of convicts in 
 prison during the year ending June 1. 1870. is stated to 
 have been 615, of whom 397 — 287 natives (273 white and 
 14 colored) and 110 persons of foreign birth — remained in 
 prison .luno 1, 1870. This can only refer to the Stato pen- 
 itentiaries, for in these, as we have seen, there were in 1873 
 over 300 prisoners, or if the reform schools are included, 
 457 prisoners. The 99 county jails and the several city 
 penitentiaries and police prisons can hardly have been 
 without inmates. 
 
 Lihiuiri>». — In lS70thero wore 3540 libraries, public and 
 private, containing 653,600 vidumes, of which 1153 were 
 puldie lihraries, containing 377,851 volumes. Of these, the 
 State library at Des Moines has 11,000 volumes; 23 town 
 and city libraries, 22. SOS volumes; II court and law llbra- 
 rie^i, I'll volumes; 15 school and collego libraries, 18,747 
 I volumes; 10S4 church and Sunday school libraries, with 
 I 303,835 volumes; 1 literary society, with 150 volumes; IS
 
 1286 
 
 IOWA. 
 
 circulating libraries, with 20,3C7 volumes. The 2.'iS7 pri- 
 vate libraries ba.l au aggregate of 295,749 volumes. 
 
 Ncw<,><n)rr8.—Xa I S70 there were 2:j:i newspapers ot all 
 clas'^es in the Stale, issuing annually 1 6,403,380 copies, anJ 
 bavin" an aggregate circulation of 219,090. The number 
 in 1874 exceeds 300, and the circulation has increased eor- 
 rcsnondinglv. Of those published in 1S70, 22 were dailies, 
 with an a""grcgate circulation of 19,800; 3 tri-weeklies, 
 with a circulation of IfiiO; 1 scmi-weckly, with a eircula- 
 tion of 1000; 19G weeklies, with a circulation ol 1S,,N4II; 
 .1 semi-monthlies, with 3400 circulation : ,') monthlies, with 
 3950 circulation; 2 bi-monthlies, with 750 circulation ; and 
 1 quarterly, with 700 circulation. 
 
 rinirchc— In 1S70 there were reported by the census 
 27R3 churches, with 1446 church edifices. 431,709 sittings, 
 and $5,730,3.52 of church property. Of these, the Baptists 
 had 352 churches, 165 church edifices, 50,690 sittings, 
 $668,900 of church property. In 1S73, according to the 
 Hnpt!,t Ycv Uoolc for 1875, the regular Baptists had 3, J 
 churches, 252 ordained ministers, 20,734 niembcrs, 2o4 
 Sundav schools, 20,541 teachers and scholars, 20,o4() vol- 
 umes in Sundav school libraries, and ?1 26,025 of benevo- 
 lent contributions, aside from church expenses. There arc 
 a considerable number of churches of the minor Ba.ptist 
 denominations, as Mennonites, Tunkers, " Church of t.od. 
 etc in the State, enumerated with Baptists m the census, 
 but not in the Yeur Iio„k statistics. The Christian Con- 
 nection had, including also the " Disciples, m ISiO, ac- 
 cording to the census. 113 churches, 48 church ediltces, 
 15,750 sittings, and $124,450 of church property. The 
 Concre^ationalists had 187 churches, 125 church edifices 
 33,925 sittings, and $529,570 of church property. In 18,4 
 they had. according to the CM,fircr,„l,o,ml Qnaricr(y,^-i 
 churches, 19S ministers, and 12,803 communicants. I he 
 Protestant Episcopal Church in 1870 had 58 parishes, 36 
 church edifices, 9584 sittings, and $192,862 of church prop- 
 erty In 1874, according to the Cliurrh Almannc, there 
 were 57 parishes, 45 clergymen, 2991 communicants, 3220 
 Sunday school teachers and scholars, and $7o,643 of be- 
 nevolent contributions, aside from church and parish ex- 
 penses The Evangelical .Association (.Mbrighfs) had in 
 1870 32 churches, 11 church edilicos. 2400 sittings, and 
 $22,800 of church property; in 1873 they had 51 itinerant 
 and 53 local preachers. 70 churches, and 4717 communi- 
 cants In 1870 the Friends had S2 meetings, 00 meeting- 
 houses, 17,075 sittings, and $125,800 of meeting-house 
 nroiierty. The Lutherans in 1870 had 79 churches, 4d 
 church edifices, 12,285 sittings, and $113,950 of church 
 property. As neariv as can bo ascertained, m 18,3 they 
 had 122 churches, 79 ministers, and about 15,000 commu- 
 nicants. The Methodist Church, in 1870, had 982 churches, 
 492 church edifices, 142,655 sittings, and $1,490,220 ot 
 church property. In 1 873 the Methodist Episcopal Church 
 had 4 conferences within the State, 627 church cdihees, 
 531 itinerant and 868 local preachers, 52,026 members, be- 
 sides probationers, $1,839,892 of church properly, 103d 
 Sunday schools, and 73,433 Sunday school tcacheis and 
 scholars. There were also a large number of churches ad- 
 hering' to the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, and many 
 belon"in" to the difi'crent minor Methodist dcnonuuafions. 
 The Prc'sbyterian Church (including the Northern and 
 Southern and United Presbyterian Churches) in 1870 had 
 375 churches, 222 church edifices, 64,890 sittings, and 
 $962 325 of church property. In 1873 the Presbyterian 
 Church, North, had 2 synods, 10 presbyteries, 222 or- 
 dained ministers, 348 churches, and 16,991 members. The 
 United Presbyterian Church in 1873 had 5 presbyteries, 
 W ministers, 91 churches, and 5396 members. Tbo Cum- 
 berland Presbvterian Church in 1872 had 4 presbyteries, 
 20 ministers, about 30 churches, and nearly 4000 members. 
 The Reformed Church (late Dutch) in 1870, had 4 churches, 
 4 church edifices, 1500 sittings, and $25,000 of church prop- 
 erty. The Reformed Church (late German) had 13 churches, 
 13"church edifices, 3950 sittings, and $46,000 of church 
 propertv. Owing to the arrangement of synods and classes, 
 the statistics of neither of these churches for the State can 
 be separated. The Roman Catholic Church in 1870 had 
 216 congregations, 165 church edifices, 57,280 sittings, and 
 $1,216,150 of church property. According to the Cnllioh'c 
 y.^iVccMi-i/, in I 874 they had 13.5 priests.250 churches, chapels, 
 and stations, but only 108 church edifices, and an adherent 
 population of about 70,000. In 1870 there were 28 Second 
 Advent churches, with 10 church edifices, 2950 sittings, 
 and $13,050 of church property. There were 3 UnUariiin 
 congregations, 2 church edifices, 715 sittings, and $19,000 
 of church property. The United Brethren in Christ (Ger- 
 man Methodists) in 1870 had 188 churches, 28 church edi- 
 fices, 10,445 sittings, and $69,250 of church property. In 
 1874 they had 4 conferences. 327 churches, 171 ministers, 
 and 7449 niembcrs. The Univcrsalists in 1S70 had 35 con- 
 gregations or parishes, 15 church edifices, 4465 sittings. 
 
 and $99,525 of church property. In 1S73 they had 39 
 parishes, 24 organized churches, 1100 adherent families, 
 and 782 members. There are a considerable number of 
 churches of the minor denominations, such as Chriftiaa 
 Union, Christadelphians, New Jerusalem Church, etc., and 
 a body of 4000 or more Mormons, not included in the 
 above statement, but there are not suflicient data for giving 
 any accurate statistics concerning them. 
 
 '('oimlilutioii, CourtK, Mep'-cseiilalireB iii Congress, eic. — 
 When Iowa was admitted into the Union as a State, her 
 people had adopted a constitution which remained the su- 
 preme law of the State until 1857, when a new constitution 
 was prepared by a convention called for the purpose, and 
 adopted by the people. This constitution remains in force 
 to the ]ircscnt time, except that in the 2d article, on the 
 ricrht of suffrage, the word "white" was stricken out, by 
 vote of the people in 1 808, thus giving to colored persons 
 the same privileges and responsibilities as were before 
 granted to whites only. That section now provides that 
 " every male citizen of the U. S., of the age of twenty-one 
 years,"who shall have been a resident of this State si.x 
 months next preceding the election, and of the county in 
 which ho claims his vote sixty days, shall be entitled to 
 vote at all elections which are now or hereafter may bo 
 authorized by law. All elections by the peo)ilo shall be by 
 ballot." The legislature consists of a senate of fifty mem- 
 bers elected for four years in senatorial districts ""■< " 
 
 . and 
 
 house of representatives of 100 members elected for two 
 years in representative districts. Senators must be citi- 
 zens and at least twenty-five years of age; representatives 
 must bo citizens and not under twenty-one years of age. 
 The sessions of the legislature are biennial. The execu- 
 tive officers of the State— the governor, lieutenant-governor, 
 secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, superintendent of 
 public instruction, and register of the state land-oflice— are 
 elected by the people of the State at the general election 
 for the term of two years. The judicial department com- 
 prises a supreme court, district court, and circuit court. 
 The supreme court consists of four judges, who arc elected 
 by the people and serve for six years, but are so classified 
 that their terms of office close at different dates. Each 
 judo-o in succession becomes chief-justice before his term 
 exph-cs. The supreme court is both a court of errors and a 
 court of appeal. The attorney-general is elected for two 
 vcars, and the reporter and clerk of the supreme court for 
 'four years each. The State is divided into fourteen judi- 
 cial districts, and every four years the people of each dis- 
 trict elect one judge of the district court, one judge ot the 
 circuit court, and one district attorney, who serve for lour 
 years each. There arc no county courts, but both the dis- 
 trict and circuit courts are held successively, but at difi'er- 
 ent times, in each county of the district. Under the appor- 
 tionment of IS72 Iowa has nine members of Congress. 
 
 Coi,i,(,'c«.— There are 99 counties in the State, aad the 
 following table gives their population by sexes in 1870, and 
 total population in 1860 and 1850; 
 
 Hales, 
 
 1870. 
 
 Total pop 
 ISIO. 
 
 ! 2,178 
 
 I 2,470 
 
 1 9.319 
 
 I 8,498 
 
 ; 11,846 
 
 Black Hawk ' 11.3S1 
 
 Adair 
 
 Adams 
 
 Allamakee . 
 Appanoose .. 
 Audubon.... 
 Benton. 
 
 7,57' 
 6.647 
 8,869 
 
 907 
 5,268 
 
 834 
 
 l,a32 
 
 2,923 
 
 10,297 
 
 Ccrro Gordo ! 2,634 
 
 Boone.. 
 
 Bremer 
 
 Buchanan 
 
 Buena Vista.., 
 
 Butler 
 
 Calhoun 
 
 Carroll 
 
 Cass 
 
 Cedar . 
 
 1,1.56 
 
 5,228 
 
 4,473 
 
 8GS 
 
 14.4.5.5 
 
 18,694 
 
 1,387 
 
 6,392 
 
 7,898 
 
 6,197 
 
 8,998 
 
 14,191 
 
 745 
 
 Dubuque ' 20,013 
 
 ! Cherokee. 
 Ctiiekasaw.... 
 
 (larke 
 
 Clav 
 
 Clayton 
 
 Clinton 
 
 Crawford 
 
 Dallas 
 
 Davis 
 
 Decatur 
 
 Delaware .... 
 Des Moines.. 
 Dickinson.. 
 
 Total pop. Total pop. 
 
 Kmmet . 
 Favette... 
 
 Floyd 
 
 Franklin.. 
 Fremont.. 
 
 Greene 
 
 Grundy ... 
 Guthrie... 
 
 757 
 8,744 
 5,705 
 2.560 
 5,980 
 2,462 
 .3,472 
 3,753 
 
 1,804 
 
 2,144 
 
 8,549 
 
 7,9.58 
 
 553 
 
 10,608 
 
 10,325 
 
 7,007 
 
 6,8S1 
 
 8,165 
 
 678 
 
 4,683 
 
 768 
 
 1,119 
 
 2,.541 
 
 9,434 
 
 2,088 
 
 811 
 
 4,952 
 
 4,262 
 
 655 
 
 13.316 
 
 16,663 
 
 1,143 
 
 5,627 
 
 7,667 
 
 5,821 
 
 S,4:i4 
 
 13,065 
 
 644 
 
 18,9.56 
 
 6.35 
 
 8,229 
 
 5.063 
 
 2,178 
 
 5.194 
 
 2.165 
 
 2.927 
 
 3,303 
 
 3,982 
 
 4,614 
 
 17,868 
 
 16,456 
 
 1,212 
 
 22,4.54 
 
 21,706 
 
 14,584 
 
 12,528 
 
 17,034 
 
 1,.585 
 
 9,951 
 
 1,602 
 
 2,451 
 
 5,464 
 
 19,731 
 
 4,722 
 
 1.967 
 
 10,180 
 
 8,735 
 
 1,.523 
 
 27,771 
 
 a5,357 
 
 2,.530 
 
 12,019 
 
 15,5115 
 
 12,018 
 
 17,432 
 
 27,256 
 
 I. .389 
 
 38.969 
 
 1..S92 
 
 16,973 
 
 1U,768 
 
 4,738 
 
 11.174 
 
 4.627 
 
 6,399 
 
 7,061 
 
 1860. 
 
 984 
 
 1,.533 
 
 12,237 
 
 11,931 
 
 454 
 
 8,496 
 
 8,244 
 
 4,232 
 
 4,915 
 
 7,906 
 
 57 
 
 3,724 
 
 147 
 
 281 
 
 1,612 
 
 12,919 
 
 940 
 
 58 
 
 4,336 
 
 5,427 
 
 62 
 
 20,728 
 
 18,938 
 
 383 
 
 6,244 
 
 13,764 
 
 8,677 
 
 11,024 
 
 19,611 
 
 180 
 
 31,161 
 
 105 
 
 12073 
 
 3,744 
 
 1,309 
 
 6,074 
 
 1,374 
 
 793 
 
 3,058 
 
 777 
 3,131 
 
 672 
 135 
 735 
 
 3,941 
 
 3,873 
 2,822 
 
 854 
 
 7,264 
 
 965 
 
 1.759 
 
 12,988 
 
 10,841 
 
 825 
 
 1,244
 
 IOWA. 
 
 1287 
 
 Mites, 
 
 ItlTO. 
 
 Hamilton 3,20S 
 
 524 
 7,360 
 4,"S9 
 10,9G4 
 3,399 
 1,408 
 124 
 8,671 
 11,088 
 11,601 
 9,248 
 
 Pentales, 
 1H70. 
 
 Il:ilic(ick 
 llnnlin — 
 llnrrinon.. 
 
 Ilt-nry 
 
 Howard. ... 
 IltiinbnUU 
 
 IJ« 
 
 Iowa 
 
 .lacksoii... 
 
 Jasper 
 
 .Ifllerson.. 
 
 .T<ilin30n 12,889 
 
 .loiics 10,273 
 
 Keokuk 10.079 
 
 Kossuth I 1,824 
 
 il^e ' 19,2c-'; 
 
 Linn ; 16.23:! 
 
 l.,ouisa 6,743 
 
 Lucas ! 5.368 
 
 Lvon ! 131 
 
 >faaUon 1 7,32.'! 
 
 Maliaska 11,490 
 
 Marlon ' 12.579 
 
 9,387 
 4,8(J8 
 .5,068 
 1,995 
 6,671 
 3,3.i6 
 11,175 
 404 
 
 Toul pop. I [Total pop. 
 
 Total pop. 
 IISJO. 
 
 Marshall 
 
 Mills 
 
 Mitchell 
 
 Monona 
 
 I Monroe 
 
 I Montgomery 
 
 'Mitscalino 
 
 O'lirien 
 
 i)»ccola (new co.) 
 
 Paie 
 
 I'alo Alio 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 I Pocahontas 
 
 Polk 
 
 IPottawntiatnle.... 
 
 ip<)we9hick - 
 
 'Ringgold 
 
 LSac 
 
 .Scott 
 
 Shelby 
 
 Isioux 
 
 Istory 
 
 Tama 
 
 Taylor _ 
 
 'L'nion 
 
 I Van Buren 
 
 !' Wapt'llo - 
 Warren 
 Wxihin);ton 
 Wavne » 
 ,\Vcl)si..r 
 
 Winiii/ltago 
 
 i Winneshiek 
 Woodl)tiry 
 Worth 
 Wright 
 Total 
 
 5,292 
 
 7.56 
 
 1,245 
 
 785 
 
 14,-527 
 
 9,I«9 
 
 8,4.56 
 
 2,947 
 
 775 
 
 20,1.57 
 1,358 
 320 
 6,088 
 8,-595 
 3,1)35 
 3,199 
 9,0.59 
 
 11.669 
 9.2S6 
 9.7(16 
 5,8.53 
 5,.598 
 820 
 
 12.424 
 3,477 
 1,518 
 1,275 
 
 625,917 
 
 2,852 
 475 
 6,624 
 4,172 
 10,499 
 2,88:! 
 1,188 
 
 102 1 
 
 7,973 I 
 
 10,931 
 
 10,515 
 
 8,.591 I 
 
 11,999 
 
 9,458 
 
 9,:t35 
 
 1,.527 
 
 17, .5^5 
 
 14,847 
 
 6,134 
 
 5,020 
 
 90 
 
 6,559 
 
 11,018 
 
 11,857 
 
 8,195 
 
 3,910 
 
 4,514 
 
 1,659 
 
 6,053 
 
 2..578 
 
 10,513 
 
 311 
 
 4,683 
 
 580 
 
 954 
 
 661 
 
 13,:i30 
 
 7,704 
 
 7,125 
 
 2,744 
 
 636 
 
 18,442 
 
 1,IS2 
 
 256 
 
 5,.5G3 
 
 7..5:i6 
 
 3,;i.>t 
 
 2,787 
 8,613 
 
 10,677 
 8,694 
 9,1W 
 B,4:S4 
 4,886 
 742 
 
 11,146 
 2,695 
 1,:!74 
 1,117 
 
 6,0.5.5 1 
 
 1,699 
 
 
 999! 
 
 179 
 
 
 13,6841 
 
 5,410 
 
 
 8,931 ! 
 
 3,621 
 
 
 21.403, 
 
 18,701 
 
 8,707 
 
 6,282! 
 
 3,168 
 
 
 2,596 
 
 332 
 
 
 226 
 
 43 
 
 
 16,644 
 
 8,029 
 
 822 
 
 22,619 
 
 18,493 
 
 7,210 
 
 22,116 
 
 9,883 
 
 1,280 
 
 17,8:!9 
 
 15.0:i8 ' 
 
 9,904 
 
 24,898 
 
 17,57:) 
 
 4,472 
 
 19,731 
 
 l:!.300 
 
 3,007 
 
 19,434 
 
 13,271 
 
 4,822 
 
 3,a51 
 
 410 
 
 
 37,210 
 
 29,2:!2 
 
 18,861 
 
 :!1,080 
 
 18,947 
 
 5,-141 
 
 12,877 
 
 10,370 
 
 4,9:i9 
 
 10,388 
 
 5,766 
 
 471 
 
 221 
 
 
 
 13,884 
 
 7,339 
 
 1.179 
 
 22,.508 
 
 14,816 
 
 5,989 
 
 24,4:16 
 
 16,813 
 
 6,482 
 
 17,576 
 
 6,015 
 
 338 
 
 8-718 
 
 4,481 
 
 
 9,-582 
 
 3,409 
 
 
 ;!,r,54 
 
 8:i2 
 
 
 12,724 
 
 8,612 
 
 2,884 
 
 0,9:i4 
 
 1,256 
 
 
 21,688 
 
 16,444 
 
 5,731 
 
 715 
 
 8 
 
 
 9,975 
 
 4,419 
 
 551 
 
 1,3:!C 
 
 132 
 
 
 2,199 
 
 148 
 
 
 1,446 
 
 103 
 
 
 27,857 
 
 11,625 
 
 4,513 
 
 li>,S9:i 
 
 4,968 
 
 7,828 
 
 15.,581 
 
 5,668 
 
 615 
 
 6,691 
 
 2,923 
 
 
 1,411 
 
 246 
 
 
 38,599 
 
 25,9.59 
 
 ^986 
 
 2,.540 
 
 818 
 
 
 576 
 
 10 
 
 
 11,051 
 
 4,051 
 
 
 16,131 
 
 5,285 
 
 8 
 
 6,989 
 
 .•!,.590 
 
 204 
 
 5,980 
 
 2,012 
 
 
 17,672 
 
 17,081 
 
 12,270 
 
 22,;i46 
 
 14,518 
 
 8,471 
 
 17,980 
 
 10,281 
 
 961 
 
 18,952 
 
 14,2:)5 
 
 4,957 
 
 11,287 
 
 6.409 
 
 340 
 
 10,4W 
 
 2,504 
 
 
 1,.562 
 
 168 
 
 
 23,570 
 
 13,942 
 
 546 
 
 6.172 
 
 1,119 
 
 
 2,892 
 
 756 
 
 
 2,392 
 
 1 653 
 
 
 ,194,020 
 
 , 074,913 
 
 i 192,214 
 
 non, Cedar Falls, Sioux City, Oskaloosa.nndMarshalllown 
 have from 40UO to OllUO each. 
 
 fll>i„r</.— The whole region lyinp; between the Missis- 
 sippi an<l Missouri rivers in the North-west, as well as 
 much of the country S. of the Missouri, was claimed hy 
 the French on the ground of Marquette's discoveries in 
 1671!, and was transferred to ,<pain hy treaty in 17li:i. In 
 1800-01, Spain ceded it back to I'rance, and it was sold as 
 part of the Louisiana purchase to the U, S. in 1S03. In 
 1804 the Louisiana district, wliich included what is now the 
 State of Iowa, was placed under the jurisdiction of Indiana 
 Territory, but the ne.\t year it was organized as a distinct 
 Territory with a uovernraent of its own. In 1S12 thenamo 
 was changed to Missouri Territory. In 1834 all that part 
 of Missouri Territory N. of the State of Missouri and W. 
 of the Mississippi was placed under the jurisdiction of 
 Michigan Territory. In l.s:ifi. Wisconsin Territory was 
 organized, and Iowa made a district of it. with the scat of 
 government for the wliolc Territory fi.ved at liurlington. 
 In IS.'.S, Iowa Territory was organized, and in LSliU the 
 capital of the Territorv removed from Burlington to Iowa 
 City. The Territorv was admitted into the I iiion as a 
 Sla"te with the boundaries described at the beginning of 
 this article, Dec. 2S, 1846. In 1857. at the time of the 
 adoption of the new con.stitution, the capital was removed 
 from Iowa City to Des Moinrs, where it now remains, fho 
 present Territory of the State was for many years in pos- 
 session of the Siou-i, Sac, Fo.\,nnd Iowa tribes of Indians, 
 but by repeated treaties with the Indians their lille to the 
 land was extinguished, and they all removed westward, 
 until in 1870 there were but 48 Indians in the State. A 
 few Frenchmen had Jettled at Montrose and Dubuque be- 
 fore the close of the last century, and some French pioneers 
 and Ameriean hunters had long lived among the Indians, 
 but the first settlements of whiles permillcd by the 1 . S. 
 govcrnincut within the present limits of Iowa were made in 
 18o:i-34 at Fort Madison, Burlington, and Dubuque. The 
 first counties organized were Dts Widncs and Dubuque. 
 The first train of cars run in Iowa started from Davcnijort 
 in 1SJ5 over the Mississippi and Missouri road. Since its 
 admission to the Union tlic growth of Iowa has been rapid 
 and uninterniptod. an.l its prosperily steady. At the eoni- 
 mcncenieiit ot the late civil war the State, under Ihc man- 
 a.'ement of the patriotic governor, Kirkwood, made great 
 exertions, and during the war sent Sli.OOO men. Us lull 
 quota, into the field. During that period the wives, sis- 
 ters, and daugliters of its s.ddiers, by ihe aid ot agricultu- 
 ral machiuerv. planted, gathered, and harvested Us crops, 
 and kept tlieStalc up to its full niensnreol iiroductivencss, 
 and when peace returned ils prosperily 
 found to bo very slightly impaired, 
 Goveruora of the ,S'(a(c. — 
 Territohy. 
 
 Rolierl Lucas 1838-41 
 
 Principal Tiiicm. — Davenport and Dubuque arc the only 
 cities of from 20,000 to 2:>,000 inhabitants ; Burlington, 
 Keokuk, and Des .Moines ( the cajiital i have from 1,5,000 to 
 20,0110; Council Blnfla is the only cily having between 
 lo[nOO and I.>,»00 inhaKitanIs; .Muscatine, Clinton, Iowa 
 Cily, Cedar Rapids, ami (Itlumwa have from 8000 to 8000 ; 
 Lyons, Waterloo, Fort Madinon, Fort Dodge, Mount Vor- 
 
 ■ aud resources were 
 
 John (liaulbers 1841-40 
 
 James Clark 1846-46 
 
 State. 
 
 Ansel Uriggs 1846-50 
 
 Slephen Hempstead.. .18.50-.54 
 
 James W. Grimes 1854-.5S 
 
 Ralph V. Ixiwe 1858-60 
 
 Samuel J. Kirkwood. . .1860-61 
 
 William M. Stone 1.SG4-CS 
 
 Samuel Merrill 186S-72 
 
 Cyrus ('. Carpenter.... 1872-16 
 Samuel J. Kirkwood. . .1876- 
 
 Elcctoral ami r,.pul<,r Vote at Prc«,<le«lwl /i^•.•0o>„.-- 
 lowa was not admitted into the Union as a ,«ta e until l.vu., 
 ond her first Presidential voto was at the election ol 1848. 
 
 •J .•' I 
 8.8 
 
 Condldatct who rveotrod tho 
 electoral Tot*. 
 
 1348 Lewis Cass P 
 
 I W.I). Hullcr V.-P 
 
 l.'<.")2 KrauUlin Pierce P 
 
 (Williaui U. KlnK V.-P 
 1S.)G Jobu C. Kreuioiit P.... 
 
 iW. L. Daylon V.-P 
 
 18G0'Al)raliain Lincoln P.. 
 |H. Ilaiulln V.-P 
 
 Pop. 
 roto. 
 
 I8S4 Abraham Lincoln P.... 
 
 A. Johnson V.-P , 
 
 laos'l'. S. ('.rant P 
 
 Schuyler Colfax V.-P.. 
 1872 U.S. (iraut P 
 
 Henry Wilson V.-P.... 
 
 Oaofltdatct. 
 
 ,, .„„ Zach. Taylor P I 
 
 12,093 J, ,,.i|,„„„.^ v.-l- t 
 
 ,,.,,,, IWiiilield Scott P I 
 
 17,, 03 yf A,(;rahaui V,-P I 
 
 .lames llueluinan P I 
 
 J. C. i!reckenridj!0 V.-P. J 
 
 Pop. 
 veto. 
 
 43,934 
 
 70,409 
 
 89,075 
 120,399 
 131,-566 
 
 S. A. DouRlas P 
 
 II. V. Johnson V.- 
 
 n. B. McClellan P 
 
 II. 11. Pendleton V.-P... 
 
 Honitio Sevuiour P 
 
 l'-. P. Blair V.-P 
 
 Horace tireelev P 
 
 ;1)- Grati Brown V.-P.... 
 
 CaDdldolcs. 
 
 11,084 
 15,856 
 36,170 
 
 55,111 
 
 49,-590 
 74,040 1 
 71,190 
 
 Martin Van Buren P 
 
 C V. Adams V.-P 
 
 J. P, Hale P 
 
 C. W. Julian V.-P 
 
 M. Fillmore P 
 
 A. J. Dnnelson V.-P. 
 
 J. Bell P 
 
 F-. Kverelt V.-P 
 
 J.(V Hieekenridue P t 
 
 Joseph Lane V.-P. J 
 
 Pop. 
 voto. 
 
 1,126 
 1,604 
 9,180 
 1,763 
 1,048 
 
 co-Conor P | 2,«> 
 
 Wo acknowledge our obligations for many focts relfttivo 
 to the phvsical and political gcogra|diy and history of Iowa, 
 to Prof. C. A. White's Mainml „f the rhji>ical UcogfaphiJ 
 and Inntituliimt of lotca, published in 1874. 
 
 L. P. BuncKKTT. 
 
 Town, a river in the Slate of Ihc same name, rises in 
 llaneoL-k e.).. near the .Miunesola line, flows S. E. for 300 
 miles passin- by Iowa City, the former capital of (he Stale, 
 aud enters the Mississippi Vo miles N. of Burlington. It 
 is navigable for small steamers to Iowa Cily, SO miles from 
 the mouth. 
 
 Iowa, county ofS.B. Central lown. It is rolling and fer- 
 tile ; cattle, grain, and wool are staple prodncLs. Area j, !■ 
 square mil. s, II is on Ihe Iowa It.veraud the ( hieago Itoek 
 Island and Pacific K. U. Cap. .Mareng... Pop. U.,01 1. 
 
 lown, county of tho S. W. of Wisconsin. Area, about 
 7;,0 square mile's. It is bounded on the N. by W l^conslll 
 River. The surface is somewhat broken, 'limber is no 
 abundant. Tho soil is very fertile. Cattle, gram, an- 
 wocd are staple products. Lead is extensively mined, an.l 
 copper and zine aro found. Carriages und wagons aro 
 leading manufactures. Cap. Dodgcville. Pop. 24,j44.
 
 1288 
 
 IOWA— IPHIGENIA. 
 
 Iowa, tp. of Allamakee co., la. Pop. .'U7, 
 
 Iowa, tp. of Benton co., la. Pop. 20.19. 
 
 Iowa, tp. of Cellar co., la. Pop. 1168. 
 
 Iowa, tp. of Dubuque co., la. Pop. S78. 
 
 Iowa, tp. of Franklin co., la. Pop. 125, 
 
 Iowa, tp. of Iowa co., la. Pop. 962. 
 
 Iowa, tp. of Jackson co., la. Pop. 1209. 
 
 Iowa, tp. of Marshall co., la. Pop. 112;i. 
 
 Iowa, tp. of Washington co.. la. Pop. 1062. 
 
 Iowa, tp. of Winnebago Co., la. Pop. 436. 
 
 Iowa, tp. of Wrifrht co., la. Pop. 204. 
 
 Ii>wa* tp. of Doniphan co.. Kan. Pop. 3531. 
 
 Iowa Agricultural College. See Appendix. 
 
 Iowa Centre, post-v. of Indian Creek tp.. Story co., 
 la., 8 miles frnin Nevada, a station on the Chicago and 
 North-western R. U. Pop. 24S. 
 
 Iowa C'ity, city, cap. of Johnson co., la., at the head 
 
 of iiavii^atimi of the Iowa River, and on the Chicago Hock 
 Island and Pacific R. R.. i:iO miles E. of Des Moines. It 
 was (1839-55) the capital of Iowa Territory and State, and 
 the buildings an<l grounds of what was formerly the eapitol 
 are now occupied by the State University. There are 4 
 flouring-mills, and manufactures of WDollen?. flax, oil, etc., 
 1 monthly, i semi-monthly, 1 daily, and 4 weekly news- 
 papers. 15 churches, 2 national banks, good schools, public 
 and private, fine county and other public buildings, hos- 
 pit.al, etc. The city has a hirge local trade. Pop. of tp. 
 outside of city, 2180 ; of city, 5914, increased since census. 
 N. II. IJnAixrRD, En. "Iowa Guy Republican-." ] 
 
 Iowa Collejje, the oldest college in Iowa, was founded 
 in 18 K by an assuciation of Congrcgationalisls and Pres- 
 byterians, and established at Davenport. The bitter with- I 
 drew in 1852. Like early New England colleges, it is 
 under no ecclesiastical control, and no sectarian influence ' 
 is exerted. A freshman class was formed in ISoO; ladies I 
 admitted 1857 ; a four years' scientific course established | 
 1867. It has graduated 58 young men and 61 young ! 
 ladies : of the latter. 56 graduated from the Ladies* course < 
 (three years), and 5 from the college classical course. The j 
 SL-icntific course contains some studies usually deemed post- ' 
 graduate. Preparation for it includes the same Latin and 
 iJreck as preparation for the classical course. Civil on- 
 gineering and surveying are taught with practice; also 
 chemistry and physics in both courses, recitations and 
 laboratory-work occupying alternate weeks. English is ' 
 taught from the Anglo-Saxon sources on the thorough plan 
 of Prof. F. A. March. LL.D.. in Lafayette College. Pa. 
 Norma! instruction, a year's course, is contemplated, the | 
 spci;ial training in metho<ls being open to students in all 
 the courses, and the English department becoming a model 
 or practice school: normal students to teach in its classes 
 one hour a day. Classes in the ladies' course recite with 
 college classes to the college professors. There is a classi- 
 cal academy preparing for both courses. The aim of the 
 founders has been not to compete in mere numbers, but to 
 surpass in standard of scholarship, thoroughness, an^l dis- 
 cipline ordinary Western institutions. The professors aro 
 eagerly sought lor their superior qualifications by older 
 Eastern institutions, and the progress of the college has 
 been crippled thereby, as well as by losses by fire. It is 
 supplied with chemical and philosophical apparatus. The 
 now Central College, erected 1872, is the most beautiful and 
 convenient college-building in Iowa. The annual number 
 of students is 250. 
 
 In 1860 the college was removed from Davenport to 
 Piiwesbiek co., in the centre of the State, where Hon. .7. B. 
 (Jrinnell bad founded a colony-town bearing his name, 
 composed of Eastern people entirely, in which no intoxi- 
 cating liquor is sold, and there are no lager-beer saloons, 
 billiard rooms, or other places of lounging and dissipa- 
 tion. The largest Protestant church W. of Chicago is here 
 — a Congregational church of over 530 members. The re- 
 ligious influences of the college have alw.ays been very 
 strong, though unsectarian. Nearly half of its male grad- 
 uates have chosen the Christian ministry : some are foreign 
 missionaries. Its endowment is less than $100,000. and its 
 two largest benefactions have been — S30.000. for the en- 
 dowment of the presidency, by Hon. Samuel Willisfon of 
 Easlhampton, Mass., and $20,000. for the Latin professor- 
 ship, by the late Aaron Benedict, Esq.. of Waterbury. Conn. 
 It holdi the most central position in the State, :it the ernss- 
 ing of the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. R. and Cen- 
 tral R. R. of Iowa, connecting every section of the State. 
 
 Geo. F. .Magoi'n. 
 
 Iowa Falls, city of Hardin eo., Ta.. on the Illinois 
 Central R. R., and 143 miles W. of Dubuque, on the Iowa 
 River, which hero has a succession of rapids which give 
 
 name to the town. The scenery hero is remarkably fine, 
 and the city itself is one of the most attractive in the State. 
 It was founded in 18ol),and incorporated as a city in 1870. 
 It has a weekly newspaper, a fine graded school, and sev- 
 eral churches. 0. W. Gaurison, Eu. "Sentinel." 
 
 Iowa Intlians, a tribe of aborigines of the Dakota 
 stock, formerly inhabiting Iowa and Northern Missouri. 
 They were closely allied, not by race, but by association, 
 to the Sac (Sauk) and Fox Indians. They at present num- 
 ber 225 souls. They ocL'Upy 16,000 acres of the (Jreat 
 Nemaha reservation : the rest belong to a band of Sacs and 
 Foxes. The lowas are superior in industry and intelli- 
 gence to most Indians. They receive a handsome annuity 
 from the government, and sustain an orphan asylum. 
 
 Iowa Point, post-v. of Iowa tp., Doniphan co., Kan., 
 on the Missouri River and the Atchison and Nebraska 
 R. R. Pop. 212. 
 
 IpaH'a, post-v. of Fulton co.. 111., in Pleasant tp., on 
 the Chicago Burlington and Quiney R. R. (Buda and Rush- 
 villo division). It has I weekly newspaper. Pop. 4SS. 
 
 Ip'ecac, an important drug, the dried root of CcphaeliB 
 Ipccacuaiihri, a small shrubby perennial ])lant, natural or- 
 der Rubiaceo>. growing in damp, shady forests in Brazil. 
 The root is slender, from four to six inches long, and 
 marked with annular ridges. The stem is also slender, and 
 rises but a few inches from the ground. The plant bears sel- 
 dom more th:in six leaves: the flowers arc white and very 
 Somali, and collected into a closely packed grotip surmount- 
 ing a round axillary footstalk. The root is gathered by 
 the natives, cleaned, dried, and exported in large bags or 
 bales. It yields a fawn-colored j)Owdcr of peculiar smelt and 
 acrid bitter taste. Its active jirinciple is an alkaloid, <//i*-/rn, 
 which, when pure, is a white uncrystallizabic jiowder, diffi- 
 cultly soluble in water, but soluble in alcohol. The common 
 impure article of the shops is in transparent brownish-red 
 scales, delitjuescent, and very soluble in w.itcr and alcohol. 
 Ipecac, locally, is mildly irritant, but some persons are fo 
 susceptible that merely opening a bottle of the powder will 
 cause sneezing, and even an asthmatic seizure. Taken 
 internally in minute doses, as one-sixth to one-fourth of a 
 grain, ipecac, like other irritants, tends to increase the ap- 
 petite and promote digestive vigor. In somewhat larger 
 quantities it disturbs the stomach, and causes relaxation 
 of the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal and air- 
 passages, with accompanying increase of their secretions. 
 In large dose it causes speedy vomit inir and nausea, and 
 a still greater etfect on the mucous membranes just men- 
 tioned. Ipecac is accordingly used in small dose as a 
 stomachic tonic, in somewhat larger as a relaxer of the dry 
 and stiff"ened condition of the respiratory mucous mem- 
 brane in the first stage of a catarrh, and in still larger doses 
 as an emetic. With certain precautions the emetic efl"ect 
 even of a largo dose may be avoided, and thus given ipecac 
 is a valuable remedy in dysentery. Powdered ipecac and 
 opium, 1 part each, and potassium sulphate, 8 parts, form 
 the well known "compound ipecac powder" or ** Dover's 
 powder." Ehwahd Cnnris. 
 
 Ipliic'rates, b. about 419 u. r., was an Athenian gen- 
 eral, and distinguished himself greatly in the Corinthian 
 war(;J!J5-oS7 u. r.) by organizing a force of light troops, pel- 
 taatir, with which he routed the Lacediemonian army near 
 Corinth in IVJ2 b. r. After the peace of Antalcidaa he went 
 to Thrace, where he fought in the service tA' Cotys, whoso 
 daughter he married, and where he founded the city of 
 Drys. In ;t77 he commanded the Cireck auxiliaries who 
 followed Pharnabazus, the Persian satrap, on his campaign 
 against Egypt. A disagreement arose bet\veen the tireek 
 and the Persian commanders, and Iphicrates fled to Athens, 
 where Pharnabazus tried to arraign him for treachery, but 
 failed. In the social war Iphicrates once more commanded 
 the Athenians, but though successful, was again accused 
 and acquitted. D. about :150 u. c. Cornelius Ncpos has 
 given a short sketch of his life. 
 
 Iphigeni'a, the daughter of Agamemnon and Clylcm- 
 nestra. When the (Jreck fleet lay bound by a dead calm 
 in the port of .Aulis. the soer Calchas declared tluit the 
 wrath of Dian.a was the cause of the calamity. Agamem- 
 non had ofifondcd the goddess in former <hiys by killing a 
 stag in her grove, and in order to propitiate her he had 
 vowed to sacrifice the most beautiful born to him within a 
 year, but as this hiippened to be Iphijjeiiia. he had not ful- 
 filled the vow. Iphi'jenia was now brought to Aulis, but 
 when carried to the nitar to be sacrificed, Diana herself 
 took her away and brought her to Tauris, where she oflici- 
 ated as priestess to the heaven-fallen image of the goddess. 
 In after years Orestes, her broiher.camc to Tauris with the 
 purpose of carrying away this image, but was captured 
 and brought to the priestess to suller death in atonement 
 for his intended crime. The brother and sister recognized
 
 IPOMCEA— IRELA N D. 
 
 128S 
 
 Cftch other, and flcJ with tho divine ima<;e. This subject 
 has been used by Kuripide:*, Hncine, and (ioethc for trage- 
 dies, ami by Gluck for an opera. 
 
 Ipomira. Peo Jalap. 
 
 Ipsambiil. .•^ce Aur Sasibi'l. 
 
 Ip'sara^ or Psara, a small itiland in tho Grecian 
 Archipelago, W. of .Seio, belongs to Turkey. Jt is rocky 
 and barren, but was densely peopled and very jirosperous 
 befiirc the Greek revolution; but having been takeu by tho 
 Turks in isiil, its conirncree was destroyed, its agriculture 
 fell into decay, and its population decreased very much. 
 At present its inhabitauts live mostly by fishing. 
 
 Ip'sus [Gr. 'Ii^ous or "Ii^o?], small town of Phrygia, .Asia 
 Minor, celebrated for the ;^reat battle fought there { u. r. ;I01) 
 between King Antigonus and his son, l>cmetrius Polior- 
 cetes. and the combined forces of Cassander, LvsntAcnis, 
 pTui.KMY, and Sklkitis (see these names), in which An- 
 tigonus was slain and his dominions conquered. In tho 
 seventh and eighth centuries A. D. Ipsus was the seat of 
 a Christian bishopric. It has been idcntiticd with tho 
 modern ffj/iiU Jlt'etiar. 
 
 Ips'wich, town of England, the capital of Suffolk, on 
 the Orwell, which is navigable here for vessels of 200 tons 
 burden. It has many good educational institutions, among 
 which are a grammar school, founded by Cardinal Wolsey, 
 who was born here, a mechanics' institution, and a work- 
 ingmen's college: large iron and soap factories and exten- 
 sive shipbuilding docks. Pop. 43,130. 
 
 Ips wich) town of Queensland, Australia, on tho Bremer, 
 was incorporated into a municipality in ISGO, and is a grow- 
 ing and jirosperous place. Pop. 0092. 
 
 Ipswich, tp. and post-v. of Essc.t co., Mass., 27 miles 
 N. K. of Boston, on the Eastern R, B. and on Ipswich 
 llivcr, 3 miles from the sea, has manufactures of shoes, 
 soap, boxes, hosiery, isinglass, 2 woollen, 2 planing, 3 saw, 
 and 2 gri^t mills, a weekly new?papcr, a public library, 
 a ladies' seminary, savings bank, churches, an insane 
 asylum, and a house of correction. The taking of clams 
 employs some 200 men. Pop. 3720. 
 
 E. L. Davknpout, Ed. "Cnnoxicr-E." 
 
 Tra, tp. of St. Clair CO., Mich. Pop. 1580. 
 
 Ira» post-tp of Cayuga co., N. Y. It contains 3 villages 
 and 1 churches. Pop. 2014. 
 
 Ira, post-tp. of Rutland CO., XL, ^y miles S. W. of West 
 Rutland. It has manufactures of lime. Pop. 413, 
 
 Irak'«/\j'enice^ the central province of Persia, trav- 
 ersed by ranges of naked an<I barren mountains, which 
 from the high Klbo()rz in the W. by degrees lower down 
 into a desert table-land in the E. The valleys along tho 
 rivers, some of which lose themselves in the desert, arc fer- 
 tile, and the province contains several of tho largest cities 
 of the empire, such as Teheran, I.-^pahan, and Koom. 
 
 Irak'-Ar'abee, province of Asiatic Turkey, between 
 tho Tigris und Eujthrates, and westward from the Euphrates 
 to tho de?ert. It contains tlio ruins of lIai>ylon, Solencia, 
 and Clesiphon, and is inliabitcd by nomadic Arabs. Cap, 
 Bassora or Basra. 
 
 Iran. See Pkrsia, 
 
 Iran'ians [from Iran, the native name of Persia], a 
 branch i»f Iho ,\ryan or Indo-European family, now com- 
 prising the Persians, Armenians. Afghans. Kurds, and sev- 
 eral isolated tribes in Beloochistan and In»Iia, the river 
 Indus properly forming their eastern boundary, although 
 tho Parsocsfso called from their Persian origin) are nu- 
 merous in Bombay. Their original seat appears to have 
 been near the sources of the Oxus, whence they spread in 
 various directions, especially occupying the great plateau 
 of Persia and the mountainous region of Armenia; they 
 also penetrated .\sia Minor, and during the flourishing pe- 
 riod of the Persian empire dwelt as far \. as the Caucasus 
 and established colonies in the Crimea. They intermin- 
 gled with kindred tribes, and tho modern Persians have 
 a largo infusion of (Georgian and Circassian blood, so that 
 their complexion is fairer and their features more regular 
 than are foiin<l among the Afghans, who are probably (he 
 host type of the purely Iranic race, of whiclt in ancient 
 times the Mcdes and Persians were the mostnolaiile repre- 
 sentatives. The Modes are Iho first franie race specially 
 mentioned in hist()ry. Aceording'to Berosun. they wore a 
 powerful pciiple as early as 2100 n. c, when a .Median dy- 
 nasty ruhMl in Babylonia: but at a later peri'nl this waa 
 expelled, and the Medes became, at least notniually, sub- 
 ject to the great Assyrian empire, froiu which Ihey were 
 tho first uf the subject tribes to revolt; and with this revolt 
 Herodotus begins his history of the .Meilinn empire, whoio 
 limits do not uppeiir to have been very ncenrafcly defined. 
 In general, it may bo said to have extended on tho N. to 
 
 the mountains near Atropatene, on tho S. to Susiana, on 
 the E. to tho Caspian, and on tho W. to the river Zagros, 
 which separated it from Assyria and Babylonia. The an- 
 cient Persians were essentially identical with tho Modes, 
 though somewhat ruder: botli were divided into varittus 
 tribes and clans, the names of which, and littlo more, have 
 been preserved by Herodotus. For the partial recovery of 
 the ancient Iranic language we arc mainly indebted to our 
 knowledge of the Sanskrit. Its oldest phases lie buried 
 in the sacred books of the Parsces and in cuneiform in- 
 scriptions of the time of Cyrus, Darius, ami Xerxes. Tho 
 name Zeixl has been improperly applied to thit! language; 
 this properly belongs to a translation into tho Pehlevi of 
 tho sacred book of the Zend-Arcsta; recent German plii- 
 lologists style the language the Old Bactrian. The first 
 attempt at a grammar of this language was made by Tlatig 
 in his Eesin/a on the Sncrcd Latif/uaffc, Writing, and lirliff- 
 {on of the Parnrca (Uomhiiyf 1802} ; in ISfU, Justi published 
 a Hnndbuch d^r Znidttpyriohr, in which he gave a lexicon 
 of the Olil Bactrian. to which valuable additions were made 
 by Lagarde in iiis /iritrdrfc -^ttr bnktrinrhm Lr.ricirfrfrphie 
 (ISOH); in l.sOi appeared Spiegel's dvammatik der Ait- 
 baktrinchen Spracht'. The Pehlevi is Iranic, and was prob- 
 ably used as a literary language from about the third cen- 
 tury ; it is known through inscriptions, coins, and gems, 
 and the translation of the AvcHtn and a few other religious 
 books; it maintained itself until the development of tho 
 moiiern Persian, which is Iranic in its granimatic struc- 
 ture, but contains a large number of Arabic words. E. of 
 the territory of modern Persia are tho more jturely Iranic 
 dialects of tho Afghans and Beloochees, and W. of these 
 those of Ossetes, Kurds, and Armenians. The Iranians 
 may be considered as the connecting link between the In- 
 do-Europeans of Asia and Europe. A few of them are- 
 nomadic, but the majority are agriculturists, craftsmen, 
 and traders. (Sec Spiegel's Er&nische Alterthnmekundef 
 Leipsic. 1871-73.) 
 
 I'rasbiirg, tp. and post-v., county-scat of Orleans co., 
 Vt. It has a national bank, manufactures of lumber, and 
 the county buildings. It is 42 miles N. N. E. of Montpclicr. 
 Pop. lOSJ. 
 
 Irbit'9 town of Russia, in the government of Perm, at 
 the confluence of tho Irbit and the Nisa. It is famous fur 
 its annual fair, held in the montlis of February and March, 
 and attendeil by a great number of European and Asiatic 
 merchants. It is the largest fair in Russia, next to that 
 of Nishni-Novgorod, and good.s from China, India, Per- 
 sia, and Europe to the value of $25,000,000 arc brought 
 I together and disposed of. Pop. 3100. 
 
 I Iro'dcll, county in the W. of North Carolina. Area. 
 
 I 600 square miles. It is hilly, fertile, and well watered 
 
 I and timbered. Gold is found in some parts. Cattle, grain. 
 
 I tobacco, and wool are staple products. The county is 
 
 i traversed by the Western R. R. of North Carolina. Cap. 
 
 I Statesvillc. " Pop. 10,931. 
 
 I Ircdoll f.lAMKs), b. at Lewes. Sussex co., England, Oct. 
 5, 17.") 1. 11 ud settled in North Carolina in 17G8; was admitted 
 to the bur in 1770, took an active part in tho cause of inde- 
 pendence, was elevated to the judicial bench in North Caro- 
 lina in 1777, and in 1700 was ap])ointed <ine of the associate 
 justices of the Supreme Court of tho U. S. He was a man 
 of extensive learning and great ability. Ho published in 
 1790 tho Lmr.H 0/ AV/r/A Car<dina 17-1590, D. at Edenton, 
 N. C, Oct. 20, 1799. A. II. Stei'iikss. 
 
 Iredell (.Iamks. Ju.), son of .Tames Iredell, b. in North 
 Carolina Nov. 2. I7S8. at Edenton; graduated at Prince- 
 ton ; was a member of the State legislature for a number 
 of years, and Speaker of the House part of the time. In tho 
 war of 1.SI2 he commanded a company of volunteers who 
 wont to repel a threatened British invasion at Norfolk. Va. 
 In IS19 he was appointed to the circuit court bench of his 
 State. In 1S27 he was elected governor of North Candina, 
 and was U. S. Senator from that State 1828-31. Aftcrthis 
 ho was a reporter of the decisions of Iho State Buprcmo 
 court, publishing thirteen volumes of law and eight of 
 equity reports. D. at Raleigh, N, C, Apr. 13. is:.3. 
 
 Aiir. 13. IS..3. 
 A. H. Sn;i'iiKNS. 
 
 Ire'land [lir. 'lourpWa, 'I^pi/ij ; Lat. Uibernia, Iheruin, 
 • Ivrrntt, .hivnm ; Celtic or Erse, irrnc^ AViri], tho second 
 I largest of the British isles (see (iukat Biutain). lies be- 
 I tween lat. 61^ 2H' and :>5° 23' N.. and Ion. 5** 20' and Hi° 
 I 20' W. of Greenwich. It is washed on throe sides by tho 
 I open Atlantic, and separated from Great Britain by the 
 I Irish Channel or Sea. Its greatest length is ."03 miles, its 
 I greatest breadth 177, and it has an area of 32,2Sri squaro 
 I miles, exclusive of that of 190 smaller islands belonging to 
 I it, who.'io area is 210 square niiles. 
 
 [ lirlir/. — By far the greater ])orti'Mi of tho island consists 
 1 of a level or undulating plain, filling up nearly tho wholo
 
 1290 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 centre from sea to sea. and consisting to a great extent of 
 bo'S, wliicli are incapable of cultivation and impart a 
 dreary aspect to the country. The most extensive of these 
 bo»s is tliat of Allen. The hills generally rise in isolated 
 groups near the sea. If we assume the waters of the ocean 
 to rise to the extent of only 500 feet, tlicy would cover 77 
 per cent, of the entire surface, and the bills would rise 
 above them in the shape of more than 100 islands, encir- 
 cling a shallow central sea. The most elevated of these 
 mou'ntains are in .=;oath-\vestcrn Ireland, where the Carn 1 
 Tiial rises to a height of 3401 feet. The Wicklow Moun- 
 tains near the E. coast culminate in the Lugnariuilla (.'iO.TJ 
 feet ). In Mavo the mountains attain a height of 2038 feet; 
 in the N. of Ireland they rise to 2228 feet (Mount Sawel), 
 an.l in the county of Antrim to 1S02 feet (Mount Trostan). 
 H,,,lror/raphj.^T)ic rivers of Ireland flow for the greater 
 part'through plains, enlarging sometimes into lakes, and 
 navigable in several instances almost to their source. Tlic 
 Shaiuion is the most important amongst them. It rises in 
 the county of Caviin at an elevation of 345 feet above 
 the sea, .and enters the sea below the city of Limerick. It 
 forms several lakes, amongst which Loughs Allen, Rec, 
 and Dorg are the most important, and is navigable .as high 
 up as the former, a small portion above Limerick excepted, 
 where navigation is obstructed by the rapids of Doonass. 
 It frequently inundates the surrounding country, in spite 
 of expensive engineering works erected to regulate its 
 course. The Lee is only a small river, but forms the im- 
 portant harbor of Cork'. The Barrow enters the sea at 
 Waterford, and is navigable as far as Athy, whence there is 
 a canal to Dublin. ThoLiffoy is remarkable solely because 
 it enters Dublin Bay. The Boyne is the most important 
 river on the E. coast of Ireland. It is celebrated on ac- 
 count of the battle of the Boyne (1090), but navigable only 
 for 20 miles above its mouth. Tho Bann rises in the Mourne 
 Mountains, and after a course of 40 miles it enters Lough 
 Neao-h. It loaves that lake at the north-western corner, 
 and'enters the sea below Coleraine. Owing to its rapid 
 course it is navigaljle only in parts. The Foyle flows into 
 a bay on the N. coast of Ireland, 6 miles below London- 
 derry. The Erne forms several important lakes, and is 
 navigable almost throughout its entire length. The Cor- 
 rib forms the discharge of Lough Corrilj, and enters the 
 sea at Galway, on the W. coast of Ireland. A subterranean 
 rivor, 5 milcs'in length, connects Lough Corrib with Lough 
 Mask. Ireland abounds in lakes. The most important 
 amongst them are Lough Neagh (158 square miles), in the 
 north-eastern part of the country ; the lower Lough Erue 
 (43 square miles); Lough Mask (34 square miles); and 
 Lough Corrib (08 square miles) ; Loughs Derg (30 square 
 mild) and Ree (50 square miles). 
 
 Climate. — The temperature of the central part of the 
 country has been estim-ated at 50° F., that of tho S. at 51.5°. 
 and of" the extreme N. at 48.5°, the difference between N. 
 and S. thus only amounting to 3°. The mean temperature 
 in winter is 4l".5°, in spring 47°, in summer 60°, and in 
 autumn 51° F. The temperature is thus even more equa- 
 ble than that of the British Isle, a feature to be traced to 
 the influence of the Atlantic, which is likewise answerable 
 for the greater amount of rain which falls throughout Ire- 
 land, and for the greater moisture of the air. These cir- 
 cumstances are most conducive to a luxuriant vegetation, 
 and the name " Emerald Isle" is perfectly apiiropriate ; 
 but they interfere to some extent with agricultural opera- 
 tions. The average rainfall throughout Ireland may be esti- 
 mated at 40 inches annually ; in the W. and S., and particu- 
 larly in tho hills of Kerry, it is greatly in excess of this, but 
 on a portion of the eastern coast it hardly exceeds 25 inches. 
 tfrii(or0.— Ireland may be divided geologically into three 
 regions— viz. tho great central plain. Northern Ireland, 
 ami .Southern Ireland. The whole of tho former is occu- 
 
 inhabitivnts. In 1811 this population had increased to 
 5,937,856, and it continued to increase until 1841, when it 
 numbered 8,175.124 souls. But then came apotalb famine ; 
 thousands died of starvation, and an immense impulse was 
 given to emigration. In 1851 there were only 6,552,385 
 inhabitants; in 1861, 5,792,055; in 1871, 5,412,.377. The 
 decrease is still going on atthepresent time, though at a less 
 rapid rale than formerly. It was due, in the first instance, 
 to famine, but is now brought about entirely by emigration. 
 Irish emigrants not only cross the ocean in search of a new 
 home, but they have likewise invaded Great Britain, much 
 to the annoyance of the native working population, upon 
 whose w.age3 this immense influx of unskilled labor has 
 exercised a considerable iiiftucuec. (.See Gueat BiuT.viN.) 
 Between 1851 and 1861, 1,149,118 persons emigrated from 
 Ireland; between 1861 .andl871, 708,859 persons, exclusive 
 of those who merely crossed over to the sister island. The 
 population of thocountics of Ireland in 1871 was as follows : 
 
 County. in acres. 
 
 Carlow 221,-i43 
 
 Dublin - 22G,8nD 
 
 Kildare 418.497 
 
 Kilkenny 509.732 
 
 King's county 493,98.5 
 
 Lonsford 2B9.409 
 
 Louth 202,124 
 
 Meath •. 0'9.8t.l 
 
 Queen's county 424.8.'>4 
 
 Westmeath 453,468 
 
 Wexford 576,.WS 
 
 Wicklow 500.1 1° 
 
 Leinster 4,876,984 
 
 Clare 827,994 
 
 Cork ■.'.'.'.■.■.■.■..'. 1,849,085 
 
 Kerry l,18.i,918 
 
 Limerick 080.842 
 
 Tipperary 1,061, <31 
 
 Waterford 461.5.:)2 
 
 Munster 6,067,722 
 
 Antrim 76-3,749 
 
 Armagh 328.086 
 
 Cavan 477,394 
 
 Donegal 1,197,154 
 
 Down 010,740 
 
 Fermanagh 457.369 
 
 Londonderry 522,315 
 
 Monaghan 319,742 
 
 Tyrone 806,657 
 
 Ulster 5,483,206 
 
 Galway ^i?^ 
 
 Leitriin 392,.j(;3 
 
 Mavo *'?i;.','o-c 
 
 Koscommon ""'''S-', 
 
 Sligo 4bl.7j3 
 
 Connaught 4, 392.041 
 
 All Ireland 20,819.903 
 
 1,339,448 
 
 1,393,485 
 
 420.170 
 179,260 
 140.738 
 218,334 
 277,294 
 92.794 
 173,906 
 114.969 
 21 .5.766 
 
 1,833,231 
 
 84(^213 
 5.412.877 
 
 The following were the towns having more than 10,000 
 inhabitants-In Leinster: Dublin, 254,808; Drogheda, 
 14 740; Kilkenny. 12,174; Wexford, 111,734; Dundalk, 
 10 4''8 In Munster: Cork, 78.642; Limerick, 39,3.')3 ; 
 Waterford, 23,349; Clonmel, 10,112; Queenstown, 10,334. 
 In Ulster: Belfast; 174,412: Londonderry, 25.242 : Newry, 
 li364- Lurgan, 10,632. In Connaught: .Shgo. 10,0,0; 
 Galway, 15,597. The majority of the inhabitants ol Ire- 
 land are of Celtic race, and the earlier English immigrants 
 have completely amalgamated themselves with them. In 
 tho N E of Ireland, however, there are numerous linglisli 
 and .Scotch settlers, who. being Protestant, exhibit a cer- 
 tain amount of antagonism to the remainder ot the popu- 
 lation. It is amongst these Irish Protestants that Orange 
 lodt-es recruit their members, though of late years, and 
 much to tho credit of tho people, religious animosities ap- 
 be dying out. The English language is spoken 
 
 Cretaceous, and Triassic rocks likewise occur in that part 
 of the country, the latter near Belfast containing beds of 
 gypsum and" rock-salt. South-eastern Ireland consists 
 mainly of Cambrian rocks, equivalent to those of South 
 Wales, upon which tho lower .Silurian strata (flags and 
 slates) rest uneonforniably. In Kerry ami Cork the sand- 
 stones and slates of the Devonian age are most prominently 
 represented. , 
 
 PopuUiiwn.—ln no country of Europe has there been 
 exhibited within a recent epoch so vast an increase in the 
 population, succeeded by an even vaster decrease, than in 
 Ireland. In 1750, Ireland had a population of 2,372,634 
 
 agricultural schools have been established since 18. s ii 
 parts of the country. The Irish generally refer their in- 
 feriority in these respects to .absentee landlords and the 
 uncertainty of tenure; ^nd although due weight should be 
 given to tiiese causes, there is no doubt that local causes, 
 such as the excess of small buildings as well as < •IT''r™c= 
 of race, have had some effect. In "'<;?V=^1'" ^'^^,'"jS 
 land act, one of the measures for the relief of Ireland passed 
 recently by the British Parliament, should bo productive 
 of much good. It places the Irish cultivator in a far better 
 position than the' Scotch and English farmers, secures 
 fixity of tenure, provides compensation for inexhausted
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 1291 
 
 12,745 
 
 1,171,837 
 
 318,091 
 
 K2.0G0 
 
 44,302 
 
 40,033 
 
 128,144 
 
 1,594.480 
 
 0,907,970 
 
 30.295 
 
 Horses, 
 Caltie.. 
 SlK'ep.. 
 I'i 
 
 1863. 
 
 1870. 
 
 1»74. 
 
 ,548 
 3.198 
 3;C94 
 1,305 
 
 533 
 3,800 
 4,337 
 1,101 
 
 526 
 4,113 
 4,i:)8 
 1,0U« 
 
 improvements, and even facilitates the conversion of lease- 
 holds into freeholds. Tho following are the agricultural 
 statistics for IStiO and 1873 : ^^ ^^^^ 
 
 Acre*. Acre*. 
 
 ,,,l,o„t 409,042 108,435 
 
 n\,7 1,901,;!S4 1,510,089 
 
 itariLj.... 1>>K*» 
 
 Here and rye ii,o— 
 
 IkMHS and ]icas 
 
 riilat">L'S 
 
 Turnips -■ 
 
 llict and mangold 
 
 Cabbage, etc 
 
 Vetches and rape 
 
 I-las 
 
 Mi<adow and clover 
 
 Total under crops 
 
 FilU'W •■■• 
 
 WoikIs aiiii plantations 319,009 
 
 IVr.nan.Mit pa-slure ?/I?X''J2? TSt'w' 
 
 «<»■' ind waste 3,;j1-V!2^ 4,rj/,o&- 
 
 Wa"l?r .....". _i94.199 494,199 
 
 Total'area 20,819,892 20,819,892 
 
 Thcro can bo no doubt that the cultivated land has de- 
 creased since ISCO, but not in the same rate as the popula- 
 tion, whilst not much weight can be placed upon the differ- 
 ent areas given for pastures and waste lanils. as those are 
 elastic terms. The live-stock of Ireland (in thousands) 
 was as follows : 
 
 18C0. 
 
 021 
 
 3,599 
 
 3,-538 
 
 1,209 
 
 Thcse'figurcs snCncicntly attest tlio gouoral and increasing 
 pro-iierity of the country. 
 
 /•Wicr/c".— The Irish tishorics were far moro important 
 formerly than they arc now. In 18fil they employed 12,n:!:j 
 boats, manned by 48,000 men and boys: in lS7:i only SloU 
 boats. The dec'rca.se is duo to emigration and tho great 
 demand for seamen. Tho Irish rivers swarm with salmon, 
 and tho surrounding coasts with cod, ling, bake, herrings, 
 pilchards, clc, yet Irish markets arc bein.g supplied with 
 cnrcil fish from .Scotland and the Isle of Man. 
 
 ;Wiiiiiiy.— The mining industry of Ireland is of very 
 subordinate importance. In 1S71 there were only 28i2 
 miners, eng.igcd in coal, iron, lead, and copper mines, and 
 in the salt-works near Belfast. Other metals, including 
 gold and silver, occur. 
 
 .l/.i;iii/V«'(urc«.— Ireland is not a mnnufuctunng country, 
 as may clearly bo perceived on referring to tho slatomonts 
 given under I'ireat Britain. The only munuliicture of any 
 extent is that of linen, of which liellast is tho centre. The 
 wh<do of the textile industry of the country is carried on 
 in 2 Ci factories, having 1,002,70 J spindles and I S,l):)0 power- 
 looms, and employing 01,812 hands (according to tho cen- 
 sus tho textile inciustrics em)doy 17l,o2C hands). 
 
 r,Vi)i«ic)-fr.— Inland in 187 I had a mercanlile marine of 
 17r.l scn-giiing ve.s.scls, of a capacity of 21 1,:!02 tons. The 
 direet trade with foreign ccuintrics is comparatively trifling, 
 us ibc greater part of the tr.ade is carried on through Kng- 
 llsh and Scotch ports. The direct imports of foreign and 
 colonial merchandise have a value of about £ 12,000,000 ; 
 the direct exports of Irish produce do not cxccoil £1X0,000. 
 The principal seaports arc l.)ublin, Cork, liolfast, Water- 
 ford, and Limerick. There is no satisfactory record of the 
 trade with Hugland, but the principal exiiorts consist of 
 cattle, sheep, horses, butter, bacon, and other agricultural 
 produce, porter, whisky, and linen goods. 
 
 /trdi/iun and /'rovitiiin I'lir tin Siip/mrl. — According to 
 tho census of 1S71, there wJre 4.i;iO.S(!7 Catholics (7«.7 per 
 cent.), 007,9'J8 Protestant ICpiscopalians (12.1 percent.), 
 4U7,(ilS Presbyterians (11.2 per cent.), 4:1,411 Methodists, 
 4S,218 other dissenters, :iS14 Quakers, 28j Jews, and lOfi 
 deists, etc. Tho bulk of the population is therefore Catho- 
 lic, and tho existence of an established Protestant Church 
 in connection with that of Kngland has always been looked 
 upon as a grievance. In I8(iU this I'hurch was disestab- 
 lished and disendowed, but annuities ami compensations 
 have been granted on so liberal a sealo thatonl.va coin- 
 parali\ely trifling sum will reiiniin after all liabilities have 
 been met. After a payment of i.'iOd.ollll to the disestab- 
 lished I'hurch in lieu of its private endowment, £;i72,:i:l2 
 to tho Catholic Maynooth College, ami £90,000 to noncon- 
 formist bodies, there remained, on .Ian. 1, 187.). property 
 valued at £ll!,7.)»,000 and producing £0211,022 a year. 
 Liabilities (annuities, etc.) arc estimated to swallow up 
 £11, .100, OIK) of this amount, and there will thus remain 
 £j. 190,000, which are to bo devoted to educational and 
 other purposes. 
 
 Kiluciilinit.—A system of national education was inaugu- 
 rated in 1845, but as these national s. 'bo, .Is are not ilenomi- 
 national, thoy have never been supijortcd as heartily by tho 
 
 ministers of different religious bodies as they ought to 
 have been, and the education of tho people has suffered 
 accordingly. In 1878 no less than 976,096 children at- 
 tended these schools, but only ;!o.'),882 did so more than 90 
 times during tho year. The Hainan Catholic i)upils con- 
 stituted 79.0 per cent, of tho whole number. There were 
 9S02 teachers and 381 work-mistresses, whose united sala- 
 ries amounted to £501,004. According to the census_of 
 1871, there were 9490 primary schools, attended by 610,780 
 pupils, and 087 superior scho(ds, attended by 20,050. 
 Amongst the superior schools Trinity College at Dublin 
 and the Queen's Colleges at Cork, (ialway, and Belfast are 
 the most important. These institutions are open to all 
 alike, without reference to religious creed. There is like- 
 wise a Roman Catholic university. Maynooth College is 
 the principal institution tor the training of priests. 
 
 y/(»toin.— ."iceording to tradition, Ireland was inhabited 
 ori-inally hy Firboigs and Danauns, who were eventually 
 sulHlued"by Milesians or Gaels. We know next to nothing 
 respecting" Ireland for any period antecedent to the fourth 
 century. °M that time tlio inhabitants of tho island vicrB 
 known as Scoti, and they made descents upon the Roman 
 province of Britannia and Scotland, and even upon tiaul. 
 Christianity was introduced in the course of the filth cen- 
 tury when' St. Patrick was the chief apostle of the new 
 faith, and in the sixth century missionaries went forth 
 from'the Irish monasteries to convert Great Britain and 
 the nations of Northern Europe. At this early period 
 Ireland appears to have been divided among numerous 
 clans, who owned allegiance to four kings, and to an ard- 
 righ or monarcli,to whom the central district called Mcath 
 was 'allotted. The incursions of the Scandinavians, which 
 bean in tho eighth century and continued for 300 years, 
 cheeked the progress of civilization of Ireland. They cs- 
 tal)lished themselves on the eastern coast, whence they 
 made preilatory incursions into the interior of the country, 
 until they were overthrown at the battle of Clonlarl, near 
 Dublin ("lOM), by Brian Borumha, the "monarcb" of Ire- 
 laml From the eighth to the twelfth century Irish scholars 
 enjoyed a hi<'h reputation for learning, the arts were culti- 
 vated, and the round towers are believed to bo remains of 
 the architecture of that period. In 1150, Pope Adrian I\ . 
 authorized Henry II. of England to take possession ol 
 Ireland on condition of paying an annual tribute. In 
 1172, Henry made his first descent upon Ireland. He re- 
 ceived the "homage of a number of chiefs, and authorized 
 certain Norman adventurers to take possession of the en- 
 tire island in his behalf. In the course of tho thirteenth 
 century these Norman barons, favored by dissensions 
 amongst the natives, had succeeded in linnly establishing 
 their power, but in tho course of time their descendants 
 identified themselves with the natives, even to the ex- 
 tent of adopting their language. At length, the power 
 of En-'lniid became limited to a few coast-towns ami 
 to the" districts aroun.l Dublin and Drogheda. known 
 as the " Pale." In 1541, Henry received llie title of" king 
 of Ireland" from the Anglo-Irish Parliament, then sitting 
 at Dublin, and several of the native i.rinces aekuowlcdged 
 him as tlicir sovereign. The attempt to introduce the Re- 
 formed faith led to repeated revolts, which were suppres.«ed. 
 and the lamis of the rebellious ehiefs parcelled out amongst 
 Protestant .Seolch an,l English seltlers. I he so-called 
 ••Plantation of Ulster" took place in this manner under 
 .lames I In 161 1 tlie Irish rose in rebellion and massacred 
 the Protestants, but they were most severely punished by 
 Cromwell, who overran the country in 1649. At the Kevo- 
 lulion the native Irish generally sided wilh .lames II., the 
 English and Scotch •' colonists " wilh « illiam and Mary, 
 and the war was not terminated until 16112. Penal statutes 
 were then passed against the Catholics, and the general 
 dissatisfaction gave rise to numerous secret soeielies and to 
 a rebellion in I 79S, which was not suppressed till Ist^O. On 
 Iho Istof .lanuarv of the following year the Irish 1 ar lament 
 was suppressed and incorporated with that of G real Bril.iin. 
 From that year dates the existeuco of a Lnited Kingdom 
 of Great Britain and Ireland. E. G. Uavi:nsti:in. 
 
 Irclnnd (Wii.i.iam IIknim), b. in Lomlon in 1777, 
 son of Saiiim I In'land, an engraver and autllor, who pub- 
 lished several works of travel and tiixphiv nhutr(ilin„>, o/ 
 llo;itiili ( 179 l-9y>. Ho was n]iprenlieed to a conveyaneer, 
 and having aeeompanied his father u)ion a visit to Strat- 
 ford-upon-Avon, he forged a lease containing the pretended 
 signature of Shakspeare, which he said he bad diseoveied 
 among some old law-papers. He afterwards executed other 
 similar forgeries, and pro.lucod Koi-to/eni, a tragedy pur- 
 porting to have been written by Shakspeare. which was 
 acted at Drury Lane Theatre, Kemble playing the pniiei- 
 pal part; this, wilh //,ii,.i/ //.. another forgery, was pub- 
 lished ill 1799. The fraud was soon exposed, and ho 
 abandoned bis profession, devoting himself to literary 
 pursuits, writing several novels and The Xcjlvclvd Ociitui,
 
 1292 
 
 IREN^US— IRIDOSMINE. 
 
 a poem (1SI2). His Confcsnions (1R05) contain a full ac- 
 count of his various forgeries : a new edition, with an in- 
 troduction by Richard Grant White, was published in Kew 
 York in IS74. D. Apr. 17, 1835. 
 
 Irenir'us, one of the most distinguished of the early 
 Church Fathers, b. in Asia Minor or Syria in the first half 
 of the second century, probably between 120 nnd 1 10 A. d., 
 and enjoyed as a yonn;? man the instruction of Polycnrp, 
 the disciple of John and bishop of Smyrna. He went after- 
 ward to (Jaul, and was a presbyter at Lyons in 176, in which 
 yoar he vLsiited Rome. In 177, Photinus, bishop of Lyons, 
 suflcrcd martyrdom, and Irena^us succeeded him in tht- 
 episcopal ntlice. Hi? energy and zeal in liuilding up the 
 Christian Chur(;h in (Jaul arc highly praised bj- his con- 
 temporaries, but more particular events of his life arc not 
 recorded. Some have supposed that he suffered martyrdom 
 in the persecutions under Septimius Sevcrus, but as neither 
 Tertullian nor Euscbius mentions any such event, it must 
 be considered very doubtful. His position in the Church 
 SclialT defines as '* the leading representative of the Asiatic 
 Johannean school in the second half of the second century, 
 tiie champion of Catholic orthodoxy against Gnostic heresy, 
 and the mi-di a tor between the Eastern and Western churches. 
 Ue united a learned (Jreek education and philosophical 
 penetration with practical wisdom and moderation, and a 
 just sense of the simple essentials in Christianity.'* Of 
 his writings only the Afhcrttns Hivreaes has come down to 
 us, and tliis only in a rather uncouth Latin translation, 
 but, such as it is, it is of great importance for the under- 
 standing of the movements in the early Christian Church. 
 The best editions of the book are that by Stiercn (Leipsic, 
 I83;i) and that by Harvey (Cambridge, 1857). 
 
 Irc'ne [Gr. Eip^i-Tj. "peace"'], an empress of Constanti- 
 nople, b. at Athens about 752, at seventeen became wife of 
 Leo, son and heir of Constantino V., and upon his death in 
 780 was named in his testament as ruler during the minor- 
 ity of their son, Constantino VI., then nine years of age. 
 In 786 she called a council .at Constantinople to restore the 
 images which had been l)anished from the churches ; but 
 this being interrupted by the soldiery, she in the following 
 year summoned another at Nica;a in Bithynia, at which the 
 veneration of images was declared to be consonant with 
 Scri])ture, reason, and the Fathers and councils. Her son 
 was induced by his favorites to throw off the maternal yoke 
 and proclaim himself emperor. Irene was secluded in one 
 of her palaces, but conspiracies were formed for her restor- 
 ation. In 797 an attempt was made to assassinate Con- 
 stantine. but he escaped to Phrygia, where he was rejoined 
 by his mother, who persuaded him to return to Constanti- 
 nople, whore he was seized by the emissaries of Irene and 
 his eyes pat out. She then ruled rigorously for five years, 
 but the eunuch Niccphorus, her grand treasurer, having 
 been secretly invested with the purple, arrested Irene, seized 
 all her treasures, and banished her to the ishmd of Lesbos 
 (802), where she gained a scanty livelihood by spinning. 
 D. Aug. !5, SO.r 
 
 Ire'ton (Hesry), b. at Attenton, Xottinghanishire, 
 England, in 1010 ; studied law at Oxford, and took a con- 
 spicuous part in the great civil war, becoming one of Crom- 
 well's generals. In IGIG ho married Bridget, daughter of 
 the future Protector. Ircton was taken prisoner at Nascby 
 by Prince Rupert, but rescued the same day: he signed 
 the death-warrant of Charles I., and accompanied Crom- 
 well to Ireland in 1649. On the latter's return to England 
 in 1050 the prosecution of the conquest of Ireland was en- 
 trusted to Ireton. and prosecuted with vigor, not unmixed 
 with cruelty. D. of the plague before Limerick Xov. 15, 
 1651, and was buried in Westminster .Vbbey, whence his 
 remains were exhumed at the Restoration and burned at 
 Tyburn. Ue left one son and four daughters. 
 
 Irida'ceie [so named from the typical genus, /n*«], an 
 order of the petaloideous division of monoctyledonous or 
 endogenous jdants, distinguished by having only three 
 stamens, alternate with the inner divisions of the a<lnate 
 perianth and extrorse anthers: ami the leaves are almost 
 always equitant. Some have tuberous root-stalks, others 
 solid bulbs or corms. The juice in all is acrid. Tho prin- 
 cipal economical products of the order are orris-root, from 
 one or more species of /ri«, and Safkhon (which see), the 
 deep orange-colored stigmas of CrocuM Hutirns. The order 
 is mainly notable for the ornamental flowers it furnishes, 
 such as those of /;■(>, Glttdiohtu, Tign'fh'a (or tiger-flower), 
 and rV«»ci(«. Irises arc dispersed over the northern tem- 
 perate zone, crocuses belong to the Obi World, but far the 
 greater part of the order, especially those with solid bulbs, 
 belongs to tho Cape of Good Hope. Asa Gray. 
 
 IricVilim [Lat. iVr"». irt'iiin. the "rainbow"], one of the 
 rare metals of the phitinnm group, was recognized as a dis- ! 
 tinct element by Tcnnnnf in 1801. It takes its name from ; 
 tho iridescence of its solutions. It has not been found in a | 
 
 pure state, but is usually combined with osmium, forming 
 the mineral species known as iridosmine, and with platinum 
 giving the species platiniridiuiii. also in small (quantity with 
 palladium and with native platinum. It occurs with these 
 metals in varying, apparently indefinite, proportions, it 
 is regarded as isomorjilious with ot^mium, the jiercentage 
 varying from 4.'J to 77, an<i in the platinum alloy to range 
 from 20 to 77 per cent. It is difficult of separation in a 
 pure state from these metals, and processes for its extrac- 
 tion, especially from osmium, have engaged tho attention 
 of many of the most distinguished chemists. Persoz {Ann. 
 <ir CItimie et dc P/it/MUfiK, Iv, 210) convert? the metals into 
 sulphide by ignition in an earthen erucible with carbonate 
 of soda and sulphur. Wiihler recommends ( Pof/f/. Aunafm, 
 xxi. 101) the ignition to redness of the powdered alloy with 
 common salt in a porcelain or glass tube through which a 
 current of dry chlorine gas is passed as long as it is ab- 
 sorbed. The resulting chlorides are dissolved in boiling 
 water; tho soluti(m is concentrated and distilled with nitric 
 acicl. by which the osmium is removed as osmic acid, leav- 
 ing the iridium in solution. It is precipitated by chloride 
 of ammonium, and the ignitiim of this precipitate yields 
 metalHc iridium. Freniy roasts the ore in a current of 
 oxygen at a red heat, by which the osmium is partly re- 
 moved as osmic acid, and the remainder, after fusion with 
 nitre, is distilled with nitric acid. {Comptea iivndug, xxxviii. 
 1008.) Clans {licitriujr ziir Cbcmic drr Plalin-mttuHe, 
 Dorpat. 1854) fuses 1 part of the ore with 1 part of caustic 
 potash and 2 parts of saltpetre. After pouring out and 
 cooling, the fused mass is digested for twenty-four hours in 
 cold water. Osmate and ruthenate of potash are dissolved, 
 and are drawn off by a syphon. The portions of undecom- 
 poscd ore are subjected to a second fusion after separation 
 by washing from the insoluble black powder, which con- 
 sists chiefly of the oxides of iridium, rhodium, and pla- 
 tinum. Prof. Wolcott Gibbs, who has made extended in- 
 vestigations of the chemistry of the platinum metals [Smith- 
 Foui'an Co}itriiiutiojt/t, xii.. and Am. Juur. Sri., xxix.. May, 
 1860: xxxi. 63; xxxiv. 342; xxxvii. 57), employed this 
 method with several essential modifications. He first fuses 
 (ho ore with three times its weight of dry carbonate of soda, 
 in order to remove the silica and other impurities. He re- 
 duces the osmate of p(>tash obtained by the fusion with 
 nitre and potash to osmite by boiling it in a mixture of 
 alcohol and water. The ruthenate of potash is completely 
 decomposed. The undi?solved portions are well washed 
 with a saturated solution of chloride of jiotnssium. The 
 platinxtni and iridium exist in the mass in the form of 
 bichlorides, and their separation is eflected by the employ- 
 ment of the alkaline nitrates, advantage being taken also of 
 the different degrees of solubility of the double chlorides of 
 tho platinum and alkaline metals. For the details of this 
 and of the other methods rd'erenee is made to the memoirs 
 cited. In all these operations great care must be taken to 
 avoid the poisonous vapors of osmium. Devillo and De- 
 bray have also publishcfl an important memoir on this sub- 
 ject. {Ann. de C/iiwic it dc PhtfsiquCf 3d. Ivi. 385.) 
 
 Iridium may be fused in the flame of the oxyhydrogen 
 blowpipe or by the voltaic current, giving a hard, brittle. 
 silvery-white metal, with a specific gravity of 21.15. When 
 pure it is not acted on by acids or by aqua-rcgia. but is 
 readily dissolved by the latter when alloyed with platinum. 
 In its powdered state it is the best material for giving a 
 pure black upon jiorcelain, anrl is largely used for tliis pur- 
 pose. The bl.ack powder known as •' iridium-black " is ob- 
 tained by decomposing a solution of iridic sulphate by alco- 
 hol. It is similar to platinum-black in its action upon 
 gases, and will ignite alcohol, .^n artificial alloy is formed 
 by fusing iridium with platinum, which has valuable ]irop- 
 erties for many jiurposes in the arts, but particularly for 
 bushing the vents of heavy orrlnance. It is both hard, re- 
 sisting wear, and indestructible by the gases of the powder. 
 Specimens of this alloy in ingots three inches or more in 
 length were exhibited at Paris in 1807 by Messrs. Johnson, 
 Matthey »t Co. of London, known as " Matthey's alloy." 
 One vent shown had fired ;;000 rounds from a Whitworth 
 cannon without appreciable wear. William P. Bi.akk. 
 
 Iridos'ininCf a native alloy of iridium and osmium, of 
 great hardness and weight. It is usually in irregular 
 flattened grains and scales rarely broader than the head of 
 a pin. and has a tin-white or steel-gray color and metallic 
 lustre. But the grains vary in size and form in different 
 localities, and even from tho same locality, to such a de- 
 gree as to indicate a great difference in the chemical com- 
 position. It is also obtained as a heavy gray powder, and 
 some samples resemble a fine gray metallic sand. Hex- 
 agonal crystals have been observed. It is as hard as quartz, 
 antl its gravity ranges from 19.3 to 21.12. It is found gen- 
 erally with native jdatinum. and with placer-gold, but usu- 
 .nlly in small quantity eoniparetl with the bulk of the gold. 
 Nearly all of the gold-regions have yielded more or less of
 
 IRIS-IRISII LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 1293 
 
 this mineral, it ImTiiig been obtained in the Urals, Cali- 
 fornia. Australia. Pouth America at Choeo. in .Tapan. and 
 cNcivhcrc. In California it is more abundant in tlie north- 
 ern counties than in the midJlo or southern, and it is most 
 abundant in the beacb-sand deposits of the ncrthcrn coast 
 at and near Port Orford. According to Ur. Toricy. for a 
 vear or two after the establishment of the V. i^. assay-ofhco 
 in .\ew York the proportion of iridojiuiuc in the (!oUl from 
 California did not exceed half an ounce to yl.UUO.OOO. 
 The quautitv afterwards increased until the average was 
 seven or cit-'hl ounces to the million of gold, but it after- 
 wards fell off. showing great fluctuations, dependent, no 
 doubt, upon the opening of new diggings. In melting 
 lar^e quantities of native gold this heavy mineral settles 
 to tTie bottoms of the crucibles, and accumulates there. It 
 was the practice at the New York assay-offioe to separate 
 it from the gold by melting the gold with twice its weight 
 of silver, allowing the iridosmino to settle, then pouring 
 off the gold allov. A mass containing nearly all of tho 
 mineral remained, and was separated by repeated fusions 
 with silver and a linal ingestion in nitric and mtro-munatie 
 aci.l and washing. It has been found to accumulate simi- 
 larly in the melting-pots used in California, and it is com- 
 mon to obtain it in tho gold recovered from old crucibles 
 and sweepings. It has been announced as occurring in the 
 same wav in the sweepings of tho Japanese mint. It 
 Bomctiine's, however, eludes tho caro of mint-ofliceis and 
 finds its wav into coin. Its presence in gold used by jew- 
 ellers or in the arts is a great disadvantage, for it cannot 
 be cut by a file or steel tools, and so renders the gold unfit 
 for working. Such gold has to be remeltcd. The superior 
 gravity of the grains of iridosmino carries them to the bot- 
 tom. "Analyses show that the perecntago of irulium in 
 samples from different countries varies from 4:1 to 7", and of 
 the osmium from 17 to IS. .Small qu.antilies of platinum, 
 rhodium, ruthenium, and other metals are usually present. 
 \ sample of tho mi.\ed metals brought from Port Orford, 
 Cal.. separated from the fine scale-gold by amalgamation, 
 was found to contain nearly 49 per cent, of iridosmino and 
 4^^.h^ of platinum. 
 
 The value of iridosmino in the arts is chiefly as a source 
 of iridium and for tipj.ing the nibs of gold pens, for which 
 purpose its great hardness, .and the fact that it can be at- • 
 tached to the gold by soldering, makes it peculiarly suit- 
 able. Grains of the proper form and hardness are much 
 sought for bv gold-pen makers. The flat scales arc not so 
 suitable as those which are more round and solid and of 
 great hardness. They differ in appearance, as doubtless in 
 eimiposition, from the tabular crystals, and in the Califor- 
 nia mixtures of this mineral such grains do not usually | 
 constitute more than one-tenth of tho whole, but sometimes ] 
 the amount is as great as one-fifth. The pen-makers care- 
 fully select such grains. Tliey are so minute that from 
 lO.tino to 15,000 of thein do not weigh more than an ounce. 
 A cubio inch would weigh about eleven ounces, and at the 
 price of $230 per ounce would be worth ?27.)0. After these 
 grains have been atta.;hed to the tips of the gold pens they 
 are ground into the proper shape upon emery-wheels, and 
 sometimes with great difficulty owing to their extreme 
 hardness. William P. Blake. 
 
 I'ris [so named from its various colors], in the eye, is a 
 thin contractile curtain, nearly circular in outline, sus- 
 pended in the aqueous humor between tho cornea and tho 
 lens. It is perforated bv an aperture called tho pupil, cir- 
 cular in man and most of the .Mammalia, cbmgated m tho 
 cat tho fox, the owl, and some other vertebrates. Its sub- 
 stance is partly fibrous, partly cellular (pigmentary), and 
 partly muscular. The muscle-fibres arc involuntary, some 
 of them circular and sphinclerie, and some radiating. Tho 
 former contract, the latter dilate, the pupil under the vary- 
 ing stimulus of light. Opium and Calabar bean contract, 
 while belladonna powerfully dilates, the pupil. In the fre- 
 tal state the pupil is closed by the memliraua pupillartt, a 
 temporary structure. 
 
 Iris [Gr.'Ip.t], in classic mythology, tho daughter of 
 Thaumas and Electra and sister of the Harpies. In tho 
 llomcrio poems she appears as a virgin goddess, who aots 
 OS messenger of the gods among themselves, as medium of 
 communication between gods and men, and as conductor 
 of female souls to tho shades. On vases and bas-reliefs 
 Iris is represented as a youthful winged virgin, dressed in 
 a long tunic, with a herald's staff and a pitcher in her 
 hands. She is tho personification of the rainbow as tho 
 messenger of peace; the name maybe cnnneeleil with .ipu, 
 "to join," and with .Ip^i-.,, " peace." In the later poets 
 Iris appears as wife of Ze]diyrus and mother of Kros. 
 
 Iris [named for the goddess or the rainbowl, tho flcur- 
 de-lys or flower-de-luce, tho leading genus of the order 
 luiiiACK.F. (which sec), consists of numerous species of 
 iiercnnial herbs dispcfsed over the temperate regions of Iho 
 
 northern hemisphere, all with showy flowers, several of them 
 familiar and ornamental in gardens. They spring from 
 root-stocks or tubers, or a few from bulbs. Their leaves are 
 cquilant and sword-shaped, and the flower is peculiar in 
 having the three outer divisions recurved, while the three 
 inner are incurved or erect, and the three branches of tho 
 style are largeand petal-like, overaiching the three stamens, 
 which lie hidden underneath them. The violet-scented 
 orris-root, used in jierfumery and tooth-powders, is from 
 Ilia Florculina,and no less from l.pallirln and f.Hcimanica, 
 common species of flower-de-luce. All three arc cultivated 
 in tho neighborhood of Florence for this purpose. There 
 are several indigenous species in the I'. S., of which /. vergi- 
 ciilrtr, the common blue flag, is most abundant from Canada 
 to Florida. Asa Gray. 
 
 Iris (now Kitmhnak or Yekil Irmali), the classical name 
 of one of the largest rivers of Pontus in Asia Jlinor. 
 I'rish Cor'iier, tp. of Greenbrier co., W. Va. Pop. 810. 
 Irish Language and Liternturc. The Irish or 
 Gacdbilic lun^'uage is spoken in Irchuul. in the Hebrides 
 and Highlands of Scotland, and in the Isle of Man. It 
 belongs to the Celtic group of the Indo-European tongues. 
 Its relation to English is not greater than that of English 
 to Italian, while it is related to Welsh in about the same 
 degree th.at English is rilaled to (Tcrmnn. The word Erse 
 is applied to that dialect of it spoken in Scotland, and is 
 merely a form of the word Eri/Khf or Injuh. Those who 
 speak Irish, whether in Ireland, Scotland, or .Man, call 
 themselves the Gaedhel and their language Gacdbilic. A 
 language spoken throughout a region inclnding so many 
 isolated districts has probably had several dialects from 
 remote times, but these are of small literary importance 
 and differ in no considerable degree. Till within the last 
 ;iOO years the language of Gaedhilic books, wherever writ- 
 tcij,"was almost nniforni. Thus, Bishop Carsuel's prayer- 
 book printed in Scotlaml in l,'>r)7 does not dillcr from books 
 written at the same age in Ireland. At the present day tho 
 most distinct from pure Irish of Gaedhilic dialects is that 
 of the Isle of Man. The Manx has a curious orthography, 
 based upon Bishop Wilson's Bible, printed in \'bi, and it 
 contains a good many words borrowed from the Welsh and 
 from the Northmen." The Gaedhilic of tho mainland of 
 Scotland differs from that of the isles, and the isles difl'er 
 among tbemselvos. In Ireland the dialect of the southern 
 half differs from that of the northern ; Connaugbt differs 
 slightly from Ulster ; Kerry from tho rest of Monster. 
 Underlying these trivial differences is a common gram- 
 matical structure. 
 
 Tho alphabet contains eighteen letters: 
 
 I To these from an uncertain jieriod names taken from trees 
 have been given. Thus, A is oi'/m, the fir; G is ;/.i;(, the 
 ivy ; R, rtds, the elder. The characters in which these let- 
 ters are usually written arc old forms of the Hoinan alpha- 
 bet, and are fo'und in Early Saxon as well as in early Irish 
 
 I MSS. Tho number of consonantal sounds is increased by 
 
 I aspiration, a process which may be a)iplied to all tho con- 
 sonants but I, m. r. Thus, ( aspirated becomes a slight 
 guttural, and c aspirated a deep gultiiral. The system 
 of aspiration, combined with that of eclipsis or silence 
 of one consonant when preceded by another (as In, pro- 
 nounced (), affords the basis of the system of inflection 
 
 ; so far as consonants are concerned. The vowels a. 
 o, ti, arc ealleil broad — '-, ', slen'ler. The alteration 
 of broad syllables to slender and of slcmler to broad com- 
 pletes tho means of inflection known to the language. Or- 
 thography and pronunciation are based U|ion a familiar 
 rule, riiiiih i'lnl luii" lialliiin Ir lcii(h(iii (narrow with nar- 
 row'anil broail with bnuid). This means that in the same 
 word vowels of eciual sound must be on opposite sides of 
 a consonant. It is illu.-trated when English proper names 
 are put into an Irish form ; thus, Cromwell will not do. be- 
 cause o is broad and r slender, and it is made Cromaill. 
 Irish has the usual parts of speech. It has two genders. 
 There is one article on (Ihel. and it is declinable and of 
 two genders. Nouns when written alono aro declined with 
 terminal inflections. When preceded by tho nrMcle they 
 have also initial changes. Grammarians differ as to llie 
 number of declensions. Five are well establi'brd. The 
 first is marked by an attenuation of the final syllable in the
 
 1294 
 
 IKISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 eenitive, as h6yd (poet), Ren. b&ird. Most of the masculine 
 nouns are of this (leclcnsion. Most feminine nouns belong 
 to the second, which forms its genitive by the a.l.lition ot 
 a slender sylliible. with consequent attenuation of the prc- 
 ceilin" syllal>le, as ciUlcnrli (hag), gen. milUijhe. The 
 thirJ 'declension forms its genitive by a broad increase, as 
 cath (battle), gen. cntha. The fourth declension has a pe- 
 culiar plural, but shows no change in the singular, as ciiKha 
 (defect), n. pi. mxhaidhc. The fifth declension forms its 
 genitive by addition of n, as mmnma (mindl. gen. mrunmau. 
 Adjectives are declined as nouns, and are compared by use 
 of the genitive singular feminine and a prefix, as </<•«< 
 (white), nios c,ile (whiter). The pronouns in themselves 
 have no peeu'liaritv, but their compounds w[th prqiosi- 
 tions form one of the chief idioms of the langnngc. These 
 compounds are used directly, as h mnHh nn n,rc a ihvg «, 
 c//,H,'( (compound of dn, to, and /.i, thou)— "It was good 
 the care which she gave to you "—i. e. " she took good care 
 of you." To express pos.session, as Lvam sa nn imbhar 
 (?.,"with, and mf, I)— "With me myself the book "— i. e. 
 "the book is mine;" to complete a verb, as Tii dud ar/nm 
 an {.HI. at, and mf, I)— "It is a wish at me in if— i. c. "I 
 wish for it;" and in numerous other ways. There are also 
 rcular possessive and relative pronouns. A'erhs are eon- 
 uf-rated on one main plain. Their tenses and persons are 
 formed by terminal and initial alterations of the root. 
 There are two present tenses and two pasts. The second 
 tense in each case, indicating action in a place, is called 
 oonsuetudinal. Thus, root glan- (cleanse), active voice, 
 prcs. (1) qlnnaim: (2) qlanam mf; past (I) ijhhtnas; (2) 
 qhlnnninn: Mme. glan/ad ; infinitive, do tjhhtnadli : passive 
 Voice, pres. (1) glanlar me: past (1) r/lauadh vie'; past (2) 
 qlantaoi m<-: future, qlanfur; conditional, ,jhlanfa!dhc me; 
 past participle, glanta: inf. do bheith glmla. The impera- 
 tive active is the root; the imperative passive is the same 
 as the present passive. The consuetudinal present has a 
 distinct form in the active only. There are several irreg- 
 ular or. strictly, compound or defective verbs. The main 
 principle of the syntax is that the verb begins the sentence, 
 as D' fa rl Scnm'ui ague to ghab vf Calhal au ri'ghcncht i 
 I.' i,,i,d—" Died King James, and took King Charles the 
 kin 'dom in his stead "— (. c. " King .lames died, and King 
 Ch.irles reigned in his stead." The subjcet comes next, 
 and then the rest of the predicate. The adjective, with a 
 few exceptions (as scan bhenn. "old woman"), follows the 
 noun, and its gender is marked by the affection of its in- 
 itial, as ("11,7 m/Kfr, "great ship" (fern. ),/<■«)• mtfr, "great 
 man." Here the initial of the adjective is aspirated where 
 the noun is feminine. . 
 
 Irish prosody comprised several metres. They consist 
 in various combinations of syllables with alliteration and 
 vowel-rhyme, but, except accidentally, they do not show I 
 the En^iish syllnhie rhyme. The following example 13 j 
 from an' ancient MS., and is the original of a well-known 
 
 modern melody ; 
 
 Thoralfjh en (Viviifina cats 
 Is fail oil- aice rr a hais 
 
 1 tP Bhrifiin tanihhghil nar I'lm 
 Do iMmcJiil aoinhhen Erim. 
 
 " From Tory Island to rliodhna the pleasant, 
 And a rins; of cold with her, 
 In the time of Brian, brichl-sided, fearless, 
 Went around Erin a solitary woman." 
 Irish historians mention works written in pagan times in 
 Ireland, and of these the most famous is the Saltair of 
 Pm-n by Cormno Mac Airt, king of Ireland from A. D. 227 
 to ''I'lG It is stated to have consisted of metrical treatises 
 on Hie' laws and usages of Ireland. Of this and other early 
 works no more than the titles remain. The earliest existing 
 examples of Irish are glosses, chieay on Latin MSS. of tho i 
 Scriptures. These are found in codices of the eighth, and ; 
 possibly of the seventh century. The libraries of Corpus 
 and St.' .lohn's Colleges at Cambridge, of Milan and of St. ' 
 Oall. contain examples. The glosses are sometimes of iso- 
 lated words, but they arc often long'sentences, so that they ] 
 illustrate completely the grammar of the Gaedhilic tongue 
 at that remote period. A largo collection of such glosses 
 i« to be found in Zeuss, Grammnlica Ccliiea, in Nigra, Mi- 
 lan aiimcu. and in Stokes, GoidHha. Tho writings of this 
 period are marked, among other peculiarities, by the ab- 
 sence of the rule "broad to broad," etc., by indications of 
 a neuter gender and of a dual number, and the language 
 is called Old Irish. The next period is called the Middle 
 Irish. To it the earliest complete works now existing be- 
 loni. It fades gradually into the modern form of the lan- 
 guage, which has beenestabli-shed without material change 
 for about 400 years. It is to be borne in mind that the 
 absence of works altogether in the oldest Irish is shown 
 not to bo due to the intellectual torpor of its age, but to 
 the fact that important compositions of Irishmen of that 
 day remain in Latin. Thus, the wonderful life of St. Co- 
 lumb Cille by St. Adamnan exists in MS. dating from the 
 
 period of its composition, tho seventh century. The oldi 
 book altogether in the Irish language is called l.mb!i,ir 
 
 The oldest 
 gether in the Irish language is called J.mbhnr na 
 h-Uidhri. The original composition is referred by histo- 
 rians to the sixth century, and to St. Ciaran, abbot of 
 Cluain-mio-Nois, but the MS. now preserved, no doubt a 
 copy from an older one, was written about tho year llflO 
 by Moclmuiri m.ac Ceileachair. This venerable MS. is in 
 fair preservation, and may be seen in the Koyal Irish 
 Academy, Dublin. It is a collection of heroic titles, with 
 a few pieces of other character, such as an account of tho 
 royal buryiug-places of Erin, a sermon on the Resurrection, 
 and one on the day of judgment. From the thirteenth cen- 
 tury onwaril MSS. exist in large numbers. They are usu- 
 ally collections of treatises made by learned individuals or 
 by' communities. Divinity, law, physic, poetry, history, 
 romance succeed one another, with no further sign of divis- 
 sion than an ornate initial where each subject begins. The 
 Lcahhar Brrac. or " Speckled Book." written by the M.ac 
 Egans, the Book of Lciiisicr, and the Jlool: of nalli/iiiole 
 arc examples. In each case the book is a body of tran- 
 scription, tho editors being merely the copiers of earlier 
 MSS. The period of collections of this kind is succeeded 
 by that of separate works. The Annnta Hioi/hnchta Ei- 
 r'rann. commonly called the "Annals of the Four Jlasters," 
 Dr. Keating's Hittorii of Ireland, and the several works of 
 Mac Firbis are examples in the seventeenth century. Print- 
 ing in the Irish language did not begin till the third quar- 
 ter of the sixteenth century, and the earliest specimen is a 
 poem preserved in the library of Corpus College, Cambridge. 
 After that time numerous books were printed in Irish in 
 Dublin and on the continent of Europe. All the earlier 
 and most of the later books are printed in the Irish cha- 
 racter. The first Irish book printed in English type is a 
 catechism for the island of Rathlin, published about 17.10. 
 At the present day. excepting ancient works edited by 
 scholars, the production of books in Irish is limited to a 
 few translations, prayer-books, and now and then a little 
 verse. . 
 
 Turning from the actual MSS. and printed books to their 
 
 subject-matter, Irish literature is found to have a wide 
 
 Most works on divinity were written in Latin, but 
 
 old 
 
 range. 
 
 a great collection of sermons and of hymns, some very old 
 and curious, and innumerable lives of saints, exist. In 
 this class two remarkable examples may bo mentioned^ 
 the Ainhra Clinlulm Clilll! and the Fillre of Arngus. The 
 former was composed in the sixth century by Dalian For- 
 gaill, chief poet of Ulster, and is a poem on the death of 
 St. Columb Cille. The latter is also a poem, and is of 
 great length. After a preface explaining its origin, it 
 recounts the saints of Erin and some of the greater 
 saints of the Church at large, and their glories. Its in- 
 trinsic merits are the simplicity of its thoughts, the purity 
 of its devotion, and the richness of its imagery : and it is 
 besides viiluablo from its numerous allusions to historical 
 and topogr.ajihical points. The old MSS. contain a large 
 number of legal treatises. From the extreme terseness of 
 their style and their frequent use of obsolete words these 
 works lire peculiarly difficult to translate. The best known 
 are tho Scnrhun MiW and the liool: of Aicill. These are 
 collections of legal maxims, of illustrative cases, of judg- 
 ments and of principles on several branches of law, as on 
 land-tenure, on wrongs and their remedies, and on social 
 relations. The committal of the Scnelnm Mor to writing 
 is referred by Irish historians lo the fifth century. From 
 tho Irish word brcilheamh (a judge) these treatises arc often 
 called lirehon laws. They are of profound interest, as 
 showing the growth and history of a very ancient system 
 of jurisprudence, influenced in no important particular by 
 the Roman code. In historical romance Iri^h literature is 
 particularly rich. The most famous of the old tales is the 
 Tain lio Cnnlliinr. It tells of a war originating in strife 
 about the finest white bull in Ireland. The men of Con- 
 naue'ht invade Ulster, and the incidents of the war form ft 
 largo part of the talc, and especially the feats of the great 
 champion of Ulster in the first century, Cuehulbiin. The 
 tale ends with the bull rnshing against a rock and dashing 
 out his brains. Many talcs recount the deeds of heroes 
 and saints, tho courtships of the beauties of old by rival 
 champions, elopements, wars, travels. The Vni/agi: oj 
 Va-ldnin's Corach describes an early voyage and discovery 
 of land in the far West, which some late writers have 
 thought to indicate a discovery of America. Of history 
 one "of the earliest and most valuable works is Cogadh 
 Gaedhel re Gallaibli—thc "war of the Irish with the 
 Danes." This was probably written by one who lived in 
 the last days of the wars, and may have been at the battle 
 of Clontarf in lf>U. The Annah if the Four \fatter» is 
 a history based upon ancient records. Michael OTlcry 
 was its 'chief editor, but several other Franciscans took 
 part in the work. It extends from the earliest times to 
 1616, and is a vast and, for the most part, reliable source
 
 IRISH MOSS— IRON. 
 
 1295 
 
 "f Information. The earliest translations into Irish are 
 of nieces of the Scriptures. In the fourteenth century the 
 travels of Marco Polo and numerous works on medicine ] 
 were translated into Irish, and later the English version 
 of the Bihlc. the !>,■ /mlmdmic ChrliU, and other devotional 
 works, while in this century some of Miss Kdjreworth s 
 talcs have annearcd, and Dr. MacIIalc has given the Il,.i<l 
 and several of Moore's melodies. In the hist century and 
 the one hefore a great many songs were written, and a few 
 novels, llardiman's In.h MinnirfU;/ contains a collection 
 of such songs. Some arc pleasant, hut many have niore 
 merit in their simple, lovely airs than in their words I ho 
 Irish lan-uage has for centuries been systematically at- 
 tacked hy the English rulers of Ireland, and these efforts 
 have at length succeeded in putting an end to its produc- 
 tion of literature. It is to be feared that its life is almost 
 at an end. and that in two centuries, at the longest, the air 
 of Ireland will no more convey (taedhilic tones, and her 
 peoide no longer use the speech which for 3000 years ex- 
 pressed the thoughts of their ancestors. 
 
 The best grammar of modern Irish is that of Donovan ; 
 of ancient Irish. Zeuss. A grammar by .lohn O'NoUoy 
 contains an excellent account of the differences of the 
 provincial dialects. The best dictionaries are those of 
 O'lieillv. O'Brien, .ind Macfurtin. O'Cnrry s I.cclurcHon 
 Ihc MS. ^ralrrmh ,.f hixh Histor;! is a useful introduction 
 to the literature. ' On the ecclesiastical literature. Dr. 
 Uecvc's e.lition of .\d.amnan's life of St. Columb Cille, and 
 the somewhat rare works of Colgan, should he consuUed. 
 The puhlications of the English reeord-oSiec. of the Irish 
 laws commission, of the Irish Archicologieal .Society, of 
 the Ossianic Societv. of the Celtic Society, of the Royal 
 Irish Academy, and of the Royal Areha?oIogieal Associa- 
 tion of Ireland, contain numerous important works in the 
 lan-uago. translated and e.liled by competent scho ars. 
 (FoT the best account of early Irish (Brehon) laws and in 
 stilnlions see Sir Henry Sumner Maine's recent ""''' 
 
 of n mineral acid be added, with slight agitation, the irisito 
 coa-ulates and totally separates. It is now profoundly al- 
 tered, having become liiiolubic in all its former solvents. 
 No analyses of pure irisito can yet be reported. Tlic no 
 less singular mineral, nthrrlile, from the province of New 
 Brunswick, was found by the writer to contain n liillr iris- 
 ito and vi.'cosite. The grahamitc is claimed by some to be 
 albcrtilc ((iesner, Maclarhine, <-t nl.), but C. M. Wethcrill 
 found for albcrtite the following composition — 
 
 Carbon 8B.U 
 
 work, 
 
 Lrcdtrcn on the Early Uintory of lml!l,il!<mH. 1S74 ) 
 
 NoEiMAS Moohe. 
 
 Irish Moss. See C.vnnAGF.r.x. 
 
 Irish Sea, The, is situated between Ireland and Great 
 Britain, and eonneeted with the Atlantic, S. by St. George's 
 Chinnel and N. by the North Channel. Its greatest width 
 is r'O miles. It contains the Isle of Man and Anglesey, 
 besides some smaller islands. The principal inlets are the 
 estuaries of the D.e. Mersey, an.l Uibblo in England. Sol- 
 way Frith in Scotland, and Duudrum, Duudalk, and Dub- 
 lin hays in Ireland. 
 
 I'risite (I-at. irin, "rainbow"]. «■ ''"? singular resinoid 
 substance wliieh is the main constituent of a peculiar 
 American mineral, originally investigated by the writer, 
 and called by him ,,,'•'•'•'"•"■■ Grahamitc occupies ver- 
 tical fissurcs"in hori/.ontally-bedded rocks, so far as yet 
 known only in Ritchie co.. West Va.. and at one other point 
 —in tho centre of the continent, 100 miles W. of Denver, 
 Col A sample from this latter locality, in the possession 
 of Dr. .1. S. Newberry, has been identified clieniically by 
 tho writer as genuine grahamite, containing about tho 
 same proportion (SO per cent.) of irisite, the remainder 
 beini' ViscnsiTE (which sect, just as in the West Virginia 
 grnhamite. [The names originally assigned to tho two res- 
 inoid constituents of grahamite by the discoverer wore u;»- 
 i„r and vhrn.ine. Prof. .1. D. Dana has, however, cstab- 
 li..l,cd tho terminology in He. and these must therefore bo 
 mollified to in.He and ,!.r„.;te.] Tho probability is great 
 that other localities will be found. Tho mean of analyses 
 of grahamite by two analysts is— 
 
 Carbon 7«-!!2 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 O.tygcn 
 
 S..57 
 
 . 12.77 
 
 100.00 
 
 , of 
 
 Hydrogen.. 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Nitrogen ... 
 
 f.06 
 
 . 1.97 
 
 . 2.93 
 
 100^ 
 
 Density = 1.115. 
 This is calculated independently of the 2 or .T per cent 
 
 (irahamite is black in the mass; of resinoid, but variable 
 lustre ; trace, dark chocolate-brown ; very soft, fusible under 
 pressure, by reason of the highly fusible viseosito it con- 
 tains, to' a tarry and frothy mass; is cmhiently tnliihle in 
 chloroform, henV.ole. bisulphide of carbon, warm oil of Inr- 
 iientine, and some other liquids. The visi-osite is readily 
 dissolved <Mit friiin the irisite by ether or light petroleum- 
 naphtha. The residual irisito may he obtained pure by 
 sulution. Illlralion. and evaporation. Pure irisite is black, 
 lirilliani, infusible with(wit decmposilion. like ulinino; 
 which last, however, is wholly insoluble. This eomhina- 
 linn of absolute infusibility with great solubility is cha- 
 racteristie Its iio.W characteristic properly is that thin 
 films of its solutions dry on polished surfac.'S to gorgeous 
 riiiubi.w hues ; whence its name. If lo its solutions a drop 
 
 Density = 1.09". 
 —which differs irreconcilably from grahamitc. Its relations 
 to solvents and chemical agents generally are also widely 
 different. The trace of albcrtite is remarkably lihtck, sur- 
 passing most charcoal in this respect, and nearly equalling 
 anthracite. Both these minerals are believed by some 
 writers (Lesley, Newberry, Fontaine, Macl'arhme. Jenney, 
 r( al.) to be derived from liquid petroleum, and to he strict 
 " asph.alts." formed probably in sihi. The writer, and with 
 him Peckham, believe this impossible, both geologically 
 and ehemicallv, but rather that they have been injected 
 into their fissures in heated plastic condition. Dana also 
 admits this latter view in his later editions. In 1856 the 
 writer suggested that the West Virginia grahamite might 
 be employed in the gas-manufacture. Since that, over 
 ISO. 000 tons have been mined and used by gas companies 
 throughout tlic U. S. for enriching coal-gas. (Under Vis- 
 coiiTE some further information will bo given regarding 
 grahamite.) "■ Wi,-ktz. 
 
 Irit'is, a frequent and formidable disease of the eye, 
 characterized by innamraatioii of the iris and the contigu- 
 ous serous surfaces, by intolerance of light, by adhesions 
 (^/ncchmala) to the surrounding parts, and by consequent 
 distortion and immobility of the pupil. The color ol the 
 iris also undergoes peculiar changes, so that the skilled 
 diagnostician can usually detect its presence at once. 
 When tho iris is at all actively inflamed, it also becomes 
 quite insensible to the action of atropia. Iritis may bo 
 traumatic in its origin, or may arise from overuse of the 
 eve or from working in too intense light. It is. however, 
 nsuallv ot' a rlieuniatic or syphilitic character. It is often 
 very painful. Local bloodletting, iodide of potassium, 
 mercurials, atropia, and finally tonics, such as iron, quinia, 
 and strychnia, are employed in its treatment. 
 
 IrUlitsk', goyernnient of East Siberia, bordered by (he 
 governments of Yeniseisk and Yakutsk and the Chinese 
 empire. Area, 207.555 square miles. Pop. ;)72,833. It 
 comprises tho great Baikal Lake, but it is mostly mnun- 
 tainous, traversed by the Nerchinsk Miniiilains and the 
 .lahlomivy. Large tracts arc covered with pine forests; 
 rye and oats are the common crops; rhubarb is much cul- 
 tivated Of animals, reindeer, s.-ibles, ermines, and foNcs 
 abound, and excellent fish, especially sturgeon and cod 
 Gold silver, lead, jasper, topaz, emerald, rock-salt, and cal 
 arc found. But agriculture and the transit trade between 
 China and Russia arc the chief |uirsuits of Ihc inhabitants. 
 Irkutsk, town of Siberia, the capital of the above gov- 
 ernmenl. at Ihc confluence of the Irkut and the Angara, in 
 lit 5''° 17' N and Ion. 101° Ifi' E. It is the scat of tho 
 covcrnor-gcneral of East Siberia and of a Creek arch- 
 bishop and has many educational institutions. Its houses 
 aro mostly built of wood, and its manufactures of linen, 
 leather, glass, and soap are merely local. But it is the 
 principal station of the trading route lietwccn China, 
 Siberia, and Russia, and large quantities of tea, silk, porce- 
 lain, rhubarb, and furs aro hero exchanged lor European 
 goods. Pop. 2.'i,S50. 
 
 Irnc'riiis, Wcrncrins, or Garnicr, b. at Bologna, 
 Italy in the second lialf of the eleventh century, becaino 
 professor of Itonian law at the university of that city, m 
 which capacity he discovered and expounded the /„«/i(i,tc« 
 of .Instinian, and other eminent ancient jurists Ihus be- 
 coming the restorer of Roman jurisprudence. D. at Bo- 
 logna between 1 120 and 1 12S. 
 
 I'ron ns n IMctnl. Iron is the most important metal 
 at Ihe eommand of num. and the use of it, in its many dif- 
 ferent forms, has elevated barbarism into civilized society. 
 It may, then, seem strange to say that iron is a rare metal, 
 but siich is the fact ; for it is almost unknown in a state of 
 chemical purity. H is scarcely possible to obtain pure iron, 
 such is Iho strength of its combination with certain ele- 
 ments. The metal ordinarily known as iron is virtuolly n 
 combination of the elements iron and carbon. According 
 to the amount of carbon present the metal is called irrmiuhl 
 i'r.,n, il'cl, mtillcutilc I'ruii, and runt i,;.ii or ;ii''/ ('• 
 
 , begin-
 
 Vl'M 
 
 IKON. 
 
 ning with the metal containing least carbon. Wrought iron 
 aiicT stool have been known from the earliest times. Iron 
 was used by the Ejjyptinns. it is supposed, anterior to the 
 time of Moses ; it was extensively applied by the Assyrians, 
 and Indian steel was largely imported into Persia under 
 the name of Parthian iron, which was steel in its rudest 
 though a valuable form. The first steel produced in Eu- 
 rope'^was maile in the thirteenth century in bars in small 
 open lire.^;. while cast steel was invented by Huntsman litde 
 more than 100 years ago. Cast iron was unknown till the 
 fnurteentli century, having been made about the same time 
 in England and in Elsass (.\Isace). 
 
 The itraprilicK of iron claim our attention in the first 
 place. They arc physical and chemical ; the physical prop- 
 erties include the mechanical properties of the metal, and 
 the chemical properties include its combinations with va- 
 rious element.-i and the characteristics of its salts. 
 
 Physical PiiOPKnTiES. — A./or. — Pure iron is silvery 
 while, slightly grayish, with a mild but brilliant lustre. 
 The color of the various forms is mainly determined by the 
 amount of carbon present, since other elements, such as 
 manganese, silicon, phosphorus, etc.. modify the lustre 
 rather than the color. The color of wrou;:bt iron is gray, 
 which is also that of steel, the varieties with most carbon 
 being lightest in shade; in steel the color is darkest in the 
 unhardened state, and when hardened the metal becomes 
 whiter in proportion to its content of carbon. Cast iron 
 varies from deep gray to white as the amount of free car- 
 bon (irnphitc) present decreases. 
 
 Fmcliirc. — Wrought iron has a fibrous fracture, the fibres 
 bcin" longer and more silky the purer the metal is, the more 
 it has been worked, and the more gradually like a tear the 
 fracture has occurred. Steel is crystalline when broken : 
 when hardened the crystalline character becomes almost 
 imperceptible and the fracture conchoidal. Cast iron is 
 also crystalline, white iron being crystallized in large plates, 
 which decrease in importance as the graphite increases, till 
 in deep gray iron the crystals are indistinct, so far as iron 
 is concerned, but the graphite appears in scales of consider- 
 able size. 
 
 Specific Grnviii/. — The specific gravity of electro-de- 
 posited iron is S.l.'ig: that of cast-steel bars and plates 
 averages 7.823; that of tilted and hammered iron bars and 
 forgings ranges from 7. 70 to 7.798 ; that of rolled iron plates 
 and bars varies between 7.7(1 and 7.54 : while that of un- 
 wrought puddled bar averages 7.40. We find that wrought j 
 iron is very bad when its sp. gr. is less than 7.oO. The sp. 
 gr. of east iron ranges from 6.85 to 7.35, that used in con- 
 struction averaging 7.10. 
 
 Cnnilticllou vf Heat and Elertricitij .-~T\\C conductivity 
 of silver being 100 in each case, that of wrought iron for 
 heat is 11.9, and for electricity 12 to 14. S. 
 
 E.Tpausiini bi/ Heal. — From the freezing to the boiling 
 point of -water cast iron expands in bulk 0.00:13, and 
 wrought iron 0.00.^f) ; and wrought iron has a linear ex- 
 pansion of 53^05 for each degree between 212° and 572° F, 
 Cast iron e.-iposed to continued heat becomes pcimancnthj 
 cxpanihd to the extent of U to 3 per cent, in length, so 
 that grate-bars, for instance, should have 4 per cent, play. 
 In cooling from a melted state gray east iron contracts 1 
 per cent., and white cast iron 2 to 2J per cent. In a stato 
 of fusion the behavior of east iron is the reverse of that of 
 leatcr, for the hottest iron is the densest and sinks to the 
 bottom. This property enables us to melt it in a rcverbera- 
 tory furnace by a flame applied on the upper surface of the 
 metal, and also to keep it hot when melted. If melted iron 
 acted as water does, it would be practically useless. 
 
 t'nsiliilili/. — Pure iron is doubtless as refractory as pla- 
 tinum, but its fusibility rapidly increases with the amount 
 of carbon present. Cast steel is estimated to fuse at 4000° F., 
 and cast iron at 27^0° F. 
 
 Wclflini/. — Iron difl"ers from almost all other metals in 
 the fact tiiat. though nearly infusible, its particles agglu- 
 tinate at a white heat into a nearly homogeneous mass. All 
 methods of producing wrought iron depend on this principle. 
 Tcnaeili/. — In this quality iron vastly excels all other 
 metals. The statements respecting the strength of .Amer- 
 ican irons have been, unfortunately, overestimated by 25 
 to 30 per cent., owing to a defective method of breaking 
 the test-piece at a point where its area was suddenly re- 
 duced. Calculated for the original area of the test-bars, 
 tho following arc correct statements of breaking strains : 
 
 PoundH to sq. loch. 
 
 Hard east steel 130,000 
 
 Medium " 110,000 
 
 .Soft " ft'i.OOO 
 
 f 72 000 
 
 Rteel ■) **'^' '''*'* (homogeneous metal) < g.'i'ooo 
 
 Pessemer steel (rails) 89.-')00 
 
 Spring steel 72.500 
 
 Puddled steel •[ f{l^ 
 
 Wrought 
 iron.... 
 
 Cast iron 
 
 PoQDdn to ftq. locb. 
 
 Iron wire SG.OOO 
 
 Bar iron CO.OOl) 
 
 Plate iron 60,000 
 
 Unwrougbt puddled iron 30.000 
 
 ' StrouKcast iron 2.S,000 
 
 < Average " 16,500 
 
 \weak " 13,400 
 
 DiKlilili/. — Iron possesses this quality in a high degree, 
 being excelled in it only by gold, silver, and platinum. 
 The tenacity of a metal has a greater effect in producing 
 ductility than has the malleability; hence, tho purer kinds 
 of wrought iron can be drawn into wire of excessive fine- 
 ness, even down to a diameter of 0,01 inch in continuous 
 coils 49,000 feet long. 
 
 Kesiataiiee to Compression. — Wrouglit iron under pres- 
 sure loses shape and proportion like lead, and no definite 
 point is marked at which ciim/iiii</ can be said to occur; 
 yet under a load of 38.000 pounds per square inch the metal 
 is too much distorted for practical use. Cast iron, on the 
 contrary, can be crualicd by a load v,arying from 44,500 to 
 140,000', the mean usually assumed being 9.),000 pounds 
 per square inch, or about six times the mean of its ten- 
 sile strength. Wrought iron resists compression with a 
 strength about two-thirds that with which it resists ex- 
 tension. 
 
 Hardness. — Iron is relatively one of the hardest of all 
 metals, but there are among the various kinds many de- 
 grees of hardness. Hardened steel is the hardest of met- 
 als, and some kinds of while cast iron arc nearly as hard, 
 while wrought iron and homogeneous metal are sometimes 
 nearly as soft as copper. 
 
 Stiffness and Elaeticili/. — Wrought and cast iron are 
 elastic under a strain kejlt within certain limits, and both 
 are safe in structures so long as the strain remains wilhin 
 the elastic limit. There are two limits of elasticity — one 
 for compression, the other for extension. Under compres- 
 sion the limit of elasticity of cast iron may be stated as 
 35,000 pounds per square inch, that of wrought iron about 
 27,000 pounds, and that of steel say 70,(100 pounds per 
 square inch for hard east steel and 3(!,000 for soft steel of 
 finest quality. Under tensile strain the limit of elasticity 
 of cast iron is about SOOO pounds per square inch, that of 
 wrought iron about 2C.O00 pounds, and that of steel varies 
 between one-half and two-thirds of the breaking strains of 
 the various kinds. Bessemer steel, containing about 0.45 
 per cent, of carbon, breaks under aniininmni tensile strain 
 of 74,000 pounds, and will bear in tension as well as in 
 compression a ininlnmm strain of 3S. 000 ]iounds per square 
 inch without exceeding its elaslic limit. It is a curious 
 fact that cast iron i/ields at first to a given compressing 
 strain twice as much as wrought iron, yet it will bearwith- 
 out crushing three times as much pressure. Cast iron can 
 he exposed under extension to a strain only one-third to 
 one-fourth as great as (bat it bears under compression. 
 Wrought iron will hear within elastic limits under exten- 
 sion three-fourths of the force it hears under compression, 
 but in practice it is usually taken the other way, owing to 
 the fact that long struts of wrought iron arc very liable to 
 fail by flexure. The limit of elaslicity. or the working strain 
 of steel, seems practically equal for comprcs.sion and exten- 
 sion. Steel is made more uniform tbanwrought iron,andwill 
 therefore gradually supersede wrouglit iron in most struc- 
 tures, with an increase of safety if not a diminution of 
 weight. The pojjular term foii./Aiic«« means a combination 
 of tenacity, ductility, and hardness happily joined to re- 
 sist concussions and irregular strains. In judging a 
 metal, tenacity alone would be a false guide, for hard, brit- 
 tle steel .«how's the greatest tensile strength. Therefore, 
 it is necessary to see that the melal stretches consider- 
 ably before breaking: that is. not less than 5 to :!0 per 
 cent, for good qualities of the different grades of steel, and 
 from 30 to 60 per cent, for the different grades of wrought 
 iron. 
 
 Puch is iron as we all of us know il in its various forms 
 and evcrv-day applications. The chemical properlies of 
 the metal are not so evident as the tangible physical 
 ones, vet thcv are the immediate cau.ses of Ihe great va- 
 riety of characteristics cxhibiled by the various forms of 
 
 iron. 
 
 Chemical PnopEnriES. — Iron differs from all olher met- 
 als in the fact that it combines at a high teinpenilurc with 
 carbon to form fusible compounds : the fusibility of these 
 compounds decreases as the carbon decreases. Iron rep- 
 resents a most important group of metals, distinguished by 
 their capabililv of combining with oxygen, chlorine, etc. 
 in both odd and ercn proportions. These are iron, nickel, 
 manganese, cobalt, chromium, and uranium. The first five 
 are closely allied, have Ihe same atomic volume, and their 
 specific gravities ami atomic weights form a regular .se- 
 quence. The following is a list of iho principal salts of 
 iron, Ihe atomic weight of iron being 5() :
 
 IRON. 
 
 1297 
 
 FfTTic Compoundi (odd). 
 Perehlorlde...(F02)'H:i,{Fe,Cl3). 
 Sesnuioxiilp..(Fe2)'iO''j(FejO,). 
 Hyarated sosquioxide, 
 
 H*'*" ["".l2Fe20„3HO). 
 Scsquisulphide....(Feo)«iS",(Fe, 
 S,). 
 
 ferrous Compounds (rren). 
 
 Prntorh!oride Kc'TUf FeCIl. 
 
 Prntuxkle Ke"(>*'(KeO). 
 
 Pnitosulphide -Fp"S"(F('S). 
 
 Pnitosulpliate Fe"i^0"4/'-f 
 
 7HjO"iFeOSOa-i-7HO). 
 Protocarhoiirtto, 
 
 Fe'VC*'0"3/',Fe«CO»). 
 
 In addition to these we have — 
 
 Magnetic oxide of iron „Fe"(Fe2)»'0".(Fe3O4). 
 
 MaRnetic pvrileit Fe"jS"B(Fe,S,). 
 
 Bisulphide of iron Fe"S'V FeSi). 
 
 The old notation with atomic woii:ht 28 is enclosed in 
 brackctf". Of the ahove ?nlts. the protocarbonate occurs in 
 nature as ?pathic iron oro. and the protosulphate as cop- 
 peras tMi-'Ianterite^. The salts of iron possess an inky, 
 astringent taste, but the two classes have marked charac- 
 teristics by which they can readily Vie dislinpuishcd from 
 each other ami from the salts of other metals. (1) Fer- 
 muH SaftH. — These salts haven pale preen color. Alhali'ra 
 throw down white or greenish-white precipitates, which 
 qiiiikly oxidize and turn brown on exposure to air. Po- 
 taiHium ferrirynuide (red prussiate of potash! occasions a 
 bright-blue precipitate in neutral or acid solutions. (2) 
 Frrrir Sufts. — In solution these salts exhibit a yellow or 
 yellowish-brown color. AfkafirH throw down n reddish- 
 brown precipitate, insoluble in excess of alkali. In neutral 
 or acid soUiti<)ns pntnggtum fcrrirffnuiiie occasions no pre- 
 ciiiitate. menly imparting a greenish hue to the solution. 
 Solutions of ferric salts, to which an alkali has been added 
 till a permanent precipitate begins to form, are completely 
 decomposed on boiling, the iron being precipitated as an 
 insoluble sub-salt. This properly enables us to separate 
 iron from manganese, nickel, and colialt, which do not pos- 
 sess it. Further, we find thai the protoxide of iron and 
 the ferrous salts are magnetic, whilst the peroxide and fer- 
 ric salts are not. 
 
 The salts and compounds of iron are highly useful in the 
 arts. Coppenis or green vitriol is a valuable disinfectant 
 and a most imp»»rlant morilant in dyeing. The various 
 sulphides of iron, in their natural state as pyriti-s, furnish 
 most of the sulphuric acid of commerce. Iron unites with 
 cyanogen and liydrogen to form acids, which in turn com- 
 bine with iron, making ferro- and ferri-cyanides of iron, 
 both of them brilliant blues, and the latter known as Prus- 
 sian blue. A neutral solution of a ferric salt treated with 
 tincture of galls yields a bluish-black precipitate possess- 
 ing the peculiar property of remaining in a state of 
 partial solution, as writing ink. In medicine, iron is an 
 invaluable l(mic. ferric chloride especially, while the dried 
 persulphate is a most efficient agent in stanching the flow 
 of blood from wounds. 
 
 The mrtftflui-f/irnt rfienn'ntrtf of iron can bo most clearly 
 explained uncler the following heads: 
 
 Iron ami 0.ri/f/rn. — Iron in a cttmpact slate suffers no 
 change in dry air or oxygen at ordinary temperatures, but 
 in a spongy state burns readily in air. In pure water iron 
 remains unchanged, Viut the presence of carbonic acid causes 
 a rapid oxidati(»n. which is counteracted by the presence 
 of the alkalies and of lime, and by a coating of zinc. Sea- 
 water dissolves the iron of east iron completely in the course 
 of time, leaving the carb(^n. At a high temperature iron 
 burns vividly in air, and ilecomposes steam nt a red heat, 
 in each case forming magnetic oxide of iron. Welsh nail- 
 makers keep llieir nails hot during forginc by throwing a 
 little Mast uf air upon them. In the puddling furnace iron 
 burns with great readiness. J'ittt<tri*lc of iviu is a power- 
 ful base, and plays an impitrtant part in metallurgical opera- 
 tions. It has a powerful affinity for oxygen, nncl the power 
 of decomposing water. I'emsitir itf iron i» infusible ex- 
 cept at high tcmpcTatures, when it is converted into mag- 
 netic oxide. It has little or no alhnity for silica, but is 
 caftily reduced to the metallic state by carbon, even without 
 intimate contact, Mnijurtic oxidr uf iron is an important 
 prodiiet and ni/mt in metallurgy, particularly in piififffim/. 
 In the course of the oxidation of iron various oxiilcs are 
 formed containing less oxygen than magnetic oxide, the 
 most important being hummrr or Hmith Hntfe. 
 
 fron find Ciirhon. — When metallic iron is heated in eon- 
 tact with carbon, the result is wrought iron, steel, or cast 
 iron, necnrding to the degree of heat :ippli<-d au<l the length 
 of time. The induence of carbon in modifying the prop- 
 erties of ir<tn is one of the most extraordinary phenomena 
 of metallurgy, and the variations caused are so great that 
 the compounds nre, practically, distinct mi'tnts. While there 
 are no characteristic properties which <lislinguish one me- 
 tallic compound from the others, and (he tliflerence consists 
 mainly in tln^ degree in which particular chnraelers are pre- 
 sented, yet in prnefiee the separation of the eompotinils is 
 fixed by two striking phenomena — vir.. the tael that at a 
 crtftin point graphite ceases to separate from ra»l iron 
 slowly cooled, and the fact that ateel hardens on being 
 Vol.. Tl. — S2 
 
 plunged at n red heat into water. The greatest total amount 
 of carbon pig iron will contain is about 5.9 per cent,, but 
 this is only when manganese is present, the ordinary amount 
 being :i.2 to 4.7 per cent. Wlien the percentage of carbon 
 falls to 2.2o. thecfit? i* oh refuses to ])art with graphite even 
 when slowly cooled for days. Iron with 2 per cent, of car- 
 bon is not malleable nor weldable. but falls to pieces on 
 heating. When tiic percentage of carbon is about 1.75, the 
 metal can iiarely be welded, but with 1..'j to 1,4 percent. 
 of carbon the peculiar properties of ntcef are all clearly 
 developed — viz. fusiiiility, combined with capability of 
 hardening and weldability. As the carbon diminishes the 
 two first qualities decrease and the third increases. With 
 0.4 per cent, of carbon steel con Ijarely lu- hardened enough 
 to give sparks with flint, and below this percentage the 
 compound is designated irroinjht irou, hut is calleil Htecfy 
 iron or ]>uddled steel till the carbon falls to about 0.25 per 
 cent. Bessemer steel, as now usually made, is a true steel. 
 Soft wrought iron seldom or never contains less than O.OS 
 percent, of carbon. Ordinary wrought iron is not homo- 
 geneous in composition, but is made up of fibres or masses 
 varying greatly in their percentage of carbon. The presence 
 of other elements, such as silicon, phosphorus, etc., modifies 
 the above boundaries, but not materially. 
 
 Carbon exists in cast iron in two states — cnmhinffd curhon 
 and qrnphite. The proof of chemical combination is given 
 by the fact that infusible carbon heated with nearly infu- 
 sible pure iron forms a fusible compound (cast iron), out of 
 which, when very highly heated, part of the carbon sepa- 
 rates as graphite. Iron containing much graphite is called 
 firujf iron ; when, on the contrary, it contains much com- 
 bined carbon, it is called ichite iron, the total amount of 
 carbon being in ordinary pig irons substantially constant. 
 The two kinds pass into each other by insensible gradations, 
 and at a certain stage are both visible in the same jtiece, 
 which is then called mottfrd iron. The varieties are often 
 graded by numfrals into eight classes, but in this country 
 usually into five, as follows : No. 1 foundry. No. 2 foundry. 
 No. H or gray forge iron, mottled iron, white iron. The 
 last two grades are often called forge irons. White iron, 
 containing manganese, is called Spiegel iron. 
 
 Iron (Cariton) tniil Mnnffftncnc — In cast iron manganese 
 increases the amount of combined carbon an<l diminishes 
 the amount of silicon. It is chiefly beneficial as a flux in 
 removing sulphur, etc. In cast- and in Bessemer steel it is 
 present in various proportitins, O.l to 1.0 per cent., and im- 
 proves the working of the steel. It is seldom found in 
 wrought iron. 
 
 Iron (Carbon) and S!idphiir. — Iron combines freely with 
 sulphur, the effect of whieli on east iron is to diminish the 
 amount of carbon and hinder the sejiaration of graphite. 
 In small quantity it is advantageous foreastings like runnon, 
 as it makes cast iron stronger. In steel and wrought iron 
 the effect of sul(d»iir i? to make both weak ami ragged when 
 worked below n >/t/l"ir heat, hence the term rrd-kfiortnriiii. 
 Steel resists better than wrought iron, but 0.1 is suflicicnt 
 to injure either. Copper acts similarly, but less strongly, 
 than sulphur, and dimini^^hes the weldalulity of the metal, 
 //■oil (C'lrlxin) nud /'fionphortiM. — Iron is seldom free 
 from phosphorus. In east iron this element increases the 
 hardness, and makes the metal more fluid when melted, 
 but weakens it when cold. Pig iron contains from 0.5 to 
 2.25 per cent, of phosphorus. It makes wrought iron easy 
 to work while hot. thus counteracting sulphur, but brittle 
 when cold, and renders steel more britllr ilum iron. The 
 presence of 0.25 per cent, in iron and of Cl in steel is 
 disadvantageous. 
 
 Iron ( Curhon ) and Sih'con. — Silicon exists in all varieties 
 of iron, and in gray cast iron in greatest quantity, because 
 the heat causing grnyness in the iron also aids reduction 
 of silica, and because silicon aids separation of graphite. 
 i White east iron seldom has more than 1.0 per cent., but 
 gray iron sometimes c(uitain8 as much as 5 per cent, of 
 silicon. Ordinarily, it does not injure pig iron, but is bene- 
 ficial when it is converted into Bessemer steel. But the 
 effect of silicon rtn wrcmirhl iron is to make it brittle, rotten 
 when heated, and less ready to weld. On steel the effect is 
 the same, and an annuMit less than 0.1 percent, is decidedly 
 noticeable for the worse. 
 
 /foil (nnd Ctnitnu) also combine with tiintftiten, titanium, 
 rhromiiini, anrl tin. They all impart greater hardness, if 
 not brittleness, displace, except tin, carbon in cast iron, 
 and reduce the weldability of wrought iron. Tungsten 
 combines with irreat iliflieulty. and titanium scarcely at all; 
 both are probably useful in mnkinir the grain of steel finer 
 and inereiising ilsslrenglh and hardness. Chromium com- 
 bines readily with iron, is said in some respects to he use- 
 ful, and seems to render steel less liable to injury from 
 overhenlincr. Tin renders wrouuht iron utterly worthless, 
 oven when only 0.2 per cent, is present. 
 
 InoN Alloys. — All the above compounds arc sometimes
 
 1298 
 
 IKON. 
 
 incorrectly called alloy,, but that term denotes the mechan- 
 ical mixturo of two or more metals, either as such or 
 (rarely) holJing in admixture a chemical eomlmiation ot 
 the metals with each other. The term cannot api.tv to tho 
 comljinations of iron with metalloids, nor to the combina- 
 tion of metals with cnrhon and iron. The abuse of tho 
 term alhy doubtless arises from indehnite use of the term 
 irm,. Our knowledge of the alloys of pure iron is excecd- 
 inolv seanlv. Iron alloys with cojiiier, nickel, and colialt 
 in'various nroportions ; with zinc also, but only when zinc 
 is the principal ingredient, the iron not exceeding 11 per 
 cent The process ot riahnnizimj or coating iron with zinc 
 was first practised at Kouen about 17S6. Iron alloys with 
 copper, zinc, and tin to form tierro-mrlnl. a close-grained 
 alloy of great strength, suitable for hydraulic-iiress cylin- 
 ders and'for cannon, but the iron present does not exceed 
 ■' per cent. White brnns is an alloy of ^0 zme. 10 copper 
 iuid 10 iron: it has the appearance of zinc, but is much 
 harder, ycry tenacious, and specially ad.npted for journal 
 castings, iron alloys also with tin in yarious proportions 
 up to SO per cent., making highly brittle crystalline alloys 
 of little use. When clean wrought iron is dipped into, 
 melted tin it becomes firmlv coaled with tin (('" pM"), 
 and thereby protected from rusting. Iron alloys '"th alu- 
 minium in'all proportions, producing bright and hard but 
 forgeablo alloys when the aluminium does not exceed 1^ 
 per cent Aluminium is supposed to cause the dixmnr.l: ot 
 Indian steel wrought at Damascus into swords. Iron alloys 
 with other metals, but the alloys haee no practical im- 
 portance. Fi-rro-mangnneif. a combination of manganese 
 iron and carbon, which contains »0 to 60 per cent, man- 
 ganese and as little carbon as possible, is yaluablo in steel- 
 making. 
 
 Iron, Ores of. The ores of iron consist of the metal in 
 an oxidized state, more or less mixed with clayey or siliceous 
 impurities. I'sually the more iron the ore contains the 
 .rrcater its value, but frequently ores of one class are val- 
 uable in facilitating the smelting of ores of another class, 
 and sometimes the presence of other oxides— manganese 
 for instance, in ores for spiegelcisen— or the presence of coal 
 (in black-band ore), is most desirable. Nothing which 
 contains less than 20 per cent, of iron can be considered an 
 iron ore. 
 
 OreB of J von. 
 
 Name. Couiposilion. 
 
 Magnetic iron ore Iron and oxygen. 
 
 Red hematite (specu- 
 lar) Iron ana oxygen. 
 
 Brown hematite. 
 Spathic iron ore. 
 
 .70. 
 
 Iron, oxygen, and water Glj";, (water 12). 
 Iron, oxygen, and car- ^ 
 
 bonic acid 48j^. 
 
 Argillaceous iron orc.Iron. oxygen, carbonic 
 
 acid, and einy Average 33. 
 
 Rlnrt.liinrt Iron, oxygen, carljonic 
 
 Black-hana a..j(j, diy. and carbon- Variable, 20 to M 
 
 aceous matter (coalj. 
 
 eoalj. 
 
 (10 to 
 1 XniivF /;o,i.— This is a curiosity, but not an iron ore. 
 It occurs in minule particles in basaltic rocks, and in situ- 
 ations where it has been reduced from ore by organic ma - 
 ter It is found also in meteorites, which are malleable 
 and consist mainly of iron, with from (i to 14.0 per cent. 
 
 of nickel. „ . . , c • ee 
 
 " M„ni,fl!e Trnu Ore (FcsOi).— Sesquioxide of iron 69, 
 protoxide of iron .11 = 100. This ore is named from Mag- 
 nesia in Lydia, where its attractive powers were hrst ob- 
 served It is iron black in color, with a specilic gravity 
 of 4 9 to b 2 and leaves a black streak when rubbed on 
 un.'lazed porcelain. It is often strongly magnetic, somc- 
 tiines possessing polarity, when it becomes the loadstone 
 {t.;,d>louc) of yore. It is found massive, in sharp crystal- 
 line grains as sand, and ochieous as an earth. It is not 
 ehan.'cd by exposure to air. an,l is broken up but not oxi- 
 dized" by roasting. It occurs mostly in jinmary crystalline 
 rocks, and most abundantly in metamorphic rocks, in which 
 it is found in vast beds. It abounds in Sweden. Norway, 
 Kussia and North America, and is almost wanting in hng- 
 land : as sand it is found in North America. New Zealand, 
 and India, but in this state is apt to be made relractory 
 by the titanic acid it contains. Its principal impurities 
 are iron pyrites, copper pyrites, and phosphate ot lime 
 (/1/K.(i7ei:" where the two former or sulphurous impurities 
 abound, the latter is usually absent. 
 
 3. Spccilnr Iron Ore. nr Rrd Hematite (FcjOs).— Iron 
 70, oxygen :iO = 100. Anhydrous sesquioxide of iron. 
 Specular ore is dark steel-gray in color, very thin pieces 
 being blood-red by transmitted light, while the earthy va_ 
 rieties (red hemniite) are red : both varieties leave a red 
 streak. The specular variety is named from 
 lustre (»pecii;Mni, "mirror"), and occurs massive and 
 shining scales {micaceniia iron ore) 
 
 named from its dark-red color (al^a. "blood"). It occurs 
 massive, sometimes highly librous, as an ochre, and in an 
 argillaceous form. As an argillaceous ore it sometimes re- 
 sembles jasper, and in the fibrous form it is very beautiful, 
 on account of the striking internal structure and the high 
 polish of the outside of its rounded masses. Red hematite 
 occurs all over the world in rcmar1<able abumlanee, being 
 especially noted at I.avoulte in France, Cumberland and 
 Lancashire in England, liilbao in Spain, Marquette, Pilot 
 Knob, Iron Mountain and other localities in this country, 
 and also in Algeria. This ore occurs in rocks of all geo- 
 logical ages, and at volcanoes as a result ot igneous ac- 
 tion, but is especially abundant in metamorphic rocks. It 
 has no characteristic impurities, but quartz nearly always 
 accompanies it ; it contains usually very little sulphur and 
 little phosphorus. ■ j r r 
 
 4. Ilroirn Jlcnuilile, or Htjdrntcd Sraqmoxide of Iron 
 (Fc-.03.:!I|.;l->).— Sesquioxide of iron tv.fi. water 14.4 = 
 100.' The'variety Giithite is rather a mineral than an ore, 
 but brown hematite or limonitc (from Aeifioii'. •' meadow ") is 
 one of the most important ores of iron. It is found mas- 
 sive [pipe ore, etc.) and earthy, also containing lossils (one 
 kind of fuMilifcroiu iron ore): when loose or porous it is 
 called bog ore.' Its specific gravity is 3.6 to 4, and it leaves 
 a yellowish-brown streak. It is extensively worked all 
 over tho world in secondary or more recent geological 
 formations, and is so widely distributed that no special 
 locality need be mentioned. Beds of it in the comimct 
 state have been worked for IJO years at Salisbury and 
 Kent in Connecticut, which are celebrated for the quality 
 of their iron. This ore is the result of alteration of other 
 ores and minerals by air. water, etc.. is still being formed, 
 and derives its peculiar character from this origin. It la 
 mixed with clay, sand, wood. etc. Its impurities arc, 
 naturally, phosphate of iron, organic matter, and seldom 
 either siilphates or sulphur: it also contains manganese. 
 Interesting instances of its modern formation arc the "lake 
 ores " of Sweden and the ponds of Eastern Massachusetts. 
 
 i S/mlhic Iron Ore ( FeCOs).— Protoxide of iron 62.1, 
 carbonic acid :!7.U = 100; specific gravity 3.7 to 3.9. 
 Color li'-ht yellow, turning to brown when the ore is ex- 
 posed to" the weather : before exposure its streak is white. 
 It is found pure, massive, crystallized in veins and vast beds, 
 also in gloliular masses, and in an earthy slate with clay 
 or sand. Part of the iron is usually replaced by manga- 
 nese, which often renders the ore valuable for making white 
 iron containing mangjinese [HpiegeleiHen). In its impure 
 varieties, mixed with clay or sand.it forms the greater part 
 of the o(.-i/ ironMone ores. Spathic ore proper is found in 
 vast conlormable deposits in the clay-state lormations of 
 Stvria and Carinthia, in Westphalia and Nassau in nume- 
 rous sm-all veins (mostly owned by Krupp of Essen), and 
 
 in Cornwall. , ^ r.i ■ 
 
 6. t^loy Ironstone, or Arrjillaeeoiin Iron Ore.— Clay iron- 
 stone is the mincrs's name, denoting a distinct class of ores, 
 which singly have little in common except their mixture 
 with clav aiid sand. We find troir.i clay ironstone in com- 
 pact masses and nodules, leaving a yellow-brown streak : 
 arv.V/ncroiM hematite, a hard, heavy ore, reddish-brown to 
 dark-red in color, sometimes oolitic in structure, when it is 
 called fossillferons iron ore or lenticular iron ore: and 
 Lastly, 'spathic clay ironstone, an earthy or siliceous impure 
 carbonate of iron, which is often called simply earbonalc 
 ore. The first two kinds are of local occurrence, but spa- 
 thic clav ironstone is found in all countries, more particu- 
 larly in'tho coal formations, of which it is the characteristic 
 ore. In these formations it is sometimes found in coiilin- 
 uous strata, sometimes in irregular masses imbedded in 
 and under the shales and limestone rocks (uodnhr and 
 hnhrsl.me „«). and aaain found loose in clays (Tertiary 
 formations in Maryland, etc.). It often occurs in the eoa 
 measures, in beds alternating with limestone and coal, and 
 is always more or less calcareous. In these cases it is par- 
 ticularlV adapted for smelting. Its color varies from gray 
 to brown, and its weight is less than that ot other iron 
 ores : hence, at first sight, some varieties do not appear to 
 be iron ores, and were till recently thrown away (Vales, 
 Westphalial. This ore is much more unilorm in composi- 
 tion than might be expected, its percentage ranging be- 
 twecn 30 and 40. with an average ot 33. file iinpurily 
 
 its brilliant 
 
 It is found in Kussia, 
 
 Brazil, and in vast abundance in Elba, where it has 
 b^on mined for 2000 years. The red hematite variety is 
 
 >pain 
 
 varies, however: in England clay pre.lomina tes, but in 
 America sand, especially in the anthracite coal-measures 
 The Pennsylvania carbonate ore contains an average ot 
 34 per cent, of iron. . „„„,, 
 
 7 «Mefr-fcn„(/. — When clay ironstone contains coaly 
 matter in excess of 10 per cent, it becomes dark-brown or 
 black in color and often shaly, resembling cannol or slaty 
 coal The clav ironstone often occurs along with ■•.an" 
 the Scotch miners call one layer eiay-band. the other blaeh- 
 bnnd. It occurs in all coal-measures more or less— in \V est- 
 phalia and in Ohio, for instance— but is especially devel-
 
 IRON. 
 
 1-299 
 
 oped in Scotland. It is a. %-aluabIe ore, for its coal suffices 
 to roast [bum) it, and it is enriched by burning to OU or lO 
 per cent, of iron. , . <•. 
 
 8 /'r<in/.7iiii'(e.— This is strictly an ore of 7,ino, liut alter 
 Iho extraction of the linc the risiiluc is smclteil to prorluce 
 •tiicolci^cn. a peculiar white iron valuable in sted-uiaking 
 froiirils high percentage of manganese (10 to 24 per cent 
 and carbon (4 to j.3 per cent.i. It is found only in Ne 
 ■ I Silurian linicstone. * " " 
 
 ) 
 
 New 
 
 It is iron- 
 
 .lerjev in compact veins 
 
 black" in color and leaves a brown streak : its specific grav- 
 ilv is 5 1 It is composed of peroxides of iron 68.99. man- 
 ginesc 8.:i2 ; and of protoxides of iron 7.58, of manganese 
 ;i.74. of line 2I.:i7«100. , ,. ■. 
 
 /ron />./,■./<•. can scarcely he called an iron ore, though i 
 certainlv is a most persistent impurity of all iron ores, and 
 i« the chief source, rather than coal, of the sulphur in cast 
 and wrou.'ht iron. By itself it is useful in furnishing, when 
 burnt, sulphurous gases for sulphuric acid manufacture: but 
 the attempts to utiliie its ash have not succeeded, though 
 it is rich in iron. . . <• 
 
 All ores of iron seem to be benefited by roasting before 
 use in the blast furnace, hut it is necessary to roast tho car- 
 lumates and all sulphurous ores. Roasting is beneficial m 
 removing water and carbonic acid and cracking tho lumps, 
 thus enriching the ore and rendering its reduction easy, 
 and also in removing sulphur somewhat, thus rendering 
 the pi" iron purer and grayer with a given amount of fuel. 
 The lo"ss in roasting varied from 10 to :t.') per cent., the car- 
 bonates losing most. When tho ore contains no carbona- 
 ceous matter the coal reiiuired for roasting is 1 to 10 down 
 to 1 to 20 of ore, but coal-slack and waste are used for the 
 sake of cheapness. . 
 
 DisTRiBiTioN OF Iron Ores.— The brown hematites and 
 carbonate ores are worked in all countries in widely dis- 
 tributed localities, while the magnetic and red hematite ores 
 occupy a more limited range. Tho brown hematites lio 
 sometimes in rock, bat mostly in very accessible positions 
 on or near the surface in clay, and are dug and extracted 
 bv wa-hing away the elav ; the other ores lio wi place in 
 rock, and 'must generallv bo regularly inincil. Tho red 
 hematite, magnetic, and spathic ores, proper, occur by 
 themselves, and bear the whole expense of mining, but 
 some clay ironstones and the black-band occur so near the 
 coal that'lhev arc mined along with it. Since the ores ex- 
 cept brown hematite OL'cur in distinct geological formations 
 which are hii-hly developed in some countries, while almost 
 absent from others, it is evident there will bo great diversity 
 in the ores worked in <lifl'erent countries. In ItuMin tho most 
 iron is made from magnetic ores, which occur in great ])rofu- 
 sion in the Ural .Mountains, while in .SVc./ci anrl \„ncn;j iho 
 magnetic ores are substantially the only ones, the liraonite 
 lake ores being very liinile 1 in quantity. ylii«(rm possesses 
 vast and extensivejy worked dejiosits of magnetic ore in the 
 Carpathian Mountains, in Hungary, and in the Hanat; tho 
 earthy red hematites are the principal ores mined in Bohe- 
 mia, with the exception of a remarkable deposit of brown 
 clav ironstone; in Carinthia, in the Eastern Alps, there 
 
 Iieniatite, 18 to lOO 
 
 are most extensive dep^isits of brown heniiitite, 
 feet thick in rock, while a short distance northward, in 
 Slvria at Eiseneri, lies the greatest known deposit of spathic 
 iron ore. the stratum of ore being 200 to OOO feet thick and 
 eont.aining BO to XM feet of pure ore. Pruiiln (German em- 
 pire): In^Silesia the brown hematites, spathic clay iron- 
 stone! and black-band form the principal ores. In Prussia 
 proper bog ore is the only ore worked. In Westphalia, 
 black-band and carbonate clay ironstone are mostly mixed 
 with brown hematite in inconsi.lcrahle amount, while in 
 Rhenish Prussia, Siegen, and Nassau spathic oro proper 
 is the ore of the country, with some specular ores. This 
 district furnishes the iron used in tho great (Icrman steel- 
 works, and also most of the spiegoleisen used. W. of the 
 Rhine the principal ores are the eoal-mensure ironstones. 
 Sninnif contains principally magnctio ore and specular ore, 
 apt lobe siliceous, but some little bog oro is mined for spe- 
 cial purposes. Friince is not rich in iron ores, earthy brown 
 hema'ites being the main ores smelted: at l.avoulle. how- 
 ever, an extensive deposit of earthy red hemiitile occurs. 
 Fraiiee imports oro from Klbn. Spain, and Algeria, lifl- 
 iiiiim: The orcschieflv smelted are earthy brown hematite 
 and oolitic red hematites. All are lean i:in per cent.) ores, 
 hence a grea' deal of ore is imported. /m/i/ • In general 
 
 The principal deposits occur near Bilbao, and arc mined for 
 English use. They are mainly compact red hematites in 
 deposits of unusual thickness and accessibility, and contain 
 a good deal of calcareous .«par, while quite free from hurt- 
 fu? impurities, flrmt lliiiniii : The argillaceous carbonates 
 are by far the most important ores, fully two-thirds of the 
 entire product of the United Kingdom being made from 
 them. Thev are largely mined in all the coal-fields cither 
 as clay-band or as black-bund, and are worked on a vast 
 ! scale in Yorkshire, as the Cleveland ironstone. Brown 
 I hematite is extensively worked in the Forest of Dean and 
 in Cornwall, and a sandy oolitic variety in Xorthnmptoii- 
 shire: and in Cornwall, at Perran. a great vein of spathic 
 ore has recently been opened. In Lancashire and Cumher- 
 I land there exist very rich deposits of red hematite of great 
 purity, which supply much of the English iron for Besse- 
 mer steel, and have been long celebrated for their quality. 
 r<i)m</(i: The principal ore worked in Canada is magnetio 
 ore, and in Nova Scotia the principal ore is red hematite; 
 some brown hematite is also mined. I'liited Sintea: In Ibis 
 country largo deposits exist of every variety of ore. many 
 of them of surprising extent and purity. It is hard to say 
 which is the principal ore. but it is probable that the mag- 
 netic ores supplv fully one-third the total product of pig 
 iron ; tho specular ores are next in rank, with nearly as 
 much: brown hematites and the clay ironstones being a? 
 yet comparatively unimportant. The principal deposits of 
 ma''netic ores are on Lake Chamidain, in New Jersey, and 
 on Lake Superior. The principal dejiosits of specular oro 
 are on Lake Superior, where beds 150 feet thick are quar- 
 ried at the .lackson and Superior mines, and in Missouri 
 at tho Iron Mountain of massive ore, and Pilot Knob of 
 slaty iron ore like that on Lake Superior. Eastern Penn- 
 sylvania is rich in brown hematite in clay, but the greatest 
 deposits of this ore occur in Virginia, Tennessee, and Ala- 
 bama, vast in extent and in close proximity to coal. Ex- 
 tensive veins of fossil ore (red hematite) occur in Western 
 New York and in Michigan. Bog ore is but little worked, 
 and existsprineipally along theeastern coast. Theearbonalo 
 ores amount to nothing in our anthracite measures, and in 
 the bituminous coal-fields are unreliable in thickness, except 
 in Ohio. A carlionate ore (Triassic) occurs in loose masses 
 in clay along the W. const of Chesapeake Bay. Spathic 
 ore has been mined in small quantities in Connecticut, Ver- 
 mont, and Tennessee. 
 
 PiRiTV OF Iron Ores.— They may be impure either in 
 having too much earthy or siliceous admixture, or in hav- 
 ing in themselves elements which are difficult to remove 
 and which injure the quality of the iron made from thcni. 
 All iron ores are more or less impure in the first sense; tho 
 furliacc-nian thinks of them as nniiUncenn, orcn, mUccou, 
 arm and cilctiremm o)-M, and mixes them accordingly with 
 each other and with limestone in the proper proportions to 
 promote fusion. It is seldom that ores yield un average 
 over 50 per cent., nm\ probably the general average of all 
 ores worked will not exceed 42. The lowest limit of eco- 
 nomical extraction is 25 per cent, when the ore contains 
 limo or can be enriched by roasting. American furnaces 
 cannot afford to work an average under V-i per cent, of iron. 
 In regard t.. the other class of impurities, the following 
 general facts miiv be stated : The brown hematites and einy 
 ironstones, when used alone, make the worst iron— viz. cold- 
 short iron— on account of the phosphorus in the ores. Scotch 
 pig iron contiiins so much phosphorus that it has special 
 value as a foundry ir.>n IVom its Huidity. Magnetic and 
 specular ores make the purest iron, with a tendency to red- 
 shortness from the sulphur in the ores. S|.athie ores iisun ly 
 make pure pig iron, neither cold nor red short, ns do also 
 some of the best kinds of the others. The ores are used to 
 neutralize each other a.'cor.ling to the qualities desired in 
 the pig iron. The purity <d' an ore can he generally pred- 
 icated OS above, but there are so many variations that each 
 individual stratum even of Iho same mine should he sepa- 
 rately examined. 
 
 AssAViN-fi —The richness of an iron ore can he readily 
 nseertained by powdering it and mixing it with chnn-.,a| 
 to reduce, ami a fiux to coyer the iron when melted, llie 
 whole is put into a small crueihle lined with charcoal. !Mi 1 
 subjected for some time to a while heal. On breaking the 
 crueihle the iron is found at th.' bottom in a clean bullcm, 
 and the percentage can be ascertained by weighing it. Tins 
 
 /; its results are somewhat too high, for tho 
 
 ,he country ha, little iron or. but remark,.ble,b.positsexi;,t l^^;;;^;-^^^„^_ The ,c,, „..„, give, more accurate 
 
 The ore is disscdved, and all the iron carefully 
 
 at Travers'ella in the Alp, and on Elba. That nt Traversella 
 is an irregular muss of magnetic ore O.'p to InO feet thick, 
 worked from time immemorial. On the islanrl of Elba hills 
 of the purest specular ore have been worked equally long, 
 hut without energy, pro.liieing yearly 100.11110 tons, three- 
 fifth, of which is exported. //-rnVi; In the eastern part 
 of the province of Constantino great vein, of red hematite 
 of hi-h purity occur : they cover a large extent of country, 
 but are worked mainly to supply tho French demand. Spam : 
 
 result? - 
 
 reduced to tho ferrous state, and an oxidizing solution ot 
 known strength, usually bichromate of potash, is slowly 
 a.ldiil till the iron is shown by potassium ferricyanido 
 (rc.l prussiali') to bo entirely converted into the ferric stale. 
 By measuring the oxidizing solution used the percentage of 
 iron is directly ascertained. 
 
 Iron, Mnnufnctnre of. Wo shall describe how
 
 1300 
 
 IRON. 
 
 wrought iron is made from ore and from pig iron. VVl en 
 wroueht iron is made from ore the process is called the 
 direct proee,,, iu contrast with the indirect prvctm, m 
 ^Yhich Din iron is first made aud afterward converted into 
 wrought iron. (For manufacture of pig iron, see Blast 
 Fuhv^e; for manufacture of steel, see bTEEL ; for appa- 
 ratus and machinery, see Fi'Bnaoe, Kolling-Mill, and 
 
 ^"vrou"ht'i'ron 'was first made directly from the ore, and 
 is still sS made in localities where the ore is rich and qual- 
 ity is the principal object. The fires used are called bo,,„,- 
 cnj fires o'r CatMun forge: when the iron was r'^-b™ "^ ° 
 a similar firo this was called a cl„.Jcr,j (hre) but the 
 roc-ular reverberatory furnace has long since taken its 
 place e.Kcept in making iron for tin plate, when a W ,„<. 
 lire of partially coked coal is used. When cast iron is the 
 raw material, the fire is called a forge (fire), or in Lag- 
 land always finer}/, . 
 
 The ,/,Ve<-( «™«-»»e. are wasteful, but produce superior 
 iron, partly because, the heat being low, impurities are car- 
 ried off in'the slag, partly because the product is usually a 
 low steel. It requires great care to make soft iron d.rcc 
 from the ore by the bloomery processes The ores best 
 adapted to the bloomery are the compact brown hematites, 
 easily disintegrated by heat ; all other ores should be burnt, 
 and "the impurities removed by leaching (sulphur) or by 
 mechanical separation (quartz., etc.). The first bloomeries 
 in Asia and India were simply holes in the ground or in a 
 ma«3 of clay, in which charcoal was burnt by a weak blast 
 from a goatskin bellows, ore being added at intervals in 
 small quantities. Similar fires are yet used in India and 
 Africa, and the lumps of iron are e.vtracted by breaking 
 away part of the clay. The lumps weigh from a to 30, or 
 even 100 pounds, and 200 pounds may be made in si.\teeu 
 hours These old bloomeries were improved in Catalonia, 
 a province of Spain (whence our name " Catalan forge ), 
 and in Ariege in France. The original form used in the 
 Pyrenees since A. D. 1293, was about 2 feet high, with a 
 small cylindrical hearth about 11 inches deep, liaring out 
 conically at the top. Two tuyeres were used, which were 
 set about 10 inches above the bottom. The lumps of iron 
 weighed some 35 pounds, about UO pounds being made in 
 five hour*. At the end of the eighteenth century the hearth 
 wi« 20 inches deep, proportionately larger, and the product 
 had increased to 300 pounds in five hours. This increase 
 was duo to the stronger blast produced by the trowpe or 
 water-jet blowing apj.aratus invented early in the seven- 
 teenth century. The form of hearth still used in the Pyre- 
 nees is rectangular, one side at least being a heavy cast-iron 
 plate One tuyere only is now used, and from it to the op- 
 posite side the hearth measures 24 inches by 26 inches tho 
 other way, in which direction, at the freest end, is the iron 
 side thrJugh which, near the bottom, a " tappmg-hole is 
 made. The tuyere is set 20 inches above tho bottom ; it 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 filled with charcoal, and on the side opposite the tuyere 
 coar.e ore is placed, filling not quite halt the hearth, char- 
 coal filling the remaining space. The blast is started at 
 
 Catalan forge: A, coarse ore; It, coarse .harcoal; C, nuisse. or 
 loop of iron being forioed; 1). slas or cinder; h, covering con- 
 sisting of charcoal-.lust and line ore. 
 inclines at an angle of 40°, and projects about 8 inches into 
 the fire In this hearth a bottom, made of slag and char- 
 coal is glared over at a high heat. The hearth is half 
 
 View of a bloomery. shoiviiin the mode of raising the lump of 
 reduced iron, or masse. 
 
 3-pound pressure : in the course of six hours it is gradually 
 raised toU pounds, while the whole fire, except a small 
 part of the'ore, is closely covered with fine ore and char- 
 coal-dust, thus forcing the gases (carbonic oxide to pass 
 out through the ore and reduce it. The ore gradually sinks 
 down, and the slag is let off (Inpped) every hour. At the 
 end of the operation a lump of iron weighing about o50 
 pounds is pried out of the fire, hammered under a 1400- 
 pound helve-hammer, and cut up into three pieces These 
 are reheated during the next operation, and torged out into 
 bars, making about 330 pounds. Four operations or Afot, 
 are made per day. The slag is kept very rich ■■; "-"xlo "f 
 iron, and the blast is turned sharply down on the metal, 
 which thus becomes urou;,l,t iron; the softness (low per- 
 centage of carbon) depends on the skill of the forgeman. 
 In thS Cataku, process 3 tons of ore yield 1 ton of bar iron, 
 for which 23 to 3 tons of charcoal are required. In the 
 Oe„ne,c forge, another variety of the Ca alan, the waste heat 
 of the fire is used to roast the ore beforehand, and scrap iron 
 is charged along with the ore, thus shortening the tune re- 
 quired for a he, and increasing the yield of iron. Sepa- 
 rate fires are used to reheat the lumps for forging. By 
 these means five heats are daily made ins ead o four, with 
 a consumption of 30 per cent, less charcoal than the amount 
 required by the Catalan process: the weekly product is 
 about 4i tons of b>,r iron. The Catalan processes required 
 that the whole fire be remade each time iron was got out 
 The (iermans (Alsace) therefore went back to the old 
 method of putting the ore in a fine state :n la!,rr> in the 
 charcoal. This plan ,.ermits a fire to be worked without 
 any other interri'iptioi! than the withdrawal o the lumps 
 as they are formed. The details are substantially the same 
 cxcepi that larger fires can be used, and a greater product 
 made by this method; so that the Germans increased the 
 si^e and product of their bloomeries at an early date. The 
 means of regulating the quality of the iron made >> l''""" - 
 eries are very imperfect. They consist in varying the angle 
 a which the tuyire is directed on the iron, and the ainoui, 
 and kind of shig kept in the bottom to cover the soft metal 
 L course of reduction. The metal in the Catalan forge is 
 a°so protected by the charcoal. For the sake o distinction 
 the bloomeries just described are usually called Ocryn 
 TllTrie., and have reached their highest •l"elopmen in 
 America. It is an interesting fact that the earliest bloom- 
 er's were probably Catalan forges, which changed into 
 German bloomeries! and it is equally interesting that in 
 Pennsylvania practically all the bloonienes b--»« "f^^ 
 (fineries) using pig iron as early as 1,40. The Ca alan 
 proce s made good iron, but involved too much waste of 
 Le and "o mudi loss of time. There are still a great num- 
 ber of bloomeries in oper.ation in this country, about 37 
 works in all; of these 2S, with 147 fires, are in the State 
 Tncw York'. These American bloomeries have one fca 
 lure peculiar to themselves-yiz. the use (since 1844) of 
 Ihe waste heat to make a hot Idast (,^i50O), thus saving 20 
 per cent, of charcoal and increasing the f'codn<:i. 
 
 The hearths of the American bloomeries aveiage al«ut 
 
 3" iches square by 13 inches deep. The sides and bottom 
 
 ,;e cast- roYplatos 2 or 3 inches thick; the fire is open at 
 
 Z ront but is walled in at the sides and back ; be tuyere 
 
 1 s a the side, and the oven which heats the blast is placed
 
 IRON. 
 
 1:^01 
 
 
 over the fire. The ore is (brown on tho charcoal, bocoincs 
 roduccil, and with thi- mcltcil ulag goes to tho liottom of the 
 fire: thenco thf r-Iag ir* run out more or hss frequently ac- 
 cording ti» the desired qual- 
 ity of the iron. Tho iron 
 bolls up into a "/ou/j," which 
 19 ''dug up" or taken out 
 every tliree hours, and fliin- 
 glcd under hclve-hauiuicra 
 weighing 1', tu 2 tons. In 
 one day eight heats and 
 2400 pounds of hlooius arc 
 made per fire. When hiiiftg 
 arc made, tlio loop is re- 
 heated and forged out, but 
 Bf(ths for boiler jdatoare fin- 
 ish'.-d without reheating. X<» 
 bar iron is made, but the 
 billets aro toIUmI <lown into 
 bars and wire and convertcl 
 into east Btccl. Tho New 
 York blooms or billets are 
 usually low steel, r 
 and showing a fino-g 
 fracture. Ono ton of hloom 
 requires IJ tons of dressed 
 ore, or from 2 to 4i tons of 
 raw ore, and about 27'* 
 bushels (or say 2-^ tons) of 
 charcoal. 
 
 Tho idea of making irnu 
 direct from ore in a single 
 operation, without tho blast- 
 furnace, has always been a 
 favorite one. as is evident 
 from tho list of processes 
 given below. All execpi 
 tho recent plans of lilair Vcrtlcnl sd 
 and Siemens have failed on heartli o\y 
 account of excessive cost of pip"' from the Ik-IIows ; C, hot-air 
 reduction, great loss of iron ?PP»';i;ti's ; K. eliimney f.ir lead- 
 
 I - » .1 ■ inn oil waste heal; D, tuyere. 
 
 ID working up. and the in- ** ' ' *"^^*^- 
 
 tcrmitlent character of the work — in other words, email 
 product. Chtuot (France, lf*31), rich ores mixeil with 
 charcoal treated in a vertical tuboexternally htated to red- 
 ness, then passed into an air-tight cooling chamber. Tho 
 cool sponge treated liko puddled iron. Improved by in- 
 ternally heating and aho reducing the ore by a current of 
 hot carl>onic oxido gns. 
 
 r/«y (England, 1^37, 18-I0), same method, hut reduced 
 iron put directly, while still hot, into a puddling furnace. 
 Also, a mixture of ore, coal slack, and salt reduced with 
 pig iron in a puddling furnace. 
 
 /Irntuti (U. S.. l-*^.')!), a Bpungo reduced, from mixture of 
 25 parts ore and 73 parts coal, in a vertieiil retort, ivnd dis- 
 charged direct into a furnace to bo welded into blooms. 
 JJofcetf substituted inclined soapstonc trays for tho retort. 
 
 Gitrit (Pruffsin, 1S37). used Clienot's im])roved plan, but 
 mixed air with the carbonic oxide, thus raising tho lieat; 
 gave the gas. at will, a carbonizing action in order to com- 
 bine carbon with the reduced iron, and make steel or cast 
 iron by melting tho product in a furnace placed under tho 
 retort. 
 
 G. JLntd Smith {V. S., ISi.-i), plan like that of (iurlt. 
 characterized by the substitution id' a putldling fiirnare fur 
 a vertical retort, and tho use of petruleuin or cual-tar gas 
 to carbonize the iron sponge. 
 
 W hrffilttj ami Storer, V. S., apply pulverized fuel to tho 
 mixture of ore and coal on hearth id' a puddling furnace. 
 
 H'ttjtr* (Kngland, ISG2), reduced the mixture of oro and 
 coat in a rotary furnace placed over a puddling furniMc, 
 iind heated by tho flamo from the latter. 
 
 Ih\ JJiiptii/ (U. S., IH7(). proposes to reduce a mixture 
 of oro and charcoal in a casing of thin sheet iron, which 
 shall protect tho sponge from subsequent oxiflation. 
 
 SirmriiH (Knghuid. IH"*!), Combined the plans of Clay 
 and K(»gerswith his open-hearth melting furnace, in which, 
 as in C'lay's, the sponge is melted in a bath of pig iron. 
 This process is in successful operation at Iiundore, Wales, 
 where it is also carried out in a rotary puddling furnace. 
 
 /y^nV ( r. S., 1872), has improved Cheiiot's process, es- 
 pecially as to cooling the sponge: this he compn^sses cold 
 by hydraulic power into blooms, which can be welded in a 
 heating furnace or melted into soft steel. This method is 
 iu successful operation near Pittsburg. 
 
 IMair ct)ndiiets his pr<ieess in a circular retort ."ifl feet high 
 and 14 feel ill diameter. In the upper 10 feet hangs a 
 metal pipe Hi feet in diameter, so ihiil tho ore and charcoal 
 pass down an annular space about -1^ inches across. Heat 
 is applied outside the retort ami inside the tube, and 
 tho reduced ore rcmaiaa iu the bottom of the tubo till 
 
 I oool. Ono retort gives about 2 tons of spongo in twcnty- 
 j four hours, which is compressed and melted with half as 
 much pig iron iu a Siemens open-hearth furnace. Loss, 
 I about KO per cent. 
 
 As early as the end of the sixteenth century it was found 
 better to make cast iron first in a blast furnace, and then 
 convert it into wniught iron in forges. A vastly greater 
 amount of ore can be smelted in this way in a given time 
 than by the bloomery process, which also requires very 
 I pure and rich ores, Tho bloomeries exist to this day, how- 
 ' ever, in localities whore charcoal is as cheap as coal, be- 
 cause the total amount of fuel required to convert ore into 
 bars is about the same as by tho indirect processes, and the 
 I quality of the bloomery product is superior. When pig 
 ' iron is tho raw matrrittl, it is advantageous to use none 
 grayer than Xo. ?>, for in general the less carbon the easier 
 the conversion. Tho removal of carbon is efTcctod in two 
 ways — cither, first, by the action <if air direct in a blast, or, 
 second, by the indirect action of the air through the me- 
 dium of melted cinder or ore.parting freely withoxygrn and 
 • taking it again from the air. The operations of the first 
 class are tho forge or finery, tho refinery, and the liessemer 
 process (for latter sec Sttim.) : tho pmldling process is tho 
 representative of the second class. It is evident that the 
 burning out of tho carbon can bo stopped at any point; 
 hence steel is actually made by all these processes. 
 
 The operation of making wrought iron is the same, but 
 the nicthud by which it is made in the bloomery is the re- 
 verso of that u.-^cd in the forge. In the former carbon 
 (charcoal) burns out the oxygen of tho oro; in the latter, air 
 burns out the carbon of tho pig iron. Tho hearths arc 
 substantially alike, but tho forge hearth is shallower below 
 ilie tuyeres — i, c. 8 inches deep. Ono or two tuyeres arc 
 used, according to the size of the hearth, and the blast is 
 sometimes hot, but usually cold. There were recently four- 
 teen distinct methods of making wrought iron, and five of 
 making steel in forgo fires, depending on tho kind of pig 
 iron used, the different ways of working it during the re- 
 fining, and the ways in which the blooms were made into 
 bars. Swedish iron for conversion into stool is nearly all 
 made in forges by the Lancashire or Walloon process. 
 Since 1840 little or no bar iron has been made in America 
 by means of forges, which now make principally slaby for 
 test boiler plate; the description is therefore simplified. 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Vertical section of a Corman forije-firo: T. tuyere; N, nozTile, 
 made of |ii;ht sheet iron attached to a leather bag, and by that 
 to blast-pipe. 
 Tho process consists in carefully nulling down about 230 
 pounds of pig iron at a time, and when melted in keeping 
 it constantly exposed to the blast, both by turning the 
 tuyeres down upon it, and l>y stirring it up with an iron 
 bar, till tho carbon is nearly burnt out and the mass be- 
 comes jjosly. The fire is then driven, tho heat raised, and 
 the metal worked and squeezed with a bar, so as to e<dUct 
 the whole into a ball or lonp, as free from cinder as possi- 
 ble. The cind<-r should be riidi in iron, and should bi^ fre- 
 quently let oft' when wrought iron is desired; for steel the 
 I cintler is left over the metal, and the blast is lessened and 
 less sharply directed on tlie metal, so that its action may bo 
 loss violent. The buin is raised and welded and forced 
 nntler a heijvy (2-ton) hannner into billets or slabs. Tho 
 I bloom is seldom reheated in the same fire. Forges in Penn- 
 I sylvania nsualiy work only thirteen hours per day, and 
 I make in that time six loups. weighing about half a ton; 
 ! thn product of a fire in therefore about 3 tons per week. 
 I When the cast iron is refined, as it usually is. a tire makes 
 1 I ton doily. A ton of billots requires about ^ ton of char-
 
 1302 
 
 IRON. 
 
 coal and 24 cwt. of cast iron. There are now 4fi forge- 
 works in the U. S., of which 31 lie in Peunsylvauia with 
 y^ fi ros. 
 
 It is therefore advantageous to refine the iron, since the 
 product is increased, but refining also lessens tlic waste of 
 iron, by rcmuviog silicon, and also makes it possible to use 
 
 Tin. 5. 
 
 poorer and more impure ores in the blast furnace. Pig iron 
 is refined in the rcjincri/ ur run -nut fire. It is probable that 
 the idea originated in the Kifel Mountains at Eisorfey, 
 ^vhcre for three centuries the pig iron in the hearth of a 
 charcoal blast furnace has been refined previous to being 
 let out, by turning the tuyeres right down, and blowing 
 eharjdy into the iron. The modern refinery is a rectangu- 
 lar box 42 inelies wide by GC ini-hcs long and 12 to 18 inches 
 "deep — that is, large enough to liold 1^ to 2 tons of pig iron 
 and some slag. The sides and one end are of iron blocks, 
 cooled with water, while the bottom and the other end, out 
 of which the iron is tapped, are made of refractory sand. 
 Four to six tuyeres are used, their points being protected by 
 
 Fig. 6.' 
 
 Refinery, Bromford Iron-works, lUrnimghaui, Ens^. : vertical 
 cross-section through two opposite tuyeres on the line E, F, G, 
 II, I, Fig. 6. 
 
 Refinery, Bromford Iron-works. Birmingham, Eng. ; 
 vertical section. 
 
 Figs. 
 5 & IJ, 
 
 5 A 6, 
 
 SAG, 
 
 47, a, hollow sides of cask iron. 
 
 b, hollow back of cast iron. 
 
 r, front or dani-platc of cast iron, 
 
 containing the tap-hole. 
 (/, flat bottom of sand, which is 
 
 continued beyond the lap -hole 
 
 plate, from which it slopes down- 
 
 wanl. 
 e, f, plate of cast iron screwed on 
 /, through which the tuyeres 
 pass. 
 
 5Afi. 
 .'i & 6, 
 
 5. 
 
 /,/, cast-iron plate. 
 
 9*0,9, water-tuyeres, 
 
 h, ?i, blast-pipes. 
 
 t, i, leather conneetin^-pipes between 
 the blast-pipes and the blast-main. 
 
 k,k, Ihrottle-valvesfor regulating the 
 blast. 
 
 /, /, water-troughs of cast iron to re- 
 ceive the water from the tuyeres. 
 
 m, m, tanks of cast iron for water 
 to supply the sides and back of 
 
 Figs. 
 
 the hearth and the tuyeres with 
 
 water. 
 5&6, n,n, n, long ca&t-iron or running-out 
 
 bed, to receive the molten metal 
 
 from the hearth. 
 5, 0,0, cast-iron box. forming a ehnn- 
 
 nel, ^>, over which the ruuning-out 
 
 bed IS sup|>orled. 
 5 i& 6, j>, channel under the running-oiit 
 
 bed, throiii^h which water is kipt 
 
 in circulation for refrigeration. 
 
 tratfr-tiii/crea. The iron is sometimes (for tin plate) melted 
 in the refinery, but is usually run info it melted, as it issues 
 from the blast furnace. The iron i.s then covered with coke 
 and the blast kept, on it, burning away carbon, silicon, and 
 some iron, while the metal boils from evolution of gas, till 
 the desired point of purity and whiteness (low per cent, of 
 carbon) is reached. The refined iron is then let out into a 
 long cast-iron trough, in which it cools in thin plates, which 
 arc broken up for subsequent conversion ; hence refined 
 iron is often called plate iron. One refinery can refine lOD 
 to ll>0 tons of pig iron per week, with 10 per cent, total 
 loss, most of which can be recovered from the cinder made, 
 and requires about 4 cwt. of coke per ton of iron when the 
 iron is run in melted. 
 
 The greater part of the wrought iron used is made by 
 Puiidlinff ; but before describing the process it is proper to 
 mention the Kller.^hausen process, a method of rcjhu'itt/ in- 
 tended to displaee puddling. Pure magnetic or specul.ar 
 ore is pow<lered and mixed with the molten pig inm as it 
 flows from the blast furnace. The heated ore parts with its 
 oxygen, which burns out, more or less conipletely, the car- 
 bon and impurities in the pig iron. The balls or **/>'";/ 
 hloomn*' thus made consist of a mixture of wnrnght iron 
 and oxide of iron, and must he subjected for an hour or 
 more to a high heat in a ]>ucldling furnace to separate the 
 superfluous ore before they can be rolled into bars. The 
 process has not met the expectations entertained. 
 
 f'ort was the first to puddle iron successfully. The re- 
 verhcratory furnace used by him had a bottom of siliceous 
 sand, which could not resist the action of cinder, and 
 either mottled pig iron or refined iron was us<id alone, the 
 conversion being effected mainly by the action of the flame. 
 His process is therefore called t/rv piifidttiiff, or simply pud- 
 dling. The waste of iron was fully 7 to 10 per cent., and 
 the quality poor. The pig iron laitl on the furnace bottom 
 crnmbled, as it became hot, into .a sandy mass, which grad- 
 ually melted. By the combined action of unburned air in 
 
 the flame and of silica in the bottom, enough cinder was 
 formed to convert the mixture of iron and cinder into a 
 pasty ma!-s easily acted on by the flame, (iray iron re- 
 mains too liquiil after melting for use in this method, but 
 refined iron becomes pasty almost immediately. Hence 
 with ordinary ores refining is quite necessary. S. B. 
 Rogers reconstructed the furnace with an iron bottom cooled 
 by air, and thus increasccl the weekly product of one fur- 
 nace from S tons to 20 or 24 tons per week. Hal! then in- 
 troduce*! the process of jcft puddltng, usually called fnn'liug. 
 Here cinder rich in iron and oxygen is charged with the 
 pig iron, xvbich is then, as it were, melted and worked tret 
 in a liquid bath of cinder, by the agency of which the car- 
 bon, etc. in the iron is burnt out. The boiling process does 
 not require refined iron, and involves no loss of iron, but 
 rather a gain, for the sides of the furnace bed arc protected 
 by a thick coating of ore. which is partially reduced. The 
 cinder is a silicate of protoxide of iron, which reailily dis- 
 ' solves the ore. forming a new combination containing mag- 
 netic oxide: this is constantly reduced by the carbon and 
 silicon in the iron, and by the iron itself, but is rcoxidizcd 
 by the flame till all the pig iron has been converted. The 
 lorm of the furnace used is such as to furnish a chamber 
 about fiO inches long by -IS inches wide, and 20 to 24 inches 
 I Iiigh in extreme dimensions. The superficial area of the 
 ' bed is about 20 square feel, and the grate usually has about 
 I one-third this area — more or less, however, according to 
 i quality of coal. The bed and grate are covered by an 
 arched roof, highest over the grate and sloping down to the 
 other end of the chamber, so as to rererbemtr the flame 
 strongly down on the bed of the furnace before reaching 
 ; the exit flue: this is placed low, and its area roust not ex- 
 ' ceed one-fifth that of the grate. The stack is 20 inches 
 I square inside, and about 40 feet high ; it can be closed at 
 the top by a damper to regulate the heat, but the blast from 
 I a fan Idown underneath the grate is now generally substi- 
 I tutcd for natural draft. The grate and puddling chamber
 
 IRON. 
 
 1303 
 
 or bed arc separated by a brick wall, the firebridge. An 
 iron frame about U inches high rests «n the iron bottom 
 Ulate and forms the sides of the bed ; .t .s holinw, and 
 cooled by water circulating through it or with a.r. while 
 the bottom .s c«<.le.l by the circulation of air. The iron 
 bottom consists ..f plutcs :i inches thick ; when used it .8 
 covered with a thick layer of nearly infusible cinder and 
 orecarefullv smoothed and consolidated at a high heat Xhe 
 sides are covered with lumps of ore or a lliick mass of ore 
 and roasted cinder: this lining is intended to waste and be 
 renewed, .\ccess to the bed is had through a hole about 20 
 nches square closed by a door, lined w.t 1. firebrick and 
 Moving vertically. The door has at ■•%'>"";'"V\, "'"o 
 hole, the .t„,,pcr-h„U. for the insertion of a long bar or 
 ra66/e, as the intense heat must not bo lowered by opening 
 Fig. 7. Sixou: Piddliso Flrsace. 
 
 but with white iron (one-half the charge refined) seven 
 heats of 541) pounds are made in the same time. On an 
 average 24:ir. pounds of pig and 2648 pounds of rchned 
 iron make 224U of puddled bars, wasting, say, 9 to 1- I^r 
 cent., with a consumption of i to \\ tons of coal. Ibo 
 largest production per furnace is made in Wales; there a 
 8in"lc furnace averages eight heats in twelve hours, or IS 
 tons weekly, and a double furnace 3fi tons. Pndillinij re- 
 quires 2.I06 to 2400 of refined metal to 2240 of bars. A 
 single furnace using only refined iron averages in W ales 
 about 23 tons jicr week, and burns per ton J to J <"" °' 
 coal. These productions are all those of a low grade of 
 iron : where quality is aimed at, the product per furnace 
 averages 10 to 12 tons per week. 
 
 For ordinary iron Burden's squeezer is almost exclusively 
 used in this countrv. and the hammer, as a rule, for higher 
 grades The Burden squeezer is a rotary machine, the best 
 form of which consists of a serrated wheel, with a vertical 
 axis or shaft placed eccentrically inside a fixed ring, the 
 inner surface of which is also serrated. The wheel is driven 
 by gearing, and its eccentricity is so gauged that the open- 
 in At the starting-point is 15 inches, but diminishes grad- 
 uaTlv through neailv the whole circumference to about J 
 inches. The external diameter of the wheel is 5 feet .and 
 the internal diameter of the ring is 7 feet. The puddle-ball 
 l"l(l. 8. 
 
 Fig <i, longitudinal section on C, D, Fig. b. 
 
 FlK. f. cros.*-9ecllon on K, 1 
 Flg.o. 
 
 Double puddline furnace, cross- 
 section. 
 
 the door. The essence of puddling, as distinguished from 
 other operations, is the refining |.ig iron on the bed of a 
 reverbcratorv furnace by means of heat applied by f^ame. 
 We have described the pnddUnj process, and shall now 
 de.cribo that of /?o.7,\,. A charge of 500 to 1,00 pounds 
 of forge iron is laid on the bed of the furnace, often with 
 as much as 100 pounds of cinder and seal.. rlie whole is 
 then quickly melted at a high heat ; "Ih" fluid, fresh mill- 
 scale or water is thrown in to partially ehill the cinder and 
 iron, so that they may be thoroughly intermixed. Tho 
 heat is then raised again, when the oxides ot iron in the 
 cinder react on the carbon and silicon of the iron wi h such 
 effect as to keep the mass frothing in a slate of lively 
 ebullition. During Ibis part of tho process the ore lining 
 furnishes oxide of iron to keep the cinder rich, and the 
 yield of iron is increased by the redu.-lion of this oxide, 
 usually the magnetic oxi.Ie. The boiling gradually ceases 
 bright white spots of iron appear, the cinder seems to sink 
 to the bottom, and tho whole soon comes into a spongy state, 
 or is hr..w,ht 10 <,;lnre. This spongo is well worked to- 
 eether by' moans of the rabble, and broken loose from all 
 parts of the furnace, the heat meanwhile being kept high. 
 The iniddler (boiler) now separates the whole mass into six 
 or more balls, palling and squeezing them, with the rabb e, 
 into shape an.l firmness. All this is .lone under a smoky 
 or redJ:„.j jU,mr to avoid burning the iron The balls 
 when ma.le are put into the hottest part of .he furnace ne„r 
 tho bridge, receive a very strong final welding heal, and 
 are ,lrawn out separately with tongs. They are then ear- 
 rini t?. a ../u-.-'-r or to a hammer, in order that tho cinder 
 may he expelled and the iron welded together. 
 
 Both processes of puddling are slill in ordinary use, that 
 
 of nudd ing. however, for inferior iron. In -"•';";/..» «"• 
 
 3 ir 11 is isuallvused in America, but in Kngland it isous- 
 
 oma y to use refined iron largely. With gray forge iron 
 
 sirheats of 480 pounds each arc boiled in twelve hours, 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 ^■^-r y^ Ai 
 
 "-T^V,,,^ 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 -r^ 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 ,...,-, ^ 
 
 T 
 
 ^4. 
 
 3" 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 Uail piles. 
 No. B. 
 
 -t;:^-^- 
 
 Piles for beams, 
 several kinds are oflen used in llie same pil.-. I l.i 
 peeiallv Ihe case in rail piles, win re 
 also desired in the different parls. 
 
 Uotary »,,ucey.er, l,.ni/.ol,tal s,rti,.n : ...slronK cylindrical cust- 
 
 iron frame ; 6, strong cast-iron wheel, 
 is Dut into the squeezer in a roughly round shape, and is 
 sl-i^zei rotated, forcibly compressed, formed i.Uo a eyhnder 
 and delivered at the point of entrance still hot en..ugh fm 
 rolling. (For the trains of rolls and mechanical "rpl" ""• 
 for rolling puddle-balls into bars, etc. see Uo.,i..N«-.Mi.. 1..) 
 The middle' or mill burs are usually about 3 J inches wide, 
 and re cut up into pieces 4 to 5 feet long. Ihey ..anno , 
 Tke I forge or bloomiry billet, be directly worked ...to bus, 
 for tlic • are too rouglwiiid imperfect They an- here ., 
 Dile.l one on another into a ••p'l''. '•<'''«'a'«'l. '«» '»l' "«"' 
 ng iK'at in a heating furnace, and rolled "K-» ''"-■;^;>;','^ « 
 or round bar for ordinary iron, or into a flat bar for lurlher 
 
 working The ni..re iron is rk.d, either by hammering 
 
 or ro lUng the more fibrous and homogeneous ..becomes 
 
 1 , ■,"".! e best iron is often rolled three or even l.mr times 
 
 beforcVeceiving final shape. In order to economize work 
 
 Fio. 9. 
 
 No.l. No. 2. 
 
 ...■ing ei- 
 lifi'erenl qiinlilifs nro 
 
 Nos. 1. 
 
 I are rail-
 
 1304 
 
 IRON. 
 
 piles ; the first is a good American pile, the top layer being ' made from it, so as to ensure soundness. The waste in each 
 
 three times rolled, the rest twiee; the second is avera* 
 American, the t<jp and bottom layers being twice rolled 
 iron — the second layers, for toj) and bottom, old mils, the 
 rest puddled bar; the third is unusually good English, the 
 top layer being hammered iron, the bottom ( hatched ) ht^'ers 
 t\Tiee-rollcd iron, the rest puddled bar. The average re- 
 duction in size from the pile to the rail is about III to I, 
 the finished rail being shown in the centre of pilciNo. 1. 
 The economy of rail-making depends on these arrange- 
 ments, and the engineer wants good iron in the head and 
 ilange, but allows comparatively poor iron in the rest or 
 stem of the rail. The piles for girder beams like No. .^, 
 Xo:?. 4 and fi. are similarly made up as to quality of iron, 
 and exhibit expedients to avoid waste of metal (No. 4), and 
 to secure strength { Xo. 6), the latter pile being also formed 
 a? it is because a large bca[n is to be rolled from it. Kound 
 bars if large are often rolled from round piles, and the size 
 of a pile for a square bar is proportioned to the bar to be 
 
 heating is 3 to 5 per cent., and the coal required is about 
 1 ton per ton of iron. Bars are rolled from 30 to 7U feet 
 long, rails usually 25 to 'Mi feet, but sometimes double these 
 lengths, and other forms as long as their weight allows. 
 The ends of rails, etc. must be cut off to produce a solid 
 end, the waste from this source being 8 to 12 percent., 
 which is not lost, but must be reworked. 
 
 ^'arious machines have been invented to lighten the labor 
 of hand-puddling. These are of two kinds : ^firgt. mechan- 
 ical arrangements to move the rabble as is done by hand; 
 jtrcourf, to rotate the furnace itself, and thus cause the 
 whole charge to work itself by the action of gravity. The 
 arrangements of Eastwood. Whillmni, and Dunieny and 
 Lemut are those most used : they lighten labor, but scarcely 
 increase product, nor do they much diminish wages ; hence 
 they can hardly be considered as permanent improvements. 
 But machines of the second class, like those of Mene- 
 laus, Uanks, and Danks improved by Jones, may Le le- 
 
 FiG. 10. 
 
 Il l I ^^ 
 
 Danks' rotary puddling machine, seetioual elevation. 
 
 gardcd as solving the problem. This furnace has a fan 
 blast under the grate, and also j>ls of blast over the fire. 
 The workmen can thus suit the heat to the requirements 
 of the charge. The ash-pit and fire-hole are closed by 
 <Ujors, the fire-hole casting being cooled by circulation of 
 water in a coil of pipe cast in it. The bridge-plate Is also 
 cooled with water, and has a lining of firebrick next the 
 tire and fettling next the charge. Fastened to the brldge- 
 phitc i.s a ring cooled by water, against which the revolv- 
 ing chamber rubs closely. The revolving chamber has two 
 end-pieces hooped with iron and resting on carrying roll- 
 ers : these ends are connected by a series of stave-plates to 
 form a cylinder. The stave-plates have hollow ribs to hold 
 the lining fast and keep it cool. A movable headpiece 
 connects the revolving chamber with the chimney, and acts 
 both as door and flue. When it is removed balls of great 
 weight can readily bo taken out; it is cooled with water 
 and provided with a stopper-hole for observation. The 
 vessel is revolved by a toothed wheel fixed on it and geared 
 to a suitable engine, so that the rotation may be regulated. 
 The chamber is first lined with a thick paste of powdered 
 iron ore and pure lime, which sets hard and abcuit an inch 
 over the ribs. The fettling is then made by throwing in 
 ])ulvenzed ore and melting it, thus gla/.ing the lining and 
 leaving a paste of melted ore to hold lumps thrown in all 
 over the surface. For fettling a "OO-pound rotary furnace 
 2 to 2A tons of ore are required. In working, more scale 
 or cinder than usual is used, and the iron is melted in 30 
 to 35 minutes, when the furnace is rotated fori or 10 min- 
 utes to produce a thorough action of the cinder. Water is 
 injected through the stopper-hole, and a portion of the 
 cinder solidified, which carried down into the molten iron 
 combines with the impurities. The heat is then raised, 
 and the cinder liquefied so as to float on the iron, and it is 
 
 then tapped off. The heat is again raised, and the furnace 
 rotated six to eight times per minute. The charge is thus 
 dashed violently about, and the particles of iron soon be- 
 gin to adhere; the velocity is now lowered to two or three 
 revolutions per minute, and the b.all sj>eedily forms. Loose 
 pieces are moved to the side of the ball, which is made to 
 fall on them. The movable head-piece is then removed, a 
 large fork suspended from a crane is shoved into the cham- 
 ber, and the ball is rolled on to the fork by a turn of the 
 furnace and removed. 
 
 The dijirnltic9 of the rotary mechanical furnaces are 
 the wear of the fettling and frequent break-downs. When, 
 however, the fettling is suited tolhenutal used and the 
 iron is refined, no difiiculty is experienced on that i^core, 
 and Mr. Jones has overcome the mechanical objections. 
 lie constructs the Danks furnace with a dvnhh mniutj and 
 a water-jacket, so that all parts are kept perfectly cool 
 ('.10°) and work easily. This furnace works day and night, 
 while the single cased furn.ices usually work only by day. 
 Mr. Jones uses iron in a melted state, and charges 1550 
 pounds of refined metal, which is puddled in .'J5 minutes 
 into a single ball 4 feet long by 15 inches in diameter. This 
 ball is cut up while hot, reheated and rolled into bars (Mr. 
 Heath rolls direct into bars). Each furnace makes six heats 
 in eight hours, averaging 50 tons per week, with a con- 
 sumption of about 1000 pounds of coal for puddling (less 
 than a ton, including reheating), 1000 pounds of fettling 
 per ton, and no loss of iron. Charges of a ton can be 
 puddled in 40 minutes, and thus a furnace can make ^b 
 tons per week. 
 
 The rotary furnaces of Crampton are successful at Wool- 
 wich. Sir John Alleyne is working well with i\laudsla\'s 
 soup-plate machine, consisting of a rotary horizontal bed 
 and a mechanical arrangement to move a rabble in one di-
 
 IRON. 
 
 1:50.3 
 
 rectioD. He makes five heats per day, each of B75 pounds. I 
 M. Pernot uses the orij^inal Maudslay rotary bed with in- 
 clined axif, so as tu work the charge by gravity, and mounts 
 the bed on wheels to lacilitate repairs. He puddles 1-ton i 
 heats of white iron, makiog 18 cwt. of bars with 14 cwt. j 
 of slack coal and 2^ cwt. of fettling to the ton of bars. 
 Siemens also has in use at Landore a rotary furnace like j 
 that of Sellers i see Ki rnack ), but with the Siemens re- I 
 generative system. This furnace is also working the dirtct ! 
 process, as mentioned above. 
 
 Iron, History of. The iScripturcs ascribe the discovery 
 of working iron to Tubal Cain, while Kgyptian tradition 
 made Isis and 0?iris the patrons of mctiillurgy, but credited 
 the actual discovery to Hephic.-'tu?. the king preceding Osiris, 
 who in date would coincide with Tubal Cain and is proba- I 
 biy identical with him, Canaan is deseribed in Deut.viii. 
 ly as '■ a land whose stones are iron." The books of Moses, ! 
 written before 14Jl B. r., mention iron frequently; the 
 Arundel Marbles fix a date before lltTO u. c, and about 1000 I 
 B. r. wo find the use of iron recorded in the Scriptures for 
 tools, arms, and cooking utensils (Dcut. xxvii. 5: xix. 5; | 
 1 Chron. xxii. 3; Lev. vii. 'J), The Philistines on con- 
 quering the Jews (about 10 JO b. c. ) prohibited any *' smith 
 in Israel" (1 Sam. xiii. 20). The Kgyptians made iron in 
 the district between the \ilc and the Ked Sea, but imported 
 mo^t of their iron from Assyria. The Assyrians used iron 
 very freely, and before SSO b. c. used it as a core to save 
 brass in articles cast in brass; Layard found at Nineveh 
 Assyrian helmets and chain-armor. Herodotus { i. 'Ih) 
 mentions the vase of Alyattes at Delphi, inlaid with iron 
 by Glaucus of Chios, to whom is attributed the discovery 
 of tcettling. Pliny (vii. ,'i7) credits the Dactyli of Mount 
 Ida in Crete with the discovery of the nuvjuetic propftti's 
 of iron, and ascribes the invention of the blacksmith's 
 forge to the Cyclopes. Lycurj^us of Sparta use<l iron as 
 money (about SoO B. r.). The Hebrews were doubtless fa- 
 miliar with steel, as Jeremiah (xv. 12) says: "Shall iron 
 break the northern iron and steel?" meaning probably iho 
 material derived from the Chalybes of Pontus, the black- 
 Finith.s of the ancient world, who hardened iron instruments 
 for cutting, and first used coal. Their iron was made, ao- 
 C'trding to Aristotle f'J22 n. c. ), fr<»ra sand ore dug from 
 river banks, washed, and put into the furnace along with 
 the ttinie fnfriinacfnt9 (jirc- maker) — that is, coal. The 
 Greeks and Romans supply few facts of intere:;t. Plutarch 
 (a. d. 1 10) mention.-i that the Celtiberiuii.^t " bury iron roils 
 till tho rust cats out the weaker parts of the metal," and 
 make their excellent swords out of metal so prepared. 
 Strabo (a. D. 2j) mentions the exhaustion of the produc- 
 tive iron ore mines of Chalcis and Kubom, and states that 
 Great Itritain furnished iron to the Romans. The Ro- 
 mans, however, derived their chief supply of iron and steel 
 from Noricum, now Slyria. Strabo iklso ascribes the in- 
 Iruductiou of iron-making in Great Britain to Odin, pcr- 
 h:ips with reason. 
 
 The later history of iron may be sketched aa follows 
 from authentic data: 
 
 A. D. 
 
 "00. Iron-mines opened on island of Elba. 
 
 712. Siyrian inm-niines reopened. Ilt?de mentions iron as an 
 
 luiiMrtant manuraeture in iireat Britain. 
 950-1000. lligh-hluomeries (tiluckofen) Kcucral in EUass and 
 
 Hur|i;und>'. 
 UfiO. Imii-works recorded a( Kimherworlh, Yorkshire. 
 J."W5. Mloomeries first UHf<l tn Silesia. 
 J:t70. First foundries in KuKlaiid. 
 I4S8. Mines of I>atinemora opened. 
 1190. First fouiniri*'s and first stove cast in Ftsa.ss. 
 1543. Cannon first cast in England by Ralph Huge, at Buckstccd, 
 
 Siis>ex. 
 1516. Af;rlcola records three kinds of furnnces: H) Catalan for^e ; 
 
 (2) (ternian bloomerits, ;( fed hiuli; f'\) b1oom<-ri'-s .^ lol> 
 
 feel biKh, the product of wliieli was remelted before 
 
 shin^liiii;. 
 1 )W. WiHjden bt'llows invented by Hans Kobsinger, Nuremberg. 
 lVi4. Si'vere leRishilion (o protect ICtivflish forcnts. 
 IGOO {cirrn\ HIast furiinee 'Jl feet liii^h constructcfl In Han: 
 
 Mountain:* with H-fo'it bnsbis. 
 1GI2. Sturtevant ohtaine<l pn(t-nt for .smelling Iron with pltcoul, 
 
 asal.Hodid It<iven/on In l(ii:t. 
 \*'AX Heating furnace (revcrheratory) lnvenl«*d by Rovenzon. 
 1G14. Regular bla.1t furnace introduced by (iermans into .Sweden, 
 
 at the Instance of (iuMavus Adn'lphus. 
 1619. Dud Dudley made pig Iron with pit coal (coke); 3 tons a 
 
 week. 
 ir.il. Wootlcn bellows improved and largely made in the Harz. 
 lti'J-_». I'ir^l bar Iron madi- in Aiiierican inliinifs. 
 1040. Tr«mipes (wnler-suetion blowin^'-niaehlncs) first used In 
 
 Italy. 
 1042. Klrnt bla.st furnace built In American colonies. 
 Ii;."i0, ('(ml first used In force fires for reheating;. 
 ir(.'>8. IVut used by the iMilch for iron-maklnc. 
 Itl74. EnKliHh blast furnaccH (charcoal) make H ton.* In six days. 
 1C81. Tin-plnie making introduced Into England from Bohemia 
 
 by Viirrliiirlon. 
 1701. Peter the (;reaL, throuch Demldon*. cfltnblishoa charcoal 
 
 blast furnaei's 4-'i feel high In the I'ral. 
 1720 (ciVcii). Rolling plate Iron invented by John Harbury. 
 
 1722. Steel-maktng by cementation described by Reaumur. 
 
 ll'.iH. Coal coked by Darby and !<ucccs.sfully used" in bla-^t furnace. 
 
 1700. Cast-iron blast cvlinders made t>y Smeaton. 
 
 1760 (cifCii). Cast steel invented by Huntsman. 
 
 17G9. Watt's sinele-aciinf; engine usi'd for blowing-engines. 
 
 17S;I. (irooved rolls fi»r bars inventt-d liy Cort. 
 
 17S4. Puddling invented by Onions, who used fan-blast with 
 
 clc»s>-d ash-pit. 
 17S4, Puddlint: made successful by Cort. 
 
 17S0 (circa). Homfray originated' modern process of refining. 
 1791. Cast steel made direct from ore in a crucible bv Lucas. 
 1790. Charcoal furnaces substantially abnndiuied in England. 
 1814. Waste pas of blast furnaces applied by Aubcrtot. 
 1R2S. Hot blast invented by Nielson. 
 I.s:i0. Water-tuyere invented by Condie. 
 18.15. Puddled steel first n^ade at Frantsebach in Carinthia. 
 18;W. Anthracite first used by Crane in Wales. 
 
 1838. Anthracite first used in U. K. at Mauch Chunk by Baugh- 
 
 niun, Giteau & ('o. 
 1S39. Fin-t three-months blast with anthracite at Pottsvllle. by 
 Lyman. 
 
 1839. Heath invented theuscofmanganesein steel manufacture. 
 
 1840. Burden invented the rotary squeezer. 
 
 1842. Nismyth invented the modern steam-hammer. 
 
 1850. Puddled steel first successfully made by Riepe. > 
 
 1855. Bessemer decarbonized iron without fuel by Mowing air 
 
 throush it; Kelly invented same process in U. S. 
 
 1856. Mushel made Uessemer process suceessfid V»y Inventing 
 
 use of Spiegel iron as a recarbonizing agent. 
 1856. Siemens invented the regenerative system of using gas- 
 eous fuel. 
 
 We sec above that tlicrc have been few inventions origi- 
 nating systems, but that from time immemorial one thing 
 has slowly developeil into another. The Catalan forge 
 grew into tho German Idoomery (English, air-hlonmrrif)^ 
 that into the high-hloomery ( Englisli, fifust-bhomcn/), that 
 into the low blast furnace with cold weak blast; then camo 
 stronger Itlo^ving-engines, and then the blast was heated, 
 when it was found that the furnace could be enlarged to its 
 present height and pize. Here are seven stejis to reach one 
 moilern result. But it is remarkable that a process once 
 perfected is sacredly retained, and all the early steps are 
 still in daily use. We find, however, that the history of the 
 trade resolves itself into various ejtochs: (I) The perfec- 
 tion of mechanical art to enable blast furnaces to lie used — 
 l.')SO to 1C2I. (2| The general use of cc)ke as fuel— 17H;'>- 
 50; and the use of cast-iron blast cylinder? — 1760. (3) 
 Application of steam-engine in iron-works first to blow- 
 ing-engines — 1700. (4 ) Inventions of rolling and puddling 
 by Cort— 1783-84. CO Use of liot blast and application 
 of waste gases — 182R-3C. (C>) Economy of fuel by im- 
 proved apparatus and processes, and perfection of works, 
 engineering — 1Sj(» to present time: extended use of Steel. 
 
 The history of the art in Great Britain and America 
 runs as follows: Tlie Pha'nicians seem to have made iron 
 in tho Briti:-h Isles very soon after they discovered them 
 (500 n. ('.). A hundred years before Civ.'^ar's invasion (55 
 B. c.) tho Britons exported iron to the Continent ((Jaul) in 
 their o\vn ships. Ciesar found, to his cost, plenty of iron 
 in England, both as money and weapons of war. W'hen 
 the Romans secured possession (a. p. 01), they established 
 iron-works: Adrian built (1201 a great military forge at 
 Bath, and supplied it with iron from the Forest of Hcan, 
 where immense cinder-heaps still exist. The Romans en- 
 couraged iron-making till 409, when they abamloncd tJreat 
 Britain. Then all arts were thrust aside, by Saxon and 
 Danish conquest and civil war, till the reign of Alfred the 
 Great. No record is mailc of iron till the Doomsday Book 
 mentions tliat William the Conqueror ( lOCfi) demanded iron 
 bars as tribute from the city of Gloucester. After tlie Con- 
 quest iron and steel were mostly imported from Germany. 
 Little was made in the X. of England. U>t raiding Scots in 
 1317 could find none till they reached Furiiess. where (hey 
 seized all they found. In 1355, Edward III. forbade the 
 export of iron from England. During tho fourteenth and 
 fifteenth centuries Germany and Spain supplied iron and 
 steel largely, till the importation of articles whiclj could bo 
 made in England was f(»rbidden in 1 183. In the reign of 
 Elizabeth (1588) severe laws were enacted to prevent tho 
 general destruction of the forests by iron-works; these 
 laws were in force till 1750. Charles I. np|ioii)tcd inspect- 
 ors in 1039 to stamp bar iron according to quality, and see 
 that no woods were cut down contrary to law. 
 
 The .scarcity of timber and charcoal caused numerous 
 futile attempts to use coal: finally, I>ud Dudley .suceceded 
 in lOIH. He gave in his Mrtatlitm Mnrtii a sad history of 
 the efl'ects of the envy of importers and fellow niannfa<'- 
 turers. He built five works, was tricked out of three, one 
 was destroyeil by riot, and one by flood. He was u roy- 
 alist, and iMajor \Vililman, with Cromwell as partner, 
 bought hij" estate to wring his secret from him, but they 
 failed. Vcrnat, Wildmnn, Copley, Buck and Blewstono 
 nil failed to make iron with coal, though others used coal 
 in forges instead of charcoal. Dudley kept his secret, and 
 left it to his relatives; it lav in hi.4 skill in making bel- 
 lows and in cn/cinj coal. Toward tho end of the seven-
 
 loUtJ 
 
 IRON. 
 
 teenth century Dr. Plot stated as the general opinion that 
 " coke was fit for most uses Init for melting, fining and re- 
 finin<' iron, which it canuot be brought to do." Jlcan- 
 tiraL>°earlv in the eighteenth century, wood grew excccd- 
 in^ly scaicc, and aljout 1740 large importations of iron, 
 mostly pi", came in from Russia and Sweden ; American 
 exports wire encouraged. England had only hO furnaces, 
 with a product of 17,3o0 tons, and depended on loicign 
 countries for pig iron for her fineries. Some English eom- 
 iiauies had their furnaces in America and their forges in 
 England. Darby, however, had experimented with coke 
 since 171.1, and bv 17:15 was able to use it regularly, while 
 Rmeaton erected "in 1760, at f:arron, a powerful blowiug- 
 en-ine consisting of four single-acting cast-iron blowiug- 
 cvriiulers driven bv a water-wheel in the rotation required 
 for a uniform blast. Smealon applied the cylinder, hut 
 Wilkinson, who invented a correct boring-machme lor 
 Watt, was the first to apply the stcara-engmc to blow 
 furnaces. After 1740 iron-iu.aking throve with surprising 
 vi'^or and .i:) coke furnaces were built before 1788. The 
 ch'^rcoal furnaces averaged 294 tons yearly in 1740 and 
 545 tons in 17S8, but in that year the coke furnaces made 
 an average of 909 tons. The use of coke and blowing- 
 engines quadrupled the production of pig iron in fifty years. 
 Bar iron, however, was still made in charcoal lorges; the 
 British forests were exhausted, and Sweden and Russia 
 rapidlv advanced the price of bar iron. Great Britain then 
 laid a' heavy duty on bar iron, beginning with £2 IGs. 
 and rising continuouslv, till 1825, to £6 10.. in English and 
 £7 18». Gd. in foreign ships. In 1797, Pitt abandoned his 
 intention of taxing English iron 20». per ton, though he 
 had exhausted his last resources of taxation to carry on the 
 war against Napoleon. In 17S.'! and 1784 Henry Cort of 
 Gospo'rt obtained patents for puddling iron and rolling it 
 into bars (plate-rolling having been invented by Harbury). 
 At this time the forge-hammers could make no size less 
 than I inch square, and all smaller sizes, for nail-rods, etc., 
 were cut in a slitting-mill. The hammers made 1 ton of 
 bars in twelve hours, while Corfs rolls made lo tons, and 5 
 tons of the smallest sizes. His puddling furnaces made 
 less than 5 tons a week. The original processes worked 
 well but were never fairlv developed by Cort, though they 
 came immediately into general use. Homfray first refined 
 iron to prepare it for Corfs puddling. The only remuner- 
 ation Cort ever got was a pension of £1(50 for six years, 
 and £100 to his widow, renewed by Lord Palmerston to his 
 children. The capital used by Cort came from .Jellicoc a 
 pavmaster who defaulted ; Cort's patents were then confis- 
 cated and locked up by Trotter and Lord Melville, both 
 rascals. The latter a few days after Corfs death got from 
 the House of Lords a release to himself of £2;),n00, on tho 
 score of the great ami imcoiilested merk -./ C."-f« invenhon:, . 
 From this ]ioint British iron manufacture steadily in- 
 creased, the charcoal furnaces disappeared, and Gibbons 
 and others largelv increased the product of blast furnaces by 
 alterations of forin. The hot blast was discovered by Neilson 
 in l^'^O. the opinion being general that the cVr/er the blast 
 was the better. It was successful at the Clyde works, 
 bcin" essentially aided by Coudie's water-tuyere, without 
 which hot blast could not be used. At the Clyde, 1 ton of 
 iron required 8J tons of coal coked, but in 1S:U hot blast 
 was used, raw coal was substituted, and only 2^^ tons of 
 coal were needed to the ton of iron. JIushct discovered 
 bla.-kband in 1801, and in 1825 used it alone, with a saving 
 of one-quarter the coal and one-third the limestone before 
 required. The great production of Scottish iron dates from 
 this time. In 1844 tho wild railroad mania stimulated all 
 
 production, particularly that of Ssotland, and gave rise to 
 speculation on warrants drawn against pig iron '" store : ; 
 the stock then held at Glasgow often reached 4:10,000 tons. 
 In 18:51. Perdonnet in France discovered that anthracite 
 could be used with cold blast by excessive care and in mix- 
 ture with coke. In 18:'.7,Mr. CraneofYnescodwin found that 
 with hot blast he could successfully use anthracite coal alone. 
 Since 1840 wages have gradually increased and improve- 
 ments made to save Labor. The puddling furnace has been 
 the suliject of constant attention in a mechanical direction, 
 with the results described above. Iron was applied to a 
 great variety of uses, especially to iron ships in 1834. For 
 these, forgings up to :i5 tons weight were required for 
 shafts, which were forged under Masmyth (1842) or Condie 
 (ISi;i) hammers. Great improvements have been made in 
 rolling-mills, both in strength and design ; the rolls were 
 reversed, to save labor, and Ramsbottom adopted Xas- 
 myth's suggestion to reverse the engine itself. These sys- 
 tems are now used in every English works. The enormous 
 consumption of fuel at iron-works led Siemens (185fi) and 
 others to seek economical systems, that of Siemens being 
 now in general use for almost every purpose, with a saving 
 of 40 to 60 per cent. The hot-blast stoves have been im- 
 proved by Whitwell and Cowpcr on the Siemens principle, 
 
 and the ordinary cast-iron stoves by Player, Ford, triers, 
 and many others. The temperature of the blast has been 
 raised to"l300°,at which a ton of iron has been made with 
 a ton of coke. In a business point of view, England has 
 found since 1840 that joint-stock companies for iron-mak- 
 ing were anvthing but a success. 
 
 The period just described is marked by the struggle for 
 economy in all aspects of the trade, but after 1850 inven- 
 tion proper took a new course— viz. in the direction ol 
 steel. Steel had been made in bloouieries up to the end of 
 the seventeenth century, when it was found that bar iron 
 could be converted into steel by heating it in large closed 
 chests with charcoal, and the converted bars when sorted, 
 piled, welded, and forged, made excellent aheur steel for 
 cutlery. But for finer purposes shear steel was defective 
 in temper and on account of scams. Then Huntsman, a 
 manufacturer of watch-springs, discovered in 1740 that the 
 converted or blister steel from the best bars, when sorted 
 and melted in crucibles with bottle-glass, made a faultless 
 material. He built works at Sheflicld in 1770, controlled 
 the market, and kept his process secret for many years. 
 Something c7ifn;)crwas needed, and in 1800 Mushet melted 
 bar iron direct with carbon to make steel. Lucas in 1804 
 tried to decarbonize pig iron by cementing with oxidizing 
 substances, as ore (thcoriginof mn//fn?.(o iion), hut withoat 
 success. Then Heath in 1S3G found that the use of 1 to Z 
 per cent, of a carburet of manganese, or materials pro- 
 ducing it, made sound cast steel out of blister steel from 
 cheap British bar, thus saving at least 40 per cent, of the 
 cost This discovcrv is the basis of modern steel processes. 
 Heath was betrayed" by his agent I'nwin, and, as the (*irrf 
 in our list, got nothing for an invention which established 
 the Sheffield steel trade. By the use of manganese lo make 
 a thin slag, and also of Spiegel iron added near the end of 
 the puddling process, Wistphalian and English firms made 
 good puddled steel under Riepe's patent (1850). 1^ ant of 
 uniformity has prevented anv general use of puddled steel, 
 Cchatius'made steel in 1855 by reducing ore in crucibles 
 with coal ; Parrv (1855) attempted to make steel hy direct 
 acliim of air in" a puddling furnace, Kelly (1856) in the 
 hearth of a blast furnace, and Bessemer (lSo6) in a close 
 vessel. Bessemer finallv made a peculiar metal by blowing 
 the air in nNmfioiis/iic"jft» (Martin ) through the iron, but 
 did not make a reliable material till he used Mushcfs 
 "triple compound of iron, carbon, and manganese." or 
 spicel iron (1856, date of discovery) to make the steel mnl- 
 leablr. The Kellv and Bessemer patents are united in 
 America, and Mushet was so unfortunate as to allow his 
 important one to lapse. It is now possible to attain in the 
 Siemens and Eckmann furnaces a heat high enough to melt 
 wrought iron with enough cast iron to convert it into steel 
 (Martin, France, 1866). By the use of these processes steel 
 is now rapidly approximating iron in cost, and is supplant- 
 ing the best i'ron for engineering purposes. 
 
 We have seen above the development of the art in Eng- 
 land ; we shall see in American history the course of its 
 application. The Indians had no knowledge of iron. The 
 fir«t iron made in America was forged at a blooinery of the 
 Virginia Companv by John Berkeley in 1622, on the James 
 River, 12 miles below the present site of Richmond. The 
 Indians destroyed the forge, and, owing to the lucrative 
 tobaceo-trade, lio more iron was made in Virginia till 1724. 
 Meanwhile, the people of Massachusetts Bay had built one 
 " iron-mill " at Lvnn in 1631, and a London company, rep- 
 resented bv John Winthrop, Jr.. built in 1644 a blast fur- 
 nace at Hammersmith and works at Braintrec in 1646, and 
 Ravnham (Taunton) in 1652, agreeing to erect "an iron 
 fnriiaee and forge, and not a hloomcry only," and to sell 
 bar iron under £20 per ton. They east .V.-i. pni,, etc. in 
 1016 under the direction of Joseph Jenks, who made our 
 first «..»•« in 1652. Thev exceeded the fixed price for iron, and 
 would not trade in kind, so that com]daints of damage, ras- 
 ealitv andwant of monevon Ihepartof thcpeople brought 
 these works to an end in 1670, during King Philip's war. 
 But the increasing price of iron in England gave profitable 
 occupation lo ourfurnaces after 1702,when the era of regular 
 iron-making in the colonics began. In Plymouth ( Mass.) a 
 furnace was built in 1 702 by Despard and the Barker family, 
 and was succeeded hy many others, working 2d per cent. 
 pond ore (limonite), mixed with 35 per cent, bog ore from 
 Egg Harbor, N. J. Pv 1S04 they had seriously injured the 
 forests in that part of "the State.and emigration had taken 
 place for want of occupation. They all made e''«';"fl; (""' 
 nig iron) direct from the furnace, at a cost of M9.m per 
 ton in 1804. Xew England exported no iron, hut obtaincl 
 l,i<' for her forces from Pennsvlvania. Massaehusetis bar 
 iron cost in 1727. £12 5.. to £12 10«. per ton In Virginm, 
 Col Snotswood built the first furnace in 1724, and made 
 casiinJ'S out of an air furnace in 1732. There were four 
 furnaces in 1732 between the Potomac and Rappahannock, 
 I each making 20 tons of pig iron per week, or 800 tons a
 
 IRON. 
 
 lo()7 
 
 year, which sold for £6 in Englnnd. and netted the pro- 
 ducer a.i to Hi per ton. In Maryland, Mr. England and 
 Augustine Washiiix'un (fatlicr of Ucn. Washington) built 
 a for '0 in 1717 at Princijiio, where they made exciMent iron, 
 which suld in Kn-land u|. to 1770 for £10 to £!ti per ton. 
 Maryland and Vir^'inia exported their entire product to 
 Fngiand.aiid Col. Spotswaod remarked, that Pennsylvania 
 would do .«o too had she ships. Init failing these must manu- 
 facture it herself. John Wiulhrop, Jr.. built iron-works 
 at Pcnuot (New I.ondonl in Hill, and in liiJ7 a blast 
 furnaeo at Now Haven, whieli, singularly enough, ran on 
 EwiUih ore. No great activity was afterwards inaiiifestcd, 
 thou.'h in 16J.5 the colony granted privileges to John Tuck- 
 er of"Southold, L. I., for steel-making, and in 1727, Joseph 
 Hi-'ljy made good steel, and exhibited samples of it ; both 
 the"e'were probablv blister steels. George Eliot made steel 
 in a blooniery from magnetic ironsand in 1701, and also 
 had ft cemeiilhig furnace, built before 1750. In Ncwlork 
 the .'Stirling furnace and works were built in 17.'il. and tho 
 Anorain works, built in 1740 to use .'Salisbury ore. made 
 •ni3 tons 12 cwt. of jiig iron and i:i02 tons of bar iron in 
 tho years between 17J0 and 17.iG. Tho great _chain 
 weighing ISO tons stretched across the Hudson in 1773 was 
 forged at these works in six weeks. In ISOl tho first forges 
 were built in Essex co.. at Willsboro' Falls on tho Boquet. 
 In New Jersey the earliest works were hloomeries. Col. 
 Morris built works in Monmouth eo. in 1GS5; tho Pctcrs- 
 hur" hloomery, Morris co., was built in 1725, and tho O.-:- 
 for.f furnace, in AVarren co., in 1745: the latter is still 
 rnnning. The principal impetus to iron-making in tho 
 State was given by the London Company, Baron Ilascn- 
 clever an.l others, who built the Ringwood furnace in 17G2, 
 and other works sjon after, utili/.ing the ponds of tbo region 
 to great advantage as a source of power. The last mana- 
 ger of tho original Ringwood works was llobcrt Erskine, 
 afterwards chief of staff and engineer of tho Continental 
 armv. In Pennsylvania the first forges were built by Hall, 
 Nuti, and Uutter"in 1717 on the Sdiuylkill, while tho first 
 furnace was built on the Christina River, near New Castle, 
 now Delaware, bv Sir William Keith in 1720. Tho Dur- 
 ham furnace was' built in I72S, and other furnaces built by 
 the families of Potts and Nutt from I7:U to 1737, and by 
 (■rubb in 1742 at Cornwall, followeil in rapid succession; 
 in furnaces and 9 /iiicry/oiv/fs in all were built before 1730. 
 The furnaces made 20 to 2.5 tons a week, running about 10 
 weeks at a blast, and the forges made about CO tons of iron 
 yearly ; both stopped in summer. Pennsylvania exported 
 iron ((irubbs's) to England, tbo West Indies and New Eug- 
 land. Pig iron sold at the furnace in 17:U for £5 10». in Penn- 
 sylvania currency ; in 175!1, for £:i G». »d. to £.". 1 0». sterling. 
 In Ibo latter year bar iron sold for £15. Philadelpbians be- 
 lieved in 1750 that when labor became cheaper they could 
 undersell English iron ; and this feeling was general in 
 Englanil. When tho colonies began to export bar iron m 
 1717, an agitation sprang up which ended in 1750with tho 
 nhnuhitv priihiljitioii, (in u ciimmnn iiiiiHanrr, of tho produc- 
 tion of bar iron (nail plate) and steel in America. Tho 
 colonies continued to export pig iron largely. Between 
 1717 and 1770 a total ([uantity of about 150,000 tons pig 
 and bar iron was exported to England. The Revolution 
 gave a great impetus to the trade; new works were erected; 
 all were occupied on war material. Congress reopened llio 
 steel-works of Philadelphia, and took possession of the 
 Andover iron-works to provide them with pig iron. On 
 the return of peace in \7M the iron-trade was nearly dc- 
 slroycil. The Stales became independent sovereignties, with 
 customs regulations often mutually hostile ; the machinery 
 of the works had not improved, as might have been cx- 
 pecte.l from the familiarity of Robert (Jrace and others 
 with lirilisb work. Tho olil wooden blowing-tubs fur- 
 nished blast for charcoal furnaces, and bellows blew the 
 forges, while all works operated on a small scale. Mean- 
 while, coke bad come into general use in England, and tbo 
 processes of iiud.Uing and rolling had superfcrled Ihc 
 forges in lireat Britain. That country shiplied iron hither 
 duty free, whilo she herself levied a duty of £:'• lO". per 
 ton, and in I7«5 prohibited tbo export of any tools, en- 
 gines, models, or plans of machinery "«<■'' •>' mukliiii iron 
 under n penalty of one year's imprisonment, £200 fine, 
 and coiiflscalioii of the articles shipped or rnlniilnl to bo 
 shippetl. This Rtivto of things led to Hamilton's report in 
 17!lll, which caused tho adoption of the protective jiolicy 
 to encourage tho natural products of our country. 
 
 The system of internal improvements inaugurated be- 
 tween 1S25 and lx:tll by many Slates marks the real enm- 
 mencenient of iron mannfaeture in this country, for it made 
 tho use of coal possible and faeililaled large operations. 
 Previous t,, 1S25 tho Atlantic coast depended on English 
 mines f,,r fuel. Coke was first used in the blast furnaeo hy 
 V. II. Olipbant of Kavettoco., Pa., in lS3fi,nnd anthracite 
 C()al first at Mauch Chunk by Baughman, Oiteau A Co. in 
 
 1838, though Mr. Lyman at Pottsville received $5000 of- 
 fered by Nicholas Riddle and other citizens of Pennsylvania 
 for the _/ir«( vontinii:, itn I,I.,hI „/ ihrrc muii(/i», which was com- 
 lilcted ill Jan., I.'i40. David Thomas came hither in IS.'i'J 
 at tho instance of Erskine Hazard of tho Lehigh Naviga- 
 tion Co., built the first furnace of tho Crane Iron Co. in 
 one year, and started it on July 4. 1840. The Messrs. 
 Reeves built a furnace in 1S:;7, and Burd Patterson & Co., 
 Biddlc, Chambers & Co., and George Patterson built in 
 IS.'IS; all started before July 2, 1840. Before 1S40 the 
 forges of Pennsylvania had practically censed to make bar 
 
 iron though Gen. Philip Benner made his '■ Juniata iron " 
 
 celebrated all over the West — and confined themselves to 
 slabs for boiler plate; the puddling furnace took their place 
 in making bar iron and common boiler plate: and it is 
 probable that the Martin furnace or Bessemer converter 
 will soon do so for best boilerplate. Raw bituminous coal 
 was first used bv tho Mahoning (now Ada) furnace in Ii'46 
 by Wilkcson & Co. The refinery has been neglected in this 
 country, and the yield of puddling furnaces consequently 
 remains small. The quality of our iron has, however, been 
 kept at tho highest point. Tho design of the machinery 
 used at American works steadily improved, blowing-engines 
 were made powerful enough, and rolling-mill engines were 
 soon made sufliciently strong for rolling rails, which were 
 probably first made at the Mount Savage works in 1840 
 and at tho Great Western Works (Brady's Bend) in 1841. 
 Since th.at timo a great deal distinctively .\merican has 
 been done in mechanical improvements of all kinds, such 
 as Thomas's blast furnaces, Burden's squeezer, Lautb's 
 plate-rolls, Fritz's hanging guides and feeding tables for 
 rolls, Ilolley's improved Bessemer plant. Kent's hot-blast 
 stove, Pearsc's cupola; in engines the Corliss and that of 
 Mooro have been prominent. Danks. by his improvements 
 in tho lining of rotary puddling furnaces, has made them 
 suecCEsful, and Kelly divides with Bessemer the credit 
 of perfecting tho process of making steel by blowing air 
 through iron, having, it is said, succeeded in doing so in 
 1S51. The vigor and ability displayed in the inventions 
 by which our iron-trade has been supported, and in the 
 Bessemer trade, at least, placed at the head of the world, 
 deserve tho highest praise ; in fact, tho mechanical has 
 overshadowed tho metallurgical side of the art. Attention 
 must now bo directed to improvement of processes by tho 
 universal application of chemistry with a view to economy. 
 Iron, Statistics of. We find the present annual prod- 
 uct of pig iron in the world to be as follows : 
 
 Years. Gross tons, Tcor<. Gross loin. 
 
 C,.''.r.C,451 
 2,.-G0,9C'2 
 1,GG4,602 1 
 l,r,SI,000 I 
 052,665 
 
 IKT.-i ... 
 
 IfiT:! ... 
 
 It71 ... 
 
 1C73 ... 
 
 1872 ... 
 
 Croat Britain.. 
 Initeil States., 
 
 Cermany 
 
 France 
 
 r.elgiiim 
 
 Aiistri;i, ypitl 
 
 Hungary 1871 
 
 Russia 1871 
 
 Sweden 1872 
 
 Luxembourg .. 1872 
 Canada 
 
 424,con 
 
 354,000 
 
 322,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 Italy 1872 
 
 Siiain 187U 
 
 .. 73,709 
 
 .. 54,007 
 
 Norway 
 
 .. 20,000 
 
 South America 
 
 
 and Mexico 
 
 .. 15,000 
 
 Japan 1871 
 
 9,370 
 
 Switzerland 1872 
 
 7,500 
 
 Asia 
 
 ... 40,000 
 
 Africa 
 
 ... 20,000 
 
 Australia 
 
 ... 10,000 
 
 
 H,485,<)72 
 
 Gruncr estimates approximately the production of wrought 
 iron and steel in lt;72 as follows, in gross tons : 
 
 WroiiRlil iron. Rlo«.l. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Cnited S-lates 
 
 Gcrinauy . 
 
 3,.500,000 500,000 
 
 1,005,922 H.'.,000 
 
 1,1.50,000 200.000 
 
 IsXium 502,000 15.284 
 
 "''"^'" ;....... 300.000 49,'2.50 
 
 Belgi 
 
 Austria 
 
 Sweden and Norway „,,„„„ 
 
 nus;sia 24''."00 
 
 Spain ■^■'•''™ 
 
 Italy 
 
 Canada, India, etc 
 
 191,K00 I'WOO 
 
 7,204 
 
 250 
 
 24,000 
 
 70,0IH) 
 
 8,8015,722 tons. i,0Gf,,988 tons. 
 The product of Great Britain may be summed up as fol 
 ""*» vcnrs : 
 
 Pig Iron, 
 
 lows for 1.''.5 years : 
 
 Clinroool. 
 
 1740 
 
 1788 
 179G 
 ISOG 
 IB'2.1 
 
 isrm 
 
 1839 
 1817 
 \nr>2 
 la.'.! 
 
 1873 
 
 17,360 
 
 14,600; 
 
 r,800 
 
 800 
 
 A 
 
 85,200 
 
 125,079 
 
 250,400 
 
 442,003 
 
 078,417 
 
 1.0-11.021 
 
 493 1.459,040 
 
 nil 2.020.000 
 
 fiOR 2.073,234 
 
 ..I '■•504 '2,741,447 
 
 1 lca.70n l•.^57 5.572.751 
 
 54 
 
 130 
 144 
 l.'iO 
 
 i«1'24i 
 l«I23l 
 
 190,900 
 
 rcm.nos 
 
 77".,000 
 79''.,OOl 
 918,000 
 993,000 
 
 Tolul, 
 
 gro*r. lou4. 
 
 17,350 
 69,700 
 125 079 
 
 2.58,20G 
 442,000 
 078,417 
 1,217,961 
 
 1,',I'.!'.',I>0.S 
 2,8111.000 
 
 ;t..i(;o,«:is 
 3.0';o,447 
 0.500,451 
 
 • '■ In blast;" previous figures mennlni; " total furnaces.
 
 1308 
 
 IKON. 
 
 Great Britain produced the following amounts of bar iron 
 and steel iu 
 
 1869 4,73-1.145 Kro.ss tons. | 1871 5,566,175 gross tons. 
 
 and e.x|)orted iron, steel, and manufactures thereof — 
 
 1871 3,169,219 gross tons. | 1872 8,388,622 gross tons. 
 
 Pricet of Etujlinh Har Iron at Liverpool. 
 
 Ye>r. £ «. 
 
 1806 17 
 
 1807 16 
 
 1808, 
 1809 
 1810 
 1811 
 
 1812 13 10 
 
 1813. 
 
 1814 13 18 
 
 1815 13 13 
 
 1816. 
 1817. 
 1818. 
 1819. 
 1820. 
 1821. 
 
 1822 8 1 
 
 1823 8 
 
 1824 8 19 
 
 1825 12 14 
 
 1826 9 15 
 
 1827 9 7 
 
 1828 7 
 
 1829 6 
 
 1830 6 
 
 1831 5 
 
 1832. 5 
 
 1833 6 
 
 1834. 6 
 
 1833 6 
 
 183G. 
 
 14 10 
 
 , 13 
 
 . 14 10 
 
 . 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 12 
 
 12 1 
 
 12 5 
 
 10 13 
 
 8 18 
 
 18 
 IS 
 3 
 13 
 13 
 
 12 11 
 18 
 10 
 
 Year. 
 
 18;J7 9 1 
 
 1838 9 4 
 
 1S;!9 9 15 
 
 1840 8 7 
 
 IMl 7 6 
 
 1842 6 17 
 
 1843 5 2 
 
 1844 6 2 
 
 1845 9 5 
 
 184G 9 13 
 
 1847 9 13 
 
 1S48 6 12 
 
 lfH9 5 17 
 
 1851 6 
 
 18.53 11 
 
 1834 10 
 
 18.55 11 
 
 1S36 9 
 
 1858 8 
 
 1859 7 10 
 
 1862 7 
 
 1884 « 10 
 
 1865 8 10 
 
 18G7 7 10 
 
 18S9 7 
 
 1870 8 
 
 1871 8 10 
 
 1872 14 
 
 1873 14 
 
 1874 12 14 
 
 
 10 12 6 
 
 In the U. S. the statistics of iron manufacture arc as fol- 
 loiTS, in gross tons: 
 
 In ISIO. 
 
 153 charcoal furnaces 53,908 tons pig iron. 
 
 330 bloomeries and l"(,rf;es 24.541 '* bar " 
 
 34 rolllDg and slitting mills 6,500 " nails, rods, etc. 
 
 In 18S0. 
 
 202 charcoal furnaces 183.^3 tons pig iron. 
 
 Bar iron made (including 5853 
 
 tons " bloomed " from ore) 112,866 " *' 
 
 14 steel-works 1,600 " steel,all kinds. 
 
 In IS40. 
 450 fiirnacesCav. product, 772tonsea.). ,347,700 tons pig iron, 
 797 bloonieries, forges, and rolling- 
 mills 197,233 " har, rod, etc. 
 
 In IS45. 
 
 523 charcoal furnaces 441.000 tons pig iron. 
 
 17 anthracite " 45,000 " " 
 
 954 bloonieries, forges, rolling and > 291,600 " har. plate, etc. 
 
 slittingmills ) 30,000 " blooms. 
 
 In 3S49. 
 
 303 charcoal furnaces 379,624 tons pig iron. 
 
 57 anthracite " 151,331 •' " 
 
 7 raw coal " 7,800 " *' 
 
 10 coke " (estimated) 2,5,000 " " 
 
 552 bloomeries, forges, and rolling-mills..., 278,044 " bar iron. 
 
 Detailed Statialict bi/ Slatei in 1S56 and 1S7S. 
 
 isje. 
 
 Itlnst 
 furnaces. 
 
 u 
 
 Ine 
 
 New Uampshlre*. 
 ViTraout 
 
 »aobu«ctts 
 
 Rhode [Kland 
 
 ('"liDi-ellcut i 14 
 
 -■ York j 29 
 
 .\cw Jersey I 6 
 
 Priiiivlvauln 143 
 
 Delaware ,.-. 
 
 Harvlaod { 21 
 
 ■VlrKlol. -- 
 
 \lv.t Vlrfjliila.- 
 NiTth Carolina. 
 South t'arollDa. 
 
 tlrorKla 
 
 Alabama 
 
 T,'Utict»e« 
 
 Kentucttjr 
 
 tmio 
 
 Indlaoa 
 
 IllinoU 
 
 Mk'hlsan 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mlxouri 
 
 On'Kon 
 
 Kansas 
 
 fuh Territory.. 
 CaUforula 
 
 f S i 
 
 1873. 
 
 171 se 
 IS 
 so 149 
 
 B C"l a 
 II'" 
 
 416 12I'I9» aw 189 TO9 10 2S7 V(W'lfi7 3" 47 
 
 • New Hampshire ceased in ISfifi to make pig iron, 
 t The figures for t he ot her States arc wanting. 
 
 
 1856. 
 
 1873. 
 
 St*tSs. 
 
 Pljt Iron. ' 
 •II klndi- 
 
 WrosiEibt 
 Iron and 
 
 steel, 
 all kinds. 
 
 Pis Iron. 
 aU klala. 
 
 Wrought 
 
 iron. Inelud- 
 
 IDg ateei 
 
 ralla. 
 all kinds. 
 
 21,210 
 
 800 
 
 6.788 
 
 118,669 
 
 11,662 
 
 11,409 
 
 186,835 
 
 77,688 
 
 a58.946 
 
 11.617 
 
 58.025 
 
 15.603 
 
 51,796 
 
 110 
 
 10,624 
 
 500 
 
 16,.561 
 
 39.060 
 
 272,066 
 36.006 
 
 143,017 
 
 8,542 
 
 39,495 
 
 23,055 
 
 7,420 
 
 Maine 
 
 2,100 
 
 4,500 
 600 
 
 2,150 
 57,142 
 
 4.473 
 
 7.709 
 
 75,242 
 
 3:i.561 
 
 27.3,211 
 
 2,211 
 15.292 
 29,350 
 
 780 
 
 New Hampshire.... 
 Vermont 
 
 2.420 
 13,007 
 
 3.100 
 21,136 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 
 12,876 
 
 69,031 
 
 28,217 
 
 451,490 
 
 26.977 
 
 2116.818 
 
 102.341 
 
 1,389,573 
 
 New York 
 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 
 41.718 
 14,828 
 
 .55.986 
 
 26.475 
 
 23.056 
 
 1,432 
 
 7,-501 
 22,283 
 43.134 
 69,889 
 
 406,029 
 32,486 
 65,796 
 
 123.506 
 
 74,148 
 
 «5,.552 
 
 280 
 
 
 AVcst Virginia 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 450 
 
 1.-506 
 
 2.807 
 
 1.495 
 
 28.476 
 
 36,.563 
 
 87,011 
 
 1,800 
 
 1.900 
 
 3,678 
 
 2,500 
 
 10,138 
 
 1,397 
 1,850 
 940 
 252 
 10,097 
 21,370 
 30,980 
 
 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Illinois 
 
 
 
 2,298 
 
 
 
 5,325 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 814,017 
 
 1587,238 
 
 2.868,278 i 2,029,009 | 
 
 Of the iron made in 1873, 890,077 net tons were rails; 
 of these 129,015 were Bessemer steel, and 2fi,.377 steel- 
 headed rails. Besides these there were imported 159,571 
 tons steel and 99.202 tons iron rail.«, making a total con- 
 sumption of 1.14S,850 tons of rails in IST."?. There were 
 875,13;i tons of angle, bar, etc., iron. 201.2.'J5 tons of cut 
 nails and spikes, and only .32,80,3 tons of blooms from ore, 
 and 29.701 from pig iron. The manufacture of blooms has 
 remained stationary for many years. 
 
 The production of Bessemer steel in the U. S. has been, 
 in net tons, as follows: 
 Year. Tons. Av. price per (tross ton. 
 
 1807 3,000 S160-00 currency. 
 
 1858 8.500 15S..50 
 
 1809 12.000 1.32.25 
 
 1870 40,000 106.75 
 
 1871 4.5,000 102..50 
 
 1872 111.000 112.00 
 
 1873 1.57,000 I20..50 
 
 1874 175,000 (est.) 94.25 
 
 The production of cast steel of all kinds has been as 
 follows : 
 
 1870 35,000 net tons. 
 
 1871 37,000 " 
 
 1872 38.000 " " 
 
 1873 50,000 " 
 
 IR65 15,262 net tons. 
 
 1866 18,973 " 
 
 1S67 19,000 " 
 
 1868 21.500 " 
 
 1869 23,000 " " 
 
 The consumption of pig iron in the I'. S., gauged by the 
 population of the country, has risen as follows: 
 
 In 1810 the consumption was 16 pounds per head. 
 1829 " " 25 " " 
 
 ]^(2 " " 47 " " 
 
 1846 " " 100 " " 
 
 18-55 " "117 
 
 1873 " " 103 
 
 The production per head in the U. S. constantly rises : in 
 1855 it was 84 pounds, and in IS7.'> it was 143 pounds. The 
 growth of some districts is so rapid that we may soon ex- 
 pect production to equal consumption in ordinary times. AVe 
 find, for instance, that Pittsburg, whidi in 1828 rolled 3291 
 ton.< of iron, now makes nearly one-si.\lh the entire amoont 
 produced in the country. 
 
 Iu connection with the statistics of iron, two very strik- 
 ing facts appear. First : that the cost of iron consists al- 
 most entirely of wages paid for labor. A ton of pig iron 
 rcciuires 10 to 13 days' labor of one man. Second; that 
 the quantities of raw materials used are so great that the 
 iron trade requires more transportation than any other in- 
 dustry. It is estimated that in 1874 the iron-trade freight 
 of this country amounted lo about 37* out of a total of 175 
 million tons moved over all our railroads, or more than 2U 
 percent. More than onc-lhird of all coal mined in the 
 t. S. is required for the manufacture of iron and steel. 
 
 I am indebted to the American Iron and Steel Association 
 for recent statistics; the earlier ones relating to America I 
 have extracted from reports of the secretary of the treasury 
 and lldziird's Hei/iKlrr, while those relating to Great Britain 
 I have compiled from several old authorities. 
 
 John B. Pearse. 
 
 J Of this total, 7280 tons were steel.
 
 IKON. MKDK'INAL USES OF— IKON I'LATINti l-OR KoKTlFUATIoNS. 
 
 loO'J 
 
 Iron, Medicinal Vses of. Iron is an important in- 
 fCrcdiunt of the subi'tancc of the red-blood corpuscles, and 
 its iidmini?trfttion in some unknown way Jirtotly induces 
 an increased formation of thci^c bodies. In heultli this 
 effect takis place only to a limited extent, but in the mor- 
 bid condition knouu as aiitpmia, where from any cause the 
 blood is unnaturally jioor in red corpui^cles, this lu-tion of 
 iron is far more striking, and the nornnil ])r'«p(.rtion of 
 these elements is often rapidly restored by its intluence. 
 On account of this peculiar property, iron is commonly 
 called a blood-tonic, and its preparations tlius have a 
 unique medicinal use in curing aniumia. To a full-blooded 
 individual, on the other hand, they are injurious. I,ocaIly, 
 the preparations of iron differ greatly in action. Some arc 
 powerfully astringent and styptic, and have thus special 
 uses by virtue of this property ; others arc nearly destitute 
 of this action. The astringent group are also fxcitc-rs of 
 the digestive faculty, and for" some unknown reas<m also 
 euro anaomia, in some cases more promptly than the bland 
 preparations. Almost all chalybcatcs tend to cause con- 
 stipation, and tho astringents again more than the others. 
 The ** muriated tincture," the mo.>t used of the astringent 
 group, has, moreover, a great reputation in some special 
 diseases, notably in erysipelas and diphtheria. The prepa- 
 rations of iron used in medicine are very numerous — in- 
 deed, unnecessarily so. They embrace both soluble and 
 insoluble forms, but as the latter are readily dissolved by 
 the aid of the gaf-tric juice, they are as active ns the 
 former. Tho non-astringent preparations are reduced iron 
 (/errinn ret/artum), known also as "iron by liydrogen " or 
 "Quovenne's iron." consisting of the pure metal in a state 
 of fine powder; pills of the carbonate (*' Vallet's ferrugi- 
 nous pills*'): tho so-called sub-carbonate or *' saffron of 
 Mars," consisting of the hydratcd sesquioxidc with a little 
 undecomposed carbonate: and numerous salts, embracing 
 the jdiosphate, pyrophosphate, oxalate, citrate, ammonio- 
 citrato, citrate of iron and quinine, and of iron and strych- 
 nine, and the ammonio- and potassio-tartrates. Tho as- 
 tringent preparations arc ferric chloride, principally used 
 in alcoholic solution under the name of •' muriated tincture 
 of iron ;" ferrous sulphate or *' green vitriol :" ferric nitrate 
 in solution; lactate, a feebly astringent salt; and the so- 
 called solution of tho subsulphatc, or " Monsel's solution," 
 chiefly used as a powerful styptic to stop bleeding. Fer- 
 rous iodide is used to combine tho medicinal effe(;ts of iron 
 and iodine; tho hypophospliite, to coinl)inc those of iron 
 and hypophosphorous acid; iron alum, as a simple astrin- 
 gent; and tho hydratcd sesquioxidc, in tho moist state, 
 when freshly precipitated, as an antidote in arsenical poi- 
 soning. Kdwaui) CiriTis. 
 
 Iron, coun|y in the S. E. of Missouri. Area, /iOO square 
 miles. It abounds in tho best of iron ores, and contains 
 lead, gold, and other metals. It is mountainous and heavily 
 timbered. Pilot Knob and Iron Mountain aro near its 
 N. E. extremity. Wool and grain are staple products. It 
 is traversed by the Iron Mountain U. U. Cap. Ironton. 
 Pop. tl278. 
 
 Iron, county of tho S. of Utah, extending from E. to W. 
 across the .State. Area, about 7001) sfjuare miles. It is 
 largely unexplored. Tho Colorado intersects tho E. por- 
 tion. The western part is in a basin which has no water 
 flowing into (he sea. The staple ]irodnct is wool. Tho 
 C'Minty is believed to possess great mineral wealth. Cap. 
 Parowan. Pop. 2277. 
 
 Iroiif tp. of Iron co„ Mo. Pop. 1118. 
 
 Iron, tp. of St. Francpis co., Mo. (See Iron' Muintain.) 
 Pop. 2.>;>.). 
 
 Irnnolads. Sco Ships, Iron-clad on AitMoitF.h, by 
 
 ISAAI- NhWTUX. 
 
 Iron Crown^ the ancient diadem of the Lombard 
 kings, is a j<-weUed circlet of gold, containing a fillet of 
 iron said to have been made of one of the nails of tho true 
 cross, presented by Pope Gregory I. to Theodelinda, wife 
 of King Antharic. in hMl). In 691 it was used at tho coro- 
 nation of Agilulphus : in 77-1. at that of Chjirlerriagne ; and 
 by Ibirty-lour other sovereigns. Ifenry \'II. of (Jermony 
 was crowned with it in I:;i2: Frederick IX. in \\b2; 
 Charles V. in 1.'»:10; Napoleon I. in 1H0.>. In iHfifi it wiu* 
 given at tho doso of the Italo- Prussian war by tho em- 
 peror of Austria to tho king of Italy, Victor Emmanuel. 
 
 I^ondnlcs post-v. of Washington co., M(»., on the St. 
 L.uis and Iri)n Mountain U. U., miles X. of Iron Moun- 
 tain. 
 
 Irondnle, post-v. of Snlino tp., Jefferson co.,0.. on tho 
 Cleveland and Pittsburg It. II., 8 miles from Wellsville. 
 Pop. 751. 
 
 Iron'deqiioit, posfip. of Monroe co.. N. Y., having 
 Lake Ontario on the \. and Irondcquoit Bav on tho E. 
 Pop. :;tl'.iO. It is very iVrfib-. 
 
 Iron Mask, The Man with the, a mysterious pris- 
 oner of state who was in 1679 confined by the French gov- 
 ernment at Pi'^nerol in Savoy; was removed in 1081 to 
 Exilles ; in llisr, to tlie island Ste. Marguerite in tho Medi- 
 terranean ; in IGUS, to the Bastile, in which he d. Nov. lil, 
 ITO.'i. lie always wore a mask of black velvet. Much has 
 been written with a view of determining this unfortunate 
 man's i<lentity. lie has been in turn held to have been the 
 duko of Vermandois, the duke of Beaufort, the duke of 
 Monmouth, an illegitimate son of the queen, and a twin- 
 brother of Louis XIV.: but it is now generally hebl that 
 he was in reality the count Mattbioli. minister plenipoten- 
 tiary of the duke of Mantua to France, unlawfully held a 
 5)risoner by the French court, or jierhaps a chevalier do 
 viffenbach, confined for plotting against the king's life. 
 
 Iron iMountaiu, or Iron Mount, post v. of Iron 
 tp., iSt, Fran^fois co., Mo., on the St. Louis and Iron Moun- 
 tain It. R., 81 miles S. W. from St. Louis. Here is the famous 
 Iron Mountain, 22S feet high and covering iJOU acres. It 
 is of mammillary shape, and consists chiefly of an iron ore 
 which yields 55 or GO jier cent, of execllent iron. The oro 
 is softer and less siliceous than that of Pilot Knob (which 
 see). It is very rich and uniform, nearly free tVoin sul- 
 phur, and carrying only 0.12 per cent, of phosphorus. It 
 is magnetic, with distinct polarity, ami acting in several 
 ]uirt8 very strongly on the needle. The amount of oro in 
 Iron Mountain seems to be immense, f lie main body having 
 a thickness of 50 feet, and continuing indefinitely in depth ; 
 202,177 tons of ore were shipped in 1H7I ; ,371,474 in L^72. 
 Tho whole deposit has been described by I>r. Litton in the 
 second annual report of the geological survev of Missouri 
 (1.S55), and by Prof. Kaphael Pumpelly and Dr. Adoljih 
 Schmidt in the volume on Jron Ovinaitil i'oal-Firfiin of tho 
 now geological survey (1873). The village of Iron Moun- 
 tain has several blast furnaces and other manufactories. 
 Pop. 20 IS. 
 
 Iron Plating for Fortifications. It was an Amer- 
 ican soldier and engineer, tho late Gen. .1. (i. Totten. who 
 earliest realized the need and predicterl the introduction of 
 guns of greatly increased calibres into our sea-coast de- 
 fences, jvsserting tho desirableness and practicability of a 
 20-inch gun as early as 1844. It is to the same distin- 
 guished officer to wlioin is due the first introduction of 
 iron pfittimj in the surroundings of the "embrasure" (or 
 port) of our masonry casemates. (See " Report to the Sec- 
 retary of War," IS57, Prof. Papers Corps uj Emjlncrja, No. 
 G.) But tho 10-inch smooth-bore represented at that date 
 the limit of gun development. The system he skilfully 
 devised, .and during the ensuing three or four years caused 
 to be extensively applied to the cascmated works then in 
 construction, provecl inadequate, simply because this was 
 precisely the era of the commencement of the great changes 
 which have substituted immense caiil»rcs and rilled bores 
 for small calibres and smooth-bores in artillery, and which 
 havo introduced the " armored " ship and made it an es- 
 sential and most formidable agent of naval warfare. It 
 was nearly tho era. too, when a great maritime nation, 
 England, unclertook a revision and reconstruction of her 
 sea-coast fortifications. At a time when " tlie (is pounder 
 was tho heaviest gun contemplated," and when tlie intro- 
 duction of rifled artillery of more than ono calibre (tho 
 110 -pounder .Vrmstrong) was not anticipated, evidently it 
 was not expected that attacking vessels would bear heavier 
 ordnauco or be clad in mail jterfectly proof against such 
 guns. Before much advance had been uuide by the Eng- 
 lish tlio necessity of a partial sultstitution of iron for ma- 
 sonry in the exjiosed fronts of masonry casemates became 
 apparent, though neither the jirccise degree of resistance 
 ultimately to be offered, nor the seieiititic means by which 
 iron c<jiild best be nuide {if at nU) to yield that measure, 
 were understofMl. Hence, nearly all the works wliieb had 
 been designed us masonry casemaled batteries after thecdd 
 models were modified by making, in the casemato fronts, 
 openings of 12 teet horizontal dimension, by 8 feet vertical, 
 to be subseijucntly lilletl up by an iron "shield." the inter- 
 vening mastuiry piers and front wall being uhit niodifieil so 
 as to furni.-h solid masses or *• merlons " of about 15 feet 
 thickness. In adapting and executing this masonry const ruc- 
 tion the4|uestion as to tho precise character uf tho iron shield 
 was left an open one. Experiments to determine tlie con- 
 struction comnieiieed as early as 1SG2, and are fully de- 
 scribed in vuriou.s English publications, (I'm/. l*iip,rH 
 Hoifitt Eiujinrrrt, vcds. xili., xiv., xvi., xvii., xviii., xix.; 
 firport of the Sprritil CitmmxtU'f on thf Oihniltur ,Sfi{iifin ; 
 /trport of /run Phitr Cummitlrr, vtc.) The failure of tho 
 •• Gibraltar " shields (/. <■. shields which bad been prepared 
 for the new works at Gibraltar and Malta) umbr the ex- 
 perimental firings (Oct. anti Dec, ISG7, and .Ian., 1868), 
 to give tho resistiinoe ex|iepted, and the not altogether sat- 
 isfactory triala of tho '* Plymouth breakwater " oxperi-
 
 i:UO 
 
 IRON RIDGE— IRONS. 
 
 mental construction (June, 1868), appear to have tempor- 
 arily arrested proffrcss in the application of iron to the 
 otherwise nearly completed works. Renewed experiments 
 finally led to the adoption of a shield construction (see Fig. 
 1 tor section of shield as fixed in tho casemate), described 
 as follows : 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 as so satisfactory that were new works to be built but a 
 very slight modification would be made in the arrangement 
 of masonry and iron. An additional iron pluic may bo 
 added whenever greater thickness may be judged neces- 
 sary. 
 
 For points of peculiar character and very great import- 
 ance, the artificial or otherwise contracted sites of whieh 
 require the greatest possilde concentration of guns, and 
 which may be closely npproaehed and enveloped by hostile 
 fire, a type of works like the " Plymouth breakwater fort" 
 has been adopted; the eharacteristie being a rantiiiuoua 
 envelope n/ irun arnuiid that part of the icork oecnpied hy 
 gun caaematei. Fig. 2 gives a ground-plan of a casemalo 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 0-- 
 
 *• The armor consists of three ii-ineh plates, made to the 
 full size of the shield by a process recently adopted in the 
 fortification t)ranch, with intervals of 5 inches between 
 them, in which a concrete composed of iron turnings and 
 tar mixed hot, and weighing about 240 pounds per foot 
 cube, is introduced. The front plate is bolted to the second 
 by means of ten :'.-inch armor bolts with plus threads (5J 
 threads to the inch) and spherical nuts at each end, seated 
 in corresponding holes in the armor plates. The second 
 and thiril armor plates arc held back to the supports by 
 eight bolts of similar pattern. These bolts, however, are 
 secured to the skin of tho supports by means of spherical 
 nuts in coiled washers of special construction, similar to 
 those used in the two small targets above referred to. Tho 
 fastenings are so laid out that in no case does an armor 
 bolt appear at the back of tho shiehl. The port opening 
 in the front armor measures 4 feet hi;;h, and 2 feet 5 inches 
 wide, and admits of tho Ill-inch IS-ton gun training Tll°, 
 elevating 10°. and depressing 5°. Tho 12-ineh and 2."i-ton 
 gun would train fiO° behind tho shield, elevate 8°, and de- 
 press 5°. The supporting structure is composed of 1-inch 
 Iilate, and IJ-ineh by (1-iuch by 1-inch angle-irons, built in 
 the form of a case, to cover iho whole of the back of the 
 armor except in the central space required for the working 
 of the gun. The depth or thickness of this case is 2 feet 
 fi inches. It stands ujion a 1 J-inch base-plate, the ends of 
 which pass nniler the piers of tho masonry structure in 
 which the shield is fixed. The whole of the case is filled 
 with iron concrete. The shield is held down by means of 
 2-ineh bolts to a :i-inch plate, bcdiled in the foundation at 
 a depth of about 2 feet below the floor level. 
 
 '• It will be observed that this shield presents some im- 
 portant points of difference from any that had preceded it: 
 FIrKl. Each of the three 5-ineh thicknesses was one timjle 
 plate. Tho joints, which had been such a source of weak- 
 ness in former shields, no longer existed. Second. Tho 
 three plates, instead of being in immediate contact, were 
 separated by intervals of 5 inches, filled with the mixture 
 <.r concrete of iron filings and tar. Third. The three plates 
 are not c(mnccted by bolts running through the whole 
 structure. The front and second plates are held together 
 by ten 3-inch holts, with plus threads and spherical nuts 
 at each end, seated in corresponding holes in the armor 
 plates. The second and third ]>lates are held back to the 
 su)iports by eight bolts of similar patterns. The fasten- 
 ings are so arrangecl that in no case does an armor-bolt 
 appear at the back of the shield. Fourth. Tho bolts used 
 are peculiar." 
 
 AVith some improvement of details tho shield described 
 has been aj^plied to tho English casemated w<irks and to 
 open batteries, and it is regarded by the English engineers 
 
 of the work at Plymouth breakwater. The iron envelope 
 is, like the shields, made u)) of three thicknesses of .5-iueh 
 plates. In more recent iuter-aqucous constructions at 
 Spithead both the intervals between the three thicknesses 
 are made five inches and filled with concrete or brickwork, 
 as described for the shields. Fig. ;! shows one of these 
 works as first designed. In actual construction the turrets 
 have been omitted. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Barbette batteries — that is, of guns firing orer a parapet 
 without front protection — are seldom xiseil by the English, 
 but unless in very high positions ( lilt) feet or more) these 
 open batteries are protected with iron shields almost iden- 
 tical with those described for the casemates. 
 
 The history of the subject would contain a great variety 
 of designs for the combination and arrangement of iron 
 plates, beams, rails (or channel-irons), timber, rubber, etc., 
 etc., as "shields " or protecting walls for sea-coast guns — 
 some few of which have indeed, in Europe,* been renliied 
 in construction — but tho English system described is the 
 only one which has been tho outcome of long protracted 
 and logically connected experiments, and which too, has 
 been, on a grand scale, carried into actual execution. In 
 this country, though the subject has been miu-h studied 
 (see " Report on Fabrication of Iron for Defensive Pur- 
 poses," Prnf. J'apcra Cnrpt of Enifrt, No. 21, and Supple- 
 ment), and many experiments maile, yet, on account of the 
 costliness, and on account of the as yet unsettled relations 
 between gun-development and shield-resistance, no iron 
 construction for fortifications has been ventured upon. 
 
 J. G. Baii.vard. 
 
 Iron Ridge, post-v. of Dodge eo.. Wis., on the Chi- 
 cago Milwaukee and St. Paul R. U. (northern division), 47 
 miTes X. W. of Milwaukee. It has abundant iron ores of 
 good quality and extensive iron-works. 
 
 I'roiis ( Wll.l.l \M .loslAU), D. D., b. at Iloddesden, Herts, 
 Eng., Sept. 12, 1812: graduated at Queen's, Oxf<.rd, in 
 18.13 : became prebendary of St. Paul's in ISfiO ; was liamp- 
 ton lecturer in l."'70, and became rector of Wadinghaui and 
 rural dean. Author of several volumes of ."."rmons. lec- 
 tures, etc., and many controversial and other pamphlets. 
 
 *Thus among the numerous recent additions to the mari- 
 time defences of Cronstadt is a battery having six iron revolv- 
 ing turreU.
 
 IRONTOX— IRRIGATION. 
 
 1:111 
 
 His trADslation of the Die9 Ira is considered the best in 
 the language. 
 
 IVoiiton, post-v. of Arcadia tp., cap. of Iron cu., Mo. 
 It lias - weekly newspapers. Pop. 673. 
 
 Irouton, tp. of Lincoln cc, N. C. Pop. 2162. 
 
 IrontOIi,city,cap.of Lawrence CO., 0.. on the Ohio River, 
 1 10 miles ahove Cincinnati, at the tirniiiius ot' the Iron 
 It. U.. 1.1 miK-s in length. It is the centre of thu " Hang- 
 ing Iron region," and is the ht'ad-quarlcrs of business for 
 a large number of iron furnaces: has a large nail-mill, 2 
 rolling mills, a stove-foundry. 2 macbine-shops. and boilcr- 
 yartls, 2 pinning-mills, S English and 2 German ncws- 
 paptTs, 2 national banks, 1 private bank, 15 churches, gas 
 and water works ; does an annual business in pig iron of 
 $2.oni).000; of nails, SfiOO.OOO ; bar iron, $750,000, etc. 
 Capital invested in iron business, $:},500,000. Pop. 5680. 
 E. S. Wilson, Ed. ''^Register." 
 
 Ironton, tp, and post-v. of Sauk co., Wis.. 22 miles W. 
 of Uaraboo. It has iron-works and a machine-shop. 
 Pop. 1215. 
 
 I'ron-wood, a name given in the U. S. to the two 
 species of II'iunbi'am (which sec). The iron-wood of com- 
 raercc is from Mctrosideroi* vera, a myrtle of Eastern Asia. 
 Menitn ferrea and spectona of India (Guttifera;), Vcpris 
 uudulata ('Diosmacea*). and Olca InurifoUa (Oleaccic), the 
 last two from South Africa, and Sidfrndcndrum trijlorum 
 (Cinchonacea'). are all callc<l iron-woods, and all have ex- 
 ceedingly bard timber. To tbcso we may add Sidrroxjflon 
 (Sapotaeeae), of which the IT. S. have one species, S.paHida, 
 a tree of Florida. S. inernic, of the Capo of Good Hope, is 
 a valuable timber tree. 
 
 Ir'oqnois, the name of a confederation of Indian tribes 
 which formerly inhabited the ct-ntral and western jiart of 
 the Statn of New York. The cnnfedcration consisted origi- 
 nally only of five tribes — the Mohawks. Oneidas. Ononda- 
 gap, Cayugas, and Senccas — but in 1712 the Tuscaroras 
 were admitted to the league, which now adopted the name 
 of the ''Six Nations." The total number of members was 
 about 15,000. They lived in villages and pursued agri- 
 culture. Each tribe was governed by ?acbem?, but affairs 
 concerning the whole confederation were decided upon by 
 general assemblies. On the whole, the Iroquois were of all 
 the Inrlian tribes of Xorth America not only the most 
 powerful, but also the highest clevelopcd, and some of their 
 leaders — as, for instance, Red Jacket of the Seneca tribe 
 and Brant of the Mohawk — were men of valor, understand- 
 ing, and elor)uenee. In the Revolutionary war they sided 
 with the En::;lish. and in 177S. Rrant attaeked and nearly 
 destroyed by fire and sword the settlements of Cobleskill, 
 Andrewstown. and (ternian Flats. But in the ne\t year 
 the Americans retaliated, an<l Gen. Sullivan nearly broke 
 the power of the confederation. The Iroquoi;* present 
 a remarkable exception to the supposed genera! law of de- 
 crease among the American Indians, they having increased 
 at every enumeration since the war of 1812, when they 
 rea''heil their lowest point in numbers. Nearly one-half 
 of the Iroquois have rem<»ve<l from New York to jioints 
 farther W. The largest reservation is that of the Mohawks, 
 on the Grand River in Ontario. 150 miles W. of Niagara. 
 This was given to the Mohawks by the British govi-rnment 
 in consideration of their serviees in the Revolutionary war, 
 and the celebrated ehief Joseph Brant resided there until 
 hi^ ileath. The Mohawks of Grand River number nearly 
 2000; with them are some hunrlreds of Tuscaroras and a 
 few individuals of other tribes. Five-sixths of the Oneidas, 
 or about 1200, live on a reservation on (ireen Bay, Wis., 
 and some 400 Senecas reside in the Indian Territory. The 
 Cayugas are the least numerous of the Six Nations. Hav- 
 ing long since sold all their own lands in New York, they 
 are scattered among the sister-tribes, with whom they have 
 intermarried. Tlu'ir language is consequently nearly ex- 
 tinct, there being now less than a score who speak it. The 
 greatest collective number of Cayugas at one place is 55, 
 now living at the Cuttaraugus (Seneca) reservation in Erie 
 CO., 20 miles S. of Buffalo. All the Six Nations have enjoyed 
 tb)' benefits of missions from an early peritKl in the century, 
 and for twenty years past their schoi>Is have been supported 
 by the Slate, the teachers being mainly natives. A teachers' 
 institute was organized in 1^71 atuong (he Seneea teachers, 
 numbering 15, An annual agrieultuml fair has for several 
 years existed among the same Indians, and a republican 
 form of government was established in 1H50, A president 
 and IS couneillors, with other ofTieers. are annually elected 
 by ballot. The languages of the Six Natitms are considered 
 as distinct; they are closely related to raeh oIIht in gram- 
 mar, and but little less in voeabulary, belonging to the same 
 linguistic grou]> with the llurons and Wyandots. Some 
 resemblances to the Cherokee language have been dis- 
 covoied. Special works ou their history are — Coldcn, 
 
 Hintory of the Five Nation* (1727); Cusick, an Indian of 
 the Tusearora tribe, SlelchcH 0/ the Ancient HiKtorif of the 
 Six Xations (1820); Schoolcraft. Xntes on the ftoquoii 
 (IS-IG) ; Morgau, Lcuffuc of the frof/uois (\iib\). A gram- 
 mar and dictionary of the Mohawk language was published 
 by the Jesuit Bruyas in New York {1SG2). 
 
 Iroquois, port of entry of Dundas co., Ont., Canada, 
 on the N, shore of the St, Lawrence, 9U miles above Mon- 
 treal, ou the (irand Trunk Railway and at the fool of the 
 Iroquois Canal. It has large factories and mills. Pop. of 
 sub-district, 781. 
 
 Iroquois, county of Illinois, bounded on the E. by In- 
 diana. Area, 1100 square miles. It is a fertile prairie, 
 traversed by the Illinois Central, the Chicago Danville 
 and Vineennes, and the Toledo Peoria and War.saw R. Rs. 
 Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. The S. part 
 of the county is believed to contain beds of coal. Cap. 
 Watseka. Pop. 25,782. 
 
 Iroquois, tp. and post-v. (CovroRn Station) of Iro- 
 quois CO.. 111., on the Cincinnati Lafayette and Chicago 
 R. R. Pop. 079. 
 
 Iroquois, tp. of Newton co., Ind, Pop. G19. 
 
 Irrawad^di, a river of Farther India, rises in Thibet, 
 and tlows, after a course of about 1200 miles, into the Bay 
 of Bengal, in lat. 1G° N. and Ion. 01° E. In lat. 17° N. it 
 separates, and between its easternmost branch, the Ran- 
 goon, and its westernmost brancli, the Bassain, it forms a 
 delta intersected in all directions by its minor branches, 
 comprising an area of 10,000 square miles and covered 
 with teak forests and inextricable jungles. It is navigable 
 for vessels of 200 tons burclen as far as Ava. 40O miles from 
 the sea, even at low tide, and canoes ascend safely 180 miles 
 farther up tbo river. 
 
 Irrel'ative, in music, a term applied to such chords or 
 keys as have no elements in cuninmn tt) produce relation 
 or connection. Thus, the triads of C minor and of i't nia- 
 jor are irrelative ; and a transition from the key of C major 
 into th.at of F} minor would be into an irrelative key. 
 
 Irriija'tion [Lat. irrii/otio]. In the broadest sense of 
 the term, irrigation embraces all artificial modes of using 
 water for agricultural purposes. We shall consider the 
 eom])lex effects of irrigation according to the several me- 
 dia in which they are manifested. 
 
 Soif. — The immediate effect of irrigation upon the mn- 
 HiHtcnce of the soil is to soften it and render it more easily 
 
 fenetrablo by the plough and by the roots of phuils. 
 lence, in dry climates water is frequently applied, before 
 ploughing, at the rate of about 400 or 50O cubic yards to 
 the acre, or barely enough to loosen the earth to the drpth 
 of a foot without dreiudiing it. But it is most important 
 to observe that the ultimate effect of long-continued irriga- 
 tion is to condense and harden the surface to a very incon- 
 venient degree. Irrigation affects the qunh'ti/ of the soil by 
 introducing into it common air and other gases, nn<l vege- 
 table and mineral matter iield in suspension or solution by 
 the water. In most eases the substances so introduced are 
 beneficial to vegetation, but in some they are highly nox- 
 ious. Even the water of large rivers sometimes, as lias 
 licen observed in India, deposits on the surface, or intro- 
 duces into the texture of the soil, salts whieh in the course 
 of time remler it wholly sterile. Irrigation also acts upon 
 arable soil by facilitating the decomposition of soluble or- 
 ganic and inorganic matter contained in it, and carrying 
 off such matter from it. The extent of this latter action is 
 disputed, but it must be considerable, for constituents of 
 vegetable growth have been found in underdrain water 
 from cultivated fiebls, and largo tracts of ground, inipreg- 
 nated with salts to sueh a degree as to nnike them incapa- 
 ble of cultivation, have been rendered fertile by washing 
 with fri'sh water. (See I)ui>oneliel. I/t/ilnmlit/iir Ar/ricnlr.) 
 Irrigation often injuriously affects the Hiifmnil by charging 
 it with water, whieh stagnates in it and renders it cold and 
 four, as sometimes expressed, lo the roots of plants whieh 
 descend into it. In countries where irrigation has been im- 
 memorially practisetl this effect has not attracted niu(d» 
 attention, but in the British Indian provinces watered by 
 the new canals construofed l>y the government, and else- 
 where when irrigation is first introduced, it is very observ- 
 able. It also exereises an imp«irtant infiuenee on the tnittr- 
 utippfif of lantls lying at a lower level, by diverting from 
 their natural channels streams which originally llowed 
 through such lands; an<l on the other hand liy diseharging 
 upon their surface surplus water from irrigated fiebis. or 
 by saturating theni with water conveyed to them from such 
 fiebls by subterranean infiltration. These effects are seen 
 not only in the soil itself, but in the diminished or aug- 
 mented volume of spring and well water. Irrigation mod- 
 ifies the trnipprntiirc of the soil benefieially or injuriously 
 by communicating or abstracting heat, and by promoting
 
 i;!i2 
 
 IKKIGATIOX. 
 
 brins til it, a supply of iitraospheric moisture so rapidly as 
 to re'iidcr the determination of the local effect of irrigation 
 in this respect very difficult if not impossible. But the at- 
 mospheric temperature of artificially watered districts is, at 
 certain times, sensibW lower than that in unwatered regions, 
 while at other times the vapor thrown off from an irrigated 
 surface may check radiation from the soil, and thus pre- 
 vent or compensate the lowering of the temperature by 
 evaporation. Irrigation has also a certain influence on the 
 chcmU-al ronsli'iHllon of the atmosphere, by depositing on 
 or in the soil organic or inorganic decomposable substances, 
 and promoting the decomposition of such foreign matter on 
 or a little below the surface of the ground, and thus disen- 
 gaging gases which may diffuse themselves through the air. 
 Stinitnn/ EffeclH.—llnmUlMy, temperature, and the com- 
 position of the .air we breathe are terms in the equation of 
 health. All these elements are subject to modification by 
 ai-ricultural irrigation, and hence it is evident that water 
 cannot be applied, in considerable quantities, to the soil or 
 to the leaves of plants without e.\erting some influence on 
 the sanitary conditions of climate. It has been observed 
 that pure water moving freely over the surface or through 
 the texture of the soil' is not generally sensibly injurious 
 
 plants are, in a sense, artificial machines, and we rear them 
 not for the sake of regular, but for nhiwimnt products, for 
 the growth of which we can afford to sacrifice the rest of 
 the plant. This subject needs to be specially studied with 
 reference to seasons and quantities in irrigation. The 
 problem of compensation of inferiority in quality by in- 
 crease in quantity is complicated by the antagonism be- 
 tween the interests of the producer and those of the con- 
 sumer. It is hard to persuade the producer of a crop which 
 he grows for sale, not for his own consumption, that he 
 ought not to aim exclusively at increase of quantity, and 
 consumers of few agricultural products arc supplied with 
 sure tests by which they can readily detect inferiority in 
 quality. Comparative weight is perhajis the most gene- 
 rally accepted standard in this respect, but this is not of 
 universal applicability. The heaviest potatoes, for exam- 
 ple, are not the best. "The relative quality of watered and 
 unwatered crops is now exciting much attention in Europe, 
 hut popular opinion on questions of rural economy is eon- 
 trolled by apparent results, and at present the tendency is 
 strongly towards the extension of a system which offers 
 such Tempting visible advantages. The importance of ir- 
 rigation as a means of destroying noxious insects and small 
 
 already alluded to, superficial or underground drainage is 
 an imperious necessity in all irrig-'-^ '""''" ~'">- "•>*■■"•» 
 
 to health Butwhen it stagnates on "or in the ground it } rodents in and upon the soil must not be fo'-go"e"; 
 
 on becomes a dangerous and often very destructive source . The growth of large forests may be P™-" "^ ^ ' ^S - 
 of disease Hence for sanitary as well as other reasons tion. The grounds which it is most impoitant to clou 
 of disease. Hence, J ^^^^ ^^_,^^ drainage is with wood as a conservative influence, and which also 
 
 ated lands where nature ! can best bo spared from agricultura use are steep h.ll- 
 h-is not nrovided either in the configuration of the surface \ sides. But the performance of all the ofliees of the for- 
 
 Innately of weeds, and water is in and of itself a neces- 
 sary element of vegetable growth. Besides this, it is never 
 quite free from extraneous matter, and it always contains, 
 in solution or in suspension, foreign substances useful or 
 injurious to vegetation. Hence, in climates and on soils 
 where the natural supply of water is insuflioient for the 
 normal growth of plants, remunerative agriculture is im- 
 possible without artificial arrangements for procuring and 
 administering it. And even where agricultural industry 
 yields fair returns without irrigation, it is generally, it not 
 "universally, true that the .application of water according to 
 the common methods increases the i,nnnt!ty, or at least the 
 nlumc. of leaf, flower, bark, ligneous tissue, root, bulb, edi- 
 ble grain and other seeds, fruits, oleaginous and watery 
 fluids, coloring-matter, aromatic and medicinal substances, 
 produced on a given area of ground. Until lately, this 
 augmented product has been too generally regarded as a 
 positive advantage directly proportional to the increase; 
 and this opinion has done much to promote the extension 
 of the practice of irrigation. But agricultural chemistry 
 and more careful observation have shown that in many 
 eases the increase in quantity is more than eounterbalanced 
 by a deterioration in the qnaUin of the product; and. fur- 
 ther, that on ground of loose and light texture, rich in 
 humus or other partially decomposed organic matter, the 
 hygroscopicity of the soil is often such that it absorbs from 
 the atmosphere, even in dry weather, moisture enough to 
 supply the vegetation upon it, and consequently even the 
 bulk of the crop is little or not at all increased by irriga- 
 tion The present opinion seems to be that all the mmmil 
 products of irrigated vegetables, including even the leaves, 
 are inferior in nutritive properties, in flavor, and in all 
 other valuable qualities, except mere bulk, to those of un- 
 watered plants. It appears to bo well settled, however 
 that the wnnJ of limber trees is not only much quickened 
 in growth, but improved in quality by judicious irrigation ; 
 for. as between trees of the same species, those whoso 
 grain shows the largest yearly increment usually furnish the 
 best timber. But. though the annual products of watered 
 plants are generally comparatively inferior in quality, and 
 in some rare instances— as is said to he the ease with the 
 yield of olive-oil, for example— even in quantity, there is 
 "reason to believe that if cultivators knew enough of the laws 
 of vegetable physiology to be able to apply water always in 
 just quantity and at the right time, irrigation might he- 
 
 favorable for irrigation, as well as for manuring and eul 
 tivating the tree. But even without so expensive a pro- 
 cess very important results have been obtained by simply 
 ditching declivities. " In order to hasten the growth ot 
 wood on the flanks of a mountain, JI. Eugene Chcvaudier 
 divided the slope into zones forty or fifty feet wide, by 
 horizontal ditches closed at both ends, and thereby obt.ained. 
 from firs of different ages, shoots double the dimensions of 
 those which grew on a dry soil of the same character where 
 the water was allowed "to run off without obstruction." 
 (T)umont. Dis Trnvaux Public, etc., pp. 94-96.) The 
 ditches were about two feet and a half deep and three feet 
 and a half wide, and they cost about 40 francs the hectare, 
 or $:i the acre. This extraordinary growth was produced 
 wholly by the retentiim of the rain-water in the ditches, 
 whence it filtered through the whole soil and supplied 
 moisture to the roots of the trees. It may bo doubled 
 whether in a climate cold enough to freeze the entire con- 
 tents of the ditches in winter it would not be expedient to 
 draw off the water in the autumn, as the presence of so 
 larf'e a quantity of ice in the soil might prove injurious 
 to frees too young and small to shelter the ground effectu- 
 ally against" frost. Chevandier computes that, if the an- 
 nual growth of the pine in the marshy soil of the Vosges 
 be represented by one, it will equal two in dry ground, four 
 or five on slopes'so ditched or graded as to retain the water 
 fiowin" upon them from roads or sleep declivities, and six 
 where "the earth is kept constantly moist by infiltration 
 from running brooks. (C<,mplc, linubia «! V Ara<l(<n,f dc> 
 Sciences, t. xix.. ,IuilIet-Dee., 1844, p. If.r.) The effect of 
 accidental irrigation is well shown in the growth of the 
 trees planted along the canals of irrigation which traverse 
 the fields in many parts of Italy. They flourish most luxu- 
 riantly, in spite of continual lopping, and yield a very im- 
 portant contribution to the stock of fuel for domestic use : 
 while trees situated so far from canals as to be out of the 
 reach of infiltration from them are of much slower growth 
 under cireumstanccs otherwise equally favorable. In other 
 experiments of Ohevandier, under better conditions, the 
 yield of wood was increased, by judicious irrigation, in the 
 "ratio of 7 to 1, the profits in that of 12 to 1. At the Ex- 
 position of 1855, Chambrelent exhibited young trees which, 
 in four years from the seed, had grown to the height of 
 sixteen and twenty feet, and the circumference of ten and 
 twelve inches. Chevandier experimented with various
 
 IRRIGATION, PRACTICAL. 
 
 l:]13 
 
 manures, nnd found that some of them might bo profitably 
 applied to younij. but not to o!d trees, the quantity required 
 in the latter case being too great. Wood-ashes and the 
 refuse of soda-faotories are particularly recommended. I 
 hare seen an extraordinary growth produced in fir trees by 
 theappIicEitinn of soapsuds. According to Cnnernzzt Vtirab. 
 fli Ayrn-oltiini, uow publishing — a high authority — irriga- 
 tion of trees promotes the growth of foliage and wooil, but 
 deteriorates the quality of the other products, whether 
 fruits or juices. Of course it is suited for shade and orna- 
 mental trees and shrubs, though not for olive trees, vines, 
 and mulberries, in which latter the leaf becomes abundant, 
 but less nutritious. Sec Mi'I-berry. 
 
 Otnt-rnl Phi/iticnl and Sociaf Efffftn. — Tho diversion of 
 wa'er from its original channels of dischnrge. which is 
 nlways a necessity in irrigation, interferes with natural 
 hydrology, though not always injuriously. It? effects on 
 springs and wells at lower levels are among the most im- 
 portant, thout^h habitually least noticed, of these effects. 
 Tho reclamation of marshes by this process is a familiar 
 example of beneficial results. The reduction of the supply 
 iif water for mechanical power, and the obstruction of free 
 communication over the surface by canals of derivation 
 and distribution, arc evils too obvious to need to be dwelt 
 upon. The* measurement of flowing water, and its appor- 
 tionment between different persons entitled to use the same 
 source of supply, are very difficult in practice, and when 
 the quantity is not abundant they arc occasions of endless 
 contention and litigation. The effect of these embarrass- 
 ments is to discourage landholding in moderate parcels, to 
 oblige small proprietors to sell their grounds and become 
 day-laborers, and of course t<» diminish the numbers of rural 
 homesteads and rural inhabitants. This is an evil much to 
 be dreaded in countries with popular institutions, and it 
 ought to engage the earnest attention of American public 
 economists. 
 
 Eronomfcai Comtuieratinnn. — The partial grading of tho 
 surface of the ground for tho reception of water, tho con- 
 struction of reservoirs, aqueducts, canals, and siphons for 
 its supply and distributi'm, as well as of <irains on or below 
 tho surface for its discharge, and tho care and labor in- 
 volved in its application, are all expensive. Irrigation 
 ouffht never to be umlertaken on a considerable scale with- 
 out a certainty that the supply of water is adequate in 
 quantity, and that it if of such chemical composition and 
 such temperature as to bo useful to vegetation ; and, fur- 
 ther, without enough of preliminary experimentation to 
 show that the probable increase of product will warrant 
 the expenditure. The importance of the first of the cau- 
 tions bore suggested is much increased by the fact that the 
 habits of watered plants soon become so modified that a 
 f:tilure of (he accustomed supply affects them more severely 
 than almost any merely natural drought does unwatercd 
 plants. This modifieutir)n may become hereditary, and 
 therefore it is prudent to take it into account in employing 
 imported seeds. On most of these points we may observe 
 that European experience, though not to be neglected, is 
 not by any means altogether a safe guide. The difference 
 in soil and climate, in the usual objects of cultivation, and 
 in the cost of labor, is so great between the two continents 
 that wo cannot confidently reason from one to (ho other. 
 Before quit(ing this branch of our subject i( is well to no- 
 tice that in many localities, rirc/itiff or horizontal side-hill 
 ploughing, which is a cheap method of terracing sloping 
 surfaces, answers most of (ho purposes of irrigation, and 
 that water enough for crops may often be found by means 
 of small reservoirs for retaining rain and snow water, 
 eommnn wells, cheap artesian borings, or short tunnels into 
 hillsides, which intercept subterranean currents and bring 
 them to the surface as springs. 
 
 With respect to the economicnl aspects of great systems 
 of irrigation, it ou(rht to be observed that unquestionablo 
 as are the financial advantages, and even necessity, of tho 
 practice in many climates, yet in regions where rural hus- 
 bandry is possible without it European experience shows 
 that in most cases of cosily arrant^ements for this purpose, 
 as indeed in very many inrhistrial enterprises of other 
 kinds, the original capital is entirely sunk, and a pecuniary 
 return is renped only by those who acquire the works at a 
 price far below the original cost. Tattaneo. one of tho 
 ablest economists of this eenturv. maintains, in refereneo 
 to Lomliardy, that the income from irrii;:ite<I lands is not 
 proportionate (o the entire expenditure incurred in canals, 
 the grading of the soil, and other necessary works, and 
 thinks this observation applicable to Holland and other coun- 
 tries of advaneed ngriculture. fPee Tnttaneo. Mrmnrif di 
 Ernnnniin Puhh'rn, Milano, I '^fiO, vol. i. pp. xi. 246; also 
 Baird Smith. Ilnlinn frn'fjntinti. vol. i. p. 297.) 
 
 Qtinutitifo/ Watrrnud Mrihud nf Apphfhuj H. — In Europe 
 the quantity of water supplied during the season to ordi- 
 nary plnuffhod or hucd field crops varies from twenty to 
 v.. I.. II.— s.l 
 
 I forty inches, though in the rice-fiolds, the moreife or water- 
 1 meadows of Lorabardy, and many other grass-grounil.«, 
 ' this amount is vastly exceeded. Experience alone can de- 
 termine the proper quantity and seasons on our soil nnd 
 under our sky. The modes of application are by flowing 
 with running, and flooding with partially stagnant, water ; 
 by infiltration from superficial ditches or furrows, and 
 more rarely from underground conduits : and by sprinkling 
 with scoops or other light hand-implements. The even- 
 ing hours are considered the most favorable time, but this 
 rule is by no means universally observed. 
 
 LcffiHlatire Actiou. — The evils we have referred to under 
 various heads are such that legislative measures ought to 
 be taken without loss of time to obviate them as far as pos- 
 sible in the American States. We have space here to in- 
 dicate but one which is of urgent necessity in all those 
 parts of our territory where irrigation is n<;ccssary or prob- 
 ably highly advantageous; and another which is of even 
 greater general importance. The first is the assumption by 
 government of the absolute title to all natural waters of 
 sufllicicnt volume to possess any real importance as sources 
 of supply, and the enactment of codes or the creation of 
 special boards to control the construction of all hydraulic 
 works and the distribution of water from them, including, 
 of course, proper arrangements for disposing of the surplus 
 water from irrigated himls. The second is the adoption of 
 systems of forest economy which shall prevent the destruc- 
 tion and secure the permanence, and where necessary ex- 
 tension, of the woods around the sources and along the 
 upper basins of the rivers. 
 
 Literature nf the Stshjret. — The theoretical and practical, 
 Juridical and economical literature of irrigation is im- 
 mensely voluminous, and, cautiously used, of very great 
 value. We have no space for critici^-m, but wo recommend 
 cither as easily accessible or as specially important to tho 
 American public the following works: Romagnosi, Trut- 
 tato della liaffton Civile dcfle Aeque (Firenze, 183-t, 8vo); 
 Komagnosi, Vclfa Condotta deffe Acfjtw (Firenze, \$?,3, 2 
 vols. 8vo) ; Calandra. Mtinuale Idraufico-let/ale (Savig- 
 liauo. 1870, 12mo): Negri. Id^c Ehmcnturi per una Lefft/e 
 in Materia delle Arrpie (Turin. ISCJ, pamphlet) ; Kiel, 
 L' Affriculture den EtatH Sardes (Turin, l.S.'iG, 8vo) ; Vigan, 
 Etude 8ur les Irrir/ationn dee Pi/rfn^et Orientalea (Paris, 
 1807, pamphlet); Cuppari, Mfmuufe deW Ayrieottore (Fi- 
 renze, 187*', I2mo) ; BousPingaulI, Eennomie Hurafe (Paris, 
 18.'»1, 2 vols. 8vo) ; llerv^-Mangon, Ejrph-iencea sitr VKm- 
 pfoi den Eaujc dans fe« Irritfatione {Paris, 1800, Svo) ; Cos- 
 imo Ridoin, Lezioui Orn/i di Arjraria (Firenze, I8G9, 2 vols. 
 8vo) ; Baird-Smith. Italian Irriyation (London, 1835, 2 
 vols. Svo, and at Ins) : A. Vignotti, /)»» Irriffafiona du 
 Pihnont et de la Lomhardie (Paris, lSn;i. pamphlet) ; G. 
 Tagliasecchi, Canafi delV AUa L<tmhardia (Milano, 1872, 
 8vo) ; Duponchel, Traits d' IftfdranUque ct dc (J^oloi/ie 
 AgricoU» (Paris, 1868, Svo); Millet, Lcs Mervcitlm des 
 Fleuveg et dca RninHvaux. (Paris, 1871, 12mo); Denton, 
 Water-Suppf)/ for Farms (London, 1865, pamphlet) ; Du- 
 mas, Art Science dfft FontaincH (Paris. 1857, 8vo) ; Mar.^h, 
 Man and Xafure (new edition. New York. 1874, 8vo), and 
 Letter to Cttmmiasioner of Afjrirultnre on frritjation (M'ash- 
 ington, 1873, pamphlet ) : Beardmore, Manual of Ifi/dml- 
 offif (London, 1862, 8vo); Dumont, Ihn Travanr Fublica 
 dana lenra JlnpporfH avrc I' Affrictihurc (Paris, 18-18, Svo) J 
 Passy, Etndt Hiir Ir Service Ififdrnulifpie (Paris, 186S, Svo) j 
 Jaubcrt de Passy, Voyatje en Eitpaijne (Paris, 1819); Ay- 
 mard, Irritjationn du Midi de V Eitpatjne (Paris, 18G4, Svo, 
 and atlas) ; C, R. Markham, On Spauinh fnii/ation (Lon- 
 don, Svo), and works there citccl. The works of Nadault 
 de Buffon on irrigation and general agriculture are all of 
 great value, and the numerous papers on this subject by 
 the eminent Italian engineer Lombardini, ehiefly published 
 in scientific periodicals, are indispi-nsable to a knowledge 
 of the hydraulic system of I'pper Italy, wliitdi is unrivalled iu 
 scientific merit and practical value. Uehrgk P. Maksh. 
 
 Irriention, Prnrticnl. Irrigating canals arc ustmlly 
 derived from rivers. The water is raised to the required 
 level by a weir or dam thrown across the river, and the 
 head ol^ the canal is placed above the dtim. In the deltas 
 of rivers, where the ground to be irrigated is little if at all 
 above the level of the water iu adjacent portions of the 
 rivers, the problem is solved much more simply, nnd at a 
 much lesseneil expense, than in the general case where the 
 river flows along the lowest line of the valley, and where 
 the a<ljacent lands rise from the river-bnnks on either siile. 
 In this latter case it is necessary to fix the head of tho 
 cnnal at a considerable distance above the land to be irri- 
 gated, and consequently a line of canal more or less in 
 leniith, often making many miles, must be made to bring 
 the water out on the level of tho ground. For illustration, 
 let us suppose that the water in the river at the head of 
 the canal is raised by a dam to a level 10 feet below the 
 banks. Give a slope to the bed of the canal of 1 foot per
 
 1314 
 
 IRRIGATION, PRACTICAL. 
 
 mile^ and assume that the country slopes along the line at 
 a rate of 5 feet per mile ; then for each mile the canal-water 
 will gain a relative elevation of four feet, and it follows 
 that the water-level in the canal will enier<:;e from the ex- 
 cavation at a distance of 2^ miles from the head. On the 
 other hand, in deltas the j^round falls from the banks on 
 cither side, and a command of the land is quickly gained. 
 If this upper and. so to speak, unprofitahk- section of the 
 canal passes through a broken country, the difficulty and 
 expense of construction are largely increased. In India 
 we find illustrations of both systems. In the Madras prov- 
 inces the deltas of the Cauvery, Godavery, and Kistnah 
 rivers afford instances of the most successful irrigation at a 
 small outlay, while the flanges and other large canals in 
 the uplands of Northern India abundantly prove the greater 
 difficulties in their several cases. 
 
 In the projection of an irrigating canal intended to water 
 a given area, the first point which presents itself is this— i 
 namely, How much water will be required per acre? The , 
 answer to this question results from a conslderiitioii of a i 
 number of circumstances. It will dei)end upon the amount 
 of rainfall in the irrigated district, and upon its distribu- | 
 tion.both as to quantity and as to time; upon the tempera- I 
 tare in the growing season : tlie kind of cultivation, whether | 
 of rice, cotton, sugar, cereals, or of vegetables : and finally j 
 upon the character of the soil, whether retentive of mois- ; 
 ture or sandy and easily drained. Again, if the climate 1 
 permits cultiVation throughout the year, and the water- > 
 supply is perennial, irrigation may bo continuous, and a I 
 part of the land may be devoted to one kind of cultivation ; 
 in the winter, and the remainder to a different cultivation 
 in the summer. One cubic foot of water supplied each 
 second for twenty-four hours will cover 4 acres with a trifle 
 Icps than C inches of water, and supplied for 100 days, it 
 will cover 400 acres with inches, or 200 acres with 12 
 inches of water. A cubic foot of water per second through- 
 out the season is sufficient to mature rice in quantities 
 varying from 30 acres to as much as 90 acres: this last 
 case existing in districts of India exposed to heavy falls of 
 rain. In Northern India, where the rivers are fed from 
 the snow-reservoirs, and where there is a heavy fall of 
 rain, with a winter and a summer cultivation, the average 
 area irrigated in some cases rises to 400 acres per cubic 
 foot a second. In most cases, however, it does not much 
 exceed 200 acres per foot. This is for other cultivatron 
 than rice, and principally relates to cereals. In California 
 12 inches of rain, with timely application, suflSce to ensure 
 a crop of cereals. 
 
 In pro|>ortioning the water-supply to the irrigable area. 
 it«is usual to make a large allowance for the ground which 
 in a particular season will lie fallow, and for that which will 
 1)0 taken up by roads, fences, forests, and buildings. Hav- 
 ing determined, after full consideration, the capacity of the 
 canal, which should exceed by 15 or 20 per cent, the esti- 
 mate for irrigation, in order to make up for loss by absorp- 
 tion, evaporation, and wa^te, we may proceed to (Ictermine 
 1(9 dimensions and the slope of its bed. Many irrigating 
 canals are arranged for navigation. New conditions, more 
 or less incompatible with those pertaining to mere irrigat- 
 ing canals, are thereby introduced. The ideal canal for 
 irrigation transports the water at the highest velocity which 
 is admissible, for the reason that its section is thereby re- 
 duced. The mere navigation canal should have no velocity, 
 as by absence thereof transportation is facilitated. The 
 eanai which shall subserve both ends must carry its water 
 at a low velocity to permit navigation, and it must have 
 an increased section to enable it to transport the required 
 volume of water for irrigation. There are cases where the 
 >'l<)pc of the country compels a low grade for the bed of the 
 canal, and there are soils which will not maintain them- 
 selves under any but a very low velocity. In sucli par- 
 ticular cases the conflicting conditions of irrigation and 
 of navigation are measurably harmonized. The relations 
 existing between the slope of the bed, the mean velocity, 
 and the section are conveniently expressed in this formula, 
 which is sufficiently accurate for the purposes to which it is 
 
 applied: v= '|/vn ^2t/», in which v is the mean velocity 
 
 in feet per second; « is the slope of the bed in feet per 
 mile; tl is variously termed the ''hydraulic radius" or 
 " the hydraulic mean depth."' and it is obtained by divid- 
 ing the area of the section of the water-wny. expressed in 
 square feet, by the wetted perimeter expressed in linear 
 feet. The velocity of the water ought not to be so great as 
 to cause erosion of the bed and banks of the canal, and it 
 ought to bo great enough to prevent the growth of water- 
 plants, which interfere with the service of the canal. A 
 stiff clay soil will stand under a mean velocity of as much 
 as 4 feet per second, and where the bed is of shingle, a 
 higher velocity may be permitted with safety. In a light 
 
 sandy soil 3 feet per second is a maximum velocity, and in 
 some particular soils disturbance of the bed and banks 
 takes place with a considerable hnver velocity. In a hot 
 climate a velocity of 2 feet per second is necessary to ])rc- 
 vcnt the growth of plants in the water-way. If the water 
 derived from the river is laden with earthy particles in sus- 
 jicnsion, as is often the case, deposits will occur unless the 
 initial velocity is maintained. If the silt is of a fertilizing 
 character, it is desirable that it be transported to the culti- 
 vated fields in order to sustain their productiveness. AVhen 
 it is deposited along the line of the canal, periodical clos- 
 ures become necessary to effect clearance, which is? attended 
 in many cases with great expense. In order to carry the 
 silt to the fields, it will be necessary to increase the fall of 
 the ditches as their section is diminished. Something is 
 gained by transporting the matter beyond the main chan- 
 nel to the minor ditches, where its clearance will not re- 
 quire the canal to be closed, and from which it can be re- 
 moved at a lessened expense. In some cases the vehjcity 
 near the head is slackened by diminishing the slope or by 
 enlarging the section, so that the deposits may be en- 
 couraged at this particular section, where the clearance can 
 be more conveniently etfected than it would be if the silt 
 is deposited along a larger line. 
 
 The English engineers in India have adopted a rule 
 which governs the proportion of width and depth of the 
 canals, the width bnng made to vary from thirteen to 
 fifteen times the depth. The slope of the bed is variable, 
 depending on the fall of the country and on the character 
 of the soil. Tlie ruling gradient on the Gauges Canal is 
 15 inches to the mile ; in many canals it is less. For illus- 
 tration, it may be stated that by the formula a fall of 1 
 foot per mile will give in a canal 90 feet wide at bottom, 
 6 feet deep, with side-slopes of 2 base to 1 altitude, a mean 
 velocity of 3 feet per second. If the slope of the bed is 
 less than the fall of the country, it will be necessary to 
 provide a series of falls, which may be arranged with dams 
 giving a direct fall, or by rapids. The slope of the bed 
 and the dimensions of the canal will generally be deter- 
 mined, so as to conform to the fall and character of the 
 land traversed, by assuming the quantities which cuter the 
 formula in a succession of trial-cases. In this way a close 
 approximation may be made. The alignment of the canal 
 will be most favorable when it can be placed on the water- 
 shed or divide. Such a position gives command of the land 
 on either side, and avoids the passage of (he drainage-lines 
 of the country. This advantage, however, is one which can 
 seldom be fully secured. It is generally necessary to cross 
 some of these lines, and certain arrangements result wliieh 
 vary with the circumstances of the case. If the level of 
 the canal at the point of crossing is higher than the stream, 
 an aqueduct will be required to carry the canal-water, and 
 in special cases of low lands adjoining the stream the canal 
 must be embanked at one or at both ends of the aqueduct. 
 Where the canal-level is below that of the stream, the latter 
 may be carried over by an aqueduct, or the canal may be 
 carried under the stream through a tunnel or a siphon. 
 If a small stream crosses the line of the canal at a suitable 
 level, it may be admitted into the canal : but if the stream 
 is torrential in character, it may not be safe to admit its 
 water into the canal. Regulating sluices will be necessary 
 in this case to exclude the torrent from the canal, and a 
 dam will be required to maintain the proper level at times 
 when the stream is not full. 
 
 It will readily be understood that these several works 
 may be very expensive in construction. The irrigation- 
 works of Italy and India afford many instances in illustra- 
 tion of this statement. The Solani aqueduct is 1120 feet in 
 length, and it carries the Ganges Canal in two channels, 
 each 85 feet in width and 10 feet deep. After crossing the 
 stream the canal is carried in an earthen embankment of 
 IC feet in depth for three-fourths of a mile across the low 
 lands. At or near the head of the canal a system of sluices 
 or gates admits the water from the river in suitable quan- 
 tities, and defends the canal from the attacks of the river 
 when it is in flood. In the older canals these construc- 
 tions are of masonry and of the most substantial character. 
 It is also true that there are canals which have no head- 
 works. In such instances the canal embankments arc ex- 
 posed to great dangers, and there are without these works 
 no means of regulating the sujiply of water. The position 
 of the head of the canal is a point of great importance. 
 The banks of the river should at this point be of a perma- 
 nent character, and the regimen of the stream should bo 
 well established and not liable to change. If the stream 
 brings down sand or gravel, the bed will in time he filled 
 to the level of the crest of the dam. In such cases it is 
 usual to provide scourlng-sluiccs in the part of the dam 
 adjoining the canal, which may serve to keep a free water- 
 way at the head-works. It is desirable to provide rejru- 
 lating bridges at intervals of a few miles, arranged witli
 
 IKKIGATION, PRACTICAL. 
 
 l:n.3 
 
 sluices, so that tho water may be shut off from the canal 
 in gcclions for purposes of repairs and for otlier purposes. 
 At the same intt-rvals escapes shouM l»o arrangeil, hy whit'h 
 an excess of water occurring at any time may be thrown 
 into the natural drainage-lines of the country. 
 
 The reproach of irrigation is defective drainage. The 
 natural drainage of the country should remain unimpaired. 
 Even when this much is accomplished, stagnant water is 
 very liable to result from irrigating operations. The waste 
 water at the end of tho caual or iu the minor channels 
 should have free passage into the natural drain?, or if nono 
 such f\i.-t. ;iiiiliri,il .iniui;iL''' >ii"uM hr |.r'.\ hi.-i|. Wli 
 
 the canal is carried in embankments there is great danger 
 of percolation, and hence stagnant pools may result. Tho 
 cultivation of rico requires pools of water, aud its unhcalth- 
 fulness is everywhere recognized. 
 
 For economy of construction the canal should be partly 
 within and partly above the soil, aud for facility of irriga- 
 tion this arrangement is equally desirable. 
 
 This sketch of tho principles which must govern in the 
 projection and construction of an irrigating canal brings 
 us to the actual operations of spreading the water over tho 
 land. The diagram exhibits tho system pursued in irrigating 
 Ihf plains of llu- >aii Jnaipnn \allfy in i alitoruia. Il will 
 
 
 Irrigating system for grain, as laid out by the San Joaquin and King's River Irrigation Co., C'al. 
 
 be seen that the water passes from the main canal into 
 jiriniiiry ditches, from which it is delivered into scc- 
 omhiry ditches, which in turn pass it into irrigating fur- 
 pjHH, which are its immt-diale dispensers to the land; 
 and finally, having done its duty, it is conveyed away 
 by a drain to irrigate again below, or else it escapes into 
 the natural drainage-lines. The main canal has a fall 
 of 1 foot to the mile, while the fall of tho primary ditches 
 is B feet, anil of the secondary ditches from 3 to 5 feet to 
 the mile. The contour-lines of 1 foot difference of level 
 are shown, and they inclicato a surface nearly plane and 
 extremely favorable for irrigation. Tho primary ditclies 
 in this case are one mile apart, and tho secondary ditches 
 arc one-fourth of a mile apart. Tho irrigating furrows 
 in the grain-fiehl are parallel to tho primary ditches, and 
 tho "checks" are represented by lines parallel to the sec- 
 ondary ditches. These checks are 50 yards apart, meas- 
 ured parallel to the primary ditclies. Tho irrigating fur- 
 rows arc 40 yards apart. The primary ditches, when full, 
 will carry 50 feet per second, and one primary ditch will 
 supply three secondary ditches. The water passes from 
 the secondary ditche.« to the furrows by boxes 6x10 inches 
 which pass through tho bank. Kaeh box will didiver 1^ 
 cul)ic feet ]>er second, and each secondary will supply 10 
 boxes. Each secondary dilch waters SO acres, within which 
 area there are about 5 miles of furrows and 4 miles of 
 checks. There is a gate at tho junction of each primary 
 with the main canal, and one in ca'-h primary for every 
 three secondaries, and one in the middle of each secondary ; 
 and each box is fitted with its little gate. 
 
 With this description we are prepared to trace thoconrso 
 of nn irrigation. A C D K contains SO acres, sown in grain. 
 The gate in the secondary cliteh at 11 being closed, and that 
 at A iicing open, the first half of tho secondary diteh will 
 begin to be filled with water, which will run into tho irri- 
 gating furrows to 0, inclusive, and will (low until it en- 
 counters the dam made by the check Im, when it will rise 
 and overflow the strip of lam) lying between the secondary 
 diteh and tho cheek I m. When this strip is sufliciontly 
 watered, the cultivator opens with a hoe a jmssage through 
 the check Im for each furrow, and permits the water to 
 flow in parallel courses until it is again cheeked at the lino 
 « n for a time sulficient to water the "(trip lying between tho 
 checks Im and ii n\ and this process is continued until tho 
 •10 acres lying next the primary ditch aro completely irri- 
 gated. This flone, tho little gates to K arc cloapri, the 
 gate at H is opened, and the sanio steps are pursued in irri- 
 gating tho other half of tho tract. In tnc alfalfa field 
 the furrows are multiplied, to ensure a more equal difTusinn 
 of (he water. In this ease the ground falls S ici-t to the 
 mile, and as the checks ore 50 yards apart, the fall for this 
 distance is 1.^0'''^ inches. When the water is Just even 
 
 with the upper line of one of these strips between two con- 
 secutive checks, it will bo 2^Qths inches in depth along the 
 lowest line of tho strip. In this way a secondary ditch 
 with a fall of five feet to tho mile, and running full, will 
 spi;ead more than 4 inches of water over 80 acres in twenty- 
 four hours. 
 
 It is plain that the successful irrigator must use a level 
 to lay out his ditches, and it will bo rare when so favorable 
 afield for irrigation will be found as the one just illustrated. 
 Tho ditches will rarely present so symmetrical an ajvpear- 
 ance. In the general case the system will prove to be much 
 more complicated. Tho primaries, for instance, will follow 
 the minor divides of the plain, and they will seldom bo 
 parallel or even rectilinear ; and having to supply variable 
 areas, tho cross-sections will vary in each case. Tho vari- 
 ableness of fall to tho ditches, and their varying dinien- 
 f^ions in a le?s favorable field, add so many complications 
 that tho work of an irrigator demands the acquirements 
 of nn engineer. An irrigation of grain usually consists 
 of two or three inches of water, wliich is repeated as often 
 as tho needs of the croj) require. 
 
 Irrigation has been little practised in the U. S., but it 
 has had more development in the sections of America which 
 were once under the dominion of Spain. Italy and Spain 
 in Kurope, Egypt and India, present extensive operatiuns 
 of this nature. The English have been extemling irriga- 
 ting facilities in India for the past few years on a grand 
 scale. Tho arrangements of the native inhabitants, which 
 have existed for centuries, are also extensive.'^ They prac- 
 tised irrigation by natural flow of water, but ihey supple- 
 mented their supply of water by raising it from wells by 
 means of various appliances. They made extensive use 
 of reservoirs to colh-ct the water when abundant. an<l to 
 hold it until the season for its appHcatittn to tho land. The 
 Madras provinces are doited over with reservoirs in such 
 numbers (hat the face of the country may bo likened to tho 
 face of a person badly marked by smallpox. These reser- 
 voirs are found of all areas, from that of nmny miles to 
 that of one or of a few acres. Each inequality of tho 
 grouml which aff'irded any facility for storage was utilized, 
 antl it was surrounded liy an earthen embankment. The 
 water-supply was afforded from tho natural drainage of 
 the little basin, or, if this was insufficient, a channel was 
 cut to conduct tho flood-waters of tho rivers to the store- 
 houses. In the northern provinces of India the reservoirs 
 are the fields of snow on the Himalayas. 
 
 It is claimed, with a show of reason, that the water de- 
 rived from rivers is superior for irrigation to that afforded 
 by tanks or reservoirs. When the water is stored in rcscr- 
 
 •For brief neenunl of wlileh see Sngincrrinf;, vol. xvW , and 
 Van XostrarnTs En<j. Mat;., .July, 1874.
 
 1316 
 
 IRRITANTS— IRVING. 
 
 roirs it deposits the fertilizing particles which it has car- 
 ried in su!«pcnsion. while the flowing water bears them, in 
 part at least, to the fiohls. where they renc\v tho produc- 
 tiveness of the soil. Water is generally sold in terms of the 
 area irrigated and the kind of cultivation. There are 
 many objections to this method. It is unequal, and it is 
 wasteful. It pays a premium for careless irrigation. The 
 absorptive capacity of the soil is not considered. The true 
 plan is to dispose of water by the cubic foot. This plan 
 is followed to a considerable extent in Italy. It requires 
 special arrangements for measurement, and those that have 
 been hitherto used are not entirely satisfaetory. The 
 Kalian module or measuring apparatus keeps the head 
 always the same by passing the water through a sluice- 
 gate into an interior basin, from which it ])roeeeds to the 
 irrigating channels. The gate being capable of adjustment, 
 the water in the basin can always be kept at a constant 
 level, no matter how the level in the channel from which it 
 is derived may vary. As the Icvtd of the canal falls, the 
 ajierturc of the gateway may be enlarged, and conversely 
 a contraction of the orifice ought to follow an increase of 
 head in the canal. 
 
 The increase of production which results from irrigation 
 in warm climates, where the rainfall is insufficient to pro- 
 duce a crop, is quite sufficient to justify the large expendi- 
 ture which is required to put the system into operation. It 
 is estimated that the canals and primary ditches, including 
 dams, head-works, and all necessary arrangements, except- 
 ing the secondary and other minor ditches, can be con- 
 structed on the plains of California for an expenditure 
 which may vary from $10 to $20 per acre. It must be 
 borne in mind, however, that the features of the country 
 are in general extremely favorable, and that the gates, 
 head-works, and other constructions are made of wood, and 
 that they must be replaced from time to time. The minor 
 ditches, it is estimated, may cost from $6 to $10 per acre, 
 which makes the total probable outlay to vary between $15 
 and $-10 per acre. The simplicity of the irrigating system 
 which is practicable on the plains of California is in strong 
 contrast to the intricacies which have been developed in 
 Italy; but space is wanting for the development of these, 
 and its practical value in our own country is doubtful. 
 Reference is made to the list of authorities appended to the 
 article which precedes this. G. H. Mendell. 
 
 Ir'ritants. Tn medicine all such agents are called )>?'t'- 
 (rtii( as by coatact with the animal tissues cause one or 
 more of the following effects : pain, increased ilow of blood 
 to the part, inflammation, or active excitation of function, 
 as increase of secretion by a gland, involuntary muscular 
 contraction, etc. Such are, in general, mineral astringents ; 
 all substances chemically disorganizing to the tissues, as 
 strong acids, alkalies, and caustic salts, like corrosive sub- 
 limate or silver nitrate, and certain vegetable substances, 
 containing generally either an acrid resin or volatile oil, 
 such as mustard, jalap, croton oil, oil of turpentine, squills, 
 etc. Agents which excite the "irritability" of nerve- 
 centres, like strychnine, are also sometimes called irritant. 
 Irritants do not thus form a natural group of medicines, 
 but the word '* irritant " expresses a certain general prop- 
 ertv belonging in different modes to many distinct classes 
 of medicinal agents. Edwaro Ctrtis. 
 
 Ir'tish, a river of Northern Asia, rises in the Altai 
 Mountains, in lat. 47° N., Ion. 89° E., flows in a north- 
 western direction through the Chinese province of Songaria 
 and the Russian governments of Tomsk and Tobolsk till it 
 joins the Obi. after a course of about 1700 miles, 180 N. 
 of the city of Tobolsk. Its upper course flows through the 
 best agricultural districts of Siberia, but its navigation is 
 much impeded by shoals and shifting sandbars. It abounds 
 in fish, both salmon and sturgeon. 
 
 Ir'vin, tp. of Howard co., Ind. Pop. 1.T16. 
 
 Ir'vine^ town of Sc(ttland. in Ayrshire, on both sides of 
 the Irvine, near its entrance in the Frith of Clyde. It has 
 several educational institutions of high reputation, large 
 ehipbuilding docks, and some manufactures. Pop. 6S66. 
 
 Irvine, post-v., cap. of Estill co., Ky.. 70 miles S. E. 
 of Frankfort, and on the Kentucky River. It has 1 weekly 
 newspaper. Pop. 224. 
 
 Irvine ( Wim.iam), b. at Fermagh. Ireland, Nov. .3, 1741 : 
 studied at Dublin University, and became surgeon of a 
 Rritish ship of war during the French war. after which ho 
 came to America, and settled at Carlisle. Pa. He was a 
 member of the provincial convention of Pennsylvania in 
 1774: was appointed colonel of the fith battalion of the 
 Pennsylvania line in Jan., 177G: was taken prisoner at 
 Three Rivers, Canada, in June of that year, and paroled, 
 but not exchanged until May. 1778. He was a member 
 of the court-martial for the trial of Cien. t^harles Lee in 
 July, 1778,- appointed brigadier-general in May, 1779j 
 
 served in New Jersey and at the battle of Bull's Ferry un- 
 der Wayne. In 17^1 be took command of the defences of 
 the N. W. frontier, witti head-quarters at Fort Pitt ; was 
 State eomuiissioner for the distribution of public lands to 
 the soldiers 1785; member of old Congress 17S6-SS. and 
 of Federal Congress 170o-0.j; took part in the campaign 
 against the insurgents in the *' Whiskey Insurrection " in 
 1704: superintendent of military stores at Philadelphia 
 ISOl, and president of the State Society of the Cincinnati 
 at the time of his death, which occurred at Philadelphia 
 July 2i), 1S04. 
 
 Ir'vineton (Irvine P. 0.). post-v. of Brokenstraw ^p., 
 Warren co.. Pa., on the Allegheny River, at the junction 
 of the Dunkirk Allegheny Valley and Pittsburg, the Oil 
 Creek and Allegheny River, and the Philadelphia aiirl 
 Erie R. Rs.. 51 miles from Oil City. The Brokenstraw 
 Creek affords fine water-power. There is a foundry, a 
 woollen-faetory, an oil-refinery, and other manufacturing 
 enterprises, and an excellent sulphur spring. 
 
 Ir'vingf post-v, and tp. of Montgomery co., 111., on the 
 Indianapolis and St. Louis R. R., 72 miles N. E. of St. 
 Louis. Pop. 751 ; of tp. 1591. 
 
 Irving', post-v. of Marshall eo., Kan., on the Central 
 branch of the Union Pacific R. R., 90 miles AV. of Atchison. 
 It is finely situated, and is the scat of AVetmore Institute 
 (Presbyterian). 
 
 Irving, tp. of Barry co., Mich. Pop. 124S. 
 
 Irving, tp. of Monongalia co., Minn. Pop. 276. 
 
 Irving, post-v. of Hanover tp.. Chautauqua co., N. Y., 
 on the Lake Shore R. R., 29 miles S. W. of Buffalo, and on 
 Cattaraugus Creek near Lake Erie. The raouth of the 
 creek constitutes its harbor. Pop. ."Jjd. 
 
 Irving, post-tp. of Jackson co., Wis. Pop. 828. 
 
 Irving (Edwaro). See Irvixgites. 
 
 Irving (Pkti;h), M. D., b. in Now York City Oct. ^0, 
 1771; studied medicine, but never practised; founded in 
 1802 the Mornintj (Itronich, a Democratic paper which ad- 
 vocated the presidential candidacy of Aaron Burr; trav- 
 elled in Europe 180C-08; aided bis brother Washington in 
 the earliest ]iart of the Kiiickrvhocktr ; resided in Europe 
 iSOO-Hfi ; published a novel, Gi'nrnuni Sfioifnrro (New York, 
 1820). and d. at New York Juno 27, IS.'JS. 
 
 Irving (Rev. TnEonoRK), LL.D., nephew of Washing- 
 ton Irving, b. in New York in 1809, and graduated at Co- 
 lumbia College 18:^7 : studied law and literature in Europe; 
 was professor of liistory and belles lettres in Geneva Col- 
 lege lS.";G-r?9. and afterwards held a similar professorship 
 in the New York Free Academy; in 1854 took orders in 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church. Author of Tfie Conquest 
 of Florida (1835) and The Fountain of Living WiiierB 
 (1851). 
 
 Irving (AVashington), LL.D., b. in New York City Apr. 
 3, 1783. was the youngest son of AVilliam Irving, merchant, 
 a native of Scotland, who had married an English lady and 
 emigrated to America some twenty years before. His tddcr 
 brothers, William and Peter, were partially occupied with 
 literary pursuits, which naturally inclined him to follow 
 their example. His school education was not protracted 
 beyond his sixteenth year, when he began to s^tudy law. but 
 his literary training was acquired by the diligent perusal 
 at home of the older English writers, his favorites being 
 Chaucer and Spenser. In 1S02, at the age of nineteen, he 
 made his first literary venture by printing in the columns 
 of the Mnniiiiff Vhrrmich, then edited by his brother. Dr. 
 Peter Irving, a series of local sketches under the in>m-(lc- 
 plume of •• Jonathan Oldstyle." In 1804, being threatened 
 with consumption, he sailed for Europe, landed at Bor- 
 deaux, and travelled through France, Italy, Switzerland, 
 Holland, and England, laying up a rich store of materials 
 for future use. Returning to New York in Mar., 1806, he 
 quickly completed his legal studies, and was admitted to 
 the bar, but never practised the profession. Early in 1S07 
 bo commenced, in connection with his brother AA'iUiam and 
 .Tames K. PauMing, the amusing serial SitlmHijundi. which 
 had an immediate success, and not only decided his future 
 career, but long determined the character of his writings. 
 In 1808. with some assistance from his brother Peter, he 
 wrote A'nicK-erhnckcr's JUston/ »/ Xtw York, a serio-comic 
 narrative, and in 1810 a biography of the poet Campbell, 
 prefixed to an American edition of bis works. His attention 
 was much absorbed at this time by the interests of a mer- 
 cantile business in which he engaged with two of his bro- 
 thers. It was not until 18i:i-14 that he reappeared in lit- 
 erature as editor of the Analcvtic yfuqnzinc, published at 
 Philadelphia, for which bis o\vn contribution was a series 
 of biographical sketches of the naval heroes of the then 
 existing war with Great Britain. Tn the latter year he was 
 appointed aide-de-camp and military secretary of Gov.
 
 IKVING— IKVINGITKS. 
 
 1317 
 
 TompkiDs, with the rank of colonel — a title, however, which 
 he never used. Eurly in ISl j. upon the conclusion of the 
 war with (ireat I'ritain. " Colonel " Irvins; hastened to 
 make another tour in Enghind. Wale.*;, and Scotland, cx- 
 pectinc; also to visit the Continent ; the anticipated plea- 
 Bure-trip proved to be an absence of seventeen years from 
 America. For two or three years Irvinp wiis cn<rapcd in 
 ramblini; thr<»uph the I'uited Kingdom, without other ol)- 
 jcct than pleasure, making, however, many literary friends, 
 and accumulating that minute acquaintanco witli Kn$;lish 
 life which he afterwards turned to so pood aceount. About 
 the close of 1S17 the commercial house in which Irving 
 was a partner failed, and ho was thrown upon his pen for 
 a subsistence. Ho sent the essays comiiosing the S/.-ctcJi- 
 Boitk to New York, where they were printed in pamphlets 
 in ISIS, over the signature of ''GeoflVey Crayon." Some 
 of them were reprinted by Jerdan in the /.itrmr}/ Gnzettc 
 of Lonilon. an<l were so cordially received that, aidcfl by 
 the recommendation of Sir Walter Pcott, the publisher 
 Murray brought out the work in good style in 1820. The 
 Skctch-Iiook laid the foundation of the fortune and the per- 
 manent fame of Irving: the Ict^cmls of .Shtpif I/otloirtiniX Jiip 
 Von U7»/.7f at once took rank as modern classics, while the 
 pictures of En<rlish life and customs were so genial, ar- 
 tistic, and withal so faithful, that they fairly took the reading 
 worM by storm. A new phenomenon had appeared in the 
 world of letters — the first American author had gained an 
 honorable name in Albemarle street and Paternoster Row. 
 Ueneeforth the path of Irving was smooth, and his subse- 
 quent writings appeared with rapidity. Uracebn'df/r JTaU 
 was published in 1^=22; though rapidly written, and deci- 
 dedly unequal to the standard of the Shctch-BonK; it was 
 well received, and brought the author £1000. The Tahit 
 uf a Trovcffft; published in 1^21. brought him Xl^OO. 
 Irving had spent three winters on the Continent, chiefly at 
 Paris and I>rc-den, when in 1S2.0 his attention was called 
 by his friend Alexander II. Kverett. American minister to 
 Spain, to Xavarrete's collection of documents upon Colum- 
 bus and the early explorers of America, then appearing at 
 Madrid. lie |)r<»ceeded to that ea])it:il, intending to make 
 a translation of the work of Xavarretc, but finding it to be 
 rather a rich mine of materials than a readable book, he 
 fortunately changed his plan and produced his ffi'ston/ of 
 thr lAfr. find ViiiffUfcn of (lirintrtphcr Cnhimhua (1^25*), to 
 which was addetl (IS.'Il) its continuation, the Cotnpanione 
 of Ctthtmhun. The former work is Irving's masterpiece in 
 historical composition ; though not exhaustive in its use of 
 the materials at hand, nor characterized by any acuto ap- 
 preciation of the mental, moral, and political worM in 
 whieh Columbus was reared, tlie work has all the charm of 
 a romance combined with tlic fidelity of a chronicle. Its 
 reception in England may be inferred fmni the facts that 
 Murray paid £;tOflO guineas for the copyright, and a gold 
 medal of fifty guineas was award<'d him as a prize given by 
 Kin^ Ceorge IV. for excellence in hislorienl composition. In 
 1S2S-29 Irving travelled through the S. nf Spain, and spent 
 three months in the ruined Moorish palace of the Alham- 
 bra at Granada. In the latter year ho published the Con- 
 qurHt <f flrnunila, and in 1>*."2 Thr Alhainhra, neither of 
 which was quite as successful as his former works. Irving 
 returned in July, 1S29, to London, having received the ap- 
 pointment of secretary of legation in England. In 1831 
 the University of Oxford conferred upon him the degree 
 of IjL.D. In is;t2, after seventeen years' absence, he re- 
 turned to his native land, where all his books had of course 
 been republisherl, and where to his Eurr)peiin fame was 
 added the American element of pridr- in nn author who had 
 done honor to his native land. Irving was now fifty years 
 of aje. but he plunged at once into a new series of travels 
 and studies with all the eagerness of youth. The same 
 year he aceompaiiied Commissioner EIIswr>rlb in his journey 
 for removing the Indian tribes to the W. of the Mi^sis- 
 pip|ii, and narrated his observations in his Ti>ur on thr 
 PruirUn fl8.'{j), published in the series called the Crayon 
 Mitirrflttui/; to which were added in another volume Ah- 
 hotMfttrtl and Xrimtrad Ahhn/, In iS.'irt ho published Am- 
 tnn'tt. a narrative of the exploration of Oregon by American 
 fur-traders; in IS.I", the Adiriituni tf C<tptfiin FionnrrUlr; 
 and in IS.IK-II contributed to the Knirkcrhnrktr Mnrjazinc 
 a series of nrticles afterwards published ns,'>.')) in the vol- 
 ume tntillcil \V<dfrvt'n linnnt. In 1SI2, Irvinir rreeived the 
 np|inintntent of minister ti> Spain, a jiost which he filled 
 for four years, during which he discontinued authorship, 
 and it was not unfil 1H19 that he reprinted with large 
 achlitions a biography of Oliver Ooldsmith, furnished some 
 years before to a Paris edition of that aulhor*s writings. In 
 lS5ft lie published .lA'A-m'-/ n>,d In'* Surrr»H-,rii {'1 vols.). 
 He was thenceforth occupied throughout his life in his 
 ftintjuum o^M/r, the L iff of W'oiifihif/tnii, uf which the fimt 
 volume ap]ieared in If^.'i.'i. and the fifth, concluding the 
 work, in Aug., 18^9. In 1848, at the instance of the en- 
 
 terprising publisher, Mr. G. P. Putnam, Irving had com- 
 menced the reissue of his works, with his final corrections, 
 the edition being conijdetcd in I8.7O in fifteen volumes. 
 The success of this undertaking was instantaneous, and it 
 gave Irving a new lease of literary existence, not less than 
 250.000 volumes of the republication having been sold dur- 
 ing Irving's life. Xo one was more surprised at this mar- 
 vellous renewal of uld-time popularity than the author 
 himself, who had become in a measure his own literary 
 descendant and the contemporary of a second generation 
 of writers. Irving resided during the closing years of his 
 life at Sunnyside (Tarrytown) on the Hudson, a quaint 
 pre-Revolutionary edifice, whieli has become one r)f the 
 shrines of American pilgrimage ; here, surrounded by 
 friends, and enjoying the society of a brother, of nephews, 
 and nieces, he passed an active and honored age until his 
 death, Nov. 28. ISjO. Washington Irving was never mar- 
 ried; an early bereavement was mourned by him through 
 life, and the memory of his betrothed was present on his 
 deathbed. Of the characteristic excellences of style which 
 made Washington Irving the most popular of American 
 authors it would bo superfluous licre to speak. Though 
 his literary activity was exercised rather in England than 
 in America, and many of his subjects were European, his 
 dcservecl success is a matter of pride to his countrymen, 
 who will not allow his graceful productions to fall into ob- 
 livion. Porter C. Bliss. 
 
 Irving (William), b. in New York City Aug. 15. 17G6, 
 was brother of Washington Irving; became au Indian 
 trader, residing at .lolinstown and Caughnawaga on the 
 Mohawk from 17S7 to 1701. In 179'I ho married a sister 
 of .Tames K. Paulding, and settled in New York as a mer- 
 chant, where his extensive observation of the world, com- 
 bined with geniality and wit, made his house a centre for 
 tho best literary circle of the metropolis. His poetical and 
 other contributions to Su/inaffnndi would, if separately 
 published, haveglven him adisfinetplaee among American 
 humorous writers, but he seemed entirely unambitioirs of 
 literary fame. lie was a member of Congress 1813-19, 
 when ho resigned on account of ill health. D. at New 
 York Nov, 0, 1821. 
 
 Ir'vingites, members of tho communion which is called 
 by its adherents tho Catholic A])ost(die Chundi. The name 
 ** Irvingitcs " was first given in ISIU to those who shared 
 tho opini<ms of tho Rev. Edward Irving, who was b. at 
 Annan, Dunifricss-shiro. Aug. 4,1792. and educated at Edin- 
 burgh University for the Scottish Presbyterian ministry. 
 Iloobtained no ehurcli employnient until IS]'.), when he was 
 chosen assistant by the cilehrated Dr. Chalmers. Three 
 years later ho accepted a call from a Presbyterian congre- 
 gation in London, where his eloquence, modelled on the 
 writings of Hooker, Paeon, and Jeremy Taylor, attracted 
 crowds of bearers. At that time there was a general relig- 
 ious revival, a remarkable reaction from the religious apathy 
 into which Christendom had gradually lullen after the ex- 
 citement of tho Reformation had died out. Most of the 
 great missionary societies were then founded ; ministers of 
 alt se:!ts spoke with new earnestness; the Bible was more 
 eagerly read, special attention being given to its propheti- 
 cal passages. Among students of prophecy Edward Irving 
 was distinguished. In 1825 ho published /ioln/lon aud Jn- 
 fldplitif Forrdoowed, and in tho following year his transla- 
 tion from the Spanish of The Coming <>/ thr ^fftt'*iah in 
 Gfoty and MnjcHttj. written by Manuel Laeuu/.a under tho 
 pseudonym of Ren Ezra. In 1828. Irving began to preach 
 the entire humanity of Christ. Our Lord, he declared, 
 took upon himself the body of man as it became after tho 
 fall — mortal, corruptible, cajtalde of sin. from which he was 
 kept only by the power of the Mu\y Spirit dwelling in him. 
 This assertion, wliich Irving himself regarded not ns a new 
 thing, but as the ancient and natural belief of all Chris- 
 tians, ])rovoked miiny answers nufl refutations, and caused 
 some stir in tho Presl)yterian Church. In 18.30. Mary 
 Campbell, a young Scotchwoman who had been earnestly 
 praying for the gift of the Holy Cihost. began to prophesy 
 and to speak with fervor in an "unknown tongue." Tho 
 same phenomenon beeaino numilVst in other persons, aud 
 in 1831 appeared in some members of Irving's congrega- 
 tion. Irving, at first doubtful as to the origin of the?o 
 "gifts," soon owned theni to be from (Jod. allowed their 
 exercise in his church, and wrote and spoke in their de- 
 fence. The projiheeits, which trt us who now dispassion- 
 ately rend Iheni appear nowise remarkable, were in Eng- 
 lish. Tho " tonpue." which those who uttered it supposed 
 for a while to be the living speech of some fur-off country, 
 wiM pronounced by philolocists to be totally unliki' any 
 known language. That opinion was speedily ndnpted even 
 by believers, who came to regard the " tongue '* as a super- 
 natural sign of divine power, known in the primitive 
 Church ; and spoken of by Paul in his First Epistio to the
 
 1318 
 
 IRVINGTON— ISABELLA. 
 
 Coriuthians (xiv. 2). In 1832, Irving, being accused of 
 heresy, was tried by the presbytery of tlic Scottish Church 
 in Loudon, dechircd unfit for the ministry, aud dismissed 
 from the charge of his congregation. But some of its 
 members still adhered tu him, aud with them he removed 
 to Newman street, where a room, formerly the studio of 
 Benjamin West, was fitted up as a chapel. There a new 
 ritual was gradually arranged and a new ministry was 
 formed. In lS;i;{, Irving was again tried, this time by the 
 Scottish presbytery at Annan, aud was finally east out from 
 the Presbyterian t'hurcti. Shortly afterwards the apostles 
 of tlie Newman street congregation rcordainod him as angel 
 or pastor of that church, and there he ofliciated until a 
 little while before his death at Glasgow Dee. i>, 1S34, He 
 WHS buried in Glafsgow cathedral. 
 
 The new community continued to prosper. In London 
 alone it soon numbered seven congregations, among which 
 were many persons of wealth aud position, and in 1853 the 
 magnificent church in Gordon Square was opened with 
 much religious ccrcraouy. The CatlioHc Apostolic Church 
 rejects the name '• Irvingite," and denies that Irving was 
 its founder, declaring also that it is wrong to call a church 
 after any leader, however excellent. Its special mission, 
 says one of its pastors with whom the writer has corre- 
 sponded on this suhject, is " the gathering ."ind perfecting 
 in one in Christ, the whole body of God's election, living 
 and dead, out of all nations, to reign with Christ in the 
 world to come." It has a fourfold ministry — apostles, 
 prophets, evangelists, and angels or pastors. The apostles, 
 twelve in number, form the chief ruling power, and are 
 appointed to no sjjecial churches, but watch over all. They 
 ordain persons called to the ministry, aud lay their bauds 
 on the people for the purpose of conferring the gifts of the 
 Holy Gho.st. Through the prophets God is believed to de- 
 clare his will to the Church. The evangelists, as the name 
 implies, preach the liospel of Christ and declare his speedy 
 coming. An angel or pastor is set over each church, aud 
 with him are associated ciders, prophets, and evangelists, 
 who aid him in governing and ministering to the congre- 
 gation. There are also dc:ic'ins, sub-deacons, and deacon- 
 esses, chosen by the people. The communion is adminis- 
 tered every Lord's day, and also during the week. In large 
 congregations the first and last hours of each day (count- 
 ing from A. M. to G r. m.) are set apart for public wor- 
 ship, and at these services a liturgy is uscil, taken from the 
 (Jreek, Roman, and Anglican rituals. But there arc also 
 frequent meetings for extempore prayer, when women, and 
 even chihiren, are allowed to speak, ('oiifession, as a means 
 of relieving the mind, is encouraged, but is not obligatory. 
 Sick persons arc anointed with oil (.lames v. \i), but the 
 motive of this ceremony is entirely different from that of 
 '* extreme unction," with which some writers have identi- 
 fied it. A lamp, regarded as symbolical of the Divine 
 Presence, is kept always burning before the altar. Incense, 
 candles, and ricli vestments are useil, also with a symbol- 
 ical meaning. Kach member of the Catholic Apostolic 
 Church devotes to it one-tenth of his income, besides occa- 
 sional gifts. It has in London seven churches, with sev- 
 eral thousand communicants, and others in various parts 
 of the United Kingdom ; also in many European countries, 
 the British colonies. and the U. S. The writer has applied 
 to the head of a Catholic Apostolic congregatitm in London 
 for exact information as to the aggregate number of com- 
 municants, but from his reply it appears that no general 
 statistics have been published, though "each angel knows 
 the number of his own flock, and the apostles have full in- 
 formnti'm of evervtliing." (See The. Lift: of Edfcnnl Inhuf, 
 by Alr.^ 01iphant'(2 vols., London, lSG2,'8vo): Th^ Ori'ff- 
 imi/ t'ouMtitution of the Chnrrh, and tta Jiestoration, hyliov. 
 Jubal ilodges (London, 18fi4. 8vo) ; The Catholic Apos- 
 tofic Church, by Ilev. W. AV. .\ndrews (London, ISfi", Svo) ; 
 Eihrard Irviu'j tird the Cathnfic Apoittolic Chnrrh, by Rev. 
 
 .1. S. Davenport (New York). Janet Tickkv. 
 
 Ir'viiigton, post-tp. of Kossuth co., la. Pop. 605, 
 Irvin^ton, post-v. of Clinton tp., Essex co., N. J., on 
 
 the Passaic Valley and Poapack R. R., 3 miles W. by S. of 
 
 Newark. 
 
 Irviii^tnn, post-v. of Grccnburg tp., Westchester co., 
 N. Y.. on (he lltids-m River and the Hudson River R. R., 
 22 miles N. of New York, and neiirly opposite Piermont. 
 The re8i<Ience of the late Washington Irving waa in the 
 immc<liato vicinity. 
 
 Ir'win, county of S. Central Georgia. Area. 700 square 
 miles. It is level and sandy, ami chiefly covered with pine 
 forests. Some wool and grain are produced, but only a 
 very small port of the land is under cultivation. Cap, 
 Irwinville. Pop. 1S37. 
 
 Irwin, tp. of Brown eo.. Kan, Pop. 2^00. 
 
 IrwiOf Ip. of Venango co.. Pa. Pop. H89. 
 
 Irwin, a b. of Westmoreland co., Pa., in North Hunt- 
 ington tp., on the Pennsylvania R. R. (Iuwin's Station 
 P. 0.). Pop. 833. 
 
 Irwin (JAitEP), b. in Mecklenburg co., N. C, in 17o0; 
 moved with his parents when a boy to Burke co., Ga. ; took 
 an active part in the cause of independence during the 
 Revolutionary war; was a member of the first legislature 
 of Georgia after independence was achieved; was a mem- 
 ber of the State c<)nvention which ratified the Constitution 
 of the U. S. of 17^7; was governor of the State 1790-1)8, 
 and again 180G-HU. He was president of the State con- 
 vention that formed the constitution of 179S. It was his 
 honor as governor in 1700 to sign the act abrogating the 
 famous Y'azoo fraud, which had been perpetrated by a pre- 
 vious corrupt legislature. D. at Tniiui Kill, Washington 
 CO., Ga., Mar. 1, 1818. A monument to his memory stands 
 in the court-house square at Sandcrsville, Ga. 
 
 A. li. Stephens. 
 
 IrAVin (John), U. S. N., b. Apr. 15. 18:i2. in Pennsyl- 
 vania; entered the navy as a midshipman Sept. 9, 1S47; 
 became a passed midsliipman in ISjo, a lieutenant in 1855, 
 [ a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in 18fi6. 
 Served in the U. S. frigate Wabash at the battle of Port 
 Royal, and with a detachment of officers and seamen of 
 that vessel took port in the bombardment and capture 
 of Fort Pul.nski. Highly commended for "earnestness aud 
 bravery.' Foxhall A. Pahker. 
 
 Ir'winton, po5;t-v., cap. of Wilkinson co., Ga., 3 miles 
 from Mclntyrc, a station on the Central R. R. Pop. 211. 
 
 Ir'winville, post-v., cap. of Irwin co,, Ga., 35 miles 
 S. W, from Chaunccy (or Eastmon), a station on the Macon 
 and Brunswick R. R, 
 
 Is [Gr. 'U, now Flit], an important city of ancient Baby- 
 lonia, eight days* journey N. of Babylon, on the W. bank 
 of the Euphrates. The name signifies hiluincu. and that 
 material was carried thence to Cabylon for building pur- 
 poses. The site has been identified by cuneiform inscrip- 
 tions. 
 
 I'saac [Heb., ''laughter"], the only son of the Hebrew 
 patriarch Abraham by Sarah his wife, b. (2U6;J b. c.) in the 
 extreme old age of both his parents, in fulfilment of the divine 
 promise. For his sake I>hmacl, his half-brother, was thrust 
 out into the wilderness with Hngar, his mother, a bond- 
 woman or slave. Later, the lad Isaac was ofi"ered by bis 
 father as a sacrifice on Mount Moriah, in ohedicncc to the 
 divine command, but Isaac's life was spared in consequence 
 of a heavenly interposition. When forty years of age Isaac 
 married Itcbekah, his kinswoman (202.'i n. c), who bore 
 him twin sons, Ksau (or Kdoin) and Jacob (afterwards 
 called Israel). The former was the first-born and the fa- 
 vorite of his father, but Jacob, by the aid of his mother, 
 obtained the birthright. Isaac d. at Hebron (1883 n. c), 
 aged 180 years. lie was a man of gentle nature, a nomadic 
 herdsman of devout and bhimclcss life. 
 
 Isaac 1*9 Comuenus, a Byzantine emperor, descended 
 from the family of Comnenus. but was educated by tlie em- 
 peror Basil 11., and raised to the throne in 1057 by a con- 
 spiracy. Being prostrated by a violent fever, he abdicated 
 in 10.>9, retired to a monastery, and d. there in 1001. 
 
 Isaac II.4 .4.nejelus, a Byzantine emperor, descended 
 from the family of Ciunncnu*. and was raised to the throne 
 by a revolution in lis:». In 119a his brother, Alexis III., 
 compelled him to abdicate and deprived him of his sight, 
 but in 12U;i the crusaders once more pbiced him on the im- 
 perial throne, whence he again was driven in 1204 by Alexis 
 Dneas. \vho put him to death. 
 
 I'saac (Daxiki.), b. at Caythorpe. Lincolnshire, Eng., 
 July 7, 1778; joined the Wesleyan conference in 1800, and 
 d. Mar. .".1. 1834. He was noted as a controversialist, be- 
 ing called " the polemic Daniel," and published many vol- 
 umes, chiefly on theology. His collected works were issued 
 in London in 3 vols., 1828. 
 
 I'saac I^rvi'la^ b. nt AVetzlar, Germany, in 1515; be- 
 came one of the most celebrated Jewish rabbis of his time, 
 but with his son joined the Roman Catholic Church in 1646 ; 
 became professor of Hebrew and Chnldeo at Louvain, and 
 in 15.'il took the corresponding chair at Cologne. Author 
 of Dr/rntit, Vcritntis ffrhrfr/r Sncrnntnt Srripfnntrum ( i 559), 
 fntrodurtion to the Ifchrrw (irammnr (1553), Meditntioues 
 firhroirrr in artrm ffrauimftticnm (1558), and other excel- 
 lent grammatical and philologienl works, besides transla- 
 tions, etc. After conversiim be took the name of John 
 Isnac Levi. T!io time of his death is not known. 
 
 Is'abel, tp. of Fulton co.. III. Pop. 715. 
 
 1<«aberin, port on the N. coast of Santo Pomingo, 3C 
 miles W. N. W. of Santiago. It was so called by Colum- 
 bus, who in 1493 established hero tho first Europea-i set- 
 tlement in the New World, some ruins of which are etiU 
 visible.
 
 ISABELLA— ISAIAH. 
 
 1:J10 
 
 Isabel'la, county of the N. central portion of the 
 suutbcru pi'uiusulu of Michigan. Aruri, 57(> S(|uare miles. 
 It is generally level and well timbered. Grain uml pota- 
 toes are stapio products. Cap. Mt. IMcasant. Pup. ilVi. 
 
 Isabella^ post-v., cap. of Worth co.. Oa., on the Bruns- 
 wick and Alljany U. U., IS miles E. of Albany. Pop. 64. 
 
 Isabella, tp. of Isabella co., Mich. Pop. i>0. 
 
 Isabella I.y tdk Catholic [Sp. /j»«ir?]. b. at Madrigal, 
 Old Castile, Apr. 22, llol, daughter of John II., king of 
 Castile, by his second queen, Isabella of Portugal, and 
 sister to Henry IV.. who succeeded to the throne in ll.Vt, 
 when she was but three years of age. She was brought up 
 by lier niother in the obscure village of Arevalo, receiving 
 an education largely tinged with the ascetic bigotry of the 
 age. The insurrection which broke out in 1101 against 
 Henry, alleging the illegitimacy of his infant daughter 
 Juana (called "la Ueltraneja,'' from the name of her sup- 
 posed father), and raising to the throne (IIG5) his brotiicr 
 Alfonso, first gave political importance to the person of 
 Isabella as a not improbable heir to both her rival brothers. 
 On the death of Alfonso in 1468, Henry regained the throne, 
 but experienced armed resistance from the former partisans 
 of Alfonso, who offered to proclaim F^abclla queen. She 
 refused the proposal, but consented to allege her claims to 
 the succession against those of the infant princess, and the 
 civil war was terminated, with the sanction of the Cortex, 
 by Henry's promise to repudiate his queen and her off- 
 spring, and recognition of Isabella as immediate heir. 
 During this troubled interval intrigues had been rife for 
 the <lisposal of Isabella's hand, which had first of nil been 
 unsuccessfully sought for Ferdinand of Aragon, her des- 
 tined husband. At the age of eleven she had been betrothed 
 to Prince Carlos of Aragon (brother of Kcrdinand}, who 
 soon died by poison, and two years later Henry ha'l prom- 
 ised her hand to Alfonso of Portugal. Isabella having 
 enorgetically refused to sanction this agreement, Henry 
 next endeavored to compel her to marry the marquis of 
 Villcna (who d. in llfiS), and after the peace of I4G8 re- 
 turned to his earlier project in behalf of the Portuguese 
 iirince. While these intrigues were going on overtures had 
 been made directly to Isabella herself by her cousin Fer- 
 dinand of Aragon, which she accepted in spite of her 
 brother's threats of imprisonment. The articles of settle- 
 ment were signed at Cervcra (.Tan. 7, 14G9), guarantying 
 to Isabella the exercise of her sovereign rights in Castile. 
 Henry endeavored to seize upon his sister's person, but she 
 took refuge in Valladolid, under the protection of her 
 staunch and powerful partisans, tho admiral of Castile and 
 the archbishop of Toledo, primate of Castile. This prelate, 
 in order to expedite the union, produced a papal dispensa- 
 tion from the impedimentof consanguinity (which ultimate- 
 ly proved to have been fabricated by him), and Ferdinand, 
 traversing Northern Castile in disguise, was married to 
 Isabella at Valladolid Ocrt. 19, \WJ. Henry, enraged at 
 this resistance to his mandates, declared that by marrying 
 against his consent Isabella had forfeited her rights, again 
 proclaimed his infant daughter heir to tiie throne, taking, 
 along with tho queen, an oath to her legitimacy, and be- 
 trothed the iit/<tiitft to a Frennh prince, the duke cif Gui- 
 eniie, brother of Ijouis Xf. The partisans of Isabella in 
 Northern Castile stoutly maintained her claims, and in 
 lll'.i, Henry again fouu't himself obliged, for his own 
 security, to negotiate with his sister. They were publicly 
 reconciled at Segovia amid great rejoicings, and Henry 
 dying soon after, Isabella was proelaim»M| queen of Ciistile 
 Dec. l.'i, 1 17 1. Most of the noliility at once recognized her, 
 but a few, aided by Alfonso of Portugal, asscrte<l by arnjs tho 
 claims of the tn/nnta Juana, now betrothed to that prince. 
 Isabella took an active part in this war, encouraging her 
 troops by her ]>resenee anrl by an unwearied attention to 
 their nectls ; it was not until 147'J (hat this source of dis- 
 quietude was removed by a treaty of peace, in accordance 
 with which .Tuana, then seventeen years of age, who had 
 retired to Portugal, took tho veil at Coimbra, where she 
 Burvivc'l until I.VU). Meanwhile (he prince-consort, who 
 had received the honorary title of king <d' Castile, succeeded 
 to the throne of Aragon as Ferdinand V. in Jan., 1479, 
 thus effecting a virtual union between the two principal 
 states of tho Iberian peninsula, which was consolidated in 
 the succeeding reign of Charles V., and laid the foundation 
 of moilern Spanish history. One rif ilu- earliest acts of (he 
 reign of Isabella was the establishment of the Inquisition 
 in Caslile (.Tan. 2, 1481 ) ; in the same year commenced that 
 final warfare with the Moors of (Irnnada which only 
 ended ten years later by (he extinetion of (heir sovereignty 
 in 1 102. On this (tcension Ferdinand and Isabella received 
 from the pope tho title of ** Catholic sovercignH." by which 
 they arc distinctively known in history. The honors of 
 tho Moorish war belonged of right chiefly (o I-^abetla, who 
 had personally directed tho operations, submitting for years 
 
 to all the inconveniences of campaign life. Besides tho 
 establishment of the Inquisition, another dark stain re>fs 
 upon the memory of Isabella — the expulsion of the Jews 
 from Castile: both acts may be palliated, but not justified, 
 by tho prevailing bigotry of the times and the pres- 
 sure of the papal court. Isabella's chief title to fame 
 rests upou the well-known part she took in promoting 
 the great project of Columbus, and in the New World, at 
 least, her memory will be immortal. She was beautiful in 
 person, of pleasing manners and kindly heart, though of 
 inflexible will; ambitious and pron<i, though devout; had 
 considerable learning and political ability; was a loving 
 wife, and is justly revered by Spaniards as the purest glory 
 of their royal annals. She d. Nov. 20, l.'>04, at Medina del 
 Campo, and at her own desire was buried in the Franciscan 
 monastery at Granada. She had five children — Isabella, 
 who married Prince Emanuel of Portugal; John (Juan), 
 who d. in 141.17, aged 20 ; Juana, afterwards called Ln Loca, 
 or *' the Mad," who married Philip of Austria and was 
 the mother of Charles V. ; Maria, who married Kmanuel of 
 Portugal after her sister's death: and Catharine (t.'ataiina^ 
 known in English history as the unfortunate queen of 
 Henry VIII. and nuithcr of Mary Tudor. (For the volumi- 
 nous literature relating to the reign of Isabella, see Pres- 
 cott's masterly I/htori/ nf' the Rfigu of /''erdluattd aud I»a- 
 hdla the CntholiCf in which copious bibliographical refer- 
 ences may be found.) Porter C. Bliss. 
 
 Isabella II., Luisa, of Spain, b. at Madrid Oct. 10, 
 18."0. succeeded her father Fenlinand VII. in ISIiil, under 
 the guardianship of her mother; but war at once broke 
 out, the followers of Don Carlos asserting that the Salic 
 law, which had been the rule of succession in the Bourbon 
 family in France, also held good for Spain. The first Car- 
 list war lasted till 1S40 with varying fortunes. In 1843 
 she was declared of age : married her cousin, Don Fran- 
 cisco, in 1?40. and after a reign disturbed by many violent 
 revolutions she was deposed in 18G8,andin 1870 abdicated 
 in favor of her son, who in 1S75 succeeded as Alfonso XII., 
 the short reign of Amadeus and the attempted republic 
 having intervened. Isabella was very unpopular in Spain. 
 
 Is'abey (Eug?..n'k I.oiis GAimiKi-j. b. in Paris July 22, 
 1S04, son of Jean Baptiste Isabey. He has painted The 
 Ilurricanr hfjore Jfirppv, The Purt of Duuhcy/ce, The But- 
 tle of the Texel, View nf lioulofjiie. The Alchemittt, Cere- 
 mony in the Church at Ih'f/t, The Ihtrning of the Stenmcr 
 Austria (1RJ9), The Teniptation of St. Anthony. He has 
 received three first medals, the decoration of tho Legion 
 of Honor, anil was elected an officer Jan. 22. 18o2. 
 
 0. B. FnoTiiiN(;HAM. 
 
 Isabey (Jean Baptiste), b. at Nancy Apr. 11. 17(»7 ; d. 
 Apr. 18, 1865; studied under David, but made the paint- 
 ing of ytortraits a profession : was a favorite of Napoleon 
 I. and court-painter. The marshals, princes, and dignita- 
 ries of the First Empire, with the chief personages of Eu- 
 rope, sat to him. At the invitation of the emperor Alex- 
 ander he visited tho Kussian court. His pictures had great 
 celebrity. The pieces in wbieli nmny personages are 
 groujK'il together, as in the Tnhlcuu den Mareehtaur and 
 tho Coufcrcuee at Vienna, almost rise to the dignity of his- 
 torical painting. 0. B. FitoTHiNUHAM. 
 
 Istr'lis, b. at Chalcis in Greece, flourished in the first 
 half of tho fourth century «. c. ; went to Athens while 
 young, composed orations, nnd founded a school of rheto- 
 ric, in which Demosthenes is said to have been a pupil. 
 Hu was one of the so-called ten Attic <trators ; C4 orations 
 were ascribed to him, of which 11 are extant, all relating 
 to disputed inheritances; they arc given in the Oiatorca 
 Attivi of Bikker and others, and separately by Schomann 
 (Greifswald, 18;J1), and have been translated into English 
 by Sir William Jones (London, 1794). 
 
 Isai'ah [Heb. »«Am/«A, " saved by the Lord "], the 
 Esaias of tho Now Testament, one of (he principal or 
 greater prophets of the Hebrews. According to ch. vi. 1. 
 Isaiah received his prophetical calling in the year in which 
 King C/.ziah died (7.'»'.M. He lived at least until after the 
 invasion of Judah bv Sennacherib. This event took plaee, 
 according to the ordinary chronology, in 714, but Assyrian 
 investigations show that it took niaeo in "01-00. (See 
 Lenormant's Ilintory of the Enut, Lug. cd., i. .'199.) Thus, 
 his aelivity extencied over sixty years. Tradition even 
 asserted that he was sawn asunder in the persecutions 
 under Munasseh (ef. Heb. ii. ;t7). He was married and 
 had children. During his lifetime ho pronounced the word 
 of Jehovah on every important occasion. Ho was the 
 grcattsf of all the prophets for the vigor of his eloquence 
 lunl the str<-ngth of his faith. His divine oriieles being 
 (h'Spised, he reduced them to writing, as probably Hosca, 
 Joel, and Amos had already done. Primarily, tliey were 
 tliseourses adapted for immediate nnd popular effect. Pre- 
 diction appears in them only as a warning of consequences,
 
 1320 
 
 ISAMBERT— ISIS. 
 
 a promise of the favor of God and a secure and happy fu- 
 ture if, or when, the true kingdom of righteousness should 
 be established in Israel (Messianic prophecies). A ques- 
 tion first raised by Koppe about 100 years ago, respecting 
 the unity and integrity of the book, is still in dispute 
 among biblical critics, many affirming the oneness of au- 
 thorship of the whole book, and many claiming that chaps. 
 xl.-lxvi. must have been written by another person than 
 penned the preceding ehajiters. The unauimotix testimony 
 of Jewish and Christian tradition affirms the former view. 
 Po also does the use apparently made of the later chapters 
 of the book by .Teremiah (x. 1-HJ ; v. 26: xxv. :>I), Eze- 
 kicl (xxiii. 40, 41), and Zephaniah (ii. 15 ; iii. 10). The 
 decree of Cyrus in Ezra i. 2-4 is plainly founded upon Isa. 
 (xliv. 2S; xlv. 1, 13), and accredits Joscphus's statement 
 (.4*1/., xi. 1,2) that the Jews showed Cyrus Isaiah *s predic- 
 tions of him. The New Testament also quotes prophecies 
 found in the latter part of the book, and attaches to them 
 Isaiah's name. J. II. Seki-ve. 
 
 Isambert' (FnAxgois .4iNDnK). b. at Aunay, France, 
 Nov. ;>0, 17'J2: after brilliant classical and legal studies at 
 the College de France, became one of the king's counsel in 
 iSlS, and gained a great reputation at the barns the chief 
 defender of the rights of the free people of color of the 
 French AVest Indies; was a member of the Chamber of 
 deputies 1S.'J0-I8; was one nf the founders of the French 
 Geographical Society and of the Society for the Abolition 
 of Slavery, of which latter he was long the secretary ; ed- 
 ited 1S20-27 the annual volume of modern laws; published 
 (with other writers) the vast collection of ancient French 
 legislation (1822 seq., 29 vols.), a M'tnunl for the Publicist . 
 and Statesman (4 vols., 182G) ; Tlie Ht-fif/ious Condition of 
 France and Europe (IS44), a Historif of Justinian (1866) ; 
 translated the complete works of Flavins Josephus and the 
 J-Jrr/>sin.sficnl HiAtor)/ of Euscbius : and wrote a large work 
 ou the History '*/' the Origin of Christianitt/, besides con- 
 tributing to many periodicals and writing numerous articles 
 for Bidot's \ouvelle Bioyraphie Generate. D. at Paris 
 Apr. 13, 1S57. 
 
 Isan'ti) county in the E. of Minnesota. Area, about 
 430 square miles. The surface is diversified. Grain and 
 potatoes are the staple products. Cap. Oxford. Pop. 2036. 
 
 Isanti, post-tp. of Isanti eo., Minn., 12 miles from 
 North Branch, on the Lake Superior and Minnesota R. R. 
 Pop. 468. 
 
 I'sar, or I'ser, a river of Germany, rises in Tyrol, 
 enters liavaria. and flows after a course of 106 miles into 
 the Danube. Munich is situated on its bank. 
 
 I'satin [Gr. ItrdTi^, " woad"]. (Chn5N02), an interesting 
 body formed by the action of nitric or chromic acid on in- 
 digo. Several other bodies are obtained from isatin by the 
 action of ammonia, potassic hydrate, etc. 
 
 Isau'ria, district of Asia Minor, situated between 
 Phrygia, Lycaonia. Cilioia. and Pisidia, was in ancient 
 times in ill repute for the fierceness and daring rapacity of 
 its inhahitiints. In 78 b. i_\ it was conquered by the Romans, 
 but when in the fourth century A. i>. the Isaurians united 
 with the Cilicians, they became a formidable enemy of the 
 Byzantine empire, ancl two of their race oceupicd the Hyz- 
 antiiio throne — Zeno from 474 to 4Ul, and Leu III. from 
 717 to 741. 
 
 Is'chia [Gr. Pithecnsa : Lat. ^iiarfa], a mountainous 
 island of igneous origin, about 24 square miles in extent, 
 and situated in the Mediterranean, near Naples. This 
 island, originally peopled from Asia Minor, is remarkable 
 for the beauty of its scenery, the fertility of its soil, and the 
 variety and excellence of its fruits. Monte Epomeo, the 
 highest point of Tschia, about 2600 feet above the sea, is a 
 volcano surrounded, like Etna, with small craters, and its 
 eruptions have often caused great damage. The island has 
 also suffered severely from earthquakes. The mineral 
 waters of Is.diia are very cclebrate<l, and the perfection of 
 the climate is an additional advantage for invalids suffer- 
 ing from rheumatism and other similar affections. Pop. 
 in 1874, 24,000. 
 
 I'schI, town of Austria, in the province of Upper Aus- 
 tria, at the confluence of the Isehl and the Traun. It is a 
 small town, with only 3000 inhabitants, but its charming 
 situation, its saline and sulphur springs, and the presence 
 during several weeks each summer of the Austrian court 
 and a great number of tlie Austrian nobility, have made it 
 one of the most elegant and aristocratic bathing-places in 
 Europe. 
 
 Ischu'a, post-tp. of Cattaraugus co.. N. Y. It has valu- 
 able quarries of building-stone. Pop. 872. 
 
 I'seghcm, town of Belgium, province of West Flan- 
 ders, 7 miles X. N. W, of Courtrai, has a large trade in 
 cattle, manufactures of cotton, linen, bats, thread, ribbons, 
 etc., breweries and tanneries. Pop, 7966. 
 
 Ise'o Lake, in Northern Itajy, 16 miles long, 2\ miles 
 broad, is celebrated for its picturesque surroundings. It 
 sends its waters to the Po through the Oglio. 
 
 Isere, department of South-eastern France, on the 
 Rhone and its affluent, the Iserc. Area, 3163 square 
 miles. Pop. 676,784. The northern and western parts 
 are level, but the southern and eastern parts are covered 
 with majestic mountains, of which Mount Olan is 12.004 
 feet high. The department is rich in minerals. Copper, 
 lead, iron, and coal arc mined; gold and silver are found. 
 The wine of these regions is superior. Cap. Grenoble. 
 
 I'serlohn, town of Prussia, in Westphalia, on the 
 Kalle. It has large manufactures, especially of iron and 
 bronze ware. Pop. 16,763. 
 
 Iser'nia, town of Southern Italy, in the province of 
 Campobasso. It was a Samnitc city, and remains of the 
 polygonal walls, as well as of very ancient tcuiples, sepul- 
 chres, etc., still exist. The old aqueduct, hewn for the dis- 
 tance of a mile through solid rock, still supplies the town 
 with water and with water-power. Iseruia occupies a 
 commanding position on a mountainous ridge about 24 
 miles W. of the town of Campoba?^so, and the pop\ilation 
 (9006 in 1874) is chiefly occupied in the manufacture of 
 hemp, linen, paper, earthenware, etc., aud in dressing 
 parchment and other leathers. 
 
 Ish'im, or Ischim, a large river of Siberia, in the gov- 
 ernment of Tobolsk, flows N. 700 miles through a sterile 
 region, and enters the Irtish 120 miles S. E. of Tobolsk. 
 On its banks arc the important towns of Ishim and Petro- 
 paulovsk. 
 
 Ish'niaelf the son of Abraham and Hagar. the Egyp- 
 tian handmaid of Sarah, was expelled, together with his 
 mother, from his home when Sarah gave birth to Isaac. 
 The Bedouin tribes of Northern Arabia, occupying the re- 
 gion between the peninsula of Sinai and the Persian Gulf, 
 are said to descend from Ishmael, and possess many Ish- 
 maelitic traditions. 
 
 Ishpcm'ins:, tp. and post-v. of Marquette co., Mich. 
 It has a national bank, and extensive iron-mines, or rather 
 iron-quarries, whoso ore is of the very best quality. The 
 inhabitants are mostly Scandinavians. The town is on the 
 Marquette Houghton and Ontonagon R. R., 10 miles W. of 
 Marquette. Pop. 0103. 
 
 Is'idore of Charax, a native of Charax on the Tigris, 
 near the Persiau Gulf, was a distinguished geographer of 
 the first century A. d. His Parthian Itinerary/, portions 
 of which are extant, is an important source of information 
 upon Asiatic geography ; it was printed by Hiischel (1000), 
 Hudson (1703), and Miller ( Paris, 1839) in their collections 
 of the minor Greek geographers. 
 
 Isidore of Seville, or Isidorus Ilispalensis, 
 b. at Cartagena between 600 and 670 ; was appointed bishop 
 of Seville about GOO; and d. Apr. 4, 036. By establishing 
 schools, and by harmonizing the moral and doctrinal sys- 
 tem of Christianity with the habits and institutions of the 
 various races which at that time composed the Hispano- 
 Gothic kingdom, he became one of the brightest ornaments 
 of the Church of Spain: and his fame aud authority were 
 not confined to Spain alone. lie presided over the second 
 Council of Seville (619), and over the Council of Toledo 
 (633). His works, which form an encyclopicdia of the know- 
 ledge of his time, were collected and edited by Perez and 
 Grial (Madrid. 177S). bv Arevalo( Rome, 1797-1S03), and 
 by the AbbC- Mi^nc ( Paris. 1802, 8 vols.). 
 
 Isidorian Decretals. See Decrktai.s, False. 
 
 I'siii^lass, a Gki.atink (which see) prepared from the 
 swim-bladder of various sturgeons (Acipenscr) and other 
 fish, such as the cod. the weak-fish (Otolithus rrtjalis), and 
 the hake (Gadus merliiccins). It is used in preparing jel- 
 lies, confections, blanc-mange, gum-drops, etc. ; in fining 
 wines and liquors: as a test for tannic acid ; as an ingre- 
 dient in court-plaster; us a size for delicate fabrics, etc. 
 The coarser kinds (fish-glues) are used in various cements. 
 "Japanese isinglass" is prepared from a seaweed. Com- 
 mercial isinglass comes from Russia, Brazil, the U. S., and 
 other countries. 
 
 I'sis, an Egyptian goddess named lies, daughter of Seb 
 or Cronos, and Nut or Rhea, sister and wife of Osiris, and 
 locally one of the tetrad of Abydos, which consisted of 
 Osiris, Isis, her sister Nephthys, and Horus. Her wor- 
 ship is not mentioned at the earliest period, but became 
 universal at the time of the eii;hternth and later dynasties. 
 Her name is expressed in hieroglyphics by a scat or throne, 
 and in her terrestrial type she is represented with this or- 
 nament on her head. She is styled in the inscriptions the 
 mother-goddess, or great mother, mistress of heaven, re- 
 gent of the gods, and queen of the upper and lower coun- 
 try. In her celestial character she wears on her head the
 
 ISIS— ISLES OF SHOALS. 
 
 l:;21 
 
 disk und horna and the modius or cylindrical hcad-attirc 
 surrounded by Iwulve serpents, cmbleui^ of the twelve hours 
 of the day ami ui;;ht. lu the niunuiiients A\e is the con- 
 stant c'impunion of Osiris, standing behin*! him, support- 
 ing him, or hmiuuting at bis bier, or else as mother of 
 HarpakhrHt, or " the youthful Horus." nursing and suck- 
 ling that god on her lap. Isis is rarely if ever seen alone, 
 except in votive figure, and if at a later jtcriud she is rep- 
 resented winged, such a type appears to have been intro- 
 duced from Asiatic sources. The legend of Isis is partly 
 confirmed by the accounts of the monuments and papyri. 
 l>uring the absence of Osirlg from his kingdom it is stated 
 that she ruleJ over the state, and her name appears in a 
 cartouche as one of the gods of the second dynasty who 
 ruled Egypt. After the murder of Osiris by Typhon on 
 the ITih of the month Athor, in the twenty-eighth year of 
 bis reign, Isis was informed of the death of Osiris, and cut 
 off one of the locks of lier hair. Slie also searched for 
 Anubis, the god of embalming, the son of Osiris and Neph- 
 thys. The chest In wliich the corpse of Osiris was enclosed 
 was carried to Byblos, and lodged in the branches of a 
 tamarisk tree, in which perched the ph<enix (bftniu), the 
 soul of Osiris. The king of IJyblos liad made the trunk 
 of the tree into a pillar of bis house. Ingratiating herself 
 with the queen's women, whose hair she plaited, and sub- 
 sequently engaged by the queen as wet-nurse for tlio king's 
 son, she suckled tlie boy witli her finger, and laid him on 
 burning coals to make him immortal, while she herself. 
 transformed into a swallow, hovered rouu'l the pillar, and 
 when her proceedings were discovered, obtained it by re- 
 quest from the monarch. Opening the trunk, she took it 
 with her into the desert, and opening the lid, threw herself 
 in grief on the dead body of her husband: and when the 
 king's son approaclied her she turned rountl an<l killed him 
 with a glance. Ucturning to her son Ilorus. she left the 
 chest at the city of IJutus in an unfrequented place, where, 
 however, it was discovered by Typhon in the moonlight, 
 who tore the body into fourteen or twenty-six pieces, and 
 scattered (hern about, apparently in the river. These Isis 
 collected, apparently irmu (he river, ujhui which she went 
 for the purpose, and found all except tinej»icee, which had 
 been devoured by the oxyrhynchus fish. In the war which 
 ensued between Horus and Typhon at Kar for the Egyp- 
 tian Babylon) on the fitb of the month Thoth. and which 
 endured for three clays and nights, the gods changing dur- 
 ing the battle from the human to animal forms. Isis chained 
 both combatants. Subsequently she liberated Set or Ty- 
 phon from his chains, and Ilorus, enraged at this act, cut 
 off the head of Isis, which Thoth subsequently replaced 
 by the head of a cow. Another account places this action 
 at Ateh in the oxyrhynchitc nome. on the 7th of the month 
 Tybi, wlien the boat of the Sun was moored at I*akhera. 
 A second battle supervened at Anrutef at a later period. 
 She ifl said (o have founded sepulchres of Osiris wherever 
 she foun<I portions ot' (he boriy. She appears as godilcss 
 of the lower world, for Rbampsinitus ( Uameses III.) de- 
 flccnde'l to Hades and played at draughts with her. winning 
 a goblen napkin, wilh which he returned to earth. One 
 of the epagomena* or intercalary days was sacred to her. 
 She was identified with other deities, as Urhck. Hast. Athor. 
 and even Nephthys. and one of the sacred books was enti- 
 tler! her sighs or respirations. Her worship was introduced 
 into Asia Minor and tirecce about n. r. IVM), and into the 
 Roman empire in the time of Svlla. and although attenipt- 
 cil to be banished at different intervals fii. r. Ki.'I-IUy) by 
 different act« of the senate, and repelled by Angusttis, was 
 finally c-'tablislwil with the worship of Serapis at Home, 
 and only dij^appeared with the fall of paganism, which 
 took place A. ii. S'.M at Alexanclria. Isis was supposed to 
 represent nature, the moon, earth, Demcler, and other ele- 
 ments or powers. S. Biiiri?. 
 
 I'his, the classical Latin name for the river Thames in 
 England (Tham-r«i'<f = '■ the broad Isis"), still often em- 
 ployed in the same sense in English poetry and belles-let- 
 tres. The principal tributary of the Thames which passes 
 
 by Oxf'ird is also called Isis. 
 
 lsKnn<l<Tooii\ Kcnndoroon, or .\loxnn(lreUa, 
 
 seapitrt town of Northern Syria, on the E. coast of the bay 
 of the same name, anciently the Hay of Issns. It is the 
 principal rtutlet of Central .Vsialic Turkey, bi'iiig Ibe port 
 of .Meppo. and has the best harbor on the Syrian const. 
 Formerly unhealthy and almost desolate, it has by im- 
 proved drainage beeome salubrious, and is destinrd In ac- 
 quire grcal iiuportancf whenever a railroad to the Euphra- 
 tes shall attract to this route a portion of the overland 
 Indian traffic. Several hundred vessels touch hero annually. 
 
 Pop. I'ono. 
 
 Is'ltrlib, town of Asiatic Turkey, in Asia Minor, near 
 the M'-ditiTranean, has about DOOU inhabitants, all of whom 
 arc Mohammedans. Christians aro not allowed to resido 
 
 there with their families; they can only stop at the khans 
 for a limited time. 
 
 Is'la^ de (Jose Fkancisco), b. at Segovia in 1703, en- 
 tered the order of the Jesuits, was expelled with them in 
 17fi7, and d, at Bologna in 17S1. His sermons attracted 
 attention as early as 1729. but his fame he principally 
 obtained by his satirical romance, Hintoria del fnmoHu 
 prc(f traitor Fray Gcrnntiio dc Vampazaa. The first vol- 
 ume of this work was published in 1758 without the know- 
 ledgo of the author, l>ut in I7G0 its sale was forbid<ien. 
 The second volume did not apjicar until 1771', in London 
 and in English, and then in Spanish at Hayonnc shortly 
 after. The whole work was jiublisbed in Madrid in 1813. 
 He also wrote Cicero, a satirical poem, of which the man- 
 uscript is found in the library of Boston, its publication in 
 Spain having been forbidden. 
 
 Is''la dc Ijeon', an island on the S. coast of Spain, in 
 the Atlantic, 10 miles long by 2 broad, on which is the city 
 and port of tlic same name (also called San Fernando), 
 which was in ISIO the ciipital of Spain under the regency, 
 and was the scene of the first constitutional movement of 
 IS20. It is strongly fortified, has two hospitals, several 
 convents, and an excellent observatory. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Is'la de Nc'gros, one of the Philippine Islands, in Ma- 
 lay Archipelago. Area. ."JSOO square miles. Pop. oj,000. 
 
 Islam. Sec Mohammedanism. 
 
 Islnin;ibad% town of British India, in the presidency 
 of Bengal, tlie capital of the district of Chittagong. is in 
 lat. 22° 20' N., Ion. IU° b%' E., on the Kurramfuli, 7 miles 
 from its mouth. It has important shipbuilding and a 
 largo trade in rice, salt, cocoanuts, and tortoise-shell. 
 Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Isl'aiidy county of Washington Territory, consisting 
 of isiunds lying in Puget Sound, of which the largest is 
 AVhidby Island. Cap. Coveland. Pop. 020. 
 
 Isl:iiuL tp. of Desha CO., Ark. Pop. 400. 
 
 IsIjuhI t'reek, tp. of Duplin co., N. C. Pop. 14J9. 
 
 Island Creek, post-tp. of Jefferson co., 0., 7i miles 
 from Steubcnville. Pop. 1G2G. 
 
 Island Falls Plantation, tp. of Aroostook co., Me. 
 Pop. I8;s. 
 
 Island Grove, tp. of Sangamon co., 111. Pop. lOfiO. 
 
 Island Pond, ])ost v. of Brighton tp.. Essex co.. V(.. 
 an important station on the (I rand Trunk Railway, 149 
 miles N. W. of Portland, Me., and 1 13 mihs S. E. of Mon- 
 treal, Canada. It has a custom-house and several manu- 
 facturing establishments. 
 
 Islands, tp. of Accomac co., Va. Pop. 1122. 
 
 Is'lay, an island of the Inner Hobride?, belonging to 
 the county of Argylc, Scotland, Area, 220 square miles. 
 Pop. 10,:i.*i2. The northern and eastern parts are hilly, 
 traversed by a ridgo which at some places rises to the 
 height of 1 '>00 feet ; the rest is level. Good crops of rye are 
 raised, and a considerable distilling industry is carried on. 
 
 Islay, maritime town of Peru, in the ^irovinco of Arc- 
 quipa, distant. *jO miles from that city, with which it is con- 
 nected by a railroa<i recently constructed. The jx'pulalion 
 is insignificant, but it derives imjxtrtancc from being the 
 seaport of Arequipa and of much of Southern Peru. 
 
 Isle'boro', ])ost-tp. of Waldo co.. Me., consists of a 
 narrow island of (lOlii) acres, calleil Long Island, in Pcnob- 
 Bcot Hay, 10 miles E. of Belfast. Many of its inhabitants aro 
 engaged in maritime pursuits. It has .'5 churches. Pop. i2:i0. 
 
 Isle In Motte, an island in Lake Champlain. consti- 
 tuting the post-township of Jsle hi Motte. iJrand Isle eo,, 
 Vt. It is sometimes called the " Vineyard." It is 6 miles 
 long. Pop. 197. 
 
 Isle of Tranoe. Sec Mai-ritius. 
 
 Isle of I>lnn. Sec Man. Islk of. 
 
 Isle of Pines. Sec PiNi:s. Ist.E ok. 
 
 Isle of Wight. See \Vn;nT. Isi.e op. 
 
 Isle of Wipht, county in thi- S. E. of Virginia, bounded 
 on the .V. E. by the James River, and on the W. by the 
 Blaokwater. Area. 2^0 square miles. It contains consider- 
 able pine forest, and is generally level. Grain, potatoes. 
 and pork are (staple products. It is traversed by Atbintio 
 Mississippi and Ohio U. R. Cap. Smithficld. Pop. 8;i20. 
 
 Islo Koyale, county of Michigan, comprising Islo 
 Koyalc and adjacent islands in Lake Superior. Isle Koy- 
 ale is -IJ niib's long. 12 miles broad. an<l abounds in copper 
 and other minerals, ami has nniny lakes, one of the largest 
 of wbi(di. Siskowit Lake, has no outlet. Siskowit Hay Is 
 the principal settlement. It was formed in 1S7j. 
 
 Isles of Shoals, a group of eight small islands in the 
 Atlantic, about In miles S. E. of Portsmouth, X. H. They 
 aro barren and almost without vegetation. The 90 iuhab-
 
 13-22 
 
 ISLIP— ISOMERISM, ETC. 
 
 itanta live mostly by fishing. On White Island is a light- I 
 hou'^e, and on Appk-dcre and Star I.'laud Iheie are large 
 hotel accommodations for the great nuniberol tourists who , 
 visit the islands each summer to enjoy the sea air. 
 
 Is'lip, tp. and post-v. of Suffolk co.. N. Y., 40 miles 
 E of New York City, on tJreat .South Bay and on the 
 South Shore R. R. of Long Island, has :! churches, 2 acad- 
 emies, 1 weekly newspaper, planing, paper, and flour mills 
 a marine railwkvand shipyard, and is the head-quarters of 
 .several sporting clubs. Fi.shing is a leading pursuit, and 
 the rearin" of trout and the putting up of canned goods 
 are imi.ortant interests. The township c.mtains a number 
 of other villages, and has U. churches. Pop. of tp. 4.).)i ._ 
 W. L. Cook, Kd. " Long Island Heiiald. 
 Ismaeeliah. Sec Assassins and Ismaii-is. 
 Ismail', town of European Turkey, in the principality 
 of Moldavia, on the Kilia. a branch of the IJanul.e, It is 
 a stron" fortress, has important leather manufactures, and 
 carries °on an extensive trade in grain, wool, tallow, etc. 
 Pop. 20.SG9. 
 
 Ismail Pasha, or Ismail I., b. at Cairo in 18:10, son 
 of Ibrahim Pasha bv a Circassian woman. He was edu- 
 cated at Paris; returned to Egypt, and soon after Uis 
 father's death (Nov. ii; 1S43) strongly opposed the new 
 viceroy, Abbas Pasha, who died the next year, and was 
 succeeded by Said Pasha, who placed him at the head of 
 the administration while he himself was on a visit to Eu- 
 rope and in 1S62 made him commander of the army. Said 
 d Jan 18, 1863. and was suc'ceeded by Ismail as btth vice- 
 roy of l'>ypt. lie acquired great wealth liy the cultivation 
 of eottoii'dnring the American civil war, and was a zealous 
 promoter of the Suez Canal project. In 1SG6 the sultan 
 niade the succession direct in his line, in return for which 
 Ismail increased his tribute and ai.led the sultan with a 
 large army in the Cretan insurrection. In 1SC.7 he received 
 the titles' of highness and khedive, with important ad- 
 ditions to his authority ; but he demanded still more, and 
 threatened, in case his demands were refused, to seize the 
 island of Crete. Foreign powers, however, interposed, and 
 compelled him to abate his demands. In 1868-69 he ex- 
 tended his sway over the Upper and White Nile, increased 
 his armv. proposed the neutralization of the Suez Canal, 
 and eon'diieted himself as an independent monarch. The 
 sultan thereupon ordered him to reduce his .army to 30,001 
 men recall his orders fur the construction of iron-clads and 
 the purchase of breech loaders and the contraction of loans 
 in Europe. The khedive. not succeeding in gaining the 
 support of Russia, yielded for a time to the demands of 
 the sultan, but bv bribery in June. 1ST3. succeeded in ob- 
 taining' concessions from the Sublime Porte which rendered 
 him vii-tually independent, the main restrictions relating 
 to his intercourse with foreign powers. Early in 1S74 he 
 gained a decided victory over the sultan of Harfur. and is 
 now busily engaged in extending his authority over the 
 barbarous" tribes Iviug around him. He is the absolute 
 owner of all the lai'i.l in Egypt, which his subjects cultivate 
 on terms prescribed bv him. He is also largely engaged 
 in manufacturing enterprises, the whole industry of the 
 counlrv being under his control, the common people being 
 practically his slaves. He has. in an arclntectuial point 
 of view, considerably improved Alexandria, .almost rebuilt 
 Cairo, and has constructed immense public works through- 
 out his kingdom. 
 
 Ismail'in, town of Lower Egypt, on the N. shoro of | 
 Like Tim-ah. on the railroad leading from Alexandria and 
 Cairo to Suez, and on the Suez Canal. It was founded in 
 1S«3 to serve as the central point for the construction of 
 the canal, and was named after the khedive. Ismail Pasha. 
 Its situation gives promise of considerable commercial im- 
 portance. Pop. about 4000. 
 
 I$mail'is,a former sect of Mohammedan free-thinkers. 
 Thev were originally Sbiites, but their doctrine spread 
 throughout hl<im. the M.ihammedan world. Their outward 
 practice was very devout, but their esoteric doctrines con- 
 sisted of various degrees of instruction, finally leailing to 
 universal negation, atheism, and indifl'erenlism. Resides 
 this, their morality was of the worst, though cloaked with 
 pious words ami acts. They originated in the ninth cen- 
 tury, and especially honored .Mohammed ben Ismail, the 
 seventh of their imams or caliphs. There are oven now 
 relies of this old sect in existence. 
 
 iKmicl', or Iskimid (the ancient ^'icnmc<li'l). town of 
 Asiatic Turkey, in Asia Minor, on a gulf of the same name, 
 i.i'lat. 40° 47'"N.. Ion. 20° 53' E. Of the brilliant old city 
 very little is left, and the present town is a dirty, miserable 
 pbicc, with some manulaoturcB of silk and earthwarc. Pop. 
 3000.' 
 
 Isnard' (Maximin), b. Feb. IB. 1751, at Orassc, in Prov- 
 ence- entered the National Assembly in Sept., 1791, as a 
 
 deputy for the department of Var. He joined the t,irond- 
 ists, though his ideas were more advanced than theirs, 
 and became conspicuous for his passionate, sometimes even 
 inspired, eloquence. When arrested in .June, 1793, he suc- 
 ceeded in escaping, and concealed himself until the fa 1 of 
 Robespierre. He was a member of the Council of live 
 Hundred, but exercised no iuBuenee, and during the Em- 
 pire and the Restoration he lived in retirement, oecupied 
 with literary pursuits, in his native city, where he d. in IbJU. 
 Isochcimal Lines. Sec Meteouolocv. 
 Isoc'ratos, the son of Tlieodorns, a native of Athens, 
 wash. B.C. 4."6, and d. of voluntary starvation B.C. .338. He 
 was a disciple of Socrates and Theramenes and subse- 
 quently attained considerable popularity as the founder of 
 a school of rhetoric at Athens. Cicero declared him to be 
 the first to perfect the melody of Greek prose. The Ale.x- 
 andrian critics assign him the fourth place in the canon of 
 Greek oratory. His style is ostentatious and elegant, 
 rather than graceful and pleasing. The extant orations 
 are given in the Omtores AllicI of Bekker and of Baiter 
 and'Sauppe, and separately by Lange (Halle, 180.!), by 
 ' Baiter and Sauppe (Zurich, 1839), by B";!^'^'" (Lop^C 
 1851): select orations bv Rauchenstein (Berlin. 18o5), The 
 PuiifVi/'-oMS was edited by Prof. Fclton ( Cambridge). 
 Isocrymal Lines. Sec Meteokolocv. 
 Isola Bella. Sec Borromean Islands, 
 
 I'sola del'la Sca'la, town of Italy, in the province of 
 Verona, about 16 miles E, of the city of Verona. This 
 town has a large Gothic church and o'her good buildings, 
 ^Tlth an active and laborious populalion of (in 18(4) a^So. 
 
 I'sola del Li'ri, town of S. Italy, in the province of 
 Ca-'ert-i The immense water-power furnished by the Liri 
 and the Fibreno is here utilized for manufacturing on a 
 large scale, paper, linen, woollens, etc., and also lor work- 
 ius metals, including the manufacture of chemical prod- 
 ucts. The town is charmingly situated, and the troiit^of 
 the Liri ore as famous as in the days of Martial and Ap- 
 pian. Pop. in 1874, 5o82, 
 
 I'som (Thomas Didi.ev), M. D.. b. in Maury eo., Tenn 
 Sent 5 1816 • graduatcdinJe«fersonMedicalCollegelS39, 
 and began practice at Oxford, Miss. He was made surgeon 
 dnrin-rthe war. and assigned to the medical board of Gen. 
 Joseph E. Johnston's army; is ( 1875) a successfiilpractitioner 
 
 in Oxford, Miss., and is a trustee of the umversi^v of that 
 State. IAIL*.E\E. 
 
 Isom'erism, Pol ymerism. Allotropism. Amor- 
 nhism, Uimorphism and Polymorphism, -lleta- 
 merism, Kcnomerism. These words belong, and 
 are necessary, to the language of chemical science, being 
 of highly convenient, indeed indispensable, application in 
 the arrangement of the vast accumulating masses of com- 
 pounds into groups, and in exhibiting their relations 
 among each other; thus facilitating their study and inves- 
 tigation in a surprising manner. These terms do not, how- 
 ever all convey actual natural principles, or generalizations; 
 many of the groupings designated by them being in a great 
 degree artificial, or founded on principles rather of a iie'/ti- 
 tire kind; though others of them are unquestionably nat- 
 ural The term I'sowc-i'.m is generally considered as in- 
 cluding, broadly speaking, all the others; and isomerio 
 croups, or groups of isomeres, may be dehned broad y as 
 such groups as /k</>/.™ to have the same proportional ele- 
 mentary composition, while specifically quite distinct; 
 each nreinber of such a group being distinguishable from 
 the rest by some one or more specific chemical or physical 
 characteror relation to other substances, ,, , , ,, „ 
 
 Oemral f:^a,„i.U..- Diamond and j/'V'"'. '"• K^t the 
 hardest and most limpid known substance, the las one of 
 the softest and most opaque ; both being chemical y pure 
 i carbon. Chile and aya.jonile, differing fundamentally in 
 • crystalline form (the first being hexagonal and the ast 
 right rhombic), as well as in hardness and density, while 
 both are simply lime-carbonate, CaCOj. Qnarl:, ru)y- 
 rnilr. and .olAlc «.7,Vr,. Olefianl .jn. (C.H,) and Mra«n,- 
 ;cM.(C.,„H,e).cach of which contains in imi parts b.v weight 
 exactly 42.S57 of carbon and 57.143 of hydrogen; tlie la t, 
 instead of being a permanent gis lighter than air, like the 
 first, is a liquid whose boiling-point is higher than that of 
 mercury, and whose vapor is ten times as heavy "' o'';?''"* 
 gas, or half as heavy again as mercurial vaj-or itself. Lorn- 
 moil nM,ol and mrihjUe ether, a liquid and a gas, each 
 having the empirical formula WW, and the same cen- 
 tesimal composition : 
 
 52.174 
 
 1,1.043 
 
 !"'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.','.','.'.'.'.'.'.'.!!'. ."M.TM 
 
 lOO.OOO 
 
 Carfion 
 
 Hydrogen.. 
 Oxygen 
 
 ! Dexlro.e. or grape-sugar, and l^,-nh,e. or honey-sugar 
 ' both CHitOe, but having precisely opposite actions on
 
 ISOMKKIS.M, KTC. 
 
 1 '~»0''> 
 
 ll 
 
 olariicd light: the first being also a solid and the last a | 
 iqiiid. 
 
 1. Igomercf, in the restricted sense (Gr. iiTOM«P<t, adj., i 
 "of equal parts" or "equally divided"). Recent writers j 
 nronose to anplv llie term Immmiim narrowly and speci- 
 ally to such grdiips As really appear to be more or less 
 nainral ones : that is, such as not only have the same com- 
 position, but similarorigin.wilh identical molecular weights 
 and volumes; which are usually quite similar in their re- 
 lation to heat and chemical agents, and furnish similar 
 products of decomposition or trausfonuatiou by like agents. 
 Such groups are found, so far. only among the immediate 
 products of vegetable and animal life; and while among the 
 commonest substances, still remain, as to their molecular 
 constitution, among the least s.rutable; no very satistac- 
 tory explanations, except of a liypothelical kind, having 
 yet been presented for these kinds of isomerisms. 
 
 Examplfn.—A large, familiar, and interesting group of 
 natural isomeresis that known as the (ci/jeiies, including the 
 volatile oils of turpentine, lemon, orange-peel, bergamot, 
 ueroli, Borneo camphor, juniper, copaiba, nutmeg, and a 
 multitude of others. These are all hydrocarbons of the 
 formula Tiollis. which, while dilTcring so greatly in odor, 
 and in some cases in their actions on polarized light, and 
 even, within small limits, in densities and boiling-points, 
 yet are notably similar in their general chemical relations 
 
 much more so than is usual among the groups of pol;/- 
 
 merrn and wi-inmefta referred to below. It seems certain, 
 however, that in the course of investigation the true consti- 
 tution and molecular derivation of these terpenes will he 
 arrived at with precision, in which case they will at once 
 take rank but as inctameres, and lose in great part their 
 present mysterious interest. Two of the most common, 
 terebeiithtiic, from turpentine-oil, and n'tii-ne. from lemon- 
 oil, arc now under active investigation by skilful chemists, 
 and the results seem to point to the constitution of the 
 former being nearly or exactly fHhi/ilnirct of Unprnpyttn- 
 liK-iie (<r//)/i'i-eymcn"e). and to that id" the latter as compris- 
 ing the same molecular groups, with different arrangement 
 among each other. 
 
 Other important groups of natural isomeres occur among 
 the proximate constituents or products of living tissues, 
 both vegetaldc and animal. The inniiin'te group (CelluOG), 
 comprising three or more isomeres — mnntiilc (manna or 
 seaweed-sugar), dulcoso or iliilrile (a sugar from on un- 
 known plant of .Madagascar), and itoilulciie, an artificial 
 sugar. Tlic thi'orotical views commonly accepted regard- 
 ing the con titution of the sugars generally, and hence of 
 a very wide and highly imporlniit range of organic prod- 
 ucts, rest upon the views held regarding mannite. {Pee 
 below.) The <;/ii'',«c group f t'oIIijOn). including common 
 qrapi-.fii'irir. which is a product both of vegetable and (as 
 diabetic sugar) of animal life. /jr™/'-»e. in'j«i> (flesh-sugar), 
 tfilrifinnc, niirbi'l)-, ami several artificial sugars of the same 
 formula. These isomeres are regarded as nW(7i.i/f/c». eoire- 
 sp'miling to certain isomerio (bexnlomic) alcohols, of which 
 mannito is one representative. Thus, just as ordinary 
 alcohol may yield orriinary aldehyde by oxidatioii in con- 
 tact with platinum-black, mannite yieldsan artificial sugar 
 isomeric with glucose, called tiiniini(o»c. 
 
 C^IInO -fO = CjIIjO +11.0; and 
 
 CfllluOo -f = ColIijOo + lIjO. 
 
 MnimlU'. Mnonluxc. 
 
 Also, it is stated that glucose, by reduction with nascent 
 hydrogen (as with sodium-ainalgam), will yield conversely 
 genuine mannite. A further support for this view is de- 
 rived from the fact that the action of hydriodie acid on 
 mannite produces the hydrocarbon hcxyleiic. Ci-.U,:. The 
 «,irro«<-, or cane-sugar group ( ('i2ll-n"ll >• wbieli coiupnscs 
 a largo class of isomeres, such as wlilux- (eucaly|itu8- 
 sugar), iiu'-lrtilane (larch-sugar), trclialiM (Turkish manna), 
 wi/coiir (ergot-sugar), /(k/o.c or milk-sugar (as a hydrate 
 nalurallv), and doubtless a great multitude of oilier iso- 
 meres. To these is to be added unihuir. the character- 
 istic constituent of gum anibic. These isomeres are formed 
 from the glucoses by the elimination of one equivalent of 
 water from a coupled molecule of the latter group : 
 
 [>'''■"« -1I..0 = 01,11250,,. 
 I bIIijOo 
 
 Tliev are therefore designated as (/iV//iiro»iV nlmhoU. 
 
 Little progress has been made as yet in penetrating the 
 nature of the relations which exist between Iho several 
 members of the aliove groups of sugar-isonieres respect- 
 ively, and no satisfactory reason can be suggested irlii/ they 
 are isomeres. The same remark applies to another no less 
 important group, eompriiing rrlliilnte. the ulnnhcn, initllue, 
 7/i/co</rN (animal starch, from livers and fn>tuses). etc.. which 
 are isomeres of the general formula rir«II,(iOs. closely re- 
 lated to tlie sugars. Two other isomeric sugars, of another 
 mode of grouping, may also bo montionod. Those are />i'ni(« 
 
 and qnercilc (California pine-sugar and acorn-sugar), which 
 aro both CoHuOs, and have been rated as probably alcohols 
 of pctitfitfttnic constitution. 
 
 Tlir Tnrtiirif Ariil Ui-oup. — This seems a well-character- 
 i/.ed group of natural isomeres, not to bo classed, so far as 
 known, with polyiuercs or metamcres ; comprising ordinary 
 or dej-tro-tartaric acid, hri'n-tartaric acid, raceniic acid, anil 
 iii<ic(i'cc((ir((tri'c acid; the last three discovered by Pasteur. 
 Action on polarized light and variation of crystalline form 
 are the distinguishing characteristics of these : raccmic acid 
 being a compound of dextro- and Itevo-tartaric acids, and 
 therefore inactive. Their common formula is V,Ucflr,- 
 
 Still another great and important griuip of pi'ihiible 
 isomeres occurs in nature, distributed very widely both in 
 animal and vegetable life. These are the proteine group, 
 or ;)ro(ciV/«, also called nlbiimiiwidn {for a special account 
 of which see the articles Albvmks and .Vi.in MtxoiDS. by 
 Prof. 0. F. CnAXDi,t:K: also the article .'Vi.ai'MiNiiKiA). 
 The considertition of the question as to whether this 
 familiar thougli mysterious group of substances consists 
 really of isomeres, or will ultimately be found to have some 
 other connection, cannot be entered into here. The whole 
 chemical nature of the protcids rests still in obscurity, and 
 the designation of them here as one of the groups of nat- 
 ural isomeres must be admitted as p4ssibly only conjectural. 
 The narrow acceptation of the term iaamcre, which has 
 been adopted above, can only be regarded as provisional, 
 and likely to be ephemeral. In the duo course of chemical 
 research it seems inevitable that the true molecular struc- 
 ture of .-ill these groups will sooner or later be evolved, and 
 thev will then, ot' course — while still remaining isomeres in 
 the" broad and general sense — either fall into one or other 
 of the groups below, or become appropriate subjects for 
 new and specific terms, in newer classifications, which will 
 more closely approximate to the true scheme of nature. 
 
 2. Pnfi/mrreH (Or. i7oA./|itpi)5. "of many parts"). — These 
 have also been called iwmeridcn, from i<ro(up>is. and iSea, 
 "form or aspect," signifying that they simulate in form or 
 formula the isomeres above.'' Polymeres constitute groups 
 which owe their similar centesimal composition to the fact 
 that their compound molecules contain the same elemental 
 molecules, condensed or combined in double, triple, or other 
 multiple weights in the same, or in multiple volumes. 
 
 2 \. Oriiiniic Polfimi-reM. — Of these, which are best known, 
 the case above, of olrfnint ijim and trlrnm;/!riir. will serve 
 as an excellent example; and it will be useful indeed to 
 cito here tho whole beautiful group of hydrocarbon polym- 
 eres to which these two belong. (See talilo on next page.) 
 
 A peculiar tlieoretieal interest attaches to this group, in 
 consequence of the fact that it constitutes not only a group 
 of polymeres, but also a scries of horaologues. being )iroba- 
 bly tho only extended series of compounds capable of hold- 
 ing among each other simultaneously these two relations. 
 (.See article lIoMOi.onv.J It is doubtless rather by virtue of 
 their being homologues, and not as polymeres, that they 
 constitute a distinct natural family, being frequently coex- 
 istent or congeneric as products of chemical change, ami 
 as a series being distinctly ;)ro'/rc«»i'i.'c in their jiliysieal and 
 chemical characters and "relations. The modes of deriva- 
 tion of some of these polymeres from others arc interesting. 
 Amyleno is converted into diamylene. from f'..,ll|oto finite, 
 or twice Iho number "f molecules condensed into the same 
 volume of vapor, by simiily dissolving in oil of vitriol. The 
 diamylene soon separates from this sedation as an oily 
 layer". Triamvleno and tctrauiyleno also, in which a sim- 
 ilar condensation to the Sivme vapor-volume of three and 
 four tiini'S the weight of matter, are formed by simply 
 heating nmylene with chloride of zinc, which latter takes 
 no part in the change. 
 
 There is another small but highly interesting group of 
 hydrocarbon polymeres, consisting of tho following mem- 
 bers; ^ 
 
 Acetylene, or ethinc 'iHj 
 
 Benzene, or benzole f'nlla 
 
 Cinnamene, or styrole t'sHs 
 
 The first of these is a gas, tho other two— which are per- 
 fectly entitle.l to the names triacetylene and lelrnectylcno 
 
 arc lic|iiids ; .and ciiinainene occurs also as a solid iso- 
 
 merc, ealle.l ni'laciiinmnciir, formed by simply superheating 
 the liquid fium under pressure. Cinnamene is found also 
 in nature as a eonstituoni of »t„rii.r. Benzene and cinna- 
 mene maybe formed by direct synthesis from acclylene, by 
 passing the latter through an incandescent tube. Tliesc 
 bodies'ill occur abundantly in the products of the coal-gas 
 retort, and bear the moat intimate relations to many others 
 
 •There is, however, some confusion of laneiiage here— some 
 writers applvlnit the term iiomi-rMfs Indiscriminately to polyin- 
 ercs and inctameres. The terms imhimrridr and mrlnmmile 
 Invc also been emploveil. sinipiv as svnonyms of iiolyuicrc and 
 metnmere— a complication of terras which seems wholly un- 
 necessary.
 
 i:J24 
 
 ISOMERISM, ETC. 
 
 of its products not polymeric with them. Thus, if diphenyl I tube, both benzene and cinnamcnc result : CijHio + C2H< = 
 
 (Ci2Hio).ahoilyfouuda88ocinted withanthracenoincuiil-tar, ('cHe + CgHg. Nnplitiialcne (("loUg), another most import- 
 is passed in vapor form, with olcliant gas, tlirough a red-hot ' ant constituent of coal-tar, and toluene (C'TlIa), still another. 
 
 The Known Poti/meric Olejinea, Cnlisn. 
 
 Carbon- 
 
 equivaleots, 
 
 C= 12. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 G 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 10 
 15 
 16 
 20 
 27 
 00 
 
 Methene Ainknown) 
 
 Etheue, ethylene, elayl, or oletiant gas 
 
 Propeac, or' propylene 
 
 Butene, or butyiene 
 
 Quinlene, or amylene 
 
 Sextene, or lu'xylene 
 
 Si'ptene, or licptylene 
 
 Octene, or uctylene 
 
 Nonene, or nonyleno 
 
 Decene, decalyle'ne, dianiylene (or " paramylene " of Balard) 
 
 Quindecene, or trianiyleiie 
 
 Sexdecene, ceteno, or cetylene 
 
 Vigintene, tetramyleno (or "metamylene" of Balard) 
 
 Septemvigintene, or cerotene 
 
 Trigintene, or melenc 
 
 CH, 
 
 C2H4 
 
 C3U, 
 
 CiH, 
 
 C5H1Q 
 
 C.ojLo 
 Ci.H,2 
 
 l,20''40 
 
 Centlerado 
 points or 
 fuBioD. 
 
 57° 
 62° 
 
 CcDtl grade 
 poinlH or 
 ebulIitioD. 
 
 — 110° 
 
 — 17.8° 
 -(- 3° 
 
 35° 
 69° 
 9.5° 
 119° 
 140° 
 165° 
 248° 
 275° 
 395° 
 
 •t 
 375°? 
 
 0.97 
 1.45 
 1.94 
 2.42 
 2.91 
 3.39 
 3.87 
 4.36 
 4.84 
 7.60 
 7.75 
 9.70 
 13.09 
 11.80? 
 
 arc also most intimately related to benzene and anthracene. 
 Thus, vapor of toluene in the red-hot tube may be meta- 
 morphosed as follows : . 
 
 BenzcDC. Naphthalene. 
 
 4C7H8 = SCellc + C'loHs + 3H2; and 
 
 Aulhraccne. 
 
 2C7ll8 = CuHio + 3H2. 
 
 The consideration of these, with a great many other similar 
 transfi)rniation3 among these hyJrocarbon.'^. produced by 
 simple contact with incandescent surfaces, which have been 
 observed by Berthelot and others, throw great light upon 
 the processes that occur within the gas-retort. 
 
 Connected with the great isomeric group of the terpenes^ 
 which have been referred to above, there are believed to bo 
 probably some polymeres, among which arc the essential 
 oils of cubebs and copaiba, C-ioIl32. The two important 
 substances caoutchouc and (jntta pcrcha have also been held 
 to bo terpenc-poly meres, but Bert helot's investigations 
 have cast doubt upon this view. Cyanogen, in its com- 
 pounds, appears to have a peculiar tendency to form poly- 
 meric groups. The most remarkable of these is as follows : 
 
 Cyanic acid CIINO. 
 
 Fulminic acid C2U2N2O2. 
 
 Cyan uric acid CsUsNsOa. 
 
 Fulminuric acid CallaNyOs. 
 
 Of these the last, however, is doubtless a metamere of 
 cyanuric acid, as it is bibasic, while the latter is tribasie. 
 From the three strictly polymeric acids above formulated 
 it will be readily understood that there may arise a great 
 number of polymeric groups of salts. Thus, the silver- 
 saUs arc constituted as follows : 
 
 Argentic cyanatc CX.\gO. 
 
 Argentic fulminate C2N2Ag20a. 
 
 Argentic cyanurate CsNsAgaOa. 
 
 The second of these is the celebrated /«/wni.i//H/;-«i7rcr 
 compound. Other polymeric cyanogen compounds are the 
 two chlorides : 
 
 Gaseous chloride of cyanogen CNCl, 
 
 Solid chloride of cyanogen.., C3N3CI3. 
 
 The first of those, at ordinary temperatures, may bo con- 
 verted into a !i(T[uid by a pressure of four atmospheres, and 
 when then scaled up passes gradually into the solid com- 
 pound. 
 
 The nUlehytle polymercs are highly interesting illustra- 
 tions. Strong sulphuric acid, gaseous muriatic acid, chlo- 
 ride of zinc, and other agents, by their mere presence, 
 transform oniinary aldphyde, according to the temperature, 
 into one or the other of two solid fiolymeres, ;>rtr«/f/r/((/f/<' 
 for el'i/ifr/nf,f,), and tuftn/ii>h>/'h\ The hitter, being very 
 unstable and passing readily hack to the form of ordinary 
 aldehyde, is not much known, but the other two have the 
 following properties and composition : 
 
 a„ „. RoniiiR- Vapor- 
 
 "P- «'^' point*. dcQsltie* 
 
 Aldehyde 0.790 22*^ 1.525 
 
 Paraldehyde...0.998 121° 4.516 
 There is still another polymere of aldehyde, a liquid called 
 altfof, which is considered as containing two molecules of 
 the former condensed into one, but is somewhat unstable, 
 and hence not so well known. Anhyilrous chhn-ol {C-j, 
 HCI5O), which may Vie considered as a chlorinated deriva- 
 tive of aldehyde, changes spontaneously from a liquid into j cations of 
 an insohiblc solid substance, most probalily a polymere. [ tliniorphism, 
 One more interesting case of probable polymerism may be - ■ 
 noticed, oeeurring in the ease of another familiar body, 
 oleic acid, which, by the mere presi-ncc of nitrous acid, is 
 changed from a liquid into a solid isomcre called etaiiiic 
 acid. 
 
 Formulre. 
 
 C3II4O. 
 C6H12O3. 
 
 2 B. Inorganic Poli/mercs. — There are a few cases known, 
 among compounds of strictly mineral origin, in which well- 
 marked polymerism is recognized. Some of these are as 
 follows : Peroxide of nitrnr/eu, or nitrogen tetro.vidc, which 
 is held by some investigators to be at low temperatures a 
 solid or colorless liquid compound (N2O4), which by heat 
 is resolved or dissociated into two moU-cules of a deep-red 
 gas (NO2). having twice the vapor-v{>lume for the same 
 weight. This, however, has been deemed unsettled by some 
 other chemists. Mctaphosphntc of Soda. — When the amor- 
 phous glassy metaphosphatc obtained by fusing microcos- 
 mic salt is cooled slowly, another modification is crystal- 
 lized out of it; and a third isomere is obtained by the 
 action of an excess of phosphoric acid on sodic sulphate. 
 It has been considered that these arc three polymercs: 
 
 NaP03, 
 
 Na2P-.0c, 
 and NasPaOg. 
 Autimoitic aud Mctantimoiiic Acidsf aud their Salts. — Two 
 modifications of antimonie oxide (SbjOs) are formed by 
 the action of water on antimonie ]>entaehloride (SbC'Ut and 
 by the action of nitric acid on metallic antimony ; the last 
 being monobasic antimonie acid, and the first bibasic met- 
 antimonie acid. The normal antiraonates and acid motan- 
 timonates have assigned to tliem the following general 
 formula^, which make them polymercs: 
 
 2M2O, RbaOs. and 
 
 2M2O, 2Sb205. 
 The crystalline mineral vtibuitc, lead-gray, with high me- 
 tallic lustre, and in ])owdcr grayish-black, and the artifi- 
 cial briek-red antimonious sulpliide, formerly called hcrmca 
 inincral, arc isomeric, both being empirically Sb2S3, and 
 arc readily convertible. The difference of their densities 
 is sufficient (-1.15 for the artificial and 4,57 for the natural 
 compound) to suggest polymerism. The differences in 
 density between the three crystallized mineral forms of ti- 
 tanic acid, octahcilritf, hrool-itr, and riitifc, justifies a belief 
 that they may be polymercs as well as polymorphs. Their 
 densities and hardnesses range as follows : 
 
 niirdiicts. DcD.'tity. 
 
 Octahedrite (Arkansito) 5.5 to C 3.8.S 
 
 Brookite 5.5 to C 4.06 
 
 Ilutilo 6 to 6.5 4.22 
 
 Sfnunic and vtetaatanuic acids are well-established poly- 
 nieros : 
 
 Stannic acid SnO^.lI-.'O. 
 
 Metastannic acid 8n.-,Oio,51laO- 
 
 The first is formed by precipitating a soluble stannatowith 
 an acid ; the second by the action of nitric acid upon me- 
 tallic tin. Their salts are, however, not polymeric, being 
 constituted as follows : 
 
 Rtannatcs MjO.SnOs. 
 
 Metastannates MjO.lHaO.tSnsOio. 
 
 The two mineral crystallized v.inc-sulphides. t'phafrrite, or 
 blende, and uurtzitCf have been supposed to bo jiojymeres, 
 ZnS and ZnaSs, as well as dimorphs. They do not. how- 
 over, differ much in their densities, these being 4.05 and 
 3.98. Among mercury compounds there are two cases of 
 probable polymerism — that of the red feinnabarl and black 
 forms of mercuric sulphide, and the re<l and yellow modifi- 
 -uric iodide. The latter is also a ense of 
 One more ease that may be mentioned is that 
 of the' two mineral crystallized forms of ferric bi-iulphide, 
 mnrcositc and pi/rite — right rhombic and cubical in erys- 
 tallization, and therefore dimorphous — and having differ- 
 ing densities, 4.7(1 and 5.1. Berzelius pointed out that a 
 great range of substances undergo, at a certain temperature
 
 ISOMERISM, ETC. 
 
 Vi-ir, 
 
 Approaching ignition, a profound change of state, the point | 
 being indicated by a sudden evolution of heiU j.rodueing n 
 sudden incandescent glow that runs over the mass, and 
 changes being produced in density, hardness, color, and 
 siilubility in acids. Among these substances are lirconia, 
 lilnnir, ami lanlalic acids, chromic oxide, ferric oxide, 
 pyrnphntphiilc of m<i</ne«m, and a great many others. The 
 great changes in properties that occur during this glow 
 would seem to indicate molecular condensations; in other 
 words, polvmerisni. , 
 
 3. .IWof,"..;,!.;,! ( Or. aAA.dTpoiros. adj., "changeable ). This 
 term was initially applied by Berzelius to cases in which 
 an e^emen^nr^ body exhibits two or more forms, distinct in 
 physical ami ofteii in chemical characters. As, however, 
 according to our accepted views of the molecular constitu- 
 tion of bodies, no rational explanation of these cases can 
 be assigned except polymeric association of two or more 
 elemental molecules, it follows that this division of our 
 subject is intimately connected with the preceding ilivision. 
 It will bo convenient, however, for purposes of classifica- 
 tion to retain the term of Berzelius. Some seven or more 
 of the elcmcnlsare known to assume these allotropic states. 
 Oxi/yen, ttilphur, phoiphnrim, carbon, silicnii. boron, and 
 riVconiiiM are accepted cases, and to these wc believe might 
 bo rcasonablv ad<k-d iron and nlKminum. Oxi/r/en and 
 n:nne are familiar allotropcs. The density of ozone, as 
 now known I'rom the determinations of different chemists 
 m:i'le by different methods, shows that it is formed liy the 
 condensation of three volumes of ordinary oxygen gas 
 into two volumes. The remarkable and suggestive fact 
 seems also to have been made out by a recent investigator, 
 Ilollmann, that during this condensation heat disappears to 
 the amount of at least 35oJ thermal units for weight. Our 
 American chemist, Oscar Loew, has also shown thiit the 
 products of ordinary free flame, as of coal-gas in air, ex- 
 hibitozonc reactions. Whenever a thorough discussion and 
 generalization shall be made by some competent chemist 
 of our present knowledge of the relations of these two allo- 
 tropcs to each other and to other bodies, we may expect some 
 important new glimpses into the secret system of nature. 
 • .'Sulphur assumes at least five—some believe six— allo- 
 tropic forms, two of which are crystalline, crystallizing 
 in different systems, and being therefore diniorphs, and 
 four of which are amor/j/ioii/i, or belong also to the next 
 division of our subject. Three of the six forms are soluble 
 in bisulphide of carbon, and the other three arc insoluble. 
 The soluble forms arc the right rhombic octahedrons of 
 native sulphur (which crystallize out again in the same 
 form from the solution), and the monoclinic sulphur formed 
 by solidification from fusion; the third soluble sulphur 
 being the substance precipitated as milk of snlphur by an 
 acid,"from alkaline solutions of sulphur. This last is prob- 
 ably the amorph corresponding to the native crystalline 
 allotrope, as it passes in time into small octahedrons. Wo 
 find in tlio two crystalline snlphur-allotropes an illustra- 
 tion of the view thrown out above, that elemental allotropcs 
 may be essentially polyinercs: for the densities of the two 
 are perceptibly apart,"lhat of prismatic crystals from fu- 
 sion being abo'ut 1.9S, while the native transparent crystals 
 arc 2.(172. nearly .') per cent, greater. '■ Flowers" of sul- 
 phur fsublimed) consist chiefly of the amorphous soluble 
 modification, passing slowly of course into the crystalline 
 condition. 
 
 None of the insoluble modifications arc known in crys- 
 talline form. One is produceil by suilden cooling of melted 
 sulphur, an.l is traiispannt. reddish-brown, soft, flexible, 
 anil somewhat elastic. In Ibis condili'in it has a density 
 of l.'.Ki, about Iho same as the monoclinic soluble crystals, 
 of which it is the amoriih, and into which it soon passes. 
 Another is formed by the action of water on the chloride 
 of sulphur, SjCI^: a third by the actii.n of ferric solutions 
 on sulphurette.l hvdrogen when passed through Iho same. 
 
 Another broail and highly import.ant natural ilislinction 
 bolwecn the sulphur-allotro'pes was discovered by the great 
 chemist Uertlielot. lie found that when eleetrolyzed, basylio 
 compounds of sulphur, or those with the elcclro-positivo 
 elements I including hydrogen), give lolMe sulphur at the 
 ano.lr, while acidic compounds, or those with electro-nega- 
 tive elements, yield intoluble sulphur at the cathode ; tho 
 soluble allotropcs being therefore the acidic or electro-neg- 
 alive sulphurs, and the insoluble allotropcs tho basylio or 
 cleetrn-pimitire sulphurs. 
 
 Pliotphorui forms three beautifully defined known allo- 
 tropcs, almost aa well characterized as those of carbon, de- 
 scribed below. (a) Ilraudl'ii I'lfitphorun. the common 
 commercial form— soft, wax-like, yellowish, and translu- 
 cent; mclls at 41" C, and boils at 2S0°. Oy.-tallizcs in 
 regular dodecahedrons. Kindles in air— but not in oxygen 
 
 into spontaneous, slow, luminous combustion. Is one of 
 
 the deadliest known poisons. Is soluble in bisulphide of 
 carbon, and to some extent in petroleums and fatly oils. 
 
 When purified by sublimation may assume the form of 
 transparent, colorless cubes of adamantine lustre (Blond- 
 lot). ib\ Sell roller a I'hoaphoriu. the red amoi7)/ioii« allo- 
 trope. — Brown-red. opaipie, brittle, infusible; does not 
 shine or change appreciably in air under 200° C. (300° F.). 
 Insoluble in everything, and not poisonous, (c) Hilior/'t 
 Pliotphonm. the meiolloidut allotrope. — Violet-black rhom- 
 bohcdral crystals, translucent; conducts electricity feebly. 
 The densities of these three allotropcs are as follows: 
 
 Common phosphorus about 1.80 or 1.90 
 
 Schrotler's '' " 2.10 
 
 Hittorfs " " 2.30 
 
 They must be admitted as most probably elementary pobj- 
 mercs. 
 
 Carbon. — Of this clement there are two crystalline di- 
 morphous allotropcs — diamond and ijrapliitc — both of which 
 are too familiar to need special description. Formerly, it 
 was supposed that there was still a third amorplionx form, 
 exemplified in charcoal, anthracite, gas-carbon, etc. ; but it 
 is now known that these all contain hydrogen, and are in 
 reality composed of hydrocarbons of highly condensed 
 molecules. The densities of graphite and diamond arc 
 about 2.16 and 3.54, and they arc doubtless polymeric. 
 Some have rated the massive or amorphous graphites, like 
 those of Borrowdale, Wuusiedcl. etc., as a third modifica- 
 tion, but there is no specific difference in density, and tho 
 point is still uncertain. 
 
 Silicon. — This element is believed to assume three alio, 
 tropic forms — two crystalline and one amorphous. One of 
 the crystalline forms seems to correspond to the diamond 
 form of carbon, the other to the grajihite form. The for- 
 mer is fusible at a high heat, the other infusible. 
 
 Boron has but twoknown forms— one crystalline, closely 
 approaching diamond in hardness, lustre, transparency, 
 and refractive power, while in the other form it is a dull, 
 greenish-brown powder. 
 
 Zirconium. — This element is parallel to silicon in its allo- 
 tropic forms, which are three in number — adainantoid, 
 graphitoid. and amorphous. The ndamantoid form has 
 the color and lustre of antimony, but is very hard, like 
 diamond. 
 
 Iron. — Some consider the so-ealled aclire and pnstire 
 states of iron in reference to solvents as indicating two 
 allotropic states. 
 
 yUiimiiiKm.— This metal, which is ordinarily highly in- 
 different to oxygen, either of air or water, is so profbun.lly 
 modified in its attitude thereto by mere couiact wiili mrr- 
 cnry. that it oxidizes spontaneously in the air. with suffi- 
 cient rapidity to develop strong bent, with a rapid efilores- 
 ceneo of hydrate of alumina. This was first observed by 
 the present writer in isi;". It is believed by him to indi- 
 cate an allotropic modification of aluminum. 
 
 4. Amnrphi'm (Or. o, privative, and iiopijiii, "form," 
 meaning " without crystalline form or structure "). Vri/pio. 
 cr'/ntallizution ((ir. Kpuitrdt, "hidden," and «pii<TT<iAAo5 ) is 
 also a term often used in this same conneclion, nicaning a 
 crystalline internal structure on a scale so infiiiifesimaf or 
 so' confused, or both, as to be beyond the power of our 
 microscopes. Masaive is another term often ajiiiliid, 
 particularly to mineral species when erypto-crystallino. 
 Those inor</oiiiV bodies arc called amnrphom which luno 
 never been found to assume geometrical forms externally 
 or to exhibit internal crystalline cleavage. As the evidence 
 of amorphism is usually merely ne-jotirc evidence, there is 
 often much doubt of its reality, and as to whelher the 
 amorphous state is not sometimes due to erypto-criiniollinc 
 structure. Internal cleavage is very far from being a con- 
 stant occurrence in bodies having external crystal forms, 
 and its absence is fhcrcforo cquatly far from being i)roof 
 of absence of the crystalline eomlition. It is also kii..wn 
 that in numerous cases of bodies which lend to crystallize 
 with eiisc, the mere jircscnce of some other matter in small 
 proportion may so interfere as to cause an apparent amor- 
 phism, which, in siunc of these eases, maybe easily proved 
 ro be due only to crypto-crystallizalion. It is easy to un- 
 derstand that two or more bodies dissolved together in the 
 same menstruum, or dissolved in each other, may possess 
 crystalline forces or tendencies so inlrrfering with, or in- 
 deed altogether antagonizing, each other, as to confuse or 
 ttltogetlier neutralize thai p<jlaric disposition of the uoili-- 
 eulcs which conslitutes the crystalline structure. Anuilu r 
 range of facts having a bearing here is prcsenteil by bodies 
 o( arilreouH and rr«iio>i(« kind— like ordinary glass, for ex- 
 ample which were early assumed lo present a ii/piral awor- 
 
 phiam. but in a great many <if which crystalline slroclure 
 has been since developed, by slow superficial solution or 
 corrosion, and many id which have also been found to be- 
 come crystalline when kept for sufficiently long periods at 
 temperatures near fusion. 
 
 These considerations, with others, have inflneneed some 
 students of nature to deny the existence of any really
 
 i;]20 
 
 ISOMETRICAL. 
 
 amorphous solid state of matter, and to maintain that < 
 
 solidity 13 essentially iiu effect of crystallization; and hence 
 that all solid matter must he erystallint'. A question is 
 here involved of grt-ut and fundamental importance to 
 science, whoso investigation has been much nej^lected. 
 Among the main products of organic life arc many bodies 
 a)>parently soluble iu water — starch, jfriatitte, f/tti>i, and al- 
 hiimeii are familiar examples — which have never been ob- 
 tained in crystalline forms. Among bodies entirely inor- 
 ganic there are a few similar examples now. known, of 
 which thc'most familiar is soluble amorphous hitica. The 
 great chemist Graham discovered that these bodies do not 
 really fr>rm true solutions in water, but that they could be 
 sfparated from tlie water and from other substances really 
 dissolved therein by straining or diffusion through mem- 
 branous diaphragms. Graham therefore projjosed a new 
 natural classification of all bodies into coUoifh and cryB- 
 ttiUoifiif. vSo far as we yet know, the colloid bodies of 
 Graham, if no others, would ajipear to be true amorphs ; 
 and until these can be made to assume crystalline structure, 
 the ancient theory of amorphism, and the ancient classifi- 
 cation of solids into crystals and amorphs. must still hold ; 
 and we must allow that solidity is not solely a couscquenco 
 of cryi^talline cohesion or concretion — that is, of polariza- . 
 tion of the molecules — but that there exist other cohesive ' 
 solidifying forces in nature not yet well defined by science : 
 — forces, or modes of force, which, when we consider that ' 
 all orifdnic bodies are substautially based upon colloid or 
 amorphous compounds, would appear to be in the most in- 
 timate relations to life, and therefore to call for the most 
 anxious and concentrated study. (See further under the 
 head of Somatology.) ' 
 
 Some special cases of amorphism are as follows: 
 {(i) Ehmcntnrif Amorphft. — Under the head of nf/ofmpJKin 
 most if not all of these have already lieen referred to. Wo 
 have, in forms probably, or at least possibly, amorphous, 
 the elements sutphur, phosphorus, ftHicou, boron, and zir- 
 conium. Carbon, as amorphous graphite, is doubtful. Some 
 chemists have held the view that the known pyrophoric 
 forms that some raetals are capable of assuming, such as 
 irou, uir/.-cf, cabalt, lend, au'l others, are amorphous forms; 
 also that plfttinvm-blnrk and r/old in the black, impalpable 
 form, are amorphs. These views, however, are not yet es- 
 tablished. 
 
 (6) Compound Inorganic Amorphs. — Of these, the opaline 
 or amorphous state of silica has already been mentioned, 
 hut there are other forms of this compound which should 
 be here referred to. Silica assumes two crystalline forms, 
 which, though seemingly of the same crystalline system, 
 are not the same thing, being doubtless polymeres. as the 
 common form, r/iinrtz, has a density of 2.0(13. or over IB per 
 cent, higher than tridi/mitr. which is but 2.25, like opal. 
 Now, there is still another form of amorphous and soluble 
 silica, which appears to exist, in admixture with quartz, in 
 flint, chalcedony, etc.. and which has the higlier density of 
 quartz. Prof. Dana has suggested to call this form jenz- 
 schite. after Jenzsnh, the mineralogist who first pointed it 
 out. It appears, therefore, that we must now admit four 
 distinct forms of silica — quartz, with its amorph jenzschite, 
 and tridymite, a polymere as well as an isomorph of quartz, 
 with it» amorph, which is common opaline silica. Another 
 inorganic compound — whose amorph is known to be ditfuj^i- 
 b!o throughout water as a perfect transparent colloid or 
 quasi-solution, similar to those of starch, gelatine, etc. — is 
 the ferric hydrate. Probably chromic and aluminic hy- 
 drates might admit of being handled in the same w.ay. 
 The hydrates of ferric oxide and alumina are moreover 
 found native as minerals which possess crystalline struc- 
 ture. Arsenious add, when fused, has been supposed to 
 solidify to an amorphous mass which is transparent and 
 glassy. It passes spontaneously into an opaque crystalline 
 form, more soluble in w.ater, similar to the crystals which 
 condense on sublimation. Fused borax and boracic acid 
 and photphnric add have all been claimed as amorphs. 
 Many crystalline anhydrous mineral silicates which are' 
 unacted upon by acids pass when fused, often even when 
 only ignitfil, with change of density, into what have been 
 supposed to be amorphous states, becoming easily soluble 
 in or decomposable by acids. Among thcs*- are some fjar- 
 nets, vcMiiriaiittc, axinitc, rpidotes, piedmoutite, zoiaite, dan- 
 burilc, icpiiiofite, tonrntalines, and others. 
 
 (c.) Ortfanie Amorphs. — These, as already intimated, are 
 numerous. Excluding the bony portions of animal bodies, 
 with their muscular juices, and certain constituents of the 
 sap of some plants, it may be said that almost the whole 
 bulk of both these kingdoms of nature is built up of amor- 
 phous or colloid compounds. In the case of plants, even 
 the mineral matter, silica, which seems in many cases to be 
 the nnalogue of the animal skeleton, is an amorphous 
 hofly. The crystalline suffam — sucmnp, g/ucosr, etc. — pass 
 when fused into amorphous forms. Other common organic 
 
 amorphs are most revius, caoutchoucs, gallotannic add. cel- 
 lulose, the proteids generally, vntdiie, pepsine, kcratine, 
 hitirubiuc, and bifivirdinc, vlmic and hiimic substances, 
 coaly matters, etc. etc. Great numbers have not been in- 
 vestigated or isolated, because they are amorphous, and 
 hence cannot be purified by crystallization. 
 
 5. Polymorphism (including Dimorphinm and Trimorph- 
 /»ih), ((Jr. TroAuMop»i»o?, " having many forms"). When an 
 element or comj)ound forms crystals which belong to two 
 different systems of crystallization {on which subject see 
 Crvstam-ouraphy) it is called dimorphous ; when to three 
 diScrent .systems, trimorphoua. The only reasonable ex- 
 planation of polymorphism is polymerism, and several of 
 the known cases have been referred to, therefore, in the 
 preceding paragraphs under that head. The elementary 
 bodies known or believed to be dimorphous are carbon, 
 sulphur, selcuium, phosphorus, boron, giUcon, zirconium, 
 iridium, palladium, had, tin, copper, arsenic, fintimouy, and 
 bismuth. Among compounds some of the more remarkable 
 cases known of dimorphism and trimorphism may be cited 
 as examples: Uinttirph". — Arsenious acid and antimoniotts 
 oxide {A52O3 and SbzOs) both crystallize in the regular 
 and trimetric systems, and are therefore isodimftrphoua. 
 Stannic acid (SnOa) is said by I>ana to crystallize in two 
 of the three forms of titanic add (TiOs), and therefore to 
 be isodimorphous with the latter. Mercuric iodide (referred 
 to above). Sulphide 0/ zinc, as the minerals blende and 
 XDurtzite (referred to above). Pyrite and marcasitv, yellow 
 and white iron-bisulphide, monouietric and orthorhombic. 
 tSalfpftre (KNO3), hexagonal and trimetric. Lead pro- 
 toxide (PbO), monometric and ortliovhombic (Mitscherlich). 
 Trimorphs. — The three forms of titanic add have been 
 explained. Besides the hexagonal and trimetric forms of 
 calcic carbonate, calcitc and aragonite, Dana considers 
 that the monoelinic form of baryto-calcite. composed of 
 equal equivalents of calcic and baric carbonates, indicates 
 further a case of trimorphism. Moreover, as baryto-calcite 
 is itself dimorphous, having a trimetric form in bromlite, 
 like witherife, this view is thus strengthened. Crystallized 
 nickel-sulphate ( NiU.SOa.TIhO) is stated to crystallize in 
 three systems — dimetric, trimetric, and monoelinic. 
 
 (j. Metamerism. — (This important branch of the subject 
 will be discussed under a separate head. See, therefore, 
 the word Metamkrism.) Hr.nkv Wi'ktz. 
 
 Isomet'rical [Gr. io-o?. "equal," and fifxpoi*, "meas- 
 ure"']. Isometrieal projection is a species of orthographic 
 Projection in which but cme plane of projection is employed. 
 t is used by engineers and architects in delineating struc- 
 tures whose principal lines are parallel to three rectangular 
 axes. The plane of projection is taken so as to make 
 equal angles with these axes; consequently, the projection 
 of any line parallel to either axis bears a constant ratio to 
 the line itself. The three axes are called co-ordinate axes, 
 and the planes of these axes, taken two and two, arc called 
 co-ordinate planes ; one of the three planes is usually taken 
 horizontal, and that one is called the horizontal plane ; a 
 second is taken in front of the point from which the object 
 is viewed, and that is called the frontal jtlane ; and the 
 third is taken to the left of the point of view, and that is 
 called the lateral plane. The plane of projection is sup- 
 posed to pass through the point of intersection of the three 
 axes, which point is then called the centre of projection. 
 The projections of the co-ordinate axes pass through the 
 centre of projection, and make equal angles — that is, angles 
 of 120° — with each other: these projections arc called the 
 directing lines of the jirojection. If we construct a scale 
 of equal parts on either axis, its ]»rojection on the corre- 
 sponding directing line will beaseale of eqnal parts, which 
 is called the scale of that directing line; the scales of all 
 the directing lines arc the same, and may be assumed at 
 pleasure. 
 
 To explain the method of projecting points isometrically, 
 let A be the centre of pro- 
 jection, Ax, Ay, and Az the 
 directing lines, and suppose 
 Az\yt he vertical. Then, to 
 constructthe jirojeetion ofa 
 point whose distance from 
 the frontal plane is 2, whose 
 distance from the lateral 
 plane is 4, antl whoso dis- 
 tance from the horizontal 
 plane is 5, lay off Ay equal 
 to 2 from the assumed scale 
 of the directing line ; from 
 7/ draw yx parallel to Ax, 
 and aw it lay off yx, equal 
 from X draw xz parallel to Az, and make it equal 
 then will z bo the required projection. In like 
 manner, any point may be projected when we know its 
 distances from the co-ordinate planes. To project a line 
 
 to 4; 
 to 5
 
 ISOMORPHISM, ETC. 
 
 1327 
 
 which is parallel to one of the axes, construct the pro;ection 
 of one of it:* extremities as just explained: then from the 
 point thus determinLMi draw a line panilkl to the corrc- 
 fipondin^ directiii-; liuf, and on it hiy off, from llit' sealc, the 
 length of the ^iveu line. To project a line that is not par- 
 allel to any axis, pnycct its extremitie?. and join the pro- 
 jections hy a straight line. To project a curve, pruject a 
 sufficient number of points, and through their projections 
 draw a curved line. These principles are sulhi'ient to make 
 an isometrical projection of any structure whatever. 
 
 In drawings of machinery it is often desirable to project 
 circles whose planes are parallel to one of the planes of 
 projection. Such pro- ^ 
 
 jeclions may be made as 
 follows : construct the 
 centre.^ of theprojection 
 in accordance with the 
 rule given for construct- 
 ing the projection of a 
 given point, and suppose 
 the plane of the given 
 circle to be parallel to the 
 frontal plane: through C 
 draw CE parallel to Ax, 
 and make it equal to the 
 radiu:j of the given circle 
 to the scale of the direct- 
 ing lines; also draw CD 
 parallel to Az, and make it equal to the radius of the 
 given circle : on ('£,'and CD, as equal eemi-conjugato diam- 
 eter.", construct au ellipse, and it will be the projection of 
 the given circle. W. (J. Peck. 
 
 Isomorph'ism, Hom(romorphi8m« Isosterism 
 and Piiraliclosterisin, Isotoniv, Polymeric Iso- 
 morphism, Allomerism, Ilc'tcromorphism, He- 
 niimor|>liism. Thc-^e terms are all so intimaicly re- 
 lated to each other in the language of chemistry that they 
 should be explained in connection with each other. 
 
 /nomorphism (Or. iaos, "equal," and fioptt>tj, "form"). 
 I«omorphs. or isomorphous bodies, are bodies which crys- 
 tallize in forms belonging to the same system of crystalli- 
 zation, and having crystalline axes that bear the same pro- 
 portions to each other. (See article on CnvsTALLOGRAi'iiv, 
 by PROK. Thomas Eglestox.) The Abbe Haiiy, the father 
 of crystallography, imagined that every distinct chem- 
 ical body had a distinct crystal form, specific to itself. 
 Nearly a century since, however, Werner began to throw 
 doubt on this, by demonstrating the precise similarity be- 
 tween the hexagonal prisms of the two native phosphates 
 of lime and lead. Leblanc, Vauquclin, Borthicr, WoUaston, 
 and Gay-Lussac followed up the direction thus indicated, 
 until at length Mitscherlich announced, in ISl'O, as a grand 
 generalization, that correspondence of crystalline form 
 shows parallelism in chemical nature or correspondence in 
 chemical structure, and conversely. The stuily and devel- 
 opment of this prineiplo or general law, and of the per- 
 turbations to which it is subject through many influences, 
 has contributed wonderfully to our insight into nature. It 
 may, for example, he said to be the corner-stone of miner- 
 niotfif as a branch of chemical science, and without it chem- 
 ical science in general would bo far behind its present po- 
 sition. 
 
 Isomorphism, in the narrow sense of the term, as signi- 
 fying exfirt equality of form, is found, strictly speaking, 
 only in bodies which cr^'stallize in the regular or isoraetrio 
 system. The term homtpamorphiam {(ir. ofiotoc, " similar," 
 and M^o/xfrij) is much preferable, as a word of more general 
 application. Among the most familiar illustrations of the 
 principle are those constiintly occurring cases in which n 
 complex molecular group has one or several of its elemental 
 molecules substituted, either wholly or partially, by other 
 clenients. In this case there will be usually fiKind in all 
 the anisoraetric systems, or those having unequtil axes, that 
 variations will follow in the relative lengths or inclinations 
 of the axes, leading to variations of the angles of the crys- 
 tal ; while in regular crystal!' such variation of equality of 
 axes or of angles, which would be, in reality, a passage to 
 another system, can never, in the nature of things, occur. 
 
 It has been inevitable that in the past the study of the 
 relations of crystalline form and chemical composition, in- 
 eluding homo?omorphisiii, has been ehietly among crys- 
 tals found in nature, of which viiitrrdh furnish abnost all 
 the examples. The generalizations, therefore, of the earlier 
 students of this branch of science were unquestionably far 
 too narrow; and even as early as IH;J2, \ on Kobell pre- 
 sented broader views. Not to enter into the history of the 
 subject, which would require great space, its ])rescnt con- 
 dition may bo summed up by saying thtit as a result of 
 uniting the modern views, generalized chiefly from the dis- 
 coveries in organic chemistry, autl known as the theory of 
 equivalence (sco article on CnESiiSTKY, by Prtor. Oko. F. 
 
 Barkkr), with the facts of homoeomorphisra in the min- 
 eral kingdom, our famous American philosopher, James I). 
 Dana of New llavcn. has recently adopted theoretical 
 views which appear to reconcile and to cover most of 
 the facts known, and to furnish a basis for the classili- 
 cation of chemical compounds in accordance with both 
 chemical composition and mineral homoeomorphism. Prof. 
 Dana's generalization may be expressed thus: 7'fic ircifjhts 
 of the metals or other clemente ichich comhiiie with equal and 
 equivalent tovttfhtn of oxygen, ttulpkur, or other electro-nerja- 
 tivc or chlorous efemcnt, arc those ichich replace each other 
 isomorphousft/ or homocomorphousli/. While the ordinary 
 modern views of equivalence and classification arc founded 
 on a comparison of, or reduction to, the types of hydroijcn- 
 compounds, such as fratcr, ammonia, and marsh-gas, the 
 wider and more comprehensive scheme used by Dana may 
 properly bo considered as a theory of physico-chemical 
 correlation of the metallic or basylous elements with oxy- 
 gen and other acidic elements. Whether the two schemes 
 can be reconciled and made consistent with each other, re- 
 mains to bo seen. Homteomorphism among carbo-hydro- 
 gen compounds has been studied as yet comparatively little, 
 and wo cannot know how it may yet modify the views of 
 organic chemists. 
 
 In reference to this question, it may indeed be very sug- 
 gestively pointed out that our present prevailing theories 
 of molecular relations in organic chemistry, and the sys- 
 tems of nomenclature, notation, and classification that they 
 have, in a manner, /orfCf^ on tlic chemical world — arising, 
 as they did originally, from the illustrious Laurent's idea 
 in KSIG of the reduction of alcohols and ethers to the 
 " water-type," followed up by our great American chemist, 
 Sterry Hunt, in 1S48, by the reduction of all oxygen-acids 
 theoretically to the same type — are generalized and rea- 
 soned c.r(7»«fr»7// fr<»m the phenomena and relations of 
 oxygen and hydrogen to each other and to other elements 
 while in one special condition — Ihc yascous condition — of 
 matter; a contlition of matter as widely separated as pos- 
 sible from the crystal condition; in which latter certain 
 modes of f(jrce must act. that in gases are wholly neutral- 
 ized or latent. Hence, the belief can scarcely be resisted 
 that the generalizations of the organic chemists can be but 
 partial and imperfect ones, and that they must yet be sub- 
 jected to the test of comparison with the relations which 
 will be found among the rrystahoi organic compounds. 
 
 From Dana's view it follows — or, rather, one of the promi- 
 nent facts on which the view is based is — that different 
 oxides, chlorides, and sulphides of the same metal may all 
 be isomorphs or honKr-oinorphs. For exani])le : Fe203, 
 FesO^, and FeSa arc all found in the regular system. Dana 
 formulates these, hypothetically, as follows: Fe^O, Fe^o, 
 and Fe^^R ; the weights Fc;., Fca, and Fci being isomor- 
 phous, or actxially of the same form in crystals. He ex- 
 presscs-the law nearly thus: 7'/(c replacing rahie in rrysiah 
 equals the Cinnbining pinrcv (with a chlorous element). lie- 
 sides these, iron combines with oxygen in two other pro- 
 portions, FeO and FeOs ; and there are therefore five 
 weights of iron, which are equivalent to each other in crys- 
 talline form, and should repliice caidi other with(mt change 
 of crystalline system — namely, Fe, Fe-.. Fct, Fci, Fcj. Dana 
 calls these (crystallogcnically) the statet* of iron, and desig- 
 nates them by the letters of the Greek alphabet. Fe being 
 «/y»Afi-iron, Fe^ tctn-iron, Fci gamma-\xou, an interme- 
 diate state (not known in ease of iron) M'> being the me- 
 tallic (/e/^r-state, Fei r;Mi7on-iron, and so on. Any metallic 
 oxide of one of these crystal-states should replace any oxido 
 of any other crystal-state of the same metal, or even of any 
 other cryslnl-slate of any other metal, homwomorphously. 
 So of sulphitles or of chlorides. The enormous breadth 
 thus given to our views of homoMimorphism may probably 
 be somewhat restricted and moditicd by future investiga- 
 tions, but known cases appear to justify the above state- 
 ment quite to its fullest extent. In the further extension 
 of these views to the clefming of the basic and acidic rela- 
 tions of oxides, etc.. we cannot here follow Prof. Dana. Imt 
 must refer to his magnitieent System of Mineralogy (ed. of 
 18CU), and to his published papers in the American J^urual 
 of Science. It should, however, be pointed out that such 
 replacements follow the simple law that the amountof both 
 basic and acidic o.rygin, Hufphur, etc. remains always the 
 same, in such replacements without change of crystal-sys- 
 tom ; and the principle is thus made manifest that it is the 
 ehctro-negative elements of a molecular group that uiniiily 
 govern the crystalline or molecular structure assumed. 
 Hydrogen, whose combining weight or volume is now matlo 
 the basis of all classification and speculation in organic 
 chemistry, is on a par with any other Electro-positive or 
 basylous element in the illimitable field of inorganic or 
 azote chemistry — so far, at least, as the eminently specific
 
 1328 
 
 ISOPERIMETRY— ISOSTERISM, ETC. 
 
 charactcrof crystal-form is concerned — and may be replaced 
 or displaced, niulecularly or crystallogenically, hy iron, for 
 example, in three or four diflereut proportions or "states." 
 
 EfeiiifiiUil Isomorphs. — The followiuj^, among the ele- 
 ments, have been observed to crystallize in regular or 
 monouietric forms, and as such their molecules arc there- 
 fore absolute isomorphs : Carbon (as diamond). phoHphnms, 
 gold, plathium^ pnlhidiuniy iridium, sifrer, copper, fttid, tin, 
 zinc, cadmium, tilaniitm, pntfissinm, nodium. Probably many 
 more, if not all, will be obtained as monouietric crystals : as 
 is readily inferable from many cases of isomorphism of 
 their compounds. 
 
 Other Elemental Homccomorphs.—lu the hexagonal or 
 rhombohedral system we have c«r/^o« (as graphite), pAos- 
 phorus (Hittorfs allotrope), palfndiinn, iridium, osmium, 
 ur>tcuic, aittimoni/, bi»mnt/i, and tcHnriitm. The first four 
 of these, being also mouometric, are dimorphous. In the 
 trimotric system there arc two elemental homo?omorphs, 
 iodine and snfphnr (in one of its forms). 
 
 Compound Rcfjtdnr homorphs. — Very nearly all the known 
 oxidei, chlorides, bromidct, iodides, fluorides, sulphides, 
 Belenides, andry«»("(/e«aro isomorphs of Dana's «/;-)A«-state; 
 also most three-four oxides, considered by Dana as com- 
 pounds of n^/>A« and ic(a-oxides, such as spinels, magnetite, 
 chromite, franklinitc, uraninite, linnmite, etc.; also two 
 heta-i)\'n\QS, arsenious Vi^ndi. autimonious acids; X\\*i gamma - 
 sulphides. l''cS2,MnS2,CoS2,Co(S,As)2,Ki(S,As)2; onee^si- 
 /o»i-arseniet, CoAss; the alums, the garuets, etc. etc. 
 
 Compound Hnmcromorphi*. — Of these there are multitudes 
 of groujis. A few examples may be cited : Hexagonal 
 bcta-oxulcs, ohimiua, hematite, chromic oxide, ilmenite 
 (FeTi)-203, pero/skite (CaTi)203. tefradt/mitc, Bi2(TeS)3; 
 also one three-four compound, Bi3(TeSSe)4. Hexagonal 
 n/pha-ox\dcs, sulphides, etc., or polymeres (?), ice, zinc- 
 ox idc, the zinc -sulphide imrtzite, IMS, argentic iodide 
 (these are by some, with good reason, believed to be po^^- 
 meres in crystal-form, thus, IlgOaZnaOs. Zng^s, and so on); 
 (PbI2PbO), cinnabar, ligSe, >;iS, ]U(TeS), NiAs, MnAs, 
 NiSb ; with one ^amma-sulphidc moli/bdeiiite, and one gani- 
 ma-oxide, quartz SiOs. Orthorhombic oxides, chlorides, sul- 
 phides, and fluorides : here we have mendipite (Pbt'],2PbO), 
 cotunnite probably PbsCls, chiysoberi/l lieOAl-jOs, cryolite 
 (3NaF.Al2K3), A.^^^^, Sh2^=3, Bi2p3. AgS, AgTe, brookite 
 Ti02,Mn(>2. and marmsitc Ve^2 (the dimorph of pyrite). 
 Tetragonal, Sn02.Ti02, as ritfi/e and f'r^f/(«f//-(>t?(Pb('l.PbO), 
 and one three-four oxide minium, Trimetrie, As^O^.^ii^Os. 
 
 Among more eomjilex com])ounds there are, of the licx- 
 agoual forms, many carhnnatcs, soda and potash nitres, 
 tribanic phosphates, several hi/posulphatcs; of the dimetric, 
 Ni and Zn sulphates and selenafes with TH^O, the arseniles 
 and phosphites, ammonia-silver sulphate selenate and chro- 
 mate, etc. ; of the trimetrie, the aragouite group of carbon- 
 ates, plumbic baric jmd etroittie sulphates, jiotiissie sulphate 
 selenate chromate antl manganate, Alg Zn and Ki sulphates 
 and selcnates; of the monoclinic, Jig Zn Co Ni and Fe 
 sulphates and selcnates with 7II2O, and another group of 
 the same with 611:0; a great group of double suiphatcs 
 with (UI^O: a group of sufphates eelenatea and ehromates 
 with mll-j*^, etc. ; of the triclinic, a gnmj) of sulphates and 
 eehuates of Mn Zn and Co with 4II2O, and another group 
 with 0H2O. 
 
 Honuromorphic Replacements among Mineral Silicates. — 
 This is a branch of the subject of the utmost importance 
 in mineralogy and mineral analysis. (Its discussion will 
 be found in the article Silicates, Chemistry and Classi- 
 fication OF.) 
 
 iHostcrism, hotomy, and Parallclosterism (see under sepa- 
 rate heading of Isosteuism) ; Polymeric Isomorphism and 
 Allomerism (see under separate heading of Polymeric 
 IsOMonPHiSM) ; Ilcteromorphism [Gr. erepo?. *' different," and 
 (LLop<fti)]. Heteromorphous bodies are those which, while 
 having similar or symmetrical ehemieal formuhe — ex- 
 cept that they may contain different basic or acidic ele- 
 ments — and even sometimes possessing so-called isosteric 
 relations, yet crystallize in distinct systems. The term is 
 convenient for classifying apart these exceptional cases. 
 
 Henry Wirtz. 
 
 Isoperim'etry [Or. T^o?," equal," ntpi. ** around," and 
 fi.«Tpov, " measure"], a branch of mathematics that treats 
 of the properties and relations of isoperlmetrieal figures — 
 that Lg, of surfaces having equal perimeters, and volumes 
 bounded by equal surfaces. It may be shown by element- 
 ary geometry that the greatest plane area having a given 
 perimeter is a circle, and that the greatest volume bounded 
 by a given surface is a sphere. Of all triangles having a 
 given perimeter, the equilateral triangle has the greatest 
 area, and in gcnernl of nil polygons with a given number 
 of sides and a given perimeter, that has the greatest area 
 whoso sides are equal. The principles of isoporimetry are 
 best developed bv means of the calculus of variations. 
 
 \V. G. Peck. 
 
 Is'opods [Gr. laos, " equal," wow?, " foot "], an order of 
 
 tctradecapod crustaceans, characterized especially by the 
 presence of branehiie to the abdominal segments (although 
 these may be functionally atrophied), and their absence 
 from the Imscs of the legs, and typically by the approximate 
 conformity in size and functions of their seven pairs of legs. 
 The group embraces numerous small crustaceans, mostly 
 inhabiting salt waters, and is also represented by fresh- 
 water and terrestrial forms, the sow-bugs (Oniscus) and 
 pill-bugs (Porcellio and Armadillo) being well-known ex- 
 amples of the latter. 
 
 Isos'terism, Ilomffiosterism, I'aralleloster- 
 ism, Isotomy. These are terms which denote that 
 branch of chemi-i)hysieal science which investigates bodies 
 in relation to their iwdrrular or <h' micnf t,piicalent volumes. 
 Isosterism is derived from the (Jr. lo-oy, " equal," and oTcppos 
 or arepco?, " solid, impenetrable ;" isotomy from lao? and 
 oTOjiio?, " indivisible." The molecular or equivalent vol- 
 ume of a body is obtained by simple division of the mole- 
 cule or equivalent by the specific gravity. Isosteres arc 
 simply bodies which give, in this way, closely equal num- 
 bers. Parallclosterism is applied to certain cases in which 
 pairs or series of compounds, which are homoeomorphous 
 or analogous, show equal differencs of equivalent volumes. 
 Equivalent volumes are necessarily of three kinds, as ap- 
 plied to the three conditions of matter — solid, liquid, and 
 gaseous; and as the equivalent is a constant factor — sub- 
 ject only to those multiple variations dependent on poly- 
 merism — and the density varies usually with the condition, 
 it is necessary to complete knowledge to search for numer- 
 ical relations throughout all three conditions. The simple 
 laws, however, which govern gaseous equivalent volumes 
 have already been explained under the heading Chemistry, 
 by Prof. G. F. Barker. The term isosterism, in ordinary 
 usage, is not so applied as to include gaseous, but only 
 solid and liquid conditions, though in the widest sense it 
 would cover all. The difficulties in the way of the study 
 of isosterism are very considerable, chiefly from the fact 
 that the ea^es in which the variable factor, the density, is 
 determinable with certainty and accuracy, and without in- 
 terfering causes, in liquid and solid bodies, are rather ex- 
 ceptional than otherwise. This drawback is more appli- 
 cable to solids than to liquids, as in the former case abso- 
 lute surety is only bad when the solid is both chemically 
 pure and homogeneously crystallized. Of real cr^'stalHc 
 and chemical homogeneity there can seldom be certainty, 
 for isomeres, polymeres. and metameres, and even allo- 
 tropcs, may often be. and in some eases are already known 
 to be. also isomorphs ; and still oftencr, and with far greater 
 likelihood, homajomorjihs. (Seearticle Isomorphism.) Such 
 will usually crystallize together in the same crystal, even 
 when differing materially in density : and in numerous 
 such cases a knowledge even of the fact of such cryptic 
 heterogeneity will arrive as the result only of a great ac- 
 cumulation of observations, such as exists yet in but few 
 eases. In the case of liquids, also, metameres, of differing 
 densities, may not be separable, by reason of approxima- 
 tion of their boiling-points. 
 
 Density being variable with temperature, equivalent vol- 
 ume is therefore a function of the temperature; and the 
 question arises whether there is anj- uniform temperature at 
 which all bodies should be taken in order to discover isos- 
 terism ? If not, as is almost obvious, could any relative tem- 
 peratures — for example, points equidistant from the fusing- 
 pointur boiling-point in each case — be adopted ? This latter 
 is yet without proof. It would appear as if proportional re- 
 lations might be sought for between the coefficients of ex- 
 pansion of bodies by heat — rather than between the volumes 
 at any given temperature — and the equivalent weights. 
 This, however, does not belong to our present subject. 
 
 Though the study of molecular volumes is yet in its in- 
 fancy, the literature of the subject is nevertheless very 
 voluminous, while at the same time scallered through very 
 numerous scientific journals. In Europe the principal 
 authors and investigators have been H. Kopp, Sehroeder, 
 Tsehcrmak, Liiwig, Filhol. H. Sehiff, Sufarik, .lungfleisch, 
 Playfair and Joule : in America, Slerry Hunt, F. ^V. Clarke, 
 Isidor Walz. and. above all. .lames D. Dana. 
 
 The remark made under IsOMoKi'nisH, that (outside of 
 the regular system) strict crystallic equality does not exist, 
 we find still more applicable to this closely-related study 
 of volume-equivalents; and. as in the former case, a term 
 expressing approximation only seems preferable — indeed, 
 here almost indispensable. tSuch a term is hnmreostcrism. 
 In tabulating and classifying equivalent volumes, there are 
 several important reasons in favor of adopting, as the unit 
 for comparison, that of the crystal oi^ diamond. Diamond 
 has the smallest huarn equivalent volume, and its true 
 specific gravity is probably known with greater certainty, 
 in the eheraieally pure crystalline state, than almost any 
 other elementary body.
 
 I.SOT1IEKMAL LINES— ISPAHAN. 
 
 1329 
 
 Elemental Hnmtrmli-rti. — In a tabulalioft of tlie elements, 
 in the order of their equivalent volumes, eoniineMiinj; with 
 iliiimond ns llie lowest, nml cnlcuhiled to the diamond seale, 
 we almost at onee encounter a rcmarkahle proup of eight 
 elemental homa'osteres — Xos. 5 to 12 inclusive, in the sec- 
 ond column below ; 
 
 Equlr. 
 vol».» 
 
 1. Piamond 1. 
 
 2. Boron 1.21 
 
 3. Graphite 1..51 
 
 4. Ulucinum(equlT. = 9.3) 1.303 
 
 KqulV. 
 
 5. Uranium 1.92 
 
 G. Glucinuin (equiv. 
 
 == 13,93) 1.9.53 
 
 7. Cobalt 2.012 
 
 8. Kickel 2.03 
 
 9. Co|i|)er 2.117 
 
 10. rhromium 2.1 IS 
 
 11. Iron 2.119 
 
 12. Manganese 2.16 
 
 These eight metals form a stronglj-inarkcd nuinral group. 
 Immediately followiug them cornea another, larger series 
 of homceostercd : 
 
 13. Palladium 2.083 21. Gold 2.98 
 
 H. Iridium 2.BC 22. Indium 3. 
 
 !■.. iihixlium 2.71 23. Silver (crystalli/.ed; 3.018 
 
 111. I'latinum.. 2.73 24. Tungsten 3.075 
 
 IT. 7Anc 2.735 2.?. Aluminum 3.123 
 
 IS. Kuthenium 2.74 2«. Magnesium (?) S.l.'i 
 
 19. INmium 2.74 27. Molylidenum 3.291 
 
 20. Vauadium 2.743 , 2S. Silver (fu.sed)...- 3.45 
 
 The position of magnesium here is founded on density- 
 determinations of Playfair and .loule, which exceed the 
 mean of other chemists by about :10 percent. These others 
 bring its equivalent volume up to 4.1. This series includes 
 all the so-called "noble metals," bringing in some, such as 
 V, hi, W, .\1. and Mo. which other classifications separate 
 widely therefrom : though all these clearly have claims to 
 the title. Zn and Mg, however, have no such claims. One 
 other example may be cited, among those elements (and 
 elementoidsl, which havo the most voluminous equiva- 
 lents, of a small series of homa_'OSteres : fl'/ni'i rhlnriuf, 
 7.85; /I'ffniU irvmine, 7.9 ; eolid iodint', 8.5; liijuirl ri/aii- 
 offeitj 8.7tf. 
 
 Cnmpnund Hnm<toiitere», — The new view above propound- 
 ed, that there is really no true isosterism. but only a pro- 
 gressive homo'opterism, is more remarliably exemplilicd 
 and demonstrated by aeries of corresponding compounde 
 than of elements. Some oxides of the form M2O give us 
 the following : 
 
 DoniUlc. Dlamond.^ale. 
 
 volumc-cquiv. 
 
 Water HjO l.Oo 53 
 
 Ice (mean of 29 determinations) 0.9191 S.7G3 
 
 Sodic oxide Na,0 2.805 6.21 
 
 Cuprous oxide Cuo'O 6.897 7.13 
 
 Argentous '• Ae",0 7.18 9.5 
 
 Menuroua " WiCM 10.09 11.44 
 
 Pota^sic " K„(') 2.0.10 IL.M 
 
 PluMibous " PG.,.0 9.772 12.94 
 
 The oxides of the form MO, of the first scries of elemental 
 hoimeosteres, tabulated above, so far as the densities are 
 known, give us — 
 
 rrnnous oxide 
 
 f'(tl)alt<nis " 
 
 EqulvalcDU. 
 
 13C 
 
 75 
 
 DcnultlcK. DlBinond- 
 
 ... lO.lS 3.941 
 
 ... fl.ft74 3R88 
 
 N'irklous " 
 
 75 
 
 ... 6 315 . Wmw 
 
 
 79.5 
 
 ... 6.25 . . .. 3 741 
 
 
 GJ*.r> 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 
 Mangauous " 
 
 71 
 
 ... 4.909 4.2S4 
 
 This scries furnishes an illustration of the cxtromo im- 
 perfection of mimy of our data, ns vet, for such calcula- 
 tions. The liensitits of nearly all tho!"** most iinportiint 
 oxides arc imperfectly known, and those on record vary 
 much. F(»r instance, seven fij^ures ^jiven for NiO vary 
 from 5.6 to 0.8. The one adopted above is the mean of tho 
 seven. 
 
 Sonic netquioxidet giro tho following progressive aories 
 of votumcs : 
 
 Clnrlna (considered as BOjOj) 7.3 
 
 Alumina 7.7 
 
 t'hromic oxide 8.944 
 
 CobaUic '• 9.11 
 
 TuTrif " 9.14 
 
 Vnnndtc " 9.;W2 
 
 Mantitinic *' 10.07 
 
 Nieklie " ;. 10.11 
 
 A numher of other proj^rossive series arc readily innde out 
 among oxides of other forms. An analogy is strongly sug- 
 t;rsted in this relation with the homoloffum of organic 
 ohcmi?try (.sen nrtielo IIoMnr.ofiv, hy Piiop. II. WriiTz), in 
 which there is found u similar progressive inoremont of 
 
 •Tho molecular or oquivnlent Tohimrs nrlven In thin and sub- 
 •icflMiiil iirtfrlcH hftvi' nil ln'cn enlcninli-fl imew, spi-fjiilly fftr this 
 wi.rk. witli thr aid of t lie invnliial>)r Stiilttinonian Tatil'-?" of Den- 
 silirftl.y Prof. F. W.CIarkcofrinrlnnRtl. ThcefiulvnW'nt^ imed 
 are ilinne ndopttnl liv Trof. Barker in his article on Ciikmistry. 
 V(.i,. ir.— S4 
 
 equivalent volume. Also among chlorides and nnlphuhn 
 there arc similar serial relations. Of tho first clcmentnl 
 homoeosteric series the following monoaulph ides arc present- 
 able : 
 
 CoS ... 
 Ni.S ... 
 FeS ... 
 MnS. 
 CuS.. 
 
 4.9 
 
 5.21 
 
 . .0.41 
 
 fi.lO 
 
 6.1.2 
 
 There arc apparently no indication.s of similarity in the 
 order of progression in tho several coses of tho elcmculs, 
 oxides, sulphides, and chlorides ; but the densities of many 
 of the compounds are still so uncertain that \vc cannot de- 
 cide that such dissimilarity is general. 
 
 The most obvious and .^trikinsreon.'iequenceof arranging 
 the elements in tho order of their equivalent volumes is 
 that in very numerous cases individual elements, and 
 groups of such, arc thus brought into contiguity or prox- 
 imity, whicli are known to be allied to each other, but 
 which, in any other mode of eIas.sifit'!itioii, fall far n]>iirt. 
 This will be further treated of under the head of .Mulko 
 
 ULAU VOUMKS. 
 
 In chemical textbooks much stress is often laid on cases 
 in which supposed isostercs are also iftmiorjihn, generally 
 because found to be alike inoinrtrtr. Almost all the ele- 
 ments may, however, be able to assume isometric forms, 
 and such corres])ondcnces therefore do not seem to carry 
 much weight. Attempts, moreover, are made to show nu- 
 merical relations of equivalent volumes in '• sim|ik- multiple 
 proportions." ( See Watts's IHclitmnry. "Isomorphism," vol. 
 iii. p. 4.T1.) Closer calculation-^, with better data, are far 
 from bearing out any of these assumed multiple propor- 
 tions : and indeed it is difficult to sec why simple multiple 
 ratios of vvhimc should inhere in any ease; a gcnmetrivul 
 ratio, as that of the cube-roots^if there be any relation, 
 which is yet to be determined — being more in nccordnnco 
 with the nature of the case. It has been held by high au- 
 thority tiiat jjerlVct and absolute isomorphism must imply 
 isosterism, or iiioftniii/, as some term it. No « ;jrio/-i' reason 
 is apparent for this, and facts do not bear it out. JMnO and 
 Mn203 are mutually replaceable, fur instance, in crystals, 
 in proporti(uis representing ei|ual amounts of oxygen ; that 
 is, MnO and Mn->0 : of which the equivalent volumes are 
 
 respectively 4.2r)4 and It.JiC. So also CoO and C02OS or C-0, 
 have the respective equivalent volumes, replacing each 
 other crystallogenically, of :i.8SS and 2. 978. 
 
 (For some account of important investigations of Prof. 
 James D. Dana upon this subject, see article on Sii.uatks, 
 Chemistuv anu Classification or ; for others of Prof. F. C, 
 Clarke, see AA'atkr of Cuvstalli/.ation ; and of Dr. Isidor 
 Walz. sec .Sum TiuN and .Soluuilitv. IIenhv WruTz. 
 
 Isothcral Lines. See MKTEonoi.or.v. 
 
 Isothrnual Lines. See Climate, by Phof. A. tirvoT, 
 Ph.D.. LL.D. 
 
 Isotrop'ic [Tao9, "equal," and rpon-^, "turning"]. A 
 homogeneous snlid is said to hv imilinjiic whtti any equal or 
 similar (in form) portions cut from «»// relativi^ pi>sitions 
 in tho body arc indistinguishable from one another, or 
 when a spherical portion exhibits uniformity of quality 
 along all its diameters. Cn/strif/inc substances, Htnttifivd 
 substances, fihronH substances, etc. etc. are not isotropic, 
 inasmuch as their elasticity, tenacity, etc. dilVer for dilVer- 
 cnt directions; and such are called nfntropic. If we have 
 reference not only to vu-clmuirul but to afl physical prop- 
 erties (r. (/. absorption and transmission of light, of heat, 
 etc.), a body may be isotropic iu one quality or class of quali- 
 ties, and adotropic in others. .1. (J. Baksaud. 
 
 Tspahnn% city of Persia, the capital of the province of 
 Irak-Ajemi, on tllo Zendarud. iu Iat.:t2°:i9' N. and lon.filQ 
 44' K. From the fourteenth Ii> the beginning of the eigh- 
 teenth century it was a flourishing and steadily increasing 
 city, and when, in the seveulemth century, .Shnh Abbas 
 made it his resitliiue and the capital of Persia, it ra])idly 
 rose still higher, and became one of the most magiiitieeut 
 citieaof Asia. Put in 1722 it was taken and sacked hv the 
 Afghans, and although it was retaken in 172!) I»y Nadir 
 Shah, yet Triieran becamo the capital of Pcr.-iia. and J.<pa- 
 han fell into decay. Among its most .opiendid monntiu-uls 
 arc the briilgi- over tin- /.cndarud, 1000 feet long, resting on 
 'M arches and bearing arched galleries ; tho palace of Cliehel 
 Sittou ("forty colunius"), whoso front is formed by a 
 dnublo rangi" of rolumns 10 fcpt high each, and with a 
 base fornu'd of the united backs of four lions in white 
 marble ; the mosijuc of Me«jid Shah, whose vast dome rises 
 among a forest of spires, towers, minarets, and open gal- 
 leries. But these and many other wonderful monuments are 
 rapidly ilfi-ayiug. and they are snrrounclcd by ruins. Miles 
 of streets liavi' no inhabitants. Tin- population is rslimntcd 
 at between 00,000 and 100.000. There are signs, however, 
 which indicate that Ispahan may rise once more. Its
 
 1330 
 
 ISRAEL-ITALIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 manufachircs of gold, silver, silk, velvet, glass, weapons, 
 and earthenware have maintained their high reputation, 
 and, its artisans are esteemed the best in Persia. Its situ- 
 ation on the main commercial route between India and 
 Europe is the same as in olden times, and its surroundings 
 arc still exceedingly fertile and well cultivated. 
 
 Is'rael [Heb. Yhrarf, "a prince with (lod *'], the name 
 bestowed upon Jacob (which see) when hv. wrestled with an 
 angel at Peniel (Gen. x-Kxii. 28), afterward the distinctive 
 name of his descendants, and particularly of the northern 
 kingdom of the ten tribes. 
 
 Israel, tp. of Preble co., 0. Pop. 1751. 
 
 Israelites, See Jews, by Prof. Ff.lix Ani.EU. 
 
 Issaque'na, county of Mississippi, having the Missis- 
 sippi River on the W. and the navigable Yazoo and Sun- 
 flower rivers on the E. Area, about 720 square miles. It 
 is partly swampy and covered with dense woods. It is 
 generally level and very fertile. Cotton is the staple prod- 
 uct. Cap. Mayersville. Pop. 6887. 
 
 Issoire', town of France, in the department of Puy de 
 Dome, on the Crouse. It has several distilleries. Pop. 
 6159. 
 
 Issoiidnn', town of France, in the department of Indre, 
 on the Theols. It has extensive manufactures of woollen 
 and linen stuffs. Pop. 14,482. 
 
 Is'siie, in the law of pleading. This arises when a 
 propnsitinn of fact or a conclusion of law is directly af- 
 firmed by one party to the suit and controverted by the 
 other. It is the point in dispute which is presented for 
 decision to the court or jury. Issues are of two kinds — 
 of law and of faet. The former arises upon demurrer, and 
 presents a question of law, which is adjudieated by the 
 court sitting without a jury (see Demurrer) : the latter 
 arises upon a traverse or answer to the allegations of the 
 opposite party, and presents a question of fact, which in a 
 common-law action is determined by a jury, and in an 
 equity case by n judge. In some of the States both classes 
 of issues may by consent of parties be tried by a referee. 
 It is the object of various rules of pleading that the issue 
 shall be upon a point material to the controversy, shall be 
 free from uncertainty or ambiguity, and shall present but 
 a single question for <lecision tipon each separate subject 
 of litigation. (See Pi,eai>ing.) There is a f()rm of issue 
 termed technically a "feigned issue," from the peculiar 
 manner in which it originates. Such issues occur in tho 
 progress of a cause before a tribunal sitting without a jury, 
 when some question of fact arises upon whicli the decision 
 of a jury is desired. A fictitious suit is framed involving 
 the point to be determined, and is brought to trial before a 
 jury, and carried on to verdict in the usual way. The ver- 
 dict rendered is then returned to the court in which the 
 cause first arose for its further action. The application of 
 the term "feigned" to the issue is not appropriate, since 
 the fiction is not in the issue, but in tho action which is 
 framed and in the state of facts upon which it is founded. 
 Feigned issties almost invariably arise in the progress of 
 suits in courts of equity, and are ordered by the court to 
 be heard before some tribunal proceeding according to the 
 forms of common la\v with a jury. Sometimes, however. 
 they arise in courts of law. Feigned issues are abolished 
 in New York, and it is only necessary that an order be 
 made by the court for the trial before a jury of the point to 
 be decided, and such order is the only authority necessary 
 for the trial. (For Oenerai, Issue see that topic.) 
 
 Georce Chase. Revised by T. W. Pwicht. 
 
 Is'sns ['Iffffd?], an ancient city of Cilicia, near the 
 mouth of the river of the same name, at the head of what 
 is now the Gulf of Scandcroon. In Xenophon's time it 
 was great and prosperous. Here Alexander {.^.■i.'{ b. c.) 
 gained a great victory over Darius, whose family was cap- 
 tured. No remains of the (own are believed to exist, and 
 it is probable that its site is covered by the sea. 
 
 Issy', town of France, in the department of Seine, on 
 tho Seine. It has extensive bleaching -grounds. Pop. 
 
 Isthmian Games. Seo Grecian Games, bv Prof. 
 H. r. Srn«inT, S. T. D. 
 
 Is'tip, town of European Turkey, in tho eyalet of 
 Tskiup, on the Istip. It is a well-built town, with a large 
 industry and extensive bazaars. Pop. 18.000. 
 
 Is'tria^ countv of the Austrian province of tho coast 
 districts (Kitstonland). consists of a mountainous penin- 
 sula projecting into the north-eastern part of the Adriatic, 
 and is bounded by the territory of the city of Trieste and 
 the county of Gorg. Poji. 240,000. Cap. Pissino. 
 
 Italian Architecture. See Renaissance, by C. 
 Peteicsen. 
 
 Itarian Laneriiage and Literature* The vernac- 
 ular speech of the Italian jjcople embraces a great number 
 of provincial dialects, widely differing from each other in 
 articulation, but descended chiefly from a common stock, 
 or. to speak more precisely, from a cognate linguistic group 
 comprising Latin, Fmbrian. Oscan. and perhaps Etruscan, 
 as well as other less-known ancient branches of the Italic 
 family of tongues. They all contain more or fewer words 
 of Germanic origin, besides many technical as well as 
 purely local terms derived from other sources ; but tho 
 proportion of the Italic or indigenous element is every- 
 where overwhelming, and it is hardly an exaggeration to 
 say that the vocabulary of the Italian language, in all its 
 provincial varieties, is homogeneous. These dialects, ex- 
 ce])t as spoken by the lowest classes in large cities, are not 
 corrupt pnt'iin confined to the ignorant and the vulgnr. but 
 many of them are rich, expressive, and refined, and they 
 are habitually used in familiar intercourse, not only by the 
 middle and inferior ranks, but by jiersons of social and lit- 
 erary culture, to a very much greater extent than is the 
 case with the provincial dialects of most other European 
 langu.ages. Their diversities of pronunciation, of form, 
 of idiomatic expression, and even of syntactical combina- 
 tion, are such that a stranger who has acquired only Tus- 
 can, or the language of literature and of general Italian 
 society, finds all the vernaculars, inclurrmg the humble 
 street and household dialect — or what may be called the 
 cocJcnejf — of Rome, and even of Florence itself, almost 
 wholly unintelligible. Even the native inhabitants of dif- 
 ferent Italian provinces cannot freely communieate with 
 each other without resorting to Tuscan, which is known by 
 all Italians of the slightest pretensions to education, and 
 is therefore properly characterized as the thitjun comunr, or 
 "common tongue." of the whole kingdom. This dialect, 
 though the common property of the whole Italian people, 
 is tho peculiar fireside, field, and market, as well as liter- 
 ary, language of Tuscany and parts of the adjacent prov- 
 inces ; but even within these limits there are in popular 
 use considerable discrepancies both in accent and in vocab- 
 ulary. The better class of the peasantry in the mountain 
 territory of Pistoja, in the u]>per Val d'Arno, and in some 
 other localities, speak Tuscan with a beauty of arti<-uIalion 
 — or, more accurately, of delivery — an elcgnnce of phrase, 
 and a picturesqueness of vocabulary which can hardly bo 
 paralleled by the popular discourse, not merely of other 
 parts of Italy, but of any other European country. It is 
 in this perennial "well of language undefiled." not in 
 French or in classical Latin, that Italian literature ought 
 to seek the enrichment and variety of diction, the flexibil- 
 ity and versatility of construction, which the fhifftta comune 
 needs before it can become truly an all-pervading vital me- 
 dium of national thought and expression. 
 
 But though Tuscan may fairly claim to be the solo na- 
 tional medium of exchange of thought, and though the 
 pronunciation of all the provinces tends to assimilate, yet 
 in the different parts of the kingdom there is a wide range 
 of local variation in oral articulation in good social circles, 
 and of literary diction in the dialect of public discussion 
 and of books. The speech of every provincial " bewray- 
 cth " him. not only by his shibboleth, but by his idioms 
 and the general choice and arrangement of his words; and 
 in Parliament the jmme of every orator is at once recog- 
 nizee! by both his accent and his phraseology. The writ- 
 ings of all non-Tuscans are criticised as marked by sole- 
 cisms, if not by positive fifjrnninintirnfurr, Manzoni, a 
 Lombard by birth and early training, thought it necessary, 
 after the first publication of his PnnufMHi Spimi, to reform 
 his style by most minute and careful study of Tuscan mod- 
 els, or, as he, with more force titan good taste or grace of 
 expression, phrased it,** to rinse out his rags in the Arno;"* 
 and when that deservedly renowned story had been fifteen 
 years before the world he reissued it in an almost entirely 
 rewritten form. Compare, for example, this paragraph as 
 given in the editions of 1825 and 1840 (/ Pronifssi Sponi, 
 cap. xxxiv.) : 
 
 Venuto appi^ del ponte, 
 volt<i Fcnza esitare. a sinis- 
 tra, nella rin (frffti fn strada 
 a San Marco, come a qucIJa 
 che gli parve dover menaro 
 verso rintcrno della citti. 
 E procedendo, cercava cogli 
 ocrhi intorno, sc potessi sco- 
 prire qualchc creatur.a uma- 
 na; ma altra non ne vide 
 che uno sformato cadavcre 
 
 " Arn'rnto o/ ponle. volt&, 
 senza esitare a sinistra, nel- 
 la Kfroda fli San Marco, pa- 
 midotfh', a raffionv, che do- 
 V'SKr rnndnrrr verso rinterno 
 della citta. E audando avnn- 
 ti, f/itordnra in gun e in tii, 
 per veder se potevu scoprire 
 qualchc crcaturaumana; ma 
 non ne vide altra che uno 
 sformato cadavcre nel pic- 
 
 * Riseiaequare i suoi cenei in Arno. Our translation does not 
 give the precise t^ftaci of the ortcinal. for though names of riv- 
 ers usually take the definite article in Ttalian. the Tuscans make 
 their river an exception, and personify it. An}o is the name of 
 a being, not of a thing.
 
 ITALIAN l.AN(;rA(;K AND LITEKATUKK. 
 
 1331 
 
 nel fossatello chc corro f ra col fotnn che corre tra quelle 
 
 quelle poche case (die ;illora poche ease (chc allora erano 
 
 anchc meno) e u» pfzzo lUlla 
 ntrnda. Passato quel przzn, 
 tentigridare: * o <jttrlf 'uontn/' 
 c gunrdnndo dii quclla parte. 
 vidf poco lontano. a un ter~ 
 yrtzziiio d'nttn ctiniircUt iso- 
 lata, una povera d'lnna, con 
 una iiidiattt di Intnihini inlnr- 
 nn; la quale, nrjvilniidnln a 
 chinmar': pli frr/' ceNNo an- 
 cke con la uiauo." 
 
 erano anchc menu* e hi via, 
 per un tratto di es^a. Pas- 
 sato quel tratto, rnii ccrto 
 griiia,comr chinmnte cSe pa- 
 r^tvin /Vi/fff (t /tti; c, Volto lo 
 Bjuardo in 5U a quella parte 
 doiide venii-ft it «i(ono, scorse, 
 poco lontano, a un halcone 
 d'una casnpola i^olata, una 
 povera donna, eon un firup- 
 pctto di f'lineiulli dattorno, 
 la quale, chiamando, tutta- 
 via. gll accennara pur colla 
 m.lno rhf Ki facennr cicnio,^' 
 
 And yet. after all this painstaUinjj, Tuscan purists find 
 Lombardisins in the style of Maiizoni. Some eminent na- 
 tive critics think it impossible, and even undesinilile. for 
 the whole Italian people to conform to the Tuscan or to 
 any other universal standard of diction, and they advise 
 provincial writers and speakers to adopt the regular prnm- 
 matioal inflexions of the /inf/im comiine, but to conliuue to 
 employ every one his own native vocabulary and idiomatic 
 phraseology. These locnl expressions, they snv. almost 
 universally belong to the Italic word-stock, and would ac- 
 cordingly he intelligible even where not habitually used. 
 By this method, as they suppose, the provincial would en- 
 joy as much freedom of movement as in the use of his ver- 
 nacular, and would at the same time be eveti better under- 
 stood anil appreciated than when under the constraint of 
 employing words and constructions not familiar to him. 
 
 Most of the Italian provincial dialects have been reduced 
 to writing; some of them, Venetian and .Sicilian, for ex- 
 ample, were somewhat largely employeit in literature and 
 in official communication before, and c\'en for some time 
 after, the supremacy of Tuscan was generally recognized ; 
 there still exists among the peasantry a large stock of old 
 unwritten dialectic prose and verse, which is orally trans- 
 mitted from generation to generation by popular reciters 
 and story-tellers ; new dramatic pieces, generally comic, are 
 constantly represented in dinltitit in all the great cities, and 
 every year gives birth to a considerable amount of popu- 
 lar, humorous, and satirical poetry in the more important 
 provincial speeches. But the language employed in serious 
 literary eotnposilion. in religious teaching, in parliamen- 
 tary ami forensic proceedings, in all branches of the public 
 administration, in journalism, in commercial and private 
 corresponrlence, and in general social circles is exclusively 
 Tuscan. The early predominance of Tuscan is probably 
 due rather to the political importance of the Florentine re- 
 public, and especially to the relations of the old Tuscan 
 capital to the internal commerce and the finnnciarinterests 
 of the Peninsula, than to greater antiquity or to any special 
 inherent fitness for literary purposes; for the original in- 
 trinsic su|ieriorily of Tuscan to some of the other Italian 
 dialects is by no means clear. It has now. however, re- 
 ceived a culture which has given it a very decided advan- 
 tage over all its rivals, anil the political unification of Italy 
 has sirengthcned its position as the national tongue, and 
 secured to it a eons'anlly widening sphere of living energy 
 as a popular speech. Hence, it is no longer as true as it 
 was in Byron's time, that "Few Italians speak the right 
 Etruscan;" and. unfortunately, the Florentine pronuncia- 
 tion, which is characterized by nn enfeebled — or, to bor- 
 row an expressive term from a great philologist, a hizy — 
 articulation itf what arc elsewhere more nvksculine and 
 energetic consonantal sounds, is fast spreading. This tend- 
 ency is aggravated by the predilection of fashionable 
 Italian circles for the habitual use of French, and threat- 
 ens to become universal. 
 
 The critical study of the It.alinn dialects has until lately 
 been much neglected ; and. in fact, the materials for its 
 scientific treatment have hardly yet been brought together. 
 But it possesses great linguistic interest, and it is now zeal- ' 
 ously prosecuted by able foreign and native philologists. 
 From their researches we may expect im|iortant results, 
 hut at present we know little of the history and eimdition 
 of these dialects at any period previous to the thirteenth 
 century. The recorded literature of modern Italy is of later 
 birth than that of Provence and of Northern France. Many 
 of the earliest Italian poets wrote in Provencal, much of i 
 the most ancient literature of moliipval Italy was trans- ' 
 loted from French, and importuni prose works by Italian 
 onthors— the 7V»r»o of Brunetto Latini, the ('lirnnlrU of \ 
 Cnnale, and the TrtirrU o/* .Warro Palo, for instance — were 
 composed in that language as late as the latter half of the 
 thirteenth century. l)own to that period, with these and 
 other exceptions to be noticed hereafter, Latin was the 
 only tnit/rn tongue employed in Italy, but there is satis- 
 factory evidcDoo that not only at that epoch, but through 
 
 the whole historical era, there have been great diversities 
 of uptei-li in the Italian territory. Even after the subjec- 
 tion of the entire Peninsula to Rome, Orcek, Celtic, and 
 Etruscan, as well as Oscan, Uinbrian, and other now for- 
 gotten languages, were long employed in provincial dis- 
 tricts. Centuries must have elapsed before the mother- 
 tongues of the conquered tribes could be stamped out by 
 the iron heel of Roman despotism, and Latin substituted, 
 by the combined influence of civil government and re- 
 ligion, as the only recognized medium of soci.al intercourse. 
 In the mean time, the authoritative introduction of the 
 Latin speech into the domain of these other peninsular 
 languages, and the influx of barbarisms brnnght in by 
 colonized veterans nnd other foreigners, could not but 
 have produced the same effects that like causes have occa- 
 sioned elsewhere. Even where the triumph of Latin was 
 most complete, the hereditary orthoepicnl habits of the 
 population could never have been altogether extirpated, 
 and the provincial articulation of Latin must have been 
 modified everywhere by local influences, as English has 
 been by the Celtic element and other circumstances in Ire- 
 land and Scotland. Diez. indeed — and there is no higher 
 authority — aflirms that Italian shows no trace of the vOcal 
 system of the Oscan, the most important of the Lower Italic 
 dialects. But we may be jiardoned for doubting whether 
 our knowledge of the ))i>wer of the letters of the (Jscan al- 
 phabet is such as to authorize so absolute a statement ; and 
 the great philologist himself admits a considerable in- 
 fluence of other ancient dialects upon the pronunciation, 
 the idiom, nnd the vocabulary of the modern speech. The 
 devclo|imcnt of the modern Italian dialects is not a paral- 
 lel case to the formation of the Spanisii. The old Ilispano- 
 Latin, the parent of modern Spanish, grew u]j in the pres- 
 ence of an indigenous speech of a totally different linguistic 
 stock, too alien, in every characteristic, to admit of much 
 amalgamation between the native and the intruding ingre- 
 dient. In its Inter development it encountered the Arabic, 
 I also a wholly unrelated tongue, which, though the language 
 of a conqnering race, nnd possessed of much culture, did 
 not sensibly affect the structure of the Spanish, though it 
 enriched its vocabulary with a few words. On the other 
 hand. Celtic and the (iiithic languages with which the- Ro- 
 mans cnine in contact in their Northern conquests, though 
 remote from Latin, were .still Indo-European, nnd there- 
 fore at least distantly allied speeches. Hence, it is not 
 surprising that their influence should be clearly traceable 
 both in French and in the modern dialects of Northern 
 Italy or Cisalpine (iaul. The old Italic dialects were 
 much more closely cognate with Latin, and consequently 
 still more rearlily becatne fupcil. or rather confused, with it 
 in vernacular provincial forms, determined by local con- 
 ditions of which we are almost wholly ignorant. The in- 
 fluence of these dialects, then, on the spoken Latin of the 
 provinces is a question merely of degree, nnd at present 
 we are quite unable lo analyze it quantitatively. But wo 
 are authorized to conclude that Latin was spoken with great 
 provincial diversity, and there is no evidi-nce to prove, no 
 reason to suppose, that classical Latin ever becatne the 
 general language of ancient Italy in any higher sense or 
 lo a greater extent than Tuscan is the universal tongue of 
 the Italy of modern times. The Roman writers often al- 
 lude to the tiHffiia ytiMfirn, or dialect of the j>rovinees. as 
 distinct both from the classical language of Rome nnd from 
 the vulgar or jilebeian speech of the city nnd its environs; 
 nnd because they employ the singular form, nnd do not 
 distinguish the speech of different provinces, it has been 
 hastily assumed that but one Ihiifua rtintirn existed.* But 
 the Romans were a people of dull ear and of obtuse lin- 
 guistic perceptions, at least in the appreciatioti of strange 
 and foreign sounds nnd idioms. Hence, they w(»uld cer- 
 tainly not have diseriminati-d between Latinized Italic 
 dialects sensibly differetit from the Rotuan, e\rn if widely 
 discordant from each other; and there is nothing to con- 
 trol the general presumption that every ethnological, if not 
 every geographical and every municipal, district must 
 have developed its own peculiar local speech. These local 
 speeches, we believe, "still live." with more or less vita! 
 energy, and in more or less modified forms, in the modern 
 provincial dialects, which arc consequently lo be regarded 
 as descended not from clussicnl Latin, but from the old 
 rustic jargons which grew out of the clash of more or less 
 conflieling elements. It is proper to (diserve here that when 
 the primitive Italic tongues censed to exist as independent 
 Inngunges, and consequently as disturbing forces in the 
 development of the new Latinized dialects, the language 
 of giivernmcnt and religion would naturally acquire a 
 
 • The Uomnns apf>ear lo have used ttntjttn nfxffrti precisely as 
 illalr/la is employed al the present day. ' .\n Italian, returning 
 from a theatre at Milan or Reruamo, does not sav, definitely, 
 that he saw a iilay ml ditttcUu Milanae, or Bergamasco, but sim- 
 ply a pl>7 (n dialiUo.
 
 1332 
 
 ITALIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 stronger influence over popular forms of speech, and these 
 latter woulil of course recover soma indigenous linguistic i 
 trails which they may have lost in the struggle between | 
 the aboriginal and the invading elements. These consider- 
 ations, we think, authorize us to say that neither the lingua 
 comiiiK- or Tuscan, nor any other provincial dialect of mod- 
 ern Italy, can be correctly described as legitimately and 
 exclusively descended from the majestic speech of Latium. 
 At the same time, Latin remained always the language of 
 the Church, and has continued to be more or less employed 
 by profane writers, in public inscriptions, and for other 
 special purposes, down to our own times. There exists 
 everywhere in Italy a traditional knowledge of Latin as, 
 in a degree, a living tongue; and there can be no doubt 
 that this general familiarity with the forms and vocabulary 
 of the classical dialect has been a constantly acting force 
 on the spoken, and especially on the written, language of 
 the country. Many locutions in the various dialects which 
 have been explained as ancient corruptions or modifications 
 of the speech of Rome are merely comparatively recent 
 draughts from that perennial fountain : and if Tuscan is 
 the nearest representative of the classical tongue of Rome, 
 it is because, in the long course of its literary culture, it 
 has, in the largest measure, borrowed and appropriated, 
 rather than inherited, the voice and accent of the ancient 
 mistress of the world. 
 
 The fact that the liiigim comiine is not the general ver- 
 nacular of Italy, and the almost universal familiarity of 
 Italian writers with Latin models — for almost every read- 
 ing Italian knows and reads Latin as an ancient and ven- 
 erable form of his mother-tongue — have protected literary 
 Tuscan from the revojutions, the corruptions, and the de- 
 basement which popular use. in the fervent and energetic 
 national life of our democratic age, tends to introduce into 
 language. No one of the great European tongues has 
 changed so little within the last six centuries as Ital- 
 ian. The old translations of the romances of chivalry and 
 other prose tales are intelligible to all. The Renli di Fran- 
 cift, flescribed by a late learned editor as at this day the 
 most popular book in the language, is read from the Alps 
 to Sicily in a version somewhat modernized in orthogra- 
 phy, but otherwise almost a century older than Chaucer. 
 On the other hand, the very eiroumstauce that to a vast 
 projjortion of the people Tuscan has always been a sort of 
 sacred dialect, set apart for elevated and formal uses, com- 
 bined with the pedantic conservatism of the Delia Crusca 
 scIkjoI, has prevented the enrichment of the vocabulary 
 except in branches in which certain special classes have 
 been interested. As a general rule, agricultural operations, 
 industrial art. and the practical applications of science, de- 
 scriptive geography, natural history, and physics, com- 
 merce, internal improvements, mining, the machinery of 
 representative government, popular institutions, and judi- 
 cial proceedings have but lately entered deeply into the 
 life and habitual thought of educated Italians, and have 
 scarcely yet exerted a sensible influence on the diction of 
 literature. The literary dialect of Italy, consequently, has 
 not received the breadth of culture and the various wealth 
 of vocabulary xvhich characterize the modern h^/lff-ftttrcs 
 productions of the Northern countries of Europe and Amer- 
 ica. The nomenclatures of many of the arts and know- 
 ledges we have enumerated — agriculture and hydraulics, 
 for example — indeed exist in the mouths of the peasantry 
 and of engineers, but they have not been taken up into the 
 language of literature and of retined society by any means 
 as fully as elsewhere. Hcnee. the dialect of books and of 
 elegant conversation is unpicturesque, or at least unde- 
 P'-riptivc. Italian translations of such poems as Keats's 
 Kiiili/miun, or Crabbe's Tulct, or Mrs. Browning's I'lVpioii 
 o/" i'oei), or Voss's f'Ji/h, or of prose pictures of rural and 
 village life in England, .\merica, and Germany, would not 
 be practicable without the em])loyment of a diction not yet 
 recognized as classical. A foreigner, listening to a discus- 
 sion between educated Italians on subjects of homely, ma- 
 terial interest, hears generic terms where an Englishman 
 would use specific words ; and if he has enjoyed only such 
 opportunities as arc usually accessible to strangers in 
 Italy, he finds it excessively difficult — as did the old Roman 
 in the poverty of his native Latin, and as does bis Italian 
 descendant of to-day — to learn propria cnmmmiia ilirfre, 
 and he is constantly embarrassed for want of equivalents 
 for expressions of thought and fact which in his own coun- 
 try make up much of the staple of discourse in cultivated 
 circles. 
 
 The beneficent political — and, above all, moral — revolu- 
 tions of which Italy has been the theatre during the last 
 fivc-and-twenty years have brought new and more diversi- 
 fied influences to bear upon her language, and have made 
 greatly enlarged demands upon its capabilities of expres- 
 sion. Hence, the Ihifiun romitnr is luiturally. and without 
 any conscious, organized general effort for that purpose, 
 
 undergoing changes visible even to a foreigner. To tho 
 improvement of tho language from these causes there arc 
 various hindrances. Resides the hostility of the clergy to 
 all ameliorations in the fields of both mind and matter, we 
 may mention two leading obstacles. The one is inveterate 
 and slow to yield. The removal of the other, which is ac- 
 cidental, is more hopeful. We refer first to the fact that 
 the Italians are a bilingual people— a people whose spoken 
 tongue differs essentially from the written : an evil the 
 iuagnitu4le of which only experience or long observation 
 can make apparent. Eminent provincial or non-Tuscan 
 writers have often lamented the necessity of thinking in 
 one ilialect antl giving their thoughts an outward expres- 
 sion l)y a mental translation into another. We have space 
 only to allude to Ibis difficulty, and to illustrate it in ]>ass- 
 ing by comparing it to the embarrassment and constraint 
 we all feel in using a foreign tongue, however well under- 
 stood : and we pass to the other obstacle, which is analo- 
 gous in character, but. as we have said, accidental, and 
 therefore not invincible. We mean a predilection for a 
 foreign language and a foreign literature, which interferes, 
 to a deplorable extent, with the cultivation and improve- 
 ment of the national speech aud the national letters, as well 
 as with native originality and independence of thought in 
 Italy. French is far too generally the habitual language 
 of fashionable Italian society, even in intercourse among 
 natives ; ami when a foreigner addresses an Italian in what, 
 if the compliments of his teacher are sincere, is the choi- 
 cest Tuscan, his interlocutor, pitying his ignorance of Ital- 
 ian, will almost certainly answer him in French, which he 
 fancies to be a universal medium. AVe arc not here ob- 
 jecting to the disproportionate importance given in Italy 
 to the language and literature in question because they are 
 French, but because they are foreign, alien to the national 
 heart, and disturbing to the movement of the national intel- 
 lect. The causes which have given this undue predominance 
 to French in the education and social training of the higher 
 classes in Italy cannot here be specified; and it must be 
 admitted that the tongue and letters of France have 
 stronger claims on the attention of the Italians than those 
 of any other foreign country. In our times, unhappily, 
 not merely the closet study, but the far more distracting 
 practical use, of foreign modes of thought and speech, is 
 an indispensable element in comprehensive culture. Rut, 
 though a necessary discipline, or rather instrument, it is a 
 necessary evil. AVith rare exceptions no man can freely 
 use more than one language as a medium of intellectual or 
 oral discourse, aud what we gain in power over a foreign 
 tongue is compensated by a corresponding loss in the mas- 
 tership of our own. The mighty intellect of Greece was 
 weakened by no dispersion of linguistic culture, for her 
 strongest sons knew no language but (ireek; and thimgh 
 the study of the ijcemphuiu (liRcn by the Romans may for a 
 time have improved their taste, it did not help their La- 
 tinity, and in the end it crushed their originality in both 
 literature and art. In one respect, indeed. Italians, as well 
 as ourselves and the (iermans, may derive great advantage 
 from the study and critical analysis of the best French 
 literary models. We refer to the surpassing excellence of 
 French writers in rhetorical even more conspicuously than 
 in scientific method — in the art. that is, of beginning at the 
 beginning, going straight to the mark, and leaving off at 
 the end. thus avoiding the wordy involution of thought 
 and ex])ression which is the banc of Italian perhaps even 
 more emphatically than of other coutomporaneous litera- 
 tures. 
 
 .As we have said, every province has still its popular 
 literature, oral and recorded. Rut there is no provincial 
 Dante, or Petrarch, or Ariosto, or Tasso, or Villani. or 
 Varchi, or Macehiavclli, and the tongue through which the 
 Italian states have acted on each other, and Italy on the 
 world, is exclusively the lingua cnmiinr. or Tuscan, which 
 alone reflects and represents the mind and voice of Italy 
 in the European republic of letters. The provincial lite- 
 ratures of Italy are not, like those of ancient Greece, com- 
 jioncnt parts of a national whole. They are specialized 
 manifestations of intellect and of speech, and therefore in 
 general have only a provincial interest. Their peculiar 
 characteristics cannot be noticed in a brief comprehensive 
 view of Italian literature. AVc must confine our sketch to 
 that which has been accepted by the Italian people and 
 ]>rcsentcd to the world as the aulhori/.cd expression of tho 
 mind and heart of the nation ; and the following remarks 
 must be understood as referring only to writings in the 
 Tuscan or lingua rommio, unless otherwise expressed. The 
 early history of Ibis literature is obscure, for, though there 
 were Italian bards and raiila»tnri<: or saga-men, early in 
 Ihe Ihirteenth, and doubtless in the twelfth centurv, yet 
 Ibeir works are known to us only as disfigured by copyists 
 of later ages, and we can rarely speak with confidence as 
 to their dates, their dialects, or even their original literary
 
 ITALIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 1333 
 
 furins. In mauy ca^us, 03 we have seen, they certainly I 
 wrote in French or Provencal, and in go close conformity 
 to French an<i I'rovengal nioilels that tliey are entitled to ' 
 no place in Italian literary history. In other instances, pri- I 
 vatc letters and ot her docaments written in the thirteenth cen- 
 tury are suspected to have been first composed in Latin and ; 
 translated at a later period; an<l in several most important ' 
 cases it is matter of grave douht whether the reputed works ' 
 of historical authors of the thirteenth and even the four- 
 teenth century are not coinparativuly modern fabrications. 
 Intofiuestionsof this delicate nature, which native tribunals 
 alone are competent to adjudicate, wc cannot enter. We ' 
 shall accordingly give only the commonly received accounts ' 
 of the literature of the thirteenth century, subject to allow- , 
 ance for all the causes of uncertainty to which wc have al- 
 luded ; and it is only from the epoch fixed by Dante as the I 
 date of his great poem, the assumed '* middle point " of his > 
 life, or the year l.'IOO, that we feel ourselves to be treading 
 on safer ground. There is no doubt that ballad or narra- , 
 tive poetry existed in Italy in an oral and traditional form , 
 before any of the modern dialects were reduced to writing, ! 
 bnt the earliest Italian poems which have come down to us, 
 even in a modernized shape, are amatory or religious. In | 
 some cases it Is difficult to say to which of these two classes ' 
 they belong, for it is not always clear whether the lady cele- ; 
 brated in them was a real person or only a personification 
 of a Christian idea. Wc know, from the testimony of Danto 
 and from abunilant other evidence, that many of the poets 
 usually believed to have lived in the thirteenth century did 
 certainly flourish in that age, and wc have many of their 
 works in copies not very much later than the time of their 
 writers. But wc can rarely fix the preclsi; date of these 
 production?, and we can seMom be sutfieicntly sure of the 
 strict conformity of such copies with their originals to au- 
 thorize us to regard them as positively genuine exempli- 
 fications of the grammatical structure of the dialect in 
 which they were coraposcrl, or even of the rhetorical com- 
 binations and metrical forms employed by their authors. 
 There arc als{) extant certain prose compositions of the 
 same century, and in some few instances either originals 
 or at least contemporaneous copies of these productions 
 still exist. Even where we possess only transcripts of such 
 writings of somewhat more recent date, we may rely upon 
 their accuracy as copies with more confidence than in the 
 case of poetical compositions, because, th<nigh poetic forms, 
 once established, arc more enduring than those of prose, j'ct 
 the diction of verse modelled almost wholly after foreign 
 types, as were the first Italian rhymes of whieh wc have 
 any knowledge, could not so soon have acquired a fixed 
 and settled expression. The earliest prose, on the contrary, 
 consisted simply in reducing to writing popular modes of 
 vernacular speech, and there was no external influenee, no 
 motive of taste, whieh could lead to any rapid change in 
 the stvio of ordinary written eomniunication. Upon the 
 whole, in the fewpoetic^al and the eoniparativcly numerous 
 prose manuscripts of the thirteenth century yet remaining, 
 insignifieant as they are in bulk, wc have sufficient means 
 of pronouneing, with approximate certjiinty, upon the gen- 
 eral grammatical and lexical character of the Tuseitn dia- 
 h'nt in the latter half of the thirteenth century. Tlie real 
 importance of this century in Italian literary history is not 
 in the merit of its produetiens, or in any influence exerted 
 by them on the intellc:rtual culture and products of the 
 age, but in the fact that they prove the existence of the 
 liiiffint rnmiiiif as a wrilti-n tongue at that perio<I. and fur- 
 nish evidence also that the literary supremacy of that dia- 
 lect was — not universally, inileed, but very generally — 
 recognized in Italy before the beginning of the fourteenth 
 century. Pante, indeed, in his He Vuhftri El'tqututitt^iXc. 
 nie?, with great acerbity of tone, the identity of Tuscan 
 with the li'nffim cnnninf or VHhjnre iffnntrc, cnrdinnle, anti- | 
 cum, el rni-inlr; and there arc not wanting later critics who 
 maintain that Tuscany di<l not originate, but only adopted, 
 the fiti'/iifi rtiiiniiif, which, in some way not yet explained 
 nor easily ctmceivablc according to the general laws of lan- 
 guage, arose and dovelopeil itself imlepcndently of loeal 
 influences. Dante defines the hrntin ruhjin-h, which, he 
 nays, forms the subject of his treatise, as that whiidi is I 
 Icarneil, without rule, by imitating the spee(!h of the nurse, 
 and in the dedication of the I'onn/ino to Tiin Oramle della 
 Scala he describes the diction of the iJiriun Cummrdia ns \ 
 
 rrminmia rt humifia iu qiuc rt muh'erciifir vininniiynninf. This* 
 /ticiitio rti/;f'tri» lie declares to be more ncble llnin the Imi- 
 guagc taught in the schools, and he aflirniH Ibai it was not i 
 used by Guittonc dWre/.zo or nrunetto I>alini,but was em- i 
 ployed byduido Cavaloanti, I>aiio (Gianni, Tino dn Pistojn, { 
 and "one other." meaning, no doubt, himself. What pre- j 
 cise distinction Dante would hnvo dr:iwn bcfweon the ml. • 
 tfttre illiiHtrf, ttntirum. ft rttrinfr and the language of Catc- 
 rina da Siena and other illustrious writers of the thirteenth 
 century, which is unequivocally Tuscan, it is hard to see. 
 
 In fact, Dante's observations on the provincial dialects of 
 his time are to Italian as well as to foreign scholars an 
 enigma which has not found its OMipus; and until further 
 research shall reveal to us in-ich more than we now know 
 of the actual history of the language of modern Italy, wc 
 must content ourselves with the f^:ict that what is now 
 both the Tuscan local and the Italian common speech did 
 substantially exist and acquire its primacy as a literary 
 tongue before the year KiOO. Dante has been said to have 
 been the cunning artisan who forged this new literary in- 
 strument. But poets are the conservators, not the creators, 
 of language. Dante, therefore, did not invent his diction. 
 lie was neither a coiner nor a borrower of words. He took 
 and wisely used what be found — not always, indeed, in 
 books, but oflener in popular speech. As Giuliani and 
 Tommaseo have well cdisrrvcd, many expressions (jf Dante's, 
 for which even his authority couid not secure admission 
 into the general vocabulary, are still current in the mouths 
 of the Tuscan peasantry, where Dante found them, and the 
 discourse of this humble class serves to explain more than 
 one passage in the l)!rinn Coiniiicilin which is otherwise 
 unintelligible. In point of antiquity, the first place among 
 the Tuscan ])oets is usually ascribed to Folcacchicro dei 
 Folcacchieri, alleged to have been born at Siena about the 
 year 1150, and many critics have claimed the poems of 
 CiuUo d'Alcamo, the emperor Frederick 11. and his sous, 
 Enzo, Enrico, and Manfrcdi, I'ier dellc Vigne, Kanieri, 
 Ruggerone, and Inghilfredi da Palermo, Guido dclle Co- 
 lonne (author of several Italian canzoni. and more famous 
 as the compiler of a Latin history of the Trojan war founded 
 on the works of Dares and Diefys), .lacopu <la Lentini, and 
 other Sicilian versifiers of the thirteenth century, as jiropcrly 
 belonging to the literature of the h'ntjua comiiiif, though the 
 diction of all of them is strongly marked by Sicilian pro- 
 vincialisms. The Bolognese Guido Guinieelli (called by 
 Nannucci *' il padre dclla Italica letteratura ") and Onepto 
 Bolognese are also ranked with Tuscan writers, though not 
 Tuscan by birth. (Juittone d'Arczzo, Guido Cavalcanti, 
 Dino Frcscobaldi, Dino (.'(unpagni, arc Tuscan poets of 
 merit. Jacoponc of Todi, in the pontifical territory, wrote 
 much in Tuscan verse, and is supposed to be the author, 
 or perhaps only improver, of the world-renowned Latin 
 Church hymn. Stuhnf Mutrv d»ti>roHn, 
 
 The most important Italian prose works of the thirteenth 
 century, admitting their authenticity, which has been dis- 
 puted, are the chronicles of Mattco Siiinello, of the province 
 of Bar!, and of Kieonlano and Giaeotto Malispini, the first 
 Tuscan annalists. The M»nil Treatises of Albertano da 
 Brescia, the original of Chaucer's l\rno}n:'H Tufv. written 
 in Latin about I2j0, were translated into Italian by Andrea 
 da Grosseto in 120^, and less than ten years later by Sof- 
 fredi del (Jrazia of Pistfija. The former of these trnnsla- 
 tions, published in the f^ifleztmic rli Oprre Tncdttr in 1873, 
 from a manust^ript of the fourteenth century, is pr<»nounccd 
 l»y the editor to be, "in respect to antiquity, the most im- 
 portant document of the language in literary prose." The 
 otlicr, printed in 1S.*12. was considered by Ciampi as an 
 authentic specimen of tne language of Tuscany as p()pu- 
 larly spoken at its date. But it must be remembered that 
 neither edition is taken from the origiiuil miinuscript, or 
 even from a contemjiorary copy. The Xm-tffi'no, or C'lnto 
 Norvllc aiitichc. is oelicvcd to belong, in a considerable 
 proportion, to the tliirteenth century, though we have the 
 work only in later copies. The t'aiiti ifi Aufi'fti ntntficrt 
 is iiffirmed to exist in a manuserii»t of tiie thirteenth cen- 
 tury. The Lihrn di f^uto, the Ft'orc di /ictt-trictt of (lui- 
 dotto da Bologna, the letters of (tuitttme d'Arez70. trans- 
 lations of the romance of the Ilnund Table and of Iho 
 treatise of Egidio (%)!onna, 0>f (tnvrmnuH utn dri Prxucipif 
 Bono Giambuni's translations of the Tmnru of Brunetto 
 Latini and of other mediivval Latin works, and various 
 moral treatises and legemis of saints, are ascribed to the 
 same period. Theri' are alsn und<iubt*'d municipal statutes, 
 records, and other ducnrncnls. :is well us smne private let- 
 ters, dated about the niid'Ile of the century, ami of course 
 as old ns xrhat some maintain to be the earliest finecimeu 
 of English, the famous proclamation of Henry III. issued 
 in I2.^S. 
 
 We come now to what the Italians with just pride call 
 the g<dden age of their literature, the uumt trcccut,,, or, in 
 our chronological notation, the fourteenth century — -the ago 
 of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. It was in the course 
 of this century that elassieiil literature, though not then 
 first known to Iljiliiins, gnidually superseded the inllueiieo 
 of Proven^-iil jin«l French as an informing element, and 
 fiirnishcil un ineilemenl to all. models to many, for literary 
 effort. The Italian poetry of the fourteenth century, ex- 
 alted OS it is in genius and in literary merit, is far from 
 being copious in amount, while the iMnileniporauetujs propo 
 lilernturo is voluminous, and, in point of stylo at least, of 
 almost unsurpassed perfection, la neither form of compo-
 
 1334 
 
 ITALIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 sition were the Latin classics of real value, except as a 
 stimulus and a means of culture. Both in form and in 
 substance whatever is excellent in the productions of the 
 aureo trccnito is, in the highest degree, original and inde- 
 pendent. Dante, indeed, ascribes to the study of Virgil 
 " Lo bollo stile cho mi ha fatto onore ;" hut if in this ex- 
 pression he referred to the form or diction of his poems. 
 and not to the Latinity of his prose writings, he confounded 
 the primiim innbilr, the first impulse, with the character and 
 direction of the movement, which were controlled and cle- 
 termined by far other agencies. If we removp from the 
 D'n'hm Cnwmrfiin all that can fairly be traced to the influ- 
 ence of the works of Virgil, we shall deprive it of none of 
 its leading characteristics, nothing of its real inspiration. 
 The Muses of I>ante are not to be found among the heathen 
 Nine. His highest flights, like Milton's, were proni])ted 
 and sustained by the spirit of Christian theology as inter- 
 preted and understood in his time, and his passion was 
 unhappily in fur too great a degree colored by the partiali- 
 ties, rancors, and resentntcnts of his political and civil life. 
 The saving moral influence in Dante's mind was his early 
 love, and when he employs, instead of fierce invective, a 
 tone of mihb'r deprecation, a manner '' affettuosamente bat- 
 tagliera." it is because the spirit of Beatrice is pleading for 
 the offender. The Latin works of Petrarch, from which he 
 expected immortality, are deservedly forgotten, and the 
 classic idioms and constructions which Boccaccio thought 
 the chief ornaments of his prose style are not only its 
 greatest defects, but have exerted a very pernicious influ- 
 ence on the diction and manner of later Italian writers. 
 In all incipient literatures, at least, the true bard '' singet 
 wie der Vogcl singt." Dante's great poem, like all works 
 of high and original genius, shaped itself as it grew, in 
 accordance with the law of his nature, rather than in con- 
 formity to principles of conscious art. Its real character 
 and spirit would never be inferred from his own statement 
 of its import in the dedication of the Pararfifto to Can 
 Grande della Scala. He regarded it as a system of relig- 
 ious philosophy, the motive of which, ''literally consid- 
 ered," was *■ the state of souls after death," the " allegorical 
 subject," "man, as, by good or evil desert in the exercise 
 of free will, he is amenable to retributive justice in the way 
 of reward or punisliment." In the whole text of ihe dedi- 
 cation there is not the remotest trace of the most promi- 
 nent features of the poem itself — the inspiring passions of 
 life, his pure and ardent love for Beatrice, and his bitter 
 resentment ag.ainst his political opponents, though he ilid 
 not disguise this latter feeling in tlie address of the ej)istle. 
 where he styles himself '• Florcntinus natione non moribus." 
 The knowledge of Dante was vast and various for the pe- 
 riod, and his influence on the intellect of his age. when he 
 was constantly appealed to as the universal arbiter, the 
 tribunal of last resort on every possible subject, can scarcely 
 be overrated. The prose works of Dante are valuable 
 chiefly as indirectly a commentary on the Divina C'niune- 
 rfm, and are not otherwise of sufiicient interest or import- 
 ance to require special notice in this jdacc, Dante has 
 been made accessible to Kngiish«,nd American readers by 
 Mr. Longfellow in what is undoubtedly the best existing 
 translation of his great poem, and it is only in his works, 
 not in critical treatises, that he can be studied advantage- 
 ously. The canzoni <)f Petrarch are too widely known by 
 translations and imitations, and the poems of Boccaccio by 
 the use which Chaucer has made of them, to need to be 
 more than mentioned in what can he little but a list of lit- 
 erary titles. The Di'ttdinondn of Fazio degli Ulx-rti, a sort 
 of rhyming chronicle, geography, and natural history, is 
 interesting as a summary of the knowledge uT his times, 
 and not altogether without literary merit. Other poets of 
 the fourteenth century are Ccceo d'Ascoli, Francesco da 
 Barbcrino, Cino da Pistoja, and Antonio Pueci. Tho 
 prose literature of this century deserves a higher repu- 
 tation than foreign scholars have generally conceded to 
 it. Benvenuto da Imola and other early commentators on 
 Dante have not only furnished explanations and historical 
 illustrations of obscure passages in his works, but they 
 have frequently shown a critical ability rare in that age. 
 The chronicles of Giovanni Villani and his continuators, 
 and the history of Dino Campagni, possibly a later fabri- 
 cation, are valuable repositories of fact, and important as 
 good specimens of the caijabilities of Tuscan for literary 
 purposes, though as histories not on a level with the 
 French, Icelandic, and Catalan chronicles of the thirteenth 
 century, or with Froissart, who flourished at the close of 
 the fourteenth. The saintly legends and romances of 
 chivalry of this period are generally conspicuous for purity 
 and beauty of style. Many of them are included in the 
 CnUczione di Oprrr htfUte o finr/-, of which more than 30 
 octavo volumes have already apjieared. and tho Scrfta tU 
 Cnrionit'^ L€tt*rn7-if. in Ubno. now extending to 140 vol- 
 umes. Two works of this century, not embraced in these 
 
 collections, deserve special mention — tho novels of Sacchetti, 
 which are believed to contain very faithful pictures of the 
 manners of the age, and tho letters of St. Catharino of 
 Siena, of which the manner and style would of themselves 
 justify the epithet that Ttulian critics so often attach to 
 that age. In jjoint r)f style, tlie L'tirrs of Catharine of Plena 
 are not surpassed, if equalled, by any other European prose 
 compositions of the fourteenth century. The writer owed 
 nothing directly to classic culture, for it is doubtful whether 
 her '• small Latin " sufliccd even for rca<ling the Vulgate, 
 with which she shows great familiarity, but which she is 
 supposed to have known only through the quotations of 
 preaching friars or oral translations by other ecclesiastics. 
 It is remarkable that in an age when the I>iviiin Cnmmedia 
 was a theme of public exposition, atid even of juilpit dis- 
 cussion, the works of St. Catharine neither mention Danto 
 nor quote his poem. Perhaps she found his sombre tone 
 and severe invective too repulsive for her kimlly temper; 
 and Tommaseo is hardly extravagant in saying that though 
 there are resemblances of thought and diction in their 
 works, *'the likeness is that of a fair and gentle woman to 
 a proudly austere and snllen man, whose brow is wrinkled 
 by wrath, not hy years." The writings of St. Catharine 
 are of great importance, as incontestably proving that in 
 her day the liurjua eomune existed in its most perfect form 
 as tho common vernacular of Tuscany, for she probably 
 knew, and certainly thought, in no other tongue. M'erc 
 other testimony in support of our proposition wanting, 
 confirmatory evidence might be found in the Fioiettt di 
 Sun Fi'ftncpHcn, which comjietent judges believe to be the 
 truest possible expression of the simple beauty of the Tus- 
 can familiar speech of the period we are considering. The 
 increasing cultivation of classical literature in the fifteenth 
 century produced much the same eflect as in England a 
 hundred years later. It absorbed the intellectual activity 
 of the age, and left comparatively little time or taste for 
 original production. In Italy the study of (Jreck and Latin 
 was general among the better classes, in all ranks and 
 both sexes, to a degree not paralleled even by the learning 
 of modern Germany. "Women who were educated at all 
 were taught Greek and Latin, and Italian ladies filled pro- 
 fessorships in both native and foreign universities. To 
 Italy belongs the honor of having first acknowledged — 
 what she has since too often forgotten — the intellectual 
 equality, and therefore the equality in rights as well as in 
 duties, of the sexes. She thus anticipated by four cen- 
 turies the revelation of a truth which has suddenly dawned 
 again upon the civilization of this generation as a princi- 
 ple, the general acceptance of which constitutes the most 
 beneficent moral revolution that humanity has seen since 
 the promulgation of the Christian religion. In this century 
 Italy ae(|uired an intellectual — unhappily not a moral — cul- 
 tuie anil refinement which gave her an immense, a wiile- 
 sprcad, and a long-enduring influence over the mind t>f the 
 rest of Europe. Traces of this influence are abundantly 
 visible in tho literature and history of every European 
 state, but it was scarcely fully appreciated or clearly ex- 
 pounded before the publication of Burckhardt's remarkable 
 Cu/tiir der lirnntHdaurr, which we earnestly recommend to 
 the reader. Still, this century produced great Italian 
 writers in both poetry and prose, as well as great geniuses 
 in politics and art. The most conspicuous poetical works of 
 the age were the Mtinfnnte Muf/f/iore of Luigi Pulci, the Or- 
 laudo Innamoratn of Bojardo, Ihe Fanda d'Or/ro, a drama, 
 and other small works of Poliziano. lyrical compositions 
 by Gasparo Visconti, Aceolti, and others. In prose are tlio 
 chronicles of Collcnnuceio Corio and numerous other val- 
 uable sources of historical information, many of which, 
 like tho writings of Sabellico and Pius If. (.Eneas Silvius 
 IMccolominil, are in Latin; others exist only in manuscript 
 or in the voluminous collections of Muratori an<l other vast 
 repositories of meditcval lore. To tho fifteenth century, 
 too. belong the works of Leon Battista Alberti on architec- 
 ture, sculpture, and jiainting. and most of the writings of 
 Leonardo da A'inci. Many of these latter unfortunately 
 remain unpublished, but. not less than his material works, 
 they are unequivocally productions of a genius which in 
 universality, versatility, and power has had no superior 
 among men. In this age, too, lived two of the granrlcst 
 characters and sublimest geniuses in the rcconls of human 
 history — Columbus and Savonarola — both Italians and both 
 martyrs. The intellect of neither is adequately represented 
 by his literary productions, hut, though Ihe life of Colum- 
 bus remains to be written, Savonarola has found a worthy 
 biographer in Villari, whose life of tins remarkable man is 
 one of the noi)lest historical works of our time. 
 
 From about the middle of the thirteenth century to tho 
 overthrow of the lil>crties of Florence in 15.10 by tho un- 
 liolv league between the emperor Charles V. and Popo 
 Clement VII.. Florence was the city of the world most con- 
 spicuous for intellectual and physical achievement. Let-
 
 ITALIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATlRi:. 
 
 133.5 
 
 tor?, art, industrr, and commerco altbo were pursued with 
 a genius in conception, a feverish euergy in execution, and 
 a splendor ol' result probably unexampled in ancient or 
 in modern limes. In particular branches of art and litera- 
 ture she may have been excelled by .Vlhens and by Kome, 
 but in the combined exercise of the highest faculties, men- 
 tal and material, in every field of human cflTort. no three 
 centuries of .\thenian or of Kotnan annuls can be paral- 
 leled with those of Klorcn'-'e during the period we liave 
 mentioneil. Most of the great names we have hitherto 
 cited arc those of Tuscans, hut the political and the intel- 
 lectual ascendency of Florence fell together, and with some 
 brilliant exceptions her genius was clouded, if not quenched, 
 by the final extinction of her liberties. In narrative and 
 in lyric poetry the most celebrated Italian writers of the 
 sixteenth century arc Trissino, Luigi Alamanni, Ariosto 
 (whose ftf/ntidn Fitrioiin excels all other romantic poems), 
 Tasso (whi>8e (rt^ntiifitcmme Lificrtita, of nU mo<lern poetical ' 
 compositions, comes nearest to the idea of the classic epic), j 
 B2rni (the rcversiflcr of Bojardo's Orlnmlo Jnn-uiinralo, 
 and who gave his name to a peculiar class of light satirical 
 verse), Fireniuola, Uucccllai, Tansillo. Davanzati. Pietro 
 Aretino, licnibo. Annibale Caro. Michelangelo liuonarroti, 
 VittoriaColonna.and Folengo. the writer of macaronic verse. 
 It was in the sixteenth century that the drama first acquired 
 a status in Italian literature. Many plays were written in 
 I^atin, many of a popular character were sketched in out- 
 line and more or less filled up by improvisation by the ac- 
 tors — an art in which the Italians still show great talent. 
 These, of course, are lost to us, and few if any of the more 
 elaborate dramas of that period still hold their place on 
 the stage. The principal comedies are those of Ariosto, 
 Dovizio da Bibbicna. Macchiavelli, P. Aretino, Grazzini 
 Firenzuola, Cecchi, .Salviati, ami Francesco d'Ambra. \ic- 
 colo r'orreggio Visconli produced a pastoral drama, and 
 the Panlfir Fill') of (iuarini still has a high reputation. 
 The foundation of the musical drama was laid in this cen- 
 tury by i;milii> did t^avalieri, and Rinuecini is regarded as 
 the first author of a regular opera. liecehi is said to have 
 produced the earliest opera bulfa. Tragedies were produced 
 by Del Carretto, Trissino, Uucccllai, Andrea dell Anguil- 
 lara. and Pietro .-Vretino. Numerous novels and romances 
 appeared in this age. The collection of Bandello is well 
 known. Firenzuola, Paraboseo, lliraldi, Orazzini, Mac- 
 chiavelli, and Do Porta distinguished llieni.sclves in ficti- 
 tious narrative. The didactic dialogue of Baldassare Cas- 
 tiglione, // C'lrtir/iaiin, was translated into most European 
 languages before the year ICOn, and is still not forgotten. 
 The political and historical literature of this ago is vo- 
 luminous and highly celebrateil. Macchiavclli's fame is 
 universal. Parnta, tluicciardini, Varchi, .Segni, Caval- 
 canti, Bonfadio, Foglietii, and Pietro Bembo acquired great 
 distinction. Vasari's Livm nf Ihe Ailiiln, though often 
 Erroneous, and the works of Borghini and Cellini, are in- 
 dispensable sources of information respecting the history 
 of Italian art. In philosophy the greatest names are Cai-- 
 dano, and especially Oiordano Bruno, both of whom, how- 
 ever, wrolo in Latiu. 
 
 The ni'ist eminent Italian poets of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury are lioccalini. .Marini, Francesco Redi, (irnziani, Chi- 
 abrcra (whoso odes are specimens of great elevation of 
 thought and iliction), Forteguerri, Tassoni (the author of 
 the mock hemic). La .Scochia Rapita, Bracciolini. Lorenzo 
 I.ippi, and Filieaja (who is best remembered by his patri- 
 otic sonnets). But this century is chiefly remarkable for 
 ifs successful cultivutiiin of [ibysieal science. The great 
 names are those of tjalileo (who was compelled bv an ec- 
 clesiastical tribunal to retract his astronomical theories, if 
 not by actual torture, at least, indubitably, by the threat 
 of torture), Torricelli, Borelli, I'assini, Viviani, Castelli, 
 Riccioli, and lirimaldi. I'ampanella, who wrote chiefly in 
 Latin, was distinguished as a philosopher. The nio.it im- 
 portant historical works of this century aro Paolo ."^arpi's 
 I(:-i.,r;i ni'ihr I'l.Hnril „/ Ti:,ii and Palfavicini's refutation I 
 of that history, and the historical writings of the .lesuit 
 Bart'di. Tlu: Civil Wiim in h'riinrr- of Davila and Benti- , 
 voglio's ir<rr» m f'lanilrrii had a considerable reputation, 
 but have been superseded by the researches of later inqui- i 
 rers. Nanui wrote a Jlinlori/ o/ Venice, and Capecolatro 
 of Naples. 
 
 Afier the recovery of the Thurch from the first stunning 
 effects of the Keformation. followed the t'utholic reaction 
 of the latter half of the sixteenth century, and the inllu- 
 enco of Kome has ever since been steadily hostile to all 
 progress, intellectual, moral, and material. This is plainly 
 seen in the lulht-lcllrrit literature of the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth centuries, though in other fields of intellectual 
 effort there was in the eighteenth century a revived activity, 
 which at least partially restorer! to Italy her old position 
 as a power in ICiiropean letters. In poetry and the drama 
 the most eminent writers were t_Jozzi, Pnrini. (}ohloni, 
 
 I Maffei, Casti, Mctastasio, and Alfleri. The founder of the 
 modern science of historical criticism, (iiambattista Vico. 
 ! the ])hilo.sophical jurists, Filangieri and Beccaria, and the 
 j |)hysicists and naturalists, Volta, (Jalvani, Scarpa, and 
 Spallanzani, have acquired and deserved the greatest eele- 
 1 brity. The historical writings of Dcnina and Tiraboschi 
 should also be mentioned. As a means of general culture 
 the Italian literature of the present century has not. for 
 .Americans and Englishmen, the iuiporlance"which special 
 circumstances have given to the contemporaneous produc- 
 I tions of (Jerman and French intellect, but its deserts are 
 greater than its European reputation. The Italians do not do 
 themselves justice in this as well as in many other respects ; 
 and if they have not received justice at foreign hands, it is 
 partly because they have been too modest in claiming it. 
 Another reason why Italian literature is little knownand 
 appreciated abroad is that, contrary to the general belief, 
 the literary language, from its great wealth of vocabulary 
 and combination in some fields, its poverty in others, is 
 extremely difficult for foreigners. Manzoni, as we have 
 seen, found it so even for a native. Few strangers ever 
 acquire more than the merest smattering of Italian, or 
 learn enough of it to know how ignorant they remain of 
 its real character and capabilities. Our narrow limits of 
 space permit us to give but a few names in the literature 
 of this century, and in selecting these we must be guiiled 
 not by the actual merit of the writers, or even by their 
 popularity in Italy, but solely by our view of the interest 
 they may probably possess for those into whose hands this 
 article may fall. Since the year 1800 the Italian press has 
 been fertile in products of perhaps higher average merit 
 than the works of preceding centuries, though in Italy, as 
 elsewhere, comparatively few have risen to such a dcciiled 
 superiority over their contcmjioraries as to warrant us in 
 predicting for them a lasting place in literary history. 
 With few exceptions, the writers best known abroad have 
 owed their foreign reputation as well as their domestic 
 popularity to the political tendency of their writings, and 
 to the courage they have shown in the avowal of truths 
 unpalatable to their rulers, not less than to the genius by 
 which many of their productions have been distinguished. 
 It is too soon to separate the inherent from the accidental 
 elements of their success, and to assign to them their rela- 
 tive rank as exponents of the national mind and as influ- 
 ential causes in the develojiment of the national conscious- 
 ness, and consequently as agencies in effecting the aston- 
 ishing revolutions through which Italy passed in the half 
 century between the years 1820 and 1870. Still, there aro 
 unequivocally great names — names which It.ily and the 
 world will not •■ willingly let die " — in the Italian literature 
 of the nineteenth century; and there is abundant room for 
 the hope of continued and oven greater literary achieve- 
 ment by the generation which is now coming upon the stan'o 
 of life and of lalx.r. The Italian writers of this century, 
 in poetry and the drama, best known abroad are Monti (the 
 author of the llantrllllniin), Pindcmonte, Ugo F'oscolo (/ 
 Sepolcri), Silvio Pellico ( FranreMca da /{liiiiiii), Niccolini 
 (Fillppo Slrozzi and Arntttfio du Urrsrltt), Leopardi (Cuuti, 
 poems of true genius). Manzoni ( '^miledi Ctinnai/nota, Adel- 
 rlii, Iiiui Sncrl, and the famous lyric fl cinr/ue Miii/ijio), 
 Berchet (lyrics), Grossi (/ l.nmhardl nlln prliii'i Cmcl'iila), 
 Tigri (io .SV/ie), Spolverini (La Itiiritle). Ariel (An /',(«fo- 
 iij:iVi),<!iu8ti, the genial satirist. Ofniore purely national rep- 
 utation, though not always by any means of inferior merit, 
 are the iioems of Rieci, Sestini, Bagnoli, Mameli, Aleardi, 
 Prati, Mamiani, Montanclli, t'osenza. ]Mesdaines Savio- 
 Hossi, roloiiibiiii. and Fu:\-Fusinato, and the imprnvvlKntori 
 Hegaldi and .Miss Giannina Milli. Acting plays have been 
 very numerous, but they have met a discouraging compe- 
 tition in translations from the modern French drama. 
 Nota's comedies, though of little power, continue to bo 
 represented occasionally. Ferrari and Ghcrardi dclla 
 Testa have met with merited success, and at tlio present 
 day the plays of I>c Kcnzis are deservedly very iiopular, 
 and give promise of much future excellence, lipon the 
 whole, the Italian prose literature of this century is enti- 
 tled to rank relatively higher than its poetry or its stage 
 plays. Foremost in narrative fiction stands the Pmmrati 
 Spitni of .Manzoni. Kipsini ( Lit Munnen di Mnmn), Gross! 
 {Mam, Vitcnil), Azeglio {Ellarr Fieramniica and XicrnIA 
 dri l.api). (iiierrnzzi (.l«»'(/o) di Flniizr), are successful 
 authors of historical novels of the same school, all which, 
 as well as Ilolta's .S'Mn'n drila liiirna dill' /iidrpeiidrnza 
 de,/ll Slaii I'liiii, and •SVoiiVi d' Italia; the historical works 
 of Cesare Bnlbo ; CoUelta's Sinria del lirami- di Xapidi ; 
 Fariui's I.n Slain Human,, dal ISl.lal IS.W ; Broffirio's 
 Sl„rla del l'i,,nnnlr; Giobcrli's I'riinal,, ,1 Italia, Del Itln- 
 n„ramrnt„ I'irilr d' Italia, ami other works; Alnari's / 
 Vrupri .SVciViaui',- Oicognari's St„iia drlla S'inllnra, and the 
 archicological works of Micali, Inghirami, Canina, and 
 Fabretti— are well known abroad. The Italian prose work
 
 I'Sdij 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 of this century which has had the widest circulation in 
 Europe is te Mir. Pn'^/ioni of Silvio Pellico, and we l>e- 
 lievc that in moclern times no single volume has produced 
 a more prot'unnd impression in Europu or occasioned more 
 important ninral and political rt'sults than this. It secured 
 for Italy tin- sympathies of the civilized world ; and, thuugh 
 vears of misgovernment were still to be endured, tlmugh 
 the concurreneo of many other causes was necessary to 
 effect the linal liberation of the I'eniusula from foreign 
 sway, yet it was the PrinotiH of Pellico which gave to Aus- 
 trian domination the mortal blow. In polities and pdlitical 
 economy Minghctti's (ifmitvidi Lcttcrari, especially his re- 
 markable Lrtterson RiliyioHH Ltbcrti/. To this period also 
 belong the works of Giordani, criticism and correspond- 
 ence; Biitta, history of Italy and of the American Uevolu- 
 lutioa ; Micali, ancient history of Italy; Laura Mancini 
 and Madame Fcrrucci, in jioetry ; Mamiani, in pliiioso])hy ; 
 Pietro Thouat, education and talcs; Litta, family history; 
 Balbo, history and political economy ; Aleardo Aleardi, 
 poetry; Montanelli, memoirs; Emiliano Giudici, literary 
 history ; Ranalli. lesthetics and criticism ; Vanniicci, his- 
 tory ; Bianciardi. Lozzi. Bon Compagni, political literature; 
 Ausonio Franehi, Spaventa, Scialoja, in philosophy; De 
 Sanctis, Settembrini.Pitre, Comparetti,Salvatico.l>e Guber- 
 natis, in criticism; Boccardo, Maestri, Errera, political 
 economy: Temistocle, Gradi, tales. The works of Roma- 
 gnosi and of Gioja, all of which appeared before the great 
 revolution of 1869-00, are entitled to special notice. This 
 auspicious event released the Italian intellect and the 
 Italian press, except in the jiontifical states, from shackles 
 which had fettered them for many centuries, and there is 
 now great activity in every department of literature. The 
 most fertile and voluminous, as well as popular, historical 
 writer of the present era is Cesare Cantil. Ricotti, La 
 Lumia, Amari {Storia dei MusuIukiiii in Stcilia), Giudici, 
 Azeglio (liicordi e Com'spondeitza), A'annueci (I Martiri 
 (f'ff'i Liberta), Buu Compagni iChif:Ha e Stato), Bianciardi 
 {Stort'a dci hi pi and Prior Liicn), Zini {Storia d'Jtnlia), 
 Cibrario {Storia defla Schiavitit). Zamboni {(Jli Ezzclini e 
 tffi Schiavi), Poraponio Leto (a fictitious name, Tl Concilio 
 Vaficano), uTo writers of interest and importance. We 
 must here notice the Spafjna of Do Amicio. a volume of 
 travels remarkable for a degree of descriptive talent and 
 easy liveliness of style rare in Italian prose. In political 
 economy the works of Cattaneo. De Rossi (in French), 
 Minghetti ( Economia I\ditica ), Cibrario ( Economic Politica 
 d'l Medio Era), Celestino Bianchi {Storin Dipiumatica 
 d' Italia), Boccardo, Lozzi ( Ozio in flafia), Sclopis ( lIiHtory 
 of Italian Lcijialation), Brofferio (Storia dtl /'arliuiucuto 
 Subalpitta)^ and Mazzini are conspicuous. In physical, 
 mathematical, and natural science, Malloui, Phma, Mat- 
 teucci, Secchi. Sehiaparelli, Donati, Menabrea, Sella. Boc- 
 cardo, Lioy, Parlatore. Dclpino, Sto]>i)ani, Gastaldi. Cap- 
 pellini, Negri, are distinguished names, though their labors 
 do not belong wholly to the present generation. In theo- 
 retical as well as practical engineering, and especially in 
 hydrology, the Italians have long been very eminent, and 
 Europe lias had no abler writers in this department than 
 Mangotti, Paleocapa, ami Lombardini. In prose fiction 
 Suner, Bcrsezio, Barrili, and Caterini Percoto are distin- 
 guished. Linguistic science, new everywhere, and emphat- 
 ically so in Italy, is ably represented by Peyron. Gorresio, 
 Orcurti, Fabretti Amari. De Gubernatis, Arcoli. Flecchia, 
 Teza, Lignani, Caix. Intellectual and moral philosophy 
 has found an able cultivator in Mamiani. 
 
 Many of the ablest Italian writers of the present day — 
 wo will mention Bonghi and Messednglia as conspicuous 
 examples — are known chiefly through es-says in periodicals, 
 occasional academical discourses, and parliamentary re- 
 ports. The periodical literature of Italy has long been 
 very highly respectable, and the Autolofjia, established by 
 Vieusseux, rose even to the rank of a political power, or 
 at least influence, in Italy. The publication has been re- 
 fiumed, and it is ably supportetl. The Ptditecnico, long 
 under the direction of Cattaneo, has always been a very 
 important scientific periodical. The Hivistn Europra is 
 also excellent. A vast amount of most important Italian 
 literary and historical material is accessible only in large 
 miscellaneous collections, such as the Arrhtrio Storico, (he 
 Prlatioiia of the Venetiim A mhanffadom, a.nd others to which 
 wo have already alluded. An encyclopa'dic work, histor- 
 ical, descriptive, and typognvphical, is now publishing 
 under the title L' fta/ia, urnl will extend to twenty or more 
 large octavos. But no thtirough knowledge of Italy, an- 
 cient, or modern, can be attained without a constant re- 
 sort to the labors of foreign scholars. The principal Eng- 
 lish contributions to our knowledge of It.aly are by Roscoe, 
 Napier, Rawdon Browne, and TroUnpo. The German 
 works of Nichuhr, Mnmnisen, Ihne. and, for the Middle 
 Ages especially, Burckhardt and Gregorovius [Gcnchichte 
 drr Stadt Pom), are indispensable. Recent works useful to 
 
 foreigners are the literary histories of De Sanctis and Sct- 
 tembrini. Marc Mounier (L'italiti e»t cKc la Terre dea 
 Mortn), and Ame<lee Rtiux. For Sicilian literature the 
 writings and collections (jf Pitre and Di Giovanni arc in- 
 dispensable. There is thus far no grammar or dictionary 
 of the Italian language which at all satisfies the require- 
 ments of modern jibilological science. Many dictionaries 
 are now in course of publication, among which wo notice 
 a series of special vocabularies in preparation under gov- 
 ernment patronage. That of Canevazzi, embracing the 
 nomenclature of agriculture and the subsidiary knowledges, 
 is published as far as the letter C, and is truly excellent. 
 The amount of controver!^ial discussion on the Italian lan- 
 guage, and especially on the relations of the Tuscan dia- 
 1 lect to the present and prospective liiirpia comum- of Italy, 
 I is very great. We have space to notice only the labors of 
 ! Tommaseo, Gif»rdani, (iradi, Fanfani. tiiuliani {Liiiffnnytfio 
 Vivcnte delta Tovraua), and especially Manzoni and Bon- 
 I ghi. A work by the latter (Pcrc/iti la Lcttcrattira Italiana 
 ' nofi sia popolare in Italia) is particularly instructive. 
 I Georgc P. Marsh. 
 
 I It'aly^ the central of the three great peninsulas of 
 Southern Europe, lies between 3o° 30' and 47° 0' N, lat. 
 ! and between fi° uS' and 1S° 32' E. Ion., projecting into the 
 1 Mediterranean, between the Tyrrhene and Adriatic seas, 
 from N. W. to S. E., and united to the continent by the 
 basin of the Po, lying between the northern extremities of 
 ; these two seas an<l the vast semicircle of the Alps. Its 
 ffcoffraphicftf boundaries, which do not always coincide 
 ' with its political limits, arc — on the N., the Central Alps, 
 i which divide it from the Swiss cantons of Valais, II ri, and 
 I the Grisons, as well as from the Austrian Tyrol; on the 
 I E., first, the Oriental Alps, which separate it from the Aus- 
 trian provinces of Carinthia, Carni(»b, and Croatia, then 
 j the river Arsa in Istria. the Gulf of Quarnero, and finally 
 I the Adriatic Sea; on the S.. the Ionian Sea; on the ^V.. the 
 i T^'rrhene and Ligurian seas, tlie Var, and the Western 
 j Alps, the latter of which, together with the lower course 
 of the Var, separate it from France. PoUticallif, the west- 
 ern boundary is not the Var, but the Roja. The northern, 
 the precise outline of which should be indicated by the 
 crest of the Alps, falls much lower on their southern slope 
 I at the point where the canton Ticino and a j)art of the Gri- 
 I sons (Swiss) form the frontier for a distance of about 296 
 I miles, and the Tyrol and the Trentino (.Austrian) for 250 
 : miles; to the E. a line of 310 miles separates Italy from 
 I Goritz, Trieste, and Istria, which also belong to Austria. 
 Geographical Italy is divided into three great sections: (1) 
 I Northern Italy, which includes all the strictly continental 
 j portion — that is, Venice. Lombardy, Piedmont, and Ligu- 
 ria, with no islands except the small ^'ene^ian group in the 
 ' Adriatic; (2) Central Italy, including about one-half the 
 I Peninsula ])roperly so called, with the ancient Etruscan. Ura- 
 brian, and Latin territories, with the island of Corsica (po- 
 i litically French), and with the Tuscan and Circean archipel- 
 t agoes (Elba, Caprarn, (lorgona, Giglio. Ponza,\*entotena); 
 (.3) Southern Italy, or the remaining portion of the Penin- 
 sula, ineludiiig the Samnite, ApuHan, anci Calabrian dis- 
 tricts, the large islands of Sardinia anfl Sicily, and the 
 smaller, which compose (he Parthcnopean and Eolian areh- 
 ijiclagocs in the Tyrrhene (Ischia, Procida, Cajiri, Ijipari, 
 Vulcano, Stromboli, etc.), the Calipsean .Archipelago in the 
 African Sea (Malta, Gozo. etc.), and the Diomedean Archi- 
 pelago in the .Adriatic. The length of the Peninsula is 8^1 
 miles; its mean breadth Lis miles. The total superficies 
 of geographical Italy is 129,570, that of political Italy, 
 about 111,300 square miles. The extreme ])oints of the 
 Peninsula, in the direction of its greatest length from N. W. 
 to S. E., are — Mont Blanc in the Pennine Alps, and Cape 
 Spartivento in Calabria; in the properly continental part, 
 from W. to E., the Cottian and the Julian Alps; and. fol- 
 lowing the curve of the Alpine chain. Monte dello Schiavo 
 on the Mediterr.anean, and the Biltoray on the Adriatic; 
 and. finally, in the peninsular porli<m. the greatest breadth 
 is between Monte Argentaro on the Tyrrhene and the prom- 
 ontory of Ancona upon the Adriatic. 
 
 Internal Dirittions, their Area and Population. — The tcT- 
 ritoTiea yeoi/ruphicalti/ Italian are — 
 
 Surracc io itquaro miles. Population. 
 
 The kincdom of Italy 114.200.85 26,h01,l.')4 
 
 Trieste, Istria, Goritz 3.29t. 541,758 
 
 Cisalpine Tvrol G,007. 518,059 
 
 Cisalpine Switzerland l,.ir)2. 131,256 
 
 Nice 1.0fi5. m.3fi2 
 
 Corsica 3,377. 259.861 
 
 Malta 144. 136.3-19 
 
 Monaco 8.88 7,0S0 
 
 San Marino 24.59^ 7, OS0 
 
 Total 129,570.32 28,525,496 
 
 I The kingdom of Italy is divided into 69 provinces, sub- 
 ; divided into 111" circuits {ctreondari), and 97 districts (in 
 j Venetia), which together comprehend S35i2 commwuM or
 
 ITALY. 
 
 1337 
 
 toWDsbips^ distributed over tho following natural^ otbno- 
 grapbioa), aud bisturiual sections: (1) In Nortbeni Italy — 
 Lumbardy, betu-eeu tbo Ticiuu, (ho Miuciu, the Po, and tho 
 Alps; \'fiiotiii, lying K. of Lomburdy, between the Miucio 
 and the Adriatic, thu Alps, and the Po; Piedmunt.on tho W., 
 between iho Ticino, the Alps, and the Apennines; Liguria, 
 between tho Ajiennincs and (he sen ; Emilia no'l Ilotiiagua, 
 on iho ri. of the Po, between Picdmimt on the W., the Ad- 
 riatic on the K. and the Apennines on tho S. (2) in Central 
 Italy — Tuscany, between Iho Apennines nnd tho Tyrrhene 
 Sea; Latiuin, 1^. of Tnscuny, in tho middle and lower basin 
 of the Tiber; Uinbria nnd tho Marches, tho fir.-^t in tho 
 upper basin of tho Tiber, tho second between tho Ajiennines 
 and tho Adriatic, {'.i) In Southern Italy, tho ex- Neapolitan 
 states, which comprise all tho region tS. of tho Tronto on 
 tho eastern coast, and S. of Terracina on the western. The 
 Oy provinces are grouped into 10 compartments, of which 
 tho following tablo shows tho population (according to the 
 two latest censuse?) and the aupcrlicics : 
 
 Compart in?iil9. 
 
 ■.-.s 
 
 Piedmont 1487 
 
 Liguria 317 
 
 Lombanly .19d5) 
 
 Venetia "95 
 
 Erailia I •'2^ 
 
 LTmbria ' 173' 
 
 Marches i 240 
 
 Tuscany i 2781 
 
 Latium 227 
 
 Abruzzi and Mo-, 
 
 lise ; 456 
 
 Campania 614 
 
 Apulia I 23G 
 
 Basilicata 124 
 
 Calabria ! 410 
 
 Sicily 350 
 
 SanUnla 368 
 
 Superflelpa 
 
 Sfl 
 
 la 
 
 75 • 
 
 aq. mites. 
 
 f' 
 
 
 S^ 
 
 Il,300.(i4 
 
 2.16 
 
 2,053.07 
 
 110 
 
 9,U8:i.70 
 
 :wu 
 
 9.IB9.34 
 
 291 
 
 7,920..S7 
 
 2G6 
 
 3,819.17 
 
 140 
 
 3,746..'".9 
 
 24.5 
 
 9,28G.83 
 
 22S 
 
 4,601.20 
 
 IGO 
 
 G,G75.71 
 6,941.30 
 8,539.78 
 4,121.99 
 6,GG2.97 
 11,290.05 
 9,393.46 
 
 192 
 399 
 167 
 123 
 181 
 217 
 67 
 
 Kingiiomof Italy |8382 25,023,810 25,801,154 7.10 114,304.59 234 
 
 The following is a tabic of tho population according to the 
 la?<t two censuses (IS(n-71), of the superficies, and of the 
 number of inhabitants to the PijU-ire mile in the single 
 provinces, with the number of townships comprised in 
 each, and with the proportionate increase of the populatioa 
 ID ten 3'car9 : 
 
 Province* nnd co 
 partmvou. 
 
 r.i 
 
 PopulatloD. 
 
 iwi. vm. 
 
 Alexandria 344 
 
 Cuneo I 263 
 
 jNovara i 438; 
 
 Turin [jl42| 
 
 Piedmont... 
 
 645,607 
 
 597,279 
 
 579,385 
 
 _ 941,992 
 
 1187 i7li4,2ti3 2i899,.'>G4 
 
 683,.3G1 
 618,232 
 624,98.". 
 972,986 
 
 So-; 
 
 .■5.85 
 3.51 
 7.87 
 3.29 
 
 4.89 
 
 Genoa \ 210 
 
 Port Maiirizio 107 
 
 Liguria I 317 
 
 Bcrxarao ' 306 
 
 Brescia ' 28.'5l 
 
 Oirao 518 
 
 Ocmona | 1351 
 
 Mantua 67| 
 
 Milan 313| 
 
 Pavia I 20;! 
 
 i 7Sl 
 
 650,143 
 121,330 
 
 71G,7.VJ 10.25 
 127.053 4.72 
 
 771,473' 813,812' 9.38 
 
 347,23") 1 
 434,219' 
 4.i7,434' 
 28.5,148, 
 202,819 
 
 ■■t(iii,\r,2 
 
 4.TG.023 
 477,642 
 300,.'i95 
 2S8,942 
 
 948.320 1,009,794 
 
 Sondrlo 
 
 Lombardy ,.. 
 
 ndluno 
 
 Padua 
 
 Rovlt^o 
 
 Trevlso 
 
 Udinc 
 
 Venice 
 
 Verona 
 
 VlcpnKa 
 
 Venetia 
 
 Roloitna 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 Forll 
 
 Mrwlena 
 
 Parma 
 
 Piact-nra 
 
 Ravenna 
 
 Reggio-Kmilia. 
 
 Umilia 
 
 Perugia 
 
 Ancona 
 
 Ascoli-Pleeno. 
 
 Mneerata 
 
 Pesaro and Urbino 
 
 Marches, 
 
 419,783 
 100,040 
 
 448,4;«; 
 111,2411 
 
 6,02 
 5.02 
 4.42 
 5.41 
 9.94 
 6.48 
 0.82 
 4.90 
 
 ■si 
 
 H 
 
 1,951.70 
 2,7.55.07 
 2,520.33 
 4,0«7.,52 
 
 ll;i00..52 
 
 467.08 
 
 "2.0S,5ji6 
 
 l,087..5'3 
 1,043.85 
 1,0.50.12 
 031.16 
 950.93 
 1,125..5S 
 1,292.74 
 1,261,02 
 
 11965 3,201,000 3,10(1,824 0.13 9,043.53 
 
 107,229 
 .304,702 
 180,047 
 30H,48.) 
 440,.542| 
 294,4.501 
 310,493 
 327,074 
 
 17.5,282 
 3>V4,4:iO 
 200,835 
 3.52,538 
 481,5801 
 ;U7,.5:i8] 
 307,437 
 303,101 ' 
 
 4.82 
 19„58 
 11.18 
 11.28 
 
 9.32 
 14.63 
 10.10 
 in.".'. 
 
 1,270.95 
 754.00 
 G50.23 
 941.15 
 
 2,515.:)3 
 848.G6 
 
 1,060.60 
 
 1. '110.36 
 
 795 2,:H0,280l 2,042,807 
 
 ProviDoea Bod com- 
 
 I'^irlmuiiU. 
 
 Arc^^o 
 
 Florcncu 
 
 (Irosscto 
 
 Leghorn 
 
 Lucca 
 
 Massa-Carrara 
 
 Pisa 
 
 Siena 
 
 .33 
 
 350 
 222 
 247 
 237 
 
 250 
 
 451 
 271 
 
 329 
 277 
 455 
 183 
 112 
 890 
 340 
 88 
 
 Jm 
 
 137 
 482 
 308 
 .374 I 
 191 
 
 :«;8 I 
 
 346 
 
 ;k7 
 
 Tuscany.... 
 
 Latium 
 
 Aquila 
 
 Campobasso.. 
 
 Chieti 
 
 Teramu 
 
 Population. 
 
 £3 
 
 219,959 
 690,214 
 
 loo.cii; 
 
 110,sii 
 236.101 
 140,733! 
 243,028 
 193,933 
 
 278 1,907,067 
 
 227 
 
 T27 
 134 
 121 
 74 
 
 7.50,413 
 
 ~:i09,451 
 346,007 
 327,31i; 
 230,001 
 
 AbruizlAMolisci J56, 1,212,833 
 
 Avelino 
 
 Beneveuto 
 
 Cascrta 
 
 Naples 
 
 Salerno 
 
 Campania 
 
 Bar! 
 
 Koggia 
 
 Lecce 
 
 Apulia 
 
 Potcnza 
 
 Catauzaro 
 
 Cosenza 
 
 Eeggio, Calabria.. 
 Calabria 
 
 Caltaulsetta 
 
 Catania 
 
 Girgcnti 
 
 Messina 
 
 Palermo 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 Trapani 
 
 rasiliari 
 
 Sassari 
 
 Sardinia.. 
 
 28 335,021 
 73| 220,500 
 053,404 
 807,983 
 
 159 528,250 
 
 61412^23^0 
 
 .53 ",5.54,402 
 531 312.885 
 130 447,982 
 
 234,045! 
 
 70G,S24 
 107,437 
 118,.-i.51 
 280,399 
 101,914 
 205,9.59 
 206,4461 
 
 2,142,-525 
 
 830,704 
 
 .332,784 
 304,208 
 339,9.86 
 243,004 
 
 ^9 a 
 
 6,87 
 10,11 
 0.79 
 1.75 
 9.46 
 15.07 
 9.44 
 6.45 
 
 ~8.92" 
 
 12 
 
 1,277.60 183 
 
 2,307.50 .323 
 
 1,080.78 005 
 
 108..56'1085 
 
 576.52 
 
 G87.22 
 
 1,179.95 
 
 1,465.04 
 
 9,349.23, J29 
 11.50 r'4,601.10 lie 
 
 7.54 
 5.26 
 3.87 
 6.93 
 
 2,609.05 132 
 
 1,777.56 203 
 
 1,114.80 305 
 
 1,283.08 192 
 
 1,2K2,!ISL' 3.78 I 0,685,69 1 192 
 
 373,091 
 232,008 
 097.403 
 907,752 
 541,738 
 2,7.54,592 
 
 0(M..546 
 322,738 
 493,394 
 
 230 1 1,313,269 1,420.892 
 
 492,939 
 
 ~384,1,59 
 431,922 
 324,546 
 
 1,140,627 
 
 223,17S, 
 4.50,400 
 2C3,8S0: 
 394,701 
 584,929! 
 •2.59,013, 
 214,981 1 
 
 510,543 
 
 '4l2;226 
 440,488 
 363,008 
 
 1,200,302 
 
 ^230,060 
 493,413 
 2S9,018 
 420,019 
 017.07S 
 294,S,<3 
 230,388 
 
 3.01 1,408.7 
 
 6.72 
 4.38 
 2.,55 
 
 9.04 
 3.16 
 10.18 
 
 7.31 
 1.98 
 8.93 
 
 5.7 6 
 
 ^3.09" 
 9.9S 
 9..53 
 0..5G 
 5.00 
 
 13..59 
 9.90 
 
 360, 2,391 ,802 1 2,384,099: 8,04 
 
 2.58! 372,097 1 393,2081 5.67 5,2.56.90 
 110! 215,9371 24.3,452 12.73 4.141..55 
 
 368 1 588,004 ' ~636,660 ' ~8.26 ' '9,398.46 
 
 200 
 092.22 343 
 
 2,206.80' 310 
 4(11.41 22G1 
 
 2,130.84 2.54 
 
 6,840.1 0' ~4()2 
 
 2,292.24 203 
 
 2.9.53.04 1(19 
 
 3,293.33 149 
 
 8,538.62 
 
 J.1^21.89 
 
 T,306r98 
 2,840.93 
 1,514.95 
 
 "6;062.8(! 
 
 1,4,55.13 1,58 
 
 1,909.93 231 
 
 1,491.01' 193 
 
 1.707.931 238 
 
 1.904.071 814 
 1,427.15 
 1,214.48 
 
 11,290 .04 
 
 581 
 10 1 
 
 45 
 
 so! 
 
 481 
 21 ' 
 
 r. 
 
 407,4521 
 199,158 
 224,403 
 200,.591 
 2.56,029 
 218,.569 
 2(K).51>i' 
 
 439,2:;: 
 2l3.:w.'.i 
 2;ii,o'.io, 
 
 273,231 
 
 26i,;isi| 
 
 225,773! 
 221.115 
 
 H.ll 
 
 4. 29 
 
 4.80 
 3,27 
 3..10 
 
 l,!M0.33| 
 719,06 
 905.82 
 
 1,2.50,00' 
 905.80 
 
 712'.: 
 
 .;l2i 292 
 
 .03I 315 
 213 
 325 
 282 
 211 
 234 
 297 
 
 
 ',».,;:: : 
 
 . 
 
 1.907 
 
 -tl 
 
 2.095 
 
 ■cyifli 
 
 7.7:16 
 
 Ji:t,(i72 
 
 2.964 
 
 91,5,366 
 
 9.703 
 
 :i.71'* ir 
 
 N7 
 
 7:^*..4i, ;w« 
 
 SI0.2-. 2.*iO 
 
 i,n.w.rtil 223 
 
 1,114.241 IfK) 
 YJliM I "246 
 
 Physical GEOORAPnv. — A. Seas and Conatn of Italy. — 
 That part of the Mediterranean which washes Italy and 
 her islands is divided into five principal arms: (IJ The 
 Tyrrhene or Lower Sea. embraced between the Peninsula 
 and tho islands of Corsica. Sardinia, and Sieily. This is 
 the greatest expanse of Italian seji, and may nitnosf bo 
 regarded as a vast lake nearly everywhere surrounded by 
 Italian soil; (2) The Ailrintic or Upper Sea, Itetween Italy 
 and tho territory of the Slaves (lllyria, ]>almatia, Al- 
 bania); ('i) The lonijin Sen, between Italy, Sicily, and 
 (ireoce: (t) The African or Libyan Sea, between Sardinia, 
 Sicily, and Africa : (.")) The Ligurian Sea. between Liguria, 
 Corsica, Sardinia, France, and Spain. The greatest depth 
 of the wefitern basin of the Mediterranean is 10,600 feet, 
 between Sicily and Africa. The eastern basin is of much 
 greater depth; according to Capt. Spratt. la.O'.t^ feet be- 
 tween I^falta and Crete. The bottom of the Adriatic is a 
 great plain sloping downward from Italy towards tho 
 Illyrian, Ibilmntian, an<l Islrian coasts, but the degree of 
 inclination vnrirs greatly, being very slight, almost insen- 
 sible, near the outlet of the Po, becoming gradtmlly more 
 rapifl towards tho S. The great Mediterranean current, 
 which carries the waters of the Atlantic from W. to K., 
 creates two minor currents properly Italian : one enters tho 
 Adriatic, follows along tl-e coasts of Ibilniatia and Istria 
 as far as Trieste, then d«inbling it sweeps along the Italian 
 coast from Venice to .Apulia, and so returns into the great 
 basin from whence it set out: tho other, entering through 
 the Straits c»r .Mes.-^ina. Mows into the Tyrrhene Sea, washes 
 the western shore of the Peninsula till it reaches the \.\- 
 gtirian (lulf, then turns towards Provence ami Spain in a 
 direction opposite to that of the great current of immission 
 from tho A I Ian tic Itt the Mediterranean. Besides tluse 
 two principal currents, other secondary ones exist in the 
 Italian yvwn: that which, fbiwinr;^ from N. to S., touelMs 
 Iho we!<Iern eojints of the same islands, and finally en* 
 counters that before mentioned in the Strait of Honifacio, 
 which for this reason is dangerous to navigation: that 
 which arises from the ehanRe of direction undergone in 
 the African Sea by the general current, wliicli ,-lionId lend 
 eastward, but, first bndien by the Kj^ades, then divided by 
 the western angle of Sicily, separates into two arms, tho 
 one directing itself into the channel of Malta ; the other, 
 coastini; alon;; the prunmntory ot Pncbino and the western
 
 1338 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 shore of Sicily, finally unites with the so-calleil Ionian cur- 
 rent, which enters iato the Channel of Faro : the other arm 
 of the Sicilian current diverges from the northern line of 
 the island, barely touching its many gulfs, then l)ondiug 
 toward the K.. strikes the Eolian l-shmd^. to lose itself iu 
 the Tyrrhene shore-current. With regard to the velocity 
 of the Italian currents tlicro arc as yet no very positive 
 data. Mnutanari calculates it at O.IG of a foot per second. 
 Cialdi estimates it at a mean of half a mile per hour. 
 Minard says that the great Mediterranean current on the 
 coast of Algeria was found to have a velocity of 0.9;'* foot 
 per second, and in some places even of 1.0-1 feet per second, 
 but that it diminishes in swiftness during its vast course, 
 and that on the coast of Franco it is not more than 0.25 
 foot per second. Marmocchi gives to the proper Italian cur- 
 rents only a velocity from 4 to G miles in twenty-four 
 hours; but ho observes that in the channels and around 
 the capes it is much greater. In the Ligurian Sea, accord- 
 ing to my observations, it is never found to exceed from 
 1.00 to 2 inches per second; but all the ])orts on the Tyr- 
 rhene coast whicli open towards the E. have a tendency to 
 shoal up. The number of degrees of longitude included in 
 the Mediterranean is too small to allow this sea to have 
 great tides. They are more sensible in the Straits of Mes- 
 sina ( where the flow rises to 2G.10 inches), in the Neapolitan 
 waters (from G to S inches), and in the Venetian gulf (o. 40 
 feet). The water of the Mediterranean is reputed to be more 
 salt than that of the .Atlantic : the observations of Borrillon 
 la Grange give it double the quantity of saline matter. But 
 near the shore the saltness is, in many places, diminished 
 either by the action of rivers and torrents, or by that of 
 fountainsor springs of fresh water which are thrown up from 
 the bed of the sea by natural siphons; and upon the whole 
 it is impossible to estimate the proportion of saline matter 
 in the waters of this sea with any ])reeision. The most 
 r. lebrated of these submarine springs is that which wells 
 up in the Gulf of Spc/.ia about a mile from the shore, and 
 with such force tliat the fresh water rises several inches 
 above the surface of the sea. and forms a convex swell 
 about 20 feet in diameter. With regard to the tempera- 
 ture of the Italian seas, Marsiglia has observed that the 
 mean for the mcmths of De*-*ember. January, February, 
 March, and April is between ."iO*^ and 52° F., while in June 
 it does not exceed 44. G°. Thus, the Mediterranean is a 
 powerful eontpensatory agent in tempering the severity 
 of winter and the heats of summer. The Italian seas have 
 always been renowned for their a/ure color, and for a 
 transparency which reflects as iu a limpid mirror the beau- 
 tiful hues of the sky. The phosphorescence of the water is 
 remarkable, and according to an ingenious suggestion of 
 Mr. (jr. P. Marsh, may have increased during the historic 
 period, since the greater destruction of cetaceans and prc- 
 daceous fish in tnodern times favors the multiplication of 
 the lower marine organisms upon which the former feed, 
 and whose bodies produce, in part at least, this phenome- 
 non. The coast of the Italian Peninsula has a linear ex- 
 tension of ;i2.">7 miles — UGO in the Adriatic, 1030 in the 
 Ionian and Libyan seas. 750 in the Tyrrhene, and 495 in 
 the Ligurian. The ci>ast-line of the larger i^slands meas- 
 ures 92S miles. Setting out from the extreme W. bound- 
 ary, vve come first to the port of Nice (no longer Italian), 
 a small harbor excavated by Chark-s Kmanucl III. and 
 Victor .Amadeus. About a mile to the K. follow the gulfs 
 of Villafranca and, of Sant' Ospizio. then the little port of 
 Monaco, between which and the town of Mentone rises 
 Cape San Martino. Still continuing eastward. Capes IJor- 
 dighcra and IJurghetto follow successively, then the gulf of 
 the Ospitaietti, the road of San Remo, the beaches of Ccrvo 
 and of Diana, the bays of San Stefano and of San Lorenzo, 
 the landing of Porto Maurizio, the port of Oneglia, the 
 Gulf of Diano Marina. Between Cape delle Mele and the 
 little island of Albcnga arc the shores of Alassio and Lan- 
 gueglia, which afford good anchorage. A vast gulf, at the 
 bottom of which lies Albenga, extends from the island of 
 Galliuara to Cape Noli ; then comes the open bay of Finale 
 Marina. To this succeed the excellent roadstead of Vado, 
 the little port of Savona, and from thence to (Jenoa a line 
 of coast winch the industry of tlie inhabitants has converted 
 into a continuous shipyard in which hundreds of ships are 
 frequently on the stocks at the same time. The spacious 
 artificial harbor of Genoa (about Ii20 acres, or one-half a 
 square mile of xvater-surfacc) has to the E. a coast-line 
 which, as far as the promontory of l*urtofino, affords neither 
 roadstead nor anchorage except the lamling of Cauiogli. 
 The (iulf of Rapallo, the little bay of Portofino. that of 
 Carlo Alberto, the not easily accessible landing of Chiavari, 
 the coast of Sestri Levante. Cape Manara. Cape Ilospo, the 
 landing of Framura. the Cape of M<tntcross(i, the Bay of 
 Bonassol, the beach of Levanto, Cape Mesco, the landing 
 of Montcro^isu, the rugged r<»eks <>t Verna/.za, Corniglia, 
 Manarola, Riomaggiore, are the principal features until 
 
 we reach the magnificent Gulf of Spezia, the great naval 
 arsenal of Italy. To this succeed the Tuscan coasts, with 
 the little port of Viareggio, with the shoals caused by the 
 deposits of the Arno, the shallow roadstead of Leghorn, op- 
 posite which on a rock rises the historic tower of the Mehiria. 
 We shall further notice Cape Cavallo, the mouth of the 
 Cccina, Port Baratto, the promontory of Popolonia, the 
 harbor of Piomi»ino, the large basin of Grosseto, the marshy 
 coast of Plan d'Alma. the (Julf of Casligliouc della Peseaja, 
 the headland of Talamone, the fifty-mile basin of Orbetello, 
 the three picturesque rockscalled the "Ants " ( /.<• Fitnnicht:) 
 of Gropseto, the promontory of Argcntaro, with the harbors 
 of Santo Stefano and Port" Ercole. Following a monotonous 
 and somewhat treacherous line of coast, we como upon the 
 harbor of Civita Veechia, then the headlanil of the Jlari- 
 nella or Cape Linaro, then Fiumirino and the well-known 
 Roman sea-coast formed by the ailuviuni <d' the Tiber, the 
 Cape of Anzo, the harbor of Neptune, the little promontory 
 of Astura, Mt. Cireello (which, rising from a low isthmus, 
 looks like an island when seen at a distance). From Tcr- 
 racina the Neaj)oiitan coast coninicnces with the Gulf of 
 Gaeta. Cape della Rocca, and 25 miles farther to the S. the 
 Bay of Naples, the islands of Ischia and Capri, Capes 
 Mesa and Miscno. the Gulf of Baia, the port of Pozzuoli, 
 the rocky headland of Algalone, that of Posilipo, the rock 
 of CasteJ del I'tivo, the harbor of Naples, Castellamare. and 
 Cape Canipanella, where the Neapolitan gulf terminates 
 and that of Salerno begins, itself ending at Cape Licosa. 
 Next at the S. E. we meet Capo Palinoro, the promontory 
 of Falconara, the Gulf of Policastro, which terminates at 
 Cape Servero ; passing this, we enter the Gulf of Santa 
 Eufcmia. in form a horseshoe, the other extremity of which 
 is Cape Vaticano. Then follows the (iulf of Gioia, to the 
 W. of which lie the Li])ari or Eolian Islands. This gulf, 
 measured from Cajjc Vaticano to the promontory of Bag- 
 nara, has an opening of 33 miles. The part of the Cala- 
 brian coast most nearly approaching Sicily is the Torre 
 del Cavallo. Crossing the strait, we find ourselves in tho 
 Ionian Sea, having first passed the famous rocks of Scylla 
 and Charybdis. Then coasting along Reggio, wo round 
 the promontory of Pallaro, Cape dell' Armi, and Capo 
 Spartivento ; the latter being passed, the shore curves cast- 
 ward, forming the Gulf of Squillace, which terminates at 
 Cape Rizzuto. With Cape dcllc CoIoniTc opens the vast 
 Gulf of Taranto, tcrminatud by Cape Santa Maria di Luca, 
 to the E. of which we enter the Adriatic. In this sea, after 
 passing the deep inland harbor of Otranto, the beautiful 
 Bay of Brindisi opens, and. fartiier on, the roadstead of 
 Bark'tta and the great promontory of Gargano, which 
 forms the spur of the Italian boot : then the Gulf of Man- 
 fredonia, the port of Viesti, tho landing of Santa Croce, 
 the rocks of Coechiara, the mouths of the Pescara untl the 
 Tronto; then the harbors of Ancona, of Sinigaglia, Fani>, 
 Pesaro, Rimini, Cesenatico. Cervia, Ravenna, Rimaro — all 
 small and shoaled. The valleys of Comaeehio, between tho 
 mouths of the Po and the territory of Ravenna, form an 
 immense pool. 1G4 miles in circuit and from 3 to G feet in 
 depth, in whicli the famous liigoon fii^hcries are carried on. 
 Having passed the many mouths of the numerous arms of 
 the Po, and afterwards of the .Adige, we reach the port of 
 Brondolo, the low shore of Chif)ggia, the dunes of Pales- 
 trina, the island and the port of Malamocco, and then sev- 
 eral other tiinall harbors, before coming to the mouth of the 
 Tagliamcnto. From this point, as far as Port Primaro, 
 tho coast-line skirts the morasses of Aquileja and of Grado. 
 The inlet of Idoba is the mouth of the Isonzo, N. of which 
 is the port of Albcroni, and S. E. of this lies the city of 
 Trieste. The extreme southern point of Istria, Cape Pro- 
 montore. directs us into the (lulf of (^uarnero and to t lie town 
 of Fiume. To coniplete this rapid circumnavigation of the 
 Italian coast shouhl be added the most noteworthy pecu- 
 liarities of the coasts of the three principal islands: (1st). 
 Sict'/tf. The three angles of the Sicilian triangle are termi- 
 nated by the same number of capes— that is, on the W. by 
 Cape Boco or Lilibco: on the S. by Cape Passero or Pa- 
 chino : on the E. by Cape Faro or Pcloro. The most im- 
 portant gulfs are those of Milazzo, Tindaro, Termini, Pa- 
 lermo, Castellamare. Agosta, and Catania. (2d). Sardinia. 
 Capes St. Elias, Pula, Tavolaro, Argentara, Asiuara are 
 noticeable; the gulfs are those of Cagliari, Palmas, Oristano, 
 Alghero, the Aranci ; the Strait of Bonifacio separates it 
 from Corsica. (3d). Corsica. Capes Corso, Cannella, Gar- 
 bo or Calvi, Sanguinara or Ajaccio, Negro, Chizza, and 
 BrogoHno : the gulfs of Calvi and Ajaccio. 
 
 B and C. Mfniufninn. Voihifn, and Plains. — The moun- 
 tains of Italy are co-ordinated into three distinct systems: 
 I. The SffHtem of thr Afp». This forms, beginning near 
 Nice on the Ligurian Sea, and terminating at Fiume on tho 
 Quarnero. an uninterrupted lino of about 760 geographical 
 miles. It is divided into three main groups and nine sec- 
 tions. 1st Group : the Western Alps, from S. to N. and
 
 ITALY. 
 
 13:^1) 
 
 N. to Em from the Col di Tenda to Moot Blanc, and com- 
 priainj; (Sec. Isl) the Marititnc Alps, which, beginning near 
 the sources of the Tanaro. extenil, in u course of about 94 
 miles, to Moute Viso (12.667 feet). The pass of the Col di 
 Tenda is SSUO feet. Sec. 2d, (he Cottiun Alps, which ex- 
 tend for a line of S2 miles to Mont Cenis | 11,-157 feet ). The 
 Col of Monginevra is fil III feet. Sec. 3d, the Uraian or 
 (jrecian Alps, for a length of 62 miles to the Col du Bon 
 Homme on the Litllo St. Bernard (7ItS5 feet); the pass of 
 Munt Crnis is (1772 feet. The triangular knot of lofty 
 peaks known as the Grand Panidis group, or the Cogne 
 Mountain^!. Iving between the valley of the Oreo, the Val 
 8avarcinehe, and the pass of the Col dclhi Kunva, may bo 
 regarded as an ofTi^hoot from the tlraian Alps. It con- 
 tains the two highest summits lying wholly in Italy — the 
 tirand Paradis ( 1.1, ."iOO feet) and the Grivolii or Come de 
 Cogne ( I.'t,02S feet), one of the most picturesque and beau- 
 tiful peaks in the whole range of the Alps. 2d Group : the 
 Central Alps, from the pass of the Bon Ilomme to the jieak 
 of the Tre Signori or Drei-JIerren-Ppitze : they conijirise 
 (Sec. 4th) the Pennine Alps, which include the loftiest sum- 
 mits in Europe, Mont Blano (15,798 feet^. Monte Kosn, 
 (15,210 feet), Mont Cervin, or the Matterhorn {14.8:t;i). 
 Along their course of 62 miles open the passes of the Great 
 St. Bernard (SI69 feet) and the Siinplnn {C,:}7b feet). Sec. 
 5th, the Helvetian or Lepontinc Alps, cxtemling from Monte 
 Rosa, for a distance of 55 miles, to the 8t. Bernardino, 
 with the pass of the same name (701 1 feet) : that of the St. 
 Gothard (6804 feet); that of the Spliigeu (6912 feet): and 
 the Maloja, overhung by a peak, 11,476 feet in heiglit. 
 Sec. 6th. the Uhetico-Trentino Alps, which from the St. 
 Bernardino run to the Picco dei Tro Signori (10,118 feet), 
 to the E. of the valley of the Adige, through a course of 
 about IS7 miles, including the ])asses of the Brenner (4659 
 feet) and of the Slelvio (90St5 feel ). 3d Group : the Eastern 
 Alps, comprising (Sec. 7th) the Noricnn Alps, which extend 
 for 35 miles from the Drei-Hcrren-Spitzo tu the Gross- 
 (ilockner (12.769 feet), but separating from the first of 
 these mountains they turn towards Austria and Hungary, 
 and no longer belong to Italy: the pass of the Sominering 
 is 4287 feet. Sec. 8th, the Carnican Alps, about 7U miles 
 in length, beginning E. of Trent and terminating at the Col 
 di Tarvi.-, Sec. 9lh, the .Julian Alps, for a course of about 
 105 miles, terminating at Fiume. The declivities of the 
 Alps, while they descend gently on the X. side, arc rocky 
 and precipitous towards Ii;ily. fo that while the Rhone has 
 a fall of ."(250 feet in a course of 92 miles, the Po makes an 
 c((ual descent in 22 miles. From Mont Blanc to the Tyrol 
 400 glaciers are counted, and the whole of the vast chain 
 abounds in them. There are eorno not less than from 6 to 
 15 miles in length and from M miles to 2\ miles in width, 
 with a mass of iee 16 Ml feet dei p. The valleys of Aosta 
 and the Valtelline only have a longitudinal direction. All 
 the other Italian Alpine valleys are normal to tho chain. 
 There are 36 of these valleys, through which flow primary 
 rivera or their afilueuts. li. Thr Siiufcm of tin- Ap' mtiucft. 
 This system separates itself from the Maritime Alps at tho 
 pass of Cadiliona: then, after following a lino from W. to 
 E., turns S. and S. E., dividing the Peninsula into two 
 great slopes, the eastern and the western. The Apennines 
 are com]ioscil of three groups: 1st, the Northern Apen- 
 nines, 182 miles in length, which, beginning at Cadibona, 
 skirt the Gulf of tJenoa, describing an are: they are steep 
 and rocky towards tho sea, but decline gently towards the 
 N. on the side of the valley of the Po. au'l extend as far as 
 Mont Cimone. Between tlieseaand tho Tuscan Ajicnniues. 
 and between the Magra and tho Serehio, N. of the Arno, 
 rises an isolated groifp of mountains, higher than the prin- 
 cipal chain, which are called tho Ajiuan or Panian Alps. 
 The loftiest crests of this section are Monte Corsaglia (6930 
 feet), and Monte i'lmone (6H90 feet). 2il. the Central Ap- 
 ennines. These begin at the Cimone and end at the Velino, 
 dividing Tuscany from tho Emilia, and crossing Cnibria, 
 tho Abruzzi, and tho Samnile territory, with a preeiftilouB 
 descent towards tho Adriatic, but a gentio iuclinatitm 
 towanls the Tyrrhene, and throwing out two sub-Apen- 
 nino !«purs. the Tuscan and the Uonian. The highest peaks 
 are the (iran Sasso (I'ltalta. or Monte Corno, the loftiest 
 of the Apennines (9;U2 feet). Mont Amaro or Majella 
 (9131 feet), Monte Velino (81S0 feet). 3d. the Southern 
 Apennines, which extend from Monte Velino to tho ex- 
 tremity of Italy, dividing ibeuiSelvcfi into two branches, tho 
 western and the eastern. Their highest summits are Monte 
 Meta (7S35 feel). Monte Pollino (7070 feet) These moun- 
 tains are prolongcti through ."^ieily to Capes Lilibco, Pas- 
 scro, and Pcloro. HI. Thr S'lrdu-Cnr^irtin Si/Hem. — This 
 chain, parallel with the Apennines, culminates in the island 
 of Sardinia at Monte Brunia di Spina (6190 feet), and in 
 Corsica at Monte Cinio lOL'IO feel). Italy has but a single 
 great plain, enclnsed within the southern slope of the Alps 
 and tho northern slope of tbo Apounincs, and detormiDed 
 
 by the course of the Po and of tho other rivers which flow 
 into the Adriatic. In fertility of soil, in facility of com- 
 munication, in wealth, in civilization, and in density of 
 ]>opulatiun this plain has no rival in the world. The tcc- 
 on<iary plains of the Peninsula are tho Tuscan, the Konian. 
 the Campauian (Terra di Lavuroj, and tho Tavolicrc of 
 Apulia. 
 
 D. Lukes. — Tho lakes are divided into two groups — the 
 Alpine and tho Apenninc lakes: I. The Alpine hnkca. — 
 Sujipiied l)v the perpetual snmvs. the glaciers, and the tor- 
 rents or ri^■ers of the great chain of the Alps, these long 
 and tortuous basins, if they have not the grandiose and 
 Solemn character of the Swiss and Scotch lakes, ]iresent a 
 degree of beauty and grace which is not to bo met with 
 elsewhere. They are — 1st, Lake Verbano or Lake Mag- 
 giorc, which receives the waters of the Tosa. of the Lake 
 of Orta, of the Maggia, of the Ticino, of the Tresa (which 
 issues from Lakes Ceresio and Lugano), and the small 
 streams of I'artlesio and Acquanegra. which are the outlets 
 of the lakes of Varese. etc. It is 36 miles in knglh and 
 of variable width, being in many places 7 or 8 miles broad. 
 Its greatest known depth is 2624 feet, and as its surface is 
 640 feet above the sea-level, its bed is 1984 feet below that 
 level. Its abundant waters find their outlet through the 
 Tieino, the richest tributary of the Po. The famous IJor- 
 romean Islan<ls are in this hike. 2d. Lake Lario or Lake 
 Como: this lake receives through the Adcla the waters of 
 the Valtelline, together with (hose of the Mesa and of the 
 Liro, collected in the little Lake of iMczzola, which once 
 formed a J'art of the Lario until separated from it by tho 
 deposits of tlic Adda. It has the form i»f a Y, with the 
 tail turned toward the Alps: its length is 30 miles, with a 
 maximum width of 3\ miles. .Id, Tho Benaco or Lake di 
 Garda: this laUo receives (ho waters of (he Sarca and other 
 small streams; is 45 miles long and froni4\ to 16 broad. 
 The Miucio flows out of it. 4tli, Tho smaller lakes: the 
 Margozzo and the Lake of Orta, those of St. Bernard and 
 of Cenis, that of Varese, the lakelets of Biandrone, Mo- 
 nate, and Comabbio : the Sebino or Lako of Iseo, that of 
 Idro, etc. II. Thr Apcnnine Lnkce. — These arc almost all 
 craters of extinct volcanoes, and nniy be subdivided into, 
 1st, tho upper or central Italian lakes, which arc those of 
 Massaciuceoli, Bieutina, Chiusi, Montepulciano. and tho 
 larger ones of Trasimeno or Perugia, of Bolsena, and of 
 Braeciano. 2d. tho lower or southern Italian lakes. These 
 are the Lako of Fondi in tho Terra di Lavoro. of Celano or 
 Fucino in the Abruzzi (which Prince Torlonia is now 
 draining), Verauo or Lesina, Luorino, Aguano, Averuo, 
 Fusaro, etc. 
 
 E. RiverH. — The rivers of continental Italy are divided 
 into throe distinct groups: I. Tributun'cn of the Adriatic. 
 — In tho upper basin of this sea we find the Lvonzo, which 
 marks tho extreme E. boundary between Upper Italy and 
 Islria; tho Corno (a name common also to several rivers 
 flowing from tho Carnican Alps, and emptying between tho 
 Isonzo and tho Tagliamentol, which, i>suing from Monte 
 Piettino, Hows seaward from X. to S. : the Lcinene aii'l the 
 Livenza, small streams between the Tagiiamcnto and the 
 Piave, the latter of which also rises in tho Carnican Alps; 
 the Brenia and tho Bucchiglione, which rise in the Tren- 
 tin<i and traverse tlio Venetian lagoons; the Adige. forme<! 
 by the uuion of the emissaries of three snmll lakes at the 
 pass of Finisterro (Ueschen). and of many rivulets which 
 descend from tho Khetian, Norican, and Carnican Alps. 
 Tho Tyrolese call it the Ktsch. and it lioes not take its 
 Italian name until below Botzen, after its confluence with 
 the Isargo ( Eisoch ). The Adigo has a course of about 2."iO 
 miles. The Po ( Padus or Eridanus) is tho chief of the 
 Italian rivers: its length in a straight line from its source 
 to its mouth is 262 miles, and, including its windings. 330 
 miles. It takes its rise on Mon(e Viso at a height of 6560 
 feet above the level of the sea ; it crosses Piedmont, divides 
 Lombardy from Parnitt. Moilenn, and Ferrara, then enters 
 Venetia; at Serravalle it divides into two branches: the 
 principal arm ( Po Maestro) falls into the Adriatic 28 miles 
 S; of Venice: the <»lber (Po <!» (!oro) enters the sea 15 miles 
 farther to the S. .'^. W . The two arms are about 20 niiles 
 in length, forming a lielta furrowed by secondary channels 
 (Po della ToUe, Po I>un/ella. etc.). By moans of some of 
 these streams the Pu communicates on the N. with tho 
 Canal Bianco, which in its northern part lakes the niune 
 of Po di Leviint<', and to tho S. with (he Po di \'oInn"' mid 
 with (ho po di I'riinaro. At Turin the Pu is still inlerior 
 in size (o several of i(s lower aflluents, but after its conflu- 
 ence with the Bora Baltcn. which brings to it the waters 
 of Mont Blanc, tt assumes imposing dimensions. Having 
 reeeivi'd the .*^e!»ia, which brings with it the waters of Monte 
 Kofin, the Po begins to Hpreiid itself over i(s own alluvium, 
 branching out between many islands; above Valenra it 
 unites again in a single wiiwling bed, but only to ramify 
 
 I ftoew and to form now islands after roceiviog the tribute
 
 i;}4() 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 of the Tanaro; it atjiiiu collects itself near the mouth of 
 tbo Tieino ; from tlit- confluence of the Titlone till its junc- 
 tion with the Adda it once more divides into separate chan- 
 nels; below the Oojlio its waters are re-collected within 
 narrower limit«, and thus it continues its course to tho sea. 
 Under ordinary contiitions. between the Dora and the Ti- 
 eino tho inclination is from 19 to IV2 inches per mile; be- 
 tween the Tieino and tho Adda, from 16 to I'J inches; be- 
 t\vcen the Adda and tho OgHo, from 10 to Ifi inches. Near 
 the mouth of the Panaro it is rerluced to 7 inches, and in 
 its extreme lower course from 7 to '^\ inches per mile. At 
 its highest flood the water rises near tho mouth of the Ti- 
 eino 24 feet above extreme low-water mark : near Piacenza, 
 25 feet: at Cremona, I'ft feet: at Casal Massriore, 21 feet; 
 at Dosolo. 27 feet : at <)sti{;lia. 31 feet; at Pnnte Lai;os- 
 curo, 28 feet: and at Polesella. 27* feet. The width of tho 
 Po between the confluence of the Tieino and the O^Iio is, 
 at extreme low water, from 'S2S to 656 feet; in the ordi- 
 nary state of the water, from 6ofl to 1.300 feet; at the 
 highest flood, from 2600 feet to 9850 feet. Tn its lower 
 course the width, at low water, is from 32R to 656 feet; in 
 the ordinary ?tato of the water, from 656 to 084 feet; at 
 the highest'flood. from 9>;4 to 4920 feet. Between tho Ti- 
 eino and tho Oglio the Po is never fordablc. the depth of 
 the principal currr*nt hein^, at low water, little less than 5 
 feet. Below tlie Oj^lio the depth of tho main current, even 
 at extreme low water, is never less than 5 feet 10 inches. 
 From Turin to T'asale the river is navigable for boats of 8 
 metric quintals burden ; from Casalo to the Tieino. for those 
 of 20 quintals: from the Tieino to Quatrelle (160 miles). 
 for vessels of 1300 quintals; from Quatrello to the sea (64 
 miles), for vessels of 900 quintals. The waters of the Po 
 are always turbid from the great quantity of earth, which 
 they transport — an effect especially due to the (dcanng of 
 the forests and the brcakin;^ up of the soil. This earth 
 forms -g^T^th of the flowin.^ mass. The quantity of allu- 
 vial depo.-*it at its mouth is an annual volume of 55,00l»,ll()0 
 cubic metres, extcndinj"; the delta at a mean of 230 feet, and 
 forming a flat which, iu tho progress of centuries, will fill 
 up th.at part of tlie sea. The tributaries of the Po are, on 
 the left, in Piedmont — tho Ohiandono. Rivosecco. Chisone, 
 Chisola, Sangone. Dora Riparia. Stura, Oreo, Dora Baltea, 
 Scsia, Agogna : in Lombardy — the Tieino, Olona, Larabro, 
 Adda, Oglio, Mincio; on the right, in Piedmont — the 
 Bronda, Rivotorto, Vraita, Macra, Stellone, Tanaro, Scri- 
 via, Carone, Stafl'ora; in the Parmesan territory — the 
 Tidone, Trcbbia. Nure. Arda. Ongina. Taro, Parma, and 
 Enza: in the Modenese — tho Crostolo, Secchia, Panaro; in 
 the ex-pontifical provinces — the Reno. Idice, Sillaro, Lan- 
 ternio, Senio. Other smaller tributaries of the Adriatic 
 are — the Laraonc, Montone, Ronco. 8avio. Rnbiconc, Ma- 
 recchia, Marauo, f'onea, Foglia. Metauro, Cesano, Misa. 
 Esino, Musone, Potenza, Chionti. Tena, Tesino, Tronto, 
 Vomano, Pcscara, Sangro, Bifermo, Fortore, Ofanto. 11. 
 Trifmturiei of the Ltuinn fi^ea. — These arc the small streams 
 of the aneient Lucania, tho Bradano, the Vascnte, tho Sa- 
 landrella. the Agri, and tho Sinno : and of Calabria, tho 
 Crati and the Neto. III. Tn'butarirs o/thr Mrditcrranran. 
 — Beginning from the W.. the Var (swollen by the Tinea 
 and by the Vcsubia), the PagUoue, tho Roja, tho Norvia, 
 the Tag^ia, the Impero. the An<lora, the Letimbro, tho 
 Polcpvera, the Bisagno, the Kntella, tho Magra. the Ser- 
 chio, the Arno (swollen by tho Chiana, by the Sieve, by 
 the (trcve, by the Orabrono of Pistoja, by the Xievale, by 
 the Pcsa, by the Elsa. and by tho Era), tho Cecina, the 
 Ombrone of Siena, the Tiber, the Liri or (^ariffliano, the 
 Volturno, and other smaller ones. The rivers of tho islands 
 are — in Sicily, tho Alcantara, Oiaretta. Palso. Platani, 
 Beliei, Termini, Fiumegrande. PoUina: in Sardinia — the 
 Tirso, Coshinas. Flumcndosa, Mannu : in Corsica — tho 
 Golo, Tavignano, Lamone, (Jravono, Valinco. 
 
 Grnfnjif and Mhtrraifitj//. — ^Few countries in tho world 
 pre!*ent such interest and variety to tho student of geology 
 as Italy. The centre of tho Alpino reirion is generally of 
 granite rock, often intermixed with schi?to-micaceous. tal- 
 cose, and ampliibological formations, or with calcareous 
 formation*!, most frequently saccharoidal. with Btra^vs or 
 flakes of mica. The slopes are covered with Tertiary 
 strata. The Apennines, as far as Calabria, arc a huge 
 mass of calcareous and serpentine rock and of graywackc, 
 upon which lie deposits, of considerable thickness, from 
 the Jurassic period, composed of gypsum, with beds of 
 sulphur. Farther from the central axis of the chain, upon 
 tho opposite slopes, rest vast Tertiary deposits containing 
 many fossil shells, somo nf which arc identical or similar 
 to those now living in the Italian seas. The more southern 
 of the Apennines are composed of granite rock, covered 
 with secondary deposits. The most noteworthy geological 
 f''ature of Italy is its volcanic system. In the eastern part 
 of tho plain of the Po, between the Adije and the Brentn, 
 rises the group of tho Euganeau hills which, at Monte 
 
 Berici, reunites itself to one of the principal spurs of tho 
 Aljis ; its highest peak is Monte Venda, 1920 tVct. In tho 
 S. of Tuscany is the group of Santa Fiora ; then that of 
 Viterbo and of Rome : afterwards those of Sant' Agata, of 
 Rocca Morfina. and of Naples. Here towers Vesuvius with 
 its Campi Flegrei ( Phlegra'ian Fields), tb.e only active vol- 
 cano on tho European continent. But the giant of the 
 Italian volcanoes is Etna in Sicily, lO.S.TO feet in height, 
 with a base 112 miles in circumference. The Lipari or 
 Eolian Islands .arc also volcanic: among these Strombnii 
 is in perpetual cru])tion, intermitting once in fifteen min- 
 utes. Ancient craters are found throughout the whole 
 chain of the Apennines, and the territories of Arezzo, Peru- 
 gia. Spoleto. etc. form one of the most notable examples 
 of broken surface which volcanic action ha^ impressed upon 
 the face of our planet. Gaseous, saline, ami limous erup- 
 tions also abound in Italy, as well as thermal springs. The 
 calcareous and metaraorphic rocks of the Alps and Apen- 
 nines furnish the most beautiful marbles; among these we 
 may mention those of the Viccntino. (he sea-green of the 
 Bocchetta, the gold-veined of Porfo Vcnere, the statuary 
 marble of Carrara, the jasper of Barga, the green marbles 
 of Tuscany, the black of Pistoja, the lajiis-lazuli and the 
 giallo of Siena, nnd the broccatello of Piombino. Wc 
 should notice also the alabaster of Volterra. the porphyries 
 and rock-crystals of Aosta. the agates and chalcedonies of 
 Tuscany, the lavas and basalts of tho volcanic districts, 
 tho sulphur and tlie alum. Unfortunately, tho best quali- 
 ties of fossil combustibles arc wanting, but lignite and peat 
 are abundant. Pozzolaua ig foun<l in great quantities near 
 Rome and Naples: iron also in many places, and especially 
 in the island of Elba; lead and galena in Sardinia: fossil 
 salt in various places; also thin veins of gold, silver, mer- 
 cury, zinc, antimony, etc. 
 
 Climnte. — Local conditions with regard to altitude, posi- 
 tion, and proximity to the sea have more influence than 
 latitude in determining the annual isothermal lines and 
 the range of the monthly means of temperature in Italy. 
 In gener.al. the coldest month is January — tho thermometer 
 sometimes falling to .3.2° above zero of Fahrenheit at Mon- 
 calieri near Turin, and to zero F. at that city, to 14° above 
 zero atUrbino, to 15. s*' at Perugia, to 26.6° at Catanzaro — 
 and the warmest month is July, tho thermometer rising to 
 97° F. at Lugano, to 90° at Moncalicri, to 92° at Urbino, 
 and to 93° at Catanzaro. In Northern Italy the mean 
 temperature of the month of April is a little above the an- 
 nual mean, and in October a little below, while in Central 
 and Southern Italy tho case is reversed — that is, the mean 
 of October is a little above, and the mean of April a little 
 below, the annual mean. If wc compare certain extreme 
 points, we shall find at Udino (lat. 46° 3') the annual 
 mean is about 56° F. : at Syracuse (hit. 39° 3'1, about 
 65°. Observing certain middle stations, wo find at Genoa 
 (lat. 44° 25'), as annual mean, 61°: at Florence (lat. 43° 
 16'), annual mean, 59^°; at Bologna (lat. 44° 30'), annual 
 mean, d'A^. At intermediate stations between the means 
 and tho extremes we have, at Milan (lat. 45° 28'), an 
 annual mean of 56.6°; at Venice (lat. 45° 25'). an an- 
 nual mean of 56°: at Rome (lat. 41° 53'). annual mean, 
 60°: at Naples (hit. 40° 52'), annual mean, 61.5°. Tho 
 isochimenal lines of those stations which, like Alexandria, 
 Turin, Pavia, Milan, (luastalla, and Modena. are situated 
 near tho longitudinal axis, and at the bottom of the valley 
 of the po. are mueli more depressed than the more northern 
 but better sheltered positions of Aosta, Biella, Lugano, and 
 Udiue. Although (liffcring widely in latitude, there is a 
 close approximation in the mean winter temperature be- 
 tween Chiogiria and Urbino, betweert Rome and Leghorn, 
 (icnoa and Naples, San Remo and Catanzaro. The iso- 
 thermal lines of the above-mentioned places, lying along 
 the axis of tho valley of the Po, are more elevated than 
 thoso of the maritime districts of Liguria and Tuscany; 
 Genoa has the summer mean of Naples, Palermo that of 
 Anc(ma. The barometric pressure is in direct ratio with 
 the latitude. It is at its maximum in winter, at its mini- 
 mum in tho spring, being in summer a little below the an- 
 nual mean, and in the autumn above it. The maximum 
 of tho raean monthly pressure falls in February, and tho 
 minimum suddenly follows in March. Except in cases of 
 violent perturbations tho prespuro continues to diminish 
 from nine in the morning till three in tho afternoon: tho 
 difference is less in winter than in summer, less in the N. 
 than in the S., less near the sea than inland. The quantity 
 of water falling in the form of rain and snow is greatest 
 iu the Priralpine districts — Biclla, 41.11 inches; Lugano. 
 63.2 inches: Udine. 50.78 inches. At tho more elevated 
 stations — Urbino, 39.8 inches; Pcrutjia. 39 inches; Mon- 
 dovi, 34.9 inches: and in some of the bays formed by tho 
 lofty chains, where the sea-winds meet and discharge them- 
 selves of their vapiprs — Genoa, 52.8; Florence, 49.2; at 
 Naples, 34.7. The most rainy season is the autumn, espc-
 
 ITALY. 
 
 1341 
 
 cially October. The driest months are, in winter, January 
 and February; in summer, Jtilv. In the X. nnd in tlic in- 
 terior it niius more in tlie jfumnier than in the winter: the 
 reverse is true on the sea-coa^;t and in the S. In the moun- 
 tainous regions during October and Noven)i)cr heavy ruins 
 sometimes fall in the course of a tew days, producinij 
 disastrous inundations. In Oct., 1S72. there was a rainfall 
 at Domodossola of .^4.2 inches: at liiella, of 2J.5 inches ; 
 at Genoa, 2s inches; at I'lorence. 10 inclies. In January, 
 and in the winter ;;pnerully. the sky is stunewhat more cov- 
 ered than in the other months, especially in the valley of 
 the Po nnd in most of tlie .Apennine valleys. 'I'lie jircvail- 
 ing direction of the wind, although very varialile. is from 
 the seashores toward the interior of the Peninsula. In 
 July, and in the summer generally, the sky is clearer than 
 during the rest of the year; the prevailing winds, always 
 changeable, blow from inland toward the sea-coasts. In 
 April the clearness of the sky is somewhat less than the 
 annual mean, and is still less in the month of October, es- 
 jieeially in the great valley of the Po. The direction of 
 the wind is most variable in the spring and in the autumn. 
 Pi'Bi.ic E(>iNi»MV. A. Affrirultiirc. — There are three great 
 distinctive agricultural districts in Italy: (1) The plain 
 of (he Po — very fertile, with regular au'l systematic culti- 
 vation ; (2) the declivities and valleys of the .Aponnines, 
 on the two slopes of the Peninsula — tho region of the olive ; 
 (;t) the pasture-lands, which, in their turn, arc subdivided 
 into alpine pastures and the pastures of tho plains; in the 
 latter the grass-binds are often interspersed with rice-fields 
 an<i marshes, tho malaria from which depopuhifes tho 
 country. This is especially true of the rich lands of Lom- 
 hardy, of the Roman Campagnn. the Pimtino Marshes, and 
 of Sardinia. The productivity of the soil might be greatly 
 increased if the agricultural methods and tools em])loyed 
 were less antiquated, aixl if the whole country would keep 
 pace with the |)rogrcss already made in l,oml)ardy and 
 Piedmont. Of tho ri,(j:)0,OUO acres which form the king- 
 dom of Italy, .19,280,000 are classed as productive, the rest 
 as barren. Two-fifths, or 27,170,0(10 acres, consist of arable 
 land, with or without the vine; o,40f<,000 of natural or 
 arlilicial meadow; 420, 000 of rice-lands; l,2:i.'i,000 of thp 
 olivo; 1.2:i.0,OnO of the chestnut; 12,350,000 of forest ; and 
 more than 1 2, 3.>O,O0O of pasture-ground. The annual pro- 
 duce of cereals is about 21O,Ui0,OO0 bushels — wheat, 
 lon.7S4,0O0: maize. ■10,700.000; rye. 7,052,000 ; barley and 
 oats, 23,004,000 ; rice, 4,144.000, ' In abundant year's tho 
 supply exceeds the consumption, in average years it is 
 hardly equal to it, and in years of scarcity falls short by aliout 
 one tenth. To this, however, should be adilcd 15,:i,'iC,000 
 bushels of chestnuts, 27,224,000 bufbels of potatoes, and 
 1 l,92S,0O0 bushels of vegetables. The products which have 
 the most commercial importance arc — silk, valued at aliout 
 .$i!l!,000,000 ; wine, amounting to about 7SO,noo,000 gal- 
 lons (in .'^icily to 20.s,000,000 ; in Emilia, i:iO,IIOO,000 ; in 
 Piedmont, 130,000,000; in Venice, 52,000,000; in I'mliria, 
 .■.2,000,000; in .\aplcs, 52,000,000: in Lombardv and tho 
 Marches. 05,000,000; in Tuscany, ,",0,000,0110 ; i|, the Ilo- 
 magna, 20,000,000; in Sardinia,'2O,OOO,0O0) ; oil amount- 
 ing to more than :;0,50O,nO0 gallons (12.224,000 in S, con- 
 tinental Italy: in Sicily, 0,112,000; in Ligurin, 5,34R,000 ; 
 in Tuscany, 3.050,000; in tho Kmilia and tho Marches, 
 1,52S,000; in I.ombar.ly, 1,1 10,000; in .Sardinia, 1, 140,000]. 
 Tho hemp produced amounts to about 50,000 tons. Dur- 
 ing the .\merican war of secession the high price of cotton 
 led to its cultivation, and about 325,000 metric quintals 
 were annually produced, but it proved an unsuccessful 
 speculation, T<»bacco, cultivated in .Sardinia, Sicily, tho 
 .Marches, and in tho neigbburhooil of Vieen/.a, yields about 
 150,000 metric quintals. Oranges, lemons, citrons, and 
 other fruits, both dried nncl fresh, arc exported. Among 
 tho animal products, besides tho Bilkvvurm, the butter and 
 cheese arc valueil at not less than S15.0»0,000. Caitlo do 
 not abouncl in Italy. The sh<;ep and goats are rcek.mcd 
 at 12,000,000; tho I'dack cattle or oxen at 3,700.000 ; horses, 
 mules, etc., at 1,400,000 ; and tho swine at 4,000,000. 
 
 B. Mtitiii/ticiiirrt, — ^Tn Northern Italy noteworthy prog- 
 ress has been mnd<' ill mtiliufacttircs during the last twenty- 
 five years. The great imluslries are — (I) silk, which rep- 
 resents a production of $20,000,000 lor spun silk alone, in- 
 dependently of tissues, among which velvet Is conspicuous, 
 that of (ienoa being very celebrated: (2| woolUn manu- 
 factures, of which lliero are important establishments in 
 Piedmont (.'specially at liiellai nii.l in Venetian I.oinbardy 
 (ohiefly at .Scliio) to an annual amount of $13,200,000; (3) 
 cotton maniifacttires, very nourishing in Liguria, Piedmont, 
 I.oinbardy, an. I Friuli, producing spun cotton t.i the amount 
 of $7, 000,000. andcotlimeloth to thoamount of $10,000,000, 
 The straw industry (chietly straw hats) is very prosperous 
 in Tuscany. The agricultural manufactures, tho wines 
 above all, admit of much further improvoinent, Tho artistic 
 or losthotic manufactures arc thosofor irbich Italy is espe- 
 
 cially distinguished abroad— the filigree of Genoa, the 
 glass and beads of Venice, the coral of Naples and of Leg- 
 horn, the wrought marbles of Carrara andof Lucca, the per- 
 fumery of Tuscany, paper, h:its, gloves, etc. One of the 
 most nourishing indusiries is that of uaval constructiciii, 
 particularly in Liguria. where the traditional skill of Ilie 
 fhipbuihlers is now aided and improved by gooil special 
 schools, and above all by the Technical and Nauticol In- 
 stitute of Genoa and the excellent high school of the same 
 city. Tho number of ships launched in 1800 was 198; in 
 1870, 803; in 1S72. 724; and the average tonnage, which 
 was 99 in ISGO, rose to 142 in 1S72. There are now (1874 
 -75) in process of construction at 15 shijiyards in Liguria 
 103 large vessels — .some for English, French, nnd Nor- 
 wegian traders — of a total tonnage of 107,900, the average 
 per ship being ltl57 tons, 
 
 C, Cnmmcrce tiiid Knviiiation.—lhc balance of trade in 
 Italy, though improving, is not yet what it may and ought 
 to be. With an importation of $187,200.1100 in 1809. the 
 exportation was only $174,800,000. Increasing gradually, 
 the exports in 1872 (the date of the latest official statistics) 
 had risen to $281,220,223, but the iniportatiim amounted 
 to $237,802,205. Tho commercial marine in ISOS consisted 
 of 17,845 sailing vessels of all dimensions, with a tonnage 
 of 859,387; 101 steamboats of 23,437 tonnage— total ton- 
 nage, 884,814, of which onc-h;ilf was the property of Li- 
 guria, Now (1874-75) Italy numbers 4220 sailing vessels, 
 averaging more than 50 tons each, with a total of 1.120,032 
 tons, and occupying in this respect the fourth rank, being 
 surpassed only by England, the U, S,, and Norway, and 
 being superior to France, who.so sailing tonnngo is only 
 868,659, Italy has at present 103 steamers (85,045 tons), 
 occupying the sixth rank. 
 
 D. Ciinah and Rnadn. — Tho canals of Italy, navigable 
 as well as for irrigation, have been her boast from ancient 
 times. Tho [.rincijial of these are in tho valley of the Po. 
 Tho total length ot the navigable canals is 435 miles, Tho 
 most important are — the Canal Cavour, in Piedmont, which, 
 supplied from tho Po, begins at Chivasso and terminates 
 at Turbiga, a distance of 52 miles ; in Lombardy, the Grand 
 Canal, supplied from tho Tic-ino near Tornavento, and 
 passing through Abbiategrasso; tho canal of Pavia. also 
 supplied from tho Ticino. nnd passing through liiiiasco; 
 the canal of Martcsana, which, from Milan through Gor- 
 gonzola, leads to Cassano on the Adda. The province of 
 Polesina in Venice, and that of Padua, have an excellent 
 canal system. The Emilia, too, is well eupjilicd wiili tbcni. 
 The canal of Pesein, that of Pisa, ami tho canal of Ombrono 
 arc in Tuscany. In Southern Italy the emissary, executed 
 by Prince Torlonia, for draining the Lake Fucino or Cc- 
 Inno, and thus restoring to cultivation 42,000 acres of land, 
 is most noteworthy. (See article Fl cixn.) The coinmuiial 
 high-roads have a total length of 01.221 miles: the pro- 
 vincial roads, 12,373 miles; the national roads, 3970 miles. 
 The t.dul length is 77,590 miles. 
 
 Jtriilwitijs. — In 1873 there wcro in operation 4154 miles 
 of railroad, thus divided: 
 
 Piedmont. Liguria, Lombardy, and Venice 15.">n miles. 
 
 Tuscany, Emilia, the Marches, I'lnbria, and the Ro- 
 
 nmn jirovinces i3n:{ " 
 
 Neapolitan provinces 903 " 
 
 Sicilv 206 " 
 
 Sardinia 82 •< 
 
 In tho year 1874 tho number of miles of railway ha.l in- 
 creased to 4372. 
 
 Pont-Officcf nnd Ttlci/raplia. — Postal activity, a convin- 
 cing ovirlenco of advance in public instruction, is constantly 
 on tho increase. It has more than doublcii in ten years. In 
 I8G2 the corrcspon.l.'nco whi.di circulated in the country 
 amounteil to 111,733,319 Icttirs; in 1872, to 232,242.072, 
 an increase of 120,509,.I58. In the lirst nine months of tho 
 year 1874 tho tclcgraphio despatches numbered 14,005,000, 
 
 GoiH-rnriicnt find /*nf>fio /nititufinni*. — Till' government of 
 Italy is a const ititti.inal monarchy, with a senate iijipoiiited 
 for life, nn.l a chamber of 508 deputies, elcctiil by a free 
 anil bniail siilTrage. Tho most entire freedom of tiic press 
 and the right of association is secured. The prefects or 
 governors of the |>rovinces. and the syn.lics or mayors of 
 tho towns, are goviriiiiicnt appointees: otherwise the ebct- 
 ive system generally prevails in all the institutions of the 
 adlninistrativo hiernrehy. commiiiinl ns well as provincial, 
 Tlio only hiiideranco to the perfect working of the political 
 organisation has been, thus far. the linniieial dclleit pro- 
 duced by the vicissitudes of the revolution, bv military ex- 
 penses, and by the construction of tho railways, "liut, 
 thanks to the praiseworthy cITorls of tho government and 
 tho country, even this evil is in tho way of a speedy cure, 
 and the deficit, which had already amounted to mot-c than 
 $92,000,000, is reduced in tho balance for 1875 to about 
 $0,000,000. 
 
 AJmimtlralion of Jiittiee At tho foot of tho Italian
 
 1342 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 magistracy stand the conciliatory judf^es, who perform the 
 double office ol" conciliating litigants and of deciding small 
 disputes involving an nmount not exceeding ?6. In l'^72 
 thoy settled more than 700,0(10 controvcreies. The prwtor?, 
 1811 in nuiu'ier. have jurisdiction of offences pnnishahle 
 with imprisonment not exceeding three months imd l>y 
 fines not exceeding $nO. In 1872 tht-y tried 29iMM2 in- 
 dividuals. The priotors also decide civil questions not 
 involving more than $;J00, and in 1S72 they gave IfiO.fiHt 
 judgments of this kind. The tribunals take cognizance, 
 on appeal, of questions civil, commercial, and penal dc- 
 ciilod by the prajtors, and they have original juris<liftion 
 of all matters not belonging to the conciliatory judges and 
 to (he prwtors (they have, however, no authority in com- 
 mercial questions in those towns where there is a proper 
 tribunal of commerce), and they also decide questions of 
 C'lrrectional police. There are lfi2 tribunals, which in 
 1S72 pronotiniMMi 2U*> judgments. From the sentence of 
 the tribunals appeal may be made to the courts of appeal. 
 and from these, when it is a question of law, to the courts 
 of cassation. The system of juries before the courts of 
 assize has not thus far given satisfactory results. 
 
 E'/iirntiun nnfi fnttnicfjnn. — The ministry of public in- 
 struction appropriates, for the expenses of the central ad- 
 ministration, for university education, for secondary, clas- 
 sical, and technical instruction, for normal schools, and as 
 subsidy for the elementary instruction about S.".,r)00,flOO ; 
 the communes provide for the primary teachin-jr, the min- 
 istry of agriculture ami commerce for the higher technical 
 instruction, and the various bureaux for special instruction. 
 The municipal elomcntarv day schools aro .3-^,2! II in num- 
 ber (18.24:i for boys, 12,7:^2 for girls, 3238 mixed). Add- 
 ing 91 fi7 private schools, we have a total of 43,380, or of one 
 school to 020 inhabitants. But though that is the general 
 mean, the distribution of the schools is very unequal, they 
 being much more numerous in the N. than in the S. Thus, 
 in the province of Turin there is one school for every Zbo 
 inhabitants; in Calabria, only one for 1400. Elementary 
 instruction is obliiratorv and gratuitous. The pupils in- 
 scribed were— in is61-62, 1,008,074; 1SG3-64. 1,178,743; 
 ISfi.S-riG. 1.217,870; 1807-08.1.329,307: 1800-70,1.577,654; 
 1871-72, 1,745,467, or 0.00 per 100 inhabitants. To these 
 numbers should be added 375,917 attou'lants on the night 
 schools, and 153,522 on holidays. The proportion of the 
 population, without distinction of age. who could not read, 
 was in ISGl, 7!*.29 ; at the last census (1S71) the proportion 
 was 73.20. The normal schools train, in a course of three 
 years, the masters and mistresses; they aro frequented by 
 more than 0(H)0 pupils. The largo towns have female high 
 schools, not gratuitous, for the superior education of girls. 
 National lioanling c<tlleges, several female conservatories, 
 many private, and not a few clerical establishments, receive 
 boarding pupils. The preparatory classical instruction is 
 given in gymnasiums and lyceuras. There are HU national 
 gymnasiums, with 8208 students; 79 royal lyceums, with 
 3773 students : besides various communal and private gym- 
 nasiums. The government technical schools, in which pre- 
 paratory professional instruction is given, arc G3. with 6188 
 pupils. Technical instruction of the second grade is ac- 
 quired in 72 technical institutes, with 1 171 pupils. In these, 
 after a biennial course of general culture, there are f(uir sec- 
 tions^thc physico-mathematical, the commercial, the agro- 
 nomical, and t!ie industrial. There arc also schools for the 
 arts and trades (designed for the operatives ancl overseers 
 in manufactories), 10 royal mercantile marine institutes (in 
 which ship-captains, naval const mentors, and steam -en - 
 ginccra are trained), and 14 nautical schools. Five high 
 schools — a naval school at (Jcnoa, very flourishing; a com- 
 mercial schocd at Venice ; an industrial school at Turin ; 
 and two agricultural schools, one at ]\Iilan and one at Por- 
 tici — complete the technical instruction. There ore 17 uni- 
 versities (not including three free universities), with 6423 
 students; 3 superior practical institutions for engineers, 
 and 2 for other branches of literary and scientific etilture. 
 Besides many town collections, theri' are 33 public libraries, 
 the most valuable of which is the Magliabccchiana at Flor- 
 ence, with 280,000 printed volumes and 1 1,000 manuscripts. 
 We have not space to speak of the archives, of the musical 
 institutes, of the academies and galleries of art, so justly 
 cclcbraled throughout the world. 
 
 Chnri(nUr f»xti(>,tiui,>i.^Thorc arc in Italy 20.123 char- 
 itable institutions, representing a total annual expenditure 
 of $17,175,088. Among these are 055 hospitals, which re- 
 ceive 199,000 persons, at an annual expense of $5,054,169. 
 The other charitable institutions are — -asylums and ponr- 
 hous^s, expending $5,762,945 : loaning institutions, advan- 
 cing $831,655 ; other modes of relief require an annual out- 
 lay of $2,804,882. For religious worship, etc., .*1, 822,037, 
 Armi/ and Xavi/. — The Italian army, according to the 
 nPRcial tables, is composed of 670,877 men, and is thus 
 divided ; 
 
 (1) The standing armv: 
 
 Line infantry .". 199,886 
 
 District militia 18S.774 
 
 Bcrsaglieri 30,758 
 
 Cavalry 24.:i5.5 
 
 Artillery 49fifi7 
 
 Engineers 6.280 
 
 Carabinieri 20,071 
 
 Special corps and organizations 9,484 
 
 Officers in active service 11.488 
 
 " stationary " 2,080 
 
 " waitintr orders or retired 419 — .543,432 
 
 (2) Provincial militia: 
 
 District militia 131,121 
 
 Rersaglicvi 3,5.tI 
 
 Emrineers 1,033 
 
 Officers 740—130.44.5 
 
 Total 679.877 
 
 The navy is in process of transformation, and the present 
 able minister, Saint Bon, has made a proposal to Parlia- 
 ment (which will be probably acceded to) to sell a large 
 number of ships of war now become unserviceable. The 
 navy at present consists of 14 iron-clads, 8 of which 
 aro small vessels, altogether of 200 guns and 5700 horse- 
 power; 22 screw steamers; 25 side-whoel steamers; 8 sail- 
 ing ships and other smaller vessels ; the total number being 
 91, with an armament of 1139 guns. According to the new 
 plan, the naval force will be regulated as follows : 
 Ships j'12 large iron-clads to serve to form squadrons; 
 
 of •< 6 iron-clad steamers for coast defence; 
 war. i 12 screw gunboats. 
 Vessels for the protec- ( 10 station corvettes (also screw) ; 
 
 tion of trade and < 4 cruising vessels; 
 
 other services. ( S smaller vessels. 
 
 ( 7 lookout and despatch steamers; 
 Accessories. ■< 6 transport-steamers ; 
 [ 8 tugs. 
 
 IfiSTonY. — Of all histories, that of Italy is perhaps the 
 most difficult to compress, every city having its own special 
 and illustrious story, and the histories of all the nations of 
 Europe converging into that of this peninsula. It may be 
 divided into four great periods : I. Cojiqitfut anrf F*nda/i8ni. 
 — The barbarians, having passed the confines of the empire, 
 had entered into Italy: under Alaric they had sacked 
 Bomc : under Attila they had destroyed Aquilcia. the fugi- 
 tives from which founded Venice ; under Odoacer they had 
 put an end to the empire (476), but Theodorie, king of the 
 Ostrogoths, came from the Danube (489), vanquished Odo- 
 acer in thelsonzo, then at ^Vrona. slew him at Ravenna, 
 and founded (493) a glorious monarchy, although it was 
 stained by the blood of Boctius and Pymmnchus. and soon 
 broken up by the Orccks umlcr Beiisarius and Xarsetes 
 (553). I'nder Alboin the Lombards descendecl from Pan- 
 nonia (Hungary), and established the most lasting govern- 
 ment which had existed in Italy (568-774). But coming 
 in contact with papal pride, they in vain sought to appease 
 it by concession an<l largess. Piiinmoncd first by Gregory 
 in., then by Ptcphen II.. the French came intfi Italy under 
 Pepin, who founded the State of the Church (754) ; then, 
 invited by Adrian I., Charlemagne made war upon the 
 Tiombnrds under Desiderius, and put an end to their king- 
 rbimf771l. In 800. Charlemagne was elected emjieror of 
 thn Bonians and crowned by the pope. But this restoration 
 of the Roman empire was only apparent, as the vitality of 
 the new Civsarism was not Roman, but Oerman and theo- 
 cratic, and, to use the expression of (iregorovius. the Church 
 was tho real "kingdom of God upon earth'* — tlic cmi'irc 
 was but the civil form; that was the soul, this but the 
 Catholic body. It was no longer Roman laws, but the in- 
 stitutions of the Church, which formed the solid structure 
 and the bond of union between the Western nutiuns. and 
 which constituted them into so many Christian communi- 
 ties, at tho bcatl of which there was one mind — that of a 
 single pope ; and one sword — that of a single emperor. 
 Tho idea could not be realized, because the two elements 
 which were to carry it out soon fell into discord. Charle- 
 magne being dead (814). his weak successors were unable 
 to restrain the nobles and the clcriry. and the feudal system 
 was allowed to develop itself. Italy was first under the 
 rule of Rernnrd. nephew of the great emperor, then of 
 I.nuis. then of Lothair, then of Louis II.. then of Charles 
 11. the Bald, then of Carlomnn. and finally of Charles the 
 Fat f 870-888). On the dethronement of this last sovereign 
 five or six Italian feudal lords laid claim to the power, but 
 Berengarius I., marquis of Friuli. prevailed over the rest 
 (894), Under bis reign, that of Hugh, duke of Provence 
 (926), and that of Berengarius TI.. bud of Ivrea, Italy 
 passed through one of the most unhappy periods of her 
 history, being desolated by civil wars, by invasions from 
 Tlnngary and from the Saracens, by corruption, and by 
 barbarism. II. Thr CnvimuveH nnd the lirpuUim. — Otho I. 
 came to the throne (962) with three great ideas, all favor- 
 able to Italy: to reduce the number and the authority of
 
 ITALY. 
 
 1343 
 
 the vassal nobles; (o favor tho growth of tho ciiies, the 
 towns, and the municipnl mitliority : to diminish the papal 
 power — not, imleej (n». unhappily, the later I, dinhnrtls had 
 done), by usurpiii;^ the territory, but by underniiuin^^ its 
 moral influence, and by taking part biniself in the pontif- 
 ical cleetions. The conininncs profited by this disposition. 
 and first of all (he maritime towns (Amalli. Pisa. Genoa, 
 Venice), to or^janize a free government. The liitter con- 
 flicts between the ])apaey anti the empire having reached 
 their height under (Jregory VII. and Henry IV. (107^5-85), 
 broii'^ht upon Italy the curse of the (fuelph and (Thibellino 
 faetitins. the White and the iJIaek, ote. ; as a last conse- 
 quence, however, they proved favorable to the development 
 of that republican spirit which tlie two principal rivals 
 couM not suc'-eed in dominatin;;. Among other po^verful 
 causes of tho aggrandizement of tho free communes were 
 the Crusades, which, unsucce>^sful as religious an<l political 
 enterprises, excited immense maritime and commercial ac- 
 tivity. Representing the imperial principle against repub- 
 licanism, Frederick Barbarossa descended into Italy (1 ITjI). 
 besieged and took Tortona, was crowned king of Italy in 
 Pavia, assisted Pope Adrian to eru-^h Arnobl of lirescia, 
 received in reward the imperial erown, and rcturiifl into 
 Germany. Itut tho pope soon broke away t'rom the im- 
 perial alliance, and Frederick crossed the Alps again ( 1 158), 
 took Brescia, besieged Milan for the first time, established 
 his authority under tho name of pofictil in every province, 
 treated Crema with great severity, and besieged Milan 
 anew and razed it to the ground (\ic>2). Against this bar- 
 barity the (luelph cities solemnly eonclnded, at Pontida, 
 the Lombar'l League. Frederick, returning, assaulted 
 Alexandria, and met the confederates at Tiignano, where 
 tho Italians (chiefly through the valor of tlie Milanese, 
 hearlcd by their carrorn'o, or great war-chariot) defeated 
 the imperial host in a great battle. The peace of Constance 
 (June 25, Ils^t) confirmed the triumph of the free cities, 
 which were thereafter governed by two consuls, who were to 
 receive (heir investiture fr')m the emperor, and render him 
 feudal hnmage. But in Southern Italy the republican spirit 
 was overshailowed. first by the Xorman luonarcliy founded 
 by tho brave Roger, and then by the Pwabian. An illustrious 
 and heroic desr-endant of this latter house. Frederick II., 
 with the help of !*opo Innoc-nt III., wrenehrd the imperial 
 crown from Otho IV. : but tho ambitious pontilT. the fcninder 
 of the Holy Inquisition, soon nft'-r turneil a^rainst him. 
 At CarloDova, Frederick defeated thoneiv I-ombard Lea-ruo 
 formed against him at the instigation of the pope (12rJ!)). 
 Fred«*rick dying in 12.j0, the papal hatred followed liisracc, 
 nnd was never appeasncl until Charles of Anjou, at the in- 
 vitation of Pope i'rban IV., by the battles of Benevento 
 and Tagliacoz.za, and by the death of Manfn-d nnd of 
 Conra line, put an end to the Swabian dominion in Italy 
 fl2C(i-fi.S). The new Freneh rule, luiwever, was of short 
 duration, and was overthrown partly by an insurrection 
 headed by .Tobn of Proeida, ami y<'t more by tho insolence 
 of the soldiers of Charles, who ]irovoI:r(l nt Palermo the 
 revolution of tho Si<'ilian Vespers ( I2:J2). Meanwhile, in- 
 ternal discords were bringing ruin upon tho republics in 
 other parts of Italy: and the houses of tho Delia Torre. 
 and afterwards of the Visconti of Milan, of the Kzzelini 
 at Padua, of lh '■ Sealigeri nt Verona, of the Pallavieini in 
 other parts of Lombardy, Imd aerinired great power. At 
 Florence, the Buondelmonti and the Auiedei. at B(dogna 
 Ihi' (lerernei and the Lambertnzzi. at (ienoa the (Irimaldi 
 and the Fiesebi on one si'Je, the I»oria and tin- ."^pinola on 
 the other, w*rc in continual quarrels, and rivalled each 
 Other in their efforls to destroy tho liberty of their fellow- 
 oitizenji. The maritime towns, in their disputes for tho 
 dominion of the f<ea and fur commercial superiority, ruined 
 each other by turns. Pisa wasted Ainalfi. and in barium, 
 after the battle rjf Meh)ria ( I2SM, wa-s crushed by Genoa; 
 but Genoa atoned for it by her long struggle with Venice, 
 until the war of Chiotrgia (l.'itUI-S") left tho two republics 
 completely exhausted. Florence, always torn by factions. 
 was imperilled by the revolution of the Ciompi, headed by 
 the wool-comber Michael di Lando, the precursor of mod- 
 ern Socialism (l.tTH). Everything, in short, wiis on the | 
 decline in Italy; the papacy, which had transferred its 
 seat from Rome to Avignon ( 1307), the lihibelline party, 
 henrled at first by Matfeo Vise.mti, and tlien by Castrucrio 
 Ciistra<'ani, wa* loMinj; its power. Scourged, now by the ' 
 tniops of Philip tho Fair, now by those of Louis of Ba- ' 
 varin, Italy had become the Itatlle-ficld in which foreign I 
 ambition cxi'reised its worst passions. In vain Coin da ! 
 Ricnzi struggled fr>r a momi'nt ( l-'M? ) to rekindle the spirit 
 of a dying civilization. HI. Tfi- Ih-failmrr. — The eause 
 and at the same time (he consequtMiee of the civil debase- I 
 ment of Italy was the lack of a military syririt in her peo- 
 ple, so that she was completely at the mercy i>f domestic 
 and forciKn ambition. Hence the origin of the companies ! 
 which overran and plundered tho country with impunity 
 
 under the banners of Ladrisio Visconti, of Fra Morialc. of 
 Raimondo da Cordova, of Sir John Hawkwood, of Ani- 
 chino Baumgarten. of Braccio da Montone. of Giovanni 
 d'OIeggio, of Carmaijnola, of I'ieciuino. of Sforza, etc. 
 The house of Savoy alone, in tho midst of all this corrup- 
 tion, maintained itself nncontaininated, and by the valor- 
 ous enterprises of Amadeus VI. (il Conte Verde) and by 
 those of Amadeus VIII. foreshadowed the glorious days 
 of Emmanuel Philiberto ami the three glorious Charles 
 Emmanuels, worthy preeursors of tinit monarchy which in 
 our day has redeemed Italy. It was also a great misfor- 
 tune that while the Western and Northern nations were 
 shaking off the yoke of the Il(uni.--h (Muireh by a great 
 reformation, Italy being not yet prepared, suffrred tlie 
 great movement of Savonarola and tliat of Burlaniaehi 
 to fail, thus postponing for three centuries that moral re- 
 generation which is the basis of political progress. Tho 
 most cultivatetl people in Italy, the Florentines, preferred 
 the splendor of the court of Lorenzo the Magnificent to 
 the austere doctrines of the Reformers, and tliey allowed 
 tho merchant-monarchy of the Mcdicis — vainly threatened 
 for a moment by the eonspiraey of the Pazzi — to take root 
 anrl thrive until it extinguished in their souls even the very 
 desire of liberty. The old Cosimo nssumed the title of 
 " father of his country " (1429). In the mean time, the power 
 of the Turks was increasing in the East, to tho injury not 
 only of Italy, but of the civilization of all Europe. Ain- 
 urat I. threatened Constnntinople (13fi0): Biija/.et would 
 have taken it had be not iiccn arrested by the wild meteor 
 Tamerlane and bis army (1102). But Amurat II.. and 
 then Mahomet If., returned with renewed energy to tho 
 enterprise, and (ho fall of Byzantium (l-15.'l) sealed the ruin 
 of the colonial power of the Italians. Not long after, tho 
 discovery of tho New World, made by the Genoese Colum- 
 bus (1 Ii52'l. and that of the East India passage round tho 
 Capo of Good Hope by the Portuguese Vasco da (iama 
 (1107), then tho conquests of Corfez. Pizarro, Almagro, 
 Vasco, Nunez de Balboa, of Cabot, Verazzani, ami of \'es- 
 puei'i in America, together with those of Almeyda and of 
 Albuquerque in India, diverted commerce from its old 
 channels, depriving Italinn navigators of the palm, and 
 bestowing it upon more Western nations. Nothing now 
 remained to Italy but tlie glory of letters, of arts, and of 
 scionce, but in these she shone without a rival. Mean- 
 while, the crooked ])olicy of Ludovico il Moro again 
 brought a foreign power into Italy. Charles VIII.. king of 
 France, overran tiic Peninsula from one end to the other 
 (MO.'i). Tho French under Louis XII., and the Sjianish 
 under Ferdinand the Catholic, disputed the dominion of 
 Italy, The pn])al throne was made infamous by Alexancler 
 VI., and (^lesar Borgia, his son.ua.s tho complete personi- 
 fication of that base policy which i\Iaechiavelli systematized 
 in II Principe, .\lmo3t all Europe uniterl in the League 
 of Cambray against the repiiblie of Venice (l.'iOS), whoso 
 forces were defeated in the battle of Ghiara d'Adda (1500), 
 and Julius II., who bad been the aoul of the League, 
 turned against tho foreigners with tho cry, I'nnri i itur- 
 bnri ! and formed tho Holy League in order to drive out 
 tho French f 1.^11), who, in spite of the prowess and the 
 ferocity of Gaston de Foix and tho valor of bis Bayards, 
 La Tremouille and Trivulzi, were obliged to abandon Italy. 
 But soon after Francis I. descended the .\lps, was victor- 
 ious at Marignano(I5L"i), was defeated and taken nrisimer 
 at Pavia f 1 *>2.'i). Then folio werl the great conflicts between 
 this king and Charles V.. of which Italy unfortunately was 
 the principal theatre; the pontifi(;atcs of Leo X. and of Clem- 
 ent VII., the siege of Florence, the valorous enterprises nf 
 Giovanni dalle Bando Nere. the exploits and the death 
 of I'VanccHco Ferruccio, the siege and sack of Rome by the 
 imperialists under the constable de Bourbon, who there 
 lost his life ( l.'^i27) ; the expedition against Algeria, con- 
 ducted by Andrea Doria; the Peace of Crcspy (ir>Il); 
 then that of Cateau Cambresis, which established despot- 
 ism rather than jieaco in Itnly and in all Europe (I.k'jO); 
 the glorious enterprise of I%mmanuel Philiberl ; the bat- 
 tle of Lepanto (Ij7I1, in which tin' Italian navy shone 
 brilliantly for the last time, and by whi(di the final bh)W 
 wa« given to Turkish prtwer. During the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, while all tlif aneient states of Italy were fallen to the 
 lowest point, the boiHe of Sji^'oy arose with new splendor 
 through the dieds of lii-r three Charles Emmanuels and 
 of Victor Amadeus. IV. Thv /{fynirmlion. — To llieso 
 crowned hemes, as well as to the popular heroes Pietro 
 Micca and Picasso (called Balliria). who in tho wars of 
 succession. an<l especially in thiit of the Austrian succes- 
 sion, sustained nobly the honor of Italy, belongs the boast 
 of having given the signal f<fr the uprising of a nation 
 which so many centuries of misfortune had made abject. 
 But a long and stormy period was still to be pa-s^ed through 
 —the wiirs of the republic and of (be first Fr-neh empire 
 Uhe battle of Montenotte ( 17'.M'.), the Treaty of Cherasio,
 
 1344 
 
 ITALY— ITURBIDE, DE. 
 
 the battlis of Caldicra and of Arcolc. the Treaty of To- 
 lentino, the fall of Venice (1797), the battle of Xovi, the 
 block:ule of (icuoa, thi- battle of JIarengu (l.sl)O), etc.). 
 anil then Iho Peaccof Vienna ( ISlo). which sacrificed Italy 
 to the Holy Alliance. Frequent insurrections, and espe- 
 cially those of 1S21 and of ls:!l, were the forerunners of 
 that j;nat and happy revolntion which, begun in 1S4S, 
 when King Charles Albert granted the constitulicin, was 
 (Mimph-ted in 1870, when united Italy made Rome the cap- 
 ital of the kingdom. G. BoccARUO. 
 Italy, tp. "fVatosco., N.y. It has 6 churches. P.1.341. 
 Itamarati' ^Brazilian, "white rock"], a celebrated 
 casi-adi' near Metropolis, the summer capital of Brazil, 
 about .'lO miles N. W. from Rio Janeiro. Its height is va- 
 riously calculated, but is not less than 250 feet, nearly per- 
 ])endicular. 
 
 Hard' (Jean Marie Gaspard), b. at Oraison in the S. 
 of France in 1775; after studying at Riez and iMarseilles 
 entered a banking-house in the latter place, where he re- 
 mained until 179:!, when he eluded the requisition for mil- 
 itary service iiy representing himself as a medical student, 
 though in fact he had never given the least attention to 
 medicine. Nevertheless, ho was assigned by the revolu- 
 tionary eominittee to a military hospital as assistant sur- 
 geon, and by dint of careful observation and study soon 
 became so skilful an operator that he obtained an ap|>oint- 
 mcnt by competitive examination in the ^'al-de-(irace Hos- 
 pital at Paris. Three years later he was appointed phy- 
 sician to the deaf-mutes' institution, where he umdo a spe- 
 cialty of diseases aifecting the organs of hearing, in which 
 department he speedily acquired a European reputation. 
 His experiments in the education of " the wild man of 
 .'Vveyron," a boy twelve years old captured in the woods, 
 were described by him in two works published in 1S07, 
 which excited great interest. Itard wrote an imiiortant 
 work on Disfnttcs nf the Ear and the Oi-ijann of lleariwj 
 (1S21). D,.at l'aris.july 0,1838, leaving largo bequests to the 
 institution fur deaf mutes and the Academy of Medicine. 
 
 Itas'ca, an unorganized county of Slinnesota, bounded 
 on the N. by the Rainy Lake and Rainy L.ake River, which 
 separate it from C'anad.a. Area, about 52(111 square miles. 
 It is in part reserved for the Indians. It contains much 
 pine and larch timber, and many lakes and marshes, pro- 
 ducing wild rice (Zlzanla aqiintica), the seed of which 
 is employed as food by the Indians. Pop. AG. 
 
 Itasca Lake, in Beltrami and Cass cos.. Minn., is 
 regarded as the source of the Mississi]ipi. It receives, 
 however, several streams, one of which is several miles in 
 length. Its elevation is 1575 feet. It is surrounded with 
 pine-clad hills some lOn feet higher than the lake, which is 
 very beautiful. The Mississippi leaves the lake with a 
 breadth of some 12 feet, and is ordinarily less than 2 feet 
 deep at this ]ioint. 
 
 Itauam'ba, county of N. E. Mississippi, bounded on 
 the E. by Alabama. .\rea. about 500 square miles. It is a 
 level liliiestone region, with a rich soil, and not much tim- 
 ber. Torn and cotton arc staple products. Cap. Fulton. 
 Pop. 7S12. 
 
 Itch. See SrABiES, by E. Darwix Hudson-, Jr., M. D. 
 KkVISKO by WiLLAIUl Paiiker, M.I). 
 
 Itli'aca, or Thca'ki, one of the smallest of the 
 Ionian Islands. Area, 11 square miles. Pop. 11,940. It 
 is mountainous, but fertile, producing olive oil, wine, and 
 currants of a superior !--ind. It is famous as the dominion 
 and home of Ulysses, and contains some cyelopean ruins, 
 which still arc called the ea.stle of Ulysses. The principal 
 town is Vathi, with a good harbor and 2500 inhabitants. 
 
 Ithaca, post-v., cap. of (Jratiot co., Mich., handsomely 
 situated at the geographical centre of the county, in a 
 fine agricultural region ; has a foundry, furniture-factory, 
 saw-mill, planing-mill, a weekly newspaper, 4 churches, 2 
 hotels, etc. Prineijjal business, farming. 
 
 Robert .Smith, Ed. '' Gratiot Co. Journal." 
 Ithaca, tp. and post-v., cap. of Toni)ikins co., N. V., 
 near I lie head of Cayuga Lake, on the Delaware Lacka- 
 wanna and Western, the Ithaca and Athens, the Ithaca and 
 Cortland, the Ithaca and (Jcneva, and the Cayuga Lake 
 R. Rs. It is an important centre of the Pennsylvania an- 
 thracite coal-trade: has 9 churches. I daily and ,'l weekly 
 newspapers, 2 national ancl 1 savings bank (aggregate cap- 
 ital and deposits, $750,000), and large manufacturing in- 
 terests. Calendar clocks, horse-rakes, spokes and hahs, 
 paper, glass, leather, and machinery are manufactured. 
 Ithaca is the seat of Corseli. Univeksitv ( which see) and 
 of Sago College for ladies. Ithaca has gas and water 
 works, and a public library costing, with its building, 
 $li(;,Oon, the gift of -Mr. Ezra Cornell. The scenery hero is 
 very fine. Pop. S4G2 ; of tp. 10,107. 
 
 J. II. Selkreo, Ed. •' Ithaca Journal." 
 
 Ithaca, post-v. of Twin t]>., Darke co., O., 3 miles 
 from Gordon, a station on the Dayton and Union R. R. 
 Pop. 150. 
 
 Ith'ica, post-tp. of Richland co.. Wis. Pop. I2nC. 
 
 Itho'me, a mountain-fortress in Messenia, raemorablo 
 for the defence there made for many years against the 
 Spartans in the first Mcssenian war. It was afterward Iho 
 citadel of Messeno when that city was founded by Epam- 
 inondas. — There is another town of Ithome in HistiaMitis, 
 Thcssaly, described by Homer as the " rocky Ithome," and 
 placed by Strabo within a quadrangle formed by the four 
 cities of Tricea', Metropolis, Pelinnieuin. and tiomphi. It 
 jirobably occupied the site of the castle which stands on 
 the summit above Fanari. 
 
 It'ius Por'tus, the port on the present French coast, 
 nearly op]iositc Dover, from which Ca?sar sailed on his 
 second exjiedition to Britain. Its position has been a mat- 
 ter of much controversy ; the majority of geographers, 
 however, identify it with Wissant. 
 
 I'tri,town of Southern Italy, in the province of Caserin, 
 near Gaeta. Very interesting antiquities abound in tho 
 neighborhood. A modern sanctuary on a high ]joint com- 
 mands a superb view of the sea. Pop. in 1874, l»5.S2. 
 
 Itti'ri, town of Southern Italy, in the province of Sas- 
 sari. Pop. in 1874, 5055. 
 
 Itu. Sec IIvtu. 
 
 Iturx'a [Gr. 'iToupaia], a small district in the N. E. of 
 Palestine, which in tlic time of Christ formed, along with 
 Trachonitis, the tetrarchy or government of Philip, son of 
 Herod the Great, and brother of Ilerod, tetrarch of Gal- 
 ilee (Luke iii. 1). Tho name is supposed to have been de- 
 rived from .Jctur, one of the sons of Ishmael. It was N. 
 of Bashan, and ailjoined Auranitis, tho modern Ilauran, 
 with which it has often been confounded. It is now called 
 Jedur, and eontaius 38 towns and villages. (See Porter's 
 Five Ycara in Damaecus and Robinson's Jiiblical Jie- 
 eearehex.) 
 
 Iturbi'de, de (Agcstin), b. at Valladolid (now Mor- 
 elia), Mexico. Sept. 27, 178.3: took a dislingui.shed part as 
 an officer of the Spanish army in the war against the Mex- 
 ican revolutionists of ISIO and subsequent years, rising to 
 the rank of colonel: but in 1820, in consequence of the 
 constitutional revolution which took place in Spain in that 
 year, he decided to make an attempt for the indepemlenco 
 of Mexico under a monarchy. Obtaining command of the 
 Spanish forces in the S. of the province of Mexico, he pro- 
 mulgated Feb. 24, 1821, the " Plan of Iguala" at the town 
 of the same name. The essential features of this celebrated 
 plan were known as the ** three guaranties" — i. e. the 
 maintenance of tho Catholic religion: union of Mexicans 
 and Spaniards : independence with a monarchy under a 
 prince of the Spanish Bourbon dynasty. The plan of Iguala 
 liad immediate success : it was aceejited with enthusiasm 
 not only by the native Mexicans, but by the greater part of 
 the Spivnish forces in the country. After several months 
 of nominal hostilities. Iturbide concluded a treaty at C6r- 
 doba (.\ug. 24. 1821) with the new Spanish viceroy, 
 O'Dcmoju. by which his "plan" was virtually accepted, 
 and he thereupon made a triumphal entry -nto the city of 
 Mexico Sept. 27 of the same year. A fttnta of fjarmiment, 
 and afterwards a regency, was established under the pres- 
 idency of Iturbide, a constituent assembly was chosen, and 
 negotiations were at once begun .with Spain for obtaining 
 a prince who should be crowned emperor of .Mexico. 
 Through tho fatuity of Ferdinand VII., the treaty of C<ir- 
 doba was rejected by the Spanish government, and the 
 successful movement for independence was treated as re- 
 bellion. .\ftcr some vacillation ami quarrels with the con- 
 stituent assembly he had convoked, Iturbide, favored by 
 his army, was proclaimed emperor May 18, 1822, and was 
 reluctantly recognized by the assembly. He was crowned 
 July 21, but experienced great opposition, being eompellcd 
 sor,n after to dissolve the assembly and imprison fifteen of 
 the deputies. In Decemhcr>-<'eii. iSaaja Aii"a,-Uieil a YCCJf. 
 young man, and lately a warm parti.san of Iturbide, pro- 
 claimed the republic in Vera Cruz, and by Apr., 182,3, the 
 situation had become so hopeless that Iturbide resigned 
 the crown and made terms with the restored assembly, by 
 which he was .allowed to embark for Europe and enjoy a 
 pension of S25.000. He sailed for Italy .May 11, resided 
 several months in Leghorn, thence went to England, and 
 in May, 1824, chartered a vessel in which he returned to 
 Mexico, ostensibly to tender his services as general against 
 an anticipated invasion by Spanish forces, but doubtless 
 with the expectation of recovering his throne. Meanwhile, 
 a republican j^vernment had been formed in Mexico, 
 which, thrown into alarm by a rumor of Iturbide's intend- 
 ed return, issued a decree that he should be treated as an 
 outlaw should he set foot within the territory of the re-
 
 ITZA INDIANS— IV(^J;V. 
 
 i;u5 
 
 public. If^Dorant of this decree, Iturbide secretly landed 
 at Soto la MurinaJuIy H, was recognized iiud taken befurc 
 the statu legislature, by whoso orders he wiis shot at I*a- 
 dilla, Tamaulipa.-', July 19, 1824. Jlis family estuhlishcd 
 itsi'If at PhiladelphiH, where the ex-empress d. Mar. 2., 
 IS61. Several *>i' the suns of Iturbide wero afierwards 
 honored with dijilomatic or military posts by the Mexican 
 government, und during the ephcmerni empire of Maxi- 
 milian the survivors were reeognized as princes. The 
 elder, Angel dc Iturbide, d. in the city of Mexico July 21, 
 1S72; the younger. .Agustin, d. in Purls in May, 1S73. 
 Prince Agustin. son of Angel, recognized by Maximilian 
 as heir-presumptive, was b- inl.'^C I, J»nd now(IS7.'v) re- 
 Bidc^i with his mother, an American lady, at (leorgelown, 
 D. ('. PouTiiR C. Bliss. 
 
 Itza' Indians of Central America are of undoubted 
 Maya stoek. and by their own traditions must have loft 
 Yucatan in the firteenth century. They were visited in 
 1.^25 by Cortez, whom they treated kinrlly. They valiantly 
 maintained their indepon<lence until IfifS. They had pre- 
 viously attained pome degree of civilizatiou. They are 
 chiefly found in the vicinity and on tlie islands of Lake 
 I'7.i, on the boundary between Guatemala and Mexico. 
 They arc in name, at least, of the Roman Catholic faith. 
 
 It'zchoe, town of Prussia, in the duchy of Ilolstein, 
 on the Stor. It has distilleries, sugar-refineries, manufac- 
 tures of chicory luid tobacco, and carries on a considerable 
 general trade. Pop. 9111. 
 
 lu'ka^ post-v., cap. of Tishomingo CO., Miss., on the Mem- 
 phis and Charleston IX. R., II j miles from Memphis, Tenn., 
 and S miles from Tennessee River; has a female institute, 
 a male academy, a planing-mill. a weekly newspaper, and 
 valuable mineral springs. .T. S. Davis, Ed. *' IIf.rald." 
 
 Ivan' the Terrible, the fourth grand duke of Russia 
 having tlie name Ivan (John), and the first czar of that 
 country (though reckoned as Ivan IV.), b. in I.>2y; suc- 
 ceeded his father Rasil in \y.y.\; put to death in 1.j4^ the 
 triumvirate of regents, an<l soon after assumed the title of 
 czar; published a new code IJjO; carried on wars with the 
 Tartar?, eapturing Astrakhnn, Kasan.and parts of Siberia, 
 but io I.JfiS acknowledged the sovereignty of .Tediguer tbo 
 Tartar; carried on long and undecisive wars with the Poles 
 and Swedes; introduced civilization and the art of print- 
 ing in Russin. but ruled with great cruelty and harshness. 
 D. Mar. I'J, U8I. 
 
 Ivano'vo, town of Russia, in the government of Vladi- 
 mir, has important eolton spinning and weaving factories 
 and manufactures of chemicals. Its cotton manufactures 
 cmii'.oy a con-iiderable part of tho population of tho vi- 
 cinity and are steadily increasing. Pop. SOOO. 
 
 I'verMon fAi.FnKD), b. in Burke co.. Go,., Dec. 3, 1798; 
 graduated at Princeton in 1^20; was admitted to tho bar 
 and attained tlistinction in his profcs^irtn ; was three years 
 mem'ior of the House in the St:ite legislature, and one year 
 of the Senate; was elevated to tho bench of his judicial 
 circuit, which he fille<l for seven years: was one of the 
 electors at largo for the .'^tate on the Democratic ticket io 
 the Presidential election in ISit; was a member of Con- 
 press 1817-19, nnd V. S. Senator from Georgia 18.^)5-01. 
 This position he resigned on the passage of tho ordinance 
 of secession by the State convention in Jan., IRllI, which 
 measure he ardently ndvoeated. He raiserl a regiment for 
 the Confederat-? army, and became colonel and brigadier- 
 general. D. in Macon, Oa., Mar. 1, 1873. A. II.Stkimiens. 
 
 Ives (DwifiHT). D. D., b. at Ilolyoke, Mass.. Sent. 20, 
 ISO."!; graduated at Brown University 18.15; was ordained 
 to the Baptist niini?<try in 1830, and preached in Lower 
 Al'on, III. ; .su|tposed to have been the first Baptist preacher 
 in llic Srato who gave his entire services to one church, re- 
 ceiving from them a salary competent for support. Ho was 
 settleil also at Suftield, Conn., being both secretary and 
 president of the boaril of trustees in the Connecticut Lit- 
 erary Institution (Baptist) in that place. D. Dec. 22, I87.'i. 
 Ivcs (Ei.i), .M. I)., b. at New Haven, Conn., Feb. 7, 
 1779; graduated at Yale 1799; studied medicine with his 
 father. Dr. Levi Ives; and with Prof. B. Silliman founded 
 in 1813 the medieiil department of Vale College, in which 
 ho was professor of materia meilica until 1H29, and then 
 until 18:):s professor of the theory and practice of merlieine. 
 Ho was at one time president of the National Medienl ,\s- 
 pocia'ion ; was an advocate of temperance, education, and 
 the abolition of slavery. P. at New Haven Oet. 8, 1801, 
 
 Ives (Rt. Rev. Lrvi Sii.i.iman), D. D.. LL.l).. b. at 
 M'.'riden, Conn.. Sept. Irt. 1797; worked on his father's 
 farm at Turin, N. Y. ; served a year in the war with Oreat 
 Britain 1*^12-1.^. ami was eilucated at Lowville Academy 
 nnd Hamilton Ccdb-ge. Ho was at first a Presbyterian. 
 In I '^?.?- he received dcnenn's orders in the Protestant Epis- 
 copal Church, nnd in 182.') married a daughter of Bishop 
 Vol,. II.— 8.-) 
 
 Hobart. Ho held pastoral charges in Philadelphia, in Lan- 
 caster, Pa., and in New York, and in 1831 was consecrated 
 bishop of North ('ardlina. In bis diocese he labored much 
 for the good of the ^Iaves nn<l for the cause of education. 
 In 1852, his diocese being alienated from him on account 
 of differing views in regard to questions of doctrine nnd 
 church polity, he visited Rome, where he joined the Roman 
 Catholic Church. Tie was al'teiwards professor In the theo- 
 ftywTcal ycmhinry at Fordham. N. V. He afterwards de- 
 voted much attention to the founding of an asvlum for des- 
 titute children at Manhattanville. New York Citv, wliere he 
 d. Oct. 13. 18G7. He wrote Triah of a Mind in itti PnnjrcHH fo 
 Oitkuliviam { 1854), and several devotional and other works. 
 
 Ivi'za, or Ivi'ca, the smallest and westernmost of the 
 Balearic Islands, in the Medilerrancnn. and belonging to 
 Spain. It is 23 miles long. 12 miles broad. an<l has 1 1,000 
 inhabitants. It is mountainous, but has several fertile val- 
 leys producing good wine and olive oil. Timber and salt 
 are the main exports. The principal towns arc Iviza nnd 
 San Antonio. 
 
 I'vory [Old Eng. imric, from the French ivoirc ; I\Iid- 
 dle Lat. f:hor ; Lat. ehnr]. The derivation of the Latin 
 from barruH, an elephant, so-called from ^apir?, '■ heavy," 
 on account of its great weight, is very doubtful, since there 
 is in Sanscrit iblio, in Coptic ohhc, a "tooth," and in an- 
 cient Egyptian fhon. Perhaps, says Lamusse, this latter 
 had a eommon origin with the Semitic halihiw. Ivory has 
 generally been defined as simply the tooth of the ele|tiiunt, 
 but it is in reality a substance between bone and horn 
 from the teeth or tusks of many animals. Its chemical 
 composition is — 
 
 Phosphate of lime GI.OO 
 
 Organic matter 24.00 
 
 Water 11.1.5 
 
 Carbonate of lime 0.10 
 
 Ivory is for the most part, however, the material of the 
 tusks of tho elephant. The teeth of tlio hippopotamus give 
 a finer and harder variety, but owing to iheir hollowncss 
 they can only be employed for small objects. The largo 
 marine animals, such as the walrus, narwhal, and sper- 
 maceti whale, also yield varieties of ivory. That of the wal- 
 rus was formerly much used by the old Norsemen for mak- 
 ing pieces for the game of draughts ; several of these, beau- 
 tifully carved, are in the British Museum. The material 
 is extremely hard, of a dead pearly white, which becomes 
 black, not yellow, with age. The fossil ivory of Siberia, 
 dug from the ground, consists of the tusks of mammoths 
 and elepbant.s of extinct species. It is found in the Laieho- 
 vian Isles and by the Frozen Sea. The elephant ivory of 
 the present time comes from Africa and Asia: the latter 
 being, with the exception of the small tusks from Ceylon, 
 mucli inferior to the former, its faults being a tendency to 
 split, an inferior color, and the more rapid deterioration 
 towards yellow. Ivory is difficult to cut. requiring ex- 
 tremely sharp and very hard tools, but yields readily to 
 the saw, lathe, and rasping tools or files, a great variety of 
 which are used to reduce the block to form. Owing to tho 
 value of ivory — which is so rapidly increasing that it now 
 ranks as a precious substance — the greatest care is taken 
 to avoid waste, the division into pieces or veneers being 
 effected with thin saws. AVIien finished it is jtolisbed with 
 different powders. Its natural whiteness is ex(|uisitely deli- 
 cate, bearing a great rescmblanco to tho brightest tint of 
 the human skin, which latter presents the most beautiful 
 hue in nature. But it soon assumes a yellow tone. Spangler, 
 a celebrated wnrkman in ivory at Copenhagen, discovered 
 that ivory kept from the air. but not trom the light, under 
 a glass, will retain its whiteness for an intlelinite time. The 
 yellow tint of old ivory may be removed with finely levi- 
 gated pumice-stone. It should then be put while wet under 
 a glass and exposed every day to the sun. Ivory is used 
 for piano-keys, knife-handles, billiard-balls, book-covers, 
 combs, and for an indefinite variety of ornaments nnd works 
 of art. its " fashif)nableness " and the variety of Its appli- 
 cation having increased of late years with its vulue. The 
 drying uji and crumbling of ivory is (»wing to Ihe ex- 
 haustion of its gelatine. When the works of ivory dug by 
 Mr. Layard from Nineveh were brought to Engbind. and 
 found to be in a state of rapid flecomposilion. Prof. Owen 
 suggested that they should lie boiled in a s<dution of gela- 
 tine. I'nder this process they bccamo hard and firm. 
 Elephant ivory in plates presents delicate lines resembling 
 wh:it is called in ilrawing eross-hatehing or cancellation; 
 and this, which disqualifies it for making artificial teeth, 
 adapts it for miniature painting, and in fact increases the 
 beauty of its tone in all works uf art. 
 
 Ivory was extensively used by Egyptian!", Assyrians, 
 nnd ancient Greeks. Solomon had a llirone of ivory inlaid 
 with gold, and the throne of Penelope is described as of 
 ivory and silver. The later Greeks carried this work in
 
 1346 
 
 IVORY— IXMIQUILPAN. 
 
 goUi and ivory to a degree of splendor which seems in- 
 credible. From their extended traffic with Persia and 
 Egypt they obtained immense quantities of both Asiatic 
 and African ivory. l>iopcne and Seillis. Cretan artists 
 established at Sieyone, wen- the first to makr.' statues of gold 
 and ivory. The temple of Juno at Olympia contained, 
 amonj; many great works in ivory, the cofl'cr of Cyitselus, 
 the taMo of ivory and gold of the Olym])ic games, the bed 
 of Ilippodamia, the discus of Ipiiitus. and statues of Juno, 
 till' Hours, the llesperides, and Minervn. Under the in- 
 Ihu-ncc <if I'hidias the toreutic or <-hn/srirfihnuthir, or gold- 
 and-i\<>ry sculpture, became, as befitted its name, colossal. 
 The Minerva of the Parthenon and the Olympic Jupiter 
 evidently surpassed any works of the kinrl known to the 
 ninderns, as may be inferred from this, (hat the Minerva 
 bore in her hand a Victory 2 metres in hciirht. The scholars 
 of Phidias made a great number of these giganlie images, 
 in which the nude portions of tiie human figure were in 
 ivory and the drapery of gold. But the quantity of ivory 
 used in Home was prodigious. The gates of the temple of 
 Apollo, built by Augustus as a votive ofiering for the vic- 
 tory of Actium, were of this costly material. It is said 
 that the Romans knew how to soften ivory and mould it 
 as horn is now miinipulati'd. According to Dioscorides, 
 this was cficeted by boiling in the juice of mandragora- 
 roots ; according to Plutarch, in fermented barley. This 
 is now done by immersing articles of ivory in a solution of 
 pure phosphoric acid of specific gravity 1.1.10, and leaving 
 them there till they lose their opacity. Byzanlinc art. 
 however, went even beyond Roman in the profuse use of 
 ivory, and there is not a museum of Europe which does not 
 contain diptychs and triptychs (f(dding tablets with relig- 
 ious images), cups, reliquaries, crucifixes, and arms of this 
 era. Magnificent coffers, many of great size, also abounded. 
 Charlemagne had two fftttcs in ivory of Byzantine execu- 
 tion. The episcopal chair of St. Vitalis, a work of the sixth 
 century, now in Ravenna, is a fine specimen of this style. 
 Ivory becoming very scarce in the twelfth century, caskets 
 were made of segments of bone, carved. During the 3Iid- 
 dlo Ages it became again plentiful, and with the Re- 
 naissance the art of carving it reached perfection. Florence 
 at first, and subsequently Flanders ami (Jermany, were 
 the great centres of the manufacture. Bcnvenulo Cellini, 
 Michael Angelo, Diirer, John of Bologna, and Algardi dis- 
 tinguished themselves by their work. In the seventeenth 
 century the most eminent ivm-intft were Cope, Zcller. A«- 
 germaycr, Du<|U(snoy. Van Obsfal. Kcm of Nuremberg, 
 Faidherbc of Mechlin, Bossint, Zich, Berger of Norway, 
 and Troj'er. Many others, however, had as great a repu- 
 tation. Monks in cloisters not unfrequently devoted a life 
 to carving a crucifix: one of the best of these is now pre- 
 served at Avignon. Ivory was extensively used in the 
 preparation of arms. Picppo is regarded at the present 
 day as the most extensive ivory-factory in Europe, but 
 work quite as artistic as any produced in this city is made 
 in Germany, not a little of it consisting of imitations 
 of old goblets, oliphants {or bunting-horns), etc.. which 
 are sold as antique. Ivory is imitated by eoml)inations 
 of gelatine and baryta, and it is stated that billiard- 
 balls arc made of paper-pulp and gclalino which ex- 
 actly resemble the ordinary kind, and which may be used 
 to play with. Plaster of Paris in powder, combined 
 with chrome, cast and boiled in milk, stearine, oil, or wax, 
 will in time, if occasionally polished, exactly resemble 
 yellowish ivory. The artificial meerschaum, matlc of egg- 
 shell and gypsum, with probably some intermixture of 
 magnesia, bears at times a great resemblance to ivory, hut 
 is brittle. Considering the near approach which has been 
 made by art to imitating ivory, it does not seem incredible 
 that at some future day it may supply a comparatively per- 
 fect substitute for what we arc now indebted to nature. In 
 a few years the African supply, and in fact all others, will 
 be exhausted, as every traveller in the country bears wit- 
 ness that the elephants arc constantly disappearing before 
 the hunter. It is supposed that at present at least 20,000 
 cwt. of ivory of different kinds are made up annually iu 
 Europe. (Sec Vix.nTABLK Ivouv.) Ciias. G. Lkland. 
 
 Ivory ( Jamfr), F. R. S., b. at Dundee, Scotland, in 176.') ; 
 cdiicatcii at the University of St*. Andrew's, along with Sir 
 John Leslie. For many years ho superintended a flax- 
 spinning factory, and in ISflt was appointed professor of 
 mathematics in the Royal Military College of Marlow (now 
 at Sandhurst), lie was a self-taught mathematician, and 
 spent much of his time in retirement, fathoming the pro- 
 foundest writings of the most learned continental mathe- 
 maticians, and adding to their value by original analytical 
 contributions. His most celebrated paper, in which he 
 eoinpletoly and definitively resolved (he problem of attrac- 
 tion for everv c!na« of ellipsoidal bodies, was published in 
 the Ph;iu>i:pl,!rn! rr«i(*-.rri\.»« for 1 SOO. Resides this paper. 
 Mr. Ivory contributed many others ou the subject of the 
 
 attraction of spheroids and the theory of the figure of the 
 earth, during a period of nearly thirty years; one of the 
 last subjects which occupiecl his attention wa« the possible 
 equilibrium of a spheroid with three unequal axe*, which 
 Jaeobi had discovered. Next to the theory of attractions, 
 that of atmospheric refractiun most seriously engaged his 
 attention, its great importance in astronomy, and tiie curi- 
 ous mathematical diUiculties which it presents, rendering 
 it of great interest to analysts. D. Sept. 21, 1842. 
 
 Ivory Black. See Bone Black, by Pkoi*. C, F. Chamd- 
 LEH, Pn. D.. M. D., LL.D. 
 
 Ivory Coast, a part of the const of Upper Gninea, 
 "West Africa, between the so-called Grain Coast and Gold 
 Coast. It extends from Cape Palmas to the river Assinie, 
 and has several towns along the coast, which traffic in ivory, 
 gold-dust, and palm oil. 
 
 Ivre'a, town of N. Italy, in the province of Turin, pic- 
 turesquely situated at the mouth of the beautiful valley of 
 Aoata, on the right bank of tlio Dora Baltca. It was a 
 Roman possession as early as 'JO b. v., and many vestiges 
 of that period, such as foundations of theatres Hiid portions 
 of aqueducts, still exist. Ivrca played no inconsiderable 
 part in the Dicdifcval history of Northern Italy, and a ras- 
 tle of the thirteenth century is nov.' used as a penitentiary. 
 TbeCarnival festivitiesof Ivrca still eommemorate a popu- 
 lar uprising of the city against the marquis of Monferrato 
 in the thirteenth century. The cathedral is reported to 
 have been an ancient tenip!c of Apollo, consecrated for 
 Christian worship early in the fifth century. This (own 
 has soniG luanufactorics. but the great water-power of (he 
 Dora Baltca is but partially employed. Pep. in IST'l, 1)123. 
 
 Ivry'^, town of France, in the department of Seine sur- 
 Seine, 4\ miles from Paris. It has manufactures of iron 
 and glass, and a considerable trade in wine. Pop. 71156. 
 
 Ivry'-la-Bataille', a v. of France, 40 miles W. of 
 Paris, on the river Euro. Pop. about 1-00. It is nottd for 
 the decisive victory gained hero by Iltnry IV. of Navarre 
 (Mar. 1-1, 1000) against the forces of the League under the 
 duke of Mayenne. An obelisk to eommemorate this victory 
 was removed during the French Revolution, but renewed 
 by Napoleon in 1S09. 
 
 I'vy [A. S. ///'/]• *^^ Hcdera helix, a climbing, shrubby 
 Old-World plant, sparingly cultivated in the I'. S., wliere 
 it nowhere thrives as in Europe, being impatient of the 
 cold of winter and the dryness and heat uf summer. It 
 succeeds best in the Middle Atlantic States. It belongs to 
 the order Araliacea). It abounds in Europe, growing upon 
 bouses, churches, walls, castles, and trees. There aie sev- 
 eral varieties. The so-called "German ivy." coninion in 
 house cultiu'c, is not an ivy at all. but a Scnccio frem Sc.ulh 
 Africa. ( For the '■ poison ivy " of the U. S. Bco RuL'S.) 
 
 Iwakara Toinomi. Sco Appkndix. 
 
 I\caqilix''tla9 town in the southern part of the ftafc 
 of Puebla, Mexico, U{\ miles S. E. of the city of Pucbla. 
 Pop. about 5000. It is the chief town of the Pnpoloca or 
 Chuehon Indians, who occujiy the table -land between 
 Tept^ji do la Seda and the frontier of Oaxaca, an indige- 
 nous race which formerly extended over much of Southcro 
 Mexico, but was conquered and driven into fastnesses, first 
 by the Mixtceas, and afterwards by the Aztecs, remnants 
 of them being found under distinct names in the states of 
 Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Vera Cruz, as well as in Guatemala. 
 Ixcaquixtla is noted in Mexican history as the scene of 
 a sharp battle fought Jan. 1. 1817, between iMexican in- 
 surgents under Gen. Mier of Teran and Spanish troops 
 under Ba Madrid. AVilhin a space of two or (luce leagues 
 around Ixcaquixtla there still exist hundreds of artificial 
 mounds, mosdy of earth, but some of small squared stones, 
 the latter of pyramidal form: they are still used by (he 
 Indians, though nominally Christians, as altars on which 
 offerings are jilaced to the deified Montezuma. 
 
 I\i'on, a mythical character, supposed to have been a 
 Thessalian prince and king of the Lapilha^. He wascsi»oused 
 to Dia, daughter of llesioncus (or Deioncus). but on his 
 1 bridal day treacherously murdered his father-in- Taw, in 
 j order to avoid the performance of his contract. Jupiter 
 ' (or Zeus), however, magnanimously forgave him, but Ixion 
 I rewarded his clemency by attempting (o seduce Here for 
 ' .Tun(0, which attempt was frustrated by Jupitrr's substi- 
 tution of a phantom resembling her. and resulted in Ixion 
 becoming the father of the Centaurs. He was ultimately 
 condemned, as a punishment for his treachery, to be chained 
 to a fiery wheel pi-rpetually revolving and consisting of 
 
 ! four spokes in the form of a cross. 
 
 I ' 
 
 I Ixiniqiiil'pan^ town and district in the state of 
 
 ' Ilidal'^o. J^Iexieo, about 80 miles N. of the city of Mexico, 
 
 1 on the river Montezuma. Pop. about 10,000. In its vi- 
 
 ' cinity arc several silver-mines, owned by English com- 
 
 I panics. It was for some mouths in ISfil the head-quarters
 
 IXONJA— IZUCAB. 
 
 1347 
 
 of Gen. Zulgaga, wbo claimed to b« President uf the re- 
 public; he hud with hitu two or tbree cabinet ofiicers aud 
 some of the ordinary machiucry of a government. Tho 
 people of tho di:jtrict are mostly Indians of the Otomi race. 
 
 Ixo'niay posr-(p. of JifTcrson co., Wis,, on tho Milwau- 
 kee iiiid St. P;iui U. R., 'sj7 miles W. of Aliluuukeo. P. 1777. 
 
 Ixtacci'huatI [Moxiran. »>/"<', '• whitr," and c("Au«//, 
 '* woHKiii '■], ;i iiiountaiD in Mexico, once a volcano, 1j,70j 
 feet hij^h, adjoining that of Popocatepetl, from which its 
 summit is distant al>out 16 miles K. It forms part of tho 
 miiunlain-ran;^ gcpaniting tlic valleys of Mexico and 
 PucUla, from both of which cities it is visible. It is cov- 
 erri with perpetual snnw, and derives its D:imo from tho 
 re3cml)laucQ of its summit to tho reclining figure of a 
 woraiin. 
 
 Ixtapala'pa, town in Mexico, 10 miles S. E. of tho 
 cajtital, witbiu the federal district. Pop. about 6000. At 
 the time of the comjuost of Mexico it was a largo city on 
 the cnnal between lakes Texcocu and Cbalco, cekbratcdfor 
 it« splendid garden', which belonged to tho Aztec eui- 
 pcrors. It was the resideuee of a powerful va^^'al chieftain, 
 a brother of Montezuma, and was the scene of many of tho 
 important incidents of tho siege of tho capital. Few traces 
 of its former impnrtanco now remain. A faill adjoining Ix- 
 tapalapa to tho S. W., called the Cerro dc la Ertrclfay or 
 Star Hill, was the most sacred spot known to tho Aztec* 
 religion. At the expiration of each century of 52 years a'l 
 the fires througliout tho empire were extinguished, and the 
 now lire was n')t;i.incd by the chief priest by friction of 
 pieces of wood over tho body of a bniiian victim placed 
 Bpoa tho altar on the summit of this hill. All the Aztec 
 priests and magnates set out from Tenochtitlan (Mexico) 
 at midnight, going in procession to tho sacred hill, whicli 
 thoT reached before daybreak, and tho now fire was carried 
 in every direction (hrnughout the empire by hun<lrcds of 
 awifl messengers. Some remnins of tho ancient altar and 
 temple may still bo traced on tho summit of the hi!l. 
 
 Ponxtii C. Bliss. 
 
 Ixtlahna'ca, town and district in Mexico, near the 
 N. \V. extremity of tho state of tho same name, CO miles 
 from the federal capital. There aro in tho district several 
 silver-mines, most of which, however, have been abandoned 
 in con^wqueneo of revolutions or lack of capital to introduce 
 proper machinery f'jr reducing the ores. This region was 
 that inhabited by the Mazahua race of Indians, once so 
 numerous as to have had grammars and catechisms printed 
 in their language in (ho sixteenth and seventeenth cen- 
 turies. The laagiiage is now fa=t expiring, but is sliil 
 spoken in a few villages of tho district. 
 
 Ixtlaiif town and district in Afcxico, etato of Oaxaca, 
 40 miles N, E. o( tho state capital. It is rich in silver- 
 mines ; tho inhabitants are Indians of the Zapoteoo race. 
 One mile from Ixtlan i? tho villa'^o of San Pablo Guelatno, 
 memorable »-( the birthplace of Benito Juarez, President 
 of M>'xieo fpiui 1 -^.'tS to his dealh in ls72. 
 
 Ixtlilxo'chitI (Fp.RHANno dp, Alva), b. in Mexico or 
 Texcocu abi>ut IJ(iS, waa a lineal descemlunt of tho an- 
 cient emperor.'* of Toxeoco, and devoted himself to tho col- 
 lection and translation of hieroglyphical records concerning 
 bis ance^turii. Scarcely anything is known of his personal 
 history, except that ho was interpreter to several viceroys, 
 and in 1002 received from the Spanish king a grant of 
 lanils as ropre.-entativo of tho former Aztec dynasty, lie 
 left numerous writings, whieh arc preserved in the national 
 archives in Mexico, only a portion of which have been 
 printed, though copies wore usetl by Mr. Prescott in V\* 
 HUtnrjf nf Mrrim. His /fiitnrtf n/ the Cfnehimecit wa.H 
 published by Lord Kingsborough iu his Mexican Antiqui- 
 titm. vol. ii.' I), in IGI8. 
 
 IzabaS'f ascaportof Ouatcmala. on the Oolf> T>olc?, 12fl 
 mib'9 N. N. K. from tho capital. It is t!i<3 only Atlantic 
 
 rinrt of that republie, and is accessible only to vessels of 
 ight draught, fur whieh reason largo vessels unlade at 
 Ttalizo and ship their cargo to Izabal by coasting-vessels. 
 I*op. about lOOO. 
 
 l/aTco, 1<ia1co, or Vfiaico, town of Central America, 
 stale uf San Salvador, aud situate about 10 miles W. by S. 
 of tho city of that name, nnd ot the base of tho celebrated 
 volcano fmni which it takes its name. It is chiefly inhab- 
 ited by In<1ian«, tho population numbering between ^000 
 and .")()00; is possessed of a fertile and plentifully watered 
 soil, but since tho earthquake of IS.'jft ha^t mnterinlly di- 
 mini:Hh"d in eominereini importance nnd proKperity. 
 
 Izaico, Monnt, ealh-d the "liehthouse of San Sal- 
 vador," a \oIeano whiih bur^t forth I-'eb. 2.T. 1770. in what 
 is now the republic of San Salvador, (""entral Anteriea. It 
 stands very near a lari;e group of exf inel volciinoi-j. and has 
 an eruption every sixteen minutes. It burst out iti the midst 
 of a eattle-esta!e during a great earthquake, and Las since 
 
 grown to a height exceeding 4000 feet. Its light is visible 
 far at sea. It is near lat. l.t" la' N., Ion, 89° 44' W. 
 
 IzamalScity in Yucatan. Mexico, 40 miles E.of M€rida, 
 notable for the ruins of an ancient city, which are fullv 
 described by Stephens in his Travtla in Yucatan. The 
 celebrated bishop of Yucatan, Fray Diego de Landa, built 
 a church and a vast convent in ljj3 upon the summit of 
 an artificial pyramid on which was an idol temple; an 
 imago of tho Virgin Mother was brought from Guatemala, 
 and for its miracles acquired a great oclcbrity throughout 
 Y'ucatan, which it still retains. 
 
 Iz'ard, county of the N. of Arkansas. Area. 864 square 
 miles. It is traversed by the White River. It is partly 
 mountainous, but is in general fertile and well timbered. 
 Tobacco, cotton, and live-stock are staple products. Lead 
 and other minerals are found. Cap. Mount Olive. Pop. CSOG. 
 
 Izard (trEoRGK). b. in South Carolina in 1777; ap- 
 pointed lieutenant of engineers June 2, 1794; visited Eu- 
 rope and was lieutenant in the French engineers 1796-97; 
 in charge of fortifications in Charleston harbor 1798: pro- 
 moted to be captain 1799, and t^ervcd as aide to Gen. Ham- 
 ilton : resigned 1803; on the outbreak of war with Great 
 Britain he was appointed colonel of artillery; brigadier- 
 general 1813, and major-general 1814; disbanded 1815. In 
 182.> he was appointed governor of Arkansas territory, 
 which position he held till his death, Nov. 22, 1828. 
 
 Izard (Ralph), b.near Charleston, S. C, in 1742. and 
 graduated at the University of Cambridge, Eng. He was 
 a wealthy planter,and after the outbreak of the Revolution 
 was appointed by Congress as commissioner to Tuscany, 
 but he fixed his residence at Paris, where he opposed the 
 policy of Franklin and Silas Dean nnd favored tbat of 
 Arthur Lee. Ho pledged his estate to purchase ships of 
 war; was delegate to Congress 1781-S3, and U. S. Senator 
 1789-95. V>. May 30. 1SU4. 
 
 IzcoatI, fourth king of Mexico, and by his superior 
 military and political talents substantially the founder of 
 the Aztcean empire. A natural brother of his predecessor, 
 he reigned from 1425 to 143**1, during which he conquered 
 many neighboring states and embellished and fortified the 
 cnpital. It was he who built the temple to the g()d iluit- 
 zilupochtli and the goddess CihnacoatI : he also framed a 
 constitution that materially changed and improved the 
 political system. Thomas Jouhas. 
 
 Izdubar'f a mythical or semi-mythical king and hero 
 of tho earliest Babylonian annals, who is placed nearly 
 upon the division-line which separates the age of ro- 
 mance from the historical period. His name has become 
 widLly known and celebrated since the discovery, made in 
 1872 by Mr. George Smith of the British Museum, of some 
 fragments of the Chalda'an traditional account of the Del- 
 uge, embodied in one of a scries of twelve "Legends of 
 Izdubar," So-called from the hero who plays the principal 
 part in them all. By Sir Henry Rawlinsun, and the nu- 
 merous school of conj^iarative mythologists who take their 
 cue from Prof. Max Muller and Mr. G. \V. Cox, the Izdu- 
 bar legends were at once set down as a magnificent t^peci- 
 mcn of tho solar myths — as being, in fact, the prototype 
 of tho twelve labors of Hercules. Mr. G. Smith, the tlis- 
 coverer and chief interpreter of these legends, strongly ob- 
 jects to this view, and argues for the historical existeneo 
 of Izdubar as a Chaldtean monarch (whom he identifies 
 with tho biblical Kimrodl. bis best evidence being the oc- 
 currence of the name in a fragmentary canon of the early 
 Babylonian kings, whieh he believes to be a copy of one of 
 tho original authorities used by Berosus. Izdubar appeais 
 in tho cycle of legends as a giant residing in the country 
 of Accad, a subduer of great aninmis in the times after the 
 P-'lugc, n mighty conqueror who acquired the sovereignly, 
 which ho exercised in the city of Erech or I'ruk, the earli- 
 est capital of Babylonia. lie was deified after his death, 
 as is shown by the existence in one of the tablets of a form 
 of prayer nddrcfscd to him: and in an«)ther, relating to 
 witchcraft, he appears ns a guardian who watches over the 
 country. (Pee articles NiHunn, Noah, and CtspiionM In- 
 ficniPTmss: ami for the text nnd translations of the Izdu- 
 bar legends, fl. I'^milh's A'fifrirtn ni'vn-rriet (1875) ami 
 Trnmtnrf'nji^ ff'tfir .SWi'rfy n/ DihUcaf Airhtrttfutfif, vol. 
 
 iii.. TiOndon, l>'7f.) Poiirrn C. Bi.is.s. 
 
 Izu'car, or Matamo'ros Izucar, city antl district 
 of the state of Pu'dila. Mexico, about 90 miles S. E. of tho 
 federal capital. It is situated nearly at the base of the 
 volcano of Popoeiiitpetl, nnd is tbeci-nfre of ft rich sugar- 
 region extemling along tho valley of the river Me'-eida. 
 It is a well-l>ullt and pronperous eily of about 12,0ii0 iu- 
 habijnnts. an*i is the soufhrrn terminus of a railrond now 
 (1875^ being onnstrucled whieh will unite it with Puebla. 
 It derive* it« olTirial name from G^n. Manuel Matamnrn«i, 
 one of the heroen of Mexican indepm-'cnee. who gained 
 here (Feb. 24, ]X\'l) a great vietorv over the Spaniards.
 
 1348 
 
 J— JACKSON. 
 
 J. 
 
 J, a consonant, another form of /, with nbich it was onco 
 intiTchangcablo. /, originally and pi0])crly a vowel, camo 
 in time to stand sometimes for the hall' vuwel, half-conso- 
 nant S(mnd of initial >', as now in German. Afterwards 
 it aeqnired the zli sound it possesses in French, and event- 
 ually the power it ordinarily ]iossesses in English. In 
 S|ianish it is a gnttural aspirate, interchangeable with X. 
 Jaafar, one of the liAinrRriDKS (which see), grandson 
 of the vizier Khaled, son of Ihc vizier Y.ihya. and himself a 
 favorite of tho caliph llaroun-al-Raschid. who gave him 
 his sister Abbasa in marriage, on condition that the con- 
 nection should be merely nominal. Abbasa having borne 
 a son to .laafar, the caliph put both him and bis father to 
 death, about A. n. Sn2. It is probable that this account is 
 derived rather from poetry than authentic history. 
 
 Jabirn [Brazilian], the name of several birds of the 
 stork family, and of the genus 
 Mifcteria, found in Australia, Af- 
 rica, and South America. The spe- 
 cies are few. .1/. Anetrnfin is the 
 best known. These birds, unlike 
 the storks, have an upturned bill, 
 and one species found in South 
 America lias the head and neck 
 bare; those of the Old World have 
 these parts of tho body clothed 
 with feathers. 
 
 Jablon'ski (Daniel Enxsr), 
 D. D., b. near Dantzic Nov. 26, 
 IGCO ; was educated at the Uni- 
 versity of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
 where he distinguished himself in 
 philosophy, theology, and Oriental 
 
 languages. In IBSO he visited the universities and libra- 
 ries of Holland and England, remaining a year or two at 
 Oxford. On his return to Germany he soon liecame famous 
 as a pulpit-orator, and was ultimately appointed court- 
 preacher — at first at Klinigsberg, and afterwards at Ber- 
 lin. By request of King Frederick I. he labored earnestly 
 for a union of all tho Protestant churches. Dr. Jablon- 
 ski became a bishop among the Moravians in 16'J8. In 
 17:'.:) he was elected ]iresident of the Koyal Academy of 
 Sciences at Berlin. Among his numerous literary labors 
 he translated into Latin some of tho English works of U. 
 Bentlcy, and published editions of the Talmud and of the 
 Ilclircw Bible ( inyo), tho latter being especially valuable 
 for its critical apparatus. I), at Berlin May 25, 1741. 
 
 Jablonski ( P.\ul Ernst), son of tho above, b. at 
 Berlin in 16y.i. He was still more distinguished than his 
 lather for his knowledge of Oriental languages, in which 
 he surpassed all the German scholars of his time, his nu- 
 merous philological works being still quoted with respect. 
 In Oriental history, mythology, and antiquities his writings 
 are equally esteemed, especially the treatises on tho gods 
 Ki-mphon (17:i;>) and Memnon (176:!). The two most val- 
 uable of Jablonski's writings are undoubtedly an Egyptian 
 glossary, not printed until the present century (Leyden, 
 1804), and the I'aiillirm, ^Ei/i/ptiurum aire lie dii» enrum 
 commeiitariua,elc. (Berlin, 17JU-52, :i vols.). The complete 
 works of Jablonski number about fifty. He was long a pro- 
 fessor of theology at tho University of Frankfort-on-the- 
 Oder, at which place he d. in Sept. (or Dec), 1757. 
 
 Jaborantli' [Brazilian Guarani], a drug recently intro- 
 duced into medicinal use, consists of tho leaves and twigs 
 of I'H'icarput i>uinuliia, a tree (?) of Brazil, and of the order 
 Kutaccic. Four or live grammes of tho bruised drug arc 
 infused in boiling water. Soon after this is swallowed, 
 whether warm or cold, a most powerful sialagoguc and 
 diaphoretic effect is produced. Streams of perspiration 
 flow from the patient, and so much saliva anil mucus are 
 produced in the intmtb and air-passages that speech is 
 ditTicult. It is reported to bo useful iu tho treatment of 
 several diseases. 
 
 Ja'ca, or Xaca, town of Spain, province of Aragon, at 
 the foot of the Pyrenees. It is situated in a fertile valley, 
 is strongly fortitied, and contains a cathedral, a castle, and 
 several convents. Tho inhabitants are eini)loyed in agri- 
 culture and woollen weaving; tho soil is highly productive 
 of grain, but too cold for tho fruits peculiar to Southern 
 Europe. During the Unman empire Jaea was a placo of 
 some importance, capital of tho ri-f/io Jucnhniia. P. 3500. 
 Jacainar' [Braz. jacamaricH], a name applied to a 
 
 number of South American and West Indian birds, 
 of the genera Onthiifa, Jacanuirntci/on, and Jacamcropn, 
 and approximating the character of the trogons and the 
 bee-eaters. They are small, and mostly of bright and 
 quaint but not very handsome plumage. The red-tailed 
 jacamar (Galbtila rujicnudis) is i'ouiul in Trinidad, AV. I. 
 
 Jacanu, the Pan-a Jucaua, an abundant South Amer- 
 ican bird of the rail family, is remarkable for its very long 
 toes, which enable it to walk with ease upon floating water- 
 plants. Other species are found in Asia, Africa, and Aus- 
 tralia. 
 
 Jacar^^ a genus of South American loricate reptiles, 
 resemliling the alligator and cayman. The Jamr^ Btlcrojtit 
 (spectacled cayman, common jacare) is one of the largest 
 of .Vmerican L'rocodilida;, but though very voracious ho 
 rarely attacks man. Four or hvc other s])ccies are reported. 
 Jach'mann (Em ard Kari. Emakm;ki,), h. at Dantzic 
 JIar. 2, 1S22. He made hia first trip as cabin-boy and 
 sailor 1839-14 ; served four years on boaid the corvette 
 Amazone ; was created a marine lieutenant in 1845; ap- 
 pointed commander of a gunbcat squadron in 18-19, • made 
 in 1853-54, as first lieutenant on board the Gefion, a trip to 
 the West Indies, South and North America; was for three 
 years director of the wharves of Dantzic; became captain 
 in 1855, and made in 1850-G2 an important expedition, as 
 commander of the frigate Thetis, to Eastern Asia and 
 China, in order to establish commercial connections between 
 Germany and those regions. On his return received tho 
 command of tlie Prussian fleet in tho Baltic, fought, in tho 
 war with Denmark, off the island of Riigcn Mar. 17, 18ti-J, 
 and was created rear-ailmiral tho next day. In 1864-f»7 
 was chief of the naval station of Kiel. In 1867 was ap- 
 pointed president of the naval department, and in U6S 
 was made vice-admiral. In the war with France was 
 commander-in-chief of tho whole naval force. Asjiresidcnt 
 of the naval department he has accomjilishcd much, and 
 in many directions, for the development of the tierman 
 navy. Retired from this office in 1872. AtrousT Niemann. 
 
 Jacitara' Palm [Brazilian], a South American rattan- 
 pului of tho lower Amazon Valley, Vtmnoticug nurcracaiillnt-^, 
 a slender climber, armed with strong thorns. It is used to 
 some extent as tho true rattans are used. It is often seventy 
 feet long. 
 
 Jack, county of N. Texas. Area, 870 square miles. It 
 is heavily timbered, and contains a great variety of land, 
 chiefly adapted to pasturage. The valleys are very fertile. 
 Cap. Jaeksborough. Pop. 694. 
 
 Jack^al [Sp. chacnf; Pcrs. shnca!]. the Cam's aiirciw, a 
 wild dog of Asia, South-eastern Europe, and Africa, which 
 hunts in troops, is a carrion-eater, and is easily domesli- 
 cated. It is regarded l\v some authorities as specifically 
 identical with tho dog and the wolf. It may not improb- 
 ably be one of the originals wbenci' the domestic dog has 
 sprung, as the two breed freely together. 
 Jackdaw. Sec Dmv. 
 
 Jack'mnntown Plantation, tp. of Somerset oo., 
 Mo. Pop. 65. 
 
 Jack's, tp. of Laurens co., S. C. Pop. 2720. 
 Jacks'boroHgh, posl-v.. county-seat of Campbell co., 
 Tcnn., a miles E. of Carcvvillc Station on tho Knoxvillo 
 and Ohio R. K. Pop. 178. 
 
 Jaeksborough, post-v-. county-seat of Jackco., Te.^., 
 85 miles W. N. W. ot Dallas. 
 Jack's Creek, tp. of Yancy co., N. C. Pop. 946. 
 Jack'screw, an apparatus for raising heavy buildings 
 and other great weights by means of the screw. The name 
 is, however, sometimes applied to devices for the same pur- 
 pose which contain no screw. The principle of the hy- 
 draulic press is sometimes employed. There arc numer- 
 ous machines of this character. 
 
 Jack'son, county of N. E. Alabama, bounded on the N, 
 by Tennessee, and for a short distance on the E. by Georgia. 
 .\rea, 1150 square miles. It is traversed by the Tennessee 
 River and the .Memphis and Charleston R. R. The surface 
 is broken by low mountains. Tho soil is fertile. Cattle, 
 tiibacco, wool, corn, and cotton aro staple products. Cap. 
 Scottsborough. Pop. 19,410. 
 
 Jackson, county of N. E. .\rknnsas. Area, 61 2 square 
 miles. It is traversed by While River and the Cairo and
 
 JACKSON. 
 
 lo4!J 
 
 Fultnn R. R. It is vorT level, except in the N., and is 
 fertile and well limbired. Cotton, corn, hav, fruit, and 
 timber arc (ho chief products. Cap. Jacksonport. I'op. 
 72BS. 
 
 Jackson, connlv of Florida, bounded on the N. by Ala- 
 bama, and on the K. principally by Georgia. Area. 'JOO 
 square miles. The navigable Chattahoochee River flows 
 along the E. side, and the Chipola intersects the county. 
 The cnnntv is a heavily limbereil limestone region, one of 
 the best agricultural sections of Ihe Slate. Tobacco, cotton, 
 sugar cane. rice, and corn are largely produced. There are 
 several caves and other natural curiosities. Cap. Marlanna. 
 Pop. 9528. 
 
 Jackson, county of N. E. Georgia. Area, about 4.S0 
 niuare miles. The surface is broiicn. The county abounds 
 in mineral wealth, as yet undeveloped. Tobacco, cotton, 
 and corn are staple products. Cap. Jefferson. Pop. ll,li<l. 
 Jnckson, county of S. Illinois, bounded on the W. by 
 the .Misiissippi River. Area, .'JTG square miles. It is in- 
 tersected by the Rig .MuilJy River aud the Illinois Central 
 and the (Vrand Tower and Carbondale R. Rs. Excellent 
 coal is mined. There are productive salt-wells. A part of 
 the county has a hillv surface, and is known as the fruit- 
 region of .^cuilliLMn Illinois. The soil is very fertile. Cattle, 
 ■grain, fruit, tobacco, limber, and wn<d are staple products. 
 Cap. Murpliysborough. I'op. 19,lili4. 
 
 Jackson, county of S. Indiana. .\rca, 544 square 
 miles. It is traver.^ed by the Driftwood fork of AVhitc 
 River and by the Ohio anil .Mississippi R. R. The surface 
 is varied, the soil generally fertile. Iron ore is found. 
 Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. Lumber and 
 carriages arc leading articles of manufacture. Cap. Browns- 
 town. Pop. 1S,974. 
 
 Jackson, county of Iowa, bounded on tho N. E. by the 
 Mississippi River. Area, 0:iO square miles. The surface 
 is broken, the soil fertile. Lead and iron ores are found. 
 Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. Carriages, 
 cooperage, lumber, saddlery, etc. arc among the leading 
 articles of manufacture. The county is traversed by Maquo- 
 keta River and the Sabula Ackley and Dakota R. R. Cap. 
 Andrew. Pop. 22,019. 
 
 Jackson, county of N. E. Kansas. Area, 6S4 square 
 miles. It is I'erlilo and diversified. I^oal has been found. 
 Live-stock and grain arc staple products. The eouuly is 
 traversed by the Kansas Central R. R. Cap. Ilollon. I'op. 
 605:".. 
 
 Jackson, county of E. Central Kentucky. Area, 42.0 
 square miles. It is broken by mounlain-rangcs, but has 
 fertile valleys, and is bclievecl to contain much coal. Corn 
 is the staple product. Cap. McKce. Pop. 4547. 
 
 Jackson, parish of N. Louisiana. Area, about 780 
 square miles. Cotton, pork, an'l corn are staple products. 
 It is mostly undulating and fertile land. Cap. Vernon. 
 P.ip. 764fi. 
 
 Jackson, county of S. Michigan. .\rea, 720 sqimro 
 miles. It is a rich, level region, having limestone, sand- 
 stone, and some coal and iron ore. Cattle, wool, butter, 
 and grain arc staple products. Bricks, carriages, and (lour 
 are leading articles of munufaeture. The county is trav- 
 ersed by numerous railroads, centring at Jackson, tho cap- 
 ital. Pop. :!t'>,ll47. 
 
 Jackson, county of i^. W. Minnesota, bounded on tho 
 S. by Iowa. Area, "20 square miles. It is unrlulatiug, 
 fertile, and abounds in small lakes. It is traversed by iho 
 Des .Moines River. Grain is the staple product. Cap. 
 Jackson. Pop. 1S25. 
 
 Jackson, county of S. E. Mississippi. Area, about 
 1050 square miles. It is traversed by tlie navigable Pas- 
 cagoula River, and bounded on tho E. by .Vlabamn.and on 
 the R. by tho (lulf of Mexico. It is level, and is a part of 
 tho great pine-region. Rice is a staple product, and large 
 quantities of lumber arc exported to New Orleans. It is 
 traversed by the New Orleans Mobile and Te.\a8 R. U. 
 Cap. Scranton. Pop. 4:!02. 
 
 Jackson, edunly of .Missouri, bounded on tho W. by 
 Kansas and on Iho N. by Iho Missouri River. Area. 580 
 square miles. It is a very fertile, rolling country, with a 
 limestone soil. Callle, grain, tobacco, and w«)oI are staple 
 ])rot|ucts. The raauufaetures include mel.'illic wares, ear- 
 riag''S. clothing, saddlery, furniture, (lour, cigars, etc. It is 
 traversed by tho Atlantic and Pacific H. R. ('ap. Inde- 
 pendence. Pop. 55,041. 
 
 Jackson, a former county of Nebraska, abolished since 
 the census of ISTO. Pop. in 1M70, 9. 
 
 Jackson, county of W. North Carolina. .\rea, about 
 700 s«(uare miles. It is very niounlainous. but has a fer- 
 tile soil, beautiful ami sublime scenery, ami great mineral 
 wealth. Iron, gold, and niarblc arc known to exist. Cat- 
 
 tle, corn, tobacco, and wool aro staple products. Cap. 
 Webster. I'op. G6S.J. 
 
 Jackson, county in S. Ohio. Area, :i~S square miles. 
 It is somewhat hilly, very fertile, and abounds in coal, salt, 
 iron, and marble. Cattle, wool, and grain arc staple prod- 
 ucts. Pig iron is a leading article of manufacture. The 
 countv is traversed by a branch of the Marietta and Cin- 
 cinnati R. R. Cap. Jackson. Pop. 21,759. 
 
 Jackson, county of Oregon, bounded on the S. by Cal- 
 ifornia. Area, estimated at 11.000 square miles. It is 
 traversed by the Cascade Mountains and oilier ranges. 
 Tho soil and climate arc varied. The W. part is in the 
 Rogue River Valley, tho middle in Klamath Valley, the 
 E. in a basin wliich does not communieale with Ihe sea. 
 Gold, iron, and lignite are found. Cap. Jacksonville. Pop. 
 477S. 
 
 Jackson, county of Tennessee, traversed by the Cum- 
 berland River. Area, about 180 square miles. II has a 
 diversitied surface and a productive soil. Tobacco, cattle, 
 corn, and wool are staple products. Cap. Gaiucsborough. 
 Pop. (in K170), 12,583, since which time its area has been 
 much reduced. 
 
 Jackson, county of Texas, traversed by Lavacca River 
 and its lirauchcs, and on the S. \V. touching Matugiuda 
 Bay. Area, Sfl2 square miles. It is mostly a rolling 
 prairie, with stiff clay soil, but very productive. Cattle, 
 corn, and cotton arc staple products. Cap. Tcxana. Pop. 
 227S. 
 
 Jackson, county of West Virginia, bounded on the W. 
 by Ibc Ohio River. -Area. 405 square miles. It is gen- 
 erally hilly and rolling, with a rich soil and abundant pas- 
 turage. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are staiilo prod- 
 ucts. Cap. Ripley. Pop. 10.:iOO. 
 
 Jackson, county of W. Central Wisconsin. Area, 030 
 square miles. It has a diversified surface and is heavily 
 timlK-red. The soil is good. (Jrain is tho staple crop. 
 Lumber is extensively manufactured. It is traversed by 
 the West Wisconsin R. R. Cap. Black River Falls. Pop. 
 7GS7. 
 
 Jackson, tp. and post-v. of Clarke co., Ala., on the 
 Tombigbcc River. Po]). 13G0. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Boone eo., Ark. Pop. .320. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Calhoun co.. Ark. Pop. .SOS. 
 
 Jackson, t\>. of Crittenden co.. Ark. Pop. .116. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Dallas eo.. Ark. Pop. 6S7. 
 
 Jackson, I p. of Little River co., Ark. Pop. 820. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Monroe eo.. Ark. Pop. 784. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Newton co.. Ark. Pop. 850. 
 
 Jackson, (p. of Ouachita co.. Ark. Pop. 580. 
 
 Jackson, Ip. of Sharpe co.. Ark. Pop. 275. 
 
 Jackson, Ip. of Inion co.. Ark. Pop. 814. 
 
 Jackson, Ip. of White co.. Ark. I'op. .355. 
 
 Jackson, post-v.. cap. of Amador co., Cal., at iho 
 junction of Ihe N.. Middle, and .S. forks of Jackson Creek, 
 55 miles S. E. of Sacramento; has 2 weekly newspapers, 
 large qiiiirlz-mills, 2 churches, 2 hotels, etc. I'armiug, 
 gardining, fruit-culture, aii.l quartz and placer mining aro 
 carried on. Pop. of Ip. 2408. 
 
 R. .M. linincs. En. "AjiAnon Weeki.v LEnoF.n." 
 
 Jackson, posl-v., county-sent of Butts co., Ga., 18 
 miles K. Inim (iriflin. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Efriugham eo.. III. Pop. 1028. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Will eu.. 111. Pop. MS... 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Allen co.. Ind. Pop. 202. 
 
 Jackson, Ip. of Bartholomew co., Ind. Pop. 618. 
 
 Jackson, Ip. of Blackford co., Ind. Pop. 1.399. 
 
 Jackson, Ip. of Boone co„ Ind. Pop. 2453. 
 
 Jackson, Ip. of Brown eo., Ind. Pup. 1750. 
 
 Jackson, Ip. of Carroll co., Ind. Pop. 1.301. 
 
 Jackson, Ip. of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 1519. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Clay eo., Ind. Pop. 1711. 
 
 Jackson, l]>. of Clinton CO., Ind. Pop. 39.32. 
 
 Jackson, Ip. of Dearborn co., Ind. Pop. 1.306.. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Decninr co., Ind. Pop. 1740. 
 
 Jackson, Ip. "f I)c Kalb eo., Ind. Pop. 1141. 
 
 Jackson, Ip. of Elkhart co., Ind. Pop. 1289. 
 
 Jackson, Ip. of Faycllc eo.. Ind. Pop. 10.37. 
 
 JiK'kson, tp. of Fountain eo., Ind. Poi). 1.321. 
 
 .la<'kson, Ip. of Greene co., Ind. Pop. 1909. 
 
 JiK'ksoii, Ip. of Hamilton co., Ind. Pop. :t72l. 
 Jackson, tp. of Hancock co.. Ind. Pop. 1849.
 
 ISoO 
 
 JACKSON. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Harrison oo., lad. Pop. 1400, 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Howanl CO., Ind. Pop. 1000. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Huutiugton co., Ind. Pop. 2257. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Jackson co., Ind. Pop. 1137. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Jay co., Ind. Pop. 9S9. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Kosciusko co., Ind. Pop. 1043. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Madison co., Ind. Pop. 1344. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of ^liami co., Ind. Pop. 1G45. 
 
 Jaclison, tp. of Morgan co., Ind. Pop. 1723. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Newton co., Ind. Pop. VCG. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Orange co., lud. Pop. 1148. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Owen co., Ind. Pop. 757. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Parke co., Ind. Pop. 1377. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Porter co., Ind. Pop. 1072. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Putnam co., Ind. Pop. 149S. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Randolph co., Ind. Pop. 1349. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Ripley co., Ind. Pop. 1401. 
 
 Jackson, Iji. of Rush co., Ind. Pop. 770. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Shelby co., Ind. Pop. 1305. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Spencer co.. Ind. Pop. 920. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Starke co., Ind. Pop. 125. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Steuben co., Ind. Pop. 1122. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Sullivan co., Ind. Pop. 1732. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Tippecanoe co., Ind. Pop. lOSl. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Washington co., Ind. Pop. 779. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Wayne co., Ind. Pop. 4949. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Wells co., Ind. Pop. 1140. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of White co., Ind. Pop. 135S. 
 
 Jackson, post-tp. of Adair co., la. Pop. 339. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Benton co., la. Pop. 963. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Boone co., la. Pop. 798. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Bremer co., la. Pop. 1131. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Butler co., la. Pop. 5G9. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Calhoun co., la. Pop. 367. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Clarke co., la. Pop. 798. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Crawford co., la. Pop. 246. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Des Moines co., la. Pop. 103. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Guthrie co., la. Pop. 875. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Hardin co., la. Pop. 867. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Harrison co., la. Fop. 20C. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Henry co., la. Pop. 1202. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Jackson co., la. Pop. 862. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Jones co., la. Pop. 899. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Keokuk co., la. Pop. 1528. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Leo co., la. Pop. 1460, 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Linn co., la. Pop. 99G. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Lucas co., la. Pop. 460. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Madison co., la. Pop. 5,34. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Monroe co., la. Pop. 942. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Montgomery co., la. Pop. 1109. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Poweshiek co., la. Pop. 1629. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Sac co.. la. Pop. 469. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Shelby co., la. Pop. 4S6. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Taylor co., la. Pop. 351. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Van Burcn co., la. Pop. 1292. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Warren co., la. Pop. 639. 
 
 Jackson, tp, of Washington CO., la. Pop. 879, 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Wayne co,, la. Pop, 356. 
 
 Jackson, tp, of Webster co., la. Pop. 380. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Winneshiek co., la. Pop. 6G8. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Anderson co., Kan. Pop. 539. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Lyon co., Kan. Pop. 1079. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Riley co., Kan. Pop. 1249. 
 
 Jackson, post-v,, county-seat of Breathitt co., Ky., on 
 ILe Kentucky River, 55 miles E. by S, from Richmond, Ky. 
 Pop. 54. 
 
 Jackson, a v, of East Feliciana parish, La, It has 1 
 weekly ncnjpapcr. Pop. 934, 
 
 Jackson, post-tp. of Waldo co,, Me. It has manufac- 
 tures of lumber, and is 8 miles N. of Brooks Station on the 
 Maine Central R. R. Pop. 707. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Frederick co,, Md, Pop, 1699, 
 
 Jackson, city, cap.of .Fack.«on co., Mich., on the Mich- 
 igan Central R. R. (main line), 7G miles W, of Detroit, at 
 the junction of a branch of the Michigan Southern R, K,, 
 
 the Fort Wayne Jackson and Saginaw, and the Grand 
 River Valley R. Rs„ and the air-lino division of the tirst- 
 namcd road; has productive coal-mines, large manufac- 
 tures of sai-.'*oda, the main shops of the Central R. R., ex- 
 tensive foundries, engine-works, flouring and j>lauing mills, 
 fire-clay works, and other important manufacturing in- 
 terests. It has extensive commercial interests, and is in a 
 prosperous farming region. The city (incorporated 1857) 
 has 5 banks, 13 churches, 2 daily and 2 weekly newspa- 
 pers, a fine system of pulilic schools, Holly water-works, a 
 trotting park, omnibus lines, a tine passenger depOt, good 
 water-power, and is the site of the Michigan State prison, a 
 large establishment, carrying on extensive manufactures. 
 Pop. 1 1,447. Caulto.v *fe V'a.n ANxWErtr, Kns. *• Patriot." 
 
 Jackson, post-v., cap. of Jackson co., Minn,, at tlie 
 prospective junction of the Southern Minnesota and the 
 Dcs Moines Valley R, Rs,, not yet finished to this point. 
 It is on the Des Moines River, 8 miles N. of the Iowa line, 
 in a fertile and well-timbered region : has large grist-mills, 
 great water-power, a weekly newspaper, a church, 2 hotels, 
 a fine court-house, and other public buildings. It is rap- 
 idly growing. H. M. Avery, Kd. '■ Repi'blic," 
 
 Jack'son, city, cap. of Mississippi, and shire-town of 
 Hinds CO., on the New Orleans .lackson and (ireat North- 
 ern R. R., 183 miles N. of New Orleans, on the Vicksbnrg 
 and ^leridian R. R., 45 miles E. of Vieksburg, and on the 
 W. side of Pearl River, Among its public buildings are 
 the State capitol and State penitentiary, while within the 
 city limits are institutions for the blind and for the deaf 
 and dumb; and one mile to the N, stands the lunatic asy- 
 lum. Other institutions are 2 large public schools, a boys' 
 high school, a young ladies' institute, and various other 
 private schools; a large State library, 1 monthly, 1 daily, 
 and 3 weekly newspapers, 10 churches (3 for the colored 
 citizens), 2 foundries, 2 sasb, door, and blind factories, 3 
 banking-houses, 2 hotels, a city-hall, a street railroad, and 
 an efficient fire department with steam and hand engines. 
 During the late war a large part of the city was destroyed, 
 but it has been rebuilt in a sulistnntial manner. Jackson 
 is the place of meeting of the V. S. courts and of the circuit 
 and chancery courts for a portion of the county ; and the 
 •State supreme court sits here about nine months of the 
 year. Jackson has a good trade in cotton and other com- 
 modities. Its population is now ( 1^74) about one-half col- 
 ored. It is a pleasant and well-built town. Pop, 4234. 
 J, L, Power, Asso. Ptb. " Clarios." 
 
 Jackson, tp. of .\ndrow co,. Mo. Pop. 2401. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Buchanan co.. Mo. Pop. 890. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Camden co., Mo. Pop, 810. 
 
 Jackson, post-v,, cap. of Cape Girardeau co.. Mo., 10 
 miles N, W. of Cape Girardeau, has a high school, public 
 s,;hool, seminary, weekly newspaper, 6 churches, 2 hotels, 
 a flouring-mill, and 6 dry-goofls stores. Pop. 459. 
 
 Mai,i>\e it JoH.v'soN', Eds. "Cash-Book," 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Carter co.. Mo. Pop. 095, 
 
 Jackson, tp, of Clarke co,. Mo, Pop. 1472. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Clinton co,. Mo. Pop. 1752. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Dallas co.. Mo, Pop, 1432. 
 
 Jackson, tp, of Daviess co,. Mo. Pop. 1059. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Douglas co.. Mo. Pop. ,330, 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Gentry co,. Mo. Pop, 1037. 
 
 Jackson, Ip. of Greene co,. Mo. Pop. 1759, 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Jasper co.. Mo. Pop, 1238. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Johnson co.. Mo, Pop. 2200. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Linn co.. Mo. Pop. 948. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Livingston co.. Mo. Pop. 2603. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Macon co.. Mo, Pop. 1755. 
 
 Jackson, Ip. of .Maries co., Mo. Pop. 1419. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Monroe co.. Mo. Pop. 4367. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Nodaway co., Mo. Pop. 895. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Osage co., Mo, Pop, 1104, 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Ozark co.. Mo. Pop, 353. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Polk co,. Mo, Pop, 1483, 
 
 Jackson, tp, of Putnam co.. Mo. Pop. 799. 
 
 Jackson, tp, of Randolph co., Mo. Pop. 1175. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Reynolds co.. Mo. Pop. ,327. 
 
 Jackson, tp, of Shannon co,. Mo, Pop. 370. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Shelby co.. Mo, Pop, 1416. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of St. Clair co.. Mo. Pop, 411, 
 
 Jackson, tp. of St. Genevieve co., Mo. Pop, 1112. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Sullivan co,. Mo, Pop. 902. 
 
 Jackson, l|i. of Texas co,. Mo. Pop, 537, 
 
 Jackson, post-tp. of Dakota co,, Neb, Pop, 668.
 
 JACKSON. 
 
 l.J.)l 
 
 Jackson, post-lp. of Carroll co., N. H., 90 miles N. by 
 E. of Concord, among the Wbito Mountaius. Pop. 474. 
 Jackson, tp. of Ocean co., N. J. Pop. 17 J5. 
 Jackson, tp. of Wn?liin!»ton co.. N. Y., alroumling in 
 Btft-p mountains, licnutifiil lakce, and forests and >ycll-cul- 
 tivatcd farms. Pop. 1GG2. 
 
 Jackson, pnst-v,, county-scat of Northampton co., 
 N. ('., S miles from Seahoard "ptation, on tho Seaboard and 
 Eoanokc R. 11. Pop. 181 ; of tp. 523. 
 Jackson, tp. of Union oo., N. C. Pop. 1010. 
 Jauksun, tp. of Allen co.,<0. Pop. ISOl. 
 Jackson, tp. of Ashland co., 0. Pop. 1409. 
 Jackson, tp. of AngIai7.o co., 0. Pop. 1502. 
 Jackson, tp, of Crown co., 0. Pop. 995. 
 Jackson, tp. of Chamjiaign co., 0. Pop. 1S31. 
 Jackson, tp. of Clermont co., 0. Pop. 1GJ8. 
 Jackson, Ip. of Coshocton co., 0. Pop. 1767. 
 Jackson, tp. of Crawford co., 0. Pop. 4021. 
 Jackson, tp. of Darko co., 0. Pop. 20SS. 
 Jackson, tp. of Franklin co., 0. Pop. 192.0. 
 Jackson, Ip. of Guernsey co., 0. Pop. SO". 
 Jackson, tp. of Ilaucoeli co., 0. Pop. 1209. 
 Jackson, tp. of Hardin co., 0. Pop. 1412. 
 Jackson, tp. of Highland co., 0. Pop. 905. 
 Jackson, tp. of Jackson co., 0. Pop. 1532. 
 Jackson, or Jackson Court-house, post-v., cap. 
 of .lacksou CO., 0., on the Marietta and Cincinnati 11. K., 
 Portsmouth l>raneli, 7 miles fiom ll.auden Junction. It 
 has 6 churches, a largo school building, 2 weekly news- 
 papers, and 6 pig-iion furnaces; has important coal-mines, 
 and a largo trade in coal and iron, both of fine quality. 
 Tho town is rapidly inercasing in population. Pop. 21J16. 
 Davis Maiki.lv, Prop. "Jackson Standaiid." 
 Jncksun, tp. of Knox co., 0. Pop. 818. 
 Jackson (Jacksomtowx P. O.), a v. of Licking tp.. 
 Licking CO., 0., on tbo Newark Somerset and Siraitsvillo 
 11. 11. Pop. 438. 
 Jackson, tp. of Mahoning Co., 0. Pop. 909. 
 Jackson, tp. of Monroe CO., 0. Pop. 1354. 
 Jackson, Ip. of Montgomery co., 0. Pop. 2170. 
 Jackson, tp. of JIuskingum co., 0. Pop. 1174. 
 Jackson, a v. of AVashington tp., Muskingum co., 0., 
 5 miles from Zauesville. Pop. 5(5. 
 Jackson, tp. of Noble co., 0. Pop. 1190. 
 Jackson, tp. of Paulding co., 0. Pop. 55C. 
 Jackson, ip. of Perry co., 0. Pop. 1539. 
 Jackson, ip. of Pickaway co., 0. Pop. 1202. 
 Jackson, tp. of Pike eo., 0. Pop. 1840. 
 Jackson, ip. of Preblo co., 0. Pop. 1430. 
 Jackson, ip. of Putnam co., 0. Pop. 737. 
 Jackson, tp. of Uichland CO., 0. Pop. 931. 
 Jncksiin, tp. of Sandusky co., 0. Pop. 1350. 
 Jackson, tp. of Seneca co., 0. Pop. 1131. 
 Jackson, tp. of Shelby co., 0. Pop. 1101. 
 Jackson, tp. of Stark co., 0. Pop. lOlfl. 
 Jackson, tp. of Union co., 0. Pop. 035. 
 Jiii-kson, Ip. of Van Wert eo., 0. Pop. 249. 
 Jackson, ip. of Vinlon co., 0. Pop. 1294. 
 Jiii'ksou, Ip. of Wood CO., 0. Pop. .347. 
 Jackson, tp. of Wyandot cc, 0. Pop. 771. 
 Jackson, tp. of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 1137. 
 Jackson, tp. of Cambria co., Pa. Pop. 90S. 
 Jackson, tp. of Columbia co., Pa. Pop. 565, 
 Jackson, tp. of Dauphin co., Pa. Pop. 1030. 
 Jiirkson, tp. of (Ireenc eo., Pa. Pop. 9111. 
 Jiickson, l|i. of Huntingdon co., Pa. Pop. 1662. 
 Jiick'<on, Ip. of Lebanon co., Pa. Pop. 3437. 
 .lacUson, Ip. of Luzerne co., Pn. Pop. 624. 
 .laokson, tp. of Lycoming co., Pn. Pop. 512, 
 .lackson, tp. of Mercer co., Pa. Pop. 752. 
 Jackson, tp of Monroe co.. Pa. Pop. 851. 
 .lackson, ip. of Northumberland co., Pa. Pop. 8SC. 
 Jackson, tp. of Perry co., Pa. Pop. 1103. 
 .lackson, tp. t>f Poller co., Pa. Pop. 49. 
 Jiicksnn, tp. of Snyiler co.. Pa. Pop. 712. 
 Jackson, tp. of Susquehanna co.. Pa. Pop. 1175. 
 
 Jackson, tp. of Tioga co.. Pa. Pop. 1531. 
 Jackson, tp. of Venango co.. Pa. Pop. "20. 
 Jackson, ip. of York co., Pa. Pop. 1499. 
 Jackson, eily. cap. of Madison co., Tenn., is near tho 
 centre of West Tennessee, at the junction of the Mississippi 
 Central and tho Mobile and Ohio U. Rs., 72 miles N. K. of 
 Memphis: has 125 business-houses. 2 banks, 5 hotels, 3 
 halls, 11 churches, 2 daily and 5 weekly newspapers. 2 rail- 
 road machine-shops, 3 planing and 3 flouring mills, 1 foun- 
 dry, 2 carriage manufactories, besides many small manu- 
 facturing interests of various kinds. It has a very im- 
 portant cntton-lrade, is the seat of West Tennessee Col- 
 Ice, and has 2 ladies' seminaries and other schools. Pop. 
 4119, much increased since the census. 
 
 D. M. WisiwM & Co., Props. " Wiiio Axn TiuBt.XE." 
 Jackson, ip. of Amelia eo., Va. Pop. 2S27. 
 Jackson, post-tp. of Louisa co., Va. Pop. 1525. 
 Jackson, Ip. of RappahanoeU co., Vn. Pop. 15C8. 
 Jackson, tp. of Adams eo.. Wis. Pop. 4S1. 
 Jackson, post-tp. of Washington co.. Wis. Pop. 1978. 
 Jackson (Ansr.n), D. D., LL.D., b. about 1811 ; grad- 
 uated at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., in 1837; was 
 appointed tutor there, and afterwards professor of ethics 
 and metaphysics. In 1S58 he became president of Hobart 
 College, and in 1S07 president of Trinity College. D. at 
 Harliord, Conn., Apr. 19, 1S74. 
 
 Jackson (.AnnAnAM Reeves), A. M., M. D., b. in Phila- 
 delphia June 17, 1827; educated in the public sehools of 
 Philadelphia, and graduated in the spring of 1811) at tho 
 Philadelphia Central High School, from which institution 
 he subsequently received the degree of master of arts; studied 
 medicine under Prof. John Wiltbank, and received I be degree 
 of doctor of medicine from the medical department of Penn- 
 sylvania Medical College at Philadeli)hia in 1S4S; prac- 
 tised his profession at Stroudsbnrg, Pa., until May. 1870, 
 when he removed to Chicago. 111.; founded the Woman's 
 Hospital of the Slate of Illinois, of which he became sur- 
 geon-inehief. In the winter of 1872 he was elecled to the 
 chair of diseases of women by the faculty of Rush iMidieal 
 College, who, in the following spring, conferred upon bim 
 the honorary degree of M. D. ; in the spring of 1874 elected 
 editor of the Chii-niio Mcdicnl IbijiKt'-r by tho Chicago 
 Medico-Historical Society; member of Illinois State Medi- 
 cal Society, Academy of Science, Chicago, Chicago Medical 
 Society, Chicago Society of Physicians and Surgeons. Chi- 
 cago Medico-lIistoricarSociety ; corresponding member of 
 tho Oynreeologieal Society of Hoston. Author of papers— 
 llcmn'valuf I.tirije Urelhro-rcniriil CnlniliiK (\ii:)fi). A,'j-«cc(l'on 
 of Entire Flbilia, etc. (1858), Obnlhiiilr llirmorrhnfie from 
 the Frrcnim Lin;inir(\Sad), On the Kjjlicnctinf Cold Affiininn 
 in Narcnlhm (1859). Ifi/droccle of tlir Sirl; nnil /(» '/'retit- 
 menl hij Ercisian (1801 ), Snrrrnnfut linnitrnl of both ()i-arira 
 (1866), Uterine Fibroid of Pfinterior W'liH Siicrrmfnili/ llr- 
 tnoved (1870), FibrouK Tnmnr of Ulitddcr .S'iiccr«»/'n//i/ lie- 
 moved (1870), A'oii-orarHin Menslniotion. etc. (1870), Some 
 /{emnrtt tipon CuKm of Obntrnrtion of the Itoirela, etc. 
 (1871). Veiico-vitriimd Fistnln, etc. (1871), Hemoial of Fi- 
 hroiin Tumor of I'tcrns (1872), Unnnecemfnl Attempt to Re- 
 move Fibront fnmor of Womb (1873), Treatment of Uterine 
 Fibroidn loj the Use of Ertjotine (1874). 
 
 Jackson (Andiiew), LL.D., tho seventh President of 
 the U. S., b. at the Waxhaw Settlemcnl, Union eo., N. C._(at 
 that time supposed to be in South Carolina), Mar. 15, 1767, 
 His parents were Scotch-Irish, natives of Carriekfergns, 
 who came to America in 1705 and settled on Twelve Milo 
 Creek, a tributary of the Catawba. His fallier, who was a 
 poor farm-laborer, died shortly before Andrew's birth, when 
 his mother removed to Waxliaw, where some relatives re- 
 sided. Few jinrtieulars of the ehiblhood of JaeUson have 
 been prescrveil ; his e lueation was of the mo«l limited kind, 
 and ho showed no fondness for books. In 1780, at the ago 
 of thirteen, he with his brother Robert volunteered to servo 
 in tho Revidutinnary forces under C.en. Sumter, and was a 
 witness of the hitter's defeat nt Hanging Hock. In the fol- 
 lowing year Iho brothers were made prisoners, and eoiifined 
 at Camden, e.vperiencing brutal treatment from their cap- 
 tors, and being speelnlors of Cien. Greene's defeat at Iloli- 
 kirk's Hill. Through Iheir mother's exertions the bfiys 
 were exchanged while suHering from small|iox. Robert 
 soon dieil at Waxbaw, anil Mrs. Jackson died not long 
 after at Charleston of ship fever, contracted in attending 
 tho .Aiiierienn prisoners. Young Jackson, left destitute, 
 worked for some time in a saddler's shop, afterwards taught 
 school, and at the age of eighteen eomnnneed the study of 
 law at Salisbury, N. C. In 1786 he was admitled to Iho 
 bar, and removed in 1788 to Nashville, in what was then 
 tho western district of North Carolina, with the appoint- 
 ment of tollciior or public prosecutor. Two years later
 
 1352 
 
 JACKSON. 
 
 Tennessee became a Territory, ami Jackson was appointed 
 by Pres. Washington I'. 8. attorney for the new tiistrict. 
 In 1701 be married Mrs. Kachel Kobards (daughter of Col. 
 John Duuulson), whom hv supposed to have been divorced 
 in that year by an ad uf tlic ii-gislature of A'irgiuia. It 
 afterwards appeared that the divorce liad not become legal 
 until K'.'.'l, whrn it was formally granted l>y ajury in Mer- 
 cer CO.. Ky.. al the application of the husband, who was a 
 resident of that State, and it was not until Jan., 171'4, that 
 Mr. and Mrs. Jacks<in were legally married by a second 
 ceremony at Xushville. I'ndcr the circumstances it was 
 not unnatural that the factn of the case were so misrepre- 
 sented by opponents in the political campaigns a quarter 
 of a century hiter as to become the basis of serious charges 
 against Jackson's morality ; which, however, has been sat- 
 isfactorily attested by abundant evidence. Jackson was 
 untiring in the exercise of his duties as U. S. attorney, 
 which demanded frequent journeys through the wilderness 
 ancl exposure to Indian hostilities; he acquired consider- 
 able property in land, and obtained such influence as to be 
 chosen a member of the convention which framed the con- 
 stitution of the new State of Tennessee (1796), and was 
 elected in that year its first representative in Congress. 
 The following year (1797) he was chosen to the U. S. Sen- 
 ate, but resigned in 1798 to accept a seat on the bench of 
 the supreme court of Tennessee, which he held till 1804. 
 He was elected a major-general of the State militia in 
 1801, and on the acquisition of Louisiana (l^tKi) was 
 an unsuccessful candidate for appointment as governor 
 of the new Territory. In 1804 he withdrew from poli- 
 tics, settled on the plantation which he called the •• Her- 
 mitage" near Nashville, set up a cotton-gin, formed a 
 partnership, and traded to New Orleans, making the voy- 
 ages on flatboats. Through his hot temper Jackson was 
 involved in several quarrels and ''affairs of honor" during 
 this period, in one of which ( 1806) he was severely wounded, 
 but had the misfortune to kill his opponent, Mr. Charles 
 Dickinson. In 1805, Aaron Burr had visited Nashville 
 and been a guest of Jackson, with whom he corresponded 
 on the subject of a war with Spain, which w.is anticipated 
 and desired by them, as well as by the people of the South- 
 west generally. Burr repeated his visit in Sept., 1806, 
 when he engaged in the celebrated combinations which led 
 to his trial for treason; he was warmly received by Jack- 
 son, at whose instance a public ball was given in his honor 
 at Nashville, and contracted with the latter for boats and 
 provisions. Earh' in 1807, when Burr had been proclaimed 
 a traitor by l*res. Jefferson, volunteer forces for the Federal 
 service were organized at Nashville under Jackson's com- 
 mand, but his energy and activity did not shield him from 
 suspicions of connivance in the supposed treason. Ho was 
 summoned to Richmond as a witness in Burr's trial, but 
 was not called to the stand, probaldy because he was out- 
 spoken in his partisausliip. On the outbreak of war with 
 Great Britain in ISI2, Jackson tendered his services, and in 
 Jan., IHI.'i, embarked for New Orleans at the head of the 
 Tennessee contingent. In March ho received an order to 
 disband his forces, but in September he again took the field 
 in the Creek war. and in conjunction with his former part- 
 ner, Col. Coffee, inflit-ted upon the Indians the memorable 
 defeats at Talladega. I'^muckfaw, and Tallapoosa. In May, 
 1814, Jackson, who had now acquired a national reputation, 
 was appointed a major-genera! of the U. S. army, and 
 commenced a campaign against the British in Florida, con- 
 ducted the defence of Mobile (Sept. 15), seized upon Pen- 
 sacola (Nov. 6), and immediately transported the bulk of 
 his troops to New Orleans, then threatened by a powerful 
 naval force. Martial law was declared in Louisiana, the 
 State militia was called to arms, engagements with tho 
 British were fought Dec. So and 28, and after reinforcements 
 had been received on both sides the famous victory of 
 Jan. 8, 1815, crowned Jackson's fame as a soldier, and 
 made him the typical American hero of the first half 
 of the nineteenth century. In 1S17-1S he conducted the 
 first war against the Seminoles of Florida, during which 
 he seized upon Pensacola and executed by court-martial 
 two British subjects (Arbuthnot and AmVjrietcr) — acts 
 which might easily have involved the IT. S. in war both 
 with Spain and Great Britain. Fortunately, the peril was 
 averted (1819) by the cession of Florida to the V. S.. and 
 Jackson, who had escaped a trial for the irregularity of 
 bis conduct only through a division of opinion in Monroe's 
 cabinet, was appointed (1821) governor of the new Terri- 
 tory. Soon afterward he deeiined the appointment of 
 minister to Mexico. In 182r>. Jackson was elected to the 
 U. S. Senate, and nominated by the Tennessee legislature 
 for tho Presidency. This candidacy, though at first a 
 matter of surprise, and even merriment, speedily became 
 popular, and in 1824 the hero of New Orleons received the 
 largest popular vote among tho four candidates, though 
 J. Q. Adams was elected by the House of Representatives 
 
 through the iufluenoe of Henry Clay. lu 1828, Jackeon 
 was triumphantly elected President over Adams after a 
 campaign of unequalled bitterness, which may be considered 
 the point ot" departure of the modern Democratic parfy. In- 
 augurated on ^Iar. 4. 1S29, he at once removed from office 
 all the incumbents Vtelonging to the opposite party — a pro- 
 cedure new to American politics, but which naturally be- 
 came a precedent. The first term of Jackson was cha- 
 racterized by quarrels between the Vice-President, Cal- 
 houn, and the secretary of state, Van Buren, attended by 
 a cabinet crisis originating in scandals connected with the 
 name of Mrs. General Eaton (wife of the secretary of war) ; 
 by the beginning of his war upon the U. S. Bank, and by 
 his vigorous action against the partisans of Calhoun, who 
 in South Carolina (T8;i2) threatened to nullify the acts of 
 Congress establishing a protective tariff. In tho Presidential 
 campaign of I 8;j2, Jackson received 219 out of 2SS electoral 
 votes, his competitor being Jlr. Chiy, while Mr. Wirt, on 
 an '• Anti-Masonic " platform, received the vote of Vermont 
 alone. In I83.'i, President Jackson removed the govern- 
 ment deposits from tho V. S. Bank, thereby incurring a 
 vote of censure from the Senate, which was, however, ex- 
 punged ftnir years later. During (his second term of 
 office the Cherokces, Choctaws, and Creeks were remov- 
 ed, not without difhculty, from Georgia, Alabama, and 
 Mississippi to the Indian Territory; the national debt 
 was extinguished. Arkansas and Michigan were admitted 
 as States into the I'nion, the Seminole war was renewed, 
 the anti-slavery agitation first acquired importance, the 
 Mormon dcUision, which had originated in 1829, attained 
 considerable proportions in Ohio and Missouri, and the 
 country experienced (18.17) its greatest pecuniary panic. 
 Railroads with locomotive propulsion were introduced into 
 America during Jackson's first term ( 1829), and had become 
 an important element of national life before the close of 
 his second term. For many reasons, therefore, the admin- 
 istration of Pre?. Jackson formed an era in American his- 
 tory, political, social, and industrial. He succeeded in ef- 
 fecting the election of his friend Van iJuren as his successor, 
 retired from the Presidency Mar. 4, lS."i7, and led a tranquil 
 life at the Hermitage until his death, June 8, 1845. During 
 his closing years he was a professed Christian and a mem- 
 ber of the Presbyterian (.'hurch. No American of this cen- 
 tury has been the subject of such opposite judgments ; he 
 was loved and hated with equal vehemence during his life, 
 but at the present (1875) distance of time from his career, 
 while opinions still vary as to the merits of most of his 
 jiuldic acts, few of his countrymen will question that he 
 was a warm-hearted, brave, patriotic, honest, and sincere 
 man. If his distinguishing qualities were not such as con- 
 stitute statesmanship in the highest sense, he at least never 
 pretended to other merits than such as were written to his 
 credit on the page of American history — not attempting to 
 disguise the demerits, which were equally legible. Tho 
 m.ijority of his countrymen accepted and honored him in 
 spite of all that calumny as well as truth could allege 
 against him. His faults may therefore be truly said to 
 have been those of his time; his magnificent virtues may 
 al;:o, with the same justice, be considered as typical of a 
 state of society which has nearly passed away. Jackson's 
 life has been many times written: bv Eaton (1824), "Wil- 
 liam Cobbcft(lS;U), Amos Kendall (1844), Jenkins (1850), 
 Headley (I852j. and with great fulness and completeness 
 by .lames Parlon (New York, 3 vols.. 1859 »(■</.), Sec also 
 Thomas H. Benton's Thirty Years' Vuir (1854) for tho po- 
 litical history of his administration. Porti^r C. Bliss. 
 
 Jackson (CiiAnLr.s). LL.D.,b.at Ncwburyport, Mass., 
 Mav .*il. 1775, son of Hon. Jonathan .Jackson: graduated 
 at ILirvard College in I79;i: studied law in the office of 
 Chief- Justice Parsons, ami, removing to Boston in iSO^.soctn 
 attained an eminent position at the bar; was judge of the 
 Massachusetts supremo court 18111-24. member of the con- 
 stitutional convention in 1820. and chairman of a com mission 
 to codify tho State laws in IS.tS. Thr-jugh his labors sev- 
 eral important reforms were introduceil into Massachusetts 
 legislation, especially in reference to debit and credit. He 
 published a treatise on PUfniitvjH ami Prurtivf in liml Ac- 
 tioun (1828), which is a recognized authority upon the law 
 of property. D. at Boston Dec. 13, 1855. 
 
 Jackson (CuAni.rs Davis). D. D., b. in Salem, Mass.. 
 Dec. 15, 1811; graduated at Dartmouth in 18.1.3, and at 
 Andover in 18.18; was for a time professor in Lane Semi- 
 nary and a teacher in Petersburg, Va., and afterwards in 
 Flushing, N. Y. : in 1842 took priest's orders in the Prot- 
 estant Episcopal Church ; has since held the rectorships of 
 St. Stephen's, N. Y., St. Luke's, Staten Island, and St. 
 Peter's, Westchester, N. Y. He is the author of several 
 volumes of sermons and of works on education. D. at 
 Westchester, N. Y., June 28, 1871. 
 
 Jackson (Charles Thomas), M. D., b, at Plymouth,
 
 JACKSON. 
 
 1353 
 
 Mass., June 21, ISOo: studied medicine in Boston; took 
 part in 1S27-29 with Francis Al;jer in the geological sur- 
 vey of Nova Scotia ; studied medicine and geoIo;ry in Ku- 
 ropc 1S29-32, assisting in more than 200 nutupsics of 
 cholera victim.-* in Vienna; in IS36 became Stfito geologist 
 of Maine (published three annual reports); in Is;;* had a 
 controversy with Prof. Morse regarding the invention of 
 the telegraph, to which he had some claims; in 18.'J0 State 
 geologist of Rhode Inland (I vol. of reports) : in ISIO Plate 
 geologist of New Hampshire (1 report 1S44): was 1^17- 
 4i) IT. .S. surveyor of mineral lands in Michigan (report 
 1850). He has also received numerous honors ns the dis- 
 coverer of anaesthetics — a ilistinction which has found sev- 
 eral other claimants, lie has published various chemical 
 reports for the U. S. patent-office and a Manual of Etkeri' 
 zalion (1861). 
 
 Jackson (Ci.AiBonvK F.), b. in Fleming co., Ky., Apr. 
 4, ISOT: removed in IS22 to Missouri; was a captain in 
 the Black Hawk war, and was one year Speaker of the 
 House in Missouri. In 1861 ho was chosen governor, but 
 was deposed by the State convention in the same year. Ho 
 became a Confederate general, and d. at Little Rock, Ark., 
 Dec. 6, 1862. 
 
 Jackson fCoNRAn Feger), b. in Pennsylvania; pre- 
 vious to ISOl was engaged in railroad business with the 
 Philadelphia and Reading R. R. ; appointed colonel 9th 
 Pennsylvania Volunteers at the outi>reak of the civil war, 
 and served in McCall's division of Pennsylvania Reserves 
 at Dranesville, Va., and throughout the Va. Peninsula 
 campaign 18(12; appointed brigadier-genera! of volunteers 
 July, 1862, and commanded a brigade at South Mountain, 
 Antietam, and Fredericksburg, where he was killed, Dec. 
 13, 18G2. G. C. SiMsiovs. 
 
 Jackson f IIe\rv). M. D., LL.D., b. in Moreton-IIemp- 
 stead. Devonshire. Kngland. .Tuly 7, 1778; brought to this 
 country in the twelfth year of his age by his brother, Gov. 
 .Tames Jackson of (Jeorgia; thoroughly educated at the 
 Pennsylvania University in Philadelphia, where ho first 
 look the degree of M. D., and commenced the practice of 
 medicine in association with Dr. (Irimes of that city, then 
 one of the most eminent physieians in the U. S. From 
 this lucrative pursuit he was called to the professorship of 
 natural philosophy in the University of Georgia in 1811. 
 Having more taste for acience than desire for the acquisi- 
 tion nf fortune, he accepted the tendered position. When 
 AVilliam II. Crawford was sent minister to France in 18H, 
 Dr. Jackson accompanied him as secretary of legation. 
 This position he aecepted, partly with a view of recruiting 
 his health, but mainly with the view of extending the circle 
 of Ilia knowledge. When Mr. Crawford returned ho re- 
 mained at Paris as .\merican cknn/r d'aff'nirc* until 1818. 
 On his return he resumed the duties of his professorship 
 with renewed energy and power of usefulness, but from 
 duraestic affliction was compelled to resign in 1827. D. 
 near Athens, Ga., in 1840. A. H. Stki-he-VS. 
 
 Jackson (Hknrv R.). b. in Athens, Ga., June 24, 1820; 
 was educated partly at Princeton and partly at Vale Col- 
 lege. He entered the latter in 18:jj, aud graduated there 
 in is'AQ with the first honor of his class: studied law, and 
 wa:^ admitted to the bar in Georgia in 1840; first opened 
 an office in Columbus, but finally located in Savannah ; was 
 appointed U.S. district attorney for the State in 1K43; 
 served as colonel in the Mexican war in iHK'i; after that 
 war (in whieh he gained distinction ) he was elevated to the 
 circuit court bench of the State, whieh ]>0!-ilion he held 
 I8l9-5;i, when he resigned it to acc.'pt tlio appointment of 
 chargi iVaffnirm to Au!«tria. This mission was raised to 
 the grade of minister resident in |8.i4, and he was con- 
 tinned in it until !8j8. It was while he held this position 
 the interesting 'ptttni imbroglio took place between the Aus- 
 trian empire and the U. S., growing out of the then late 
 Hungarian war and the Khosta affair. His contluct in all 
 thcHc matters received the warmest approval by the au- 
 thr)riiiefl ai Washington. He, however, resigneil tlie posi- 
 tion in 1868, and resumed the praetieo of law in Sa\ nnnah. 
 In 1859 ho was employed by the Federal government au- 
 thorities to prosecute the Wanderer, a celebrated slave- 
 ship which had recently landed on the eoa'^t nf (leorgia a 
 careo of Africans. This high duty he performed with 
 unflinching fidelity and distinguished ability. In the 
 winter of I8.'»0 ho was unanimously chosen chancellor 
 of the Stale University, but declined to accept it, ex- 
 cept on certain conditions which were not complied with. 
 He was a delegate to the famous Democratic Presidential 
 convention at Tharleston in 186)1, and though he opposed 
 the extreme views of Mr. Yancey, yet when the delei^ulions 
 from all the other cotttm States withdrew, he also with- 
 drew, Vielieving a division of the South under the circum- 
 stances wouhl be the greater of two evils. He was after- 
 wards one of the Presidential electors at large for the State 
 
 on the Breckenridge and Lane ticket put forth in Baltimore 
 after the rupture at Charleston. Soon after the passage of 
 the ordinance of secession by Georgia the governor was 
 authorized to appoint two major-generals to command the 
 military forces of the State. The senior position of theso 
 commands was conferred on Col. Jackson, and accepted 
 by him, but was soon after resigned by him, with a rn<i»est 
 that it should be conferred upon William Henry Walker, 
 a gallant and distinguished officer of the Federal army 
 who had resigned his position in that army with a deter- 
 mination to cast his fortunes with the people of his native 
 State (Georgia), and who was at the time out of service. 
 Col, Jackson's request was complied with. Upon the or- 
 ganization of the provisional government at Montgomery 
 for the Confederate States (1861) be was tendered the office 
 of Confederate judge for the State of Georgia. This posi- 
 tion at first he declined, but afterward, by earnest entreaties 
 from all quarters, was iutlueed to accept. He, however, 
 held it for a few months only, when he entered the pro- 
 visional army cf the Confederate States as brigadier-gene- 
 ral, and was ordered to report to Gen. Garnett, then in 
 North-western Virginia. Before reaching his appointed 
 destination the news of the disaster whieh had befallen 
 that commander met him, with a portion of Garnett's 
 army in rapid retreat. By order of Gen. Lee he assumed 
 the command of the shattered forces at Monterey. With 
 these and his own two regiments he organized a force that 
 prevented any further advance of the Federals from that 
 quarter. On Oct. 3 he was attacked by Gen. Reynolds on 
 Greenbrier River, but heM his position. For winter-quarters 
 betook position on the Alleghany. He was again appointed 
 by Gov. Brown of (reorgia major-general, to coinnninil a 
 division of State troops called to the field for the defence 
 of the Georgia coast. This position he accepted, but in 
 doing it was compelled to resign his commission in the 
 Confederate army, and after the passage of the Confederate 
 conscript law in 1862 he resigned his commission as major- 
 general of State forces, as by that law most of his forces 
 were transferred to other branches of the service. He was 
 again appointetl Itrigadier-general in the Ctmfederate army, 
 and assigned to duty in t!ie West. He was under Hood in 
 his famous expedition to Tennessee in the fall of isiu, and 
 acted a conspicuous part in the battles of Franklin and 
 Nashville; in the latter, his entire command, thinned in 
 its ranks to only a few hundred, was surrounded and cap- 
 tured on the field. As a prisoner of war he was first taken 
 to Johnson's Island, then transferred to Fort Warren, where 
 ho remained till the clo«c of the terrible conllict of arms. 
 The subject of this sketch, amidst all his various vocations. 
 h.as ever had a fondness for letters. Early in life he was 
 a valued contributor to the Orion, the Ai*<iuiitti Mln-nr, the 
 Sniithr.ni Quarterly Rrrieir, xind other iieriodieal publications 
 of like character. A volume of his poetic writings wa? pub- 
 lished in 18.j0. It was entitled Ttitfufah, and nther PoanH^ 
 which met with general popular favrtr. Since the war ho 
 has taken no active part in public affairs, but has confined 
 himself closely to thepracticc of his profession in Savannah, 
 and is also at this time (May, lS75j president of the Geor- 
 gia Historical Society. A. H. Sticphens. 
 
 Jackson (Isaac W.), LL.D., b. at Cornwall, Orange 
 CO., .\. v., in 1804 ; graduated at Albany Academy in 1824, 
 and from Union College in 1826; was nppointei) tutor ia 
 mathematics at Union College in the same year, and short- 
 ly after professor. D. at Schenectady July 28, 1877. Ho 
 was a very sueeesuful teacher, and his mathematical schuul- 
 bo^iks are widely used. 
 
 Jackson (.Iamks), b. in Moreton-Hempstcad, Devon- 
 shire, Kngland, in I7J8, and migrated to Georgia in 1772; 
 took an active and zealous part in the war for independ- 
 ence; was made brigade-uiajor in 1778, and in 1781 eoni- 
 manded the legionary corps of the State of tieorgia. Upon 
 the cvaeuatioii of Savannah by the British (-luly 12, 1782) 
 ho received the keys. In consideration of his many gal- 
 lant and valuable sorviees during the war. the general as- 
 sembly of the State purchased and ]>resented him with a 
 commodious house ami lot in the city of Savannah. After 
 the war was over ho engaged in the practice of law, nnd 
 pursueil it with success. Ho was elected a member of the 
 first Congress of the U. .S., whieh assembled under the new 
 Constitution in 1780. Ho was .-toon after chosen one of ihe 
 Senators from Gorgia. whieh position ho held until I70j, 
 anil then resigned upi»n the passage of the famous Yazoo 
 bill, as it was ealleil, by Iho legislature of his Slate; which 
 bill he succeeded in getting omdenined and finally repeal- 
 ed. In 1708 ho was elected govern<ir of the State, which 
 position he held until 18i)I, when he \vi\^ again returned 
 to the U. S. Senate. D. Mar. 10, 18(16, in the zenith of his 
 power and influence. In politics he was of the .leflersoninn 
 scliJul, and ho made an impress upon the popular mind in 
 Georgia of his principles unequalled by any man of his day 
 and limes. A. U. STKPiir.NS.
 
 1354 
 
 JACK80N. 
 
 Jackson ( Jamks), b. in Jefferson co., Gft., 1819 ; grad- 
 uateil ut the State Uuivcrsity in 18;17 ; studied law. aud ad- 
 naittcd to tho bar in 1840: was elected seoretary of the 
 State senate in 1H42, and was a member of tbo State legis- 
 lature lS-15-47; l.S4y-j7 was on the circuit court bench of 
 the State. This position ho resigned to become a member 
 of the .'ijth Congress. IIo was again elected to the 3Gth 
 Congress, and resigned his seat in the House when (leorgia 
 pastscd her ordinance of secession in 18G1. Since the war 
 he has taken no active part in politics, but confined him- 
 self to the practice of law at JNIacon, Ga. For many years 
 he has been a trustee of tho university of tho State. 
 
 A. II. Stephens. 
 
 Jackson (James). M. D., LL.T).. b. at Ncwburyport, 
 Mass., Oct. ?>, 1777; graduated at Harvard in 179(i;'stud- 
 ied medicine in Europe, and began practice in But=fon in 
 ISOfl. He was tho first physician of tho Massachusetts 
 General Hospital, in ISIO became a professor of clinical 
 molioine in tho Ma.^snchnsetts Medical School, and in 1S12 
 professor of theory and practice. Ho wrote On the Dru- 
 «ont*art Syatf-ni (1SU9), 0>i the Effects of Dcntitioyi (1S12), 
 Syllahai of Lccturcn (ISIG), Letters to a Touny Phy.tician 
 (1855), and several other works. D. at Boston, Mass., 
 Aug. 27^ 1SC7. 
 
 Jackson (James S.), b. in Madison co., Ky. ; educated 
 
 at Ceatre College; studied and practised lawj in the war 
 with Mexico he served with a regiment of Kcntuchy vol- 
 unteers, returned to his native State at its close, and re- 
 sumed his profession; elected to tho 37th Congress, he re- 
 signed his scat in ISGl, organized the 3d Kentucky Cavalry 
 (Union), of which ho became colonel, and with which he was 
 actively engaged during the winter and spring of 1SG1-C2; 
 was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers July, 1SG2, 
 and commanded a division at tho battle of Porryville, 
 where, while endeavoring to rally a wavering body of his 
 command, he was killed, Oct. 8, isC2. G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Jackson (John), b. at Lcnscy. Yorkshire, in 168G; was 
 educatL'd at CambridG;o; became rector of Rossington, and 
 in 1729 master of Wigton Hospital. His success in ob- 
 taining rank and dignity in tho English Church was seri- 
 ously impeded by tho Unitarian (then called Arian) prin- 
 ciples which ho set forth in many treatises, and defended 
 against such antagonists as Warburton, Whiston. and Mid- 
 dlcton. ile was also distinguished for his writings against 
 the deists Collins and Tindal, and produced a valuable 
 work on biblical chronology (1762). 1). in 17G3. 
 
 Jackson (John), D. D., b. at London Feb. 22, 1811; 
 was educated at Pembroke College. Oxford, graduating in 
 IS3.'1 with first-class honors. In is;;6 he became head-mas- 
 ter of the proprietary grammar school at Islington; in 
 1846 rector of St. James's, Piccadilly; in 1847 chapl.iin to 
 the queen ; in 1$32 canon of Bristol; and in 1853 bishop 
 of Lincoln. Dr. Jackson was a select preacher before the 
 University of Oxford in 1845, 1850, 1862, and 18GG, and 
 delivered the Buyle Lectures in 1853. He was promoted in 
 1869 to the bishopric of London. 
 
 Jackson (Jor?j Dwif.s), A. M.. M. D,, b. at Danville, 
 Ky., Dec. 12, 1834; graduated from Centre CuUege in 1854; 
 received his medical degree from tho University of Penn- 
 sylvania 1857 ; and settled to practise in his native place. 
 In the war between tho States ho served as a surgeon in 
 the Confederate army. His contributions to medical liter- 
 ature are to be found chiefly in tho leading medical jour- 
 nals and in translations — An Operative Manual, Li<jatlon 
 o/' Arten'ef^hy Dr. L. H. Farabeuf (1874), Tnchiniafis in tho 
 Jnurnal of A. Af. Sc'rnce (18G9). The Bfaek Arts in Medi- 
 cine. Medical Office Pupilarje, Floaling Cartilnffe in Knee- 
 joint, (7unithot \yound<i m /itadder, etc. J. M. To.VEIi. 
 
 Jackson (Jonathan), b. at Boston June 4, 1743; grad- 
 uated at Harvard College 17G1 ; and became a wealthy 
 merchant at Xcwburyport. He served as a member of tho 
 Provincial Congress of Massachusetts in 1775, as a repre- 
 sentative in 1777, a member of Congress in 1782. and State 
 senator in 17S9. He was tho author of Thoufhtu upon the 
 Political Situation of the U.S. (1788). Three of his sons 
 became men of distinction — Charlks (Dr.). James, and 
 Patiuck T. (which see). D. at Boston Mar. 5, 1810. 
 
 Jackson (Xatoaniel J.), b. at Ncwlmryport, Mass.; 
 took part in the American civil war as colonel of tho 1st 
 and Jth regiments Maine volunteers; appointed brigadier- 
 general volunteers Sept. 24. 1>*G2: eomman.lcd a brigade 
 in tho 12th army corps during the McCIcIIan and Pope 
 campaigns in Virffinia; was wounded at Gaines's Mill; 
 commanded l:*t divisiaa 20th corps in Sherman's march to 
 the sea. and wa^ made brevet major-general of volunteers 
 
 Jackson (PAxmrK Tracv), a brother of Dr. James 
 Jaekson, b. at Newburyport. Maps.. Aug. 14. 17S0 : early 
 acquired a largo fortune in the East India trade, nnd with 
 F. C. LowcU, hia brother-in-law, engaged in tho cotton | 
 
 manufacture, building their first mill in 1813 at Waltham, 
 Mass. In 1S21 thty establisheil what jtroved to be the 
 germ of the city of Lowell. In L'^37, alter severe pecuniary 
 losses, he removed to Lowell, aud afterwards to Somcrs- 
 worth, N. H., and was engaged in manufacturing and in 
 zealous and successful labors for the mora! and intellectual 
 good of his operatives. D. at Beverly, Mass., Sept. 12, 
 1847. 
 
 Jackson (PiObeut M. S. l. a native of Pennsylvania, 
 distinguished for a knowledge of natural science, rendered 
 great service to tho Pcunsylvauia geological commission, 
 aud was thoroughly acquainted with all tho aspects of na- 
 ture in tho Alleghanicp, having published a remarkable 
 work called The Mountain, in which ho enunciated bold but 
 reverent ideas in natural theology. Ho served in the 
 civil war as medical inspector of the 2nd army corps and 
 acting medical director of the department of tho Ohio. D. 
 at Chattanooga, Tenn., Jan. 28, 1SG5. 
 
 Jackson (Samuel). M. D., b. in Philadelphia Mar. 22, 
 1787; received his degree from Rutgers College in 1812 j 
 was 18;35-63 professor of tho institutes of medicine at the 
 University of Pennsylvania, and enjoyed a wide reputa- 
 tion as a physician, lecturer, and medical writer. lUc. chief 
 work was the Principles of Medicine (1832). D. at Phila- 
 delphia Apr. 5, 1872. 
 
 Jackson (Thomas), D. D., b. at Willowing, Durham, 
 England, in 1579; was educated at Oxford; became presi- 
 dent of Corpus Christi College in IGCO, prebendary of Win- 
 chester in 1G35, and dean of Pelerboroi^^h in lGo8. Dean 
 Jackson was a voluminous and learned writer upon Angli- 
 can theology, and ranks high in the roll of the famous di- 
 vines of the seventeenth century. His Commentari/ on the 
 Apostles' Creed is still highly valued, and his whole works 
 were republished at Oxford in 1S44 (12 vols.). D. in 1640. 
 
 Jackson (Tmomas), D. D.. b. at Sancton, Yorkshire, 
 
 Dec. 12, 17t^3; was editor of The JVcslcf/an Maf/azine for 
 
 twenty years; then theological tutor in the Wesley an col- 
 lege at Richmond, being twice the president of the Wes- 
 Icyan conference. His works are standard among Meth- 
 odists, The Institutiouit of Christianiti/ (3 vols.). Life of 
 Charles Wesley, aud Tho Ccutcnary of Methodism being 
 among them. D. at Richmond Mar. 11, 1873. 
 
 Jackson (Thomas), M. A., b. at Preston, England, in 
 1S12; graduated at St. Mary's Hall, Oxford, in \i^:U; took 
 holy orders, and after holding several parochial appoint- 
 incnts became principal of the Normal College at Bnttersea 
 nnd can(m of St. Paul's. In 1819 ho was appointed bishop 
 of New Zealand, and went thither, but returned without 
 having been consecrated, in consequence of diftieulties with 
 Bishop Schvyn. Being preferred to the rectory of St. Mary, 
 Stoke Newington (a district of London), he has built up 
 there ono of the most splendid churches in the British me- 
 tropolis. His educational publications have been numerous 
 and valuable. 
 
 Jackson (Thomas JoyATHAN). ("Stonewall"), b. at 
 Clarksburg, Harrison co., West Va.. Jan. 21, 1824. At- 
 tracted toward tho profession of arms, young Jackson 
 walked from tho mountains of Virginia to Washington, 
 invoked the aid of his Congressman, and got the appoint- 
 ment of cadet at tho U. S. iMilitary Academy at West 
 Point, where ho was entered in the summer of 1842. and 
 was graduated in LSIG. Attached to the army as brevet 
 second lieutenant of tho 1st Artillery, his first service was 
 as a subaltern with Mngruder's battery of light artillery. 
 Prei^ent at the reduction of Vera Cruz, and noticed for gal- 
 lantry in the battles of <?orro (iordo, Contreras, Molino del 
 Rey. Chapultepec, and the assault and capture of the city 
 of Mexico, ho received tho brevets of captain for conduct 
 at Contreras and Churubusco. and of major for the storra- 
 iTig of Chapultepec. Meanwhile, ho had been advanced by 
 regular promotion to be first lieutenant on tho 20th of Aug., 
 1847. After (ho war, on the 29th of Feb.. 1852, he resigned 
 from tho regular army, having been previously appointed 
 to the chair of natural and experimental philosophy and ar- 
 tillery instructor at the Virginia Stale Military Institute at 
 Lcxinfl;fon, Rockbridge co.. Va., a position which he still 
 fill-^dfApr. 17, 18G1) when Virginia declared for secession, 
 and in which he was chiefly notable for intense religious sen- 
 timent, coupled with personal eccentricities. But Letcher, 
 governor of Virginia, a resident of Lexington, had no- 
 ticed somewhat of the merits of the eccentric professor, 
 and making him colonel placed him in command of a force 
 sent to seize and occupy the U. S. arsenal at Harper's Fer- 
 ry — which Jnekson accomplished on May 3, ISGI. Relieved 
 by (Jen. J. E.Johnston { iMay 2.'t), he fell in command of tho 
 briga<lo of Valley Virginians, whom he moulded into that 
 redotibtable corps, baptized at the first Manassas, and ever 
 nf^er famous, as tho "Stonewall hrigade." In bis very 
 first detached service the martial character of the man be-
 
 JACKSOX— JACKSON BUKG 
 
 1355 
 
 cime apparent in the affair at Falling Waters. The June- 1 Here he TTa» detached for a special operation ''f""'^ " 
 
 ioTonL force, of Johnston and Beauregard having taken hi, hal.itual .nanner so that he l'^l'°°^^XX^frZn 
 
 place in the rear of Bull Run. Jackson, previously made a ; to Ins super.or that the f»' ■«'^^J P7J^^"° " '/"'ouO ,«en "n 
 
 brigadier-general, came prominently into public view with had been surrendered into h,s hand., "''>' '•''"0 '^^■. ' 
 
 The battle of Manassas where he acquired the sobriquet of equal number of small-arms, , ., pieces of art Uerj , and -IHJ 
 
 " a. "Made a n^^^^^ (.^ep.ember.'lsfil ,, ,vl.gons," wi.h large stores of camp and g»--«l'^q;',' -f^ 
 
 he was foonplaced in command of the Confederate forces i But this success was dearly gamed, for it enlaikd the ,n- 
 
 in the lower Shenandoah Vnllev, then menaced with occu- 
 pation bv a Federal army. Some apparently profitless, if 
 not cccenlric, marches and movements in that quarter dur- 
 ing the next five months brought no malerial military re- 
 sults, but severelv testing the mettle of his troops, some- 
 what impaired his popularity with them. Confronted 
 finallv. early in March, at Winchester, with a largely su- 
 perior Union force, Jackson fell back with his small corps 
 (,1400 men of all arms, with 18 gunsl towards Staunton, 
 pursued as far as Strasburg. As his adversary retrograded 
 in turn, the Confederate general swiftly took the oflensive 
 and fought the battle of Kernstown (Mar. 2:5, l.sr.2) in 
 characteristic fashion, after a forced march the same day of 
 from 14 to 2J miles. Wor.-ted. however, in this action, he 
 was forced to retire up the Valley again to a position of 
 observation near Swift Run Gap in the Blue Ridge, on the 
 S fork of the Shenandoah River, about the 9lh of April. 
 Meanwhile, a fresh adversary. Gen. Milroy, was marching 
 across the mountains from the West to unite with Banks, 
 then at Harrisonburg, and Jackson's situation was critical. 
 Kcinforccments, however, under Ewcll, were approaching,, 
 and another Confederate force under Gen. Edward Johnson 
 was at liulTalo Gap, just W. of .Staunton. Giving orders to 
 Ewell to hold Banks in cheek while he, forming a junction 
 with Johnson, should take the offensive against Milroy, 
 Jackson encountered and defeated that officer in a severe 
 action of four hours at McUowell (.May 8, 1802), forcing 
 him to retreat with heavy loss in supplies. This achieved, 
 J,ackson, retracing his steps, effected a junction with 
 Ewell, and throwing himself into the Luray Valley, by a 
 forced march day and night stole upon the flank and 
 rear of Gen. Banks, capturing detached bodies of Lnion 
 troops, artillcrv. and wagon-trains at Winchester, where 
 some sharp fighting ensued, with the result that Banks re- 
 treated precipitately across the Potomac into Maryland. 
 This brought the immediate concentration of several strong 
 Federal columns from different quarters in the upper She- 
 nandoah Valley upon Jackson's rear for his destruction. 
 Thus mcnaced.'delaching Kwell to meet Fremont iipproach- 
 in* from the N. E., with his own division Jackson took po- 
 sitlcm about the 1st of June to observe lien. Shields's force, 
 diverted from McDowell's corps at Fredericksburg, and then 
 in the Luray Vallev. Encumbered at the time with 2.'100 pris- 
 oners and more than 90U0 stands of captured arms, with 
 other valuable stores, but never embarrassed by obstacles 
 nor losing opportunities for strokes, he promptly threaded 
 the Luray Valley to the White House, burned the bridge 
 there, crossed over to the main valley, and passing around 
 Shields took position near Ewell at Port Republic, equidis- 
 tant between Shields and Banks. On the Sth of June, Ewell 
 became engaged with and beat the latter at Cross Keys, 
 and on the «th. Shields having advanced to Port Repub- 
 lic, Jackson, after a sharp, well-contested action, defeated 
 hiin, inflicting the loss of seven guns with other casual- 
 ties. In this campaign was made manifest his high 
 rare talent for the business of war. Here he gave. to a 
 comparativelv petty force that astonishing mobility which 
 enabled him' to deliver so many opportune blows, with 
 the effect to neutralize an aggregate of nearly "0,000 Fed- 
 eral soldiers, with a highly adverse influence upon Mc- 
 Clellan'a general plan of campaign, added to the gravest ap- 
 prehension excited at Washingi.m and throughout the whole 
 Union for the safety of the national eiipilal. Fresh from 
 such successes, Jackson was now called to add bis corps to 
 the main Confederate army at the moment crowded back 
 upnn Richmond. Then was made that notable flank movc- 
 nitnt which ended in the decisive stroke upim McClellan's 
 right at Cold Harhor(Junc2", !sr.2).a movement executed 
 under orders, but in its manner Jackson's own. (ien. Pope 
 having been called from the West and placed in command of 
 a large force. which he pushed along the Piedmont region to 
 the Rapiilan, while .MeClellan still threatened Richmond 
 
 opportune absence of two-thirds of Lee's best troops so much 
 longer than was anticipated, that, thrown meanwhile upon 
 thellefcnsive, his offensive plan of campaign was virtually 
 foiled, while his adversary was enabled to assemble his 
 strength, and force battle at Antietam with the Confi'de- 
 rates^unready, and therefore unable to push lo a decisive 
 close the advantage which they had gaincil at the end of that 
 day, and their subsequent enforced retreat before their re- 
 inf^o'rced enemv. In that action, however. Jackson was pres- 
 ent with two of his divisions, and his part of the field, the 
 Confederate left near the Dunkers' church, was deeply im- 
 pressed with his peculiar gift to develop the utmost fighting 
 power of men. both ofl"ensively and defensively. In Barn- 
 side's attack on Lee at Fredericksburg (Dec. 11, lSfi2), Jack- 
 son held the Confederate right, with no marked opportu- 
 nity for the display of his always ripening cnp.acity lor war. 
 Wlien. on the eve of the operations that ended at Chancel- 
 lorsville. Gen. Hooker made the strong feint (Apr. 2S, 
 180.3) of passing the Rappahannock below Fredericksburg, 
 the movement was confronted by Jackson, but as there 
 was no prompt advance, Lee, forecasting Hookers real 
 plan, detached Jackson the next night with three divis- 
 ions in the direction of Chancellorsvillc. In movement 
 by midnight he found Hooker in a strongly fortified po- 
 si'tion. At Jackson's own suggestion, he was now entrusted 
 with his last flank operation— a swift march around, and 
 descent upon, the Thiion right and rear. Executing the 
 operation in his habitual m.anner, he fell suddenly upon the 
 11 th Federal corps on the afternoon of May 2, and completely 
 routed it. Pressing the advantage as fast as the nature of 
 the densely wooded country would admit, in his martial 
 ardor he was carried far in advsince of his men. until urged 
 hy his staff to return. Doing so, after nightfall, he and his 
 suite, mistaken for Federal cavalry, received the fire of 
 several Confederate regiments, and Jackson fell with three 
 wounds, one ball having shattered his left arm two inches 
 below the shoulder, another passing through the same arm 
 below the elbow, and the other entering the palm of Ins 
 right hand; several of his suite were killed outright, ami 
 several wounded. These volleys drew an immediate an- 
 swer from a Federal force in the vicinity, and a sharp con- 
 flict was engaged, in the course of which the hitter charged 
 over the very body of the Confederate leader. Jackson 
 recovered, however, in a countercharge, was carried off 
 the field on a litter under a terrible fire, from which one of 
 the litter-bearers was slain, and by the fall of the litter 
 Jackson was grievously contused. Meanwhile, his charge 
 to the surgeon in attendance was. " Do not tell the troops 
 I am wounded." The doubly wounded arm having been 
 amputated, he was left serene, cheerful, and hopeful, talk- 
 ing freely of the battles, of the bravery and deserts of his 
 subordinates, and of his old " St..newall brigade." But 
 pneumonia supervened, and in his wenUened state from 
 great loss of blood. Jackson died (May 10, 180:1). An in- 
 comparable lieutenant, sure to execute any operation en- 
 trusted to him with marvellous precision, judgment, and 
 eonrace. all his individual campaigns and combats bore the 
 stamp of a masleily capacity for war. The more h.s ope- 
 rations in the Shenandoah Valley in the spring, summer, 
 and fall of I.s62are studied, the more striking must the 
 merits of this almost uniformly successful soldier appear, 
 with all his intense perception of the value as well as right 
 method of the nclive ,lr/rm!vr. of which Jackson may in- 
 deed bo rightly regarded as the very incarnation 
 
 TnoMAS JonnAN. 
 
 Jackson (William), b. in Cumherland co., Eng.. Mar. 
 !) 17.-,!l- ciiuic to Charleston, S. C, in boyhood: was liber- 
 ally educated, an.l served creditably in the Revolution, at- 
 taining the rank of major as aide-de-camp to Washington. 
 In 1781 he was secretary to Laurens in Ins mission_to 
 France; in 1782-83 assistant secretary of war; in 1787 
 secretary to the U.S. constitutional convention; private 
 
 from James River. Jackson was detached by Lee to confront i secretary to Washington during h.s first presidency; sur^ 
 the fresh menace with three divisions. Always bent on the I v„v„r of tbo nort of Pbila.lclpbia I7!lti-lS(ll. and secretary 
 offensive. Jackson immediately resolved upon attack, and 
 encountered Pope's advance corps on the afternoon of Aug. 
 
 vevor of tho port of Pbila.lclpbia I7!lli-1 
 of the Society of Cincinnati from 180 
 
 U, within or s'milcsof Culpeper Court-house. In this ac- 
 tion of Cedar Run he was victor at all points. Gen Lee 
 dceidiu" to take the oflensive in the same direction, Jack- 
 son was^charged with the lead in the operation, which, im- 
 pressed with bis genius, resulted in one of the most bril- 
 liant feats of the war, an.l he was the conspicuous figure 
 1 the actions of Aug. 2'.»-:i0. 1802. In the invasion of 
 
 Maryland that followed, his troops led the van to Frederick. Pop. lUU. 
 
 00 until his death, 
 which occurred at Philadelphia Dec. 17. 1828. HM'™- 
 nouneed the funeral oration upon Washington at Philadcl- 
 lin, where in 1801 be started one of the first daily papers 
 .\merica, 7'//'- /'■•lilicnl tiii-l Cfimmricial Hf'/iKltr. 
 Jnrksnn Hrook PlaiHnCion, tp. of Washington 
 
 ., Me. Pop. 200. 
 
 Jiirk'sonburg, post-v. of Jackson tp., Wayne co., Ind. 
 
 I'l
 
 1356 
 
 JACKSONBURG— JACOB. 
 
 Jacksonburgr, post-v. of Wayne tp., Butler co., 0. 
 Pop. 127. 
 
 Jackson Centre, post-v. of Jackson tp., Shelbv co., 
 0. I»op. Oil. 
 
 Jackson Conrt-house, post-v., cap. of Jackson co.. 
 V>'. Va. It is oallrd Ripi.f.v also, and is IG miles from 
 Uiploy Landing on the Ohio River. 
 
 Jackson Creek, tp. of Clarke co., Ala. Pop. 393. 
 
 Jack'souport, post-v., cap. of Jackson co.. Ark.. 80 
 miles N. E. of Litllo Kock, at the junction of White and 
 IJlack rivers, and within 2 miles of the Cairo and Fulton 
 R. R. It has a nfw?paper, 5 churche?, free and sehct 
 pchools. Knights of Pythias, Knights of the Silver Rin;:, 
 Odd Fellows, and Masonio lodges, and a $40,000 court- 
 house. CottoQ is extensively shipped from this point. 
 Pop. 7fi9. John P. Fagin, Ed. *' Statesman." 
 
 Jacksonport^ tp. and post-v. of Door co., Wis., on 
 Lake Michigan. Pop. 139. 
 
 Jacksou^s Hill, post-tp. of D.ividson co.. N. C. P. 637. 
 
 Jackson Springs, tp. of Moore co., N. C. Pop. 537. 
 
 Jaek'sonville, post-v. and tp., cap. of Calhoun co., 
 Ala., on the Selma Rome and Dalton R. R. It contains 1 
 newspaper, a male college, a female school, fine waterworks. 
 1 mill, an extensive tannery, 2 hotels, a livery stable, a 
 namber of stores, etc. It has a good trade with the sur- 
 rounding valleys, beautiful mountain sccnerv, and a de- 
 lightful climate*. Pop. of v. 9:>S; of tp. 1840'. 
 
 I. F. & L. W. Graxt, Eds. " Republicax." 
 
 Jacksonville, city. cnp. of Duval co.. Fla., on the 
 river St. Johns, 25 miles from its mouth ; is the eastern 
 terminus of the Jacksonville Pcnsacola and Mobile R. R. 
 It ships annually some fjO.OOO.OOO feet of lumber, besides 
 naval stores, cotton, and other eommoditicp. and is the cen- 
 tre of business and travel for this section of the State, 
 many thousands of tourists and others arriving here yearly 
 by rail and river. It has a savings bank, 2 private bank- 
 ing-houses, 1 semiweekly, 1 triweekly, and 2 weekly news- 
 papers, good graded schools, a hospital, 10 churches, a 
 Roman Catholic academy for ladies, etc. It is well laid 
 out, and is a very popular resort for invalids and pleasure- 
 seekers. Pop. C912, very largely increased since the XJ. S. 
 census. N. K. Sawver, En. *' Union." 
 
 Jacksonville, post-v. of Telfair co., Ga.^ IS miles 
 from McVillc, a station on tho Hacou and Brunswick R. R. 
 Pop. 40. 
 
 Jacksonville, city and tp., cap. of Morgan co., III., 
 is favorably situatc-d in Central Illinois in tho midrtof a 
 fertile prairie, near Mauvaiseterre Creek, an affluent of tho 
 Illinois River, 30 miles W. of Springfield, and at tho inter- 
 section of tho Jacksonville division of the Chicago and 
 Alton with the Toledo Wabash an<l Western, tho Peoria 
 Pekin and .laeksonville. and the Jacksonville Norlh-west- 
 ern and South-eastern R. Rs. The streets are wide and 
 adorned with shade trees, cars run on the principal ave- 
 nues, and tho city is provided with gas and a complete sys- 
 tem of waterworks and sewerage, all the city improvements 
 being nf a substantial character. It has a fine court-house, 
 opera-house, 2 national banks, 2 private banks, a savings 
 bank, 3 hotels, and 22 churches, the architecture of which 
 is generally rich. It is known as "the Athens of the 
 M''est," and well sustains tho title, having State institutions 
 for the insane, deaf and dumb, feeble-minded children, and 
 the blind; of incorporated institutions, the Illinois Col- 
 lege (Congregational), Illinois Fcmalo College (Jlethodist), 
 Jacksonville Female Academy, Voung Ladies' Athenoeum, 
 Illinois Conservatory of i^Iusic, and acombined academy and 
 business college; of private institutions, tho Lutheran or- 
 phan asylum, a retreat for the insane, and a surgical in- 
 firmary; and 1 high school, 7 public schools, 1 Roman 
 Catholic parochial school, a free reading-room, and public 
 library of IGOO volumes, all in separate, well-appointed 
 buildings. Its manufacturing interests aro rapidly devel- 
 oping, there licing 4 flour-mills, woollen-factory, carworks, 
 several foundries and machine-shops, carriage-faetories, 
 planing-mills, soap-faetorics, and gasworks. It has 1 d;:ily 
 and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. of city, 9203; of tp. 3?96. 
 L. B. Glover, Ed. *' Daily JorRNAL." 
 
 Jacksonville, post-tp. of Chickasaw co., la. Pon. 82S. 
 
 Jacksonville, jiost-v. (P. O. name of Onslow Court- 
 iMi sKt and tp., cap. of Onslow co., N. C. Pop. of v. (jO; 
 
 of tp. ih',0. 
 
 Jacksonville, post-v., cap. of Jackson co.. Dr.. on 
 Rogue River, in a good agricultural and mining region, 
 has i bank, 2 churches, 2 hotels, a public school, 2 news- 
 papers. H. Kellv. Ei>. •■Oregon Sentinel." 
 
 Jacksonville^ a v. of Young tp., Indiana co., Pa. 
 Pop. 14L 
 
 I Jacksonville, post-v. of Cherokee co., Tex., on the 
 Tntcrnatiouat and Great Northern R. R., 28 miles N. E. of 
 Palestine. It has 1 weekly newspaper. 
 Jacksonville, post-v. of Whilingham tp., Windham 
 
 I CO., Vt., 25 miles W. by S. of Brattloboro', has manufactures 
 of leather, etc. 
 
 I Jacksonville, or Floyd Court-House, post-v., 
 cap. of Floyd co.. Va.. 22 miks S. of the Virginia and Ten- 
 I nessee R. R., has 2 churches, fi stores. 3 hotels. 1 foundry, 
 j 1 weekly newspaper, and a graded school. Pop. 321 : of 
 I tp. 2773. John Sower, Ed. "Floyd Reporter." 
 
 Jack's Springs, tp. of Escambia co., Ala. Pop. 196. 
 
 Jack's Valley, tp. of Douglas co., Nov. Pop. 140. 
 
 Jack Tree, tho Artocnrpus iutpijrt/oh'n, a tree which 
 ori'^inatcd in the East Indies, and is now naturalized 
 throughout a large part of the tropical world. It produces 
 abundantly a fruit resembling, but much larger than, the 
 bread-fruit, to which it is very nearly related. Though 
 its taste is far from being pleasant, thousands of the lower 
 classes of India eat it as food. Its wood is excellent for 
 many uses, and is extensively employed in Europe for in- 
 laying, carving, and fancy joinery. (See Artocarpace.e.) 
 
 Jacme (Jayme or Jaumel En I., king of Aragon 
 and count of Barcelona, b. in 1207 or 1208 at Montpcllier, 
 then belonging to the counts of Barcelona, and d. at Xa- 
 tiva in 127G. To his inherited states he added by conquest 
 the Moorish kingdoms of Majorca, Valencia, and Murcia, 
 and he imposed tribute on those of Grenada. Tunis, and 
 TIemcen. Hence he is generally styled fhc Conqueror. 
 The title en corresponds in signification to the more mod- 
 ern don, and though its origin is not clear, it is probably 
 derived from the Latin sr.yiof, as in the Castilian srftor. 
 The life and exploits of En Jacme are recorded in the cu- 
 rious Lihre dels Fcyts esdcveiifjtrfs en la vidtt del maft alt 
 Senior Ucif En Jacme lo cnnqxicridor. This work is pro- 
 fessedly autobiographic, though its aulhentieity is dis- 
 puted ; but there exists a manuscript copy of it of the year 
 13 !3, and it is probably as trustworthy as any of the me- 
 diaeval annals. It is, both historically and jihilologically, 
 among the most valuable and attractive of the old Hispanic 
 chronicles. The portion of it which describes tho conquest 
 of Valencia was printed in 1515 in the Aurrum oput Pn'vi- 
 Icfjtorum licjni Vnleufi'a, and the entire work in 1557. A 
 beautiful edition is now in course of publication at Barce- 
 lona in tho BihUoteca Catalana. A Castilian translation 
 by Flotato and Bofarull appeared at Barcelona in 1S48, 
 (See article Catalan Langlage and Literatlre, in Ap- 
 pendix.) George P. Marsh. 
 
 Jacme (or Jayme) II., called the Ji-st, king of .Ara- 
 gon and count of Barcelona, b. about 1259. was grandson 
 of the preceding, and second son of Pedro III., on whose 
 death, in Nov., 1285, ho became king of Sicily, and on tho 
 death of his brother, Alfonso III., in June. 1291, succeeded 
 him on the throne of Aragon. leaving the government of 
 Sicily to his brother Frederic. lie maintained wars with 
 Naples, Genoa, and Pisa fconqnering the islands of Sardinia 
 and Corsica), as well as with the Moors of Granada and 
 Tripoli: f(mndrd the University of L^rida ; expelled the 
 Knights Templar from the kingdom: and d. at Barcelona 
 in 1327, leaving the throne to his son, Alfonso IV. 
 
 Jac'mel, or Jacquomel, a port and city of Ilayti, 
 on thtf S. coast, 30 miles S. W. of Port-au-Prince, at the 
 head of a bay of tho samo name. The city is ill built and 
 unhealthy, but tho harbor is deep and commodious. Com- 
 merce with the V. S. has been carried on for some years, 
 and it is a port of call for mail-steamers. Pop. about 6000. 
 
 Ja'cob, or Israel, in biblical history the immediate 
 ancestor of tho Hebrew nation, being the son of Is.iie. 
 grandson of Abraham, and father of the twelve patriarchs 
 from whom tho tribes of Israel deduced their origin. The 
 place of Jacob's birth cannot bo ascertained from the nar- 
 rative in Gon. xxv.. except that it was in the Netjeh or 
 "south country" of the land of Canaan, probably near the 
 Well Lahai-roi (verse 11), which site has not been identi- 
 fied by modern travellers. In consequence of a quarrel 
 vith his twin-brother Esau about the supremacy in the 
 household, Jacob was sent in his early manhood by his 
 parents to his uncle Laban, at Haran in Padan aram (a 
 region variously located by some to the N. E. of the Eu- 
 phrates, by others in the vicinity of Damascus), where 
 he married his cousins Leah and Rachel, and resided twenty 
 years, becoming wealthv in flocks and herds. Jacob then 
 returned to Canaan with his family and his riches, not 
 without a serious controversy with Laban. Arriving near 
 home, he became reconciled with his brother Esau in a 
 dramatic personal interview. Both on his journey to Haran 
 and on his return .Jacob had had visions (Gen. xxviii. and 
 xxxii.) in which the greatness of his des^-cndants was di- 
 vinely announced to him, and tho later sanctuaries at
 
 JACOB— JACOBI. 
 
 1357 
 
 nothcl and Peniiol commemorated the?c events. Jacob's | 
 old a;.;c was emWitlercil by tlie conduct of his ?on?, who I 
 sold liis favorite, .Iose|ib. as a slave to the Mitiinniti s. who 
 took him to K^'vpt. Many years later, when .Io?().li bad 
 become viceroy of Egypt (tJen. xli.). tho whole family of 
 Jacob, after a wonderfn! series of events, recorded in the 
 last ten eliajiters of tiencsis, was established in Kgypt, 
 where the patriarch died seventeen years later at tho a);o 
 of 1 17 years. On his deathbed ho pronounced a blessing 
 npon each of his sons (Ocn. .ilix.), and commande<l them 
 to bury him with his fathers in tho cave of Macbpelah in 
 the land of C";inann, which was accordingly done. The 
 locality of this cave has been much disputed ;■ the 
 present te.xl of (Jcnesis assigns it to Hebron, in Southern 
 Canaan, but as this is difficult to reconcile with the route 
 taken bv the funeral procession in crossing the Jordan 
 ftien. l.Ul and with the express languago of the martyr 
 Sle|ihen (.\cts vii. lOt, placing the tomb of the patriarchs 
 at •■Jhccbem or .'^ychem. it has been concluded by some ex- 
 positors that llrlrnn is a gloss which has erroneously crept 
 into the te\t of Genesis. The chronology of Jacob's life 
 is ono of the most perple.xing problems of biblical criti- 
 cism. Kitto and others date his birth about B.C. I'.ISa, and 
 hi9>death D. <•. l!<J7. (See Ewald's Ifttlon/ of hi-nil, trans- 
 lated by Martincau, vol. i., and Dean Stanley 's./<:i(i<i/i CInin-h, 
 vol. i.) PoKTEn C. Bliss. 
 
 Jncub (Ilil>lio))liilc). See Lachoi.v (Pai'i,). 
 Jacub (JoiiS). (iKXEKAL, b. at AVoolavington, near 
 liridgcwater, Knglaurl, in Jan., 1812; was distinguished 
 for his gallantry in India as commander of the Scindo 
 cavalry, for the influence he acquired over tho natives of 
 the X. W . frontier, whom he |irevented from joining the 
 mutiny of 1SJ7, ami for the invention of the Jacob rille, a 
 very popular cavalry arm in India, where it is the rival of 
 the Knficld. I), at .lacobabad, a town founded by him in 
 Scinde, Dee. J, 1S,")S. His Vinm and Opinions on Indian 
 subjects were published after his death. 
 
 Jacob de Vorasine, b. at Viraggio. near Genoa, in 
 l'.':;il; was arehl>ishop of Genoa in 1292. and d, there in 
 12U.'<. lie was the author of the very famous Legenda 
 Aurcu, or Gulden Lrijenil, a collection of fanciful and fab- 
 ulous lives of saints, widely read in the Middle Ages. 
 
 Jacob of Kdessa, one of the most celebrated Syrian 
 theologians, flourishe<l in the second half of the seventh cen- 
 tury. About ll.'il A. I), he became bishop of Edessa, and 
 devoted him.sclf to sacred and classical studies. Ills an- 
 notations u])on the .Syriac version of the Old Testament, 
 of which some fragments are extant, are considered valu- 
 able, while his translations of Greek works into Syriac pro- 
 cured him the honorable title of '• interpreter of the books." 
 L). June :>, 70.S. 
 
 Jacob of IIiingaTy, called rnt! MAsrisn.was a relig- 
 ious fanatic who played an important part in French his- 
 tory in the time of the seventh f'rusadc. In his youth ho 
 was reported to have been a Tistcrcian friar, to have learned 
 magical arts from the Spanish Moors, and even to have 
 embraced Islamism ; these statements, however, are of 
 diMibtful authority. When the news of the surrender of 
 St. Louis to the .Mussulmans of Kgypt became known in 
 Europe, the " Master of Hungary " went through the prov- 
 inces of France preaching a crusade for the liberation of 
 the king. He laid claim loilivino inspiration, and, appeal- 
 ing only to the poor and lowly, soon gathered about him in 
 Flanders some Hfl.llOII shepherds and peasants, eallcil /'<i«- 
 totirfU or I'tmlinirrnnr, at whose head he started for Paris. 
 At Amiens the mob obtained arms and recruits, and it 
 numbered 1110, OOO wln-n it presented itself before the walls 
 of Paris. The Pastourels when admitted into Paris began 
 to commit depredatiims ami to murder monks, while Jacob 
 assumed priestly faculties ancl officiated publicly in tho 
 church of St. Eustache. He divide d his followers into 
 several bands, and sent them by different routes towards 
 the Holy I, ami. .\t OrK-ans they niasiacred the priests, at 
 Itourges the .lews. These? excesses caused the Sfn fJit^nU, 
 who ha(| at first been favored by the queen and the magis- 
 trates, to be excommunicated, and Jacob their leader was 
 killed by the ipiecn's order while preaching in the midst of 
 his followers, who were then easily annibilatetl or dis- 
 persed. iSeetbe r/iioiiiV/.« cd' Mailbew Paris and Matthew 
 of Westminster, and .Milman's f.nlin Chrinlianlli/.) 
 
 Jacob of Vilry, b. at Vitry, in France, in tho scoond 
 half of the twelfth century; was first a parish priest at 
 Argenleuil, then became a /.enlous apostle of Maria of 
 Oignies. a woman who was supposed to possess supernatu- 
 ral gifts. Led by his enlbiisiasm, he undertook to preach 
 a crusade against the Albigenses, and finally devoted him- 
 self to the interests of the Holy Sepulchre at ,Ierusalein, 
 travelling through France to collect alms. He was ap- 
 pointed by Popo Honoriua III. 021?) biibop of Aoro in 
 
 Palestine, where ho effected great conversions of Saracen 
 children. He resigned that bishopric in 122.5; was ap- 
 pointed by Pope Gregory IX., in 122'.!, cardinal-bishop of 
 Tusculnm, and papal legate of France, Brabant, and tho 
 Holy Land, and d. at Koine Apr. .11) (or May I). 12.",n. He 
 was the most eloquent preacher of the time, but his famo 
 now rests upon his Hinlorin Oricntall«, generally called 
 /Union/ of J'-runaUm, which is a valuable source of infor- 
 mation upon the Crusades, He also wrote a IliHtoria Ovci- 
 dentniift, a Lifr of the iilesHed Mary of Oiijnies, and left an 
 interesting collection of letters. 
 
 Jacobtr'an Lil'y ( Aman/llift formoHlmtimn)^ a beauti- 
 ful South American flower which has been acclimated in 
 the U.S. its bulb is large, dark-colored, and long-neeked, 
 protruding above tho surface of the ground: the flowers, 
 which appear before the leaves, arc large, irregular, and of 
 a brilliant crimson color. (See Lily.) 
 
 Jaco'bi (AauAnAJt), M. D., b. at Ilartuni, in West- 
 phalia. ;\Iay t>. 1>*;^1I : graduated at Bonn in IS.'il. and came 
 to thv, {'. S. in ISj.'J in consequence of political persecu- 
 tions in Gerniany. Br. Jncobi has become a leading au- 
 thority among the medical profession of .America npon tho 
 subjects of obstetrics and diseases of women and ehililron. 
 having been professor of these branches at tlie New York 
 Medical College (ISCO-fiit) and the College of Physicians 
 and Surgeons. lie has published Dniiltion mid iln Itr- 
 rangemcnte (1862) and other works, and edited 18C8-7I the 
 American Journal of Obstetrica and Uiscaeet of Women 
 and Children. 
 
 Jacobi (FniEDniCH HeinrichI, b. at Diisseldorf Jan. 
 25, 174.'), and received a commercial education at Frankfort 
 and Geneva, in which latter city he .^pcnt three years. In 
 1763 he was placed at the head of the paternal firm, and 
 conducted the business of the house for seven years with 
 great conscientiousness and with success. In 1770 he re- 
 tired from niorcantilc afl'airs. having been appointed a 
 councillor of finance f<ir the duchies of .lulich and Berg. 
 This office gave him leisure and a superior social position ; 
 he was possessed of a largo fortune, and had married a 
 spirited and intelligent woman, and soon his literary taste, 
 his philosophical spirit, his talents, and his studies bronght 
 him into intimate connection with many of the leaders of the 
 Gorman civilization — Goethe, WielamI, Lavater, Haniann, 
 etc. His country-seat. Pcm])elfort, near Diisseblorf, was fur 
 several years a centre of literary life in Germany. In 17!>1, 
 on the "invasion of the French, he removed to Norlhern 
 Germany, and lived for ten years mostly in Kuliu. In lSfl4 
 ho was called to Munich as a member of the ncwiy-crectcd 
 Academy of Science, of which he became president in 1807. 
 In I81.f he resigned this position, and d. Mar. 10, 1SI9. 
 His talent as a writer was half poetical, half philosophical, 
 and as such it was eminently well suited to the standpoint 
 which ho occupied, and from which he exercised no small 
 influenco on the course of German civilization. His two 
 romances, Edimrd Allwill (1702) and H'.-Wcmor (I7Hfl), arc 
 now out of date; the exquisite dclicatencss of Wcddcniar's 
 feelings is aff'ected, and the subtle analysi.s to which they arc 
 subjected is a mental disease. But in an age whose task 
 was to break through o jictrifieil intellectuality and vindi- 
 cate the right of the imagination and feeling in human life, 
 the book was of great importance and very beneficial. Of 
 more lasting interest ore his I'rhrr die I.rhre dcit Spi- 
 tioza (1785), Darld Hume Vtbrr den Olnnhen (1787). ifend- 
 nehrciben an Fiehle (179y), l'"" den rfiilllirhen Dinyen il»d 
 Hirer Offenbarmi'i (1811). Reason, the vital eenlrc of the 
 human mind, is with Jacobi the source of imiueiliale know- 
 ledge, of an instinctive intuitiiin, of a kind of revelation 
 divinclv safe; while the knowledge with which the under- 
 standing furni.shes us. and which is derived from the senses 
 by a train <pf reasoning, always is more or less exposed to 
 mistakes and errors. Furllo rmore. the organ of this eenlrti 
 of the mind, the foundation on Mhieb the reason rests, is 
 with Jacobi the feelings ; the fi'clinga stand in the same re- 
 lation to reason as the senses to tho understanding, only 
 they err not. This standnoint, the jihilosophy of feel- 
 ings, is not and could hardly be ))resenled in systematic 
 form. It is developed polemically against Spinozii, Ilunw, 
 Kant. Fichtc. and Sebelling. and in an aphoristic manner. 
 But tile criticism is often very acute and the positive rep- 
 resentation always clear and eloquent. His collected lti.r*» 
 appeared in « vols., 1812-24; heiiem, 2 vols., 182.')-27 ; 
 Corret. leilh (Inellie, 1846. (SoO Kuhn. JaeuUi »nd die I'ki- 
 loHO/dlle „einer Zril, 18:14.) Cl.EMENS PlMMllSEV. 
 
 Jiicobi (Kaiii. Gt stav Jakor), b. at Potsdam Deo. 10, 
 1804 ; studied maibeinaties and philosophy in Berlin ; was 
 appointed adjunct in 182.^, auti jirofessor in 1827 in math- 
 ematics at Krinigsberg; travelled in 1S4S in Italy for his 
 heallli. and lived in Berlin, wbero ho d. Feb. 18, IS51. His 
 principal works are Fnndttmenht m»eo tli'^iritr fmtchoHuni 
 ttliptiaarum (1S29), Cunon Arilhmtlicut (IS'M).
 
 1358 
 
 JACOB!— JACOTOT. 
 
 Jacobi (MoRiTR Hermann), brother of the preceding, 
 b. at Potsdam Sept. 21, 1801; became professor in rivll 
 engineering at the University of Dorpnt in I8;i,>, member 
 of the Academy of Science in St. Petersburg in 1847, and re- 
 ceived the title of councillor of state. D. iu St. Petersluirg 
 Mar. 10. 1S74. Ue i.-* the inventor of the galvaiioplastic 
 art, on which he wrote an essay in 1S40. Die Ualvanopfastik. 
 
 Jac'obins [Lat. Jacohux, *•. Tames"], members of a po- 
 litical society founded 1789 by some deputies from Brittany 
 during the session of the States General at Versailles. This 
 society was at first called the " Breton Club," which name. 
 being regarded as too exclusive, was soon changed to 
 *'SocJ6t6 des amis de la Constitution." The king and the 
 Assembly went to Paris Oct., 1789; the club followed, and 
 established itself in an old Dominican monastery in the 
 Ruo St. Honorfi. The French Dominicans were com- 
 monly called Jacobins, from the fact that a church dcdi- 
 oated to St. James bad been given to them shortly after 
 their settlement in Paris in the thirteenth century: and 
 bcforo long the name was adopted by the new club. Many 
 distinguished persons were among its members ; for instance, 
 Lft Fayette, Talleyrand. .Mirabeau, Robespierre, the duke 
 of Orleans, the poet Chenier. the actor Talma. Its power 
 increased rapidly. Its opinions were disseminated by the 
 Journal rfe« amis de la Consfitittiou, which was industri- 
 ously circulated through the whole country. As its in- 
 fluence spread, its principles became more democratic, so 
 that in Apr, 1790, Talleyrand, La Fayette, and many other 
 moderate members withdrew nnd founded the *• Club of 
 1789," afterward:? styled '* les Feuillauts." Revolutionary 
 Bocieties on the Ja:-obin model were established in nearly 
 every town and village of France, and affiliated to the orig- 
 inal club, whose orders they implicitly obeyed. The Jaco- 
 bins dictated every government measure. '* They are' Lords 
 of the Articles,' " says Carlyle, '• they originate debates for 
 the legislative; discuss peace and war; settle beforehand 
 what the legislative is to do." Robespierre was their most 
 influential member; through him they ruled during the 
 Reign of Terror, and after his downfall in 1704 they also 
 were overthrown. In Oct., 1794, the affiliation of societies 
 was forbidden by the Convention; in November, the Jaco- 
 bin club was suspended, and the hall where it had met was 
 clos:;d. Some of its members joined the Electoral Club; 
 others, the section "des Quinze-Vingts," in the Faubourg 
 St. Antoine. Soon afterwards the monastery was destroyed, 
 and upon its site was built the '* Mnrche St. Honort^." 
 
 Much Jacobin and anti-.Tacobin literature exists in the 
 form of plays, poems, and pamphlets, mofft of which are 
 rather curious than edifying; for example. Lc Srcrct des 
 Jiirohins, La Jacobnuadc. Lv8 Crimes dpM Jnfohins, pub- 
 lished in Paris between 1790 and 179.">. The poetry of the 
 Anft-Jarotiin. a journal edited by George Canning, is, how- 
 ever, one of the best works of humor in the English lan- 
 guage. In this collection are to be found the well-known 
 " Knife-grinder," and the burlesque of the "Rovers," in 
 which occurs the song of the " University of Gottingen." 
 The term Jnrobin is still sometimes applied to persons of 
 extreme revolutionary principles. Jaxkt Tuckey. 
 
 Jac'obites. I. An Oriental Christian sect, mono- 
 physitic in doctrine, deriving their name from Jacob Bara- 
 dai. " the ragged." originally a monk an<l presbyter near 
 Ni.'^ibia in Mesopotamia, who became bishop of Kdessa 541 
 A. D., aud d. 578. He took upon himself the general super- 
 intendence of Monophysites in the East, and brought their 
 number up to about 100,000, mninly in Mesopotamia and 
 Syria. In the time of Gregory XtIL (1572-85) they num- 
 bered only 50,000 in Syria. Mesopotamia, and IJabylonia. 
 They are now still more reduced. In Syria thev are a 
 mere handful in a few villages, and very poor. They are 
 under a patriarch who resides in a monastery near Mardin. 
 In public worship use is made of the ancient Syriac lan- 
 guasje, which the people do not understand. There are 
 said to be 200,000 Jaeobites in India (Malabar and Trav- 
 ancore). Of the United or Roman Catholic Jacobites in 
 Syria we have no statistics. Attemi)ts were made to Ro- 
 manize tbein as early as the fourteenth century, but with 
 no considerable success till the seventeenth. About 90.000 
 Roman Catholic Jacobites are claimed in Imlia. — II. In 
 Great Britain, partisans of King .lame^* H.. dethroned in 
 1688. They were strongest in Scotland, rebelling twice 
 (in 1715 :ind in 1745), and were not wholly extinct us a 
 party till after the death of Charles Edward, the Pretender, 
 in 17S8. R^ D^ IIiTcnrocK. 
 
 Ja'cobs (MirnAEi.). T>. P.,onenf the founders of Penn- 
 sylvania Collecre at Gettyehurjr, professor of mnlhematics 
 nnd of the phvsienl and natural sciences in it: b. near 
 Waynesboro', Franklin co.. Pa., Jan. 18, ISOS. In early 
 boyhood h»' was left an orphan: entered the preparatory 
 depnrtment of .Tefferson College. Canonsbiir^. Pee., 1824; 
 graduated with the valedictory 1S28; taught for five months 
 
 in a Presbyterian school at Belle-Air, Md. ; came to Get- 
 tysburg to assist his brother. Rev. D, J.acobs, Apr., 1820; was 
 professor 1832-71; was licensed by the West Pennsylvania 
 synod at Hanover Oct, 11. 18;;2 ; ordained at Sonnnset 1S.34; 
 president of synod IS 19-51 : secretary of general synod 1S45; 
 i received the title of D. D. simultaneously from Jefferson and 
 Wittenberg colleges 1S59. D. July 22, 1871. His very val- 
 uable .Vote* on the Rrb*.l Inia»ifni, quoted by Everett as (he 
 best sketch of the buttle: some eight articles in the AV. 
 Review, two in IJ. S. Sen-ice Mtit/nziue, and a number in 
 Linumtn Record and Journal (of whieb he was for two 
 years editor), comprise all his publications. Among the 
 most.important manuscripts left by him are his Lecturefton 
 Mrteoroloffjf. In this department he was one of the closest 
 and most reliable observers of bis day. His qualities as a 
 man and an instrnctor were of a very hij^h order. His 
 ehar.acter was of transparent Christian purity, his min*! 
 clear, his scholarship accurate, and his modesty great, 
 almost to a fault. C. P. KnAurn. 
 
 Jacobs (Pai'I, Emh,), b. at Gotha in 1802; studied at 
 the Ai-ademy of Munich 1818-25. and in Rorno 1825-28; 
 lived in St. Petersburg 18^0-^4: settled in ISIO in his na- 
 tive city, where he d. Jan. fi. ISfiG. Several of his pietures. 
 such fys Adam and Eve, Judith and Holof ernes, Samson irttd 
 Delilah, became very popular. 
 
 Ja'cobsburg, post-v. of Smith tp., Belmoct co., 0. 
 Pop. 89. 
 
 Jacob's Fork, post-tp., Catawba co., N. C. Pop. 1 1 OG. 
 
 Ja'cobson (John Ciihistian). b. about 1785. a bishop 
 of the I^Ioraviun Church. After a ministerial service of 
 over fifty years he d. at Bethlehem, Pa., Nov. 24, 1870. 
 
 Jacobson (Wn.i.iAM\ D. I>.. b. in Norfolk in ISO.*?; 
 graduated at Lincoln Cullct^e. Oxford, in 1827, with hif;h 
 honors; obtained a fellowship at Exeter College in 1829; 
 was vice-principal of Magdalen Hall from 18:J2-I8. when 
 he became regius professor of divinity. In 18()5, Dr. .Ta- 
 cobson was appointed bishop of Chester. While at Oxfr)rd 
 he edited for the University press the Remaius of the Apos- 
 toh'c Fathers (2 vols., 1840), Nowell's Catechiim' {1S44), the 
 Odlecfcd Worhfi of Bishop Sanderson (6 vols., 1854), and 
 other works, besides publishing two volumes of bis own 
 sermons (1840-40). 
 
 Jaco'bus (Melan'cthon Williams), D. D.. LL.I)., b. 
 at Newark. N. J., Sept. 10. ISlfi : graduated at the College 
 of New Jersey in 1834, and in 18.38 at Princeton Theological 
 Seminary, where he was assistant teacher in Hebrew ISH8 
 -39. In 18.^9 he was settled in Brooklyn, N. Y. : in 1850 
 -51 traveUed in Europe and the East: and in 1851 \ras 
 made professor of Oriental and biblical litfraturo in the 
 theological seminary at Allegheny, Pa., which offiee he 
 still held in 1875. He received the degree of D. D. from 
 Jefferson College in 1S52. nnd of LL.D. from tho College 
 of New Jersey in 18r)7. In 1809 he was modoratur of the 
 General Assembly. He published Xotcs on the Xcw Tcstn- 
 uicnt—}fatthvw i'lSiS), Mark and Luke {\So'^), Ji>hn (1850), 
 Acts (1859); also two volumes ou OcHctfin (18C1-C5). 1>. 
 Oct. 28, 1876. R. D. Hitcocock. 
 
 Jaco'by (Johann), b. at Kdnigsberg May 1, 1805; 
 studieil medicine at Berlin and Heidelherg, and settled in 
 1830 in his native city as a physician. It was his political 
 activity, however, whieh made bim famous. Four times ho 
 was accused of high treason — in 1841, on account of his 
 I'i'er Fraffen; in 1845, on account of his />«» l-'finif/h'eJie 
 Wort Fritdrich WUhelm /If.; in 1849 and in 1866. Tho 
 three first times he was acquitted, but the last time he was 
 sentenced to imprisonment. Hu was a member of the (lor- 
 ntan Parliament in 184S, and at difTerent periotls of tho 
 Prussian Diet. Ho also wrote Die GrundsUtze tier preus- 
 ' »ieh Demol-vatik {lSb9). D. Mar, 7. 1877. 
 
 Jacoby (Lcnwir. Sir.rsMrst)), D. D.. b. at Alt Strolitz, 
 Mecklenburg, Oct. 21, 18] 1, of Jewish parents. Converted 
 to Christianity when about twenty-one years of age. he 
 came to America some years later and joincil the Methodist 
 ' Episcopal Church, in which he became a preacher about 
 I 1840. After being for several years presiding elder of (»cr- 
 raan districts in the Western Slates, he returned to Ger- 
 many in 1849 to introduce Melhodis^m in that country. 
 Through his labors missions were established in many 
 places, ns well as a publishing-house and a theological 
 seminary at Bremen under his own superintendence. In 
 ! 1S72 he returned to America, and is now (1875) pastor of a 
 church in St. Louis, Mo. Among his writings are a C'at- 
 I enrdance of the Bible and a History of Methodism in the 
 
 Whole World doicn to 1SG9. 
 \ Jacotot' (Jkan Joskph), b. at Dijon, France. Mar. 4, 
 I 1770; was appointed professor of Latin and Oreek litera- 
 ture at his native jilnee when barely nineteen years td 
 age: entereil the army in 1792, becoming captain of arlil- 
 I lery in the invasion of Belgium, and assisted tho celebrated
 
 JACQUARD-JADE. 
 
 1359 
 
 boanl established nt Paris for the mnnufactnrc of gun- 
 powder by extraordinary methods at a time when the sup- 
 ply of ini;redients seemed exhausted. Jacotot soon after- 
 ward'* was maiie professor of mathematics at the P-colc 
 Normale: then of Roman law; a director of the Polytech- 
 nic, and filled at Dijon the ehair of scientific nH-thod. in 
 whii'h he introduei'd an original system of instruftion with 
 which his name has become identified. Exiled in ISlii for 
 having supported Xapolcon in the Chamber of l>eputies 
 during the " Hundred Days," J.acotot retired to IJi'lgium. 
 where he became professor of French at (be University of 
 Louvain and director of the military school, introducing 
 and popularising his new ?ystera, which exercised a great 
 inBuenco upon education throughout Europe, it being the 
 precursor of the methods of Hamilton and Ollendorff. Jaco- 
 tot returned to Franco in IS.'iO, and d. at Paris July 30, 
 ISiO. 
 
 Jacquard' f Joseph Martk), b. in Lyons. France, July 
 7. 17.V2. of poor parents, by whom lie was first brought up 
 as a weaver, and successively apprenticed to a bookbinder, 
 a cutler, and a typefounder. At the age of twenty he in- 
 herited from his father a worksboji containing two weavers' 
 looms, but was obliged to sell all his pr()perly to meet the 
 expenses he contracted in experiments for improving looms. 
 After a long period of poverty and obscuritj', during which 
 he participated in some of the canipsiigns of the Revolu- 
 tion, he succeeded iu inventing the Loom (which see) wbieli 
 has made bis name a household word in both continents. 
 He experienced an ill-fortune not unusuni in the history 
 of inventors in being mobbed by the operatives of Lyons 
 in isn i, acting under the erroneous belief tliat the new loom 
 would be ruinous to their cbiss. Tins eircumstnnee led to 
 the purchase of the invention by the imperial government, 
 and Nnpoleon, by a decree dated at IJeilin Oct. 27, LSOft, 
 declared it public property. As a result, the subsequent 
 prosperity of Lyons was largely attributable to the genius 
 of Ja:^quard. who received during his lifetime the cross of 
 the Legion of Honor, and since his death bis statue has 
 been erected MHIO) in his native city. D. Aug. 7, 1S;^4, at 
 OuUins. a vilhi^e near Lyons. 
 Jacqiiard Loom* See Loow. by W. E. A. Axov. 
 Jacqueline' of Ravaria, b. in MOO, was the only 
 dnu'^hter and heir of William VL of Bavaria, count of 
 Holland nnd H:iinault. :ind of his wife. Margaret of Bur- 
 gundy. In ehildbood she was betrothed to Prince John 
 of France, who. however, d. by poison in 1417, in which 
 year Jacqueline succeeded to her father's estates. The 
 hand of the iieiress was n prize destined to bo fiercely dis- 
 puted by (he princes of (hat rude age. After refusing to 
 marry the duke of Bedford, brother of Henry V. of Eng- 
 land. Jacqueline wedded her eousin, .Tobn IV„ duke of 
 Brabant, but soon abandoned bim, and in M20 went to 
 Eu'^Iand, where Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, another 
 brother of the king, soughi her hanrj. treating her former 
 marriage a« null. After the death of Henry, the antipope. 
 Benedict XIII. annulled Jacqueline's first marriage, and 
 in 1123 Gloucester obtained the coveted prize. He there- 
 upon sailed for Hainault with 5000 troops to reconquer his 
 wife'^ estates, whieh had been seized by the dukes of Bur- 
 gundy nnd Bra'iant. After many vieissitn<les of fortune, 
 .Tncqtieline was imprisoned at Ghent, escaped to Holland, 
 repudiated her husband, made war on her own account, 
 and finally ee led her estates to the duke of Burgundv to 
 purchase the liberation of her new husband, Francis of 
 Bjrselen. D. in 1 T'.fi, witlinut issue. 
 
 Jacqiicmnrt' (At-ni-nx), b. at Paris in 180fl; filled im- 
 porlant financial post^ under the Freneh government, nnd 
 took a leading part in the Universal Kxpoyition of 1807. 
 ebiefly in regard to the processes of the arts applied to in- 
 dustry — a subject wbieh be illustrated in bis learned works, 
 Jfintoiff nntifjHf iutht^tritHe rt cnntmrrrinlfi df la pi»rrrhtiur. 
 (Lvons. 1S0L.02). Mmriffr^ ifr iff rrni„n'(f„r (ISr.r,). an<l 
 IliMlinrr tie lit (Vrnnntfiir (IS72^. the latter of which has 
 npprared in English uu'ier the title of /fiMlortf nf Crrnmic 
 Art, translated by Mrs. Bury Palliscr, with 1000 illustra- 
 tions (London. 1S7:J). 
 
 Jncqiiemont' (Virrnn), b. in Paris Aug. 8, 1801; 
 studied hotany under Adricn de Jussieu, nnd after visit- 
 ing the U. S. aufl the Weal Indies was appointed by the 
 Museum of Natural History in Paris to c<mduet a scien- 
 tific expcilition In Eastern Asia. He arrived at Calcutta 
 in I«2i), travelled in Briti-h India, studying the native 
 languages, crossed the Hinmtayns into Thibet, nnd reached 
 rbineso Tarlary, returning by liahore, where Ruiij*'et Singh 
 showed him great favor. .laequeinont «L preuiaturoly at 
 Bombay Dec. 7, isr,2. His correspondence and travela 
 have been publishc<I. nnd are very entertainint;, as well as 
 valuable for their wenllb of seientifie observation. 
 
 Jnrqneric% liisiirrortion of the^ a war of the 
 Freneh peasantry again:*t the nobles which broke out iMay 
 
 12, l.TSS, during the imprisonment of John II. the Good 
 in England. The oppressions of Charles the Bad of Na- 
 varre and the long and grinding tyranny of the nobles 
 were the causes. For some three weeks the peasants were 
 rapidly successful, nnd were guilty of every enormity. But 
 on June 9 the count de Foix nnd Captal de Buch gave 
 them a terrible and final ovcrilirow at Mcaux. The name 
 "Jacquerie" signifies the ** Jacks" or clowns. 
 
 Jacques f Amkukk Fi.onnNx), b. at Paris July 1, T.S13, 
 studied at the College de Bourbon, and entered the Ecolo 
 Normale in 1S32. After teaching j)hiIosnphy at the col- 
 leges of Douay, Amiens, Versailles, and that of Louis-lc- 
 Grand at Paris, 1\I. Jacques became in ISI2 professor of his 
 favorite branch of study at the fieolc Normale. Brought 
 inti> intimate association with Mieliclet, Quinot, and the 
 leaders of the " Young France " of that jieriotl, he was one 
 of the founders and the chief editor of Ln Lihcrt/' tic Pcnser, 
 the organ of the philosophers. He conducted this publi- 
 cation through the stormy years of the Second Repub!ic 
 (1S4S-51), contributing many remarkable arti<;les to its 
 columns, until the ouji d'vtat of Napoleon III. silenced 
 free thought in Fiance, when he was ejected from his pro- 
 fessorship. He had published in 1847, along with liis col- 
 leagues, Saissct and Jules Simon, a Mnuttcl d*: Philonn-pliief 
 edited the works of Fenelon and Leibnitz, and contributed 
 to the Dictionudirc den .SViV-HefJ! Philostiphiqufi*. In LS;')2, 
 M. Jacques went to Montevideo in the republic of Uru- 
 guay, bearing the reeoinnundation of Alexander Humboldt, 
 and was appointed by the government to preside over a 
 projected university. But political disturbances nnd the 
 limited resources of that state interfered with the success 
 of the project, and M. .Taeques was then engaged to direct 
 the government land-surveys. After some years, during 
 which be made numerous scientific explorations. M. Jacques 
 removecl to Buenos Ayrcs, where he was entrusted with the 
 management of one of the national colleges, in which ca- 
 pacity he rendered eminent services (o the cause of educa- 
 tion, being universally esteemed for his profound attain- 
 ments and his readiness to promote every scientific object. 
 He was a member of the leading learned societies of Franco 
 and of South America. D, at Buenos .Ayrcs in ISfi.'i, 
 
 PORTFR C. Bl,(J-'S. 
 
 Jacqties-Cartier', county of Queliec, Canada, inchid- 
 inir the W. part of the island of Montreal. Cap. Poinlo 
 Claire. Pop. 11.179. 
 
 Jacqiiin% von fNrcoi.AS Joseph), Barox, b. at Ley- 
 den, Holland, Feb. Hi, 1727; studied botany under Jussieu 
 at Paris, and settled at Vienna, where in 17i>.*i he was en- 
 gaged to sujterintend the planting of the garden at Schfin- 
 brunn. Soon aflei wards he undertook a voyage of several 
 j'cars' duration in tro[)ical .America, collecting r:ire species 
 of plants, in whieh he was so fortunate as to discover about 
 fifty new genera. Returning to Europe. (lie remainder of 
 his long life was devoted to the publication of Ins numerous 
 researches, and in lecturing iijion botany and chemistry iit 
 the University of Vienna, at which place be d. Oct. 24, 
 1817. His son, Josejdi Franz, succeeded him iu his pro- 
 fessional posts; b. 17(>7, d. 1839. 
 
 Jade^ a hard green stone, highly prized in the East 
 and bv ancient races for ornaments. (See Ni:rMiitiTC, by 
 Pnoi-.W. P. Bi.AKi:. A. M.. Pit. B.) 
 
 Ja'do, or .falide, a small river and als:o a bay in Ger- 
 many S. W. of the month of the AVeser. It formerly be- 
 longed to the grand duchy of Oldenburg, hut was purchased 
 by Prussia in 1S.VI, ft)r the purpose ol' forming a war-port 
 on tlio German Ocean. The Bay of .lade covers an area 
 of 71 square miles, wbieh was formerly dry land, but in- 
 undated in IJII. {See iNi'snATioNs, JIakitimk.) 
 
 Jado^ a fortified seaport of Germany, on the N<trtb Sea, 
 was formed since 185)3, At that tiruf Prussia bought the 
 coast district from Oldenburg for 500. mm thalern, ami it 
 has since spent much labor and great expense in order to 
 transform tiie Bay of Jade into a good naval harbor. Since 
 18C9 the place is called Wilbelnishavcn. Basins, of whieh 
 the largest is 120 metres long and 200 mCtrcs broad, have 
 been dug in the muddy ground of Iho marsh. These 
 basins were then separated from the Bay of Jade by a dam, 
 nnd in the beginning of the war with France the dam wiis 
 finished and (bo barlior taken into use by the navy. On 
 the western side of the principal basin lliree parallel dry 
 docks, 100 nu'trcs long, are situated, nnd the dotdis as well 
 a8 the basin are walled with granite. Besides the docks 
 are (bo wharves. To (he E. this basin is connected witli 
 tbo Bay of Jade by a caiml walled wifli crrnnite nnd ]>ro- 
 vided with sluices. Besides tlio naval hnrI)or is the coru- 
 meroial hnrltor, wliicb, however, is rather insii;nifieaiit : it 
 is not walled, has no sliiieed cnnal, and is separated fmm 
 the bay only by an eartlion dam. Tho whole hnrlior is 
 surrounded with forlifirii(ir)ns, slrons^est where tliey face 
 tbo Kca. and provided with ordnances of the heaviest cnl-
 
 13G0 
 
 JAEX-JAHX. 
 
 ibre in order to prevent any hostile vessel from approach- 
 injf. Since the French war ininicnsc sums have been spent 
 on the building of these lortitications. The town of \Vil- 
 helnijihiiven has grown up here since the harbor has been 
 built: it is chiefly a military colony, and has excellent 
 barracks. ArcrsT Niemann. 
 
 Jacu'f in the times of the Moors, was an independent 
 kingdom, hut in 12.'U it was conquered by Ferdinand III. 
 and added to the kingdom of Castile. Now it forms a 
 separate province of Spain. Area, 51 84 srjuare miles. 
 Pop. 392,100. It is rich in metals and fertile, but thinly 
 
 Jiieilf town of Spain, the capital of the province of 
 Jaen. on the Jaen, a tributary of the (luadaUjuivir. Its 
 walls, surmounted by turrets and pinnacles, and its eastle, 
 which still is used as a fortress, were built hy the Jloors. 
 It has two cathedrals of the sixteenth century, and beauti- 
 ful promenades, but its silk manufactures, which once made 
 it famous, are now entirely lost. Pop. 22.933. 
 
 JaTfa, Yal'a, or Joppa, town of Asiatic Turkey, in 
 the province of Syria, on the Mediterranean, 33 miles 
 N. W, of Jerusalem. In the times of David and Solomon 
 it was the port of .Teru^alcm, and the cedars of Lebanon 
 of which the temple was built were brought from Tyre to 
 its harbor. During the Crusades it was the hindiug-place 
 of the Christian armies. Now its harbor is nearly sanded 
 up. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Jairiinpatam', town of Ceylon, situated on the north- 
 ern extremity of the island. It was originally a Dutch 
 settlement, but most of the Dutch inhabitants have now 
 left for Batavia. Pop. 8000. 
 
 JaTfrey, post-tp. of Cheshire co., N. H., 4G miles 
 W. S. W. of Concord. It has two principal post-villages, 
 JaiTrcy and East Jaffrey. The latter is on the Monadnock 
 K. K., has a national bank and a savings bank, and manu- 
 factures of cotton drillings, shoes, wooden ware, boxes, 
 etc. Jaffrey Village has a high school and manufactures 
 of chairs, leather, etc. The town has 4 churches and con- 
 tains the Grand Monadnock Mountains. Pop. 1256. 
 
 Jaffrey (tir:oiiGEi, h. at New Castle. N. II., Nov. 22, 
 16S2; graduated at Harvard College 1702: became suc- 
 cessively couni;illor, judge, treasurer, and chief-justico of 
 New Hampshire. D. at Portsmouth May 8, 174'J. 
 
 Jas;anatha. Sec Jaggernalt. 
 
 Ja^eTIons, the name of a dynasty which reigned from 
 the fourteenth to the seventeenth century in Poland, and 
 during much of the time in Lithuania. Hungary, and Bo- 
 hemia. The founder of the family was Jagellon or Jagi- 
 ello, h. about I35t, grand duke of Lithuania, who was a 
 pagan until his marriage (Feb. 17, 13S6) with Hedwig, 
 daughter of Louis the Great, king of Poland and Hungary. 
 To this alliance Jagellon owed his election to the throne 
 of Poland as successor tu his father-in-law, under the name 
 of Ladislas II. (Uladislas or Wladislas). The sovereigns 
 of this dynasty were the most illustrious of Polish rulers. 
 Sigismund Augustus, who d. in 1572, was the last Jagellon 
 king of P<)lnnd in direct succession, but through the female 
 line the family retained the throne until the abdication of 
 John Casimir in 10G8. Most of the existing royal houses 
 of Europe (1875) are descended from the Jngollous. 
 
 JU'ger (GrsTAv), b. at Leipsic July 12, 1S08; studied 
 at Dresden, jMuiiich,and Home; settled in 1837 at Alunich, 
 but removed in 1847. as director of the academy, to Leipsic, 
 where he d. Apr. 29, I87I. His fresco paintings in Munich 
 and Weimar are his principal works. 
 
 Jtk'grrndorffy town of Austria, in the province of 
 Silesia. It has four well-frequented cattle-fairs. P. OfilS. 
 
 Jag'gar (Thomas Aifiisirs), D. D., b. in New York 
 City June 2, LS3il ; was eriucated hy a private tutor; grad- 
 uated at the General Theological Seminary of the Episco- 
 pal Church: was ordained doncon in 18fi0 and presbyter in 
 18t>3: became rector of Trinity, Bergen Point, in 1862, of 
 Anthon .Memorial chureh. New York, in 18ri4, of St. John's, 
 Yonkers. in 18t'.8 (founding there the St. John's Riverside 
 Hospital), and of Holy Trinity in Philadelphia in 1870. 
 He was made a doctor of divinity hy the University of 
 Pennsylvania in 1874: was cloetcd bishop of Southern 
 Ohio Jan. 14, IH7o, and was consecrated to that office in 
 May. 1875. 
 
 Jas?crnaut% or Piiri, town of Oris.-fa.on the Bay of 
 Bengal, in lat. 10° 45' N. and Ion. 85° 54' E. It is nn l 
 ngroeablc and healthy place, as the air is kept fresh by the 
 south-western monsoon. Its name is a corruption of the ' 
 Sanskrit word J-i.j.ni.tthn, -Mting of the w..rltl." which it 
 received from an idol of Krislina.the lord of the universe, 
 which it possesses — a wooden block in the shape of a eu- ] 
 cumber, whose upper extremity represents a human face 
 of utter bidcousDcss. Around this idol has been erected a 
 
 most magnificent temple, or rather a city of temples, and 
 hundreds of thousandi of pilgrims visit the place every 
 year. On great days of festival the idol is placed on a 
 huge chariot, to which the faithful harness themselves in 
 order to draw the id(»l from one place to another, and in 
 the enthusiasm of the moment —we arc told — they some- 
 times throw themselves under the wheels of the chariot. 
 The gorgeousness and the peculiar beauty of this templo 
 of Jaganatha are described as something uni((ue, and, to 
 increase the wonderfulness of the place, all columns, pin- 
 nacles, turrets, and other architectural ornaments are made 
 of the most costl}' materials and have required centuries of 
 labor to be worked out. Pop. 19,825. 
 
 Jast'gery [Hind.y«/.'r/; Prakrit, gakkttrn; Lat. eaccaha- 
 riitii ; Eng. Mf'/fi/], the sugar obtained in Inrlia from va- 
 rious palm trees, notably the cocoanut palm {Cnnts ntici- 
 J'crn), the toddy palm {P/i(cnix sy/rrgtris}, and the jaggery 
 palm {Cart/Ota iireng). The tapping of the trees and the 
 boiling of the sap are carried on by a special caste. The 
 quality of the sugar is very poor, but its quantity is be- 
 coming very great, and it is now exported to England, and 
 there refined more easily and ehenply than ordinary sugar. 
 After reiining the sugar is identical with cane and beet- 
 root sugar. The Aijnt /niticixuii is another valuable sugar- 
 palm. 
 
 Ja'guar [Braz.jVf^'/"^'""]* the largest of the cat family 
 of America, found Irom Texas to Patagonia, generally in- 
 habiting forests by preference, and being quite arboreal in 
 its habits. It is exceeded in size by the lion and tiger. Its 
 hide is often of a rich yellow, spotted and ringed with 
 black. The skins are of considerable conmiereial value. 
 The animal is lierce, and can conquer all the beasts of its 
 native wilds except the great boas of the Brazilian selvn. 
 
 Jahn (FniEPRicH Lrnwio), generally known under 
 the name of Tururater Jahn^ b. Aug. 11, 1778, at Lanz, in 
 the Prussian province of Brandenburg; studied theology 
 at Halle and Gottingen : lived for some time as tutor in a 
 private family at Greifswald, where he made the acquaint- 
 ance of E. M. Arndt ; went in 1805 to Jena to continue his 
 studies, but preferred to enlist in the Prussian army as a 
 soldier. After the battle of Jena, in which he did nivt par- 
 take, however, he fled to LUbeck, but returned in 1809 to 
 Berlin, where ho became teacher in a gymnasium in ISIO, 
 published his />«« Deutsche Volksthum. and opened the first 
 turn-establishment in 1811. His ideas of preparing a tre- 
 mendous uprising of the German nation by a return to tho 
 old, genuine German civilization of the times of Hermann, 
 and by a perfect physical training, were utterly fantastic, 
 and his language, cojlume. and general behavior ludicrous- 
 ly eccentric. But his '* turn-art " was. nevertheless, a good 
 thing. It formed immediately numerous centres around 
 which the German patriotism gathered and developed, and 
 later it exercised a salutary influence on the whole system 
 of education. In the war of 1814 he commnnded a corps of 
 volunteers, at the head of wliich ho entered Paris, and in tho 
 same year he published his RunenhliHtcr. But after tho 
 war the " turn-places " became the field of demagogical ma- 
 chinations an<l riots, and in 1818 Jahn was seized by the 
 Prussian government and imprisoned. In 1825 he was 
 liberated, but not allowed to reside in any university town. 
 He settled in Freiburg; became more and more fantastic 
 and eccentric: wxoXfi Nene HuncuhVdttcr (1828), and A/«r- 
 ktn zum DciitHchen Vttfksthiim (1833) ; was elected a mem- 
 ber of the national assembly of 1K4S. but his appearance 
 here was only a great disappointment to himself and to bis 
 former turn-pupils, who loved him passionately. D. at 
 Freiburg Oct. 15, 1852, In ISlC he published, together with 
 Eiselen, Die Dnituch^ Tiirnkunst. A biography of him was 
 written in 1S55 by Priihlc. Clemens Petersen. 
 
 Jahn (JoHANN), b. at Taswitz, Moravia, June 18,1750; . 
 studied at Znaim and at Olmutz, and in 1772 entered a 
 convent at Bruek, where he soon became profissor of 
 Oriental languages and of biblical criticism. Wlien (in 
 1784) this convent was suppressed, Jahn obtained a pro- 
 fessorship first at Olmutz. and afterward at Vienna, where 
 he also ga^ c instruction in dogmatic theology. Jahn was 
 tho most distinguished representative in his time of Roman 
 Catholic learning and criticism, and his numerous works 
 enjoyed a well-merited rejuitution. He nevertheless in- 
 curred the disfavor of the ecclesiastical authorities for tho 
 boldness of some of his opinions. an<l in 1803 was separated 
 from his professorial chair under pretext of a promotion 
 to a canonry of St. Stephen's. Jahn published grammars, 
 lexicons, and elementary works on the Hebrew, Syriae, 
 Chaldaic, and Arabic languages, an Introdurtiou tn ihe Old 
 T'st.tment i\792\, BiUlrn/ Arch}>'ofofj>/ (5 vols.. 1797-1805), 
 a Mnnufil of Grutrul Hfirmeufuticx (1812), an edition of 
 the Hebrew Bible (180fi), and other works. His Arclm- 
 ofofjif has hccn translated into English and reprinted in 
 America. D. at Vienna Aug. 16, 1816.
 
 JAIIN— JAINAS. 
 
 i:un 
 
 Jahn (Otto), b. at Kiel June 16. 1S13; studied in his 
 native city, at Leipsic. Berlin, and Copenhagen ; travelled 
 with a stipend from the Oanish governnicut in France and 
 Italv ; hceame prolV^yor of archreolugy at (Jrcifswiild in 
 HI2, and at Leipsic in 1S47. On account of his ])artieipa- 
 tion in the revolntionary movements of 1S4S and l.S4'J he 
 was dismissed in ISJU, but received in ISJj a chair in an- 
 cient literature and archaeology at Bonn. 1). .Sept. It, 18G9. 
 Besides his e litions of Latin authors, a numhcr of essays 
 on variou'' philolo;;ical and archieoloKical subjects, especi- 
 ally on anlifjuc vases, lie wrote a popular hiuj^raphy of Mo- 
 zart ( t vols., 18jG) and other papers relating to music. 
 
 Jail. The words /fr»7 and priann arc employed in com- 
 mon ii!^a.;;e with hut little if any distinction of mcauing, 
 and even as applied in law arc not infrequently used as 
 synonyntous terms. But jnil had originally a somewhat 
 dilTerent sense from ;>ft«oii in legal usage, and is sometimes 
 employed technically at the present day with the same dis- 
 tinctive interpretation. In this special meaning it is a 
 place for the confinement of persons arrested for debt or for 
 the commission of minor offences and in the custody of the 
 sheriflT, or for the temporary confinement of witnesses or 
 persons awaiting trial. A prison is. on the other hand. 
 a place of permanent confinement and of punishment for 
 crime. A jailer is at common law the servant or deputy of 
 the sheriff of the county, ami for any wrongful arts which 
 the jailercommits in thejicrformancoof his rUity the sheriff 
 is responsible on orciinary princi[)lfs of agency. Thus, if a 
 person in custody bo suffered to escape, the sheriff will ho 
 liable, (i^eo Escape.) (For the regulation of jails and tho 
 methods of prison management see Piiisov, Prison Ois- 
 ciPi.iNK.) (ir.oiioi: CuAsn. Ukvisf.d bv T. W. Dwifinr. 
 
 Jail Delivery, Commission of. See Courts. 
 
 Jail Fever, a form of Tvpnrs (which see). 
 
 Jai^nas, a Hindu religious sect. Thcro aro not at tho 
 present time many Iliiuhis professing the Jaina faith, as 
 compared with those professing such creeds as tho Vaish- 
 nuva and Saiva, but tlio Jainas now in India aro remark- 
 able for their respectability, influence, and o[nilcnco as a 
 class. They aro chiefly to be met with in tho N. and W. 
 of the peninsula, although even in the S. groups of Jaina 
 families are not uncommon. AVhilst the characteristics of 
 the Jaina religion aro thoroughly well known, tho dalo of 
 the origin of the pcct and the causes which led Xo its rise 
 are hotly cnntrovcrtcrl points. The writer believes tho true 
 cx])lanation to be as follows: It is generally* allowed that 
 Gfttama Buddha (S;ikyamuni) died at Gya in Southern 
 Behar in .>I3 n. c. After this Buddhism quickly sprang up, 
 and overran Hindustan. Brahminism itself was eru^^hcd 
 and kept under for ten centuries by that ghastly religion 
 of atheism, nihilism, and despair. But in the fifth cen- 
 tury after Christ tho old Vodic creed began to revive 
 and Bn^ldhism to fail. Ardent Buddhists noticed the 
 change in the tide of Hindu opinion, and began to tremble 
 at the consequences of a loss of prestige. Tlio Bralimins 
 were still numerous in the land, and the old reverence for 
 their priestly character was regaining ground rapidly in 
 tho minds of tho multitude. Caste, too, ignored as a re- 
 ligious institution by Buddhism, was beginning more and 
 more to l)e regarded under its old aspect of an absolutely 
 ni'C('S.*ary institution Ibr Hindus. So some of tho shrewdest 
 of the Buddhists detcnnined on a compromise. They re- 
 solve) to invent a religion which would unite in it several 
 of the most important elements of Buddhism and of Brah- 
 minism. Thu-*, aliout tho beginning of tho sixth century 
 A. !>. Jaina doctrines began to bo actively and successfully 
 promulgated. Such, the writer believes, is tUo true history 
 in brief of the origin of Jainisni in India. Tho Jainas 
 rcvcreneed certain holy mortals who had. they held, ac- 
 quired by practices of self-denial ancl mnrtificatiim a sta- 
 tion superior even to (he gods worshipped by tin; Brahmins ; 
 and thus they conciliated the Buddhists, iiotama Buddha 
 him-tetf finds a place in Jaina mythology. On the other 
 hand, the Jainas wore extremely strict in avoiding the de- 
 struction of any animal life whatsoever, and lli'-y recog- 
 nized caste ; and thus they c<mciliated the Brahmins. In 
 the matter of tho Vedas, the Jainas tried to steer a mifldle 
 course. Parts they rejected and parts they accepted as 
 auiiiority. For in»tance, those parts of (he Verlas in which 
 animal sacrifice is enjoined they treated wiihout respect, 
 and tlioy refused to celebrate the hnmn, or burnt -offering, 
 lest insects crawling amongst Ihe fuel, bred by the fer- 
 mented hutter, or falling into the fire, might be accident- 
 ally destroyed. But to tho parts of ihe Vedas which could 
 in any way he regarded as favorahle to Budiihif*tic tenets tho 
 Jainas paid tho greatest reverence, and frequently (jiioted 
 in their discourses and writings. Beside«. the .Tainas, 
 whilst doing homage to Buddhas. employed Brahmin 
 priests in their service as the solo ministrants in their tem- 
 ples or ptmAlun. 
 
 V,,,.. ii._sr, 
 
 The term Jaina is derived from the Sanskrit Jina. signi- 
 fying '* one who is a victor." The saints worshipped by 
 (he Jainas were Jinas — those who had conquere<I all hu- 
 man passions, desires, aspirations, and infirmities, and 
 had attained to a state of perfect apathy. Such a saint 
 was regarded as Jaf/nt pratfm, "lord of the world;" .Var- 
 vftjna, "all wise;" Kflntia lea runt, "one to whom ceremo- 
 nial acts were not requisite ;" Aff/ii>ihv(ira, " supreme lord ;" 
 and Dcr&dhiileva, "god of gods." He was one who had 
 crossed the ocean of births ( Tirthahftra), be was the pos- 
 sessor of a spiritual nature {Kcvali), and he was venerable 
 and worthy of ail homage {Arhnf). 'J'hc Buddhists, though 
 they iiad innumerable earthly Buddhas, confined their 
 homage practically to seven ; the Jainas venerated seventy- 
 two saints. Twenty-four were of a past age. twenty-tour 
 of a present, and twenty-four were to come. The worship, 
 however, of the last two of the " present "' era. PdrHvnnuth 
 and Mnhdririij eclipsed tho veneration paid to all other 
 Jinas in Hindustan. As a whole, the Jinas appear to have 
 posseted wonderful attributes. They were all beautiful of 
 form; their bodies were all fragrant: their hair, always 
 the same, curled gracefully; and their blood ran white in 
 all their veins. They knew no hunger or thirst, no in- 
 firmity or deeay. "He can collect around him." tays Wil- 
 son, describing the perfect Jina, *■ millions of beings — 
 gods, men. and animals — in a comparatively small space; 
 his voice is audible to a great distance: and his language, 
 which is Arddhn .Vaf/adhi, is intelligible to animals, men, 
 and gods; the back of his head is surrounded with a halo 
 of light brighter than the disk of the sun : and of an im- 
 mense interval around him, wherever he moves, there is 
 neither sickness nor enmity, storm nor dearth, neither 
 plague-portents nor war." (H. TI. Wilson, WorL->i, vol. i. 
 p. 289.) But in some points Jinas differed from each 
 other — namely in color, size, and longevity. For exam])Ie, 
 some were represented as white, some red, some blue, some 
 black, and a largo number saffron. Then, as to the height 
 and longevity of the Jinas, the first of the "present" era, 
 Hiskaba, was" 500 poles tall, and lived S, UIO.OOO years ; the 
 last of that era had only the height of a man, and lived no 
 longer than 40 years. From this fact the great Oriental 
 scholar Colobrooke considered that probably of tho Jinas 
 the last two only were historical personages. Jaina le- 
 gends, with reference to the decreasing longevity and stature 
 of saints, are extremely similar to Buddhist accounts of 
 their Buddhas. For instance, Gotania Buddha is supposed 
 to have lived only 100 years, whilst his predecessor lived 
 20.000 years. 
 
 The Jainas were divided into laymen and clerics — viz. 
 Srnvakas and Yatin. The Yatis received alms from the 
 Sravakas, who assembled in tho .Taina temples to worsliip 
 the Tirtha Kitnis, or perfected Jinan. It Wiis the duty oi* 
 Sravakas to be gentle, pious, honest, chaste, liheral, and, 
 as far as tbey were able, to practise penitential acts, espe- 
 cially such as fasting at stated times from particular Iu.\- 
 uries. In tho temples tbey were enjoined to walk nrnnnd 
 the images, repeating certain humlilc salutations to all tho 
 saints, and especially to the saint whose image lliey were 
 encircling. They were also oxhorled to observe several 
 stated festivals. Tiio Yatis never actually oflicialcd as 
 priests. That was left to the Brahmins, whom dainns nck- 
 nowledged to be the orthodox jtricstly caste; thereby con- 
 ciliating Hindus. But the Yati« cither congrcgatcil to- 
 gether in semi-conventual establishments or engaged in 
 several money-making pursuits. For instance, all over 
 India, even at tho present time, they enjoy the re])utalion 
 of being capital jugglers, necromancers, piilnijtrophets, 
 and magicians. Many of them are arrant kimves, and 
 earn their livelihood by selling quack medicines and dab- 
 bling in alchemy. Others deal in merchandise, ami many have 
 been known to amass a good deal of wealth. But one and all, 
 with verv few exceptions, pride themselves on their extreme 
 sanctity, ami espeeially evince their holiness outwardly by 
 the absurd length to which they iistcntatiously carry their 
 regard for life in all its phases. Wilson, Ihe great authority 
 on the subject of the Hindu seels, thus speaks of the .laina 
 Yatis: " According to the greater or less degree of sanctity 
 to which they jiretend are their seeming purity and out- 
 ward precision, shown especially in Iheireare of aninml life ; 
 they carry a brush to swceji the ground before they tread 
 upon it : never cut nor tlrink in tlie dark, lest they shoubl 
 inadvertently swallow an insect; and sometimes wear a 
 thin eloth over their mouths, lest their breath should de- 
 molish some of the atomic ephemera that frolic in the sun- 
 beams ; they wear their hair cut short — strictly they should 
 pluck it out by the ro()ts : they profess continence and pov- 
 erty, and pretend to observe frequent fasts and excrciso 
 profound abstraction." 
 
 There arc two chief divisions of .Tainas — namely, tho 
 Dujamharan and the Sirrtamharan. The I>igambaras appear 
 to bo the larger as well as the uiorc ancient division of the
 
 13G2 
 
 JAKUTSK— JALISCO. 
 
 two. Their name signifies " sky-clad " — that is, naked. At 
 the present time, however, they do not go about naked, but 
 merely cast oil" their clothes during tlieir meal-tiines. The 
 Swetanibaras arc those who arc " clad iu white." Not only 
 in matter? of dress do these two divisions of Jainas differ, 
 but also in seven hundred points of doctrine and ceremonial 
 observance, eighty-four of wliicli are re;^ardcd as of para- 
 mount importance. For instance, Swetambaras adorn their 
 im;ii;cs of "saints with earrings, necklets, armlets, and tiaras 
 of gold and precious stones — a practice which the Digam- 
 baras set their faces against. Swctambaras aver that there 
 are twelve heavens nndcr the rule of i^ixty-four Indras : the 
 Di;;ambarns assert tliat there are sixteen iK-avcus and one 
 hundred Indras. Swctambaras allow their Yatis to eat out 
 of vessels ; Digarabaras use only the hand. Swctambaras 
 make their ascetics carry about, with them brushes, watcr- 
 pofs, etc. as essential tHsj'yHm of their vocation : butDigam- 
 baras do not. Digambaras assert that no woman can enter 
 ]\'is-rdna i the more gnllant SwctamViaras, however, hold 
 the doctrine whieh, as Wilson humorously puts it, *' admits 
 the fair sex to the enjoyment of iinal annihilation." Be- 
 sides these twogrcatdivisions of Jainas. there exist several 
 minor schisms, sonic of which date back to the very davrn 
 of the faith. These are the sects of Jama I i and of Ooanla. 
 The Drnvida or southern sect of Jainas sprang up in all 
 probability about the seventh century after Christ. There 
 is the MnkfintHilha sect and the Lamjiaka ; whicl^ latter 
 discard the use of images. The Mula Saufjis dress in red, 
 and use brushes of peacock's feathers, while the Kaahta 
 Snu'i's use yak-tail brushes and venerate wooden images. 
 There are also the Tcrah Pauthis, "followers of thirteen,"' 
 and (he His Panthts, "followers of twenty." It may here 
 he remarked that the influence of the Digambaras seems to 
 have been very powerful over Jaina art, as the majority 
 of Jaina Buddhas are represented as gtark naked. Buddh- 
 ist Buddhas are nearly always well clothed. The po~ 
 sdtiiH, or mathsj of Jainas are frequently of considerable 
 architectural beauty. The humblest are so constructed as 
 to be as roomy as possible, in order that the votaries, if 
 numerous, may not be unnecessarily inconvenienced. 
 
 Jaina doctrines arrange themselves under nine Tattwas — 
 namely, first principles, or necessary verities of the faith. 
 Briefiy they are — (!) Jtvftj life: (2) Ajha, lifeless; (3) 
 Pnniffi, good, or merit; (4) Pdpa, ill, or demerit; (6) Aa- 
 riivri, source of acts; (fi) Samrtttm, that by which acts are 
 collected or impeded; (7) Nirjnrn, sin-destroying religious 
 practice; (8) finudak, association of life with acts; and 
 (•J) Muhnka, final spiritual liberation from the bonds of 
 action, exemption from the incidents of existence, and 
 freedom from the necessity of being born again. We 
 cannot in a brief space discuss the very vexed question as 
 to the precise opinion held by the Jainas as to this state 
 of Moksha. Was simple liberation, ceaseless and boundless 
 apathy, or utter annihilation the final goal of Jaina belief? 
 Jainas seem to have believed in the reality of elementary 
 matter; in gods, demons, heaven, and hell ; and, whatever 
 else, at least in the final release of the vital sentient prin- 
 ciple in man from all suffering. As time passed on, Jainism 
 became, especially in parts of India, grossly corrupted, 
 chiefly because probably of the influence the Brahmin 
 priests must have gradually acquired over those for whom 
 they ministered. Forexample, in Northern India the most 
 vuli^ar and repulsive Saivism became gradually mixed up 
 with the observances of Jaina worship. The Jainas then 
 he;i;an to worship Devi and Saraswati, and to erect the 
 images of the BhairovaH and lihaimriK, the cruel attend- 
 ants of Siva and Kuli, in their temples. 
 
 In conclusion, a word or two may he said of Jaina liter- 
 ature. It consists of Pitrdnaa, histories, legends, books of 
 prayer and ritual, and treatises on medicine, astronomy, 
 arithmetic, anti grammar. The chief Pitrdmis were prob- 
 ably composed by .lina Sena Acharya tn the tenth century 
 after Christ. One of the greatest .Jaina writers wasHcnm- 
 chamlra, who may have fliurishod at the end of the twelfth 
 century, about which time the Ktdpn Sutra is believed to 
 have been written. The earliest Jaina writing of any nolo 
 cannot probably be assigned an earlier date than the begin- 
 nin;; of the tenth century a. d. R. C. Caldwell. 
 
 Jakutsk. Sec Yakutsk. 
 
 Jal (ArfitSTR), b. at Lyons. France, Apr. 12. 1795, 
 studied at the marine scliool at Brest, and formed at Lyons 
 in Mar., ISl.'i, a company of cadets who hastened to the 
 defence of Paris against Napoleon on his return from Klba. 
 lie afterwards devoted himself to literary and artistic crit- 
 icism, accompanied as newspaper correspondent the army 
 which in ISilO conquered .\lgoria, and on his return was 
 plat'orl in charge of the archives of tl>e ministry of marine. 
 M. Ja! made several journeys for discovering manuscripts 
 in Italy, (ircecc, and Turkey, and wrote numerous works 
 of art-criticism, oaval and general history, avcbseotogy 
 
 (efip. Archeototfic NftvaU^ Paris. 1840, 2 vols.), and biog- 
 raphy, of which the most important was the DU-tuiunaire 
 Vi-iti<iu€ de JJini/riiphie f.t d'HUUnrc, a vast repertory of 
 documents and bio;^raphical materials intended to rectify 
 and supplement all previous works of tho kind. D. lS7;i. 
 
 Jalabert^ (CnAiii,i:s Francois), b. at Nimes in 1819; 
 studied under Delarochc and in Italy, and exhibited in IS 17 
 Virtjll readiuff his (Jcun/ia to Mrccenan, which is now in the 
 Luxemburg. Among his other pictures, Romeo and Juliet 
 and liiiphacl painting the Madonna di San Siato have be- 
 come very popular. 
 
 Jarap [Sp. Jafapa, from a city of that name, or Xn- 
 lapa. whence first imported in 1010], a cathartic drug, the 
 dried root of Sxofjonium purtja { Ipomacn Jainpa of llaync), 
 natural order Convolvulacea;. This is a climbing plant with 
 large lilac-purple flowers, growing in the mountains above 
 the city of Jalapa, state of Vera Cruz, Mexico. The root is 
 turnip-shaped or radish-shaped, blackish without, gray 
 within, varying in size from that of a walnut to that of a 
 good-sized pear. It dries into a hard brittle mass, and is 
 exported from Vera Cru/, in large bags, either whole or cut 
 into slices or pieces. Its active principle is a resin, con- 
 sisting of a hard and a soft portion, both upparently 
 equally effective medicinally. The percentage amount of 
 the resin varies in different specimens, and since the worms 
 that arc apt to attack jalap do not touch this ingredient, 
 worm-eaten roots contain more of it in proportion than 
 tho sound. Jalap is one of the milder of the drastic or 
 actively irritating cathartics. It produces watery dis- 
 charges, gripes, and in overdose may cause dangerous in- 
 flammation of the bowels. It is one of the most frequently 
 used of this class of purgatives, but, like other drastics, is 
 generally given in combination to reduce its harshness. 
 The "compound jalap powder" is a mixture of jalap and 
 cream of tartar. Jalap is an ingredient of the "compound 
 cathartic pill" of the Pharmacopceia. Edwarr Ctrtis. 
 
 Jala'pa^ city of Mexico, one of tho two capitals of the 
 state of Vera Cruz, is situated on the slopes of the Cordil- 
 leras at a height of I jOO feet above the sea, 00 miles N. W. 
 of the port of Vera Cruz and 140 E. of the city of Mexico. 
 Situated within a few miles of the snow-capped Orizaba 
 and the peak of Perote, halfway between the tJen-a caltmte 
 of the sea-coast and the tirrra tcntpl(i(fa of the central table- 
 land, Jalapa enjoys one of the finest clirautcs in the world. 
 It is the residence of the wealthiest merchants, native and 
 foreign, of Vera Cruz, with which city it will shortly be 
 connected by a railway, now (1875) nearly completed. Ja- 
 lapa is celebrated for the culture of its inhabitants an<l the 
 beauty of its females; it is the native place of Presidents 
 Santa Anna and Lerdo de Tejada, and has played a prom- 
 inent part in Mexican polities. It was founded in the time 
 of Cortes, who had extensive estates in the vicinity, and 
 was occupied in 1817-48 by American troops, at which 
 time a newspaper in English was printed there. The 
 moislness of the climate is favorable to a superabundant 
 vegetation : few spots in the world can more truly be called 
 the botanist's paradise. Sugar-cane and tobacco are cul- 
 tivated with great success, the silkworm is reared, wild 
 honey, vanilla beans, and the jalap root arc found in 
 abundance in the forests. There arc several cotton and 
 cigar factories, tanneries and potteries, government build- 
 ings and fine educational institutions, with a bishopric and 
 :i newspapers. It is gradually becoming known as a de- 
 lightful winter residence for American visitors. Pop. about 
 lo.OllO. (Sec Rivera's Historia drjafapa, 5 Vids., 1870-71.) 
 
 Jaley'(LEOS Louis Nicolas), b. at Paris Jan. 27, 1802, 
 being the son of an engraver of medals, by who m^ he was 
 guided in the study of sculpture. Entering the Kcole dcs 
 Beaux Arts in 1820, he twice gained prizes for statuary. 
 Returning in 1833 from a long sojourn in Home, his works, 
 exhibited in successive annual expositions, were much ad- 
 mired, and ho was employed to execute commissions for 
 the Museum of Luxembourg, the (hambcr of Peers, tho 
 Opera Comique, the Museum of Versailles, ami the Palace 
 of Justice. He was a member of the Academy of Fine Arts 
 and of the Institute. \). in I8GC. 
 
 Jalis'co, the most populous stale of Mexico, is bounded 
 by Sinaloa, Durango, Zacatecas, ami Aguas Calientes on 
 the N., (luanajuato and Michoaenn on the E., Colima on 
 the S.. and the Pacific on tho S. W. Area, about 60,000 
 square miles. Pop. 1,000,000. Jalisi-o was known as the 
 kingdom of Xueva Galicia during the period of Spanish 
 dominion, and was governed by the audiencia of Guadala- 
 jara as a province <lis(inct from New Spain or Mexico. It 
 was settled soon after the conquest of Mexico by Nuno de 
 (luzman, and was explored by Cortes and Alvarado. Il is 
 traversed by the large river fololotlan or Santiago, and in- 
 cludes the picturesque lake of Chapala and the volcano of 
 Colima. 12,000 feet high. The surface is diversified by 
 rugged mountains, with vast ravines or banancaa, the
 
 JALXA— JAMES. 
 
 i:;g;] 
 
 river-beds sometimes lyin^ between perpendicular walls 
 of nearly 1000 feet in hti^^ht. The climate varies accord- 
 ing^ to situatiun. but is adapted tu the cultivatiou of mo5:t 
 tropical product*, especially the sugar-cane. The harbors 
 are not commodious. Chief towns. Guadalajara, Lagos, 
 Zapotlan el Grande, and Tepic. Precious metals nrc abun- 
 dant, but are mined upon a comparatively j^mall scale. 
 The inhabitants arc in great part Indians of several dis- 
 tinct tribes. 
 
 Ja1na% town of Hindostan, in tbe dominion of tbe 
 nizani. has a strongly built fort and some manufactures of 
 silk, anrl produces large quantities of excellent vegetables. 
 Pop. 10.000. 
 
 Jainni'ca, an island of the West Indies, one of the 
 Cn-.a Antilles, belonging to England, and lying off the 
 IJav of Honduras, between the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf 
 of Mexico, between lat. 17° 40' and 1S° ."iC X., and be- 
 tween Ion. 76° \y and 7S° 25' E.. 'JO miles S. of Cuba. 
 Area. -UT.t square miles. Pop. .'>no,l'ol. of whom l.S.lOl 
 arc white, 101,346 mulattoes. and .".91.707 black. The island 
 is traversed from E. to W. by the Blue Mountains, from 
 7000 to 8000 feet high, which to the N. slope quite gently 
 down towards the coast, while to the S. they present a 
 range of wild and precipitous cliffs along the shore: they 
 send a great number of small, rapid rivers down both sides, 
 of which only one. the Black River, is navigable. The 
 scenery is everywhere beautiful, the slopes of the moun- 
 tains being covered with pimento groves or immense for- 
 ests. The south-eastern part of the island is lower and 
 more level, and here arc the principal plains, which are 
 mostly occupied with sugar-plantations. Tbe climate of 
 Jamaica is hot and unbi-allhy along the shores and in the 
 depths of the valleys; yellow fever visits these regions 
 every year. The rainy seasons occur in April and May, 
 anrl in Septemlier. October, and Novcmlier. They are 
 generally preceded by a stagnation of the atmosphere 
 which is very oppressive, and thon ushered in by heavy 
 thtmderstorms and hurricanes. Karlhquakcs are also fre- 
 quent, and have sometimes been very destructive, as, for 
 instance, in 1692 and 17S0. But at an elevation of 1500 
 feet the climate is healthfid and very agreeable. It is so 
 mild that coffee can be cultivated at an elevation of 5000 
 feet, and sugar, indigo, and other tropical jdaiits flour- 
 ish in the valleys. The forests are rich in bread-fruit 
 trees, mahogany, and cedar; the principal palms are the 
 cabbage-palm and the coconnut tree. Of wild animals 
 only the agoutis, iguanas, some species of monkeys, and 
 alligators are numerous. Hut the domesticated animals 
 of Europe, which have been introduced, thrive well. Since 
 the emancipation of the slaves the productiveness of Ja- 
 maica has docreased, and it will probably take many years 
 before the rich resources of (his island become fully de- 
 veloped. The following table sliows the development of 
 Ihc productiveness of the island, and tbe influence which 
 the emancipation of the slaves exercised on it in 1833 : 
 
 CofTec, 
 
 1797.. 
 
 180.x. 
 1.<11«.. 
 
 18,32.. 
 
 IftW G9.613.. 
 
 IRU MAM.. 
 
 IH-V :io,-ir,o.. 
 
 Sagnr. Ram, 
 
 bogvheKdii. punchcona. 
 
 ... S-i.lM 2«,746 
 
 ...|">0,3.->2 53,950 
 
 ..121.7.%8 
 
 ..n9r>6« .'50,827 
 
 9V'8G :W,68.^ 
 
 tba. 
 .. 7.809,133 
 ..24,i:{7,393 
 ..2.^..329.4.'iG 
 ..1f>,S19.7«i 
 ..19,8I.''i,010 
 ..i:iA".1.79.5 
 .. 7,I»«.775 
 
 .. 7.09*>,(i2;i 
 
 ...11.631 
 
 ...l.'i,992 
 
 While tho exportation decreases, the importation, par- 
 ticularly of food, increases. In 1870 tho value of ex- 
 ports was £I,2S3,000. and the value of imports £1,340,000. 
 Jamaica was dis^covered by Cidumbus May 3, 1494, and 
 the first Spanish settlement was made there in 1509. In 
 16.'>5 it was taken by the English, who retained it by the 
 treaty of Madrid in Ifi7if. In ISO" the slave-trade was 
 abolished, and in 1833 the slaves were emancipated. Tho 
 immecliatc results of this act were not good: several 
 hundred sugar and coffee plantations were left without 
 labor, and went to ruin, and in course of time the gen- 
 eral agitation threatened a serious revolt in I S6.'i, wliieh 
 was suh'lucd with severity. Immediately after the eman- 
 oipiition was completed (Aug. I. 1S3S) the planters asso- 
 i-iatrd antl put down the wages to the very lowest, while 
 they increiised the rent which the negroes had to pay for 
 their huts as much as possible. Tbe result was that the 
 nei^roes dcHcrteii the plantations and setlb'd in the moun- 
 tains. Chinese workmen were (hen imported, but without 
 success. In iSIC tho principles of free trade became vic- 
 torious in tho Tnilod Kingdom, and in the English sugar 
 and coffee market tree Inhor from .lamaiea had to compete 
 with slave labor from Cuba and Brazil. At last a series 
 of bad harvests briMighl the miseries of the ifbiud to their 
 culmination, and a wild race-war began, which was put 
 down by the English governor with great cruelty. Kovcr- 
 theless, since the emancipation the various missions, for- 
 
 merly annoyed by the planters, have had free scope for 
 their activity, and their exertions have been crowned with 
 great success. Between the old slaves and masters grows 
 up a new population of free citizens, through the agency 
 of the missions and their schools. The island is divided 
 into three counties; its capital is Kingston. It is governed 
 by a captain-general, appointed by the Crown, and an as- 
 sembly of 47 members, elected by the people. 
 
 Ci.nMENs Petersen. 
 
 Jamaica, post-v, of Queen's co., N. Y., on the Long 
 Island. South Side, and Brooklyn Central R. Rs., 10 miles 
 E. of New York. It has extensive farming and market- 
 gardening interests, and manufactures of carriages and 
 small wares. Many of its citizens do business in Now York 
 and Brooklyn. It has churehcs. an academy and good 
 public and private schools, gasworks, a public library, a 
 savings bank, 4 weekly newspapers, a firo department, and 
 fine public buildings. The township contains several other 
 villages, has S churches, and considerable manufactures. 
 Pop. 3791 ; of tp. 7745. 
 
 John O'Donneij,, En. "Jamaica Stanoaiid." 
 
 Jamaica, post-v. and tp. of Windham co.. Vt.. is miles 
 E. of Manchester, has a national bank and manufactures 
 of leather, boots, shoes, chairs, etc. Pop. 1223. 
 
 Jamaica, post-tp. of Middlesex co., Va. Pop, 1298. 
 
 Jamaica Plain, post-v., formerly in the town of West 
 Ro.\I>ury, Nurf»ilk co., Mass.. but now, with the rest of that 
 town, included in the 17th ward of Boston. It is on the 
 Boston and Providence R. R..3 miles frjini the city proper, to 
 which it w:is united Jan. I. IS7). Tho ward has 1 1 churches, 
 a savings bank, public library, a weekly newspaper, 2 
 rubber-mills, 2 carriage-factories, a paid firo department, 
 fire-alarm telegraph, and is connected by horse raiIroa(l 
 with the city proper. Mo^t (tf the inhiibitants do business in 
 Boston. C.A.J. Fakrar, Ed. " Wi:st Koxbiuy Gazkttc.'* 
 
 Jamalti'ca, an ancient city of Honduras, 20 miles N. 
 
 of Comayaguii. now consisting of ruins simihir in character 
 to those of Copan. Many rectangular mounds, like the 
 Mexican teocaitis, arc surmounted by the remains of edi- 
 fices, and throughout the adjacent valley fragments of 
 sculj>turo and well-painted vases are found. 
 
 James, count V of Nebraska, organized since the census 
 of 1870. 
 
 James, county of East Tennessee, having the Tennessee 
 River on the N. W. and Georgia on the S. Area, about 200 
 square miles. It has a fertile soil, well adapted to grain. 
 It is traversed by the East Tennessee \'irginia and Georgia 
 R. R. Cap. Ooltcwah. It has been organized since tho 
 census of 1S70. 
 
 James, (p. of Bibb co., Ala. Pop. 859. 
 
 James, tp. of Pottawattamie co., la. Pop. .109, 
 
 James, tp. of Stone co., Mo. Pop. 447. 
 
 James, tlic son of Zel)cdce [Lut. Jacobus: Gr. *Io»cu^^o?], 
 called THK GitEATi;i{,oneof the twelve apostles, and brotlier 
 of John. He was a fisherman on tho Lake of Galilee when 
 called to follow Jesus, and with Peter and John formed a 
 group distinguished from the other apostles by being tho 
 chosen witnesses of several of tho chief ineidi-nis in tho 
 ministry of Christ. Such wore (ho transfiguration, the re- 
 storation to life of .Tairus's daughter, and the agony at 
 Gothsemane. Jnmcs and J<din, with their mother Salome, 
 appear at one time to have oiilortaincd false views of tho 
 nature of Christ's kingdom, and to have aspired to a sort 
 of primacy, which was rebuked by Jesus; who on another 
 occasion gave the brothers the appellation of Boanerges 
 ("s(!ns of thunder"), perhaps at the time when (hey raslilv 
 invoked fire from heaven upon a Samaritan \illnge (Mark 
 iii. 17: see also Luke ix. .'>'_*). ,?amcs was the tir>t martyr 
 among tho twelve, having been killed by (he sword of King 
 Herorl Agrippa, A. n. 44 (Acts xii. 1 ). He is commemorated 
 in the calendar of saints by the Roiniin Catholic Church on 
 tho 2.'ith of July, and by the Eastern Church rm the 2.".d of 
 October. Cnder the name of Santiago (St. Jago) m-; Com- 
 posTEi.i.A he was venerated from an early day iu Spain 
 as the patron of tho kingdom. 
 
 James, tho son of AlphaMis, called rni: Less, one of tho 
 twelve iiposlles. His mother's name was Mary (Matt, xxvii. 
 .'»6; .Murk xv. 10), who is called (John xix. 2.'») •■ tho wife of 
 Cleoidias."aud is referred to in (ho same verso as a " sister" 
 of Mary, the mother of Jesus. Whether this Janios is the 
 same as " James the Lord's brother '* .spoken of by Piiul in 
 Gal. i. 19, has been much discussed, but the title of npnuth' 
 given to him in tho passage in question seems decisive. 
 N'everiheless, this view involves grave difficulties, and I>r. 
 Neandor (quoted in Mct^linlock & Strong's Ci/rfoptrdin, vol. 
 iv. 7.VI) pronounces this question to be " the most diflicult 
 in the apostolic history." Assuming the affirmative answer, 
 the must consistent solution of the apparent discrepancies
 
 1364 
 
 JAMES, EPISTLE OF-JAMES II. OF SCOTLAND. 
 
 in the New Testament references seems to be that advocated 
 in a. learned article in the Ci/rlopmilia quoted above— namely, 
 that the two Marvs. the mothers of Jesus and of .lames, are 
 called «,«(.'■» in John xix. 2.'> by virtue of their marriage 
 with t%yo l.rnf lu-rs. Jos.|.h and Cleopbas. If. then, Cleopbas 
 (otherwise Alpba-us) had died without issue, it became the 
 dutv of Joseph (according to the law found in Deut. xxv. 
 5) to marry his brother's widow, and the eldest son by such 
 marriage would be the legal representative of fleophas or 
 Alphwus, whose name he would bear. James the Less he- 
 eame the head of the Church at Jerusalem, and (according 
 to the above Iheorv) wrote the Epistle known by his name. 
 Early Christian writers (as Hegesippus) give hiin the name 
 of James Ihe Jmi. and a well-known passage ol Joscphus 
 ( lMf/./iii'(i.«, XN. !l. 1 ) describes his martyrdom, to which he 
 attributes the downfall of the Jewish power; but most 
 critics reject this account as an interpolation, ^otblng, 
 therefore, can be anirmed of the life of James posterior to 
 the scriptural references. Several apocryphal writings 
 have been attributed to James, of which one only, the 
 Pioleriiiiiii/iiiiii, derives some importance from having been 
 early known in the t'hurch. It is a mere parody of the 
 first two chapters of Luke, transferring, however, the events 
 to the nalivily of Mary. From this source the modern 
 doctrine of the immacuiate conception of the Virgin Mary 
 appears to have been ultimately derived. 
 
 Ja:iiCS, Epistle of, one of the canonical books of tho 
 New Tcslamcnt, the first of the so-called catholic Epistles. 
 It is ascribed to ■■James, the Lord's brother," who is gen- 
 erally identified with James tiik Lf.ss (which sec), though 
 many commentators contend that he was distinct Ironi both 
 the apostles bearing the same name. The Epistle is be- 
 lieved by the majority of critics to have been written sev- 
 eral Tears before the destruction of Jerusalem by the head 
 of tlic Jewish Church, and addressed to the Christians of 
 -isia .Minor. The style is elegant, and the Greek better 
 than that of any other portion of the New Testament. Tho 
 " doelrine of works," which forms its chief topic, has occa- 
 sioned more contniversv upon this Epistle than upon almost 
 any other book of the canon, it being regarded by soino as 
 irreconcilable with Paul's doctrine of faith. Though T.utlier 
 and his immediate followers rejected this Epistle, modern 
 Protest ants think it represents faithfully the practical teach- 
 in" of Christ, and find many analogies with the Sermon on 
 the Mount. The distinctive doctrines of Christianity arc 
 not alluded to, except by implication. The literature of 
 tho subject, which is very extensive, is reviewed by Prof. 
 Borsohlag in SluUten nnd Krilikcn, Jan., 1S74. 
 
 James I. of Croat Britain (VI. of Scotland), h. at 
 Edinbur-h Castle Juno 1',), 1 JOfl, was the only son of Mary, 
 queen of'Scots, bv her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord 
 Dirnley. In tho" following year, soon after Darnley was 
 assassinated (Feb. 10), Mary was abducted by Bothwell, 
 whom she married May 15; was imprisoned at Lochleyen 
 Castle in June bv her insurgent nobles, and forced to resign 
 the crown (July '24) to the infant James, who was accordingly 
 crowned at Stirling on July 20. During the stormy years 
 of James's ehildhocnl, passed at Stirling Castle, the regency 
 was suecessivciv in the hands of the powerful nobles the 
 earls of Murray, Lennox, Mar, and Morton, until, on the 
 overthrow of tlie latter in 1577, James nominally took the 
 government into his own hands, which was confirmed by 
 Parliament in I.^7S. His early education had been care- 
 fully directed by the famous historian and classical schol- 
 ar Georgo Buciianan, from whom he jirobably derived a 
 taste for learning which degenerated into a ridiculous 
 pedantry. Earl Morton regained power for a short time, 
 but wns beheaded in l.iSI on a charge of complicity in tho 
 murder of Dariilev, after which Arran and tho French fa- 
 vorite whom James had created duke of Lennox ruled until 
 Aug., 1 J82, when a party of the nobles sei-/.ed the king at 
 Uu7hven Castle, imprisoned Lennox, and banished Arran. 
 Tho civil war and court intrigues went on with a wearying 
 iteration of similar events for several years, during which 
 James made a treaty with Elizabeth, receiving from her a 
 pension (1585), unsuccessfully interceded for his mothers 
 life (15X7). co-operated with England in preparations 
 against the Spanish Armada llJSS), went to Denmark, 
 where he married the princess Anne (Nov. 24. loSfl). car- 
 ried on war with varying success against several Catholic 
 lords from 1590 to 1597. and bv the death of Eli/.abeth in 
 ir,0:i succeeded to Ihe throne of England, being proclaimed 
 Mar. 2 1 and crowned at Westminster July 25. lie presided 
 at the Hampton Court Conferences in Jan., 1G04: exiled 
 Jesuits and seminary priests; assumed the title of "king 
 of Great Britain, France, and Ireland" Oct. 24, 1004; dis- 
 covered tho " Gunpowder Plot" Nov. 5, 1R05; instituted 
 tb» order of baronets in Kill ; and lavisheil honors upon 
 tho unworthy favorites by whom he was directed, such .as 
 Carr made carl of Somerset io 161:!, and Villiers, raised I 
 
 through all the stages of tho peerage, from baron in lGlf> 
 to duke of Buckingham in 162:!. His son Henry, prince 
 of Wales, died in Uil2 : his daughter Eliiabeth. lium whom 
 the house of Hanover descended, was married in 161.1 to 
 the elector p'alatine, who became king of Bohemia, but lost 
 bis estates in 1620, at the outbreak of the Thirty Years' 
 war, through the failure of James to render his promised 
 assistance. Great efi'orts were made by James to obtain 
 the alliance of Spain through the marriage of Prince 
 Charles with a Spanish princess, and on the failure of 
 negotiations in 1624, declared war against that power, but 
 d. shortly after at the palace of Theobalds -Mar. 27, 1625. 
 The reign of .lames in England was distinguished by many 
 memorable events; it witnessed the literary and political 
 careers of Bacon and Raleigh, the disgrace of both, and 
 execution of the latter; the dramatic activity of Shak- 
 speare and Ben Jonson : the iranslation of the English 
 Bible; the colonization of Virginia and New England: tho 
 formation of two well-defined schools of English Prot- 
 estantism; and the genesis of the struggle between king 
 nnd commons which brought the head of his successor to 
 the block. James was despicable in his personal iiualitics; 
 was weak, cowardly, passionate, vindiclivc, cruel, super- 
 stitious, fanatical, and prone to fall under the influence of 
 worthless favorites. His learning was varied, though not 
 scholarly ; he published several books, which were niiic.h 
 praised by his fl.atterers, but have now only an historical in- 
 terest ; Essnya of n 'Prentice in the Dirine Art of Pite^j 
 (15S4) ATm'oilo/oi/i'c(1597), Trnr Line of Free Mmmrchics 
 (1598), naailihon Dnrcm (1599), Trtj.liei N.,(ln Triplex Cn- 
 nem (1605), Remonstrance for the liicjUt of KimjH (1615), 
 and CmmterblMt to Tobacco (1G16). (See S. K. Gardiner's 
 able histories of this reign, 1875.) Poutkr C. Bliss. 
 
 James II. of Great Britain, a son of Charles I., b. in 
 London Oct. 15, li;:;:',; becaino duke of York; escaped in 
 1648 from tho Parliamentarians and fle.l to the Low Coun- 
 tries; served with distinction under Tuiennc and Cond6 ; 
 was appointed bv Mazarin captain-general in Italy 1656, 
 in which year he entered the Spanish service and fought 
 an-ainst Turenne: was appointed in 1600 Ion! high admiral 
 of England and lord warden of the Cinque Ports; married 
 Anne Hyde, daugliter of Lord Clarendon, 1660; command- 
 ed. against the Dutch 1605-72; avowe.l himself a Roman 
 Catliolio 1669; married Mary of Este 167:i ; retired to tho 
 Low Countries during the unsuccessful agitation for ex- 
 cluding him from the throne; as lord high commissioner 
 for S-otland iiersecuted tho Covenanters 1679, and suc- 
 ceeded Charles II. 16S5. The great events of his reign 
 wore the insurrections of Argylo and Monmonlh (16S.i) ; 
 tho persistent attempts of tho king to overthrow constitu- 
 tional government and to establish arbitrary royal jiowcr 
 and tho Roman Catholic religion; tho declaration of free- 
 dom of eonscicnce as a moans to that end; the violation 
 of the privileges of tho universities: the imprisonment of 
 tho bishops for potilioiiiug to be excused Iroiu reading a 
 royal iiroclamntioii : Ihe establishment of new an.l illegal 
 tribunals; and the maintenance of a standing army with- 
 out leoal warrant. The whole nation became aroused; 
 William, prince of Orange, a cousin of the king, and Mary, 
 iirineess of Orange, the king's eldest daughter, were called 
 by common consent to tho throne; James abdicated Dec. 
 11, 16SS, and Hcd to France, but iii 1689 invaded Ireland, 
 bc'«ie.'ed Londonderry without success, and July 1, 1600, was 
 defeated at the Boync; retired to France, and qienl the rest 
 of his life in futile schemes for restoration to the throne. 
 D. at St. Germain's Sept. 16, 1701. 
 
 James I. of Scotland, son of Robert III., b. in 1394 at 
 Dunfermline; was captured by the English while on liis 
 way to France 1406, and imprisoned in Ihe Tower and in 
 Windsor Castle, and wrote the Kin,f« Quhoir and other 
 poems while in confinement; went in 1417 to France with 
 Ilenry V.; married Joanna Beaulort, granddaughter ol 
 John"of Gaunt, 1424 ; was liberated, proclaimed king, and 
 crowned at Scone 1424; restored order to Scotland, and 
 used so much rigor towards tho turbulent nobles that he 
 was murdered by their emissaries at Perth leb. 21, )4.i7. 
 James was celebrated for his courtly graces, his literary 
 aceomplishmcnts, and his excellence in athletic exercises. 
 
 Jamcf II. of Scotland, son of James I. and Queen Jo- 
 anna Beaufort, b. in 14:10, was crowned at Edinburgh when 
 but six years of ago ( 14:!7). During his minority the king- 
 dom was distracted by struggles for power between his tu- 
 tors Criehton and Livingston and the ■■ bouse of Douglas, 
 represented by three successive earls of that title. James 
 assumed the government in 1444 : made war w.tli England 
 144S; married Mary of Giieblres 1449: murdered William 
 eighth earl of Douglas, with his own band 1452: defeated 
 anowerful insurrection headed by the ninth earl; made a 
 treaty with Henry VI. of England in 14.^0, by w i.ch be 
 acquired tho counties of Durham and Northumberland, in
 
 JAMES III. OF SCOTLAND— JAMES. 
 
 13G5 
 
 considcratiou of supporttn;; the ho\i?c of Lanrasler in tho 
 "war of ihi' Ro?<s." nnj wns killed by the bursting of a 
 gun at the n'w^c of Koxburgh, Aug. 3, 1460. 
 
 James III. of Seodund, son of James IT. and Queen 
 Mary of rjuehlrc?. 1>. June 1, 1452. was crowned at KoNo 
 monastery on hi? father's death fllOOl. The government. 
 after the death of the queen mother (IIO.T) and of Risliop 
 Kennedy (1 Ififi). fell into the hands of the Boyd family, 
 one of whom married the king's sister in 1 Ifw. and was at 
 the same time created earl of Arran. Henry VT. of Eng- 
 land had taken refuge in Scotland in llfil, and involved 
 the Scolrli in the war of the Roses, which led to a league 
 between Kdwnrd IV.. the new Yorkist kini:. and the carls 
 of Douglas and Ross and the Lord of tl»o Isles for the par- 
 tition of Setdland, but the plan proved abortive, and in 
 1464 n fifteen years' truce was con-duded. James married 
 the princess Margaret of Denmark in MG'J. thereby acquir- 
 ing the Orkney and Shetland islands, dismissed the Royds 
 from power Ihe same year, and came under the influence 
 of the Hamiltnns: experienced several insurrections; im- 
 prisoned on ft charffc of witchcraft his brother, tho earl of 
 Slar. who soon died (14Sn) ; maintained a war with another 
 brother, Ihe earl of Albany, who lai<l claim to the crown 
 and was supported by Kdward IV.; was besieged in Kdin- 
 burgh Cattle, and reconciled to his brother (14S2); had to 
 waso another war against the nobles, who had pl.iced at 
 their head his son. Prince James (1487), and was cither 
 killeil in battle or murdered thereafter at Sanchie, near 
 Banoockliurn, in June, 148S, 
 
 James IV. of Scotland, son of .Tames TIT. and Mar- 
 garet of Ocnmark, b. Mnr. 17. 1472; joined the rebel- 
 lious nobles against his father in 14^7; was crowned at 
 Scono in June, 14SS; suppressed an insurrection headed by 
 Lords Forbes and Lyio IISO; favored the impostor Perkin 
 Warbeck, whom lie received at his court as king of Encrlaml 
 (1102). on whose l)ehalf be made war upon England (1406- 
 071. but finally concluded a truce for seven vcars, and in 
 l.')Oll married Margaret, daughter of the English king, 
 ILnry VII. In 151:'. he took offence at a supposed insult 
 from his brother-in-law, Ilonry VIII., invadcrl England, 
 and was defeated and slain at Flodden Field. Sept. 0, L'iKJ. 
 
 Jnmcs V. of Scotland, son of James IV, and Mar- 
 garet of England, h. at, Linlithgow Apr. 10. 1512 ; succeeded 
 to (ho throno under his mother's regency Sept. fl, 151^ ; as- 
 sumed the government ir)28: married Mndideine of France 
 ir>,''.7, and on her death Mury of Lorraine, dau^htrr of tho 
 duko of Guise, 15:jS ; met with sienal defeat from the Eng- 
 lish at Solway Moss Nov. 25. 1542; d. at Falkland Pnlaco 
 Dec. 14, 1542, and was succeeded by his infant daughter, 
 Mary, qu'-cn of Scots. 
 
 Jamps (Cn.\ni.ns T.), A. M.. b. at West flreenwich, 
 R. I., in I'^OI : stiulii'd mechanics while working as a car- 
 penter, an<l became an expert constructor of machinery for 
 cotton mills, of whifh ho erectr-d many in New England 
 ami (he Middle and Southern States. Ho was XJ. S. Sen- 
 ator fr(uu Rhrtde I-Iaml 1851-57, after which time he devoted 
 him^i'df (o invenlint: firearms, and wa-^ killed at Sag Har- 
 bor. L. I.. Oct. 17. ISC2, by the bursting of a shell. 
 
 James Francis Edward Stuart, b. in London Juno 
 1ft, I68S. being the son of King James IT. by Queen Mary 
 of Modena, and nutiiral heir to tho throne. In thn year of 
 his birth James II. was driven from power, and the rights 
 of (he infant prince were ignored by liis sif^ters Mary and 
 Anne, who successively occupied tho throne. Tho exiled 
 family fnind hoipitablo asylum at tho court of Louis XIV., 
 wlio. (in tho death of (he ex-kin'.r. immediately recognized 
 the prince as king of Oreat Rritnin under the title of James 
 Til. In 1708, Prince James sailed from Dunkirk in a French 
 flret, intruding to effect a landing in Scotland, but did not 
 execute that intenti<in. Under the ttoni-dr-ffiirrrc of tho 
 rhevalier of St. fJcorpc Ihe youthful "Pretender " fashc wa8 
 called in England) timk part in tho French campaigns of 
 17ft8-0fl aifainsi (he Enijlish in Flanders, for which reason 
 Parliament set a price of 100.000 crowns upon Ins head. 
 The prince's sister. Anne, designed to restore hini to th'^ 
 order of succrpsiou. ami niimorous statesmen of England, 
 among whom were Bolinghroko nncl Rishop Atterhury, fa- 
 vored Itis cause, hut his refusal to renounce ratholicism 
 was fatal to his profpeets. In 1715 (he Prftcndor wa-* in- 
 vite I to Scotlan'l by th" earl of Mar, landrd at Peterhead 
 in l>eceuO)er, passeil (hroutih Aberdeen, made a public en- 
 try into Dundee, au'l occupied (ho royal palace at Seone. 
 The enterprise, however, failed ignominiously. and the next 
 month (be Pretender retreafetl (o Franee, The rrminurler 
 of his life wa-< pa«^ed chiefly in Italy, he haviut; married 
 in 1710 a princesf« Sobieski of Pobmd. by whom he bad a 
 son, Charles Edward, h. 1720. tho "Young Pretender" of 
 174.'>. Prince Jame?. after \\'\n second fnihire, declined to 
 make nny further armed attempt upon tho throne of Rrit- 
 ftin, ceding his rights to his son when tho latter reached 
 
 maturity : he passed his closing years in pious retirement^ 
 at Rome, where he d. Jan. 2, 1706. 
 
 James ((ikorgf, Pavnk RAiNSF0Rn),b. in London, Eng- 
 land, in 1801, became in early life, partly through the ad- 
 vice of Washington Irving, a writer of romances ; was his- 
 toriograjdier of England under William I \\ ; became Brit- 
 ish consul at Norfolk, Va., in 1S52; Rritif-h consul for the 
 Austrian ports 1850; d. at Venice isfifl. Of his many nov- 
 els and other works, which once had great popularity, the 
 best arc liirhrficu (1825), Daruhif (LSItO), MtDinint of Great 
 Commnndern (18:i2), life oud Times of Louift A'/K'( 18^8). 
 
 James (Sir Hkvry). F. R. S., b. at Rose-in-Vale. near 
 St. ,'\gncs, Cornwall, in 180.1: was educated at tho Royal 
 Military Academy at Woolwich ; entered the army as lieu- 
 tenant of engineers; became colonel in 1857, and major- 
 general in ]8fiS. After directing the geological survey of 
 Ireland (1844). and the admiralty engineering works at 
 Portsmouth (1840^. he was appointed in 1852 superinten- 
 dent of the ordnance survev of the United Kingdom, and 
 in 1857 chief of the topogra])lncal and statistical depart- 
 ments of the war office. He was knighted in 18G0. Sir 
 Henry is principally known for his successful efforts to in- 
 troduce various applications of photograjdiy into ihe ser- 
 vice of the exact sciences. As early as 1855 he reduced 
 the ordnance maps h.v photography: in 1800 he availed 
 himself of (he experiments of M. Poitevin, of Mr. J. W. 
 Osborne of Melbourne, and of Mr. Asscr of Amsterdam 
 for applying the new processes of PnoTOi.iTiiofjitAPiiY (see 
 (hat article) to the reproduction of impntved ordnance sur- 
 veys. Oen. James has Fince invented a modification of this 
 process, known as photozincograjdiy. and by its means has 
 made a complete fac-simile in 32 volumes of tlie celebrated 
 Domesday /inolr, as well as of other rare and ancient manu- 
 .eeripts. The principal writings of Gen. James have been 
 On the Firjnrc, Dimeuniont^ and }frau Sprrifir Gravity of 
 the Earth, ns drrivfd from the Ordiiaiirr Tn'f/onomctricnl 
 Sarrri/ of Great Britain (in Phihm. Trans., 1 850) : Ordvanrr 
 Survrt/ ]'n Ireland (1855), in Seoffatid (1801). in Encf/aiid 
 and WaicH (1801); On Photoziurorjrapht/ and other Photo- 
 qraphic ProreHftfH (1802) : ^cco»n/ (f the Principal Trian- 
 qulation of the United Kinrfdom (1864); and Record of the 
 Ejrpedition to Abi/isinia (1870). 
 
 James (IlnNRv), b. at Albany, N. Y., June 3, 1811. 
 When twelve years of ago he suffered amputation of a leg 
 in consequence of an accident. lie studied in T'nion Tol- 
 legc and Princeton Theological Seminary ; went to Euro])e, 
 where he acquired Sandcmanian and afterwards Swcden- 
 bor^ian views. He resides a( Tambridfre, Mass., and has 
 published What in thr State? (1845), Irft^r to a Snrdeji- 
 borriian (1847), Moralism and Chrihtianiti/ (1852). Lreturet* 
 ami MiHcenanies (\^h1\ The Chnrrh of Christ (1854). The 
 Nature of Evil (1855). Christianity the I.ofjic of Creation 
 (1857), Snhntance and Shadow {\^<Si), The Secret of Sweden- 
 horff (1809), and other works. 
 
 James (IIouAcr). A. M., b. at Medford. Mass., May 0. 
 1818; graduated at Yale 1840; studied divinity at New 
 Haven; held pastorates (Congregational) in M'reutham 
 and Worcester, Mass., 1843-0:t ; chaplain 25th Massa- 
 chusetts Infantry 1801-04 : captain and A. Q. M. and com- 
 missioner of froedmen in North Carolina 1804-00; luistor of 
 First church, Lowell, Mass., 1807-711 : Second churcn.tircen- 
 wieh, Conn., 1871 ; also, since 18(i7, one of the proprietors 
 and editors of tho ContjreijationaliHt. D. June 0, 1875. 
 
 James (Jons Angem.). h. at Rlandford, Dorset, Eng- 
 land, Juno 0, 1785. was educated at (iosporl College, en- 
 tered tho ministry when seventeen years old, and was 
 (1805-50) pastor of the Congregational cliapel, Carr's lane, 
 Birmingham : was an able preacher and writer, and exer- 
 cised a wide influence in Europe and America by hi.-: nu- 
 merous religions works, of which (he best known are The 
 Anxioun Inqninr (I8:i4). Chrintian Frltoirnhip. and Chriit- 
 tian PrnfrsHur. D. at Birmingham Oct. 1, 1859. 
 
 James (Rorhrt). M. D..b. at Kinvor.«<ton. Staffordshire. 
 England, in 170:1; was educated at Oxford; practised as a 
 physician at Sheffield, Lichfield. Rirmingham. and Lomlon : 
 published, with tho aid of Dr. Samuel Johnson, a Mrdiral 
 Dirtiou'fry (J! vols. fo|.. London, 174:i-L'«), an<l invented 
 tho cebd>rated fever-powder known by his name, now called 
 antimonial powder, composed of o.xido of antimony and 
 phosphate of lime. "James's powder" xvas ono of the 
 earliest and mo«t successful prototypes of tho so-called 
 patent medirineM which have since acquired 80 great vogue. 
 D. 1770. 
 
 Jnmrs (Thomas), an English navicntoi* who in lOHl was 
 f-wi by a companv of merchants of Bristol to search for a 
 X.W. passage. Me explored Hudson's Ray. and from him 
 (he sou(hern portion is still called James's Ray. Capt. 
 James reachod lat. 05° .10' N., when his further progresi 
 being stopped by ice, ho returned to England. In 1CC3 be
 
 13G6 
 
 JAMES— JAMES KIVER AXD KANAWHA CANAL. 
 
 > published a quarto voliimp entitled The Strnniic and Oun- 
 i/ei-oui Vfn/ftf/c of Cttpt. TlttimtiH JamcH for the J)Ucovcrif 
 of a Xoflh-irest Pa9»(tije to tht South tSVrt. 
 
 James (Thomas Chai.ki.ey), b. at PbiladclphiainlTefi; 
 sluiliol iiHMlieine at the llniversity of Pennsylvania. After 
 taking a trip lu the ('ape of l!ooJ Hope as surgeon, he 
 stuilieil at Edinburgh anil London from IT'.Ml-'j:;. and 
 founded after his return a sehool of uiidwifery in Philadel- 
 phia; was physician at the Pennsylvania Hospital for 
 tiventy-five years, and professor of midwifery at tlic Uni- 
 versity of Pennsylvania from ISll to 1S:W. He enjoyed a 
 great rejiulation both as practitioner and as teacher. D. 
 
 July 2:>, \m:,. 
 
 James Bayou,po8t-tp. of Mississippi CO., Mo. P.fiGl. 
 
 James City, county of the peninsula of Virginia, hav- 
 ing James Kiver on the S., York River on the N., and the 
 Chiekahominy on the .S. W. It is unduhiting, and has a 
 soil adapted to raising grain and garden products. Area, 
 1S4 square miles. Cap. Williamsburg. Pop. 4426. 
 
 James Creek, post-v. of Huntingdon co.. Pa., on the 
 Huntingdon .Tn<l liroad To|i K. R.. 12 miles S. of Hunting- 
 don. It derives its |irineipal support from the mining of 
 iron ore. H. R. RiujiBAiGH, Ed. "Weekly Pilcrim." 
 
 James Island, one of the s;a islands of Charleston 
 CO., S. C, having Charleston harbor and .\shley River on 
 the X. The battle of Seeessionvillc (June 11, ISfi:!) and 
 several other spirited engagements occurred upon this 
 islanil during the late civil war. Pop. ISOS. 
 
 Jame'son (.Vwa). h. at Dublin Jlay 19, 1797, was the 
 daughter of Mr. Murphy, an artist of merit; was married 
 in 1823 to Robert Jameson, a barrister, from whom she 
 soon separated. Her writings upon Christian art and ar- 
 cha;oIogy are of a high order. D. Mar. 17. ISGO. Her 
 principal works are Dian/ of an EnniufCe (1S20), Lovch of 
 the Pods (i»29), Lives of Female Sovereigns (ISiil), Chnrae- 
 teristivs of Women (1S32|, Beauties of the Cnnrt of Charles 
 II. (18:i:i), Visits and SIcetehes (IS.'U), Tales and Miscel- 
 lanies (1S3S), Studies and Ilambles in Canada (IR.jS), Pic- 
 Inres of Social Life in llermani/ (1S40), a translation of 
 Waagen's Unbent (1840), Handbook to the Public Galleries 
 of Art (l.'<42). Conijuinlon to Priialc Galleries (1844), Me- 
 moirs of Early Italian Painters (184S). Memoirs and Es- 
 says (184()), S'li-rcd and Ler/cndari/ Art (1818). Leijends of 
 the Monastic Orders (ISoO), Lerjcnils of the Madonna (1852), 
 Commonplace Ilool; ( 18r)4), Sisters of Chariti/. Catholic and 
 Protestant (18jj), The Communion of Labor (1S6G). 
 
 Jameson (Charles Davis), b. at Gorham, Me., Feb. 
 24, 1827; removed to Oldtown at an early age, where he 
 subsequently engaged in the lumber business, which he 
 largely extended, and in ISfil was one of the most largely 
 interested dealers in the .State. A Democrat in polities, 
 and a Douglas delegate to the Cliarleston convention in 
 1860, he volunteered bis services in support of the national 
 governuunt on the outbreak of civil war, and was ap- 
 pointeil colonel of the 2d Maine Vols., the first to leave the 
 Slate, which he commanded at the first battle of Dull Run 
 with distinction, leading to his appointment in September 
 as brigadier-general of volunteers. In the Peninsular cam- 
 paign in Virginia. 1802, he commanded a brigade with 
 great ability, where he contracted the disease which ter- 
 minated his life at Oldtown, Me., Nov. C, 1SG2. 
 
 0. C. Simmons. 
 
 Jameson (Jonx Alexander), LL.D., b. at Irasburg, 
 Vt., Jan. 2j, 1S24; graduated at the University of Vermont 
 in 1840; was tutor there 1850-5.!, after which he removed 
 to Illinois; practised law, and became in 18G5 judge of su- 
 perior court in Chicago. He has published several legal 
 works. 
 
 Jameson (Robert), b. at Leith .July 11, 1774; was 
 educated for the medical profession at the University of 
 Edinburgh, but, devoting himself entirely to natural his- 
 tory, explored the Scottish islands as a mineralogist, and 
 published his discoveries in two volumes in 1798 and ISDO. 
 Dr. Jameson then studied for two years at Freiberg, under 
 the celeluated Werner, whose geological theories he warmly 
 espoused, and taught for many years from the chair of nat- 
 ural history in Edinburgh University, to wiiich ho was 
 elected in ISO I, having even founded a Wernerian .Society. 
 Later in life he abandoned his favorite dogmas as untena- 
 ble, and adopted instead those of Hutton. He wrote a 
 Siislem <f Mlncralof/i/ (.1 vols., 1804-08), which has passed 
 through many editions ; n Manual of Mincralot/)/ (1821); 
 numerous paper? published by the scientific societies to 
 which he belonged ; edited the geological department of the 
 Encijclopirdin llrilannica (4th ed.. 1819 seq.) ; founded in 
 1819, anil conducted through life, the Edinburgh AVir Phil- 
 osophicaljonrnal; and assisted Sir 1). Brewster anil Hugh 
 Murray in the preparation of many scientific treatises of a 
 popul.ir character. D. at Edinburgh Apr. 19, 1864. 
 
 Jame'sone (George), b. at Aberdeen, Scotland, in 
 ]58fi; went to Antwerp in 1G16, and studied painting un- 
 der Rubens. Vandyek was his lellow-pujol. and .lamesono 
 has been called the "Vandyek of Scotland" from the deli- 
 cacy, softness, and clearness of his coloring, though some- 
 what dclicient in vigor. Charles I. sat to .lamesone in Ifi.'iH^ 
 and he was largely patronized by the Scotch nobility, of 
 whom numerous portraits by this artist arc preserved. D. 
 at Edinburgh in 1CI4. 
 
 James'port, post-v. of Riverhead Ip., Suffolk co., 
 N. Y.,on the Tiong Island R. R., 78 miles E. of Kew York, 
 and on Great Peconic Bay. Pop. o23. 
 
 James River of Virginia, one of the noblest of Ameri- 
 enn rivers, is formed in Alleghany co., by the union of the 
 Jackson and Cowpasturc rivers. It passes through the 
 Blue Ridge, and jmrsucs a devious course as far as Scotts- 
 ville, whence its direction is about E. S. E. At Richmond 
 it falls 100 feet in fi miles. afl"ording a grand water-power. 
 Above this point the James River and Kanawiia Caxal 
 (which see) extemls, following the course of the river, and 
 embracing extensive reaches of wbit-h as slack-water navi- 
 gation to Buchanan. 190 miles. The tide comes up to the 
 Roeketts, just below Richmond. This is the head of navi- 
 g.ation for steamboats and schooners of 130 tons. Shipping 
 of the first class comes up to City Point, 40 miles below, 
 at the mouth of the Appomattox. Below City Point the 
 river is a broad, deep, ami never-failing tidal estuary, 06 
 miles long, and inferior to the lower Columbia and the Po- 
 tomac only among the rivers of the U. S. in the majesty of 
 its flow. The James River, with the Elizabeth and the 
 Nansemond, flows into Chesapeake Bay through Hampton 
 Roads, the grandest harbor upon our Atlantic coast. The 
 entire length from Covington, Va., to Old Point Comfort is 
 some 450 miles. 
 James River, tp. of Buckingham eo., Va. Pop. 303.1. 
 James River and KanaAvha Canal. This route 
 is a project contemplating, besides the existing canal, a 
 continuous line of water-communication from the waters 
 of the Ohio River, at the mouth of the Kanawha River, 
 Vi'. Va., to the w.aters of the Chesapeake Bay and the At- 
 lantic Ocean at the mouth of the .lamrs River. The idea 
 of a water-communication between the valley of the Ohio 
 River and the valley of the .Tames River has for its author 
 no less a distinguished person than George Washington 
 himself, though it is popularly supposed to have originated 
 with Gen. Spotswood. when on -Aug. 20, I 716, he set out 
 from Williamsburg on bis expedition over the Blue Ridge. 
 Upon the conclusion of the Revolutionary war. Gen. Wash- 
 ington was so impressed with the importance of a water- 
 line across the .Mleglianics that during the year 1784 he 
 made a personal exploration of the country, travelling for 
 that ]nirpose many hundreds of miles. It was largely ow- 
 ing to his influence and instrumentality that the legisla- 
 ture of \"irginia. on Jan. 5, 17S5, passed " an act for clear- 
 ing and improving the navigation of the .lames River." 
 By this act the first or old .Tames River Company was in- 
 corporated. This company was organized Aug. 25. 1785. 
 ami on the next day Gen. Washington was elected its first 
 president, which position he held for some years. Several 
 amendatory acts have since been passed ; and the present 
 company was incorporated in May, 1832, and organized in 
 1S35. This company commenced the eonslruction of the 
 present canal from Richmond to Lynchburg in 1S3G, and 
 the work was completed about Dec. I, 1840. The part 
 known as the second division of the canal, extending from 
 Lynchburg to Buchanan, was commenced in the mean 
 time, and completed in Nov.. 1851. An extension of 47 
 miles to Covington on Jackson River, a few miles above the 
 junction of Coivpasture River, was commenced in 1853. but 
 I remains yet incomplete. As the "central water-line " this 
 routceomes prominently before the public as one of the four 
 or five great lines of transportation by which the products 
 of the great West may reach the sea. This, indeed, was 
 a fundamental idea from the beginning, and as early as 
 1S2C-2S, Capl. McNeil of the U. S. engineers surveyed pas- 
 sages of the Alleghanies and the western extreme rlH the 
 tlreenbrier. New. and Great Kanawha rivers, and found a 
 location by which the siinimit was surmounted at a level 
 1916 feet above tide by a tunnel 2.0 miles long. In 1868. 
 .Mr. E. Lorraine, then the engineer of the company, advised 
 the adoption of a iicir location, which was about the same 
 as Capt. McNeil's, except that it pierced the mountains by 
 a tunnel about (estimated) 9 milesdn length, and rrducd 
 the elevation of the summit-level to 1700 feel, thereby 
 saving 34 miles in actual length of canal, and 2flJ of equated 
 I length, considering the saving of time in lockages and cost 
 i of working and repairs. The creation by this route of a 
 central water-line involved, besides the mere connection 
 I with the great fluvial navigation-system of the Mississippi 
 I Valley, an enlargement of the actually constructed portions
 
 JAMKS'S BAY— JANKSVILLK. 
 
 laiiT 
 
 of Ihia line. Ifcncc tho project involves — 1st, the en- 
 larj^omcnt of the existing ciinal from Richmtintl to Bu- 
 chanan : lid. the construction of tho projected and defi- 
 nitely-located portion nf the canal frorn Buchanan to tho 
 mouth of Fork Uuu ; 3d, the construction of t!ie canal up 
 Fork Run to the summit-level, 1700 feet above tide, under 
 tho Tuckahoe and Katis mountains, hy a tunnel 7. miles 
 Ions, and thence down the valley of Howard's Creek to the 
 Oreenhrior Hivcr; 4th. tho slack-water improvement of 
 tho (irconhricr. New, and Kanawha rivers to Paint Crock 
 Shuals (with occasional short can.ils to avoid expensive 
 location nf dams) : ;»th. the open slniccdam improvement 
 of the Kanawha Hivcr from the Paint Creek Shoals to its 
 junc^tion with the Ohio River. 
 
 This project was suhinilted Jan., 1874. by tho secretary 
 of war to a hoard of engineers consisting of ]\Ir. B. II. 
 Latroho, civil engineer, and J. G. Darnard. Q. A. (iillmore, 
 W. P. Craishill, it. Wcitzel, officers of U. S. engineers, who 
 reported favorahly as to practicability. Further surveys 
 were sugjif^sted, however, heforo the definite location of the 
 tunnel and the (ixing of the plans of utilizing the Green- 
 brier and New rivers as parts of the line. It Is probable 
 that those surveys will, besides determining an improved 
 location of the groiit tunnel, result In showing that an '* in- 
 dependent canal," instead of a *' lock-and-dam " naviga- 
 tion, must he resorted to along the (Trccnbrier and New 
 rivers. The hoard estimated the cost at $50,000,000. (Sec 
 E-r. One. S19. H. II. 1st scss. 4:ld Cong.; also Annual Re- 
 port of fliief ftf Entjineers for 1S74.) J. G. BAiiNARn. 
 
 James's llay^ the southern part of Hudson's Bay. lat. 
 b\°-U:>° N., Ion. 79°-82° 'MV W. It was named fn.m'Capt. 
 Thomas. lames, who wintereil here in 10:!I-;V2 while attempt- 
 ing to liuil the N. \V. passage It abounds in shoals and 
 islands. On its S. shores there are extensive marshy plains. 
 
 Jamos's Creek, tp. of Marion co., Ark. Pop. IS.*!. 
 
 Jamcs'town, post-v. of Clinton co., III. Pop. 120. 
 
 Jamestown, post-v. of Boono co., Ind.. on the Indi- 
 anapolis Bloomiugton and \Vcstern R. R., 23 miles N. W. 
 of ludinnapolis, lias -1 churches, an academy, benevolent 
 societies and Iodge«j, 22 stores, 2 flouring-mills, 4 manufac- 
 torii's, ami a weekly newspaper. It is in a fertile grain- 
 regtfm. Pop. 00:1. Francis B. Rask, En. " Commkucial." 
 
 Jamestown, tp. of Steuben co., Ind. Pop. 779. 
 
 Jamestown, ip. of Howard co., la. Pop. 312. 
 
 Jamestown, post-v., cap. of Russell co., Ky., ,0 miles 
 from Horseshoe Bottom, on Cumberland River. Pop. 1.18. 
 
 Jamestown, post tp. of Ottawa co., Mich. Pop. 1CI2. 
 
 Jamestown, tp. of Blue Earth co., Minn. Pop. 2114. 
 
 Jamestown, post-v. of Chautauqua co., N. Y., on tho 
 Atlantic and Groat Western R. R., 2A miles from the Dun- 
 kirk Allegheny Valley and Pittsburg R. R. It is on the 
 outlet of ("hatitauqua Lake, ou wlilch three steamboats ply 
 houi-e to May ville The outlet affords constant an<l exten- 
 sive water-]iower, which is well utilized. It has lOciiurclies, 
 2 werkly and 2 daily newspapers, .1 national banks, a union 
 school with a fine building and a colle;;iato department. 
 extensive manufactories of alpaca goods and woollens, .'i 
 of chairs and ;t of furniture, 1 saw and 2 grist mills,:! fur- 
 naces, .'> largo hotels, besides many smaller manufactories 
 and numerous stores. Manufacturing is the chief pursuit, 
 anrl flalrv business Is cxtcnsivciv carried on in the vicinity. 
 Pop. .■>:i:!'fi. D. H. Waiti:, En. " JoritNAi.." 
 
 Jamestown, post-(p. of (luilford CO.. N.C. Pop. 1539. 
 
 Jamestown, tp. of McDowell co., N. C. Pop. 412. 
 
 Jamestown, post-v. (»f Silver Crock tp., Grecno co., 
 0.. 10 inile.^ tVota Xenia. Pop. :)32. 
 
 Jamestown, post-b. of Mercer co,. Pa., at (ho junction 
 of the Eric and Pittsburg with tho .Vshtubula and Oil City 
 branch of the Lake .^horo U. R., 30 miles from Lake Erie, 
 has 2 banking-houses, a seminary, 2 hotels, u newspaper, 
 j elmrches, 1 foundry, 1 machine-shop. 1 (louring and 2 
 planing milli-, shops, largo stores, etc. Piip. .'i72. 
 
 D. L. Cai-kins, En. "SeN." 
 
 Jamestown, post-tp. of Newport eo., R. I., consisting 
 of the island of Cano.vicut (which seo), in NurragansoU 
 Bay. Pop. 378. 
 
 Jamestown, post-v.. cap. of Fentress eo., Tonn.. on 
 (he Cmnlterlaud Mountain. 4:'. mlh-s \\ . of Clinton, a station 
 on the Knowilleand Kentucky It. K. 
 
 Jamestown, tp. of .Tamos City eo.. Va. ft was tho 
 first permau'Mit English sotilemeni within the limits of tho 
 V. S. : was founded in 1007 on a peninsula 32 miles from 
 tho mouth of .Tames River. Va. ; it has now brcome nn 
 inland by the action of (ho current, wliich has oiirried away 
 a pttrtion of tlu- site of tho ancient town. Only the ruins 
 of the church, (ho fort, and of two or three houses mark the 
 spot which was first occupied by tho cclebvatcd band of 107 
 
 colonists under Wingfield, Ciiristopher Newport, and Bar- 
 tholomew Gosnold. Entering the Chesapeake wiih three 
 vessels Apr. 20, they sailed up the river, to which they gave 
 the name of the reigning sovereign, and on May 13 began 
 to build tho town, which also bore his name. Great priva- 
 tions were suflorcd during tho first season, and the settlers 
 were largely intlebtcd lor their preservation to the energy 
 and talents of the famous Capt. John Smith, who explored 
 the neighboring country, was captured by tiie Indians, and 
 saved by the intervention of Pocahtnitas. conciliated tho 
 savage cliicftains, ami obtained from ihem supplies of pro- 
 visions. (See Smith, .Tons'.) A second company of colonists 
 arrived in IfiOS, a still larger number under Sir Tliomas 
 Gates and Sir Gcf)rgc Somers iu 1G09, tho charter governor, 
 Lord Delaware, arrived with reinforcements in 1010, Sir 
 Thomas Dale brought 300 settlers and some cattle in the 
 same year, and in 1011, Sir Thomas Gates brought still an- 
 other company of 3;')0. By this time other settlemonts be- 
 gan to bo aiade. Jamestown soon became the capital of an 
 extensive colony, and in lOllt (.Tune 21)) a house of bur- 
 gesses, the first legislative assembly ever convened in lirit- 
 ish America, met iiere. In tho same year 1200 uott settlers 
 arrived, and a Dutch trading-vessel brought to Jamestown 
 20 negroes, who were sold as slaves. After the scat of gov- 
 ernment was removed to Williamsburg, Jamestown began 
 to decline; it was burned by Nathaniel Bacon during tho 
 rebellion of 1070, and never rebuilt. It was the scene of an 
 engagement between the forces of AVaync and those of Lord 
 Cornwailis in 1781. Pop. of tp. 1088. 
 
 Jamestown, post-tp. of Grant co., Wis. Pop. 1114. 
 
 Jamcs'viIle,]K)st-v. of Dewitt tp., Onondaga co.,N. Y., 
 on the Syracuse IJinghamton and New York R. R., has 3 
 churches and a number of manufactories. Pop. 402. 
 
 Jamcsville (Minni.F. Grovk P. 0.1, a v. of (Jrcoufield 
 tp., Saratoga eo.. N. Y. It has 2 paper-mills, and is U 
 miles from Ballston. 
 
 Jamesville, post-v. of Martin co., N. C, on the Roan- 
 oke River. Pop. IJO; of tp. 2530. 
 
 Ja'mi (ADDnnnAiniAN-BKN-.AnMnn), one of the most 
 celebrated of the Persian poets, b. early in the fifteenth 
 century at Jami in Khorussan, from wliich place he derived 
 the name by wliich he is best known. Jami belonged to 
 the mystical school of poetry, was a favorite with two or 
 three of (he sultans of Herat, where he resided and taught, 
 and wrote a large num.ber of learned works in prose and 
 verse, some of which have been so IVn'Innato as to be trans- 
 lated orcdited by recent European scholars. D. about Ml'2. 
 
 Ja'mieson (John), D. D.,b. in Glasgow Mar. 3, 17ol'; 
 was cilucated at the university of that city ; became a min- 
 ister (»f the Secession Church in Forfar, and was called to 
 Edinburgh in 1707. Besides many theological treatises 
 and several poems, he published a valuable Etj/inotiifflvnt 
 Dictionttrif of tfir Srotfi»h Ltnif/xof/f' (1808-09, 2 vols.) and 
 Siip/ifrtut:nt ( tft2;>), and other smaller works of philology 
 and belles-lettres. The doctorate of divinity was conferred 
 upon him bv Princeton College, N. J. D. in Edinburgh 
 July 12. 18.38. 
 
 Jananscliek' (Fanny), b. in Prague. Bohemia, .Tuly 
 20, 1830; was brought up to the stage, and from an early 
 age began to show a taleut for tragic rOles, which she un- 
 dertook, first at Cologne, then for many years (18(8-00) at 
 Frankfort, and later at Dresden and (he principal theatres 
 of Germany. i^Illc. Januuschek eanie to the U. .'^. iu 1807, 
 and acquired great popularity, though perfurniing in Ger- 
 man only. Returning ti» (Jerrnany in IS71,sho devoted 
 herself to tho study of English, and iu IS73 captivated tho 
 American public i)y successfully representing in English 
 tho mo^t di(rieult rflles of Shnkspearian tragedy. 
 
 Jane Lew, post-tp. of Lewis co., W. Va. Pop, 2171. 
 
 Janes (KnMiNU Smnrn), b, in Sheffield, Mass.. ,\pr.27, 
 1^07. His family early removed with him to Salisbury. Conn. 
 Having received the usiml common -school education of 
 Connecticut, he spent about six years (1S21-30) in teach- 
 ing. Mo studied law during three of tlieso years, and was 
 about to begin Its practice wln-n his fiilher died — nu ev<Mit 
 which led to a change of his whole life. He joined tho 
 Methodist itinerant ministry, taking his first ap)>ointmont 
 in the Philadelphia conference in 1830. Ho rose rapidly 
 in his new work, and occupied important ptitpits iu the 
 Philadelphia auil Now York conferences till IS 10. when ho 
 was elected financial secretary of the American Bible So- 
 ciety. In which oftioo he distinguished himself by extra- 
 ordinary energy and success. In IS It ho was elected 
 bishop of tho Mothoilisi Episcopsil (Miurch. He has l>een 
 pro-eminent for his episcopal labors and travels, and has 
 eontributeil much to tho renuirkublo success of his den<un- 
 ina(ion during the period of his episcopate. He resided 
 (187:)) in New York. D. in New York City Sept. IS, 1870. 
 
 Janes'ville, post tp. of Lassen co., Cnl., iu Honey
 
 i:368 
 
 JANESVILLE— JANSENISM. 
 
 Liikc Valley, 12 miles from Susanville, the county-scat. 
 
 Pop. -J 11. 
 
 Janesvilley tp. of Greenwood co., Kan. Pop. 259. 
 
 JaiiesvillC, post-v. of Waseca co., Minn., on the AVin- 
 ona iiii'l St. Peter U. K., lliJ miles W. nf AVinona, in tlie 
 '* iJig Woods;'' has 2 flour and '.I siiw mills, 1 clmir nnd 2 
 steam stave factorie.s, .'i hotel?, 3 churches, ji weekly news- 
 paper, and a graded school. It is in a fine wheat-region. 
 Pop. lit Ip. y47, C. E. GitAHAM. En. •* Aufiis." 
 
 .Inncsville, city, cap. of Rock co.. Wis., on both sides 
 of I'.iM-k Uivcr. and on the Chicago and North-western and 
 the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. Rw., 70 miles W. S. W. of 
 Milwaukee; has a daily, a monthly, a semi-weekly, and 3 
 weekly periodicals, 7 churches, a very large reaper-factory, 
 machine-shops, fine public schools, and a very large water- 
 power, utilized to a great degree. Boots, shoes, carriages, 
 etc. arc among the manufactures. The town, which is well 
 built, is the seat of the State institute for the blind, and has 
 excellent musical schools, 2 national and 1 savings bank, 
 and fine hotels. The I>reeding and dealing in horses is an 
 important interest. Pop. S7S9 ; of tp., excluding part, of 
 the city, 1)2G. A. H. Seymour, " (iAZETTE." 
 
 Jauet-Lansre' f Antoixr Lons), b. in Paris Nov. 19, 
 l.**18; studied painting under Collin, Ingres, and Horace 
 Vernet, adopting the style of the latter, with whom he was 
 associated in producing a series of designs illustrating the 
 history of Xapolcon I. He was from about 1816 the ar- 
 tistic editor of 1/ ffhistration Frnnrfn'se, and successfully 
 executed many battle-pieces. D. nt Paris Nov. 23, 1872. 
 
 JaneJ' (PAir.). b. in Paris Apr. 30, 1823; was educated 
 at the Kcole Normalc, graduating as doctor in letters in 
 1818; taught philosophy at Bourges and Strasburg; was 
 appointctl profes-;or of logic in 1S57 at the lyccum of Louis- 
 le-<!rand, nf history of philosophy at the Sorbonne in 1S64; 
 and was chosen member of the Institute in the same year. 
 M. Janet is a leading representative of modern French 
 philosophy, his doctrine being a reconciliation of the offi- 
 cial system of Cousin with that entire liberty of research 
 demanded by the most recent scientific school of psychol- 
 ogy. His writings are numerous and learned. 
 
 Jane'way (JAron J,), D. D., b. in New York City in 
 1770: graduated at Cidumbia College in 17U4; was or- 
 dained a minister of the Presbyterian Church in Philadel- 
 phia in 1799; was for some time president of the Western 
 Theological Seminary at Allegheny City ; afterwards set- 
 tled at New Brunswick, N. .)., as pastor of the Reformed 
 (Dutch) church and vice-president of Rutgers College, Dr. 
 .Taneway was one of the early promoters of Princeton 
 Theological Seminary, of which he was for forty years a 
 director. He wrote several esteemed theological works, 
 among which are the ApoHtodc Age^ E.rpottitlim of the Ada 
 nnd of the Epistlcit to the Romnun and the Hebrewa, In- 
 t'-nml Eridfnce of the Bible, and The Abrahamic Covenant, 
 D. at New Brunswick June 27, 1858. 
 
 Janin' (Jltles Gabriel), b. at St. Kticnne, Loire, 
 France, Dec. 21, 1S04; was educated at the college of 
 Louis-lc (Jrand, Paris; became a private tutor in fhcQuar- 
 tier Latin, and finally became a journalist, feuilletonist, 
 editor, novelist, and critic. He was at one time connected 
 with Fifjni'n, and afterwards with the Quotiflfcune ; was 
 one of the founders of the Remits de Paris and the Jour- 
 nal rh'H ICnfantH. D. June 20, 1874. 
 
 Ja'liiiin^ or Joriiinina^ town of European Turkey, 
 capital of the eyalet of the same name (the ancient prov- 
 ince of Epirus). It has important manufactures of mo- 
 rocco, leather, silk gooils, and gold-lace. On the opposite 
 shore of the Lake of Janina, whieh has received its name 
 from the town, lay the ancient Dodonn with its famous 
 temple. Pop. 25.000. mi>stly Greeks and Jews. 
 
 Jan'izaries [Turk., ''new troops"], a former corps of 
 Turkish foot-soldiers, first organized in 1329 by Orkhan 
 from young Christian captives, wlio were compelled to em- 
 brace Mohammedanism. For more than three centuries 
 the corps was forcibly recruited from Christian subjects, 
 though many Turks voluntarily joined it on account of the 
 privileges it enjoyed. The Janizaries at first numbered 
 1000; in 1362, Amurath I. increased them to 10.000, and 
 in the seventeenth century there were about 100.000 of 
 them serving in the line, besides nearly 400.000 Jamaks. 
 or irregular troops, attached to the corps. Tlie number of 
 regular Janizaries was afterwards much reduced. Endowed 
 by Amurath I. with remarkable privileges, they beeamo at 
 one timt: virtual masters of the empire. In 1;''12 thfv de- 
 jMised Bajazet II.; thev procured the death of Amurath 
 III. in 1595, of Osman II. in 1022. of Mustapha T. in ir.23, 
 <«f Ibrahim in 1019; deposed Mustapha II. in 1703, Ach- 
 met III. in 1720; slew Scllm III. in ISOT; deposed Mus- 
 tapha IV. in 1808. In 1820, Mahm-uid II., displaying the 
 banner of the Prophet, led the rest of his army to the attack 
 
 of the Janizaries. The latter were defeated, 8000 of them 
 were burned in their barracks, and some 15,000 were killed 
 in the streets. Their defence was brave, but fruitless. 
 Over 20.000 were banished during the next few months, 
 and the force was formally dissolved. This force. long the 
 terror of Europe, and under Solynmn the i^Iaguifiecnt the 
 best infantry in the world, had so changci] as to bo terrible 
 only to its own m.asters and to society at home, and its final 
 overthrow was a blessing to Turkey-. 
 
 Jankovacz', town of Austria, in the Temesvar banat, 
 has lu,070 inhabitants, mostly engaged in agriculture. 
 Much wheat, oats, and wine is produced. 
 
 Jan May'en's Land, an island in the Arctic Ocean, 
 situated between Iceland and Spit/.bergen, in lat. 70° 29' 
 N. and Ion. 7° 31' W. It is voI<;anic. Both its two high- 
 est points, Bcerenberg, 0040 feet high, and Esk, 1500 feet 
 high, are occasionally active. It was discovered in 1611 
 by a Dutch navigator, after whom it is named. 
 
 Jan'ney (Sami'el M.). a philanthropist nnd Hicksite 
 Friend, b. in Loudon co.. Va., Jan. 1 1, 1801. He has pub- 
 lished The Conntrif Schoolhnnne (poem.lS25), Conrersatioiis 
 on RelitfioHd Snhjectn (1835), fliatoriml Slcrtch nf the Chria^ 
 tian Churrh { 1 817). L ifc of Pcnn ( 1 852), Lift- of Fox ( 1 855), 
 Hiatori/ of the Friends {4 vols., ISO"), and other works, 
 both in prose and verse. In 1809 he was appointed one 
 of the superintendents of Indian affairs by Pres. Grant. 
 
 Jan'sen, or Janseniiis (Corvei.us), b. at Aequoi, 
 
 near Leerdam, Holland. Oct. 28, 1585, of liumble parent- 
 age; received a classical education at the University of 
 Utrecht; studied Catholic theology at Louvain in Flan- 
 ders; went to Paris in 1004 or 1005, where he formed a 
 close intimacy with Jean Duvergier de Ilauranne, after- 
 wards abbot of St. Cyran, whom ho accompanied to Bay- 
 onne, becoming the head of a college recently founded 
 there. In 1617, Jansen returned to Louvain: was made 
 principal of a college, and subsequently, in 1030. professor 
 of scriptural interpretation. At Louvain. Junsen speedily 
 became (1021) the chief exponent of a system of doctrine 
 which after his death received the name of Jansmnism 
 (which sec), and became famous in the religious annals of 
 Christendom; but during his life he was chiefly remarkable 
 for polemics and contests, not altogether devoid of worldly 
 rivalry, with the Jesuits, whom lie succeeiled in expelling 
 from their position as teachers of philosophy in the uni- 
 versity. In connection with this quarrel Jansen twice 
 went to Spain (in 1024 and 1625), where he obtained the 
 favor of the Spanish monarch, then the sovereign of Flan- 
 ders. In 1035 he published a work entitled .l/«»« <!<tlllru», 
 in defence of the rights of Spain against France in the then 
 impeniling war, and was rewarded by the bishopric of 
 Ypres. at which place he d. of the plague. May 6, 1038. 
 The last ten years of his life were devoted to the prepara- 
 tion of the work by which he is best known to posterity — 
 an exposition of the doctrine of St. Augustine upon grace, 
 free-will, and predestination — whieh was published at Lou- 
 vain as a posthumous production in 1040 under the title 
 AnquHtinns, ffu Doitriita AuffUNtinl de Uiimnnte Xaturie 
 Snnitnfr, j-EijritndinP rt yfrdicinn, nd versus Pflnffiniintt ft 
 .\faiifiilir,>Kra, and was reprinted at Paris (10-11) and at 
 Rouen (1043). Porter C. Bliss. 
 
 Jan'scnisin, the name of a school in the French 
 
 Church, so called from Cornelius Jansen, who flourished in 
 the early part of the seventeenth century. It represents a 
 cfmtroversy the most important occurring in the Romish 
 Chureh since the Reformation — a controversy whit-li began 
 not with Jansen. but whieh. existing in its elements and 
 showing tokens of itself at intervals from the time of 
 Augustine, broke out more openly near the middle of the 
 sixteenth centurv, and continued for a century and a half 
 to agitate the Romish Church ; arraying the Augastinians, 
 Dominicans, and the liberals of the (lallicaii Churcli on the 
 one side, and the Jesuits, Franciscans, nnd Ultramontanes 
 on the other. It arose from the diflieulty of harmonizing 
 Augustine's doctrine of grace with Ihc Romish and monkish 
 scheme of work-righteousness, and had manift-sted itself 
 even in the times of the ancient Church. But in 1507 a 
 defence of Augustine by Micliael Baius, professor at Lou- 
 vain, was assailed by the Franciscans and Jesuits, and 
 through their instigation seventy-six propositions gathered 
 from it were condemned by Pius V. as heretical, and Baius 
 was compelle.l to abjure.' In 1583 the agitation was re- 
 newed by Louis Midiua, a Jesuit in Portugal, who published 
 Semi-Pidagian views on the doctrines in controversy, for 
 which he was assailed by the Dominicans, but defended by 
 tlje whole Jesuit ordf-r". In the following century this 
 eontroversy culniitmted in the school of Jansen. A lecturer 
 on Seripture. devout with a tinge of mysticism, addicted 
 to patristic literature, and especially to iho study of Au- 
 gustine, he wrote a work, which was published after his
 
 JANSSENS— JANVIER. 
 
 i:;(;y 
 
 death, distinctly setting forth the doctrines of Augus- 
 tine nod Pclagiu.<4 from their own writingiii, by which it np- 
 pearcd that certain honored scholastic writersi and popes 
 approuched nearer the heretic than the saint. The Jesuits, 
 oiurtneil. iinineiiiately a^suik-d the work, and t^ccured its 
 prohibition by Pope Urban VIII. (1040)- It founti, how- 
 ever, many deicuders, amnn<; whvu, distinguished for learn- 
 ing and piety, werv Jean Duvergicr Ilauranne, abbot of 
 the IJenedietine monastery of .St. Cyran, and Anthony Ar- 
 naiild.an able teacher in the Surbonne. The bitter soon be- 
 came involved in an open controversy witti the Jet-uil.f, who 
 Ecrsuaded Innocent X. to condemn five Jansenisl theses as 
 eretical and dangerous. The defenders of Jansenism did 
 not assail the pope's decision, but denied that the theses 
 condemned were found in bis book in the sense in which 
 they were condemned. Arnauld was now e.vpellud from the 
 Sorbonne at the in>tigation of the priests, and took refugo 
 with his sister Angelica, abbess of the Cistercian nunnery 
 of Port Uoyal, near Paris, a gifted and attractive woman, 
 of gentle spirit antl earnest and spirilnul piety, and do- 
 voted to the monastic life. Through her inllucnce Port 
 Koyal became eminently a centre of religious life and 
 thouglit for France, and gathered at this time around itself 
 a corps- — living something in the manner of the old an- 
 chorites — of talented and devout young men, who admired 
 Augustine, detested the lax morals of the Jesuits, and were 
 enthusiastically devoted to tho liberties of the Gallican 
 Church. Id sympathy with these men the profound, witty, 
 and brilliant Blaise Pascal published in 106(> his celebrated 
 Pioihirial Lettern, In ivhich, with authentic proofs and with 
 equal earnestness, logic, and wit, he exposed the pernicious 
 moral casuistries and thcologic sophisms and infamous con- 
 fessional of the Jesuits, to tho derision and abhorrence of 
 the French public, Thry avenged themselves by procuring 
 a papal bull declaring that the propositions condemned were 
 found in the sense in which they were condemned in the 
 book of Janscnius. The Jansenists contended in reply that 
 the pope, hotvever rightly authoritative in matters of doc- 
 trine, was not infallible in decisions of questions of fact. 
 But Louis XJV. an4l ihc pope insisted that all ecclesiastics, 
 monks, and nuns should take the oalh of acknowledgment 
 of tho bull and of condemnation of the Janscnist heresy 
 (IGCJ). Those refusing were banished, and though sub- 
 sequently n milder subscription was allowed, the vengeance 
 of I ho Jesuits pursued Port Royal till in 1701) the institu- 
 tion was abolishoil, its edifices demolished, and its very 
 graves rifled. Meantime, tho Jansenisls. though in the 
 Augii::tinian doctrines of grace in Calvinistic theology 
 ami in earnest spiritual piety, manifesting an afhnity with 
 the Protestant reform, were ever the more strenuous in re- 
 pelling all suspicion of union with Protestants, denouncing 
 them for persecution, and asserting their own loyalty to 
 the Catholic Church. 
 
 A new measuro of violence proceeding from tho papal 
 court, hut instigated by French influence and the; Jesu- 
 its, renewed the Jansenist controversy in l/I^i. This meas- 
 ure was iliretrtcd against an edition of the New Testament 
 publishvd by Paschasius t^uesnel, a man of learning and 
 piety, and accompanying it with evangelical comment — a 
 work much beloved by the people and approved by many 
 bishops; among them commended by Cardinal Noailles, 
 archbishop of Paris, v%ith the approbation of Hossuct. The 
 Jesuits, haling alike the Jansenisl book and its commender, 
 contriveil to obtain, through the Jesuit confetisor of the 
 king, P(>re la Chaise, a bull from Clement XI. — the so- 
 calh'd constitution " L'nigenitus" — condemning as heretical 
 101 propositions from Quesuf-l's brtok. The issuing of this 
 bull, by which Augustine was virtually made a heretic, 
 divided the French Church into two parts — tho*'Accept- 
 anta." or receivers of this "constitution," and tho " Appel- 
 lan's." who appealed from it to a general council. Louis 
 an'i tin- pope deleriniued on its enforcement and the 4rxter- 
 niination of the Janscnists ; but Louis died in the midst of 
 the attempt. Tho <h'ath of Loni? and the inililTereuee of 
 the regi'Ut. the prolligatc and brilliantly gifted duke of 
 Orleans, gave the Appellants free scope for tho time, and 
 the bull of cxcouiUKinication issued against thrm in 1718 
 was without effect. Subsequently, however, tho duke, 
 under the influence of tho infamous I>n>iois, who sought a 
 cardinarn lint, and afterwards Louis XV., under tho insti- 
 gattou of his teacher. Cardinal Fleury, were led to perse- 
 cute the Appellants and in every way to oppress thorn. 
 Noaittis w.u* compelled to submit, and in 17.10 the "consti- 
 tution " was registered by Parliament as a law of the nation. 
 Under these persistent perseculionM a fanatical tendency 
 manifested ifself among Iho Jansenisls. A young Jansenist 
 clergyman, Francis, an abli^- of Paris, died in 17-7, a vic- 
 tim of volunlnry penance, hoMing " appellation " doou- 
 ments in bin bund. He was boni»retl by his I'ojlowers as a 
 saint, and numer(»ns miracles were reported lo be effected 
 at his tomb in tho graveyard of Medardus near Paris, which 
 
 became in consequence the resort of a multitudo of pil- 
 grims. These were wrought to a wild fanaticism, mani- 
 festing itself in convulsions and contortions of the body 
 and in raving prophecies against the Church and State. 
 The contagion seized on even the frivolous and unbeliev- 
 ing. In vain the govcrnn»ent in 17;>2 walled up the church- 
 yard; the earth stolen from (he grave of the saint still 
 wrought miracles and convulsions. Thousands of coinul- 
 aioiinatrcs were then thrown into prison, and the sacra- 
 ments were refused to the dying who were not *• accept ants" 
 of the constitution. Vnder these severities Jansenism, 
 which had passed from a thcologic system to a popular 
 fanaticism, gradually declined. The controversy meantime 
 broke out atVesh when the archbishop of Paris refused the 
 sacrament to the dying regent as a non-acceptant ; but 
 peace was finally mediated by a mild letter of Benedict 
 XIV. (17o6). 
 
 Since then Jansenism has disappeared as a distinct 
 school or sect in France, though it ha<l many adherents 
 down to the Revolution, and has left jicrmanent results in 
 the French mind, which it has largely imbued. It has 
 propagated itself in a peculiar ecclesiastic organization in 
 tho Netherlands in tho archbishopric of Utreclit, which 
 embraces some Iweti(y-five congregations, and has lately 
 coalesced with the "Old Catholic" movement in Kurope. 
 The element of earnest spirituality in Jansenism has ex- 
 tended widely through various mystical writers and schools, 
 and its freer ecclesiastic ami thcologic spirit has diffused 
 ftself as a liberalizing influence through the clergy of 
 Italy, Germany, and the (lallican Church. T. M. Post. 
 
 Jans'sens fABR\nAM). b. at Antwerp in 1567 or 15^9; 
 was a pupil of the painter Jan Snellinck; studied in Italy, 
 anil enjoyed eonsideralile reputation at Antwerp for his 
 skill as a eolorist, in which he rivalled Rubens. Many of 
 Jansscns* works arc to be seen in the churches of Flanders 
 and the galleries of Antwcr|) and Vienna. The torchlight 
 scenes arc especially famous. D. about 1631. 
 
 Janun'rius, Saint, b. at Naples or Bcncvento Apr. 21^ 
 272 ; was made bishop of Bcncvento about .103, and during 
 the jierscciition by Diocletian was beheaded as a martyr at 
 Pozzuoli Sept. I'J, ,305. Two phials filled with his blood 
 were preserved, and tho body was ultimately brought to 
 Naples, whore these relics arc stiU shown in the church of 
 Santa Cbiara. St. Januarius is the patron saint of Naples. 
 On his anniversary (Sept. 19J tho relics are brought out, 
 when the blood in the phials suddenly becomes litjuid and 
 bubbles up. This is of course esteemed a miracle by the 
 populace, and cUiimcd as such by tho clergy, though it has 
 never been formally sanctioned by tho Church. I^Iuch 
 speculation has been exorcised in devising scientific hy- 
 potheses to account for the phenomena in question. 
 
 Jan'uary [Lat. Januayius, from Jaum, tho god who 
 presided over the origin of things], tho firsi month of tho 
 year in the tircgorian calendar; according to lir)man tra- 
 dition, first added to the calendar by Numa, along with 
 February. It had originally 21) days, to which two more 
 were added by Julius Ciesar when he refornicil tho conipu- 
 tation of time. It corresponded in the (IrceU calendar to 
 the latter half of Poscideon and the first half of (lamelion ; 
 was known by the Scandinavians as the month of Thor, 
 and in tho French Revolutionary calendar it formed part 
 of A7ro«c and Plun'osc. In England. January was mado 
 the first month of tho year by act of Parlianitnt of 1751. 
 
 Ja'nus [for Ditinun, from '/iV". "day '*]. and Ja'na [for 
 /)iVrji«*]. two gods of ancient Rome, were originally per- 
 sonifications of Iho sun ami moon. The nnnie./ntMr is sel- 
 dom seen, tho form J)inun being much more common. 
 Janus was early identified with tho Ktrusean two-faced 
 god. Hence Jtiints ffi/roii», " the two-faced Janus," which 
 Nicbuhr thinks at first symbolized the union of the Ro- 
 mans and Sabines. Janus presided over the beginninir of 
 all things, and was one of the most important of the Ro- 
 man divinities. There was a famous gateway containing 
 a statue of Janus Rifrons, and leading from the Palatine 
 to iho Quirinal Hill. This passage was closed only in 
 limes when Rome was at peace with all nations. This 
 closure occurred, wo arc tohl, but four times in all the Ro- 
 man history. First it was closed in Numa's titne; next, 
 at the end of the First Punic war: again in the days of 
 Augustus C«?snr; and lastly under Vespasian. 
 
 Janvier' (Lkvi), I>. D.. b. at Pillsgrove. N. J.. Apr. 25, 
 Islii; was educated at Laliiyetlennd Princeton colleges and 
 Princeton The<ilogieal Seminary; went to India as a mis- 
 sionary <»f the Presbyterian Hoanl in l^^ll : sellled in Lo- 
 <liana in Northern India : soon acquired tho Trdu language, 
 ami translated books and (racis into it. With I'r. Newton 
 he eoinpilo<l a Panjauhi dictionary, printed in ISJI.and 
 
 Imrsueil a career of eminent activity and usefulness until 
 10 was assassiuatod, Mar. 25, 18G4, by a fanatic Sikh.
 
 1370 
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 Japan. As the marvellous story of the empire of 
 Japan mav be traceJ thioHgh more than twenty-five cen- 
 turies, all that can be done in a single article is to toneh 
 upon the more iniporlant points of its geography and his- 
 tory WhiHt »e look with amazement upon tiio recent 
 developm.'nts in thai highly favored land of the Orient, wc 
 shall ilso find that there has always been something allied 
 to" the wonderful in its career, whether we consider its 
 physical characteristics, its people, or its government. 
 
 This empire lies in the north-western part of the 1 aciho 
 Ocean, and consists of four large i.slands ami a gnat num- 
 ber of smaller ones. It is separated on the \\ . from f orea 
 by a strait which is about 100 miles wide: at its iiorth- 
 wV^tern e.Nlremitv is the island of Tisima. or "the Thou- 
 sand Mauds:" ind at the N. is the island of krafto or 
 Si^halien, which has long been held jointly by the Japan- 
 e^e^and Russian governments, but now. according to a re- 
 cent agreement, is held by Russia alone. The UrtfQSt o{ 
 the islands which compose the empire is commonly called 
 A'/«m. or X/)/-.-.!— which name in reality belongs to the 
 whole country— and contains about ;).'..nOO square miles. 
 The second is rc«..o. with about SO.OOO square miles; the 
 third K!ii«hi, with 16,000 square miles; and the fourth is 
 S:/.-',!.: with an area of 10,000 square miles. The total 
 length of the empire is 1000 English miles, its greatest 
 breadth a little more than L'OO. the number of islands .38.)0, 
 and the entire area is estimated at about 130.000 square 
 miles— all these figures being gathered from the latest of- 
 ficial statistics. The sea-coasts are generally bold and 
 rocky, and indented with very numerous bays forming spa- 
 cious and secure harbors. The poetical title by which the 
 .Tapan^se designate their country is "The Land of the 
 Risin" Sun." which well describes its location as the most 
 eastern of all the Asiatic empires, and their national cm- 
 
 Tho theory 
 
 blem 
 th 
 
 em represents the sun rising out of the sea. The theory 
 at .America was originally peopled by .J.apanesc. who 
 were driven by stress of weather across the Pacific Ocean, 
 is not only interesting, but ehiimed by many to bo sus- 
 tained by historical facts and traditions. That much of 
 what parses as authentic history among the Japanese is 
 mythical cannot be questioned, but there seems to be no 
 reason to question the truthfulness of the statements which, 
 with the help of Japanese scholars, the present writer has 
 been able to cull from their history. 
 
 The empire is partitioned into five ki'cs, or departments, 
 which surround the imperial capital, and eight *;» orlarge 
 divisions. The names of the former are Vtimnmo, ) ninn- 
 to, KawK-h!. Miiiiir. and Scll«i, : while the latter, with the 
 five kies, comprise i*l provinces, and the names of the dos 
 are Tohuiln. w\lh 15 provinces: ro.niir/o, with 13; Ho- 
 hnnrnl-iU,. with 7; Siuiiixln, with S: SiuiifofU. with 8; 
 jV,iii/,n/./o, with fi; S,i:i:„:dn. v\t\\ 9; and //.,/.-., Wo. with 
 11 provinces. In the vicinity of Saikaido are also two 
 islands, each of which constitutes a province. The divis- 
 ions which in this country are called counties number Kilo. 
 In ISrtS the empire was divided into 3 political departments, 
 the first of which enibraccd three /"os— viz. Saikeo, or the 
 wes'ern capital : Tokci or Yedo, the eastern capital, and 
 Oi-xVa.: the second consisted of 38 kem ; and the third of 
 350 hiiiif. 
 
 Extending from one extremity of Japan to the other, 
 across all its prominent islands, are mountains, many of 
 them of volcanic origin and of great elevation. The highest 
 of these, called Fusiyama, is about SO miles from >edo, 
 is 1 1,170 feet high, and has a summit covered with perpet- 
 ual snow. It is an extinct volcano, the last eruption hav- 
 in" taken place in 1707. There are also thirteen other 
 lofiy peaks, bearing the n.ames of Tookiyama. or " Moon 
 Mountains;" O.laki : Xicquozan. or" .Sunbeam Mountain ;" 
 Online, or " Crcat Peak;" Sirayama. or "White .Moun- 
 tain;" Totevaina, or "Standing Mountain;" Kirisima, or 
 "Fog Island;" .\so7.an ; Taukooh.ayama; Onsendaki, or 
 "Hoi Spring:" Asaw.ayama : Tourimiyamn: and Iwakc- 
 yama. The most extensive range, known as the Ilaknni, 
 attains an elcva'.ion of OOOO feet, and traverses the island 
 of Nipon from E. to W. There are many volcanoes, 
 and earthquakes are of frequent occurrence, but chielly in 
 the uorlh-easfcrn parts. The mountains of Ycsso rise to a 
 height of SOOO feet, and a large part of the country is un- 
 explored and covered with forests. The rivers of Japan 
 arc numerous, but short, on account of the mountains 
 which send the waters in different directions. They arc 
 generally shallow, subject to great freshets during the rainy 
 season, and their mouths are frequently obstructed by sand- 
 bars. The three largest are Torregawa, Sinanogawa, and 
 Kisogawn; and next to these come Oypegawa, Fouzigawa, 
 .-^akagawa, and Okumagawa. The only fresh-water lake in 
 the empire of any size or importance is near the city of 
 Miako. It is 10 geographical miles wide and ^5 miles long, 
 and is called liiwako or Lake Omi. Small lakes or ponds 
 abound, and hot springs are to be found in various parts of 
 
 the island of Nipon. The cities of Japan are numefons 
 Two of them have become famous because selected as cap- 
 itals— Miako or Saikio. the western capital, and Tokei, 
 commonly called Yedo, the eastern capital. The first, which 
 has never been open to foreigners, lies in lat. iii" 05' N. 
 and Ion. 1° 10' W.. and was the ancient seat of govern- 
 ment, dating its origin from A. n. 7»4. It stands on a 
 plain, is surrounded with mountains, and directly through 
 the centre runs the river Kano, noted for the purity of its 
 water. It contains :17J.000 inhabitants, and. though small 
 when compared with the modern capital, is a place of great 
 interest. It is entered by six principal roads. Its streets 
 are clean, its temples, which may be counted by the hun- 
 dred, arc beautiful, and its silk-factories have a wide repu- 
 tation. The city of Tokei lies in lat. ".5° 36' N, and Ion. 
 1.19° 40' E., and in nuignitude ranks next to Pekin in 
 China. In ISOl it claimed to have about 1.500,000 inhab- 
 itants, but the population is now considerably less. While 
 it has decreased in numbers, it has increased in commerce. 
 Its "ardens and open spaces are numerous, and give it an 
 air of comfort and freedom which is unusual. It is inter- 
 sected by many canals, and its bridges are nnmerous. 
 .•\s the present capital and residence of the imperial court, 
 it is the meeting-place of the national legislature, called a 
 Parliament : it also has a well-endowed college, a governor 
 and police force of 3000, is supplied with hospitals and 
 asylums for infants and paupers, and by means of railroads 
 and telegraph-lines is daily facilitating its communication 
 with the'cnlire country. It became an open port in 1SB9. 
 The second largest city in Japan is Osaca, on the island of 
 Nipon. It is both an open port and the one through which 
 Miako communicates with the ocean, from which it is dis- 
 tant "3 miles. Its canals and bridges arc very nnmerous, 
 the latter often very handsome. It has an extensive trade 
 and is well fortified. The next city in size is Yokohama, 
 and is the successful rival of an older place in the imme- 
 diate vicinity known as Kanagawa. It is on the Ray of 
 Y'edo. 20 miics from the capital, and within the last few 
 years' has become the most important seaport in the em- 
 pire. The harbor is spacious and secure. an4 is supplied 
 with commodious piers, the accommodations being exten- 
 sive, and the prevailing modes of living and of business 
 giving to it the aspect of a port of the Western World. The 
 next city of importance is Nagasaki, located on the island 
 of Kiusiu. Its harbor is very large and perfectly secure. 
 This was the first port ever opened to foreigners in Japan, 
 and a large trade has been carried on there by the mer- 
 chants of China and of Holland, where they have for a 
 long time been permitted to locate factories. The other 
 principal cities of Japan are Ncigata. nn open port, on the 
 N. E. coast of Nipon ; Kobe, also an open port, near Osnca ; 
 HokodaiC'. the open port of the island of Yesso : and .^taki, 
 formerly a pl.acc of importance and open to foreigners, hut 
 now holding no commercial intercourse with the outside 
 world. 
 
 The climate of Jap.an is unequal, but as a general rule 
 the central and most densely populated portion is mild and 
 agreeable. In the extreme S.. however, the heat is often op- 
 pressive, while in the island of Ycsso the mercury occasion- 
 ally sinks far below zero, and snow falls to a great depth 
 on'the mountains and in the valleys. The sun during the 
 hottest days is much less debilitating than on the coast of 
 China or in India, and as to the general conditions of salu- 
 brity, the empire is highly favored. The autumn is a kind 
 of second summer, the months of October and November 
 bein" the most pleasant and genial of the entire year, and 
 ampfy compensating for the heat and frequent rains of 
 May and June. A marked difTercnee is said to exist be- 
 tween the climates of the eastern and western coasts of 
 Nipon. the latter being much colder, and receiving a greater 
 fall of snow, than the former; and this is attributed to the 
 fact that on the E. there is a broad belt of warm water flowing 
 constantly to the N. E., while the Japan Sea has a cold 
 current constantly setting towards the S. W. from the Sea 
 of Okhotsk. The month of September usually brings with 
 it rouHi weather and those fearful hurricanes, called ty- 
 phoons, which do the greatest damage along the eastern 
 coast of the empire; and. as Japan is a land of earth- 
 quakes, it is said that they have had a palpable influence 
 on the climate of the empire. 
 
 The most ancient name by which the empire was known 
 was Y„m,ti't7Amn. meaning "east of the mountains." Its 
 present name is a corruption of Jipunquo. which is of 
 Chinese origin, an.l means, as we have already stated the 
 " Country at the Root of the Sun." or the " Land of the 
 because, when so named, it was the most 
 
 used in 
 
 Sun,' 
 
 Rising , ^^. 
 
 eastern in the known world; and Nipon. now 
 Oriental countries, is the Chinese pronunciation ol the 
 samo name. The true origin of its people i« h.sl in tradi- 
 tion or fable— it is claimed that prior to the first emperor 
 it had existed 2479 years— but it dates its chronological
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 i:J71 
 
 history back to (ho year 667 before tho Christian era. The 
 first man of note connected with the empire of whom any- 
 thing; is actually known was Zinmii, who^ after a career of 
 conquest, estuUlislRnl himself at the foot of the vulcanic 
 niounLain called Kercsomi in the province of Fui;a. From 
 that point he extende«l his explorations and sway through 
 the entire lent^th of tho Japanese territory, and is repre- 
 sented as civilizin'; the nation and reforming the existing 
 laws and povcrnnu-nt. The credit is also awarded to him 
 of having divided time into months and years, and in his 
 
 SersoD WHS vested the office of high priest, representative of 
 [enven. and emperor or mikado, lie established his cap- 
 ital at Kasiwabara in Yaraato, but tho location of the cap- 
 ital was frequently changed by (he succeeding emperors (o 
 the various provinces of Vamato. Omi, Setten, Nagato. and 
 Kawadi, and after NiU years from the time of Zinmu it 
 was fixed at Saikio, or Miako, in tho province of Yamaciro; 
 but after the revolution of 1867 it was located at Tokei or 
 Vcdo. The total numl»cr of emperors who have reigned 
 over Japan in an nniiroken line is 124. From tho earliest 
 times down to the present they were called mikados, al- 
 though for about 600 years the men who actually admin- 
 istered the government were culled shiogoons or tycoons; 
 and it was in the year IS6r that tho mikado or tenno re- 
 sumed his ancient privileges. To give a minute account of 
 all the emperors and shiogoons of Japan, and of tho deeds 
 which charaeterizcd their several reigns, is quite impossi- 
 ble; all that can be done in these pages is to present a 
 Bumnmry of the most distinguished persons of tho empire, 
 together with a passing notice of tho more important events 
 with which their names are associated. One fact which 
 the reader should bear in mind is this — that tho position 
 of emperor of Japan has always been hereditary and his 
 persjQ venerated, and while many sovereigns may have 
 been comparatively powerless, the lino of descent has been 
 unbroken. In tho person of the mikado Zinmu, tho founder 
 of the line, vested the oflieo of high priest, representative 
 of Heaven, and ouiperor, and hence (ho modern idea of 
 calling him the spiritual head of the nation. Another im- 
 portant fact to bo remembered has reference to the title of 
 shiogoon or tycoon. The possessors of this dignity were 
 merely military chieftains who by intrigue or personal 
 prowess acquired sway over the people. Tliey belonged to 
 various families, and tho rivalries which naturally existed 
 among them were the cause of tho bitter wars which pre- 
 vailed in Japan for Iiundrcds of years. They never failed, 
 with the jteople, to respect the ofiice or position of tho 
 hcreilitary monarch, but while they wielded power they in- 
 spired fear rather than veneration. From the earliest 
 period in the history of tho empire mention is mado of 
 three things which necessarily appertained to the person 
 who sat upon the throne — viz. a sword, a mirror, and a 
 ball of crystal. These are known by tho nauio of Saiijioo 
 •»" )'"]'* "■"*! considered as symbols of the imperial power. 
 Tho emperor Su-jin-tenno, who lived in b. r. 97, was the 
 la:*t ruler of Japan prior to the commencement of tho 
 Christian era. He built a Sinlu temple in Isse, establicshed 
 an army over which ho placed four generalissimos, ordered 
 tho first census of Nipon and Kiusiu. levied taxes for the 
 
 fmrposo nf building hirge ships, ordered tho draining of 
 ftkcs for irrigation, and was tho first ruler to open iuter- 
 courso with Corca. His successor was Sui-nin-tenno. who 
 aacended tho throne in A. n. 6. Hn acquired distinction by 
 aboltsliing tho barhnntus custom wliich required that on the 
 death of tho emperor the empress and all her court should 
 commit suicide by hara-kiri. Although tho empress of 
 Sui-nin cnme to a natural death, the highest of tier lady 
 attendants killed Iheuiselvefl by cutting their throats, and 
 then tho emperor decreed that this cuHfom should also bo 
 abolished. This ruler devoted his attention to agii'mlture, 
 and during his reign SOO canals and ponds were built in 
 difTerent parts of Japan for irrigation. Tho next nmn of 
 note was Keko-tenno, who reigned between the years 71 
 and IwO A. D. After quelling obstinate rebellions in Kiusiu 
 an<l the northern part nf N'ipon, ho caused (be arable lands 
 of the empire to be surveyed, and, with a view of guarding 
 against famine, caused tho estublishmcnt «if granaries in 
 all the larger towns of the empire. The emperor Senmu- 
 tenno reigned from A. D. l.'U to litO, creating the ofiico of 
 daijin. the second position of honor and power in the 
 realm ; and the first dignitary of that rank who ever left 
 Japan na an ambassador was Tomomi IwaUura. who visited 
 America anrl Europe in the year IS72. Among the men who 
 distinguished themselves during tlm reign of .Senmu was 
 Yamato l>aki : he held the offieeot commander in chief of the 
 army, and wns called the" prince of warriors. " H in conquests 
 extended as far as tho island of Yesso; and beeauBO his 
 wife Adzuma threw hertn-lf into tho sea to appease a terri- 
 ble storm, her natiie wns given (o tho region of country 
 which her iiusl>nnd had subriued. Chinai-tenno, who was 
 tho son of Yamato Daki, reigned for eight years, from A. d. 
 
 192 to 200, and tho principal fact recorded of him was that 
 he died from disappointment caused by being defeated in 
 an expedition conducted by himself in person against the 
 rebellion of a tributary prince of i he empire named Kuniaoso 
 of Kiusiu. The next ruler of Japan was an empress, Jingu 
 Kogu, the wile of Chinai-tenno. She accompanied Iier 
 husband in his unsuccessful expedition, and after his death 
 assumed tho reins of power. She distinguished herself by 
 leading an inva<ling army against the kingdom of Corca, 
 compelling the inhabi(ants lo give up their treasures and 
 to promise an annual tribute to Japan. 81ie had several 
 children, one of whom became a very distinguished em- 
 peror. Ilcr various conquests gave her a fame which sur- 
 passed all her predecessors, and her life and deeds of 
 heroism are widely commemorated by the painters of Japan 
 and in the jjopular literature of the country. Osin-(enno, 
 tho son of Jingu Kogu, ascended tho throne in a. d. 270, 
 and reigned about forty-three years. Although not born 
 when his mother conquered (~'orea, the honor of that con- 
 quest has been given to him. In the second year of his reign 
 the islands of Y'esso and Saghalien voluntarily submitted 
 to his rule, and tiiree of the kingdoms of Corca continued 
 to pay him an annual tribute. In 2$'^ he brought a woman 
 from Corca to teach his jicople the art of working in silk ; 
 in 284 an improved breed of Itorses was also introduced 
 from the same country; in 2S;j a philosopher from Cliina, 
 named Wonin, introduced Chinese letters info Japan, from 
 which time (he works of Confucius became generally known ; 
 and in 300 from (he wood of an old war-vessel a musical 
 ins(rument called the koto was made, and has been in use 
 down to tlie present time. In .*i06. Osin sent an embassy 
 to China for (he purpose of obtaining further information 
 in regard (o the pioduction and the manufacture of silk. 
 It is related of this emperor (hat, having been advised by 
 tho brother of his prime minister (ha( (he latter was con- 
 spiring against tho (brone^ he caused them both (o plunge 
 their arms into boiling water, when, tho ordeal proving 
 favorable to (ho minister, (he informer was executed. After 
 his death tho largest temples were erected lo his memory, 
 and he received the title of Iiatchiviavf/, or tho ** god of 
 war." and his reign has always been looked upon with na- 
 tional ]>rido by tlie Japanese. Tho next man of nitte was 
 Jin(oku-(enno. During his reign (.11 H-^VjO) extensive in- 
 Tindations led (o tho construetion of dikes along the river?, 
 and rice-houses and mills for cleaning rice were for the first 
 tim*' built. lie also sent iin expedition to put down a re- 
 bellion in tho island of Yesso. Liehu-tenno came to tho 
 throne in 4110, and was the first lo provide for (he writing 
 of a history of the empire, for which duty ho appointed two 
 scholars ; and under the jtatronage of Yuriyaku-tenno (471)) 
 mulberry trees were planted throughout the empire, and 
 special attention was first given to (he manufacture of silk. 
 Altoutthis time also skilful carpenters were induced to im- 
 migrate from Corea, and an embassy was sent to that coun- 
 try lo make certain collections of Chinese literature. Tho 
 first event of importance connected with (be era beginning 
 with (he year .'iOll was (he iritrodue(ion of (he Eooddhis( re- 
 ligion in(o Japan, which wns des(ined (o fake (he place, to 
 a grea( extent, of the Sintu religion and the moral instruc- 
 tions of Confucius. This occurred in 552, whvu an embassy 
 wns sent over from Corea, and presented (o the Japanese 
 emperor a collection of books accompanied by an image of 
 Booddha Sakya, tho leading idea of tiie boolts being that 
 a pure life was desirable, and that it could only be secured 
 through self-denial. One of the most active converts to the 
 new religion was Mouniaya-do-no-wosi, s<in of the emperor 
 Kakatomi : he was a gentle character and devoted to the new 
 faith, and at the time of his death there were 46 Hooddh- 
 isl temples, HI6 priests, and ;'>69 rrliijii-usrH in the empire. 
 The introduction of Booddhism through China and Cnrea 
 brought with it some of the customs of tluise countries — the 
 use of tho iirufjn, or year-name, for marking events and 
 dates, and also abdication by (lie eujperors af(er very short 
 reigns, which was followed by the elevation of mere chil- 
 dren, when-by the sovereignty was U>r a time reduced to a 
 name and (bo power of tho nation given into the hands of 
 the ministers. Among these child-rulers wore the empros 
 Seiwa, wlio began her reign a( the age nf nine; the i nipe- 
 rors Ynrei. at eight ; Oaigo. at thir(een : Hci/an. a( eighteen ; 
 Yenwoii, at eleven; tloitsi, at nine: Konve, at three: and 
 Uokusio, at two years of age. About tins time a man named 
 Nakat omi- Kama tnri-ko obtaineil great influence, and is still 
 remembered as tho founder nf the laws of Japan. In the 
 miiMIe of the seventh century Ten-si. a re;il emperor, as- 
 cended the throne, an<l dtstinguisheil himself in warlike 
 exploits against Corea and Tartary. and then it was (hat 
 Yesso was cubingoted. Tn 70 t, the general government hav- 
 ing been divided into eight boards after tho manner of tho 
 (Miinese. the central power nf the ernpirr was lixed at Mia- 
 ko; and about this time was published the fiitn ftf'ti, a codo 
 of laws which are partly in force at tho present time. An-
 
 1:^72 
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 other notable event of this period was the introduction of 
 an alphiibct. called the Ilirii Kana. to facilitate the reading 
 of Chinese, the naineof the scholar and venerated man who 
 'orought about this change being Kobo-dai-si. IL now be- 
 came a custom with the emperors, on abdicating the throne, 
 to adopt the garb and religious life of the Booddhist priests. 
 wl»i;-h did much to perpetuate the prevailing religion. Dur- 
 ing the reign of the emperor Itsisio {0S7-1U12) two terrible 
 plagues visited the empire. His successor, Oo-ri-sen, be- 
 came famous for his heroism in putting down a rebellion 
 in the northern part of Nipon. 
 
 The 500 years which follow a. d. 1000. and now come 
 under consideration, are of greater importance than the 
 preceding era, and may bo written in the eueeessivo riso 
 to power of individuals connected with the peerage of the 
 re:iim, and c'.<pcei.ally the families of Fusiwara, Sungawara, 
 Minnamoto. Tatchibanna, and other names regarded as il- 
 lustrious and held in veneration to the present day. Among 
 tlicse may ho mentioned Ten-mang, the greatest literary 
 cliaracter of his country and an ablo man, who through a 
 rival was banished to the island of Kiusiu, where he was 
 starved to death, and to whose memory many splendid 
 temples were subsequently erected in Miako and Ycdo. 
 Another f.imoiis personage was Yoshi-iyc-, who, as com- 
 manilcr-in-ehief. subdued thn rebellious provinces of Mootz 
 and Kwauto, and because of his bravery and other qualifi- 
 cations was called ''the cldcrt son of the god of war,*'* and 
 still another celebrity was Kio Mori, descended from the 
 emperor Kwan-mu, who was a prominent actor in the af- 
 fairs of the nation, and is remembered as the ablest and 
 mo^t unscrupulous minister of his time, when tho whole 
 empire was devastated by war, but who at tho age of fifty- 
 one shaved iiis head and nominally became a priest. One 
 of his daughters became an empress, and a grandson an 
 emperor. The opening of tlic twelfth century was marhcd 
 by many deeds of rare valor atid of cruelty, and tho conflicts 
 between rival families were contiuuous and desperate. In 
 1 1 IH the cx-emperor Sho-toku was banished to the province 
 of Sanuki, where he wrote a letter to the rcigniug emperor 
 on a piece of his shirt with his blood, and thou died of 
 starvation. In 1170, Tame-tomo bc:;amo famous for bis 
 power in drawing the bow and as a rover on tho South seas, 
 ami, because ho was tho ori rinal occupier of the Liookioo 
 Inlands, came to be considered as a sacred personage. The 
 m!ist famous emperor who rei^-ned during this e.\ciling pe- 
 riml was Uozira-kawa, who died in 1102 at the agoof sixty- 
 scvcn. lie had taken an active part in tho working of tho 
 government for forty years, and after abdicating the throno 
 witnessed a part of tho reigns of five emperors, his eons and 
 grandsons, and finally died in tranquillity. Two men who 
 are generally regarded as among the greatest of their era 
 were Yoritomo and Yoshitzun^. They were brothers, both 
 attained the position of shiogoon, and were desperate jn 
 their rivalry of each other. The first is generally regarded 
 as the greatest hero in Japanese history, and the first shio- 
 goon of the dynasty which ended in ICG?. Ho died in 1109, 
 at the age of fifty-three, from tho eficcts of a fall from his 
 horse. The second man just named is looked upon as tho 
 mirror of chivalry, and his conduct is held up for tho imi- 
 tation of the youth of his country. Tho former conspired 
 to take the life of the latter, and when reduced to an 
 extremity destroyed himself after killing his wife and chil- 
 dren. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the em- 
 pire of Japan was almost continually engaged in intestine 
 wars: severe contests occurred between the shiogoous of 
 the Xorth and South: and among tho families which now 
 rose to power were Hojio, Ashikanga, Nitta, Ilossokawa, 
 and others who occupied prominent positions, and it was 
 during the period in which thcv lived that the following 
 events occurred: In 1260 tho Nitsiren sect of Booddliists 
 was introduced, and it was one of the saints connected with 
 this order, named Sayslio-gosama, who subsequently be- 
 came famous as a persecutor of Christians. In 127fi. Corea 
 became tributary to Japan, and an embassy was sent from 
 China to obtain tribute-money from the Chinese. In 1281 
 the Chinese despatehed a naval expedition, with amhas- 
 sailors, to Japan, xvhen liO.OOO of the invaders were taken 
 prisoners and killed, and one of the ambassadors was ho- 
 hcadeiL In l;i21 the office known as the h'ind'ush**. or 
 " recorder of facts," was established at Miako, and twenty 
 years afterwards an influential minister published a work 
 ealled The lied Hook of the Court of Afiako. About the 
 year I3G7 there was an extensive war on the island of Kiu- 
 siu, when the Satsuma family largely increased its power at 
 the expense of Kikootchi. In that year also Ashikanga, 
 when ten years of ago, was appointed shiogoon ; he died in 
 1 108. He was a man of great ability and influence, was 
 styled by the Chinese Nippon-wo, or king of Japan, and 
 from the reigning emperor received the title of kubnsama. 
 having been the first person thus honored. Tho ofiiee of 
 shiogoon became hereditary in bis family, and the seat of 
 
 their power was Karaakura. In 1415 an arbitrary law was 
 passed by whieh all mercantile engagements were at once 
 ended and all debts cancelled, which was tho cause of 
 much trouble and anxiety among the people. In MHO com- 
 menced the war known in history as the *'Onin." which 
 lasted more than ten years, and was followed by a famine 
 in 1 172, and an earthquake in 1476 destroyed a large ])art 
 of the city of Osaka. A severe drought oceurred in l-lPfi, 
 which was succeeded by another famine and a destructive 
 disease among the forest trees. 
 
 From this time forward the leading events in Japanese 
 history multiplied with increased rapidity, and hence, for 
 the sake of convenience, wo shall divide the remainder of 
 our chronological record into centuries. The si.\teenth 
 century brought no cessation from intestine war and assas- 
 sination. The year lolO was signalized by the fact that 
 Nango, a servant and relative of the minister at Kama- 
 kura, Ooyay Poongi, rebelled against his master, and took 
 possession of his casflo and territory in the province of 
 Etsingo, and became a man of great power. In 1.^21, for 
 the first time iu many years, tho emperor made his appear- 
 ance in public, and his court became impoverished. This 
 condition of affairs lasted for at least fifteen years, when 
 the emperor Go Tsutchi died in such po\ crty that his body 
 lay unburied for several days for want of money. Two 
 years afterwards an attempt was made to trade with China, 
 but it was unsuccessful, because the Chinese coasts were 
 infested with Japanese pirates. In Nov., 1533, there was 
 observed an extraordinary number of falling stars, and in 
 the following year tho country was visited by a fatal epi- 
 demic. Three years afterwards there was a bitter quarrel 
 between difTcrcnt sects of the Booddhist priests, one of tho 
 results of which was the burning of one-half of the city 
 of Miako. In 1541, according to the best authorities, An- 
 tony Mora, Francis Zaimor, and Anthony Pexot, three Por- 
 tuguese merchants, in their voyage from Siam to China, were 
 wrecked upon the coast of Kiusiu, and the firearms which 
 they had with them caused a profound sensation through- 
 out the empire, and the fact was noted In the national cal- 
 endars. In 1j 13 the Portuguese merchants came baek again, 
 briniing with them Jesuit missionaries, and from that time 
 the history of the empire was chronicled in the literature 
 of Europe. Francis Xavicr visited the country in 1540, 
 and after remaining there two years left it. disheartened 
 with tho realities of missiona^y-^vork. About 1557 tho 
 military chieftain named Nobu Nauga made his appear- 
 ance on the stage of public afiairs. and for more than 
 twenty years was the master-spirit of the empire, wielding 
 the power of a shiogoon. He was descended from Kio- 
 Mori, andbis rule was quite as grasping and severe as that 
 of any of his predecessors. In 1557 he put to death, for 
 private reasons, his youngest brother, and .^even years af- 
 terwards he killed his father-in-law. the lord «f Mino, nnd 
 took all his possessions. He began in 1569 a crusade 
 against the Booddhists, and in a few years succeeded in 
 destroying a largo number of their temples and massacred 
 many of their priests; at the same time, for selfish pur- 
 poses, ho encouraged the Jesuits. In 1572 he had n diffi- 
 culty with tho shiogoon, Yosbi-aki, whom ho arrested and 
 put in prison, thus bringing to an end the real power of 
 the Ashikanga family. Ho had many able generals in 
 league with him, the three most famous of whom were 
 llideyoshi, Akitchi-mitsu-hide. and lyeyas. Under his 
 encouragement the Jesuits rose to favor and power at 
 court, and in 1581 they claimed to have in Japan 200 
 churches and not less than 150,000 Christians. lie wa? 
 reputed a brave, ambitiou.*!, and able man. and not without 
 many moral virtues, and he laughed at the worship of tho 
 gods and considered tho bonzes as impostors. In 1582 ho 
 was gradually overrunning all .Tapan. and was liberal in 
 giving to his kindred the property he had acquired by con- 
 quest. Ho built a temple in whieh he eollceted idols of all 
 the gods of Japan, and placing in the midst of it a statue 
 of himself called Xantbi.or " supreme ruler." he issued an 
 edict commanding all men to worship that image and no 
 other. The first to obey this order was his oldest son. and 
 the example was followed by the gentry and people in their 
 course. His end was in keeping with Ins life; after being 
 surrounded in his castle at Miako. he was woumled with an 
 arrow, and then consumed in the buihiing where he was 
 sheltered, in the forty-ninth year of his nsc. When he 
 died tho tide of prosperily'turncil and ebbed until it grad- 
 ually swoiit the whole Jesuit priesthood from the shores of 
 Japan. The immense treasures \Thich he had accumulated 
 in the course of many years in the city of Azutchi-yaina 
 were given away and sf|uandered in three days by his late 
 confederate, Akitchi-milsu-hide. After the death of Nobu 
 Nanga, the man who had once been his servant, and after- 
 wards his chief military assistant, and who had acquired a 
 great reputation as a leader, became the military ruler or 
 shiogoon. His name, which was originally Hideyoshi, was
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 1 37:5 
 
 ohaDgcd a number of times until ho becftme known as Tai- 
 kosama. He was of low origin and insigniricunt in ap- 
 pearance. !Ii3 chief castle was at O^aku, which he did 
 much to improve hy digging canals ami porrcctin^ its ibr- 
 tificatioiis. He hail six wives. In 158.'!, with hi» perniiB- 
 sion, the Jesuit fathers induced four young nohlcuien to 
 visit the pope in Homo, whioli expedition lasted for eight 
 years. In I.'is.'i he nveived from the emperor the family 
 name of Toyotomi. Al)out that time ho beeamc an earnest 
 supporter of the Jesuits, although he would not accept 
 their religion for himself; but when his ])lnns had ripcne<J, 
 and the Jesuits were confident of increasing success, he 
 gu'idcnly gave them notice to quit the country within 
 twenty days, forbidding tliera to preacli their religion on 
 pain of (ieath. In 1586 ho took forcible possession of 
 Nagasaki, and made it a government port and propcrtj*, 
 declaring it to ho the only place whore foreign trade should 
 bo permitted. The threat made by Taikosama was not 
 carrio'l out, and the Jesuits continued in the country, and 
 ho was charged with changing his policy because he de- 
 sired to use their ships in a project to invade Corca. Ho 
 Icil an army of .'100. 000 men against that country, one-half 
 of \Thom were destroyed, when ambassadors were gent to 
 Japan and the folluwing demands were made: (I) That 
 eight provinces ot Corca be handed over to Ja])an; (2) 
 that the emperor of China give one of his daughters to 
 Taikosnma; (3) that there should be free trade between 
 the two countries; and Ml that China and Corca should 
 pay Japan a yearly tribute. In l.')l»2 and the following 
 year two envoys from .Manila and the Philippines were re- 
 ceived byTaikosama. (ho first of which brought with them 
 four Kecollot? of St. Francis to enter the missionary ser- 
 vice. Among their presents was a Spanish horse, whoso 
 blood has proliably atrccted the breed now known in Japan. 
 About this tiino events occurred which led Taiko to belicvo 
 that his nephew intended to usurp hit» place, whereupon, 
 after many intrigues, ho caused him to be put to death, as 
 well as thirty-one women and cliildren, ail members of his 
 family. In loVMia comet was visible in the empire, and on 
 its disappearance a lorriblo eariiiquako occurred, which 
 seemed to prognosticate the death of the shiogoon. While 
 winking at the stealthy operatirins of tho .Jesuits, ho caused 
 twenty-five of them to ho puni-ihod by the death of tho 
 cross. This act, as if in self-d<rfence, ho followed up with 
 an order that all the Roman Catholics residing in Naga- 
 saki should b** at once sent home in their ships, ilut not- 
 withstamling this hostility, when he became sick in 1.5'JS 
 he admitted a Romish priest to his bedside, and then died, 
 all his nobility, accoriling to tin: Fathers, "being much 
 belter pleased to see him on tlic list of dead gods than in 
 the land of living men." In (he annals of Japan the year 
 l.i'JK is given as that in which tho English and Dutch ships 
 visited the country, and they are said to have come to tho 
 town c)f Saccai, near Osaka. Dutch pilots hacl already for 
 apvcral years been navigating the surrounding seas, and 
 William Adatns, the English pilot of the Dutch fleet of 
 five sail which left Toxcl in June, 15i)S, rlid not reach 
 Itoongo until Apr., IfiOO, when his crew was found to be re- 
 duced to nine or ten men. 
 
 Tho groat event which characterized tiio beginning of 
 tho seventeenth century was the accression to power of 
 lyoyas iMikawa-no-kami. He was born of a good family, 
 but had sueeerdod as a military man by depending upon 
 hiin'*elf. At this (leriod the emperor was a mere boy, and 
 although the grandson by marriage of lyeyas, that man 
 claimed, and for a long time wicldet], tho sceptre of power. 
 As tho friend of the regont-emperor quite a number of the 
 provincial governors formed a league against him ; ami in 
 Oct., lt)00, ne.ar Lake t)womi, a battle was fought which 
 has ever been considered one of tho most important and 
 decisive connected with Japanese history, and lyeyas was 
 tho victor. His opponents were scattered am) he became 
 at once master of public atTdirs. The most important of 
 his many captives in the late battle was a noted chieftain 
 named Konishi Setsu, who had hiMm viceroy of Kiusiuand 
 commandcr-in-rdtief both of (he naval and military forces 
 in tho Corean \Tar, who was beheaded. Hut, notwithstand- 
 ing this act of severity, lyeyas treated his late enemies 
 with kindness and granted a general amnesty. He ac- 
 quired great power, one secret of which seenis to have been 
 that wheti he once made a jiromise he never broke it, the 
 most perfi'ct reliance being therefore placed upon his word. 
 The portion of .Tapan which held nut the longest against 
 the new conqueror was the island of Kiusiu, btil its prin- 
 cipal ruler, Sat-^uina, was obliged to yield. Prior to the 
 crowning military achievement of lyeyas the imperial, co- 
 elesiastieal, and commercial capitals of the empire had been 
 Miako, Narra, and Osaka; but he removed tin* government 
 In Ycdo, which at that time was an insignificant place, 
 with only one street, known then and now as Koji Matchi. 
 He was reputed a true lover of his country, and was never 
 
 I accused of being personally ambitiouB. Ho was a friend 
 to all kinds of internal improvements, ruled with wisdom 
 ! and discretion, and was honored with the title of Sc-i-tfni- 
 j Shiof/oon, or " tranquillizer of barbarians an<i ctmimander- 
 in-chief," The most important event of his reign was the 
 I promulgation of a code of laws, 100 in number, which he 
 ■ oequeaf herl to his descendants in power as a guide to them 
 ! in the oflice he hoped would be hereditary in his family. 
 I These laws have had a paramount influence with the rulers 
 : of Japan ever since the death of lyeyas, and to a very 
 ! great extent his ambitious hopes have been realized by the 
 I subsequent fame ami power of his immediate family. Bc- 
 I twcen these laws and the writings of Confucius and Men- 
 cius the similarity is manifest. Whatever their intrinsio 
 i merits, it is certain that their efl'cct upon the nation was 
 most salutary, for it was blessed with an uninterrupted 
 ' peace for more than 200 years after the death of lyeyas. 
 So impressed with this fact were the notdes and the people 
 , of Japan at a later day that in l^OGthey inaugurated a 
 I national festival for the sole purpose of conimcmornting 
 this unprecedented fact. For about twenty years prior to 
 tlic year lfil4 the Jesuits bad obtained such a footing in 
 Japan that they claimed to have visited the whole empire, 
 and to have made more than 100,000 converts. Allhongh 
 they entered the country as missionaries, they were subse- 
 quently denounced ns preachers of sedition and organizers 
 of rebellion. Tho opposition which they called forth soon 
 became so bitter that in ]()'ACt the government issued an 
 order that the image of the Saviour as it appeared on the 
 copper mc'lals should be periodically desecrnfcd by being 
 tramjtled under foot ; an(I those orders remained in force 
 until the conclusion of treaties with Christinn nations in 
 recent times. After such demonstrations it cannot ho 
 thought strange that when the time enmo for driving the 
 Jesuits out of the country the cxjinI.«ion should have been 
 attended with many acts of cruelty. The fust decree of 
 banishment was issued by lyeyas in ! Oil. but some fifteen 
 years elapsed before the movement was in any degree suc- 
 cessful. A new edict against the Roman Catholic Church 
 was issued in IfiOO, and two years afterwards an order was 
 promulgated prohibiting the erection of Booddhist temples, 
 which has remained in force to the present time. In 1720 
 the Booddhist priesthood held a festival throughout the em- 
 pire, by which (hey commemorated the eleventh centenary 
 of tho evtablishment of their rcliginn. 
 
 Tn 1H;!'J the Portuguese and Spnnish were finally ex- 
 pelled, but a single Dutch factory was permitted to remain 
 at the island llirado. In 1700 another attempt was made 
 to regain .Tapan to the Church of Rome, but it was unsuc- 
 cessful. Various attempts, at long intervals, were made 
 by diff"ercnt foreign nations to reopen a trade with tho 
 country. The Dutch, as well as the Japanese, bitterly op- 
 poscrl all su'-h measures — the former from cupidity, and 
 the latter from a motive of self-defence. According to the 
 native annals, tho coast of ,Tiij>an wns visited bv foreign 
 vessels in K'.:'.", IfiT.'J, 1768. 1701. 1703, 1790, ISO:^, IROS, 
 181.^, and 1820. American ships first arrived at Nagasaki 
 in ISKJ under Com. Biddle, and Com. M.C. Perry made his 
 visit in 18 J.I, made memorable by resulting in a treaty with 
 the U. ^. In is;> (, .Sir .lames Stirling, an English admiral, 
 visited Nagasaki, and also concluded a treaty with.Tnpan; 
 and in lf*58 it was proclaimed by tho .Japanese that they 
 ha<l concluded treaties with the American, English, Dutch, 
 Russian, and Portuguese nations. The last of the shio- 
 goons wlio really held tho reins of power was lyay- 
 mutchi; ho reigned from IS'iO to ISfiO, when he died, hav- 
 ing been the leading figure in the late rebellion, which re- 
 sulted in dissolving the dual government which had existed 
 for fiOO years, ond in restoring to his proper jiosition tho 
 true emperor of Japan. Tn 1S07 an eflTort was nmdo by 
 Yoshi-hisa to be recognized as th<' legitimate successor of 
 Shiogoon lyaymntchi. but it was unsuccessful; and before 
 (he close of that year the spiritual emperor, who hud just 
 found himself rceived as tho (rue and only ruler of the 
 empire, died in the thirty-eighth year of his age, and h-ft 
 upon (he (hrone his sou, a boy of fifteen years, who is the 
 jircsent emperi>r of .Tapan. 
 
 As to (be events which have taken place in that empire 
 during tho last twenty years, they resemble the stories of 
 romnnco and are among the marvels of the age. Into that 
 subject we cannot fully enter nt present, but the following 
 particulars may he mmtioncil for purposes of reference, 
 and those who may desire more elaborate inforumtion will 
 fiml it admirably set forth in a volume entitled jXrw Jupnu, 
 from tho pen of an English diplomat. Samuel :Mossman. 
 The treaty with Com. Perry was ratified in ISfil at Kana- 
 gawa. and (he ports of llakodadi and Simoda were opened 
 to fr)reign eoiumeree ; in lS;'i5 the Russian government, 
 through Admiral Poutiatine. visited Simoda and secured 
 the ratification of a treaty, which fact was strangely com- 
 memorated by the destruction of Simoda by an earthquake ;
 
 lo74 
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 in 1S5S treaties were also concluded by England and 
 France, and the porrs opened lo them were Kanagawa, 
 Nasasaki, Hakodadi, lliogo, Osaka, and Neigata; in 
 1S59, British and American legations were cstaWished at 
 Yedo; in IStiO, Dutch and Prussian treaties were signed 
 at Yedo, and several assassinations occurred in that .year, 
 as well as in the {ireceding and succeeding .years; in 18G2 
 a diplomatic mission of about thirty-five members was sent 
 to Europe by way of America, having sailed in an English 
 frigate called thc'Odin.and the envoy was Takeno Votschio 
 Shemodje ; in ISflli the British and American legation build- 
 ings were destroyed at Yedo, and a retrograde policy was 
 inaugurated by the Japanese officials, one of the results of 
 whos'c hostile action was the payment of an indemnity to 
 America and the leading powers of Europe: in ISOo the 
 allied envoys received the consent of the mikado to the 
 treaties; in" ISfiC and 1SC7, as already intimated, the im- 
 perial government was changed from the old to the new 
 form ; in ISfiS was commenced the civil war in .Japan, and 
 the mikado became the sole monarch: in 1S70 the Japan- 
 ese government resumed with great ardor its work ot re- 
 form", the promineut ideas being the education of Japanese 
 students in foreign countries and the establishment of dip- 
 lomatic relations wifh .\mcrica, England, Russia, Ger- 
 many, Austria, and France; and in 1S72 the great embassy, 
 headed bv Tomomi Iwakura, visited the U. S. and Europe, 
 the calendar of the Western nations was substituted for 
 that of old Japan, and the empire found itself r.apidly be- 
 coming an important member of the family of nations. 
 
 And now for a few remarks respecting the people of 
 Japan as they existed just prior to their new birth. They 
 are divided into eight classes, as follows: the Koongays. 
 or Mikado nobility; the Daimios. or Yedo nobility; the 
 Hattamotos. or lower daimios; the Hiakshos. or farmers 
 without rank or title ; the Shokonoris, who arc artisans ; the 
 Akindos, or merchants; the Kivciamonos, or actors and 
 beggars; and the Y.aytas, who arc turners, shoemakers, 
 and manufacturers or dealers in leather. In the island of 
 Yesso are to be found a people called Ainos, who closely re- 
 semble the Iniliansof North America. The religions of the 
 empire are two. Sintuism and Booddhism, while the higher 
 classes seem to be partial to the moral teachings of Confu- 
 cius. The Japanese language is one of letters, and not of 
 characters like the Chinese, but because of the very fre- 
 quent use of the latter by people in every sphere a great 
 many difficuUies arise both in speaking and writing. The 
 literature of the country is quite extensive, cheap books and 
 instructive art-productions are always in great demand, 
 and a very large proportion of the people are able to read 
 and write, and a love of drawing and painting is very com- 
 mon. The food upon which they subsist is rice, the chief 
 production fish and a great variety of vegetables; and 
 among their leading productions may be mentioned silk, 
 tea, cotton, hemp, salt, gold, silver, iron, copper, coal, and 
 lead. Opium, which is the banc of China, they do not use, 
 but they substitute for it a good quality of tobacco, which 
 tlicy grow and manufacture in largo quantities. Their 
 fruits arc numerous, and their knowledge of horticulture 
 and the secrets of the soil is so extensive that many of the 
 Japanese in this country have looked upon the agricultural 
 mission of Mr. Horace Capron, who was invited to teach 
 them the science of agriculture, as a most useless enterprise. 
 Their skill in manufacturing is of the highest order, and 
 when they shall have learned the importance of increasing 
 the number of useful articles in every department of labor 
 under the influence of nu)ilern improvements, it is likely 
 they will liardly be equalled by any of the nations of the 
 world. It has already passed into history that their dis- 
 play at the great Vienna I-jxposition was wonderful, and 
 superior to th.at of any of the Asiatic nations. One of Ihe 
 most striking illustrations of intellcclual activity among 
 the Japanese is found in the use they arc making of the 
 
 ?ress ; books and newspapers, both in the Japanese and 
 Inglish languages, are multiplying every day, and are uni- 
 versally becoming modelled upon Ihe literary plans of the 
 Western nations. In speaking of the jiress of .Japan, one 
 of Iho Yokohama papers lately made this remark : " It is 
 now but three or four years since the press sprang into ex- 
 istence in Japan, yet it is already being used for the seri- 
 ous discussion of weighty questions, and certainly by its 
 vigor and earnestness, its candor, fearlessness, and cour- 
 tesy, puts to shame a large section of the local European 
 press, which seems only to exist to prove how litlJc salt is 
 worth which has lost its savor." In literature and religion, 
 in commerce and education, very great changes have taken 
 ydaee within the last four years ; and from a chart of Japan, 
 recently published by authority, we gather the following 
 items of information : The total number of temples in the 
 empire devoted to the Sintu religion was 97. of which 3.5 
 were supported by the general government, and the rest by 
 the provincial authorities j the Booddliist temples numbered 
 
 296,900, to which were attached lCS,fio4 priests, divided 
 into eleven sects ; but all this religious machinery has since 
 been abolished by im]ierial decree; the population of the 
 metropolis of Yedo had been rcdu<:ed to l.J94,:iyO; thetwo 
 colleges in that city contained 5lj3 pupils, but have greatly 
 increased since 1872; there were also thirteen hospitals 
 and almshouses; the imperial army consisted of seven bat- 
 talions of infantry, four of artillery, and two companies of 
 cavalry; regular army, twenty battalions of infantry; ca- 
 dets in military schools. 72fi ; ships of war, Hi, including 
 one iron clad, officered by l:)07 men; steamships, 69, in- 
 cluding 22 iron ships, and the large sailing vessels nnm- 
 bcred 18; lighthouses, IG; dockyards, 2 — at Yokohama 
 and Nagasaki ; mines worked by government, 'i ; it was 
 also stated that manufacturing es(abli.«hnieiits were on Ihe 
 increase in Yedo, Yokohama, and lliogo. and two railroads, 
 between Yedo and Yokcdiama. and between Osaka and 
 Kobi. were both in partial operation. The working gov- 
 crnmenfof Japan, as now organized under the supreme 
 control of the emperor, is divided into ten departments — 
 executive, with 237 officials ; public works, 375 ; dejiartment 
 of religion, 138; judicial department. Ifi9; foreign affairs, 
 116; treasury department, .039 ; agricultural department, 
 192; war and navy departments, 891 ; educational depart- 
 ment, 221 : and the imperial court consists of 210 officials. 
 The name of the reigning emperor or mikado is Mutsuhito, 
 born in 1852, and recognized as heir in 1800. and he came 
 to the throne in 1867. He is married, the empress being 
 his senior by two years. His six uncles and great-uncles 
 (one of whom was' recently in Prussia and another in Eng- 
 land), and sister in Yedo,'aIso three brothers (one of whom 
 has been a student at Annapolis), with an aunt in Yedo, 
 constitute the royal family of Japan. 
 
 The thinking men of Japan now claim— and the facts 
 support them in their views — that the revolution now going 
 on is needed, stands upon a firm foundation, and will be 
 triumphant. All the officials and the higher classes, and 
 a large proportion of the masses, are anxious lo throw 
 aside'evcry impediment calculated to retard their progress 
 in the career upon which Ihey have entered. They would 
 be loyal to the mikado and the empire, but they want more 
 civil "if not religious liberty than they have hitherto en- 
 joyed, protection in their commercial interests, and all Ihe 
 advantages resulting from a high order of education. 
 That thev are thoroughly in earnest is proven mo.>t conclu- 
 sively by Ihe truly wonderful changes that Ihey themselves 
 have carried out during the last twenty years. The bar- 
 riers of exclusiveness have been removed, and many sea- 
 ports, as already stated, opened to the trade of foreign 
 countries; the imperial ruler has thrown aside all the mys- 
 tery and seclusion which have been held sacred for 1000 
 years, and with his dynasty has entered the comity of na- 
 tions; Ihe feudal system has given place lo a government 
 allied in character to the enlighlened nations of the earth, 
 and the daimios have given up their estates for the benefit 
 of the whole country ; foreigners, who were (rented as ene- 
 are now welcomed as friends ; customs like those of 
 words and commilling enforced suicide have 
 been abolished : money has been liberally expended by the 
 central government in sending its youlh to be educated in 
 foreign lands; schools, seminaries of learning, scientific 
 and benevolent institutions, all founded upon the models 
 of the Western nations, have been established, and are daily 
 becoming grounded in the elements of prosperity ; a free 
 press, as we have seen, has been established and is respect- 
 ed; also a new postal system ; the sea and land forces have 
 been reorganized, and placed upon a basis of such stability 
 as lo mtike Japan the most invulnerable nation in the Ori- 
 ent; all the modern helps to a safe navigation of the ex- 
 tensive coasts of the empire have been introduced ; the old 
 Japanese calendar has been superseded by that of the West- 
 ern nations excepting Russia ; talented men in literature and 
 science and diplomacy have been invited lo take office in 
 the empire for Ihe benefit of their experience; a gold and 
 silver currency similar to that of Ihe U. S. has been estab- 
 lished ; a system of railroads has been organized and partly 
 completed, which has already added wonderful facilities to 
 travel and commerce; and by a line of telegraph news may 
 now be transmitted from Yedo to London in less than fifty 
 hours. Puch are some of the marvels Ihal have actually 
 been accomplished, and they surely prove that the Japan- 
 ese are not only in earnest in all thai they are doing, but 
 that their genius for going ahead is allied to that of the 
 "universal Yankee nation." What they have accomplished 
 in less than one generation has not in any part of Europe 
 been secured in less than a century. 
 
 But there is another wonder connected with this great 
 Japanese revolution; which is. that the nation is marching 
 upward and onward without casting a thought upon what 
 Ihe great empires of India and China may think or desire. 
 The nation, like the individuals who have come to the 
 
 mies. 
 wearing two i
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 i:J7o 
 
 front, is fearless, proud, delicately strung, nnrl in<Ippendcnt. 
 Where can be fuuiid a lietter illustration of loOv courage 
 than was presented hy Japan in her recent diftioulty with 
 China about Kormosa ? Shu felt that she hfid justice on 
 her side, and looking upon the .'t5, 000,(100 of her united 
 and loval pt-nplc with perfect contidcnoe, she said, ** The 
 500.00(1.0011 of Chitia "hall not fri^^htcn us from the path 
 of duty and ri;;lit." China did thr proper thiiif^ in submit- 
 ting, and ought to be applauded for iier course; but when 
 the fubjcct of indemnity came up, Japan ^unlike certain 
 so-called civilized nations), true to her lofty instinct?, asked 
 only tiiat the necessary expenses should bcpaiil. and scorned 
 to manifest a grasping love of gain. The only great ques- 
 tions connected with the jirospcrity of Japan which arc 
 not yet settled arc those having reference to taxation and 
 revenue, and the opening of the entire country to foreign- 
 ers and to religion. Thediflicultiesattendingeach of them 
 cannot be fully understood by people in other countries; 
 and yet there is nothing singular about them, if we re- 
 member that even in the V. S. we have never been fi^cc 
 from pome sort of excitement growing out of thcj^o identi- 
 cal questions. (Jood men and true are to-day working 
 hnnl in Jniinn to perfect a system of taxation and revenue 
 which will nelp the public purse an<l make the financial re- 
 sources of the empire equal to its natural jtrogrcss ; when 
 the European powers, headed by England, shall stop their 
 domineering demands to have the empire thrown open at 
 all hazards, then perhaps the imperial government may 
 listen to reasonable appeals; and when the Japanese arc 
 convinced that religious fiinaticism is a blessing, even in 
 such countries as Kngland and America, and that by giving 
 the largest liberty they will not he made wretched by the 
 intrigues of the Romish Church, then they may consider 
 the jioliey of opening wide the gates to all dcnominaticms 
 of Christians. With regard to the question of allowing 
 foreigners to trade in all parts of the interior of Japan, a 
 leading Japanese newspaper of Yedo recently made tliis 
 remark: "The ehief reasons why this measure cannot bo 
 carried out to-day are — firstly, that we cannot make for- 
 eigners submit to our laws; secondly, that the Japanese 
 government is unable to alter the tariff by its sole nuthor- 
 ity ; and, thirdly, that we cannot make them obey the reg- 
 ulations agreed to by the localities." Of the signboards 
 proscribing Christianity which were formerly seen in Yedo, 
 there if) not one remaining at this day. But the fact is, 
 that in Yedo and other large towns there are ministers of 
 the gospel representing a number of sects who hold re- 
 ligious meetings regularly, antl whose teachings are thatik- 
 fully received by many of the native inhabitants. The 
 prevailing sentiment towards the missionaries seems to bo 
 — " Wo have no objection to your instructing those who 
 come to you for information, but we must not have any 
 compulsory appeals;" and so wc perceive that (he hostil- 
 ity to the Christinn religion is not by any means as active 
 as it was in former years. Indeed, there is much lalk 
 among the Japanese about organizing a ''new religion," 
 which would of course be a long step towards recognizing 
 Christianity in all its borders. 
 
 And now for a frw words upon the prominent character- 
 istiefl i>f the JapiinrBc. They do not bestow the same honor 
 upon women that is theoretically shown by the Western 
 nations, but in that particular they are in advance of tho 
 other Asiatic nations. As already stated, several of their 
 rulers have been females — 8 out of 124. and one of them 
 was the conqueror of Corea— and to-day let any woiiiiin 
 manifest a superior mind and she will command the highest 
 respect of her associates. Much has already been done to 
 emancipate woman from her former degraded condition, 
 and the last two ministers accreditol to this country harl 
 the manliness and gooii sense to bring their wives with 
 (hem. The .Fapanese, like human beings generally, may 
 be fi)nd of indulging their appetites, but drunkenness is 
 not as common as it is in this country, and against the use 
 of opium the most rigid regulations have been established. 
 Although wi'dded to all kinds of aristocratic notions, they 
 admire ami foster intellect wherever found, and in their 
 public offices always cmleavor to find the best man for 
 every position to bo filled. They are aiso remarkable for 
 their unsordid idens of life and duty. They are an intel- 
 lectiiiil r.K-e, and their native education is wellnigh uni- 
 versal; the commonest people, wc repeat, can read and 
 write the Japanese language, nnd all who make any pre- 
 tension to culture are well ft>unde'l in (he Chinese lan- 
 guage, which to them is like Littln to tin- Kni^liMh scholar. 
 All (ht^ writers who hnvc associatt-d with the Jiipancfe in 
 their own country, or while sojourning in Ameri<'a or Ku- 
 ropo, coincide in the opinion that they are n-markable for 
 their amiable ami agreeable manners ; and in this respect 
 the great Iwnkura embassy was most conspicuous— to such 
 an extent, indeed, as to have bfcn frequently conimetilcd 
 upon both in this ec>untry iin<l England. The porcelain, 
 
 lacquer-work, paper and silk, and the bronzes of Japan 
 have never been surpassed, and in some particulars n(d 
 equalled, in any other part of the world ; and with regard 
 to their pictorial art, their genius has been misapprehended. 
 Contrary to thecnmmon ojiiuiou. they understand and prac- 
 tise the rules ctf jicrspcctivc. and foreiiners have made a 
 mistake in judging of their skill as artists by the pictures 
 which in Yedo arc sold by the million for the tenth part 
 of a penny. A large proportion of the books arc regularly 
 illustrated, and tho writer uf this ]inper has in his posses- 
 sion many pictures whieh disphiy abilities of the highest 
 order for correctness and freedom of hamlling. 
 
 The relations existing between Japan and the U. S. have 
 been, and are now. of the most friendly character. There 
 is not a bone of contention between them, but there is one 
 great fact on the side of the latter which is humiliating to 
 our national honor and pride. We nlludc to wh.-it is called 
 the indemnity fund. In ISG4 a noted <lniniio, who hated 
 the new order of things in Japan, fired up(m a foreign 
 vessel in the employ of iinother daimio. The allied powers 
 thought themselves insulted, and brought the matter to the 
 attention of the imperial gnvrrnment. which disclaimed all 
 intention of doing wrong, and confessed that it could not 
 control the rebel daimlo. The powers in (j nest ion. the 
 British, Dutch, French, and Americnns. then formed a 
 little fleet, and inflicted severe punishment on the oflcnd- 
 ing daimio. That done, a convention was called, and 
 Japan wns mode to promise liiut she would pay an indem- 
 nity of $rj,000,(lO(i. The sum-totnl of that indemnity pay- 
 able to the U. S. is nearly $1,200,000. When more than 
 one-half of the amount due the U. S. had been paid, and 
 which our government was ashamecl to put In the treasury, 
 Prof. Joseph Plenry took the lead and suggested to Con- 
 gress that it should be appropriated to educational pur- 
 poses in Japan. The President was in favor of the prop- 
 osition, but Congress did not act; and so the question 
 rested for a while. In the mean time, the interested Eu- 
 ropean powers were trying to force the mikado to open his 
 empire to the trade of all nations. Ilis Mjtj( sty objected. 
 '• Then," said the powers, "you must pay us the money you 
 owe." The Japanese government paid the balance of their 
 debt to the three Eurojiean powers, an'l there was another 
 pause. It was soon found, however, not to be diplomatic for 
 the U. S. to refuse the unpaid balance dm* our government. 
 Tho arguments were successful, and the American minister 
 bad to go up and present bis bill, whieh was instantly paid. 
 For a moment the friendly feelings of the .Japanese towards 
 Ameriea weio slightly abated, but when they saw the diplo- 
 matic necessity, and thought of what Prof. Henry and tho 
 President had tried to do. the former kindly feelings were 
 restored. And now there is a great — and in sonic par- 
 ticulars a disgraeeful — squabble g'ting on in the V. S. over 
 this pile of ill-gotten gain. One of two things on this sub- 
 ject is true — either that it wns right for the V. S. to take 
 that money from a country like .r:ipan when in a state of 
 revolution, or that it was not. If tiie U. S. have no rigiit 
 to tho money in question, then every dollar of it should bo 
 returned without any conditions. If. however, there is a 
 bill for actual expenses, that amount (perhaps less than 
 §20,000) ought to be paid, and the very large balance should 
 bo rcturneil. But what do we see now going on in the way 
 of schemes for handling this money ? ( 1 ) The very pro]»cr 
 an<l most wise idea of Prof. Henry, to appropriate tho 
 money for educational purposes in Japan under the aus- 
 pices of the Japanese themselves ; (2t a proposition to divide 
 the money among the American olTicers and sailors who on 
 ono steamer did such wonderful work at Simonoseki; {'.'>) 
 tlio foun<ling of a college in Japan, to be wholly officered 
 and controlled by Americans; (I) to build an American 
 legiition in Yedo ; and (;')) to educate a few dozen boy? in tho 
 Japanese language for service at the American consulates 
 in that country. Indeed, the prcpostcrouR proposltiiins 
 may be counted by the do/en, and tho public will he sur- 
 prised to learn that there wiis once a scheme suggested for 
 taking this .Inpjinesc ninney to build a new slate depart- 
 ment in Wa.'-liinglon. What will finally be ilone is doubt- 
 ful, and wc cannot but enrnrstly hnjie that the rcputntion 
 of tho V. S. for liberality and fair play will not he tarnished 
 by the selfishness and cupidity of educational leaders or 
 Congres--ii»nal demagogues. 
 
 And now, by way of being a liltlo more explicit on some 
 of the points to which wo have heretofore alluded, wo 
 submit under appropriate headings tho subjoined infor- 
 mation. 
 
 Coiitnirrrf. n/ Jnpnn. — The latest complete ncoounts that 
 have been received in tho U. S. respecting tho trade of Ja- 
 pan are for (ho year 1873. The total amount of trade 
 was 50.:{22.f.39 yens (/. c. fMtnr»); exports. 21,2I7,-18| 
 yens; imports, 2l^.I0.^,0.'^7 yens; and tho business of tho 
 several ports open to foreign trade was as follows, in 
 vens:
 
 1370 
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 Exports. ImporW. 
 
 Yokohama 15,:m,2-19 20,742,994 
 
 Kobe 2,459,8G9 6,030,988 
 
 Osaka 92^71 402,19;i 
 
 Natiasaki 2,3^17.Sir> 1.888.862 
 
 Hakodate 447.G10 82.819 
 
 Nei^ata 565.000 7,200 
 
 The total amount of duties collected was l.T-'iS^Slo yens, 
 of which 1,223.021 yens were paid at Yokoliania. and the 
 hnlance at the five other ports. The imports of gold and 
 silver for the year lS7-t amounted to 1, 020. Oil.'i yens ; ex- 
 ports of the same, Kl, 3^2,702 yens. Imports of corn for 
 same period. .'^;>,120 yens ; and exports, 412, si<). Amount 
 of total imports, 22,811.166 yens ; amount of total exports,- 
 ISj.lfiT.So'J. Duties collected, 1,584.870 vens. Exports to 
 U. S., 7.461.S43 yens: China, a.^JfLOlO : tJrcjit Britain. 
 3,2.12.r.r)5 ; France, 2.7Ji»,40(); Italy. 04:.r.J7; Germany, 
 62.718 ; andother countries. 131.774. Imports from China, 
 8.3ri0,.154vens;GreatBritain,ll).149.8SS;Franco.l,()83,7r>3; 
 l^ S.. 1.010,359; Germany, 703,074; Indies, 28,753; and 
 othor countries. 180,742.2110. 
 
 Kxpnftri <tud Imports t'n ISTS. — SiUc. — Thcmostimportant 
 export staple of Japan is raw .=iilk. and for several years," 
 in-decd since 1865, a large business has been done in sup- 
 plying Frant^eand Italy with silkworms* eggs to regenerate 
 the diseased breeds of those countries. Tiie etfnct of this 
 latter trade has been to injure the quality of- Japanese 
 silk, and measures have been taken to stop the trade; but 
 these are likely to be futile, for a short timo at least, on 
 account of existing treaties. It is claimed that the remedy 
 is in reality with the people of Japan. In Jnn.. 1875, the 
 prices of silk in Yokohama ranged from $420 to 8570 per 
 piciif, or 120 pounds. Tiie siik exports for 1873 amounted 
 to nearly 11,000,000 yens, yc.i.— With regard to tlio tea- 
 trade, it is almost exclusively confined to the U. S., and 
 has been wonderfully developed within the last four years,' 
 and there is a prospect of greater extension in tlie imme- 
 diate future. Of course. Japan has an imposing rival in 
 China, but the former empire, with jts popular brands and 
 reasonable prices, is likely to bo eminently suceespful. The 
 tea exports for 1873 amounted to about 3,400,000 yens. 
 By way of giving an insight into the character of Japanese 
 productions wo append the following items: The exports 
 of tobacco amounted to 62,000 yens ; of seaweed to 
 175,000 yens; mushrooms, 33.284 yens; euttlc-lish. 10,000 
 yens; laekerwarc, 126,270 yens; earthenware, 48,000 yens; 
 bronze and copper ware, 82,000 yens ; copper in ore, 
 slabs, and wire, 200.000 yens; ginseng, 63,611 yens; sun- 
 shades :tnd fans, 2;i.000 yens; screens, 31O0 yens; silk 
 clothing, 0000 yens: and chona-root, 3433 yens. The im- 
 ports from for'^ign countries have hitherto far excelled the 
 exports, and the articles are too numerous to mention in 
 this place, but the more imjiortant articles have recently 
 been as follows: Wuollen cloths, cotton satins.de laines, 
 blankets, woollen and cotton mixtures, cotton fabrics, linens, 
 manufactures of iron, sapan-wood. window-glass, cordage, 
 sugars, cigars, paint, oils, steam-engines, printing-machines, 
 maehinery, glassware, ironware, copper roofing and 
 sheathing, drugs, dye-powders, tapestry, carpets, tortoise- 
 shells, boots and shoes, watches, clocks, soaps, furniture, 
 stationery, wine, beer ami brandy, mirrors, beans, coal, 
 matches, coral, and coal oil. During the lato difficulties 
 with China the exportation of rice, the most vital com- 
 modity of .Japan, was prohibited by the government, but 
 that prohibition was removed early in 1875. 
 
 LitfJifliniiftcf). — As a matter of interest to the commercial 
 world, (he following list of lighthouses, lightships, etc. is 
 submitted : Li'jhthtutHes. — Sinagawa, Yedo anchorage ; Yo- 
 kohama Ilatoba; Kanonsaki, entrance to Gulf of Yedo; 
 Tsurugi-saki, do. ; Nosima-saki, province of Awn ; Tnu- 
 boy-e-saki. province of .Simosa; lokasinm, province of 
 Sagnmi : Mikomoto, province of Idsu : Tro-o-gaki, do. ; 
 Omaisaki, Suruga Gulf; Toha, Toba Harbor; Matoya, 
 Southern Head; Kashinosaka. province of Kii ; Siworni- 
 saki, do. ; Tomangnisima, Isumi Strait ; Temposan, Osaka; 
 Wada-no-misaki, Kobe anchorage : Yesaki, entrance to the 
 Inland Sea: Nabacsima, Inland Sua; Tsurisima, Inland 
 Sea; Isaki. entrance to Simonoseki Straits: Rokuren, 
 do.; Iwosiraa, Nagasaki Harbor: Satanomisaki. island of 
 Kiusiu ; Awomori. province of Mutsn; Isbinomaki. prov- 
 ince of Uikuzen ; Noshiaf-saki, island of Yesso ; Nonicro. 
 island of Yesso — numbering in all 20. The Li.jhfHhipH are 
 two— in Yokohama Bay and the harbor of Hakodate ; and 
 the great buoys and be.acons number U. All the light- 
 houses here mentioned are built and conducted according 
 to the most approved ideas of modern times. Notwith- 
 standing the necessarily heavy cost of maintenance of the 
 lighthouse establishment, no dues are levied on vessels 
 visiting the ports of the empire. 
 
 Imprrial Afi'nt. — Tile coinaire of gold, silver, and copper, 
 founded on the plan of the V. S., was commenced in 1871, 
 since which time the old and various styles of Japanese 
 
 money have gone out of existence. The coin called a yen 
 is equivalent to the American dollar, and is made of both 
 gold and silver ; the sen is equal to the American cent ; and 
 the rt'»i is the same as the American mill. The gold yens 
 are divided into the following denominations: twenty, ten, 
 five, two, and one; the silver coins are f'.r one yen, fifty 
 sen, twenty sen, ten sen, and five sen: and the copper 
 money is for two sen, one sen. half sen, and one rin. Down 
 to Feb., 1875, the number of ])ieees coined at the imperial 
 mint amounted to 136.n85.541. and their value in yens was 
 61,421,744, or of gold 40.502.1'.12. silver 14.110.411, and 
 co])per 400,841. In Mar.. 1S75. it was stated in the public 
 prints of Yedo that coin to the value of 20.000.000 yens had 
 been exported from Japan. In their general cliaractcristica 
 the coins of Japan are quite equal to those of the U.S. Tho 
 Japanese historians claim thai copper was melted in Japan 
 as far back as a. n. 698 in the province of Suwo, whilst 
 ten years later — in 708 — they coined their first copper 
 money. It was called wa-do-kai-zeni, and was cast in the 
 province of Musashi. Prior to that period, however, there 
 bad been a silver coin in use, which was prohibited on the 
 appearance of tho copper coin ; and the first gold used as 
 money was coined about twenty years after the appearanco 
 of the copper coin. 
 
 Minerals. — The Pulijoined items of information will illus- 
 trate the fact tiiat the mineral wealth of Jajian has liittierto 
 been very extensive, and will naturally suggest the idea 
 that the future dcyelopments, conducted by modern inven- 
 tions connected with mining, are likely greatly to increase 
 the wealth of that empire. Copper has been found and 
 smelted in not less than forty provinces. Copper, silver, 
 and gold have been exported on a large scale ever since 
 1545. There is no mention in any of the .Japanese records 
 that any of these minerals had ever been impctrted, but 
 they do state that williin the space of 240 years the copper 
 exported, chiefly through the Dutch merchants, amounted 
 to 4,209,500 piculs. Of this copper there are many kinds, 
 but bar copper is tho most valuu!)le. The gold and silver 
 ex|)orted by the Portuguese bet%veen the years 1550 and 
 1639 (89 years) amounted in value to £59,500.000 sterling. 
 In 1671 the exportation of silver was prohibited for a 
 time. The Dutch were also large exporters of the same 
 minerals. Pri.ir and subsequent to the year 1830. from 
 50,000 to 60,000 piculs were exported annually ; since then 
 the exportation has reached a total of 40.000,000 piculs. 
 Silver ore was discovered in 667. and in that century the first 
 gold was coined; silver mcfal hist ]>roduced in 671. Between 
 the years 1-100 and IfiOO much larger amounts of the precious 
 metals were smclled tlian in modern times. Lead ores are 
 abundant, but that mineral has never been popular among 
 the Japanese. Iron ores of many kinds are also found in 
 large quantities ; also superi<ir varieties of coal ; and wiliiin 
 the last few years special attention has been given to the 
 development of these important sources of wealth. Hitherto, 
 the metallurgy of Japan has not been fully described by 
 any author. The work of Yon Siebold, Nipun Arcfu'r, was 
 never finished, and its informatif>n is meagre, and the work 
 of Ka^mpfer is not considered authentic. The leading 
 works on this subject by Japanese authors are as follows : 
 (1) Sini'fcai-mei-(lzH-kuicat\ in 5 vols.; (2) Ifint-zo-l-o- 
 Moku'Kri-mo, 1 large vol.; (3) Ko-do-Shu-ruku, a manual 
 for the metallurgy of copper, a small volume. 
 
 Popnlntion. — The last census of Jajjan was taken in 1872, 
 or the fifth year of Meiji, the 2532il year from (he accession 
 of Jimmu Tenno. The number of colonies is I ; organized 
 cities, 3; kens, 73; provinces. ^C); koris or departments, 
 717: kus or city parishes. 6862; muras or rural parishes, 
 70.413: towns. 12,535; Sintu shrines. 128.123; Booddhist 
 temples, 08,914 ; and houses, 7,107,841. Total ])opulation, 
 33,110,825: males, 16,796,158; females, 10,314,667. 
 
 Acps. Mfilo*. Fomalc«i. 
 
 14 and under 4..'".90.91.^ 4,4tV),39.'J 
 
 15-21 2.030.0.11) Rrtaari 
 
 21-40 r),005.747r 6.G38.0G3 
 
 GO-SO 1,4.T,'5,.^(I7 } 5,091,070 
 
 80 and above "S.-I-IO I1S,24S 
 
 Age unknown 1,844 1.K90 
 
 16,796,158 16^^14,687 
 
 Number of maimed, blind, deaf and dumb: males, 63,759; 
 females, 37,828. Criminals in prison: males. 2311; fe- 
 males. 119; in penal settlements, males, 962; females, 26; 
 criminals at hard labor, males, 272G ; females. 320. Tntdca 
 and Cla»9rH. — Farmers, 14.870.426; artisans. 701,416; mer- 
 chants, 1,300.191; miscellaneous occupations, 2,129.522; 
 total. 10,010,555. Princes and princesses. 29 : nobles, 2666 ; 
 shizoku (armed class, upper grade), 1.282.167 ; sotsu (armed 
 class, lower grade), 650,074; chishi (still lower grade), 
 5316; priests, 211.846; Sintu officials, 102.477: nuns, 
 9621 ; common people. 30.857,271 ; in Saghalien. 2358, 
 
 Letfiffativ* In farm nt inn. — National or provincial legisla- 
 tures, according to the acceptc<l plan of the AVestern na-
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 1377 
 
 tions, are not known in Japan. What has hitherto been 
 called a parliauient was di-liberative in its character, but 
 its mciiibcra were appuiuted by Iho government, and not 
 elected by the people. The native press of Jiipiui, however, 
 has lately been discussing the propriety of h;iving a na- 
 tional deliberative assembly, whose uiemliers should ac- 
 tually represent the people : and, :i? a promising beginning 
 in this direction, it was announced in ^lar., ISTo, that sub- 
 ordinate assemblies had already been established in the 
 kens of Yamaguchi and lliogo — that they had been unex- 
 pectedly successful, and mot with the cordial npjirobation 
 of the people. It was also announced that the members 
 of the council of state had taken a friendly interest in 
 these assemblies, and that the prospect was really encourag- 
 ing that it would not be long before Japan would have what 
 the natives designate a great house of assembly. Indeed, 
 just as this paper is going to press intelligeneo has been 
 received that a regular parliament, founded on the model 
 of the British Parliament, has been partially decided upon 
 by the imperial governnionf, and that the propfc of Japan 
 are likidy to be heard in a house of commons. 
 
 Japftnrne Literature. — The subjoined summary of tho 
 literature of Japan is compiled from a native author, and 
 is reliable. The Japanese possess a copious literature, have 
 a fondness for reading, and indulge themselves in study to 
 a remarkable degree. Their catalogues of published works 
 are numerous and voluminous, and the native books are 
 divided into three general classes, as follows : Kantfahu, or 
 Chinese classical literature and works on tho subject. In 
 this class may bo included works on iJooildhism, written in 
 Chinese, as well as the commentaries on these, and the form 
 of verse known as Shi by native authors; Wa-gakUf or 
 native books upon exclusively Japanese subjects, such as 
 history, geography, books upon subjects of local interest, 
 art, and ancient legends written in verse; an»l Krufthn, or 
 novels, tales, and historical events worked up into romances. 
 Of this class they possess an immense variety, and many 
 of the circulating libraries are chiefly composed of these 
 productions. Among tho more noted of the older writers 
 may bo mentioned Kiosan, Kioden, SekUu, Samba, and 
 II ikuba, who:<c productions range from romantic history 
 to very romantic fiction. Some of tho more popular writers 
 of later limes are Bakkin, whose tales embodicl real names 
 and des Tiptions; Tanehiko, who described his own times, 
 just before tho advent of Europeans: Tnmcnaga, a very 
 popular novelist; Rei Sanyow, noted for his histories; 
 Scigan, a poet, writing in Chinese; Motoori, a writer on 
 language; Atstane, an essayist; Oguni Takamasa, a poet; 
 and Nakamura and Fiikugawa, both of whom are English 
 scholars, but stand at tho head of tho moro useful writers 
 of the present day, and who have translated into their 
 language selections from tho writings of very many of tho 
 modern writers of America and Europe. The writers of 
 !ogon<ls, travels, antl romantic tales swell the list <>f modern 
 Japanese authors to a large number. Unhappily, many 
 of tho books of Japan do but little to edify or improve the 
 morals of tho people. 
 
 With regard to poetry tho Japanese are by no means de- 
 ficient in tho true sentiment, but their ideas of metro and 
 melody are peculiar. What is called long poetry is formed 
 of sentences of seven and five syllables alternately. Short 
 poetry consists of thirty-one syllables only — the first sen- 
 tence comprising fivo, the second seven, the third five, and 
 the fourth and fifth seven syllables each. These poems 
 are generally written on long and narrow strips of orna- 
 mcntod cardboard, measuring fourteen by about thrco 
 inches, which arc called Tnnz'ihu. In tho Il'niha poetry 
 tho syllables follow in the same order, but are read differ- 
 ently. Tho Znotohn has tho same number of syllables, 
 but so formed as to demand a. poetical reply of the same 
 order. Si-i'l'tolcu possesses a similar syllabic order and for- 
 mati in, but tho beginning and ending consist of words or 
 characters of like meaning. The Kioka is tho ordinary 
 poem of thirty syllables in tho same order. The Omit- 
 ijntjnnhi is similar to the X>mtokn, with tho exception that 
 the two verses, question and rciily, have only one of tho 
 thirty one syllables different. In the change of this the 
 mr-rit of the performance consists. The (iriku is an acrostic 
 of thirty-one syllables, divided into lines of five and seven 
 syllables, twice alternating in one of seven syllables. Tho 
 first syllable or character of each lino is given arbitrarily. 
 Tho ffttiktiikn is of tho same number and order of sylla- 
 bles, but is simply a poetical play on wordn <ir a proverb. 
 Th"* Ilriifjn is the linminnku or verse of five, seven, and five 
 syllables, answered by the Sftimnuokn, of seven and seven 
 syllables, the whole forming a poem of thirly-one. Tho 
 /fm'kfii is similar to the fieut/n, though commonly employed 
 upon moro trivial subjects. Both are called Tznkrni or 
 "joining." The Hokku is the five, seven, and five, or poem 
 of seventeen syllables. The.S'fiir/ii has five, seven, and fivo 
 syllables, and is a jeu-de-mota. It only remains to bo add- 
 Voi.. II.— S7 
 
 ed that a people who have such a variety of styles in ex- 
 pressing their thoughts cannot but be gifted in the utter- 
 ance of the most noble and beautiful and inspiring of sen- 
 timents and poetical reflections. 
 
 7'he Japaucne Lnnffutuje. — Without going into a learned 
 disquisition on this subject, the subjoined general state- 
 ments may be accepted as correct. Prior to tho period, 
 nearly 1200 years ago, when the Japanese imbibed certain 
 ideas from the Chinese in regard to languairc, their own 
 tongue does not appear to have been reducecl to writing. 
 In the earliest known writings, in prose as well as poetry, 
 the square and unabbreviated form of the Chinese charac- 
 ters is used ])honeticalIy to represent the sounds of the 
 Japanese syllables. These characters were called Karinay 
 or borrowed names, and subsequently contracted into what 
 is now called the Knua, which is syllabary, and consists 
 of forty-eight letters ; and when more or less abbreviated 
 and simplified in form these characters arc called Hirn- 
 kana, or plain letters, and aro at the present time the com- 
 mon symbols used in writing the native Japanese. An- 
 other class of characters is called A'tita-kntm, or side let- 
 ters, which arc also derived from tho Chinese, but in which 
 only a part of tho character is used. These are more an- 
 cient than tho I/ira-kaua. and aro commonly only used by 
 scholars or in dictionaries. Another form of the h'awi was 
 invented by a Booddhist priest about 1000 years ago, for 
 the purpose of assimilating it to the letters used in the sa- 
 cred books of tho Booddhists throughout the great countries 
 of Asia. Tho syllables of the Japanese language ntimbcr 72, 
 and from tho fact that the greatest care has to ho taken not 
 to writo them indiscriminately, and thereby infringe upon 
 ancient usage, the difiiculties of uttering and writing them 
 are very great, and not often fully surmounted by English- 
 speaking people. In its sound tho Japanese language is 
 soft, and allieil to tho Italian. The books that have latterly 
 been published upon it are not numerous, but by far tho 
 most important and valuable is the JnpaurKc and English 
 Dirtionarif, prepared in 1SC7 by J. C. Hepburn, and in 
 which that indefatigable scholar has defined not less than 
 20,000 words. The only works of this character, and of 
 special value, which preceded that of Dr. Hepburn, were 
 published by W. II. Mcdhurst in Batavia in 1S30, and by 
 the Jesuit missionaries to .Japan in 1(^0^!. In writing, the 
 Japanese begin on tho right side of the page, prccccd 
 in vertical columns, and make free use of diacritic and 
 punctuating signs. 
 
 As no adequate idea of tho sound of Japanese words can 
 be obtained without first understanding tho alphabet, we 
 submit it to tho reader, as follows: i-, ro-, ha-, ni'-, ho-, 
 he-, to-, chi-, ri~, ntt-f ru-, wo-, wa-, ka-j yo-, ta-, re-, no-, 
 tar.-, UC-, na-, ra-, ?»?/-, u-, i-, no-, o-, kii-, J/a-, ma-, kc-, 
 _/*«-, ko-, yc-, tc-, a-, sa-, kt-, ffi-, 7»c-, »i(' , ahi-, ye-, hi-, 
 HIO-, He-, ez-, and n- ; in all. forty-eight syllabary letters. 
 Tho characters represented by tho above are written in 
 two ways, and occasional!}' an extra meaning is given by 
 tho addition of marks and signs. In expressing the si>uncl 
 of tho Japanese vowels tho continental pronunciation has 
 been followed, because of its being more dcnnite than the 
 English ; tho .lapanese have been accustomerl to it for two 
 or moro centuries, and in all the books written by Europeans 
 it has been regularly adopt<'d. 
 
 Dialectic variations aro numerous anrl depend chicfiy on 
 modifications of sound. In the Japanese grannnar there 
 is no gender, the nutle sex being indicate*! by ro and tho 
 female by mr; substantives aro nearly allied to adjectives; 
 there is no ])ro])er article; cases aro indicated by Fufiixes; 
 tho plural is formed by suflixes, which signify all, innvh, 
 many: the genitive precedes; the numerals aro various; of 
 figures there are thrco sets of numbers; of pronouns, those 
 of tho first and second person have been lost in the words 
 of etif|uctte; demonstratives are numerous; relatives are 
 wanting: verbs are jierfect ; certain particles denote tho 
 moods; tho participles are of extensive application; ad- 
 verbs are similar to adjectives; tho syntax adheres to a 
 strict order; compounds and derivatives arc easy and fre- 
 quent; and many simple w(»rds have significations which 
 are discriminated by sinograms. 
 
 By way of giving the reatler an idea of .Tapancso when 
 spoken, wo submit the following specimens from a standard 
 vocabulary: (^od, Kami, Shin, Kntitkr; man, h'to, uin, in'n- 
 grn otoko; woman, ouiia, fujio, jo: husband, ntto Irishn, 
 tntik't, tHzma, tonnijn; wife, tazma, kanai niynhn, nai'ji ka- 
 minnn, okniantn, »ni*; world, nrkai, rhikin, trurhi trnka, «r- 
 /rcti, yo nrj'i, nrji; country, kuui, kokn, tnchi, inaka, zaitjn, 
 knkka; rice, momi: silk, kinit, tto; porcelain, neinmono; 
 enemy, tcki, kafnki ada; friend, tomodnrhi, hi'yn, h'-hai, 
 miknta, yoruhr taynri: and religion, onhiyr, nitrhi ho li't. 
 It will thus be seen that there are often many ways of ex- 
 pressing tho same idea, and that it is not to be wondered 
 at that tho natives of one province of the Jnpaneso empire 
 aro often unable to understand those of another.
 
 1378 
 
 JAPAN CLOVEBr-JAPANNING. 
 
 Japan,,. Slnde«t, in Foreion £<,«rf,.--Among the many 
 remarUaWc events which marked the advent to power ot 
 the present emperor of Japan was that of sendmg prom.s- 
 in" young men to foreign countries to be educated. Jhu- 
 was done at the expense of the general government n,,d 
 the idea was, that the persons thus honored ehould even- 
 „"llv give their services to their country. The larges 
 proportion of these students were sent '"America, but 
 manv of them went to England, France, and Germany The 
 "otal'nuraV.er who came to the U. S. was about 600. Many 
 of them, after their return to Japan, entered the pub ic de- 
 partments, and all the men who are in 1875 m ofiicial posi- 
 tions in the II. S. were formerly government ^tudcnts. In 
 lS73the Japanese government, for reasons that have not 
 been publicly explained, recalled nearly all the students, o 
 that those who are now studying in forcgn lands arc, with 
 few exceptions, receiving their foreign education as private 
 individuals. Among the Japanese students sent abroad 
 have been manv who displayed very remarkable ab.lit.es, 
 and some of their writings, published in 18,2, were highly 
 praised both in the U. S. and in England. Among the 
 Students who cumc to America in 18T1 were five young 
 ladies, and as thev were the first who ever left the emp.re 
 of Japan for purposes of foreign study, we append their 
 names, as follows: Rio Yoshimas, aged fifteen years ; Tei 
 AVooveda, aged fifteen; Stematz Yamagawa. aged twelve; 
 Shin-e Na-ai, aged ten: and Ume Tsuda, between s<3ven 
 and ci-ht years of age.' The first two, for consider.ations 
 of a personal nature, were oliliged to return to Japan m 
 187'' but the three others are still in the U. S., and all ot 
 them prosecuting their studies in a manner that is consid- 
 ered quite remarkable, even the youngest of them being 
 now able to write a correct and handsome letter m the 
 En.'lish language. The Japan Mail in an article on the 
 Japanese students made the following observations : ' The 
 Japanese students abroad were so earnest, diligent, polite, 
 Quick, and eager to learn that they won plaudits even from 
 those unused to praise. The president of a Massachusetts 
 coUe.'c said he wished to have a .Tapanese in every college 
 in A°merica to teach the undergraduates good manners. 
 The principal of a Connecticut high school saul publicly 
 that a body of young men of such powers of observation 
 as the Japanese students exhibited could not be found in 
 America. The journals of England and Germany, as well 
 as of America, stinted no praise of the graceful Orientals 
 in their schools. Several of the .Japanese students won 
 distinctions at English, German, and French un.versit.es 
 and at American colleges, and others would have assuredly 
 done so hiid not the grave come between them and the 
 goal All these things tended to produce the opinion held 
 by some that the average Japanese is even superior to the 
 average American or European student." _ 
 
 School SlathHcs.—Tha following figures arc given to 
 represent the educational interests in Japan in 1874: gov- 
 ernment schools, 7; teachers, 95; Japanese teachers, 51 ; 
 forci-n teachers, 45 ; public and private schools in the 
 vario°i9 fus and kens, 0261; teachers, 5856 ; studen s, 
 47'' 017. To these should be added 3 normal schools. 
 The=e were all under the immediate control of the educa- 
 tional department, the head of which is the vice-minister 
 of public instruction— a most earnest and competent gen- 
 tleman— Tanaka Fujmaro. In 1872 a law was promulgated 
 by the imperial government which decreed the establish- 
 ment of 53,760 schools in Japan, and while some progress 
 has been made, it will be years, probably, before it can bo 
 fully consummated. Some of the provisions of the afore- 
 said law are as follows : Eventually the people will pay all 
 expenses, but for the present the government will as^s.st by 
 paving salaries and expenses of foreign teachers, the cost 
 of 'building high schools, and providing books and instru- 
 ments and allowances to foreign students The annua 
 appropriation for these objects has thus far been about 
 $300,000. The educational eslablishmcnts which are now 
 in sueccssful operation in Yedo are as follows : The Dai 
 Gakko, or universitv, which includes several separate col- 
 leges for the study of medicine, jurisprudence, philosophy, 
 and mining, as also a polvtechnio college. The veterinary, 
 commercial, and agricultural colleges, as likewise the col- 
 logo of arts, hare not as yet been opened. The Go Oakko, 
 a school for instruction in foreign languages; several pri- 
 vate schools, designed likewise for imparting instruction 
 in foreign languages; the Shi Han Gakko, or normal 
 school for the instruction of Japanese teachers ; a princi- 
 pal female school; several preparatory schools; and cer- 
 tain establishments in connection with some of the public 
 departments, which arc designed for imparting knowledge 
 of special subjects. The most competent observers agree 
 in the opinion that Japan is in no sense an illiterate na- 
 tion. The number of persons who cannot read and write 
 is a' small minority. Even the more common classes can 
 read the ordinary Kana. Charles Lanman. 
 
 Japan Clover (Lcspedeza atriala), a plant introduced 
 in some unknown manner into the Southern States of the 
 tJ S before 1845 from Eastern Asia, and which has spread 
 Avith wonderful rapidity. It is a low annual, growing to 
 the height of little over a foot on the poorest soils, is 
 readily eaten by cattle, and has become popular with 
 stock-raisers. 
 
 Japan'ning. The art of applying a peculiarly dura- 
 ble and beautiful varnish as practised in Japan, from 
 which countrv the name is derived. The original process 
 in its hi'^hcst form is very difficult and complicated. It 
 applied to wood, great care is taken to prepare the latter, 
 it being baked for many days and tested to ensure it Irom 
 cracking. The varnish itself is the resinous product of 
 a bush called the onrosi no ?.■!, or varnish-plant (Ehut 
 re-mi r) The Chinese make it, but of inferior quality, from 
 theiimia Sinensis or the tsirlwn and tsaU-hon ((:aiiton dia- 
 lect) According to Fisscher and Tomlinson, the lacker is 
 obtained by incision. It ia at first ercam-like, but becomes 
 black by exposure. A fine powder of charred wood i8 
 added after it has become black, and this being very evenly 
 applied, it is dried in the sun, the charred wood giving " 
 a peculiar body and preparing it for polishing. The re- 
 duction of the varnish and tho mixing with the powder 
 are very carefully executed by very tedious processes, iivc 
 coats of varnish are applied, each being dried with ho 
 greatest care. It becomes glass-like in its hardness, and .9 
 extremely tough, so as to resist the action of boiling water. 
 It is then polished with a smooth stone and water (accord- 
 ing to Fisscher, with reeds or a bamboo, as De Jancigry 
 understands him, hut Fisscher probably means with f^u.j- 
 elwn or Dutch rush). When applied to pap.er-machS boxes 
 or cups the varnish forms a bindin;, like an enamel, and la 
 no inconsiderable part of the object. Figures are painted 
 on the polished surface with turpentine, or gilding is np- 
 nlied lifter which the whole is finished with another coat 
 of varnish. Mother-of-pearl is often set in the varn.sh 
 Different methods of priming the objects to be varni.-hed 
 are followed; a common one is to apply rotten-stone and 
 ox-gall Of course the excellence of the coating is im- 
 proved by multiplying the coats, and in some eases twenty 
 or more are applied. This is the true .lapanningof the 
 East In Europe and America tho so-called japanning so 
 frequently seen on a.tieles of sheet metal, and which has a 
 rich and'peculiar lustre, generally of a warm semi-trans- 
 parent kind, is efi-ectcd by applying different varnishes 
 eopal or anime, by the agency of heat. The varnish is 
 colored or qualified with lampblack, asphaltum, white, 
 green, or any other color required. Gold and silver or 
 bronze arc also applied with size and powder, and subse- 
 quently varnished and polished by a variety of processes. 
 In general, the color is laid on first, and the japanning is 
 effected by laving on several coats of varnish, the lustre 
 and quality o'f which are increased by their being made 
 without drving-matter. When only a single coat of var- 
 nish is used, tho object being rather to imitate japanning 
 in its best form, tho process liecomcs lackering (see J-AC- 
 keb) • while on tho other hand lackering, when very fine 
 varnish is used, and heat ia applied, is inferior japanning. 
 Ovens of different patterns arc specially constructed lor 
 drving in japanning. Japanned or patent leather is made 
 in' the greatest perfection in Japan, and next in I- ranee. 
 It is effected bv applying to good, dry, thin leather a com- 
 position of linseed oil and turpentine colored with burnt 
 umber and ivory or lampblack. Several coats arc laid on, 
 and each thoroughly dried, the outer or last coats being made 
 quite black. The thinner the eont applied and the more 
 thoroughly it is dried, tho more pliable will the leather be, 
 and thS m'ore dnrable the coating. The varn..4i ,s made 
 with Prussian blue, or any color deemed suitable to g.ye 
 the tone required, and oil. It is reduced or rendered fluid 
 with turpentine. After several coats are appliedand dried, 
 it is scraped and polished with pumico-stonc. (.rca pains 
 should be taken to prevent dust from falling on the leather 
 
 during the process. ,• , . „„i„ »„ 
 
 The term japanning is improperly applied not only to 
 simple lackering and varnishing, but also to difierent kinds 
 of mineral and glass or porcelain glazing, or in fae to vit- 
 rification. True japanning consists of the application ol 
 several coats of varLisb. andof drying and polishing these 
 so as to ensure the peculiar durability and gloss character- 
 istic of the Oriental processes, and not in a ^"Vl^f'''"-]'"}; 
 itation of it, much less in effecting results of »" J« ''.y 
 different nature, which, as in the case of glazing and Mtri- 
 fieation, have already received much better and far more 
 charaet;ristic names. It is to be des red that writers on 
 technology should be more careful in this as in many other 
 oaserand not adopt the errors of merely practical men. 
 We inav observe with Tomlinson that in japanning every 
 workman has his own favorite method of preparation and 
 of mHing his varnishes, since the differences of climate.
 
 JAPHETH— JASHEE, BOOK OF. 
 
 1379 
 
 temperature, and maCerialfl in dtffereot countries will inev- 
 itably compel tbo iululligcnt wurkman to depart raoro or 
 Ie?a from auy csta.l)iishcil formula. Japauniug as applied 
 to many fancy articles is a truly elegant art, ami so far 
 from being merely mechanical that there is perhaps none 
 in which the results arc more indicative of individual skill 
 and intelligence. Ciiaiiles G. Leland. 
 
 Ja'pheth [Heb. r\D\ Yc'pheth, " widesprcading" or 
 "fair'*], one of the three sons of Xoah, mentioned last in 
 order, but held by critics (see Gen. x. 21) to have been 
 tho eldest — one of the eight persons preserved in the ark, 
 and the progenitor to whom is ascribed (Gen. i.) the peo- 
 pling of tho northern portion of Asia Minor, and perhaps 
 Thrace. Most of the nations of Europe are usually de- 
 duced from Japheth. who is supposed to be identical with 
 the (ireek lapctos. tho father of Prometheus. The only 
 specific act of Japheth recorded in the Bible is one of filial 
 piety to his fjither when drunken (Gen. ix. 20-27), which 
 obtained for him the prophecy, *' God shall enlarge Japheth, 
 and he shall dwell in the tents ofShem; and Canaan sliall 
 be his servant." Japheth seems to have been born 100 
 years before the Flood (Gen. v. 32) : the length of his life 
 is not mentioned, but his brother Shem lived 502 years 
 after the Flood (Gen. xi. 11 ). which may be conjectured to 
 have been (he averatre period allotted to the sons of Xoah. 
 It is noticeable that tho Greek mythology makes lapetos 
 the ancestor of the human race. Nothiug is known as to 
 the locality inhabited I>y Japheth after the Flood, but gene- 
 alogical reasons would favor the immediate vicinity of 
 Mount Ararat. 
 
 Japa'ra, Ilyapnra, or Caqiict'a, a river of South 
 America, risfs in the Andes of Kcuador, in lat. 1° 20' N. 
 and Ion. 76** JO' \\'., runs first between Ecuador and New 
 Granada, then through Brazil, and enters the Amazon at 
 lat. 1° 20' S. and Ion, 72° 20' W., after a course of about 
 1000 miles. It« navigation is much impeded by rapids and 
 cataracts. 
 
 Japy'eiay the name given by the Greeks to Apclia 
 (which see). 
 Jarclin (Kakel or). See DnjAnnix. 
 Jar'dine (Gkorgk), h. at Wandal, Lanarkshire, Scot- 
 land, in 1742; was educated at Glasgow University; be- 
 came a licentiate of the Church of Scotland, and in 1774 
 professor of logic an'l rhetoric. In this chair he was an 
 able exponent of the characteristic doctrines of tho " Scotch 
 philosophy," distinguishing himself by his successful efforts 
 to popularize that stu<ly, and publishing in 1818 his Ont- 
 UntM of Phitonuphical Education, Ulitstrated by the Method 
 of Tenchivfj the Loffic CtnuH in the Unt'rersittf of Glangow. 
 Prof. Jardine's efforts were mainly directed to the encour- 
 agement of accurate investigation upon any given tojuc, 
 drawing abundant inferences from seemingly isolated facts. 
 He retired from his post in 1824. and d. in 1S27. 
 
 Jardinc (?ir Wim.iam), Bart., b. at Applegarth. Dum- 
 friess-shire, Scotland, Feb. 2.3, 1800; succeeded to the baron- 
 etcy in I32I ; gave his attention chiefly to ornithology, 
 though a voluminous writer upon nil the vertebrate ani- 
 mals. Ho edited White's Xaturftf f /ifttory of Scl home thvco 
 times; established the \fngnzine of Zoohxjif and /totmn/; 
 assisted in conducting the Aiinn/« of Xatitral Ifintortf and 
 the Philonophirn! Jouniai, besides publishing a Calendar 
 of Ornithohujjf (1S40). D. in 1S74. 
 
 Jaruac'« town of France, in tho department of Cha- 
 rente, 16 miles X. W. from Angouleme. Pop. in 1806, 4241?. 
 A battle was fmight hero Mar. 1'*., l.*>69, between tho IIu- 
 guonols under the prince of Conde and the Catholics under 
 tho duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III., in which tho 
 former were defeated and Cond6 lost his life. Jarnno has 
 given the title of barim or count to several celebrated per- 
 sons, one of whom died in the current year (1875) as French 
 minister to I^ngland. It popsesscs a suspension bridge, and 
 enjoys an active trade in wine and brandy, being only 11 
 kilonit^tres from Cognac, where tho finest quality of tho 
 latter article is produecd. 
 JaroNlav. See Yaroslav. 
 
 Jar'row, or VarrOW, town of Kngland. in the county 
 of Durham, is situated on tho Tynr. and has extensive 
 shipbuilding yards, manufactures of <'heniienls. antl. in the 
 ncighborhooil, large collieries. In (he church of St. Paul 
 is an oaken chair which is said to havo belonged to the 
 Venerable Hede. whtt wan horn in tho parish and buried in 
 this churcli. Pop. 18,170. 
 
 Jar'ves (Jamps JArKRnN),b. in Boston, Mass., Aug. 20, 
 1818. Weakness of the eyes compelling him to desist from 
 study, ho travelled extensively on this continent, visiting 
 California, Mcxiert, anrl Central America, and resided for 
 some years at Honolulu, where he published the Pidi/ne- 
 aianf tbo flrst newspaper printed there. Soon after his re- 
 
 turn from these journcyings he went to Europe, where he 
 has since made his chief residence, mostly in Paris and 
 Florence, devoting himself to the study of art and to the 
 collection of a giLJlcry of pictures illustrating tho difi'crent 
 schools of painting. The collection, a large and interest- 
 ing one, was exhibited in New York, and after various for- 
 tunes (the owner being unable to dispose of it at what he 
 considered a fair valuation) it found temporary refuge in 
 the Fine-Art Gallery of Yale College at New Haven, Conn. 
 It is not, however, what it was, many of the best pieces 
 having been sold to private purchasers. Mr. Jarves has 
 written several books: A History of the Saudirich hlandit. 
 Scenes and Scenery of the Satidtrtch hland», Sccnen and 
 Scenery in Cnlifornin — all in 1843-44. Since residing in 
 Europe he has written mainly on European and art themes 
 — Parisian Sif/hts and French Principles (ISitb-bG), Italian 
 Sifjhts and Papal Principles, Confessions of an Inquirer 
 (18j7), Art Hints, Art Studies, The Art Idea, Art ThonfjhtH 
 (1S70) — works of a blended historical, biographical, crit- 
 ical, and philosophical character. showing a cultivated and 
 thoughtful mind. Mr. Jarves is well known in Itaiy as a 
 connoisseur, is an honorary member of the Academy of 
 Fine Arts in Florence, and has received other similar marks 
 of respect. 0. B. Frothixgham. 
 
 Jar'vis (.\braham), B. D., b. at Norwalk. Conn., May 
 5, 173'J: graduated at Yalo College in 1761 ; was ordnineil 
 deacon and priest in the Protestant Episcopal Church in 
 London in 17G4, in which year ho became rector of Christ 
 church, Middletown. In i7*.'7 he was consecrated bishop 
 of Connecticut to succeed Scabury. and settled (1803) at 
 New Haven, where he d. Maj' 3, 1813. 
 
 Jarvis (Edward). A. B., A. M.. M. D., b. Jan. 0, 1803, at 
 Concord, Mass.; graduated in 182G from Harvard Univer- 
 sity, and from the med. college of same institution in 1830; 
 practised in Nnrthfield nnd Concord, Mass., Louisville, Ky., 
 and thirty-two years in Dorchester, Mass. : devoted himself 
 to the study of vital statistics, the laws of life and health, 
 insanity, etc., to which branches of science he has made 
 many and important contributions. His principal writings 
 arc — Physitilof/y and Health, Elementary Physiology, Re- 
 port on the Nnmlier and Condition if the Insane and Idiots 
 of Massnchnsetfs, Report on the Mortality of the U. S. in the 
 Ctnnus of 1S70, besides essays in journals and magazines, 
 among which many attracted great attention, such ns The 
 Increase of Human Life, Infant Mortality, Effect of Mmili- 
 rectcd Education in the Production of Insanity, Political 
 Economy of Health. Since 1852, Dr. Jarvis has been pres- 
 ident of the American Statistical Association. 
 
 Jarvis (Jons Wesley), b. at South Shields, on tho 
 Tyne, England. 1780: passed his infancy with his uncle, 
 the celebrated John AVeslcy ; came to America at the age 
 of five ; his father, a seafaring man, left the lad in Phila- 
 delphia, where he obtained such instruction as he could. 
 Stuart discouraged, but Malbone eneouraged him ; he came 
 to New York as an engraver: exeeuted profiles on glass in 
 black and gold leaf: painted miniatures, but soon under- 
 took portraits in oil, and rapidly rose to eminence by the 
 felicity of his likenesses, the strength of his drawing, and 
 the truth of his color. His rapi'lity of work was remark- 
 able, but it was based on study and observation. Jarvis 
 painted admirable portraits of the heroes of (he war of 
 1812. His portraits of Hull, Perry, Bainbridge, Swift, 
 Brown, and McDonough iire in the City Hall. New York ; 
 those of John Randolph, Robert Morris, Daniel Tompkins, 
 ond Egbert Benson are in the gallery of tho New York 
 Historical Society. Jarvis painted with success in Balti- 
 more, Charleston. Richmond, and New Orleans, where some 
 of his best work is to he seen. His genius was recognized 
 bv men like Henry Clay, but he would havo d(uie better 
 things had he been less addicted to social entertainment. 
 D. Jan. 12, 1840. 0. B. FuoTUiNOnAM. 
 
 Jarvis (Samfel Farmer), D. D.. LL.D.. b. at Middle- 
 town, Conn., .Fan. 20,1780. being a son of Rishop Abraham 
 Jarvis. He graduated at Yale College in 1803; entered the 
 Episcopalian ministry in ISIO; was professor of biblical 
 criticism (18I'.t) in tho General Theological Seminary; 
 rector of St. Paul's. Boston, 1820-26, when he went lo Eu- 
 rope, and remained there ten years, six of whieh were 
 spent in Italy. Returning to America in 1835, Dr. Jarvis 
 became professor of Oriental literature in Trinity College 
 at Hartford, and in I8:iS was appointed historiographer to 
 tho Americnn Episcopal Church. In Ibis capacity he pub- 
 lished in 1844 a Chronnlofjical Introduction to the Hintm-y 
 of the Church. Other works were — A Discnurse on the Rr- 
 lifjion of the Indian Trihes of Xnrth America (1820). Ser- 
 mons on Prophecy (1843), Xo Union \eitU Rome (1843), and 
 The Church of the Redeemed (1850). D. at Middletown 
 Mar. 26, 1851! 
 
 Ja'uherf Book of* a Hebrew vork twice cited in the
 
 1380 
 
 JASMIN -JASPER. 
 
 Old Testament (Josh. x. 13 nnd 2 Sam. 1. 18), but no onger 
 oxtaot The former citation is the well-known apostrophe 
 of Joihua to the sun and moon, the latter the bcnutilul 
 ele^v of David upon Saul and Jonathan. The nature and 
 conTonts of the hook of Jashcr have been a frequent topic 
 for the in-'cnuilv of biblical commentators, (iesenius con- 
 ieetured That it was a poetical anthology formed or c.wn- 
 nleted in the time of David or Solomon, and containing 
 the favorite national songs, especially those conimemorating 
 the e-cploits of renowned heroes. The Hebrew name, .S-p/ier 
 H.„lJh„r. is interpreted to mean " Book of the Ji.st Many 
 for-eries have been produced purporting to be the los book 
 of Jasher, the most notable of which was one brought out 
 in Hebrew in Italy and Poland, and also in Gerninn. during 
 the seventeenth century, and was published in Knglisfa by 
 M M Noah (Xew York, 1810). Dr. J. W. Donaldson, an 
 eminent English classical scholar, made an elaborate at- 
 tempt lo reconstruct the bonk of Jashcr from the IVntateiich 
 ( /.,./,.!/• frrqmeiita ArckHi/pn C-_,r,ni<iHm Hchrnirornm.Hc, 
 lfi)4) but his results were received with general incredulity. 
 (Sec an essay on Jashcr in E. Deutsch's lUmiun^, ISi*-) 
 
 Jasmin'" (Jac«ites), b. at Agon, in Southern France, 
 Mar 17'.)S, was the son of a tailor, and brought up in 
 utter poverty until his twclflh year, when he was admitted 
 into a priests' seminary ; but being expelled two or three 
 years later for some misconduct, he was apprenticed to a 
 barber in his native town. At the ago of eighteen he 
 married and comincuced business as a barber and hair- 
 dresser hut nevertheless allowed his literary instincts 
 such development that he soon became widely famous as a 
 troubadour. His earliest poem was printed lu 1826, his 
 masterpiece (translated by Longfellow as the Bhud Girl 
 „/■ C„.,icl CuilU) appeared in 1S:!G, and set the seal to his 
 popularity. He was now patronized by king and nobles. 
 but retained his simple mode of life until his death. Oct. 
 4 1861 Jasmin received a pompous funeral, and his auto- 
 biographical sketches have been frequently reprinted. 
 
 j'as'mine. Yellow, an indigenous twining plant 
 iGrheiiaum scmpervln-n,, natural order Loganiacea.0 gioiy- 
 in- in rich damp soil in the coast-distriets from \ irginia 
 to'thc Ouir It is a beautiful plant, with large, deep-yellow, 
 sweet-smellin'' flowers, and climbs trees in the Southern 
 forests The root is used in medicine under the name ycY- 
 scminm, and contains as its active principle an alkaloid, 
 mhrmi.i. It is a nerve-poison, causing motor and sensory 
 paralysis, and may bo fatal in overdose through paralysis 
 [{ respiration. Edwaud Curtis. 
 
 Ja'son [Or. limoi.. "healer" or "atoner"], a fabulous 
 hero of the earliest (irecian mythology, whose exploits in 
 the expedition of the ship Argo (see AncoNAtiT.f:) to Col- 
 chis for the recovery of the Golden Fleece were recounted 
 at great length and with infinite variety of advenlure by 
 the Greek cvelio poets, and by some of their Latin imi- 
 tator' .Modern inquirers into the origin of this myth have 
 been led to class it as one of the numerous solar myths. 
 (See Cox's Miillioln>j!l "/ the An/nn A'allom, ISf,'.).) 
 
 Ja«on, a tyrant of Pheraj in Thessaly, probably the son 
 of Lycophron, came into power about B. 0. 395, and undcr- 
 took'to reduce all Thessaly under his dominion. In u. r .!, S 
 he had succeeded in conquering all the cities except 1 har- 
 salus, which was supported by Sparta. Soon afterwards 
 he was chosen dictator of Thessaly, took a prominent part 
 in the wars between the states of Greece, and would prob- 
 ably have anticipated the carecT of Philip of Macedon had 
 he not been assassinated, B. c. .".70. 
 
 Jas'pcr [(;r.:a<7^«l. a mineral, of the quartz f»'";'y; "«- 
 cu.rin- in abundance in veins and large masses, imbedded 
 in rocks, sometimes as a rock itself, and ollen in the shape 
 of pebbles. It is characterized by opacity an.l by numer- 
 ous colors— red, yellow, green, white, blue, black, or brown-- 
 
 generallv arranged in stripes and spots, apparently due o 
 iron oxides. It is exceedingly hard, takes a fine polish, 
 and is in request for ornamental objects, such as cameos, 
 rin^s. and seals. Among the varieties are A>//j(..ni ,n»;>rr, 
 vellow mixed with brown ; rihhnn jaipcr. so called trom the 
 distinclness of the stripes: pnml„m >.»/)er, full of small 
 holes and much cracke.l ; L,,rli»„ tlour, flinty and black, 
 used as a test of the purity of the alloys of gold ; and hl.mil- 
 tlonr or hrlloirnpr. deep-green with blood-red spots J he 
 lar-'cst mines of jasper arc those of the upper Ural in 
 Siberia, especially the Korgon gorge, where this stone is cut 
 out in enormous blocks. Jasper was highly prized by the 
 ancients. It was the twelfth stone inserted in the breast- 
 plate of the Jewish high priest (Ex. xxviii. 20). and the 
 first of the twelve used in the fonn.lation of the New ■leru- 
 saleni; it was also the material of the' wall (Rev. xxii. 18, 
 19), and the glory of the Divine Being is described (Rev. 
 iv. S) by comparison with a jasper. (Smith, Diet, of Bible.) 
 Jasper, county of N. Central Georgia. Area, !it>& 
 square miles. It is hilly, but fertile, producing cotton, to- 
 
 bacco, and corn. It contains iron, gold, and other mineral 
 wealth. Cap. Monticello. Pop. 10,439. 
 
 Jasper, county of S. E. Illinoia. Area, 4S4 sq. m. It 
 is a level and very fertile region. Cattle, grain, wool, and 
 tobacco arc staple products. Cap. Newton. Pop. 11,2.M. 
 Jasper, county of N. W. Indiana. Area, 550 square 
 miles. Its surface is mostly prairie, and a part is marsh- 
 land. Much of its surface afl'ords excellent pasturage. 
 Live-stock, grain, and wool are largely produced. Cap. 
 Rensselaer. Pop. 0:!j4. 
 
 Jasper, eonnty of Central Iowa. Area, 720 square miles. 
 It is largely prairie-land, is very fertile, and yields abun- 
 dance of coal. Cattle, grain, wool, and butter are staple 
 products. Carriages, wagons, and harnesses are leading 
 articles of manufacture. The county is traversed by the 
 Des Moines Valley and the Chicago Rock Island and 1 a- 
 cific R. Rs. Cap! Newton. Pop. 22,116. 
 
 Jasper, county of S. E. Central Mississippi. Area, 
 650 square miles. It is n fertile and undulating region. 
 Cotton, pork, and corn arc staple products. Cap. Paul- 
 dim'. Pop. 10,884. 
 
 Jasper, county of S. W. Missouri, hounded on the W. 
 by Kansas. Area, COO square miles. It is diversified and 
 fertile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are staple prod- 
 ucts ' It is traversed by the Memphis Carthage and North- 
 western R. R. Cap. Carthage. Pop. 14,928. 
 
 Jasper, county of E. Texas. Area, 918 square miles. 
 It is heavily timbered, and has coal, iron ore, petroleum, 
 and valuable salt-wells. The soil is productive. Cotton, 
 corn tobacco, pork, rice, and lumber are produced the 
 latter very extensively. The navigable Ncehes River flows 
 along tho"W. border. Cap. Jasper. Pop. 4218. 
 
 Jasper, post-v., cap. of Walker eo., Ala., 50 miles N. E. 
 of Tuscaloosa, in a fertile and healthful region abounding 
 in coal It was twice burned during the war ; has a good 
 court-house, jail, church. Masonic hall, and a high school 
 capable of accommodating HOO pupils. It has 6 dry-goods 
 and 4 grocery stores, etc., and is steadily growing, bix miles 
 N lies the new city of S. Lowell. It has 1 weekly paper. 
 Antmonv & Sox, Eds. " Mointain Eagle. 
 Jasper, tp. of Crawford eo.. Ark. Pop. 688. 
 Jasper, tp. of Crittenden eo., Ark. Pop. 1416. 
 Jasper, post-v., cap. of Newton CO., Ark., 70 miles 
 N. N. \V. of Little Rock. Pop. 72. 
 
 Jasper, post-v., cap. of Ilamillon co., Fla., on the At- 
 lantic and Gulf R. R., 100 miles by rail from Jaeksonvillo 
 and from TalLahassee. Pop. 1.18. 
 
 Jasper, post-v., cap. of Piekens co.. Ga., 30 miles from 
 Rcsaca, on the Atlantic and 'Western R. R. 
 Jasper, tp. of Wayne co., 111. Pop. 1016. 
 Jasper, post-v., cap of Dubois co., Ind., on the Patoka 
 River, at the junction of the Mt. Vernon and Rockport 
 divisions of the Cincinnati and South-western R. R., in 
 ' the centre of an important block-coal region. It has I 
 churches, a weekly newspaper, 5 hotels, 3 lumber and 2 
 flour mills, manufaclures of carriages, agricultural imple- 
 ments, etc. The lumber, coal, and tobacco trade, and the 
 manufaclures above indicated, are the leading ]>ursuit8. 
 
 Pnp. :, 17. Cl.KMF.XT DOANE, En. " CotRIEK. 
 
 Jasper, tp. of Adams co., la. Pop. 438. 
 
 Jasper, tp. of Carroll co., la. Pop. 157. 
 
 Jasper, tp. of Midland co., Mich. Pop. 139. 
 
 Jasper, tp. of Camden co.. Mo. Pop. 292. 
 
 Jasper, tp. of Dallas co.. Mo. Pop. 933. 
 
 Jasper, post-tp. of Jasper co., Mo. Pop. 758. 
 
 Jasper, Ip. of Ozark co.. Mo. Pop. CIS. 
 
 Jasper, tp. of Ralls co.. Mo. Pop. 1391. 
 
 Jasper, tp. of Shannon co., Mo. Pop. 93. 
 
 Jasper, tp. of Taney eo.. Mo. Pop. 615. 
 
 Jasper, post-tp. of Steuben eo., N. Y., has 6 churches 
 and some manufactures. Pop. 1CS3. 
 
 Jasper, tp. of Fayette co., 0. Pop. 1992. 
 
 Jasper, post-v. of Newton tp., Pike co., 0., 25 iniles 
 from Portsmouth, on the Ohio Canal and tho Scioto River. 
 Pop. 181. 
 
 Jasper, post-v., cap. of Marion eo.. Tenn., the N. ter- 
 minus of the Jasper branch of the Nashville Chattanooga 
 and St Louis R. R.. in the fertile Sequatchie Valley, which 
 is well watered, linclv timbered, and abounds in water- 
 power coal, iron ore, limestone, and sandstone. The town 
 has 2 weekly newspapers, 3 churches, good .schools, stores, 
 etc. Pop. 375. A. L. GuiiFiTH, En. "rxio.x. 
 
 Jasper, posl-v., cap. of Jasper co.. Tex., on a creek 
 near the Neches River, has 2 churches. 3 day and 2 Sunday 
 schools, 3 weekly newspapers, and 3 hotels, and is an im-
 
 JASPER— JAVA. 
 
 ];;m 
 
 portant buBioees-ocntro for Soutb-cactero Texas. Agricul- 
 tard aud racrcantilo busiDcss are the chief pursuits. It has 
 joarly couuty fair:*. T. J. Carrawav, Ed. " NKwsiiov." 
 
 Jasper (W**'i-'AH), b. io South Caruliua about 1750; 
 enlisted in tho 2d South Caroliua regimeut at the oom- 
 nienccmcnt uf tho Ucvulutiou ; became a scrgcuiit, and dis- 
 tiDgui<<hcd himself in the attack upun Kurt .Muultrie by a 
 British fleet, Juuo 28, 1770, by leaping through an em- 
 brasure under a galling cannunade to recover the flag of 
 the Stale, just ghot off. In recognition of this act or" heroism 
 Gov. Rutledge ga\-e Sergeant Jasper his own suord, offered 
 bim a cunimib'siun as lieutenant, which he declined, and 
 employed him thereafter upon oulpo^t and picket duty, in 
 which he frequently distinguished himself by deeds of 
 eccentric daring. In the assault upon Savannah (Oct. 9, 
 177'**) Sergeant Jasper accompanied D'Estaing and Lincoln 
 in their attack upon the Spring Ilill redoubt, and was 
 killed while attempting to fasten to the parapet the colors of 
 his regiment, presented by Mrs. Elliott. A square in the 
 city of Savannah aud :i county in Georgia bear his name. 
 
 Jasper Four-Corners (P. O.Jasper), a v. of Jasper 
 tp., Steuben co., N. Y. It has 'S churches and manufac- 
 tures of lumber. Pop. 200. 
 
 Jas'sy, tho capital of Moldavia, which since 1 SGI forms 
 a part of Uoumania, situated on a tributary of the Pruth. 
 It is a largo but poorly built aud dirty city, in which fino 
 ecclesiastical buildings and splendid palaces belonging to 
 the nobility alternate with the miserable huts of tho .Jews 
 and tho lower population. It has important trade in grain. 
 Pop. 90,ono. 
 
 JasZ"Bcrcny', town of Western Hungary, in the dis- 
 trict of Jazygiu. *jn bnth sides of liic Zagyva. It has a 
 considerable trade in corn, cattle, and wine. In tho middle 
 of the city stands a monument said to indicate the tomb of 
 
 Atiiia. Pop. 17,:.;;-*. 
 
 Ja'Uva, or San Fcli'pe de Ja'tiva, tho ancient 
 Sct'tftig, town of Spain, in the province uf Valencia. It is 
 a handsome and well-built town, with several monuments 
 from the ttmts of the Moors. Pop. 15,Cm1. 
 
 Jats, or Jauts, a singular race inliabitingXorth-west- 
 crn India between tho Indus and tho upper waters of the 
 Ganges, variously considered by ethnologists as descend- 
 ants of (leta», Dacians, Iluns. Avars, or other ancient races. 
 They have also been treated as the aucestors of the gypsies. 
 The Jats arc tall, well-formed men, addicted to war, but 
 good agriculturists, and are divided in religion between 
 Mohammedanism, Brahmanisra, aud tho Sikh doctrines. 
 
 Jaubert' (CnKVAi.inn Pn:RRF. Amtdek), b. ot Aix, in 
 Provence. Southern France, Juno 3, 1779; studied Oriental 
 Inngunges under Sylvestre do Sacy, and at tho age of nine- 
 teen accompanied the French expedition to Egypt as in- 
 terpreter, in which capa-ity he rendered great services to 
 and gained the friendship of Napoleon. Employed in vari- 
 ous ofTicial posts in the East, Jaubert was sent to Persia in 
 IMOi. WHS imprisoned several months by the pasha of Ba- 
 jazid, and became in 1815 charrjfi d'nff<iirt:8 at Constnnti- 
 nonlp. In IS|S, Jnuliort travelled to India with tho object 
 of bringing to France a herd of Cashmere or Thibetan goats, 
 of which bo sueceeded in intmducing '100. After this ho 
 became a professor of Oriental languages at tho Collego of 
 France, member of tho .Academy of Inscriptions in 18110, 
 peer of Frnn'-e and councillor of state in IHU. Jaubert 
 puhlt»(hed his travels in Armenia and Persia (1821), a 
 Turkish grammar f |S2^), a Berber grammar and diction- 
 ary (lS4-n, and ii French translation of the famous Arabinn 
 geogrnphcr Edrisi (2 vols., 18:jC-40). D. at Paris Jan, 28, 
 1817. 
 
 Jaa'CTy town of Prussia, in the province of Silesia, on 
 the N'eidse. It has large miiuufucturcs of liuen and gloves, 
 and carries on a very active trade in corn. Pop. 7887, 
 
 Janja, town of Peru, department of Juuin, 108 miles N.E. 
 from Lima. It is beautifully situated on one of tho streams 
 tributary Io the Apuriuiac. was the firsc eiipilal of Peru 
 under tho viceroyalty until lj;Ji>, and its ninno has become 
 a synonym in Spanish America for "Arcadia" or*' Utopia." 
 Pop. about 1.0,000. 
 
 Jaiin'dice* This is a greenish-yellow colorof the skin 
 whieh is produced by the preneneo of the culuriiig-matter 
 of the bile iu the blood. It i^i not a specific diseiiMe, as is 
 generally supposed by the laity, but a symptom which, 
 taken in connection with other symptoms, points to the 
 affection which gives rise to it. We might as well dpeak of 
 vomiting, heudaehe, olc. as disetLSes : they are not. but 
 merely prominent symptoms of many varied morbid pro- 
 cesses. If jaundice occurs in any great abuudauce. or per- 
 sists for a length of linn-, wo find all the secretions tinged 
 with the bile, the urine becomes saffron-cidorcd. nnd the 
 stools, being deprived of their coloring-matter, are whitisli. 
 
 We iii!H- I':' V j|i)..,!i,... |.r..Hi!.<<-| i;, f ,,<, ,r;t • - - ^.i; her fl<iin 
 
 suppression or retention of bile; the former is due tu some 
 disease of tho liver which incapacitates it for performing 
 its function; therefore the bile, which iu the healthy state 
 of tho organ is constantly being hitered from tho blood, 
 accumulates in it. Jauudicu from retention uf bile is pro- 
 duced in this way; The bile, having been already formed, 
 is jirevented from making its way iuto the intestines by 
 some obstruction in the bile-ducts: it is therefore reabsorbed, 
 and again makes its appearance in the blood. The ob- 
 struction to the ducts may bo either external or interual. 
 E.xtcrnally, we may have tumors of various kinds pressing 
 on the ducts, as cancer of the ]>yloric end of the stomach, 
 of tho duodenum or the end of Ihepancrcas.or a colon im- 
 pacted with ficccs. Internally the gall-duct may be plugged 
 up by mucus, or, what is far more common, by a biliary 
 calculus passing through it; this is accompanied by a great 
 deal of pain ; indeed, it is said to be the most severe pain 
 that could be felt. Some idea of it may be had from a 
 knowledge of the fact that the common bile-duct is very 
 seldom larger than a goose-quill, and the stones which pass 
 through it are seldom smaller in diameter — sometimes at- 
 taining the size of a pigeon's egg. Accompanying the 
 jaundice and pain in these eases wo have nausea, vomiting, 
 hiccough, flatulence, aud in the intervals between the in- 
 tensity of tho pain the patient is exhausted and drowsy. 
 There is generally much more pain felt by the passage of 
 a calculus for the first time than subsequently, as the duets 
 arc generally left dit^tended for its successors. Besides the 
 above forms of jaundice there is also a malignant form, 
 which is analogous to typhoid, yellow, or remittent fever, 
 and is marked by typho:dsymptoms from the beginning of 
 tho attack, and is accompanied by hemorrhages from the 
 mucous membranes and skin. It almost always ends fatally. 
 In jaundice from suppression tho urine only contains those 
 ingredients of tho bile which pre-exist in the blood — viz. 
 tho bile coloring-matter and cholesterine ; in that from re- 
 tention we also have the bile-salts which have been formed 
 in tho liver, and ai"rerwards absorbed and eliminated by the 
 kidneys. To determine the former, nitric aci<l is generally 
 added; it produces a bright grass-green color with the 
 coloring-matter of tho bile. The bile-salts, however, can 
 only bo detected by Pettenkofcr's test, which is as follows : 
 To tho suspected liquid add a few drops of a solution of 
 cane-sugar, and then slowly, drop by droji, sulphuric acid ; 
 at first a red color will be produced, which will afterwards 
 change to a lake, and then to a deep jiurplc. 
 
 The technical name of jaundice is ictcruH, from the Greek 
 name of tho golden thrush, which, according to Pliny, 
 when seen by a jaundiced person would die and the patient 
 recover. \ow, however, wo treat the affection lutjre scien- 
 tifically, looking to its origin. Where it is due to suppres- 
 sion little can bo done except in cases of acute inflamma- 
 tion of tho liver, but in those cases due to obstruction there 
 is more success with it. The indications are to improve the 
 patient's general condition by a ])roper and nutritious diet. 
 Fata of all kinds should be avoided, as they cannot be di- 
 gested without tho assistance of the bile. Next, we should 
 attend to tho constipation from which these patients almost 
 invariably suffer; for this rhubarb, scnnn.and aloes are the 
 favorites. Opium should be given to relieve the intense 
 pain. After the removal of tho obstruction we may hasten 
 the disappearance of tho jaundice, and the annoying itch- 
 ing which accompanies it, by 8te::ni and alkaline baths. 
 Er)WARi) J. Bi:hmingiiam. 
 
 Ja'va^ an island in tho Malay Archipelago, the third 
 largest of the Sunda group, belonging to the Netherlands, 
 and bounded N. by the Sea of Java. E. by the Strait of 
 Bali, S. by tho Indian Ocean, and W. by the Strait of 
 Sunda, which separates it from (ho island of Sumatra, 
 Area, 49,7.'{0 square miles. Iu tho northern part of the 
 island lie some tracts of low, level land, mostly cunstsling 
 of mangrovc-stvanips. aud presenting a et>ast uuMite for 
 navigation, and containing very few landlocked harbors, 
 such as those of Batavia aud Surabaya, though atlbrding 
 several good ruarl^teads, wliere ships nnty anchor with 
 safety, as the waters of the Java Sea are calm, hurricanes 
 unknown, and storms rare except ot tlie change of the 
 monsoons. Otherwise, tho whulo island is mountainous, 
 traversed from E. to W. by several ranges of mountains, 
 of which the southernmost forms a rough and broken coast- 
 line, washed by a heavy surf. The highest jtoints are 
 Semiru, I2.2.'»0 i'l^ct, and Slamat, ll,:{20 feel. Tiieso ranges 
 are in geological respects of vulcanic formation; active 
 vuleanocs and violent eruptions are of frequent occurrence, 
 especially in the south-onsteni diHtriets. Ilere the volcano 
 Papandavangcovered in one night in I 772 an nn-a of 7 miles 
 radius with a layer of ashofl.^0 feet (liiek; and in ISL'L', (Jab 
 unggongcauBi'd still greater destruction hy a sin l'I«' eruption : 
 20,UII0 pcrflons are said to have been killed. The mountains 
 are generally clad Io their very tops with splendid forests. 
 and eneloso beautiful, exceedingly fertile, and well-watered
 
 1382 
 
 JAVA— JAY. 
 
 valleys, numcrons rivers flowing down to the sea from both 
 sides gcnerallv rapid and shallow, but sometimes navigable ; 
 as, for instance, the Solo, Kediri, and Tjimanock. Although 
 gold-dust is found in several rivers and coal and rock-salt 
 in =ome mountain-tracts, and although mineral springs of 
 different kinds abound all over the island, yet the .Javanese 
 mountains arc devoid of minerals suitable for mining. The 
 volcanoes, however, are remarkable for the amount of sul- 
 phur and .sulphurous ga.ses they discharge. In a lake near 
 the crater of Taschem, at the E. end of the island, the 
 water is so strongly impregnated with sulphuric acid that 
 fish cannot live in the sea near the mouth of the stream 
 which issues from it; and near Batar, in the \ ale of Poi- 
 son, the exhalations of carbonic acid gas are so strong 
 that birds drop down from the air. killed by them and the 
 ground is strewed with carcasses of .animals which entered 
 the vale unaware of the diinger. The climate of Java is 
 unhealthv in the northern marshes, but at a little elevation 
 it is not only healthful, but agreeable. The wet season, with 
 its westerly winds, lasts from October to March, but even 
 durin" this time dry periods with fair weather occur. At 
 the enuinoxes the wcaihcr is generally very changeable, 
 with heavy gusts of wind and thunderstorms. But the 
 temperature is remarkably equable: in the lowlands ^the 
 thermometer seldom rises above 90° or falls below ,0 . 
 Ve-'ctalile life is developed to an astonishing degree. Kice 
 is The principal cereal, and in places where irrigi^ion can 
 be effected it is raised in two crops annually. Coffee is the 
 staple product of the country, and is cultivated under the 
 supervision of the government in plantations situated at an 
 elevation of 2000 feet. Sugar and spices of superior quality 
 are rais-d without diflicultv. In 1ST2 the value of the ex- 
 ports of coffee was 38.-^24,000 florins; of sugar, 4.3,893,000 
 florins : and of spices 1,029,000 florins. Cotton is also grown, 
 from which a coarse fabric is made. The largest part 
 of the island is covered with vast forests of the most val- 
 uable trees —the fig tree, the dammar pine, and, first among 
 all, the teak tree, which yields the best timber known. 
 Equally abundant is animal life. Bufi'aloes are generally 
 used in agricultural labor, and are more numerous than 
 oxen and horses. The wild ox and two kinds of wild hogs 
 are common ; also the royal tiger, the one-horned rhino- 
 ceros, numerous kinds of apes, immense bats D>-e feet 
 across the wings, the peacock, and a great variety of fish. 
 The inhabitants number 17,298,200, of whom 28,926 are 
 Europeans, 185, VoS Chinese, 22,032 Arabs, and the rest 
 natives; the island is thus one of the most densely popu- 
 lated countries in the world. The natives belong to the 
 iMalayan race, but in capacity for civilization they surpass 
 all other branches of this family. They arc small, yellow, 
 and not very energetic, but patient, cheerful, and endowed 
 with fine sensibilities. They are good agriculturists, prob- 
 ably surpassing all other Asiatic peoples in this branch of 
 industry. They are also skilled in the manufacture of dif- 
 ferent articles o'f metal, such as their national weapons and 
 their national musical instruments, being very fond of music. 
 In the fifteenth century they embraced Mohammedanism; 
 before that time Booddhism was their religion, and many 
 Booddhist temples are found in the island, as, for instance, 
 the Bono BunnoR (which see). In 1511 the Portuguese first 
 visited Java, and in IhOb the Dutch made the first settle- 
 ments here. In lfi77 the whole island became a Dutch 
 colony, and since 1830 it has been governed as a province 
 of the kingdom of the Netherlands. At the head of the 
 government is a governor-general, residing at Batavia and 
 rulino' all the Dutch colonics in the East Indies. The 
 
 a, post-tp. of Wyoming co., N. Y., has 5 churches, 
 aills, and quarries of fine building-stone. Pop. ISafi. 
 
 ch, how- 
 
 ruling all the 
 
 island is divided into 24 residencies, two of wli 
 
 ever. Jokjnkerta and Surakerta, have been allowed to retain 
 
 their native princes, though under Dutch supremacy. The 
 
 revenues of this island bring annually a surplus of $.5,000,000 
 
 into the treasury of the Netherlands. The language 
 
 spoken 
 
 I in the largest part of Java and on some adjacent 
 islands (the Javanese) belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian 
 
 group of languages, but it is distinguished from the Malay 
 proper and from the Sundese, spoken in the western part 
 of the island. It consists of 20 consonant and 6 vowel 
 sounds, of which latter the o is predominant. Its numer- 
 ous foreign elements, Arabic, Sanskrit, and others, are very 
 freely modified. Its development is rich, but one-sided. 
 It possesses numerous and fine distinctions for real objects, 
 processes, and phenomena, but it has no significations for 
 general or abstract ideas. It has different sets of words, 
 forms, and phrases when used by a superior to an inferior, 
 or by an inferior to a superior, but it has no difference of 
 tone in prose and in poetry. The literature consists of 
 chronicles, religious works, and remodellings of Hindoo 
 poetical creations, but it belongs mostly to a much earlier 
 period, and can be traced back to the first centuries of our 
 era. (See W. von Humboldt, Trier die Knin'^pmi-he, Sir 
 Stamford Raflles, Hittonj of Java, and R. Wallace, The 
 Malay ArehipelnjoA Clemens Petersen. 
 
 Java 
 
 some mills, and quarries 
 
 Jav'elin [Pr. jai-cliiie], a short, heavy spear used for 
 throwing with the hand at an enemy. The Roman plliim 
 was essentially a javelin, and was the most formidable of- 
 fensive weapon of those times. 
 
 Jaw'orow, town of Austria, in G.alicia, on the Kra- 
 howska, has large paper-mills, valuable fisheries, and in 
 the vicinity some mineral springs which are much resorted 
 to for their medicinal powers. Pop. 7209. 
 
 Jaxar'tes, or Sir Uarya, a river of Toorkistan, rises 
 in the Thian Shan Mountains, flows through the valley of 
 Khokan and the Khirgheez dominions, and divides at 
 Otrar into two branches, of which the northern and largest, 
 forming the boundary between Russia and Tuorkjstan. falls 
 into the Sea of Aral, while the southern loses itself in some 
 small lakes in the steppes. 
 
 Jay, a name given to many birds of the family Corvidx, 
 sub-family Garrulinffi. The typical species is the Garndm 
 qlmdarius, or common jay of Europe. The blue jay of 
 the Eastern U. S. (Cijnmira crhlala) is a beautiful bird, 
 whose harsh screaming voice is well known. The U. S. 
 have m.any species representing the genera Gi/miiocilla, 
 Ct/aimcilta. Xaiithiirti, Pcrisoiem, Paitorrhinus, etc. Many 
 of them are very beautiful birds. 
 
 Jay, county in E. Indiana, bounded on the E. by Ohio. 
 Area, 370 square miles. The surface is somewhat varied, 
 the soil productive, but in part rather heavy. Cattle, grain 
 wool, and maple-sugar are leading products. It is traversed 
 by the Cincinnati Richmond and Fort Wayne R. K. Cap. 
 Portland. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Jay, post-tp. of Franklin co.. Me., on the Androscoggin 
 R. R., 15 miles N. of Auburn. It has 4 churches, 2 free 
 libraries, and some manufactures. Pop. 1490. 
 
 Jay, post-tp. of Essex CO., N. Y., in the Adirondack 
 region. It has many loflv mountains, large beds of iron 
 ore and small ones of graphite. Iron, nails, and lumber 
 are extensively manufactured. Pop. 249G. 
 Jay, tp. of Elk co.. Pa. Pop. 534. 
 Jay, post-tp. of Orleans co., Vt., on the Canada line, 55 
 miles N. of Montpciior. It has 3 churches and manufac- 
 tures of lumber, leather, etc. Pop. 553. 
 
 Jay (John), LL.D.. b. in New York City Dec. 12, 1V45, 
 of Huguenot stock; graduated at King's (now Columbia) 
 Collei^e in 1764; was admitted to the bar in 1768; became 
 law-partnerwith Robert R. Livingston, and married (17741 
 a daughter of William Livingston. In the agitations caused 
 by the successive encroachments of the British cabinet upon 
 A'merican liberty, J.ay fir.st became conspicuous as a mem- 
 ber of the "com'niittee of correspondence" appointed May 
 16, 1774, by the citizens of New York to represent their 
 views upon the questions growing out of the Boston Port 
 bill; was the supposed author of Ihc suggestion emanating 
 from that committee for the convocation of a Continental 
 Congress : was elected a member of that body, and took a 
 prominent part in its proceedings. He was the author of 
 the address to thepeople of Great Britain adopted by the first 
 Con<'ress (Oct., 1774), and of that to the people of Canada 
 adopted by the second Congress ( May, 1775 ) ; was a member 
 of the committee of correspondence " with European friends 
 of American liberty," in which capacity he became the chan- 
 nel of secret negotiations with France; was commissioned 
 colonel of the 2d regiment raised in New York City, and in 
 Apr., 1776. was chosen a member of the Provincial Congress 
 of New York, retiring from the Continental Congress in 
 order to lend his counsels to his native State in that crit- 
 ical juncture. Jay was the leading member of the New 
 York Congress; was author of its chief public documents, 
 including- "the constitution of 1777; and on its dissolution 
 was appointed chief-justice, which office was confirmed to 
 him by the new State legislature. In 1778 he was again 
 elected to the Continental Congress, became president of 
 that body (Dec. 10), and was appointed in the following 
 year minister to Spain, where he arrived in 1780. He re- 
 mained at Madrid two years, obtaining from the Spanish 
 government some material and moral aid for American in- 
 dependence; was a colleague with Franklin and Adams in 
 the commission which negotiated peace with Great ^Brilam 
 (Nov. 30, 1782), and on returning to America in 1784 was 
 chosen by Congress secretary for foreign affairs— a post 
 which he' held for five years, until the establishment of the 
 Federal government under the Constitution (17S9). .Tiiy 
 was one of the writers in the FMhrahSt in defence of the 
 Constitution, took a loading part in the New -J ork State 
 convention, which, after much opposition, gave its adhesion 
 to the Constitution (1788), and was appointed hv " »sh- 
 
 ington (1789) the first chief-jusliee of the V. S. In 1792 
 he was the candidate of the Federalists for governor of
 
 JAY— JKKFERS. 
 
 1383 
 
 Kew York; was sent as minister to England in 1704, and 
 Bignetl {Nov. 19) the instrument known iis ".Tn_v'? treaty." 
 By its provisions the eastern boundary of Maine ^vasdeter- 
 Diined, American citizens recovered above $10.0110. 1)00 for 
 illegal captures by British cruisers, and the western posts 
 held by British garrisons were surrendered: but in con- 
 sequence of the exclusion of American vessels from Can- 
 adian ports, the restriction placed upon the West India 
 trade, and the rcf;ulations upon neutrality as between Eng- 
 lish and French privateers, an unprecedented a;;itation 
 ensued, and the treaty wns violently denounced, but was 
 ratified by Washin;;ton, with the approval of the Sen- 
 ate, Aug. 14, 179o. During his absence in England, 
 Jay was elected governor of New York — an ofTu-e which 
 he held for six years — and in isOl withdrew from pub- 
 lic life, declining a second appointment as chief-justico 
 of tho U. S. Supreme Court, for which he was nomi- 
 nated by Pres. Ailanis and confirmed by the Senate. For 
 the remainder of his life, which extended over more than a 
 q-nrterof the proseiit century. Jay resided upon his an- 
 cestral estate at Bciford, Westchester co., holding aloof 
 from political contests, but taking a lively interest in re- 
 ligious and philanthropic movements. As early as 1785 ho 
 had been president of a society in XcwYork for promoting 
 tho emancipation of slaves, and it was un<ler hi:* auspices 
 that slavery was abolished in Xcw York in 171*9. lie was 
 a member of tho Episcopal Church, and was widely re- 
 nowned for strict moral purity, a vigorous and logical in- 
 tellect, a lofty sense of justice and humanity, disinterested 
 patriotism, and unyielding integrity. D. at Bedford, N. Y., 
 May 17, 1829. (See his Li/e^ by his son, William Jay, 
 1333.) PoKTER C. Bliss. 
 
 Jay (Jons), a son of William Jay, b. in New York City 
 Juno 23, 1817; graduated in 18i;G at Columbia (.'ollege ; 
 became a lawyer in IS;*»9. Ho is a prominent member of 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church, tho Union League, and 
 various historical and other learned societies. Author of 
 many anti-slavery, legal, jtolilical, ecclesiastical, and other 
 pamphlets and reports. In ISGll ho was appointed U. S. 
 minister to Austria. Beturncd in l$7i>. 
 
 Jay (WiLMAM), b. at Tisbury, England, May S, 1709. 
 Willi slight previous education ho c^imracnceil preaching 
 at tho age of sixteen, and before attaining liis majority 
 had delivered more than 1000 sermons. When twenty- 
 two years old he bei^amc minister of Argylc cha])el, Bath, 
 and hold that position sixty-one years, until the year of 
 his death. Mr. .lay was a wonderfully eloquent pulpit- 
 orator. His voluminous writings have been eolK-cted in 
 12 vols. {Bath, 1M12-Ui. and reprinted in America in 3 
 vols. Of these, the Monihttj and Ercniwj E.rf:rciH<:» have 
 enjoyed a wide popularity. He left an Aiifohiu'jraphif^ 
 published since his di-ath, which occurred at Bath Dec. 27, 
 18J3. (See Wilson's Mcmuir of Jaif, ISJI.) 
 
 Jay {William), LL.D., a son of John Jay (1745-1829), 
 b. in New York City June 10, 1781); graduated at Yale 
 in IM07, and studied law, which he never actively practised. 
 He was prominent in the temperance, anti-slavery, peace, 
 and Bible societies ; beeumcin iSI8 a judge of tho common 
 pleas, and was lS20-(2 first judge of Wo^tchcstcrco., N. Y., 
 but lost tho place because of his anti-slavery views. Ho 
 published a Lt/c of John Jujf (2 vols., 1833), An Inqitiri/ 
 into the Chnrurtrr of the Amrrican Cotvnizntion and And' 
 Hinrrry SorifJirn (IS3.'>), n. Virw of the Action uf the Fed- 
 eral Ooverninent tn Itfhnlf uf Slavery ( 1S:J8), a licvicto of the 
 CatmeM, etc. of the Mexican War (1819), B'rir and Peace 
 (1818), nnd numerous minor publicatious. D. at Bedford, 
 N. Y., Oct. U, 1858. 
 JnyiK'!, an unorganized county of Dakota. 
 
 JayiirK'vino, post-v. of Bremer co., la., on tho Cedar 
 Falls and Minnesota U. K. 
 
 Jeallrrson (Joiis Coanv), b. at Fralingham, Suffolk, 
 England, in IS.'M ; graduati'd at Oxford; entered Lincoln's 
 Inn in I8.'>2 as a law-student, and was admitted to tho bar 
 in IS59. Beside* a number of novels, he wrote A fiuok 
 ahnut Dortoni (1800). .4 ttu;k about /,«irycr« (1806), and 
 A Ii"i'k about the Clenrj (IS70), 
 
 Irnniicrclt', post-v. of Iberia parish, La., on tho 
 Buvm Tecln-, 12 miles from New Iberia. 
 
 Jraiiiiill' (Pir:nni:K b. at Autun. France, in 1510 ; stud- 
 ied liiw nndiT ("ujas : was counsellor under Charles IX, and 
 Henry 1 1 f.. prejsidrnt of (he Parliament uf Burgundy in 
 l.')7'.', nnd of that of Paris nnd<'r ILnry I\'. ; was the nego- 
 tiator of the treatv of 1009, which assured the independ- 
 ence of Holland, "p. in 1022. 
 
 J«*nnron' ( Piimippk Aimm ste). b. at Boulogno May 10, 
 ISOO; studied painting almost without any guiilance ; ob- 
 tained a medal in is;;;t; altraeted groat attention by his 
 half-tuuobing, half-humorous gonro pictures of low lifo; 
 
 and was mado director of the national museums in 1848. 
 Though he held this office only ono year, ho mado great 
 improvements in the arrangements of tho museum of the 
 Louvre. Of his later works is The Abandoned Port of 
 Ambfctctme, now in tho Luxembourg. D. Apr. 23, 1877. 
 
 Jcans'villc, po^t-v. of Hazel tp., Luzerne co.. Pa., on 
 the Lehigh Valley R. R. Has mines of anthracite coal. 
 
 JebaiTfUr Jiibeil, tho modern name of Gcbal or Byb- 
 los, ono of the most ancient cities of Plicenicia, noted in my- 
 thology for the birth of Adonis, and in biblical history for 
 having furnished the artiflecrs (Uiblites) of Solomon's tem- 
 ple. Uobal is thought to have been tho metropolis of tho 
 Phooniciana before the rise of Sidon.to have taken an im- 
 portant part in tho earliest operations of shipbuilding, 
 navigation, and colonization, having founded commercial 
 and mining settlements throughout the /Tlgean Islands and 
 the coasts of the Black Sea, as also to have introduced into 
 Grcceo a knowled-^o of tho alphabet. Tho Greek name 
 PjhloH is derived from tho E^;yptian word for papyrus, and 
 perhaps alludes to tho earliest cultivation of writing. Tho 
 Egyptian myths of Ii^is, Osiris, and Typhon were partially 
 of Pliccnician (»rigin. and pome of tho incidents arc located 
 at Byblos. Jcbail is now a small village of 000 inhabit- 
 ants, on the sea-coast 20 miles N. of Bcyroot ; it contains 
 a castle which was noted in the annals of tho Crusades. 
 
 Jebb (John), b. at Droghcda, Ireland, Sept. 27, 1775; 
 studied at Dublin University; entered the Church of Eng- 
 land, and became bishop of Limerick in 1S23. Residing 
 in a district ciiiefly inhabited by Catholics, liishop Jebb 
 was noted for his liberal spirit towards them nnd his main- 
 tenance of their rights. Ho wroto several works on doc- 
 trinal theology, but is now remembered chiefly by his .S'a- 
 cred Ltierfttiire (1820). in which he combated some of the 
 views of Dr. Lowth about Hebrew poetry, and elucidated 
 many obscure or difficult biblical topics. D. at Limerick 
 Dec. 7, 1833. 
 
 Jebb (Sir Joshta), R. E., K. C. B., b. in England about 
 1793; entered tiie British army at an early age. and was 
 brought into public notice when serving with his regiment 
 in Australia through being employed to superintenil some 
 of Captain McConochie's celebrated experiments for tho 
 amelioration of the condition of convicts, by offering them 
 a shortening of their terms of sentence as a premium upon 
 good behavior. Jebb was so reliable aiul' eflJcicnt in tho 
 cxceulittn of this delicate commission that he was requested 
 to prepare plans fur the construction and management of 
 convict prisons which might obviato the practical difficul- 
 ties encountered under the then existing system. In 1810 
 the Pentonvillc prison was built according to the plans of 
 Col. Jebb, thus inaugurating in England tho Hulifnr}/ or 
 tfeparatc system of imprisonment. As inspeeior-gcneral of 
 prisons, enjoying the rank of major-general and the honor 
 of knighthood. Sir .losbua Jebb devoted the remainder of 
 his life to devising im])roveinonts in pciml law and prison 
 disci])line, and tl. in London June 20. 1S03. 
 
 Jebb (Samukl), M. D.. b. at Nottingham, England, in 
 1(590; studied at Cambridge, and practised medicine at 
 Stratford. Ho published an edition of .lustin Martyr 
 (1719), a Latin collection of writings on Mary, queen of 
 Scots (1725). edited tho Ojiuh Majnii ol' Roger Bacon (1727), 
 and. founded the IHbllothera Litcraria (1722-2^), a learned 
 niaga7.ino to which many eminent classical scholars con- 
 tributed. 1>. in 1772. 
 
 JeU'biir^h, town of Scotland, in Roxburghshire, on 
 tho Jed, contains sonic very interesting ruins of a magnifi- 
 cent abbey erected in tho twelfth century and destroyed ia 
 tho sixteenth, and of a castle which was onco tho residence 
 of the Scottish kings. Pop, about 40U0. 
 
 Jeddo. See Ykiw). 
 
 Jed'do, tp. of Knox co., Mo. Pop. 1134. 
 
 JoddOy post-v. of Orleans co., N. Y. Pop. 124. 
 
 Jeddo, jtosi V. of Foster tp., Luzerne co., Pa., on a 
 branch of tho Lehigh Yulley R. R. It has splendid beds 
 of anthracite coal. 
 
 Jerfers (William N.), IT. S. N., b. in Now Jersey Oct. 
 n, 1821; entered the navy as a midshipinau Sejit. 2.0, 1810 ; 
 became a pasr-ed miil-^hipman in IS 10, a lieutenant in lSj6, 
 a lientenant-eommaiider in isiii^, a comuuuidor in ISO^), a 
 captain in 1S70; served (ni tho E. coast of Mexieo during 
 our war with that (Country, and parlicipalcil in the capture 
 of Vera Qrwi., Aharado, Tu\pan, and Tampieo ; eoin- 
 mandc'l tho I'nderwritcr during the brilliant operations in 
 the so'iiids of North (*aroliiiu in Jan. ami Feb., 1802. and 
 tho Monitor in the atition with Fort Darling on May lA of 
 that year. Early in IH73 ho received the appointment of 
 chief of tho bureau of ordnance — an appointment, it may 
 be Maid, sealed with tho njiprobation of the whole navy, 
 wbioh had long rooognizcd his marked ability in every
 
 1384 
 
 JEFFERSON. 
 
 branch of his profession, and particularly in ordnance 
 matters, to which Jcffers had given, for many .years, espe- 
 cial alteutiun. I'oxiiALL A. Paukku. 
 
 JerfcrsOlI, county of N. Central Alabama. Area, ySO 
 square miles. It is in the lilack Warrior coal-tield, and 
 will probably become a very important coal and iron re- 
 gion, for excellent hematite ores abound. The surface is 
 hilly and rough, with fertile valleys. Cattle, corn, cotton, 
 and wool are staple products. Iron is manufactured. The 
 eountv is traversed by the Alabama and Chattanooga R. R. 
 Cap. Klyton. Pop. 12,345. 
 
 JelTerson, county of S. E. Central Arkansns. Area, 
 900 square miles. It is traversed by the Arkansns River. 
 It is a level and very fertile alluvial plain, well timbered. 
 Live-stock, corn, and cotton arc staple products. Cap. 
 Pine Bluff. Pop. 15,733. 
 
 JcfTerson, county of N. Central Colorado, in the foot- 
 hills of the Rocky Mountains. Area, about SOO square 
 miles. It ha? excellent farm and grazing land, but needs 
 irrigation. Good lignitic coal, bog iron, and fire-clay 
 abound. It is intersected by the Colorado Central and 
 other railroad--!. C;ip. (jolden. Pop. I.*3y0. 
 
 Jeflerson, county of Florida, extending from the 
 Georgia line on the N. to the Gulf of Mexico. Area, 470 
 square miles. It is well timbered, and has a generous, 
 though varied, soil. Cotton, sugar-c:uic. corn, rice, and 
 fruit are staple products. The Jacksonville PcnFacola and 
 Mobile R. R. intersects the county. Cap. Monticello. 
 Pop. I3.;iys. 
 
 Jetferson, county of E. Georgia. Area, 634 square 
 miles. It is level and fertile, and is traversed by the river 
 Ogecchee and the Central R. R. of Georgia. Corn and 
 cottun are staple products. Cap. Louisville. Pop. 12,11)0. 
 
 Jefferson, county of S. Illinois. Area, 570 square 
 miles. It is partly prairie and partly forest. The soil is 
 productive. Live stock, grain, tobacco, and wool aro sta- 
 ple products. The county is traversed by the St. Louis 
 and South-eastern R, R. Cap. Mt. Vernon. Pop. I7,S64. 
 
 Jefferson^ county of S. E. Indiana. Area, 362 pquaro 
 miles. It has the Ohio River on the S. The country near 
 the river is broken by bluffs, but the remainder is quite 
 level. The soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool arc sta- 
 ple products. Tlie manufactures include cooperage, car- 
 riages, flour, etc. The Madison and Indianapolis R. R. 
 traverses the county. Cap. Madison. Pop. 29,74^1. 
 
 Jefferson, county of S. E. Iowa. Area, 432 square 
 miles. It has a very fertile soil, is undulating, and abounds 
 in coal and timber. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple 
 products. It is traversed by the Chieago Roek Island and 
 Pacific and the IJurlington and Missouri River R. Rs. 
 Cap. Fairfield. Pop. 17,839. 
 
 Jefferson, county of X. E. Kansas. Area, 5j0 square 
 miles. It is a very fertile, high-rolling prairie region, with 
 considerable timlxT, abundance of limestone, and some 
 coal. Cattle, grain, and wool aro staple products. The 
 Atchison Topcka and Santa Fe, the Kansas Central, and 
 other railroads intersect the county. Cap. Oskaloosa. l*op. 
 12.:»2fi. 
 
 Jefferson^ county of Kentucky, bounded on the N. W. 
 by the Ohio River. Area, OdU square miles. It has a va- 
 ried surface and a fertile and biglily cultivated soil. Cattle, 
 grain, and wool are staple products. The manufactures 
 and commerce of Louisville, the principal city of this county 
 and State, are very extensive. They are treated of under 
 the head of Loi:isvii,i.K (which see). The county is trav- 
 ersed by various railroads centring at Louisville, the cap- 
 ital. Pop. llS,yi3. 
 
 Jefferson, parish of Louisiana, extending from Lake 
 Pontchartraiu, near New Orleans, southward to Barataria 
 Uay. Area, ab(mt 2J0 square miles. It is intersected by 
 the Mississippi Uiver, and contain.'* numerous lakes, bayous, 
 and swamps. Rice, corn, and sugar-cane are the staple 
 products. It is traversed by Morgan's Louisiana and 
 Texas R. R. (^ap. Carrollton. Pop. 17,767. 
 
 Jefferson, county of Mississipjd, having the Missi?- 
 sip]>i River for a part of its western boundary, separating 
 it from Louisiana. Area, 500 square miles. It ha? a fer- 
 tile soil. Cotton and corn are staple products. Cap. Fa- 
 yette. Pop. 13.848. 
 
 Jefferson, county of Missouri, bounded on the E. by 
 the Mississippi River. Area. 504 square miles. It is very 
 fertile, excepting some tracts in the western part. It 
 abounds in metallic wealth. Lead is found here exten- 
 sively. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are staple prod- 
 ucts. The county is traversed hy the St. Louis and Iron 
 Mountain R. R. Cap. Hillsborough. Pop, 15,330, 
 
 Jefferson, county in Montana, W. of the Missouri 
 River. Area, 2720 square miles. It contains rich agrioul- 
 
 tural and pastoral resources, and gold-mines arc fouud on 
 the tributaries of the Missouri and Jetferson rivers. Cattle, 
 grain, butter, and lumber are staple products. Cap. Ra- 
 dcrsburg. Pop. 1531, 
 
 Jefferson, county of Nebraska, bounded on the S. by 
 Kansas. Area, 570 square miles. The county is partly 
 flat and partly high rolling prairie. The soil ie fertile, es- 
 pecially along the stre.ims. It is well mlaptcd to wheat 
 and to pasturage. Iron ore is found. Timber is not abun- 
 dant. The county is traversed by the St. Joseph and Denver 
 City R. R. Cap'. Fairbury. Poj). 2440. 
 
 Jefferson, county of New Y»trk, having Lake Ontario 
 on the W. and the St. Lawrence River on the N, W. It in- 
 cludes a part of the Thousand Islands in that stream. 
 Area, 1808 square miles. Its surface is quite level nejir 
 the lake and river, but much higher in the eastern part. 
 Much of its diversified surface is very fertile. Cattle, wool, 
 hay, grain, and dairy products are the great staples. Iron 
 ore abounds. Tbc manufactures include iron, machinery, 
 castings, agricultural and olhcr tools, leather, paper, cotton 
 and woollen goods, Hour, lumber, malt, cooperage, and many 
 other articles. The fisheries arc imjtortant. The county is 
 traversed by the Rome Watertown and Ogdensburg. the 
 Utica and Black River, and other railroads. Cap. AVater- 
 town. Poj). 05,415. 
 
 Jefferson, county of Ohio, bounded on the E. by the 
 Ohio River, which sej)arates it from AVest Virginia. Area, 
 350 square miles. It is a pleasant, hilly, and very fertile 
 region, abounding in coal. Cattle, wool, and grain arc 
 staple products. Carriages, wagons, clothing, and a great 
 variety of other goods are manufactured. The county is 
 traversed by the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis R. R. 
 Cap. Steubenville. Pop. 20,188. 
 
 Jefferson, county of W. Central Pennsylvania. Area, 
 500 square miles. It is quite rough and hilly, and abounds 
 in bituminous coal and iron ores. The soil is fertile, espe- 
 cially in the valleys. Timber is abundant. Cattle, grain, 
 and wool arc staple products. Lumber and leather arc ex- 
 tensively manufactured. Caji. Urookville. Pop. 21,656. 
 
 Jefferson, county of E. Tennessee, having the IIol- 
 ston River on the N. W. Area, about 225 square miles. 
 It is traversed by French Broad River and the Virginia 
 and East Tennessee R. R. Iron ore abounds. It is moun- 
 tainous, with fertile valleys and picturesque scenery. Cat- 
 tle, grain, wool, and toliacco are staple products. Cap. 
 Bandridge. Pop. 19,476 in 1870, since which time its 
 area has been reduced. 
 
 Jefferson, county of S. E. Texas, having Sabine Lake 
 and river ou the E. and N. E., and the Gulf of Jlexico on 
 the S. Area, 'JOO square miles. The surface near the coast 
 is open prairie, atl'ording fine pasturage. The rest of the 
 county is in the main heavily timbered. Live-stock, cot- 
 ton, rice, lumber, and some tobacco are exported. Tbo 
 county is traversed by the Texas and New Orleans R. R. 
 Caj). Beaumont. Poj). I'JOO. 
 
 Jefferson, county of N. AV. Washington Territory, hav- 
 ing the Pacific Ocean on the W. and Hood's Canal and 
 Puget Sound on the E. Area, some 1500 square miles. It 
 is partly mountainous, and is covered with enormous trees. 
 Lignitic coal is found. Mount Olympus is 8138 feet high. 
 Much of the soil is very fertile. Lunibering and limbing 
 are at present the chief interests. Cap. Port Towuscud. 
 Pop. 1 208. 
 
 Jefferson, county of E. West Virginia, having the 
 Potomac River on the N. E., and bounded on the S. E. 
 and S. W. by Virginia. Area, 200 square miles. It is a 
 part of the Shenandoah Valley, and is a fertile, rolling 
 limestone region. Cattle, grain, aufi wool are staple prod- 
 ucts. The county is traversed by the Baltimore and Ohio 
 and the Winchester and Strasburg R. Rs. Cap. Shephcrds- 
 towu. Pop. 13,219. 
 
 Jefferson, county of S. E. Wisconsin. Area, 576 square 
 miles. It has a fertile limestone soil. Cattle, grain, wool, 
 and tobacco arc staple products. The manufactures in- 
 clude carriages, cooperage, flour, malt liquors, furniture, 
 lumber, saddlery, etc. The county is traversed by the Chi- 
 cago and North-western and the La Crosse aud Milwaukee 
 R. Rs. Cap. Jefferson. Pop. 34,040. 
 
 Jeffersony a v. and tp. of Marengo co., Ala., S miles 
 N. W. of Linden. Pop. 233; of tp. 2445. 
 
 Jefferson, tp. of Boone co., Ark. Pop. 1649. 
 
 Jcllerson, tp. of Calhoun co.. Ark. Pop. 194, 
 
 Jefferson, tp. of Desha co.. Ark. Pop. 773. 
 
 Jefferson, tp. of Independence co.. Ark. Pop. 777. 
 
 Jefferson, tp. of Jackson co., Ark. Pop. 1976. 
 
 Jefferson, tp. of Newton oo.. Ark. Pop. 3.^4. 
 
 JcffersoUf tp. of Ouachita co., Ark. Pop. 782.
 
 JEFFERSON. 
 
 1385 
 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Salino co., Ark. Pop. 169. 
 Jcirerson, tp. of Sevior co., Ark. Pop. 317. 
 Jellorson, post-v., cap. of Jackson co., Cia., IS miles 
 N. W. of Alliens. 
 
 Jeflerson, post-v. and tp. of Cook CO., III.. 7 miles ] 
 N. W. of C'liicaRo, on the Chicago and Norlh-weslern U. R. 
 Pop. of Ip. ISlli. 1 
 
 jefTcrson, tp. of Stephenson co., III. Pop. 546. I 
 
 Jcfl'crsiin, Ip. of Adams co., Ind. Pop. 194. 
 Jctlersun, tp. of Allen co., Ind. Pop. 1445. 
 Jcirerson, tp. of Boone co., Ind. Pop. 1675. 
 Jeirerson, tp. of Carroll co., Ind. Pop. 947. 
 JcliiTson, tp. of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 1285. 
 JctTcr.sun, post-v. of Clinton co., Ind. (Washington 
 tp.). Pop. 25.!. 
 JctTerson, tp. of Elkhart co., Ind. Pop. 982. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Grant eo., Ind. Pop. l:;98. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Greene co., Ind. Pop. 1348. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Henry co., Ind. Pop. 1234. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Huntington eo., Ind. Pop. 1227. 
 Jelferson, tp. of Jay co., Ind. Pop. 1640. 
 Jcirerson, tp. of Kosciusko eo., Ind. Pop. 711. 
 JelFcrsou, tp. of Miami co., Ind. Pop. 1370. 
 Jefferson, tp. of iMorgan CO., Ind. Pop. 1081. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Newton co., Ind. Pop. 1600. 
 Jeflerson, fp. of Noble co., Ind. Pop. 1293. 
 Jelferson, tp. of Owen co., Ind. Pop. 2018. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Pike CO., Ind. Pop. 2188. 
 Jeflerson, ip. of Pulaski co., Ind. Pop. 171. 
 Jefferson, Ip. of Putnam co., Ind. Pop. 990. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Sullivan co., Ind. Pop. 1251. 
 Jellersun, Ip. of Switzerland co., Ind. Pop. 3208. 
 Jeflerson, ip. of Tipton eo., Ind. Pop. 1738. 
 Jeflerson, ip. of Washington eo., Ind. Pop. 1532. 
 Jellorson, Ip. of Wayne co., Ind. Pop. 1785. 
 Jefferson, Ip. of Wells co., Ind. Pop. 1773. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Whitley co., Ind. Pop. 1203. 
 Jefferson, tp. of .\dair co., la. Pop. 362. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Allamakee eo., la. Pop. 1015. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Bremer co., la. Pop. 760. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Buchanan co., la. Pop. 918. 
 Jeflerson, ip. of Butler co., la. Pop. 613. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Clayton co., la. Pop. 2245. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Dubuque co., la. Pop. 1550. 
 Jefferson, Ip. of Fayette co.. la. Pop. 039. 
 Jeirersoii, fiont-v. atid tp., cap. of tlrcene co., la., 50 
 mib'.'i N. W. of l>e3 Moines, on the Coon Kivor and tlio 
 Norlh-western R. R. ; has a bank, 22' stores, 4 ehurehes, a 
 fine court-house, a g<Kiil graded seliool, and a weekly news- 
 paper. Pop. of v. 779; of tp. 1S2S. 
 
 SwAi.M & RiioAD!). Ens. "Bee." 
 
 Jefferson, tp. of Harrison co., la. Pop. 694. 
 
 Jeflerson, t|i. of Henry co., la. Pop. 1438. 
 
 Jelferson, tp. of Johnson co., la. Pop. 900, 
 
 Jelferson, ip. of Leo co., la. Pop. 1059. 
 
 Jelferson, tp. of Louisa co.. In. Pop. 840. 
 
 Jelferson, Ip. of Madison co., la. Pop. 055. 
 
 Jelferson, Ip. of Mahaska co., la. Pop. 1174. 
 
 Jelferson, Ip. of Mnr^^hall co., la. Pop. 001. 
 
 Jelferson, ip. of P..lk co., la. Pop. 832. 
 
 Jelferson, tp. of Poweshiek co., la. Pop. 000. 
 
 Jelferson, Ip. of Ringgold co., la. Pop. 527. 
 
 Jefferson, Ip. of Taylor co., la. Pop. 542. 
 
 Jeflerson, tp. of AVarren co., la. Pop. 1012. 
 
 Jelferson, tp. of Wayne co., I». Pop. 704. 
 
 Jelferson, ip. of Jackson co., Kan. Pop. 1542. 
 
 Jelferson, tp. of JefTcrson co., Kan. Pop. IflSO. 
 
 Jellerson, post-tp. of Lincoln co., Mc., 18 miles N. N. 
 i:. i.r Wis.asscl. Pop. isai. 
 
 Jelferson, post v. and tp. of Frederick co., Md.. 8 miles 
 S. W. of Frederick ('ity. Pop. of v. 257 ; of tp. 1491. 
 
 Jefferson, tp. of Cass co., Mich. Pop. 1047. 
 
 Jelferson, post.lp. of Hillsdale Co., Mich. Pop. 1973. 
 
 Jellerson, ip. of Houston co., .Minn. Pop. 372. 
 
 Jelferson, tp. of Winona co., Minn. Pop. 640. 
 
 Jelferson, Ip. of Andrew co., Mo. Pop. 1605. 
 
 Jefferson, tp. of Cedar co.. Mo. Pop. 1040. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Clarke eo.. Mo. Pop. 843. 
 Jelferson, ip. of Colo co.. Mo. Pop. 1839. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Diiviess co.. Mo. Pop. 1059. 
 Jelferson, tp, of Grundy co., Mo. Pop. 874. 
 Jeflerson, ip. of Linn co.. Mo. Pop. 1810. 
 Jelferson, tp. of Maries eo.. Mo. Pop. 1123. 
 Jelferson, tp. of Monroe co.. Mo. Pop. 2147. 
 Jelferson, tp. of Osage co., Mo. Pop. 1390. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Polk co.. Mo. Pop. 480. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Saline co.. Mo. Pop. 3002. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Scotland co.. Mo. Pop. 3297. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Shelby co., Mo. Pop. 867. 
 Jefferson, tp. of AVayne co.. Mo. Pop. 371. 
 Jefferson, post-tp. of Coos co., N. H.. in the White 
 Mountain region. It has e.\tensive inanufaclures of lum- 
 ber and slareh. It is a place of summer resort. Pop. 826. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Morris co., N. J. Pop. 1430. 
 Jefferson, post-v. and tp. of .Schoharie co.. N. Y., 5 
 miles N. of Stamford, the nearest railroail station. Tho 
 town of Jefferson is hilly, has 2 churches, a weekly news- 
 paper, various stores, and manufactures of shoes, cabinet- 
 wares, etc. Principiil business, farming and dairying. Pop. 
 1712. A. W. Clark, En. " Ji:FiKiisoNrAN." 
 
 Jefferson, post-v. and tp.. cap. of Ashe co., N. C, near 
 New River, 45 miles S. of Marion, Va. Chief business, 
 agriculture and mining. It has 1 hotel, 2 academies (male 
 and female), a weekly newspaper, stores, shops, etc. Pop. 
 1228. R. M. DicKKV. En. •■ Moixtaix Mkssesgeb." 
 
 Jefferson, tp. of Guilford co., N. C. Pop. 1045. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Adams co., 0. Pop. 2268. 
 Jefferson, post-v. and tp., cap. of Ashtabula co.. 0., 
 13 miles S. of Lake Erie, on the Oil City branch of tho 
 Lake Shore R. R., in a rich grazing and dairy country ; 
 has 2 banks, 16 stores, 2 foundries, various shops, a weekly 
 newspaper, 6 public schools, and 2 hotels; was the homo 
 of J. R. Giddings, and is (1874) that of B. F. AVade. Pop. 
 of V. 809; of tp. 1712. 
 
 W. C. HowELi.s, En. ".■\siiTABtI,A Sentinei.." 
 Jefferson, tp. of Brown co., O. Pop. 1267. 
 Jeflerson, ip. of Clinton co., 0. Pop. 1445. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Coshocton co., 0. Pop. 1059. 
 Jefferson, v. of Neave tp., Parke co., 0. Pop. 107. 
 Jefferson, v. of Bloom tp., Fairfield CO., 0. Pop. TO. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Fayette co., 0. Pop. 2532. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Franklin co.. 0. Pop. 1405. 
 Jelferson, tp. of Greene co., 0. Pop. 1277. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Guernsey co., 0. Pop. 904. 
 Jelferson, tp. of .Tackson co., 0. Pop. 3002. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Kuo.x co., 0. Pop. 1308. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Logan co., 0. Pop. 1634. 
 Jefferson, a v. and Ip. ( W. JnFFEnsos P. 0.) of Mad- 
 ison CO., I)., on tho Little Miami R. R. Pop. 577 ; of tp. 
 IS-S,"*. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Mercer co., 0. Pop. 1557. 
 Jefferson, Ip. of Montgomery co., 0. Pop. 3350. 
 Jelferson, tp. of Noble co., 0. Pop. 1278. 
 Jelferson, tp. of Preble co., 0. Pop. 1953. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Richland oo., 0. Pop. 2251. 
 Jelferson, tp. of Ross co., 0. Pop. 1013. 
 Jelferson, tp. of Scioto co., 0. Pop. 659. 
 Jelferson, tp. of Tuscarawas CO., 0. Pop. 1058. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Williams co., 0. Pop. 1504. 
 Jelferson, Ip. of Allegheny eo., Pa. Pop. 2006. 
 Jelferson, Ip. of Berks co., Pn. Pop. 1133. 
 Jellerson, Ip. of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 1234. 
 Jelferson, Ip. of Iiaiiphiii co.. Pa. Pop. .<!43. 
 Jellerson, 1]). of Fayette eo., Pn. Pop. 13S1. 
 Jellerson, post-lp. of Greene oo., Pn. Pop. 1322. 
 Ji'lferson, tp. of Luzerne co.. Pa. Pop. 770. 
 Jelferson, Ip. of .Mercer Co., Pa, Pop, 1292. 
 .lelferson, Ip. of Sonierset eo.. Pa. Pop. 706. 
 JelliTson, Ip. of Washington co.. Pa. Pop. 889. 
 Jelferson, a b. of Soulli Codorus tp. (Conoiiis P. 0.), 
 York CO., Pa., i a mile .^. of .lelTerson Station, a post-v. on 
 the Hanover branch of the Northern Central U. R. P. •'!27. 
 Jelferson, post-tp. of Che.tcrficld co., S. C. Pop. IIOI. 
 Jelferson, city. cap. of Marion eo., Tejc., situated at
 
 1386 
 
 JEFFERSON. 
 
 the head of navij^ation on the Big Cypress Bajou, which 
 connects with Rt-d River, on a section of the Texas and 
 Pacific R. R., which also forms part of the direct line of 
 the Intfrnational R. R.,wiiich was completed in 1.S74 from 
 Cairo, III., to Iloarne in Central Texas. Jefferson is the 
 largest town in Xorth-eastcrn Tcxa?, bcinsr the centre of a 
 river commerce which has acquired conpiderahle import- 
 ance since the civil war. It now sends to New Orleans 
 273,000 bales of cotton annually, bcsifies large quantities 
 of hides, cattle, beef in barrels, tallow, wnol, and bois d'arc 
 seed. Twenty thousand waijons annually arrive at Jeffer- 
 son from the interior counties, with which the commerce 
 amounts to more than $10,000,000. Vast beds of iron and 
 coal are found in the vicinity. Jefferson was settled in 
 lS4o. It has 7 churches, ."► newspnpers. 1 national bank, 
 and numerous manufactories. Pop. 411)0 (1870), since 
 largely iucrcased. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Alexandria co., Vn. Pop. 125G. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Loudon co., Va. Pop. 3355. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Kanawha co., West Va. Pop. 1635. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Lincoln co., West Va. Pop. 508. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Nicholas co., West Vn. Pop. 649. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Pleasants co., West Va. Pop. 407. 
 Jeflerson, tp. of Green co.. Wis. Pop. 1673. 
 Jefferson, post-v. and tp., cap. of Jefferson co.. Wis., 
 on the Ciiica'j;o and North-western R. R., Wisconsin di- 
 vision, 26 miles X. N. E. of Janesville, at the junction of 
 Rock and Crawfish rivers. It has 1 manvifactory of fur- 
 niture, 3 of brick, 1 of woollens, and 1 of flour; 1 weekly 
 newspaper, 2 graded-school houses, 4 hotels, a national 
 bank, a savings bank, a fire department with steam fire- 
 engine, and is the seat of Jefferson Liberal Institute. The 
 town is mainly built of cream brick, made here. It is in 
 a very fertile region. Pop. 2176; of tp. 4408. 
 
 A. Savborn, Pub. ^'Baxneh." 
 Jefferson, tp. of Monroe co.. Wis. Pop. 764. 
 Jefferson, tp. of Vernon co., Wis. Pop. IIOS. 
 Jefferson (JosErn). b. at Philadelphia Feb. 20, 1829, 
 descended from several generations of actors; appeared on 
 the stage in his boyhood iu comic parts : has acted in Eng- 
 land and Australia with great success. Jefferson produced 
 at the Ad"lphi Theatre. London, in 1865, his celebrated 
 play of Rip Van Wiulh, which has kept the stage ever 
 since, and procured him a wide reputation. 
 
 Jefferson (Thomas), LL.D.. third President of the U.S., 
 h. in Albemarle co., Va., Apr. 13 (n. s.), 1743. His family, 
 of Weli'h extraction, was settled iu Virginia before 1610, 
 iu whie,h year his ancestor was a member of the assembly, 
 the fir.-*t legislative body ever convened in America. His 
 father, Peter Jefferson, a surveyor and planter, was a man 
 of extraordinary jihysical strength, and sound intelligence, 
 a publiir spirited citizen and valuable man. who served 
 his covmty as public surveyor, as colonel, and as a member 
 of the legislature. Peter .lefferson married, in 1738, Jane, 
 daughter of Isham Ran<b>lph, and granddaughter of the 
 founder of the Virginia Randolphs, by whom he had nine 
 children, Thomas being hia third child and eldest son. Iu 
 1757. Peter ilied, leaving a widow and eight children, the 
 oldest seventeen years, the youngest twenty-two months, 
 Thomas being a schoolboy of fourteen. The family inher- 
 ited 1000 acres and 30 slaves. fr<)m the product of which 
 Thomas was enabled to attend AVilliam and Mary College 
 and study law, thus fulfilling the fondest wish of his father 
 and obeying one of his last injunctions. lie loved to think 
 that this was his father's dying eommaml. an<i he used to 
 say in his old age that if he had had to choose between the 
 estate or the education his father had given him, ho would 
 have chosen the education. He entered college in 17^0. 
 remiiined two years, began the study of the law at Wil- 
 liamsburg under George AVytho in 1763, and in 1767, being 
 twenty-four years of age. he was admitted to the bar. As 
 a student he was industrious, resolute, moral, and intelli- 
 gent, lie was fortunate in his mathematical ]>rofessor, 
 Small, a friend of Erasmus Darwin: also in the learned 
 George Wylhe. who directed the legal studies of Chief- 
 Justice Marshall and Henry Clay. Tudcr the influence 
 of these liberal minds he investigated the sources of law, 
 the origin of liberty, and the gradual establishment of 
 equal rights, extending his resenrehcs into remote an- 
 tiquity, iind becoming one of the most accomplished young 
 men of his time. Ho actiuired skill upon the violin, some- 
 times practising three hours a day. and was a close 
 observer and student of nature. He obtained at once a 
 large and profitable practice at the bar, which he held for 
 eight years, until he wax drawn into public life by the 
 conflict between the colonies and (ireat Britain. From 
 6S cases in his first year, he was employed in 430 cases 
 in his fourth, and his incomo at tbo bar is estimated 
 
 at £500 sterling per annum, by which he increased his 
 
 estate to 5000 acres of land. He married, Jan. 1, 1772, 
 Martha Skelton. a young, beautiful, and childless widow, 
 daughter and heiress of a leading lawyer of Virginia, John 
 Wayles, whose death the next year doubled Jefferson's es- 
 tate. Elected a member of the house of burgesses in 1769, 
 he served iu that boily til! the Revolution, a firm supporter 
 of liberal measures, and noted for his disapproval of slavery. 
 With Patrick Henry and the Lees he was a leader of the 
 party in opposition to the British king, though strongly 
 attached to the mother-countr}'. He took his scat as a 
 member of the Continental Congress June 21, 177.'>, the day 
 on which the news of the battle of Bunker Iiitl reached 
 Philadelphia and AVashinglon left that city to take com- 
 mand ot' the army at (.'ambridge. Seldom joining in de- 
 bate, for he wns no orator, he acquired great influence by 
 his courtesy, his readiness in composition, his knowledge 
 of law and usage, his general information, his moderation 
 of tone, and his warm devotion to the country's cause. 
 After serving on several leading c(»nnniftees and drawing 
 important papers, he was chosen to ilraft the Declaration 
 of Independence, which, after three days' debate and ex- 
 tensive amendment, was adopted and signed on Thursday 
 afternoon, July 4, 1770. In September of the same year 
 he resumed his sent in the Virginia legislature, where, in 
 conjunction with George Wythe and James Madisnn, he 
 spent three years in adapting the laws of A'irginia to the 
 new order of things, and in other patriotic labors. He 
 effected the abolition of entail and primogeniture, and 
 drew the law — the first ever passed by a legislature or 
 adopted by a government — which secured perfect religious 
 freedom. His scheme for the establishment of common 
 schools and for the abolition of slavery, though warmly 
 supported by the liberal members, failed. June 1, 1779, 
 he succeeded Patrick Henry as governor of Virginia, an 
 ofnee whicli he resigned after holding it two years, dur- 
 ing which he ably co-operated with AVashington in de- 
 fending the country. One of his own estates was rav- 
 aged and plundered by Cornwallis, and his house at Mon- 
 ticello was held for some days by Tarleton's cavalry. Jeffer- 
 son himself narrowly escaping capture. Sejit. 6, 1782, his wife 
 died, leaving three children of six to which she had given 
 birth. Distracted with grief, he now accepted an apjioint- 
 ment as plenipotentiary to France, which he had declined 
 in 1776. Before sailing he served for some weeks in Con- 
 gress at Annapolis, where he succeeded in carrying a bill 
 establishing our jiresent system of decimal currency — one 
 of the most useful of his public services. Reaching Paris 
 in June. 1784, ho remained until October, 1789. " Vou 
 replace Dr. Franklin," said the Count dc Vcrgennes to the 
 new minister. '' I /tucrcd," was Mr. .Tefferson's reply ; 
 "no one can replace him." He was filled with horror at 
 the .condition of France, and declared that a government 
 of nobles and priests was a government of wolves over 
 sheep. The most miserable person in the U. S. be thought 
 bapjtier than nineteen out of twenty Frenchmen, and he 
 attributed the general misery chiefly to the bad govern- 
 ment. 
 
 He was an active and vigilant minister. Besides per- 
 forming the usual duties of his place, he published his 
 \»itrn on Virf/iiiia, sent to the U. S. seeds, jilants, and 
 shrubs, enriched Buffon's collection with American speci- 
 mens, forwarded literary and scientific news, and gave use- 
 ful advice to La Fayette and the other revolutionary lead- 
 ers. Nov. 18. 1789. he landed in Virginia, having obtained 
 a six months' leave for the purpose of bringing his dnushtcra 
 home, one of whom was engaged to be married to Thomas 
 Mann Randolph, afterwards governor of Virginia. Jeffer- 
 son was met soon after his arrival by a letter from Pres. 
 Washington appointing him secretary of state. He ac- 
 cepted the place, and entered u])on its duties at New York 
 in Mar., 1791. residing at .')7 Maiden lune, and held the 
 office until Jan. 1, 1794, when he resigned. During his 
 tenure of this office the two political parties became sharply 
 defined, and Jefferson, who was in the warmest sympathy 
 with the French revolution and strongly democnitie in his 
 feelings, was recognized as the leailer and candidate of the 
 Republican party. His colleague. Alexander Hamilton, 
 beeame his decided and aggressive political opponent. 
 " We were pitted against each other," Jefferson once wrote, 
 "every day in the cabinet like two fighting-eoeks." In 
 1706 he was elected Vice-President of the V. S., and was 
 sworn in Mar. 4. 1797. In 18110 he was elected to the 
 Presidency, and bcinir inaugurated Mar. 4. ISOl, he entered 
 upon a part of his career whieh will ever he regarded with 
 interest by republieans of every land. He selected an able 
 and aeeoinplished cabinet: .Tames Madison of A'irginia, 
 state; Albert Gallatin of Pennsylvania, treasury: Henry 
 Dearborn of Maine, war; Robert Smith of Maryland, 
 navy; Gideon Granger of New York, post-office. Admin- 
 istering the government in unbroken harmony with bis
 
 JEFFERSON BARRACKS— JEHOVAH. 
 
 1387 
 
 mioistcrs. he grinlually won to his support n majority of 
 the people so groat that he deemed the opposition scarcely 
 strong enough to adequately criticise and admonish the 
 party in power. He wagod a sucecssfal war agiiinst the 
 piratical Algcrincs, in which the navy of the V. S. won 
 gruat dibitinciion and formed the gallant officers ^Those ex- 
 ploits in the war of 1^12 were so remarkable; Louisiana 
 was purchased of Xapoleon ; the puhlic debt was greatly 
 reduced: the wesfern country was explored by Lewis and 
 Clark and by Pike: the system of precedence was abol- 
 i«hecl, and a rational etiquette substituted. He attempted 
 by the embargo to introduce a better method than that of 
 war to enforce the national rights. Having dcrlined urg- 
 ent solicitations to accept a nomination fur a third term, 
 he retired to private life Mar. 4, ISOlt, and spent the re- 
 mainder of his days at his beautiful seat. Monlicollo. 
 cheered by the soc-iety of hia eldest daughter and a large 
 number of affectionate grandchildren. Many of his later 
 years were employed in fuundiug the University of Vir- 
 ginia, now an important institution. He died on the fif- 
 tieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, a 
 few hours before his contemporary and friend, John Adams. 
 Mr. JffTerson was tall, well-formed, straight, and uncom- 
 monly strong. He had sandy hair, a ruddy cumplexion, 
 and a tranquil, benevolent expression of countenance. His 
 temper was perfect; his manners were natural and easy. 
 He loved his country and his kind, and spent a long life in 
 honorable and useful labors, public and private, beloved 
 by all who knew him as ho was. He was one of the best- 
 informed men of his day, and all his habits an<l instincts 
 were those of a student and observer. (For fuller infor- 
 mation, sec his W'orl.-^, 9 vols. Svo ; MfnuoSts and CtnTf;- 
 *f)'HKlcncc, by his grandson, T. J. Randolph, 4 vols., 1S29; 
 UitHjrnphivH Ity (ieorge Tucker, 2 vols., IS.'JT, by H. (1. 
 Randall, .1 vols. Svo. ISiS, by his granddaughter, Sarah 
 N. Randolph, 1 vol., 1871, and by James Parton, 1 vol., 
 1S7I.) James Pauton. 
 
 JcfTorson Barracks, post-r. of St. Louis co., Mo., 
 on the Mississippi River. U miles below St. Louis, and on 
 the St. Louis and Iron Mountain R. R., is the site of ex- 
 tensive l*^. S. barracks. 
 
 Jefferson City, cap. of Missouri and seat of justice 
 of (*f»le cf>.. on the S. bank of the .Missouri River, 125 miles 
 ^V^ of St. Louis, and near the geographical centre of the 
 State. It is on the Missouri Paeiiic U. R.. and by ferry 
 transfer with Cedar City, on tlie opposite side of the river, 
 it is the S. W. terminus of the Chicago and Alton R. R. 
 Its site is elevated and pleasant, and the town is well built. 
 Am'ing the public buildings are the State capitol, the ex- 
 ecutive mansion, State armory, penitentiary, 8 churches. 2 
 public-school building-", Lincoln Institute, a normal school 
 for colored youth, and a female seminary. There aro 2 
 large flouring-mills, manufaetory of farm-implements, a 
 foun<lrv, and many minor industrial interests, 1 State and 
 2 national banks, weekly newspaper, and a State library. 
 It is the seat of Jefl"er>on City College (Protestant Episco- 
 pal). It is in a healthful region, which has great mineral 
 and agricultural wealth, coal, iron, and ghisssand abound- 
 ing. Pop, 4420, much increased since the U. S. census. 
 P. T. Mii.LKR, En. " Pkoim.k's Tkibit.vk." 
 
 JpflTerson CoUegc. See Wasuisgton a.nd JiiFFEiisoN 
 Goi,i,K«;i:. 
 
 Jctrcrso'nin (J. diphjflln), a vernal plant of the order 
 Bcrberidaceip, popularly known as twin-loaf, from its two- 
 parted leaves, which rise in a tuft from the roots. The 
 tlowers aro white, resemble those of blood-root, and appear 
 in early spring. Thc./'7?>r«oji/ri is indigenous to the North- 
 ern Central .*^ta(c8 of the U. S.. but is cultivated in Eng- 
 land. The root has been reeommendcd as a specific for 
 rheumatism, but the medicinal quality is somewhat doubtful. 
 
 Jerfersonton, post-v. and ip. of Culpcper co., Va., 
 lO.i miles .\. W. ol" Richmond, on the HajtpahanDook. 
 I'np. 4110; of Ip. 2'JJ.t. 
 
 JcPforsonville, post-v., cop. of Twigga co., Go., 15 
 miles S. from <iordon. 
 
 JofTersonvillc, post-v. of Lamard tp., Wayne co., III., 
 on the Springfield and Illinois South-eastern R. R., G niiles 
 N. by W. of Fairfield ; founded 1H.'.2 in the fertile Lii Mard 
 Prairie; has 2 churches, a park, a weekly neuspnper, 2 
 hotels, flour and saw mtMs, etc. 
 
 R. A. Moss, Ei). " Watne Co. Ckntral." 
 
 JcfTcrsonville, city nn<l tp. of Clnrke eo.. Ind., on tho 
 Oliio River, opposite Ijonissille, Ky.. with which it is con- 
 nected by a fine rnilroa^l bridge. It \» (he terminus of the 
 Jefferson Madison and Indinniipolis R. R.. and is on the 
 Ohio and Mississippi R. R., I^ouisville divittion; a branch 
 of the former road extemU thence to New Albany. The 
 falU of the Ohio hfr<' afi'ord a noble water power. Tho 
 town has good shipping facilities, 2 largo shipyards, II 
 
 churches, locomotive and car works, and the machine-5hops 
 of the first-mentioned railroad. It contains tho Southern 
 State penitentiary, is the seat of an extensive government 
 d^pOt of supplies which cost $200,000, has 2 national banks, 
 2 largo flour-mills, a fine high-school building, a weekly 
 and a daily newspaper. Pop. of city, 7254; of tp. outside 
 city limits, .'^042. R. Daily, En. "News and Deuwrat." 
 
 Jettersouvillc, N. Y. See Callicoo.v. 
 
 Jctfer^oitvillef post-v. of Jefferson tp., Fayette co., 
 0. Pop. 212. 
 
 JefTersonville, or Tazewell Court-lionse, a v. 
 and tp., cop. of Tazewell co., Va., in a mountain-region, 
 28 miles N. of Marion, has 3 churches, a high school, a 
 weekly newspaper, 2 hotels; is in a fine blue-gnif;s region. 
 Chief business, cattle-raising and farming. Pop. ;^6.S2. 
 J. C. NirTTV, En. "News." 
 
 Jerfrey (Frascis), Lori>, b. at Edinburgh Oct. 2.3, 
 177.'J; was educated at Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Oxford, 
 and in 1704 was passed an advocate at Edinburgh, but his 
 literary tastes and Whig principles rendered his progress 
 in his profession slow. In isn2 he was one of the founders 
 of the Edhihurijh licvitw, of which he became the leading 
 spirit, and w.is for twenty-six years the principal editor; 
 in IS13 visited New York and mrirricd Miss Charlotte 
 ^Vilkes, his second wife; won wide fame by the ability and 
 severity with which he opposed the new schools of poetry 
 which sprang up in Great Britain. Acquiring a brilliant 
 though tardy reputation at the bar, he was made dean of 
 tho Faculty of Advocates 1829; lonl advocnte, with the 
 title of Lord Jeffrey, 1830; sat in Parliament for Perth 
 IS.'tO, for Mallon 1831, for Edinburgh 1832. Regarding 
 Jeffrey's work as a critic, the sentence of time has been 
 adverse; for, though his abilities were undeniable, his 
 judgment was often overmnstered by prejudice; but a£ a 
 jurist he was just and able ; us a man ho was beloved even 
 by his literar}' adversaries. D. at Craigcrook Jan. 26, 1850. 
 
 Jeffreys, tp. of Marion co., S. C. Pop. 2005. 
 
 Jeffreys (George), Bahox, b. at Aeton, Denbigh, 
 Wales, in 161S; studied law in the Middle Temple; was 
 culled to the bar in IGfiO; and practised chiefly at the Old 
 Bailey, where he acquired the ferocious brutality which (hen 
 distinguished that court, and which characterized him 
 through life; was common sergeant of London 1G7I; af- 
 fected Puritanism, but was knighted in 1(»77 and made 
 solicitor to the duke of York; recorder of London IfiTS- 
 80; king's sergeant and chief-justice of Chester IC80; bar- 
 onet 1G8I ; was crown counsel against Lord Russell, and 
 became chief-justice of the king's bench 1683; sentenced 
 Algernon Sidney 1083; tried Baxter and Titus Gates 1CS5; 
 received a peerage 1C85. in which year he held the Blootly 
 Assize for the trial of Monmouth's adherents, of whom ho 
 caused 320 to be hung and 841 to be solJ into slavery in 
 tho colonies, for which service he was. made lord chnn- 
 cellor; was a party in nearly all the misdeeds of James 
 II. ; was seized bv a mob and confined in the Tower 1688, 
 audd. there Apr.'l8, 1689. 
 
 Jeffries (John), M. D., b. at Boston, Mass., Feb. 5, 
 1744; graduated at Harvard in 1763; studied medicine at 
 London and Aberdeen; returned to Boston to practise his 
 profes.sion ; and. aeconipun.viT)g the Briiish forces on their 
 withilrawal to Halifax in 177'i, he was iippointcd surgeon- 
 general by Gen. Howe. In 1779, Dr. Jeffries became sur- 
 geon-major to all the British forces in America, but goon 
 retired to EnglnncI, where ho devoted much attention to 
 scientific experiment, especially upon atmospheric phe- 
 nomena. In 178J he crossed the Channel from Dover into 
 France in a balloon, a feat which attracted much attention 
 from the learned societies of Paris. In 17S9, Dr. Jefirics 
 returned to Boston, where he resided until his death, Sept. 
 16, 1SH», Dr. Jeffries delivered in 1789 tho first public- 
 anatomical lecture ever given in New England, but a great 
 popular sentiment existing against dissections, he was enni- 
 pelled by mob violcouo to discontinue bis course of in- 
 struction. 
 
 Jehosli'nphnt, tho fourth king of Judnh, was the snn 
 of Asa, wboMi be siieeeedc'l in 912 n. c. and reigned (o S<7 
 n. r. .'Mlhoiigb he was utterly di fenled by the Syrians in 
 the battle of Ranioth-gllend. and although his first expe- 
 dition to Ophir v(\i» foiU'd by the wreck of his whole fl«et, 
 his reign was ne\ ertlnless generally very fortunate. Ho 
 workcil encrcetieally ami sueee-isfnjly to extirpate idolatry, 
 he kept the ntttionit on the borders in awe, nnd HgrieuUuro 
 and commerce prospered under his rule. The name of Jc- 
 hoshnphat meann "Jehovah's judgment;" hence the flgn- 
 ralivo expression of tho prophet Joel, 'Mho valley of Jo- 
 hoshaphat." 
 
 Jetio'vah [Heh.] occurs only fonr times in the Autho- 
 rized Version of the Bible, but the Hebrew word (71171') 
 for which it stands is used hundreds of times, being usu-
 
 1388 
 
 JEHU— JENKINS. 
 
 ally represented in our Bible by "Lord," or "the Lohd." 
 priatc'l in small capitals, to distinguish it from other words 
 similarly translated. This singular jihenomcnon arises from 
 the fact (hat while the consonants of the name (the Hebrew 
 alphabet having originally had no signs for vowels) have 
 been faitlifully preserved by transcription, the Jews for 
 ages have refrained from prononncinrj the name on account 
 of its sacredncss; so that the original pronunciation has 
 been lost. Whenever the word occurs they suhstilute for 
 it, in reading, ^31X (.4(Mo»«(*) ; and to indicate this the 
 Masoretic puncfators connected with the conttonnuts TWTV 
 the rmvch of ''31X. But when these two words are found 
 together, 71171^ is punctuated with the vowel-points of 
 DTi^X (God). This practice must be one of long standing, 
 inasmuch as wo find in the Septuagint (the Greek transla- 
 tion of the Old Testament dating from the second or tliird 
 century b. c). «vpto? uniformly put for niiT. Tins example 
 ha3 been followed in most of the versions. There are now 
 no rcspcctablo si;hoIars who suppose that the form TV^TV^ 
 (*' Jehovah") represents the original sound of the name. 
 From Exodus lii. H, lu, where ri'.nsi, the first person im- 
 perfect of rrri. **to be," is identified with nilT' ; from the 
 form which the word assumes in proper names compounded 
 with it (especially ^iTV at the end of such names) ; and from 
 ancient testimony respecting the pronunciation, it is now 
 generally conceded by scholars that jirobably the verb had 
 originally 1 (vav) instead of ** (yodh) for its second radical, 
 and that the third person singular imperfect was T\)7\\ 
 (Yahveh or Yahweh), and that this is the proper form of 
 the sacred name. As to its significance, since it expresses 
 existence emphatically as the characteristic of God, we may 
 say that it denotes iha perfection of exintcnec. Hence, eter- 
 nity, self-existenee, sovereignt}', unchangeablcness, and es- 
 pecially personality, are conceptions fairly to be inferred 
 as cmboclied in the name. In the Old Testament generally 
 mn' is the term used when God's personal relation to his 
 people is emphasized. Jehovah, rather than Elohim, is 
 God as rcrpa?/?!'/ himself, as a lairgiier, as inspiring ^)ro^>/i- 
 ccy/^ as i\\(s faithful one, as the object of xrorship, as the 
 liriiiff God, as the rcwanlcr of good and punishcr of evil. 
 In general. Elohim may bo called the God of nature, and 
 Jehovah (Yahveh) the God of revelation. (On this subject 
 the principal writers are Hongstenborg, Anthcnticitif of the 
 Pcntntcurh ; Reinkc, PhiloHophisch-historischc Abluindlumj 
 fiber tlcn Gattcimumcn Jchova : Tholuck, in the LiternrtKchc 
 Anzeitjcr {l^'il) x Ucland's collection of essays entitled /^crns 
 Exrrrittitionum Philfilof/irnnim de vera Proniinciatione uom- 
 inia Jchova ; E. Ballantine, on the Import of the name Jc- 
 Iiorahj in the Biblical Pepositori/, vol. iii.) C. M. Mead. 
 
 Je'hu [Heb. Ychti; meaning uncertain], the eleventh 
 king ol Israel, and founder of tlie fourth dynasty in the 
 northern kingdom; reigned 28 years, from B. <\ 8S.*t to 8.'),'). 
 In his youth, .Iciiu was one of the guards of Ahab, and in 
 the reigns of Ahaziah and Jchoram had become one of the j 
 chief military leaders. In the account of the vision which 1 
 appeared to Elijah at Horcb in the time of Ahab, that 
 prophet was commanded to anoint Jeliu king of Israel as | 
 instrument of the divine vengeance upon idolatrous Israel I 
 (I Kings xix. 11), 17). This commaml was disobeyed, and [ 
 .Tehudidnot corae to the throne until nearly or quite twenty , 
 years later, when he was anointed by one of the prophets i 
 under EUsha's directions, and proceeded to the massacre I 
 of King Joram, his mother Jezebel, his guest Ahaziah, 
 Icing of Judah, seventy brothers of Joram, forty-two 
 brothers of Ahaziah, and, in general, of all the prophets, 
 priest:*, and worshippers of Baal. The reign of .Ichu was | 
 not marked by any further remarkable events, so far as can j 
 be learned from the biblical record, hut the name occurs on 
 the black obelisk from Xinevch, now in the British Museum, ' 
 as one of the tributaries to the Assyrian empire. Thetly- 
 uasty of Jehu occupied the throne of Samaria for four gen- , 
 cration?. 
 
 Jeisk, or Eisk, town of Russia, in the territory of the . 
 Kuban Cossacks, on the Sea of Azof, was founded in 18J8 
 as a port for the rich produce of the surrounding country, i 
 aud has grown very rapidly since. Pop. 10.747. 
 
 Jcjpeblioy' (Sir Jamsktjke), Baiit,. b. at Bombay. In- 
 dia, July l."», 178;!, belonged to that Parsee race which is j 
 the present representative of the ancient Zoronstrians and 
 Firc-worsliippers of Persia, He commenced life in poverty, I 
 made several eommcreini voyages to Cliina, and succeeded I 
 60 well as to be able in 1S22 to release all the di'l)tors held | 
 in prison in Bombay by paying their debts. In recogni- 
 tion of his princely benefactions he was knighted by Queen 
 A^ietoria in 1842, and made a baronet in 1857. In ISofi a 
 statue was voted tn him by the citizens of Bombay. Sir 
 Jamsetjoo d. at that phi'-o Apr. 14, ISJ9, au'l on Aug. 1 
 after his death the statue was placed in the town-hall. 
 
 His estate was valued at $4,000,000; his charitable foun- 
 dations, widely distributed through Western India, were 
 estimated to have cost $1,500,000, most of them set in 
 operation during his life. 
 Jeknterinbiirg. See Yekaterindoorg. 
 Jekaterinodar. Sec Yekaterinodar. 
 Jeknterinoslav. See YEKAXEniNosLAv. 
 JclaUibad'f town of Afghanistan, is situated near the 
 Cabool, on a fertile plain 2200 feet above the sea, in lat. 
 .^4° 2o' N. It is poorly built ; its trade is entirely in the 
 hands of the Hindoos; its population varies according to 
 the season from .'iOOO to 10.000. A single English brigade 
 under Sir Robert Sale defeated here a large Afghan force 
 in Mar.. 18-12. 
 
 Jelatma, or Jelatom. Sec Yelatom. 
 
 Jcletz. Sec Yelktz. 
 
 Jel'lachich von Buzim (Count Josi-pn). b. at Peter- 
 waradin,on the so-called military frontier of Ilunirarv. Oct. 
 10, 1801, was a son of Baron Franz .lellachirli, a field-mnr- 
 shal in the Napoleonic wars: entered the army at an early 
 age; spent many years on the Turkish border in military 
 service; became in 1842 colonel of the first Banat border 
 regiment, and when the Magyar revolution broke out in 
 1848 threw his great influence with the Slavic popul.Ttions 
 into the scale in favor of the Austrian empire. At the re- 
 quest of a Slavic committee. Jellaehich was app(»infeil to 
 the chief coniman<l of the southern districts of the emj)ire, 
 under the mfdianal title of ban of Croatia. Slavonia. and 
 Dalmatia. Tliis title theoretically gave him an almost in- 
 dependent sovereignty, which he hastened to use by assem- 
 bling a Slavic diet, being consecrated in the hanatt- by the 
 bishop, and organizing the southern Slavonians against the 
 Hungarians. The emperor became alarmed at his proceed- 
 ings, and at the instance of the Hungarian cabinet, which 
 he was still trying to propitiate, issued a decree depriving 
 Jellaehich of his new rank, and summoning him to answer 
 for his conduct. But the sagacious ban of Croatia under- 
 stood the situation ; he not only disregarded all inconve- 
 nient orders from Vienna, but after a personal visit to the 
 imperial family invaded Hungary in September, effected a 
 junction with Windi^chgrUtz, aided in the reconquest of 
 Vienna, and participated in the important campaigns of 
 the ensuing year. (See Hungary and Kossith.) Jella- 
 ehich gave no proof of great tactical ability, but the 
 weighty influence he exerted upon the events of the time 
 was rather political than military. He was well educated, 
 aud had a profound knowledge of the tendencies and aspi- 
 rations of the heterogeneous mass of nationalities compos- 
 ing the Austrian emjiire. In 18J0. .Teilaehich published a 
 volume of jiocms ; commanded in 18.').'i an army of obser- 
 vation on the Bosnian frontier; received the rank of count 
 in 185j; and d. ot Agram May 20, ISJS. 
 
 JoHy-Fish. See Acaleph.*;. 
 
 Jemappes', town of Belgium, in the province of Hai- 
 naut. Here the raw levies of the first French republic 
 under Bumouriez won a decisive victory over the Austrian 
 army, Nov. G, 1702. It has extensive manufactures and 
 large coal-mines in the vicinity. Pop. Il,lfi4. 
 
 Jcm'ison (Robert, Jr.). a son of M'illiam Jemison, a 
 wealtliy planter, b. and bred in Georgia ; in early life re- 
 moved to Alabama, where lie was long a prominent M''hi^ 
 member of the legislature. He was made president of the 
 State senate in 1803, and soon after entered the Confed- 
 erate Senate, though a strong anti-secessionist ; was the 
 founder of the financial system of Alabama (1817), of the 
 State insane asylum, and of the Alabama and Chattanooga 
 R. R. ; resided in Tuscaloosa, and d. Oct. 16, IS71. 
 
 Jc^na^ town of Germany, in the grand duehy of Saxc- 
 Wi'imar-Eisenaeh, on the Saale. Its university, founded 
 in 1558, was 1787-1800 the most celebrated scientific insti- 
 tution of Germany. Schiller, Schlcgel, Oken, Schelling, 
 and Fichto were professors here, and more than lOUO stu- 
 dents heard their lectures. On Oct. 14, 1806, Napoleon 
 totally defeated the Prussian army on the height? outside 
 of Jena, which battle for many years decided the fate of. 
 Northern Germany. Pop. 69S4. 
 
 Jengis Khan* See Genghis Khan. 
 
 Jonisoi. See Yenisei. 
 
 JeirUins, tp. of Mitchell co., la. Pop. 587. 
 
 Jenkins^ tp. of Jefferson co.. Neb. Pop. 442. 
 
 .InikinSy tp. of Luzerne co., Pa. It has mines of an- 
 thracite coal. Pop. 2505. 
 
 Jenkins (Albert G.), b. in Cabell co., Va., Nov. 10, 
 18:50; educated at Jefferson College. Pa., and at the Law 
 Scho(»l. Cambridge, but without entering upon (he jiraetice 
 of his profession direeU-rl his attention to agriculture : mem- 
 ber of Ciacinnati national convention 1S56, and member
 
 JENKINS— JENNINGS. 
 
 13S9 
 
 of the 35th and 36th Congresses : nppt.inlcd lingadior- 
 Kcncral in the Confclcratc army in IfOl. ho fervid with 
 The division of A. P. Hill; sul.Fequcnily in cominnnd 
 of cavnirv bricadc in tho Gctlvs-burg cainim.pn. in the 
 Shenandoah Vallev. and West Virginia; in the campaign 
 of 1804 was killed" at Dublio, Va., iMay 7. I.Mi4. 
 
 G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Jenkins (Chaih-ES J.), b- '■> the district (now county) 
 of Beaufort, P. C, Jan. fi, 1S05. Uis father moved to Jef- 
 ferson CO Ga., ISI6, and Cliarles, the son, was educated 
 partly at the Georgia University and partly at I ni"" Col- 
 lege, Schenectady, N. Y., where ho graduated in 1821; 
 studied law, and opened an office in the city of Augusta, 
 Ga In is:i0 was elected to the legislature; in 18.,1 was 
 elected ntlorney-general of the State, which position ho re- 
 signed before the expiration of his term of office, and was 
 a"-iin returned to the legislature in ls:'.ti. which position ho 
 continuously held from IS.lfi to ISoO, ranking amongst the 
 ablest and most eloquent of the House during all that pe- 
 riod and being Speaker thereof whenever his parly was in 
 tho inaioritT. In politics he was reared in the Jeffersoman 
 State's Rights school, but supported Harrison for President 
 in 1840, and Clav in 1S44. lie was a member of the Union 
 convention of the Slate in ISoO. and as chairman of the 
 committee on resolutions was tho author of the celebrated 
 Georgia platform adopted by that body. In ISCO ho was 
 appointed one of the judges of the supreme court of tho 
 Slate to fill the vacancy occasioned by tho resignation of 
 Hon. Linton Stephens. This position he held until the 
 close of tho war. He was a member of the constitutional 
 convention of the State called under the proclamation of 
 Pros Johnson in 18G5. in which body be acted a prominent 
 part, and in the same Tear was elected governor of tho 
 State without opposition under tho new constitution so 
 formed. This position he held until he was superseded by 
 Gen Thos. 11. Kuger of tho U. S. army, who was appointed 
 provisional governor of Georgia in IStiS under the recon- 
 struction acts of Congress. Ue also has been one of the 
 most active and inftucntial members of the board of trus- 
 tees of the State University since IS.'.U. A. 11. Stephens. 
 Jenkins iThokston A.), U. S. X., b. Dee 11, 1811 in 
 Virginia; entered the navy as a midshipman ^ov. 1, IWb; 
 became a passed midshipman in IS.U, a lieutenant in 18u9, 
 and was employed in the office of the Coast Survey from 
 Oct 1834, to Apr., 1842; promoted to be commander in 
 ISo'd, a captain in 18C2, a commodore in 18G6, and rear- 
 admiral in IS-0; retired from active service Dec. 11, 18. J. 
 Served at sea in the Mediterranean, N. and S. Atlantic, 
 and eoaatof Africa lS42-4o; sent to Europe m I84o, under 
 instructions of tho secretary of tho treasury, to examine 
 the systems of lighthouse illumination, and the general 
 management of the aids to navigation service in the dif- 
 ferent commercial nations of Europe; returned in 184G 
 and submitted an elaborate report ; served on the L. coast 
 of Me.tico during our war with that country 
 
 and took iiart in the capture of Tuspau and 
 hydrogrnpbical party of tho Co 
 
 to its end, 
 Tabasco. 
 Commanding a hyrtrograpbical party oi me Coast Sur- 
 vey 184H-JI, ho framed the organic law which was nassed 
 in 1852 under which the present lighlliuuac establishment 
 has been created and is now administered; Sejit., lSi8, 
 commanded tho sloop-of-war Preble in our expedition 
 against Paraguay, and subsequently (ISS'J-fiU) on the 
 coasts of Central America and the fc. coast of Mexico; 
 commanded eloop-of-war Wnchusett in James and I o- 
 tomac rivers 1862; sloop-of-war OnL..da and 8«nn'J <!>- 
 vision of Admiral Farrnguts fleet off Mobile 18fi2-nJ; 
 fleet-captain and chief of staff to Admiral I arragut 1803- 
 64 ; commanded. temporarily,8loop-of-war Richmond under 
 the gunsof Port Hudson, and senior naval officer in command 
 at tho surrender of tli:it place to Mio army and navy July, 
 1863; wounded on board the sloop-of-war Monongahela in 
 action with the enemy's land forces on the right bank of the 
 Mississippi at College Point, below Fort D.mclson ; com- 
 manded the sloop of-war Kichmond and the second division 
 of Admiral Farragufs fleet blockading Mobile 18f,.,-Ca ; 
 from l'<fio to 1869 clii-f of the bureau of navigation ; in 
 1S50-58 lS6l)-fi2, and IMl'J-Tl. naval secretary of the light- 
 house board; from IS7I to the date of his retirement in 
 command of our fleet in the East Indies. The eharaeter 
 and services of this eminent officer are best shown by the 
 following extract from Rear-admiral Farragufs oflieial re- 
 port of the battle of Mobile Pay, dated Aug. 12, 1^04 : 
 " lieforc closing this report there is one other ofhi'cr of my 
 squadron of whom I feel bound to speak, Capt T A Jen- 
 kins of the Richmond, who was formerly my chief of staff, 
 not because of his having held that position, but because 
 he never f .rgets to do his duty to the government, and 
 takes now tho same interest in tho fleet as when he stood 
 in that relation to me. He is also the comm:.nding officer 
 of the second division of my squadron and as siieh has 
 shown ability and tho most untiring real. He carries out 
 
 the spirit of one of Lord Collingivood's best sayings : ' ^ot 
 to be afraid of doing too much; those who arc, seldom do 
 as much as they ought.'" Foxiiall A. PAiiKEit. 
 
 Jenks, tp. of Forest CO., Pa. Pop. 118. 
 Jenks (Joseph), b. at Haminersniilh, near London, 
 came to Lynn, Mass., about 104 J; was the first founder 
 who worked in brass and iron in America, and probably 
 the first inventor. He received from the Mussaehusctis 
 general court, May 6, 1646, a patent " for the making of 
 engines for mills to go by water," and for making scythes 
 and other edged tools, with a new-invented saw-mill, of 
 which latter process he patented an improvement in May, 
 1655. Jenks is said to have made the dies for the silver 
 coinage of the colony in 1052; he contracted in 1654 wilh 
 the selectmen of lioston - for an engine to carry water in 
 caseof firo;" and in 1667 asked the general court for aid in 
 wire-drawing. Jcnks's works were on the river Saugus at 
 Lynn, where he d. in 16S3. 
 
 Jenks (William), D. D., LL.D., b. at Newton. Mass., 
 Nov. 25, 1778, graduated at Harvard in 1797. and became 
 a teacher: was pastor of a Congregational church at Bath, 
 Me 1805-23; professor of English and Oriental literature 
 in Bowdoin College 1815-18; and afterwards became a 
 teacher in Boston, where he founded the Seamen s Betlicl ; 
 was pastor of the Green Street church, Boston, 1826-4o. 
 D Nov 13,1866. Ue was a member of many learned and 
 benevolent societies, and the author of several works, 
 among which is a Comprehauhe Commentary, once highly 
 popular. 
 Jen'ner, tp. of Somerset co.. Pa. Pop. 1703. 
 Jen'ner (Edward), M. D., F. R. S., b. at Berkeley, 
 Gloucester, Eng., May 17, 1749, the son of a vicar ; studied 
 surgery at Sudbury and London, where he was a pupil of 
 John Hunter, 1771-73; acquired the friendship of Sir Jo- 
 sejdi Banks, who procuretl him the appointment of natu- 
 ralist on Cook's second expedition ; but he retired to his 
 native town in 177.3, and became a surgeon-npotliecary : 
 received in 1792 his degree from St. Andrew's. Scotland; 
 sent to the Royal Society a paper on the euckoo, which 
 gained him a fellowship in the society. In 1796 ho made 
 his first successful arm-to-arm inoculation with the virus 
 of cowpox as a preventive to infection with smallpox. The 
 first idea of this measure had been conceived by biin some 
 twenty years before, when he learned ihat the Gloucester- 
 shirc peasants considered accidental cowpox (acquired in 
 milking cows) a preventive of smallpox. Observation 
 having convinced him of the truth of the popular belief, 
 in 1770 he communicated his opinion to Hunter, who ad- 
 vised him to continue his observations. In 1798 he an- 
 nounced his discovery, now established by abundant obser- 
 vations, but was almost universally denounced by physi- 
 cians and clergy, often in the severest language. He pub- 
 lished a series' of Inqidrh, (1798. 1799, ISOO) upon the 
 subject. The importance of his discovery was finally con- 
 ceded, and he received in all some £37,000 in grants from 
 Parliament and other sources as testimonials to the value 
 of his labors. Personally, he was kindly, unselfish, and 
 philanthropic. D. at Berkeley Jan. 20, 1823. 
 
 Jen'ner (Sir William), Baiit., F. R. S., b. at Chatham 
 in IHId; was educated at llniversity College, London, in 
 which he became in 1848 professorof pathological anatomy, 
 and in 1857 of chemical medicine. In ISOI. I>r. . enner 
 was appointed physician to the queen, and attended 1 rince 
 Albert in his last illness. He is a member of mimerous 
 scientific societies, has contributed largely to medica lit- 
 erature, and was the first to establish the difference in kind 
 between typhus and typhoi.l fevers. He was created a 
 baronet in 1868, and a knight commander of the Bath in 
 1K72, in recognition of his services to the prince of Wales 
 during a dangerous illness. 
 
 Jen'ninK«, county of S. E. Indiana. Area, 375 square 
 miles. It is hilly and well timbered, but has a produeluo 
 soil Cattle grain, wool, and lumber are staple products. 
 The county 'is traversed by the Ohio and Mississippi, tho 
 Madison and Indianapolis, and other railroads. Cap. ^ er- 
 non. Pnp. 16,218. 
 
 Jennings, Ip. of Crawford co., Ind. Pop. 2081. 
 Jennings, tp. of Fayette co., Ind. Pop. 836. 
 Jennings, tp- of Owen co., Ind. Pop. 801. 
 Jennings, tp. of Scott oo., Ind. Pop. 127S. 
 Jennings, tp. of Putnam co., 0. Pop. 1059. 
 Jennings, tp. of Van Wert eo., 0. Pop. 914. 
 Jennings (Thomas Rrrn), M. D., h. in Stcubenvillc. 0., 
 1805; graduated at Washington College, Pa., and in med- 
 icine in Baltimore. Ho came to Tennessee in 1828 where, 
 during the invasion of Asiatic cholera in 1S33. he obtained 
 a largo practice, which ho retained till the late war. Ho 
 opened dissecting-rooms in Nashville I S3S, and was tho
 
 1390 
 
 JENNY— JERICHO, ROSE OF. 
 
 0rst who t:iu<;ht anatomy in Tennessee. For three years 
 he was a senator in the legislature of Tennessee, and de- 
 olioed a nomination to Congress. In lS5-t he was elected 
 professor of the institutes of medicine and clinical medicine 
 in the University of Nushville, and in 1^66 filled the chair 
 of anatomy. The chiss then increased from 220 to 419, 
 and in 1S.>9 reached to -IJC. being the largest class ever as- 
 somhled W. of tho mountains. D. suddenly at \arragan- 
 sett, R. I., July 7, 1S74. Dr. Jenninj^s possessed a fine 
 taste for literature; yet ho was devoted to his profession, 
 in which few succeeded better. Coming to Nashville a poor 
 boy, he not only kept iip an elegant establishment and 
 liberally assisted his immediate relatives, but accumulated 
 a lar;;Q fortune by his practice. As a physician he had no 
 Euporior in Tennessee. Paul F. Eve. 
 
 Jen'ny, post-tp. of Marathon co., "SVis. Pop. 215. 
 
 Jen'yns (Soamf.), b. in London in 1704 j was educated 
 at Cambridge; entered Parliament for Cambridgeshire in 
 1742, and was appointed in 1755 one of the commissioners 
 of the board of trade and plantations. Jenyns was a poet, 
 a wit, and a politician, but is now chiefly remembered for 
 his work on the Evidences of Christianity^ published in 
 1776. which has been often reprinted, has elicited an un- 
 usual amount of criticism, and exerted a considerable in- 
 fluence. Thou2;h now obsolete, Jenyns's little work was 
 long reputed tho best argumentativs presentation of tho 
 Christian evidences. D. at London Dec. IS, I7S7. 
 
 Jeph'thah, the ninth judge of the Israelites, -was a na- 
 tural son of Gilcad of tho tribe of Manassch. After the 
 dca*h of his father he was expelled from his home by his 
 brothers on account of his illegitimate birth, and ho with- 
 drew to the land of Tob, where ho became the chief of a 
 band of brigands. Later on, when the tribes beyond the 
 Jordan resolved to oppose the Ammonite?, they invited 
 Jephthah to become their commander, and ho received the 
 invitation on tho condition that he should remain their 
 ruler if he defeated the Ammonites. The victory over the 
 Ammonites was complete, and hence ho ruled tho country 
 for the rest of his life — from 1256 to 1250 B.C. But a great 
 sorrow came over his house. When setting forth against 
 the enemy he made a solemn vow to the Lord that if he re- 
 turned home victorious he would ofl"er up for a burnt-offer- 
 ing whatsoever first "came forth from the doors of his 
 house*' to meet him. On his return his daughter, an only 
 child, "came first out of the doors of his house" with her 
 companions to greet him with timbrels and dances. At 
 this sight he rent his robes and cried out loudly in despair, 
 but his daughter, when she heard about his vow. encour- 
 aged him "to do with her according to this vow," and so 
 he did. Up to the twelfth century of our era it was uni- 
 versally understood, both by Jewish and Christian com- 
 mentators, that Jephthah actually sacrificed his daughter, 
 and there was among all readers only one feeling of admi- 
 ration for the daughter and of horror at the conduct of the 
 father. But since tho twelfth century several commenta- 
 tors have attem]>ted to mitigate the tragical impression of 
 the narrative by proving that Jephthah only condemned 
 his daughter to celibacy and perpetual service at tho taber- 
 nacle of Shiloh. Thus interpreted, however, the narrative 
 does not read quite naturally. 
 
 Jequitinhon'ha»ariver of Brazil, rises in the province 
 of Minas Geracs, enters tho province of Bahia. and falls 
 after a course of about 750 miles, first northern, then north- 
 eastern, into the Atlantic in lat. 15° 60' S., near the town 
 of Belmonte. Its upper course runs through a mountain- 
 ous region, and its rocky bed is here embarrassed by rapids 
 and catara-'ts, of which that called Salto Grande, on tho 
 boundary of Minas Geraes and Bahia, is one of tho most 
 magnificent falls of Brazil. Its lower course is broad and 
 smooth, but rather shallow, and its mouth is obstructed by 
 sandbars. Xovcrtholess. as the whole lower course from 
 the mouth to Salto Grande is navigable for small steamers, 
 and as one of its arms, the Poassu, commuuicates by a 
 navigable channel with the river Pardo, the Jcquitinhonha 
 will probably become of great importance for tho exporta- 
 tion of the rich products of Minas Geraes, 
 
 Jer'boa [Arab.], a name of numerous small rodent 
 mammaU of the rat family (by many referred to a smaller 
 family, the Dipodidic). aud remarkable for their progres- 
 sion, which is accomplished by long leaps in tho air, after 
 tho manner of kangaroos. They are all Old-World species, 
 and some of them are very destructive to crops. Tho 
 Egyptian jerboa {Dlpun mngitta) is the typical species. 
 
 Jer'dan {Wiu.iam). F. S. A., b. at Kelso. Scotland, in 
 1782; studied law, eame to London in 1S04, and became a 
 writer for the ^fon}i»ff Post and other newspapers. On 
 May 11, 1812. he was instrumental ip arresting Rellingham, 
 the murderer of the prime minister Spencer Percival. In 
 1S17 he became editor of the Litcvarif Gazette, and re- 
 
 mained in charge of that intiuential journal for thirty-four 
 years. In 1S21 he was one of the founders of the Royal 
 Society of Literature. On his retirement from editorship 
 a pension of £100 was granted him. aud a flattering testi- 
 monial was signed by many of the leading public men of 
 the day. Mr. Jerdau wrote four volumes of biographical 
 
 sketches ior Eitihcr' a A'attondf Portrait GaUcry of Eminent 
 Personngca of the Nineteenth Century, wrote for the annuals, 
 reviews, and magazines, published his Antofnorjraphy (4 
 vols.) in lS52-5o, and a supplement entitled Men S have 
 Knoivn in 18C6. A judicious selection from his memoirs 
 was edited by Mr, R. S. Stoddard in the Bric'd-brac Se- 
 ries (New York, 1874). D. at Bushey Heath, Hertford- 
 shire, July 11, 1S69. 
 
 Jeremi'ah [Ilcb., "raised up by the Lord"], the sec- 
 ond of the greater prophets of the Hebrew canon, began 
 his work in the thirteenth year of King Josiah (eh. i. 2); 
 {. e. about 628 B.C. He survived the fall of Jerusalem (5S8), 
 so that his work lasted for over forty years. He was b. at 
 Anathoth in Benjamin fch. i. 1 ; xxix. 27). His father was 
 a priest. During Josiah'a reign occurred the invasion of 
 the Scyths (Herod, i. 10:;-10G; see Jer. v. 6. 8, 9). This 
 prophet's life, therefore, covered the catastrophe of the his- 
 tory of Judah. He had to contend against bigotry, obsti- 
 nacy, and dogmatism, and to cnduro persecution. He was 
 iziprisoned for speaking words of warning and opposition 
 to the prevailing policy. Ilis warnings fell on ears deaf- 
 ened by fanaticism, and when all was lost, even the hope 
 of retaining some native authority, though under Chaldean 
 supremacy, he fled to Egypt, where he died. The version 
 of his book which appears in the Scptuagint differs very 
 much from tho Masorctic text. The Hebrew contains one- 
 eighth more than tho Greek, and tho order of the chapters 
 varies. This fact has excited the interest of biblical 
 scholars, but no explanation has yet been suggested. 
 Jeremiah also wrote the book of Lauextations (which see). 
 
 Jer'emie (James Amiraux),D. D.,b. in 1800 in Eng- 
 land; graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1S24, 
 having obtained tho Norrisian, the Hulsean, and the Mem- 
 bers' prizes; became a fellow of Trinity ; took holy orders 
 in ISoO, and was soon appointed professor of classical lit- 
 erature in the East India College at Haileybury, holding 
 that post twenty years. In IS.l;) he was chosen Christian 
 advocate for the University of Cambridge, in 1849 regius 
 professor of divinity, and in 1864 dean of Lincoln. Dr. 
 Jcremie was considered to be one of the most learned di- 
 vines of his time. Ho published a History of Rome fr on 
 Constantine to the Death of Julian, and a History of the 
 Cliureh in the Second and Third Centuries, both in the En- 
 et/elopiedia Metropoltfana/ Christianity in the ^fiddle Ancs 
 (1857), and many other occasional productions, besides 
 editing the sermons of tho Rev. Prof. \Viiliam Archer But- 
 ler (lt;55). Dr. Jcremie preached Latin sermons in St. 
 Paul's in 1852 and 1863 before tho convocation of tho 
 province of Canterbury; also in French in Westminster 
 Abbey in 1862, during the Exposition of that year. Ho 
 resigned his professorship in L'^70, and in the same year 
 gave £1000 to tho University of Cambridge to found two 
 annual prizes for the study of biblical Greek. 
 
 Jerez' dc la Fronte'ra, generally called simply 
 Jerez or Xercs, is a large, rich, and elegant town of 
 Spain, in the province of Cadiz, on the Guadalete. The 
 plain in which it stands is hilly, extremely fertile, densely 
 pco))led, and very carefully cultiv.atcd; it produces the 
 celebrated Xcres wine (sherry). Tho town itself is old 
 and surrounded with walls, but its streets arc wide and 
 lined with handsome houses; its public buildings are ele- 
 gant, and it contains many educational and bcncvolcn' in- 
 stitutions. Its trade in wheat and wine is very important, 
 about 16.000 quarters of wheat and 2.000.000 gallon? of 
 wine being exported annually. Pop. .^8,898. 
 
 Jcrfalcon* See Gyrfalcon. 
 
 Jer'icho, one of the most flourishing towns of ancient 
 Palestine, was situated a few miles N. E. of Jerusalem. 
 Its capture and destruction by the Israelites on their con- 
 quest of Canaan is related in Joshua vi.. and its rebuilding 
 and rapid progress in 1 Kings xvi, .'i4 and 2 Kings ji. 4. At 
 the time of Christ it was a splendid city, the residence of 
 Herod the Great, but during the Crusades it was completely 
 destroyed, and it was never rebuilt. Its site is now occupied 
 by a small and miserable village. 
 
 Jericho, post-tp. of Chittenden co.. Vt., 26 miles N. W. 
 of Montpelier, It has 5 churches, and manufactures of 
 pumps, boxes, castings, agricultural tools, and other goods. 
 Pop. 1757. 
 
 Jericho, Rose of {Annstatica Hierocltuntina), a pros- 
 trate, branching annual, of tho cruciferous family, inhahit- 
 iuc the deserts of Egypt and Palestine. After death tho 
 softer green parts disappear, leaving the ligneous frame-
 
 JERKED BEEF— JERSEY. 
 
 1391 
 
 work; this rolls up into a ball in drying, is uprooted by 
 the nin^ls, and roll? away. Wben welled the branches ex- 
 pand hygronictric;ilIy, so that Iho plant seems to revive j 
 ncDco its name, derived from the Greek ava(rra<jii, " resur- 
 rection." 
 
 Jerked Beef [Chilian, charqui], a form of dried beef 
 prepare"! quite extensively in the pastoral regions of North 
 and South America and Australia. The flesh of the ox is 
 taken off in thin strips and dried, either with or without 
 ealt. It will keep, when well prepared, for a very great 
 length of time, and if well cooked is very palatable. Cuba 
 is the principiii market for jerked beef or tnanjo, 
 
 Jerobo'am, the name of two kinga of Israel. Jrno- 
 noAM !.» the fiiunder of the kingdom, was a son of Nebat. 
 By Solomon he was made superintendent of public works, 
 but having been informed by the prophet Ahijali that ac- 
 cordinj; to divine appointment ho should become king over 
 the ten tribes, ho entered into conspiracies, and was compelled 
 to floe to Kgypt {9S0 n. r.)* When Solomon died (97li b. c.) 
 he returned and headed the deputation apjtcaring before 
 Kchoboara : and when the <lemaiids of the deputation were 
 refused tho ten tribes separated from Judah and Tlenjamin 
 nnd chose him for their king, lie took up his rei^idenecat 
 Shochem, and the most prominent tendency of his govcru- 
 mcnt was to mako the breach between the two kingdoms as 
 wide and deep as possible. For this reason ho forbade his 
 subicots to resort to the temple at Jerusalem, and cstah- 
 lishc 1 shrines at Dan and Bethel, where "golden calves" 
 were set up as symbols of Jehovah. I). 9.')l n. c. — Ji:iio- 
 BOAX II. was the fourteenth king of Israel, (ho son and suc- 
 cessor of Jchonsh, and reigned 823-782 u. v. He carried 
 on successful war against the Syrians, from wliom ho took 
 the cities of Damascus and Ilamatli ; Atnmon :md Moab 
 were also conquered. But ho kept up the idolatry of the 
 golilen calves. 
 
 Jerome', tp. of Midland co., Mich. Pop. ooS. 
 
 Jerome, post-tp. of Union co., 0. Pop. MC2. 
 
 Jerome of Prague, b. about 1375, was descended 
 frum a noble Bohemian family of the name of F.VLLPiscn; 
 studieil in his native city, in I'aris, Cologne, Heidelberg, 
 and Oxfurd, and attracted everywhere great attention by 
 his learning and brilliant gifts. While at Oxford hebecamo 
 acquainted with the writings of Wycliffe, nnd he espoused 
 iho ideas of the English Ueformer with his whole heart. 
 On his return to Prague he found that these ideas were well 
 known thcre,^and be immediately allic<l himself to the Bo- 
 hemian reform party under the leadership of lh"ss (whieli 
 foe). In learning and eloquence he surpassed Ihiss, but ho 
 lacked his wisd<im : he was violent, and even rude. Tlio 
 relics he threw down to the ground and trod on them, and 
 in a dispute with a monk hoonco threw his adversary into 
 (ho Moldau. When ho heard that IIuss had been impris- 
 oned in Constance he immediately hastened to the rescu<! 
 of his friend. But having failed in procuring a safeguard, 
 and finding himself unable (o (lo anything to aid Huss, bo 
 determineii to return home, when (Apr. 25, 1 M.'i) ho was 
 seizerl at Ilirschau in Suabia. put in chains, nnd delivered 
 over to the council. The great indignation which the ex- 
 ecution of Huss (.luly C, 1115) excited made the council 
 hesitate in the case of Jerome. Ho was kept in a mean 
 dungeon, ami received for a long time no other food than 
 bread and water. Thua, worn out both in body and mind, 
 he recanted his opinions on the doctrine of transubstanti- 
 ation (Sc'pt. 11, M15); hut this did not satisfy tho council. 
 Ho was subjected to new examinations on still moro serious 
 accusations, and he declared himself ready to answer any 
 questions on the condition that the hearing should beputi- 
 lic. On May 23 and 20, 1110, tho examination toidt place, 
 and be cndecl by rlisclniming in a most passionate manner 
 his former recantation, dc'jlaring it (ho greatest sin ho had 
 committed in his life. His condemnation was now sure (o 
 follow. On May 30 ho was sentenced and burned at the 
 sta!{e. and his ashes were strewn on the Rhine. (See Krum- 
 mf\, (ifKrhif-hlr (ti'r linl^mtHrhen Rr/ttrmnfion (1807); and 
 Czerwenka, Gcncltichtc der Kvaiigei lacfien Kirrhe in liohmen 
 
 (isr.'n.) 
 
 Jerome, Saint (SonnnoNius EtsEnirs niFnoNVMrs), 
 b. about 315 at Stridon, a town on tho confines of Dalmatia 
 and Pannonia ; received a very eareful education ; (ravelled 
 in Gaul ; was baptized, nnd lived for somo yoarfl at Treves 
 and Aouiloia; went in 373 (o the East, where ho visited 
 Antincliia, and retired in 371 to the desert of Chnlcis, where 
 ho snent four years in nsceticpraot ices nnd studies, especially 
 of llio Hebrew language. Having been ordained a pros- 
 hytcr by Bishop Paulinus of .Andoeh, he repnired to Con- 
 stanlinoplo in '.\70 to hear (he celebrated (iregnry Nar.lanzen, 
 and while here ho translated into La(in the elironie'e of 
 Eusobius and Iho homilies of Origen on Jeremiah nnd Kt.c- 
 kiel. In 3S2 ho returned (o Home, wliere he lived in in- 
 timato connection with Bishop Damusus until Damasus's 
 
 death in 38-1. In Rome he made a great impression by bis 
 passionate praise of asceticism and monastic life. Many 
 became his enemies, but many others, especially among 
 the rich and noble ladies, became his firm adherents; and 
 one of these, Paula, followed him in 381 to Bcihlthcm, 
 where she built four convents — three for nuns and one for 
 monks, over which latter she placed St. Jerome; he d.herc 
 about 420. During his residence in Rome he commenced, 
 at the instigation of Damasus. a critical revision of (ho 
 Latin translation of the Bible, (lie Vulgate; and this work, 
 which he finished in Bethlehem, is his chief work nnd tho 
 foundation of his great fame. But besides he wrote a great 
 number of controversial papers against Helvidlus, Jovi- 
 niauus, Vigilantius, Rufinus, and the Pelagians, and several 
 exegctieal relating to the Old Testament. The best edition 
 of his works is that by Vallarsi (11 vols., Verona, 1731—12). 
 (See Ziiekler, f/itrouymuti, dcih Lehai itnd Wirkcn, ISdb.) 
 
 Jerome nuoiiiiparte. See Bonapakte (Jkuome). 
 
 Jerome'ville, post-v. of Mohican tp., Ashland co., 0. 
 Pop. 328. 
 
 Jer'rold (Dorni-As Wii.mam), b, in London .Tan. 3, 
 1803, (he Ron of (ho manager of a theatre ; became midship- 
 man in the navy 1813-15. and was apprenticed in ISIO (o 
 a printer. His first \>\ay. More Fn'yfitened thttn //«//(lS!S), 
 after some years of neglect, was very successful. Ho wroto 
 lyrics and criticisms for (he journals which attracted much 
 attention. Tho eomedy Jilav/:-Ki/cd Sttgnn (1822) e.stab- 
 lisbed his reputation. Jimt Dny (1830), Meu uf Cfmractp.r 
 (a collection of republished talcs. 1838), /?»/>/>//« o/" Me Day 
 (18-12, a comedy). Thuc irorkn Wimfhrs (ISIJ). The Candle 
 Lcctnrea (first publisherl in Ptmrli, with which he became 
 connected in 18(1), and numerous other plays, sketches, 
 and tales, widely extended his fame as a humorist and a 
 powerful delineator of character. He twice failed as a pub- 
 lisher of newspapers, and once as a theatrical manager, but 
 his connection (1852-57) with Lloyjd'fi Wet /.-/>/ was very 
 successful. Mr. .Tcrrold was a man of great kindliness and 
 generosity, but y)0SFessed a gift of repartee which often be- 
 came terribly caustic. D. iu London June 8, IS57. 
 
 Jerrold (William Blanciiard), eldest son of Douglas 
 Jcrrold, b. in London, England, in 1820; studied for an 
 artist, and illustrated some of bis father's articles, but later 
 gave his attention (o literature. In 1S19 he married a 
 daughter of Laman Blanehard ; has long been prominently 
 connected with the London press. Among his works arc 
 several comedies and farces, T/ic Difif/rtice of the Famihf 
 (1817, a novel), Swedish Sketches (1852), fmpcn'al Pan's 
 (1855), Life of Doufjlaa Jerrnld (1858), At Home in Paris 
 (1804), the CoeknyneB (1871), and other works. Also 
 London (1872), illustrated by Dore, and Life of Napoleon 
 III. (1874-75). He bus given special attention to the con- 
 dition of the poor in Paris and iiondon. 
 
 Jerry (Rev. John L.),b. in North Carolina May 11, 1793, 
 the son of a Revolutionary scdrlicr who served under La 
 Fayette, and imbiljed his father's spirit. When a mission- 
 ary in St. Augustine, a priest thrcatcnecl him with punish- 
 ment if ho di(l not desist preaching; pointing to tiie Ameri- 
 can flag, \\i- said, " Xo Inquisition where lliat flag waves!'* 
 At one lime, when he had no nmney to pay his fiire. he re- 
 tired for jirayer, and (m returning to mount his horse and 
 pursue bis journey, ho found a doubloon, which kept him 
 going till he obtained relief. Ho entered the South Caro- 
 lina conference in 1818, and was a revered member of (ho 
 Florida conferenoo at the timo of death, July 1 1. 1859. 
 
 T. 0. SrMMKits. 
 
 Jer'sey, tho largest of tho Channel Islands, si(uated ia 
 the English Channel. 13 miles W. of the coast of Franco 
 and 35 miles S. of tho coast of England. Area. 30.580 
 acres, of which 25,000 acres arc umhr eullivulion. Pop. 
 50.078, of whom 13,000 are English and 200U French; tho 
 natives speak a kind of Norman French, as the island 
 originally belonged to tho French province of Normandy, 
 Tho ground is high nnd n»cky. but presents many fertile 
 vallevs, which on acetuint of the fine, mild, and cfpiablo 
 climate are well adapted for (ho cultivation of fruits. I^argo 
 quantities of peaches, apricots, apples, pears, grapes, and 
 melons are annually exported to London. The oyster fish- 
 erica form another extensive branch of industry. Ship- 
 building is nls'i important. The island, on m-count of its 
 climate, is a great resort for people of delicate health. 
 Principal towns, St. Helier nnd St. Aubin. 
 
 Jersey, county of S. W. Illinois, having the Mississippi 
 River on tho S. and tho Illinois on tho W. Area. 350 
 square miles. It is partly timbered antl partly prairie; 
 cnnl is mined. The soil is fertile; cattle, grain, and wool 
 are staple produeto. The county is traversed by the Chica- 
 go and Alton R. R. Cap. Jerseyville. Poj). 15.051. 
 
 Jersey, po^t-v. and tp. of Licking co,, 0, Pop. of v. 
 101 ; of tp. 1253.
 
 1392 
 
 JERSEY CITY— JERUSALEM. 
 
 Jersey City, cap. of Hudson oc, N. J., on the right 
 or W. bank of the Hudson River, at its entrance into 
 New York li;i.v, and opposite the sonthern portion of New 
 York Citv, with which it is connected by six ferries. Jer- 
 sey City is the terminus of thirteen railroads— the Eric, the 
 Pennsylvania, the Central of Now .Jersey, etc. The Mor- 
 ris Canal connects it with Eastern Pennsylvania. It is the 
 terminus of the Antwerp, Rotterdam, and Cardiff steamship 
 lines, and the seat of considerable foreip;n commerce, but 
 owin); to its being a part of the New York customs dis- 
 trict, no separate returns are obtainable. At .Jersey City 
 arc located largo stockyards and sl.xughter-liouscs for the 
 daily supply of tlic New Y'ork City market; this business, 
 formerly at Communipaw, is now carried on in the N. part 
 of the city, near the river front, where a very extensive 
 abattoir was rejently built, and opened in JS7t; it is sup- 
 plied by branches from the Pennsylvania and the Eiie rail- 
 roads. " Manufacturing establishments are very numerous, 
 the most important being the Jjorillards' tobacco-works, 
 U. S. Watch Co., glass, crucible, graphite pencils, iron, 
 steel, zinc, tin, and copper, and boiler works, foundries, 
 machine-shops, and locomotive-works, potteries, oakum, 
 and a large business in soap and candles and refining mo- 
 lasses and syrup. The city is well supplied with water 
 from tho Passaic River at Rellevillc. There are 2 gas 
 companies, 3 national banks, 2 State and 8 savings banks, 
 4 insurance companies, 7 newspapers (2 tierman), 44 
 schools, about fiO churches, and a fair nuuibcr of religious 
 and benevolent societies and institutions. Jersey City is 
 in reality a suburb of New Y'ork City, its population eon- 
 sistin" largely of tho overflow from that vast metropolis. 
 At the bcgTniiing of tho century there was no settlement 
 on Paulus^IIook, as the locality was then called. A com- 
 pany was chartered in IS04 which laid out tho grounds of 
 Paulus Hook into streets and squares, but the growth of 
 the place was insignificant until half a century later. It 
 was but a village in IS20, when it was incorporated as the 
 '• City of Jersey," and it was still only a village when it 
 was reincorporated in ISliS as " Jersey City " and provided 
 with the machinery of a mayor and common council. Even 
 in 1850 the popuhvtion wasbut 6856. By the annexation 
 of the township of Van Vorst (18511, of the cities of Hud- 
 son and Bergen (1870), and of the village of Greenville 
 (1872), the growth of Jersey City during the third quarter 
 of the centurv (1850-75) was largely assisted. Pop. in IShO, 
 29.227; in 1870. 82..i4S. 
 Z. K. P.\SGBORs. Ed. "Jersey City Evening Joi'unal. 
 
 Jersey Shore, post-b. of Lycoming co., Pa., beauti- 
 fully situated on tho left bank of the W. branch of tho 
 Susquehanna, near tho Philadelphia and Erie R. R. It 
 has sceucry of great attractiveness, is in a fertile region, 
 has 5 churches, graded public schools, a high school, bank, 
 and weekly newspaper. Chief industries, farming, lumber- 
 trade, and tobacco business. Pop. 1394. 
 
 S. S. Seeley, Ed. "HERALn." 
 Jer'seyville, city, cap. of Jersey en.. 111., on the Chi- 
 caw anil Alton R. R., J.acksonville branch, 50 miles N. of 
 Slf I.ouis. It has 4 large flour-mills running day and 
 niWit, 2 foundries, 2 hotels, a large manufactory of ploughs 
 and reapers, besides manufactures of carriages and other 
 goods, 8 churches, and a fine public-school building. The 
 citv stands on elevated ground, is handsomely built, and 
 has wide and finely shaded streets. It has much cnter- 
 briso. It has 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. 257fi. 
 
 W. H. Edgah, En. " Repiiiiuc.\n." 
 Jeru'snlem. I. The Name.— The name Jrrmalfm* is 
 the r.rcck form ClepoucraA^^), as found in the Septuagint, 
 of tho Chaldee Jn-uah'lem. In the New Testament it is 
 written both as in the Septuagint and also Jernimli/ma 
 (•I,po(jdAvM<i), the evangelists, with tho exception of Luke, 
 using almost exclusively this latter form, while in Luke 
 (including the Acts) and in the Epistles the former form 
 is generally preferred. The Hebrew name is h-niKhdhiim, 
 Ycriisli'ihiini, or Yeriuhalai/im (the full form is a'7C''T). 
 The dual termination seems to indicate some ancient twofold 
 division of tho city, and, from the difiiculty in determining 
 any Hebrew root for the word, we may sup]io.se that the 
 name was Canaanilish, or even belonging to a race ante- 
 rior to the Canaanites, to which the Hebrews added the 
 dual eniliug for topographical reasons. Wc may otherwise 
 conjecture that the dual ending is an accident, brought 
 
 for verses 18, 19, 20 seem to be a poetic insertion between 
 verses 17 and 21. This poetic use of the word can be no 
 argument for the word Salem or " peace" as belonging to 
 the original name, any more than the fact of the (Jreek 
 word itpdt being found" in its Greek translations is an ar- 
 gument for the later idea that Hierosolyma meant tho " holy 
 Solvnia." 
 
 II. The HisTonv.- Fii!'' Period (b. r. 1450-b. c. 104>-). 
 
 The first appearance of the place in history (if we leave 
 
 out the Salem of Mclcbizedek) is in Joshua xv. R, where it 
 is called the "shoulder" (hclhrph) of tho Jebusites (as in 
 ch. xviii. Kil, an adniir;ible description of the projection 
 of Mount Zion. as it appears from the boundary-line of 
 Judah and Benjamin, there described as runningalong the 
 S. side of the city. The Jebusites held it as their special 
 stronMiold. and hence the name Jcbus (/. f. the Jebusite 
 city)i3 given it in Judges xix.lO, II, and 1 Chron. xi. 4, j. 
 The Jebusites seem to have been territorially one of tho 
 smallest of the Canaanitish nations, hut from their position 
 one of tho strongest. Tbeir king, Adcmizcdek, was slain 
 bv Joshua at Makkeduh after the battle of Belh-horon 
 (josh. X ). After Joshua's death the Israelites made their 
 first assault upon the citv. The tribes of Ju<lah and Sim- 
 eon succeeded in taking it and setting it on fire (Judges i. 
 8) when on their way to complete the settlement of their 
 lot This capture of the city must have been but iiartial 
 (as Josephus says), for the tribe of Benjamin, to which it 
 was assigned, left the Jebusites in quiet possession of a. 
 part of the city, the upper city (i, ita^Oirtpde^) on /.ion 
 (Judg i 21) For nearly four centuries the citadel of Jeru- 
 salem 'remained in the possession of the Jebusites, during 
 which time wc may well believe that its Canaanitish in- 
 habitants thoroughly fortified it, adding to its natural 
 stren-'th all that the art of that day could suggest. Dur- 
 ing those centuries we cannot suppose a state of war to 
 have continued between the Jebusites and the Israelites, 
 but that some sort of peaceful intercourse was maintained, 
 in which Jerusalem, or the chief part of it, was hicitly un- 
 derstood to belong to the Canaanitish tribe During all 
 this long period the central capital was at Sliiloh except, 
 as in SauVs reign, Gibeah, his residence, may chura tho 
 nreeedcncc. It may be that the fact of Saul s capital, (.ib- 
 lah, being only 4 miles N. of Jerusalem was one induce- 
 ment to David to seek to set up his throne in the Jebusite 
 slron-rhold. It would be more central than Hebron, where 
 he bad begun his reign, and it would also be m the tribe 
 of Benjamin, which had under Saul been the roy-a tr.be, 
 while its strength w..uld make it far more desirable than 
 Gibeah or than Shiluh. Indeed, the latter city was prob- 
 ably already destroyed by the Philistine invasion. (See 
 Jcr vii. 12.) Whatever the motive may have been, David 
 in the eighth year of bis reign organized an attack upon 
 .Jerus;vlem when the enthusiastic adhesion of all I^r^icl to 
 his ■'overnment rendered success most probable. The di- 
 version in the direction of tho house of Saul would have 
 seriously interfered with such a project earlier in Davids 
 rei.'n. Joab. David's chief captain, took a conspicuous 
 part in the siego (1 Chron. xi. fi). which was inarkeil by 
 self-confidence on the part of the Jebusites an.l daring 
 valor on the part of Israel. The strong citadel was taken, 
 and called afterward " the city of David." We may be very 
 sure that this citadel was Zion. and that " .Millo was its 
 bluff front on the valhy of the Son of llinnom. From Da- 
 vid's conquest of Jerusalem dales its fame. Before that 
 time wc have no reason to suppose it of any more conse- 
 quence than any well-placed stronghold, hut now the con- 
 eentrated royalty of the twelve tribes mad; it the seat of 
 power and glory, and for 400 years, until Iscbuchadne7.7.ar 
 destroyed it, it stood for'' 
 tals of the world, vying 
 Nineveh, Babylon. Tyre, and Thebes. 
 
 Seco,,d /"cnWdOlS B.C. to 58B B. cV-Divvid imrae- 
 diatcly turned his attention to the reconstruction and 
 strengthening of his new city, and when this work was 
 accomplished had the ark of God, which l^^d'-een fo a 
 century at Kirjath-jearim (ever since the great Phil.sne 
 invasion of Eli's time and most probably the de.«truct,on 
 of Shiloh), conducted with great pomp and ,,ubilation 
 the roval city an.l placed in a new tabernacle especially 
 epared for it, the 'id Shiloh tabernace being at G.beon 
 5 miles N. of Jerusalem (2 Chron. i. ?., 41. David may 
 have already had in his mind the construction of a grand 
 
 it stood forth as one of the conspicuous capi- 
 at one time, in some respects, with 
 
 old tabernacle, and therefore have 
 
 " ' re 
 
 Id 
 
 about by the resemblance of the original word to a Hebrew tomide in place of the ^ , e,,,,,rr- 
 
 dual, or that the old language had a dual like the Hebrew, j preferred to bring the ark to Jerusalem, w-I.ere^ t^hc^^n.turc 
 That the name should be changed to Sluth-m (Salem in 
 poetry, Ps. Ixxvi. 2) is in accordance with the Hebrew love 
 of paronomasia. If Salem in Gen. xiv. 18 be Jerusalem, 
 
 we may account for the word Salem there in the same way. 
 
 • The ,7 represents the Greek aspirated /. It might be repre- 
 sented by Hi; e. g. merusalem, Ilierosolijma. 
 
 structure would he re;,'ied, rather than carry it '» ""l '' 
 tabernacle at Gibcon. The rest of the tabernacle lurniturc 
 was doubtless at Gibeon. The bra.en altar, we are ex^ 
 pressly told, was there. This position of the ark on the 
 farge citadel-hill (Zionl continued for forty years, making 
 the name Zion a favvite name for the city, espec.ally when 
 viewed as a holy city, a centre of worship. Ihe 
 
 consoli-
 
 JERUSALEM. 
 
 1393 
 
 dation and t>trcn^theninf; of the whulo Israelitish common- 
 wealth in David attracted the attention of hi;^ powerful 
 nei<^hbor, the king of Tyre, who did him the lii^h honor 
 of building the royal palace in Jerusalem with material 
 and workmen from the Phu?nician kin<;d(>in (2 Sam. v. 1 1 ). 
 Ouvid's conquests over the Syrians, Moabite^, AmmoDitcs, 
 Philistines, Amalckitcs, and Edomitcs extended the terri- 
 tory of his empire to the Euphrates on the X. E. and to 
 the Red Se.i and Mediterranean on the S. and W., making 
 his dominion the most conspicuous of tlio world at a time 
 when the Assyrian empire iiad fallen into feebleness be- 
 tween its exaltation under the first Tij^lath-pileser and its 
 renewed plory under Asshur-izir-pal. During this period 
 of David and Solomon, Egypt, the other preat monarchy, 
 gccms to have been in a like low plight with Assyria, pre- 
 vious to the accession of the new and powerful dynasty of 
 Shi«hak. From Hiram's conduct wc may readily see that 
 the Israeliti*h kingdom out-topped Tyre, so that the throne 
 of David and Solomon must have represented the grandest 
 empire then existing on the earth. Of this empire Jeru- 
 salem was the central scat, which naturally, under such 
 influences, began to assume an extent and grandeur corre- 
 sponding with its important positiun. Especially under 
 Solomon, in his peaceful reign, did the city grow into mag- 
 nificence. What war had before done, commerce now ac- 
 complished, and Jerusalem received a vast stream of wealth 
 from its active relations with many rich and distant coun- 
 tries. Egypt, Arabia, Tyre, Opliir (India?), and perhaps 
 Tarshish (Spain?), are especially spoken of as connected 
 with Jerusalem by important commercial lies at this time, 
 by which this capital l»ecamo an entrepot of trade for nil 
 the subject kingdoms of Syria (1 Kings x. 29). AVith the 
 enormous wealth thus acquired, and that laid up by )iis 
 father, Solomon erected the temple on the rocky height 
 opposite Zion, which David had prepared for the purpose, 
 having purchased tho site from Araunah the Jebusite.* 
 The sharp ridgo of tho bright was taken off and the sur- 
 face levelled, vast vaults being erected to support exten- 
 sions of tho level, and on this grand, conspicuous area of 
 nearly 1000 feet square one of tho most costly shrines the 
 world has ever seen was erected by tho magnificent mon- 
 nr.'h. With both men and materials from Tyre (tho centre 
 of meohanical art) he raised tho massive structure (whose 
 wall-stones, still bearing tho Tyrian marks, astonish the 
 exjdorcr), completing the work in seven years. He also 
 erected a palace of corresptmding grandeur for himself, 
 which oocupied thirteen years in its Cftnstructiou. Another 
 superb edifice, erected for state occasions and called tho 
 House of tho Forest of licbanon (perhaps because of its 
 many cedar pillars), wns constructed at tho same time. 
 The walls of the city also received his attention. These 
 were extended around suburbs, increased in height, 
 ptrcngthened with towers, and probably increased into 
 fortressf's at such points as Millo and Ophcl, where al- 
 reudy fortrennes existed. A palace was built for SoUtmon's 
 queen, tho daughter of the Egyptian monarch, and doubt- 
 less his thousand wives and concubines called for an enor- 
 mous outlay in architecture. Tho whole apparatus of tho 
 Solomonian court was on a style of unparalleled exlrava- 
 gtin 'P and spk-nilor. This praudi-ur of Ji>ruHalem seems to 
 have been in atreordanco with man's wish, and not (Jod's 
 appointment, except as Ood yielded to man. It was man 
 who insisted on the monarchy instead of a theocratic rc- 
 puMie, and it was man whr) conceived tho idea of tho gor- 
 gcniis tem(»le. (loil ftn-miitrtl both, but they sediiced Is- 
 rael from its sim|dicity and destroyed its separalenoss from 
 the nations, so important for its great spiritual mission. 
 Commercial intercourse with tho nations, by which tho 
 wealth was S'-ciired, and royal pomp which sought the 
 wealth, brought into the country the irlolatry and immor- 
 ality of oth<T lands, with all the recklessness and oppres- 
 sion that follow human aggrandi'/oraent, so that just when 
 the nation Boomed to be most exalted it was preparing its 
 ruin. Ft is remarkable that (in aecordance with tho pro- 
 ]dietio deelaration. that the Babylonian captivity should 
 ia^t lung enough for the land to make up its lost sabbatical 
 years — Lev. xxvi. .34. eompareil with 2 Chron. xxxvi. 21), 
 if wo count backward from the year n. c .Olft (tho end of 
 th" seventy years), tho seventy sabbatical years, or (00 
 years, we reach It. c. IrtO«, tho period of Solomon's top of 
 glory. Hero we see that in the worldliness of this magnif- 
 icent reign tho keeping of tho sabbatical year began to 
 he disregarded. Solomon was succeeded by Ilehoboam, a" 
 foolinh fKH-jt/itfrtijimitini, who sonn bi-gan (o experience tho 
 evil results of his father's extrnvagnnt policy. Tho king- 
 dom was divided. Jeroboam, returning from Egypt, where 
 
 * He was probably tho Ti»rf .Tebnslfr king whom DavUI had 
 rnnf|uer('d thirty years liefnre. The llr>>ri-w word-* of '2 S«iu. 
 xxW. 2:^. literally translated, arc, " Araunah the kln^ gave the 
 whole to the kini;." 
 
 Vol.. II.-SH 
 
 ho had been an oxilo protected by Sblshak, the Pharaoh 
 during tho later years of Solomon, became king of tho 
 northern realm, and Jerusalem was left tho metropolis of 
 the tribes of Judah and Benjamin only, and of the subject 
 countries at the S. and E. This fearful schism in the na- 
 tion and the tempting treasures of Jerusalem brought Shi- 
 shak (perhaps through Jeroboam's infiuence) from Egypt 
 against the Holy City. This enterprising and illustrious 
 monarch made his attack upon the kingdom of Judah in 
 the fifth year of Rehoboam with an enormous host of 
 Egyptians and foreign auxiliaries. The gl(»ry of Jerusa- 
 lem had for two generations eclipsed that of Egypt ; Egypt 
 would now have its revenge. The fortified cities of the 
 ,Iud:ean kingdom fell one after another. Although they 
 are not specified, we may readily suppose that Oath, Mare- 
 shah, Lachish.and Bethlehem, among those places which 
 Uehoboara had lately fortified against Egyptian attack (2 
 Chron. xi. fi-lOi. were overcome by Sliishak to clear his 
 way to Jerusalem. In the city had assembled all the dig- 
 nitaries of the realm, who, at the word of the prophet She- 
 mainh, humbled themselves with the king before (jiod, and so 
 averted the evil. The Egyptian seems not to have entered 
 tho eity.f but a treaty was made, most humiliating to .Tudah, 
 by which the kingdom became tributary to Egypt, and tho 
 treasure accumulated in tho (emple and royal palace was 
 delivered up to Sliishak, who also carried off the 600 shields 
 overlaid with gold which Solomon had placed as ornaments 
 in his stately House of the Forest of Lebanon. The gold 
 of these shields alone represented a sum of $720.000 — a 
 sura of vast magnitude in those days. Abijali, the suc- 
 cessor of Kehoboam, by his great victory over the kingdom 
 of Israel, helped Jerusalem to recover from this blow, but 
 it was not till the year n.c. 1)1 1, more than thirty years 
 after Shishuk's disastrous raid, that Jerusalem regained 
 her independence and dignity by tho complete overthrow 
 of the Ethiopian Zcrah (supposed to be Pharaoh Usarken 
 I.) at the battle of Mareshah. as far as which point he had 
 penetrated, with an array like that of Shishuk's. against 
 Asa, Bchoboani'a grandson. This great victory filled the 
 kingdora with joy, restored treasure to Jerusalem, drew 
 many Israelites of the northern kingdom t<t the city, anci 
 caused a reform in the religious condition of the peojile. 
 \vh<» had been U*<1 astray from Soiom(m's day. It is sad to 
 see how soon afterward Asa took tlic new treasure, which 
 ho had placed in tho teraplo in lieu of that which Sliishak 
 had seized, and gave it as a bribe to Benhadad, king of 
 Syria, that ho might attack Baasha, king of Israel. The 
 prosperity which Asa brought to Jerusalem continued for 
 fifty years — a period of national power and dignity that 
 was to be followed by tho evils of a close alliance with 
 idolatrous Israel in tho union of Jehoshapliat's family 
 with the corrupt family of Aluih and tho Tyrian Jezebel. 
 Jchoram, Jehoshaphat's stm and Asa's grandson, married 
 Athaliah. daughter of Ahab and Jezebel. Through her tho 
 abominations of idolatry again filled the royal eily. Je- 
 horam began his reign by murdering his six brothers. Ho 
 ended it with the successful revolt of Judah's dependencies, 
 and a fearful onslaught of tho Philistines and Arabians 
 upon Judah itself, in which the enemy carrieil off many of 
 tho king's wives ond all his sons but one. with all the treas- 
 ure which they found in imii' <if his country palaces. | When 
 Jehoram harl died, and his son Ahaziuli hud been slain by 
 Jehu, Athaliah immediately slew her grandchildren (one 
 only. Joash, escaping the masKaere), and for six years 
 wielded her usurped authority. Thus, for fifteen years the 
 prevalence of Baal-worship in Jerusalem caused the temple 
 to fall into decay, rndeed, Athaliah's family had even do- 
 faced tho holy shrine and carried ofi' the sacred vessels for 
 use in the service of Baal's temples. Tin- piety and patri- 
 otism of Jihoia<hi, who had ]ireser\ ed the itilaiit prince 
 Joash, put an end to the^^e enormilios by slaying the guilty 
 queen and tho priests of Baal, and restiiring the worship 
 of Jehovah. But when the old Jehoiuda died at the re- 
 markable ago of 130 years, and was honored by a burial 
 amimg the kings, a state poliry led King Jua>Ii to restore 
 idolatry and toslay Jehoiada's sons(among them Ziehariah, 
 the high priest) in the very court of the temple while they 
 were protesting against this fearful apostasy. This event 
 shows how deeply seated in the public regard was tho 
 idolatry nhieh fir><t Sidoinon and then Jehoram had fos- 
 tered, and whieh the people doubtless connected with 
 their grandeur before the nations. Not long after, Hnzael, 
 the energelio king of Syria, besieged and took (lalh, 
 and then turned toward Jerusalem, defeating tho Ju- 
 
 t Joiephu* ways thai Shfshak enterH the e(tv without n bat- 
 tle, but If Ibt^'lmd been the ease we should have ex[ni'ied a 
 more thorout;)) ruin of the city. Where .Tosenbus enlarges on 
 the snered narrative lie h ofi.-u nsluij hU imairinallnn. 
 
 tNo mention Is ma<le nf their enlerinc .T.Tii'*alem (2f"brnn, 
 Txf. }~). Hence, WC may suppose the royal family were sojourn- 
 ing cliewherc.
 
 1894 
 
 JERUSALEM. 
 
 d»an army on the way and making havoc everywhere, 
 when .loash purchased deliverance for the royal city only 
 by giving up to Hazael all the sacred vessels which had 
 been accumulated since Asa's day. 100 years before, to- 
 gether with all the ecclesiastical and royal treasure in the 
 city. Although this invasion of Judah was most disas- 
 trous to the country, involving immense loss of treasure 
 and the de:i,th of alHho prominent nobles who attempted 
 to stop the progress of the .Syrian king, yet the record gives 
 no countenance to the idea that Jerusalem was captured 
 either by him, by the Philistines in Jehoram's day. or by 
 Shishak'in Rehoboam's day. Its capture from the Jebus- 
 ites by King David was thus far the only seizure of the 
 famous stronghold. The first actual capture of the city 
 after David's conquest was made by the Israelltish mon- 
 arch Joash, who had been provoked to wiir by Amaziah. 
 king of Judah, son of the Jerusalem Joash. The king of 
 Israel, after defeating Amaziah at Bethshemesh, appeared 
 before Jerusalem, and probably through the Jewish king, 
 whom he held as prisoner, obtained entrance into the city, 
 which he plundered, and 400 cubits length of whoso wall 
 he levelled. This was about the year 826 B. c, more than 
 two centuries after David's conquest of the Jebusito strong- 
 hold. Uzziah, Amaziah's successor, in his long and pros- 
 perous reign repaired the injury done to the walls of the 
 city and added to its fortifications. It was in this reign 
 that the great earthquake occurred which is referred to as 
 a memorable epoch by the prophets Amos (i. 1) and Zeoha- 
 riah (xiv. 5), and which is by Josephus connected with the 
 king's sacrilege (Ant., 9. 10. 4). If we disregard the state- 
 ment of Josephus, we may believe that this extensive 
 building of the walls and fortifications may have been 
 suggested by the ruin caused through this grievous visita- 
 tio1i! In the reign of Jotham, Uzziah's son, the " high 
 gate" of the temple was built (perhaps the predecessor of 
 the "beautiful gate" of Herod), and the wall of Ophel was 
 erected. If Ophel was the southern spur of Moriah, as 
 seems quite proven, it is hardly possible that it was not 
 fortified to some extent from Solomon's day. Jotham 
 probably added to its fortifications or rebuilt those that 
 had been destroyed. This enterprising king also erected 
 fortresses throughout the kingdom. Ahaz, Jotham's son, 
 sustained fearful defeats from Rezin, king of Syria, and 
 Pekah, king of Israel, so that he called upon Tiglath-pile- 
 ser, king of Assyria, to come to his aid. This alliance was 
 purchas'ed by despoiling the temple and royal palace in a 
 far more wholesale manner than it had been done by Reho- 
 hoam, Asa, or Joash. Ahaz. in his infatuation with the 
 Assyrian alliance, removed the brazen altar, built a new 
 one'of heathen pattern in its place, and defiled the temple 
 itself with idolatrous rites. Hezekiah, succeeding his 
 father Ahaz, immediately restored everything to its original 
 service, purified the temple, and celebrated the Passover 
 with unusual solemnity. During Ilezekiah's reign occurred 
 the formidable invasion of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 
 against which Hezekiah prepared the city with wonderful 
 industry and in the most thorough manner. Although the 
 kingdom was devastated, the city was saved, yet with a. 
 new'stripping of temple and palace as a tribute to the 
 great conqueror. (See Sennacherib's own account in the 
 Nineveh records.) This was the sixth time within three 
 centuries that the treasures of Jerusalem had been seized. 
 Maiiassch, Hezekiah's son, had a long and eventful reign. 
 Ho brought back all the idolatries which his father had 
 romovedreven putting an image of Baal in the temple 
 itself. Esar-haddon, king of .\ssyria, who reigned in 
 Babylon, subjected the kingdom of Judah, as his father 
 Senoacherib had done, and managed to seize the person of 
 Manasseh and carry him captive to Babylon. On hum- 
 bling himself before God, he was released from his captiv- 
 ity, returned to Jerusalem, and added to the fortifications 
 of the city on the X. W. and S. E. But it was not till the 
 reign of josiah, Manasseh's grandson, that the idolatrous 
 objects in and around Jerusalem were thoroughly removed. 
 Under an impulse caused by the di.scovery of a copy of the 
 .Mosaic Law (a discovery which shows the lamentable con- 
 dition of the nation during the preceding reigns), Josiah 
 not only purified the temple precincts, which were filled 
 with vessels consecrated to Baal and Ashtoreth and to the 
 heavenly bodies, and where houses of al)omination had 
 been erected, but he also defiled Tophet in the valley of 
 the Son of Ilinnoiu, where the Moloch-worship had been 
 held, destroyed the altars which had been erected in the 
 royal quarters, and made utter havoc of all the idolatrous 
 shrines in the vicinity of Jerusalem which Solomon had 
 erected, and which had been allowed to stand for 400 years, 
 perhaps because of their architectural beauty. At the end 
 of a thirty-one years' reign the body of Josiah was brought 
 from the fatal battle-field of Megiddo (where the king had 
 foolishly met Pharaoh-nccho in his march against the Ori- 
 ental empire), and buried in Jerusalem amid the lamenta- 
 
 tions of all the nation. Then followed the sad reigns of 
 Josiah's three sons and one grandson. Jehoahaz, the first 
 (though not the oldest), succeeded his father, taking prece- 
 dence of Jehoiakim, perhaps because of the latler's incli- 
 nation to an Egyptian alliance. In three months the vic- 
 torious Necho dethroned him and carried him captive to 
 Egypt, putting Eliakim or Jehoiakim in his place. A few 
 years after, the Oriental empire of Nebuchadnezzar asserted 
 its supremacy over Egypt, and Jehoiakim was obliged to 
 become a vassal to that distinguished monarch. Three 
 years later he rebelled against the Babylonian, and brought 
 iipon him the full force of Nebuchadnezzar's fury. The 
 conqueror seems to have seized the person of the king to 
 carry him to Babylon, and then to have permitted him to 
 ransom himself by the delivery of much of the treasure of 
 the temple. -\t j'ehoiakim's death a new siege of the city 
 by Nebuchadnezzar occurred, and the city was saved only 
 by the delivery to Nebuchadnezzar of the young king, Je- 
 hoiachin, Jchoiakim's son. with his mother, wives, and 
 court, and all the treasure that could be gleaned from the 
 temple and the palace. At this time also the Babylonian 
 monarch made a vast deportation of the higher classes, as 
 well as the craftsmen, to Babylon. The manner m which 
 this is narrated in the sacred story seems to show that the 
 city was not entered by the victorious monarch. Nebu- 
 chadnezzar placed Mattaniah, Josiah's youngest son. on the 
 throne, changing his name to Zedekiah. This weak and 
 foolish king, trusting in an Egyptian alliance, dared to 
 rebel against Babylon, and brought upon Jerusalem its 
 destruction by Nebuchadnezzar in the year B. c. 586. After 
 a sice of eighteen months, famine and superior numbers 
 conquered the holy citv. The walls were levelled, the tem- 
 ple and royal palace and the whole city were burned, and 
 everything" worth carrying off became plunder to the exas- 
 pera'ted Nebuchadnezzar. Zedekiah's sons were slain before 
 his face at Riblah on the Orontes, and then his own eyes 
 were put out, and he was carried away to Babylon to adorn 
 the monarch's triumph. Another deportation marked this 
 epoch, so that only some of the poor of the land were left 
 to be vine-dressers and husbandmen. 
 
 Third Prriod (586 B. C.-70 A. D.).— Jerusalem lay waste 
 until the Persian monarchy absorbed the Babylonian, and 
 the Persian hostility to idolatry produced a friendship be- 
 tween the new empire and the monotheistic Jews. One of 
 Cyrus's first acts was to send back all the Jews who wished 
 to Jerusalem with riches and honor. Less than 50,000 re- 
 turned, however, an exile of from fifty to seventy years 
 from Palestine having rooted the vast majority to their 
 Oriental homes. This return, under Zerubbabel of the 
 royal house (but not as king) and Jeshua the high priest, 
 occurred probably in the year B. o. 536. and had largely a 
 religious character. The rebuilding of the temple was the 
 first object sought, and the work weut on whilst Cyrus 
 reigned. But during the reigns of Cambyses and Smerdis 
 the enemies of the jews succeeded in obtaining a royal 
 veto on their enterprise. Darius Hvstaspis, in his vigorous 
 restoration of the policy of Cyrus throughout the empire, 
 permitted the Jews to fini.sh their temple, and in the sixth 
 year of his reign (b. c. 516) the new structure was com- 
 pleted and dedicated.* It was the Holy City once more. 
 The new temple, somewhat smaller than its predecessor, 
 was also inferior in costly adorning to the structure of 
 Solomon, but still it was a rallyingpoint for the scattered 
 Jews We may suppose that many found their way from 
 year to year from their distant places of exile to dwell 
 'again by'the hallowed precinct, themselves and their city 
 now for"ever purged from idolatry. In the year B. c. 4.,7, 
 Ezra the priest brought a train of 5000 Jews (nearly 2000 
 males) from the land of exile to Jerusalem, and acted as 
 guide and teacher to the feeble restoration In B. c. 443 
 Nehcmiah visited Jerusalem and aroused the despondent 
 people to build the walls of the city, which had been pros- 
 trate for 140 years. With wonderful enthusiasm and ra- 
 pidity, in the face of threats from the neighboring hostile 
 tribes, the people went to work, and in fifty-two d.iys fin- 
 ished the great undertaking. Nehemiah acted as the 
 Persian governor, and by his earnest piety and fearless con- 
 duct did much to establish the purity of the Jewish com- 
 monwcalth.t The first Persian interference with the Jewish 
 province (for such it now «ns) arose from the murder of 
 .Joshua by his brother Johanan, the high priest, m the 
 temple, in the year b. c. 366. These two were grandsons 
 
 ♦Josephus makes a second return from Babylon under Par us 
 Hvstaspis with Zerubbabel as leader. This return (he sa) ») 
 numboml 4,677,890 souls. He of course considers the Sheshbaz- 
 zar of Ezra 1. 11 as a dilTereiit man from Zerubbabel. 
 
 + Josephus pots both Kzra and Nehemiah in Xerxes tin e 
 
 (n f 4.S.il Bui the Artaxerxesof E^rra and Nehenuah eon d 
 
 mit havrbeen the Xnrxes of history, for Xer.xes reiened only 
 
 wenty years, but in Neli. v. 14 we find ..irtaxerxes'thirty-second 
 
 ylar mentioned. Artaxerxes Longimauus reigned forty years.
 
 JERUSALEM. 
 
 1395 
 
 of Eliashib, the high priest, whom Nchemiah wng obliged 
 to rebuke (Xeh. xiii. 7), and .lohanan."' the murJerer, 
 was son-in-law of Sanhullat, the Samaritan pnvcrnor (Neh. 
 xiii. 2S). Biigoses (Baj^oas), the Persian gi*ncral. by rea- 
 son of this tearful niurJer dcfilt'd the temple by entering 
 it, and laid a tax for Jobanan's lifottme (which proved to 
 be seven years longer) of fifty drachmas for each hnnb used 
 in tho daily sacrifice. Johanan's two jions, .Taddua and 
 Manasseh, held jointly the high priesthood alter their 
 father's death, until Manassch was tempted to go off to the 
 Samaritans, who, under Alexander's sanction, ereetcd their 
 own temple on Mount (ierizim, and made Munasseh their 
 high priest. I>uring Jaddua's high priesthood Alexander 
 overthrew the Persian monarchy. His remarkable recep- 
 tion at Jerusalem by the high priest, his entrance into the 
 tempio to attend the offering of sacrifices, his delight at 
 finding the record of Daniel predicting the overthrow of 
 Persia by the (freeks. and his conlirmation of the Jews in 
 their own peculiar laws, are all graphically recited by 
 Josophus. Alexander's visit was in B. c. 332. and the Sc- 
 leucian empire dates from b. c. 312. The period between 
 Alexander's death and the settlement of the empires of 
 Syria and Egypt was a chaotic and stormy one. Plolemy 
 Lagi acquired possession of Jerusalem by a trick, and en- 
 phived many tliousands of the .Tews, carrying them into 
 Egypt. For more than a century Judiua was a tributary 
 province of Egypt under tho high priesthood of Onias. 
 Simon the Just (who extensively repaired and enlarged 
 the tempio and tho walls). Eleazar, Manassch, Onias 
 III. and Simon II. In the time of Siraon tho Just large 
 donations were bestowed upon the temple by Ptcdemy 
 Philadclphus, in whose reign and by whoso order (accord- 
 ing to the received story) tho Greek (Septuagint) trans- 
 lation of the Hebrew Scriptures was made for tho Alex- 
 andrian library. After the battle of RaphJa (n. r. 217). 
 Ptolemy Philopator, who had there defeated Antiocbus the 
 Great, attempted to enter tho imon of the temple, but 
 was opposed by Simon IF., the high priest ; eighteen years 
 after which Antiocbus wrested Jerusalem from the Egyp- 
 tian empire. With a brief exception of a year, in which 
 th« Egyptians again held tho city, Jerusalem remained a 
 province of Syria until tho Maccabeau revolt. During 
 these thirty-five years Sinmn H. (who was grandson of 
 Simon the Just) died, and Onias III. became high-priest, 
 in whoso administration the city was greatly disturbed by 
 the quarrels of the Josephine family, a priestly family that 
 had become rich through political favors received from 
 Egypt. In B. c. 175, Antiocbus IV. (Epiphanes) succeeded 
 to the throne of Syria, and began deliberately to plan tho 
 extinguishment of all the jieculiarities of the .lewlsh peo- 
 ple. He was <Ieterinine<l to make Jerusalem a Greek town. 
 On tho death of Onias ho put Onias's brother, Joshua, into 
 tho high priest boo. I, changed his name to tho Greek 
 '• .Jason," introduced (ireek gamcM, put tlio tenijdo pervice 
 into relation with that of iilolatrous shrines, and in every 
 way undermined the integrity of the Jewisli character and 
 religion. At length a younger brother, also named Onias, 
 changed in his turn his name to "Menelaus," and per- 
 suaded Antiocbus (who was ready to sow dissensions) to 
 make him high priest in place of Jason. Dissensions con- 
 tinued between tne two Hcllouizing brothers till Jason died. 
 Antiocbus now came to the city and stripped it of all its 
 treasures and carried away a multitude of captives. In 
 D. r. 1 (>H he followerl this by sending an army to Jeru- 
 salem, which entered on tho sabbath ('.ay. made havoc of 
 the inhabitants, and levelled the city walls. Tin* temple 
 was dedicated to the Olympian Jupiter, swine's flesh was 
 ollVred upon tho altar, an<l the dotilement of the temple 
 made complete. All tlie.Tewi'*h ritual was forbidden, and 
 fearful punijthments were vii^ited on those who dared to up- 
 bold their ancient faith. This extreme policy of tho Syrian 
 monarch served to defeat its object. T'ndi-r the guidance 
 of the Asmonean family (so called from tho priest Chash- 
 inon, an ancestor) the .Tews organized a general revolt. In 
 B. r. Irt.i they entered Jcru»<alem and dedicatecl the temple 
 anew, tho citadel being still held by the Syrians. The next 
 year tho monster Antiocbus died <if a loathsome disease. 
 Under his successor fortune wavered bolwet-n the Jews and 
 the Syrians (ill the death of Jiidas called Maeeahirus (the 
 " Hammer") in b. r. MU. Alcimu:». high priest, was a tool 
 of the Grivfo-Syrian monareh. ami strengthened himself in 
 tho citadrl of Jerusalem until bis death. JoMatban and 
 Simon, brother" of Juclas. were nr>w the Iradcm of the re- 
 volt, and, taking advantage of a disputed sueee»o«ion to the 
 Syrian throne on tho part of Drrnetrius nml Alexander 
 lialafl, Jonathan becamo high priest by Alexander's ap- 
 
 • JonephusRnys Ihnt .T<)hftnnn'ii non. Maniwsi'li. wniSnnbnllnt'ii 
 Ron-tn-law. tint tltU Ih liliftily tiniir<ilm)>))>. Ih- iiNo ninkc* Snn- 
 ballat to }»• llvintt at Alexander's Invasion, IVi year-* after he 
 0|)|)ii><ed Nelirniiiib ! 
 
 pointment, and then received for Jerusalem extraordinary 
 gifts and privileges, including its thorough fortification. 
 After Jonathan's death Simon became high priest, and cap- 
 tured the citadel (B. c. 142). which had held out against 
 the Jews for more than twenty years. Tho citadel was 
 razed and its hill lowered, and a new fortress, the Baris, 
 built to command its site. Tho enterprising Asmonean 
 then entered into alliance with the spreading power of 
 tho Romans, which bad already overwhelmed Macedonia. 
 John Hyrcauus succeeded bis father Simon in the high 
 priesthood, and successfully resisted an elaborate siege of 
 tho city by Antiocbus Sidetcs. who was compelled to grant 
 him honorable terms and withdraw his army. Hyrcanus 
 afterward accompanied Antiocbus in his war with the Par- 
 thians. In b. c. 107, Hyrcanus died, and was succeeded by 
 his son Aristobulus, who assumed tho title of king. Tho 
 history now becomes a series of fierce and bUiody strifes. 
 Aristobulus kills his brother. Another brother. Alexander 
 Jannanis. who succeeds .Aristobulus. is a cruel tyrant, and 
 reigns for a quarter of a century, engaged equally in fight- 
 ing the Syrians and destroying the Jews of the Pbarisean 
 party. His two sons quarrel for the throne, and this quar- 
 rel brings Pompoy, tho R<unan general, into the Jewish 
 history. Ho takes the part of Hyrcanus against Aristobu- 
 lus. The latter holds the temple, and Pctinpey besieges it, 
 capturing it at last by assault and the slaughter of 12.000 
 Jews. The R()man victor made Hyrcanus high priest (but 
 no longer was the title <if king alhiwed), destroyed the city 
 walls, and carried off Aristobulus to Rome. This occurred 
 in tho year B. r. fi3. Antipater, an Idumiean, became the 
 chief adviser of Hyrcanus. and this crafty foreigner made 
 such interest with .lulius Ciesar that ho received tho pro- 
 curatorsbip of Judioa, while Hyrcanus was allowed to as- 
 sume tho title of ethnarch. In ii. r. 43, Antipater was mur- 
 dered, and great disturbances arose. Antigonus, son of 
 Aristobulus and nephew of Hyrcanus. came to .Jerusa- 
 lem with a Parthian force, and by stratagem brought the 
 Parthians into tho city, seized Hyrcanus. cut off his ears 
 that ho might be no longer high priest, and imprisoned 
 Pbnsaelns, Aniipaler's son. who couimitted suicide in bis 
 prison. Herod, anotlier son of Antipater, who hatl en- 
 deavored to resist the attack of Antigonus, escaped, and 
 soon organized a Roman attack ujion the usurper. At this 
 time Herod married Mariamne. Hyrcanus's granddaughter. 
 Herod's siogo of .Jerusalem lasted five months, when the city 
 was stormed and a fearful slaughter followed : Antigonus 
 was slain. Herod now determined to hold all power in 
 his own hands, his marriage with Mariatnno furnishing a 
 slim claim to tho Asmonean succession. He ])ut out of tho 
 way all Asmoneans who might be claimants of the throne, 
 his own wife Mariamne and her old grandtather falling 
 victims at length to his cruelty; he cultivated the friend- 
 ship of tho Romans, enlarged the Baris into the grand for- 
 tress of Antoiiia. construoteil a niagnitieent palace, built a 
 theatre, ami instituted games in hr>nor of Civsar. He then 
 sought to win tho esteem of tho Jews themselves by build- 
 ing a new temple, rivalling tho original edifice of Solomon 
 in its richness and grandeur. For thirty-two years this 
 extraordinary despot, plausible and jiolitic, though ro- 
 morsclcssly cruel, held firm sway over JudaMi as king, 
 beautifying the city and restoring its imjxirtance — loved 
 by none, feared by all — maintaining peace ami thrift in his 
 kingdom, and showing a boldness an<l strength in his ad- 
 ministration sebiom e<|U»llcd. In the year B. r. 4 of tho 
 common reckoning Herod died, a few months after tho 
 Itirth of our Lor<l in Hethlehcni. Ten years later his son 
 and successor, Arcbelaus, was deposed and .Tiidioa maile a 
 Roman province. Pontius Pilate was the fifth Roman pro- 
 curator of the province, undrr whose administration our 
 liord was crucified. The Roman government of Judn'awas 
 strong, and on tho whole peaceful, for many years, except 
 as the Jewish horror of Gentile defilement of the temple 
 and Holy Tily produi-t'd from time to time collisions be- 
 tween the citizens and soldiers. These troubles were gen- 
 erally end'-d by a prudent yii-lding on the part of the Ro- 
 mans, until in A. n. 41. Herod Agrippa. grandson of Herod 
 the Great, wiib made king of all Palestine by the einprri'r 
 riaudius. This last Jewish nn march I built a strong wall 
 to enclose the suburbt on the N. of Jerusalem, thus moro 
 than doubling th«> size of tho city. On bis death at (Vsarea 
 (a visitation for bin blasphemy 1. Rome again made Judiea 
 a provini-e. and a list of reckless procurators f(dlow<'d till 
 the final tall uf the Holy City. Cumanus. Felix, Albinns, 
 and FloruH were eont«picuous for their utter disregard of 
 Jewish customs and prejudices. Indignant outbursts, de- 
 veloping into riots and insurrections, occurred constantly, 
 the nation meanwhile becoming thoroughly demoralized, 
 
 + m« son Agrippa. although made king of Chalels and the 
 O' rlhern tetrnrcbles. nod thouirh exercfMlnir Influenee in Jeru- 
 Halom, seems never to have used royal power In Judica.
 
 139G 
 
 JKRUSALEM. 
 
 uutilrin the year 6G. Cestius Gallus, the prefect of Syria, 
 was obliged to interfere and attempt, with the aid of the 
 high priest and a peace party, to juit dowu the insurj^euts. 
 Gallus was severely beateu, and Home now began tlie war 
 in earnest. First, \'espasiau, and afterwards his son 
 Titus (both becoming emperors at length), conducted the 
 war. The terrible dissensions among the Jews, the un- 
 speakable sufferings of the besieged, the agony of the na- 
 tion shut up within the walls of Jerusalem, the destruction 
 of more than 1,000,000 Jews (including all the sick and 
 old), the enslaving of all the j-outh. the entire demolition 
 of the city, so as to leave no sign of its former occupancy, — 
 all this forms one of the gloomiest pages in the annals of 
 man. 
 
 Fourth Period (70 A. D. to this time). — In Hadrian's 
 reign (a. d. 11S-13S) we next hear of Judtea in an attempt 
 of formidable dimensions to rebuild the city of Jerusalem 
 and establi^^h the Jewish polity. Of this attempt liar 
 Cuchba was the enterprising leader, who for three years 
 kept the power of Rome at bay, until the insurrection was 
 entirely quenched in the blood of hundreds of thousands. 
 Hadrian's exasperation at this event made him first raze 
 everything he eould find on the site of Jerusalem, and then 
 build a new city on the spot, which he peopled with Ro- 
 mans and called /Elia Capitolina. On the old temple site 
 he erected a temple to Jupiter CapitoUnus, and placed his 
 own statue on the site of the holy of holies. Ko Jew was 
 allowed to enter the new city, and this prohibition con- 
 tinued in effect till the empire became Christian, when per- 
 mission was given them to weep by the W. tempk'-wall 
 (where probably, in spite of the frequent and wholesale de- 
 structions, some few stones occupied their old place) — a cus- 
 tom continued until this very day. Constantiue restored 
 the old name. Jtrmahm, although the liadrianic name of 
 MWn is found in use for centuries afterward. His mother, 
 Helena, devoted herself to recovering the lost sites of Chris- 
 tian importance in Jerusalem and elsewhere in the Holy 
 Land, and erected costly churches on these supposed sites. 
 
 I Julian (a. d. 36>'i) attempted to rebuild the Jewish templo 
 and restore the Jewish worship as a part of his design 
 ' against Christianity, but the work was hindered and stop- 
 jtcd by subterraneous fires breaking out among the work- 
 j men, as Ammiauus, an unprejudiced witness, asserts. For 
 the first Christian centuries of the empire Jerusalem occu- 
 j pied the position of a venerable and sacred relic, to which 
 j pilgrims constantly found th«.-ir way. Bishops presided 
 over the Church there, and emperors from time to time 
 built or repaired the holy edifices. The first disturbance 
 of this peaceful condition was when the Persian monarch, 
 Chosroes II., took the city by storm in 614, destroyed the 
 churches, and slew the ecclesiastics. Fourteen years aftcr- 
 . ward the Greek emperor Heraclius, victorious over the Per- 
 I sians, restored the churches and re-established the Chris- 
 I tian dominion in Jerusalem. But it was only for a short 
 ; period. In GOT, Oraar made Jerusalem the first grand con- 
 I quest of the rising Mobammedau power. From that day 
 to this Jerusalem has been a Mohammedan city, except 
 during the brief interval in which the crusaders held it. 
 Ommiades, Abbassides, and Fatimites took their turns in 
 ruling it from Damascu?, Bagdad, and Cairo as their cap- 
 itals; Christians were more or less persecuted from time to 
 time, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was repeatedly 
 destroyed and rebuilt ; but Christian pilgrims continued to 
 visit the Holy City, paying tribute to the Moslem rulers 
 for the privilege. In 1090, after a Turkish tribe had had 
 a brief possession of the city, and had shown unusual se- 
 verity to the Christians, but had now been supplanted by 
 the Egyptian khalif, the crusaders appeared before Jeru- 
 salem. In six weeks the city was in their hands and God- 
 frey of Bouillon elected its king. It remained in the hands 
 of the Christians till Salah-ed-din (Saladin), the sultan of 
 Egypt, reconquered it in 1187. Thrice afterward the city 
 was for a short time in Christian hands. In 1617 it fell 
 into the hands of Selim, the Turkish conqueror of Egypt, 
 and remains in possession of his successor, the sultan, to 
 this dav. 
 
 III. Toi'uiinAi'HY. — From thchistory of Jerusalem, brietly 
 given above, it may readily be seen that its internal topog- 
 raphy cannot be very accurately determined. Especially 
 were the demolitions by Titus and Hadrian so complete 
 that all traces of detail, even in the general surface of the 
 ground, must be well nigh impossible. Hills were lowered 
 and valleys filled up. ancl buildings reared upon ruins and 
 of material afiurded by other ruins. This, with the ordinary 
 changes and decays of iiOOO years, must make the internal 
 topography of the city a puzzling problem. With the outer 
 topograjihy of the city the conditions are different. The 
 eastern, southern, and western limits are accurately defined 
 by the deep ravines of the Kedr4in and the Bene-Hinnom, 
 and beyond these the Mount of Olives, the Hill of Evil 
 Council, and the western heights remain as David must 
 have seen them, so far as their natural features go. On the 
 X. there are no such marked topographical features. From 
 Scopus the descent to the city is gradual, and it was in this 
 
 direction that the suburb existed which Herod Agrippa en- 
 closed with a wall. The modern city walls, built only ilOO 
 years ago by Suleiman (Sol^vman the Magnificent), prob- 
 ably enclose the area of the ancient city of David's day, 
 with the exception of the southern jiortion of Zum and 
 Ophel. which arc now without the walls. The positions of 
 Zion and Moriah (of which latter Ophel is the southern ex- 
 tension) seem to be thoroughly determined. Mr. Fergus- 
 son's startling and ingenious theory that the ancient Zion 
 was the temple hill, where the temple, the city of David, 
 liaris, Aera, and Antonia stood, has too much to contend 
 with it in uniform tradition, in spite of the few problems 
 that this theory solves.* Joscphus tells us {Ant., 13. 6. 7) 
 
 * The name Zion carae in use as the sacred name of Jerusalem 
 in David's day, when tlv ark was und<T a lent on Mount Zion, 
 making it the "holy hill," before Moriah received the temple 
 and the title.
 
 JERUSALEM. 
 
 l:!i)7 
 
 that Simon the Asmoncan destroyed the citadel {-ntv uKpav) 
 to (ho fuuudutiou. and then lowered the hill on which it liad 
 stood, so that the ti>in|>U> could be higher th:in it ; niut this 
 work, he tells u,-'. occupied three years. As the hill gener- 
 ally known as Zion is nigher than the temple liill. this fact 
 recorded by Joscjihus doe.-' nnt prove thattbo modern Zion 
 is not the ancient Zion. but that Iho axpa of Simon was not 
 upon Zion. The citadel, and indeed the main city, when 
 David conquercfl Jerusalem, was certainly the modern 
 Zion. In later days a new citadel was formed on the north- 
 ern hill or lower city f.Aora), then much higher than now, 
 which was afterwards superseded (when Simon had reduced 
 its hill) by the Barip, f>nd afterwards Antonia, nearer to 
 the temple. Josephus calls the new part of the city enclosed 
 by A:;jrippa's wall " Hezelha" r<Vi x«piw« 5-^ rKKrjSrf Bc^t fli rb 
 vtoKTiiTTov fitpiK), and yet speak? of it as aA6<,!)0T (crest). As 
 a Ao^o? we should suppose the bill N. of tho temple bill was 
 intended — a bill which is liigh and well defined ; but from 
 tho other words of Josephus, and the meaning of tho word 
 Bezetha (now town), we should suppose all that was en- 
 circled by Agrippa's wall from Hippicus to tho ICedron ^Ya9 
 meant. Probably tho name Bezctha wa*? given to the whole, 
 and the hill, as being contained within it, was also known 
 by (he name. 
 
 Such is our best arrangement of tho general divisions of 
 tho city. Let us now follow the ancient walls. Wo may 
 suppose that Xebeiniah, iu restoring tho walls, followed tho 
 old foundations and rowalled the same area which consti- 
 tuted the city in David's day. In tho rebuilding, as re- 
 corded by Xchemiah (chap, iii.), Kliasliih tho high priest 
 is first mentioned as leading tho workers at tho shccp-gate, 
 and at the wall as far as tho Tower of tho Hundred (Ha 
 Mcah) and the Tower of ilananecl. These places wo must, 
 of course, find in tho temple region, for there the high priest 
 would be set. Moreover, tho passage in Jeremiah (xxxi. 
 :i8-4M) seems to bo a reference to the temple precincts rather 
 than to tho whole city, and tho Tower of llananeel is there 
 prominent. The description in Nohcraiah f«»llows the wall 
 from tho centre of th^ E. side of tho city, northward. The 
 sheep-gate must have been in the centre of the teiiiplc-pro- 
 einct wall, and perhaps derived its name from tho sheep 
 brought in by that gate for sacrifice. If the irpo^aTi<»7 of 
 John V. 2 be the sheep-gate, and the Pool of Bethesda bo 
 the Fountain of the Virgin with its intermittent flow, then 
 wo should sup(iuao tho ^heep-gate to ho farther S., but tho 
 po<d of Bethes la may have boon within tho temple-precinct, 
 and the present Fountain of (ho Virgin may receive to-day 
 the intertnittent effects which in former times showed them- 
 selves in another pool, now filled up. Wo are inclined to 
 think that this " sheep-gate" is the same as theMishnehor 
 "second (gate)" of Zeph. i. 10 and the "college" of 2 
 Kings xxii. 14, whoro the prophetess lluldah lived. In this 
 case the *' fish-gate " wouUI be Iho first gate (see Zeph, I. c), 
 ami would repreHont the N. E. corner of tho city, opposite 
 the Mount of Olives. Between tho *Mish-gato " and the 
 ''sheep-gate" would stand the Tower of llananeel and tho 
 Tower of .Meah (or the II ii ml red i. The " old gate " would 
 he found next, as we follow the N. wall north-westward. 
 The course would be along tlio " second wall " of Josophus, 
 for the first or old wall seems to have been the northern 
 fortification of Zion. The " old gato " may bo really the 
 " .leshanah gate" (by leaving the adjentivo untranslated), 
 and may bo tho gate leading to .Ti-shanah (2 ('hron. xiii. 
 lit, and Joseph. Ant., U. !;>. 12), a town near Bethel. Tho 
 " gate of Ephraim " comes next in Nehomiah (not in his 
 account of the building, but in his record of tho dedication 
 xii. 311), and may have oocupied the site of tho present 
 Damascus gate. Then follows " the broad wall " (somo 
 local peculiarities of (he wall, perhaps for defence' 9akc), 
 and then we reai^h tho " tower of the furnaces," which may 
 have stood over (he western valley as tho towers of Ha- 
 naneel and the Hundred overlooked tho eastern. The 
 " valley-gate " would correspond with tho present Jaffa 
 gale. Near this was the dragon-well (Nch. ii. I:)). Tho 
 ** dung-gate" (if our snppr»si(ions above are correct) would 
 he a thousanrl cubitn .'^. of the ,Tiifra gate (Neb. iii. l.T) ; that 
 is, on the south-western part of Zion over against tho Bir- 
 ket-cs Sultan. The " fountain-gate " would lie on tho op- 
 posite siile of Zion, facing the Pool of .^iloam. Tho "stairs 
 (hat go down from tho city of Oavid " would bo found be- 
 tween the fountnin-gttto and ibe.*^. W. temple-corner. They 
 were probably an ascent from the king's cardenH to tho 
 Davidian palace on Zion. The " sepulchres of David." tho 
 *' uuhIc pool " (" king's pool "in Xeb. ii. 14), and (he " house 
 of tho mighty " were probably at the corner of Zion over 
 against the S. W. temple-corner, where the wall crossed Iho 
 TyropiTon. The •* armory " is in this neighlmrhood, at tho 
 very corner where the wall turns abru[ftty southward to en- 
 cirolo Opliel, The "house of tho high priest*' an'l tho 
 "house of Azariah " are near (his. Al^er turning the ox- 
 trerae corner of (Iphel south\Tard wo reach" tho tower which 
 
 lioth out from tho king's high house," which may bo the 
 extra tower discovered by Capt. Warren's subterranean ex- 
 j)loratiou3 {/icrot-crt/ of JcruHnlemy p. 229), as ho himself 
 suggests. It nmy have been built out in order to guard the 
 " Fountain of tho Virgin." Tho " water-gate " would be so 
 called in relation to this fountain. By this water-gate on 
 Ophel was a broad street or square where assemblies couhl 
 be held in the immediate vicinity of the templo (Neh. viii. 
 I, 3, Ifi). Near by was tho "horse-gate." famous as the 
 spot where Athaliah was put to death. This gate was prob- 
 ably at this division between tho Solomonian palace (S. E. 
 of the temple) and the precinct of the temple itself. Tho 
 gate " Miphkad" may mark some angle of the walls con- 
 nected with tho division, as a special corner is hero men- 
 tioned (iii. .12) before wc reach the slieep-gatc again. 
 
 This view of tho walls of Nehemiah's time will help us 
 in our survey of the city in our Lord's day. Between 
 those periods there had been much demolition and rebuild- 
 ing in tho city, as a glance at the brief history above will 
 indicate, but wo may believe that until the destruction of 
 tho city by Titus tha general outline of the fortifications 
 was the same. It will be seen by our sketch of the walls, 
 as described by Nehemiab, that we find no difficulty in 
 liaving tho " stairs from the city of David " and " the sep- 
 ulchres of David" mentioned after "Siloani;" an order 
 which Mr. Fergusson thinks quite stag*!;ering to the old 
 hypothesis of Zion and tho city of David. The diiliculty 
 that Mr, Fergusson finds with the places enumerated in 
 the last sixteen verses of the third ehai»ter of Nchcniiah 
 arises from his ovcrlnokin;r tho wall around Ophel. His 
 own explanation, that tho fir.st sixteen verses retVr to tlie 
 city of Jerusalem, and tho last sixteen to the city of David 
 (his Zion or the temple-mount), is by no means natural. 
 
 The late researches of Tapt. Wilson and ('apt. Warren 
 have thrown much light upon tho question of tlie original 
 temple-area. Tho discovery by tiic latter oflicer of im- 
 mense stones in situ at tho base of the S. E. corner of the 
 ])resent Harani wall, lying in tho rocky foundation scarped 
 to receive them, 80 feet below the present surface, and 
 marked with the Phcenician ((uarry -marks in paint, de- 
 stroys Mr. Forgusson's theory that the temple-are.a ex- 
 tended from the present S. W. corner of the Haram but 
 (JOO feet E.. this S. E. corner being llflO feet E. The vaults 
 under this south-eastern portion of the area seemed to him 
 too slight to have supported the stoa, and Josopbus's as- 
 sertion that tho temple-urea was only a stade square, and 
 thirdly tho apparently unchanged position of tho stones at 
 the south-western corner, confirmed his view. But Capts. 
 Wilson and Warren have proved that the south-eastern 
 corner is unehanged, while the south-western has undoubt- 
 edly been added, as the real bed uf the Tyropn^on valley 
 lies nearly 100 feet E. of the 8. W. corner ami uniler tho 
 Harani, whilo a new bed for that valley has been cut out 
 of the rock, to prevent the moisture passing under the 
 temple-area. This doubtless was the new portion enclosed 
 by Herod. (Jos. /?. J., i. 21. 1.) About GOO feet N. of (ho 
 S. W. corner is Wilson's arch, the beginning of the cause- 
 way across the Tyropwim, and for twenty-three feet S. of 
 this Tapt. Warren found the old Haram wall in situ. Tho 
 inference from these discoveries is that (ho S. W. angle of 
 the Haram wall was built by Herod in bis reconstruction 
 of the temple. The temple of Solomon, therefore, in nil 
 probability, occupied the site of the mosque uf <linar (Kub- 
 bet-cs-Sukhrah). while the palace of Solomon occupied the 
 south-eastern portion of tho Haram, from which was com- 
 munication by road and bridge ( Robinson's arch, or rather 
 beneath Robinson's arch, the valley having been filleil uji 
 with rubbish twenty feet deep before the new jiavcment and 
 Robinson's arch were constructed by Herod) to (he lower 
 city on the plateau below ond E. of tho upper city. The 
 causcwav over Wilson's arch was of a later date, but iloubt- 
 less markeil the old an«l direct coiumunicatii'n between 
 temple and city. Herod's Stoa Basilica ran along the 
 southern wall, but whether it extended to tho S. E. corner 
 of the Haram is uncertain. Perhaps Fergusson's argu- 
 ment is correct theic. antl the vaults beneath could not have 
 supjjorted it at (hat corner. However, as ('apt. \\'aneii 
 shows, all the vaults known as Solomon's stables at the .'^. E. 
 of the Haram are of moclern construction, and there may 
 have been in Herod's day a substruction quite sufficient for 
 the support of Herod's stoa, so that the "pinnacle" 
 (irrtpvyiot) of the temple may have been exai'tly at the S, 
 E. corner overhanging the Kedrnn. Beneath tho present 
 Haram surfaeo are tanks and subterranean passages and 
 I aqueducts in great numbers (see ffrrorenf of Jrruitaffn}, 
 I ch. vii,, and accompanying plan from Wilson and Warren), 
 which at least seem to prove that the present areii very 
 largely coincided with tho oM temple-area;' but a eom- 
 
 •The fortress of BarU, afterward enlarged to Aulonia. stood 
 probalily In the north-western iwition uf tho liarain, oeeup\dnjf 
 perhap!* about fjOO feet square.
 
 139» 
 
 JERUSALEM. 
 
 plele survey when Moslem fanaticism shall no longer be a 
 hindrance will be necessary for any satisfactory arrange- 
 ment of details. 
 
 The next point of special interest in the topography 
 of Jerusalem is the site of the Holy Sepulchre and Cal- 
 vary. The commonly received site lies about 400 feet 
 N. of a Hue running from the Jaffa gate to the mosque 
 of Omar ( Kubbet-es-Sukhrah or "Dome of the Rock"), 
 and about SOO feet W. of the street leading N. to the Damas- 
 cus gate. That this site is the same selected by the em- 
 press Helena, although the edifices on the site have been 
 many, is pretty clear, but whether Helena selected the 
 true" site three centuries after the crucifixion, and after 
 Jerusalem had been so completely reduced to chaos by 
 Tilus, and then by Hadrian, is by no means so clear. 
 The chief objection is, that the site must have been withm 
 the walls of the city in our Lord's d.ay. The controversy 
 here depends greatly on fixing the position of the gate 
 ticnuath in the first wall (which ran from the neighl)or- 
 hood of the Jaffa gate to the \V. wall of the temple), from 
 which gate the second wall (the main city wall) took its 
 course northward. Now, the old arch near the S. end of 
 the bazaars, which has been called the gate (ienuath, is 
 proved to be a comparatively recent structure, and the 
 ruins near the present church of the Holy Sepulchre, which 
 have been called fragments of the second wall, are proved 
 to be portions of a church. (See Recovery of Jcrmalem, pp. 
 9. 213.) If the Kasr Jalnd, which stands on the highest 
 point of the city, and is built of huge bevelled stones, like 
 those of the foundations of the temple, be the ancient Hip- 
 picus, then the present site of the Holy .Sepalchre is alto- 
 gether wrongly fixed. But the Kasr Jalud may he Pse- 
 phinus in the Agrippa wall, built after our Lord's day to 
 include the northern suburbs. Another argument against , 
 the common theory is the necessity of extending the area 
 of the city as much as possible to give it the size of so ; 
 renowned a capital. Even by putting the Kasr Jalud in the i 
 original wall, we can only make the city to include about 
 200° acres. Its circumference would be only 2i miles, and I 
 the population of ft city of this size could not have been 
 more than 25,000. (Ferguason.) The great suburb included 
 in Agrippa's wall was twice the area of the old city, and 
 if we crowd that as much as the old city, we shall have 
 only 75,000 for the population of Jerusalem at its destruc- 
 tion by Titus. These numbers are extreme numbers, and 
 we should probably reduce them largely to reach the truth. 
 They certainly form a strong argument against still further 
 contracting the " second watl " and putting the present site 
 of the Holy Sepulchre outside of the city. And yet the 
 
 Xrlyai 
 
 Jerusalem at the time of Kiui? Herod. (Sketch showiuu approx- 
 imately the lie of rock, l 1, Temple of Solomon ; 2, Palace of 
 Solomon ; :l, Added on by Herod; 4, Exhedra (the tower Bans 
 or Antooia); 5, Antonla (the Caslle); 6, Tlolsters joininR An- 
 tonia to Temple ; 7, Xyslus; 8, Agrippa's Palace; 9, Zion and 
 Acra; 10, Lower Pool of Ciihon. or .^mycdalon; 11, Herod's 
 Palace; 12, Bethesda,or .'^truthion ; 13, BridKC built by Herod ; 
 14, t he lyower City, called sometimes Akre ; 15, British cemetery, 
 a.'d. 1870. 
 arcuments are far from conclusive. If we knew where the 
 gate Genuath was, all would ho known. If the present 
 site is erroneously fixed, where are we to find the true site? 
 
 An ingenious but not convincing argument has been put 
 forth by the late Mr. Fisher Howe of Brooklyn in favor of 
 the remarkable hillock over the grotto of Jeremiah, N. E. of 
 the Damascus gate. The probabilities seem to point to sonic 
 location on the ledge overhanging the Kedron, outside the 
 St. Stepheu's gate, for this has always been a place of 
 graves, is close to the city walls, and is near to the pra>to- 
 rium of Pilate, which was in the fortress of Antonia at the 
 N. of the temple. We have to leave the discussion in this 
 state of incertitude. 
 
 The other points of topographical interest are Zion, the 
 Tyropoeou, the towers, and the pools. Zion (i ivm ir6A« of 
 Josephus) is the high broad hill which lifts itself by an 
 abrupt front 400 feet above the southern valley, its plateau 
 extending from this brow 2400 feet to the Jaffa gate road, 
 where a valley ran eastward from the gate to the Tyropoeon. 
 Along this northern brow the ■' first wall " was built. The 
 width of this plateau at its broadest is about 1600 feet 
 from the western valley to the Tyropoi'on. This height 
 embraced nearly one-half of the ancient city. On the E. 
 of it, beyond the Tyropoeon, was the temple mount, 100 
 feet lower, and on the X. was the part of the city called 
 Acra, which (some think) extended to the N. W. as far as 
 the present Kasr Jalud. where the ground rises to a height 
 of 73 feet above the top of Zion. Although, in that case, 
 this one point of Acra was higher than any other point in 
 the city, yet the main portion of Acra was lower than either 
 Zion or the temple mount (after Simon had reduced its 
 height), and was the "lower city" of ancient times; this 
 latter appellation also including the valley of the Tyro- 
 pcKon. Zion was the seat of the citadel which David 
 stormed, and its broad, elevated summit beeame the "city 
 of David." Here were the royal palaces and tombs of 
 David's line, connected by a bridge with the Solomonian 
 palace (1 Kings vii. 1) and'the temple on Moriah. Here also 
 Herod built his palace, including the magnificent buildings 
 called in honor of his friends Ca-sar and Agrippa. On its 
 north-eastern corner was the Xystus, or gynuiasium, con- 
 nected with the temple by another bridge, probably where 
 Wilson's arch now is. the southern bridge being now mark- 
 ed by Robinson's arch. The height of Zion above the Mcil- 
 iterranean is 2537 feet. The Mount of Olives rises only 
 200 feet higher. 
 
 The Tyropoeon (" valley of the cheesemongers ) ran be- 
 tween Zion and Moriah southward into (he Hinnom valley 
 and the Kedron valley at their junction, the junction ol the 
 three forming the rich soil of the "king's garden" (Neh. 
 iii. 15: Joseph., Aj,!., 7. 14. 4). The Tyropoeon continued 
 in two branches northward, one toward the present Da- 
 mascus gate, and the other toward the Jaffa gate. The 
 latter seems to have been the recognized continuation of 
 the Tyropoeon. The depth of the valley increased rapidly 
 as it reached southward, and at the south-western corner of 
 the temple-area the bed of the valley was UO feet below the 
 present surface. 
 
 One of the most prominent objects in Jerusalem is the 
 old tower in the midst of the citadel near the Jaffa gate, 
 56 feet 6 inches on one face, and 70 feet 3 inches on the 
 other. It has been generally supposed to be Hippicus 
 (Joseph., B. J., 5. 4. 3). Whichever one of the Herodian 
 towers this was. its style of building tempts us to believe 
 that Herod only rebuilt an ancient tower, and that we may 
 have here "the tower of David builded for an armory" 
 (Cant. iv. 4). If this be Hippicus, we may suppose Pha- 
 saelus and Mariamne lay to the E., and that the Kasr Jalud, 
 1200 feet to the N., is Psephiuus. 
 
 The pools (so called) in and by Jerusalem which now 
 attract attention arc Birkct Mamilla, liirket Sultan, the 
 Pool of Siloam, and the Fountain of the A irgin without 
 the walls, and Birkct Israil (or Esi^erain ) and the Pool 
 of Hezckiah within the walls. The Birket Mamilla is sup- 
 posed to be the "upper pool" (Isa. vii. 3; 2 Kings xviii. 
 17). It lies 2000 feet W. of the Jaffa gate. The Birket 
 Sultan is a section of the great western valley dammed up 
 for more than 600 feet. The Pool of Siloam (Nch. m. 15; 
 John ix. 7) is in the mouth of the Tyropa-on at its junc- 
 tion with the Hinnom and Kedron. It was probably used 
 to irrigate the " king's garden." It is connected by a long, 
 rude, and crooked subterranean passage with the Fountain 
 of the Virgin on the other side of Ophel, from which the 
 water flows "softly" (Isa. viii. C). This subterraneous 
 aqueduct is connected with extensive rock-hewn caverns, 
 which were doubtless part of the fortifications of Ophel. 
 (See the deeply interesting account of their discovery hy 
 Capt. Warren in his litcurery of J,r,unhm, pp. iyo-lJ>. ) 
 The Fountain of the Virgin is a pool on the eastern side 
 of the Ophel rock, to which is a descent of twenty-eight 
 steps The pool is lower than the bottom of the valley 
 without, and is excavated deeply within the rocky wall. 
 The water comes into it from the direction of the temple, 
 but has never been traced. It has a periodic and sudden
 
 JERUSALEM— JESSE. 
 
 13i)9 
 
 rise of a foot in height, the periods varying from two or 
 three times a day to once in two or three days. This pe- 
 riodic troubliug of the water seems to mark the Fountain 
 of the Virgin us the Pool of Ucthosda^ unices we may the 
 rather suppose u jiool further up on the tompio mount 
 formerly re^Tivcd this intermittent flow. The rt<juircments 
 of the ijheep-gatc (as we have seen) ^eem to put Ijetliesda 
 forthcr N. The Birkct li>rai), just inside of tho St. Steph- 
 en's gate and N. of the Haram (supposed hy Dr. Hobinson 
 to he the trench of Antonia), is the damming up of the val- 
 ley that runs E. of Uczetha in a south-eastern direction, 
 originally under the north-eastern corner of the llaram^ 
 into the Kedron. It is '.\CtO feet long, l.'JO feet broad, and 
 7 J feet deep. The I'ool of Uezekiiih ( Ami/ffda/im of Jo- 
 sephus) is N. of the Jaffa gate street and to the S. \V. of 
 the rhurch of the Holy Sepulrhre. It is supplied by an 
 aqueduct from the Birket Mamilla. It lies among tlu- 
 hou^i'S of the Christian quarter. It is 210 feet long and 
 144 tect wide. It seems to be properly designated. (See 
 2 Kings XX. 20; 2 Chron. xxxii. 'MK) A system of wells 
 and aqueducts in the Kcdron ravine below Jerusalem (the 
 £u-Rogel of antiquity) presents features of peculiar inter- 
 est. One of several ancient aqueducts still conducts the 
 water from Solomon's Pools beyond Bethlehem to the city. 
 
 For further details of modern discovery in the topogra- 
 phy of the city wo refer to the reports of Capts. Wilson 
 and AVarren, which have settled so many questions and so 
 greatly escitecl public interest and expectation. 
 
 Jerusalem is in hit. :i\° 4tJ' lio" X. and Ion. 3i*= 18' 30" 
 E., lying on the very summit of the great mouutaiu-ridgo 
 Trhich extends from the plain of Ksdraelon to the southern 
 desert, the ridge itself being higher farther S. near Hebron, 
 where it reaches an elevation of .'iOOO feet above the Med- 
 iterranean Sea. At Jerusalem (Mount of OUvcs) the ele- 
 vation is 2700 feet. The highest part of the city itself is 
 2600 feet (Kasr Jalud). From the Mount of Olives the de- 
 scent is rapid to the Jordan valley. In lU miles one ilescends 
 3700 feet. Westward the descent is more gradual to the 
 plain along the Mediterranean coast, about 2J00 feet in 16 
 miles. Howard Cnosar. 
 
 Jernsalenif tp. of Yates co., N. Y., on Keuka or Crooked 
 I/nke. It contain? ."i churches and several villages. It was 
 first settled by Jemima Wilkinson and her followers, callecl 
 Wilkinsonians, or Friends, the latter name being eni])loycd 
 by tht'm?elves. The sect is now extinct. Pop. 2G12. 
 
 JerU8alenif post-tp. of Davie co., N. C. Pop. 1544, 
 
 Jerusalem, post-r. of Malaga tp., Monroe co., 0. 
 Pop. yi. 
 
 Jerusalem, post-v., cap. of Southampton co., Va., 
 75 miles S. S. K. of Kichmond and 7 miles from Newsom's 
 D-'^pflt, on the Seaboard and Uoanoko K. K. It is on the 
 Nottoway River. Pop. of ip. 2061. 
 
 JerUNalcm Artichoke, a species of sunflower ( /7e/»'- 
 nnthmi tuhrronnH of Linnieus, order Compos i tie), which 
 bears subterranean tubers of the same nature us potatoes. 
 The tubers got the name of artichokes from a resemblance 
 in taste to the true Artichokk (which see), while the name 
 "Jerusalem" is a curious English corruption of yiritaoltt, 
 Italian for " sunflower." The plant jirobably reached 
 England by way of Italy or Spain. The French name is 
 tttpiunnihniir. It has been cultivated in Europe ever since the 
 beginning of the seventeenth century, and doubtle^j^ carao 
 from America, the native country of the whole sunflower 
 geinn. It is generally said to be of Ura/ilian origin, but 
 there is no historical evidence of it ; it is not known to 
 occur either there or in any part of South .America, and it 
 has all the characters of a plant of a warm temperate 
 climate. Moreover, it is so much like a species of ^lunflower 
 {H.iloromcniilm) indigenous to the V;illey of the .Mississippi, 
 which bears long and narrow tubers, that it may well bo 
 regarded as a probable variety of this species, altered and 
 fixed by cultivation. The tubers, boiled or slewed, are of 
 delicate flavor and ore much esteemed in Europe. In the 
 r. S. they are more commonly pickled or used as food for 
 swine. \. Ohay. 
 
 JerUHali'in Chrrry, the jxqtular name of twoepecies 
 of Sofftiiiiin .'ultivuteil as ornamental house-plants {pHPutln- 
 ciipnicnm and ('iifmirtiHtrum), first introduced into England 
 from the island of Madeira about the close of the sixteenth 
 century. It may be propagated either from seeds or cut- 
 tings, grows only two or three feet high, and bears berries 
 about the sl/.c of cherries. It is uncertain how it came by 
 the name Jerusalem. 
 
 Jerusalem Plantation, tp. of Franklin co., Mo. 
 Pop. :J2. 
 
 Jer'vis (Sir John), b. at Meaford, England. Jan. 9, 17.'M ; 
 entered the niivy at ten years of ago : became ))ost-eaptain 
 in Kno. renr-adiiiiriil in 17^7, an<t admiral of the blue in 
 
 17'.1'). 11" dislinguislif'd bitiiself in several niival engngi'- 
 
 ments, chief among which was the celebrated action in 
 which he defeated a Spanish squadron of twice his strength 
 (Feb. 14, 1797) off Cape St. \ incent, in reward of which 
 Jervis was created earl of St. Vincent and received a pen- 
 sion of £.'{000. Ho was first lord of the admiralty 1801- 
 04, and d. Mar. 15, 1823. 
 
 Jer'vois (Col. Sir AVii.liam F. D.), R. E.. K. C. M. G.. 
 b. in IS21 ; educated at the Koyal Military Academy at 
 W'oohvich. After receiving his commission in the royal 
 engineers in 1839, ho served in Africa (lSH-48), in the 
 Kaffer war (184(1—17), receiving from Sir Harry Smith, 
 governor and commander-in-chief of South Africa, his 
 commendation as **ono of tlie most able, energetic, and 
 2eal<)us officers lie had ever exacted more than his share of 
 duty from." Made captain in 1S47, he received the brevet 
 of mnjor in 1S54; in 1S56 ho was appointed assistant in- 
 spector-general of fortifications, and subsequently deputy 
 director of fortifications. In this capacity lie jirepared in 
 IS58, by direction t)f the secretary of state for war, a me- 
 moir relating to the general defence of the country, in 
 which a system of fortifications for the security of the vital 
 points was proposed in detail, and a plan for the defence 
 of London was suggested. Tho commission appointccl in 
 1859, of which Mnj. Jervois was secretary, adopted tho 
 arguments nnd principles contained in tho memorandum 
 submitted by him to tho secretary of state for war in the 
 previous year. The report of the royal eommissitm re- 
 ferred to, and approved by. tho permanent defence com- 
 mittee, has since been carriccl into effect. This report, tho 
 first formulated expression in England of principles gov- 
 erning 8/-(t-ri>nst il'/<ncc, is not only in its governing prin- 
 ciples and details of application, but in the arguments by 
 which they are sustained, in striking harmony with the re- 
 ports of our own board of engineers which inaugurated 
 our system of defence against maritime invasion. The 
 English discussion was, liowever, coeval with the introduc- 
 tion of rifled ordnance, tho application of iron for defen- 
 sive purposes both in ships and fortifications, and the sub- 
 sequent advance in size and power of ortillcry. The event- 
 ful combat between the Monitor ami Merrimack in Hamp- 
 ton Uoa<Is, Mar. 8, 18(12, shook tho public confidence in 
 England, and the royal commission was renssembled to re- 
 port on the defences of Spithead, to which Parliament had 
 made heavy grants of money; and a special committee on 
 the same subject, of which Muj. Jervois was also secre- 
 tary, reported in 18(54. The result of these reports was the 
 adhesion of tho Itritisli government to the principles con- 
 taineil in the first report. Promoted to be lieutenant-col- 
 onel in 1862, he became a full colonel in lst)7. As a mem- 
 ber of the special committee on tho application of iron to 
 defensive purposes ( I8()I-C4 ), be has taken a prominent 
 part in these important questions, and has been active in 
 designing and superintending the execution of works of 
 fortification botli at liome and al)roa<I. In l8(i.H he was 
 nominated a eonti)aninii of the Path, and appointed knight 
 commander of the order of St. Michael ami St. tJeorge. In 
 1875 ho succeeded Sir Andrew Clarke, Col. H. E., as gov- 
 ernor of the Straits Settlements, comprising Singapore, 
 Penang, and Malacca. J. G. Bahnahd. 
 
 Jesi, a town of Italy. Sec Iesi. 
 
 JeN'samiiie, the common English name for species 9f 
 Jiismiiiuiii. a genus of erect or climbing shrubby plants, 
 natives of the OU World, of which several species are cul- 
 tivate<l for ornament, the flowers being both beautiful and 
 fragrant. The common species are Jaitnii'niini i>j}ic{intfr 
 (white jessamine) and ./. nJ<,riifinH\mum (yellow jessamine), 
 and in conservatories ./. Sniiilmr of tropical India, which 
 exhales a powerful fragrance at evening. The jessamine 
 family is now regarded as a tribe of the olive family (order 
 Oleacea?), and is ilistinguisljcd from the other regular mono- 
 polalous flowers by having stamens fewer than the lubes of 
 the corolla. Tho so-called jessamine of the Southern U. S. 
 is of another order. (See Jasmink, Yki.i.ow.) A. Urav. 
 
 JesHnmine, county of E. Central Kentucky. Area, 
 250 square miles. It is a beautiful, undulating region, 
 with a goorl soil, based upon cavernous limestone, (irain 
 and live-stock are staple products. It is traversed by the 
 Kentucky Central 11. K. Cap. Nicholasville. Pop. 8tj;{s. 
 
 Jes'se (EnwARo), b. at Hutton Cranswiek. Yorkshire, 
 England, Jan. 14, 17S0: was deputy surveyor of the royal 
 parks and palaces at Windsor, Kichmond, and Hampton 
 Court. His fondness for outdoor e,\ercisefl and for aniniiil 
 lifn was strongly fostered by the nature of his occupations, 
 and eauf»ed bim to observe anci record many curious facts 
 in natural history. He published a number of very enter- 
 taining and popular works, among which were (i/muingit 
 IN \ittttrnl Hintfirif (3 vols., 1 8.H2-lt5). Ati Atiq/fr'it litimhfeM 
 (IHilfil, Anrt-itnleti nf Dih/h (184(>). and Lrctuirn on Xaturnl 
 ll\Ht4,rti [X^iVA). lie also published several topographical 
 handbooks upon Windsor and the royal palaces, besides
 
 1400 
 
 JESSE— JESUITS. 
 
 editing Izaak Walton's Angler and Gilbert White's Sel- 
 borne. Mr. Je?se removed to Bri^^htou in 1S*)2, where he 
 became so useful a citizen that his bust was plnceil in tht; 
 Pavilion bv popular subscription in 1SG5. D. at Brighton 
 Mar. 2S, 18fiS. 
 
 Jesse (John Heneagk), b. in England about 1815, was 
 a ?on of Edward, noticed above; wrote nuineroup volumes 
 of memoirs illustrating English history during the eight- 
 eenth century. D. in July, 1874. 
 
 Jesso. Sec Yesso. 
 
 Jessore', town of British Indiu, the capital of a dis- 
 trict of the same name in the presidency of Bengal. The 
 district comprises 3512 square miles of the centre of the 
 (Jiinges delta, and is as fertile as unhealthy. Ita capital 
 is situated 6(5 miles N. E. of Calcutta, and has a college 
 in which botii Entjiish and Hindoo literature are taught. 
 Top. of district. 400,0(10. 
 
 Jes'son Land, tp. ai Sibley co., Minn. Pop. 7^9. 
 
 Jcssulineer% or Jaysiilmir, one of the Kajpoot 
 states under English ]»rotci*tinn. in Western Hindostan, sit- 
 uated between 2l'|0 and 2S° X. lat. and C9° and 72° E. Ion. 
 It comprises 9700 square miles of very poor soil, and has 
 74,100 inhabitants. lis capital, of the same name, is a 
 well-built city with .'ki.OOO inhabitants. Water is very 
 scarce in its vicinity, and must be provided for by immense 
 tanks. The fortress contains the palace, G temples, 8 wells, 
 and its walls are ornamented with gilded towers and pin- 
 nacles. 
 
 Jes'sup, post-v. of Buchanan co., In., on the Iowa di- 
 vision of the Illinois Central R. R. 
 
 Jessup, tp. of Susquehanna co., Pa. Pop. 804. 
 
 Jessiip (William), LL.D., b. in Southampton, SuflFolk 
 CO., N. Y., June 21, 1797; graduated at Yale in 1815 ; re- 
 moved to Montrose, Pa., in 181S ; was admitted to the bar 
 in 1820; was strongly interesteTl in the missionary and 
 temperance causes and in popular education ; was presid- 
 ing judge of the eleventh judicial district of Pennsylvania 
 lSnS-51. D. at Montrose, Pa., Sept. 11, 18G8. 
 
 Jessup Lake, in Orange co., Fla., 12 miles S. of En- 
 terprise, communicates with St. John's River by a naviga- 
 ble outlet. The lake is clear, has a sandy bottom, and 
 abounds in fish and game birds. Tlie shores arc high bluffs. 
 There are good wharves constructed here. It is the seat 
 of Lake Jessup colony*. The surrounding region is beau- 
 tiful, well-timbered, and fertile. There are several medi- 
 3inal springs in the neighborhood. 
 
 Jes^uits, or The Society of Jesus, a religious or- 
 der of ttie Roman Catholic (.'hurch, which, although en- 
 tirely destitute of any original religious idea, and merely 
 contining itself to practical ]>urposes — missionary, educa- 
 tional, political, commercial, always of a subordinate, often 
 of a doubtful nature — has played a more conspicuous part 
 in the history of the Christian Church than any other re- 
 ligious order, and exercised a most powerful, though only in 
 some cases a beneficial, influence. It was founded by Iti- 
 NATirs Loyola (which see), and established by Pope Paul 
 III. Sept. 27, IJIO. Its organization it recei\ed from its 
 founder and first general, but its true character from his 
 successor. It was Loyola's idea to form a monastic order 
 with a definite practical purpose. To the vows, common 
 to all religious orders, of chastity, poverty, and obedience, 
 he added that of missionary activity; and as ho was a 
 military man by profession, and entirely without originality 
 or spontaneity, he conferred ujjon the religious order he 
 founded his military ideas of organization, of training, 
 subordination, and implicit obedience. But under its 
 second general, James Laynez (1558-()5), the order freed 
 itself to a great extent from its monkish apparel. Its mis- 
 sionary task retreated to the background, aud its principal 
 objeet became the maintenance of the absolute dominion 
 of the pope against Protestantism, kingdoms, universities, 
 recumeuical councils, bishops, or anything which showed 
 an independent tendency. Its position was most cxeep- 
 tional. It enjoyed at once all the privileges of the mendi- 
 cant orders and the secular clergy. It held its property 
 free of taxes either to king or Church, and its members 
 were independent not only of the jurisdiction of the slate, 
 but also of that of the bishops; thoy acknowledged no other 
 authority than that which emanated from their general. 
 The priestly office was conferred upon them in full, as far 
 as regards its power, but not with all its duties and restric- 
 tions. They had unlimited power of dispensation and in- 
 dulgence, and they eould administer the sacraments even 
 in a period of interdict. At the same time, they were not 
 separated very conspicuously from the world either in dress 
 or manners. They ha<l the education of the world, and 
 they took part very freely in the enjoyments of the world ; 
 prayer and fasting wore not the most striking character- 
 istics of a Jesuit. With this most favorable position with 
 
 respect to the outside world, the society oombiued a most 
 rigorous internal organization. The authority of the gen- 
 era! was absolute, and the training of the member? such as 
 to make the enforcement of this authority unfailing. They 
 were divided into four classes — novices, scholastics, coad- 
 jutors, and professed. After a short preparation the novice 
 spends two years in spiritual exercises, in prayers, medita- 
 tions, fasts, and ascetic ])raclices, in serving the sick and 
 the poor, living all the while under the closest supervision. 
 If after the lapse of these two years he finds himself, and 
 is found by the elder members of the order, capable of be- 
 coming a suitable instrument — that is, capable of givin-; 
 up all individuality of will and all independence of intel- 
 lect — ho enters the class of scholastics, where ho undergoes 
 a long and severe training in theology, ])hilosophy. phi- 
 lology, and science. Every advancement from one class to 
 another is exceedingly ditficnlt. Only men of decided 
 talents and rare energy are able to reach the highest class. 
 that of professed, whose members elect the general among 
 themselves. But even with the humblest and least gifted 
 members of the society the moral training is perfect. It 
 is in some respects very simple. It consists in nothing but 
 implicit obedience to the rules of the order and the au- 
 thority of the general. But it must be perfect or else no 
 membership is granted. Every passion, every sympathy, 
 every talent, every tendency, which possibly coirid come 
 into collision with the purposes of the society is crushed or 
 burnt out of the soul. The order was thus able to work 
 with the unfailing certainty of a machine, and in a loose 
 and rather disorderly state of society, like that of Europe 
 in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, its 
 power could not but bo immense. 
 
 At the death of Loyola the society numbered 1000 mem- 
 bers in 12 provinces; at the celebration of its first centen- 
 nial jubilee, 13.112 members in 32 provinces; at the time 
 of its suppression, one century later, 22,589 members, 24 
 professed houses, (jfi9 colleges, 176 seminaries, 61 novitiates, 
 335 residences, and 275 missionary stations in heathen or 
 Protestant countries. In Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Aus- 
 tria the order took root immediately. To the higher classes 
 of society the Franciscans had become offensive by their 
 coarseness and vulgarity, and the Dominicans troublesome 
 by their bluntness and rigorousness. The easy and elegant 
 Jesuit was just what was wanted. His eloquent casuistry 
 threw a veil over any vice or crime, and very soon every 
 monarch, jirincc. and nobleman had a Jesuit for confessor ; 
 which circumstance gave the order an enormous social and 
 political influence. In the Thirty Years* war It was Father 
 Lamormain, the confessor of Ferdinand II., who delValcd 
 Wallcnstein, and it was the Jesuits who kept alive the 
 league between Austria and Bavaria. To the middle classes 
 they recommended themselves by their excellent schools 
 and their learning. In many countries they actually con- 
 trolled all education ; at the Roman Catholic universities 
 of (icrmany — Cologne, Miinich, Treves, Augsburg, etc. — ■ 
 they held chairs a few years after the establishment of the 
 order. Still more decided was their success as mission- 
 aries to the pagans. They penetrated into Japan in 1549, 
 and into China in 1584; in the former country they pos- 
 sessed 3 colleges, S residences, and 3 professed houses in 
 1013, and in 1092 the number of their converts in the 
 Chinese jjrovince of Kiangsu is said to have been more 
 than 100,000. They had flourishing stations in Cochin- 
 China, Tonquin, Hindostan, Ceylon, Madagascar, and on 
 the coast of Africa. In Paraguay they christianized the 
 whole nation, and formed a civilized society whose pros- 
 perity ami rapid progress excited general admiration. 
 Brazil, Mexico, and North America are also in debt to 
 them, for they carried civilixatiou with them wherever 
 they went. In the Protestant countries, however, they 
 never got a foothold, though they tried very hard in Enj;- 
 laud and Sweden. In France their situation was generally 
 precarious. The Sorbonne, the bishops, and even the Par- 
 liament, were opjiosed to them, and very slow in admitting 
 them. After the attempt of Chatel, a former pupil of theirs, 
 on the life of Henry IV. in 1591, they were even expelled, 
 though only for a short time: iu 1003 they were allowed to 
 return. Richelieu and Mazarin showed them considerable 
 favor, and under the reign of Louis XIV. they gradually 
 grew in power. But just at this time they met with their 
 lirst heavy reverse of fortune. In their contest with Jan- 
 senius they were the losers iu spite of their great dexterity 
 in theological dispute, and when, in 1056, Pascal published 
 his Lcttrt'it Provincialen, a blow was inflicted ou them from 
 which they never recovered. The looseness of their morals, 
 the egotism of their aims, the falseness of their actions, 
 were thoroughly unmasked hy this book. They bc-ame 
 odious and subjects of general suspicion. Under these un- 
 favorable circumstances, and while driven onward in an 
 opposite direction by their own antecedents, they clashed 
 against the general enlightenment of the eighteenth ccn-
 
 JESUITS' BARK— JESUS CHRIST. 
 
 1401 
 
 tory, which they could neither adopt nor 8up]ire9s ; and this 
 became (heir ruin. An insurrection in Paraf^uay a<raiu9t 
 Portugal, ID which the Jesuits were implicnteil. ^ave Potn- 
 batanonportoDity in ITjSof hringinfj them before the courts. 
 While tne trial was r;oinr; on an attempt was made to as^afl- 
 sinate the king, and (Sept. ^t, ITJit) a royal decree t-xpelled 
 the pocicty from the Portuguese dominions and contiscated 
 their property. In France not only public opinion, but also 
 the court, espceially Madamo do Pompadour and the prime 
 minister, rhoi-Jcul, were against them, and a scandalous law- 
 suit ID which they became entangled caused a general out- 
 burst of indignation. They had a missionary and com- 
 mercial station on the island of Martinique. Thence their 
 procurator. Father Lavalctte. consigned two vessels to a 
 house in Marseilles. The vessels were captured by the 
 Knglixh. and when Father Lavalette was unable to meet 
 the bills which he had draxvn on the credit of the delivery 
 of (he costly enrgo. ft cnsc wa-? brought into the courts uf 
 Marseilles against the order, and de<'ided in favor of the 
 plaintiff. The order tried to escape from paying the debt 
 by appealing to the Parliament of Paris, and pleading that 
 Father Lavaletie hail acted without orders from the gene- 
 ral antl against bis instructions. In the course of the trial 
 other scandalous aftairs became known, and in 1764 a royal 
 decree expelled the society from Franco. Apr. 2, 1767, all 
 the Jesuits in Spain nnd in the Spanish colonies were ar- 
 rested at the same hour and sent to the papal dominions: 
 and July 21, 177^. a papal bull dissolving the whole order, 
 on the re«|ue?t of France, Spain, Portugal, Parma. Naples, 
 and Austria, was issued. Its property was confiscated, 
 but in most countries its members recciveti nnnuitics and 
 were allowed to live as private persons. Frederick II. of 
 Prussia showed them much kindness, and Catherine II. even 
 permitted them to exist as a society in Russia under the 
 head of a vicar-general. In ISOl, Pope Pins VII. con- 
 firmed this branch of the order, and immediately after the 
 fall of N.ipoleon ( Aug. 7, 11:514) he re-established the society 
 in its old form. l)uring the exhaustion and reaction which 
 prevailed throughout Europe between IKI,) and 184S the 
 .lepuits succeeded in penetrating into all countries, with or 
 without the acknowledgment of the governments; but the 
 general conditions of civilized life have so entirely changed 
 character in the last century the order has been compelled 
 to alter its method of proceeding. Science was once its 
 weapon — it now appeals to ignorance: court intrigue was 
 formerly its arena — it now mixes in political party machi- 
 nations. But although the means are changed, tlio aim is 
 still the same — to stop the progress of civilization and en- 
 slave mankind under the sceptre of tho pope; and the 
 Syllabus and tho dogma of infallibility arc among its latest 
 achievements. Clemens Pkterse.n. 
 
 Jesuits* Bark. See Cinciioxa. 
 
 Jes'up, post-v. and cap. of Wayne co., Ga., at tho in- 
 tersection of tho Macon and Brunswick and the Atlantic 
 and Gulf R. Rs. Pop. about 260. W. 0. McAdoo. 
 
 Jcsop (Mourns Kktciii'M), b. at Hartford, Conn.. June 
 21, l^itO; locating ill New York City, became member of 
 tho Chamber of Cummcrco in Feb., Ibti.'S ; |>rcEident of the 
 Five Points House of Industry since 1870; was president 
 of the Young Men's Christian Ai^sociation 1871-76; is treas- 
 urer of the university and o:io of its council ; vice-president 
 and treasurer of the City Mission, and uianager of the Pres- 
 byterian Hospital. 
 
 Jesup (Thomas SroNKv), b. in Virginia in 1788 ; entered 
 the army in I SOS; served as acting adjutant-general to 
 Brig.-tien. Hull 1812; brevetted colonel for gallantry at 
 Chippewa and Niagara, rose to quartermaster-general, with 
 rank of brigadier-general. May, 1S18; took command of 
 the army in tho (*reek nation, Ala., and in Florida IHIIG; 
 wounded in action with Scminoles Jan., 18;j8, and returned 
 to duty in his department. \). June 10, 1860. 
 
 Je'sus Christ. This name is not compound, hut con- 
 sists of the proper name Jesus, and the ofhcial designation 
 Christ — Jesus the Christ. Je-ius is the Greek form of the 
 Hebrew Joshua or .lehoshua, and means Jehovah his sal- 
 vation, or the salvation of Jehovah. Christ is equivalent 
 to tho Hebrew Messiah, and means tho Anointed. The 
 name Jesus is applied to several persons in the Scriptures, 
 and was probably not an uneotnnioi) one. 
 
 Into tho tlieobtgicut questions connected with the person 
 of Jesus Christ wo do not enter, nor do wo attempt any in- 
 terpretations of his words, nor discuss any disputed points 
 in reganl to the relative authority of the several Kvangelists. 
 Those seeking information on these points are referred to 
 tho special works named at the end of this article. There 
 island doubtless will continue to be. much differeneo of 
 opinion among harmonists in regard to the chronological 
 order of evenrs in his life, but there is general agreement 
 as to tho most important fatils. Jesus was born in Itelhle- 
 hein, a small .lud;ean town already famous as the birth- 
 
 place of King David, and about 6 miles S. of Jerusalem. 
 The home of his mother, Mary, was Nazareth in Galilee, 
 but she had come to Bethlehem with her husband, Joseph, 
 a dcsL-endant ot David, in obedience to a decree of enroll- 
 ment and taxation which seems to have required Joseph's 
 presence at the original home of his tamily. Mary is 
 thought to have been, like .Joseph, descended from the 
 royal house of Judah. The date of the Nativity is uncer- 
 tain. (See CniiiSTMAS.) Jesus was born miraculously of 
 a virgin mother by the power of the Holy (ihost. On the 
 eighth day after his birth Ho was circumcised, and on tho 
 fortieth day ho was taken to the temple, when tho custom- 
 ary offerings of purification were made by his mother. The 
 visit of certain " wise men," or magians. who came prob- 
 ably from Persia, to the infant at Bethlehem with gifts 
 proper for a king, and the inquiries made by them pre- 
 viously at Jerusalem for a newly-born king of the Jews, 
 excited tho jealousy of Herod, then ruling over Juda;a and 
 the neighboring territories under the protection of the Ro- 
 mans, and he issued orders for a massacre of young chil- 
 dren at Bethlehem. Jesus was taken by divine direction to 
 Egypt in time to escape the destruction which threatened 
 him, and the holy family remained out of Herod's juris- 
 diction until his death a short time after. Joseph seems 
 to have intended to rear tho child at Belhk'hcm,as ihe city 
 of David, but another warning from Heaven caused him to 
 return to Nazareth. Twelve years later .loscph and Mary 
 took Jesus with them to Jerusalem to keep the Passover, 
 and he then showed that he was already conscious of a di- 
 vine mission. He lived at Nazareth, however, for eighteen 
 years longer, and probably assisted Joseph at his trade, 
 that of a carpenter. Joseph is not mentioned again in tho 
 Gospels, and is supposed to have died before Christ entered 
 on his public labors. 
 
 When Jesus was about thirty years old his kinsman, John, 
 tho son of Zacharias. began to announce the near approach 
 of the kingdom of God. and to call bis countrymen to 
 prepare for it by a moral reformation, and by accepting 
 baptism at his bands as a sign of the remission of sin. 
 •Tesus appeared among the throngs which gathered about 
 John the Baptist at tho Jordan, and insisted on being bap- 
 tized by him. After Jf)hn bad reluctantly administered 
 tho rite to one \vhom he felt by a kind (»f prophetic instinct, 
 as it would seem, to be holier than hiinseU". he was shown 
 that ,Iesu3 was the ^lessiab, the Son ot (Jod. Ho announced 
 him as such to those about him, among whom were prob- 
 ably some representatives of tho Sanhedrim, or ecclesiastical 
 senate of the Hebrews, sent from Jerusalem to inquire into 
 John's own work and claims. After his baptism Jesus 
 withdrew, under a divine impulse, into the wilderness, 
 where ho encountered and overcame a series of temptalions 
 addressed to him by Satan. A few of John's disciples now 
 attached themselves to Jesus, and accompanied liim to Gal- 
 ilee. The first of his miracles was wrought at Cana. a few 
 miles from Nazareth, where water was changed into wine. 
 Soon after he bt*gan his public ministry, in the proper sense, 
 in Jerusalem, at tho Passover. Ho announced himself to 
 tho heads of tho nation there as a messenger of Heaven by 
 expelling from tho temple-court those who had been allowed 
 to carry on traflic in it for the convonienco of worshippers. 
 One member of tho Sanhedrim. Nicodemus, became at this 
 time a secret adherent of tho new prophet. For a few 
 months Jesus carried on a work in Judaea similar to that 
 in whicli John tho Baptist was engageil. and seemed to bo 
 co-operating with the laller in the effort to bring about a 
 national repenraiice. Attempts being made to create dis- 
 sensions between his followers and those of John he retired 
 to (Jalileo. It is probable that some time was now passed 
 by Christ in comparative seclusion, and that his disciples 
 were for a while dismissed. The hitter an* not said to have 
 been with bim when ho next presented himself at Jerusalem, 
 on the occafion of a feast. If, ns is probable, though many 
 think otherwise, this feast were tho Passover, it marked 
 tho close of tho first year uf Christ's ministry, during wliirh 
 ho had eonslanlly in view an impression to bo made on tlo- 
 men of infiucnco and authority at Jerusalem. Al this visit 
 Jesus raised an is^uo with tho Jewish hierarchy by disre- 
 garding tho traditional interpretation of tho fourth com- 
 mamlment. and offended them still more by the way in 
 which he spoke id' his own n-|alion to tintl. From this 
 time, at any rale, ho had a body of powerful nnd implaca- 
 ble enemies in Judnja, who never ocnsod to watch und op- 
 pose him. 
 
 Near the time of this second Passover, John the Baptist 
 was imprisoned by Ileiod Antipas, whtim ho had rebahcd 
 for his ndullerous marriugo with his brother's wife Hero<lias, 
 and John's effort to bring Israel to repentance wiin at an 
 end. Jesus now entore<l on a new slago of his work, to be 
 carried on in Galilee. After meeting a repulse at Nii7.a''cth, 
 he fixed his losidenee at <'apernauni, on the Lako oi Ti- 
 berias, and from that point innd" a series of einuit'i lliruu"!!
 
 1402 
 
 JESUS CHRIST. 
 
 Galilee. His old followers rejoined him, and he at once 
 began to add to their number, while by his discourses and 
 miracles he speedily attracted crowds of more or less ap- 
 preciative hcjirers. In close connection with the uio^t 
 famous of the Galilean discourses, the Sermon ou the Mount, 
 Jesus chose twelve of his disciples to be, under the name 
 of apostles, his constant companions, and by degrees his 
 associates in labor. Proofs were multiplying of the indis- 
 posifion of Israel as a whole to profit by the mission of 
 Jesus of Nazareth. Emissaries of the Judiean priesthood 
 were busy iu (Talilcc, and gradually formed a hostile party 
 tliere. Jewish beliefs and prejudices were also operative 
 in the minds of those who were attached to his person. 
 His own relatives misapprehended him, aud even John the 
 liaptist sent a message from his prison which expressed 
 his perplexity at the course whic^h Jesus was pursuing. 
 Nevertheless, the cud of his work in Galilee was practically 
 secured. He had a body of faithful adherents, who loved 
 and trusted if they did not undiTStand him, and whom he 
 was educating for future service. 
 
 As the next Passover drew near, John the Baptist was 
 put to death by Herod at the instigation of his wife. From 
 this time Jesus began to withdraw as much as possible from 
 public notice in (Jalilee, aud to devote himself to the in- 
 struction of the twelve apostles. Entire seclusion was out 
 of the question, and some great miracles were wrought 
 during (bis period. In th« month of October, or about si.x 
 months after the death of John the Baptist, Jesus began 
 his second and tiual attempt to gain a hearing from the 
 representatives of the nation at Jerusalem. He appeared 
 somewhat suddenly at the Feast of Tabernacles, and by 
 miracles and discourses, as well as by the angry opposition 
 which he excited, he at least succeeded in awakening new 
 interest in his movements, and in lixing the attention of 
 the nation upon himself during the rest of his career. It 
 may bo inferred that bo then returned to Galilee, and set 
 about arranging what had in some sense the air of a roya! 
 progress to Jerusalem. Seventy disciples were sent, two 
 by two, to the various towns which he designed to visit, and 
 he folluwed them, preaching and working miracles, as he 
 harl l>een accustomed to do in Galilee. The scene of these 
 new labors must have been Periea, the country E. of the 
 Ji»rdan, through which lay the longer but safer routo from 
 (Jalilee to Judica. It bordered on the latter province for 
 a considerable distance, and whatever excited general in- 
 terest in Pernea would soon be known across the river. 
 That intense excitement did follow Christ's appearance in 
 a region which hitherto, so far as we know, he had scarcely 
 visiteii, is clearly indicated iu the Gospels. In December, 
 at the Feast of the Dedication, Jesus was again at Jerusa- 
 lem. He was met by questions about his Messiahship, 
 wliich show that his claims were undergoing eager discus- 
 sion, but his answers only provoked fresh hostility, and he 
 nurrowly escaped being stoned as a blasphemer. His homo 
 during these visits to the ecclesiastical cajiital was probably 
 the house of Lazarus at Bethany, 2 miles E. of the city. 
 Lazarus and his sisters, Mary and Martha, must before this 
 time have become disciples and intimate friends of Christ. 
 On his return to Pera-a. Ciirist, instead of going from place 
 to place as before, fixed his abode at liothabara (or Beth- 
 any), near the scene of his baptism. Hence ho was sum- 
 moned to Bethany in Judiua by the dangerous illness of 
 Lazarus, and arriving after the latter had been four days 
 dead, he wrought the greatest of his recorded miracles by 
 restoring his friend to life. This act led the Jirbrew coun- 
 cil, or such of them as were under the influence of the high 
 priest Caiaphas, to resolve formally and finally ou tho de- 
 struction of the Galilean prophet. Whatever ho was, ho 
 could not bo (he Messiah, and he might bec<tmo tho occa- 
 sion of popular tumults which would draw upon the nation 
 tho vengeance of their Roman masters. Jesus now for a 
 time concealed himself, taking refuge in a town called 
 Ej)hraim. 20 miles N. E. of Jerusalem. 
 
 Another Pas.-'ovcr approached, and Jesus prepared to 
 attend it in such a way as to terminate his royal ]irogrcss 
 royally. He seems to have gone northward and joined one 
 of the companies of Galilean pilgrims then moving east- 
 wanl near the Samaritan border in order to go to the feast 
 by the (trdinary I*eraMin route. The suburbs of Jerusalem 
 were reached, probably, on tho evening before the sabbalh. 
 Christ and his f(dlowcrs stopped at Bethany, where more 
 thnn one houso was open to them. On the first day of the 
 week, and evidently in pursuance of arrangements pre- 
 viously made, Jesus entered the Holy City, riding on an 
 ass never before used, and surrounded by nn intensely ex- 
 cited throng, composed largely, no doubt, of pilgrims from 
 tho N. and E. The multitude hiiilc-d him as " Son of Da- 
 vid" nnd "King of Israel." and he distinctly sanctioned 
 their acclamations. On tho following day ho went to the 
 city again, and repeated the act by which he had an- 
 nounced himself and his mission three years before — tho 
 
 cleansing of the temple. The third day, Tuesday, was also 
 spent in the temple, but was devoted to teaching. As Jesus 
 aud his apostles returned t-ach evening to Bethany, they 
 may be supposed to have paused for prayer in the garden 
 of Gethsemane, at the western base of the Mount of Olives. 
 The next day seems to have been passed in retirement. 
 Meanwhile. Christ's enemies, not daring publicly to arrest 
 one who was for the time so popular, resolved to get him 
 into their power in some clandestine manner, and after the 
 feast should be over. An apostle prepared the way for the 
 accomplishment of (heir purpose. Judas Iscariot bargained 
 with them for the possession of his Master's person, and 
 watched for the opportunity to c<unplete his treachery. On 
 the evening of Thursday, Jesns kept the Passover with his 
 disciples, coming onco more to Jerusalem for the purpose. 
 While they were at the table he indicated to Judas, as also 
 to .lohn and Peter, his knowledge of the intended betrayal, 
 and Judas hastened to the priests to bid them act at once. 
 At the close of the paschal supper Jesus instituted (he 
 Christian feast of bread and wine commemorative of his 
 own impending death, and the company set out on their 
 return to Bethany. Ou the way they turned aside to the 
 garden of (iethsemane. where Jesus passed thrr)ugh a fear- 
 ful inward struggle in view of the sorrows before him. The 
 struggle was scarcely over when the sorrows began. Judus 
 entered the garden, guiding a band of armed men, with 
 some members of the council, and probably a crowd of mid- 
 night revellers from the streets of Jerusalem. .Icsus was 
 arrested and led back to tho city for trial before the Sanhe- 
 drim. The charge was blasphemy, but in the absence of 
 trustworthy witnesses, owing, no doubt, to the haste with 
 which the proceedings were conducted, no evidence was 
 produced on which the party of the high priest, themselves 
 wholly unscrupulous, could call for an uutavorable verdict 
 from the majority of the council. The prisoner was then 
 virtually put under oath and required to criminate liimself. 
 When solemnly appealed to by the high priest, he not only 
 avowed his Messiahship. but tisserted that he was the Son 
 of God and the future judge of the world. The Sanhedrim 
 then unanimously condemned him as a blasphemer, (hough 
 two members of it, at any rate, Joseph of Arimathea and 
 Nicodemus, were no doubt absent. After the formality of a 
 fresh trial at daybreak, had iu order to make the proceed- 
 ings legal, the priests led Jesus to the Roman procurator, 
 Pontius Pilate, to obtain authority for the execution. Pi- 
 late resided at Cagsarca, the political capital of the prov- 
 ince, but was now at Jerusalem for the sake of maintaining 
 order at the feast. The procurator made several efforts to 
 rescue Jesus without exasperating the Jews, but he was 
 at last intimidated by the danger of a riot, and the im- 
 plied threat of accusing him to the emperor as in disloyal 
 sympathy with a pretender to the Hebrew throne. He then 
 gave the order for (he death of .Jesus by crucifixion, having 
 previously subjected him to scourging. The sentence was 
 jiromptly executcil. and for six hours, or from about nine 
 in the morning until three in (he afternoon. Jesus endured 
 the punishment allotted to the worst and basest criminals, 
 and with a convicted felon on either side of him. From 
 (imo to time he s]iokc briefly, uttering first his feelings in 
 behalf of others, then his consciousness of his own bodily 
 and spiritual anguish. He died in the act of commending 
 his soul to God. Tho body was given by Pilate to .loseph 
 of Arimathea, and, aided by Nicodemus, he wrapped it in 
 spices and laid it in a tomb prepare<l for himself in a gar- 
 den which he owned outside the walls. 
 
 On the day but one succeeding, or Sunday, some of (he 
 Galilean women went to Joseph's garden to do (heir part 
 in honoring tho body of their Master. As they approached 
 they saw that the tomb had been (q>ened. ami one of them, 
 ALary Magdalene, hurried away to tell .Tohu and Peter. 
 These two ajiostles had probably taken lodgings in Jeru- 
 salem, where .lohn had friends. In the mean time, tho 
 other women saw a vision of angels, who told them that 
 the Lord was risen, and bade them instruct his friends to 
 meet him in Galilee. It is reasonable to infer that nu»st 
 of the ajiostles eoutinue<l to lodge at Bethany, where they 
 would feel far safer than in .lerusalem. While the mes.sage 
 was on its way across the Mount of Olives, Mary came with 
 John and Peter. They carefully examined the tomb, and 
 returned, leaving Mary behind them. There the Lord 
 "appeared first" to her, and entrusted her with a message 
 respecting his a.scension. As she went to deliver it, her 
 late companions, still ou their way to the place where the 
 greater part of the Galilean disciples were to be found, saw 
 their Lord coming towards them. He renewed tho charge 
 which the angels had given them. Five distinct appear- 
 ances are recordeil as occurring on this day. .Jewish theo- 
 ries about the Messiah had mailo no provision for what had 
 actually taken place, and the disciples were so far under the 
 influence of those theories as to be hard to convince. The 
 unbelief of the apostle Thomas delayed for a week their
 
 JET— JETTY. 
 
 1403 
 
 return to Galilee. They did return at last, and there saw 
 their Master more than once. His principal appearance, 
 and that for the .«ake of which he had summoned them to 
 Galilee, Is suppusi-d to have taken place iu (lie presence of 
 the whole burly of disciples, more than 60U in number. 
 After a few weeks the apostles went again to Jerusalem, 
 and on the fi)r(ieth day after his resurrection, the Lord 
 Je:«us, having led tlieni forth, as if for another visit to 
 Uethany, left them fur the last time, not vanishing, as be- 
 fore, but passing visibly upward till a cloud concealed him 
 from their sight. While they looked after him, two angels 
 brought them another mc8:*agc — that he should "so come 
 in like manner." 
 
 Among the recent works on the life of Christ accessible 
 in English, are those of Neander, The Li/e of Jemai Chrint; 
 Lange, Life of Je»ti»: Strauss, Life of Jesus, and A Xew 
 Life of Jeaug; Renan, Life of Jenng (all translations, and 
 the last three by unbolieversl ; Kllicntt, //igtnrirn/ L'^^tur*- 
 oti the Life uf unr Lord Jrmiii Chrint; llannn, Lif'r <tf JtnuM; 
 Farrar. TA^ /,(/> o/" (^Atm/ (the most recent) ; and(by Amer- 
 ican authors) those of Crosby, Life of Jemnti ; Eddy, Im- 
 vinuHri ; Beecher, Ai7V of' Jemtg the Chrint, vol. i. ; .Andrews. 
 Life nf our Lord. In the las^t-named work will be found 
 the reasons for the chronological order followed in the fore- 
 going article. S. J. .Andrews. 
 
 Jet* a perfectly black mineral, capable of high polish, 
 is sometimes a kind of pitch-coal or albertite, and some- 
 times a very black lignite. It comet* from various getdog- 
 ical strata in the Asturias, Spain, in Aude, France, from 
 Whitby, Yorkshire, from the Baltic regions, etc. It is ex- 
 tensively empl«iye<l for mourning ornaments for ladies' use. 
 
 Je'ter ( Jkremiah Bell;, D. D., b. in Bedford co., Va., 
 July 18. 1802: entered the ministry in \^2'1, and removed 
 to the "northern neck " of Virginia in 1827: 18;'6-4lt was 
 pnstor of the First Baptist church iu Richmond. Va. ; in 
 1SJ9 of the Second Baptist church in St. Louis. Mo.; 
 1852-70 of the Grace Street Baptist church in Richmond, 
 Va. Since I^Oo he edited the licUtjiouit J/rrntd at Rich- 
 mond, Va. He publi-'-hed \femoir of liev. .V. W. Cloftouy 
 Lit' of Mrs. flritriettn ShttcK; CampbeHitm Ejcumiiiedf etc. 
 I>.' Feb. IS, ISSO. 
 
 Jet'}* Am [Fr.Jrter, to "throw"], goods which are thrown 
 into the sea in order to gave a vessel and the residue of the 
 cargo from wreck or loss in case of imminent danger, and 
 which sink and remain under water without coming to land. 
 If articles thus thrown c)verboard float upon the surface of 
 the sea. they arc termed flotsam. (Sec Flotsam.) The 
 owner of such goods does not lope his title to them, and 
 may claim them if they are subpcquently found. If no 
 owner ever appears to assert his right to the property, it 
 belongs by the English common law to the Crown. (Sec 
 Li(;\N, Jettison.) 
 
 (JEotuJE Chase. Revisep bv T. \V. Dwight. 
 
 Jet'tiAon [Fr.j>/cr. to "throw"], the voluntary throw- 
 ing overboard of goods belonging to the cargo of a vessel 
 in order to save the vessel and the residue of the cargo 
 from wreck, capture, or loss in case of imminent peril. If 
 by reason of such sacrifice the threatened disaster is averted 
 and the vessel <iaved, the owner of the goods btst by jetti- 
 son has a claim against the owners of the ship, freight, 
 and cargo for conlributifm, in proportion to the value of 
 their respective interests, to reimburse him for the loss he 
 has sustained, on the theory of general average. (See Av- 
 eua(jk.) But in order that he may have this claim the 
 sacrifice must have been made by reason of extreme emer- 
 gency and necessity. If tho master makes a jettison in a 
 ease of false alarm, there is no contribution. It is not ne- 
 cessary, however, that the anticipated peril should always 
 be proveil to have been real. It rests with the master of 
 the vessel to determine whether there is a necessity for 
 jettison ; and though it should afterwards appear that the 
 vessel might have been saved without incurring such loss, 
 yet if he acte»| with prudence and caution in the exercise 
 of a rea-onable <liserrtion, anrl with the intention of per- 
 forming hi-" duty faithfully, the same results will follow as 
 if there hatl been an actual necessity for the sacrifice, and 
 a claim for contribution by tho owner of the goods will be 
 stistainerl. The crew have no authority to make a jettison 
 of tlie cargo without the order of the master, even in a case 
 of actual distress. By tho law of England and the V. S. 
 it is not required that the master should consult with the 
 officers of the vessel or tho seamen in determining whether 
 a necessity for jettison actually exists, but in cases of 
 doubtful emergency proof that such constiltation occurred 
 woubl be of importance as indicating that the nta«ter acted 
 with careful (leliberation. The laws of most European 
 nations recjuire that, if practicable, the officers should be 
 consulted, unless the vessel is unmistakably in a situation 
 of great peril. In making the jettison those goods should 
 first be mieritii'C'l which an* the leii"! neecx^sirv. the mo«t 
 
 bulky, and the least valuable, if sufficient opportunity is 
 afforded for making the selection. But where there is an 
 immediate necessity for lightening the vessel, any part of 
 the cargo may be thrown overboard as may be nn'st con- 
 venient. If goods shipped on deck be taken for this pur- 
 pose, their owner must bear the loss without contribution, 
 unless there is a general usage to carry such articles on 
 deck, for they render the navigation more diflicult. and 
 arc particularly exposed to peril. But if the goods were 
 placed on deck without tho consent or knowledge of the 
 owner, the carrier will be responsible in such a case for their 
 value. If any injury be done to tho vessel or to the por- 
 tion of the cargo -which is saved by reason of the jettison, 
 as if the deck should be cut open to get out the goods 
 which are sacrificed, the loss thus occasioned will also be a 
 subject of general average. If the article sacrificed is tho 
 direct cause of the danger, as in the case of cotton taking 
 fire by spontaneous combustion, there will be no claim for 
 contribution t<i recover its value. The sacrifice must bo 
 voluntary in order that it may be a case of jettison, for if 
 goods be swept away by the violence of the sea, the lo«s 
 falls upon the owner or his insurer. So it must appear 
 that as the result of the sacrifice other property at ri<k 
 was saved. It is only necessary in order to found a claim 
 for contributirm upon general average that there be a res- 
 cue from the immediate peril in which the jettison occurred : 
 if the ship is subsecjuently lost in another disaster, the 
 property saved from this second disaster must contribute to 
 the original loss. (See Parsons on Maritime Late : Abbott 
 on Shippinff: Kent's Commcntariefi.) 
 
 George Chase. Revised bv T. W. Dwight. 
 
 Jet'ty [Fr.jrt^r, from Lat. jarere, to "throw," and im- 
 plying " projecting" or "jutting"], a dike, pier, or embank- 
 ment projecting into the sea, wbelhcr constructed of tim- 
 ber, earth, fascines, stone, etc.. or a combination thereof. 
 The roost common ajjpUcation is to tho mouths of rivers or 
 at the entrance to tidal harbors, whereby to narrow the 
 channel, concentrate the current, and thus increase Ilic 
 depth over the entrance bars.-- Most of the IIaiibors or 
 Amerk'AN Lakes (see that head) are the mouths of rivers 
 or "creeks" thus treated. In Great Britain the mouths iif 
 tho LiflTey, Blyth (Ireland), Esk, Wear, Dee. Slaney, Ayr, 
 arc so made, and the tidal harbors of Howth, Kingston. 
 Leith, Donaghadee, and Ramsgate so improved. Also the 
 tidal harbors of Gravelini s, Dunkirk. Calais, Boulogne. 
 Dieppe, Fecamp, etc. (France), of Ostende (Belgium), and 
 many others owe their existence to jetties. To the (►der, 
 the Vistula, and many river-mouths of the Baltic, jetties 
 have been applied with more or less success. f The nu'St 
 noted instance, however, is the Sulina mouth of the I>an- 
 ube, which, a permanent depth of 20 feet having been at- 
 tained where was but an average of 9 feet, instead of 
 being the worst harbor, at once took rank among the )>est 
 harbors in the Black Sea. Another instance of signal suc- 
 cess is tlie improvement of ship-navigation to Rt)ttprdani 
 by making a new mouth to the Maas through the Hook of 
 Holland, and prolonging the new outlet into the sea by 
 jetties. (See IIarboU; also f'rof. Papers Corpt of Eugi- 
 ti'-rrs U. S. A.^ No. 22.) This great work is a double suc- 
 cess, inasmuch not only that the jettied entrance has thus 
 far fulfilled expectations, but that the uuthud of countrtir- 
 tiou of fascines and stone, for the first time npjdied to onen 
 sea-exposures, has rcalizerl all anticipations and establisneil 
 a certain and economical way of constructing these sea- 
 works on sand-coasts. (See Harbor.) 
 
 A cross-section of one of these jetties is given in Fig. 1. 
 Tho body of tho structure is made up of successirc layers 
 
 •In this application the term "parallel piers" Is commonly 
 used tu IjiKliind for iellies. 
 
 t Mr. .lames It. 1-Jids has furnished, as compiled from authentic 
 wiurces. the fo]luwiiti; table of eighteen rivers in KuniiK' where 
 
 jetties have been elTeetive. ,\t some of the rivers named the 
 jelties, IhouKh not yet entirely completed, have already been 
 of great benefit to navigation: ' 
 
 Ori|(lD«l Prmrnt 
 Namci of riven. Coiintrjr. dt'iiih. dcpili. 
 
 fct-l. fivt, 
 
 panulw Roumanln. Turkev 7 to 11 20i to 2U 
 
 Maas Holland (new mouth).. 00 17 to I« 
 
 Trave Prusnio 7 18 
 
 Oder '• 7 23 to 21 
 
 AVarne or Warnow... " 6 13 
 
 Persante " 4 IS 
 
 WIpp-r " 4 13 
 
 Pn-cel " 12 20 
 
 SloliH* " 4 14 
 
 Nlemcn " 10 2^1 to 21 
 
 Mbau Russia „ fi IC 
 
 Dwlna " fl 18 
 
 WIndftu " 4 9 
 
 i»ernau " 3 12 
 
 Nissa Sweden 5 12 
 
 Konne " 6 9 
 
 All ran " 6 9 
 
 <irenane Denniark fi 13
 
 1404 
 
 JETTY, 
 
 of mattreasex (Dutch, Zink-stukken), each overspread by a 
 layer of smatl quarry-stone. The ground-plan of a mat- 
 tress is shown in Fig. 2, by which it will be seen to be made 
 
 I-'IG. 1. 
 
 a.50 MUW 
 
 with a top and bottom yn'llage of faacines, the interstices 
 
 between the fascines and filling (second layer) between the 
 grillages being bundles or layers of osier. A cross-section 
 
 Cross-section. 
 
 of the completed mattress is shown in Fig. 3. On the top, I retained. Full details of this kind of construction are 
 partitions of hurdle-work, n, a, divide the surface into given in works cited ; the following brief notes and above 
 square />(■»«, so that the stone thrown on for sinking may be ■ diagrams were kindly furnished the writer by the dislin- 
 
 Tic. 2. 
 li-rnmn-m fTTTTff 'TrrrTi^iTrrir^ 
 
 Details uf a Mattress. 
 
 guished engineer (P. Caland, inspector of the Waterstaat) 
 under whose direction the work at the Maas entrance has 
 been executed: 
 
 Fio. 3. 
 
 L iub6-sc(.liuii uT a Mattress, 
 
 "The thickness of a mattress varies from 0.40" to 0.50™ 
 (lG-20 inches); length and breadth varying according to 
 circumstances. Their breadth is limited to 25 metres, since 
 otherwise their transportation, .linking, and ballasting 
 would offer too great difficulties. Their length is unlimited. 
 However, as mattresses destined to be sunk at sea must be 
 ballasted with great speed, too great lengtli would bo un- 
 advisablc. The largest piece sunk at the jetties of the new 
 outlet for the improvement of the navigation from Rotter- 
 dam to the sea had a length of 50 metres and a breadth of 
 28 miitrcs, or a superlicial area of 1 100 square metres. The 
 courses of mattresses must overlaji joints — i.e. they ought to 
 bo sunk so that the joints of the under course are covered by 
 the ujiper cour.«5e. The mattress is made on the sea-beach 
 near the jetty, between high and low water, and when con- 
 sfrueted floated to the sinking-place, where it is fastened 
 by anchors and ropes, and placed as exactly as possible 
 above the chosen spot. Then the ballast-stone, weighing 
 onanaveragc 10 to 50 kilogrammes (01) to 112 pounds), from 
 boats or small vessels surrounding the mattress, is to be 
 laid on, first chiefly on the middle and then also propor- 
 tionally divided over the whole surface, till the mattress 
 iinmerges. The sinking-lines (with which the mattress is 
 attached to the vessels ) are then payed nut, at last detached, 
 and in the mean time still more ballast is cast on the mat- 
 tress: the total ([uantity amounting to about 700 kilo- 
 grammes (1600 pounds) per cubic metre (14 cubic yards) 
 of total volume. When the fascine-work of the jetty 
 is raised above low water, the oak piles are driven 
 
 through, as inclioatcd in Fig. 1. The rows of oak pilos 
 rcaciiing two metres above the water-line, and driven into 
 the bottom, consolidate the jetty. I'nder tlie track of Iho 
 rails. laid for conveyance of stone and other material, 
 rows of piles arc dri\"en through all the layers into tho 
 bottom of the sea. The stakes of the other rows are 
 shorter, and only serve to secure the stone revetment. 
 Between the rows of piles around the jetty forming the 
 fore-berni, and outside this berm, heavier stone is jilacod, 
 weighing on an average 500 kilogrammes (1125 pounds). 
 
 "From low-water line to the t()]) line the jetty is formed 
 of osier, laid down in layers of 0.25'" thickness, secured 
 by huriiles placed at a distance of O.GU'". The space be- 
 tween these hurdles is filled up to the top with rubbish or 
 waste stone; the entire top surface of the jetty mutt be 
 covered with stone weighing on an average 50 kilogrammes. 
 In order to get well-eouncctcd joints, stones of a nioro 
 regular appearance are employed for this pavement. As 
 already stated, experience has proved the stability of this 
 construction, neither heavy storms nor strong currents 
 being able to datuage the jetties. Should the bottom along 
 the head and the edges be abraded, those parts of the mat- 
 tresses protruding from tho jetties will by their flexibility 
 conform to the inequalities thus produced, and protect tho 
 work from undermining. On a movable bottom the fore- 
 going method of construction otl'crs guaranties of solidity 
 which recommend its employment wherever tho materials 
 for fascines can bo readily had." 
 
 The question of an ndnfuutc mivitfnhle outfrt to the Mis- 
 sissippi Piriver has turned attention to the feasibility of an 
 optn river-month by the use of jetties. The recent board 
 of engineers which visited Europe for the purpose of in- 
 vestigating tho use and success of the method, recommend 
 "parallel dikes or jetties, constructed of brush, fasciiits, 
 and stone, in the same general way as used by Mr. ("alantl 
 at the mouth of the Maas," to be applied to tho South Pass 
 of the Mississippi; and in contormity thereto Cougres.s, 
 iMar. 4, 1875, authorized "James B. Eads of St. Louis, 
 Mo., with such others as may bo associated with him, (j 
 construct such permanent and sufficient jetties, and such 
 auxiliary works as are necessary to create and perm.inenily
 
 .lEVONS— JEWELKY: ITS MANUFACTURE IX AMERICA. 
 
 1400 
 
 mainlniD, as hereinafter set forth, a wide aod deep channel grant, construction must be '' substantially commenced" 
 between tbo South Pass of the Mississippi Kiver uud the within eight month:^, a navigable depth of 20 feel secured 
 Gnlf of Afoxico/* etc. etc. Under th& stipulations of this | within thirty months, from the approval of the act (Mar. 
 
 Fio. 4. 
 
 lutermediate section of jetties. 
 
 4, IBTft). Moreover, an additionnl depth of two feet per 
 annum is stipulated for until a total depth of .10 feet is at- 
 tained. Fig. 4 represents a medium section (a mndificalion 
 of Mr. Caland's, Fig. 1 ) of the jetties |>roposcd by the board 
 already referred to. At the outer ends, where the water is 
 30 feet deep, the section attains very great magiiiludc. 
 
 Other methods of jetty construction are comprised in 
 what has been said under the other heads. (Sec Hakbor, 
 Hakdors of tub American Lakes, and Brkakwater.) 
 
 J. G. Barnard. 
 
 Jev'ons (William PtanlevK b, at Liverpool, England, 
 in I8;j.'». is a grandson of William Roscoe, the historian: 
 was educated at University College. London ; held an aj>- 
 pointment in the Australian royal mint at Sydney I8o4-.V.l ; 
 returned to England vid the V. S. ; became follow of his 
 college in 1864, and was appointed in ISfdJ professor of 
 logic, mental and moral philosophy, and Cobden lecturer 
 on political economy in Owens College, Manchester. Ho 
 has published a pamphlet on the Vnhte o/ (Jofd (I8(k'.). 
 showing the depreciation of the precious metals; Tfip Cimt 
 Qnegtion (18tf;>), showing the probable impending exhaus- 
 tion of the English coal-fields, and the expediency of 
 liquidating the national debt in lime; Efftncntnrif Lcshohh 
 in Lof/tc i I H70 ) : Theortf of Pttftttrnt Economy ( IS"! ). and 
 an elaborate treatise on Tlu^ Prinr-iplca of Science (1874), 
 in which numerous original ideas concerning processes of 
 reasoning are propounded. 
 
 Jcw'el, or Jewell (Jons), D. D., b. at Budcn, Devon- 
 shire. England, May 2 J, Io22: studied at Oxford, and 
 during the reign of Eilivar<l VI. became a Protestant min- 
 ister. In the reign of Miiry be was expelled from Oxforcl 
 by the Uomanists ; went to Strasburg at tbo invitation of 
 Peter Martyr, and engaged in teaching. Returning to 
 England after the accession of Elimbeth, he aided in all 
 the measures for the ro-establislunent of Protestantism, 
 was made bishop of Salisbury in I.ififl, and was the most 
 eloquent defender both in the pulpit and witli the pen of 
 the accumplished Reformation. Resides many cc>ntrover- 
 sial pamphlets against the Catholic champion. Dr. Thomas 
 Har ling, ho wrote in Latin his famous Apolofjin EcrlcHiir 
 AnijUninx (1 j62), ever since esteemeil a elaiisic of the An- 
 glican Church, a coriy of which was placed by order of 
 Kli/.abeth in every English church. D, at Monkton-Far- 
 leigh Sept. 22, 1571. 
 
 Jew'ellf county of Kansas, hounclcd on the \. by Xe- 
 braska. Area, 'JUO t<quare miles. It is a high rolling 
 prairie retina, with a good srdl, especially near the streams. 
 It alfords good pusturitge. Cap. Jewell City, Pop. 207. 
 
 Jewell ( Marshall), b. Oct. 20. 1825. at Winchester, 
 X. II. ; was bred a tanner, and afferwanls was extensively 
 cngageil in tilegrapli const ruction in the Suuth- western 
 •Slateit. In 18.50 he began a successful business at Hart- 
 ford, Conn., where ho manufactured leather belting. Ho 
 supported the Union vigorously during the late civil war; 
 was chosen governor of Cunneeticut in 18(50, IS7I, and 
 1872: U. S. minister to Russia ls7.'J-7 I ; postmaster-gen- 
 eral in 1^71. 
 
 Jewell Centre, post-v, of Centre tp., Jewell co., 
 Kan. 
 
 Jewell City jJewkll P. 0.), a v. of Buffalo tp., cap. 
 of Jewell CO., Kan., built on a beautiful plain surrounded 
 with timber : has a weekly newspaper, large .-ebool-house, (1 
 ■•trres, \ churches, large nurseries, various shops, etc. Coal 
 is t'otind in the vicinity. M. Winsor, Eh. "Diamond." 
 
 Jew'elry and Jewelfl, terms used in a oonflncd seniic 
 for pr<-einus stones sot in goM or silver and worn as per- 
 sonal urnamenis, but more generally applied to ornaments 
 made only of the precious uioluls. 
 
 Paris is in tliis branch of iniluslry (he great factory fur 
 the world, and sells to It annually jewelry to the value of 
 nearly tlO.IMtil.OOi) francs, of wliich about one-half is for 
 gnld-w(»rk, the other for precious stones. (Jreat pains aro 
 taken in Paris to protect purcbaxers froni boinj; deceived ! 
 in any way. Only three grades of gold aro allowed, and i 
 these aro set forth by olhciul stamps ip»int;oum). In every | 
 
 \ largo French city there is a so-called bureau of guaranty, 
 where all new jewelry is chemically tested with great care. 
 The English also endeavor to secure a standard nf value for 
 their jewelry, but recent revelations have shown that the 
 "Hall mark" is not to be depended upon, the evasion^ 
 having been both flagrant and extensive. For the U. S. 
 the only rule is Cuvcnt emptor — " Let the purchaser be- 
 ware," or look out for himself. Tliere are in Paris 900 
 manufacturing jewellers (masters), S26 shops, and 77 dia- 
 mond and gem merchants. In London there are 512 jew- 
 ellers, 4 wedding-ring makers, 29 gold-chain makers, II 
 j gold cutters, 2 mourning-ring makers, :i9 diamond cutters 
 and setters, 109 diamond merchants, ^J dealers in rough 
 ! diamonds only, S jewel merchants, 25 pearl merchants, 7 
 I dealers in jewellers' requisites, and 3.'i jewelry-case makers. 
 I The boast, however, which a French writer makes of tho 
 great cheapnens with which jewelry is now made, and "the 
 extraordinary degree to which an immense number of tools 
 I ingeniously perfected has wonderfully diminished all tho 
 I difficulty of workmanship," is a proof that in France it has 
 j been reduced from an art to a mere manufacture. 
 t Silver jewelry has become of late years a very exten- 
 I sive branch of industry. That of London is the most 
 I elegant in the world, being in exquisite taste, simple, and 
 j extremely cheap. There are only ^o manufacturers spe- 
 cially devoted to this branch (silversmiths not included), 
 but tho quantity which they produce is immense. Moat 
 of their work is in strictly antique fashion. Elegant sil- 
 ver jewelry is also made in Scotland, Ireland, Normandy; 
 and that of Russia (inlaid with enamel and chased) is 
 of remarkable beauty. There aro in Paris 141 manufac- 
 turers of silver ornaments, of whom only 97 make what is 
 strictly jewelry. Two grades of silver only are permitted. 
 Steel jewelry is extensively made both in France and 
 Germany. For this soft or malleable iron is at first em- 
 ])loyed, tho surface of whieh is ease-hardened — ('. e. tho 
 object is worked or filed while red. an<l steeled after the 
 form is given. Many piccfcs aro made by passing soft iron 
 while red hot between steel rollers in which the pattern is 
 cut in intoffUit. Polishing is efiected by means of wheels 
 of wood or tin with emery and English plate-powder for 
 tho portions in relief, and with brushes for the in<lentalions. 
 There aro in Paris over 100 manufacturers of steel orna- 
 ments, employing 1500 workmen. Ivory jewelry, which 
 was almost unknown till within a few years, is now made 
 in immense quantities in France, (Jcrmany, and England. 
 It may be remarked that the raw material has increased in 
 value; the demand for ornaments made from it has also 
 iiugmentcd. There aro at present in London ItO ivory- 
 carvers, nil of whom, in addition to other ribjccts, mako 
 brooches and earrings. Tortoise-shell jewelry is gener- 
 ally set off with spots and small plates of gold. Thirty 
 years ago tho manufacture was eonlined to Rome and Na- 
 ples, and in Lsri8 there were only six men who made it in 
 Paris; at jiresent Ihero aro in that city 12 establishments 
 devoted to this jewelry alone. A singular specialty In 
 personal ornaments is the so-eiilIe«l mourning jewelry, some 
 of which consists of gold and black enamel, the greater 
 part, liiiwever, being mado of jet, human hair, and vulcan- 
 ite — the latter an .Vmeriean invention. There an- in Paris 
 60 manufiieturers of mourning jewelry, and al>out ItO more 
 who nuinufaelure hair ornaments only; in London tliere 
 or© 25 of the latter and Li jet-workers. Jet is. however, 
 made extensively in all tho cities of (ireal Britain, that of 
 Whitby being preferred. This kind of jewelry was verv 
 well made in Enghiiid during the pre-historic Stone A^e, 
 and tbo jet of England was priited of old by tlie Romans. 
 An old British jet neeklaoe is engraved in Wilson's i'rc- 
 hiatoric Srotlumi. Amber hu* of late, in oommon with 
 jet, become a fashionable material for personal ornaments. 
 It is principally nmnufaclured in (Jcrmany. Old aiiil)er 
 beads which have become rich deep brown in color bring 
 a very high priee. Ciiarlkh ti. Lklanu. 
 
 Jewelry: ItN Mauuftictiirc in Americii. In the 
 cob>Mial period the wearing of jewelry was at fir.-t discour- 
 aged in tho New Englan<l colonies; it was regarded aa 
 one of tho "devices of Satan;" and aside from what was
 
 140(3 
 
 JEWETT. 
 
 brought over hv the wealthier immigrants there was vtry 
 Uttle^demand for it. (ioU beads were handed f'"- f ™ 
 mo her to daughter as heirlooms, and as the colon.sts be- 
 came prosperous an order was occasionally guen to the no 
 over-s'l^ilful goldsmiths of the time to make up some o he 
 
 nVPr ski till COHlSUlllilSWl im.^ mn- ." . -I- 
 
 carefullv hoarded guineas or doubloons into beads or mas- 
 "ve gold rings or chains. In New York, Maryland, and 
 V rginia therf was a greater demand for gold ornaments: 
 gold rings, beads, earrings, watch-seals, and eha.ns we e 
 ^,ore worn-not that the colonists possessed '"o™ 7™ 
 than those of New England or of Pennsylvan.a "»;>•;" 
 Jersey, but because there were not so many of " -^ "' "^° 
 or ascetic ideas controlling their m.nds Mo.t of •' « J" ; 
 eiryused in these colonies was imported, the fine arts being 
 no more cultivated there than in New England. The 
 •■watchmakers." or more properly the dealers m and re- 
 pairers of watches (for no watches were made in the colo- 
 nies), were also importers of jewelry to a limitcl oxten 
 "„d ma,le in many eases the simpler articles mentioned 
 above ; but there is good reason for believing earrings, 
 Pins bracelets, watch-seals, and the finer qualities of neck- 
 Le and chains were not manufactured in this country 
 and that the setting of the precious stones for ornamental 
 pun-o cs was not attempted'before the Revolutionary war 
 Z? indeed, till some years after it. The country wa left 
 °o much impoverished by the war that there was very little 
 denTand for luxuries for some years, and the currency was 
 "n «uch a deplorable condition that its purchasing ower 
 was almost e'n.irely gone. The firs. >nanufac urer o. jew^ 
 elry of whom we can fin.l any account was Mr Epaphras 
 Hinsdale of Newark, N. J., a man of great mechanical in- 
 eenuity and remarkable skill as a workman. He estab- 
 fished a manufactory of jewelry in that town, on a small 
 cale. somewhere between IVyO and 79o, ''"^ gradi ally 
 increk.ed it. Mr. Hinsdale died in ISIO. but a Mr. Taylor, , 
 wh" had been one of his employes, and perhaps a partner, 
 succeeded him and enlarged the business greatly. -Mr. lay- 
 or w's a man of genius in the mechanical arts, anJ .uvent^ 
 ed numerous machines to perfect the manutaeture. Both 
 Mr. Hinsdale and Mr. Taylor made earrings, V'"^' ' ^^^T 
 let.,, chains, and necklaces, all of hue K""'- "^'"j^' f ' '^^^^ 
 time gold of not less than 111 carats fineness. Their work 
 rs 111 solid, in distinction from the filled work of which 
 ITsLn speak presently. It was f '^" ^^''^^ '^ f '^^l^; 
 Mr Hinsdale's beginning at Newark, but not after 1800 
 fhat two or ,hrce° manufacturers of jewelry commenced 
 liisnoT, in Providence, R. I. Vcr.V ^oon, and perhaps 
 from the first, they began to make what has ever since been 
 k™ovn to the trade as "filled work"-,', e. the dj-sign or 
 paUern of the jewel, whether earring, pin, or bracelet, 
 was stamped out from very thin ribbons of gold, usually 
 r 18 carets fine, and this shell was filled with a solder o 
 pewter or lead and tin, and a back soldered o° <> g°>^ "f 
 inferior quality. The thin shell, under well-cut dies, took 
 very beautifufforms, and the fineness of the g.dd caused 
 t to eceive a high polish : and this filled jewelry which 
 couM be offered a' lo'ver prices than the solid. f-n1 «;-"l° 
 and speedy market. The business has expanded until it 
 h" ' n'ow reached an immense extent. In 1812, Mr. .eorgo 
 F Downing commenced the manufacture of watch-seals at 
 Newa k" to^hieh he subsequently ad.led other articles o 
 iewelrv and removed to New York nty.n 1821 A French 
 iianufaiturer named I,a (luerre had e^'ab ished in New 1 
 York City in 1S12 a factory for the production of filigree 
 ] wclry and had brought over several J'-'-^n/'h workmen o 
 remarkable skill. He carried on the business for many 
 yc™rs. Mr. Downing, who is still living at the nge^ot 
 ciglt --five years, thinks that at the time he came to New 
 York-in 1821 <here were no other manubudij^rers of je„c^^^^ 
 in that city except La Guerre an.l hiii.self. The \ ankees he 
 says, aooded thl whole country with their ' A''"'^ work. 
 Very soon after 1820 other manufacturers entered the field 
 and from ISliO to 18:t7 the demand increased beyond the 
 power of producers to supply it. Largo amounts of jew- 
 Tlry were Lported at that time. The terrible hnaucial 
 disaster of 18;',7 checked for some years the progress ot 
 this as it did the production of all other articles of luxury, 
 but with the return of prosperity the demand was renewed 
 „„,! constantly increased for many years the discovery ot 
 cold in California and .\uslralia adding largely to it. 1 He 
 disasters of 1857 and the severe pressure of the first years 
 of the war .liminished the business for a time, but the great 
 abundance of paper money which followed the large for- 
 tunes acquired by contractors and in the shoddy and pe- 
 troleum speculations, and the reckless extravagance ot 
 those who had sud.lenly acquired fortunes, gave to the 
 iewelry trade a vastly greater impulse than it had ever l.e- 
 fore received. The use of diamonds as jewelry, previously 
 confined to a vcrv few, beoamo common, and, though un- 
 aueslionably many spurioui gems were sold as diamonds. 
 the demand for genuine etones became so great that a class 
 
 of diamond-brokers found constant employment, and the 
 cutting and setting of these precious gems, which had pre- 
 viously been carried on mostly in Holland, became a rec- 
 o..nized branch of the business here. Hut this almost 
 insane rage for jewelry had another result ; servants and 
 the lower classes of society were infected by it, and as 
 their means were insufficient to purchase the genuine arti- 
 cles, there sprang up a great trade in gilt and imitation gold 
 icwelry-paltry stufi-, ma.le often in fine patterns, of brass 
 iopperf or'" oroide of gold," and covered with the thiiines 
 possible film of gold by the electro-platmg process. This 
 ra,h was and is sold to the poorer classes, at an enormous 
 profit, to the amount of millions of dollars, /"regard to 
 he originality of the designs of jewelry manufactured here 
 there is not much to be said : there have been combinationp 
 of the fragments of antique designs, good, bad, and indif- 
 ferent, occasionally a gleam of something new 'ntermin- 
 gling with the old : but for the most part the rococo, the fi - 
 ierce,and the Etruscan patterns have been more or less 
 slavishly followed; and it must be confessed that in jew- 
 elry, as" in furniture and architecture, there are not even 
 1 the germs of an original American style. The Mexican 
 1 and the ancient Aztec and Toltec ornaments of gold ha e 
 Tore claims to originality, though not to beauty, the gold 
 ornaments taken from the graves of '^c Chiriqui ndians 
 ' on the Isthmus of Panama, as well as those found in the 
 pueblos of the Moquis and other remnants of those races, 
 being far from elegant or even graceful in form. 
 
 The following statistics will show the progress of th.8 
 manufacture in^his country within the last three decades. 
 ?n 1850 the manufacture was but moderately developed. 
 The entire production of the year was reported as only 
 about S2.750 000, and this included watch-eascs hair jew- 
 elry! and lapidaries' work. In 18C0 there were 4b.i estab- 
 isLents for the manufacture of jewelry f "'; -'P';;^-;^ 
 a capital of SJ,180,T23, using raw matenal of the ^ alue ot 
 95,162,500, employing 5947 persons (.:!03 males and 584 
 females), paying wages to the '^""X"". »/.. ^2,W5,056, and 
 producing goods to the annual value of 5.10,41^.811. llio 
 Manufacture of hair jewelry was conducted m 8 establish- 
 ments having a capital of S27,000. and using raw mater al 
 "the amount of S15,.'!00; it employed 42 persons U' niales 
 and 25 females), the'wages paid were $10,620, and the an- 
 nual product ?45,C0O. Lapidaries' work occupied 7 estab- 
 H^hL'ents, and produced $^6,850 annually. The ota pro- 
 duction of jewJlry under these three heads was *1 0,498, (.1. 
 1 l" 870 inihe manufacture of jewelry alone there were 681 
 e tablUiments. employing 10,091 hands (8141 men, lo45 
 women, 405 children), using capital to the estimated amount 
 ; Ts 1.787.956, paying for wages $4,4.1.'!,235, iis.ng raw ma^ 
 terial -alued at '$9,187,364, and producing goods annually to 
 he value of $22,104,032. In addition, lapidary-work was 
 : conducted in 13 establishments, employing 88 persons to 
 "he annual amount of $107,300. Hair jewelry is included 
 
 under the general heading of " "----"f,' ' ->» '',%'',7,T2 
 cannot he ascertained. Theaggrega c, then,,s $ 11 332 
 
 not ne asceriameu. iii>- ogs.^i,. -, - ■ ^f ,u. 
 
 The annual product of some of the great centres of the 
 trade in 1870 may he added. Providence produced ,n ,4 
 establ hments $3,086,846; New York City m 198 estab- 
 lishments $9,595,700 ; Philadelphia in 53 establishment , 
 *1 ,8.3741: Spnngfiel'l. Boston, and Cincinnati respect- 
 ivdy, $370 O00..$338,000, and $338,000; Sau Fra«"Sco 18 
 establishments, producing $475,562; Bristol eo., Mass.(m- 
 Hmling AttleboLugh, etc.), 33 establishment. produc,„g 
 $1,510,925. ^- ^' B«<«^'"-TT- 
 
 Jew'ctt, post-T. and tp. of Greene co., N. Y., m the 
 Catskill Mountains. Pop. 1105. 
 
 i„.....«i (TinRiFS CoFFisl, b. at Lebanon, Me., Aug. 
 1. f8 fi gaXt d'lt Brown Iniversity in 1835; was for 
 a'lime student and librarian of the Andover Theological 
 5e inary i 1843 catalogued the library of Brown! n.ver- 
 ;u; ^here he rcnained as ^;J^^^;^V^Z^ ^^^ 
 Tnt'Sfrrof he''Li!tnian Institution and was 
 iSssTs superintendent of the Boston Public Library. 1>. 
 1 Br^hitre'^e. Mass., Jan. 9, 18.j^. He «r..te a v , ,„,, 
 report on the public libraries of the 1 . P. 18dO). and in 
 [ho sinne year brought forward an improved plan of cata- 
 loguing books, on lao'- 
 JPWPtt (Uey. Charles Ratmokd), b. July 29, 182s . 
 
 ^li^nTt^peraleM'': e\erful,''.talous. and eminently 
 fi X mrnlter. He was distinguished as a ■"odcl presol^ 
 uff older and earnest, bold, eloquent, as a preacher. He 
 -^^;^:„^erof the South Georgia con^eneei.,^.he time 
 of his death, July 10. 18,.. ^ y^ „ 0. 
 
 Jewett (L.THP.ni. b. at Canterbury, Conn., Pee. 24 
 177^!^; graduated at Dartmouth in 1795 ; was » ph"';'»" 
 li Putney and St. Johnsbury, Vt.; member of Congress
 
 JKWKTT— JKWISII LITERATURE. 
 
 1407 
 
 1816-17: pastor of n Congregational church at Newbury, 
 Vt., 1821-2S; publiBhcd newiipnpcrs at Si. Johnsburv, 
 Vt., lH2S-.'i2: and d. in that town Mar. 8. ISfiO. 
 
 Jewett (Mm.o Pakkkr), LI..I>., b. at St. Johnsburv, 
 Vl., ID 180S; graduated at Dartmouth in 182;^, and at 
 AndoTcr Theological Seminary in 1830; was a professor 
 in Marietta rollcge. 0., 18:^5-3*8 : left the Presbyterian and 
 joined the Da|itist denomination. an<( bneame president of 
 Vassar TulK-ge, Poughkccpsic, N. Y. Uo is author of a 
 work on ba]>ti?m. 
 
 Jewett City, post-v. of Griswold tp., New London co., 
 Conn., un the Quinebaug River and Norwich and Worces- 
 ter H. K., 10 miles N. K. of Norwich. It has cottou man- 
 ufactures and several churches. 
 
 Jew^fish, a nuuie given to several fishes of the family 
 Serranidie, attaining a weight of several hundred pounds; 
 that of Florida is the /^roiuirropM i/iionn, of whieli a speci- 
 men iu the Smithfionian Institution weiglied 700 pounds; 
 that of California is StereolepU ifiyns. 
 
 Jewish liiteraturc. Wliilo Europe claims pre-em- 
 inence in the arts and sciences, Asia has been the niotlier 
 of religions. Among all the religious systems of Asia, 
 that which originated among the Hebrews excels in purity 
 and loftiness. In them the profound subjectivcness of the 
 Semitic character found its noblest expression. Lacking 
 that calmness of spirit which led the (Jrceks to ol)servo 
 nature and to cultivate the plastic arts, they looked upon 
 the world of phenomena with a human interest, and re- 
 garded it solely in its relations to their own consciousness. 
 The external was to them no more than symbol. This 
 itlea dominated their history and literature. It made 
 them a people. Being in solo j)ossession of monotheism, 
 they became at once united among themselves and exclu- 
 sive toward their polytheistic surroundings. And since a 
 religious idea was at the very root of their existence as 
 a nation, it is not strange that the interest? of religion 
 maintained their supremacy during the whole course of 
 their history. In tlio Middle Ages, indeed, the Jews, in 
 conjunction with the Arabs, hccamo the mediators of tho 
 sciences. Ilut oven then those of their productions for 
 which originiilily can bo claimed were more or less inti- 
 mately connected with the discussion of religious eultjccts. 
 
 Tho most ancient monuments of Hebrew literature aro 
 contained in the liible. Much, however, that would now 
 bo considered valuable was ncit preserved iu tho saere<l 
 canon, and has been lost in consequence. The nature of 
 tho biblical writings at once illustrates the above remarks. 
 Their lii^torical portions arc designed to show tho work- 
 ings of Divine Providence in the destinies of men in gen- 
 eral, and particularly of tlie chosen people. Uhetoric be- 
 comes in them a vehicle of inspiration. Poetry is devoted 
 to the glorification of (Jod, with the exception of the Song 
 of Songs, perhaps, and is chiefly inteniled to bo sung 
 by sacred choirs. Philosophy, disregarding tho prob- 
 lems of the material wnrld, is busy nn the questions 
 of good and evil, and labors to reconcile tho ])rcsenco 
 of the latter with the goodness of tho Creator, os in 
 Job and Ecelesiastes. The influenco of Persinn ideas is 
 Tisiblo in several of the later writings of the Old Testa- 
 ment. To it has been ascribed tho introduction of the 
 namei of angels ami the doctrine of a resurrection in 
 tho body. The contact of tho Hel)rew and ({reek spirit is 
 of pmfounder interest. It took place both in Palestine 
 and in Alexandria. In Alexandria philo-<o]>hy and in- 
 sptriition joineil forces on the basis of a modified system 
 of Platonism. A rich crop of apocryphal works in proso 
 and poetry sprang up, tho words of the Bible were inter- ; 
 preted so as to express metaphysical tenets, and those an- 
 thropomorpiiisms whi4'h it cf»nluins, and which hud at first I 
 sight awakened considerable suspicion, became, in tho ! 
 new light that Philo (tho originator of the theory of tho i 
 Logos) anrl others shed upon them, transparent to a ' 
 deeper wisdom. There, also, tho first translation of tho ; 
 Ililile intn (ireek, known a^ the Septuagint, was efTeetetL I 
 Iu Palestine the attitude Judaism nsHumed against Hel- 
 lenism was hostile to tho last degree. Tho Hebrew has ' 
 ever found it a com]iaralively easy matter to absorb 
 the philosophical teachings of the age in which ho lives, 
 from the ai)senee of fixed dognias in his «)wn religion, 
 but he resists to the utmost any attempt to interfere 
 with the observance of those practical c'lmmandmenta I 
 of his faith which he regarils as its essential feature. | 
 Such an attempt was macle by tho degenerate (Greeks 
 who ruled in Syria in the time of .\nti<>chus Kpiphanrs. 
 Tho consequence was that Ju'laism retired upon itself, ^ 
 that tireek culture and heterodoxy came to bo synony- ' 
 mous terms, that the authority of Scripture was more than 
 ever secured in the afiections of the people. From that 
 time forth it hecame the centre of their existence. All their 
 energies seem to proceed from it, all their thoughts return | 
 
 to it. None the less, innovation became a necessity. All 
 the biblical laws were no longer applicable to the altered 
 conditions of a new age. I'navoiduble changes were grad- 
 ually introduced, liut such was the reverence now paid to 
 tho Holy Writ that no oriiinanco, however salutary, could 
 enforce obedience unless it had previously received at least 
 the nominal sanction of tho great " Hook." Tho teachers 
 of the people thus becamo doctors of the law. By an in- 
 genious method, which left them tho widest latitude of in- 
 terpretation, they were enabled to read from the letter of the 
 Hebrew Bible whatever meaning they desired to read into it, 
 and to fortify their own injunctions by referring thorn to a 
 divine origin. The inferences they drew, the analogies thev 
 insisted upon, wore in a philological sense absolutely reckless. 
 Every letter ond word that seemed superfluous, every un- 
 usual form of construction, was tortured into some unheard- 
 of signification : nay, they proceeded in defiance of all 
 grammatical construction. Tho principles of jurispru- 
 dence, tho ritual and ceremonial laws, even the rules of 
 decorum, were deduced from biblical sentences. Finally, 
 j the liction that an oral law was revealed to Moses on Sinai, 
 ' which from him had been transmitted to succeeding gen- 
 I orations, aided tliem in establishing the celestial origin 
 of their teachings where they might otherwise have been 
 j at fault. A few of tho leading rabbins were llillel, shortly 
 ' before the birth of Christ. .Tochanan b. Sakkai. at the time 
 ' of tho destruction of tho temple, Akiba, in the days of 
 ; Hiulrian, Juda tho Holy, tho compiler of the Misbna. R. 
 Meir, Aba Areka. called Kab, Raba. Rabbah, and others. 
 Of tho three i^rcck translations undertaken in the second 
 and third centuries of our era. those of Aquila, Theodotion, 
 and Symmachus. tho first in particular shows signs of 
 having been largely influenced by the rablijnical mode of 
 exegesis. The elaboration of the Talmud continued down 
 to tho sixth century. J For nn account of that great work 
 SCO the article TAi.Mrn.) The existing stock of tradition 
 was classified at the end of the second century in the six 
 divisions of the Mishna. The bulky commentaries grounded 
 on them aro known as tho Gcmaras of Palcstiuo and 
 Babylon. 
 
 The liturgical compositions of tho Jews dcscrTo at least 
 a passing notice. Prayer, as distinguislied from mere sup- 
 plication, was tho only adequate form of worship which a 
 monotheistic religion could accept. Tho hoathon gods, being 
 dependent on the gifts of their votaries, demanded sacrifice ; 
 tho Ood of tho prophets was exalted a>)0ve all human fail- 
 ings anrl needs. There was nothing which nmn could do 
 for him. To 8or\o him was to become like him. '' Holy 
 shall yo bo, for I, tho Eternal, your God. am holy." The 
 desiro to imitate (Jod, therefore, heoamo tho keynote of 
 Hebrew worship. In onler to imitate, it is in the first place 
 necessary to reganl tho object to bo imitated with interest 
 and attention. And thus an endless dwelling on tho 
 attributes of tho Deity became a leading characteristic of 
 Hebrew prayer — a ceaseless heaping of epithets, as if (lie 
 soul struggled to exhaust an infinite theme. It has been 
 remarked that"tl:o Jews pray motapliysics." The cause 
 of this peculiarity is thus made plain. That admiration 
 of tho lHvine Being should fincl vent in praise is natural. 
 Tho All'iood is tho dispenser of all bounties, and has or- 
 dained oven tiio seeming ills of life for a wise end. Hence 
 tho countless blessings which are interspersed in tho Hehrew 
 service, and which accompany even the most trivial occur- 
 rences of daily life. Lastly, a comparison between human 
 imperfection and the grandeur <d" Him whom he is called 
 upon to imitate leads the mind of man to expect only from 
 tho mercy of (rod that jmwer which ho lacks to become 
 god-like, and be implores for divine assistance : " I flv from 
 
 Thee to Thee." 
 
 When the Arabs received, through Syrian channels, the 
 treasures of ancient Greek thought, a new spirit of intiuiry 
 was awakened among them, and wos soon oommunioafod 
 to tho Jows. As early as tho seventh century works on 
 mathematics, astronomy, and astrology began to appear 
 among them. Exegetical studies received a jiowerful im- 
 petus from tho new soot of Ananites or Karaites, founded 
 about 7'»0 A. n. (see Kahaitks), who, rejecting the oulhority 
 of tradition as represented by the rabbins, professed to re- 
 turn to the letter of tho Hebrew Bible as the sole standard 
 of faith. Thev did not. it is true, remain faithful to lluir 
 professions, adopting many principles anil practict-a of 
 post-biblical origin ; and it has been conjeetured that tlu'V 
 ought to be considered the successors of the ancient Sad- 
 dueees. .Anaii himself, Benjamin Xahawemli, and Nissi b. 
 Noaoh may he mentioneil among the earliest authors of 
 their ("cet. The introdnction of vowel-signs into the loxt 
 of . Scripture was a result of tho inen-asod attention paifl to 
 philological pursuits. Two systems were in\'onlcd. The 
 ono originated in Pnbylonia, the other in Piilcstine. The 
 latter in the one in common u"e. The mysHenl tendencies 
 of thii period found expression, notably, in tho so-oalled
 
 1408 
 
 JEWISH LITERATURE. 
 
 Book of Creation, a work of small compass, but of great 
 influeiiee, which is held to be a production of the eighth or 
 
 ninth century. It cniploya the method of the Neo-l*yth;i- 
 gorcans, seeking to solve the problem of creation with the 
 help of numbers and letters. In the same epoch arose the 
 poutanic school of writers, with Etasiir b. Kalir at their 
 head. Their verses wore designed for use in the synagogue. 
 iJut though the Pitifim multiplied excessively during the 
 succeeding centurie?, there arc but few of these prayers in 
 rhyme that possess any real poetic value. A remarkable 
 instance is on record of the liberal spirit fostered I»y the 
 encouragement critical investigation received at this time. 
 The exphmation of miracles proposed by a Persian scholar 
 named Chiwi, certainly reminds one strongly ot" Eich- 
 horn and the nationalists. In the first half of tlio tenth 
 century arose the Gaon (a title signifying " liis Ex- 
 cellency") Saadias. born in Faium, Egypt. lie engaged 
 in bitter conflict with the Karaites, among whom Solomon 
 b. .Terucham was his chief adversary. Saadias's main work 
 is a philosophical treatise entitled Emunoth wc Dcoth — 
 "Faith and Knowledge." In it ho seeks to reconcile the 
 commandments of the Bible and the injunctions of tradi- 
 tion with the dictates of reason. He places great emphasis 
 on the doctrine of free-wili in opposition to a tendency to- 
 ward fatalism which had been encouraged by the spread of 
 Islam. He was also the authorof a translation of the Old 
 Testament into Arabic, and a commentary on the Book of 
 Creation, above mentioned, is said to be from his pen. An- 
 other commentary on the same book is ascribed to his con- 
 temporary, the celebrated astronomer and writer on med- 
 icine, Is:iac Israeli of Cairoan. Judab. Coraish, residing, 
 like Israeli, in the N. of Africa, is distinguished as having 
 been the first to introduce a comparative study of tho Chal- 
 dican. Hebrew, and Arabic languages. 
 
 In the latter half of the tenth century the supremacy 
 which the high schools of Babylonia were too feeble to 
 maintain longer was assumed by Spain. Moses, a captive 
 Talmudist, having been sold as a slave to Cordova, was 
 raiisomt-d by the Jews of that citv, and placed at the head 
 of their Talniudical sclujol. Under the patronage of Chasdai 
 Shaprut, the trusted adviser of Abderrahman III., letters 
 nourished. Alcnahem b. Saruk was the first of tiie rab- 
 binist Jews to attempt tho preparation of a Hebrew lex- 
 icon, and his work shows signs of considerable learning 
 and freedom from prejudice. Hi?^ opponent, Dunash b. 
 Librat, was among the tirst to apply the metrical forms 
 current Jimong the Arabs to Hebrew poetry. Chajug, a 
 pupil of iMenahem. disctivered the system of triliteral rad- 
 icals which forms the basis of ilebrcw grammar, while his 
 successor, Abulwalid, elaborated a complete Hebrew gram- 
 mar and a lexicon, which is now ( ISTO) being puiilishcd in 
 the original Arabic. The eleventh century is illustrated by 
 such men as Bachia h. Joseph, whose noble \Tork on the 
 DiitifjH of the Heart exalts the claims of the spiritual, moral 
 nature of man at the expense of mere outward formalism; 
 also by the poetic vezir of tiranada. Samuel haNagid ('* tho 
 prince ") ; and, above all, by tfie profound ])hilosopher and 
 poet, Solomon tlabirol. His system is based on the theory 
 of emanation, and is tiie i)roduct rather of an ardent im- 
 njjination, thrilling with enthusiasm, than of exact study. 
 His muse is melancholy, and dwells chieily on the pain and 
 sorrow of existence. Yet his verso is not lacking in power 
 and grandeur of expression. It has been well said of his 
 compositions that the 5()irit of Faust seenjs to pervade 
 them. (For an account of his ])hilosophical work, /'oji« 
 Vitie, SCO Munk's McianycH dc Philomphie. etc.) While 
 Hai, the last of tho Gaons whose name is of note (d. lO.'iS), 
 assumed an attitude hostile to all liberal culture, the Tal- 
 niudists of Moorish Spain were content to pursue their 
 path, without caring to molest those who inclined to studies 
 ditVering from their own. This is noticeable in the case of 
 Isaac Alfasi, the far-famed bead of the Academy of Lucena, 
 whose labors to extract from the interminable mass of dis- 
 oussions contained in the Gemara a clear statement of their 
 tinal results have secured him high consideration as an au- 
 thority in his branch down to modern times. In Christian 
 Spain a poet arose in the beginning of tho twelfth century 
 (Jehuda lia Levi, b. in Castile 1080 A. n.), whose verse in- 
 deed is tender, sweet, full of pathos, but whose thoughts 
 and sympathies are far narrower than those of (Jabirol. 
 His philosophical work, the Cusari, is written in the form 
 of a dialogue between tho king of the Chazarcs previous 
 to his conversion (tho king and his people adopted Juda- 
 ism in the eighth century) and tho representatives of the 
 three groat religions, Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. 
 Tho first two being compi-Ued to own that their religious 
 records arc based on the Hebrew Bible, tho king confines 
 his» conversation to the Ji-w. In the (-xposition of his j)hilo- 
 sophical icleas Jehmia ha Levi makes frequent use of tho 
 term M*i/iif/afi. which ni.iy b-? rendered " herita-jo of tho 
 Divine Spirit." Though no human being is excluded from 
 
 tho grace of God, there are certain men and places that 
 have betn gifted from the beginning with the faculty of 
 becoming peculiar vehicles of his spirit. Adam trans- 
 mitted this gift to the patriarchs, thence it was obtained 
 by Isr.ael, and among them was accorded in its highest 
 potency to tho prophets. Tiic places so selected are the 
 cities and villages of the Holy Land. In accordance with 
 these convictions the poems of Ila Levi are inspired by an 
 intense yearning for Jerusalem and the ruins of its temple, 
 and tho "songs of Zion " arc the most eloquent produc- 
 tions of his Muse. Geigcr, in his lectures on Jewish his- 
 tory (ii. p. HS). has pointed out the connection between 
 the sentimentalism of Ha Levi and the direction given to 
 men's minds by the prevailing doctrines of the Church in 
 his native country. A contemporary of the above was 
 Abraham Abeu Esra, born in Toledo in 1093. In the 
 course of his restless life his travels led him to Egypt, 
 Italy, the S. and N. of France, and to England. He d. in 
 Rome in 1107. He wrote several works on Hebrew gram- 
 mar, of which that entitled The ScafcH is of considerable 
 historical value. His great renown is due to his commen- 
 taries on the books of the Bible. His style is brilliant, his 
 observations profound, and often pointed with bitter, cut- 
 ting sarcasm. In his commentary on the Pentateuch he 
 refers to those passages which appear to preclude the idea 
 of Mosaic authorship; in that on Isaiah he anticipates 
 modern criticism by indicating the distinction between an 
 earlier and later prriphet of that name. He believed with the 
 astrologists in the influence of the stars on human destinies, 
 and is supposed to have entertained pantheistical notions 
 concerning the Deity. But he loves to assume the mask 
 of simple credulity, and is fond of displaying an ostenta- 
 tious deference for the views of the ancients, so tliat it is a 
 matter of no little difficulty to extract his true opinions. 
 
 The high-water mark of Jewish literature in the Middle 
 Ages was reached in the writings of Maimonides, born in 
 Cordova in ll-'io. He fled with his father from the perse- 
 cutions of the Almohades. and at last found protection and 
 security in Egypt under tiie mild sway of Saladin. Among 
 his chief works we mention his commentary on the Mishua 
 and the Miahnch Thorah ("Repetition of the Law "), in 
 which it is his purpose to present a complete and system- 
 atic code of ral)binic law, and by this summary to sup- 
 plant the Talmud itself; for he was aware that (hat work 
 requires a life-study to master, and leaves little or no 
 room for the pursuits of science. The More Nchmhim 
 { Dhalalath al ffajirin is its title in the original Arabic — 
 ''The Guide of Those that are Gone Astray ") embodies 
 the philosophical system of its author. In it Maimon- 
 ides proposes to liarmoniae the principles of religion as 
 laid down in the Bible with those metaj>hysical con- 
 ceptions which the age inaccurately ascribed to Aris- 
 totle. Tho anthropomorphic expressions of Scripture 
 arc pregnant with a deeper meaning: the ceremonial ob- 
 servances which it enjoins were largely instituted as a 
 safeguard against heathen practices. The Deity him- 
 self can bo described by none but negative attributes. 
 Revelation is a union of the individual soul with the Ac- 
 tive Intellect. The reward of virtue lies in the high spirit- 
 ual development which it leads us to obtain. The tendency 
 to systematize which is thus apjjarent in the works of 
 Maimonides induced him. in one of his earlier writings, to 
 set up thirteen articles of faith, a step which was equally 
 unprecedented and dangerous. The free, pure-minded phi- 
 tusopher might have become the author of mental slavery 
 for his people had not tho spirit of Judaism been such 
 from the beginning as to resist all attempts to hamper it 
 with dogma. 
 
 .\moug the .Tewish authorities of note at this period in 
 Germany nniy be mentioned Gershom. surnam».il "the 
 Light of the Exile" (end of the tenth and beginning 
 of the eleventh century). He eradicated the last vestiges 
 of polygamy among the Jews, and declared the consent of 
 the wife a necessary condition of divorce. In the second 
 half of the eleventh century lived in Troyes R. Solomon 
 b. Isaac, commonly known as Rashi, a man whose name is 
 familiar to every student of Hebrew literature. His com- 
 mentaries on tho Bible may still be read with interest and 
 advantage. But to the brief exjflanatory notes with which 
 lie has elucidated all the voluminous works of the Talmud 
 we owe in a great measure the possibility of still compre- 
 hending tho intricate discussions of that difficult work. 
 Samuel b. Meir (Rashbam) followed in the footsteps of 
 llashi, his grandfather and teacher, and is distinguished 
 for the simplicity and straightforwardness which mark his 
 interpretation of Scriptures. His brother, Jacob Tliam, 
 was among the earliest of tho so-called Tossafists, a school 
 of casuists who exhanstecl the power of dialectics in fine- 
 spun subtleties of little real value, that tended only to 
 make the study of the Talmud still more complex and la- 
 borious. Simon Darshan deserves mention as the author
 
 JEWISH LITERATURE. 
 
 ijoy 
 
 of an oft-quoted coinpilatioD, known as the Jalkut, In 
 Italy. Shabtbai I>uiiulu gained distinction a^ a physician. 
 He was the author of a new commentary on the Hook of 
 Creation. At tlie end of the eleventh century U. Nathan 
 b. Jechiel of Ituiue prepared a lexicon of the Talmud, Tar- 
 gum, and MidraKh, which is still considered a valuable 
 auxiliary to the studies it was designed to facilitntc. In 
 the S. of France, the land of heresy and free thought, wo 
 find in the twelfth century, besides a number of distin- 
 guished Talmudiats. such scholars as Abraham b. Chija, 
 the mathematician^ the Kimchis, and Thibbons. .Joseph 
 Kimchl introduced the current classification of Hebrew 
 vowels. Of his suns, David Kiinchi bears a high reputa- 
 tion as a grammarian, lexicographer, and comnientntor on 
 the Bible. Juda Thibbon translated intoilcbrtw the philo- 
 sophical works of Saadias, of liechai. and of Juda ha Levi. 
 His son Samuel is the translator of the .\fore Xrhurhim. 
 The devoted industry of these men opened the rich mine 
 of Arabico-.Iewish literature to the countries of Christian 
 Europe. Conversely, the Latin works of scholastic authors 
 were now being renilered into Hebrew, and new channels 
 for the exchange of thought were thus opened. In the tliir- 
 tcenth century lluurished the poet Charisi, whose spirited im- 
 itations of the Arabian Hariri are justly esteemcil. Joseph 
 Ibn Aknin, (ho favorite pupil of Maimonides, did not exert 
 that wide Jnlluenee which one would suppose his relations 
 to the great master might have given hin*. At this time 
 the writings of Maimonides became tlio apple of discord 
 between the friends of liberal culture and the conservatives. 
 The opinions of this philosopher concerning the resurrec- 
 tion, and the doubts he seemed to cast on the *' creation out 
 of nothing," proved peculiarly objectionable. Abraham h. 
 l>avid of PosquiC'res and Meir ha Lc^ i of Tulcilo hiid 
 already raised their voices against the new opinirm during 
 the lifelimo of its author. After his death the struggle 
 broke out violently. Solomon of Montpellier. the leader 
 of the anti-philosophical party, went so far as to call in 
 the aid of the Dominicans to crush his opponents. The 
 Spaniard Juda Alfachar took sides with the Provencal 
 rabbi, though urged by David Kimchi to declare in favor 
 of Afaimonidcs. Passions ran bi^h in either camp. A 
 settlement of the questions under discu.ssion could not, 
 however, be reached. The tendency to rationalism as 
 exhibited in the exegesis of the period, continued to 
 grow, until at the beginning of the fourteenth century a 
 new outbreak occurred. The learned, pious, and polished 
 Adereth, the stern and unbending German exile, .lacob h. 
 A^her, were at that time the chief rabbinical authorities of 
 Spain. The authority of the former was invoked by tho 
 fanatics of Mr)ntppllier to anathematize the ]iarly of prog- 
 ress, and, after offering a vain resistance for some time, ho 
 was forced to yield to their importunities. IJut the right 
 of free investigation was too socred a tradition within tho 
 pale of Judaism to give way before the decrees of orthodoxy. 
 The Milrhfimoth A'lniifii (" liattlcs of tho Lord") by (Jer- 
 8onidi>s, the commentaries of Kaspi and Maestro \'idal on 
 tho .\fnre Xrhiicftiin, show plainly that tho spirit of phi- 
 losophy would not Huccuml> without a struggle. Nay. in tho 
 fearless assertion of conviction these works transcenfl even 
 the speculations of Maimonides. The coeternity of matter 
 with (Jod is boldly asserted, tho testimony of miracles de- 
 nied, etc. For all that, tho decline of metaphysical studies 
 could not bo arrested. It was brought on not by the machi- 
 nations of a Jewish priesthood — for nothing of the kinci 
 exir-tefl — but by tho force fif adversity ami perseculirjn. 
 Philosophy goes out, mysticism steps into its place. Nach- 
 manitles, the profound thinker, one of tho most esteemed 
 oommcntators of tho Bible, contributed largely to ensure it 
 a favorable reception. It was crystallized into a system by 
 Mose r|o Leon in thu latter half of tho thirteenth century. 
 His chief book, the Suhnr (*' Radiance "), is written in 
 Chablaic. or rather Syriac, and has remained the standard 
 work of the Mystics down to (he present day. Ho nsoribes 
 its authorship to .^imon b. .Joebai. tho hero of many Iegen<ls 
 in the early Talmudie age, Heneo the name of Cabbala, 
 or tradition, which is falsely applied to this and similar 
 productions. Though tho forgery is sufficienllv palpable, 
 it escaped detection. Form and contents of tliis strange 
 composition equally attest its lute origin. The doctrine 
 it inculcates rests on the theory of emanation. (lod is tho 
 Ennut', the Fndless. From him. in successive gradation, 
 tho higher antl lower worlds have come, until the world of 
 matter and of evil appeared os the last modiri<'iLti<m of his 
 Spirit. The sefiroth (originall)* "numbers," then spheres, 
 then the presiding spirits of (he sjiheres) form the ehannels 
 between the celestial and the terrestrial. By skilful manipu- 
 lation of the words of Scripture, espeeially the |et(ers of 
 tho ineffable name of (tod, man is able to exert a macieal in- 
 fluence upon (he workings of (he Divine. The prrnicious 
 tc'idency of theye iilens did not become widely manifest 
 nnlil a (Vw centuries after the S->hnr'ii nppearunee. 
 V..1.. 11, — S!( 
 
 In the mean time, it is refreshing to olvservo how vigor- 
 ously Jewish writers took part in the popular literature of 
 the different countries to which they belonged wherever their 
 oppressors allowed them a brief repose. We refer to 11. u 
 Sahal. whoso erotic poetry wa.s the delight of the Arabs : to 
 Santob do Carrion, the Castilian ; to Siisskind of Trimberg, 
 the German Minnesanger; and to Manoello, or Immanuel, 
 who was admitted to the intimate circle of Dante's friends. 
 In the vision of heaven ancl hell contained in the Ditnn 
 of Manoello, a marked contrast appears between him and 
 his great contemporary. The Jew hails the great and good 
 men of the heathen world, regardless of their belief or un- 
 belief, among tho dwellers of paradise. In the beginning 
 of the fifteenth century Chasdai Crescas wrote a philosophi- 
 cal treatise entitled Or Adomti ('• Light of God"), in which 
 he seeks to show that all human actions arc controlled by 
 law, each effect being conditioned by an antecedent cause. 
 He does not, however, deny the freedom of the will. His 
 pupil, Joseph Albo, is the author of Jemrim ("Funda- 
 mental Principles"). In this work tho salvation of tho 
 eoul is represented as tho aim of human existence, and the 
 doctrine of Maimonides that wc arc to regard a progressive 
 advance toward ])erfection as tho end of our being, ile- 
 clared insufficient. Ibn Sheintob's views, laid down in his 
 Kchod Elohim ("Glory of God"), are equally worthy of 
 attention. Among tho polemical writers of (ho Midcllo 
 Ages. Profiat Duran. called liiodi, takes rank with tho 
 highest. Tho atteni]^t of converted Jews. like Paulus de 
 Santa Maria, Geronimo, and others, to destroy the faith 
 of their brethren, provoked sharp and frequent discussions. 
 The satirical letter of Efodi, addressed to a former friend 
 and coreligioni.s(. is a model of its kind. His most pointed 
 and telling arguments are wrapped in the forms of conces- 
 sion. Simon Duran met the doctors of the Church on their 
 own ground, and endeavored to prove from passages of the 
 New Testament that Christ himself was unwilling to be 
 considered more than man. Toward the end of the liftccnth 
 century, Abrabanel, the exiled minister of King Ferdinand 
 of Spain, wrote his commentaries on tho Pentateuch, the 
 books of Joshua, Judges, and Samuel, which contain much 
 valuable information of interest to the historian. 
 
 Tho pro{luctions of .Jewish literature were at this time 
 more quickly and widely disseminated by means of the new 
 art of printing. The Jew Jerome Si»ncino is prominent 
 among tho early Italian printers for the excellence of his 
 Hebrew and classical publications. It is in Italy, indeed, 
 that the interest of Jewish literature in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury mainly lies. Tho Cabbala, it is true, found devotetl 
 adherents in that country, but rather among cardinal? and 
 princes than among Hebrew scholars. The two counts of 
 Mirandola are instances in point. It is well known that 
 even Keueblin, the defender of the Talmud. sutTered him- 
 self to be Iriekcil by cabbalistic mummery. (M' Klias Levita, 
 on the other hand, wc know that he devoted his energies to 
 fioli'l study and investigalion. He callecl attention to tho 
 fact that the vowel-signs of the Hebrew Itiljle were added 
 at a comparatively modern period, and that we are free to 
 disregard them in the criticism ot the text. Again, Asaria 
 dci Uossi showed that the current chronology of the Jews, 
 dating from the Creation, is utterly untrustworthy and 
 contradicts well-established hi'itorical facts. He was also 
 tho first to avail himself of the Scptuagint as a critical 
 instrument. In other European countries no literary work 
 of any great impi>r(anco was going on. In Prague, David 
 (lans, himself an nstronomer, who correspondeil with 
 Kepler and enjoyed the soeiety of Tycho Brahe, wrote tho 
 annals of Jewish aruX universal history. OiIkt books on 
 history aj)pcarcil about the same time. In the middle of 
 tho century the influence of the Cabbala nninng tho Jews 
 was revived by Isaac Luria, the di\ ine Kabbi Imuic (Ari), 
 who closed bis brief life in .Jerusalem. To Palestine we 
 are also indebted for that renowned code (compiled by Jos. 
 Kara) known n« (he Shuhhmi Artirh, whieh, entbracing in 
 its provisions the entire life, public and private, of the 
 Israelites, has maintained an infallible authority down 
 almost to the present day. 
 
 In tho Seventeenth century free Holland afforded nn 
 asylum to the Jews. But the literature of the German and 
 Portuguese settlers that soon arrived in great numbers, so 
 far as it is distinctively Jewish, is not ot any high order 
 of merit. The wri(inK8 of Mannssc b. I^rael, his Addrma 
 to thr /^rotrrlitr, lus Enprrmtra dc fitrttef. Ins Viiidicattim 
 Iff t/ir Jrtm, aro notieeal)lo chiefly for (heir practical bear- 
 ings. The e(uigrega(ion of Anisterd;iin was infected with 
 the spirit of the lnqui^ition, from whieh they bad suflVred 
 so cruelly in (heir former home. They had become narrow 
 and bignled. and the best men (hat arose in their midst, 
 Z'riel <la Costa, Benedict Spinrtza, were bi((erly and per- 
 si-itendy perseeu(e(|. In odicr countries the interes(s of 
 cnhure faretl no l»etter. In Poland the a((ention of schol- 
 ars was absorbed in fruitless discussions on barren themes,
 
 1410 
 
 JEWISH SECTS. 
 
 and high intellectual gifts were wasted on abstruse ques- 
 tions of Tiilinudic:il casuistry. Germany was inundated 
 with Polish rabbis, and seemed to have lost all |irodiictivc 
 power of its own. As a rttrn ana in liv day may be men- 
 tioned tlie commentary of iJpman Heller on the Ali.^htia, 
 which, with that of Ins predecessor, Obadiah di Bcrtinoru, 
 is curainonly printed alon^^sidc of the text in the standard 
 editions. Italy alone enntinucs to contrast favorably with 
 the j^eneral gloom that had settled on the Jewish world. 
 There we find the forerunners of the reform movement of 
 our own time. Leon Modena attacked the prcvailinj!; sys- 
 tem of rabbinical Jnd;iism, called for a purification of 
 public worship, and demanded the abolition of the cere- 
 monial observances wliich the Talmud had enjoined. Jo- 
 seph Delmedif^o, a man of profound and varied Ie:irning, 
 the pupil of (iaiileo, was no less exalted above the bigotry 
 of his age. The end of the seventeenth century was 
 marked by the great Messianic movement, instituted under 
 the auspices of the Cabbala, with the impostor S. Zewi. as 
 its aeknowleilged leader. The fever spread from tlic Kast to 
 the West, and left deep traces in the writings of the time. 
 In the eighteenth century the young poet Ch. T>. Luzzato 
 caught the prevailing contagion, and ruined a promising 
 career by his devotion to mysticism. Those dreams of a 
 great glory near at hand not only tended to sow discord in 
 the congregations, as may readily be seen by referring to 
 the controversial writings of Eibeschutz and Jacob Emden 
 (see the article Jews), but they niso loosened the bonds of 
 social order, and, especially in Poland, where they were 
 much encouraged, brought about the complete demoraliza- 
 tion of the common people. The evil was at its worst when 
 the time of change was already near. Already, at the be- 
 ginning of the century, Jcchiel Heilprln had written his 
 Sccle?- ha Doroth (*' Order of Generations "), which showed 
 an awakening desire for the cultivation of historical pur- 
 suits. The I'rotestant Basnage wrote his history of the 
 Jews, which served to give the Christian world some, 
 though indeed a very inaccurate, knowledge of the great 
 theme which it sought to illustrate. Prof. Wolf of Ham- 
 burg undertook to do for Hebrew bibiiograjihy what the 
 Buxtorfs had done for Hebrew lexicography. At last, with 
 Moses Mendelssohn, the new era fairly began. A transla- 
 tion of the Old Testament in the corrupt idiom then cur- 
 rent among the Jews liad been attempted before by Jos. 
 Witzenhausen. Mendelssohn, however, was the first to 
 render the Pentateuch into pure German, and thereby, like 
 Luther in his day, created a powerful desire for change 
 among his brethren. Under the influence of his disciples, 
 the " Meas'fim " (so-called from the Mcate/ or *' Gatherer," 
 a periodical published under their auspices, and of N. 
 Wessely in particular), Hebrew poetry revived, and a duo 
 regard for grace and polish of form was inculcated. 
 
 But the great benclit which the modern reform movement 
 hns conferred on Jewish literature lies in the application 
 of scientific methods to its study. Germany has in our 
 day broken its long silence, and the labors of its scholars 
 have brouglit order into the chaotic mingling of confused 
 elements which the literature of the Jews presented to the 
 scholar fifty years ago. The true succession of generations 
 has now been, to a great extent, restored, many works that 
 were considered lost have been redeetncd. and the past is 
 being reconstructed before our very eyes. Among the 
 illustrious men who imvodone this work we mention Zunz, 
 the pioneer, .Tost, Geiger. Rappoport, Munk. .S. 1). Luzzato, 
 Steinschncider, Derenburg, Graetz. Frankel. As it was 
 intended in the above summary to indicate merely tlio di- 
 rection of the great current of .Jewish literature, many 
 n:unes nf authors otherwise deserving attention have not 
 I'cen noticed. The reader is referred for full information 
 to the works quoted in the article on .Tkwisii Histouy, and 
 to the excellent treatise of Dr. Steinsehneider first pub- 
 lished in Krseh and (Jrubcr's Alhjviu. Knri/hf., iind since 
 translated into English under the title of Jcwinh Litera- 
 tnre. Fklix Adler. 
 
 Jewish Sects. Sttdtinreci and Phnrigees. — Until 
 within a very recent period the character of these sects or 
 parties, which divided the .Jewish state in the last two cen- 
 turies preceding its downfall, was strangely misconceived. 
 The Pharisees were represented as having been hypocrites 
 — the Sadducees, libertines. We are chiefly indebted tt) 
 the brilliant researches of Geiger for n more truthful, if not 
 yet complete, understanding of their principles and tend- 
 encies. The Syrian king having attempted to introduce 
 the worship of images in Judjea by force of arms, the 
 Jews heeamo more closely attached to the religion of their 
 fathers, and the »Scriptnre in which it was hiicl down, by 
 reason of the long struggle through which they were com- 
 pelled to pass for its preservation. Even before the Mac- 
 eabean war a party had been formed among them who, to 
 ensure a stricter observance of the iMosaic law, withdrew 
 from th? society of the surrounding j)coples and their own 
 
 less scrupulous brethren. These were known as "Nibda- 
 
 !im " (separatists), or, in the Aramaic dialect. Perishin, 
 whence Geiger derives the name Pharisees. In the war of 
 independence the reigning family of priests had lost the 
 confidence of the nation by their subserviency to the in- 
 vaders, and a new dynasty, that of the Hasmoneons, as- 
 sumed the tiara, and soon alter the crown. The power of 
 the jiriesthood, however, had been sadly shaken. It was 
 regarded with fear and suspicion. The Hasraoncans. it 
 is true, had headed the war against Antiochus and his suc- 
 cessors. But no sooner were they seated on the throne 
 than they allied themselves with the enemies of the sep- 
 aratist party, and incurred its tlispleasure. This party had 
 in the mean time identified its interests with those of the 
 people, and in opposition to the class-rule of a favored 
 hier.archy began to develop strongly dciuncmtic tendencies. 
 The whole i»eopIe arc priests, they said, and they attempted 
 to extend the character of sanctify to every member of the 
 community. In this undertaking they were much hampered 
 by that book which they regarded as the very foundation 
 of their faith. The Pentateuch distinctly recognizes the 
 prerogatives of the priesthood. Powerless to abolish them, 
 therefore, they copied the peculiar rites and ceremonies of 
 the priests, and enjoined their observance on all. They 
 could not level the law of Moses; they built up new ordi- 
 nances of their own of equal height. Like the besiegers 
 in olden times, they raised wall against wall. Thus, if the 
 priests were commanded to perform certain ablutions before 
 an ofl"ering, every Israelite was now to do the same befttre 
 sitting down to his meals; the laws of purity, hitherto in- 
 cumbent on the servants of the temple only, were declared 
 universally obligatory. The blessing over the wine sancti- 
 fied it so as to replace the libation ; even a substitute for 
 the offering of frankincense was not wanting. The repasts 
 which the Pharisees held in common are in like manner 
 explained as imitations of the customs of the priestly />«- 
 trxa. Every house was designed to be a temple, every hearth 
 an altar. The religious equality of all was the watch- 
 word of the Pharisaic party. This would aid in explaining 
 the origin of the elaborate code of cercnuinies embodic<l in 
 the Talmud. In the course of time, when the meaning 
 which had inspired them at their inception was lost, they 
 became a heavy burden. We may observe, in passing, that 
 a desire to do .away with temple and sacrifice is distinctly 
 expressed in the later proplietic writings of the Bible. 
 Also, a friendly spirit toward the Gentile world, and an 
 effort to establish more intimate relations with them, which 
 was, however, speedily checked. 
 
 In the priestly party, iu opposition^o which Phariseeism 
 arose, Geiger recognizes the Sadducees. Their name he 
 derives from Sadok, a distinguished ])riest of the first tem- 
 ple. Nor can it be denied that we find the Zadokiles in 
 liigli honor later on, as testified by Ezechiel and Nehemiah. 
 The Sadducees an aristocracy ; the Pharisees the champions 
 of popular rights: the former the party of conservatism. 
 the latter that of religious reform — this is, in brief, a 
 statement of the opinion which at the present day 
 largely prevails concerning them. That the leaders of 
 the Pharisees were men of high aims and noble purposes 
 no one can reasonably question, though the means by 
 which they sought to attain their ends were not always 
 wisely chosen. Concerning the Sadducees and their true 
 character, thero will still be much discussion. It may 
 bo urged that the well-known conservative spirit of (ho 
 sect is cause sufllicient to explain the peculiarities of their 
 doctrines. AVithout denying the right of " tradition " to 
 amplify the provisions of the Mosaic code, they resisted 
 all far-reaching innovation, preferring to adhere as closely 
 as circumstances would permit to the beaten track. The 
 Pentateuch — and this is of great importance — exalts the 
 descendants of Aaron and T^cvi above the rest of Israel. 
 A desire to remain loyal to its evident prescriptions may 
 have been the sole motive which impelled them to lean 
 toward tlic priesthood and watch over its rights. Wo 
 need not. therefore, charge them with hierarehal tend- 
 encies. As to the points of difference between Sadtlueces 
 and Pharisees, the information wo ]u»sse8S is scanty and in- 
 sufticient. M'c know that the Sadchieees rejected the doc- 
 trine of the resurrection in the body. This will hardly sur- 
 ; prise us when we recollect that the books of Moses contain 
 no allusion to any such doctrine. It was, moreover, a for- 
 ; cign importation, having probably been carried to Juda'a 
 from Persia. The Sadducees declare that holy things com- 
 municate their character of sanctity l)y contact ; the Phari- 
 j sees assert that their touch makes unclean — a declaration 
 I which was designed to prevent profane handling. If this 
 I is the case, say the Sadducees. then the Bible would cause 
 1 unclcanness, wliilc the Homeric poems would not. False 
 witnesses are to be punished, according to the Sadducees, 
 only when they have caused the punishment of the accused : 
 according to the Pharisees, as soon as the judge has pro-
 
 JEWS. 
 
 1411 
 
 nounccd sentence. The former seems more equitable. The 
 SadJucecs arc of opinion that the high priest i^hould kindle 
 the frankincense in his censer before entering; the Holy of Ho- 
 lies ; the Pharii^C'L-s command him to desist til! he hns passed 
 the curtain. The exegesis of Lev. xvi. 2, on which the dis- 
 cussion hinges, is, if anything, favorable to the former. 
 (For an extended account of the differences between the 
 two sects, see Geigcr's Urschri/t and Judinchc Zeitschn/t 
 fiir ]\'i894rn/irhn/t uud Lchen, 1863.) The Pharisees explain 
 the word " sabbath " in Lev. xxiii. 11 as moaning, in this 
 connection, fea«t-'lay in general. The B(cthusinns, whom 
 Oeigcr considers a subdivision of the party of the Sadducees, 
 and identifies with the Ilerodians of the New Testament, 
 retain it in its original signification. In this way, counting 
 from "the day after the sabbath," they bring it about that 
 the fiftieth day, the Feast of Weeks, shall always fall on a 
 Sunday. The writer of this article has elsewhere attempted 
 to show that it is erroneous to attribute such an opinion to 
 the Bfethupians or Sadducecs. It is well known that the 
 n:irae Ba>lhusians or Sadducecs is frfquently used in the 
 Talmud where Christians are really meant. The Sadducees 
 had no motive to prefer the Sunday, but many against such 
 firprerence. On tno other hand, it was of great importance 
 to the Christians that the Feast of Weeks, (he Pentecost, 
 the close of the rcsurreelion-perind, should fall on the day 
 of the resurrection. AVe have before us here a conflict not 
 between the Pharisees and Sadduceos, but between the 
 Pharisaic Synagogue and the primitive Church. The im- 
 portant bearings of this controversy on the development 
 of early Christianity cannot hero be shown. (For a brief 
 statement of th» main argument in support of the above 
 theory, see the Proreedinff* of the American Oriental Soci- 
 ettf foV 1874.) 
 
 That the first book of Maccabees was written by a Sad- 
 ducee. the second by a Pliari?-ee. is one of the many in- 
 ti-resting points which Geiger has labored to prove in his 
 VrMrkrf/t. In how far Jesus himself adopted the principles 
 of the Pharisees, made use of their mctbodf, and even of 
 their very words, may best be seen by studying their writ- 
 ings. The necessity of doing this in order to penetrate the 
 obscurity which covers the first century of Christian his- 
 tory, has been forcibly urged by Ilausrath in the Proteat- 
 aniinehe Kirchcnzf^itnng (ISC'?, No. 44). 
 
 Enneneit. — Little is known of this mysterions Feet save the 
 few stray data which Joseplms has preserved. They lived 
 in communistic societies, led a quiet and secluded life, en- 
 joined celibacy, observed moderation in speech and action, 
 wore garments of spotless white. They shut themselves 
 off from the society of the world, finding it impossible to 
 maintain that scrupulous purity which they aspired to in 
 the mirlst of social influences that exposed them to con- 
 stant contamination. They have been considered the ex- 
 treme right wing of Phariseeism. Popular superstition 
 clothed them with magical powers. It is diflicult to ar- 
 rive at the truth concerning them at the present day. The 
 Talmud does not mention them. (For an account of the 
 K 1R\ITPS see the article under that head.) 
 
 The Chnnidim, a modern sect, arose in the last century. 
 It has numerous adherents among the tJews of Poland, 
 Uussia, and Hungary at the pre(«ent day. Their religious 
 practices are said to re-temble those of tlie Shakers. The 
 authority of their rabbis is supreme, the honors paid them 
 amounting almost to worship. They delight in ecstasy 
 and vision: an'l my^'tieism, as is everywhere the case, not 
 unfreqnently leads to immorality. This sect is an offspring 
 of the Cabbala — a sad sign of the utter demoralization 
 which long oppression has produced in the countries where 
 it prevails. Ffei.ix Ani.Jtii. 
 
 •lews, a people of Semitic origin, known also as He* 
 lirrws or IsraoliU'S. The former name is probably do- 
 rivrd from their early seats bey<»n<I the Kuphrutes, whenoo 
 they migrated to Palestine (the word IChT, whence Ihrim or 
 /hhrricH, meaning " beyond ") ; the latter is taken from tho 
 surname of (he third patriareh, Jacob. With the waning 
 fortunes of the kingdom of the ten tribeH and the consum- 
 mation of it." fate Judali became the centre arounc] which 
 the remnanlH (»f the people crystallized. It waH the found- 
 ation on which the polity of the second temple was raistid 
 after tho exiles* return from Habylon ; and from that timo 
 to our own day the scattered members of the nation havo 
 been knoivn In common l>y tho name of .f udah ( Jehu- 
 dim, JudiitHts, .lews), A complete history ofth.' .Fcwn has 
 not yet been written, and tlie bej-t attempts that have been 
 rande to supply this deficiency only prove by their failure the 
 
 ftrematureness of tho undertaking. Nor is it likely that a 
 tetter result will soon be achieved. The variou«i fortunes 
 which the .lews have met iTith on their journey of ;tflOO 
 years, the persecutions they have undergone, the iiIl-ab«orb- 
 ing devotion with which they have clung to thn religiomi 
 ideal of their pa«t, and which eouM not but parjlyz*' their 
 interest in the present — their want of appreciation, too, of 
 
 the importanco of historical research, joined to the wanton 
 destruction of precious relies of their literature by the 
 fanaticism of their adversaries — have conspired to m:ike 
 their annals like the torsos of some gigantic group, which 
 the genius of a later age in vain exhausts itself to recon- 
 struct. It is with good reason that this people has been 
 termed a mystery to the nations. It is almost an enigma 
 to itself. In view of these facts we shall do well to content 
 ourselves with directing the attention of the reader to the 
 main events of Jewish history only, which can be estab- 
 lished by the records. 
 
 At tho very outset of our undertaking we arc distressed 
 by the almost complete want of contemporaneous accounts. 
 Setting aside for tlie moment the aid which Egyptologists 
 proffer, and concerning whose value prudence warns us 
 to suspend our judgment, we are dependent exclusively on 
 the scriptural narrative for the source of our information. 
 For, although continued research in Egyptian tombs and 
 .^ssyrian palaces may reasonably be expected to bring to 
 light some day much that will add to our knowledge, wo 
 need have no scruple in at once rejecting the fables of 
 Hecaticus of Abdera and his like. Concerning the manner 
 in which the biblical account itself is to be received, the 
 opinions not only of philosophers and historians, but even 
 of many eminent divines, go far asunder. To us it .ceems 
 that of all the views that have been advanced on this sub- 
 ject there arc only two which can claim the merit of con- 
 sistency. The one embraces the inspirational theory, and 
 looks upon the sacred writings of the Hebrews ns the direct 
 work of Gofl through his instruments the prophets. The 
 other simply regards them ns the joint product of many 
 generations of ancient Israel, and, while asserting for them 
 certain distinctive excellences of their own. throws them 
 entirely into the chain of human development, and aban- 
 dons them, no less than the hymns of the Vedns, the books 
 of Homer, or the narrations of Herodotus, to the analysis 
 of the critic. We think it wisest in what follows to adhere 
 ns closely as may be to the very words of Scripture, nor 
 shall \vc only select from them what, measured by a modern 
 standard, may seem more or less adequate to the demands 
 of reason. The narrowness of our space will excuse the 
 briefness of the sketch. 
 
 The Hebrews, inhabitants of Palestine, did not assert the 
 natural claim of being aboriginal. They were tho bearers 
 of tho monotheistic idea. In the light of thut idea their 
 history began with the Creation, their destiny was to em- 
 brace the world. They were not to seek others; their duty 
 was to remain true to themselves. In good lime all natitms 
 would gather to their '" holy mountain."' Their roots 
 reached backward into ante<liluvian soil ; they had no 
 need of coveting the doubtful honor of having sprung from 
 the soil of Canaan. Abraham came from Ur, in Cbaldea, 
 with his wife a;id nephew. On reaching I'aicsline he trav- 
 ersed tho country in every direction, and. what is worthy 
 of note, erected altars on those spots which in later times 
 became the principal seats of cults not always pure or re- 
 garded with favor by the prophets. (See Hosea on Uethel.) 
 A famine drove him to Kgypt. where his beautiful wife, 
 Sarah, was taken into the royal harem. This was a con- 
 sequence of Abraham's previfuis agreement with her that 
 she should pass as his sister, he fearing that the lust of 
 Pharaoh might otherwise endanger his life, niicl trusting 
 that I>i\ irie Providence would allow no evil to result. In- 
 deed, ho does not seem to have explained the true state 
 of things oven after the royal order had been executed. 
 Put his confidence was justified. Pharaoh was warned by 
 the plague of his misdeeds, and dismissed the jiious prophet 
 with many gifts. Almost the very same traits occur in the 
 narrative of Abraham's visit to Abimeleeh, king of (Jernr, 
 in Phillstin. and again in the account of Isaac's sojourn at 
 the same court : he likewise introflucrd lU-bccca as his 
 sister to the Philistine. Abraham on his return to Piiles- 
 ti?ic separale«l from his nephew, aihuving him to take tho 
 richer fields near Sodnm for his share. In a war under- 
 taken by tho Sodomites against Chedorlnortier and his allies, 
 Lot was ciiptnred, and boldly reseue<l by Abrahiim. In a 
 vision, accompanied by fearful signs. Gnil nssun-d the piilri 
 arch that his descendants hliouM possess the laud in whirli 
 ho dwelt, and these visions and promises were frequently 
 repealed, the whole country from the Nile to the Kuphnites 
 being as-lirned as their future possession. Rut a« yet 
 Abraham i-* unble»se<| with offspring. His union with 
 Hagar results in the birth of Ishmnel. Hef<tre the 'diild 
 has seen the light the Egyptian woman is driven into the 
 dosort by Sarah. There nn angel finds her by a well, fore- 
 tells the future greatness nf lier son, and commands her to 
 return to h«r mi»ilres». The cireumslances of Hagar's flight 
 are relnted without reference to the first account, and with 
 some divergeneo in the narrative, in Gen. xxi. To avenge 
 the misdeeds of the Sodomites, God descends to earth. 
 Three men appear to Abraham to acquaint him with tho
 
 1412 
 
 JEWS. 
 
 approaching judgment, and at the same time wilh the ful- 
 filment of bis own darling wish. Sarah will bear him a 
 child who shall be the inheritor of his fortune and his 
 mission. The name Isaac is variouslj' explained in Gen. 
 xvii. 17, xviii. 11', and xxi. 6. After tJod has left Abraham, 
 and the' touching intercession of the prophet in behalf of 
 the doomed city has proved vain, for there are not ten 
 ri.'htcous men 'in its midst, the direful work proceeds. 
 From the ruins of Sodom and Gomorrah, Lot and his two 
 daughters are saved. To one interested in such inquiries 
 it is" instructive to compare the manner in which an event 
 somewhat similar to the destruction of Sodom is treated by 
 pa^an writers. (See Ovid's Mdanwrpli., .\., "Baucis and 
 I'liTlemon.") We would also draw the attention of philol- 
 o"ists to the curious coincidence between Gen. xix. 4-9 
 and Judg. xi.'i. 22-25. In the one hundredth year of the 
 patriarch Isaac is born. Being commanded to sacrifice his 
 son, the father complies without a niurmur, but before he 
 can' consummate the terrible deed a voice from Heaven 
 chcuks his hand, and announces to him the reward of God 
 fi>r the steadfast trust which he has exhibited. On the 
 occasion of Sarah's death he purchases a burying-place for 
 his family, and thus secures the right of possession to the 
 land. The exquisite story of Isaac's wooing through his 
 father's faithful servant, the meeting of the gray-haired 
 steward and the bright young girl at the well, his enter- 
 tainmcnt and departure, is one of the choicest bits of 
 description which the history of the ancients has preserved 
 to us. His favorite son being wedded to his kinswoman, 
 and the danger of intermarriage with idolaters being 
 warded off, Abraham " is gathered to bis people," having 
 reached the good old ago of 175 years. 
 
 The life of the second patriarch is less erentful. After 
 his departure from Gerar, to which wo have already re- 
 ferred, Isaac concludes a treaty with Abimclech, on which 
 occasion Beer-Sbebareceivesits name. (Compare Gen. xxvi. 
 31 with xxi. 31, .32, where the name seems to be referred 
 now to the word shaba, to '-swear," now to eheba, the 
 numeral 7.) The birth of Jacob and Esau introduces a 
 permanent element of discord into the family of their 
 parents. Their strife begins even in their mother's womb, 
 and, increased by differences of temper and occupation, con- 
 tinues a source of mutual vexation till late in life. Jacob, 
 although a peaceful shepherd, seems to have given the first 
 occasion of their quarrel. It is he who, taking undue ad- 
 vantage of the exhausted hunter, betrays him into bartering 
 away his birthright. It is ho who, at the instigation of Re- 
 becca, imposes on his blind old father, and deprives Esau 
 of the blessing which was intended for him. The fond reliance 
 with which the decrepit patriarch leans on his strong elder 
 son, the tender filial love which the rude, generous-hearted 
 Esau returns, the pains he takes to procure his father's favor- 
 ite delicacies, the eagerness with which he endeavors to make 
 good his faults— above all, the deep pathos' of the meeting 
 between parent and son when they find that they have both 
 been overreached by the "man of wiles"— enlists all our 
 sympathy in behalf of Israel's disinherited brother. Jacob 
 fl'ces to Mesopotamia, finding his home no longer a safe 
 place to dwell in, and remains for twenty years in the em- 
 ploy of his uncle Laban. Ho marries both his cousins, 
 though the first fourteen years of his service were devoted 
 to Rachel alone, and then continues for six years longer to 
 undertake the care of Baban's herds. The manner in which 
 he gains his great wealth during this period reminds us of 
 his earlier dealings in his father's house (Gen. xxx.). In 
 the mean time, his family having largely increased, and 
 his relations with his father-in-law ceasing to bo friendly, 
 he determines secretly to depart. Being pursued by Laban, 
 ho ccmcludos a covenant of peace with him, and both par- 
 ties combine in erecting a stone mound as a memorial ot their 
 league. On his return to Palestine, Jacob wrestles in the 
 night with a divine being at Penuel (compare Judg. viii. 8 
 and 1 Kings xii. 25), and there receives the surname by 
 which his descendants prefer to be known. Fearing the 
 wrath of Esau, he now prepares to conciliate his favor, and 
 with every token of submission and humility approaches 
 him. Esau, true to his nature, discards the proffered 
 gifts, embraces and kisses the brother who has so bitterly 
 wronged him, and forgetting the past dismisses him on his 
 way with kind words and offers of protection. Wc cannot 
 sufficiently admire the truthfulness with which Scripture 
 has drawn the character of Esau, and the unsparing justice 
 with which it exposes the vices of him who is cherished as 
 the father of the chosen people. As Abraham makes the 
 future capital of the prince of Judah his favorite abode, 
 and acquires landed property at Hebron, so Israel chooses 
 the future residence of the kings of Israel, raises an altar, 
 and buys land at Shechem. On reaching Bethel, w'.ierc he 
 had previously seen the vision of the heavenly ladder on 
 his flight to Haran. the promises then made are repeated, 
 and the name Israel is a second time bestowed on him. 
 
 Removing thence, his beloved wife Rachel presents him 
 with a son, Benjamin, and dies by the wayside. Jacob 
 has now twelve sons, like Isbiuacl, and one daughter, iJinah. 
 On account of an indignity offered to her, the two brothers 
 Simeon and Levi take fearful vengeance on the people of 
 Shechem, killing all the males, leading the women and 
 children away captive, and jjlundering the town. 
 
 Joseph, the eldest son of Rachel, was the favorite of his 
 father, who presented him with a tunic of many colors. 
 This and the boy's ambitious dreams arouse the envy of 
 his brothers, and they determine to slay him. Saved from 
 death through the intercession of Reuben, he is sold as a 
 slave to Egypt by the advice of Judah. There, entering 
 the house of Poti'phar (the same name occurs Gen. xli. 45, 
 where he is called a priest of Heliopolis, and Joseph mar- 
 ries his daughter), and exciting the passion of his mistress, 
 he saves his virtue at the expense of his liberty. After 
 two years he is taken from prison, and his skill in inter- 
 preting the dreams of Pharaoh raises him to the dignity of 
 viceroy of Egypt. His prophecy proves true. The seven 
 years of plenty arc devoured by seven of famine, and the 
 wise precautionary measures of the Hebrew ruler alone 
 save the land from overwhelming disaster. Among others 
 who come up at this time from the surrounding districts to 
 avail themselves of the rich granaries of Pharaoh are (he 
 sons of Jacob. They are confronted with Joseph, who at 
 once recognizes his brothers, and exposes them to a long 
 series of trials to test their honesty and mutual affection. 
 He dismisses them, with the money they have paid him se- 
 cretly restored to their sacks, detains Simeon, and commands 
 that their youngest brother be brought before him ; then 
 on their return so contrives that Benjamin appears guilty 
 of theft, and claims him for his bondsman. It is at this 
 juncture that Judah, with words of eloquent tenderness, 
 appeals to the seeming tyrant's heart, and offers himself to 
 slavery in his brother's stead. Joseph reveals his true 
 character, sends messages to his father which induce him, 
 though already far advanced in years, to remove his family 
 (about seventy souls) to the district of Goshen, which the 
 bounty of the" king has provided for him and his. 
 
 In reviewing the lives of Jacob and his sons we cannot 
 but note how the fortunes and rival claims of their posterity 
 are, as it were, yisibly foreshadowed in the acts, and even 
 the affections, of these fathers of the tribes. While the birth- 
 right incontestably belongs to the son of Leah, the love of 
 Is'rael goes out to' Rachel, and her eldest born, Joseph, is 
 called the "prince of his brothers," a character which he 
 plainly assumes in his dreams (Gen. xxxvii.). Wc know 
 that later on the tribes that sprang from Jose]ih did. indeed, 
 assume the sovereignty of the kingdom of the north in op- 
 position to Judah ; and if it was the latter, the fourth of 
 Leah's sons, who reigned in the person of David and his 
 house, we find the prior claims of Reuben, Simeon, and 
 Levi already disposed of in the days of their father. The 
 rights of these three were forfeited by their passions. The 
 first was guilty of incest with one of Jacob's concubines; 
 the other two were bitterly denounced for their cruelty to 
 the Shechemites (Gen. xlix.). The prophetic lips of the 
 dying patriarch here curse the wrath of Levi, which proved 
 so valuable in the time of Moses, and the dispersion of that 
 tribe, which is elsewhere characterized as a divine preroga- 
 tive, is here foretold as the punishment of their guilt. 
 We may also call to mind that as in later times the tribe 
 of Benjamin alone became permanently attached to Judah, 
 so even in the history of their ancestors we find Judah at 
 once the affectiouato brother and the bold protector of 
 Israel's youngest son in Joseph's presence. 
 
 After Jacob had passed away, and with the death of 
 Joseph the guardian of their interests was removed, the 
 sons of Israel, who had largely increased in the mean time, 
 became the slaves of the Egyptians. Four hundred and 
 thirty years they served their pitiless taskmasters (accord- 
 in" to Ex. xii. 40 : Gen. xv. 13 gives the somewhat lower 
 csUmate of 400 years, while from Ex. vi. 10 it would ap- 
 pear that only three generations, Levi, Kohath, and Am- 
 ram, the father of Moses, had passed between the first set- 
 tlement of the Israelites in Goshen and their final deliver- 
 ance). At length the period of their bondage drew to a 
 close. After Egypt had been visited with nine plagues 
 without the rigor of the king and people being softened— for 
 God had hardened the heart of Pharaoh, that his great 
 miracles might be displayed in the sight of the Egyptians 
 
 (Ex. vii. 3) the work of emancipation was consummated. 
 
 The'children of Israel prepared the Passover sacrifice, and 
 in the night, while all the first-born of the land perished, 
 they marched forth laden with silver and gold, and under 
 Moses' guidance turned in the direction of the Red Sea. 
 Pharaoh followed, but was overwhelmed with all his host 
 in the floods that had opened to let Israel pass. Instead 
 of taking the shortest road to Palestine, by way of Phil- 
 istia. Moses now led the people about in the desert tor
 
 JEWS. 
 
 141.3 
 
 about forty years. Concerning tho first two yenrs of this 
 period our accounts aro tolerably complete. The people 
 were weak in luith. and on every occasion when their obe- 
 dience was tried, failed utterly to meet the emergency. They 
 cried for water — Moses miraculously procured it for them; 
 they demanded bread — the heavens rained it down upon 
 them. The scriptural etymology of the word nianua is 
 peculiar. Tho dejicription of its appearance and taste re- 
 mind u?f of the virtues of tho white and pearly haoma of 
 the Persian?. Mnses had ample reason to say that the load 
 was too heavy for him to bear. The crowning event of tho 
 Exodus \va3 tho revelation of tho Law on Sinai. There 
 Jehovah had appeared in a flaming hush to the fugitive 
 shepherd while tenilinj? the flocks of the Mi<iiiinite priest, 
 and now again. luni'i the sublime phenomena of tho thun- 
 derstorm, the " majesty of God " descended in fire ( Ex. six. 
 IS) to the pinnacle of the pmoke-envcloped cliff. Concern- 
 ing the attending circumstances of the revelation, the scrip- 
 tural account seems open to various constructions. From 
 Ex. xxiv. 2 it would appear that Moses alone was to ap- 
 proach the Divine Presence; in xix. 24, Aaron is command- 
 ed to a-'company his brother; while in xxiv. 13 tho person 
 of Joshua is substituted for that of the high priest. And 
 agnin, while in Ex. xxxiii. 20 we learn ** thou canst not be- 
 hold my countenance and live," we are informed in xxiv. 
 9, in, 11, ''and Mosfs, Aaron. Narlab, and Abihu ascended, 
 and they saw tho Ood of Israel, and I>eneath his feet; . . . . 
 and they saw (iod, and they ate and drank." In like man- 
 ner, Ex. xxiv. 3, 7, would lead us to suppose that Moses 
 himself wrote down the words of revelation in "a book 
 of tho covenant," while in xxxi. 18 two tables of stone are 
 spoken of, "inscribed by tho finger of (Jod." Let us add 
 that in Ex. xx. tho fourth commandment of tho Decalogue 
 is referred for its origin to tho repose which the Maker of 
 heaven and earth instituted on the sabbath of the Creation, 
 while Dent. v. l/i regards it as a memorial of Israel's re- 
 demption from tho p-'rvitudo of Egypt. Tho new covenant 
 into which they had entered with Jehovah was quickly 
 broken by the people. In Moses's absence they worshipped 
 a golden calf, and Aaron himself was rebuked by the in- 
 dignant prophet for the readiness with which he had yielded 
 to (ho popular clamor. Directions were now given for tho 
 construction of a tabernacle in wliich the priests and Moses 
 were henceforth to receive the communings of God. Tho 
 details of thn erection of tho sacred tent are twice enumer- 
 ated at considerable length toward the end of the second 
 book of Moses. There aro certain differences in the ar- 
 rangement of material and the choice of language in the 
 two accounts. (For a learned diPcns?ion of the whole sub- 
 ject tho curious reader is referred to the excellent treatise 
 of Dr. Popper, I*'>pprr'8 Sd/fithiittc, Leipsic, 1S02.) The 
 sncrillces and feasts, the various rites and ceremonies con- 
 nected with tho new sanctuary and its priesthood, are re- 
 hearsed in the book of Leviticus. Wo may claim the read- 
 er's indulgence if we forbear to discuss them. With the 
 elevation of Aaron's family to the ministry of the taber- 
 nacle the contentious spirit of the people found new cause 
 for discontent. A conspiracy was formed, with Korah, a 
 cousin of Moses, at its head, for tho purpose of resisting 
 the divine cominmid that had preferred the Auronites to 
 thi* priesthood. IJut thi-ir ambitious designs were thwarted. 
 The earth opmefl and swallowed up tho whole baml of con- 
 spirators, Korah au'l his friends, their wives an<l children, 
 anrl all that belonged to them (Xum. xvi. 27, 32). With 
 regard to tho distinguished honors which tho descendants 
 of Korah bore in the service of tho temple at Jerusalem, 
 see Xum. xxvi. II : "the sons of Korah did not perish." 
 
 lLivingap[iroached the confines of Palestine, Mosos sends 
 out twelve spies to tho Promised liand to report upon tho 
 condition of tho country and the strenelh of its defences. 
 The news they bring so alarms (ho fears of the people that 
 they dcire to bo let! back (o Egypt, and arc in consequence 
 declared unworthy of the prize they had scorncil, and uro 
 doomed to perish in the wilderness. Tho events of tho 
 succeeding thirty-eight years of their wanderings arc 
 wrapped in obscurity. Wo may marvel how so vast a con- 
 course of human beings — r»(KI,(lOi) fight int^-men ahme, be- 
 sides tho women and children — could support life for so 
 loTi'^ a period in the barren desert ; wo may invent plausi- 
 ble theories concerning the manner in which they spent the 
 dre:iry days of that joyless interval ; but Scripture gives us 
 no clue to aid our aspiring fancy. AVhen at Inst a new 
 generation had grown up, tho Israelites on'M^ nn»ro direct 
 their march towards tho Jordan. With Moses as their 
 leader, and under the protection of their (tod, they defeat 
 the armies "f Sihon ond Os. subjugate som^^ of the most 
 fertile pasture lands E. of the river, and spread far and 
 wi"le the terror c)f their name. Tho king of Moab (tho 
 etymology (»f the name is curious: his own means "light- 
 ning," (hot of his father, "bird "), alarmed by the advance 
 of so formidable a foe, calls id a Borccror from (ho East to 
 
 blight the fortunes of Israel. (Those who are fond of 
 drawing parallels may compare the incident of Balaam and 
 the ass with the account of the ass who startled Dionysos 
 when he fought with the Titans, of the ass who foretold his 
 imperial honors to Augustus, also of the ass in the story 
 of Priapus, to whom St. Jerome has likened the Baal-Pcor 
 of our text.) In the plains of Moab the assembled people 
 receive the parting monitions of Moses. The penalties of 
 disobedience are painted in colors so vivid as to seem tho 
 very reflex of present vision, and the rewards of a glo- 
 rious future arc promised if they will be true to the law of 
 which they are the bearers. That law is familiarly known, 
 and the " Book of books" in which it is contained is easily 
 accessible to all. Its provisions are mainly laid down in 
 Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy, and all of these threo 
 must be carefully consulted in order to arrive at correct 
 conclusions concerning the intentions of the lawgiver. 
 This is not always so easy a task as might be wished, as 
 serious difficulties are apt to complicate a harmonious 
 interpretation. Lev. xviii. Ifi-Deut. xxv. 5 may be men- 
 tioned as an instance in point. (The difference in legisla- 
 tion which is here cited has been ingeniously referred by 
 Dr. Geiger to the discrepant needs and interests of tho 
 kingdomsof Judah and Israel. The writings of this distin- 
 guished scholar are stored with erudition and masterly 
 research on this and kindred subjects. His Urschrift, in 
 particular, should be in the bands of every historian who 
 treats of tho rise and development of the monotheistic 
 idea.) In passing, we cannot refrain from expressing a 
 just surprise that the law of Moses should have been 
 charged with neglecting the sanctification of the spirit, and 
 placing the religious life of mnn on a merely legal basis — a 
 law which proclaimed the childhood of man and the father- 
 hood of God : a law which took for its principle the sanc- 
 tification of all the peojilo ; which devised such tender meas- 
 ures to ensure respect for the feelings of the poor; which 
 commanded the creditor to return the pledge of the debtor 
 before nightfall ; which prevented the seducer, in an ago 
 when tho marriage tie was but loosely knit, from divorcing 
 the victim of his passion ! As Moses was not to enjoy t!te 
 fruition of his work, the beginning of the conquest of the 
 Promised Land set a period to his life. From afar off he 
 was permitted to view the future home of the tribes. Then 
 he died. Tho circumstances of bis life, indeed, are calcu- 
 lated to awaken an interest even in the minds of the skep- 
 tical. Cradled amid tho waters, a shepherd serving a for- 
 eign master, a man of miracles, whoso staff changes into a 
 serpent, divides the sea, cleaves the rock, and calls forth the 
 living water — the favored of Heaven, from whose counte- 
 nance beams of light are shot forth that dnzzle the beholder, 
 tho bright-eyed prophetic hero who sinks to rest among the 
 mountain-peaks, his history awakens many reminiscences 
 in the minds of those conversant with the early lore of 
 ancient nations. 
 
 Tho work which Moses had left unfinished was taken up by 
 his successor, Joshua. Ho led the people across the Jordan, 
 and erected a monument of twelve stones in commemora- 
 tion of their safe passage. {For the locality which was 
 thus distinguished we may choose between Jr>sh. iv. K, " in 
 tho midst of the Jordan,"" and iv. 20, "at Gil.cal.'*) The 
 narrative of tiie first victories of the new leader is inter- 
 spersed with the most marvellous events — tho failing of (ho 
 walls of Jericho, tho phenomena at Ajalon. tho atTair of 
 Achan. In some points we notice a marked resemblance 
 between tho incidents of Joshua's life nnd that of his pro- 
 doccssor and teacher. (Compare, c .7., Ex. iii. b and Josh. 
 v. 15.) Before his <ica(h, Jot^hua distributed the conqutTcd 
 and unconquered territory among the tribes, and exhorted 
 (he people to choose between Jehovah and the idols. They 
 willingly declared their readiness to follow the pious exam- 
 ple of their cliief. In tho succeeding period, however, wo 
 arc surprised to find no trace of the fullilment of so fair a 
 promise. Disorder and distrust prevail. Mutual jealousies 
 excite fierce conrtiets among related clans ; almost the whole 
 tribe of Benjamin is extirpated; Abiinelech kills seventy 
 princes on one stone; lust nnd treachery run riot. Tho 
 general darkness is at times illumined by the patriotism of 
 heroic women and herculean men. but (he liglw it sprea<ls is 
 fitful and uncertain. What most distresses us in the nceonnt 
 wo have of this evil time is the conduct of those whom we 
 are taught to revere as (ho chosen messengers of Jcho\ nh. 
 Gideon after his victory proceeds to make a goMen idol, 
 which he worships (Judg. viii. 27): Jephtbah sacrifices his 
 own daughter (Judg. xi. 35) ; Samson marries a heathen 
 woman (xiv. 1); while a Levite, contrary to both (he letter 
 and spirit of the Law. consents to become the priest of an 
 indlviclual and to superintend the worship of imnges (Judg. 
 xvii. and xviii.). To (be question, What had become of 
 the rcmembrancQ of Moses and his law in tho mean time? 
 wo look in vain for a satrsfactriry answer. 
 
 Tho last of the judges marks an important cpooh in Is-
 
 1414 
 
 JEWS. 
 
 racl's history. Samuel was born of pious parents, and 
 early dedicated to the service of God. (The etymology of 
 the name, given in 1 Sam. i., seems to belong rather to 
 Saul.) Eli and his sons were at that time in charge of the 
 sanctuary at Shiloh. The weakness of the one, the wick- 
 edness of the others, brought destruction upon themselves, 
 defeat upon the people. The Israelitish army was routed 
 by the Philistines, and the ark of the covenant became the 
 spoil of the victors. It proved a dangerous possession, 
 and after having brought plague and pestilence in its train 
 wherever it was transported it was finally returned, along 
 with certain strange ofTerings, to appease " the God of Is- 
 rael." Samuel now became the acknowledged loader of the 
 people, and during all his lifetime is said to h.ave overawed 
 the Philistines and secured the peace of the land (1 Sam. 
 vii.). The books of S.amuel, however, continue to recount 
 renewed conflicts between Israel and Philisti.a. The sons 
 of Samuel were unworthy to succeed their father, and the 
 people clamored for a king. The political tendencies of 
 monotheism were republican. Samuel resisted their per- 
 sistent demands to the utmost, but at last gave way, and 
 anointed Saul of Benj.amin. (.\ccording to 1 Sam. viii., 
 is., X., it would appear that the elevation of Saul was due 
 to the gener.al desire of the people for a stronger govern- 
 ment. Chapters .ti. and xii., however, speak of it as occa- 
 sioned by the attack of the Ammonites, on which occasion 
 Saul, as yet a simple farmer's lad, is suddenly seized by 
 the Divine Spirit, and succeeds in effecting the rescue of 
 Jabesh-Gilead.) The connection between Saul and the 
 prophets gives rise to a popular saying, which is variously 
 explained in 1 Sam. X. 11 and 1 Sam. six. 24. Saul's hope 
 of founding a dynasty of kings was not to be fullillcd. He 
 was rejected of God (1 Sam. xiii. 13) because he had an- 
 ticipated the coming of Samuel in an hour of great need, 
 and himself brought the sacriBce before b.attlo; or (1 Sam. 
 XV. 26) because he bad failed wholly to extirpate the hated 
 race of Amalek. A new king was now to be chosen. Sam- 
 uel selected a shepherd-boy, David, the son of Jishai. 
 The manner of the future ruler's introduction to Saul is 
 related in 1 Sam. xvi. 2,'5 and xvii. 57. It is the fame of 
 bis skill on the harp which brings him to court, in the 
 former narrative, to soothe the gloomy spirit of the king ; 
 in the latter, the attention of Saul is first directed to the 
 young hero after he has slain the Philistine giant (in 2 
 'Sam.°xxi. 19, Elchanan is mentioned as the vanquisher of 
 Goliath). The suspicions of Saul were soon aroused against 
 David, but the prowess of the latter repeatedly defeated 
 the schemes that were laid for his destruction. Saul was 
 even compelled to give him his daughter in marriage and 
 to witness the close alliance subsisting between his son and 
 his hated rival. David was at last compelled to flee the 
 court, and theuceforth led the roving life of a fugitive. 
 The jealousy of the king followed him wherever he went, 
 and the repeated proofs which he gave of his respect for 
 the person of " the Lord's anointed " served only to secure 
 an occasional interval of repose. A lasting reconciliation 
 was not brought about. The records of that dismal age 
 are frequently stained with deeds of bloodshed. Eighty- 
 five of the priests of Nob are butchered by command of Saul, 
 and the city itself utterly destroyed. D.avid, to save his 
 lil'e, plays the fool at the court of Achish (1 Sam. xxi.), 
 enters into relations of close intimacy with Ammonites 
 and Moabites— he was himself the descendant of Kuth, a 
 Moabitish woman — and serves in the army of the Philis- 
 tines (1 Sam. xxix. 2). In the mean time the incursions 
 of the Philistine forces continue to endanger the political 
 existence of Israel. Saul is reduced to utter despair. The 
 weird scene in the house of the Witch of Endor. described 
 in eh. xxviii., whore the spirit of him who is "shrouded 
 in a mantle" (comp. xxviii. 11 with ii. 19) rises out of the 
 earth to announce impending doom to the weary king, is a 
 filling prelude to the Irajic close. In a great battle the 
 hosts^f Israel are routed by the Philistines, Saul falls on 
 his sword, and his sons perish with him. David was now 
 recognized asking, at first by his own tribe, then, after Ish- 
 bosheth's death, by the whole people. He delivered seven 
 sons of Saul into the hands of the Gibeonites that they might 
 kill them, while he supported the son of his friend .Jonathan, 
 a poor cripple who was content to live on the king's bounty. 
 The peace of his house, however, was continually disturbed 
 by the misconduct of his own children. The incestuous 
 passion of the one. the boundless ambition of the other, 
 distressed the father's heart, lie was forced to flee, an 
 exile, from Jerusalem, the city which he had himself con- 
 quered and made the capital of the country. And his vic- 
 tory over the insurgent chief was but n new source of grief, 
 involving as it did the destruction of his beautiful if un- 
 worthv son. His victorious arms had, indeed, extended 
 the boundaries of the lan<l and secured its safety. But 
 domestic discord and the rankling consciousness of his own 
 deep guilt clouded the happiness of David's declining years. 
 
 After a reign of forty years he died. Solomon, the son of 
 Bathsheba, whose husband had been treacherously slain by 
 David, succeeded to the throne. He executed the design 
 which his father had formed, but had not been permitted 
 to accomplish. With the aid of his ally, the Phoenician 
 king, he reared the splendid temple on Mount Moriah, and 
 dcdTcated it with imposing ceremonies to the service of the 
 God of Israel and of the stranger. Renowned from child- 
 hood for extraordinary wisdom, ho illustrated his reign 
 with the magnificence of regal display rather than the 
 glory of victorious arms. Trade flourished, his ships re- 
 turned laden with the treasures of the distant East, and 
 Jerusalem was adorned with palaces. But the people wcro 
 burdened with taxes, the royal harem was enlarged beyond 
 all precedent, and the heart of the uxorious king was won 
 for foreign gods by the foreign princesses whom ho had es- 
 poused. Hardly had Solomon breathed his last when the 
 people rose in open revolt. His son, Kehoboam. unwisely 
 provoked the resentment which justice and policy called 
 upon him to allay. Ten tribes under the leadership of 
 Jeroboam seceded from his dominion ; Josejjh and Judah 
 were thcne"forth separated. Jerusalem remained the cap- 
 ital of Judah; Shechem, Tirzah, Samaria became in turn 
 the residence of the kings of Israel. To prevent a return 
 of the people to their old allegiance Jeroboam established 
 new seats of worship, introduced innovations in the celebra- 
 tion of tho festivals, and created a new priesthood. His 
 rule was the inauspicious beginning of a long scries of 
 disastrous reigns. His son Nadab was slain while besicg- 
 in" Gibthon of the Pliilistincs. Baasha, a successful con- 
 spTrator, aseondcd the throne, and ruled twenty-four years. 
 Then followed his son Elah, who was murdered by Zimri. 
 This seven-day king kindled the royal palace above his 
 head when be learned that tho army around Gibthon (comp. 
 1 Kings XV. 27 with xvi. IJ) had raised their captain, 
 Omri, to the throne, and were already entering the gates 
 of Tirzah. An unholy distinction belongs to tho reign of 
 Ahab, Omri's son. HaVing wedded the Phtenieian princess 
 Jezebel, he introduced the lascivious worship of Baal (tho 
 cult of the phallus) into Israel. Tho bonds of law were 
 loosened, the service of tho Deity was degraded to sensual 
 orgies, and the example of the court corrupted the manners 
 of the people. The better and purer spirits reacted against 
 the inroads of a foreign worship which outraged alike their 
 feelings of piety and of patriotism. A more profound con- 
 ception of the Divine Being was gradually evolved, and 
 the inward and outward struggles of infant prophecy may 
 still he traced in the lives of Elijah and Elisha as they are 
 transcribed in the chronicles of the Kings. The victory 
 of Ahab over the Syrian Benhadad was sullied by the un- 
 timely clemency wliich ho extended to his vanquished foe. 
 Soon after, in a war undertaken with Jehoshapbat, king 
 of Judah, for the purpose of wresting Ramoth-Gilead from 
 the power of Aram, Ahab lost his life, and, as Elijah had 
 prophesied, his blood was licked by dogs in the vineyard 
 of Naboth, the stime whom he had treacherously murdered. 
 The house of Ahab was utterly rooted out by command of 
 Jehu, whom Elisha bad anointed king over Israel. The 
 70 sons of the Baal worshipper were slain, and bis wife, 
 Jezebel, audacious to the last, was cast from the window of 
 her palace by her attendants. The successors of Jehu con- 
 tinued in tho evil courses of their predecessors. Jehoash 
 captured Jerusalem and destroyed part of its wall. Jero- 
 boam II. extended the boundaries of his kingdom, but the 
 lustre of bis successors was but the last glow of an expiring 
 flame. A new and warlike dynasty possessed the throne 
 of Assvria. Menahem bought a transient peace by the 
 pavmc'nt of a heavy tribute to the Assyrian king Phul. 
 In'ihe rei^n of Pekah. however, the whole land of Naph- 
 tali was o'verrun by Tiglatb-pilescr. and its inhabitants 
 carried awav into captivity. It was in vain that the king 
 of Israel united his forces with those of his old enemy, tho 
 king of Syria, for mutual protection against the common 
 danger that approached from beyond the Euphrates. Tho 
 finafblow could no longer be averted. Too late his succes- 
 sor Hosea, implored the aid of the Egyptian Pharaoh. 
 The army of Salmanasar attacked Samaria. A fruitless 
 siecc of three years ended in the capture of the capital and 
 the°coniplete downfall of the kingdom of Israel (a. r. 721). 
 Tho ten tribes wore settled in distant districts of the As- 
 syrian empire, and soon lost among its inhabitants. The 
 once mighty people of the N. of Palestine left a lasting 
 monument if its greatness in the inspired writings of its 
 noble prophets, but of the subsequent fortunes of the scat- 
 tered tribes nothing became known, save to the idle dream- 
 ers of a later age. , . , i, j 
 For more than a century after her sister kingdom had 
 been swept away Judah continued to brave the storms that 
 1 threatened her own existence. In the reign of Rehoboam, 
 1 Shishak, king of Egypt, plundered the temple and palaco 
 I of Jerusalem. (Tho biblical account is corroborated by
 
 JEWS. 
 
 1415 
 
 the testimony of the Ej^yptian monuments.) His sucoes- 
 purs (comp. 1 Kinirs xv. 2 and lU) proved little better 
 tlian the neij;hboriii;; rulers of Isnicl. Eveu the more 
 God-fearing aiuun;; tlieni would not or could not ubulish 
 the idotatroui? custom of sacrilicing on hi<;h places. Jo- 
 huf^hnphat and Ahaziah furmed au alliance with the house 
 of Aliab, for whirh the latter paid dearly with his life. 
 Athaliah, a daughter uf Omri. tliuu usurped the sovereign 
 power, and comuianded a prouiiscuous slaughter uf the 
 royal family to secure her throne. Juash, a suckling in- 
 fant, alone escaped. In the seventh year of her rcicn 
 Athaliah fell before a conspiracy of the priests and cap- 
 tains, with JL'hoiada at its head, and Joash was proclaimed 
 king. He was succeeded by his son Aniaziah, who de- 
 feated Edom. but was himself severely chastised by the 
 king of Israel. Azariah, the son of Amaziah, was aftlicted 
 with leprosy, and was forced to leave the care of the state 
 in [he hands <>f his son Jothain. .Jotliani, in turu, was fol- 
 lowed by Ahaz. This king was attacked by the combined 
 armies of Israel and Syria. To save his power he was 
 compelled to call in the doubtful aid of the Assyrian Tig- 
 lath-pileser, and purchased his security at the expense of 
 his independence. His son, Hczckiah, iscclebrated in his- 
 tory as a prince of distinguished ])iety, whose virtues ar- 
 rested for a time the down\vard course of Judah's fortunes. 
 His court was adorned by the presence of the most mag- 
 nillcent of the prophets, and the king had the rare fortune 
 of listening to the counsels of Isaiah, and the rare merit 
 of deferring to his monitions. The armies of Assyria, which 
 had extingui-^hed the national existence of Israel, passed 
 harmlessly by Jerusalem. The vast host of Sennacherib 
 was struck with a sudden blight; an angel of Jehovah 
 passed through tlto camp, and in the morning 185,000 
 corpses covered the field. After the death of Hczckiah, 
 Manassch and ,\mon brought back the evil practices of 
 former days. Then camo Josiah, celebrated as the restorer 
 of the law. In his day Hilkiah, tlio high priest, found a 
 scroll in tho temple which ho sent to the king (this scroll is 
 by many critics supposed to have been tho book of Deuter- 
 onomy). Josiah, terrified by tho announcement of ap- 
 proaching doom contained in it, projected a complete re- 
 form in tho religious life of iho people. Ho ordered the 
 temple to bo purged of its idols, tho Passover to bo cele- 
 brated, and concluded anew tho broken covenant with 
 (lod. Wheu Pharaoh-nccho advanced against Assyria, 
 Josiah, true to his allegiance, marched out against him, 
 but was slain ut Mi-giddo. In tho reign of his son Joia- 
 kim, whom Pharaoh had appointed king in place of Joa- 
 liash. a change look (itace in tho complexion of the po- 
 litical world. (Ireat jsincveh fell. L'[)on her ruins rose 
 tho empire of tho Chaldicans, and as Egypt's strength was 
 paralyzed, tho armies of Babylon nswcrtcd her undisputed 
 sway over the surrounding nations and cities. Bcf:)rothi3 
 new power tho kingdom of Judali at last sucoumbed. 
 Joiukin, a youth of eighteen years, who succeeded his 
 father, was hardly fitted to guido tho helm of statu at so 
 critical a period. Nebuchadnezzar came upon Jerusalem. 
 Tho king was carried captive to Babylon, und Zedekiah ap- 
 pointed in his stead. Zedekiah rebelled. For two y(furs 
 .Jerusalem withstood the siegeof the Babylonians. At las!, 
 driven by famine, tho besieged endeavored to cut through 
 the lines of tho besiegers. Zedekiah was overtaken, brought 
 before Nebuchadnezzar, his children slain before his eyes, 
 anri, blinded, ho was carried in chains to the capital of tho 
 coiii|Uoror. Jerusalem wa^ in ash<-s, its temple a smoulder- 
 ing ruin, and " tlio paths of Zion were in mourning." Tho 
 prophecies of Jeremiah had foretold iho calamity which ho 
 was powerless to avert: his Lamentations sing tho dirge 
 of Judah's fallen greiitne.s.«. A remnant of the pcopio was 
 left in Piili-stino under (Jedaliah as governor. Asi^assiualion 
 put an eml to his brief reign, and tho others, fearing tho ven- 
 geance of the Chaldioans, fled to Egypt, with Jeremiah us 
 their unwilling companion. The great nnijority of the peo- 
 ple, however, had been led into exile, to recall *' by Babel's 
 streams" the sad memories of tlieir native land. (It is 
 worthy of remark that tho mother's namo of tho ruling 
 prince is invariably mentioned in the annals of the Judiean 
 Kings, while it is omitted in (hi)se of Israel. Tho high 
 power of the kitig's mr>ther is also attested by tho sov- 
 ereignty which Athaliah exercised during seven years, and 
 by 2 KingH xxiv. 12, where tho inolhor of Joiukin is nion- 
 tit>iu<d as the most eon"lderable personage of his court.) 
 
 Babylonia proved for the Jews tho erucible from which 
 they came forth for tho first time wholly aglow with tho 
 spirit of monollieism. In the year .VIS, Cyrus, having 
 overturned the empire of the ChaldiranN, permitted them 
 tn return to their country. About .')(>, 01)0. wilh .lefhua, tho 
 high priest, and Zerubbabol, of Iho seed of David, tit their 
 heati, availed themselves of this permisNion. Spurred on 
 by the ehirpwnt monitions of sueh prophi-ts as llaggai and 
 Zcehariah, they proceeded to re-erect tho fallen temple, 
 
 though frequently interrupted in their work by tho en- 
 mity or jealousy of tho surrounding nations. Prominent 
 among these were the Samaritans, with Sanballat their 
 chief. These people had been transplanted by the As- 
 syrian monarch to occupy tho vacant seats of the ten 
 tribes, and had adopted the religion of Israel. But being 
 still tainted with idolatry, they were not admitted to the 
 share they claimed in the new sanctuary of Jehovah. Their 
 calumnies at the Persian court for a time caused the com- 
 plete suspension of the work. In the year il.'i the build- 
 ing of the second temple was finishccl. The religious basis 
 of the infant state was fixed by the scribe Ezra, ** the sec- 
 ond Mo.-^es," who, coming from the court of Artaxcrxcs 
 armed with great powers, used them to secure the general 
 observance of tho Law and to purge the people of tho hea- 
 then elements which had crept into their midst. His mea- 
 sures do not appear to have been <juite as effective as they 
 were stern. Nehemiali, the cupbearer of Artaxerxes, fol- 
 lowed in his footsteps, forbad": the desecration of the sab- 
 bath, rebuked the wealthy for their greed and their oppres- 
 sion of the poor, and strengthened the defences of Jerusalem 
 by tho erection of a wall. The succeeding period until after 
 the death of Alexander the (Jrcat is wra])ped in obscurity. 
 Juda)a, remaining tributary to the Persian ruler, had no 
 history, and may therefore be supposed to have been happy. 
 After tho death of tho Macedonian conqueror, Ptolemy Dagi 
 captured Jerusalem, and for almost a century Palestine was 
 held in subjection by the Ptolemies, whose yoke was not, at 
 first, a heavy one. Many of the Jews had settled in Al- 
 exandria, where their industry, enterprise, and wide con- 
 nections soon raised them to tho position of merchant 
 princes. A rich, manifold, and widely influential literature 
 arose in Iho mi<lst of this Egyptian colony, and under the 
 fostering care of scholarly kings a new philosophy was 
 cultivated, destined thereafter in Christijin garb to spread 
 over tho world. Tho Septuagint f the Greek translation of 
 the Old Testament) was composed, and a temple, built after 
 the pattern of the one on Moriah, at Heliopolis, became at 
 once a source of pride and distrust to tho patriots of Jeru- 
 salem. With tho decline of Egypt's power and the grow- 
 ing strength of the Seleueidjc. a new danger threatened the 
 existeuco of the Jewish stale and religion. In tho begin- 
 ning of the second century ii. c. Judaea had transferred its 
 allegiance to Syria. In return, Antiochus Epiphancs barely 
 three decades after conimande<i them to abjure their relig- 
 ion, defiled their sanctuary, and erected tlie statue of the 
 Olympian Jove, to which they were ordered to pay divine 
 honors. Thia outrage provoked a disastrous '' thirty years' 
 war." Antioehus was aided by the party of the Hellenists, 
 friends of tho Greeks, at whose head stood the infamous 
 priests Jason and Menehius. The cause of the people was 
 espoused liy tho family of tho Uasmoneans, or Maccabees, 
 so called from its most valiant member, Judah the Ham- 
 mer (Maccab). Tho Maccabean brothers were tho main 
 stay of tho revolution. Equally great in defeat and suc- 
 cess, they achieved victories over Syrian armies that were 
 superior to their own in numbers, equipments, prestige, in 
 everything but devotion to their cause, while they never 
 allowed their courage to sink under the most crushing ad- 
 versity. Tlieir heroic deeds are rclateil in the works of 
 Josephus and tho books of tho Maccabees. ( For an inge- 
 nious argument to prove the Sadducean origin of tho first 
 book, tho Plmriscan of tho second, seo Geiger's UrgrhH/t, 
 p. 200.) Tiio Talmud, strange to way, almost ignores them. 
 Judas Maecabce succeeded in cleansing tho temple. Ho 
 died a soldier's ileath in a decisive battle fought witli tho 
 Syrian general Bacchides. Jonathan, his brother, profiting 
 by tho disorders that had broken out in the enemy's coun- 
 try, secured his recognition as high jiricst and elhnarch by 
 the posscs8i»rs of or i)reten<lers to the throne of Syria, but 
 was finally ensnared by the wily Tryplion, and treacher- 
 ously slain. Tho commanct notv devolved upon Simon, to 
 wh<»sa ]>rudent counsels tho father of the Alaccabees had 
 on his deathbed referred the brothers for their guidance. 
 Ho ended Iho long war suceescfully in the year li:J n. r., 
 established tho indopendonco of Judira, and was invented 
 by a grateful people with the chief nmgii^tracy. It in pndj- 
 ablo tinit in his day the Sanlu'drin, the highest tribunal of 
 thestate.compoBcdof eminent doctors of I he I aw. first entered 
 upon its duties, though a more ancient origin is ascribed 
 to it by some. Simon was assassinateil by his son-in-law 
 Ptolemy, who betrayed at once the sacred trust of hospital- 
 ity and the eonlidenee of paternal nffeelion. His son, John 
 Ilyrcanus, sueeeedc*! him. This prince subjugated tho 
 Idunuenns, and forced Ihem to accept the religion of Moses 
 — a fatal step for liis people and Ins dynasty. During a 
 reign of thirty years ( l-'if^-lO-'i), which was signalized by 
 many warlike nehievemenls. ho incurred the hatred of tho 
 ptipular party of Iho Pharisees by his ill-concealed prefer- 
 enoo for their Sadducean opponent!*. His son, Aristobulus, 
 who followed him, added tho kingly purple to tho high
 
 UltJ 
 
 JEWS. 
 
 priest's robe. The brother of Aristobulus, Alexander Jan- 
 nffius, is remarkable for the rapid succession of his military 
 exploits and the general bad fortune which attended them. 
 On one occasion he was only saved from utter destruction 
 by the intervention of Cleopatra and the Jewish generals 
 that commanded her army. In his lifetime he bitterly 
 
 Sorsecutcd the Pharisees, but on his deathbed he advised 
 is wife, Salome Alexandra, to make her peace with a party 
 whoso hostility might ensure her destruction. The bloody 
 feud which began to rage after the death of Jannajus be- 
 tween his sons, Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, was the fatal 
 beginning of a loiig struggle that ended in the final dis- 
 me'inberment of the Jewish state. The friendship of the 
 Romans had proved valuable in the war of independence. 
 The Roman eagle was now called in, like the fox in the 
 fable, to judge between the hostile brothers. Scaurus at 
 first decided in favor of Aristobulus. but (60 B.C.) Pompey 
 reversed his decision. The temple was stormed, Hyrcanus 
 reinstated, and Aristobulus with his sons carried captive 
 to Rome. The independence of Palestine was thus for 
 ever lost. A native prince was. indeed, still permitted to 
 assume the vain shadow of authority, but the policy or 
 caprice of the Romans thenceforth appointed or dismissed 
 the rulers of the Holy Land. The counsels of the feeble 
 Hyrcanus were directed by Antipater, a statesman of un- 
 usual sagacity, an Iduma;an by birth. While we cannot 
 but abhor their treachery, we are compelled to admire the 
 subtle craft by which this Antipater and his son Herod 
 contrived to .secure the favor of all the great captains 
 who at that time successively swayed the destinies of the 
 Roman world. When the star of Pompey was about to 
 decline, Antipater earned the gratitude of C«sar by the 
 powerful support which he lent him in the conquest of 
 Egypt. Herod, ruling in Galilee, strengthened the hands 
 of°'Cassius by the prompt despatch of supplies collected 
 in his district. He enlisted the sympathies of Mark 
 Antony so completely in his behalf that his cause 
 was introduced into the Roman senate by both Antony 
 and his colleague Augustus. Through their efforts the 
 usurper was proclaimed king. Meantime, Antigonus, the 
 son of that Aristobulus whom Pompey had sent to Rome, 
 obtained the aid of the Parthians in an attempt to regain 
 bis throne. Jerusalem was taken, Hyrcanus sent captive 
 to Babylon, and Herod forced to flee to Idumasa. With 
 the help of his Roman friends, however, he succeeded in 
 turning the fortunes of the war. After a most sanguinary 
 conflict the capital was retaken (b. c. .37), and Antigonus, 
 at his instigation, shamefully executed. King Herod "did 
 his days in stone." He rebuilt the temple on a scale of 
 great magnificence, erected spacious amphitheatres, and in- 
 troduced the games of the arena. But this outward splen- 
 dor could not conceal the real misery of his disastrous reign. 
 The tyrant's fierce passions were quickly roused, and ho 
 possessed the fatal power of fulfilling his desires. Among 
 those whom he slew may be named — Hyrcanus. to whom 
 his family owed its elevation ; the grandchild of the former, 
 his own beautiful wife Mariamne ; her brother, the young 
 high priest Aristobulus; two husbands of his sister Salome ; 
 three of his own sous, and others too numerous to mention. 
 After his death the kingdom was divided among his sons, 
 Archelaus, Antipas, and Philippus. By the favor of the 
 emperor Claudius his grandson. Herod Agrippa, onco more 
 for a brief time united the divided principalities under ono 
 sceptre. But in the days of Agrippa II., in whose reign 
 the destruction of the state was accomplished, the power 
 of the last Jewish dynasty had lost all substance. The 
 extortions of such Roman governors as Antonius Felix 
 and Gessius I'lorus urged the people to the very verge of 
 despair. A republican party long since subsisted among 
 them, as appears from Josephus (Antiq., xiv. 3), and the 
 Zealots under the leadership of Judah of Gaulonitis were 
 impatient of the Roman yoke. Encouraged by the destruc- 
 tion of the army of Cest'ius Uallus {\. n. GO), the patriots 
 at last dared to raise their head. The gauntlet was thrown 
 down to Rome, the revolution began, and Josephus, the 
 future historian of the war, was sent to organize the de- 
 fence of Galilee. The disciplined legions, advancing under 
 Vespasian, the ablest general of the age, were met by rude 
 bands of guerillas, and the arts of war baffled by the ob- 
 stacles of nature and tho frantic courage of despair. The 
 strong fortress of Jotapata successfully resisted every effort 
 of the besiegers, until, covered by the mist of early morn- 
 ing and led on by a traitor, the Romans succeeded in sur- 
 prising the guards, and the place fell into their hands. 
 Josephus, who commanded in person, was taken prisoner; 
 40,000 men are said to have fallen in tho siege. On Ves- 
 pasian's departure the completion of the w.ar was entrusted 
 to his son, Titus. In the spring of a. d. 70, Titus opened 
 his works against Jerusalem. The city was torn by dis- 
 sensions. Famine soon made its appearance, the houses 
 were filled with the dead and the dying, mothers are said 
 
 to have devoured their own children in the frenzy of hunger. 
 After two weeks the outworks were taken. Upon this the 
 attack was directed against the strong castle Antonia, 
 which was connected by cloisters with the temple. Not- 
 withstanding the repeated sallies of the besieged under 
 their heroic chief, John of liiscala, the castle was captured. 
 Then began, under the eye of the Ca;sar, the last desperate 
 struggle of the defenders for the palladium of the state, 
 the sanctuary itself Again and again the imperial soldiers 
 were beaten ofi' and dashed from the walls. At last a Ro- 
 man soldier, rising on the shoulder of his fellow, threw a 
 firebrand through an open casement into the outer halls of 
 the temple. The woodwork caiight, the temple stood in 
 flames. The infuriated troops rushed into the holy places, 
 murdering and pillaging, and the arm of Titus himself was 
 powerless to stay the carnage or save the great edifice. 
 Many of those whom the sword spared were carried to 
 distant countries as slaves or saved for the sports of the 
 arena. Jerusalem was an utter ruin ; the Jewish state had 
 fallen to rise no more. 
 
 With the loss of its political existence the integrity of 
 Judaism as a religion remained unimpaired. The founda- 
 tions for a new order of things had already been laid. 
 Prayer took the place of sacrifice, the synagogues replaced 
 the temple, and the Beth-Din, noiselessly founded by Rabbi 
 Jochanan ben Sakkai in Jamnia, became a centre of au- 
 thority to reunite the scattered people. The Beth-Din 
 was presided over by a nasi (prince), a descendant of Hillcl, 
 the great master of the law, and two other oflicers (ab-bcth- 
 din and chaeham). It was composed in the first place of 
 seventy academic members ; secondly, of such as had been 
 ordained to act as teachers: and of their disciples, in the 
 third place. The sittings were open to the public. Tlie 
 questions discussed in this and the similar academies at 
 Sepphoris, Tiberias, and elsewhere afi'ected the entire re- 
 ligious, political, and social life of the Jews. Through the 
 agency of such schools the work of extending and modify- 
 ing the provisions of the law and of ancient tradition 
 (Cabbala) to suit the altered eircumstanees of the time was 
 successfully carried on. The political position of the Jewish 
 citizens of" the Roman empire (they had been admitted to 
 the rights of citizenship by the emperor Claudius) varied 
 with tiie chiiracter of the reigning sovereign. Vespasian 
 seized the tax which the Jews had hitherto remitted to the 
 temple for his own treasury, and thereby set an example to 
 his real or pretended successors down almost to our own 
 day. Domitian displayed his animosity chiefiy by the severe 
 treatment of proselytes. The mild rule of Nerva was suc- 
 ceeded by a period of wild disorder in the reign of Trajan. 
 The Jew's of Eivpt, Cyrene, and the isle of Cyprus rose in 
 open revolt. The barbarous conflicts that ensued have left 
 few traces in history save in the increased legacy of mutual 
 hate between the parties engaged in them, which they trans- 
 mitted to succeeding generations. . At this time the great 
 Proseuehc of Alexandria was destroyed. The last powerful 
 insurrection of Judsea followed in the days of Hadrian, and 
 was quelled by Julius Severus. Their Messianic prince, 
 Bar-Cochba, led the insurgents in more than fifty battles 
 against tho Romans; h.alf a million of Jews are reported 
 to have fallen in them. With tlie taking of Betar the war 
 came to an end. Bar-Cochba himself is said to have been 
 found among the dead enveloped in the folds of a serpent. 
 Jerusalem now became a Roman town, under the name of 
 M\ia. Capilolina, in honor of iElius Hadrianus and the 
 Capitoline Jove; the Jews were forbidden to enter its pre- 
 cincts. They were, moreover, disturbed in the practice of 
 their religious rites, and the vital point of their faith was 
 attacked when tho teaching of the Law was interdicted. 
 Tho stubborn resistance of the people must have impeded 
 the execution of these commands, and (ho more obnoxious 
 of them were soon after abrogated by Antoninus Pius. 
 Tho eloso of tho second century is rendered memoriible 
 by the compilation of the Mishna (.see Talmud) under tho 
 auspices of tho patriarch R. Jcliuda, who is called Ha- 
 Kadosh ("the saintly"). This work was intended tu present 
 in au authentic and codified form tho decisions of the Beth- 
 Din, which ha.l accumulated during several centuries. Its 
 bulky commentaries, the Gemaras of Babylon and Pales- 
 tine," explain or amplify its provisions. The successful 
 completion of so diflicult a task bears witness to the high 
 authority which the patriarch or nasi must have wielded 
 in the academy, while the willingness of the people to ac- 
 cept the code which tho doctors of the Law recommended 
 evinces the respect in which these chaberim or chaehamiin, 
 this "brotherhood of the Learned." were held. At the 
 same time, the deposition of Gamaliel shows us the lirm 
 determination of the Beth-Din to resist all undue exercise 
 of power on the part of its chief officer. The members of 
 the collco themselves never aspired to other prerogatives 
 than those which superior wisdom and purity might justly 
 claim A privileged caste could not arise where merit
 
 JEWS. 
 
 I4i; 
 
 was the solo measure of worth. The Pharisaic doctrine 
 that the priesthood hclon^a to all the people was rigorously 
 tnaiDtaiucd, and hoth iu the syuagoguc and without it the 
 democratic prineiplo of the equality of all was religiously 
 adhered to. This state of things was largely duo to the 
 happy example set by the rabbins themselves. Of gomo 
 of the most distinguished of their number wo know that 
 they followed some humble calliug to earu their bread, 
 thinking it Hhameful to coin their teachings into gold, A 
 similar sentiment is echoed in the twelfth century by Moses 
 Maimonides. In paying a passing tribute to the singular 
 disinterestedness of the ancient rabbins, we would briefly 
 advert to the legends with which the stories of their lives 
 are intertwined. These legends are not, as has been sup- 
 posed, mere fanciful embellishment or exaggeration of his- 
 torical fact. In the accounts of Oni Ha-Me'aggel. the man 
 of the wheel who was able to produce rain, of Simon b. Joehai, 
 whose fiery glance spread desolation in the fields when he 
 left (ho cave where ho had d^velt concealed, of R. Jochanan 
 (the fabled compiler of the Geinara of Palestine), whose 
 arm emitted a wondrous rosy light, we recognize distinct 
 mvthologieal tniits. These legends are contained in the 
 liagada (the historical and poetical part of the Talmud as 
 distinguished from the Ilalucha, the discussions and disqui- 
 sitions on points of religious theory and jiractiee). A care- 
 ful scrutiny of the legends of the Talmud and its supple- 
 mentary works would, we doubt not, richly repay tho labors 
 of the student of comparative mythology. 
 
 In the reign of Diocletian the Jews seem to have been 
 exempt from persecution. Their general condition in the 
 Roman empire at this time was at least tolerable. Their 
 peculiar customs, the dietary laws which prevented them 
 from joining in tho festivities of their neighbors, provoked 
 the ridicule or the scorn of the pagans. But their legal 
 status was not thereby affected. All this changed when 
 Christianity in tho jicrson of Constantino ascended the 
 throne. The harsh spirit which he infused into the legis- 
 lation of tho empire with regard to the theological op- 
 ponents of tho reigning faith was still further developed 
 by his successor, Constantius. whoso measures called forth 
 an unsuccessful revolt in Judu^a. The philosophic Julian 
 (;16I ) granted them the full blessings of his favor, but they 
 failed to second his efforts for the restoration of the temple. 
 Thcodosius I. was just in his dealings with an oppressed 
 people, in dctiunco of tho vehement reproaches of Am- 
 brosius, the bishop of Milan. In the reign of Thcodosius 
 II., Cyril of Alexandria, who has earned an unenviable 
 fame for permitting the murder of the noble Hypatia, ex- 
 pelled the Jews fronj that city. The emperor himself de- 
 prived them of valuable rights, such as the rebuilding of 
 synagogues, the exercise of judicial functions, and the like. 
 Tho Jewish patriarchate, though its incumbent had but 
 lately been numbered among the ** lUustres," about this 
 time (the beginning of the fifth century) expired. In tho 
 following century the code of Justinian excluded them from 
 all honorable offices, imposing upon them tho duties while 
 depriving them of the privileges of tho citizen. Meantime, 
 the centre of authority in tvhat concerned the internal alVairs 
 of the Jews ha<l been gradually transferred from Palestine 
 to Babylon, and tho latter ultimately assumed many of 
 tho peculiar prerogatives of tho former. About the time 
 of thi) compilation (»f the Mishna. Abba Arcka (Rait) and 
 Mar Samuel removed from the land of Israel, and founded 
 schools of learning on the banks of tho Kuphrates and tho 
 Tigris. Tho most important of the schools that flourished 
 in those regions were t hose of Xohardea, Suna, Pumbcditha, 
 and Miichuza. In them the (iemara of Babylon (compiled 
 about .^Ofl) was elaborated. The politieal represent:itivoof 
 tho Babylonish .Jews was known under tho name of " prince 
 of the Captivity '* (Resh Oeluiha), Ho waa accustomed io 
 livo in great slate. The offiee continued to bo fille*| until 
 the tenth century. When in the third century tho religion 
 of Zoroaster celebrated a great triumph in tlio accession of 
 tho house of Sassan to tho throne of Persia, tho position of 
 the Jews remained, on tho whole, unaltered. IVrsecutiona 
 wore indeed more frecpient than Ihoy had been, but tho 
 yoke of tho Magi was light when cimpared with that of tho 
 priests in Christian countries. Shabur 11. (-Tl^) trans- 
 plnnted a consiflerablo number of the Armenian Jews to 
 Ispahan. Jesdigerd IT. forbade tho observance of tho Bab- 
 bath and tho public reading of the Phema (tho proclamation 
 of the unity of (lofl) -i-'.^-iOO. Mis -on Firn7. slaughtered 
 many of the Jewish inhabitants of Ispahan, and further 
 extended tho stringent measures of his father ( 171— tS^). 
 About this timo a colony of Jews is said to have landed on 
 the coast of Malabar, a part of whom nfterwiirdf settled In 
 Cochin-China. The ripo of the pect nftho y.onA'ic" involved 
 tho Persian .lews in the general disiisti-rs tbiit then befel 
 tho renlm. Horuiisdas f 5H1 ), discarding the example of the 
 great Chnsrn, pursuetl tho cruel policy of Kiruz : and it was 
 but natural that the Jews should take sides with his enemy, 
 
 the usurper Bahram, in tho conflict that ensued between tho 
 rival aspirants to the throne. Under Chosru II. they joined 
 the Persian troops which invaded Palestine, and avenged 
 tho injuries of tlicir brethren by expelling the Romans from 
 tho land. While the power of the Sassauida} visibly de- 
 clined in the country which wo have heretofore designated 
 by tho ancient name of Babylon, a now faith rose on the 
 Arabian peninsula whose conquering arms were soon carried 
 over a great part of tbocivilized world. From a very early 
 timo Jews had settled in Arabia, and had assumed tho lan- 
 guage and manners of its inhabitants, differing from them 
 only in their religion. Tho Jewish prince Samoe! b. Adija 
 is still celebrated as tho greatest of all the poets that flour- 
 ished before the coming of Mohammed; while the Jewi^h 
 king, Jussuf b. Xowas, became a byword to the credulous 
 superstition of a later age. Powerful Jewish tribes, settled 
 in tho neighborhood of Yathrib (Medina), prepared tho 
 minds of tho Arabs to receive tho doctrines of the Prophet, 
 and to Jewish learning be owed the bctterpart of his teach- 
 ings. (Compare Gcigcr's prize-essay, W'/irtt f./i>l Mohamnwd 
 Borrow from Judaism ?) When .^luhummed found tho 
 Jews as stubborn to resist his own pretensions as they wero 
 ready to aid him in exposing the shams of idolatry, the 
 frieniUy spirit of his earlier policy toward them changed 
 into bitter animosity. Yet he ever exempted the "scrip- 
 tural people " from the edicts of proscription with which 
 he pursued the worshippers of images, and the rule of tol- 
 eration which (he founder introduced became a law for his 
 successors. Tho Persian empire succumbed before Omar, 
 the second of the caliphs. To him are ascribed those well- 
 known enactments which define the status of Jews and 
 Christians in countries subject to Mohammedan rule. They 
 may be compared to the canonical laws of the Christian 
 Church, only that they have less of that spirit of intoler- 
 ance which is characteristic of tho latter. They were, 
 moreover, less frequently and less stringently enforced. 
 By them it is provided that Jews and Christians are not to 
 build new houses of worship, nor repair such as are decayed; 
 they aro to prevent no one from conversion to Islam ; they 
 are not to sell wino nor wear their liair long; they arc not 
 to bo considered eligible for ofllce. A Moslem who mal- 
 treats an ijfidcl is to pay a fine, etc. etc. The political 
 head of tho Jews was treated with sufficient respect by tho 
 first caliphs, and Bostanai, the *' prince of the t^aptivity," 
 seems to have been the recipient of the highest royal favnrs. 
 But a new power, that of tho CJaons, gradually eclipsed tho 
 importance of these so-called princes. The Gaons were the 
 presiding ofticersof the learned academies. They succeeded 
 in drawing to their own persons the umliviiled attachment 
 of the Jewish community, and continued during several 
 centuries to extend their influence to the most distant con- 
 gregations. Tho revival of letters that followed in the train 
 of Arabian conquest was felt and hailed with eager joy 
 among the Jews. The critical attention of scholars was 
 turned to tho text of tho Bible. A simpler method of in- 
 terpretation obtained. A new sect (see Kauaitks) was 
 formed under the leadership of Anan, called from their 
 closer ndhcrenco to tho letter of Scripture (Mikra) Karaites. 
 Philosophy found an eloquent exponent in the t»aon Saadia 
 (tenth century) ; and toSherira (Jaon (d. 1000 a. n.) weowo 
 a document of the very highest historical value. When tho 
 caliphate of Bagdad succumbed before the advaneing Mon- 
 gols, tho Jews shared the general fate of their countrymen. 
 But tho religious tolerance or imlifi'erenee of tho conquerors 
 protected them from special acts of hostility. In tho year 
 12'if^ a Jewish physician, having gained the jiarticular favor 
 of thekluin Argim, was nppointed minister of finance for the 
 whfde Persian empire. Tlio fanaticisnHU- jealousy of the no- 
 bility procured his assasf'ination, and bin death was the sig- 
 nal of persecution for his brethren. Tho condition of tlio 
 Jews in Asia has remained with little variation down Io tho 
 present day one of utter misery. In the N. of Africa, under 
 tho rule of the Fatiniites. their position was on the whole 
 hardly more favorable. Turning to Kuropo. wo find, on 
 entering tho period of tho Middle Ages, that the more or 
 less friendly relations which until then subsiste<l between 
 tho .lews nnd (heir neighbors were gradually disturbed 
 by the inerenved bitterness of religious hate. In Franee 
 tho attempted conversion by CJrogory of Tours of King 
 Chilperie's jeweller, tho Jew Priscus, and his assassination 
 by a renegade r)f his own nme, give eviflence at onee of the 
 high consi<leratiim which Israelites still enjoyc'l. ami the 
 growing ehnnge for the worse that began to appear in tlnir 
 fortunes toward tho end of the sixth century. In the be- 
 ginning of tho seventh, Dagohert issued an edict com- 
 muinling them to choose between biiptism nnd death. In 
 Spiiin. under ihn rule of Arian kings. .lews and Christians 
 nn-l nmienbly in social gatherings, and the bond of friend- 
 phip between them wiis strengthened bv frequent inter- 
 marringe. But when Reeeared embraced Catholicism this 
 peaceful stalo of things camo to an end. Ho was a con-
 
 1418 
 
 JEWS. 
 
 vert, it is believed, from motives of policy, and, relying on 
 the aid of the clergy, desired to invest the royal office 
 with greater power than the constitution of the Visigoths 
 was calculated to allow. The same motive may have im- 
 pelled him to curry favor with the clergy by persecuting 
 the Jews. (On this subject see the admirable article on Jew- 
 ish history by Selig Casscl, in Ersch and (iruber'a Ath/em. 
 Eiici/klupiidie.) About 012, .Sisebut banished the Jews from 
 his kintrdom. In the ne.xt reign, however, they were al- 
 lowed to return. In e:j:! the Council of Toledo condemned 
 the system of enforcing their conversion which had been 
 lately inaugurated by the king. Bui its decrees were very 
 stringent against those who returned to Judaism after they 
 had been nominally received into the Church. An extra- 
 ordinary severity toward men of this class continued to be 
 a peculiar feature of Spanish legislation in later times._ In 
 fi:i8 the Jews were again driven from the realm by King 
 Chintila, and again admitted under his successor. In the 
 reio-n of Keceswinth and of Erwig new laws were enacted 
 to "ensure their humiliation. They were entirely deprived 
 of the right of holding office, their testimony was no longer 
 accepted^in court, while those who had made the outward 
 profession of Christianity were placed under the strict sur- 
 veillance of the priesthood to secure their allegiance. The 
 progressive advance of intolerance which marks the seventh 
 century reached its climax when in CU4 the Jews of Spain 
 were deprived of the liberty of person and declai-ed slaves. 
 Such being the condition to which Spanish bigotry had 
 reduced tliem. it is not surprising that Taric on his ap- 
 proach was h.ailed as a deliverer, and that the Jews became 
 the friends and allies of the Arabs in their conquest of 
 Spain. Under the benign light of the Crescent they en- 
 tered upon the brightest period of their history since the 
 destruction of Jerusalem. While Christian Europe was 
 sunk in barbarism they joined the Moors in keeping alivo 
 the Hame of science, and became the mediators between 
 ancient and modern culture. Philosophy, poetry, mathe- 
 matics, astronomy, medicine, received their attention, and 
 their skill in the arts of diplomacy introduced them to the 
 favor of kings. In the tenth century, Hasdai Ibn Shaprut 
 became the trusted agent of .\bderrahman III. at Cordova. 
 He received the ambassadors of foreign monarchs. His 
 knowledge of the Latin language, a rare accomplishment 
 at the court of his master, proved peculiarly serviceable. 
 It is reported that he even corresponded with the chief of 
 the Chazares, an independent Jewish prince, whose country 
 could only be roaohed by a fifteen days' journey from Con- 
 stantinople. Jacob Ibn Gau was the recipient of high hon- 
 ors at the hands of the caliph about 985. (See (Jractz, Ge- 
 Hchirhie der Jiulrn, V. 39S.) In the eleventh century Samuel 
 (called Ila Nagid, " the prince ") was raised to the dignity 
 of vczir. His calligraphieal skill paved the way to his 
 greatness. But, far from being a mere writer, he was fully 
 conversant with the literature of tho age, and himself an 
 author. The friend of the poet and philosopher Gebirol, 
 he showed himself tho liberal protector of art and science. 
 Ilis son Joseph succeeded him in his honors, but was mur- 
 dered in a furious assault of the mob on his palace, which 
 had been instigated by his enemies. Contemporary with 
 S;unuel ha Nagid at Granada, Ibn Hassan was raised to 
 high office at the court of Saragossa, and again in Seville 
 Ibn Albaliawas appointed astrologer to tho king. But the 
 same kindly policy which guided the Arabs in their con- 
 duct toward the Jews was now adopted by the rulers of 
 Cliristian Spain. In Castile they were placed on iiuito tho 
 siiiue level with the nobility and the clergy. They were 
 devoted to their country, and prepared to risk lile and 
 fortune in its defence. Alfonso VI. employed them as am- 
 bassadors to Moorish princes, and they served with equal 
 distinction in his army and at his court. In ICSo he suc- 
 ceeded in taking Toledo, but soon after was himself totally 
 routed by the Moslems under the leadership of the Almo- 
 ravidc Jussuf. The success of the latter seemed at first 
 likely to bring ruin on tho Jews of Moorish Spain. A fab- 
 ulous story gained credit to tho effect that their ancestors 
 had bound themselves to embrace Islam if at the end of the 
 year 500 of tho Hodjr.ah their own expected Messiah had not 
 yet come. Referring to this legend, Jussuf called upon 
 them to fulfil what had been promised. But it was 
 not until tho middle of the twelfth century that this de- 
 mand was seriously pressed. The Almohades, conquering 
 Northern Africa, crossed over into Spain. The power of 
 the Almoravides was broken, and Cordova fell into the 
 hands of the victors. The Jews of Andalusia were forced 
 to follow the example of their African brethren, and cither 
 fled tho country or acknowledged with the lips the pro- 
 phetic mission of Mohammed and the inspiration of the 
 Koran. Toledo, the new Christian capital of Castile, now 
 became a refuge to large numbers of the fugitives. Here 
 they increased rapidly in wealth and power, and monuments 
 of both are still extant. Jews occupied high positions at the 
 
 court of Alfonso VIII. Alfonso X. (1252), it is said, en- 
 trusted the work of preparing the celebrated astronomical 
 tables which bear his name to a certain Don Zag, a reader 
 in the synjigoguc. Nor is he tho only Israelite mentioned 
 among the scientists who illustrated Alfonso's reign. The 
 harsh restrictions which this king imposed upon the inter- 
 course between Jews and Christians were not fully observed, 
 even by himself In Aragon the influence of the Domini- 
 can Raymond de Ponjaforto was directed to the conversion 
 of "the lost sheep." But the famous disputation of Bar- 
 celona between Pablo Christiana and Nachmunides (12fi;!), 
 held in the presence of James I. and his chief dignitaries, 
 did not serve to advance the project. At the opening of 
 the fourteenth century a great danger threatened the Jews 
 of Castile in the person of Gonzalo Martinez, the all-pow- 
 erful minister of Alfonso XI. He succeeded iu bringing 
 about the fall of two of their number who had hitherto 
 enjoyed tho favor of the monarch. But his further plans 
 were frustrated in time, and he fell a victim to his own 
 treachery. The civil war between the adherents of Pedro 
 and Henry entailed bitter sufl'erings on many of the 
 largest congregations of the land. The Jews took the part 
 of Pedro, and were in the main sure of his protection as 
 far as be had the power to extend it. But even the victor- 
 ious Henry could not entirely dispense with their services. 
 They were in great request as physicians, and the manage- 
 ment of the finances of the kingdom continued to be en- 
 trusted to their care down to the time of their final banish- 
 ment. In the me.an time, the seeds of hatred, which the 
 Church had long been busily disseminating, took root. 
 Toward the end of the fourteenth and at the beginning of 
 the fifteenth century outbreaks of fanaticism, which had 
 hitherto occurred only at far intervals, became alarmingly 
 frequent. The Jews were henceforth to be confined to narrow 
 Judorias, were to put off their costly robes and wear none 
 but garments of the coarsest kind, on which a patch of red 
 cloth served as a badge of degradation to mark them as 
 fit objects for insult. This latter device owed its origin to 
 the inventive genius of Mohammedan despots, and was 
 borrowed from them at second hand by tho popes. A mas- 
 sacre of peaceful Jews had by this time ceased to be regarded 
 as an event of extraordinary interest or importance. Tho 
 great disputation of Tortosa, held (I41S-14) under the au- 
 spices of the so-called Pope Benedict XIII., tailed entirely 
 to secure its avowed object — the conversion of the Jews 
 cii mmw. and served only to embitter the feelings of mu- 
 tual dislike that were already sufficiently strong. The sin- 
 ister influence of the Dominicans and Franciscans, of such 
 men as Vincente Ferrer and Alfonso de Spina, was aided 
 by renegade Jews like Paulus de Santa Maria and Gcronimo 
 de Santa Fe. The marriage-bells of Ferdinand and Isabella 
 rang out a funeral dirge for the liberty of the Jews of Spain- 
 In 1480 the tribunal of the Inquisition was established at 
 Seville. Notwithstanding the strenuous opposition of the 
 people in many districts, its power increased with fearful 
 rapidity. Those nominal Christians who still secretly ad- 
 hered to Judaism were the special objects of its pious zeal, 
 and those who perished in the flames on the Quemadcro of 
 Seville and in other towns were soon numbered by thou- 
 sands. In 148:'., Torquemada was appointed grand inquis- 
 itor. When Granada fell into the hands of " the Catholic 
 king" the doom of the Spanish Jews was sealed. From 
 the palace of the Alhambra the irrevocable decree of their 
 exile went forth. On Aug. 2, 1492, they left the inhospit- 
 able land which yet they had so dearly loved, and while Co- 
 lumbus sailed westward to discover a new home of freedom, 
 they, robbed of their fortunes and east adrift upon tho 
 world, knew not whither to turn for shcKer. For a time, 
 indeed, many of them found refuge in Portugal. There 
 the position of their brethren bad bmg been exceptionally 
 favorable. Their chief rabbi ( Rabbi Mor) received his ap- 
 pointment directly from the king, and their affairs pros- 
 pered under the kindly influence of long-continued royal 
 favor. But in the days of Joiio II. all this changed. The 
 brief breathing-spell which the exiles enjoyed in his domin- 
 ions was quickly at an end. He broke the promises he had 
 made them, and many of them were sold as slaves. His suc- 
 cessor, Mnnoel, at first seemed inclined to adopt a more lib- 
 eral policy, but the influence of Spain altered his purpose. 
 Amid heartrending scenes of despair Jewish children were 
 torn from the arms of their parents and dragged into tho 
 churches; the aid of tho rack was called in to enforce the 
 conversion of the adults : ami with the close of the fifteenth 
 century the last remnant of the ,Iews, being at length per- 
 mitted' to escape their oppressors, had disappeared from the 
 soil of Portugal. 
 
 The comparative quiet which the Jews of France and 
 Germany enjoyed in the earlier part of tho Middle Ages 
 was rudely broken in upon by the Crusades. The spirit 
 of absolute intolerance which tho Catholic priesthood in- 
 culcated had at last taken firm hold of men's minds, and
 
 JEWS. 
 
 1419 
 
 while Id tbis period we frequently see the princes and the 
 higher clajtscs — iiuy, even the pupes ihem8i.*Ive.s — anxious 
 to preserve the Juws t"ntm the last applicatiun of their own 
 previous example and teachings, it is the frenzitd populace 
 which with prcater consistency now hounds them with re- 
 lentless furj- in every cily and village. In the first Cru- 
 sade the banks of the Moselle and the Uhine were the chief 
 theatres of persecution. The congregation of Treves con- 
 Gented to cmbraeo Christianity in the hope of warding oflf 
 the calamities that threatened them, and of returning to 
 their faith when the danger had passed off. But instances 
 of such complacency were extremely rare. A tumult oc- 
 curred in Spires in which a considerable number of the 
 Jews lost their lives. In Worms many of them perished 
 by their own hand. In Mayence the archbishop harbored 
 them in his palace, then opened tlte gates and gave them 
 over to slaughter at the hands of their enemies. The citi- 
 zens of Cologne facilitated their flight from that city, where 
 the rabble bad already determined on their destruction, 
 but they escaped only to perish miserably elsewhere. The 
 arm of the emperor. Henry IV., was powerless to protect 
 them. In the second Crusade, Peter Vcnerabilis in Franco 
 was instrumental in causing the plundering, and in some 
 cases the massacre, of the Jews. In Germany, taught by 
 recent experience, they acquired the protection of strongly- 
 fortified castles by the payment of heavj- sums. Those who 
 were not fortunato enough to gain such places of security 
 in timo wore exposed as before to the fury of the mob. A 
 certain monk, Rudolph, kindled the popular fanaticism by 
 his intlammatory speeches. "You go to Palestine," ho 
 said, *' to slay the unbelievers ; why not begin with the in- 
 fidel Jews in your own midst?'* After incalculnblo mis- 
 chi'.^f had been done, Bernard do Clairvaux at last suc- 
 ceeded in silencing the dangerous preacher. The third 
 Crusade proved disastrous to tlio Jews of England. The 
 coronation of Richard Coeur dc Lion was the occasion of 
 a terrible outbreak against them in London and other large 
 towns. The fate of the Jews of York was of a peculiarly 
 tragic character. (The reader will fiinl an easily acecssiblo 
 account of this mournful occurrence in Disraeli's Cun'ost' 
 tifs of Literature, ii. p. 210.) In Italy and in the S. of 
 Franco the Jewish congregations prospered in the enjoy- 
 ment of an undisturbed tranquillity. In tho N. of France 
 Philip .Augustus, the fcllow-crusr-dcr of Richard, drovo 
 them from his dominions. In 1103 he reconsidered his 
 decree au'l sulTered them to return. To Frederick Barba- 
 rossa, tho leader of tlio German forces in tho third Crusade, 
 is ascribed the institution of tho Kammerhncchtechaft of 
 the Jews of the empire. As $crvi camera: they were sup- 
 posed to enjoy tlie inviolateeharactcrattaching to imperial 
 property, but tho protection which this aflorded them 
 proved sadly inefficient when it was most needed. Tho 
 sovereign claimed, on the other hand, tho supremo right of 
 disposing of their persons and possessions. A threefold 
 tax of the most oppressive kind, which they were forced to 
 pay into his treasury, shows how the right was used. Tho 
 German emperors delighted in the double attribute of the 
 Holy and the Roman. As tho successors of the R-jiuau 
 impt-rator they referred their right of taxation to tho ex- 
 ample of Vef^pasian, who appropriated tho tax for the 
 temple at Jerusalem to his uwn liseus. As thu temi>oral 
 representatives of the Christian faith their good pleasure 
 was held to be absolute in deciding the fate of their Jewish 
 subjects. Tho Jews having forfeited the right of existence 
 in Christian states by the crucifixion of Jesus — such was 
 tho theory propounded by tho Church — could find noplace 
 within tho pale of the feudal system. As foreigners they 
 9tood in direct relationship with tho head of that system 
 only, and, being themselves utterly powerless, his will waa 
 their law. This theory continued to prevail down to tho 
 beginning of tho present century. In tho thirteenth cen- 
 tury tho war of exierininalion waged against tho Albi- 
 gensi'S brought disaster to the Jewish congregations of tho 
 Provence. In I2I3 the fourth Lateran Council, held under 
 Popo Innocent III., besides repeating former provisionsof 
 a hostilo character, enacted that no Jew shouhl appear in 
 public without a conspicuous bndgo attached to his gar- 
 ments. From that timo the wearing of the .lew's badge 
 was generally enforced in Christian countries. Kven Fred- 
 eriek 1 1., the protector of science, an emperor whoso ortho- 
 doxy was more than doubtful, did not hesitate to compel 
 obedience to lljis decree, althongb among ttx' scholars who 
 graced his court the names of Jew-* aro mentioned with dis- 
 tinction. In tho reign of Louis IX. (St. Louis) of France, 
 aflnr a great disputation held under royal nuspiees, it was 
 decided that tlie Talmud he condemned for certain blas- 
 phemous expressions against the author of Christianity 
 which it was supposed tn contain, nnd copie>< of the work 
 were publicly burnt by cartloads. St. Louis once more drove 
 the Jews of his realm into exile, but their banishment 
 proved, OS heretofore, tomporary. In tho days of tho em- 
 
 peror Rudolph of Ilapsburg the Jews of Germany found 
 their condition become so intolerable that numbers of them 
 determined to leave the Fatherland, at their head the cele- 
 brated rabbi, Meir of Rothenburg. Meir was, however, 
 arrested, and ended his days in prison. King John of 
 England employed the Jews us a convenient instrument for 
 replenishing his exhausted treasury. Stephen Langton, 
 archbishop of Canterbury, insistcil on their wearing the 
 badge. Under Henry III. a chief rabbi, appointed by the 
 king, was allowed to exercise considerable power over his 
 people, and a Jewish parliament was convened at AVor- 
 cester. But they were summoned for no higher purpose 
 than to raise funds for their royal master's benefit. 
 Tho monks of the Domiuiciin order %Tere here, as every- 
 where, active in fanning the flame of popular prejudice. 
 The charge of counterfeiting the coinage contributed to 
 increnso the suspicions of the king and the hatred of tho 
 citizens, and at last, in 1290, Edward I. banislicd the .Jews 
 from English soil. In Germany the end of the thirteenth 
 century is marked by a bloody persecution of the Jews. 
 One Rindfleisch and his followers preferred the ridiculous 
 charge that the Jews had pierced a consecrated wafer until 
 tho blootl of Christ flowed forth; 100,000 of them arc re- 
 ported to have perished in consequence. In 1306, Philip 
 the Fair decreed the exile of the Jews of France. In 13LMI, 
 having previously returned to their homes, they suffered 
 from the fury of the Pastoureux. In Italy alone they still 
 enjoyed repose. King Robert of Naples extended his favor 
 to tbein for their devotion to science, and the great Danto 
 received the poet Immanuel into the circle of his friends. 
 About this time the belief had become general that the Jews 
 not only delighted in profaning tho sacraments of the Church, 
 but were commanded by their religion to drink tho blood 
 of Christian children, in order properly to celebrate tho 
 festival of tlic Passover. Tho ignorant clergy were not 
 aware that the same charge of bloodshed in connection 
 with the observance of their religious rites had been brought 
 against the early Christians — nay, thnt they were only re- 
 peating, almost verbatim, tho legends which had been in- 
 vented to bring their own faith into disrepute. Yet wo 
 find this preposterous accusation again and again repeated 
 during more than live centuries, and it never failed to 
 bring tlio most terrible misfortunes in its train. In Ll^fi, 
 5000 peasants, under the leadership of Armledcr, began 
 tho sacred work of destroying 'Mho children of Satan" 
 (the Jews) in Alsaeo and along the Rhine. In 1337 the 
 town of Deckendorf in Bavaria witnessed the massacre of 
 its Jewish inhabitants, and a church built in honor of tho 
 event may still be seen at the present d:iy. In the middle 
 of tho fourteenth century the Black Death traversed the con- 
 tinent of Europe; 25,000,000 of its inhabitants, it is esti- 
 mated by Ilecker, were carried off by the plague. In addi- 
 tion to tho sufferings which they shared with the rest of man- 
 kind, a new anti more fearful visitation awaited the Jews. 
 They were made responsible for tho ravages of the scourge. 
 From Toledo, it was said, a horrid concoction had been 
 distributed among them, with which they were ordered to 
 poison tho wells in every county of their abode. At Chil- 
 lon, on Lake Geneva, tJie outrageous persecutions conse- 
 quent on this cliarge commenced, and soon spread to Berne, 
 Bale, Freiburg, Worms, and Straaburg. The bravery of the 
 citizens in the town last mentioned, who resisted the frantic 
 mob, only served to secure their own destruction. It was 
 of no avail that the pope himself refuted the cruel and 
 baseless accusation. Tho fire and the executioner'.s axe 
 could no longer be checked. It would fill pages to give an 
 account of all they endured. In 1300 the Jews who had been 
 expelled liom Franco received oflieial permission to return. 
 But as they were compelled to resort to usury in order to 
 satisfy tho avarice of their rulers, the ponulaee rose against 
 them in l.JSO. Their houses were plundered, and many of 
 them killed. On Easter Sunday, 1380, in the reign of the 
 emperor Wenzel. the Jews of Prague and the neighboring 
 places were butchered by thousands. Two children had 
 been playing in the Ghetto, throwing sand at each other. 
 I A few grains happening to strike a priest who was passing 
 I by a tumult ensued with the usual result. In 1391 a gen- 
 , eral decree of banishment was once more issued by Charles 
 I VI. against the French Jews. But tlie timo had now passed 
 ! by when they could hope for a speedy recall, and they were 
 ' no more ]iermitted to return. 
 
 ! Whenever Catholicism was forced to contend against tho 
 
 rise of a great heresy in its own midst, tho Jews were made 
 
 . to suffer from tho religious fervorwlnch the struggle evoked. 
 
 ' This was shown in tho time of the crusade against the AI- 
 
 bigenses. We find it again illustrated in the beginning of 
 
 the filteenth ceiiturv. when the Church mustered her forcofl 
 
 I to meet tho arms and arguments of the followers of lluss. 
 
 I In IC-'O the Jews of Vienna were imprisoned ; in the next 
 
 I year numbers of them were consigned to the flames. Tho 
 
 I wild eloquence of the Dominicans did not fail to embroeo
 
 1420 
 
 JEWS. 
 
 the infidel Jews in its denunciations of heretics. The 
 Franciscan monk Capistrano, too, was no less active in 
 using his immense influence for their destruction. In 1454 
 llie bishop of Wiirzburg expelled them from his diocese. 
 In Brcslau they were burnt at the stake. In Poland, Casi- 
 mir IV. was induced to revoke the humane enactments 
 whirh he had but lately passed in their favor. Capistrano 
 merited the name which his admirers bestowed on him, " the 
 scourge of the Hebrews." In Italy the bright fortunes of the 
 Israelites had not yet been darkened. There were too many 
 counter-currents in that land to permit the monks to obtain 
 the same absolute power which they did not scruple to assert 
 in other countries. How wretchedly did the position of the 
 German .Tews contrast with that of their Italian brethren! 
 In 147G the rabbi of the oldest congregation in German)', 
 that of Rcgensburg. was accused of sacrificing a Christian 
 child, and it required all the influence of the emperor and 
 of the king of Bohemia to ward off from his brethren in 
 that town the terrible fate with which they were long 
 threatened. In the beginning of the sixteenth century we 
 find the Jews of Italy an influential body in many of the 
 lar^e towns, and some of their number occupying positions 
 of 'trust, especially at the papal court. In Germany they 
 were expelled from Nuremberg and several provinces of 
 Austri.a. In Greece their numbers had considerably in- 
 creased, and they appear to have remained, on the whole, 
 unmolested. It was in Turkey, however, that they at this 
 time enjoyed to the full that liberty and security which the 
 bigotry of the Christian nations denied them. In that 
 country many of the exiles of Spain and Portugal had at 
 last found an" asylum ; they quickly increased in wealth and 
 power, and flourishing congregations grew up in the large 
 cities of Constantinople and Salonichi. In the reign of 
 Selim II., Joseph Nassi was .appointed duke of Naxos, and 
 exercised the rights of sovereignty over Andros. Pares, and 
 some ten other islands. His influence in the councils of 
 the sultan was so great that the ambassadors of foreign 
 powers were forced to conciliate his favor. Nor was he the 
 only one of his coreligionists in the diplomatic service of 
 Turkey whose word was powerful in shaping the political 
 affiiirs of Europe. 
 
 The main interest of Jewish history at the commence- 
 ment of the sixteenth century concentrates upon the great 
 Reuchlin-Pfeflerkorn controversy in Germany. John Pfef- 
 ferkorn, a converted Jew. a willing tool in the hands of the 
 Dominicans of Cologne, declared the Talmud to bo the main 
 obstacle to the general conversion of the Jews, on account 
 of the blasphemous utterances contained in it against the 
 Christian religion and its founder. He won the ear of 
 Kunigundc, the sister of the emperor Maximilian, and 
 through her that of the emperor himself for the time being. 
 John Reuchlin, the famous and universally esteemed scholar, 
 was called upon by JIaximilian to examine and pronounce 
 ujion the charges. An ardent admirer of the Hebrew and 
 of .lewish literature, he declared the accusations groundless, 
 and severely rebuked the accuser. This roused the fury of 
 Pfrfforkorn and his supporters against him. A number of 
 inllammatorv pamphlets, '•mirrors," denouncing Reuchlin 
 and the Jews were issued under Dominican auspices. 
 Reuchlin answered with his Auf/empiegel. A Urandspicgel 
 followed on the ])art of the fanatical monks of Cologne. 
 They desired every copy of the Talmud and similar 
 "heretical" books" to be confiscated and secured with 
 chains in the great libraries, lest the Jews should steal 
 them back. Even the Hebrew Bible was threatened with 
 destruction to make way for the solo supremacy of the Vul- 
 gate. Dangers thickened around the bold humanist who 
 had taken up the cause of learning against bigotry. The 
 emperor's protection was not to be relied on, and, indeed, 
 he repeatedly changed sides in the conflict that ensued. 
 At last, Hochstralen, the inquisitor of Cologne, ordered 
 Keuohlin to appear before him in Mayence for trial, or 
 rather for condemnation. The plans of the. Dominicans, 
 deeply laid though they were, were foiled at the very last 
 moment by the sudden intervention of Archbishop Uriel. 
 The question of Reuchlin's heresy in defending the Talmud 
 was next referred by the pope to a commission that met at 
 Spires. Their verdict was in favor of Reuchlin, and Hoeh- 
 stratcn was condemned to pay costs. Its effect was some- 
 what weakened by the adverse decision of the University of 
 Paris, which had tried the case of its own accord, witliout 
 any authority from the pope. A new tribunal, created in 
 Home, took the part of Reuchlin with such decision that the 
 monks of Cologne were forced with bad grace to give way. 
 In the mean time the Epintolir OhHcummm F'/rorr/m, which 
 appeared in two series, had made them the laughing-stock 
 of all Gerraony. The interest which the controversy ex- 
 cited in Jewish literature proved in the highest degree 
 beneficial to its correct preservation and culture. In 1620, 
 Daniel Bomberg began the publication of the Talmud in 
 an edition which for accuracy has not been equalled. Im- 
 
 mense sums were expended on this and other Hebrew works. 
 
 In several "[ironuneot universities profcs.sorships for the 
 Hebrew language were founded. The Reformation, though 
 largely indebted to the writings of Jews for its weapons of 
 attack", did not at first lighten the load of their sufl'erings, 
 and the intolerance of Protestants did not prove less op- 
 pressive than that of Catholics. With the loss of the mind's 
 creative power entailed by so many bitter persecutions a 
 tendency toward centralization became apparent among 
 the Jews. In 156", Joseph Kara, a rabbi of Safet in Pal- 
 estine, published a digest of the rabbinical laws, which 
 soon came to be looked upon as supreme authority in mat- 
 ters of religion. The same tendency appears in the synods 
 of Poland which began to be held toward the end of this 
 century, and it is further illustrated by the history of the 
 great congregations of Amsterdam and Hamburg in the 
 next. In Spain and Portugal many of the more faint- 
 hearted of the Jews had assumed the mask of Christianity 
 to escape the necessity of leaving their country, while in 
 secret they still preserved an unfaltering allegiance to their 
 ancient creed. The position of these miserable ones was 
 trulv deplorable. Frequently discovered in the exercise of 
 forbidden rites, they fed the flames of the Inquisition, and, 
 despairing of mortal oid, sought refuge in the illusory 
 promises of mysticism in the vain hope of release. Solo- 
 mon Molcho, a youth whose fancy was fired by the Cab- 
 bala, which for several centuries had slowly been increas- 
 ing the number of its adherents, created a great commotion 
 among them by earnestly predicting the near approach of 
 the Messianic "age. Hcwas burnt at the stake in Mantua 
 (.15.12) by order of Charles V. The successful revolution 
 of the Netherlands, which Spanish bigotry had provoked, 
 at last opened to them a haven of security. Free Holland 
 invited them to its shores. The city of Amsterdam availed 
 itself of the wealth and industry of the "Judaizing" Chris- 
 tians of Portugal, and to their efforts the rapid extension 
 of the city's commerce was in no small measure due. The 
 Jewish congregation of Amsterdam soon became one of the 
 most influential of all Europe. They cultivated letters and 
 erected an institute (T.almud Tora) for the instruction of 
 the young in Hebrew literature. From their midst Spinoza 
 went forth. Elsewhere their brethren were not so fortunate. 
 In 1614 the guilds of Frankfort, with Vincent Fettmilch 
 at their head, expelled the Jews from their town. In the 
 next year the example of Frankfort was followed by Worms. 
 Bothcities were compelled by the emperor to receive the 
 fugitives back into their walls. In the middle of the sev- 
 enteenth century the Jews pf Poland were visited with a 
 calamity from which they have never recovered. The Cos- 
 sacks, led on by the fierce Chmielnicki, succeeded if not in ex- 
 terminating, as they intended, yet at least in reducing them 
 to a condition of iittcr and abject degradation. Chmiel- 
 nicki and his soUlicrv are reported to have slain between 
 the years 164S and 16"5S about 250,000 Polish Jews. Those 
 that were spared emigrated in great numbers, and inundat- 
 ed the countries of Central and Southern Europe. They 
 were everywhere kindly received. But from being guests 
 they soon rose to he masters. AVith great powers of intel- 
 lect" they united, as a body, certain faults of character, 
 whoso influence on their new surroundings proved vicious 
 in tho extreme. In England the Jews were readmitted 
 after having been banished the country since 1290, main- 
 ly through the exertions of Manasseh b. Israel, a rabbi of 
 Amsterdam. lu 1655, Cromwell invited him to visit Eng- 
 land, and ho there found active sympathy among many 
 of the Puritan leaders. Their love for the Old Testament 
 inclined them to look favorably upon the remnant of an- 
 cient Israel. Moreover, were not these the people from 
 whom Jesus had sprung? 
 
 In 1065 a strange drama was enacted in Smyrna. A 
 native of that town, Sahbathai Zewi. was solemnly pro- 
 claimed the Messiah of the Jews. The Cabbala had in- 
 spired him— the Cabbala paved the way for his astonish- 
 ing success. The tidings spread from the Orumt to the 
 Occident, and evervwherc the new evangilc found ardent 
 believers. S. Zewi "taught that in him the " God of Israel, 
 the Third Person of the Godhead, had become flesh and 
 blood He inculcated the doctrine of the transmigratmn 
 of souls, and, like all mvsticism, his teachings were strongly 
 colored with sensualism. He ended his Messmnie career by 
 assuming the turban in Constantinople for fear of being put 
 to death. But this did not remove the evils of which he 
 had been the occasion. The contagion of his views spread 
 throughout Europe, and while the outward position of the 
 Jews was now very slowly improving, their mental comii- 
 tion was far inferior to what it had been in the JUdille 
 A"-es The great elector of Brandenburg received a nuni- 
 he'r of those Jewish families whom the emperor Leopold 
 had driven from Vienna. In 1700 the Jews succeeded in 
 causing an imperial injunction to be laid on the publication 
 of Eisenmenger's infamous attack on their religion and
 
 JEWSBURY— JOACHIM. 
 
 1421 
 
 thooieelres. In ILimburg a coloDj of the mother-coDgre- 
 gation of AinNter<ltim began (o rival the gloriea of its pa- 
 rent, notwitli!jtandiug the determined resistanec which hud 
 at fir:*! opposed its progress. In 17J1 a conlliot arose be- 
 tween Juiiathan Kibi'Schutz, the rabbi of Hamburg, and 
 Jacob Emden. in which the former was char-fed with Cab- 
 balistic practice", especially the writing of tnaL^io talismans 
 in the name of the Mesjijah, Sabl)atliai Zewi. Soon after 
 the sect of the Frankists arose in Poland. Frank, their 
 leader, pretended to be the successor of S. Zewi, and, 
 like his mod**!, ended by abjuring his religion. The soot 
 of the Chasidim, which still exists at the present day, may 
 bo regarded as the last outgrowth of this deplorable move- 
 ment. 
 
 The modern epoch is marked by the name of Mendels- 
 sohn. His Gorman version of the Pentateuch became, like 
 Luther's translation of the Bible, the groundwork of reform. 
 hvs»\n):;'e Xatfiuu thn HV^r rebuked the time-worn prejudice 
 of the Christian world. Dohm laimrcd to secure the civil 
 emancipation of the Jews. The I'rench Revolution broke 
 down the walls of their ghettos. On Sept. 28, 1791, tho 
 National Assembly decreed the complete enfranchisement 
 of the Israelite citizens of France. In the hour of need, 
 when the great struggle with Xapoloon was impending, 
 Frederick William HI. ff^lt himself constrained to liberate 
 the Jews of Prussia. Other states and cities slowly fol- 
 lowed. It cost many a bitter struggle until civil and re- 
 ligious freedom was finally secured. The '* Hep, hep" cry 
 raii^od in (rermany in ISll), the bloody persecution in 
 Damascus some thirty years ago, in which French diplo- 
 macy was seriously implicated, the Mortara affair in 1858, 
 and recent events in Itoumania, have shown that the em- 
 bers of bigotry have not yet completely died out. Tint a 
 general conflagration need no longer be feared. Under the 
 benign influence of liberty the Jews have everywhere 
 shown themselves ready and able to advance tlio interests 
 of civilization. Kot only has their own literature been 
 opened to scicntiflc study by such men as Zunz, Geiger, 
 Munk, Uapoport, Luzzato, and others, but they have 
 rendered signal service in almost every department of 
 science and art. I mention among the philosophers M. 
 Mendelssohn, Maimon, Herz ; in political economy, Uicardo 
 and Lasallo ; in literature, Hiime, Ileino. Aucrbach, Grace 
 Aguilar ; in music, Mendelssohn- Rariholdy, Meyerbeer, 
 Halevy ; among the jtrominent statesmen of the day, Dis- 
 raeli, Lasker, Cn'mieux. In this country the Jewish popu- 
 lation has largely increased during the last three decades. 
 In New York City alone it is now estimated at between 
 .Sn.OiiO and t;0,nno"souls. For 2000 years the world has en- 
 deavored to crush out the Jewish race. That spirit of cx- 
 chi^iveness with which it is charged was but the natural 
 result of such relentless hostility. It vanishes wherever con- 
 fidence is inspired by security. The majority of intelligent 
 Israelites in the present have long since abandoned the 
 w'lAx of building up an indepenclcnt national existence of 
 their own. Their patriotism has been illustrated on all iho 
 great battlefields of this century. The achievement of 
 higher conditions of human life they are disposed to regard 
 as the fulfilment nf Messianic jiropheey, and the furthering 
 this end in intimate union with their fellow-men as the 
 higliest dictate of their religion. Fkmx Adlkr, 
 
 JeW8'bury(GKiiAi.niNF, ENDSOR),b. inManehester.Eng., 
 in 1821, sister of Maria Jane, wrote a numbcrof novels con- 
 cerning society life, among which are Zof^, the //iVon/ of 
 Two Lxvri, (1815). Thr Ifuff-Shtem (184S), The Sorrow* of 
 Grntifitif f|8.'>fl), and also minor works for ehiblrcn. 
 
 Jcwslmry (Maria Janr), b. in Warwickshire, Eng- 
 land, about 1800 ; resideil in Manchester mr)St of her life; 
 was a frequent contributor to the English magazines and 
 to the London Athrnirum. Wordsworth pronounced her 
 unsurpassed by any writer of her time for the " quickness 
 of tlie motions of her iniinl." while the Alhrnn^um parsed a 
 similar eulogy upon her play of imagination, thirst for 
 knowledge, and elevated purposes. In IH.*!;!, Miss Jews- 
 bury married Hov. William Fletcher, a missionary t<t India, 
 and d. at Bombay in the same year. Her collected works 
 embrace I*liiiutn<imatfor{ft, IjvUrrn in thr Yoinnf, Kaifit of 
 Lrjtnrf flnurn^ and Thrrr HiHturirn. the lii^t of which wa0 
 very popular and has been frequently reprinted. 
 
 Jcypoor', one of the Uajpoot states utider English pro- 
 tection in Western Ilindostan. /\rea, 15,251 square miles. 
 Pop. 1,801,121. Its soil is in most places poor, often bar- 
 ren sand, and its climate is intolerably hot. Its capital of 
 the same name is situated in 20'^ 50' N. lat. and 75*' 55' E, 
 Inn., nn<i is ci»nsidered the finest city the Ilindni.s ever built. 
 It forms a ]iaraIIelogram divided by straight streetn inter- 
 secting each other at right angles. It is surrounded by a 
 wall surmounted by towers, and contains a largo and mag- 
 nificent palace. 
 
 Jr/'ohol [Heb. hrhr^, daughter of Ethbaal. king of 
 
 Tyro and Sidon, and wife of Ahab, king of Israel, exer- 
 cised a great influence upon her husband, leading him into 
 idolatrous worship of Baal, a Phoenician deity, long a for- 
 midable rival, especially in the northern kingdom, to the 
 Jehovah-worshij) established at Jerusalem. Many acts of 
 persecution against the prophets and priests of Jehovah 
 are attributed to Jezebel, and were so successful that at one 
 time there were but 70U0 persons in Israel who ha<l not 
 bowed the knee to Baal. The narrative of this momentous 
 controversy is found at length in I Kings. Jezebel was 
 murdered by Jehu about 883 a. c, at the same time as her 
 son. King Jchnram. Her daughter, Athaliah, married Jc- 
 horam. king of Judah. 
 
 Jczi'rah [lleb. Srphrr y<>tiiirnh'\, or Book of Cre- 
 ation, one of the two chief cabbalistic works of the Jews. 
 Its date is variously assigned to the first and tiie eighth or 
 ninth century. It was printed in I5G2, 1642, and 1830. 
 
 Jez'reel, town in Northern Palestine, which was the 
 capital of the kingdom of Israel under several reigns. 
 
 Jhy'luuif or Behut, river of Ilindostan, the western- 
 most of the Punjaub. It rises in the valley of Cashmere, 
 and after emerging from the Ilimalavas it joins the Chc- 
 naub and forms the Trimah. (See Hvdasi'KS.) 
 
 JidMah, town of Arabia, on tlio Red Sea. in 21° 28' 
 N. lat. and :\'.)° 13' E. Ion.. GO miles W. of Mecca. It is 
 surrounded by a barren desert, so destitute of water that 
 rain-water must be gathered and carefully preserved in 
 cisterns. But it carries on a most important trade, pro- 
 visions from Egypt, cofl'eo from Arabia, and manufactured 
 goods from India being brought in largo quantities to its 
 warehouses and exchanged. • Thousands of pilgrims visit 
 yearly the town on their way to Mecca. A curious little 
 building within the walls contains a monument called the 
 tomb of Eve. Pop. variously estimated at from 10,000 to 
 20.000. 
 
 Jika'daze^ or Shikatzc, town of Thibet, the capital 
 of tbo district of Zang, is in an elevated and very dry plain, 
 encircled by lofty but barren mountains, and contains an 
 immense palace or monastery, in which reside one of the 
 chief lan)as and Ins suite, consisting of above 4000 per- 
 sons. It consists of a number of palaces, temples, and 
 tombs of a most striking architecture and profusely orna- 
 mented with gold and precious stones. Pop. 100,000. 
 
 Jime'^na, town of Spain, in tho province of Cadiz, on 
 the .Jogergante. has 0577 inhabitauts, mostly engaged in 
 agriculfnre and liorticulture. 
 
 Jim Henry, tp. of Miller co.. Mo. Pop. 542. 
 
 Jinn [Arabic, plural of Jinn! , tho " invisible," cognate 
 with the Lat. Gkmis (which see)], among Arabian and 
 other Moliammedan peoples a race of imaginary beings 
 made out of fire and capable of assuming any form at will. 
 Tiiey inhabited the earth long before man was created, but 
 for rebellious conduct were finally expelled. They inhabit 
 a world called Jinnistan. but often visit the earth in storms, 
 tornadoes, and earthquakes. Many of their exploits are 
 narrated in the Amhinn Ait/htn. The good jinn are called 
 peri (fairy). Mohammed came to instruct and redeem 
 jinn as well as men. Men arc superior iu dignity to jinn, 
 but far less powerful. 
 
 Jiquili'tCy the native indigo of Central America, ludi- 
 ffo/rrn (Itspeniiti, which produces large quantities of excel- 
 lent indigo. (Pen iNimio.) 
 
 Jitomir% or Zytomirrz, town of Russia, tho capital 
 of tho government of Voiliynia, on the Kanirnka. which 
 here joins the Teterev and tl'>ws to the Dnieper. It is the 
 seat of the governor, cd" a (Ireck arid»bi>bop, and a R'uniin 
 Calholio bishop. It has some inm and glass works, four 
 annual fairs, and a considerable trade. Pop. 17,131. 
 
 Jo'ab, a son of Zeruiah. the sister of David, distin- 
 guished himself as a warrior under the reign of Saul, and 
 was made commander of the wb<de Hebrew army by David. 
 He was a valiant, talented, and inlluential man. but virdcnt 
 and unscrupulous. When David tri<'d to rid himself of 
 him by giving the command to Amasa. Jnab jdunged his 
 sword into Amasa's heart while embracing him. He took 
 part in the unsiicce^tsful demonstration in favor of Adoni- 
 jah. and altlniugh he fled to the tabrrnacle for refuge, Sol- 
 omon seized him and put him to death. 
 
 Jo'achim, called the PnopiiKT, b. at Celico, in Italy, 
 about 1 115. After being employed at the court of Roger, 
 king of Sicily. an*i maki?ig a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, he 
 became a Cistercian monk, abbot of Corace in Calabria. 
 and finally founder of Iho monastery of Floris near Co- 
 senzft, where he d. Mar. 30, 1202. Ho left a rejtutation as 
 a saint and miracle-worker, nnti his followers made an un- 
 Huecrssful attempt tn cnnonize him in 13(0. He taught a 
 peculiar mystic doctrine, of which the chief tenet was that 
 the Christian era would close A. n. 1200. afff^r wbifh n ww
 
 1422 
 
 JOACHIM— JOBERT DE LAMBALLE. 
 
 providential dispensation would begin. This doctrine was 
 
 emboflicd in his treatise called the Everlnstiuq Gospel, 
 which was corKlemned by the Council of the Latcran in 
 1'21 J, and by that of Aries' in 12fi0. lie left many writings, 
 chictly commentaries, and prophesied the downfall of the 
 piipacy. Hi? followers, called Joachimitca, were numerous 
 iu tlio thirteenth century. 
 
 Joachim, tp. of Jefferson co., Mo. Pop. 1SG5. 
 
 Jo'acliimsthal, town of Bohemia, near the frontier 
 of S.ixony, is situated in a valley in the Krzegebirge, 2:U>0 
 feet above the level of the sea, and has 5Cn inhabitants, 
 mostly engaged in the working of the neighboring iron, 
 silver, lead, and tin mines. 
 
 Joaily Pope, a fabulous personage who was long be- 
 lieved to have occupied the papal chair (So3-8o(>) as John 
 VIII., succeeding Leo IV. and preceding Benedict III. 
 The report was that Joan was born in Germany, the 
 daughter of an English priest; falling in love with a 
 monk, she entered a convent in male attire at Fulda, and 
 then went with her paramour to Athens and Rome, where 
 slie acquired a high reputation for piety and learning, and 
 was unanimously chosen popo when a vacancy occurred. 
 One day in the street, at the head of a procession, it is 
 said that the pope was unexpectedly delivered of a child, 
 soon after which she died. There has been much specula- 
 tion as to the origin of this fiction, which acquired universal 
 credence in the Middle Ages; and in the cathedral of 
 Siena a statue of Popo Joan was for a long time to be seen. 
 The fable still occasionally finds a literary defender, but is 
 utterly lyithout historical foundation, its fictitious character 
 having been first conclusively demonstrated by David 
 Blomlel, a Protestant, in 16i9. 
 
 Joan of Arc [Fr. Jeanne d'Arc, or, more correctly, 
 Durr], the Maid of Orleans, b. Jan. 0, 1412. at Domrcmy, 
 in Lorraine (now a part of Germany), of parents who, 
 though sprung of wealthy and ancient stock, were reduced 
 to the state of serfdom. The youthful Joanne was distin- 
 guished for a sweet simplicity, piety, and industry in child- 
 hood. Her patriotism was early inflamed by the fact that 
 Dnmremy was of the Armagnac or French faction, rather 
 thm of the Burgundian party of those times. When she 
 wa? thirteen years old France was overrun by the Anglo- 
 Pieard troops of the duke of Bedford, regent of Henry VI., 
 and by the forces of Burgundy. Jeanne, impressed by the 
 distressed state of France, conceived that she heard voices 
 from Heaven and saw visions of Sts. Michael. Margaret, 
 and Catharine, calling her to deliver France. Four or five 
 years later (1428) she announced her vision to Baudricourt, 
 governor of Vaucouleurs, and in 1429 gained an audience 
 \vith the dauphin, who iu April gave her command of the 
 French troops, who by this time were fully inspired with 
 belief in her heavenly mission. She assumed male attire, 
 a sword, and a white banner, threw herself boldly into Or- 
 leans, of which she quickly raised the siege ; beat the Eng- 
 lish at Meun, Jergcau, Beaugency, and Patay; caused the 
 dauphin to be crowned at Ilheinis in less tlian three months 
 after she took the field. She now demanded to bo released 
 from further service, the heavenly voices having ceased to 
 be heard, and a dread foreboding taking their place; but 
 the king would not consent. In the subsequent attack on 
 Paris she was badly wounded, and soon after she and her 
 family were ennobled. On May 2.'i, 14o0, after having 
 taken part in nmny successful combats, she was captured 
 by the FJurgundians while heading a sortie from Compit^gne, 
 and was sold to the English (who feared her as a witch) for 
 l(j,i)Ott francs. The University of Paris having pronounced 
 her guilty of witchcraft after a protracted and most unjust 
 trial, she was burned at the stake with every circumstance 
 <if indignity and cruelty. May .'JO, 1431. It may be added 
 that Delapierre and others question, with some show of 
 reason, the story of her death, and state that she married 
 and was alive in 1441, some other woman having, us it is 
 asserted, been tried. 
 
 Joa'nes (Viscknte). b. in Spain in 1523, and d. in 1579. 
 He studied in Rome, imitated Raphael, and became the 
 fiiuntler of a Spanish-Italian school of painters, whose seat 
 was Valencia. He was deeply religious. ]ire]iared himself, 
 before he commenced a ncvT picture, by taking the sacra- 
 ment, and treated exclusively religious subjects. There is 
 a charming expression of innocence and sweetness in his 
 pictures, but not the intellectuality and lofty purity which 
 dislinguisli Raphael. 
 
 Joan'na I., queen of Naples from 1.343 to 1382, b. in 
 ]'V17. a daughter of Charles and granddaughter of Robert 
 of .\njou, was married when seven years oM to Andrew of 
 Hungary, her second cousin. The idea of this marriage 
 was to ally the two branches of the family of Anjou together. 
 hut the purpose failed, and the contest between the two 
 political parties represented by the two branches of the 
 
 royal family became only fiercer. In i;U5, Joanna had her 
 
 husband strangled, and when his brother, Louis the Great 
 of Hungary, invaded Na])lcs to avenge him, she had to tiee. 
 By the mediation of the pope, to whom she gave Avignon 
 and the sum of SO, DUO Horius, she returned soon after, and 
 married successively Louis of Taranto, James of Aiagon, 
 anil Otho of Brunswick. But in the papal schism het^vecn 
 Clement VII. and Urban VI., Joanna sided with Clement, 
 antl at the instigation of Urban VI. a rebellion took place 
 in Naples. Joanna was seized, imprisoned in Muro, and 
 delivered over to the king of Hungary, who immediately 
 had her put to death. — Her grand-niece, Joanna II., queen 
 of Naples from 1414 to I4;i5, b. in lo7t\ was married first 
 to William of Austria, and after his death to .Taeques do 
 Bourbon. She was notorious for her dissolute lilc. and 
 her government was utterly distracted by the feuds and 
 intrigues between her different favorites. 
 
 Jo^ash, or Jcho'ash [Ileb. Yonsh or Ychnash, 
 "given by Jehovah"], the name of two kings. I. A king 
 of Jud-ah, son of Ahaziah by Libnah of Bcersheba, b. 
 about B. c. SS4. His father having died iu his infancy, all 
 his brothers were massacred by his grandmother Athaliah, 
 who usurped the throne, but Joash was secretly saved by 
 his aunt, the wife of the high priest Jehoiada, who brought 
 him up within the temple until his eighth year, when a 
 successful revolution was made. Athaliah was killed, and 
 the young prince, the last scion of the house of David, 
 was placed on the throne. During his minority, and for 
 many years thereafter, his government was approved by 
 the biblical writer, but at length he fell into idolatry, when 
 his kingdom was ravaged by IlazacI of Damascus, and he 
 was besieged in Jerusalem, giving up the treasures of the 
 temple to tho enemy. He was murdered in his bed by his 
 servants about n. r. S.T7, after a reign of forty years.- — II. A 
 king of Israel, son and successor of Jehoahaz, and grand- 
 son of Jehu, became king about B. c. 8r.8, successfully re- 
 sisted the Syrians, and defeated Amaziah, king of Judah. 
 Joash is esteemed one of the best of tho kings of Israel. 
 D. after sixteen years' reign, about B. c. 823. 
 
 Job, The Book of, one of the books of the Old Tes- 
 tament, narrating tin: story of Job, a wealthy Arabian sheik 
 or patriarch who dwelt in the land of Uz. and a man of 
 benevolent, devout, and Idaraeless life. At an advanced 
 age ho is visited with loss of estate, of family, and of health ; 
 his wife breaks down under the load of trials, but Job re- 
 mains true to God, and endures all without a sinful word 
 of complaint, to tho discomfiture of Satan, his accuser. 
 And at last his faithfulness receives an ample reward. Tho 
 doctrine of retribution held a prominent place in Jewish 
 theology. As a popular dogma it amounted to this — that 
 God balances men's sins by adversity in this life with a 
 perfect and inexorable justice. Thus, affliction and adver- 
 sity came to be regarded as the indices of sin. Nothing 
 less than this dogma is at stake in the poem — or tragedy, 
 as we may well call it, from the intensity of the interests 
 and feelings involved. Job's wife represents the evil spirit 
 of rcbellioQ against God. His friends represent the various 
 shades of tho popular dogma. They insist that his adver- 
 sity is proof of sin, either specifically or in general, and 
 blandly exhort him to humility and submission. Against 
 them ho defends bis integrity, and it seems to be rather 
 vexation at their platitudes than the actual effect of Satan's 
 machinations which drives Job from his patience and leads 
 him to fail, so far as he does fail, under the test. Finally, 
 this vexation passes away. He turns to God in unaffected 
 humility, which he is able to reach without doing violence 
 to his consciousness of his own integrity, but out of his 
 spontaneous and loving trust in God. Then he wins a new 
 revelation of (lod. such as he had never had before. He 
 sees that man cannot pretend to fathom or compass or fol- - 
 low the plan and purpose of God. Man's mind would fail 
 if God should make known to him even a part of the many 
 i things which must be taken into account in the divine plan. 
 He cannot, therefore, know Go.l's purpose in sending ad- 
 versity on this man or on that : and. in short, nothing can 
 be more absurd or impious than for man to frame little 
 dogmas by which to pretend to interpret the dispensations 
 of Providence. 
 
 This poem is a wonderful specimen of literary art. The 
 characters sustain the parts allotted to them perfectly. The 
 time assigned to the incident is that of Moses and Joshua, 
 and the '' historic sense" is admirably displayed. Prol)- 
 ably a historical fact lay at the basis, but the writer has 
 used it so independently that it has disappeared. The lan- 
 guage is peculiar, and ]iresents numerous diflicultios. and 
 the thought is so subtle as to tax the utmost skill of tho 
 interpreter. It is almost unanimously assigned to a very 
 early but unknown date. 
 
 Jobe, post-tp. of Oregon co., Mo. Pop. R4.S. 
 Joberl'Uc LainbaUc' (Antoine Joseph), b. at Lam-
 
 JOB'S CABIX— JOHN THE KVANGELIST. 
 
 14-i:} 
 
 bulle in 1799; studied medicine in Paris 1819; took bis 
 degree in 1828: and becnnic surgeon at the lloiipital of 
 Pi. Louis in 18110 ; yuriJieon to the emperor in 1^J4, and 
 member of the Academy in 1850. llis principal writings 
 arc — Traitf thftriifue it pratique dca malatlirs cfiirurgicatca 
 (iu cnnai intestinttf (1829), TraitS de chirnryic plnatiquc 
 (1819), Traitemcut des Jiatule9 veaicO'VaginalcH (1852). I>. 
 Apr. 22, IS67. 
 
 Job's Cabin, tp. of Wilkes co., N. C. Pop. 60C. 
 
 Job's Tears {Coix tachr^ma), & grass, a native of In- 
 dia, where it often grows to the height of eight feet; it re- 
 sembles somewhat maize both in appearance and habits. 
 Its name i.-* derived from its "geed:^,''or rather indurated 
 biiskn, which are bony, shining, bluish-white globule?. In 
 India the seeds are used as an article of food, but outside 
 of India they are used only as ornament?, made into bracc- 
 Icis and necklaces, or as beads for rosaries. 
 
 Job''to\vn« former village of Cass CO., Ind., now included 
 in the city of Logansport. Pop. 349. 
 
 Jo Da'vicss, county of N. W. Illinois. Area, (150 
 SfjUiire miles. It has Wisconsin on the X. and tiic Missis- 
 sippi Hiver on the S. W. It has mines of copper and lead, 
 the latter especially important. Its surface is varieil. its 
 soil productive. Cattle, grain, wool, and tobacco arc staple 
 products. Carriages and saddlery arc among the leading 
 articles of manufacture. The county is traversed by the 
 Illinois Central II. R. Cap. Galena. Pop. 27,820. 
 
 Jo Daviess, tp. of Faribault co., Ulinn. Pop. 477. 
 
 Joilelle' (Kricx\t:).b. at Paris in 15.12, and d. there in 
 157;;. He took part very successfully In that movement in 
 the French literature which was started by Ilonsard. and 
 by which imitation of the classical models was adopted as 
 an artistic principle. The common tut/tttcrics and moralitUa 
 he supplanted by regular tragedies, and his Ctcopatre and 
 Didun created a general enthusiasm. 
 
 Jo'el [Hob., "The Lord is his God"], one of the minor 
 Hebrew prophet?, concerning whom little is with certainty 
 known. He lived at Jerusalem, and his prophecies relate 
 to Judah. The date of his life is very uncertain. He was 
 undoubtedly one of the earliest of the prophets whoso works 
 remain to us. Ewald, Hil7.ig, and Keil think that he lived 
 before 800 a. c. One of the visitations of locusts which oc- 
 cur from time to time in the Orient (see Lepsius, lin'f/c ant 
 yfi^'/y/jfc/i) occurred in his time, and proved a great national 
 calamity. The prophet called the people trt penitence, pub- 
 lic fasting, prayer, and righteousness, and turned their at- 
 tention to (iod's great day of visitation and judgment. 
 
 Jo^^ues (Isaac), b. at Orleans, France, Jan. 10, 1607. 
 became a Jesuit at Rouen in 1021, and came to Canada as 
 a missionary in 1630. After preaching to the llurons. ho 
 founded in 1012 a mission among the Chippewas in Michi- 
 gan. On a journey to Quebec he was captured by the 
 Mohawks and ma<le a slave, but escaped to the Dutch at 
 Albany, and went to France, whence he soon returned to 
 t'anada. In May, \i'y\i\, he concluded a treaty between the 
 French anci the Slohawks, remained among them as a mis- 
 sionary, and was put to death by them as a sorcerer at 
 (^au;;hnawaga Oct. IS of the same year. His Lrtters were 
 published in the New York Historical Society's Collection, 
 au'l his description of (he New Nefherlanrls was reprinted 
 in New York in IS62, with a memoir bv J. G. Shea. (Sec 
 hx* Lif'-. by Rev. Felix Martin, S. J., Paris. I8":t.) 
 
 Jo'hann (Nktomik Maria Joski-ii). king of Saxony, b. 
 Dec. 12, IHOI, and d. Oct. 2l>, 187:t. He was iin erudite'and 
 finely educated man, whose inclinations turned towards 
 literary and scientific uceupations, but who. nevertheless, 
 devoted himself with conscientiousness to his royal duties. 
 The graver qualities, however, of a ruler, lie waiifid. and 
 ho never became very popular. His youth was wh<illy <le- 
 voted to art and science, cflpecially to the study of Italian 
 language and literature ; from I8:i9 to IS49 he published at 
 I.eipsic, under the pseudonym of ' Philaletes," a transla- 
 tion of Dante with critieal and historical notes. His older 
 brother having become eo regent iu IS.'iO,. Prince Johann 
 t"'»k part very actively in public life as a member of (ho 
 privy council, as president of the council of finances, in the 
 di<I. in military matters, and acqnir4'd thorough knowledge 
 of all branches of the administratitm. At the death of liis 
 hrnther he became king of Saxony, Aug. 9, 1H5I. He was 
 active and suceessful in measures referring to the internal 
 development of his country, especially in the introduction 
 of trade frt'cdom, in the extension of railway lines, and in 
 the conclusion of commereinl treaties between Germany and 
 other countries. Bu( in the prea( political questi'ms he whs 
 unfortunate. Probably ruled by ecclesiastical and Roman 
 Catholic influences, he showeil himself an unconditional 
 adherent of Austria and nn adversary of the Proteptant and 
 progressive Prussia. This tendency became apparent al- 
 r-adv 'lurln:: the ruiii].lic;i1inn'^ with I)onn,ai!! run'-eriMng 
 
 Sleswick-Holstcin, and at a later period his stubbornness 
 all but cost him his throne. The war of 186G between 
 Austria and I'russia was brought about, at least to some 
 extent, by King Johann nn<l his minister, Bcust. The idea 
 was (hat by a decisive participation in the humiliation of 
 Prussia, Saxony should further the Roman Catholic Church 
 and extend its own circumscribed sphere of power. Hut 
 after the defeat of the Auslriau-Saxon army the sovereign- 
 ty of King Jcjhann was saved only by the intervention 
 of Napoleon III. Nevortlieless, having concluded peace 
 with Prussia and returned to his country, he was perfectly 
 loyal, and showed himself capable of sacrificing his per- 
 sonal feelings to his political insight. In the ditlicult time 
 of the war with France, Saxony acteil as a true and reliable 
 member of the North German Confederation. King Johann 
 in 1822 married Amalia, a daughter of King Maximilian 
 of Bavaria, who bore him three children. His son Albert 
 succeeded him as king. August Niemann. 
 
 Johanna. Sec Comoro Islands. 
 
 Johan'nes Secun'dus, whoi;e true name was Jas 
 EvKUAiti), 1). at the Hague N<»v, 14, l.'il 1 ; acquired a great 
 fame for learning and genius by his Latin poems; accom- 
 panied Charles \ . on his expedition to Tunis, and d. at 
 Utrecht Sept. 24, I j;>G. His Opcru Puetica were published 
 by his brothers in \h\\ ; some of them — as, for instance, 
 Bn»!a — have been translated into nearly all European lan- 
 guages. 
 
 Johan'nesberg, post-v. of Washington co.. III. Pop. 
 101. 
 
 Johan'nisbergy village of Germany, in the duchy of 
 Nassau, contains a beautifully situated castle, which in 
 1814 was given to Prince Mettornich by the allies. The 
 vineyards of this estate produce the best of all Rhenish 
 wines, the celebrated Johannisberger. 
 
 Johannot' (CeiaulI'S Hknui Alfrko), b. at Offenbach, 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, Mar. 21, 1800; removed in ISOG to Paris, 
 where he received his education, and d. there Dec. 7, 18.'i7, 
 He attracted greal. attention Jn 1821 by his engravings 
 after Schcffer and Gerard; in 1827 by his illustrations of 
 Walter Scott. Cooper, and IJyron ; and since is;il by his 
 pictures, of \vhich the two most celebrated, Mndemniitcfte 
 dfj Mimtppmier (1833) and Thr liattlc uf Tinitt^lrn (1837), 
 are at Versailles. — Ilis brother, Toxv, well known from his 
 illustrations to Moliere, \Wrfher, Lamiirtine, and others, 
 was b. at Offenbach Nov. 9, 1803, and d. at Paris Aug. 4, 
 18;>2. 
 
 John the Baptist was a son of the priest Zacharias 
 and Elisabeth, a cousin of the mother of Jesus, and was 
 born six months before him. In the fifteenth year of the 
 reign of Tiberius ho began to preach in the deserts of 
 Judiea, announcing the coming of the Messiah, admon- 
 ishing to repentance, and baptizing as a symbol of purifica- 
 tion from sin. Tho wonderful circumstances accompany- 
 ing his birth and his baptism of Jesus, as well as his rela- 
 tions to Clirist and his deatli, are recorded in the Gospels, 
 and very little is known of him frnni other S(»urces. Ho 
 was imprisoned and put to death by Herod Aniipas, but 
 his disciples continued to form a separate body long iifter 
 the rise of Christianity. In the Christian Church the 21th 
 of June is celebrated as the day of tho commemoration of 
 his birth. 
 
 John the Evangelist. Jesus had parents, brothers, 
 and sisters, disciples, fellow-citizens, but to St. J<din alone 
 was granted the privilege of being his ''friend." 
 
 1. Life. — .lohn was born on tho shores of the Lake of 
 Gennesaret, in (Jalilee, and probably at Bethsaida (com- 
 pare Mark i. Id. IU and John i. 44). According to the first 
 text, he fulj.iwed the occupation of a fisher, tup-fher with 
 his father Zebedce. his brother James, and his (wo friends 
 and associates Simon (Peter) and Andrew. His mother, 
 whose name was Salome (according to Mott. xxvii. .'ifi, 
 which eom|)are with Mark xv. 4t»). must have been n pious 
 woman, ardent iiiid filled with the Messianic expectations, 
 though under their most earthly form {Matt. xx. 20 nrif.). 
 She no doubt poured her own faith, including this alloy, 
 into tho hearts of her sons. As soon as John (he Ba|>li:^t, 
 the new prophet who announced the niiproach of the king- 
 dom of (io<l, callc'l people to prepare tlicmselves by repent- 
 ance and baptism, John ami James hastened to him and 
 remained with him ns his disciples; and it was here ihnt 
 Jesus first met with them on his return from the temptalinn 
 in the desert. The aclmirablo picture drawn in the first chap- 
 ter of the 4!ospel Iiy John embodies in trnilH full of fresti- 
 ness Ihe remenibrance of this meeting, which became deci- 
 sive for the life of John. Having found his first disciples 
 among the followers of his Preciirs<ir, Jesus took them 
 back with him to (Jalilee; and as ho himself hafl not yet 
 separated from his family (John ii. 1-12), he setit them 
 al^'i b:i''k to fheir'^; but on the approach of the next Pass-
 
 1424 
 
 JOHN THE EVANGELIST. 
 
 over feast he called them definitivclj to follow him perma- 
 Dently as his disciples, and repaired with them to Jerusa- 
 lem, where he inaugurated his jmhlio ministration by ex- 
 pelling; the venders from the temple (Mjitt. iv. IS f^eq.; John 
 ii. 14 sc/.)* I'rom tliis moment Jchn accompanied him 
 through all the incidents of his earthly life, which he has 
 described so dramatically in his tIos|)el. Together with 
 Peter and James he formed a closer circle around Jesus, 
 and he was present af the most st'cluded scenes of his life 
 (the resurrection of the daughter of Jairus, the transfigurn- 
 tion. Gethseraane) ; but of the three he was the friend of 
 the heart of the Lord. It is indeed impossible to doubt 
 that the " disciple whom Jesus loved," which is the expreg- 
 sion used in the fourth (iospcl, means John himself. It is 
 the phrase which he substitutes for his own name, embracing 
 the gentlest remembrances which ever thrilled through the 
 heart of man. Modern criticism has raised the supposition 
 that either Nathanael or Andrew could have been meant, 
 or even a purely ideal being which never existed in reality. 
 But those two disciples arc designated by name in several 
 passagesof the Gospel (i. 40: vi.S; xit.22; i. 45 aej.,* xxi. 
 2). and how could the disciple whom Jesus loved be any 
 other than one of the three intimates with whom he liked 
 best to associate? As for an ideal being, how could the 
 evangelist place him among the twelve, and ascribe to him 
 a decisive part in the scene which brought about the de- 
 parture of Judas from the La?t Supjtcr (John xiii.) ? How 
 could an ideal being be tlic fiicnd to whom Jesus from the 
 cross liequeathed his mother, and who took her into his 
 home from that moment (John xix. 29)? Such traits can 
 be applied only to a being of flesh and bones. Up to the 
 time of the death of Jesus. John lulled himself in the most 
 glorious earthly expectations (Mark x. 35 «cq.), but the 
 resurrection of Christ then opened his eyes, and at the 
 same time he understood the whole Scripture, and he " be- 
 lieved '* (John XX. 8). The New Testament does not men- 
 tion that there was grnntcd to John, like Peter and James 
 (Luke xxiv. 34 ; 1 Cor. xv. 5, 7), anj' appearance of the 
 Lord after his resurrection ; but if those appearances of 
 Jesus which are recorded were fictitious, the very first 
 would certainly have been attributed to John. Pentecost 
 accomplished the work commenced by the resurrection. 
 Jolin makes us understand what took place within him on 
 that <lay, recalling with predilection in his Gospel those 
 promises of Jesus, '* When the Spirit of truth is come, he 
 shall glorify me;" "At that day yc shall know that I am 
 in my Father, aud yo in me, and I in you" (John xvi. l.'J 
 and xiv. 20). In spite of the very particular privilege with 
 which he had been honored, John performed only a sec- 
 ondary part in the foundation of the Church, compared with 
 his associates, I*cter and James. Peter was the great in- 
 strument for the establishment of the Church ia Israel 
 (Acts i.-v.). James died in 44 as the first martyr, a fact 
 which by itself proves the power of his influence on the 
 Jewish people (Acts xii. 2). Of the activity of John we 
 know nothing except the two traits of little importance re- 
 conled in Acts iii. 1 aeq. and viii. 14; and we should have 
 considered his influence on the apostolic Church as very 
 small but for the words of St. Paul (Gal. ii. 9), who ranks 
 him among the three ** pillars " of the Church. A modern 
 school has attempted to establish, by the aid of this and 
 some other texts, that John and the other apostles be- 
 longed, even after Pentecost, to that narrow Jewish- 
 Christian party which would impose the circumcision and 
 the Mosaic law on the Gentiles as a condition of their 
 entering the Church. ]Jut the above text proves exactly , 
 the opposite, since Paul here expressly distinguishes be- j 
 tween the representatives of the apostolate, James (''the 
 brother of the Lord"), Peter, and John, who would not 
 improve the law (v. 9), and the " false brethren " who had ; 
 come in privity into the Church in order to establish the 
 principle of the law (v. 4). (1) Compare the "But of 
 these* (v. 6), which plainly indicates an opposition. John 
 himself, no doubt, observed the law, as did his associates, 
 but only from a feeling of national piety and Israelitish , 
 fellow-^hip ; he would not impose it on the Gentiles who I 
 believed, for if so he could not have given " the right hand | 
 of fellowship " to St. Paul (v. 9). It was not until after ! 
 the death of Peter (about 04) and Paul (about CO), and I 
 after the destruclion of Jerusalem, that the activity of ] 
 John assumed its grand proportions. According to a ! 
 unanimous tradition in the churches of the second century, ' 
 he went to Asia Minor, where Paul had founded a mag- 
 nificent circle of churches. The truth of this tradition has 
 been disputed, however, quite recently. It has been said 
 that the Church fell into this error by attributing falsely 
 the Revelation to John the apostle, and then inferring 
 that ho lived in the centre of the .\siatic churches (Rev. ' 
 i.-iii.). But the historical testimonies are with respect to ; 
 this fact so old and so authoritative that to deny it would 
 be to overthniw all history. In his great work, Ayainst the 
 
 Jfcretica (about 185), Iren^us, who in his youth had been 
 a disciple of Polycarp, speaks frequently of the relations 
 of Polycarp to thu apostle during the sojourn of the latter 
 in Asia. He refers to what the presbyters of Ephcsus and 
 Polycarp have heard John record of the Lord; aud he 
 adds, " There are people who have heard from the mouth 
 of Polycarp how John, the disciple of the Lord, once went 
 to take a bath in Ephesus. but suddenly, on seeing Cerin- 
 thus, left the house without taking any bath, exclaiming, 
 * Let us flee before the house falls down on us, for Ceriu- 
 thus, the enemy of truth, is here.' " In a celebrated letter ho 
 refers to his old friend Plorinus, and the time which they, 
 while young people, spent together in the presence of Poly- 
 carp, recalling how this bishop taught people and told 
 them of his " connections with John and others who had 
 seen the Lord." In another letter, addressed to Victor, 
 bishop of Rome, he reminds him of his predecessor, Ani- 
 eetus — how, in sjiite of certain ritualistic diff"erenees, he had 
 celebrated Easter together with i*oIycarp, and how this 
 latter had defended his form of the celebration by the fact 
 that in this manner he had always commemorated the event 
 witli *' John, the disciple of our Lord, us well as with the 
 other apostles with whom he had been together." Besides 
 this decisive testimony by Irena'us we have another by 
 ApoJlonius, a writerfrom Asia Minor, living about 175, who 
 attributes to John the resurrection of one dead at Kphcsus ; 
 and a third by Clement of Alexandria, who in his essay. 
 Who is the lHvh that shall be Snvcd f (par. 195), records 
 the interesting story of the young Christian from Asia who 
 had become the chief of a band of robbers, but was re- 
 claimed by John, on which occasion he represents the 
 apostle as visiting the churches of Asia Minor for the pur- 
 pose of appointing bishops and regulating their affairs. 
 .\nd last wc have the testimony of Polyeratus, seventh 
 bishop of Ephesus, in whose family this oflice had been, so 
 to speak, hereditary since the times of the apostles, and 
 who in the name of the bishops of Asia reminds A'ictor of 
 the incontestable fact that among the fouuders of the 
 Church of Ephesus was John, the disciple ** who had leaned 
 on the bosom of the Lord, and that he was buried at Ephe- 
 sus." Before such testimonies the criticism which denies 
 accuses itself of partiality. Jerome represents how the old 
 apostle, in the last days of his life, was carried into the as- 
 semblies of the Church, but confined himself to the repetition 
 of the command, *' Little children, love one another;" and 
 how, when asked " Why do you never say anything more?" 
 he answered, " Because when this is done, enough is done," 
 Irenieus states that .lohn lived in Asia in the time of Tra- 
 jan {97-117), and Jerome adds that he died in extreme old 
 age " in the sixty-eighth year after the death of the Lord " 
 (which, if Jesus died in ;iO, brings us down to 9S). aud that 
 he was " buried in Ephesus." These authors ignore en- 
 tirely a strange story contained in a newly discovered frag- 
 ment of a chronicle written in the ninth century by a cer- 
 tain Georgius Haumartolos, who says that he has read in 
 a work of Papias, written in the second century, but now 
 lost, that John was ''put to death by the Jews." This 
 legend has been used as an argument against the residence 
 of John in Asia, as if there had been no Jews in Ephesus I 
 Even this very day those who visit the tomb of Polycarp 
 at Smyrna, and pass through the Jewish quarter, know 
 what such a boldness may cost. At all events, we attach no 
 importance to this story, since it has never been mentioned 
 by Irenseus, Eusebius, and the many others who were pos- 
 sessed of the work of Papias. 
 
 2. UViVim/s. — Of the twenty-seven writings of the New. 
 Testament, five are attributed to the apostle John by the 
 more or less unanimous tradition of the primitive Church — 
 the fourth Gospel, one large aud two smaller epistles, and 
 the Revelation. In the evangelical colh-ction the fourth 
 Gospel shows a character of its own. It is a work com- 
 posed in one train of inspiration, and not a redaction of a 
 tradition already circulating in the Church, such as are the 
 three others, at least to some extent. It opens with an in- 
 troduction in which is given the essence of the history that 
 follows: (1) The glory of the creative M'ord ; (2) the crime 
 and misery of the Jews who have rejected it in its humili- 
 ation : and (3) the fortune of the Church which has received 
 in faith the incarnate Son of God. These three ideas of 
 the introduction are also the fundamental ideas of the 
 whole Gospel : Jesus makes his glory manifest by his words 
 and acts ; presently the world is divided, some taking part 
 against him, others for him. Thus, the <jlorjf o/Jtsun, the 
 unhflier', and the faith are the three facts on which the 
 whole narrative rests. (1) Chs. i.-iv., first revelations of 
 Jesus, and first impressions of unbelief and faith, as yet 
 intermingled; (2) chs. v.-xii., special development of the 
 constant progress of unbelief, both with the chiefs and the 
 mass of the people, as each appearance of Jesus at Jerusa- 
 lem mi the festivals is the signal to a new outburst of hatrcl : 
 {?>) chs. xiii.-xvii., special devel'-pment of the faith wi;li
 
 JOHN. 
 
 1425 
 
 thr <li?cipleB during the last times preccdini; tho dciith of 
 Jes-us ; (I) chs. Jtviii. iiinl xix., the exU'rniil flcfciit of Jesus 
 by the Jewi«jh incredulity (his jiulj;inent and punishment) ; 
 (5) chs. XX. and xxi.. the glorious victory of Jej^ns over 
 death hy his resurrection, and the consuninintion of faith 
 with his discipU-s hy his appearances. Such is the pinn of 
 this luarvcllons work: and tljus on a beautiful day in 
 sprinjf, when the sun rises radiant and sendinj; his warm 
 rays to the earth, the last snow melts, life awakens, and 
 nature sets to work. But after a few hours the vapors 
 of the humid soil arise and form <iense clouds; the sun 
 hides, the storm threatens, and when the day is at its 
 highest the tempest hursts on the earth and nature seems 
 deiiverril up to its destructive forces, liavinj; lofit its life- 
 star. Nevertheless, when eveninjj comes the clouds float 
 away, calm reigns, and, more resplendent and more mag- 
 nificent than when rising, the setling sun sends a last happy 
 smile to nature before disappearinfj. Hut who has com- 
 po»cd this work, this unique work ? The f'hureh has never 
 nesitated in answering, ^o other name than that <tf .Tohn 
 has CTcr been inscribed in the title of this work. It bears 
 a formal testimony of itself in the last, words of chapter 
 xxi.. affixed by the editors of the !)ook, according to which 
 the author was the disciple wh<im .Jesus loved, and who was 
 still living at the time when the publication took place: 
 "This is the disciple which te-^tifieth of these things and 
 wrote lhe«othings' (xxi. 241. The author himself declares 
 that he ha? been an eyewitness of the events ho records 
 (i. 11; xix. .''..')). Moreover, the whole narrative has an 
 autobiographical character. If does not commence with the 
 hist»)ry of the ministration of .lesus, but with tlio first meet- 
 ing between Jesus and the author — for the second disciple 
 (i. '.'.i urtf.) must be the author himself: the anonymity 
 guarded with respect to this disciple, and the picturesque- 
 ness of the narrative, prove it sufiieicntly ; and it does not 
 extend to the ascension, but ends at the moment when tho 
 author's laith becomes fidl. when he can exclaim from tho 
 depth of his h<'art. with Tlmniai^ after his conviction, '' My 
 Lord and my (iod !'* This hist word of the Gospel corre- 
 sponds with its first. " The Word was C.mV The faith of 
 the dii«ciplc8 has at last reacherl the height of its otiject. 
 
 In our days the authenticity of this liook is attacked with 
 particular eagerness; and this is quite natural. If tho 
 divinity of th« Lord is the palladium <tf tlie (Miurch. tho 
 Gospel of John is tho palladium of this truth. Matthew 
 has demonstrated the Messianic nffifr of .Tesus ; Mark has 
 described his powerful daily artiritt/ ; Luke has traced the 
 priigress of his work of salvation from ncthlelicm to .L-ru- 
 palem, and from .lerusalem to Hume: but it is .John who 
 has utivt'iled the eternal divinity of his person, thus otfer- 
 ing at tlio same lime to the Church its most perfect food 
 and to unbelief the heaviest stone of oflVnec. Hut to whom 
 could such a \Tork bo attributed if it were not written by 
 St. -John ? A great unknown, it is answered, composed it 
 in the first half or in the miildlo of the secoiwl century. 
 But we ku'tw tho great authors of the second century — 
 Ignatius, Papias. Polycarp, men of deep ])iety certainly, 
 but of mediocre talent. And this superior genius who 
 should have c<»mpr»sed the fourth (iospel, ami who surpasses 
 all the known aulhors. be should have remaineil completely 
 unknown himself, and ](assed llirough the Church of tho 
 second century without leaving the smallest vestige of his 
 personal existence! No; hero ui, belief demands too much 
 belief, Ilenan himself acknowledges that it is not possi- 
 ble to trat'c a probable place in the ministration of .Jesus 
 without the dates of the fourth tJospel, He points out in 
 this honk a mullitutle of "precise" traits "which necessarily 
 indicate an eyewitness. Creduer, a critic who by no means 
 belongs to the orthodox sehoid, ends his essay on the fourth 
 Gospel by saying, " If we had no hislnrical dates at all re- 
 ferring to the author of the fourth (tospet, . . . the nature 
 of the language, the freshne.is and vividness of the narra- 
 tive, the precision of the dates, . . , the author's love and 
 tenderness towards the person of Jesus, tho irresistible 
 charm didused throughout the whole narrative. . . . would 
 h'ad us to infer that the author could be no other person 
 than a tmfirf uf I'ufmthkr, an rifrtrifurHn, an apimflr, one 
 brfurrd hif ./muM — .fn/in, indeed, whom the Lord had per- 
 sonally captivated by tho celestial charm of his ten(;hing, 
 . . . and who. during his reAidence in a city like that of 
 Kphesus, had become able to vindicate his phice among tho 
 Greeks, so difltinguislied for their literary culture." ( Intro- 
 durtivn tit tkr Srw Tmlummf, ^ !l.t.) It seems, indeed, that 
 John wrote the Gospel in Ephesus, nnd between 80 and 
 00. This is suOiciently pn.vid by the only contradic- 
 tions worth ?ueniioning. Tin- Alogiuns, a small Phrygian 
 set't formed towards the end of the second cr-ntury, at- 
 tributed this Gospel to Cerinthus. the adversary of John in 
 Ephesns, and thus they testify themselves to (he great 
 antiquity and to the birthplace of tlie book. 
 
 The larger Kpislle bearing tho name of John is evidently 
 Vol.. II.^'JO 
 
 by the same author as the Gospel. Here too ho represents 
 himself as an eyewitness to the life of Jesus (i. 1 grtf.). 
 From the beginning of the second century it has been useil 
 by Ignatius, Papias. and Polycarp. It contains the celestial 
 philosophy which the author has drawn from the teaching, 
 the labor, ami the person of .Jesus. This he opposes to tho 
 heresy already breaking in, and he offers it to the Church 
 as tho ideal of Christian life: not that he considers this 
 ideal as perfection, as something inaccessible; on the con- 
 trary, it is a holiness wliieh the presence of Jesus in the 
 believing soul realizes every moment. The tw(i small 
 Epistles seem to have spread very slowly in the Chnreb. on 
 account of their smaller importance. This explains also 
 why they have not as many testimonies in their favor ns 
 the two preceding writings, to which they form a beautiful 
 contrast. In the first. .John praises the firmness of a Chris- 
 tian lady called Ki/rt'n in breaking with the preachers of 
 heresy ; in the seconcl he praises the charity of his beloved 
 Gaius, whose house is always open to the preachers of tho 
 gospel. It is on the one pide the holy excliisiveness, on tho 
 other the generous broadness, of the Christian faith. Of the 
 Revelation we do not speak here, us a special article will bo 
 given to it. 
 
 .1. Charncfcr nnd Iiiftuence. — John scems not to have 
 possessed either the hold initiative of Peter or the pene- 
 trating dialectical power of Paul. The part, little con- 
 spicuous, which he plays before and after Pentecost, and 
 up to his residence in Asia Minor, indicates a character 
 discreet, reserved, even timid, and which must arrive at a 
 sure feeling of its own maturity before it can act in the ex- 
 ternal world. But this trait reveals a profound nature, 
 meditative, well balanced, and capable of receiving much. 
 Hy giving to John and James the surname of " Boanerges " 
 (that is. " the sons of thunder ") Jesus has unveiled the 
 mystery of their characters. AVe understand at once those 
 rare and passionate manifestations. It is they who will 
 command fire to come down from heaven on the Samaritan 
 village which did not receive Jesus (Luke ix. 51' neij.). It 
 is also J<phn who silences the disciple who, without follow- 
 ing with him. casts out devils in the name of Jesus (Luke 
 ix. 49). Like the electric cloud which gathers silently the 
 lightning within its bosom, and then suddenly lets it tln^h 
 forth with a crash, the sons of Zelie<lec accompany Jesus, 
 deeply touche<l, but generally silent and composed; bnt 
 suddenlv they give utterance to their impressions by an 
 explosion, unforeseen like the lightning and terrible like 
 the thunderclap. We also understand how the John of the 
 Gospel can be the John of the Revelation. Nothing is 
 falser, indeed, than the idea which is generally entertained 
 of the sweet tenderness and feminine softness of John. 
 Such natures generally attach themselves passionately to 
 tho object of their love: there is something absolute in 
 their feeling. From the moment St. John met Jcpus he be- 
 longed to him entirely. Never a soul more longing after 
 the ideal met with an object more capable of satisfying it. 
 The first glance melted tho two characters, one in the other. 
 While the other apostles admired the miracles of Jesus, and 
 more especially retained his moral precepts. John eontem- 
 plateil his person, and pondered in his heart over those 
 mysterious testimonies emanating from the consciousness 
 of Jesus concerning his relation to (he Father — testimonies 
 which escaped all tho others. Renan has said that tho 
 Semite proceeds by intuition, not by deduction. This re- 
 mark is in tho highest <legree applicable to the intellectual 
 tendency of John. He does not dissect tho argument of 
 his arlversarv. as docs St. Paul, dissolving it with bis irre- 
 sistible dialectical power: he crushes it with one blow. Ho 
 sees the light on the one side, and on tho other (he dark- 
 ness, and when be has given each of them its true name, ho 
 has said his all. The upright soul cannot hesitate, accord- 
 incT to him. Having seen this vision, he who still searches 
 after the wav is lost. Thus constituted. St. John was not 
 charged either with the foundation of the Church among 
 tho Jews and the Gentiles, such as were the missionary 
 apostles, or, such as Paul, with the emancipation of tho 
 New Testament from the Old through a ].rnfound and 
 penetrating study. His mission was to place the crown 
 on the work of his two etdleagues. He gave to the Church 
 of Asia Minor that powerful organization which enabled it 
 to stand against the floods of heresy in the beginning of 
 the scccmii century, and made this Church the centre 
 of the whole ("hurch iluring this epoch, on account of the 
 power of its spiritual life. By his writings, more espe- 
 cially, bo led the Church to a perfect understanding of tho 
 palvation which is in Clirist. developing in bis (Jospel tho 
 idea of the /I'dmnrr; in his E|)istlc. that of the Chn'atinn; 
 and in the Revelation, that of the rimrrh. In him tho 
 Church of the first century finished its cycle, which is Iho 
 type of the history of the whole Church. FnJ^;»Kiin tloni:?. 
 
 John 1., Saint, Poi-f, a Tuscan, was chosen pope in 523, 
 and in l'^:* was compelled by Theodoric the ftstrogoth to
 
 1426 
 
 JOHN I. OF ABAGOX— JOHN OF EyGLAXD. 
 
 visit Constantinople and intercede for the Arians. On hia 
 return he was imprifoued, and d. at Ravenna May 26, a.6. 
 
 joHV 1 1., a Homan, was chosen pope by siiuoniacal means 
 
 in 5'i'' and was aclinowlcdged bv Justinian as the head of 
 the Church. V. May 20, d.;5.— Joiix III., a Roman, be- 
 came pope in iOO, and d. July i:i. 5::;.— Jons I\ .. a Dal- 
 mitian, became pope in GUI, was distinguished tor seal and 
 do-trinal strictness, and d. Oct. 11, 6t2.— John \ ., a l^yr- 
 ian. became pope in 0S5. D. Aug. 1, 6S7.— John M., a , 
 Greek, became pope in 701. and d. Jan. 9. , Oo.— .louN \ U., j 
 a Greek, became pope in 705; d. Oct. 18, 707.— .John \ 111., 
 a Roman, became pope in S72, was zealous lor the papal 
 ■irimacy and the CNtension of the temporal authority of 
 the holy sec. His reign was vexed by the incursmns ot 
 the Saracens into Italy. Was murdered Dec. 15, SS2.— 
 John IX., b. at Tibur, became a Benedictine, and was 
 chosen pope in S98, and strove for the reform of many 
 aliuscs. D. Nov. 30, 900.— John X., bishop of Bologna 
 anil archbishop of Ravenna, became pope in OU, and 
 though reputed a man of impure life, was an able prelate. 
 Ho led in person the armies which routed the Saracens and 
 c-;pcllcd them from Italy, but was imprisoned by the in- 
 famous Marosia, and d. in 929.— John XI., natural son of 
 Marosia. probably by Pope Scrgius III., was made pope 
 in 9"! by his mother, and is supposed to have d. by jioisoa 
 in Olifi.— Jons XII., son of Albcric and grandson of Maro- 
 sia became pope in 956 when si.\teen years old. His name 
 was Oclavian. and he is regarded as the first pope to as- 
 sume a new name on consecration. He was a man of ex- 
 treme liccntiousnesi!, and was condemned by a council 
 called bv Otho I. at Rome for murder, incest, sacrilege, 
 idolatry,' and witchcraft. D. May U, 9G1. The most im- 
 portant event of his reign was his coronation of Otho I., 
 regarded as the first German emperor.— John XIII.. a 
 Roman bishop of Narni, became pope in 965. and after 
 a disturbed pontificate d. Sept. 5,972.— John XIV. {Pclcr, 
 h\'hoT< of Pavia), a native of Pavia, was arch-chancellor to 
 Otho II., who made him pope in 984 in place of Boniface 
 VII., who returned soon after, and John d. in prison, prob- 
 ably of starvation.- John XV. became pope in "^6, and 
 was chiefly remarkable for avarice and nepotism. D. Apr., 
 9<);).— John X\'1. {miayatlim), a. Greek, and bishop of 
 Piacenza, became pope in 997 in opposition to Gregory V., 
 who mutilated and killed him.— Jons XVIt. {Sk-co), b. at 
 /ti,,', . fa II i, in the March of ."incona, of noble family: after 
 a pontificate of four and a half months d. June 9, lOCi. 
 juiiN XVIII. { I'linHuniiis) became pope in inilli. and aban- 
 doned the papal chair for a monk's cell in May, 1009.-— 
 John XIX.. a son of the count of Tuscany, succeeded his 
 brother, Benedict VIII., having obtained the election by 
 force and bribes, in 1021: was chiefly remarkable for ava- 
 ri'^e D. Nov. 8, 10:!8.— John XX.. usually omitted from 
 the list of popes, was a rival of Gregory VI., Benedict 
 IX., and Sylvester III. There were at one time (lO-lo) 
 three reigning popes at Rome, who divided the -revenues 
 and cxpended'them in excesses.— John XXI. ( f'cdm), b. at 
 Lisbon, stu.lied at Paris, and won great applause by his 
 learnin". He became cardinal-priest, archbishop of Braga, 
 and fiist phvsieian to Gregory X.: became pope in 127G. 
 I) Mav lli, 1277, at Viterbo. — John XXII. {Juiqiica 
 ifEmc) b. at Cahors about 1244, became in KJOO bishop 
 of FrfOus, archbishop of Avignon l:!10. in l.-!12 cardinal- 
 bishop, and in 1316 pope at Avignon. He was learned in 
 the canon law, and was remarkable for avarice. — John 
 XXIII. (/!<ililinzar Cossa). h. at Naples, became cardinal 
 in 1402, and succeeded Alexander V. in 1410; convoked 
 the Council of Constance 1413; was deposed in 1115, and 
 d. Nov. 22, 1419. Cn.inLKS \\ . Guei;xi:. 
 
 John I. (Juan), king of Aragon, b. Dec. 27, ISaO; 
 married in 1384 Yolande. daughter of the duke of Ear, 
 granddaughter of John II. the Good of France: succeeded 
 to the throne on the death of his father, Peter IV., Jan. 5, 
 1387: imprisoned Sibylle, his wife's mother, on the charge 
 of having poisoned the late king, and seized upon her 
 properly: recognized Clement VII. as pope at .\vignon, 
 and d-jvoted himself to literature and pleasure, leaving the 
 cares of state to his queen. He sent a formal deputation 
 to France to enlist the most famous troubadours, with 
 whose aid he founded at Barcelona an academy of poetry 
 on the model of the Floral Games of Toulouse, much to the 
 disgust of the rude Aragonese. He successfully repelled 
 the invasion of the count of Armagnae. a pretender to the 
 throne, 1390: reconquered the island of Sardinia 1392: 
 and d. May 19, 1395. 
 
 John II. (Ji-anI. king of Aragon and Navarre, b. June 
 29, 1397, son of Ferdinand the Just: married in 1419 
 Blanche, daughter of Charles III. of Xavarrc. and suc- 
 ceeded to the throne of that kingdom in right of his queen 
 Sept. 1425; took an active ]»art in intrigues at the court 
 of Castile against Alvaro do Luna; in 1428 aided hia 
 
 brother, Alfonso V. of Aragon, in a war against Castile, 
 and accompanied him in an expedition against Naples, in 
 which both kings were taken prisoners by the Milanese in 
 the celebrated naval battle of Ponza, near Gacta, Aug. 5, 
 1434. Released sbortlv after, he administered the govern- 
 ment of Aragon for many years in his brother's absence, 
 and renewed his attempts to obtain supreme influence in 
 C:vstile. Queen Blanche having died Apr. 3, 1441, Carlos, 
 prince of Viana, claimed the throne of Navarre m his 
 mother's right, but John refused to surrender it to his son, 
 thereby giving rise to a long and lamentable family feud. 
 John invaded Castile in 1445, and was defeated atOlmedo; 
 married in 1447 Joanna llenriquez, daughter of the ndiiii- 
 ral of Castile ; suppressed a revolt in Navarre in 14o2, 
 taking prisoner hia son, Prince Carlos; disinherited that 
 prince in 1455 on account of a second rebellion, and de- 
 feated him at F.stellain 1456 : John succeeded to the throne 
 of Aragon Julv 5, 1458: declared Sicily and Sardinia an- 
 nexed to Aragon. and soon had new troubles with Ins son, 
 whom he unwillingly recognized as heir, but afterwarda 
 threw into pri.«on (1400), and whose sudden death (1461), 
 attributed to poison, was the pretext for a formidable re- 
 volt in Catalonia, lasting eleven years. He had similar 
 troubles with his daughter Blanche, who died m prison at 
 Orthes Dec. 2, 14G4: took Barcelona in 1472; made war 
 in Roussillon against Louis XI. of France in 1473; and d. 
 at Barcelona Jan. 19, 1479. being succeeded by his son 
 Ferdinand, known as the Culholic. (Sec Prcscotts lerdi- 
 
 7iaiicl and hilhctUl.) 
 
 John I. (Jf AN), king of Castile and Leon, b. at Epila 
 Aug 20, 1358; married Leonora of Aragon in 1375, and 
 succeeded to the throne on the death of his father. Henry 
 II. {of Trastamaral, being crowned July 2a, 13i9. Ho 
 immediately convoked the Cortes, who after long deliber- 
 ation recognized the Avignon claimant to the papacy 
 (Clement VII.). John of Gaint, duke of Lancaster 
 (which see\ having assumed the title of king of Castile m 
 rin-ht of his wife, a daughter of Peter the Cruel, and Fer- 
 dinand of Portugal having entered into a secret alliance 
 with the English duke. John attacked Portugal by sea and 
 land, obtaining several victories, but concluded peace by 
 marrying Beatrice, then aged ten years, only child and 
 heir "of the Portuguese monarch. Ferdinand, however, 
 dyin" in 1383. John of Castile had to wage another war 
 in smiport of the rights of Beatrice against the claim of 
 the grand master of Avis fsee John I. thf. Great, king of. 
 Portnt'al), and would have captured Lisbon (1384) had 
 not the yellow fever driven him away. His deleat next 
 year at Aljubarrota was fatal to the claims of B.anehe. 
 After several years' delay the duke of Lancaster invaded 
 Castile in 1386, but peace was made the following year by 
 the marriage of Prince Henry to the daughter of the Eng- 
 lish duke, who also received an indemnity in money. John 
 created his son prince of Asturias (13SS), convoked Cortes, 
 which settled many important constitutional questions 
 (1390). and d. Oct. 9, 1390. 
 
 John II. Mian), king of Castile and Leon, b. Mar. 6, 
 1405, succeeded his father, Henry III., in Dec, 1406. uri- 
 der the regency of his mother and his uncle Ferdinand, 
 afterward king of Arngon. The infant monarch was 
 crowned at Segovia Jan. 15, 1407: married his cousin, 
 Mary of Aragon, in 1418 or 1420. and fell under the mllu- 
 encc of Ai.vARO de Lina (which see), formerly a p.age, 
 whom in 1423 he crctited constable of Castile. Prince 
 Ilenrv of Vra-'on. grand master of Santiago, brother of 
 the queen, endeavored to gain possession of supreme power 
 (1420) by seizing upon the persons of the king and the 
 fivoritc After many alternations of fortune in o struggle 
 for power between Luna and the i»f^""'\"' ■■^™.""°' .'"f.': 
 in" for many years, the former was beheaded at\ alladolid 
 ' lime 7 1453 John meanwhile had made two wars against 
 the Moors (N.^l and 1435). and several against the intru- 
 sive princes of Aragon and Navarre, who were constantly 
 ineitin" the nobles of Castile to revolt. John was a feeble 
 prince."but possessed some literary ability, and lus reign 
 was a notable one in the intellectual history of Spain. V. 
 Julv 21, 1154. 
 
 John, king of England, surnamed Lackland {Sam 
 T,r,c) either as a younger and portionless son, or on ac- 
 count of bis loss of a large part of his French pos3ess;ons 
 iu l'>03 b. at Oxford Dec. 24, 1106, the son of Henry U.; 
 declared lord of Ireland by papal authority, his short-lived 
 government of that country was an utter failure; ami dur- 
 ing the reign of his brother, Richard Lionhcart. who inado 
 him feudal lord of almost one-third of England, he was 
 guilty of treason and ingratitude. Nevertheless. Richard 
 annointed him his successor, ignoring the claims of hia 
 nephew Arthur, the rightful heir. John became king in 
 1199 and an expensive war with Arthur and I lulip Au- 
 gustus of France ensued, in which John lost the best part
 
 JOHN II. OF FRANCE— JOHX OF GAUNT. 
 
 1427 
 
 of hi? French territories. The talc of the kin-;'!" rrucUies ; 
 to Arthur has been called in question. Soon nttcr folloHecl 
 the controversy cnnecrning investitures witli Innocent III., ' 
 the most powerful of the popes, who excommuuieated and 
 deposed John, laid an interdict on Englanil. and let loose I 
 the armies of Krancc upon the kinj^, who retaliated, we are ' 
 told, hy an alliance with the Moors of Spain ( IlilH), prom- 
 ising to turn Mussulman. But John, not sustained by his ; 
 own people, was compelled to yield and become the vassal I 
 of the pope, greatly to the indignation of the Enj;lish. In i 
 Wales. Scotland, and Ireland his arms were successful. A [ 
 rising of his barons compelled him to sign Magna Charta ; 
 (1216); the aid of the pope and an army of mercenaries 
 enabled him to repudiate that charter and make head 
 against the barons; but during the war he d. at Newark 
 Oct. Mt, \'2\t). John's rapacity and cruelty to Jews and 
 Kngtishmcn alike, his partiality for liis Aquitauian and 
 Pi>itevin subjects, bis punishments by mutilation and ; 
 starvation, his cowardice and impiety, rendered his name i 
 odious, but his memory has found recent defenders, and it j 
 is certain that nearly all our knowledge of him has been i 
 derived from his bitter enemies. 
 
 John II., kingof France, snrnamed the ("!oon fi.EBoN). | 
 b. Apr. -*>, i;il9, was son of Philip VI., the founder of the i 
 Valois line; succeeded to the throne Aug. 22, and was i 
 crownol at Uheims Sept. 26, IojO. The chief event of his i 
 reign was tlic war with Kngland.in which he was defeated 
 and taken prisoner by the Black Prince at Pciiliers, Sept. 
 PJ. l.^JO. Ills captivity in Bordeaux and London (l.'i.'jf>-('»0) : 
 was brought to an end by tl»c humiliating pence of Br6- 
 tigny (May, HOO), which surrendered several provinces 
 to the English, in addition to a ransom of .S. 000. 000 crowns. 
 His son. the duke of Anjou. was left in Lundon as a host- 
 age for the fulfilment of tlio treaty, but it was rejected by j 
 the Slates (Jeneral. The prince having escaneil from Lon- 
 don in violation of his parole. John rcturnetl to London as I 
 a prisoner early in LiGI, and d. there Apr. 8 of the same , 
 yenr. j 
 
 John II., Casimir, king of Poland from IHIS to I 
 KifpS. b. Mar. 21. lOO'.t, the second son of Sigismund III. i 
 After a pomewlial a<lventurous life ho entered in 10-10 the i 
 order of the Jesuits, and was made a cardinal soon after. 
 Nevertheless, on the death of his elder brother, Ladislas | 
 (Nov. 20, 1648), he succeeded to the throne, and married i 
 his widow, Maria Gonzaga. His reign was very unhappy. 
 To Sweden he lost, by the Peace of Oliva (May ^'>. HWiO). 
 Ksthonia and Livonia, and to Russia, by the Peace of An- 
 drupBov (Jan. 14, 1667), White and Bed Uussia. In the I 
 interior his government was utterly distracted by the fcurls , 
 and intrigues of the nobles: and, entirely unable to master I 
 the situation, he abdicated Sept. 16, IfiOS, went to France, I 
 and lived in rclirmient. I>. at Nevers I>cc. 16, 1672. I 
 
 John III., Sohioski, king of Poland from 1074 to 
 lO'.Mij I). .June 2, 1621, at Olesko in flalicia ; received an J 
 excellent education at home and in foreign countries, and ' 
 distinguished himself so much in the wars against the ! 
 Swedes, Russians, and Transylvanians that in 1667 he was ! 
 made commander-in chief of the whole Piftish army. The ! 
 successor of Jolin II.,Casirair, Michael Korybut, having 
 made a humiliating treaty with the Turks. SoMcski had it 
 rejected by the Polish diet, hastened at the head of his 
 army to meet the Turks, and routed them completely at 
 Khotin (Nov. 11, 167;i). Shortly aftrr Mirhael Korybut 
 dierl, and Sobieski was unanimously electee! king of Poland 
 (May 21, 1671). In 1083 the Turks besieged Vienna with 
 an army of .100,000 men. The emperor had fled, and not 
 only was Austria on the very verge of ruin, but Europe 
 was in danger. With an army of hanlly .''»0,0(iO men So- 
 bii'ski attacked the Turks Sept. 12, 168.1, and after a fright- 
 ful contest he utterly defeated them and pursued them into 
 Hungary. As a ruler, however, Jolm III. was much |i-ss 
 forlunate than as a general, ami the latter |)art of his life 
 wai much disturbed by civil and dumestio troubles. D. 
 June 17, 1696. 
 
 John (Joam), the name of six kings of Portugal, four 
 of whom require mention. — John I. riir. (ikkat, b. at Lis- 
 bon Apr., LiJ7, was a natural son of Peter I. and brother 
 of Ferdinand, at whoso death, in I.'IS.I, ho became regent 
 and seized upon the throne, in violation of Ihi' rights of the 
 infanta Bialrice, nmrried to John I. (»f ('ai<tile. The war 
 which en-ued was decided by the victory of Aljubarolta 
 (.Aug. M, i;i8.'i) in fiivor of the former. He nrnde an expe- 
 dition into Africa, and took Centn (1415) from the Moors. 
 Under his reign the islands of Madeira, f'ape Verde, the 
 Canaries, and .Azores wero discovered, and the coasts of 
 Africa explored as far as the (tidf of Guinea. P. Aug. 14, 
 143:i._,Toits n. TiiK PFHFKrr. b. at Lisbon May 1, lUtb; 
 married Leonora of Lancaster in 1471 ; took part in nn Af- 
 rican campaign the same year; was conspicuous for bravery 
 at the battle of Toro (1 176) ; succeeded his father, Alfonso 
 
 v., Aug. 29, 14S1 ; put to death the duke of Braganza and 
 his own brother-in-law. the <luko of Viseo, for conspiracy 
 (1483-Si). Under his auspices a series of great navigators 
 explored the coasts of Africa, B. Diaz discovered the Capo 
 of Good Hope, and Da Gama visited India. lie was un- 
 wise enough to refuse the services of Columbus. l)ut after 
 the discovery of America he sent a fleet thither ( I40S). The 
 conflicting claims of the crowns of Porttrgal and Castile 
 were decided by Pope Alexander VI. (149^^) by establish- 
 ing the famous meridian line. D. 1496. — John IV., b. at 
 Villaviciosa Mar. 10, 1604, was duke of Braganza, and by 
 a successful revolution overthrew the Spanish usurpation 
 in Portugal (1640), which had lasted sixty years, placing 
 himself on the throne of his ancestors. His reign of four- 
 teen years was entirely passed in hostilities with Spain. 
 D. in Lisbon in ICoG. — John VI., b. at Lisbon May 13, 
 1767: married Ciiarlotte (Carlota). infanta of Spain 1785; 
 was named prince of Brazil 17bS; governed the kingdom 
 in consequence of bis mother's illness 1789; assumed the 
 title of regent 1799, and after a scries of wars with Spain 
 and Franco removed with bis court to Brazil in Nov., 1SU7. 
 on the approach of the French army of occupation ; became 
 king on the death of his mother, Mar. 16, 1S16; returned 
 to Portugal 1821; modified the constitution 1S23; recog- 
 nized the independence of Brazil 1825, and d. Mar. 10. 1826. 
 John of Austria, generally known under the name 
 of Dos JiAN DE ArsTuiA. was a son of Charles V. and the 
 beautiful Barbara Blomberg. a daughter of a wealthy citi- 
 zen of Ilatisbon, where he was b. Feb. 2i, 1545, but was 
 taken to Spain soon after his birth, and his parentage was 
 kept a secret for many years. He received an excellent 
 education, however, in the iiousc of the imperial steward. 
 Don Luis Jlendez t^uixada. and after the death of Charles 
 V. in 1559, Philip II. publicly acknowledged him as a 
 brother, and established a princely household for him. first 
 in Valladolid and then in Madrid, lie was a brilliant per- 
 son, gifted with great talents both as a general and as a 
 statesman, beautiful, commanding, chivalrous, and mag- 
 nanimous. In 1508 he led with great success an expedi- 
 tion against the African pirates. In 15G9 he subdued the 
 Moori.-'h rebellion in Granada, and gave striking proofs 
 not only of personal valor, but also of tactical skill. In 
 1571 hocommaudtMl the magnificent Spanish-Italian arma- 
 ment against the Turks, and routed their fleet completely 
 in the battle of Lepanto (Oct. 7, 1571), the greatest mili- 
 tary exploit of the century. In 157;i ho conquered Tunis, 
 and in 1576 he was made viccregeut in the Netherlands. 
 Here he did not succeed in managing the prince of Orange, 
 William the Silent. Ho was foiled by him in liis political 
 measures, but when it came to an open rupture he defeated 
 him at (Jemblours (Jan. ol, 157S). In spite of all these 
 brilliant achievements, the final result of his life was nev- 
 ertheless only a ntmantic apparition, a poetical dream. Ho 
 passed through iiistory like a meteor. UU half-brother, 
 Philip II., loved him, but was too despotic to allow him 
 an independent career. He used him very freely, but was 
 too suspicious to place full confidence in him. In this 
 ambiguity his own character seems to have suffered. His 
 earlier plans of founding a kingdom in Greece or in Tunis 
 wero sensil)Ie, but were opposed by Philip. His later plans 
 of rescuing Mary Stuart and becoming king of Scotland 
 were rather fantastical, and the pi>liey which he purt^ued in 
 the Netherlands was so singularly many-sided that his sud- 
 den death in his camp at Naniur (Oct. I. 1578) gave rise 
 to a quite general suspicion of his having been poisoned 
 hy the Spaniards. Interesting accounts of his life may bo 
 found io Knnke, Fiiiaten umi VHihcr nnx StuZ-Europua fit 
 XVI. uiul XVU. Jahthnndcrl, and in Prcscott, /'hliip //. 
 
 Cl.KMKNS PKTKllSKN. 
 
 John (JPAN) of Aiistrinf b. at Madrid in 1629, waa 
 a natural son of Philip IV. of Spain. He became a distin- 
 guished general, having command* d the Spanish army in 
 Naples in 1618, in Catalonia in 1652, in Flanders in 1656, 
 and in Portugal in 1660. He was defeated by Turenne at 
 the Dunes. June 14, 1658; was afterwards viceroy of Ara- 
 gon and minister under Charles II. D. at Madrid Sept. 
 17. 1679. 
 
 Johnoff^nunt (^Arn/). duke of Lancaster and Aqui- 
 taine, and titular king of Castile, was the fourth son of I'M- 
 ward III., and was b. at (ihent in lliity; married Blaufhe. 
 daughter of the duke of Lancaster. 1."'59; became duke ot 
 Lancaster l.'!62: served with honor under the Black Prifii'e. 
 ftnd in 1.170 married the daughter of Peter the Cruel of 
 Castile; served with distinction in various wars In Scot- 
 land and France; invaded Castile in 1.186 in j)ursuancc of 
 his rlaim to that kingdom: married iii.s <laughter to Henry 
 of Cn-ttilo 1.1SS: was the frieml ami defen<ler of Wi<'kliffe. 
 and the ancestor of the Lancastrian and Tudor families of 
 Knglish kings. His mistress and third wife, Catharine 
 Pwvnford, was the ancestress of the Bcauforts and Xudors. 
 D. Feb. 3, 1399.
 
 1428 
 
 JOHN OF LEYDEN-JOHNSON. 
 
 John of I-eyden, whose true name was Jobans 
 
 Bo.K x"o" b. at Loyden in 1510. was a ta.lor by profes- | 
 ^o , Wt a poet and actor by talon., and b«.,ness. Hav.ng 
 come in contact with the Anabaptists, he was caugh by 
 Xious fanaticism, and started as a strolLnj; preacher 
 In r.i3 he camo to JUins.er, and so preat was b.s power 
 iver the minds of people that in liSl he .succeeded .., ovcr- 
 °h ow n" he con tilution of the city and e. abhsh.ng a 
 new onL"of his own make. Ho was crowned as k,ng of 
 zir appointed ministers, coined money, ■ntvodnced po- 
 fVu'ny married lifteca wives, lived in royal -pl<--";l°7"'' 
 luxury nn<l for more than a year the city was the stage lor 
 the n^st frightful scenes of fanatical cruelty and sensual 
 d ".i nation In 15:13 it was conquered by the neighboring 
 nr cc« and a-ain reduced lo order. John was tortured 
 [o eathb hor,,incers,and his body was hung .n a cage 
 on he tower of St. Latnberfs church ; many of b,s follow- 
 ers ere als. severely punished. John of Leyden lurn.shc 
 'he h^^orical subject of Meyerbeer's well-known opera Lc 
 
 ^'Tohn of Walisbnry, b. at Salisbury about 1110 ; went 
 
 ,„ France in u'f.; studied under Abelard ; returned ,n 
 
 IMbcae secretary to Thomas a Becke. and was ap- 
 
 nointed in UTfi bishop of Cbartres, where he <!_ Oct 24, 
 
 ""is theological system ho developed .n h,s /W.- 
 
 :■ , nnd \U„,l:nlr,„, but the uiost interesting of his 
 
 -■'■':".•"• ■""' {:',','' Jpumio S. Thorn,., and his letters, 
 
 "wal.ia and a grandson of Rudolph of Hapsburg. ^V hen 
 
 tie enneror (.May 1, 1^08) at \Vi:.disch on the Rcuss in 
 " iUeXnd, and murdered him. The impression winch 
 erUe produced on the German people was one of liorro 
 ami revenge. The conspirators themselves escaped, but 
 ?h r fan me and friends 'suftered severely. John vanished, 
 Ind nothing certain is known of his Ufe afterwards. 
 
 lohn I'restcr C Priest .John "), a semi-mythical cha- 
 ric.or "b. figured largely in the geographical romances 
 ^' lie M Idle Ages, whSse true country and perio.l are d.tfi- 
 : 1 to b ised with certainty. According to genera be lef 
 there was somewhere in the interior ot Asia or 'Ur.ca a 
 kingdom which had been converted <™"' l^-;- '^^h;- 
 tianitv, governed by a priest-king named .lobn, « "J "as 
 exceed n--lv anxious to open friendly intercourse with the 
 Oliurch'd- Rome. Numerous embassies were during two 
 een uries =ent to Central Asia, and even lo Abyssinia ( 1181- 
 95^" scare 1 of the lost Thristian nation, but the search 
 nrov d ruitlss. The origin of the legend appears o date 
 From the Nestorian missions which in the eleventh and 
 wf.h centuries penetrated to Karakorum in Toorkis in 
 and converted tb'- kban of that distne. naine^d r ,. , who 
 was overthrown and killed by (lenghis hhan in 1202 Ho j 
 Zears to have authorized the Ncstorians '"■".^'^e in his 
 ^^ame certain reci«ests of the pope, and o ";-; s'";'"! 
 
 ^r:":;d-:^::thSrw^;nn^e:^-Vi^- 
 rts^^ttrKui!^;:^!^"r^^i:>""tng 
 
 lf''7r.n '^^), in se-eh of f'rester .John, penetrated lo 
 
 tIrS~ (See his interesling narrative .n Purchas s 
 Pibjrimn. ) 
 
 John Scotiis. See Ebioena. 
 
 John the Constant, elector of «"""{•.''■ -l'""^"' 
 14.57 : sMcceeded bis brother, Frederick the Wise, in May , 
 152!.; took part in a war against the Hungarians, and lut 
 an end to the Peasants' war in his own ''"";;,"!""'• /"'^ 
 he formed an alliance with the landgrave, >''"' P/f, '•^f.",^' 
 „„d with other slates and free ci.ies, in support «f •' <= "- 
 eiples of the Uelormalion. lately inaugurated b> Luther ^ 
 He protested in 1529 ag.ainst the decision of the Die of 
 Spires mlver.se to the Reformation, and was influential 1 
 causing Ihe proclamation of the Augsburg ronfession.Slil 
 later, he helped to form the " League of hchmalkald, and 
 d. Aug. 1.1, 15;!2. 
 
 John Frederick, the Mnsnaniinons, elector ol 
 Saxony b. at Torgau .Tune 30, 150;i, son of John the Lon- 
 stan! on whose death, in 15:i2, be became administrator 
 of the government in Ibc joint name of himself and his 
 vonn-'er brother, John Ernest ; gave official sanction to the 
 Reformation throughout his states 1533; was recognized as 
 elector bv the emperor at Vienna in 1531, and in 1346 was 
 at the he'ad of the armies of the Schmalkaldic League in 
 the contest with Charles V., by whom he was put under the 
 
 ban of the empire in l.«7, and defeated at ^'f'^g ^pr 
 24 of the same year, being taken prisoner ^"^ '•'"";» 
 to death (May W). but his life was spared on condition ot 
 renom ci ilhis claims to the decorate. He was liberated 
 [ri5"'>thmi.'h the vigorous interposition of his cousin. 
 Maurice fkxonv, who had formerly been his rival for 
 The ectoral domains. John Frederick ^»;ee«ded 'o 'ho 
 full title by the death of his brother, John Ernest, .n lo53, 
 and d. at Weimar Mar. 3, lo54. r^■^<i^■ 
 
 lohn George I., elector of Saxony, b. Mar. 5, IoRd , , 
 
 s„ec".l"dM°n,.her Christian 11.. in UHl ^.supported .1.0 
 e nncr r Ferdinand against the Bohemians in .-20, a. .he ] 
 
 oXtof the Thirty Years' war; formed an alliance wlh 
 Guslavus Adolphns. king of Sweden ( 1631 ; con ributed 
 the victory of Leipsic. and took Prague (Nov. U). but 
 ^st it with'all Bohemia, to Wallenstein in 1632; made 
 peace w he emperor at Prague (May 10, ]63o). and de- 
 clared, ar a..ains. Sweden ; was defeated by the Swedes at 
 Tom itVand'at Wi. stock (16:!6) ; aided the imperialists 
 agaTst Franco in the battle of Dutlingen (1643), and d. 
 
 ^1o'hi'(Jo..ANN B.vPT.sT .TosFPn Fab.ajc Sebast,an), 
 archduke of Austria, b. at Florence J""' ;«•,,' 'u' and 
 thirteenth child and the ninth son of Leopold II. and 
 Mai^ Louisa of Spain. When he was very young he wa 
 generally bclieved'by bis family to be possessed of gre. t 
 military .alenls, and he consequently com.nanded the Au^- 
 f an armies in ISOO. 1^03. IS05. and 1SI19. Bu he was 
 always 1 eaten and when a, the battle of Wagram he failed 
 for reasons not well understood, to bring his brother, the 
 eommander-in-cbief, .he proper support, he resigned his 
 
 nmand and lived dunn'g '"V"''"'*"%"uh' which he wa^ 
 ment in GiUtz. The ill favor, however, with wbah h. was 
 eons dered by .he court made bim very popular, and m 
 1S43 be was generally believed by the people .0 be possessed 
 of great polftical virtues. He was chosen R-chsverweser 
 by fhe Parliament of Frankfort. But once more he had 
 the misfortune of disappointing his admirers He was a 
 mos o stinate defender of the interests of the houso f 
 Austria and as these did not always coincide with the 
 U :'«"; of -he German people, he resigned his Reiehsver- 
 weserschaft Dec. 29, 1S4U. D. Mar. 10, lbo9. 
 
 SSreom^rnth^^tiSrKa;:"/":!.^:;^ 
 
 ^ ehief of stall' of the southern army under Arch- 
 1 ruellb ht »n'l "oa-ed a lield-marshal-lieutenant on 
 
 John became fh.ef of his s , H. A. ^_^ ^^ .^ ^^^^^ 
 
 -vv'THrfiri?--'^S;^ 
 
 ''^j\;h«Quincy';i:dams';tp..^V-reneo..Ind.Pop.809. 
 Johns . p. of Appanoose eo. la Pop^ 8«o. ^^ ^^^^ 
 lrthn<i burs* P"st-ip. o> warren cu., it. . . 
 ei^'^,Tthe"Adlr'ondae'k R. R. ; is very mountainous; has 
 iron orJs and several tanneries. Pop. 2jJJ. 
 
 John's Island, one of the sea islands of Charleston 
 
 "°'iohnson',''countv of N. W. Arkansas, bounded on the 
 S by " kansas River. Area, about 550 square miles 
 T'l ■= . is nartlv hilly and partly bollom-land. It is well 
 The S..1I IS partly " 'J ^ T' f , , live slock, cotton, 
 
 Johnson, counly of E Centr^ Oeor^a. ^Area, 250 
 
 , :2;';: are'st aple piollrts!' 'cap. Wrigb.sville. Pop. 2964. 
 
 corn are -I. 1 1 f o Tlll^nU Area 340 square miles. 
 
 1 Johnson, •■7"' V J;.?"'" T^'i^t: 'g rain.^at.le. and 
 
 It is quite level ^"'' f"''''=- ./"J'^^^'ersed 1 v the Cairo 
 
 wood are staple products. It is ira,Lrs.. 
 
 rdVincennerR.'K Cap.™ P" ' --^ ^^^ 
 
 ,^r^ Ti:\.:dlti;:^'^very,.rtile. Cattle,
 
 JOHNSON. 
 
 1429 
 
 ^aio, and wool are staple products. Lumber, carriages, 
 fluur. and brick arc leading articles of manufacture. The 
 county i.s traversed by the Jcffersonvillo Ma<lisnn and In- 
 dianapoli.H and tlie Cincinnati and Martinsville K. Ks. 
 Cap. Franklin. Pop. 18,.''.6e. 
 
 Johnsoil« county of S. E. Iowa. Area. BIR square 
 miles. Its surface is varied, its soil rcinarkabh- fertile. 
 Cattle, grain, hay. and wool are staple products. The 
 county is traversed bv the Chicago Rock Island ancl Pacific 
 and the Iowa Central R. Rs. Cap. Iowa City. P. 24.S98. 
 
 John§on, county of Kans.as. having the Kansas River 
 on the X. and Missouri on the E. Area. 472 square miles. 
 It isivell timbered, and has coal and limestone and a deep, 
 fertile soil. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. 
 The county is traversed by various railroads centring at 
 Olalhe. the capital. Pop. i.1,GSI. 
 
 John<ion, county of E. Kentucky, traversed by the W. 
 fork of liig Sandy River. Area, about 'i75 square uiilcs. 
 It is mountainous, and abounds in bituminous coal. The 
 fertile valleys produce live-stock, grain, tobacco, and wool. 
 Cap. Paintvillc. Pop. 749-1. 
 
 Johnson^ county of W. Missouri. Area, 700 square 
 miles. It is partly forest and partly prairie, having a good 
 soil, with abundant coal and water-power, (^attlc, grain, 
 tobacco, and wool are staple products. It is traversed by • 
 the Missouri Pacific R. R. Cap. Warrcnsburg. Pop. 
 24,048. ! 
 
 Johnson, county of P. E. Nebraska. Area, 378 square 
 miles. It is traversed by thetireat Xemaha River anfltho 
 Atchison and Nebraska R. R. It has an e.xcellent soil, but 
 is deficient in timber and buildintj-stone. AVhcat and corn 
 are staple products. Some coal is found. Cap. Tecumsch. 
 Pop. .1429. 
 
 Johnson, county of N. E. Tennessee, bounded on the 
 N. by Virginia and on the S. E. by North Carolina. Area, 
 about 200 square miles. It is mountainous, heavily tim- 
 bered, and has iron and other mineral wealth. Cattle, 
 wool, and tobacco are staple products. Cap. Taylorsvillc. 
 Pop. .'.s.-.o. 
 
 Johnson, county of N. Texas, bounded on the W. 
 chiefly by Brazos River. Area. 594 square miles. The 
 soil is excellent. Live-stock, cotton, and grain arc staple 
 products. Timber and limestone arc abundant. Cap. 
 Ckburn. Pop. 492.'5. 
 
 Johnson, tp. of Greene co., Ark. Pop. (58.3. 
 
 Johnson, tp. of Little River co.. Ark. Pop. 274. 
 
 Johnson, tp. of St. Francis co., Ark. Pop. 788. 
 
 Johnson, tp. of Union co., Ark. Pop. 1.309. 
 
 Johnson, a v. of Henry co., Ga. Pop. 6C2. 
 
 Johnson, tp. of Christian co.. III. Pop. 640. 
 
 Johnson, tp. of Clark co.. 111. Pop. 82.3. 
 
 Johnson, tp. of Brown co., Ind. Pop. 685. 
 
 Johnson, tp. of Clinton co., Ind. Pop. I6G6. 
 
 Johnson, tp. of Crawford co., Ind. Pop. 652. 
 
 Johnson, tp. of Gibson co., Ind. Pop. 2616. 
 
 Johnson, Ip. of Knox co., Ind. Pop. 1543. 
 
 Johnson, Ip. of I.a Grange co., Ind. Pop. 1.322. 
 
 Johnson, Ip. of La Porte eo., Ind. Pop. 170. 
 
 Johnson, tp. of Ripley co., Ind. Pop. 2409. 
 
 Johnson, Ip. of Scott co., Ind. Pop. 1454. 
 
 Johnson, Ip. of Plymouth co., la. Pop. 80. 
 
 Johnson, Ip. of Webster Co., la. Pop. 402. 
 
 Johnson, Ip. of .Maries co.. Mo. Pop. 1257. 
 
 Johnson, Ip. of Polk co.. Mo. Pop. 898. 
 
 Johnson, Ip. of Ripley Co., Mo. Pop. 280. 
 
 Johnson, tp. of Scotland co., Mo. Pop. 1219. 
 
 .lolinson, tp. of Washington co.. Mo. Pop. 717. 
 
 Johnson, Ip. of Champaign eo., 0. Pop. 2297. 
 
 Johnson (.ImissTows P. 0.), a v. of Monroe tp., Lick- 
 ing CO.. '1. Pop. 241. 
 
 Johnson, Ip. of Williamsburg co., R. C. Pop. I2I8. 
 
 Johnson, post-v. and tp. of Lamoille co., Vt.,32 miles 
 N. by W. of Montpclicr. It has a .*stato normal school, 4 
 churches, and inanufaeturcfl of furniture, lumber, starch, 
 and wotillen goods. Pop. 1558. 
 
 Johnson (Alkxanhkii IlnvAs), b. at Gosport, England, 
 May 29. 17.^0; came to the V. S. in 1801. ami established 
 himself as a banker at I'tiea, N. Y. lie wrul*' several 
 works on political economy, language, and education, which 
 have reci'ived high commendation, li. at I'lica in 1S57. 
 
 Johnson (Andrf.w), LL.I)., tho seventeenth president 
 of tbo V. S., b. at Raleigh, N. C, Dec. 29, 18U8. Uis 
 
 father died when hewas four years old, and in his eleventh 
 year ho was apprenticed to a tailor. He never attended 
 school, and did not learn to read until late in his appren- 
 ticeship, when ho suddenly acquired a passion for obtaining 
 knowledge, and devoted all his spare time to reading. 
 After working two years as a journeyman tailor at Laurens 
 Court-house, S.C., he removed in 1826 to Grceneville.Tenn., 
 where ho worked at his trade and married. Vnder his 
 wife's instructions he made rapid progress in his education, 
 passing from writing and arithmetic to the higher branches, 
 and manifested such an intelligent interest in local politics 
 as to be elected as " workingmcn's candidate" alderman 
 (1828-30) and mayor (1830-a2), being twice re-elected to 
 each office. During this period ho cultivated his talents 
 OS a public speaker by taking part in a debating-society 
 consisting largely of students of (Jreeneville College. In 
 1835, and again in 1839, he was chosen to the lower 
 house of the legislature as a Democrat ; was a canflidate 
 for elector at large in 1840, when he canvassed tho 
 Stale for Van Buron ; was elected State senator in 1841, 
 and Rcpresenlalive in Congress in 1843, being re-elected 
 for four successive periods until 1853, when he was chosen 
 governor of Tennessee. In Congress he supported the ad- 
 ministrations of Tyler and Polk in their chief measures, 
 especially the annexation of Te.\as, the adjustment of tho 
 Oregon boun<lary. the Mexican war, and the tariff of 1846. 
 He was re-elected governor in 1855. after an exciting con- 
 test with the combined Whigs and " Know-nothings," and 
 in 1857 entered the I'. S. Senate, where he was conspicuous 
 as an advocate of retrenchment andof tlie llnmcslcad bill. 
 and as an opponent of the Pacific R. U. Ho was s ujtportcd 
 bv the Tennessee delegation to the Democratic con vent ion of 
 1860 for the Presidential nomination, and lent his influence 
 to the Brcckenridge wing of the party. When the election 
 of Lincoln had brought about the first attempts at seces- 
 sion in Dee.. 1860, Johnson took in the Senate a firm atti- 
 tude for the Union, and in May. 1861. on returning to Ten- 
 nessee, he was in imminent peril of suffering from po(nilar 
 violence for his loyally to the "old flag." He was the 
 leader of the Loyalists' Convention of East Tennessee 
 (.May and June), and was very active during the following 
 winter in organizing relief for the destitute loyal refugees 
 from that region, his own family being among those com- 
 pelled to leave. By his course in this crisis .T<dinson camo 
 prominently before the Northern public, and when in Mar., 
 1862. ho was ap]>ointed by Prcs. Lincoln military governor 
 of Tennessee, with the rank of brigadier-general, he vastly 
 increased his popularity by the vigorous and successful 
 manner in which he labored to restore onler. protect Union 
 men. anri punish marauders. On the api>roach of the 
 Presidential campaign in 1864, the termination of the war 
 being then plainly foreseen, and several Southern Slates 
 being partially reconstructed, it was felt that the Vice- 
 Presidency should properly be given to a Southern man of 
 conspicuous loyalty. For no candidate could a jusler title 
 be alleged than for Gov. Johnson, who was accor<lingly 
 elected on the same platform and ticket with Lincoln, 
 and on his assassination succeeded to the Presidency, 
 Apr. 15, 1865. That Pres. Johnson should very soon be in- 
 volved in bitter feud with the Republican majority in Con- 
 gress was certainly a surprising and deplorable inci<lent; 
 yet in reviewing the eireuinslances after a lapse of ten 
 years, it is easy to find ample room for a charitable juilg- 
 ment of both the parlies to the heated controversy, since it 
 cannot he doubted that any President, even Lincoln himself 
 had he lived, must have "sacrificed a large portion of his 
 popularity in carrying ont any possible scheme of reecm- 
 struction. Pres. .Tohnson retained the cabinet of Lincoln, 
 and exhibited considerable severity towards "traitors" in 
 his earlier acts and speeches, hut soon inaugurated a pol- 
 icy of reeonslruclion. proclaiming a general amnesty to 
 the late Confi'dcralcs. and successively establishing pro- 
 visional governments in the i^nulhern Slates. These .States 
 ace<irdingly claimed representation in Congress in the fol- 
 lowing December, and the momentous question of what 
 should be the policy of the victorious T'nioii towards its 
 late armed opponents was forced upon thai body. Two 
 considerations impelled the Republican majority to reject 
 tho policy of Pres. .I»diuson : first, an ayiprehension, cer- 
 tainly exaggerated but sulfieienlly plausible at the time, 
 that tho chief magistrate intended to undo the results of 
 the war in regard tn slavery: and secnnd, the sullen atti- 
 tudo of the .^outh. which seemed to bo ]d<)lling to regain 
 by policy what arms had lost. Tho credentials of tho 
 Southern members-elect were laid on the table, a civil 
 rights bill and a l)ill extending the sphere of the Frced- 
 inau's lliireau wero passed over the executive velo. and tho 
 two highest branches of the government were soon in open 
 antagonism. Tho notion of Congress was eharacteriRcd by 
 tho President in a popular haranguo (Fob. 22, 1866) aa a 
 " now robollioD ;" the onbinet was rcoonstructcd in July,
 
 r 
 
 1430 
 
 JOHNSON. 
 
 Messrs. Ranilall. Stanbcry, and Browning taking the places 
 of Messrs. Dcnison, Speed, and Harlan, and an unsueccss- 
 fiil attempt was made by means of a general convention at 
 Philadrlphia (Aug. 14) to form a new party on the basis of 
 the administration policy. In an excursion to Chicago for 
 the purpose of laying the corner-stone of a monument to 
 Pleiihen A. Douglas (Aug. 28), Pres. Johnsou, accompa- 
 nied by several members of the cabinet, passed through 
 Pliiladelphia, Now York, and Albany, in each of which 
 cities, and at many other places on the route, ho made 
 speeches justifying and explaining his own policy and vio- 
 lently denouncing the action of Congress. In the ensuing 
 winter session Congress enacted over the President's veto a 
 series of measures for extending the right of suffrage to 
 the frcedmen, dividing the Southern States into military 
 districts, and excluding them from self-government until 
 thev should have ratified the late amendments to the Fed- 
 eral Constitution and adopted State constitutions in ac- 
 cordance therewith. An opinion of tho attorney-general 
 against tho validity of this legislation led to conflicts be- 
 tween the military commanders and the now State govern- 
 ments, and to ne-.T acts of Congress defining the powers of j 
 the former, making them independent of the President's i 
 authority. On Aug. \2, ISfi", Pres. Johnson removed tho 
 secretary of war, replacing him by Gen. Grant. Secretary 
 Stanton retired under protest, based upon the Tenure-of- 
 offiee act, which had been passed in the preceding March, j 
 The President then issued a proclamation (.\ug. 20) de- 
 claring the insurrection at an end. and that "peace, order, 
 tranquillity, and civil authority existed in and throughout [ 
 the whole of the U. S." Another proclamation (Sept. S) | 
 enjoined obedience to the Constitution and laws, and an 
 amnesty was published Sept. 7. relieving nearly all the 
 participants in "the late rebellion " from tho disabilities 
 iliereby incurred, on condition of taking an oath to sup- 
 port the Constitution and laws. In December, Congress 
 refused to confirm the removal of Secretary Stanton, who 
 thereupon resumed the exercise of his office, but on Feb. 
 21, ISti8, Pres. .lohnson again attempted to remove him, 
 appointing Gen. Lorenzo Thomas in his place. Stanton 
 refused to vacate his post, and \yas sustained by the Sen- 
 ate. On Pel). 24, the House of Representatives voted to 
 impeach the President for " high crimes and misdemean- 
 ors" (yeas 12G, nays 47, not voting 17). and presented 
 (Mar. o) eleven articles of impeachment, on the ground of 
 ills resistance to the execution of the acts of Congress, al- 
 Icfin*, in addition to the offence lately committed, his 
 public expressions of contempt for Congress in "certain 
 intemperate, inflammatory, and scandalous harangues" 
 pronounced in Ang. and Sept., l^lii'i. and thereafter, de- 
 claring that tho 39th Congress of the U. S. was not a com- 
 petent legislative body, and denying its power to propose 
 constitutional amendments. The impeachment trial began 
 Mar. 2.1, tho President appearing by counsel, and resulted 
 in acquittal May Ifiand 2t'>. the votes on the two leading arti- 
 cles standing :i5 guilty to 19 not guilty, thus lacking one of 
 the two-thirds required for conviction. The remainder of 
 Pres, Johnson's term of office was passed without any such 
 conflicts as might have been anticipated. Ho failed to ob- 
 tain a nomination for re-election by the Democratic party, 
 though receiving fiS votes on the first ballot. Now procla- 
 mations of pardon to the participants in the rebellion were 
 issued July 4 and Dec. 2.7, tmt were of little effect. On the 
 afcession of Pres. Grant. Mar. 4, 1809, Johnson returned 
 to Grecneville, Tenn. Unsuccessful in 1870 and 1.S72 as a 
 candidate respectively for U. S. Senator and Representa- 
 tive, he was finally elected to the Senate in lS7.i, and took 
 his seat in the extra session of March, in which his speeches 
 were comparatively temperate. D. July .''1, l.s7.>, and 
 was buried at Grecneville. Several biographies of Pres. 
 Jcdinson have l)ecn imblishcd, generally with a selection of 
 his speeches, among which may be mentioned those of Sav- 
 age (ISO.i). Frank Moore (ISCi), and Foster (I.SCti), (See 
 also the official record of Proceedings in the Trial nf Andreie 
 JohuKon, Washington, 1868.) PonxER C. Bliss. 
 
 Johnson (I.ady Arbei.i.a), daughter of Thomas, four- 
 teenth earl of Lincoln, married l&aac Johnson, one of tho 
 principal founders of New England, and accompanied him 
 to .Massachusetts, In her honor Winthrop changed the 
 name of the Eagle, the princijial ship of the emigrant 
 squadron, to Arbella. D. at Salem about Aug. 30, 1030, 
 
 Johnson (Brsiiaon R.),b.in Ohio Sept. 6,1817; grad- 
 uated at West Point in 1840; served in tho Florida and 
 Mexican wars; resigned in 1817, and at the outbreak of 
 the civil war was professor in the Nashville Military Uni- 
 versity. He became a brigadier-general in the Confederate 
 army: was captured at Fort Donclson, but soon escaped ; 
 was severely woundeii at Shiloh; became major-general in 
 1804, and commanded a division under Leo at the time of 
 the eurroader at Appomattox Court-house. 
 
 Johnson (Cave), b. in Robertson co., Tenn., Jan. 11, 
 1793; became a lawyer and a circuit judge; was a member 
 of Congress 1829-37 and 1839-45; was poslmaster-gcnernl 
 during Mr. Polk's Presidency: president of the Bank of 
 Tennessee IS50-j9: and tluring the civil war was elected 
 to tho State senate as a Unionist, but on account of feeble 
 health he never took his seat. D. at Clarksville, Tennes- 
 see, Nov. 23, ISOI). 
 
 Johnson (Ea.stmax), b. in Lovell. Me., July 29, 1824. 
 Took up drawing regularly at about eighteen ; in 1845 went 
 to Washington, had a room in the Capitol, and made many 
 portraits of distingui.'heil men. In 184G established him- 
 self in Boston, and made crayon portraits of Longfellow 
 and his family, .^umner. Felton. Hawthorne, and Emerson. 
 In 1849 went to Diisseldorf ; studied a year in the Royal 
 ,\eademy : occupied for a time a studio with Leutze. In 
 1851 spent a few weeks in London; thence to the Hague fo 
 copy a head by Rembrandt : stayed there four years, and 
 sent thence his first pictures of consequence. The Cftrd- 
 Playern and The Savni/nrd. Went to Paris, but Was unex- 
 peetedty called home, after six years of absence. Spent 
 two winters in Washington and two summers on Lake Su- 
 perior among the Indians. Came to New York in the fall 
 of 1S5S, with his picture Thf Old Keiiliict,/ JInmr, and 
 still resides in New York. Mr. Johnson is a painter of 
 f/enre pictures, but in a broader style than that term indi- 
 cates. His pieces are all figure pieces, but with a wide 
 range of subject. He views lit'c on the pathetic, humorous, 
 tender, heroic, and even on the comic side, always with 
 keen perception and honest intent. He is a master of 
 drawing and color, and rarely fails to convey effectively 
 his whole thought. He has also been successful in por- 
 traits. The civil war furni.^'hed him subjects for his best- 
 known works — The Dnimmer-Iioi/, The Peiision Cliiim- 
 A'jent, The lini/hfmd a/ Lincoln. The Old Kcnluekif Home 
 depicts the South as it was before the abolition of slavcrv. 
 The Kilchai nl Ml. Vernon is another reminiscence of o!d 
 times in America. The Statje-eoaeh, S<irnt/nrd Boy, Drop 
 on Ihe Sli/. The llllle Sinreleeper, The Chlmncy-Bieeep, The 
 Chimnelj Corner, Posl-hoy. Ori/nn-boy, Lady at Prnijer, 
 Mntinfi, illustrate the variety of his themes. Mr. Johnson 
 belongs to no school, native or foreign. His works are 
 numerous, and. though of unequal merit, are highly prized. 
 The Old Kenlnekti Home was sent to the Paris Exhibition 
 in 1867. As a painter of human life as it is before him 
 Mr. Johnson stands foremost among American arlists. 
 
 0. B. Frothixkham. 
 Johnson (EnwARn), b. at Heme Hill. Kent. England, 
 in 1599. came to New England about 1030, settled at Wo- 
 burn, and for many years represented that town in general 
 court, of which body he was Speaker in 1655. He is chiefly 
 known as the author of the curious and valuable historical 
 work, Wonder-irorkimi Providenee of Sion's Sfiriour in .Vcw 
 England, printed at London in 1654, reprinted by the Mas- 
 sachusetts Historical Society, and again edited, with notes, 
 by W. F. Poole in 1807. D. at Woburn Apr. 23, 1672. 
 
 Johnson (EnwARn).b. in Chesterfield co., Va.. Apr. 16, 
 1816; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy in 1838, 
 and entered the army as second lieutenant; brcvetted cap- 
 lain in 1847 for meritorious services in Florida, and major 
 in 1818 for gallantry at Chapultepec and the city of 
 ^lexico : also presented with swords of honor by his native 
 State and native county; commissioned captain in 1851 ; 
 resigned from the army jnne, 1861, to join the Confederacy, 
 and was at once appointed colonel of the 12th Georgia 
 Vols.; brigadier-general 1862, and miijor-general the fid- 
 lowing year; commanded a division at Gettysburg, and in 
 the Richmond campaisn of 1864 taken prisoner, with his 
 entire division, at Spotlsylvania Court-house, May 12, as 
 also subsequently at Nashville, Dec.. 1864; retired to his 
 farm in Chesterfield co.. Va., at tho close of the war. D. 
 at Richmond, Va.. Feb. 22. 1873. G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Johnson (Heuman Merrills), D. D.. LL.D., b. Nov. 
 25, 1815. at Butternuts, Otsego co., N. Y. ; graduated at 
 the Wesleyan University in 1339; was 18.39-42 professor 
 of ancient languages in St. Charles College, Mo.: in 1842 
 was called to the same chair in .\ugusta College, Ky. ; held 
 the professorship of ancient languages and literature in tho 
 Ohio Wesleyan University. Delaware, 0., 184 1-50, and was 
 for a part of the time its acting president ; in 1850 became 
 professor of English literature in Dickinson College, and 
 was its president 1860-68. D. at Carlisle Apr. 5, 1868. 
 Dr. Johnson was an able scholar, and a student of modern 
 Greek, Hebrew, Anglo-Saxon, Gaelic, Irish, Welsh, Ethi- 
 opic. Syriac, Arabic, and other tongues. He was an in- 
 structive preacher and a careful writer; edited Orirnlalia 
 Anli'innrta Uerodoil ; also an edition of the Clio of Herod- 
 otus, with notes ( 1850), and wrote much for periodicals. 
 
 Johnson ( llEiisruEL V.), b. in Burke co., Ga.. Sept. IS, 
 1812; graduated at Ihe State University 1834; adopted tho
 
 JOHNSON'. 
 
 1431 
 
 profension of law, and in 1840 entered the political arena | 
 as the advocate of the principles of JctTcrsmiiHii Ileinoc- 
 raev; was a Prc«idcntiiil elcclor on the Pinic Democratic 
 tir-ket in ISM, and was appointed in 1S18 lo fill a vacancy , 
 in the I'. S. Pcnntc; was elected to the bench in hisjudi- [ 
 cial circuit in 1S49; in Is.Vj was elected poveruor of the ; 
 State, and reelected to the fame office in 1850. In 18G0 ; 
 he was run for Vice-I'rc«idenl of the V. S. on the ticket | 
 which was he;>dcd by .'^lephcn A. Douglas for the Presi- 
 dency ; he was in the Stale secession convention of ISfil, 
 and took an active and prominent part against the policy 
 adopted by that body; he voteil against the ordinance of ( 
 secession, Init afterwards, when it was ]>asped by a majority 
 of the convention, ho resolved to go with his Stale and ' 
 sustain her in the course she had in her sovereign charac- j 
 ter adopted. Brought up in the State Rights school in 
 polities, he believed his ultimate allegiance was due to his 
 State. In IS6:S he was elccteil to the ronfederatc States i 
 Senate, where he took and held a high position until the 
 close of the war. He was president of the constitutional 
 convention of the State in 1. •<(').">. After the removal of the 
 disabilities imposed by the fourteenth amendment to the , 
 Constitution of the U. S., he was again, in ISV:'.. placed on i 
 the circuit bench for a term of eight years. In the mean 
 lime (that is. from the close of the war to the removal of 
 the disabilities referred to) he had resumed the practice of 
 law, which ho prosecuted with great success. In Jan., [ 
 isfin, on the restoration of the State to the Union under 
 the proclamation of Pres. .Johnson, he was chosen as one 
 of the two U. S. Senators to which (icorgia was entitled 
 under the Constitution. The duties of this office, however, 
 he was not permitted lo enter upon ; his seat was denied 
 him by the reconstruction a«ls of Congress. As an orator, 
 constitutional lawyer, and jurist Mr. Johnson has few supe- 
 riors in the V. S. A. II. Steimikxs. j 
 
 Johnson (IsaacI, b. at Clipsham, Rutlandshire, Kng- 
 land. about the close of the sixteenth century : married the 
 Lady Arliella. daughter of the earl of Lincoln, and asso- 
 ciated himself with Winllirop in the settlement of New 
 En"land, being the wealthiest of the colonists and much 
 respited. He is consi<lcn-d one of the chief founders of 
 Boston, where he d. Sept. :W, IG.'iO. 
 
 Johnson (James), b. in Robinson Co., N. C, in ISll. 
 His father moved to Georgia and settled in Macdonough 
 when lie was but a boy. After an academic course in this 
 village he graduatcil willi high honor at the State Univer- 
 sity in 18^2, taught school for a short time, and then com- 
 menced the practice of law as a profession, in which he 
 soon attained high eminence; was a member of Congress 
 from Ueorgia from 18jl to ISJ.3. lieing a strong Union 
 man, and opposed to secession, though he went with liis 
 Stale during the war, at its close, in 180.'), Pres. Jolinson 
 chose and appointed him as provisional governor of (icor- 
 gia under what was known as tl»> President's policy. This 
 position Mr. Jcdinsou held, and discbnrgeil the duties inci- 
 dent to it to the general satisfaction of the ]icoplc, until 
 the State was restored to the Union on the eondilioos anil 
 rc<|uircmcnts then prescribed. In 180(1 he was appointed 
 collector of the customs at Savannah, which office he re- 
 signed in I86fl. Soon after ho was placed on the circuit 
 court bench of the State, which position he still (Apr., 187i) 
 holds. A. II. Stki'IIkns. 
 
 Johnson (Sit" Jons), h. in 1712, was a son of Sir 
 Williiim Jolinson ; wa.s knighted in ITO.^i, and siu'cecdod 
 ill IV7I lo bis father's great estates and influence in the 
 Mohawk Valley. In 1770 he fled to Canada with 7U0 fol- 
 hiwers, raised two battalions called the Royal (ireens, was 
 commissioned a colonel, invested Fort Stanwix in .\ng., 
 1777, dofeated lien. llcrUimer, and ivas himself defeated 
 in Oct., 1780. His property was conliscated l>y the U. S., 
 but llio British government made him scvcrnl grants of 
 lands in Canada, where he became a membir of the colo- 
 nial council and superintendent of Indian nffnirs until his 
 death at Montreal Jan. 1. 18:(U. 
 
 Johnson ( J.iski'II). M. I'., b. at Charleston. S. C, Juno 
 .■>. 1770; Btudieil medicine at the University of Pennsyl- 
 vania, and practised at Charleston with Dr. Elislia Poin- 
 sclt. Krom 1818 to ISIli was president of the U. S. branch 
 bank at Charleston, was active in literary, professional, 
 and political associations, prcsiilcnt of the South Carolina 
 M<'dieal Society from 18(17 for many years: long mayor of 
 Charleston, coiiimissioner of S'-hools, and leader of llio 
 Union parly in the nullilicalion troubles. He published in 
 18.'>1 a valuable work, TraUilitnm ami JCeminitccncet i>f the 
 J!.,„l„li„n. 
 
 Johnson (Joskpii Taber), M. D., h. at Lowell, Mass., 
 .Tunc .'10, I8l.i: gradiyitei! A. M. al Coluinbiiin University, 
 D. (',, in 1801: look his ilegree at Bellevne Medical College, 
 N. Y., in 1807. and compleled his medical studies in Ku- 
 ropo in 1871; was professor of obatolrios in the modioal 
 
 department of Howard University, surgeon to tho Frecd- 
 men's Hospital and St. John's Hospital, and in 1S74 be- 
 came lecturer on midwifery at (be medical department of 
 the University of tieurgetown, D. C. : wrote I'tcullitriiits 
 of Parturition in thr Xetjro Jittrr, and .'iliji/io p€Ctori«f 
 illustrated by the case of Hon. C. Sumner. 
 
 Johnson (Masiel Jons). F. R. S., b. in England in 
 May, 180ri : studied at .Addiscomlic Military School: joined 
 the East India Company's artillery at St. Helena in 1821, 
 and remained there eleven years, during which ho culti- 
 vated astronomy and prepared a catalogue of lil^O stars of 
 the southern hemisphere ; returning to Englaml, he entered 
 Magdalen College, O.xford, at the mature age of twenty- 
 eight, and graduated in ISHO, when he was immediately 
 appointed Railclilfc astronomer. In that capacUy he greatly 
 extended the lists of stars by his annual catalogues, and 
 introduced improved astronomical instruments. His ob- 
 servations of double stars with the great heliometcr. and 
 his photographic registration of stars, were especially im- 
 portant. Prof. Johnson was president of the Royal As- 
 tronomical Society in 1S57 and 1858. D. at Oxford Feb. 
 28, 1869. 
 
 Johnson (Mary Axxe), first wife of Oliver John- 
 son, and daughter of Rev. nrr.ugbton AVhite. b. in West- 
 moreland, N. II.. Aug. 21, 181)8: d. in New "i'ork June 8, 
 1872. For three years ( IS44-t7! she was associated as as- 
 sistant matron with Mrs. Eliza W. Farnham in the mem- 
 orable efl'nrt to reform the State prison for females at Sing 
 Sing. She subsequently became a lecturer to her own sex 
 upon anatomy, physiology, and the laws of health, travel- 
 ling extensively iii the pursuit of that object in different 
 parts of the U.'S. 
 
 Johnson (Oliver), b. in Pcacham, Vt., Dec. 27, 1809: 
 served an apprenticeship to the printing business in the 
 ir(i('7i»inii office. Montpclier, Vt. ; Jan. 1, ISHl, became 
 the editor of a new paper, the Chriminn Suhlicr, and was 
 from this time, and up to the year of 180.'), busily engaged 
 in the service of the anti-slavery cause as a lecturer and as 
 an editor, manager, and contributor to newspapers. During 
 the next five years and a half he was the managing editor 
 of the hiilrjKndcnl, resigning at the end of 1870 to become 
 editor of the WcMii Trihiuir. Alter two years' service at 
 this post be resigned at the end of 1872 to become man- 
 aging cditt»r of the Christian Union, 
 
 Johnson (PEnnvAL Norton), F. R. S., h. in England 
 about I7'.i:i. was (be son of a London assayi^r, and early ac- 
 quired great skill in the same profession. He was the tirst 
 to determine with accuracy the exact proportions of gold 
 and silver in bullion. He' inlroiluced into England from 
 Germany the alloy known as (iernian silver. cx(rac(cd pal- 
 ladium and platinum from gold bullion, nnil inanufaelured 
 them for commercial ]>urposes. He invented seycralpot- 
 tcrv colors, espceially the mncli-admired " rose-pink. " His 
 services were in great request as a consulting metallurgist 
 at the great English mines, and he introduced numerous 
 improvements into the machinery of the Cornish mines. 
 He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in ISJO, and 
 d. in London June 1, 1800. 
 
 Johnson (Ueverpv). b. at Annapolis, Md.. May 21, 
 1790. son of Chancellor John Johnson of that Stale: edu- 
 cated at St. John's College: studied law in bis father's office, 
 and adinitlcd to (be bar in 181.^; removed to Baltimore in 
 1817, anil was shortly after appointed deputy attorney-gen- 
 eral of .Marvland: was a State senator 1821-2:'), resigning 
 in the latter yciir to attend lo the increasing duties of his 
 profession, in which he gained a leading position in his 
 native Slate, as well as at the bar of (he Suineme Court of 
 the U. S. In 1815 he was elccteil lo the U. S. Senate from 
 Maryland, and in 1849, Pres. Taylor appointed him at- 
 torney-general of (he U. S.. which office be held utitil the 
 death of Pns. Taylor, when he retired and resumed tho 
 practice of his prdfession : was member of the pence com- 
 mission in 1801; U. S. Senator IS0:i-08; succeeded Mr. 
 Charles Francis Adams as U. S. minister lo England in 
 1808, anil negotiated a treaty for tho settlement «l' the 
 Alabama claims, which was rejeeled. however, by the U. S. 
 Senate. Reialled in 1809. I). Feb. 9, 1870. 
 
 Johnson (RicHARn Mi:vtoiO, b. in Kentucky Oct. 17, 
 1780: was educated at Transylvania University: studied 
 law an.l was admitted to (he bar; in 182:t was elecled (o 
 the bgisbilMre, and was a member of Congress 1807-19: in 
 I 1812, after the de.laration of war by Great Britain, bo 
 I raised a regiment of Kentucky iiiounle.l riflemen, which ho 
 i commanded on (be Canadian fronder during di.' tall of that 
 I year. Alter the ailjournment of Congress. Mar.. 181.'!, ho 
 I raised anolber inounted regiment of volunteers, with which 
 ] he guarded the Indian frontier during the summer months, 
 and ioiniil (Icn. Harrison in (imo to render brilliant ser- 
 vice in tho battle of the Thames on Oct. 5. It was by his 
 I hand the celebrated Indian warrior Tcoumsoh is reported
 
 1432 
 
 JOHNSON. 
 
 to have fallen. lu this engagement Col. Johnson was des- 
 perately wounjetl. He was, however, able to resume his 
 seat in Congress in February ensuing ; in ISli) was elceted 
 to the U. t*. Senate, and remained a member of that body 
 until 1829 : after this he was again a member of tlio House 
 182y-37 ; in JS^iO was run for the Vice-Presidency of the 
 U. S. in most of the States, on the same ticket which sup- 
 ported Mr. Van Buren for the Presidency. lie received 
 147 of the electoral votes, but this was a few votes short of 
 a majority of the whole, though largely above the number 
 received by any other one of the candidates voted for. In 
 this state of things the choice for Vice-President devolved 
 on the Senate under the Constitution of the U. S. In the 
 discliargc of this duty the Senate in Mar., 1S;J7, made 
 clioicc of Col. Johnson fnr the office of Vice-President for 
 the four years ensuing. In Mar., 18(1. lie returned to his 
 home in Kentucky, after having devoted thirty years of his 
 life continuously to the public service. Perfect retirement, 
 however, was not allowed him. He was again returned a 
 member to the State legislature, and while holding this 
 positon d. at Frankfort, Ky., Nov. 19, ISjO, at the ad- 
 vanced age uf a little over eighty jTars. He was distin- 
 guished throughout his life for kindliness of heart and ur- 
 banity of manners. He was the author of the law abolish- 
 ing imprisonment for debt in Kentucky. A. H. Stephens. 
 
 Johnson {Rkhard W.). A. B., A. M.. b. in Livingston 
 CO., Ky., Feb. 7. 1827; graduated from the U. S. Military 
 Academy in ISJU. and entered the army as brevet second 
 lieutenant of infantry; transferred to the cavalry 1S55 as 
 0rst lieutenant: promoted to be captain 1S.t7, major 1862; 
 engaged in campaigns against Indians in Texas 1S49-6I ; 
 appointed brigadier-general of volunteers Oct.. 18G1, and 
 in command of a division of infantry at Stone Ri\er, Lib- 
 erty Gap, Chiekamauga, Missionary Ridge, and all the bat- 
 tles on the line of march from Nashville to New Hope 
 church, near Atlanta, Ga., where he was severely wounded ; 
 subsequently commanded a division of cavalry at the battle 
 of Nashville and the pursuit of the enemy through Tennes- 
 see. Received successive brevets from lieutenant-colonel to 
 major-general U. S. A. for gallant conduct ; retired on the 
 full rank of major-genera! Oct., 1867, on account of wounds 
 received at New Hope church : reduced to the rank of 
 brigadier-general under a subsequent law of Congress re- 
 tiring officers on rank actually held at the time when dis- 
 abled. Military professor in the Cniversity of Missouri 
 1S68-G9, University of Minnesota 1869-70. G.C.Simmons. 
 
 Johnson (Robkrt W.), b. in Kentucky in 1S14; moved 
 to .Arkansas, and was a member of Congress from that State 
 1847-53 ; he was then elected to the V. S. Senate, in which 
 body he was an active and distiuguisheil member until Ar- 
 kansas passed her ordinance of secession in 18fil : he was 
 then elected a member to the jirovisional Congress of the 
 Confederate States: in 1862 he was elected Senator from 
 Arkansas to the Confederate States Senate. He was a lead- 
 ing member of that body to the close of the war, when he 
 pursue<l the practice of his profession, the law, in the city 
 uf Washington. D. July 26, 1879. A. H. Stephens. 
 
 Johnson (SAMrEi,), D. D., b. in Guilford, Conn.. Oct. 
 1 (. ItilH), was the son of Samuel and Mary (Sage) Johnson. 
 JIis grandfather, William Johnson, who was twelve years 
 old when the family emigrated from England to this country, 
 married. July 2, I6.")l, at the age of twenty-two. a daughter 
 of Francis Bushnell of Saybrook, whose sister. Sarah Rush- 
 nell, was the grandmother of Benjamin Hoadlcy, the cele- 
 brated bishop of Rangor and Winchester. The subject of 
 this notice was in early ehildhoud very much under the 
 training of his grandfather M'illiam, a leading man in (iuil- 
 ford, who held, as did his son after him. the office of dea- 
 con in the Congregational church. He taught him to read, j 
 and stimulated his desire for learning. At fourteen young 
 Samuel joined the infant college at Saybrook, and gradu- 
 ated after a course of four years. He subsequently became 
 a tutor in the institution, and was connected with it in its 
 transition period, and a chief agent in securing its estal*- 
 lishment at New Haven as Yale College. He resigned his 
 tutorship in 1719, and was ordained the next year as jtastor i 
 of the Congregational ehureh at West Haven, a village so i 
 near the college that he continued to associate intimately 
 with its officers and to avail himself of a free use of the 
 library. Here he frequently met his literary friends, among 
 them several of the neighboring ministers, and discussed 
 and examined with (hem the doctrines and practices of the 
 primitive Church, and the form and authority of their own 
 government and wnrship. The result was tliat he and Rec- 
 tor Cutler and Tutor Rrown declared for episcopacy, and, 
 relinquishing their positions, sailed from Boston Nov. 5. 
 1722, to obtain holy orders in the Church of England. He 
 returned to Connecticut after a year's absence, and was 
 settled at Stratfnrtl as a missionary of tlio Society for the 
 Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. For a long 
 
 time he was the only Episcopal clergyman in the colony, 
 and had i^trong adversaries around him in those from whose 
 fellowship he had withdrawn. He married, Sej)t. 26, 1725, 
 Mrs. Charity NicoU, widow of Benjamin Nicoll, Esq., of 
 Rrookhaven. L. I., by whom he had two sons, whose pre- 
 liminary education, and that of his step-sous as well, he 
 personally superintended. His inquiring mind led him to 
 seek the society of scholars and to read all the philosophi- 
 cal works that came in his way. The residence of Dean 
 Berkeley at Newport, R. I. (1729-1!!), was an interesting 
 episode in his life. Before that dignitary came to America 
 he had read his Pi'tnriphs of Humiux Knotchdifc, and was 
 in a measure a convert to his metaphysical opinions. Ho 
 corresponded with him, visited him at his Whitehall palace, 
 and when the dean was about to return to England, dis- 
 heartened by the failure of his great scheme, J(dinson in- 
 tcres^ted him in American education, and secured from him 
 for Yale College the donation of many valuable books, and a 
 deed of his farm atNciTport for the founding <tf scholarships. 
 He maintained a steady correspondence with Seeker and 
 other bishops and divines of the Church of England, and 
 was a profound philosopher fur his day, comjirehending 
 Berkeley and going deeply into Hutchinsonianism. Ho 
 wrote numerous controversial pamj>hlets, and labored 
 earnestly to secure the establishment of an American epis- 
 copate. The University of Oxford conferred upon him in 
 1743 the degree of D. D., and three years later he jiublishcd 
 a Si/-'itcm of Morality, in two parts — one treating of ethics 
 in a speculative aspect, and the other of the practical duties 
 that result from established truths. This, again, appeared 
 with additions under the title of Efemciita Pliifosojthicn, 
 which was dedicated to Berkeley and printed by Benjamin 
 Franklin. 'When the project was entered upon to found a 
 college in Philadelphia, Franklin, one of the gentlemen 
 most interested in it, urged him to assume the presidency, 
 but he finally declined it, and accepted shortly after the 
 oversight of King's (now Columbia) College, N. Y. Ho 
 guided this institution through its early troubles, and gave 
 shape to its policy and course of study. Subscriptions 
 toward the endowment were obtained at home and aliroad 
 through his instrumentality, and when things had been 
 well settled he intimated his desire for retirement, and ap- 
 plied to Archbishop Seeker for a suitable person to take 
 his office. The Rev. Myles Cooper, an Oxford graduate, 
 was sent over, and. sooner than he himself expected, John- 
 son, crushed by the death of his second wife from smallpox 
 — a disease which had been the great bane and terror of 
 his whole life — resigned the presidency of the college Feb., 
 176.1, and retired to Stratford. Here he passed the re- 
 mainder of his days, resuming the charge of his old parish, 
 and continuing his correspondence upon the affairs of the 
 Church in America. It was in this retirement that he 
 composed an English and Hebrew grammar, the structure 
 of tlic two languages bearing in his view a close resem- 
 blance. A second and revised edition of the work, which 
 was first jirinted in London, was riqiublished there, and at- 
 tracted tlio altontion of several Hebrew scholars, among 
 them Bishop Lowth. Dr. Johnson never ceased to jilead 
 that one or more bishops might be sent to the colonies, but 
 he did not live to sec his desire fulfilled. He had expressed 
 the wish that his death might resemble that of his good 
 friend Bishop Berkeley, and Heaven granted it, for ho 
 sank to rest tranquillv, sitting in his ehair. on the morn- 
 ing of Jan. 6, 1772. * E. E. Beardsley. 
 
 Johnson (SAMfEi.), LL.D.. b. at Lichfield, Eug., Sept. 
 18, Uti'.i, the son of a bookseller of limited means; com- 
 menced the study of the classics at the age of ten at the 
 Lichfield free school, making great proficiency; spent a 
 year at a private academy at Stourbridge, and two years in 
 his father's shop, during which, by desultory reading, ho 
 laid the foundation of that immense store of miscellaneous 
 knowledge for which he was distinguished. His father's 
 poverty seemed to forbid all hopes of a university education, 
 but when nineteen years of age he found an opportunity 
 tn enter Pembroke College, Oxford (1728), supporting him- 
 self bv assisting the studies of a former companion at 
 Lichfield school. He became noted for his proficiency in 
 the classics, and produced a Latin translation of Pope's 
 Afrtfiiah, which won a high encomium from that poet. In 
 ]7;n. after three years of assiduous study, he was compelled 
 by want of resources to leave O.xford ; was employed for 
 some timeae usher in a school at Market Bosworth. Leices- 
 tershire, and afterwards lived some time at Birmingham, 
 writing for a newspaper and publishing one or two books 
 translated from the Latin. In 17.'H'> he improved his cir- 
 cumstances by marrying a widow lady nearly double his 
 age who had £81i0 in the funds, and opened a private 
 academy near Lichfield. After a brief and unsatisfactory 
 experience in teaching, Johnson wcm to London in 1737, 
 accompanied by his pupil (jarrick, and thenceforward de- 
 voted himself to literature as a profession. His first
 
 JOHNSON. 
 
 1433 
 
 serious employment was on Cave's GentUmann Marjazine, 
 for which he continued to write until 1731. The publica- 
 tion of London, a satire iraitutcd from Juvenal { 17 '•'>>• K and 
 of two or three political pamphlets, brouj;ht him iuto public 
 notice, and procured him the friendship of Pope. Richard- 
 son, and other leading authors. In 1740. John.-'on under- 
 took to report the debates in Parliament for the Gtutlemana 
 Matftizine, and acquired considerable celebrity by his prac- 
 tice of inipro\ iiiff upon the real utterances of the speaker!? ; 
 ID 1744 appeared his /.i/c «/A'(ifrtf/c ; in 1749, his poem, The. 
 Yunity of Hiinmn Winficn, and a drama, Irene ; aud in 1750- 
 52 he wrote the Hnmhler, a semi-wcckly series of literary 
 essays which extended to 208 numbers and had great si^- 
 cess. From 1747 to 17oj he was chiefly occupied upon his 
 groat work, the /Jivtionortf of the Enr/fiiih Lanffumje. His 
 wife had died in 1752, his mother in I751», and it was to 
 pay the expenses of the lattcr's funeral that John^^on wrote 
 lifttMcl'ts within a single week. The fdUr. an imitation of 
 the IlnniUer. appeared in 1758 to ITHO. It was not until 
 about 1702 that Johnson aequire«l that settled position in the 
 republic of letters which is so familiar to the world in the 
 pages of Boswcll — a position apparently dating from the 
 receipt of a pension of £.'.00. He now became an author- 
 ity on all points of erudition, and his wonderful conversa- 
 tional powers" began to attract the attention of an admiring 
 circle, which in I'tU formed the nucleus of the famous Lit- 
 erary Club. It was in 1 703 that he first met his future 
 biographer, James Bo^well. and in 1705 that he made the 
 acquaintance of the Thralc family. In 1773 ho visited 
 Scotland and the Hebrides, accompanied by Boswell, pub- 
 lishing in 1775 tlio Jonrmtf to the U'cw/tii hiauds, and a 
 pamphlet against the American rebellion, entitled Taxa- 
 tion no 7)/ranni/. His last literary work of any importance 
 was the tivtt of the Poetu fl77!l-Sl i. I), in London Dec. 
 l;j, 17S4, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. It is 
 scarcely necessary to say that the character and career of 
 Dr. Johnson are, or may be, better known than those of any 
 otlier author that over lived through the incomparable 
 biography in which Boswell has edited his conversations [ 
 for a scries of years. The only complete edition of his 
 works is that in 11 volumes (Oxford, 1825). Johnson's 
 character was pure and devout, but his mind was not frco 
 from an unhealthy gloom bre<l of poverty. Ho had strange 
 superstitions, inlierited from infancy, which colored his life. 
 He was a man of vast learning and of masculine grasp of 
 thought, but his judgment was warped by prejudices. In 
 some respects his taste was singularly unrefined. A pleas- 
 ing trait in his character was kinduess towards the poor 
 and suffering. Porter C. Bliss. 
 
 Johnson fSAMirKl.), b. at v=!alem. Mass.. Oct. 10, 1822 ; 
 graduated at Harvard in 1842 and at the Divinity School 
 in lS4:i; became in 185.1 pastor of a "Free" church at 
 Lynn. A deep thinker, brilliant writer, and eloquent 
 speaker, Mr. J. has written much on subjects of philosophy, 
 religion, and reform. He was prominent in tho anti- 
 slavery movement. In lS4fi he compiled, in connection 
 with Samuel Longfellow, A Itoitk of Hifmns, sorao of tho 
 finest of which were his own. In ISOS he published The 
 Worship of Jixnn. Of his great work, Orieitinf Religiontf 
 only the first volumo has appeared (Boston, 1872). 
 
 Johnson (Samit.i, WiiliahI. A. .M., b. at Kingsboro*, 
 Fulion CO., X. v.. .luly •\. I>*;-0 : studied in the Yale Sficniifio ) 
 School and at the universities of Leipsic and Munich. In 
 1850 he became professor of analytical and agricultural 
 chemistry in the Sheflield Scientific School at Yale College, 
 New Haven. Conn. He is a member of the National Acad- 
 emy of Sciences and of the American Academy of Arts 
 and Sciences, and has published HnmnfH on Mitnitrfs (I85D), 
 Peat and itn Cntit {\Si'tCt), lluw Critftn Grow (1808, repub- 
 lished in England in ISO'J). etc., besides translating Frese- 
 nius's Qnalitatirr Chenn'cai Annfi/nit, and tho samc author's 
 Quantitative Chemical Analynit. 
 
 Johnnon (Rev. Thomas), b. in Virginia July 11, 1802: 
 began his ministry in Missuuri in |K25. His greatest and 
 most successful labors were perrorined as missionary to tho 
 Indians, by whom ho was much beloved and revered. He 
 belonged to the Si. Louis conference of the Methodint 
 Kpisconal Church. South, at the time of his dcatli. He was 
 killed by men who hated the cause ho was laboring so 
 aealously to promote, .Ian. 3, 1805. T. 0. Si mmkiis. 
 
 Johnson ( Wai.tku BoriKits). b. at Leominster, Mass., 
 June 21, 17VII; graduated at Harvard in ISIU; was for 
 many years a teacher in Framingham and Salem. Mass., 
 and in German town. Pa., and the Philadelphia High 
 School: was l8?,9-4;i professor of physics and chemistry 
 in the I'niversity of Pennsylvania. Ho made important 
 researches in physics; made an official report (1814) to 
 Congress on the character of tho varieties of coal ; was en- 
 gaged (I!*45) in examining the proposed sources of water- 
 supply for Boston, Mass.; was tho first secretary of the 
 
 Association for the Advancement of Science; became in 
 1848 connected with the Smithsonian Institution, and in 
 1S51 with the World's Fair, London. D. Apr. 20. 1S52. 
 His principal works arc Vne of Anthracite {\>i\\), Report 
 on Cuah (1844). Memoir of L. I), von Schweinitz (1835), 
 Coal Trade of British America (1850). 
 
 Johnson (Sir William), Baut., b. at Warrentown. co. 
 Down, Ireland, in 1715 ; came in 1738 to America to manage 
 some landed estates belonging to his uncle. Admiral Sir 
 Peter Warren, and settled among tlie Mohawk Indians, 
 being the earliest white resident of that immense and fer- 
 tile region, and by his prudence in dealing with the Indians 
 acquired their confidence and esteem. He learned the 
 Mohawk language, and was made an honorary chieftain 
 of that tribe. In 1743 he was appointed superintendent of 
 Indian affairs for the province, and held this post under 
 different titles for the remainder of his life. In the French 
 war of 1755. .Tohnson was commissioned a major-general 
 and commander-in-ciiief of the provincial forces in the ex- 
 pedition against Crown Point, in which he defeated Baron 
 Dicskau at Lake George (so named by him), and destroyed 
 his army in Sept., 1755. Johnson was severely wounded 
 in this engagement, which was considered so important that 
 it procured him the thanks of Parliament, a grant of £5000, 
 and a baronetcy. In 1750-57, Sir William was engaged 
 in tho expeditions for the relief of Oswego and Fort Wil- 
 liam Henry, was with Abercrombie at Ticonderoga in 1758, 
 and \vns second in command under Gen. Priileaux in tho 
 expedition against Fort Niagara in 1759. On the death 
 of Pridcaux. who was killed before that fort. Sir William 
 prosecuted the siege with great vigor, aided by 1000 Indian 
 allies, defeated a French force sent to relieve the fort, and 
 received its unconditional surrender. In 1700 he partici- 
 pated in Amherst's expedition to Montreal. For all these 
 services Sir William received from the king a grant of 
 lOO.OltO acres of land N. of the Mohawk, long known ns 
 •' Kingsland " or the *• Royal Grant," and in 1704 he built 
 Johnson Hall, around which soon sprang up the village of 
 Johnstown, the capital of Tryon eo., which then embraced 
 ail Central and Western New York. Here Sir William 
 passed the remainder of his life, exercising a baronial hos- 
 pitality to Indians and backwoodsmen, giving great atten- 
 tion to improvements in agriculture, and introducing tho 
 first sheep and blood-horses into the Mohawk Valley. Ho 
 made the Indian treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1708. and d. 
 Julv 11, 1774. (See his Z//V, by W. L. Stone, 2 vols., 
 1805.) 
 
 Johnson (William), LL.D., b. at Charleston, S. C, 
 Dec. 27. 1771, was brother of Joseph ; graduated at Prince- 
 ton in 1700: stuclicd law at Charleston umlcr 0. C. Pinck- 
 ncv ; was a member of the legislature for three terms, being 
 Speaker the last term : was elected judge of circuit courts, 
 and appointed by Jefferson a justice of the Supreme Court, 
 with jurisdiction in South Carolina and Georgia. He edited 
 for the family of that officer the I.i/e and Corre»pondence 
 of Mnj.-Cfu! Saihoniel Grrrue (1S22), with copious and 
 learned annotations. Ho inclined to support tho Federal 
 government in the nullification question (1832), and d. in 
 New York Aug. 4, 1S;J4. 
 
 Johnson (William Samuel), LL.D., tho elder son of 
 the Rev. Dr. Samuel Johnson, b. in Stratford, Conn., Oct. 
 7, 1727; graduated at Yale College with great distinction 
 in 1710: studied law. and rose at once, when admitted to 
 the bar. (o the highest rank in his profession. He was an 
 eager student of English politics and English literature, 
 and early took an active interest in the relations of tho 
 American colonies to the home government. In 1701 ho 
 was chosen to represent the town of Stratford iu the lower 
 house of the general assembly, and was one of (he council 
 or upper house when he was selected to atteiiti the first 
 Colonial Congress, that met at New York in 1705 to con- 
 sider tho Stamp Act. He drew up the petitions and re- 
 monstrances which were sent to the king and two houses 
 of Parliament. At the October session of the general as- 
 sembly of Connecticut in 1700. Dr. Johnson — for by this 
 time the I'niversity of Oxford had honored him with tho 
 degree of doctor of laws — was appointed to proceed to 
 England and defend in a cause pending ben)re the king and 
 lords in council concerning the title to a large tract of land 
 olitained for the colony from the Mohegaii Indians: and 
 those who heard him speak on this occasion were not only 
 astonished but charme<l by his eloquence. After the battle 
 of Lexington he and another gentleman were deputed to 
 wait on Gen. Gage, then in commaml of the British forces 
 at Boston, with a letter from tho governor of Connecticut, 
 the object of which was to stay hostile prucccilings, and 
 inquire if means could not be adopted to secure peace. Tho 
 embassy was unsuccessful, tho progress of events hurrying 
 on tho war. Retiring from the council after the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, JohnsoQ set himself quietly down to
 
 1434 
 
 JOHNSON CITY— JOHNSTON. 
 
 his studies at Stratford, but when the independence of the 
 colonies was established he resumed the practice of his 
 profession, and was reinstated in his old office as a member 
 of the upper house of the general assembly. He was a 
 delegate from Connecticut to the convention wliich framed 
 the Federal Constitution, and president of the committee 
 of five apjioiutcd to revise the style of the instrument and 
 arrange its articles. He proposed the organization of the 
 Senate as a separate body, and was elected the lirst Senator 
 from Connecticut, and in concert with his collcajjue. Oliver 
 Ellsworth, drew up the bill to organize the judiciary. 
 After King's College, N. Y., became Columbia under the 
 new organization of trustees established in 17^7, he was 
 chosen to the presidency — an office which his father bad 
 filled under the royal charter. Afler 1800 he lived in re- 
 tirement at Stratford, and d. there Xov. 11. 1819. . 
 
 E. E. Beardsley. 
 
 Johnson City, post-v. of Washington co., Tenn., on 
 tiie East Tennessee Virginia and ijeorgia R. II., 25 miles 
 S. \y. of Bristol, Tcnn. 
 
 Johnson's, tp. of Shelby co., Ala. Pop. 729. 
 
 Johnson's Creek, post-v. of Jefferson co., Wis., on 
 Chicago and North-western R. R., 8 m. S. of AVatertown. 
 
 John'sonville, post-v., cap. of Sunflower co.. Miss. 
 
 John'sonville, post-v. of Pittstown tp., Rensselaer 
 CO., X. Y., at the junction of the Troy and Boston and 
 Johnsonville and Greenwich R. Rs., 17 miles N. E. of 
 Troy. Pop. 500. 
 
 Johnsonville, tp. of Harnett co., N. C. Pop. 483. 
 
 Johnsonville, post-v. of Humphreys co., Tenn., on the 
 Tennessee River and the Nashville and North-western 
 R. R., 78 miles W. of Nashville. 
 
 John's River, tp. of Caldwell co., N. C. Pop, SS3. 
 
 John'ston (formerly Johnson), county of E. Central 
 North Carolina. Area, 670 square miles. It has a varied 
 surface, a good soil, and is reported to contain ores of iron, 
 lead, gold, silver, zinc, etc. Live-stock, corn, and cotton 
 are staple products. It is traversed by Xeuse River and 
 the Atlantic and North Carolina R. R. Cap. Smithfield. 
 Pop. t(vS97. 
 
 Johnston, tp. of Trumbull co., O. Pop. 893. 
 
 Johnston, tp. of Providence co., R. I, It contains 
 several manufacturing villages. Pop. 4192. 
 
 Johnston, tp. of Scott co., Va. Pop. 1S70. 
 
 Johnston, tp. of Shenandoah co., Va. Pop. 1889. 
 
 Johnston (Albert Sidnevj. b. in Kentucky in 1803; 
 
 graduated at the U. S. .Military Academy July I," ISIIG. and 
 entered the army as second lieutenant llth Infantry; after 
 serving in the Black Hawk war. he resigneil from the army, 
 and, in 1836, emigrated to Texas, arriving there shortly after 
 the battle of San .lacinto. Entering the Texan army as a 
 private, he was soon promoted to succeed Gen. Felix Hous- 
 ton in chief command, in consequence of whieh a duel oe- 
 cnrred in whicli .lohnston was wounded. Ho held the ofliee 
 of senior brigadier-general till IS.'JS, when he was appointed 
 secretary of war of Texas, and in 1839 organized an expe- 
 dition against the Chcrokees, who were totally routed in an 
 engagement on the Ncches. In 1810 he retired from pub- 
 lic life and settled upon a plantation. He was an ardent 
 advocate for the annexation of Texas to the U. S., and in 
 1846, at the request of Gen. Tnylor, he took the field 
 against Mexico as commander of the Texan volunteer rifle 
 regiment. Subsequently he served as inspeetor-gcuerul on 
 the staff of Gen. W. 0. Butler, and distinguished himself 
 at tlie battle of Monterey. In 1849. IVesident Taylor re- 
 appointed him in the army as paymaster, with the rank 
 of major, in whieh capacity he served until 18.}5, when he 
 was appointed colonel l.'d l". S. Cavalry. In 1857 he com- 
 manded the U. S. forces sent to coerce the Mormons into 
 obedience to Federal authority, conducting the expedition 
 in safety to Salt Lake City, and commanded the depart- 
 ment of Utah. For energy, zeal, and prudence displnyed 
 in his conduct of this expedition he was brevctted brigadier- 
 general. In l.^tJO he was removed to the command of the 
 department of the Pacific. In May, 1861, he resigned 
 from the service and travelled overla'nd to the seat of the 
 Confederate government. He was at once appointed a 
 general in the Confederate army, and assigned to an im- 
 portant cummaud in the West. "At the battle of Shiloh he i 
 was commander-in-chief, and on the first dav of that battle 
 was killed. Apr. 0, 1862. G.*C. Simmons. ] 
 
 Johnston (Ai.EXAxnEn Kp.iTn), b, at Kirkhill, Scot- ! 
 land, Dec. 28, 1804; travelled extensively, and studied the ■ 
 principal modern languages to avail himself of their re- I 
 sources in peogrftphical data, and ]»ublished in 1843 a 
 X'ltioiinf Atlat, which gained him extensive reputation. \ 
 His Phjftical Atlaa of Natural Phenomena (1847-49; 2d ed. 
 
 1854-56) contained important contributions from Sir R. 
 Murchison, Sir David Brewster, Prof, Rogers of Boston, 
 and other eminent scientists. Mr. .Johnston was chosen a 
 member of the eeograpiiieal societies of Paris and Berlin, 
 received the appointment of geographer to t!ie queen for 
 Scotland, and issued numerous educational, manual, nnci 
 special atlases. D. at Ben Rhydding July 9, 1871. His 
 son, hearing tho same name, has succeeded him la his geo- 
 graphical enterprises. 
 
 Johnston (Gabkiel), b. in Scotland about the end of 
 the seventeenth century : was educated at the I'^nivcrsity of 
 St. .Vndrew's, and became profcsi^or of Oriental languages in 
 the same institution. He was n])pointcd governor of 
 North Carolina in 1734, and hchl that office till his death 
 in Aug., 1752. He was esteemed tho ablest of the colonial 
 governors, and successfully cultivated literature. He gave 
 the narac of Wilmington to the jdacc of that name in North 
 Carolina, in honor of his chief patron at court, the earl of 
 Wilmington. 
 
 Johnston (GronflEl. b. at Simprin in 1798; graduated 
 at the University of Edinburgh in 1S19, after serving a 
 medical apprenticeship with Dr. Abercrombie, and became 
 a physician at Bcrwick-on-Twecd. He j>ursued the study 
 of natural history with great enthusiasm and success, and 
 was one of the founders of the Ray Society. He puhlished 
 important works on the ffhtori/ of Jirltish Zoopfiiftts ( 1838), 
 Hiatorif of British Sponga and Lithophi/tr/i ( 1 842 J, fntroduc- 
 tion to Concliolofj}f (1850). and Natural Hiatory of the East- 
 ern Borders (1854). D. July 3, 1855. 
 
 Johnston (James F. W.), b. at Paisley, Scotland, 
 about 1790; was for many years a classical and scientific 
 teacher at Glasgow and Durham ; went to Sweden in 1830; 
 studied chemistry under Bcrzelius; became professor of 
 chemistry and mineralogy at the University of Durham, 
 and prepared numerous treatises on agricultural chemistry-, 
 most of which have enjoyed a wide circulation in America. 
 Prof. Johnston visitod the U. S. about 1848. Among his 
 works are Elements of At/ricultnral Chemisln/ and Geolof/y 
 ( 1842), Catechinm and Lectnres (1844) on the same sciences, 
 Notesnn North America (1849), and Chemistry of Common 
 Lift- (1854-55). D. at Durham Sept. 18, 1855. 
 
 Johnston (John). LL.D.. b. Aug. 22, 1806, in Bristol, 
 Me.; graduated at Bowdoin College in 1832; after being 
 principal of a seminary at Cazcnnvia. N. Y., he be<'ame 
 connected in 1835 with the Wesleyan University at Middle- 
 town, Conn., first as assistant, and subsequently as professor 
 of natural science, where be has (1875) since remained. Ho 
 published several textbooks on chemistry and natural phi- 
 losophy, most of which have undergone several thorough 
 revisions, and been extensively used in the colleges and 
 schools of tho country. A history of Bristol (his native 
 town) and the adjoining town of Bremen, from his pen. 
 m.ade its appearance in 1873. This work is the result of 
 extended and thorough research, embracing a critical in- 
 vestigation of several important (juestions relating to the 
 early history of Maine; and is justly regarded as one of 
 the most valuable contributions that have been made to 
 American local history. He was a frequent contributor to 
 various periodicals, as the Amrrimn Journal of Scienrt. tho 
 National Miujaziufi^ Mftlunli^t Qnnrterlif Jicriar, and the 
 AViF Eufjland Historical and O'anraloffiral Itcf/iHt<r, and 
 
 was a member of the historical societies of several of the 
 States and of various scientific associations. D. ut Clif- 
 ton, Staten Island, N. Y., Dec. 1, 1879. 
 
 Johnston (John TAVi.on'), b. in New York City Apr. 8, 
 18'_M); was educated partly in N^cw Yoik and partly in 
 Ivlinburgh: graduated at the University of tlie City of 
 New York in 1839 ; was admitted to the bar in 1843, and 
 became interested soon after in the control of railroads. He 
 was electe<l ]i resident of the Central Railroad of New 
 Jersey in 1848. which jiosition he now holds. He is pres- 
 ident of the council of the University of the City of New 
 York, and also president of tho Metropolitan Museum of 
 Art in the same city. .1. B. Bisnop. 
 
 Johnston (Joseph Em,EST0N>. h. in Prince Edward 
 CO., Va., Feb., 1807 : graduated at West Point, and entered 
 the army as second lieutenant of artillery July, 1829, From 
 the date of gradiiation until 1837 he served mainly on gar- 
 rison duty, being, however, actively engaged for some two 
 years in Florida against Seminole Indians, a portion of 
 which time on the staff" of Gen. Winfield Scott. In 1837 
 he resigned his commission to follow the profession of 
 civil engineer, but re-entered the service on July 7, 1838, 
 as first lieutenant of topographical engineers, and for 
 former gallantry in Florida was n<iw brevctted captain. 
 From this time until the outbreak of the war with ]\Iexico 
 ho was engaged upon river and harbor improvements, 
 surveys of Texas boundary-line and that between the U. S. 
 and tho British i>roviuccs, etc. At the siege of Vera Cruz
 
 .loil.NSTON— JOINDKR OV PAKTIKS IX LAW. 
 
 14:i: 
 
 (Mar., 1847) he served on cnginoer duty; was appointed 
 
 Apr. 9 lieutenant-euloncl of voltigeurs. and at Ocno Gordo 
 on iho 12tli rt'ccivc"! severe wouiuls while engafjcd in recon- 
 noitring tho enemy's position, nnd breretted iiuijor and 
 colonel. In the suh^equeut battles of Contreru^^, Cliuru- 
 busco, Molino del Ue\\ Chapultepcc, and the final assault 
 of the city of Mexico he participated, and was wounded 
 at the latter as.'^ault. I'pon the disbandment of the volti- 
 gcnr?< in 1S48, Johnston, by act of Congress restorinj; officers 
 of tho old army to their former positions, returned to duty 
 as captain of topographical engineers, serving as such until 
 ISiD, when he was ajtpointed lientenant-colouel of cavalry, 
 and was engaged in frontier duty and on tho Vtah expe- 
 dition as inspector-general. On June 2^, ISOO, ho was 
 appointed quartermaster-general with tho rank of brig- 
 adier-general, which position he resigned Apr. 22, ISGl, to 
 follow the fortunes of his native State. At onoo appointed 
 major-general in tho Tonfedorate army, be eomniaii'led the 
 force which occupied Harper's Ferry. May. \S<\\, and which 
 subsequently, in the vicinity of Winchester, held in cheek 
 the Union force under Gen. Robert Patterson, and whieh 
 still later reinforced (ten. Beauregard in his p<)sition about 
 Manassas. At tho battle of Bull Run, Gen. Johnston waived 
 his right to command in favor of Beauregard, the latter 
 being familiar with tho ground and troops, while the former 
 was not. In the Peninsular campaign ho was in command 
 of the Confederate army, and at the close of tho first day's 
 fighting at Fair Oaks (May31,lSC2) was severely wounded 
 anj disabled for several months, being suocct-iled by (icn. 
 K. K. Lee. T'|>on his recovery he was assigned to com- 
 mand the S. W. department, with tho rank of lieutenant- 
 general, and during tho eicgo of Vicksburg made several 
 ineifectual attempts to relievo that place, being finally de- 
 feated at and driven beyond Jackson, Miss. In Dec, 
 186,1, Johnston, now a general, succeeded Gon. Bragg 
 in command of tho Confederate army of Tennessee: but 
 failing to prevent tho invasion of Georgia the following 
 spring by the Union forces of Gen. Sherman, be wassupcr- 
 sedeil (July 17, 18CI) by Gen. J. B. Hood, after having been 
 forced to retire from the strong positions at l>altou. Ilesaea, 
 Kenesaw, etc., and beyond tho Chattahoochee. In 1805 
 Johnston was restored to command in the Carolinas to 
 collect and command an army to oppose the advance of 
 Gon. Sherman, but was defeated at Fayctleville, Bcnton- 
 ville, etc., and upon recci\ing intclligeneo of tho surrender 
 of Lee entered into correspondence with Gen. Sherman, 
 which led to the surrender of his army at Durham Station, 
 N. C, Apr. 26, ISfij. In 1874 he published a Xarrative of 
 Militnrtf OfH'ntlions. G. C. SlMMoXS. 
 
 JohnHton ^Ricmaiid M.), b. in Hancock co., fla., Mar. 
 ft, IS22; graduated at ]\Iereer University with tho lirst 
 honor of his class in ISIl; studiecl law and was ailmittcd 
 to the bar, and entered upon the praclieo atSpartain 18ilJ. 
 The presidency of Mercer University was unanimously ten- 
 dered him by the board of trustees in 1SJ7; this ho dc- 
 clineil. preferring to aecrpt a proi'essorsbip of brlfev-/ct(rtn in 
 the State Univert^ily tendered him at tho same time. This 
 position ho held until istU, after the war broke out; ho 
 then established a sclcot classical school at Roekby in his 
 native county, which became famous in the Southern States; 
 in I8ft7, after the ad'tption of the reconstruction poliey by 
 Congress, he moved his school to Cbcstniit Hill, 2 miles N. 
 . of Raltimore, M*l., where it is now known as Pen-Lucy 
 Institute. Hundreds of young men have gone forth into 
 active useful life from the trainlngof this eminent instructor. 
 The labors of Prof. Johnston have not been confined to 
 teaching only; by his pen he has ef>ntributed extensively 
 to the literature of tho country, liis most noted works of 
 this character being hts EngliaK CVa««iV« (18.'>'.)), nnd tho 
 J)iikr»t,nrottf/h TidvH (1872). A. II. Stkimikns. 
 
 Johnston (Samiti,), LL.D., b. at Dundee, Scotland, 
 Dec. |j, \~'.V.\, nephew of (iov. Gabriel Johnston, was 
 brought in infancy to North Carolina, whern his father be- 
 conio surveyor-general nnd acquired largo landed estates. 
 Samuel was admitte<l to the bar, wns chosen to the aHsnmbly 
 in 1760, and espoused the cause of resistance to tho British 
 cabinet ; was an active member of the first two provincial 
 Congresses, and presideil over the third nnd fourth. In 
 I77i> he was chairman of tho provincial council, was a 
 member of the Conlinenlnl Congress in I78I-S2, governor 
 of North Cartdina 178S-S9, presiding over the Siato con- 
 vention which a'lopled the Federal Constitution; was XT. S. 
 Senator 178y-ii;i. and justice of tho Supremo Court 1800- 
 03. 1). near Edenton, N. C, Aug. I«, 1816. 
 
 Johnston (Wh.i.iam FnKAMr). b. at Oreensburg, West- 
 moreland CO., Pa.. Nov, 2'.*. 18)IH, of Scotch- Irish paternity. 
 His father was a prominent iron manufaelurer and mer- 
 chant. W. F. Johnston became a siieeessfnl lawyer of 
 Armstrong eo.. Ph., having been admitted to the bar in 
 1S29. la the State legislature bo early woo distinetioQ by 
 
 bis financial ability. In 1S47 be became president of the 
 Senate. On July 9. ISJS. Gov. Shunk died, Mr. Johnston 
 becoming governor €x-ojfit:io; but llie statutes and the State 
 constitution being in apjtarcnt confiict, he ordered a new 
 election, and was himseli" chosen governor for tlirec years. 
 lie afterwards was an iron and salt manufacturer and oil- 
 refiner of Pittsburg, and was for a time collector of tho 
 port of Philadelphia. D. at Pittsburg Oct, 25, 1872. 
 
 John'stonet town of Scotland, in the county of Ren- 
 frew, has large manufactures of cotton fabrics and of arti- 
 cles of iron and brass. The vicinity contains rich coal- 
 mines, pop. 6104. 
 
 John'stown for Lanci Rin). post-tp. of Garrett co., 
 Md. (formerly in Allegany co.). Pop. 673. 
 
 Johnstown, post-tp. of Barry co., Mich. Pop. 1296. 
 
 Johnstown, post-v.. cap. of Fulton co., N. Y., on the 
 Fonda Johnstown and Gloversvillc H. K., 4 miles N. of 
 Fonda, and on the Cayadutta Creek; has 2 banking- 
 houses, 10 churches, 3 weekly newspapers, an academy, 
 county buildings, good hotels, gasworks, and various man- 
 ufactures, ]»roniinent among which is that of gloves nnd 
 mittens. The township of Johnstown includes Glovcrsville 
 and other vilhi-es. Pop. of v. ;i282 ; of tp. 12,27:i. 
 
 W. II. ll<M lU.KDAY, FOR Ed. "FlLTON Co. DEMOfttAT." 
 
 Johnstown, post-b. of Cambria co., Pa., on the Penn- 
 sylvania Canal and R. R., 79 miles E. of Pittsburg; has a 
 rolling-mill and Bessemer steel works (employing 6000 
 men), a woollen-mill, tannery, meehanieal works, cement- 
 works, and other industries, gas and water supply, 1 daily 
 and b weekly newspapers, n national and a savings bank. 
 The surrounding mountains are rich in iron, bituminous 
 coal, limestone, cement, and fireclay. The Concmaugh 
 River flows on the N. and Stony Creek on the S. of tho 
 town. Pop. G028, greatly increased since the census. 
 
 G. T. Swank, En. " TrtiBi .nk." 
 
 Johnstown, a v. of Porter tp., Schuylkill co., Pa. 
 Pop. 70. 
 
 Johnstown, post-tp. of Rock co., Wis. Pop. 1299. 
 
 John'sviMc, post-v. of Frederick co., Md., 1.1 miles 
 N. E. of Frederick City. Pop. of tp. 1642. 
 
 Johnsville, v. of Ferry tp., Morrow co., 0. Pop. 159. 
 
 John'ton, po8t-v. of Marion co., W. Va. Pop. 55. 
 
 Joignoanx' (PiEnnK), b. at Varennes, department of 
 Cfitc d'Or, France, in 1815, agronomist, agrii'ulfural writer, 
 and representative. He passed through the Paris Kcnic 
 Centrale des Arts ct Manufactures, nnd launched himself 
 in politics, writing for t!io opposition papers. He was 
 sentenced to jirison under tho Louis Philip])o government, 
 nnd elected in 18IS representative to the National Assem- 
 bly, where ho look his scat on the extreme Left. After tho 
 roup (Vtfatui Dec, 1S.')1, .Toigneaux was exiled to Belgium, 
 from whence he returned after the proclamation of amnesty 
 to devote himself exclusively to his former agricultural 
 writings. He publishecl many articles, founded agricul- 
 tural journaN, and wrote Thr /*fa*ntntn iiii'ler lioifalty, iJiC' 
 tionnvy o/' i'rurtiofil Ai/n'rit/ftir<^, CoiiuHcfn to the Yoittiff 
 Fnrminff-womnn, Cnlturr aufl Fabrirntinu of Wine in lid- 
 ffiutn, Tirfitise of the Seetl» of the Siiinfl and Larffe Hu»- 
 I'tnifri/, etc. Fkmx ArCAlONE. 
 
 Joipny', town of Franco, in tho department of Yonne, 
 on tho Yonne, noted for its fine claret wines. Pop. 5971. 
 
 Join'tlcr of Actions in Law is the union of two or 
 more causes of action in tho same declaration or complaint. 
 A plaintilf may have several distinct claims against tho 
 same defendant, either wholly or partly arising out of con- 
 tract, or wholly or partly foumled upon tort, and in such 
 cases it becomes an important qu»-lion whether he can 
 unite all these claims and obtain the remedy appropriate 
 to each in a single action, or whether several actions must 
 be brought. At common law tho rule was in civil cases 
 that when the same plea might be pleaded and the same 
 judgment given on all the eiiunts of the declaration, or 
 when tho counts were of the same nature and the same 
 judgment was to be given on them all, several causes of ac- 
 tion might bo joineil. Thus, in an Action on contract, a 
 count tor debt upon a bonil might he united with a count 
 for debt up(»n sintpio eontract. So in an actiitn of tort sev- 
 eral claims tor trespasses might be joined. But a demand 
 upon contract could not be uniterl with a claim grounded 
 in tort. The subject of joinder of actions, particularly in 
 civil eases, is now frequently regulated by statute. There 
 are also special rules as to joinder in criminal cases. 
 
 Gkomor CtiAsr. RrvisFn av T. W. Dwionr. 
 
 Joinilor oT Parties in Law. By this expression 
 is meant the eollection of rules requiring that persons hav- 
 ing a common intere-^t or subject to n ennimon liability 
 shouhl bt> joined together in an action at law or other legal 
 proceeding. The details of this subject, being of a tooh-
 
 1436 
 
 JOINERY— JOINT AND SEVERAL. 
 
 nical character, should be sought in the books of legal 
 practice. The subject is one of great consequence to the 
 legal practilioner. and should be carefully understood, as a 
 failure to join the necessary parties is frequently fatal in 
 its consequences. 
 
 In contrasting the rules prevailing in courts of law with 
 tho«e adopted in courts of equity upon this subject, it will 
 be found that the latter are much the more liberal. The 
 former arc frequently in a high degree technical : the latter, 
 on the other hand, are so framed as to make it proper to 
 bring in all persona whose presence is necessary to a com- 
 plete determination of the matter in controversy. There is 
 alsoan important and salutary rale, that when the parties are 
 numerous, and it is impracticable to bring them all before 
 the court, one or more may sue for the benefit of the whole. 
 An illustration of it is found in the case where an admin- 
 istrator is called upon to account in respect to the assets 
 of an estate in his hands. One or more of a numerous 
 body of creditors may sue. not only for himself, but also 
 for the other creditors. Keeurring to the rules of the com- 
 mon-law courts, it may be useful to state that the question 
 as to uniting parties arises in the main out of joint con- 
 tract, ownership, or wrong (tort). It is a general rule that 
 when the interest in a contract is joint the cause of action 
 is of the same nature, and all the parties should be united. 
 A like rule prevails in the case of a joint liability. A dis- 
 tinction must here be made between a ''joint " liability and 
 one that is "joint and several." (See Joint and Several.) 
 This rule gives way when one of two joint parties dies. 
 The action is then prosecuted by or against the survivor. 
 In a court of equity the representatives of the deceased 
 will still bo liable in some instances to the survivor for 
 contribution. {See Contribition.) In the case of wrongs 
 it is not necessary, though proper, to join all the wrong- 
 do_'r3. a wrong being regarded in its nature as joint and 
 stncral. Where two or more persons are jointly injured, 
 they should be united as plaintiffs. Special rules exist in 
 the case of husband and wife, growing out of the technical 
 rule that the legal existence of the wife is merged in that 
 of the husband. These rules, requiring them to be united 
 a« parties to actions, give way when one of them dies, 
 Tlic fiction of a merger is then abandoned, and the true 
 owner of the claim or the author of the wrong is recog- 
 nized as the proper person to sue or to be sued. There is 
 a tendency in modern law to abandon this tiction in many 
 respects. Thus, under the New York code of proctiduro 
 the wife may sue alone concerning her separate property, 
 and by other statutes to recover for her services or for in- 
 juries that she has sustained, or for her profits in trade, etc. 
 A siiuilar rule prevails in many other States. A like tend- 
 ency is observable in England. It cannot be said that the 
 common-law rule bos been wholly abandoned, but only 
 uiolified. 
 
 The penalty in the common-law courts for failure to make 
 the proper i>ersons ]jarties is very severe. Error in this re- 
 pppct is in some instances fatal in every stage of the cause. 
 By modern legislation in some States of this country the 
 general course of the action is unaffected by the presence 
 of too m.any plaintiffs or defendants. Thus, in Xe\v York, 
 wlicre there are defendants in excess the question can only 
 be raised by them, and they may claim that as far as they 
 are concerned there is no cause of action. Oa this theory, 
 the cause proceeds against those who are properly made 
 defendants. This, it can scarcely be denied, is a very sal- 
 utary reform. AVhere the parties are too few, the objection 
 must be raised at an early stage in the cause, or it will bo 
 d 'cmod to be abandoned. So now in England errors of 
 this kind may be amended before or at the trial by force 
 of the "common law procedure act" of is;»2 and later 
 statutes. (Reference may he made for further information 
 to Dicey on PartUit; Barbour on PnrtuH; lirown,do. ; Cal- 
 vert, do.; and to general works on Practice.) 
 
 T. W. DWIGRT. 
 
 Join'ery differs from Oarpestrt (which see) in the 
 nicer and more exact \vorkmanship required. The house- 
 joiner finishes the work which the carpenter and builder 
 have left. So of the shipjoiner, whose work is sometimes 
 almost a work of art rather than one of artisanship. The 
 making of nice wooden-wares, ornamental boxes, and the 
 like is a still more delicate kind of joinery. 
 
 Jointf in anatomy, an articulation, or the connection 
 existing between the several bones of the skeleton. The 
 tissues entering into its formation are bones, the ends of 
 which are covered by cartilage, and bound together by lig- 
 aments; in the more movable a membranous sac is inter- 
 posed, which secretes a lubricating fluid called synovia. 
 The constrnction of joints differs in various parts of the 
 body, according to the function which they have to per- 
 form ; and in consequence of this they have been divided 
 into three classes — viz., synarthrosis, nmphiarthrosis, and 
 diarthrosie, which have been subdivided as follows : 
 
 I. Synarthroitig, an immovable articulation : (a) Stituro, 
 in which the bones are dovetailed into each other, as in the 
 skull, (b) Harmoiiin. in which the joints are but slightly 
 marked, as union of superior raaxilhe. (c) GompkoaiM, in 
 which a conical point fits into a socket, as the teeth into 
 the alveoli. (</) ^'chimit/icsis, an articulation by furrow- 
 ing, as it were — vomer. 
 
 II. Aiifphinrthronia, an articulation permitting limited 
 motion: («) .S[yiif/''*mo«f'*i, the articulation of two or more 
 bones by means of ligaments, as radius and ulna, (h) Si/n- 
 ckonfiroHtu, the articulation of bones by means of cartilage, 
 as that of the ribs with the sternum, (c) Si/iiiphysi», the 
 union of bones by fibro-eartilage. as the pubes. 
 
 III. Dinrthi'oais, a movable articulation : (a) Arthrodia, 
 a gliding joint, as sterno-clavieular. (A) Enm'th rosin, a 
 ball-and-socket joint, as the shoulder and hip joints, (c) 
 Giiit/(tfmm, a hinge-like articulation, as at the elbow and 
 knee, (d) Diartfirosis rutfitorimt, as the atlo-axoid joint. 
 
 The diseases to which the joints arc most li.able arc Syno- 
 vitis, Chondritis, and Osteitis. EnwARn .1. Berminghah. 
 
 Joint and Several, a legal phrase used to denote 
 that the liability of two or more debtors is of such a kind 
 that they may be sued either collectively or individually. 
 If any one of them, when the liability rests upon con- 
 tract, is sued and compelled to discharge the entire debt, 
 he has a claim for contribution against the others upon an 
 implied contract, and may re'_^over from them such a por- 
 tion of the whole amount as they ought justly to pay. 
 And if the debt be a valid antl subsisting obligation, a 
 single debtor may pay it in full, even though no suit is 
 brought against him, and will still have a valid claim for 
 contribution. So, if the ]>ayment made by one be less than 
 the entire debt, but larger than his own proper share, he will 
 be entitled to receive from the others a proportionate part 
 of the excess according to the extent of their respective 
 liabilities upon the contract. If one or more of the other 
 debtors be insolvent, the one who pays the whole, or more 
 than his share, can recover at la\v from those who remain 
 solvent only such suras as they would be obliged to pay if 
 all were solvent. In equity, however, those who remain 
 solvent must contribute equally towards the discharge of 
 the entire indebtedness, in accordance with the maxim that 
 "equality is equity." A joint and several obligation may 
 bo created by the express language of the agreement, or 
 may arise by implication from its terms. Usually, the 
 words are employed, "We jointly and severally promise 
 (or covenant)." but a contract by two or more persons, in 
 which they agree '* for ourselves and each of us " or " for 
 ourselves and every of us," is also an express joint and sev- 
 eral contract. A joint and several liability is implied when 
 several persons sign a contract in the obligatory part of 
 which the pronoun / is used instead of tee. Moreover, a 
 joint and several obligation may sometimes arise by reason 
 of the legal relatiuns of the parties by whom a contract is 
 entered into. Thus. Jn England the liability of the mem- 
 bers of an ordinary partnership in regard to the debts and 
 engagements of the firm is joint and several in courts of 
 equity (though not in courts of law), except under special 
 circumstances. If one of several co-contractors upon a joint 
 and several agreement dies, the action may, at common 
 law, be brought either against his personal representative 
 (executor or administrator) or against the survivors. The 
 rule is different, however, in regard to parties who are 
 jointly liable; and if one of them dies the action must 
 be brought against the survivors. When the joint and sev- 
 eral contract is for the performance of a single act or duty, 
 a release under seal to one will operate as a release to all. 
 But a judgment recovered against one. if not satisded, will 
 be no bar to an action against either of the others. A joint 
 and several obligation cannot be treated as several in ref- 
 erence to some of the obligors and jjiut as to the rest. The 
 creditor must proceed either jointly against all or severally 
 against each. This rule, however, has in some of the States 
 been changed by statute. The phrase '"joint and several" 
 is only applied "to the liability of debtors, and not to the 
 claims of creditors. There can be no form of contract by 
 which the obligees arc entitled to sue either collectively or 
 singly. Their claim can be only joint or only several. There 
 may also be a joint and several liability in cases of tort, as 
 well as in cases of contract. Thus, if two or more persons 
 unite in the commission of a tortious offence, one, any, or 
 all of them may be sued by the party suffering the injury. 
 Full damages may bo recovered from the party sued, and 
 there will not, in general, be any claim for contribution 
 against the other wrongdoers. In some cases, however, 
 where the person who is compelled to make full payment 
 was not wilfully nor intentionally a participant in the 
 wrong committed, he will be entitled to recover a propor- 
 tional amount of the damages from the others. (For an 
 illustration of this kind, see CoNTHiBrrroN.) 
 
 George Chase. Rkviseh by T. W. Dwight.
 
 JOINT FIRS— JOINT OWNERSHIP. 
 
 1437 
 
 Joint Firs (Gnctaccip), a small natural order of exog- 
 enous jjlanls (cyninogens) closely allied to llic Conifcraj. 
 They arc small trees and shrubs of the genera (liifium and 
 Ephcdrn, found in tropical and warm countries. Their 
 steins arc jointed, their juices not nsinous. hut very wa- 
 tery, or sometimes even gummy. Several grow in the far 
 \Vc?t. 
 
 Joint Own'crship. As employed in a comprehensive 
 sense in law, joint ownership denotes the ownership of 
 properlv, whether real or personal, by two or more persons. 
 But it is more appropriately applied to personal property, 
 and is, by this restriction of meaning, distinguished from 
 joint tcnancv. which is customarily used with reference to 
 real estate, of which only can tenure be properly predicated. 
 Both these phrases arc, however, sometimes loosely cm- 
 ployed as avnonymous. By a still further qualification of 
 meaning, joint ownership is distinguished from ownership 
 in comrnon, and joint tenancy from tenancy in common, in 
 the accurate technical application of these various terms, 
 the interest of a number of owners being characterized 
 strictly as joint when the property, whether real or per- 
 sonal, is hold by them with a unity of interest, of title, of 
 time, and of possession, and with a right of survivorship ; 
 while it is termed common when the only unity is that of 
 possession, and there is no survivorship. In this article 
 ownership of personal property will only be considered ; 
 that of real property will be considered under the topics 
 Joist Tenascv and Tknaniv in Common: ownership by 
 several persons who stand in the relation of partners will 
 be discussed under PARTNKnsnip. (For ownership by sev- 
 eral who form the members of a corporation see Corpora- 
 tion.) 
 
 There are four unities which, as has just been stated, are 
 necessary to constitute joint ownership. By unity of in- 
 terest is meant that the interest of each owner in the prop- 
 erty should be, by its original limitation, for the same du- 
 ration and of the same nature and quanlity. Tnity of title 
 exists when the title of each is derived from the same in- 
 strument or from the same act of transfer of interest. That 
 there may be unity of time the interest of each should vest 
 at the same moment : while unity of possession requires 
 that each owner should be entitled to the possession of the 
 whole property and every parcel, and that it should not bo 
 divided in separate portions between them. There is an 
 exception, however, to the rule requiring unity of time 
 when the joint ownership is created by will. Thus, if a 
 bequest be made to ,A for life, and after his death to tho 
 children of B, all the children born in \'a lifetime will be- 
 come entitled jointly, Ihoui,'h some may not be living when 
 the interests of the others become vested. All property 
 held in joint ownership is subject to the right of survivor- 
 ship. In the apjdication of this doctrine, whenever one 
 of the owners dies, the survivors take the entire interest, 
 to the ex(dusion of his personal representatives. Joint 
 ownership always arises by the act of parties, and not by 
 the operation of law. Hence, though it might he created 
 by a transfer of property by deed or by gift, it would not 
 (lubsist in relation to properly which pnsse.l after the de- 
 cease of the previous owner to the next of kin. The crea- 
 tion of a joint interest in personal property may either bo 
 by the use of express language to that elTect in tho instru- 
 ment of transfer, or it may result from necessary imi)lica- 
 tion, as where chattels are given to two or more persons 
 without the use of any words indicating a severance of in- 
 terest. But this implication »vill not be made in relation 
 to stock used in joint undertakings of trade or agriculture. 
 A limitation of this to two or more persons will be held 
 generally to create a tenancy in common. This excep- 
 tion to the general doctrine bus been establishrd on account 
 of the effect of the rule of survivorship in interfering with 
 the unrestricted management of property, and with the 
 usual mode of distribution after the owner's death. In 
 
 C'Hirts of cquil; 
 except in the 
 
 ept in the case of property given in trust, and will 
 not, as a rule, be held to exist unless that bo the ex- 
 pressed or clearly presumable intention of the parties. In 
 this country, also, the tendency of legislation is to do away 
 with the incirlent of survivorship, except in the ease of lega- 
 cies and where persona are appointed co-exeeulnrs or eo- 
 trustcca. In regard to legacies limited to several persons, 
 it is a general rule that they take a joint interest. When 
 several executors or trustees are appointed, they are usually 
 
 deemctl to holil in joint ownership, sine 
 
 these cases it 
 is desirable that the principle of survivorship should apply, 
 and that the property should pass to the remaining execu- 
 tors or trustees to be managed for the pui]\oscs designated 
 in the will or in the instrument creating the tru^t, rather 
 than that others should interfere with its disposition. 
 
 Kvery kind of personal properly may be held in joint 
 ownership, whether it be property in possession or properly 
 in action. (Seo Chose ix Actios.) Thus, there may be 
 
 joint owners of stock, of a legacy, of a promissory note, 
 of a patent right, or of a lease for years, which is termed 
 a chattel real, as well as of a horse, furniture, etc. Tho 
 interest of any owner cannot be disposed of by will, but 
 will pass to the survivor unaffected by the bequest. Joint 
 ownership in chattels, like a joint tenancy in lands, may 
 be terminated by destroying any one of the four requisite 
 unities, except that of time, and may thus be changed into 
 an ownership in severalty or in common. Then the owners 
 may, by mutual agreement, divide the property among them- 
 selves, or sell it and divide the proceeds, thus becoming in- 
 dependent owners of distinct shares. Or the interest of any 
 one may bo assigned or transferred to a third person, who 
 will thereupon become tenant in common with the others. 
 In ownership in common of chattels, as in tenancy in 
 common of real property, there is but a single unity, that 
 of possession, and there is no right of survivorship. Each 
 owner has an undivided share, and u)>on his death this 
 passes to his executor or administrator, to be administered 
 in the same way as the rest of his personal estate. Owner- 
 ship in common may arise by a gift or transfer of chattels, 
 which by the terms of the limitation are to be held in com- 
 mon ; or, as has been already seen, it may result from the 
 disposal of his interest to a third person by one of several 
 joint owners. By common -law rules, however, the interest 
 of a joint owner in a chose in action cannot be transferred so 
 as to effect an ownership in common, since choscs in action are 
 not assignable. But in equity a difl'erent rule prevails, and 
 an assignment will be deemed valid. In some of the States, 
 also.choses in action have been made assignable by statute, 
 so that the common-law rules would no longer be applicable. 
 A number of persons may also become owners in common 
 by an innocent admixture of their chattels, which are of 
 such a kind that it becomes impofsible to distinguish the 
 particular property of each, as where quantities of grain 
 belonging to different persons are mingled together acci- 
 dentally, or arc mixed in elevators in the cour.sc of trans- 
 portation ; so several owners may agree to hold their prop- 
 erty in common. This form of ownership may arise by 
 operation of law as well as by the act of jMirties. Thus, tho 
 next of kin of a deceased person, among whom his personal 
 property is distributed, may be said to stand in relation to 
 one another like tenants in common until a distribution is 
 made, since if one of them should die in the intervening 
 time, his personal representatives, and not the survivors, 
 would be entitled to his share. An owner in common may 
 dispose of his interest as freely as an owner in severalty. 
 The purchaser becomes an owner in common with the other 
 owners. Ownership in common may be destroyed by a 
 division of the property among the various owners accord- 
 ing to tho extent of their respective shares. 
 
 There are certain principles ap))licable to joint and to 
 common ownership which are quite similar, and may there- 
 fore be considered together. Thus, both joint and common 
 owners have a right to dispose of their own interests, but 
 not of the shares of their I'ellowowners. If they nttrmpt 
 to transfer a Inrirer jiortion of the ).ropcrly than they arc 
 rightfully entitled to, the transaction will only be valid to 
 tlio extent of their own interests. The share of each owner 
 may also bo sold on execution against him by the sheriff. 
 If the sheriff sell the entire chattel, the other co-owners, who 
 arc thereby deprived of their property, may sue him for 
 conversion. Kacli joint or cominiui owner is entilled to tho 
 possession of the property, and his possession is deemed to 
 be the possession of all. One co-owner in actual possession 
 even has the right to maintain that possession against tho 
 others. The lei;al remedy of the other co-owners is to take 
 tho chattel wherever an 'opportunity is afforded, but they 
 cannot bring an action for conversion simply on this 
 ground. As a general rule, joint owners and owners in 
 common must unite in all actions foriiijuries to the general 
 property by third persons, as in actions of trespass and 
 trover. In .some instances one co-owner may maintain an 
 action against another for a misuse of, or wrongful inter- 
 ference with, the joint or common properly. An intentional 
 destruction or spoliation of the chattel by one will amount 
 to a conversion, for which he will be responsible. In some 
 Stales it is held that a sale by one owner of more than 
 his share will render him liable to an action of trover. In 
 a few Slates, also, statutes have been enacted permitting an 
 action to be brought by one co-owner against another 
 merely for the exercise of an exclusive control over tho 
 property. .\ change in the identity of the article which 
 forms the general |tro)>erty, as where iron owned in com- 
 mon is melted together and manufactured into various 
 utensils, would constitute a conversion. A partition of tho 
 property held in common cannot bo obtained by any form 
 of proceeding at law, though sometimes courts of equity 
 will decree that a division be made. When the properly is 
 ; severable in its nature, and of tho same common quality, 
 I any owner may separate a portion equal to his share, if it
 
 1438 
 
 JOINT-STOCK COMPANY. 
 
 can be ascertained by weight or measurement, and appro- 
 priate it to himself. Tiicre is no necessity of obtainin<; the 
 consent of the other owners \u such a case in order tliat a 
 eeveranoe may iic made. But when the property is indi- 
 visible, as a horse, a partition can only be made at law by 
 obtaining the consent of all the owners to a sale and a divis- 
 ion of the proceeds. (For the rules of law relating to part 
 ownership of vessels see Part Owxkus.) 
 
 Gkoucp. Chask, Revised by T. W. Dwight. 
 
 Joint-Stock Company, an association of individuals 
 forinetl for the purpose of carrying on some mercantile, in- 
 dustrial, or other lawful unclertaking, and havini; a capital 
 divided into shares which are transferable by the respective 
 shiueholdors at their own option, and the ownership of 
 which is a condition of membership. As formed in ac- 
 cordance with common-law rules governing their organiza- 
 tion and defining their powers, such associations arc unin- 
 corpnrated and constitute a sjiecies of partnership. In 
 recent times, however, it has been the tendency of legisla- 
 tion to invest them with corporate powers which they did 
 not possess at common law. and in England statutes have 
 been enacted, the effect of which is to render them actual 
 corporations, provided certain formalities prescribed by the 
 statute? are complied with in the mode of organization. 
 The term joint-stock company, therefore, as frequently em- 
 ployed at the present day. particularly in English practice, 
 wouM include lioth incorpor.atcd and imincorporated asso- 
 ciations. It will be most convenient, however, to employ 
 it in the present article in the restricted distinctive sense 
 prevailing at common law. irrespective of statutory modi- 
 fications of its extent of application, except when the 
 character and effect of such statutes are specifically con- 
 sidered. In this view a joint-stock company is in the na- 
 ture of a partnership, though it is attended with different 
 incidents and liabilities, in many respects, from an ordi- 
 nary partnership. In the early history of the common law 
 the only forms of association of individuals for the accom- 
 plishment of any object by a combination of capital and 
 effort, which were known, were partnerships and corpora- 
 tions. Joint-stock companies, as subsequently introduced 
 in mercantile communities and recognized by the law, were 
 intermediate between these modes of association, which had 
 been of earlier origin, and partook to a considerable extent 
 of the peculiarities of both. Like common partnerships, 
 they are formed solely by a voluntary union of individuals, 
 who combine for purposes of mutual profit and benefit, and 
 are not created by legislative authority, nor endowed by 
 legislative act with the powers and functions which they 
 possess and exercise. Po a joint-stock company, like a 
 partnership, is not a fictitious person capable of suing and 
 being sued, and of acting generally in legal transactions 
 like a natural person, as is true with regard to a corpora- 
 tion, nor is it regarded as having any distinct legal exist- 
 ence independently of the members who compose it. The 
 members, like partners, must sue and be sued in the same 
 way as all individuals who liave engaged in a joint enter- 
 prise and have acquired joint rights and incurred joint lia- 
 bilities. All must regularly be joined as plaintiffs or as de- 
 fendants, and suit cannot be brought in the name of tho 
 company. One or more members of tlie company may rep- 
 resent it and act in its interests if they are specially ap- 
 pointed as agents, managers, or directors, in much the same 
 way as one or more partners may represent the firm; but 
 in such a case they represent (he whole body of the mem- 
 bers, not as forming a collective whole and constituting a 
 legal individuality, but merely as a number of persons hav- 
 ing common interests. 
 
 A'^ain, it is a fundamental peculiarity of a partnership 
 that each one of the partners is responsible individually 
 for the full amount of the indebtedness incurred by the 
 firm in the course of its legitimate business. This is also 
 true of a joint-stock company, however great may be the 
 number of its members. Even though it be stipulated in 
 the articles of association that the members shall only be 
 subject to a limited liability, a creditor who enters into 
 dealings with the company without knowledge of the stipu- 
 lation may enforce the payment of his entire claim against 
 any one of the associates, leaving him to reimburse him- 
 self by contribution from the others. It is, however, com- 
 petent for any one transacting business with the company, 
 as with a firm, to contract not to hold the partners to an 
 unlimited extent of liability, and he will then be bound by 
 the terms of his contract. 
 
 But a joint-stock company differs from an ordinary part- 
 nership in several important respects. It is usually com- 
 posed of a much larger number of members, though this is 
 not an essential diversity, since there is no necessary limit 
 in either form of association as to the number of indi- 
 viduals who may combine. A company also, as a general 
 rule, receives some specific name by which it is known, and 
 is not, like a partnership, designated merely by the names 
 
 of the members. This is, however, only a nominal and not 
 a substantial difference, since a company cannot sue nor 
 be sued nor be designated in legal proceedings involving 
 its interests by the name which it has assumed, but must in 
 such instances btr regarded as simply a partnership, in ref- 
 erence to which proceedings must l)e instituted in the names 
 of all the partners. The important principle in relation to 
 partnerships, that each partner is the agent of the firm as 
 regards transactions with third persons, and can bind the 
 firm by any contracts into which he enters appertaining to 
 the partnership business, does not prevail to the same 
 extent in respect to companies. If each shareholder in 
 such large associations, into which new members arc in- 
 troduced not by the consent of tho others, but by pur- 
 chasing or otherwise acquiring shares, were allowed to 
 bind the company by any contracts into which he might 
 enter within tho scope of the company's business, tho 
 continued existence of such societies would be hardly prac- 
 ticable. Men would hesitate to contribute capital to- 
 wards the support of such organizations when it might 
 be squandered at the pleasure of any shareholder. It is 
 therefore the almost invariable practice to commit the 
 management and direction of tho company's business to a 
 board of directors or agents chosen by the votes of the 
 stockholders, and every person who has dealings with the 
 company is presumed to know that the managers appointed 
 alone have power to make binding contracts. A claim 
 against the company on the ground of dealings with an 
 unauthorized member will not be enforceable. It is like 
 the case of a partnership in which a stipulation between 
 the partners limiting each one's capacity to bind the firm 
 has been made known to a person, who transacts business 
 with anyone of them upon that understanding. Moreover, 
 in the modes of conducting business and managing the 
 affairs of the association there is an important difference 
 between a partnership and a company. Tho stockholders, as 
 has just been seen, are excluded from the ordinary man- 
 agement of business, but they control the election of direc- 
 tors, and generally regulate and define to a considerable 
 extent the powers which these agents are permitted to ex- 
 ercise by the adoption of by-laws or the passage of resolu- 
 tions. In the same way they may appoint the times at 
 which meetings shall be held, determine the manner in 
 which they shall be conducted, provide for the investment 
 of the profits of the business or the declaration of dividends, 
 and adopt various regulations of the same general nature 
 for conducting the affairs of the company, provided these 
 aro not repugnant to general principles of law. Each mem- 
 ber is entitled to as many votes as he has shares. 
 
 The general nature of the association and the object of 
 its formation, together with many provisions for its man- 
 agement, are, however, usually stated in the articles of 
 association which are agreed upon at the time the com- 
 pany is organized. These correspond with the articles of 
 copartnership into which partners enter, and contain stip- 
 ulations of a similar character. A covenant of this kind 
 is commonly known in England as a " deed of settlement." 
 The articles usually define the amount of the capital stock, 
 and the number of shares into which it Is to be divided, 
 state the number of directors or trustees who are to be ap- 
 pointed, regulate to a greater or less degree the assignment 
 and disposal of tho shares, provide for assessments upon 
 the shareholders, declare sometimes the way in which they 
 shall bo sued by the directors upon their respective obli- 
 gations to the company, and provide in a comprehensive 
 way for the general direction and control of tho interests 
 of tho association. Such an instrument is not required to 
 bo in any general form, and may contain any stipulations 
 upon wliieh the parties may agree, jirovided these are not 
 in contravention of established legal rules determining the 
 capacity and liabilities of the shareholders, or do not pro- 
 vide for the, prosecution of an unlawful enterprise. But 
 the chief diversity between a partnership and a joint-stock 
 company, and the one upon which the others mainly de- 
 pend, lies in the fact that the capital stock of a company is 
 divicled into transferable shares. As a result of this, the 
 doctrine oi (irlcrtiifi persona rum (Lat., *' choice of persons"), 
 which prevails in regard to all partnerships, has no appli- 
 cation to a stock company. No partner and no number of 
 partners can introduce a new member into the firm without 
 the consent of the others. If one partner sells out his in- 
 terest, the purchaser does not become a member of the firm, 
 but the partnership is immediately dissolved. But in a com- 
 pany the purchase of shares makes a person a member ir- 
 respective of the consent of the previous shareholders, and 
 tho membership may be constantly changing without de- 
 stroying the existence of the company or interrupting the 
 exercise of its usual functions. Therefore, while a partner- 
 ship usually consists of a small number of persons familiarly 
 known to one another, and associated in business relations 
 on account of mutual trust and confidence, and taking scv-
 
 JOINT TENANCY. 
 
 1439 
 
 crallj an active part in tho manageinent of the afTairs of 
 the linn, a company i^ generally composed of a large num- 
 ber of individuiil?. who arc. a-* a rule, little known to each 
 other or entirely unknown, and whose business connection 
 depends upon tho circumstance that they have become 
 without ai^roenient owners of 9tock in the i^iiino afsociatiou. 
 In an ordinary partnership tho death, lunacy, or bank- 
 ruptcy of one nf the partners, or an assii^nment or transfer 
 of his interest to anotlicr. effects a dif-solution of tho firm. 
 If the rrmainin*; partners continue their busiucss connec- 
 tion, it id only by forniing a new partnership, liut in a 
 stock company these are not causes of dissolution. The 
 per.'ion to whom tho ownership of the shares passes be- 
 comes thereby a member of the company, whose existence 
 is continued as l«<ng as the stock is held by shareholders, 
 unless it be terminated by a decree of tho proper court for 
 the usurpation of illegal powers or other like reasons, or by 
 the mutual agreement of the members. A joint-stock com- 
 pany therefore possesses the attribute of perpetual succes- 
 sion by reason of the transferable nature of its shares, and 
 in thi-f respect resembles a corporation. The other features 
 of similarity to a corporation which it possesses are those 
 already mentioned — the use of a common name other than 
 the names of the members, the app()intment of directors or 
 m:inngers to whom tho business affairs of the company are 
 entrusted, the power to adopt by-laws and resolutions, the 
 right to vote upon stock, and a large membership. A com- 
 pany therefore possesses sonic of the attributes of an ordi- 
 nary partnersliip and some of those pertaining to corpora- 
 tions. It is sonielimes not inappropriately termed a (pittsi 
 corporation. (Sec Coni'oitATioN.) 
 
 Before the year 17011 the formation of joint-stock com- 
 panies was hardly known in England, liut within a few 
 yc:\rn subscijuenl to 1711, when the .South Sea Company 
 wns formed, iind liirgely as a result of its speculative enter- 
 prises, a feverish spirit of sjieeulation and adventure was 
 widely prevalent throughout the kingdom, and gave rise to 
 large numbers of private commercial companies for the pro- 
 secution of various visionary undertakings. .Some of tlieso 
 companies were founded upon obsolete charters, while tho 
 larger number were organized without any pretensions of 
 such a nature. These were commonly denominated " bub- 
 bles," and were deemed so detrimental to the public wel- 
 fare that in 1720 an act of Parliament (known as tho 
 "Bubble Act") was passed for their repression. This de- 
 clared such companies illegal and voi<l, and to be public 
 nuisances, principally on the following grounds: the acting 
 or presuming to act as a corporate body; tho raising or 
 pretending to raise transferable stock : tho transferring or 
 protending to transfer or assign the shares in such stock 
 without legal authority. This act was not repealed until 
 lS2fi, so that for more than a hundred years such com- 
 panies were illegal in England. J^ince the time of this re- 
 peal the tendency of English legislation has been to favor 
 such associations, and to render them more efficient and 
 beneficial by remedying the defects in their organization 
 at common law. The chief legal disadvantages under 
 which those companies labored were the necessity that in 
 actions at law all tho members should be joined "as plain- 
 tiffs or defendants, and tho responsibility of each member 
 for the entire indebtctlness of the association. Tho earliest 
 modification of common-law rules was by the enactment of 
 statutes empowering companies of a specified character to 
 (luc an<l be sued by a public officer. Subsequently, tho 
 forma*ion of companies was authorized in which the share- 
 holders sliould only be hebl to a limited liability, and fmiil- 
 ly many pfirticular kinds of conip:inies were actually incor- 
 porated, though not receiving full corporate powers. The 
 Kngli-h statutes which now govern this subject arc the 
 Companies' act, passed in 1Mfi2 (2.') and 20 Vict., cb. 89), 
 with the amend;itory acts, 30 ;ind :U Vi<t., ch. 29 (ISC7), 
 and ;i:i and .'U Vict., eb. Il)4 (IS70). The provisions of 
 these acts are applicable to the formation and incorporation 
 nf all joint-slock companies, require their registration in 
 proper offices, and permit the shareholders to agree tluit 
 their liability shall tie limited either to the amount unpaid 
 on their shares or tr) such amount as they may respectively 
 undertake to contribute to the assets of the company in the 
 event of it.^ being wound up. Any seven or more persons 
 associated for any lawful purpose may form such a com- 
 pany, and arc required to subseribe a memorandum of as- 
 sociation stating the name of the company, (he amount of 
 capital, the object of tho association, tho place of business, 
 and the limit of liability, if any is agreed upon. If there 
 is no declaration that the liability shall bo limited, the 
 com(tany is calleil an unlimited one, and each shareholder 
 is responsible for the entire debt of the company, as at 
 common law. There are also provisions in the act relating 
 to the management and administration of companies, their 
 inspection by boards of examiners, and Ilic method of 
 winding them up. The effect of this legislation has not 
 
 been, however, to confer upon companies the entire powers 
 which corporations regularly possess, since there i& still 
 retained the principle of ibe individual liability of the 
 members* even though this may be limited in extent. In 
 a true corporation legal responsibility does not attach to 
 the individual corporators as separate persons, but only 
 appertains tu the tictitious person or body corporate which 
 they have united to form. 
 
 In some of the V. S. joint-stock companies have at cer- 
 tain periods been formed in accordance with common-law 
 rules, but generally at the present day their organization 
 is governed by statutory provisions. Thus, in New York 
 it is enacted that such associations may provide by their 
 articles of association that the death of any stockholder or 
 the assignment of his stock shall not work a dissolution 
 of the association, and may commit to any three or more 
 of the shareholders the solo management of the business; 
 such companies are not to be dissolved except by judgment 
 of a court for fraud or other good cause. They may pur- 
 chase, hold, and convey real estate for certain specified 
 purposes. If the association consists of seven or more 
 shareholders, it may sue or be sued in the name of the 
 president or treasurer for the time being. If judgment be 
 recovered against the conipnny upon a suit thus instituted, 
 and execution thereon shull be returned unsatisfied, suits 
 may bo brouglit against any or all of the shareholders in- 
 dividually, as at e4>mmon law. It has been decided that 
 one of tho shareholders may, in certain instances, bring an 
 action against the president as representing the company. 
 But such companies arc not incorporated, and possess only 
 tho corporate powers specially conferred. They are still 
 to bo considered a species of partnership. In a number 
 of tho States there are no such associations as joint-stock 
 companies distinct from corporations. Provision has been 
 made by statute for the formation of associations of a simi- 
 lar character by modifying the general principles relating to 
 corporations in regard to the personal liability of the tncm- 
 bers. The practice has been, not as in England to assimi- 
 late partnerslii])s to corporations, and to designate the new 
 form of association as a joint-stock company, but to assimi- 
 late corporations to partnerships by making the associates 
 personally responsible to a greater or less degree for tho 
 common indebtedness, while the associations formed in 
 accordance with such statutory regulations have been still 
 designated as corporations. It is evident, however, that 
 they arc in important respects distinguishable from regular 
 an»l true corporations, anil bear a close resemblance to joint- 
 stock companies. (See Wordsworth on Joini-Sfock Com- 
 paniegy and tho works of Lindlcy, Collyer, Parsons, and 
 Story on Partnership.) 
 
 (Jr.oitGK CiiAPE. Revised dy T. W. Dwigiit. 
 
 Joint Teii'aiicy, the tenure or ownership of an estate 
 in rciil projx-rty l>y two or more persons, with the incidents 
 of unity of interest, unity of time, unity of title, and unity 
 of possession, (See these unities explained in the article 
 Joint Owneushii'.) Tho estate held by joint tenants may 
 bo eitlier a fee simple, an estate for life, for years, or at 
 will, but each must havo the same quantity of interest. 
 Ono cannot bo tenant for life and the other tenant for 
 years. This rule, however, does not prevent a remainder 
 from being limited to one joint tenant to be vested in pos- 
 session at the expiration ot his joint interest, as where an 
 estate is granted to two persons to be held by them jointly 
 for life, with remaimler to one of them in fee. To tho rulo 
 requiring unity of time there are important exceptions. 
 Thus, it does not apply to estates given to a person's use 
 in accordance with ihf doctrine of uses (see l^'^^:s), nor to 
 provisions in a will known as executory devises. An es- 
 tate granteil to the use of a man and such wife as he shall 
 afterwards marry, for the term of Ihcir lives, has been held 
 to be a joint estate. The estate of the wife is in abeyaneo 
 until (lie marriage, and (hen it rrlates back, and is deemed 
 to take cfTect from the original time of creation. In con- 
 sequence of tho unity of interest and of possession, joint 
 tenants are said lo be seized pri- mif ct prr tout — "by the 
 half au'l by the whole;" t\ r. each of them is regarded as 
 having tho possession as well of every parcel us of the en- 
 tiro e.state. By this, however, it is not to be understood 
 that oat^h joint tenant owns tho wliolc estate for every pur- 
 pose, lie is the owner of tho whole for purposes of tenure 
 and survivorship, but has only liis own particular share for 
 the purpose of alienation or partition. This share to wbiih 
 each co-(enant is speeifically entitled separately from his 
 co-tenants is an equal undivided portion of the entire es- 
 tate. If, therefore, there are two joint tenants, each may 
 convey an undivided half— if three, an undivided third. 
 From the doctrine of union and entirety of interest and 
 possession, tlie principle of survivorship, which is a dis- 
 tinguishing characteristic of joint tenancy, is a natural 
 consequence. As one of two joint tenants has a concur- 
 rent intcrcat in the whole estate, the extinguishment of tho
 
 1440 
 
 JOINTURE. 
 
 co-existing claim of the other tenant by the death of the 
 latter must necessarily result in leaving the survivor in 
 undisputed ownership of the entire premises as proprietor 
 in severalty, merely by the continuance of his original in- 
 terest. So, if there are more than two co-tenants, upon 
 the death of each in succession the estate will pass to those 
 who remain until it vests in the hist survivor of all. I'pon 
 his ihatli the estate would pass, like any estate held in sev- 
 eralty, to his heirs or personal representatives. It is an 
 important result of this theory of survivorship that a joint 
 tenant cannot devise his interest in the h»nd, for the devise 
 does not take effect until after the death of the devisor, 
 while the interest of the surviving tenant is hut a coclin- 
 uation of his previous ownership, and suffers no interrup- 
 tion by reason of the death of his co-tetiant. The estate 
 passes to 'the survivor exempt from all charges made by 
 tlie deceased co-tenant, and is not subject to any claim of I 
 courtesy or dower. An estate in joint tenancy can only be 
 created by purchase or the act of the parties, and not by 
 descent or the operation of law. Thildren of a deceased 
 person who inherit the land of which he was seized in fee 
 are tenants in common, and not joint tenants. (See Ten- 
 ancy IN Common.) The mode of creation of an estate in 
 joint tenancy at common law is either by the use of ex- 
 press words in the instrument of conveyance, declaring 
 that the grantees or devisees are to hold by a joint title, or 
 simply by naming two or more persons as those to whom 
 the property is to be transferred. In the latter case it was 
 a presumption of law that the parties intended to create a 
 joint tenancy: and this construction was also ])refcrred 
 because this mode of tenure was favored on account of the 
 right of survivorship. This was a result of the feudal doc- 
 trine that the services due to the lord should be kept en- 
 tire. But in this country it has been the policy of the law 
 to convert estates which in England would by construction 
 of law be deemed joint tenancies, into tenancies in com- 
 mon. In New York estates granted or devised to two or 
 more persons were as early as 17Sfi declared to be tenan- 
 cies in common, except when limited to joint trustees or 
 joint executors, unless the estate was expressly declared, 
 in the deed or will creating it, to be in joint tenancy. 
 Similar legislation exists in a large number of the States. 
 In some States the mode resorted to has been to abolish 
 the right of survivorship. In courts of equity also joint 
 tenancies are not favored except when granted to co-trus- 
 tees, and a limitation to two or more will sometimes be held 
 to create a tenancy in common. Thus, when two persons 
 purchase an estate, advancing the purchase-money in «ji- 
 equnl portions, equity regards them as tenants in common. 
 Such is not the case, however, when the money is advanced 
 in eqiinf portions. From the principle of identity of title 
 and interest in joint tenants, it results that they all consti- 
 tute a single owner as to third persons, and that all must 
 be united as parties in suits by or against them in respect 
 to their joint estate. If one tenant purchases in an out- 
 standing adverse claim to the projierty, it enures to the 
 benefit of his co-tenants if they will eontributo towards 
 discharging the expense incurred. For tliis and other pur- 
 poses each is deemed to be a trustee for the other. Pos- 
 session of the premises by one tenant is deemed the pos- 
 session of all, and no action can be brought against him by 
 the others merely on tlie ground of such exclusive posses- 
 sion. One tenant, however, may by express and \inequiv- 
 ocal acts hold adversely to the other, so as to gain a title in 
 severalty by force of the statute of limitations. (See I^imi- 
 tations, Statite of.) Flntry by one joint tenant upon 
 land is deemed the entry of all, and a conveyance to one is 
 a conveyance to all. If one receive the rents and profits 
 of the estate, he may be compelled to account to the others, 
 and pay to them their proportionate shares. One tenant is 
 responsible to the others for the c(nnmission of waste upon 
 the estate. If he will not join with them in making neces- 
 sary repairs to the premises, after having been duly re- 
 quested to contribute, an action may be maintained against 
 him. At common law the remedy in this case was by a spe- 
 cial writ, <fe repnratlone /ariiiuin. AH persons may be 
 made joint tenants who arc qualified severally to receive a 
 grant of lamls. As husband and wife, however, are con- 
 sidered in law as a single person, an estate limited to them 
 is not a joint estate, but an "estate by the entirety," hav- 
 ing peculiar and special characteristics. Two corporations 
 cannot be joint tenants with each other, nor can an in- 
 dividual be a joint tenant with n corporation. A joint 
 estate may be terminated or dissevered by a transfer of the 
 property to one tenant by the application of the doctrine 
 of survivorship or hy release, by n, destruction of any one 
 of the various unities (except that of time) which are in- 
 cident to such a tenure, or by ]iariition. If one of two co- 
 tenants conveys his undivided share to a third person, the 
 grantee will become a tenant in common with the other 
 co-tenant. If there bo more than two co-tenants, the pur- 
 
 chaser would be tenant in common as to the share which 
 ho had acquired, while the remaining tenants would still 
 hold the remaining shares in joint tenancy as between 
 themselves. In transferring his interest to a third person 
 a joint tenant must use an ordinary conveyance, but when 
 the transfer is to a co-tenant a release is proper, since the 
 grantee is already seized of the estate as a wliole. (For the 
 rules of pjirtition see the topic Pautition. See also Es- 
 tates.) (The following works may be consulted: Wash- 
 burn on /ftal Prnpfrty; Kent's Commcntaneg; Cruise's /)»- 
 ffest; Hilliard on Jlenl ICifatr.) 
 
 George Chase. REVisEn nv T. W. Dwiciit. 
 Joint'ure, an estate or property settled upon a wife in 
 lieu or satisfaction of dower, to be enjoyefl after her hus- 
 band's death. The origin of the modern English doctrine 
 of jointure is referable to a statute, known as the Statute 
 of t^ses, enacted in the reign of Henry VIII. (27 Hen. VIII. 
 eh. 10). Before this period there was no method by which 
 a wife's right of dower could be harred, except by a con- 
 veyance of the husband's lands in which dower might be 
 claimed to some third jtcrson, to be lield for the husband's 
 use. The husband in such a case would retain merely a 
 beneficial interest in the property, and this was a species 
 of equitable estate, in which, by the law of uses, neither 
 courtesy nor dower could be given. (See Uses. Doweh.) It 
 had therefore become a common practiee for hushands wlio 
 wished to remove the incumbrance of a claim of dower 
 from their estates, to convey their lands to be held to their 
 own use; and the result had been that most of the lands 
 in the kingdom were held under this form <»f equitable 
 ownership. In order, however, that a wife might not be 
 left entirely without provision for her support after her 
 husband's death, it became customary to settle lands before 
 marriage to the u=e of the husband and his intended wife 
 for the term of their lives in joint tenancy. If the wife 
 outlived the husband, the entire estate would be vested in 
 her for life by the right of survivorship. (See Joint Ten- 
 ancy.) Such an estate was termed a **jointnre," on ac- 
 count of the joint nature of the interest created. The 
 statute of uses had the effect to render wives dowablo in 
 lands conveyed to uses by uniting the legal and the bene- 
 ficial ownership in the same person : but in order that some 
 method of barring dower might still exist, and that wives 
 upon whom jointures had already been settled might not 
 receive both dower and jointure, it furthermore provided 
 that if estates had been or should be conveyed hy way of 
 jointure, the right to demand dower should, under certain 
 conditions, he extinguished. In pursuance of these pro- 
 visions, settlements in jointure were frequent in English 
 j>ractiee until the enactment of the so-called Dower act in 
 1S;;.(, which introduced other methocls of barring dower, 
 which are now more commonly resorted to. The condi- 
 tions or requisites which must be observed untler the statute 
 of uses in order that the settlement in lieu of dower may 
 be valid arc the fcdlowing : (1) The estate must vest in 
 possession immediately after the death of the huphnn<l ; (2) 
 it must be for the life of the wife at least, though it may 
 bo a greater estate, as an estate in fee; (3) it must be given 
 to the wife herself, and not to another in trust for her; (4) 
 it must be given and expressed in the deed to he in full sat- 
 isfaction of her dower. It is not necessary that the estate 
 should be limited to both hushand and wife, in conformity 
 to the mode of convevance adopted heforc the statute, but 
 it may be given to the wife alone. The settlement may bo 
 made not only by the husband, but by the wife's parents, 
 relatives, or friends, or any third person. The provision 
 must always be an estate in lands in order to be a valid 
 legal jointure, and not a chattel interest or a pecuniary 
 gift. If the settlement be made before marriage, the con- 
 sent of the wife to accept it in lieu of dower need not be 
 obtained, and whether the estate be of great or little value, 
 the right to demand dower will be extinguished. Even 
 though the wife be a minor, a jointure settled upon her 
 before marriage will be an absolute bar to dower, though 
 neither her assent be given nor that of parents or guardian. 
 It was said by Lord Coke that "the jointure must be a 
 competent livelihood of freehold for the wife," but the law 
 provi<ies no test of competency, nor will the jointure be 
 invalid even though it be insufiieient for the wife's support. 
 If the jointure be settled upon (he wife after marriage, she 
 has a right of election after the husband's death between 
 this provision and her (hnver, and may accept either as she 
 may prefer. But after having oneeniade her election and 
 ])roperlv signified her choice, she cannot again exercise the 
 privilege, but is obliged to retain the estate which she has 
 determined to accept. Iler acceptance of the jointure might 
 he indicated by entry upon the lands given by the settle- 
 ment and receipt of "the rents. Her refusal of it would be 
 .'^hown hy accepting; the lands assigned in dower, or by 
 bringing an action to have them assigned. If, however, 
 after an acceptance of the jointure, the widow is evicted
 
 JOINVILLE. 
 
 1441 
 
 from the whole or nny portion of the property, she will be 
 rcinitteil to liur ri;;hl of dower pro tatito — i*. e, to an extent 
 equivalent to (tic lo5s she has i^ustaincil. No act answering 
 to assi^uaicnt in the ca.«c of dower (sec Dowkr) is neces- 
 sary in order to plaoe the widow in possession of the joint- 
 ure-land;! after the death of her hu^hnnd. but she may enter 
 upon them immediately. I'nder the Kn;;litih law. aclultery 
 causes no forfeiture of jointure, though it is a bar to 
 dower. 
 
 In courts of law there is a strict adherence to the pro- 
 visions of the statute of uses, and gcttlcmcnt? not made 
 in accordance with its requirements will not be valid in 
 cxtinsuif'hment of dower. But courts of equity exercise 
 an independent jurisdiction not derivcil from the statute, 
 and apply difTi-rent rules in regard to Iht- nature of the 
 provision which may be made and (be manner in which it 
 may be conferred upon the wife. A distinction is there- 
 fore made l^ctween legal jointure and equitable jointure. 
 The doctrines of equitable jointure arc only applicable 
 when the ftirm? of legal jointure have not been complied 
 with, and a court of equity is striving to effectuate the in- 
 tent of the parties. In equity it is not necessary that an 
 estate or provision in jointure should be actually ercated 
 or conferred upon the wife, but an executory agreement to 
 make such a setrlement or provision will be sufficient, an<l 
 will he earrictl into cfTeet according to i's terms. It is not 
 requisite, mnrcover, that the provision should be a freehold 
 estate in lands. Any inferior estate, as an estate for years 
 or at will, will bo sufficient, or even an interest in personal 
 properly or a pecuniary provision. The provision need 
 not be conferred directly upon the wife, but may bo given 
 to another in trust f<»r her hcnefit. It is not pos:«ible, more- 
 over, in e(|uity to make a prinision fur the wife which shall 
 deprive her of her right of dower without her own consent. 
 If i*he assents to a provision made before marriage, this 
 will bar h-*r dower, but if she docs not assent, she will have 
 a right of election between the ]>rovision and dower, unless 
 the requisites necessary to constitute u legal jointure have 
 been complied with. If the settlement is made after mar- 
 riage, sho will always have a right of election. If the wife 
 be an infant, the rule in equity is that the consent of pa- 
 rents or guardian must be obtained. But in einiity, as at 
 law, the intcntinn (hat the provision shall be in lieu of 
 dower must be clearly expressed in making the settlement, 
 or it must appear manifestly inconsistent with the inten- 
 tion of the grantor (bat \h^ wife should have both jointure 
 and d'twer. If the value of the jirovision be wholly or par- 
 tially destroyed, the right of dower will revive so far as is 
 necessary to aflurd compensation for the loss sho has sus- 
 tained. 
 
 In this country the English law in regard to jointures is 
 substantially in furco in most of the Slates, though it has 
 been to a considerable extent modified by statute. The 
 tendency of legislation has been to ansimiiato the rules in 
 relation lo legal jointure to those prevailing in equity. In 
 some of the States the distinction between legal and equi- 
 table jrflnturc has been entirely abolished, and the entire 
 8ulij;'ct is regulated hy express statutory provisions. Thus, 
 in Now Vork it is provided that cither an estate in lands 
 or a pecuniary provision may bo given in lieu of dower, 
 and that if the jointure be created before marriage it must 
 be cousi'nted (o by the intended wile in order trt be a bar 
 of dower. Ilor cinsent may be evidenced, if she be of full 
 age. by her becoming a jiarty to the conveyance by which 
 the jointure shall be settled— if she is a minor, by her join- 
 ing with her father or guardian in such conveyance. If 
 (he settlement bo made after marriage, she will have her 
 choice between j(»inture and dower. The election is to be 
 made within one year after the husband's death, or sho 
 will be deemed to have accepted the jointure. Jointure 
 may, it is also provided, bo barred by the same causes as 
 dower. 
 
 Another mode by which a wife's right of dower is some- 
 times barred is by a tes(amen(nry provision in the bus- 
 band's will, whicli is either expressed to be in Hatisfac- 
 (ion or lieu of (lower, or which cannot, consistently with 
 the other provisions of the will, bo recrivcd by (he wife in 
 addition to her dower. A provision of this kind is not 
 properly a jointure, but is governed hy substimtially the 
 sanu- principles. The effect of such provisions is usually 
 regnliited by sfatute. The general rule is that the inten- 
 tion (o bar the right of dower must be rlejirly ascertainable 
 front the terms of (he will, or the widow shall receive bolh 
 the devise or hequest and her dower. Anil even when smdi 
 intention is apparent, (be proviriion does not bur her right 
 of dower absdiutely without her consent, but she hufi nn 
 election between her dower and (he provision. When it is 
 expressly declared in the will that (he provision shall be 
 '* in lieu of dower." an election will un<|Uestionaldy have 
 to bo made. Tnless some positive expression of the same 
 purport be used, the inquiry will be coocKsary whether tho 
 V„r. U— •»! 
 
 receipt of both dower and ^he testamentary provision would 
 be inconsistent with a reasonable construction of the entire 
 will, or prevent its appropriate and complete legal eff"ect 
 and operation. If there be such on inconsistency, an elec- 
 tion between dower and the provision will in this case also 
 be requisite. But the law favors (lower, and it will not be 
 readily inferred that a devise is intended to be in lieu of 
 dower if no express declaration to that effect irf contained 
 in the will. It has been held that if a provision for tho 
 wife is embodied in the will, and a clause is also inserted 
 that tho residue of the estate shall pass to a residuary dc- 
 viscoor legatee, the right of dower will not be extinguished, 
 for the phrase " residue of the estate " means the remainder 
 of tho estate subject to all legal claims or incumbrances, 
 among which the right of dower would be inclutlcd. If, 
 however, it bo declared that tho property shall be vested 
 in trustees to receive the rents and ])rofits and pay a cer- 
 tain portion over to the wife, she will not be entitled to re- 
 ceive the bequest without relinquishing her dower. Iler 
 possession of a life estate by her right of dower would be 
 inconsistent with the control and management of the entire 
 property by the trustees. Any kind of property may be 
 given to tho wife by will in lieu of dower. In many of the 
 States it is provided that the wife shall signify her election 
 between a devise and her dower within a certain time. If 
 dower be not claimed within that period, it will be pre- 
 sumed that she has chosen the provision in the will. Tho 
 statutes of the several States must be specially consulted 
 on this subject. (See Washburn on Heal Pmpcrtt/ ,- Cruise's 
 Digest.) Geohge Chase. Revised by T. W. Dwicfit. 
 
 Joinville'9 town of France, in tho department of Ilaute- 
 
 Murne. In its vicinity the ancient castle of the dukes 
 of Guise was situated. The title of prince of .loinville is 
 derived from a baronial fief, erected into a principality by 
 Henri II., of which .loinville was the capital. The title 
 is now hcM by the third son of tho late king. Louis Phi- 
 lippe. Pop. about 4000. ArctST Niemann. 
 
 Joinville (FnANrois pERDiNAsn Phimppe Loiis Ma- 
 tie d'Ouleans), Puixce oe, the third son of Louis Phi- 
 lippe, tho last king of the French, b. at Xcuilly Oct. 1 t, 
 ISIS. At the age of thirteen he commenced his naval ca- 
 reer as pupil on board the frigate .'Xrleuiise : was appointed 
 a lieutenant in 18:;G.and in is:iH comman<U'd the corvette 
 La Crf'olc of the fleet of Admiral Baudin before Vera Cruz. 
 In the attack upon Fort San .Tuan dTIoa and the city of 
 Vera Cruz ho distinguished himself in a shore-expedition 
 against the city, in which in a hand-to-hand combat ho 
 captured the Mexiean general Arista, for which he was 
 made chevalier of the Legion of Honor and mpitaiur ffe 
 vaisHran. In 1S40 he. in command of the frigate La Belle 
 Poule, was charged with conveying the remains of Napo- 
 leon from St. Helena to France. Tn tiie same frigate he 
 visited America, and was warmly received in Philadelphia 
 and Boston. In 184:1 he married the princess Franeesca di 
 Braganza, daughter of Pedro I. and sister of the present 
 emperor of lirazil. Made at the same epoch (ISIH) co?i- 
 tre-timirnl (rear-admiral), he in ISM commanded t!ie fleet 
 whicli bombarded Tangiers and seized Mogador, displaying 
 on the hitter occasion conspicuous personal gallantry. The 
 rcvfdution of 1818 found tho prince still commanding tho 
 fleet ufT Algiers, near his brother, the due d'Auinale. gov- 
 ernor of the Afririin possessions and commander of the 
 military forces in Africa, numbering SO.OtlO men. Yielding 
 to what purported to be the jiopular will, the two brothers 
 nlinquishi'd their commands (which mi;/fit, perhaps, had 
 the word been said, have escorteil them to Purist, and in 
 company embarked for Gibraltar. For tho next thirteen 
 years tho ]>rince, banished from France, was an incessant 
 traveller, filling the intervals of time with the occupations 
 of an author or artist. On the breaking out of the Ameri- 
 can civil war in IHfil, he embarked for New York, bringing 
 with him his son. the due do Penthievre (who entered ns a 
 ea<lot tho U. S. Naval School, then at Newport), nnd ne- 
 eompanied by his nephews, the comte de I^iris and the duo 
 do Chartres. The latter received military commissions 
 from the government, and were nieiiibers of the personal 
 staff (A. I>. C.I of tien. McClellan during the latter j»art of 
 the year, and during what is known ns tho Virginia Pen- 
 insular campaign o«ainst Iliehmond (Apr.. May, .Tune, 
 lsr»2*, showing (Ml various occasions, nnd especially at the 
 battle of (laines's Mill, great efficiency nnd personal gal- 
 lantry. The prince himself accompanied (he head-quar- 
 ters of Gen. McClellan, who appreeiateil nnd gladly availed 
 himself of his military experience, sound judgment, and 
 statesnmnlike qualities. Immediately on his return to 
 Franco he communicated to the lirvur tfr I)i\i.r-M>fuiU», 
 under the uum-th -plnmr of " A. Trognon," an able sketch 
 of (he events of the campaign under the litle of I.'Artn/r tin 
 Potoinnr, etc. Suitsequeotly he collected and published in 
 Iwo volumes, outilled £inde» tur la marine et rictU tU
 
 1442 
 
 JOINVILLE, DE— JONAS. 
 
 ffuerre, his various contributions to that periodical, amon» 
 
 which may be uicntionctl the one just referred to and Ln 
 marine en Frrtnce ef atix Efuta Cni» en 2i^(t5. With otlier 
 inemhrrs of his family ho made ur;xent hut vain appe:\l3 
 to the French govtrument to be permitted to serve France 
 in the war with Germany which broke out in 1870. When 
 the French armies had been almost annibilated, and disas- 
 ter overwhelmed their native land, the ])riiice and his 
 nephew, the due de Chartre^, disuppeared from the family 
 reunion at Claremont to find their way to serve their coun- 
 try. Repelled by the f^ovcrnmcnt, whieh regarded his 
 presence as dangerous, and dcnieit permission to serve even 
 under a i>orrowod name, he was finally compelled to return 
 to Kngland, where he remained until the edict of banish- 
 ment resting upon his family was abrogated by decree of 
 the French assembly (IsTI !. By hi^ marriage with the 
 princess of Brazil the prince de.Toinville has two children — 
 Pierre Philippe Jean Mario d'Orb'ans, due de Penthi&vre 
 (b. Nov. 4. lHl.'>).and a daughter. Fran^oise Mario Am61ie 
 {b. Aug. 14, 1844), who married (June II. 1863) her cousin, 
 the due de Chartres. J. G. Barnard. 
 
 Joinville, de (Jean\ Pire. b. at the chsLteau of Join- 
 ville in Champagne about 1224; was at an early age at- 
 tached as seneschal to the court of the count of Champagne, 
 and afterwards to that of the king of Navarre. In 1248 
 ho took part with St. Louis, king of France, in his first 
 crusade, having in his train 700 men-at-arms; was a com- 
 panion of tlie king in his battles and his captivity, becom- 
 ing his intimate friend and counsellor. Returning to 
 France in 12.')4. he was for many years employed at court, 
 but declined to take part in the second crusade (1270), 
 which was directed against Tunis, and proved fatal to that 
 monarch. Joinville was one of the principal witnesses in 
 behalf of the sanctity of Louis in the inquest (Aug., 12S2) 
 preliminary to his canonization, and his closing years were 
 employed, at the request of Queen Jeanne of Navarre 
 (1309), in writing his celebrated Mcmoires, whieh have ever 
 since been a favorite French classic. He lived to a great 
 age, and d. probably in 1318. The best edition of his 
 Meinnircs is that of Natalis de Wailly (Paris, 1S73). 
 
 Jokjoker'ta, the name of a former kingdom of Java, 
 now a Dutch presidencv. Its capital, Jokjokorta or Mata- 
 rara, situated in hit. 7^ 47' S., Ion. 10° 21' E., has 50,000 
 inhabitants, many European settlers and European insti- 
 tutions, and a most curious palace of tha sultan. It is 
 built on a terraecii island with entrances under the water, 
 and the heavy gilding of its lowers and windows shows 
 that it was once a gorgeous building, though it now is fall- 
 ing rapidly into decay. 
 
 Joliba. See Niger. 
 
 Jo'lict^ city, cap. of Will co., Til., on the Aux des Plaines 
 River, and the Illinois and Michigan Canal, ;i6 miles S. W. 
 of Chicago, on tho Chicago Rock Island and Pacific and 
 the Chicago and Alton R. Rs.. at the terminus of the Michi- 
 gan Central II. R. It is also on tlie Chicago and Illinois 
 River R. R. The town i? built mainly in the river-valley, 
 but partly on bluffs on either side. Very fine calcareous 
 building-stone underlies the whole city and vicinity, and 
 is extensively quarried. Cement, gravel, and fireclay are 
 largely obtained, the latter being found in a great mound. 
 Firebrick and ilrain-tile are madr from it. Near the city 
 is the State penitentiary, built of stone. Its wall, averaging 
 ;i5 feet in height, encloses 16| acres. The usual number 
 of convicts is some 1;I00, employed in making, on contract, 
 boots, shoes, stone-work, cooperage, butts, hinges, harnesses, 
 cigars, etc. It has been pronounced the largest and best 
 conducted institution of the kind in the country. Joliet 
 has a manufactory of iron and steel, built at on estimated 
 cost of $:i,000.00n : it employs from 2000 to 2500 men. and 
 turns out steel, steel and iron rails, machinery, castings, 
 and the varied products of the blast furnace, converter, 
 puddling-mill, machine-shop, and foundry. Joliet has 12 
 churches, 2 national au<l 2 private banks, a public library. 
 2 convents. 1 semi-weekly and 4 weekly newspapers, a paid 
 fire department, Ifi artesian welJs, ami varied minor indus- 
 tries. Its water-power and the proximity of the Wilming- 
 ton coal-fields give it great advantages as a manufacturing 
 centre. Pop. 720.1: of tp. 2940, greatly increased since 
 the census. James GivomPEKD, En. " Rr;pi bi.ican." 
 
 Joliet (CnARr,Ks),b. at Saint Ilippolyte. in the depart- 
 ment of Doubs, Aug. 8. ^H.^2 : entered literature as a jour- 
 nalist and miscellaneous writer, and attracted great atten- 
 tion both by his Lc roman de denj- jruncH mnrUs { 180C) and 
 MademniHrlh Chrytddn (1S70), and by his novels treating 
 of subjects from the Franco-German war of 1870-71. 
 
 Joliet (Loris), b. at Quebec in 10^5; was educated in 
 the Jesuits' college in that town, but engaged in the West- 
 ern fur-(rade. Commissioned by Frontenao to explore the 
 Mississippi River, he started in 1C73 up the Fos River and 
 
 down the Wisconsin and Mississippi rivers to a point below 
 the mouth of the Arkansas, returning to Green Bay n'cl the 
 Illinois River. Thence he proceeded alone to i^Hiebec. los- 
 ing his MSS. on the way : but he ])rcpared a map and nar- 
 rative of the expedition from memory. He was appointed 
 royal hydrographcr. and received tlie island of Anlicosti, 
 of which he was dispossessed by the British. In K1H7 the 
 seigniory of .Toilet in Canada was granted to him, D. 1700. 
 
 Jo'liette, county of Quebec, Canada, extending N. W. 
 from the St. Lawrence River. It has much timber, mines 
 of iron, and stone-quarries; much of the soil is very fertile. 
 It is intersected bv the St. Lawrence and Industry Railway. 
 Cap. Joliette. Pop. 23.075. 
 
 Joliette, a large town, the capital of Jollelte co., Que- 
 bec, Canada, has fine water power, excellent building-stone, 
 large manufactures of lumber. leather, and castings. It has 
 a benevolent society, college, hospital, convent, mechanics* 
 institute, court-house and jail, and 1 semi-weekly news- 
 paper. It has an important trade, and is the N. W. ter- 
 minus of the St. Lawrence and Industry Railway. Pop. 
 of sub-district, 3047. 
 
 Jollivet' (PiF.RRc Jules), b. at Paris June 27, 1803; 
 
 studied first architecture, then painting: lived 1822-25 in 
 Madrid; and gained the great medal in 1835. lie has 
 painted a great number of subjects of Spanish life and 
 history: Lam, in the Luxemburg; Battfe of Aicha, at 
 Versailles : Lc MasHneie des fniiocents, at KoucD. The 
 Time o/ Pericles Is one of his latest works. 
 
 Jol'ly Boat [J'dfi/ is kindred to the word i/nirl], a small 
 boat carried on board ships, and used for communicating 
 with shore or with other ships. It is usually propelled by 
 oars, but sometimes a mast and sail arc set up. The jolly 
 boat is often short, wide, and capacious, and is particularly 
 adapted to the steward's use. 
 
 Jomard' (Edme ^Fran);ois), b. at Versailles Nov. IT, 
 1777 : stuilied in the Ecole Polyteehnique, and accompanied 
 the expedition to Egypt as a member of the scientific com- 
 mittee. After his return to Paris in 1802 he was employed 
 for more than twenty years in the redaction and^ publica- 
 tion of the celebrated work. Dcscri/tfion de VE'jifpte, of 
 which he wrote 6 volumes himself. In 1821 he took part 
 in the f lunding of the Geographical Society of Paris, and 
 from 1S2S he held a position in the geographical depart- 
 ment of the Royal Library. He has aided in the publica- 
 tion of many valuable works concerning Egypt and Africa, 
 and wrote a number of minor essays on different geograph- 
 ical, archcological, and educational subjects, D. Sept, 22, 
 18G2, at Paris. }~i ^^' / i 
 
 Jomini' (Henri), Baron, b. at Pa'yernc, canton of Vnu-I. 
 Switze.land, Mar. fi. 177'J : entered the French army in I^Ot 
 with tho rank of major; served as aide-de-camp to Mar- 
 shal Ney in Germany and Spain; was made a brigadier- 
 general in 1808, and distinguished himself on the retreat 
 from Moscow in 1812. But when Napoleon, instigated by 
 Berthier, refused to promrite him after the victory at Baut- 
 zen, Jomini left the French army and entered the service 
 of the emperor Alexander, who made him liis aide-de-camp ; 
 ho took, however, no part in the campaign against France, 
 and the rumor that he had revealed the French plans of 
 operation to the allies was denounced by Napoleon himself. 
 In the Russian service he distinguished himself in the war 
 against the Turks in 1828, and was very active in the 
 foundation of tho Military Academy of St. Petersburg. 
 During the latter part of his life he devoted himself wholly 
 to literary pursuits. D. at Passv. near Paris, Mar. 24, 
 1S(»0. Ilis principal works are — -Traiten den Granden Ope- 
 rations inilittiircH, on llistoire critit/ne den Gnerrca dc Frf- 
 deric le. Ornnd, canipnr^e9 aii Si/sti':mc Moderns; Hiitioire 
 critique ct rnififftire del rompagneg dc In Revolutinu (5 vols., 
 Paris. 180ft), Vic pnlititfue et tnifitaire de NuptdSim (4 vols., 
 Paris, 1827), Pierin dc Vnrt de la (/ttcrrc (Paris, I83S, 2 
 vols.; with an appendix, Paris, 1849). 
 
 Jo'nati [Ilcb.. a "dove"], a Hebrew prophet, b. at 
 Gath-hepher in the tribe of Zebuluu. He was no doubt 
 the "Jonah, son of Amittai," who is mentioned in 2 Kings 
 xiv. 25, so that he lived about 800 b. c. The book whieh 
 bears his name does not contain his prophecies, but a story 
 about him, an incident from his career. Some assert tliat 
 the story is purely mythical, others that it has a histori- 
 cal foundation, but has undergone the influence of popular 
 tradition; others that it is a poetical invention with a di- 
 dactic purpose. In any view its didaetie j)urpose is evident. 
 It teaches ih.at man cannot escape from God by flight ; that 
 man has only to do what he is called to do, and leave re- 
 sults to God : and that Ciod does not. when he employs a 
 human agent to tlireaten judgment, bind himself not to 
 show mercy lest he should bring his agent to shame. 
 
 Jo'nas (Ji'STfs), b. June 5, 1493. at Nordhausen, in the 
 Prussian provinso of Saxony; studied law, and was pro-
 
 J U.N ATll AN^JON ES. 
 
 1443 
 
 fcssor uT jurispruilcncc, first at Erfurt, and then at Wittcn- 
 bcrj;, wht're in 1 J21 he changed his chair for that of theol- 
 og;y : hecaiiie ecclesiastical superintendent at Halle in I;HI, 
 and at Coburg in 1 J46; and d. at Eisfeld Oct. 9. I.jj5. He 
 Has an intimate friend of Luther and Melanehthon, and 
 one of the most )injriiincnt anion;; the (icrinan Urformers. 
 Ho accomjianicil Luther to Worms, aided him in the trans- 
 lation of the Old Testament, and conlriljuted much to the 
 furthering of the Heformation by his preaching aud by his 
 powerful translations into German of the Latin writings 
 of Luther and Melanehthon. 
 
 Jon'athan [Ileb. Ynnnihnn'], a son of Saul, king of 
 Israel, b. near the close of the twelfth century B. c. ; be- 
 came, on the establishment of the kingdom, a conspicuous 
 leader in the war against the I'hilistincs, which owed its 
 origin to his daring exploit in killing a Philistine general 
 at Geha (1 Sam. xiii. 3, 4). His attachment lo David, 
 whom he defended against the jealousy and murderous de- 
 signs of his father, is the best known feature of Jonathan's 
 career, and has made his name a synonym for disinterested 
 frienilship. .lonathan was killed in battle against the 
 I'hilistincs at Mount liilboa, about D. c. 1053, together 
 with his father and two brothers, and his body was exposed 
 upon the walls of Ueth-shan until it was secretly carried 
 away and buried by the men of .labesh-Gilead, and his re- 
 mains were ultimately placed in the family sepulchre at 
 Zelah. On the death of ,Jonathan, David penned an elegy 
 (2 Sam. i. 22 acq.) which is one of the most beautiful pro- 
 ductions of its kind. 
 
 Jonathan ben Vzziel, b. in Palestine in the first 
 century d. r. : was a pupil of Ilillel. and became one of the 
 most celebrated expositors of the books of the (Jld Testa- 
 ment. He was the author of a t'hahlee paraphrase or trans- 
 lation of the prophets, and to him is also attributed tho 
 authonihip of a Targuin known by his name, and another 
 called the Fire Mr^iiltnlh. The Targum of Jonathan was 
 first printed at \'eniec in 151*0-91, an<i afterwards at Bi\lo 
 (IrtOZI, Ilanau (1814), Amsterdam (KUO), Prague (IfilO), 
 and Vienna (IS59), A Latin translation was given in Wal- 
 ton's Polyiil.t, anil an Knglish one by Rev. J. W. Elheridge 
 (London, 1802). But recent criticism has decided this Tar- 
 gum to be several centuries posterior to the Christian era, 
 anil the genuine works of .Jonathan are reduced to the Par- 
 nphrttre on thf PropfirU (embracing also ,Toghun, Judges, 
 Samuel, and Kings), first published atA'enice in 1491, now 
 found in all rabbinic Hibics, also in Walton's Pnlt/f/lnt and 
 liuxlorf's Hebrew Bible. It is especially valuable for its 
 expositions of the minor prophets. 
 
 Jonathan Creek, tp. of Moultrie co., III. Pop. 1001. 
 
 Jonathan's Creek, Ip., Haywood co., N. C. Pop. 987. 
 
 Jones, county of Central ticorgin. Area, .178 square 
 miles. The Ocmulgee washes its S. W. border. It is hilly 
 and fertile. Iron ore ami granite exist here. Cotton and 
 corn arc staple crops. The .''. part is traversed by tho 
 Georgia Central R. R. Cap. Clinton. Pop. 9430. 
 
 Jones, county of the E. of Iowa. Area, 57fl square 
 miles. It is partly forest and partly prairie. It is well 
 watered, and has a fertile calcareous soil. Cattle, grain, wool, 
 butter, and hay are extensively produced. Carriages, wa- 
 gons, and briek are leading articles of manufacture. Tho 
 county is traversed by the Iowa Miilland, the D.'ivenport 
 and .St. Paul, the .Sabula Aekloy and Dakota, and other 
 railroads. Cap. .\nainosa. Pop. 19,731. 
 
 Jones, county of (he P. R. of Mississippi, drained by 
 the head-streams of the !*;uicagoula River. Area, (»,'tO 
 square miles. It is partly light pine-land, anil has denso 
 forests. It produces some rice, corn, and sweet potatoes. 
 Cap. Ellisville. Pop. 3313. 
 
 Jones, cnunly of the E. of North Carolina, trnversed 
 by the river Trent. Area, about 425 square miles. It has 
 much pine forest and swamp-land, and is generally level 
 and snndv. Cotton and tobacco are staple products. Cap. 
 Ticn:on.' Pop. .'iOII2. 
 
 Jones, an unorganized county of N. Central Texas. 
 Area, about 1200 square miles. It is drained by the head- 
 streams of Brazos River, and is generally a fertile prairie- 
 land adapted to stock-rnising. lis principal place is Anson. 
 The county receives its name from Anson .Tones, the presi- 
 dent of the republic when Texas was admitted to the I'niun. 
 
 Jones, Ip. of Winslon co., .Ma. Pop. 299. 
 
 Jones, Ip. of Union co., la. Pop. 810. 
 
 Jones, tp. iif Elk co.. Pa. Pup. 1091. 
 
 Jones (Anson), h. in Mnssnchuselts Jan. 20, 1798; com- 
 menced the praclicc of medicine in 1820. Being of a mi- 
 gratory disposition, he subsequently resided for a while in 
 Philadelphia and New Orleans : he then visited .'^oulh Aincr 
 ica. and finally (in 1833) settled at Braioria, Tex, When 
 the troubles between Texas and Mexico broke out in 1835, ho 
 
 was a zealous advocate of the independence of the colony. 
 In the war that ensued he acted as a private soldier as 
 well as a surgeon in the Texan army. After independence 
 was achieved he was a member of the Texas Congress. In 
 1838 he was minister from that republic to the U. S. Sub- 
 sequently he was senator in the Texas Congress, and thru 
 for three years secretary of state. In Sept., 1844, be was 
 elected president of Texas, which office he held until Texas 
 became one of the States of the Union. He was a man of 
 great and varied abilities, and left his impress upon the 
 history of the times. His death, by his own hand, Jan. 7, 
 1858, was deeply lamented. A. H. Stkphkxs. 
 
 Jones (CnAiiLES Colcock), D. D., b. at Liberty Hall, 
 fia., Dec. 20, 1804 : studied at Andover and Princeton theo- 
 logical seminaries: was ordained in 1S30, and went as a 
 missionary to the negroes in his native county in (Tcorgia. 
 From 1830 to 1838 and from IS 17 to IS.-.O he was professor 
 of church history in the seminary at Columbia. S. C, hav- 
 ing in the interval returned to his labors among the negroes. 
 In 1850 he rcmoveil to Philadelphia, and became secretary 
 of the Presbyterian Board of Domestic Missions: retvirned 
 in 1853 to Georgia, where he d. Mar. IG, 18(13. He pub- 
 lished several catechisms, one of which, on Srriphirr f)oc- 
 liluc anil Praclicc, was translated into several languages 
 as a manual for tho instruction of heathen : several pamph- 
 lets on the lirliijiuufi lnntntctiiin uf the Ncifrn, and a Historif 
 of the Church of God, left unfinished at his death, 
 
 Jones (Charles Coi-cock, Jr.), b. in Savannah. Oa., 
 Oct. 28, 1831. His early education was under the instruc- 
 tion of private tutors at Montevideo and Maybank (plan- 
 tation residences of his father in Liberty co., (la.): his 
 freshman and sophomore years were spent at South Caro- 
 lina College, Columbia, where his father, Ucv. Charles Col- 
 cock Jones, Sr.. I). D. (a man of great eloquence), was then 
 one of the professors in the Presbyterian Theological Sem- 
 inary of that city. The junior and senior years of his 
 collegiate course were passed at Nassau ,Hall. Princeton, 
 N. ,1., where he graduated with high distinction in 1852. 
 After this he studied law in Philadelphia one year, and 
 th' ■ went to Dane Law School, Harvard University, Cam- 
 bridge, Mass.. where he remained two years more, and took 
 the regular degree in the law department of that institution 
 in 1855. Returning to his native State, he was admitted 
 to the bar at Savannah, Oa., in 1856, and with his nalural 
 ability and thorough training rose rapidly to the first rank 
 in his profession. In ISlUl he was elecled mayor of the 
 citv — a position seldom if ever before conferred on one so 
 young by a corporation possessing the amount of wealth, 
 population, and extent of commercial and navigating in- 
 terests that the city of Savannah then did. Soon after the 
 passage by (leorgia of her ordinance of secession in 18fil, 
 and the beginning of the late war, he entered the Confed- 
 erate States military service and became lieutenant-colonel 
 of artillery. This position he held until the end of tho 
 war. He was under Gen. .Toscpb Y.. .lohnston at his sur- 
 render in Apr., isfi5. .After the war Mr. .lones moved lo 
 tho city of New York, where he resumed the practice of 
 law, and has continued to prosecute it with great success, 
 lie has not permitted tho calls of his profession, however, 
 to absorb all his lime or energy. By a methodical econ- 
 fmy in the arrangement of business peculiar to himself, 
 he has, even under the greatest pressure of oflicc dulies, 
 found leisure In contribute largely lo the literature as well 
 as science of the connlry by his pen. Several works of 
 nniisiml merit have been published by him. Among Iheso 
 mav be named— his lli»lftrlr,it Sketch of the Clmtham Ar- 
 ti/fcri/ fhiriiif/ the Conftilcrntr Strtirff/fr for fiitfrpeiiffnice 
 (1867), Hintoricnl Sketch of Tomochi-chi-mieo of the Yum- 
 ocinir«(IS68). ,4iicr'eiif Tumuli on the Snraunah Wi'ici(I8fi8), 
 Aueieiil Tumuli lu flcnniin (1869), Antiquities of the South- 
 ern lnilian»,particularht of the Cfrorifia Tribes {X^l^). Tho 
 latter is a work of great interest, and exhibits a vast amount 
 of menial labor and historical research. His published 
 work", already ten in number, place him in style and mat- 
 ter high among American authors. A. II. Stki'IIESS. 
 
 Jones (flEoniit^ W.), b. in King and Queen en., Va., 
 Mar. 15. 1806; was a member of the legislafure of Tennes- 
 see (in the bouse or senate) from 1835 lo 1SI2, and was a 
 member of Congress from 1843 lo 1861. Though a Union 
 man of the .Jackson school, after the secession of Ten- 
 nessee he )Tent with his State, and was n member of 
 the Confederate Congress. Since the war he has acted 
 no prominent part in polities. Mr. .Jones is a remark- 
 able instance of a self-made man under American free 
 institutions. A poor boy with scanty education, he was 
 
 \ brought up to the saddler's trade, but by dint of opplica- 
 
 ' tion and study be acquired extensive knowledge, and 
 during his entire Cotigressional career was one of the most 
 
 , marked men of the House. \. H. Stkimiess. 
 
 I Jones (Sir llAimr DAVin), Q. C. B., b, 1792; commis-
 
 1444 
 
 JONES. 
 
 sioned second lieutenant royal engineers 1808; served in 
 the expedition to Walcheren ISOD; in the Peninsula cam- 
 paigns 1810-14 ; on special duty in /Vmerica 181 i ; engint'cr 
 in charge of iortifications on iMontmurtre after the entrance 
 of the British troops into Paris 1815. and coiuinisaioner 
 to the Prussian army of occupation 181G; brigadier-gen- 
 eral .July, 1854, and conducted the giege o|)erations against 
 Bomarsund; promoted to bo major-general Dec. 1864; ap- 
 puinfcil to and continued in command of the royal engineers 
 in Kastern campaign ( is.'i j) to fall of Scbastopol : lieutenant- 
 general July 0, ISfJO, and colonel-commandant of royal en- 
 gineers Aug. 2, 1860. In 1S66 he succeeded to tlie governor- 
 ship of the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, where he 
 remained until his death, which occurred at that place Aug. 
 2, 1801). G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Jones (IIenuv Bencf;), M. D., F. K. S., an English 
 jdiysician, b. in 1SI4, was educated at Harrow and Trinity 
 Coiloge, Cambridge, studied medicine in London, and in 
 1840 became physician of St. George's Hospital. London. 
 Has published Gravrf, OttlcnhtSj and (lont, Animnl Chcm- 
 intri/, Ain'inaf Elrrtrii-lti/, Life of Fararhnf (1SC9), The 
 lioiful fnetitution (187 I), and many scientific papers; was 
 a member of many learned societies. B. Apr. 20, 1873. 
 
 Jones fIsiGo), b. in London in 1572; d. there July 21, 
 1G.')2. Of humble parentage and poor, he owed to tho earl 
 of Pembroke, who was attracted by his taste for drawing, 
 the advantage of travel and study in Europe. Ho spent 
 several years in Germany, France, and Italy, and received 
 his chief impulse from the works of Palladio in Venice. 
 In 1604 he passed a year in Copenhagen, under the patron- 
 age of King Christian IV.; in 1605 returned to England, 
 recommended by the king to his brother-in-lav.-, James I.; 
 in Ben Jonson's prime as poet-laureate was court architect 
 and decorator ; showed a talent for mechanical invention 
 and the production of scenic effects; became, in short, a 
 person of importance, a favorite with tho court, but not 
 equally popular with artists and men of letters. He main- 
 tained his positi*on under Charles I.; was made superin- 
 tendent of the royal buildings, designed works of import- 
 ance, and held a high rank among the architects of his 
 generation. The river front of Somerset House, Shaftesbury 
 House, Ashburnham House, the W. front of old St. Paul's, 
 and Coveut Garden, were admired examples of his skill. 
 His designs fur the palace of Whitehall, the bauqueting- 
 house of which only was built, are regarded as his master- 
 pieces. Jones owed his celebrity less to his genius than to 
 the style of building that he introduced into England from 
 Italy. When that style became obsolete his fame passed 
 away. He was an author as well as a builder and designer, 
 an excellent mathematician, a good classical scholar. He 
 wrote an essay on Stouchenffe, ingenious, but of no value; 
 notes on tho architecture of Palladio, essays on miscella- 
 neous siilijects, and verses. Volumes of his architectural 
 designs were publi:-hed by AYiJIiam Kent and Isaac Ware. 
 His biography has been prepared by Peter Cunningham 
 (London. 1848). The fortunes of Inigo Jones were impli- 
 cated in those of the royal family. The execution of 
 Charles I. crushed him, and he d. j)')or and wretched. 
 
 0. B. FRoTrMNanA,M. 
 Jones (Jacob), b. near Smyrna. Del., in 1770; entered 
 the U. S. navy as midshipman in 1709; was captured in 
 frigate Philadelphia in 180.{ near Tripoli, where he was held 
 a prisoner twenty months; commanded the U. S. sloop of 
 war Wasp in 1812. in its celebrated capture of the British 
 sloop Frolic, and was himself captured the same day with 
 both those vessels by the British ship Poietiers of 74 guns. 
 Released on parole at Bermuda. Jones received distin- 
 guished honors for his bravery, was voted a gold medal by 
 Congress, was promoted to post-captain in the squailron 
 under Com. Decatur. After the war Com. J<mes commamled 
 squadrons in the Mediterranean and Pacific. D. at Phila- 
 delphia Aug. 3, 1S50. 
 
 Jones (Jamts). M. D„ b. in Georgetown, D. C. 1806; 
 d. in 187;'. in North (-arolina, of paralysis. Ho received 
 M. D. from tho University of l*ennsylvania, and beenino 
 resident physician in tho Philadel]>hia almshouse. Was 
 editor of (ho N. 0. Mt<f. nud Sut-fj. Journal in 1857; pro- 
 fessor of obstetrics and diseases of women and children ; and 
 then professor of practical medicine and tlcan of tiie faculty 
 in the University of Louisiana 1857-60. Pai i. F. Eve. 
 
 Jones (JAMKsCnAMnniiLAiN),h. in Davidson co..Tenn., 
 Apr. 20. ISOi) ; was elected governor of the State over James 
 K. Polk in 1841 and 1843, and was one of the U. S. Sen- 
 ators from Tennessee from 1851 to 1857. D. at Memphis 
 Oct. 211, 1859. A. H. SrKrHKNS. 
 
 Jones (J. Glancy), h. in the valley of the Conestog.a. 
 Pa., Oct. 7, 1811 ; was educated for the ministry, but be- 
 came a suecessful lawyer ami for a time was deputy nttorncy- 
 goner.il of Pennsylvania. He was three times smt to Con- 
 gress between 1S50 and IS^o; w-.s the founder of tho court 
 
 of claims, and for a time chairman of tho committee of 
 ways and means. In 1858 he became U.S. minister to 
 Austria. D. at Heading, Pa., Mar. 24, 1878. 
 
 Jones (JoRL), LL.D., b. at Coventry. Conn., Oct. 25, 
 1795 ; graduated at Yale in 1817 ; was a lawyer of Easton, 
 Pa. In l8.';j he became judge, and afterwards presiding 
 judge, of the Philadelphia district court. Ho was (1847- 
 49) the first presitlent of Girard College, and in 1849 was 
 mayor of Philadelphia. He published reports of the re- 
 vision of the civil code of Pennsylvania, I'lnnst/lrania 
 Laud Lfur, and Jvshh nud thr Cinniufj (ilnry, a work in favor 
 of tho doctrine of the speedy second advent of the Lord. 
 He was perfectly familiar with several living and dead lan- 
 guages, was an earnest student of th('o]()gy, and wrote much 
 for the religious press. D. in Philadelphia Feb. 3, 1860. 
 
 Jones (John), M. D., b. at Jamaica, L. I., in 1729; 
 studied medicine at Rheims ami Leyden ; was surgeon to 
 Sir W^illiam Johnson's cxpcclition against Crown Point in 
 1755, and attended the wounded French commander, Baron 
 Dieskau; was professor of surgery at tho medical school 
 of the College of New York 17G7; published J'lu'ni Ufjimrks 
 upon H'oKjir/.? n}}d Fraptnrcit in 177l>: retired from New 
 York City during tho British occupation ; was elected to 
 the State senate; served for a short time in the medical de- 
 partment of the army in 1780, where he was chosen ])hysi- 
 cian to the Pennsylvania Hospital, and in 1787 vice-presi- 
 dent of the College of Physicians. He was the friend and 
 family physician of Franklin and Washington, ami stood 
 at tho head of his profession in America. D. at Philadel- 
 phia June 2:1, 1791. A volume of his medical writings was 
 published, with a memoir, by his pupil. Dr. Mease, in 1795. 
 
 Jones (Jon\ B.), b. at Baltimore, Md., in 1810; wrote 
 a number of descriptive books and charncter sketches, 
 which have been very popular. Wild Weatcnt Scenes 
 (1849) had a sale of 50,000 co|)ies. Mr. Jones established 
 in 1857 at Philadelphia a weekly paper, the Southern J/on- 
 ttury devoted to the advocacy of Southern interests. 
 
 Jones (John M.'). b. in Virginia in 1821 ; graduated at 
 West Point 1841, and entered the infantry as brevet second 
 lieutenant, second lieutenant 1845, first lieutenant 1847, 
 and captain 1855; served on frontier duty until ISftl, and 
 resigned May 27, 1861, to join the cause of the Coufed- 
 eracy ; was appointed colonel of Virginia volunteers, and 
 advanced to the grade of brigadier-general; served with 
 Longstrect's corps in Virginia; wounded nt Malvern Hill, 
 and severely at Gettysburg ; and served in operations about 
 Knoxville, Tenn. ; in the Virginia campaign of 18C1 was 
 killed at Spottsylvania, May 10. 18ri4. G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Jones (John Pat l), whose true patronymic was John 
 Paul, b. at Arbigland on the Firth of Sulway July fi, 1747. 
 His father followed the peaceful pursuit of a gardener. 
 Tho youth became early imbued with the spirit of adven- 
 ture and desire for a seafaring life, which tho scenes of his 
 childhood were calculated to inspire. Accordingly, wcfind 
 him at the age of twelve apprenticed to a shipmaster en- 
 gag'd in the American trade. His first voyage took him 
 to Virginia, where liis brother William had settled and 
 prospered, and under whoso care our hero <liligently im- 
 proved his leisure moments, particularly in the study of 
 iiis newly-adopted profession. The failure of his master 
 liberating him from his indentures, Paul was almost at once 
 engaged as third mate of a slaver, in which traffic he con- 
 tinued until his own sense of the disgrace attaching to such 
 a career induced him to abandon it. Taking passage from 
 Jamaica for Kirkcudbright in 1768, the death of both mas- 
 ter and mate occurred on the passage, and Paul was forced 
 to assume command of the vessel, bringing lior safely to her 
 I destination, and subsequently becoming her master, mak- 
 : in-;; several voyages to the West Indies. In 1773 ho camo 
 to Viri^inia to arrange the affairs of his brother, who had 
 died childless and intestate. Here lie adrled the name of 
 j Jones to his own, and apparently determined to aliandon 
 I his profession and devote himself to agriculture. The out- 
 break of hostilities in 1775, however, recalled him to the 
 sea, and his offer of services to Congress being accepted, he 
 was on Dec. 22, 1775, appointed senior lieutenant in the 
 navy, and assigned to the flagship Alfred. On the arrival 
 of tho commanding ofiicer on board, Jones witii liis own 
 hands hoisted the American flag, the occasion being the first 
 nn which it was ever displayed. His first engagement was 
 wilh the Glasgow, soon :ift<'r winch action he stn'cee<led lo 
 the command of the sloop Providence (12). in which, dur- 
 ing a cruise of little more than six weeks, he captured six- 
 teen prizes, besides doing much damage to tho fishery and 
 shipping at Cnnso and Isle Madam. Appointed to com- 
 mand the Alfred on the completion of this successful cruise, 
 he led an expediti(m, which sailed Nov. 2. 1776. to break 
 up the Cape Breton fishery and capture tho coal fleet, in 
 which he was partially successful, arriving in Boston Dec. 
 15 with four prizes, lie was in Jan., 1777, ordered back to
 
 J ONES. 
 
 144.) 
 
 the Providence. Tbough in the list of original appoiutincnts 
 in the colonial navv he stood sixth from the head, and sub- 
 sequently received his commission as captain, dated Aug. 
 8, 1770, a resolution of Congress was passed Oct. 10, 1776, 
 declaring the order in which captains in tlic navy should 
 take rank, in which list Jones's name was the eighteenth. 
 This supersedure was a constant source of annoyance to 
 Jones, the injustice of which bo continued to represent, but 
 without efTect. In June. 1777, Congress appoiuted Jones 
 to the comnmnd of the Hanger (IS), a new ship, in which 
 he sailed from Portsmouth Nov. I, arriving at Nantes Dec. 
 2, 1777. In .^iir.. 177.'*, he sailed from lircst in the Uauger, 
 and ofler burning a brig off Cape Clear made a daring ile- 
 sccnt upon the town and shipping of Whitehaven, in which 
 he displayed great personal ilnriug; he then conceived the 
 idea of capturing the earl of Selkirk, hoping to make him 
 the instrument of obliging England to agree to a system 
 of exchanges. The absence of the earl from his estate near 
 Kirkcudbright caused the scheme to fail. A quantity of 
 silver plate which was seized on this occasion was subse- 
 quently recovereii and returned to the earl at Jones's ex- 
 pense. During this cruise he fell in with the Drake, a 
 vessel superior in crew and armament, which be captured 
 and took into the harbor at Brest. The Ranger subse- 
 quently returned to .\merica, Jones being retained in France 
 by our commissioners at the request of the French minister 
 of the marine, who made several very gratifying propositions 
 to hira, all of which, however, failed of execution, greatly to 
 the disapi)Ointmenl and annoyance of Jones, who was thus 
 without a command until Feb., 177'J, when by his urgent 
 applications the French minister appointed him to the 
 command of the Duras. an old merchantman converted into 
 a war-vessel, and which Jones obtained permission to name 
 Bon Ilommc Richard in honor of Dr. Franklin, whom ho 
 greatly res]>ected and by whom he was held in high esteem. 
 The Richard when eomjiletcd mounted 42 guns, and on the 
 1 Ith of Aug., 177'J, Jones departed from Lorient in com- 
 mand of a squadron of seven vessels, including two pri- 
 vateers. In a month's time they had captured or destroyed 
 twenty-six vessels, this intelligence sprea<ling consternation 
 along the English coast. On .Sept. 23 the squadron, con- 
 sisting of the Kichard. the Alliance, the Pallas, and the 
 Vengeance, when oiT Flamborough Head sighted a fleet of 
 forty-one s:iil. which proved to be the Baltic fleet under 
 convoy of the Serapis ( jOJjind the Countess of Scarborough 
 (*J0). Chase was at once given by the squadron, the Al- 
 liance, disregarding signals to form in lino of battle, at 
 once taking the lead, but after approaching near to Iho 
 Scrapis, stood off again from land. About TJ i". m. the 
 Kichard came up ivilh the .Scrapis, and a terrible engage- 
 ment, lasting upwards of three hours, ensued, during all 
 of which time the vessels were in close proximity, and 
 during the latter part of the fight in actual contact. At 
 the commencement of the action two of the Richard's guns 
 burst, disabling their crews and causing the abandonment 
 of the battery. The Countess of Scarborough surrendered 
 to the Palliis aller a short nelioii, and Iho Alliance now ap- 
 proached the scene of conflict between the Richard an<l 
 t?erapi«, hut, instead of supporting the Richard, her com- 
 mander, Caiit. Landais, an envious Frenchman, actually 
 opened a raking fire on the Hiebard. which was continued 
 too long to admit of doubt of tlie Frenchinan's intention. 
 Notwiihstaii'ling this discouraging circumstance, and the 
 fact that the Richard was in a sinking condition and sur- 
 render counselled by many, Jones maintained the conflict 
 until shortly after II) o'clock, when the .Scrapis struck. The 
 Kichard being on fire in two places and in a hopeless con- 
 dition, she was abandoned after removing the wounded, 
 and about lU A. ». of the '25tli she went down, bows first. 
 The Serapis was taken info the Texel, and Jones was re- 
 ceived in Paris and throughout France with the greatest 
 honors, the king bestowing upon him an elegant sword and 
 the cross of the order of Military .Merit, which latter Con- 
 gress permitted him to accept, and with which he was dec- 
 orated by the French iiiinisier al Philadel|ihia, where Jones 
 had arrived on Feb. l.s, 17H1. Congress also gave him a 
 vore of thanks, and by resolution Ihe eommand of the new 
 frigate America (71) ; but as this fine ship was subsequently 
 pres.-nted to France to replace the Magnifique, ,lones never 
 saw active service at sea again. Me was subsequently 
 (I7'S:i) sent to Paris as agent to recover the moneys due in 
 Europe fur prizes taken under his eommand. In 17^7, Jones 
 came to .America, and while here Congress voted him a gold 
 medal. He soon after returned to Europe, and in 17SS ac- 
 cepted the ajqutiutment of rear-admiral in the service of 
 Russia, and reuilered important service against the Turks. 
 He became the object of personal enmity among favoriles 
 at court, and was allowed to retire on a pension, which, 
 however, was not paid. IIo removed to Paris, where ho 
 died Jnly IS, I7'J2. O. C. .«im«on9. 
 
 Jones (JoiiM TxTLon), D. D., b.kt New Ipswich, N. H., 
 
 July 16, 1802; graduated at Amherst in 1825, and studied 
 theology at Andover and Newton, Mass. ; became a Bap- 
 tist in 1828 ; went in 1S30 as a missionary to Burmah : was 
 transferred in 18;i3 to .Siam. where be was a successful mis- 
 sionary. He published a Siamese New Testament (1843) 
 and several tracts. D. at Bangkok Sept. 13, 1851. 
 
 Jones (Joiis W.). b. in Montgomery eo., Md., in 1806; 
 studied medicine, took his degree at Jefferson College, 
 Philadelphia, and moved to (xeorgia, where, after serving 
 in the State legislature, he was elected to Congress 1847-49 ; 
 subsequently he became one of the professors in the medi- 
 cal college of Atlanta. D. in 1872. A. H. Stkphexs. 
 
 Jones (Joiiv W.), b. in Chesterfield, Va. ; graduated at 
 William and Mary College in IKU.'i; represented Virginia 
 in Congress 1835-45, and was Speaker during his last term. 
 D. Jan. 29, 1848. A. H. Stkphi:.n3. 
 
 Jones (Jons AVister), F. S. A., b. at Lambeth, Eng- 
 land, early in the present century; was educated at St. 
 Paul's School ; studied law, and entered the civil service in 
 1S.'57. He became assistant keeper of the printed books at 
 the British Museum in l.^SO, keeper in IS.M'., anrl principal 
 librarian on the retirement of Mr. A. Panizzi in IMiG. .Mr. 
 Jones has edited for the llakluyt Society several republi- 
 cations of rare works of early travels, has written a guide 
 to the printed books in the (irenville and King's Library, 
 has contributed to the A'cic liiogmpliirnt lUcliuiiari/ of the 
 Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and to the 
 quarterly reviews. 
 
 Jones (Joseph), M. D., b. in Liberty co.. Ga., Sept. G, 
 is:;:',; graduated at Princeton College, N. J., and at the 
 medical department of the University of Pennsylvania. 
 His great-grandfaihcr was killed in storming the British 
 works at Savannah when an aide to lien. Mcintosh, Ort. 
 9, 1779; his grandfather served through the war of I.''l2: 
 and his father was the distinguished clergyman and pro- 
 fessor, Charles Colcock Jones. Joseph Jones was profes^sor 
 of ehcmistry in the Medical College, Savannah, Ga., 
 1S5S-59; professor natural sciences University of Georgia, 
 Athens, 1858-59; professor in the Jledical College, Au- 
 gusta, 1869-00 : chemist to cotton-planters' convention, 
 Georgia. ISCO; surgeon army Confederate Slates 1802-05; 
 professor chemistry ami clinical medicine Nashville Uni- 
 versity, Tenn., 1808-69 : and at present professor chemistry 
 and clinical medicine University of Louisiana, and visit- 
 ing physician to its charily hospital. He is the author of 
 several valuable contributions to medical science and its 
 kindred subjects. Pali. F. Eve. 
 
 Jones (Noble WiMBERi.Yl, M. D..b.near London, Eng., 
 1724; emigrated to Georgia; a mcniberof the colonial leg- 
 islature in 1701 ; was a leading revolutionist in 1774, and 
 was a member of the second Congress of the colonies 1775; 
 afterwards became connected with the army, and was made 
 prisoner at the capture of Charleston in 1780. Afler being 
 exchanged he was again relumed to Congress. He prac- 
 tised medicine during the intervals of public life; was pres- 
 ident of the State convention of (Jeorgia by which the con- 
 stitution was amended iu 1795. D. in Savannah, Ga., Jan. 
 y lfl05. A. H. Stepiie.vs. 
 
 Jones (Owes), b. in Wales, 1809; best known by his 
 studies of the Alhambra in Granada, to which he devoted 
 much time and labor. He decorated the interior of the 
 Exhibition building in Hyde Park (ISJl) and of the Crys- 
 tal Palace at Sydenham, where the Egyptian, Greek, Ro- 
 man, and Alhambra courts were of his design. In 1852 
 be was made director of decorations for the Crystal Palace 
 Companv. SI. James's Hall. Piccadilly, was erected by 
 him. lie was the author of Dciiiiim fur ,Vo»iiiV <iii(/ '/'<««<■/- 
 liileil I'itremrnls (1842). /'/iiii«, A7rr<i(i'oii», and Scrlmnt of 
 llic Alhiimbni (1848), An AlUmpI lo tirfiiir tht J'rimiplet 
 irlilcli kIiuiiIiI /Irr/iilnh III'- /Cmiilni/iiiriil i,/ Cuhiit ill Dniiin- 
 liic ^/-M(I851), Tlie (Iriimmm- uf Oinomcilf ( 1856). He 
 wrote much on the art of illumination, and dcsigne<l 
 the illuminations of the Book of Common Prayer. To il- 
 lustrate his doctrine that ancient sculpture was commonly 
 painted, and the exterior of marble buildings embellisbed 
 with color, Jlr. Jones toucl-.ed wilh color statues in the 
 Greek Court at .Sydenham, including some of the easts from 
 the Elgin marbles there. His work is familiar through the 
 ornamental title-pages of illustrateil books. I). Apr. 19, 
 
 1(J7|. 0. B. FlIOTIIINdHAM. 
 
 Jones (Gen. RorEnV b. in Westmoreland eo., Va., 1789 ; 
 appointed second lieulenaul in the marine corps in 1809; 
 transferred lo the artillery in 1812, wilh rank of captain ; 
 and assistant ndjulnntgenernl, wilh rank of major, 18i:t; 
 served with dislinetiim during the war with Great llriliiin, 
 winning brevet of major for Chippewa and of lieutenant- 
 colonel for gallantry at sortie from Fort Erie: ajipointed 
 adjntant-gencral. rank of colonel, Aug.. 1818, and retained 
 iu the nrtillory io 1821. In 1825 was appointed adjutant-
 
 1446 
 
 JONES— JONKOPING. 
 
 general of the arrav. which position he held until ho d. at 
 Washington, D. C./July 15, 1SJ2. In lS:t2 he was brc- 
 vetted brigadier-gcneralj and in 1S49 major-general. 
 
 G. C. SlSIMONS. 
 
 Jones (Pamuei-), LL-O., h. iu 17r>0, was a son of Chicf- 
 Jaslicc Samuel Jones; graduated at Yale in 1700; studied 
 law in his father's office, along with De \Vitt Clinton; was 
 a member of the New York assembly 1812-14; recorder of 
 Kevv York City 182:5; ciiaucellor of the Slate I82G; chief- 
 justice of the superior court in New York City 1S2S, and 
 judge of the supreme court of the State lB-47-4y. D. at Cold 
 Spring, L. I., Aug. S, ISao. 
 
 Jones {Gen. Samiel), b. in Virginia in 1S20; graduated 
 at AVest Point. July, ISU, and ii|i]>ointed brevet second lieu- 
 tenant of artillery, receiving iiis fall commission the fol- 
 lowing September; promoted to bo first lieutenant 1847, 
 and captain 1853; 18H-45 was on frontier duty and in 
 garrison; 1845-51 at West Point as profoFsor and instruc- 
 tor; again on garrison and frontier duty 1S51~5S, when ho 
 was assigned to duty in AVashingtrm as assistant to the 
 judgc-advoeate: resigned Apr. 27, 1861. and entered the 
 Confederate service as eolonel, rising to the grade of major- 
 general 1802, aud in 18G4 commanded the department of 
 South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Jones (Seaborn), b. in Augusta, Ga., 17SS, and was 
 sent to Princeton College for education, but returned before 
 graduation in consec|uenee of the failure of his father in 
 mercantile business; studied law, and was admitted to the 
 bar by special act of the legislature before he was twenty- 
 one years of age; was solicitor-general of bis judicial 
 circuit in 182;^; was a member of Congress IS^-'J-.To and 
 1845-47. D. in Columbus. Ga.. in 1874. lie was a lawyer 
 of great distinction in the State for half a century. 
 
 A. H. Stephens. 
 
 Jones (TnOMAS ap Catfsbv), b. in Virginia in 17P0, 
 was a brother of Gen. Roger Jones; entered the U. S. 
 nnvy in 1805; was from ISOS to 1812 in the Gulf of Mex- 
 ico, engaged iu suppressing piracy, smuggling, and the 
 slave-trade; was captured with his flotilla by a British na- 
 val expedition against New Orleans in 1814; commanded 
 the Pacific squadron in 1842, when he took possession of 
 Monterey in California, upon erroneous information of war 
 existing between the U. S. and Mexico, tor which he was 
 temporarily suspended from the service. D. at Georgetown, 
 0. C, May 30, 1858. 
 
 Jones (Thomas Rymeu), F. R. S., b. about 1810; ed- 
 ucated at London and Paris, and entered on his profession 
 as a surgeon in 1833, but Ijy reason of deafness did not 
 long practise; became in 1831 ])r(>fcssor of comparative an- 
 atomy in King's College, London, and in 1840 Fullerian 
 professor of physiology in the Royal Institution, and ac- 
 quired fame as an eloquent lecturer. .Author of .4 Gruerol 
 Outline of the Animal Kiitffdum 0838), of napers in the 
 Ct/clopscdiu of Anatomy and Physiology^ and various mon- 
 ographs. 
 
 Jones (Thomas Wharton). F. R. S., F. R. C. S.. b. at 
 St. Andrew's, Scotland, in 18lt8; was educated at Kdin- 
 burgh : became in 1838 a surgeon of London ; was professor 
 of ophthalmic medicine and >urgery in I'nivcrsity College, 
 London; and wrote Ophthulmic Medicine and Snrgcry, 
 the Astley-Cooper prize essay on Inftammntinn (1S50), the 
 Actonian prize essay of 1851, /*hy»iolotfy of Body, Sense, 
 and Mind, Failnrc of Siyht from Railway Accidents 
 (1869), etc. 
 
 Jones (Sir William), M. A.. F. R. S., b. in London 
 Sopt. 28, 1740; was educated at Harrow and Oxfurd ; was 
 tutor to Lord Althorp 1705-70 ; published a French trans- 
 lation of the (Persian) Life of :Xadir Shah (1770), a Per- 
 sian Grammar (1771); was made F. R. S. 1772; in 1774 
 was called to the bar and published Commentarirn on 
 Asiatic Poetry ; became commis-;ioner of bankrupts 1776; 
 translated in 1780 the ModllaK-ut, from the Arabic, and 
 ])ublishcd some legal writings ; became in 17S3 a knight 
 and judge of the auprcmc court of judicature of Bengal; 
 founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta: wrote 
 largely for the Aniatic /Researches; published the Enchanted 
 /^■|if/, a poem, translations of the ^'^Z-miM^a (17S9), a trans- 
 lation of the hiHtitntes of Mann (1704), a translation of 
 Isa^ua; extracts from the Vedas, and tales, poems. legal 
 works, etc. from the Indian languages, A devout Christian, 
 a steady friend of constitutional liberty, a profound jurist 
 and linguist, an elegant poet, Sir William's name is one 
 of the brightest ornaments of English literary history. D. 
 at Calcutta Apr. 27, 171*4. (See his Life, by Lord Tcign- 
 uuiuth, 1804.) 
 
 Jones (William), F. R. S., generally called of Nav- 
 LANn. b. at Lowiok, Frig.. .Tnly 30. 1726; was educated at 
 the Charterhouse and at Oxford, where he became a eon- 
 vert to the liut^hlnsoniun jiliilysoj^hy (sec IIuTcriiNSOs, 
 
 I John); was ordained in 1749; became successively curate 
 ! of Fiucdun, vicar of Bethersden, rector of Pluckley, of 
 Paston, and of Hullingbourn, and perpetual curate of Nay- 
 land in Suffolk. In 1780 he was elected a fellow of the 
 Royal Society. For many years he labored upon a general 
 system of philosophy, based upon the works of llulcbin- 
 son, and he exercised considerable influence by his writing?, 
 being endowed with great learning, piety-, and versatility, 
 as well as- an excellent style. D. Feb. fi, 1800. lie wrote, 
 among other works. The (.'uthoHr Doctrine of the Trinity 
 (1753), Physiolofficnl Disijnisitions (1781), Art of Mnnxe 
 (1784), Fi;ptrativc Lanrfmiffc of Scriptnre (1787), Life of 
 Bishop //o)-iie(l79J), and founded the British Critic {\79Z), 
 
 Jones (William Alfreo^. b. in New Y'ork June 26, 
 1817 ; graduated in 1830 at Columbia College, of wliich he 
 was (1851-65) librarian. He is the author of many con- 
 tributions to periodical literature, and has published The 
 Aualyftt (ISIO). Literary Studies (1847), Kn^nyK (1849), 
 Charactern and Criticisms (2 vols., 1857), and other works. 
 
 Jones's Bluff, post-v. of Sumter oo., Ala., on the Ala- 
 bama and Chattanooga R. R., 10 miles from Livingston. 
 Pop. of tp. 2134. 
 
 Joncs'boro', tp. of Lawrence co., Ala. Pop. 1087. 
 
 Jonesboro', post-v, and tp., cap. of Craighead co.. 
 Ark., 49 miles N. W. of Memphis, Tcnn. Pop. of v. 155 ; 
 of tp. 21)9 4. 
 
 Jonesboro', post-v., cap. of Clayton co., Ga., on the 
 Macon and Western R. R., 20 miles S. of Atlanta: has 
 manufactures of flour, furniture, etc., an academy, a weekly 
 newspaper, 2 churches, sumo 35 business-houses, 2 hotels, 
 and considerable cotton trade. Pop. 531. 
 
 C. P. Vaighn &. Co., Pi'BS. "News." 
 
 Jonesboro^, city, cap. of Union co.. III., on the Illi- 
 nois Central and the Cairo and St. Louis R. Rs.. 3G miles 
 N. of Cairo, in an elevated, well-timbered and watered re- 
 gion, abounding in good building-stone, and celebrated for 
 its excellent and abundant fruit. It has a bank, I weekly 
 newspaper, 3 churches, 2 hotels, stores, mills, and manufac- 
 tories. Two miles to the N. E. there is a State insane asy- 
 lum. Pop. IIOS: of tp. 1577. 
 
 T. F. BocTON, En. and Prop. "Gazette." 
 
 Jonesboro', post-v. of Grant co., Ind., on the Pitts- 
 burg Chicago and St. Louis It. R., 5 miles S. E. of Marion, 
 has 4 churches, 2 hotels, a newspaper, etc. thief business, 
 agriculture, general trade, milling, and lumber-dealing. 
 Pop. 581. N. W. Wi:nniNCTox, En. "Herald." 
 
 Jones'boroiigh, post-tp. of Washington co.. Me.. 7 
 miles W. of Machias, at the head of Englishman's Bay. 
 Pop. 522. 
 
 Jonesborous^h^ po<:t-v..cop. of Washington eo., Tcnn., 
 the oldest town in the State, and the first State capital, has 
 5 churches, a fine court-house, 2 hotels. 3 newspapers, a 
 female college, and a male institute, and is pleasantlv sit- 
 uated on the East Tennessee A'irginia and Georgia R. R. 
 100 miles E. bv N. of Knoxville. 
 
 S. A. Brf:LL. lou Pens. " E. Tkxn. Echo." 
 
 Jones'bur?, post-v. of Montgomery co., Mo., on the 
 North Missouri R. U. 
 
 Jones'port, tp. of AVashington co.. Me.. 18 miles S. W. 
 of Matdiias. on the W. side of Englishman's Bay. It has 
 shipbuilding and lobster fisheries. Pop. 1305. 
 
 Joncs'town, post-b. of Swatara tp., Lebanon co., Pa., 
 5 miles N. of Lebanon. 
 
 Joiios'villc, a V. of Mcintosh co., Ga. Pop. 99. 
 
 Joncsville^ post-v. of Wayne tp.. Bartholomew co., 
 Ind., oil the JetVersonvillo Madison and Indianapolis R. R. 
 Pop. 2Ul'>. 
 
 Jonesville, vostv. of Hillsdale co.. Mich., on the Mich- 
 igan Southern R. R., at the junclinn of the Lansing di- 
 vision with the main line, and on the Fort Wayne Jackson 
 and Saginaw R. R. It has a wei kly newspaper, largo 
 woollen and cotton mills in successful operation, and im- 
 portant manufactures of carriages. Its mercantile inter- 
 ests arc flourishing. It is 4i miles N. W. of Hillsdale, the 
 county-seat. Jamrs I. Dknnis, Pro. " IxDEi'ENnnsT." 
 
 Joncsville^ post-v. of Clifton Park tp.. Saratoga co., 
 N. V. It is the sent of an academy. It is 3 miles from 
 South Ballston Station on the Saratoga and Schenectady 
 
 R. n. 
 
 Joncsvillev post-tp. of Union co., S. C. Pop. 1809. 
 
 Joncsville^ post-v., cap. of Leo co., Va., 28 miles N, 
 of Rojcrsville, Tcnn., has a flour-uiill, steam saw-mil'. 2 
 churches, a weekly newspaper, a male aead,emy, 2 ho'els. 
 besides stores an<l shops. Chief industry, farming and 
 mercantile pursuits. Pop. 274: of tp. 3369. 
 
 J. B. Wkst. En. " hr.p. Co. SpxTiNrL." 
 
 Jon'Koping, town of Sweden, beautifully situated at
 
 JONQUI L— J OK DA X. 
 
 1447 
 
 the southern extremity of Lake Wetter, and surrounded by 
 pine-clad hills. It hn8 large manufocturcs of arms and 
 miiskots. Pop. II,7.>1. 
 
 Jon'quil [Vr.JunqiiiHe, a dim. of I,at.jiiiiriis, a '• rush "], 
 a nami- given to .Vii/<i«»in Joii'/rnV/n iiud udunia (order .Vnia- 
 rvllidatciiM. jrarJ.n |iluiils klouniing in spring. They are 
 natives of the ?. of Europe. The Oowers of the fragrant 
 eorls arc emploved in perfumery. 
 
 Jon'son (Iti:xjA)iis1, generally known as Bkn Joxson. 
 b. at Wesltninster, probably Judo II, 1571, a short time 
 after the dcalh of his father. The details of his life before 
 l.iSK! are uncertain, but ihoy seem to have t)ccn very varied, 
 like his faculties, and somewhat violent, like bis passions. 
 liis mother married a master bricklayer, and for some time 
 he worked with his stepfather as a mason. Later on ho 
 enlisted in the army, and made a cam)Kiifrn in the Low 
 Countries. On his return he entered St. .lohn's College, 
 Cambridge, and studied classical lansuagcs and literature. 
 In his twentieth year ho went upon the .-itngc, and tried to 
 become an actor." At last hi,s talent found its proper field. 
 In I J'Ji) appeared his r.imc/i/ o/ J/iir/inrn, and in IJUS it 
 was recast, and brought out with great Success in tho 
 Globe Theatre under tho title Ei-rri/ Mnn in Am tliimnr. 
 Then followed in 1599 Eren/ Man Out nf hit Humor; in 
 lliOfl, Ci/uthi'n'» llrreh; in 11102, the /'ur-limli-r. which in- 
 volved him in a very sharp controversy with Decker; in 
 1CU:I, .V'jniiin, a tragedy : in 100 1, y?'i«^crti(/ //.<c, written 
 in connection with Chapman and Marston, for which ho 
 was imprisoned and threatened with having his noso and 
 cars cut off; in IliOJ, yol/mui:: in 1009, Epiarne, ur ihe 
 Siliut Womnu; in 1010, Thi- Alrlii/minl; in 1011, (yiiliue, 
 a tragedy: in 1010. 77ic Deiil i« <im A"; in 1G2U. A'cio Inn, 
 or Ihe l.i-jhi Hmri; but the last-mcnliimcd comedy belongs 
 to that part of his works which Dryden called his dotages. 
 After his appearance in literature the life of Ben .lonson is 
 tolerably well known, both in the inns and at court — his tour- 
 naments with .'^hakspeare and tho other wits of his ago in 
 tho .Mermaid Tavern in lircad street, where Sir Walter Ra- 
 leigh had founded the .Mermaid Club; his throne speeches 
 on literary taste delivered at Ihe lircsiile of tho Devil's 
 Tavern in Fleet street, where later on he himself founded 
 tho Apollo Club ; and his " entertainments " or " masques," 
 a kind of dramatic arrangement interspersed with songs 
 an^l ballets which he wrote for tho court festivals. In 
 Ifil'.l. .James I. made him poct-huire.ate, with a pension 
 of 100 marks, and Charles I. increased tho pension to £100, 
 and added a tierce of canary. The last years of his life 
 were nevertheless very clouded. IIo was poor — not be- 
 cause ho had less than he needed, but because ho used 
 more than he had. lie became bitter in spite of the great 
 •uccess he had achieved. He felt wretched. IIo d. Aug. 
 8, 18.17, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where his 
 tombstone bears this rather queer inscription, " raro Ben 
 Jonson!" The S<nl S^fphml, a jioem which he left unfin- 
 ished, as well as much in his " masriues," seems to inclicato 
 that in its foumlaiion his genius was not so very difTerciit 
 from that of Shakspeare. But its development was nii- 
 otber, and thereby it assumed almost an opposite character. 
 While Shakspeare was a man with sporadical and incidental 
 knowledge, but with wonderfully large and striking views, 
 Ben Jonson appears to have possessed a compact mass of 
 systematic knowledge, which led him to rather narrow 
 views. .Shaksneart-'s taste was the natural result of his 
 genius ; Ben .lonson's was tho product of his learning. 
 llcnco tho difference between them. It is singularly 
 wrong to say that Krfrif .l/oii in lih llnmor was the first 
 regular comedy in tho Knglish lileraluro — exactly ns 
 wrong as if anybody would say that .SVyVimn was tho first 
 regular trageily. But it is true that in the Knglisb lite- 
 rature Ben .Jonson was the first wlio a'lopted tho idi-als of 
 the classical literature with full ronsciousncss of what ho 
 was doing, and carried tbein llirough with adequato talent. 
 This his standpoint procured for him a great authority in 
 the literary lil'e of his age, but it made bis genius declam- 
 atory in tragedy and satirical in comedy, thereby vastly 
 diminishing its importance for coming ages. ,Soon after 
 his death his works ceased to bo a living infiuence ; they 
 became literary monuments, historical phenoineim, and 
 nothing more. Ci,i;mi;vs I'ktkiishs. 
 
 Jonsson (I"ivv\ b. at llitnrdal. Ieehind,,Jan. 10, 1701 ; 
 stuilied at the rui\ersily of Copenhagen, and was appointed 
 in 17.J1 bishop of Skalliolt, where he d. ,Iuly L':l, 17S!I. His 
 liinlnrin EfflmiuHlirn fiilaiitlirn (4 vols., ('openhagen, 1772- 
 79) is a principal source of tho history of tho island, 
 
 .lootlpoiir', Jniitlpoiir, or .Unrwar, a tributary 
 stale r.r India, the largest of It nipoiilana. «iri(ated in the 
 N. W. Provinces, belwe.-n hit. 21° and 2S° N. and Ion. 70° 
 and 75° E. Area. :'..'i.0"2 square miles. It is diviiled into 
 two unequal parts by the river Loonee, which flows into tho 
 , Great Western Run of Cutoh. Tho larger portion of Jood- 
 
 poor, N. W. of the Lnonce, is chiefly waste, being an ex- 
 tension of tho desert of Scinde ; the smaller portion, S. E. 
 of that river, is fertile, well irrigated by torrents from tho 
 Mairwnr Mountains, and produces excellent grain and cot- 
 ton. Wild beasts and serpents abound: iron, salt, and mar- 
 ble arc plentiful. The natives, mostly of the .Iaixa sect 
 (which see), are skillul in the woollen manufacture and 
 active in trade. Joodpoor is under the government of a 
 native prince called ninftftyajah, who pays a coiisideraljle 
 annual tribute to the British government, which is virtually 
 tho ruler through the agent residing at tho court. Tho 
 population is about I.SOO.OOt); the caiiilal, also called .Tood- 
 poor, has a po|iuiation variously stated at from .SO,(IUO to 
 150.000. Pallcc, 40 miles S. E. of Jondpoor, is tho com- 
 mercial metropolis, tho seat of an active trade in opium. 
 There are in .Joodpoor several thousand villages of from 
 5U0 to 1000 houses each. 
 
 Jop'lillf city of .Jasper eo., j\ro., near the S. W. corner 
 of the county, has 2 banks. 2 weekly iicwspaper.s, graded 
 schools, 20 smelting furnaces, :tMd ]iroiluees iibout 
 15,000,000 poumls of pig lead and 10,000,000 pounds of 
 pig 7,inc annually. It is a thriving town ; esliiuatcd pop., 
 8500 in 1874. G. D. Jackso.v, I*i;b. "Bullktin." 
 
 Joppn. See Jaffa. 
 
 Jor'daons (Jacob'), b. at /Vntwerp May 19, 1594, was a 
 pupil of Ailam van Oort. His style, however, he formed 
 ]irincipally alter tho Italians Paul Veronese and Caravag- 
 gio, though he never visited Italy, and after Rubens, with 
 whom he is often compared. He liked to fill a large can- 
 vas with mythological and bacchanalian scenes, but his 
 pictures arc always less powerful in conception, less vigor- 
 ous in design, and less brilliant in coloring than those of 
 Rubens, and sometimes they arc rather trivial. He worked 
 with astonishing rapidity, and .lebieved a great fame ; be is 
 abundantly represented in all European galleries. D. at 
 Antwerp (jt-t. 10, 1078. 
 
 Jordan [Ileb. Varden: Gr. 'lopSoi-iii ; called by the .Ara- 
 bian geograjihers E/~ Vrdnu, and more commonly Knh-nhe- 
 riah — (". c. '* the watering-place "]. Ihe principal river of 
 Palestine and the most celebrated in biblical geography, 
 takes its rise from the snows of Mount Hennon at the N. 
 extremity of the Holy Land, ami flows nearly due S. through 
 tho centre of that country to the Dead Sea. It has three 
 jirineipal sources: I. the Lcddan, e:illed by Jose])hus tho 
 Little ,Iordan, rising from a great fountain, the largest in 
 Syria, at the base of the hill 7'cll-rl-h'uili/, on which are 
 the ruins of Ihe ancient city Dan; II. the //<iiim»i/, rising 
 at Banias (the ancient Cscsarea Pliili))pi), 4 miles E. of 
 Tell-cl-Kildy, frcmi a vast cave now coni-c;iIed by tho ruins 
 of a temiile built by Herod: III. the IIiikIjiui;/. rising at 
 Ilasbeiya, 12 miles N. of Tell-el-K.ldy, from a pool at tho 
 foot of' a basalt clill'. The latter is Ihe smallest of tho 
 streams, but is Ihe longest ami rises from tho highest per- 
 ennial source, 1700 feet above the level of the sea, while 
 the fountain at Banias is 1147, and tbiil at Tell-el-Kady 
 but 017 feet above that level. The two higher tonenls 
 burst through narrow rocky ravines, and unite with the 
 Leddan 4 or 5 miles below its source, forming the Jordan 
 proper, wbiell, miles below, falls into Lake Huleb, called 
 in the Bible the ''waters of Merom." From Lake Hulch 
 tho Jordan descends with rapiility and violence in a tortu- 
 ous channel, over a roeky bed with many cataracts, and 
 falling nearly 800 feet witliin a eom|uus of 1 1 miles of lati- 
 tude, enters tho Sen of Galilee, otherwise calleil Genncs- 
 aret and Tiberias, now Dnhr-cl- Tiihuri;/rl,. The former 
 lake is 120 feet almrr the level of the sea! Ihe latter 050 feet 
 hrliitr. In its remaining course from Ihe Sea of Galilee to 
 the Dead Sea the Jordan falls nearly 700 feet more — a 
 strange and almost incredible fact had it not been eslab- 
 lished by careful measurement, the explannliou of which 
 is to bo fiMind in the extremely tortuous course of the river, 
 wbiell within 00 miles of latitude traverses at least 200 miles 
 and has 27 considerable riipids. The whoh- lower stream, 
 or .lordan proper, then, is many hundred feet below tho 
 sea-level, which fact alone woubl make this region unique 
 ns a geograpbieal and ge<dogieal phenotni'non. The val- 
 ley, now called El-fHtnr, is about miles wiile at the norlh- 
 ern end, expnncling to 12 miles at the soiilhern, is generally 
 level an'l shut in between sleep parallel chains of niountains 
 from .1000 to 5000 feet high. Small (mrtions in the N. are 
 alone eullivaled. the ri'Sl is desert, ''in spring covered wilh 
 rank grass and thistles, hut in summer parched and bare. 
 The southern section, known as the Plain of ,Jerieho, is 
 covered with a white nitrous crust, like hoar-frost, through 
 wbieh not H blade of grass nor green herb springs." In 
 the midst of this )>laiu the .lordan has cut Ihrough Ihe 
 chalky strata a winding ravine varying from 200 yarils to 
 half II mile in breadth ami from 40 to 150 itivi in depth. 
 Fivo miles below the Sea of tialilee it receives its largest 
 tributary, tho Skerial-tl-Mandhur (Ilicrumax of tho Qrcek
 
 1448 
 
 JORDAN— JORTIN. 
 
 geographers^ a stream from the E. scarcely inferior to the 
 Jordan, I'M) feet wide at its mouth ; and about halfway be- 
 tween the lakes the Jabhok fWady Zcrka) enters from the 
 mountains <»f (Jilead "u the E., being the only other con- 
 siderable tributary. There are only two bridges over the 
 Jordan now in existence: one. 2 miles S. of Lake Huleh, 
 of the time of the Crusades, called Jiar Hcnnt Yu/cub, " tho 
 bridge of Jacob's daughters," has been from time immemo- 
 rial the leading pass from Western Palestine to Damascus ; 
 the other, Jisr-el-MrJumia, a quaint Saracenic structure, is 
 2 miU's below the mouth of the llieromax, and formerly 
 connected the great, city of Pevthopolis (Ilethshean, now 
 Jhinati) with the Decaptdis. The ])rineipal fords above tho 
 Zerka are one just below the Lake of Galilee, which must 
 have been traversed by Christ, and that of Suecoth, 13 
 miles below the lower bridge. The latter was undoubtedly 
 the ford by which Abraham and Jjvcob crossed; it was also 
 probably the lUilnibnm of John's bapti>-m and of the slaugh- 
 ter of the Midianitcs and tho Ephraimitos (Judg. vii. and 
 xii.). Ten miles below the Zerka is a noted ford on the 
 road from Xabhui? (Sheehera) to Es-Salt, and there aro two 
 others near the " pilgrims' bathing-plaeo" in tho Plain of 
 Jericho. One of tho latter must havo been the scene of tho 
 miraculous crossing of the Israelites under Joshua and of 
 the similar miracles recorded of Elijah and Elisha (2 Kings 
 ii. S, 14), and tho same spot is traditionallv regarded as the 
 scene of Christ's baptism. At its montli the Jordan is 540 
 feet wide and l;UO icet below the level of the sea. The val- 
 ley of tho lower .Jordan abounds in slime-pils, and thermal 
 springs are frequent, with many other indications of former 
 volcanic or igneous action. Dark basalt is the principal 
 rock in the upper region — trap, limestone, sandstone, and 
 conglomerate in the lower. Cane, oleanders, willows, tam- 
 arisks, hollyhocks, and thistles form tho most noticeable 
 trees nnd plants; ii<tns, tigers, and wild-boars formerly 
 made their haunts in the thickets along the river's edge. 
 The course of the Jordan was in 1847 partially explored by 
 Lieut. Molyneux of the British navy (Journal itoi/. Geoff. 
 Sor., vol. xviii.). more thoroughly by Lieut. Lynch of the 
 IT. S. navy in 1S48 (sec his Official lieport), and later by 
 MacGregor (1868-60) in his Rob Roy canoe. (The best 
 sources of information are Robinson's liihUntl RcHcnrchea, 
 the geograjdiical works of Von Raumer. Ritter. and Peter- 
 mann, Stanley's Sluni and Palestine, and the recent publi- 
 cations of the British Palestine Exploration Society. See 
 also able articles in Kitto's, Smith's, and MeClintock and 
 Strong's liiblical Ci^clopsEdiaa, and article Pai.fstixe in 
 this work.) Poutcr C. Bliss. 
 
 Jordan, tp. of Whitcsides co., III. Pop. 1190. 
 Jordfiil, tp. of Jas])er co., Ind. Pop, 327. 
 Jordan, tp. of Warren co., Ind. Pop. 448. 
 Jordan, tp. uf Fillmore co., Minn. Pop. 68.3. 
 Jordan, post-v. of Scott co.. Minn., on the St. Paul 
 and Sioux City R. R., 8 miles S. W. of Shakopce. It has 
 1 weekly newspaper. 
 
 Jordan^ a v. of Croghan tp., Lewis co., N. V., on Os- 
 wegatchie River; has manufactures of leather. 
 
 Jordan, incorporated v. of Onondaga co., N. Y., on 
 the Erie Canal and New York Central R. R., N. branch, 17 
 miU's W. of Syracuse, in the N. W. corner of the town of 
 Elhridge ; has a weekly newspaper, a banking-house, acad- 
 emy, 4 churches, 13 stores, flnuring-mill. 2 manufactories 
 which turn out yearly 30,(100 wheelbarrows and ]'),000 
 hand-sleds, a straw-board mill, furnace, machine-shop, 2 
 cooper-shops, pump-faL-tory. 2 wagon manufactories, fine 
 water-power, etc. Pop. 1263. 
 
 11. P. AViN'soR, Ed. "TnANScniPT." 
 Jordan, tp. of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 561. 
 Jordan, tp. of Lycoming eo., Pa. Pop. 47.1. 
 Jordan, tp. of Northumberland co., Pa. Pop. 924. 
 Jordan, post-tp. of Green co., Wis. Pop. 1083. 
 Jordan (Camii.le), b. at Lyons Jan. 11, 1771. and 
 phiyed a very conspicuous part in French politics during 
 the Revolution and the Restoration. He was a decided 
 enemy of the republican government, and one of tho 
 most active jiromotcrs of the insurrection of Lyons. After 
 the fall of that city (Oct. 9, 1793) he tied to Switzerlnnd, 
 whence he went to London. Having returneil to Lyons in 
 1796. he was elected a member of the Council of Five Hun- 
 dred, but had to flee a second time after tlie revolution of 
 Sept. 4, 1797. He went to (Jermany. and lived in Weim.ar. 
 In IfSOO he was recalled, and showed himself strongly op- 
 posed to the measures of the First Cnnsiil. But Napoleon 
 chose not to notice him, and during the Empire he lived in 
 retirement, engaged in literary pursuits. After the resto- 
 ration of the Bourbons he at first sided with the govern- 
 ment, but when in 1S20, after the assassination of the duke 
 of Berry, au attempt was mado by tho ministry to suspend 
 
 the liberty of the person, to suppress the freedom of the 
 press, and to change the elective system, Jordan became 
 the parliamentary leader of the opposition. He died, how- 
 ever, soon after (May 19, 1;S2I). His writings consist 
 mostly of pamphlets written with great courat^c and elo- 
 quence, and illustrative of the situation uf the moment. 
 (See Saiut-Beuvc, Camillc Jordan ct Madame Stafl, 1S6S.) 
 
 Jordan (Chaki-ks Ktibxxe), b. at Berlin Aug. 27, 1700, 
 of a French family; studied at Magdeburg and (icneva: 
 was appointed minister to the French Reformed church of 
 Potzlow in 1725, but resigned his office in 1732. after tho 
 d"ath of his wife ; made a literary journey in Holland and 
 France; accompanied tho Prussian crown prince in his 
 exile at Rhciiisberg: and continued from that time to his 
 death (May 14, 174."») to be the friend and companion of 
 Frederick II. From this circumstance his J/iHtoiie d'lin 
 rnj/o/jc Itftentire and his Corrotpoiidanvc avcc Fridiric II. 
 derive some interest. 
 
 Jordan (Dora), b. near Waterford, Ireland. about 1762, 
 was an act re?? in Lontlun towards the clo.-c of the eighlccnih 
 century, when she became the mistrci^s of the duke of Clar- 
 ence, afterwarils King William IV. By hira she had ten 
 children, but tho connection ceased some time before hor 
 death, which occurred at St. Cloud. France. .Inly 3, JS16. 
 ller Memoii'n were ]inblishcd by J. Boiiden in 1S3I. It has 
 been asserted that Mrs. Jordan did not die in France at the 
 .above date, but resided for several years under an assumed 
 name in England. 
 
 Jordan (Ri'oorpn), b. at Berlin in 1810, nnd began his 
 artistic studios in tliat city, but received his stylo in tho 
 school of Diisscldorf. He has painted scenes from tho 
 coasts of Normandy, the Dutch islantls. Heligoland, Riizen. 
 etc., and one of his pictures. Afarriof/c Proposal in Hclitjo- 
 land (1S34), has become widely known. 
 
 Jordan (Thomas), b. in tho Luray Valley, Va., Sept. 
 30, 1819; graduated at West Point, and entered the army 
 as brevet sccoml lieutenant of infantry .July 1. IS^O; sec- 
 ond lieutenant Dee., IS40 ; in the war with the Seminoles 
 (1842) captured their leading chief. Tiger Tail ; in the war 
 with Mexico engaged at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma ; 
 appointed captain and quartermaster Mar. 3, 1S47, serving 
 as such on the Pneific co.ist lSo2-60. Resigned May, 1861. 
 to follow the fortunes of his native State, entering lier ser- 
 vice as lieutenant-colonel, and at once assigned as adjutant- 
 general of Confederate forces assembling at Manassas 
 Junction. As chief of staff accompanied (Jon. Beauregard 
 to Tennessee, and was apjjointed brigadier-general from 
 date of the battle of Shiloh: temporarily on stafT of (len. 
 Bragg, but resumed his position with Beauregard during 
 the defence of Charleston, 1862-64. Immediately after the 
 war publislied in Harper's Mnr/azlue a critical review of 
 Confederate operations and administration ; subsequently 
 (1S6G) was editor of the Memphis Appeal. Invited to or- 
 ganize the military resources of the Cuban revolution, was 
 made chief of general staff of that army, and second in 
 command (IS69), succeeding to chief command Dec.. 1869, 
 and fouglit a largely sujicrior force .Tan. 1, IS70, inlHcting 
 heavy loss. Seeing ni> proliability of being able to organ- 
 ize an effective force, and the supply of arms and ammu- 
 nition running low, he resigned Feb., 1S70, and returned 
 to tho IT. S., where he is mostly engaged in literary pur- 
 suits. Author of Cainpnif/na of Lieut, -Oeu. Forrcut (1867). 
 
 Jordan Ilivo**, in Utah, flows from X'tah Lnke, some 
 45 miles, in a northward course into the (Jrent Salt Lake. 
 It is small and not navigable, but is capable of irrigating 
 a largo extent of country. Its waters contain numerous 
 species of small fish. 
 
 Jordan's, tp. of Coosn co., Ala. Pop. 568. 
 
 Jornan\les, or Jordanes, the historiographer of the 
 Goths, was himself a tioth by birth, and lived in the mid- 
 dleof tho sixth century. Having been converted to Chris- 
 tianity, ho became a monk, and trailition mnkcs him bi.=hop 
 of Crotona. He wrote two historical wurks which have 
 come down to us — /A' retfunnnn ar tntipnrtiin ni(rrrgfiiouc,a.H 
 
 outline of tlio history of tho world to the time of Justinian ; 
 and De ffetaniin sire Ootlionim orif/itie ct vchns f/rntis, a his- 
 tory of tho <"ioths from the origin of t!ie jieople to the fall 
 of the Oj*trogothic empire in Italy. The former is of very 
 little interest, but the latter is invaluable. It is the prin- 
 cipal, nearly the only, source of the liistory of tho Goths 
 ond of the great migration of the nations. The history of 
 the (loths had been written before by Cassiodorus. Ablavius, 
 and l>ion Cassius, but these works are lost, and we know 
 them only from extracts made by .lornandes. The best crit- 
 ical edition of his works is that by Closs (.Stuttgart, 1861). 
 Jortin (Jons), D. D.. b. in London Oct. 23, 1698; stud- 
 ied at the Charter house and at Jesus College. Cambridge, 
 of which ho became a fellow after gradunling in 1719, 
 W'hilo at college ho made extracts from EudLathius for the
 
 JORULLO-JOSEPHUS. 
 
 1449 
 
 use of I'ope in hi? translation of Homor. and bccnmo noted 
 for hi? facilily in liiitin verse, of which lie puhlishej a vol- 
 ume i LnnnH i*.,rtir{, 1722). Takin;? onU-rs in the Church 
 of Enf;Iand he was presented to the Mvin;; of Swavesey 
 near Cambridge (1720), hut soon after removed to London, 
 and became a much-admirod pulpit-orat(»r, beinj;; succes- 
 sively rector of Eastwtll (Kent), of St. Dun.stan's-in-the- j 
 East, domr-stic chaplain to tlic bishop of London (1762), j 
 prebend of St. Paul's, rector of Kensington, and archdca- | 
 con of London (1764). IIo was author of numerous learned 
 phiIoIogii*;ib critical, and theological works which have 
 niaintainnl u hiffh reputation, among which were Truth of 
 the ChrUtinn J{, luji'nn (1746), Li'/e of ErnHinuH {175S-6()"). 
 Srrmonn (4 vol?.. 1771), Six Itisstirtutious tipon Different 
 Siihjfrtn (1772), Kemarktt upon Authors Ancimt nnd Modern 
 n7.'U-;i2), firmnrkn on EcclrHinntivaf Ifiilori/ (5 vols., 
 1751-7.t), and Trad". Philofoffico/, Critical, and Miaceita- 
 r.corit (17y0). I>. at Kensington Sept. o, 1770. 
 
 Jorurio,a volcanoof Mexi(*. in the state of Michoacan. 
 in lat. 19° 10' X. and Ion. 101° 1' \V. From a plain having 
 an elevation of 2S90 feet it was suddenly lifted to a height 
 of 42B.> feet on Sept. 28. 1759. Several of its cones soon 
 subsided, however, and it is now nearly extinct, discharg- 
 ing only a little vapor, and is nearly covered with forests. 
 
 Jo'scph [Heb. Yoffph, *' increascr *'], one of the twelve 
 patriarch.s. the elder son of .Jacob an<l Hachel, b. at Haran, 
 ko Syria (Padan-Arain), about b. c 1'J13; was the favorite 
 son of hi* father, and envied by his brethren on that ac- 
 count. Their enmity was further excited by two dreams 
 which Joseph related when about seventeen years of age, in 
 which his future greatness was furesiiadowed, and this led 
 them to sell him as a slave to some Midianite traders, by 
 whom he was carried into E[;ypt antl sold to Potiphar, an 
 officer of the king. He acquired the confidence of his mas- 
 ter, who set him as overseer over all his property, but hav- 
 ing repelled dishonorable proposals made to him by his 
 mistress, she accused him falsely to her husband, and caused 
 him to be thrown into |)ri?un. Here he interpreted the 
 dreams of two of his fellow-prisoners, the chief baker and 1 
 chief bu'Ier of Pharaoh, and when his predictions had been 
 justified by the result, he was summoned by King Pharaoh, 
 at the instance of the butler, to interpret (wo <lreams which 
 portended seven years of prosperity followed by seven of I 
 famine. The king was so much struck by the wisdom of i 
 the advice given by the young Hebrew that he adopted all 
 his suggestions for making preparations for the time of 
 famine, and appointed him ruler over the whole land. The 
 measures taken by .Foseph as vizier or viceroy resulted great- 
 ly to the advantage of the king ami of his people, securing an 
 abundant provision for the time of famine. This calamity 
 ext'-iiled also to the adjoining countrie:^, and led to tho 
 bretliren of Joseph being sent into Egypt to buy corn. 
 Joseph rccognizc<l his unnatural brethren, and after a scries 
 of stratagems, by which he reminded themofand punished 
 them for their crime, the whole family was brought into 
 Etrypt anil eslabli-'heil in the land of (loshen. .Joseph mar- 
 ried a claiighter of the high priest of On ( Iloliopolis), and 
 ha»l two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, who became tho 
 progenitors of tho tribes bearing those names, tho mn-t 
 powerful of the future king«loin of Israel. Joseph pre- 
 served his authority until his death, which occurred n. c. 
 I?*fl2, at the age of 1 in. His body was embalmed, and at 
 the time of the Kxodus was carried to Palestine and buried 
 at Shecliein, where his tomb is still shown. 
 
 Josrphf the husband of Mary and reputed or legal 
 fathr-r of .L'siis, was a resident of Nazareth in Galilee, 
 though a .icBcmdant of David, and eonncoted by his im- 
 meitiute ancestry, perhaps by birth, with Bethlehem in 
 Ju'lah. His gt-nealogy is given both by Matthew and by 
 liukc. but in tho former (lospel ho is called tho son of 
 Jacob, nnd in tho lattertheson of Heli, Various hypotheses 
 have been proposed to re-oneile this dis;.'repancy. the most 
 general being that one of tho genealogies is really that of 
 Mary. .Joseph was a e:irpenter, and is supposed to havo 
 educated Jesus to his own trade, Jjittlecan be nterrtnincd 
 «f hid eharacter or personal history beyou'l the well-known 
 circumstances of tho announcement made to him by an 
 angel in adr<"ain of tb^ miraculous conception of the Christ, 
 his jcmrney to Ib'thbdiem. flight into Egypt, and return 
 to Nazare'h. The last glimpse of Joseph is found in tho 
 incident (Luke ii. 42-.^2| of .fesus when twelve years of ago 
 being found with the doctors in the temple. He is repre- 
 sented by early trnditiim lo have been an old man at tho 
 birth of .Tesu". nnd apparently had died before the publio 
 ministry of Christ began, 
 
 JoApphf king of Naples and of .Spain. See lioNAPARTE 
 (JosKi-n >. 
 
 rfoseph (FATnnnl.b. in Paris, Frnncc, Nov. 4. If)77, hit 
 oricinat name being FnAN^'Ois liKci.KKc ni' THtnrni.A V. Ho 
 belonged to a distinguished family, travelled much in his 
 
 youth, and served in the array under an assumed name, 
 ofter which he took holy orders and attained a high posi- 
 tion a? a Capuchin friar. Attracting the attention of Car- 
 dinal Richelieu, that statesman made Ealhcr Joseph his 
 secretary and confidential adviser. In this capacity he 
 wielded immense intluence and power for many years. He 
 despatched missionaries to Canada and the East, advocated 
 in a Latin poem a crusade against the Turks, and left sev- 
 eral volumes of memoirs, which arc still in manuscript in 
 the National Library of Paris. A cardinal's hat was soli- 
 cited and obtained for him by Richelieu, Imf before it was 
 actually conferred he d. at Rueil Dec. IS, IG.'iS, 
 
 Joseph I.f German emperor, b. at Vienna July 26, 
 167S; was crowned king of Hungary I6S7; king of tho 
 Romans 1690; succeeded to his father, Leopold I., 1705. 
 The great events of his reign were the putting of the elec- 
 tors of Cologne and Bavaria under the ban (1706) and the 
 seizure of their states : the conquest of Naples under I'ann, 
 the successful revival (1707-08) of the imperial claims to 
 the great fiefs of Italy, and the victories of Marlhorongh 
 and Eugene in the war of the Spanish succession. D. Apr. 
 17, 1711. 
 
 Joseph II. of Germany, b. Mar. 13, 1741, was the son 
 of Francis I. and ^laria Theresa: was fond of learning, 
 nnd became a professed philanthropist ; succeeded his 
 father in 1765; took part in the first partition of Poland 
 1772; succeeded his mother in Hungary and iJohcmia 1780 j 
 attempted the wholesale reformation of all the empire and 
 his kingdom by edicts abolishing serfdom, declaring for 
 religious liberty, the reform of jurisprudence, the abolition 
 of monasteries, etc.; but as the means employed were vio- 
 lent and unusual, and the changes but ill adapted to the 
 state and feelings of the people, nearly all classes, led by 
 notiles an<l priests, joined in the opposition, and the em- 
 peror (who, though theoretically a friend of reform, was 
 not a just man) was compelled to yield (1700) and with- 
 draw his novel measures. D. Feb. 20. 1790. 
 
 Josephine', county of theS. W. of Oregon, bounded on 
 the S. by Calitornia. Area, about 1100 square miles. Much 
 of its surface is mountainous. The Rogue River Valley is 
 verv fertile. Gold, iron, and copper are found. Cap. 
 Kerby. Pop. 1204, 
 
 Josephine^ empress, first wife of Napoleon I., origin- 
 ally named .Makie Joskpii Rose he T-vsrwEn de la Pa- 
 CEiiii:. b. at Trois Islets, in Martinique, West Indies. .June 
 24, 176:t; was married in 1770 in France to the Vieointe 
 dc Reauharniiis. in consequence of an early betrothal by 
 her father. The union wns not a very congenial one. 8ho 
 became tlie mother of Eufrene IJeanharnais and of Hor- 
 tense, the mother of Napoleon III. The vieomto was ex- 
 ecuted by the Jacobins in 171M. and Josephine's life was 
 saved with some difficulty by Madnmc Tallien. who res- 
 cued her from prison in 1701. In 17iH) she ninrricd Gen. 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, then a rising officer, afterwiirds ap- 
 ]»ointcd to the chief coniman*! in Italy. The match was 
 
 {)rompted by mutual love, and was long a union of great 
 lappincps to lioth. In ISQI she was crowned em]>ress, and 
 both before and after that event .Josephine's wisdom nnd 
 talents, and the nfVection with which she was popularly re- 
 garded, did much to strengthen Napoleon's position in 
 France. But tho fact that the union was childless was 
 likely to bo fatal to Napoleon's nmhition to lieenme the 
 founder of an imperial line; and in ISOO she was divorced, 
 ami retired to Mahnaison, where she d. May 20. 1814. 
 
 Jose'phHS (Fr.AVirs), b. at Jerusalem in .'i7 a. n.. of a 
 noble and wealthv family: after passing through the schools 
 of the three different .Jewish seels, nnd spending three 
 years in tho desert with the hermit Bnnus, he adopted the 
 views of the Pharisees ns most congenial to his shrewd, 
 ambitious, and worldly character, nnd he soon attained n 
 prominent position in .Jewish society. In fi.*! A. n. ho wns 
 sent to Rome on a diplonmtic errond, nnd wns introduced 
 to tho empress Poppiun, who favored the .lews, by n Jew- 
 ish actor belonging to (he troupe of Nero. He accomplished 
 his mission with success, nnd returned with great honor to 
 .Jerusalem. During the .Jewish revolution he eommamled 
 in Galilee, and e>;eaped the massacre lifter the capture of 
 .Jolapntn. He fell, nevertheless, into the hands of the Ro- 
 mans, but saved himself by predicting the future elevation 
 of Venpa-fian to the imperial throne. He was present in 
 tho Roman army at the destruction of .Jerusnlem. and nc- 
 companied Titus to Rome, where he rcsiileil for the re-it of 
 his life. As long ns the Flavian family, in honor of which 
 ho a<lopled the name of Flavins, occupied the throne, ho 
 lived in grent splendor. Of his life after the denth of Do- 
 mitian (06 a, n. ) very little is known, and the dale of his 
 own death is uncertain, though it is probable that he was 
 still living in ^0'^ A. n. Of his works the following have 
 come down to us: TltpX tow 'lovJSaiKoC »roA«Moi', a history of 
 the Jewish war from 170 u. c. to tho destruction of Jeru-
 
 1450 
 
 JOSH BELL— JOSIAH. 
 
 saleni, originally written in Syro-ChaldEean, which version 
 is lost, liiit translateil into Greek by himself: "lovSatKij 
 'Ap\aio\oyia. :i history of (he Jews from the Creation to (IG 
 A. P.: Bio5. an autobiography ; and a work against Apion. 
 The best editions arc those by Dindorf (Paris, lS4o) and 
 llckkcr (Leipsic. ISo5). and of the Jewish War separately 
 by Ciir.lwell {Oxford, lS;i7). Complete translations info 
 En2li:?h have been given by liodge (1C02), L'Estrangc 
 (1702 i.Whiston (17H7);audof the Jewish H*«r separately 
 bv Robert Traill (1817). 
 
 •fosh Dcllj south-easternmost county of Kentueky, 
 having Virginia on the E. and Tennessee on ihe S. Area, 
 about ISO square miles. It is a rucged mountain-region. 
 The valleys proilucc corn and tobacco. The county is 
 traveri-ed by the Cumberland River, and contains coal and 
 iron. Cap. Pinevillc. Pop. 37:51. 
 
 Josh'ua [Ileb. Yehohhua, "Jehovah his helper"], orig- 
 inally called Honhcn. :t Hebrew general, the successor of 
 Moses in the leadership of the chosen people and the con- 
 queror and ruler of Palestine. He was the son of Nun. of 
 the tribe of Ephraim, b. in Egvpt not far from B. c. Ui98, 
 as he was about forty yeurs old at the time of the E.xodus. 
 He first appears in the biblical record as commander of the 
 Israeliirs in their victorious engagements with the Amalek- 
 ites at Rophidim (b. r. IfijS). In the account of iMoses' 
 ascent of Sinai for the tables of the law. Joshua appears as 
 his "servant "or "minister." accompanying him in apart of 
 the ascent, and first meeting him on the descent. He was 
 one of the twelve "spies" sent to explore the land of Canaan, 
 and one of the two (the other being Caleb) who reported 
 favorably upon the country, for which reason tlu-y alone of 
 all the adult Israelites were spared to enter the Promised 
 Land. Mosi-s was divinely ilireeted shortly before his 
 death to cooler upon Joshua the chief authority over the 
 people, and a solemn charge from Jehovah was addressed to 
 bim from the lips of the dying founder of the Hebrew com- 
 mon\7eaIth. In his oighty-iifth year .Toshua led the chosen 
 people dry-shod through Jordan (Josh. iii. 17) ; fortified a 
 camp at Gilgal, where he set up twelve stones from the 
 midst of Jordan as a memorial of miraculous assistance; 
 kept a solemn Passover, on which occasion the daily fall 
 of manna ceased : and received a visit (Josh. v. 13) from a 
 loysterious personage called the ** captain of the host of 
 Ji*liov;ih," wlio pronounced the ground whereon he stood 
 holy. Who was this " captain " lias been greatly disputed, 
 the most orthodox commentators often identifying him with 
 the second person of the Trinity. Joshua led the Israelites 
 in the taking of Jericho and of Ai. miraculously assisted in 
 both cases, as he was some time later in the celebrated battle 
 with the five kings of the .\moritcs. \vhen, in the language 
 of the author of the poetical book of Jasher. he commandc<I, 
 " Sun. stand thou still upon Gibeon. and thou. Moon, in the 
 valley of Ajalon." an<l was obeyed, giving liim time to 
 finish the destruction of his enemies. No miracle recorded 
 in the Bible has occasioned greater iliversity of opinion or 
 has been rcci-ived with greater ineredulity. Many modern 
 orthodox writers conclude that it is unnecessary to suppose 
 an actual stopping of the sun's course, and find a suftieient 
 explanation in (he fact that the account is quoted from a 
 poetical work not now preserved, and therefore presumably 
 neither inspired nor infallible in matters of fact, even sup- 
 posing the intention to have been to chronicle an actual 
 occurrence. Joshua inscribed the Law upon Mount Ebal; 
 in six years overran Canaan in its whole length from S. to 
 N., destroying thirty-one kings, but leaving many isolated 
 strongholds in the hands of the Canaaniles; divided the 
 hind among the tribes; appointed six cities of refuge and 
 forty-eight Lovitical cities: set up the tabornai.*le at Shiloh, 
 and dismissed the trans-Jordanic tribes to their homes. 
 He fixed his own residence at Timnath-Sorah in .Mount 
 Ephraim, and after judging the people twentv-two years 
 convoked an assembly of the elders at Shechem, delivered 
 two solcnm addresses, and caused tlum to renew their cove- 
 nant with Jehovah, after which he d. at the age of 110 
 years (n. r. 150.1), and was buried in Tininnlh-Serah f Tih- 
 uck), where M. de Saulcy an<l M. de (iut-rin have, as Ihcy 
 believe, recently discovered his tomb. The career of Joshua 
 has been noticed by many biblical commentators as one of 
 the few recorded in some detail without any blemish being 
 imputed, .Many are loath to justifv his wholesale slaughter 
 of the C.-inaanites. but if they believe such action to have 
 been commanded by Jehovah, they cannot logically con- 
 demn him for the execution of divine vengeance. Others, 
 disbelieving the reality of such command, mny, and per- 
 haps do. upon their own principles, doubt the reality of 
 the acts of extermination imputeil to him. The name 
 Joshua is in Hebrew the same as J,n„n in Greek; in one 
 passage in the New Testament ( Heb. iv. S) ho is alluded 
 to by that name, and evidently regarded as a type of 
 Christ. PoKTEK C. Buss. 
 
 Joshua, tp. of Fulton cc, lU. Pop. 1175. 
 
 Joshua, Book of, the sixth canonical book of tho 
 Old Testa in tut. immediately following Deuteronomy, so 
 called because it is devote<l to the history of the conquest 
 j and division of Canaan under the auspices of Joshua, and 
 closes with his death. It may be divided into two equal 
 parts, called respectively the historical and the geographi- 
 cal — the first (chaps, i.-xii.) containing the record of tho 
 conquest ; the second (chaps, xiii.-xxiv.) the division of tho 
 land among the tribes. Tiie second part has been com- 
 pared to the Doomsday Pook of England, from the minute- 
 ness of the boundaries laid down, thus affording so exact 
 an account of the princi}tal cities, towns, and villages of 
 Canaan, fifteen centuries b. c, that the researches of the 
 Palestine Exploration Society, now (1875) engaged in a to- 
 pographical survey of Palestine, are largely and success- 
 fully dirccterl to the verification of the data of the book of 
 Joshua. The authorship and date of the book cannot bo 
 considered as settled, nor is it probable that Ihey can ever 
 be accurately ascertained. Early commentators, patristic, 
 Catholic, and Protestant, usually assigned the book to 
 Joshua himself, except the last chapter, which records his 
 death, but apparently for no better reason than because no 
 other authorcould be designated by name and date. By mod- 
 ern orthodox critics it is generally assigned to an unknown 
 writer of a ])eriod immediately subsequent to the death of 
 Joshua. The school of De Wette and Ewald is much di- 
 vided upon the questions affecting the unity and integrity 
 of the book, and a great variety of opinions is still main- 
 tained : roost of them, however, allege passages which they 
 reganl as contradictory, or at least as betraying diversity 
 of authorship. The chief English represent.ativc of this 
 view is Dr. Samuel Davidson in h'm Jutrodnrtion to f/ie Of'i 
 TeHtnmvnt. who assigns the chief authorship to a writer of 
 the age of Saul. The commentaries on Joshua are numer- 
 ous ; it will be sufficient to name as of special value for 
 geograpliical rlata those of Keil (1847, Edinburgh transla- 
 tion 1857^ Knobcl (ISOl). and Dr. H. Crosby (New York, 
 1874) in Lange's series, edited by Dr. Schaff. There is a 
 so-called Samaritan book of Joshua, written in .Arabic dur- 
 ing the Middle Ages, consisting of a compilation from tho 
 canonical book, interwoven with strange legends having 
 Joshua for their hero, forming part of a chronicle of Sa- 
 maritan history down to the Jewish war of Adrian. It 
 was edited with a Latin translation from Ihe only known 
 manuscript (which once belonged to Joseph Scallgcr) by 
 G. J. Juynboll, Liber JtisitiF : Cliroiiiviim ASamnritnnum 
 (Leyden. 18(8). The modern Samaritans are entirely ig- 
 norant of this compilation, though it was evidently written 
 in the interest of their religions ceremonials and traditions 
 as opposed to those of tho Jews. 
 
 Josi'ah [Heb. yo«ft/'j/aA, "healed by Jehovah"], tho 
 sixteenth king of Judah after its separation from the king- 
 dom of Israel, the son and successor of Anion. He began 
 to reign at the ago of eight years, about b. c. 040, and, re- 
 versing the conduct of his father, "did that which was 
 right in the sight of the Lord." The reign of Josiah was 
 at a critical period in the history of Judaea, and be is ex- 
 pressly said to have attained a higher standard of religion 
 than any of his predecessors or successors. In this he was 
 aided by several prophets, who exercised great influence 
 upon the measures of his government during his minority. 
 At twenty years of age Josiah began to take vigorous 
 measures against idolatry, then very prevalent in the land, 
 breaking down altars, temples, and images. Especiiilly 
 the ancient idolatrous temple at llcth-EI, in t!ie nnrthcrn 
 kingdom, was thus purified, burning upon the altar the 
 bones of the recreant priests of former gc ncrations found 
 there in tho sepulchres, in accordance with a prophecy de- 
 livered "4j years before (1 Kings xiii. 2). How Josiah 
 came to exercise jurisdiction in the northern kingdom at 
 this time is not known; it has been thouglit that the As- 
 syrian king, his feudal lord, may have conferred the gov- 
 ernment of Samaria upon him. Six years Inter, Josiah 
 undertook the repair and renovation of the temple, which 
 had been so long neglected that ihe holy books bad fallen 
 into oblivion. The high priest Hilkiah (according to some, 
 the father of the prophet Jeremiah) found in the sanctuary 
 the " Book of the Law *' — j'. e. cither the whole Pentateuch 
 or the book of Deuteronomy — and the people were con- 
 voked to hear it read in the temple, after which the ancient 
 covenant vows were renewed, aiul a Passover celebrated 
 with such pomp ami precision ns had not been seen for 
 centuries. During the reign of Josiah a horde of Scyth- 
 ians conquered the Assyrian empire, and a column of 
 their forces penetrated through Palestine on their way to 
 Egypt. In the historical books of the Old Testament no 
 mention is made of this circumstance, but the prophecy of 
 Zephaniah alludes to it. and Ewald thinks the fifty-ninth 
 Psalm to have been written by Josiah during a siege of Je-
 
 JOSIKA— JOULK. 
 
 i-;.3i 
 
 riisaleni by Ihe Sc.vtbians. In Iho thirty-first year of Jo- 
 siah. Pharaoh-necho, king of Egypt, liuulo*! an army in 
 Northern Palestine to make war against the Assyrian em- 
 pire on the Euphrates. Ju:^iuh rashly altacUeil hiiii at >Me- 
 gi<lilo, was dcrealed with great slaughter. au<l wa^ liimself 
 mortally woiuulcJ. 1>. at Jerusalem about ii. c. llO'J. 
 
 Jo'sikn (MiKi-us) was b. at Torda, Transylvania, 
 Sept. 2S, 17yi>; studied law; eervcd ISll-lS in the Aus- 
 trian army; lived then on his estates, engaged in agricul- 
 tural, political, and literary pursuits; took part very 
 actively lu the Hungarian rising in IS-IS; fled in 1 850 to 
 Brussels, and lived afterwards in I>resden, where bo d. 
 Feb. 27, ISfia. Inspired by Walter Seott, he wrote a great 
 number of novels treating Hungarian life and history, 
 most of which have been successfully translated into Ger- 
 man. Four volumes of memoirs appeared at Pcsth shortly 
 before his death. 
 
 Josquin' Uesprcz' (.Tonocis Pratenris). b. about 
 1450; serve<l from 1471 to 1-4.S4 in the choir of Sixtus IV. 
 at Rome and then in the choir of Louis XII. at Paris ; re- 
 ceived a benefice, and d. in 1 J'Jl in bis n:i:ive town, Cond6. 
 He wrote a great number of ma?scs, motets, and songs, 
 which were highly appreciated, not only at the court, of 
 Louis XII., but in the circles of Luther, and lie is gener- 
 ally considered as the greatest composer before Palcstrina. 
 
 Jos'sclyn (John), a native of Kent, England, visited 
 Xew England in IGilS, and again IfiOo, remaining there 
 eight years. Ileturning to England in 107 1, he published 
 three works on America: X'lc Eiif/iitiifi'n litnitiet Dixcuv- 
 ered {\iu2). An Accuunt of Tico Vojfaf/cti to Ncic Emjluml 
 (1074), and a Chroutttot/ical Table of the most Rcmtifkdhfe 
 PtiKiKi'iet from the First DiKCovcry of the Contuicnt of America 
 to 107S, appende<l to the above. Tho first of these works 
 gives a picture of Boston in ICfi.T ; it was reprinted in this 
 country in ISCj, with notes by Edward Tuckerman. 
 
 Jost (TsAAK Markl's), b. at Burnburg, in the duchy of 
 Anbalt, Feb. 22. ITIKI, of Jewish parentage; studied at 
 Qiittingen and Berlin ; became teacher at a Jewish school 
 in the latter town in 1810. and removed to Frankfort in 
 18.15. D. Nov. 25, ISGO. He translated tho Mi.bna into 
 German {6 vols., 18.'J2), and wrote Oc>t»-hirht€ drr hvarlitrn 
 (9 vols., IS20), besides several other works relating to tho 
 history of the Jews. 
 
 Jo'tuns, or JfcttCDf form one of the most pcculiarbut 
 also one of the most interesting elements of the Scandi- 
 navian mythology; they were the evil principle. Some of 
 the traits under whieb they were imagined seem to have a 
 historical origin, and refer to tho oldest inhabitants of tho 
 Scandinavian countries, the Finns and Lapps, who were 
 driven back by the Teutonic invaders to tho norlberumost 
 parts of Norway and Sweden. In other respects the Jotuns 
 appear to bo mere creations uf tho imagination, symboliz- 
 ing in a vague, general way, and under a most fantastic 
 iuKigery, the dumb powers of nature. Tbcy v;crc giants, 
 and immensely strong, yet they could bo conquered even 
 by men. for they were only half intelligent. Their intelli- 
 gence arose from their native malignity, and assumed gen- 
 erally the fonn of witchcraft. From Jotunhcim or Nid- 
 hciui, tho home of darkness and dulness, they waged per- 
 petual war against the .E-^ir, the brigbt gods of Valhalla; 
 and although they always were defeated, great calamities 
 to the human race ensued from this warfare. Their part is 
 mo.^t couspieuous. however, ut the opening and at tho close 
 of the worMN drauia. lin slew Vmer, the first Jotuu, and 
 built the world from his body — the mountains and roeksof 
 his bones, the earth (d'lns llesh, the OLrean of bis blood, tho 
 hky of his skull, and the. clouds of bis brain. At tho end 
 of time Vmer's odspring will take revenge, slay all tho 
 .'Esir, burn Valhalla, and destroy the earth; after which 
 event the Albfather will restore the universe an<l establish 
 a higher and nobler rule. Ci.kmkns Pktkuskn. 
 
 Joiibert' (lUiiTHhi.i:MY-rATi!RRiM:), b. nt Punt-de- 
 V.Mix, department of Ain. in 17G'J; signalized himself by 
 his republiean eonvielion", ami was considered as the only 
 man nblo to eiiunleraet Bonaparte's anibititm, and to be- 
 come the chief of a definitely oliibli^bed republic of Franeo. 
 But he WHS killed at the age of thirty, at tho buttle of Nov), 
 where bis army was defeated by Suuvarow. Joubcrt bad 
 enlisted in 17'.il as a voluntier, and was promoted on the 
 batttetield, in 17'.'5. t<» the rank of geneial <d brigade. When 
 bo bad llie command in chief in Northern Italy be hastened 
 to proclaim tho revolution in Piedmont. He contributed 
 largely to tho succcs}< of Bonaparte in the battles of .Montc- 
 nulte.Mondori, and Uivoli. FhUX AmAiosK. 
 
 Juiidpiir% town <d' Biillsh India, the capital id' a dis- 
 trict of tho samo name, in the provinee of Agra, on b'lth 
 sides of the (iumti, whieh here is crossed by a tUnw bridge 
 resting on lifleen arehes, built in the fifteenth eeiitury, nud 
 remarkable fur its strength. Pop. 27,1'''". 
 
 Jou'ett (James E.), U. S. N., b. in 1S26 in Kentucky; 
 entered tho navy as a midshipman Sept. 10, 1S41 ; bccamo 
 a passed mid^b)pu)an in 1847, a lieutenant in 1855, a licu- 
 teuuut-eommandcr in lStj2, a eommantler in 1800, a captain 
 in 1874. Un the night of Nov. 7, 1801, Lieut. Jouctt, in 
 command of the first and second launches of the U. S. frig- 
 otc Santee, carried, by boarding, the armed schooner Royal 
 Yacht in the harbor of Galveston, Tex., after a very obsti- 
 nate light, in whieb he was twice severely wounded. At Iho 
 battle of Mobile Bay he commanded the steamer Meta- 
 comet, and distinguished himself by his coolness and in- 
 trepidity. Rear-admiral Farragut, in bis oflicial report of 
 tho battle, says: "Our little consort, the Jlelacomet, was 
 also under my immediate eye during the whole action up 
 to the moment T ordered her to cast off in pursuit of the 
 Sclina. Tho coolness and promptness of Lieut. -Com. Jouctt 
 throughout merit high praise; his whole conduct was worthy 
 of his rei>utation." Foxiiali. A. Parker. 
 
 Jouffroy' (TniroDOUK Simon), b. at Lcs Pontots, depart- 
 ment of Doubs, France, in 1790; educated at the Oollcgo 
 of Dij<m ; initiated into the study of philosophy by Victor 
 Cousin, and held different positions as teiieher of jdiilos- 
 ophy at difVorcnt educational and scientific institutions of 
 Paris, where he d. Feb. 4, 1842. He translated Dugald 
 Stewart's Outlines of Aforaf Philosophy and all the writings 
 of Dr. Reid into Froneh. and thereby became the medium 
 of a lively intercoumiunieation I>etwcen the Scotch and the 
 French philosophy. Of bis own numerous works, nil of 
 whieh arc without any striking originality, but clear and 
 instructive, the CnurtKfr droit tiatiirel and some essays bavo 
 been translated info English. 
 
 JoiilTroy d'Arbans, de (CLAimK FnANt^ors Doro- 
 Tiiti:), MAityris, b. in Franchc- Conit6, France, about 
 1751; was in his early luiinbood (1772) a captain of in- 
 fantry. Inuring an exile of two years in Provence he stud- 
 ied tho navigation of sailing vessels, and prepared notes 
 for a work on that subject. The sight of Cliaillot's fire- 
 engine (1775) suggested to him the applieatictn of steam to 
 navigation. He developed bis idea by consultation with 
 Pcricr and other men of science, and with the assistance of 
 a village coppersmith made a small steam-propeller, which 
 he placed on tho river Doubs in June. 1776, but the experi- 
 ment had only partial success. Continuing his mechanical 
 studies in Sjiito of ridicule. Marquis tloun'roy rnustructed 
 another vessel, whieb had better success, in 1780, and in 
 178U ho had so far perfected the invention as to place upon 
 tho river Saonc at Lyons a small steamboat which on July 
 15, 178;>, stemmed tho current of the river in (he presence 
 of tho members of the Lyons Academy, f^till. the vessel 
 was loo defective to be available for purposes of actual 
 navigation. The inventor solieited a juileiit, which was 
 refused by the l-'rcnch government (Jan. IJl, 1784), in eon- 
 pcqucuco of an adverse rcjiort made by tho Academy of 
 Sciences after an examination of Ihe vessel. At ihc out- 
 break of the French revolution Jouffroy emigrated to Kng- 
 Inml, served in the army of Cond6, and took part in polit- 
 ical intrigues in favor of the Bourbons. Keturning to 
 Franco under the Consulate, he became acquainted with 
 Fulfon, who after some controversy acknowledged tho 
 merits of the experiments made in 17S:i, claiming for him- 
 self only an improvement in the engine. In 1 Sli>, .ToufTroy 
 obtained a patent, formed a com|iany under the auspices 
 of tlic count of Artois, publL^^hed his book, Len Imtenux-tk- 
 vapciir, and addr* sscd a memoir to the .Airademy. On Aug. 
 20 of that year ho hiunehed on tho Seine a steamer, the 
 Charles Philippe, but it could not c<)mpete witii rival enter- 
 prises of the same kind. After this Ihe marquis passed. 
 tho remainder of his life in complete oblivicui. dying of 
 cholera at tho Hotel des Invalides, Paris, in 18:;2. — His 
 son AcHii.M;. b. about 171)0. was a voluminous politieal and 
 historieal writer (d' the I'ltramontaue school. He wrote an 
 aceount of bis father's inventions ( 18:!!)), and devoted liim- 
 self to cx]ieriments on steamboat and railway propulsion, 
 without pnietical sueces?. 
 
 J01IS8, Josps, or Ju^f;<i, an instrument of jtunish- 
 ment ftrnn-rly employed in Scolbnid, the Nrtherbinds, 
 etc., was sim])ly an iron collar placed around the culprit's 
 neck and fasteneci by a padlock. A short chain ran from 
 the collar to a staple in a tree, wall, or building — often tho 
 parish church. The punishment was substantially that of 
 the pillory. Tho term is allied to the word ^oXe and tho 
 
 Lnt.Jiofum. 
 
 Joule Mamfs Prfscott), P. C. L.. LL.n.,b. nt Sulford, 
 England, I»eo. 24. 1818, tho son of n brewer, and was as- 
 soeiated with bis father in business until 1854. His seien- 
 lilie eilneation was entirely conducted by himself nt homo, 
 with the exception of a eonrse td jirivate lessons in physios 
 bo received Ihricy a week lor three or four years from l>r. 
 John Uallun, tho celebrated author nt the atomic theory. 
 Uo bcoamo ontbusiastioally funUuf original rcsearoh, and at
 
 1452 
 
 JOURDAN— JOL'KNAUSM. 
 
 the age of nineteen had manufactured an electromagnetic 
 engine, a description of which he published in the AmmlH 
 of Effvlfiriti/ for Jan., ISSS. Further research into the 
 phenomena of heat evolved by electricity showed that his 
 engine couUi not advantageously replace the steam-engine 
 ns a motor. an<l led to the discovery of the laws of tlie evo- 
 lution of heat by electric currents, the relations between 
 hoat and chemical uftinity. and tlie meolianioal nature of 
 the origin of heat. In ISII he gave in a lecture at Man- 
 chester the result? of the important experiments made by 
 himself and Jacobi of St. Petersburg into the magnetic 
 forces as a motive-power. These experiments were con- 
 tinued by Joule and by Mr. Scoresby, and led in 1843 to 
 ascertaining the exact proportion between the mechanical 
 powers of steam and electro-magnetism, and the equiva- 
 lency of heat with mechanical force, ultimately fixed by 
 him. after fiirlher experiments with various fluids, at 772 
 fijiit-jiounds pt-r unit of heat. The scientific a}>pIieations 
 of this principle were numerous, and Joule soon accumulated 
 data for his important communication to the Royal So- 
 ciety Oil the Chuntjc of Tciujifrntiire produced hi/ the Rare- 
 faction and ('uiideusation of Air, which brought him into 
 prominence as an investigator, and led to his association in 
 further experiments with other eminent scientist?, especi- 
 ally Prof, (now Sir William) Thomson of Glasgow and Dr. 
 Lyon Playfnir. With thi- former he commenced in 1S52 a 
 ecries of researches upon the thermal etfeets of fluids in 
 motion, which were continued for many years, the results 
 of v/hicli were communicated to the Royal Society in four 
 memoirs (I85;i-G2) printed in the PhHo>n>}jhicai Trnn»ac- 
 tiotift. With Dr. Playfair he made a careful investigation 
 of the volumes of space occupied by the same bodies in a 
 solid and in a liquid state, the results leading to important 
 modifi'3atujns of the theories of molecular physics. The 
 discoveries of Dr. Joule have been intimately related to the 
 remarkable theories of the correlation of forces developed 
 by Dr. Meyer and Helmholtz of Germany, Scguin of France, 
 Faraday and Grove of England. In recognition of his 
 important services to science, Dr. Joule received the royal 
 medal of the Royal Society in 1Sj2, and in 18Cl) the Copley 
 medal, besides all the honors which could be conferred by 
 decrees from Oxford, Dulilin, and Edinburgh universities, 
 membcrsliip of the lustilnte of France and all the chief 
 scientific corporations throughout the world, ami thcprcsi- 
 dL'Ucy of the iJritish Association for the Advancement of 
 Science in 187;i. His miscellaneous experiments have been 
 very numerous, and he has invented many scientific pro- 
 cesses and instruments, especially in relation to a more ac- 
 curate measurement of forces. 
 
 Jour'dan (Jean Battiste), b. at Limoges Apr. 20. 17fi2: 
 after the death of his father was ))laecd in his uncle's silk 
 gture in Lyons. In 177S he left this employment, entered 
 a regiment of infantry, and fought in America under 
 D'Eslaing. Having returned in 17H4, he settled in his na- 
 tive city, married, and opened a milliner's store, but at the 
 outbreak of the Revolution he became captain of the na- 
 tional guard of Limoges, and thus began his very active 
 and even brilliant military career. As chief of a battalion 
 he distinguished himself under Dumouriez; was made a 
 brigadier-general in 1 7'.):t, a general of division in the same 
 year, and commander-in-chief of the army of the North. 
 Oct. 16, 17'.)."n he defeated the Austrians at Wattignies, and 
 June 21, I7!U, at Fleurus, driving them back to the other 
 side of the Rhine. In the campaigns of 1795 and 1790 he 
 was less successful. On Sept. 6. 1795, he crosscil the Rhine 
 at Diisseldorf, hut on Oct. 1 1 he was defeated at Iliichst by 
 Clcrfayt. In June, 17'.Mi, he crossed the Rhine a second 
 time, and jjcnetrated with n victorious and wcll-eqnipped 
 army into the Upper Palatinate; but having been defeat- I 
 cd by An-hduke Charles at Wiirzburg, Sept. .^, 1791), he 
 resigned bis command. Elected a member of the Coun- 
 cil of Five Hundred, he was twice chosen its president, 
 and planned and cstablif-hed the .system of military con- 
 scription. Napoleon ne\er gave him an active independ- 
 ent commanrl, but appointed him governor of Piedmont 
 in 1800, and made liim a marbhal in 1801, He accom- 
 panied Josi'ph to Naples and Spain, and was a fiitnd of 
 liis. Louis XVril. made him a count in 1815, chief of 
 the seventh military division, and peer of France in 
 1819. During the July revolution he was charged with 
 the ministry of foreign affairs, but only for a very short 
 time. D. Nov. 2:!, 18;'..'!, ns governor of the Hotel des 
 Invalidca. He published OpSralioufi dc I'Anntc dit JJauitbe 
 (17'Jif) and Mrmoireii pour sercir a VUtstoire de la Cam- 
 pmjuede 1796 {U\9). 
 
 Jourdan ( Matiiieu Joi:vk1, called Coupr-TftTF. (*' head- 
 cutter "), b. at St. Just, near Puy. France, in 1749, and was 
 guillotineil May 27. 1794. by the order of the Committee 
 of Public Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal as throw- 
 ing diflcredit on tho RevohniuM I'v his excesses. Ho was 
 
 keeping a wine-shop in Paris when the Bastilc was taken, 
 and he pridcl himself as having killecl the governor of the 
 
 prison. On Oct. 0, 1789, he murdered the two body-guards 
 accompanying the royal family iu their memorable ride 
 from Versailles to Paris. Jourdan is historically known as 
 the organizer and leader of the massacre perpetrated in 
 1793, called the ** Massacre of La Glacierc,'' at Avignon. 
 
 Femx Aucaigsk. 
 
 Jour'lialism is one of the prime necessities of modern 
 civilized life. There are now 14,990 jieriodicals printed in 
 the world. More than 09UO are published in the U. S., and 
 they annually circulate over 1, 511(1, 999, 000 copies. It is a 
 close approximation to the truth to say that each copy is- 
 sued averages five readers. If these publications annually 
 circulate l,500,(HtO,900 copies, the periodicals of the Union 
 are read 7,599,(100,090 times. Such is the fact in the U. S., 
 as shown by tiie census returns; and it is perhaps fair to 
 assume an equal circulation for the jieriodicals of the rest 
 of the world. It is manifest, thercft)rc, that journalism is 
 a necessity of tho age. It is the letter, the pamphlet, the 
 book of the million. Newspapers are read when nothing 
 else is read : newspapers are sent by the thousands through 
 the mails instead of letters, and they are with many, very 
 many in^lividuals. the only medium of intercommunica- 
 tion. Ideas bj- means of journalism becomo cosmopolitan. 
 It enables all nations to interchange with each other in a 
 free, easy, cheap, and intelligent manner. None are too 
 poor to obtain a new>pai)er: none arc too poor to know 
 each morning the daily occurrences of the world. News- 
 papers of to-day, by means of the telegraph, are the reflex 
 of tho events of yesterday. What transpires in Paris or 
 New York, London or Washington. St. Petersburg or San 
 Francisco. Berlin or Boston, Vienna or Philadelphia, Liv- 
 erpool or New Orleans, Canton or Chicago, is known within 
 twenty-four hours to millions of people of all nations and 
 tongues through the press. Na]ioUon is overthrown at 
 Sedan, and the startling fact is the talk at every breakfiist- 
 tablc the next morning. Some imj)ortant discovery in 
 science or art is made to-day iu Boston or Berlin. an<l it is 
 practically ajiplied to the business of life to-morrow through 
 the same channel of communication. On all the great sub- 
 jects that agitate the public miml governments are advised 
 of tho public sentiment, and cabint ts are guided by public 
 opinion expressed in the public journals. Through this 
 source the vo.r populi has become the voice of warning and 
 influence in the councils of nations, and in the practical 
 details of life everywhere the newspaper is the necessity. 
 All kinds of business, all inventions and improvements in 
 machinery, all changes in trad.e and finance, all facts and 
 movements affecting the weal or wou of mankind, are daily 
 spread throughout the universe by means of juurtmlism. 
 Whatever is to be bought or sold is advi-rtiscd : movrmenls 
 of railway-trains and steamships, conveying hither and 
 thither the inhabitants and annual produce of the world, 
 are chronicled. Servants, artisans, the emjtloyed and tho 
 employers, have their needs made jmblic for a trifling sura 
 in the pages of the daily papers. If a mechanic or a 
 monarch is dead, the fact is announced through the same 
 ubiquitous means. Is it too much to say, therefore, that 
 society is regulated by this great ])Ower. and that journal- 
 ism is one of the prime necessities of the world? Stop all 
 tho presses throughout Christendom for one week, or even 
 for one day, and what would be the result ? 
 
 How did this institution originate? When and where? 
 AVhal is it now ? 
 
 There were news-sheets long anterior to tho discovery of 
 printing in Europe. They were in circulation in China 
 and Rome and Venice, and it is asserted by arehicologists 
 that those in China were printed on rude wooden type sev- 
 eral centuries before the days of Gutenberg, Cosier, and 
 Sehoffer; but in Euro])e tiie earliest news-sheets were 
 manuscript papers prepared with some regularity, and 
 known in Rome as the ^Icm Diuimt and in Venice as tho 
 Gdzzctta. These sheets arc interesting to us as indicative 
 of the fact that newspapers were indispensable ages before 
 types were invented in Europe. But we will leave the ago 
 of manuscripts and begin with the age of printed news- 
 papers. According to tradition, the first printed news- 
 sheet appeared in Nuremberg in 1457, and was called tho 
 Gazette. We have no knowledge of the existence in any 
 collection of a copy of that publication. If published, not 
 a copy has been preserved. In 15;i4 a newspai)cr was 
 printed in that famous city of which there is a record. 
 There was a copy in the Libri collection, and a description 
 of it appeared in the catalogue of that collection. This 
 sl:oet was entitled the AVue Zeituuf) miM Hifpnuint uud 
 tttilieu. When we consider the wonderful enterprise of the 
 inhabitants of that town, it is not improljiible that the lat- 
 ter publication was a continuation of the former. Wooden 
 Ivpe wore invented in I4;>8— 19, and Peter Sehoffer first oast 
 metal typo in 1452. It is therefore within tho range of
 
 JOURNALISM. 
 
 1453 
 
 probabiliry that, in brinpin^^lhosc type intou.<:e, it was easier 
 to print iiK'iigre news-sheets th«n books, an<l that the *in- 
 zrttr was printed in the very infancy of typi)j;raphy. But 
 he that as it may, it is pretty well ascertained that Ulric 
 Zell printeil a newspaper in Cologne as early as 140',t. called 
 the Chroiiirtr : and wc abo have the fnct that in lol)S the 
 MrrcMriHii (Jn/fo-fieftfituH was printed there. In IClJ Die 
 Frankfurter Oberpntttniufn Zritunij, believed to have been 
 the first daily paper in the world, was cstablisheil by Ege- 
 noir Knimi'l, antl Frankfort claims him as the father of 
 jonrnalisni. These are the bc;;innin;;s. and to (iernmny 
 the world is indebted not only for the invention of print- 
 ing, but for the first use of types for the dissemination of 
 news ainonj the people. Now, Germany is full of news- 
 papers of all sorts anil shades, and many are of a superior 
 order and ability; and some of those in existence to-day 
 have been continuously ]>uhlished 100 and 200 years, and 
 one even fur a longer period. 
 
 Knglaud followecl Germany in journalism. Nathaniel 
 Butters wa5 a writer of news-circulars in London in the 
 early part of the seventeenth century. He is mentioned 
 as early as 161 1, occasionally printini; a news-slip, and in 
 lfi2I he published one or two numbers of The f'tntmnt or 
 Wefkfeif X^trfnt from Forain i'ltrtn ; and dnrinf^ this in- 
 teresting period ho was in the employment of several of the 
 nobility and gentry as a gatherer of news, whii^h he regu- 
 larly despatched in written cnmmnnieatinns to his patrons 
 in the country. It was nut till l(i22 that he permanently 
 resorted to the printing-pre?:s. With Nicholas Bourne and 
 throe or fnur others, probably printers, ho issued the first 
 regularly printeti newspaper— the WeekUif Nanen — in the 
 Knglish laniruage. It made its appearance in London on 
 the 2;>d of May. This was eighty tour years afrer the dis- 
 covery of printing, and fifty-one years after William Cax- 
 lon had established the first printing-office in Westminster. 
 Meanwhile, tho manuscrt]>t news-circulars ami the gossips 
 at the eoff"cc-house3 sup)ilied the public with their daily 
 talk. Strange as it niiiy appear t^i the present age, tho 
 playwrights in the infancy of journalism were the in- 
 fluential writers of the time, the men who largely guided 
 the popular mind, the censors of manners and morals. 
 Fletcher and Ben Jonson and .Shirley made fun of tho 
 newspaper-men on the stage in The Fair Mniif of thr [nn, 
 tho tSi'tpte uf AV(p.«, and oilier plays; and it was even 
 deemed a piece of journalistic enterprise to obtain the first 
 playbill and other intelMgcnco of theatrical movements. 
 All this, however, has since been changed, and in Kngland 
 f hi- present examiner of plays is a journalist named Pigott. 
 Tiic first daily paper in Fngland, the Dnihf Conrant. was 
 issued in 17t*2; and the first penny or one-cent paper, tho 
 (Jmiiff} PoHtnimt, was started in ITlli'. Now, there are 15(10 
 newspapers and periodicals published in Great Britain, 
 with such papers as the Timm, the Tefcfjrnph, the I/itintrateif 
 AVjr*. and Funrh as re]jresentativo papers. The newspajicr 
 press of Kngland has long been considered the fourth estate 
 in that kingdom; but us the lea<ling minds of the nation 
 for the last 200 years — Milton, Johnson, Do Foe, Swift, 
 Coleridge, Macaulay. ralmerston, Brougham. Disraeli- 
 have written for the jouritals. and as the daily and weekly 
 papers now represent in various ways the intellert of the 
 •'ountry, it lakes higher rank than Hunt in his modesty 
 chose to assign to the profession. 
 
 Franco followed Enirland. and established her first news- 
 paper in inill. Th^'ophras'e Kenaudot issued tho Onzctir 
 »U Frnnor on the .'tOth of May of that year. Official bul- 
 letins of the military oper.illons of Charles VIII. in Italy 
 in 1 lUI-DJ were printed, uml wero tho conception of /,*• 
 .\fiiiiifrtir Univrrtrl, tile oflTicial organ of Franco in after 
 years; but these were mere bulletins of tho army, not otten 
 issuetl. and there was a sheet called the Mrrfiire FrniirniH, 
 j>rinte<l in Pariw in KiLI; yet Kenaudol and his Gaxrttr df 
 Frnnrc have always been considered tho pioneers of tho 
 newspaper press of that country. The tinxrttr, with nn oe- 
 easionai interruption, has been published from H\^} to the 
 present day. and is one of the two oldest papers in the 
 world. Itetiaudot was a remarkable man and a remarkable 
 journalist. He tvas a physician and n gossip, and in his 
 intereourso with people became one of tho best-informed 
 men of his tlay. Like Butters in Knijlnnd. he wrote news- 
 eireular-* prior to the establiithment of the (inzrth-, and. like 
 Butters, he sold his papers in the streets by ne\Ts boys and 
 news-women, who were known a« " hawkers "and" Mercury- 
 women." Such men as Hiehelieu, Mazarin. ami Louis XII \. 
 wrote for the fimrtir, as Guizot. Thiers. Lamartine, and Na- 
 poleon have since written for the modern Frenidi [>ress. 
 The pioneer daily paper in France, the .Aoinio/ */»■ Pnrin 
 ini PoHie ntt Sinr, di<l not make its appearance till 1777. 
 The Jniirnnl lir /n Vitfr t/f Pnria was published a ^entnry 
 earlier, but only appeared once a week, with the daily oc- 
 i-urrenceB recorded in the stylo of a diary of e\ents, and 
 heni-e its name. Now, Franco con boast of lOUiJ periodi- 
 
 cals, full of ability, but very deficient in enterprise. The 
 French journals depend largely upon their able editorial 
 articles, brilliant reviews, and sensational /citiliitoiia for 
 their su]»port. Their advertisements are inserted mostly 
 like handbills, and their columns for business notices arc 
 generally farmed our. 
 
 Newspapers continued to increase in Europe after these 
 early publications had opened the way. The i^mtvtrh 
 [nriketi Tidniuff was founded in 1044 as the official organ 
 of Swcilen. The Honrlcmm Cournut appeared in 165fi. 
 The iSV. I'etrrshnrff f/fizetle was established in 1701?, and 
 printed under tho authority of Peter tho Great, who took 
 an nctivQ interest in its management. Tiic pioneer paper 
 of Spain, the Gaceta dc Madrid, made its appearance in 
 1704. There were a Onzcttc and also a Cnumut in Amster- 
 dam in 170j. Thetirst paper in India was issued in 1781, 
 and the first in Turkey was printed in Smyrna in 1S27 by 
 M. Blecque, just .a century at"ter the inf rodui.'ti()n of jirinting 
 in tho Ottoman empire. It was called the Sprcfritor of the 
 ErtHt. Now. there are over 8000 newspapers and periodicals 
 printed in Kurope. Asia, and Africa. Those in Australia 
 are as large, as ably conducted, and nearly as well filled 
 with advertisements as those in London. There are several 
 papers printed in FiUglish in the seaports of China, and 
 our journalists have frequently been indel>tecl to the Chiun 
 Mfiil and the Chinn licfftHter for news from the interior of 
 the Celestial Empire, and entertained with the repultlication 
 of the vermilion edicts from tho /V/,/»7 (r'azelfe, which is 
 claimed to be the oldest government organ in the world. 
 Annexed arc the statistics of the periodical literature of 
 Europe, Asia, and Africa, which, if not strictly accurate, 
 are very near tho actual numbers : 
 
 yeictpnpcrfi and Pcriodicnh in Europe, Asia, and Africa 
 in 1874. 
 
 Great Britain 14-'jfi 
 
 France 1G68 
 
 Prussia 809 
 
 Austria and Hungary 1016 
 
 Other (iernian states 4G7 
 
 Russia :W7 
 
 Italy 723 | Asia. 
 
 Spain 306 [Turkey 
 
 Denmark 96 
 
 Norway and Sweden 184 
 
 Netherlands ,343 
 
 Switzerland 394 
 
 Kjiypt 7 
 
 Africa 14 
 
 30 
 S3 
 
 Il'-lcium 194 I Elsewhere 150 
 
 Portugal 26 | __ 
 
 Total 8253 
 
 All interests and clnspcs. professions and trades, literature 
 and art, politics and religion, are represented in these pub- 
 lications — illustrated, comic, financial, commercial, marine, 
 sporting, dramatic, scientific — a variety the sight of which 
 would fairly stagger Butters and Renaudot were they to 
 reappear on earth and (Miter into the office of the London 
 TinuH or tiiat of the Printrrtt' Hrffisfrr. 
 
 There are several newspapers printed in Europe which 
 have lived a great many years, and the files of which, not- 
 withstanding the restrictions of censors, are filled with in- 
 tensely interesting details of the great events af the last 
 two centuries, of the rise and fall of empires, of national 
 changes and re\(tlritions that were startling to mankind 
 wlien they occurred. Here are their names: 
 
 Numos. When c<tnltli-lied. 
 
 Frankfort Oazetto 1G1."> 
 
 Cazcttede France J''31 
 
 L«'i|)sic Gazette 1''6l) 
 
 London fiazelte 1(>6J5 
 
 Stamford (Euk.) Mercury l'^it."> 
 
 r/linlMiruh Couranl I7n.'> 
 
 Ri.stoek r.azette 1710 
 
 Newcastle (Knir.l Courant 1711 
 
 Lecdi (Enn) Mercury 1718 
 
 Bi-rlin (iazptte 1722 
 
 Lejeestt-r (En if.) .lournal 17 ">2 
 
 I>ublin Friruniau's Journal IT.m 
 
 All the governments of Europe wero early represented 
 by newspaper organs. They are an easy moans of com- 
 municating orders in council, *;pecial edicts, prochimations, 
 and laws to the people. The !,n»d<m fttixrtfr was the first 
 of these, mid wa-^ rstablished in KiOa, and is still published. 
 It was originally the Oxford Guzettr, Lr Mimitrnr Fni- 
 ver»ef, Jottrnnt Offidvl de V Empire Frnnt:tn'ii, was slarteil 
 in I7SI1; hut Louis Napoleon aliandoned the paper in IsfMt, 
 beenuse it was owned by private individuals, ami estahlivhcd 
 another with the simple title of Journal Offtvirt dv I' Em- 
 pire Frtinrain, Italy is represented by the dazzrtti Offi- 
 cintr ; Spain, by tho finrefa dr Madrid, and Russia by tlie 
 Prnnitrlztnennii Vtfulaik. The InvnUdr- /^if«*rof St. Peters- 
 burg was the organ of tho Russian government for many 
 years. It was establi'^hed in isl.'j to raise a fund for ;ho 
 relief of woundeil soldiers. It was superseded in IS6S by 
 the new organ. Russia is also represented in Brussels by 
 I.p Xord, the utteranees of which are semi-oflieial, and aro 
 intended to explain to Europe any political problem in which 
 the government of the ezir may be interested. Austria is 
 
 officially heard through tin 
 
 ..r V.
 
 1454 
 
 JOURNALISM. 
 
 Of nil the newspapers now printed in Europe, the London 
 Timm is the most perfect. It is ninety years old, and has 
 been owned and manajtcd durinj; that time liy tliroc gene- 
 rations (if one family — the Walters. lis intellectual ability 
 and business enterprise have been remarkable since ISOU, 
 when it became the property of John Waller, the father of 
 the present proprietor. He conducted (he pajier for forty 
 years, and it has a great power in the land; and in order to 
 be entirely independent of government inlUience the second 
 Waller ran his own special expresses with the news of the 
 battles of Napoleon I., often anticipating the government 
 couriers and olIici.Tl despatches. The Times was the first 
 paper prinlid by steam-power, which was introduced into 
 its ]ire?s-ronm in 1S14, 
 
 The number of daily papers published in Great Britain 
 in 1S74 was l.Tl, of which 'H were printed in London. Of 
 the total number, 23 are represented as independent in poli- 
 tic. ; M as liberal: 22 as neutral: 26 as conservative; and 
 1, the Mornin;/ Post, the organ of fashion, as High Church. 
 The TimeH is 'set down as liberal. The prices of these jour- 
 nals range from one farthing, or half a cent, to five pence, 
 or ten cents, per copy. Tlic London S^nn is sold for a far- 
 thing, the lowest-priced paper in the English language, and 
 (he Lonihin Tiini-s for three pence for each copy. The price 
 of (he hnniinn Trhqrnph is one penny, or (wo ceu(s. I(s 
 circulation is said to be 160.000 copies daily, while that of 
 the Tiincf is about 40,000. It is perhaps only necessary to 
 mention three or four of (he most prominent on tlio conti- 
 nent of Europe. The Gazelle ile Mosron, edited by M. de 
 Kalhof. is one. M. Thiers, in speaking of the press in the 
 Corps L^gislatif in 1868, said that to have an e.iact idea 
 of what passes in Russia, of (he movemen(s and tendencies 
 of that great power, it was necessary to combine (he utter- 
 ances of the government with (he language of (he Guzctle 
 tic Mnirou. The Aufisbnrij Gnzetle has always been an 
 authority in (iermany. It is prinled every d.ay in the 
 year, like the New York Herald. The .lourntil dca Dchiils 
 is (irobably the ablest paper in France, and has always 
 given the debates of (he Corps Lfigislalif in full, as (ho 
 London Timen docs (hose of Parlia(nen(. Of course there 
 are o(hers, like Le Nord and (he Memoritd Dlplomntiquey 
 but space will not tolerate a complete list of (hem. 
 
 The most remarkable field for newspaper cnlerprise and 
 newspaper litcra(urc has been (he U. .S. : and in giving a 
 siictch of (he journals of (his country it will be necessary 
 to embrace those that appeared before the colonies became 
 independent of the mother-country, as well as those tliat 
 appeared subsequendy, in order to show the progress of 
 jijurnalism on this continent. In a country where, after 
 ITb.t, industry and intellect became (ho most ac(ivo in (ho 
 world, (he increase and growlh of newspapers have been 
 wonderfully great, surpassing every other single nation, 
 and where the aggrcga(e number of journals and (beir cir- 
 eululion havcatniost reached in 1874 the number and circu- 
 lation of those printed in all oihcr i)arls of the worM. 
 There arc eras in the history of the periodical press of ] 
 North America which do not exist in the history of (ho j 
 newspaper press in other par(s of the world. This is duo j 
 to our peculiar pidi'lcal status as a people — first, as a j 
 colonial, and, secimil, as an independent government. Our 
 journals, largely entering in(o (ho polideal con(roversies 
 of (he people, passed (hrough the changes that the coun- 
 try experienced from utter subserviency to the English 
 monarchy to complete independence, and then through 
 (he changes growing out of the marvellous ])rogress of (ho 
 nation. These eras were five in number — namely, firs(, 
 the cobmial press; second, the Revolutionary jiress ; (bird, 
 the polilical party press; fourth, the cheap press; fifth, the 
 indi'pcndcnt ptrcss. 
 
 The roi.os[Ai. Press first appeared in Boston, Mass., in 
 Ifi'.IO. On Sept. 25 of that year Benjamin Harris published 
 a sheet with the tide of f'libh'rk Oemrrrnren holh Foreir/n 
 and Domrtilcle. It was the intention of (he publisher to 
 issue (his paper once a mon(h,and the annexed prospectus 
 gives, in the quaintest manner, what the ]ii(»neer journalist 
 of America believed to be the duties of an editor; 
 PUBLICK OCCURRENCE.'', 
 Roth X'oreign and I>omi:st(CK. 
 
 Boston. Thchsday. .Srpr. 2.'i, 160O. 
 II is designed that the Coun(rey shall be furnished once a 
 month (or if any f;lu( of Occ\irrences happen oftcner) with an 
 Account of such' considerable things as have arrive*! unto our 
 Nodce. 
 
 In order here unto, Ihe Publisher will (ake what pains be can 
 (o obtain a l-'aithful Relation of all such tilings: and will par- 
 ticularly niakehiinsi'il' beholden to such I*ersonsin Itoston whom 
 lie knows to have been for their own use the dili>,'ent Observers 
 of such matters. 
 
 That wliicli is herein proposed, is. First, That Memorable Oc- 
 cur rents of Divine Providence may not be ncclcctedor forjiotten. 
 as they too often are. Sccoiully, That petiplc everywhere may 
 betterunderstand the Circumstances of l*iibliquc Affairs, both 
 abroad and at home; which may not only direct their Thoughts 
 
 at all times, but at some times also to assist their Business and 
 
 Necoccations. 
 
 Thirdly That some thing mav be done towards the Curing, or 
 at least the Charming of that Spirit of I.yina, which prevails 
 among us. wbercforc nothing shall he entered, bu( wha( we have 
 reason to believe is true, repairing to the best fountains for our 
 Information. And when llicre appears any material mistake 
 in anvthiug (ba( is collcclcd. it shall be correc(ed in (he next. 
 
 Moreover, the Publisher of these Occurrences is willing In 
 eni.'agc,that whereas, (here are many False Repor(s, maliciously 
 made, and spread among us, if any well minded person will be 
 a( (he pains to trace anv such false IJeport. so far as to find out 
 and Convic( the First ijaiscr of it, be will in this Paper (unless 
 first Advice be given to the contrary't expose (lie Name of such 
 person, as A malicious Raiser of a False Report. II is supposed 
 that none will dislike (bis Proposal, but such as intend to be 
 guilty of so villainous a Crime. 
 
 On (his basis of trulh and justice and conscience was 
 issued the first newspaper on (his side of (he Atlantic. Its 
 size was three pages of a folded sheet, leaving one p.ngc 
 blank, with (wo columns (o a page, and each page was 
 about eleven by seven inches. lint the efl"ort of Benjamin 
 Harris failed, in consequence of (he opposidon of the pro- 
 vincial authorities, who forbade "any(hing in print with- 
 out license first oblained from those appoin(ed by the gov- 
 crnmen( (o grant (he same;*' and as (he first nnmlier of 
 Pnhlick Occnrrenres eonlained '* rcficcdons of a very high 
 na(urc,'' a second number did not appear. Some ha\e 
 doubted (he exis(encc of (his publicadon, but the fact (hat 
 a copy, and (he only one ex(an(. is on file in (he stale 
 paper office in London is sufficienl proof that such a pajier 
 was issued. Harris's news-sbcet was a veritable newspaper, 
 but there was a reprint of the London Gazette in New Yovk 
 in 1696 which gave the news of an important batdc in 
 Europe leading to the Peace of Ryswick. This was issued 
 by William Bradford by order of Gov. Fle(eher. as an easy 
 mode of reproducing an official account of an jiffairof ranch 
 moment to (he colonics for (he informadon of the people. 
 It was no( iniended as a regular newspaper. These two 
 publicadons were (he only a(temp(s of (he kind (ill 1704. 
 Meanwhile, the colonists relied upon a few London papers, 
 received by (be few vessels arriving from England, for 
 news from Europe, and on (he gossips a( (he cofl"ee-housPS 
 for local inielligenee ; bu( meanwhile, also, .John Campbell, 
 the poslmasler of Boston, became a news-galhcrer, and fur- 
 nished (he New Englanil governors and a few friends with 
 periodical news-Ieders or cireuhirs. Nine of (hese letters. 
 wri((en (o Uov. l"i(z John Winibrop of Conneelieu(, and 
 bearing dates from April to October, 1703, now belong to 
 the Massachusetts Historical ,Socie(y. These circulars led 
 to the issue of a newspaper by their writer. On Apr. 21, 
 1704, John Campbell commenced (he publicadon of (he 
 Xrirs-Lrftrr, and it has since been incorrectly stated that 
 (his was (he first newspaper)irinted in America. Campbell's 
 prospecdis was a brief one. Harris promised (o issue his 
 paper once a mon(h. The interim ol^ four(cen years less- 
 ened (he dmc (o weekly publication. This is Campbell's 
 prospeelus ; 
 
 Advert(semint. 
 This News-T.e((cr is (o be con(inued weekly ; and all persons 
 wiio liave any Houses. Lands, Tenements, Farms, Ships. Vessels, 
 Coods, Wares or Merchandizes. Ac. to be sold or let ; or Servants 
 liun-awav, or Ooods Stole or Lost ; may have (he same inser[ed 
 at a Reasonable Rate, from Twelve Priice to Five Shillings and 
 not exceed; Who may agree with John Campbell Post Mas(er 
 of Ros(on. , 
 
 All persons in Town or Counlv may have said Ncws-LeKer 
 every Week, Yearly, upon reasonable terms, agreeing willi John 
 Campbell, Pos(-U]a's(er for the same. 
 
 Harris, it will be seen, did nol ask for an advertisement. 
 His adcndon was wholly dircclcd (o in(elligence and the 
 tru(h of public rcporls. Campbell, on (he eon(rary, was 
 wholly devoted to business, and calcubalcd largely on nd- 
 ver(isemcn(s. He docs not allude to news in any way. 
 But very few business notices appeared in the Xcim- Leiier. 
 It was a novel enterprise, and the merchants and meehanies 
 of Boston did not fully comprehend (he advantages of (his 
 new mode of making (heir business known (o (he public. 
 The Krics- Letter, in its early days, was someduies printeii 
 on a single sheet, foolscap size, but oflener on a half sheet, 
 with two columns on each side. I( lived for .scvenly-two 
 years, and went out of existence when the British (roops 
 evacuated l!os(ou in I77G. The Xeies-Leitir enjoyed a 
 monopoly of journalism in America for fifteen years, and 
 yet had a eireuladon of only 300 copies. In 171il, William 
 Brookcr was appointed postmaster of Boston in the place 
 of Campbell, and in consequence of some diflieuKy about 
 (he Xrien- Letter and (he mails (he new postmaster (bought 
 it expedient (o establish another newspaper. On Dee. 21 
 of that year he issued the «o«(on Gazette. The appearance 
 i of this "sheet, added (o (he loss of office, fired the indigna- 
 tion of Campbell, and (hereupon commenced the " war of 
 editors "on (his condnent, which has never ceased. In 
 speaking of the Gazette, thi: editor of (he .\>ir«-i<(fpr said, 
 "I pit/the readers of the new paper; its sheets smell
 
 JOURNALISM. 
 
 1455 
 
 8tron;;er of beer than nf niidniglit oil. It is not reading fit 
 for tho people I " It appears that Hiooker was not inclined 
 to oarry on the war tt) tUe bitter end. for in n-ply he wislicd 
 Campbell "all dcsinible success in his agreeable Aeir9-Lft- 
 tety assuring him" that he had "ni'ither capacity nor in- 
 clination to answer any more of his like ndvertiseraents." 
 
 On Dec. 22, I71H, the day after the (Jnzfittc appeared, the 
 ioilial paper In Philadelphia, the American U'cchfi/ Mcr- 
 curt/, was issued by Andrew Bradford, a son of the iirst 
 printer in Pennsylvania — a paper that Benjamin Franklin 
 subsequently characterized ns '* a paltry thinj^. wretchedly 
 mana>;ed, no way entertaining, and yet was profitable." 
 Hut tho pa]>cr that attracted the most attention in the 
 cohjuies at that early period was the A'ac Eiufhtnd Con- 
 rant, established by James Franklin Aug. 7, 1721. Ben- 
 jamin Franklin commenced his career ns a printcr*s ap- 
 prentice on this paper. It is stated in the nufobiogrnphy 
 of the hitter that the Cournut was the second newspaper 
 Started in America. It was the tittii. But tho Ctntraut cre- 
 ated a sensation which the others did not do. and its pub- 
 lisher was soon in difficulty. It first had a wurdy war with 
 the Xtipa-Lviter. Then .lames Franklin had a prcat deal of 
 trouble with the elergy. especially with Cutton and Increaso 
 Mather, and finally the j(>nrnalist and the governnu-nt offi- 
 cials had their differences. The communications in xhcGazftfc 
 produced so much talk and scandal in the quiet town of Bos- 
 ton that its publisher ivas forbidden to issue his paper except 
 untler very arbitrary restrict inns, and tor iittt ni]>tingto cvado 
 these ho was thrown into prison. On Feb. II, 1722. Ben- 
 jamin Franklin, then only sixteen years of age, was placed 
 in charge of the paper as its editor and publisher, and ho 
 remained for several months in this position. There con- 
 tinued to be the same independent spirit in tho management 
 of the paper, and its troubles finally induce<l James Frank- 
 lin to abandon its publication. He went to Newport. R. I., 
 where ho established the Gazette in 1732, aud where he 
 dice! three years later. 
 
 The next paper that appeared in America was the New 
 Yitrk Gazctt*', th" first in tlint province. It was published 
 bv William Bradford, and the first number was issued on 
 Oct. 2:i, 1725. In 1727 i\\(i Nfiw Ett'jlnnd W'cc/chf Joitrnnl 
 was published by .*^anuicl Kneeland, and he made brilliant 
 promises to his readers. On Apr. S, 1 728, he said : '* There 
 are .Measures concerting for ren<lering this Paper yet more 
 universally esteemed, and useful, in which 'tis hop'd tho 
 Pnliliek will be gratifi'd, and by which those (icntleiuen 
 who desire to be improv'd in History. Philosophy. Poetry, 
 An. will be greatly advantaged.'* The Maryland Gazttte 
 also appeari'cl in 1727, the first in that cobmy. It was pub- 
 lishetl till K^'l), and revived in 17^1*. In 172S. Benjamin 
 Franklin made his reappearance as a journalist. Samuel 
 Keimer had stiirted a paper in that year in Philadelphia, 
 which he named the Universal Inntrurtor in all the Arts 
 nutl Srifnrrn, and Penn/it/frania Onzrttr. Franklin had con- 
 teuiptated sueh an enterprise, and had confided bis iu- 
 lention to n fellow-printer, who treacherously informed 
 Keimer of the plan, and the Jnsfmctor was tho result. 
 Franklin, in order to prevent the success of Keimer's jour- 
 nal, immediately commenced writing "several amusing 
 pieces for Brndf^ord's piiper [the Mprrnri/'], nn<ler tho title 
 of Busy Itody." In loss than a year Keimer sold bis paper 
 with it8 ninety subsoirihers to Franklin, who condensed its 
 name to PninHiffrnnin Gazette, and made it a success. In 
 mentioning this circumstance Franklin said: "Our first 
 papers made (juite a cliffercnt appearance from any before 
 in the province ; a belter type, au'l b.'tter printed : but some 
 remarks of my writing, on the dispute then going on be- 
 tween (lovcrnor Burnet and the Massachusetts Assembly, 
 struck the principal people, occasioned the paper and tho 
 manager of it to be mu'.-li talked of, and in ii few weeks 
 brought them all to be our subscribers." On Jan. H. 17.tl, 
 tho .SV*»//i Carolina G-tzrtte was issued, the first in that prov- 
 ince. It was prlnlid in Charleston, and lived a year, but 
 wa-* revived in 17^14. 
 
 But the most important newspaper, polilienlly, in early 
 colonial times was started in New York in K^M. On Nov. 
 .'» of that year Jolin Peter Zenger issued the first number 
 of the AV»r Y'nrlc UVf/,7»/ Jonrnal. It was a rival of Brarl- 
 f'ird'a Gaz'fir professionally and polili<'alIy, and Zenger 
 was a fearless journalist. Tho Journal made war on the 
 administration of (iov. Cosby, and in M'.W its editor was 
 arrested for libel on the government and thrown intr» ]irison, 
 and in the hope of crushing the paper the authorities kept 
 him nine months in confinement. This created a trreat deal 
 of popular sympalliy for the newspaper, and neither Zen- 
 ger nor bis friends were to be put down. In spite of the im- 
 prisonment of its editor, the Journal con(inu'>d to appear 
 regularly ; and finally the case was brought before the court 
 for trial. It was the first action for newspaper lihcl (m tho 
 American continent. The court met on Aug. '*. I7'l.'>, and 
 Andrew Hamilton of Philadelphia appeared for Zenger. 
 
 The publication of the alleged libel was admitted, and Mr. 
 Hamilton olVcred to prove the truth of the statements made. 
 This the court relused to permit. All evidence being thus 
 shut out, it became necessary for Mr. Hamilton to midress 
 the jury, which he ditl witli great jiower. Zenger was ac- 
 quitted, and the verdict was greeted wifh the utmost i-n- 
 Inusiasm by an immense audience. Mr. Hamilton was con- 
 ducted in triumph to a splendid entertainment, a salute was 
 fired on his departure for Inune, and the freedom of tho oily 
 was prcscnteii to him by the common council for *' the re- 
 markable service done by him to the city and colony by his 
 learned and generous dcfonco of the rights of mankind and 
 the liberty of the press." In tho opinion of Gouvcrneur 
 Morris the resultol this case was *' the dawn of that liberty 
 which afterwards revnlulionize<i America." 
 
 Other papers made their apjicarancc in Boston and Phil- 
 adelphia ; tho Virffiiiia Gazrtte, the first in that province, 
 made its (/i-Vmi/ in AVilliamsbnrg in 17.".fi; and two news- 
 papers printdl in German, tho pioneers in any foreign lan- 
 guage in America, appeared— one in (ierinantown, l*a., in 
 II'.jV^, and the otlicr in Philadelphia in 174:1. 
 
 These were tho beginnings in America. Kevrspapers 
 were published in 174.') in Boston. Philadelphia. New York, 
 Annapolis, AVilliamsburg, and Cliarleslon. Most of thcso 
 colonial papers confined themselves strictly to the merest 
 mention of the news of tho day. If any o])inion3 wero 
 uttered, they wcro subservient to tho aiitbonlies. Tho 
 Franklins and Zenger wcro tho exceptions, and tlicy origi- 
 nated and practised that independent spirit whieli was in- 
 fused in a new class of papers that appeared suliscquent to 
 1745. This new class was the KKVoi.rTioNAnv Piikss, It 
 was still of the colonial stamp, because tlio country was 
 yet composed of colonics, with governments njipointed to 
 "rule over them by England, but the people and tho press 
 had become revolutionary, more self-reliant, and more in- 
 dependent of the colonial authorities. The pioneer of this 
 class of journals was the Inthprnilnit ArfrrrliKcr, issued in 
 Boston on Jan. 4. 1748, unrh-r the inspiration of that ardent 
 patriot. Samuel Adams. One of its t-ontributors was Jona- 
 than Maybcw. who preached a sermon on the occasion of 
 an election strongly advocating the republican form of 
 government. David Fowle. the printer (d' the paper, having 
 issued n pamphlet which severely diiumneed the legislature 
 for certain acts, he was arrested and imprisoned. On his 
 release he quitted Boston and went to Portsmouth. N. II.. 
 where he started tho A^cw //'iin/>Hh{rr Gastitr in I7.''il. and 
 the young ^latriots of the A<lvrriii'rr bad to bide their time. 
 One or two new papers appeared in Boston and New York, 
 and pamphlets were issued by the opponents of the govern- 
 ment in the next year; but tlie real organ of the Kevoln- 
 tionary party maclc its appearance on A])r. 7. 17;'';'). It was 
 published by Kdcs & Gill, and named tho lionton Gazette 
 aud Conntrtf Grntlcnian. All the vigorous writers for tho 
 Jitdr/trndrnt Adrerti>icv, with otliers - Samuel Adams. Jona- 
 than Mayliew. John Ailauis. James Otis, Joseph M'arren, 
 Thomas Cushing, Samuel Dexter, Benjamin Austin, Jr., 
 and Samuel Cooper — contributed to the columns of tlio 
 Gazette. It was n fearless denunciator of the wrongs of 
 the government. The sjiirit of the paper was indicated in 
 its devices on its title-page. On its first number were two 
 eiits — one representing an Indian with bow and arrow, tho 
 other represented Britannia liberating a bird confined by 
 a cord to the arms of France. Five years later! 1700) Ihero 
 was anew device: this rejirescnted Minerva, in jilaet^ of 
 Britannia, seated at a pedestal on whii-b was a cage, bidd- 
 ing a spear surmounted with the cap of liberty in her left 
 hand. With her right hancl she opens the cage and lib- 
 orates a bird, which is depicted flying towards the tree of 
 liberty. This was fifteen years before llie fight at Concord. 
 Il is not to beexpected that in an artiide as cireumseribed 
 as this must be all the newspapers springing into life from 
 time to time can be mentioned. Only those that made their 
 mark on the age or were representative in their rhnraeter 
 can be notieed. All others will hi- inehnled \\\ the general 
 statistics of journalism. It is ne.-cssary to mention the 
 Nrtrpnrt (K. I.) Mrrrnn/, not only because if is still nub- 
 lished. but beeause it enjoys the reputation of having lieen 
 started on its career by Benjamin Franklin. He had noth- 
 ing to do with its origin, ft was <'Stablislii'd mi June I'J, 
 17.')8. bv James Franklin, a nephew ; and all Benjamin bad 
 to ilo with the paper was to present to his nephew, after 
 the Merrnry had bi*en some time in existence, a font of new 
 type, "ns ample amends " to his brother James " for the 
 service he had tleprived him of by leaving him so early " — 
 in other wnj-tls, for having run awav before bis a]>prenlice- 
 ship bad expired. The press on which Ibetdder.faines Frank- 
 lin and bis lirotber Benjamin so often worked in Boston re- 
 mained in the J/f-m/ri/ ofiieo for IIM) years. Il was then 
 presented to the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanies' As- 
 sociation. On Feb. Ifi, I7.'>'.», the (dd Gazrttr of William 
 Bradford was revived, and afterwards immortalized by
 
 Freneau. On Oct. 29. 1764, the Connecticut Courant was 
 issuctl in Hartfonl. and is still published there. Its paf^es 
 have been of jrcat vahie to the historian? of the U. S. In- 
 deed, all the old papers have been a mine of wealth to these 
 writers ;ind conipiiers. 
 
 The s;reat event which alarmed the colonists, aroused the 
 patriotic indignation of the journalists, and which threw 
 the political cluV>iJ into commotion, nnd did more to precipi- 
 tate lite Revolution th:in any other single act of the home 
 povernnient. occnrred in the following year. It was tlie 
 Stamp Act of ITfiJ, which required that all instruments in 
 writing be executed on stamped paper to be purchased of 
 government a^on;? only, and all olTences against the act 
 were to be tried in any royal marine or admiralty court in 
 any pnrt of the colonies, no matter how distant from the 
 place of offenee : thus intcrferins with the right of trial by 
 jury. The colonists were at once arou.^ed to a sense of the 
 danger impending over them. In May the subject came 
 up in the house of burge>ises in Virginia, of which Wash- 
 ington was a member. Patrick Henry introduced his cele- 
 brated resolutions that the assembly of that province had 
 the exclusive right and power to lay taxes and impositions 
 upon the people of that commonwealth, and whoever 
 maintained the contrary of this doctrine was an enemy of 
 the colony. It was on this occasion that he exclaimed, 
 *• Caesir had his Brutus. Charles his Cromwell, and George 
 III. [cries of " treason !'' ** treason I"] may profit by their 
 example. Sir" (bowing to the Speaker), "if this be trea- 
 son, make the most of it I" The resolutions, with some 
 slight modifications, were .adopted. They were immediately 
 published in the ^fflr^/lan(i (iitzettr^viith an article strongly 
 endorsing them written by Charles Carroll. They were also 
 printed in tiro Pviniiifh-nind fiazette and the Xetcport ( R. I.) 
 Mereuri/, and the number of the latter containing them was 
 immediately suppressed as a traitorous publication. The 
 Soirth Carolina Gazrttc, the American General Gazette, and 
 the Gazeffe and Conutri/ Journal, all published in Charles- 
 ton, printed them. They were endorsed by the Sons of 
 Liberty in New York .and Massachusetts, and were pub- 
 lished in the /lostoii G'izettr with comments by John Adams, 
 which were subsequently printed in pamphlet form in Lon- 
 don. They were deemed traitorous and seditious there, and 
 an unsuccessful effort made in Parliament to have the 
 pa-mphlct suppressed. The Stamp Act was repealed in 
 170t», but the effect produced on the minds of the colonists 
 by these few newspapers was prodigious. This act, which 
 created so mvieh enmity to the mother-country, was origi- 
 nally recommended to the authorities as an excellent uiea- 
 snrc by n journalist, Ellis Huske. postmaster of Boston, 
 wlio in \7'M s'arled the finitton Werhlif Post /inif. Several 
 of the publishers suspended the publication of their papers 
 in consequence of this act. On Oct. 31, the day before it 
 was to take effect, the pages of the Peuntt/lvauia Journul 
 and Wiehlif /I (/cei/i'^rr, published by a grandson of Wil- 
 liam Bradford, were enclosed in black lines, with (he pic- 
 ture of a skull and cross-bones over the title, with the words. 
 "Expiring: In Hoiies of a Resurrection to Life again." 
 On the border of the first page were printed, *" Adieu, ndien. 
 to the Liberty of the Press." On the last column of the 
 third page were the words, *' Farewell, Liberty." On the 
 fourth page was a cut of a coffin, with this epitaph: 
 
 "The last Remains of 
 
 The Pennsvlvaiiia .Inurnal. 
 
 Which depariv.i this Life, the Hist of October, 1765, 
 
 Of a Stamp in her Vitals, 
 
 Aged 23 years." 
 
 Such was the spirit of journalism in America ten years 
 before the commencement of the Revolution. Of course 
 the government had its organs. Several of the papers 
 ''printed i>y authority " endeavored to counteract the in- 
 fluence of the patriotic sheets, but where these made any 
 sign others were established in the interest of the people. 
 Such was the case in Virginia. In ITOfi a second Gazrtte 
 I appeared in Williamsburg, printed by William Kind. In 
 
 I mentioning this paper. Thomas .Teflferson said, " Till the 
 
 beginning of our Revolutionary disputes we had hut one 
 press, ami that, having the whole business of the govern- 
 ment, and no competitor for public favor, nothing dis- 
 agreeable to the governor could lind its way into it. We 
 procured Hin<l to come from M:iryland to "publish a free 
 paper." The first printed statement of the adoption of 
 the Declaration of Independence on the 4th of .July, 1776, 
 was made in the Oaztttr on the lyih of ihat month, and 
 the document in full appeared in the same paper on the 
 2iith. While this was being done in Virginia, the patriots 
 in other provinces were doing what tbev could in the same 
 direction. On May 29, ITfiT, the Xdr Vorl- Journal, or 
 Gcueral Adrertiter, was brought out under the inspiration 
 of t^eorge Clinton anil Philip Schuyler. It was a revival 
 of Zenger's paper, and was edited by Alexander McOougall. 
 Alexander Hamilton, when only sixteen years of a^-e \t.i5 
 
 I a smart contributor to it? columns. It was McDougall who 
 I issued a pam])hlet in New York in the interest of the Sons 
 I of Liberty in 1770, charging the assembly with a betrayal 
 
 of its trust in its favorable action on the Mutiny Act of 
 1 I7(JS~fi9. for which he was thrown into prison. The ns- 
 ! sembly voted the pamphlet libellous, and the proceedings 
 I were printed on the 4oth page of the records cf that body. 
 
 " I'orty-five " thereupon became the countersign of Iho 
 
 Sons of Liberty. McDougall received many visitors while 
 
 in jail, and in connection therewith the Joiinial of Feb. 16, 
 j 1770. gave the following paragraph : " Yesterday, the forty- 
 
 fiftli day of the year, furty-five gentlemen, real enemies to 
 > internal taxation by. or in obedience to, external authority, 
 '' and cordial friends to Captain McDougall and the glorious 
 I cause of American liberty, went in decent procession to the 
 
 New (*aol; and dined with him on forty-five pounds of 
 I beef stakes, cut from a bullock of forty-five months old, 
 I and with a number of other friends, who joined them in 
 1 the afternoon, drank a variety of toasts, expressive not 
 
 only of the most undissembled loyalty, but of the warmest 
 
 attachment to Liberty, its renowned advocates in Great 
 i Britain and America, and the freedom of the jtress. Before 
 ! the evening the company, who conducted themselves with 
 ! great decency, separated in the most cordial manner, but 
 
 not without the firmest resolution to continue united in the 
 
 glorious cause." 
 
 Opposite in political sentiment to these patriot journals 
 
 was the Ixi'ifttl Gttzftfnr, which was estaltlished in New 
 I York in 1762 by James Uivington. The leading conthb- 
 ! utors to the Gazetteer were Attorney-general Scabury, 
 1 Myles Cooper, president of Columbia College, the Rev. 
 ; John Vardill. and the Rev. Samuel Chandler. Major An- 
 ! dre also wrote for the paper, and his well-known satire, the 
 ■ Vnic C'Afwc, appeared in the Gazetteer on the very day of 
 ' his capture: 
 
 "And now I've elos*d my epic strain, 
 I tremble as I show it. 
 Lest this same warrior-drover Wayne 
 Should ever catch the poet." 
 
 j Tt was subsequently called Iiivinf/tou8 lioyal Gazette, with 
 
 I the royal arms over the off.cedoor. It was an ably con- 
 
 I ducted newspaper. Its office was twice mobbed for its zeal 
 
 I for the Crown — once by the Sons of Liberty, and once by 
 
 a party of Connecticut militia. After enjoying royal favor 
 
 for many years. Kivington in 17S2, who then saw the '*end 
 
 of things,'" shaped his course to meet coming events. 
 
 Several years previously Freneau predicted this in some 
 
 verses which he published in a Pliiladelphia paper: 
 
 I "Says Satan to Jemmy, ' I bold you a bet, 
 
 I That you mean to abandon our Royal Gazrtley* 
 
 On July 10. 17S2. the following appeared in the Gazette: 
 1 ** The publisher of this paper, sensible that his zeal for the 
 i success of His Majesty's arms, bis sanguine wishes for the 
 good of his country, and his friendship for individual?, 
 I have at times led him to credit and circulate paragraphs, 
 I without investigating the facts so closely as his duty to the 
 I pul>Iic demanded, trusting to their feelings, and depending 
 on their generosity, he begs them to look over past errors, 
 I and depend on future correctness. From henceforth he 
 will neither expect nor solicit their favours longer than his 
 endeavours shall stam]> the same degree of authenticity 
 and credit on the Pin/al Gazcftruf New York, as all Europe 
 allow to the Poi/ttl Gazette of London." The title Royal 
 was dropped, and the paper was afterwards known as Iliv- 
 iiujtan'ti Kcic York Gazette and diirrrsal AdrertiHcr, and 
 the ntyal arms were removed from over the door of the of- 
 fice. The eirculatitm of the Gazitte reached, in its best 
 days, the large number of .^000. Another organ of the 
 Crown was started in Boston in 17r>7. It was the Ckmui- 
 c/e, and the handsomest journal, typographically, publii^hed 
 in the colonies. It exhibited great pretensions to litera- 
 ture. John Mcin. one of its publishers, was a bookseller, 
 and would sometimes fill a page of the Chronicle with ad- 
 vertisements of his books for sale. Mein, assisted by a 
 pre-Revolulionary wit of Boston named Joseph Green, and 
 a few others, was very severe on the Whigs of those days. 
 On \ov. b, 17n9. in a public procession, among the effigies 
 displayed was one of Mein, to which was attached the fol- 
 lowing acrostic: 
 
 '*I-nsulting wretch, we'll him expose— 
 O-'er the whole worM bis deeds disclose; 
 H-ell now trapes wMe to take bini in; 
 N-ow he is ripe — *> lump of Sin ! 
 
 M-can is the man— ^fein his name; 
 
 E-nonirb hf'.s spread bis hellish fame; 
 
 I-nfernal fnrii-s hurl his soul. 
 
 N-ine million times, from jwle to polcl" 
 So inimical to Mein had the popular sentiment become thnt 
 he was compelled to stop the publication of the Chronicle 
 and leave the country. 
 
 Tlic Mc^iadiitHctr.-i Spy, "calculated on an entire new
 
 JOURNALISM. 
 
 1457 
 
 plan," was the next influentinlly patriotic paper started in 
 the colonics. lis first numhc'r came out in July, 1770. un- 
 der the auspices of Isainh Thomas, the author of the His- 
 tory of Prinduff in the Cnitrfi Stntc^. ^Vith the Gfizelte, 
 the Spy was a power with tho penple. and did its full share 
 ID bringing on the rupture with the mother-country. The 
 office of the paper was styled " the sedition foundry." Early 
 in 1771 it urged a recourse to arms, and on Oct. S, 1772, it 
 closed an article in this fearless manner: '* Should the liberty 
 of thepre?9 he once destroyed, farewell the remainder of our 
 invaluable rights and privileges ! AVc may next expect pad- 
 locks on our lips, fetters on our legs, and only our hands 
 left at liberty to slave for our worse than Egyptian task- 
 masters, or — or — Fight our way to constitutional Freedom." 
 In denouncing (iov. Hutchinson as '*an usurper," and 
 showing I.ieut.-fiov. Oliver as a ** recorded perjured trai- 
 tor," an effort was made by Attorney-iJen. Sewall to have 
 Thomas indicted for libel, but the grand jury refused to 
 find a bill. More Briti^'h trnnps having reached liostou, 
 /that city became ton warm fnr Thomas. On the night pre- 
 ceding the eventful day at Coneord the material of the -S'/^/y 
 was conveycii across the Charles River and earried to Wor- 
 cester, where the paper was ever afterwards printed, and 
 where it is now known as the }\'oiTeHtr:r Sf)i/. On May 3, 
 1775, it first appeared there with the motto in largo type: 
 "Americans! Liberty or Death I .Join or Die!" Thomas ! 
 was famous fur these newspaper laconics. He had a fresh | 
 one for every new phase and every new movement in the 
 Revolutionary conflict. Tho government, to stem this 
 Revolutionary tide after the suspension of the Chronicle, , 
 resorted to the (dd XrirR-Ldtfr, which was then known as , 
 
 tho MnttttnchnHrttK Gtizrttr and Wi'^khf Nctrft-Lritrr. All ■ 
 
 the Tory writers of note — Oliver. Brattle. Ijconard. and 
 Sewall — concentrated their power on this paper. There , 
 was a sharp contest between Sewall and Leonard as ** Mas- | 
 Bnchusettensis " in the MaHsnrfnisrtfH Gazette, and John I 
 Adams as "Xovanglus" in the fioufnn Gnzrtfr. 
 
 After the fight at the Old North Bridge in Concord, Mass., i 
 Apr. 10, 177.i. there was open war for eight years. In the l 
 first year of the Revolution eight newspapers were started ; 
 —four in Philadelphia, where Thomas Paine and Philip i 
 Freneau lived and wrote. The first newspaper in New 
 Jen^ey, the fiaz' ttr.was issued on Dee. ?,, 1777; the first in i 
 Mississippi Territory appeared in 1770, a pioneer among I 
 the pioneers; and in 17S1 tho first, the Guzetfp or Green i 
 Mountain I'nnt //oj/, was published in Vermont. Forty-nine 
 newspapers were established in the colonies from IT-lo 
 to K^t-I, the Revolutionary perioil of our history, but of all 
 those publications not one was really a journal — not ono 
 appeared daily. While Now York was occupied by the 
 British troops four papers were published there, and an 
 arrangement was made in their days of publication by which 
 the fiublie had a newspaper caeh day. This was tho nearest 
 approach to this luxury in that period. The tirst daily 
 paper in America was not is;^ucd till 17S1. It was tho 
 American IhtHtf AffrrrtiMrr, and was published in Phila- 
 delphia by Claypoole, who was tho first to introduce report- 
 ing on the continent. 
 
 Tho initial newspapers in tho colonics made their ap- 
 pearance in the following chronological order : 
 
 K»mA Where Wlicn 
 
 ^■'"'^" publlibed. published. 
 
 1. Publick Occurrences Boston K.OO 
 
 2. NewR-l^'tUT Boston 1704 
 
 3. Anierlean Mereury Philndelphia 1719 
 
 4. New York (iaz'-tte New York ]"1'5 
 
 fi. Maryland tliizetic Annnpoll't 1727 
 
 fi. South Carolina (iazclle Charlfston 17:U 
 
 7. Rhoile Islanrl Uazclte Newport 1732 
 
 8. VirKiniatJazette Williamsburg 17;m 
 
 9. North Carolina (iazxittc Ncwliernc 115^ 
 
 10. Nfw Hampshire Gazette rortsmoiith 17r>6 
 
 11. Summary N<*w lx>ndon 1758 
 
 12. IHawarc Couranl Wilmincton 1761 
 
 l;f. (ioor^rla Cazi-tte Savannah 1763 
 
 14. Ni'W Jersey Cazette 1777 
 
 15. Vt-rmont Gazelle Westminster 1781 
 
 Of Iho fi.T newspapers which had been started in America 
 from IfiOO to 178;t, only A'\ were in existence on tho conclu- 
 sion of peaco with (Jroal Britain. 
 
 Tlic third era of tin? newspaper in America, embracing 
 the PoMTic.u. PiiiTV Pi(f:ss, began in 17S.",. On tho ac- 
 knowli'dgnieut of the indepemlence of (he r.S., 3,000,000 of 
 people found it necessary to organize a government on a 
 now basis. All sorts of opinions, notions, and theories pre- 
 vailed as to the best mode of aceomplisliing this great end. 
 Ail thoughts wen- naturally turncil to Iho sul-ject. and it 
 was very soon npjiarcnt that there were two sides to every 
 question, even in a nation which as n unity had just 
 achieved its independence; and these sides became great 
 political parties in (ho V. S. Alexander Hamilton was tho 
 recognized leader of ono of these divisions, tho Feileral 
 parly, and Thomas Jefferson tho chief of tho other, tho Ro- 
 Vor.. II.— !t2 
 
 publican or Democratic party. Without any exception tho 
 4'A newppajiers published in 17S:t arrayed their columns 
 on cither side in the momentous political contests which 
 followed tho conclusion of peace. Of this number, the 
 MnKHftrhuHettH Spy, the itfizriie, and Intlrpendent ChronirU 
 of Boston, the Virf/iriin GnzcUc, the Marylnnd GoztKr, ihc 
 Jtnirnnf, and the ParK-tt of New York, the Seic Hmnpshire 
 Gazette, the Safeni Gazette, the Connecticut Co«roii(, the 
 Xeicport {li. I.) Mercury, the Pennnylvanin Gazette, and the 
 J*rnnmflrauin Journal were the most prominent. The failure 
 of the Articles of Confederation as a perfect system of 
 government for the U. 8. brought on the first great political 
 conflict; and when the legislature of Virginia, in Jan., 
 17S(>, proposed a convention of delegates from each State 
 for tiie purpose (»f revising the Fedeial system, tho real 
 contest i)egan. Out of this convention, which finally met 
 in Philadelphia in 17S7, came the Federal Constitution ; 
 and in the adoption of this instrument by the several States 
 tho most intense excitement prevailed throughout the na- 
 tion. In the great controversy the newspapers played an 
 important part. The Parkrt in New York strongly advo- 
 cated the adoption of the Cons-titution, in opposition to the 
 Jiiurna/. Ih Boston the ManaarhuxrtfH Criitincl, which was 
 started in 17.S4, and edited by Major Benjamin Russell, 
 was the leading Federal organ, and from the adoption of 
 the Constitution in the national convention till its accept- 
 onco by the State conventions the (\utincl kejtt up a vig- 
 orous fire in its favor; and there were one or more personal 
 collisions, growing out of the bitterness of Ihc contest, be- 
 tween Major Itussell and Benjamin Austin, a writer for the 
 Judepcndcut C/ironicfe, wliich was the organ of the Demo- 
 cratic party. The Centinel was (uu' of tho most enterpris- 
 ing journals of its day. It did not eontinc itself wholly to 
 politics, but intelligently gave the fullest marine and com- 
 mercial reports, and its summary of foreign news was al- 
 ways excellent, especially during the wars of Napoleon. 
 The proceedings of the constitutional convention in Massa- 
 chusetts were reported by I^Iajor Russell, almost the first 
 reporting attempted in America, and he thus described his 
 labors and a scene iu the convention : *' 1 had never studied 
 stenography, nor was there any person then in Boston that 
 understood reporting. The presiding officer of the conven- 
 tion sal iu the deacon's seat, under the pulpit. I took the 
 pulpit for my reporting-desk, and a very gooil one it was. 
 I succeeded well enough in this my first effort to give a 
 tolerably fair report in my next paper; but the Puritanical 
 notions had not entirely faded away, and T was voted out 
 of tlio pulpit. A stand was fitted up f<U" me in another 
 place, and I jirocccdcd with my reports, generally to the 
 acceptance of tho convention. The doubts that still ex- 
 isted as to whether enough of the .States would como into 
 tho compact as to make the Constitution binding, made the 
 pro('ee<|ings of tho convention intensely interesting. When 
 the news arrived of the acceptance of it by tho State of 
 Virginia, there was an extraordinary outbreak of rejoicing. 
 It seemed as if the meeting-house would burst with the 
 acclamation." On the final adoption of the Constitution 
 there were celebrations everywhere. There was one in New 
 York in 178S, made up of ail the trades. The press-section 
 was bea<ied by two marshals — Hugh (Jaine of tho Gazette 
 and Samuel Loudon of tlie P'ffiitrr. In the procession was 
 a stage drawn by ftmrhorjSes. On this stage was a printing- 
 oflicc — cases and other typographical implements, with 
 compositors and pressmen at work. Many hundred copies 
 of a song and an ode were struek off and distributed along 
 tho route. There was a snuill flag on top of the jircss bear- 
 ing tho inscription of '* Publius " in gold letters. John 
 Loudon, as a hcralil, was niounte<l on the back of the press, 
 dressed in a flowing robe, and a eaj) on whieh were written 
 tho words. "The Lilierty of the Press." He earried a 
 trumpet in his right haml. with wliich he jiroelaimed, " Tho 
 epocha of Liberty and .luslice." In the lelt hand lie held 
 n parchment scroll representing the new Constitution. M'ith 
 the adoption of the Constitution the Federal party eon- 
 sidered itself fully anri firmly established; and of ecuirso 
 tho Repul)liean or Demoeratic party was also established, 
 although, on tho inauguration of Washington and Adams, 
 tho /toMton ('entinr/ formally announced the death of tho 
 lotler; but on Mar. 4, ISdI. on Ihe inauguration of .leffcr- 
 son ami Burr, tho Ciulin* / pul)Iislud a eliaraetcristie monu- 
 mental inscription, the first part of which was as follows : 
 
 Vcsferdny Expired, 
 
 Deeply regretted by Millions of grateful Americans, 
 
 And liy nil i;o(h1 nu-n, 
 
 TiiF. Fi:i>i:kai, Ai»MiNisntATioN 
 
 of the 
 
 Government of the Cn|(,^ Stotes; 
 
 AnlniHtecl hv 
 
 A Washjiiiiton. an Adams, a llnmflton, Knox, 
 
 Pickering. Wuleotl, MeHenry, Marshall, 
 
 Sloddiirt. and Dexter. 
 
 A'.l. rj years.
 
 1458 
 
 JOUBNALISM. 
 
 When the Constitution went into °P"'''l»";° "^'i^^"" 
 were printed in each week, in the Ij. S.. ,0.438 ="P"^» » 
 newsL per., or 3.974,77r, copies during the year.f.l ed w. 
 Z .oi iea excitement of that interestrng period ot our 
 ex^rnee somewhat of the spirit which annna.cd M.jor 
 Ru e°l of the /Won Ca.lM. Newspapers continued to 
 rncrea-.e Manv foreign wr.ters of ability and smartness 
 were emplovedbv both parties on the press, and many of 
 The pot^a[ chiefs wrote for the journals. There were few 
 or no regular editorial artieles-or leaders, as they are now 
 "Xd-hut the topics of the day were warmly ^;-'";^7<> m 
 communications oler all sorts of signatures. Most of the 
 fore gn writers were political exiles, and ihey naturally fell 
 in o ?he ranks of the Democrats and wrote for he pape. 
 
 poet of he Revolution, and accomplished as much with h 
 ?h me .as with his prose. In regard ^-^-'"^^^^t 
 . ■ 1-- A fi.-^t ^^\ a o-iliiuct council Wusnin^ion re 
 
 mattd " Tha rascl Freneau sent hi,n three copies of his 
 nancrcVervlav. as if he thought he (Washington) would 
 Kme the distributer of them ; that he ™" f_^-;;°;,'>- 
 nothiu" but an impudent design '« >"^ '" ''' \ „" ''^e 
 Tn a hi"h tone." Jefferson placed a high estimate on the 
 service" o Freneau as a journalist. On another occasion 
 JetTerson said, in speaking of Washington. "He adverted 
 to an^ece in Freneau's paper of yesterday: he said he de- 
 Bpised their attacks on hiin personally, but that there had 
 Tver been an act of the government, not meaning in the 
 exeeui e Mne onlv, but in every line, which that paper 
 hid not abused. He was evidently sore and warm, and I 
 tool his intention to be that I should interpose in some way 
 with Freneau, perhaps withdraw his appointment as traus- 
 Jl.in *,-Wk in mv office. But I shall not do it. His paper 
 hTsi- d our "on^tTtu.ion. which was galloping fast into 
 mona^chv and has been checked by no one means so pow- 
 "?u" W as'L.: that paper. It is well and nn,vers.any known 
 that i't has been that paper which has "checked the career 
 of the monocrats." The GazMe was published till 1. .M. 
 In mf Freneau started the Time Piece in New \ork 
 which was afterwards edited by Matthew L, »»''■'• l^""! 
 ub cquentlv by ,Iohn Daly Burk. one of the Xn.ted ri h- 
 men Twoinfiuential journals were established in 1,1)3: 
 Te V-,' K."/'"'"' P-lMium in Boston, and ho ,l/.a»r..a 
 af.erwar.lsand still known as the &mme,-e,,,( .•l,/.'er(.«.j-) 
 n Xe York Noah Webster, the lexicographer, previously 
 a lawyer iu Hartford, was induce.! to migrate t„ New \ork 
 ^o tTke el arc-e of the Mi^errn. and thereby strengthen the 
 Federal arty. William L. 8tone was subsequently an,l 
 ^,r n a iv vears its editor. It is now, as the <""'"<•;•"'; 
 
 ^^•""/-Qewv:;!k'^^.^c^"!::;^:"rrt;ge^-:i;t^:: 
 
 "^Z^J^^t:^- B^the newspapers that^attrac^djic 
 
 ^:^:;;a:^:Xdtl^n;r:F;^i;^^-".'£ 
 
 Srl'^vSnt^^v-^^lir^ntl^del-t:^ 
 Washington for Mount Vernon after the inauguration of 
 loh^ \,Hms It was .lisowne.l by Bache.who wa^ absent 
 .John \a.»ms. ii ^ written by a 
 
 ::XbUern: ionary" and rdi'stinguished member of the 
 
 puiiue luncuoiiaij' Bachc the Aui-',ra 
 
 "rd"rd\r''rh'';ditoriattrforWi.liamDua,,e,whohad 
 
 Home" ery much embittered against Kngland in eonse- 
 
 ' :^:S'wi,;^r?:^r^^/e-ti:r:i::;i;:^.r3 
 
 ?emainc,l for nearly thirty years and "»VThe la er 7s 
 
 William l.c.'ett and William Tullcn Bryant : the latter is 
 
 MuXef editor. It was Demoeratic i" po ..« or over 
 
 forty years, and is now independent Republican 1 he 
 
 ' AJrLn Citizen was a continuation of the A .m > .rk ./,,,,- 
 
 „a( «..</. 4.'/"». .Tames Cheetham became Us ed. or in SOI. 
 
 and acted with that portion of the Demoeratic party of 
 
 wh eh the Clintons weV leaders. Violent altercations be- 
 
 rween '»»>e of the lea.lers of the two s«et;<.n^ "f that party 
 
 S place, and the duelling ground '^t ""twl Dav™ 
 
 the scene of several affairs of honor. Matthew L. Davis, 
 
 armed Id equipped, went forth in Wall street one time to 
 
 Zot Cheetham^at sight. The bitterness of these three 
 
 ,k\,V,iriournals kept up the political excitement in 
 
 Tw Yortto a high pitih aL for I long time. Coleman 
 
 Once he discharged a double shot at his opponents: 
 
 " Lie on, Diiane— lie on for pay, 
 
 And iheethani. lie thou loo; 
 
 More against truth you cannot say, 
 
 Than truth can say "gainst you. 
 
 Another Democratic paperwas issued in New York in 1S02 
 
 U Uie riends of Aaron Burr, in opposition to the Cl.za^ 
 
 It was the itorninc, Cl.rouiele, an,l edited by Dr. Peter 
 
 Iryrng. Washington Irving made his first appearane as 
 
 a wrifer in the droulcU. over the signature of Jonathan 
 
 Old vie ° Matthew L. Davis was a eontr.lmtor to its 
 
 noliticat columns. U was no match for the C,(,.™. and 
 
 ea ed to e^^st in 1805, the year after the kill ng of Ham- 
 
 Utm, by Burr. But before all these papcrsMiad commen ed 
 
 leir career the violence of several of the organs of he 
 
 Democratic party, edited largely by f"-'?""^' """J'^;,^" 
 
 ?h ' Hb : vf .": prel; and'of speech, especially aroused 
 he Democrats, and caused great indignation in most <.t he 
 newfpaper-offices, and the journals opposed "" - f n^^" 
 i^tratiou of John Adams became more violent than e»er. 
 The eco°d clause of this act stated that "if any person 
 Jhonld write or publish, or cause to he written or publish d 
 any libel against the government of the U. i^. or eUlior 
 house of Congress, or against the Pres'den. he siou d 
 be punished by a fine not exceeding *X' "oO nane s 
 
 "^'^Zu^siT i:'^h:''u:i It ti;::;7:me,tnd"fXj::r;; 
 
 20 :r'wcre^ditcd wholly or partly by aliens. Near^ 
 all of the'e were opposed to the leading measures of the 
 
 iH';:c:iS-;i:mD^::^ri;^B:^!:^ 
 
 W nrcob-bctl and a,l but the '^-ter were in t e in eres 
 of the Demoeratic party and encouraged and ^"^ta ned by 
 lefferson and Madison, especially by the former, tobbett 
 1 edUed the /■..-■<■„,.,■..<■ in Philadelphia. There were many 
 prosecutions under the Sedition law-of natives as well as 
 
 iE;:;f-.^^i:^tv^^ii^Sc^n=fi^ 
 tJ=^h:v^;:r:r^^i:s;^^7Th:^.r: 
 
 £r^i=^:";e^^^;^^-^rF^^5^ 
 
 vet occurred. Vpon the conviction of Cooper, Stephen 
 
 Thompson Mason, a Senator from Virginia shook hands 
 
 with the culprit in the very face of justice." The ^uro.n 
 
 he next mo'rniug contained the following reply, prepared 
 
 by t^en. Mahlou Dickinson of New Jersey t U is to be borno 
 
 in mind that Judge Chase who presided at the trial was a 
 
 ncrTon of otundity and of a florid complexion ) : "Mr. Fenno 
 
 [s eve more committing great mistakes, but of al the erroi-3 
 
 nto wMch he has yet fallen, that in his paper of yesterday 
 
 s the g eatcst. He states that Stephen Thompson Mason 
 
 a Senfto from Virginia, shook hands with the eulprit n 
 
 Hie yerv face of justice, mistaking the bacon-face of old 
 
 Chase for the fac'e of justice." Col. Mat. hew Ly-' l'^ 
 
 renresented Vermont in Congress from 1,'.), to IS"', '^"s 
 
 pro ecn"ed for letters written from A\ ashington to Allen 
 
 President exhibited a fondness for " ridiculous potnp idle 
 l-rcsiaent I X avarice." It was also charged that Col. 
 
 „/■ mine" and Dr. James Smith, editors of the ^ '"'"""'' 
 
 ■• V r V^rk were also arreste.i under this law, but the 
 
 :.':sf::yeV;'mr?rtrial! Burk left the country for a t.me 
 
 1 ,.,, returned -a was killed in ad u^^^^^^^ _^Charles 
 
 ; in ISOS established the Columbian in >ew York as the
 
 JOURNALISM. 
 
 145» 
 
 orgftD of the Clintonians, and was always an ardeat sup- 
 porter of JtiS'orsoQ and Madison. 
 
 These were sorao of the troubles of the journalists in the 
 cariy days of the republic: and while those papers and 
 edilorij were having; their joys and sorrows iu the cities un 
 the Atlantic coa.-^t, the tide ol'cuiis;rati(in was setting west- 
 ward and the Xorth-west Territory loomed up before the 
 eyes of the world. With tho increase of population in 
 that region, tho necessity of newspapers became evident, 
 and on Nov. 9, 17'J.I, tho Ceiithul tt/ the \o/tli-tctHtcrn Ttr- 
 ritnnj was founded in Cincinnati by William Maxwell, tho 
 first newspaper and the first priiitiug-oilicd beyond tho 
 Ohio. Nathaniel Willis, an old Dustun printer, started 
 the Scioto Gnzcfte in Chillicotho in 171(0, and in ITHy the 
 UVweri* Spu ami IlnmUton Gazette was issued. So the 
 North-western Territory, as it was called, was not without 
 its journals to keep its hardy people posted in the aifairs 
 of tiic rest of the world; and now that Territory and the 
 entire West to tho Pacific is covered witlwuimerous States, 
 OL'Cupied by millions of eutcrprisin}; men and women, and 
 supplied with thousands of first-chi5s newspapers — such 
 pupers as the lirpnblican and Ocmocrttt in St. Louis, where 
 the first paper, the licptiblivau, \va8 established in hSUS, 
 when that city was a mere trading-post ; as the Tribune, 
 Time9, Jourimf, and Pont, lar<;e flourishing sheets in Chi- 
 cago, where the first journal was founded as lute as Nov., 
 ls;(;i, anil in a Slate where the tirst newspaper did not ap- 
 pear till ISI 1 ; as the Afta Ctifi/ornia, Unllrdn, and Morn- 
 imj Cull of San Francisco, enjoying cireulutions from GOOO 
 to 25,000 daily, where tho first journal was issued by our 
 soldiers in camp in IStfJ— 17 ; and as tho Unflrtin and Ifcr- 
 al'i in Portland, and over .'iO other papers in Oregon, make 
 money and fame where no piipcr existed in 1840. So. too, 
 in the South as far as Texas, where tho CirHian, TinlUtin, 
 ami SfWH nourish in Galveston, and more than 100 other 
 newspapers look after the growth of that great border State, 
 deijtined to be cut up into half a dozen smaller States as 
 the population increases. 
 
 Singular as it may seem, journalism made its appearance 
 in the North-west even before it did in the interior of New 
 Vork. The Otsetjo /femfd, or Wcntern Advertiser was the 
 first newspaper printed in Western (now known as Cen- 
 tral) New Vork. _ It appeared ( IH by l!l inches in size, each 
 of tho four printed pages being 9 by IjA inches) at Coop- 
 erstown Apr. 3, KD-J, and was continued until 1S21. Elihu 
 Phinney was its tounder, editor, and the pioneer journalist 
 in ihat section of tlie country. In announcing his enter- 
 pri^e he lult tho "highest satisfaction in being honored as 
 the conductor of the first public paper jirinted in the rc- 
 s-pectablo county of Olscgo." William L. Stone, Thurlow 
 Weed, and other distin'juislied journalists, worked at the 
 case in iiis office. and .1. Keiiiuinre Cooper often " set type" 
 there fur amusotnent, and he thus described tho ]>rinting- 
 establishinent of the ficntld in its days of infani-v, in his 
 charming novel, T/ir /'ioncrr*. Speaking of the laying out 
 of the vdlage, aii'l of an effort of the early settlers to stnrt 
 an academy, he said: ".Meeting after meeting was held 
 f'jr this purpose year after year. The resolutions of thcso 
 assemblages appeared in the most conspicuous columns of 
 a little, blue-looking newspaper, that was already issued 
 weekly from the garret of a dwelling-house in tho village, 
 nud which the traveller might as often see stuck into tho 
 fissure of a stake that hail been erected at tho point where 
 tho footpath from the |>g cabin of some settler entered tho 
 liii;hway, as a post-otfice for an imliviilual. Sometimes tho 
 stake Ftupported a small box. and a whole neighborhood 
 received a weekly supply f<)r their literary wants at this 
 point, whore tlie man who * riiles post' regularly deposited 
 a bundle of the precious eonimodity." This description 
 of the printing otTii-e and tho mode of delivery of the Ol- 
 iteifo Herniil in I 7**."> was true ()f nearly all the journals of 
 a century ago; and even now the 8mall box on a stake is 
 tieoii at some cross-roads in tho interior of Massachusetts, 
 Vermont, and elsewhere. 
 
 Itiit to return to <»ur chronological order. Tho Alien and 
 Sedition laws led to tho famous Virginia and Kentucky 
 resolutions of 1798-91). Those became the chief plank in 
 the Democratic platform, and were tlic basis of many of 
 the Democratic jtiurnals uhieh were subscrpiently estab- 
 lished : and those in exisleriee sustained (he jtcinocrittic 
 doctrine thus enunciated by Jefferson and Madison. Tho 
 Itichmond Knqutrcr, edited for forty years by Thomas 
 Ritchie, started on May 9, IHOt, was among the first estab- 
 lished on this platform, an'l became a leading and power- 
 ful organ of public opinion for half a century. Among 
 other prominent journals that appeared at that time was 
 the A/btttitf /^effiMtrr, established in IH03 or IhOl, an influ- 
 ential paper, especially under tho care of .Solomon South- 
 wiek, who was its chief oilitcir in 180S. But, like all po- 
 litical journals, it had, in the overthrow of fictions, to 
 sui'cumb to the Afhmijf Arr/it"* which was started in 1813, 
 
 and managed with great ability and skill by Edwin Cros- 
 wcll till the delcat of Martin Van Bureu iu 1S40, and 
 even maintained much of its power till the election of 
 Abraham Lincoln. It was tho mouthpiece of the Albany 
 Kcgency, as the Enquirer was of the Kichmond Junta. 
 Another paper of note was the //udion liniauce, a lead- 
 ing Federal paper in 1804, and edited by Harry Croswell. 
 It had to carry on the contest against the Democratic or- 
 gans with tho Conimcrciul Advertiner and Eceniuff J*o$t of 
 New York. The liuhtme was made famous in journalism 
 by a libel on Thomas Jefferson, for which Croswell was 
 tried and convicted. On the trial the editor offered to 
 prove the truth of the charges, but such evidence was 
 ruled out as inadmissible. This case changed the law of 
 libel in New Vork, for in consequence the legislature in 
 ISOi passed an act authorizing the truth to be given in 
 evidence when pulilislied with good motives and for jus- 
 tifiable ends ; and this principle afterwards became the 
 fundamental law of the land. New party papers contin- 
 ued to make their appearance, and were at tliat time 
 mostly Democratic. They grew out of the troubles and 
 jealousies of the party-leaders. After the death of Cheet- 
 ham, the Tammany Hall Democrats, dissalislted with the 
 course of the Cu/mnbinn, set uji a paper to take the place 
 of the Citizen. This journal was nnmed the yati<iHii/ Ad- 
 vocate. Henry Wheaton was its editor for a number of 
 years. It then passed into the hands of Mordecai Manasseh 
 Noah; James Gordon Bennett was also one of its editors; 
 Henry Eckford, the famous shipbuilder, was one of its 
 principal owners. The party press reached its greatest 
 power and influence with tho establishment of these papers 
 and others, such as the Portland (Me.) Ar(jn« in 18U3, the 
 New Hampshire Pxtriot in Concord in ISOS, the Hartford 
 (Conn.) TimeH in Isl", the Vharlevtou {S. C.) Mcrcnri/ in 
 1822, tho Globe in Washington, and the Post in Boston in 
 18lii, the Nanlirille (Tenn.) Union, and the Colmnbna (0.) 
 StatcHmtiu. These journals wielded the destinies of tho 
 iJcmoeratie party from the days of Jcfl'crsoii to the inau- 
 guration of Lincoln. They gave the keynote on all im- 
 jiortant public questions to the lesser organs scattered over 
 the country. The newspapers in opposition a large por- 
 tion of this time, although some of these were originally 
 Democratic, were the Aational Intf flli/enrer^ issued in 
 Washington in 1799-1800; the Prorid.Hre {R. I.) Journal, 
 established in 1820; the Jioston Courier, started by Jo- 
 seph Tinker Buckingham in 1824; the IHelnnond (Va.) 
 Whi'j, in 1820; the New York Courier and Enquirfr, in 
 1827; the Albamj Evcniiif/ ,A>Hnirf/, originally established 
 by Thurlow Weed as an Anti-Masonic organ in I8;J0; tho 
 Louinvi/fc (Ky.) Journal, first issued in 1831, and edited 
 fur thirty years by George D. Prentice; tho lioaton Atlat, 
 started by John H. Eastburn and tho Webster Whigs iu 
 18:{2; and the A>ic Yorlc E-r/trest, set up by the Clay 
 Whigs in 183(1. These journals, with their assistants in 
 tho cities and towtis of the I'nion, represented the National 
 Republican and Whig parlies, and made their mark on tho 
 pages of political history. But these journals were not 
 confined wholly to politics. Willi the progress of the coun- 
 try, and with the discussions of the great questions that 
 i camo up before tho jieople, they expanded their usefulness 
 and showed some enterprise. Especially in New Vork, in 
 order to obtain large circulations, efforts were made to ac- 
 quire tho earliest news in advance of each other. This led 
 to improvement in tho columns generally of tho chief 
 organs of public opinion. More allcnticin was devoted to 
 commercial and foreign inlelligeuce. ami they became largo 
 advertising mediums. Other papers were established dur- 
 ing this long period which were not strictly party papers, 
 but the number of these was \cry small indeed. One of 
 tho most valuable of these publications was AV/.s' W'tr/clij 
 J{e(/i»ter. which was brought out in Baltimore in 1811. and 
 continued till 1848; and a set of this paper contains tho 
 fullest and best history of the country during the thirty- 
 seven years of its existence. • 
 
 While tho parly press reigned in journalism, a class of 
 i papers existed which were deemed, till quite recently, a 
 necessity of tho time — an imperium in iniperio. Theso 
 were the organs in Washington. The first of this class 
 was the Xntlouitl Intf llit/rucrr and Wiif/iintftou Adrrrtiiier. 
 This paper had been removed from Philadelphia, where it 
 was known as the ludrfuudvut Gnzrtlrrr,m\ the removal of 
 the seat of government from that city. This was in 1799- 
 ISOO. The intrllifjrucer, then owned by Samuel Harrison 
 Smith, became the organ of Jefferson. In 1810-12 it passed 
 into the hands of (ialos & Seaton, and theso journalists in- 
 troduced the full reports of the debates in Congress. On 
 tho advent of Jackson on Mar. 4, 1829, tho Intflligencrr 
 ceased to bo (he organ of the government, and became that 
 of the Whig party, aii>l the Vnitrd Statnt 7'rlef/rafdi, edited 
 by Duff itreen, was accepted as the organ of Jackson's ad- 
 ministration. But a rupture between Pres. Jackson and
 
 1460 
 
 JOURNALISM. 
 
 Vice-Pres. Calhoun caused the establishment (in 1S31) of 
 the Glohr, with Francis P. Blair and Araos Kendall as ed- 
 itors, and this Journal hccame the thundcrer of the Demo- 
 cratic partv. It continued to lie the organ till the a'lvent 
 of Harrison in 1S4I, when the 7ntc/fi«/fnrf:r resumed its old 
 position, hut the early death of Harrison, thro\ving the 
 \vhig party into confusion, led John Tyler to select the 
 Maditonifin, started in 1841. to be his organ. On the elec- 
 tion of James K. Polk in 1S44, the Glob*: did not return to 
 power with its party, hut a new paper, called tlie Cnion, 
 was established, with Thomas Ritchie as editor, and that 
 ionrnal became the official organ. On the election of Gen. 
 Taylor in 181S. a new pnper was starte<l for his organ, as 
 the lutrllhfruprr favored the AVehster wing of the Whig 
 party. The new paper, the Hepuhhc, was edited by Alex- 
 der Bullitt and John 0. 8argeant. The Natiottof Era acted 
 in the national capital for the Abolition party from 1847. 
 When Franklin Pierce came into power in 1852-63, the 
 Vuioit resumed its position with the government, hut with 
 fJen. Robert Armstrong as editor and Caleb Cushing and 
 A. 0. P. Nicholson as contributors; and continued, with 
 John Appleton {previously editor of the Portlnud Arffun) 
 as contluctor, through the administration of James Bu- 
 chanan. The Union was the last of the official organs at 
 the national capital. Neither Pres. Lincoln nor Johnson 
 indulged in the luxury of one, and Pres. Grant follows in 
 their footsteps in having no special journal to speak for 
 his administration. Several newspapers published in Wash- 
 ington have pretended to be such, but have not been offi- 
 cially recognized. 
 
 While party spirit prevailed in journalism, class-papers 
 began to show themselves. The pioneers of these were the 
 religious press, and the first appeared in 1814-Ui. The Rev. 
 John Andrews established in ChilUcothe. 0., the first relig- 
 ious newspaper in America. It was entitled the Recorder, 
 and the initial number was issued in 1S14. Nathaniel Wil- 
 lis thought and talked of such an enterprise in Portland, 
 Me., in 1808, but did not receive sufficient encouragement 
 to carry out his plans till 1816. On Jan. .3 of that year he 
 issued the first number of the Boston Recorder: and now 
 the nation is full of religious newspapers, many of which 
 are very ably conducted and reach larger au<Hences than 
 sermons from pulpits can possibly reach. Three or four 
 years afterwards another important class of newspapers 
 was initiated. The American Fanner was the first of the 
 agricultural press. It was published in Baltimore by John 
 S. Skinner, and the first number appeared on Apr. 2, 1S18. 
 The Pfouf)hbo}f, managed by Solomon Southwick, followed 
 in 1821, and was published in Albany. The New Enifland 
 Farnur next appeared in Aug., 1^22. These wore the pio- 
 neers of the hundred useful and valuable publications now 
 in circulation for the benefit of the farmer and stock-breeder. 
 Other class newspapers appeared. Special interests are rep- 
 resented in journalism. The commercial classes were not 
 overlooked. Indeed, as far back as 179.i the fionton Prices 
 Cnrreiit and Marine Intefh'fjencer was published, but in a 
 few years it became a political newspaper. The first suc- 
 cessful commercial paper was the Xew Orleans Prices Cur- 
 rent, established in 1822. Every city has now one or nioro 
 commercial and shipping lists. Besides these, all trades, 
 avocations, interests, occupations, professions, amusements, 
 have their organs, in the U. S. as well as in Europe. The 
 Nantieal Gazette, the Paper-Trade Circular, the Tobacco 
 Lea/, the Cotton- Planter, the Telefjraplier, the Railroad 
 .Ionrnal, the Medical Tiinen, the Scientific American, are 
 names frequently seen, and these publications arc a credit 
 to their conductors for the ability and research shown in 
 their management, as well as for the beauty of their typo- 
 graphical appearance. Then, there arc the illustrated pa- 
 pers, such as Ifarpcr'ft W'cf l.di/. Fr<inh Lculic's Illnstratcd 
 Paper, Harper s Razar, the Aldine, and Applftons' Jonrnal, 
 that favorably compare with anything published in Eu- 
 rope. And comic iournalism, what can he said of that ? Not 
 much for the U. S., for comic papers have been a failure 
 on this side of the Atlantic. They are a great success in 
 England. France, (Jermany. Italy, and Spain, and are full 
 of wit and humor, but here not one attempt has been suc- 
 cessful. Why? Because there is not a paper of any sort 
 issued in the U.S. — political, religious, commercial, marine, 
 scientific — but what has its joke. Most of the papers in- 
 dulge in regular departments of wit and fun. There is a 
 daily effervescence of bonmntn from Canada to Mexico and 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The U. S. are a Vesuvius 
 of wit and humor in a constant state of eruption, and the 
 lava is in perpetual motion down the sides of its mountains. 
 Hence the failure of the two or three dozen or more publi- 
 cations which have from time to time made a specialty of 
 the comic side of human nature on this side of the Atlantic. 
 
 Wliilo the party papers of the old school, such as we have 
 brioflv described, covered with the dust of battle, of the 
 Federal Constitution, the French war, the war of 1812, the 
 
 old tariff, the U. S. Bank, the Mexican war, and the slavery 
 question, and the class of papers with their specialties were 
 passing on, some to continued prosperity and others to the 
 grave, a more vigorous set of newspapers was coming into 
 existence— namely, the Chkap Piti;ss. Those papers were 
 the great journalistic event in America. The old order of 
 journals were subscription papers, and, considering size 
 and amount of reading matter given, they were high-priced. 
 The only part really cheap about them were the advertise- 
 ments in their columns. It was only by becoming annual 
 subscribers that copies could be obtained for less than six 
 cents each; none were sold in the streets, none at ne\vs- 
 stands or news-agencies, now so numerous, and very few 
 were disposed of over their own counters. None of these 
 journals had largo circulations, none printed as late even 
 as 1835-40 circulatc'l over 5000 copies, and very few over 
 half that number. With all the entf-rprise that James AVat- 
 son Webb of the Conrier and A'nf/nirrr. and Hufe and 
 Hallock of the Journal of Cotmnrrre of New York, and 
 Richard Houghton of the Roston Atlas, displayed between 
 the years 1S30 and 1840 in news-schooners and pony ex- 
 presses, not one of these journals could boast of a subscrip- 
 tion-list of over 5000 names. But with the establishment 
 of the cheap press all this has been gradually and wonder- 
 fully changed. Newsboys were introduced in our streets, 
 news-agencies started in all the cities of the cotintry. par- 
 cels of city journals were daily sent along the railroad and 
 steamboat routes by express, and the modern newspapers 
 soon had circulations ranging from 10,000 to 100,000, and 
 now as high as 125,000, with an occasional spurt to 150,000 
 copies. The penny press was established in New York in 
 1833. The Mttrninrf Postwar started on the first day of 
 that year. Horatio David Shepard was the editor, and 
 Horace Greeley and Francis \. Storey the printers. It 
 was first sold for two cents, and then for one cent. In 
 three weeks it was dead. On Sept. 3. 1833, the New y'ork 
 Sun was issued by Benjamin Bay. and sold at one cent per 
 copy. Its prospectus was as follows: "The object of this 
 paper is to lay before the public, at a price within the 
 means of every one, oil the news of the day, and at the 
 same time aflord an advantageous medium for advertising. 
 The sheet will be enlarged as soon as the increase of ailver- 
 tisements requires it, the price remaining the same. Yearly 
 advertisers (without tlie paper\. thirty dollars per annum. 
 Casual advertising, at the usual prices charged by the city 
 papers. Subscriptions will be received, if paid in advance, 
 at the rate of three dollars per annum." 
 
 This was the origin of the cheap press in America, and the 
 Sun is still published, and is still one of the cheap papers, 
 although not a penny paper. The new class of journals, be- 
 ginning thus in 1 s;t3. has gradually worked a complete rev- 
 olution in the profession. Most of the cheap papers wore 
 established independently of political parties, but politicians 
 were not disposed to lose such an opportunity for publicity, 
 and while the Transcript in New York, the /'iiblie Ledt/er 
 in Philadelphia, the Sun in Baltimore, and the Herald and 
 Mail in Boston were established as mere local news-sheets, 
 and owned and published by printers, the New Era and 
 Tribune in New York were started in the interests of poli- 
 tics — the first as a Democratic organ, ond the latter as a 
 Whig organ — and the increase of cheap political f^heets 
 continued for several years. The conductors of these cheap 
 ]>apcrs in the early days of their publication confined 
 themselves to local news only. Their means were limited, 
 and they were governed by circumstances. They did not 
 indulge in opinions. But in 1835 the cheap press with 
 opinions was inaugurated. On May 6 of that year the 
 Herald was established in New York by James Gordon 
 Bennett with a more comprehensive plan in view. Its 
 founder had been ten or twelve years previously actively 
 engaged as a reporter, a correspondent, and an editorial 
 writer on leading political journals, and he therefore entered 
 on iiis new duties with considerable ability and experience 
 as a journalist. With these qualities he combined that of 
 great energy and enterprise, and he started on his new 
 career entirely independent of party affiliations. The re- 
 sult is known, and with the issue of the first number of the 
 Hrrtild the Indki'KNDKNT Pufs:s had its origin. With the 
 success of the Sun, Herald, and Public Lrdijer and their 
 contemporaries of the cheap ])ress, the old class of papers 
 began to pass out of existence, and even the new political 
 journals were subsequently established on the new plan as 
 more etfectivo with the masses and more successful in a 
 business point of view. On Apr. 10. 1841. Horace Greeley 
 started the Neto York Tribune, and by his ability, indom- 
 itable industry, and experience as a printer and political 
 writer, as had been illustrated on tht'JrJfersonian, Lnr/ Cabin, 
 and A'* IP Yorker, he made that journal the chief Whig and 
 liepublican organ, and a power in the politics of the T'nion. 
 On Sept. 18, 1851. the AVic York Times was founded by 
 Henry J. Raymond, who bad graduated in the offices of
 
 JOIKXALISM. 
 
 1461 
 
 the Tribitnt and Conrier and Enquirer. It was organ- 
 ized as a political journal, and was a Republican or;;an, but 
 Us editor was under the control ot" no party, altbou^^h he 
 always acted with the Kcpublicans. On, June 1,1>(»0, the-Wjo 
 
 York ]VorlU was established by a number of religious gen- 
 tlemen for the purpose of having a newspaper in the me- 
 tropolis without the prurient police reports and the theat- 
 rical advurtiscmeuts and notices that occupied so much 
 space in the other city journals. After spending a largo 
 Bum of money the enterprise was abaudoued, and the 
 
 Uor/f/ pas.-^ed into the hands of more setular journalists. 
 On July 1, ISI'il, the ll'urW and Courier <tii(l Eiiijiiircr were 
 united. The W'urtti fur the last ten or twelve years has 
 been edited as an independent organ of the Democracy. 
 
 These journals are thus particularly mentioned because 
 they fully represent the modern class of papers that now 
 come under the head of the independent press. Others in 
 other cities belong to the same category, such as the fJlulte, 
 started in Ho.ston in Mar., 1S72. These papers are quarto 
 or double-sheets : which style is rapidly taking the place 
 of the old folio sheet. Many of the older papers, like the 
 /lu^tint Transcript and .SV. Louis lirpitblicau, have adopted 
 the modern plan, and are now eight-paged instead of four- 
 paged journals. 
 
 This is a brief sketch of journalism in the IT. S. 
 progress may be indicated by a few facts, as follows: 
 
 Its 
 
 Slaliilio of tie Daily and Weekly Neiotpapcrt in the V. S. 
 
 First printing-office in America 
 
 First news|)aper 
 
 First notitieal newspaper 
 
 First libel suit 
 
 Fi^^t (teruian newspaper 
 
 First daily newspaper 
 
 First relii;irtHs newspaper , 
 
 >'irsla'.;ricullural newspaper... 
 
 First prices current 
 
 F'irsl penny newspaper 
 
 First independent newspaper. 
 
 First illustrated newspaper 
 
 Firit comic newspaper 
 
 A. D. 11)39 
 
 1G90 
 ITS.'! 
 
 IT.I.'i 
 
 17.TJ 
 i;S4 
 18U 
 I8I8 
 1822 
 IIB3 
 ISM 
 185:) 
 1839 
 
 But statistics will exhibit more comprehensively, perhaps, 
 the growth of journalism on this side of the .\tlantic, and 
 the figures develop a marvellous result. The census returns, 
 a5 given in Journalism in the United States, show the fol- 
 lowing as the 
 
 NuuBER OF Pi:bi,icatioxs, with THEin CrnciLATios ASD 
 
 An.mal Issi:ii, IX THE U. S. l.N 1S70. 
 
 Periods of Issue. 
 
 Daily 
 
 Three tiine-s a week.. 
 
 Semi-weekly 
 
 Weekly 
 
 .S^'mi-nmntlily 
 
 Monlhly 
 
 Hi-monthly 
 
 Quarterly . 
 Total.. 
 
 Number. '^'"''IJ.*".^"*"^ Cireulalio.. 
 
 574 
 
 107 
 
 11.5 
 
 429.1 
 
 93 
 
 622 
 
 13 
 
 49 
 
 S871 
 
 806,479,.'i70 
 
 24,l9ii,:i8n 
 
 25,708,488 
 
 550,921,438 
 
 32,.'i95,G80 
 
 67,810,110 
 
 189,900 
 
 84R,C80 
 
 1,508,548,250 
 
 20, 
 
 ,.547 
 105 
 .197 
 ,G13 
 820 
 843 
 ,6.50 
 ,li70 
 
 1,473 
 
 Classes of Publications. 
 
 Adverdsinj; 
 
 Aerlciiliural and hortieul 
 lural 
 
 B.-ni'volent and secret so- 
 cieties 
 
 roniinercial and finaneiaf 
 
 Illiislraled. literary ,nnd mis- 
 eellaneiHiH 
 
 Natinniility, devoted to 
 
 I'.ililieal 
 
 ItellKlons 
 
 Sp<irtinK 
 
 Technical and professioDal... 
 Total 
 
 Number. '^"'^J.',*^.""'' Clreul.Uoo. 
 
 4,689,800 
 
 21,541,904 
 
 n,518,.560 
 31,120,600 
 
 160,061.408 
 
 4,671,000 
 
 1,I34,7«9,0S2 
 
 12.5.959,496 
 
 .3.222,000 
 
 15.974.400^ 
 
 l,.5O8.548,2S0 
 
 293,4.50 
 
 770,752 
 
 -237,080 
 690,200 
 
 4,422.2-%5 
 
 45,1.50 
 
 8,781,220 
 
 4,761.358 
 
 7.1,.50fl 
 
 •M.hM 
 
 20,812,475 
 
 What an astounding exhibition ! Now let us look at the 
 comparative results since 1701: 
 
 Newspaper and Periodical Circnlatiou in the U. S. 
 
 
 1840. 
 
 1890. 1 
 
 ""■ 1 
 
 ie;o. 
 
 SUtcs aod Territories. 
 
 "a 
 
 a 
 3 
 
 25 
 9 
 
 a 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 53 
 9 
 
 a 
 9 
 
 if 
 
 82 
 36 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 3 
 
 1 
 is 
 
 75 
 43 
 
 162 
 
 53 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 77 
 
 378 
 
 234 
 
 201 
 
 7 
 
 55 
 
 74 
 
 80 
 
 59 
 
 93 
 
 162 
 
 152 
 
 76 
 
 211 
 
 68 
 
 8 
 
 48 
 
 24 
 
 39 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 81i 
 
 535 
 
 320 
 
 26 
 
 406 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 34 
 
 22 
 14 
 
 74 
 33 
 
 27 
 17 
 9 
 
 I 
 8 
 
 'i'i 
 
 26 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 '"i'6 
 5 
 10 
 
 6 
 6 
 19 
 12 
 
 20 
 7 
 
 1 
 12 
 1 
 7 
 4 
 
 "21 
 
 77 
 
 33 
 
 7 
 
 49 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 11 
 
 ■"i'6 
 
 29 
 40 
 73 
 
 4 
 
 '■■■5 
 
 ' "5 
 8 
 9 
 
 10 
 13 
 
 "16 
 40 
 88 
 97 
 27 
 
 ■""5 
 
 'i'2 
 
 23 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 ""3 
 4 
 4 
 7 
 6 
 
 17 
 8 
 4 
 
 15 
 5 
 
 9 
 4 
 
 17 
 GO 
 239 
 160 
 107 
 
 '21 
 62 
 64 
 43 
 49 
 
 109 
 
 100 
 44 
 
 133 
 63 
 
 District of Columbia.... 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Florida • 
 
 3 
 
 """5 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 Miilio 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 'I 
 
 7 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 33 
 23 
 33 
 35 
 81 
 26 
 
 9 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 45 
 43 
 44 
 58 
 141 
 49 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 2 
 
 29 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 49 
 SO 
 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 "27 
 
 
 . 43 
 "S5 
 
 8 
 
 53 
 12 
 18 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 
 New Mexico - 
 
 ■"■■4 
 34 
 9 
 
 ■"32 
 211 
 114 
 
 '"e 
 
 1 
 
 "i's 
 
 68 
 22 
 
 2 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 65 
 
 33G 
 
 256 
 
 12 
 
 28.5 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 61 
 
 69 
 
 New York 
 
 51 329 
 26' 211 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 
 2 
 964 
 
 
 12 
 2 
 3 
 2 
 
 175 
 14 
 14 
 44 
 
 24 
 
 Uhdde Island 
 
 51 14 
 7 32 
 g! 38 
 
 
 6? 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 14 73 
 10 102 
 1 2 
 6 44 
 14 79 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 34 
 
 Utah . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 28 
 47 
 
 " "is 
 
 r266 
 
 li 
 
 ~254 
 
 31 
 67 
 
 "39 
 2048 
 
 2 
 15 
 
 "l4 
 
 I72 
 
 28 
 98 
 
 128 
 4 
 
 2971 
 
 Virginia 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 4 
 14 
 
 542 
 
 46 
 
 146 
 
 14 
 
 4425 
 
 Washington 
 
 Total 
 
 l38 
 
 It is an interesting fact to note that of all the newspapers 
 published in the world in 1874, there were printed, in round 
 numbers — 
 
 In the English language 7500 
 
 In all other languages 6600 
 
 English over foreign periodicals 900 
 
 If wo make an cslimnle, based on the returns since 1870, 
 wo find the relative position of the V. S. to the rest of the 
 world in periodical literature in 1874, to he us follows: 
 
 Periodicals published outside of the U. S 8250 
 
 Periodicals published in the U. S jGSOO 
 
 Against the U. S 1750 
 
 It is safe to say that the number of copies annually printed 
 in the U. S. is fully equal to those annually issued in all 
 the other nations of the world. The highest circulation of 
 any daily paper in London is IfiO.HOO, which is that of the 
 TiUi/rn/'ili. The hi^rhcst ever reached in .New York has 
 been ISIi.OOO. which number has been printed by the 
 Herald. The average daily circulation of tho A'titi York 
 Snn is 120.000 : that of the I'hitadilphiir Ledijer, 8o,000 ; of 
 the Ilosinn .lourmil and «..»(..ii Herald, in the neighborhood 
 of 60,000. Some of the leading papers in Cliicngo and Cin- 
 cinnati range frnin Id. 000 to 50,000. The price of the 
 journals affects the circnhilion as a matter of course. Tho 
 Telegraph in London sells for two cents, tho Times for six 
 cents ; the Ihrald in New York sells for four cents, and 
 the .S'ldi for two cents. The .\Vir« in New York is now tho 
 "penny paper" of the American metropolis, which is as 
 low Rs a paper can be conveniently sold on this side of the 
 Atlantic, while in London the *'iim is sold for half a cent, or 
 a farthini;, whicdi is as low as a paper can be sold in the 
 English Tnelr.ipiilis. If the old-lajhioned half cents were 
 now in circulation in the I'.J^., no doubt a paper would bo 
 issued for tlnit price, although of course it could not com- 
 pete with tho higher-priced papers in news and other read- 
 ing matter. 
 
 The newspaper press of tho U. S. has reached as great 
 perfection as that of any other nation ; and in enterprise it 
 far surpasses tho journalism of England or of tlie Old 
 World. There is very little enterprise in newspapers on 
 tho continent of Europe. There is almost a superabundance 
 of it in America, and especially in New York. There is no 
 danger too great, no expedition too remote, too costly, or
 
 1462 
 
 JOUST— JUAN Y SANTACILTA. 
 
 too extensive, no undertaking too vast, for the American 
 journalist. If it be to the heart of Africa, or to Khiva, or 
 to the North Pole, or in the thickest of the battle in the 
 rebellion, iu Cuba, in Spain, in Asia, or in Germany, cor- 
 respondents are .sure to be present preparing history for all 
 time to come; and now these journalistic deeds of daring 
 are rewarded by the Iron Cross from the emperor of Ger- 
 many, the gold medal from the Royal Geographical Society 
 of England, the order of St. Stanislaus from the czar of 
 Russia, and larger checks on the bankers of the news- 
 paper proprietors. Frederic IIitdson. 
 
 Joust, or Just [Fr. joule, jonsi, Jiislc, from the I.ato 
 I.at.y.ij-f.iiv. to '-join" in a fight], in the knightly e.vercises 
 of the Middle Ages a contest with arms, especially between 
 two single combatants. The joust was cil-hor on foot or 
 horse; the pole-axe and sword, but more commonly the 
 lance, was the weapon used. The joust, as a rule, was a 
 friendly contest, and was regulated by very minute and 
 punctilious rules. When more than two engaged in such a 
 contest, it was properly a tnnrni-ij. 
 
 Joutel' (Hesri), the author of Journal hialorique rfii 
 tieiuier rni/iifie que feu .V. de la Sale Jit dnut le gol/e He 
 Mfsique. which appeared at Paris in 171.3. He accom- 
 panied La Salle on his expedition in 1684 to the mouth of 
 the Mississippi : was left in command of the fort of St. 
 Louis in lOSa, but joined La Salle again in IfiST, and was 
 present in the eamp when La Salle was assassinated. He 
 returned through Canada to France in 16SS. and lived in his 
 native city, Rouen. Very little is known about him before 
 and afler'his participation in the exploring expedition of 
 La S.alle. 
 
 Jouy' (Victor Joseph Etiense), b. in 1764 at Jouy, 
 near Versailles; entered the army very early, fought in 
 South America, East Indies, and the campaigns of the 
 Revolution, but gave up his military career in 1797, and 
 devoted himself exclusively to literature. He wrote novels, 
 vaudevilles, and opora-texts, of which La Vetlitle, com- 
 posed by Spontini lls>ll"). ws the first, and GuHlaume Tell, 
 composed bv Rossini (1S28), the last. He also wrote trag- 
 edies— T-^/oo S'lih (1812) and Si,Ua (1822); and in 1815 
 he was chosen a member of the Academy. But his sketches 
 attracted most attention : L'Hcnnite de la Chaussee d'Anlin 
 (+ vols., I,'il2-14), L'Hermile en Province (U vols., ISIS- 
 27). /-e« Hermitcn en Piisnn (2 vols.. 182.3), and Lei Her- 
 miieo en LiberU {\S2i). They were written in a liber.-vl 
 spirit, and brought him for a short time to prison, a fact 
 which increased his popularity. Louis Philippe made him 
 librarian at the Louvre. D. Sept. 4, 1S46. 
 
 Jovolla'nos, de ( Gaspar MEi.cnoR), b. at Gijon, Spain, 
 Jan. 5, 1744, of noble parentage ; studied at the universities 
 of Oviedo and Alcal.'i, and became distinguished for his 
 researches in natural, moral, and political science, .^fter 
 acting for some years as a magistrate at Seville. Jovellanos 
 was successively appointed to several high posts at court, 
 until his friendship for Cabarrus incurred for him the 
 enmity of Godoy. resulting in his banishment from Madrid 
 under pretext of a commission to explore the mineral re- 
 sources of the province of Asturias. Ho had previously 
 written for the stage a comedy. El Detincuente Hourado, 
 and a tragedy. Pelai/n. both of which were successful and 
 made hiiu prominent as an author, and had published an 
 important work on the agricultural condition and the 
 property laws of Spain. In 1797 he was for a short time 
 minister of justice, but. again incurring the displeasure of 
 Godoy, was imprisoned in Majorca for eight years (ISOl- 
 OS), only recovering his liberty in consequence of the French 
 invasion of Spain, lie became one of the leading members 
 of the central junta which organized resistance against the 
 French, and of the regency, exercised immense influence by 
 his writings for the same purpose, and d. at Vega Nov. II, 
 ISU. 
 
 Jovia'nus (Flavips CLArnirs),a Roman emperor, son 
 of Varronianus. a distinguished general. Jovianus was 
 captain of the life-guards of the emperor .Tulian in the Per- 
 sian campaign, in which the latter was killed (.lone 2fi, 
 A. n. 363), ami was proclaimed as his successor the fallow- 
 ing day by the choice of the generals. He declared him- 
 self a Christian, and extricated himself from a position of 
 great peril in the midst of a hostile country by surrender- 
 ing to the Persian king Sapor all the provinces beyond the 
 Tigris. During his slow retreat towards Constantinople, 
 Jovianus promulgated edicts re-establishing Christianity 
 as the dominant religion, but protecting the pagans. Ho 
 restored Athanasius to the see of Alexandria, abandoned 
 Nisibis to the Persians, and admitted his infant son Var- 
 ronianus as a colleague in the imperial rank. During his 
 journey he was found dead in his bed at Dadastana, a small 
 village in Galatia. Feb. 17, 364. Whether he was the vic- 
 tim of poison or of accidental suffocation by the fumes of 
 charcoal is disputed. His successor was Valentinianus I. 
 
 Jow'ett (Besjamis). D. D..b. at Camherwell, England, 
 in 1817; was educated at Oxford, where he became a fellow 
 in 1838, while still an undergraduate; tutor in 1842, and 
 rcgius professor of Greek in 18.i5. He was ordained in 
 1S42; became in 1S49. and again in 1 S."i3. examiner of clas- 
 sical schools, and in lS.'i4 a member of the commission 
 on examinations for the Imlian civil service, along with 
 Macaulay and Lord Ashburton. Their elaborate report, 
 published in 1855. was written by him. In the same year 
 Prof. Jowett published a commentary on Paul's Epistles to 
 the Thessnionians, Galatians. and Romans, and in ISCOho 
 contributed to the EnKajjs and Urvicim an article On the. In- 
 lerprrictiiin of Scripture, for which ho was tried and ac- 
 quitted before the chancellor's court of the University of 
 Oxford on a charge of heresy. His most important work 
 is Tlie Dinloques of Pinto tranalatcd into Eufilinh, leith 
 Auuli/see and rnlrndueiinun (4 vols., 1871). Prof. Jowett 
 became master of Balliol College in 1870. 
 
 Jowf, or Djowf, province of Jebel Shomer, Arabia, 
 is situated between lal. 29° aud 30° N. and Ion. 39° and 
 41° E., and forms a deep depression iu the surrounding 
 desert. It is irrigated by running streams, very fertile, 
 and has a temperate climate. The date-palm is largely 
 cultivated, also several kinds of cereals and leguminous 
 plants, and all sorts of fine fruit, especially peaches, figs, 
 grapes, and melons. The whole oasis is about 70 miles 
 long and 10 to 12 miles broad, and is inhabited by about 
 40,000 souls, belonging to the finest Arabian type, and ex- 
 hibiting all the best characteristics of the race. The prin- 
 cipal towns are Jowf and SeUakab. 
 
 Joy, post-v. of Sodus tp., Wayne co., N. Y. Pop. 122. 
 Joy (Charles A.). Ph. D.. b. Oct. 8. 1823. at Ludlow- 
 ville, Tompkins CO.. N. Y. ; eraduated at Union College 
 1S44: received the degree of LL.B. at Harvard University 
 Law School 1847; appointed in 1.847 on the first govern- 
 ment survev of the copper-region of Lake Superior; at- 
 tended the University of Berlin 1849; received the degree 
 of Ph. I), at Gcitting'en 1852 : attended lectures at the Sor- 
 bonne. Paris. 1853: appointed same year professor of 
 chemistry in Union College, and in 1857 to the same chair 
 in Columbia College. New York City, where ho still re- 
 mains. His principal contributions to chemistry have 
 been analyses of minerals and meteoric iron, researches 
 into the compounds of glucinum, and papers on the com- 
 bination of alcohol radicals with selenium. He has con- 
 tributed largely (o scientific journals and newspapers, 
 having been for two years an editor of the Scientific 
 AmerFcan and Jnurnnl of Applied Cliemintrii, and the edi- 
 tor of all chemical articles in Applelnua' Xcir American 
 Ciicloprrdin. Has been president of the Lyceum of Natural 
 History of New York City, president of the American 
 \ Photographic Society, and chairman of the Polytechnic 
 ' Association of the American Institute. 
 ' Joy (James F.I. b. in Durham. N. H.. in 1810; grad- 
 uated at Dartmouth College in 1833; moved to Detroit, 
 Mich., in 1836; was an industrious and very successful 
 lawver: organized the Chicago Burlington and Quincy 
 R. R. about 1850; became president of the Michigan Cen- 
 tral and its connections in 1866. He organized the com- 
 pany which constructed the St. Mary's Falls ship-canal, 
 and has been a verv energetic railroad builder and manager 
 in the Western States. W. S. Georue. 
 
 Joy'fiPid, post-tp. of Benzie co., Mich. Pop. 130. 
 Joyncs'touii, tp. of Wilson co., N. C. Pop. 1271. 
 Ju'ab, county of Central Utah. Area, about 650 square 
 miles. It is in part mountainous. It is partly iu the 
 Salt Lake Valley and partly in tho Sevier 13asin. Lig- 
 nitio coal of excellent quality is found. Cap. Salt Creek. 
 Pop. 2034. 
 
 Juan'Fcrnan'dez, orMas-a-Tierra.an island in 
 the Pacific Ocean, in lat. 33° 37' S. aud Ion. 78° 53' W.. 400 
 miles oflr the coast of Chili, to which it belongs. It is 18 
 miles long. 6 miles broad, mountainous, with steep shores, 
 but fertile, producing samlal-wood and other .sorts of tim- 
 ber, figs, grapes, and many different kinds of fruit. It is 
 inhabited hv a few settlers from the U. S. and Tahiti. The 
 story of Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch sailor who was at his 
 own desire put ashore on this island, and lived there four 
 years in solitude, is supposed to have suggested the idea of 
 De Foe's tale of Robinmn Crunnc. The island upon which 
 De Foe places his hero is off the coast of Venezuela, near 
 the mouth of the Orinoco. 
 
 Juan' y Santaci'lia Morok), b. at Nobelda, Spain, 
 Jan. 5. 1713; studied at Malta and at the marine college 
 of Cadiz, distiniruishing himself in mathematics and as- 
 tronomy; in 1733 commanded a small exploring vessel 
 sentto'the coast of America, and in 1734 was associated 
 with Don Antonio Ulloa in the command of a scientific 
 corps sent to South America to measure a degree of the
 
 JUAREZ. 
 
 1463 
 
 meridian at the equator in onlcr to dclcrmino the true size 
 nnil figure of the earth. The French academicians La 
 Condaraino and BouRucr participated in the expedition, 
 which was completely successful. Juan and Ulloa remained 
 in Peru several years, and accumulated a vast store of ob- 
 servations in geography ami physii-.«, which they published 
 in 174S in 5 folio vols. The work has since becij a standard 
 one upon that portion of .America. Juan wrote otherworks 
 on nautical science; was an efficient officer of the Spanish 
 navy, in which he attained the rank of vice-aduiiral : was 
 elected a menihcr of the chief scientific corporations of Eu- 
 rope, and .1. at Madrid June 21, ITT.'i. 
 
 Jua'rcz (Besito Pabi.oK b. of pure Indian parentage 
 at Ixtlan, near Oaxaca, Mexico, Mar. 21, ISUG. Left an 
 orphan at the age of three years, he received no early in- 
 struction, and spoke only tli'e Zapolcco language until his 
 twelfth year, when, taking refuge in Oaxaca from ill-treat- 
 ment by his guardian, the lad found favor with a Francis- 
 can lay brother, who taught bim to read and write, and 
 afterward placed him for several years at an ecclesiastical 
 seminary, where he studied Latin, with a view to the priest- 
 hood. But there had been founded meanwhile at Oaxaca an 
 Institute of Arts and .Sciences, which .Juarez was attracted 
 to enter in 1827. Taking the degree of bachelor of laws, ho 
 also became the professor of physics of the school, and in 
 IH'M was licensed to practise law. Having espoused libe- 
 ralism, he had previously (1S31 ) been elected a member of 
 the city council of Oaxaca. and a deputy (1S?,2) to the 
 slate legislature. Chiirged with revolutionary affiliations, 
 he was imprisoned for some months in ISiiC, but in IS42 
 was appointed a judge of the civil court of Oaxaca. When 
 bis party triumphed, .luarcz in IS4.i became secretary to 
 the governor, but soon exchanged the place for that of 
 fiscal (attorney-general) of the superior court, as the gov- 
 ernor's views did not square with his own more advanced 
 ideas. In Aug.. lS4fi, Oaxaca resuming its sovereignty, 
 the legislature delegnlcd [be executive powers to a trium- 
 viraterof which .Juarez was Iho most relied on. But his 
 party having also gained possession of political power at 
 Mexico, be was soon elected a deputy to the federal con- 
 gress called to reorganize the government under the con- 
 stitution of 1824, and to provide ways and means for the 
 war with the V. S. He earnestly supported the measure 
 of fiomez Farias to raise $14.nnn,(100 by sale or loan 
 upon the Church properly, which, though carried, was 
 successfully set aside by tbc aid of Santa .'^nna. Oaxaca 
 !ig!iin in revolt. .Juarez' became governor for several years, 
 milking reputation throughout Mexico for administrative 
 capacify. By another turn of the wheel of revolution Santa 
 Anna rose again to power, an.l .Juarez was arrested, im- 
 prisoned for a time, and banished. From New Orleans, 
 however, he soon found bis way by Panama to Gen. Al- 
 varez, then in revolt at Acapuico ; and when .Alvarez was 
 proclaimeil President (Oct., ISSo), .Juarez wns appointed 
 minister of justice antl ecclesiastical affairs. His sweeping 
 measures of reform diil not suit Oen. f'oinonfort. the 
 ruling spirit of the cabinet, to whom the aged Alvarez 
 soon yielded his office; therefore .Juarez preferred to re- 
 turn to Oaxaca as governor once more. Again distin- 
 guished forexecutivcaiiilily.by his influence the democratic 
 principle was greatly developed in the state, including the 
 direct election of governor by the people, and in 1857 ho 
 was the first governor thus chosen. But at the same gen- 
 eral election he was also elected president (chief-justice) of 
 the federal supreme court, and in Nov., 1857, was appointed 
 minister of gobernaeion. His presence in that cabinet led 
 con"resa to invest Comonfort with extraordinary powers, 
 which were speedily abused by the President's complicity 
 with the conspiracy of Ziiloaga. Again .Juarez was im- 
 prisoned, but as Comonfort's intrigues fell through, he bad 
 the grace to release .Juarez before quitting the capital, and 
 the latter retired at onco to Oaxaca, whence he was soon 
 summoned to (luanajuato to head Iho movement of the 
 stales against the military i)arty. nn^l under the constitu- 
 tion, as president judge, was proehiimed President .Jan., 
 ]s5ft. For lack of resources be bad lo retire to (luadalajara. 
 There the garrison was divided : Lient.-col. Landa, with a 
 party of his battalion, pronouncing for reaction, seized and 
 imprisoned Juarez and bis cabinet in the palaie, menacing 
 them with death— a throat not executed, simply because 
 of the energy with which anotlier fiehl-officer rallied a small 
 force of regulars, the national guards, and peiq)le, invested 
 their prison, and forced their captors to surrender them. 
 Meanwhile the liberal army umler (lens. Parrodi and I)e- 
 gollado, defeated at Salamanca, had fallen back upon 
 Ouailalujara. and Parrodi was made minister of war and 
 general-in-chief. Juarez then retire.l with the government 
 to Colima. leaving Parrodi toilelend liuaduliijiira. where ho 
 soon capitulated. Ueplacing bim by Degolhi.lo. .luarez 
 now iletermined to take ])osition at Vera Cruz, which he 
 readied (Mav 4, 1858) bv way of Manzauillo, Panama, ami 
 
 Havana at an extremely critical juncture, when, with com- 
 merce virtually at an end, the whole interior was domi- 
 nated by bis adversaries. But Juarez never lost heart. Ably 
 assisted by some resolute partisans in the field, he pub- 
 lished (June, 1859) plans for reform which gave such 
 strength to liberalism in the country that the conservatives 
 invoked foreign aid (France, England, and Spain 1, upon 
 the basis of a government which should secure reform with 
 conservative rule; and to this scheme they secured the as- 
 sent of Uegollado, whose army, however, repuiliated his 
 course. Juarez, resolutely refusing to countenance Euro- 
 pean intervention, called a general election for President 
 and deputies to congress. Then came the successful battle 
 (Dec. 22, ISCO), near Mexico, of Calpulalpam, and imme- 
 diate entrance of the liberal army into that city, from which 
 Miramon narrowly escaped at night. Juarez, following 
 thither (Jan. 11, 1S61), re-established his government, and 
 at an election held in March was chosen President of the 
 republic. Fifty-one deputies in Congres.s, however, de- 
 manded his resignation in favor of Gonzales Ortega, who 
 had been chosen chief-justice (May). But, supported by 
 the state legislatures, the governors, and a majority of the 
 press, Juarez continueil in the executive office. At his sug- 
 gestion, congress having (July 17) suspended payment for 
 two years of all (including exterior) public obligations, a 
 pretext was given for the tripartite alliance, under which 
 an Anglo-l'"rench-Spanish force was landed (Dec. 8, IS(il) 
 at Vera Cruz. Weakened by more than forty years of civil 
 war and an impoverished exchequer, with aught less than 
 his supreme faith and constancy of purpose, Juarez must 
 have succumbed. But the fortunate early withdrawal of 
 the English and Spanish forces encouraged the states to 
 the most resolute resistance to the French, who were re- 
 pulsed (May 5, 1S()2) in their first attempt upon Puebla. 
 With tho rich, the clergy, and the remains of the old army 
 in sympathy with intervention, however, Puebla was taken 
 in May, 1803, and in June tho French entered Mexico. 
 Retiring to San Luis Potosi, Juarez found himself deserted 
 by many who bad hitlierto stood steadfast; he therefore 
 proceeded to Saltillo, there to learn that Vidaurri, governor 
 of Nuevo Leon and Coahuila, had already gone over to tho 
 French. Deposing him, with the aid of tho people ho soon 
 forced him to seek refuge in Mexico. But a hostile force 
 under Gen. (Juiroga afterwards made him retire to Chihuahua, 
 where the people gave a cordial welcome, and ho organized 
 an army under Gens. Ortega, and Patoni, which, being 
 poorly equipped and unskilfully commanded, was soon 
 beaten. With other forces, raised in that quarter and Du- 
 rnngo, however, Negrete, now minister of war and geucral- 
 in-chief, recovering Saltillo. Monterey, and Parras (spring 
 of 1805), an unsuccessful effort was made to recover Mata- 
 nioros, which was soon followed by a counter-French inva- 
 sion of Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and even Chihuahua, beloro 
 wllich Juarez was forced (.\ug., ]8()5| to recede to tho very 
 border at Paso del Norte. It was now that Gen. Ortega, 
 ohief-justice of Mexico, claimed that Juarez's terin of office 
 having cx]iired, the executive power constitutionally lapsed 
 to bim. Juarez, however, determined to hold over until 
 there could bo a general election, but for the next year had 
 to remain near the northern frontier of Mexico, exercising 
 little aolual influence upon tho struggle maintained in tho 
 interior by military chiefs with Maxiuiiliau and the I'Vench. 
 In ,Ian., 1807, as Iho French were jireparing to quit Mexico, 
 ho ]icoetrated to Zueatecas, but after a narrow escape from 
 capture by Miiauion, had lo retire. But Kscobedo, ap- 
 parently the soul of the military resiBtanoe to JIaximiliau, 
 attacked Miniiuon in turn, and routed him in several ac- 
 tions (decisively at San Jacinto), and Juarez followed to 
 San Luis Potosi', to hear there of the capture of Maximilian 
 at (Juerelaro (May IV, 1807), soon after which lie repaired 
 to the capital. Maximilian, Miramon, and Mejiawcru shot, 
 after a protraeleil trial by court-martial, Juno 19, 1807, 
 notwitbslamliug all the efforts of their able counsel, the 
 friendly intervention of the V. S. government, and the ap- 
 peals of many personal friends of Juarez, A general elec- 
 tion was helil. and ccuigress meeting Aug., 1807, declared 
 his rc-eleelion lo the Presidency. He set about the eslab- 
 lishmeut of iIm^ government, but was enenunlered by vifd'-nt 
 opposition from auibilious or dissalislicd chieftains of his 
 own party, who excited many insurrections, and during 
 this whole term of office (1807-71) he was able to retain 
 power merely because of tho utter lack of hiiruiony and 
 concert among his military opponents. Willi cluiracterislio 
 intlexibilily ttf purpose he pursued bis object of consolida- 
 ting the inslilulions resulting from the " war of reform," 
 iniliffereiit alike to (lattery ami tonienaco. One of tho events 
 of bis adminislralion was the triiiuiphal jirocession made by 
 ex-Secretary Sewanl through .Mexico hite in 1809. At tho 
 general election cd' 1871, again a eandidale, ho had a plu- 
 rality, not an absolute majority, of votes, but was elected by 
 congress. The result was the revolution headed by Gens.
 
 1464 
 
 JUARROS— JUDAS ISCAKKVr. 
 
 Diaz and Trevino. by whose successes the central power 
 seemed more than once tottering to its fall. The tide was 
 turned in favor of Juarez by the victory of Gen. Rocha at 
 Zacatccas (Mar. 2). but the northern states were still un- 
 subdued when he d. of apoplexy. July IS. 1S72. Pcrsun- 
 allv, Juarez was taciturn, self-reliant, and hope! ui. btit 
 unexcitable, confident in his own resources nncl of the ulti- 
 mate triumph of his plans. Unquestionably, ho^vever, tho 
 downfall of Maximilian was due to the oppos^ition made 
 by military leaders remote from Juarez, and to the immense 
 moral force of the position of tho V. S. government at the 
 time, rather than to the positive influence of the Indian 
 statesman upon affairs. Thomas Jordan. 
 
 Juar'ros ( Domingo), b. in Guatemala about the middle 
 of the eighteenth century, was an ecclesiastic, who is known 
 only as the author of a learned historical work upon Cen- 
 tral America, which is one of the chief sources of informa- 
 tion upon the suhjeet — Comiycndio <le la J/istnria de fn 
 Cindnd dr Onnttmuln, etc. (2 vols., 1809-18). lie is said 
 to have died about 1820. 
 
 Ju'baf kiu;j of Numidia, succeeded his father Iliempsal 
 after 02 u. c. The tribune Curio having proposed to make 
 Numidia a Roman province. Pnmpey opposed the plan, and 
 thus secured the good-will of Juba. In 40 B. c, Juba de- 
 feated and killed Curio on the Bagradas, took part in the 
 African war against C;vsar (47), and after the battle of 
 Tha])sus took his own life (Feb. 4, 40 n. c). — His son, 
 Ji'BA, graced Caesar's triumph at Rome, 40 b. c. ; was well 
 educated, and became the friend of Augustus, who gave 
 him in marriage a daughter of Antony and Cleopatra, and 
 restored him to his kingdom .10 b. c. In 2o he exchanged 
 Numidia for Mauritania, and the former became a Roman 
 province. Mauritania under his tranquil sway, supported 
 by the Roman arms, rose to great prosperity. He wrote 
 grammatical works, histories of Africa, Arabia, and Rome, 
 treatises on painting and the theatre, on certain plants, 
 etc. Fragments of his works are extant, but only as cita- 
 tions in other writers, collected in JMUller's Fragin. Illsi. 
 Gr^c. (iii. 4GJ— 184j. His death is placed about a. d. IS. 
 
 Ju'bilee [Heb. yoic^, a " glad sound:" Lat. /(/6t7o, to 
 "rejoice"], among the ancient Hebrews in Palestine, the 
 fiftieth year, the year succeeding every seventh sabbatical 
 year. During this year all lands lay fallow, all Hebrew 
 slaves were set at liberty, and all lands reverted to the heirs 
 of the original owners, to wjiom the lands had been par- 
 celled out in Joshua's time. In the Roman Catholic Church, 
 Boniface VIII. in I.'IOO established a jubileeto beheld once 
 a century ; Clement VI. (1.3 jO) ordered it to be held once 
 in fifty years: Urban VI. (in 13S9), onco in thirty-fivo 
 years ; Sixtus IV, (in 1475J fixed the interval at twenty-five 
 years. 
 
 Jubilee, tp, of Peoria co., HI, Pop. 837. 
 
 Jubilees, Book of, an important pseudepigraphical 
 book, originally written in Hebrew, probably beforo (but 
 not very long before) the birth of Christ. It was translated 
 at an early date into Greek, was prized by tho early Chris- 
 tian Church, but both Hebrew and Greek texts were lost 
 (except fragments of earh) before the thirteenth century. 
 In 1S44, Dr. Krapf discovered in Abyssinia an Ethiopic 
 version from the Greek. Of this Dillmann published a 
 German translation (1849-51 ) and the Ethiopic text (1850). 
 This book is regarded as canonical by the Abyssinian 
 Church. It pretends to be a revelation made to Moses. It 
 is named from the faet that it treats of biblical history in 
 j'nbiltjcH, or periods of fifty years. The unknown author's 
 design was to furnish a commentary upon Genesis and 
 Exodus. He has borrowed freely from the Hagadah. Tho 
 critical value of the work is very considerable. It may bo 
 regarded as a part of the Hagadah. 
 
 Ju'da« post-v. of Green co., AVis., on tho Monroe branch 
 of the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R. 
 
 Judx'a, or Judea, w.as first us^-d in ancient geography 
 as tho name of the kingdom of Judah, in contradistinction 
 to the kingdom of Israel, but after the return from the 
 Captivity, and up to the times of (he Romans, it denoted 
 the whole of Palestine. The Romans used it partly in a 
 general sense, signifying the land of the Jews ; thus, Herod 
 was styled king of .Iuda?a, though ho ruled over countries 
 not belonging to Palestine; partly in a restricted sense. 
 denoting the sonthernmost province of Palestine, bounded 
 N. by Samarii. K. by the Jordan and the Dead Sea, S. by 
 ldum:ea. and \V. by the Mediterranean. 
 
 Ju'dah [ Heb. Yehnd'ih, " celebrated "1, one of the twelve 
 patriarchs, the fourth son of .laeob by Leah, b. at Haran 
 fPadan-Aram) in Syria, about b. c. lOlfi ; was esteemed 
 the progenitor of the tribe of the same name, which became 
 BO yiredominant in Palestine as (o give its name to the 
 kingdom of Judaea, and ultimately to the whole race of 
 the descendants of Abraham (Jews). Judah appears to 
 
 have exercised a kind of leadership among his brothers; 
 it was he who persuaded them not to kilt Joseph, but to 
 sell him to the Midianites, and on the journey to Egypt to 
 buy corn it was Judah who acted as spokesman for tho 
 whole company. As such, he otfered himself to Joseph as 
 a slave to ransom his half-brother Benjamin. He had 
 married a Canaanite woman, and left three sons, Shehih, 
 Pharez, and Zerah, from the second of whom David, and 
 ultimately Christ, were descended. Of the life of .Tudah 
 in Egypt nothing is known except that he was still living 
 at the time of his father's death, and received that splendid 
 blessing (Gen. xlix. 8-12) which foretold the glory of his 
 lineage. 
 
 Judah ben Samuel, called H \ Levi, or " The Lcvite," 
 and known among Arabic writers as Abi'i, Hassan, b. in 
 Castile about lOSO. was one of the most distinguished 
 mediaeval Hebrew writers. He excelled as a physician, 
 a theologian, and a poet, his Hebrew sacred songs having 
 been several times translated into German within the pres- 
 ent century. His principal work, however, was in Arabic, 
 Kiizari, being discourses on religion between a king of the 
 Khazars, a race of the Crimea, and a .Jewish rabbi. It 
 was translated into Hebrew. Latin (by liuxtorf), Spanish, 
 and German. Rabbi Judah made a pilgrimage to .ferusa- 
 lem, and, according to tradition, was assassinated by a 
 Mohammedan in the Holy Land about 1140. 
 
 Judah fTlKNRY Moses), b. at Snow Hill, Md.. June 12, 
 1821 ; graduated at West Point in 184.", served in the Mex- 
 ican war, and for nine years in Indian campaigns on the 
 Pacific coast: was appointed colonel of volunteers in ISCil, 
 brigadier-general in 1802, and inspector-general of Gen. 
 Halieck's army of the Tennessee: was actively engaged in 
 pursuit of Morgan during his raid into Ohio and Indiana, 
 and commanded a division under Gen. W. T. Sherman in 
 tho Atlanta campaign. D. at Plattsburg, N. Y., Jan. 14, 
 186G. 
 
 Ju'das Iscar'iot [Gr. 'lo-Kapiwrii?], one of the twelve 
 apostles, and the betrayer of his Master, was a son of Si- 
 mon, who is by some supposed to be Simon Zelotes, or the 
 Canaanite. who was also an apostle. The surname Iscariot 
 has given rise to many interpretations, bnt the most usual 
 is "man of Kerioth," a village in Judiea. He was the 
 treasurer of the apostles, participated with the others in 
 tho missix)n to preach the gospel and in receiving power to 
 work miracles, was a witness of the whole career of Jesus 
 up to the Last Supper, in which he took part, and be- 
 trayed Christ to the chief priests for thirty pieces of 
 silver, with whieh he purchased a field, but shortly after 
 hanged himself in remorse for his crime. Opinions have 
 diflfered for centuries as to the precise nature and motives 
 of the crime of .ludas. It is evident that it could not have 
 consisted simply in identifying the person of his Master, 
 whieh was well known in Jerusalem ; the better opinion 
 seems to bo that he revealed, or perhaps falsified, some 
 portion of the teachings of Jesus intended only for the im- 
 mediate circle of the disciples, but which enabled the chief 
 priests, with the aid of hired witnesses, to fasten upon him 
 the charge of blasphemy. As to his motives, the plain in- 
 ference from the language of (he (Jospcls and the Acts 
 seems to be that he was actuated by avarice, jealousy, and 
 perhaps disappointed ambition. Yet there have not been 
 wanting theologians who have attempted some defence of, 
 or at least apology for. his conduct. An early Christian 
 sect, the Cainites. remarkable fur the Antinomian inver- 
 sions of Scripture which led them to worship Cain and the 
 Serpent, while refusing to worship the Jehovah of the Old 
 Testament, honored Judas as the only true apostle, alleging 
 that he alone perceived the necessity of taking steps for tho 
 fulfilment of prophecy and the salvation of mankind by the 
 death of the Messiah. Modern apologists, without going 
 to this extreme, argue that Judas's object was to place his 
 Master in sucdi a confiiet with the authorities as would lead 
 him to exert his miraeulous powers and establish the " king- 
 dom of the Messiah," in whieh he of course looked for per- 
 sonal advancement, in accordance with the promise that 
 the apostles should "sit on twelve thrones, judging the 
 twelve tribes of Judah." It is even alleged that by virtue 
 of name and descent (being the only apostle not a Galilean), 
 as well as in reward of his political sagacity, he expected 
 a kind of premiership as judge over the royal tribe of Ju- 
 dah. On this theory his remorse and suicide simply imply 
 that the result of his action, so contrary to his expectations, 
 first opened his eyes to the enormity of his ofTencc. Arch- 
 bishop Whately has presented a view similar to this in one 
 of his fJstiat/s on anme of the Dnitt/firj* tit Cfifistinu Fmth 
 (1839). But it must be admitted that this view is difficult 
 to reconcile with the text of the biblical narrative. One 
 of the numerous npoeryi)hal writings of the second century 
 was a *• Gospel of Judas," which tho Cainites adduced in 
 support of their opinions.
 
 JUDAS MACCABiEUS-JUDGE ADVOCATE. 
 
 1465 
 
 Judas Maccaba^us* See Maccabees. 
 
 Judas Tree, of Europe and Asia, is the Ccych Siti- 
 ^unmtnitn, a ?iikiI1 tree of the order Lcguniinosir. having 
 rosc-colorcd flowt-rs and handsome wood used in joinery. 
 There was anciently a dispute as to whether Judas Isoariot 
 hanged himself on this or on the elder tree. The Judas 
 tree or red Itud of the V. S. (Ct-rcia Cunfttlcusis) resembles 
 the above, but has pointed while the other has round leaves. 
 Its abundant flowers, of a peach-blo^snin color, are very 
 beautiful in spring. The wood is soft and brittle, but hand- 
 some. 
 
 Judd (0. P.). M. D., b. Apr. 23, ISO.'J. at Paris, Oneida 
 CO., N. Y. ; studied medicine, and went in 1828 to Hono- 
 lulu as physician in the service of the American foreign 
 xni.-'sion. In 1842 he dissolved his connection wiih the 
 mission, and became interpreter to the p;overnmenl of 
 Kumchameha Til. In 1843 ho organized the first ministry 
 which had ever been formed in the state, and be held him- 
 self the office as minister of finance, which he filled with 
 great prudence and sagacity till his deatb, July 12, 1873. 
 
 Judd (XoRMAS B.), b. at Rome, X. Y., Jan. 10, 1815; 
 was admitted to the bar in 1836, and engaged in successful 
 
 fractico of law in Chicago; was a prominent politician of 
 Uinois, in which State he held many important public 
 oQiees. lie was U. S. minister to Prussia ISGl-fiJ, mem- 
 ber of Congress I8C7-71, and became a railroad president. 
 D. at Chi.ago, III., Nov. 11, 187S. 
 
 Jndd (OuANOC), b. near Niagara Falls, N. Y.. July 26, 
 1822; graduated at the Wcsleyan University. Middletown, 
 Conn., in 1S47; was for some years successfully engaged 
 as a teacher and lecturer: studied chemistry 18J0-63 at 
 Yale; became in 1853 editor of the Ai'ifrican Afjricid- 
 /iiri«/, which under his supervision has become one of the 
 leading agricultural journals of the U. S. In 1 860 be be- 
 came Bole proprietor of the same, and engaged in the pub- 
 lication of books. In 1869 the firm-name was changed to 
 Orange Judd A Co. Mr. Judd has also been a railroad 
 president, and was 1855-63 agricultural editor of the Sew 
 Yurk Ti/iirH. lie was the compiler of the first Alumni 
 Urcord of his ulmn mater (1S6S aeq.), and for a time was 
 publisher of the Hearth aud Ifomc, a periodical. Ho has 
 been a liberal benefactor of the Wcslcyan University. 
 
 Judd (Svi.vfstkr), b. in Westhampton, Mass.. July 23, 
 18i:; ; graduated at Yale in 1836; studied at the Cambridge 
 Divinity School, Mass., and was 1840-5:; pastor of a Uni- 
 tarian church in Augusta. Me., where he d. Jan. 20, 1853. 
 Ho is best known by his powerful romance Marijftret (1S45), 
 one of the most noteworthy works of fiction ever written 
 in the U. S. His /Vii7«, a poem (1850), Jiichard Effufif, a 
 romance (1850), and a volume of di.'^courses on The Churrh 
 (1854), all illustrate the strong purposes of their author's 
 life. He was a hearty opponent of war, capital pifiiisb- 
 mcnt. intemperance, and slavery. He left a MS. <lrama, 
 The White Hilh. (See his Life, by Mrs. A. Hall, 1854.) 
 
 JudCfOr Judas (with the surname TiiAnn.Eis or Ur.B- 
 n*:rs), one ftf the twelve ap<isHes. but it is not agreed 
 whether he is the same as .Tudas, the brother of the Lord, 
 nor whether ho is the author of the Kpisllo of Jude. one 
 of the canonieal books of the New Testament. Of bis life 
 nothing is known with certainty; different traditions men- 
 tion dilTerent places in which ho is said to have preached 
 and died. 
 
 Jude^ The Kpistic General of St., was written 
 by Juda" (Jiidali). I'lilU-d also Lebba-us and Thaddieus, 
 one of the twelve apostles. It is directed against heretics 
 and false teachers. It is written in impassioned language, 
 recalling that of St. Peter's second Kpistle. Its date is 
 quite uncertain. The authority of this Epistle was con- 
 tested in the early times of the Christian Church, because 
 it contains citations of apocryphal writings, and recent 
 critics have doubted its genuineness. Most commentators, 
 however, maintain that, it was written by Judas Thaddieus, 
 ami thai Judas Thuddunis was the brother of the Lord. 
 
 Judge, a public officer who is invested with authority 
 to hear and determine litigated causes, and to administer 
 justice between parties according to law. The term /rir/yc 
 is sometimes employed to designate any officer or person 
 who exercises a discretion of a judicial nature in the per- 
 formiince of his official dutirs, as a juror, an arbitrator, or 
 a public inspector, but in ordinary legal and popular ut^ago 
 it bears the sense expressed by the above definition. The 
 judges of the superior courts of England arc rarely desig- 
 nated by thi.s name, l.ut receive particular titles accc»rding 
 to the court in which they sit. Thus, the Judges of the 
 court of exchequer are styled Imrons, and the principal one 
 is known as chief baron. The chief judge of the king's 
 bench is calle<l tlie lord ehiefjustice of Knglnuil. while the 
 corresponding judge in the court of common ]deiis is stylecl 
 the chief-justice of the common picas. Tho other judges of 
 
 these two courts are termed justices, as, e. 3., Mr. Justice 
 Blackslone. The highest equity judge is designated lord 
 chancellor. In the U, S. it is usual to apply the epithet 
 "judge " to ail officials of this kind, in whatever court they 
 may sit. But the highest judge among the Federal ju- 
 diciary is kntiwn us the chief-justice of the supreme court, 
 as Chief-Justice I^Iarshall, Tho methods by which judges 
 are chosen, their tenure of oflice, the rules of law relating 
 to tho payment of their salaries, the extent of their legal 
 responsibility, etc. are fully <M)nsidered in the article ju- 
 niciAuv (which see). It will only be necessary to refer 
 hero to one or two additional i)oints. It is a maxim of the 
 common law that " no one can be a judge in his own cause.'* 
 Impartiality in tho administration of justice requires ne- 
 cessarily that the judge should be an entirely disinterested 
 part}'. This disqualification applies not only in regard to 
 cases in which the judge is a party of record, but as well 
 to causes in which he has some private or ])ecuniary inter- 
 est. For instance, a judge who is a stoekliolder in a cor- 
 poration cannot do any judicial act in a cause in wliich 
 that corporation is a party. A judgment or decree ren- 
 dered in a suit in which the judge was interested would be 
 voidable without any proof that he had been jircjudiced or 
 misled by considerations of his own advantage. A juilgo 
 cannot sit under such circumstances, even with the consent 
 of all the parties. In some of the States statutes have 
 been passed embodying this common-law prohibition, and 
 extending the same principle to other analogous cases in 
 which a judge's personal interest in a cause is likely to be 
 aroused. Thus, in New York it is provided that no judge 
 can sit as such in any cause in which he is a party, or in 
 which he is interested, or in which he would be excluded 
 from being a juror by reason of consanguinity or affinity 
 to cither of the parties : nor can any judge take jiart in 
 the decision of any question which shall have been argued 
 in tho court when he was not present and sitting as a 
 judge. Moreover, it is declared that no judge shall have 
 any partner practising in his ciuirt, and that no ju<lge shall 
 have any voice in the decision of any cause in which ho 
 has been counsel or attorney. So no judge of an appellate 
 court is to take part in deciding a cause determiucd by 
 him in the court from which the a))peal is taken. It is 
 further provideil that no judge shall act as a counsellor, 
 solicitor, or attorney in the court of which he is a judge, 
 except in those suits in which he shall be a ]iarty or in tho 
 suliject -matter of which he .ehall be interested. There is 
 also a law of Congress prohibiting any jutlge of the U. S, 
 courts from engaging in the practice uf the law. Any 
 person violating this prohibition is declared to be guilty 
 of a higli misdemeanor. 
 
 In the trial of a cause it is the province and duty of tho 
 judge to decide upon the admissibility of evidence. If 
 his rulings arc deemed erroneous, objection may be made 
 to them by counsel, and exc<i)tions taken, upon which a 
 motion for a new trial or an appeal may subsequently bo 
 based. Tho credibility of the testimony is to be determined 
 by the jury. So the judge decides upon the competency of 
 witnesses offered to bo sworn. The interpretation and con- 
 struction of written instruments is also, as a general rule, for 
 tho court, and not for the jury. A judge cannot be called 
 as a witness to testify as to what took place before him in 
 the trial of another cause, tlinugh he may testify to foreign 
 and collateral matters which happened in his presence 
 while the trial was pending or alter it was ended. More- 
 over, tho samo person canind be both w itness and judge in 
 a cause which is on trial before him, whether he sits alone 
 or with associate judges. In some eases, however, when a 
 witness who testified in a former trial has since died, tho 
 testimony which he then rendered may be proved in a sub- 
 sequent suit by ihe juclge's notes t)r minutes when botli 
 actions are tried before the same judge. (See KviUKNti:, 
 CouiiT,) There are some forms of legal busines.s which 
 maybe transacted only before a court acting as such, while 
 others may take place out of court, anil belore an ofticcr 
 acting as a judge. A disliuetion is that ilrawn between a 
 cnnrt and a jM^/'/f, the latter word being used to indicate 
 that business before the officer is trausactcd out of court. 
 
 (Sec ClIAMHKUS.) 
 
 C.KoiiGK Chase. Revised bv T. W. Uwigiit. 
 
 Judpe (Col. Thomas J.), a native of Alabama, entered 
 public life in 1843 as a solicitor in a Stale circuit court, and 
 afterwards became a pr<uninent lawyer and \\'hig politician ; 
 in 1861 was commissioner from Alabama to the V. S. gov- 
 ernment, but was not received as such by Mr. Buchanan ; 
 served in tho civil war as a private, then as colonel, of tho 
 I4th Alabama, and afterwards as judge of a military court 
 1862-65: was ju.lge of the StateSupreme curt 1865-68, 
 and practised law at tireenville, Ala. 1>. .Mar. 4, 1876. 
 
 Jud^e .Vdvocate, as the name is most frequently used 
 in the 11. S., designates tho person ta military nflicor save
 
 1406 
 
 JUDGE ADVOCATE-GENERAL— JUDGMENT. 
 
 very exceptional cases) who prosecutes before a general 
 irt-martial or military oomuiission in the name of the 
 
 in V 
 
 court-iu.^. v.«. .-. - --., - . . .1 
 
 U. S. Ho is ilclailcd liy the authority which appoints the 
 court. Sonic i>l' liis pri'ucipal duties arc to prepare the case 
 for trial, summoning the necessary witnesses; to sec that 
 the accused has the opportunity to exercise his ri^ht ol 
 challenge: to administer to the members of the court, in 
 the presence of the accused, the oath prescribed by the SUh 
 Article of War; himself to take that prescribed by the 
 85th: to see that the charges are technically accurate; to 
 arrai-n the prisoner; to administer the oath to witnesses, 
 and to present the evidence for the prosecution; to con- 
 sider himself counsel for the prisoner so far as to object 
 to anv leading questions, or to any question to the pris- 
 oner 'the answer to which mi.sht tend to crimniale him- 
 self (Art. 90) ; to give legal advice to the court when called 
 on; to keep an accurate record of the proceedings, and to 
 forward the same, properly authenticate.!, to the convening 
 authoritv. The judge advocate has power to comjiel wit- 
 nesses to appear and testify, and ho may employ a reporter 
 to record the proceedings and testimony. 
 
 There is also, in the U. S. army, a corps of judge advo- 
 cates (reiluced to four in number by act ol Congress of 
 Juno 2:!, 1S74). They hold the rank of miijor. and are re- 
 quired l»y law to perform their duties under the direction 
 of the judge advocate-general. They are, however, gene- 
 rallv stationed at department head-quarters as legal ad- 
 visers to the department commanders, but are subject to 
 detail bv him for court-martial duty. 
 
 In the English service the judge advocate has not, since 
 182'J, performed the duties of prosecutor. These devolve 
 upon a staff officer ordered to perform them, or upon the 
 prisoner's commanding otTieer. or at minor eourts-raartial 
 upon the adjutant. The principal duties of the judge ad- 
 vocate under the English system are those of the judge or 
 assessor called in (wlrocutiis) to advise the court, and that 
 of the clerk or notary who takes down the proceedings in 
 writing. 
 
 Judge .Vdvocate-Cieneral, in the U. S. army an 
 officer at the head of the bureau of military justice at 
 Washington, with the rank of brigadier-general, whose 
 duties, as defined bv sec. 1199 of the Revised Statutes, are 
 to receive, revise, and cause to be recorded the proceedings 
 of all courts-martial, courts of inquiry, and military com- 
 missions, and such other duties as heretofore performed 
 by that onicer in the U. S. army. The office of judge ad- 
 vocate-general has existe.l in England since the days of 
 the Stuarts. The Articles of War of James II. prescribed 
 that in all criminal causes which concerned the Crown, 
 His Majesty's advocate-general or judge advocate of the 
 army should inform the court and prosecute on His Maj- 
 esty's behalf, lie is now the legal advisor to the Crown 
 in all cases requiring the .sovereign's action as eonfirmiug 
 officer of the proceedings of general courts-martial. He 
 exercises the power of a supreme court of review as regards 
 the proceedings of inferior courts. Ho is the supremo 
 legal authoritv for the army, except as to questions arising 
 under martial law, with which he has nothing to do. He 
 has the right to appoint deputies, and is responsiiilo for 
 them. He is conservator of the proceedings of military 
 courts, other than those held under martial law, and he is 
 a subonlinate member of the administration, and quits 
 office with it. 
 
 Jud'ges, The Book of the, a historical book of 
 the Old Testament, the seventh in order of the canonical 
 books It derives its name from a class of rulers or ehiels 
 who ruled in Israel during the period which its record 
 covers. The twelve tribes after entering C;inaan formed 
 only a loose confederation, without unity or natmnal feel- 
 in- or dignity. They had no lie:id. They were at the 
 same time engaged in such wars as all conquerors must 
 maintain with those whom they displace, and they were 
 also harassed by foreign foes. In emergencies men (or 
 women) of talent and energy took the Icail, their only au- 
 thoritv being their ability. They were regarded as •' raised 
 up " or divinely sent, the name given to them is the same 
 which we mcctwith in the Phoenician, " suffetcs." When 
 one had gained authority by displaying ability in a crisis, 
 ho becanio a "judge" in our forensic use ol the term. 
 This time was not one to awaken the national pride out of 
 which history is born, or to produce historical records. In 
 some oases, ns in that of Samson, the judge became a 
 popular hero and the subject of song and poetry. Such 
 records of this tiino as remained aro collected in the book 
 of Jude-es. They are fragmentary and imperfeel, as is 
 abundantlv shown by the lack of chronology. The book 
 is said, in the Talmud, to have been written by Samuel, 
 lie certainly was not the original author of any of the 
 parts, and it is more than doubtful if he was the collector. 
 Some writers refer the authorship to Ezra. 
 
 Jiidg'ineiit, in law, a determination by a court of the 
 rights of tlie parties in an action. This term is usually 
 applied to the decision rendered upon a question in litiga- 
 tion in a common-law action, while the corresponding term, 
 "decree," is ordinarily employed to denote the decision 
 civeu in a court (,( equity. Both names are, however, 
 sometimes used indistinguishably. In those Slates where 
 the distinctions between common-law and equitable pro- 
 cedure have been abolished, the term "judgment" is alone 
 generally employed for every form of decision in a civil 
 action, "a indgiiient dilTcrs from an or.ler or rule in being 
 the result of an action, while an order or rule is obtained 
 by an a|q>lieation to the court in the nature of a motion. 
 Judgments at common law may be rendered at different 
 stages in the progress of the cause, and arc hence distin- 
 guished as interlocutory or lin:d. Interlocutory, in legal 
 usage, means intermediate, and judgments of this kind aro 
 those which arc rendered before the termination of the 
 action upon some issue or litigated point distinct from the 
 principal issue, but collateral or incidental to it, and which 
 therefore do not wholly determine or complete the suit. 
 Of this nature are judgments for the plaintiff given upon 
 pleas in abatement, for they require the defendant merely 
 to "answer over" — i. e. to furnish a better |ilea or answer, 
 free from certain specified objections, and further j)roeecd- 
 ings are necessary before the final determination of the 
 cause. (See Abatement.) But, as Blackstone says, the 
 interlocutory judgments most usually spoken of are those 
 incomplete judgments whereby the right of the plaintiff 
 is established by a decision upon the entire cause, and not 
 merely upon some collateral point, hut the amount of dam- 
 ages to be awarded is not ascertained. The damages payable 
 arc subsequently determined by a special jury of twelve 
 men summoned and presided over by the sherifl, and there- 
 fore termed a " sheriff's jury." This process is known as a 
 "writ of inquiry," and is necessarily resorted to because 
 these interlocutory iudgmentsare rendered without the in- 
 tervention of a jury. Examples of such judgments will be 
 given herealter. A final judgment is one rendered upon 
 the princiiial issue or entire cause, which determines finally 
 and completely the rights of the parties engaged in tho 
 action, as where judgment is entered upon the verdict of a 
 jury, awarding a certain amount of ilamagcs to the plain- 
 tiff 'or discharging the defendant. Judgments at common 
 law, whether interlocutory or final, arc of different forms, 
 according to the nature of the action, the plea, the issue, 
 and the manner and result of the decision. Thus, there 
 may be a judgment upon demurrer, either sustaining or 
 overrulin" the demurrer (see Demi-rreu): or a judgment 
 by uU dicit ("he says nothing"), which is given against a 
 defendant for a failure to plead or continue his pleading 
 until issue is joined; or a judgment by confession, which 
 is given against a defendant when he acknowledges tho 
 justice of tlie plaintiff's claim and agrees to comply with 
 his demand, as bv restoring certain property or by jiaying 
 a certain debt, etc. If any of these various forms of 
 d.'uient be given for the plaintiff, and the action be 
 
 giv^ -- I 
 
 brought for unliquidiitcd (or unascertained) damages, th^ 
 judcnient is interlocutory, since the cause has not been re- 
 ferred to a jury, and a writ of inquiry is necessary. If tho 
 action be brought for a specific sum of money which is due, 
 as a particular debt, or for the recovery of certain chattels, 
 the judgment is final, since there is no need ol ascertaining 
 dama-«, and the extent of the plaintiff's recovery is de- 
 termined exactly and completely. Particular forms ot 
 iud"mcnt at common law against the plaintiff aro the 
 ■iudSment of .loa ;>,-o»^7,„'t,.r (" he docs not prosecute ), 
 whic'h is rendere.l against him for a failure to plead ; Ibo 
 judgment „i v.llc ;,ro,r,„.' ("unwilling to prosecute ), 
 given when he avers that " he will not further prosccuta 
 his suit ■" the judgment of nonsuit, which is rendered when 
 he abandons his cause or fails to make out a pnma fane 
 case against the defendant. Judgments ren.lcrcd in lavor 
 of a defendant arc always final. Judgments entered upon 
 the verdict of a iurv are also final, since the jurj-, at the 
 same time when they try the issue, also assess tho damages. 
 A judgment rendered in favor of the plaintiff, exeep upon 
 a dilatory plea (.see Pleadinc). is in the form ,,nnd rcn,- 
 „rr<-l (" that he do recover") certain chattels, or a certain 
 debt or the amount of his damages. A judgment tor the de- 
 fendant (with the same exception) is. in general, in the lorm 
 ,„l r„,,,-o((" that the pUintiff take nothing ). J" '>""'« 
 States where the common-law practice has been ahol. shed 
 by codes of procedure, these various forms of judgmen no 
 louKcr exist, but forms analogous to the most important ol 
 them have still been retained, as. e. ,,.. judgment upon con es- 
 sion, upon default, or by way of nonsuit. There are no inter- 
 locutorv indgments in these States, but only final judg- 
 ments ■ Orders take the place of interlocutory judgments. 
 i Judgments wer.^ ('..rinerly pronounced in open court, and 
 are still always supposed to be so, but tho regular eomn>on-
 
 JUDICIAL COMMITTEE OF THE PRIVY COUNCIL— JUDICIARY. 
 
 1467 
 
 law practice has been for a long period for tbe party enti- 
 tled to judgment to obtain tbe signature or allowance of 
 the proper officer of the court, expressing geMerallv that 
 judgment is given in his favor. This is called "signing 
 judgment," and stands in place of its actual delivery by 
 the judges themselves. The judgment is afterwards entered 
 on record. In some cases, when a verdict has been rcn<lercd 
 bv a jury, judgment is entered in (tpposition to it. This is 
 called a judgment nou obstante rerrtiirto {•• notwithstanding 
 the verdict"), and may be obtained by tiie phiintiff upon 
 motion, when it appears that the defendant, for whom the 
 verdict was given, pleaded in confession and avoidance, ! 
 and the avoidance is bad in law, though sustained by the 
 jury in point of fact. The confesgion is therefore left un- 
 qualified, and entitles the plaintiff to judgment. After 
 juilgment has been entered, proceedings may be instituted 
 in an appellate court for its reversal, if exceptions have 
 been duly taken in the course of tho trial, by an appenl or 
 writ of error. fSec Ai-pf.al.) If this bo not done, and the 
 judgment be for the payment of money or the recovery 
 of specific real or personal property, it will bo carried into 
 effect by exerution. (See Execition.) 
 
 A final judgment requiring the performance of a specific 
 act or the payment of a specific sum of money is a peculiar 
 species of contract, termed a contract of record. (Sec Cox- 
 TRAtT. ) If the judgment bo not satisfied or discharged, it 
 may itself be made the foundation of a subsequent action 
 in the same way as a claim upon simple contract. It is, 
 however, sometimes provided by statute that tlio leave of 
 tho court in which tho judgment was rendered, must bo ob- 
 tained before action can be brought upon it between the 
 same parties; and the provisions of statutes of limitation 
 applying to contracts of record usually specify the same 
 limit of time within which a^-tions upon such contracts 
 must be brought as with reference to contracts under seal, 
 such as bonds. This period is generally twenty years as 
 regards the judgments of the higher courts. In gome 
 States, however, domestic judgments are not barred by tho 
 statute. Such is the case in England, but actions upon 
 them are not favored there. It is a peculiarity of a con- 
 tract of rer'ord that if it bo disputed, its existence must be 
 tried by inspection of tho record, and not by a jury. In 
 order that a judgment may bo valid, it must bo rendered 
 by a competent court, liaving jurisdiction of the particular 
 cause of action and of the person of tho defendant. It 
 matters not what the general powers and jurisdiction of a 
 court may be, if it act without authority in tlio particular 
 instance, its judgments and orders are regarded as nul- 
 lities, and all persons concerned in executing tbeni are 
 considered in law a? trespassers. They aro not voidable, 
 but entirely void, and form no bar to a recovery sought 
 (even prior to a reversal) in opposition to them. The 
 jurisdiction of any court exercising authority over a sub- 
 ject may be inquired into in every court wlicro liio pro- 
 ceedings of the former are relied on, and l>rougbt bribro 
 the latter by tho party claiming tho benefit of such pro- 
 ceedings. There is, however, a difference between courts 
 of general and those of limit(*tl jurisdiction — that tho juris- 
 diction of tho former is jircsumed, while that of tho latter 
 must bo pro\ed. But tho presumption in tho former case 
 is not conclusive, but open to rebuttal. But where a court 
 has acquired jurisdiction of a cause of action, it has au- 
 thority to render judgment, and if error bo committed, or 
 the judgment bo frau'lulcnlly obtained, or the proper and 
 legal forms of proccduro be disregarded, tho judgment is 
 voidable, and not void, and will bo binding until vacated 
 on motion to tho proper court or reversed on appeal. A 
 juilgmcnt rendered by a competent court, and not reversed, 
 operates to extinguish tho original cause of action, in ac- 
 cordance with tho doctrine of merger (see Mcrokr), and 
 is absolutely binding upon the parlies to tho action and all 
 who represent them, determining their mutual rights and 
 obligations, upon tho principle of estoppel. A caufc once 
 decided issaitf to be rtia udjuflirtttn (**ii matter adjuilieatcd 
 or determined "), and cannot therefore bo again made a 
 subject of litigation. (This point is considered more fully 
 under tho topics Esioi-i-Kr and Kvini:x('»:. The rules as to i 
 estoppel in relation to I''oni:i<;N Jt-nuMiiNTsaro stated under 
 that head.) 
 
 Judgments requiring in whole or in part tho payment 
 of money by a debtor are generally at tho present day 
 made to constitute a li<'n upon the debtor's hnuls by the 
 f(treo of express statutoi", which prescribe certain penalties 
 which must be complied with in order that the lien may 
 attach and bo enforcctl. As this subject is wholly statutory, 
 tho provisions in different States must be sought in their [ 
 various statute-books. In New York the judgment must be 
 d'K'ketcd — i. r. registered in a particular b()ok l>y the county 
 clerk, known as the " doeket-hook " — and it then becomes 
 a lien upon all the debtor's real property situated within 
 thkl county, and upon all that ho may acquire within ten 
 
 years from tho time of docketing. A transcript of the 
 judgment may be tiled in the clerk's offices of other coun- 
 ties where the debtor has lands, and it will then become a 
 lien on these lands also. Judgments obtained by several 
 creditors take effect according to the time of docketing. 
 The lien may be extinguished by a payment of the amount 
 of the judgment. After tho debtor's personal property has 
 been exhausted to s.-itisfy the execution, if tho judgment 
 remains unsatisfie<l, his lands may be sold by the sheriff at 
 any time while the lien continues, in accordance with cer- 
 tain prescribed forms. (See Likn.) 
 
 An interesting question has come before the courts for 
 adjudication as to the cfi'cct of a judgment for the plaintiff 
 in actions of trespass or trover for the conversion of chat- 
 tels, in transferring the property in the goods to the de- 
 fendant. Some decisions have held that the mere render- 
 ing of the judgment has this effect, but the generally 
 prevalent doctrine now is that the property docs not pass 
 until tho judgment is satisfied. 
 
 The diflerencc betw^een judgments in rein and judgments 
 in perftonam is stated under the topic Ix Rem. Only do- 
 mestic judgments have been considered in this article, and 
 the distinctions between these and foreign judgments will 
 be found under tho title FintKif;s JrnoMrNT. 
 
 GLOitci: CnASK. Ukvisim) bv T. W, Pwkiht. 
 
 Judicial Committee of the Privy C'ounciK 
 See Coi-RTS. I. 5 (U). 
 
 Judic'iary^ that branch of government or collective 
 body of public officials which is invested with the power of 
 hearing and determining litigated causes, of administering 
 justice, and of interpreting nn<l enforcing tbe laws. In all 
 civilized countries the importance of securing an a>)le. up- 
 right, and impartial judiciary, composed of men learned in 
 the law, faithful and disinterested in the performance of 
 duty, and under no subservience to governmental authority 
 by which tlieir decisions may be controlled or infiuenced, 
 has been recognized; and for the attainment of these ends 
 the judicial dep.artmcnt of the government has been sepa- 
 rated from the executive and legislative departments, each 
 having mainly, if not entirely, exclusive powers and func- 
 tions, and its mode of organization, the tenure of oflice by 
 the judges, tho extent of their authority, and their legal 
 rcsponsil)ility have been, as a general rule, so defined and 
 regulated that judicial independence and integrity may ho 
 cflcctually promoted. In an especial sense is this true of 
 England and the V . S., where the attainment and continued 
 maintenance of civil and political liberty, in which these 
 nations have made tho greatest progress, have been rec- 
 ognized as de])ending fundamentally upon the just admin- 
 istration of tlie laws, of which the independence and un- 
 swerving rectitude of the judiciary alunc aflord a sufficient 
 guaranty. "There is no liberty," says Montesquieu, ** if 
 the judiciary power bo not separated from the legislative 
 and executive. Were it joined with tlie legislative, the life 
 and liherty of tho subject would bo exposed to arbitrary 
 control, for the judge would then bo the legislator. Were 
 it joined to tho executive power, tho judge might behave 
 with violence and oppression." {Spirit of Lnics, hk. 11. eh. 
 0.) Tn England, as tho liberty of the citizen increased, 
 this division of power became more and more coui[tIete; 
 and in tho U. S., whoso political system was, in large mea- 
 sure, a bcritago from England, tho judicial department of 
 tho Federal government was organized from the outset, in 
 pursuance of i)r<Jvi8ion3 expressly embodied for this pur- 
 pose in the U.S. Constitution, with entirely distinct powers 
 from any other branch of the government. The judges 
 cannot occupy any other ofiicial position — have no share 
 in legislation or in tho execution of tho laws. Their func- 
 tions are exclusively judicial, and are confined entirely to 
 the exercise of tiie jurisdiction conferred upon tho Fed- 
 eral courts by tho Constitution or by the laws of Congress 
 uutiiorized by tho Constitution. In tho several States also 
 simitar exclusive functions nro conferred upon the judiciary, 
 though with a different extent of jurisdiction. The com- 
 pleteness of tho separation between the judicial and the 
 other branches of tho government which has been effeetcd 
 in this country has not yet been attained in Engtan<l. This 
 diversity is attributable to tlie peculiar historical origin 
 and dovehqiinent of the ])resent system of English courts. 
 In tho early periods of .^axon and Norman rule, both legis- 
 lative antl juilicial powers were vested in the same pub- 
 lic body or assemldy — under tho Saxons, in the great coun- 
 cil or parliament of tlie kingilom known as the M''itena- 
 gemoto (Sax., "meeting of wise men"), und under tho 
 Normans, in a similar assembly, the Aula Regis, or "king's 
 couneil," The jiuliciat powers exercised by this national 
 assembly were eonferrecl upon the various courts ns they 
 were successively formetl in later Norman reigns, while the 
 council itself was gradually developed into (he modern 
 Parliament, whose powers are olmost entirely lecislative. 
 But judicial prerogatives have never been wholly trans-
 
 1468 
 
 JUDICIARY. 
 
 forrcd from the legislature to tbe courts, and the highest 
 appellate tribunal in the realm at the present day is the 
 llouse of Lords, which is also the highest branch of Par- 
 liament. It has. however, been provided by a recent 
 statute, known as the "Supreme Court of Judicature Act,'' 
 which is to go into effect in Nov., 1875. that a new court 
 shall be formed, to bo designated *' Her Majesty's Court of 
 Appeal," in which the highest appellate jurisdiction shall 
 be vested, and that no appeal shall afterwards be taken 
 to the House of Lords except from Judgments rendered 
 prior to that time. The separation between the leg- 
 islative and judicial departments will thus bo made sub- 
 stantially onin]>lete, though it is true (hat some of the 
 judi^es of this new court may be members of the House of 
 Lords. (The provisions of the judicature act are stated in 
 the article Cohhts.) A union of judicial and administra- 
 tive or political functions also jirevails at jircscnt in a few 
 other instances. Thus, the lord chancellor, who is the 
 highest judicial officer in the kingdom, is also a member of 
 the ministry in office for the time being, and loses his posi- 
 tion by a change of ministry. He is the prolocutor (or 
 Speaker) of the House of Lords, has the appointment of 
 all justices of the peace throughout the kingdom, and exer- 
 cises various other powers more distinctively political than 
 judicial. The master of the rolls, also, who is a judge in 
 equity, may be elected to represent a constituency in the 
 House of Commons. But even in these exceptional in- 
 stances the union of judicial with other diverse functions 
 is but meagre in extent. The jurisdiction of the House of 
 Lords, though in theory vested in the whole body of peers 
 collectively, is in reality exercised by a small number of 
 them, who are designated distinctively the "law lords." 
 The administrative functions of the lord chancellor also 
 appertain, in a largo measure, to the performance of his 
 judicial duties. As a result of the division of power among 
 several branches of government, the judiciary occupy a 
 distinct position, are entrusted with duties of a dciinite 
 and uniform character, are removed to a great degree from 
 political infiuenccs which might engender a partisan spirit, 
 and the entire tendency of their official labors is to produce 
 a habit of impartiality in the administration of justice and 
 an especial capacity for judicial investigation. 
 
 Reference has already been made to the establishment 
 of methods of court organization, and the deBning and 
 limitation of the functions and responsibility of the judi- 
 ciary as a means of preserving their indejjcndence. The 
 moxt important constitutional or legislative measures of 
 this kind have reference to the methods of choosing judges, 
 the nature and duration of their tenure of office, the pay- 
 ment of their salary, and their liability for judicial or 
 extra-judicial acts. In England — and in the U. S. so far 
 as relates to the Federal courts — judges receive their posi- 
 tions by appointment. In the former country the superior 
 juilges are all appointed by the Crown, while certain in- 
 ferior magistrates are appointed by the lord chancellor or 
 other high officials. In the latter, the Federal judges are 
 ap])ointed by the President "by and with the advice and 
 consent of the Senate" — i'. e. the Senate may confirm or 
 reject his nominations. In the several States of the Union 
 constitutional provisions of a similar nature were adopted 
 at an early period, and it was declared in many of them 
 that the appointment should be made by the governor, 
 subject to the confirmation of the State senate, while in 
 others power was given to the legislature to elect the 
 judges. But within a comparatively recent period a largo 
 number of the States have m.ade the judges elective officers, 
 chosen directly by popular suffrage, in the same way as the 
 members of the legislature or the governor. In Missis- 
 sippi this change was made in is;t;{. But it was not till a 
 similar example was set by Xew York, which adopted a 
 constitution in 18(0 providing for the election of judges, 
 that any considerable number of States discarded their pre- 
 vious practice for a system of election. An elective judi- 
 ciary is now ?aid to exist in a majority of the States. The 
 tenure of office of the English judiciary was anciently at 
 the pleasure of the Crown, but in the time of Lord Coke 
 (about IfiOO) it became customary to insert in the commis- 
 sions of the common law judges that they shoubl h.dd of- 
 fice during good behavior. It lay. however, in the pleasure 
 of the Crown lo determine the form of the commissions un- 
 til the Act of vSettkment in the reign of William III. 
 (1701). by which it was provided that (he judiciary should 
 retain their positions during good behavior, though the>y 
 might still be removed on the address of both houses of 
 Parliament. By an act passed in the reign of George TIT. 
 (17SI) they continue in ofl^ce notwithstanding the demise 
 of the Crown. These laws apply to all the superior judges, 
 except the lord chancellor, and the (enure of office with this 
 exception is practically for life. In the II. S. it is expressly 
 deelared in the Federal Constitution that "the judges both 
 of the Supreme and inferior courts are to hold their office 
 
 during good behavior.** Bat by a receot act of Congress 
 any judge who has held his commission for at least ten 
 years, and has reached the age of seventy, may resign, and 
 his salary will be continued as a retiring pension during 
 the remainder of his life. In most of the States the tenure 
 of office was originally establisheil as continuing during 
 "life or good behavior," or until the attainment of a cer- 
 tain advanced age, as sixty or seventy years. In New 
 York, for instance, Chancellor Kent was obliged to retire 
 from office in 182^ on reaching the age of sixty, which was 
 the constitutional limit. In those States, however, in which 
 an elective judiciary has been established, the duration of 
 the term of office is generally limited to a few years. Thus, 
 in New York it was declared by the constitution of 184C 
 that the term of office of the jirincipal judges should be 
 eight years. In 1SG9, however, it was extended to fourteen 
 years, with the qualification that the term should terminate 
 when a judge reached the age of seventy. This funda- 
 mental change in the mode of selecting the judges and in 
 the length of their terms of office whicii fans taken place in 
 so many of the States has given rise to no little controversy 
 between the advocates of the old and those of the new sys- 
 tem as to its effect in impairing, or tending to impair, the 
 independence of the judiciary. The natural tendency of 
 the system of appointment and a tenure of office during 
 good behavior is manifestly to relieve the judiciary trom 
 all apprehension of losing their positions by failing to con- 
 sult the interests or favor the wishes of the appointing power 
 or by reason of any fluctuations of party politics. The faith- 
 ful performance of duty, without regani to ulterior consider- 
 ations of future advantage, is therefore more likely to be se- 
 cured. Pre-eminent legal ability is more apt (o be regarded 
 thanpoliticalservicesorparty fealty as the cliief qualification 
 in a judge, and the responsibility of a bad appointment is 
 readily fixed upon the appointing power, so that care and 
 deliberation are likely to characterize the selection of the 
 judiciary. The temptation to court popular applause and 
 support, even by a sacrifice of judicial fairness and integ- 
 rity, the influence of which would naturally be most pow- 
 erful where an elective system prevailed, is much dimin- 
 ished when the judges feel no dependence upon the people 
 for a continuance of their official position. On the other 
 hand, the adoption of a system of election by so many of 
 the States of this country is but a further extension of 
 democratic principles uj>on which the structure of the gov- 
 ernment is founded, and it is mainly upon this ground that 
 its advisability as a matter of public policy has been based. 
 It is urged, moreover, that the uprightness and independ- 
 ence of the judges will be promoted by making them 
 amenable to the popular will, and subject to public dis- 
 approbation and a forfeiture of their positions by corrupt 
 conduct. But whatever mode may he established for the 
 selection of the judiciary, only its tendencies can be spoken 
 of with assurance, and not its necessary results. The in- 
 fluence of a healthy public opinion demanding integrity, 
 ability, and a true judicial spirit upon the bench — a public 
 opinion which is sure to prevail in the long run in this 
 country — will be particularly effective in counteracting the 
 evil tendencies which may exist in a system of election. 
 In some of the States, moreover, there has been a return, in 
 gome measure, to the former practice by increasing the length 
 of the tenure of office, and it is not improbable that a change 
 of this kind will be generally adopted. But by no system 
 of appointment or election can the absolute purity and im- 
 partiality of the judiciary be ensured. The remarks of 
 Jlallam upon this point in regard to the English judges 
 are very suggestive : " It is always to be kept in mind that 
 they are still accessible to the hope of further promotion, 
 to the zeal of political attachment, to the flattery of princes 
 and ministers: that the bias of their prejudices, as elderly 
 anil peaceable men. will, in the plurality of cases, be on 
 the side of power: that they have frequently been trained 
 ns advocates to vindicate every proceeding of the Crown. 
 From all which wo should look on them with some little 
 vigilance, and not come hastily to the conclusion that be- 
 cause their commissions cannot be vacated by the Crown's 
 authority they are wholly out of the reach of its influence." 
 {Connt. 7/iW.,"eh. 15.) 
 
 The subject of the salaries of judges is generally regu- 
 lated by constitutional provisions, in order that they may 
 not be subject to coercion or wrongly influenced in (heir 
 discharge of duty by a reduction or deprivation of their 
 means of livelihood. By the English Act of Settlement it 
 was declared that the salaries of the judges should be as- 
 certained and established, and by act passed in the reign 
 of George III. it was provided that their salaries should be 
 absolutely secured to them during their continuance in of- 
 fice. The Vi . S. Constitution jirovides that the judges *' are 
 at stated times to receive for their services a compensation 
 which shall not be diminished during their oontinuanoe in 
 office.*' In Eome of the States this provision is copied,
 
 JUDICIUM POPULI, 
 
 1469 
 
 while in others fhcro is a constitutionnl rule that judicial 
 salaries shall neither bo increased nur diuiinishoit during the 
 term of office. The determination of the amount of salary 
 to be paid bclonj^s to the le;];islftture, pubject to these con- 
 stitutional restriction?. The tluctuatiomt in the value of 
 money and in the cost of living render it inexpedient to 
 specify a fixed salary in the constitution. The American 
 constitutional provisions are more efticiioinus and salutary 
 in relieving the jmiiciary from all subordination to the 
 legislature than the laws of Enj^Iand upon the subject, since 
 there the compensation is at all times subject to alteration 
 by an net of Parliament. There has. moreover, been in 
 recent times a growing appreciation of the necessity of pro- 
 viding for the judges sufficiently ample salaries to enable 
 the state to secure the services of the ablest lawyers and 
 jurists upon the bench. In many of the V. 8. the salaries 
 have hitherto been so meagre that the tendency has been 
 for men of the highest legal attainments to remain in their 
 hicrative practice at the bar rather than to seek or to ac- 
 cept judicial positions. In some of them, as in New York, 
 the amount of compensation has recently been made more 
 liberal and adecjuate. An ample salary, whose amount and 
 time of payment arc not liable to legislative or executive 
 interference or control, is evidently an important safeguard 
 to judicial independence, since a powerful means of intimi- 
 dation which would otherwise be afTordcd is rendered un- 
 available. 
 
 The fearlessness and independence of the judiciary are 
 further promoted by limiting their legal responsibility. It 
 is a principle which has been said to have a ''deep root 
 in the common law " that judicial officers shall never 
 be liable to a civil action for acts done in the perform- 
 ance of their legal duties and within the province of 
 their legitimate jurisdiction, even though they act cor- 
 ruptly and opprossi^'ely. Nor are they liable, under sim- 
 ilar circumstances, to a criminal prosecution. The im- 
 partial administration of justice requires that those who 
 dispense it should not bo exposed to any inlhienees which 
 would make them timid, hesitating, and over-cautious. 
 " It is better." says an able ilnglish judge, *' that an indi- 
 vidual should occasionally suffer a wrong than Miat the 
 course of justice should be impeded aud fettered by con- 
 stant restraints and apprehension on the part of those who 
 are to administer it." The regular remedy against a judge 
 who is guilty of criminal disregard or violation of duty or 
 perversion of justice is impeachment. (See Imi*i-:a('Hmi:nt.) 
 As this is an inconvenient mode of trial, never resorted to 
 except in the case of grave and flagrant oflfences. the judi- 
 ciary are in a very exceptional degree freed from legal ac- 
 countability. The constitutions of some of the iSlates pro- 
 vide for a removal of judges by concurrent resolution of 
 both houses of the legislature passed by a specified vote, 
 the cause being entered on the journals, an<i a hearing hav- 
 ing been accorded to the party coui]dained of. 
 
 There are various other important ami interesting ques- 
 tions in regard to the judiciary whir-h might ije considered 
 in this conneclion, but these have been treated of under 
 other topics. Such, for example, are inquiries relating to 
 the position wliiidi a judge occupies and the functions lie 
 perform;' in different civilized countries in the conduct of a 
 trial or the decision of causes ; to the extent and nature of 
 the jurisdiction which is conferred upon him in different 
 courts; to the diverse character of the proceerlings which 
 raav come before him for adjudic^ation ; to the important 
 jurisdiction which is eonferrecl upon the judiciary in this 
 country of determining the constitutionality of legislative 
 acts, etc. For a discussion of these and analogous topics see 
 TorRTS, JrnriF, .IiTHmniiTKiN, Law. EgcuTv, Admirai-ty, 
 CoNsTiTrnoN, TiiiAi-, CiiAMFiKRS, .A PPKAI/, J tritisrRiinKNrE. 
 (As to the indepeiidenee of (he judiciary, see Story on the 
 ConHlitntion ; Kent's Commentaries, vol, i.; lAchcr's Civil 
 Librrti/.) (ii:oR(;r, ('mask. Ukvisrh nv T. W. Owigiit. 
 
 Jlltlic'ilim l*0|>'llli [Lat., "judgment by the people "], 
 in Roman law, an early form of submitting to the decision 
 of a popular vote the ilifferences between high functionaries, 
 accusations against magistrates, and other simiIar_concerns 
 in which the people as a whole was conceived not merely 
 to be deeply interested, but to have a right to pronounce 
 its sentence after due formalities. The jmliria pnhticn of 
 the later republican period are considero<l by the text- 
 writers to bo substitutes for the Jtufirin pnpuH, and indeed 
 it is probable (hat among all the Indo-Kuropean nations 
 the powers of ju>lge? and courts of law liave been derived 
 from an earlier jurisdiction exercised by the jieoplo as 
 judge, by the gradual elimination of those who were less 
 able or less willing to net in such capacity, in the same 
 manner that the powers of a supreme court of appeals, still 
 nominally vested in the English H'»use of Lords, have long 
 been practically exercised only by the half dozen "law- 
 lords." who owe their seats in that house to previous experi- 
 ence on the Iiineh. The same theory will probably account 
 
 for the formation of all representative legislative bodies, and, 
 still more obviously, for the origin of the modern jury, 
 both these institutions being peculiar to the Aryan or In- 
 do-European family of mankind. Indeed, it is so certain 
 that the ]iowers and lacnities of early Greek and Roman 
 judges differed in no degree from those which might bo 
 exercised by a popular assembly, that when for convenience 
 it became necessary to entrust special judicial functions to 
 individuals, the latter were neither elected nor otherwise 
 designated with any view to greater individual compe- 
 tency, but were chosen by lot, all the citizens being equatly 
 liable to perform this service. As above noticed, it is prob- 
 able that in the shadowy oriijinca of Aryan law all ques- 
 tions affecting either pui)lic interests or jirivate rights were 
 equally decided by tlic pojmlar assembly, from which all 
 forms of authority excepting tliosc resting upon brute force 
 or the religious sanction have been gradually evolved. At 
 the earliest period of which any clear evidence remains, 
 actions brought by individuals in defence of their private 
 rights {JHilicia pn'ratn), and resting upon special laws 
 {priritcf/ia), had been discriminated from the judicia popufi, 
 and were determined by special magistrates, white matters 
 of ])ublic interest { Judicia pnhlii-a or popiilaria) were still 
 decided by the popular asscml)ly. The tendency of all 
 things to jirogress from tlie general to the particular is 
 well illustrated I)y the gradual accumulation of statute law, 
 which had tt) be interpretcfJ by this assembly, leading to 
 the withdrawal to private tribunals of other large classes 
 of actions, to the substitution of the term Judicia pubiica 
 for Judicia popufi, and the final extinction under the em- 
 pire of this ancient tribunal. In the mythical times of the 
 Roman kings it is alleged that those monarehs presided 
 over tho assemblies of the jicoplo convened as a tribunal. 
 They were naturally replaced in this prerogative by tho 
 consuls; until in b. c. 508 tho Lex X'aUria de Provocatione 
 established magistrates called quiesitorcs or qug:etorcii rerum 
 capiUilinm, who were at first popularly chosen for special 
 occasions, but so<)n exercised a more lasting authorily 
 {ijuiEatorrs pcrpvtui). By the Lex Cnlpurnia de J'eriniiia 
 Jhpetnudia fn. c. 149) tho pnvtor became cj officio the 
 president of tho popular assembly. Other praetors were 
 from time to time added, until in tho time of Sulla they 
 numbered nine, each exercising jurisdiction over a distinct 
 class of offences; and this became tho origin of the crimi- 
 nal courts, wliieh existed until the fall of the empire. In 
 the normal judirium popnli any citizen might act as an 
 accuser, while tho Jtidiccn (judges) were chosen by lot 
 from among the people. Roth accuser and accused had 
 a limited right of challenging the judges so designated. 
 Tho prsotor presided, and, as he was not necessarily ac- 
 quainted with tlie technicalities of law, was assisted by one 
 or more assessors or jurisconsults. \Vhcn a magistrate was 
 accused, the trial could not take place until his term of 
 office expired, but meanwhile he was bound to give security 
 for his appearance. The verdict was given by ballots in- 
 scribed upon tablets; they bore the tra<Iitional name of 
 letjcH (laws), and were theoretically binding in future cases 
 of tho same kiml, though the mobility of the Roman people, 
 and their strongly developed fondness for jiublic alViiirs, 
 made them averse to surrender any real power to the force 
 of precedents. ^Vllcn at length tlie jiowtM's of the popular 
 assembly were lodged in a special body ofjiidicre, the name 
 and general regulations of tho earlier assembly were re- 
 tained, but a series of conflicts arose as to the designation 
 of the JudircH. Ry the /.ex (\i{purui>i a body of IIM) per- 
 sons was inscribe<i in tablets (afhum), and from them tho 
 jiidicru were to be selected by lot as occasion demanded. 
 Before this time they were generally taken from the sen- 
 atorial class, but during the popular struggle the senators 
 gradually h>st their prerogative, and were excluded by (ho 
 Lrx Scmproiiia, enacted H. t\ \2'.\, (ui motion of Cains (irac- 
 chus. which limited tho ehoico to the class of ci/iiiten or 
 knights. The Lex Sfrvi/ia of n. r. 104 first defined with 
 some minutiMiess the personal disqualifications which should 
 i exclude a citizen from the exercise of the judicial funclion. 
 No one who had ever been tril)Une, qnirstor, or triumvir, 
 no senator or near relative of a senator, no non-resident 
 in tho city or suburbs, and no person under thirty or over 
 sixty years of age, was eligible. The prietor. at the com- 
 mencement of each term, was to choose -(.'(O Judicrt, from 
 whom tho judges in each particular case were taken by 
 lot. There were many subsequent alternations in this re- 
 gard, and tho nature of some of the changes is involved 
 in great doubt. \iy tho Lrx f'/nulia (n. r. S!)) the judiees 
 j were to be chosen from the triltm without distinclimi of 
 ! class; by the /,r.r AurcHn (u. r. 70) they were restricted to 
 tho three classes (called drrttritr) of senators, equites, and 
 tribuni irrarii : another dccuria was addeil by Augustus. 
 At this time the whole ntimbcr registered in tho Alhum 
 Judiriim was near 4(HM». and the ordinary number of judges 
 in each given case was seventy. PoRTEn C. Rljss.
 
 1470 
 
 JUDITH— JUGGLING. 
 
 Ju'ilith [Hcb. Yehndith, feminine form of "Judah"], 
 the heroine ol' one of the apocryphal books of the Old Tes- 
 tament, in whieh phe is represented as inhabitinp; Bethu- 
 lia, a town u\' '-^aniiiria. when it was besieged by an A?:*yr- 
 ian armv under Ilolofernej:, and as having by slratagcni 
 eutoff the head of that general and thus delivered her peo- 
 ple from destruction. That the book of Judith is historical 
 in its character is maintained by the ('athollc Cliureh. it 
 being included in their biblical canon, hut has been denied 
 by most Protestant critics, chiefly, it would seem, from tlie 
 difficulty of making its statements harmonize with any 
 sclieme of chronology. The Assyrian king called Nebu- 
 chadnezzar in the book of Judith has been identified in turn 
 with almost every one of the Persian monarchs from Cam- 
 bvses to Avtaxerxes Ot-hus, but there are insuperable objec- 
 tions to each which have taxed the utmost ingenuity of the 
 historical school of commentators. On the alternative hy- 
 pothesis, that the book is a kind of rcligio-patriotic ro- 
 mance, intended to raise the courage of the chosen people 
 at some period of grievous oppression by a foreign tyrant, 
 there are two leading views — one, represented by Luther and 
 Grotius. looks upon tlie Imok as an allegorical accouutof the 
 Jewish sufferings under Antiochus Epiphancs. The Tlibjn- 
 f^en school of criticism and other recent (Jerman authorities 
 (Volkmar. IJaur. Hitzig) generally regard it as a produc- 
 tion of the second century A. n., making Nebuchadnezzar 
 stand for Trajan, Nineveh for Antioch. Assyria for Syria, 
 Arphaxad for the Parthians. Eebatana for Nisibis, Holo- 
 fernos for th** Roman general Lucius Quietus, and Judith 
 for Judiea. The occasion is assigned to 1 17-118 a. d., when 
 the Jews antl Parthians obtained a victory over Quietus. 
 The book of Judith is not a part of the Jewish canon of 
 Scripture. Lessons from it are read in the service of the 
 Church of England. (See Volkmar, Dnn Buck Judith (Tii- 
 bingcn. IS(iO) : Wolff, same title {Leipsic, 1861).) 
 
 Jiid'kins, tp. of Warren co., N. C. Pop. 1432. 
 
 Jud'son, post-tp. of Blue Earth co., Minn. Pop. 661. 
 
 Jiidson (Adoniram), D. D., b. at Maiden, Mass., Aug. 
 9. 1788; graduated at Brown University, R. L, in 1807, 
 and at Andover Theological Seminary, Mas§., in 1810. 
 Teaching a private school in Plymouth, Mass., he pub- 
 lislied in 1808 and 1801* his Elements of En<j(ish Grammar 
 and YotuKj Ladies' Arithmetic. Feb. 6, 1812, he was or- 
 dained as a missionary to ISurniah. under the auspices of 
 the A. B. C. F. j\I. He married Ann HassLdtine, teacher 
 in the academy at Bradford, Mass., and with her sailed for 
 C.ilculta Feb. PJ, lf>12. On the voyage his views regard- 
 ing the ordinance of baptism underwent a change, and 
 reaching Calcutta he identified himself with the Baptist 
 d"nomination. giving reasons for his action in Jndnon on 
 l{'}pti>im. which was republished in the U. S. This led 
 American Baptists to interest themselves in foreign mis- 
 sions, and to the formation of the society now known as 
 the American Baptist iMissionary Union. L'nder the au- 
 spices of this society he became the founder in Burmah of 
 one of the most successful missionary enterprises of modern 
 times. Settling first at Rangoon, Judson labored for nearly 
 forty years in Burraali, two of which he spent in pristm, 
 manacled and daily expecting execution. He translated 
 the liible into Burmese, and at his death had nearly com- 
 pleted a dictionary of that language in two volumes. Be- 
 fore his death he was surrounded by thousands of native 
 converts and by many missionaries, American and Bur- 
 mese. Mrs. Judson d! O.-t. 21, 1820, and in Apr., 1834, he 
 married Mrs. Sarah H. Boardman, who d. Sept. 1, 184j. 
 In June, 1846, he married Miss Emily Chubbuck. who d. 
 June 1, 1854. He d. at sea Apr. 12, 1S50. .Memoirs of 
 Judson were published by W. Hague(18.'>U. by J. Clem- 
 ent (1852). by K. Wavland (ISoii), by D. T. Middleditch 
 (1854), and by Mrs. H. C. Conant (1856). (See also the 
 Mf.moir of Ann //. Jiidson, by Prof. J. D. Knowles — an in- 
 teresting sketch of an able and devoted woman, which in- 
 cidentally illustrates, pretty fully, the origin and early 
 growth of American Baptist missious in India; the Me- 
 vioir of S'trah //. Jiidnoii, by Mrs. Kmily C. Juils<m ; and 
 the Life of Emily C. Judson,'hy Prof. A. C. Kendrick. D. D. 
 Of these three gifted women, the last mentioned (Emily 
 Chubbuck Jurlson — better known under the iio/n de plnmr 
 of "Funny Forrester") attained to considerable literary 
 reputation by a two-volume collection of essays and 
 gketches bearing the name of Afderhrook, by a volume of 
 domestic poems called The Olio, and by a volume of papers 
 suggested by missionary-life, entitled The Knthnjfau Slave.) 
 
 M. B. Anderson. 
 
 Judso'niav post-v. of White co- Ark., on the N. bank 
 of Little Red River and on the Cairo and Fulton R. R., 5;i 
 miles N. E. of Little Rock. It is occupied by a colony of 
 Baptists from the Northern States. 
 
 Jn'el (Niels), b. May 8. 1629; entered early into the 
 Dutch service, and commanded on several occasions under 
 
 Tromp and Rnyter. Having been placed at the head of 
 the Banish navy, he gave it a new and thorough organiza- 
 tion, and by his brilliant victories over the Swedish fleets 
 in 1677 at Kolbergheide and Kjoge, and by his conquest 
 of Gothland in 1676 and Riigen in 1678, made the Baltic a 
 Danish water. In reward fur his great services he received 
 the island of Taasingc as a lief. D. at Copenhagen Apr. 8, 
 1697, 
 
 Juggernaut. See JAGniciEs-AiT. 
 
 Jiig'gling and Juff'gler [from the Old TT.^jonglPre; 
 
 Middle Lat. (Ducangei, J".'/'"''>'' or joculntor, literally, a 
 "jester:" also, j>>ijal<iur ((.Miauccr). jnrnhir (J. Leland, 
 Collectana, vol. i. p. 2.35). But it is probable that the 
 word owes as much to an independent Teutonic source as 
 to the Latin joeus, as may he seen in the German Gan- 
 chcln-Jiicheln, probably from ffe-irii/lian, to *' beguile." Ac- 
 cording to Larousse, JontfUr means, accurately, "to throw 
 in the air objects which as fast as caught are thrown 
 again." This he illustrates by quoting from Expilly : 
 "The African Psylli jonf/laieut or juggled with serpents." 
 This agrees singularly with the Sanskrit j"n»yi(/i', '*a snake- 
 catcher, a conjurer." The Teutonic source has its affinity 
 at least in the Sanskrit ya^^o/a, "fraudulent," "knavish"]. 
 Juggling, which in the early ages of the world was, under 
 the name of thaumaturgia or wonder-working, the princi- 
 pal aid to priests in performing their false miracles, has in 
 modern times dejrenerated into a source of mere amuse- 
 ment, or one which only provides marvels to mislead the 
 superstitious and ignorant. The principal art in juggling 
 is legerdemain or sleight-of-hand and substitution, tech- 
 nically called among its professors hanki-panKi, from two 
 gypsy words, which are in the original Ilindostani, hokkn 
 bazi, pronounced " honky bosee," meaning precisely the 
 same thing (in Persian, 7/o/.-o haz). As tlic gypsies also 
 call theft by substitution honhi-pokl or Uukkni-pokx, it is 
 possible that we have in this the origin of huviis-pocus. 
 Many distinguished jugglers have been gypsies, and the 
 Nats or true gypsies of India are all jugglers, acrobats, or 
 dancers. The juggler among the Romans was called jar/rs- 
 tiffiator; with the Greeks he was a thaumafopoios. Athe- 
 nfcus in his Deipiiosophtfta' describes an entertainment 
 where naked girls vomited fire and jumped or rolled among 
 swords, and he gives the names of the most celebrated jug- 
 glers of his time. From his account it appears that among 
 the ancients, as at the present day in Egypt, drollery and 
 dramatic art formed an important element in such conjur- 
 ing. The writer has seen in and near Cairo native jug- 
 glers who by acting and humorously affecting to be aided 
 by evil spirits very much enhanced the effect of their 
 tricks. Trickery with cups, or thimble-rig, was known to 
 the ancient Egyptians. The old-fashioned thimble-rig, so 
 generally practised at races, wliieh was performed by 
 adroitly taking away the pea witli the fingers of the same 
 hand which held tlie cup. has of late been modified by an 
 improved style of French thimble of vulcanite. The ordi- 
 nary juggling tricks were common among the Anglo-Sax- 
 ons. Strutt gives an interesting chapter on the joculator 
 or jimtjifhtwr of England in the Middle Ages. From ])as- 
 sages in Chnucer, Sir John Mundcvillc, Froissart, and Ben- 
 venuto Cellini it is evident that the jugglers of the four- 
 teenth and fifteenth centuries were familiar with the magic 
 lantern, and were in fact far in advance of the science of 
 the learned of their days. " Sometimes," says Chaucer, " in 
 a large hall they will produce water, with i)oats rowed up 
 and down upon it. Sometimes they will bring in the sim- 
 ilitude of a grim lyon or make flowers spring up as in a 
 meadow; .sometimes they cause a vino to flourish bearing 
 red and white grapes; or they show a castle built with 
 stone: and when they jdeasc they cause the whole to dis- 
 appear." The jugglers of old — whether priests or treija- 
 fonrn, as they were called in England, or /oyr^onrs — formed 
 a very close corporation and kejit their secrets well. Even 
 King James I. believed that they were aided by the devil. 
 All of the ordinary miracles related of ancient wonder-work- 
 ers, such as making heads speak, showing men whom no ropes 
 could bind, and the like, are now performed with great ease. 
 Among the Babylonians and Aralis it was usual to mako 
 arrow.-; leap up and indicate the direction in which the king 
 should advance against an enemy. " For the king of Baby- 
 lon stctod at the jiarting of the way, at the head of the two 
 ways, to use divination ; he made his arrows bright" (Ezek. 
 xxi. 21). This was done by means of a hair: the Japanese 
 juggler of the present day makes a butterfly flit around him 
 by attaching to it a perfectly invisible silkworm's thread. 
 From the earliest ages to the present day the world has 
 seen pretenders to magic power or to intercourse with 
 spirits performing miracles which after a few years have 
 been retailed by jugglers. The great basis of false mir- 
 acles, as well as the popularity of juggling itself, consists 
 in tho truth of the saying : " J'opulua vult dtcipi " — " Peo-
 
 JDGDRTHA— JULIAN. 
 
 1471 
 
 pie wish to be deceived." Not many years ago a notorious 1 
 thaiimaturgist proposed to exhibit before a certain royal 
 family a new miracle — a piiino should play of itself. The i 
 royal family \vi*re delighted at the treat in prospect. Un- | 
 fortunately, a tlay or two before the proposed miracle was 
 performed a celebrated man of seience, having been t«ld j 
 what was (o he done, did the deed himself very perfectly, 
 and expl. lined the process, the only result being manifest 
 disappointment and annoyance on the part of the distin- 
 guished and crctlulous auditors. There is less novelty in 
 jugglers* feats than is supposed. The sphinx is a very old 
 invention ; the feat of the rinffs. which in IS;')*) astonished 
 New York, and wliieh was supposed to be entirely new. 
 had been explained years before in a very common little 
 handbook of legerdemain. 
 
 A great principle in juggling is to attract the attention 
 of the audience by some trifling movement, and thereby 
 at that instant dinfract It from the hanky-panky or adroit 
 substitution of one article for another. In India a unkcd 
 juggler will produce fr()m a cup or bag several objects. 
 These he has hidden under a false pkin, his own having 
 been gradually peeled away, and then laid on in a flap. 
 By snapping bis fingers or by pointing to anything the 
 attention even of those forewarned is drawn away. A very 
 trifling deviation of sight suffices for this, and by its aid an 
 object may be brought out and then concealed before the 
 audience perceives it. Cool audacity thus effects incredible 
 marvels. The different juggling devices by which the face 
 of a future husband is shown in a crystal or mirror, in 
 liquils. as an apparition or in other ways, the manufacture 
 of spiritual photographs, and all miracles performed in tho 
 dark, have i»een explained many times, and pi rforraed by 
 professional jugglers without apparently making Ihe million 
 much wiser. One of the best jugi:Iing feats is that of tho 
 go-called second sight, popularized by the late Robert Hou- 
 din. Tho writer, having seen him play it, can testify to 
 the adroitness with which it was done. It consists in one 
 or more persons bliudfoMed or isolated telling the names 
 of manv objects supposed to bo concealed from them, or 
 else what is written on a paper. It is varied in many ways, 
 and there are as many methods of performing it, the best 
 consisting of wires with a galvanic battery and plates, by 
 means of which signals are transmitted through the feet of 
 the accomplices. This ingenious device is also used in 
 gambling-houses. Many persons believe that gypsies pos- 
 sess secret arts and can leM fortunes. Among themselves 
 they ridicule the idea of their being able to do anything of 
 the kind, but at the same time no people are more super- 
 slifious or more easily imposed upon by the higher class 
 of conjurers who employ mechanical tricks. It is to be 
 desired that a few of the best works on juggling could be 
 read by every one as a means of dissipating superstition, 
 and of setting people on their guard against every variety 
 of practical trickery. AVhen Reginald Scot wrote his 
 celehrated IHtrnvrrie of Witrhcraft, :i work which marks an 
 era in humanity, he found it necessary to explain how the 
 juggling tricks were done by which so-called diabolical 
 deeds were effected. Of late years science has not disilained 
 to assist this art, and many of the illusions now shown arc 
 reallv interesting, both as to skill and their association 
 with tho pretended miracles of a higher class of wonder- 
 workers. 
 
 In ancient limes a number of philosophers wrote against 
 the thaumatnr'.:v of Ihe pries'lhood. and exposed their jug- 
 gling tricks. I'nfortunatcly. all their books are lost. The 
 principal of these was by (Vlsus. whose work against the 
 Magi is believed to have been a very able exposure of all 
 the tricks of tho ancient conjurers. Other writers of this 
 kiini arc mentioned by Diogenes Ijaertius. and Suidas 
 quotes the Mnifi/,"ii of Aniisthenes. Among Ihe many 
 modern works which treat of juggling and wonder-working 
 of every kind ono of Ihe best is Aa Afntfie bltiurlic divoilte, 
 mi crpticatittn (fm 7oin-« Surprriinnt», f fc, par M. Decrcmps 
 (Paris, 17SSK This was followed by a SupftUmfnt — tho 
 Tritfimrnt <Ip Jvi'omr Shnrp, the dxiirilr tlr .frronte Sharp, 
 and // K.rpficfititni (h-n Toiin* Extfaordinairrny by tho same 
 author. Dccremps was a gentleman, a scholar, and a diplo- 
 matist : his works abound in quaint quotations, and are 
 well written in a pleasant lively style. To these may be 
 
 atlded Ihe lii'ri-t'atinuH inatfi/inatif/iir* rt phifMifpttn t/'Oza- 
 iinin (4 vols. Hvo, Paris, ITi!.')) ; A**" JUrr/ntinuH mnlhftiut- 
 tiqiim rt phifHitfurit *h (iiif/nt (It vids., 17!lO). In 1S.')S Prof, 
 J, N. Ponsin published among the }fnntiah of Rorel Afi 
 Sorceifri'lr iiiirifunr rt mtuhrur rrpliqurr, a XQvy excellent 
 work, contemporary with tho Mmjir Nuturrlh. par M. 
 Vcrgniaucl, the !']nfitiqur rivnt»ft>itr, par Julia de Fonlenelle 
 and Madame Malepeyre, and Snrct'rrti, ou ht Muffir hftmrhr 
 d/roil/^r pftr Iff (h'ruHvrrtrn dr la Ckimir, dr fn Phi/HH/itr, rt 
 dr III Mrrfianiifitr, par MM. Comte et ,rulia de Fontenelle. 
 Reginald Scot's PiKvuvrrir o/ Witrhrra/t (London. 1.'>HI) 
 may also bo studied, au-l the Lihrettn dc Srcnti XnbilUshni 
 
 (Milan, 168i>) ; also /irmfnw'H Lnnt Lrfptct/, or the Mfifftcal 
 Companion (London, 17S4); A'*rO/m/ Moffic, by Philip 
 Astley, riding-master (1785) ; Mn;,ic, by J. S. Halle (Ber- 
 lin, 17831: NutHilirhe Mn;/ic, by Funk: K. 0. Eckharts- 
 hausen. VrUrr die Znuber/crli/te d*r .Va/Mr ( Munich. 1819) : 
 The Fn»hi<'>i<ih/r Sririicc of Parlor Miiffir, by .7. H. Ander- 
 son, a clever and lively work, which, in addition to ex- 
 posing the secrets of gamblers, is accompanied in Ihe later 
 editions by a supplement on the magic of spirit-rapping, 
 writing-mediums, and table-turning: fIniil,->/-Patil-i/, the 
 fo(y((/'»w (London, IS.V.I): Mnifir and Prrfrndcd Miracles 
 (London, 1S48) ; and the t'oiiJiirrr'n Guide (Glasgow, 
 1850). CiiAiti.KS (J. Leland. 
 
 Jugur'tha^kingof Numidia, was an illegitimate grand- 
 son of Masinissa; was adopted by his uncle, King Micip- 
 sa, in 149 d. c, and attracted much attention from the peo- 
 ple by his popular qualities. Sent with a Kumidian force 
 into the Uiituan service (Li4). lie gained fresh distinctions, 
 and after the death of Micipsa murdered Hiempsal, the king's 
 oldest son, and put Adhcrbai, a younger son, to flight. 
 Adherhal appealed to tho Roman senate; but the bribes 
 of .Tugurtlia secured (117) for him the larger and better 
 part of the kingdom. In 11'-' he captured Cirta and basely 
 murdered his rival. The consul ('al)iurnins Bestia was sent 
 to attack Jugurtba. who bribed the consul to grant a peace 
 (111 B. c). Summoned in the same year to Rome under a 
 safeguard, he there murdered Massiva. his enemy, and was 
 expelled from Italy. AVnr with Rome followed; in llfl, 
 Jugurtba defeated Auhis Postumius at Suthul, and sent his 
 armv under tho yoke: in lOD was badly beaten by Ca'cilius 
 Mctellus : was again defeated by Marius in 107 ; was taken 
 prisoner by tho craft of Sulla 107 : was carried to Rome to 
 adnrn the triumjdi of Marius (104), where ho was starved 
 to death in prison. 
 
 Jll'jubo, the fruit of Zizfiphvn rtilfjaria, order Rham- 
 naceie, a small tree of Southern Europe and Africa. Its 
 fruit was formerly used for making "jujube paste," a pleas- 
 ant confection, but the jujube paste of tho shojis is now 
 made of gum-arabic, sugar, water, an<l egg-albumen, with- 
 out jujubes. Jujube syrup ami dried jujubes have useful 
 pectoral qualities, and make a pleasant drink for Ihe sick. 
 Z. uitida, Z. Jujuha, Z. LotoR, and Z. Spittn-Chri/ifi are 
 among the species of this genus which bear pleasant fruits. 
 The jujube is occasionally grown in the Southern IT. S. 
 
 Jlljiiy', town of the Argentine Republic. South America, 
 the capital of a province of tho same name, has about 7000 
 inhabitants, who are mostly engaged in agriculture and tho 
 rearing of cattle. 
 
 Jukes (JosFiPii Bretk), F. R. S., b. near Birminghnm. 
 England. Oct. 10. 1811; graduated at St. .Tohn's Col- 
 lege, Cambridge, in 18;10, and devoted himself to geol- 
 ogy. In 1830 he was appointed geological surveyor of 
 Newfoundland, and from 1S42 to ISlfi he Avas naturalist on 
 board II. M. S. Fly. engagcil in the survey of the great 
 liarrier-reef along the K. coast of Australia. He ])ublishcd 
 volumes giving the results of these explorations. Having 
 joined in 1S46 the geological survey of Great Britain, he 
 wrote for it im])ortant memoirs on several districts, espe- 
 cially one on Th.- S<nilh Staff', rdnhirr (\ml-Field (1853). 
 In 1850. Prof. Jukes became director of the geological sur- 
 vey of Ireland, and he was for many years professor of 
 geology to Ihe Royal Dublin Society and Ihe Royal College 
 of Science at Dublin. His investigations on coral reefs, 
 the distribution of m<dlusea, and the formation of river- 
 beds were important contributions to science. He wrote 
 several elementary works on geology, as well as the elabo- 
 rate article in the f^nrifrlitpinfia firitainn'ca (8th ed.), and 
 contributed Inrgelv to the journals of learned societies. D. 
 July I'O. 180il. 
 
 Jll'lin« daughter of Augustus by his second wife, Scn- 
 bonia. an«l his only child, b. in .10 D. r. She was distin- 
 guished as much for her intelligence as for her beiuity. ami 
 was married to Mareellus in 25 b. r., after his death to 
 Agrippa in 22 n. r.. and after his death to Tiberius in 12 
 n. r. But her dissipation and profligacy by degrees as- 
 sumed such a character and siudi a ]>ublieily that her mar- 
 riase was dissolved, ancl she was banished in 2 n. <"., first 
 to Pandataria. an island near Naples, and then loRheginm. 
 where she d. in 14 a. i>. in want. It is probable that hev 
 hard fortuTic was due. nt Icft^t in some degree, to the hatred 
 of her step-mother. Livia. who strutdc successively every 
 member of the emperor's family in order t(» make room for 
 her own son. Tiberius. Of the five children whom Julia 
 bore to Agrippa, only Ihe two daughters survived her; of 
 Ihe three sons, two died young, and tho third was put 
 to death by Tiberius. 
 
 Jii'liiin, post-tp.of San Diego co., Cal., 37 miles N. E. 
 of Siiu Diego. Pop. 534. 
 
 Jiiliilii, Ip. of Dubuque CO., la. Pop. 1415.
 
 1472 
 
 JULIAN— JUNE-BERRY. 
 
 Julian (GEonr.E Washington), b. in Centreville, Ind., 
 May i>, 1817; receivcil a coinnion-EichooI education; was 
 several years a teacher; admitted to the bar ISIO ; elected 
 to the legislature in 1S45 ; delegate to (he Buflfulo Free-Soil 
 convention of 1S4S; Kepresentutivo in Congress 1S49-51. 
 and nominated for Vice-President by the Pittsburg ronven- 
 tiun of " Free T)omo('rats " on the ticket headed by .lohn P. 
 Hale. ]Ie wa? in IS.JO prominent as a founder of the Re- 
 publican party, and was again a member of Congress from 
 ISGl to IStii), being during the last two terms chairman of 
 the committee on public lands. He lias been one of the 
 most strenuous supporters of female suffrage. 
 
 Julian the Apostate ( Flavh s Ci,Arims.TrLiANrs), 
 Roman emperor, b. at Constantinople Nov. 17, 331 A. !>., 
 was the son of Julius Constantiu?. In infancy he was im- 
 prisoned by Constantius IF., but was well educated and 
 trained in the Christian faith : was allowed in ."ijo to reside 
 at Athens unconlined. and in the same year was proclaimed 
 Cxsar, married to Helena, daughter of Constantino the 
 Great, and was sent to govern Gaul, where he showed him- 
 self a just and wise ruler, an able general, and a virtuous 
 man. In 360 his troops saluted him emperor at Paris: and 
 Constantius beginning to interfere unduly in the atTairs of 
 Gaut, Julian marched with strong armies across Kuropc to- 
 wards Constantinojde. Constantius d. in 361, and Julian 
 was hailed with universal joy as emperor, and soon after 
 this avowed himself a pagan. He did not persecute Chris- 
 tianity, but tolerated all the sects, at the same time de- 
 cidedly favoring paganism by his edicts and closing the 
 Christian schools. In Mar., 363, he set out upon his Per- 
 sian expeilition. ancl after defeating the enemy in many 
 engagements was mortally wounded in battle, and d. June 
 26, 363. This able ruler was in supreme authority only 
 eighteen months, and yet his reign Avas one of the most 
 memorable of antiquity. Julian was a writer of great 
 talent, and left many writings in the Greek language, in- 
 cluding a number of extant letters and orations, valuable 
 to the historian; a satirical work of decided merit called 
 the (\TS(irn ; .l/i'so/jo»/o», a satire u]>on the people of An- 
 tiocli ; some unimportant epigrams ; and a celebrated work 
 A'f'ttniit the Christinns (Kara Xpioriavoii'), of which Theo- 
 dosius II. destroyed all accessible copies, so that the work is 
 lost, excepting some fragments preserved by Cyril and others. 
 
 Jii'lichf town of Rhenish Prussia, at the influx of the 
 Ette into the Roer, has some manufactures of leather, soap, 
 and vinegar. Pop. o'2 U. The districts of Jiilieh formed 
 an independent dukedom in the lourtcenth century, which 
 was united to Berg and Cleves in 1511. In 16Ul> the ducal 
 line became extiuL-t. and succession disputes began between 
 Brandenburg and Xeuburg, which, although settled in 
 1666 by a division of the country, \vere not brouglit to a 
 final conclusion until 1814, when the whole territory was 
 given to Prussia. 
 
 Julien' (Stanislas), b. at Orleans, France. Sept. 20. 
 170',) ; studied first modern European languages, Latin, and 
 Greek, but was attracted to the study of Chinese by the 
 lectures of Abel Reniusat, whom he succeeded in 1S;(2 as 
 professor in Chinese at the College de France at Paris. 
 Besides several grammatical works on Chinese, destined to 
 aid the student of the language, he has translated a great 
 number of Chinese novels, dramas, historical, philosophical, 
 and scientific writings. D. Feb. II, 1873. 
 
 Ju'liiis (Nikolais Hkinrich), b. in Altona. Denmark, 
 Oct. 3, 17S3: studied medicine, and jiractised in Hamburg. 
 In 182 j he travelled through England, in 1831-;;6 tlirough 
 the I'. S.. and later on through Germany, Poland, Belgium, 
 and France, to study the conditions and management of 
 prisons, on which subject he lectured in licrlin in 1S27, 
 jiublished a periodical, Jahrbnvhvr ilrr •^froj- tiiid lirstc- 
 riiinjHituHiaffcn (Berlin, 1.S28-4S), and wrote several works: 
 \ orlrnutiffcH iiber (jffii»tjti!nHknuUc (1S2S), Nurdnnirrikos 
 sitdirhe. XuHt'dnde (1839), ficitrnge znv bn'ttiitchen Irrcnhcil- 
 knude (ISM), etc. D. in Hamburg Aug. 20, 1862. 
 
 Julius I.f Saint, bishop of Rome, was consecrated in 
 337, and took part with Athanasius in his .struggle for 
 the Alexandrian bishopric. D. Apr. 12, 352.— J[:lm s II., 
 PocE {Giid'unio delta Jiorere), b. at Albezzola in 1441, be- 
 came a cardinal in 1471, and succeeiled by simoniaca! 
 means to the pontificate in 1503. His career henceforth 
 was chiefly military, his principal aim being to drive the 
 foreigners out of Italy and free the Holy See from the 
 domination of the great secular powers. The ambitious 
 pontiff was a liberal patron of Raphael. :Mifhael Angelo, 
 and thcother great artists of his time, and laid the cnrner- 
 stone of St. Peter's church at Rome. I). Feb. 21. 1513.— 
 Ji'Lirs III. {Oiovanni }faria dvl Afontf), b. at ArezzoSept. 
 10. I4S7, became a cardinal in iJiiG; went as papal legate 
 to the Council of Trent 1545: was chosen pope 1550, and 
 was thenceforth chiefly remarkable for luxurious habits. 
 D. Mar. 23, 1555. 
 
 Jul'lunder, town of the Puniaub, in the plain between 
 the Sutlej and the Beas. in lat. 31° 21' N. and Ion. 75° 31' 
 E. It w.as formerly the capital of a powerful Afghan prin- 
 cipality, and has many magnificent monuments. Pop. 
 estim.ated at 40.000, 
 
 JuMus, the typical genus of the family Julida:', myria- 
 potls of the division Chilognatha, including the millipeds 
 or thousand-legs and many other organisms. The true 
 Jid! are seldom more than three inches long, have numer- 
 ous small feet, inhabit moist and d.ark places, such as holes 
 in rotten wood, and arc never, like the centipedes, truly 
 venomous. 
 
 July' [Lat. Juh'nx, named by Mark Antony in honor 
 of Julius Ca?S!ir]. the seventh nmnth of the Gregorian, and 
 the fifth of the old, calendar. The ancient Romans called 
 it Qidiitilis — that is, the fifth month. 
 
 Jumbuser% town of British India, in the presidency of 
 Bengal. It has a considerable trade in rice and cotton. 
 Pop'. 10.100. 
 
 Jumet% town of Belgium, in the province of Halnant, 
 has extensive breweries, glass-works, and manufactures of 
 tiles and nails. Pop. 14.244. 
 
 Jumiria, town of Spain, in the province of Murcia, 
 carrying on important manufactures of earthenware and 
 fireovens. Pop. 9613. 
 
 Jum^na, a riverof Hindostan.and the principal affluent 
 of the Ganges, rises in lat. 31° N. and Ion. 7S° :{2' E.. at 
 an elevation of 10.S49 feet. It flows first S., and then S. E., 
 and after a course of 680 miles joins the Ganges at Allah- 
 abad. It is shallow and unfit for navigation, but by arti- 
 ficial means it has in many ways been made available both 
 for agriculture and commerce. Delhi and Agra are situated 
 on its banks. 
 
 Jump'ing Branch, post-tp. of Mercer co., W. Va. 
 Pop. 1441. 
 
 JuncK'er (Henry Damian), B. D..b. in Lorraine (then 
 a part of France) 1810 ; came in youth to the U.S. ; studied 
 at Cincinnati, and in 1834 took priest's orders in the Ro- 
 man Catholic Church; served chiefly among the <Jerraan 
 population of Ohio; became in 1S57 bishop of Alton, 111. 
 D. at Alton Oct. 2, 1868. 
 
 Junc'tion, post-v. of Carlton co., Minn., at the junc- 
 tion of the Northern Pacific and the Lake Superior and 
 Mississippi R. R. 
 
 Junction* post-v. of Hunterdon co., N. J., at the junc- 
 tion of the Delaware Lackawanna and Western and the 
 Central R. R. of New Jersey. 
 
 Junction t'ity, post-v. and tp. of Trinity co., Cal., 8 
 miles AV. of Weaverville, the count^'-scat. Pop. of v. 440 ; 
 of tp. 570. 
 
 Junction City, post-v. and tp., cap. of Davis co., 
 Kan., situated <in the erown of a low bluff at the confluence 
 of the Smoky Hill and Republican rivers, which unite to 
 form the Kansas River, and on the Kansas Pacific and the 
 Missouri Kansas and Texas R. Rs. It has many churches 
 and schools. 7 hotels, 1 national and 1 savings bank, 
 2 flouring mills, manufactories of carriages, agricultural 
 implements, etc., and excellent water-power. There are 
 extensive quarries of magnesian limestone, easily worked 
 and largely used in building. Clark's Creek, in the vi- 
 cinity of the town, is crossed by tlircc Howe-truss bridges. 
 It is an active business-centre for (lie surrounding country, 
 and has 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. 2778. 
 
 Jnne [Lat. Juttitii, for Jtiuouhit, because it was sacred 
 to Juno], the sixth month in the Gregorian year; in the 
 old style, the fourth month. During this month the sun 
 reaches the northern solstice, which is marked by the first 
 point of the sign Cancer. Hence the tropic is called the 
 tro])ic of Cancer. 
 
 Juneau% county of S. Central Wisconsin. Area, 325 
 square miles. The Wisconsin River washes its E. border, 
 and it is traversed by the La Crosse and Milwaukee R. R. 
 It has an undulating surface, a very fertile soil, with 
 abundant timber and water-power. Cattle, grain, wool, 
 and lumber are st;iple products. Cap. Mauston. Pop. 
 12 :j72. 
 
 Juneau, post-v., cap. of Dodge co.. Wis., on the Chi- 
 cago and North-western R. R., 145 miles from Chicago. 
 It lias 2 weekly newspapers, a grain-drill factory, 2 cheese- 
 factories, churches, stores, hotels, etc. It was founded in 
 1S15, and first named Victory, and then Dodge Centre. 
 The court-house was built in 1848, and the first newspaper 
 started in 1852. Pop. 300. E. B. Boi.ess, 
 
 En. ano Pkop. " Democrat and Granger." 
 
 June'-berry (Amcfanchier Cnuadenitiv), a wild shrub 
 or small tree found throughout the V. S. and in runada, 
 with many varieties, oflferiug considerable differences. It
 
 JUNG— JUNIUS. 
 
 147;^ 
 
 bears a considerable resomblnDce in its characteristics to 
 the apple and pcur. The june-bcrry has been cultivated 
 on a small scale for its rriiir, which is of purplo color. «wcet, 
 and ahout llie size of the- largest currnuts. The size of the 
 tree differs greatly in the varieties, from thirty feet high 
 {fintnfnpitiiu) dovin to three or four. Various names arc 
 given to the juiK'-bcrry in different localities, such as shad- 
 bush, service-berry, and niounlaiii whorilcbrrry. The tlow- 
 crs are white, early, and abnudunt, on which account it is 
 valued as an ornamental tree. 
 
 Jun^ (JoArimi), b. at I/ubcck. Germany. Oct. 22, 15S7; 
 was professor of mathematics at Gicssen IOO'J-14 ; studied 
 medicine at P.adua. graflualing in 1(118: settled at Rostock 
 as a physician, becoming a professor there in 102-1, and 
 rector of the .Tohanncuin at I!unil>urg in 162U. He was a 
 very distinguished naturalist, ranked by Leibnitz in the 
 same class of philosophers with Copernicus, Galileo, and 
 Descartes, His researches in physical science incurred for 
 him persecutions, on the supposition that he belonged to 
 tlie Rosicrucian fraternity. I)r. Jung anticipated Lin- 
 nirus in proposing a binomial nomenelature for plants, and 
 wrote largely on philosophy, mathematics, mineralogy, in- 
 vertebrates, an<l botany, but many of his works were de- 
 stroyed or rendered extremely scarce by a fire. Those 
 which remained were edited by Albreelit under the title 
 Opnurufn Phtf^irn Bntuiiica (Coburg, 1717). Ilis life has 
 been written by Guhraucr (Stuttgart, 1851) and by Av6- 
 Lallemant ( Liibeck. IS63). 
 
 JiJli]?-Buns'lau, town of Bohemia, on the Iser, has 
 some manufactures of woollens. Pop. StlDj. 
 
 Jungcrinan'nia [in honor of Prof. Ludwig Junger- 
 mann ( 1 J72-!r>.»;i ,. a German botanist], a large and im- 
 portant genua of LiVKRWoitTj; (which Pee). It gives name to 
 the important sub-order Jungermanniaecie (scale-mosses), 
 which to the essential characters of the liverworts (Hcpa- 
 t)ca>)join a moss-liko habit. The U. S. ha\e numerous 
 species, 
 
 Jan(?Trau [Ger. '* maiden"], one of the highest peaks 
 of the IJernese AI[>s, and. on act'onnt of the beauty of its 
 outline and the rlazzlin^ brightness of the everlasting snow 
 which covers its top, one of the most remarkable moun- 
 tains of Switzerland. Its height is I3,fi70 feet. Its top 
 has been reached only by half a dozen persons; among 
 them by Agassi/, in ISII. 
 
 Jling'hnhn (Fhan/ Wimiki.u), b. at Mansfeld, Prussian 
 Saxony. ()^;t. 2(t, 1812; sfudiel medicine and botany at 
 Halle and Uerlin ; served as a physician in the Prussian 
 army, then in the French army in Algeria, and since 1835 
 in the Dutch colonics of .lava. Here ho made very exten- 
 sive s'udies of tho gcogrnpliical. gcologieal. botanical, and 
 ethnological relations of the country, and his works on 
 these subjects attracted great attention. In IS 19 he visited 
 Europe, but returned to Ratavla in 1S5.7, and d. at Lemberg 
 Apr. 21, 1861. His chief work is.Airn, ^/-mr Gentnh^ FJfnn- 
 sriidcrhf Hitd iiiiicrf Bunnit (IS.VJ) ; besides this ho wroto 
 Die Fi'ittitfoiiiln' in Snniatrn (1817), Lantin'hti/tsnuslchtcn 
 ron Jam (18511). and in 1851 was commenced a description 
 of the plants and fossils of Java, entitled /'ittut;e Jiiny- 
 
 finhiit'iiii^r. 
 
 Jun'gic [Sanskrit. yrtii'/«/al, in the East Indies, a name 
 applied to those tracts of land, fre(iiienlly very extensive, 
 where the vegetation ii* rank,an<l olten impenetrable. The 
 jungles abuiind in tigers, elephants, monkeys, serpents, 
 deer, boars, wild cattle, and other creatures, and are often 
 very unhealthy. In the East they speak of "jungle-fowl," 
 '*jun;;le <'ows," "junglo fevers," etc. The term juuijU is 
 uvt'd vvith l:i(itiid<', ami nineli country which is sparsely 
 .-■tllid, but by no means a wilderness, is thus designated. 
 
 JiiiiK'inniin (.Io.hkp J.\Kon), b. at Hadlitz, Itobomin, 
 July Hi, 177^1; studied at the University of Prague; became 
 teaclier at the gymnasium of Leibmerilz in 170'.). anr| pro- 
 lessor in 1815 at Pruicue, where he d. Nov. II, IKIT. In 
 IS25 he published a history t.f rhe Holiemian language and 
 literature, and iu 18;t5 a complete liohemlan-German dic- 
 tionary. 
 
 Junc-Stiriin? (Joiiasv Hi^tNRicn). b. nt Orund. in 
 
 He.-ise Nassau. Sept. 12, 1710. of a poor family, had to fight 
 his way onward through many hardships. He was succes- 
 sively achareoal-burner, srhoolmaster, tailor, private tutor, 
 ete. A Roman Catholic priest gave him a seeret remedy f«ir 
 eertuin eye-ili^ea'^es. and in 1771 he sueceedeil in g"ing to 
 Strasbourg to study medieine and get a diploma. Here he 
 made the acquaintanee of Goethe, who has given a charm- 
 ing picture of him in Aun mrinrin Lrhru. He now settled 
 in I^Mierfeld as an eye-physician. » business he never gave 
 up : he always carrieil bift instruments along with him, and 
 lie undertook more than 2000 operations. From 1787 to 
 iSOTi he held a chair in political economy at the universi- 
 ties of Marburg and Heidelberg, but this part of his activ- 
 
 Voi.. H.— y:i 
 
 I ity wna not very influential; he had at last no pupils at 
 I all. The last part of his life he spent at Carlsrube, at the 
 I court of the grand duke of Itaden. who gave him a pen- 
 sion, and thus enabled him to devote himself exclusively to 
 literature. His writings have all a mystic, religious, half- 
 apocalyptic character, even his romances, Geschivhtp lieti 
 fferni nm }forff(}ithnu (2 vols.. 1770), Floreittiii t-on Fnfi- 
 friidorii {'.i vols.. I7SH, but still more his directly religions 
 writings, Thf:i>h<ihi, Dnn H:imn-eh, T/iron'v der Gciftfrrl-iindc 
 (I8t)8), etc. The most interesting of his works is his au- 
 tobiography, of which the first part, ffiinn'rh StiUiu>/ti 
 Jntfcnd (1777), is a wonderful book. He was three times 
 married, and d. ;\pr. 2. ISI7. His collected works were 
 published in Stuttgart in 14 vols, in is;i8. 
 
 Junia'ta, county of S. E. Central Pennsylvania. Area, 
 350 square miles. It consists, in general, of a long vallev, 
 subdivided more or le?s into minor valleys, and having tho 
 Blue Ridge on the N. W. and Tuscarora Mountain on tho 
 S. E. It is crossed by t!ie Juniata River and the Pennsvl- 
 vania R. R. It contiiins iron and limestone. The soil is 
 very fertile, especially in tiio valleys. Cattle, grain, and 
 wool are stnjilc produets. Carriages, wagons, and Ie:illicr 
 are leading articles of manufacture. Cap. Miftlintown. Pop. 
 17,3!m. 
 
 Jiiniala. tp. of Tuscola co., Mich. Pop. 1042. 
 
 Juniata, post-v.. cap. of Adams co.. Neb., on the Bur- 
 lington ami iVIissouri River R. R., 24 miles E. of Fort 
 Kearney, in a fine agricultural and grazing region; has 
 some manufactures, a bank, a weekly newspaper, a fine 
 high school, etc. 
 
 C. C. A R. 1>. TUnroric, Pubs. *■' Adams Co. Gazette." 
 
 Juniata, tp. of Bedford co., Pa. Pop. 1437. 
 
 Juniata, tp. of Blair co.. Pa, Pop. G21. 
 
 Juniata, fp. of Huntingdon co., Pa. Pop. 393. 
 
 Juniata, ]iost-tp. of Perry co., Pa. Pop. 983. 
 
 Juniata River, in Pennsylvania, rises near .Altoona, 
 1155 feet above sea-level, an<l flows some 150 miles through 
 the parallel-ridged mountains of Southern Central Pennsyl- 
 vania, which rise from SOO to 1500 feet above the valleys 
 (the latter often from 200 to 4011 feet above the stream ). It 
 flows into the Sus:r|uehanna at Duneannon, 345 feet above 
 the sea. Its principal affluent, the Raystown branch, is a 
 beautiful and very tortuous stream. 
 
 Ju'nipcr, a genus of Conifene, sub-order Cupressinea; 
 (cypress family), characterized by having its small cone 
 transformer! into a berry. The common juniper (./inn'^jcn/* 
 commuuix) is a small evergreen sbrub, native of Europe 
 and the C S., where it grows on dry, sterile, hilly ground 
 from New Jersey to Maine and along the great lakes. It 
 is important for its fruit, which is used in medicine and in 
 making gin. This fruit is a bluish-purple berry about the 
 sizo of a ]>e:i, of a pleasant aromatic odor and sweetish 
 terebinthinate taste, due lo Ihc presence of a volatile oil, in 
 which also reside the niedirinal virtues. Juniper is a gen- 
 tle irritant, being in proper dose cordial to the stomach, 
 and specially exciting to the function of the kidneys. It 
 is accordingly user! us a diuretic, but generally only to 
 assist tho aetlon of more potent drugs of that class. In 
 overdose it may cause great irritation of the urinary or- 
 gans, with strangury and suppression of secretion. Juni- 
 per-bcrries are largely used in the mannfaeture of gin, to 
 which spirit they give the peculiar flavor and diuretic ac- 
 tion. .iiiuSfu-niH Viif/iniaiift, or rcil cedar, is an indigenous 
 and im])ortant evergr<?cn tree growing on dry rocky hills 
 in all latitudes of the V. .S. Edwaiid Ci ktis, 
 
 Ju'niUfi. From the middle of the year 17fi7 to the mid- 
 dle of 1772 the British public was delltjlitcd or exasperafeil 
 by a series of letters on politieal affairs in tho Piildi'r Ati- 
 rrrtiirr newspaper, displaying a pungency, a vehemence, 
 an intrepidity, and a power of Invcetive sueh as had never 
 before been shown by any English politieal writer. Tho 
 first of these letters (Apr. 2?^, 1707) a(ipeared under the sig- 
 nature of " Poplirola." *' Memnon," " liUeius." " .lunius," 
 " Philo .Tunius." " Brutus." and other sij;naturcs were sub- 
 serjuently res<»rted to. hut the celebrity of the ccdiectlon is 
 concentrated upon the name of ''Junius," nftixed to tho 
 most remarkable letters, and to those which alone (the let- 
 ters sii^ned " Pbilo Junius " exeeplecl ) the writer auth-'ntl- 
 eatrd liy himself giving them to the world. The identity 
 of the authorship of the rest is in<b'ed a matter of infer- 
 ence, though of inference so irresistible as to be now not 
 disputed by anyone. In 1772 tho correspondence suddenly 
 ceased. 
 
 Sithjrct of thr Juniun f.rttfrt. — This may be briefly do- 
 fined as the vindication of tho public liberties. ''The sub- 
 ml<>sion of a free people," so Iiegins tho first letter pub- 
 lished under this celebrated signature, "to the executivo 
 authority of govornmont is no more than a compliance with
 
 1474 
 
 JUNIUS. 
 
 laws which they themselves have enacted." This strikes 
 the kcvnotc of' the whole. Every leading political occur- 
 rence o'f the (lay is turned to a vindication ol popular lib- 
 ertv It would" be impossible in our space lu enumerate 
 the whole. It may truly be said that the British constitu- 
 tion never had a bolder champion than Junius, nor in the 
 inaioritv of cases a more learned or discriminating advo- 
 cate the amount of his legal and constitutional kuow- 
 lcd<re is extraordinary, especially if, as there is every reason 
 to believe, he was not a lawyer. The characteristics of his 
 stvlc are energy, brevity, impetuosity, and the striking t-in- 
 nloymcnt of metaphor. The principal drawback to the 
 cnioyment of such talents applied in so good a cause is 
 the writer's rancor and ferocity, and his incessant asper- 
 sions on private character. Yet this indignation, if exces- 
 sive mav still have been honest. This question, however, 
 dcpends"partly on the solution of another enigma, which 
 more even than their literary cNcellcnce, has contributed 
 to maintain the popularity of the letters. This is the mys- 
 tcrv of their authorship. c , ,„ tii<, 
 
 A„lh„rili!p.—3nnius had apparently no confidants. His 
 visor is never raised. He preserves throughout the same 
 air of haughtv superiority and profound, impenetniljlo 
 seerci-v " -Mv secret." he savs, " shall die with me. The 
 only person with whom ho entered into anything like 
 confidential relationship was Woodfall, the printer of 
 the f'Mic Ad,-erl!ser. To him he wrote frequently in 
 amicable and condescending terms, but always in the same 
 feigned hand. Woodfall may have guessed the secret; it 
 ■almost certainly was not entrusted to him. According to 
 one aeeount, the truth eventually became known to the 
 government. " We know," George III. is reputed to have 
 said "who Junius is. He will write no more. The 
 anecdote, however, is probably apocryphal. The mystery 
 naturally excited intense curiosity m the public mind, 
 and .abundant pains have from that time to this been 
 bestowed on unravelling it. The letters have been attrib- 
 uted, among others, to Burke. Dunning, W. G. Hamilton, 
 Lord Geor.'e Sackville, Dr. Butler, bishop of Hereford, 
 AVilkcs H. M. Bovd. Philip Rosenhagen, Lord Temple, 
 and Gen Lee. Out of the whole of this list, Burke, Dun- 
 iiini' Lord Temple, and Wilkes are the only persons that 
 can''bc credited with sufficient intellectual power to have 
 produced the letters of Junius, and the evidence of place 
 and circumstance, of sentiments and opinions, of political 
 connections and of handwriting, seems decisive against 
 thein all. It is now generally admitted that cither the 
 authorship remains an impenetrable enigma, or that it 
 bclont'S to one whose name was not mentioned m connection 
 with It for forty years subsequently— Sir Philip Francis. 
 Philip Francis, the son of a clergyman and schoolmaster 
 of some literary repute, was b. in Dublin in 1740, and when 
 the publication of the Junius letters commcneed had for 
 some years been a clerk in the war office. This circumstance 
 supplied the clue to the discovery originally announced by 
 Mr John Tavlor in his Jm"iii« Wc.it//icrf, publi.shed in 1814, 
 durin" Francis's lifetime, and never contradicted by him. 
 So accurate is the knowledge of war-office business betrayed 
 bv the writer that the conviction of his having been con- 
 cerned in that department appears irresistible; nor can 
 any other person in a similar position capable of having 
 written the letters of Junius be iiointcd out. Many of the 
 letters, in fact, arc written on war-office paper. The hand, 
 of course, is feigned; and before Francis's claims can be 
 unreservedly admitted it is necessary to inquire whether 
 the simulated hand can be identified with his. This inves- 
 ti.rati<m has been made in the most painstaking manner by 
 M"r Chabot, the eminent expert in handwriting, who, at 
 the instance of the Hon. Mr. Twisleton, has compared no 
 merely the acknowledged handwriting of Francis, but that 
 of every other claimant of mark, with the hand of Junius. 
 His results, with cojiious plates, have been published uy 
 Mr. Twisleton, and will leave little doubt that, so far as the 
 evidence of handwriting is concerned, the identification of 
 Junius with Francis is tolerably complete. The argument 
 has also received unexpected strength from the discovery 
 that a letter which occurs accompanying a copy of verses 
 in the feigned hand of Junius, sent to a young lady at 
 Bath, is itself in the hand of Francis's cousin and intimate 
 friend, Tilghman, with whom Francis is known to have 
 been staving at Bath at the very time. 
 
 The external evidence for the Franciscan authorship of 
 Junius, then, appears on the whole as strong as could be 
 reasonably expected. The impression left by the whole in- 
 vestigation cannot be better summed up than in the words 
 of Mr. Merivalc : " .•Ml the lines of investigation which have 
 been followed in order to trace the authorship of this or 
 that known individual, except Francis, fail at a certain 
 point. They end in impossibilities. The remaining path, 
 to which one clue only leads us, becomes plainer and plainer 
 the farther the investigation is conducted." The ingenuity 
 
 of most formidable opponents has been exerted to discover 
 some demonstrable incompalibility between the circum- 
 stances attending the production of the letters and the 
 authorship of Francis. None such has been adduced. 
 Francis, as was said of Goilolphin, is never in the way and 
 never out of the way. The one argument against hiln is 
 derived from the evidence of style. But the distinction 
 established is rather one of degree than of kind. There is 
 no such incompatibility between the style of his acknow- 
 ledged writings and that of the Junius letters as to render 
 it morally impossible to attribute them to the same wriler. 
 It is not as though a pamphlet attributed to Swift should 
 bear the impress of Bolingbroke. The admitted produc- 
 tions of Francis might pass for the work of a disciple of 
 Junius. The real difficulty is, that Francis should never 
 I have equalled himself. This certainly is a difficulty, and 
 I is hardly obviated by Lord Macaulay's sensible but sonic- 
 ■ what superficial replv, that every work of the same author 
 cannot be the best. It can hardly, however, be held to 
 count for much against the weight of external testimony, 
 especially when the extraordinary moral resemblance be- 
 tween riancis and Junius is taken into account. AVhocver 
 Junius was, he must have been in temperament very much 
 such a man as Francis is known to have been— vehement, 
 combative, opinionated, disdainful, sarcastic, enthusiastic- 
 ally and disinterestedly devoted to the public good as he 
 conceived it, but capable of the most unrelenting and un- 
 scrupulous animosity to all who crossed his path. To ap- 
 preciate these characteristics it is essential to follow the 
 next episode in his career. Appointed to a magnificent 
 employment, a seat at the council of the governor-general 
 of India, with a suddenness which certainly suggests the 
 suspicion that his secret had become known, he quitted 
 En-land for Calcutta in 1774. His official career was a 
 eoifstant series of disputes with the governor-general, War- 
 ren Hastings, culminating in a duel, in which he was 
 seriously wounded. It is difficult to pronounce positively 
 as to the merits of the controversy. Infinitely inferior to 
 Hastin<'S in administrative capacity, Francis does appear 
 to have possessed more enlightened views as to the duties 
 of government, and to have wished to introduce a spirit of 
 equity and clemency into the administration of Benga 
 which would have greatly benefited it. Unable to contend 
 with the genius and fortune of his rival, he forsook India 
 in disgust, retiring, however, with a large fortune, said to 
 have been partly Acquired by high play. On the return of 
 Hastings he became the life and soul of the memorable im- 
 peachment directed against him. his whole behavior during 
 which, both as regards his unmitigated virulence and his 
 underhand method of action, tends as strongly as any other 
 proof to confirm his identity with Junius. •V\ hen in his 
 extreme old age the authorship was first publicly imputed 
 to him, he neither denied nor admitted it, but his demeanor 
 showed that he wished it to be believed. D. in 1818. 
 
 As the impersonality of Junius added much to his celeb- 
 rity so it must be admitted that the moral authority of his 
 letters is impaired by their association with Francis. Much 
 that mi"-ht otherwise have passed for honest indignation is 
 thus shown to have been prompted by personal rancor. 
 With every deduction on this ground, the letters remain 
 substantially the work of a patriot entitled to the gratitude 
 of his countrymen for his spirited vindication of their 
 liberties and haws. Their rank as a British classic is secure, 
 although, as need hardly bo said, their fame is in a great 
 measure duo to the scarcity of good political writing m their 
 day With a multitude of similar productions now forgotten 
 thev supplied the place of regular leaders in the news- 
 p.apcrs, and would excite comparatively little attention in 
 ana.'e like ours, when so large a proportion of the literary 
 abili'ty of the day is absorbed by the public press. 
 
 The best authorities on the question of Junius are Mr. 
 i Taylor's ./»i.;i.«Wei.t;/;«/; Dr. Mason Good's essay, pre- 
 fixed to most recent editions : Mr. Twisleton s elaborate in- 
 vcsti.'ation of the handwritings of the various candulatcs ; 
 and the excellent l.i/c of Sir Philip Fr.incis commenced 
 by Mr Joseph Parkes and completed by Mr. Herman 
 Merivalc Mr. Parkes leaves no stone unturned to establish 
 Francis's authorship, but attributes to his hero numerous 
 letters and pamphlets which he certainly did nut write, in- 
 cluding one pamphlet signed '• Irenarch," which was in 
 fact written by a connection of the author ol this notice. 
 Sir Alexander Cockburn is understood to be preparing a 
 work on the subject. (For the theory which idcntihes 
 Junius with Lord Lyttclton, sec Lvttelto.v (liioMAS).) 
 
 R. G.MiM-.rT. 
 Junius, post-tp. of Seneca co., N. Y. Pop. 1420. 
 Junius (Francis), b. at Heidelberg in 1589, a son of 
 Franeiseus Junius, went to England iu 1620, and became 
 librarian to the earl of Arun.lel, in whose house he lived 
 for thirty years. He was an enthusiastic student of the 
 Teutonic" iud Anglo-Sa.xon dialects, on which ho wrote
 
 JUNIUS— JUPITER. 
 
 1475 
 
 learned nod valuable works. D. at AVindsor Nov. 19, 1677. 
 l[o publii'hcd an edition of Vltilas'p translation of the 
 (fospcis into Guthic, and n Glosnarinm Gothiruin in five 
 l:in;»uages, of which the Engli:»h part was reprinted at Ox- 
 f«irJ in 174.t with the title Etymotngicum AiiifhCaiiiim, and 
 wag the chief authority on etymology used by I>r. Johnson 
 in his dictionary. Junius was an uncle of Isaac Vossius, 
 and bequeathed his MSS. to the Bodleian Library at Ox- 
 ford. 
 
 Junius (FRANciscrs), otherwise called Francois Du 
 Jus, b. at Bourgcs, France, in 1545 ; studied classical 
 philology and Protestant theology at Geneva; was pastor 
 uf a Walloon congregation nt Antwerp, and became in liiCS 
 cliaplain to the prince of Orange. In 1573 he was called 
 to Heidelberg by the elector to aid in a translation of the 
 Old Testament : he was also professor of theology at Heidel- 
 berg, and afterwards at I^eyden, where he d. in 1(>(>2. His 
 principal work was the translation of the Old Testament 
 into Latin in conjunction with Tremellius (Frankfort, 5 
 parts, 1575-79), which passed through twenty editions, the 
 best being that of 1724. The other works of .Tunius were 
 collected at Geneva in 16ir. — Oprrn Thm/orftrft, with an 
 autobiography written in 1595. (See Haag. La I'rauce 
 Protrgttintc, and Herzog, Real-Enctfkl'tp.y s. v.) 
 
 Junk, a sea-going vessel, such as is built in Japan, 
 China, Corea, Tonquin, and Siam. It has three masts, a 
 high poop and forecastle, a wooden anchor, and usually 
 has a wooden or painted eye on each bow. as if to enable 
 it to sec its way. The sails arc ordinarily of matting. 
 Junks, though slow and clumsy, are often surprisingly sea- 
 worthy. The amount of commerce carried on in them is 
 very great, but vessels built on the European models arc 
 grailually taking their places. 
 
 Junk-Ceylon% or Salang, an island in the Indian 
 Ocean, belonging to Siam, in lal. 7° 40' X., Ion. 98*^ IS' E. 
 It is 20 miles long and 10 miles broad, and exports tin, 
 edible birds' nests and sapan-wood to the British settle- 
 uicnts in ihe Strait of Malacca. 
 
 Jun'kin (Georgk), D. D., LL.T)., b. near Kingston, Pa., 
 Nov. 1, 17110; graduated at Jefferson College in 1813; 
 studied theology in New York City, anrl was for niany 
 years pastor of churches at Milton and .McEwensville, Pa. ; 
 was president of Lafayette College 18;i2-U. and again 
 IS44-48; of Miami University 1841-44, anci of AVashington 
 ('ollege, Lexington, Va., 1S4S-61, leaving the latter post 
 at the outbreak of the war on account of his loyalty to 
 the Union. Dr. Junkin was a prominent champion of 
 "Old School" Presbyteriauism. and wrote several theo- 
 logical and controversial treatises, D. at Philadelphia, 
 May 20, 18C8. 
 
 Ju'no, the third in order of discovery of the asteroids. 
 Tr was found by Harding ntthc Lilieuthal observatory, near 
 Uri'incn, Sipt. 1, Isoi. It shines as a star of the eighth or 
 ninth magnitude, and is of a whitish color, and .not nebu- 
 lous. Its sidereal revolution is performed in 1592.00 mean 
 sular days. Itp orbit is inclined to the ecliptic \'i^ V 20". 
 Its diameter and magnitude arc not well known. 
 
 Juno [Lat., gen. ./r/»ioNM], in the Roman mythology, 
 (he qui-en of heaven and the wife of Jiipiirr, identified with 
 tbo Copra of the Ktruscans, and lutor with the Ilcra of the 
 (Jret-ka. She presided over wom:»nhood, the ni;trriagi'.bcd, 
 maternity, and chaste wedlock, and over new-born children ; 
 and in public affairs she guarded the finaDccs and public 
 justice. 
 
 Jnnot' (Andothr), duke of Abrantcs, b. at Bussy-le- 
 Grand Oct. 23, 1771 ; studied first law, but entered in 1792 
 a battalion of volunteers ; distinguished himself at the siego 
 of Toulon ; accompanied Napoleon as aide-de-camp in Italy 
 and Kgvpt, and was made general of division and com- 
 miinder-gt'oeral of Paris in ISOO. Somewhat displeased at 
 the proiligality and lack of discretion which he (and es- 
 pecially his wife) showed, the emperor sent him in 1805 as 
 ambassador to Lisbon ; but he very soon left his post, re- 
 paired (o the army in Germany, and distinguished himself 
 in the h.attle of Austerlitz. In iSOi; ho was oneo more I 
 ni;ide commander-general of Paris, but in the next year 
 Napoleon was compelled to send him and hi-* wife awiiy 
 a^iiin. lie was placed at the head of a small army corps ! 
 destined to invade Portugal, and his success was so brilliant j 
 in this undertaking that Napoleon made him duke of 
 Abrantes. Having been defeated nt Vimeiro by Wellington, 
 he concluderl the convention of (^intra with (he English, 
 which highly displeasecl Napoleon, and during tlie cam- 
 paign of 1S12 he was mentioned as "wanting energy" in 1 
 one of the emperor's reports. In 1813 he was made gov- ] 
 ernor of lllyria. and his mental derangement now bef-ame ' 
 apparent. He was broucbt to France, iind at Montbard i 
 he threw himself out of a window, and d. a few days after, I 
 July 22, 1813. 1 
 
 Junot (Lai'rf), duchess of Abrantes, b. Nov. 6, 1784, at 
 Moutpcllier. France, of a rich merchant family of the name 
 of Permon. Having married Gen. Junot in ISUO, she became 
 one of the most brilliant ladies of the French court. She 
 was beautiful, witty, with a great talent for intrigue, and 
 her audacity was as boundless as her prodigality. Napo- 
 leon called her La petite pcate. After the death of her hus- 
 band and the fall of Napoleon, she still maintained her 
 social position in Paris and Home, and made in 1831 a 
 great sensation by her MimitireH gur Sapohtm (18 vols.), 
 which wore followed by Mrmoivrn «nr Ut licHtunration (0 
 vols., lS3fi) and Sonvcnirn d'niic AmbttHiinde en J*orturjaf (2 
 vols., 1837). But she was now poor and eick, and d. in a 
 house of charity in Paris June 7, 18.'i8. 
 
 Jupati' Palm, the curious liaphia trrrliffrm of the 
 lower Amazon valley. Its trunk is barely eight to ten feet 
 high, but it puts up a magnificent crown of pinnatcly com- 
 pounil leaves, some of which are often sixty feet long. The 
 dried leaf-stalks contain a \ni\\ which is used instead of 
 cork, and the hard and light outer crust is very useful in 
 joinery. 
 
 Ju'piter, the fifth planet in order of distance from iho 
 sun, and far the largest and most massive of all the mem- 
 bers of the solar system. .lupiter travels at a mean dis- 
 tance from the sun of 475.092,000 miles. The eccentricity 
 of his orbit is 0.048239. so that the distance of the centre 
 of his orbit from the sun is equal to 0.048239 X 475,092,000 
 miles, or 22,947.000 miles, and bis greatest and least dis- 
 tances from the sun are respectively 498,639.000 miles and 
 452,745.000 miles. The longitude "of the perihelion is 11° 
 55'. so that the centre of the orbit is in Ion. 191° 55'; and 
 in any true delineation of tlie orbit a distance correspond- 
 ing to 22,947,000 miles, on the scale adopted, must be set 
 off in this longitude, and a circle struck with this point as 
 centre, and a distance corresponding to 475.002,000 as ra- 
 dius will represent the orbit of Jupiter with sutTieient ap- 
 proximation; for, though the eccentricity of the orbit is 
 considerable, the ellipticity is very slight indeed, and on 
 any ordinary scale for drawing the orbits may be left out 
 of consideration. (The semi-minor axis is less than the 
 semi-major axis in the ratio of v/ 1 — (0.048230)^ to \, or 
 approximately as V 1 — 0.0025 : 1, or about 99S8 to 10.000; 
 feo that the excess of tlie semi-major over the semi-minor 
 axis is less than the 830th part of either semi-axis.) It is 
 worth noticing that the earth's mean distance from the sun 
 being 91,430.000 miles, its fourth part, or 22.857.500 miles, 
 differs very little from the eccentricity of Jupiter's orbit 
 measured in miles. The plane of Jupiter's path is inclined 
 1° IS' 40". 3 to the ecliptic, tbo rising node lying in Ion. 
 98*^ 55^'. The rea<ior must not fall into the mistiike. how- 
 ever, of supposing that the most massive planet of tho 
 solar system moves in a plane inclined even at this small 
 angle (less than 1^°) to Iho medial plane of tho system; 
 for the phme of the ecli]itic to which we refer the others is 
 itself inclined to tho medial or invariable plane. As tho 
 rising n<ide of the invariable plane is in Ion. 102° 57A', 
 less than 5° from Jupiter's rising node, ami its inclination 
 \° 35i'. <liffcriiig less than 17' from Jtipitcr's, wo see that 
 the plane of Jupiter's orbit very nearly coincides with the 
 invariable plan of the solar system. Jupiter completes tho 
 circuit of his orbit in a mean sidereal period of 4332.5848 
 days, or 1 1 years (tropical) 314.02 days, or roughly 1 1 years 
 10 months 9 days (counting 304 days for the month). His 
 mean daily motion in his orbit is 299". 120; and as tho 
 earth's mean daily motion is 3548". 193, it follows that his 
 mean daily loss in heliocentric longitude as compared with 
 tho earth amounts to 3249". 004 ; hence, the mean interval 
 between successive conjunctions of tho earth and Jupiter 
 fftmounting to as many days as this arc is contained in 
 300°) is equal to 39H.807 days — in other words, this is Ju- 
 piter's mean synodieal periocL Jupiter's mean diameter 
 = 85,000 miles : his greatest about ^V'' more; his least 
 aboiit ^^th less: his polur compression being about ^t^. 
 Thus, his equatorial diameter - 87.S00 miles and bis polar 
 diameter - 82,200 miles. His volume exceeds the earth's 
 1233 ^imes, but the mean density of his substance being 
 only equal to about one fourth the earth's, his mass dttes 
 not exceed hers more Ihitn 301 times. As compared with 
 tho sun's mass (regarded as unity), .Jupiter's has thus been 
 estimated by various astronomers: by L:iplace, \^w: by 
 Nicobiy, i^^: by Airy, ynjcs^ ''V Pantini, yn*5o = *'> ^*^^' 
 *"■'• loi? fi • ^*y Eriigcr, m]* 3. Taking yo'ijt as a fair mean 
 of the latest anil best values, we see that .lupiter's mass is 
 but a small fraction of the sun's. Nevertheless, as com- 
 pared with all tho other planets. Jupiter is not merely first 
 in mass, hut he more than outweighs them taken all together. 
 This will be seen from the following table, representing the 
 masses of the various known members of Iho solar system, 
 the earth's mass being represented as 1000 :
 
 1476 
 
 JUrXTER-JURASSIC, THE. 
 
 Smaller piftoots. 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Veiuis 
 
 Earth 
 
 Mars 
 
 Asteroids together 
 less than JO" 
 
 Lurger planeto. 
 
 05 Jupiter 300,860 
 
 8S5 iSalurn 89,092 
 
 lOOU Uranus 12.050 
 
 118 Neptune ^l?.'*' 
 
 Total ... 419,036 
 2,108 
 
 Sun's ina-ss on 
 the same .scale 
 = 315,000,000. 
 
 Total 2108 Orandtotal. 4-22,103 
 
 Jupiter's mass. 3(10,800 
 Mass of all the planets except Jupiter. 121,2-13 
 Thus wo see that Jupiter's mass bears to the mass of all the 
 other planets taken together a ratio of nearly ;) to 2 : and in 
 nas^inc we niav notice that three-fourths of the remaining 
 mass, after Jupiter is removed, uppcrtams to one planet— 
 viz. to .Saturn. . 
 
 Jupiter is surrounded by a system of four satellites. 
 These were discovered by Galileo in the year l(>in. Iheir 
 distances from Jupiter's centre are equnl. respectively, to 
 6 05 9.62, 15.:i5, and 20.99 radii of Jupiter, and their 
 sidereal periods of revolution aro ■■"l'«'^''^'^''y, ' ''' ',f''- 
 ■'Om .3(/. n'l. ■!,«., 'd. 3i. 43m., and ml. 16/i. 32m. 
 Their diameters have been estimated at 2:152, 2009, .4.,r., 
 and ''9''6 t.akin;' them in the order of their distance from 
 Juiiit'er": so thatlho third is far the largest, exceeding even 
 the planet Mercury in size. But in mass these bodies arc 
 not «o great, relatively, as we should judge from their di- 
 mensions, at least comparing them with the smaller planets 
 and our moon. The following table presents their masses 
 and densities. (It is to be noticed that the values given in 
 many handbooks of astronomy aro incorrect) : 
 
 The motions of the satellites of Jupiter have affordc-d an 
 interesting subject of study to astronomers, and a subject 
 which has been fruitful of instructive results ^V hen they 
 were first discovered it was supposed that by observing their 
 eclipses and oceultations astronomers could determine the 
 longitude, and it was even hoped that the difficult problem 
 of determining the longitude at sea might thus be solved. 
 This hope, however, soon pruved to be unfounded, since 
 even when observed on land an eclipse or oceultatioii is not 
 found to occur (apparently) at precMscly the same instant 
 when observed with telescopes of different powers ; and the 
 determination of longitude requires that the exact ilistant 
 of the occurrence of a celestial phenomenon should be as- 
 certained. But before long a discovery of great importanco 
 rewarded the observation of the eclipses of Jupiter s satel- 
 lites, origiuallv carried on in order to form tables of the 
 motions of these bodies. It was found that an eclipse or 
 reappearance occurred sooner than the predicted time when 
 the planet was in opposition or nearly so, and later when 
 the planet was approaching conjunction with the sun, or 
 had recently reappeared in the twilight skies alter conjunc- 
 tion The'explanation of these peculiarities was lirst per- 
 ceived by Roemer, who showed that they arc due to the 
 motion of li"ht with finite velocity. The light message 
 convcyin" tons the news of an eclipse or occultation or re- 
 appearance of one of Jupiter's satellites thus lakes a longer 
 or shorter time in reaching the earth according as Jupiter 
 is vt a srcatcr or less distance. It was thus found that 
 licrht travels at the rate of about 192.000 miles per second. 
 Another interesting fact revealed by the study of the moons 
 of Jupiter is the relation between the motions of the three 
 inner moons. From the values given above for the sidereal 
 revolution it is easily calculated that the sidereal motions 
 of the three inner satellites respeclivcly arc 8".4.^.06, 
 4"2'':i9l7 and2".0905n7. The sidereal motion of the inner- 
 most'is not, it will be observed, e.tactly double that of the 
 second, though nearly so ; nor again is the sidereal motion of 
 the second exactly double that of the first. But this relation 
 holds erucih,: the sidereal motion of the first added to 
 twice the sidereal motion of the third is equal to three limes 
 the sidereal motion of the second: or thus: 
 
 .4-8-00 a- 2 (2".09fi507) = 12".r>ri840 = 3 (4".223947). 
 
 Add to this the observed fact that when the first and third 
 satellites are in conjunction, the second is in opposition to 
 them, and we perceive that I'm- nil lime these three satellites 
 circle under the following conditions : starting from the 
 case just described, we have, first. I. and III. in conjunc- 
 tion, II. in opposition to them ; when I. has gained three- 
 quarters of a revolution on III., we have 
 Sid, mot. of I. -^ 2 sid. mot, of III. = 
 Sid. mot. of I. -(- 2 (sid. mot. of I. - y ) = 
 
 3 sid. mot. of I. - 3ir = 3 sid. mot. of II. (because of the 
 
 relation stated above). 
 Hence, sid. mot. of I. ^ sid. mot. of II. -^^^; 
 ,• r when I. has gained three-quarters of a revolution on 
 III it has gained half a revolution on II. : but it was in 
 opposition to II. at starting, it must therefore now he in 
 conjunction with II., and III. is in quadrature to boih 
 Proceeding similarly, wo perceive that when I. has gained 
 three-fourths of a rcvolulion once again on III., I. is in 
 opposition both to II. and III. Another of these intervals 
 brings I. and II. iuto conjunction, nn.l III. in quadrature 
 to both. A fourth such interval brings about the same 
 arrangement as at first— viz. I. and III. in conjunction, and 
 II in opposition to both. It is clear, Iheretore, that 1., 
 II and ill can never be in conjunction at the same time. 
 The telescopic study of Jupiter has led to results of con- 
 siderable interest. It" has been found that his globe is sur- 
 rounded by bells variable in width and color. I'sualy the 
 equatorial region is occupied by a yellowishwhile belt, the 
 bands bordering this belt on either side being darker and 
 usually tinged with brown. Towards the polc-s 'he IjcIis 
 are commonly less marked in cob.r, and slightly tinged 
 with a bluish hue. From the movements of spots on these 
 belts it is inferred that the planet rotates on an axis in- 
 clined only about three degrees from perpen.lieularity to 
 the plane of Jupiter's orbit, and that his rotation period is 
 97, o5m ''0«. But the marks from which this rotation has 
 been'in'fcrred manifestly do not belong to the solid fr.ame 
 of the planet, since they have been found to have a proper 
 motion, resembling that which Carrington discovered in 
 the case of the solar spots. The great dei.th of the Jovian 
 cloud-lavers, their variability in shape and color, the rapid 
 motions' implied by their change of aspect, an.l the smal 
 density of Jupiter's vast orb, all suggest the belief that his 
 condition resembles rather that of the sun than that of the 
 earth Apart from these considerations, it seems impos- 
 sible to believe that the sun, which pours but one-twenty- 
 seventh part of the heat on Jupiter which he pours on the 
 earth, c;in be the originating cause of atmospheric disturb- 
 ance= in Jupiler, which manifestly exceed greally in inten- 
 sity those which take place in our own air. Prof. Benjamin 
 Peirce has also shown that on the nebular hypothesis bo h 
 the planets Jupiter and Saturn must still be in an intensely 
 heated condition, .and are probably in large part sliU va- 
 
 R. A. PllOCTOR. 
 
 porous. 
 
 Jupiter, Juppiter, or Diespiter (gen Jo>,-,), in 
 the Italian uivthology, the king and lather ol lie gods and 
 the iust ruler of men : later identified with that far less 
 noble conception, the (_ireek Zens. Jupiter gave the rain, 
 the thunder and lightning, the storm and calm, lie w.as 
 the protector of public justice and private virtue, the eailer 
 of armies, and the sender of instructive portents. He was 
 the god of air and light, and the especial patron of Home 
 ; and her ]>eople. 
 
 Jupiter .\ramon. Sec Ammon. 
 
 Ju'ra, one of the Inner Hebrides, belonging to the 
 county of Argyle, Scotland. Area. S4 square miles. Pop. 
 844. The western coast is rugged and precipitous: the 
 eastern, sloping and pleasant. Oats, barl.y, and flax aro 
 raised and black cattle reared. Between Jura and Searva 
 is the whirljiool of Corrievrekin. 
 
 Jura, a department of France, on the frontier of Switzer- 
 land. .Vrea, UM:( square miles. Pop. 287,634 The largest 
 part is occupied bv the Jura Mountains, wliieh yield excel- 
 lent timber and extensive pastures, on which large herds 
 of cattle and sheep are raised. The reuiaining lowlands 
 and the valleys have rich soil, well adapted to agriculture 
 and the eultivaiiou of vines. Iron-mining is the principal 
 industry of the department; wine, cheese, and timber its 
 main products. The inhabitants are Ihrilty and well edu- 
 cated. Cap. Lonsle-Saulnier. 
 
 Jura, the name of a system of mountain-ranges, gene- 
 rally from 51100 to 0000 feet high, which cover parts ol 
 Fraiiec, Switzerland, and Germany. They consist of a 
 peculiar kind of limestone, called the Jura limes one and 
 are generally covered with fine pine forests. In the Swiss 
 Jura many stalaetilic grottoes are found, and eaves abound- 
 ing in bones of extinct animals. In several places largo 
 rivers, as the Orbe, the Doubs, and the Oreuse, are lost in 
 the ground an.l their course concealed for some distance 
 The highest peaks are Molesson, 0588 feet, and Reculet de 
 Toiry. 5lit3 feel 
 
 Juras'sic, The, is the " Period " in the earth's history 
 that inlervems between the Triassic and the Cretaceous, 
 and thus the second or middle division of the Mesozoic 
 Age. The term is also applied to the group of rocks that 
 were formed during this period, and is derived f^rom the 
 Jura Mountains, between France and fewitzerland, in 
 which an extensive series of these rocks occurs and has
 
 JLKIKN DE LA GKAVIEKK— JUKISDICTIOX. 
 
 147 
 
 been carefully studied by many distinguished observers. 
 Tho term Oolitic iiltoy, na " e^g." and MBo<;. a "stone," in 
 allu>ion to certain linicstoiies that in texture present the 
 appearuncc uf the rue of a fish) is 8onictiuiee used as 
 synonymous with Juras^^ic, but it is more appropriately 
 restricted to one of the subordinate epochs of the period. 
 Where best developed the rocks of the .lurasisic indicate to 
 lis repeated recurrences of similar conilitioris of deposit, 
 accompanied by closely related faunas. Each such group 
 of rocks \?ith its associated fauna forms a natural *• forma- 
 tion," and is defined above and below by a " break " in the 
 series, the break being evidenced by an unconformable 
 arrangement uf the contiguous strata due to an interval 
 of upheaval and denudation. Such a formation is in fact 
 built up of the successive deposits of one sea or delta, and 
 th: entire series represents to us the successive movements 
 of ujiheaval and depression, and records the accompanying 
 migrations of life that in that area constituted the great 
 geological events of the Jurassic period. In the accom- 
 panying table wo give the classification of the subdivisions 
 of tho Jurassic and it.s formations, as found developed in 
 Western Europe and (Jreat Britain : 
 
 A Tabic of the Cfiiitifirrttiou of the Subdivisions and For- 
 mations of the Jurassic Period.* 
 
 Cbgtaceous. 
 
 Fresh water. 
 
 Purbock beds. 
 
 ^ Third Oolitic Sea. Upper Oolite. 
 
 ^ .Second OoHlic Sea. 
 
 ! First Oolitic Sea. 
 
 ISceoDd LiassicSea. 
 
 First Liassic Sea. 
 
 Middle Oolite. 
 
 Lower Oolite. 
 
 Middle and Lower 
 Lias. 
 
 TBU88IC 
 
 The detailed history of geological progress thus recorded 
 is, hf»wever, due to tho [leeuJiar geographical conditic»n, 
 during that period, of the region referred to. During 
 times of upheaval it was a valley bordering the widespread 
 Jurassic seaa, and iluring intervals of de]ire8sion it became 
 a gulf or limited marine area, overwhelmed by the tem- 
 porarily advancing waters of the ocean and peoplecl by 
 successive faunas, each in turn derived from the common 
 source, and each in turn more or less completely cut off 
 from its successor bv the recurring movements of upheaval. 
 Outside of this limited area the conditions of the general 
 Jurassic ocean seem not to have been notably affected by 
 the undulations of its bcl, and eouscfiucntly events that 
 were strongly marked in Western Euntpc were not clfo- 
 where recorded by alternations of Iho strata or subdivisions 
 of Ihe fauna. Hence, whilst we recognize Jurassic strata 
 by .lurnHsic fosfils in Uus«;ia, widely spread over Asia to 
 Iii'i-a, in the Uocky Mountains of the U. S., in the Andes 
 of South America, in the Arctic regions, and in Australia, 
 yet we can hardly expect to be able to subdivide the rocks 
 accurately according to the above classification, or to as- 
 sign the fo)<j»iN with any certainty to the Pubordinate<livis- 
 iniis of the period. In the U. S., in addition to strata 
 doubtfully assigned to this period on Iho Atlantic border, 
 there occur " true Jurassic strata full of eharacleristic fos- 
 sils about tho Ulack Hills ami the Laramie Mountains, and 
 also at the base of other ridges in the Ilocky Mountains." 
 (/Mjt.i.) 
 
 Tho palioontology of the .Turassio is of exceeding inter- 
 est to the student, who hero lin<ls himself on a border-land, 
 with tho paIirr)/,oie typos of fossils, rapidly ilisuppearing 
 on Ihe one haml, and on the other forms appearing wliieh 
 usher in existing life, and amidst all a fauna thoroughly 
 oharaoteristio of Mesozoic times. Every great group of 
 
 •As recorded In Western ICurope auJ Great Britain. 
 
 Portland stone. 
 Portland sand. 
 Kimmeridge clay. 
 
 Coral rag and Cal- 
 careous grit. 
 Oxford clay. 
 Keiloway rock. 
 
 Cornbrash and 
 Forest marble. 
 
 Great Oolite and . 
 Stonesfield slate. 
 
 Fuller's earth. 
 
 Inferior Oolite 
 limestone. 
 
 Upper Lias saml. 
 
 TT , . lUpner Lias elav. 
 
 Upper L.as. u|^|,g^ ^^j^ ,i,„^.. 
 
 Stones. 
 
 Marlstone. 
 
 Middle Lias sands. 
 
 Middle and bower 
 Lias marls. 
 
 Lower Lias lime- 
 stones. 
 
 (Wldte Lias lime- 
 stone)? 
 
 the animal kingdom is represented — marsupials (in the 
 Stonesfield slate and Purbeck IJeds) ; birds (krc/i;ro;j/cT^x 
 from iMidillo doliii-i; whilst reptiles at this time attain to 
 their maximum development, Deinosaurians (^'c(YiV/o*rt»ri(« 
 and -V^f/nAMrtid-H**) on the Jurassic lands; Enaliosaurians 
 { IrhthffnHnnrus, PUsittsaitrns, and Pliosaurus), with croco- 
 diles { Tffcosatirus) in its \vaters; pterodaetyles flitting 
 through the air. Fishes, too, are abundantly represente(i 
 by sharks {//i/bodus, Amtdtis, and Chiiufi-oidn), sturgeons 
 (Chondrosteiitf) and a host of sauroiil and other ganoid 
 forms. Amongst Mollusen, the cephalopodous Ammout'tcs 
 and iiclefniiifCH are most abundant, as are also the genera 
 Trrehratulfi and /i/ii/nrhourifd amongst brachiopods. Echi- 
 noderms abound. Eneriuites amongst the crinoids have 
 all but pnssed away, but their place is well filled by multi- 
 tudes of Prntficrinitm, and in certain strata corals arc well 
 represented. The most characteristic forms of the period 
 are perhaps to be found in the Ainmonitida', litdenmilida?, 
 and Pentucrinites. I'pon the whole, the Jurassic fauna 
 would appear to have its nearest existing representative in 
 that of our Australasian lands and seas; such forms as the 
 marsupials, as Ventrarion and CftlliirhifticitH, as Triffonia 
 and W'a/dhcinn'it. etc., appearing like the last descendants 
 of Jurassic prototypes. EiiWAiin C. H. Day. 
 
 Jurien ile la Gravi^re (Jean Uaptiste EnsroNn), b. 
 in France Nov. I'J, islli; entered the navy in 1828; be- 
 came captain of a corvette in 1841; was engaged in the 
 Chinese war in command of the Bayonnaise ; was promoted 
 to a full captaincy in ISoO : served in the IJlack Sea during 
 the Crimean war ; was made rear-admiral Dec. 1, 1S55, and 
 placed atthe head of a squadron in the Adriatic. In Oct.. 
 1861, he received the command of the squadron sent against 
 Mexico in pursuance of the triple alliance between France, 
 Englaml, and Spain, and as imperial commissioner adjusted 
 with the government of President Juarez the famous treaty- 
 of Soledad, which was repucliated by Napoleon ILL Ilo 
 became vice-admiral in 1 S(il?. and has written several works, 
 tho most esteemed of which is the Voymje en Chine (1854). 
 
 Jlirieu'{PiEimi;),b. atMer, in Orleanais, Dec. 24, 16;i7 ; 
 studied theology at Redan : visited Holland and England, 
 and succeeded his father as pastor of the Reformed church 
 of his native city. In 1071 he was appointed professor 
 of Hebrew and theology at the academy of Sedan, but 
 when this institution was broken up in H)8I by the Jesuits, 
 and ho himself put uncler persecution for his Ln Ptilltique 
 dn CUrifi' de France^ he si)ught refuge in Holland, and was 
 elected pastor of the Walhton chureli in Uotterdam, where 
 ho d. Jan. II, 17i-t. In spite of his restless and irritable 
 spirit, which drove him from one controversy into another, 
 ho was of groat aid ami ciimfort to the Protestant (?hurch 
 in France, and among his numerous writings there arc 
 many of great value, as, for instance, liintnirv, Crltiqut: den 
 Doifvim rt dm Ciifita {IHH) and Uintoirc du Culvinismc et 
 duPnpi^iiic (iOSL'). 
 
 JuriNdic'tion [Lat.], in law, is tho power possessed by 
 a person or body of men to dispose of a cause or question 
 judicially. It may originate, as it has often done in Eng- 
 land, from long usage, or it may be cimferred, as it usually 
 is in this country, by statute or by constitutional provision. 
 Jurisdiction may bo either convurmnt or crclit*iiie. By this 
 distinction is meant that sometimes two or more courts, in- 
 difi'erently, may entertain a cause, while in other cases it 
 can be disposed of by one alone. Thus, an inferior court, 
 c. I/., a justice of the peace, frecjuently lias concurrent juris- 
 diction with a superior court of minor causes. The action 
 may accordingly be c<iniuienced in either. An instance of 
 exclusive jurisdiction is that of a ]irobate court in deter- 
 mining the existence and validity of a will. .lurisdietiun 
 is also original and appellate. It is iniginai when a court 
 entertains Ihe cause in the tirst instance, appellate when it 
 is brought from another court. Again, jurisdiction may 
 be either of the subjtct- matter or of the jierson. The court 
 may, for example, have general p<i«ei tvcr the subject, but 
 it nniy not bo presented in such a way Iliat its authority can 
 be exercised. Where jurisdiction does n<d exist the act of 
 passing judgment is wholly inoperative and void. Thus, 
 if a State court should pass upon a (juestion which is re- 
 served by the U. S. Constitiilion exclusively for the Fed- 
 eral tribunals, its jmlgment would be without effect. An 
 instance wonhl be the assumption of the functions of a 
 court rif admiralty. It is not necessary, where there is a 
 total want of jurisdiction, to raise the question by an ap- 
 peal from Ihe decision. It may be shown to be of no avail 
 in a whrdly independent and collateral proceeding. Thus, 
 if a person were sentenced for a criminal offence by a court 
 having no jurisdiction, ho might bo discharged on a writ 
 
 of hithniH ctn'f»is. 
 
 This power to declare tho judgment of a court a nullity is 
 one of great delicnoy, and shouM be exercised with nuich 
 caution. Still, in a clear case there should be no shrinking
 
 147^ 
 
 JURISDICTION. 
 
 from ita use, as otherwise much injustice may be done. A 
 
 distinction has been taken aa to the presumption of juris- 
 diction between au inferior and a sn])erior eourt. It has 
 been hiid down as a rule that "nothing shall he intended 
 to be out of the jurisdiction of a superior court except that 
 which specially appears to be so; on the other hand, noth- 
 ing; shall be intended to bo witliin that of the inferior court 
 unless it bo expressly so alleged." In determining to which 
 partieuhvr class a court belongs, it will ho necessary to con- 
 sider the statutes and usages of the particular State in which 
 the case arises, especially as to such courts as surrogates', 
 general sessions, and justices of the peace. A court may 
 have a limited jurisdiction, such as the circuit or district 
 court of the U. S., and not be an *' inferior" court within 
 the meaning of this rule. Eren as to the shperior courts, 
 the presumption of jurisdiction may bo rebutted by proof 
 to the contrary, unless, having jurisdiction under a certain 
 state of facts, its record contains a recital of those facts, 
 in which case the record, by a technical rule of law. is not 
 to be contradicted by extrinsic evidence. Wherever the 
 record expressly or by implication shows that the court 
 proceeded without jurisdiction, there is no presumption in 
 its favor, and its acts are plainly void. The rule also fails 
 of application when the court proceeds in the exercise of 
 some special statutory authority ; for as to this, it is deemed 
 to be an inferior rather than a superior court. When the 
 case is one of an " inferior court," another set of rules pre- 
 vails. Thecourt cannot obtain jurisdiction by deciding that 
 the conditions precedent to the rights to hear and determine 
 the matter in hand exist, when in fact they do not. The 
 most that can be said in any case is that its decision is 
 npjiarently correct, hut tho facts may be disproved by ex- 
 trinsic evidence. Thus, a board of assessors having power 
 to tax residents of a town could not gain junsdietion over 
 a non-resident l.iy deciding that he was a resident, when 
 he was not so in fact. So, in any case where the record 
 of an *' inferior" court docs not show upon its face the ex- 
 istence of the facts necessary to give jurisdieti<m, they are 
 presumed not to have existed, though extrinsic evidence 
 may be offered to the contrary, and the jurisdiction thus 
 be upheld under these rules. If a court-martial should 
 a^isess a fine without giving tho accused au opportunity to 
 be heard, the decision will be wholly void : the court would 
 in such a case have no jurisdiction over the person. The 
 same rule would be applied to a magistrate having power 
 by statute to issue a warrant or an attachment under spe- 
 cial circumstances that were not complied with. Where a 
 judge acts wholly without jurisdiction, his decision may 
 not only be disregarded by other courts, but ho may render 
 himself liable to an action for damages at tho suit of the 
 party injured. 
 
 This question of want of jurisdiction is frequently pre- 
 sented where an attempt is made to enforce in the courts 
 of one State the ju<igment or de(;rec of tho courts of an- 
 other State. The U. S. Constitution provides (art. iv., § 1) 
 that full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the 
 public acts, records, and judicial jtroceodings of every other 
 State, and Congress is empowered to prescribe the manner 
 in which such acts and proceedings shall be proved and tho 
 effect thereof. Under tiiis provision the court of tho one 
 Slate m.ay inquire into the jurisdiction of the eourt of the 
 other State, and refuse to recognize a judgment rendered 
 without jurisdiction. The Constitutional eluuse assumes 
 that there ia a record to which recognition can be given ; 
 and a professed judgment rendered without jurisdiction is in 
 fact no judgment. There must be jurisdiction both of the 
 subject nuitter and of tho person. Accordingly, if judgment 
 was obtained against a defendant in one State without notice, 
 it could not be enforced against hiui as a judgment in the 
 courts of another State, as the court acted without juris- 
 diction over his person. It would bo immaterial though 
 the courts of the State where the judgment was rendered 
 deemed it valid. A judgment of this kind may sometimes, 
 by force of statutory provisions providing notice by means 
 of newspaper publication instead of that which is personal, 
 have a local effect when it is wholly discarded in other 
 States for want of true jurisdiction over the person. This 
 question frequently arises in the case of an action for total 
 divorce. If one of tho parties, having become domiciled 
 in one State, obtains a divorce from tho other in his ab- 
 sence and without personal notice, the judgment maybe 
 valid by the local law of the State where it is rendered. 
 and yet not he recognized in another State, on the ground 
 of want of jurisdiction. If. on the other hand, the absent 
 party had appeared and submitted to the jurisdiction of 
 the court, the judgment migbt have been valid in both 
 States. A like question may arise as between the courts 
 of different nations. Thus, the Knglish courts will, as a 
 general rule, recognize as conclusive a judgment rendered 
 in the courts of an American State where the latter has 
 full jurisdiction over tho subjcot. Assuming, what is 
 
 doubtful, that this rule would be applied there to an action 
 
 in this country for divorce from an English marriage, still, 
 if an Knglishnum, dissatisfied with hi.-j marriage relations, 
 should leave Kngland and acquire a domicile in one of our 
 States, tho wife still remaining in England, and obtain a 
 divorce valid by its laws, the English courts would not rec- 
 ognize its existence on account of the defect of jurisdiction. 
 It is scarcely necessary to add that questions of jurisdiction 
 thus become of great practical moment in the administra- 
 tion of justice of various states or nations under the rules 
 of private international law. 
 
 Under the jurisprudence of the U. S. government, the 
 judicial power is prescribed in the Constitution. It is. for 
 most purposes, left to Congress to determine in what courts 
 it shall bo vested. It is, however, providecl that there 
 shall be a supreme court, and that it shall have oriijiual 
 jurisdiction in two classes of cases — one in all cases affect- 
 ing ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, and 
 the other in which a State shall be a party. In all other 
 cases the court shall have ap])ellate jurisdiction, with such 
 exceptions and under such regulatiims as Congress shall 
 make. The effect of this provision is that Congress can- 
 not confer upon the supreme court "original "'jurisdiction 
 in any other cases than those tliat arc expressly mentioned. 
 This is an instance of au ap])iication of the rule that tho 
 expression of tho power in one case is an exclusion of it in 
 all other eases. '• Original "jurisdiction in all other cases 
 to which the judicial power of the U. S. extends must be 
 exercised, as far as Federal tribunals are concerned, by 
 some of tho "inferior" courts referred to in the Constitu- 
 tion as within tho power of Congress to establish. (See 
 Constitution, U. S.) It cannot, however, be claimed that 
 the supreme court of the U. S. cannot exercise appellate 
 jurisdiction in the two classes of cases in which its juris- 
 diction is original. Thus, a State may be a party in a 
 State court to a proceeding in which the validity of tho 
 laws of Congress may be involved, and the case mny be 
 appealable on thnt ground. The fact that it was a party 
 would be no hindrance to tho appeal to the supreme eourt 
 of the U. S. In fact, there are two general grounds on 
 wliieh a case may be brought before a U. S. couit, one 
 being the nature of the case, and the other the presence of 
 a particular party. The fact that the presence of a party 
 makes a case one for original jurisdiction does not prevent 
 I the exercise of appellate jurisdiction where that depends 
 ! on the nature of the case. 
 
 I Tho jurisdiction of a State court may or may not be prc- 
 I scribed in a State constitution. Where it is. an act of the 
 ', legislature extending or abridging its jurisdiction in op- 
 position to the coustituiional provisions will be void. Where 
 there is no constitutional direction, the whole matter is 
 within the control of the Stale legislature, which may in 
 that case erect and abolish courts at will, and parcel out 
 their jurisdiction according to its pleasure. Though such an 
 abolition of a court shoulil displace judges who held office for 
 a specified term, no legal objection would stand in the way, 
 as nocontntct is created between the State and the judges en- 
 suring their continuance in office for the designated period. 
 Somo suggestions may be useful as to the question \vhether 
 consent of parties will confer jurisdiction. It is manifest 
 that a judicial tribunal cannot be created by consent. If 
 parties should in the most solemn form agree that they 
 would submit a question to a tribunal created by them- 
 selves, tho most that their unaided act would amount to 
 would be to appoint an arbitrator and to give him author- 
 ity to make an award. (See Awakp.) Under the same gen- 
 eral view it may be shown that it is impossible by consent 
 to extend the powers of an existing court to subjects over 
 which the law gives it no control. While these jiositions 
 are true as to jurisdiction "over the subject-matter" of a 
 cause, they cannot be applied with the same breadth to 
 juris<liction "over the person." It is frequcnllv the case 
 that general power to decide a question exists if the par- 
 ties are properly before the court, and the law jirescribes a 
 jiartieular mode of bringing them there. If that mode is 
 not observed, regularly the court has no jurisdiction. In 
 such a case, if a party waives an observance of tlio pro- 
 scribed mode, and voluntarily takes part in the action, tho 
 court may, upon the consent thus given, entertain the case. 
 This view could not bo taken of a case where tho court 
 could not, by the most strict adoption of regular forms of 
 jirocedure, acquire jurisdiction. An illustration is found 
 in the jurisdiction of a State court over a foreign consul. 
 The U. S. Constitution for public reasons withdraws the 
 consul as a defendant from the State courts. He can- 
 not, accordingly, be sued there by his consent. There is 
 here no question of an adoption of regular forms. Tho 
 State court has nothing to do with the case, anrl can no 
 more acquire jurisdiction over the person of the consul by 
 his consent than it could obtain the right to dispose of an 
 admiralty cause in tho same manner. T. W. JDwight.
 
 JURISPRUDENCE. 
 
 1479 
 
 Jurisprn'dence is both the philosophy and the gcience 
 of IttW. Lttto. as the subject-matter of jllrit^p^ude^ce, is the 
 body of rules reguliiting the rchitive rights and duties of 
 meu in society, declared and politically enforced by public 
 authority. As a branch of pbUogophy, jurisipnidmco is 
 coucfrned with the origin of law, its nature, and its con- 
 nectiou with the other phenomena which make np the uni- 
 verse. As a science, it classiGes into system the body of 
 our knowlcilgo acquired by a study of its actual develop- 
 ment and lii.slory, aud traces the principles wliioli eonnect 
 its various results. As philonuphij, it teaches the theory of 
 all p05!>ible law ; as science, it teaches the facts and priuci- 
 p1e«i nf all actual law. 
 
 Jurisprudence, regarded as a whole, comprises not only 
 a stiidv of what the law is and ha.-J been, but of what it 
 would bo if the principles to be extracted from it were 
 correctly worked out. It permits us to test those principles 
 themselves by a standard external to them — by our abstract 
 notions of what is right and reasonable, by our observation 
 of what is useful, by the visible wants and tendencies of 
 society. " It may be said of laws, that mankind have but 
 one iatCt though every nation has had its otcn si/st^in of 
 /film. For positive law is not essentially a simple collec- 
 tion of isolated rules and ordinances, arbitrary or conven- 
 tional in thrir nature, but it is a system, exhibiting, nmid 
 all its variations in time and jilaco, invariable aud tixod 
 principles and relations, whicii constitute the foundation 
 or identical part of all laws; that is to sav, universal or 
 natural law." (2 Lmv lin: and Mofj. (Lon'd.), N. S. ;VIK.) 
 ** For as reason and reflection arc natural to man, and are 
 as important parts of his nature as the highest of its in- 
 stincts, so laws fiiunded on the right exercise of that rea- 
 son are natural laws in the best aud highest sense of all." 
 (l)uke of Argyle, Ueif/n of Laic.) 
 
 The nature of man as a rational and moral creature 
 points out the ends and objects of his existence on earth, 
 and the means furnished by external nature by wbiidi, in 
 the exercise of his activities in society, they may bo at- 
 tained, and in the progressive exercise lof these activities 
 establishes the- various relations which bind together and 
 olassifv mankind in a social order. Arising out of the na- 
 ture of men, and its relation to the phy,«ical and moral 
 universe, and developed in history in the progressive cul- 
 ture of the race, jurisprudence may be traced and studied 
 both ilefinrtirfilif and hiatoricnUy. The conclusions reached 
 by this double analysis, and reconciled, constitute the sci- 
 ence. Law and government ajipear as facts in human his- 
 tory simultaneously. They never exist apart, and from 
 their nature cannot; it being the very office of government 
 to declare and enforce law, aud law, consisting of those rules 
 of conduct which are enforceable and actually enforced by 
 that puljlic autliority embodied in government. Law and 
 goveriimont are therefore correlates. Each inijilies the 
 other. From the simplest to the most complex political 
 organizations — the family, the tribe, the nation — as society 
 di'velops historically, law in always present; but in the 
 logical order its itlea is ])ri<)r, for governments exist in 
 order that law may be declared and enforced. 
 
 The study of human nature gives rise to the conception 
 of a mornf ordrr, the realization of which constitutes man's 
 hi;;host good, and the pursuit of which employs all his ac- 
 tivities. It etmstitutes the flnnl cnntr of niairs existence, 
 the purpose and perfection of his being, his end and des- 
 tiny. Whatever conforms to that moral order is rirfht ; 
 whatever violates it is tcrnnij. .Subsidiary to that concep- 
 tion of universal moral order, and forming parts of it, 
 through the me<lium of which in combination it is to be 
 realized, are subordinate conceptions of the liuiium reoson 
 declaring and defining the relations of men with each other 
 in society, of men with each other in relation to external 
 nature, and to the universe of things, material, intellectual, 
 and moral. I4lus(rations of these are coneei>ti<tns of the 
 family, the state, of property, of contract, etc. To conform 
 to that universal moral order — that is, to do whatever is 
 riijht and avoid whatever is trrontf — the nature of man 
 recognizefl as his t/ultf : which at the same time ho is eon- 
 seious, by virtue nf Ihe /rrftltun r,/ hit* trill, that he may 
 choose not to perform; the exercise of which, in that way, 
 however, ho feels to be the brea'di of an uhfiffntinn. The 
 conception of this moral order bin'Iing him, as iv rational 
 free agent, to its observance. i« lh»; idea of jnorah'hf, the 
 rule.-* of wbieh. analyzed and clussified. constitute Ihe sci- 
 ence of cfhim ; and those rule»i. habitually practised, are 
 named rirtura, their hahitual violations, vicm. Among 
 virtues we find that of yiMfiV*-, which is <lefined to bo thr 
 htihifunl itiiifuniifiitn to render errrif innn hin ilnr ; and those 
 claims, whatever they may be, which bebdic to man as 
 matters of justice are called ritjhi». The dutic* resting on 
 all t(t render to each his rights are called nhfitjatiintu, the 
 violation of them, irron//* .- the relations between men thus 
 established arc distinguished as Jural. 
 
 Rights differ from other moral claitna of men upon each 
 other in this — that the latter are duties, depending for their 
 fulfilment altogether upon the fjood- will of those bound by 
 them; the former carry with them a claim to be en/m-icd 
 In/ phi/itirfit cntnpnhion. But as the mind of man is not the 
 suhject of physical force, the ritjhtH which are susceptible 
 of being enforced must be such only as constitute claims 
 upon the rxtcrnaf conduct or orcrt ovts of others; but fur 
 the purpose of delcrmiuiug the vioml (fua/iti/ of these it 
 often becomes necessary to investigate the inrntal condi- 
 tions of the agent at the time of their commission, as in 
 questions of motive, intention, negligence, sanity, intoxica- 
 tion, nonage, etc. And the phy.sJca! Ibrce required for Iheir 
 enforcement is furnished by the pnldir authoriti/, repre- 
 senting the rfttionnf irifl of the community in the adminis- 
 tration of law. That puhlic authorltf/. organized in every 
 separate, indepemlent community constituting a slate or 
 nation, is its ])0litical and civil government; and to it is 
 referred the determinati(tn, from time to time, in each suc- 
 cessive stage of its hislorj", of the question, \Vhat are the 
 juMt and natural untral claims of each member of society 
 upon all which it will enforce as lc(/al rights? and its dec- 
 larations to that effect are the ponitivc laws of that fitatr. 
 The supreme public authority inherent in every inde- 
 pendent state or nation, whereby it organizes its political 
 and civil government, is called nortrei'/nti/; aud the mode 
 in which the government exercises the powers of sover- 
 eignty is its constitution. There are no Icffnl limitti to 
 sovereign power, for it declares what the law is ; it is 
 boun<I only by moral restraints, but the constitution of a 
 state may impose Ifjal limitatimiH upon the government; 
 and this gives rise to public or constitutional lair. 
 
 There is, however, a supreme law which binds and re- 
 strains the sovereignty of imlividual Htatvx. It is the law 
 of natimis, or international law. It consists of a body of 
 rules regulating the relative rights and duties of inde- 
 pendent nations in that mutual intercourse denmnded by 
 the progressive advancement of human society. It is the 
 application of the right reason and cultivated conscience 
 of mankind to the relations of men orgiinized into sepa- 
 rate and inde])endent communities and as subjects of dis- 
 tinct national sovereignties. It is developed by diplomatic 
 discussions and state pa]>ers; by the decisions of judicial 
 tribunals in private controversies, where the litigants have 
 no common municipal sujicrior; by the treatises of jihil- 
 osophical jurists; aud is cmbodierl in a traditionary code 
 of international usage and tlie modifying legislation of 
 treaties and conventions. It is not, as has sometimes been 
 said, without a Honction; for, although sovereign nations 
 recognize no common superior with power to prescribe the 
 rules of their conduct, nevertheless each sovereign is a 
 public aulhorily which by resort to the ultima ratio of 
 just war, is entitled, according to tl»o public oi)inion of the 
 civilized world, to enforce the commands of international 
 law; any breach of which, though directly injurious to but 
 one, is also an offence against the rights and pence of all. 
 
 Kach individual meinlier of human society is under a 
 moral necrsHiti/ — that is, owes the duty by the rational ex- 
 ercise of his wilt — to conform to the universal moral order 
 Ijy the habitual observance of all the rules of morality and 
 the practice of those virtues which constitute the ideal ex- 
 cellence of life and character; and is Iherefore not only 
 entitled, but required by the eonstittition of his nature, to 
 employ the means necessary to enable him to perform (hat 
 duty. The means to this end are furnisheil by the organi- 
 zation of mankind in society, and the materials for its de- 
 velopment providcil by the material universe with which 
 he is placed in contact or connection. IJut both duties — to 
 attain the end and use the means — rest cffualli/ on all ; and 
 the liberty of each man's will in the pursuit of his highest 
 good is limited by the j)roper exercise of the wills of all 
 others. The harmony of this coexistence is the establish- 
 ment of civil and nacial f»rder, which is the sphere and 
 scope of human freedom, personal, civil, and political, being 
 tihrrti/ regulated by law, the principle of which is Cf/ualiti/ 
 in right. 
 
 The perfection of civil order, it is manifest, therefore. 
 consists in the largest liberty of iudiridual action compati- 
 ble with the etinal lilicrttf of all others — that is, compatililo 
 with the general gnnd .■ and the question requiring solution 
 in every case as it arises or is foreseen, is. To what extent is 
 the ]>ubIio authority justified in ituposing jibysical restraint 
 upon, or applying physical coercion to, individual action? 
 Il has been fnuiid impossible hitherto to announce any 
 principle which will theoretically answer that question for 
 all rases. There lias been found, indeed, as yet, no com- 
 mon agreement asto the true principle on which the publio 
 authority intervenes forcibly at all. Some ground it on 
 the principle o? self' difrncf,- sonie, on the pri'ser^ atioii of 
 the Hiatus </ui>: some, on the abstract nature and quality of 
 rights as enforceable; some, by the application of the
 
 14.su 
 
 JURISPRUDENCE, MEDICAL. 
 
 maxiiSr " Do as you would be done by ;" others, by the 
 principle that any one may prevent what will make his 
 physical condition less comfortable than it is by nature: 
 but the opinion most Ecenerally received is. that the proper 
 limit of the law, as the applied or threatened public force, 
 is in every case a C)uestion to be determined by the viifti- 
 vntcd ycnson and cnlifjhtcned conact'ence of mankind, testing 
 and correcting their conclusions hy protfrcHsht experience 
 as it advances in civilization, resorting to crpcdi^nct/ and 
 utidtt/, not as the standard and measure of truth, but as its 
 evidence and confirmation, seeking the perfection of man 
 in the historical realization in human society of ideal jus- 
 tice. 
 
 Consequently, every system of civilized jurisprudence 
 will be found to contain two elements — one deduced by the 
 public reason from the general principles of natural justice ; 
 the other dogmatically fixed by recognized custom or by 
 express legislation, and affected by the peculiarities of 
 national character, history, and situation. The latter is 
 arbitrary, accidental, and positive ; the former is its rational 
 element and unchangeable foundation. " It would be hard," 
 say-* Burke, " to point out any error more truly subversive 
 of all the order iintl beauty, of all the peace and happiness, 
 of human society than the position that any body of men 
 have a right to make what laws they please, or that laws 
 can derive any authority whatever from their institution 
 mereli/, and independent of the quality of their subject- 
 matter. . . . AN human laics tire, properly spealdn;/, oulif 
 derltiratori/. They may alter the mode and application, 
 but have no power over the substance of original justice." 
 Jurinpi-mh^nee, then, is distinguished from rthirs as a part 
 is from the whole, being one of the branches of that larger 
 and more comprehensive department of human knowledge. 
 On the other liand, its own province includes — l.Xatural 
 Laic, or that theory of human relations, and the rights and 
 obligations implied in them, deducibic from the nature 
 of man and of the things around him, and of which his 
 social and individual advancement require the enforce- 
 ment, if necessary, by physical power. 2. International 
 Lair, or that body of rules deduciljle from the relations of 
 man, organized into separate and independent communi- 
 ties, and which are applied (1) to regulate the intercourse 
 of sovereign states, and of which the ultimate sanction is 
 just war; (2) to determine the rights and obligations aris- 
 ing between individuals considered as subjects of separate 
 sovereign jurisdictions, by juiUcial tribunals acting and 
 deciding on private controversies. The former is called 
 public international law ; the latter, private international 
 law. .3. Public or Constitutional Law, or that body of cus- 
 tomary or enacted rules which form the frame of jiolitical 
 government or constitution of the state, prescribing the 
 divisions of political power, the functions of public author- 
 ities, and the relative rights and duties of the national 
 government and the subjects of its jurisdiction. 4. ^fnnici~ 
 pal Law, or the domestic law of particular states, prescrib- 
 ing the relativerightsandobligationsof all persons subject 
 to its jurisiliction as members of that separate community. 
 Examples of this are to be found in the Roman law, con- 
 spicuously called the ciril law, which forms the base of 
 the civil rights and duties of a large number of modern 
 states, in which it has been preserved since tlie days of the 
 supremacy of the Roman empire; and the common law of 
 ICu'ifaud, which consists chiefly in a body of principles 
 applied in the historical development of the Knglish people, 
 emhoilicri in traditional customs, deduceil by judicial prac- 
 tice aiul decision, by the application of reason to the varied 
 ami multiplying relations of men and things in a commu- 
 nity remarkable for vigorous and continuous growth, and 
 from time to time supplemented by express legislation. 
 The canon law also constitutes part of the municipal law 
 of those states where it is or has been recogniz-ed. being 
 originally a body of rules established by the ecclesiastical 
 authority of the Christian Church, acting with civil power 
 over certain matters claimed by it to he, hy reason of their 
 spiritual nature, exclusively within that jurisdiction, but 
 since, in accordance with more enlightened views as to the 
 true division of the civil and spiritual authority, adopted 
 by the civil power of the state as part of the bodj' of its 
 miinieipal law. Under the head of municipal law is to be 
 found the whole body of authoritative rules regulating the 
 prrHonal status <>( the individual members of the state, and 
 the relations annexed to and growing out of it, with the 
 corresponding rights and obligations, such as husband and 
 wife, parent and child, etc. ; also the relations of men to 
 one another as constituted by contract, property, and all 
 those civil relatitms which arc based on their mutual inter- 
 course. A large part of every such system becomes law by 
 the unconscious ()peratinn of social instincts, growing into 
 hahitual observances, thus forming what is known as cns- 
 tnmarjf law, which becomes scientifically developed by a 
 long series of judicial decisions, making new applications 
 
 of recognized principles, discovering new principles hy the 
 analogy of reason, and supplied as necessity or convenience 
 requires by the express aid o^ letjislation. When the mass 
 and body of municipal law thus built up has grown enor- 
 mous, confused, and unwieldy, a comprehensive legisla- 
 tion reduces it to the written form of a code, such as those 
 of .Justinian and Napoleon, on which, as on a new foun- 
 dation, the work of development begins again. 
 
 Consult Droit Xaturcl, Henri Ahrens (Lcipsic, 1868); 
 Philosophic dn Droit, Lcrminier i Paris. 185;i); Political 
 Ethics, Fr. Lieber; luf/uiries. Elementary and JUntorical, in 
 the Science of Law, Jas. Reddie (London. IS47); Princi- 
 ples of Jurisprudence, I). C. Heron (London, 1873); Ele- 
 ments of Jun'iiprndence,C J. Foster (London, 1863); Sphere 
 and Duties of Government, William Humboldt, Tr. Jos. 
 Coulthard (London, 1854): Inquirira in International Law, 
 Puhlic and Private, Jas. Reddie (Edinburgh, lS.jl) ; Prin- 
 ciples and Maxims of Jurisprudence, J. G. I'hillimorc ( Lon- 
 don. 18J0); Two Treatises on Government, John Locke 
 (London, 1821); Universal Jurisprudence, J. P. Thomas 
 (London, 1828) ; St/stem of fnirersal Law, neincceius. tr. 
 Turnbull (London. 1703); Doetrina Juris PhiloHophica, 
 Warknnig (18.30); Phihsophia Juris, Warkiinig (1855); 
 Vocatif}nof onr Affc f'or Leytslation and Jurisprudence, Sa- 
 vigny, tr. llayward (London, 1831) : Lorimer's Institutes 
 of Law (Edinburgh, 1872); Ancient Law, Sir Henry Sum- 
 ner Maine; Province of Jurisprudence, etc., Austin; Spirit 
 of Laws, Mfuitesquieu : Jurisprudence, H. S. M. Phillips 
 (London, ISr>3); Westlake's Private lutemafionul Law; 
 Phillimorc's International Law; Lawrence's Wheaton's In- 
 ternational Law. Stanlky Matthews. 
 
 Jurisprudence, Medical. This is the name given 
 to a science of comparativHy recent origin, and which 
 forms a syncretism of law with medicine. Its boundaries 
 in the physical world are coextensive with the whole ficlil of 
 natural history, while in law, although more largely relat- 
 ed to the domain of crime or public hygiene, its assistance 
 is often required in cases involving the application of chem- 
 istry to the mechanic arts. It is also designated unforensic, 
 juridical, or state medicine, and is defined as the science 
 which treats of the application of the laws of nature to the 
 administration tf justice and the preservation of the public 
 health. Nearly all the physical sciences contribute to the 
 wants of this new sister, while with an equally wide range 
 it enters into the myriad channels of municipal law, and 
 follows human relations in all their phases, whether per- 
 sonal, domestic, or social. The apj)Iicntion of medical 
 jurisprudence to the admeasurement of physical facts 
 affecting the civil or criminal responsibility of jiersons 
 amounts practically to this only, that medicine furnishes 
 the lights of her experience, and law applies them accord- 
 ing to the established rules of her tribunals and under the 
 equities of each particular case. Medicine furnishes the 
 principle, law the rule, for its application to the artificial 
 relations of civil life: unci thus, without collision or con- 
 flict, each science treads its appointed path and perforins 
 its required part in human government. Some idea of the 
 range over which experts may have to travel in order to 
 decide problems in medical jurisprudence will be had from 
 enumerating the various sciences into whose (iehis these 
 inquiries must enter. The first is natural philosophy in its 
 restricted sense, and involving more particularly meteor- 
 olof/y fiin\ its influences upon animal or vegetable life ; next, 
 physical 'jcoijraphy and elimatolo;fy ; following these in 
 all their various divisions and subdivisions come auatotny, 
 pliysiolof/y, patholotfy, therapeutics, surf/ery, chemistry in 
 its multiple relations, botany, hyijiene, and mental philoso- 
 phy or psychofotjy. It is needless to say that no one can 
 be equally proficient in all these sciences; and yet without 
 some knowledge of the general principles of each, and of 
 their nomenclature, a medieal jurist would fail at the very 
 outset to know in which of all these fields he must lo'di for 
 a rational solution of any problem committed to his judg- 
 ment. 
 
 Although, as before said, medical jurisprudence as a sci- 
 ence is of comparatively recent origin, one of its depart- 
 ments, that of public health, has always engaged the atten- 
 tion of lawgivers from the earliest days of established 
 governments. Among the Hindoos, and more lately among 
 the Israelites, we have the best evidence from their religious 
 coiles of the important part which it occupied in their cere- 
 monial law. The frequent lustrations and isolations of 
 the person enjoined as part of the habitual duty of all 
 sectaries converted a physiological safeguanl into an act of 
 worship, and thus protected the health of the community 
 while ensuring that of the individual. For so urgent is 
 the necessity of personal purification among a people ])ro- 
 vcrbially unclean, and in a climate disposing to pestih-nce, 
 that Mohammed required his followers to cleanse them- 
 selves with sand wherever water could not bo obtaineil. 
 From this incorporation of sanitary observances into the
 
 JURISPRUDENCE, MEDICAL. 
 
 14.S1 
 
 reJijjion of a country, it followed that priests became the 
 earliest oustodiaus of public health, and, it may bo truly 
 said, the first mediea) jurists on record. The Jew?, with 
 all their traditional re^pi-ct for the teachings of llie !*cnta- 
 tcuch, and their adherence to the tabernack; ritual of their 
 reIi;*ion. do not appear to have followed its injunctions as 
 closely in their domestic life as consistency would demand. 
 Much that was cimmanded by Moses is now practically 
 ignored, and Leviticus has given place to modern science 
 and household convenience. In striking contrast to this 
 is the still enduring imperative of Brahma, for even at this 
 day in India caste is forfeited by touching articles forbid- 
 den in the religious code, and the priest among the Hin- 
 doos remains in many senses the supreme lawgiver, as in 
 age? past. 
 
 It is not difficult to conceive that a people a? enlightened 
 a? the ancient Egyptians must have had canons of medical 
 police by which to guide their civil life. According to He- 
 rodotus, they had laws regulating marriage and the relations 
 of the sexes: distinguishing between mortal and dangerous 
 wounds in order to affix penalties; prescribing modes of 
 eml)ahning an'l interring the dead ; and in other respects 
 maintaining what would now be called a system of sanitary 
 and criminal police. Nor, after reading the ordinances of 
 Lycurgiis. or the physical rubrics laid down by Pythagoras 
 and Plato, need we ask whether they had studied the 
 laws of our bo»!iIy life. Both these philosophers be- 
 lieved anri taught that medicine was a branch of legisla- 
 tion. Beyond this, however, there is nothing to show that 
 anything approaching to a distinct sictcnce of forensic med- 
 icine was ever conceiverl by them. No union of the prin- 
 ciples of law and medicine appears in the jurisprudence 
 of Greece, for, except in questions of public disease or 
 medical police, medical men were not oflen consulted by 
 the tribunals of that country. The chief concern there 
 was to secure a robust population capable of bearing arms, 
 and in their prevalent ideas as to tlic best mode of per- 
 fecting the human species they were led to the barbarous 
 practice of abandoning delicate infants and rearing 
 only strong ones. Kveu Plato advises that children with 
 diseases of inheritance should be left to chance f<ir their 
 future development. To perfect this dogma of their polit- 
 ical economy, and to provide for the health of cities and 
 camps, formed about the entire scope of slate medicine in 
 Greece. The opinions of Hippocrates and Aristotle on a 
 few s\ibjects relating to the sexes and to wounds express 
 all thai was practically tised at that day. Nevertheless, so 
 much is there in the authority of a name that many of tho 
 principles of the canon law, as formerly recognizeil in the 
 ccclesinstienl courts of Kurope. were unf|nestionably found- 
 ed upon the teachings of Aristotle, whose Organon was the 
 Bible of tho schools of philosophy dowD to the time of 
 Bacon. 
 
 In passing to Rome we meet at once a superior character 
 of legislation. A later age and a more advanced knowledge 
 of the duties ()f munieif>al government to its citizens placed 
 medical police on a higher plane of action and of authority. 
 As early as the rcien of Numa Pompilins a law was enact- 
 ed which was intendecl to proteet the life of an heir by re- 
 quiring mfdic*al assistance to be summoned in all cases of 
 (iilhoiilt labor, and forbidding the burial of a pregnant 
 woman until th«-' fo'tus should first have been extracted. 
 And such was the eontrolling influence of (ireek philosophy 
 in legislation that in the Puntl*cU of Justinian, whore va- 
 rious titles are arranged referring to crimes, physical de- 
 formities, anil questions of legitimacy, courts were instructed 
 not to bo guided by the judgment of living physicians, but 
 to form their opinions exclusively '* tipnn thf nuthon'ti/ of 
 the mont frarn'rfi //ipporrafm." Yet the existence of nn 
 nrrhinlfi- or stale physician, who was himself both physi- j 
 eian to the court and the acknowledged head of the nied- ] 
 ieal profession, must have imparterl to his opinion great ■ 
 weight with the judges, notwithstanding the institutional i 
 reverence for Hippocrates. According to Tacitus, the bod- 
 ies of (lermanicufl and .Agricola were medically examined, 
 and in the former slight traces of poison were found; but 
 as the specific signs thereof arc not given, we are left to 
 conJTture how, in the absence of chemical knowledge and 
 familiarity with tho characteristic pathology of such cases, 
 any rational judgment could have been arrived at in the 
 premises. N^r. again, are xtc informed at whose command 
 the autopsy was made, and whether the samn was under- 
 taken as part of n judicial inquisition info the euuso of 
 their suilden death. Probably, autopsies upon private in- 
 dividimls were not infrequent under similar cireumstanees 
 of death, but if so. we have no sufficient record to make it 
 the basis of any inference of their judicial eharai-li-r. 
 
 In the wbirlwincl of savage customs which ruleil Kuropo 
 during the Hark Ages legal medicine could hope for no 
 positive recognition. In its stead, ordeals by fire, water, 
 or the judicial combat were introduced as so many direct 
 
 interrogations of the Deity. Human responsibility was 
 judged, even before courts of justice, by the haphazard 
 results of chance, and superstition usurped the ]>laoo of 
 reason. But inai^much as it is easier to adopt a system of 
 laws than to frame one, the wiser conquerors of Home were 
 not slow in availing themselves of the rules of her juris- 
 prudence. They drew largely froni it. nor did they ever 
 cease paying that homage to her laws which they hail so 
 emphatically deuied to her empire. It would not be dilTi- 
 cuU to show that the Roman law had authorized the calling 
 of physicians before courts in cases requiring expert testi- 
 mony ; and finding tho same rule prevailing in the juris- 
 prudence of the O.«trogoths in Italy ami of riiarlemagne 
 in France, it is easy to conjecture the source whence the 
 rule was derived. This rnay be said to include the whole 
 aspect of legal medicine as presented to us in the laws of 
 antiquity, nor is the little progress shown by it there to be 
 wondercil at when we reflect, that most of the jihysical sci- 
 ences upon which rest its foundations had scarcely risen 
 upon the horizon of human thought. No Harvey had yet 
 shown that blood, in>;tead of air. circulated through the ar- 
 teries; no Vcsalius had established a system of rational 
 anatomy; no Boerhaave or Van Hclmont had yet explored 
 tho mine of chemistry through which Priestley and ha- 
 voisier were destined to descend into the very storehouses 
 of nature. 
 
 It is now generally admitted that the npplication of med- 
 ical knowledge to jurisprudeuce, and the practical recog- 
 nition of a science of forensic medicine, only commenced 
 about the middle of the sixteenth century. The criminal 
 code of tho Germanic empire, originating with Charles V., 
 and enacted by the diet held at Ratisbon in 16.'!2, is tho 
 first public recognition an*! the first legal application of the 
 scienoc with which wc meet in mo'lern history. This cele- 
 brated code enacts that physicians shnU be called by courts 
 in all cases where death has been occasioned by violent 
 means, whetiier accidental or criminal. One of the first and 
 most notable fruits of this new authority given to medicine 
 to enlighten jurisprudence was the speedy overthrow of 
 many dominant superstitions, which had formerly fettered 
 the public mind arnl cost tho lives of hundreds of innocent 
 people. The literature of mcdijrval Europe on the subjects 
 of witchcraft and demonology forms an instructive chapter 
 in tlie history of luiinau opinion. Those who are curious 
 to inform tbcniselves in this department will find no richer 
 mine than in the pages of Hallam and (^almeil. Subsequent 
 to the days of Charles V. the ordinances of the kings of 
 France combined in the form of codes what had formerly been 
 only customs, thus engrafting the common law of locality 
 upon systems of positive enactments. In IGUli, Henry IV. 
 gave letters patent to his chief surgeon, by which he was 
 authorized to appoint two physicians in each town, who, in 
 the nature of coroners, should investigate and report upon all 
 cases of accidental death. In the English law the oflice of 
 coroner was not originally given to physicians, this officer 
 being the adjunct simply to the sheriflT in the government 
 of counties. In U)(17, liouis XIV'. decreed by royal ordi- 
 nance that in all criminal matters requiring reports, courts 
 should be assisted by at least one of the physicians named 
 Itv his chief surgeon. Of such binding obligation were all 
 these ordinances that a decree of the Parliament of Paris 
 in lGfi2, and of the Parliament of Dijon in ICSO. set aside 
 judgments of inferior courts because they had been ren- 
 dered without the intervention of medical experts. 
 
 As a branch of instruction and a special science, medical 
 jurisprudence is but a new-comer in the schools; and as 
 its first teachers were physicians, so its first altars were 
 erected in medical colleges. Inasmuch also ns its first 
 seeds were sown in the bosom of the old civil law, so, too, 
 those countries first cultivated it which had themselves 
 derived tho foundations of their juri.-iprudenco from the 
 same source. Haller's lectures on juridical me<Iicine, 
 published in 17^2. indicate the establishment of a chair 
 of instruction in (Jeriuany at a <lay when no similar in- 
 struction was probably given in any of the European 
 schools. In I "'.12 the first ]irofcssorslups of the seit-nco 
 were created in France, and in l80;i the I'niversity of 
 Edinburgh followed the example. In Englaml it would 
 appear that no similar chair was established in any college 
 until the year Is20. although in the t*. S. it had been made 
 the subject of lectures as early os ISOJ. So far a< can now 
 be ascertained, the first lectures on medical jurisprudence 
 ever deliverctl in this ctumtry were given to the students 
 of Columbia College, N. V., by Dr. James S. Stringliam. 
 then professor of chemistry, in lStl4. This chair he filled 
 until iiis death in 1SI7. when he was succeeded by Ihe late 
 Dr. .Itdin \V. I'rancis. one of the most eminent physicians 
 which our country has ever produced. Dr. I'raucis held 
 Ihe chair until ISSfi. While Dr. Stringhom was delivering 
 his lectures ou medical jurisprmleuce in Columbia College, 
 Dr. Charles Caldwell gavo a courso upon the samo aiibjcot
 
 14.S2 
 
 JURISPRUDENCE, MEDICAL. 
 
 in Philadelphia during the winter of 1812-13, and in 1S15 
 Dr. Beck was called to fill a similar chair in the Western 
 Medical Colle*;c. Since that time, aud advanced into 
 prominence by Dr. Beck's encyclopaedic work npon the 
 subject, foren.^ic medicine has been considered as part of a 
 regular course of medical study, and many schools have 
 accordingly intntduced it into their scheme of lectures, 
 though generally as a subordinate branch and appendant 
 to some established chair. At last, als-o, the law-schools 
 have recognized it in many instances, and adopted it as an 
 adjunct science, collateral to, and not in the main line of, 
 required studies. Slowly and surely, however, it is work- 
 ing its way to that eminent position which belongs to it in 
 the interna! economy of government, since it is truly a part 
 of the fiig iif-iiiinm or ucrcHnnr}/ law of every state, whether 
 in its capacity of medical police or of forensic medicine. 
 
 The philosophy of medical jurisprudence is founded in 
 the necessity of frequently applying the laws of nature to 
 the aclministration of justice, no less than in employing 
 them in the preservation of the public health. In a large 
 range of subjects it is occu])ied, therefore, with the consid- 
 eration of topics that are, strictly sjieaking, exclusively 
 medical in character. The law looks to, aud in fact em- 
 ploys, forensic medicine as, in every sense, an tnniciis ci/nV, 
 and as a counsellor retained not in the interest of one party, 
 but in that of justice generally: and the philosophy of this 
 science, as it has gradually been unfolded, has shown the 
 essentially legal necessities upon which it rests. Its duty, 
 like that of equity, is to soften the rigors of the law wher- 
 ever particular instances are shown to merit some modifi- 
 cation in the application of universal principles to them, 
 or some light not attainable from any other source than 
 nature is needed to determine the just limits of human 
 responsibility whether for crime or private wrong. In 
 this way, forensic medicine forms an auxiliary branch of 
 municipal law, affording both circumstantial evidence and 
 skilled opinions upon the inferences to be judicially drawn 
 from such evidence. M'hiie, as we have before seen, it 
 treats of the whole realm of nature so far as it applies to 
 man in society and to govt-rnment as the arbiter of human 
 difTercnces. it is usual for convenience* sake to classify its 
 subjects into divisions founded upon their practical appli- 
 cations. The following is a synopsis of these topics in 
 their legal aspects and under the complexion they assume 
 before courts. It will be seen that they may all be arranged 
 into distinct groups, belonging either to Medirnl Evid*:uce^ 
 Mcdiml Ptifice^ Leynl Cfiemietrt/. or Pnycholorjif. This 
 differentiation of topics implies also ihtit rjenera I medical 
 knowledge does not necessarily furnish the special jiro- 
 ficiency in each department required to constitute any 
 physician an expert in it. Spfti'tlinta are recognized in 
 all departments of science, and to them exclusively belongs 
 the right of testifying as ex|>erts in their own field. Hence, 
 even an eminent physiciiin may be no expert in some 
 branches of surgery, nor in the chemistry of poisons, or 
 the arts, or in psycliology ; and this without detriment to 
 his general professiimal standing. And upon these reasons 
 rests the necessity of grouping the subjects with which 
 mcflical jurisprudence concerns itself into such classes as 
 may render them distinct specialties before courts, with 
 speoiul witnesses to illuminate the tf)pics mooted in issue. 
 
 /VrKo»«/ [dfiififif. — This is the birthright mark affixed 
 by nature to all human beings. It is an individual pre- 
 rogative which can neither he lost nor effaced. Being in- 
 delible, it is ineradicaide. The philosophy of every age 
 has recognized this as a jirimordial fact. Horace tells us 
 that wo may expel Nature with a pitchfork, and yet she 
 will return ; and Lord Bacon asserts that " Nature is often 
 hiclden. sometimes overcome, seldom extinguished." The 
 necessity at law of proving personal identity is of such a 
 variable character as to render it im|>ossible to enumerate 
 in arlvanee all the circumstances under which it may be- 
 come indispensable to establish it. In homicide, burglary, 
 arsnn, bigamy — in fact, in every variety of crime — the 
 identity both of the perpetrator and the victim must be 
 proved. In heirship, in payments of cheeks, and in scores 
 of similar civil transactions, the same necessity often arises. 
 The sources whence proofs of personal identity are obtained 
 are such as belong partly to our physical and partly to our 
 montal constitution. They consist of all those physical 
 features, whether congenital or acquired, which can distin- 
 guish one body frt>m another: such as nrj-, sfnhire, t/m't, 
 compfcj-tnti, Offr, (lfmrn)u>r, voice. n>t:ut«il trails and cuft)ire, 
 hnfiitx, ^rars, and dr/ormilt€«. Identification of the drad 
 as well as the living is often necessary. This is of course 
 more iliffirult in pro])ortion to the length of time the person 
 has been drad. But even skeletons can be and have been 
 iilentified when a sufficient amount of bones can he found 
 to reconstruct by anatomical theory the missing parts. 
 (Jreat skill is of course required for such an investigation, 
 and in cases of homicide the proof of the cor^tw delicti 
 
 should rest upon something more than conjecture. Unless 
 an expert can prove the identity of the remains against all 
 objections made thereto, his testimony should not be re- 
 ceived as conclusive, since it cannot amount to certainty. 
 
 Abortion. — The only signiticanee which abortion has at 
 law is derived from its intent. There arc occasions when 
 it is lawful to commit it as a medical necessity, to save the 
 mother's life in preference to tliat of the foetus. Of this 
 necessity physicians arc the only proper judges, and in 
 order to purge the act from all suspicion it should bo per- 
 formed as the result of consultation with and concurrent 
 opinion of others. But whenever it is done without any 
 pro-existing nu-dical necessity, and solely with the intent 
 of destroying the child, it is a crime in the eye of the law. 
 In some States no indictment for abortion will lie previous 
 to quickening, but abetter knowledge of the physiology of 
 ntero-gestation is undermining these dogmas of the canon 
 law by showing that a child is just as much a living being 
 hr/ore as after quickening ; and if the common law regards 
 an infant in ntero as capable of inheriting an estate, it can- 
 not in consistency refuse to regard its slaughter as the kill- 
 ing of a human being. Nt-t only is abortion when crimi- 
 nally accomplished a crime, but even the administration of 
 drugs to pregnant women with intent to produce it, although 
 unsuccessful, is a high misdemeanor. 
 
 Infantieidr. — The killing of a new-born child is at law a 
 crime, subject to the same rules of responsibility as belong 
 to any other form of homicide. There are some peculiar 
 difficulties in the way of obtaining precise evidence of live 
 birth as a sine qua nun to the fact in issue. But when this 
 is once established, and it is proven that the child had an 
 independent existence of its own, then the crime can be 
 subjected to the rules of ordinary evidence. Infanticide 
 maybe of two kinds — viz. either hy omisninn to take neces- 
 sary precauti<ms to protect the child against exposure, hun- 
 ger, and accidents, or by comtnimiifni, meaning thereby the 
 direct application of means feloniously employed for the 
 purpose of destroying its life. In the former ease the 
 mother may herself and singly accomplish it : in the latter, 
 she may similarly act alone or with or through an accom- 
 plice. It has also been held that it a child upon whom an 
 act of abortion is commenced dies subsequently to birth 
 from injuries received while in the womb, the act becomes 
 a homicide. Live birth may exist at law without the child 
 having breathed or the umbilical cord being severed, pro- 
 vided only it be completely delivered from the mother's 
 body and have an independent circulation of its own. 
 
 Rape. — This crime consists in the carnal knowledge of a 
 female forcibly and without her consent. In law, certain 
 persons have no legal capacity to assent to such an act, and 
 when done to them it is always unlawful in the perpetrator. 
 Thus, children under ten years, idiots, and the insane can 
 have no assenting minds, and assent is never presumed, not 
 even in the unchaste. By carnal knowledge is meant sex- 
 ual bodily connection. Force n)ay be either exprea* orim- 
 pliid, the former implying any ilirect threats or personal 
 violence; the latter, duress, either by moral fear, fraudulent 
 imposition of person, deceitful representation of the nature 
 of the act, magnetic sleep, anoesthesia, or narcotics. Im- 
 potence of copula is a good plea in defence, but even a 
 eunuch may commit this crime. So a husband may be an 
 accessary to a rape committed upon his wife, and a man 
 may be indicted for rape upon his own concubine, since 
 at any time she may withhold her assent. But whether it 
 is rape to have carnal intercourse with a demented woman 
 at her own solicitation has been doubted. What consti- 
 tutes want of will has been variously interpreted. It is 
 agreed by all authorities that the resistance of any woman 
 should be, so far as her condition will allow, sincere and 
 continuous throughout the act. 
 
 Imputence and Lcijifimaci/. — Marriage is at law a con- 
 sensual contract entered into by two cumjietcnt jtarties for 
 the purpose of procreating children. The natural basis of 
 this contract is purely physical. Aside, therefore, from 
 statutory regulations relating to evidence of such a contract 
 having been entered into, each party is presumed to guar- 
 anty his own physical compctcut-y to the other, and the 
 absence of this, if shown to have existed at the time of the 
 marriage, and to have been unknown to the other, consti- 
 tutes /("»(/ to that extent. As fraud vitiates every con- 
 tract into which it enters, it f(dlows that the marriage of 
 an impotent person is voidable, provided no laches he 
 shown in the party wronged. But inasmuch as impotence 
 is a matter of experienre, and not necessarily one of infer- 
 ence, the law requires the triennaiin cnhahitntio before it 
 will entertain any suit for a nullity f<iundfd upon this fact 
 alone. If one knowingly marries an unfruitful person, he 
 can claim no remedy at law, nor can a party plead his own 
 impotence as a ground for a sentence of nullity. The in- 
 curability of the impotence must also be determined before 
 any suit for nullity will lie. And if the impotent party
 
 J I'KLSI'IIUDEN'CE, MEDICAL. 
 
 1483 
 
 refuses surgical treatment, the act will be taken as pro con- 
 ft»*Q (o the prayer uf the pctUiouer. 
 
 It follows from the necessary consequences of marriage 
 that children horn in wedlock have u pre-sunied character 
 of letfitimarif which distinf^uishcs them from bastards, who 
 are in the eye of the law the children of no one. and have 
 no inheritahlp hlood. And so far is this doctrine pushed 
 at common law that every child born in wedlock, no matter 
 how sonn after the marriagn of its parents, is legitimate. 
 But this presumption may bo rebutlccl by showing either 
 the impotence of the husband or liis continuous absence 
 from the country, with the simultaneous crim. con. of the 
 wife. A mere probability of non-access by the husband is 
 not sufficient to repel the presumption of Ici^itimacy. nor is 
 his advanced n»e. It is not necessary for the party ob- 
 jecting to the legitimacy to prove that access was inipos- 
 ciblc, for if tlie evidence places it beyond all reasonable 
 dnubt, it will he suffi<'icnt to repel the presumption. 
 Whether, therefore, a child was begotten iu or nuf of wed- 
 lock where the marriage precedes the birth, the presump- 
 tion of paternity will be tiie same, and the like evidence is 
 required to bastardize the issue. Tliat evidence is proof 
 of non-acrrHit by the husband. Parents may testify to 
 children being born out of wedlock, but a wife is not a 
 competent witness to prove non-access of her husband and 
 to bastardize the issue, even after such husband's death. 
 
 WoltniiM. — The only legal aspect under which wounds can 
 1)0 considered is that whieh connects them with assaults 
 terminating in maiming or homicide. Under tiie Knglish 
 Statutes against tcoiiutl hit/ some very nice distinctions have 
 been made touching the constituents of the offence, but these 
 have not generally been ailopted in this country, our courts 
 giving a wifier interpretation to the meaning of the terra, 
 and treating the subject only in connection with such as- 
 saults as are or have been fatal to life. The questions there- 
 fore considered by them have been such as tended to show 
 the probable criminal connection of certain wounds with 
 death. To Ktate them briefly, thev are these: IHd death 
 immediately follow the wound? AVas the wound in itself 
 mortal? Wjis it the probable cause of death? What was 
 the interval of time between the two? Did any disease of 
 a mortal character meanwhile intervene and destroy the 
 life of the patient ? and if so, was it induced by the wound ? 
 Did the patient refuse medical treatment? or was the med- 
 ical treatment unscientific ? and did it cause death ? What 
 was the conilition of the patient previous to the wound? 
 All the authorities agree that the party inflicting the wound 
 is responsible for its immediate consequences : and even 
 though a mortal disease was present, and the wound only 
 accelerated thi; death, the act is still homicidal. 
 
 PoigntiM. — Poisons, in legal significance, are substances 
 which act not tjunntitativehf, but qunlitalirefif, to tile destruc- 
 tion of health or life, by reason of their inherent deleterious 
 properties. They are naturally noxious, and may bo classi- 
 fied either chemically into mineral, vegetable, or aniumi, or 
 physiologically, and according to their effects, into irritant, 
 narcotic, or acrid-narcotic. Restricting ourselves only to 
 their legal aspects, the questions to which they give rise 
 befttrc courts are. like wounds, such as tend to show their 
 criminal connection with a person's death. The evidence 
 in such cases is largely mecjieal. although extraneous cir- 
 cumstances may throw much light upon the problem of the 
 alleged perpetrator; and such moral evidence is allowed, 
 accordingly, its due weight. To constitute the offence of 
 administering poison some portion of it must bo taken by, 
 or applied to, Iho pers«>n of the one receiving it, but it need 
 not be swallowed. So if poison intended for one person bo 
 nccitlentally taken by another, it is still murder in the giver, 
 for the intent of homicide inheres. Hence, whether the sub- 
 stance he poisonous or nnt. |)rovidcil it be given with tbo 
 intent to take lif(^. the act is felonious. And where death 
 ensues from alleged poisoning, it is not necessary to prove 
 the particular substance used, nor the quantity required to 
 destroy lifr; nor is it necessary to prove that such a quan- 
 tity was found in the body after death. It is sufficient if 
 (he jury are satisfied from all the ciroumstances, and be- 
 yond a reasonable doubt, that death was caused by poison 
 administered by the prisoner. 
 
 M<ifprnetirf. — It \» a time-honored principle of law that 
 every professional man in offering his servieos as such to 
 the public impliedly covenants to bring l(» their ilischarge 
 the ordinary skill of his vocation. The public having no 
 means of ascertaining this in advance of experiment, they 
 may be saiti to contide in him of necessity, and any want 
 of due qualification on his part is, to that extent, a fraud 
 upon his employers. The errors committed by profi'snional 
 men, whether due to trnnt nf mkiU or iiri/Htfenre, are termed 
 mnf/irnctire, au"! for such they are amenable in damages to 
 any person who has been injured thereby. From the diffi- 
 culties inherent to the treatment of disease, mere errors 
 of judgment are not considered malpractioe in themselves 
 
 wherever the party has not otherwise offended by cither 
 negligence or rash experiments. There may be. thus, mal- 
 practice by omissiim as well as rommisnioti, but hoiU must 
 be proved, for they cannot be inferred from acts turning 
 alone upon diversities of medical practice. The law knows 
 no difference between systems of medicine. All it requires 
 in any practitioner is ordinary skill and a faithful discharge 
 of the duties of such a ]icrson when employed to relieve the 
 sick, for it does not consider his contract in general as one 
 to cure, but simply to do all that his professional skill can 
 accomplish towards promoting that result. 
 
 Mrdirnl ICvidenre or Expert^. — In law there arc two classes 
 of witnesses — viz. ordinttnf and sklflrti. The former testify 
 to what they know; the latter give opinions upon facts in 
 issue. To these witnesses the term expert is applied. An 
 expert being, legally, one instructed by experience, it fol- 
 lows that any person may he admitted to testify as such 
 upon matters belonging to his profession. The range of 
 scientific investigation being so vast in medicine, there has 
 in consequence arisen a necessity for differentiating experts, 
 and limiting the term alone, in any given case, to those who 
 have had special experience in the department of practice 
 under review. Hence, there are vhewinif experts, snrgtcnl 
 experts, and speciu/ists in medical practice, who are better 
 informed and better qualified to testify as such than gen- 
 eral practitioners of medicine; and to them courts will give 
 preference as experts. It is of course at times extremely 
 difficult to draw the lino of distinction, but wherever it can 
 bo it should be; for where men are equally proficient tlicro 
 will be less opportunity for differences of opinion, and pos- 
 itive contradictions of each other will form the excrption 
 rather tlian the rule, as they so often do now. Experts may 
 give opinions either upon direct or fufpi>thetictt/ facts, but 
 not upon conclusions of law. They may refresh their minds 
 from memoranda, but cannot use them as substitutes for 
 memory, nor quote from professional books, nor give opin- 
 ions upon the merits of any case. 
 
 Lift; Insurance, — The only aspect under which medical 
 jurispruilence considers life insurance is that which springs 
 out of the suicide of the party insured. The question 
 there being whether the party intended to fake his life in 
 fraud of his contract with the insurers, and was a legally 
 responsible being at the time, the whole problem turns 
 upon the fact of his mental condition. If sane, then the 
 act was felonious and the policy should be avoided : but if 
 insane, then the act was not his in legal contemplation, but 
 that of a being under the coercion of disease. All authori- 
 ties agree that suicide of itself docs not prove insanity in 
 the perpetrator. Consequently, we must look outside of 
 the act and to the whole history of its victim to determine 
 the probabilities of his mental state. Decisions have V>ecn 
 very conflicting in the conclusions of law to which they have 
 arrived, some permitting the moral responsibility of the 
 suicide to weigh in the balance of justice, and some, again, 
 ex(duding it. On the whole, however, the current of de- 
 cisions, both in this country ami in England, has been 
 steadily turning towards the exclusion of the element of 
 moral responsibility, and narrowing it down to tlie simple 
 questions of whether the party knew what he was doing, 
 intcndeil to do it. and was not impelled thereto by diseaso 
 — meaning insanity. 
 
 Sinfivorsliip. — Whore two persons perish in a common 
 calamity, it is often imptirtant to be able to determine which 
 died first, with reference to the rights of succession to an 
 estate. In order to solve su<*h a problem, many circum- 
 stances of a purely physical character must be taken into 
 account, relating to sex. age. strength, disease, season, and 
 temperature, not omitting the peculiar form of death to 
 which they were subjected. Many limes it is impossible 
 to arrive at any satisfactory conclusion, and courts are 
 ilriven to the necessity of advising a comjiromise between 
 the parties, as in tlie celebrated case of (ten. Stanwix, 
 where Lf»rd Mansfield said that ho knew of no prineiplo 
 nf Iho common law by which the issue eonld be settled. 
 The English law ban no provisions upon this subject, and 
 borrows all its light from the civil law. The Coile Napoleon 
 has devoted three sections to it, and given us all the modern 
 statutory law wliich is possessed by any of Ihe continental 
 nations. A very few eases only have been adjudged by 
 our courts as yet, the subject being (d' infrequent mention 
 even in textbooks. The most extensive nomnients upon it 
 are to bo found in the fourth volume of Mr. [{urge's (\ifo- 
 uifilnnd Fnreitfu A^mp, and to it we arcordingly refer (hoso 
 who desire more information. The following are Ihe two 
 divisions into whiidi all questions of surviv<uship may bo 
 included: viz. 1st, a» to the survivorship of mother and 
 child where both die during delivery: 2d, as to the sur- 
 vivorship of persons of different ages and sexes perishing 
 by a common accident. 
 
 fnsiiuiti/. — This topic, under all its various legal aspects, 
 will bo found treated id its appropriate alphabetical place.
 
 14.S4 
 
 JURY, TRIAL IIY. 
 
 There are other topics bclonginj^ to the domain of medi- 
 cal jurisprudence, like vinbifiti/./ti/jued diseases, the Ctrtar- 
 ia» «^' ti'H), hrrmaphrodiHm, deaths bif heat, sunstrokr. h'(/ht- 
 niiiff, Ntnrvatiou, and cold, and HpontauenuH cnmbuHtion, 
 which have few if any special legal aspects, and wc leave 
 thcra accordingly to he discussed under their more appro- 
 priate pliysical complexion. The topics we have reviewed 
 in a Itrief and eomprclieiisive way are those upon which 
 courts are most often called to adjudicate, and whose litera- 
 ture is adorned by authoritative decisions defining the re- 
 sponsibilities of parties niising issues under them. These 
 decisions we have not cifed, because out of place in a 
 popular encyclopaedia. They may easily be fonnd by re- 
 ferring to digests and works on medical jurisprudence. 
 
 .Inn\ Ordronaux. 
 
 Jn'ry, Trial by. Jury trial in its modern form is cer- 
 tainly a product of Knglish soeial and political forces. 
 Although the new codes of several cuntinenta! states of 
 Kuropu have professed to borrow it. they have materially 
 modified its form, ha^■o confined its u^'o to certain classes 
 of cases, and it is at best nn unnatural and sickly excres- 
 cence upon their national systems of jurisprudence. In 
 England and the T^ S. alone docs the jury flourish as an 
 essential part of the fi<icial organization — as an institution 
 arounil which all other means and modes of administration 
 are grouped. The object of this article is briefly to de- 
 scribe the origin of the jury trial, to state the nio?t import- 
 ant steps in its course of devclojiment, and to give a gen- 
 eral SLimmary of the rulea which regulate its use. 
 
 The jury trial in its present matured form involves two 
 very 'lifferent elements, each equally importnnt, but having 
 no historical or tlicorctical connection. They are (1) t!;o 
 decision of the facts in a judicial trial by a number of indi- 
 viduals distinct and separate from tlio olTicial judgo or 
 magistrate; and (2) the free choice of these individuals 
 from among the mass of ordinary citizens. The Romans 
 possessed the first of these features in their administration 
 of justice: the origin of the second is to be found in f ho tribal 
 customs of the {Jcrman peoples who overran the provinces 
 of the Western empire, including the Angles and Saxons 
 who settled in Britain. In the ''ordinary" jurisdiction of 
 the Roman magistrates an action was brought before the 
 pr;etor, the pleadings or allegations of fact were put in ac- 
 cording to prescribed forms, the issue was joined, and the 
 rule of law applicable to the case as thus presented was 
 announced by him. With this proceeding the function of 
 the court or magistrate ended. The cause was at that sta^c 
 referred to another person — sometimes called Xha judex and 
 sometimes the arbiter — who heard t!io evidence, passed 
 upon the issues of fact, and rendered a decision in con- 
 formity with the rule of law announced by the praetor. lie 
 was not an official magistrate. A limitccl number of citi- 
 zens seems to have been annually chosen in some manner 
 to perform this duty, and from the class thus constituted 
 one was selected for eaeh trial. In certain spcciiicd ac- 
 tions sever.al triers of the facts were employed instead of 
 tlie single judex, who were termed reeuperaforcf}, hut in 
 what respect their functions differed from those of the 
 judex is not known with any accuracy and certainty. 
 The analogy between tlio entire course of proceeding in the 
 "ordinary" actions of the Roman law and tho English 
 common-law forms of action and jury trial was vcvy strik- 
 ing: there was the same separation of the questions of fact 
 from those of law. and the dceisian of the one by an official 
 magistrate, and of t lie other by a lay tribunal having no offi- 
 cial forensic status, but appointed for the very controversy 
 submitted to it. This system of administering justice con- 
 tinued in existence for several centuries, but the*'ordinary " 
 jurisdiction of the magistrate gradually gave place to the 
 "extraordinary." in which, like tho English etiancellor, ho 
 decided all the issues of fact and of law in a single decree, 
 without the intervention of any other assistant. Finally. 
 by a constitution of the emperor Diocletian, the "ordinary" 
 jurisdiction was abolished, and the trial of all causes was 
 conducted in every stage tliereof before tho praitor or other 
 judicial officer constituting the court. 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that this important clement of the 
 jury trial— the separation of tho law from tho facta, and 
 the dual tribunal for their decision — was not borrowed 
 from the Snxon ancestors of the English nation. On the 
 contrary, tho German tribes which overran tho Western 
 empire and settled down in the conquered provinces, had 
 not attained to the conception of any such refinement in 
 the administration of justice. It was the very central prin- 
 ciple of their primitive civil polity that the decision of all 
 private controversies, as well as the onlering of everything 
 whi-h pertained to the public welfare, was committed to 
 the collective freemen gathered together in their local as- 
 semblies. This system of self-government was carried to 
 an advanced degree of development by tho Saxons in Eng- 
 land. The folk-courts or gemotes of Iho "shire3"wero 
 
 composed of the assembled freemen, presided over by the 
 ealdormou or by liis deputy, the t/ere/a. Here they deter- 
 mined, according to their rude customs which had the 
 force of law, the disputes between man and man concein 
 ing property and other private rights, and also the accusa- 
 tions which at the present day would bo regarded as crimi- 
 nal and punishalde by the state. The courts of the "hun- 
 dreds " were gatherings from the smaller districts into 
 which the shire was diviiled, but with :i similar organiza- 
 tion and the same functions. In this institution of the early 
 Saxons tho modern method of selecting the triers from 
 among the great body of citizens at large had its certain 
 origin. Although the whole course of progress from these 
 rude folk-courts to the completed jury cannot be traced 
 with absolute precision, yet the principal steps of the on- 
 ward movement, the most important transitions which 
 marked the passage from one epoch to another may be de- 
 scribed. 
 
 The first of these progressive steps was the employment 
 of vnmpiirffators or cotijtiratnm, who by their oaths estab- 
 lished the existence or not of tho fact in dispute, and thus 
 guiclcd the folk-court to its decision. A juclicial trial of 
 that primitive age had no element in common with a trial 
 of the present day. There were no written allegations of 
 the facts; no evidence was olTcrcd; no witnesses de)iosed 
 as to their knowledge of tho transaction. A charge was 
 orally made and orally denied. In the place of a trial and 
 of witnesses, each party was accompanied by a number of 
 relatives, friends, or neighbors, who, in the presence of the 
 assembled freemen, joined with him in making oath that 
 his statement — the charge or the denial — was true. These 
 were his compurrfators; and the early codes of (be Germanic 
 nations contain numerous provisions ]>rescribing the num- 
 ber of them requisite to establish or to rci)el any particular 
 accus;ition or deuiand, such number varying according to 
 the rank of the party and the gravity of the off'encc or the 
 value of the property in controversy. These compurgators 
 were in no sense witnesses, for they might be wholly ig- 
 norant of the real facts in dispute; nor were they a jury, 
 for no evidence was submitted to their consideration. They 
 were merely friends of tho party who summoned them ; they 
 knew his character, and by their united oaths they at once 
 attested that eliaractcr and their confidence in his truthful- 
 ness and in the justice of his cause. 
 
 The next step in the progress was a movement far in ad- 
 vance of the rude contrivance last described. Compurga- 
 tors were no longer used ; even the primitive folk-court had 
 become obsolete. Tho function of deciding a particular case 
 was entrusted to a limited number of freemen taken from 
 tho di.^trict, which number consisted of twelve or some mul- 
 tiple thereof. This delegated body, unlike the compurga- 
 tors, acted upon a knowledge of the facts involved in the 
 controversy, but sueh knowledge was not acquired by means 
 of any evidence laid before them. They were carefully 
 chosen from among the persons familiar wilh all the circum- 
 stances of tho case, with the parties, and with the property. 
 To this end they were invariably selected from the inhab- 
 itants of the "vicinage" — that is. the district of territory 
 immcdip.tely surrounding the lauds iu question or the resi- 
 dence of the litigants. On being appointed they examined 
 no witnesses, but rendered their venlict, rere div.tnm, on 
 oath based upon their personal knowledge previously ob- 
 tained cither from a sight of the occurrence or from tho 
 tradition of the vicinage. These reroffni/urs, as they arc 
 called, were tho undeveloped jury — a jury, as it were, of 
 witnesses. Tho unwieldy and turbulent assembly of free- 
 men is rcfilaeed by a small and compact tribunal; a de- 
 cision upon knowleclgo has been substituted for the mere 
 numerical preponderance of oatlis. All the subsequrnl mod- 
 ifications consisted of measures contrive<l to aid this body 
 of men taken from tho vicinage by the testimony of other 
 persons. In the reign of Henry III. the practice was in- 
 troduced of joining with these recognitors others who wore 
 actual witnesses of tho transaction, but still all united in 
 rendering tiio verdict. During the reign of Edward III. a 
 still more important and radical change was effected. Wit- 
 nesses were added to or connected with the recognitors, 
 who communicatetl to the latter their knowledge of tho 
 facts, but took no part in tlio decision. In this stage of 
 tho progress wo find for the first time the feature of testi- 
 mony communicaterl to the triers by parties who do not 
 join in rendering the verdict. Tho innovation once made, 
 the ])rogres8 was rapid of aiding tho recognitors by the tes- 
 timony of outside parties; but as yet great irregularity 
 prevailed in all parts of the proceeding. There were no 
 rules of evidence; tho witnesses instructed the jurors with- 
 out any oversight by the court: there was in fact no or- 
 derly, public forensic contest. These defects were reme- 
 died in the reign of Henry IV. The trial was from that 
 time conducted entirely in public and in the presence of a 
 presiding judge; all the witnesses were sworn, examined,
 
 JUS GKNTIUM—Jl'STK 
 
 14.^5 
 
 and testified under his direction, and pursuant to the re- 
 quirements of estaljlighcd rules. Thus was tinally devel- 
 opecl. as the result of a long and continuous progress, the 
 jury trial suljslantially as it exists at liie present day. The 
 ancient requirement, however, still reiuiiined operative, that 
 the jury should he summoned from the immediate vicinage. 
 As the original reiison for this rule had been abandoned, 
 the rule itself became an anomaly, and a. hindrance to a 
 fair and impartial trial. As soon as the sole reliance came 
 to bo placed upon the testimony of witnesses, the prior 
 knowledge of the triers themselves was an obstacle rather 
 than a h»_-lp to an orderly antl legal investigation of the 
 fact*. It was not. however, until the reigns of Anne and 
 of tJcorge II. that Parlinnient interposed, abolished the 
 old rule as to the vicinage, and provided that jurors should 
 be selected from the body of the county. By a decision of 
 the court of king's bench, made a short time subsequent to 
 these last-named statutes, it was held that if a jury ren- 
 dered a verdict upon their own private Unowledge. it was 
 ern>r — that they ought to have informed the court, so that 
 they might be sworn as witnesses. We have thus traced 
 the jury through all its phases and modifications, and we 
 find that since its introduction it has undergone a complete 
 change from the jtrimitive notion both in form anrl in prin- 
 ciple. The trier? were once carefully selected from among 
 those most familiar with the parties and the facts, and they 
 derided the controversy upon that jirior jiersonnl know- 
 ledge. Kqual e:ire is now taUen to ehoope only those per- 
 sons who are absolutely ignorant of the parlies and of the 
 facts, and who come to the hearing with their minds a 
 complete blank in respect to the matters in dispute which 
 are to bo settled by their verdict. 
 
 The jury trial is even more completely wrought into the 
 political organization of the U. S. than into that of Great 
 Dritain. It is expressly protected by every constitution, 
 state and national. The most common forms of the constitu- 
 tional provision are. *'In all criminal prosecutions the ac- 
 cused has a right to have a speedy public trial by an im- 
 partial jury," and *'The right of trial by jury shall remain 
 inviohite." The other forms of the guaranty, \vhi<'h may 
 be more minute and detailed than these, do not differ from 
 them in any substantial manner. The judicial interpreta- 
 tion put upon these clauses in all the States may be summed 
 up and expressed in one comprebensivo and fundamental 
 principle — namely, the provisions in question do not create, 
 nor enlarge, nor restrict the right of triiil by jury, but re- 
 tain it and prcBcrve it inviolate in all those classes of eases, 
 civil anrl criminal, in which it existed by the common law 
 or by any prior leijislation of the State itself. In no more 
 emnhalic manner could the people have shown their at- 
 taeliment to an institution which secures and maintains all 
 their other civil and political liberties and rights. The 
 jury trial, thus guarantied to the people of the V. S. until 
 they voluntarily disr-urd it, is therefore the common-law 
 trial by jury. .Ml the fe:iturcs and elements of the insti- 
 tution itself which had been me settled as a part of the com- 
 m in law. and all the fundamental rules by which its con- 
 stitution was preserved and its use was controlled, are also 
 iii';orporiited into the organic law of the States and placed 
 beyond the rcaeh of modifying legislation. These essential 
 and unchangeable elements of the common-law jury trial 
 are the following : ( 1 ) The jury itself must invariably con- 
 sist of twelve men. It is useless to ask a reason for this 
 requirement. The old Oermanic codes constantly show the 
 number 12 or its niulti[ileH or fractions; the recognitors 
 \Tere originally 12 or some multiple : and this numbi-r has 
 been ban 'led down to our day. (2) The jury must bo drawn 
 from the body of the county in which the trial is had — that 
 is, from among the resident freeholders and taxpayers of 
 the county. The historical and statutory oritrin of this 
 requiri'inent has been already stated. (11) The verdict 
 must bo unanimous. The historical origin of this rule 
 must be found in the early custom of compurgators in a 
 prescribed nutnber agreeing in their oaths, and of recog- 
 nifors to the number of twelve agreeing in their decision. 
 (4) The jury must be itnpartial. Thin most important 
 requisite involves the seb-ction of each jury in some ?unn- 
 ner by lot from the freeholders of the county. While the 
 principle of a chance selection is undoubtedly presrrved 
 inviolate by the constitutions, the particular mode in which 
 that principle shall be made operative, may be regulaterl 
 by statute according to the diseretion of the Ir-ginlature. 
 There is. in fact, a great diversity in the modes of drawing 
 anil sumtnoning the jurie<< among the several States, and 
 the common-law metliods liavo been quite generally de- 
 parted from. A lint of freeholders ami taxpayers is pre- 
 pared at stated intervals and preserved in the clerk's office 
 of each county. From this Hit certain designated offieinls 
 choose by lot the names of those who are to serve at each 
 court; the persons thus selected are summoned and must 
 attend unless excused, forming what is termed the " panel ;" 
 
 finally, from this panel the clerk draws by lot the requisite 
 twelve *' good men and true " for each case as it is brought 
 on for trial. The impartiality of the jury is also secured 
 by the right of challenge given to the litigant parties. Tho 
 various classes of challenge are as follows: (1) " To the 
 array," by which the party objects to the entire panel for 
 some error of the oflicer in drawing or summoning tlietn ; 
 (2) '• To thr. polh," by which the l>arty objects to nn indi- 
 vidual as he is drawn from the jianel. The challenges of 
 this class are of two kinds — namely, *'for principal caime,*' 
 and *' to thr j'nror:*' *\f'or priitripnl caune " when the ob- 
 jection if it exists would disqualify the person as a matter 
 of law; "to the faror" when the objection would simply 
 be a sufficient ground to reject the juror as a matter of fact. 
 The object of these challenges is to secure persons as ju- 
 rors who possess the legal qualifications, who are not in any 
 degree related to the parties, and who have not formed or 
 expressed an opinion uj)on the matters at if^sue. In addi- 
 tion to these challenges, in which reasons therefor must bo 
 assigned, there is in criminal trials another species termed 
 "peremptory," by which a juror may be objected to and 
 excluded without the assignment of any cnuse or ground 
 for the objection. The number of such challenges permit- 
 ted in each trial varies with the grade of the ofTenee, and 
 differs in the several States, These pereni])tory challenges 
 are in some instances allowed in civil cases by statute. 
 Trial by jury, as above described, is preserveil by the con- 
 stitutional provisions already referred to in all criminal 
 prosecutions which are cognizable by courts of general ses- 
 sions and of oyer and terminer, or by courts of whatever 
 name corresponding to these tribunnls. The only offences 
 that can be punished without the intervention of the eom- 
 inon-law jury are those minor ofVenees that arc cogni/ahle 
 by courts of special sessions an<l by police magistrates 
 possessing the jurisdiction of these last-named tribunals. 
 It is also preserved in all civil causes of a legal nature 
 which are cognizable by common-law courts of a higher 
 jurisdiction than that of justices of the peace. Some of 
 the States provide a mode of waiver of jury trial in civil 
 cases. It follows that all civil causes of an equitable natiir«>, 
 or which arc cognizable in courts of equity or of adniiralty 
 or of probate, and all causes of a legal nature which re- 
 quire an accounting for their decision or which may bo 
 brought before a justice of the peace, may be tried without 
 a jury. (See Grand .Iritv.) John' Norton Pomkiiuv. 
 
 Jus ^en'tium. This is not to be confounded with tho 
 more UKKloni ]ihrase.yi/« inter (fcntcs, or "the law of na- 
 tions," "international law." By tho first phrase Gnius 
 understood those rules and usages of justice which nil na- 
 tions use alike, as opposed to jun civile, the law of Rome 
 itself, so far as it was peculiar. Thdjim f/futiinu contained 
 many rules of an international coile. siu-h as the sanetify 
 of ambap?adors, but covered quite a different grounrl from 
 that of the international science. T. D. Wooi,si:v. 
 
 Jussicu% de, the name of a celebrated family of French 
 botanists and ])bysicians, tho most noteworthy of whom 
 were the following: (1) Antoisi: ni: Ji ssiki-. M. D., b. at 
 Lyons July 8, ICSG, d. in Paris Ai>r. 22, 1768.— (2) IJi:n- 
 NARD, b. Aug. 17, 1G99, d. Nov. C, 1777.— (:i) Josi:i>n, b. 
 1701, d. Apr. II, 1779, — (4) Antoini: Latrknt, one of the 
 fathers of botanical science, b. at Lyons Apr. 12, 1718; 
 studied medicine in Paris, where he was an academician 
 and botanical professor. Following his uncle Bernard, 
 who haci made the sketch, he was the first to introduce the 
 natural system into botany, disp(»sing all known genera in 
 defined natural orders. His mai/uuin opiin is the (i<iier<i 
 Plantantni (1789), and he was the author of many botan- 
 ical papers of great value. I>. Sept. 17, iS.'lfi. — (5) His 
 son AnuiTN. b. Dec. 2.''., 1797, succeeded his father in 
 1.S20 as professor at the museum; became professor of 
 organography in 1815, and was for nuiny years a bril- 
 liant lecturer, an able (scientific writer, and one of the first 
 botanisis of his time. li.June 29. !8j.t. 
 
 Jiissiru (liAinKNT PiKruti:). nephew of Antoinc Lau- 
 rent, h. in the department of Isi^ro Feb. 7, 1792; was a 
 member of the t'hamber of Deputies 18;i9-42, an<l wrote 
 many educational and popular works designed for the ilif- 
 fusion of useful knowledge among the masses. One of 
 these, Sntion ifr \ti)itua, on /«* unwrhaud f'ornin (18IS^, 
 passed through more than thirty editions and was (ranslateil 
 into eight or ten languaires. Ho received the Montyon 
 prire for the similar work, (Eiirrm poMttimeH itr Simon i/i A'on- 
 tun ( lK29t. an<l for many years edited educational journals. 
 
 JllNtO (TiiKonoRK). b. at Brussels, Belgium, in I81S; is 
 secretary of (be Belgian hoard of education, and a very pro- 
 lific writer on Bt-lt;ian and French hiflt<»ry. The most promi- 
 nent of his works are — llintoirr iti'inrntnirr r/r ht Iirt,fi,pte 
 (18:{S). liiKtoirr th in rrrnlution Heh/e dr t700 (18I(i>. Le 
 noit/i^ventent <lr fn /foUnufle cu 2SJ.S, c( la fondation dn roy- 
 aumc dc» Payt'lian (1871).
 
 14,SG 
 
 JUSTICE— JUSTrCE OF THE PEACE. 
 
 Jus'tice* Jupticc is an attribute of a man in his inter- 
 course with hit" fellow- men. of the law in relation to those 
 who are under it. of the state toward its subjects or citizens 
 as far as their political position and rights arc coneerm-d, i 
 and of the judf^e in his office of deciding between the I 
 claims of two private parties or of a person and the state. | 
 We also speak of primitive justice, and of just and unjust 
 punishment, in which case the slate may be just or unjust 
 in its penal laws, and the judge, in the application of law 
 or evidence which he makes to a particular case. Justice 
 also, as a moral quality, denotes a certain fairness of mind 
 in estimating truth or in weighing the claims of persons 
 to a certain sart of treatment in social intercourse. Final- 
 ly. Ood is conceived of, and is represented in the Scrip- 
 tures, as being just, as when he is said to have no respect 
 ti) persons, to have a day of righteous justice in which he 
 will rentier to every man according to his deeds, and as 
 being faithful and just to forgive sins, because be has con- 
 ferred a right to forgiveness by a solemn promise. 
 
 Justice ( JHtttita in hatin) comes from jmtuti, "just," 
 which is connected with the very important words pihco, 
 "hid," "order," " ordain :" jV/t, " right," "the system of 
 right or law;" and/»f/e.r — i. e. jnridex. "judge;" and also 
 with jttrn, " sweiir :" JuHjtirnudnm, "oath :" and jurffo {jure 
 ar/f>)', "altercate," " quarrel." " scold." Perhaps the origi- 
 nal sense of /n* is '* law." that which the community has 
 ordered, but the Romans early introduced a moral element 
 into the word. There was justice according to law. and 
 natural justice. Thus, the Roman lawyers speak of slavery 
 as being contrary to jus naturale, although allowed by ;"h* 
 civ>/r. The words jnut and ri'jhteous coincide in part, but 
 ritjfitrottfttirss has the general moral sense of conformity to 
 the law of right in the moral dispositions of the soul, as 
 well as in outward actions. Justice inclines more towards 
 legality, and towards that which is external. 
 
 (Jrcek philoso])hy. after Socrates began to teach, occu- 
 pied itself much with discussions touching justice. One of 
 Plato's leading definitions of it is that a person should " do 
 his own things" — i. r. mind his own business, keep within 
 bis own sjihere of action, and not invade the sphere of an- 
 other. In this definition the question what a man's "own 
 things " arc — an expression nearly identical with the apostle 
 Paul's " do his own business" (1 Thess. iv. 11) — must be 
 determined by an enlightened conscience or by an outward 
 rule: and Plato would determine each man's sphere by 
 state authority. Aristotle makes a distinction between 
 political and natural justice. The .Stoics carried out the 
 thoughts on ethics of the older philosophers in one direction 
 beyond tlieir predecessors : in their hands the ethical sys- 
 tem of classical antiquity bore its best fruits, and their 
 thinking has affected the forms of thought or morals ever 
 since. They conceived of virtue as consisting in a life ac- 
 cording to nature — meaning by nature both the law of 
 general or divine and of human nature; and of justice, 
 after a definition of the Platonic school, as that which as- 
 signs to each his due or worth. Cicero folK)ws them in call- 
 ing justice an affection of mind, snum cuiqitr trihuam {He 
 Fin., v. ^ 2^, 0.'>): i. e. which assigns to each person his 
 own. The doctrine of a law of nature, or a jn» uatnrale, 
 having principles which may oppose the laws of the state, 
 was borrowcil by the Roman lawyers from the Stoics, and 
 produced in their hancls important results: in theory, for 
 instance, as we have already said, slavery became contrary 
 to natural right, although the institution in the empire 
 could not be shaken. 
 
 The modern <l()ctrine of personal or subjective rights (for 
 which sec the article RiniiT and RuiiiTsl helps us to a clearer 
 notion of what justice is. If each person is a centre of 
 power according to natural law ancl the divine will, for the 
 purpose of developing his manhood, he and his acts impose 
 on others the obligations not to interfere with these power? ; 
 and it is one of (he offices of the state to decide what the^e 
 powers or rights are. A just man is one who fully respects 
 the rights of others or fulfils his obligations towards them ; 
 a just state, just law. and judges are such because they ren- 
 der to each one his rights : and in the case of the judge not 
 only the rendering to each one of his rights, but such a 
 state of mind as involves conformity to the truth of law 
 ami of evidence enters into the quality of justice. 
 
 As laws are expressed in general terms, it may be that 
 the *' letter killeth " in a particular case. Here, according 
 to the rule, niimmum jus est ftiim7un iujtiria, equity modifies 
 the decision of the judge in accordance with the circum- 
 stances. This is really a justice which law in its abstract 
 form cannot rcRch. Kquity is equality, and deciding dif- 
 ferent cases by the same rule would be inequality, which is 
 injustice. 
 
 A word is needed in relation to penal justice or punish- 
 ment. This consists, and can consist, only in taking away 
 from a man one or more of his personal rights, as life, 
 freedom of motion, property, personal honor, or of his rights 
 
 granted to him by the political constitution. Is it not 
 strange that whereas justice has been found to be the ap- 
 jiortionraent to each one of his rights, here justice is made 
 to consist in taking away from a person his life or some 
 other right? Vet there is a reason why the two forms of 
 justice, altliough thus differing, should be called by the 
 same name. Penal justice is such not only because it is 
 according to Ia,w, but also because it gives to the trans- 
 gressor his due according to the law of righteousness. Law 
 would be unequal if it did not recognize the radical differ- 
 ence between the just man and the unjust. It expresscB 
 the feeling inherent in the human soul that the wrongdoer 
 ought to suffer, and punishes him in the only way open to 
 the law — that is. by depriving him of his prior rights or 
 place in the state. T, D. Woolsev. 
 
 Justice of the Peace» a subordinate magistrate ap- 
 pointed or chosen to exercise certain judicial and admin- 
 istrative functions of a subordinate character within the 
 limits of a county, borough, or town. The office of justice 
 of the peace was estaldished at a very early period in tho 
 history of the English law. The public officials, however, 
 who anciently possessed similar powers were not desig- 
 nated by this particular title, but were styled connrrvainrtn 
 part's ("conservators or preservers of the ]ieaee"). The 
 mode in which they derived their authority was also differ- 
 ent from that established in later times. Some claimed 
 their power by prescription ; some were bound to exercise 
 it by reason of the tenure of their lands; while the larger 
 number were elected by the freeholders of the county. Rut 
 at the commencement of the reign of Edward III. (i;!27) 
 the system of election was discontinued, and it was or- 
 dained by Parliament that such magistrates should be ap- 
 pointed by the king or under the king's commission. Rut 
 still they were called conservators, wardens, or keepers of 
 the peace until l.'lfil, when, by statute, as Blackstone states, 
 "they acquired the more honorable appellation of jus- 
 tices." They are now appointed by the lord chancellor by 
 virtue of the king's special commission nnder the great 
 seal. The form of the commission addressed to the jus- 
 tices was determined in loOO. This is in the name of the 
 king, and directs the person therein appointed to "keep 
 
 our peace in our county of , and to keep all ordinances 
 
 and statutes for the good of the peace, and for the good 
 rule and government of the people, and to chastise and 
 punish all persons that offend against the said ordinances." 
 It also requires them to inquire of and determine felonies 
 and other misdemeanors. It was the former practice to 
 specify in the commission the names of a few justices who 
 were men of greater competency or distinction than their 
 associates, and to declnre that without the presence of at 
 least one of these no judicial business should be transacted. 
 These were said to be of the <funrnm, a term derived from 
 the first word of the clause by which this special privilege 
 was conferred. A Latin term was adopted because legal 
 documents were thtn expressed In that language. Rut now 
 all or nearly all of the justices are included in the quorum 
 clause, and it is no longer necessary, as it was formerly, to 
 specify in a warrant that the justice who issued it is of the 
 quorum. There are certain property qualifications required 
 at the present day in oriler that a person may be appointed 
 a justice. Thus, he must have in jiossession, for his own 
 use and benefit, an estate in lands of the clear yearly value 
 of £100 above all incumbrances, or he must be entitled to 
 the reversion or remainder of an estate of the yearly rental 
 value of £:!f)0. The person appointed is obliged to take 
 an oath that he is properly qualified by an ownership of 
 the requisite estate, and if he is not so qualified he forfeits 
 £100 by acting as a justice. Ai' a general rule, the jus- 
 tices serve gratuitously, but in the cities and larger towns 
 there are certain justices appointed, called stipendiary 
 magistrates, who receive a fixed salary. 
 
 In the U. S. the institution of justices of the peace has 
 been adopted from England. They are county or town 
 officers, and are in some States elected by the people, in 
 others appointed by the executive. Their terms of office 
 arc usually of short duration, rarely continuing longer than 
 three or four years, and as a rule tlieir mode of compensa- 
 tion is defined by law. The rules of law governing their 
 ajipointmcnt. tenure of office, powers, and responsibilities 
 are generally defined by statute with great fulness, and tho 
 extent of their authority made to depend entirely upon 
 statutory provisions. The functions of justices of the 
 peace are very multifarious, and in minor details differ 
 considerably in different States. It will therefore only he 
 rneticable to state the general powers which they possess 
 )oth in England and in this country, so far as these are 
 substantially similar. These powers are either administra- 
 tive or judicial. Important administrative functions are 
 those which justices exercise as keepers of the peace. Tlius, 
 they may arrest without a warrant any person committing 
 a felony or a breach of tho peace in their presence, and 
 
 !:,
 
 JUSTICES, LORDS— JUSTIFICATION. 
 
 14.S7 
 
 commit him to prison. They may issue warrants for the 
 nrnst of ttltcj^Ml criminal offenders against whom a charge 
 hax ln'cn made supported l>y an affidavit, or search-warrants 
 authorixiug a search to he made upon a person's premises 
 for goods which ho is accused hy complaint under oath of 
 having stolen or cmbez7,Icd, when there appears reasonable 
 ground for snspiciftn that they are there concealed. A 
 justice may also bin'l over to keep the peace any person 
 who engages in an affray in his presence or makes threat- 
 ening demonstrations of violence against others, or who is 
 brought before him by any other peace-officer, as a con- 
 stnble or a sheriff, after being arrested for a breach of 
 the peace, or who is charged with having threatened to 
 commit a criminal offenre against the person or property 
 of another by a complainant who maintains his charge by 
 a sworn nffidavit. and who upon examination under oath 
 patisfics the justice that there is reasonable ground to ap- 
 prehend the commission of the offence by the person com- 
 plained of. In determining whether such rea^^onable ground 
 exists the justice acts judicially, and in like manner many 
 of his administrative functions are incidental to the exer- 
 cise of judicial prerogatives : as, for example, the issuing 
 of subpa'nas for witnesses, bin<ling over witnesses to tes- 
 tify, examining persons accused of crime and committing 
 or discharging them, taking recognizances, committing 
 pers<ms for contempt of court, admitting to bail, etc. As 
 a general rule, also, justices have power to take affidavits 
 and acknowledgments of deeds. In some States they have, 
 besides, a right to celebrate marriages. In the exercise of 
 judicial functions justices of the peace have either a civil 
 or a criminal jurisdiction. In criminal cases thcj- have 
 power to try offenders charged with offences of a minor 
 grade, without the aid of a jury, by what is known as a 
 summary proceeding. 8uch offences are drunkenness, idle- 
 ness, vagrancy, profane swearing, mendicancy, keeping dis- 
 orderly houses, gaming, and other ,<imilar practices. Such 
 proceedings must, however, be conducted according to the 
 course of the common law in trials by jury. The defendant 
 must be <luly summoned, and must have an opportunity 
 to make his defence. This fnrm of proceeding was intro- 
 duced into the lOnglish law by various acts of Parliament, j 
 and was generally adopted in this country as a part of the 
 common law. At the present day, however, the nature and 
 extent of the power to try and convict by summary process 
 arc usually <lelined by statute. It has been decided that such 
 Icgisl.'vtion is not in contravention of the common provision 
 in State constitutions that no person shall be deprived of 
 life, liberty, or properly except by the judgment of his 
 peers or of the law of the land, although this is interpreted 
 as requiring trial by jury in most cai^es of criminal prose- 
 cution. The power of summary conviction existed ]>re- 
 viously to tho ailoption of such constitutions, which must 
 be construed with reference to the previous state of the law. 
 No Icjislfttion can, however, be adopted providing for trial 
 without a jury except in regard to offences of the same 
 grade or class as those lo which tins mode of proceeding 
 was fiirmorly applicable. Justices also have power to make 
 a preliminary examination of nil persons arrested upon a 
 criminal charge, and if there is reasonable ground to !>e- 
 lieve that the offence alleged has been perpetrated, and tliat 
 tho person accused is guilty, he may be committed to prison, 
 or, in a proper case, adraittetl to bail. If the offence charged 
 be of a minor graile, it may also be tried beff»re justices in 
 a special criminal court wiih a jury, but if it be a grave 
 au'i serious crime, the prisoner will bo committed for trial 
 before a higher court. All States do not agree in their 
 legislation as to the various offences whieh may be tried 
 before justices, it being providerl in some that all mis- 
 demeanors may bo thus tried, while in others this is only 
 true of specified classes of misdemeanors. Tho trial of 
 feh)niea is almost invariably veiled in the higher criminal 
 courts, as, e. ff., courts of oyer and terminer where such 
 tribunals exist. (See ('iiihk.\ In Knglanil there are four 
 courts composed of justices of the peace — the petty, special, 
 quarter, and general sessions. The general sessions is a 
 court of record, and may be divided into tw) branches for 
 the despatch of business. Ity statute it must be held four 
 times a year if occasion shall require. When held at tho 
 regular period, it is calleii the quarter sessions; otherwise, 
 the general sessions. The petty sessions and special ses- 
 sions are courts of inferior importance. In this country 
 siuiilnr tribunals sometimes receive corresponrling names, 
 as the courts of special sessions in New York State. In 
 some States, however, they aro termed simply justices' 
 courts. 
 
 In many of the States of this country justices' courts 
 have received by special legislation jurisdiction in civil 
 cases. The causes declared cognizable in such courts are 
 those which involve claims to properly of but little value or 
 demands for small amounts of damages. Thus, in New 
 York tho larger number of cases which are declared tri- 
 
 able in justices' courts are those in which the sum claimed 
 does not exceed $200. Such courts generally have no power 
 to try causes involving the title to land. The extent of 
 their jurisdiction must be ascertained by special reference 
 to statutes. 
 
 A justice of the peace is not liable to a civil action for any 
 injury to another committed in the exercise of his judicial 
 functions if be had jurisdiction of the proceeding or cause 
 of action in connection with which the injury occurs, and 
 acted honestly and in good faith. As he. however, is a 
 magistrate of special jurisdiction, his privilege in this re- 
 spect is not so extensive as that of judges of superior courts 
 of record. (See .hr>iriARY.) If a justice has no jurisdic- 
 tion of a particular case, and has the means of ascertaining 
 his want of jurisdiction, he will be responsible to any per- 
 son who suffers damage from his unwarrantable exercise of 
 judicial power. But where the pleadings and allegations 
 of the parties apparently give jurisdicticm, the justice will 
 be protected in an honest and faithful exercise of the power 
 to which he believes himself entitled, even though he be 
 chargeable with mistake or error, lint even if he has juris- 
 diction, ho will be liable to an action if heads maliciously, 
 corruptly, or wit!) wilful intent to commit wrong. In ease 
 of corruption also a justice may be sul>iected to a criminal 
 prosecution, either by indictment or information. (See In- 
 DirTMF.NT, IsroitMATiON'.) For any neglect of duty or 
 malfeasance in the performance of ministerial duties he is 
 not protected by his juilicial privilege, and is liable in 
 damages for any injury which others may sustain by reason 
 of such neglect." In some States it is provided that justices 
 may be removed from ofhee in a specilieil manner for a vio- 
 lation or disregard of their official duty, on good cause 
 shown. In New York they may be removed by the supreme 
 court, after due notice and an opportunity of being heard, 
 for causes to be assigned in the,order of removal. 
 
 Gkorgf. Cuase. KnvisKn by T. W. Dwight. 
 Justices, Lords. See Coi'rts. I. (2). 
 Justifiable Homicide. Sec IIoMicinE. 
 Justifica'tion. I. Tiieti^um it theolofjical — used more 
 prominently at the Reformation period and since. From 
 LOnO to l.'>41 the Uomish Church, through its leaders, was 
 willing to admit justiliention to bo b}i Chrint, while the 
 Reformers claimed it to be h/ Chrint afmtr. the little word 
 " only" becoming thu« the pivot of Protestantism. Lu- 
 ther's well-known " Articulus stantis vel cadentis ccclesia>" 
 — ^justification tfif; arti'rff of a n(rt»fliu<j or n fnUiuij Church 
 — expresses his conviction of the great importance of the 
 doctrine. The Westminster Assembly, in their elaborate 
 Confessions, followed the Reformers. The more condensed 
 statement, in the Lanjvr Catrch'iHin, is as follows: "Justi- 
 fication is an act of God's free grace unto sinners, in which 
 ho pardoncth all their sins, accepteth and accounteth 
 their persons righteous in his sight; not f")r anything 
 wrought in them or done by them, but only for the jierfcct 
 obedience and satisfaction of Christ, by (Ind imputed to 
 them and received by faith." (Ans. lo Q. 70.) 
 
 II. Tin; DOPTRINK INVOLVES — 1. Thfi fftrt that JuMtiJirn- 
 
 ti'nit ia mnrr than pnrdun. The latter is, indeed, to the for- 
 mer a condition n{ur qua hoii. Rut justification has special 
 reference to iha pr(Mrr\)>tSrr part of the law. as pard(ui has 
 to its penalty. It is tho official announcement that tho 
 subject stands acquitted and accepted before the lawgiver 
 or iudge: its rraiH/r/icnf sense would be, (i'kVk drrfnratinn 
 of the tiinirr'n ri'fht-iitiiin/iti;f in rmprrt tit hitr /or the ftake 
 of fin effin'rttfr}it Hiihititntr /or pcrtititutf rij/litmuituciiH. *' Who 
 
 was delivered for our offences, and raised again for our jus- 
 tification " (Rom. iv. 25). 
 
 2. Thr Stfiml'ird in (jfiH^M ftnmutnhU f.nir, trht'rh Man 
 ramtnt, fnit vhirh Vhri>*t dorn, unit's/if.— "Sn inherent good- 
 ness, n'lne that human nature, weakened by sin, can pre- 
 sent, will satisfy the law, which is not weak in resjiect to 
 the sinner, although he may be in respect lo it. That it 
 remits none of its original claims the fact of a conscious 
 condemnation bears witness. Hence, inasmuch ns man's 
 obedience is imperfect, (Jod must either pronounce that 
 perfect which is not, or else a righteousness which is per- 
 fect, and can ho declared to bo so, must be substituted for 
 it. "There is the very same need of Christ's obeying tho 
 laiT in our stead in onh'r to the reward, and of his suffer- 
 ing the penalty of the law in our stead : and the same rea- 
 son why ono should bo accepted on our account as tho 
 other." ( /''/irnrdn.) 
 
 ']. JnHli/irnlinn iit not an fn/iiirfl Riifhtmunnrnn, iior the 
 namr n# S'lnrlijimtion. — Sanctifieatlon is the development 
 of the new life begun in regeneration, and is progressive. 
 Hciiig, like its germ, a transformation nf ebaraclcr. and 
 wrought within, it is, in Ibis sense, infused. Rut justifica- 
 tion, though indeed instantaneous — in which it is /if:r re- 
 generation, and uitlihr sanctifieation — in being " forensic" 
 — i". r. for the itiiiiitr bc/orc ihr I'ur — is unlike either, indi-
 
 1488 
 
 JUSTIN I.~JUTE. 
 
 catinj; a state of privilege to wbich the believing sinner is 
 brouj;ht by virtue of what Christ, by his obedience, has 
 done for him. Theologinns speak of the imputation of 
 Christ's righteousness. Thus, Pres. Edwards: ''And by 
 that riirhleimsness being imputed to ns is meant no other 
 than this, that the righteousness of Christ is accepted for 
 us. and admitted instead of that perfect inherent righteous- 
 ness which we ought to have in ourselves." "Even as 
 David ulsodoscribeth the blessedness of the man unto wlioin 
 God imputcth righteousness without works" (Rom. iv. fi). 
 4. CniiiH irith Christ reuders such a Method of JuHtifiration 
 PoH><ifile, aiitl Faith in Him vin/res it Artiinl. — On the part 
 of him who undertakes it a substitution must he voluntary 
 nn<l gratuitous : it must also be according to the will of the 
 lawgiver and judge, so that it can still be said, *' It is God 
 that justifieth." Furtherraore, there must needs be a 
 moral union in which the transaction can be effected. This 
 is provided for in the lurantntion of the iSon of (lod, wliere- 
 bv he becomes "like unto his brethren." "Of him arc ye 
 ill ChriMt JettiiR, who of God is made unto ns wisdom and 
 righteousness and sanctifieation and redemption " {I Cor. 
 i. 30). But if Christ's obedience is the pmcuritiff and ?»eri*- 
 toriiius cause of justification, faith is its tufitruuifntaf cause, 
 or the condition of receiving it. "Therefore, being justi- 
 fied by faith, we have peace with God through our Lord 
 Jesus' Christ" (Rom. v. 1). "But to him that worketh 
 not, but believoth on Him who justifieth the ungodly, his 
 faith is counted for righteousness " (Rom. iv. 5). 
 
 III. AniHTIONAL R.^MARKS AND EXPLANATIONS. (1) 
 
 Two points in justification were emphasized by the Re- 
 formers : (ft) Chrint «/o/ie, excluding human merit. " AVe 
 are brought into peril and exposed to danger." says Mc- 
 lanehthon, "/or this one onhf rcasojf. that wc believe the 
 favor of (rod to be procured for us, not by our observances, 
 but for the sake of Christ .alone. If the exclusive term 
 oufi/ is disliked, let them erase the apostle's corresponding 
 termsyVce^/ and without works." (A) Faith onli/, to the ex- 
 clusion of meritorious works. Thus Lulher (at the Diet 
 of Augsburg) : " Nor can I embrace Christ otherwise than 
 by faith only. Faith nftmc, before works and without 
 works, appropriates the benefits of redemption, which is ! 
 no other than justification, or deliverance from sin. This ' 
 is our doctrine; so the Holy Ghost teaches and the whole , 
 Christian Church. In this, by the grace of God, will we i 
 standfast. Amen." (2) *• The Fathers " are often quoted 
 as holding the same doctrine. For example, Justin Mar- 
 tvr. who says : " In whom could we transgressors and un- 
 godly be justified, but only in the Son of God? sweet 
 exchange! unspeakable contrivance I that the transgres- 
 sions of many should be hidden in one righteous person, 
 and the righteousness of one should justify many trans- 
 gressors!" (;i) When justification is confounded with par- 
 don, or with sanctifieation, or when a native or infused 
 gootlness is made the grouml of justification, or, again, 
 when its f'orrunic sense is eliminated from the word, and it 
 is interpreted to mean hdiu/ made righteous, instead of 
 brinff pronounced so. the doctrine then held or tauglit is 
 other than the justification of the Reformation and the 
 Reformed churches. (4) .Justification, though of Latin 
 origin, is not classic. The Greek (Xew Testament) terms 
 are 6(Kaio< (adj.), used ordinarily of personal character, but 
 foun«l in the expression, "the just shall live by his faith;" 
 imatwMtt and 6(«atw(n5 (of which justification is meant to be 
 an equivalent). " 'f juHtififinq net:" 6iKaiO{rvi-T), "righteous- 
 ness" (but according to Robinson's Xew Testament (ireck 
 Lexicon), "the righteousness which God reckons or im- 
 putes to believers because of their faith in Christ" (Rom. 
 iii. 22: Phil. iii. 9\; and the verb autotow. to "hold as 
 righteous," to "declare righteous." to "justify:" "God is 
 said to justify a person, to regard or treat him as righteous, 
 by reckoning or imputing to faim faith as righteousness." 
 
 J. R. HERRirK. 
 
 Jus'tin I, (JtSTiNHs), an emperor at Constantinople, 
 by birth a (»othic shepherd of Tauresium in Mnesia, b. 150 
 A. n. : went to Constantinople to seek his fortune: enlisted 
 in the imperial guard : acquired fame for valor, and at last 
 became commander of the guard : by craft and skilful man- 
 agement induced the army to salute him emperor after the 
 death of Anastasins (518 a. n.). The emperor couhl not 
 read or write, but under the advice of the quaestor Proclus 
 his reign was on the whole a just one, and advantageous 
 to the empire. B. Aug. 1, 527, and was succeeded by his 
 ne[diew, .Tustinian. 
 
 Justin II. (Fr.Avrrs Anicits Jtstincs), emperor of the 
 E;ist, succeeded .Tuslininn I., his uncle, in 565. His reign 
 was characterized by the defection and death of Narses and 
 the occupation of nearly all of Italy by the barbarians. In 
 the North the Avars gained great advantages, and in the 
 East a bloody war went on with the Persians. The em- 
 peror d. Oct. 5, 57S, and was succeeded by the excellent 
 Tiberius II. 
 
 Jiifltin (JiSTiNtrs), the author of a compendium of Ro- 
 man history, extracted from a vast work by Trogus Pom- 
 peius, who lived in the time of Augustus. (Sec Trocus.) 
 It seems rather to be a collection of extracts than an 
 abridgment, and in it much important information has 
 been preserved from oblivion. F^spccially in regard to the 
 early wars with the Parthiaus it is almost the only source 
 of information. Nothing is certainly known of Justin, who 
 is sometimes called Juslinus Frontinus, at others Junianus 
 Justinus, but he probably lived in the fourth century a. d. 
 The first edition of his work, ./»/'*//»(/ Hittoriarum Phifippi- 
 carnm Liftri XL IV., was printecl at Venice in 1471' by 
 Jenson ; best Venetian edition 1.^22 (Aldus) ; most complete 
 by Frotscher (3 vols., Leipsic. 1S27J. An English version by 
 Arthur Goldinge was printed in 15G4,and five other trans- 
 lations have since appeared. 
 
 Jastin'ianthe GreatfFr.AviisANirirsJiSTiNi.wrs), 
 Roman emperor at Constantinople, b. of (iothic peasant an- 
 cestry at Tnuresium in M<Tesia. probably in 4fi3 A. D. ; went 
 in youth to (Constantinople, where his uncle, afterwards the 
 emperor Justin I., was in high favor; was educated by the 
 latter, to whom Justinian was a faithful and useful servant 
 after the uncle's elevation to the purple. In 520 he was 
 appointed commander of the Asiatic armies, and in 521 
 consul, and soon after married Theodora, an actress and 
 courtesan, to whom he was always tenderly attached. Jus- 
 tinian's celebrated reign seems to have derived little of its 
 splenclor from the ruler himself, whose great talent lay in 
 the selection of able lieutenants. His generals. Bclisarius, 
 Narses, and Germanus, carried the terrors of the Roman 
 arms into Africa, where the Vandal kingdom was over- 
 thrown ; into Italy, where, after long years of warfare, the 
 Goths and Lombards were conquered: into Persia, where, 
 after a twenty years' struggle, Persia obtained a nominal 
 triumph, but Constantinople gained the real victory. Huns, 
 Avars, Arabs, Gepido?, were repelled, often by setting tribe 
 against tribe, oftener by the direct expenditure of gold. 
 Constantinople and the whole empire was adorned with 
 splendid buildings, of which the prx^sent mosque of Santa 
 Sophia is the most famous. Silk-eulture was introduced, 
 and manufactures, agriculture, commerce, notwithstanding 
 the fearful burdens of incessant wars, appeared to prosper. 
 The greatest monument to Justinian's farao is the Corpus 
 Juris Ciritiff. the work of Tribonian and his assistants, but 
 one which Justinian planned, anil in which he took a pro- 
 found interest. Justinian is accused of vanity and avarice, 
 and his treatment of Bclisarius shows that he was capable 
 of meanness and ingratitude; but his private life was in 
 the main correct. In his later years he was a Nestorian. 
 He persecuted heathenism and certain heretical sects, and 
 d. Nov. 14, 5G5, leaving no legitimate ofi'spring. 
 
 Justinian II. ♦ surnamed Riiinotmftis, b. 669, suc- 
 ceeded Cimstantine IV., his father, in CSa. and was one of 
 the worst of the Eastern emperors. Notwithstanding some 
 splendid successes in Syria. Sicily, and among the Slavi, 
 he abandoned the fruits of his victories; in 695 was seized, 
 his nose cut off, and he was banished to the Crimea, whence 
 in 705 he returned and took fearful vengeance upon all ad- 
 versaries. His reign is a record of shameful excesses. Dur- 
 ing the insurrection of Philippicus Bardaues the emperor 
 was killed, Pec, 711 a. d. 
 
 Justin Martyr (Flavics Justinus), b. at Flavia 
 Neapolis, the ancient Shechcm, tho modern NublouH, in 
 Samaria, about 105 a. n. : studied philosophy in the schools 
 of Asia Minor, Greece, and Egypt. None, however, of the 
 ditl'oreut systems satisfied him, and about Li2 he turned 
 away altogether from pagan philosophy and embraced 
 Christianity, of which he became an able and zealous de- 
 fender. Of his personal life nothing is known with cer- 
 tainty, but it .seems probable that he resided at Rome dur- 
 ing the latter part of his life, and suffered martyrdom here 
 about 165. Of his writings, the Liber eontrn omiitft hrrrenea 
 is lost : the genuineness of the Omtioad Uracosnnd Epistuln 
 ad Diofjnetum is contested; but \i\s Apohufia prima and 
 nrcunda and his Dialoi/us cum Trtfphone Judiio are among 
 the most important productions which the Christian litera- 
 ture from the second century contains. Tho best edition 
 of all the works which pass under his name is that by Otto 
 (:i vols., .lenn. 1S42-46). Translations into English of the 
 Ap'doifia by William Reeves (1700), and of the Dinlofjua 
 by Henry Brown (1755). 
 
 Jute is the fibre of Corchorus capsufaris and oh'torius 
 (order Tiliacero), Indian annuals from five to ten feel high, 
 with stalks as thick as a finger. The name is taken from 
 the Orissa jhot, which is derived from the Sanskrit y/m/, 
 to " be entangled." It appears to flourish best in a hot, 
 ' damp atmosphere, with a heavy rainfall and rich alluvial 
 I soil. The acreage under cultivation in 1872 (an excep- 
 tionally productive yean was 921,000. The plant is util- 
 , izcd in a variety of ways. The top? serve as potherbs.
 
 JUTERBOGK— J UVENILE OFFENDERS. 
 
 1489 
 
 the leaves ns manure, the stalk? for fences, the seed for 
 oil-cake, the root for paper, and the inner hark for tibro. 
 Althoinj^h India is the ^reat source of jute supply, the 
 plants yielding it have long been cultivated in China and 
 the Kftst, Attempts have been made to acclimatize them 
 on the lower bank;* of the Mississippi, in Enp^land. and in 
 Algiers. The results are said to be satisfactory. The har- 
 vest is in July and August. The stalks, cut with a bill- 
 hook, have the fibre (which constitutes the inner bark) 
 separated by maceration. The cultivation is carried on 
 chiefly by the ryots of Ilen^al. and often by means of co- 
 operative (Tuilds. The commission which has recently re- 
 portctl to the fndian government on the culture, etc. of 
 the jute plant complains of the extreme carelessness of 
 the cultivators in the stdection of the seed. 
 
 Until Is:tO it was praiHioally unknown to Europe, and 
 was only used in the native manufactures as the material 
 for the gunny-ba^s in which Indian produce was exported. 
 At first only used for cordnffo and coarse bagffinfr, succes- 
 sive improvements in its treatment have made it also avail- 
 able for other and more profitable purposes. As corda^^e 
 it is too easily affected by moisture to be considered a suc- 
 cess. An immense quantity is used in makinj^ coarse baj»- 
 gin». Not only Indian products, but those of nearly every 
 other nation, are transported in {junny-ba^s of this material. 
 Carpets are now made from it, and it is mixed with cotton 
 and silk for dress-stuffs. As it will serve for every kind 
 of coarse textile fabric, it is manufactured in a variety of 
 forms. It is used as a substitute for hair, and can be made 
 into admirable chi<;nons. Bri;rhl-colored stair-carpets can 
 be gold at threepence per yard, whilst *' carpet bed-covers" 
 are produced at onc-thinl the cost of wool. Jute is the 
 most important export from Calcutta after cotton, opium, 
 and rice. In 1S2S the quantity exported was only ."iOl cwts., 
 valued at £02. Cheap Uussi:in flax for a time kept down 
 the Kn;;liflh demand. i>ut the Crimean war led to increased 
 requirements, and the Henffaleo cultivators seized the 
 favorable moment. From IS.'iS to isn.*} the average expor- 
 tation was itfi7.72t cwts. In 1872-7.'^ the quantity exported 
 was 7.0'*0.*I12 cwts., worth £1.112.547. This industry has 
 been created without government aid or encouragement. 
 In 1S72 there were '.\,\K}:t,4b^ cwts. imported into Great 
 Britain from India, and fiO.OOO cwts. from other countries. 
 Franee took 1 iS.H7fi cwts. from Calcutta and 5on,.T00 from 
 England: Trieste took 9000 cwts. direct; Holland, .'i.157 
 from India, and S^.filO from England ; Germany had 
 77.S:il : Belgium. 31,192: Spain. 20.7'iS: and other" coun- 
 tries 11.17*1 cwtH. byre-exportation from England. Fac- 
 tories for the manufa"ture of jute on modern principles and 
 uniler European management arc springing up in India. 
 Those at narnngpdr, ne:ir Calcutta, employ 4700 natives, 
 who under seventeen European overseers work up yearly 
 about 10,000 tons of jute. The success has been great. 
 The importation of julc (ra\v) into the U. S. was in 1871-72, 
 ■1I.S.J7 t<ms, valued at $2.(;(J0.Si>'J ; in 1872-73. 63,329 tons, 
 at $3,105,741: in 1873-74.36.991 tons, at ?1.693.947: in 
 l874-7.>. 43.402 tons, at $2,013,391. The value of the jute 
 mnnufaeturo in the U. S. is estimated to bo not less than 
 $-1,500,000. 
 
 Jute is easily dyed, but the beantifal colors it so readily 
 takes up arc fugitive except when carefully executed. It 
 is readily brought to a rich cream-color, either in the fibre, 
 yarn, or clolh. but until very lately it was considered next 
 to impossiblo to bring it to a full white without injuring 
 the fttren^th of the fibre. Dr. Hodges, in a paper read at 
 the nritisli Assocjution in Au^., 1871. claims that it has 
 been i-omjiletely obviated by methods patented by his son 
 and then in practical operation at Mile Cross, county I>own. 
 In this ease the worn-out gunny-bags should furnish plenty 
 of paper material. It is already used for coarse wrapping 
 paper. The jtife manufacture has its chief seat at Dundee, 
 and gives employment to more than 20,000 jtersons. In 
 ]872 Iho quantity imported into that port direct was 
 1.82^.61 1 cwts. Since (he opening of the Suez Canal the 
 fibre has reached Dundeo, been spun and woven, the goods 
 shipped back, and paid for within six months of (he date 
 of the bill of ladiuff. It has led to the revivjil of (be whale 
 fishery in Itaffm's Hay. The bulk of the whale oil is used 
 in the treatment of jute. The Dundee chamber of com- 
 merce has represented that an Arctic expedition is desira- 
 ble, that new haunts of (lil-hearini; animals niny be ex- 
 plored. Thus, the lubors of (he scientific discoverers in 
 the frozen North will bring an increase of prosperity alike 
 to the workman of Scotland and the peasant of Bengal. 
 
 AVii.i.iAM E. A. Axon. 
 
 Jii'torbogk, town of Prus^sia. in the province of Bran- 
 denburg. It hns some manufactures of woollen and linen 
 stuffs, i\nd a lively trade in flax anil cattle. Bop. 0093. 
 
 Jllt'tnnil [Dan. Ji/fl>niff]. a peninsula between the Xorth 
 Sea, the Skagerack, and the Cattegat, is the largest province 
 of the kingdom of Denmark. Area, 0607 square miles. 
 Vol. 11—94 
 
 Pop. 788,119. It is traversed by a ridge of low hills, to the 
 W. of which the country is heath, lined with a range of 
 sandbanks along the coast. The eastern part is beautiful 
 and fertile, hilly, rich in forests of beech and oak, indented 
 by numerous fjords, dotted with small but thriving towns, 
 and cultivated like a garden. The .Tutcs formed the nucleus 
 of those swarms which under the name of the Northmen 
 devastated the coast of Germany and France and conquered 
 England, and they have still retained in their characters 
 something shrewd, daring, and indomitable, which distin- 
 guishes (hem from the islanders, who arc softer and livelier, 
 but weaker. 
 
 Jovena'lis (Df;ciMrsJrMrs) wash, probably in the lat- 
 ter part of the first century of our era at Aquinum ; studied 
 rhetoric and declamation; was an intimate friend of Mar- 
 tial, and d. in Rome in the eighty-second year of his agcj 
 but any further details of his life are not known. Sixteen 
 satires written in heroic hexameters have come down to us 
 under his name, but some scholars (M)nsider only the first nine 
 and the eleventh to be by Juvenalis, and even these seem 
 to have been much interpolated. There is a certain rhe- 
 torical coldness about his satires: bo lacks the humor of 
 Horace and the elevated moral enthusiasm of Pcrsius. But 
 his descriptions of life and characters are often highly 
 picturesque or cutting. The best editions are by Heinrich 
 (Bonn, 1830) and 0. .Tahn (Berlin, ISr.l): best Encrlish 
 editions by Mayor (London, 2d ed. 1875), and by ^!ac- 
 leano (London. 1857). (See nlso I)cr cclitc und dcr unechte 
 Juvenal^ by Ribbeck, Berlin, 18C5.) 
 
 Jn'vcnile Offend'ers. The first organized movement 
 for the reformation of juvenile ofi'endcrs seems to b.ivo been 
 made in London, Eng., in 1817. It grew out of the efforts 
 of the denomination of Friends to follow up effectually 
 tho work of .lohn Howard in the visitation and the ameliora- 
 tion of tho condition of prisoners in public penitentiaries. 
 Howard died in 1700. In the early years of the present 
 century, Elizabeth Gurney. afterwards tho saintly Elizabeth 
 Fry, commenced her remarkable work among the female 
 inmates of Newgate prison, London.* Her brothers-in-law, 
 Sir T. Fow<'ll Buxton and Samuel Hoare, with her well- 
 known brother. .lo^eph .T.ihn (iurney.and several of her 
 personal friends, about tho same time formed a society for 
 the improvement of prison discipline and the reformation 
 of the juvenile depredators who then "infested London in 
 gangs." They became particularly impressed with the im- 
 portance of 'Making from the streets boys who were umler 
 no parental control, exposed to every temptation, addicted 
 to every vice, ignorant of all that was good, and trained 
 by their associates to the perpetration of every crime." 
 This organization, called "The London Pliilantbropio So- 
 ciety." soon found, in their ex !i mi nation (tf the prisons, thnt 
 nearly every youthful inmate was efVectually ruined, and 
 introduced into tho permanent criminal class, by tho 
 taint of the jail. To prevent this inevitable result they 
 provided in London the first bouse of refuge, to receive, 
 reform, educate, nnrl train \u a useful trade delinquent chil- 
 dren, over eight and under twelve years of age at the lime 
 of their reception. In 1819 this institution, which had ac- 
 complished a great amount of gooil in the city, was re- 
 moved into its present rural quarters at RerJ Hill, Surrey. 
 In its reconstruction it followeil tlie model of the French 
 agricultural colony at Mettriiy : it has no surnuinding walls, 
 and is broken up into separate fnmilies. It is here, as it 
 has been doing for tho lust fifty years, working out very 
 successful anrl benign results. 
 
 On the continent of Europe, the German and Napoleonic 
 wars creating so many orj>hans and engendering so mucli 
 poverty and vice, institutions liad bee?i formed previous to 
 the Englisli experiment for the rescue of unprttteoted and 
 wretched children from lives of crime. In ll>95. August 
 Herman Francko opened his institution at Ilalle. Germanv, 
 the immense quadrangle of buildings which he ultimately 
 ereetetl still renjainintr as a mnnuinent of his faith and 
 pie'y. The history of his remarkable success, as preserved 
 in his biography, is fidl of encouraeement to those cniraffed 
 in the work of juvenile reform. .Tohn I'alk followed him : 
 and at about the "ame date that the first English house of 
 refuse was established be organized in Weimar " The So- 
 ciety of Frienrls In Ni'ed,"and founded an institution "for 
 the children of criminals and criminal ehihlren." His ex- 
 pressive coiit-of-arms was a representation of a band of 
 ehihlren converting, on an anvil, (heir chains into useful 
 tools. It is recoriled of the su<'cess of his refuse tbnt hun- 
 dreds of respectable tradesmen, clergymen, lawyers, and 
 doctors, schoolmasters, merchants, and ortists. dated tho 
 commencement of a life of usefulness ond honor fr<un their 
 entrance into the reformatory at Weimar. 
 
 About the siinie date (1818) of the English efforts to res- 
 cue exposeil children, and of the Ocrman movement under 
 Falk, a corresponding interest was awakened in the U. S.,
 
 1490 
 
 JUVENILE OFFENDERS. 
 
 chieflv.at first, in the city of New York, under the auspices 
 of the Society of Friends, through visits and correspond- 
 ence\ith their English fellow-Christians. Such men as 
 Tohn Gri^c.n.. Thomas Eddy. Mayor Cadwallader Golden, 
 Hon Ilu-h Maxwell, and James W. Gerard* were u ti- 
 matelv led to unite themselves in an assoc.at.on for the 
 "prevention of pauperism." As early as 1.S03 Edward 
 JvTn-slon, the f'ather of penitentiary reform .n th.s eoun- 
 trv, w^.ile nn.Vor of New York City, felt the necessity for 
 some effectual measures to redeem young cnmmals upon 
 heir first arrest from a life of cnme, and made ,n h s an- 
 nual messa-es suggestions which afterwards were luUy de- 
 i vcToped ( 1821 ) in the well-known code wluch he prepared 
 
 I for the State of Louisiana. In this a house ot refuge and 
 
 ndustry and a school of reform have c.msp.cuous positions 
 The SoLty for the Prevention of Pauperism soon found ] 
 that the rescue of children from a life of crime and from | 
 
 e noison of the prison was one of the most important and 
 p omi n° feaiure'i of its work. In 182H, therefore, the 
 ^oeidv changed its name, and secured an act o iiicorpora- 
 i„n f om the State as "The Society for the Keformafon 
 of .Juvenile Delinquents." Their first school of reform was 
 opened in the old government arsenal, on what is now Mad- 
 °s'on Square, New York, and has grown during the half 
 centurv to the immense structures that now raise their fine 
 architectural proportions on Randall's Island. The early 
 superintendents. Curtis and Hart, obtained a very wide 
 repu i"ion fur the successful management of their delicate 
 2i difficult charge. The first American institutions were 
 patterned after this model. Many changes have been made 
 n the modes and discipline of reformatories ^""nS 'ho 
 la«t twentv five years, but it has always been found that 
 more depends upon securing reformatory men and women 
 of the right character than upon any particular system 
 
 "' Boston' opened her school, under the care of Rev Mr. 
 Wells also a man of remarkable reformatory abdity, in 
 1R26V Philadelphia in 1828. It was nearly ten years be- 
 fore the next institution, a farm-school, purely a private 
 charity, was opened in the former city, and ultimately lo- 
 cated." where it is still accomplishing its benign work, on 
 Thompson's Island in the harbor. Nearly ten years later 
 still (1847) a fresh impulse was given to juvenile reform 
 bv the very generous donation of Mr. Theodore Lyman, 
 who was a trustee of the farm-school, to the Mate of Mas- 
 sachusetts of a large sum of money for a reform school for 
 bovs The well-known institution at W estborough was the 
 result. This was the first purely Slate institution estab- 
 lished in this country ; heretofore they had been founded 
 by charitable associations, which held their control, while 
 the State, in most instances, granted annual supplies, ihe 
 CNpcriment has proved that the latter i"-'"""""""' »^. »; 
 general rule, are more successful, more economical better 
 mana«d, and less liable to frequent and disastrous changes 
 of officers. As it is better for the State and for the indi- 
 viduals interested to develop the benevolence^and piety of 
 lie citizens, the policy now pursued in Great Bntain seems 
 to be the wisest on the whole-by a general law a reason- 
 able sum per capita is allowed by the government to all 
 reformatoJv institutions for clearly specihed J;<ve>» e S"b- 
 iects lawfully committed to such custody m establi hments 
 accepted bv," and open to the supervision of. a -''"t" °- 
 spcctor. Smaller schools, other things being equal, give 
 better promise of reforming their inmates than those ag- 
 gregating large numbers of delinquent or defective youth. 
 Tbesc voluntary schools will secure not only better super- 
 vision over their subjects in the institution, but a more 
 careful oversight after their discharge, which ,s an element 
 of reform of almost equal imporlnncc with the former. In 
 IS'!.'! Dr .John Henry Wichern. then a young theological 
 student just ordained for the ministry, and engaged in 
 voluntary city missionary services in the city of Hamburg. 
 Germany, opi-ned at the Horn, a short distance from town 
 in a memorable old cottage, into which he removed wilh 
 his mother, a school of reform for the worst boys ot the 
 city streets. The cottage, which has given a name to what 
 is now a village of plain dwellings in the midst of gardens, 
 with workshops, chnpel, and schools, was called very sig- 
 nificantly, "The Rauhe Ilaus." ■\Viclicrn admitted but 
 twelve boys, who became members of his family, and were 
 in every respect treated as his children. Afterwards he 
 successively built other cottages, each for the same num- 
 ber of boys or girls, and established workshops, calling 
 to his aid'a body of theological students, whom he trained, 
 while they became the elder brothers and tutors, as wel 
 as instructors in various mechanical and agricultural 
 industries, of his remarkable families of street Arabs. 
 
 *He was the last survivor of the first hoard of managers of 
 the New York Homo of Eefuge, dying while this article was in 
 preparation (Feb., 1874). ' 
 
 These elder brothers were trained for the " inner " or home 
 missionary work of Germany, and have made admirable 
 supcrinteudents of reformatory institutions throughout 
 Europe and in this country. This e.siierimcnt proved re- 
 markably successful in its reforming influence over its sub- 
 jects, in 1837, M. de Metz, a judge of the court of assize 
 of Paris, visited the U. S. as a commissioner to examine 
 and report upon the prison system of this country. He was 
 strongly impressed with the good work done for juvenile 
 on'ende"rs in the houses of refuge at New York and Phila- 
 delphia, and made to his government a full report of their 
 discipline and efliciency. Immediately upon his return ho 
 commenced what, in the end, proved to be his own great 
 life-work— the organization of a general movement for the 
 rescue and reform of young criminals in France. He visited 
 the institution of Wichcrn in Hamburg, and finally upon 
 the Loire, just out of the city of Tours, be established Iho 
 great model French reform school, which bears the name 
 of tho estate upon which it stands— the "Agricultural 
 Colony of Mettray." It combines the American and Ger- 
 man systems. It forms a little village by itself of small, 
 thrce-"storv dwellings, each one capable of accommodating 
 forty boys" wilh their instructors, wilh a church, workshops, 
 and" farm-buildings. These institutions are constructed 
 without walls around them or bars upon the doors to re- 
 tain the ileirmis. The accounts of these institutions, pub- 
 lished in this country by Horace Mann, secretary of tho 
 Massachusetts board of education, by Dr. Calvin E.btowe, 
 who visited and carefully examined them, and by l)r. 
 Henry Barnard, secretary of the Connecticut board ol edu- 
 cation, awakened great interest among philanthropic men. 
 A scries of prize essays also, three of which were published, 
 on tho subject of juvenile reform, secured by an ofl-er of 
 $100 for tho best by the board of managers of the Phi adel- 
 phia house of refuge (which was awarded to Rev. Edward 
 Everett Hale of Massachusetts, forty having been sent in), 
 tended to add to the growing interest. In 18oo, Massa- 
 chusetts established her Industrial School for girls at Lan- 
 caster, following quite closely the French system of M. de 
 Mctz. and allotting but thirty girls to a separate house, 
 each home under the care of three matrons. Ohio hut a 
 short time after opened her farm-school for boys on the 
 same plan in a town of the same name. Since this time 
 nearly all the later institutions, which have been qui e 
 rapidly organized throughout the country, ehieQy State 
 establishments, have followed, with more or less c oseness, 
 the farm-school system as distinguished from the congre- 
 gate" or penitentiary form of discipline. 
 
 Many private and voluntary institutions, meeting the 
 wants of special classes, have been established during the 
 last twenty-five years in this country and Great Lrilain. 
 The most efficient of these is the Children s Aid Society of 
 New York Citv, of which Mr. Charles L. Brace is tl"e orig- 
 inator and cliief manager. It was incorporated in 186.5. 
 Its object is to save the vagrant childrrn of the street from 
 bccom'ing even juvenile criminals. By inexpensive nigh 
 lodgings for little street-merchants and for girls without 
 homes, by encouraging small savings, by establi.«hing in- 
 dustrial schools where sewing as well as the rudiments ot 
 knowledge is taught, and where Sunday services for re- 
 ligious training are held, and chiefly by deporting house- 
 less and worse than homeless childrrn from the miserable 
 haunts of poverty and vice in the city to good homes m the 
 country, an inestimable amount of good is done, and an 
 efi-cctive preventive agency against crime secured. J he 
 State of Slassachusetis has connected one feature of tins 
 plan wilh the bureau of her State boanl of chanties. An 
 agency under it assumes tho work of finding l>on>cs in tl c 
 State "for unprotected children. Tho multiplication of hese 
 voluntary and State preventive agencies in many portions 
 of the country has perceptibly reduced the amount of ,ue- 
 nile crime, and the eflcct would also soon ^c made nai - 
 fest in the decrease of adult crimina s were it ««'/"■•»? 
 large importation from Europe of this class. Scve al of 
 the great religious sects, particularly the Roman Cathoc 
 have turned their attention and practical energies in th, 
 direct on. Tho largest portion of the most exposed and 
 V OS children in Sur c'ities has ^f " °f ./^'f , ["7, " 
 age, and by birth connected with the Catholic told. The 
 vfr; vigor/us estaldishment in later years of reformatories 
 industrial schools, and ort.hanages by the Catholic clergy 
 a made i-self npparen. in most beneficial results iii son o 
 of our cities. V duntarv religious movements like the 
 ragged scWIs instituted"by .John Pounds in Eng'-d ; h a, 
 (be industrial and christianizing scheme of P/- "^ "'^^■f' 
 introduced into the most abandoned par s "f •'« ^i .y o^ 
 GIns-ow, Scotland, in 1820, an,l into the lowest wjnds ol 
 E nbiir^h in !Sl.=i ; like those of the Melhodist ladies and 
 Re Mrf Pease in the Five Points of Xew Virk, and of 
 the successful imitators in Philadelphia and Boston lla^ e 
 produced marvellous results. The inauguration of com-
 
 JUVENIS— JYNX. 
 
 1491 
 
 pulsory education, providing for puch neglected classes as 
 the Toung Ftrect-mcrclianls and children employed in 
 factoric!*, uu«i the vigorous use of the facilities oflFercd by 
 the puVilie and private schools of reform, promise very cer- 
 tain and ellicleut results in the direction of the ])revention 
 and cure of Juvenile offences. Particular interest at the 
 present hour is drann to the niaturcr class of young crim- 
 inals, from sixteen to twenty years of ago. It ^^ very evi- 
 dent that they should not be trained in the same institu- 
 tions with ehildreu. They are just now the most dangerous 
 members of our crimiua! class, our most violent crimes be- 
 ing perpetrated by them: but they are still amenable to 
 reformatory influence?, as has been proved by an interest- 
 ing experiment of a few late years in the New York house 
 of refuge. They require more restraint than youths, and a 
 broad(.T dluealional and industrial discijtliue. They need 
 to bo taught a full trade. A portion of their earnings 
 while restrained of their liberty should be credited to them 
 if obedient and diligent. They should be discharged before 
 the limitattou of their sentence if there is a good promise 
 of reformation, with power on the part of the managers of 
 the institution with which they have been connected, in 
 their failure upon trial, to return them for further restraint 
 until they show themselves capable of living (and ready to 
 do so) honest and industrious lives in the community. The 
 suspicion that all persons rest under wiio have been drtcnue 
 renders it necessary that there sliould be an industrial 
 refuge for them when work cannot be elsewhere obtained. 
 This was really the problem — how to find work for dis- 
 charged young criminals — that first arrested the attention 
 of Edward Livingston, and turned his thoughts in the 
 direction of the causes and the cure of crime. 
 
 It is estimated tliat there are in this country (1S75) some 
 40 schools of reform, not including those of an educational 
 and preventive character. These institutions have an an- 
 nual average of about 11*. 000 children, 1000 of whom are 
 girls. This estimate is rather below than above the actual 
 census. The smaller and purely voluntary institutions 
 would present much larger statistics. In Great Britain 
 there are Co ofTicially recognized schools of reform, and 9o 
 industrial schools, embracing about 'lOOO inmates. lu the 
 Qcriiian-speaking couutries of Europe there are over 400 
 establishmeuts lor the succor of exposed aud criminal 
 youths, with an annual average of 12.000 inmates. Be- 
 tween 10 ond 50 have been organized in France. Italy 
 has .l.'J, of which 22 are for boys — all private institutions. 
 
 The estimates as to the ref<trms accomplished in these 
 bouses of refuge vary from (JO to 75 per cent, of the wh(dc 
 number received. Many of these young children are not 
 vicious, simply homeless and exposed; so that the actual 
 reformatory power of an iuf^titutioti ciiunot be measured 
 by the number of inmates that ultiniiittly turn out well. 
 In several instances, however, very thorough and en- 
 couraging inquiries have been made, extending over a pe- 
 riod of ten ami twenty years, and embraeing some of the 
 most unpromising subjects wheu received. Without doubt, 
 every year the class that now enters purely reformatory 
 institutions becomes, in some degree, less promising. They 
 are now the residuum of the streets after orphanages and 
 industrial schools have selected and sifted out their sub- 
 jects. More cure and thoroughness of discipline will be 
 required in their instance, and less pronounced results 
 may be expected. * 
 
 As disciplinary ogcncies, education, the cultivation of 
 industrial habits, the h;arning a full trade if possible, the 
 assimilating and transforming power of a strong, loving, 
 niagnetic mind, and jiositive religious instruction and 
 training, arc relied upon. Small institutions bring the 
 children nearer to their officers. It will be seen at once 
 that both the heads an(t subordinates <d' these schools must 
 be persons of peculiar a<la]itation ; they must be specially 
 intelligent, unselfish, devoted, fond of children, ami of an 
 earnest religious character. These institutions must train 
 their inmates to a plain form nf life aud lo ordinary ex- 
 pet'tations. Much disappointment and failure results from 
 inattention to this. Hut few of these youths will be received 
 into families in the position of ehiblren: they arc to go out 
 into life to earn their livelihood by the sweat of their brows. 
 As farm-labor at tiio East ufl"ers such limitecl pecuniary 
 rc'urns, boys in these schools, as far as jiossible, should be 
 taught trades, and placed in a position to earn their living 
 by their work upon their diseharge. It is not wise to re- 
 tain them too long in sehooN of reform ; all instituiion-lifc 
 is unnatural, irksome, and in some degree unwholesome. 
 They sh<>uld be placed in homes and in industrial positions 
 in the country at as enrly a day as practicable. It is better 
 to have thorn returned often, an<l new homes found for 
 them, than to keep them too long under restraint. The 
 great want of the hour is a body of well-trained instructors 
 and oflieers. The best systems fail for lack of devoted and 
 intelligent trainers. The irreligious and careless tempers 
 
 and habits of subordinate officers, who, after all, come 
 nearest to the children, will utterly destroy the reformatory 
 influence of the school, the chapel, and an admirable super- 
 intendent. European institutions, which have been models 
 of success, have been in the hands of the most devoted and 
 self-sacrificing missionary spirits, men aud women who 
 have made the rescue of childhood a life-work of faith and 
 love, as will be seen in reading De Liefde's volumes. 
 
 The literature of this question has become very exten- 
 sive. In aildition to the c<dleeted reports of the older in- 
 stitutions, like the New York. Philadelphia, Wcstboro'. and 
 Lancaster schools, and the Ohio State Farm, we mention 
 Juvenile />f^'»7itc»(» ( Eng.), by Mary Carpenter ; The Vhnr- 
 iticH of Europe (Eng.), by De Liefde ; lieport of Mukk. 
 State Hoard of Chun'lien, 11 vols., very valuable; Half 
 Centurif trith Juvenile Delinquents^ by B. K. Pcirce : Xa- 
 tional Education in Europe, by Henry Barnard, LL.D.; 
 Jiefonnation of Juvenile DelinqvcntH, by L. Bonneville de 
 Marsangv, 1 vol. Svo, Paris ; J*uniKliment and Prevention, 
 by Alex. Thomson, 1 vol. 12nio, London; Social Evils, 
 their Cause and Cure, by the same author; Prni/itit/ and 
 Working, by Stevenson; The ('omjje.te Worhs of Edirard 
 Liviuffftton, 2 vols., new cd., New York, 1S73. The English 
 Parliamentary reports upon reformatory institutions arc 
 very full and of great value, covering every detail of their 
 management. The reports of Wichern's Kauhe Ilaus 
 and the agricultural colony at Metlray. The published 
 ProeccdiufjH of the National Prison Congress held at Cin- 
 cinnati in 1870, and of the International Congress held in 
 London in 1S72, contain particularly valuable papers upon 
 preventive and reformatory agencies. B. K. Peiri'e. 
 
 Juvenis (Raymond), b. at Gap, the capital of the de- 
 partment of llautes-Alpes, France, in the first half of the 
 seventeenth century; held some subordinate position in the 
 civil service of his native city, and d. there Jan. 7, 1705. 
 His leisure hours he used for historical researches, and from 
 old state papers and ofiicial documents he compiled a His- 
 toirc stctditre et eccleainstitjue du J)anphinv et de sen dt'jtend- 
 anccs. The work was never printed. The manuscript was 
 presented to the library of Carpentras in the department 
 of Vaucluse, where it is still kept. But it is often quoted 
 on account of the curious and generally reliable information 
 it gives concerning life and characters in the French i)rov- 
 inccs in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 
 
 Juvcn'taSy in the mythology of the llomans, the god- 
 dess of youth, corresponding to the Greek Ilebc. She was 
 worshipped in Home at a very early period ; her chapel on 
 the Capitol was built before the temple of Jupiter, .'\fter 
 the defeat of Hasdrubal, in 207 n. c. the consul, M. Livius, 
 vowed a temple to Juventas, wliieh was consecrated iu the 
 Circus Maximus sixteen years afterward. 
 
 Juvcn'tia gens in ancient Rome was a plebeian ffcns, 
 which came from Tusculum. and settled in Rome iu the 
 fourth century B. c. The families belonging to this geus 
 were the Celsus, Laterensis, Pedo, and Tbalna. 
 
 Juvcnti'nus ATbiiiH Ovid'iiis, tlie name of the au- 
 thor of tbirly-five Latin distielis ubieli have come down to 
 us under the title of A7<v/r(( de Philomela, and which contains 
 a collection of words expressi\e of the respective sounds 
 uttered by birds, quadrupeds, and other animals. Of the 
 author nothing is known, but the distichs themselves have 
 some interest as a curiosity. 
 
 Jlix'on (William), I). P.. b. at Chichester, England, in 
 1582 ; was educated at St. John's College, Oxford, of which 
 bo became president in 1021, and vice-chancellor of the 
 university in lfi20. He was made dean of Worcester in 
 1C2S, bishop of Hereford in It'ill.'t. unci of London iu the 
 same year, and hi;;h treasurer of England in ir.li5. Bi.'liop 
 Juxon suffered deprivation during tlie great rebellion and 
 the Commonwealth, but remained faithful to King Charles, 
 whom he attended in his imprisonment, at his trial, and on 
 the scaffold. After the Restoration ho was made arch- 
 bishop of Canterliury (Sept. 20, IGtJO), aud d. at Lambeth 
 Pahice June -1, IOO;t. 
 
 Jyn'tenli, the name of a district of British India, hc- 
 vond the Brahmaputra, belonging to the presidency of 
 Bengal, situated between hit. 25° and 20*^ N., Ion. 1)2° E., 
 and bounded N, by Assam and S. by Sylhet, with which 
 it wos incorporated during the Burmese war. The district 
 is mountainous, and rich in iron aud coal. Cap. Jynteah. 
 
 .lynx 9 iu Gr^'cian mythology, the name of the bird which 
 Aphrodite gave Jason as a symbol of passionate and rest- 
 loss love, and by which ho won (he love of Medea. Accord- 
 ing to one version of the myth. .lynx was the daughter of 
 Peitho an»l Pan. and wns transformed into a bird becnuee 
 she undertook, by means of magic, to make Zeus fall in love 
 with lo. Accordini; to another, she was a dauirhter of Pierus, 
 and when she and her sisters presumed t<» enter into a musi- 
 cal contest with the J^Iuses, she was changed into a bird.
 
 1492 
 
 K— KAFFIRS. 
 
 K. 
 
 K, a palatal mute, tho eleventh letter in our alphabet. 
 It is the (Ireck htp/ja (K, «). but is very seldom seen iu 
 Latin, C takint; it.< place. It has but one sniuul in Eng- 
 lish, the same as that of Chard. As an abbreviation it 
 stands for king; in chemistry it is the symbol of potassium 
 (kalium). 
 
 Kaa'ba [Arab. i4/-A'an/m7(, "square house"], an ob- 
 long stone building enclosed in tho great nios^que at Mecca. 
 At the north-eastern corner of (he building, four or five 
 feet from tho ground, is a celebrated black stone, of an 
 irregular oval shape, about seven inches in diameter, which 
 received idnlatrous worsliip from the Arabians before the 
 time of Mohammed, ancl it is still the most sacred object 
 of veneration to his followers. The 8aba?ans and (lucbers 
 also worshipped this stone, which is thought to be of me- 
 teoric origin, and to have been first connected with the 
 worship of Saturn. Xonc but Mohammedans are now ad- 
 mitted within tho Kaaha. but Burckhardt and Burton suc- 
 ceeded in entering under the disguise of pilgrims. Every 
 follower of Islam is bound, if possible, to visit this sacred 
 spot at least once during his life, and scores of thousands 
 make the pilgrimage each year. 
 
 Kaama. Pee IIarti:beest. 
 
 Ka'ba, town of Hungary, in the county of Bihar, has 
 5631) inhahitants, who arc extensively engaged in the rear- 
 ing of bees. 
 
 Kabbala. Sec Cadbala. 
 
 Kabul. See Cabool. 
 
 Kabyles. See ALOEniA. 
 
 Ka'clesh [Hcb.. "holy"], or Kadesh-barnea, city 
 an<l encampment of the Israelites during their journeys in 
 the wildcnu'ss, at the S. E. border of Palestine, near Edom, 
 To this point they had penetrated when they were turned 
 back by the hostility «f the Edomites, and compelled to 
 peek the circuitous route E. of Edom and Mnab. By some 
 biblical geographers Kadesh is distinguished from Kadesh- 
 barnea, and it is held that tho people of Israel were twice 
 turned back, once from each place; othcrsconsider tho two 
 accounts a duplicate narrative of the same event. Dr. 
 Rnliinst)n in his fiihfirnl A*tscarcAe« identifies Kadesh with 
 the modern Aiuef- Wchtk. 
 
 Ka<rinonitos [Heb. Kadmoni, "eastern"], the name 
 of a Canaanitc tribe which in the time of Abraham inhab- 
 ited the N. E. of Palestine, near Mount Ilcrmon. The 
 name ia thought to bo a general one for the dwellers in 
 Eajffern countries, and that they are identical \vith tho 
 "chiMren of the East," elsewhere mentioned in the books 
 of Genesis and Job. 
 
 Kadom'^ town of Russia, in the government of Tam- 
 bov, on the Moksha, has 7173 inhabitants and some trade. 
 
 Karfa) or KaTa^ country of Eastern Africa, S. of 
 Abyssinia, consists of an extensive table-land rising about 
 fjOOO feet above the sea and covered with immense forests 
 of coffee trees. Coffee is indigenous hero, and is said to 
 have received its name from this country. It is largely 
 cultivated, and great quantities are exported to Mocha. 
 Tho enitrffi. a plant resembling tho banana, furnishes the 
 chief article of food. Cereals arc not cultivated, an<l 
 "grain-eater" is used as an expression of contempt. Tho 
 inhabitants belong to the Abyssinian typo, and speak a 
 language classified under the Ilamitic group. They profess 
 to be Christians, and arc governed despotically by a king. 
 Bonga, situated iu 7° 12' ."JO" N. lat.. 3C® 41' E. Ion., on the 
 Gojob. is the principal town, but is a poor place, consisting 
 of straggling hut.-', and comprising only between 6000 and 
 7000 inhabitants*. 
 
 Kaffa, or Foodo'sia,town of Kupsia, in the gorcrn- 
 ment of Taurida. is beautifully situated on the eastern 
 coast of tho Crimean peninsula; it has a good fortified 
 harbor, and was. while in tho possession of Genoa, a com- 
 inercial port of conseqnence, but lost its importance under 
 Turkish dominion. It is now rising again, and is much 
 visited as a watering-](laoc. Pop. 8435. 
 
 Kariirs, or CaPfres [Arab, l-rfir, "nnboliever" or 
 "heathen"], first apj>lird by the Arab slave-dealers of the 
 eastern coast of Africa to all the natives. In after years the 
 terra was limited to the tribes inhabiting the coust-country 
 on tho E. side of S. E. Africa, and recent events have nar- 
 rowed the designation in a popular sense as applying to the 
 tribes living in the country between the Cape Colony and 
 
 Natal. TTie Kaffirs form a very large family of tho human 
 race, extending beyond the equator, and are closely allied 
 to a great part of the Central and North African tribes. 
 They are a inofH/ied negro, being distinct from the negro 
 proper, the Hottentot, and Buslnuan ; for. though their hair 
 is woolly, their color is as a rule deep se[)ia-brown. They 
 are often intensely black, but many, on the other hand, arc 
 coffee-colored, so that those are merely variations from the 
 original complexion. Many are reddish, like the American 
 Indians. In their own language they call themselves 
 A-bntitu, moaning "people " or " men." Their features are 
 often regular, and instances occur in which but for its color 
 the countenance might ho taken for that of a European. 
 Several writers describe their figures as admirable and their 
 movements as graceful and dignified. Their skulls are 
 dolichocophalous and high, or. according to Welcker, hyp- 
 sistenocephalous. Their langunge belongs to the so-called 
 prefix-pronominal. The Kaffirs of South Africa are di- 
 vided into four species — the Katfir proper, the Sichunna, 
 Tageza, and Otjiherero. The first speak the real Kaffir 
 language ; the second, the Se-rolong, Se-suto, and Sc- 
 tlapi ; the thinl. the Mancolosi. Ma-tonga, and Ma-plocn- 
 ga dialects. The general disposition of the Zulu races, 
 called Kaffirs by the English, is fl) the tribes N. of Natal, 
 Amatahele. Amazulu. etc., and the Amaxoso and Aniara- 
 pondo, in the E., speaking Zulu; (2) Makololo. N.. and 
 Bakuku. N. W., speaking Sicbuana, and genornlly known 
 as Bochuanas or Bctjuana: and (3) the Ovanipos and Otji- 
 herero or 0-va-hcrero. For practical study G. Fritsch re- 
 duces all these to the Ama-xosa, tho Ama-Zulu, the Bc- 
 chuana. and the 0-va-horero. 
 
 Tho Kaffirs were first made known in 1497, when Vasco 
 da Gama was wounded by them in Helena Bay. Succeed- 
 ing notices of the country and of the natives occur in Santo's 
 work on East Africa (loOC) and that of Lopez (1591). In 
 1026 tho traveller Herbert described them. From 1652, 
 when the Cape of (lood Hope was settled by the Dutch, 
 until 1705, when it was passed to the English, and with 
 little intermission almost to the present day. tho history 
 of the Kaffirs is that of continual savage warfare with 
 tho Europeans, varied hy hloody feuds among themsoh'os. 
 Chaka or Tshaka, " the Napoleon of South Africa," b. in 
 1787. killed 1S29, founded the Zulu dynasty. When his 
 mother died this king, to terrify his suhjects. caused 7000 
 of them to bo murdered in one dav^ and continued these 
 sacrifices for throe months. The Kaffirs, though not re- 
 ligious, are extremely superstitious. Much has been writ- 
 ten in their favor, but even from the testimony of their Eu- 
 ropean friends it is evirlent that they arc greedy, cruel, and 
 expert in poisoning. Owing to the insecurity of life and 
 property among themselves, ahout .'iOO.OOO Kaffirs, or one 
 iialf the nation, have taken refuge in the British colony. 
 As wives are the most profitable of their possessions, polyg- 
 amy is so deeply rooted that Christianity makes but little 
 progress among them. Tho f>ld. the poor, and the sick arc 
 treated with incredible barbarity. When a chiefs hair turns 
 gray he is often put to deatli, and Tshaka once entered 
 into a treaty with the English, tho secret oltjcct of wliieh 
 was to olitain a hottle of hair-dye. The language of the 
 Kaflirs, in cimimon with those of the Bechuanas, Damaras 
 of tho Plain, the people of Congo, Suaheli, and many other 
 regions, is what is called nlliteral. as contrasted with tho 
 tongues characterized by "clicks," such as aro spoken by 
 the Hottentots and Bushmen. The Knffirs aro ferocious 
 and passionately fond of warfare, but unless driven to de- 
 spair are only to be dreaded in ambush or night-attacks. 
 Among tho numerous works relating to tho Kaffirs may 
 be named Thr Knflirn of Nntni, Hr., hy Rev. J. Shooter 
 (1S57): Tfir lUroril Ifrf'nti'rr fn thf Xntivfi Tribm nf South 
 
 A/ricn, by Lieut. D. Moodio (Cape Town. 1838): 7?c- 
 pnitn, etc., hy Col. R. Collins (ib. 1841); Procerffhtt/ii of 
 the Cnmmiftninn Rflatirf to the ICnJfirg, etr. (Piet. Ma- 
 ritzburg, 1852); South Afrirnu Annah, by D. Moodie (ib. 
 185,^)): Narratire of th^ Kaffir Warn/' 18.50-5?, by R. God- 
 lenton (Graham's Town, 1852): Kaffir Laim and Ctistom^, 
 bv M.aclcan (Mount Cope, 1858): /'«W and Future of the 
 Kaffir Tn'hrM. by Rev. W. C. Holdcn (London. 1855); The 
 Oranrje Rt'rrr, by C. .1. Anderson ; Lake Xffatni, by the 
 same : The Zamhrxi, etr.. by I). Livingstone (London, 1865i ; 
 J'ttirual of n Refidfnrr at the fape of Good ffope, by ChaS. 
 J. F. Bunbury (London. 13(8) : Trnreh,rtc. in South Africa, 
 by (i. Thompson (London, 1872) : Zidn Lefjmdn. etc., by 
 Dr. BIcek (an interesting work, indicating great imagina-
 
 KAFFKAKIA— KALAMA. 
 
 1493 
 
 tion and even poetic power in the Kaffirs); Rerpiard the 
 Fox 111 South A/n'ca, bv the same. Sec also otlier works 
 by Blcek. The titles of nearly fifty works rcfcrriii); to the 
 languages, ethnography, and anatomy of the Zulus and 
 other South African tribes are given in Vic Khir/rbureuen 
 Snd-A/rikat, by Q. Fritsch. C. G. Lelaxd. 
 
 Kaffra'ria (Proper or fndrprndent), the name of the 
 eastern coast region of South Africa, extending N. to the 
 river Umzimkulu, in lat. .lO" 215' S., and P. to the Oreat 
 Kei or Koiskammn, which separates it from the Cape Col- 
 ony, to which in lSfi6 the so-called I'.ritish K;ifTraria was 
 annexed. The distance from N. to S. is about 2j0 miles, 
 and from E. to W. — that is. from the Indian Ocean to the 
 Kalambi .Mountains— about 120 miles: the area of the 
 whole territory about 20,000 square miles. Besides the 
 Great Kei and the I'mzimkulu, many other rivers— as, for 
 instance, the I'mzimvubu, the Umlata. and the Umbashco 
 — flow thr<iugh these regions, rising in the Kalambi or 
 Quathlamba mountains at an elevation of about 3000 feet. 
 None of them is navigable, however. They flow in deep 
 beds, and their shores are, like the coast, rocky and irregu- 
 lar. When sufliciently watered, the soil is very productive. 
 Cotton has been grown with success in manyiilaces: maize 
 and wheat are easily raised ; large trees and watermelons 
 abound. The inhabitants, whose number is estimated to 
 be about .lOCflOO, are Kaflirs, and live as nomades in tribes 
 which bear the names of the chiefs. Their religious and 
 moral ideas are often very low ; one Zulu tribe believes 
 that their present chief has created the world. But the 
 Wcsleyan Missionary Society has had great success among 
 them, and the whole population is gradually coming under 
 the influence of the Cape Colony. 
 
 Kafiristan', a country of Central Asia, between Hi" 
 anrl .ill" N. lat., and between 09° 20' and 71° 20' E. Ion. 
 It received its name, '* the hind of the infidels," from the 
 surrounding Mohammedan people, who entertain an in- 
 veterate hatred against its inhabitants. .\s the country is 
 an isolated alpine tract of land, on the declivity of llindu- 
 Kush, which never was conquered, though often invaded 
 by foreigners, and about which we know very little, the 
 inhabitants form an isolated race, entirely (lifl"erent from 
 their neighbors. They resemble Europeans in their fea- 
 tures, and have blue eyes and light-brown hair: in their 
 language, which is of Sanskrit root, and in many of their 
 habits, sitting on raised seats. They are said to bo very- 
 proud of this resemblance to Europeans, while they con- 
 sider it the first and most essential part of a man's honor 
 to have slain a Mussulman. We know, however, as littlo 
 of the inhabitants as nf the country. 
 
 Kagoslii'ma, or Ka;;oNima, town of .Tapan, situ- 
 ated on tbo south-western coast of the island of Kiusitl, is 
 the (Capital of tlie feudal prince Satsuma. It was bombarded 
 in ISB.I by the English, who thus compelled Satsiima to ex- 
 ecute the murderers of Mr. lliehardson, an English subject, 
 and to pay £25,000 in indeiniiiftcation. 
 
 Ka'haiit or Probosris .Monkry, the ffrmnnpithrrun 
 nnmtlin, a most grotesque and hi<lcnus tnonkey of Borneo. 
 It is of gregarious habits, and is extremely active, noisy, 
 mischievous, and even savage in character. The native 
 name is derived from the cry of the beast. Its nose is six 
 inches long, and perfectly black. 
 
 Kah'lenbcr^, the last outpost of the Wicncrwald, the 
 northernmost spur of the Noric .Mps, rises just outside 
 Vienna, on the Banube. From its southern side Sobieski 
 attacked in It'iS.'J the Turks besieging Vienna. On its top, 
 which rises 1100 feet above the river, are some places of 
 amusement, much visited during summer by the inhabit- 
 ants of Vienna. 
 
 Kai'etenr, a celebrated watrrfall in British Guiana, 
 on the Polaro River, a tributary of tlio Essoquibo, 822 feet 
 in height. The river is hero nearly 400 feet wide, and is 
 15 feet deep. 
 
 Kairwan', town of Tunis. Northern Africa. It has 
 several magnificent mosques and other monuments of a 
 pjilendor which has gone. It stan<ls on a snndy plain, has 
 no manufactures and no trade. Pop. estimated at from 
 10,000 to 50.000. 
 
 Kaisari'Jt'h, town of Asia Minor, situated in lat. 3S° 
 '12' N. and Ion. .'t5° 20' E., and not to he confounded with 
 Kaisarijeh in the province of Syria, which was built by 
 Ilerod, boro the name of Ciesarea Palestiiue, and was in 
 the first century one of the most Sftlendid (Ireck towns in 
 Asia, but which now is wholly in ruins. Kaisarijeh in Asia 
 Minor is <li'eaying too, surrr>nndeil on ail sides by ruins, 
 but it has still 10,000 inhalntcd houses, and carries on a 
 very important trade in European and Asiatic produots. 
 
 Kai'scr[from Lat. Cirttnr'\, the (lerman wr,rd for emperor, 
 which has been ?f extensively known anil used in every lan- 
 guage since the year 1871, when William, king of Prussia, 
 
 was crowned at Versailles, France, as emperor of Germany. 
 Thus was revived the old Teutonic appellation of kaiser, 
 which applied formerly, and especially in the Middle Ages, 
 to the German emperors, wiio iuberited this title from the 
 Roman Caesars, themselves succeeded by Charlemagne, who 
 is considered by Germans as the first emperor of the ^*atcr- 
 land, as William is the latest one. Fei.ix ArcAiGNK. 
 
 Kai'scrslautern, town of Rhenish Bavaria, on the 
 Lauter. It has some manufactures of iron, cotton, and to- 
 bacco, and a lively trade in fruit. Pop. 12,029. 
 
 Kai'serswerth, small town of Rhenish Prussia, on the 
 Rhine, is noted for the school of evangelical deaconesses 
 which was founded herein IH.'i.'j (see Fl.n:lisr.l{), and which 
 now h;is branches in most Protestant countries. Pop. 222."i. 
 
 Kak'odyle (syn. Cacodtlk, which see) ; also Kako- 
 dylic Oxide, Correctly speaking, the synonym given in 
 the former note under CAronvi.r, " Fitinln;/ Li'iunr of Cn- 
 ffrt" belongs, as it was originally applied by Bunsen, the 
 discoverer of this baneful series of bodies, to the latter 
 compound, which is also called o/corni'iie {arsenical alcohol), 
 though it is now known that the liquor of Cadet is always 
 mixed with kakodyle itself. Cadet's liquor is obtained liy 
 distilling together white arsenic and potassic acetate. The 
 mixed product is treated with hydrochloric acid, which 
 gives kakodylic chloride, and this, treated in an atmo- 
 sphere of CO2, with metallic Zn, gives pure kakodyle. The 
 formula C<IIcAs also, which was given before, becomes, 
 in tbo p^e^■ailing notation adopted in this Ctirlnpivdtnf 
 CjIIij.Aso. Under the view that it is arHnullmrihyle, the 
 rational formula attributed to kakodyle by Woiihlcr is: 
 
 (r-n \ t ; »nd to kakodylic oxide (alcarsinc) he assigns 
 
 (C Jl^J'jAS 
 
 the formula [(CIIajiAsl-jO. The latter is formed, with Unlc- 
 oili/Hc arid (CII3 l-j.'Vs.OlI. by the .slow oxidation of kako- 
 dyle. It is only kakodyle itself which fumes and inflames 
 spontaneously in the air, and it confers these properties on 
 the mixture called '* liquor of Cadet." 
 
 Humanity revolts from the use of this agent, kakodyle, 
 in human warfare, and it never will be thus employed, as 
 its emi)loyers would place themselves without the pale of 
 humanity. The power to prepare such terrific agents has 
 doubtless been conferred upon man to enable him to cope 
 successfully with beasts of prey anil deadly reptiles and 
 serpents, which in some countries prove too powerful tor 
 tlio untaught natives, and actually have been known to 
 depopulate large districts of the earth, and render theiu 
 impenetrable by civilized man under ordinary conditions. 
 
 11. WtltTZ. 
 
 Kalnfat', town of Roumania, in Little AVallacliia, in a 
 plain on llie left bank of llie Diuuibc, nearly opposite to 
 Widin. Partly by its natural position, and partly by its 
 artificial fortifications, it commands entirely the approach 
 to the Danube here, and was the scene of very severe eon- 
 tests between the Russians and the Turks in 1829 and in 
 ISJI. Pop. about 2600. 
 
 Kalnkau'a (Davih). b. at Honolulu Nor. Ifi, lS.'?(5.and 
 desecddcd from an ancient king of the islands of Hawaii. 
 Together with Lunalilo and other hereditary chiefs, he was 
 educated in the royal school of Honolulu, a thoroughly 
 English institution, and in ISdO he visited California. 
 When l.unalilo died (Feb. X, 1S7I) without having pro- 
 claimed a successor. Kalakaua was eleeteil king (Feb. 12) 
 by the legislature, .'i9 votes being given to him, and only (i 
 to the queen-dowager, Emma, his rival to the throne. A 
 riot took place in favor of Emma, but was speedily put 
 down by niil from the British and American ships of war 
 present! and Kalakaua was installed on the same day as 
 the seventh king of the Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 KnI'aina, city and tp., cap. of Cowlitz CO., Wash. Ter., 
 on the right liank of Columbia River, 45 miles from Port- 
 land, Or., and fi5 miles S. E. of .\storia. southern terminus 
 of the Pacific division of the Northern Pacific R. It., now 
 eomrileted 105 miles northward to Tacoma. Kalama was 
 first laid out in Feb., 1871, and was incorporated as a city 
 in the same vear, in consequence of its selection as tbo 
 head-quarters of the above-mentioned railroad co., which 
 erected buildings for ofliccs, car and machine shops, a ware- 
 house, and a wharf 700 feet long. It has several large ho- 
 tels, 2 churches, 1 newspaper, 1 public-school edifice, a jail, 
 anil a fire department: and is the highest ]ioint on Colum- 
 bia River to which deep-sea vessels can ascend without 
 lightering cargo. Within a few miles northward are exten- 
 si\-e coal-miiu's, ami on every side are forests of fine tim- 
 ber. Kalama Creek, rising at the base of Mount St. Helen, 
 supplies unlimited water-power, .^almon fishing, in the 
 Columbia River, for canning and export, is a profitable in- 
 dustry. U. »S. mails received daily from Paget Sound by 
 rail, and twice a day by steamers connecting with overland 
 mail from California. 
 
 M. H. & M. L. MosKV, Eds. " Beacon."
 
 1494 
 
 KALAMATA— KALMAR. 
 
 Kalama'ta, risiDg tovrn of Greece, at the hend of the 
 Gulf of KuroD. and carries on a brisk trade in oil^ figs, and 
 cocoons. Pop. 6'JOO. 
 
 Kalamazoo', county of S, W. Michigan. Area. 576 
 square miles. It is very fertile, and diversified with prai- 
 ries, oak-openings, and forests. It is traversed by numer- 
 ous rivers, and by five lines of railroad. Cattle, grain, 
 wool, buiter, and bay are staple |)roduets. The manufac- 
 tures include carriages, wagons, lumber, cooperage, flour, 
 saddlery, etc. Cop. Kalamazoo. Pop. ;J2,0j4. 
 
 Kalamazoo, post-v. and tp., cap. of Kalamazoo co., 
 Mich., on the Michigan Central, the Kalamazoo division 
 of the Lake Shore and Mirhigan .Southern, the Grand 
 Rapids and Indiana, and the Kalamazoo and ,South Haven 
 R. Rs., 40 miles from Lake Michigan and 143 miles from 
 Detroit. Situated on the river of the same name, with a 
 fine location and splendid water-power. Kalamazoo is a 
 beautiful and wealthy place, having 12 churches, 2 fine 
 libraries (one of 5000 vols.), a gallery of art. 2 national and 
 
 1 savings bank. 1 college. 2 female seminaries, a fine sys- 
 tem of public schools, and several private schools, 1 daily, 
 
 2 weekly, and 2 monthly periodicals. AVatcr is supplied 
 on the Holly system by 10 miles of pipes and 100 hydrants. 
 There is an effective fire department with a fire-alarm tele- 
 graph ; the manufactures are extensive, embracing iron 
 machinery, steel springs, carriages, pianos, billiard-tables, 
 elevators, clothes-pins, woodwork of Tarious kinds, and 
 paper. There is a public park, and a driving-park with a 
 superior track. The Michigan asylum for the insane is 
 located here, accommodating 400 to tJOO patients. Kala- 
 mazoo is the fnurth town of the State in size. Pop. of v. 
 UlSl : of tp. 10,447. Geo. Torrey, Fon *• Telegraph." 
 
 Kalamazoo College, Mich., was incorporated as a 
 college in ISoo. It had previously been a branch of the 
 University of Michigan. Its founders were Baptists, and 
 a majority of its board of trustees are of the same body of 
 Christians. But other denominations have always been 
 represented in its board of trustees, and generally in its 
 faculty. It admits both sexes to an equal share in its in- 
 struction and to the same courses of study. The buildings 
 are very finely situated, and the campus includes about 25 
 acres. Rev. Kenrlall Brooks. D. D., has been since 1868 
 the presirlcnt of the college, whicli embraces f 1S72) 6 male, 
 4 female instructors: 1*8 male. 71 female students. 
 
 Kalamazoo River risi>s in Hillsdale eo., Mich., flows 
 gent-rally W. N*. W. to Kalamazoo, and thence X. "VV. to 
 La^e Michigan. It is 200 miles long, :i50 feet wide at its 
 mouth, and is navig.ible 40 miles for boats. It flows 
 through a level and fertile region. 
 
 Kal'amo, post-tp. of Eaton CO., Mich. Pop. 1363. 
 
 Kalb MoiiN). Barox pe. See De Kalb. 
 
 KaTbe, town of Prussia, in the province of Saxony, on 
 the Saale. It has considerable manufactures of cotton and 
 paper. Pop. 7386. 
 
 Kalb'fleisch (Martin), b. at Flushing, in the \etber- 
 lands, Feb. 8. 1804; was well educated, and in youth paid 
 special attention to chemistry; went as a supercargo (o 
 Sumatra, and afterwartls became a merchant in France; 
 in 1826 came to the V. S., where he acquired great 
 wealth as a manufacturer of colors and chemicals, at first 
 at Harlem. X. Y., and later in Connecticut; in 1841 es- 
 tablished the same business at Green Point, L. I.: took 
 a prominent place as a Democratic politician, was sent 
 to Congress in 1862, and chosen mayor of Brooklyn, X. Y., 
 in 1867. He was distinguished for mercantile integrity. 
 gor>d judgment in business, and public spirit. D. Feb. 12, 
 1873. 
 
 Kale, a variety of Bra^iica oleraceay the species of 
 cruciferous plant to which the cabbage, turnip, etc. belong. 
 There are many sub-varieties — some biennial, others with 
 a perennial root. Kale is grown in kitchen-gardens for its 
 leaves, which are boiled as potherbs. The plant is often 
 called borecole. In Great Britain the sea-kale ((^VfimA/" 
 mnritimn),ix |ilant allied to the above, is extensively raised 
 in gardens. Its leaves are not palatable until after blanch- 
 ing, when they are highly prized as food. 
 
 Kalei'dosoope TGr. koAm. "beautiful." <T8o?, "form." 
 and txKonttv, to •■ see "], an instrument invented in 1817 by 
 Brewster, consists of a tube containing two or more longi- 
 tudin.ll stripes of glass mirror, whose reflecting surfaces 
 are inclined to each other at an oven-numbered aliquot part 
 of four right angles; that is. ntfiO'^. 45°, 36°, etc.. which are 
 respectively one-sixth, one-eighth, and one-tenth of a circle. 
 At one end of the tube is an eye-piece: at the other, two plain 
 glasses, the outer one ground. Between these glasses are 
 bits of bright-eolored glass, dia^ihanous beads, and the 
 like. The reflection of these ohjects is multiplied by the 
 mirrors, ami constitutesasymmetrical image often of great 
 beauty. It is of considerable use in the arts as an aid in 
 
 devising new patterns for calico-printers and other deco- 
 rative purposes. 
 
 Kaler'gris (Demetriis). b. in the island of Candia in 
 1803, and educated at St. Petersburg by an uncle. In the war 
 of independence he fought with great valor, but was taken 
 prisoner by the Turks, who cut off one of his ears. Later 
 on he partook with great passion in all p^ilitical movements 
 in his native country, and from 1843 to 1.S45 held the oflico 
 of minister of war; but his influence was nevertheless not 
 great, as he was suspected of receiving pay from Russia. 
 After 18-16 he lived partly in London, where he became in- 
 timately acquainted with Prince Louis Napoleon, partly in 
 different places in Greece, until he was sent in 1861 as am- 
 bassador to Paris. D. at Athens Apr. 24, 1867. 
 
 Kalevala. See FiNNisn Langitage and Literathre. 
 
 Kalgan', an ill-built but large and populous town of 
 China, on the route from Peking to Kiakhta, on the Yang- 
 ho, near the Great Wall, in lat. 40° 50' X., Ion. 115° 3', 
 and is of great importance for the overland trade between 
 China and Russia. 
 
 Kal^uev% or Kol^uev, an island in the Arctic Ocean, 
 
 belonging to the government of Archangel. Russia. It is 
 inhabited only by a few Simoyed families, but visited o.ich 
 summer by a great number of fowlers on account of the 
 multitude of eider-duck?, swans, and geese which brood 
 here, and whose feathers and eggs are very valuable. 
 
 Kali'da, post-v., Union tp., Putnam co., 0. Pop. 290. 
 
 Kalida'sa^ an Indian poet, author of the drama Sahun- 
 tah'i, translated by Sir William Jones in 1789, and into 
 German by Forster in 1790. Many other poems are attrib- 
 uted to him. but with less certainly. The date assigned to 
 Kalidasa by different scholars ranges from the first to the 
 eleventh century a. d. 
 
 Kaliha'ri Desert, the name of a large territory of 
 Southern Africa, of undefined boundaries, but mostly ex- 
 tending between Ion. 20° and 30° E.. and between lat. 21° 
 and 28° S. It consists of an almost level plain, without 
 springs or streams. The surface is mostly covered with 
 fine sand, resting on a bed of red sandstone, and in many 
 places presenting a striking resemblance to Sahara, Rain 
 is very rare. Grass-plains and groups of acacia trees 
 form the transition from the desert to the fertile tracts. 
 Ostriches, giraffes, and antelopes arc met with. 
 
 KaMisch (PArin). b. of Jewish parentage at Breslau 
 Feb. 23, 1820; lived, engaged in literary pursuits, first in 
 Paris, then in Leipsic. and at last in Berlin, where he 
 founded Kfiidiferadaturh in 1848. and d. Aug. 21, 1872. He 
 also wrote a number of local farces, which were performed 
 with great success on all the stages of Xorthern Germany. 
 The songs of these farces and from KlaihhradaUvh have 
 been collected underthc title Bfrliner Lcierkaaten. 
 
 Ka'lispels,or Pen<lsd'.Oreilles,atribe of Indians 
 belonging to the Sclish group, living in the Territories of 
 Washington. Idaho, and Montana, and ui British Colum- 
 bia. They have been partially civilized by Catholic mis- 
 sionaries. The MontaiHl band is the largest, numbering 
 ' 1000; that in Idaho numbers 700. and that in Washington 
 \ Territory, 400. The latter inhabits the valley of Kalispcl, 
 I E. of Cascade range, which gives name to the tribe. 
 ! Ka'lisz, town of Russia, in the government of Warsaw, 
 ; on the Prosna. It is one of the oldest Poli.-'h towns, situ- 
 ated in a fertile and well-cultivated region, and carrying 
 on quite an extensive trade. Pop. 11,778. 
 
 Kalkas'ka, county of the southern peninsula of Mich- 
 igan. .Area. 540 square miles. It is traversed by the 
 Manistee River and co\*ered by dense forests. Pop. 424. 
 
 Kalkaska^ post-v.. cap. of Kalkaska co.. Mich., on the 
 Grand Rapids and Indiana R. R.. 137 miles X. of Grand 
 Rapids and 58 miles S. of Little Traverse Bay. in the midst 
 of a vast lumber-region; has 1 newspaper and a fair pro- 
 vision of churches, schools, stores, and business accommo- 
 dations. The streams are noted for a plentiful supply of 
 brook-trout. The county was recently organized, and had 
 but 424 inhabitants in 1870, since which time the village 
 of Kalkaska has sprung up with a present (1874) pop. of 
 about 1700. C. P. Sweet. Ed. " Kalkaskian." 
 
 Kalm (Peter), a Swedish botanist, b. in East Bothnia 
 in 1715: was educated at Abo and Tpsal ; travelle<l exten- 
 sively in Europe: was sent by the Swedish government, at 
 the instance of his friend Linnaeus, to Xorth America, where 
 he travelled 1748-51 : returned to Abo. where he was 
 botanical professor, and published (1753-61; in English 
 1772) an account of his .American travels. He also pub- 
 lished a large number of works on natural science and other 
 subjects. D. Nov. 16. 1779. 
 
 Kal'mar, or Calmar, an old but interesting and well- 
 built town of Sweden, is situated on an island in Kalmar
 
 KALMIA— KAMEHAMEHA V. 
 
 1495 
 
 Gounil, and cominuincates with its suburb? on the maiDlnnd 
 by a long stone l.riilgc It has a pood harbor, considerable 
 trade, and i-oine maniifuctures. In its old eastic, now de- 
 cayed, the treaty was jiijrncd in }'.i\)7 by which QncL-n Mar- 
 pretho of Doriniark united the three Scandinsiviun king- 
 doms, Sweden. Xurway. and Denmark, under oiio crown. 
 The instrument was [.oorly digested, making minute slip- 
 ulations for petty affairs, and no provisions for great events. 
 Thus it became a source of calamities to all the three 
 kingdoms. In ntodern times, however, since the idea of a 
 Scandinavian union has taken hold once more of the minds 
 of the Scandinavian people, the failure of the first attempt 
 has been forgotten, and the old city where it took place has 
 become quite an object of enthusiasm. Louis X^■l^. and 
 Charles X. of France lived here during their exile. P. 8S13. 
 
 Karmia [named in honor of Peter Kalm]. a genus of 
 shnihs of the order Krieaeeic, evergreens and natives of 
 North America. The V. S, have at least six species, of 
 which the mountain laurel, spoon-wood, or calico-bush (A"". 
 Intifnlin) is the best known. It is a large, handsome shrub, 
 with beautiful flowers, highly ornamental in cultivation. 
 The leaves of K. auffunti/t>lia are very poisonous when 
 eaten by sheep. They have been employed in medicine. 
 
 Kaloc'sa, town of Hungary, on the Danube, 70 miles 
 P. of Pc?th. It is (he see of an archbishop. In its im- 
 mediate vicinity is Lake Kolon, famous for its delicate fish. 
 Pup. 12, SOS. 
 Kalon?. See Fi.visg Fox. 
 
 Kalil'j^a, government of European Kussia, bounded by 
 Smolensk. Moscow, and Tula. .Vrea, 12,17'i square miles. 
 Pop. l)S4,2JJ. The ground is low, the surface flat, the soil 
 stony and not very fertile. The largest part of (lie country 
 is covered with forests. Rye and oats are the common 
 crops ; flax and hemp are extensively cultivated ; distilling 
 and manufactures of linen arc the chief branches of in- 
 dustry. 
 
 Kaluga, town of European Russia, the capital of the 
 government of Kaluga, on the Oka. It has very important 
 manufiiclures of sailebtih and leather, and an extensive 
 trade in corn. Pop. .'M'l.OSO. 
 
 KalWf town of Wiirtemberg, on the Xagold, is the 
 principal seat of the lumber-trade in the Black Forest. 
 Pop. s:>^2. 
 
 Ka'ma, a river of European Russia, rises in the gov- 
 ernment of Viatka, and flows through Perue, Orenbourg, 
 and Kasan, where, after a course of 1 100 miles, it joins the 
 Volga. It is navigable Ht miles from its sources, and forms 
 a very important line of traflic. 
 
 Kamba'lia, or Seraia, a seaport in the Gulf of Cutch, 
 on the W. coast of India, opened to commerce about 1S70, 
 and pronounced by the Indian coast survey to bo one of 
 the safest and most commodious harbors on the Malabar 
 coast. 
 
 Kambalu', the ancient capital of the Chinese ompiro 
 under Kiiblai Khan, the founder of the Mongol dynasty, 
 was visited by several Europeans in the thirteenth century, 
 who have described its inagnilieence. The ruins of Kam- 
 balu have recently been found a few miles to the W. of 
 Peking. 
 
 Kamre'la, or Kama'la, a drug consisting of a red- 
 brown powder from the capsules of f(i>l((pru tlnrton'tt, a 
 small euphorbiaceous tree of India, China, .id Australia, 
 It is iiseu in medicine for killing the tapeworm, which it 
 usually aecompli.-'hes with great promptitude. It is a smart 
 cathartic, and is used for skin diseases. In lu'lia it is ex- 
 tensively use«l as a dyeslufl", making a deep red color. 
 
 Kainrha^moha l.^ the conqueror and first king of the 
 rn/fV'- grnup of (he Hawaiian (or Sandwich) Islanils. at the 
 deal h of his unele, Kuhiniopu, king of Hawaii, in 1 7^1. in- 
 herited the hend-chiefslii[p of a part of that island. Of un- 
 common mental and physical f|uickness. strength, and cour- 
 ng**, ati'l with the udvnrilage iif s"ine foreiun-buiU vessels 
 and (he tiid of firearms in thr' hnnds of a few Europeans, ho 
 soon conquered the other chiefs of that island, and one 
 ftfler another the other i.shinds ft-ll under his sway, so that 
 in isn he was the aekiinwiedgfd sovereign of the group, 
 and had ai-quired (he f-nl»ri<|U<'t of "(he Nap'deon of the 
 Pacific." As a ruler be was vigilant and strict, placing 
 authority only in trustworthy hands, and keeping near his 
 person nnri under eonlml those eonquereil and rival high 
 chiefs from whom he hml the most to fear. Hi>t friends and 
 favorite warriors were llberallv rewarded, and his enemies, 
 If Rpared. eloxely wntehfd. He valued the superior know- 
 ledge and skill of while men, and kept several employed as 
 mechanics, etc. On Miiy 8, 1SI9. n few months before the 
 first missionaries nf tb" A. P. ''. F. M. sailed from PoRton 
 for his country, he died. By his queen of higbrst rank. 
 Kenpuolani, ho left (wo sons and one daughter. The oMest 
 
 son, Liholiho, succeeded bim under the title of Kame- 
 hameha IT. Charles R. Pisiior. 
 
 Kainehnincha II, (Liiiomho) did not inherit the best 
 qualities of his father. He was intemperate and given to 
 pleasure; but by abolishing idolatry and the more oppres- 
 sive tabus ho prepared the way for the missionaries, who 
 received permission to land and commenced their labors in 
 Mar., 1S20. Fearing that he might not be able to retain 
 control of his kingdom, he desired to secure the friendship 
 and protection of the king of Great Hritain. In Xov., IS2.'^, 
 he sailed for England with his favorite queen (Kamanialu). 
 a few chiefs, and servants. They were well received ami 
 kindly treated by the sovereign and people, but. taking the 
 measles soon after their arrival in London, both king and 
 queen died in July, 1S21. chiMless, Their renmins and 
 tneir suite were returned to their island-home in H. B. M. 
 ship Blonde, under command of Capf. Lord Byron. 
 
 CiiAui.KS R. Bishop. 
 
 Kamehameha III. (Kanikkavli.i). brother of Li- 
 holiho, b. in 1814, came to the throne in ISit.T (two 
 of the queens of Kamehameha II., Kaahumanu and 
 Kinau, having ruled successively as regents since 182^). 
 He was educated by the American missionaries. Bright, 
 amiable, wild, and dissipated in his youth, and always 
 careless in the choice of his associates, he yet liptoned to 
 good advice in affairs of state, and wisely followed it. Tn 
 18:i7 he married much below his own rank. In ISIO he 
 gave his people a written constitution and a simi)lc code 
 of laws, and in 1852 a new and very liberal constitution. 
 The independence of his government was aeknowlcdged by 
 the U. S. in 1842. and by Great Britain and France in 18-1.1. 
 With the concurrence of the chiefs he gave in 18-IS Innfls 
 in fee simple to llic common people, so that nearly all heails 
 of families were laudhohlers. Treaties wore made with Iho 
 C. S.und with several European countries, and great prog- 
 ress was made in education, civilizatiim, agriculture, and 
 commerce. The king adopted as his heir and successor his 
 youngest nephew, Alexander Liholiho. On Feb. 28, 1842, 
 Lord George Paulct forced him to cede the islamls to Great 
 Britain, but Admiral Thomas, commander-in-chief of the 
 squadron, restored the flag and sovereignty July HI, ISVA. 
 In 184G a new eoiie, establishing a more systematic gov- 
 ernment, with courts of various grades, was promulgated. 
 The more responsible offices were filled bv foreigners, of 
 whom Rev. William Richards. Dr. G. P. Judd. R. C. Wyllie, 
 William L. Lee, and Rev. K. Armstrong were the mn?t 
 prominent and useful. This king, called ** Kamehameha 
 the Good," deserved the love and gratitude of his pecqile. 
 D.Bee. 15, 1854, at the age of forty years, childless, ami bis 
 adopted nephew succeeded him. Chaiu.ks R. Bishop. 
 
 Kamehameha IV. (Alk.xandbr Liholiho), b. Feb. 
 9, ]8;J1, succeeded his undo in Dec, 1854. He was edu- 
 cated in the Young Chief's School under tlie care of Mr. 
 and Mrs. Cooke. In 1849-50 he and his older brother, Lot 
 Kamcbamehn, visited the U. S., Englaml. and France. 
 Juno 2, ISjIi, he married Emma, adopted daughter of Dr. 
 T. C. B. Uookc. and May 20, 1S57, a son, the jtrince of 
 Hawaii, was born, to the great joy of the whole natirm. 
 Kamehameha IV. was a brilliant and agreeable gentleman. 
 in accomplishments and talents 8uperi(tr to any other of 
 his race ; hamlsome in form, graceful, fond of military and 
 civic pnrade, of sports and society, and generous to a fuilt. 
 When excited with wine he wns piissionate and reckless. 
 U'\» love for his country and people was intense: his pros- 
 pects for a long and prosperous reign seemed fair, and 
 through his son he hoped for the perpetuity of his dynasty : 
 hut in Aug.. 1802. the young prince died after a short ill- 
 ness. The king never recovered from the efl'eet of the grief 
 and disappointment caused by that loss, and it undoubtedly 
 shortene<l his life. He took an active interest in the iutro- 
 ducti<m and progress of the " Reformed Catholic Mission." 
 The l^ueen's Hospital in Honolulu was established in ]^Ct(\ 
 by the aid of subscriptions solicited by him in person, and 
 ho kept up a deep interest in it to tho end of his life. Tlio 
 rapid and constant decrease of his people was to him. as it 
 also was to his brother and successor, a depressing and dis- 
 couraging fact. D.Nov. :J0, 18G;1. CnAni,i:.s R. Bisnop. 
 
 Kamehameha V, (Lor Kamkiiamkha), b. Dec. II. 
 1S;;0, sueceeiied his younger brother in Nov., lSfi;L He hiid 
 been minister of the interior and eommander-in-ehief of the 
 forces. Like his predecessor, he. too. was a well-educated 
 and ogreeablo gentleman, though less aceonijdished and 
 more retiring. His experience in public nfl'airs, high rank, 
 firmness, and comman*ling presence nimle him eminently 
 litted to be the ruler of his people, and al bis accession ho 
 was even more popular with his native subjects than his 
 brother had been. While prince he hacl been dissipated, 
 but before ho became king he reformeil. and the cdiange was 
 permanent. On coming to the throne h<' declined to tako 
 I the oath to tho constitution of 1852, considering it not
 
 1496 
 
 KAMEKE, VON-KANAKIS. 
 
 binding upon him to do so, and that the constitution was 
 too democratic for the good of his people. In lS6i he 
 called a convention of the nobles and delegates of the peo- 
 ple to make a new constitution, but disagreeing with the 
 third estate, and believing the opposition to be factious 
 and unreasonable, he dissolved the convention, grantid the 
 present constitution, and took the oath to support it. ^N hile 
 the masses seemed to be quite satisfied with the change, by 
 many he was severely censured for this step ; but those who 
 knew hira the best, though disapproving of the manner in 
 which the change was made, had, and now have, no doubt 
 that patriotism and a determination to promote the inter- 
 ests of his government and people controlled his action. 
 He was too proud to take much pains to disabuse the 
 minds of those who misjudged and blamed him. ^\ ant ot 
 sympathy between the king and that part of the foreign 
 community who were of radical, democratic, and progres- 
 sive tendencies had the effect to make him suspicious and 
 exclusive, and to strengthen the influence of those who lor 
 various reasons took more pains to agree with and please 
 him— an influence not always wholesome or honorable. IIis 
 energy and his disposition to engage in trade and specula- 
 tion, for which he had not been trained, did not increase 
 his estate, and in the latter part of his life he got the repu- 
 tation of being avaricious and grasping. His character 
 was a strange one. He was strong-minded, fearless, and 
 firm, and yet superstitious; generous even to wastefulness 
 with Fome, and with others close even to injustice; afl"ec- 
 tionatc and confiding towards those who won his respect, 
 and suspicious and reticent towards others equally worthy. 
 Partly out of regard for the memory of his brother, and 
 also from a real interest in good morals and education, he 
 gave liberal aid to the Reformed Catholic Mission and its 
 schools. He was never married, and left no heir to the 
 throne. On his deathbed he requested his kinswoman, 
 Mrs. Bernice Panahi Bishop, to become his successor, but 
 she declined, and he expired soon after without making 
 any appointment according to law. P. Pec. 11. lS72,that 
 being his forty-second birthday. Cihri-es P.. Bishop. 
 
 Ka'meke, von (Gf.oro Arnold C.vri.I, b. June 14, 
 1817: entered the military service in ls:j4; in ISjO was 
 made a captain in the staff, and fromlSoG to If 58 was mil- 
 itary attache to the Prussian ambassador at Vienna. He 
 was" then created a lieutenant-colonel, and appointed chief 
 of the engineering department of the ministry of war. In 
 ISCl he received the command of a regiment of infantry, 
 in 1863 became chief of stafl' of the 8th army corps, and in 
 1SG5 m.ijor-general and chief of stafl' of the 2d array corps. 
 In (his position he took part in the war of 18CC against 
 Austria, and received the decoration pour le mi'rilc. In 
 ISfiT he was made inspector-general of the engineering 
 corps and the fortresses, and in 18C8 lieutenant-general. In 
 the war of 1870-71 with France ho first commanded the 
 14th infantry division, occasioned tlio battle of Saarbriickcn 
 (.\ug. 6, 1870), and took part in the battles of Aug. M, IG, 
 andls. After the surrender of Metz he was ordered to take 
 Thiouville and lav siege to Mezieres and Longwy. Hence 
 he was called to Paris to superintend the works during the 
 siege. After tho war he occupied his old position as in- 
 spe'ctor-general of the fortresses and the engineering corps, 
 and in 1874, when Gen. von Roon retired, ho was made 
 minister of war. Ai r.t st Niem.1xx. 
 
 Kames (Hkxrv Home), LoRn,b. at Kames. Berwick- 
 shire, in IGOC ; was educated at Edinburgh, and passed ad- 
 vocate in 1724; became a judge of tho court of session, 
 with the title of Lord Kames, 1752, and in 1703 became a 
 lord of justiciary. He published several legal works, chiefly 
 volumes of decisions and the like, but his fame mainly 
 rests upon the Prbiciphu of MoraUli/ 'uid Natural Relig- 
 ion (1751), and especially on tho EInnaiti of CriUciem 
 (1762), a >vork which once had a wide influence. As a 
 jurist he was just and able. D. Bee. 27, 1782. 
 
 Kamin'etz Podolsk, town of Russia, in tho govern- 
 ment of Podidia. on the Smotritza, near the Austrian fron- 
 tier. It is beautifully situated, fortified, and has a Gothic 
 cathedral. Pop. 17,109. 
 
 Kamiscliin', town of European Russia^ in the govern- 
 ment of Saratov, at the influx of the Kaniischinka in the 
 Volga. It has some manufactures. Pop. 7651. 
 
 Kamouras'ka, county of Quebec, Canada, extending 
 from the .St. Lawrence to the Plate of Maine. It is trav- 
 ersed by the Grand Trunk Railway. Pop. 21,254. 
 
 Kamouraska, post-v. of Kamouraska co., Quebec, 
 Canaila, 'JO miles below Quebec, on the S. shore of the St. 
 Lawrence. It is a summer resort, and has a nunnery and 
 academy. Pop. of v. 797: of parish, adilitional, 1484. 
 
 Kam'pPn, town of the Netherlands, in the province of 
 Overvssel, on the Vssel, near its outlet in tho Zuyder-Zee. 
 It was formerly a town of greater importance, but has still 
 
 and 
 
 considerable manufactures of paper, ropes, bricks, 
 spirits. Pop. 13,902. 
 
 Kampen, van (Nikolais Godfried), b. at Haarlem 
 May 15, IT"ti : was apprenticed in a bookstore, but devoted 
 him'self' with great zeal to the study of languages and his- 
 tory, and became professor at the University of Leyden in 
 the butch language, literature, and history in 1816. He 
 was a very prolific writer, but his principal work is Ge- 
 siliieihms'drr Xcdirlanllni luhen Eiiropa (Uaarlcm, 1831- 
 33). D. at Amsterdam Mar. 14, 1839. 
 
 Kamp'fcr (ExcELBREcnT), b. Nov. 16, 1651, at Lemgo, 
 in the principality of Lippe, Germany : studied medicine 
 at Kiinigsberg; accompanied in lf.38 a ■'Swedish embassy 
 to Persia as secretary : wont then with a Dutch fleet as 
 physician to the East'lndics and Japan ; returned in 1692, 
 anil d. in his native town Nov. 2. 1716. Of his voUiniinous 
 writings on the countries he visited, the [fliitori/ of Japan 
 and S7nm was published in London in 1727. in 2 vols., but 
 most of the rest remain unpublished iu the British Museum. 
 Kamptu'licon, a sort of floor-covering composed of 
 eutta-pcrcha and caoutchouc (or linseed oil), mixed with 
 naphtha and powdered cork, and rolled into sheets, which 
 arc calendered, dried, and painted or printed in imitation 
 of floor-cloths. It is expensive, but warm, noiseless, and 
 waterproof. It is, however, not durable. 
 
 Kamptz, von (Karl Albert Christoph HEixnicn), 
 b at Schwcrin Sept. 16, 17G9 ; studied jurisprudence at 
 Gottin.'cn, and held from 1790 to 1830 difl-erent judicial 
 positions in Mecklenburg and Prussia. From 1830 to LS42 
 he was Prussian minister of justice, and contributed very 
 much, both by his writings and by his practical measures, 
 to harmonizo" the difi'crent legislation of the several divis- 
 ions of the Prussian state: but his bearing towards the 
 liberal movements of his time was arbitrary and odious; 
 the students burnt his Codex der Gendarmerie at W arlburg 
 in ISIJ. D. at Berlin Nov. 3, 1849. 
 
 Kamtchat'ka, a large peninsula of South-eastern Si- 
 beria, 850 miles long, and at its greatest width 250 miles 
 broad, extending between the Sea of Kamtchatka and the 
 Sea of Okhotsk, and terminating in a long, narrow tongue 
 forming Cape Lopatka. It is traversed from N. to S. by a 
 range of volcanic mountains, whose craters mostly are ex- 
 tinct thouffh Klintchewskaia. 16,152 feet high, was seen in 
 full activity in 1829. The soil is generally stony, though 
 there arc fertile valleys, especially that along the river 
 Kamtchatka. But even hero the land is unfit for agricul- 
 ture on account of the severity of the climate. The winter 
 lasts nine months, and frost is not rare in the summer; for- 
 ests of birch and pine trees grow. The inhabitants, num- 
 bering from 5000 to 6000, are nio.^lly Kamtchadales. who 
 live by hunting and fishing. Bears, sable, foxes, otters, 
 beavers, seals, and salmon abound. The only domestic 
 animal is the dog, a peculiar species, large, strongly built, 
 silver-n'ray or yellowish-brown. These dogs do not bark 
 or hovTl, and, l"ike the wolves, they see better during the 
 ni-'ht than in the daylight. They arc sagacious and docile ; 
 when harnessed, ten or twelve couples, to a sleigh, they 
 are governed bv the voice and tho whip, without reins. But 
 thev are exceedingly wild, attacking every animal they 
 meet, and sometimes even children. They live on fish. Tho 
 principal town is Petropaulovski, on the E. coast, in lat. 
 53° N. 
 
 Kanabec', county of E. Minnesota. Area, 540 square 
 mi'es. It is traversed bv Snake River, and is larpcly cov- 
 ered with forests of pine and larch. Tho surfaco is uneven. 
 Cap. Brunswick. Pop. 93. 
 
 Kanaga'wa, town of Japan, on tho Bay of Teddo, 16 
 miles from the city of that name. In 1859, Kanagawa 
 was opened to foreigners, and very soon it developed a 
 considerable trade. 
 
 Ka'naris (Coxstastise), b. in the island of Ipsara in 
 17911. and commanded a small merchant vessel when the 
 war uf independence broke out. But his exploits soon 
 made his name known to the whole civilized world. June 
 19, 1822, he burnt a Turkish squadron in the canal ol t hios ; 
 Nov. 22! another in tho harbor of Tenedos; Aug. 17, 1n24, 
 a third at Cape Trogilion. In 1825 he conceived the bold 
 idea of burning the Egyptian fleet, which lay at anchor in 
 the harbor of Alexandria ready to convey the troops ol 
 MehemetAli to Peloiionnesns. The attempt failed, how- 
 ever On Aug. 5 the fire-ships were actually launchcil. but 
 at the same moment the wind turned and drove them away 
 from the Egyptian vessels. Kanaris wished to make a new 
 attempt tho'foUowing day. but for some unknown reason 
 the plan was not executed. In 1826 he commanded llio 
 fri''.-ite Hellas, and in 1827 a whole squadron, with winch 
 h.-'drove the Turkish flag out of the (ireek waters. I ndcr 
 Kin^ Otho and King Gorge he was constantly a member 
 of tho Greek diet; and held tho oftico of minister ol war
 
 KANAWHA— KAKGAROO. 
 
 1497 
 
 scvornl time?, lhou;2;h generally only for a short time. In 
 1851. Kin;; Otho iitlemptetl to buy off his oiiposilion by a 
 peiiHiiin an'l the title of udmiral. but fiiilcd : the en|»t!iin de- 
 clined both offers. In IStij he was appointed ins^pector- 
 gcnoral of the tJrcek navy. D. 1S77, 
 
 Knnn'whav county of S. W. Central West Virginia. 
 Area, about 1 IJO square miles. It is hilly and mountain- 
 ous, but fertile. Iron, coal, and salt abound. The county 
 is traversed by the fircat Kanawha River and the Chesa- 
 peake and Ohio R. R. Tobacco, cattle, grain, nnd wool 
 are the chief staples. Lumber and coopernge arc manu- 
 factured, and salt is made by boiling natural brines. Cap. 
 Kanawha Court-house, or Charleston, which is also capital 
 of the State. Pop. 22,349. 
 
 Kanawha Court-house, once the P. 0. name of 
 Chaulkston (which see), the capital of Kanawha co., W. 
 Va., and former capital of the State. 
 
 Kanawha Hiver. Sec Great and Little KAXAwnA. 
 Kandahar. See Canoahar. 
 
 Kantliyo'hi, county of S, W. Central Minnesota. 
 Area. S04 square miles. It is traversed by the St. Paul 
 and Pacific R. R. It contains innumerable small lakes, 
 has an undulating surface and a good soil, well adapted for 
 wheat. Caps. Kamliyohi Station and Lake Klizabeth. 
 Pop. 1760. Since the census of 1870, >ronongalia co. has 
 been united with it. so that the total pop. in 1870 was 4921. 
 Kandiyohi, tp. of Kandiyohi co.. Minn. Pop. 558. 
 Kandiyohi Station, a post-v., one of the county- 
 8eat3 of Kandiyohi co., Minn. It is on the St. Paul and 
 Pacific R. R., 9S miles from St. Paul. 
 
 Kan'dy, or Candy, town of Ceylon, situated nearly 
 in the centre of the island, on an elevation 1G7C feet above 
 the sea. It is the seat of the government, has many Chris- 
 tian churches, Rooddhist temples, and Mohammedan 
 mosques. Close by is a beautiful artificial lake, IJ miles 
 long and from 100 to 500 yards broad. Pop. 7000. 
 
 Kane, county of X. E. Illinois. Area, 540 square miles. 
 It is a rolling [irairie region, with abundant limestone, some 
 timber, and a very fertile soil. It is traversed by Fox River 
 and numerous railroads. Live-st<ick, grain, hay. and dairy 
 products are (he great staples. Flour, cheese, machinery. 
 and the celebrated Kigin watches (see Elgin) are made in 
 this county. Cap. Ge'neva. Pop. :i9.0!)l. 
 
 Kane, county of S. E. Utah, extending nearly across 
 the Territory from E. to W. Area, estimated at 7.>jn square 
 miles. It is traversed by the Colorado River, and contains 
 a great variety of lands and much mineral wealth. Cap. 
 Toquerville. Pop. 1513. 
 
 Kane, post-v. and tp., Greene co., 111., situated on Jaek- 
 8onville division of the Chicago .Alton antl St. Louis R. R., 
 25 miles N. of Alton, and 8 miles S. of the county-seat. 
 Carrollton. It has I bank. 2 newspapers, several business- 
 houses and 1 large school-house, nnd is surmuncled by a 
 fine farming country. Pop. of tp. 957. En. " Kxi'ucss." 
 Knne, tp. of Ronton co., la. Pop. 763, 
 Kane, tp. of Pottawattamie co., la. Pop. lOSrt. 
 Kane, post-v. of Wetmore tp.. McKean co.. Pa., on the 
 Philadelphia and Erie R. R., 19:! miles \V. X. W. of Phila- 
 delphia. It is situated on the '* Big Level," a fertile plain 
 2000 feet above the sea-level. It has grand forests of pino 
 and other timber. Here are the repair-shops and round- 
 houses of the railroad. Kane has a public piirk nf fion acres, 
 besides several private parks and a number of schools and 
 churches. 
 
 Kane (Et.isnA Kknt), M. I>., a distinguished explorer, 
 b. in Philadelphia Feb. 3, 1820, was Iho son of Judge J. 
 K. Kano of that city. He was educated at the universities 
 of Virginia and Pennsylvania: tr>c»k his medieul degree in 
 1813 ; entered the navy ; was physician to tl»e Chinese em- 
 bassy ; travelled in .\Kia, tho l>evant. and Western Africa; 
 served Id tho Mexican war, in which he was ceverely 
 wounded; sailed in lS50un<lcr I>e Haven in the first Grin- 
 nell expedition in search of Sir John Franklin ; commanded 
 the second (Irinnell expedition (185<'i-55), and discovered 
 an open polar sea. For this expedition he received sev- 
 eral goM Tuedals and other distincticms. (."^ce art. Poi.AR 
 SKAitni. by Dr. I. I. IlAVK<t.) Hi.s health, always delicate, 
 was much impaired by the terrible sufferings of this ex- 
 pedition. He published a narrative of his first polar cx- 
 f edition (1853) and of his second (2 vols., |s5n). I), at 
 lavana Feb. IC, ls57. I)r. Kane was a man of active, en- 
 terprising, and courageous spirit, and of most generous im- 
 pulses. A volume of his personal letters was published 
 ny his wife. Mnrgarctta Fox. (See his Li/f, by Dr. W. 
 Elder, 185S.) 
 
 Kane (Sir RonKnTl. M. I>., LL.D.. F. R. S.. b. at Hub- 
 lin in ISIO; was long professor of chemistry in Apotheca- 
 
 ries' Hall ; was founder and (1832-34) editor of the Dublin 
 Juunial of Medical ^'citiicc ; was 1844 — 17 professor of na- 
 tural history to the Royal Dublin Society ; was for a 
 time president of Queen's College, Cork; was knighted in 
 1846. Is a prominent member of many learned societies, 
 and has been the recipient of many honors. Is widely 
 known as the author of the Elements of Chemistri/ (1842) 
 and the Indtistriul JliHOurct-a of Ireland (1845). 
 
 Kane (Thomas L.), b. at Philadelphia Jan. 27, 1822, 
 brother of Dr. E. K. Kane, noticed above; was educated in 
 Paris, where be was intimate with Auguste Comte and 
 the democratic leaders of the day; was admitted to tho 
 bar at Philadelphia in ISItJ, but abandoned the law for 
 civil engineering; visited the Mormon settlements in 1847, 
 and acquired such influence among them that ten years 
 later (1858) he was sent to Utah by tlie l'. S. government 
 ns confidential agent to prevent the outbreak of hostilities. 
 Returning to tho profession of an engineer in "Western 
 Pennsylvania, raised and commanded in Apr.. 18fil, tho 
 famous regiment of mou!itairiecrs known as the Ruck- 
 tail Rifles; was wounded at Dranesvillo and Harrison- 
 burg, was taken prisoner at the latter engagement, ex- 
 changed in Aug., 18(i2, and appointed a brigadier-general 
 of volunteers in September. D. 1875. 
 
 Kane City, post-v. of Complanter tp., Venango co., 
 Pa. It has numerous oil-wells. 
 
 Kane'ville, i)ost-v. and tp. of Kane co., 111. Pop. 999. 
 
 Kangaroo', a name given to numerous species of mar- 
 
 Kangaroo. 
 
 supial or pouched animals living exclusively in Australia, 
 belonging to the family MAritoi'oiuDA: (which see), but more 
 especially to the large species of tho genus MorropuM. Kan- 
 garoo is a native name. The kangaroo was first made known 
 to the world by Capt, Cook, who on lauding at New South 
 Wales was astonished at tho sight of what was at first re- 
 garded as a new and very peculiar species of greyhound. 
 The kangaroo is characterized by a remarkable di.^pmpor- 
 tion between the anterior and posterior extremities, and 
 particularly l)y the presence in tho region of the abdomen 
 of a curious pouch, within whieh are the mamma?. Tho 
 malo is without this development. The licad is small and 
 resembles that of the deei, having the same mild ami 
 placid expre."si(m, as well as delicate shape. The hind feet 
 are proviiled wilh four toes, the middle <tne being much 
 larger than the others, of great strength, and provided 
 wilh a hoof-like claw. An examination of these stout and 
 extremely long hind limbs shows how well adapted they 
 are to aid the creature in its wonderful leaps. The tail, 
 which is also very stout and strong, aicls very materially 
 in the leap. Tho fore legs are very short, and are proviiled 
 with bent elaws with whiidi they hold fooil when eating. 
 Kangaroos have no canine teeth; their incisors arc six in 
 tho upper Jaw, and but two in Iho lower. The molars aro 
 ten in number in each jaw, and aro separated fri>m the in- 
 cisors by a long space. They aro exclunively hcrliivorous 
 in diet, associating in small her<ls under the guidance of 
 older males. They vary in size greatly, some species being 
 about the dimensions of a rat. while others are known to 
 measure eight feet tVoni the nose to the tip of tlie tail, and 
 to weigh over 200 pounds. The young are produced in a 
 very imperfect state, being in tho largest species not moro 
 than two inches bmg at birth. Tho newborn creatures are 
 conveyed by the mouth to tho pouch, where they attach 
 themselves to the teats, which they do not Imvo until able 
 to walk. Theso animals aro easily tamed, and aro harmless
 
 1498 
 
 KANGAROO APPLE— KANSAS. 
 
 and timid, though when brought to bay in the wild state 
 they arc said to iifz;bt with great power, u^ing their tail and 
 hind feet. Tho flesh of the kani;aroo is cistcemed a deli- 
 cacy in regions where they inlmbit. J. B. Holder. 
 
 Kangaroo Apple, the Sofmutm fnciniatum, a kind of 
 tomato growing in South America. Australia, and some of 
 tho Pacific inlands. It is useful as food, but not until per- 
 fectly ripe. The green fruit has sharply acrid properties. 
 
 Ka'nizsa, Gross-Kanizsa, or !Vagy-Kanizsa, 
 town of Hungary, inhabited partly by (jcrnians, partly by 
 Magyars, manufactures tiles and liqueurs, and carries on 
 an import trade in corn, cattle, and wine. Pop. 11,722. 
 
 Kanka'kce, county of N. E. Illinois. Area, 590 square 
 miles. It is bounded on the E. by Indiana, and consists 
 chiefly of flat prairie. Its soil is productive. Live-stock, 
 grain, wool, dairy products, and hay are tho great sta|)les. 
 Carriages and wagons are leading articles of manufacture. 
 Tho county is traversed by the Illinois Central and Chicago 
 Danville and Vincennes R. Rs. Cap. Kankakee. Pop. 
 2i,;iJ2. 
 
 Kankakee, city and tp., cap. of Kankakee co., Til., 
 56 miles directly S. of Chicago, on the Illinois Central and 
 the Cincinnati Lafayette and Chicago R. Rs., on tho N. 
 bank of Kankakee River, au affluent of the Illinois, now 
 being improved for purposes of navigation ; is situated on 
 rolling prairie-land, with easy communication to extensive 
 coal-fields and beds of bog-iron ore, in the midst of a rich 
 farming and grazing country. Kankakee contains 13 
 churches, a public-school building costing $60,000, I na- 
 tional and 2 private banks, 4 weekly newspapers (1 in 
 French), 1 sock, 1 woollen, and 2 button factories, several 
 tanneries, and wagon and carriage manufactories. Two 
 stone-quarries furnish fine building material, so that Kan- 
 kakee is one of the best built towns of the State. It has 
 excellent water-power, which is utilized by paper, planing, 
 oil, and flour mills. There is a public library successfully 
 managed by an association of ladies. Pop. of tp. 5189. 
 Arthir B. Holt, Local Ed. " Gazette." 
 
 Kankakee, tp. of Jasper co., Ind. Pop. 215. 
 
 Kankakee, tp. of La Porte co., Ind. Pop. 1185. 
 
 Kankakee River fluws AV. S. W. from St. Joseph's 
 CO., Ind., through Enfflish Lake and through a flat marshy 
 region. Joined in Kankakee co., 111., by the Iroquois or 
 r>es I'laincs River, it flows N. W., and pours its sluggish 
 waters into tho Illinois. 
 
 Kan'kari, the ancient GaDf/m. town of Asiatic Turkey, 
 in Asia Minor, on an affluent of the Halys. at an elevation 
 of 2751 feet above tho sea. It has several fine mosques, 
 khans, bazaars, and public baths, and an important trade 
 in salt. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Kano% town of the empire of Sokoto, in Central .Africa, 
 situatecl in lat. 12*^ 2' N. and Ion. S° 22' E. It hns largo 
 manufactures of cotton goods and an extensive and grow- 
 ing trade. Pop. :J0,000. 
 
 Kano'na, i)ost-v. of Bath tp.. Steuben co., N. Y., on 
 tho Rochester division of the Eric R. R. Pop. 1*J0. 
 
 Kan'sas, one of the central tier of Western States, and 
 geographically the central State of the American Union, ly- 
 
 Soal of Kansas, 
 ing between tho meridians of 9 (° 38' and 102° of W. Ion., 
 and between the parallels of ;J7° and -10° N. lat. It is 
 bounded on tho X. by Nebraska, the 40th parallel forming 
 the line of division ; E. by Missouri, tho Missouri River 
 firrming tho boundary from the -luth parallel to Kansas 
 City, and the meridian of 94° :iS' the remainder of tho dis- 
 tance ; on tho S. by the Indian Territory, on the line of the 
 37th parallel J ou tho W. by Colorado, tbo 102d meridian 
 
 forming the line of division. Its area is stated by the 
 general land-ofiice as 81.318 square miles, or 52,04.'J.520 
 acres. The form of the State is a nearly perfect parallelo- 
 I gram, only the N. E. corner being clipjied, in consequenee 
 I of following the course of the Mi.-^^ouri River instead of the 
 meridian of 94° 38'. Its length from E. to \V. ranges from 
 ' 391 to 410 miles; its breadth from N. to S. is 200 miles. 
 Surface, Etrration, Mount ft Inn, rtr. — The whole State 
 slopes gently from the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains 
 near its western border to the Missouri River. Along its 
 eastern border, from Wyandotte ai\d Kani«as City, the ele- 
 vation above the sea ranges from GI8 feet to 707 feet; at 
 Lawrence it is between 800 and 900 feet ; at Fort Riley, 
 1300 feet; 10 miles W. of Fort Riley. 1459 feet; at tho 
 mouth of Saline River, 1592 feet; where the Arkansas 
 River crosses the southern border of the State, about 1800 
 feet: near Fort Larncd, 2004 feet: near Fort Dodge. 2330 
 feet: near the Arkansas River, at the W. line of the State, 
 3047 feet; at Pond Creek, on the Kansas Pacific, 3175 feet. 
 The State has no mountains, but, though there are exten- 
 sive prairies, it is very far from being a monotonous level. 
 There are everywhere low hills or gen tte undulations divided 
 by depressed valleys existing, or former river-bottoms, or 
 in some instances ravines or canons which tho streams 
 have cut through the yielding soil. 
 
 Hirers, etc. — The Missouri River forms a part of the 
 eastern boundary of the State, but receives no important 
 tributaries from Kansas above tho point where it turns 
 eastward to flow through Missouri. At th.at point it is 
 joined by the Kansas River, one of its largest aflluenis, 
 whieh. rising in Colora<lo, traverses tho State almost cen- 
 trally from W. to E. The pnncijml branches of the Kan- 
 sas are — from the N.. Solomon's Fork, Republican Fork, 
 and Big and Little Blue rivers; from the S. AV., Smoky 
 Hill and Saline Forks. The eastern and south-eastern 
 portions of the State are drained by the Osage, an affluent 
 of the Missouri River, and the Neosho, Verdigris, Little 
 Verdigris, and Walnut Creek, tributaries of the Arkansas 
 River: while the southern and south-western portions are 
 watered by the Arkansas and its branches; the principal 
 of these are the Cimarron and its branches; Bear Creek; 
 the Little Arkansas and its affluents ; Chicaskia Creek, Ne- 
 nc-scah or Good River, Turk or Salt Creek, and Pawnee 
 Fork. The State is, as a whole, well watered, the eastern 
 and middle portions better than tho western, though tho 
 streams of that section are increasing in size and perma- 
 nency with the progress of settlement and tree-jilantirg. 
 There are some marshes, but, we bclie\e. no lakes in tho 
 State of any importance: the two or three claiming that 
 name being only deserted river-beds. 
 
 Geolofft/. — Eastern Kansas belongs to the coal-measures, 
 which comprise in the State, in one body, a tract 2flS miles 
 in length, with an average breadth of 107 miles, and an 
 area of 22,256 square miles. These arc the lowest of the 
 geological formations of the State, and are a continuation 
 of the coal-field which covers North-eastern Missouri and 
 Southern and South-western Iowa, and extends into the 
 Indian Territory and North-western Arkansas. The thick- 
 ness of the strata belonging to the coal-measures in tho 
 State varies from 403 feet to about GOO feet, the former 
 being its extent in Leavenworth co., and gradually , in- 
 creasing thence southward. These strata contain two beds 
 of bituminous coal — one of 13 feet in thickness, about 300 
 feet below the surface: the other, 100 feet lower, of 9^ feet 
 thickness. Both arc of good quality, but the lowest is tho 
 best. The dip of the coal-measures is very slight. There 
 seems to be an anticlinal axis in Wyandotte co., the dip 
 of the strata N. of it being to the N. W., and S. of it 
 to tho S. E. The Permian formation laps over tho coal- 
 measures on their western border, and in the valley of Blue 
 River is said by Prof. Swallow to be 507 feet thick. To 
 this succeed the Triassic. and probably tho Jurassic forma- 
 tions, covering a triangular tract of territory, the apex of 
 the triangle being at Fort Riley on tlie Kansas River, 
 where the Republican Fork unites with it. and extending 
 with abroad base through the Indian Territory into North- 
 ern Texas. In Kansas it extends from the point where the 
 Arkansas River crosses the boundary into Indian Territory 
 to the lOIst meridian. It is not apparently rich in fossil.s, 
 the few found being mostly ornithicnites and belonging 
 to the Lias. The Cretaceous formation, which extends over 
 the greater part of Dakota, South-western Iowa, and East- 
 ern Nebraska, crosses Kansas from N. E. to S. W in a very 
 irregular tract, pressed upon on tho N. W. and on the S. 
 by the Tertiary (Drift and Loess). It joins the Carbon- 
 iferous formation at the N. E., then separates from it by 
 the interposition of the wedge-shaped Triassic rocks, and 
 about tho central line of the State gives place to the Ter- 
 tiary for a breadth of 140 miles, when it reappears in nar- 
 row bells, extending southward into New Mexico and 
 North-western Texas. South-western and North-western
 
 KANSAS. 
 
 1499 
 
 Kansas belong to the Drift period, the larger boulders be- 
 ing found as far S. as MS" 30', while ihe deposits of pebbles 
 arc mainly confiued to South-western Kansas. There arc 
 nowhere in ihu Estate striated or grooved rocks, or those 
 which show uuirks of glaciiiL action, and the presumption 
 is that the drift must have been deposited in the geologic 
 periods from icebergs. On the banks of the Missouri, and 
 to Slime extent of the Kansas Kiver, is founcl in large 
 quantities the Loess or lilufl" deposit, sometimes 100 feet 
 in thickness, and rich in the later fossils, such as the .l/a«- 
 Mf/oii and the Elephmt gtrfanttuH, The river-bottoms and 
 the hi;;h prairies in Eastern and Middle Kansas are cov- 
 ered with heavy deposits of alluvium in thickness varying 
 from 3 to 50 feet. 
 
 Kciittomir Grnfofji/ and Minerafn/ji/. — Kansas contains, so 
 far as is known at present, no valuable mines of the pre- 
 cious metal:<, an<l from itsgeologic formations it can hardly 
 be o.\pected that these will be found. But it has an ample 
 supply of bituminous coal for all the States adjacent, and 
 this of several qualities. Lime and hydraulic lime, are 
 abundant, salt springs exist in great numbers in diflerent 
 sections of the State, and salt of excellent quality is made. 
 There are also many surface-deposits of salt of two or 
 three inches in depth, the result of the evaporation of pools 
 or streams flowing from salt springs. Marble and lime- 
 stone suitable for buibling and ornamental jiurposcs, and 
 freestone or sandstone for building and other purposes, 
 exist in the coal-measures. Gypsum is found in numerous 
 places; alum and native sulphur, and alum and nitrate of 
 potassa, occur together at several points. Rrown hematite 
 and other iron ores are found in considerable deposits, but 
 have not been much worked, the Kansas coal near the sur- 
 face not being well adapted to smelting purposes. Some 
 lead is found in connection with zinc and manganese, but 
 not in quantities 8ufli<'ient to make its working profitable. 
 Tin is reported, but its existence in paying quantities is 
 more than doubtful. Petroleum undoubtedly exists, but at 
 present prices its production would be unprolitabtc. Kaolin 
 or porcelain clay and fireclays are found in extensive de- 
 posits. Moss agates, pelcnite. and other minerals exist in 
 large quantities in Western Kansas. Fossils are found in 
 the .Turassic formation, in the Drift, and in tho Loess, somo 
 of them of great interest. 
 
 Vcffrtution ainl /iot<tui/. — The number of species of plants 
 indigenous to Kansiis is stated by the State botanist to be 
 ahuiit 1200. About (iOO of these are not in Gray's Manual, 
 antiare probably not found E. of tho lower Missouri River. 
 Kansas is not a State of largo or dense forests, and much 
 of its surface is jtrairie or plain. Aceording to the agri- 
 cultural report of tho Slate, Uii per cent, is prairie and only 
 
 Table I.— Ti 
 
 5 per cent, forest, but in the rivor-bottoms of the eastern 
 and middle sections there is a considerablu dense growth 
 of deciduous trees, of the same class as are found in most 
 of this region — the cottonwood, red and white elm, black 
 walnut, some species of oak, sycamore, box-elder, hickory, 
 and ash, hackborry, red, rock, and sugar moplc, pecan, 
 mulberry, coliee-bcan. cherry, basswood, and occasionally 
 clumps of ceclar. The hooey-loeust, buckeye, and ailanthus 
 have been introduced, and in some sections form consider- 
 able breadths of forest. There are few evergreens in the 
 State except those which have been set out by settlers. In 
 Western Kansas tree-planting has been extensively prac- 
 tised, and with great advantage. The Osage orange and 
 osier are consiilerably used for hedges and fences. The 
 rich prairies of Eastern Kansas are covered with tall and 
 nutritious grasses, and in I heir season with beautiful 
 flowers. In the W^. the grama and buffalo grasses abound ; 
 they are well adapted to the dry but fertile soil, and furnish 
 excellent pasturage. In the extreme W. the SarcohutU 
 (or pulpy thorn of Lewis and Clarke), the Artcminin or 
 wild sage, and the Obionr or grcascwood grow in clumps. 
 
 Zooloffy. — The wild animals of Kansas are such as arc 
 common to the region knoxvn as •' the Plains." extending 
 from Dakota to Texas, and comprise among the mammals 
 the black and brown bear, the wolf, possibly Hie lynx, tho 
 catamount or panther, tlic wild-cat. the ojjopsuin, raccoon, 
 prairie-wolf, the buffalo in countless herds, the deer, ante- 
 lope, two or three species of hare, several squirrels, field- 
 mice, wood-rats, etc. The prairie-dog has for some cause 
 nearly or quite disnppearcd from the State. Of the Reptilia, 
 tho number is not large; it includes tho rattlesnake, moc- 
 casin, and one or more species of the black snake, two or 
 three adders, and ten or twelve species of the innocuous 
 snakes: and among batraehians, the horned frog, as well 
 as several other species of frogs, toads, and lizards. The 
 professor of natural history in (ho State University reports 
 200 species of birds belonging to Kansas as already de- 
 scribed, and further research will probably increase tho list 
 to about 360. The rivers, except the Missouri, the main 
 streams of the Kansas and Arkansas, and perhaps the Re- 
 juibliean Fork of the former, arc shallow and partly dry in 
 tho long hot summers, and arc not in consequence so largely 
 stocked with many varieties of fish as those which have a 
 more perennial flow. There are generally the same species 
 of fish found in the other aflluents of the Missouri and 
 Mississippi, and some experiments have been made in tho 
 way of stocking the larger streams with somo of tho best 
 fish from the lakes and northern waters. 
 
 Cfiuinte. — The climate of Kansas is temperate and salu- 
 brious ; the cold, though sometimes severe in winter, is not 
 
 RMITRATURKS. 
 
 PtACn or Omsbvation. 
 
 |li 
 
 Hi 
 ill 
 
 Dc«. F. 
 
 
 HONTIILV MBAN TBMPBHATUnBB. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J.a. 
 
 Fob. 
 
 HBr. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May. 
 
 Juno. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sopt. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nor. 
 
 Doc. 
 
 Hti rl i II sam c, Osa);n CO., ) 
 lat .•«=> i',; l.in. 95* V 
 45'; nll.'JOO ft. I 
 
 Dog. F. 
 
 Dcg. F. 
 
 De(. F. 
 
 Dog. F. 
 
 DCS. F. 
 
 Dcg. F. 
 
 Dog. F. 
 
 Dog. P. 
 
 Dog. F. 
 
 Dog. P. 
 
 Dcg. p. 
 
 Dcg. P. 
 
 Dcg. P. 
 
 Dcg. P. 
 
 52.90 
 
 100 
 
 —6 
 
 32.75 
 
 33.08 
 
 45.2-5 
 
 49.12 
 
 64.90 
 
 72.45 
 
 77.08 
 
 74. 
 
 66. 
 
 63.73 
 
 44.85 
 
 20.95 
 
 Miinliallan.lat,39°ir,') 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 liin.9«'=:)9'; alt. 100<l > 
 Liavonworth, lat. M") 
 
 •52.81 
 
 98 
 
 —12 
 
 18.50 
 
 27.70 
 
 49.49 
 
 46.60 
 
 07.00 
 
 74.30 
 
 80.20 
 
 71.10 
 
 00.70 
 
 53.10 
 
 38.10 
 
 25.30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15', Ion. 94° .W; all. ^ 
 S98 fl. ) 
 
 61.0.) 
 
 99 
 
 —29 
 
 19. 
 
 .10. 
 
 42.10 
 
 48.60 
 
 63. 
 
 75.50 
 
 77.50 
 
 79.20 
 
 66.40 
 
 56.40 
 
 35. 
 
 21. 
 
 Lawn-npp, lat. M° SR'.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ion. 9.5" 10'; alt. 8S1 J- 
 
 a. J 
 
 t54.20 
 
 108 
 
 —3 
 
 28.01 
 
 27.50 
 
 39.50 
 
 48.07 
 
 69.76 
 
 77.11 
 
 83.62 
 
 83.45 
 
 67.03 
 
 56.01 
 
 38.70 
 
 31.01 
 
 Tablb II. 
 
 Fort l>ooTraworlh.. 
 
 OlalhP 
 
 Mniihmtiio 
 
 I.,»irri'nr4' 
 
 Itaxtcr Sjirinf*.,.. 
 Ucao 
 
 Fort mii'T ... 
 F'Tt llnrkor . 
 t'art I.«rn(^ . 
 
 FnrC DixIrp ... 
 Fort AtkliKon. 
 Fort WnUnce.. 
 Fori hyon .... 
 Utan... 
 
 First, or Eastern Belt. 
 
 Lai. 
 
 I,OD. 
 
 Ml 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 f. 
 
 B. 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 >• 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 ai 
 
 39"iir 
 
 w:a' 
 
 KM 
 
 II) 
 
 I.M 
 
 I.IM 
 
 2..1n S.«7 
 
 4.S" 
 
 38 U 
 
 Ul 61 
 
 
 • 
 
 l.il 
 
 1M 
 
 .1.06 4.61 
 
 (1,7! 
 
 -W 16 
 
 WI 40 
 
 iilKI, 
 
 » 
 
 0,.M 
 
 l.iM 
 
 I..18 .1.10 
 
 3.:i; 
 
 IK 68 
 
 «6 13 
 
 
 it 
 
 i.;i4 
 
 0,»7 
 
 1M I2.7J 
 
 4.0H 
 
 JT 01 
 
 Dt 44 
 
 \ 
 
 n 
 
 J.Tl 
 
 111'. 
 
 ■.'.,'.1 \im 
 
 ,!.!•- 
 
 
 
 
 ....i 
 
 
 1.96 
 
 1.73 
 
 3.01 
 
 .1.15 
 
 4.>'-- 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 I 
 
 B 
 
 o 
 VI 
 
 i 
 
 < 
 
 6 
 
 a 
 
 
 1.39 
 
 3. in 
 
 in 
 
 a.HT 
 
 ».n 
 
 11.67 
 
 7.58 
 
 1113 
 
 .14„15 
 
 1.(17 
 
 .1.116 
 
 ■i.M 
 
 ■i.-ih 
 
 14.B7 
 
 33.45 
 
 10.110 
 
 6.011 
 
 6.1.88 
 
 
 1 •.'* 
 
 1 ,j 
 
 
 11.83 
 
 13.38 
 
 (l.5« 
 
 3.31 
 
 31P,«» 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 
 
 -HD 
 
 13.07 
 
 7.66 
 
 4.18 
 
 :i3.«8 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 11 
 
 n.m 
 
 8.S0 
 
 7.30 
 
 37.™ 
 
 
 
 
 {'.oil 
 
 MM 
 
 7.90 
 
 4.93 
 
 37.07 
 
 Sfcond, or Mlildir Bell. 
 
 WW 9«°35' 1900 U 0.77 1.01 Ic) 7-,' I Iilini 
 .M 44 08 15 .... » 1.87 I.VV. 
 38 10 98 67 Iin3' 4 1o.44 in.ni 
 
 100 3.33 1 3, no 1 1. SI 1.15 0.74 I 
 > --I 0.80 14.30 13.16 0.75 3.33 
 I ll.OI 3.11 |0.37 10.76 0.331 
 III l.;» 3.39 1I..VI l0.ull.46l 
 
 9.S0 
 4.51 
 6.08 
 
 10.16 
 
 8.06 
 1.81) 
 
 5.45 
 8.18 
 3.14 
 
 S.63 
 10.16 
 
 1.61 
 
 7.87 
 
 6..13 
 
 S.II9 
 
 33,83 
 30.87 
 13.83 
 
 nird, or Wmtrm BrII. 
 
 JTOWIflOOOO .... 
 
 37 47 IMl 1 1 3^10' 
 
 38 61 '101 60l .... 
 38 08 103 60 4000 
 
 a 0.87 0,811 0.17 1,17 0,3"' 1 > 
 I '0.04 '0.411 '0.II8 3,3M ll.rti ■ 
 4 0,46 10,14 0,(11 13,00 ! 2,(1" 
 _l 0,33 0,13 0,1a ,3.011 I4.I-I 
 ... 0.43,0.M!0U 1.17 !<.37 2,1 
 
 '1,78 3,73 0.» 0,7Sll I.«3 8.37 
 1,8618,81 ll,3»ll,80l| 13.88 10,15 
 1 M 0,78 0,14 0.07 4,08 0,18 
 11,04 0.00.0.07 0,16 i_7,n8' 4..10 
 l.79",3.57]o.45jO.«4;| «.77|' 8.47 
 
 4.71 
 13,06 
 3.41 
 0.11 
 4.83 
 
 3,3(1 1' 13.90 
 3,13 I .18.01 
 0.(M 13.114 
 OA£f i 13.00 
 1.43 II 19.48 
 
 * Mean of 23 jrcsrs. 
 
 t Mean of 7 yoan, 93.14.
 
 1500 
 
 KANSAS. 
 
 protracted, and the prevalent dryness of the atmosphere 
 renders it less trying than it would otherwise be; the heat 
 of summer, though at times very great at midday, is al- 
 ways tempered by cool breezes at night. The mean tem- 
 perature of the year varies with the altitude and the de- 
 gree of raoiiiture, which is greater in the eastern than in 
 the western portion of the State. The winds are often 
 high, especially in the winter, the southerly winds exceed- 
 ing those from the N., N. W., or N. E. in the proportion 
 of 11 to 9. The preceding tables give the temperatures at 
 different points in the State, and the rainfall in several 
 localities far apart, for different years and for the several 
 seasons. 
 
 The rainfall is best shown by statistics from the three 
 longituilinal belts in Eastern, Middle, and Western Kansas, 
 as in Table TI. 
 
 Soil uiid A;/n'rultitraf Prnducttoim. — The soil of Kansas, 
 though of two kinds — the alluvium of the river-bottoms 
 and lower prairies, and the upland or plains— is all of it 
 very fertile. Probably no State in the Union has so little 
 waste or worthless land. The rit^h and fertile loam of the 
 river-bottoms, from S to 50 feet deep, at tirst attracted the 
 attention of the settlers; but it has been found that even 
 the lands of the western part of the State, forming a por- 
 tion of what was known as the '* Great American Desert," 
 will yield with moderate irrigation, or without it where 
 groves of trees have been planted, from 40 to 60 bushels 
 of wheat to the acre. Table III. gives the amount of the 
 principal crops gathered in the State in 1S74, according 
 to the assessors' returns in Dec, 187-4. These, being pro- 
 cured for the purpose of taxation, are generally consider- 
 ably below the truth. It will be remembered that 1S74 was 
 the "locust or grasshopper" year, and that Indian corn 
 and some other crops were greatly diminished by these 
 pests. The corn crop of IS73 was in round numbers nearly 
 39.000.000 bushels, and with the increased acreage that 
 of 1874. but for the '' grasshoppers." would have amounted 
 to not less than 46,000,000 bushels if an average crop. 
 There are to be added to this table several other items 
 of statistics, which are most conveniently stated in a dif- 
 ferent form. Of dairy products, there were produced in 
 the State in 1S73, 151,172 pounds of cheese made in cheese- 
 factories, and 14.'i,922 pounds made in families; in 1874 
 
 Table III, — Principal Crops ffrown in Kannua in 2S?^, trith 
 the Acreage in 1S7S and 2S74t 'Ac Quantify and t/ic Value 
 of the Crops of 1874t according to the Asaeeiiora' Returna: 
 
 
 Amount or 
 
 Valae or 
 
 Acreage for 
 IBH. 
 
 
 Products. 
 
 product in 
 
 product ID 
 
 cultitaled 
 
 
 IBT*. 
 
 
 Id 1871. 
 
 Winter wheat, bushels. 
 
 6,870,606 
 
 8.5,794,008 
 
 252.724 
 
 438,179 
 
 Rye, bushels 
 
 421,261 
 
 289.117 
 
 23.184 
 
 30,.546 
 
 Sprin;; wheat, bushels. 
 
 3,010,777 
 
 1,837,663 
 
 145,566 
 
 278.026 
 
 Corn on sud,^ 
 Corn on old ^ bushels. 
 land, j 
 
 15,099,078 
 
 12,283,142 
 
 f 112,2691 156,239 
 \1,142,070T:)69,182 
 
 Barley, bushels 
 
 414.188 
 
 .S29.488 
 
 22,7(M 
 
 24,115 
 
 Oats, bushels 
 
 7,700,.38G 
 
 4.064,424 
 
 277.729 
 
 314.926 
 
 Buckwheat, bushels.... 
 
 113,664 
 
 170.499 
 
 6,405 
 
 7.86C 
 
 Irish potatoes, bushels. 
 
 1,072,260 
 
 1.247.817 
 
 41.6,53 
 
 46.164 
 
 Sweet potatoes, bush's. 
 
 192,213 
 
 249,511 
 
 2,2:!7 
 
 2,617 
 
 Sorghum, gallons 
 
 912,12.') 
 
 540,:«8 
 
 9.908 
 
 14,103 
 
 Castor beans, bushels- 
 
 123,637 
 
 l.W.OOo 
 
 2,915 
 
 8,815 
 
 Cotton, pounds 
 
 »9,6.W 
 
 11.6.17 
 
 810 
 
 1,739 
 
 Flax, pounds 
 
 174,698 
 
 265,704 
 
 6,462 
 
 16,844 
 
 Hemp, pounds 
 
 2,331,126 
 
 116.560 
 
 1,643 
 
 3,136 
 
 Tobacco, pound.s 
 
 293,828 
 
 29,384 
 
 3,116 
 
 507 
 
 Broom corn, pounds.... 
 
 2,677,.M0 
 
 123,317 
 
 
 
 4.176 
 
 
 
 483,312 
 142,469 
 
 19.910 
 
 40.225 
 
 Hungarian, tons 
 
 21.069 
 
 12.6.i9 
 
 1.5.101 
 
 Timothv meadow, tons. 
 
 :i4,067 
 
 2.52.817 
 
 21.616 
 
 29.601 
 
 Clover ineadow, tons... 
 
 25.381 
 
 215,756 
 
 13,484 
 
 13,967 
 
 Prairie meadow under 
 
 
 
 
 
 fence, tons 
 
 322,9M 
 
 1,421,746 
 
 433,190 
 
 433.968 
 
 Tim ot b V past u re, ac r's. 
 
 
 
 1,679 
 
 ,5,016 
 
 Clover pasture, acres... 
 
 
 
 2,948 
 
 3,793 
 
 Blue-qra»s pasture, 
 
 
 
 
 
 acres 
 
 
 
 12,203 
 
 13,776 
 
 Prairie pasture under 
 
 
 
 
 
 fence, acres 
 
 
 
 829,920,734 
 
 46.5.793 
 3,037,9.57 
 
 .397.142 
 3,669,769 
 
 Total 
 
 
 the cheese-factories had increased so much that they man- 
 ufactured 2SU,401 pounds, and the family product bad 
 slightly decreased, being 141,448, the total production of 
 cheese in the State in 1874 being 4;J0.841* pounds against 
 2yj,094 jtounds in 1873. There were produced in 1873, 
 6.814,6U3 pounds of butter, and in 1874,7,457.110 pounds. 
 The number and value of farm animals, and the number 
 and product of hives of bees, in 1873 and 1874, were re- 
 spectively as follows: 
 
 No. or I No. of I 
 
 pounds of l^s. of I 
 
 honi'jr wiix io i 
 
 in 1«73. 
 
 Uulei and Asses. 
 'Number. I Value. 
 
 nR.llil SI0,:{!i.t,'t99 '' 17.S16 
 , 20-2.9r>? 10.391,633 [I 22.0M 
 
 Si.»S2.»7r 
 
 Sheep. Swioe. 
 
 .Number. [ Value. Number.' Value. 
 
 iNo. of bivps. No. of 
 or stauds of fitunds of 
 lltalianbees. DStlve bees. 
 
 634.021 sia.:m,44i 
 
 <19.»J9 1 13,124,273 
 
 51. lee i$iiy.728 380.70i Sa.oss.soii 
 
 M.KtS I 168,676 366,916 i 2.673.174 < 
 
 33,312 
 
 1540 
 
 The number of acres of nurseries, of acres and products 
 of orchanls and vineyards in 1S74, was as follows: acres 
 of nurseries, 5071.74: acres of orchards, 100,839.61 ; bush- 
 els of fruit produced, 124,9.'i7.01 ; acres of vineyards, 
 5558.87; gallons of wine made from crop of 1873, 13,561.42; 
 pounds of grapes protluced in 1874, 2,345,318. 
 
 Mnnnfurturiiuj mid Minin'j Industries, — .\ceording to the 
 census of 1>*70. Kansas had 1177 manufacturiug and 26 
 mining establishments, employing together 30.987 persons, 
 of whom 28,038 were men, 1159 women, and 1790 children. 
 The capital employed was estimated at $29,450,939; 
 the wages paid, at $9,572,624; the materials used, at 
 $29,504,086; and the annual product, at $54,800,087. 
 This includes blacksmiths' shops and a great variety of 
 small industries not requiring much machinery or power. 
 The returns to the county boards of assessors include none 
 of these, nor the cigar manufactories, breweries, or machine- 
 shops of the different railroads. The cigar-factories and 
 breweries are, however, returned for internal revenue pur- 
 poses. The ounty boards report for 1874,65 saw-mills 
 (50 steam and 15 water-power), with a capital of $250,791 ; 
 139 flour-mills (80 water-power and 59 steam), with a cap- 
 ita! of $2,106,105; 27 saw and grist mills {13 water-power 
 and 14 steam), with a capital of $135,392: 13 furniture and 
 cabinet factories, with a capital of $157,820; 5 foundries 
 and rolling-mills, with $195,000 capital: 6 woollen-facto- 
 ries, with $111,600 capital, and 50 miscellaneous factories, 
 embracing oiI,checse,gyp«ura, soap, and carriage factories, 
 having a capital of $567,910. These returns are obviously 
 very incomplete. There were also 72 cigar manufactories 
 and I tobacco-factory reported to the assessors of internal 
 revenue, whose annual product was estimated at about 
 $272,500 : and 43 breweries, having an annual product of 
 $274,021.25. The centra! position of Kansas, it? numerous 
 railw.ays, its excellent supply of coal, and it.-» fine water- 
 power, as well as the absenceof any great mining interests, 
 indicate that it is destined to become one of the great 
 manufacturing States of the Union. 
 
 Railroad*. — The entire number of miles of main track 
 of railways completed and in operation on Jan. 1, 1S74, ac- 
 cording to the assessors' reports for 1874, was 1339 miles 
 
 and 142 feet. The valuation of this property for purposes 
 of taxation was $14,711,277.92. which was probably a little 
 more than one-fifth of the cost of road. land, and equip- 
 ment. On Jan. 1, 1875, according to Poor's Railroad 
 Mannal, there were in the State 2480.88 miles of railway, 
 and the cost of road.*, equipment, etc. was $74,61 7,856. Two 
 of these railways traverse the whole breadth of the State 
 from E. to W. — viz. the Kansas Pacific, extending from 
 Kansas City on the Missouri to Denver and beyond, a dis- 
 tance of aljoul 672 mib's; and the Atchison Topeka and 
 Santa F€. extending from Atchison, also 4m the Missouri, 
 to Granada in Colorado, 528 miles with its branches, and des- 
 tined to be speedily completed to Santa F6. The other im- 
 portant railways are the Jlissouri Kansas and Texas. 256 
 miles in the State, including brandies; the Leavenworth 
 Lawrence and (ialveston. 207 miles, including branches; 
 Missouri River Fort Scott and Gulf, 159 miles; St. Joseph 
 and Denver City. 136 miles in the State; Atchison and Ne- 
 braska, about 40 miles in the State; central branch Union 
 Pacific, 100 miles: Kansas City St. Joseph and Council 
 IJluffs, 71 miles in the State: Kansas Central ( Leavenworth 
 to Hidton). 56 miles: St. Joseph and Topeka. 87 miles; 
 Kansas Midland (Kansas City and Topeka), about 60 
 miles: St. Louis Lawrence and Western (from Pleasant 
 Hill to Carbondale), about 69 miles in the State; somo 
 branches of the Kansas Pacific, as Leavenworth branch, 
 27 miles, Junction City and Clay Centre branch, 33 miles. 
 The rapid building and completion of so many railways in 
 the State has contributed greatly to its development and 
 increas^e in population. The ithffrnph lines of the Western 
 Vnion accompany all or nearly all of the railways, and the 
 Atlantio and Pacific have also lines to most of the towns. 
 
 Finances. — The receipts into the State treasury from all 
 gources, exclusive of balances, during the fiscal year end- 
 ing Nov. 30, 1874. were $995,102.89. and the expenditures, 
 exclusive of transfers, were $970,805.82. The amount re- 
 ceived from direct taxes only was $690,253.59; from alt 
 other sources, $304,749.30. Of the amount received from 
 taxe?, $461,095,59 was for general revenue purposes, 
 $22,988.83 for the sinking fund. $91,715.79 for payment of 
 interest on public debt, and $114,453.38 for the annual
 
 KANSAS. 
 
 1501 
 
 school fund. Tho receipts from other sources than taxes 
 were credited, with the exception of a very small amount, 
 to the permuDcnt and annual school funds. Tbo bonded 
 indcbte<lne3s of the State was $1,341,7"/), but of this 
 amount $7";!.S-6 i:? held by the sinking fund and other 
 permanent funds in the Slate treasury, so that the d<'l>t of 
 the State, except to its own funds, is only $r>.*^7.y.")0. There 
 is no floatinfj debt, but there was a balance in the treasury 
 Nov. 30, IS74. of $222,880.05. The permanent school fuu'd 
 on Nov. 30, IS7I, amounted to $1,12:),309.32. The valua- 
 tion of all the property of the State, as fixed for taxable 
 purposes for the year 1S74, was Sl2S,yO(j,.'il9.S0, an increase 
 of $:t6,7S0,fi58.80 since 1S70. The true valuation in 1S70 
 was $IS8,S92,014, and would now be ])robably not less than 
 $200,000,000. The State-tax of 1874 for nil purposes was 
 six mills on the d«'Har. There were in the State 10,990,740 
 acres of taxable lands, of which 3,009,709 acres were under 
 cultivation, an iacreaso of 633,000 acres over the preceding 
 year. 
 
 Commerce. — As an interior vState with no large navigable 
 s^treaiu except the ^[ispouri. which washes its X. E. border, 
 Kansas can have no foreign commerce except that which is 
 conducted through the ports of other States. But her in- 
 ternal commerce, transacted mainly by means of her rail- 
 ways, is very large. She ships castwarti corn, wlicat. and 
 other cereals, considerable quantities of cotton, cattle in 
 large numbers, driven from Texas and Colorado to her 
 rich and abundant pastures, broom corn, and moderate 
 
 quantities of other products. Abilene, Junction City, Sa- 
 lina, Ellsworth, and some of the other southern towns are 
 the centres of the cattle-trade. In 1872 her internal 
 commerce had reached $114,000,000, and since that time, 
 in spite of drought and "grasshoppers," it has rapidly in- 
 creased. 
 
 /tinilcy fntturancc Companies, etc. — There were on Nov, 
 30, 1874, 20 national banks in the State, having an aggre- 
 gate capital of $1,983,0(10, and deposits amounting to 
 $2,994..'!30. There were at the sp.me time SO banks other 
 than national (a considerable number being private banks), 
 with an aggregate capital of $l,oSS,000, and deposits to 
 the amount of $2,399,010: making an aggregate banking 
 capital of $3..'i7I,00n, and of deposits of $5;493.94r). There 
 are in the State 2 life insurance companies — viz. the Jlis- 
 souri Valley Life Insurance Co., incorporated in 1807. hav- 
 ing a capital of $209.4,52.70. mostly invested in bond and 
 mortgage, and the Alliance Mutual Life Association, or- 
 gani'/ed in 1873, with a capital of $105,506.25, similarly in- 
 vested. The former reported in 1873 assets to the amount 
 of $S7 1.898. Both are in Leavenworth. There is one tiro 
 insurance company, the Kansas, also located at Leaven- 
 worth, incorporated in 1864, and reporting in 1873 a cap- 
 ital of $250.1100 and assets of $258,900. Both capital and 
 assets consist in part of notes. 
 
 Population. — The following table gives the total popula- 
 tion of Kansas, by sexes, races, and nativity, in 1800, 1870, 
 and 1874, so far as ascertained : 
 
 Yc«r. of 
 
 CCQSUS. 
 
 Tot»l 
 t>o|)ula- 
 
 tloD. 
 
 107,200 
 373,299 
 530,307 
 
 Mala. 
 
 Females. 
 
 While. 
 
 Colored. 
 
 iDdlSD. 
 
 or natlre 
 binh. 
 
 or rorclim 
 binb. 
 
 12,691 
 48,392 
 
 or Khool 
 «gc, 
 males. 
 
 Of school 
 
 age. 
 females. 
 
 Otcr 21 
 
 years, 
 males. 
 
 Bolwecn 18 
 
 aad 45 years. 
 
 males. 
 
 27,976 
 95,002 
 
 i«i-,o 
 
 \*~a 
 
 lH74t 
 
 .59,178 
 202,224 
 246,939 
 
 4R,n28 
 102.175 
 228,875 
 
 106,390 
 316,377 
 
 627 
 17,108 
 
 189« 
 9,814 
 
 94,515 
 316,007 
 
 18,623 
 55,609 
 101,872 
 
 18.800 
 63,041 
 97,138 
 
 31,037 
 10.1,671 
 120,087 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The density of tho population of Kansas in 1870 was 4.48 
 persons to the square mile ; in 1874, 7.37 to the square mile. 
 Tho census of Is70 reported 12.3,852 persons engaged in all 
 occupations, of whom 73,228 were engaged in agricultural 
 pursuits, being 50.13 per cent, of tlic whole; 20,730 in 
 personal an<l professional occupations = 10.74 per cent.; 
 1 1,702, or 9.5 per cent., in trade and transportation ; and 
 IS, 120, or 14.03 per cent., in manufacturing, mechanical, 
 or mining pursuits. 
 
 Edncntion. — The following are the statistics of the public 
 schools for the year encling Nov. 30. 1874 : number of school 
 di-triets, 4395: total number of persons of school age in 
 the State, 199.010; total number of persons enrolled in 
 public schools, 135,598 (08.978 males an.l 00,620 females); 
 average daily attendance in public schools, 77,380 ; aver- 
 age length of time school is taught. 5.5 months; number 
 of male teachers in public schools, 2300; of female teach- 
 ers, 2033, Average nu)ntlily wages paid — male teachers, 
 $37.24 ; average monthly wages of female teachers, $28.09; 
 amount paid for teachers' wages for the year, $723,568.03 ; 
 amount expended for repairs and incidentals, $51,203.70 ; 
 amount received from semi-annual dividends of State 
 school money, $201,952.02; amount raised by district tax, 
 $H95,093.H5 ; total amount derived from various sources for 
 public schools, $1,038,977.99. Number of school-houses— 
 log. 328; frame. 2006; brick, 139; stone, 470; total, 3543, 
 of which 399 were built during the year; total value of 
 school-bouses. $.3,989,065.87; total value of apparatus, 
 $10,697.00. Tho public-school expenditure per head of 
 tbo population of school ago (5 to 21 years) is $7.94, and 
 
 per head of the actual population of school age (6 to 16 
 
 years) is $11. 31. Twenty-six cities and towns have complete 
 systems of graded schools, comprising primary, interme- 
 diate, grammar, and high schools. In these schools in 
 1874. 232 teachers were employed. 10,700 children were 
 enrolled, and 9018 in daily attendance. Of these, 1004 
 were pupils in the high scliools. Tlicre were 70 school 
 buildings occupied by these graded scliools. many of ttiem 
 costly buildings, ranging from $7000 to $55,000 each. There 
 are 4 normal schools in the State — at Emporia, Leaven- 
 worth, Concordia, ond Quindaro. Tho last named is for 
 the training of colored teachers. The school at Conconlia. 
 Cloud CO., in the N. AV. ])art of the State, was o]>ened in 
 Sept., 1871. Emporia had 2;'.0 pupils enrolled, 191 of them 
 normal: Tjeavenw(»rth, 235, all normal; Concordia, 60, all 
 normal: Quimlan), about 55. Teachers* institutes arc held 
 in the larger counties. Tho other State institutions of 
 higher education arc (1) the State Agricultural College 
 near Manhattan, on a farm of 415 acres, having an endow- 
 ment valued at $432,500. In 1874 it had 13 professors and 
 instructors, ancl 112 male and 58 female students — 170 in 
 all. Tho course of study is extensive, but thorough and 
 ])ractical. (2) Tho Cniversity of Kansas, at Lawrence, par- 
 tially endowed with university lands (about 46,000 acres), 
 and receiving from the legislature an apprctpriation vary- 
 ing from $23,0(10 to $30,000 to supplement the present lack 
 of receipts from its landed endowment. In 1874 il had 10 
 professors anrl instructors and 173 students — 5S in the col- 
 legiate and 115 in tho preparatory department. Tho follow- 
 ing are the other collegiate institutions in the State in 1874: 
 
 Name ofioilltutJoD. 
 
 Baker University Baldwin City. 
 
 rollejje of .Sisters of Bethany.. Topeka 
 
 .'^I. llenedlcrs. I Atchison 
 
 St. Mary's !.St. Mary's 
 
 Wasbhurn I Topeka 
 
 IIJKhland !Hlghland 
 
 Lane 'Lccompton.... 
 
 DfttPof 
 
 organlia. 
 
 Uoa. 
 
 1857 
 1870 
 1808 
 18G9 
 1805 
 1SA8 
 1858 
 
 DcDomlnatloD controtlloK. 
 
 1! 
 
 ? 
 
 9 
 » 
 
 a 
 
 2 
 
 Studcots. 
 
 In prepar- 
 atory 
 dipt. 
 
 Incollp. 
 Il.lo 
 depl. 
 
 Metbodist Kpiscopal.. 
 Protestant Kpiscopal. 
 
 Roman Tatholic 
 
 Bonian Calholle 
 
 rongregalionallst 
 
 82 
 48 
 95 
 
 121 
 24 
 
 145 
 70 
 
 19 
 27 
 IS 
 
 "6 
 25 
 
 United Brethren 
 
 11 
 
 Rndowmcnt 
 
 and 
 
 properly. 
 
 80.000 
 6(1.000 
 
 47.000 
 i.'io.noo 
 
 101.000 
 6(I.UO0 
 26,000 
 
 1,000 
 1,000 
 
 2.nno 
 i.wno 
 
 5,000 
 
 fi.ooo 
 
 1,000 
 
 Ottawa University, under tho control of tho Baptists, at 
 Ottawa, has suspended operations. There are 10 acad- 
 emies or collegiate schools — 5 of them Catholic — and a con- 
 pi<lerable number of private schools of niore or less merit. 
 The institutions of special instruction in the Stato are — 
 tho deaf and dumb asylum atOlathc, incorporated in 1866: 
 
 •Onlv Indians not in tribal relations were enumerat(Kl In 
 1800. The nniulHT was unnOiciully staled as WMIO. 
 
 + The enninrraliftn t>f IS74 is tty the townslnp assessors, and Is 
 Iniiicrfeet, counties hein\{ omitted, as well as many townsblpH I 
 and all the settliTs in the unornani/ed counties. It fs believed j 
 that the population of the .Stale is nearly OUO.OUO. I 
 
 it had in 1874. 6 instructors and about 70 pupils; tho in- 
 stitution for the blind at Wyandotte, incorporated 1866, 
 and having instructors and 2S pupils in 1874 : 2 orphan 
 asylums, bnrbat Leavenworth — the Kansas with 28 orphans, 
 and the St. Vincent's with 52. 
 
 Of charitable institutions the State has a State insano 
 asylum at Ossawatomie. This institution is still untinished, 
 but had under treatment during the year 172 patients, with 
 an average of 115, and on Nov. .30, 1874, lit) present, of 
 whom 5S were males and 52 feniales : 10 bsnl tlied during 
 tho year, and 52 harl been discharged, of whom live were 
 not insane, 23 were recovered, 13 improvcil, ancl 9 un-
 
 1502 
 
 KANSAS. 
 
 improved, while 2 eloped. The home for friendless women 
 at Leavenworth has received aid, and during the year 1S74 
 ha<l 200 iuniiite^. 
 
 'Jhc principal penal institution of this State is the State 
 penitentiary at hcavenworth, which in 1S74 had 40 oflieers 
 and employes, and an average of ".02 ]>risonerti : its annual 
 expenditure wasSi;iO,6(l!l.sri, and the total earning»$2:i, 000; 
 the salaries paid to ein])loy6s and oflieers amounted to 
 $77,000. There is as yet no reformatory school in the 
 State, thoufrh preliminary steps have been taken looking to 
 the organization of rmo. The county jails, especially in the 
 new counties, are not generally well managed. 
 
 Churches. — We are indebted to the Tliirtf Aiiitital liepnrt 
 of thp Kannas Stnte Board of Afin'rulturr/or the Jfear 1874 
 for valuable statistics in regard to the condition of the 
 seven principal denominations in the .State for that year (as 
 well as forvcry much other valuable statistical matter rela- 
 tive to tbc State). The following are their aggregates: 
 Presbyterians, 101 churches, 74 church edifices, ri(t04 mem- 
 bers, value of church property, $294,856; Congregation- 
 alists, 113 churches, 4S church edifices, .38,31 members, 
 $2.3S,,')00 of church property ; Baptists, 229 churches, i'i 
 church edifices, 97S9 members. $220,000 of church property 
 (the /inptist YvarJionk ior 187o gives in 1874.242 churches 
 antl 1(»2 ministers) : the United Presbyterians reported .39 
 churches, 14 church edifices, L31.3 members, and $49,200 
 of church property ; the Methodists (this probably includes 
 the various Jletbodist bodies). 021 churches, 96 church 
 edifices. 22,090 members, and $;i.39,400 of church property 
 (the Methodist Episcopal conference reports for 1S74 give 
 IfiOJ church edifices, valued at $;t9o,5j0, and parsonages 
 worth $19,900; 19,162 members, of whom, however, ,3458 
 were probationers; 108 travelling and 147 local preachers). 
 Tile Protestant Episcopal Church is reported as having 
 34 parishes, 22 church edifices, 11.36 communicants, and 
 $172,000 of church property. The Church Almanac for 
 1875 claims but .30 p.arishes, 25 clergy, and 1041 commu- 
 nicants. The Roman Catholics are reported as having 191 
 congregations, 72 church edifices, .32, .311 Catholic popula- 
 tion, and church property worth $415,200. The Cntholic 
 Directory iov 1S75 gives the church edifices {including 7 
 building) as 62; the number of congregations as 180, of 
 which 117 are very small missions, in most cases not at- 
 tended oftener than monthly by the hard-working clergy; 
 the whole number of priests (secular and of the religious 
 orders) was but 48. and the Catholic population was roughly 
 estimated at about 35,000. These statistics include also 
 the few stations of the Catholics in the Indian Territory. 
 These statistics show in these seven denominations 1.388 
 churches or congregations, against 530 of all denominations 
 reported in the census ; 379 church edifices, against 301 for 
 all ilenominations; and a valuation of church property of 
 $1,730,055 for the seven denominations, against $1,722,700 
 for all denominations in 1870. We find further that the 
 Christian Connection, a.s reported in the census, had in 
 1870.35 churches, 16 church eciificcs, 4550 sittings, and 
 $15,300 of church projierty; the Evangelical Association 
 (probably included in the Methodists aliovel, 2 churches, 1 
 church edifice, 300 sittings, $6000 of church property; the 
 Friends, 7 meetings, 7 meeting-houses, 1 600 si tting,s, $13,300 
 of church property : the Lutherans, 9 churches, 5 church edi- 
 fices, 1400 sittings, $1 2,500 of church property ; the German 
 Reformed, 1 church, 1 church edifice, 275 sittings, $3000 of 
 church property : tiie Unitarians, 2 congregations. 1 church 
 edifice, 400 sit tings, $20, 000 of church property; the United 
 Brethren in Christ fptissibly included under Methodists 
 above) in 1874 had 120 churches, 60 ministers, 2173 mem- 
 bers, and proltably $60,000 in church ]iroperty : the Uni- 
 versalists had 9 congregations, 10 ministers, 146 members, 
 and probably about 1600 regular attendants. There were 
 also a number of union churches, a few Cumberland Pres- 
 byterian, and a few Jewish synagogues. 
 
 Ncwupaprm. — There were in 1874, 13.3 newspapers and 
 periodicals published in Kansas, not counting the weekly 
 editions of the daily papers. Of these, 11 were dailies, 
 with an aggregate circulaticm of about 28.000. 1 triweekly, 
 US weeklies, and 3 ninnthlies. The circulation of the 
 weeklies was a little more than 100.000 ; that of the month- 
 lies, about 8500. Two were in the (lerman language, 1 
 was medical, 1 educational, 2 religious, 8 agricultural, and 
 the remainder either political, literary, or miscellaneous. 
 
 Cimnllcn. — The fidlowing table shows the population of 
 the 74 organised counties of the State in 1860, 1870, and 
 1874, and the date of organization of the counties. The 
 names of the counties are as they appear in 1874; some 
 have been changed since 1860. Besides these, there are 30 
 counties, named, but not yet organized, .several of which 
 have a population of 100 to 200, of which no account has 
 been made in the table. The names of these unorganized 
 counties arc — Arapahoe, Buffalo, Clark, Cheyenne, Decatur, 
 Footc, Grant, Graham, Gove, Greeley, Hodgeman, Ilamil- 
 
 ton, Kansas, Kearney, Kiowa, Lane, Meade. Rush, Raw- 
 lins, Sequoyah, Staflord, Stanton, Stevens, Seward, Sher- 
 man, Sheridan, Scott, Thomas, Trego, and Wichita : 
 
 Allen 
 
 Anderson 
 
 Atchison 
 
 Barbour * 
 
 Barton* 
 
 Bourbon 
 
 Brown 
 
 Butler 
 
 Comanche t- 
 
 Chase 
 
 Cherokee 
 
 Clay 
 
 Cloud 
 
 Coffey 
 
 Cowley . 
 
 Crawford 
 
 Davis 
 
 Dickinson 
 
 Doniphan 
 
 Douglas 
 
 Edwards 
 
 Ellis 
 
 Ellsworth 
 
 Ford 
 
 Franklin 
 
 Greenwood 
 
 Harper f 
 
 Harvey* 
 
 Howard 
 
 Jackson 
 
 Jefferson 
 
 Jewell 
 
 Johnson 
 
 Kingman t 
 
 Labette 
 
 Leavenworth J.. 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Linn 
 
 Lyon * 
 
 Marion 
 
 Marshall 
 
 McPherson 
 
 Miami 
 
 Mitchell 
 
 Montgomery .... 
 
 Morris 
 
 Kemaba 
 
 Neosho 
 
 Ness t 
 
 Norton 
 
 Osage 
 
 Osliorne 
 
 Ottawa • 
 
 Pawnee 
 
 Phillips 
 
 Pottawattamie.. 
 
 Pr.att t 
 
 Reno 
 
 Republic 
 
 Rice. 
 
 Riley 
 
 Rooks 
 
 Russell • 
 
 Saline* 
 
 Sedgivlck 
 
 Shawnee *.... 
 
 Smith 
 
 Sumner 
 
 Wabaunsee... 
 
 Wallace* 
 
 Washington . 
 
 Wilson 
 
 Woodson 
 
 Wvandi>tte .. 
 
 ,953 
 ,213 
 ,2:J4 
 G08 
 860 
 ,231 
 ,418 
 ,07G 
 2.J0 
 ,903 
 ,980 
 ,089 
 ,165 
 ,818 
 ,r,84 
 ,318 
 ,079 
 ,407 
 ,370 
 ,202 
 632 
 92.5 
 ,273 
 3,'!3 
 G46 
 ,339 
 .300 
 600 
 872 
 583 
 49S 
 ,074 
 ,478 
 300 
 265 
 ,933 
 ,220 
 ,8,i9 
 340 
 06G 
 122 
 S:i7 
 ,:)70 
 473 
 ;i4(i 
 300 
 ,041 
 ,324 
 200 
 844 
 ,837 
 ,890 
 ,070 
 10 
 ,409 
 ,054 
 300 
 ,467 
 ,020 
 ,369 
 5,737 
 507 1 
 8I5| 
 '.742 j 
 r,429t 
 ),9IG 
 l,4ii0 
 i,602l 
 ),C63' 
 600; 
 r,860 
 J,.372l 
 I.SCI I 
 I,.W1 
 
 7,022 
 fl.220 
 15,50 
 
 2 
 15,076 
 6,823 
 3,035 
 
 1,9: 
 
 n.oiis 
 
 •.',1142 
 2,32:i 
 6,2(11 
 1,175 
 8,160 
 5,526 
 3,04:t 
 13,969 
 20,592 
 
 1,330 
 1,185 
 427 
 10,385 
 3,484 
 
 2,794 
 6,053 
 
 12,526 
 207 
 
 13,684 
 
 9,973 
 
 32,444 
 
 516 
 
 12,174 
 
 8,014 
 
 768 
 
 6,901 
 
 738 
 
 11,725 
 
 485 
 
 7..564 
 
 2.225 
 
 7.3:19 
 
 10,200 
 
 2 
 
 7,648 
 
 ;f3 
 
 2,127 
 179 
 
 7,848 
 
 1,281 
 
 S 
 
 5,105 
 
 I.5U 
 
 4,240 
 
 1,095 
 
 13,121 
 
 66 
 
 22 
 
 3.362 
 
 5.38 
 
 4,081 
 
 6.094 
 
 3,827 
 
 10,015 
 
 3,0821 1S.>5 
 2,40(1 1 18.55 
 
 6,101 
 
 2,607 
 
 437 
 
 1872 
 1855 
 1.855 
 1855 
 
 1,077, 
 
 1.046 1859 
 
 L-lni 1SG6 
 
 163' 1866 
 
 I 1866 
 
 2,842; 1859 
 158 1870 
 
 ! 1867 
 
 1,163 i IS.55 
 
 3781 1857 
 
 8,08:i' 1855 
 
 8,637, 1855 
 
 1»74 
 
 1867 
 
 1867 
 
 1873 
 
 3,030 i 18.55 
 
 1862 
 
 1873 
 
 i 1872 
 
 19: 1870 
 1,9361 1857 
 4,4.59' 1855 
 
 ' 1S70 
 
 4,364 1855 
 
 1873 
 
 I 1867 
 
 12,606 1855 
 1870 
 1855 
 1858 
 181)5 
 1855 
 1870 
 18.W 
 1870 
 1S69 
 770! 1858 
 
 6.336 
 
 3,515 
 
 74 
 
 2,280 
 
 4,980 
 
 2,436 
 
 88 
 
 18,55 
 1864 
 1873 
 1872 
 ]8i9 
 1871 
 186G 
 1872 
 1,S72 
 1856 
 i 1H73 
 1872 
 1868 
 1871 
 1855 
 1872 
 1872 
 1859 
 1870 
 18,55 
 1872 
 1871 
 
 \»m 
 
 1868 
 383 i 1860 
 
 1,224 
 
 3,513 
 
 1,023 
 
 27 
 1.488 
 2,609 
 
 1865 
 1855 
 1859 
 
 Principal Towna. — Leavenworth is the largest town and 
 city in the State, having a population in 1874 of 16,468 
 Atchison had about 900(1 inhabitants ; Topeka, the capital 
 and Lawrence, about 8000 each; Fort Scott and AVyan 
 dotte, between 4000 and 6000 ; Ottawa, Emporia, Wichi 
 ta. .Tunction City, and Parsons, between 2000 and 4000 
 Olalhe, Osage Missiim, Paola, Hutchinson, and Manhattan 
 between 1500 and 2000; Troy, Walluna, Osage City, Bur 
 lington, Eldorado. La Cygnc, ami Humbcddl, about 1200 
 while Baxter .springs. White Cloud. Grasshopper Falls 
 Pleasanton, Oswego, Independence, Council Grove, SenC' 
 ca, .Salina, and Fredoiiia. all exceeded 1000 inhabitants 
 .Marysville. Newton, Oskaloosa. Chetopa, liurlingame, Ne^ 
 odesha, and .\bilene are all thriving and growing towns, 
 and some of them incorporated as cities. 
 
 CountitHtinn^ Court'*, Iirpre»eutntinn in ConffrfSH, etc. — 
 The present constitution of Kansas, though tlie fourth in 
 its history, is the one under which the State was admitted 
 into the L'nion in 1861. It provides that male citizens 
 of the U. S., or persons of foreign birth who have declared 
 
 • Census of 1873; no returns for 1874. 
 X Estimated by county clerk at 30,714. 
 
 t Estimated.
 
 KANSAS— KANSAS CITY. 
 
 1603 
 
 their intention to become citizen?, are entitled to %'ote after 
 having resided six months in the ^tate and thirty days in 
 the township. No person under guardianship, uon contpm 
 nientin, or insane, nor any person convicted of treason or 
 felony, unless restored to civil rights, uor any soldier, sea- 
 man, or marine in tin- employ of tlie general government, 
 is allowed to vote. The executive offiecrs of the State arc 
 the governor. lieutenant-governor, seeretary of state, aud- 
 itor, treasurer, superintendent of public instruction, and 
 attorney-general, all of whom are chosen by the jieople for 
 a term of two years. The general election is held on the 
 first Wednesflay in November. The legislature consists of 
 a senate of 2.5 members, elected for two years, and a house 
 of representatives of 75 members, chosen annually. The 
 legislature commences its session annually on the second 
 Tuesday in January. Efforts have recently been made to 
 change the constitution so as to make the sessions biennial 
 instead of annual. The judiciary of the Slate consists of 
 a supremo court having a chief-justice an<l two associate 
 justices, elected by the people for six years: and of nine 
 district courts (the State being divided into nine Judicial 
 districts), each presided over l)y a single judge. The dis- 
 trict judges are elected by the people for four years. Under 
 the apportionment of 1872, Kansas is entitled to three Rep- 
 resentatives in Congress. 
 
 Hilton/. — That portion of Kansas lying E. of the 100th 
 meridian formed a part of the Louisiana purchase of ISOIl, 
 and was inchidr^d at different periods in Louisiana Territory 
 and Missouri Territory. By the Missouri Compromise act 
 of IS-Jfl, in all this region lying N. of lat. .36° 30', except- 
 ing only such part thereof as was included within the limits 
 of the State of Missouri, shivery and involuntary servitude, 
 otherwise than in the punishment of crime whereof the party 
 should have been duly convictc<l, was for ever prohibited. 
 As a result of the Mexican war the territory of the U. S. 
 was extemied from the lOdih meridian westward to the Pa- 
 cific as fiir S. as :^'*^ 'Mi' N. lat. In ISj.1 settlers had already 
 entered the territory in such numbers that Congress was 
 called upon to protect them from the Indians. It soon be- 
 came evident that the fertile lands of Eastern Kansas were 
 to be the objeets of contention between the friends and op- 
 ponents of slavery ; the latter contending that by the Mis- 
 souri Compromise this region was to be exempt from slavery, 
 while the former claimed it on the grouml of the partial 
 repeal of thai compromise in 1850, and the altered circum- 
 stances arising from tho accession of new territory in 1848. 
 Both sides were terribly in earnest: in Massachusetts an 
 emigrants' aid society was chartered with ample funds in 
 Mar. or Apr., 1854. to assist emigrants to remove to Kan- 
 sas, and to furnish them with weapons of defence against 
 those who might attack them; in Connecticut a similar 
 company was chartered in May or June of the same year. 
 In May, 1^54, Congress pa'^sed the Kansas and Nebraska 
 bill, organizing these two Territories, and expressly declar- 
 ing that the Missouri compromise of 1820 was inoperative 
 and void in regard to tlicm. As thus organized, the two 
 Territories extended to the Roeky Mountains, taking in a 
 considerable portion of Colorado. The emigrants forwarded 
 by the emigrants' aid companies entered the Territory in 
 very considerable numbers in the spring unci summer of 
 185(, generally resolute men. able and willing to contend 
 for their new homes; but the pro-slnvery nu-n of Missouri 
 and .Arkansas were as determined to sooure the pri/e for 
 them-fcUes, and a series of raids and condicts ensued, last- 
 ing for four years or more, in which many settlers, as well 
 as cnnsiderahic numbers of the invaders, were killed. Law- 
 rence was twice besieged and burned, Pottawattamie, Ossa- 
 watomie, and Leavenworth were partially destroyed, the 
 
 polls invaded and broken up, legislatures disturbed, and 
 their meuibors and ofiicers arrested and imprisoned, and 
 the Territory kept in a constant condition of turmoil. Gov- 
 ernor after governor was appointed by the Presidents (Prcs. 
 Pierce appointing (Jov. Reeder, and Prcs. Buchanan. Govs. 
 Shannon, (Jeary. Walker, iJenver, Medary, and Stanton), 
 but each in turn became convince<l of the justice of the 
 cause of the settlers, and so incurred the displeasure of the 
 "border ruffians," as the invading party was called, and 
 their leader, David Atchison, formerly V. S. Senator from 
 Missouri, had in niost cases sufficient influence to cause 
 their removal. Four successive constitutions for the Ter- 
 ritory were voted upon between Dec, 1855, and Oct., 
 1859; the first, known as the Topcka constitution, pro- 
 hibited slavery, and was adopted in Dec, 1855, with very 
 little opposition, but its authority was never rccognizctl by 
 the pro-slavery men, very few of whom, however, were 
 legal voters. The second, called the Lecompton constitu- 
 tion, was drawn up by a convention never authorized by 
 the peoj)le. and composed almost entirely of Atchison's fol- 
 lowers, the Free State men refusing to vote, and only 2000 
 out of more than 10,000 votes being cast for it. The con- 
 vention met at Lecompton in the autumn of 1857, and the 
 constitution prepared by it had four sections relating to 
 slavery, prohibiting emancipation, conferring upon slave- 
 holders all the immunities of the worst slave codes, and 
 declaring these inviolable, and preventing any change in 
 this constitution before 181)4. The only alternative offered 
 to the people was to vote for this constitution (which was 
 other^vise objectionable) u-lfh the slavery sections or irifk- 
 out them. The Free State men generally refused to vote, 
 and the constitution was declared to be adopted by about 
 51100 majority, the greater part known to be fraudulent. 
 (>n .Tan. 4, 1858, the people had an opjiortunlty of voting 
 against it at the Territorial election, and llicrc was a ma- 
 jority of 10,220 votes against it. On Aug. ."i, 1858, Con- 
 gress ordered another vote on this constitution, and it was 
 rejected by over 10,000 majority. Another constitution had 
 been mode by a constitutional convention in Apr., 1858, 
 and had been adopted by a small vote. As it was not quite 
 satisfactory, a fourth convention met at AVyandotte July 5, 
 1S;VJ, and adopted the present constitution of the State. 
 This was ratified by the people Oet. 4, 185!>, by about 4U00 
 nmjority. Kansas was admitted into the Union as a State 
 Jan. 20, ISGl, and its subsequent history has been one of 
 great prosperity. During the liilc civil war no State of the 
 Union sent so large? a jtroportion of its male population 
 into the field as ICansas. Its growth since the war has 
 been without parallel for its rapidity. Its population, 
 which in 18G0 wos but 1011,000, is now not far from (iOO.dOO ; 
 without a mile of railway in 1802, if has now within its 
 boundaries over 2500 miles: it has subclued lands which 
 for thousands of years bad lain waste, planted seliools and 
 churches all over its territory, and, though in the sumnior 
 of 1874, it was severely tried by a visitation of grasshop- 
 pers or locusts, which destroyed two-thirds of the growing 
 crop of Indian corn (the loss being estimated at ."iO. 000, 000 
 bushels), and reduced the settlers of sixteen or eighteen of 
 the new counties to destitution, so great ia its vitality and 
 enterprise, that this visitation will not perceptibly check its 
 growth. 
 
 (ivvrrnnrs. — 
 
 Tkruitorial. 
 
 A. 11. Ueeder 1854-55 
 
 Wilson Shannon 1855-51; 
 
 John W. (Jearv !R5G-57 
 
 Robert J. Waiker 1S57-5S 
 
 James W. Denver I858-.5S 
 
 Samuel Medary 1858-59 
 
 Frederick P. Stanton., 
 State. 
 
 Charles Robinson 
 
 Thouias Carney 
 
 Samuel J. Crawford... 
 James M. Harvey... 
 
 ..1859-Gl 
 
 .18Gl-fil 
 ,.18Gl-r.5 
 .lPG5-fi9 
 ,..I*<G9-73 
 
 Thomas A. Osborn 1873-77 
 
 Popular and Electoral Votct/or Prcnident. 
 
 jgg Su«:«"ftilCiindldiit«jiforProiIJcnland VIco-PrwWcni. 8| ^^^jj'"" OppoiltlonCandldalciforPrtMldcntaQdVlcc-PrciIdCDt. ^^'^jjy* Mftjorltloj, 
 
 IR64 Abraham Lincoln P., A. Johnson V.-P. 
 
 18G8 U. S. <irant P., S<'huyler ("olfax V.-P 
 
 l872lU. S.Grant P., Henry Wilson V.-P 
 
 16,441 
 
 8 1.0 IS 
 67,01rt 
 
 Geo. B. McCIellan P., G. H. Pendleton V.-P. 
 
 Horatio Seymour P., F. P. llinir V.-P 
 
 llorace Greeley P., It. (irat)! Urown V.-P 
 
 13,990 
 32,970 
 
 12,750 
 17,058 
 84,078 
 
 KniiNaSy tp. of Etowah co., Ala. Pop. 481. 
 
 KanNnfl, post-v. anri tp. of E<lgnr co.. III., on the In- 
 dianapolis and St. Louis It. K., 104 miles W. of Indian- 
 apolis and 150 N. K. of St. Louis. It has 1 national bank, I 
 weekly newspaper, 4 eburcbes, 1 school, 2 hotels, 2 grain- 
 warehouses, 1 agricultural iniplenuMit mnnnfactory, 3 wagon 
 and carriage-making shops, nnil 17 stores; in nearly in the 
 centre of a large prairie, 2i to 5 miles from timber. Prin- 
 cijial industry, farming and «toek-raising. Pi»p. of (p. 1018. 
 W. W. Hisiioi', Kn. ** News." 
 
 Kansas, tp. of Woodford co.. 111. Pop. :i49. 
 
 Kansas, a tribe of Inilians in the State of the same 
 name, numliering about OflO. They belong to the same 
 family with the Dakutas and Osages. and have deereased 
 
 L. P. BnorKFTT. 
 rapidly in numbers during the present century, on account 
 of wars with the Pawnees ao'l other Indians of the Plains. 
 Ily act of May 8, 18C2, Congrcsp. with their consent, pro- 
 vided fr»r the sale of their reservatitm in Kansas and their 
 removal to the Or-ago country in the Indian Territory. 
 
 Kail'ins City, city of .Tackson co.. Mo., on the right 
 bank <if tlic Missouri Uiver, just below the mouth of Kan- 
 sas Uiver, and 1 mile from the boundary -line between 
 Missouri and Kansas, 2't5 miles W. of St. Lrniis. It is sit- 
 uated at the point where the jMissouri Uiver finally bends 
 to the E., and is the natural centre of an immense land and 
 river traffie, having nine railroails (1875) centring in a 
 couimon station, and four or five others in construction. 
 Tin- >ile was originally very rough and uneven, part of the
 
 1504 
 
 KANSAS, CONGRESSIONAL LEGISLATION, ETC.— KANT. 
 
 city being on a bluff and part on bottom-lands; much has 
 been done, however, to remove irregularities by grading. 
 The streets, though not uniformly laid out. are wide, well 
 lighted with gas. and well provided with sewerage and side- 
 walks. The Missouri Hiver is spanned by a bridge nearly 
 1400 feet in length, built at a cost of $1,000,000. Thi-re are 
 four linos of street railroad, which also connect with the 
 adjoining town of AVestport and with Wyandntte in Kan- 
 sas. There are 6 daily papers {'^ morning and ii evening), 
 2 tri-w<'(>kly, fi weekly, and I bi-monthly; of the weeklies, 
 1 is in iJerman, 1 is agricultural, and 1 devoted exclusively 
 to the trade in live-stock. There arc 12 banks, 28 ehurche?, 
 14 schools, 2 medical colleges (with a medical journal), 1 sem- 
 inary and I hospital (both Roman Catholic), a city hospital, 
 orphan asylum, workliouso and woman's Iiome, 2 theatres, 
 an opera-house, an efficient fire department ami jioHce force. 
 The surrounding region is one of extraordinary agricul- 
 tural resources, and is abundant in coal. lead, iron, and 
 other minerals. The chief importance of Kansas City con- 
 sists in its being the centre of the live-stock traffic for tho 
 States W. of the Mississippi — a business which has enor- 
 mously increased since the completion ( in 1873} of tho Mis- 
 souri Kansas and Ti-xas R. R., connecting this city through 
 the Indian Territory with the great stock-raising regions 
 of Texas. The pork-packing business is also rapidly as- 
 suming importance, having increased from l'i,000 hogs 
 packed in ISC.S to nearly 200,000 in lS7;i. The receipts of 
 cattle in 1873 were 227.009, valued at $3,415,0.35 ; of hogs, 
 220.056. valued at $2,131.1 78; of horses, 4202 ; and of sheep, 
 5975. The sales of merchandise at wholesale in 1S73 were 
 $15,695,000, against $13.84 1,440 in the preceding year. The 
 receipts <if grain in 1872 were 1,001.203 bushels, and in 
 1873, 1,718,280 bushels. .Manufacturing industry is as yet 
 small, but with the rapid development of the coal-mines at 
 Fort Scott, may be expected soon to assume importance. 
 The receipts of coal in 1809-70 were less than 1500 car- 
 loads; in 1S7I they were 5000; in 1872, 9990; and in 1873, 
 11,022 carloads. Five years ago, the only fuel used in 
 K.ansas City and by the railroads centring there was wood, 
 but now (1875) coal has generally taken its place, and the 
 whole Missouri Valley as far N. as Omaha is supplied with 
 coal from this market. The mines are at present mostly in 
 Kansas, the whole K. portion of tb.at State and the con- 
 tiguous counties of Missouri beinij underlaid with a soft 
 bituminous coal, which, it Is claimed, has from 20 to 30 per 
 cent, more available power for steam-engines than tlio av- 
 erage Eastern coals. Extensive water-works, cotnbiuini; the 
 reservoir, the standpipe, and the Holly system, were being 
 constructed in 1874. to cost from $750,000 to $1,000,000; 
 there were to be 20 miles of supply-pipes, 300 fire-hydr.ants, 
 and tho 2 reservoirs were to have a capacity for holding 
 20,000,000 gallons of water. A metropolitan telegraph com- 
 pany was formed in 1873. A board of trade was organized 
 about thi- beginning of 1872, and has taken important meas- 
 ures for the clevelopment and regulation of the commercial 
 interests of Kansas City. It sent representatives to tho con- 
 vention of Congressmen at St. Louis in May, 1873, and pre- 
 sented to the Senate transportation committee, when sitting 
 at St. Louis, an able memorial on transportation facilities 
 for the West and South. It also sent delegates to tho na- 
 tional boarcl of trade, an<l secured recognition as the tenth 
 among the great trade-centres of the country. The river- 
 navigation has naturally decreased in comparative im])ort- 
 ance through tho extension of tho railroad system, but a 
 company for barge-navigation was organized in 1873, in 
 which year the arrivals of steamboats were 65. The val- 
 uation of real estate in 1872 was $11,993,060: in 1873, 
 SI2,687.S75. Pop. in 1800. only 4418; in IS70, 32,260. It 
 has increased very rapidly since the war. 
 
 AV. II. Mii.i.i'.n. En. *' Jm hnai, of Commkrcf,." 
 
 Kansas, Congressional Legislation of 1854 
 in RelVrence to. Sec Dougl.\s, Stephen A., by Hon. 
 A. H. Sti;i'Mfns, LL.D. 
 
 Kansas (or Kaw) River, in Kansns, is formed by the 
 union of the Smoky Hill and Solomon rivers. Its prin- 
 cipal affluents are the Kepuldiean. the Rig Rlue, and the 
 (Irnsshnpper rivers from the N.. and the Wakernsa from 
 the S. It has innumerable smaller tributaries. Steamboats 
 have traversed its whole course at high water, but its navi- 
 gatiim is not of any practical value. It falls into the Mis- 
 souri on the Missouri State line, near Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 Kan'sasville, post-v. of Racine co., Wis., on the West- 
 ern Union R. R. 
 
 Kansn', province of China, between Thibet in the S. and 
 Mongolia in the N. Its area is estimated at 100,000 square 
 miles : its pop. at 10.000.000. It is covered with mountains, 
 and traversed by tho Iloang-ho. Cap. Lan-Chow-Fee. 
 
 Kant (Immanii:!.). b. ,\pr. 22, 1724, in Konigsberg, 
 where his father, of Sfuftish descent, was estal>lished as a 
 saddler. Kant was brought up in strict religious princi- 
 
 ples. From 1740 to 1740 he studied theology, philosophy, 
 and mathematics in the Konigsbcrg University. From 
 1746 to 1755 he was engaged as tutor; and subsequenlly 
 entered upon his career as professor at the Kiinigsbcrg 
 University, which he kept up till 1797, when old age com- 
 pelleil him to retire. D. Feb. 12, 1804, in the eightieth 
 year of his age. Ho never married, though he was very 
 fond of society, genial in his manners, and a favorite with 
 all who knew him. It is a rather singular circumstance 
 that he never left his native city of Kiinigsbcrg except for 
 a few miles' walk out in the country. Tn his first lectures 
 at the university, Kant followed pretty closely tho Wolffian 
 school of philosophy, then prevalent all over (Jermany. 
 Still, even in those earlier works his dissatisfaction with 
 the existing state of the science of philosophy, and a per- 
 sistent endeavor to ascertain the source of that dissatisfac- 
 tion and its remedy, are clearly discernible. The great works 
 of the French and English skeptical writers of that time, 
 and especially the works of Locke and Hume, comjileted tho 
 change that was taking plaee in his views. The lucidncss 
 of their style, too. forbade the employment of the extrava- 
 gant jargon introduced by WulfT into the philosophical 
 discussion of the German schools in their refutation, and 
 forced Kant, for tho satisfaction of his own mind, to enter 
 upon a thorough investigation of all the problems of phi- 
 losophy in a manner and style altogether new and liis 
 own. It was not till 1781, about ten years after he had 
 begun his new researches, that he published their result 
 in the ('rititjitc of Pure Iicnnoit, which was soon fol- 
 lowed bv the Criiiffue of Prnctivti ficanon and the Critiifue 
 of (he Pnirej- of Judijmcnt. These three critiques form, in- 
 fleed, only one great work, and cannot he understood cor- 
 rectly except when thus studied in their unity. The dis- 
 tinguishing feature of the new system presented by Kant 
 in these works is, that instead of treating philosophy as a 
 transcendent science, it treats it from a transcendental 
 point of view. That is to say, Kant denies that by mere 
 reasoning or argumentation we can discover any new truth 
 or transcend the world of common consciousness, and that 
 hence all the efforts of previous philosophers to discover 
 such new truths have been futile. Philosophy can only 
 explain and prove truth; and its problem is to discover 
 and apply tho touchstone by which this proof can be made. 
 Now, all theoretical propositions that may he made are 
 either identical (like A = A), and these need no proof, or 
 synthetical (A is A and something else too; for instance, 
 iron is not only a body, but also magnetic). Of these syn- 
 thetical propositions, again, all those which are empirical 
 can be proved only by experience; and hence pure reason 
 is required only to prove those synthetical propositions 
 which are not empirical — that is. which are a prinri. For 
 instance, if when the sun shines I observe a stone get 
 warm, and say that the sun is the cause of th.at warmth, I 
 utter an « prinri synthetical proposition, because the con- 
 ception of cause is not any quality of the sun or the stone 
 that I perceive empirically. I perceive only a change from 
 cold to heat in the stone, hut a million of such changes 
 would not make the conception of change a conception of 
 cause. It is this class of conceptions which require a rule 
 whereby their proper applicati(m can be secured, for it is 
 only by their improper application that disputes have be- 
 come possible between philosophers. When quarrels havo 
 arisen, for instance, as to whether (lod was the cause of the 
 world, or whether the soul was a substance, etc.. the dispute 
 wouhi have been settled at once if a rule had been known 
 whereby it could have been determined whether the syn- 
 thetical conception of cause could have been predicated of 
 (lod, or that of substance of the sold. Kant discovered 
 this rule, or the *' supreme principle of alt synthetical judg- 
 ments," to be, that synthetical propositions «/)rfV<n are valid 
 onlv in so far as it can be shown that consciousness could not 
 otherwise be possible. Tbe whole Cridqnr of f*nre lifnnnn 
 is notliingbut an application of this principle to all the 
 various problems that have engaged philosophical specula- 
 tion, and especially to the antinomies to which it has given 
 rise. By this application, Kant rooted out the entire old 
 science of metaphysics, and established in its place a uni- 
 versally valid critique of reason, orscience of knowledge. 
 
 But not all the propositions of human reason are of a 
 theoretii-al character, nor could tliey well be so, since other- 
 wise human reason itself would remain unex]'laine(L 
 Theoretical reason always explains by the categories of 
 causality, substantiality, and reciprocal relation, but all 
 these categories explain only the u priori synthetical prop- 
 ositions or phenomena that occur within reason : not, how- 
 ever, reason itself. If reason itself husan explanation, there- 
 fore, it must be of an entirely different character — of an abso- 
 lute character, in fact. It mnst be an immediate explana- 
 tion, having no grniiiid. no cause, no why or wherefore. This 
 explanation, says Kant in his Critiffue of Prariirnl R'ftmni, 
 is the Freedom, the Self-determination, or the Categorical
 
 KANWAKA— KARAITES. 
 
 1505 
 
 Imperative, which maDifcsts itself in each iiiilividual as 
 the Moral Law. No one can demonstrate to another by 
 argumentaltun that thcro occurs within him a phenom- 
 enon which tells him at every moment of h\» life what 
 he ought to do or ought not to do, and impels him to do it 
 or not to do it, no matter what hi? natural inclinations may 
 be ; each one can discover that this phenomenon does occur 
 only in his own consciousness. Freedom, therefore, which 
 is nothing but this categorical imperative or moral impuUc, 
 can never be proved by something else, as theoretical cogni- 
 tions can be proved, but only by practical experience. If, 
 however, this categorical imperative is onco admitted, if 
 any individual confesses that he has ever donea moral act, 
 then it can bo shown that he also admits a Supreme God 
 and immortality. For no one could rationally perform one 
 moral act if he did not presuppose that he couhl rise to 
 such a perfection as to make all the acts of his life moral — 
 a perfection to which finite beings can attain only in an in- 
 finite life. Nor could he rationally perform such an act did 
 he not presuppose that his act would accord with all tho 
 other acts performed by moral beings — an accord which 
 can bo realized only by a God. (Compare Leibnitz's /Ve- 
 €Mtaf>ii»heU Harmony.) These propositions Kant has fur- 
 ther demonstrated in his Critique of Pure Uelifjion, pub- 
 lished in 1704. 
 
 The remaining problem now was: How can reason be- 
 come conscious of its free acts — i', e. of itself as practical 
 reason operating upon an outside world — if that outside 
 world can be cognized only by its theoretical faculty ; that 
 is to say, under the categories. Tliis question Kant solved 
 in his Critiffue uf th'^ Power of Judgment by shoxving that 
 wc do view the outside world under other forms than those 
 of theoretical reason — namely, under tho forms of purposes 
 or designs — forms which can be referred either tu tho out- 
 aide world itself, in which case we arrive at tclcological 
 views of tho worM, or to our own reason, in which case we 
 pass eesthctical judgments upon outside objects. In either 
 case, we posit ourselves as free judges; and thus tho CVi- 
 tique of the Power of Jndffmeitt substantiates the immediate 
 fact postulated by the Critique of Practical 7?cu8o;i, and 
 completes the whole system of reason. 
 
 Having thus fini^'lled tho work of his lifetime, Kant 
 devoted tho remaining years of bis lifo to applying its 
 principles more in detail to tho sciences of law, morals, 
 theology, and to natural science. Thus, in I7S0 he pub- 
 lished his Melaphi/niritl. fundamental Principlea of the Sci- 
 ence of Phtfairn: in 179.^ to 1797, two works. Eternal Peace 
 and Sft-taphifniral-Fund'tmrntal Prim-ipha of a Srirncc vf 
 Law and a Scirnee of Morah; and in 17'JH he concluded his 
 literary labors by his Authropolojyy a book full of rare 
 knowledge, shrewd observatious on men, races, nations, 
 and the sexes, which every one should read who wishes to 
 become thoroughly acquainted with tho author uf the Crit- 
 i»{ne of I'ure Jtraatnt. It is, moreover, an excellent example 
 of tho exquisite clearness of stylo which distinguishes 
 nearly all of Kant's writings. As an introduction to tho 
 Ciltiifue of Pure Iteanon echolarg might bo recommended to 
 read Kant's I'ndrtjinucnn, which is also a marvel of sym- 
 metrical arrangement and lucidity of style. Of Kant's many 
 followers, Fiehto alono adopted fully, and carried out in his 
 own way, the great discovery of Kant's transcendentalism. 
 At present, however, the study of Kant is again beconiiug 
 quite general in tirrniany, and several new editions of his 
 complete works have appeared within tho last few years. 
 
 A. K. KuotH>KR. 
 
 Kanwa'ka, tp. of Douglas co., Kan. Top. 913. 
 
 Ka'olin [f'bin. fCao-finy, tho name of a hill of porce- 
 lain clay], the common name of a hydrated Hilicato of alu- 
 mina f AU<)3.2Si02 + 2110) or clay used for tho manufac- 
 ture of porcelain. Kaolin is supposed to be derived from 
 potash feldspar by the loss of all the potash and two-thirds 
 of tho silica, which ingrc<hents arc replaced by 2 equiva- 
 li-nts of water. Tho proportion? of silica to alumina vary 
 largcdy in different countries, the kaolins of China and 
 Japan containing twice as much silica as those uf Passau 
 ari'l Gutriiborg in Germany. Large beds of kaolin arc 
 found at St. Austell in Cornwall, Kugland (where it is de- 
 rived from pure feldspar), in Limoges. France, at Itrandnn, 
 Vt., Perth Amboy, N. J., Hichmnud, Va., Aiken co., S. 0,, 
 noiir Augusta, *ia., and many other ports <d' the U. S. 
 
 Kaolin, post-ip. of Iron co.. Mo., 20 mile? from Pilot 
 Knob. Pop. .ir.:i. 
 
 Kapio'DCf tp. of Atchison co., Kan. Pop. 775. 
 
 Kapp (FitiKDnicn), h. at Hamm. Westpbiilia, Apr. 13, 
 1824; studied law; came in iH.'iO to New York: practised 
 hero as a lawyer: was a Presidential elector in IHtiO ; then 
 commissioner of entigratlon ; returned to Germany in 1K70, 
 and was elected a member of the German diet in 1H72. 
 
 He wrote /iif Shlarcn/'ratjr in den Verriui'/tm Stanteii 
 (1851), Qcaehichtc der Sfclavcrci in dtn Vcrcini'jtcn Staatrn 
 Vol.. II.— 95 
 
 (1860), Geachichte der deutachen Atutoauderuny in Amerika 
 
 (1868). 
 
 Kap'pel, village of Switzerland, in the canton of Zu- 
 rich, noted for tho encounter which took place hero (Oct. 
 11, 1531) between the Protestants and Roman Catholics, 
 and in which Zwingli was killed. In ISMS a monument 
 was raised to him on the spot where ho fell. 
 
 Kara (GEOitot:). See Czekxy (George). 
 
 Karahissar. See Afium or AFirst-KARA-HissAn. 
 
 Karaites, a Jewish sect. In the early part of tho 
 Middle Ages congregations of this name wore settled in tho 
 region known in Jewish history as Babylonia, in Palestine, 
 Egypt, Syria, in the Crimea, and in Lithuania. It has, 
 however, hitherto been iiniiossible to fix the exact date of 
 their first settlement in these various localities. In 1110 
 A. D. they appcare«l in Spain, but soon after (11 ;iOj suffer per- 
 secution at the hands of their coreligionists, who in contra- 
 distinction to them are known as Rabbinites. With tho 
 help of tho temporal power they were driven from the citit^s, 
 and thereafter confined to a single insignificant town. In 
 1150 they endured a second persecution, and after this 
 period we lose sight of them completely so far a? Spain is 
 concerned. In 166S, King John 111. Sobicski succeeded 
 in drawing a body of Karaites from Lithuania and tho 
 Crimea to the neighborhood of Lenibcrg by granting them 
 special privileges of great value. In proportion to the 
 rest of the Jews, tho number of the Karaite settlers was 
 inconsiderable, and since then it has kept on dimin- 
 ishing. At the present day a few feeble congregations in 
 the East, in Poland, and Russia are all that remain of them. 
 Their chief settlement is in the Crimea, in a village among 
 tho mountains called Tshufut Kale, where they enjoy tho 
 protection of the Russian government. The nmny excel- 
 lent traits of character for which they are distinguished 
 have procured their exemption from special enactments of 
 a hostile nature which have been at different times directed 
 against the Jews of Russia. 
 
 Tho name Karaite, or, as they also style themselves, 
 Bene Mikra ("sons of Scripture"), is derived from the 
 fundamental doctrine that marks their peculiarity as a sect. 
 It consists in their acknowledging Scripture, and nothing 
 hut Scripture, to the exclusion of the Talmud and the 
 traditions of tho rabbins, as tho source of their religion. 
 Tho rise of this sect is wrajiped in obscurity. Concerning 
 the time and tho occasion of their origin tho opinions of 
 scholars — nay, even the accounts of the chronicles— are 
 widely divergent. Rabbi Jehuda ha Levi (1140|, in his 
 philosophical work the CHnniari (3, Go), thinks proper to 
 assign their origin to the ago of John Ilyrcanus {l.'ia 
 B.C.), Tho rabbins, ho thinks, having incurred the dis- 
 pleasure of the king, his friends seized the opportunity to 
 stir up opposition against them, and a new sect was thus 
 formed. Other authorities, at their head the Gaon Saadia 
 (in his polemical work against Auan), and, following his 
 lead, Shorira (950 a. n.), in his well-known hjgeretk (a his- 
 torical document of tho highest value), con.sider Anun, 
 whom the Karaites only regard as the first leader of their 
 sect, as its founder. Annn flourished about 700 a. d., as 
 Rapoport has shown in tho Hebrew periodical Kerem 
 Chrmed (5, p, 20l{;. The chronology of the Karaites in- 
 accurately assigns him a date fully a century too early. A 
 second time tho motive of revenge is called in to exj)lain 
 the rise of tho sect. Anan, it is said, aspirctl to the ofiieo 
 of rcah tjchitha ('* Prince of tho Captivity "|, but another 
 having been preferred in his stead, jealousy provoked him 
 to institute a division. It is evident, however, that this 
 account is colored by tho rancor of enemies. Jealousy 
 may explain tho secession of an individual from his party 
 or creed, but it can never bring about a new religious move- 
 ment ; least of all, such a one as gave rise to the sect of the 
 Karaites — a sect whoso existence is measured by at hast 
 twelve centuries, whoso members have ever displayed pro- 
 found religious conviction and zeal, and havo preserved a 
 degree of moral energy and purity which calls forth univer- 
 sal admiration. A third view concerning ihc origin of the 
 Karaites current among tho mt-diieval rabbins, an<! repre- 
 sented by such great names us those of Maimonidesand A ben 
 Esra, identified them with tho ancient sect of the Zidukim 
 (Sadducees),and writersof the class wo have mentioned com- 
 monly apply the name of Sadducees to them without hesita- 
 tion or reserve. This view derives its solo support from the 
 fact that tho Karaites agree with the Sadducees in certain 
 questions of religious theory nncl practice ; as, for instance, 
 in celebrating tin' feast of Pentecost on a Sunday. But. on 
 tho other hand, we should consider that they hold the most 
 important articles of faith, such ns tho doctrine of reward 
 and punishment, of the resurrection of tho dead, etc., in 
 common with the rabbinfl. and reject the opinions of the 
 Satlducccs. If (Jeigcr's viexv as laid down in his Vi-Kchrift 
 and elsewhere be admitted, and it is trui-. as he afiirms, that
 
 1506 
 
 KARAITES. 
 
 the Sadducees accepted tradition in its earliest form, and 
 rejected only its later development by the Pharisees, then 
 the futility of every attempt to identify both sects must be 
 at once apparent. For the Karaites were consistent in 
 discarding tradition in all its forms, earlier and later. 
 
 The accounla of the Karaites themselves concerning 
 their origin appear to be, so far as their writings have become 
 known, no less untrustworthy. At one time, they acknow- 
 ledge Jchuda ben Tabbai, an ancient teacher mentioned in 
 the^Mishna. as the founder of their sect : again, this honor 
 is reserved for Anan b. David, whom we have already men- | 
 tiotied above; while at the same time they claim that their \ 
 doctrine is as ohl as .Judaism itself; that the jirinciples they 
 advocate were those of Moses and the pr<ipbet8 ; and, fur- ■ 
 thermore, that thev had remained unquestioned until the 
 days of Simon b. .Shetach. He, the brother-in-law of King | 
 Hyrcanus and president of the Sanhedrin. began to intvo- j 
 diico innovations of an arbitrary character and contrary to 
 the established customs of Israel, and by so doing laid the 
 foundations of rabbinism. His measures were resisted by , 
 his colleague in the presidency of the Sanhedrin, Jehuda 
 b. Tabbai, who remained true to the ancient law, and who j 
 is for this reason called the father of the Karaites. (Dod 
 Marflechat, chap, ii.) 
 
 Though these different accounts are unclear, contradict- 
 ory, and without adequate historical basis, they all contain 
 an essential clement of truth, or at least indicate the direc- 
 tion in which the truth is to be found. The correct view of 
 thinfs seems to be the following: As compared with the 
 Bible, it cannot be denied that the rabbinic system marks 
 a new departure. Like every innovation, it encountered 
 opposition at the very outset. This opposition was grad- 
 ually silenced, but could not be completely destroyed. It 
 continued to exist as a strong undercurrent, and when the 
 occasion was presented rose with new energy to the surface. 
 In order thoroughly to understand this process, it will be 
 necessarv to define the exact position of rabbinism, and 
 brieflv to trace the successive stages of its develo]>ment. 
 
 In the age when rabbinism struck root, shortly after the 
 return of the people from captivity in Babylon, the condi- 
 tions, both external and internal, amid which the code of 
 the Pentateuch had arisen had materially changed. The 
 demands of life in favor of new laws were pressing, and (he 
 leading spirits of the time, recognizing their justice, felt 
 themselves called upon — nay, in duty bound — so to modify 
 the teachings and commands of religion that they should 
 conform to the altered state of affairs. But, holding their 
 own authority to be insufficient to ensure obedience to those 
 new enactments, which, though urgently demanded by the 
 exigencies of life, were contrary to the prescriptions of the 
 Bible and the traditions of the fathers, they resorted to a 
 measure at once thoroughly effective and dangerous. By 
 the aid of a highly artificial and tortuous system of exe- 
 gesis they assumed the appearance of deducing whatever 
 laws they intended to pass from the very words of Scrip- 
 ture a liieasurc which they justified on the ground of ne- 
 cessity, and because the means in this ease seemed author- 
 ized by the good end they desired to reach. A wide field for 
 controversy was thus opened. The Sadducees made excel- 
 lent use of the opportunity afforded them, and employed 
 as the keenest weapons of attack the revealed word of God 
 himself and the sacred customs of antiquity. But their ef- 
 forts were vain. In struggling against the innovations 
 of the rabbins they resisted the tendency of the age, and 
 they were at last forced to succumb. But the very suc- 
 cess of rabbinism encouraged an altogether unprecedent- 
 ed extension of that vicious method of exegesis by which 
 its triumph had been secured, and became instrumental 
 in rallying anew its defeated and scattered adversaries and 
 arming them for the attack. The new method of the rab- 
 bins was too fruitful, and, breaking through all restraints, 
 soon became corrupt. Though at first regarded as a mere 
 makeshift to ensure the acceptance of measures otherwise 
 wholesome and wise, it came to be considered in the later 
 schools of the Talmudists true and valuable on its own ac- 
 count. It was cultivated with exaggerated zeal and dia- 
 lectical acuteness. and thus became the source of a mul- 
 titude of legal provisions equally unmeaning and un- 
 called for. In such a condition of affairs it could not 
 but come about that men of sound judgment and firm 
 will should protest against this corruption of religion. 
 The opposition was at first carried on secretly, then with 
 greater boldness and openness — the hostile band was 
 small in numbers at first, then increased by a large and 
 powerful following — until a bitter conflict ensued, and at 
 last a new sect went forth from the struggle. Already in 
 the Talmud we find a number of ordinances which ap- 
 pear to be directed against those who hold Karaite opin- 
 ions, and which therefore presuppose their existence. (AV- 
 thiibnth. 62 li.) The celebrated teacher of the Mishna, 
 Rabbi Eliezcr the Great, admonishes his disciples (Ziora- 
 
 chotli, 28 b) to keep their children from " Higaion," mean- 
 ing, as the commentator explains, from too frequent reading 
 of the Bible. This shows us that even in the days of R. 
 Eliezcr the rabbins saw the danger which would threaten 
 their system if an intimate acquaintance with Scripture 
 were to become general. And yet it was impossible to 
 avoid this danger. Within the pale of Judaism the people 
 could not he precluded from studying Scripture, as was 
 done elsewhere. The reading of the "books of Moses" 
 formed an essential element of the sabbath service, and 
 even the Talmudists were forced to declare the study of the 
 Bible a religious dutv, though of less importance than the 
 study of the Talmud. iBnha Mczia. 33 a.) Indeed, the 
 letter of Scripture was the very foundation on which rab- 
 binism had raised its huge edifice. It was thus forced to 
 nourish its foe at its own breast, and, by continually re- 
 curring to the Bible for the sanclificatiou of its encroach- 
 ments, to keep alive and strengthen the spirit of opposi- 
 tion which these innovations tended to develop. After the 
 close of the Talmudic epoch the spirit of opposition was 
 still further encouraged. In Palestine (Tiberias) greater 
 attention began to be paid to the correct preservation of 
 the biblical text. It was supplied with vowel-signs and 
 accents, and an organized Masoretic school devoted care 
 and vigilance exclusively to this task. A similar school 
 arose in Babvlonia, where a dilferent system of vocalization 
 was introduced. The scrupulous care with which the 
 Bible was now studied naturally directed the thoughts of 
 many to the wide divergence existing between the real 
 meaning of Scripture and that which passed current in the 
 schools of the Talmudists. Thus the number of those hos- 
 tile to the Talmud kept on increasing. But when in the 
 eighth century Babylonish rabbinism began to urge new 
 claims to supremacy! the like of which had never been heard 
 of before, the opposition became uncontrollable. So long 
 as the Sanhedrin had remained in existence, there had been 
 at least a senate of seventy persons to limit the sovereignty 
 of thcnasi(first president) in matters of religion. During 
 the Talmudic epoch proper great diversity of opinion pre- 
 vailed among the individual teachers, without there being 
 any central authority of sufficient influence to pronounce 
 final decisions on disputed questions. This state of things 
 continued in the succeeding (the so-called Saburaic) epoch. 
 And it was not till the presidents of the Babylonish acad- 
 emies had assumed the magnificent title of </"o?i (highness) 
 that a desire awoke for greater power than had ever been 
 granted before. A kin.l of iniallibility was assumed by these 
 gaons. and the iudgmcnt of an individual was claimed to 
 be binding on all Israel. At that time honest and enlight- 
 ened men found that the burden of rabbinism had become 
 insupportable. The time for separation was at hand. An 
 impulse from without was all that was needed^ This was 
 given by ,\nan. ( Fiirst in his Hiniuri/ of Knrni»m has 
 prirth/ recognized the true relation and succession of events 
 as we' have detailed tbem above; bat in this he had been 
 already anticipated by a mediseval writer of note. Rabbi 
 Simon" b. Zemach Duran. See GrUtz, MonalsKchrl/l, 1874, 
 Nov., p. 5tK).) 
 
 Anan ben David, b. 700 A. n. in the town of Bazra, near 
 Bagdad, of noble family, claiming descent from King 
 David, received a thorough education in Jewish theology 
 and in those scientific pursuits which were cherished at the 
 time. He soon acquirerl a considerable re|uitalion as a 
 scholar, and collected a number of adherents around him, 
 who accepted his independent views. Even thus early he 
 did not scruple to deviate from the beaten track of rab- 
 binic teaching. In 754 he settled in Bagdad, where his 
 uncle, Salomo, the "prince of the Captivity," resided. 
 When the latter died childless (700) the nearest claim to 
 the vacant oflice was that of Anan, both on account of his 
 eminent learning and high descent. The academical pres- 
 idents of Sora and Anl.ar, however, opposed his election, 
 because, as the rabbinical chronicles tell us. "they discov- 
 ered a defect in him " (in the .sV/Vr >>" Cahhtihi (" R"OK »' 
 Tradition') of Abraham h. David of Toledo, 1110-80). 
 What this defect was thev do not say. and their silence on 
 this head amply proves that it could have been no moral flaw. 
 It was, indeed", nothing more than his heterodox opinions 
 to which thev referred. The party of Anan sought to gain 
 the protcctio'n of the caliph Almansur,but their opponents 
 represented them as rebels, and caused their persecution. 
 In consequence, Anan and his adherents fled to Jerusalem, 
 where heopenlv cut loo.se from the authority of the Talmud, 
 and founded the first congregation of Karaites. To hini 
 and his descendants the title of nasi was applied, as it had 
 formerly been given to the patriarchs of Palestine in the 
 Talmudic epoch. But the " princely " office of nasi was 
 royal only in name, and lacked the substanceof power. Its 
 incumbents continued to reside in Jerusalem until 910. 
 Later on they removed to Cahira. , , . . 
 
 The foundation of the sect of Karaites had thus been
 
 KARAITES. 
 
 1507 
 
 laid by Anan. though he was far from carrying out his 
 principle? to their last consequence. Neither he nor his 
 followers were entirely emancipated from those religious 
 views and practices which education and custom had so 
 long eontrihulcd to foster. It is true he proclaimed the 
 right of interfireting and applying the words of Scripture 
 independently of all authority, yet, none the less, he clung 
 to many of the ordinances prescribed by the .Mislinii. Es- 
 pecially was this the case in questions of civil law. A 
 complete reconstruction of practical religion, which nt that 
 time included the administration of juFticc in its spliore, 
 transcended the powers of an individual to accomplish. 
 New congregations were formed, new teachers arose. 
 Questions whieh Anan had never considered came up for 
 decision. Others which he had adjudged were discussed 
 anew, and conclusions differing from his own not unfrc- 
 qiiently reached; for Anan had himself opposed the habit 
 of blind reliance on the utterances of the master, and de- 
 clared free exegesis his watchword. As the sect grew in num- 
 bers, and its rival teachers struggled to fix it securely, each 
 on the basis of his own system, iho confusion of conflicting 
 opinions increased, and the new sect was in imminent dan- 
 ger of splitting into numberless minor sects, and thus 
 perishing. In this way the struggle continued until 800 
 A. T>., when Benjamin Xahawendi, from the town of Xaha- 
 wend in ancient Media, succeeded in gaining universal 
 recognition among the Karaites, and to him the sect owes 
 its perpetuation. In his day the name Ananites was ex- 
 changed for Karaites, by which latter appellation they haro 
 since been known. His authority was sufficiently great to 
 challenge even that of Anan. His views, laid down in 
 con)menlaries to the Bible and legal compendia, spread tr> 
 the Kast and West, to the congregations of Biibylon and 
 Palestine, and were the more readily accepted because they 
 temied on the whole to lighten the load of religious duties. 
 Anan had intcnlicted the use of fowl at table; Benjamin 
 piTinittod it. Anan had extended the obligation of the 
 leviratical marriage to all male relatives of the deceased; 
 Benjamin confined it to the brother. Anan had jealously 
 guarded the rigid sanctification of the sabbath. On the 
 sabbath day he prohibited conjugal intercourse, forbade 
 circumcision, and demanded the literal ajiplicntion of the 
 words of Scripture, " Xo one shall leave his place," thus 
 locking up his people in their houses. Bcnjaiuia abrogated 
 all these provisions. 
 
 The main principle of Anan, that of free exegesis, re- 
 mained undisputed, and Benjamin Xahawendi could not 
 check the further development of Karaisni, even had he 
 been disposed to do so. And, indeed, after his death wo 
 find differences of theory continuing to exist among schol- 
 ars, and practical differences arising in various congrcga- 
 titms concerning important questions of religious law. Thus, 
 for instance, some held with the rabbins that it is permissi- 
 ble to keep a light burning on Friday evening, provided it 
 had been lit before the opening of the subbatli, while oIbel■,■^ 
 consiilered it wrong to <lo so, nml were forced to ]pass the 
 whole night in darkness. In the main, however, the dan- 
 ger of dismemberment was averted by Benjamin, and the 
 unity of Karai<m secured. 
 
 The essential difTerenee between themselves and the rab- 
 binist Jews had meantime come thoroughly homo to the 
 Karaites, and was continually strengthened by the habits 
 of their daily life. Though there was no dogmatic con- 
 flict between them, though the same basis of faith was 
 common to both, yet their disagreements in other matters 
 were too important and far-reaching to admit the hope of 
 reconciliation. The common celebration of feast-days is at 
 all times a strong bond of union between coreligionists. 
 This bond Anun had already severed. Kvrr since his time 
 the Karaites have determined the day of the new moon by 
 direct observation, while the rabbinist? continue to guitle 
 themselves by the calculations of their received calendar. 
 The Karaites celebrated, and Still celebrate, the Pentecost 
 on the fiftieth day counting from the Sunday of Passover 
 Week : the rabbinists, on the fiftieth day counting from the 
 second day of the feast. Also, the rite of circumcision is 
 practised hy the Karaites in a way not recognized as vali<l 
 Ity the rabbinic law. In respect to dietary laws, the 
 Karaite;! abandoned numberless restrictions held sacred by 
 the r.ibbinisls. The latter naturally liroke ofl" connection 
 with tho-ie wlio habitually transgressed their laws. On the 
 other hand, the Karaites aspired to the most nnstero purity 
 in the social relations. As early as the days of Anan they, 
 with the help of their peculiar methotl of exegesis, extemled 
 the number of forbidden marriages to such a degree that 
 many matrimonial alliances which pa<"s unchallenged aimmg 
 the rabbinists were by them regarded in the light of crimes. 
 The offspring of such alliances were consiflered to have 
 sprung from an incestuous intercourse, and intermarriage 
 with them was of course impossible. 
 
 The golf between Kar.iites and rabbini?ts cnnM no more 
 
 he bridged over. The peculiarities of both parties were 
 strongly marked. Both were firmly resolved to preserve 
 their own opinions and institutions intact, and they might 
 have pursued their several ways side by side without inter- 
 fering one with the other. But this was not to be. It is 
 in the nature of every new sect to seek an extension of 
 its influence by drawing converts from the outside world 
 into its ranks. The leading men of the Karaites being 
 thoroughly familiar with the Bible, admirably skilled in 
 scholarly research, and impelled by holy xeal for thetr 
 cause, produced a great and varied literature in its interest, 
 and in every way labored strenuously to gain adherents 
 for their doctrines. In the course of the ninth century 
 they sent out missionaries in all directions, and succeeded 
 in founding congregations in Iran. Persia, Media. Armenia, 
 Syria, Palestine. Egypt, and the N. of Africa. Raltbinism 
 witnessed the triumph of its opponent with terror and dis- 
 may, but was too feeble effectually to resist it. Its repre- 
 sentative men were equally lacking in power of thought 
 and of expression. Even the gaons of the academies, 
 though versed in Talmudio lore, were utterly ignorant of 
 the ]»ursuits of science. In this extremity, the rabbinists, 
 though loath to adopt a measure which seemed so deroga- 
 tory to their dignity, calletl a stranger, Saadia ben Joseph 
 (b.892 A. n. ) of Faium, in Upper Kgypt. to Babylonia, 
 and appointed him gaon of Sora. His fame as a profound 
 Talmudist, a master of science, and at the same time a 
 bitter eneuiy of the Karaites, had preceded him. The 
 wisdom of the appointment was proved by the event. 
 Saadia, indeed, was a writer of extraordinary fertility and 
 genius. The reader will gain some conception of the ver- 
 satility of his mind on learning that this man. apart from 
 his labors on the field of the Talmuil, was the author of a 
 Hebrew grammar, a Hebrew lexicon, a book on rhetoric, 
 an Arjibic translation of and commentary on the Bible 
 and the Mishna, a work on the philosophy of religion from 
 the Jewish standpoint, and of many minor treatises be- 
 sides. Not only did ho in all his works seize every oppor- 
 tunity that offered a plausible pretext to refute the opinions 
 of the Karaites, but he also directed three separate books 
 — on the marital laws, on the Hebrew calendar, and the 
 divine institutions — expressly against their doctrine, and 
 wrote seven polemical treatises against their most distin- 
 guished teachers. The influence of Saadia inter])used a 
 barrier to the further spread of Karaism, while at the 
 same time it tendeil indirectly to strengthen and purify it 
 inwardly. Such attacks as thoso of Saadia, carried on 
 with the weapons of science and learning, and the keen 
 sword of eloquence, Karaism had never before experienced. 
 They called for counter-efforts on its part, which brctught 
 leaders of such high intellectual power to the front as only 
 the hour of danger can awaken. Prominent among these 
 are Joseph el Bazri, the fust Jc wish writer on the philoso- 
 phy of religion, and Salmon b. Jerochim. An emulous 
 strucrglo betw<'en the literary rivals of either side began, 
 whoso influence was salutary to both parties, encouraging 
 thoroughness and accuracy of investigation. The half 
 century between 900 and 9;»0 A. n.. during the lifetime of 
 Saadia and shortly after, is the golden age of the literature 
 ofthe Karaites. Their principles were then firmly grounded, 
 their theology completely systematized. After the death 
 of Saadia (1)12) his disciples feebly continued the contest 
 for some time longer ; hut gradually the cries of I he contend- 
 ing champions died out, and wlun the fight was over the 
 limits of lioth sects were found to be more strictly defined 
 and closed in than they had ever been previously. 
 
 We may say that the rabbinists by their persecutions cre- 
 ated Karaism. By their literary opposition tiu-y made it 
 strong and enduring. In the following centuries the feel- 
 ing of hostility bctwi-en Karait* s and rnbbinisls. which 
 was still at times displayed in their writings, diminished 
 in billernefls. Knlighlened men of both parties admon* 
 ished their friends to practise patience and forbearance 
 toward their opponents, and a ^i^stingui^bed rabbi, She- 
 maria Icreti (of Crete or Cundia, ll'lHI-ll'.'-Mt). even at- 
 tem]>ted, though to no purpose, to reunite the two divis- 
 ions of Juilaifiu. A similar attempt was made with tho 
 same result by Uabbi ttedalia Ibn Jaebia of Lisabon in 
 tho year Hf^T. The relations subsisting between the 
 Karaites and rabbinists of Lithuania, Russia, and Po- 
 land during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were 
 of a particularly peaceful ancl cordial characler. while in 
 our own century of prr»gres»ive and liberal culture the last 
 vestiges of niutunl distrust have completely disappeared. 
 It is worthy of remark in tins connection that e^■en at the 
 time when the animosity of the eontemling sects was most 
 pronounced, no one ever thought (d" declaring tho opposing 
 party w ithmit the pale of .ludaism. t^n the contrary, some 
 of the very highest authorities of the rabbinists distinctly 
 affirmed that the Karaites are to bo considered and treated 
 as .lews, nolwith'-'tanding all their errors. The prc-ence
 
 1508 
 
 KAKAJITCH-KARAMZIN 
 
 often men is required for P^^ic worship according^to 
 
 counting of '^"'^"^ him'^elf, not from any desire to 
 
 ""' ""ie'thein'rom " feUow'ii , o( Israel, but simply bc- 
 "::' hey do n„" alree with t'hc rabbinists in re-iuiniv. 
 
 i, birth and not circumcision wl^chmak-^ ^^ ^^^ 
 
 As re-ards the scientific and " ""> j^, ^^ n„njer- 
 
 mentioned. They "^^ "7j,i,oi<„^, philosophy, niathe- 
 different branches, partly '» P^'^fA'^ ^^„„ „ beyond a 
 matics, astronomy, and medicine. It is cena j ^ 
 
 c 1 ii.a rin..tiine<i of the existence ot troa, oi ru>eiui.wu. 
 
 !;^;ry:;M^onada.m.ar,d.s„^ 
 
 ^'X/,™ (^Trt f -llif! •• . o"n \he philosophy of religion. 
 Lbn edited with many learned annotations a„<, ex- 
 
 '''rr-^Vi-irii'Lr^^^th^rtr'^s^riiifn^'^.ephth 
 
 f^s'og^f whose commentaries have been f-ely used by 
 Joseph(h 1250 in tneLriu .. ^_^^^_. ^^ ^ 
 
 '° ^ '"':r hl^^ralic Tho-mo;t important of these 
 
 den in the literature of he karaitet . ._^ „,^ 
 
 Karaism and <^h"; '^" ;'' ,i, „,„ seventeenth century 
 
 RUtaneel professor at Kiinigsberg. «ho travelled to L.t i^ 
 nania in fi4 and there visited the Karaite congregation in 
 ITr \o :.ud'; Uie doctrines of the sect at .ho foiintain-head^ I 
 He was f.illowed by (Sustavus I'erringer. protcssor oi mi. 
 SAem" 'ai;uases^t Tpsala, who ""<|-'-^, t%weT 
 iournev for the same purpose, at the instance of "'c Mve.i 
 dhk°ng Charles XI.. in 1690. Six years later, two scholars, 
 stedes^'as before, went on a similar mission to I-<h"a"'a; 
 aiTd nduced the Karaites to send one of their learned men 
 
 ^U'sl in order. o supply the ^^^"^'^--f ^^^^^^^'Z 
 with detailed information concerning the historv ana uio 
 Tssen ial doctrines of their sect. Salomo Toroki, the author 
 ^f 1he%,.,.H-'oM. was selected for this purpose. In the 
 f iwln/vear he came to Upsala. was received with great 
 JstiSna^d wrote a treatise in answer to the questions 
 d,s Unction, an Holland, however, where 
 
 tCJZ X abic^studies were cultivated with great .eal 
 
 and devotion, the desire for a better understanding of Ka- 
 
 j„„( nnd the measures taken to secure 
 raism was most "^ent ^"^/Ji^^Uie Dutch scholars who 
 it proved most »f =''^«- /"""^i ,„ » knowledge of the 
 took a prominent I'^rt >n spread.n ^^^^,^ ,^ ^^^^ 
 
 history ""J '"""''.'^,°V I e not only collected, but care- 
 first place, LewmW arner.K not on y ^^ 
 
 (My stu.lied and )'""» "I^t-^hich were :fO codices, con- 
 Hebrew i"''""''\'"PV , rw frv tes Then Jacob Trigland, 
 
 within the last few decades, after a part "'^ 
 
 of manuscripts «i„g to Karaite .;^ -■-„„,^, 
 
 scattered in various Periodica .and 'o^^ <■ 
 
 ^ri^whi^wii?^!:^.:"^;--'--'^''--- 
 
 '■^C^^drof-hJ'^elt^f Karaite is - ^^- -- 
 exhausted. The greater P" "f '^^'jje of the wandering 
 lost in the course of ;,'°>;';';;°;,d ^a <he d '"lal destiniel 
 life -hH-ht>'.'[/'^^^.,° ";^1 :ris. with few exceptions, 
 they met with. AM at ""''',, u e „f half-faded man- 
 
 '^"'!''*'°'ThfuCrorLe d:nwtT;ralong 
 uscripts. Ihelioraryoi . minted works of the 
 
 than any other in ----•;':,:;"bre':surpassed by the 
 Karaites It ^^if^'J' „,,ieh is now in possession of tho 
 
 "waSht at the expense of the emperor^ b. AnLCK^ 
 
 Kara'jitch (V.k ^--;---" V^ wa 'in^pend- 
 cated at Carlowitz ; served in the Ser wan 1^ ^^^ 
 
 ence, but Bed to Austria when in » .^ ,„-,i,erary 
 
 ^'''*'^%r^Hircot;t strvL^popularsongs.^vols., 
 
 X'^a^JU::: andf Strwi'r^rammar and dictionary. 
 
 -.rj^nj^i::-.^^^-;^^^^^ 
 
 log safe anchorage. In the eig"' „ ,. . , j^ ,he island 
 t^'ish^ ?im:.= It?, i^ha-S'b^^^etirn 2000 and 3000 
 
 ' K^raUo'r^ is^ed -^';--:,^^>;^^':el'^S 
 western part ot the '^'•''■•^; •"'',,;' 1^1 high) by which this 
 of one of the few P-^-^/^^'^^to the name of the ancient 
 ,ange can '- ""f-^'-,,, 'eu/of the mythical I'rester .lohn. 
 
 3:!i:v^'ne^.'':;i^u ^^^;^^^^- ^- -- 
 
 have been sought in vain ^ J" ™ \;'l";,„et of the 
 Karaman', own o Asia Mm ^_. ^^^^^^^.^^ j, ^^, 
 
 IZl ZniVr'ti'ir^s orcot.on and woollen stuffs. Pop. es- 
 
 timated at 12.000. ,, 
 
 Kamm.in; <N.ko..^. M.n.i.v^O, _b^^ ^ 
 
 J^:-^i;lt M;;;rof\s count. in ea.y^^ 
 
 i,„b?.ed with mystical ;' -- ^ ;::,^' n.^^ry production, 
 Freemasonry. ms "rsi p. ,„,■„, „„» his /-'■»'•/• of a 
 which gained him great ■■eP"^" •'• ;:g»2 \^ ,,,, ^,.„i„„ 
 
 I «,.„,•„„ r--('-'P>"'''tUh assumed. Vn.il ISO:-., 
 J„„r„.^thoedltor.sh,pofwhKh h a ^^^_^^,.^,„ ^„,, y,,. 
 
 ditors up ->•""•••"■. ,„ jounialism and lit- 
 
 Karam.in devoted 1>""^' f ^^ ;7'-\, , ,1,^,, the best known 
 
 erature. writing poems, e"'^''''"'' " " ' f ,, , „as his senti- 
 
 of which are />o„. ''■- "^^^^^^^ ";; '•■,„ted by .he emperor 
 
 mental period. I" ^*";\^^'' ""f%Oo' ) roubles, and withdrew 
 historiographer with a sajaryot ^ 
 
 for some years to Moscow »"" ' g ■ led by thcso 
 
 self up entirely to l""<'"<^»/'"^;V,„„rado views, In l-H 
 studies to extreme conservative or retro raa ^^ _ ^^^ 
 
 ho presented to .he emperor Alexander a ^^ ^^_ 
 
 form .hen in vogue "f "O^;;'/ ^ ,;y Ud through the lo- 
 
 Karamr/in returned to b . '"'"^'""^f ,o„erfal minister of 
 
 1 fl„ence of Count Arak ohe, f, the a 1 o ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^.^ 
 
 I Z-^:"^ ^■'^' '^^tll'liTasod rank, and set apart
 
 KARASOV-BAZAR— KASHAX. 
 
 1 ")()!.» 
 
 60,000 roubles for the publication of his H\*tortf of the Rtu- 
 «?«ii Empire, which wns then completeJ. The history was 
 {iiibli.''bcd in 1818, and the first edition of 3000 copies was 
 sold within tweuty-five days, and the fume of Karamzin 
 became for over established. The rest of his life he passed 
 quietly in St. Petersburg and the vicinity, in intimate re- 
 lations with the imperial family. At his death the emperor 
 f:ranted his family (he had been twice married) a pension 
 of 50,000 roubb's. ErncXE Schiiyi.ek. 
 
 Kara^HOV-lta/ar', town of Southern Russia, in the 
 government of Taiirida. on the Karasov. It has large 
 manufactures of morocco leather and soap, and is the cen- 
 tral market of the Crimea. Pop., comprising Greeks, 
 Russians, .Armenians, and Jews. 14,:i97. 
 
 Karntrliev', town of European Russia, in the govern- 
 ment of Orel. It carries on considerable spinning and 
 weaving, has several oil-mills, and manufactures of sail- 
 cloth and cordage. Pop. 10,750. 
 
 Kardza|E;'«i|j-Szallas% town of Hungary, in the dis- 
 trict of Jazygia and f'umania. Its trade in wheat, wine, 
 and fruit is very considerable. Pop. 9515. 
 
 Karelians. See Finns. 
 
 Ka'rens, a people of Northern Burmab. belonging to 
 the Mongolian, or perhaps to the Thibetan, family, the in- 
 dependence of whose country was recognized by treaty be- 
 tween England and Burmab in June, 1875. They are 
 chiefly known from tlie wonderful success among them of 
 the missifins established by Messrs. Judson and Board- 
 man of the American Baptist Missionary Society, soon 
 followcii by numerous others. In ISfiS there were among 
 the Karens flO native onlained pastors and evangelists. 
 34fl native preachers unordained. 300 native churches, with 
 about 20,000 church members. (See Mason's G»»p€l in linr- 
 niafi and the /ir/,i,it of the Americnn Hnpti'yt MifHinn Union 
 for 1SC8.) A comparative vocabulary of the two principal 
 Karen dialects, Sgao and Pwo, by Rev. Dr. N. Brown, may 
 be found in Jt»urmtl of vlmeriVau Oriental Sodtty, vol. iv. 
 
 Karg i(iKortG). Sec Ai'pkndix. 
 
 Karikal'y a French possession in India, on th"^ Coro- 
 mandel coast, 150 miles S. of Madras, in lat. 10° S:.' X., 
 on the c'Stuary of one of the branches of the Kaveri. Area, 
 6.3 square miles. Pop. about 50.000, of whom hardly 1000 
 are Europeans. The colony is of very little consequence, 
 .as the estuary is unfit for navigation. 
 
 Kar'kor* ''ity in the desert E. of Palestine, wbi-.-h was 
 the capital of the Midianitcs in the time of the Judges. 
 Several identifications have vainly been made in modern 
 times; the true site was undoubtedly farther to tho S. E. 
 than recent travellers have explored. 
 
 KarU% village of British India, in tho presidency of 
 Bombay. -lO miles E. of Bombay, is famous for its cavo- 
 teniple. which, l.'iO feet long and 40 feet wide, is cut into 
 thf rock at a considerable hoigbt.aud consists of two rows 
 of suulptured pillars, terminating in a semicircular en- 
 closure and bearing an arched roof. Tho whole etructuro 
 is well preserved. 
 
 Karr^tadt fANonEAS Rudolf), b. at Karlstadt, in 
 
 Franconia. in 1480; his true name was Bodkxstkis. He 
 studied at different places besides Rome, and was ap- 
 pointed professor in theology at the Tniversity of Witten- 
 norg in 1513. \\vi was a learned and elofjuent man, and 
 hecamo one of the mont enthusiastic and energetic cham- 
 pions of the Reformation, but his temper was vehement, 
 almost violent ; and differing from Luther in several points, 
 especially in his views of the Lord's Supper, a disastrous 
 controversy broke out between them. Karlstadt, whoso 
 turbulent mind brought him in connection with Thomas 
 Miinzer and other fanatics, was twice banished from Sax- 
 ony, and actually persecuted by the Lutherans. In 1523 
 ho went into exile for tho first time. In 1525 ho rc- 
 (urni'd, and was rceonelled with Luther. But when the 
 <'ont<-s( between I*uther and Zwingli began again, in 152S, 
 Kurl^tacll was once more banisiu-d. At last he found 
 refuge with the Swiss Reformers, with whom he agreed 
 concerning tho Lord's Supper, and he no doubt con- 
 tributnil much to bring about the schism between the I,u- 
 tbcran and tbn Bcfurmed eburches. I), as a minister at 
 Bi\le in 1511. II in jirineipat writings are !>'■ utraffur nprrii- 
 Ccttiir (1524), and AuHf^ynnff dcr Wurtr : Dus int mtiit Ldh 
 (1525). 
 
 Karma'tliiailH [from ITanuhtn K'irmnt, one of their 
 early leader"], a Mohammedan sect of reformer'', who were 
 originally a branch of the Ismailis, an<l like them became 
 free thinkers. They were at one time very powerful, and 
 hcM nearly abstduto sway over Arabia. Persia, ntid Syria, 
 everywhere defeating the caliph's armieR. In !'00 a. n. 
 they made great aclvanees ; in 928 they threatened Bagdad ; 
 in 930 they attacked Mecca, then full of pilgrims, whom 
 
 they slaughtered, desecrating the Kaaba, and carrying away 
 tho Black Stone, which they kept for twenty years. Their 
 capital was Labsa. where they were in power in the eleventh 
 century. Relics of them exist to this day. They now re- 
 ject Mohammedanism and conceal their real doctrines. 
 
 Karnak', a modern village of Upper Egypt, on the 
 right bank of the Nile, occupying part of the site of 
 Thebes, renowned for its magnificent architectural re- 
 mains. Chief among these is tho great temple, 1200 feet 
 long, 3.'^0 feet broad, with gigantic colonnades, colossal fig- 
 ures, sculptures of various kinds, in colorcil sandstone, 
 marble, red and dark granite. Fragments have been found 
 bearing the name of Sesortosis (r. c. 2300). The archi- 
 tecture is duo in largo part to Mceris, who adorned the 
 palace with a list of his royal predecessors. There are 
 memorials of the glory of Amenophis (a. c. 1500) in a body 
 of bas-reliefs of his wars in Asia. The great ball was built 
 by Setbos {b. c. 1340). The chief temple contains sculp- 
 tures with inscriptions of tho time of Raraescs the Great, 
 or Scsostris (n. c. 1300-28). The great tablet of Karnak 
 was shown and explained by the priests to Germanicus 
 (b. 0. Ifi). (See ARCHiTKOTriiE, Efivi'T, LrxoR, Thebes.) 
 St. John, Frrfpt and X„hia (1844, 355-378)^ Henry, 
 L'F'/ifptr Plniraonitjiir (184fi, ii. 205): Bartlett. i\7/-"-6o«f 
 {Htirperfi Monthhj, 1850, i. 212); Champollion-Figeac, 
 E;ft/pte Anriejnie (1858, 310) ; ib. G*miihlv v. Avrjifpt 
 (1852); Lepsius, Letters from Efjt/pt (1853, Letter xxx.1 ; 
 W. C. Prime, From Thebes to the Pyramidn [Harper e 
 Monthhf, 1857, xiv. 4G3, 4G7) ; Weber, 'Weh-Cjeseh. [^ 30, 
 31,42)! C. P. Khaiitii. 
 
 Karnes, county in S. W. Texas. Area, 830 square 
 miles. It is traversed by tho San Antonio River. It has 
 a fertile, sandy soil, is one-third timber-land, and the rest 
 prairie. Stock-raising is the chief industry, but cotton 
 and grain aro also raised. Cap. Helena. Pop. 1705. 
 
 Karoo' Bokadam', tho CtrUrnR cincrcns, a fresh- 
 water snake <if India, nearly four feet long and quite 
 harmless. Otlicr species of the genus are found in tho East. 
 
 Karpin'ski (Franciszek), b. Oct. 4, 1741. at IIolosco, 
 Galicia, and educated by tho Jesuits at Lembcrg. In 1783 
 he became secretary to Prince Adam Czartoryski. and lived 
 at tho court of King Stanislas; but from 1791 he resided 
 in retirement on his estates in Lithuania, where he d.Sept. 
 4, 1825. His songs aro still very po])ular among the Poles. 
 His collected works, including a tragedy, Judith, a trans- 
 lation of the Psalms, and a number of idyls, were pub- 
 lished in 4 vols, at AVarsaw in 1804 j his memoirs in 2 vols. 
 at Lembcrg in 1849. 
 
 Karr (Jean Bai-tiste Alphonse), b. at Paris Nov. 24. 
 LS08 ; was educated at tho CoIl/'-ge Bourbon: published 
 Sntin leu 7V//rf(/# ( 1832 ), a successful novel; became chief 
 editor of Fii/nm 1839; and founded Lch duepen, ti very 
 successful periodical. In 1848 bo removed to Nice, where 
 ho engaged in gardening on a large scale. He has pro- 
 duced many novels and other works, one of tho best of 
 which is tlio Voyaf/r autunr de imni Jardin (1845). — His 
 daughter, TiifiRilsi:, is a popular writer of books. 
 
 Karroo' [a Hottentot term], a name a])plici| to tho 
 great barren ])lateaux of Southern .-Vfriea. Tho soil is sbal- 
 lo\v, resting upon a rocky bed. In the rainy season they 
 furnish abundant pasturage, and jiortions of them when 
 irrigated have been fountl very productive. 
 
 Kara, town of Armenia, ceded to Russia in L878, situ- 
 ated on a table-land between tiOOO and 7900 feet above the 
 level of tho sea. It carries on a lively transit trade. In 
 1855, its fortifications having been much strengthened, it 
 sustained a long siege by the Russians, but was compelled 
 hv famine to surrender Nov. 30. It was stormed by the 
 Itussians Nov. 18, 1877. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Kar'stcn fUriiMANN Kari.I. b. at Stralsund Nov. t'l, 
 1817: studied botany at Berlin; made two great journeys 
 Ihrongb Northern South America { ISI3-17 and 1818-5(1), 
 and was after his return appointed professor in botany at 
 Berlin. His principal writings arc />»> IV(/c^rth"o»i«<»>y/fiiie 
 drr Pafmrn (1847b Flora Unlnmhitc (1857-66), and Che- 
 miitmuH tlrr !*danxriirrllr (1870). 
 
 Knn'hniis, post-(p. of Clearfield co.. Pa. Pop. 452. 
 
 KaNanlili', town of European Turkey, in Rum-clee. is 
 famous for its manufacture of attar of roses. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Kas'cliail^ town of Hungary, on the right bank of the 
 Hernad. Its church of St. Elizabeth, built 1 .".12-82. istbo 
 finest (lolbie building in Hungary. Knsehau has a very 
 brisk trade in wine, wheat, and fruit. Pop. 21,742. 
 
 Kashan'^ town of Persia, in the province of Irak- 
 Ajemec. situated 3ft90 feet above the level of the sea. It is 
 a beautiful eity, with a |»alaec. numerous mosques, baths, 
 and promenades, and important manufactures of velvet, 
 gold brocade, and silk stuOTs. Pop. 30,000.
 
 1510 
 
 KASIICiAR— KATHAY. 
 
 Kashgar', province of East Toorkistan, between lat. 
 
 36° and 40° N., and Ion. 72° and 77° E., occupies the basm 
 of the Kizil-Darya, along the southern slope of tlie Tluan- 
 Shan Mountains. Area, about i",OI)0 square miles. In the 
 eicrhtecnth century it was conquered by the Chinese and 
 th°y held it to ISIili, when, under a general rising ot the 
 Mohammedan population, they were driven out, and Kash- 
 gar and the adjacent provinces were lormed into an lude- 
 ],endcnt liingilom by Yakub Beg. 
 
 Kashgar, capital of East Toorkistan, in lat. :U)° 29' 
 N Ion 7i;° 12' E., on the Kizil-Darva, in a fertile and well- 
 euiiivated plain elevated between 40(10 and 5000 feet above 
 the level of the sea. It is surrounded by an earthen wall 
 of considerable height and thickness and surmounted with 
 numerous towers. It has 8 colleges, 1 1 caravanserais, ex- 
 tensive bazaars, some manufactures of woollens, carpets 
 gold and silver ware, and a lively trade. The number of 
 its inhabitants is very differently estimated at from lb,OUO 
 to 80.000; 60,000 seems the most probable. 
 
 KaNhill, town of Russia, in the government of Tver, 
 on the Kashinka, an atHuent of the Volg-a, has e.xtensive 
 tanneries and manulactures of paper, and carries on an ac- 
 tive trade in grain and cattle. Pop. 76:!9. 
 Kashmir. See Cashmere. 
 
 Kaskas'kia, tp. of Fayette co., III. Pop. 1220. 
 Kaskaskia, post-v. of Randolph eo., III., on the W. 
 bank of the navigable Kaskaskia River, 7 miles from its 
 mouth. It was founded in 1682 by the French under La 
 Salle, and was until 1818 the capital of Illinois. Many of 
 its present inhabitants are of the old French stock. The 
 town was onee large and important, but it has declined. 
 The surrounding country is very fine. 
 
 Kaskaskia Indians, a tribe onee living in Illinois. 
 In 18:!2 they were removed to what is now Kansas, and j 
 in 1S67 to the Indian Territory. They are intelligent and 
 quite advanced in civilization. They are confederated , 
 with the Peorias and others, and arc few in number. | 
 
 Kaskaskia (or Okaw) River rises in Champaign 
 CO., 111., flows about .'JOO miles in a generally S. W. course, 
 and enters the Mississippi in Randolph co. In its lower 
 course it is navigable. 
 
 Kaskes, tp. of Jackson eo., Ala. Pop. 729. 
 Kaso'ta, post-tp. of Lc Sueur co., Minn., on St. Paul 
 and Siou.i City R. R., 77 miles S. W. of St. Paul. Pop. 903. 
 Kassimow', town of European Russia, in the govern- 
 ment of Riasan, on the Oka. It is an old town, with largo 
 tanneries and manufactures of sailcloth. Pop. 7781. 
 Kasson', post-v. and tp., Leelanaw co., Mich. Pop. 440. 
 Kasson, post-v. of Mantorville tp.. Dodge co., Minn., 
 on the line of the Winona and St. Peter R. R., 5" miles W. 
 of Winona, in a farming region, was first surveyed in ISOO ; 
 contains :t churches, 2 banks, 2 weekly newspapers, 2 hotels, 
 1 flour-mill, and 12 stores. In 1873, 4aO,:'..-i9 _bushels of 
 wheat wore sliipped from this point. Pop. (1870), 510. 
 V. \i. Shaver, Plb. " Dodge Co. Rei'iiblican. 
 Kasson (John A.), b. near Burlington, Vt.. Jan. 11, 
 1822; graduated at the University of Vermont in 1842; 
 studied law in Massachusetts, and practised at St. I.ouis 
 until 1857, when he removed to Iowa; was ap).oiiited as- 
 sistant postmaster-general in 1861 ; elected to Congress as 
 a Republican in 1862 ; commissioner to international postal 
 congress at Paris in 1863; again elected to Congress in 
 1864, and again in 1872 and 1874. 
 
 Kastamoo'ni, town of Asiatic Turkey, the capital of 
 the eyalet of the same name, in Asia Minor. It has 36 
 mosques, 24 public baths, manufactures of leather and cot- 
 ton, and the vicinity is rich in cojiper ore. Pop. 48,000. 
 
 Katagoom', or Katagum, town of Central Africa, 
 in Soudan, capital of an iudepeiidcut district of the same 
 name, fortified with walls and ditches. Pup. about 8000. 
 
 Katali'din (or Katadn), Itlount, the highest moun- 
 tain in .Maine, reaches 5385 feet above the sea. It stands 
 in a wilderness, is not easy of access, and the view from its 
 toj) is e.xtensive, but wild and lonely. 
 
 Katalidin Iron-works Plantation, tp. of Pis- 
 cataquis CO., .Me. Pop. 35. 
 
 Ka'ter (IIenrv). F. R. S.. b. at Bristol, England, Apr. 
 16, 1777; went to India in 1796, where he was engaged for 
 several years on the trigonometrical survey: rose to the 
 rank of lieutenant in the military service, and retired on 
 half-pay in 1814, after which he devoted himself chiefly to 
 scientific stiulies. He invented ah*uit 1825 the important 
 trigonometrical instrument callcl n flnntittr/ rtilUmatnr, ex- 
 perimented on telescopes, writing for the PhiloHophifnl 
 TrntiMnrtSnnn accounts of various researches; was principal 
 author of Eardner and Kater's Trrfitinf on Mrrhatiicn in 
 tho Cabinet Ci/clopKdia, and wrote An Account of the Con- 
 
 .(ruction and Verification of Certain StandartU n/ Linear 
 Meamre for the llumian Government (1832). D. at London 
 Apr. 26,'l835. 
 
 Kathay', or Cathay. A remarkable phase in the 
 history of intercourse between Europe and farther Asia is 
 best characterized by the name then given in the West to 
 China. fJr if China was ilincvrtrcd. as books sometimes 
 tell us, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, then the 
 best delinilion of Cathay will be that it is the name by 
 which China was known in Europe hc/ore itg diacorrri/ ! 
 That spacious seat of ancient civilization has always loomed 
 so large, however dimlv, to Western eyes, and has, in spite 
 of its distance, subtended so large an angle of vision, that 
 onee and again we find it distinguished by difl'ereut appel- 
 lations, according as it was approached as the terminus of 
 a southern sea-route coasting the great peninsulas and 
 islands of Asia, or as that of a northern land-route trav- 
 ersing (he vast longitude of that continent. In the former 
 aspect the name has always been some form of the^ name 
 r.in, as Chin (Sinim ?), Sina, Tbin.T, T/.ini.sta. Maha-chtn, 
 China. In the latter point of view it was known to the 
 ancients as the Land of the S^re, ; to the Europeans of tho 
 Middle Ages, as the empire of Cathay. 
 
 The latter name {Khiiai in Oriental form) is still that by 
 which China is stvlcd to this day by all or nearly all the 
 nations which know it from the direction of Inner Asii, 
 including the Russians, the Persians, and the nations of 
 Toorkistan, yet it originally pertained to a people who were 
 not Chinese." The Khitdn or Khitit were a nation allied 
 (it is supposed) to the modern Tunguses, whose chiefs, after 
 making themselves supreme over all the tribes from the 
 Sea of Corca to the Altai, in the early part of the tenth 
 century overran the Chinese provinces N. ot thc\ellow 
 River "and established their empire over them also, under 
 the name of Liao or the Iron dynasty. This Kliil An em- 
 pire subsisted for two centuries, terminating m 112.., when 
 it was in turn subverted by a new invasion from the ^. 
 And it must have been in those two centuries that the name 
 Khiiai became iudissohildy associated with China. 
 
 Tho Nvuche, or Chiiiehf. a tribe akin to the modern 
 Manchus." displaced the KhitSn, and reigned under the 
 name of Kin or Gold,,, dynasty. They about a century 
 later (1214-34) were disjilaced by those more lamous war- 
 riors, the Mongols of Chinghiz Khan. The conquest oflhe 
 Kin empire was completed by Okkodai, the son of (. iiin- 
 ehiz : but not till the third generation, and sixty years atter 
 the capture of Peking, was the Mongol conqticst extended 
 over Southern China, in the reign of Kublai. This southern 
 emnire, under its Chinese covereigns holding Iheir royal 
 residence {Ki,,,,-,-.,-) at the great city now called Hang- 
 chow was known to the northern conquerors as Manlzi. a 
 name often by the Western Asiatics "''IjanRf^'J "f con- 
 founded with AhUhin—i. c. tho Hindu Mah6-thln (Great 
 
 The flood of Mongol conquest spread westward as well 
 as eastward, levelling all political barriers, sweeping over 
 Slavonic Europe, and threatening weak mid disunited Chris- 
 tendom widi aunihilation. And when Western Europe had 
 recovered from the alarm of this brief but terrible invasion 
 (l-'lO-l") Asia lay open as it never did before or has done 
 since, and the accidents of war, commerce, and opportunity 
 carried a number of persons in various ranks ol life, and 
 from almost every country in Europe, to its remotest re- 
 cions. Missions also went to the Tartar courts from the 
 pope and the princes of Europe, and among others .lohn 
 of Piano Carpini (1245-17), a native ol 1 nil.na, and W il- 
 liam do Rubruquis (1253), a Frenchman both I ranciscan 
 monks of suiicrior intelligence, who have left us narratives 
 of high interest. And these brought to V eslcrn Europe 
 the revived knowledge of a great and civilized nation 00- 
 cunving a country in the extreme East, on the shores of 
 thi'oceSn, which bore the name, then first heard in Europe 
 of CiTH IV Rubruquis was acute enough to discern that 
 these Cathavans must be the Seres of classic fame. But 
 though thes"c travellers saw the people at the Tartar court, 
 and Friar William gives an unmistakable description of 
 them (■• Those Cathavans ore little fellows, speaking much 
 through the n„se, ami, as is general with those Eastern 
 people, their eyes arc very narrow They are first rate 
 
 Itrtists in every kind of craft They do their wnling 
 
 with a pencil such as painters paint with, and a „mjle 
 ch.,rnrl,r „f ihrir, vomprehend, xrrrral Irlirr,, to a, to form 
 „ ,rhoh irordr the last remark, imperfect as it is, shows 
 the intelligence and observation of the writer), neither 
 traveller reached the country itself. 
 
 The first actual European visitors to Cathay of whom we 
 know are the P.dos (sec Pui.o, MAmol, regarding whom wo 
 need say nothing here. But just as they were reaching 
 Venice (1295) after their absence of twenty. six years, the 
 forerunner of a new band of travellers was ent^ering ( h.na 
 by the route of the Indian seas. This was John of Monte
 
 KATHAY. 
 
 1511 
 
 Corvino, another Franciscan, who, already nearly fifty 
 years of age, was plunging single-banded into the ocean 
 of paganism to preach the gospel acconiing lo (he inter- 
 pretation of his Church. After years of uphill work and 
 solitary labor, others joined him, and the Catholic mission 
 flourished at Camhaluc or Peking, under the patronage of 
 the Great Khan himself. The papal see woke up to the 
 importance of this distant work, maile Friar John arch- 
 bishop in Cambaluc with patriarchal authority, and sent 
 him spasmodically batches of suffragan bishops and mis- 
 sionary friars. The Roman Church ?prca<l : churches and 
 houses of St. Francis were founded at Cambaluc, at Yang- 
 chow, at the great ocean-port in F<tkien which the Westerns 
 called Zaytou and the Chinese called T'swanchow, and 
 el.-ewhere. Among the monks whose duty carried them to 
 Cathay during the interval between 1300 and 1328, when 
 Archbishop John was followed to the tomb by mourning 
 crowds of pagans a.-i well as of Christians, several have 
 left letters or narratives. Among these we have several 
 early letters from the archbi!>hoj> himself n3<>5-06); one 
 from Andrew, bishop of Zayton ( ]"2Ci) ; and the narrative 
 of Friar Odoric, afterwards canonized as a bnitus of the 
 Church, dictated after liis return to iiis native FrluU (l.'>30). 
 
 The narrative of Odoric is the only one that mentions 
 Canton, known to him and the Westerns of that age by the 
 name of Chln-kalan (/. c. " (ircat China," a Persian ren- 
 dering of the Indian MahiS-chfn). He landed there on 
 arriving from India, and describes it as a city as big as 
 three Venkes, standing on a great river, one day's voyage 
 from the sea. Thence he travels through Fokicn, visiting 
 the cities of Zayton and Foochow, and then to Cansay or 
 Kinsay [Kituj-a.ir — t, e. Haugchow), the va^tnc^s of which 
 in extent, population, and wealth made the same extra- 
 ordinary impression upon him as upon Marco Polo and all 
 the travellers who speak of it.* From tliis point it is not 
 difficult to trace his journey by Nanking, and across the 
 two great rivers of China, and then by the Imperial Canal 
 to the capital, Cambaluc, where the emperor then reigning 
 was Ye.-'uu-tinirtr, a degenerate descendant of Kublai, in 
 the fourth generation. This traveller on his homeward 
 journey seems to have passed by Central Asia, and by 
 Kabul, reaching his native land in 1.129. Several of the 
 stories told by Odoric that were probably regarded as fic- 
 tions by his contemporaries are remarkably characteristic 
 of China. IJef^ides many particulars occurring in the larger 
 narrative of Marco Polo, ho gives the earliest notice of the 
 now well-known Chinese practice of using tame cormorants 
 in fishing ; and ho mentions the custom of compressing the 
 feet of girls to prevent their growth. 
 
 But the Exchange had its emissaries at this time to 
 Cathay as well as the Church. Tlie record is a very frag- 
 mentary and imperfect one, but many circumstances and 
 incidental notices show how frequently the far Fast was 
 reached by European traders in the fir.^^t half of the four- 
 teenth century — a state of tilings which it is very difficult 
 to realize when we see how all those regions, when par- 
 tially reopened, less than two centuries later, 9eeme<l as ab- 
 solutely new discoveries as the empires which in the same 
 age Cortes and Pirarro were conquering in the West. 
 
 This commercial intercourse cannot have commenced till 
 Borae years after l.'iuO. For Monte Corvino, writing in 1305, 
 Bays it was then twelve years since he had heard any news 
 from Europe, the only Western stranger who had appeared 
 in all that time being a certain Lombard chirurgeon, who 
 had spread awful blasphemies about the pope ! Yet even 
 on his first entrance into China, Friar John had been ac- 
 companied by " Master Peter of Tjucolotigo, a faithful Chris- 
 tian man and a great merchant," who purchased a piece of 
 ground for Iho niission-church opjiosito the jialace gate at 
 lacking. Twenty-ono years later, Pishop Andrew of Zay- 
 ton M326) quotes the opinions of the (Jenctese merchants 
 at that great mart touching a question of exchange value. 
 Odoric, dictating his Irnvel.t in 13;iO, refers for corrobora- 
 tion of the marvels of Kinsay or Cansay to the many per- 
 sons at Venice who had themselves been witnenfes of all 
 that ho asserted. And a litter traveller. John .Marignolli. 
 mentions that there was (riVra 131(1), in connection with 
 one of the ihrrr Franciscan houses nt Zayton, n. /omlnm or 
 factory and warehouse for the use of the Christian mer- 
 chants. 
 
 But Iho most distinct and notable evidence of the ira- 
 portanco of European trn'le with Cathay is to be found 
 in the work of Francesco Bulducoi Pegolotii, written about 
 1310. This person was a factor in the Levant and else- 
 where under the great Florentine houxe nf Iho Bnrdi — the 
 house which gave a husband to Panto's Beatrice, and has 
 given a heroine lo (Jenrge Eliot ( K'nnnfn ), and whieh failed, 
 about the date of the hook, in consequence of dealings with 
 
 •This (ireat city retnlned much of Its pro«perlty till destroyed 
 by the TalpluRs In our own day. 
 
 Edward III. of England, whose bankers and agents the 
 Bardi were. The book is a regular manual of commerce, 
 giving details of duties, exchanges, and customs of trade at 
 the various marts of Europe and the Levant. f But the first 
 two chapters are devoted to information for the merchant 
 bound to Cathay. The route lay from Tana (or Azov) to 
 Sarai on the Volga (above Astracan), and thence by Organj 
 (Old Khiva) and Otrar (not far from the modern town of 
 Hozrat Toorkistan ) to Aiuialik { near (iulja on the Hi ), and 
 thence to Kanehow in North-eastern China, and so forward 
 to the Grand Canal leading to the great marts of Cansay 
 and Cambaluc ( llangchow and Peking). Particulars are 
 given as to the investments and exchanges proper to this 
 journey, an«l especially as to the paper money then form- 
 ing the currency of China. The extent of dealings con- 
 templated may be judged frr»m the example, which the au- 
 thor assumes for illustration, of a merchant carrying goods 
 to the value of some 2o.0on gr>l<I florins (say ?60,b00}. Lit- 
 tie was to be taken lo Cathay except silver in ingots, and 
 the purchases contemplated there were silk and rich silk 
 textures (damasks, gold brocades, and the like). Silk cost 
 then in Cathay about o tlorins (say $12) for 20 Genoese 
 pounds. The only unsafe part of the road was that between 
 Tana and the Volga, but even there a company of sixty 
 would be *' as safe as in your own house." 
 
 The picture that we can put together from the notices of 
 mediaeval travellers in Cathay is that of the China that wo 
 know, but always with a striking contrast as regards the 
 facilities of movement aUowed to foreign visitors in the in- 
 terior. The vast swarms of population and of river-ship- 
 ping, the great plenty of the necessaries of life, the splen- 
 dor and magnitude of the cities, the high civilization of this 
 heathen people, the cheapness of silk and porcelain, the use 
 of fossil coal and of paper money, are the features which 
 are constantly prominent in tliese notices. The free inter- 
 course was not, however, of long duration. As the Mongol 
 chiefs in Central and Western Asia, one after another, 
 adopted Islam, the power of bigotry revived, and with it 
 the old obstacles. Thus, already in 1330 we find a mer- 
 chant, William of Modena. along with certain friars, put to 
 death for the faith at Almalik. Aliout the middle of the 
 century the house of Chinghiz in China began to totter, and 
 its fall in 136ft closed all communication with the AVestern 
 World. The last notices we possess are contained in a 
 work (strange to say) on Bohemian history by John Ma- 
 rignolli. a Florentine monk who had been sent as envoy to 
 the last of the Mongol emperors by Pope Benedict XII. 
 Ho had gone by the usual land-route, and after spending 
 about four years (1 342-4*') | at Peking, returned by the sea- 
 route to India, on his way visiting Ceylon, where he was 
 wrecked and robbed. In 1370. the pope, probably in ig- 
 norance of the changes in the East, nominated one Friar 
 William of Prato to be archbishop of Cambaluc. but we 
 know not if he attempted to rea*'h his see. He certainly 
 cannot have succei'<led. Later prelates appear in some lists, 
 but this has been shown to have arisen from a confusion 
 with another see in Tartar territory, that of Cembalo, other- 
 wise Balaklava, in the Crimea. 
 
 Of the same remarkable phase in Cliinese history we have 
 also a good many notices in .Moliamniedan writers. The 
 establishment of a Mongol dynasty in Persia tl25S). by 
 which the Great Khan reigning over t^athay was for many 
 j-ears acknowledged as lord paramount, led to a good deal 
 of intercourse. Chinese visitors were by no means unknown 
 at the court of Tabriz, and some of the Persian historians, 
 writing at that court umler the patronage of the ]\Iongol 
 princes, have told us much about Cathay, especially Rasht- 
 duddfn. the great minister and historian of the Mongol 
 rulers of Persia (d. 13IS). We have also in the book of 
 ibo Moorish traveller Ibn Bntuta, who visited China about 
 i;;47_4M, many very curious, and in great ]>art true, notices, 
 thouirh in this part of the work it is not possible to give 
 credence to the whole of the traveller's narrative. 
 
 With Ihe downfall of the Mongol dynasty in China, as 
 we have said, this curious phase of history came to a close. 
 The new and native rulers reverted to the old indigenous 
 ))o|i<'V, and kept all foreigners at arm's length, whilst 
 Mohammedanism entirely recovercii its grasp over Middle 
 Asia, and the Nestorian Chri>tianity, which had acquired 
 eonsicierable sway, as rapidly dwindled and exjiired. A 
 dark mist descended on the further East, covering Mantzi 
 and Cathay, with thooc cities of which the niedia'val travel- 
 lers had told such such wonders, Cuwlnifur and A'iiiiiftt/, 
 Zntfii,u and C}i\n-kaf6n. And when the veil rose, a century 
 and a half later, before the Portuguese and .'Spanish navi- 
 gators, those names were heard no more. In their stead 
 men spoke of Prkitiff and HatigrhotP,oT Ohiuchen and Can- 
 
 + The MS. of this hook Is In the Rlrrarrllan Lfhrnry nt Flor- 
 ence. It wn"« printed hv G. K. Pai^nlnt del Ventura In a work 
 called JMIa Vfcima, etc.\l"6o-66).
 
 1512 
 
 KATIF— KAUFMAN. 
 
 ton. Not only Tverc the old names forgotten, but the fact 
 that those places had been previously known to Europe was 
 utterly forgotten also. Gradually, new missionary priests 
 went forth from Rome — Jesuits now. Xew converts were 
 made, and new vicariats were constituted: but the old 
 Franciscan churches, and the Xestorianism with which they 
 had battled, hud been alike swallowed up in the ocean of 
 paganism. In time, however, slight traces of the former 
 existence of Christian churches came to the surface; and 
 when Marco Polo's book was read by intelligent men, one 
 and another began to suspect that his Cathay and the new 
 China were identical. 
 
 liat it was a very long time before this was thoroughly 
 or generally understood. When the new interest in dis- 
 covery recalled attention to the perusal of old travellers, 
 the Cathay of which they spoke was regarded, except by a 
 s:igncious few. as a region distinct from those new-found 
 Indies. Cathay had been the aim of the first voyage of the 
 Cabots in 140G, and it continued to be the object of many 
 adventurous voyages, English and Dutch, to the N. W. and 
 X. E. till far on in the sixteenth century. At least one 
 nieniorable land-journey also was made by Englishmen, of 
 which the investigation of trade with Cathay was a chief 
 object — that in which Anthony Jenkinson and the two 
 Johnsons reached Bokhara by way of Russia in 1558-59. 
 The country of which they collected notices at that city 
 was still known to them only as Cathay, and its great cap- 
 ital only as Cumbnluc. 
 
 Cathay as a supposed separate entity may be considered 
 to come to an end with the journey of Benedict Goes, the 
 lay Jesuit. This admirable person was in IGO.'i despatched 
 through Central Asia, by his superiors in India, with the 
 specific object of determining whether the Cathay of old 
 European writers and of modern Mohammedans was or was 
 not a distinct region from that China of which parallel mar- 
 vels had now for some time been recounted. Benedict, as 
 one of his brethren pronounced his epitaph, *' seeking 
 Cathay, found heaven." He died at Suhchow, the frontier 
 city of China, bnt not before he had ascertained that China 
 and Cathay were one. 
 
 In briefly recalling one more aspect of Cathay, wo close 
 this article. It was Cathay, with its outlying islands of 
 Zipangu, or Japan, that Columbus, penetrated by his in- 
 tense convictions of the smallness of the earth and of the 
 vast extension of Asia eastward, sought to reach by sailing 
 W. ; and to the day of his death he was full of the imagi- 
 nation of the proximity of the domain of the Great Khan 
 to the ishinds and coasts which he had discovered. And 
 these imaginations are curiously embodied in some of tho 
 early maps of the sixteenth century, which intermingle on 
 the same coast-line the new discoveries from Newfoundland 
 to Brazil with the provinces of Marco Polo's Cathav. 
 
 11. YlLE. 
 
 Katir% town of Arabia, is situated on the Persian Gulf, 
 in lat. L't>° 25' N. The bay on which it stands affords good 
 anchorage, but tho town itself, which is fortified, is un- 
 healthy, and its trade is dwindling away. Pop. about fiOOO. 
 
 Katkoff' CMicnAFi.). b. at Moscow in 1S20: finished 
 his studies at Konigsbcrg and Berlin, and was for several 
 years professor in philosophy in his native city. Since 185G 
 he has devoted himself exclusively to journalism, and he 
 has exercised an enormous influence — in a liberal direction 
 by his denunciatif)ns of existing wrongs, and in a national 
 direction by tho formation of the Old Russian party. 
 
 Kato'nah, post-v. of Bedford tp., AVestcherter co., 
 N. Y., on the Harlem R. R., 42 miles N. of New York. It 
 has 1 weekly newspaper. 
 
 Kn'trine, Loch, a lake of Scotland, in tho county of 
 Perth. It, is S miles long and J of a mile wide, and" re- 
 markable as well for the depth and purity of its water as 
 for tho beautiful scenery which surrounds it. Glasgow, 
 nearly 25 miles distant, draws its supply of water from this 
 lake. 
 
 Kat'sona, town of the empire of Sokoto. in Central Af- 
 rica. It was formerly a large and flourishing citv, but since 
 its capture in 1808 by tho Fulbes. who almost ilcstroyed it, 
 its trade and manufactures have removed to Kano. It has 
 now only 7itl)0 inhabitants. 
 
 Kattimaiidu% or Cuttimundoo, the milky latex or 
 sap of Euphorbia nori/oHa, an East Indian plant. This 
 substance resembles gutta-percha, and has considerable 
 value in the arts. The leaves are used by the natives for 
 their diuretic, cathartic, and deobstruent powers, and the 
 juice is an ingredient in anti-rheumatic liniments. 
 
 Katiili';;n, or Eyeo, town of Central Africa, the cap- 
 i:al uf ii state of the same name, is in S° .59' N. lat., 4° 25' 
 E. Ion., and is, like all towns of these regions, surrounded 
 with walls to protect it against marauding tribes. It car- 
 ries on some trade, and is said to have 15,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Ka'tydid ( Ci/i-tophylluit concavua)^ a large green ortbop- 
 terons insect of the U.S., belonging to tho group Locus- 
 tariiic. found throughout a great part of the country-. It is 
 so called from its note, produced in the early part of the 
 night, somewhat resembling the words " Katy did." This 
 noise is produced by the friction of transparent membranes 
 attached to the wing-covers. 
 
 Hatz'bach, a river of Prussia, in the province of Si- 
 lesia, entering the Oder at Parehwitz. On Aug. 2fi, 1813, 
 the Prussians under Bliieher totally defeated the French 
 under Marshal Macdouald on the banks of Katzbach. 
 
 Kauai% one of the Hawaiian Islands, is situated in lat. 
 22° N., Ion. 150*' 30' W. Area, G40 square miles. Pop. 
 4961. It is high — Waialealc. the highest point, rising 
 about fiOOO feet — of volcanic origin, but very fertile. Koloa 
 and Nawiliwili are the principal towns. 
 
 KaufTman CMaria Anna Ancemca), b. at Coirc, in 
 the Grisons. in 1741. Her father was an itinerant painter 
 of ordinary t.aients. of whose work notliing authentic re- 
 mains. His enthusiast for his art was, however, sincere, 
 and. appreciating the extraordinary gifts of his daughter, 
 he gave her such instruction, opportunity, and stimulus as 
 ho could command. Her talent for music rivalled her tal- 
 ent for painting, and for a moment she was tempted to 
 make music her profession, and go upon the lyric stage, 
 as she was urged to do at ^lilan: but she wisely decided 
 to pursue her first calling. At Como she painted success- 
 fully the portrait of the bishop, through whose influence 
 she had many sitters there. At Milan, whither her parents 
 went when she was but thirteen years old, she associated 
 with artists of reputation, studied under competent mas- 
 ters, copied good pictures, and won favor with people of 
 the court. At Schwartzenberg she painted in fresco the 
 twelve apostles by order of the bishop of Constance. In 
 1701 the father and daughter visited Florence, Parma, 
 Rome. Bologna, Naples, and Venice. In Rome she formed 
 the friendship of Rafael Slengs and Winckelniann, and 
 painted the portrait of the latter to his great satisfaction. 
 In a letter to a friend he wrote of her as ** a person of rare 
 merit," " very eminent in portraits in oil." In Bologna she 
 executed what is considered her finest etching. The Toilet; 
 in Venice she won praise and patronage from the English 
 tliere, and in 17Cfi went to London with Lady M'entworth, 
 who had become interested in her. In London her success 
 was brilliant. The duchess of Brunswick sat to her: she 
 was presented at court, painted portraits of the queen and 
 son of George III., and was overwhelmed by orders from 
 the nobility. She was spoken of as " the beautiful and ac- 
 complished Miss Kauffman." In 1768 she was chosen one 
 of tho original thirty-six members of the Royal Academy, 
 just started; her pictures held prominent places at the ex- 
 hibition ; she was flattered by the admiration of Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds, and chosen to paint jiortraits of the most distin- 
 guished and beautiful ladies of the court. When the plan 
 of decorating St. Paul's cathedral was entertained, J^Iiss 
 Kanfl'man was scleetcd. along with Reynolds, West. Bray, 
 and Cipriani, an Italian artist then much in vogue. She 
 lived in England till 1771. when, her father's health fail- 
 ing, she married Antonio Zucchi. a Venetian, and the three 
 left England for Italy. At A'eniee she lived long enough 
 to paint Leonardo Djfing in the Arms n/ Franciti I. Tho 
 latter years of her life were spent in Rome, where Goethe, 
 Herder, and Klopstock were her friends; where she was so 
 much respected that tho French general, on taking posses- 
 sion of tho city, ordered that her house and property should 
 bo unmolested ; and where, after a lingering and painful ill- 
 ness, she d, in Nov., 1807. 
 
 Angelica Kauffman owed her fame and fortune as much 
 to personal attractions, eharm of manner, and social accom- 
 plishments as to her art, which was mannered, conventional, 
 and monotonous. Her pictures are graceful and pleasing, 
 harmonious in color, correct in drawing, and sweet in ex- 
 pression, but are not thought deserving of the praise lav- 
 ished on them by Sir Joshua Reynolds. Rafael Mengs. and 
 Goethe. Her attempts at historical painting were ambi- 
 tious failures. The galleries of the Louvre in Paris and 
 the Royal Gallery in Dresden contain excellent examples 
 of her work ; some of her best pieces are in Russia. In 
 England her compositions are well known. An unfortunate 
 marriage connection, from which she was released by di- 
 vorce, saddened a portion of her life, hut gave to it a ro- 
 mantic interest. Of her later marriage with Zucchi little 
 is known. 0. B. FitOTriixoiiAM. 
 
 Kaurman, county of N. E. Central Texas, in the val- 
 ley uf the Trinity River. Area, 950 square miles. It has 
 a very fertile soil, and is well timbered. Live-stock, grain, 
 and cotton are staple products. Cap. Kaufman. Pop. 6895. 
 
 Kaufman* post-v. and tp.. cap. of Kaufman co.. Tex., 
 near Trinity Itiver. 10 miles S. of the Texas and Pacific 
 R. R., and about 40 miles S. E. of the city of Dallas, on the
 
 KAUFMANN, VON— KAVAXAUGH. 
 
 1513 
 
 dividing-line between the timbered portion of Eastern Tex- 
 as :ind the gn-at wheat-belt of Northern Texas. It has .'J 
 churches (1 colored), 2 pchools, 1 bank, 2 hotels. 1 news- 
 paper, and I sa.-^h and door manufactory; is at tho intef- 
 scction of three projected railroads. Principal occupation, 
 farminp^. Pop., not found in census returns of 1870, esti- 
 materl in ls74 at 12,000. G. W. Clahk, Plb. "Star." 
 
 Kauf'mann, von (C), Russian general, governor-gen- 
 eral of Toorkcstan. and adjutant-general to the czar, of 
 Oerman descent, made himself famous by his successful 
 expedition into Central A?ia. In 1S07 ho was appointed 
 governor-general of the vast regions which, partly depend- 
 ent on Russia and partly inhabited by hostile tribes, formed 
 the provinces of t'ir Daria and Semiretsebkaia. but which 
 now have been united into the military circle of Toorkestan. 
 Ilia tar<k was to strengthen and extend tho influence of 
 Russia in Central Asia, ancl he soon became engaged in a 
 war with Bokhara. Immediately after his arrival in Toork- 
 estan ho took up a position with his troops at Dschisak, 
 on the southern frontier of his territory, and entered on 
 long negotiations with the hostile emir of Bokhara until 
 ho received largo reinforcements in Mar., 18G8. lie then 
 commenced to march southward alongthe river Serafscban. 
 Tho emir declared war. By prudent and enorgctic meas- 
 ures Kaufmann succeeded in defeating the force of the emir. 
 though vastly superior in numbers, and in the middle of 
 May ho occupied Samarcand. Tho result of this victory 
 was a peace very advantageous to Russia, by which the 
 emir ceded Samarcand and a large territory, and became a 
 submissive friend of Russia. Kaufmann now used the hu- 
 miliation of Bokhara for the subjugation of tho most dan- 
 gerous enemy of Russia in Central Asia — tho khan of 
 Khiva. Surrounded on all sides by great deserts, Khiva 
 was imapproachablc to Russian armies without the aid of 
 Bokhara. After several cautious reconnoitrings, Kauf- 
 mann moved in Mar., 1873, three columns, consisting of 
 12,000 men, from the Caspian Sea, from Orenburg, and 
 from Tashken<l, toward.-? Khiva, and after great hardships 
 on the loni^ march ho entered the liostile capital .Tunc 10. 
 lie compelled the khan to a peace advantageous to Russia, 
 and defei'ed the wild tribes of the Toorkomans and Jo- 
 mudfs, which, although dependent on the khan, would not 
 acknowledge the peace. In consequence of a treaty be- 
 tween the Russian government ami England, tho Russi.an 
 army again retired from Khiva, but the unconditional 
 authority of Russia in Central Asia was nevertheless es- 
 tablished, numerous military stations, which will prove of 
 great service under future expeditious southward, were 
 established on the Black Pea, the Pea of Aral, and along 
 tho Amu-Daria, and the territory of the military circle of 
 Toorkestan was doubled by conquered districts. Tho resi- 
 dcnoo of tho gener.al is Tashkend. Auoi'st Niemann. 
 
 Kaiikaii'na, post-tp. of Outagamie co., Wis., on the 
 Chieago and N'orlh-wcstern and lUo Milwaukee Lako Shore 
 and Western R. Rs. Pop. 1429. 
 
 Kniirbach* von (Wimielm), b. at Arolsen, in tboprin- 
 cijiality of Waldcck. Oct. 15, 1805. His parents were very 
 poor, and tho unfavorable circumstances under which be 
 grew up gave his mind something bitter and sarcastic, at 
 th« same time that they etrengtheued and elevated his 
 character. In 1822 he was enabled by the aid of the sculp- 
 tor Ranch to frequent the Academy of Diisseldorf, where 
 ho stuflicd under Cornelius, and when the latter removed 
 to Munich in IS2.>. Kaulbacb followerl him. He remained 
 in this city for the rest of bis life, and d. there Apr. 7. 1S71. 
 Hi« first pictures, Apofto nmi thf .Vtwr*, on the ceiling of 
 the Odeon, and tho sixteen wall-pictures in the palace of 
 Duke Max illustrative of the myth t»f Cujiid and Psyche, 
 all executed in fresco, were protluced under the inlUuMiee 
 of Cornelius, and are kept in a purelv idealistic Htyle. But 
 nearly at the same time appeareil bis Lunatic AMt/fuin, an 
 oil-painting of the most decidedly realistic character, and 
 to tho same style belong his celebralcl illustrations to 
 /'riiirke FurfiM, n series of skrtclies as ndntirable for their 
 striking conceptions of the eharaeter au'l nature of the dif- 
 ('■'letit animals as distinguished for their humor and satire, 
 liiif his true genius did not fully reveal itself until 18.17, 
 when ho finished the finttlv uf thr f/unti for Prince Ba- 
 c/ynsky; next year followed the fhntnirtinu of Jiruinhm 
 for the Pinakothck in Munich. These two pictures, which 
 g'-Mi-rally are considered as liis masterpieces, are not his- 
 torical puintings in the oinnmnn sense of tho word. They 
 do not represent facts, but ideas, and the form in whii'h 
 they represent the ideas is tborouirhly symbolical or alle- 
 gorical, in spite of tho realistic life and fulness of tho de- 
 tails. To this stylo belong all his largest and most cele- 
 brnted productions — the decoration of the ^tairwav in the 
 Museum of Berlin, commene'-d in IS 17. St. yfi'harl, the 
 Patron Sahtt nf Ifrrmauif, finished shortly before his dcnth. 
 and others. In Germany these piotures produced a very 
 
 deep impression ; no one here hesitated to set them up ns 
 tho highest ])roductions of modern art. In foreign coun- 
 tries, however, they did not meet with the same admira- 
 tion. Their jiictorial eifect. properly speaking, is not great. 
 They impress principally by tlu-ir intellectuality, though it 
 cannot be denied that the symbols and allegories arc some- 
 times rather trivial; thus, the li <■ format if nx is hardly any- 
 thing more than a clever arrangement of portraits. There 
 is something in Kaulbaeh's pictures which reminds of Wag- 
 ner's music. The enthusiasm which they awaken is of a 
 polemical character. They throw down a great mass of 
 modern painting into utter insignificance, but they seem not 
 themselves to satisfy the demands which they raise. 
 
 Clkmkns Pktkrsk-N. 
 
 Kau'nitz (Wenzel Antox), PnixcK, count of Riet- 
 berg, b. at Vienna Feb. 2, 1711; studied at Lcipsic and 
 Leyden ; travelled through France and Italy : and entered 
 tho diplomatic career in the Austrian service in 1735. By 
 tho consummate skill with which ho negotiated the Peace 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, and still more by his astonish- 
 ing success in forming an alliance between Austria and 
 France while ambassador in Paris (1750-52). he acquired 
 great fame as a diplomat : and 1753, Maria Tlicrcsa made 
 hira chancellor and placed him at the head of the Austrian 
 government. This position he held for nearly forty years, 
 and he was generally considered the greatest statesman of 
 bis age. T'nder the reign of .Tosej)!! IT. his influence de- 
 creased, especially after tlio failure of his negotiations for 
 the annexation of Bavaria to Austria. In 1702 he retired 
 on account of old age. D. June 27, 1704. His policy was 
 exclusively Austrian, and centred in the one idea of mak- 
 ing Austria great, but in details, with respect even to some 
 of tho most important political transactions — as, for in- 
 stance, the division of Pnhmd, the church reforms of 
 .Toseph II., etc. — it is doubtful whether they were origin- 
 ally planned by him. Personally, he was a man of jiorfoct 
 honesty, with taste for science and art. generous and ami- 
 able in spite of his enormous vanity. 
 
 Kail'ri Pine, the Dmnmnnt auttraliti, and other spe- 
 cies of the sjinio genus, produced in Australasia and the 
 adjacent regi<uis. They are coniferous trees of noble size, 
 and the best (juality as timber. Tiiis tinibor is used for 
 ships' masts and planks. The trees produce kauri gum or 
 New Zealand dammar, extensively used in making var- 
 nishes. 
 
 Kautz (Ai.nKRT), r. S. X.. b. Jan. 20, 1839, in Ohio; 
 graduated at the Naval Academy in 1858; became a lieu- 
 tenant in 18ril, a lieutenant-commander in 18fi5, a com- 
 mander in 1808; served in tho flagship Hartford at tho 
 passage of Forts Jackson and Pt. Philip aiid cajiture of 
 New Orleans, Apr. 24, 1862, and in the various engagements 
 with the Vickfburg batteries in June and July. 18fi2. 
 Highly commended in thoofficial despatches for " gallantry 
 and aiiility.'* Foxiiall A. Pakkkr. 
 
 Kautz (August Valkntinu). h. Jan. 5, 1828, in the vil- 
 lage of li-pringeu, near Pror/.hciin, grand duchy of Baden : 
 emigrated to tho U. S. in 1.82H with his parents, who settled 
 in Brown co., O., in 1831 ; graduated at West Point, and 
 appointed brevet second lieutenant of infantry July, 1852 ; 
 promoted first lieutenant 1855; cajitain (Jth Cavalry May, 
 iHlil: api)ointed colonel 2d Ohio Cavalry Sept. 2, 1862; 
 brigadier-general of volunteers May 23, 1804 ; served dur- 
 ing the civil war in the Virginia Peninsular campaign, 
 IS02: in the Army of the Ohio in pursuit of (Uu. Morgan 
 and the siege of Knoxvillo isOl!, and with the Army of the 
 Jumes, commanding cavalry division, 18(11-05, participating 
 in tho occupation of Richmond, Va., Apr, 3, ISfi5, com- 
 nmnding 1st division 25th corps; member of the military 
 commission for tho trial of tho assassins of Pres. Linctdn : 
 appointed Ueut.-cul. 31tb Infantry Julv, 1800; transferred 
 to 15tli Infantry Mar., 1860; col. 8th Infantry June, 1874. 
 Author of Cnuipntu/ Clerk (18(53). Cuitnni9 of ,^ervifr for 
 Non-commimiiionrd Ofii'-rrii aud Soldiers ( 1804), and Citntmnn 
 of Service for OJiccm (1806). G, C. Simmons. 
 
 Kava. See Ava. 
 
 KavaTln, small town of European Turkey, in the eya- 
 let of .Saloniki, on the >'Kgcan Sea. opposite tho island of 
 Thasos, is noted as the birthplace of Mehemet Ali.and has 
 an important export trade in leaf tobacco. P. about 5(U10. 
 
 Kav'anaffh (Juma). daughter of Morgan Kavanagh, 
 a novelist, was b. in 1824 at Thurles, Ireland, and from 
 childhood rcsidcfl chiefly in Paris, whence she removed in 
 181( to London. She produced a very large number of 
 novels, tales for children, etc., among whicli were M'kI* - 
 line 1 1848), Xaifioliv { ISal ), //oafricc (1866), Siflviu (1870). 
 U. at Nice. France. Oct. 28, 1S77. 
 
 Kav'anauKh ( nrniiAun H.). D. r».,I>. near Winchester, 
 Ky.. in lSi)2, was .Methodist local preacher iii 1S22, joined 
 Keiiluoky eoufcrence in l*>23, and for flfty years has been
 
 1514 
 
 KAVI— KEAXE. 
 
 a successful itinerant; was superintendent of public in- 
 struction in Kentucky in 1839. and became bishop of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, South, in ISbi. 
 
 Ka'viy the ancient sacred language of the island of Java 
 in the East Indies, is based chiefly upon the .Sanskrit, a 
 knowledge of which was brought by lirahmanic immigrants 
 from India about the beginning of the (Miristian era. It 
 gradually became corrupted by the ordinary Javanese 
 tongue to the extent of about two-fifihs of its vocabulary. 
 The alpliabet is nearly the same as the Devanagari. although 
 the order of the consonants is varied. The name of the 
 language signifies "learned" or "wise," and has been ap- 
 plied only since it began to be distinguished from the 
 aboriginal languages by the composition of a literature. 
 This took place in the early centuries of the Christian era. 
 A considerable number of works is still extant, devoted 
 largely to legends of the Creation and poems concerning 
 mythical heroes. In the fifteenth century the sacred lan- 
 guage, as well as the religion taught by it, was driven from 
 Java, and took refuge in the neighboring small island of 
 Bali, where some knowledge of it is still retained by the 
 natives. AVilliam von Humboldt has subjected the Kavi 
 language to a searching examination, and has e.Ktracted 
 much curious information — Ceber die Kaici-Sprache. 
 
 Kaw, tp. of Jefferson co., Kan. Pop. V49. 
 
 KaAV, tp. of Jackson co., Mo. Pop. 1612. 
 
 Kawkaw'lin, post-v. and tp. of Bay co., Mioh., on the 
 Jackson Lansing and Saginaw R. R., at the mouth of Sag- 
 inaw River and the head of Sagiuaw Bay. Pop, 756. 
 
 Kaye (John), D. D., b. at Hammersmith, England, in 
 178.3; graduated at Christ's College, Cambridge, in ISO-t; 
 became master of bis college in 1B14: regius professor of 
 divinity in \^\6 ; bishop of Bristol in IS20, and of Lincoln 
 in 1827. He wrote The Ecclesiastical Hietori/ of the Second 
 and Third ('tntnyies, illustrated from the ]Vritiit;/s of Ter- 
 fiiZ/mii (lS2fil, Writiiifjs and Opinions of Clement of Alex- 
 andria (IS.'io), Writings and Opinions of Juetin Martyr 
 (1S36), Gox'ernment of the Chnrch dnrintj the First Three 
 Centuries (1855), several charges to his clergy, and two or 
 three anonymous treatises directed against Catholicism. 
 B. at Lincoln Feb. 19, 1853. 
 
 Kaye (Sir John William), b. in England in 1814, • 
 served for some years in the army of the East India Com- 
 pany ; returned to England in 1845, and devoted himself 
 to literature. In 1S56 he entered the Indian home civil 
 service ; in 1859 became secretary in the political and secret 
 department of the India office: and was knighted in 1S71. 
 He published a //I'sfory of the War in Afghanistan ( l!^5I- 
 bS), Hi»t<*r;f of the Administration of the East India Com- 
 pany (1853), Life and Correspoudenr^e of Lord Metcalfe 
 (1854), Life of Sir John Malcolm (1856), Christianiti/ in 
 India (I859),"//i'»Mr^ of thi S^poy War (2 vols.. 18(i«-71 ), 
 and Essays of an Optimist (1S70). D. July 21, 1876. 
 
 Kazan% or Kanan^ government of Russia, bounded 
 by Viatka. Novgorod, and Astrakhan. Area, 23.650 square 
 mik'S. Poj). 1,670,337. The surface is Hat, but the soil fer- 
 tile, affording excellent pasture. Cuttle an<l bees are reared, 
 good timber is grown, and the fishing in the Volga is con- 
 siderable. 
 
 Kazan, town of Russia, the capital of the government 
 of Kazan, on the Kazanska, 4 miles from its intlux in the 
 Volga. It has a university, a theological seminary, a mil- 
 itary school, 2 gymnasia, and several other educational in- 
 stitutions. Its manufactures of leather, soap, hardware, 
 and spirits are considerable ami its trade very extensive. 
 It was destroyed by fire twice in this century, in 1S15 and 
 1842, but rebuilt more beautiful each time. In the neigh- 
 borhood is the magnificent Semiozernoi convent. Pop. 
 78,602. 
 
 KazbiD% or Casbin* town of Persia, in the province 
 of Irak-Ajemce, in a beautiful plain covered with orchards 
 and encircled by hills. It manufactures velvet, silk, satin, 
 brocade, coarse cotton fabrics, and articles of iron and brass. 
 Its breeds of camels and horses are very celebrated. The 
 number of its inhabitants is not ascertained. The area it 
 occupies ia very large, but a great portion of it is covered 
 with ruins. 
 
 Kaz'inczr (Franz), b. at Er-Semlyfn. Hungary. Oct. 
 27, 1759: studied law. and held several minor offices during 
 the earlier part of his life, though literature was always his 
 principal occupation. Being implicated in the eonspirnoy 
 of Martinovies, he was condemned to death in 1793. He 
 was pardoncil. hnt kept in prison for seven years. After 
 his liberation in 180] he devoted himself exclusively to lit- 
 erature, and exercised a great influence both by his own 
 works and by hie numerous translations from the German, 
 French; and English. He was one of the leaders of the 
 movement by which the Latin language was laid aside and 
 
 I the native tongue adopted as the medium of Hungarian 
 
 I literature. D. Aug. "2. 1831. 
 
 Kca'gy (John .M.), M. D..b. in Lancaster co.. Pa., about 
 17115 ; d. at Philadelphia Jan. 30, 1837. He taught chiefly 
 in the public high school at Harrisburg, where he published 
 his Pestatozzian Primer in lSi;7, a book made up largely of 
 " thinking lessons," the modern *' object lessons." He ad- 
 vocated, and to some extent practised, the mode of teach- 
 ing a child to read words *' as if they were Chinese sym- 
 bols." (See Barnard's Jour, of Education, 1871, vol. xxii. 
 p. 649.) S. S. Haldemas. 
 
 Kcan (Charles Jons), son of Edmund Kean, b. at 
 Watcrford, Ireland, Jan. 18, 1811; d. Jan. 22, 1808: was 
 educated at Eton, but was withdrawn before completing 
 his studies there, in consequence of his father's broken 
 fortunes: declined a cadetship in the service of the 
 East India Company, and made his first appearance on 
 the stage at Drury Lane Theatre on Oct. 1. 1827. in the 
 character of Norval. His reception was cold, and success 
 came to him slowly. In 1830 he visited America, and 
 appeared as Richard III. at the Park Theatre: returned 
 to England Jan., 1S33, and played in the provincial 
 theatres; made a professional trip to Hamburg; came to 
 London in 1838. and took position, as Hamlet, in the 
 front rank of his profession. In 1839 he visited again 
 the r. S. and Havana: returned to London in 1840; in 
 1842 married Miss Ellen Tree : crossed the Atlantic once 
 more with his wife in 1846: in 1847 went back, and after 
 playing engagements in Birmingham, Manchester. Liver- 
 pool, and Dublin, and at the Ilaymarket. he identified his 
 fortunes with the Princess Theatre, which he made pop- 
 ular and lucrative. Twice Mr. Kean was entrusted with 
 the management of tl»e Windsor theatricals. His produc- 
 tion of Richard IIL and of King John, first attempted in the 
 U. §. on a scale of splendor till then unknown, had great 
 celebrity. Mr. Kean gained bis chief reputation in the 
 tragedies of Shakspeare — Hamht, Macbeth, Bichard //., 
 Richard lff.,Romea and Jnlirt — but he did not sustain tho 
 grand traditions of his father. 0. B. Frothinrham. 
 
 Kean (EoMrvD), b. in London Mar. 17. 1787; d. in 
 Richmond May 15, 1833 ; date of birth is not quite certain. 
 His father, it is believed, was connected as a mechanic with 
 the Royalty Theatre : his mother was an actress of little 
 repute. The child was born and reared amid the associa- 
 tions of the stage, and early attracted attention by his apt- 
 ness in juvenile jiarts. For fourteen or fifteen years he was 
 connected with strolling companies, played in every variety 
 oi rCle, and by practice acquired professional facility. His 
 first appearance on the London stage was at Drury Lane 
 Jan. 2C. 1814. in the character of i^hylock. His success 
 was immediate, and was raised to the highest point by his 
 impersonations of Hamlet. Richard III.. Macbeth, Othello, 
 Iag<i. Lear, 8ir (iiles Overreach. Sir Edward .Mortimer, and 
 other parts then popniar. He visited the I'. S. in 1820, 
 and again in 1825: his last appearance was in 1833, with 
 his son Charles, as Othello; his strength failed him in the 
 middle of the play, and he was borne out in the arms of 
 his son. Kean was a man of genius and accorajdishment, 
 a student in his profession, of extraordinary powers of 
 mimicry and conversation, but irregular in life, capricious 
 in temper, and eccentric in habit. Tradition represents 
 him as one of the greatest actors that ever trod the boards. 
 In moments ho was surpassingly great, but his reliance on 
 his genius made him unequal. His biography by "Barry 
 Cornwall" (Mr. Procter) gives an interesting account of 
 the actor and the man. The Rtminiscences of Mt. Macready 
 contain allusions to him that show how he was ngarded 
 from a professional point of view. Mr. Macready speaks of 
 him as " one of the most extraordinary theatrical geniuses 
 that have ever illustrated the dramatic poetry of England." 
 Kcan was small of stature, but graceful, and when under 
 the influence of passion effective, and even grand. His 
 countenance was expressive, his eye brilliant, his action 
 free and noble, his voice flexible and strong. His power 
 of impersonation was wonderful; in his best moments "he 
 seemed to clutch the whole idea of his character." Tho 
 impression he made in the l'. S. was impaired by his own 
 waywardness in refusing to complete an engagement in 
 Boston on his first visit there. 0. B. Fiiotiiingham. 
 
 Keane (Jonx), Lord, b. at Belmont, Ireland, in 1781 ; 
 entered the British army in boyhood : served in Egypt, and 
 in Spaiu during the Peninsular war, gaining the rank of 
 major-general; commanded the British expedition against 
 New Orleans in 1814 until superseded by Pakenham : was 
 severely wounded at the battle of New Orleans : commanded 
 the West Indian forces 182.3-30, ami acted for some time 
 as govprnor of Jamaica. In 1833 he was sent to India. 
 and during the Afghan war ( 1839) captured ihe stronghold 
 of tthuznee, for which exploit he was made a peer and 
 received from the East India Company a pension of
 
 KEARNERSVILLE— KEECIIIES. 
 
 151o 
 
 £2000. D. at Burton Lodge^ Hampshire, Enghind, Aug. 
 24, 1844. 
 Kear'nersvilley post-tp. of Forsyth co., X. C. Pop. 
 
 9'Jj. 
 
 Kear'ney, county of Nebraskn, bounded on tho N. 
 liy Platte Kivcr. Area, 500 square miles. It is rolling 
 prairie, well adapted to pasturage. Cap. Lowell. Pop. 
 58. 
 
 Kearney, pnst-v. of Wnf:hin*:tou tp., C!ay eo.. Mo., on 
 the Kansas t^'ity branch ot the llaunibiil iind St. Joseph 
 K. U. It lias 1 weekly newi^paper. Pop. 3yG. 
 
 Koariiey, tp. of Hudson co., N. J. Pop. 974. 
 
 Kearney (LawrenckI, b. at Perth Aniboy, N. J.. Nov. 
 30, 1789; entered the U. S. navy as midshipnmn in 1807: 
 served on the coast of the Southern States during the war 
 of 1812; destroyed pirates in the \Vct;t Indie?, Gulf of 
 Mexico, and in the Levant : commanded the Cliiua squad- 
 ron in 1841, securing Americnn commercial rights ; returned 
 in 1844 ; became commodore in 1866; and d. at Perth Am- 
 boy Nov. 29, 18(J8, 
 
 Kearney Jnnetion, ])nst-v. and tp.. cap. of Iluffalo 
 CO., Neb., on the Vnion l*iicitie R. K.. iit its junrtion with the 
 Uurlington and ]\Ii.«s(>uri H. R.. 11*S niilus \V. of Omaha. 
 First town-lols were .«ol<i Sept. 9, 1S72; in .Tunc, L^73, it 
 numbered about 600 inhabitants, 2U0 buildings costing 
 $140,000, 3 hutele, 3 hanks, I school, 19 stores of various 
 kind?, and a d6p0t costing $29,000. It is in the Ptatto 
 River Valley, in the uiidst of a tine agricultural region, 
 with decp-blaek clayey soil, well watered by running 
 streams. It ha;^ 2 daily and 2 weekly newi:pii|ieis. 
 
 C. M. Clapp, MASAfiEii ■* Keak.nlv Times." 
 
 Kearny (Philip), nephew of (Jen. Stephen W.. b. in 
 New York .June 2, 1815; graduated nt Culumbia College, 
 and studied law. but in 1837 accepted a lieutenancy in the 
 let Dragoons, (tf which regiment his uncle was then colonel, 
 and soon after visited Kurope under urdeis of the gnvcrn- 
 ment to examine and rejtort upon the tHctiesof the French 
 cavalry service. Here he attended the Polytechnic School 
 at Saumur, and subsequently served as a volunteer in 
 the Chasseurs d'.Arri(|Uo in Algeria, winning tho cross 
 of the Legion of Hnnor. Returned lo the U. S. In IStO, 
 and was attached to the stall' of iJcn. Scott 1S41-44, under 
 whom he served with great gallantry in the Mexican 
 war; captain of dragoons in 1840, and brevetted major for 
 Contreras and Cliurubuseo. In tlie final assault on tho 
 city of Mexici* he lost an arm at (he Sun .Antonio gate; 
 subsequently served in California and in eomniand of an 
 expedition against tho Indians on t'olumbia River. Re- 
 signed Oet., I8.'»], and wont to Europe, where he con- 
 tinued his military studies ; served in the Italian war of 
 1869 HA volunteer aide to (Jen. .Alaurier of the French 
 army, being engaged at Magenta and Suifcrino, aud for 
 bravery was a seconrl time decorated with the cross of tho 
 Legion of Honor. The news of the outbreak of civil war 
 in tho U. S, caused his hasty return home, where his jirof- 
 fered services were at once accepted by the ^rovernmcnt. 
 Appointed at once a brigadier-general of volunteers, ho 
 was assigned to t!ie command of u brigade of New Jersey 
 troops. In tho Peninsular campai;;n of 1SI12 he commanded 
 a division, and at Williamsburj; and KairOuks his services 
 wore most brilliant antl valuable, as well as throughout 
 the suljserjucnt hard fighting hero. Arriving at Harrison's 
 Landiii<;, he was ]>romotcd to bo maJ<»r-Keneral of volun- 
 teers, to iliitu July 4, 1802. Subsequently, in the sectmd 
 battle of Hull Run, he was again conspicurMis, and at Cliiin- 
 tilly. where he was killed Sept. 1, 1802, while reeonnoitring 
 in advance of his troops. G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Kearny Mlon. Stkphkn Watts), uncle <if Philip, b. 
 at Newark. N. J., Aug. 30. 1794 : ou tho outbreak of the 
 war with (Ireal Rritain he abandoned his studies at Co- 
 himbia College, nn*J enlcrcil the army as first lieutenant 13th 
 Infantry Mar., 1HI2 ; in the following October ho was dis- 
 tin^uii^lied in ttie assault on Ijueenstown Heights. an<l pro- i 
 inoted lo be captain Apr., IN13 ; on the close of tho war he 
 was rctuiiied in the army, rising through succcBsive irrades ■ 
 to bo brigadier-general in 1846. In the war with Mexico 
 he commanded at the commencement the army of theAVost, i 
 which made conquest of the province of New Mexico ; C8- 
 tablii-hing a provisional go\ernment at Santa Fe, he con- 
 tinued his march to California, and Hec.fi, ISIO, fought 
 tho battle of San Paseunl, where he was twice wounrled ; 
 subsequently commanded the tronps of sailors and nmrines 
 and detachment of dragoons in tlie battles of San tlabriel 
 and Plains of .Mesn. .Ian. S and 9, 1817. He was governor 
 of California from Mar. to June. 1817; joined the army in , 
 Mexico and w'S governor of Vera Cr\n Mar.. 1848, and I 
 ItfayTTAl^, of the city of Mexico. For his serviees In New i 
 Mexico and (^alitornia he was brovette.l ninjor-general. 
 Author of A Maniinl /ur tfiv Exrrcine and Maittruvrin^ uf \ 
 
 U, S. Draijoonn, Ortjanic LttWf and Lawafoi' the Governmeut 
 of the Territory of Xew Mexico. D. at St. Louis, Mo., Oct. 
 31, 1848. G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Kear'sarge, mount, a conspicuous mountain in Car- 
 roll CO., N.H.: lat. 44°0'20"N., Ion. 71*' 5' 40" W., height, 
 3250 leet. On the suggestion of the wife of the assistant 
 secretary (»f the navy, a daughter of Levi Woodbury (tf 
 New Hampshire, the secretary in ISI'.I named the vessel 
 which sunk tho Alabama in iStVt after this mountain. 
 Another one of the same name, in iMcrrimack co., N. H., 
 formerly called h'tfar-Surf/n,hy the Indians Cowissewas- 
 chook, height 2950 feet, has been erroueously claimed lor 
 this honor. G. V. Fox. 
 
 Kea'tins:^ tp. f>f Clinton co.. Pa. Keating Village 
 (Nasl.y P. o. I is on the PhiUideli.hia and Erie R. R. P. 439. 
 
 Keating* tp. of McKean co.. Pa. It includes Smeth- 
 port, tlie county-seat. Pop. 1435. 
 
 Keatinf;^, tp. of Potter co., Pa. Pop. 78. 
 Keats (Jonx), b. in London in 1790: was gent to a 
 school at Enfield kept by the father of Charles Cowdcn 
 Clarke; served ISlD-lj an apprenticeship to a surgeon, 
 and then studied in London ; became the friend of Leigh 
 Hunt, Lamb, and the other authors of the so-called Cock- 
 ney school; publislied iu 1817 a vtduine of verses, followed 
 in 1818 by £ii'.ii/iin'"n, aud another volume of poems in 
 1820. Keats died of consumjttion at Home Feb. 24, ie21. 
 The often-repeated statement that Keats was killed by 
 the bitter attack upon him by (Jiflord in the Qudifrrfi/ 
 Jit-rii ir was uuiforntly denied by tlnise who knew him best, 
 and (iifford's criticism was more injurious to its author, 
 audjustly so, than to any one else. The fame of Keats as 
 a poet has widened much since his deatli, aud after making 
 due allowance for his youth and inexperience ns a writer, 
 his poems certainly display that indescribable quality 
 called genius in an unusual degree. 
 
 Kcnyne fCapt. Roukut), b. probably in Iiondon in 
 lo94 or If>9."); was a member of the Honorable Artillery 
 Company in London, and by trade a merchant tailor. He 
 aided Plymouth colony by donations as early as 1024, and 
 became one of the fnunders of the .Massaehusetts colony, 
 settling at Hostou in 103.'). He brou{;ht over considerable* 
 estate: organized in 1038 the Ancient and Honorable Artil- 
 lery Company of Roston : was frequently representative for 
 Boston from 1638 to 1049 : was a lilieral donor to Harvard 
 College, aU'l by legacy founded a free school at Roston. 
 now the Latin Grammar School. He was a brotlier-in-law 
 of the ceh-brated Jcdm Wilson, first minister of Poston. 
 both having married daughters of Sir John jransfield, 
 master of the Minories; was an eccentric man, and his 
 singular will (reprinted in part in \. E. Gen. licff., vol. vi.) 
 covers over ^0 pages, being perha{is the longest ou record 
 in America. 
 
 Ke'ble (John), M. A., b. at Fairford, Gloucester, Kng- 
 lanil, .Ajir. 25, 1792. passed R. A. at Corpus Christi, Oxford, 
 3810; became a fellow of Oriel 1811 ; was public examiner 
 at Oxford 1814-10; took deacon's orders 1815, priest's 
 1810; was a tutor at Oxford 1818-23; became ]irofessor 
 of poetry IS31 ; was one of the original Tractarians. and a 
 leader of tlie Anglo-Catholic movement ; became viear of 
 Hursley 18;:n. H. at Rournemouth Mar. 29. 1800. In 1827 
 he published Thv Christian Year, a volume of sacrod poetry 
 which attained a wide popularity, and upon which his famo 
 chietly rests ; also publifthe<l rniftrtinnrtt Aroflrnn'rir ( 1844), 
 /.//ro /imorriitluni (IS 17), Thr I'trnhnn in ICiif/lifh Vrrsc, Dc 
 Poitiva I'i Atrdica (1847), some volumes of sermons, and 
 many tracts and pamphlets upon ecclesiastical subjects. 
 (See Memoir of liev. John KcUcf by Sir John T. Coleridge, 
 1809.) 
 
 Kecskemet', town of Hungary, tho capital of tho 
 district of Peslh-Snlt. The rearing of cattle uml horses is 
 tho chief pursuit of the inliabiiants, and the annual cattlo- 
 fnir held in this city is tho most imj'ortant in the whole 
 country. Pop. 42.0S9. 
 
 Kcdf^e, a small anchor used in hauling a vessel from 
 onomooring to fliiolher, in pullinj; off a ship that is aground. 
 etc. Kedges are als<i useful in preventing ships from foul- 
 ing with their bower anchor. 
 
 Keirceri, or KU'nri, town of Rritish India, in tho 
 presidency of Rengal, nt the mouth of the Hoogly. As this 
 river forms the main entranno into the Ganges and the road 
 to Calcutta, the town has aequireil consiilcrablo notoriety, 
 and the first lelograph-Iine in India was laid between it and 
 Caleuttn. a clistance of 1(1 miles. 
 
 Kee'chieR, a Irihe of Indians residing on the Washita 
 River in the Indian Territory. They are related to tho 
 Pawnees and AVichitiis, ami formerly lived on Trinity 
 River in Texas, but were removed in i859. They number 
 little over 100.
 
 1516 
 
 KEEL— KEI RIVER, GREAT. 
 
 Keel) in shipbuilding, is the beam which passes under 
 the ship's hull Irom stem to stern. It is usually made up 
 of several heavy timbers bolted together leuf^thwise. The 
 ship's ribs, stern, and stern-post spring from the keel, which 
 is external to the hull, as the keelson is internal. Below 
 the keel one or niorc^/ri/se keels are bolted on. 
 
 Kee'ler, tp. of Van Buren co., Mich. Pop. 1303. 
 
 Kecrhatlling, a punishment formerly employed in 
 the Dutch and other navies. The oft'ender, with suitable 
 ropes attached, was dropi)ed from one yanl-arm into tlio 
 sea, hauled beneath the keel of the ship, and then drawn 
 up to the opposite yard-arm. The culprit was lieavily 
 weighted with lead or iron. 
 
 KeeTson, or Kelson, the beam inside a ship's hull 
 whieh runs fore and ait ilirectly over the keel. It is made 
 up of timbers scarped, nutdied, and bolted into one, and the 
 keelson is itself securely bolted to the keel. 
 
 Keen (William Williams). M. D., b. Jan. 19, 1S37, in 
 Philadelphia; entered Brown University in 1809 and Jef- 
 ferson Medical College in 1SG2; studied 1SG4 at Paris, 
 Vienna, and Berlin ; returned in IStifi, and began practis- 
 ing in Philadeljihia ; became proprietor of the Philadelphia 
 School of Anatomy, which he conducted with great success ; 
 lectured on anatomy at this institution and on pathological 
 anatomy at Jefferson Medical College, and was appointed 
 trustee of Brown University and Crozer Theological Sem- 
 inary, and surgeon to St. Mary's Hospital, Philadelphia. 
 His printripa! writings are — On Br/h-x Parah/»h (1864), 
 Gunshnt ]Voniuh (1S64). Practical Atmtomi/ (1870), Sketch 
 <if the Eiirfi/ Histon/ of Practical Anatomy (1874), Diagrams 
 of the A'crven ft/ the Human /?of/f/ (1872), Clinical Charts of 
 the Human //of/_y ( 1S"2). Gunshot Wound of the Brain (1871), 
 Anat.y Pathol. , and Surg. Uses of Chloral (1874), etc. 
 
 Keene, tp. of Adams co., 111. Pop. 1283. 
 
 Keene, post-tp. of Ionia co., Mich. Pop. 1271. 
 
 Keene, city, cap. of Cheshire co.. N. H., 92 miles N. 
 W. of Boston and 6.0 miles N. of Springfield, Mass., on a 
 wide plain surrounded by lofty hills, has broad thorough- 
 fares shaded by stately elms, and claims to be the most 
 beautiful inland city of New England. The public build- 
 ings consist of a fine court-house, city hall, high-school 
 building, and 7 well-built churches. Central Square, from 
 which radiate the five principal avenues, is planted with 
 trees, and contains a soldiers' monument erected at a cost 
 of nearly ?20,U00. The eity is well supplied with water 
 brought by an aqueduct from Silver Lake. ;i miles distant. 
 There are 2 weekly newspapers, a large public library, a 
 gymnasium, 3 national anil 2 savings banks, 3 hotels, o 
 Masonic lodges, 1 lodfje and 1 encampment of Odd Fellows. 
 Two railroads centre here; a third (the Manchester and 
 Keene) is about to be built. The eity is noted for excel- 
 lent public schools and for its business prosjierity and en- 
 terprise. The manufactures are large; there are 3 steam- 
 mills manufacturing furniture, sash and blinds, and ma- 
 chinery. The Cheshire U. K. employs several hundred 
 men in the manufacture of locomotives and cars. There 
 arc 3 steam-tanneries, an iron-foundry, a flannel-mill, gas- 
 works, carriage and sleigh manufactories, and granite- 
 quarries affurding employment to about 400 men. The 
 valuation of taxable property in Apr.. 1874, was $4,500,000. 
 Pup. 5971. Tnos. C. Rand, Ed. " N. H. Sentinkl." 
 
 Keene, post-v. and tp. of Essex co., X. Y. The town- 
 ship contains Mt. Marcy, the highest of the Adirondaeks, 
 and has iron-mines and manufactures of iron. Pop. 720. 
 
 Keene, post-tp. of Coshocton co., 0. Pop. 787. 
 
 Keene (BArnA), b. in England in 1S20: came to the 
 U. S. as an actress in 1S52, and had great success in light 
 comedy, as also in Australia in 1S54. Keturningto Amer- 
 ica in 1855, she became manager of the Varieties Theatre 
 in New York, and soon afterward inaugurated another 
 theatre, long known by her name, now the Olympic. Here 
 she introduced in 1858 the very successful comedy of Our 
 American Cousin. She appeared on the stage with suc- 
 cess in the principal American cities until shortly before 
 her death, which took place at Moutclair, N. J-. Nov. 4. 
 1873. It was at one of her representations of Onr Amer- 
 ican r<'n«i';i that President Bincoln was assassinated in 1865. 
 
 Keen'cr, tp. of Ja.^per co., Ind. Pop. 71. 
 
 Keener (Dikcan F.), b. in Maryland or Virginia; re- 
 moved tu Louisiana; was a member from that State to the 
 Confederate Couiiress in ISfil.and to tlto end of the war he 
 held a high positicm throughout. I'n- was brief, practical, 
 able, and eloquent in tlebate. Since the war he has taken 
 no active part in polities, but exerted a great influence in 
 preventing a collision between the Federal troops under 
 Gen. Emory anil the State troojis under the McEnery offi- 
 cials in New Orleans in Sept., 1874. 
 
 Keener (John C), 1>. I)., b. in Baltimore, Md., 1819; 
 
 educated at Wesleyan Academy, Wilbraham, Mass., and at 
 Wcsleyan University, Middletown, Conn.; was editor of 
 the New Orleans Christian Advocate (M. E. Church, 
 South) from 1865 to 1870. and was elected bishop in 
 that year. In 1873 he visited the Southern Methodist 
 missions in Mexico, which were at that time entrusted 
 to his superintendence. He is author of Post Oak Cir- 
 cuit. 
 
 Keese'ville, post-v. in Chesterfield tp., Essex co., and 
 Au Sable tp., Clinton co., N. Y., lying on both sides of the 
 Au Sable River, which is the boundary between those two 
 counties, 4 miles W. of Lake Champlain and 150 miles N. 
 of Albany. It has 6 churches (2 Catholic), a graded school, 
 a national bank, a public hall, ancl a weekly newspaper. 
 Iron and nail works constitute the principal industry. 
 The water-power is excellent. A woollen-factory was 
 erected here in 1813. and a rolling-mill in ISIG. Three 
 bridges connect the two parts of the village, one being 
 an iron susjiension bridge. Pop. about 30OO, 
 
 W. Lansinu. Ed. " Esskx Co. Republican." 
 
 KefT, or El-Keff, the ancient Sicca Vencria, town of 
 Tunis, near the Algerian frontier, is beautifully situated 
 among fertile and well-cultivated surroundings, and has 
 a strong citadel. Pop. GOOO. 
 
 Keigh'ley, town of England, in the county of York- 
 shire, on the Aire. Its manufactures of woollen and 
 worsted goods are very considerable. Pop. 15,005. 
 
 Keight'lev (Thomas), b. in Dublin in Oct., 1780; 
 graduated at Trinity College in that eity in 1808, and de- 
 voted himself to the production of a series of classical 
 textbooks and works on history and mythology, by which 
 he became widely known in Eiigland and America. His 
 best works were — Outlinrv of Jlistory, Mi/tholitgi/ of Ancient 
 Greece and Italy, History of India, and Sh<tks/jeare E.tpo8- 
 itor. He received a pension from the English government 
 in his later years, and d. at Erttb, Kent, Dec, 1872. 
 
 Keil (Karl August Gottlieb), b. at Grossenhain, near 
 Dresden, Saxony, Apr. 23, 1754; was educated in theology 
 at the University of Leip^ic. in which he became tutor, 
 lecturer on exegesis and hermeneulics. professor extra- 
 ordinary of philosophy (1785), of theology (1788), and full 
 or ordinary professor iu 1793. His writings in German 
 and Latin are especially valuable upon the subject of her- 
 meneutics. in which he is recognized as a master. His 
 Manual of Hcrmtnentics appeared in 1810; his miscella- 
 neous Latin writings wereiuiblished after his death by Gold- 
 horn, under the title Opuscula Acadcmica, etc. (Leipsic, 2 
 vols., 1821). D. at Lcipsic Apr. 22, 1818. 
 
 Keim {THKonon^, D. D., b. at Stuttgart, Wiirtemberg, 
 Dec. 17, 1825; studied at the University of Tiibingen 
 (1843-48), devoting himself, under the guidance of Baur, 
 to philosophy, biblical criticism, and ecclesiastical history; 
 was tutor in those branches at Bonn (1850) and at Tiibin- 
 gen (1851-55) ; was ordained deacon (1857)and archdeacon 
 (1850) at Esslingen, and became in ISCO professor of the- 
 ology at the University of Zurich. He wrote volumes upon 
 the history of the Reformation in several parts of Germany; 
 in Ulm (1851 ), in Swabia until the Diet of Augsburg (1855), 
 in Esj'lingen (lSt»0), Amhrosius li/arer, the Sn-abian Re- 
 former (18(10), The Human Development of Jesus Christ 
 (ISIJI). The Historical Words r/ ^f^H* (ISfi I ). and recast 
 the latter two works into The Historical (^hrist (IS6G). wliich 
 at once gave him a wide reputation. He then devoted him- 
 self to a nu)re biographical work upon the same subject, 
 called History of Jesus of Xazara, of which two volumes 
 have appeared (18G7 and 1871). an<l have been translated 
 into English (London. 1873). D. Nov. 17, 1^78. 
 
 Keim (William Hifiii), b. at Reading, Pa., June 25, 
 18i;i ; educated at Mt. Airy Military Academy ; was chosen 
 Representative in Congress in 1S5S, and State surveyor in 
 1850; served as major-general of Pennsylvania volunteers 
 in Patterson's campaign on the upper Potomac (1S(H), and 
 as brigadier-general U. S. volunteers in McCIellan's army. 
 D. at Harrisburg. Pa., May 18, lS(i2. 
 
 Keim'er (Samuel), a printer in Philadelphia in the 
 early part of the eighteenth century, celebrated in the 
 yl ijfo/jf'o7rn/>/i// of Franklin, wlio was employed in his office. 
 Little is known of Keimer beyonil these inciiicntal notices; 
 the place and time of his birth and death are alike undiscover- 
 able. Franklin states that he was originally '*one of the 
 French prophets, and could act their enthusiastic agitation," 
 and gives an amusing accnunt of his projects for founding a 
 new religion, the cardinal doctrines of which were never 
 disclosed. Keimer went to Barbadoes, where in 17.'U he 
 was pTini'iugthQ Gazette, and in 1711 a work of his entitled 
 Caribhcana was printed in London. 
 
 Kei River, Great, scjiarates the formerly so-called 
 British Kafl^raria. which now lornis a jwirt of the Cape 
 Colony, from Kaffraria proper, and empties itself into the
 
 KEISKAMMA— KELLOGO. 
 
 1517 
 
 Indian Occao. Like all rivers of Kaffraria, it is unfit for 
 navifiation, ils bed being very rocky and irregular. 
 
 KeiskaTn'ma, a river in the Capo Colony, rises in 
 Amatola, and Bows into the Indian Ocean after a course of 
 SO miles. 
 
 Keith, new county in P. W. Nebraska, adjoining Colo- 
 rad">. inttT?cctcd by the two forks of the Platte, and trav- 
 ersed by the Union Pacific K. R. Area, 201(» square miles. 
 
 Keith MIkohgf). b. at Aberdeen, Pootland. about 1640; 
 was educated for the Presbyterian ministry at the Univer- 
 sity of Aberdeen : adopted Quaker principles about 1664, 
 ancl in 1075 was associated with Robert Barclay in defend- 
 ing that sect in public discussions with the university 
 students. He was also associated with Pcnn in similar 
 discussions with the Baptists in London. In 16s2 ho took 
 charze of a Quaker school at Edmonton, and was impris- 
 oned in Newgate for refusing to take an oath and preaching 
 without license ( 16S4). Soon afterward he cnmc to America; 
 became surveyor-general of East .Jersey, and in 16S0 took 
 charge of a Quaker school in Philadelphia. Next year he 
 went to New England as a Quaker preacher, and was en- 
 gaged in disputes with Increase and Cotton Maihcr. Re- 
 turning to Philadelphia, he became involved in controversy 
 with his own sect, chiefly about the atonement, and ulti- 
 mately came into sharp collision with William Penn him- 
 self, whom ho charged with deism, and by whom ho was 
 denounced as an apostate. Keith thereupon founded a sect 
 known as Keithians. Christian Quakers, or Baj)tist Qua- 
 kers, but ultimately entered the Church of England, and was 
 employed as a missionary for the conversion of his former 
 fellow-believers. From 1702 to 1705 he made a tour of tho 
 Northern colonies, and converted many hundreds of Qua- 
 kers, who were baptized by him. Returning to England 
 in 1706, he was appointed rector of Edburton in Sussex, 
 where ho d. about 1715. Ho was a man of deep learning, 
 well versed in PIatonism,and wrote many theological tracts 
 both for and against Qu:ikerii*m ; al.»> two works of travels 
 in America ( 1699 and 1705) and a X* ir Throri/ of the Lou- 
 ffitiifie (1709). (See Jannoy's Iliston/ of the Friends, Phil- 
 adelphia, 1867, and Watts's Ttibliotheca Bn'tannica.) 
 
 Keith (firoROE^b. at Kineardine. Scotland, in 16S5. 
 and received a military education. After the death of 
 Queen Anno he espoused tho cause of tho Pretender, was 
 outlawed, and his estates were confiscated. For several 
 years ho lived in Rome with the Pretender, then in Spain, 
 but entered at last into the service of Frederick IL, whoso 
 friend he became, and who employed him in several re- 
 sponsible positions — as ambassador to Paris 1751, as gov- 
 ernor »if Neufehatel 1754, etc. Through the king's media- 
 tion his estates were restored to him, but ho continued to 
 reside at Potsdam, where he d. May 25, 1778, 
 
 Keith ((iKORfiE KEiTn-Ei.i'HiNSTONc), Admiral. Vis- 
 rocNT, b. at Elphinstone, Scotlan<i, Jan. 12, 1746; entered 
 tho navy in boyhood, and, as post-captain commanding the | 
 frigate Perseus, took part in the actions of Bunker Hill | 
 (1775) and Fort Mifflin on the Delaware (1777). In 179.3 
 he served with the Mediterranean squadron under Lord | 
 Hood at Toulon, and as admiral was despatclie<t in 1795 to 
 operate against the Dutch colonies. Ho took jtossession of ' 
 Ciijie Colony in South Africa, Ceylon, Cochin, Malacca, and 
 the Mohn'cii Islands, and in Aug., 1796, captured a Dutch , 
 squadron near Satdanha Bay, West Africa. For these bril- I 
 liant services, he was created an Irish peer, as Baron Keith I 
 of Stonehaven Marischal. In Mar., IHOO, ho blockaded 1 
 Massena in Genoa, co-operating with tho Austrians, who 
 besieged and took that city, lie co-operated with Aber- , 
 crombifc in the Egyptian exptdition, and in 1S15 com- | 
 nianded the Channel fleet, which prevented tho escape of 
 Napoleon I., and brought about his surrender to Capt. ] 
 >faitland of the BelUrophon. In lsI4 he was created Vis- I 
 count Keith of the peerage of the United Kingdom. D. | 
 at Tullialan, Pertli!«hire. Scotland, Mar. 10, 182.3, 
 
 Keith (.Tames FnANns EnwARo). brother of George 
 (16S5-I77S), h. at Kineordine, Scotland, Juno 11, 1696; 
 look part, like his brother, in the rebellion against the 
 Hanoverian house; was outlawed, and lived for several 
 years at Paris and in Spain. In 17-31 he entered the Kus- 
 sinn servifi', and <listinguishe<l himself very much in the 
 wars against Turkey and Sweden. In 174.3 ho was nnulo 
 a fii'ld marshal, but in 1747 ho left Russia, went to Berlin, 
 and was one of Fre<leriek's great generals. He was u man 
 of great military talent and much appreciated by tho king. 
 He fell at Hoeh'kirch Oct. 14, 175S. 
 
 Keith (Sir Wii.!,iAM\ b. in the N. of Scotland about 
 lOf'O; became surveyor-general of customs in Amerien for 
 the Southern colonies: was governor of Pennsylvania for 
 the proprietors 1717-26; was fond of intrigu*-, vain, and 
 treaeberous, but the colony prosperetl under bis ailminis- 
 tratinn. Author of a ///*/<»(■»/ <</ Vii-'finia (17.'!S) and a 
 
 Tolame of tracts and papers (1749). D. in London Nor. 
 17, 1749. 
 
 Keiths'bur^, post-v. and tp. of Mercer co.. 111. It is 
 on the Mississii)pi River and the Chicago Burlington and 
 Quincy R. R., and has a national bank and 1 weekly news- 
 paper. Pop. of v. 1179; of tp. 1579. 
 
 Keitt (Lawrence M.), b. in Orangeburg district. S. C, 
 Oct. 4, 1824: graduated at the State College, Columbia, in 
 184.3; studied law. and was admitted to practice in 1845; was 
 elected to the State legislature in 1S4S. and to Congress in 
 185.3. which position he held until he resigned it in the winter 
 of 1860-61, after South Carolina had passed her ordinance 
 of secession. He was then elected to the Confederate Con- 
 gress, which met in Montgomery on Feb. 4. 1861 ; in this 
 body he acted a conspicuous part in the formation of the 
 provisional and permanent constitutions for the Confed- 
 erate States. He subsequently entered the military service 
 with a colonel's commission, and gallantly fell at the head 
 of his regiment in repelling the assault at Cold Harbor on 
 the .3d of June. 1S64. As an orator and a popular dc- 
 claimer Mr. Keitt held a high position. A. H. Stephens. 
 
 Kelat% the cap. of Beloochistan. in lat. 2S° 52' N. and 
 Ion. 00° 3;i' E.. situated in a narrow valley 6000 feet above 
 the sea. It is surrounded with walls, and has some im- 
 portance as a fortress, but it is ill built and dirty, and ils 
 trade and manufactures arc of very little consequence. 
 Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Kellermann' fFRAN<;ois Crristophe), b. at Stras- 
 bourg 17.35; d. in 1820; was raised slowly, under the old 
 monarchy, to the rank of brigadier-general, when the Rev- 
 olution of 17S9 broke out, and suddenly made general-in- 
 chief. He won tho famous battle of Valmv in 1792 against 
 the allies, who were marching on Paris. Kellermann, being 
 a moderate republican, was arrested in 1793, and remained 
 in prison until the Tbermidor reactionary revolution in 
 1794. He coninianded in 1795. with success, the armies of 
 the Alps and of Italy, and Napoleon made him duke of 
 Valmy and nmrshal of France. Kellermann was a soldier, 
 not a politician : ho did not stick, therefore, by Napoleon, 
 any more than ho had done l>y the radical republicans who 
 had been the first to discover and employ his rare military 
 genius. On tho full of the empire in 1815, lie rallied to I lie 
 Bourbons, who confirmed his title of duke and made him a 
 peer of Franco. Felix Al'caignk. 
 
 Kellermann (Francois Etienne), son of F. C. Kdh r- 
 mann, b. at Metz in 1770; received his military educiitiun 
 under his father ; was aide-de-camp to Napoleon in 1796, 
 and brigadier-general in 1799. He distinguished himself 
 very much in the battles of Marengo. Austerlitz, and 
 Waterloo. After the restoration of tho Bourbons ho with- 
 drew from the service. D, June 2, 18.35. 
 Kelley, tp. of Ripley co., Mo. Pop. 240. 
 KeI'ley (Wii.mam D\u»ah), b. in Philadelphia Apr. 
 12, 1814. a grandson of M:ij. ,hAiu Kelley. a Revolutionary 
 oflicer of New .Jersey. He was (I8;J5-.39) a jeweller of 
 Boston, Mass. ; was admitted to the Philadelphia bar in 
 1841; became a leading Democrat ; was attorney-general 
 of Pennsylvania 1845-46; a judge of the common pleas 
 I court 1846-56; and in 1854 became a republican; was n 
 ' prominent member of Congress 1861^74, and has taken a 
 , high rank as an elleetivc public speaker. 
 I Kellcy's Island, one of the AVino Islands of Lake 
 I Erie, belongs to Erie co.. 0., and has flourishing vineyards, 
 j producing large quantities of wiuo and grapes. Pop. of 
 
 Kelley's Island tp. 8.38. 
 I KeTlogg, post-v. and tp. of Jasper co., Ta., on tho 
 I Chicago Rock IslanrI and Pacific R. R.. 45 miles E. of 
 j Dos Moines. It hat* .3 churches, 1 Englii^h newspaper 
 I (weekly), large jjump-faetory, and the usual number 
 I of stores and whops. It has good water-power and nu- 
 I merous branches of indu.'ftry. Pop. of tp. 1507. 
 
 S. r. Mm iiKLL, Kn. " News." 
 KellOff^ fCi.ARA LoiiSK), h. in Snmtorville. S. C.luly. 
 1842, of Northern parentage and ancestry. Her father is 
 a man of remarkable ingenuity in mechanical invention; 
 her mother had unusual gifts as a musician, a talent with 
 tho pencil, and evni skill in the cutting of cameos. Clnra 
 was their only child. A year after her birth the family 
 removed to New Haven, Conn., ami resided there till 1S56. 
 when they went to Xew York. Here tlie young girl's mu- 
 sical genius was appreciated, and by help of a friend her 
 musical eilucalion was begun un<ler the direction of Millet, 
 Rivarde. Manzoclii, and .Albitc?). all teachers of tho first 
 rank in their time. She studied with intense industry, 
 ambition, and paiision for art, devoting herself wholly to 
 her pursuit. learning along with music the French and 
 Italian Innguaees. Her whole professional edueatinn was 
 acquired in New York, the few lessons she received in Lon- 
 don from Ardili being scarcely wortliv uf mention. A
 
 1518 
 
 KELLOGG— KELP. 
 
 private presentation made so favorable an impression on ] 
 her auditors that she was V>rought out in the character of 
 Gildft {Ht'folettu) at the Academy of Music iu the season 
 of 1S61-C2, and sang that season ten or twelve times. In 
 1867 she appeared in London at Her Majesty's Theatre 
 under the nianaj^ement of Mr. Mapk-son, and was immedi- 
 ately engac;ed for the following or summer season. Ro- 
 turiiing to the V. S. in ISfiS, she made a brilliant tour 
 though the States with Mr. Strakosch. gaining new laurels, 
 till 1872, when she a:;ain accepted a London engagement, 
 and sang at Drury Lane with Nil?son under Mapleson's 
 management. Her success was even more signal than 
 before ; she sang also at a ''private" concert given by the 
 queen at Buckingham Palace. On her return to the U. S. 
 she resumed her professional career, singing in Italian 
 opera till Nilsson and Lucca absorbed the attention of the 
 fashionable world of music : then, about two years ago, she 
 determined to establish in America on a popular basis the 
 English opera. Into this enterprise she threw herself with 
 all her accustomed energy, aided by a deep confidence in 
 the musical appreciation and enthusiasm of the American 
 people, assuming the direction of the pieces, the training 
 of the singers, the translation of the Vihrctti from French 
 or Italian, and in general the conduct of the business. 
 Her labors have been severe (in the winter of 187-1—75 
 she sang no fewer than 125 nights), but they have been 
 crowned with complete success. In the Western cities her 
 popularity is immense. She has fairly domesticated opera 
 there. Miss Kellogg has a fine musical organization, great 
 capacity for labor, a retentive memory (she is perfectly 
 familiar with thirty operas — not with her own part only, 
 but with all the parts and with the instrumentation), se- 
 vere conscientiousueps as an artist, an ardent enthusiasm, 
 and a voice of great compass and pr.rity. To these gifts 
 she unites an uncommon talent for bur iness. She is. more- 
 over, much respected as a woman for her blameless life, the 
 perfect decorum of her behavior, and the goodness of her 
 heart. 0. B. FrOTHiNGH.VM. 
 
 Kellogg (Edward X.), U. P. N.. b. Bee. 8, 1S42, in 
 Maine; graduated at the Naval Academy in ISOl ; became 
 a lieutenant in 1RG4. a lieutenant-commander in 18CC; 
 served on board the Oneida at the battle of Mobile Bay, 
 Aug. 5, 1864, and was commended for skill and courage. 
 D. of yellow fever at Ponsacola in the fall of 1S74. 
 
 FoxnALL A. Parker. 
 Kellogg (Francis W.), b. at Worthington, Hampshire 
 CO., Mass., May 30. 1810; removed at an early af^e to 
 Michigan, and became a lumber-merchant. After serving 
 in the legislature ho was elected a Representative in Con- 
 gress in 1858, re-elected in 1800 and 1802, and appointed 
 in lf*05 collector of internal revenue for tho district of Ala- 
 bama : was returned to Congress from Alabama in 18GR. 
 
 Kellogg {Gkorge). the father of Clara Louise Kellogg, 
 h. June 19, 181 2, at New Hartford. Conn.; graduated at Wes- 
 leyan University, 18"7 : was prinnipal of Sumter Academy, 
 Siimterville, S. C., 18:!S-n, but is chiefly distinguished as 
 an inventor and manufacturer. Among his inventions arc 
 a jack-chain machine, cajiable of making a yard of chain 
 a minute; a dovetailing machine; improved surgical im- 
 plements ; type-distributing and other machines. lias in- 
 troduced into England American machinery for making 
 hooks and eyes, hats, etc. Residence, Cold Spring, K. Y. 
 Kellogg (Stki-ren WuiGnx), A. M., b. at Shelburne, 
 Mass., Apr. 5, 1822 : graduated at Yale in 1840 ; became a 
 lawyer of Waterbury, Conn.; clerk of tho State senate 
 1851 : was in both houses of the legislature; judge of pro- 
 bate 1854-60; delegate to tho Chicago Repulilican conven- 
 tions of 1860 and 1808; elected in 1871 as Representative 
 in Congress, and re-elected in 1873, but defeated at tho 
 election of Apr., 1875. 
 
 Kellogg (Wii.i-tAM), b. in Ashtabula oo.. 0., July 8, 
 1S14: removed to Illinois in 1837; studied law; acquired 
 an extensive practice, chiefly in respect to land titles; was 
 member of the State legislature 1S49-50 ; judge of the cir- 
 cuit court for three years; elected to Congress in 1856, re- 
 elected in 1858 and 1>160; appointed in 1804 minister resi- 
 dent in fJuatemala, and iu 1S6G chief-justice of Nebraska. 
 Kellogg (William Pitt), b. in Vermont in ls?>n: re- 
 moved in 1^4f< to Illinois; became a lawyer in 1854; was 
 in IJ^56 and 1800 a Presidential elector: chief-justice of 
 Nebraska in 1801 ; served as a colonel of volunteer cavalry 
 in the civil war. and became a brigadier- general : was col- 
 lector of the port of New Orleans; V. .'^. Senator from 
 Louisiana 186S-71 : was in 1872 declared elected governor 
 of Louisiana for the term ending in 1877, which office he 
 ctill (1875) holds, after the failure of an insurrectionary 
 attempt (Sept., 1874) to displace him in favor of the Demo- 
 cratic candidate — a movement which resulted in Federal 
 military interference, a Congressioiuil investigation (1875), 
 and a finally accepted compromise between the parties. 
 
 Kel'loway Rock^ The^an arenaceous limestone un- 
 derlying the Oxford Clay in England, and apparently the 
 lowest member of the Middle Oolite. (See Jurassic.) The 
 term Callovien was applied by D'Orbigny to a geological 
 horizon corresponding to the Kclloway Rock. 
 
 Kei'ly, tp. of Warren co.. III. Pop. 1295. 
 
 Kelly, tp. of Cooper co.. Mo. Pop. L'i72. 
 
 Kelly, tp. of Union co.. Pa., contains Kelly Point P. 0. 
 and West Milton P. 0. Pop. 942. 
 
 Kelly (Robf.rt), LL.D.. b. Dec. 10, 1808, in New York 
 City; graduated at Columbia College 1820, entering and 
 leaving at tho head of his class. He then joined his 
 brothers John and William as an active partner in the 
 house of J. &, W. Kelly A Co., retiring in 1837 to devote 
 himself to the cause of education and to public affairs. He 
 was regarded as the founder of the Free Academy ; was 
 president of the board of education and a regent of the 
 University of the State; also a trustee of New York and 
 Madison universities, and one of the founders of the I'ni- 
 versity of Rochester, presiding over its board. He was 
 identified for many years with the House of Refuge, the 
 president of its board of managers, and actively engaged 
 in many other benevolent, literary, and financial associa- 
 tions in his native cif}'. He was a scholar of rare culture 
 and master of many languages. He held the office of 
 chamberlain of the city at the time of his death, Apr. 27, 
 1850. 
 
 Kelly (William), b. in New York City Feb. 4, 1807. 
 His father, Robert Kelly, d. 1825, leaving three sons, John, 
 William, and Robert, all minors. The two first, the "boy- 
 merchants," as they were called, aided by Robert after 
 leaving college, ably conducted tho extensive house until 
 l'"""". when, John having d. in 1836, the other brothers re- 
 tired and gave themselves to promoting charity and eilu- 
 cation. In 1^-42, William purchased the estate known as 
 ''Ellerslie," near Rhinebeck, and became a leading farmer. 
 President of New York State Agricultural Society 1854; 
 one of the founders of the State Agricultural College at 
 Ovid, president of its board. lie was many years president 
 of the trustees of Rochester L^niversity. and of the board 
 of Vassar College from its foundation til! his death ; presi- 
 dent of the Baptist educational commission, and active in 
 many other charitable and religious enterprises; a man- 
 aging director in railroad, steamboat, banking, and trust 
 companies, and working president of several iron com- 
 panies. A New York State senator lS.'i5-5G, and Demo- 
 cratic candidate for governor in ISGO. A man of great 
 benevolence, widely but silently difi'used. D. at Torquay, 
 Eng., Jan. 14, 1872, 
 
 Kelly's Mills, tp. of Madison co.. Ala. Pop. 1525. 
 
 Keloid, more eorrectly Che'loid [Or. x^M- a "crab's 
 claw," from some fancied resemblance], a name applied 
 to two apparently distinct skin diseases: (1) A sort of 
 fibroid tumor of the true skin, often appearing on the scar 
 of a cut or burn. It in almost certain to return after ex- 
 cision, is n<»t malignant, and is thus far not curable. This 
 is tho keloid of AUbert, (2) A much more general disease, 
 sometimes spreading over the whole body. Congested 
 tubercles, generally originating near the sternum, advance 
 gradually over the body, are very irritable, and cause 
 trouble by itching, especially in warm weather. Cold ap- 
 plications and tonic treatment p:illiatc but do not cure it. 
 Negroes are more subject to this disease than white persons. 
 
 Kelp, Barilla, or Varec, names applied to the ashes 
 or products of incineration of «eoir<W». These products 
 were of far more importance to former generations than at 
 present, having once been the sole source of the valuable 
 alkali soda, for making soap and glass, previous to the 
 grand discovery of the French chemist Leblanc, of manu- 
 facturing soda from common salt. .'\t present the chief 
 interest that attaches to kelp is as the principal material 
 from wliieh the element iodine is obtained. The name for 
 seaweed ashes uscil in France is mrrr. MVeds are also 
 used, particularly for manufacturing the variety called ha- 
 rifln, in Sicily, Spain, and some other countries, which 
 grow on the sea-shore in saline soils, these plants being 
 cultivated in those cnimtrics for the purpose, and the ashes 
 uped in making soap, even at the present day, though ap- 
 parently a very ]>oor material for the purpose. Kelp and 
 varec, on the other hand, are made exclusively from the 
 .Mgje and Fuei, which grow on rocks in great abundance, 
 between high and low water mark, on the coasts of Ireland, 
 Seotbmd, Wales, the Orkney Islands and tho Hebrides, and 
 on the coast of Brittany. 
 
 The seaweeds are <iried, and burned to ash in rough stone 
 or brick ovens built on (he shore. The ash fuses into a 
 solid mass, which is broken up and sent to market. Twenty- 
 four tons of seaweeds are necessary to produce one ton of 
 kelp. This substance, produced from actual marine plants.
 
 KELSEY— KEMP. 
 
 1519 
 
 is much poorer in soda-salts (except chloride nf sodium) 
 than the barilla variety, but coDtaios more polasli-salts. 
 The composition of these products varies within wide lim- 
 its, and the few analyses quoted give scarcely a general 
 idea, being conlined to a few special cases. 
 
 SeatceeU Asheg, Kt:lp : tcifhout Cftarcoul and Carbonic Acid. 
 
 aa carbonates, 
 thcCO^ omit- 
 ted ." 
 
 Potash 
 
 Lime 
 Magnesia 
 
 Chloride of iKMlium 
 
 Chloride of potassium.. 
 
 Iodide of sodium 
 
 Phosphate of lime 
 
 I*h'>!*phate of iron 
 
 Oxi'le of Irou 
 
 Oxide of manganese.... 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 Silica. 
 
 Percentage of ash in the 
 wetxl. dried at 212^ F.... 
 
 I 
 
 Laminarta \ 
 
 Nortli Sea. 
 
 I, 
 
 Pucua v€- 
 taetharina, digUatut, * jTr^^**' 
 Sea. 
 
 24.77 
 1.84 
 6.50 
 8.13 
 
 33.72 
 
 4.70 
 
 8.41 
 
 .75 
 
 10.60 
 .58 
 
 9.78 
 
 Aicuf 
 
 Clyde. 
 
 2240 
 8.29 
 8.79 
 7.44 
 
 28.39 
 
 3.62 
 S.63 
 
 13.26 
 1.56 
 
 100.00 
 
 17.68 
 5.78 
 4.71 
 6.89 
 
 35.38 
 
 .13 
 
 ■ 6.44 
 
 23.71 
 .28 
 
 wo.ocT 
 
 20.40 20.56 
 
 Fueu* M* 
 tteutonu. 
 
 15.23 
 11.16 
 8.15 
 7.16 
 25.10 
 
 .37 
 
 2.99 
 
 .33 
 
 28.16 
 1.35 
 
 moo~ 
 
 French and Spanhh Barilla, called also Varec. 
 
 
 AlicuDtc. 
 
 ChcrtMurg. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 ^!o6 
 
 2.00 
 
 sioo 
 s6!oo 
 
 22.19 
 16.00 
 45.78 
 9.53 
 
 liso 
 
 traces. 
 5.00 
 
 15 85 
 
 Chlori»le of puta:>sium 
 
 10 55 
 
 
 68 35 
 
 CarlRniaie of soda 
 
 
 Sulphate uf lime „ 
 
 Iii^oluhk- 
 
 1.10 
 
 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 4.00 
 
 
 10U.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 99.85 
 
 (For the preparation from kelp of the iodine of com- 
 merce. SCO under Iodine.) II. Wubtz. 
 
 Kel'sey, tp. of El Dorado co., Cal. Pop. 315. 
 
 Kel'so, post- (p. of Dearborn co., Ind. Pop. 1908. 
 
 Kelso, tp. of Sibley co., Minn. Pop. 442. 
 
 Kelso, tp. of Scott CO., Mo. Pop. 1000. 
 
 Kel'ton, popt-v. of Box Elder co., Ut., on the Central 
 Pacilic K. K., 89 miles W. of Ogden. 
 
 Kcm''ble, a name distinguished from firi^t to last in the 
 records of the English stage. The founder of the family, 
 Uoger, himself an aetorand theatrical manager, )i. in Here- 
 ford, Eng., -Mar. 1. 1721, d. in 1S02, had twelve children, tho 
 eldest of \vhom, Sarah, married an actor named Siddoiis. 
 (See Mrs. Smmujns. ) The oldest son was John Philip, b. in 
 Prescot, Lancashire, Eng., Feb. 1, 1757. This was the "great 
 Kemblo." Ho was educated partly at the Roman Catholic 
 seminary of Sedgely Park in Staffordshire, and afterwards 
 at the English College at Douay in France; returned to Eng- 
 lainl at tho age of nineteen, and made his fir.-^t aj'pearanco 
 at Wolverhampton Jan. S, 1770, in the character of Thco- 
 dosius ; made his first appearance in London at Drury Lane, 
 in Sept., 17S;i, as Hamlet ; became manager of that thea- 
 tre in 1790; in lHO;i bought a sixth share in Covent Garden 
 Theatre for $24,000, and became manager of it. Tho theatre 
 was burned in ISOS, but immediately rebuilt. An increase 
 in tho prices of admission to the new house (from six to 
 seven shillings for tho boxes, and from three to four shil- 
 lings for the pit) caused tho 0. P. (old price) riots, which 
 lasted for some months and menaced the ruin of the e.-'tab- 
 lishment. At this time Mr. Kemble was grossly insulted 
 and abused. In I>*I7 he took leave of tho London stage, 
 retired soon afterward to the S. of Franco, and finally took 
 up his residence at Lausanne, Swit7.erhin<I, where he d. 
 FeW. '2<\, lH2:i. Mr. Kemble's style of acting was more 
 fuitfl to the lofty and majestic than to the pathetic and 
 tender. In parts like Cato, Coriolanus, Holla, Macbeth, 
 Hamlet, Lear, King John, ho was supreme. His person 
 was of heroic mould, his action was stately, hi.-* deelama- 
 lion noble and true. In moments of |>assion he roue to 
 great power. But his form lacked suppleness, his limbs 
 were rigid, his voice was husky and unmusieal, and a con- 
 stitutional asthma gave a labored character to his utter- 
 ance. As an artist he had not " the art to conceal his art ;" 
 ais a -<eholar he was close and exact ; lis a eoinpanion he was 
 geni;il : a>* a man he was held in high esteem. His Z^iyif 
 was written by his friend, Mr. Boaden, in 2 vols., 1825. — 
 (iKonr.K Stephfn, brother of the foregfiing. h. in Kingston, 
 Herefordshire, May .T, 175S; made his d(^lmt in London at 
 Covent (Jarden in ITS.t, and was theatrical mannirer in Lon- 
 don, Edinburgh, and Glasgow. D. June J, \^'2'2. — Emza- 
 
 BETH (Mrs, Whitlock), sister of the above, b. in Warring- 
 ton, Lancashire, Apr. 2, 1761 ; d. Feb. 27, 183C; made her 
 first ap[iearauce at Drury Lane in 178^1; came to the U. S. 
 in 1792, and played with great success. She performed 
 several times before llcorge Washington. In l*sU7 she re- 
 turned to England and retired from tlic stage. In pcri^on 
 and voice she was said strikingly to resemble Mrs. Sid- 
 dons. — CiiAHi-ES, eleventh child of Roger, b. at Brecon, S. 
 AVales, Nov. 27, 1775 ; d. in London Nov. 12, 1854; was 
 educated at Douay; made his first appearance at Drury 
 Lane in 1794, playing Malcolm, with his brother John as 
 Macbeth, and his sister, Jlrs. Siddons. He was an excel- 
 lent comedian, appearing at his best in characters like 
 Benedick, Petruchio, Charles Surface, very creditably in 
 Cassio, Mark Antony, Edgar, but failing in deeply tragic 
 parts, '' A first -rate actor in seconcl-rale parts." He 
 adapted German and French plays for the London stage, 
 and in lafe life was ajipointed examiner of plays, lie 
 visitcil the U. S. in l^'.V2 with his daughter, Fanny Kem- 
 ble, and retired from the profession in 1S|0. — Frances 
 AxsE {commonly called '• Fanny "), daughter of Charles, 
 b. in London in 1811. She possessed the famil}- talent for 
 the stage, but not the family passion f<tr it. Her theat- 
 rical career was suddenly decided on to relieve the 
 financial embarrassments of her father, and in six weeks 
 after her mind was made up she came out at Cov- 
 ent Garden in Oct., 1829, as Juliet to her father's Romeo. 
 Her success was marked in characters like Juliet, Portia, 
 Bianca, Belvidcra, Lady Teazle, Camiola. and Julia in 7'he 
 Jlunckh'tck. In 18^2 she came to the U. S. with her father, 
 and met with enthusiastic applause. In 1S,34 she married 
 Mr. Pierce Butler, a Philadelphia gentleman of wealth, 
 and retired from the stage. The marriage being unhappy, 
 she left her husband ami resirled in Lenox, Berkshire co., 
 Mass. In 1840-47 she passed a year in Europe, and on 
 her return, having obtained a divorce in the courts of 
 Pennsylvania, resumed her maiden name. Since 1848 
 Mrs. Kemble has been known as a reader of Shaksjtearc in 
 tho chief cities of the U. S. and in Great Britain. In 18G0 
 she left America, and from that time her residence has been 
 partly in England and partly in the V . S., with two inter- 
 vals of continental travel. At present she resides near 
 Philadelphiii, wholly withdrawn from public life. Mrs. 
 Kemble is the author of several books in prose and verse: 
 Francis the Firn(, a play, written when she was seventeen 
 years old, and performed in London ; A Journal of a lies- 
 idtnvc in Awcriva (2 vols., London and Philadelphia, 1835); 
 The Star of Scviifc. a play ; A Voir of VonxolntioUf a record 
 of her visit to Italy in 184G; litHidencc on a O'titrr/ia Plan- 
 tation nSfi.l), and a volume of poems. — AnELAinK, younger 
 sister of Frances, b. in London in 1820. Her talents, both 
 for the dramatic and lyric stage, were brilliant, but her 
 marriage in 18i;j to Mr. Edward Sartoris prevented her 
 pursuing a career which, beginning in Venice, had given 
 continued promise of success in Trieste, Milan, Padua, Bo- 
 logna, and was culminating in London, where she sang in 
 JV'tnnii, Fitftiro, Si'inuntihu/a, Sciiiirttwitle. and otlier Operas. 
 She publislied in 1807 A Wcrk in n Frcnrh Count rj/'ftouKe. 
 — Her son, Ai,<;eiiS()N Cmaui.es, married the daughter of 
 Prca. Grant in May, 1874. 0. B. FitointNGUAM. 
 
 Kemble (GoiverneuiOi b. in New York City Jan. 25, 
 1780, a son of Peter Kemble, his mother being Gertrude 
 (iouverneur, descended from Jacob Leisler of colonial his- 
 tory, and whose daughter was the wife of Abram Gouver- 
 ueur ; graduated at Columida College in 180.'i; beeamo in- 
 terested in commercial pursuits, an<l t^aw much of the lead- 
 ing countries of Europe, then agitated by the wars of Na- 
 poleon; subsequently visited the Mediterranean ports, and 
 transacted business fur the L". .*<. in connection with tho 
 supply of tho squadron at the time of the war with Algiers 
 about LS15; estaljlished in I8l7 the West Point Foundry 
 at Cold Spring; was member of Congress I8;;7-4I, and of 
 the constitutional convention of New Ytirk in 1810; was 
 one of the first ami most active ailvoeates of the Hudson 
 River K. U., and an early and efficient friend of the Pana- 
 ma R. R. ; to his other ((unlilies he united a love of art, 
 manifested by a rich cidleelion and a kindly regard for 
 artists; was one of the last nine survivors of the Tontine 
 Attsociation of New York, organized in 1790, and at 
 whoso death {Sept. 10, 1875) the accumulated profits were 
 divitled. 
 
 Kemble (John Mitciieli,). Soo Appe.vpix. 
 
 Kemp {James), D. D.. 1>. in .\berdeenshire, Scotland, in 
 1704; grailuated at Marisehal College, Aberdeen, in 1780; 
 came to the V. S. in 1787 ; took orders in the ProteiUant 
 Episcopal Church in 1789; held various rectorships in 
 Maryland, in which diocese ho became in 1814 a suffragan, 
 and in ISIO the diocesan binhop. He was 1816-27 provost 
 of the State Iniversity. D. in Haltimoro Oct. 28, 1827, in 
 consenuence of an accidental injury.
 
 1520 
 
 KEMP— KENDALL. 
 
 Kemp (John), Cardinal, b. at Wye, Kent, England, in 
 1380; was ambassador to Aragon in H15; bishop of 
 Rochester in 1411*. of Chichestt-r in 1421, of London in 
 November of the same year; chancellor and archbishop of 
 York in 142t>; resijjned the Great Seal in 14.*i2; joint am- 
 bassador tt» France, and made eardinal-pricst in 14.;'.l : en- 
 dowed the College of Wye in 1447; ajjaiu chancellor in 
 1450: made eardinal-bi^hl^]^ and archbishop of Canterbury 
 by papal bull in 1 152, and d. Mar. 22, 1454. 
 
 Kem'pelen, von (Wolfgang), Bauon, b. at Presburg. 
 Hungary. Jan. 23, 1734, was the inventor of a so-called 
 " automaton chess-player," made for the amusement of the 
 empress Maria Theresa (17t>9). which was exhibited in 
 Paris in 17S4, and afterwards in England and the U. S. 
 It is not properly an automaton, but an ingenious con- 
 trivance for concealing a living player, as is fully explained 
 in Tomliuson's Amu»rmnits in Chrsn {lS45t, but its me- 
 chanical ingenuity is great. Baron Kempclen also invented 
 in 1778 an automaton speaking human figure, which he ex- 
 plained in an illustrated work. Lf m^catiisme de la parole 
 (1701). He filled several political posts at the Austrian 
 court, published poems and dramatic pieces, and d. at 
 Vienna Mar. 26, 1H04. 
 
 Kemp'en, town of Prussia, in the province of Posen, 
 on the Pchummerwasser, has manufactures of sonp, tobacco, 
 and woollens, and an active trade in horses and cattle. Pop. 
 5S22. 
 
 Kem'penfelt (Richard), Admiral, b. at Westminster, 
 England, in 1720; became rear-admiral in 1779; captured 
 a French convoy on its way to the West Indies in 1781; 
 drowned at Spithead by the sinking of his vessel, the Royal 
 George, with nearly 900 men, Aug. 29, 17S2. 
 
 Kemp'er^ county of Mississippi, bounded on the E. by 
 Alabama. Area, 775 square miles. It is fertile and some- 
 what diversified with hills. Cotton, live-stock, and corn 
 are the staple products. Cap. De Kalb. Pop, 12,920. 
 
 Kemper (Jackson). D. D.. LL.D., Cantab., b. in Pleas- 
 ant Valley. Dutchess co., N. Y.. Dec. 24. 17^9, and grad- 
 uated at Columbia College in 1H09. In isll he took dea- 
 con's orders in the Protestant Episcopal Church, and in 
 1812 was ordained a priest. After holding rectorships in 
 Philadelphia for twenty years, and one for some time in 
 Xorwalk, Conn., he was made missionary bishop of In- 
 diana and Missouri, and was afterwards transferrer! to Iowa, 
 Wisconsin, etc. In 1854 he became bishop of Wisconsin. 
 D, at Delafield. Waukesha co.. Wis., May 24, 1S70. 
 
 Kemper (James Lawson), b. in Madison co., Va., in 
 1821; graduated at Washington College, Va.. in 1844j 
 studied law; was ten years member of the Virginia legis- 
 lature, two years Speaker: colonel of 7th Virginia regiment 
 C. S. A. in 1861; brigadier-general 1862: major-general 
 1864; distinguished himself at most of the battles on the 
 Peninsula; was wounded and taken prisoner at (tettysburg; 
 elected governor of Virginia in 1S73 by the Democratic 
 party. 
 
 Kemper (Retben), b. in Fauquier co., Va., was the son 
 of a Baptist preacher, with whom he emigrated to Ohio in 
 1800. Soon afterward. Reuben and two of his brothers 
 settled in Mississippi Territory, engaged in land-survey- 
 ing, and conceived the project of stirring up an insurrec- 
 tion in West Florida against tlio Spanish government. 
 They formed an expedition for that ])urpose In 1808. which 
 was unsuccessful ; attempted with the same result the cap- 
 ture of Mobile (then a part of West Florida), and in 1812 
 joined the great expedition organized by tJutierrez and 
 Toledo against Mexico. In this campaign Reuben Kcm])er 
 onmmanded, with the rank of colonel, a force of several 
 hundred Americans, at whose head he won some brilliant 
 actions in Texas, but the results of victory were neutralized 
 by dissensions between the Mexicans and Americans, and 
 the latter returned in disgust to the V. S, Kemper took 
 j'art under Gen. Jackson in the defence of New Orleans, 
 afterward settled down in Mississippi as a planter, and d. 
 at Natchez in 1820. 
 
 Kem'pis (Thomas a), b. at Kempen. near Cologne, in 
 i:i80; his family name was Hamt-RKEN (Lat, Malholua). 
 In 1400 he entered the monastery (tf Mount St. Agnes, near 
 Zwolle, of which his elder brother was prior, and in \A\?> 
 n-as ordained priest; in 1425 was elected sub-prior. D. 
 July 26. 1471. By the other monks of the monastery he 
 was highly esteemed for his deep piety, his untiring industry 
 as a scholar, and his great gifts' as atoacher and supervisor | 
 of the novices; and his authorship soon spread his fame 
 far outside the boundaries of his personal acquaintance, i 
 lie wrote several books; among others, a chronicle of the 
 monastery of Mount St. Agnes. A collected edition of his I 
 works was given by the Jesuit Sommalius ( Antwerji, 1607), I 
 But the book which sent his name to the remotest corners j 
 of the world is his Z>f /nn'tntiour Chri'ifi. It has been i 
 
 translated into all languages in which books are printed 
 and read, and it is used as a hook of devotion and re- 
 ligious instruction by all Christians, without regard to dif- 
 ferences in creed, race, or standpoint of mental develup- 
 n)ent. With the exception of the Bible, it is probably the 
 book most read in the whole of Christian literature. In 
 consequence of his personal humility, and in harmony with 
 tlic moral maxims of his order (unta itcsdrl), Thomas I'l 
 Kempis has never mentioned himself directly as author of 
 the book ; on the other hand, there exist copies of the work, 
 the oldest of 1441. which ascribe the authorship to the cele- 
 brated theologian Jean Gerson. chancellor of the Univer- 
 sity of Paris. These two circumstances have occasioned a 
 very sharp controversy between French and German theo- 
 logians, and the question seemed at one time doubtful. (Seo 
 G€rnen,Gf:rHnn ndcr Kemph. 1828,\'ienna,) Of late, however, 
 it seems to have been decided finally in favor of Thomas 
 i Kempis. He is mentioned by three contemporary writers 
 as the author of tlie book. There is a perfect harmony in 
 doctrines and in style between De Iniitntione Christi and 
 other devotional writings of Thomas a, Kempis, It can be 
 satisfactorily explained how the copyists could make the 
 mistake and ascribe the authorship to the celebrated chan- 
 cellor (or to St. Bernard, or an Italian abbot, (icrsen, for 
 there arc many rivals). A new edition of the hook was 
 given, after an autograph by Thomas S, Kempis, by Hirsche 
 (Berlin, 187.V74). 
 
 Kemps'ville, post-v. and tp. of Princess Anne co., 
 Va., 10^ miles S. E. of Norfolk, and at the head of tide- 
 water on the E. branch of Elizabeth River, Pop. 3100. 
 
 Kemp'ten, town of Bavaria, on the Iller. It has some 
 manufactures of cotton and woollen goods. Pop. 10,370. 
 
 Kempt'ville, post-v, of Grenvillc co., Ont., Canada, on 
 the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Railway, It has a good trade 
 and manufactures of lumber. Pop. of sub-district, 872. 
 
 Ken (Thomas), b, at Berkhamstead. England, in July, 
 16.'i7 ; was educated at AVinchester and Oxford: travelled 
 on the Continent as far as Italy in 1674; became in 1679 
 chaplain to Mary, princess of Orange (the future queen of 
 England) ; was chaplain to Lord Dartmouth in the Tangier 
 expedition, and subsequently (16'^4) to Charles 11., by 
 whom he was soon after made bishop of Bath and Wells. 
 He attended that king on his deathbed. On the accession 
 of James II. he was one of the " seven bishops " committed 
 to the Tower for refusing to obey illegal commands of that 
 monarch. Bishop Ken. however, refused to take the oath 
 of allegiance to William III., and was deprived of his 
 bishopric iu consequence. He passed his declining years 
 at Longleat, engaged in writing devotional works, among 
 which his morning and evening hymns are still popular. 
 
 D. at Longleat, Wiltshire, Mar. iy.'l71I. (Sec his Li/c, by 
 George L. Duyckinck, New York, 1859.) 
 
 Kenai'ans^ a branch of the Athabascan family of In- 
 dians, living in Alaska, deriving their name from Kenai, 
 the peninsula between Cook's Inlet and Prince William 
 Sound. The Kenaians are held to include all the Indians N, 
 of Copper River and W. of the Rocky Mountains, except 
 the Innuits or Esquimaux and the Aleuts, and are esti- 
 mated to numlier 2.5,000. They resemide in manners, cus- 
 toms, and religion the tribes of Northern Asia, especially 
 in their practices of cremation, infanticidO; etc., and their 
 system of caste, 
 
 Ken'ansville, post-v., cap. of Duplin co.,N. C, 7 miles 
 
 E. of Magnolia Station on the AVilmington and Weldon R. R. 
 Pop. 2878. 
 
 Ken'dal, town of England, in Westmoreland. Certain 
 kinds of cloth are manufactured here, which for centuries 
 have been known under the name of " Kendals." Pop. 
 13,442. 
 
 Ken'dallf county of N. E. Illinois. Area, 324 square 
 miles. It is a fertile rolling prairie, dotted with groves of 
 timber. It is traversed by Fox River and the Chicago 
 Burlington and Quincy R. R. Cattle, grain, and wool are 
 the staple products. Cap. Yorkville. Pop, 12,399. 
 
 Kendally county of S. W, Central Texas. Area. 475 
 squaro miles. It is one-third prairie, and the rest is well 
 timbered. Live-stock, wool, grain, and cotton are raised. 
 There are many German settlers. The climate is healthful 
 and pleasant. Cap. Boerne. Pop. 1536. 
 
 Kendallf po8t-v. and tp. of Kendall co., Ill, Pop. 
 1445. 
 
 Keiidallf post-v. and tp. of Orleans co., N. Y. The 
 township lies on Lake Ontario. The village has 4 churches. 
 Pop. 1714, 
 
 Kendall, tp. of La Fayette co., Wis. Pop. 1131. 
 
 Kendall (Amos), LL.D., b. at Dunstable, Mass., Aug. 
 16, 17S9; graduated at Dartmouth in 1811; in 1814 he- 
 came a lawyer of Lexington, Ky., where he was for a time
 
 KENDALL— KENNEBEC RIVER. 
 
 1521 
 
 a tutor iu Henry Clay's family. HenftcrwftrUs reino\-eil to 
 Georgetown, Ky., where he was postiuafler an^l editor of 
 the Arffu9,&n aMc Democratic newspaper. In 181.''.'. Jack- 
 son maJe him fourth auditor of the treasury, lie was 
 181^5-40 postmaster-jreneral. In 1846 ho became maua};cr 
 of Prof. Morse's interest in the telegraph businegg. He 
 was an early friend of public schools in the West, founded 
 the deaf and dumb asylum at Washington, and was a lib- 
 eral benefactor of Columbian College ancl of the Baptist 
 cburch with which he was connected. He wrote a work 
 on his iTA and TiniFif, and published a /w'/V >>/ Andrew 
 JarkunH '(lS4;i, incomplete). D. at Washington, D. C, 
 Nov. 12, ISf.'J. 
 
 Kendall (George Wilkiss). b. at Amherst. N. H., in 
 1807 ; became a printer, and worked in many places in the 
 South and West at his trade. In 1:^85 he settled in New 
 Orleans, where, with F. A. Lumsden. he founded the 
 Picayune newspaper. He took pari in the Santa F6 exjie- 
 dition of 1S41. and during the Mexican war was with Gens. 
 Taylor and Scott, and furnished to his newspaper the 
 earliest and fullest accounts of all movement?, incurring 
 thereby a large expense. He published Xarruthe of the 
 Texan Sanftt /V Expedition (1844), and Thp War hrtireen 
 the U. S. and Mexico (folio. 1S51. with costly illustrations). 
 In IS62 he removed to Comal co., Tex., where he had a 
 large grazing ranche. D. at Post Oak Spring?, Tex., Oct. 
 
 21, i.-^c:. 
 
 Kendall^s Mills, post-v. of Fairfield tp., Somerset 
 CO., Me., on the W. bank of the Kennebec Kiver (here 
 crossed by a lofty railroad bridge), and on the Maine Cen- 
 tral and the Kennebec and Portland R. Rs. It has a fine 
 water-power and manufactures of lumber, etc. 
 
 Kcn'dallville, city of Xolile co., Ind., at tho intersec- 
 tion of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern and the 
 Grand Rapiils and Indiana U. Rs. It is surroundeil by a 
 rich ngricultural region, and afford? an excellent market 
 for all kinds of produce. It has S churches, 1 national 
 bank, manufactories, a free-school building, and 1 weekly 
 newspaper. Pop. 2164. C. 0. Myers, Ed. '* Standard." 
 
 Ken'dell, von (Robrrt), b. at Klinigsbcrg F'^b. 27, 
 1824: atudieri jurisprudence, and held in 1^62 a position 
 at the court of lircslau. In 1S63, Bismarck gave him an 
 appointment in the ministry of foreign affairs, and from 
 this time he always accompanied the great minister. At 
 all diplomatic negotiations, on travels and in wars, he was 
 always at the side of Bismarck. Sometimes he was sent 
 on independent diplomatic errands : thus, he represented 
 the North German confederation at the opening of tho canal 
 of Suez in 1869. In 1871 he was elected to tho diet, and 
 in Apr., 1873, ho was sent as ambassador to Rome. 
 
 AiGisT Niemann. 
 
 Kendo'ta, tp. of Todd co., Minn. Pop. 94. 
 
 Kcn'drick, tp. of Greene co., la. Pop. 887. 
 
 Kendrick iAsahrl Clark), D. D.. LL.D., b. at PouU- 
 ney, Vt., Dec. 7, 1809; graduated at Hamilton College, 
 Clinton, N. Y., in 1831 ; was professor first of ancient lan- 
 guages, and subsequently of the Greek language abme, in 
 the literary and theological seminary at Hamilton (which 
 afterwards became Madison University) from 1831 to 1850. 
 Since then ho has been professorof Greek in ihe University 
 of Rochester. He has published several introductory (J reek 
 textbooks: tho Amthtixiti of Xenophon, with notes and 
 vocabulary; an edition of Srlrrt Orations of Drmon- 
 theneH ; ^>7iocj. being poems from the German and French; 
 Otir Pnetirnl Fttrnritm ; a revised edition of Olshausen's 
 ^ew Tf-tament Cnmmrutunf ; CnmHicutnrjt nn tfir Eplttfr to 
 the Ift-hretrn in Lange's liifdirnl Cfimnirtttttrif ; aud Li/c 
 and Lrttrri ../ .Uf«. Enii/if C. Jndnou (1861). 
 
 Kendrick (Hrsrv L.), b. in New Hampshire in 1812; 
 graduated at tho U. S. Military Academy ; entered the army 
 as brevet second lieutenant of infantry July, lS,t/>, but was 
 retained at the Academy for twelve years ns assistant pro- 
 fessor of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology, in the mean 
 time having been transferred to the artillery, and attaineil 
 tho rank of captain in 1846. In the war with Mexico ho 
 was engaged in tho siege of Vera Cruz, battle of Cerro 
 Gordo, and defence of Puobia, where he gained the brevet 
 of major. From tho close of the war be served principally 
 in garrison and on frontier duty, being engage'l in frequent 
 expeditions against, and numerous actions with, hostile 
 Indians; and for five years in command of a post in New 
 Mexico, when in hSfi? appointed professor of chemistry, 
 mineralogy, and geology at Ihe Military Academy, which 
 chair he ha? since continue<l to fill. 
 
 Kondrick (Capt. .John), b. in Boston : was a resident 
 of Wnreham, Mass., and commanded a privateer during 
 tho Revolutionary war. In I7S7and 1791 he made a voy- 
 age of exploration along the N. W. coast of America and 
 amoDK the islands of tho Pacific, and open" I uptlie sandal- 
 Voi,. II.-!)6 
 
 I wood trade with China. Congress gave him a modal for 
 '■ the first of these voyages, in which his second in command, 
 Capt. Gray, discovered tho Columbia River, Capt. Ken- 
 I drick was accidentally killed in a harbor of Hawaii in l&OO, 
 I by a ball fired iu a salute from au English vessel. 
 I Kendrick (Xathamki.), D. I)., b. at Hanover, N. II., 
 I Apr. 22. 1777: received liut a limited early education ; was 
 I licensed as a Baptist preacher in 180.^, After pastorates at 
 j Lansiugburg, N. Y. {180.'>), Midillebury, Vt. (1810), and 
 I Eaton, N. Y. (1817). he was chosen professorof theology 
 I and moral philosojihy at Madison University, remaining in 
 i that post until his death at Hamilton, N. Y., Sept. 11, 1848. 
 I Kendus'kea^, post-v. and tp. of Penobscot co., Me., 
 I 12 miles N. W. of Bangor. It has 3 churclics, and manu- 
 ! factures of lumber, cooperage, stoves, farming tools, and 
 I other goods. Pop. 770. 
 
 j Kenduskea^ River, an offluent of the Penobscot, in 
 ' Maine, flows S. E. to Bangor, where its mouth affords a 
 tidal basin. The fall of its waters is extensively utilized 
 in sawing lumber and in other manufactures. 
 
 I Kenea'Iy (EnwARDVArcnA\Hvnn).D.C.L..b.atCork, 
 
 I Ireland, in 1819 ; educated at Trinity College, Dublin ; bc- 
 
 j came early celebrated for bis knowledge of many languages, 
 
 ' having publislied translations of songs and ballads from 
 
 and into the Greek, Latin, French, Italian, Portuguese, 
 
 I Dutch, (iernian, Spanish. Swedish. Danish, Romaic, Mag- 
 
 1 yar. and Irish languages. He was a contributor to Dr. 
 
 I Maginn's Hoturrir Iiuflfidn, to the Ihihlin rnirrrniti/ M'kj. 
 
 \ azitic, and Eraser's Mar/azine ; published in 1845 Ihnlla- 
 
 fjhan, or the Deipnosnphists ; in 18.00 Goethe, a S'ew Pnnfo- 
 
 j nn'ntc, both works abounding in wit and brilliant criticism. 
 
 Of late. Dr. Kenealy has become widely known as Ihe impas- 
 
 I sioned advooafe of " the Claimant " in the celebrated Tich- 
 
 borne case (1873) : founded a newspaper. The Eiuffinhmau, 
 
 in 1874. which attained an imu]en!=e circulation; was 
 
 elected a member of Parliament, and took his seat in Apr., 
 
 1875. 
 
 Ken'chf town of Upper Egypt, on the right bank of 
 . the Nile, 34 miles N. of the ruins of Theb* s, has large 
 manufactures of earlbenware. and carries on an extensive 
 trade with Arabia and Central Africa. Pop. 10,0(10. 
 
 Ken^ilworth, town of England. inM'arwickshire. It 
 contains some ruins of Krnilworth Castle, which becamo 
 notable in the history of Queen Elizabeth on account of 
 the gorgeous manner in which the earl of Leicester enter- 
 I tainecl her here for sevcntctn d:i\s: which entertainment 
 I forms the subject of a romance of Walter Scott and a novel 
 of Ludwig Ticck, 
 
 Ken'ites [Heb. Keyni and Kn^ini ; Or. Ktraioc], a col- 
 lective name for a tribe 'ir race which resided in tho Sina- 
 itio desert and otlicr districts adjoining the land of Canaan 
 at tho time of the Hebrew Exodus. Tliey seem to have been 
 akin to the Midianitcs and to the AinaU kites, but were dis- 
 tinguished from the mass of those tribes by their steadfast 
 friendship for and alliance with the Hebrews, for which 
 reiison tlicy received allotments with the tribe of Judah. 
 Jetbro, the father-in-law of Moses, was a Kcnite, whence 
 gome modern critics have built up a vast fabric of argument 
 to show that the Mosaic ritual was derived from iutereourso 
 with the Keuites in the desert : and many theories have 
 been broached connecting the Kenites with Cuin as Ibeir 
 ancestor, and attributing to Ihem an important part in He- 
 brew history down to a late jteriod. (See E. Buuscn's Keyt 
 of Sf. Ptttr, London, isri7.) 
 
 Ken'naday (.Iohn), D. D., b. in New York City Nor. 
 .3, 1800; joined the New York Methodist conference in 
 1823; preached in Philadelphia, New York, Brooklyn, 
 N. Y., and New Haven. Conn. D. Nov. 13, 1S63. 
 
 Ken'namrr's, tp. of Marshall co., Ala. Pop. 412. 
 
 Kennebec', county of S. W. Central Elaine. Area, 
 about I'OO ^.jiiare miles. It is traversed by the navigable 
 Kennebec I{iver. and by the Maine Central and the Kenne- 
 bec and Portland R. Rs. The surface is diversified, the 
 soil mostly fertile. Live-stock, grain, hay, wool, and dairy 
 products are the great staples. Tlie county has abundant 
 water-power, timber, nn«l building-stone. The manufac- 
 tures include lumber, carriages, sleighs, leather, saddlery, 
 metallic wares, maehincry, agricultural and erlge tools, 
 and wooclen and oilier wares. Ice and building-stono arc 
 c.xportcrl. Cap. .Augusta. Pop. 53,203. 
 
 Kennebec, tp. of Monona co., la. Pop. 333. 
 
 Kennebec River rises in Moosehead Lake, although 
 its principal head stream, tho Mouse River, rises more thnn 
 60 miles W. of that lake, of which it is a tributary. Tho 
 river falls some 10(»0 feet in 100 milcR, reaching tide-water 
 at Augusta, where tho river is crossed by a large dam. 
 affording great water-power. Sea-going steamboats and 
 coasting vessels ascend to (his point, except at low water.
 
 1522 
 
 KEXNEBUXK— KEXNETT. 
 
 when they stop at Hallowell or Gardiner, and in winter, 
 when navigation ceases entirely. Above Augusta small 
 steamboats ascend to Watcrville, IS miles farther, wherr, 
 as at many points above, there is much valuable water- 
 
 ?ower. The river is navi<;ablc for ships to Bath, 12 miles. 
 is banks are fertile aud beautiful, and are the seat of a 
 large trade in lumber, provisions, hav, cattle, etc. It 
 reaches the ?ea in lat. 43° 44' 23" N., Ion. 09° 46' W. 
 
 Kennebunk% post-v. and tp. of York co.. Mc. The 
 village is on the navigable Kennebnuk River. 3 miles from 
 the sea. It has an insurance company, a national bank, fi 
 churches, manufactures of twine, braid. lumber, shipping, 
 and other goods, and is the seat of a good co.isting-trade. 
 Kennebunk D^pot is a thriving post-village on the Ports- 
 mouth Saco and Portland R. R., 24 miles S. W. of Portland. 
 Pop. of tp. 2003. 
 
 Kennebunkport% post-r. and tp. of York co.. Me., 
 at the mouth of Kennebunk River. ^ miles below Kenne- 
 bunk. It has a good harbor, a tliriving trade, and manu- 
 factures of shipping and ships' furniture, and contains 5 
 churches. It is a pleasant summer resort. It was perma- 
 nently settled in 1029. Pop. 2372. 
 
 Ken'nedale, post-v. and tp. of Tuscaloosa co., Ala., 
 on the Alabama and Chattanooga R. R. Pop. 1202. 
 
 Ken'nedy, post-v. of Poland tp.. Chautauqua co., X. Y., 
 on the Atlantic and Great Western R. R. and on Conewango 
 Creek. It is sometimes called Falconer. 
 
 Kennedy (Anthony), b. at Baltimore. Md.. in ISIl; 
 removed in childhood to Virginia: studied law. and became 
 a planter and cotton-manufacturer: served in the legislature 
 of Virginia from 1839 to 1843; returned to Baltimore in 
 1S50; was elected to the Maryland legislature in 1S56, and 
 was U. S. Senator from 1857 'to 1863. 
 
 Kennedy (Benjamin Hall), b. at Summer Hili, near 
 Birmingham, England, Nov. 6, 1804; graduated at Cam- 
 bridge in 1S27 ; took orders in the Church of England ; be- 
 came assistfint master at Harrow in 1S30, and was head 
 master of Shrewsbury school from 1830 to 186G, becom- 
 ing in 18G7 regius professor of Greek in the University of 
 Cambridge. He has held numerous preferments in the 
 Church, and written many valuable manuals for the study 
 of the classical languages. ^His brother, Charles Rans, 
 b. at Birmingham Mar. 1, 1808; graduated at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Cambridge; became a barrister (lS3o|: published 
 Poems (1S43), a translation of VirtfH into English blank 
 verse (ISJO), a translation of the Omtiuufi of Demosthenes 
 (5 vols.. 1841-03), with notes and appendices ; several law- 
 books and miscellaneous verse. D.at Birmingham in 1867. 
 
 Kennedy (Grace), b. in Ayrshire, Scotland, in 1782: 
 resided in Edinburgh, and wrote under nssumecl names 
 many novels and tales of a moral and religious tendency 
 which had an extensive circulation and were translated into 
 several languages. Among them arc Ihcinion (1821), 
 Father CUment fl823), Aunn }{'>»», the Orphnn of Wntcrloo 
 (1823). and Philip Colcille (1824). D. at Edinburgh Feb. 
 28, 1825. 
 
 Kennedy (.Torn Pendleton). LL.T>.. b. in Baltimore, 
 Md., Get, 2.'), 1795 ; was educatecl .at the University of 
 Maryland, where he graduated in IS12. In 1814 he took 
 part as a volunteer in the battles of Bladensburg and North 
 Point. After the war was over be sturlied law. nncl was 
 admitted to the bar in 1816 : having a taste for letters, ho 
 found time in the midst of his professional engagements to 
 devote some leisure hours to a new publirntion ontitlcl 
 The lied Booh, oi "which ho became the chief editor. Itwa:? 
 issued every two weeks, and was made up of miscellaneous 
 articles in prose and verse. In 1820 ho was returned as a 
 member of the house of delegates of the State legislature, 
 which position he held for three years with liigh distinc- 
 tion. Being more devoted, however, to law and literature 
 than to politics, he resumed his favorite pursuits. In 1832 
 he published a work of fiction entitled Thr Sicallmr fiam, 
 which consisted of a collection of sketches of Virginia | 
 country life soon after the Revolution. This book was ex- 
 tensively read and became very popular. In 1835 appeared ; 
 his celebrated fforieHhnc B'>h{nnon, a work that added 
 greatly to his reputation. The hero was a Revolutionary 
 soldier of South Carolina. In 1835 appeared his 7?oft o////c I 
 lifnrl. In this year he was elected a member of Congress 
 from Maryland, which position he held with great distine- 
 tion for six years. In the Presidential canvass in 1810 he 
 was one of the electors fov his State on the Harrison ticket. , 
 In this year ho published the annals of QnodUhft, which 
 was a burlesque or satire on the political issues of the day. 
 In 1846 ho was again returned to the house of delegates of ' 
 the State legislature, of which liody he was made Speaker, , 
 and took an active part in the measurns which were then 
 adopted to resume the payment of the State debt and for 
 the restoration of tbo public credit. In politics Mr. Ken- | 
 
 nedy was an ardent and earnest Whig of the Henry Clay 
 school. In I84y he published the memoirs of the life of 
 William "VVirt. which is one o^ the most finished produc- 
 tions of the kind from any American pen. In the 8.*ime 
 year ( 184'.t) he was chosen provost of his a/wia mo^cr, which 
 position he continued to h()Id during the remainder of his 
 life. He was als^o vice-]>rcsi(lent of the Maryland Histor- 
 ical Society. In 1852 he was appointed by Pre?. Fillmore 
 secretary of the navy, which position he held until the clofc 
 of that administration. It was under his auspices at the 
 head of the navy department that the Japan expedition 
 of Com. Perry an<l the second .\rctic exploration of Dr. 
 Kane were mainly due. During the late war Mr. Ken- 
 nedy's sympathies were entirely on the Federal side. His 
 antislavery sentiments were very strong throughout his 
 whole life. After the war he made an extensive tour in 
 Europe, chiefly with a view of benefit to his health. He 
 did not long survive his return, but d. at Newport, R. T., 
 Aug. 18, 1S70. At his death ke was not only provost of 
 the University of Maryland and vice-president of the State 
 Historical Society, but was also chairman of the trustees of 
 the Peabody Academy of Baltimore and a member of the 
 board of trustees of the Peabody Southern Educational 
 Fund. A. H. Stephens. 
 
 Kennedy (Joseph C. G.), LL.D.. b. Apr. 1. Isi.l, at 
 Mcadville, Crawford co., Pa., and educated at Allegheny 
 College; was superintendent of the U. S. census of 18.*>0 
 and ISfiO, secretary to the National Institute and U. S. 
 Agricultural Society in 1854 : sent as commissioner to Eu- 
 rope in 18Jl to investigate the administration of census: 
 appointed I*. S. examiner into the condition of national 
 banks ; wrote Census of 1850 and 1860; I/iifforif and Sta^ 
 tiatics of Man/lnnd ; prepared the law for U.S. census; 
 received a gold medal for his statistical researches from tho 
 king of Denmark, and is member of different French, Ger- 
 man, and Belgi.an scientific societies. 
 
 Kennedy (Josiah Forrest), M. D.. b. Jan, 31, 18.34, 
 near Landisburg, Perry co.. Pa. ; graduated at Dickinson 
 College in 18;>.'). and in medicine at the University of City 
 of New York in 1858, and settled at Tipton, la.: was com- 
 missioned assistant surgeon in U. S. regular army in 18f)l, 
 which position be resigned in Oct., 1802; settled at Dcs 
 Moines in 1870, where he now (ISTo) practises his profes- 
 sion. Dr. Kennedy has published in the medical journals 
 several papers on practical medicine, and is assistant sec- 
 retary to the State Alcdical Society. 
 
 Kennedy ( Wh.i.iam MiOee), b. in Tennessee in 1783; 
 joined the South Carolina Mvlhodis^t conference in 1806, 
 and was a founder of his denomination in North and Souih 
 Carolina and in Georgia. D. in 1S40. 
 
 Ken'nodyviUc, post-v. of Kent co., Md., on the Kent 
 County It. K. Pup. of tp. 3247. 
 Ken'uckcet, tp. of Dare eo,, N. C. Pop. 599. 
 Ken'ner's Prai'rie, a v. of Matagorda co., Tex. 
 Pop. 6o. 
 
 Ken'net (White), D. D., b. at Dover. England, Arg. 
 10. 1060 .• was educated at St. Edmund Hall. Oxford, of 
 which he became vice-principal : was made in 1707 dean, 
 and in 1718 bishop of Peterborough. He was a man of 
 indefatigable industry, and accumulated a vast collection 
 of historical MSS.. largely in his own handwriting, which 
 now form part of tho I.anndoicue (\tllcctiun in the British 
 Museum, Besides more than fifty miscellaneous publica- 
 tions, he wrote a Hilton/ of Entflnnd from the Accession of 
 f^hnr/cs J. to that of Queen Anne, forming part of lluglics' 
 collection ( 1 70i> ; 2il ed. 1719) : liilUotherir Americans 
 Primordia^ an Attempt Toicard Laifinrf the Foundation of 
 an American Lihrarjf (1713); and -4 Hefjinter and Chron- 
 iV/c, Ecclesiastical and Civil, from the Penlnration of Kintf 
 Charles II. (vol. i. fob, 1728). His American library was 
 , collected with a view to writing a work under the title A 
 j Full Nistori/ of the Propagation of Chrintiantty in the 
 ' Fnt/lieh Xorth American Colonies, which unfortunately was 
 \ never executed. D. at Peterborough Dec. 19, 1728. (See 
 his Life, by Rev. W. Newton, 17.10).— His brother, Bash. 
 ■ Kennet, D. D.. b. at Postling. Kent, Oct. 21. 1674 ; grad- 
 uated at Corpus Christi College. Oxford; was long chftp- 
 I Iain at the English factory at Leghorn. Italy (1706-13), 
 and was elected in 1714 president of his college at Ox- 
 ford, where he d. in 1714 or 1715. He wrote Romre Auti- 
 
 ifHX Xotitia, or the Antiqnitl^s of Rome (1696), a WOrk 
 
 which for a century was the standard school-book on tho 
 
 subject ; an F.rpo»ition of the Ap'^nthn Crred, a Paraphrnae 
 
 t-n the Psnhns. in vcrsc (170G), and translations of Puffen- 
 I dorf and Pascal. 
 
 Ken'nettf post-v.. cap. of Dunklin eo., Mo., on the Ft. 
 Francis River, and 28 miles W. of Gayoso on the Missis- 
 sippi. 
 
 Kennetty a b. (P. 0. name, KENyETx's Square) and tp..
 
 KENNETT— KENT. 
 
 ir)23 
 
 Chester CO., Po., on the Philadelphia and Baltimoro R. R., 
 ami in n rich agricultural dislri<;t. Pop of b. SS4 ; of tp. 
 UO-t. 
 
 Kennctt !Li theh .M.), b. at Falmouth, Ky., Mar. la, 
 1807: studiid law; removed in 1825 to Missouri, and en- 
 gaged in mercantile pursuits; settled in St. I.ouis in 1812: 
 was chniriiKin of the Pacific U. R. convention hold there 
 in 1849 : was mayor of St. Ij(»uis 1S.',U-J2 : president of the 
 St. Louis and Iron ^lountnin U. R. in ISoil. aud chosen 
 Representative in Congress for St. Louis district in lv^j4. 
 
 Kcn'nicott (Rkxjamin), D. D., h. at Totness, Devon- 
 shire. Kngland. .Apr. 4, 1718, of humldc parentage: was 
 aided by a subscription to enter Wadhnm t^ollege. Oxford, 
 1744: wrote while an undergraduate two dissertations. On 
 thf Trur nf Life and On the Olitntinnn nf Cain nnd Ahel ; 
 became fellow of Exeter College and keeper of the Kadcliffe 
 Library, and after many years* labor produced his great 
 work, the IV/M1 TrMlnnientnm Hehraicutn cnm Vnt'tin Ltr- 
 lionihnt (2 vols., 177C-S0). and d. at O.\ford Sept. IS, 1783. 
 
 Kcn'lion (Rev. Rohriit I,.). M. D.. b. in Granville co., 
 N. C. in 17811; was educated under the Rev. Dr. Moses 
 Andrew, undo of Bishop .Andrew, at Sparta. Ha., and at 
 the South Carolina College. His medical training was be- 
 gun under Dr. William Lee, .Jasper co., (ia.. and completed 
 iu Columbia, S. C. He entered the itinerant ministry in 
 the South Carolina conference \ M. K.) in 18o;). On account 
 of ill-health he located and practised medicine for several 
 years in (Icorgia and .\labama: but re-entered the itiner- 
 ant ministry in IS24 in Alabama, and exercised his sacred 
 functions with great success till .Ian. 9, 18.'J8, when ho d. 
 while attending the session of the Alabama conference in 
 Columbus, Miss. His remains were taken to Tuscaloosa, 
 and there interred. \ mural mtmumcnt, bearing an in- 
 scription written by his intimate friend, tiov. Collier, placed 
 near the pulpit in the Methodist church of Tuscaloosa, per- 
 petuates bis memory. T. 0. Sithmers. 
 
 Keiriioiisbiirg, post-v. of Wayne tp., Noble co., 0. 
 
 ruj., 91. 
 
 Kenockee', postv. and tp. of .St. Clair co., Mich., 15 
 miles W. of I'ort Huron. Pop. 1229. 
 
 Keno'Kha. county of .S. E. Wisconsin, bounded on the 
 K. by Lake .Michigan and on the S. by Illinois, Area, 
 278 sf|uare miles. It has a fertile limosionc soil. Cattle, 
 grain, and wend are staple proiluets. It is traversed by the 
 Kcniisha R^ckford and Rock Island anil the Chicago and 
 Milwaukee i;. Rs. Cap. Kenosha. Pop. 1.'!,I4", 
 
 Kl'nosha, city, cap. of Kenosha co.. Wis., on Lake 
 Michigan, il miles N. of Chicago and 34 S. of Milwaukee, 
 almost in the ,S. E. corner of the ,Slate. It is on the Chi- 
 cago and .Milivaukee and Kenosha and Rockford R. Rs. ; 
 has a good harbor, 9 churches, 1 bank, 1 hotels, 2 weekly 
 newspapers, several public and private schools, including 
 a high school, a seminary, and 2 Catholic parochial schools, 
 a public library, a reading-room, 3 carriage and 1 wagon 
 innnufuctory, the hitter turning out oOno per year, numer- 
 ous manufactories of wooden implenjents and furniture, 
 several tanneries, lumber-yards, and fisheries, 2 water-cure 
 establishments, numerous stores and shops of every kind, 
 2 telcgraph-olliccs, 2 foundries, .'i .Masonic, Odd-Fellows, or 
 other associations, and 2 parks, whence th<> name of " Park 
 City." Pop. 4399. Havs.McKini.kv, Ed. " Tklkouai'II." 
 
 Kcno'za Lnkc is within the city limits of Haverhill, 
 Mass. lis beauty is celebrated by the poet Whittier. Its 
 area is 238 acres. It is a favorite resort for pleasure-parties. 
 
 Kon'rick (Fhascis PATiiirK), D. I)., h. in Dublin, Ire- 
 land, Dec. 3, 1797 : studied at Rome, where ho was ordained 
 a priest in 1821, He was sent to this country, and was for 
 nine ycnr^ conductor of the Roman Catholic scminiirv at 
 lianlstown, Ky. In 1828 appeared his f.tllrrn /mm Omi- 
 rroN to Odici/o, a controversial work. In 1830 he was made 
 bishop of Arath in paitihuf, and coadjutor to Bishop Con- 
 well of Philadelphia, to which see he was translated in 
 18 12. He founded the seminary of St. Charles Bnrrotneo. 
 and in 18."il became archbishop of Baltimore, and in 18.')2 
 njiostolic rlelcgalc; in 1859 honorary primate of the IJ. S. 
 lie published Thmlnrfin Itniimiillea {\ vols., 1.839-40), TVlr. 
 vlnijHi MuraHn (3 vols., 18II-I3I, and several other works, 
 mostly polemical. D. at Ibillimore ,luly 8. lMf,3. At the 
 time of his death he had nearly finished a revision of the 
 English Bible, with copious notes. 
 
 Kenrick (.Jons), b. in Exeter, England, about 1803; ' 
 was for some years ehissical tutor in the College of York, 
 and became in 1840 professor of history in the New College 
 at Manchester. He translated Zumpt's Ltiiin (irammttr 
 (1839). published a volume of tlrrrk- !-^.rrrriHrn the same 
 year, An K»Ktii/ <>n Priim-rnl /liiitort/ (1840), Aurirnt /•'tfifftl 
 tinrler III,- I'hiiniahH (1850). aud I'hrrniciii (18,'i7). Tlio'l'wo 
 latter volumes arc of cousidcrablc value, and have bccu re- 
 printed in the U. S. I 
 
 Kenrick (Pf.ter Richard), D. D., a brother of Arch- 
 bishop Francis P. Kenrick, b. in Dublin in 1S06 ; was trained 
 at Maynootli: became u Roman Catholic priest in Ireland ; 
 emigrated to the V . S., and was for a time editor of the Vnlh- 
 otic Herald, Philadelphia: was also vicar-general to his 
 brother. In 1841 he was made bishop of Drasa in parlibnn, 
 and coadjutor to the bishop of St. Louis, to which sec he 
 was translated in 1843. In 1847 he became the first arch- 
 bishop of St. Louis. He has written 'flic Iluly IIokhc of 
 Lorctlf, Ant/iiean Ordlndtiona, aud some other works. 
 
 Ken'sett (.Ions FiuaiEuicK), b. Mar. 22, 1818, at Che- 
 shire, Conn., d. in New York Dec. 14, 1872; worked as a 
 lad with his uncle, Alfred Daggett, an engraver; went to 
 England in 1840, and began the practice of landscape art 
 in 1845: passed several years in Kngland and Europe, 
 studying nature in Switzerland, on the Rhine, in the moun- 
 t.ains of the Abru7.?.i, in Sicily, by the Bay of Naples, 
 among the Italian lakes, amid the scenery of the Cam- 
 pagna and the associations of Rome, always observing and 
 p.Ttiently tnmsfciring to the canvas the impressions taken 
 by his eye. In 1848 he returned to America, and was 
 I equally faithful in his study of native scenery at Newport, 
 Beverly, ami other parts of the Atlantic sea-coast, among 
 the White Mountains, the Adironilaeks, the Catskills, on 
 Lake George, the Hudson, the up]icr Mississippi and Mis- 
 souri, at Niagara ; passing his summers iu collecting ma- 
 terials for winter-work in his studio in New York. A facile 
 and diligent artist, well trained, quick in perception and 
 delicate <if touch, he executed a great number of pictures 
 singularly equal in merit, and of a very high rank in ex- 
 cellence. His pers<uia! (lualitics f)f sincerity, motb'sty. and 
 puritj', which made him beloved by many friends, made 
 his pictures dear to lovers of truth and feeling in art. His 
 work commands the best prices. The collection of his 
 sketches, made for exhibition and sale after his death, ex- 
 cited unustnil interest. Mr. Kensett belonged to the ''real- 
 istic school," as it is called, but was polished, harmonious, 
 sweet, anil sympathetic. He was made a member of the 
 National Academy of Design in 1S49, and was for some 
 years a member of the national art commission formed to 
 superintend the decoration of the Capitol at Washington. 
 
 O. B. FitoriuxcnAM. 
 Keli'»inf;ton, post-v. of Berlin tp., Hartford co., Conn., 
 15 miles S. W. of Hartford. 
 
 Kensinpiton, post-v. and tp. of Rockingham co., 
 N. 11. . miles S. of Exeter. It bus 3 churches, and nmn- 
 ufactures of leather, etc. Pop. C42. 
 Kensington, Pa. See Pnii.Anri.riiiA. 
 Kensington Gardens, one of the public parks of 
 London, 2* miles in circuit and extending along Hyde 
 Park. In its western part stands Kensington Palace, 
 which during the eighteenth and the beginning of this 
 century was the residence of the kings of England. 
 
 Kent, county of England, comjirising the south-eastern 
 angle of the island between the mouth of the Thames and 
 the Strait of Dover. .\rea. ltJ27 square miles. Pop. 733,887. 
 The ground is undulating, traversed by the North Downs; 
 the soil is very fertile and the climate mild and genial, Tho 
 whole county consists of gardens in which vegetables and 
 fruits arc raised for the market of Loiidon, and meadows 
 on which a multitude of sheep arc reared. Hops are the 
 jirineipal product. 
 
 Kent, county of New Brunswick (Canada), bounded on 
 the E. by Northumberland .'^trait. The soil is pcncr;dly 
 very fertile. Agriculture, lumbering, fishing, and ship- 
 building are carried on. Cup. Riehiliueto. Pop. 19,101. 
 
 Kent, county of Ontario. Canada, extending from Luke 
 .St. Clair to Lake Eric. It is intersected by the river 
 Thames and the Great ^Vestcrll Railway. Tho surface is 
 level and fertile. The W. part is a kind of prairie, some- 
 times overflowed. Cap. Chatham. Pop. 20,830. 
 
 Kent, county of Central Delaware, extending across 
 the State from Marylnnd eastward to Delaware Hay. Area, 
 240 square miles. The soil is geiwrally level and quito 
 fertile. Live-stock, grain, wool, und fruit are the staple 
 products. The manufactures include carriages, lumber, 
 etc. The county is traversed by the Delaware and tho 
 Maryland aud Delaware R. Rs. Cap. of co. and Slate. 
 Dover. Pop. 29,801. 
 
 Kent, county of Eastern Maryland. Area, 318 square 
 miles. It has Chesapeake Bay on the W., Delaware on the 
 E., and the navigable Sassafras and Chester rivers on the 
 N. and S. respectively. The county is nearly level, but not 
 low: its soil is a light, fertile, clayey loam, easily cultivated. 
 Live-stock, grain, wool, and fruit, especially |icaches. are 
 largely prodneed. The county exports largo quantities of 
 fish and oysrfrs. II is traversed by the Kent Cnnnty and 
 the Queen Anoc's and Kent R. Rs. Cap. Chcstcrtown. 
 Pop, 17,102.
 
 1524 
 
 KENT— KENTUCKY. 
 
 Kent) county of Mtcbtgan, in the S. W. central part of 
 the southern peninsula. Area, 864 scjuare miles. It has a 
 rolling siirt'iice and a ricli limestone soil. Salt and gypsum 
 are found in the county. Cattle, grain, wool, Imtter. and 
 hay are staple pnnlucts. Lumlicr, earriages. Hour, cloth- 
 ing, cooperage, and saddlery arc leading articles cf" manu- 
 facture. The county is traversed by numerous railroads, 
 mostly centring at (irand Rapids, the capital. I'up. 60,403. 
 
 Kent, county of Rhode Island, extending from Narra- 
 gan?i'tt iJiiy on the E. to the Connecticut liue on the W. 
 Area, ISO square miles. The soil is generally good, the 
 surface uneven. Li%'e-8tock, grain, hay, and potatoes are 
 the staple crops. The streams aflord good water-power. 
 There are important manufactures of cotton goods, and 
 some luniber is sawed. The county is travertied l>y the 
 Providence and Stonington and the Hartford Providence 
 and P'ishkill R. Rs. Cap. East Greenwich. Pop. l.s,^9ij. 
 
 Kent, post-v. and tp. of Litchfield co.. Conn., on the 
 Housafonic River and R. R., adjoining the W. Imundary 
 of the State, 48 miles N. of Bridgeport and 45 miles W. of 
 Hartford. It has ."i churches. 5 stores, a hotel, and a sem- 
 inary. The principal industry is farming. There were 
 formerly 3 blast furnaces for the manufacture of pig iron, 
 now only one; a newspaper, maintained for several years, 
 was discontinued in 1S74. Pop. of tp. 1744. including a 
 few Indians of the Housatouic tribe. W. H. Kikk. 
 
 Kent, post-tp. of Stephenson co., III. Pop. 1116. 
 
 Kent, post-v. of Republican tp., Jefferson co., Ind., 8 
 miles \V. of Madison. Pop. 309. 
 
 Kent, tp. of Warren co., Ind. Pop. 601. 
 
 Kent, tp. of Putnam co., N. Y. Pop. 1547. 
 
 Kent, post-v. of Franklin tp., Portage co., 0., 31 miles 
 S. E. of Cleveland, on the Cuyahoga Kiver, which here af- 
 fords a fine water-power, utilized by extensive cotton and 
 flour mills and by various manufactures. Kent is the geo- 
 graphical centre and divisional terminus of the Atlantic 
 and Great Western R. R., of which the principal car and 
 machine shops are located here. The village is noted for 
 the manufacture of superior window-glass from the pure 
 white sand rock which abounds here, and also as the local- 
 ity where Capt. Samuel Brady made his famous leap across 
 the Cuyahoga River when pursued by Indians. It has 1 
 national and 1 savings bank, I weekly newspaper, a fine 
 public school edifice, 6 churches, and 30 mercantile estab- 
 lishments. AI. Dewev, Ed. "Sattrday Bulletin." 
 
 Kent (Edward), LL.D., b. at Concord. N. H., Jan. 8, 
 1802 ; graduated at Harvard in 1821 : attended a course of 
 law lectures by Chancellor Kent in New York, and engaged 
 in legal practice at Bangor, Me., 1825; was a member of 
 the legislature from 1S20 to 1833; mayor of Bangor for 
 two years, and governor in 18.';h and 1840. In 1843 ho 
 was commissioner for settling the Maine boundary-line 
 under tlie Ashburton treaty: delegate to the national Whig 
 convention in 1S48; eonsul at Rio Janeiro from 1849 to 
 1854, and in 1859 associate justiee of the State supreme 
 court. 1>. at Bangor, Me., May 19, 1877. 
 
 Kent (Edward Ar(;rsTis). Dt-kk of. b. Nov. 2, 1767; 
 was the fourth son of King (ieorpe III.; joined the army ; 
 participated in the capture of some of the Ereiich West 
 India Islanils : was appointed governor of Nova Scotia and 
 commander-in-chief of the British fcnvcs in North America. 
 The island of St. John changed its name to Prinee Eilward 
 in his honor. On his return to Europe he married (Miiy 
 20, 1818) a German ]irin<'e,-s. Maiua I>i>riSA Vtctohia (b. 
 178G ; d. Mar. Ifi. 18(11 ). widow of the ])rince of Lciningcn, 
 daughter of the duke of Saxe-Coburg. From this mar- 
 riage the reigning queen of England. Aloxandritia Victo- 
 ria, was born in 1819, and the duke d, Jan. 23, 1820. 
 
 Kent (James), LL.D.. b. at Philippi, Putnam co.. N. Y., 
 July 31, 1703, was the scm of Moss Kent, surrogate of 
 Rensselaer co. He gra-lnaterl nt Vale College in 1781 ; was 
 a student with Egbert Benson ; was admitted to the bar in 
 1787, and settled at Poughkeepsie ; was a member of the 
 legislature in 1790 and 1792. In 1793 ho removed to New 
 York, and became a master in chancery, a Icoder among 
 the Federalists, an associate and friend of Hamilton and 
 Jay, and professor of law in Columbia College. While 
 hero ho became profoundly versed in the civil law. In 
 1797 he became recorder of New York, then an officer 
 presiding over a court of civil jurisdiction ; in 1798-1804 
 was a puisne judge of the supreme court of New York, and 
 in 1804-14 chief-justice. In the latter year he was ap- 
 pointed chancellor of New York, wliich office he held till 
 1823. He was in 1822 a member of the constitutional con- 
 vention at Albany; in 1S24 resumed his professorship in 
 Columliia College. I), in New York City, Dec. 12. 1847. 
 His legal and chancery decisions arc mostlj^preserved in 
 Caines" and in Johnson's reports. His great work, the 
 Commcntanes on Atucrican Law (4 vols., 1820-30), is oao 
 
 of the greatest and most useful legal works of the age, and 
 its merits have becu as freely acknowledged in Great Brit- 
 ain as in this country. Chancellor Kent was one of the 
 fathers of American jurisprudence. His simple style, his 
 abundant learning, his accurate citations, and. above all, 
 his own good sense and conscientious character, have given 
 bis writings and decisions a permanent value. 
 
 Kent (Joseph). M. D., b. in Calvert co., Md., Jan. 14, 
 1779; was eilucatcd as a physician, combining the practice 
 of his profession with agriculture on an extensive scale — 
 first in Calvert co., and after 1800 in Prince George co. 
 He was a Representative in Congress 1811-15 and 1821- 
 26, governor of Maryland 1820-29. and U. S. Senator 1833- 
 37, D. near Bladensburg Nov. 24, 1837. 
 
 Kent (William), b. in Yorkshire, England, oboutlfiSS: 
 was apprenticed to a coach pninter, an<l showed so much 
 talent that he was enabled l»y tlii' hel]) of patrons to study 
 the line arts at Rome. In 1710 he was invited by the earl 
 of Burlington to return to England as his guest, and resided 
 with that nobleman for the remainder of his life. He was 
 in some request as painter. sculj)tor, and architect, but his 
 real importance was as the founder of landscape-gardening 
 in England, the best sjioeimen of the new principles of 
 taste being Kensington Gardens. D. Apr. 12, 1748. 
 
 Kent Island^ the largest island in Chesapeake B.iy, 
 belongs to Queen Anne co., Md. It is 15 miles long, and 
 is very fertile. It has 4 churches and important oyster 
 fisheries. It is the site of the earliest settlement in the 
 State. It was colonized in ICol by William Claiborne and 
 others. Pop. 1847. 
 
 Kent'land, post-v. of Jefferson tp., cap. of Newton co., 
 Ind., on the Pan-Handle (Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. 
 Louis) R. R. It is situ:ited on the Grand Prairie, in the 
 N. W. of the State, in a rich agricultural section; has 1 
 newspaper, 1 bank, I plough-factory, a first-class school 
 building, several churches, hotels, stores, shops, and mills. 
 Pop. 802. Jon.v B. Conner, Ed. " Gazette." 
 
 Ken'^tony county of Kentucky, having the Ohio River 
 on the N. Area, 150 square miles. It is hiily. hut gener- 
 ally fertile, having a good calcareous soil. Tobacco, live- 
 stock, and corn are the agricultural staples. It has manu- 
 factures of cigars, tobacco, iron, etc., chiefly carried on at 
 Covington (which see), its chief town and capital. The 
 county is traversed by the Kentucky Central and the Louis- 
 ville and Cincinnati R. Rs. Pop. 3(i,09G. 
 
 Kenton, post-v. ami humlrcfl of Kent co., Del., on the 
 Maryland and Delaware R. R. Pop. 20.56. 
 
 Kenton, post-v. of Pleasant tp.. cap. of Hardin co., 
 0., on the head-waters of the Scioto River, near the centre 
 of the State. It has 9 churches, 3 banks, 2 weekly news- 
 ]tnpers, 2 hotels, 8 manufactories. 3 mills, and GO stores. 
 Principal industry, farming and lumbering. Pop. 2010. 
 A. \y . Mn.i.KR. El). " RKi'iiiLirAN." 
 
 Kenton (Pimon), b. in Fau(iuier co., Va., Apr. .'i, 1755; 
 went to Kentucky at the age of eighteen in conseqncnce of 
 an affray, and w.ts associated with Boone and other early 
 pioneers, lie acted for some time as a spy for Lord Dun- 
 moro, the liritish go\emor of Virginia : participateil in the 
 war of independence W. of the Alleghanies : returned to 
 Virginia in 1784; removed his whole family to Kentucky, 
 and continued to take part in all Indian wars until AVayne's 
 campaign in 179.3 established the supremacy of the whito 
 race in the <^>hio Valley. Kenton "took up" immense 
 tracts of land, but when they became valuable they were 
 invariably lost to him through the invasions of settlers, 
 coupled with his ignorance of law, so that he was ultimately 
 reiluced to great poverty. lie tottk part witli the Kentucky 
 troops in the Canadian campaign in the gectmd war with 
 England, fought at the battle of the Thames, finally had 
 lands couJirnied to him by the legislature of Kentucky and 
 a pension by the U. t?. Congress. 1). in Logan co., 0., Apr. 
 29, 18,36. 
 
 Kent's Hill, post-v. of Readfield tp.. Kennebec co.. 
 Me., is the scat of the Maine AVesleyan Seminary and Fe- 
 male College. The seminary was founded in 1821; the 
 college chartered in 18J9. 
 
 Kentuck'y, one of the central States of the Mississippi 
 Vallev, Iving between the meridians of 82° 3' and 89° 2C' 
 \V. Ion., and between 3fi° 30' and 39° 0' N. lat. Its ex- 
 treme length from E. to W. is 308 miles; its greatest 
 breadth from N. to S,, 172 miles. The northern and north- 
 eastern boundaries of the State are very irregular. The 
 Tug Fork, or main stream, of the Rig Sandy River forms 
 the boundary between it and West \*irginia on the X. E., 
 from the summit of the Cumberland iVIountains, about lat. 
 37° 33', to Catlettsburg. where the IJig Sandy joins the 
 Ohio. From this point the Ohio River forms its N. N. E., 
 N., and N. W. boundary to Cairo, where that river enters 
 the Mississippi ; Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois lying N. of the
 
 KENTUCKY. 
 
 1525 
 
 Ohio, andibe jurisdiction of Kentucky extending tn low- 
 water mark on the X. sident'tho Ohio River. The Missis- 
 sippi forms its western boundary, aud separates it from 
 
 Seal of Kentucky. 
 
 Missouri. TennesMe bounds it on the P. for the whole 
 di.«tance, the dividiu<;-Iine being the parallel of 36° oO' 
 from the Mississippi to the Tenucssce River, and that of 
 3G° 3S' thence to the meridian of J?o* 40' W.. whence a 
 curved line following the summit-ridfrcs of the Cumberland 
 to the Big Sandy acpamtes it from West Virginia on the 
 S. E. The area of the State, according to the eenpus of 
 isro, is 37.6Sn square mile?, or 24,n.'j.200 acres. TheStato 
 lies wholly within the Misii>i^sippi Valley, and all but about 
 1000 square miles of it in the sub-valb-y of the Ohio. 
 
 Face of thr Conntrif, etr. — Topographically. Kentucky is 
 divi<led into two unequal areas — the mountain district, in 
 the eastern and south-t-ajitiirn secticjns of the State, cover- 
 ing about 4000 square miles; and the table-land, including 
 all the region W. to the Mississippi. Through this tabl"-land 
 the rivers of the State plough deep furrows. The State is 
 emphatically well watered, but most of tbe larger streams 
 in passing through the tablc-lan«l have made for them- 
 selves valleys of erosion varying in depth at difHirentpoints 
 from 25 to 600 feet. There are, strictly speaking, very few 
 hills in this table-land, though tho bluffs give the land- 
 scape the appearance of high bills ancl abrupt valleys at some 
 points, and the geological structure of the country gives it 
 the asppct of rounded and niammiliated slopes at others. 
 With the exception, then, of tho mountainous districts of 
 Eastern and South-eastern Kentucky, which have the 
 general characteristics of tbe Allcgbiiny range, being 
 simple regular curves of great X. and S. extension, but 
 comparatively narrow in an E. anci W. direction — Pine 
 Mountain, for instance, having a length of 70 miles, and an 
 average wiilth of not over 5 mile:), and ri.sing in the ridges 
 of Pine Mnuntiiin and Cumberland Monnfain to the height 
 (ff fully mUUO feet — the topography of the State may bo re- 
 garded as a succescton of river-valleys deeply incised, hav- 
 ing a general X. W. and S. E. trend, with considerable 
 stretches of taido-tand lying between, and having an aver- 
 age? elevation of 400 feet above tho streams. Tho river- 
 valleys are rarely more than two miles in width. As wo 
 proceed eastward from the Mi-sisHippi. the table-lands rise 
 gradually ; those between the Mississippi and a line drawn 
 due S. from Louisville are about GOO feet above the sea; 
 between this line and uni* drawn due S. from Covington they 
 rise to UlOO feet or a little more. Lexington, which seems 
 to be the highest point of the t it ble- lands, is 1070 feet above 
 tho pca, nnd from it tho lanrl (-lopes in every direction, and 
 (ho decline toward the E. continues till wo reach Ibo base 
 of the Pine and Cumberland ridges. 
 
 . liirrrt, Lnkm, rtr. — About ><.'>0 miles of the boundaries of 
 the State are riverine, including the Rig Sandy, the Ohio, 
 and the Mississippi. The two largert tributaries of tho 
 Ohio (as well as many smaller ones), tho Cumberland and 
 Tennessee, have their ultimate sources in the mountain- 
 district of the State, nnd iMtth, after a wide il/t>ntr to the 
 S., return to the Shite, and. crossing it. ])onr their waters 
 into the Ohio. Other affluents of the Ohio are Clark's 
 River, Tradewater River, and the large and important 
 streams, Green, Salt, Kentuekv, and Licking rivers, nnd 
 still farther E, tho Little Saiidy. The W. Fork of Rig 
 Sandy is a eon-idcrablo stream, as are also several of the 
 tributaries of tho Cumberland. Kentucky. Li'-king, and 
 Green. The Mississippi has a few smnll tributary streams 
 in the State. With the completion of tho slaekwater navi- 
 gation im]irovcments now in progress, Kentucky will have 
 nearly 40(10 inilcB of navigiiblc wuters in bcr bnundF', of 
 which more than half will be within regions containing 
 
 valuable coal and iron deposits. There are no considerable 
 hikes in the State. 
 
 Geofofftf. — Tho geological structure of the State is vorv 
 simple. Its expoaed rocks represent the Upper Cambrian 
 (Lower Silurian), including the Trenton and Hudson River 
 groups, about "IIO feet in thickness ; the Silurian, thinly de- 
 veloped ; the Devonian, consisting mainly of about lUO 
 feet of shale; tho Sub-carboniferous, consisting of the 
 Waverley, a thick series of sandstones and limestones 
 (300 to oOO feet); the Sub-earboniferous limestone (10 to 
 300 feet); aud the Carboniferous series (1600 to 2500 
 feet). In the W., between tho Mississippi and tho Ten- 
 nessee rivers, there is a tract of beds of a later Tertiary 
 age, which have a thickness of perhaps 3011 feet. Just W. 
 of tbe Tennessee River, where it re-enters the State, tho 
 northernmost point of the great cretaceous rocks which ex- 
 tend through Tennessee. Eastern Mississipjii. and AVcstcrn 
 Alabama, appears at the surface. The beds below the Car- 
 boniferous seem to have been deposited tn a nearly unin- 
 terrupted succession from the lowest to the highest, except 
 in the region from Covington to Casey co.. where a strip 
 of about sixty miles wide {directly through the blue-grnss 
 country) was lifted above tho sea, probably about the time 
 of the Carboniferous era or earlier, thus for a time forming 
 a nearly complete bnrrier between the eastern and western 
 coal-Jiclds. E. and W. of this the land remained low, and 
 the deposits of the Coal periods were made with from ten 
 to twenty alternations of exposure to the air and submer- 
 sion beneath the sea. The geology of Kentucky is not at 
 all local or individual in its character; the Tertiary is a 
 part of tlie great Tertiary deposit of the lower Mississippi 
 River; the western coal-field is a prolongation of that of 
 Illinois, and the eastern of the Appalachian fields : and the 
 Devonian and Silurian stretch southward from Indiana and 
 Ohio. 
 
 Economic Geology and Mineral^fjif. — The most imy>ort- 
 nnt of the economic mineral resources of Kentucky nrc 
 its rich and abundant deposits of coal and iron. The 
 whole coal-area is about 14,000 square miles, of which 
 10,000 arc in the eastern and 4000 in the western basin. 
 The coal-beds vary in number nnd thickness, but will 
 probably average in the eastern section in good exposures 
 about ten beds, aggregating .'iO feet: and in the western 
 coal-measures about the same thickness, but fewer beds. 
 Most of this coal, especially in the W.. is a soft bituminous 
 coal, though some eannel is found; it resembles the Eng- 
 lish coal very strongly. The eitstern deposits have more 
 splint coals, which are better adapted to smelting and iron- 
 making. The iron district of the State covers about 20.000 
 square miles, in almost all of which ores of such richness as 
 to pay well for working are found. Tho best ores are con- 
 nected with rocks of the Clinton grouji of the Silurian, 
 where one bed has been discovered having a depth of 20 
 feet or more. (Jood ores are also found between the Car- 
 boniferous limestone and the up])er coal-measures. Some 
 of tho upper beds in Edm()ndson co., in the Orcen River 
 country, are oolitic in character, and have a thickness of 5 
 feet or more. Most of the iron is produced in small char- 
 coal furnaces, though no State in tbe I'nion is better pro- 
 vided with good coals for smelting and reducing purposes. 
 Lead exists in tho Trenton and Cincinnati limc^Jtones and 
 in the Carboniferous limestone, but has not been success- 
 fully worked. Iluilding-stone of excellent quality exists 
 in several sections, and is exportecl to some extent. Tho 
 Sub-carbr)niferous sandstones of the Waverley group are in 
 considerable tlemand both in Cincinnati and Louisville, 
 aud tho oolites of the Sub-carboniferous limestone are un- 
 rivalled in beauty and durability. Silver ore has been 
 found near Cumberlanil Fulls. A more remarkable con- 
 tribution to economic geology is that afforded Ity the salt 
 sftrings (tr licks of the State. The early deposited rooks— 
 tho Potsdam sandstone and the oil-bearing sand-rock — 
 were laid down in shallow waterc. and absorbed consider- 
 able quantities of salt from the brine. In time, springs 
 charged with this saline deposit found tlnir way to tlie 
 surface, UHually in some nmrfthy valley, and thither all tbe 
 herbivorous mammals naturally resorted to lick the salt 
 whii'h bar! crystallized around the springs. This practico 
 mupt have continued for many thouoands of years, and 
 hence we find in these swampv licks vast quantities of the 
 remains of these animals. Tbe skeletons of the buffalo 
 and the deer, and below these of the elephant, the masto- 
 don, and mammoth, the fossil elk. nnd a species of musk- 
 ox, lie in countless numbers. Rig Itone Lick in Roone co. 
 has in an area of about t'll) acre<t many thousands of these 
 fossil fkeletons. Tho remains of animals fonncl here indi- 
 cate very eleiirly that tbe elejdiant period in this region was 
 one of eohl anil low temperature. There are nnmeroufl 
 medicinal springs of great virtue in the State: those of 
 Ilarrodsburg. Rluo Lick. etc. contain eonsiilcrablc quiinti- 
 tics of sulphur. SaUpotro, gypsum, and selenite abouncl
 
 1526 
 
 KENTUCKY. 
 
 in the caves. The caverns of tbe State form one of its 
 most remarkable features; the Mamiuoth Cave, which Is 
 the most wirlely known of the thousands in the f?tate. 
 though possibly not the largest, is very fully described in 
 this volume by Prof. N. v?. Shaler, and the caverns of Ken- 
 tu'.'ky are alsu discussed in the same article. (See Mammoth 
 Cave.) We may say here that they occur throuj^liout the 
 entire range of the Sub-carboniferous limestone, or over a 
 region of GOOD to 8000 square miles. In the region drained 
 by the Green River and its affluent?: tliey are very nnmer- 
 oiis, and the belief is very general that they underlie almost 
 the whole region. In some jilaccs there are what are called 
 sink-holes, considerable tracts often containing trees of 
 large size, under which the roof of the cavern has given 
 way and precipitated those patches {\vhich arc from 60 to 
 ] JO feet or more in diameter) to the floor of the cavern, 
 often 200 or MOO feet below. In some cases these sink-holes 
 become partially filled with water: in others, the trees and 
 shrubs continue to grow and strettdi up toward the light. 
 A few of them are funnel-shaped and very deep, having been 
 sounded to the depth of 300 feet without reaching bottom. 
 Soils aifl Ver/cttitiniK — The last glacijil period did not 
 spread its ice-sheet over Kentucky. I»ut stayed its course a 
 few miles N. of the Ohiu Kiver. Hence, there are not in 
 the State the gravelly soils which are found wherever the 
 advancing front of the ghvr-ier has pushed forward its mo- 
 raine, made up from the lU-hrU of widely separated rocks. 
 The soil of the Cincinnati basin, which includes the entire 
 blue-grass region, may properly be called a soil of imme- 
 diate derivation ; /. c it is formed by the disintegration of 
 the rocks of the Cincinnati group, which contain brachio- 
 pods in great numbers. This crumbling blue limestone, 
 which falls to pieces on exposure to the nir. renders the 
 soil derived from it one of surpassing fertility, and by its 
 constant disintegration restores to it tlie constituents drawn 
 from it by the crops. Hemp and tobacco, both exhausting 
 crops, can be produced on these lauds in undiminished 
 quantities for a score or more of years in succession, and 
 their rich and gigantic growth is nowhere surpassed : and 
 the grasses and grains of the region arc remarkable for 
 their luxuriance and tlicir nutritive qualities. The region 
 of the Sub-carboniferous limestone owes its fertility, which 
 is almost as great as that of the blue-gra^s country, to the 
 Sfime cause, the disintegration of fossiliferous limestone. 
 These two tracts comprise about three-sevenths of the area 
 of the State. The other four-sevenths are less suited to 
 the culture of grain and the best grasses, except the over- 
 flowed lands of the river-bottoms, which have soils of re- 
 mote derivation. The soils underlaid by tbe beds between 
 tlio top of the Cincinnati group and tlio top of the Carbon- 
 iferous areof fair fertility, and oftentimes rich in materials 
 suited for certain crops. The soils within the Carbonifer- 
 ous areas are admirably suited botlj for fruit and for to- 
 bacco culture, and under proper and skilt'ul tillage will 
 produce any crops adiipted to this climatic belt. The great 
 difference between tlicse lands — a part of which have been 
 known as barrens — and the rich blue-grass country is, tliat 
 the former require a fair and judicious use of manures, 
 while the latter manure themselves throuirb (be disintegra- 
 tion of the fossiliferous limestone. There is, however, very 
 little really barren land in the State. The peculiarity of 
 the soils is manifested in the distribution of the forests. 
 On the Sub-carboniferous limestone there are grand forests 
 on the uplands where the blue ash {Frnrlnus qtinilriturfH- 
 lut'i) and the black walnut {.htijhtus nujrn\ mark the rich- 
 est tracts. Rich but k-ss fertile soils have extensive forests 
 of beech (Fagtiti /vmiffiuea). On the sandstone soils, es- 
 pecially within the Carboniferous areas, the forests are of 
 oak, of which there arc six or seven species, as Qiierru» 
 atba. mond'ola. fttlcfttn. rubra, niijnt, etc. In tho richer 
 lowlands the tulip tree [Liriodtmiiron tnfip!/ern) sind the 
 sweet gum ( Lufuidnmbar Bti/mriflun ) form considerable 
 forests. Tho open parks which form so fine a feature of 
 the blue-grass region are mainly of the sugar-maple (Arrr 
 Hnrrh'trinufit) and othrr maplus, tho tulip tree, blue ash. 
 black walnut, etc. In the swamps of the S. W. the cypress 
 (Ta^odiuin ifiniirhiim) is the prineijml constituent of the 
 forests. In the mountainous district of Eastern Kentucky 
 there are limited areas of pine (Phntx mZ/M). There are 
 of course other forest trees in the State, but the species 
 named are the most important. AV'lien the State was first 
 settled by tho whites there was a tnact of about 7000 square 
 miles lying between the Ohio River and the Tennessee line, 
 ami between the 8.">th and 87th meridians, embracing most 
 of the l>evonian shales and a part of the Carboniferous 
 bedi, which was open prairie, having no trees except along 
 tho streams: this was duo unquestionably to the fires kin- 
 dled in tho grass bv the Indians each year. On the sup- 
 pression of these fire« Ibis region immediately sprang up 
 in timber, .ind is now densely wooded wherever it is not 
 under cultivation. 
 
 Zoologt/. — Very few of the larger surviving wild animals 
 of the Mississippi Valley have now a home in Kentucky. 
 The buffalo or bison, which in the last century roamed in 
 very considerable herils through this State, ami perhaps 
 as far E. as the base of the mountains, became extinct in 
 the State before the beginning of the present century. The 
 elk may have disapjieared a little earlier: the panther has 
 been seen within tifty years. Bears and wolves are very 
 rare. Deer arc still found in considerable numbers in the 
 forests, and the raccoon, the opossum, the badger, and 
 ground-hog are not uncommon. There arc at le.Tst two 
 species of the hare or American rabbit, and live or six of 
 the squirrel; moles, dormice, rats, field-mice, etc. are suf- 
 ficiently plenty. Of game birds, the wild-turkey is found 
 in most of the counties of the State, and grouse, partridges, 
 quails, etc. abound. The rivers contain a good supply of 
 most of the fresh-water fish, and fresh-w.iter roollusks. in- 
 cluding many species of the Unionida^. the fresh-water 
 lobster, etc., are found in great abundance. We have 
 spoken already of the fossils found in the swamps; there 
 arc very many fossils also in the caves, but except some 
 insects, crustaceans, and fishes, none of them are peculiar 
 to the State. The so-called eyeless fish of the Mammoth 
 Cave is not known elsewhere. 
 
 The following paragraphs on the pro-historic remains of 
 man found in Kentucky, from the pen of Prof. X. S. Shalcr 
 of the Lawrence Scientific School, State geologist of Ken- 
 tucky, seem in place here : 
 
 J're-hifiloric Jiemaiim of Man. — Two distinct Stages are 
 marked by these remains — the first, or most remote, by tho 
 mound-builder works; sccon<l. the later conditions, during 
 which the common Indian graves arc formed. The first of 
 these stages was evidonlly a period of considerable dura- 
 tion, in which the State was in possession of n people con- 
 siderably more civilized than the common North American 
 Indians; they Imilt regular fortifications on tolerably uni- 
 form plans, ami they traded for copper from Lake Superior 
 and shells from tlio (lulf of Mexico. Tiiey seem to have 
 been an agricultural people, their numbers being too great 
 for constant subsistence by tho chase, ami their fortifica- 
 tions implying fixity. Their general culture and habits 
 would seem to have been as high as that of the Natchez 
 Indians when they wt-re first approached by the whites. 
 Although there are within the State twenty or more forts 
 and many thousand mounds built by these people^ they do 
 not seem to have existed within these in such numbers, or 
 for so long a time, as they did in Ohio. The State is also 
 completely wanting in the "picture mounds," or represen- 
 tations of animals, so common in the North-west. This 
 people was probably here before the coming of the buffalo, 
 as its bones are not found among their remains, nor its 
 form on their very numerous enrvings and pottery. There 
 .are other evidi-nees of tho very recent coming of this spe- 
 cies into the .Mississippi Valley. There is nn utter absence 
 of evidence that this people ever came into contact with tho 
 earlier fauna of the Ehphas priinitftuiuH and the masto- 
 don : none of the animals of that time figure among their 
 art products. Possibly to the same age we may attribute 
 the cave remains of Western Kontu»rky. which have not 
 been as yet much examined. They show prolonged occu- 
 pation of tho sliallow caverns and *' rock-houses" of that 
 region, but they all. so far as examined by the Kentucky 
 survey, show only animals of the present period. Several 
 hundred caveins and *' rook-houses " in the western district 
 exhibit signs of occu|)aney. Sometimes these caverns are 
 combined \\\{\\ fortifications, the caves being used for resi- 
 dence, and stouo walls or earthworks for tho defence of tho 
 hill above. 
 
 During the last few centuries of the Indian occupation 
 wo find this State apparently used as a lumting-ground 
 rathf-r than as a place of permanent settlement. It seems 
 likely from analogy with other countries that this neutral 
 condition of the area between the Tennessee and the Ohio 
 had been brought about by long conflicts between tho 
 southern and tho northern peoples of this region. The es- 
 sential similarity of the customs of the Natchez Indians, 
 especially in the matter of mound-building, to the so-called 
 mound-builders of the Ohio Valley, points to the probable 
 conclusion that this neutral hunting-ground of Kentucky 
 marks tho southernmost point of j>enetration of a distinct 
 warlike race which drove the more ancient people to tho 
 southward. These invading peoples arc likely to have 
 been the ancestors of the tribes the whites found in resi- 
 dence along tho northern borders of the Ohio River. 
 
 As a whole, the pro-historic remains of Kentucky point 
 to the conclusion that there was no indigenous man dating 
 farther back than about two or three thonsaud years. There 
 sc'ins no evidence of succession in the stages of develop- 
 ment, such as wo find in the European pro-historic records. 
 The oldest remains belong to a state of eulture answering, 
 on the whole, to the polished Stone Age of Europe, though
 
 KENTUCKY. 
 
 1527 
 
 the uso of copper for ornnraent?. and the nmoimt of traffic 
 indioatL'd by tlu- presence of iniiteriiils brought from great 
 distances, seem tu bo an indicution of nn creD greater ad- 
 Tance in civilitation. It seems likely that the highly fin- 
 ished forts, ^bowinf^ a capneity for quite definite measure- 
 ment, the strongest evidence of culture, came long alter the 
 earliest mound;^. Despite the fact that mounds perish very 
 slowly, we may trace every gradation, from those nearly 
 blended with the natural surlace tu those which can hardly 
 have withstood a thousand years. This seems not to be the 
 case with the fortifications: most of them, at least, have 
 still great distinctness of outline, and often could be made 
 tenable by modern troops with a few ho.irs' labor. Some 
 of these forts would require several thousand men for a 
 garrison to make their walls of any utility: this, tojrelher 
 with the fact that mounrl-builders" remains are most numer- 
 ous where the soil is best fitted for agriculture, seems to 
 show that they must hare been in the main agricultural. 
 Some of their pottery shows considerable skill in manufac- 
 ture, and a nice taste in the use of incised ornaments. The 
 frequent presence of pipes shows the use of tobacco. The 
 great care taken of the dead, and the prodigious accumula- 
 tionjj about some of the funeral mounds, seem to point to 
 the conclusion that they were worshippers of ancestors. 
 There is no evtclenco of phattic-worship in the remains as 
 yet discovered within the State. Their weapons seem to 
 havo been the same as those of the North American In- 
 dians generally, except that the spear seems to have been 
 more commonly used: their axes arc almost always made 
 iVum materials derived from beyond the great lakes. The 
 buffalo seems to have followed on the footsteps of the van- 
 isliing mound-builders; with their disappearance the for- 
 ests returned, except over the country of the Barrens in the 
 central part of Western Kentucky. 
 
 Tbere is no reason to suppose that in its most peopled 
 state, before the coming of the whites, this region ever bad 
 anything like its present prqiulation: nor aye there any 
 reasons for supposing that an anticjuity of ^tOUO or 4000 
 years would not embrace all the human events of which we 
 havo any record here. X. S. Shalkr. 
 
 Climntfi. — In general it may be said that the climate of 
 Kentucky is delightful. The mean annual temperature is 
 about bb°j and the extremes, not often reachc<l, arc zero 
 and 100*^. The winter commences late in December, some- 
 times not till January, ancl the cold weather seldom lasts 
 long after the 1st of March. The winter and spring 
 months are the seasons of greatest rainfall, the summer 
 and autumn being usually somewhat dry. The heavy 
 rain? of winter and spring, falling on the adhesive red or 
 blue clay of the central counties, ntakcs locomotion some- 
 what ditlicuU except on the superb macadamized roads of 
 the State. The summers are long and somewhat hot, 
 though the extremes of heat are less than in States farther 
 N. In the southern counties cattle are not sheltered in 
 winter, and very little hay is cut. The blue-grasa. falling 
 down as it ripens, protects the lower portion of its stalk, 
 and furnishes as nutritious grazing in winter as in summer. 
 Tables r. and H. give — Hrst. the maximum, minimum, 
 and niean tL-mperatures of each month and the year at tivo 
 dilferent points; and second, the monthly, quarterly, and 
 annual rainfall at the same points. 
 
 Ayrienititrat /*ro(fuctM, — '1 he largo proportion of exceed- 
 ingly fertile soil in the State, its capacity for producing a 
 great variety of crops, au'l its extraordinary facilities for 
 conveying its crops to the best markets, arc good and suf- 
 ficient reasons why. in proportion to its area. Kentucky 
 should bo one of the best agricultural States in the Union. 
 That these great advantiiges have not been so fully de- 
 veloped as they should havo been is doubtless true; yet 
 the agricultural position of the State is very creditable to 
 her. The census of 1870 gave the following statistics of 
 tite agricultural wealth and productions ol tho State : \*aluo 
 of farm?, Jill l.'iitS.Hlli ; of farming implements and ma- 
 chinery, $M,j72.sy(( : of all farm productions, including 
 betterments and additions to stock, $S7,'177,it7-l ; animals 
 slaughtered and sold for slaughter, $21, 121. Stil ; of home 
 manufactures, $l,ns3,072 (deeidoilly an under-estimate, as 
 few Slates have manufactured so largely at homo jeans, 
 linsey-woolsey, bagging, and other artielep used largely on 
 the farms, as Kentucky); forest products. $."»7l.ll'.M ; 
 market-garden proilucts, S,')27,:VJ0: orcharil products, 
 $l,2;!I,.tH,'i; wages paid to farm-hands, including board, 
 $10,70y..'iS2. A more particular statement of the principal 
 crops and the amount of each was as follows : wheal, 
 (i,72S,701 bushels; rye. l.lOH,li;t:t ; Indian enrn. .'iH.llltl.nor. ; 
 oits, (J,ll20.10.t; barley. 2;JS,.|Hit ; buckwheat, ;:ii;t: cotton. 
 lO.SU bales; llax, 2.17,2tJH pounds; hemp, 7777 tons; silU- 
 oocoons, 15 pounds : wool, 2, 2m, lid) pounds ; hay, 20l,:ilMt 
 tons; hops. 017 pounds; tobacco, 10;(.:tO.S.S(»0 pounds; 
 maple-augnr. 2»"''.'.11(1 pounds; niaple-molasso"'. ■l!'.07:t gal- 
 lons; sorghum-molasses, 1.7-10.153 gallons; common ]>ota- 
 
 toes, 2,.^91,6r)2 bushels: sweet potatoes, 802.114; peas anc 
 beans, 119,i)20; beeswax, o2,567 pounds; honey, 1,171,500; 
 domcstio wine, 62,360 gallons; cloTer-sced, 2551 bushels; 
 
 
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 flax-tccd, 14,667; grass-seod. 35,80(1. Dairy products: 
 buttor. 1I,S7 1,978 pounds; chofse, Il,'i,21'.l; milk sold, 
 l,;tl.'>,77y j^alliii)!!. Of soino of thcgi* crops wo luive later 
 iitn(it«ticii from tlic usually accurate estiiiuLlcs of tlic a;;ri- 
 ciilttiral dcpartmont. If llic-flc err at nil. it i.t almost inva- 
 riably in till' way of iindcr-cstimatc. Tho folio wing arc tho 
 linuris for the vcar IS7:!: Indian corn, jS,.|.')l,mill bushels, 
 valued nl !i:'.i.'71.S.I 10: wheat. 7.22.').nnil bushels, worth 
 $S.7IL'.20II: rvc. 1.1117. UOO bushels, worth $S.'.2.:;'.ill : oats.
 
 1528 
 
 KENTUCKY. 
 
 7,037,000 bushels, worth $2,633,320; barley, 21S.000 
 bushels, worth $213,000: buckwheat. 3600 bushels, wurlh 
 $.3096; common jjotatoes, 1,737,000 bushels, worth 
 $1,076,910; tobacco, 152,000,000 pounas. worth $10.94-1.000; 
 hay, 337.000 ton^ worth $1,392,706. The laad under culli- 
 vation that year in these crops was reported at 3.732.0 12 
 acres. In 1870 the value of the entire live-stock of the 
 State was reported as $66,287,343, and the numbers were — 
 317,034 horses, 99,230 mules and asses. 247,615 milch cows, 
 69,719 working oxen, 3S2.993 other cattle, 936,7fi.i sheep, 
 and 1,838.227 swino. The report of the agricultural de- 
 partment for Jan., 1S74, estimates the number of horses at 
 343,900, of mules and asses at 83,600, of oxen and other 
 cattle at 380.400, of milch cows at 229,400, of sheep at 
 8118.100, of swine at 2,008,000, and the aggregate value 
 of the live-stock of the State at $50,950,792. We are in- 
 clined to believe that these are under-estimatcs, both as to 
 number and value. A shrinkage in values of nearly 
 $in.000,0ll0 is hardly probable. 
 
 Mnnii/aclKreH. — The latest published statistics of manu- 
 factures in Kentucky are those of the census of 1S70. The 
 comparatively slow development of manufacturing indus- 
 try in the State makes this a matter of less moment than 
 in the newer States, where the changes of a single year are 
 marvellous. During the decade from 1850 to 1S60 the in- 
 crease of manufactures was rather from the increase in the 
 price of the articles manufactured than from any addition 
 to the number of establishments or emp!oy6s. From I860 
 to 1870 there was no more advance, especially after the 
 war, but with the best and most permanent water-powers 
 in the world, and an abundance of coal to generate steam, 
 Kentucky is far behind many of the other States in the 
 extent and variety of her manufactures. The discoveries 
 of coal, iron, and petroleum in such extensive deposits may 
 stimulate her citizens to greater activity. The manufac- 
 turing statistics of the State in 1870 were — numl)er of es- 
 tablishment?, 5390, for which the motive-power was — 
 steam-engine?, 1147. with 31,928 horse-power; and 459 
 water-wheels, with 7640 horse-power. These establish- 
 ments in 1870 employed 30,636 persons, of whom 27,687 
 were men, 1159 women, and 1790 children and youth: the 
 estimated capital of these establishments was $29,277,809 ; 
 the wages paid, $9,444,524; the raw material used, 
 $29,497,535; and the annual product, $54,625,809. The 
 greatest of these manufacturing interests in the State is 
 the produetion of iron and iron goods, including pig iron, 
 forged and rolled, castings of all sorts, and stoves, heaters, 
 and hollow-ware. In 57 establishments there were pro- 
 duced in 1870 iron and articles of iron to the value of 
 $7,869,053; malt and distilled liquors come next, 176 
 distilleries and breweries, producing liquors valued at 
 $5,222,089; flouring-mil! products, in 190 mills, are made 
 to the extent of $5,093,213; lumber planed and sawed is 
 produced in 278 mills to the extent of $3,748,809 ; tobacco, 
 as chewing, smoking. snufT, and cigars, in 102 establish- 
 ments to the extent of $2,097,005; bagging in 11 factories 
 to the amount of $1,752,120; leather, tanned and curried, 
 in 182 tanneries to the amount of $1,693,574; furniture in 
 90 cabinet-shops to the amount of $1,463,977 ; wool-card- 
 ing and cloth-dressing, and woollen goods in 125 estab- 
 lishments to the amount of $1,312,458: machinery of all 
 kinds in 28 establishments to the value of $1,453,426; ag- 
 ricultural implements in 44 factories to the amount of 
 $1,381,917; carriages and wagons in 325 establishments to 
 the extent of $1,339,909 ; clothing in 167 establishments to 
 the amount of $1,181,158 ; tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware 
 in 127 shops to the extent of $1,051,026; sad.llery and 
 harness in 212 shops to the amount of $1,013,852 : printing 
 and publishing in 31 offices to the amount of $842,210. 
 The other more important manufactures were — bookbind- 
 ing, boots and shoos, bread and other bakery products, 
 brick, bridge-building, cement, confectionery, cooperage, 
 cotton goods, glassware, monuments and tombstones, paints, 
 lead, and zinc, and sash, doors, and blinds. Of these only 
 boots and shoes and bridge-building exceeded in the ag- 
 gregate $500,000. 
 
 Minuiff. — The census returns for 1870 in regard to the 
 mining interests of Kentucky are singularly imperfect. 
 Only 35 mines are reported, employing 925 persons, with a 
 capital of $761,450. j)aying $312,486 wages, using $31,083 
 of raw material, and producing ores, coal, etc. to the value 
 of $509,245. It is hardly beyond the truth to say that 
 si2g!o irines produce a larger amount than this. "The 
 coal resources of Kentucky," says Prof. Shalor. "are only 
 exceeded by those of Pennsylvania, and the quantity of 
 ifrtn or« is probably not exceeded by any American State. 
 The coal r.nd iron products of the State already reach sev- 
 eral millions in value, and are destined to have a great and 
 rapid development." 
 
 lidih-nntU. — Having ft larger amount of water-communi- 
 cation in its navigable streams through almost every part 
 
 of its territory than almost any other interior State (esti- 
 mated by Prof. Shaler at over 4000 miles), and provided 
 with magnificent macadamized roads to most of ita larger 
 towns, Kentucky has not until recently felt the necessity 
 for railroad extension to the same extent as most of the 
 adjacent States. In 1841 there were but 28 miles of rail- 
 road in the State, and there was no increase till after 1818 ; 
 in 1851 there were 94 miles; in 1860,510: in 1862,567; 
 in 1872, 1123; and in Jan., 1875, 1519 miles in opera- 
 tion, the cost of the roads, with the equipment, being 
 $62,728,511. The principal roads, beginning on the east- 
 ern border of the State, are — the Lexington and liig 
 Sandy, beginning at Catlettshurg, at the mouth of the 
 Big Sandy, where it connects by u bridge with the Chesa- 
 peake ami Ohin from Huntington, and extending to Lex- 
 ington, 1 18 miles (about 73 miles of this are now completed, 
 and the whole will he in running order during the present 
 year); the Eastern Kentueky, Kiverton to (Jrayson, with 
 two branches to coal-mines, in all 28 miles; the Elizabeth- 
 town and Paducah. 185 miles (this is to be continued from 
 Elizabethtown to Lexington, to connect with the Lexington 
 au'l Big Sandy) : the Kentucky Central, with branches. 123 
 miles: the Louisville Cincinnati aud Lexington, with iho 
 Cincinnati branch, in all 189 miles; the Louisville and 
 Nashville, in all 436 miles ; the Paducah and jMcmjihis, 165 
 miles (of which about 53 miles are in the State) ; the Evans* 
 ville Henderson and Nashville. 98 railcs in the State to 
 Guthrie; the Madisonville and Shawneetown R. B., about 
 55 miles; and several short railroads connecting with 
 Southern or South-western lines. 
 
 Flunnrfs. — The assessed valuation of the State in 1S70 
 was $409,544,244, of which $311,479,694 was of real estate 
 and $98,004,600 was of personal jirojierty. The true valua- 
 tion that year was estimated to be $604,318,552. The total 
 taxation of that year, not national, was $5,730,118, of 
 which $2,254,413" was State, $1,307,833 county, and 
 $2,167,372 town, city, etc. The State indebtedness w.is 
 $3,076,480, for which bonds had been issued, and $sin.liOO 
 floating debt. Four years of prosperity have increased 
 materially the valuation of the State and diminished both 
 its debt and its taxation. On Oct. 10, 1871, the entire debt 
 was but $2,720,710, of which $1,652,317 was of bonds issued 
 to the board of education, andnotncgotiiible. and $1,068,394 
 negotiable. On Oct. 10, 1872, this debt had been reduced 
 to $766,394, but $200,000 in bonds had been authorized to 
 meet a floating debt ; the negotiable debt of the State 
 therefore stood at $966,394; the sinking fund at the same 
 time amounted to $1,691,991, or more than $700,000 more 
 than the negotiable debt. For the fiscal year ending Oct., 
 1873, the receipts from taxes were $1,024,460, and the ex- 
 penditures $1,476,469, including some payments on the 
 State debt which were ordered paid from the sinking fund. 
 The State bonds are 5 and 6 per cent, bonds, aud have com- 
 manded a ready sale at good prices. 
 
 Commerce. — Kentucky has a small amount of foreign 
 commerce, Louisville, its chief city, being a port of entry, 
 and exporting and importing directly to some extent ; but 
 its interior commerce is of great magnitude, variety, and 
 inijiortancc. Its numerous navigable rivers, as well as its 
 railroads aud its macadamized roads, enable the State to 
 send its products to market with great facility, and the im- 
 I'orts rival the exports in quantity and value. The prin- 
 eipal articles shipped are: tobacco, whisky, salt, beef, 
 pork, bacon, flax. hemp, and cotton-baling stufls. ropes 
 ' and cordage, flour, ale and beer, iron, as pig iron and in 
 j eastings of all kinds, etc. Horses, mules, and cattle are 
 I sent eastward in great numbers, the State maintaining the 
 I highest reputation for its horses botli for racing and trot- 
 I ting purposes, and for service as carriage and family horses, 
 its nuiies being of greater size and belter quality than those 
 I of the other States, and its cattle being of the best breeds 
 and in the best condition from the excellence of its pas- 
 turage. There are no statistics accessible which give the 
 I amount of this internal commerce at a later date fhnn that 
 , of the census of 1870. and these only incidentally, but 
 there can be no doubt that it annually reaches at least 
 $400,000,000. 
 
 /{(titka. — There were Nov. 1. 1874. 47 national banks, 1 
 of which was closing; the 46 in operation had n capital 
 of $10,018,900 paid in, $9,381,850 of bonds on deposit, 
 ■ $10,264,670 circulation issued, of which $1,299,069 had 
 I been redeemed, and $8,335,601 of circulation still outstund- 
 I ing. At the same date there were 45 State banks in opera- 
 tion, having an aggregate capital of about $12,000,000; .3 
 j savings banks, having a capital of $450,000; amount of 
 deposits not stated : and 38 private banking-houses, many 
 of them with very large capital. There were Jan. 1, 1875, 
 ' 12 tire and marine insurance companies in the State, 2 of 
 
 ithem mutual, and the remainder having an aggregate cap- 
 ital of $1,384,000, and assets of the whole (in 4 e:ises in- 
 eluding notes) of $1,889,036.53 j liabilities aside from cap-
 
 KENTUCKY. 
 
 1529 
 
 its] and net eurplus, $3-J3.774.88 : amount of insurance 
 written during the yenr. $47.-l25.263 ; premiums rccoivcj 
 during tho vtar. >^17i, jfis ; losses paid during tlic year, 
 $244,738. Al tliut time lliore was but 1 life iusiiruncc com- | 
 pany in the Siale. tlie Southern Mutual Life at Louisville, 
 organized in l-<f>i;, with $inn,UOO eapilal, $752,005 assets, I 
 $629,031 liabilities, $261,663 income, and $201,678 ex- > 
 
 pcuditurcs; 2166 policies for the aggregate amount of 
 S5,S20,!I2:! in force at that date. 
 
 Pnifii/titinu. — Wc have endeavored to throw into taliulnr 
 form as many facts in regard to the population of Ken- 
 tucky, past and present, as ]iossib)e. The earlier censuses 
 are very defective in regard to the sex and ages of (he col- 
 ored population, whether free or slave, jet tho annexed 
 
 jear. 
 
 WUtM. 
 
 rrto 
 eolorad. 
 
 114 
 
 Slana. 
 
 1790 
 
 ei.ix! 
 
 12,430 
 
 18IW 
 
 179,S7.t 
 
 739 
 
 40,:i43 
 
 1«10 
 
 324.2:17 
 
 1,713 
 
 SO,.^! 
 
 1S20 
 
 434,r>44 
 
 2,759 
 
 126,7.32 
 
 1<10 
 
 517,787 
 
 4.917 
 
 16.1.213 
 
 ISIO 
 
 .WO.2.53 
 
 7,317 
 
 l,S2.2i8 
 
 lH.->0 
 
 7Gl,4l:l 
 
 10.011 
 
 210,9S1 1 
 
 IfUM 
 
 9I9.4S4 
 
 in,R84 
 
 2-2.'i.4,K3 
 
 1870 
 
 1,09S,692 
 
 222,210 
 
 none. 
 
 73,677 
 220,9.'..-. 
 406,.'.ll 
 .■■.64.1:1". 
 687.917 
 7T9,S:;s 
 9*2,40.-. 
 l.l.-..-.,6s4 , 
 l,;i2I.Ull,| 
 
 ,211 
 
 ,9.56 
 
 l.SO.'i 
 
 192 
 
 .084 
 ,()8S 
 
 7:i(i 
 ;i2i 
 
 6(i.-..ii; 
 
 •28,922 
 ♦8.1,91.5 
 •l.'>.'i,4:i2 
 27.'),12.5 
 33.'j,8:i3 
 379,740 . 
 479.67.-. 949.6.'>2 
 563.3(i:! I,09.i,sa-. 
 G.55,33(i 1,2.57,613 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 31,420 
 59,799 
 63,:i98 
 
 or school 
 
 Kgc, 
 
 610 18. 
 
 204,.571 
 2:)2,570 
 302,899 
 t280,466 
 4.54,.539 
 
 or 11.111. 
 tnr; age, 
 
 IS to a. 
 
 •131,211 
 2:i9,+S3 
 
 or «otiDs 
 
 orer 21. 
 
 *119,243 
 
 «I7G,974 
 
 •191,391 
 
 289,471 
 
 Cannot 
 md or 
 write. 
 
 •40,018 
 
 •69,706 
 •70,040 
 .332,176 
 
 table will be found to contain some interesting statistics not 
 hcrclofuro tabulateil. Tho density of the population to the 
 square mile in 1S50 was 26.07: in ls60. :f0.y4 : in 1S70, 
 35.33. The number of families iu 1870 was 2.'i2,797, or 5.67 
 to a family : tho number of dwellings, 224,'.tli9, or 5.87 per- 
 sons to a dwelling. In IS70 the number of white males of 
 all age.^ was 557,:J26, of white females, 541,366 : of colored 
 males, 10.8.304, of colored females, 113,906 ; of Indian males, 
 44, of Indian females, 61 : tho number of native males was 
 631,020, of native females, 626.593 ; of males of foreign birth, 
 34,fJ55, of females of foreign birth, 2.8,743. The number of 
 males of school ago was 230,491, of females of school age, 
 224,048. Tho number of male citizens (i'. e. voters) was 
 282,305. 
 
 Etiiirftt'ton. — Tho interests of higher education were sub- 
 jects of thought and action very early iu the history of the 
 SLite. Transylvania University at Le.\ingti.n {now merged 
 in th.i Kentucky University) was organized and chartered 
 in 1798, and other collegiate schools not lung after; but 
 very little attention was paid to free or popular education. 
 Academics and private schools were established ail over 
 the .<larp, and to these the sons and tlaughfers of wealthy 
 planters and manufacturers were sent, while a large pro- 
 portion of the children of the poorer elassi-s were entirely 
 without instructir.n. There was no provision for common 
 schools until 1S2I, when one-half of tho clear revenue of 
 the Hank of the Commonwealth was set apart for a school 
 fund : and no system of puidic schools was established 
 until 1838, though a bill fur that purpose was passed in 
 1830. Under tho organization of 1838 there was a board 
 of education and a superintendent of jiublic instruction 
 appointed. Under this law each county could at its option 
 vote to organize public schools within its own territory, 
 and then avail itself of the aid of the school fund, which at 
 this time amounted to a considerable sum. In a number 
 of counties no organization t(»ok place, owing, it was said, 
 to tho impossibility of linding in tho county three men 
 who possessed the educational and other qualifications re- 
 nuired for school commissioners. In 180 1 ])rovisiun was 
 made by llio legislature fur the erlucatiun (.f l.'tO teatdicrs 
 in the Slate I'niversity at Lexington. In 1870 a bill was 
 i>nssed for tho reorganization of the school system, and in 
 iho winter of 1872-73 it was completely reorganized. Its 
 
 chief executive officer is now the superintendent of public 
 instruction, elected for four years, and having a salary of 
 $.3000 besides clerk hire. The l.uard of education, who 
 constitute his cabinet, consisls of the superintendent, the 
 attorney-general, the secretary of state, and two profes- 
 sional educators: the State board of examiners consists of 
 tile superintendent and two practical cducitors selected by 
 him. There is also a county cuminissioner for each county, 
 elected by the presiding county judges and the justices of 
 the peace for two years, and a county board of examiners, 
 consisting of the county commissioner and two well-edu- 
 cated and competent persons to sit with him, who arc ap- 
 pointed by him. The sclo.ol fund consists of the interest 
 at 5 per cent, on $1,327,000, a non-negotiable bond of the 
 State, the dividends on 735 shares of the stock of the Hank 
 of Kentucky, taxes on some other banks, and whatever 
 distinct tax the people of the respective school districts 
 may vote to impose up'-n tliemselves. Teachers* institutes 
 arc required to be held annually in July and August in 
 each county by tlie county cuipinissioncrs. The legal 
 school year is five months of 22 days each; the scholastic 
 age in tho Stale is from 6 to 20 years. Provision was 
 made by the legislature of 1S71 for the establishment of 
 schools for colorcil children, but on a basis so narrow and 
 restrictive that it is doubtful whether it will be enforced 
 very generally. The number of children of school age 
 reported at the close of 1873 was 416,71.3, the number of 
 schools was 5521, tho number of teachers about 600(1, tho 
 expenditure, asiile from the interest on county school- 
 bonds, was $977,425.82. The interest in public school edu- 
 cation in tho State is evidently increasing. There were but 
 24 academics and high seliuuls which reported to tho 
 superintendent of jiul.lio instrucfi<in in 1873; these had 
 158 instructors and 2621 pupils. There are normal depart- 
 ments in three ot the colleges of tho State — licrea, (ieorge- 
 town, and the Kentucky Stale I'liiversity — and normal 
 schools under private or assuciational control at Cavlislo 
 (6 teachers, 75 pupils, 3 years' course), Callellsburg (6 
 teachers, 50 students, 3-5 years' course), and Lcxinptt.n 
 (American Missionary Association. 280 pupils). liesides 
 these there are training-schools at Lexington and Frank- 
 fort. There are 12 universities and colleges iu tho Slate; 
 tho following were their statistics in 1873-74 : 
 
 Nimo or iiolrfr Jljr or collef.?. 
 
 Ptnco wbora looated. 
 
 Berca. 
 
 Tterea t^ollegc i 
 
 Ileth.l College RussellvUle , 
 
 reelllan CullcKO iCccllian 
 
 ('.•ntre CullcKe | Danville 
 
 Ciiilral i:nlver»lty Richmond 
 
 Kioiu. nci. Cillei.'e Kniinence 
 
 <ii'ori;.l..wn( "H.-KC tieort'Olown 
 
 Kentueky Medical Institute... Frankfort 
 
 Kentucky fnivemity Lexington 
 
 St. Mary's CollcKo .St. Mary 
 
 WarrendalcfoUeKo I Bowling Green.. 
 
 Wealeyan Unlrer»lty iMillemhurg 
 
 ti 
 
 Kumlwrof 
 
 
 ■tuOcntj. 
 
 3 w 
 
 
 Propar- 
 
 Colli- 
 
 
 awry. 
 
 slow. 
 
 s 
 
 43 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 52 
 
 11 
 
 100 
 
 
 6 
 
 7.5 
 
 .54 
 
 5 
 
 122 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 4S 
 
 6C 
 
 7 
 
 28 
 
 80 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 78 
 
 8 
 
 
 134 
 
 10 
 
 
 84 
 
 3 
 
 62 
 
 R2 
 
 4 
 
 85 
 
 13 
 
 Value or 
 frouaA*. band- 
 ing... and n|.. 
 
 |.aratuH. 
 
 SI 15,000 
 
 176,000 
 20,000 
 70,000 
 16,200 
 .50,0110 
 80,000 
 7.5,000 
 
 100,000 
 R.OOO 
 15,000 
 
 Amounl at 
 endowment. 
 
 S9 1,000 
 20,000 
 
 180,000 
 
 12.5,000 
 
 "soo.tioo 
 
 prmliiellre 
 rands. 
 
 gl,.^30 
 5,400 
 
 11,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 Rocelpll 
 for ln*t 
 year irr>nt 
 ttll r>lhiT 
 ■ourcei. 
 
 f29,000 
 3,000 
 
 2,800 
 
 is,ooo 
 
 1,S70 
 
 Vrtliiniet 
 Iu lllirury, 
 
 1,500 
 1,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 S.IKIO 
 
 3,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 800 
 
 800 
 
 There were 11 colleges or seminaries for women, having 
 75 professors and instructors ami 1013 pupils, of nliom 742 
 were in tho collegiate and 271 in preparatory stu.liei. In 
 all, music, both instrumental ami vocal, is taught. These 
 had libraries ranging from 500 to .3000 volumes ; 1 had a 
 gymnasium; 5, chemical laburat«.rie8 ; 4, philosophical 
 cabinets; 2, natural history museums; and 1, an astro- 
 nomical observatory. There wcro 10 professional and 
 
 • Whiten onlv enumerated. 
 
 t White children only enumerated. 
 
 soientiflc sohools in tho State in 1873, as shown in tho toblo 
 of |.rufessional schools on tho next page. 
 
 Liliriirim. — In 1870, the census reported 5516 public and 
 private libraries in the Slate, with 1,909.230 vulumcs. Of 
 these, 1172. having 318,985 vulumcs. were public. This 
 number included 2 State libraries, with 9200 volumes; 10 
 tov;n and city, with 13,4:16 volumes; 218 court and law 
 libraries, with 61,590 (apparently an error) ; 18 school and 
 college libraries, with 20,675 vuluines (the colleges named 
 above have 38,000 volumes, ami the professional schools 
 25,01)0 more)j 717 Sunday schools, with 160,377 volumes;
 
 15:30 
 
 KENTUCKY. 
 
 207 church libraries, with 53,707, and no hiatortcal or eir- ! city more than 20,000, and Lexinjrton and several other 
 dilating libraries: while the Pultlie Library of Kentucky ' towns have circuhitinf; libraries. The number of private 
 at Louisville has 45,000 volumes, the Historical Library in libraries reported is 4M74, eontainin-; L5y0,24o volumes, 
 that city over 10,000, the Mercantile Library of the same j Scu^ajiupera. — In IS72, Kentucky had 106 newspapers, 
 
 Name or prorossional school. 
 
 L Theological: 
 
 Itiblc ("nlk'tte, University of Kentucky 
 
 Panville Thcolo^'ical Sfuiiiiary 
 
 St. Juseph's Sfniiiiarv and CuIlcKe 
 
 Theological 8flio(»l ot" Bothel Collc-to 
 
 Western Baptisl Theological Institute 
 
 U. Law: 
 
 Colb't^o of Law, Kentucky L'niversitv 
 
 III. Mi;i>hal: 
 
 Louisville Medical ColIcKe 
 
 Medical department. I'nivcrsity of Louisville 
 
 Louisville College of Pharmacy 
 
 IV. SCIEXTIFIC: 
 
 AEricultural and Mechanical College, Kentucky 
 tJuiversity 
 
 Lexincton...., 
 
 Danville 
 
 Bartlstown ... 
 Kussellville... 
 Georgetown., 
 
 Lexington.... 
 
 Louisville 
 
 Lex,in prion., 
 
 "c o 
 
 Sludeou. 
 
 Tilue 
 
 of 
 
 grounds 
 
 and 
 
 buildings. 
 
 Amount 
 
 of 
 prcHluc- 
 
 tive 
 fiinds. 
 
 Income 
 from 
 
 produc- 
 tire 
 
 funds. 
 
 Receipts 
 
 for last 
 yi-ar front 
 all other 
 sources. 
 
 
 Is 
 
 11 
 
 It 
 
 
 Volumes 
 
 In 
 UUrarj. 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 8 
 I 
 2 
 
 88 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 824.000 
 20,000 
 
 SI.<?0,00ft 
 1,800 
 
 SI1,.500 
 
 ii'.m 
 
 8,000 
 
 
 
 48,000 
 
 
 
 8,000 
 
 R 
 
 
 ?() 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,000 
 
 4,000 
 100 
 
 12 
 15 
 
 
 217 
 
 253 
 
 25 
 
 2o'o,o6o 
 
 1,500 
 
 ""si) 
 
 15,000 
 
 7oa 
 
 3 
 
 1,000 
 
 11 
 
 G7 
 
 ISl 
 
 27^,000 
 
 105,000 
 
 9,900 
 
 7,089 
 
 •20,000 
 
 an increase of Ifi since 1S70. Of these, 10 wera dailies, 
 having an aggregate circulation of over 40,000,' 2 tri- 
 wecldy, circulation about oOOO ; o scmi-wockly, circulation 
 ahout ■l.'iOU: 7i'. wceltly, circulation about 140,000 ; 12 
 montlily, circulation about ^13,000. Ily far the grcaterpart 
 were political, at least four-fifths, but S were religious, 
 having a circulation of over 25,000, and 3 professional, with 
 a circulation of over 8000. 
 
 Chitrchcs. — According to the census of 1S70, there were 
 at that time in the State 29()9 churches or congregations 
 of all denotniuations, 2000 church edifices, 87H,0;19 sittings, 
 and $9,S24,40.^^ of churcli property. The following table 
 gives the statistics of tho principal denominations, accord- 
 ing to the censu.s, and also later statistics, generally of 1874, 
 where attainable, showing in this short time a great in- 
 crease over tho previous numbers : 
 
 Denominatjons. 
 
 Baptists 
 
 Disciples and Christiansf 
 
 <'onKre>;alioiKtli>ts 
 
 Pioti'.slant Kpisiofial Church 
 
 livanyclical Association 
 
 .Tewish synagogues 
 
 Lutherans 
 
 Methodist (Th. South, mostly^... 
 Presby'u (Gen. Asseinblv)) 
 
 " " " .Sjuth / 
 
 Presbyterian, other 
 
 Itnnian fatholics 
 
 .shakers 
 
 I Unitarian 
 
 ('nivrrsalist 
 
 Union churches 
 
 1004 
 490 
 
 978 818 
 
 Sittings. 
 
 288,936 
 141,585 
 
 15,800 
 3,000 
 1,500 
 1,C50 
 244,918 
 
 97,150 
 
 3,000 
 72,.')50 
 
 1,090 
 700 
 400 
 
 4,G.50 
 
 Value of church 
 
 properly 
 
 $2,023,975 
 1,046,075 
 
 "570,'3M 
 
 1.10,000 
 
 IW.OOO 
 
 10,000 
 
 1,854,505 
 
 1,275,400 
 
 17,090 
 2,604,900 
 23,000 
 75,000 
 5,530 
 
 28,7.-;o 
 
 
 
 
 ki . 
 
 
 
 "SS 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^°.3 
 
 ■^ w 
 
 Ministers. 
 
 
 
 
 IS? 
 
 
 
 g.,. 
 
 t) 
 
 
 1367 
 
 12R5 
 
 723 
 
 545 
 
 .';02 
 
 313 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 39 
 
 37 
 
 41 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 G 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 1037 
 
 898 
 
 1132 
 
 327 
 
 301 
 
 231 
 
 203 
 
 148 
 
 155 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 S 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 Statistics of ls;4. 
 
 communicants. 
 
 147.031 
 
 51,372 
 
 359 
 
 3,927 
 
 1.090 
 
 800 
 
 1,098 
 
 120,303 
 
 27,188 
 
 500 
 
 250 
 
 175 
 
 2,.500 
 
 Adherent 
 populaUou. 
 
 588.124 
 20.1,000 
 1,854 
 17.000 
 5.000 
 2.4(10 
 6,000 
 480,000 
 
 116,000 
 
 135,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,200 
 
 800 
 
 10,000 
 
 S.S.tenehers 
 and 
 7? scliulars. 
 
 13,000 
 
 29,700 
 
 487 
 
 3.814 
 
 1,200 
 
 27,350 
 
 Charitable Titntitutione. — There is an institution for deaf 
 mutes at Danville, Ky., organized in 182."', being one of tho 
 earlier institutions, the fourth organized in this country. 
 In l.*^73 it had 5 instructors, 87 pupils (4S males. 39 fe- 
 males); the value of its buildings and grounds was $100,000, 
 iind its annual expenditure 820,312, of which nearly 
 $18,000 was appropriated by the ,'^tate, There is an insti- 
 tution for the education of the Mind at Louisville, founded 
 in 1812, having 19 instructors and other emitloyt's, 59 pu- 
 pils, property valued at $90,000, and receiving from the 
 State annually 810,000, which covers its expenditures. 
 There are 3 orphan asylums, all at Louisville, liaving in 
 all 13 teachers, 1 j2 children, and expending annually about 
 Slj,0OO. Of 7 other orphan asylums in tlio State tlicre is 
 no recent report. There is an institution at Frankfort for 
 feeble-minded children, but we have been unable to obtain 
 any recent report of its condition. The house of refuge at 
 Louisville is a municipal not a State institution; it has IG 
 teachers, 174 inmates (150 boys and 24 girls), its annual 
 cost is about $20,000, and the inmates earn about $j000 per 
 annum. There are two insane hospitals in the State — 
 the Western, at llopkiusville, and the Eastern, at Lexing- I 
 ton — both well managed. The Kentucky jienitcntiary is at I 
 Frankfurt. It has room for about (100 prisoners. It has not j 
 the reputation of being a model institution. The penal in- i 
 stitutionsof the State generally are susce]itible of very great 
 improvement. In 1870 there were 603 pcrson.s convicted 
 of crimes which are punishable by death or imprisonment 
 in the State penitentiary, and 10(')7 in prison charged with 
 euch crimes and awaiting trial. Of these, 968 were of na- 
 tive birth and 99 of foreign. 
 
 ConHtttHtioHf Onreninient, Iteprcaetilntion in Congrettf etc, 
 
 * Tlic ITnlverslty T,lbrnry. 
 
 t There are no data for inakinc a correct statement of the 
 numbers of lhe«e two denomin.ttioiis in tlie .stntf ; the "Dis- 
 ciples" are by far the most uuiuerous. hut Ix»tb denominations 
 have been very negligent in collectlog their stati<tica. j 
 
 — Tho present constitution of the State was adopted in 
 1850. The governor, lieutenant-governor, auditor, attor- 
 ney-general, and superintendent of public instruction arc 
 elected by the ]>eople for the term of four years. The gov- 
 ernor is ineligible for the four years succeeding the expira- 
 tion of his term. If a vacaney in the office of governor 
 occur during the first two years of the term, it is filled by 
 a new election : if during the last two years, the lieutenant- 
 governor, and after him the Speaker of the senate, acts as 
 governor. The treasurer is elected by the people every 
 two years. Tho secretary of state is appointed by tho 
 governor, by and with the advice ^and consent of the sen- 
 ate. Senators, 38 in number, arc elected from single dis- 
 tricts for four years, one-half every two years, liepresent- 
 ntives, 100 in number, are elected from single districts for 
 two years. Sessions of the assembly are biennial, and can- 
 not continue longer than 00 days without a two-thirds vote 
 of all the members elected to each branch. The members 
 are jiaid $4 a day and 15 cents a mile for travel. Lvery 
 male citizen who has resided two years in the State, ono 
 year in the county, and sixty days in the precinct in which 
 his vote is ofl'creil, is entitled to vote. The court of appeals 
 is tho supreme court of the State, and has appellate juris- 
 diction over tho final orders and judgments of all other 
 courts of the State in civil cases, except where the amount 
 in controversy is less than $50, or in eases of judgment 
 granting divorce, or on a judgment of an inferior court 
 from which an appeal is given to the quarterly or circuit 
 court. It has appellate jurisdiction in criminal cases where 
 the fine is $50 or more. The circuit courts have original 
 jurisdiction in civil cases where the amount in controversy 
 is S50 and upwards, except where exclusive jurisdiction is 
 given to other courts; appellate jurisdiction in certain 
 cases specified; and criminal jurisiliction for the trial of 
 all offences which may he prosecuted by indictment, and 
 all prosecutions and final actions except where exclusive 
 jurisdiction is given to other courts. There ore also county
 
 KEXTICKY. 
 
 1531 
 
 courts and justices* courts. All judges are justices of the 
 peace. Judges of the court of ajipeals arc elected by dis- 
 tricts for a term of eight years, one every Sfcond year, and 
 the judge having the shortest term to serve is chief-justice. 
 The circuit court judges are elected by districts for six 
 years, and justices of the peace for four years. Under the 
 apportionment of 1S72, Kentucky is entitled to 10 llepre- 
 sentatives in Congress. 
 
 Coiiutirn. — Kentucky is divided into 110 counties. The 
 following was their population, divided into white and col- 
 ored, iu 1S70, population in ISOO, and valuation in 1S70 : 
 
 CoaDtie«. 
 
 ItiTO. 
 
 Whiles, 
 1870. 
 
 Cotftred, 
 1870. 
 
 Pop., 
 
 lew. 
 
 T.IUAtlOD, 
 1870. 
 
 Adair 
 
 Allen 
 
 11,065 
 
 10,296 
 
 5,449 
 
 12,576 
 
 17,780 
 
 10,14.5 
 
 10,698 
 
 14,863 
 
 8,573 
 
 9,51.5 
 
 11,409 
 
 i>,672 
 
 1.3,440 
 
 7,781 
 
 9,404 
 
 10,826 
 
 9,410 
 
 27,408 
 
 6,189 
 
 7,.509 
 
 8,81*4 
 
 23,227 
 
 10,882 
 
 8,297 
 
 6,497 
 
 9,381 
 
 7,690 
 
 20,714 
 
 4,439 
 
 4,4:il 
 
 9,198 
 
 26,6.56 
 
 13,398 
 
 7,877 
 
 15,300 
 
 6,161 
 
 5,074 
 
 10.376 
 
 9,529 
 
 19,398 
 
 11, .580 
 
 9,379 
 
 11,463 
 
 6,.591 
 
 15,705 
 
 4,415 
 
 12.993 
 
 13,r,j(7 
 
 18,457 
 
 11.066 
 
 8,4.53 
 
 13,827 
 
 4,547 
 
 118,9,53 
 
 8,638 
 
 7,494 
 
 3,731 
 
 36,096 
 
 8.294 
 
 8,235 
 
 6,016 
 
 8,497 
 
 3,0,55 
 
 4,608 
 
 9,113 
 
 10,947 
 
 8,200 
 
 20,129 
 
 6,2.33 
 
 19,543 
 
 4,681 
 
 12,s:w 
 
 9,4.5.5 
 
 ni.w 
 
 1.8,126 
 
 13,988 
 
 7,614 
 
 9,48S 
 
 1.986 
 
 13.144 
 
 7,9;m 
 
 9,231 
 7,.5.57 
 8,975 
 12,6:i8 
 M,804 
 
 o.ira 
 
 I.5,.56I 
 9,027 
 
 14.:t09 
 3.889 
 
 ll.OW 
 4,274 
 
 9,229 
 9,192 
 4,7.51 
 
 11.099 
 
 14,137 
 8,443 
 9,684 
 8,186 
 8,282 
 5,83o 
 
 10,773 
 5,491 
 
 11,738 
 6.587 
 8,761 
 8,748 
 8,598 
 
 27,123 
 5,649 
 7,409 
 8,310 
 
 13,415 
 7,167 
 7,802 
 6,205 
 8,572 
 6,181 
 
 17,111 
 4,2*1 
 4,411 
 8,.599 
 
 14,142 
 
 11,842 
 7,706 
 
 10,637 
 5,224 
 4,474 
 6,972 
 9,020 
 
 17,069 
 
 11,173 
 7,442 
 
 11,002 
 5,861 
 
 13,429 
 4,3IM 
 
 10,015 
 
 11.493 
 
 12,467 
 8,628 
 6,818 
 
 11,938 
 4,496 
 
 99,806 
 5,199 
 7,373 
 3,620 
 
 »l,4:i9 
 7,737 
 7,270 
 5,872 
 8,376 
 2,924 
 4,479 
 8,887 
 7,871 
 7,147 
 
 14,706 
 4,814 
 
 13,271 
 4,,505 
 9,493 
 9,070 
 county 
 
 14,.544 
 
 10,099 
 6,800 
 8,191 
 1,970 
 9,8:H 
 7,073 
 8,H2 
 4,8.58 
 5,931 
 
 11.1195 
 
 10,886 
 7,88.5 
 
 14,168 
 6,217 
 
 13,l;« 
 3,812 
 
 13,;«i9 
 4,173 
 
 1,830 
 1,101 
 
 698 
 1,477 
 3,623 
 2,702 
 1.012 
 6,677 
 
 291 
 3,679 
 
 636 
 
 181 
 1.682 
 1,194 
 
 643 
 2,078 
 
 812 
 
 2.S2 
 
 640 
 
 100 
 
 544 
 9,812 
 3,715 
 
 495 
 
 292 
 
 809 
 1,609 
 3,603 
 
 226 
 22 
 
 599 
 12,513 
 1,6.56 
 
 171 
 4,663 
 
 937 
 
 600 
 3,404 
 
 509 i 
 2,329 
 
 407 
 1,937 
 
 461 
 
 729 
 
 2,276 
 
 99 
 
 2,378 
 
 2,192 
 
 5,990 
 
 2,438 
 
 1,6.33 
 
 1,869 
 
 SI 
 
 19,146 
 
 3,439 
 
 87 
 
 111 
 1,657 
 
 657 
 
 965 
 
 144 
 
 121 
 
 131 
 
 129 
 
 228 
 3,076 
 1,0.'.2 
 8,723 
 1,419 
 6,272 
 
 179 
 
 3,:m3 
 
 385 
 
 3,582 
 
 3,289 
 
 814 
 
 1,294 
 
 16 
 
 3,310 
 
 861 
 
 789 
 
 2,699 
 
 44 
 
 1,633 
 
 3,918 
 
 1,244 
 
 1,393 
 
 2,810 
 
 1,176 
 
 76 
 
 641 
 
 96 
 
 9,509 
 9,187 
 7,404 
 8,692 
 16,065 
 12,113 
 11,196 
 14,860 
 6,044 
 9,.304 
 11,021 
 4,980 
 1.3,236 
 7,289 
 7,927 
 9,318 
 9,915 
 20,909 
 6,578 
 8,510 
 6,466 
 21,627 
 11,484 
 6,652 
 6,781 
 8.796 
 7,340 
 13,549 
 4,643 
 
 "6,886 
 22,599 
 12,489 
 6,388 
 12,694 
 6,317 
 6,056 
 10,6.il i 
 8,35r. 
 16,233 
 7,982 
 8,806 
 8,760 
 6,213 
 15,189 
 5,494 
 13,779 
 10,:i48 
 14,262 
 11,949 
 7.008 
 11,875 
 3,087 
 89,404 
 9.465 
 6.306 
 
 $1,768,973 
 1.818.615 
 
 Anderson 
 
 iBallard 
 
 1.511,100 
 2.190,.5SS 
 
 1 Barren 
 
 ,Bath 
 
 1 Boone 
 
 3,333,784 
 
 2.i;04,16H 
 
 j 5,006,925 
 
 11,982,749 
 
 iBoyd 
 
 2,239,177 
 
 iBoyle 
 
 4,123,535 
 
 
 3,900,888 
 
 Ilreatbitt 
 
 489,848 
 
 Breekenridge ... 
 Bullitt 
 
 3,584,220 
 2,419,859 
 
 Butler 
 
 1,566,207 
 
 Caldwell 
 
 2,200,472 
 
 Calloway 
 
 1.976,765 
 
 
 8,72 1,696 
 
 
 2,2117,236 
 
 Carter 
 
 1,53.5,0.13 
 
 
 l,432,3i;l 
 
 Christian 
 
 6,294,945 
 
 (*huk 
 
 6,29l),610 
 
 ('lay 
 
 886,808 
 
 Clinton 
 
 870,279 
 
 Crittenden 
 
 <'umberland .... 
 
 Daviess 
 
 Ivlmondsuu 
 
 Elliott 
 
 1,769,651 
 
 1,234,9^18 
 
 7,823,750 
 
 874,224 
 
 .■K.-i.6U3 
 
 tittill 
 
 1.. 520,720 
 
 
 14,790,437 
 
 
 4,337,841 
 
 ri«yd 
 
 685,255 
 
 
 4,923,176 
 
 
 1,434,348 
 
 'iallalln 
 
 1,862,731 
 
 tiarrard 
 
 (Irant 
 
 3,8.36,809 
 2,841,682 
 3,732,053 
 
 
 1,606.960 
 
 
 1,219,873 
 
 
 2,949,187 
 
 HancocK 
 
 Hardin 
 
 Harlan 
 
 1,752.31)0 
 
 3,72S,8S2 
 
 405,396 
 
 6,720,070 
 
 Hart 
 
 Henderson 
 
 2,535,910 
 6,434,1.82 
 6,262,399 
 
 
 1,788,027 
 
 Honkins 
 
 2,477,2'J6 
 
 
 3.55.385 
 
 
 76.414,971 
 
 .Iivs^amiau 
 
 4.049,576 
 684,049 
 
 Tosh Hell 
 
 2M 944 
 
 Kenton 
 
 Knox 
 
 Larue 
 
 2.5,167 
 7,707 
 0,891 
 6,488 
 7,601 
 
 14,229,8.50 
 
 90.5,231 
 
 1,542,217 
 
 864,922 
 
 
 1,1.52,310 
 
 Ue 
 
 Letcher 
 
 
 8,904 
 
 8,361 
 10,617 
 
 7,213 1 
 19,021 
 
 6,307 
 17,207 1 
 
 3,48.'5 
 12,693 
 
 6,982 
 
 18.222 
 10,360 
 6,144 
 8,898 
 
 310,.502 
 
 
 2,.H9,:H0 
 
 
 4,48.3,920 
 
 LivinKHlon 
 
 1.. 509, 182 
 4,269,i:V) 
 
 
 937,674 
 
 
 8,177,420 
 
 Mat(ontn 
 
 .Marion 
 
 Mar.Hhall 
 
 Martin 
 
 ,5.59,8.56 
 .1.22.3,991 
 1,487,165 
 
 8,171,206 
 
 Mi'Cracken 
 
 MeLean 
 
 6,284.816 
 1,.564,S.23 
 2,16.5,648 
 
 
 120 773 
 
 
 13,7o{ 
 0,74-. 
 8,5.- 1 
 
 7,K.v.p 
 
 «,-.'37 
 10.7.'3 
 13,7'.ili 
 Il.i>:!(l 
 12.209 
 
 7.2S3 
 12,710 
 
 6,3:l5 ' 
 10.443 ' 
 
 3,9.50 ! 
 
 4,129,231 
 
 .Metcalfe 
 
 I,:in1,(l95 
 1,217,072 
 
 Mont^^omeiy 
 
 Mortian 
 
 Multlenbure 
 
 3,:.4r.,(l27 
 
 7IK,.267 
 
 2,4r,2,7.57 
 
 5,.l;ill,2IO 
 
 Nlcholiw 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oldham 
 
 Owoii 
 
 3,090,:1.50 
 3.313.(»I6 
 3.194..i52 
 2,588. i:to 
 
 OwMcy 
 
 617,691 
 
 Pt'ndluton. 
 
 P«rry 
 
 2,S»4,:V89 
 330,083 
 
 Countlei. 
 
 Pop., 
 
 1870. 
 
 White, 
 1870. 
 
 Colored, 
 1870. 
 
 rss.' 
 
 TatuntEoD. 
 1870. 
 
 Pike 
 
 9,.562 
 2,599 
 17,670 
 6,399 
 7,145 
 2.991 
 5,809 
 11,607 
 1.5,7.33 
 9,573 
 6,9.36 
 8,226 
 12,612 
 13,086 
 
 9,460 
 2,360 
 16,595 
 6,142 
 6,776 
 2,939 
 6,316 
 7,651 
 
 io,;«o 
 
 7,406 
 4,477 
 0,.376 
 7,7.52 
 9.880 
 
 102 
 
 239 
 1,07,5 
 
 2.57 
 
 369 
 32 
 
 293 
 .3,9.55 
 5,383 
 2,107 
 1,479 
 1,8,50 
 4,8G0 
 3,806 
 
 4,56 
 2,574 
 6,367 
 2,110 
 
 675 
 1,3.53 
 
 138 
 
 28 
 
 3,825 
 
 7,384 
 2,237 
 17,201 
 
 t910,007 
 343,819 
 2,258,090 
 1,025,147 
 1,0:«,.531 
 388,688 
 1,0.57.097 
 6,-22,370 
 8,569,998 
 2,533,749 
 2,693,.561 
 1,4*12,094 
 2,803,846 
 2,498,423 
 1,739,680 
 3,396,183 
 
 -.mv"'. 
 
 3,564,004 
 1,419,585 
 1,578,643 
 
 988,8.52 
 
 381,325 
 
 .5,981,130 
 
 Powell 
 
 Pulaski 
 
 
 Rockcastle 
 
 6,343 
 
 2,282 
 
 6,024 
 
 14,417 
 
 16,433 
 
 8,146 
 
 6,188 
 
 7,481 
 
 11, .575 
 
 11,051 
 
 5,880 
 
 12,791 
 
 17,320 
 
 11,575 
 
 10,259 
 
 7,533 
 
 7,762 
 
 
 .Scott 
 
 Shclbv 
 
 Simpsou 
 
 Taylor 
 
 Torid 
 
 
 Trimhlo 
 
 .5,.577 5,121 
 13,640 11,006 
 21,742 15,375 
 12,464 10,;i54 
 10,6021 9,927 
 10,9371 9,582 
 8,278! 8,140 
 3,603) 3,573 
 a,240l 4,415 
 
 
 Wasbingloii.. 
 
 Webster 
 
 Whitlev 
 
 Wolfe 
 
 WoodfoM 
 
 11,219 
 
 1,15.5,684^ 
 
 Totals 
 
 l,321,0Il|l,09S,692 
 
 222,210 1 
 
 409,544,244 
 
 Principal Toirns. — Louisville is the chief city of the 
 State, and had in 1870 a population of 100,753; Coving- 
 ton in Kenton co., opposite Ciucinnati, has nearly 80,OU0 
 inhabitants; Newport, Campbell co.. and Lexington, Fay- 
 ette CO., have each between Ij.OOO and 20,000 inhiibitaiits ; 
 Paducah, Frankfort (the capital of the Slate), Maysville, 
 and Bowling (irecn have from 5000 to lO.dOO; Henderson, 
 Owensboro', Versailles, llopkiusville. Paris, ^helbyville, 
 Danville, and narrodsI)urg liave less than 5000. lluBsell- 
 ville, llichmond, Lebanon, Cyutbiana, CoUmilius. Franklin, 
 BardstowD, and Ellzabethtown are thriving towns. 
 
 Ilist'inj. — The territory now included in the State of Ken- 
 tucky was during the greater part of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, and probably for several hundred years previously, the 
 favorite hunting-ground and home of powcrlui and warlike 
 tribes of Indians, who had given it the name ot' Kentueky, 
 eignifying "the dark and bloody ground." In 1701). Dan- 
 iel Boone, an enter])rising hunter and pioneer, came tliither 
 and established himself where now is Boonesboro'. ^Vithin 
 the next six or seven years other pioneers settled in the 
 territory, and among them such men as Knox, Bullitt, 
 Harrod, Henderson, Kenluu. Calloway, and Logan, all of 
 whom idontilied themselves with the subsequent history of 
 the State. Virginia claimed this whole region as a j>art 
 of her territory, and most of the pioneer settlers were from 
 that colony, but they purehascd tlieir lands from tlie In- 
 dians. On May 2?>, 1775, the settlers met at Boonesboro', 
 and in convention organized themselves as the ''.Assembly 
 of Transylvania." They established courts, enrolled a 
 militia force, and passed laws : but when their doings camo 
 to the knowU-dge of the Virginia legislature they were pro- 
 nounced null and void, though grunts of land were niado 
 to these pioneers. In I77f'i the legislature of Virginia 
 erected its territory S. of the Ohio into the eounty of Ken- 
 tucky, embracing all the country lying between the Big 
 Sandy liiver and the iMississinpi. In 17H.1 thi.x county was 
 constituted a district, and the decisi'ins of its civil and 
 criminal e<iurts were declared to be subject to appeal to tho 
 State courts of Virginia, llarrodsburg had been foun<Ied 
 in 177'l, and Lexington jirobably in the autumn of 1775. 
 During the Revolutionary war the number of settlers rap- 
 idly increased, although, owing tn the eontiiiual hostilities 
 of the Indians, they were nbliged to go e^>n^Ialltly iu-n»e»l, 
 and had numerous and lieree eontlicls with the Clierokecs 
 and other Indian tribes. On Aug. I'J, 17H2, a bloody and 
 desperate battle took plaec between the whites, who num- 
 bered nnly In2, and an Indian force of about 600, near 
 Blue Liek Springs. Col. Boone was prumineul in the bat- 
 tle, and hist a H<tn in it. The Kentuekiana were finally de- 
 fcate<i with the loss of CO of their nunihor. In 17SI tlio 
 people of the district urged that they might bo recognized 
 as a State and admitted into the Union of Stales, They 
 held repented conventions in 17S5, ITMrt. and 17S"; and 
 tho Virginia legislaturi' puf'sed an ordinanee in I7H5 grant- 
 ing a separate organization, but with conditions which 
 caused delay and discontent. In Jan., 1787. the people in 
 cunvtntion agreed to form a State and adopt a constiiu- 
 tinn. but there wre liindrMrifi-s i<n the juirt of Virginia; 
 and intrigue" on the part of the Spanish viremv in Louisi- 
 ana and of emissaries from (*anada, both trying to draw 
 away the district from its nllegianec to the Union, kept it 
 in turmoil, while tho Indian hostilities and depredations 
 were uiakini; the lives of the settlers wretched. At length, 
 when the diifieulties with Virginia seemed about to he sot- 
 tied, the announcement was made that the Constitution of 
 the U. S. had been aeoeplod and ratified, and the wholo 
 oontroversy iu regard to tho organization of the district as
 
 1532 
 
 K ENTUCK Y— K EN VOX. 
 
 a State was handed over to the general government. In 
 
 1790 it was made a separate Territory of the U. S., and on 
 
 Apr. 19 the delegates of the people asaemhled once more 
 
 in convention (the tenth of these assemblies, wc believe) at 
 
 Danville, and reported a State constitution, which was soon 
 
 after ratified, and under which Kentucky was admitted into 
 
 the Union as a State on June 1. 1792. Its population was 
 
 at that time about 75,000. For the ne.vt twelve or fourteen 
 
 years the young State was often in an agitated condition. 
 
 She had a vital interest in the free navigation of the Mis- 
 sissippi, and in its being at least in the hands of a friendly 
 
 power. The treaty with Spain in 1705, and its subsequent 
 
 violation by that power, and the repeated transfers of the 
 
 territory bordering on the Gulf to and from France, its 
 
 final purchase by the U. S., the iuterineddling of the Brit- 
 . ish government' and the French minister with the matter. 
 
 and the wild and treasonable schemes of Aaron Burr and 
 
 his confederates, all tended to keep the people at fever- 
 heat. In the war of 1812, Kentucky bore an honorable 
 
 part, though she suffered severely at the battle of French- 
 town anil m the barbarous massacre which followed it, and 
 some of her best citizens were sacrificed in the unfortunate 
 and ill-managed attempt to relieve Fort .Meigs. Somewhat 
 later a civil contest in the St.ate, known as the " Old Court 
 and Xew Court controversv," which virtually involved the 
 question of the repudiation of a debt of doubtful legality 
 by the State, was decided, greatly to her honor, by the 
 maintenance of all her obligations, though they had been 
 obtained by fraud. In the Mexican war the State sent 
 move than her quota of volunteers to the conQict. and their 
 gallant conduct in the field won them lasting renown. In 
 the late civil war the State declared at first her strict neu- 
 trality in regard to both parties to the war, but as it proved 
 
 Electoral and Popular Votes for President and Vice-President. 
 
 impossible to maintain this condition, the legislature, after 
 the invasion of the Southern troops in Aug., ISGl, engaged 
 in correspondence with the opposing forces, and finally, 
 after a very exciting discussion, gave in its adhesion to the 
 Union, Nov. 27, ISOl. The State was a recruiting-ground 
 for both armies, and its people were almost equally divided 
 in sentiment. It furnished iu several instances the battle- 
 fields in severe and hotly-contested actions, such as those 
 of Mill Spring, Pcrryville, and Richmond, as well as in the 
 minor conflicrs of Cvnthiana. Elizabethtown, Grcensburg, 
 Lebanon, London, Mount Slorling, Mumfordsville, Pound 
 Gap, Prestonburg, Somerset, and Tobb's Bend, and suf- 
 fered not onlv from the passage of large hostile forces across 
 its tcrritorv,' but from repeated raids to and through the 
 State. It "refused to ratify the fourteenlh and fifteenth 
 amendments to the Constitution, and is the only one of the 
 border States which has remained constantly under Demo- 
 cratic control since t-he close of the war. 
 Governors of the State. — 
 
 Term '''™'' 
 
 Isaac Shelby 1792-96 ] Charles A. Wiekliffe 
 
 .Tames Garrard 1796-1804 (acliUK)--- ]^rf. 
 
 lb ristonlier Greenup 1S04-08 Robert P.Letcher \'^}{^i 
 
 ClKules S,..tt l«0K-r2 I William Owsley. 1844-48 
 
 Uiac .Shelhv 1812-16 1 John .1. Crittenden IM*"-^? 
 
 Gmrae Madison 1816-16 i John L Helm (aeting)..^^*-^! 
 
 Gabriel Slaughter (act- | Lazarus \V. I owell... J^Jl^;^ 
 
 i„„i 1816-20 Charles S. Morehcad IS.'i.^-.D 
 
 T I V^"" m*in-''4 "•-■■.!. Tj \(.,.»..fl,», iR5>n-iii 
 
 Joseph ivsiia;!;'.'.v.'.;!!."!;is24-2s 
 
 rrU n.. ^Trttrtnlf.* 1S9S— :t'* 
 
 Thomas Metcalfe 1828-:5'. 
 
 John Breathitt 1832-84 
 
 James T. Morehead (act- 
 
 ingl iwi-se 
 
 James Clark 1836-37 
 
 Beriah H. Masoflin 1859-01 
 
 James F. Robinson 18G1-C3 
 
 Thoniaa K. Bramlette....l86»-«7 
 
 John L. Helm 1867-67 
 
 John W. Stevenson 
 
 (acting) 1S67-68 
 
 John W. Stevenson 1868-72 
 
 Preston H. Leslie 1872-75 
 
 1792 
 1796 
 1800 
 1 804 
 1 808 
 1812 
 
 George Washington P... 
 
 tleorge Clinton V.-P 
 
 Thomas Jefferson P 
 
 .\aron Burr V.-P 
 
 Thomas Jefferson P 
 
 ,\aron Burr V.-P 
 
 Thomas Jefferson P 
 
 Georjie Clinton V.-P 
 
 James Madison P 
 
 George Clinton V.-P 
 
 James M.adison P 
 
 ElbridKC Gerry V.-P 
 
 I816ljames Monroe P 
 
 1 1). D. Tompkins V.-P 
 
 t820jJames Monroe P 
 
 D. D. Tompkins V.-P... 
 
 1824 
 
 1828 
 
 1832 
 
 Andrew Jackson P... 
 
 J. C. Calhoun V.-P 
 
 Heury Clay P 
 
 Nathan Sauford V.-P.... 
 
 Andrew Jackson P 
 
 J. C. Calhoun V.-P 
 
 John Quincy Adams P.. 
 
 Richard Rush V.-P 
 
 Henry Clay P 
 
 John Sergeant V.-P 
 
 .\ndrew Jackson P 
 
 Martin Van Bureu V.-P. 
 1836' W. II. Harrison P 
 
 Francis (irauRer V.-P..., 
 1 Martin Van Buren P...., 
 
 R. M. Johnson V.-P 
 
 1840 W. H. Harrison P 
 
 John Tyler V.-P 
 
 Martin Van Buren X'.... 
 
 R. M. Johnson V.-P 
 
 1844' James K. Polk P 
 
 George M. Dallas V.-P.. 
 
 Henry Clay P 
 
 T. Prelinsbuysen V.-P.. 
 
 Zacharv Tavlor P 
 
 Millard" Fillmore V.-P.. 
 
 LewisCassP 
 
 W. O. Butler V.-P 
 
 ISIS 
 
 Winfield Scott P 
 
 W. A. Graham V.-P 
 
 Franklin Pierce P 
 
 W. R. King V.-P 
 
 James Buchanan P 
 
 J.C. Breckenridge V.-P.... 
 
 John C. Fremont P 
 
 W. L. Davton V.-P 
 
 Millard Fillmore P 
 
 .\. J. Donelson V.-P 
 
 .-Vbraham Lincoln P 
 
 Hannibal Hamlin V.-P, 
 
 J. C. Breckenridge P 
 
 Joseph Lane V.-P 
 
 John Bell P 
 
 Edward Fvcrelt V. P 
 
 Stephen A. Dousilas P 
 
 Herschel V. Johnscnl V.-P. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln P 
 
 Andrew Johnson V.-P 
 
 George B. McClellan P 
 
 G. H. Pendleton V.-P 
 
 Ulvsses S. Grant P 
 
 Sehuvler Colfax V.-P 
 
 ilora'tio Seymour P 
 
 Francis P. Blair, Jr., V.-P. . 
 
 Ulysses S. t"iraut P 
 
 Kenrv Wilson V.-P.... 
 
 Horace Greeley P 
 
 B. (iratz Brown V.-P... 
 Charles O'Conor P 
 
 12 
 
 57.0G8 
 53,806 
 74,642 
 314 
 67,416 
 
 1,361 
 53,143 
 66,058 
 25,651 
 27,786 
 64,301 
 39,566 
 115,889 
 
 88,970 
 
 100,208 
 2,374 
 
 For most of the data concerning the topography, geol- 
 cy, etc. of Kentucky we are indebted to Prot. ^. b. 
 Shaler, State geologist of Kentucky and professor in the 
 Lawrence Scientific School, Cambridge, Mass. 
 
 L. P. Brockett. 
 
 Kentucky, tp. of White co.. Ark. Pop. U3. 
 
 Kf^ntucUy, tp. of Jefferson co., Kan. Pop. 1976. 
 
 Kentucky, tp. of Nicholas co., W. Va. Pop. 015. 
 
 Kentucky River rises in the mountains of Letcher 
 CO., flows in a tortuous north-westerly course some 250 
 miles, reaching the Ohio at Carrollton. Its middle and S. 
 forks join the main stream iu Owsley co. Its head-streams 
 flow through a rough region, abounding in iron, coal, and 
 salt. Great amounts of money have been expeudeil in im- 
 proving the navigation of ibis beautiful stream, which 
 steamboala now ascend to Frankfort, 60 miles, and flat- 
 boats for 150 miles. At high water cargoes are floated 
 down from its head-streams. 
 
 Kent'ville, post-v., cap. of King's CO.. Nora Scotia, 
 on the river Cornwallis and on the Windsor and Annap- 
 olis Railway, 5il miles N. E. of Annapolis. It contains 
 the principal otfices, car-shops, and engine-house of the 
 railway, and has 1 weekly paper. The scenery is fine, the 
 soil fertile, the mineral wealth great. Pop. of sub-dis- 
 triot, 1779. 
 
 Ken'yon, post-tp. of Goodhue oo., Minn., 14 miles E. 
 of Faribault. Pop. 6Z3. 
 
 Kenyon (Jonx). b. in Jamaica about nS-^i, son of a 
 wealthv idanter : was educated at the Charter-house. Lon- 
 don, and at Peterhouse College, Cambridge; cultivated the 
 friendship of Coleridge, Soulhey, and A\ ordsworth and 
 published two or three volumes of verses, not without 
 merit; but will be chiefly remembered for the generosity 
 with which he distributed his large fortune among eighty 
 legatees, many of whom were distinguished in literature. 
 B W. Procter" (Barrv Cornwall) received ±ri..00 ; Dr. Hen- 
 ry Southey, £SO0O ; Robert and Elizabeth B. Browning (the 
 
 i latter his" cousin), £10,000. D. at Cowes, Isle ot Wight, 
 Dee. 3, 1850. 
 
 ' Kenyon (Li-ovn), Lonn, b. at Gredington, Flintshire, 
 Wales Oct 5 1732; studied at the Middle Temple; was 
 called'to the bar in 1750; was associated in praelice with 
 Dunning; became attorney-general in 1 , .s2: master of the 
 rolls in 17S4 : and on the retirement of Lord Mansfield was 
 
 ' by Pitt made chief-justice of the king's bench, with the 
 title of Lord Kenyon, Baron (-,redington-apos which he 
 held till his death, which occurred at Bath in 1S02. Uo 
 made an immense fortune at the bar, but was dislike, for his 
 arrogance. His grandson, George J. Kenyon published a 
 i.'/'c (Lon., 1S73), for the purpose of justifying his character.
 
 KKNYON COLLKGK— KEPLER. 
 
 1533 
 
 Kenyon College, situated atGambier. 0., comprises | 
 three distinct ychooU — the theological seiuinary. Keuyon 
 College, and the grammar Bchool, It wa-- f'ouiHled in 1825 
 under the cor|H»rate name of the Theological t^rmiiiary of 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church in the diocise of Ohio, aud 
 opened al WDrlhingtoij, near Columbus, with the purpose 
 of rearing up miuiiiters of the gospel in the mid8t of the 
 habits and circumstances and with all the facilities of econ- 
 omy of the Western country. As pupils in elementary gci- 
 enoo and the chu-^sioa increased, an act of tiie U-git-lature was 
 obtained by which the president and pri»fetsors were con- 
 stituted the faculty of a college by the name of Kenyon Col- 
 lege, and the institution, thus moiiificd and enlarged, was 
 transferred to Uambier in 1S28. The growth of tlie insti- 
 tution is shown by the institution of its professurships : 
 Latin and Greek in 1.S25: intellectual and moral pliiios- 
 ophy in IS2'J; mathematics, natural philosopliy, and chem- 
 istry in 1S:J0; logic and rhetoric in If^.U ; mathematics and 
 civil engineering, separate from natural philosophy and 
 chemistry, in 1854; Knglish literature and history in iSjC) ; 
 ond in the theological department: systematic divinity' in 
 ls;JO; ecclesiastical polity, pastoral divinity, and sacred 
 literature in 1833; ecclesiastical history in IS37; ancl pas- 
 toral theology in 18i)D, In 1839 the seminary and college 
 faculties were organized separately hy an net of the legis- 
 lature, which conferred upon the former power to confer 
 degrees in divinity, and upon the latter power to confer de- 
 grees in the arts and sciences. The situation of the college 
 is beautiful and heulthy, on a headland to the N. of the 
 valley of the Kokosing, and in easy communication with 
 Cleveland, Sandusky. Columbus, and Cincinnati. Itsbuild- 
 ingii are elegant and comfortable. Its property — real estate, 
 buildings, farmlands, and endowments for jirofessorships — 
 amounts to$4jO,UOl), According to the constitution adopted 
 in IS21, recognized by the act of incorporation, and modified 
 in 1870, the board of trustees consists of the bishops of all 
 dioceses which may embrace territory now within the 
 limits of the diocese of Ohio, the assistant bishop of the 
 diocese in which the seminary is situated, the president of 
 KenyoD College, 4 cierical and 4 lay trustees chosen for 
 terms of ten years by the board of trustees. 3 clerical and 
 3 lay trustees elected for terms of three years by the dio- 
 cesan conventions, and 2 clerical an<l 2 lay trustees chosen 
 by the alumni for terms of four years. At the publication 
 of the triennial catalogue in 1873 the number of gradu- 
 ates was 555 — namely, from Kenyon College 453, and from 
 the theological seminary 170; 68 were graduates of both 
 schools. Kli T. Tappax. 
 
 Ke'okuk, county of S. E. Iowa. Area. 57r> square miles. 
 It is well watered, and consists of prairie lands with groves 
 of trees. The soil is good. There are productive mines 
 of coal. The county is traversed \>y a ln-uiieh of the Chi- 
 cago Hock Island and Pacific K. R. Cattle, grain, and wool 
 are staple products. Carriages and wagons are leading ar- 
 ticles of manufacture. Cap. Sigourney. Pop. 19,434. 
 
 Keokuk, city. cap. of Lee co., la., on tho W. bank of 
 the Missis-^ippi Kiver, near its confluence with the Des 
 Moines, about midway between lUirlinglon and Quiney. 
 135 miles H. K. of l)es Moines. an<l 2uu miles above St. 
 Louis. It lies at the foot of tho lower rapids, which aro 
 12 mites long with a fall of 2i feet, and is at the head of 
 navigation for tho larger class of steamboat navigation; 
 is a port of delivery, and being in the extreme S. E. corner 
 of the State, hnn received the name of'Minte City." Keo- 
 kuk is built on lime-tone blutVs 150 feet high, overlooking 
 tho river, and surrounded by a rich and productive dis- 
 trict; is well built, chiefly of brick, .Main street, the prin- 
 cipal thoroughfare, being 100 feet wide and more than a 
 mile in length. A mugnilieent iron ruilrond and liighway 
 bridge, 2300 feet in length, spans llie Mississippi; *i lines 
 of stcam-poekels ply daily to and fro ; (i railroads aro eom- 
 
 Idctcd and 3 others aro projected. It has 20 churches, 4 
 >anks, 2 daily and 3 weekly newspapers, 1 religious 
 monthly in Sweiiish, 1 medical college, 4 large public- 
 school buildings ( briek, costing $l25.lt00), a U. S. court- 
 room, a public library, gaswork-*, u loan an<l building 
 association, an<l several large pork-packing establishments. 
 A large wholesale business is d'ine in dry goods, groceries, 
 boots and shoe.-i, and all kinds of merchandise. Tho U.S. 
 givernnjcTit is eoustrueting a ship-canal, U miles long and 
 not less than 3IH) fiu-t wide, around the lower rapids at a 
 cost of about $S.O0O,OuO. Ity it a first-class water-power 
 will bo secured for manufacturing ]iurpo8e8. Pop. in 1850, 
 2478; in lsf>0, 8130: in 1870. 12,7(>fi. 
 
 Enii: J. LI:^:l'Il, Sc*\ of Citiscna* A»»ociation, 
 
 Keokuk, tp. of Wapello co., la. Pop. 700. 
 
 Keokuk .hinotioii, post-v. of Adams co.. III., at tho 
 jnni'tion of llie (Jalesluirg and t^uincy division of the Clu- 
 engo Hurlington and (Quiney K. H. and the Keokuk branch 
 of the Toledo Wabash and Western U. U. 
 
 Ke'osauqua, post-r., cap. of Van Buren co., la. It 
 has I weekly newspaper. Pop. 869. 
 
 Keo'wee, post-tp. of Oconee co., S. C. Po]>. H20. 
 
 Kep'lcr, or Keppler (Johann), b. at MagPtatt. near 
 Weil, Wiirtemberg. Dec. 27 (or 21), 1571. His father. 
 Henry Kepler, was a soldier in tho Netherlands under the 
 duke of Alva: his mother. Catherine Guidenmann, was 
 daughter of an innkeeper, antl was \inahle to rend or write. 
 Johann came intti the wctrld by a premature birlh, and ex- 
 perienced a severe attack of smallpox at six years of ngc. 
 and another nearly mortal illness at thirteen, which left 
 permanent traces upon his constitution, so that he was a 
 sutferer through lile from fevers and jicriodical diseases. 
 In early childhood he was taken from school to serve as 
 waiter in a miserable inn his father liad set np at Elmcr- 
 dingen. but as the business diil not prosper, the father en- 
 listed as a soldier against the Turks and was never heard 
 from again. Young Kepter. having had to sutler from the 
 severities of his mother, sought refuge ui(h an only sister 
 married to a Protestant minister, and the latter, fin<Iing tho 
 hoy too feeble to work in the fields, obtained for him in 
 1586 admission to a Protestant monastic seho(d at Maul- 
 bronn ; and having shown aptness for learning, he was sent 
 in 158S. at the expense of the duke of Wurtemberg. to the 
 University of Tiibingen to prepare for the ministry, and 
 took his degree of M. A. in 15',H, His theses on theolog- 
 ical topics exhibited too great freedom to merit the appro- 
 bation of that faeulty, and. abandoning his studies in that 
 department, be turned with eagerness to the astronomical 
 theories of Koperniek (Co])ernicus) as expounded by 
 Mostlin. His proficiency was such that in J50I. at the 
 age of twenty-two, he was ap|)ointed professor of mathe- 
 matics at the Ihiiversity of (iratz in Styria. where the saino 
 year ho ]iublished an almanac, and in 15(10 n co^^mograpli- 
 ical treatise filled with erode fancies drawn from a mixture 
 of theology with nialheniatics. In 1507 he married a beau- 
 tiful widow of noble birth. liarbura Muller von Mnlech. and 
 was required by her t<i produce proofs of his own nobility, 
 which ho is said to have done, but tho evidences furnished 
 by the innkeeper's son could scarcely have been very satis- 
 factory: at nil events, the union was not n happy one. In 
 150'J ft series of religious persecutions began in Styria. and 
 culminated two years later in the expulsion of the Protest- 
 ant professors from the University of (^iriitz. Kepler had 
 visited Tycbo llrahe. the most eminent astrononiir of the 
 time, at Peiiach. near Prat;ue. in liiliO, and joyfully accept- 
 ed an invitation to aid him in the ealculr.tion of a new set 
 of '* Kudolphinc" astronomical tablfs ordered by the em- 
 peror Rudolph II., who was ambitious of scientific honors 
 and wished to replace the Ptolemaic and Copcrnican tables 
 by others bearing liis own name. Unfortunately. Kepler, 
 who entered ujton liis new labors in Si-pt.. lOdl. as assist- 
 ant imperial mathcmaticiRn, found it impossible to live in 
 harmony with Tyeho. The latter doled out a niggardly 
 salary tlorin by fiorin, and Madame Kepler bad to make 
 jiersonal solicitations in ord»T to collect anything. Tycho 
 died the following month [Oct. 21). find Ke])ler succeeded 
 to his post, with a nominal salary of 1501) Horins jier an- 
 num, but the imperial treasury being low and payments 
 rare and irregular, he had to eke out a livelihood by east- 
 ing nativities. Astrology was then an admitted branch of 
 astronomy, and in a treatise on that subject, />«■ Fmultunfutin 
 ylWnj/o»/(V(1602), Kepler expounde<l the inilueneeof ]dan- 
 etary conjunctions upcin hnnnin destinies. A treatise on 
 optics, /'itrriflponKii*! nil ViuUinuem ( I (lOn, exhibited ac- 
 curate reseandies into the structure of the eye, and fur- 
 nished the formulas which have been ever since employed 
 in tho calculation of eclipses. In ft work published in 
 H1116, Ih St'Un .Voivi mi jmir Scrprutfirii, etc., Ke]der. be- 
 sides describing a new star in the ctmstidlation of the Ser- 
 pent, made the correction of I'our years in the era of the 
 birth of Christ which has since been accepted. In lOdD 
 appeared his greatest work, the AHtrmioinia iVorvi, com- 
 piled from the observations of Tycho Itrahe. supplemented 
 ny his own, in which the motions of the planet Mars were 
 made the basis for two of the important corrections of the 
 received astronomical theorii'S known as Kepler's Laws — 
 namely, the cllipticity of the planetary orbits, and the fact 
 that the U viiM s VriToii (which see) of every planet pasM s 
 over cqmil areas in etpml times. These brilliant discoveries 
 were, as Kepler truly said in his title-page, "wrought out 
 by persistent research extending over nmny years" i/'fti- 
 riuiii iinimnim /ttrthntrt utuiiio rlnfuirftta), the mathematical 
 oaleulatioits having been ten times repeated for every op- 
 position of Mars, and each filling ten ])ages of figures. All 
 this was without the aid of logarithms, which wc re not in- 
 vented until five years later (by Napier in 161 lb Kepler's 
 worbily position was not imjiroved by these wonderful re- 
 searches; his salary was 12.000 crowns in arrears; Iho 
 emporor refused him permission to accept a professorship
 
 1534 
 
 KEPPEL— KKRATKY, DE. 
 
 elsewhere; he lost his wife and three bods by the smallpox; i 
 a conflict arose between Rmiolph and his brother Matthias ' 
 for the crown of Bohumiii; i'mj^ue was attacked by the troops 
 of the former (IGll), and was devastated by the plague. ; 
 Uudolph, having resigned the crown the same year, died at 
 Prague soon after (.Ian. 20, 1()12), and Matthias having be- 
 come emperorof Germany, as well an kinj^ of Bohemia, con- I 
 firmed Kepler as imperial astronomer, allowed him to accept 
 the prnfe?sc)rship of mathematics at (he Vniversity of Linz, 
 and in lOlil summoned him to the diet at Ratisbon to per- j 
 suade the Protestant princes of the necessity of accepting } 
 the Grecjoriau correction of the calendar, for whieh purpose i 
 he wrote a short treatise. In 1615 he married his second I 
 wife. Susanna Rettinijer. after a careful scrutiny of tho ! 
 comparative advantages of an alliance with no less than 
 eleven ladies, an estimate of whose charnefers he has left 
 on record in a letter to Baron Strahlendorf About the 
 same time his aged mother, who still lived in the duchy of 
 ■\Vurtemberg. became a victim of her son's scientific repu- 
 tation. She was formally accused of "having learned 
 magic from an aunt, who was burned as a witch, of having 
 frequent interviews with the devil, of being unable to shed 
 tears, of killing the pigs in tho neighborhood by riding 
 them at night, of not being able to look in the eyes of per- 
 sons with whom she talkeil. and of having hired the grave- 
 digger to exhume her husband's skull to make of it a cup 
 for a present to her son Kepler." This trial lasted five 
 years, and only a personal appeal (in 1020) made by Kep- 
 ler to the grand duke saved his mother from the flames. 
 She was released only after every ignominy short of actual 
 torture, though bravely maintaining her innocence, and d. 
 in T()22. At Linz. Kepler was now denounced by tho 
 Catholic priests as not only a heretic, but as the son of a 
 witch. During these sufferings he had worked out tho 
 third and greatest of his immortal laws — namely, "that 
 the squares of the periods of revolution of any two planets 
 are to each other as the cubes of their mean distances from 
 the sun." This discovery was made, as Kepler was careful 
 to record, on May 15, 1018, after seventeen years of study 
 upon the observations of Tycho : it was published in IfilO 
 at Tjinz, in a folio volume, flunnouiri h Mmuli L ihri V., dedi- 
 cated to King James I. of England, the father-in-law of 
 the elector palatine, who had just become king of Bohemia, 
 and whose claims to the imperial crown gave rise the same 
 year to the Thirty Years' war. The rival candidate, Fer- 
 dinand II., deposed as king by the states of Bohemia in 
 tho same month that he was elected emperor of (iermany 
 (of the Romans), desired to conciliate the favor of men of 
 science; ho offered to pay Kepler's arrears of salary and 
 to enable him to issue the '' Rudolphine Tables,'' but tho 
 breaking out of the great war postponed for years the ful- 
 filment of the promise. At last, after a delay of a quarter 
 of a century, they were pulilishe<l at ITlm in 102". At tho 
 invitation of Wallenstein, Kepler removed in 1020 to Sagan 
 in Silesia, and soon after received an appointment as pro- 
 fessor at the University of Rostock. Having gone to 
 Ratislion in lfi.*iO to negotiate in vain for the payment of 
 his long arrears of salary, he d. there Xov. 15, and was 
 buried in St. Peter's churchyard, tho spot being now cov- 
 ered by a tompTe-monument erected to his memory in 1S03. 
 He composed his own epitaph in tho following striking 
 words : 
 
 " Mcnsus cram coclos, nunc terrte metior umbras : 
 Mens cceicstis erat, corporis umbra jacet." 
 
 (•'T have measured the heavens; I now measure the shades 
 of tho earth. The mind was of heavenly origin : only tho 
 shadow of the body lies here.") Kepler published, besides 
 the works already specified, an abstract of the Ci)pcrnican 
 system, Epitome Afitronomi'ir Copcrnictr, in T //. h'lirot dt- 
 ffeNta, etc. (liinz, 2 vols.. lOlS-22) ; a treatise on Ih'optrica 
 (Frankfort. IGll ; London. 105.^), which in the opinion of 
 Sir David Brewster hii«l the foundation of optics; a small 
 work on Comets (1019); several series of Epfiemcride^, 
 and numerous minor productions on astrology or other 
 subieets, written chiefly for bread. His total published 
 works were .^:i in number, and he left 22 volumes of IMSS,, 
 of whieh (hose containing the correspondence were printed 
 in 171S. and the remainder were included in a new edition 
 of all his works published at Frankfort in 8 vols. (1858-70). 
 
 PonTER C. Bmss. 
 Kep'pel (ArGusTFs), Viscofnt. b. Apr. 2, 1725, was a 
 son of the second earl of Albemarle; entered the navy in 
 1710; circumnavigated the world with Lord Anson: was 
 made rear-admiral in 1702. For many years ho was very 
 successful in isolated nnviU engagements, commanding a 
 single vessel or a small squadron. In hie only general en- 
 gagement with the French, whieh took place near t^shant 
 in July, 1778. the victory remained uncertain, and Keppel 
 was tried by court-martial, but acquitted, and his conduct 
 approved, lie was several times first lord of the admiraltj; 
 
 WM in 1782 made Viscount Kcppcl of Elvedou, and d. in 
 Suffolk Oct. 2, 1786. 
 
 Keppel (Sir Henrv), K. C. B.. a younger son of the 
 earl of Albemarle, and an admiral in the English navy, b. 
 June 14, IS09 ; entere<i the navy af an early age; was lieu- 
 tenant in 1829, commander in IS.I.'J, captain in I8;i7, com- 
 modore in 1856, vice-admiral in 1807, and full admiral in 
 1809. His early service was on tho Enst India, Mediter- 
 ranean, and Cape of (Jood Hope stations, and on the coast 
 of China, where he commanded the Dido 18(1—15; in the 
 Crimean war he commanded the naval brigade before Se- 
 bastopol : was again (1850-57) in command on tho Chinese 
 waters, and created K. C. B. for the destruction of a Chi- 
 nese war-fleet; naval commander-in-chief at Cape of Good 
 Hope ISOO, from whence he was transferred to the Brazil- 
 ian station; vice-admiral and comniander-in-ehief on the 
 China and Japan station 1807-60. returning to England in 
 the latter year as admiral. Auth<tr of Expedition to Bor- 
 neo and Visit to the India)} Archipffftf/o. 
 
 Ker'atine [<lr. Ktpai;, "hem"] (another name that has 
 been proposed is Elnstilie\ a chemical term which has 
 been introduced to designate a supposed specific substance 
 forming the bai^is of a large class of animal substances, 
 such as horns, hotfn, nuija, elaiee, wool, hair, /ent/ttrs, cuti- 
 cle, etc. No sufficient correspondence has yet appeared, 
 however, in analyses of preparations made by nny of the 
 methods yet tried upon these substances, to justify the es- 
 tablishment of a specific name for all. The entire insol- 
 ubility of all of them in all solvents yet tried— except al- 
 kalies, which show chemical change by evolving sulphur- 
 etted hydrogen — has been the (djstaclc to their purification. 
 After boiling them in fine shavings with water, alcohol, 
 ether, concentrated acetic acid, and dilute soda, until all is 
 removed soluble in these agents^ Schercr found mean re- 
 sults about as follows: 
 
 ButTnlo horns. Humno nails. 
 
 Carbon 51.23 50.94 
 
 HvdroDjen 6.66 0.77 
 
 Nitrogen 17.18 16.80 
 
 5V^"^ I 24.23 24.99 
 
 Fulphur ) 
 
 Ashes 0.70. _fl50 
 
 'lOO.OO 100.00 
 
 Another chemist, named Lear, found, as a mean of two 
 analyses of human hair, calculated without the ashes — 
 
 Carbon 50.42 
 
 Hydrogen 6.34 
 
 Nitroeen '7.38 
 
 Oxvpen 20.91 
 
 Sulphur 5.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 Lenr made also some examinations of tho ashes of hair of 
 
 different colors: 
 
 Percentage of ashos. Peroxide of iron. 
 
 Brown hair From 0.32 to 1.10; from 0.00 lo 0.-39 
 
 Black hair " 1.02 " 1.15; 0.21 
 
 Bed hair " 0.54 " 1.85; " 0.17 " 0.27 
 
 Gray hair '* 0.75 " 1.00; 0.23 
 
 Other constitnents of tho ashes were chloride of sodium, 
 sulphates of lime and magnesia, phosphate of lime, and 
 silica. Comparing the composition of hair with that nf 
 tho proteids (see article on Ai.ut mivn). it apjiears that it3 
 carbon atid hydrogen are somewhat less, its nitrogen some- 
 what less, and its oxygen about the same; but the main 
 diiTerenco appears to be in the sulphur, whieh is /our or 
 fire tiinrti as larue. According to some fashionable notions 
 of the day, as that of pho=phoretted food to nourish the 
 brain and bones, and so forth, sulphuretted food should 
 possibly siimulato the growth of the hair; but there is as 
 yet little probability, and less evidence, of the validity of 
 such notions. Hkvrv Wi rtz. 
 
 K^ratry, de ("ArcusTE Hii,.\rion). b. at Bennes Oct. 
 2^. 17G0. After the restoration of the Bourbons he was a 
 warm and courageous supporter of liberal measures, and 
 enntributed very much to the revolution of IS^O. Louis 
 Philippe made liim a peer of Franco in L'*.''.7. He opposed 
 Xnpolenn strongly, and after the coup d'/tat he lived in 
 retirement. I), in Nov., ISfjO. Besides a great number of 
 pnmplilets and minor essays, among which was Questions 
 «? Vnrdrc dit /our i\^?-7), he wrote seveniJ large novels and 
 books of art -criticism: Fr^dfric .^naidall (1827), Saphira 
 (1S,?5). Dn hrrtu dnvn hs arts d' imitation (1822). 
 
 K^ratrv, de (Estii.t:), Coi-vt, son of Auguste, b. in 
 Paris Mar.20. 18^2. From an old feudal family of Britta- 
 nv. he abandoned its legitimist traditions, served as a vol- 
 unteer during the Crimean war, then as a French gucrillero 
 in the Mexican campaign 1P0.V05, nnd published afterwards 
 in several reviews some articles denouncing the frauds and 
 impolicy of the imperial intervention in ?dexico. He thus 
 gained some celebrity, and in 1 809 was returned to the Corps 
 L^'gislatif as an opposition deputy by tho Brest electoral 
 district. AVhen the revolution of 1870 burst out, K6ratry
 
 KEHBELA— KEROSENE. 
 
 1535 
 
 was made at first prefect of police of Paris ; then ns gene- 
 ral of division he organized nearly fifty ImUalions in Bre- 
 tagno ; came into conflict with tiiirabetta and the hiwyers, 
 whom he acci^ed of incapacity : and was prclVct nf Tou- 
 louse and of Marseilles undcrthc Thiers Kovi'rninent ( 1871- 
 72). Felix Aicakjnp:. 
 
 Kcrbe'la, or .>feshed-Hossf in, a city of Asiatic 
 Turkey, [irovince of Irak'-Arabi, 50 miles S. AV. of 6at;dnd. 
 Pop. estimated at 2t>,000. It has five p:ntc!?. a well-supplied 
 bazaar, and 7 caravanseries, and derives ;;ieat sanctity in 
 Muhumiiiedan eyes from the ma.a;nificent tomb of Hussein, 
 who was killed here. It is a place of pilj^rimapc. largely 
 inhabited by Persians, and much coveted by Persian 
 monarchs. 
 
 KerToot (.Tons Baruett). LL.D.. b. Mar. 1, ISIfi. at 
 Dublin, Ireland, and educated at FIu«hin:j Institute and St. 
 Piiur.-* Cnllege. N. Y.. whence he {graduated in 1 834 : was or- 
 dained deacon Mar. 1, 18;J7 : priest. Mar. 1. 1S40 :and bishop 
 of tho diocese of Pittsburg Jan. 25, ISfifi; received the degree 
 of 1>. D. from Columbia College, N. Y.» in 1850, and from 
 Trinity College, Cono., in 1865 : and the degree of LL.I>. 
 from tho I'niversity of Cambridge, England, in 1807: was 
 president of St. James's College. Md., 1812-64, and of 
 Trinity College, Hartford, Conn.. 1861-66 ; and published 
 baccalaureate anil other college addresses, sermons, episco- 
 pal addresses, and charges. 
 
 Ker'guelen Land, an island in the Indian Ocean, 
 taking its name from the French navigator who discovered 
 it in 1772, lOU miles long and 50 mile^ broad, is situated iu 
 lat. 4'J° 54' S. and Ion. 70° 10' E. It has many bays and 
 inlets, and a harbor at the northern extremity was <inc of 
 tho stations for American and British observers of the 
 transit of Venus in Dec, 1874. Seals formerly abounded, 
 but aro no\T extint;t ; large flocks of wild fowl still remaiu. 
 The island is barren, covered with moss, and has but a few 
 flowering plants, the most important of which is the so- 
 catted '* Kerguelcn's Land cabbage," the Priugha antt- 
 trnrbntirn^ a cruciferous plant, having a head somewhat like 
 that of the cabbage. It has pungent qualities, like those 
 of horse-radish and mu^tar<l, and a'munds in a volatile oil. 
 It is antiscorbutic, and is valued as fond by mariners. 
 
 Kerkook% a large town of Koordistan, Asiatic Turkey, 
 100 miles S. K. of Mosul and UO mile? X. of Bagdad. Po*p, 
 Ili.OoO. The town stands on a commanding eminence nearly 
 perpendicular on all sides: it has numerous mos<|Ucs and 
 three Catholic churches. Near by are inexhaustible sup- 
 plies of naphtha, whieh is the principal commodity. 
 
 Kerl^rec, de fLoris Billoiart), Crevai-ier, b. at 
 Quim])f'r, France, in 1704; entered the marine corps at 
 flcvonteen years of age ; was in fourteen campaigns, dis- 
 tinguishing himself on board the Neptune in the memora- 
 ble coniliats of .Aug. and Oct., 1716, and Oct. 21, 1747, in 
 tho latter of which he was in comman<l after his .superiors 
 had been killed or wounded. In 1752 he was apjtointcd 
 governor of Louisiana, and remained at that post for ten 
 years, comprising the whole period of the ."^evon Years' 
 war. Returning to France in 17(14. he was charged with 
 peculation and undue severity, anil thrown into the Bas- 
 lilo. Sentence of exile was pronounccil in 176*.), but he was 
 about to submit new evidences to the tribunal wlien he d. 
 at i*aris ."^ept. It, 1770. He wrote memoirs upon Louisiana, 
 never published and supposed tu be lost. 
 
 Kerinan%the ancient CarrtmaHin,a province of Persia, 
 extending along the tJulf of Persia, from Farsistan in the 
 W. to Beloochistan in the E. It comprises an area of about 
 65,000 square miles, with only 600.000 inhabitants. The 
 northern part is a desolate plain, where no life can exist, 
 and oven the southern mountain-land, though interspersed 
 with fertile and beautiful valleys, is nio<<tly barren and 
 rustijed rocks. The province is very little known, however, 
 with the exception of the route from Belooehistan along the 
 southern border of the desert, and that fr(»m the capital, 
 Korman, to the sea-coast. The province has a lireed of 
 camels and goats whieh are fammis for their long, silky hair. 
 
 Kerman, town of Persia, the capital of tho province 
 of Kerman. in lat. 20° 48' N. and Ion. 56° MV E. It was 
 formerly much more flourishing than now. whieh is appar- 
 ent from the fields of ruins that surround it. but its manu- 
 factures ()f shawls and carpets are still celebrated, and it 
 has some importance as a fortress. Pop. .10.000. 
 
 Kermanshah', town of Persia, the capital of a district 
 of the same name in the proviDce of Irak-Ajcmi. in lat. 114° 
 30' N. and Ion. 45° 37' E. It is a flourishing town, with 
 elegant mosques and palaces and beautiful promcimdes. and 
 is noted for the manufacture of Persian carpets. In the 
 vicinity is the celebrated rock of Behistun. whose trilingunl 
 inscription furnished the key to tho Assyrian tin4 r.ld Per- 
 sian languages. It carries on a very brisk trade with Bag- 
 dad, Tcbcran, and Ispahan. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Ker'mes [Arab., "little grnb"], or Scarlet Grain, a 
 
 dyestuff formerly once used extensively for producing a 
 biood-red. It is still emjiloyed in Spain. Africa, and the 
 East, but is to a great extent replaced elsewhere by Cociit- 
 NKAi. (which see). Kernics is the dried bodice of Cocvitn 
 fViVtV, an insect inhabiting the kermcs oak, an evergreen 
 shrub-oak of Spain and tlie Levant. Kermcs furnishes a 
 more durable but less brilliant color than cochineal. 
 
 Kermcs >Iincral, amorphous trisulphidc of antimony, 
 esL'cntially Sb^iS^. The preparation user! in medicine con- 
 tains oxide of antimony, and is liencc callc<l oxysulphide 
 of antimony. The mode of preparation for this purpose is 
 simply to boil the commercial gray sulphide of antimony 
 with an alkaline carbonate, filter, and cool for twenty-four 
 hours, when a brown-red powder is founil to have deposited, 
 which is washed and dried. Tlie jmrc amorphous trisul- 
 phide is olitained by fusion, and sudden cooling in water, 
 of the native crystalline trisulphidc. also by dissolving tho 
 latter in caustic potash, and prccijtitating with an acid. 
 It is harder than the native sulphide, and its powilcr is 
 red-brown, but lighter in color than the impure comp<iund 
 containing oxido used in medicine under the name of 
 mineral kcnnea. H. WiRTZ. 
 
 Ker'messe [Flcm. l-erkmcsif, from ktrk, "church," 
 and »)«»»]. formerly religious and parochial festivals, but 
 now more exclilsively ordinary and secular enjoyments. 
 These arc nearly the same in Flemish countries, Belgium 
 and Holland, as in any other country of old Europe; but 
 tho kcrmesses of Flanders are more extensively known, 
 because the custom was more strictly adhered to, and be- 
 cause attention was called to them through some celebrated 
 paintings of Teniers and other great Flemisli artists. 
 Dances, Ijanquets, target-sliooting, all sorts of comical and 
 even clcrieal processions, formed the bulk of popular amuse- 
 ment during the kcrmesses, which were sometimes rather 
 licentious affairs — a motive which induced Joseph 11.. llien 
 ruler of Flanders, to order that they should all of them be 
 celebrated on the same day. That rule disappeared with 
 the Austrian domination. Felix Aitaicnk. 
 
 Kern, county of S. California. Area, estimated at 7800 
 square miles. It is partly mountainous, being traversed 
 by the Sierra Nevada, and having the Coast Range on the 
 W. On the X. W, of the Sierra Nevada is the l>asin whence 
 flow the head-streams of the San Joaquin. Here is pon:c 
 tule-land which may be made very proiluctive. S. E. of 
 the mountains there is a basin which has no connection 
 with the sea. Wool is the staple product. Cap. Haviloh. 
 Pop. 2025. 
 
 Kern, a v. of AVhite Pine co., Nev. Pop. 36. 
 
 Kern (Jean Co-srad), LL.D., b. at Berling;en, Switzer- 
 land, in ISOS; stuclied at the gymnasium of Zurich, at tho 
 univerbities of Bale, Berlin. Heidi'lberg, and Paris, devot- 
 ing himself lirst to iheol()i;y, and aftcrwanU to law, in 
 which latter brnncii he took the degree of doctor. He sat 
 in tho diet of 18.^3; became in 1837 president of the su- 
 jireme court of his native canton, Thurgnu ; aided in re- 
 vising the Swiss constitution in 1S48: and became distin- 
 guished for eloquence as a member of the National Assem- 
 bly. In IH57 anil isiil he was sent as plenipotentiary to 
 Paris for tho management of vital interests, and in 1S75 
 ho became president of the Swiss Confederation. 
 
 Ker'nan (Francis), b. at Tyrone, Steuben co., N. Y., 
 .Ian. 1 (. 1^*16; gra<luated at Georgetown College, D. C, 
 ami immetliately thereafter began the study of law, enter- 
 ing upon practice at Vtica in 1S:HI; was reporter of the 
 court of appeals 1854-57, and in 1S62 was elected by the 
 Democratic party to Congress. In IS72 he was tho candi- 
 'latc of the same party for governor of New York, but was 
 not elected : in IH75 was chosen C S. Senator by the legis- 
 lature of New York. J. B. Bisiiui*. 
 
 Kern Lake, in Kern co.. Cal., is connected with Kern 
 Biver by a slough. It is full of fish, and is in part over- 
 grown with tule (Scirjni» tal{(liin). All kimls of game- 
 birds, otter, beaver, raccoons, and other game, are found in 
 the tule around it. It is in a very fertile region. Its size 
 varies with the rainfall. 
 
 Kern llivor rises in Tulare co., Cal.. flows S. and S. W. 
 through a grandly picturesque region. an<i finally divides 
 into two parts— one Mowing N. W. and N. into Tulare Lake, 
 and one into the lute-region about Kern and Buena Vista 
 lakes, with wliieh it is connected. Its upper waters abound 
 in tine trout. Its waters aro finally discharged into Tularo 
 Lake. 
 
 Kern Kiver Slonf^h, a chnnnel by which at high 
 water the surplus contents of the Tulnrc Lake in Califor- 
 nia flow northward into San Joaquin River. .At ordinary 
 staRcs Tulare Lake has no communication with the ocean. 
 
 Ker'osenc [from Gr. xiipoc, "wax," and i\atov, "oil"],
 
 1536 
 
 KERR— KKTONES. 
 
 a term applied by Abraham Gesner in 1840 to oil distilled 
 from coul in Prince Edward's Island. It has since become 
 the general term lor those hydrocarbon oils which arc suit- 
 able for burning in lamps, from whiiicver source obtained. 
 Most of the kcrof^enc now u^ed is relined petroleum. (See 
 Oil fhom Coal, Siialk Oil, and Pktuolelm.) 
 
 Kerr, county of S. W. Central Texa?. Area. S18 sqimre 
 miles. It is partly mountainous, but has much fertile land. 
 Stoek-niising and' timber-cutting are the principal indus- 
 trial pursuits. The cypress timber is of e.\ct:llcut quality. 
 Cap. KerrsviUe. Pop. 1012. 
 
 Kerr, tp. of Champaign co.. 111. Pop. 3G1. 
 
 Kerr (Johm Bozman), son of -lohn L. Kerr. b. at Easton, 
 Md..Mar. 5, 1809: graduated at Harvanl in 1830: admitted 
 to the bar in IS.''.^ ; was elected a member of the general 
 assembly of Maryland in ]8;',0 ; Uepresentative in Congress 
 in 1S48; and was sent in 1851 as charge d'affaires toiJuate- 
 mala. where he saved the lives of some prominent citizens 
 during a revolution, and received the thanks of the govern- 
 ment of that republic. On bis return he resumed the prac- 
 tice of law at Ilaltimore, and was afterwards deputy solicitor 
 of the court of claims at Washington. D. Jan. 27, 1878. 
 
 Kerr (John L.),b. at Greenbury Point, near Annapolis. 
 Mil., Jan. 15, 1780; graduated at St. John's College in 
 1791): became distinguished at the Maryland bar: was 
 Representative in Congress from 1825 to 1820 and from 
 1S:U to 1883, an.l U. S. Senator from 18-11 to 1843. D. at 
 Easton, Md., Feb. 21, 1844. 
 
 Kerr (Michael C), b. near Titusville, Pa., Mar. 15, 
 1827; studied law at the University of Louisville; settled 
 at Xcw Albany, Ind. : was elected to the State assembly in 
 18J)J : reporter t) the State sujireme court in 1862, and 
 published 5 vols.: in 18(j4: was elected as a Democrat to 
 Congress, and re-elected in 186^. ]Sfi8. 1870, and 1874, and 
 in ls7o was ehusen Sjieaker of the House. B. at Hock - 
 bridge Alum Springs, Va., Aug. lit, 1876. 
 
 Kerr's Creek, tp. of Rockbridge eo., Ya. Pop. 1833. 
 
 Kerrs'ville, post-v., cap. of Kerr co., Texas, 83 miles 
 W. by S. of Austin. 
 
 Ker'ry, county of Ireland, in the province of Munster, 
 bouniled N. by the estuary of the Shannon and W. by the 
 Atl.iutic. Area, 1853 square miles, with 1U6.014 inhabit- 
 ants: 201,800 in 1861. and 238,2:19 ia 1851. The surface 
 is mountainous; the highest muuntain of Ireland, Cnrran 
 Tual, 3410 feet, is found here, and the scenery is often very 
 beautiful, as, for instance, around the hikes of Kilhirney. 
 Rut the soil is rather inferior, and still more so is its culti- 
 vation. Oats, ])otatocs, and turnijis arc the chief crops; 
 dairying and fishing the chief occupations. The ]>npuhition 
 is very jtoor. The principal towns are Tralec and Killarney. 
 
 Ker'seymere [originally the same as cassimcrc. and 
 probaldy derived from Crfihniere]. a thin, fine-wool fabric 
 manufactured chiefl\' in the W. of England, and often called 
 heinnfy for brevity. Also a coarse-twilled, hmg-wool fabric 
 for men's wear, made mostly in the N. of England: this 
 also is called kf^rsey. The modern cnssimevrt! are phiin or 
 figured woollen or ciittnn-and-wocdlen goods, made in the 
 U. S. and Europe, and designed for men's wear. 
 
 Ker'shaw, county of X. South Carolina. Arcn, 750 
 square miles. It is traversed by the M'ateree River and a 
 branch of the South Carolina R. R. It has an uneven sur- 
 face and a soil generally fertile. Cotton, corn, and rice are 
 staple products. Cap. Camden. Pop. 11,754. 
 
 Kershaw (J. R.), b. in South Carolina; was a prom- 
 inent actor in the American civil war from the first battle 
 of Bull Run, July, 1861, where he commanded a regiment 
 of South Carolina volunteers which was raiseil prim-ipally 
 by himself; subsequently, as brigadier-general, he eoiu- 
 manded a brigade throughout the Virginia Peninsula cam- 
 paign of 1862: at the second battle of Rull Run : engaged 
 in the capture of Harper's Ferry. Sept. 15, I8r.2. iind in the 
 battle of Antietam two days later: at the battle of Fred- 
 ericksburg, where his command held the strong position of 
 Maryc's Heights, so fatal to their opponents; at Chancellors- 
 ville and at (xettysburg; transferred to the West with the 
 corps of Longstreet. he was engaged in the battle of Chieka- 
 mauga and the subsequent siege of Knoxville. Returning 
 to Virginia in 18(14, now major-general, he commanded a 
 division in the final campaign of Lee's army, terminating 
 at Appomattox Court-house. Since the war he has acted a 
 prominent part in the politics of South Carolina. 
 
 Kertch [the ancient PnntSinpmim^ town of Russia, in 
 the government of Tauridn. on the eastern side of the 
 Crimean peninsula, on the Strait of Kaffa. It was a flour- 
 ishing town, with an extensive trade and 23,000 inhabit- 
 ants, when in 1855 it was taken by the allied French and 
 English in the Crimean war, and sacked bv the soldiery. 
 Paiiticapmim was founded by the Greeks of Miletus in the 
 
 sixth century D. c. It was the capital of the ancient king- 
 dom of Bosporus, was annexed to the Roman empire by 
 Pompey 63 n. c. ; conquered successively by the Huns (375), 
 the Genoese (1280), the Turks (1475), and the Russians 
 (1771). It is alleged to have been a residence of Mithri- 
 dates, the ruins of whose palace are found on a hill adjoin- 
 ing Kertch. 
 
 Ker'ton, tp. of Fulton co.. 111. Pop. 504. 
 
 Ker'vyn dc Let'tenliove (Joseph Mahik Brpno Co5- 
 stantin). b. at St. Michel. Flanders (now Belgium), Aug. 
 17, 1817 ; engaged in histori(^al researches in early life, and 
 became one of the most distinguished authorities upon the 
 antiquities of Belgium. Among his works are ^tudc nur les 
 Cfirtnn'i/ur» (ie Froissnrt (1856), Hixtoirc de Flnndre (6 vols., 
 1847-50), both which obtained premiums for distinguished 
 merit; t/a^'/f/^s f/'^lrfpcrWf (1863). an edition of the Z.rr^*e« 
 et X<'ffnci<itiims (h: f*hHippt- (U Cfiiiiin'iieit (1867), and nu- 
 merous memoirs published by the academies of France 
 and Belgium. 
 
 Keshe'^na, post-tp. of Shawnnaw co.. Wis. Pop, 49. 
 
 Kes'trel, called also Wiiidhover, from its habit of 
 maintaining itself in one place in the air, with its head to 
 the wind, one of the smallest and most abundant of Euro- 
 pean hawks, the Fafru timiuiicultig. It is a great dcvourer 
 of mice and other vermin. 
 
 Kes'wick, market-town of Cumberland. England, 22 
 miles S. S. W. of Carlisle, at the foot of Skiddaw Mountain, 
 and beside Lake Dcrwentwater, is noted for its picturesque 
 sccnerv and as the residence of the poet Southey. Pop. in 
 1871. 2777. 
 
 Keswick I>^p6t, post-v. of Albemarle co.. Va., on 
 the Washington Citv A'irginia Jlidland and Great Southern 
 R. R., 110 miles S." W. of Washington, ]>, C. and on the 
 Chesiipcahc and Ohio R. R., 90 miles W. N. W. of Rich- 
 mond, Va. 
 
 Keszthcly', town of Hungary, is situated on the west- 
 ern side of Lake Balaton, on which it carries on a very im- 
 portant fishing business. Its breed of horses is celebrated, 
 and its trade in corn and wine extensive. Pop. 7150. 
 
 Ketch'o, or C'aclia'o, town of Anam, in Farther In- 
 dia, the capital of the province of Tonquin. on the Ton- 
 quin. Although this river is navigable only for small craft, 
 the trade of Kcteho is considerable. Bullion, lacqaered 
 wares, and fine .silks are exported. Pop. 150,000. 
 
 Ketch'ura (William Scott), b. July 7, 1813, at Nor- 
 I7alk, Conn.; graduated at West Point July 1, 1834. and 
 entered the army as second lieutenant of infantry ; prior to 
 the civil war he served in Florida against the Seininolcs, 
 upon the Western frontier, and on the Pacific coast, having 
 in 18C0 arrived at a majority in the -Ith Infantry. In Nov., 
 1861, he became lieutenant-colonel in the 10th Infantry, 
 brigadier-general of volunteers the following Fehruarv, 
 and colonel of the lllh Infantry May 6. 1864. After eight 
 months' service in the West as acting inspector-general, he 
 was in Aug., 1862, placed upon special duty in the war and 
 treasury departments in Washington. Brevetted brigailier- 
 gcneral and major-general Mar. 13, 1865; retired from Ac- 
 tive service Dec. 15, 1870 j d. at Baltimore, Md., Jane 28, 
 1P71. G. C. SiMstoNS. 
 
 Ketones, or Acetones (see Acetone). This large 
 class of bodies, though no member of it has as yet obtained 
 any practical application of importance, is of great interest 
 to chemical science and the chemical student ; and we may 
 expect to find practical uses for its memhers in the future 
 if we prosecute their study. The ketones have the same 
 empirical generic formula as the fatty aldehydes, ChHthO, 
 and each ketone has therefore its metamere among the al- 
 dehydes. The view that they are derivable from llie alde- 
 hydes, by the replacement of hydrogen by an alcohol-rad- 
 ical, does not seem substantiated by synthesis so far; and 
 their relations to the aldehydes, exhibited in the foUowing 
 table, do not apjiear to lend it any sup])ort. Chancel seems 
 first to have hypothetically pointed out that the ketones 
 are carhoni/ fides, containing a nuclear molecule of carbonic 
 oxide or e» rbonifle. Gerhardt's and AVilliamson's researches 
 supported this view, and Wanklyn demonstrated it by show- 
 ing that carbonic oxide and his ethylidc of sodium react as 
 follows, producing the ketone which is called pmpioue, 
 from being originally formed by the destructive distillation 
 of calcic propionate : 
 
 CjHsNa + CO = Xa2 4 (C:iH,oO = CCCsITs.CHs) ; and we 
 
 may represent the ordinary method of making ketones, 
 by distilling the fatty acid salts of dyad metals, in the case 
 of ftropionc, ns follows: 
 
 propionate cnrb-aato. Propione. 
 
 CslifiOj*^^" ^ C^"C*^3 + CO,C2H5,C2H6.
 
 KETTELKK— KEW-KIA.NG. 
 
 1537 
 
 On the homologic theory (see article Homoi.ocy), the ke- 
 tones, as a series of homologuos, must have a nuclear molo- 
 
 cule or radical wCO or IIj.CO; and their homologenic for- 
 mula is IIj.C'O + nHjC; the consideration of which excites 
 very curious su«;<;cstioDS and speculations. 
 
 Tho last cohimn in the accompanying table shows the 
 system of notation assigned to the ketones here tabulated, 
 by AVanklyn, who lias been the most distinguished investi- 
 gator of this class of bodies. There have been placed at 
 the end of this table two ketones of high rqnivalc-nts. dis 
 i covered near forty years ago by Bussy, but which have 
 
 Fatty Aldelijrdes: 
 Kamn nad FormaliB. 
 
 Formic CHgO 
 
 Common CoH^O 
 
 Propionic CaHgO 
 
 Butyric— ! C4HaO 
 
 Valeric ! CjHi^O 
 
 Caproic CaflnO 
 
 'Knanthylic CtFIhO 
 
 Caprylic OsII.oO 
 
 C,II„0 
 
 C.„H„,0 
 
 Fatty KctouM. 
 
 Di-hydroRen ketone 
 
 (unknown) 
 H*ydrogen-methylo ketone 
 
 (unknown) 
 Common acetone 
 
 Methyle-ethyle ketone 
 
 Propione 
 
 Metbyle-butyle ketone 
 
 Butyrone 
 
 Ethylc-amylo ketone 
 
 Valeronc 
 
 Di-amylc ketone 
 
 Palmitonc, or margarouc.... 
 Stcarono 
 
 Wanklyn'is Formula). 
 
 co{™» 
 cii. 
 
 CO. 
 
 ro. 
 
 CO 
 
 i CIIj. 
 ICIU.CII,. 
 
 cii,,cir™,ciii 
 
 CO J "la- " 
 
 CO 
 
 rcir,. 
 
 .CUj.CHa.CHj. 
 
 .. -1 ii . J 
 
 < ■ir;,rH„,cH2,cHj,CH,,CHs. 
 
 ICU2,Cir,,CII»,CIl2,CHj,CH2,CHa. 
 
 ciio,cii;,cir2,cir2.cir2,cH2,CH2.ciij. 
 
 CO,C3oIIg2. 
 
 CO.Ca^HyQ. 
 
 !)pcn po nearly forgotten that they are scarcely mentioned 
 in the textbooks. Tliey were compared by their discoverer 
 to "prrmitirli, and are easily prepared by distilling the 
 crystiillized fatty acids with lime. They should bo re-ex- 
 amined with a view to determine their practical or economic 
 value for making candles or otherwise. Hknrv Wrnxz. 
 
 Ket'teler, von (Wilhelm Emanuel), b. at Miinster, 
 Westphalia, Dec. 2."), I.SII; studied first law, and entered 
 tho civil service of his native city ; then theology, and was 
 ordained a priest in 1844. In iS41l he was made provost 
 of the lledwigskirehe of Berlin, and in 1S;»0 bishop of 
 Mentz. The energy of his character and his talents as a 
 debater and controversialist have made him one of the 
 leaders of the Ultramontane party, and one of the most 
 prominent members of the Roman Catholic Church in tier- 
 many. 
 
 Ket'tcll (Sahiki,). b. at Newburyport, Mass., Aug. .1, 
 ISflO; was an accomplished linguist, and mastered no less 
 than fourteen languages. lie assisted Mr. Goodrich in 
 preparing tho " Peter Parley " books, and was (1848-55) 
 chief editor of the Boston C<nirify, He was a clever writer, 
 and published a number of works, of which the best known 
 is Sjirrhiirnn of Amrriran Puelri/ (3 vols., 1829). I), at 
 Maiden, Mass., Dec. 3, 1855. 
 
 Kct'tcring, town of England, in tho county of North- 
 ampton. It has flomo manufactures of silk and plush. 
 Pop. M!)S. 
 
 Kettle River, tp. of Pine co., Minn. Pop. 74. 
 
 Ken'per, The, the uppermost of tho three groups into 
 whi.h the 'i'riassic or New Ucd Samlstone period is divided. 
 It is reprcsontod in Europe in different localities by two 
 very dilTercnt sots of strata, supposed to bo of contempora- 
 neous origin — the one a series of red and yellow fresh-water 
 marls an»l sandstones, and the other a more recently recog- 
 nized series of marine strata, known as the Hallstadt and 
 St. Cassian beds. About tho true position of theso latter 
 there is still, however, much dispute, and where these are 
 absent the Keuy)er is eapperl by a bone-boil of especial in- 
 terest, as in it have been found the remains of the earliest 
 known maininals { Micrntciite», etc.). Whether any portion 
 of tho American Trias is equivalent to tho European Keu- 
 per is an open question. 
 
 Kow, village and parish of England, county of Surrey, 
 <.j)posite Brentfonl, in Middlesex, 8 miles from I,ondo.n. 
 kew (lardens and the pleasure-grounds extend along the 
 Thames from Kew (Ireen to tho borders of Uiehmond. It 
 was in these grounils that Bradley's observations upon the 
 lixed stars were made about the middle of tho seventeenth 
 century, with a telescope constructed by Mr. (!. Molyneux, 
 then the owner of Kew House, which was leased by the 
 prince of Wales, son of Ocorge II., by whom the •' pleasure- 
 grounds " were first laid out, and further embellished by his 
 widow. Kew Palace, an unpretending brick house of 
 moderate si«e, became royal property in the early ilays of 
 tleorgo in., who here played his favorite part (»f " Farmer 
 (Jeorge." A cottage, secluded in the upper part of the park 
 or pleasure-grounds, is still preserved with its furniture as 
 it was left by (Jueen Charlotte. This and tho nnlenanteil 
 palaco remain in the possession of tho Crown. AVhile tho 
 Vol.. II.— U7 
 
 life of the royal family at Kew will be remembered through 
 Madame d'.Xrblay's (Miss BnrncyV) memoirs, tlie later in- 
 terest of Kew centres in its gardens and btitanieal collec- 
 tions. The large and choice collections of living plants, 
 maintained for 70 or 80 years as the private property of the 
 
 sovereign, under the administrali i( the two Aitons. futlicr 
 
 and son, were of much botanical importance. In If.lS the 
 grounds became national properly, under the contr(d of the 
 commissioners of tho woods ami forests, and the now cele- 
 brated establishment was foumled. It was placed under 
 tho charge of Sir William Il.iokcr, and since his death in 
 isr.o tliatof his son, Dr. .Tose])h II. Hooker, now president 
 of tho Royal Society. Umler these adniini.«trators r.nd tho 
 liberal .support of Parliament the royal gardens at Kew 
 have become tho largest and most im|>ortant, as well as the 
 most popular, botanical establishment in the world, both as 
 respects tho conservatories ami collections of living )ilants, 
 and in tho herbarium and noble museum of vegcluble prod- 
 ucts founded by Sir William Ilcjoker. The whole establish- 
 ment is freely open to the public every day after one o'clock. 
 Tho annual number of visitors, commencing with 9000 in 
 1841, has risen to nearly 700,000. A.sA GitAy. 
 
 Kewa'nee, posl-v. and tp. of Henry co.. III., on tho 
 Chicago liuilington and Quincv K. Ii.,'].'i2 miles W. of 
 ("hicago; has 7 churches, .'i public-school buildings, 1 na- 
 tional and 1 private bank, 1 weekly newspaper, 2 flour- 
 mills, 2 foundries and machine-shops, several wagon and 
 carriage shops, manufactories of agricultural implements 
 and of house-heating iipparatus, a distillery, and the usual 
 complement of stores. In the immediate vicinity are rich 
 farming-lands and inexhaustible beils of bituminous coal. 
 Pop. 4225. C. Bassett, Ed. '■ I.vhei'E.vde.nt." 
 
 Kcwas'kiim, tp. of Washington co.. Wis. l>op. 1,109. 
 
 Kewnu'liec,county of Wisconsin, having Lake Mich- 
 igan as its eastern bounrlary. Area, about :i4ll square miles. 
 It is chiefly covereil with foresls. and lumber is the prin- 
 cipal export. The soil is productive. Orain an<l potatoes 
 are the staple crops. Cap. Kewaunee. P<qi. 10,128. 
 
 Kcwniinec, post-v. and tp., cap. of Kewaunee co., 
 Wis., on Lake Michigan, nt the mouth of the Kewaunee 
 River, 27 miles E. of (ireen Bay City. It has several 
 churches, hotels, 2 saw-mills, and I weekly ncwsiianer 
 Pop. Ifisl. .'II 
 
 Kcwpc'nnw, county of N. Michigan, consisting of Iho 
 extremity of the peninsula known as Keweenaw I'nint in 
 Lake Superior, by which it is surrounded except on the 
 south-west .Wde. Area, about lifiO square miles, it is cold. 
 elevated, and unproductive, but abminds in valuable ar- 
 gentiferous copper, the mining of which is the principal 
 eniplr>ymenl. Cap. Eagle Harlior. Pop. 4205. 
 
 Kcw-KinnK, or Kiu-Kinng [Chinese. "Nine Riv- 
 ers"), one of the largest cities of China, situated in tho 
 province of Kiang-Si, on the Vang-tic River, near the N. 
 extremity of I'oyang Lake, 227 miles S. W. of Nanking. 
 It i« the emporium of tho great (ea-distriels S. of Povang 
 Lake, and tho shipments have reacheil 25,000,0110 pounds 
 in a single year. Tho city has two suburbs nearlv as largo 
 as itself, the uniteil population of all three beinc calculated 
 at over 1 ,000,000, notwithstanding a great loss of population
 
 1538 
 
 KEY. 
 
 and partial ruin incurred during the Taeping rebellion. 
 There is an English settlement and several American houses 
 of commerce, one of \vhieh. Russell & Co., maintains a large 
 number of steamers on the river, the arrivals of steamers 
 having numbered over 4110 in 1871. The trade is chiefly 
 in connection witli Shanghai. 
 
 Key. In modern music every regular composition is 
 written, or purports to be written, in one or other of the 
 major or minor scales. The scale chosen is said to bo the 
 I:ri/ of the piece: and the first or root-note of that scale, 
 from which all its steps or degrees are reckoned and derive 
 their character, is called the k' ipiotc or tonic. These scales 
 or keys are either major or minor, no other "modes" be- 
 ing recognized in what is distinctively known as modern 
 music. The normal form of a .«eale in the major mode is 
 that of C ; and the scale of A gives the normal form of the 
 minor mode. But under certain conditions scales similar 
 to those of C and A may take their rise from an:/ point or 
 degree of the diatonic-chromatic scale — i'. c. we may form 
 a scale commencing on I), E. F, etc., or on BI7. EI7. Cj, etc. ; 
 and as there arc twelve degrees in the origin.al scale (viz. 
 C), the number of possible scales will bo twelve in the 
 major mode and twelve in the minor. The composer has 
 therefore a choice of twenty-four keys, differing both in 
 acuteness and in certain peculiarities of expression. It 
 will be found, however, (hat every one of those additional 
 scales is imperfect in its natural order of tones and semi- 
 tones, difl'ering more or less in form from the pattern .scales 
 of C and A, and therefore requiring an adjustment of cer- 
 tain intervals to render it fit for use. Thus, on comparing 
 a scale commencing on G with that of C. as in Ex. 1, wo 
 perceive that the place of the semitone at Mi. (as indicated 
 by the sliir) does not correspond with that in the key of C ; 
 thus rendering the new scale imperfect and practically use- 
 less : 
 
 Ex.1. Scale of C Major. Scale of G. NB. 
 
 To remedy this it becomes necessary that tho F in the scale 
 of G should be raised a semitone by means of a sharp, by 
 which alteration the two scales will now be brought into 
 agreement. In music written in the scale of G mjijor every 
 F will therefore become F nharp (unless when contradicted 
 occasionally by a 3) ; and for convenience' sake in writing, 
 a sharp on F is placed once for all near the clef at the be- 
 ginning, and called the sujnatiirc. The case may be further 
 illustrated by comparing the distances of the letters in tho 
 following example: 
 
 Ex. 2. Scale nf C. 
 
 C D- 
 
 Scalc of G. 
 G A 
 
 -E— F- 
 
 -B— C- 
 
 -B-C. 
 
 -D- 
 
 -E— F- 
 
 -G. 
 
 Now, to bring the latter into correspondence with the for- 
 mer, it is evident that we must move the F at n half a space 
 nearer to G, which is tho office of a sharp when expressed 
 in n«tte?. In the key of D major there are needed tiro such 
 rectifieationsof the sciile. and accordingly two sharps — viz. 
 F anil (' — are placed at the commencement. In A major 
 three sharps are rerjuired : and all the other keys, major and 
 minor, need similar adjustment hy tho use nf sharps or flats, 
 even to the number of seven, the object being simply to 
 bring them into conformity with the csrahlished order of 
 the scale. The succession of the keys, both major and mi- 
 nor, with tho sharps or fiats required for the rectification 
 of their scales, is shown in Ex. :i : 
 Ex.3. 
 
 
 Keys with Siiaeps. 
 
 Maj. 
 
 jtfm. 
 
 Sharps. 
 
 C. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 G. 
 
 E. 
 
 F. 
 
 n, 
 
 B. 
 
 F— C. 
 
 A. 
 
 Ft 
 
 F-C— G. 
 
 E. 
 
 V,t. 
 
 F— C— G— D. 
 
 H. 
 
 <lt 
 
 F— C— G— D— A. 
 
 Ft 
 
 Dt 
 
 F — C — G — D — A — E 
 
 c-S- 
 
 At 
 
 F— C-G— D— A— E— B. 
 
 
 Ke 
 
 v-9 WITH Flats. 
 
 M„j. 
 
 .Via. 
 
 FlaU. 
 
 F. 
 
 n. 
 
 n. 
 
 z 
 
 G. 
 
 B— E. 
 
 <:. 
 
 I)-E-A. 
 
 Mr,- 
 
 I'. 
 
 B_E— A— D. 
 
 z 
 
 Uh. 
 
 B— I>-A— n— G. 
 
 h». 
 
 B— E— A— D— G-C. 
 
 tb. 
 
 A(,. 
 
 B— E— A— D-G— C— F. 
 
 The signatures of tboFC kovs or pcales nrc written as in Ex. 
 4, whore the keifnotcn of (ho ro=pt'ctivc scalps are also addod, 
 the upper note heini; tho major, and tho lower one its rela- 
 tive minor, or that having the eame signature : 
 
 ;sE 
 
 :^; 
 
 Ex. 4. C G D A E B 
 
 $ 
 
 E 
 
 B 
 
 FJ 
 
 
 GJ 
 Ob 
 
 
 DS At 
 
 Db A|, 
 
 Bb F 
 
 Thoup:h there are in reality onlv twelve major nnd twelve 
 minor scales, corresponding in nmnher with the degrees of 
 the diatonic-ehromatio scale, yet in the example just given 
 it will he noticed that the nuinhor is fj'tecn of each mode, 
 or thirhf in all. instead of twenty-four. This is explained 
 hy observing that there arc in the example three major and 
 three minor keys or scales which are in snuiui identical with 
 certain others, though tliey are difTorently written. These 
 are called the " hinominnus" keys — »'. f. keys having two 
 names, and written variously or indifferontly in sharps or 
 in flats. They arcFff and ii\f, 15 2 and C\j, and CS and Db. 
 with their relative minors. It is evident that FJand (ij*. 
 though different to the ctff, are tho same to the car, when 
 played on ordinary keyed instruments; and therefore the 
 same sounfh are produced, and the same finger-keys arc 
 usecl on the organ or pianoforte, whether a piece is written 
 and performed in the key of TJInr in that of Giy. From 
 which it follows that a given strain or movement may ho 
 written hy a composer in either of those keys at pleasure, 
 the effect on tho ear being precisely the same whether writ- 
 ten in six sharps or six flats. In Ex. 5, for instance, the 
 notes at a are in sound (and under the fingers) identical 
 with those at b : 
 
 Ex. 5.— a. In Ft 
 
 While, therefore, there are in reality {!. e, to the car) only 
 twenty-four keys, yet as three of the mnjor and three of tho 
 minor keys mny be expressed in two ways — viz. in sharps 
 or in flats — it follows that the number of keys when tcrilten 
 (but not otherwise) is thirty, as shown in Ex. 4. 
 
 To find the tonic or keynote of any piece or movement, it 
 is ordinarily sufficient to refer to the lust note in the bnss 
 (which is almost always the tonic), and then to ascertain 
 from the siffnnfnrc whether the key is major or minor. 
 Should tho final bass-note, for instance, bo C, and no sharps 
 or flats be fouml at tho elef, tho key is that of C mnjor; but 
 if we find three flnts at the clef, we know from this signa- 
 ture that tho key is C minor. T\\\», however, is only a gen- 
 eral rule, to which there are several exceptions, as when in 
 old music a movement in Bb is written with tlic signature 
 belonging to F — i*. c. with one flat only — tho second flat be- 
 ing inserted before each E in the piece as an accidental. 
 Also, in discursive pieces, digressions into new keys often 
 occur, including whole movements, without any change of 
 tho signature, the necessary flats, sharps, or naturals being 
 inserted before the notes themselves where necessary. Occa- 
 sionally also in ecclesiastical compositions the last note of 
 tho bass is not the krt/note or tonic, but the c/omninrif with 
 its major triad. M'ith these ami similar exceptions kept 
 in view, the hrt/notr and tlie scale and mode of a composi- 
 tion may bo generally ascertained by reference to the final 
 bass-note and the signature. 
 
 It is far more difficult, however, to find the key of a given 
 mclodjf than of a piece con^prising two or three parts in 
 harmnni/, because a melocly may be founded on certain 
 notes which are common to nm:rnl Hca/rn or keys, and will 
 necessarily bo equivocal until settled hy tho addition of 
 harmony. In demonstration of this see the melody or 
 theme in Ex. C, which nt first appears to be in G major: 
 
 Ex.6. 
 
 But though this may readily and very naturally be har- 
 monized in O major, yet the key in which the composer 
 conceived it mni/ possibly prove tn he V major or E minor, 
 as illustrated by the harmony in Ex. 7 :
 
 KEY— KEY-BOAED. 
 
 1539 
 
 Ex. 7. In C major. 
 
 ^^^^^^^ 
 
 ^ A 
 
 ::& 
 
 E^E 
 
 £E 
 
 ^ 
 
 In E m inor. 
 
 ^E^E^ 
 
 r^r 
 
 .*=M-36d=Fd-^ 
 
 :*: 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 -I ^ 
 
 The keynote of a pivcn melody cannot therefore be fully 
 n^jccrtaincd UDleiis tliiit melody includes in its ranj^ca/nho 
 notes of ft scale, thereby iduiitifviug itself with tliiit scale 
 by elements and progressions which would be foreign to 
 any other. 
 
 Kespecting keynotes, it may also be remarked that in 
 keys with sharps the keynote in major is always on that 
 letter which is onr nctuitoiie ahitrc the Innt Hhnrp <jf the sig- 
 nature. Thus, if there are two sharps. FJ and 05. the key- 
 note is />. When F, C, and O arc sharped, the keynote 
 will be A, and so on. In keys with Hats the keynote in 
 major is on the letter n fourth below (or a fifth uhnre) the 
 laxt jfnt at the clef. Thus, in two flats. Bb and h}y, the key- 
 note is Bb. In three flats, lib, E^, and A\j, the keynote will 
 be K^, and so throughout. The kcynnto in miuor is always 
 a minor third below the major, as A below C, G below 1%. 
 etc. In keys with sharps the minor keynote is also one 
 whole tone below the last ^harp of the signature. Thus, in 
 two sharps, FS and CJ, it is IJ : in three sharps, Ff. (% and 
 (i5, it will be FS, and so on. In keys with flats the minor 
 keynote is a si.xth below the last flat. Thus, in two flat?, 
 Bb and F^, it is (J, and in three flats, Bb, E^y, and A\j, it 
 will be C. To recollect the anicr of major keys in sharps, 
 reckon upteani bt/ prrfcvt fiftht, as from C to G, then G to 
 I>, l> to A, and so onward. This gives the succession of 
 major keys in regular order from one to seven sharps. In 
 major keys with flats, reckon duwuward htf perfect ffthi, 
 as from C to F, F to V\y, etc., and the succession of keys in 
 reguhir order from one to seven flats will be found. This 
 rule applies also to miuor keys. William Statnton. 
 
 Key (Fkancis St-oTT), b. in Frederick co., Md.. Aug. 1, 
 17711, and was educated at St.. John's College. He practised 
 law ill Frederick, Mil., aiid in Washington, I). C. lie is | 
 chiefly ri'incmbered as the author of The Sdir-Spanf/lnl 
 llnuiur, which ho composed while a prisoner iu the British 
 fleet during the bombardment of Fort Melienry. D. at 
 Baltimore Jan. II, lH4:i. A volume of his poems, edited 
 by II. \). Jcdtns, appeared in 1867. Mr. Key was a brother- 
 in-law of CJiiol-Justice Taney. 
 
 Key (Thomas Hkwitt). M. A.. F. R. S., b. at South- 
 wark, Knglaud, Mar. 20, 1791*: graduated at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Tambridgo, in 1S21 ; studied medicine, and was ap- 
 pointed professor of mathematics in the University of \'ir- 
 ginia on the first organization of that institution in 1S24. 
 lU'turning to Knglaiid in 1^27. he was for thirteen years 
 professor of Liitin in the newly-organized University of 
 London, after which ho became professor of compnrntivo 
 grammar and headmaster of the preparatory school, which 
 positions ho retained to thu lime of his death, Nov., 1S75. 
 llj! published a Lutitx (jnnnmar (IHI.i-lfi), /'hifological Eh- 
 0III/1 ( lSr»S), Lmujtuiijr, tin Orif/iit iintl /Jrrriopmeut (IH7-1), 
 
 and nniny philological essays in the magazines. His great- 
 ( U work, a Latin- Enijliih Lexieon, is still unpublished. 
 
 Key (Thomas Mahsiiall). b. in Kentucky about IftlS; 
 graduated at Yale College in \K\V>\ studied law: settled at 
 Cincinnati, and took a high position at the bar. He was 
 repeatedly elected to the Ohio senate: was in ISfil sent as 
 commissioner to the government of Kentucky in the in- 
 terests of the Union; was a member of the staff of Oen. 
 McClcllan; author of the first bill passed by Congress for 
 the emancipation of slaves, and also of that for the eman- 
 cipation of the slaves in the District of Columbia. D. at 
 Lebanon, Ky., Jan. I.'i. IMIU. 
 
 Kcy'-bonr(t,or Fingrr-l>onr(l, in an organ, piano- 
 forte, or olhi-r similar in>lrunieiit the series or range of 
 short levers, usually covcreii with ivory and ebony, on which 
 the lingers of the performer operate. Each of these Icvcra 
 is called a kejf, the longer or while ones representing tho 
 diatonic scale of C miijor in several successive octaves, and 
 the shorter or black ones furnishing tho intermediate sharps 
 and flats requisite for tho other scales. Tho key-board is 
 
 frequently denominated a hnnk^ row, or set of keys, and in 
 organs of considerable size there are two, three, and some- 
 times four, such sets. The clavichord, virgiual, spinet, and 
 harpsichord of former days were also furnished with keys, 
 tho latter frecpicntly having two sets, and in some eases 
 four and even more. Dr. Ilimbault remarks that "the 
 author of a rare volume published at Bologna in 1590, under 
 tho title of II Dvsidrri'ti, mentioning some curious instru- 
 ments in the palace of the duke of Fenara, says, 'There 
 was a harpsichord invented by Don Nic'»la Vinccntino, sur- 
 namcd Arr{ninRirt>, in the year iJ.");'). It had six rows of 
 keys, comprehending in their division the three harmonic 
 genera.' He adds that the niuhitude of strings on this as- 
 tonishing instrument rendered it very difficult to tune, and 
 more so to play." ( Thr Pitniofnrtc, itn Origin, etc.) Besides 
 the key-boards for the fingers, organs are usually provided 
 with a set of keys for the feet. Iho former being distin- 
 guished as tho muunah, an<l the latter as tho ped<da. The 
 key-board has reached its present perfect form only after 
 several centuries of experiment and improvement. In its 
 rudest elementary form we may trace its existence in the 
 small and roughly constructed organs of the eleventh and 
 twelfth centuries. It appears to have comprised at that 
 period only a few parallel levers of much larger size than 
 our present keys, and requiring a strong pressure to move 
 them. Anterior to that pcrioil we have no distinct traces 
 of this mecdianical device. *' Guido," says the author just 
 quotecl, 'Ms said to have invented the clavier or key-board, 
 and it is not at all improbable that be was the first to npply 
 it to the media'val instrument of many strings, . . . which 
 seems to have been tho same with the clavichord, and, as 
 such, was the progenitor of the harpsichord, the spinet, the 
 virginal, and the pianoforte of modern times. . . . The 
 first stringed instrument to which the key-board was ap- 
 plied was proliably the clavicytherium or kei/til cithara. In 
 its early stages it was a small ot)l(jng box, with the strings 
 arranged in the form of a h;i!f triangle." {/hid., pp. 2S-li.'>.) 
 
 The structure or plan of the key-board now in use is 
 comparatively modern, and its very outline or conception 
 presupposes such a knowledge of the diatonic-chromatic 
 scale as was ntd attained till many years after the time of 
 (luido. The probability, therefore, is, that for a long jie- 
 riod tho early key-boards consisted merely of two or three 
 octaves of short levers operating on pipes tuned in the nat- 
 ural order of the scale, with, possibly, an extra key in each 
 octave for a fliit seventh or other needed interval. The ad- 
 justment of the key-board so as to comprise «// the inter- 
 vals would, from the necessity of the case, be dependent on 
 the regulation of the elements of tho ehronuitio scale; and 
 for this reas<tn we cannot date tho formation of our present 
 key-board fartlicr buck than about the close of the twelfth 
 century or the iMginning of the thirteentli, when the struc- 
 ture of the scale began to be more clearly apprehended. 
 
 The ordinary key-hoard comprises tones and semitones, 
 but excludes all lesser or enharmonic intervals. Each black 
 key is the sharp of the while key on its left, and the Jfttt 
 of the white key on its ri;/hf. From this it follows that 
 every black key serves two distinct purposes, being a sharp 
 in one relation, and a flat in another. This apparently de- 
 fective arrangement is unavoidable, on account of a certain 
 irregularity in the scale, which if strictly met woubl require 
 us to have one black key for Cf. anri aiKdher for l'f»; and 
 so with FS and every other black key. In rrnfiii/, CJ and 
 Db are not the same sounds, nor are DJ and V\j the same; 
 but to avoiil tho eom])tcxily of mechanism ^vhich would 
 arise from the use (d" quarter-tone keys, and the nuiltipliea- 
 tion of piites or strings, the scale is so "tempered" as to 
 make eacn black key give a middle or compromise tone, 
 which shall snflicienlly answer for a sharp in the one case 
 and a flat in the other, though not truly or exactlj- repre- 
 senting cither. This same " tempering " take? place also 
 on the white keys f<ir a similar reason. Hence, all tho 
 finger-keys on tho board, whether white or black, come to 
 be representative of two or more dilTerent intervals or 
 sounds ncconling to the place and relation they may oc- 
 cupy in a musical eoniposition, or the scale In which such 
 composition is written. Thus, the while key ordinarily 
 namerl C may also be cither BJ or DW» when used in certain 
 scales: and so of every other finger key throughout tho 
 octave, as will ho seen in the iMinipI-' following: 
 
 
 r 9 
 
 .'. JS 
 
 .r 
 
 
 
 V y 
 
 1' i' 
 
 It 
 
 
 L-IL_I 
 
 nt r« Dm 
 (; D i; 
 
 1$ I'-x Om 
 
 F i; A 
 
 An 
 It 
 
 
 mm 111 
 
 *'bb|*^bb|^^ 
 
 ct nbbl 
 . 1
 
 1540 
 
 KEYES— KHANDEISH. 
 
 On the pianoforte it would not be possible to express the 
 ininulo difTurenccs bcre referred to without a multiplicity 
 of iidditioiuil slrin<;s and corresponding changes in the ar- 
 rangement of the key-board. Hut several organs have been 
 built with liey-boards and extra pipes to give quarter-tones 
 or enharmonic intervals. In those instruments each black 
 kcv is divided into two portions, one of which is used for 
 sharps, and the other for flats, thereby securing much richer 
 and purer harmony than can be obtained from organs tuned 
 on cither the equal or the unequal temperament. Harpsi- 
 chords, as already noticed, were constructed centuries ago 
 with additional strings and rows of keys, for the purpose 
 of obtaining trithnul temperamentthe advantage of quarter- 
 tones. (ScO^TF.MPEnAMENT.) WlI.I.lAM ST.\rNT0N. 
 
 Keyes (En.isvfS D.mwiM), b. at .Sturbridge, Mass., 
 .Tunc, 1810; removed in boyhood to Maine; graduated 
 at West Point in IS:i2 ; was instructor at the Military 
 Academy from ISU to 184S; was engaged in Indian w.ars 
 on Puget Sound in 1856; commanded a brigade at the 
 battle of Bull Run ; was appointed brigadier-general, to 
 date from May 17, ISGl ; was in the b.attlcs before Rich- 
 uujud in command i.f the 4th corps, and made major-gen- 
 eral of volunteers and brevet brigadier-general U. S. army 
 for gallant conduct in the field. 
 
 Key Islands, a group of islands in the Malay Archi- 
 pelago, S. of New Guinea, in lat. 5° 2o' S., Ion. 1G2° E., 
 consists of two large and a number of small islands. Great 
 Key comprises an area of 294 square miles, with 21,000 
 inhabitants: Little Key, of 2S3 square miles, with 10.000 
 inhabitants. They are of volcanic origin, mountainous, 
 fertile, and rich in timber, cocoanuts, tortoise-shells, sago, 
 and ilifferent kinds of fruits. The inhabitants, who are 
 partly Christians, partly Mohammedans, arc described as 
 hospitable, industrious, and honest. 
 
 Keynote. See Key, by Rev. William Staunton, 
 S. T. i). 
 
 Key'port, post-v. of Raritan tp.. Monmouth co.. N. J., 
 on Raritan B.ay, 2.') miles from New York City and 13 miles 
 from Freehold. It has 4 churches, 1 gradcdschool build- 
 ing (costing S:)0,000), 1 weekly newspaper, 2 saw-mills, 2 
 flour-mills, .1 large hotels, and numerous boarding-houses 
 for summer visitors. There is a fruit-canning factory, es- 
 tablished in 1SC«. employing l.iO hands. Two steamers 
 plv daily between Kcyport and New York, connecting with 
 stage-lines to several towns of New .Jersey. Koyport is an 
 important centre of the oyster, clam, and fish trade, the 
 oysters being generally brought from Virginia and planted 
 in beds until they attain their growth. Pop. 2300. 
 
 McKiVNEY & Pox, Ens. "Wepkly." 
 Keys'burg, post-v. of Logan eo., Ky.. miles from 
 Allcnsville, a station on the Louisville and Nashville R. R. 
 Pop. 133. 
 
 Key'ser (Petek D.), M. D.. b. Feb. 8, 1835, at Phila- 
 delphia; studied at Delaware College until 1851; en- 
 tered the chemical laboratory of Prof. F. \. Gonth at 
 Philadelphia: went to Europe in 1854; graduated in the 
 medical department of the University of Jena. (Jermany, 
 in 1S04; returned homo same year and entered the army 
 hospit:ils as acting assistant surgeon I'. .^. A. In I8li3 
 he became surgeon in charge of the Philadelphia Eye 
 and Ear Infirmary; in 1870 also ophthalmic surgeon to 
 the medical dep.artmcnt of the German Society of Phila- 
 delphia ; and in 1872 one of the surgeons to the Wills 
 Eye Hospital in Phihvdclphia. In 1853 he published 
 his chemical analyses of the albinites from Reading, Pa., 
 IJethlchcui, Pa., and Orange co., X. Y. : also analyses of 
 thalite and of oweuite (tliuriugitc) from Harper's Ferry, 
 Va., and in 1854 the analysis of thuringite from Germany, 
 and the analysis of barnhardite from Cabarrus eo.. N. C. 
 To the medical journals he has contributed The I'm- n/ 
 Calabar {Plii/noslirima) in Paralt/ait of Accommoilrilion 
 (1SG5); On Pn-tiilcnrc of Pupiliar/i Mfmbrniies (ISB7); 
 Injury and Dcitt ruction of an Et/e, with Bone-formation in 
 the /rr«(ISGy); Rrmovnl of n Cancrniilal Tumor from the 
 Surface of the E'l/f ( ISGO) ; On Impnirmenl of Vision the 
 retull of Denial Irritation {\!i7C): Oil the Uecoreri/ of Si'/ht 
 after Gray Atrophy of the Ontic i>i»i« (18711 ; On the Une 
 of Chloral Hydrate after Eye Operaliont (M'tl) ; Report 
 on OperaliOHH for Cataract {iS7-i) ; On Conrjenital Heredi- 
 tary Dinlocationfi of both Lennen ; Jliiptnret of the Chora- 
 dix ; Phonphalie Verjrneraiion of the Cornea (1874). 
 
 Keys, House of {Claret Immla), a body of twenty- 
 four members constituting the lowi-r house of Tyndwaid 
 Court, the legislature of the Isle of Man. All vacancies 
 arc filled by the hnnse itself. 
 
 Keys of Florida. Sec Florida Keys. 
 Keytes'ville, post-v. and tp., cap. of Chariton co., 
 Mo., on the St. Lo:iis Kansas and Great Northern R. R., 
 174 miles W. N. W. of St. Louis: has 3 churches, 2 hotels, 
 
 a largo public school, 1 bank, 1 weekly newspaper, 1 flour- 
 mill, 2 agricultural implement manufactories, and the usual 
 number of stores and shops. Pop. of v. .'j29 ; of tp. 1GG3. 
 TnoMAS D. Bocie, En. "Herald." 
 Key West [a corruption of the Spanish Cayo Ilnem, 
 "b(uie reef "], post-v., cap. of Monroe co., Fla., is the ex- 
 treme southern boundary of the U. S., and forms the en- 
 trance to the Gulf of Mexico, being distant about fiS' from 
 the coast of Cuba. It is situated on an island of the same 
 name, 7 miles long by 1 to 2 wide, of coral formation, ele- 
 vated only 11 feet above the level of the sea, and covered 
 with a thin layer of soil, on which tropical fruits are suc- 
 cessfully cultivated. The town is a naval station, has a large 
 dfpat for U. S. stores, etc. ; it possesses a good and spacious 
 harbor; is in connection with the Northern States by Mal- 
 lory's lino of steamers, and with New Orleans by a line of 
 steamers running from th.at place weekly i-i'^ Cedar Keys, 
 where it connects with the railroad. Key West has a fine 
 marine r.ailway, where ships of .'lOO tons may be hauled out 
 for repairs. There are 7 churches of the various denom- 
 inations, 2 weekly papers, 2 public and several private 
 schools, a convent, 1 hotel. 3 large and extensive cigar-fac- 
 tories, where about 2500 Cub.an refugees are employed in 
 making cigars. On the S. W. point is a lighthouse, with 
 a fixed light 72 feet above the water, situated in 24"' 33' N. 
 lat. and 81° 47.3' W. Ion. The inhabitants proper are em- 
 ployed in mercantile pursuits, fishing, sponging (which is 
 a source of wealth), and wrecking. The population has 
 increased largely of late by emigration from the Bahamas 
 and Cuba. Pop. about 0000. 
 
 i;. J. Flemminc, Ed. "Key West Dispatch." 
 KhabOUr' [C.r. Cliaboras; Heb. Halior or Chebar], a 
 river in .\siatio Turkey, tributary to the Euphrates, which 
 it joins at Kerkesich after a course from N. to S. of 190 
 miles. It is noted in biblical geography as the river along 
 which the captive Israelites were settled, and is frequently 
 mentioned in the cuneiform inscriptions. Another smaller 
 river of the same name is a tributary of the Tigris. 
 
 Khaldun' (Ibn), otherwise called Waly Eddix Abu 
 Zeid Abdalrahmas. h. at Tunis, Africa, in 1332 : studied 
 polite letters for some years in Granada: was then em- 
 ployed in the service of his own sovereign, and in that of 
 the sultan of Fe?, ; made the pilgrimage to Mecca in 13.82, 
 and settled at Cairo, Egypt, as instructor in several colleges ; 
 was sent as ambassador to the conqueror Timour at Damas- 
 cus about 1400: was chief cadi at Cairo in 1384, and again 
 in 1400. and d. there in 140fi. He was one of the most dis- 
 tinguished of the Arab writers, and left a vast History of 
 the Arabs, the Persians, the Berbers, ai:d the Nations among 
 whom they hare Lired, which is one of the principal author- 
 ities upon Oriental annals. 
 
 Kha'Icd (surnamed " The sword of God "), b. in Arabia 
 in 582 ; commanded the cavalry of the Koreish against 
 Mohammed at the battle of Ohud in 623 : was converted to 
 Islam in 029; saved the army of Mohammed at the battle 
 of Muta the same year, gaining the surname by which he 
 was ever afterwards known: invaded Persia in 632; took 
 Bozrab. besieged Damascus, and defeated the generals of 
 the emperor Ileraelius at Aiznadin in 633: stormed Da- 
 mascus in 034; took Aleppo in 638. D. at Emesa 642. 
 
 Khalkas', the name of the northern part of Mongolia, 
 a part of the Chinese empire, and extends between Sibe- 
 ria, the river Amoor, the desert of Gobi, and the Altiii 
 Mountains. It consists mostly of vast steppes, where the 
 inhabitants lead a miserable, sluggish, and savage life. 
 Ranges of mountains traverse the country, however, beau- 
 tifuirv terraced and well wooded, and here are the seals of 
 the immense Booddhist monasteries. The inhabitants are 
 Mongolian Tartars, and ]irofess Booddhism. The country 
 was the birthplace of Genghis Khan. Cap. Oorga or Urga. 
 Khallikan' (Ibn), also called Shems Eddin Abil Abbas 
 Ahmed, I., at Arbela, near the Tigris, in 1211 : became pro- 
 foundly versed in Arabic literature: lived for a time in 
 Cairo E^vpt; was chief cadi at Damascus in 12G1, and 
 again' in"l 277, and d. in that city in 1282. He left a Bio- 
 uraphieal Dictionary of the Illustrious Men oj /»/..m, which 
 contains data upon 'several thousands of persons, and is 
 invaluable to the student of Oriental history. 
 
 Khan [formerly spelled cham in many cases], a title 
 given to many Tartar magnates and kings, also to East 
 Indian princes under the Moguls. The old spelling co.cn 
 (as in Jaflier Ally Cawn) fairly represents the true pro- 
 nunciation. 
 
 Khandeish', orCandeish, a district in the Bombay 
 presidenev, British India. E. of Guzerat and N. of the Ni- 
 jam's dominions. Area, 12.000 square miles. Pop. about 
 80,000. Formerly a part of the Mogul empire, it was an- 
 nexed in 1818.
 
 KHANG-III— KHIVA. 
 
 1541 
 
 KhaiiK*Hif or Kang-Ui [Manchu, "inalterable 
 
 peace"], second cmperur ot Cliiua of the present Manchu 
 dynasty, b. in \Obi ; was orij^iuall y named Ui-mcn - Yt 
 ("blue spark"): succeeded t« the tbrouc in 1GG2 ou the 
 de:vlh of bis falber, Chun-Chi, under the regency of four 
 innndarins; assumed the povernmeut in li)G7. and imnie- 
 diatfly put to death one of the regents; introduced the of- 
 ficial tcacliinL; of I he Kuropean system of astronomy (IGfi"), 
 studyinfr it himself under the iustruction of the Jesuit Fa- 
 tlier Ferd. Vcrhiost ; suppressed a formidable revolt made 
 by the prince of Yunnan (167:i): annexed Kwnnp Tung 
 (iCSO). Fo-Kien (ltJSI)» and Formosa to the empire: con- 
 cluded with UusHiia a treaty of peace and limits at Nip- 
 chow (Sept. ;>, Uisy ) : was cured of a fever by Jesuit physi- 
 cians (by the use of quinine), who thus pained the ascend- 
 ency at bis court; annexed Thibet about 17lM(; authorized 
 a persecution of Christians in 1717, and d. Dec. 20, 1722. 
 Kbang-Hi is esteemed the greatest of the Chinese sover- 
 eigns, and through the Jesuits became the best known in 
 Europe; he caused the publication of important works on 
 the language, history, and literature of China, and directed 
 the topographical survey (1708) executed by Jesuits, by 
 whieb Chinese geography is best known. 
 
 Khnnia. See Canra. 
 
 Khanpoor', or Kbaunpoor% town of British India, 
 in the N. W. Provinces, the capital of a district of the same 
 name, on the Ganges, is dirty and poorly built, V»ut has ex- 
 tensive manufactures of jewelry and leather, an<l carries on 
 an active trade. It is a military station, and the part of 
 the city occupied by the barracks and their gardens has a 
 very fine aspect. Pop. about 50,000. 
 
 Kharkov'9 government of European Ilussia, traversed 
 by theUon and ilsafiluents. Area. 20,737 square miles. Pop. 
 I, GH 1,18(1. It is low, mostly level, but very fertile. Wheat, 
 wine, and tobacco arc raised in great quantities, and large 
 herds uf cattle reared. Manufactures are unimportant. 
 
 Kharkov^ town of European Russia, the capital of the 
 government of Kharkov, on the Kbarkova, an affluent of 
 the Don. It is a nourishing town, with several good edu- 
 cational institution: , and four annual fairs which arc much 
 fre<(uented, especially the wool-fair in spring, at which (he 
 value of the wool sold generally amounts to £1,IJO,000. 
 Pop. .>'J.yC8. 
 
 KhartoomS town of Egypt, in Upper Nubia, at the 
 conlluenco of the Blue and the White Nile. It has a con- 
 siderable trade, being the centre of several caravan-routes, 
 especially in slaves and ostrich feathers. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Khatmandoo', or Katmandu', the capital of Nc- 
 paul. Ilindostan, in lat. 27° \'V N. and Ion. 85° 15' E. It 
 i.^ poorly built, many even of its tem[)lcs being built of 
 wonil ; the streets are narrow and dirty. It has no great 
 commcreial importance. Pop. .'>0,000. 
 
 Khazars, or Chazars, a powerful tribe of Finnic or 
 Magyar stock, settled N. of the Caucasus, near the mouth 
 of the Volga. They had kings of their own, and derived 
 some celebrity by their conversion to Judaism in the eighth 
 century. 
 
 lihc'dive, with the predicate of aftcsae ("highness'*), 
 is, since I8fi7. the official title of the viceroy of Egypt. The 
 vicoregency is hereditary in the family of Meliemet Ali 
 since 1811, according to the Turkish law of succession, and 
 since 1M60 in direct line— (hat is, from father to son. The 
 first khedive of Egypt is Ismail, pon of Il>rahtm Pasha, b. 
 in 1830; he succeeded his uncle. Said Pasha. Jan. 18. 18G3. 
 Ismail is an energetic and active ur.in, always busy with 
 plans of increasing his power. In 18G'Jho travelled in Eu- 
 rope like a sovereign prince in order (o e?tJiblish connec- 
 tions with the powers which couhl help him to acquire a 
 greater independence of the sultan ; he especially courted 
 the aid of Napoleon III. But this journey excited great 
 displeasure at the court of C»mstantinople, which by (hrents 
 compelled him to deliver up the vessels of war and the guns 
 which he had bought, and to repair personally to Coni<tan- 
 tinople in order to prove hissubmisst«m. By judicious bribes, 
 however, the kli'-tiive has succeeded in obtaining more in- 
 fluence at the court and greater advantages from the sultan. 
 In 1873 he acquired the right of concluding commercial 
 tro\ties wi(h foreign powers, anil in the internal government 
 of the country ho has complete autonomy. He has tiime 
 mucl) to introtlucc European civilization into his country. He 
 has not attempted, however, to educate the people and raise 
 it to a higher standpoint ; he has only established European 
 institutions in the country, without any preparations, com- 
 pletely, despotically ; and thus in Egypt civilization covers 
 barbarism like a varnish. There exists since l8rtG a rep- 
 resentation of the people, but the khodive rules, neverthe- 
 less, absolutely, and (ho poor representatives are only pup- 
 pets. Magniticent buildings have been erected at Alexan- 
 dria and Cairo ; the great undertaking of building the canal 
 
 of Sues received great support from the khedive ; French 
 opera iscstablisbedin amost splendid style ; and on diffennt 
 occasions, especially at the opening of the Suez Canal, the 
 khedive received his European guests with brilliant and 
 prodigal hospitality. The army and fleet are in excellent 
 ctmdition, and provided with arms of the latest improvement ; 
 different expediti<»ns have been undcrlaken to the S., in 
 order to extend the authority of Egypt and suppress the 
 slave-trade; but the taxes are very heavy, and arc gath- 
 ered with despotic severity from the poor people, exactly 
 as in the time of the Pharaohs. Alglst Niemann. 
 
 Kherson', government of European Russia, bordering 
 on the Black Pea. W. of the Dniester. Area, 28,G6G square 
 miles. Pop, 1,107.905. The northern and eastern parts 
 are billy, fertile, and often covered with splendid forests ; 
 the southern and eastern parts are a saline steppe. Agri- 
 culture is often impeded by lack of water, and by the im- 
 mense change of climate, from (he scorching heat of the 
 summer to the piercing eold of the winter. Tobacco is 
 extensively cultivated; cattle, sheep, and silkworms are 
 reared. 
 
 Kherson, town of European Russia, the capital of the 
 governmeut of the same name, on the right bank of the 
 Dnieper. It was founded in 1778 by Potemkin ; has sev- 
 eral good educational institutions, some manufactures of 
 salt, leather, and rope, extensive shipbuilding, and a large 
 trade in timber. Pop. 45,92G. 
 
 Khi'va, khanate of Toorkistan. in Central Asia, which 
 until recently was lield to extend from the Sea of Aral on 
 the N. to the Persian frontier ou the S., and from Bokhara 
 on the E. to the Caspian Sea on tlic W., thus comprising a 
 vast region, mostly desert, with an area variously calculated 
 from 195,000 squ.are miles down to 44.000. and a population 
 estimated with equal uncertainty from 2.000.000 down to 
 480,000. As the result of a war with Russia in 1873, the 
 limits of Khiva were much reduced, and were in part defined 
 by treaty, while more accurate data were obtained for the 
 population. By the treaty the new E. boundary is the river 
 Amoo, or A[nu-Durya (the ancient Oxus), from Kukertli 
 in lat. 40° X. to the Sea of Aral, and thence S. W. along 
 the so-called " ancient bed of the Oxus " to the Caspian, in 
 about lat. 40° N. The Khivan territory E. of the Amoo 
 was ceded to Russia, and a portion was transferred by 
 Russia to the khanate of Bokhara. The area and popula- 
 tion of Khiva are still uncertain, owing to a conflict of 
 jurisdiction as to territories claimed by Persia and by Af- 
 ghanistan on the S., but as Khiva exercises no sovereignty 
 over the disputed region, it may be considered as practi- 
 cally reduceil to the oasis N. of the Desert of Toorkistan or 
 Kharcsm, and S. W. of the lower Amoo River, a district 
 not exceeding 30.000 square miles in area, with a popula- 
 tion of 280,000. The whole region of Toorkistan was prob- 
 ably once covered by a vast inh'nd sea. of which the present 
 Caspian and Aral are the remains. The oasis of Khiva is 
 abundantly watered by irrigation from numerous natural 
 and artificial canals fed by the Amoo, and by the employ- 
 ment of manures profluces an abundance of wheat, rice, 
 cotton, apples, peaches, pomegranates, melons, and vines. 
 The climate is variable, frosts prevailing from October to 
 April, while tlie heats of midsummer arc excessive. In 
 December the Amoo and the Aral are usually coveretl with 
 ico. Manufactures of brass and earthenware, woollen 
 goods, shawls, and silk are carried on to some extent, and 
 domestic animals, especially horses, asses, and camels, are 
 abundant. Trade is carried on by caravans, sometimes of 
 2000 camels, eliiefiy \vith the Russian cities of Orenburg and 
 Astrakhan, th« articles of importation including firearms, 
 sugar, muslin, chintz, and fancy goods. A former traflio 
 with Persia and Afghanistan has been interrupted by the 
 hostilities of the Turkoman tribes, but a brisk trade is carried 
 on with Bokhara by exchanging European for Cliiiicse and 
 other Oriental staples of merchandise. The jtopulation of 
 Khiva is of several nationalities, representing the results 
 of a long series of wars au'l irruptions. The ancient popu- 
 lation called Sarts or Tajiks still form the large class, fur- 
 nishing most of the laborers. They are of Persian aflinities, 
 and until recently there were many thousands of Persian 
 slaves. The Turkomans or Yoinuts, Kirghiz, and Karapal- 
 kacs constitute the nomadic population of the ilesert, and are 
 scarcely to be reckoned as Klnvans. though some td' Ihcin 
 are adopting a tnnrr setlleil mode of life. The dominant 
 race is that of the I'/beks, of Turkish origin. Khiva in 
 the widest geographical sense comprehends a great part 
 of Chnra-smia. Sogdiana, and Bactria, which, tts inde]iend- 
 en( kingdoms or as provinces subject to the Persian 
 and P:irlhian empires, tilled a large space in early Asiatic 
 history. During (he Middle Ages it became an inde- 
 pendent kingdom under the name of Kharcsm or Kho- 
 varesm ; was conquered by Genghis Khan in the thir- 
 teenth century, by Tamerlane in the fourteenth, and by
 
 1542 
 
 KHODAVENDTGHIAB— KHORSABAD. 
 
 the Uzbeks early in the sixteenth century, the latter being 
 the founders of the existing khanate. A Russian expedi- 
 tion, sent against Khiva hy Peter tlie Oreat in '"J". "J^ 
 utterly defeated, and another simihir undertaking in 1^..J 
 was suceessfullv resisted. In 1873, however, the ill-treat- 
 ment of Russian captives afforded a pretext for a campaign 
 skilfully conducted hy Cen. Kaufmann. who invaded Khiva 
 with three corps of 0000 each simultaneously from I he !■... 
 the M W and the S. W., took Kungnid May 20, and occu- 
 pied the capital June 10. The khan. Scid Mohammed, had 
 fled, but soon returned to tender his submission and arrange 
 terras of peace. The boundaries were defined as before 
 mentioned, slavery was abolished (.July 25), and the slave- 
 trade prohibited; an indemnity of 2,200,0(10 roubles was 
 imposed, payable in yearly instalments for twenty years, 
 the Russians meanwhile occupying Shurakhan and Kun- 
 grad ; the right of making treaties with foreign powers was 
 surrendered, and the Turkoman tribes were to be punished 
 for their continued hostilities against Russia. The inde- 
 pendence of Khiva was recognized, in conformity with 
 promises made to England, but Khiva became really a 
 Russian dependency. More recent events (1874 and lS7o) 
 having demonstrated the inability of the khan to comply 
 with some of his engagements, the Russians occupied the 
 capital anew by request of the native ruler, and the region 
 extending from Bokhara to the Caspian, and S. to the 
 Attrek River, was formally occupied as Russian domain 
 under the name of "Trans-Caspian Territory," with the 
 capital at Krasnovodsk, a newly-established port on the 
 Caspian. The inhabitants of Khiva are .'^oonite Moham- 
 medans • thev have some taste in music and poetry, and a 
 
 Z^:;^V^^':.^l^X:l^^^^'^^'^^^- > ^;;;;;rof .hoNlVbudda Riv^r^embracmg the plateaux of 
 r''^thc:;;::s;re™ud-b.^U,,hepa,aeeandba.aarsare I thcViiu.^^^ 
 
 hill-tribes." supposed to be remnants of the ear- 
 
 and madder. Fruits of many kinds abound ; silk of ex- 
 cellent quality is grown and manufactured. In 1872, 
 8.000,000 jiounds of cotton and 200,000 pounds of silk 
 were exported to Russia. Domestic animals, especially 
 sheep, arc reared in sufficient numbers ; turquoise, iron, coal, 
 naphtha, and petroleum arc among the mineral products. 
 The population consists of Tzheks. of Tartar origin; the 
 more numerous Tajiks or Sarts. of Persian or Aryan origin, 
 once serfs, and still the principal agriculturists: and the 
 Kara-Kirghiz and Kiptchak nomadic tribes, of Turkish 
 blood, living chiefly in the eastern districts. The govern- 
 ment has been of late years violently disputed between these 
 three races. The present khan, named Khudayar, com- 
 menced his reign in 18t:i, and being by descent a Kara- 
 Kirghiz, the Turkish tribes were in the ascendant during 
 his minority. On succeeding to full power in 1819, Khu- 
 dayar favored the peaceful and industrious Saris in prefer- 
 ence to the turbulent nomads, until the latter in 18.57 made 
 a successful rebellion, raising his brother Mollah to the 
 government. A war with the Russians in 1864 led to the 
 annexation of the greater portion of Khokan to Russia, to 
 the return of Khudayar from exile in Bokhara, and the re- 
 establishment of his government by Russian support. A 
 commercial treaty w.as negotiated in 1808, but in 1S74 the 
 anti-Russian sentiment had gained the ascendant, fomented 
 by a civil war, and furnishing pretexts for a new interfer- 
 ence not likely to bo neglected. The chief cities of Kho- 
 kan are the capital, bearing the same name, a handsome 
 place of 50,000 inhabitants; Marghilan, and Andiian. 
 ■^ PoiiTEn C. Bi.iss. 
 
 Khondistan', a district in the province of Orissn. In- 
 dia, about 200 miles in length by 170 in breadth, at the 
 
 of rude construction, and the few edifices meriting notice are 
 mosques and colleges. (See Spalding's A7,i'ia and Turkes- 
 trni. Mactiahan's Cnmpniijniiiri on the 0.nia aiirl the /all of 
 Khira, and Vambcry's Central Afin anil the Avgln-Ruesian 
 Frontier Question, al"l published in 1874.) A work by Hon. 
 Eugene Schuyler, American chargS d'affaires in Russia, 
 who accompanied the Russian expedition, is in the press 
 
 (1875). 
 
 PoRTEn C. Bliss. 
 
 Khodavendigh'iar, yilayct or province of Anatolia, 
 Asiatic Turkey, S. of the Sea of Marmora, traversed by the 
 Keshish-Dagh Mountains (ancient Uli/nijinn). and compris- 
 ing parts of ancient Bithynia, Mysia, and Phrygia. Pop. 
 about 1,100,000. Cap. Brusa. 
 
 Khoi, town of Persia, in the province of Azerbijan, in 
 Iat.:iS°:J7' N., Ion. 45° 15' E.,is one of the best-built cities 
 of the country, with broad and straight streets traversed 
 by canals and planted with trees. It has considerable 
 trade, and the surrounding plain produces much fruit, 
 grain, rice, and cotton ; but the locality is somewhat un- 
 healthy. Pop. about :!0.000. 
 
 Khojend', or Kodjend, the ancient Jaxarten, town 
 of Kho'kan, Indejiendeiit Toorkistan. Central Asia. It is 
 a populous town, but decaying, important only on account 
 of its transit trade. Duty has to be paid here on all mer- 
 chandise entering Khokan from Bokhara. Pop. estimated 
 at 30,000. 
 
 Khokan', or Kokan', one of the three independent 
 khnnates of Toorkistan in Central Asia, boundeil on the 
 S. \V., W., N., anil N. E. by the Russian province of Sir- 
 Darya, E.'and S. E. by Kashgaria or E. Toorkistan, and S. 
 by the' Pamir plateau" and the Karateghin. The area was 
 formerly calculated as high as 227,000 square miles, and 
 the poii. as high as .3.0011,000, but these estimates were 
 much exaggerated. The western part of the khanate, com- 
 prising the lower basin of the Sir-Darya, with (ho import- 
 ant cities of Tashkend and Khojend, was annexed to Rus- 
 sia in 1864, and further annexations have so reduced the 
 khanate that, according to Russian maps published in 1872, 
 the area is only 28,270 square miles and the pop. 800,000. 
 In the present aspect of affairs in Central Asia (1875) its 
 speedy annexation to Russia may be anticipated. Khokan 
 is at present chiefly comprised within the valley of the 
 river Sir-Darva, the ancient Jaxnrtr^, forming an almond- 
 shaped district about 165 miles long and 65 miles wide. 
 This was formerly known as the province of Ferghana. 
 The average elevation above the sea is 1500 feet: the cli- 
 mate varies from extreme cold to extreme bent, according 
 to location. The valley is bounded on the S. E. and S. by 
 lofty mountains, the chains of Thian-Shan or Muz-Tagh 
 and Asfernh-Tagh forming watersheds between the basin 
 of the Sir-Darya and those of the Kashear and Amu-Darya 
 rivers, which flow E. ami W. from the .Amir plateau. The 
 country is abundantly watered by the numerous tributaries 
 of the Sir-D»ryn, and. aided by nn extensive system of ir- 
 rigation, the fertile soil produces fine crops of rice, wheat, 
 cotton, and barley, as well as hemp, flax, tobacco, eorgham, 1 scriptions. 
 
 so-called ' - 
 
 liest inhabitants of India, their physique, religion, man- 
 ners, and customs being entirely non-.\ryan and of an ex- 
 tremely low type. They are very black, with thick lips 
 and woolly hair, but well proportioned, strong and athletic, 
 living upon wild fruits and roots and such game as they 
 can snare or kill by their rude devices. Their language is 
 classed with the Uriya: it has many dialects and a " pecu- 
 liar pectoral enunciation." Human sacrifice was formerly 
 very prevalent, but since the English came in contact with 
 the'lChonds (1835) it has been suppressed through the long- 
 continued efforts of the British agent. Col. (now Maj.-Gen.) 
 John Campbell, who.so Pergonal Xarratire (1864) is a val- 
 uable source of information. The Khonds have recently 
 attracted great attention from ethnologists on account of 
 their very peculiar customs. I See the works of Hodgson, 
 MePherson (1842), Tylor, Lubbock, Brace, Hunter, and 
 JIcLcnnan.) 
 
 Khonsar', town of Persia, in the province of Irak- 
 Ajemee. It has a largo trade in dried and preserved fruits. 
 Pop. 12.000. 
 
 Khooloom', or Tashkurgan', town of Toorkistan, 
 Central .Xsia, is on a river of the same name, in l.at. 36° 
 40' N., Ion. 08° 5' E. It consists of about 20.000 hou.ses. 
 one story high, built of clay or sun-baked brick, with con- 
 ical roofs, and surrounded with w.alls ; it is defended by 
 two citadels. Melons are extensively cultivated in the 
 vicinity. 
 
 Khoondooz. See Kooxdooz. 
 
 Khorassan', the ancient Bnctrin. a province of Per- 
 sia, situated between lat. 31° and 38° N., and between Ion. 
 53° and 61° E. Its southern part is a desert of shifting 
 sand and salt waste, but in the northern part branches of 
 the Elburz Mountains form beautiful valleys, whose nalu- 
 1 ral fertility is still further increased by irrigation, artificial 
 manures, and a most careful cultivation. Cotton, hemp, 
 and tobacco are grown : wine, fruits, and silk are produced ; 
 aromatic and medicinal plants are cultivated, and gold, 
 silver, ami salt are found. The manufactures of silk and 
 goat-hair fabrics and sword-blades are celebrated. Cap. 
 Meshed. 
 
 KhOTSabad' [corruption of Khotrnnhad. "the abode of 
 ' Khosru or Chosroes"]. a v. of Asiatic Turkey, on the Ti- 
 gris, 13 miles N. E. of Mosul, occupying the site of one of 
 the royal cities of Assyria, the remains of which were dis- 
 covered by E. Botia ili 1S43. The palace of Sargon. exca- 
 vated at the expense of the French government, afforded 
 the first historical inscriptions in cuneiform characters 
 found in ancient Assyria, and led to the more famous dis- 
 coveries of Lavard on the site of Nineveh. The excava- 
 tors of Khorsabad erroneously gave the name of Nineveh 
 o that place. (Sec Botta and Flandin's magnificent puhli- 
 'ation. iVoni.mrii(« i/e .Viiiei-; (5 vols., chiefly of plates. 
 
 t' 
 cat 
 
 Paris, IS 10-50), and articles Assyria and CrsEiFORM Is-
 
 KIIOSRU— KIANO-SU. 
 
 154.3 
 
 Khosru', nr C'hos'rocs [(Jr. Xovport^], the name of two 
 Persian uiunarchs ot the 8u^:^nDill dynasiy : I. NtsiliitVAS 
 (" noble spirit"), ciillcti by historian!* The Jist, one uf the 
 greatest of Orieutul M»Vfreigns, was tbirJ ^on of Kobad or 
 Cobadcs, by whose will he succeeded to the thruiic at Ctesi- 
 phon Sept. 12, 6.11, to the exclusion of his elder brnthere, 
 whom he is said to have put to death as a measure of pre- 
 caution. Unreliable legciiils give different accounts of the 
 birth and education of Khosru. According to Kirdousi, 
 his mother was the daughter of a king of the Huns: while 
 Eutychius and many Persian histories assert he was the 
 offspring of a noble lady of Khorassan, born about 500, 
 while his father Kobad was a refugee in that province. 
 Tlie Greek historian Procopius relates that Kobad solicited 
 the Byzantine emperor Justin to adopt Khotru, in order to 
 strengtiien his title to the throne^ and that the proposal was 
 accepted, and theyoung prince was on his way to Constanti- 
 nojtle, when a sudden rupture put an end to the (irojcct nnd 
 implanted in the prince that hatred of the (Jreeks which ho 
 atttTwarda displayed. Tliis talo is a puerile invention, 
 though repeated by some modern writers. The Iiereditary 
 war bi'tween Greeks and Persians had broken out afresh in 
 6'.M, and was carried on languidly in Armenia, Syria, and 
 Mesopotamia until the accession of Khosru. Justinian had 
 come to the throne of Constantinople in 527, and being 
 desirous of concentrating his energies upon the war with 
 the Vandals in Africa, he concluded with Khosru an igno- 
 minious peace (bXi) by agreeing to pay an annual trihute 
 of 410,000 pieces of gold. One of the conditions made by 
 the Persian monarch was that seven (ireek philosophers, 
 who had been persecuted as pagans ami had taken refuge 
 in Persia, should be allowed to return to Ihoir homes and 
 reside there under Persian protection. During the jircced- 
 ing reign a politico-religious sect, called after their founder 
 Mazdak, had arisen in Persia, inculcating conununistic or 
 socialistic principles. Kobad had at one time favored, but 
 at a later pcrioil endeavored to subdue them, seizing the 
 lenders by stratagem and massacring many of the sec- 
 tarians. A formidable civil war was the result, continuing 
 into the reign of Klmsru, who finally suppressed the sect. 
 The actions of the two monarchs in this respect have been 
 much confused *vith each other, many events, especially the 
 execution of Mazdak. being attributed to both, and it is 
 now impossible to recover the facts of the case. One of the 
 earlier measures taken by Khosru was the administrative 
 division of his vast empire into four viceroyalties — Assyria, 
 Media, Persia, anrl Hnetriana, He is charged by the By- 
 znntino historians with having incited one of his vassals, 
 Almondar, the Arabian prince or king of Ilira, to invade 
 Syria, in violation of the peace. Be this as it may, the 
 war broke out afresh. Khosru marched an arrny into Syria 
 in 510, imposed enormous contributions upon the principal 
 cities, took Antioch f.lune) after a gaUant defence, and 
 nearly destroyed that Kastern metropolis of the Byzantine 
 empire. Belisarius, the conqueror of Africa, was sent to 
 conduct the war f 511 ). and by a bob! irruption into Meso- 
 potamia forced Khosru to return to the defence of his own 
 states. Belisariiis being recalled, the invasion of Syria was 
 renewed (5(2) ; the return of that general to the Held caused 
 the PersianH to recr»»ss the Kuphrates. and his second recall 
 for the Italian campaign (54;{J again gave the victory to 
 Khosru. After n brief truce the war was renewed in Colchis 
 and Lftzica, provinces lying at the foot of the Caucasus, 
 which had revolted from Persia by the aid of .Justinian, and 
 continued with numberless alteriuitions ni' fortune until 5()L', 
 when the Byzantine emperor consented to |iay an annual 
 tribute of If). 000 pieces of gold, and remained in possession 
 of the rlisputeil provinces. Southern Arabia was soon after- 
 wards crinriuercd by Khosru ; the Armenians revolted from 
 hitn in 5(i'J with the support of the emperor Justin 1 1., and 
 the war between the two empires was renewed in 571, with 
 the usual alternations of fortune, Syria was again ravaged 
 by the Persians, but Khosru was completely (lefeutcd in a 
 great battle at Melitene in Lesser Armenia in 57ii, and d. 
 at Ctesiphon in Mar., 570. leaving the throne and the he- 
 reditary war to his son Hormuz (or Hormisdas) IV. The 
 reign of Khosru is accounted by tho modern Persians the 
 most glorious period of their annals. All the Oriental 
 virtues are ascribed (o Inm. and there can he no doubt that 
 the government was adinini-tered with vigor ami sngncily. 
 Learning was powerfully stimulated by the translation of 
 tho best .*^ansk^it and Greek works, agriculture and eom- 
 merco reeeived a powerful stimulus, and many magnificent 
 cities were built. The boundaries of the empire were ex- 
 tended beyond the IndiiR ami tin* Oxus. anrl clipluirmtio re- 
 lations were maintained with all the realms from Africa to 
 China. 
 
 H. Pt'nwiz or Ppnwis ("tho generous"), grandson of 
 Khosru I., succeeded his tatlier, Hormuz I\'.. who was de- 
 posed in 5'.10 bv a rebel general nunied Bahram, who reign^'d 
 for a year. The young Khosru took rofugowilh the Greek 
 
 emperor Mauritius, by whose aid ho regained the throne, and 
 in recompense ceded a great part of Mesopotamia, besides 
 
 {laying a large sum of money. On the murder of Aluuritius 
 )y Phocas (G02), Khosru made war upon the usurper, nomi- 
 nally to avenge the death of his benefactor, ond within a few 
 years conquered Syria. Egypt, and Asia Minor. He took 
 Antioch in Oil, Damascus and Jerusalem in 614. Alexan- 
 dria in filO, Chalcedon in 01^^. and Aueyra in 0211. thus 
 bringing the war to the gates of Cnnstantinople. Hcraeliu3 
 had succeeded to the tliroue in GIO, but the Persian con- 
 queror was enjoying too great favors from fortune to listen 
 to proposals lor pence. With the wealth of so many king- 
 doms he built a palace of unparalleled niHgnilicence at 
 Uastagerd, 60 miles E. of Ctesiphon. in the midst of a park 
 laid out upon a corresponding scale. After twelve years 
 of defeats, the emperor Heraclius began in 621 a series of 
 campaigns in whicli he recovered all his lost possessions, 
 reduced Khosru to exlremities.and even ravaged his palace 
 of Dastagerd. In consequence of these misfortunes. Khosru 
 was deposed and murdered by his son Shirweh (Siroes) in 
 Feb., 628. It was during his reign that Mohammed pro- 
 claimed the doctrine of Islam. He sumnioneil Khosru by 
 letter to recognize him as the proj)liet of Allah, and when 
 the former tore the letter in pieces, Mohammed predicted, 
 " Thus will God tear his kingdom and reject his supplica- 
 tions." PoKTEii C. Bliss. 
 
 Khotnn% or IHitsi, one of tho four provinces of Kash- 
 garia. Icirnierty Chinese Toorkistan. The capital city, bear- 
 ing the same name, is situated on the route between Var- 
 kand and Lussa, in lat. 37° N.. Ion. "8° to S0° E. It was 
 formerly, according to Abulfetla and other Mohammedan 
 geographers, a city of great importance, and is still a largo 
 place, enclosed with earthen ramparts and with broad 
 streets, though ill built. If has manufactures of silk fab- 
 rics, leather, and paper, and bus il thriving trade in these 
 articles and in ijti, the jas|nr of the ancients. The in- 
 habitants are chiefly Uzbek Tartars, and the place is cele- 
 brated for its musk and for the beauty of the native popu- 
 lation. 
 
 Khotin. See Ciiotyn. 
 
 Khuzistan% the ancient Sueiann, province of Persia, 
 bordering on the (Julf of Persia. Its southern part is a 
 low plain, sandy in some parts, swampy in others, but 
 generally afl'ording e\-cellent pastures wherever it is well 
 watered. The northern part is mountainous. Rice, maize, 
 sugar, and indigo arc cultivated, and large herds of goats, 
 cattle, sheep, and horses are reared. 
 
 Khy'licr Pass, in the Khyber Mountains, a gorge 
 nearly ;iO miles long, enclosed by clifts of slate, rising al- 
 most perpendicularly on both sides to the height of 1000 
 feet. It is the principal, and for artillery the only availa- 
 ble, road between Hindostan and Afghanistan. 
 
 Khyen' Couiilry, a semi-independent province of 
 Farther India. N. W. (tf Burmah and E. of tho British 
 provinces of Araean and Chittagong. It is a narrow strip 
 some 200 miles in length, traversed by the largo rivers 
 Kbyen-dwem and Khyuung. 
 
 Khyei-poor% town of Sinde, tho residence of tho 
 ameer of North SInde, near the Indus. It is an ill-built 
 and insignificant pla(re. Pop. 15.000. 
 
 Kiaboiir'ra, or Amboyii<> Wood, a very expensive 
 and beautiful wood, importeil lor veneering purposes. It 
 is richly nn>ttled, and is of a reddish hue. It is sawed in 
 thin slips from knots and wens upon the Pterospermimi In- 
 (iii-um, a tree of tho East Indies. It is chiefly employed 
 in inlaying. 
 
 Kinc'li'tn, or Uiakhtn, town of Siberia, in tho Rus- 
 sian province ot Traiisliaikaliit, near the Chinese frontier, 
 ISO miles S. E. of Irkutsk. I*(»p. 5O00. It was established 
 in 1727 as tho exclusive mart lorthetrafle between China 
 and Russia, which was chiefly conducted by means of an- 
 nual fairs. The trade sctnietimes amouiitid to $S. 000, 000 
 per annum, but hos decreased since the treaty of Peking 
 (l'*60), which pertnilled cinnmeree along thewhole frontier 
 of the two empires. Kiachta has a fortress containing the 
 government and customs buildings, and is tho residence 
 of many Kussian mendnints. 
 
 Kinng-Clioo. See Kiong-Ciioo. 
 
 KiaiiK^"*^!* ftn inland province of China, between lat. 
 21° and :tO° N., and between Ion. li;t° ami 118° E. Area, 
 72,|.S0 squaro milos. Pop. 4:i,HM,:^66. It, is mountainous 
 and rich in miuerals. Cap. Nan-Cliang-Foo. 
 
 Kianc'«Sn, province of China, between hit. 31° and 
 .15° N., and between Ion. 116° and 122° K.. b<irdcriMg on the 
 Yellow Sea. Area. 44.5)tO square miles. Pop. 5t,ini.t;il. 
 The ground is low and level, but the soil is exceedingly 
 fertile. Rico and sugar arc the principal products. Cap. 
 Nan-King.
 
 1544 
 
 KIANTONE— KIDNEY. 
 
 Ki'antone9 post- v. and tp. of Chautauqua co., N. Y., 
 6 miles S. of Jamestown. Pop. of v. 62; of tp. 539. 
 
 Kickapoo% post-tp. of Peoria co., III., S miles N. W. 
 of Peoria. Pop. lUO. 
 
 KickapoOf post-tp. of Loarenworth co., Kan. It con- 
 tains the vilhigo of Kickapoo or Kickapoo City, on the 
 Missouri Uiver and on the Leavenworth Atchibon and 
 North-westorn R. R. Pop. 1856. 
 
 Kickapoo^ post-tp. of Vernon co., Wis. Pop. 912. 
 
 Kickapoos, a tribe of Indians, of Algonquin stock, 
 who iu the seventeenth century lived on the Wisconsin 
 River, and hunted, in company with the allied Miamis, 
 over a vast territory. They came in collision with the 
 French explorers in Illinois, wliither they had migrated 
 early in the eighteenth contury.and in 1763 were found by 
 the English on the Wabash River. They committed hos- 
 tilities against the settlers in the Pontiac war (1765), and 
 again in ITDl, \vhen their Wabash village was taken by Gen. 
 Scott, and another burned by Wilkinson. After Wayne's 
 victory over the allied Western tribes, the Kickapoos sub- 
 mitted, and by the treaty of Greenville (Aug. 3, 1795) they 
 ceded part of their lands. They were again in arms in 
 1811 at Tippecanoe, and at Fort Harrison in 1812; as a 
 consequence, several of tiicir villages were burned, and by 
 new treaties {1S15. 1810, and 1819) they sold most of their 
 lands, removing beyond the Mississippi to Osage River reser- 
 vation to the number of 1800. Few of them would settle 
 down to agriculture, but roved through what is now the 
 Chickasaw and Creek country, committing depredations in 
 Texas and other frontier states of Mexico, wbere many of 
 them ultimately established themselves. They now reside 
 in N. E. Kansas, where they are comfortably established, 
 and in the Indian Territory, numbering in all about 1500. 
 
 Kidd (William), the *• Robert Kidd** of popular tradi- 
 tion, was the son of a Scotch nonconformist preacher. He 
 became a sailor, and in 1691 received an award of £150 
 from the council of New York for services in behalf of the 
 colony. In 1696 he sailed from Plymouth. England, in 
 command of the Adventure galley, fitted out for the sup- 
 pression of piracy, but, according to the general belief, he 
 b'.-came a pirate himself. He came in 1G98 to New York 
 with a large amount of treasure, which was seized by the 
 earl of Bcllomont; and an additional treasure which Kidd 
 had buried on Shelter Island was also recovered. Kidd 
 himself was sent to London, where lie was hanged May 24, 
 ITOl — not for piracy, but for the murder of William Moore, 
 a seaman. The trial was very unfair, and there is some 
 reason for believing that Capt. Kidd was not guilty of the 
 crimes wliich have made his name so notorious. 
 
 Kid^der^ county of Northern Dakota, newly formed, 
 crossed by the Northern Pacific R. R., occupied by the 
 Pla*eau du Coteau du Missouri, and comprising an area 
 of 1700 square miles. 
 
 Kidder, post-v. and tp. of Caldwell co., Mo., on the 
 Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R., 163 miles W. of Hannibal. 
 Pop. of V. 195; of tp. 922. 
 
 Kidder, tp. of Carbon co., Pa. Pop. 1417. 
 
 Kidder (Daniel Parish), D. D.. b. at Darien, N. Y., 
 Oct. 18, 1815; studied in Lima, N. Y., and at Hamiltoa 
 College, N. Y., and graduated at the Wesleyan Univer- 
 sity, Conn., in 1835. He preached in New Jersey confer- 
 ence 1810-44; was connected with the M. E. Rook Con- 
 cern ; was professor of practical theology in Garrett Bib- 
 lical Institute, Evanston, III., in 1855, and afterwards be- 
 came professor at Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, 
 N. J. lintzil and the /iraziiiaiifi, Afonnonisin and the Mor- 
 mons. IfomilctlcB, and The Christian Pastorate were pub- 
 lished by him. 
 
 Kid'derminster, town of England, in the county of 
 Worcester, on both sides of the Stour, near its influx in the 
 Severn. Its carpet manufactures are very celebrated. Pop. 
 20,803. 
 
 Kid'doo (Joseph B.), b. in Pennsylvania; on (ho out- 
 break of civil war he enlisted, Apr., 1861, as private in the 
 2d Penn.^ylvauia Vols., and was engaged at the siege of 
 Yorktown, the battles of Williamsburg. Fair Oaks. Malvern 
 Hill, etc.; promoted to be major lOlst Pennsylvania Vols. ; 
 subsequently as licutonant-coioncl i;J7th Pennsylvania 
 Vols, ho was engaged in the battles of South Mmnitain, 
 Antietam, and Fredericksburg; and as colonel at Chan- 
 ccllorsvillc. In Oct., lS6:t, he was appointed mnjor 6th, 
 and June, 1864, colonel 22d IT. S. colored troops, operating 
 during the siege of Petersburg with the Army of the James, 
 being severely wountb-d Oct., ISfU. For gallant conduct he 
 was brevettcd brigadier-general and ninjor-gencral U. S. 
 volunteers, and colonel and brigadier-general U. S. A. In 
 July, 1866, ho wae appointed lieutenant'Colonel 4.'ld U. S. 
 Infantry, but owing to disability arising from wounds re- 
 
 ceived in service, was retired Dec, 1870, upon the full 
 rank of brigadier-general. G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Kid'napping [from Ger. kind, Prov. Eng. /r/rf, "child," 
 and Pro". Eng. nap, to "seize"] is a criminal offence, 
 defined by Blaekstone to be the forcible abduction or 
 stealing away of a man, woman, or child from his own 
 country and sending him into another. (0>//i/>i., iv. 219.) 
 The term is commonly employed to denote the stealing and 
 carrying away of children, but iu law it is applied to all 
 persons. This ofTence was treated, at common law, as an 
 aggravated kind of abduction or false imprisonment, and 
 was punished by fine and imprisonment. (See Abdl'C- 
 TiON, False iMpnisoNMEXT.) At the present day the na- 
 ture of this crime is generally defined by statute, and the 
 carrying of the person taken into another country is not 
 usually made a necessary ingredient in the offence. Fraudu- 
 lently inveigling, enticing, or decoying a iierson away, with 
 intent to imprison or secrete him or detain him from his 
 home, is frequently declared to be kidnapping as well as 
 an abduction by the use of force. It is sometimes provided 
 that the consent of a person to his abduction shall not bo 
 a defence to the party aceusetl of the offence, unless it ap- 
 pear satisfactorily to the jury that such consent was not 
 extorted by threats or duress. Such is the case in New 
 York. There are frequently special statutory provisions 
 in regard to the kidniipj)ing of children. The consent nf 
 a child of tender years has been held at common law to 
 render his abduetion none the less a criminal offence. At 
 what age a child would be capable of giving an assent 
 which would be available in defence has never been pre- 
 cisely determined. His capacity in this respect must be 
 ascertained from the circumstances of each particular case. 
 In New York it is declared by statute that every person 
 shall be guilty of kidnapping who shall forcibly seize and 
 confine, or shall inveigle another, with intent to cause him 
 either to be sent out of the State against his will, or to bo 
 secretly confined or imprisoned in the State against his 
 will, or to be held in involuntary servitude. The offeuco 
 is a felony, and is punishable by imprisonment in a State 
 prison for a term not exceeding ten years. The statutes 
 of other States must be specially consulted. 
 
 George Chase. Revised by T. W. Dwight. 
 
 Kid'nev [from Ang.-Sax. cy/me, '"genitals," and neah, 
 
 "near;" Lat. reucs; Fr. rctii; Old English, "the reins"], 
 an excretory organ in the body of vertebrates (an imper- 
 fect analogue being found in exceptional invertebrates), 
 whose function is the elimination of the urine, an aqueous 
 solution of various effete organic products and of inorganic 
 salts, the debris of nutrition and metamorphosis of tissues. 
 These excretory products — water, salts, and organic mat- 
 ter — are separated from the blood. In the kidney, there- 
 fore, arterial branches elaboiately subdivided, their walls 
 attenuated, are brought in close contact witli a system of 
 glandular bodies and tubules for the escape of the compo- 
 nents of urine by transudation and secretion. In fishes 
 the kidney presents a simple, rudimentary structure — one 
 straight tube or ureter extending the entire length of the 
 body, and giving off at right angles numerous tufts of tu- 
 bules which intcrdigitate with blood-vessels. Reptiles 
 have a more definite organ — a localized mass of tubules. 
 Birds have relatively large kidneys. iMammals, especially 
 man. have the most perfect development— namely, the great- 
 est multiplioation of tubular surface in a compact form. 
 
 The kidneys in man, two in number, are situated in the 
 posterior part of the abdominal cavity, behind the perito- 
 neum, one on either side of the spine iu the lumbar region, 
 and extending from the eleventh rib to near the crest of 
 the ilium. The kidneys arc retained in tutu by their blood- 
 vessels and by fat in which they arc imbedded. A kidney 
 is ** beau-shaped," or ovoid, with a concave depression, 
 notch, or *■ hilue " on one side; is of a bruwnish-red or 
 maroon color; in consistency is dense, firm, but fragile; 
 measures four inches long, two in width, and one in thick- 
 ness ; in weight varies from four and a half to six ounces 
 in the adult male, and half an ounce less in the female. 
 Relatively, the human kidney.s are j^jjth of the weight of 
 the body. The kidney is invested by a strong fibrous cap- 
 sule loosely attached by "areolar" or connective tissue. 
 An organ so small, it contains so compact and elaborate an 
 arrangement of vascular tufts and extensive multiplication 
 of tubular structure, that the surface for excretory work is 
 equal to six times the entire surface of the skin. (Mnpo- 
 iher.) A vertical section of the kidney (see Fig. 1) dis- 
 plays a hollow organ, consisting apparently of a thiok wall 
 folded around the internal cavity at its hilus or concave 
 side. Two distinct structures arc noticeable : 1st, the Cor- 
 tex, or external peripheral portion, termed the "cortical 
 substanoe," dark, homogeneous, granular ; 2d, internally 
 a series of pinkish, fan-shaped, or pyramidal masses, their 
 bases towards the cortex, their apices converging upon the
 
 KIDNEY. 
 
 1545 
 
 central cavity. lu the apparently homogeneous substance 
 or granular matrix miouie inspection reveals, imbedded, 
 convoluted masse.3 of capillaries — vascular turts known as 
 
 Fio 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 Vertical section of kidney, showing Br.antilar corti-x and pyra- 
 mids or lau-»liape<l groups of uriuilcruus tiibuiej. 
 
 Miilliiijhiun lii/t: These tufts arc surrounded by flask-liko 
 capsules or membranous cxpansiona of tui>ulcs. A tuft 
 and its investing capsule constitute a *' Mtt'i>!-jhlan hodr/." 
 Departing from the capsule of the tuft, tlio uriuifcrous 
 tubule is tortuous or " convoluted." The 
 cortex includes in its granular "matrix" 
 or "stroma" (be Malpighian bodies, and 
 convoluted tubules wbich separate uriuo 
 from the blood circulating in adjacent and 
 intertwining capillaries, as well as from 
 the tufts. The cortex is therefore the sec- 
 retory or functional portion of the kidney, 
 as distiiiguisbed from the pyrami<Ial or 
 medullary portion, \vhieh is termed *' tubu- 
 lar." The cortex constitutes three-fourths 
 of the kidney, being thin over (ho bases 
 of the pyramids, but dipping deeply down 
 between them (eolumns of Berlin), and con- 
 taining the vessel.", nerves, and lymiihaticg, 
 which, entering at the hilus, ramify towards 
 the periphery of the organ. The pyramids 
 vary in number from eight to eighteen, and 
 collectively constitute the niedcillary sub- 
 stance of the kiilney. .\ pyramid is a col- 
 lection of straight urinary tubules, which 
 communicate with the convoluted tubules 
 of the cortex through interincdialc " loop- 
 ctl" tubules. One straight tubule collects 
 the urine of several convoluted tubules. A 
 pyramid contains about lOOU tubuli recti 
 (straight tubules) converging at its apex, 
 which presents a convex ]iroces8 or eleva- 
 tion on the surface of the cavity, desig- 
 nated a papilla. Several pyramids may oo- 
 alesconear their apices, presenting n singlo 
 papilla. The tubuli recti discharge bv free 
 apertures into the central cavity or jcscr- °'"'"^'"'' ""'<"■'■ 
 voir, termed the pelvis of the kidney. The 
 cavity is of irregularoontour. havingthroo 
 sacculated recesses, termed inrundibuli. 
 The pvlvis, receiving the urine coilroled by 
 the several pyramids from corresponding 
 sections of the cortex, ])arl8 with it 
 through the ureter, a tube communicating of cxereiorv 
 between the kiilney and the bladdir. In tubules (labiifl 
 the human a.lull the kidney isa symmelri- J",',',! j"*^ '''^' ''* ' 
 cal organ, but in IVptal life it is dividetl into 
 distinct lobes, seven or eight in number, eneh consisting of 
 ft pyramid and corresponding seotion of cortex. The super- 
 ficial depression and lobulatcd structure disappear later by 
 
 gin, course, and 
 
 sulidlvlMions nf 
 
 a single uri- 
 nary tubule. 
 TriiuKltion of 
 tbi- cnuvulutetl 
 
 urinary tubule 
 Into the system 
 
 tho growth of new, intermediate pyramids. In other mam- 
 mals, the sheep, ox, bear, whale, tho kidneys are distinctly 
 lobulatcd, — externally nodulated. Although tho visible 
 distinction between lobules is obliterated in man, disease, 
 as inflammation, is often limited by the primitive bound- 
 aries, leaving adjacent healthy parts to vicariously perform 
 tho function of the crippled ones. The kidney having but 
 a single function, the excretion of urine, interest centres 
 in the study of the microscopic, exact structure of the 
 glandular apparatus of the cortex, and of the system of 
 minute tubules which conduct the excreted fluid to the 
 central resfrvoir of the kiilney, thence to pass to the blad- 
 der antl liiially be voided from the body. 
 
 Our perfect knowledge of tho histology of the kidney has 
 rcsultcil in part from the labors of Miiller and Bowman in 
 unravelling the tubules of tho lower vertebrates, in part 
 from tho line injections of vessels and tubules by lluschke, 
 Gcrbich, Ilenle, Ludwig. and others. The granular stroma, 
 matrix, or substance of the cortex is studded with inuumer- 
 ablo Malpighian bodies. The Malpighian body is sphe- 
 roidal, and measures about the too"' "' ik"' "f "" •'"='' '" 
 diameter. The reniil artery, a lirancb of the aorta, enters 
 tho kidney at its hilus. extends its branches up between the 
 pyramids to the cortex, and having divided and subdivided 
 many times, its ultimate branches suddenly expanding into 
 numerous capillaries rolled in a spheroidal form, a convo- 
 luted mass, or plexus, variously designate. I as a Malpig- 
 hian (from Malpiglii, who discovered it) " tuft," '• glome- 
 rulus," or "knot." Tho vessel supplying or bringing blood 
 
 to the tuft is termed the 
 *' a_ifrrt lit" vrssel, and 
 a com])anion vessel 
 leaving the tuft, re. 
 moving the blood 
 which has parted with 
 the urinary products, 
 is the •• t-fferent'* ves- 
 sel ; it conveys its con- 
 tained blood to the 
 yfi renal vein. This Mal- 
 pigbian tuft of capil- 
 lary arteries and veins 
 is surrounded by a 
 spheroidal, flask- 
 
 slinped, membranous 
 capsule, which is the 
 H"lalion of blood-vessels in the kidney be;'inning of a urinif- 
 I., Ilio glandular strucinre separat- e,-„us tubule. Thethin- 
 ing the urine: a, artery conveying ,, , -n • „ r 
 
 blood by alle'rent vessel en to tuft of "•'""•J capillaries of 
 eaiiillaries within the capsule c; tc. the tult or knot part 
 the ell'erent vessel removing blood with blood, serum, or 
 to network of capillary veins in, and water bv simple trans- 
 inlo vein v; ul, uriniferous tubule. „,,,,,;„„; ,„„i therefore 
 excrete the chief ingredient of I he urine, water being from Hi 
 to DM percent, of itsconstilucncy. The capsule, being a niero 
 receiver of water oozing from the vessels, performs no true 
 secretory or glandular action, and therefore is not lined 
 with epithelial or secretory cells except at its lower third, 
 being nieioly a thin, translucent. siructureU'ss basement 
 meiiibnine. The c(iillielial oelis at it.* lower third continue 
 to lino tho uriniferous tubule whieli departs from it. This 
 tubulo is convoluted, at first about :ttrr"' "' "" '""'' '" 
 diamoter, later u^nth only, and its epithelium is "sphe- 
 roidal " in shape. The tuft separates water by transudation. 
 Theso oonvolutod tubes, by their glandular lining cells, 
 separate or excrete from the adjacent capillary vessels tho 
 solid constituonls of the urine, rarely us high as 6 per cent, 
 of its entire volume. (In snakes, w hose urine is nearly solid, 
 tho entire tract of capsule and tubule is lined with cells.) 
 The convoluled tubules were discovered in the oighteenth 
 ocuturv by Ffrn-in. 'I'liev occupy Iho cortex between and 
 arounii the .Malpighian bodies, and continue in a transition 
 state, as smaller, iraii.-luceni, unliiied. " looped " tubules, 
 across tlio boundary of tho cortex to the medullary or pyr- 
 amidal portion, and empty into the larger, straight tubules 
 (tubuli recti) which compose those radiating, fan-shaped 
 masses — tlie pyramids. Theso straight tubules, discovered 
 in tho sovenleoiitli century by Dellini, merely collect tho 
 urine and transmit it to the pelvis of tho kidney. Tlioy are 
 lined with " tessellated " or pavement epithelial cells, which 
 are Hat and polygonal, usually live-sided. Theso liibiilea 
 have a calibre of jUjtli or even jiijlb of an inch. Tho 
 pelvis of the kidney is lineil with ovoid cells, the ureter 
 with oonoiilal cells. Tho presence of epithelial cells of on« 
 of the gevorni forms In exoess in the urine is of service in 
 inilieating what part of tho kidney is the sent of disease. 
 
 Karly in to'tal lib' the iiiiilevi'lnpeil kblncys ore sur- 
 mounted by tho Wolilian bn<lies, having a stnietiiro like Iho 
 kidney, a truo urinary seoretioii, and a common duct. They 
 disappear as the kidneys develop, aiul replace them. 6ur- 
 muuDtiug the kidneys in adult life are small masses, the
 
 lo46 
 
 KIDRON— KILDARE. 
 
 Bnprarcnal capsule?, ductless, glandular bodies of unknown 
 funcHon, and chii'fly intcreating «n account of a peculiar 
 pigmentary, granular degeneration tlu-y rarely undergo, 
 di.-sseminating ])ignu'ut throughout the body, impoverishing 
 the blood, and tingeing the skin. (See Addison's Diseask.) 
 
 An anatomical anomaly is the *' horseshoe kidney," the 
 two kidneys being united by an isthmus of fibrous and 
 granular structure. Exceptionally, the kidney is ** mova- 
 ble," and varies its position in the abdominal cavity. The 
 nervous supply of the kidney is rich, dt-riveil from the sym- 
 pathetic system. The nerves may be traced from their en- 
 trance at the hilus up to the afferent vessels of the tufts. 
 The kidney is well known to be easily excited to action by 
 emotion and all influences upon the sympathetic nenous 
 system, and to have a direct ami complementary relation 
 to the functional activity of the skin. (For diseases of 
 the kidney see Rexal Diseases, by Frederick Zinsser, 
 M. I>.) E. Darwin Hudson, Jr. 
 
 Kid'ron^ or Cedron, a small stream or "brook" in 
 the vall<\v E. of Jerusalem, and memorable in many scenes 
 of biblical history. 
 
 Kiel, town of Prussia, in the dnchy of ITolstcin, on the 
 Kicler Fjord. It is well built and lieautifuUy situated, has 
 a university, some manufactures, and a considerable trade. 
 Its harbor is one of the best on the Baltic, deep and safe, 
 and now very strongly fortified ; it will be the station of the 
 German fleet in tlie Baltic, and the seat of all institutions 
 belonging to tlie German navy. Kiel communicates daily 
 with Copenhagen, Christiania, and Malmo. Pop. 31,764. 
 
 Kiel'ce^ government of Poland, adjoining the frontier 
 of Austrian Galicia. Area, .'JG2;i square miles. Pop. 
 470,300. It is watered by the Vistula, produces good wheat 
 and other grains, awd has abundant iron-mines. The cap- 
 i'al is a town bearing the same name, 9fi miles S. \V. of 
 Warsaw, with 7205 inhabitants : !?eat of a Catholic bishop- 
 ric and seminary, a mining-school, and a gymnasium or 
 aeademy. 
 
 Kieiichow. Pee Kioxg-Choo. 
 
 K ien'- Lung [Chinese, '* celestial blessing"], fourth em- 
 peror of China of the present Mauchu dynasty, b. in 1709 ; 
 succeeded his father, Yung-Ching. in 1735; made war upon 
 the Tartar tribes (17.'»4-tj0) and upon the kingdom of Ava 
 (KfiS); published an edict against Christianity (1753); 
 received the first English embassy under Lord Macartney 
 (1793) ; abdicated in favor of his son, Kia-King (1795), and 
 d. Feb. 7, 1709. He was a protector of literature, wrote 
 treatises in Chinese and Manchu, and edited a vast diction- 
 ary of the latter language. 
 
 Kie'pert (Heixrich), b. at Berlin July 31, 1S18: de- 
 voted himself from early age to the stuily of geography; 
 enjoyed the instruction of Bitter ; explored Asia Minor in 
 1S4I-42: was director of the geographical institute of Wei- 
 mar 1815-52; returned to Berlin and became professor at 
 the university in IS59. His Athis von Hellus nnd den he!- 
 fe.niHvhfH C'thmif-n (Berlin, 1SI0-4G ; revised ed. ISfiO), and 
 his maps to Robinson's PalcHtina (Halle. 1S43), attracted 
 the attention of the seientilic world. His HiHtoriachfjeo- 
 {/ittphinrhe Krliiiitrnitig der Krierje zicischen drm out ro- 
 miHchcn Ilcivhe iiiid den peiaiHchen /Conirjen dcr Sftisaniden- 
 Dtfnastie, was awarder! a prize in 1844 by the French In- 
 stitute. Of his numerous rither publications, Aeuer Ifond- 
 atlnn der Erde, A^ maps (Berlin, 1857-01), is very exten- 
 sively used and much appreciated ; also his Atlas der alten 
 Wth (1848), etc. 
 
 Kicr'kcgaard (Soren Aabvk), b. at Copenhagen in 
 ISl.'i, spent his whole life, almost without any exception, in 
 his native city, living in elegant retirement, at last almost 
 in seclusion, and d. there in 1854. His works are very 
 numerous, some of them also very large, nnd comprise two 
 series of writings, published simultaneously — one pseudony- 
 mou3ly, the olherunder his name. In the former, Whether — 
 Or, Stmjt^n iif Lift; liifs of Phifosophif, The Idea of I/nrror, 
 
 etc., he gives a sketch and a criticism of thope different 
 views of life with which people try to live in our times, and 
 shows that outside of Christianity there is a chance for 
 dnr.zting heroism, for brilliant vices, for mediocrity, and 
 for nonsense, but none for the deepest impulses of human 
 nature. In the latter, Erercigeg in Cfirintitmiti/, Jieedit of 
 Lovf, Srrmoun, etc.. he develops liis own conception of 
 Christianity, partly in positive form, partlv polemically, 
 criticising the ruling theological systems. His conception 
 is very austere. Intellectually. Christianity is a paradox, 
 whieh can b«» grasped only by faith : it is the charaoteristic 
 of overy truly Christian idea that it is a cross to the under- 
 stamling. and yet absolutely imperative in its form. J^Ioral- 
 ly. it is love — not charity, or benevolence, or honesty, but 
 a love which knows no choice nnd makes no }>rcfercncc, but 
 embraces the whole human race with the same sympathy, 
 blotting out all those differences which arise from the natural 
 
 relations between parents and children, man and wife, etc. 
 ^'Esthetically — that is, in its effect on natural life— it is suf- 
 fering ; he whose life is not one continuous suffering is not a 
 Christian. He was a most powerful stylist, though his style 
 was more seducing than convincing. Clemens Petersen. 
 
 Kie'sewetter (Rafael Geohg), b. Aug. 29, 1773, at 
 Holieschau. Moravia ; studied philosopliy and law at 01- 
 miitz and Vienna; held since 1704 different government 
 offices in Vienna; retired in 1SI5. and d. Jan. 1, 1850. His 
 writings are of great interest for the scientific study of 
 music, especially Oe/irhichic dt-r tvropp-tthtnhiud : Mnnik 
 (1834) and DcrweUliche fimnng von f'r'iihen Alittelaltcr bia 
 zur Ei-fndnng des draniatischen Sti'fn {1841). 
 
 Kics'ter, tp. of Faribault eo., Minn. Pop. 61. 
 
 Kiev', Kief, or Kiew, government of European Rus- 
 sia, bordering on the Dnieper. Area. 1042 square miles. 
 Pop. 144.270. The northern part is biw antl marshy: the 
 snuthern, hilly, covered with branches of the Carpathian 
 Mountains. The soil is fertile, and the climate very mild. 
 Wheat, maize, tobacco, hemp, nnd vines are cultivated ; 
 excellent timber is grown and many cattle reared. 
 
 Kiev, town of Russia, the capital of the government 
 of Kiev, on the right bank of the Dnieper. It is one of 
 the oldest and most beautiful cities of Russia. It consists, 
 properly speaking, of three towns, each with its own walls 
 and fortifications — namely, Petchcrsk, with the famous 
 monastery of Petcherskoi, containing the tombs of many 
 Russian saints ; Kiev proper, with the celebrated cathedral 
 of St. Sophia, built in 1037; and Porlol. which is occupied 
 by the middle and lower classes. Kiev has a university fre- 
 quented by 1500 students, and several other educational in- 
 stitutions. Its manufactures are not considerable, but its 
 trade is extensive and important. Pop. 70,591. 
 
 Kikin'da, Na^y-Kikinda, or Gross-Kikinda, 
 town of Austria, in the Temesvar banat, lias an imjiortant 
 annual fair and a large trade in cattle. Pop. 17.462. 
 
 Kilauea, a celebrated volcano in Hawaii, one of the 
 Sandwich Islands, one of the largest in the world. It is in 
 constant activity, and in the eruption of 1840 sent forth 
 for three weeks a river of molten lava which varied from 
 a few hundred feet to 3 miles in width. The crater is 8 
 miles in circumference, and varies from 800 to 1500 feet in 
 depth. Mauna Loa, another famous volcano, is only 16 
 miles distant. 
 
 Kirbourn City, post-v. of Newport tp., Columbia co., 
 AVis., on the Wisconsin River and the Chicago Milwaukee 
 and St. Paul R, R., 108 miles N. AV. from Milwaukee. It 
 has 8 churches, 1 bank. 4 hotels, 1 newspaper, 33 stores, 3 
 harness, 5 boot, 4 blacksmith, ancl 3 wagon shops; also saw 
 and flour mills, sash, iloor, nnd blind factories, and a tan- 
 nery. There are extensive public schools and a fine insti- 
 tute. Kilbourn City is surrounded by a rich farming dis- 
 trict, is the eentre of the hop-trade of the North-west, nnd 
 noted as a place of summer resort, being at the foot of (lie 
 famous *' Dells of the Wisconsin." Three elegant little 
 steamers ply on the river for the accommodation of the 
 pleasure-seeker. Pop. about 1100. 
 
 Frank 0. Wisner. Ed. "Wisconsin Mirror." 
 
 KiTbourne (Jamks). b. at Farmington, Conn., Oct. 19, 
 1770; was a mechanic, a merchant, and a manufacturer; 
 in ISOO was ordained as deacon, and at times ofliciated in 
 the pulpit. Having attained considerable wealth, he was 
 a liberal benefactor tu various public institutions, and in 
 1802 removed to Ohio with a numerous following, and 
 founded the town of AVorthington ; was a member of Con- 
 gress 1813-17, and again 1S39-41 ; was frequently elected 
 to the State legislature : was surveyor of public lands, com- 
 missioner to settle the boundary-line between the public 
 lands and the great Virginia rcservaticm ; and was colonel 
 of a frontier regiment; president of the board of trustees 
 of AVorthington College for thirty-five years. D. at AVor- 
 thington, 0.. Apr. 9, 1850. 
 
 Kildare', an inland county of the province of Leinster, 
 Ireland. Area. 653 square miles. Pop. 83.014, of whom 
 2H,359 cannot read or write. The ground is mostly level 
 or slightly undulating, consisting largely of reclaimed bog; 
 the soil is a deep and fertile loam ; wheat, oats, and harli-y 
 are the principal crops. The chief towns are Atby, May- 
 nooth, and Kildare. In the centre of the county is the 
 fantous Ciirnitfh of Kildare, consisting of a ](lain of about 
 5000 acres, used for military encampments, and famous for 
 athletic sports of nil kinds. From 1851 to 1872, 21, 6U 
 persons emigrated from this county. 
 
 Kildare, market-town nnd parish in the county of the 
 same name in Ireland, famous as tho seat of one of the old- 
 est Catholic bishopries (saiil to have been founded about 
 500). for the Parliament held there in 1309. and for the 
 Curragh races, held in Apr., June, Sept., and Oct. Pop. 
 2654.
 
 KILDARE— KILNS. 
 
 1547 
 
 Kildare, post-tp. of Juneau co.. Wis., od the La Croese 
 di%-ision oT (he Milwaukee and St. Paul K. K., 8 luiles 
 
 N. W. uf Kilbourn City. Pop. 685. 
 
 KiTdeer, the Chmadriuti ioci/€ni», a North American 
 plover, coiumoD in suinuicr on the interior plains, and iu 
 winter frequenting the sea-coast from Texas to M]i8»>uc'hu- 
 setts. It is named from its cry, which is constuully re- 
 peated. Its Uesh is not prized very highly. 
 
 Kirham {Alexam>kk), b. at Ep\vorth. England, July 
 10, I7li2; jiiim-d tlic Wesleyan Conlercucc iu 17)Sf», and in 
 17^6 was expelled for advocating loo fervently tculesiaaticul 
 reforms, especially a more equal distribution uf powers 
 among laymen and preachers. The next year was organ- 
 ized "the Kilhamites " or " Kcw CoDncction of Wesieyan 
 Methodists." 1). in 1798. 
 
 Ki'lia^town of European Turkey, in the province of 
 Bessarahia. on a hraneh of the l>antibc. It carries on 
 consideraljle tishinj^, and its preparation of caviare is cele- 
 brated. Pcqi. 6101J. 
 
 Kil'ian, Saint, b. in Ireland early in the seventh cen- 
 tury; devoted himself to missionary labors in Thuringia, 
 Germany, where ho was murdered with many companions 
 in fi89, being afterwards canonized. Mueh of the history 
 of Saint Kilian and his companions is admitted to be le- 
 gendary, but there seems to be no good reason to doubt the 
 facts above stated. 
 
 Kiliman^jaro', a mountain of Africa, situated on the 
 western border of Zanzibar, in lat. ?>° 40' S., Ion. .30° E., is 
 supposed to be the highest mountain on the continent. Its 
 top is covered with perpetual snow, and its height is esti- 
 mated at about IS,7U0 feet above the level of the sea, 
 
 Kilkcn'nVy an inland county of the province of Lein- 
 ster, Ireland. Area, 796 square miles. Pop. !fl9,:i79, 
 mostly Roman Catholics. The surface is undulating, in 
 some places rising to the height of 1000 feet; anthracite 
 coal and black marble are found. The soil is light, but 
 fertile, and crops of wheat, oats, and barley are raised. 
 The only city of any importance is Kilkenny. From 1851 
 to 1S72 the emigration from this county was 48,146. 
 
 Kilkenny, town of Ireland, in the county of Kilkenny, 
 on the Nure, It has several interesting buildings, a col- 
 lege, a griimmar school in which Swift, Congreve, Far- 
 quhar, and Berkeley received the first part of their educa- 
 tion. Pop. 15,609. 
 
 Kilkenny, post-tp. of Le Sueur co., Minn. Pop. 7.'J0. 
 
 Killnr'ncy, market-town and pari.-<h of Ireland, Kerry 
 CO., 44 miles N. N. W. of Cork, situated in the midst of the 
 most beautiful scenery, and within about a mile of the cele- 
 brated lakes to which it gives its name. The town contains 
 several hotels, churches, and chapels, and a magnificent 
 Roman Catholic cathedral, a dispensary and fever hospital, 
 a poorhouse, etc. Pnp. 5187. The lakes, three in number, 
 aro connected with each other; the lower lake is nboiit ti 
 miles long by 2 miles broad: the middle. 1\ miles Inng by 
 i mile broad: the upper, It miles lonj;. Tliey receive sev- 
 eral streams, and arc interspersed with numerous islands. 
 On a projecting penini^ula which divides the middle from 
 the lower hike stand (he picturesque ruins of Muckross 
 Abliey and Hops Castle. The lovely and pieturesfjuo sce- 
 nery abounding; is unsurpassed, and in the summer is a 
 famous attraction to tourists, who resort hero in large 
 numbers, 
 
 Kill'bnrk, tp. of Holmes co., O. Pop. 1121. 
 
 Killhnck, Ip. of Allegheny co.. Pa. Pop. 1919. 
 
 KiU'rr, a name applierl to cetaceans of the genus Orca, i 
 family Delphinida', or dolphins, and given in allusion to 
 their sanguinary and ravenous habits. They are noted 
 enemies of the right whale?, as well as other delphinoids, 
 seals, fishes. The kilhr of the Atlantic U, S. coast is Otca 
 ytiufiatitr, and that of the Pacific coast, O. atnt. 
 
 Killif'crnn'kio, a celebrated pass through the <iram- 
 piun Mnitutains, in Perthshire, Scotland, about 15 miles 
 N. \V. nf l>unkeld. At the N. extremity the revolutiunary 
 army, under Cien. Maekay, was drf(ute<i en July !7. I6sy, 
 by tlie n»yalif»ts, under (irahame nf Claverliouhc, Viscount 
 Dundee, who was killed at the moment of victory. 
 
 Kil'lingly, tp. and post-v. of Windhnm co., Conn. 
 The lownnhip in traversed by the Norwieh and Worcester 
 R. R., and eimtainH ^everal manufaeturing villngen. one of 
 which is tho bcirough of Danielsonvillc. Killingly has a 
 national Itiink. Pop. 5712. 
 
 Kiriington Peak, in Sherburne tp., Rutland co., 
 Vt., II miles E. of Rullnnd, is the third in height of the 
 Vermont mountains. It is a mtbin landmark, and the view 
 from its t(»p is very fine. Its lieight is 4 1 NO feet. 
 
 Kiriincworth, pnst-r. and tp. of Middlesex oo., 
 Conn., 2.'{ miles E. of New Haven. Pr.p. s-,f;. 
 
 Kirion, tp. of Jackson co.» III. Pop. 950. 
 
 Kilmainc' (CuAtii.FS Jennings), b. at Dublin abont 
 175U ; entered the French army in 1765; served under La 
 Fayette iu the Ameriean war; became brigadier-general in 
 1792; was distinguished at the buttle of Jemappcs, in the 
 Vendean and Italian cainjtaigns, and was appointed iu 1797 
 general-in chief of the army fur the invasion of Euglaud. 
 D. at Paris Dec. 15, 1799. 
 
 Kilmar'nock, town of Scotland, in the county of Ayr. 
 
 It is famous for its calico-printings, and has some tan- 
 neries and distilleries. Pop. 22,952. 
 
 Kilns [Ang.-Sax. ct/ln, from cylrue, "a furnace or kit- 
 chen "], a name given to various kimls of furnaces or ovens 
 constructed of brick or stone, in which a hi<;h and uniform 
 heat can bo applied to bodies for the jmrpose of drying, 
 baking, or charring them, such as brick-kilns, pottery-kilns, 
 charcoal-kilns, etc. etc. The best kiln for any special pur- 
 pose is that in which the requisite intensity of heat can be 
 produced and maintuinerl un<ler the most perfect control at 
 the least expense for fuel. Inh rmittent kilns are those in 
 which the fire is allowed to go out after each burning, to 
 be again started after the kiln is recharged. For burning 
 lime with wood-fuel the upright kiln is the simplest. It 
 may be built of briek ; if of other masonry, it should have 
 a brick lining. On the inside it is circular in Iiorizontal 
 section, tapering slightly, by a curve both up nnd down, 
 from the circle of largest diameter, which is from 4 feet 
 to 6 feet above the bottom. A kiln of 10 to 11 feet in 
 largest diameter may be about 25 to 2S feet high. 5 to 6 
 feet diameter at top, and 7 to H feet at bottom. There is 
 an arched opening on one side at the bottom, 5 to 6 feet 
 high, through which the wood is introduced and the burnt 
 lime removed. It is advantageous to have a horizontal 
 grating 1 to 2 feet above the bottom, on which to maintain 
 the fire. These kilns arc usually located on a hillf=ide, so 
 that the top is easily accessible for charging the kiln, and 
 the bottom for supplying fuel nnd drawing out the lime. 
 In charging, the largest pieces of stone to be burnt are 
 first selected, and formed into a rough, dome-like arch, 
 with large open joints, springing from the liotlom of the 
 kiln to a height of five or six feet. Above this arch the 
 kiln is filled in from the top. taking the larger stones for 
 the lower layers, and topping ofl' with those that are smaller. 
 When starling a fire under the dome, the heat should be 
 raised gradually to the required degree, iu order to prevent 
 a sudden expansion and probable rupture of the st(me 
 forming the tlome, which might either cause a downfall of 
 tho entire mass above, or choke the liraught by the stone 
 breaking up into numerous small fragments. .After a 
 bright red heat is once reached throut;h the mass of stone, 
 it should be maintained to the end of the burning, as indi- 
 cated by a large shrinkage in the volume of the contents, 
 the choking up of the voids between the fragments, and 
 the ease with which an iron rod can be In reed down 
 through the stone from the t<q>. A better form of inter- 
 mittent wood-biiruin[^ kiln tlntn the one described is Fhuwn 
 in Fig. 1, in wliich the fireplace h rests on a permeated 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 brick arch, throufjh which 
 there is a sufiieiently frco 
 eiriMilatitm of air to secure 
 the re(jui,<ite <Irau<.'ht. Tho 
 interior should be lined with 
 brick, U'aving a thin space 
 between the lining and tho 
 mil side nin^onry, to Iio 
 filled with a^hes or other 
 non coniluetor. This eim- 
 bles the in»<ido to ex|>and 
 and contract without seri- 
 ous injury to the kiln, nnd 
 lo a great extent prevents 
 the (ranf«iui.>^sion of heat to 
 the outside masonry — an 
 important consideralion 
 when the latter is made 
 of stone not able to wifhstantl great heat. In Ihes^e inter- 
 mittent kilns one great defect is the enormous waste of 
 hent which takes place at each burning, for ihe quantity 
 of fuel expendecl in rai!<ing the contents of the kiln, as well 
 ns its thick masonry walls, to the degree of hnit neecfsary 
 to burn lime, has lo be repeated each time tho kiln is 
 charged. Another special defeet is. that the stone nearest 
 tho dome is liahln to hccomo injured by everburning hcforo 
 the top portions become thoroughly caustic. 
 
 Intermittent bill-shaped kilns, using gas-coke or coal 
 for fuel, are extensi\ely employed in EnghintI, ?" ranee, and 
 (ieruniny for burnini; PortlanrI cement. The Cermnn kiln 
 is usually about 50 feet hich and 10 feet in greatest diame- 
 tcr. It is filled, for burning, with altornato layers of the 
 raw cement and ooko or coal, in tho proportion of about one 
 
 c*«"^wr>sif*^
 
 1548 
 
 KILNS. 
 
 part by weight of fuel to two parts of raw eement, and theo 
 ijjnitej at bottom. Three to four days are required fur 
 b'urning, and fully five days, and sometimes more, for the 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 kiln to cool off so that the contents can be removed. The 
 burning is always carried to the point of incipient vitrifl- 
 cation, and when properly burnt the pieces of cement arc 
 of a dark greenish-gray color, are quite heavy, hard to 
 pulverize, and are cracked, contorted, and shrunken. These 
 kilns are usually tapered to a small diameter at top, and 
 have one or two side-openings through which they are 
 charged. . 
 
 Fig. 2 represents a vertical section and elevation through 
 the draw-pits of a Portland-cement kiln, of the form gen- 
 erally used upon the Thames and elsewhere in England, 
 Fi'.'S being a sectional [ilan through the draw-pits. These 
 kilns are from :J7 feet to 40 feel high from the draw-pit floor 
 to the top of the upper eonc, and from 12 feet to 15 feet in 
 largest diameter. Thev are built of brick, with an interior 
 linfng, y inches thick, oV firebrick, reacbing to within 5 feet 
 of the top, properly bonded to the e.tterior masonry, except 
 in the lower portion to the height of about 12 feet, which 
 is not so bonded, and can therefore be renewed with ease 
 whenever necessary. There arc two draw-pits, opening on 
 opposite sides, and" separated from each other by a wedge 
 of brick-work, finished in firebricks on top, which divides 
 the descending contents of the kiln when drawing. At the 
 bottom of the kiln, just above the wedge, a number of 
 Fia. 3. 
 
 single grate-bars rest upon two cross-bars. By knocking 
 out°tlie cross-bars the grate-bars can be removed and the 
 cement drawn. The kiln is charged, for burning, with al- 
 ternate layers of raw cement and coke or coal — about 2 of 
 cement to 1 of fuel by weight — through two man-holes 
 placed on different levels. These holes are tightly closed 
 during the burning. Sometimes, with a view to increase 
 the dr^iiight, the top is carried up higher with a sheet-iron 
 stack. The Coplav Cement Company are beginning to use 
 kilns of this form" for making Portland from argillaceous 
 limestone, near Allcutown. Pa. The raw stone is first finely 
 ground between millstones, then tempered stitUy with water, 
 and formed into lumps of irregular shape of from li to 6 
 pounds weight. These, after jiartial drying, are burnt in 
 the kiln in layers, alternating with layers of anthracite coal, 
 about sixteen days being 
 consumed in ehaiijiiig. 
 hnrnhi;i, coolhltf^ and 
 di-nwiii;i a kiln. 
 O'liiiiiiioiitoyPapeliiiil 
 
 Kiliif. — iMatorial.* such 
 
 as common lime, lloman 
 
 cement, and tlio argillo- 
 
 maguesian cements of 
 
 the U. S., that do not, 
 
 like Portland cement. 
 
 require prolonged in- 
 
 tonso heat, ean be burnt 
 
 in upright kilns (either 
 
 bell -shaped, eyliildrieal, 
 
 or ovoidal) without in- 
 termission in the fires. 
 
 The kiln is filled with al- 
 ternate layers of coke or 
 
 coal and the stone to b.- 
 
 burned, and then fired 
 
 from below with light 
 
 wood. As the eombus 
 
 tion is completed in the 
 
 lower portion, Iho burnt 
 
 stone is drawn out from 
 
 time to time, allowing tho entire mass above to settle 
 
 down. New layers of fuel and stone are then added at top. 
 
 The layers of stone should not exceed six inches in thick- 
 
 SCALE or rcET. 
 
 ne<!s It is usual to draw the burnt stone at least twice 
 every twentv-fonr hours. Fig. 4 gives a verlieal section 
 of the kilns' in Ulster co., N. Y., for burning Kosendalc 
 cement. The fuel (anthracite coal) is broken up very fine. 
 What is technically known as " second .screenings " from 
 the mines of the Delaware and Hudson Canal to. and the 
 Pennsylvania Coal Co. have been found to be entirely suit- 
 able " The dolled line shows the interior form of kiln pre- 
 ferred at Balcony Falls on the James River, Vn.; :t600 
 pounds of anthracite or somi-bituminous e<ial have been 
 found sufficient to burn 100 barrels of cement of .'.OO pounds 
 each. A continuous kiln of the upright form may be oper- 
 ated with either wood. peat, or eoal fuel, without intcr- 
 stratifying the latter with the limestone, by maintaining 
 the fires in furnaces at the side of the shaft. The heat and 
 flame are conducted into the shaft, which eonlaiiis nothing 
 but the material to be burnt. Indeed, this method is neces- 
 sary when wood, which cannot be subdivided into conve- 
 nient size for inlermixtuie with the stone, is the fuel cin- 
 ploved Figs. 5, fi, and 7 represent a flame-kiln ol this 
 kind for anthracite coal, in which Q arc holes through 
 - • ■ ' watched ; 11 the 
 
 which the progress of the burning can be watched; II he 
 feed-ovens lor heating the eoal before it passes through he 
 dampers S into the furnaces T; U the ash-,.its ; \ the 
 draw pits; W a platform in front of the furnaces; and O 
 a division-wall to prevent the meeting of opposite draughts 
 from the furnaces T. These kilns arc some imcs called 
 ,Z,e,-/Ia„.c kilns, from the fact that the fuel belore ignition 
 is made wet with hot water, the steam Irom which, by its 
 decomposition, aids the expulsion of the carbonic acid gas, 
 and therefore, it is claimed, facilitates the burning. When 
 designed for wood-fuel the furnaces are larger and somewhat 
 differently arranged. These kilns arc used in the I . S for 
 burning both common lime and eement but are not con- 
 sidered adapted to the manufacture of Portland ecmen . 
 Poll wood is used in them for burning lime in Kockland 
 Me., about 4 cords being required to burn 100 barrels of 
 'HO to 240 pounds each, at an average saving ol about 
 three-sevenlhs of the fuel that wmld be necessarily con- 
 sumed in ordinary intermittent kilns. When first starting 
 the fire in these kilns, the portion below the level of the 
 grate, called the thimble, is filled with ligh wood The 
 interior of the kiln, nearly up to the top. is also lined with 
 one layer of wood set on cud. The first precaution is neees-
 
 KILNS. 
 
 1549 
 
 eary, because othorwiso tho stone near the grate would be 
 insufficiently burnt ; and the second because tbo expansion 
 of tho gtono when heated would injure the kiln it" lillcd to 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 its entire capacity. TIic stone should bo broken into pieces 
 not exceeding 8 Inches to 10 inches in diameter. In these 
 kiln? the stone is e.\po.«cd to tlic heat from 42 to 48 hours, 
 and the burnt lime is 
 drawn every tiorS hour:», 
 raw stone being added at 
 tho top, while tho fires 
 are steadily maintained 
 in Iho furnaces. A kiln 
 holding enoiij;h raw 
 stone to makf I ".'> barrels 
 of lime f<hould yield, 
 when tvell under way, 
 about 100 barrrls every 
 24t hours. When the 
 amount of work to bo 
 drine is very great, sev- 
 eral of these kilns are 
 ranged in juxtaposition 
 side by side, each having 
 its furnaces on ono sido and its draw-pit on the oilier. 
 With this arrangement a great deal of masonry is suvcd, 
 ns tho wails separating contiguous kilns need not bo 
 very thick, and need not bo carried as high as the side- 
 
 walls by several feet. They should, however, terminate 
 in a wedge, so ns not to impede the downward move- 
 ment of the contents of the kiln. 
 
 lirtvL- Kilns. — Bricks are burnt 
 either in special permanent kilns, 
 charged with the ware and emptied 
 at each burning, or they are piled 
 up in regular systematic layers, 
 with openings between them, so as 
 t:» form of themselves a temporary 
 kiln, called a clamp. (See article 
 BRifK.) Permanent brick-kilns are 
 of various forms, generally rec- 
 tangular, and they may be arched 
 over on top, when they are termed 
 clof>c kilns, or they are left open. 
 In cl'iHp. kilns the tires arc main- 
 tained in furnaces at one end, per- 
 meate through the bricks in the 
 boily of tho kiln, and escape through 
 a chimney at the other end. In 
 iiprn kilns the lires are maintained 
 under the ware to be backed, and 
 penetrate through the mass u])Hard, 
 esca()ing on the top. In both kilns 
 the bricks are piletl up in courses on 
 their edges, in such manner that the 
 bricks in the difl'erent layers cross 
 each other, and arc so far separated 
 from each other that the flame finds 
 a free passage between them. In 
 tlie open kilns, in order better to rc- 
 iiiu the heat, the entire top of the 
 pile is covered over during the burn- 
 ing with a layer of brick-dust or 
 loam, and while tho bricks are cool- 
 ing off this is further covered with 
 moist clay or sand. Kilns for burn- 
 ing firebrick should have a firebrick 
 lining, and are in all respects constructed and oj>erate(l with 
 more care than is usual for nmnufaeturing common brick. 
 
 The intermittent kiln used by Messrs. A. Hall &. Sons, 
 Perth Amboy, N. J. (Figs. 8 and 9), for baking firebrick, 
 is rectangular in plan, about ?>2 feet long, and IIA feet wide 
 inside. It is rcnuirUable for the comparative thinness of 
 its walls, and by being open on top. Tho walls above tho 
 level of the fires consist of two distinct shells, not bonded 
 together; tho inner one, a, a, of firebrick, 9 inches thick 
 and 12 feet high above tho fnvs; and the outer ono of 
 common briek, 8 inches thick. In one of tho long siilrs an 
 opening of about 4' 8" wide is left for charging and empty- 
 ing the kiln, licforo tho baking is commenced this open- 
 ing is closed with old firebrick put in close-jointed, but dry, 
 its outer surface only being coated over with a layer of fire- 
 clay mortar. An air-space, 2 inches wide at bottom, is 
 left between the inner and outer walls, but the walls nro 
 gradually drawn together, so that they touch eaeh other at 
 top. The side-walls and end-walls of tho outer shell 
 are not bonded together at the corners, and do not ovcrlup 
 each other. Tho iirebriek lining is therefore exposed to 
 view at these points. The outer wall is built with a groove 
 /,/ about 2 inches deep and .1^ inches high, M'ben tho 
 inner wall begins to expand by the efi'ect of the heat, tho 
 
 r 
 
 Fio. 8. 
 
 li^,^HW/fWM t 
 
 a,. 
 
 Scctlonnl plnn, on line A, B, C, D, E, F. 
 
 
 Qn 
 
 interior space permits it to do so without hindranoe, while 
 it prevents a scnsi))le loss of heat by traDsuiiasiou. As tho 
 
 heat increases tho inner wall may exert sonio pressure 
 against tho outor ono without any injuriuus elTect on thu
 
 1550 
 
 KILNS. 
 
 latter, the thin portion of the same (the groove/,/) acting I ral position when the pressure ceases. Close by, and op- 
 
 as a sort of hin^e, enabling the wall to bend outward to posite each (exposed) corner of the firebrick wail, a strong 
 some extent under the pressure, and returning to its natu- ' wooden post */, £/ is firmly planted in the ground. The 
 
 
 Klevation and section, on line G, H 
 
 corners are reinforced with angle-iron h, and a similar 
 piece of angle-iron i, bent, rests with its two ends firmly 
 against the angle-iron of the corner, and with its convex 
 back or middle part against the post. When the inner 
 wall expands it lends to flatten the curve of the bent an- 
 gle-iron ; on cooling, the latter, by its spring-like action, 
 returns to its original position. The kiln is heated by ten 
 furnaces, five of which, with their doors and ash-pits, are 
 sliown in elevation {k, k), and five in cross-section (I, I). 
 The grate-bars run across the whole width of the kiln, the 
 furnaces or fire-holes being provided with a door at each 
 end. Between the fire-boles and the benches (nt, vi) upon 
 which the green brick are placed, six heavy posts (h, ij) 
 arc placed as shown ; they serve partly to support the roof 
 over the kiln (not shown in the drawing), and partly to 
 carry a scaffolding or platform (o, o) running around the 
 kiln for easier access to the upper portions. The green or 
 raw bricks are arranged in alternate courses, the spaces 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 the centre of each bench and extending across the width 
 of the kiln. The draft of the kiln can to some extent bo 
 regulated by opening or closing these 2-inch spaces. A 
 kiln of the above kind holds about 70.000 firebrick of the 
 usual dimensions — i. c 9" -i- 4\" X 2i". The baking re- 
 quires about four days' firing, of which the fir^t two days 
 consist in easy firing, and the closing two days in sharp 
 firing. The whole quantity of fuel consumed in one baking 
 is stated to be 40 tons, of which a little more than half is 
 anthracite coal, the balance of a seuii-bituminous kind; 
 the latter being used only during the latter stages of the 
 firing. Eight to ten days are required to charge, bunt, 
 cool nffy and fwpti/ a kiln of this kind. 
 
 Potteijf kihiH are of various forms, hut in none is the fuel 
 consumed in the same chamber or in contact with the ware. 
 Porcelain and other finer kinds of clay ware cannot even 
 be allowed to come in direct contact with the flame of the 
 furnace, and arc therefore always enclosed in clay boxes 
 called scffffnrti. in order that the glaze maj' receive no in- 
 jury. The kiln in which the celebrated Stn-cfi ware is 
 baked is a variety of the upright flame-kiln, subdivided 
 into two or more compartments or stories by perforaie<l 
 floors. Fig. 10 represents this kiln, the left half being in 
 elevation and the right half in vertical secti(»nal elevation. 
 Fig. 11 is a horizontal sectional plan, on the left through 
 
 Fig. U. 
 
 >#i."«-y 
 
 between them as nearly equal as possible. The whole pile 
 i-: finished off on top with two layers of old burnt firebrick 
 laid flat and quite close, but with a 2-inch opening over [ D the heat ascends to a third space E, usually used for 
 
 the upper chamber, and on the right through the fire- 
 hearths. Fig. 12 shows a vertical half section, through 
 the baking cliamber, with the wares arranged in it for 
 buking. There are four fires. A, A, A, A, which //•«/ heat 
 the lower chamber IJ, in which the ware receives its final 
 baking. The heat then ascends through the lower perfo- 
 rated floor C, and heats the upper chamber P, filled with 
 unglazed ware, which here receives its first baking before it 
 is dipped in the liquid glaze, preparatory to the linal bak- 
 ing in the lower chamlier. Porcelain ware which has re- 
 ceived only its first baking is called fnncuit. From chamber
 
 KILNS. 
 
 1551 
 
 bnking bf*ruit or »eggnr», and then escapes through the 
 chimney F. G, G are the doors through which the wares 
 arc introduced and removed; (, f, ( are the openings 
 
 Poltery kiln. 
 
 through tho floors C, there being only half as many Fuoh 
 openings in tlie upper as there are in the lower floor. The 
 flue from tho furnaces to the lower chamber are each di- 
 vided into three channels. ;>, p,;j of plan. Small openings 
 rr, IP are made through the wall of the chamber B for ob 
 serving the color and intensity of the Iieat, and for intro- 
 ducing small samples of biscuit covered with glaze, in order 
 to ascertain the progress of tho baking. These holes arc 
 closed on the outside with a tube-stopper carrying a plate- 
 glass disk or diaphragm, and a sliding damper. Those kilns 
 arc usually at least 20 feet in interior diameter and 40 feet 
 high. They are built of ordinary brick masonry, with a 
 firebrick lining, and are surrounded by a system of iron 
 bands, m, m, m. When ptartiug the fires, coals of burning 
 charcoal are firjit put into the space c, and light wood in- 
 troduced through the aperture b until the space / is com- 
 pletely full. The downward draught through creates a 
 long flame in/, which reaches through the flues p,p,p into 
 the chamber B. The aperture©, for stirring the fire, is gen- 
 erally kept closed with a clay stopper ; d is the ash-pit. Tho 
 draught is regulated by the movable lid of tho aperture h. 
 Tlie jiitiTig of the scggars one above tho otiier fur baking is 
 shown in Fig. 12, some in section and otliers in profile; 7, 
 i/are plates of refractory clay called fireguards, sf-t in front 
 of the flues to ]>rcvent the flame coming in direct contiurt 
 with the seggars, and to exclude ashes and dust. liight 
 worid-fuel 9|tlit up Kinall is almost universally used for 
 baking pornelain. Thoso kinds which burn with a long 
 and vigorou!^ flame, and discharge but little ash and dust 
 into the kiln, are preferred. At Stivres poptnr is used, and 
 generally in tJerraany piue. These kilns can be operated 
 at the rate of about one firing per week, and (ho average 
 endurance of the Sevres kilns is about 'M)0 firings, or six 
 years. In other places several have been known to last 
 from twenty-five to thirty years. During the baking tho 
 heat in tho lower chamber reaches from \'.W° to 1^0° of 
 Wedgwood's pvromctcr (cf|uivalent to from 11.000'' to 
 111,0000 c anj from Ii»,S.'iO° to 2l.fi.t2° F.). On the upper 
 floor the temperature varies from 30° to 00° Wedgwood. 
 Articles of common stoneware and pottery are baked in 
 kilns of much simpler construction than the Sevres kiln. 
 The ware !•* not placed in seggar? piled up in rolumns. but 
 the flame in allowed to come in direct contact with it. In 
 form they somewhat resemble the ordinary baker's oven, 
 consisting essentially of an ellipsoidal dome of brick, with 
 a brick or earthen floor, ancl having at one encl a furnace 
 and at the ntlicr a chiinney-flue. In some cases tho fl()or 
 ascends from the furnace to tho chimney-flue, in others it 
 is horizontal. The larger kilns, which are ;)0 to HO feet in 
 length, are usually divided into two compartments by a 
 transverse vertical wall constructed with numerDiia open- 
 ings to allow the heat to pass freely through. The com- 
 partment next the furnace, being the most intensely heated, 
 IS used for baking stoneware. In this the heat frequently 
 attains 120° Wedgwood. The other compartment is used for 
 baking common pottery. With the large kilns about five 
 
 days of preliminary fire and threedaysof baking fire are re- 
 quired at each burning. The fuel employed, which may bo 
 cither wood or coal, determines the details of the furnace. 
 77ir Hoffntfxuu Kiln (Figs. i;j and 14).— Imagine a rail- 
 road tunnel 8 to 9 feet high by 10 to 12 feet span, built of 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 Section on line A, 
 
 brick continuously around a long oval of such dimensions 
 that the central line of the annular chamber thus formed is 
 about 360 feet long. This annular chamber is called the 
 hnrninif chumhvr. In the centre of the narrow space en- 
 closed by the ring is a long Jhtc calird I be Hinok-e-vfnntihcr, 
 lending to a high chimney. Fourteen flues? lead at equal 
 intervals from tlie lower inner side of tho burning chamber 
 into the smoke-cbiiniber, entering it vertically from tho 
 bottom, each provided at its end in tho smoke-chamber 
 with a damper that can be opene<l and closed at pleasure 
 by means of a vertical rod operated on top of the arch. 
 There are also fourteen doorways, each about 6 feet high, 
 through the outer wall of the burning chamber, placed at 
 regular intervals. The arched to|i of I he burning chamber 
 is pierced at intervals of 3 to -I feet each way with vertical 
 holes about inches in diameter, culled firti-hofet. which 
 are used for supplying the fires with fuel and watching the 
 burning. These liobs are kept habilually closed with 
 dampers on top. It is customary to call each portion of 
 tho burning chamber between two consecutive doorways, 
 including one of them, a eonijiartmcnt, allhough there is no 
 permanent division of the burning chamber into smaller 
 chambers. Kaeh compartment is therefore 26 feet in length 
 along the axis, and has one doorway at its left-hand outer 
 angle, and one smoke-flue at the floor in the inner angle 
 diagonally opposite to the doorway, tho observer bciug 
 suppoi^ed to be entering a doorway. 
 
 Manurr »/ ('"in;/ thr Ktlu. — Let the compartment, and 
 also the doorways and flues eorresnonding thereto ft ver- 
 ally, be numbered from 1 to II. When tho kiln is in oper- 
 ation all the compartments but two or. exceptionally, three. 
 are filled with the material to be burnt. Suppose Nos. I 
 and 2 are empty, aii<l all the others filled. All the door- 
 ways except Xos. I and 2 are temponirily closed with brick- 
 work, and all the flues except No. II are cbtsed with their 
 dampers. Workmen are filling compartment No. I with 
 raw limestone, and removing burnt lime from compartment 
 No. 2. Compartment No. 3 c<pntains limestone put in twelve 
 days ago. ('ompartment No. 1 that put in eleven days 
 ago, and so on around to No. 14, which was filled yesterday. 
 A sheet-iron movable partition, called the riit-njf, separates 
 No. 11 from No. 1. Yesterday it was bttwctn Nu. 13 and
 
 1552 
 
 KILNS. 
 
 No. 14; to-morrow it will bo between No. 1 and No. 2. 
 Yesterday, all the 6ues except No. 13 were closed: to- 
 morrow, only flue No. 1 will be open. Yesterday, men 
 were setting limestone in No. 14, and removing burnt lime 
 from No. I ; to-morrow they will be lilling No. 2, and 
 emptying No. JJ. Every day, therefore, tlie stfring, draic- 
 iuff, vitt-uff, and open jUte advance one compartment. The 
 compartments not yet iiretl are heated by the hot gases 
 passing through them to the chimney, the ytone in the 
 compartment next in advance of the fire being at a full red 
 heat, while that farthest off. in No. H, which waj^ put in 
 yesterday, is only warm. No fuel is put in with the ware 
 when charging the kiln. It is all supplied through the 
 
 Fig, 
 
 feed-holes. A serious objection to the Hoffmann kiln is 
 that the force of the draught and the progress of the com- 
 bustion cannot always be regulated with certainty, even hy 
 the most experienced and careful burner. For instance, 
 the draught throujrh the chambers 7 and 8 is longitudinal 
 entirely, and can only be cliauged by opening the flues in 
 these chambers, giving a cross draught towards the inner 
 wall, which may or may not be desirahlc. It would operate 
 very badly if the combustion next the outer wall was too 
 slow, in which case a flue in the outside wall would be ad- 
 vantageous. 
 
 The Morand Kiln (Figs. 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19), for burn- 
 ing by successive chambers, is an improvement on Hofl'- 
 16. 
 
 a.; 
 
 if} ^jMf^^A^MPl^ n^wf^ y JiB m;^ 
 
 -r 
 
 Fm. l.'!. 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 z^=^^-W^W 
 
 ^?s ^iSts^LiS; ^. - - v^- - a 
 
 - - 1 
 
 M 1 
 
 i 1( 
 
 -J 
 
 £ 
 
 s^ 1 rf 
 
 ._,„,u 
 
 
 Fin. 19. 
 
 FT > 
 
 Or 
 
 'I n I " t 
 
 oq; ; 
 
 •Q;: 
 
 — E| 
 
 
 —3 
 
 a3 ; 
 
 TiLZEZIiLZl 
 
 Morand kiln. 
 
 mann's, inasmuch as it has lonj^itudinal flues both above 
 and below (ho burning; clianiber. with branch flues fitted 
 with damper,s leading; int't then) iit the top and bottom of 
 each chaini)cr. so that tlie direction and force of the draught 
 and the ])rof5rcss of the luirning are untler hotter control. 
 Fig. 15 is a side elevation of a portion of a kiln of fi^■o 
 eliarabcrs built of hriclis : Fig. 16 is a longitudinal section 
 and elevation through the dotted line r, r of Fig. 17 ; Fig. 
 17 is a transverse section on line z, z of Fig. l(i ; Fig. 18 is 
 an end elevation: and Fig. 19 is a sectional plan, showing 
 the horizontal bottom-flues in dotted lines. A^ A^, etc. are 
 tlie drying and burning chambers, separated from each 
 other by brick partition-walls, perforated at the bottom 
 with openings c, c. In kilns for burning bricks these walls, 
 except their lower portion to the height of about 2 feet, are 
 usually formed of the green bricks to be burned. Each 
 chamber is ])roviiled with doorways, d and c, through 
 which it is filleil and em]>tied, and with small fireplaces, 
 /, /, placeil at the floor level. In chamber A', where the 
 tiring begins, there arc six fireplaces in the end-wall of the 
 kiln. In the other chamber there arc only two, placed op- 
 j'ositc each other in the end of the chamber nearest to 
 eliambcr A'. In the haunches of the arch above the cham- 
 bers there are two longitudinal steam and smoke draught- 
 flues, B, B, and below the chambers there arc two others, 
 r, C, called hot-air flues, all four leading from chamber A* 
 to the chimney at the other end of the kiln. In each cham- 
 ber in the end farthest from chamber A* there are four cor- 
 responding branch flues, two at top. i, t. and two at bottom, 
 /, ^ leading respectively into the four longitudinal flues. 
 These branch flues arc provided with dampers, r. r, y and 
 
 fr, ir, v\ for opening and closing them at pleasure. The 
 two lower flues, t', C, may be replaced by a single flue. 
 There are numerous feed-holes, 3. 7, through the arch for sup- 
 plying fuel, arranged substantially as iu the llofl^inann kiln. 
 This kiln is operated ns fcdiows : All the chambers. A', A', 
 etc., arc first suitably filled with the articles to bo baked. 
 The doorways and ieed-holes are then closed, as are also 
 the branch flues leading to the lower longitudinal flues. 
 The branch flues 1, 1 leading from A' into the upper longi- 
 tudinal flues B, B, are open. Fires are then started in the 
 fireplaces f, /, of chuniber A'. As the wares in this cham- 
 ber arc gradually dried and heated, the steam and va|ior 
 which they give off escapes through the flues B, B to the 
 chimney at the far end of the kiln, without passing through 
 and injuring or discoloring the wares in A'. When the 
 wares are sufliciently dried in A' the top branch flues in 
 that chamber are closed, and those in chumber A' opened, 
 .so that the waste heat from A' passes through A', and dries 
 and heats the green wares therein before it passes into the 
 upper flues B, B. and thence to tlie chimney. Or, if cham- 
 ber .'\' is not charged ready for drying, the surplus heat 
 from Ai may be carried to A', or to any other chamber, 
 through the lower longitu.linal flue ('. by a suitable adjust- 
 ment of the dampers; so that the surplus heat from one 
 chamber is utilized in drying and heating the ne.xt or any 
 following chamber, until" A-'* is reached. "When the wares 
 in any chamber are siitheiontly dried, fires are started in 
 the fireplaces /, and stoking from the feed-holes at top 
 follows at the proper time, or when there is heat enough 111 
 the chamber to ignite the fuel thus supplied. ^^ ben the 
 wares in A^ arc sufficiently dried, the upper dampers in
 
 KILO— KILPATRICK. 
 
 1553 
 
 that chamber are closed and the lower odcs opened, so that 
 the surplus heat, iustead of cutoriug the chiuiiuy, is thus 
 conveyed back through the flues C, C to A', or to any other 
 chamber by a suitable udjuiiitment of dumpers, for drying 
 the green wares with which that chamber has in the mean 
 time been freshly charged. The steam and vapor from 
 a drying chamber always puss directly to llie chimney 
 through the upper flues B, B, creating a draught quilo suf- 
 ficient to draw the heat through the lower Hues C, C from 
 any burning chamber into any drying chamber. It will 
 thus be seen that the operation of this kiln is completely 
 under the control of the burner. The fuel used for stoking 
 from above is finely pulverized coal, such as gmudge or re- 
 
 FlG. 20. 
 
 fuse coal. In the fireplaces either coal or wood will answer. 
 Id economy of fuel, simplicity of management, and uni- 
 formity of burning, whether for bricks, tircV>ricks, cement, 
 or pottery, this kiln seems to combine every essential fea- 
 ture of exeellencc. 
 
 Charcoal Kt'hi/i are of a variety of forms and sizes. Those 
 used in the V. S. for making charcoal on a large scale for 
 smelting-furnaces are made of brick, some being rcctan;;u- 
 lar in plan and covered on toj) with a flat brick arch, while 
 others, known as the beehive kiln, are circular in plan and 
 dome-shaped. A rectangular kiln 40 feet by l(i feet in 
 plan {Figs. 20 and 21), with side-walls 13 feet high, coverc<t 
 over with an arch of 4-feet rise, will hold nearly UO cords 
 
 Fig. 21, 
 
 ^ i^ tW^X ^*"^^ 
 
 ( tiun-i);tl killi». 
 
 of merchantable wood. As the side-walls and arch are 
 habitually made only 8 inches (or one brick) thick as a 
 measure uf ec<<nomy, they are always supported by a tim- 
 )>cr framework on the outside to jirevent their being thrown 
 dowu by alternate e.Y|>unsiun and contraction wheu^u use. 
 The end-walls are generally 1 foot thick. The supporting 
 frame consists of upright timbers 4 inches by 12 inehes, and 
 19 ft'ct long, placed about .'{ feet apart, witli their edges 
 against the side-walls and end-walls. They are tied to- 
 gether at top by 4-inch by G-inch horizontal cross-tics. For 
 a kiln of the above dimensions fourteen of these frames, 
 each consisting of two uprights and one cross-tie, embrace 
 the kiln transversely, and four of them longitudinally. The 
 transverse frames are stin"ened at the angles by diagonal 
 braces, spiked to the uprights and cross-ties. In the side 
 and en<l-wall8 numerous vent-holes aro left, each of tho 
 width and (hieknesH of ii brick (about 4 inches by 2 inches). 
 There aro I.')2 of these lioles. arrangeil in four horizontal 
 rows of 3S holes each, the upper row being 4 feet from tho 
 bottom of the wall, the next row Ui feet, the next 1 foot, 
 while tho lowest row is placed Just about the level of tho 
 floDr of the kiln. In one end of the kiln there is an open- 
 ing abr)ut fi feet by fci^t at the level of the floor, through 
 which most of tho wood is introduced and the charcoal re- 
 moved. Above this, near tho crown of the arch, there is a 
 smaller opening, 2 feet by 2 feet, for completing tho filling 
 of the kiln. Both openings are fitted with boiler-ir(m tloors, 
 and aro tightly closed during tho burning. There are three 
 vent-holes on top thruuKh the crown of the arch, about 10 
 feet apart, each 1 foot by I fool, elo.<'cd with iron dampers. 
 The kiln having been compactly filled tu the crown of tho 
 arch with wood, cut and split into the usual merchantable 
 sizes, the two end-doors are then closed, and fires are then 
 started in tho three vent-holes on top. Thei'o holes aro 
 then at once closed with the damperti, all the small vent- 
 holes below being open. The fire shiwiy and gradually 
 works its way downward through the mass of wood, itrt 
 progress being known to a skilful burner by the eolur and 
 volume of smoke issuing from the lower vent-holes. From 
 ft to 7 days are required to completely char the euntrnli of 
 a kiln of tho dimensions above given. Tho lower vent- 
 holes are closed from time to time, one after the other, as 
 tho burning is completed in their vicinity, and finally, when 
 they are all closed, tho kiln is whitewashed all over in order 
 to close all the pores tltrough ivbieh the air could enter, and 
 it is allowed to stand four or Ww days for the lire to go out. 
 When skilfully operated, iheso kilns will yield 4'i bushels 
 of charcoal to the cord (d' wood. With wood costing $2.60 
 per cord at the kiln, the eo.>>t of tho charcoal will not vary 
 much from *.*4 to 10 cents per bushel. This covers Jilfintf, 
 coaling, irhitricaiifiiii'j, and current repairs of kiln. 
 
 Q. A. tJii.i.MonB. 
 Kilo [CiT. x^Aioi. "thousand"], a )irefix used in tho 
 French metrical system to denote a thousand times tho 
 \-or. 11 -',ts 
 
 measure indicated by the word to which it is prefixed ; as. 
 Kilogramme, a thousand grammes, tho unit of commercial 
 weight, is equal to 2.204G1'12j pounds avoirdupois ; Kilo- 
 litre, a thousand litres, a measure of capacity', is equal to 
 264.1SC:i5 gallons; Kilomltre, a thousand metres, the 
 unit of linear measure, is equal to 0.G2138 mile; Kilo- 
 STFRF, a thousand stercs, a iiicat;uro of solidity, is equal to 
 3.*;;ilG.y8 cubic feet. Tho latter term is rarely employe)!, 
 measures of solidity or volume being expressed in cubic 
 denominations of tho linear base. (See Wetuic Sv.stem.) 
 
 KirpatricU (Andrew Robf.rt), M. D., b. Mar. 24. 1S17, 
 near Cheucyville, Uapides parish. La.; educated in Geor- 
 gia under tho tuition of a Baptist clergyninn. Rev. Otis 
 ymith ; graduated in the Medical College of Georgia at 
 Augusta in Mar., I8;i7 ; practised medicine first in Burko 
 CO., Ga., then (IS.'iS— l^J) in Avoyelles parish, La.; hut re- 
 moved to Woodville, Aliss., where he passed through a 
 severe epidemic yellow fever in IS41, and published a full 
 report of it in the A>ip OrUftui M:dirtil Jnuruftl. From 
 1S47 to I'^tl^ he resided near Trinity, in Concorflia j)arisl), 
 La., during which timo bo contributed articles to the AViu 
 OrltunH Metfivul Joitnial ; to an annual medical publica- 
 tion, edited by l)r. E. D. Fenner, styled Saiitfurii Mtdiral 
 Ucjiortu ; J/iatoricftl M^momuda of Cintcnrdia ami Cata- 
 houla /\trtHhi.ti, besides other articles in l)r Jimc'» Jicrictr, 
 New Orleans; some articles to Li/tpinrotl'» O'aziltrrr ; a 
 sketch of the early Baptists in Mi^'sissippi and Louisiana; 
 and kept meteorological tables fur theSmith.-^onian Institu- 
 tion. In 18G3 he removed to Texas, and in iSOrt settled in 
 Navasola, (irimes co., where lie now (lS7i)) resides. Ilo 
 
 fiassed through an epidemic yellow fever in I8f)7, nnil pub- 
 ished a report of tho same in the Trxnn Mrdical Jonnml. 
 In 18GH ho was chosen professor of anatomy in the Texas 
 Medical College in Galveston; cditol the A'»irn#of»i Werkdi/ 
 I TnUrt in 1S70-7I ; one of the assistant editors of tho 
 I Sniithrrn M'diral /^rfor^/, Atlanta, Ga., in 187;t-75; also 
 I contributing articles to the Mrdiral and Sunjtral Itrportcr, 
 I'hiladelphia, the Rirhnutnd and LauiHvttlr Mrdiral Jmirtialf 
 and Till Amrriran }frdiral WcrKdy of Louisville, Ky. 
 
 Kilpatrick (Ilron Judson), b. near Deekertown, N. J., 
 Jan. II, I^.'iG: graduated at the U. S. Military Academy, 
 I and entered tho army as second lieutenant of artillery May 
 I 0, IHill ; was commissioned captain ."ttli New York Vols. May 
 U, an<l wounded at battle of Hn; Brihel, ,Iune III. On his 
 ( recovery was commissioned lieut.nant-eolonel LM New York 
 I (.'avalry \'ols., of which regiment ho became colonel iJec, 
 i 181)2. With his regiment he participated in the Hap[.»han- 
 noek campaign, in theseeontt buttle of Bull Hun, and nniny 
 minor actions, jind in the Maryliiiid eampiiigii. I'uring 
 " Sloncman's raid " to tho rear of (ien. Lee's army he com- 
 manded a brigade uf cavalry, and was promoted lo bo 
 brigadier-general of volunteers .Tune. I.^C^t. At the batllo 
 of Gettysburg ho commanded a brigade and division. In
 
 1554 
 
 KILTY— KINDERGARTEN. 
 
 Apr., 1864, he was ordered to duty with Gen. Shcrmao in 
 the West, and at the hattle of Resaca, May, 1SG4, was 
 severely wounded. During Gen. Sherman's niareh to the 
 sea and subsequent campaign tl)rough the Carolinas ho 
 commanded the cavalry and was actively engaged. In June, 
 isfij, he was promoted to be major-general of volunteers. 
 He resigned his commission in the regular army Dec, ISOj, 
 and his vuluiiteer commission Jan. I. IS(j(>. In Nov., 18Gj, 
 he was appointed U. S. minister to Chili; recalled in IH68. 
 
 G. C. Simmons. 
 Kil'ty (Augustus H.), V. S. N., b. Nov. 25, ISOG, in 
 Maryland; entered the navy as a midsbipman July 4. 
 1S2I ; became a jiassed midshipman in 1^.".L'. a lieutenant 
 in l^S.■t7, a commander in 1^55, a cajttain in 1S()2, a com- 
 modore in ISfiO; retired in 1868. Commanded the Mnund 
 City in the action with the Confederate gunboats off Fort 
 Pillow. May 10, 1SG2, and with the St. Charles batteries on 
 AVbite River, June 17, 1S62. In the latter engagement Com- 
 mander Kilty was severely injured by the exphision of the 
 steam-chest of the Mound City, which was pierced by a 
 shell. In his official report to the navy department of June 
 20. 18G2, Flag-officer Davis says : " Commander Kilty is out 
 of danger, but be is severely crippled in his hands and feet, 
 and suffers a great deal. He is a brave gentleman and a 
 h)yal officer. He has always been conspicuous in this 
 sfjuadron for acting his part in the best spirit of the pro- 
 fession." D. Nov. 10, 1879. FoxiiALL A. Parker. 
 Kihva. See Quiloa. 
 
 Kilwinning, a small town in the county of Ayr. Scot- 
 land, famous for an ancient abbey, now destroyed, which 
 was the birthplace of Scottish Masonry. Until IT^iG, when 
 the Grand Lodge of Scotland was formed, all other lodges 
 in Scotland received their charters from " Mother Kilwin- 
 ning." This prerogative was exercised down to 1S07. Eg- 
 linton Castie in this town was the scene of the famous 
 *'Eglint<)n Tournament" in 18.39. Pop. about 4000. 
 Kim'ball, tp. of St. Clair co.. Mich. Pop. 1091. 
 Kimball ( Hkbkr C), b. in 1801 : joined the Mormons in 
 1832 at Kirtland, 0.; in 1835 became one of the twelve 
 apostles of that sect; in lS.'J7-'i.8 was a missi<tnary in Eng- 
 land: in 1838 went to the Mormon colony in Ray co., 
 Mo. : removed thence to Nauvoo, III. : and in 1846 became 
 head priest of the order of Melchizcdek at Salt Lake City, 
 where he d. June 22, 1868. 
 
 Kimball (Richard Burleigh), h. at Plainficld. N. 11.. 
 Oct. II, I81G; graduated at Dartmouth in 1834; studied 
 hiw in Europe; practised atWaterford. Saratoga co., N. Y., 
 and removed in 1S40 to New York City. Among his nu- 
 merous works the most widely known is St. Lc(/cr (1849); 
 others are Letters from Cuba (1850). Cnhn and the Cubans 
 (18501. Romance of Stnffcnt-H/e Abroad (1853), ffenrt/ 
 Powfra, Banker (1868), and To-dmj (1870). He has con- 
 tributed much to periodical literature. 
 
 Kim'berley (John WonKnorsK). Eari.of. b. in England 
 Jan. 7. 1S26 ; graduated at Christ Church, O.xford, in 1847 : 
 succeeded his grandfather as Baron Wodehouse in 1846; 
 was undcr-secretary for foreign affairs from 1852 to 1856, 
 and again from 1859 to 1861, under the administrations of 
 Lords Aberdeen and Palmerston ; was ambassador to Rus- 
 sia in 1856 ; special minister to several states with refer- 
 ence to the Schleswig-IIolstein question in 18G3. and lord 
 lieutenant of Ireland from 18C4 to 1866, in which latter 
 year he was raised to tht- earldom of Kimberley. I'nder 
 the second Gladstone ailministration he was lord privy 
 seal (1S68) and secretary of state for the colonies (1870). 
 
 Kim'beriy (Lewis A.), U, S. N., b. in 1830 in New 
 York; entered the navy as a midshipman Dec. 8, 1846; 
 became a passed midshipman in 1852, a lieutenant in 1855, 
 a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in 1866; 
 pcrved in the flagship Hartforil at the capture of New 
 Orleans and in her various engagements on the Mississippi, 
 and was lier executive officer at the battle of Mobile Bay. 
 In his official report of Aug. 6. 1864, Capt. Pcrcival Dray- 
 ton writes: "To Lieut. -Com. Kimbcrly, the executive offi- 
 cer, I am indebted not only for the fine example of t-itolncss 
 and self-possession which he set to those around him, but 
 also for the excellent condition to which he had brought 
 everything belonging to the fighting department of the 
 ship, in consequence of which there was no confusion any- 
 where, even when, from the terrible slaughter at some of 
 the guns, it might have been looked for." 
 
 Foxhai.t. A. Parker. 
 Kim'ble, countyof S. W. Central Texas. Area, about 
 1300 square miles. It is a rough, broken region, with good 
 pasturage and timber, and numerous salt-licks. The val- 
 leys have a good soil, which, however, reqtiires irrigatiOD, 
 for which there are many facilities. Pop. 72. 
 
 Kim'broiis:h, tp. of Arkansas co.. Ark. Pop. 611. 
 Kim'chi (David), Rabbi, b. at Narbonne, Provence, in 
 
 1160; was one of the raost distinguished Hebrew writers 
 of the Middle Ages. Little is known of his personal his- 
 tory beyond the fact that in 1232 ho was designated l)y the 
 French and Spanish rabbis as arbiter to settle the heated 
 controversies in the synagogues growing out of the doctrines 
 advanced in Maimonides' More J^'ci-ochim. His works con- 
 sist of commentaries on nearly all the books of the Ohl 
 Testament, some of which are given in the rabbinical 
 Bibles : a Hebrew grammar and lexicon bearing the name 
 of Mi/ciui (''Perfection"), which have been the basis of 
 all modern works of the same kind ; and a Ji*-/iifati"n of 
 Chn'titianittf, based upon the denial of Messianic predic- 
 tions in the Psalms. D. Kimchi exhibited such hostility 
 to Christianity throughtiut his eommcntaries that numerous 
 passages were struck out by the Inquisition as a condition 
 of permitting their publication. Several of his works remain 
 in manuscript. D. at Narbonne in 1240. His father, Joseph, 
 and his brother. Moses, were also distinguished rabbis of 
 Provence, the former having been driven from Spain by 
 Mohammedan persecution. Both left some grammatical 
 and exegetical writings. 
 
 Kirn'meridge Clay, an important bed of marl in 
 many localities, several hundred feet in thickness, and often 
 very bituminous, is so called from Kimmcridge in Dorset- 
 shire. England. It constitutes the argillaceous member of 
 the Upper Oolitic formation. (Sec JrRASsir.) It contains 
 many distinctive fossils [Ostrfa deftoidca, Exogyra virgulUf 
 etc.)- and has yielded the remains of the IHiosanrun, 
 
 ■ Kim'poliing;, town of Wallachia. is situated in a 
 mountain-region near the Transylvanian frontier, and car- 
 ries on a considerable transit trade. Pop. 8695. 
 
 Kim'shew, tp. of Butte co., Cal. Pop. 857. 
 
 Kin'aston (Sir Francis), !>. at Otley. Shropshire, Eng- 
 Kand. in 1587; studied at Oxford and Cambridge; was 
 employed at court, and gained the favor of the king, by 
 whom he was knighted in 1618. He wrote a Latin trans- 
 lation of Chaucer's TroiluH and Crcsnidaj and several other 
 volumes of verse, but is chiefly remembered as the founder 
 and regent of a sort of university at Lonclnn called " Mi- 
 nerva's JIuseum," chartered by the king June 26, 1635. 
 Owing to the civil war it came to a speedy end, and Kin- 
 astou d. in 1642. 
 
 Kincaid% tp. of Jackson co.. III. Pop. 1049. 
 
 Kincar'dine, port of entry of Bruce co., Out., Canada, 
 on Lake Huron, ships grain, lumber, salt, bark, fish, wool, 
 and butter. It has some manufactures and 2 weekly news- 
 papers. Pop. of V. 1907; of tp. exclusive, 4097. 
 
 Kincar'dineshire, or The i>Iearns,county of Scot- 
 land, lietween the Dee, tiie North Esk, and the North Sea. 
 Area, 381 square miles. Pop. 34.651. A great part of the 
 country is covered by the Grampian Mountains, of which 
 Mount Battock rises to the bight of 3500 feet. But at the 
 foot of this mountain-range lies the " How o' the Mearns," 
 a low anil very fertile tract of land, yiehling excellent crops 
 of wheat and oats. Large herds of sheep and short-horned 
 cattle graze on the mountain-pastures. Cap. Stonehaven. 
 
 Kind (Kari, Theodor), b. at Leipsic Oct. 7, 1799 : stud- 
 ied law, and began in 1824 to practise as an advocate. 
 After the Greek war of liberation he contributed very much 
 to spread among his countrymen a fuller knowledge of 
 Motlern Greece, its institutions, language, and literature. 
 His most prominent writings arc — Acnt/rirchi»i-/if VolkfU*^- 
 der (1827), Ncitgn'echiMche Chrestoniatftie (1835), Genc/iichlc 
 dergriechiacheu Bet^ohition (2 vols., 1833), translations from 
 Alexander Sutso, and a Greek-German dictionary. 
 
 Kin'dergarten is the name given by Friedrich Frocbel 
 to a er)m]>any of children between the nursery age and 
 that of the primary schools, wlio are to be educated accord- 
 ing to a certain method. The literal meaning of the word 
 l-indtn/arten is "garden of children," and it suggests 
 Froebel's method by speaking of children as if they were 
 plants to be cultivated. 
 
 Cp to Froebel's time the method of educating had been 
 to drift, a process properly applicable only to stone, but 
 which well expressed the hard mechanical method of pro- 
 ceeding from the outward inward, instead of from the in- 
 ward outward, as the growth of all living organisms must 
 do. As. to prepare himself for his work, (be gardener of 
 plants first learns the general laws and conditions of vege- 
 table growth, and next inquires into the special soils, de- 
 grees of light, temperature, and moisture necessary to the 
 perfect development of the several species of plants, so 
 Froebel proposed that educators should prepare tiiernselvcs 
 to cultivate young children — first, by acquainting them- 
 selves with the general laws and conditions of human na- 
 ture, for the purpose of bringing forth the common sense 
 and common conscience : and, secondly, by a careful study 
 of the individual possibilities of beauty and power of the 
 several children committed to their care. Froebel may be
 
 KINDKKIIUOK-KING. 
 
 i; 
 
 ).).) 
 
 called the Copcroicus of education, from the new point of 
 view that he took ; or its Newton, from tho new character 
 of method that he proposed. Seeing that tho child, a mere 
 sensibility, comes into nature from Gocl on the th>o(l-tide 
 of self-activity — not an isoliited individual abandoned to 
 the reactions of tho incxorahle material universe, hut in 
 living rehition with humanity's heart in the person of the 
 mother, whose <luty as well as inmost desire it is to bring 
 him into a joyful yense of his relations to his race, to na- 
 ture, and to (iod — Froebcl souglit an<I found the clue to the 
 true method of education by analyzing the instinctive play 
 of mother and child, when she studies its instincts and 
 spontaneities in order that she may help him to enjoy his 
 body, which is the first world that circumscribes him. Hav- 
 ing found that the child takes possession of his own body 
 and develops his organs of sense by first acting, nnd then 
 realizing his action as a conscious fact, Froebel discovered 
 that in tho same manner he must bo brought to take pos- 
 session in a measure, and gradually, of the universe out- 
 side of his body; that is, he must he led to rut with the 
 purpose of making o**f/c»-/// changes (he instinctively makes 
 changes, not with the intention to compass an end, but 
 simply because he cnn). The reaction his activity provokes, 
 gives him impressions which ri:=c into thoughts, by express- 
 ing themselves in words that re-echo his impressions, and 
 later, into knowledge, by embodying thcm.-jelves in tran- 
 sient ofTects, or productions more permanent, which rcfloct 
 his inner being to his individual consciousness. 
 
 But as the sympafbi/.ing mother — not perouiptorily, but 
 genially — assisted llic child to know nn'I use his organs 
 of sense and locomotion in nursery play till bo eould run 
 alone and began to speak, so the kindergartners, who take 
 tho child from his mother's arras, as it were, must — not 
 peremptorily, but geniiilly — superintend his production of 
 effi-'cts, an<l assist him to express himself freely in conver- 
 sntion. while he is following the laws of order suggested to 
 him in pmducing objects, whether transient or more per- 
 manent, that give him experimental knowledge of tho laws 
 and order of n:iture, muking outwiird things a stepping- 
 stone, not a stumbling-block, of progress. 
 
 Tlie Froebel edtieation is not, however, merely organic, 
 or even artistic and intellectmil, but mornl nnd religions 
 also, never losing sight of the principle that spontaneous 
 (or at least a willing) ditiuff precedes thinking, and think- 
 ing precedes knowing, and knowing preceiles nacning, anti 
 naming, or language, is the creative element of human in 
 contradistinction to merely animal intelligence. 
 
 As, when tho chibl runs alone nnd speaks, tho nursery 
 education merges in the kindergarten, so, when the child 
 can manipulate cleverly, converse intelligently, and begins 
 to invent, and hns como to a sense of moral resptmsibility 
 by learning ** fair j)!ay " with his c<Mnj»anions, (lie kimler- 
 garten merges in tho school. lie is then ripe for learning 
 to read and write, to appreciate signs, words having bo- 
 come familiar with things signified, material and mental, 
 as substantial facts. Elementary materials for the child's 
 production, by whicli he is eduiratcd. were graibially elab- 
 orated by Froebel in fifty years of experimenting, and con- 
 sist of a series of nolitls, round, cnbicular, and triangular, 
 divided and siibdivided. with tablets, square nnd triangu- 
 lar, sticks of various lengths, peas or balls of wax repre- 
 senting points, cards for sewing with colored threads, pa- 
 per for foMing, cutlittg, pricking, and drawing, also for 
 weaving; all to bo used under the supervision of tlie kin- 
 dergartner to make forms of order and use, but leaving tho 
 children a fair margin for their free choice. 
 
 Besides these manipulations, which meet and employ in- 
 stinctive spontaneities, tho instinctive desire to work upon 
 the earth is not allowecl to die out from want of opportu- 
 nity to plant and cultivate. The vegetable world is al- 
 ways at hand, ami afTurds subjects for exjimination nnd 
 analysis, which engage nttention next after the works of 
 his own hands. Tho latter arc the first nnd best objects 
 for lessons, since what a child has done (ir made, interests 
 and even commands hts attention, and what he hns made 
 himself ho can exhaustively knnw — not nwrely its nppear- 
 ances, hut tho Inw nnd method nf it'i being. wlii<'h is tho 
 child's own thought. If ho is nllowe.l in give an nce.mnt 
 of how ho did it, and what ho made it for. he will have a 
 pattern, as it were, to follow in analyzing any one of na- 
 ture's works, learning its Inw aii"! referring it (o its Author ; 
 and thus tho edueatinn of Fruchcl IcarN th<' child to (}od 
 Ihrou'^h his mother, who represents to him infinite Love, 
 and nature, which represents to him infinite Wisdom. In 
 the spirit that ninkes these one lie comes to fr-el that lie 
 "lives, moves, and has his being." for "we nre tho off- 
 spring of Ood," as heathen poet and Christian apostio 
 agree. 
 
 The methods of using Froebel's materials for education 
 are indicated in the manuals prepared for aiding kinder- 
 gartncrs, written under tho dircotion of FrocbcI's ablest 
 
 I disciple and apostle, the baroness Marenholtz-Buluw. 
 There is one in German, edited by (toldammer. and one in 
 French, edited by Jacobs, and named Lr Jnrdin den Eu- 
 fauH. Both are anijdy illustratecl by ])lntes — the former 
 published in Berlin, tlio latter in Brussels by F. Claassen. 
 In the beginning of his career, Froebel published a work 
 under the title Mtn'ichen- Erzichuuy (" Education of Man "}, 
 in which the word kiitdcrtfurten does not occur, but all the 
 elements of it arc manifest. The best edition of it is edited 
 by his disciple and relative, Lange. und it is publi.<bcd in 
 Hamburg. It has been translated into French by tho 
 baroness Crombrugghe. Later in life, Froebel published 
 his characteristic and unique work. Mnfter-Spit-l und h'nue- 
 Lit-der, which has been translated and set to music by 
 Lady Baker, anil jiublished in London. The notes to these, 
 with its pictorial illustrations, have been translated bv tho 
 baroness Crombrugghe into French, and called Camferica 
 dea Jfrre*. It is a kind of nursery manual. The baroness 
 Marcnholtz-Bulow has published many works, among which 
 are eminent Education (.1/ Lnlmr, TIk Ednmtiinuif M!xniun 
 of Vt'nmeu, Thf Child'ti Workshop, and a pamphlet trans- 
 lated into English, and published by the National Bureau 
 of Kducation in their drruhir of Information for July, 
 IS72. which may be had for tho askinu; by any citizen of 
 the V. S. In America Mrs. Matilda IF. Kriege has pub- 
 lished extracts, freely translated, from the above works in 
 a little book called The. Child in itH RrlntionH to Nnturr, to 
 Man, and to God ; nnd AV. Ilailmann. a small bof)k on Kin- 
 dcnjartcn Culture. There is also 11 monthly periodical de- 
 voted to the interests of this most radical of reforms, juib- 
 liehed in Cambridge, Mass. Elizabkth P. Peacodv. 
 
 Kinderhook'9 tp. of Tallapoosa co., Ala. Pop. 800. 
 
 Kinderhookf post-tp. of Pike co.. III., on the Hanni- 
 bal and Naples branch of the Toledo Wabash and Western 
 R. P. Pop. 14:.4. 
 
 Kinderhooky post-tp. of Branch co., !Mich. Pop. 037. 
 
 Kiiiderhook, post-v. and tp. of Columbia co.. N. Y., 
 20 miles 8. E. of Albany and b miles E. of the Hudson 
 River, on the Boston and Albany R. R. Tho township in- 
 cludes the villages of Valatie and Niverville. Kinderliook 
 Village has 4 churches. 1 weekly newspaper. 1 entton-mill, 
 and 2 national banks. Valatie has 4 cburehes. 4 cotton- 
 mills, a knitting-mill, and 2 hotels. LindenwaM. the home 
 of the late ex-President, Martin Van Buren, is 2 miles S. 
 of Kinderhook Village. He was a native of this town. Pop. 
 of tp. 4055. Wm. B. Howlanp. Ed. ""AnvKRTiSEn." 
 
 Kinderhook, tp. of AVashington co., Va. Pop. 2^91. 
 
 Kiii(Niu,or Kilinu, queen of the Sandwich Islands, b. 
 in the beginning of this century; reigned from the death 
 of Kamehameba II., in 182.t, to tho accession of Kamc- 
 hamoha III., in IS.'JU. D. in 1844. She was much upposed 
 to tho French Roman Catholic mission, and in favor of tho 
 Protestant American Methodist mission. 
 
 Kin^, county of Washington Territory, extending from 
 Puget Sound K. to the Cascade Mountains. It is an un- 
 even, heavily-timbered region, with a good soil and a mild 
 climate. Lumbering is the chief pursuit. Excellent lig- 
 nitic c(ml abounds. Area, about 1550 square miles. Cap. 
 Seattle. Pop. 2120. 
 
 Kiii^, tp. of Christian co., III. P<'p. Ii;i. 
 
 King (AisTiN A.), b. in Sullivan co., Tenn.. Sept. 20, 
 1801: became a lawyer 1822, removed to Misscturi ISrtO; 
 was circuit judge of' Ray co. 18.'^7-4H, and again in lSfi2; 
 governor of Missouri 1849-5:1; member of Congress 1862- 
 64. I), at St. Louis Apr. 22, 1870. 
 
 Kinp (CiiAULEs), LL.I>., tho »on of Bufus King, b. in 
 New York Mar. 10, 17S1I: educated at Harrow School, 
 Englaml, ami at Paris, while his father was l'. S. minister 
 to Great Britain, serving afterward in the banking house 
 of Hope A ('<!.. Amster'lam. In ISOfi he returned to New 
 York: entered in 1810 into mercantile business with Mr. 
 Archibald Gracic. his father-in-law : served for a time in 
 IS14 as a volunteer in the war with England ; was sent to 
 England as coinmissinncr to investigate the treatment ut' 
 Dartmoor prisoners; was associate with Verplanek in etlit- 
 ing the Xrtn York Amrriran IS2.'i-27 : siile edil«ir ISi;7-l7 ; 
 and afterward assneinted with Col. Webb in I he editorship 
 of the Cnurirr ftnd Kuquirrr; was president of Columliiii 
 t'ollege l84U-f\l. an<l .1. at Fraseati. Italy. Sept. 27. ISC.;. 
 He wrnte a sketch of the < "rot on Aqui'duct (4 to, 184;'.). //(«- 
 tortf nf thr AVip York Chamhri' of f Vm/iicrce, and published 
 many addresses. 
 
 King (HoitATlo^, b. nt Paris. Oxford eo., Me.. June 21, 
 1811 ; learneil the printing tra<le. and publisbeil in his na- 
 tive State a newspaper called Tlir JrffrrKonian.' was ap- 
 pointed elerk in the post-office ilepartment at Wnshinglou 
 in 18:i«; by gradual promotion became first nssislant post- 
 in BSlor-gon oral in 1854; was oppointod postmastcr-gonoral
 
 1556 
 
 KING. 
 
 in 1861 by Pres. Buchanan ; retired from office on the ac- 
 cession of Pros. Lincoln, but remained in Washington ; 
 rendered service in various capacities during the civil war, 
 and became especially promini-nt by his successful efforts 
 to elevate the standard of society life in Washington, by 
 introducing a literary clement into social reunions. 
 
 Kin^ (Jamks Gouk), son of Rufus King, b. in New 
 York May 8, I79I : stu<lied in the best English schools, 
 ancl gfaduated at Hiirvard in ISIO; studied law; was an 
 adjutant-general in the army IS12-1J; became a prominent 
 merchant of New York and Liverpool ; member of Congress 
 from New Jersey lS49-ol, and president of the New Y'ork 
 Chamber of Commerce. D. at Ilighwood, N. J., Oct. ,'1, 1853. 
 
 King (John Ai.sop), eldest son of Rufus King. h. in 
 New York Jan. 3, 178S; educated at Harrow, England, 
 and Paris: served as a cavalry officer 1S12-15; elected to 
 New I'ork assembly in lSI9andto senate in 1S23; was sec- 
 retary of legation in London in LS26, and afterward chanje 
 d'affaires there; was a member of Congress LS-IO-51, and 
 governor of New York LSoT-oS ; delegate to the " Peace con- 
 vention " of 1861, and to the State constitutional convention 
 of ISfi", besides holding at different times mnny other im- 
 
 Sortant public positions in that State. D. at Jamaica, L. I., 
 uly 7, 186S. 
 
 Kin^ (Jons Crookshanks), b. at Kilwinning, Scotland, 
 Oct. 11, 1806; educated as a practical machinist; came to 
 the U. S. in 1S29 ; was engaged for several years as super- 
 intendent of factories at Cincinnati and Louisville, but in 
 1834 turned his attention to sculpture, in which he met 
 with great success, having executed busts of Daniel AVeb- 
 ster, John Quincy Adams, Agassiz, Emerson, Shaw, and 
 many other prominent men. He has devoted himself espe- 
 cially to cameo likenesses, and resides at Boston. 
 
 King (Jorix P.), b. Apr. 3. 1700, near Glascow, Barren 
 CO., Ky. His father soon after moved to Bedford eo.. Tenn., 
 where the son remained until 1815, when he matle his wav 
 to Georgia; studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 
 Augusta in 1819, before his majority. In 1822 he visited 
 Europe, where he spent two years in completing and per- 
 fecting his education. During this period ho attended 
 lectures in Edinburgh aud Paris; on his return he rose 
 rapidly in his profession amidst the most formidable com- 
 petition. In a few years he acquired a large estate. In 
 18.33 ho was chosen a momljer of the constitutional conven- 
 tion of Georgia of that year. lu this body ho greatly distin- , 
 guished himself. He was a Jackson Democrat, and by his 
 superior talents took the lead of that party in the conven- 
 tion. Before this hi.s reputation had not extended beyond 
 the limits of the county of Riehmond, but by his debates 
 in this convention, and especially by his discussion with 
 the late AVilliam H. Crawford (who was the Democratic 
 Congressional caucus candidate fur President of the U. S. 
 in 1824), he rose in one bound to tho forefront of the ablest 
 and most eloquent men in Georgia. The next year ho was 
 sent to the U. S. Senate, where he took ami maintiiined a 
 high position ; but some of his party presses of the State 
 having censured (unjustly, as ho thought) a very notable 
 speech he made against some of tho leading measure? of 
 Mr. Viin Buren's administration, he promptly resigned the 
 trust committed to his charge, retired to private life, and 
 resumed his profession in 1838. No like abandonment of 
 politics from pcr.sonal disgust has occurred in tho history 
 of the V. S. In 1S41 he was elected to tho presidency of 
 the Georgia R. R. and Banking Co., which jtosition (Juno, 
 1875) he continues to hold, and for many years has been 
 regarded one of the first railroad men in the country. 
 
 A. H. Sti:piiexs. 
 
 King(JoNAsl, D. D.,b. atHawley, Mas;... July 29,1792; 
 graduated at Williams College in ISIG and at Andovcr 
 Seminary in 1819; preached for a time in South Carolina; 
 was 1823-26 a mi^-sionary in Syria, and 1828-69 a mission- 
 ary at Athens. He was the author of quite numerous writ- 
 ings in the modern Greek language, and by reason of some 
 of his publications was sentencfd in I8."}2 to fifteen days' 
 imprisonment and expulsion from the kingdom, but an of- 
 ficial jtrotest saved him from tho fulfilment of tho sentence. 
 D. at Athens May 22, 1869. 
 
 King (MiTrnKi.L). LL.D., b. in Scotland June 8, 1783; 
 removed in 1H06 to (Charleston, S. C, and became a profes- 
 sor in Charleston College, of which he was afterwiirds for 
 some time president. lu ISIO he was admitted to tho bar, 
 and began a prosperous law-practice. In 1819, and again 
 in L8 12-44, he was judge of the city court. He early attained 
 a wide fame for leiirning, and for many years was a Iea4ler 
 in the cause of education and in many enterprises for the 
 improvement of tho public taste and for the diffusion of 
 knowledge. 
 
 King (Pf.tfr). Lord. b. at Exeter, Eng., in 1669. was a 
 nephew of Locke; studied at tho University of Leyden, 
 
 Holland, and read law at the Inner Temple; entered Par- 
 liament in 1699 ; was one of the managers of the impeach- 
 ment of Sacheverell in 1799, and in 1712 was counsel for 
 Whiston. Uy George 1. he was made chief-justice of com- 
 mon pleas and privy couucillor, and in 1725 was appointed 
 lord chancellor, with tiic title of Baron King of Ockhara. 
 He resigned in 1733, and d. at Ockham, Surrey, July 22, 
 1734. Baron King wrote several treatises in support of the 
 rights of dissenters, and a Cn'tiad History of the Apostles' 
 C'/Tprf(1702). 
 
 King (Philip Parker), Admiral, b. on Norfolk Island 
 Dec. 13, 1793, his father being one of the founders of that 
 colony, and afterwards (ISOO) governor of New South 
 Wales (Australia); entered the navy in 1807; commanded 
 an exploring expedition in Australian waters in 1817 and 
 on the coasts of Patagonia in 182:). publishing in both ca?e3 
 the hydrographical results of the survey. Ho afterwards 
 settled in Australia, where be took an active part in poli- 
 tics and other public interests. Ho was a|»pointed rear- 
 admiral in 1854, and d. at Grantham, near Sydnev, in 
 Feb., 1S55. 
 
 King (Preston), b. at Ogdcnsburg, N. Y., Oct. 14. 1806; 
 graduated at Union College in 1827; became a prominent 
 lawyer, journalist, and Democratic politician of St. Law- 
 rence CO., N. Y.. and held various offices; was in Congress 
 1843-47 and 1849-53; a Republican U. S. Senator 1857-63; 
 became in lSfi5 collector of the port of New York. He was 
 drowned in New York harbor, Nov. 13, 1865. 
 
 King (RicFiARD Jonx), b. in England about 1820 ; wrote 
 for John Murray his valuable series of Hdiidhonks to the 
 C<ithedr<ih of Enfffaud, and has contributed to Ftnscr's and 
 other magazines some very able topographical and anti- 
 quarian sketches of English counties and towns, which 
 were published collectively in 1874. 
 
 King (Rufus), Gen., son of Charles, b. New York City 
 Jan. 26, 1814; graduated at U. S. Military Academy : was 
 appointed brevet second lieutenant of engineers July 1, 
 1S33; resigned Sept. 30, 183G, and for two succeeding 
 years was assistant engineer on tho Erie R. R., and for 
 four years (1839-43) adjutant-general of the Slate of New 
 York. Associated during this time and until 1845 in tho 
 editorial conduct of the Albany Evcniug Jourual, in tho 
 latter year he removed to Wisconsin, and assumed charge 
 of tho Milwaukee SctitijuJ, of which ho was editor until 
 1861, when he wn? appointed V. S. miui.-tcr to Rome; but 
 the outbreak of the civil war caused him to tender his 
 services to the government in a military capacity, and in 
 May, 1861, he was appointed a brigadier-general of volun- 
 teers, serving as such in various departments in Virginia 
 until Oct., 1S03, wlicn ho resigned from the army and as- 
 sumed his duties at Rome as U. S. minister. Recalled July 
 1, 1S67. D. Oct. 13. 1876. G. C. Simmons. 
 
 King (RiFt's), LL.D., b. at Scarborough. Jle., Mar. 24. 
 1755, son of Richard King, a wealthy merchant ; graduated 
 at Harvard College in 1777 ; studied law under Thcophilus 
 Parsons at Newburyport; was on the .statf of Gen. Glover 
 in the Rhode Island campaign of 1778; admitted to the 
 bar; commenced practice at Newburyport in 1780; elected 
 a member of the general court or legislature of Massa- 
 chusetts in 1782 and succeeding years, and by the legis- 
 lature chosen in 17St as delegate to the Continental Con- 
 gress at Trenton. N. J. One of his carlictt acts in Congress 
 was to move aresolution (Mar.. 1785) " that there be neither 
 slavery nor involuntary servitude in any of the States de- 
 scribed in tho resolution of Congre^s of Apr.. 1784 (the 
 North-west Territories), otherwise than in punishment of 
 crimo whereof the party shall have been personally guilty; 
 and that this regulation shall be made an article of com- 
 pact and remain a fundamental principle of the Constitu- 
 tion between the original States and eacli of the States 
 named in said resolves." This resolution was. by a vote of 
 7 States against 4, referred to the eummittee of the whole, 
 and not further acted upon until two years later, when its 
 provisions were embodied in the fannuis ordinance for tho 
 government of the N. W. Territories presented to Congress 
 at New York July 11, 1787. by Natlian Dane of Massa- 
 chusetts, which became the Magna Charta of five great 
 States. King was one of tho commissioners appointed by 
 Massnehusetts to settle tho boundary of that State with 
 New York, and also empowered, with his ccdieague Dane, 
 to convey to tho U. S. tlie large tract of land beyond the 
 Alleghanies which was claimed by the State. In Aug., 
 1786, he was associated with .lames Monroe as a committee 
 to represent to tho legislature of Pennsylvania the neces- 
 sities and erabarrassraents of the Federal treasury with ref- 
 erence to the 5 per cent, impost levied by Congress on the 
 States. Elected a meml>er of the convention for framing 
 the Federal Constitution, King took his seat May 25, 17S7. 
 participated actively in the debates, and was one of the 
 committee on revision of style and arrangement of the ar-
 
 KING. 
 
 15.57 
 
 tides. After si^oin^ the Constitution he returned to Mas- 
 sachusetts, was eU-ctftl to the State convention for the con- 
 sideration of that instrument, and was in:^tnin)ental in 
 securing its ratilicatiun, iiotwithstandint; viuient opposi- 
 tion. In 17.SS ho removed to New York t'ily, where two 
 years before he liad married Mary, diiugliter of John 
 Alsop, and in ITS'.* was elected one of the first Fecleral 
 Senators for X^'w York under the newly establit^hcd Con- 
 stitution, his follea'^uo being (ien. Schuyler. He was re- 
 ole-^tcd in 1705. On the formation of the earliest national 
 political panics. King ranked as one of the leaders of the 
 Federalists; Ilis ardent dcfcuco of Jay's treaty with Eng- 
 land ( I'SI'"), both in the Senate aud in the press, under the 
 signafuro of " Camillus," broui;ht him into conspicuous 
 favor with Pres. Washington, \Tho offered him the secre- 
 taryship of state on the resignation of Edmund Uandolph, 
 and in I7i)fi appointed him minister to Kngland. He re- 
 mained in Londnn eight ycar^, notwithstanding the acces- 
 sion of the opposite party to power in lSIII,and discharged 
 the duties of his post during that important epoch of Eu- 
 ropean history with great tact and ability. Returning to 
 the IT. S. in 1^04, he settled on a farm at Jamaica, L. I., 
 where he remained for .-iomc years in retirement, but on the 
 outbreak of the war with (ir^-at Britain (ISI.I) was elected 
 for the third time to the U. S. Senate. King was opposed 
 to that war, but aided in passing the measures necessary 
 for its proso'ution, and after the Capitol was burned in 
 Aug., 1SI4, ho made a stirring appeal to tho country to 
 avenge the outrage. His policy after the war was directed 
 towards the speediest recovery of national prosperity; he 
 was chiefly instrumental in securing the navigation and 
 commercial acts of IS|S; took an interest in promoting 
 trade with the West Indies; strongly opposed the estub- 
 lishmcnt of a national bank, and procured the enactment 
 of a general measure regulating the sales for cash of the 
 public Ifinds. In ISIfi he was, against his will, nominated 
 by the Federalists as their candidate for governor, but was 
 defeated. In 1319 he was elected to a fourth term in tho 
 Senate, during which he was chiefly conspicuous as leader 
 of tho opposition to tho admission of Missouri as a slave 
 State, and to tho extension of slavery genenilly. His 
 speeches on this subject formed a point of departure for 
 all subsequent Congressional debates on slavery. On Feb. 
 16, IS2.">, a few days before his final withdrawal from tho 
 Senate, he ofl"ered a resolution for devoting tho proceeds 
 of the sales of put>lic lands to the purchase ancl emancipa- 
 tion of slaves and their removal to some foreign country. 
 Later in the same year King accepted a new appointment 
 as minister to Englancl, at the urgent request of Pre?. J. Q. 
 Adnms, but resigned and returned homo tho following year 
 (IS^Ot.on account of ill-health. D. at Jamaica, L. I., Apr. 
 29, 1S27. He is generally acknowledged to have been an 
 able diplomatist, a wise and liberal statesman, a brilliant 
 orator, a genuine patriot, and a philanthropist of enlarged 
 views and true insight. .^, i Poiitkh C. Bmss. 
 
 King (Thomas UrTi.fciij/^>MiVtr'Sti itJuoApcfiW countv, 
 Mass., Aug. 27, ISOI; wSs cdueaf d at Wotlicld Acad- 
 emy ; stuilicd law. and moved to (ioorgia in I>^2:i, where ho 
 married a lady of wealth and devoted himself to planting. 
 His residence is on St. Simon's Island. Ho was from l.S.'J2 
 a nieinlier of tho Slate senate for a num'irr <)f years, iu 
 which bo'Iy he greatly distinguished hiuiself by hin etTorls 
 in the cause of public works for idieap tratisporlation. Ho 
 was a member of Congress from Georgia from IS.'I'J to 1S43, 
 and 'from 1S46 to |S4!>. While in ('ongress naval nlfairs 
 chiefly occu]>iecl his attention. Many valuable reports 
 upon these subjects were made by him during his ternjs of 
 Berviee. In iSlit. (Jen. Taylor sent him on a special mis- 
 sion to tho then Territory of California, where, iu connec- 
 tion with Gen. Riley, he rendered important service in 
 preserving law and order where no organized civil govern- 
 ment existed; and this was done without any aeti\e inter- 
 ference on the part of tho military. While in California 
 he cslablished interests of an individual cdmraelcr which 
 subse(|uenlly requireil his attention to the exelusicm of poli- 
 tics for several years. In IHfJO, while he was iqqtnsed to 
 / the policy of secession (as most of the large sluvebtdders 
 of the South were), yet 'when Georgia in \st\\ resulveil to 
 adopt that measure, he cast his fortunes with those nf tho 
 State. D. May H*. 1864. A. H. Stki-iikns. 
 
 Kin? fTno\t\s Starr), b. in New York Doe. 16. 1H24; 
 d. in Sun Franeisco. Cnl., Mar. 4. |sni. His father was a 
 rniversali-^t minister in Clmrlctown. Mas-. Young King 
 had a passion for study, but was oMiged from family ne- 
 cessities to forego n college education. From twelve till 
 twenty he lahored first as clerk in a store, afterwanis as a 
 teacher, preparing himself in leisure hours for the ministry. 
 His first prea-'liing was in \S'oloirn. Mass., his first settle- 
 ment in ChnrIt«town. over lii« father's pllri^h. In 1S4.S ho 
 ac'-eptcd a call to the Cnitarian church in Hollis street. 
 
 Boston, and remained there till the spring of 1860, when 
 he went to California to take charge of the Unitarian 
 church in San Franeisco. The outbreak of the civil war 
 roused all his remarkable powers as a writer, speaker, and 
 man, and to his influence is ascribed the change of public 
 opinion iu the State from lukewarnincss towards the North- 
 ern cause to devoted loyalty. Through his exertions the 
 U. S. Sanitary (Commission obtained the generous sums of 
 money that enabled it to carry on its work at the critical 
 period of the war. Mr. King's eloquence as a preacher 
 and lecturer, which was familiar throughout the West and 
 North-west, made him equally jx.pular on the Pacific coast. 
 His personal qualities endeared him to all who knew him. 
 But for his incessant labors in the pulpit and on the jdat- 
 form he would have been emiucnt as a writer. He con- 
 tributed frequently to the Cmrvrwo^V/ Qurtrterft/, but he 
 published but one book. The W'/iitr IfUlM, tJm'r Letjruda^ 
 Latu/scnpi ft, (utd Pttftri/ (1S.^)9). A few of bis papers were 
 collected after his death — /'ntriutt'^m, and other Papers 
 (IS64). The same year Richard Frothingham wrote a 
 brief memoir, Tribute to Thoiiunt Starr Kiiiff. In 1860 
 Mr. King received the honorary degree of A. .M. from Har- 
 vard College. 0. B. FitOTniNciiAM. 
 
 Kin? (William), b. at Scarborough, Me.. Feb. 9. UfiS; 
 was endowed with distinguished talents, and with equal 
 educational advantages might have become as prominent 
 as Rufus, his celebrated brother. After residing at Tops- 
 ham for some years, he settled at Bath as a merchant about 
 ISOO; was for several terms a mcml)er of the Massachu- 
 setts legislature, was one of the leading advocates of the 
 separation of Maine, president of the convention which 
 framed the constitution of Maine, and first governor of the 
 new State. In 1821 he was made U. S. commissioner for 
 the adjustment of Spanish claims, was a general of militia, 
 collector of customs at B:Uh 1s:;|-:m, nnd a jiatrou of in- 
 stitutions of learning. 1>. at Bath June 17, 1852. 
 
 Kin^ (William), b. at Antrim, Ulster. Ireland. May 1. 
 ir»j(l; studied at Trinity College, Dublin; entered the 
 Church in 1074; became dean of St. Patrick in 1CS8, in 
 which year ho was twice imprisoned in the tower of Dublin 
 for sympathizing with the Knglish revolutionists. He be- 
 came bisliop of Kerry in ir.'.il. urclibisliop of Dublin in 
 1702; was one of the lords justices of Ireland iu 1717, 
 1721, and 172n, and d. at Dublin Jlny 8. 1729. .Ho wrote 
 several controversial works against Catholicism, but is best 
 known by a remarkable Latin treatise on the origin of evil 
 ( Dr On'tfiiif Mah\ 1702), and by a sermon on predestina- 
 tion {17091. in which ho maintains that the moral attri- 
 butes of (lod are difit'rent from the qualities bearing the 
 same name among mankind. 
 
 Kins: (WrLLiAM Rirrs). b. in Sampson co.. N. C, Apr. 
 7, nsii; gradu.ated at Chapel Hill. University of North 
 Carolina, in isn.'l; studied law. and was admitted to the 
 bar in ISOfi. The same year he was elected to the legisla- 
 ture from his native county, and was re-elected to the same 
 position in 1S07 ; this, however, he resigned on tho meeting 
 of the legislature to accept tho ajtpointment of State so- 
 licitor for the Wilmington circuit, which ofliee be also re- 
 i signed after holding it for two years. In 1S09 he was 
 again returned to the State legislature; in ISIO he was re- 
 turned a member of Congress from bis district, and con- 
 tinued by re-elections to hold this position until ISIfi, when 
 he resii;ne<l it to become secretary of legation uniler Wil- 
 liam Pinekney, American minister, first to Naples, and 
 then to St. Petersburg. During his Congressional term he 
 was an ardent and able advocate of the wnr-jtolicy aud 
 mensures of Mr. Ma'lison's ndministration. 0\\ bis return 
 from Europe in 1S|S he moved to the then Territory of 
 Alabama, where he establishc'I a plantation ancl devoted 
 his attention to agriculture. In ISP.I ho was a member of 
 tho constitutional convention of the Territory of Alabama ; 
 and upon the admission of Alabama ns a Slate into the 
 Fefleral I'ninn, the same year, under the constitution 
 formc'l by tins convention, he was elected one of the two 
 U. S. Senntors, which position he continued to hold from 
 I Sill to IHli. During the whole of his Senatorial career 
 Mr. King was a zeahms supporter of the views and policy 
 of (ien. Jackson. He advocated his election to the Presj". 
 deney in 1S2I. IS2S, and IS;;2: he also sustained with 
 great ability the policy of Mr. Van Buren. who so closely 
 followed in the " fonlsteps of his illustrious predecessor." 
 In isn he resigned his position in the V. S. Senate, and 
 nccepted the ap))ointment of minister to France tendered 
 to him by Pros. Tyler. The special object of this mission 
 was to prevent France from uniting with England in a 
 joint protest against the incorporation of Texas into the 
 Federal UuifMi. Having been successful in this mission. 
 .Mr. King returned to the U. S. Nov.. 1846, and remained 
 in private life until I84S. when ho was appointed by tho 
 governor of Alabama to fill the unexpired term in tho 
 
 T
 
 1558 
 
 KING AND QUEEN— KINGS. 
 
 U. S. Senate of Arthur P. Bagby, who was sent by Pres. 
 Polk as minister to Kussia. This unexpired term was less 
 than a iwelveuionth, but before it was ended Mr. King was 
 again elected by the legislature to the U. S. Senate for an- 
 other full term of six years, beginning Mar. 4, 1849. Upon 
 the death of Gpn. Taylor, on July 9, 1850. and the acces- 
 sion of Vice-President Fillmore to the Presidency in con- 
 sequence of that event, Mr. King was unanimously elected 
 president of the Senate. He presided over this august 
 body during the exciting debates that ensued with great 
 urbanity, dignity, and ability. At the Presidential elec- 
 tion of IS J2 he was the Democratic candidate for the otfic© 
 of Vice-President of the U. S. with Gen. Franklin Pierce 
 for the Presidency: both were elected by large majorities, 
 but Mr. King did not live to perform the duties of his office. 
 His health began rapidly to fail before the close of the can- 
 vass in Nov., 1852. Early in Jan.. ISo.*?, under advice of 
 physicians, he went to ('ut»a, but was not ai)le to return by 
 the 4th of March, the day of inauguration. This being 
 anticipated, a special act of Congress was passed and des- 
 patched to him in time, providing for his taking the official 
 oath in Havana. Some weeks afterwards he was able to 
 return to his home in Dallas co., Ala., where he d. in Apr., 
 185:?. A. H. Stephens. 
 
 Kin? and Queen, county of E. Virginia. Area, 330 
 square miles. The Mattapony River flows along its S. W. 
 border. It has an undulating surface, and contains valua- 
 ble marl-beds. Corn is the staple product. Cap. King and 
 Queen Court-house. Pup. 9709. 
 
 Kins: and Queen Court-house, post-v., cap. of 
 King and (^ueeu co., Va., 15 miles from West Point. 
 
 King'bird, the Tymnnna Caro/('»e?)«M, a familiar little 
 bird found throughout the North American continent. It 
 belongs to the tyrant 6ycatcher family, devours considera- 
 ble numbers of honey-bees, and boldly attacks and drives 
 away hawks, eagles, and crows, flying to great heights in 
 its eagerness for the encounter. 
 
 King'-crab, or Horse-shoe Crab, the Limnlua 
 PithfphemuM, a remarkable articulate of the Atlantic shores 
 of the r. S., classed by most writers as an entoniostracan, 
 but reckoned by others as constituting, with its congeners, 
 a separate sub-class, and by some regarded as an anoma- 
 lous representative of the class of Arachnoids, which in- 
 cludes the spider-seorpions. It is used in the U. S. as a 
 fertilizer for land, being hardly edible. 
 
 King'dom, tp. of Bibb co., Ala. Pop. S35. 
 
 King'ficld, post-tp. of Franklin co., Me., 22 miles N. 
 of Farmington. Pop. 560. 
 
 King'fish, or Opah {Lampn's rjuttattiSj 'Reiz), a. fish 
 which is the solo representative of a peculiar family (Lam- 
 pridida*), said from its beautiful coh)rs to look "like one of 
 Nejitune's lords dressed for a court-day." It is widely ' 
 distributed, being found in European seas, in those of 
 China and Japan, and also, it is said, on the W. coast of 
 Africa. ; 
 
 King'flsherSf or Alcedinidap, a family of birds be- I 
 longing to the order Insessores. and so named from their 
 jpeculiarly piscivorous hal)it3. This family is represented 
 in North America by the genus Ccrylc, nearly allied to the . 
 typical Old-World Alct^do. The common species of tho [ 
 U. S. is the belted kingfisher {C. ah-you, Linn.). j 
 
 King George, county of Virginia, having tho river 
 Potomac on the N. and E.. and the Rappahannock on the 
 S. \\. Area, 17fi square miles. It is uneven, and much of 
 the soil is fertile. Corn is the principal product. Cap. [ 
 King George Court-bouse. Pop. 5742, j 
 
 King George Court-house, post-v., cap. of King i 
 George co.. Vu., I'J miles K. of Fredericksburg. 
 
 Kingkitao, or Kienghitao, called by the Chinese 
 Ilanrliing or Wangking, and by the French S^oul or 
 Sioul, the capital of Corea. near the centre of which it is 
 situated. There arc no reliable accounts of its j^opulation. 
 
 King'lake i Ai.EXANDEnAVii,M.\M), b. at Taunton, Eng., , 
 in 1811 : was educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge, where he graduated in 1.S32: was called to the bar 
 at Lincoln's Inn ls;t7. and acquired an extensive chancery 
 practice, but retired from the law in 1S5G. Soon after 
 finishing his studies Kinglake made an extensive tour in i 
 Eastern countries, of which he published an account under j 
 the title of A'ofArn ( 184-1 ). which obtained great popularity. 
 He accompanied Lord Raglan in the Crimean war, and 
 wrote, in great part from the papers of that general, a Hin- 
 toiji of the Crimrnn W'tir, of which the flrst volume ap- 
 peared in 1863, and the fifth, devoted to the battle of In- 
 kerman, in 1874. This work, which is not yet completed, 
 is eloquently written, and enters into great detail, but e.x- 
 hibits a bias highly unfavorablcto the French, and especially i 
 toward ^'apoleoD III. Kinglake entered Parliament in I 
 
 1857, and became prominent for his anti-Napoleonic atti- 
 tude upon the Conspiracy bill (1S58) and the annexations 
 of Savoy and Nice (IS6U). — His cousin, John Alexander 
 Kinglake, b. at Taunton in 1805. a lawyer and for many 
 years Liberal member of Parliament for Rochester, has 
 written articles for the reviews, and is often confounded 
 with the historian. 
 
 King'lets, The (Htijulns. Cuv.), constitute a genus of 
 the extensive family of Turdidje (or thrushes). The com- 
 mon American species are the ruby-crowned (H, calendula) 
 and golden-crested {li. autrnpfi) wrens or kinglets, which 
 are both closely allied to the golden-crested wren {li. cris- 
 tatfts) of Europe, the smallest of the Old-World birds. 
 
 King'man, county of S. Central Kansas, Area, 643 
 square miles. It is traversed by Good River, and is well 
 adapted to grazing. 
 
 Kingman, post-v. of Penobscot co.. Me., on Matta- 
 wamkeag River and the European and North Americao 
 R. R. 
 
 King of Arms, or in Scotland King-at-Arms, a 
 herald of the highest rank. The English kings of arras 
 are Garter. Bath (who is not of the college of arms), Cla- 
 rencieux, Norroy, and one for the order of St. Michael and 
 St. George (the last not belonging to the heralds' college). 
 Scotland has one. called Lyon, or Lord Lyon king-at-arms. 
 Ireland has one, Ulster king of arms. There have been 
 other English kings of arms, whose ofiices are now extinct. 
 {For these and some continental kings of arms, see Her- 
 ald.) 
 
 Kings (Books of). First and Second, two of the canon- 
 ical books of the Old Testament, following the second book 
 of Samuel and preceding the first book of Chronicles. The 
 two books were originally but one, and contain the annals 
 of the kings of Judah and Israel from the death of David 
 to the Captivity. The Septuagint and Vulgate versions 
 call them the third and fourth books of Kings, reckoning 
 the two books of Samuel as belonging to the same work. 
 Ewald and other modern German critics go still further, 
 reckoning Judges and Ruth to belong to the same work, 
 which they call the " Great Book of the Kings," while sug- 
 gestions have not been wanting that large portions of the 
 Pentateuch and book of Joshua originally belonged to it, 
 constituting an unbroken series of annals from the creation 
 of the world to the dispersion of the Hebrew race. It is 
 certain that the books of Kings are in reality a continua- 
 tion of those of Samuel — that they are written in the same 
 spirit, with the same style and characteristic expressions; 
 but the identity of authorship cannot be asserted from these 
 premises, as there are numerous minor differences which 
 show at least the hand of another contributor. On the 
 other hand, the contrast in many respects with the books 
 of Chronicles, which narrate substantially the same events, 
 is very marked, showing a considerable jiriority of time in 
 favor of Kings. By a modern German school of criticism 
 the two works are designated as prophetic and priestly, and 
 this antithesis, which is nrguecl to represent a real and 
 long-continued conflict between the two orders of religious 
 teachers, may be accepted so far as to admit a noticeable 
 distinction in this resjiect between the two historical works, 
 lint the very fact that the books of Kings are largely occu- 
 pied with the public ministrations of the prophets, while 
 less attention was given to the priestly service of the temple, 
 was a suflicient reason for the writer of Chronicles, liimself 
 probably a minister of that sanctuary, to omit to dwell upon 
 the prophetic annals already written, and to bestow greater 
 attention upon matters which might be of greater interest 
 to his own class. The books of Kings have been considered 
 to show a strong bias against the northern kingdom, as nil 
 its monarchs without exception are said to have " done evil 
 in the sight of the Lord," but as far the larger number of 
 the monarchs of Judah arc charged with like conduct, tho 
 argument is not conclusive. A prominent feature of Kings 
 consists of the narratives of the prophets Elijah and Klisha, 
 which occupy fourteen chapters. The Septuagint version 
 exhibits some remarkable variations from the received te.xt 
 of Kings, a considerable number of passages being trans- 
 posed, while a few are omitted, and several additional frag- 
 ments of narrative are inserted, chiefly relating to Solomon 
 and Jeroboam. Biblical scholars disagree as to the nuthen- 
 ticity and value of these fragments, but they are generally 
 rejected as corruptions of the original te.xt. The sources 
 from which the writer drew \u» materials are often referred 
 to. They were a scries of biographies of individual kings, 
 tho writings of several prophets, and a general history 
 called the Hook- *>/ th^ Kiiuji vf hrticl ami Judah, of which 
 the present work may be considered as a brief compend, 
 .'Ml these original works have perished. As to date and 
 authorship, the narrative itself shows that it must have 
 been written during or after the Captivity, and many co- 
 incid6nces of style and matter appear to justify the Tal-
 
 KIXG'S-KIN08LEY. 
 
 1559 
 
 mudic traditioD which ascribes it to .Terciniah, which is 
 maintained in recent times by HUvernick Hn>l Grnf, but 
 opposed by Keil and l>avidscn. Calinet ascribed the au- 
 thorship to Ezra. Miiny critics contend for a still later 
 date on the strenj^th of Chaldaic forms, which mi^ht. bow- 
 ever, have easily crept into the Hebrew language during the 
 close interenursu witli IJabylon before tlie Captivity. (See 
 the commentaries of Keil (ISiCi; Kilinbur;;h Irans., 1S57), 
 Thcnius ( istiM. ScbUisser (IHUl), and (I. Kawlinson in the 
 
 Spfaker'g ('iimmentarif (IST.'J)-) PoUTEU C. BliSS. 
 
 Kin|;^9, county of Ireland, in the province of Lcinster, 
 bordering on the Shannon. Area, 772 square miles. Pop. 
 75,900, of whom 2S,:J8;{ cannot read or write. Towards 
 the S. runs a small branch of the Slieve Illoom ^fountains; 
 the surfaee i^ otherwise level. The soil is tolerably fertile. 
 Cap. Tullamore. From 1S51 to 1872 the emigration from 
 this county was 35,5113. 
 
 Kings, county of New Brunswick, intersected by the 
 river St. J^hn. The soil ie fertile. Large quantities of 
 lumber are rut and sawed. The county is traversed by the 
 European and North American Railway. Cap. Hampton. 
 Pop. 24,593. 
 
 King's^ county of Nova Scotia, bordering on the Bay 
 of Fundy. Its shores arc bold and picturesque. Its soil is 
 to a great extent of the best description. It is well tim- 
 bered, and produces iron, copper, manganese, slate, build- 
 ing-stone, etc. The county is travcrsicd by tlie Windsor 
 and Annapolis H. K. Cap. Kentville. Pop. 21,509. 
 
 King's^ the easternmost country of Prince Edward Isl- 
 and, Douiinion of Canaila. It is very fertile and well culti- 
 vated. Cap. (leorgetown. Pop. about 17,000. 
 
 KingH, county of New York, comprising the western- 
 moist part uf liong Inland, and including some small islands 
 along the coast. Area, 72 stjuaro miles. Much of the soil 
 is naturally light, but proximity to markets has cau.sed it 
 to become very productive. Garden products arc the staple 
 crops. The county has extensive manufacturing and com- 
 mercial interests, which are described in the article BnouK- 
 LVN (which see). It is traversed by various railroads, cen- 
 tring in lirooklyn, the capital. Pop. 419,921. 
 
 Kings, l(t. of Williaint^iiurg co., S. C. Pop. 1774. 
 
 King^s iuv Qiiocn's) Bench. See Cornxs, I. (1), 
 
 Kings'borongh, post-v. of Johnstown tp., Fulton co., 
 N. Y., i mile from (lloversville. It has 10 manufactories 
 of mittens. 
 
 Kingsborough(EDWARnKiN'G), LonD,b. Nov. 10,1705. 
 lie published a work in 9 largo folio vols, upon the ,4(j- 
 (jV/h/mV* nf Mexico, rompriHinij j'ac-iiiniiUa of Anvient aMcx- 
 ican Pttiiitttif/H uud IlirriHjly^hirH, ti>(fvthcv rrtth the Monu- 
 menta of Nftn Spain by M. Diipnix, irith thfir reitpcctivc 
 ScnlcR of Mt-fiHurcmfut and Arrompatn/iuf/ De/tcri'pti'oue ; 
 the irhnfr illiiHtrntcil f/i/ iiKittt/ vftlutihtr inrdltril MSS. (Lon- 
 don, 1K30-IS), at an expense of some .$300,000. Only seven 
 V(durae6 had been issued when Lord Kingsborough d. at 
 Dublin Feb. 27, 1837; the two concluding volumes were 
 brought out after a considerable interval. This work is 
 valuable as a collection of materials, but is confused in 
 arrangement and disfigured by uncritical theories. 
 
 Kings'bury, an unorganized county of Dakota, trav- 
 ersed by the Dakota or James River. Area, about 750 
 square mites. 
 
 Kingsbury, post-tp. of Piscataquis co., Me., 22 miles 
 W. of Dov(r. I'op. 174. 
 
 Kingsbury, post-v. and tp. of Wasliington co., N. Y., 
 on the Hudson Biver. It is traversed by the Chaniplain 
 Canal mid Uensselaer and Saratoga U. U. It contains 
 Sandy Hill, one of the county-seats; has great water- 
 power, 10 churches, manufactures of lumber, |)a]K'r, ma- 
 chinery, etc., and valuable limestone-quarries. Pop. 4277. 
 
 Kingsbury (Ciiari.ks P.), Okn., b. in Now Y'ork IHIS ; 
 graduated at thu )'. S. .Military Academy, and entered tho 
 nrnty as second lieutenant of ordnance in IS40; served as 
 assistant and in command of various arsenals until tho 
 threatened (roubles with Mexico in conaecjuencc of tho 
 proposed annexation of Texas, when he necumpanied the 
 army of occupation to Texas; subse(|uently during the 
 Mexican war was (ien. M'ool's chief ordnance oflieer ; was 
 engaged at Huena Vista on the sluflTof (Jen. Taylor. Dur- 
 ing the civil war ho was superintendent of the V. S. armory 
 at Harper's Ferry in Apr., JSOl. when tho property was 
 destroyed to prevent its lulling into tlu' bund-* of the Con- 
 federates; was chief of ordnance (with rank n| eoh.iu-l ) of 
 tho Army of the Potomac |Ht'iI-('.2, tliroughoul (lie Virginia 
 Peninsulitr campaign, on the terminatiion of which he was 
 relieved, owing to ill-health, and subsequently served on 
 important special duly until duly, lKr>5, when he was t 
 placed in churge of the l*. S. arsenal at Walertown. .Mas- i 
 sacbusetts. In Dec, 1^70, he was retired on his applica- 1 
 
 tion, with the rank which he had attained in his corps, that 
 of lieutenant-colonel. He was the author of various ])ro- 
 fessional works, and was a frequent contributor to various 
 periodicals. D. Dec. 25, 1879. G. C. Simmons. 
 
 Kingsbury (Henkv W.), Coi.., b. in Connecticut in 
 1837; graduated at the U.S. Military Academy, and aj)- 
 pointed second lieutenant of ordnance May 0, 18fil ; first 
 lieutenant of artillery May 14, 1801 ; was engaged in the 
 first battle of Bull Run on the staff of den. McDowell, with 
 whom he continued until Dec, L'^Ol, when ho was plaeeil 
 on duty with his battery in the defences of M'nsliington ; 
 in the spring of 1802 he accompanied 4he Army "of the Po- 
 tomac to Virginia, and in Ajiril was apjioiuted colonel of 
 the 11th Connecticut Vols., wliich regiment he led in tho 
 battles of Gaines's Mill and Malvern Hill, and subsequently 
 at South Mountain and Antietnni. where he received wounds 
 from the effect of which he d. the following day, Sept. 18, 
 1862. 0. C. Simmons. 
 
 King's (or Queen's) Counsel, in Engli.^h practice, 
 are certain barristers or scrgeantf^-at-lnw who have been 
 specially appointed by letters-patent to be His (or Her) 
 Majesty's counsel. They are entitled to a right of ])rc- 
 audicnce in all the courts before other barristers or ser- 
 geants, and among themselves usually have precedence ac- 
 cording to the date of their appointment. Their rank in 
 this respect is generally defined by the terms of the patent. 
 King's counsel do not, as their name might indicate, render 
 legal services exclusively in behalf of the Crown, but may 
 be retained by ordinary clients. They cannot, however, 
 net for a jdaintiff in a suit against the Crown, or engage in 
 the defence of persons prosecuted for crime, without ob- 
 taining special license from the Crown. But this is never 
 refused, and may be obtained by the jmynient of a small 
 fee. King's counsel are appointed for life, but the lettcrs- 
 jiatent may be revoked for dishonorable practices or un- 
 professional conduct. 
 
 GioiiOK Chase. Rkvised by T. AV. Dwight. 
 
 Kinp's Creek, tp. of Caldwell co., N. C. Pop. G25. 
 
 King's Kvil lScroful(t),& disease which for many cen- 
 turies was professedly cured by the touch of the kings of 
 England and France. The practice is traced to the times 
 of King Edward the Confessor (1013-60), was emiiloycd 
 by Louis XI. of France in I 180, by Charles VIII. at Rome 
 and Naples in 1105, and by Francis I. in 1597. Charles 
 II. of England ( HiOO-S-l ) carried the pnwtice to the greatest 
 extreme of any English monarch, having '* touehcil " nearly 
 100,000 patients during his twenty-five years' reign. It 
 was last employed in England by Queen Anne (1703-15), 
 Dr. Samuel .Johnson having been, when a boy, one of her 
 patients; but <tn the accession of the Brunswick dynasty 
 was discontinued, and a special service for the purpose 
 omitted from tho Eiturgy in 1719. Tlie "Young Pre- 
 tender" attempted to gain adherents by touching for tho 
 king's evil at Ilolyrood Palace in 1775. and Louis XVI. of 
 France performed the same ceremony at Klieiins as late as 
 1775. (For curious data on this subject see Lccky's Jlitftory 
 of liatinunHfim.) 
 
 King's Ferry, post-v. (sometimes colled Northvili.e) 
 of Genoa tp., Cayuga co., N. Y. 
 
 Kings'ley, tp. of Forest co.. Pa. Pop. ,575. 
 
 Kingslcy i Calvin). D.D.,LL.D.,b. at Annsville, Oneida 
 CO., N. v.. Sept. 8, 1S12 ; licensed as Methodist preacher in 
 1835; graduated at Allegheny College, Pa., In 1841. The 
 same year he was appointeil professor of nnithematics in 
 that institution, and was afterwards a pastor at Meadvillo 
 and Erie, Pa. In 185l» was elected editor of the W'tftrm 
 ('hrtHtian Advocate at Cincinnati, 0., ami again in 1800, 
 He took an earnest part against slavery, aiol was elected 
 bisliop in 180L In ISOO he started on an epincojial ttiur of 
 the world, and d. at Beirut, Syria, in 1870, He published 
 On thf /{tHttrrectiou of the fiudi/ (181.')), und lelt u pohthu- 
 mous work on his travels Around the Worfd. 
 
 Kingslry (Chahi.f.s), b. at Hcdne. Devonshire, Eng- 
 land, June lU, l8l'.f, was the son of Uev. Dr. C. Kingsloy, 
 at one lime rector of St. Luke's, Chelcca, and after\Yards 
 vicar of Ilolne. Jlis preliminary education was directed 
 by Uev. Derwent Coleridge at Ottley St. John. In ls;;S» 
 he entered King's College, London, but in the following 
 year removed to Magdalen College. Cambridge, where ho 
 graduated with lionors In 1842. His first destination was 
 for tho law, but after a few months he exclianged that 
 study for theology, and lo(tk orders in the Chureb of Eng- 
 land, becoming in 181 1 rector of Eversley, Ilainpshire, 
 where he resided through life. He early devoted himself 
 (o till' improvement of the condition of the working classes, 
 acquiring thereby the nohnrfiirt of "the Cliartist parson," 
 and was the chief originator f»f the school of elhies styled 
 "Christian socialism," with which was closely connected 
 that foDdncss for manly eports travestied as " muscular
 
 1560 
 
 KINGSLEY— K I NGSTON. 
 
 Christianity." His earliest publication was T*./-™ i, >€ 
 Villaqe Sermom. addressed to his rustic parishioners (lS4b), 
 followed in l!<4S bv a dramatic poem, the .Saint « liaijetiy, 
 foun.led on the cireer of Elizabeth of Hungary, and m 
 ISiO by a novel. All.,n L.,H-e, Tailor a„d /'„.(, the produc- 
 tion which first brought him into notice, and by which he 
 will alw.-vvs be best known. It was bused upon personal 
 research "nmonj; artisans and laborers, undertaken in con- 
 Son with Rev. Fred. D. Maurice, and wh ch led to the 
 establishment of co-oper.ative associations. This work i.ia 
 an immense popularity in ..\mcrica, and conlributed much to 
 determine u'in^sley's literary career. In 1S5U he was chosen 
 „rofe-or of modern fiijtory at Cambridge ; resigned in lb5 I, 
 in which year he became cxnon of Chester, and subsequent- 
 ly of Wes'tminster, and chaplain to the queen. Among his 
 works are We.Uoard Ho {Xr^b), Yeart, a novel (!8al), 
 Phaithnn (1852), Il<ipalla (1S5.3), Alexandria and her 
 Shooh (1854). aUuiL (1855), Poe,n, (1856) W^ Heroes 
 [1856), ko Year. A.,o (1857), The Roman and ,1^ Teuton 
 1864 Hereward (1866), The Hermit, (W.). How and 
 mvf (1869). At Last, a Chrixlman in the II «( /nrfios 
 (1871), hay, and Puritan,. Pro,e Uhjl, (1873^. Westminster 
 Sermon, and Health and Eduction (1874). A collect^ion 
 of poems, chieflv Ivric, was published in 18o6, andAndro- 
 meda. a hexameter poem, appeared in 18o8. In 18;^- ho 
 undertook the editorship of Hood II orrf.. and in 18, .i-, 4 
 visited the V. S. on a lectaring-tour, in which he was re- 
 ceived with warmth by the literary classes. D. at Eversley 
 Jan. 24, 1875. Po«™« C. Bliss. 
 
 Kinssley (Henry), a brother of Charles Kingsley, h. 
 at llulne vicara>'e, Devon, in 1824; was educated at 
 Oriel College, O.xford ; lived 1853-58 in Australia ; ac- 
 quired reputation as a reviewer, journalist, and novelist. 
 Author of (leoff-rey Harnhp, (1859). Pavrn,hoe (1861). Aus- 
 tin Elliot (IS63), The Hilh/ars and Ilnrtnn, (1865). Leujh- 
 ton Curt (1866), //e«./(l'8-n. Old Marqarct (1871). and 
 other novels. He was for some time editor of the Edin- 
 burgh Daihi Review. D. May 24. 1876. 
 
 kingsley (James Lfcr.), LL.D.,b. at Windham, Conn., 
 Au". 28, 1778; graduated at Yalo in 1799; was a tutor 
 there lSOl-05, librarian 1805-24, and professor of Hebrew, 
 Greek and Latin, and of ecclesiastical history 1805-ul. 
 D at New Haven, Conn., Aug. 31, 1852. He contributed 
 
 nany valuable articles to periodical literature, and pub- 
 ished a History of Yale Coller,e (1835) and a Life, of 
 President .Stiles, and valuable editions of Tacitus and of 
 
 ma 
 li 
 
 Cie'erode Orat'.re. Prof. Kinssley was master of an ele- 
 gant style in both English and Latin. Ho was called by 
 President Dwight the "American Addison," and several 
 Latin compositions on festive or eommcmorativo occasions 
 received the highest praise for purity of Latin style from 
 President Woolsey. 
 
 King's MounJain, a mountain-range, some 10 miles 
 Ion" N. and S.. with lateral spurs abounding in marble and 
 iron, mostly in Gaston cc, N. C, near the E. border of 
 Cleaveland co. Its S. extremity is in York co.,S. t. Tho 
 highest point is Ciowder's Knob, some 3000 feet high and 
 very precipitous. Near the S. extremity, in South Caro- 
 lina a body of British troops under Lieut. -Col. Ferguson 
 were surprised and attacked (Oct. 7, 1780) by tho American 
 militia under Col. Benjamin Cleaveland, and alter a most 
 gallant defence nearly all the British troops were made 
 prisoners. The British weco_iiL_part ^ armed w ahbrcc^- 
 luailiui_small;arnis. then first cmp loyeil in warTa roT On 
 'theroliowiiigThiyT Cn O f t hg Tory prijoncrs fffrirlianged 
 other crimes. This was one of the most 
 
 for murder and oL — 
 
 bloody contests of the w.ar in the Southern States, and con- 
 tributed much to the final success of tho American arms. 
 
 King's Mountain, tp. of Cleaveland oc, N. C. Pop. 
 1248. 
 
 King's Mountain, tji. of York co., S. C. Pop. 1818. 
 King's Prairie, tp. of Barry co., Mo. Pop. 857. 
 King's River, tp. of Carroll co., Ark. Pop. 686. 
 King's River, tp. of Madison eo.. Ark. Pop. 958. 
 King's River, of California, rise? in the Sierra Nevada, 
 in Fresno co., by numerous head-streams, and flows in a 
 S. \V. course into Lake Tulare. Its copious waters divide 
 into numerous channels before they reach the lake. 
 
 King's River, in the northern basin of Nevada, is in 
 Humbolill CO. It sinks about 50 miles N. W. of Winne- 
 mucca. Its valley contains some 75,000 acres of good 
 grazing and tillage land. The bottoms have a heavy 
 growth of blue-joint and red-top grass, and the hills are 
 covered with a fine growth of bunch-grass and white sage. 
 The average elevation is 4850 feet. Tlic river abounds in 
 trout. 
 
 King's River, tp. of Tulare co., Cal. Pop. 1G6. 
 King's Store, tp. of Pickens co., Ala. Pop. 212. 
 
 Kings'ton, the capital of the island of Jamaica, stands 
 on the southern coast. 12 miles from Spanish Town, tho 
 former capital, in lat. 18° N., Ion. 76° 5U' W. It is situ- 
 ated in a plain at the foot of the Blue Mountains, sur- 
 rounded by rich sugar-plantations and numerous villas and 
 gardens. In spite of the regular laud and sea breezes 
 morning and evening, the climate is very hot, and as parts 
 of the vicinity are marshy, the place is unhealthy ; yellow 
 fever is a frequent visitor. Although there is no building 
 of any architectural interest in the city, it is nevcrthelcES 
 well built, with regular and spacious streets, and it has re- 
 cently been provided with good drinking-water through a 
 magnificent aqneduel. The harbor is enclosed on the S. 
 by a tongue of land, and is defended by several strong forts, 
 and the city derives its greatest im]iorlanee from its situ- 
 ation as a commercial station on the route between Europe 
 and Central America. The value of exports for the year 
 1869-70 was S0.315.S13, and of imports, f6, 600, 146. Tho 
 principal articles of exportation are rum. sugar, tobacco, 
 and dyewond. Pop. about 35,BI'0. 
 
 Kingston, pnst-v. of King's co., N. B., on a neck of 
 mountainiuis land between the Kennelpccasis and Ihe St. 
 John rivers, 19 miles above St. John. It has a court-house, 
 jail, churches, and schools. Pop. about 200. 
 
 Kingston, a citv, cap. of Frontcnac co.. Out.. Canada, 
 near the lower extremity of Lake Ontario, opposite tho 
 Thousand Islands. It was founded in 1784 on the site of 
 the old French fort Fronlenac, lat. 44° 8' N., Ion. 78° 40' 
 W. It is strongly fortified. Its harbor is sheltered by 
 "Wolf and Garden islands. It is connected by steam-ferry 
 with Cape Vincent, N. Y. Its wharves, shipyards, and 
 grain-elevators are well constructed. It has manufactures 
 of locomotives, musical instruments, farming tools, stoves, 
 and many other kin<ls of goods. It is on the Grand Trunk 
 Railway ,"lfil miles E. of Toronto. It has 3 banks, a board 
 of trade, and 18 churches, being the seat of a Roman Cath- 
 olic bish'op and the see-town of the Anglican bishop of On- 
 tario. Kingston has water and gas companies, a fire brig- 
 ade, and a well-organized police. It has a custom-house, 
 a jail, a penitentiary. 10 schools and academies, and is Ihe 
 site of Queen's University and College, including a medical 
 college. It has also an institution called Regiopolis Col- 
 le<'e.° It has a library and mechanics' institute, 2 daily 
 and 2 weekly papers. 2 hospitals. 2 orphanages, an insane 
 asylum, and many religious, benevolent, and temperanco 
 societies. Kingston is a naval station, and contains Ihe 
 roval dockyards. A long bridge has been built across 
 Cjtaraqui Bay. The town is mostly built of blue limestone, 
 and its streets cross each other at right angles. It is di- 
 vided into seven wards. Pop. in 1871, 12.407. 
 
 Kingston, post-tp. of Autauga co., Ala. Pop. 1278. 
 Kingston, post-v. of King's River tp., Madison co.. 
 Ark. Pop. 65. 
 
 Kingston, post-v. of Barlow co., Ga.. at the junction 
 of the Rome It. R. with the Western and Atlantic K. R., 
 41 miles S. of Dalton. Pop. 402. 
 
 Kingston, tp. of Dc Kalb co., IB. Pop. 975. 
 Kingston, a v. of Trimble co.. Ky. Pop. 59. 
 Kingston, posttp. of Plymouth co., Mass.. on Ihe sea- 
 coast and on the Old Colony R. R.. 33 miles S. E. of Bos- 
 ton. It has a good harbor for light-draught vessels, 3 
 churches, a high school, and manufactures of lumber, 
 thread, iron-ware, gimlets, rivets, shipping, etc. It has also 
 prosperous agricultural and fishing interests. Pop. 1604. 
 Kingston, tp. of Tuscola eo.. Mich. Pop. 324. 
 Kingston, post-v. and tp. of Meeker CO., Minn. Pop. 
 of V. 56 ; of tp. 530. 
 
 Kingston, post-v. and tp.. cap. of Caldwell co.. Mo., 8 
 miles from the Hannibal and Si. .loseph K. R. and 60 miles 
 from Kansas City. It has a good court-house, jail, and 
 school building. 2 churches. 2 weekly newspapers, a flour- 
 mill, anti Ihe nsnal number of stores and shops. The prin- 
 cipal business is wagon-making. Pop. of v. 414; of tp. 
 J2V7. Mii.i.s A SpivEV, F'lis. '•Sentinel. 
 
 Kingston, tp. of Washington co.. Mo. Pop. 10S5. 
 Kingston, post-v. and tp. of Rockingham co., N. H., 
 38 miles S. E. of Concord. It has an academy, 3 ehurches, 
 and extensive manufactures of carriages, lumbcr,and leather. 
 
 Pop. 1051. 
 
 Kingston, city. cap. of Ulster co.. N. Y., 90 miles N. 
 of New York City, and 55 miles S. of Albany, on the W. 
 bank of the Hudson River and N. bank of Rondoiil f r^'k; 
 E terminus of the Kelaware and Hudson Canal, of the ^cw 
 York Kingston and Syracuse, and of the Wallkill \ alley 
 R. Rs.. which connect by steam-ferry with the Hudson 
 River R. R. at Rhinebeck. immediately across the nver. 
 Kingston was incorporated as a city by act of Mar. 29, 
 1872, by the junction of the former incorporated villages 
 
 I r, 
 
 ,\i^^\-Xl
 
 KINGSTON— KIN, NEXT OF. 
 
 1561 
 
 of Kingston and Rondout with the small viIlaj;cof Wilbur. 
 It h:is '2\ churches. 1 daily and o weekly newspaper?. 5 
 national and .1 savings banks, lit carriage niantit'actorie^, 
 5 iron-foundries and maehiuo-shops, ceverul hotels, an 
 academy, several private seminaries, an efiicient school 
 system with 16 teachers, 6 brickyards, 5 boat-building 
 yards, 3 ferries, 4 lines of passenger steanicrs. a volunteer 
 fire department, a horse railroad, a'handsoine eity hall and 
 court -house. It is the location of the largest cement 
 manufactory in the country, turning out about IIHIO barrels 
 daily; receives l.nOO.OOO tons of coal annually by the 
 Di'laware and Ilmlson Canal, and annually ships to New 
 York at least 1,000.001) tons of blue flagging-stone, brick, 
 ice. lime, and lumber. It has a wharfage front of 4 miles, 
 and 43 steamboats are owned there : docs a heavy business 
 in grain, flour, etc. The city is governed by a mayor and 
 eighteen aldermen. It received a charter from (iov. Stuy- 
 vesant in \(\<\{ under the name of Wifftri'v/:, was first set- 
 tled in lO'ij. and was incorporated by j)atent in Ififi". On 
 Feb. 1"J, 1777, the first State convention adjourned from 
 Fishkill to Kingston, and the first State constitution was 
 adopted Apr. 20, and, having been printed at Fishkill.was 
 proclaimed in front of the court-house at Kingston Apr. 
 22, 1777. The legislature met here in September of the 
 same year, but was dispersed by the approach of a British 
 force under Sir Henry Clinton Oct. 7, when the town was 
 burnt. Being afterwards rebuilt, it was incorporated as a 
 village in ISOj. Rondout, now a part i»f Kingston, was 
 incorporated in lS4y ; it was long the county-seat, an<l had 
 2 newspapers. Pop. of city in 1S70, 0316; of tp. 21.043. 
 Horatio FowLEit, Ed. *' D.\i[.y Fuklma.v." 
 Kinsston, tp. of Delaware co., 0. Pop, 5S7. 
 Kiimston^ p(tst-v. of (treen tp., Ross co., 0., 10 miles 
 N. of L'hillicolhe. It is the seat of an academy. Pop. 345. 
 Kin^^ton, post-b. and tp. of Luzerne co.. Pa., in the 
 anthracite coal region. The borough is on the Lacka- 
 wann.i and Bloomsburg R. R.. and on the X. branch of 
 the Susr(uehanna. opposite Wilkesbarre, with which it is 
 connected by a bridge. The massacre of Wyoming took 
 pla'-c in this township, and is commemorated by an impos- 
 ing ni'.nurnent. Pop. of b. 1143 ; of tp. 282 J. 
 
 Kingston, post-v., cap. of Washington co., R. T., is in 
 Sou*h Kingston tp., 3 miles S. E. of Kingston Station, on 
 the Providence and Stonington R. R. It has a national 
 bank. 
 
 Kini^Hton, post-v.. cap. of Roane co., Tenn., 40 miles 
 W. of Knuxvlilc and K'.O E. of Chattanooga, is situated at 
 the junction of the Clinch River with the Tennessee, both 
 of them being here navigable lor stuambonts. It has 2 
 weekly newspapers. 1 hotel, 2 iron-furnaces, 2 steam saw- 
 mills, foundry and machiuc-shop, 1 charcoal furnace, 1 
 steam-distillery, and 10 stores. Pop. 739. 
 
 W. B. RrFin. En. " East TKNNKSst;KA\." 
 Kingston, post-tp. of (ireen Eako eo.. Wis. Pop. 807. 
 KinK^tun lEMZAnnTii Ciirni-Kini!), Dichkss ok. b. in 
 England in 1720, was daughter of Col. Chudlcigh, gover- 
 nor of Chelsea College, who d. when she was still a child. 
 leaving his family in poverty. Elizabeth was a girl of re- 
 markable beauty, to which (circumstance she was indebted 
 for an appointment as maid-of-honor to the princess of 
 Wales, mother of (Jeorge HI., through the influence of 
 Pulteney, afterwards earl of Bath. She was privately mar- 
 ried in 1741 to Capt, llervey, grandson <tf the earl of Bris- 
 tol, but immediately separated from him. ami for many 
 years led adissipated life in European capitals. She mar- 
 ried the duke of Kingsloi] in 1 709, he being ignorant of her 
 former marringo, and on his death in 1773 sneeeeded to an 
 enormous fortune, which, however, was disputed by the 
 duke's relatives on the ground of bigamy. The duchess 
 was tried by the Uoupo of Lords for bigamy in 1770, and 
 declared guilty, btit retained her fortune, as being derived 
 from brfjuest. After a further series of adventures she d. 
 at a chateau near Paris Aug. 28, 1788. 
 
 Kingston-on-ThiimOH, town of England, in tlie 
 county of Surrey, on the E. bank (tf the TlnuneH. It has 
 an extensive trade in corn ami malt, anil many good edu- 
 oational institutions. Coins and other remains from the 
 time of the Romans arc often discovered here. Pop. 
 15.2:>7. 
 
 Kinf;*«'to\vn9 capital of the island of St. Vincent, in 
 the We^f Indies, at the head of a small inlet which forms 
 a good harbor, is well built and fortified, and has a fine 
 botanieal gard'-n. Pop. about .'lOOO. 
 
 Kinffstown, town of Indnnd, on the ftouthern shore 
 of the Bay of Iftiblin. It has a magnificent harbor, and is 
 the station of the steam-packets to Holyhead and Liverpool. 
 It is one of the most frequented watering-places of Ireland. 
 Pop. ll.:>84. 
 
 Kings'trro, post-v. of Kings tp., cap. of M'ilHnmsburg 
 
 CO., S. C, on the left bank of Black River. 05 miles N. E. 
 of Charleston, on the North-eastern R. R.. has 2 weekly 
 newspapers. 2 schools (1 white and 1 colored), 3 churches, 
 
 2 hotels, I livery-stable, 1 hook-and-laddcr fire company, 
 
 3 bakeries, 2 drug stores, and a number of other business 
 interests. The principal occupation is farming. Pop. of 
 tp. 1774. J. Marion Stauokiis, for Ei>. "Star." 
 
 Kinf^s'villCf post-v. and tp. (otherwise called Ramky) 
 of Johnson co.. Mo., on the Missouri Pacific R. R. Pop. 
 of v. 298; of tp. 13G0. 
 
 Kingsville, post-v. and tp. of Ashtabula co.. 0.. on 
 the Lake Shore R. R. It has an academy. Pop. 1758. 
 
 King-te-Ching% district of the province of Kiang-Si, 
 China, anil the scat of the celebrated manufactures of ])or- 
 celain, in which ncarlj' 1,000,000 persons arc engaged. 
 
 Kinf; Wil'linm^ county of Virginia, having the Mat- 
 tnpony River on the N. E. and the Paniunkey on the S. W. 
 Area. 200 square miles. It is iine\en. and (rencrally fertile. 
 Grain and tobacco are staple products. The county is trav- 
 ersed by the Richmond and Chc?apeako R. R. Cap. King 
 William Court-house. Pttp. 7."(1j. 
 
 King William Court-house, post-v.. cap. of 
 King William co., Va., 27 miles N. E. of Richmond. 
 Pop. 44. 
 
 King'-WOOd, the wood of a species of Tn'ptolomia. a 
 Brazilian leguminous tree. The wood is very beautiful. 
 but comes only in small pieces, and is used in ornamental 
 joinery. 
 
 Kingwood, post-tp., Hunterdon co., X. J. Pop. 1942. 
 
 Kin^wood, post-v. and t p.. caii. of Prtj^ton co,. W. Va., 
 is situated in the .Allt irhany iMounlains, 111 niiles N. of the 
 Baltimore and Ohio R. R. ; has 2 churches. 1 nati<uial bank, 
 2 weekly newspapers, 3 hotels, numerous stores, a fine 
 school building, and several elegant private residences. It 
 is on the line of a proposed raih-oad, the Iron A'allcy and 
 Pennsylvania line. Principal imlustry. farming. Pop. 
 IjSl. Wii.i.. M. O. Dawson. 
 
 En. " PitESTON Co. .Journal." 
 
 Kink'^O^Uf the Ccrcofepten crniflh-otrit/tiit, a small bear- 
 like carnivorous mammal of tropical South America, liardly 
 as large as a eat. It is placed in a family, ('ercohptidje. 
 It is a graceful nocturnal creature, arlxu-eal in its habits, 
 easily tamed, and excessively fond of honey, one of tho])rin- 
 eipai articles of its food. It has many popular names, but 
 the above is the one now generally employed. 
 
 Kinli'e! (Joiianx CIoTTrnir:i)l,b. at Obereasscl Aug. 11, 
 ISIT); studied theology at Bonn and Berlin: became jiro- 
 fcssor first of theology, and then of the fine arts, at Bonn, 
 and published a volume of poems whieli beeanic ]»opuIar. 
 On account of his participation in the revolutionary move- 
 ments in Rhenish Prussia in 1S4S, ho was sentenced to 
 twenty years' im])risonment at S[)andau, but c>caped, lived 
 for some years in London, and removed in ISriO to Zurich 
 as professor of the history of the fine arts. Of his writings, 
 the most noticeable, besides his ]ioems. are Die altchritt- 
 (irhr h'uut^t flSI.'i) and iV/mn/f/. a tragedy (1857). 
 
 Kiii'hick, tp. of Lawrence eo., Ala. I*op. 1621. 
 
 Kin'iniindy, city and tp. of Marion co.. III., 229 miles 
 S. of Chicago, and 130 miles N. of Cairo, on the Illinois 
 Central U. R.. has 1 bank. 1 weekly newspaper, 5 churches, 
 2 hotels, large school buildings, brick mills, various manu- 
 factories, and 12 stores. Principal industry, farming, graz- 
 ing, and fruit-raising. Pop. is'.ly. 
 
 E!>\v\ito FitKiCMAx, En. *■ Kismi'NDV lNni:i»KNDr.ST.** 
 
 Kill, Next of, a term employed in law to denote the 
 nearest blood relatives of a deceased ]ter>on. among whom 
 his personal property is distributed after the payment of 
 debts and legacies, according to the provisions of the stat- 
 ute of distributions. Thi.s is the ordinary technical sense 
 of the phrase, though it is sometimes used with a wider 
 exIiMit of meaning, to <iesignatea personV nearest relations 
 by Idood. without regard t<» this stiitule. The relationship 
 iiiust bo by consanguinity, and not by afiiiiily. The next 
 of kin may be either of lineal or of collateral consanguin- 
 ity, and the nearness of relationship among them is com- 
 puted according to the rules of the civil law. in accordaneo 
 with which the degrees between one relative and an(»tber 
 are aseertaine<l by reckoning upward from one of the par- 
 lies to the common ancestor, and then downward to the 
 other party. (The distinction between lineal and collat- 
 eral consanguinity is explained, and this eivil-law rule of 
 estimating relntifmshiji illustrat<'d, in the article CoNSAN- 
 nriNiTV. See also Akkimtv.) Cpon the death of a per- 
 son intestate who was tlie ownerof personal property, there 
 are two important rights to wbieb bis next of kin are en- 
 titled : one is to administer up(»n his personal estate, and 
 the other to share it among themselves, either wholly or 
 partly, according to the statute of distributions. By the
 
 1562 
 
 KINNEY— KIPPIS. 
 
 English common law the power to administer upon the 
 goods and chattels of a wife is granted to the husband or 
 his representatives, while, by ancient statutes, if it be the 
 husband that is deceased, administration upon his property 
 is granted to either his widow or next of kin, or both. In 
 case of administration by the next of kin, one or more are 
 selected from among them as administrators, preference 
 being given to those who are most nearly related to the 
 
 ish, highly astringent taste. It forms a deep-red solution 
 in water and alcohol. Kino owes its astringency to tannic 
 acid (tannin), and is used in medicine to check morbid dis- 
 charges in bowel complaints. Edwakd Curtis. 
 
 Kinross', or Kinross'-shirc, county of .Scotland, be- 
 tween the counties of Perth and Fife. Area, 72 square 
 miles. I'op. 720S. The surface is undulating, covered with 
 j low hills which enclose i^ooh Lcven. The soil is a mixture 
 
 intestate, according to the civil-law method of reckoning of gravel and clay, but fertile and affording good pasturage 
 
 above referred to. Of persons in equal degree any one 
 may be taken. Children arc preferred to j.arents, parents 
 to brothers or sisters, brothers or sisters to grandparents, 
 grandparents to uncles, aunts, nephews, and nieces, etc. 
 (See AnMiNiSTKATiox.) In the U. !^. the English rules as 
 to the appointment of administrators arc substantially 
 adopted in the various States, though more or less modi- 
 fied by statute. After the payment of debts by the admin- 
 istrator, and of various expenses, as funeral expenses, 
 taxes, etc.. the residue of the property is dislributed among 
 the next of kin and the husband or widow of the deceased. 
 The statute of distributions was enacted in the reign of 
 Charles II. (22 and 23 Chas. II. ch. 10). If the deceased 
 person be a married woman, leaving a husband surviving, 
 he takes, by English law, the entire personal property after 
 the usual necessary disbursements, the statute not applying 
 to husbands. In other cases the statute requires the dis- 
 tribution of the surplus property, after the expiration of 
 one year from the time of granting administration, in the 
 following manner: If the intestate leave a widow and chil- 
 dren, the widow receives one-third of the property, and the 
 children the residue in equal proportions. If any child be 
 dead, leaving lineal descendants, they divide equally the 
 share which'he would have received. This is called taking 
 per stirpit, or by the doctrine of representation. If there 
 are no children or their representatives, one-half goes to 
 the widow and the other half is distributed equally among 
 the next of kin who are in equal degree and their repre- 
 sentatives; but no representation is admitted among col- 
 laterals after brothers' and sisters' children. If there be 
 no widow, the whole estate is divided among the children. 
 If there be neither widow nor children, the whole is distri- 
 buted among the next of kin in equal degree and their 
 representatives. Substantially the same ]>referencc3 exist 
 among the next of kin in regard to their right to receive a 
 share in the property as in regard to the right to be ad- 
 ministrators. If children survive or their descendants, 
 these take the property to the exclusion of other relatives. 
 If there be no children or their descendants, the father 
 takes the whole. If he also be dead, the mother and the 
 brothers and sisters, with their descendants, divide the 
 property, and so on. If in any case those who receive the 
 property arc related to the deceased in equal degrees, they 
 share equally, or, as it is termed, jitr ctijuia. If there be 
 any personii'l properly of a testator left undisposed of by 
 his" will, it is distributed among the next of kin according 
 to the same rules of distribution. Statutes of distribution 
 similar in their general provisions to the English statute 
 have been enacted in the IT. S., though with various modi- 
 fications of the rules just stated. 
 
 (5K0R0E Chask. Revised by T. W. Dwioht. 
 
 Kin'ncy, county of Texas, bounded on the S. W. by 
 the Rio (Jrande. Area, 1400 square miles. It is not gener- 
 ally very fertile, and water is deficient, but it affojds good 
 jiasturage. Stock-raising is the chief pursuit 
 Clark. Pop. 1201. 
 
 Kinney ( Rev. .John W.), b. in 1790 ; d. in Texas Jan. 
 9, ISGj. lie joined the Ohio (JI. E.) conference in 181S. 
 and l)ecame a member of the Kentucky conference when it 
 was organized; after eight years' labor in Kentucky, lo 
 
 on the moorlands. Principal town. Kinross. 
 
 Kinsalc', town of Ireland, in thccounty of Cork, Mun- 
 ster, stands on the ISandon River, 2 miles from its fall into 
 the Atlantic. It has an excellent harbr>r, valuable fisheries, 
 and is much resorted to as a bathing-place, but its trade 
 has mostly been transferred to Cork. Pop. ('i9J5. 
 
 Kins'ley, post-v. and tp.. cap. of Edwards co., Kan., 
 on the Arkansas River, and the Atchison Topeka and Santa 
 F6 R. R., 2R8 miles W. of Topeka and 34 E. of Fort 
 Dodge, 110 miles N. of the salt-lieMs on the boundary of 
 the Indian Territory, of which it is the nearest shi)iping 
 point. The first house was built in Jlar., }K7o ; a news- 
 paper was started the same year ; the county was organ- 
 ized in 1874 with some 600 inhabitants. Kinsley suffered 
 much from the grasshopper plague (1874); has fine soil 
 and climate. JliiS. C. C. McGiNMS. En. " Reporteii." 
 Kins'nian, post-v. and tp., Trumbull co., 0. Pop. 1029. 
 Kin'ston, post-v. and tp.. cap. of I.enoir co., N. C, 35 
 miles W. of Xew Berne, on the Atlantic and North Caro- 
 lina R. R., has a high school, 8 churches (3 colored), 1 
 newspaper. 1 hotel, 40 stores, a carriage and plough fac- 
 torv, and other industries, principally farmiug. Pop. of v. 
 Illi3 ; of tp. 4604. E. A. WiLSO.v, En, " Gazette." 
 
 Kiong-Choo', town of China, the capital of the island 
 of Hainan, on the northern coast, in lat. 20° N., Ion. 110° 
 22' E., and is surrounded with high walls of hewn stones. 
 It is described by the Chinese as a model of a city, so rich 
 that it has no beggars, so noble-spirited that it needs no 
 police, and it is said to have 200.000 inhabitants. Unfor- 
 tun.ately, the Chinese speak in exactly the same terms of 
 another town they have founded on Hainan, and describe 
 it with exactly the same features; which circumstance oc- 
 casions some "mist around' the double-star, at least to or- 
 dinary minds. 
 Kioto. See Miako. 
 
 Ki'owa, county of South-west Central Kansas. Area, 
 900 square miles. The X. TV. part is travcrseil by the 
 Arkansas River and the Atchison Topeka and Santa F6 
 R. R. It is a good pastoral region. 
 
 Kiowas, or Kioways, a tribe of Indians of the Sho- 
 shone family, having a reservation in the S. V,'. of the In- 
 dian Territory, but not yet reclaimed from a nomadic life, 
 hunting and marauding upon the great plains of Kansas, 
 Colorado, and Northern Texas. They have been more in- 
 tractable than any other Indian tribe except the Apaches, 
 have been often at war with the Pawnees, the Dakotas, and 
 the Mexicans, and have been frequently chastised by V. S. 
 troops. Treaties were made with the Kiowas in 1853, 1865, 
 and 1860, by the hitter of which they agreed to settle in 
 the Indian Territory, but the following year they again 
 committed murders in Texas, for which their chiefs, San- 
 and Big Tree, were sentenced to death, but ultimately 
 
 tanta 
 Cap. Fort j pardoned. They number about 2000 
 
 Kip (Rt. Rev. Wii.i.iam Ingraham), D. D., b. in New 
 York Oct. 3, isn, of an old family of Dutch descent (orig- 
 iniilly Kype). He graduated at Yale in 1831 ; took deacon's 
 orders in the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1835; was 
 rector of St. Peter's, Albany, 183S-53. and in the latter 
 
 Jlc is the 
 captain of a conipiiny ; emigrateil to Texas in i^.i.i. ana .,,,(i,ni. nf mnnv worlis. amons wnicn are j iie i.enlcH Fatl, 
 with the Rev. Henry Stevenson held the first camp-meetin 
 
 catcd in Illinois, and fought through the Black Hawk war , y^^p ^^s consecrated bishop of California. Jl 
 as captain of a conipiiny ; emigrated to Texas in 1833. and auti,or of many works, among which are The Leiileii 
 
 If/ Jcmiil Mlstioiig III ynrllt Amrritn {ISiG), Cliritliiiat 
 
 in Austin's colony. He possessed great pulpit power. He 
 belonged to the Texas conference at the time of his death. 
 
 T. 0. Simmers. ! 
 Kinnickinnick', or Killickinnick' [Chippcway, a 
 "mixture"], a name given by the northern Indians to 
 various substances used liy them for mixing with tobacco 
 before smoking, such as the inner bark of the red willow 
 and the leaves of the mountain cranberry (Arcloslnphijlus 
 Vin-Vrii). 
 
 Kinnickinnick, post-tp. of St. Croix co., Wis. Pop. 
 028. 
 
 Ki'no, an astringent drug, the hardened juice of Ptcro- 
 carpitt nmrmtpimii^ a lofty tree, natural order FabaceaJ, 
 growing in the East Indies, and also of other trees in tho 
 West Indies, South America, Africa, and Australia. East 
 India kino is the only variety in general use, most of the 
 others being unknown in America. It is in small shining, 
 brittle fragments, of a deep reddish-black color and bitter- 
 
 Jfuliiliiiiii in Home. Domeslic and llcliijinm Lift: in /tali/, 
 The Ciiiacomh« <>/ iioiix: (1S54). He has contributed much 
 to periodical literature. 
 
 Kip'pis (AxnnEW), D, D., F. R. S., b. at Nottingham, 
 Eng., in 1725; studied theology in Dr. Doddridge's sem- 
 inarv at Nottingham; became in 1740 minister of a dis- 
 senting congregation at Boston, Lincolnshire, and in 1753 
 of a Presbyterian church of Unitarian tendencies in Prince's 
 street, AVestminster, where he remained through life. In 
 1703 he became professor in a theological academy in Lon- 
 don for the education of dissenting ministers; wrote much 
 for the firnlUmnii'a Mii;ltiziiif. the ihrnlhti) R, licit, and tlie 
 A'eir Anniinl Kn/iiiter: edited Doddridge's Lrclnrct and Dr. 
 Lardner's work's; published lives of Dr. Lardner and of 
 Capt. Cook, and undertook a new edition of that vast work, 
 the ntniirnphiii IlriKimiicn. but it was projecteil on too ex- 
 tensive a scale, and only five folio volumes, with part of a 
 sixth, were published, extending to the middle ot the letter
 
 KIPTCHAK— KIRKALDY. 
 
 1563 
 
 p (177g-93). Dr. Kippis published also some sermons and 
 coutroiersiiil paiupbltts ou Ibeological subjects. 1>. at Wost- 
 miuster iu 17'.ij. 
 
 Kiptchak% or Kaptchak', a Tartar or .Mongolian 
 race whieli j;ave name lo a khunato founded in the thir- 
 teenth century by the Golden Horde, and which extended 
 from the Jiixnrtes iu Toorkistan to the limits of Russia 
 proper, and comprised all the region N. «f the Caueasus i 
 traversed by tlio rivers Dnieper. Don, Volga, and Ural. 
 After the career of Tamerlane in the fifteenth century, 
 Kazan. Astrakhan, and Crimea became independent of 
 Kiptchak, and were at length annexed to Russia. 
 
 Kir'by, tp. of Northampton co., N. C. Pop. 1844. 
 
 Kirb» post-tp. of Wyandot co., 0., on the Pittsburg 
 Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R. Pop. s;ii>. 
 
 Kirby, tp. of Marion co., S. C. Pop. Ili>5. 
 
 Kirby, tp. of Caledonia co., Vt., 4 miles S. E. of Lyn- 
 douville. It has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 417. 
 
 Kirby (KnMiNOj.b. in Rrownsville, Jefferson co.. X. Y., 
 1840; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy and ap- 
 pointed second lieutenant of artillery May 0. 1801. Tho 
 stirring time in which he graduated calleil for tho services 
 of every military educated man, and Kirby was at one© 
 ordered to Washington, and assigned to tlie duty of drill- 
 ing tho newly-arrived volunteers; upon tlie movement of 
 the army he was as;<igned to Ricketts's battery, with which 
 h& served at the battle of Bull Run, assuming command of 
 the same upon the capture of (Jen. Ricketts ; ho was next en- 
 gaged in the disastrous combat of Hall's IJIuft", Oct.. ISOI ; in 
 the Virginia Peninsular campaign of lS(i2 bo commanded 
 a battery at Vorktown. Fair Oaks. Savage Station, Glcn- 
 dale, and Malvern Hill, and in the Uajipahannoek cam- 
 paign at rredcrieksbnrg and Chancellorsville, in all of 
 which battles bo displayed great coolness, skill, and 
 bravery, and at the latter received wounds from the olfect 
 of which ho d. at Wasliington, D. C. May 2S, ISG:J, aged 
 twenty-three. For his gallant services at Cbancellorsvillo 
 he was appointed on his deathbed a brigadier-general of 
 volunteers. Though barely arrived at manhood, *be few 
 years of his life were well and honorably filled in the ser- 
 vice of his country. G. ('• Simmons. 
 
 Kirby (Wimjam), b. at Witnosham, Suffolk. Sept. 19, 
 17jy ; graduated at Caius College, Cambridge, in 17S1, took 
 orders in tho English Church and obtained the living of 
 Barbam, which hn held Ihroagh life. lie was widely known 
 by bis work on Eiit'imol'ie/i/. pul>li.sbed in ISI j in eonjuiie- 
 tion with Spence, and by bis IJridgewater treatise on Unbi(a 
 auU InntimtM of Animah in'tlt lic/crcncc to Natural Theolofft/ 
 (ls:tO). D. at IJarham July 4, ISoO. 
 
 Kirby's Mill, tp. of Jackson co., Ala. Pop. 285. 
 
 Kircli':»aoli, von (Hrco EwAi.n), b. May 23, 1809; 
 educated at tho military academy, and entered in lK2(i tho 
 2fith regiment of infantry. In 1850 he was attached to tiio 
 staff as inujor : in isjy became commander of a regiment; 
 in l><0:i of the liHh brigade of infantry, and in the same 
 year was made a mnjor-general. In ISOO. in tho war 
 against Auslria, he led with distinction tho lOLh division 
 as lieutenant-general : fought at Nachod, Skalitz. Scbwein- 
 sehadel, (iradlitz, and in tho battle of Koniggriltz, and re. 
 ceivcd the order pmir (c mt'n'tr. In 1.S70, in the war against 
 Franco, he led tlio .Hh army corps. At its head ho opened 
 the war by tho attack on Weis.senburg, and two days after- 
 wards ho took a most important part in the battle of Worth, 
 Aug. 0. Tho crown prince, who commanded the army, gavo 
 orders to break off the figlit ^vhicb had just commeneefl, 
 but Kirehbach continued it on bis own responsibility, and 
 a few momi!nt3 later on tlie crown prince agreed witli bim. 
 Four days after tho battle, in which ho received a slight 
 wound, be wa** made a general of infantry. In the battle 
 of Sedan, when thr leader of the 1 lib army eorpn was se- 
 verely wounded. Kindibaeh a-'sumed tho eniumand of this 
 corps too, and performed the decisive manoeuvre by which 
 the French army was completely surnnmded. During tho 
 siege of Paris ho held Versailles and its vicinity. 
 
 AlfMST NiKMASIf. 
 
 Kir'clior (ATiiASAsirs), b. at fioisa, in Hesse, May 2, 
 lfi02 ; joined the Jesuits in Ifil'J; was dlueateil at Wiirz- 
 burg, where ho was ]>rofessor of philosophy and the East- 
 ern languages; was in the Jesuits' college at Avignon 
 in lOHr,-;!'! ; was professor of matliematies in the College 
 of Rome ir..1.^-43. D. at Rome Nov. 2S. IfiSO. lie wrote 
 much upon pliysies, archanjlogy. philology, etc. 
 
 Kircli'liciin^ town of (lermany, in the kingdom of 
 Wiiriembcrg, on tho Lauter, manufactures cntloo fabrics, 
 musical instruments, and furniture, aud trades in corn, 
 cattle, and wool. Pop. J4.15. 
 
 Kirch'hoir iOtstav Robert), b. Mar. 12, 1S24, at 
 Kouigsbcrg; atudieil matliemntics and natural science at 
 
 the university of his native city; lectured on physics at 
 Berlin in 1S4S and at Breslau in 1850, and was appointed 
 professor of natural philosophy at Heidelberg in 1S54. 
 His researches concerning bent, elasticity, magnetism, and 
 electricity, communicate<l in Poggendorff s AunaUn and in 
 Crello's Journal fa r MuthdiuatiK-, attracted great attention. 
 But his most brilliant liiscovery was that of tho spectro- 
 scope, made in connection with Bunsen. and its application 
 for tho so-called spectrum analysis, which has exercised so 
 great an influence on tho study both of chemistry and as- 
 tronomy. (See his Chemischc Annlifsc i/nrrk Spcctralbco- 
 bachtutig, together with Bunscn (Vienna, IS(>1), Daa Soutioi- 
 gpectraun uixl die Spectreu der chrmhchrn Klc/)itntr (Berlin, 
 1861), VorlcsHiiffen iibtr annlytieche Mcchanik (Leipsic, 
 1874).) 
 
 Kirgheez% Kirghccz-Kaizaks, or Cossacks, 
 the name of a nomadic people of Central .Asia, numbering 
 about 2,01)0,000, and occupying a vast region called the 
 Kirghccz Steppes, of about 8;>0,UtHl square miles, stretching 
 from the Caspian Sea to the Altai Mountains and from tho 
 Sea of Aral to the Tobol and Irtish, traversed by several 
 mountain-ranges, between which extend large barren plains 
 dotted with salt lakes. It is now divided intu the three 
 provinces of Orenboorg, West Siberia, and Toorkistan. The 
 climate is exceedingly cold in the winter, excessively hot in 
 the summer, and always very variable. Only a few dis- 
 tricts along the rivers are rudely tilled : the remainder is 
 pasture-land. The Kirgbecz are divided into the Little, 
 Great, and Middle Hordes, politically distinct from each 
 other. They arc of Eastern or Tureo-Tataric origin, 
 akin to the Uzbecks in race and language. They are 
 below middle size, but strong and hardy; have the high 
 cheek-bones and small, deep-set, oblique eyes of the 
 Mongolians, but their faces, though generally ugly, are 
 not wholly flat. Their language is a very pure Turkish 
 dialect; their religion, a mixture of Islamism and idcd- 
 atry. Without being savages, their state of civilization 
 is very low. They know but little of agriculture, ami 
 still less of manufactures. The breeding of sheep, burses, 
 and camels is their business, besides occasicuial robbery. 
 In the beginning of this century they fully deserved tbelr 
 title of the "slave-hunters of the ste])pes." They attacked 
 the caravans, took the goods, and sold the persons as shives 
 at the markets of Khiva and Bokhara. But the line of 
 forts wbieb the Russian government has laid Ihrougb the 
 country has effectually checked this business. The wMunen, 
 who often are quite pretty, do the work. The men spend 
 most of their time on horseback, bunting and sporting, or 
 in sensuous enjoyments. Mutton, horseflesh, and sour 
 mare's milk, from which an intoxicating beverage is dis- 
 tilled, are tho princijial articles of food; bread is nearly 
 unknown. They arc governed by their own chieftains, but 
 since 18fi0 they have been brouglit under Russian authority, 
 and great ])aiiis have been taken to civili/.e tlieui. Tloro 
 arc no towns among tbetn, and the only remains of cities 
 and temples which have been found are vestiges of ai. ear- 
 lier civilized race. 
 
 Kir'in, or Girin, tho largest province of Mantchoorin, 
 Chinese empire, bounded N. by tho Anu)or and Sooiigareo 
 rivers, E. by the Oosooree River and tlie Japan Sea. S. by 
 I Corca and Cliina proper, and W. by China .proper and 
 1 Mongolia. Area, about 200,0(10 square miles. Pop. about 
 I .^(^0,0U0. The capital, Kirin, Kirin-Oola. or Uirin, is a largo 
 I town on the Soougaree, and is the residence of a viceroy. 
 Kirk (KiiWAiin Nonius), D. I)., b. in New York Aug. 
 14. 1S02: graduated at Princeton in 1S20. and afterwards 
 studied law auti theology: served as agent lor the foreign 
 mission board; held lS2S-;jti a Congregational pastorate 
 at Albany, N. Y., and in 1839 became secretary of the For- 
 eign Evangelical Society. In I>'42 he became pastor of tho 
 Mt. Vernon church, Boston. Mass.. with which be main- 
 ■ tained the pastoral relation until his deatli, Mar. 27, istl. 
 He was the author of several volumes of .st-rmuns and lec- 
 tures, ttUil many published occasional discourses, besides 
 some translations. Dr. Kirk was an active friend of the 
 cause of Protestant religion iu tho Roman Catholic coun- 
 tries of Europe. 
 
 Kirk (Jnnv Foster), b. in 182i at Frederickton, N. It., 
 and educated in Nova Scotia. In 1X12 he removed to Bos- 
 ton, Mass, where for eleven years he was secretary to the 
 historian Preseott. He i« the author of a //i«/on/ of 
 ChnrUn the Hold (3 vols.. ISfi.l-GT), and iu 1870 bccamo 
 editor of Lipftitir«ftt'ii Mntjnziur. 
 
 KirkaTcly iSir Wh.mam} of Granfso, b. in Scotland 
 early in the sixteenth century, son of Sir James Kirkaldy, 
 high treasurer in the reign of .lames V., was one of the ear- 
 liest Protestants of Scotland; joined a conspiracy against 
 Caniiual Beatoun in 1540; surrendered to the French at 
 St. Andrew's in the summer of that year, and ivns im- 
 prisoned, but esjapcd to France, where he became distill-
 
 1564 
 
 KIRKBRIDE— KIRKLAND. 
 
 ffuiahed in the court and army of Henry TI. ; returned to 
 Scotlantl in 16.t9; took part in the political movement 
 against Miiry queen of Scots ; narrowly escaprd assassina- 
 tion by IJuthwcIl at the battle of <'arberry JliU, and ])ur- 
 siuhI that nobleman to the eoast of Norway (lj()7); con- 
 tributed to the defeat of Mary at Langside, and became 
 governor of Kdinburjfh Castle (May. 1 .'iliS) ; espousod the 
 cause of Mary, and defended the castle for her from Ii>7(l 
 to l.')7;t ajjainst the besiej^inj^ forces of Marshal Berwick; 
 surrendered May 28, and was hung at Edinburgh, with 
 several of his followers, Aug. 3, 1573. 
 
 Kirk'bride (Thomas S.). M. D., LL.D., b. near Morris- 
 ville, Bucks CO., Pa.. July 31, 1809. His ancestry were of 
 the So(riety of Friends, and he received his early education 
 in the excellent schools of that denomination. He gradu- 
 ated M. I>. from the University of Pennsylvania in Mar., 
 1S32, and was immediately appointed resident physician 
 of the Friends' asylum for the insane at Frankford, Pa. 
 In 1S3-1 he was elccteil resident physician of the Pennsyl- 
 vania Hospital in Philadelphia, and was for two years in 
 charge of the west wing of the hospital, which was the 
 first hospital department for the treatment of the insane in 
 the U. S. In 1835 he opened an office for general practice 
 in Philadelphia, hut in Oct.. 1840, just before the comple- 
 tion of the new Pennsylvania Hospital for the insane W. 
 of the .Schuylkill, he was clecteil its superintendent and 
 physician-in-chief. He entered upon his duties at the 
 opening of the hospital, Jan. 1. 1S4!, and has been at its 
 head for thirty-four years. He was and is firmly convinced 
 that not more than 250 insane patients should be treated 
 at one time in a single hospital : and foreseeing that that 
 number would be reached in his hospital within a few 
 years, ho commenced, amid his other cares, in 1853, the 
 effort to raise money for a second institution. The hos- 
 pital grounds included a tract of 113 acres, and by divid- 
 ing the pleasure-grounds and placing his new hospital a 
 third of a mile distant from the other, he could keep tho 
 two entirely distinct, though under the same general super- 
 vision and treatment. He was the first superintendent 
 in this country to separate in entirely distinct institutions 
 the two sexes. In 1 859, with the assistance of some friends, 
 he had raised in Philadelphia and vicinity $355,000, and 
 had erected, in accordance with his own carefully prepared 
 plans, a hospital for tlie insane, which is so perfect in all 
 its appointments that it has been a model for all those since 
 erected. To this hospital he transferred all his male pa- 
 tients, and while retaining the general superintendeney over 
 both, placed his most trusted assistant at the head of the 
 male department, and gave most of his personal attention 
 to the feuiale department. To this latter ho has since added, 
 through the liberal bequest of a friend, two wards at a cost 
 of about $(10,000. In all matters appertaining to mental 
 alienation Dr. Kirkhride ranks as one of tlie aldest men in 
 the profession. A careful student, thoroughly devoted to 
 his specialty in medical science, of tho most gentle and 
 genial miinnera, and of rare executive ability, he has l»ecn 
 p-markably successful in the treatment of the insane, while 
 his writings on the subject have given him a high reputa- 
 tion. His first publication, in 1850, liu/cs and Rrffnlafioua 
 for the PfunHijU'rinSn Iftinpitnl fnr the imtanPy had a circu- 
 lation far beyond that liospital, and his Propttsltiouft Rela- 
 tive to thr ('oiiHtntrtloii It/ HoHj>itiiln fur the Insane, first 
 adopted by the Association of Medical Superintendents of 
 American Institutions for the Insane (of which he was one 
 of the fotinders), have been repeatedly reathrmed by then), 
 and at their request were published in 1854, with notes and 
 additions, under tho title of The f'onHtnirtion. Off/a iiizat ion, 
 ftii'/ Gcnctnl Arraiiffemrnt of HoHpititin for the fumiue. It 
 is tho standard authority on this subject, both in Europe 
 and the U. S. The same year he published an eloquent 
 Appeal for the Inaane. In his thirty-four years of super- 
 intendeney of (he Pennsylv.ania Hfispital for (ho Insane, 
 Dr. Kirkhride has taken up. year by year, in his annual 
 reports, nearly every subject connected with the care and 
 treatment of the insano and the provision to he made for 
 them, and has discussed at length all topics connected with 
 the eonslru<-tion, heating, and ventilation of hospitals. 
 These reports are of great value to every student of men- 
 tal disease. He has also been a member of numerous com- 
 missions on the erection and management of insane hos- 
 pitals, and an active participant in the medical and phil- 
 anthropic institutions of Philadelphia. The degree of 
 LL.D. was conferred on him in 1874. L. P. Brockett. 
 
 liirkcnrdy, town of Scotland, in tho county of Fife, 
 on the Frith of Forth, where it stretches along the north- 
 ern shore for about 3 miles, which has given it the name of 
 " Lang town." It has large bleatdiing-fields, flax-spinning 
 mills, and manufactures of linen and canvas, and its harbor, 
 though completely dry at low water, admits large vessels 
 at full tide. Pop. 12,422. 
 
 Kirkcnd'bri^htshire, or the Stewartry of Kirk* 
 
 cudbrightf county of Scotland, bordering on the Irish 
 Sea and the Frith of Solway. Area, 954 square miles. 
 Pop. 41.852. Only one-third of the surface is arable; the 
 rest is granite hills covered with moss, the highest of 
 which are Blacklarg, 2890 feet, and ("airnsmoor, 2329 feet. 
 Cattle of the , celebrated (Jalloway breed are reared here. 
 Principal town, ICirkeudbright. 
 
 Kirk^dale, parish of Yorkshire. England, in the Vale 
 of Pickering, remarkable for a eave 245 feet long, discovered 
 in 1821 in cutting through the Oolitic limestone rock. A 
 great abundance of fossil bones of extinct species of ani- 
 mals was found there, and described by Dr. Buckland in 
 his /it/iffiu'ir DihiriajiUy as well as in all recent works on 
 palaeontology. The most remarkable were hyasnas, tigers, 
 eli'])hants, rhinoceroses, hippopotiimuses, cave-bears, and 
 horses, all of species not now representee! in England. (See 
 Cnve-Httutiuff, by W. B. Dawkins, 1874.) 
 
 Kirke, or Kertk fSir David), b. at Dieppe, France, in 
 1590, of English parentage: was engaged in business as a 
 wine-merchant in Bordeau.x and Cognac, but wmt to Eng- 
 land in consequence of the persecutions of the Huguenots, 
 and with his father and brothers became connected with 
 Sir William Alexander's American projects. Da\'id com- 
 manded in 1627 an expedition of three vessels under let- 
 ters of marfjue, with which he blockaded Quebec, and in 
 an engagement near Gasp6 (July 18. 1028) captured a 
 French squadron commanded by De Roqucmont sent Cor 
 the relief of Quebec. In 1029, Kirke and his brothers 
 asain sailed from England against Canada, compelled 
 Champlain to surrender Quebec in July, and also reduced 
 the colony of Cape Breton. Both these conquests, how- 
 ever, were restored to France in 1032. Kirke was knighted 
 in 1033, and with others obtained a grant of Newfound- 
 land, which he colonized, being governor of that island for 
 twenty years, until dispossessed by Cromwell, when he went 
 to England and recovered his property through CroniwelTs 
 son-in-law, Claypole. He returned to Newfoundland, and 
 d. at Ferryl.and in 1650. His Life was jiublished by a de- 
 scendant in 1871 (London). 
 
 Kirk'ersville, post-v. of Harrison tp.. Licking co.. 0., 
 2 miles from Kiikersville Station (Hutvillc P. O.), on the 
 Baltimore and Ohio and the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. 
 Louis R. Rs. Pop. 295. 
 
 Kirkes (William Srmioi'Sf), M. D., h. in England 
 about 1820; was physician and lecturer at St, Bartholo- 
 mew's Hospital in London; published in IS48, with Dr. 
 James Paget, a Ilandhofik of Ph'fsiolofftf, which became a 
 standard work upon that subject both in Enghiud an<l the 
 V . S. : and with Dr. William Baly, an appendix to Miiller's 
 Phijftiolofftf, entitled Recent Advaucen in the Pht/fiolotfif of 
 Motion. Later papers, on the Detachment of FibrinofiB 
 Deposits from the Interior of the Jfcart, constitute a rc- 
 ninrkablc contribution to pathological science. D. in Dec, 
 1804. 
 
 Kirkintil'lochf town of Scotland, in the county of 
 Duml)arton. It has cotton manufactures. Pop. 6342. 
 
 Kirk-Kilis'seh, town of European Turkey, in the 
 province of Room-Elee. contains se\'tM:il tine niot^qucs, pub- 
 lic baths, and extensive bazaars, but is generally ill built. 
 It is famous for its confectionery, and carries on an active 
 trade in butter and cheese. Poj). 10,000. 
 
 Kirk'Innd, tp. of Adams co., Ind. Pop. 508. 
 
 Kirklaiid« post-tp. of Oneida co., N. Y., on the Utica 
 and Rome division of the Midland R. R. It contains 
 iron-mines, stone-quarries, and several important villages, 
 among which are Clinton (which see). Kirkland (or Man- 
 cinvvtL-r), Franklin Iron-works, and Clark's Mills. P. 4912. 
 
 Kirkland (Carolina Matilda), h. in New York in 
 Jan., I8(il, was the daughter of Samuel Stansbury. a book- 
 seller. She married Prof. William Kirkland of Hamilton 
 College (1800-10), spent some years in Western New York 
 and Michigan, and afterwards in Nl-w York City, where 
 for time she very sueccssfuUy taught a school for a num- 
 ber of young ladies. Under the pseudonym of Mary Clavers 
 she published several works on Western life distinguished 
 for piquancy and originality, edited the Union Ma'jazine 
 (New York, 1817-49), assisted in the management of Sar- 
 tain'it Maffazine (1849-51 ), made two short visits to Europe 
 (1848 and 1850), and attained rare popularity and success as 
 a writer. D. Apr. 0, 18G4. Her principal works are — A New 
 Home, WhoH Follow? (1839), fore'^t Life (1842), Western 
 ClearinfjH (1840), Holidaijn Abroad (1849). The Eremug 
 lionh { 1 852), Pernonal }fenioirii offJeorffc Wa^hinr/ton ( 1 857). 
 
 Kirkland (John Thornton). D. D., LL.D.. h. at Little 
 Falls. N. Y.. in 1770; d. in Boston Apr. 20, 1840, son of 
 Samuel Kirkland, missionary to the Indians; Harvard 
 College 1780; Congregational church in Summer street. 
 Boston, 1794; president of Harvard College 1810-28. He
 
 KIRKLAND— KISKIMINITAS. 
 
 1565 
 
 published occasional pamphlets and a life of Fisher Ames 
 
 (1809). }Iis name id ideutifiud with Harvard College 08 
 one of its ablest uud most distinguished |(rrj;idfut>. equally 
 remarkable lor sagacity, kiuduess, and tnurgy. ilis ad- 
 ministration was cfTective thruugh thel'urceol his personal 
 qualities; he bequeathed nu 8yslem of rules or organized 
 methods to his successors, and upcuod nu avenues of future 
 progrcfs. but graced bis position and gave great distinction 
 to the college by his intellect and dignity. 
 
 0. B. Frothingham. 
 
 Kirkland(SAMDEL),b. at Norwich. Conn.. Dec. t, 1744; 
 graduated at Princeton in 17GJ. In 1760 he was ordained 
 a Congregatiunal minister. Ho lived much as a mission- 
 ary with the Six Nations, and was appointed in 1776 by 
 tho Congress of Massachusetts to jirocurc their favor or 
 neutrality. In this attempt he was but partially success- 
 ful. He was afterwards an army chaplain in the Hovolu- 
 tionary war. lie may be rejrardeii as the founder of Ham- 
 ilton College, since he established the academy from which 
 it sprang. In 1789 ho received from the government a 
 grant of land two miles square, now in the town of Kirk- 
 land, N. Y. D. at Clinton, N. Y., Feb. 2S, 1S08. (See his 
 Memoir, by Dr. S. K. Loilirop, his grandson, in Sparks's 
 Amer. ftiograpfn/f 2d series.) 
 
 Kirk'lin i Kirk's Cross-Roads P. 0.). a v. and tp. of 
 Clinton co., lud. Pop. of v. 141 ; of tp. I2Cr,. 
 
 Kirk'inansville, a v. of Todd co., Ky. Pop. 889. 
 
 Kirkpat'rick (Andrkw), b. at Mine Hrook, N. J., Feb. 
 17, 17j6; graduated at New Jersey College in 177j, and 
 began the study of theology, but soon devoted himself to 
 the law; was admitted to the bar in 178.'); practised with 
 distinction at Morristown, and afterwards at New Bruns- 
 wick ; became judge of the supremo court in 17'.>7, and was 
 chief -justice from ISO."! to 1824. His decisions are found 
 in Pennington's. Southard's, and Halsted's reports. He 
 married in 1792 a daughter of Col. , John BayarrI, Kirk- 
 jiatrick Place in New York City was namecl from him. H. 
 lit New Brunswick, N. J., Jan. 7, 18:U. (See Mtmoir, by 
 Gen. James (irant Wilson.) 
 
 Kirks'viUc, post-v., cap. of Adair co.. Mo., fi miles E. 
 <.f Chariton River. 6j miles \V. of Quincy, and 200 miles 
 X. W. of St. Louis; has 7 churches. 2 weekly newspapers, 
 2 banks, 4 hotels, a State normal school, a hub and spoke. 
 furniture, woollen, cheese, and plough factories. AM kinds 
 of business arc well repre.-onted. The county has splendid 
 farming-lands anrl an abundant supply of wood and coal. 
 Principal occupation, farming. Pop. 1 171. 
 
 S. M. PiCKI.KR, En. " JoiiRNAl-." 
 
 Kirk'ville, post-v. of Richland tp., Wapello co., la. 
 
 Pop. 2;{fi. 
 
 KirkvUle, post-v. of Onondaga co., N. Y. Pop. 150. 
 
 Kirk^uaH, capital of tho Orkney Islands, N. E. of tho 
 most nrirlhern point of Scotland, formerly an independent 
 kingdom. There is a fine cathedral of St, Magnus dating 
 from about 11.18, and close by the ruins called the King's, 
 the Karl's, and tho Bishop's palaces. In the latter, Haco, 
 king of Norway, died in 12(>:;. Kirkwall has steamer com- 
 munication with Leith, Abcnleen, Wick, and Lerwick, has 
 an annual fair of considerable celebrity, a museum, libraries 
 and grammar school, and cultivated society. The vessels 
 registered at tho port exceed 70,000 tons burden. Pop. 
 3J0O. 
 
 Kirk'u'oodf a villa near .Atlanta, On. 
 
 Kirkwood, post-r. of St. Louis co., Mo., on tho Pa- 
 cific R. R. of .Missouri. 
 
 Kirku'ood, post-v. and tp. of Broome eo., N. Y.. on the 
 E. bank of the Susquehanna, and on the T>elaware Lacka- 
 wanna and Western R. R. .Joseph Smith, the Mormon 
 prophet, was born here. Pop. 1 102. 
 
 Kirku'ood, tp. of Belmont eo.. 0. Pop. 1792. 
 
 Kirkwood (Daviki,), A. .M., LL.I>.. b. in Harford co., 
 M'l., S'pt. 27, isl ( ; was a mathematical instructor in York 
 CO., Pa.. 18;i8-4;i; principal of Lancaster (Pa.) high school 
 I81.'l-48: of Pottsville academy IS1S~J1 ; professor of math- 
 ematics 1861-54 in I)elawure College; its president 1854- 
 50; became in I85fi profi-ssor of mathematics in Iu<lian» 
 University; author of f'<»»i»7« nml .l/»7'*o*t ( 187^1), and of 
 important astronomical papers, which havo given hiui a 
 high reputation at homo and abroad. 
 
 Kirkwood (S\mitf.i. J.), h. in Harford co.. Md., Dec. 
 20, isl.'t; educated at WaHhingt<)n, I>. C. ; admitted to the 
 bar in Ohio in 18L1; was for four years prosecuting attorney 
 of Rirhland co.. and a member of the Stale eoiistltntional 
 convention of IS50; removed tti Iowa in 18.').^; was elected 
 to the Slate senate in 185ri n* a llepublican ; was governor 
 of Iowa 18fi0-fi:!, and was honorably dislinguishol as *mo 
 of the great *' war governors " for his efforts in maintaining 
 tho quota of Iowa troops in tho Held and providing for their 
 
 comfort and efficiency ; was chosen U. S. Senator (1S66-67) 
 to fill tho unexpired term of James Harlan, vacated by his 
 acceptance of the secretaryship of the interior ; in 1875 again 
 elected governor of Iowa; and in I870clccted U.S. Senator. 
 
 Kirsanov^ town of Russia, in tho government of 
 Tambov, on the Pursovka, carries on some manufactures 
 and rears a good breed of horses and fine-flecccd sheep. 
 Pop. 5063. 
 
 Kirsch'wasser [Ger. for "cherry-water"], often called 
 Kirsehf an alcoholic ii*ftieur prepared in Piurope from 
 cherries. The ripe fruit is first stoned and then fermented. 
 Afterwards the broken pits arc thrown into the masli, and 
 the whole is distilled. A fraudulent imitation is m:ide of 
 ordinary spirits flavored with clierry-laurel water. It is a 
 dangerous compound. (See Maraschino.) 
 
 Kirt'land, post-tp. of Lake co., 0. Pop. 1029. 
 
 Kirtlnnd (Jakkh Potteii}, M. D., LL.D., b. Nov. 10, 
 17y-'', at Wallingfoid. Conn.; studied medicine 1812-15 at 
 the medical schools of Vale and Pennsylvania universities j 
 began practising at WuUiugford ; removed in 1818 to Po- 
 land, 0.; was appointed professor of the Ohio Medical Col- 
 lege at Cincinnati in lS;^,7,of the Willouj:hby ^ledical School 
 in ISU, and of the Western Reserve College in Cleveland 
 in 184:i, which latter chair he filled to 18fi4. His scientific 
 researches and experiments have principally been engaged 
 in the sexual relations of the naiads, in the rearing of bees, 
 and in the cultivation of fruit trees on his residence at East 
 Rockport, 0. D. at E. Rockport, 0., Uec. 10, 1877. 
 
 Kir'waii (RirnAnn"), b, in Oalway co., Ireland, abont 
 the middle of the eighteenth century ; was educated at 
 Trinity College, Dublin, and at the Jesuit college at St. 
 Omer in France: settled near London in 1779; devoted 
 himself to chemistry and geology, and read valuable pa- 
 pers before the Royal Society, for which he received the 
 Copley medal in 1782. He returned to Ireland in 17^'.', 
 and became president of the Royal Irish Academy. Among 
 his numerous works were Ah Est»ni/ tm P/iiotfihttm and the 
 Compoiifion ttf Acids, Ktrmeiits of Miiuvdltiijy, and an Es- 
 satf on the Analysis of Mineral Wafers. J), at Dublin in 
 1812. 
 
 KisTaludyf the name of two brothers who in the be- 
 ginning of this century exercised great intluence on tho 
 rising Hungarian literature. Jhey were both educated at 
 the gymnasium of Raab. entered the Austrian army, and 
 made campaigns in Italy and Germany, but retired from 
 tho military service into jirivatc life and engaged in lit- 
 erary pursuits. The elder, S.\Nnon, was b. at Siimcg, the 
 family estate, Sept. 22, 1772, and d. there Oct. 28, 1811. 
 His poem in twenty songs, Him/y's Love, somewhat senti- 
 mental in its tone, but of an elegant form, excited general 
 enthusiasm: his ballads also made a great impression: his 
 tragedies were Icps successful. The younger brother, Ka- 
 Roi.v, was b. at Tete Feb. fi, 1788. and d. at Pesth Nov. 21, 
 IB.'.O. He wrote dramas, took his subjects from national 
 life, treated them with great skill for theatrical effect, an<l 
 became the favorite of his countrymen on account of his 
 sounil and pleasant humor. 
 
 Kishenev% or Ki?«hinof, cajiital of tho province of 
 Bessarabia, on the Bnik.an atliuent of tho Dniester, and is 
 ]»icturesqucly situated on three bills, between which tho 
 ri\'er winds around, crossed by several bridges. The rail- 
 way to Odessa has been in operation for several years, and 
 in 1S74 that to Jnssy was completetl; thus new channels 
 havo been opened up to tho trade of this rapidly growing 
 city. It is the seat of the civil and eceksiaslical authori- 
 ties of Bessarabia, and has about 20 ehurehes. a synagogue, 
 several nutgnilieent Turkish baths, a gymimsiuin, a semi- 
 nary, gooil schools, and several theatres. It has largo 
 markets, especially for caltle anti corn. The inhabitants 
 arc much engaged in the cultivation of fruit and tobacco. 
 Plums are exported in immense quantities. It is also tho 
 centre of a very considerabh- trade in tallow, wool, wheat, 
 hides, etc.. carried hence (<» Odessa and .lassy. It existed 
 as a small place in the ninth century, wiis nearly destroyed 
 in the seventeenth bv the Tartars, and was transferred in 
 1812 from Moldavia "to Russia. Pop. 120.000. 
 
 At ci ST Niemann. 
 
 Kinli^oiif a small river of Central Palestine, rises near 
 Mount Tabor, and flows N.W. into the Mediterranean, drain- 
 ing tho plain of Esdraelon and the mountains of Carmel and 
 Sanuiria. It is famous in biblical hii^tory as anor<ling tho 
 Bcenes of the defeat of Sisera by Deborah and Ihirak. and 
 of (he slaughter <d' the priests of Haat by Elijah. Some 
 portion of the Kishon was anciently called the " waters of 
 Sleciddo :" it is now known as the Xnfir->{ MnK-ntln. 
 
 KiHkimin'itaN* po^t-v. and tp. of Amifirong co.. Pa., 
 on the Kiskiminilas River, on the Western division of tho 
 Pennsylvania Canal, and on the Western Pennsylvania 
 R. R. (North-west Station). Pop. 1728.
 
 1566 
 
 KIS-KOROS— KITTRELL'S SPRINGS. 
 
 Kis-Kdr6s% town of llungarjr, celebrated for its fine 
 red wine. Pop. 6413. 
 
 Kiss (Arr.rsT), h. nt Pless, in Upper Pilesia, Oct. 11, 
 
 1S02; began bis education in tbe royal iron-foundries at 
 Gleiwitz; pursued bis studies at the academy of Btrlin, 
 under Ranch, and was first known by bas-reliefs for churches 
 and other pubiio buildings, and by groups of nymphs, tri- 
 ton?, and similar decorations for a fuuntain at Charlotten- 
 hof, designed by Pchinkel. The pUifter model of his fa- 
 mous group. 7'he Atiiazon and the l*nuthci\ was exhibited in 
 is;;0. and created such enthusiasm that a public subscrip- 
 tion was opened, even on Sundays and in churches, to pay 
 the cost of casting it in bronze. In 1815 this was placed 
 in the Museum of IJerlin. The same artist subsequently 
 produced a bronze equestrian statue of Frederick the Great 
 for the city of Brcslnu, two statues, one colossal in size, of 
 Frederick William III., .SV. Michael and the Diafjnny a gift 
 to Frederick William IV., a copy of which in zinc is at 
 Carlsvuhe; an equestrian statue of St. Geonjej of colossal 
 size, which was sent to the Paris Exposition in 1855. The 
 work of Kiss is marked by grandeur and energy. D. Mar. 
 2f, 1SG5. He was a member of the Royal Academy of Arts 
 at Berlin. 0. B. Frothingham. 
 
 Kis'singen, town of Bavaria, on the Saale, has three 
 mineral springs, from which 500,000 bottles of water are an- 
 nually exported. In summer the place is much frequented, 
 as the water is not only drunk, but also used for bathing. 
 
 Kissingen, The Battle of, took place July 10.1866, 
 between the Prussians and the Bavarians. The latter held 
 the Franconian Saale occupied from Waldaschach to Ham- 
 melburg, in order to prevent the Prussian army from cross- 
 ing the river. Gen. Vogel von Falckenstein, the Prussian 
 commander-in-chief, ordered the Goeben division, with the 
 Manteuffel division as reserve, to advance on the left wing 
 towards Kissingen, and the Beyer division on the right 
 wing towards Hammelburg. The Bavarians defended the 
 defiles at Kissingen very obstinately, yet after a contest of 
 two and a half hours the Prussian artillery succeeded in 
 silencing the Bavarian cannons at Kissingen. At 4 p. m. 
 the town was stormed by the Prussians, and an attack 
 which the Bavarians made with a fresh force at 7 p. m. was 
 repellcil. At the other points. Hammelburg and Walda- 
 schach, the Prussians were also victorious, and crossed the 
 river. Ai'gust Niemann. 
 
 Kist'nah, or Krishna, one of the largest rivers of Hin- 
 dostan, rises in the Western Ghauts, about -10 miles from the 
 Malabar coast, flows S. E. across the whole breadth of the 
 peninsula of Deccan fur 800 miles, and enters the Bay of 
 Ben^jal near Masiilipatam. Precious stones are found in 
 some portions of its course. 
 
 Kit Car'son, post-v,, cap. of Greenwood co., Col., on 
 the Kansas Pacilic R. U. Pop. 473. 
 
 Kit'chel (Haiivkv Dknison), D. D., !>. at Whitehall. 
 N. Y., Feb. ;i, 1812; graduated at Middlebury College. Vt., 
 1S35: studied theobigy at New Haven; held Congrega- 
 tional pastorates at Thomaston. Conn., ls;:{y-4H; at De- 
 troit, Mich., 1818-04 ; pastor of Plymouth church, Chicago, 
 111.. 1864-06; became president of Aliddlebury College 1866, 
 and resigned that post in 1875. 
 
 Kitchen-ffardcn. See HouTicrLTunE and tho names 
 of the principal garden-vegetables. 
 
 Kit'chen-mid'clcns are largo mounds consisting of 
 oyster-shells, bones, and other refuse. They are found 
 along tho coasts of Denmark, anil were formed in pre-his- 
 tori* times in places where the pagan inhabitants assembled 
 to celebrate their annual religious festivals. Their cha- 
 racter was not fully understood until tho midiUe of this 
 century, but their thorough exploratir)n by Worsaae and 
 Steenstrup has proved of great interest to science, as they 
 contain numerous specimens of weapons antl utensils, and 
 also in various other ways give illustrations of tho life 
 which at that time was led in these regions. 
 
 Kite [Welsh cT/'/J, a toy employed for ages and in 
 many countries by boys as a plaything, and which has also 
 had its scientific uses. Thus, Franklin and others have 
 obtained the electric spark from tho clouds l>y this danger- 
 ous means. In engineering, the kite has been employed 
 to carry lines across deep chasms, and in removing the pas- 
 sengers of strancled ships the kite has sometimes been suc- 
 cessfully employed. The kite is a light frame of wood 
 covered with strong paper, and held by a string so attached 
 to it that it shall bo acted upon by tho wind much like a 
 ship's sail when sailing close to the wind. A tail is usual- 
 ly, but not always, added, which gives the kite steadiness 
 in sudden flaws of winil. The Chinese and Japanese con- 
 struct kites in the form of owls, bats, dragons, etc. These 
 have no tail, but fly low, and well before the wind. 
 
 Kite, tho .IftVcrw reffolfSf a common bird of prey in Eu- 
 rope, distinguished by the beauty and ease of its rapid 
 
 flight and the deep forking of its tail. The name is ox- 
 tended to numerous other species of the same and of closely- 
 allied genera. The V. S. have, among others, the Missis- 
 sippi kite (Ictiiiin MlHsisBippicnsis) and tho black kite 
 {Jinsfrorhftmiis sociabitis). 
 
 Kit-Kat (or Kit-Cat) Club, a society consisting of 
 about fifty gentlemen of ability and rank interested in pro- 
 moting the Protestant succession in the House of Hanover. 
 It was instituted in 170X.and took its name from Christopher 
 Kat. a pastry-cook who lived near the tavern where they met 
 in King street, Westminster, and supplied the members with 
 pics. The association lasted about twenty years. Sir 
 Godfrey Kneller painted the portraits of the members, 4.'{ 
 in number, among whom were Addison, Steele, Walpole, 
 Marlborough, and himself, three-quarters length, whence 
 the term "kit-kat portraits." The memoirs uf the club, 
 illustrated by engravings from Knellers pictures, were 
 published in 1821. 0. B. Fkoti!INgham. 
 
 Kit'sap, county of Washington Ter., consisting of a 
 peninsula between Hood's Canal and Paget Sound, with 
 some islands in the sound. It is heavily timbered, and has 
 good advantages for commerce and the fisheries. Area, 
 about 500 square miles. Lumbering is the chief pursuit. 
 Cap. Port Madison. Pop. 866. 
 
 Kittan'nin^, tp. of Armstrong co.. Pa. Pop. 1504. 
 
 Kittanniiig,post-b.of Valley t p., cap. of Armstrong CO., 
 Pa., on the Allegheny River and Allegheny Valley R. R., 4 t 
 miles N. of Pittsburg and :^>5 miles from Parker City. It 
 has 2 national banks, ."J weekly newspapers, 1 rolling-mill. 
 1 woollen-mill, several oil-refineries, and various other 
 manufactories. It has a college and other educational insti- 
 tutions. Pop. 1889. M. B. Oswald, Ed. " Frek Press." 
 
 Kittatiu'uy^ or Blue Mountain^ a chain which 
 takes its rise near ShawangunU. I'lster co., X. Y.. passes 
 S. W'. through a corner of New .Jersey, crosses the Dela- 
 ware at the Water Gap, trends W. S. W. through Pennsyl- 
 vania, ci'osscs the Susquehanna a few miles above Harris- 
 burg, and the Potomac near Berkeley Springs, and con- 
 tinues with 2;radually lessening altitude through Virginia, 
 North Carolina, and Tennessee into Alabama, thus having 
 a total length of more than 800 miles. In average elevation 
 and bulk the Blue Mountain range exceeds the iilue Ridge, 
 which has acquired greater prnniinence on maps on account 
 of its greater definiteness. springing from a narrow base, 
 and the greater height of some of its peaks. The average 
 elevation of the Blue Mountain is from 800 to 2500 feet. 
 
 Kit'tery, post-tp. of York co., Me., the south-western- 
 most tp. in the State. It is on the Piscataquis Kiver, op- 
 posite Portsmouth. N. II.. with which it is connected by 
 ft bridge, and is on the Portsmouth, Saeo and Portland 
 H. R..50 miles S. W. of Portland. The Portsmouth navy- 
 yard is on Continental Island in this township. Kittery 
 has 5 churches. It was settled in 162:i, and was the birth- 
 place of Sir AVilliam Pepperell. Kittery Point is an im- 
 portant post-village in this township. Pop. of tp. 3333. 
 
 Kit'tiwake, a popular name for sea-gulls of the genus 
 litHSd. Several species are known. They are rather jiretty 
 birds, and are named from their cry, which resembles their 
 name, somewhat slowly pronounced. 
 
 Kit'to (Jons), D. D., b. at Plymouth, Eng., Nov. 4, 
 1804; lived for years in great poverty, and when eleven 
 years old totally lost his hearing in consequence of an ac- 
 cidental injury ; was sent to the workhouse and learned 
 the shoemaker's trade, hut devoted all his time to books; 
 published in iSL'j K.'maf/s and !.ith rs, which attracted much 
 attention ; learned the printer's art in the Islington College; 
 resided at Malta 1827-20, and at Bagdad : travelled exten- 
 ' sively in the East 1820-33; published the Pi'eton'af Bible 
 (1S38), Pictorial IliHtonj of Pafcitiiic (1830-40), another 
 Ifitttnnf of Palestine (1843). Tfic Lost .9cH«f« (autobiograph- 
 ical. 1845); edited and largely wrote the Ci/rloptfdift of 
 Biblical Literature (1845 ««•«/.); founded and edited the 
 Journal of Saered Literature (1848-53). and nmny other 
 works. of which tho mostpopular was Oai/if liible Hhmtra- 
 ^•oijj<i(8vol9., 1849-53). Kitio received the degree of D. D. 
 from Gicssen. D. at Cnnnstadt, Germany, Nov. 25, 3854. 
 
 Kit'tredcrc (Thomas), M. D., b. at Andover. Mass., in 
 July. 1746. lie came of a family distinguished for the 
 eminence of manv of its members in the medical profes- 
 sion. He studied "at Byfield Academy under Samuel Moody 
 (1725-95), and at Newburyport with Dr. Sawyer: was sur- 
 geon of Col. Frve's regiment at Bunker Hill : received his 
 degree from Harvard Vniversity in 1811. He held many 
 important public trusts. His practice at Andover began 
 in 1768. D. at Andover in Oct., 1818. 
 
 Kit'trell's, post-tp. of Granville co., N. C, on the Ra- 
 leigh and Gaston U. R. Pop. 1820. 
 
 KittrelPs Springs, a place of valetudinary resort in
 
 KIU-SIU— KLAPROTII, VON. 
 
 1567 
 
 Qranvillo co., N. C, half a mile from Henderson, on 
 the Raleigh and (tiiston K. R. Here are saline chalybeate 
 water?, useful iu a cimsidenible range of diseaiies. 
 
 Kia'<*Siu% Kioo-Sioo, or Xi'mo, the i^outhcrn- 
 most of (ho three priueipul islands of Japiin, \s situated 
 in the Pacific, between lat. 31° and 3t° N., and between 
 Ion. 129° and \?>i° E., antl is separated front Corea by the 
 Strait of Torea, and from the island of Nij>hi)n by the 
 Strait of Sikokf. Nagasaki is situated on this island; 
 otherwise it i:* entirely unknown to foreigners. 
 
 Kiu'i-Kiwi. See Apteuvx. 
 
 Kiz'il-Ir'mak [Turkish, "red river'*], the modern 
 name of the Haly:*, the principal river of Asia Minor, ris- 
 injf nearly in the K. of the peninsula, and tlowing circuit- 
 ously about jOO niilos to the Black Sea, near the town of 
 Sinopo. It forms the boundary between the Turkish pasha- 
 iics of Anatolia and Seovaa. Its principal aflluent ia the 
 Kara-Soo or Kastamoonoo River, the Mc/ns of Strabo. 
 
 Kizliar% town of Asiatic Russia, in the government 
 of Stavropol, on the Terek. Vines are cultivated, and 
 silkworms reared hero with great care and considerable 
 Bucces:?. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Klad'no, town of Bohemia, 1.1 miles X. AV. of Prague, 
 has some iron-works and important coal and iron mines ia 
 the neighborhood. Pop. jJUO. 
 
 Kla'genfiirth, town of Austria, the capital of Tarin- 
 thia, on the (llan. It is fortified, has largo nianulnctures 
 of white lead, an important transit-trade, and good edu- 
 cational institutions. Pop. l.'>,478. 
 
 Klam'ath) county of X. W. California. Area, about 
 2000 square miles. It is boumled on the W. by tho Pacific 
 O'-'f-vxn. Its surface is generally rugged, its ciiniato much 
 cor>ler than that of tho State at large. Much of the surfaco 
 has a heavy growth of redwood and other timber. Gold is 
 obtained quite extensively. Cap. Orleans. Pop. 1080. 
 The county is now (1S77) abolished. 
 
 Klamath, tp. of Klamath co., Cal. Pop. 278. 
 
 Klamath, tp. of Siskiyou co., Cal. Pop. R4. 
 
 Klamath Kivcr rises in .Taekson co.. Or., traverses 
 the Klamath Lake, passes S. AV. into California, and after 
 Joining tho Trinity River in Klamath co., turns N. W., 
 and finally enters tho Pacific Ocean. It is a rapid stream, 
 and traverses a rocky and well-timbered region; itisnavi- 
 galilc for small steamers some 30 miles. 
 
 Klam'aths, llamati, or Clamcts, called by thcm- 
 Belvejf Lutliami, a tribe of Indians living near the lakes 
 of tho same nariie and on the Klamath and Koguo rivers 
 in Southern Orc^^on an<l Xorthcrn California. They be- 
 long to the tribal group called Northern Californian, some- 
 times termcil the Klamath family, which occupies portions 
 of tho region exicnding from Rogue River, Or., on the N. 
 to tho parallel of 10° on tho S., an<l from the \V. bonnrlary 
 of Nevada to the Pacific, and comprise-t. busidt^s tho Klam- 
 alhs proper, tho Modocs, Shastan, Pitt River Indians, Eu- 
 roes, CahrocH. Iloopahs, Woeyots, Wallies. Tolcwahs, and 
 Tototins or Rogue River Indians, besides several small 
 ban Is having no tlislinctivo names. Those tribes aro in- 
 cluded in tho ordinary name of "Digger Indians," given 
 AS a term of contempt to all the aborigines of Northern 
 nnd Middle California, Nevada, Utah, and Southern Ore- 
 gon ; but the Klamath t^roup of tribes is unquestionably 
 superior to tho others thus i-otifouruli'd with them. They 
 are tall, muscular, and wi'll-made, have regular features, 
 tho face largo and oval, and tho cheek-bones slightly 
 prominent; tho women are much shorter than tho men, 
 out are not unfrequently quite handsomo. Tattooing is 
 practised by both sexes to a liniitetl extent; they nro fond 
 of nose and ear rings, and paint th'-ir bodies. They build 
 conical and sometimes sfpiaro houses of slono and wood, 
 piirtly sunken in the ground : have canoes, anil aro expert 
 ii.'^liers, but indilTerent hunters, being fcmder of using 
 snares and trap-* than weapons, with whi<rh they am ill 
 providc'l. Bt'rries and roots form a large portion of their 
 food. The women aro ingenious in b;isket-making and 
 plaiting grass into hats, hammocks, an<l mats. They aro 
 fond of traflic, usinj; shell-money; are nut addicted to war, 
 hut when attacked defend themselves desperately, as was 
 instanced in tho *' .Modoe war" of 1S7^. Polygamy is 
 common, and morality very low, wives being bought and 
 gold. Tho chiefs havo little more than a nominal author- 
 ity. Tho passion for wealth nnd for paniinj; is universal ; 
 Ihoy are superstitious, and their relii;i<iri is a degrading 
 fotichism. Flic dead are sometimes burned, but m(»re com- 
 monly buried. In IS.Sl tho Klamaths proper numhered 18 
 Villatjes and about .'!0(iO Boids : they have sinep rapidly de- 
 clined, partly throuj^h eonllicts with whites, but ehiofly 
 thr'iuijh tho vices contraetnl lri»m contact with "civiliza- 
 tion." By a treaty made in IStU they ceded to the V. S. 
 
 all their lands except a reservation on the Klamath lakes 
 of 1200 square miles, where they are gradually adapting 
 themselves to the pursuits of agriculture, and es|)ecially 
 devoting themselves to lumbering. In 1S7;J they num- 
 bered only 672, (For copious information upon the Klani- 
 athe and the allied tribes sec il. II. Bancroft's Acttire Hnccs 
 of the Pacific StutcH (1874), vol. i., ch. iv., where all the 
 authorities are indicated.) Porter C. Bi.iss. 
 
 Klap'ka ((Jyorav), b. at TcmesviSr. Hungary, Apr. 7, 
 1820; was educated in the artillery school at Vienna, be- 
 came an oflicer in the emperor's life-guanls. and in I.S47 
 obtained u command in a border rcginu-nt. AVheu Hungary 
 revolted in 1S4S, young Klapka immediately espoused the 
 cause of his insurgent country, and was made chief of staff 
 of (ten. Kis, and in 1849 commander of an army corps. 
 He led bis troops with talent and energy in the battles of 
 Kapolna, Komorn, etc., nnd was made minister of war by 
 Kossuth. After the defeats exiicrienced by the Hungarians, 
 Klapka shut himself up in the fortress of Komorn, where 
 he heroically repulsed during several weeks the desperate 
 attacks led by the famous Austrian general, Haynan. He 
 surrendered only after having obtained for his army and 
 himself the " honors of war." He sjient many years in 
 exile in (iermany, England, France, and Turkey, and en- 
 tering the (tcrman service attempted, Ihougli unsuccessfully, 
 to raise Hun^rary against Austria in iS.'j'.) and 1800. Klap- 
 ka was naturalized as a Swiss citizen, and elected a mem- 
 ber of tho federal council in 18;j0, In 1807, on the reor- 
 ganization of (he Austro-Hungarian empire, he returned 
 to his native country, and was employed in the army. In 
 1873 he was in the military service of 1'urkey, and visited 
 Kgypt in 1S74. He wrote Memoim nf thf War of Jndrpen- 
 f/ence iu Uttinjttrii (1850), The Xafioiiftf War in Hmufary 
 and TrauHt/h-ania (1851), and a work on 'J'hc War in the 
 East (18j0). Fei.IX AUCAIGNK. 
 
 Klap'roth (Maiitin' nEiNRini). b. at Wcmigerode. Ger- 
 many, Dee. I, 17 lu; was employed for seven years in an 
 npothecary shop at Quedlinburg, and afterwards at Han- 
 over and Berlin, at which latter ]>laees he made a methodi- 
 cal study of chemistry, and puldished numerous analyse:; 
 of great value, whieh obtained Uiv him jirofrssorships of 
 chcnii.stry at the Berlin Pehool of Artillery (1787) and 
 university (17'^9). He was made a member of the French 
 Institute, of tho council of public health, and of many 
 scientific bodies. Among his discoveries were the metals 
 zirconium, titimiuni, and uranium, thr* 8ul]ihate of stron- 
 tium, and the- inolybdate of lead, lie dirl nuieli to advance 
 tho classification of minerals by chemical iinalysis; was an 
 early defender and popularizer of the di.<eoveries of La- 
 voisier. His numerous writings were chiefly published as 
 papers in the hcukuvhyifUn of the Berlin Academy, the 
 analyses alone constituting five v(»!umes of a collecttd 
 scries published from 17'.*.'i to IS 10. Ho also edited a 
 Chemical Dictimiart/ (5 vols., 1^07-10) and a Chemical 
 Matnial. D. at Berlin Jan. 1, 1817. 
 
 Klnproth, von fllEiNRini Jiii.irs), son of the cele- 
 brated elienii>t. b. at Berlin, Prussia, Oct. 1 1, 17^:i ; apjdied 
 liimsell" by i-tcalth when ftuirleen years of age to the study 
 of Chinese, and manifested such wonderful talent Un lan- 
 guages that he was allowed tn devote liimself to philology 
 instead of applied eeience, as infendeil by his father. Ho 
 studied at the universities of Halle and Dresden, and find- 
 ing in the I>re«den library a fine eolleeticui (d' Oriental MSS.. 
 be establislie<I in ISOL* (he AHi(itiMchrn Mtifjaziu, printed at 
 AVeimar, for making known the results of his researches. 
 These nehievements of a boy of nineteen years naturally 
 attracted nttenlion in Oermnny nnd Russia, and in Istll 
 tho government of the latter country appointed Khiproth 
 interpreter to an einba;;sy already on iln way to China, 
 Ho set out alone, overtook the embassy in Siberia, and ac- 
 companied it into Mongolia (.Inn., 1800), but tho refusal 
 of the Chinese government to receive a Russian envoy pro- 
 vented his penetruting into China proper. Returning to 
 Furope by a difTi-reiit route, be aequired a knowledge of 
 tho gi-ography of Central Ania.auil of the langunses of tho 
 inhabitants, whii^h he turned to good account. In 1807 he 
 was sent to explore the Caueiisus, and spent a year in I hut 
 region, after which he was appoinled professoi- at the Uni- 
 versity of W'ilna. He wa^ made a member of fbe I{ussian 
 Academy, liad a pension ami other honors equivalent to a 
 grant of nobility, but diflieulties thrown in the way of tlio 
 publication of hif researches Iccl tn a rupture, and when bo 
 left Russia in IS12 his titles and honors were revoked. Ho 
 then |»ulilished at Halle his Triiv^h in CanraMnn ami (t'cor- 
 l/tn (isl2-Ml. at W'eimnr his iirinjraphirn.Ilintorival Jh- 
 Mrriptinn /;/* Eantcru CaHcniatn (IS14), and at Berlin his 
 Ifmrriplion nf the llnnnian /*roviticrM hrtirren the (\i»pian 
 am/ lilavh Sean ( 1 8 1 -( ). He cnneeived a great admiration 
 for Niipideon precisely at the time when tho fortunes of 
 that monarch were most rapidly declining; visited him at
 
 1568 
 
 KLATTAU-KLOPSTOCK. 
 
 the island of Elba, and was received with honor. On the 
 final establishment of the Bourbons in France, Klaproth 
 settled in Paris, obtaining through the inlluonce ol Hum- 
 boldt a u..ininal professorship at Berlin wilh a handsome 
 salary He spent the remainder of his life in the French 
 capital, engaged in the production of a scries of works 
 upon Asia, especially Central Asia and China. Among 
 these were /«.V, /•„///;/'""« (l.S2:V2'J), with a linguistic at- 
 las • T.,hlc,w^ hhlvrhinrs ,le VAsie (1824), treatises on the 
 Chinese, Corean, Mantchoo, andother Asiatic languages, ana 
 
 verv numerous papers in the transactions of learned socie- 
 ties. He left in MS. a geographical and historical work 
 on the Chinese empire, and a Xtw .Milhr,<ltili-s.»rSi/ele- 
 nmllc CtasH'ficilloH of AU Known L,,,,,,,;,,,,:- >c,lh U,.»b- 
 «;„,■.<•». The geographical labors of Klaproth in Central 
 , Asia have been characterized as fraudulenton a colossal scale 
 by Sir Henry Rawlinson (1872). 1). at Pans Aug. 20, lb..3. 
 '^'Klat'taii, town of Bohemia. 68 miles X. W. of Prague. 
 It has considerable nianufaetuies of leather. Pop. 73hL. 
 
 Klail'scnburg [Hun. AV,?o«.v1r], the capital of Tran- 
 sylvania, formerly a separate principality nf the Austrian 
 empire, now unit'ed to Hungary, situated 225 miles S. E. 
 of Pcsth Pop. 2ii,SS2. It has a university established in 
 187" a Unitarian college, a fortified castle, manufactories 
 of porcelain, and a considerable trade. The inhabitants 
 are chiefly Magyars. 
 
 lil^bcr (.Teas Baptiste), b. at Straaljoiitg. in 1755. 
 Son of a stonemason, he was one of the truest and best 
 representatives of that generation of Frenchmen who 
 started from the then so-called low ranks of society, and 
 demonstrated, through their splendid actions and noble 
 conduct, the necessity of the coming of the Revolution, 
 which erased for ever discrimination between classes. Kle- 
 ber's military and warlike character caused him to give up 
 his first calling as an architect, and to enlist in the military 
 service of Austria. He was soon tired of that mercenary 
 work, and returned to France, where he was inspector of 
 buildings at Belfurt, when in 1792 he volunteered to serve 
 as a private in the republican armies of France, where he 
 rapidly rose to the highest rank. After the glorious siege 
 of Mayencc. Kleber was sent to fight against the royalists 
 of Vendije, then to the armies of Sambre-et-JMenso and of 
 the Rhine, with which ho crossed the Rhine and won the 
 two battles of Allenkirchcn and Fricilberg in 179 J. As he 
 was strong reiiublican, the Directory did not want to em- 
 ploy him : but Napoleon gave him a command in the ex- 
 pedition to Egypt, and left him there as gcneral-in-ehief. 
 After the departure of Napoleon, Klf-ber vanquished the 
 Turks at Heliopolis; ISOtl again subdue.l Egypt, which 
 had revolted, and was murdered at Cairo, June, ISOO, by a 
 fanatical Moslem. In .Strasbourg there is a square called 
 " Place Kieber," adorned with a statue of the great Stras- 
 bourgcois republican general. Felix Aucaigse. 
 
 lirccne'-Boc [Dutch for "little buck"], the Ceplinlo- 
 «„« ,,i/./mir<i,one of the smallest of the antelope group, an 
 active' little animal of South Africa. It is one foot high at 
 the shoulders, and is of a dark slate-color. 
 
 Klein (Joiians Aram), b. in Nuremberg Mar. 24, 1792; 
 d. .May, 1875. He studied at the art academy in Vienna, 
 ami after travelling in Hungary, returned and began work 
 in his native city in ISl J : in 1819 was sent by King I.ouis 
 of Bavaria to Italy ; was there two years, and afterwards 
 made Nuremberg his home. Klein was chiefly famous as 
 a painter of baltlepieccs, but excelled also in portraiture. 
 He was, besides, an engraver of ability, and reproduced 
 many of his own and other artists' works. 
 
 lilc-ist, von (Heinhich), b. at Frankfort-on-the-Odcr 
 Oct. 10. 1771). He never succeeded in giving his life a 
 fixed and practical aim. The military service he left in 
 order to study philosophy and mathematics, and these 
 studies he lett'in order to accept a position in the I'russian 
 civil service. This he gave np in ISOC, and determined to 
 devote himself exclusively to literature, but more than 
 once he abandoned literature too with disgust. The result 
 of a life thus scattered was despair, and the state of degra- 
 dation in which Napoleon kept Germany, and the personal 
 disappointments and calamities which befel Kleist troin 
 this source, added to his misery. It was of no use that 
 moments of the most sublime enthusiasm alternated with 
 his despair. He grew tired of life, and Nov. 21, ISU. he 
 «l»at hiuiself at Waiisce, near Potsdam, having shot first his 
 frienXaccofding to a givcti promise, Henriette Vogel, the 
 wife of a rich merchant, a spirited and highly gifted woman, 
 but sick in mind like her lover. In 1S26, Ticek published 
 a collected edition of his works in .•! vols. His dramas. Vie 
 Famille S<-hn<ffriiHl<-:u (180;i), Amphilriiwi (1S07), Her zfr- 
 brochcne Kruij (ISll), Kiitchen roll Htilhroim (1810), Die 
 llermanntiichlnchi, and Der I'rinz \;>ii Homhurtj, belong now 
 to the standard pieces of every stage in Germany ; and his 
 
 novels, among which Muhnel Kohlkuaa occupies the first 
 place, have taken rank beside Goethe's and above Ticck's. 
 It is now generally acknowledged that Kleist was one of 
 the richest and most original poetical geniuses which the 
 German people has produced. Other poets have depicted 
 greater characters, but in the life and fulness of the de- 
 lineation none has ever surpassed him, and the sickliness 
 of his s])irit is not so very conspicuous in his works. After 
 his death he became the idol of the romantic school, not 
 exactly on account of the diseased state of his mind, but 
 on account of his absolute contempt for real life. 
 
 Ci.EMEXS PeTEHSES. 
 
 Klemm (FniEnnicn Gistav), b. at Chemnitz Nov. 12, 
 1802 : studied history in I.eipsic, Jena, and Dresden ; held 
 difl'crent positions at the library of Dresden 1S"1-C3, and 
 d. Aug. 2.i. 18fi7. His principal writings arc Allr/emeine 
 CnllurgrKchichle dvr Mclschheit (10 vols., 1843-52), Allje- 
 meine Cnlliinoiaaemchaft (2 Tols., 1854), and .Die Fraiien (6 
 vols., 1854-58). 
 
 Klen'zc, von (Leo), b. at Hildesheim Feb. 29, 1784; 
 studied at Brunswick, Berlin, and Paris; travelled through 
 Italy, and settled in 1S15 at Jliinich, where ho became 
 architect to the court. He built the whole nioilern Mii- 
 nich— the WaUialla, Pinakothek. Glyptothek, Odeon, Mu- 
 seum, roval palace, post-office, etc., and a great number 
 of private palaces and houses. Also in St. Petersburg, 
 whither he was invited in 1S39. he built a great number of 
 buildings, all of which are distinguished by something 
 magniUeent and picturesque; but there is nothing original 
 in them. Of his writings, Aphnrtstinche Bemerkuugen 
 (1838) is an interesting book. D. Jan. 27, 1864. 
 
 Kleptomania. See Issaxitv, by AV. A. Hammond, 
 M. I). 
 
 Klias'ma, a river of Russia, rises in the government 
 of Moscow, flows through those of Vladilneer and Nizhnee- 
 Novgorod. and joins the Oka after a course of 327 miles. 
 It is navigable for about 150 miles, and. as it runs through 
 the most llensely peopled and industrially developed dis- 
 tricts of the country, is of great conimereial consequence. 
 
 Klike'tats, a tribe of Indians living in 'Washington 
 Territory, in the region N. of the Dalles, between the Cas- 
 cade Range and the Columbia River. They belong to the 
 Sahaptin family of the Columbian group, and arc there- 
 fore akin to the Nez Perces and Walla Wallas, while they 
 seem to be almost identical with the Yakimas, from whom, 
 apparently, thev are distinguished only by geographical lo- 
 cation. They were formerly quite migr,atoryin theirhabits 
 of life, but their most permanent aboile was in the valleys 
 between Mounts St. Helen and Adams. W. and S. of the 
 Yakimas. The name KlikeUtt means " robber," and was 
 gained by their encroachments upon neighboring tribes, 
 they having for many years overrun the Willamette Valley, 
 until in 1855 they were curbed by forces of the V. S. army. 
 They have since been consolidated with the Y'akimas, and 
 placed np<m the reservation near Fort Simcoe, E. of the 
 Coast Range, where they have made considerable progress 
 in civilization. They arc divided into five bands, and 
 number about 2000. (See Bancroft's Xatiie Ituat uf the 
 Pacijic Slntr«, vol. i.) 
 
 Kliki'tat, county in S. Washington Territory. Area, 
 about 5000 square miles. It lies E. of the Cascade Moun- 
 tains, and is bounded on the E. and S. by the Columbia 
 River. It is generally a good open grazing country. It 
 includes the Klikitat Prairie. Cap. Rockland. Pop. 329. 
 Kling'er, von (KmEnnirn Maximilian), b. at Frank- 
 fort in 1753, anil educated at the I'niversity of Gicsscn; 
 wrote dramas for the Sevier band of stridling actors; took 
 part as a volunteer in the Bavarian war of succession ; went 
 to St. Petersburg in 1780 ; rose there to the highest positions 
 in the military administration: beennie lieutenant-gen- 
 eral in isll.and d. Feb. 25, 1S3I. In 1775 ho wrote a 
 tragedy, Smrm iiml Dranr,, a horribly affected imitation of 
 Shakspeare, from which the whole period of fermentation 
 preceding the ajipearance of Goethe and Schiller received 
 its name. But, with the exception of this one fact, all 
 Klinger's tragedies, comedies, and novels arc entirely des- 
 titute of interest. 
 
 Klipp'springcr [Dutch], the Orcotrugvn tallalrii, a 
 beautiful and graceful South African mountain antelope, 
 resembling in its habits the chamois. It is an extremely 
 agile and 'swift little creature, less than two feet in height, 
 "kIop'sIocU (FiUEnnirii Oottlieb), b. in Quedlinburg, 
 Prussian Saxonv, July 2, 1724. He studied theology first 
 in Jena, where he 1 1 745 ) wrote the first song of his great epio 
 poem. Mcntinh; then in Leipsic. where he (1748) publish- 
 ed the first three songs of that poem in Ilremitche Jleiliuye. 
 Thev niaile a deep impression. Every young man became 
 at oiiee his admirer and his disciple. But, although he had 
 touched the very heart of his nation, he found no support
 
 KNAI'l'-KXIAZNIX. 
 
 1569 
 
 and little encouragenieDt at home. All litenituro in Ger- 
 luuny was at that time more or less a court affair, and every 
 court was a |)etty copy of Versailles. Frederick the (Jreat 
 considered tbe attempt of forming a genuine (ic-rman litera- 
 ture as foolishness, and even the emperor Josepli, to whom 
 Klopstock dedicated his great drama, flvrmnuni) Svhhivht, 
 could not bo brought to take any notice of him. He was 
 supported by foreigners. The Dani.«h king gave liim a 
 pension — i<niall enough — an<i on this he lived ]>artly in 
 Copenhasen, ]iartly in Hamburg, where he d. Mar. 14, 
 ISO^. Even when a boy he entertained the idea nf writing 
 a great epic poem, antl he certainly succeeded tn realizing 
 this idea, though, iinf<<rtunateiy. his poem bears striking, 
 even painful, marks of being the result of great exertions, 
 as tnueh as the product of great powers. Klupstock be- 
 comes often forced when he wishes to be strong. nn<J obscure 
 when he tries to be deep. His 0'^•* are generally hard to 
 understand, and not always worth unrlcrstanding. It is 
 impossible, therefore, to explain the impression ho made 
 and the inlluence he exercised from the artistic value of 
 his works: they depended on the peculiar position he oc- 
 cupied in the history of ficrman literature. He is the 
 father of modern German poetry, not because he created 
 it, but because he made it possible — not on account of his 
 genius, but on account of his standpoint. Fn a moment 
 when the German nation had given up its confidence 
 in itself, and looked to France not only for its literary 
 forms, but for its liter.-iry impulses, Khtpstock steppeil forth 
 and emphasized German character, as revealed in Gcrninn 
 history and German Protestantism, with such a strength 
 that it echoed through two or three generations, and became 
 a rallying-point for all national aspirations and .sympa- 
 thies. Cl.KSfrSS PRTKItSKV. 
 
 Knapp (Ai.BKnT), b. at Tiibingen, AVIirtcmberg. July 
 S."), 171IS: studied theology: held different positions in the 
 Protestant Church, and was appointed pastor in 18r.fi at 
 Stultg.irt. where he d. June IH, ISfil. His nniHtfirhen 
 Geilirhir (2 vols.. 1S21)) iinil Xrnrni Orf/t'rfitr { 1 S.'M ) contain 
 some of tbe most beautiful hymns prorluccd in our time. 
 
 Knapp (CiiArscKY L.), b. in Berlin. Vt., Feb. 2fi, 1809 ; 
 learned the printing-trade at .Montpelier; was for some 
 years editor of the Vermont Stnte Journal ; secretary of 
 state from 1S:16 to 1840; removed to Massachusetts, and 
 was secretary of the senate in ISjl. and wa.*5 a member of 
 Congress from 185j to I8j9. He had nominated Gen. Har- 
 rison for the Presidency in IS.'Xi, obtaining for him the 
 electoral vote of Vermont, four years before the campaign 
 in which that President was elected. 
 
 Knapp (Hkom ann\ M. T>., b. in Germany in 18.t2 : was 
 professor of ophthalmology iti the Tniversityof IIei<lelberg 
 from iH(U to IMfi.S. In the latter year he removed to New 
 York, where ho opened the New York Ophthalmio and 
 Aural Institute, and founded the ArrhirvK <«/" Ophthnimolofjif 
 find Otofntff/, published both in (lerman and English. He 
 is the author of fntraont/'tr Tnimnx and various papers in 
 different ophthalmolf)gieal periodicals. 
 
 Knapp (JAroH). b. at Otego, Otsego CO., X. v., Dec. 7, 
 1709 ; was educalcrl as an Episcopalian, but about his 
 twenty-first year joineil the Itiiptist Church : studied at 
 Madison University in Hamilton, and taught school at 
 Springfield, tvhcre he cnlerecl tbe ministry in 1822. Tn 
 I.S;iO he remiived to Wiiterlown. taking an activo and very 
 successful part in a revival there, after which he entered 
 upon the wider field of itinerant preaching. His labors 
 now dircftrd him to all the principal cities and towns of 
 the N'cw England and Midillc Statey. ihcnee westward to 
 Chi'-iigo and St. liouif. and tinnlly to CiiliOiriiia, every- 
 where bybis earnest entliusiasm and practical preachipg 
 winning mullitutles of converts. He published his Autn. 
 hinfjrnphif a few years before his death on Mar. 2. 1874, in 
 whifh, among the slatisties of his bib-irs. it is stated that 
 about a dozen years after he begun iiidepcnrb-nt preiiching 
 the number of converts had reached 100,000, and he there- 
 after refrained from counting them. 
 
 Knapp (Samiei, LonKxzol. I-Ii.D.. h. at Newhurypnrt, 
 Mass., Jan. 10, 178ri ; graduated at Harlmouth in 1804: 
 became alawyer: commanded a militia regiment as colonel 
 in the war of 1812-11 ; from 1821 to 1828 edited .inurnals in 
 Hn^'on, Mass. — the timrttr, the Xiidfniftl Rrpufifimu. ancl 
 others. In 1827 be entered upon the practice of hiw in 
 New York. Col. Knapp was the author of many works, 
 chiefly biographical, among whidi are TmrrU in North 
 Amrn'cft f>,i Afi /^//(1818). /iiorj. Skftrbr» of Eminent Inir- 
 yrfi, St'ttt>imrn, and Mm of Lrtfri f 1821 ), Orniun t,f Fret- 
 mnttonrt/ (1828), Sl-rtrhrit nf l*nhfir fVinrnrtrrt (18:^0). Av). 
 /?mf/ra;)/M/(18n3). Amc« of HcWit t Clinton (1828). of Daniel 
 AVcbster (18.35), Aaron Uurr (rs:].')). anrl a revision of J. H. 
 Hinton's Ifinlon/ of the Vnitrd Statm (1834). D. at Hop- 
 kinton. Mass., .Tuly 8, 18.18. 
 
 Knap'sack [Dan. knapxak, from knappen, to "eat"], 
 Vol.. II.— 99 
 
 a case, wallet, or scrip of leather or painted canvas carried 
 upon the shoulders. The knapsack is chiefly employed by 
 ioot-soldiers for carrying their personal efl'ects. 
 
 Knarcs'boroughy town of England, in the county of 
 York, on the left bank of the Nidd. It has some manufac- 
 tures of linen and cotton goods, and some interesting ruins. 
 Pop. o20j. 
 
 Knaus (LtTi>wic), b. at Wiesbaden Oct. 5. 1829. His 
 father was an optician. He received instruction from 
 Jacobi, the painter of the grand duke, and was sent, pen- 
 sioned by the state, to Diisscidorf. There Sohn and Sha- 
 dow were bis teachers, but he .struck out an originnl path 
 for himself in the portrayal of scenes in peasant-life. In 
 185;{ he went to Paris, and remained eight years ; returned 
 to Germany; sojourned a while at Berlin, and finally (1 HOG) 
 took up his residence in DUsseldorf. M. Knaus is a mem- 
 ber of the Academy of Anisterdum.and has received a gold 
 medal at Berlin. Other medals were bestowed on him in 
 I86:i, 1S5j, 1867. 18;»0, and a medal of honor in 18C7 ; the 
 same year he was created an officer of the Legion of 
 Honor. The pictures of Knaus represent scenes in Ger- 
 man rustic life, and are rich in humor. Good examples 
 may be seen in private collections of New Y'ork. 
 
 Knpe'land f AB\ER).b. in 1774 ; was fcr a time a Bap- 
 tist minister, then a I'niversalist, and finally a <lti?i. lie 
 was ( 1 S2I-2M J editor of a I'niversalist periodical in Phila- 
 delphia; in 1828 editor of the OUvefimnch, N. Y. ; in 181^2 
 founded the Jnre/ttitfator at Boston. Mass.. and in ISIifi was 
 tried before the supreme court at Bostini on a charge of 
 l)laspiieniy. T). at Sa'ubria. Ind.. Aug. 27, 1814. He pub- 
 lished The lJri>it flH22). LeriureM on Ciirrrmf Snhation 
 (1824), a translation of the New Testament (182;n, a /U- 
 view of the Evidences of Christian if t/ (1829), and other 
 works. 
 
 Kneeland (Samtel), M. D., b. in Boston. Mass.. Aug. 1, 
 1821 : graduated at Harvard in 1840. and at (he Ma?Pnehn- " 
 setts Medical School in I84.'i: studied in Paris, and practised 
 medicine in Boston 1845-50. He is an active member of 
 many learned societies: served as an army surgeon in the 
 late war. In 1800 he became secretary of the Massachu- 
 setts Institute of Technology, and professor of zoology and 
 physiology there. Prof. Kneeland has contributed much 
 to scientific and other literature, and edited (I8ni>-l)9) the 
 
 Aniiufif iff Scientific Discovery. 
 
 KneriorfSir GonrREv), b. at Liibeck in 1040 : was sent 
 by his fat her (who intended lluil he should pursue the military 
 
 yrofession ) to London toptucly m at hem n tics and fort ili cat ion. 
 laving more taste for painting, he went to .Amsterdam, 
 and studied, so tradition says, with Ilenibrandt and Ferdi- 
 nand Bol ; at the age of seventeen went to Rome, and was 
 I a pupil of Maratti and Bernini : in Venice gained a repu- 
 I tation by painting the portraits nf eminent jiersons, espo- 
 I cially of Cardinal Bassadonna. His fame was earned in 
 I London, whither he repaired in 1674. The duke of Mon- 
 I mouth, being attracte<l by a portrait of his secretary whitdi 
 I Knelter had painted, sat for his own. and persuader! the 
 I king. Charles II., to sit also. The picture was successful, 
 I partly, it would seem, because it was executrd with rapidity 
 j and boldness, and the artist's fortune was made. He had 
 I as much as he could do, and at his own prices. Tlie nuni- 
 I ber of his portraits is as nstnnifihing ns llie quality of his 
 subjects. He painted the likenesses of ten Fo\ereigns — 
 Charles IT., James II.. William III.. George I., Louis 
 j XIV., peter the Great. ChnrUs V., and queens Maria, 
 Mary, and Anne. William employed him to paint the 
 ; beauties of }lamj>tnn Ciuirt. conferrrel on him the honor 
 j of knighthood, and presented him with a goM nn-diil and 
 I chain. George I. created him a baronet. Kneller d. in 
 I 172", and had a monument ereclctl to him in M'estminster 
 1 Abbey; he was buried at Whitton. The monument was 
 erected at hi:: own e>:penFc, after designs by n sculptor of 
 his own selection. Kneller wa-* vain, and greedy of money 
 and distinction, and is thought (o have done less than jus- 
 tice to his roil talents. He was a coarse man, ami did course 
 work ; but ho had knowledge, judgment, and taste, and 
 when he exerletl himself, as in those of his pictures in the 
 Gallery of the Admirals, in which he shared the honor with 
 Lcly. showed that he was a nnin of ability. After the 
 death of Sir Peter Lcly he stood a( the head of hi.'- profrs 
 fion in England. But be owed his fame to the qtialily of 
 his patrons rather than to the quality of his art. In a 
 belter auc he micht have done heltcr work. Th*^ portraits 
 of the Kit Kat Club are among the best of Kneller s pieces. 
 To bim we owe the nre«ervation of Rafaellc's cartoons. 
 Kneller was married, but left no heirs to enjoy the largo 
 fortune that he accumulated. He was a wit, highly appre- 
 ciated by men like Dryden. Addison, Prior, and Piccle, 
 and the members of the Kit-Kat Club, (o which he be- 
 lone d. 0. B. FnorniNfinAM. 
 
 Kniaz'nin (Franciszck Dyonizv), b. Oct. A, 17:^0;
 
 1570 
 
 KNIGHT. 
 
 educated at Vitebsk, in the school of the Jesuits, which 
 order he entered. After the dissolution of the order in 
 1773 ho became secretary to Prince Adam Ozartoryski, but 
 ft'U about 179(5 into a mental derangement from which he 
 never recovered. D. Aug. 25. 1807, at Konskawola, one of 
 the estates of the jirince. He translated Horace. Anac- 
 rcon. (^atullus, Ossian. and others, and among his own 
 poetical jiroiluctions there are many idyls and minor poems 
 of a delicate beauty, both in sentiment and form. 
 
 Knight [from Teut. Knecht, defined by Grimm ns puer, 
 f'imuhiH, Bcrvus, "attendant or servant"]. The word cor- 
 responding to our " knight" is in most languages derived 
 from the horse, as, for instance, the French chevalier, the 
 Danish lii'tf'h'r, etc. In nearly all nations which have at- 
 tained any martial renown there has been set apart a body 
 of combatants known by a distinguishing title and perform- 
 ing certain honorable service. Such were those Grecian 
 warriors whom historians call knights, and such also the 
 cquitesof Rome. (See Egt'ESTiiiAN Okder.) But knight- 
 hood, as associated with chivalry, is of Northern origin. 
 A certain value of land, called in England a "knight's 
 fee." and in Normandy " fief de haubert," was allotted to a 
 tenant, \vho in return bound himself to follow his lord to 
 battle. Thus, in its earlier days knighthood was but a part 
 of the feudal system, and could boast little of that nobleness 
 which afterwards distinguished it. Its real histcry begins 
 with the Crusades. During these wars it assumed a vohin- 
 tary character. The younger sons of noble families enlisted 
 undor the banners of wealthy lords, in whose service they 
 might hope to gain such honor, and even riches, as would 
 raise them to an ciiuality with their elder brothers. Barons 
 were glad to take these adventurers into their pay, and it 
 was not long before knighthood won by voluntary service 
 became more esteemed than that feudal sort which was the 
 right of the eldest horn ; so that in time rich landowners 
 grew ashamed of a title which they had not earned, and 
 refused the honor until they had earned it by some brave ex- 
 ploit. During the Crusades knighthood became blended 
 and almost identified with religion. Every knight pledged 
 himself to aid in recovering the Holy Land. Fighting 
 against infidels was itself a religious service; warriors who 
 died while wearing the cross were assured by pries^ and 
 pope of a speedy entrance into paradise: chivalry was held 
 to be little lower than the Church itfielf, and the two were 
 united in the persons of those monk-soldiers who, while 
 under vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, were also 
 foremost and fiercest in battle. Their deeds, however great, 
 were supposed to increase not their own renown, but that 
 of the order to which they belonged, and it may be that 
 such devotion to a common interest had some influence 
 over secular warriors, and aroused that aprit dc corps 
 which made knighthood a universal brotherhood. Another 
 peculiar trait of knighthood was the worship of women. 
 Women gave the prize in tournaments; the knight wore 
 his miatreas's favor in real as in mimic battle; God and 
 the ladies {Di'^n it nutrr /Mme) were associated on the lips 
 and in the heart of every true knight. Various manuals 
 were written, especially when chivalry was on the decline, 
 to teach knightly duty, but our most vivid knowledge of 
 knights an<i their manners is derived from ancieut ro- 
 mances and from chroniclers like Froissart and .loinville, 
 whose naively-told stories show us not only the virtues of 
 chivalry, but also its vices. In France, knighthood came 
 nearest to the ideal standard. German knights were want- 
 ing in courtesy, and too often regarded noble birth as more 
 important than noble deeds. 
 
 During the Mid<lle Ages many orders of religious knight- 
 hood were founded for the purpose of helping Christians 
 against the infidels. Their members wore bound to pov- 
 erty, rhastity, and obedience, but the first, at least, of these 
 vows was soon l)roken. The orders became very rich and 
 luxurious, the original motives of their formation were lost 
 sight of, and their power aroused the jealousy of kings and 
 nobles. The chief of those, orders were : The Ilixtpiudleis, 
 or brothers of J?t. John of Jerusalem, founded 1043 to nurse 
 and care for poor wounded crusaders. After leaving the 
 Holy Land they occupied first the island of Rhodes, and 
 then Malta, whence thoy were expelled by Napoleou Bona- 
 parte in 1798. The r(m;>?ar«, so called from having a house 
 near the supposed site of Solomon's Temple, founded IIIS 
 for the protection of pilgrims. They grew extremely rich, 
 and after quitting Palestine had establishments in several 
 European countries. Having been accused of heresy and 
 other crimes, they were in 1311 suppressed by Pope Clement 
 v.. at the instigation of Philip the Fair, king of France, 
 who caused many uf them to bo imptisoned. banished, or 
 put to death. The Tintouic order, instituted during tlie 
 siege of Acre, at the close of the twelfth century, acquired 
 great power, and in the thirteenth century conquered 
 Prussia, Livonia, and Courland from their heathen chiefs. 
 The Spanish order of St. James of CnmpostcUa was founded 
 
 for the defence of pilgrims to the shrine of that saint, and 
 the knights were continually engaged in warfare with the 
 Moors. Jankt TrcKEV. 
 
 Knight, tp. of Vanderburg oo., Ind. Pop. i;U2. 
 
 Knight (Chaules). b. at Windsor, Eng., Mar. 19, 1791 ; 
 studied at a classical school at Ealing, and served an ap- 
 prenticeship with his father, whet was a bookseller at Wind- 
 sor. After a brief residmec in liondon, occupied in gain- 
 ing a practical insight into journalism, he established, in 
 company with his father, ,'i newspaper, the Wiudsor and 
 Eton E,rprcfiH, which he edited from 1812 to IH2G. During 
 this peri'id he also publi;;hed the I-'tonion (a magazine ed- 
 ited by Praed, and of which Macaulay and Nelson Cole- 
 ridge, then '* Eton boys," were leading writers), and the 
 Plnin EnffVtnhnui», a cheap literary miscellany in 2 vols., 
 chiefly written by himself (1^20-22)". Removing to London 
 in ]S2fl. Knight purchased the (luardinn newspaper, which 
 he edited for two years, when hf s<dd it in order to coni- 
 nienee business a? a publisher in Pall Mali. Tiio most im- 
 portant venture of the new house was K'in';/Jit'» Qnartcrly 
 Maffozine (1S23-24). which contained some brilliant articles 
 by Macanlay. Praed, and other Cambridge students, hut 
 came to an end after six numbers. About this time (1^24) 
 he brought out a newly discovered work by Milton on Chris- 
 tian Doctrine, which gave occasion to the remarkuhic arti- 
 cle on Milton with wliich JlacauJay commenced liis tri- 
 umphal career in the columns of the Ediht.urt/h lirriew. 
 vShortly afterward Knight conceived the plan of a national 
 library, " a cheap series of books which should comlcnsc 
 the information contained in voluminous and expensive 
 works," for which ho selected the subjects of about 100 
 volumes in history, science, art. and miscellaneous lit- 
 erature. The scheme being too large for a single pub- 
 lisher, a part was given to other houses, and it was adopted 
 by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, then 
 just formed. As a consequence of the commercial crisis of 
 i-826, Knight's publishing-house went down like so many 
 others, but in the following year he commenced business 
 again as superintendent of the publications of the U. K. 
 Society. His connection with that association lasted nearly 
 twenty year?, and was the central incident in his career. 
 He displayed great enterprise and mental activity in pro- 
 jecting many of the most popular and useful works of a 
 series which was practically the continuation of his own 
 early scheme. The firifisfi Ahnnunr and C"i)i/iniiin}i In ihf 
 Ahitaunc were commenced in 1S2S. ecMted by Knight for 
 forty years, and still continued as an indispensable hand- 
 book and work of reference. In 1^29 he recommenced 
 business as a publif^her in his own name for the purpose of 
 bringing out the Lihrori/ t-f Kntrrtnininfi Knotrhd^r, a sc- 
 ries for which he wrote the volumes on Menafjrriis and The 
 Efcphant. In 1832 he commenced the Pcuni/ Mar^nzine, 
 which had an unprecedented success, reaching a sale of 
 200.000 within a twelveniontli. ami ler] to the Penny Ct/rlo- 
 j)tEfh'a, conimonced in is:;;i \i\ the V . K. Society, but of 
 which Knight was the publisher. Originally intended 
 a? a pojmlnr manual of reference in eight handy volumes, 
 it grew into twenty-seven bulky volumes, forming n learned 
 and original digest of universal knowledge. Wilh the co- 
 oj>eration of John Kitio miil other able writers Knight next 
 brought out a series of illustrated works, the Pictorial 
 Jiibfr, Pratfcr liool^ Jh'atort/ of Pahstine, Pictorial himtttrr/ 
 of' Enfffniid, j/oudon, Ofd Evf/land, Shakepenrc, The Land 
 We Live In, etc., which had a deservedly great success. In 
 1SJ4 he commenced the Enr/lish Cydopirdia, in four divis- 
 ions, according to the subject, a work of still greater value 
 than its predecessor, the Penny Ci/rlop/rdia. Besides edit- 
 ing the Wcfkli/ Vidnnie and tlie Shilling Vohinie series, 
 Knight compile*! Lfaff' //<>itrs uith thr licst Authors, Half 
 
 Hours of Entflinh Ilistio-if. and other works on the same 
 plan, prepared a valuable biography of Shaks|)care. and 
 wrote a !*np,dar History of England in S vols. (lS:.fi-C2), 
 which occupied his declining years, and may be considered 
 his greatest original work. After 1S02 he revised and re- 
 issued his earlier jiroductions, and wrote an int*^resling 
 autobiograpliy entitled J\t^sa(fes of a Working Life during 
 Half a (\-i>tnry {?, vols.. 1SG4-G.'>). D. at Adtlhslone. Sur- 
 rcv, Mar. '.', 1S7.1. Knight may fairly bo esteemed one of 
 the greatest benefactors of the English-speaking public of 
 the nineteenth century, as tlie founder of that system for 
 the generalization of knowledge which was so successfully 
 carried into effect for many years by himself and his 
 younger rivals, the Messrs. Chambers. His original pro- 
 ducti<ins. too numerous to he here mentioned, are all cha- 
 racterized by a vigorous style and a high degree of adap- 
 tation to the wants of (he class of rea<lers addressed. His 
 i>ecuniiiry success was not in proportion to the enormous 
 circulation of bis works, and on some of the best of them, 
 like the Penuy Ci/rloprrdin, he lost Iicavily, In considera- 
 tion of this fact he was in 18fi0 a])pointed by the govern 
 ment publisher of the Loudon Gazette, a sinecure post with
 
 KNIGHT— KNITTING. 
 
 1071 
 
 £1200 a year. His statue was erected in 1874 in hia 
 native city of Windsor. Porter C. Bliss. 
 
 Knight (Hknhy Cocswkll)» b. at Xewburyport, Mass., 
 about 17S8; spent his childhood at Kowlcy : gra<luated at 
 Brown Tniversity in 181*2: was ordained in the Kpiscopal 
 Church, and published two volumes of sermon?, but was 
 never settled over a congrt-galiun. Ho publislied a volume 
 of verse in 1809, and another. The HroLfu Ifarp, in 1815, 
 both which were republished with ad<litinn8 in 1821. D. 
 I8;i5. Ik- lef^ an amusing autobio;;rapby. extracts from 
 which were given in a volume entitled Thorn Collage, or 
 the /'oct'e i/ume (1865). which chiefly consists of sketches 
 and verses written by his younger brother. Frederick (b. 
 in Hampton, N. H.. Oct. 9. 1791 ; d. at Uowlcy Nov. 20, 
 ISl'J). The poems of Henry C. Knight are full of fine 
 touches of character and sportive satire, which make them 
 worthy of remembrance. (See Duyckinck's Cyc. Am. Lit., 
 vol. ii. p. IJS,) 
 
 Knii^ht MonathanV b. in Bucks co.. Pa., Nov. 22. 1787 ; 
 removed at the age of fourteen, with his parents, to East 
 Bithlchem, Washington co. ; received only a limited com- 
 mon school education, but by close application at home 
 made much progress in the study of mathematics, of which 
 he was very fond. At the age of twenty-one ho was en- 
 gaged as a teacher, at the same time pursuing his occupa- 
 tion a^ a surveyor; in ISIG he made for the State a survey 
 of Washington co. ; was elected county commissioner 1817 
 -20; in 1822 he was elected to the State legislature, and 
 for six sessiims waj* re-elected to the senate or house of 
 representatives ; l*. S. commissioner (182;*)) for extending 
 the National Uoad from Wheeling to Illinois, and tor many 
 years chief engineer of the Baltimore and Ohio U. R. D. 
 *at E. Bethlehem Nov. 22, 18.^8. 
 
 Kniffht (Jonathan), M. D., b. at Xorwalk, Conn., Sept. 
 4, 17S'J: graduated at Yale in 1808; studied under Dr. 
 Uush at the medical school of the I'niversity of Pennsyl- 
 vania 1811-13, became professor of anatomy and physiol- 
 ogy at Yale College in 181.1, and in 18:t8 was transferred 
 to the chair of surgery; was president of the American 
 Medical Association in 1853; waa a skilful operator and 
 an effective lecturer, but wrote little. He obtained in 1862 
 the establishment of a U. S. military hospital at New 
 Haven. D. at New Haven Aug. 25, ISfil. 
 
 Kni|;ht (RiniArto Pavnk). b. at Wormsley Grange, 
 Hcrcfordsihiro, England, in 1750; came in 1771 into pos- 
 session of a handsome fortune, which he liberally employed 
 in the formation of a unique collection of ancient coins, 
 bronzes, and objects illustrating the pagan religions of an- 
 tiquity. He wrote a curious work entitled An Account o/ 
 the Urmainft of thf W'nrship o/ Prinpun hit fly criMtinff at 
 [nrmia in the KimfiVnn of \ftpfei, to ichlch in adtlrtl a Dix- 
 coHme OH the Wnrithip of Priapnn, and itn Connection tcitli 
 the yfi/ttic Thrttfotftf of the Andcntn, which ho privately 
 printed in 1780. and for which ho was severely criticised 
 on the score of delicacy, though at the present day the 
 same branch of inquiry has assumed grciit importance, 
 ari'l Knight's treatise was reprinted in elegant style in New 
 York in 1S71. Ho was for many years a member of Par- 
 liament and trustee of the British Museum, to which he 
 bequeathed his collection of untiquos. Ho published sev- 
 eral volumes of |)Ocms, which were little esteemed, a success- 
 ful work on the l^iinciphnof Tante (1805), and an edition 
 of Homer, with the dignmma restored and supposed inter- 
 polations suppressed, which createil considerable interest, 
 but was not ooocptod as authoritative. D. in London Apr. 
 24, 1824. 
 
 Knight (Thomas Axprew). K. R. S., brother of Kichard 
 Pavne Knight, b. at Wormsley (irange, Herefordshire, Eng- 
 land. Oct. 10, 1758; graduated at Baliol College. Oxford, 
 and devoted his attention to vegetable and animal physi- 
 ology and horticulture, of which scienerg in their modern 
 form ho may almost be considered the founder in Englnnd. 
 He contril>ute<i forty-six papers to the Trnunartioun of the 
 Royal Society, in some of which he came near anticipating 
 the characteristic doctrines now known as Donriuian. 
 His Hhidies on the propagation of fruit trees, mnde public 
 a'lout 1795, attracted deserved attention. In 17'.'7 ho pub- 
 
 lishc'l a Trratimr on the Cnttnre of the Aftplr and the Prar, 
 nnd in 1809 Pumona ifcrrfovdieni'in. or Xntnral ffi»torif of 
 the aid Cider nnti Perrtf I'rnitn uf thr Cntintif of firreford. 
 He succeeded Sir Joseph Bunks as president of the Horti- 
 cultural Society, and d. at London May II, 18;;8. After 
 
 his death hi?* Phtftitdoifiraf anil l/nrllrnllnrnf Papem were 
 collected and jmblisbed (1841), with a sketch of his life, in 
 a volume which well deserves the study of cotmtry gentle- 
 men. " Few men." says Allibone, " have done so much to 
 promote the science of horticulture as Mr. Knight ha« ef- 
 fected, both by precept and example." 
 Knight-Service. See Tknurf. 
 
 Knight's Ferry, poat-v., cap. of Stanislaus co., Cal., 
 in a fertile wheat-region, once celebrated for rich placer 
 gold-mines. 
 
 Knightft Templar. Sec Templar. 
 
 Kni^hts'town, post-v. of Wayne tp., Henry co., Tnd., 
 on the Pittteburg Cineionati ami St. Louis R. K. and on 
 Blue River, 34 miles E. of Indianapolis. It has several 
 churches, a national bank, an academy, machine-shoi)S. 
 and 2 weekly newspapers, and is situated in a fine farming 
 district. Pop. 1528. 
 
 Knierhts'viHe, post-v. of Van Buren tp., Clay eo., 
 Ind.. is situated on the Terre Haute nnd A'inccnnes It. R., 
 16 miles E. of Terre Haute and 50 W. of Indianapolis. It 
 has 3 churches, 3 schools, 3 lodges, 1 newspaper, 1 largo 
 planing-mill and sash and door factory, 2 blast furnaces 
 with a capacity of fifty tons per day, and 1 rolling-mill 
 giving employment to 150 men, 3 coal-shafts, 3 drug stores, 
 and 8 other stores. It is the centre of the block-coal re- 
 gion of Indiana, is one of the largest shipping-points for 
 freights between St. Louis and Indianapolis, and the N. 
 terminus of a projected railroad to Bowling Green. Ky. 
 It was first laid out in 18(>5. nnd is surrounded by a fine 
 timbered and agricultural country. Pop. 1071. 
 
 LiTnF.n WoLir. Eu. ''Clav Co. Enterprise." 
 
 Knip'perdolling (Brrxrard), b. in MUnsler. Ger- 
 manj', near the end of the fifteenth century, adopted in 
 Sweden the doctrines of the Anabaptists, one of the wild 
 fermentations of the Lutheran reform, and, returning to 
 his native province, was associated with Matthia>'. .Tobann 
 Boccold or Bockelson Tcalled John of Ley den), and other 
 fanatics in the celebrated socialistic crusade proclaimed in 
 Miinster in 1534. KnipperdoUing was elected burgomaster, 
 and subsequently stadtholdcr, John ot Leydcn being pro- 
 claimed king. Equality of property and coninuinity of 
 wives were among^tbe cardinal doctrines of (his mad effer- 
 vescence, which startled Luther, and was by him denounced 
 in the strongest terms. On the suppression of the move- 
 ment. KnipperdoUing was taken prisoner and put to death, 
 after frightful tortures, Jan. 23, 1536. 
 
 Knit'ting [Ang. Pax. cnytlan or hnittan: Ger. l-nuttei}^ 
 knot; Hind.y«ntA; Sans, tjnnnthi. a "knot "], a manner of 
 wea.ving or twisting a single thread into a kind of cloth by 
 means of steel, ivory, or wooden implements called knit- 
 ting-needles, which arc made of various sizes, according 
 to the fineness of thread used and the tightness of stitch 
 required. For fat or straight knitting two needles arc 
 employed ; for round knitting, such as stockings and cuffs, 
 three, four, or even five, are needed. Steel needles are used 
 with silk, flax, and cotton thread; wood, bone, or ivory 
 for most kinds of woollen yarn. As knitting consisls of 
 loops or meshes made without knnti-. it is easily undone, 
 the slipping of one loop frequently causing the destruction 
 of the whole fabric. It is extremely elastic, and therefore 
 very suitable for gloves, stockings, and other articles in 
 which an exact fit without com])res?ion is desirable. The 
 work is easily learned, and by a f^kilful knitter, whose fin- 
 gers have acquired delicacy of touch, can be carried on 
 almost or altogether without using the eyes. It is for this 
 reason specially adapted as an emitloymcnt for the aged^ 
 and is practised with much success by the blind. 
 
 Knitting is a far more modern invention than its kindred 
 art, netting. The exact period when it was first practised 
 is not known, though at the time of the Rowleyan contro- 
 versy much information on the subject was collected hy 
 antiquaries. Chalterton, in the poems written by him, 
 pretending that Thomas Rowley, who lived in the fifteenth 
 century, was their author, mentioned knit stockings: 
 
 '* 8be said, as her white handn white hosen were knitting, 
 What pleasure It is to be married !"— yfi/Zfi, xxxvii. ; 
 
 and his antagonists used this as an argument against his 
 vcracitv, asserting that knit hose were not known until the 
 sixteenth century. (For particulars of this controversy see 
 the Orntlrman'n Magazine, 1782-83.) JTany antiquaries 
 affirm that knitting was invented in Scotland, and thence 
 introduced into France; others say (hat it is of Spanish 
 origin, and was first known in England in the reign of 
 Henrv VIII. But in a rare collection of the acts of Edward 
 VI. is one specifying, among other woollen articles, •' kiiitte 
 hose, knittepelicote.q. knitte gloves, knitfc slievcs." In 1527 
 (he French knitter^' formed themselves into a corporation, 
 styled "Communaut/"' des Maftres Bonnetiers an Tricot," 
 choosing for their patron St. Fiaere, who, according to 
 legends, was the second son of Eugenius, a Scottish king 
 in the seventh century. S(. Fiacre became a hermit, an'l 
 lived at Meanx in France. Wherever nnd whenever knit- 
 ting was invented, it is certain (hat (icrman women of all 
 ages and classes excel in the art those of other nations. 
 Very young German children are sent to linitting-schools, 
 and stockings are knitted by little creatures who have
 
 lo72 
 
 KNOB CREEK— KXOWLES. 
 
 hardly learned how to wear out those articles by walking in 
 them. Such schools have been established in Ireland aod 
 Scothind. hut only for the children of the poor. Excellent 
 directions for both knitting and nettin,^ will be found in 
 Madamo Got baud's work on those subjects (London, 1870, 
 J^vol. Janet Tickev. 
 
 Knnb Creek, post-tp., Cleaveland co., N. C. Pop. fi.">8. 
 
 Kno'bcl [ Karl Aigi .st). 1). D., b. near Sorau, Silesia, 
 Aug. 7, 1SI)7; studied at the University of Brcslau, where 
 he became a professor of theology in 1831, and at (Jit-ssen 
 in 18;i9. His work on Errfegiffstet (ISofi), Hihrcir Pn^phcry 
 (l?>:t7). and his Conimrntnn'es on Itnink {1S4.^). Genesis 
 (18.32), Exodus and Leviticus (1857). Xnmhers, Deuteronomyf 
 and iTtiHltHa (ISfil), and Grneafof/ical Tahfcs of Grncsie 
 (l^hi]), are among the most Icnrned productions of the 
 rationalistic school of theology. 1). at Giesscn May '2h, lSfi3. 
 
 Kno'belsdorfr, von (Hans GKonr. Wenzeslais), 
 Baiion. b. at KuehUdel. in the Prussian province of Bran- 
 denburg, Feb. 17, U>'J7 ; entered the Prussian army, and 
 was a captain when in 1730 he left the military career in 
 order to study art, especially painting and arehitecture. 
 After travelling through France and Italy, ho joined the 
 crown prince at Rheinsberg, and soon iiccaino a favorite of 
 his. On the accession of Frederick II. to the throne in 
 I7I0, Kuobelsdorflf was made superintendent of all the 
 royal buildings, and planned the Thiergarten at Berlin, and 
 built Sans Souci at Potsdam and the opera-house in Berlin, 
 besides other minor buildings. I). Sept. Ifi, 1763. 
 
 Knob Xos'ter, post-v. of Washington tp., Johnson 
 CO., Mo., situated on the Missouri Pacific R. R., 20S miles 
 AV. of St. Louis and 78 miles E. of Kansas City, has 6 
 churches, 1 national bank, I weekly newspaper (agricul- 
 tural), 1 flour-mill, 3 hotels, a fine public-school budding, 
 and the usual number of stores, built mostly of brick. 
 Pop. 1H4. J. R. CoRDELL, Ed. ''Missouri Farmer." 
 
 Knobs, tp. of Yadkin co., X. C. Pop. 14j1. 
 
 Knob View, post-tp. of Crawford co., Mo. Pop. 515. 
 
 KnoTlys (Hasserd), b. at Chalkwcll, Lincolnshire, 
 England, in l.')'JS; was educated at Cambridge University, 
 and became an Anglican priest, but was ejected for non- 
 conformity, and compelled in 1G3S to flee to New England. 
 In Boston he was early involved in a controversy with the 
 authorities, and was afterwards named by Cotton Mather 
 " Mr. Absurd Knowless.'' Knollys was {16CS— il) the first 
 minister of Dover, N. H. Thence ho went to Long Island, 
 and in lfi41 returned to London, where be was for a long 
 time a successful Baptist pastor. D. Sept. 19, 1G91. He 
 was a man of bold, gcnt-rous, and liberal spirit, an accom- 
 plished scholar, and an able preacher and teacher of youth. 
 He wrote -1 F/muin'j fire in Zion (Ullli). a pmall Hebrew 
 grammar (IfilS), and an autobiography, finished by Kitfin 
 (IG'Jl,')- The Hanserd KnuUys Society of London, formed 
 in 18 I j, reprints early Baptist writings. 
 
 Knollys, or Knolles (Richard), b. at Cold-Ashby, 
 Northamptonshire, England, about I.'i43 : graduated in 1505 
 at Lincoln College, Oxford, of which he was chosen fellow ; 
 was appointed head-master of the Free Grammar School at 
 Sandwich, Kent, where he spent a useful life, and d. in 
 June. 1(>10. He wrote a ('ompendimn of Lai. ^ Gr., and 
 Hfli. Grnmmar, irith JiootM { IGOO). and translated Camden's 
 liriinunin into English, the MS. of which is preserved at 
 the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford; besides several other 
 books on Oriental subject.s. But the only work for which 
 Knollys is now remembered is the Genemlf flistorie of the 
 7'ur/.v\.r(c.( folio, 1GU;J), which was reprinted in IGIO, 1631, 
 and 1G3S. The best edition is the Gth, in 3 vols. (1087- 
 1700), with a continuation by Sir Paul Uycaut. This book 
 was commended by l)r. Johnson in the Jiamhler (No. 122) 
 as " displaying all the excellence that narration can admit." 
 
 Knot, a twisting or entwining of one or more pieces of 
 cord, or the looping of sueb cord around some other sub- 
 stance, in such a way that the two parts shall be held to- 
 gether. Knots are of special importance on shipboard, 
 and the number of them in use among seamen is very 
 great. To these a great number of names are given. Much 
 skill is required in the adjustment of some of the kinds. 
 
 Knot, in measuring a ship's speed, represents a nautical 
 mile. On the ship's log-line there are 120 knots to the 
 mile; consequently, the number of knots which run out in 
 a half minute represent approximately the number of geo- 
 graphical miles per hour in the ship's rate of speed. 
 
 Knot, (irayback, or Robin Snipe, the Trinyn ca- 
 mtta, a sandpijar of the .\tlantic States and of Europe. It 
 is some ten inches long, and is a good game-bird. The 
 young birds in season are delicious for the table. The place 
 of breeding of this bird is unknown. 
 
 Knott (J. Prcx-tor). b. in Marion co., Ky., Aug. 29, 
 1S30; studied law; removed to Missouri in 1850; was 
 attorney-general of that State in 1860; returned to Ken- 
 
 tacky in 1862, and was a Democratic Representative in Con- 
 gress from 18G7 to 1871. and again elected in 1874. He 
 won a national reputation as a humorist by several of bis 
 speeches in Congress. 
 
 Knout [Russ. kinit], an instrument of punishment in 
 Russia, varying in form, but often consisting of a wide 
 and pointed piece composed of thongs of leather braided 
 with wire, soakeil in milk, and dried hard. This is swung 
 by a handle, anil when applied to the back of a culprit cuts 
 like a knife. Criminals were often scourged to death by 
 this instrument, which at present is less frequently used. 
 
 Knowl'ed^e* This term includes the possessions of 
 the mind derived through its several activities of sensuous 
 perception, reflection, undorstaniling. and sj>eculation, in 
 so far as the same relate to truth. It should be distinguished 
 from mere feeling and from opinion or impression. Know- 
 ledge implies the exercise of iliscrimination and comparison 
 in regard to iileas, noting their agreement and disagreement. 
 Feeling is limited to the subjective, and relates only to modi- 
 fications of the feeling subject, there being no antithesis of 
 subject and object in it. When the Ego pcrrrins itself as 
 feeling, it becomes conscious, and cognition takes the place 
 of simple feeling. Inference accompanies all grades of 
 knowing, although it is merely implicit in the lowest stages. 
 Hence, all knowledge contains the results of inference, and 
 is based upon it to some extent. The realm of truth which 
 knowledge has for its oi>jcet ineludes three de]iartments : I. 
 Nature ; II. Spirit or Human Mind : HI. Pure Ideas or Gen- 
 eral Principles. Knowledge implies convietion reached by 
 the perception of suffieient grounds. Certitude must be dis- 
 tinguished from truth, asa mercpbascof it. It appertains 
 to the immediate or external, aud hence to the phenomenal 
 or transitory. Such knowledge as is derived from certitude 
 or immediate knowing lacks, therefore, the unity of sys- 
 tem, and is partial, needing modification in each pnr- 
 tioular th^ou^dl otlier particular? and through the whole. 
 Incismuch as there is unity in existence, natural and spir- 
 itual, an isolated knowledge of particulars is not a true or 
 adequate knowledge. Since existences are interdependent, 
 each one being conditioned by all others, a true knowledge 
 can e.xist only in a systematic form — that of science. In 
 science each thing or province of things is treated in its 
 relations to the others and to the whole. Thus, by reason 
 of the relativity of particular existences, a true knowledge 
 of them must deal with relations, and in this sense know- 
 ledge may be called relative, not on account of its inade- 
 quacy, but rather on account of its trutli. The *' relativity 
 of knowledge " is a doctrine that has been quite well known 
 since the time of the Sophists of Greece. It has taken a 
 subjective direction in modern times. It has been held (a) 
 that knowledge is relative, because we cannot cognize ex- 
 istence in itself absolutely, but only in its modes; (fc) that it 
 is rel.ative, because we can know only what stands in rela- 
 tion to our faculties; (r) because the subjective constitution 
 of our faculties adds elements and modifications to the 
 matter derived from sensation. These positions have been 
 generalized in the doctrine of the relativity of knowledge 
 based on the lonct that we know only phenomena, and not 
 "things in themselves." Knowledge has been further clas- 
 sified according to its origin in the psychological activities : 
 
 (1) the intuitive — sensuous ]iereepti<)n, or consciousness; 
 
 (2) the discursive — inference and generalization; (3) the 
 speculative — synthetical and analytical processes combined 
 in one. Thus arise various distinctions, such as a priori, 
 a posteriori, abstract, mediated, intuitive, representative, 
 empirieal.apodictic, etc. etc. (SceMiNn.) W. T, llAniils. 
 
 Knowles (James Davis), b. at Providence. R. T., in 
 July. 179S: graduated at Columbian College. D. C, 1824. 
 In Oct.. 1825. he became pastor of the Second Baptist church 
 in Boston; in 1S32 was appointed professor of sacred rhet- 
 oric at Newlon Theological Institute in Massachu.setts. He 
 published memoirs of the first Mrs. Adoniram Judson (Ann 
 Hasscltine) and of Roger Williams; edited the Christian 
 J^evicic, and d. at Newton, Mass.. May 9, 1S38. 
 
 Knowles (Jamfs SnFninANt, b. at Cork, Ireland, id 
 17S4. Hi.-- father. James Knowles, a cousin of K.B.Sheri- 
 dan, was a schoolmaster and teacher of elocution, enjoying 
 a hi<rh reputation, and was editor of an improved edition 
 of Walker's Prmumncinfj Divtinnnrt/. In 1792 the family 
 removed to London. At the age of twelve young Knoivlcs 
 composed a play, which was represented by an amateur 
 company of schoolboys. In 1^06 he made his first appear- 
 ance ns an actor at Dublin. an<i afterward taught elocution 
 at Belfast and (Hasgow, without attaining eminence in 
 either profession. He had written four or five dramas 
 which have not been preserved, and had published a small 
 volume of fugitive poetry, when in ISl.^ he met with his 
 first success hv the production of Cains Groerhns at Belfast. 
 In 1S20 VirginiuR was produced at Drury Lane, with Ma- 
 cready in the leading part, and Knowles was thenceforward
 
 KNOWLKSVILL 
 
 -KNOX. 
 
 ir>i:\ 
 
 rocosnized ns one or the chief drainatio authors of England. 
 He proJiiot'J fuurtccD othor drainns, ^orIle of wbieli were 
 unduiiblctlly ainoiif; the bo8l"uciiD;; pliiws" of thu time, 
 tl)oii;;h nunc di^pUvetl any exceptiunal put^tic geiiiuts, and 
 all were justly anionablo to the charge ot t>ys(eiiuilic viola- 
 tion of the " nnilies." The plots were so involvcil in their 
 construction as to require a great ciTort fur their cinnpre- 
 heiision. Knuwlesi tfometiiues took part in r*-). resenting his 
 oivn dramiiiH. :ind uado a successful theatrical tuur in the 
 U. f'. In IS4:J his Dramatic Wor/cn were collected into 
 throe volumes (revised cd. 2 vols., 185G), and in IS-lo ho 
 abandoned Ihr stajie from conscientious 8eruples, devoting 
 himself to literature, and in ISID ;i pension of £200 was 
 granted him. In 1S.V2 ho joined the Baptist denomination, 
 and became a preacher distinguished for religious fervor. 
 His lust yeiirs were passed in retirement, on account of ili- 
 heiilth, at Torquay. Devonshire, where he d. Nov. 20, 1SG2. 
 His dramas, besides those already mentioned, are — Wiflt'nm 
 7V//MS25). The fir^'/ar'n Ihtuqhtcmf li.thnal Cnem ( 1S2S), 
 Atrrrdth«(?reat (ii^M), The ffxnrkfnuk {\>^:i2), The Wi/e, 
 a Tah of Mmitnn (IS.'i.'l), Thn Dawjhter {\^'M\), The love- 
 <7Aa« {is:S7), WnmonH Wit {\S:iH}, The Moid of Matien- 
 dorpt (I8;t8), Aorc (18.19), John o/ Provida (IS-IO), Old 
 Maid* (1841). The Uuite of Arnffon (1842), and The Secre- 
 tarjf (1843). He also published two novels — Henry Fot- 
 teacue and Gcur»je Lorrfl (1847), and two controversial 
 works against Romanism, The lioch of' /{ome, or (he Arch- 
 Hereaif (V?A*J\, and The Idol DrmotiHfied hij itn own Priest 
 (1851), the latter volume being a reply to Cardinal Wisc*- 
 man's LectnrvH nn TrantuhHtuittiatinn. PoUTr.Kt". HiJSS. 
 
 Knowlos'ville, post-v. of Hidgeway tp., Orleans co., 
 N. Y.. on the New York Central K. U. and the Erie Canal. 
 
 Knnwrton, post-v. and cap. of Krown co., Quebec, 
 Caii:id;i. It is the scat of an academy. Pop. about .'iUO. 
 
 KnoAvlton, post-tp. of Warren co., N. J. Pop. IfiOl. 
 
 linoulton, p(ist-tp. of Marathon co., \Vi?. Pop. Ififi. 
 
 Knou'-\<itliinf;s^ the name assumed by a .secret po- 
 litical so'-iety in ihe^ CS. first organized in ISfjIt.nnd which 
 appeared in the elections of is.H ns a well-di^'-ipllncd 
 party, and fwept .'Several of the Northern Stales, irieludiiig 
 New York. The cardinal idea of the society was opposition 
 to foreign citizenship. In tho Presidential campaign of 
 ISjfi the Know-Nothings appeared as tho "American 
 party.** presenting Millard Fillmore as its camlidate. but 
 the growth of the slavery issue extinguished tho question 
 of foreign citizenship, and the party speedily died a natural 
 death. 
 
 Knox, county of N. W. Central Illinois. Area. 720 
 square miles. It is fertile and undulating, and eontains 
 abunclant supplies of coal, with considerabln timber. Cat- 
 tle, grain, wool, and hay are sla]d(^ products. The manu- 
 factures include carriages, clothing, flour, saddlery, furtii- 
 lure, brick, and metallic wares. The county is traversed 
 by the Chicago Uurlington and Quincyand Ihc Peoria and 
 Oquawka U. Ra. Cap. fJalesburg. Pop. .39,522. 
 
 Knox, county of S. W. Infliana, bounded on tho E. by 
 the \V. f.irk of While River, on the S. by White River, and 
 on the W. by the Wabash, which Hcparatis it from Illinois. 
 Area, .')I0 square miles. It is partly level and partly roll 
 ing, and is very fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple 
 pro»hictfl. Tho county is traversed by several railroads, 
 centring at Vincenncs, the capit.il. Pop. 21,502. 
 
 Knox, county of 8. E. Kentucky. Area, about 340 
 square miles. It is a mountain-region, with iron, eonl, 
 salt, and limestone. Kivc-stoek and corn are staple ^»rod- 
 ucls. Tho county is traversed by tho Cumberland River. 
 Cap. Barboursvillo. Pop. 8294. 
 
 Knox, county of Maine, bounded on the P. E. by Pen- 
 ob-i'.it Bay and the Atlantic Ocean, and including numerous 
 islands. Areii, about :i.')0 srpmrc miles. It is uneven, but 
 generally fertile. Wool, potiitoes, and live-stock are staple 
 products. Tho manufactures include shipping, ships' fur- 
 niture, cooperage, lime, and lumber. The lisheries and 
 forei-jn and coastwise commerce employ a eonsidcrnblo 
 piirt of the population. The county is traversed by tho 
 Knox and Lincoln R. U. Cap. Roekhmd. Pop. .^0.82.^. 
 
 Knox, county of N. E. Missouri. Area, 504 square 
 mil' s. It is very fertile, and is generally undulating. It 
 is in part timbered land. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool 
 are staple products. Carriages, wagons, an<l brick are 
 leading articles of manufaeture. It is traversed by the 
 Quiney Missouri and Pacific R. R. Cap. Edina. * Poi>. 
 10.')7I. ^ *^ 
 
 Knox, county of Nebraska, formerly called Ij'Eau qui 
 Court. Area. 1008 sauare miles. It is separated from 
 PaUnta on the X. by the Niobrara and Missouri rivers. It 
 has a good soil, and is adaptetl to grain and stock-raising. 
 Cap. Niobrara. Pop. 201. 
 
 KnoXf a central county in Ohio, traversed by the Balti- 
 more and Ohio (Lake Erie division) and the Cleveland 
 Mt. Vernon and Delaware R. Rs., intersected by tho Ver- 
 non AVulhondiiig and Licking (N. fork ) rivers. The surface 
 is undulating and tho soil rich. The chief agricultural 
 products are Indian corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, tobacco, 
 and hay. Nearly 700. OOt) ])ounds of wool are annually 
 clijipedi 000,0(10 pounds vt' muplc-sugar and 800.000 pounds 
 of butter are produced. It has 10,000 horses, 8500 milch 
 cattle, 150,000 sheep, and .'(0,000 swine: 24 carriage-fac- 
 tories and a considerable number of manufactures. Cap. 
 Mt. Vernon. Area, 525 square miles. Pop. 20,ll.i;i. 
 
 Knox, county of E. Tennessee. Area. 510 square miles. 
 It is in the beautiful and fertile valley of the Ilolston 
 River, which traverses it. It has several mountain-ridges, 
 and contains abundant iron ore and marble. Cattle, grain, 
 tobacco, and wool arc staple products. The county is 
 traversed by the various railroads centring at Kno.wille, 
 the capital. Pop. 28,990. 
 
 Knox, an organized county of N. Texas, traversed by 
 the Brazos River. Area. 1275 square miles. Its surface is 
 hilly and br()ken, and partly of undulating prairie-land, 
 with little timber. It is attached for judicial purposes to 
 Montague co. 
 
 Knox, tp. of Knox co., 111. Pop. 2S81. 
 
 Knox, tp. of Jay co., Ind. Pop. 685. 
 
 Knox, po?t-v. of Centre tp., cap. of Stark co., Ind., on 
 the S. bank of the Yellow River, 7 miles S. of tho Pittsburg 
 Kort Wayne and Chicago R. R. It has a gootl court-house 
 and school-house, 2 hotels, I newspaper, and a number of 
 stores and shops. Lands in the vicinity are cheap and 
 well adapted to stock-raising, as also to wheat, corn, and 
 potatoes. Pop. 244. 
 
 0. Mi'ssKLMAN. Ed. "Stark Co. LKnnF.R." 
 
 Knox, tp. of Clarke co., la. Pop. 777. 
 
 Knox, tp. of Pottawattamie co., la. Pop. 901. 
 
 Knox,post-tp. of Waldo CO., Me.. 12 miles N.W. of Bel- 
 fast. It has manufactures of lumber and carriages. Poji. 
 
 Knox, post-tp. of Albany CO., N. Y. It has 6 churches 
 and several small villages, and is on the Albany an4l Sus- 
 quehanna R. R.. 17 miles W. of Albany. The village hag 
 an academy, 4 churches, and a wnoUcn-mill. Pop. 1656. 
 
 Knox, tp. of Columbiana co., 0. Pop. 2151. 
 
 Knox, tp. of Guernsey co.. 0. Pop. SIC. 
 
 Knox, tp. of Holmes co., 0. Pop. 964. 
 
 Knox, tp. of Jefferson co., 0. Pop. 1.301. 
 
 Knox, tp. of Vinton co., 0, Pop. 559. 
 
 Knox, post-tp. of Clarion co.. Pa. Pop. 656. 
 
 Knox, tp. of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 587. 
 
 Knox, tp, of Jcfl'erson co., Pa. Pop. SO:i. 
 
 Knox (IlKNrtv), Gkneral, b. in Boston, Mass., July 
 25,1750; receiverl a common school education; became a 
 bot)kseller in Boston and au ofticer in a militia body of 
 grenadiers, having devoted much study to military tactics. 
 W^hen the batllc of Bunker Ilill was inipcn<ling he made 
 bis way seerelly out of Boston, oflercil his services to Maj.- 
 (Jcn. Artenius Ward at Cambridge, and acted as a volun- 
 teer aid to that general during the battle. In the siege of 
 Boston ho was engaged as engineer and artillery i)flieer in 
 (Jridley's regiment, and attracled the atlention of \\'iish- 
 ington by his skill in fortification. He was soon after 
 placed in command of the artillery in New York, took a 
 iuilliant part in the battles of Trenton and Princeton, and 
 was thereupon elected by Congress brigadier general of 
 artillery, and sent to New England to raise a bntlalion of 
 that arm. In the buttles of Brandy wine, (>ernnintown, 
 and Monmouth tho artillery under Knox bore a leading 
 part. He was a member of the court-martial fttr tho trial 
 of Andre; was repeatedly sent to New England as com- 
 missitmer to obtuin money and recruits ; was at the biitlle 
 of Yorklown, after whieh he was made major-general, put 
 in comnmnd at \\'e«l Point, and appointed to superintend 
 the disbanding of the continental armies, and commissioner 
 to arrange with Sir (Juy Cartel on the terms of (he surrender 
 of .Vew Yitrk City. In 1785 he succeeded (ten. Lincoln as 
 secretary of war antl of the navy, retaining that ]iost iVtr 
 six years of Washington's atlniinislration. In 1795 he 
 removed to St. (Jeorge's in Maine, where ho acquired an 
 enormous landed estate, and finally settled at Thoniaston, 
 Me., where he d. Oct. 25. 1806. (See his f.i/r and Corre- 
 Kpondtnrf, by Francis S. Drake. Boston. 1S7L) 
 
 Knox (.IoiinV b. at (Jifford. in Eosi Lothian, in IftO.S, 
 His education beean at Haddington. At lb" rniversily of 
 St. Andrew's (1524) he learned from John Major, and never 
 forgot, (hat councils are above popes, and thai nations give 
 authority to kings, can depose kings, and put them to
 
 1574 
 
 KNOX. 
 
 death. Before 16u0 ho was ordained priest, in advance of 
 the canonical age. From his favorite Fathers, Jerome and 
 Augustine, ho went to Holy Scrijiture, and the progress of 
 his investigation into those questions which were then con- 
 vulsing Kuropc became very marked about l.i."i;>. The re- 
 sult wa^, that he made a distinct avowal of his Protestant 
 cnnvietioDS in 1642, withdrew from his position as teacher 
 at St. Andrew's, and sought a covert from the wrath of 
 Tardinal Beaton. The shelter needed he found in the 
 house of Hugh Douglas (Id4;J-45). This was at Longnid- 
 dry, the ruins of whose ehapel are still known as " Knox's 
 kirk." Wishart, his dear friend, was tried for heresy Mar. 
 1, and burned to death Mar. 28. I,'i45. Cardinal Beaton 
 was assassinated May 21J, 1546, and the castle of St. An- 
 drew's was held by Norman Leslie and the other conspira- 
 tors. Knox took refuge in the castle at Easter, 1547. acted 
 as its faithful chaplain, and when it was surrendt red tu the 
 French, July, 1547, was among the prisoners, I'nder the 
 charge of being concerned in the death of the cardinal he 
 was condemned to the galleys and chained to the oar. 
 Sickness was added to his trials (1548). The "sobs of his 
 heart" were heavy when the galley lay tossing in sight of 
 the wlilte steeple of St. Andrew's, "where God first in 
 public opened his mouth to His glory ;" yet that heart was 
 strong in the uttered assurance, which became jiropbccy, 
 that Knox should glorify God's name in the same place. 
 He was liberated in Feb.. 1549, went to England, was rec- 
 ommended to the English council, and. though unordained 
 as a Protestant minister, was sent by Cranmer to preach at 
 Berwick — out of Scotland, but barely out of it. There he 
 battled with popery, and made many converts. Cited by 
 Tonstall, he defended the cause of the Keformation with 
 such ability that he was appointed one of Edward's chap- 
 lains {Dec, 1551). He was consulted about the Eook of 
 Common Prayer and the Articles. He was sumnxuied to 
 London Apr., 1553, and was in full royal favor at the time 
 of Edward's death, July 6, 1553 ; he had declined a bishop- 
 ric. He was married 155.*J to Marjory, daughter of Richard 
 Bowes (brother of Sir Robert) of Berwick. The accession 
 of Mary ( 155.3) made England a dangerous place for Kno.x. 
 He had wisdom as well as bravery. He landed at Dieppe 
 Jan. 20, 1554. In February he went to Switzerland, and 
 was everywhere cordially received by the Reformed divines. 
 In Geneva he found a congenial friend in Calvin. He took 
 temporary charge (Nov., 1554) of the church of English 
 exiles at Frankfort-ou-tbe-Main. His Fuith/nl Admonititxi 
 iiuto the Pftifeannre of^ Ood'a Truth in EitijUind appeared 
 this year. He reerossed the Channel Aug., 1555, saw his 
 wife, preached, and dispensed the Lord's Supper. He re- 
 turned to the Continent July, 1556, accompanied by his 
 wife. The clergy of Scotland adjudged his body to the 
 flames and burned liim in effigy. For the next two years, 
 the most peaceful of his life, he was pastor of the English 
 church at (Jcneva. The Genevan New Tcstamout (1557) 
 and the Itiblo (1560) were influenced by him. In 1558 aj)- 
 peared his /''Imt Htast nf' the Trnmpit mjnlnHt the Mmistroim 
 Jirijinirut '>/ Women. The women sjiecially aimed at were 
 Mary of (Juise, queen dowager and re|^nt of Scotland, the 
 princess Mary, then heiress, afterwards occupant, of its 
 throne, and Queen Mary, Knox's *' Jezebel," of England. 
 The prospects of the Reformation seeming brighter. Knox 
 was recalled, and (Jan., 15511) for the last time left Geneva 
 for Scotland. Ho was refused passage through England, 
 wliose *' secret and assured friend he had been in cases 
 which herself could not have remedietl" — refuseil under the 
 regiment of Elizabeth, who had just come to the throne, 
 and who was yet to owe as much to Knox as perhaps to 
 any man of the time. Knox in his Blast had made too 
 sweeping generalities from particular cases, and Elizabeth 
 stood up for her sex. Knox landed at Leilh May 2, and 
 was at once proclaimed an outlaw and rebel. His preach- 
 ing at Perth was followed by an insurrection, in which the 
 '* rascal multitude "committed a number of act? of violence. 
 He was forbidden to preach at St. Anrlrew's June 9, and 
 preached there with tlio greater zest June lO-l.'I, and the 
 officials and people destroyed the images and pictures and 
 pulled down the monastery on the 14th. Though the 
 direct personal influence of Knox produced a relatively 
 peaceful abolition of the old worship, the storm against 
 "idolatry" involved the destruction of many precious 
 works of art. " The rooks' nests were pulled down." 
 Knox was formally ordained at Edinburgh in 1560. The 
 Confession of Faith, mainly his work, was adopted by the 
 Parliament .'Vug. 17. The Reformation was ofticialiy estul>- 
 lished Aui;. 24. The first General Assembly of liie Kirk 
 was held Dec. 2ft. Of the f<.rly members, there were but 
 six ministers, of whom Knox was one. Private sorrow 
 eamo fast on public joy, for this same month ho lost his 
 wife. The clouds which had been pwcpt away in 1560 be- 
 gan to gather again in the follnwing year. The young 
 queen of Scotland had returned from France (Aug. 21, 1661 ). 
 
 Never was there a less congenial conjunction between the 
 
 throne and the people. The first interview of Knox with 
 her took place early in Se])t., 1561, and another May 2, 
 1562. after the queen had been told of a sermon in which 
 he condemned the festivitie.-^ in the palace, believed to have 
 been prompted by the massacre of the French Protestants 
 in March at Vassy. He did much to preserve the peace in 
 the South while the rebellion of the earl of Hunlly was 
 crushed in the North (1562). At Lochlcven, Knox again 
 saw the queen (May 2. 15G3). who exerted on him all her 
 powers of pleasing. Her success with Knox was little, 
 but it was great with her Protestant nobles at the Parlia- 
 ment May 20, and Knox came to an open rupture with the 
 earl of Murray, whom he had regarded as (»ne of the greatest 
 pillars of the truth. In political sagacity and insight into 
 character Knox took rank with the greatest statesmen of 
 his time. He now spoke in the puljtit with freedom of 
 the apostasy of the nobility, and of the reputed marriage 
 of the queen to a papist. I'nivcrsal terror and ofl"ence 
 followed. Knox was deserted by some of bis nearest 
 friends. The queen, whoso hand had almost grasped the 
 triumph for which she labored, was overwhelmed with anger 
 that this man should defy and thwart her and the nobles 
 she had won to her side. She sent for him, but she was 
 now too nmch wounded and angered to dissemble. *' I can- 
 not get quit of you," she cried : *' I vow to God I shall he 
 once revenged !" and could speak no more for wee[>ing. 
 The moral trial of the position of Knox at such a time is 
 almost inconceivable. It was beyond any mere test of 
 courage. In personal matters Knox was of a loving nature. 
 But as the face of angry men could not move him, neither 
 could the beauty of the young queeu cliarm him, nor her 
 tears melt him. At this time powerful efforts were made to 
 crush Knox. A calumny against his personal purity was 
 set afloat, but was promptly met and exposed. In Decem- 
 ber he was accused of high treason, and the queen thought 
 she should now "make him weep" whom her tears could 
 not move. But the majesty of Knox's heroic nature made 
 itself felt in the council of the nobles. Knox was not only 
 acquitted, but couiniended. and "that night was neither 
 dancing nor fiddling in tiic court." The same year he 
 published an account of his disputation of the year pre- 
 vious with Kennedy, abbot of Cromaguel. Knox married 
 a second time ( I^Iar.. 1564). His wife was Margaret Stew- 
 art, daughter of Knox's friend, who stood by him when all 
 other men forsook him — Lord Ochiltree, who was of the 
 blood royal by the second son of Robert 11. Alliance wilh 
 kings did not make Knox more courtly. He was brought 
 before the privy council for a sermon preached in St. Giles's 
 (Aug. 19, 1565) in the presence of Darnlcy, in which ho 
 had quoted certain texts which (he ncw-niarricd king, not 
 without good reason, applied to himself and the queen, and 
 was violently offended. Knox was prohibited from preach- 
 ing while the royal pair remained in the city. They left 
 before Sunday, and when tliey relumed they wisely let the 
 matter drop, for the pul|)it of Kn<)X had grown mightier 
 than the throne. Mary entered the Catholic League for 
 the extirpation of the Protestants Feb. 2. 1566. Rizzio was 
 assassinated Mar. 9. On the return of the queen. Knox 
 left Edinburgh. In December he visited his son in England. 
 Knox's prophecy was fuKilled. The queen became the in- 
 strument of Darnley's overthrow; he was murdered Feb. 
 10, 1567. The queen married Rothwell May 15, and one 
 month later, forsaken by her husband, was a prisoner at 
 Lochlcven Castle. Ten days later (June 25) Knox was 
 present at the General Assembly in Edinburgh. Ho 
 preached at the coronation of James VI., an infant thirteen 
 months old (July 29). Knox urged the capital arraign- 
 ment of Mary on the charge of adultery and murder. The 
 aj:sassinati<tn of the regent Murray (Jan. 23, 1570) by a 
 man whom he had pardoned on the persuasion of Knox, 
 and the civil troubles which followed it, greatly depressed 
 him. In October he had a stroke of apojdexy, which left 
 him weak, but did not long keep him from the pitl))it. Jlo 
 had enough <»f his old vigor and his old mode of using it 
 to give such oflVnce to Kirkaldy, governor of the castle, as 
 to make it prudent to retire (May 5. 1571) to St. Andrew's. 
 Here he published his answer to Tyrie. Ho returned to 
 Kdinburgti Aug., 1572. The tidings of the massacre of 
 St. Bartholomew (.Aug. 24) helped yet further to break bis 
 declining strength. He made his last appearance in the 
 pulpit Nov. 9, and preaebecl with no abatement of intel- 
 lectual power. Sick and exhausted, leaning on his staff 
 and tlie arm of an attendant, with a loving multitude 
 crowding around him. ho crept to his home, and there, 
 when speech failed him. with his hand uplifted in token of 
 the faith for which he had fought, he breathed his last in 
 perfect peace, Nov. 24, 1572 — one of the most heroic mcTi 
 of a heroic race. Two days later he was buried at St. 
 (liles's. He was followed to the grave by an immense body 
 of mourners, nobles and people, and then were uttered by
 
 K NOX— K N Y I'll AUSi:X. 
 
 l."^7o 
 
 Morton, the new regent, the words "ho neither feared nor 
 
 flattered any fle^h," which the world has accepted in its 
 later, more trraceful phra-«inir. as the epitome of Knox's 
 character: ''There lies he who never feared the face of 
 man.'* The precise spot where he was buried is no longer 
 known. It is said the highway came to pass over it. 
 Knox was pliysically small and fcclde. II is voice was 
 weak. It was its moral power, by which, as the Knglish 
 ambassador wrote to Cecil, "the voice of one man is able 
 in an hour to put more life in us than six hundred 
 trumpets." Knox was profoundly pious, indomitable in 
 pnr|)0!ie, yet not without j;cniality and humur. not without 
 sensibility and tenderness, and tliat vein of melancholy 
 which so often attends them. He hated bad thinirs rather 
 than bad men. His animosities were the animosities of 
 principle. None feared him but the enemies of truth. Ho 
 was above all pettiness. He was a man of thought and a 
 man of action, a statesman as well as a divine, with an 
 acuteness of insight into character and a comprehension 
 of the movements of Providence which gave iiim almost a 
 prophetic forecast. He abhorred every species of tyranny, 
 and roused a spirit in his native land which broke violence 
 with violence. He had the roughness needed for a rough 
 time and a fierce people. lie was intolerant to the intol- 
 erant, and, exacting in his conception of his own <luty. be 
 was exacting of others. His writings are full of vigor, 
 originality, and simplicity. In his intellectual tone and 
 theological opinions he was in afiinity with Calvin, in his 
 pergonal heroism he resembled Luther : an<I next to Luther's 
 his story stirs the soul in this great baf(!e-roll of the Ref- 
 ormation. Ho wantorl nothing hut a wider sphere lo take 
 rank in the first order of the historic men of his age. 
 Perhaps ft wider sphere could not have been given him, 
 for as none but Scotland could have produced a Knox, 
 none but .Scotland would haveendurcil him. Such a direct 
 and daring contlict as Knox wa^cd with the great would 
 hardly have found out of Scotland such a support; hut 
 not in Scotlan«I itself could any man but Knox have de- 
 veloped it. The estimates of so strong a man in so stir- 
 rini; a time, in which the jfolitical and religious antag- 
 onisms were so violent, vary, of necessity, very much. 
 Hume: "His political principles were as full of sedition 
 as his theological were full of rage and bigotry.'* Whita- 
 ker: "A holy savage." "I happened to ask," says Bos- 
 well, " where Johu Knox was buried; Dr. Johnson burst 
 out, ' I hope in the highway.' " Robertson : " Zeal, intre- 
 pidity, disinterestedness, were virtues which ho possessed 
 in an eminent degree." Melville: "That most notable 
 prophet and apostle of our nation, John Knox." Banna- 
 tvnc : "The light of Scotland, the comfort of the Church, 
 the mirror of godliness." Smelon : " I know not if ever 
 so much piety and genius were lodged in so frail and weak 
 a body." Frou<lc: " Xo grander figure can be found, in 
 (he entire history of the Reformation in this island, than 
 that of Knox. Ru^ for him the Reformation would have 
 been overthrown among ourselves. . . . He raised the poor 
 commons of his country into a stern and rugged people, 
 who might bo hard, narrow, superstitious, and fanatical, 
 but who, nevertheless, were men whom neither king, nol)Ie. 
 nor prie!<t couM force again to submit to tyranny." Car- 
 lyle: "The most Scottish of Scot?. . . . Nothing hypo- 
 critical, foolish, or untrue can find hurhor in this man ; a 
 pure and manly silent tenderness of afTeotion is in him; 
 touches of genial humor are not wanting under his severe 
 austerity. A mojtt clear-cut, liurily, distinct, andeffcctivo 
 man; fearing <iod without any other fear. There is in 
 Knox throughout the spirit of an old Hebrew prophet — 
 spirit almo<<t altogether unir{uc among modern men. A 
 Ileaven-in^pircd seer and heroic leader of men." 
 
 Knox's //M/ori/../" the /i'/.,riiinti»u in .SV.,//.mk/ appeared 
 in I68G. His entire works have been cililed by Laing 
 (ISIrt-S.')), The older sketches of Knox are by Beza, A'lam, 
 and Vcrheidcn. The he^t Lirrtt are by McCric ( I^M), Nie- 
 meyer f IK24). and Rrandes (IS(J:.M. The general histories 
 of tircat Itritain and of England covering Knox'o time 
 touch upon him with more or less fulness — Hume, Linganl, 
 Kroude. The general lii!)toric!< of the Kiiglir'h Reforma- 
 tion and Church of Knglnnd — Rurnel. Short : of the Prot- 
 cstant Church and sects of (ireat Rrilnin — Weber (IM (5- 
 b'J ) : more particularly the histories of Scotland, general — 
 as Robertson, Tytler, Von Raumrr, Rurton : or special — 
 Thomas McCrie, .Jr., Sk-rrrhr» "/" Sroitinh f^hurrfi Iliittory 
 {ISll-ll'.). D'Aubign/'-'s Thrr^ (V,ifN,-.V* «/* .S'/rm/v//- (l.s:>0) ; 
 Rudloir I2d cd.. 1«J4). Kiisllin i |.s;,:M, are of value. Car- 
 lylo has an article in rrnnrr'i> Mai/nzinr for Apr., IS7A, on 
 the portraits of John Knox, published by Harper A Rron., 
 1S7^>. Lorimcr, Jnhu Knnx mtil fh*i Church nf Kntj\%i%ui 
 (Lond., IS7.'>i, has used important papers to illustrate his 
 work in her pulpit and his influenoe in various respects. 
 
 C. P. KnAiTii, 
 Knox (Jons Jav), b. in Knoxboro*, Ouoida co., N. Y., 
 
 Mar. 19, 1828; graduated at Hamilton College in. 1849; 
 was a private banker or an officer of a bank until 1802, 
 when he received an appointment from Secretary Chase, 
 and subsequently bad charge of the mint eoiniigo corre- 
 spondence of the treasury department; in lJS(i7 he was 
 appointed deputy comptroller of the currency; and in 
 1870 his two reports on the mint service, together with a 
 codification of the mint and coinngo laws of the U.S., willi 
 many important amendments, were published by order of 
 Congress. The bill which he proposed was subsequently 
 passed with a few modifications, and is known as " the 
 Coinage Act of 1873." In 1872 he was appointed comp- 
 troller of the currency, and in 1877 reap])ointcd. His six 
 reports published by Congress contain historical sketches 
 of the two banks of the W S. and of the State and national 
 systems of banking, and statistical information of banking 
 and currency in this country, from the curliest date to the 
 present time. 
 
 Knox (LoRKS L.). D. D.. b. in Nelson, N. Y., Jan. 8, 
 1811 ; graduated at Wesleyan University 1838: tutor 1838- 
 40; held numerous pastorates aud several priucipalships 
 of seminaries of the Methodist Episcopal Church ; was pro- 
 fessor in Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis., 18;>8-64, 
 and was placed on the superannuated list of his Church in 
 1871. 
 
 Knox Corners (KsoxBonorGn P. 0.), a v. of Augusta 
 tp., Oneida eo,. N. Y. Pop. 208. 
 
 Knox'villCy post-tp. of Greene co., Ala. Pop. 1032. 
 KnoxviHe, post-v., cap. of Crawford co., Ga., 15 miles 
 from Fort Valley Station on the South-western R. 11. 
 
 KnoxviUe^ city of Knox tp., Knox co., 111., 50 miles 
 W.of Peoria and 50 E. of Burlington, la. It has 1 news- 
 paper (established 18j(>), 1 national bank, B institutions 
 of learning. 7 churches, 4 hotels, 7 wagon and carriage 
 shops, 2 flour-mills, and 1 woollcn-mill. It is largely en- 
 gaged in coal-mining and wagon manufacturing; is the 
 scat of the Episcopal diocesan school of lUiniiis for girls, 
 with an attendance of over 100 pupils. Pop. 1883. 
 0. L. Cami'Bkli., Forkman " Knux Co. Rkpi:blican." 
 Knoxville, post-v. and tp.. cap. of Marion co., la., 40 
 miles S. E. of Des Moines. It has 2 national banks, 2 
 weekly newspapers, 6 churches, 3 hotels, 3 steam-mills. 2 
 woollen-factories, an iron-foundry, more than 20 stores of 
 different kinds. It is situated on the line of the A. K. and 
 D. R. R. Pop. of V. 800: of tp. 4750. 
 
 J. L. McCoRMACK. Ed. "Marion Co. Demochat." 
 Knoxville^ post-v. of Frederick co., I\Id., on the Poto- 
 mac River, the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, and the Balti- 
 more and Ohio R. R. Pop. 320. 
 
 Knoxvillc, post-v. aud tp. of Ray co.'. Mo. Pop. 2-lfiO. 
 KnoxviHe ( Stock bridgk P.O.). a v. of Slcickbridge tp., 
 Madison co.. N. Y. It has 3 churches. Pop. 241. 
 
 Knoxvillc, a v. of Corning tp.. Steuben co., N. Y.. on 
 fhe Cheuuing Kivcr, opposite Corning, with which it is con- 
 nected by a bridge. Poji. 785. 
 
 Knoxvillc, post-v. of Knox tp., Jefferson co., 0. Pop. 
 165. 
 
 KnoxviMe, poet-b. of Deerfield tp., Tioga co.. Pa. Pi>p. 
 400. 
 
 Knoxville, city, cap. of Knox co., Tcnn., is situated at 
 the head of navigation on the Tennessee River, on the East 
 Tennessee Virginia and Georgia R. R.. and on the projected 
 road from Cincinnati to Charleston, the latter roatl being 
 conipleled 40 miles N. to Careyville coaI-mine.'<', and 10 miles 
 S. to Maryville. It fans 17 churches, 5 banks, 2 daily and 
 4 weekly newspapers, 3 hotels, an opera house, numerous 
 and enterprising wholesale houses, n rolling-nnll, 3 ftmo- 
 drics, a paper-mill, a carriage-factory, sash and blinil fac- 
 tories, extensive railroad car and repair shops, several fine - 
 flour-mills, and many other industrial establishments. 
 Knoxvillc is the third city of Tennessee in size, the centre 
 nf the great valley of East Tennessee, one of the most beiiu- 
 liful and fertile regions of the \} . "^.^ tind is noted for the 
 , niimbor of its public eslablislnnenls. which include a mar- 
 hlo U. S. court-house (and postoflieo") recently completed 
 at a cost of $100,000. in wliieh the Federal courts and the 
 Slato supreme court mer-t ; the East Tennessee University, 
 the State Agricultural College (.■?5()0.000 endowmeut), a fc 
 I male institute, and several fine city free schools, free public 
 library, .'^late deaf and dumb school and insane asylum, and 
 ! an orphans* home. Knoxvillu University, well endowed by 
 the M. E. Church, is to be erected here, as also a city hos- 
 pital. It is one of the most important commercial and man- 
 ufaoturing centres in the .South. Pop. 8(>82. 
 
 RriK k Ricks. Ens. "Daii.v CnnoNiri.E." 
 Knoxville Mines, a v. of Lake co., Cal. Pop. 104. 
 Knyphnu'scn ( Itono IIknrv), Raron. b. in Alsace in 
 173U; entered the military service of Prussia at an early
 
 1576 
 
 KOALA— KOLLAR. 
 
 age, and took part in the campaigns of Frederick the Great 
 a-^ainst Austria ; befainc lieutenant-general, aud was second 
 in commniul of the liegsian ami Waideek troops sent to 
 America during the Kt-volutionary war ; was engaged in the 
 battles of Long Ishind. White Plains. Fort Washington, 
 lirandywine, and Monmouth, and was temporarily in com- 
 mand of the forrrs in New York City in June, 17?>0, when 
 hi' made two raids into New Jersey, with but slight ad- 
 vantage beyond the sacking of Connecticut Farms and the 
 burning of Springfield, lie was an excellent commanding 
 ofliccr, and notable for taciturnity. D. at Berlin, Prussia, 
 May 2. I7S0. 
 
 Koa'ta^ the Phaacofarrtos r/ncrctM^ a syndactyl marsu- 
 jtial mammal of Australia and of the family Phascolarctidie. 
 It is ursine in its general appearance, nocturnal and arbor- 
 eal in its habits, and extremely slow in its movements. It 
 is a marsupial sloth, but we arc told that it sometimes comes 
 to the earth and digs up succulrnt roots as food. The fe- 
 male carries her single whelp for a time in the pouch, but 
 soon transfers it to her back, where it clings by the Jong 
 coarse hair. 
 
 Ko'bell, von (Franz), b. at Munich July 19, 1S03, 
 and bi-eanie pn»fes:!ior of mineralogy at the university of 
 his native city in IS.'U. Of the Oenrhichte tier Wissen- 
 schn/ten hi Ihnttichfnw/, a Work which was undertaken 
 under the auspices of King Max of liavnria, he wrote Oc- 
 
 fx'hirhte tfrr Minrrahujic von 1050 bU JSOO; hc also pub- 
 lished several popular papers on mineralogy. 
 
 Ko'bold [Ger.], in German legends, a kind of elf which 
 in some places was believed to be attached to gome particu- 
 lar house or place. In general the kobolds were beneficent, 
 but some were malicious. They particularly haunted the 
 mine>'; tliey were little, decrepit old men and women, dressed 
 generally in miners' clothes. They heaped up precious stones 
 and valuable metals; and though they dreaded to be seen 
 by men. they were fond of doing mankind favors in secret. 
 Ko'briii, or Kobryn, town of Russian Poland, in the 
 government of Grodno, on the Machazica, has some trade 
 and 7bM) inhabitants. 
 
 Koch'ville, tp. of Saginaw co., Mich. Pop. lOTO. 
 Kock, cle (Charles Pail), b. in Paris in 1794, was the 
 son of the celebrated banker Kock, who conspired under the 
 Revolution and was guillotined. Paul de Kock published 
 his novels during the Restoration and the reign of Louis 
 Philippe. These works are all of a very comical turn and of 
 a light character, sometimes bordering on license. Among 
 the most popular were (for they are now somewhat out of 
 fashion), M. Dnpnnt, Gugtave on Ic Mauvaia Sujet, and Lea 
 JJemohefleH de Mafjasln, Paul de Kock also wrote many 
 vatuferillen for the stage. I>. at Paris Aug. 29, 1S71. — His 
 son. Henri, b. in Paris in 1^21. follows the literary path 
 trodden by his father, and he has already published many 
 light novels and several vaiide.vUlet and comedies. ' 
 
 Felix Aucaigne. 
 Kcrchlin' (ANnnf:).* b. in Alsace in 17S6. the most 
 celebrated of the Kfcehlin family, whieh has established 
 and rendered the print trade of Mulhousc iu Alsace so 
 prosperous. Jacques and Nicolas Ka?chlin were the first 
 to engage in that industry, but it reached its highest degree 
 through the efforts of Andr6 Koechlin, who can be considered 
 as the head of this family, whieh does not count less than 
 seven branches, and some members of which arc still the 
 greatest manufacturers of Mulhouso prints. 
 
 Fklix ArCATGNE. 
 Koek'koek (Bernard Cornelus), b. at Middleburg 
 in the Xetherlands Oet. 11, 180;J; i^tudicd the art of paint- 
 ing under his father and at Amsterdam, and settled in 1S41 
 at Clevcs in Rhenish Prussia, where he d. Apr. 5, IS02. 
 He painted landscapes, and his pictures arc prized very 
 highly. He had three brothers, who all are painters of j 
 note. 
 
 Kohat% town of the Punjaub. in a district of the same 
 name. In its vicinity arc rich springs ol naphtha and ex- 
 tensive beds of sulphur. It forms au important station for 
 the trade between India aud Persia. 
 
 Koh-i-noor' (the "mountain of light"), a famous 
 diamond which for many centuries was in the possession 
 of the monarchs of India, and now in that of Queen Vic- 
 toria. Successivo cuttings reduced its weight from 900 I 
 carats to 792, then to 279. next to IHfi.C. and at last in 1862 
 to I0;i.7;>, being rose-eut, and valued at about $000,UUO. 
 
 Kohl f JoRANN (iEORo). Ph. D.. b. at Bremen, Germany, 
 Apr. 2S. ISOS; studied law at the universities of GSttingen, 
 Heidelberg, and Munich; resided for five years { 1832—17) 
 as a private tutor in Courland, Russia, and after visiting 
 u great part of that empire settled in Dresden in IS.'IS, 
 where he prepared three works on Russia, all published in 
 ISJI. Their success led him to make a similarly careful 
 series of journeys in the Austrian empire, and afterwards 
 
 in Great Britain. Denmark, the Nethcrlande, and tbo Sla- 
 vonic portion of Turkey, of nil whieh countries he furnished 
 excellent accounts in his popular books of travel. His writ- 
 ings on Denmark an'd .SK-.-iwiek-IIolstein (6 vols.. 184C- 
 47) were published opportunely just before the political 
 questions regarding the Danish duchies sprang into im- 
 portance (1848), aud they therefore obtained a wide pub- 
 licity. From ls;>4 to ISjS, Dr. Kohl travelled or resided 
 in North America, and as a conse(|uence prepared several 
 valuable works — Travels in (Miunla (\^o:>), Traif.U iu the 
 North-wentrru Pnrts of the U. S., and Kitrhi'Gami,uv Talta 
 from Lake Superior ( 1S07). He also communicated to the 
 Smithsonian Institution two essays on early maps aud charts 
 of America, and prepared a catalogue of Ihein as a supple- 
 ment to Hakluyfs great work. Iu iStH ho published a 
 Jiist. of, and Cominentarif oji, tiro Mnjm of the Xtir U'ii/7(i 
 made in Spain at the Commcnvcntcut of the Rtitjii of the 
 Emperor Charles V., and almost at the same time a Hift. 
 of the Discorrrif of Aiiierica. Dr. Kohl resided after his 
 return from America at Bremen, and d. there June G. 1871. 
 Shortly before his death he communicated to the Maine 
 Historical Society important data rcppeetiug the early an- 
 nals of discovery, exploration, and aticinpted colonization 
 of the coasts of Maine by French navigators. 
 
 Kohl'-rabi [Gcr.. perhaps originally meaning '* rape 
 cabbage " or " Ijcet cabbage " — h'ohl-rultr'\, a variity of tbo 
 lirnssica oleraeca, the species which includes the cabbage, 
 turnip, etc. The thickened edible portion is the leafy stem, 
 and above ground, instead of the root beneath, as in the 
 turnip. It is cultivated in the I'. S.. but much more exten- 
 sively in Europe, aud is prized for cattle aud for table use. 
 Its cultivation is precisely that of the cabbage. 
 
 Ko'komO) post-v.. cap. of Howard co.. Tnd., 54 miles 
 N. of Indianapolis, on the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. 
 Louis, the Indianapolis Peru and Chicago, and the Frank- 
 fort and Kokonio R. Rs.. being the terminus of the latter. 
 It has 6 churches, I national and 2 private banks. 2 week- 
 ly newspapers, a high-?ehoo| building (cost $40,1)00). ma- 
 chine-shops, hub and spoke, door and sash, chair, furniture, 
 and other factories, 1 woollen and 2 flouring mills. Pop. 
 2177. T. C. Philips, Ed. *' Tribine." 
 
 1 Ko'kra, or Cocus-wood, the Aporo^a dioira, a 
 rather small tree of the East Indies, order Euphorbiacea'. 
 The timber is very hard and of a rich handsome brown 
 I color. It is imported, and used in making flutes and for 
 I ornamental joinery. 
 
 j Ko'la,town of Russia, in the government of Archangel. 
 I is the northernmost town of European Russia, situated 
 ; at the confluence of the Kola and Tuloma. 36 miles from 
 I the Arctic Ocean, in lat. riS*^ 50' X.. Ion. Z^^ lb' E., cud has 
 a good harbor. It was bombarded by the allied powers 
 r Aug. 2.1, 1854. Pop. about 1000. 
 
 Kolapoor'y an independent state under Engliiih protec- 
 tion, in the jircsidcney of Bombay, partly occupied l)y the 
 ! AVestern Ghauts, jiarlly situated on tHc table-land of Dce- 
 ' can, bordering on the Kistnah. Area, 3445 square miles. 
 Pop. 500,000. Cap. Kolapoor. 
 
 Kolb (Geokg FniErmicn), b. Sept. 14, 1808, at Spires, 
 where in Ib'.'S hc founded a liberal journal, which hc con- 
 dueled for more than twenty years, though uuder many 
 ditlicuUies from the government. As a member of the 
 Bavarian diet he compelled King Louis I., iu l>4y. by his 
 report on the Greek louu. to repay to the state treasury 
 out of his private means the money which had been lent 
 to his son, King Otho of Greece. Shortly after the reac- 
 tionary party came into |>ower, aud Kolb had to retire to 
 Zurich to escape from the persecutions of the govtrnment. 
 He lived here from 185o to 18ri0. On his return hc became 
 editor of the liberal journal. Frankfurter Ztitumj. Besides 
 being a journalist and politician, hc has acquired u great 
 name as a statistician. He wrote l/tindhuch der verylcich- 
 eudtn Stittistik (1858) and O'rinidritis dtr Statiatik (1862). 
 
 Kol'csey (Fkhkncz), b. Aug. 8. 1790. at Szo-Demeter, 
 in Transylvania: studied law, but allied himself very early 
 with that literary movement at the head of which stood 
 Kazinczy. His poems and tales were much appreciated ; 
 he exercised the greatest influence, however, by his clear 
 and vigorous criticism. Having been elected a member of 
 the Hungarian diet { 1832-36). he showed himself to be one 
 of the most brilliant orators of the country, and a great 
 political career was opened for him when he suddenly d. at 
 Pesth, Aug, 21, I8.'{S. His collected works were published 
 after his death ; his JJiart/, during the diet in 184S. 
 
 Koliazin'f town of Russia, in the government of 
 Tver. It is famous for its shoe-factories. Pop. 5895. 
 
 Kolin'f town of Bohemia, on the left bank of the Elbe. 
 Here the Austrians under Daun defeated the Prussians un- 
 der Frederick the Great. June 18, 1757. Pop. 7727. 
 KoHar' (Jan), b. July 2y, 1793, at Mossocz, in North-
 
 KOLLIKER— KONIGSTEIN. 
 
 1577 
 
 western Hungary, of Slavic descent; studied theology at 
 Prcsburg and Jcnii : was appointi'd minister to Ihe Slavic 
 congregation nt I*est!i in Isl'.t, oml removed in 1K4'J, as 
 professor of Slavic archaeology, lo Vicuna, where he d. Jan. 
 2U, 18o2. His poeniB and Um^ edition of the Slavic popiilar 
 songs exercised a great intluence on the development of the 
 Itohemian literature. lUit a still iimri- intense and much 
 wilier attention was attracted by his idcsis of Panslavisro, 
 which pervade his poetry, his sermons, and his archteologi- 
 cal writings, and which were openly set forth for the first 
 time in his Ccbcr die Utrrarinchc Wt'cfmrheitif/keit zwiscUen 
 dtn Stiimmrn und MuudartcH der iilawischen A'atioiten 
 (1S;U), written in (icrman. 
 
 KoTlikcr (Ridoi.f Ai.BUKCtiT). h. at Zurich. Switzer- 
 land, July G, 1817: studied at Zurich. Uonie. and lierlin ; 
 became distinguished for knowledge of histology and skill 
 in micro?c<tpical anatomy ; was nuide an instructor at Zu- 
 rich in 1H41;, and in I84j adjunct professor of comparative 
 anatomy and of physiology : received the full professorship 
 of the same branches at Wiiizhurg in 1.SI7, and in IS-l'J 
 heciimc professor of anatomy there. Author of a series of 
 very valuable works on histology, physiology, and other 
 departments of biology, several of which have been trans- 
 lated into the principal European languages. 
 
 Kolmar, tp. of Olmsted co., Minn. Pop. 972. 
 
 Kolonio'Uf town of Austria, in the province of (lalicia, 
 on (he Pruth. at ilie foot of the Carpathian Mountains. It 
 is famous for its pottery. P(»p. 14,S.'iy. 
 
 Kolom'na, town of Kuropean Russia, in the govern- 
 ment of Moscow, on the Moskva, near its confluence with 
 the Oka. It has large silk manufactures and a consider- 
 able trade. Pop. l:i,70:i. 
 
 Koloshcs, the Russian name for the Indians of the 
 const of Alaska. fScc Komacas.) 
 
 iionfi Mountains, the name of a mountain-range of 
 Central Africa, commencing in lat. 9° N. and Ion. '.)° 20' W., 
 at a distance of about 2O0 miles from the Gulf of (luinea, 
 and forming the northern frrmtier <tf Ashaiitce. The height 
 of these mountains i- not more than 2.')()0 feet, but very 
 little is known about tbeui. Tlic Kong district is remark- 
 able for its trade in gold, and the town of Kong is quite 
 celebrated for its manufactures of col ton cloth, in which it 
 carries on an extensive trade, being itself a centre of sev- 
 eral caravan-routes. 
 
 Konfj^^'berj;, town of Xorway. in the province of Chris- 
 tiania, has a mining scbool. and in its vicinity silver-mines, 
 discovered in 102^5, and still worked with profit. Pop. 
 
 about .onon. 
 Konia'gas, Ka'diakn, or Southern Eskimos, a 
 
 great family of aborigines inhabiting thcsca-c<»ast of Alaska 
 for more than lilM) miles from Kot/.ebuc Sound, N. of lUh- 
 ring Strait, across the peninsula of Alaska to the mouth 
 of the Atna or Copper River, and extending inland lOU to 
 IJO miles. They derive their name from the large island 
 of Kadiak, the inhabitants of which called themselves 
 K'nunfinl. They arc divided into fourteen tribes — the 
 K'>niaga3 proper, who inhabit Kadiak and tlic neighboring 
 islands; (hugatslies, on the islands and shores of Prince 
 William Sound; Aglegmutes, on Itristol Rnj' ; Keyalaig- 
 mutes, on the river Nushagak and the coast as far as Cape 
 Ncwenham; Aguliuules, on the coast between the Kusko- 
 quin and Kishunak rivers; Kuskoipiigtnutcs, on the river 
 Ku.-koquim: Magemulrs. near Cape Romanzofl"; Kwieh- 
 
 Iiagmutcs. Kwicbluagniutes. and Pa^hloliks on Kwichpak, 
 vwiehluak. and Pashtulik rivers; Clinagmutes, near Pash- 
 t'.lik Ray: Anlvgmutcs of (Jolovnin Ray; Kaviaks and 
 Miilemutes of Norton Sound. All these tribes speak dia- 
 Icct.s of the same language. (Fur an elaborate account of 
 these little known races see II. II. Rancrofl's Native Rucea 
 n/tln- I'ft'ifii: StnUi,, vol. i., ISVI.) 
 
 Ko'iiieh, the ancient ftonitun, town of Asialio Turkey, 
 the capital of (ho province of Karaniaiiin, Asia Minor, 
 situated in lat. 'M"^ M' N. and Ion. ;i2° 41)' K. It has some 
 manufactures of carpets anrl nuirocco. but it is mo.stly in a 
 decaying state, although its walls, surmounted by square 
 towers, its nuiny mos(|UCs und minarets, give it an impos- 
 ing appearance at a distance. Pop. between 4U,U00 und 
 .')0,000. 
 
 KO'niff (Hf.ivnini .To**Epn\ h. Mar. 19, 1700. nt Fuldn. 
 in the toruicr eleelorale nf Iles-te. held different small of- 
 fices in Ihe civil serviee at Ihumu; retired in is 17; lived 
 for some time at Wiesbaden, and d. Sept. 23. IS(iU. He 
 wrote a great number of novels and so-calletl historical ro- 
 mances — f/i»fipi'f,dir \i'4ilti' imrrin (2 vols.). Wiffinm Shnk- 
 fif>r<trr {2 vols.), />i> ("luUnKtfH iu .l/«iniS (.'1 vols.), etc. — 
 
 which were eagerly devoured by that kind of people who 
 have time to read many novels, but not taste enough to 
 rend the good ones. 
 
 KO'nigf^riUZy a fortified town of Bohomiaf on the 
 
 Elbe. The Austrians under Gen. Rencdek were completely 
 defeated here by the Prussians under Gen. Moltko, July 2, 
 186(3. Pop. JVlGl. 
 
 Kti'nisinhof, town of Bohemia, on the Elbe. It has 
 some manufactures. Pop. 5370. 
 
 Ko'ni^sbcrg, the capital of the province of Prussia 
 and a fortress of lirst rank, is situated 20 miles from the 
 Baltic on both sides of the Pregel, whose two arms, the old 
 and the new Prcgcl, unite within tljc city. Pop. Dec. 1, 
 1871. 112,002. It is the scut of a university, of the pro- 
 vincial government, of the staff of the 1st army corps, and 
 has a numerous garrison. It consists of three former 
 towns, Altstadt, Lobenicht. and Knei])hof, which in 1724 
 were united into one city. It is not a handsome place; the 
 streets arc narrow and tlierc are few conspicuous buildings. 
 Altstadt is the oldest part, and contains the palace and the 
 tov^n-houso. The palace, with a tower 87 metres high, 
 forms an oblong square, anil stands nearly in the centre of 
 the city. It is rich iu historical recollections. It was 
 founded in 12.'t7 by King Ottokar of Robcmia; became the 
 residence of the grand master of the (icrman order in 
 I-ICC, and in 1J25 the residence of the dukes of Prussia. 
 The eastern wing was built in lo;i2 by Duke Albrecht, the 
 southern in 16^1. In the chapel, occujiying the western 
 wing, the elector of "Rrandonburg, Krcilcrick IIF., crowned 
 himself, Jan. 18, 1701. as the first king of Prussia, under 
 the name of Frederick T. In the same place William I., 
 afterwards German emper()r, was crowned as king of Prus- 
 sia Oct. 18, 18(il. Over the church is the large Moskowi- 
 tersaal, which is used for great festivals. In front of the 
 eastern gate stands the statue of Frederick I., erected in 
 1801, of life-size. Other remarkable buiblings arc — the 
 cathedral, 92 metres long, situated on an island formed by 
 the Pregel, a Gothic structure commenced in l.'ilJo, and con- 
 taining several interesting monuments; the old university 
 building. Collegium Albertinum. founded in 1;'»44; the 
 new university building, on the parade-ground to the N. 
 of the juxlacc, finished in |S(;2, with a hall frcscoecl by 
 Uosentelder, Griif. and Piotrowsky. On the parade-ground 
 Pt.ands also the theatre, and in the centre of the place rises 
 the equestrian statue of Frederick William III. by Kiss. 
 The museum, the royal library, tlie observatory, tlieniuuu- 
 nicnts of the philosopher Kant and the niinister Scliiin, arc 
 also inlorcBting. Excellent scientific and benevolent in- 
 stitutions are the botanical garden, the zoological museum, 
 the seminary, Ibrec gymnasiums, a mercantile school, an 
 aiuidemy of art. asylums for the deaf und dumb, fur the 
 blind, lunatics, and orphans, and several hospitals. The 
 nnmufacturing industry is considerable. Iron-foundries, 
 machine-shops, breweries, and dyework.s are in operation. 
 Iron goods, chemicals, soap, paper hangings, leather, and 
 tobacco are manufactured. To the city belonged in 1872, 
 la sea-going vessels, besides 8 river steamboats. At Pil- 
 lau, the port of Kiinigsberg, entered in 1871, 1322 vessels, 
 with cargoes of IIO.OJO tons, and ."588 vessels without car- 
 goes; and cleared, I.VIO vessels, with cargoes of lii.'i.OGS 
 tons, and 8i vessels witluuit cargoes. Among the imports 
 were 2lH,07fl cwts.tea, U0,4(i.') cv.ts. pig iron. 3I8.1'J3 cwts. 
 rails, 131,238 barrels of herrings, 1,018,255 cwts. coal, 
 1 323,'IS5 cwts. salt. Among the expoils were 201,808 cwts. 
 tea to Russia, 138,247 cwts. rails, 20;'.,filiO cwts. flax and 
 heiup.OU7.00(i cwts. wheat, 2,130, l)2il cwts. rye, 401, SO I cwts. 
 . barley, 433,007 cwts. oats, 310,500 cwts.* beans, 700,412 
 j cwts. oil-sceds, 104,8.33 cwts. rags, 175,230 cwts. salt. 
 
 Konigsberg was built by the Teutonic order of Knights 
 
 in 1255 as a fortress against llu' jiagiin Samhender, and losc 
 
 I to importance througli its corn-trade. In 1020 its foi-tifi- 
 
 I cations were reconstructed, and again in 1813. About 1523 
 
 it became the capital of the duchy (tf Prussia. In 1758 it 
 
 i was occupied for a short time, by the Russians, in 1807 by 
 
 I the French. The philosopher Kant taught here from 1755 
 
 to his deatli, Feb. 12, 1804, AriasT Nikmann. 
 
 Ko'nic^^ninrk (.MAitiv ArnoiiA^, CorNTKSs, b. nt Stado. 
 Ilanitver, in IfiiiO. Her lather was a Swedish general, and 
 fell ill th)' Dutch service at Bonn in 1073; her motber was 
 a daughter of the Swedish field-marshal Wrangel. She re- 
 ceived a brilliant education at the courts of Stoekh<tlm, 
 Hanover, nnd Rrunswick, and she was moret)Vcr exceed- 
 ingly beautiful. In 1004 she *vcnt lo Hresden, where 
 August II. had just ascended the throne, and in lOOO she 
 bfirc him a son, the famou.<4 Maurice, nuirshal of Saxony. 
 In i7"2 (he king, whose frien<l she became after being his 
 mistress, sent her to the camp of Charles X 1 1, in (Nunland 
 (o ))orsuade him to niakc pcact^ but Charles XII. declined 
 to SCO " the most tanious woman of two centuries," as Vol- 
 taire calls her. The rest of her life consists merely of 
 anecdotes an>l gossip more or Icm credible. She d. poor 
 and sutVering at Qucdiinburg Feb. 10, 1728. 
 
 Ko'niustpin, small town of the kingdom of Saxony, 
 on the left bank of the Elbe. Behind it rises a huge rock,
 
 1578 
 
 KONIGSWAKTH— KORAN. 
 
 878 feet above the river and lUl feet above the sea, and 
 entirely inaccessible except through a narrow passage to 
 tiie N. W. On tlie top ol this mek is buiU the famous 
 fortress (if Koiiigstein with bombproof casemate!?, and a 
 well 1172 feet deej), to which the crown jewels and the 
 treasury of the kingdom are brought in times of war. 
 
 Ko'ni§;8\varth, town of Bohemia, has iron and tin 
 mines and mineral springs. Pop. 74y4. 
 
 Koohetph'i, town of Russia, in the government of 
 Daghistan, Caucasus, manufactures cloth, shawls, and 
 arms. Pop. COOO. 
 
 Koo'doOf a splendid antelope of South Africa, the 
 StrepHt'ccros koodoo, one of the largest of the family. It 
 has an extensive range in the wooded regions, is easily 
 domesticated, and its tlcsh is highly esteemed. Its large 
 and spirally twisted horns are characteristic of the species. 
 
 KooTa^ or Kufa^ town, or rather the ruins of a town. 
 of Asiatic Turkey, in the province of Knordistan. on an 
 affluent of the Euphrates, was founded by Omar, who made 
 it his residence, and who was murdered here. It soon be- 
 came the scat of Arabic learning, and the ancient Arabic 
 characters called Cu/ic received their name from this place. 
 AVhen, at the end of the eighth century, the residency was 
 removed to Bagdad, Koofa declined, and sank into ruins. 
 
 KoolTo, or Kiilfo, town of Western Africa, in the 
 dominion of Gando. stands on the Mayarroxv, in lat. 10° 
 10' N.. Ion. 6° 45' E.. and is surrounded with high walls. 
 It has an important trade, and about 12,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Kooni) or Kiim^ town of Persia, in the province of 
 Irak Ajeniee. is pariiy in ruins since its destruction by the 
 Afghans in 1722, but is at present rising once more. The 
 district in which it stands is very fertile, and its position 
 on the road between Teheran and Kasbin gives it consid- 
 erable commercial importance. Pop. about 12,000. 
 
 Koondooz'9 KhoondooZy or Kunduz, a small 
 province of Northern Afghanistan, lying between the fron- 
 tier of Bokhara and the Bolor Mountains, formerly an in- 
 dependent khanate of Tartary, but now owning allegiauce 
 to the Ameer of Cabool. The greater part of the province 
 is mountainous, but there are some fertile valleys where 
 excellent grain is raised. The capital, Koondooz, has a 
 population of 2000. 
 
 Koordislan', or Kurdistan, the name of an exten- 
 sive region of Western Asia, situated between hit. o4° and 
 38° N., and between Ion. 42° and 47° E. It forms no in- 
 dependent political unit, but is divided between Turkey 
 and Persia, though its relations to both of these two powers 
 are somewhat loose. Its area is estimated at 100,000 square 
 miles : the number of its inhabitants at :J,000.000,of whom 
 four-tifths are Koords. The country is mountainous, some 
 of the peaks rising to the height of i:j.O()0 feet, intersected 
 by beautiful valleys along the rivers, which in great num- 
 ber flow down to the Euphrates and Tigris. The Koords. 
 who are M<)hammedans. live mostly as nomads. They 
 are a proud and fierce race, engaged in the rearing of cat- 
 tle, sheep, goats, an<l horses, of which great numbers are 
 annually exported both to Turkey and to Persia, where 
 they are highly ej-teemed — the goats for their silky hair, 
 the horses for their strength and fieriness. Generally, their 
 looks, characters, and habits correspond perfectly with the 
 description Xenophon gives of them. 
 
 Koorile Islands. See Kuimi.k Islands. 
 
 Koorskfor Kursk, government of European Russia, 
 between the Don and the Dnieper. Area, 17,3S5 square 
 miles, with 1,86C,H.')'J inhabitants. The surface is mostly 
 low but undulating, and the soil very fertile. Large crops 
 of wheat arc raised, besides hemp, tobacco, and fruit. 
 
 Koorsk, or Kursk, town of European Kussia, the cap- 
 ital of the government of Koorsk, on the Seim. It is a 
 flourishing to\vn, with an extensive trade in tallow, rope, 
 and fruit, and many good educational institutions. In the 
 neighborhood of Koorsk is held au annual fair in the 
 month of ,Iuly. which is one of the greatest fairs of the 
 country. Pop. 2S.'.t2!. 
 
 KooMruais, Kitiinaha, Coutanies, Cottoiiois, 
 or Flat bows, a tribe of Indiana in British Columbia, 
 Wiushington. Idaho, and Montana Territories, called by 
 themselves Skalzi. They are classed by H. H. Bancroft 
 (X'llive /inrca 0/ thr Part'Jic StatrHf vol. i., 1874) in the 
 Shushwap family of the Columbian or Nootka-Columbian 
 group; by others they are placed in the Palish or Flat- 
 head family, and arc sometimes considered a family by 
 themselves, though closely allied to the Atnas and Oka- 
 nagans. Amid a multitude of authorities, frequently at 
 variance with each other or ilefectivc upon essential points, 
 the tribal distribution of this entire group is still problem- 
 atical. The original hnbitnt of the Koolenais is in British 
 Columbia, in the space bounded by the Columbia and 
 Clark rivers and the Kocky Mountains, where about 400 
 
 still remain upon the Kootenai or Flatbow Lake. Some 
 hundreds now live in Washington Territory, on the great 
 reservation bounded X. by the U. S. frontier, E. autl S. by 
 the Columbia, and W. by the Okanagan Kiver; 400 live in 
 Idaho, near the Cipur d'Alenc mission ; and 320 are settled 
 with the Kalispcls, on the Jocko reservation in Montana. 
 They are generally jieaceabic and self-sustaining, hunting 
 the bufl'alo with bows and arrows, and have had little deal- 
 ing with the government. They have made some progress 
 in civilization under the auspices of Father de Smet and 
 other Catholic missionaries. 
 
 Koo'tenay, county of X. Idaho, bounded X. by British 
 Columhin. E. i>y Montana, S. by Ctt'ur d'Alenc River, and 
 W. by Washington Territory. It is partly mountainous, 
 but contains large and fertile prairies. It is traversed by 
 Clark's River, and contains several large lakes. Gold is 
 reported to be found. 
 
 Ko'pel, a V. of Marion tp., Mercer co., 0. Pop. 305, 
 Kopp (Joseph Ettych), b. in 1793 at Miinster. in the 
 canton of Lucerne, Switzerland ; was director of the Ly- 
 ceum at Lucerne from 1819 to 1841, and president of the 
 board of education to IS45, in which position he became 
 conspicuous by his opposition to the Jesuits. Ilis princi- 
 pal works are — Vrkumicnzur lieleurhtutit/ der Gfsfhirht*- der 
 cidij^noeaischen B'unde {2 vols., 1835-51) and GcHchirhte 
 der eidgenoBsischen B'unde {5 vols., 1845-G2), by which he 
 threw new light on the relation between the house of Haps- 
 burg and their possessions in Switzerland, and liissolvcd the 
 story about Tell into a myth. D. at Lucerne Oct. 25, 1S66. 
 Kop'parberg, or Stora-Kopparberg, the name of 
 a political division of Sweden, situated on both sides of the 
 Dal River, and comprising those regions which formerly 
 were so celebrated in the history of the country under the 
 name of Dalarne (Lat. Dahcarlia). It is a wild but beau- 
 tiful mountain-region, covered with forests of fir and birch, 
 and rich in copper and porphyry, but ill suited for agricul- 
 ture. The inhabitants, numhcring about ISO. 000, form one 
 of the finest types of the Scandinavian race. They are 
 valorous, hardy, ingenuous, and trustworthy, and nearly 
 in all crises in the Swedish history the Dnfrcttrlicr have 
 make the decision. As the country is unable to support 
 them, they spreail over Southern Sweden and Denmark 
 seeking for work, but they always return to their native 
 vales with their earnings. Cap. Falun. 
 
 Kop'pen, von (Peter), b. at Kharkow, Russia, Feb. 
 10, 17i'3; studied at the university of his native city, and 
 devoted himself throughout life to researches concerning 
 the ethnology, archaeology, and history of Russia. His 
 principal worlcs are — Afatcriaiicnzur Culturgrgrfiirhte Russ- 
 lan(h{\V>^'i), T>\f OcsrhirhfcdcM WcinhancfitDtd Weiuhniidefs 
 Ml Iiitimfnnd» (1832), Tntiricn (1840), Efkno/frnphiftchc Knrte 
 dea eiintpnischen liussland (1H51), and an exhaustive me- 
 moir on the census of 1800. The Russian government pre- 
 sented him with an estate in the Crimea, Karabagh, where 
 he d. June 4, 18G4. 
 
 Ko'ran, the book of the Mohammedan religion and the 
 foundation of the Mohammcd:iu literature. It may be also 
 regarded as the conservative power of the widely-spoken 
 Arabic language and the source of its refined system of 
 grammar. Its religious and intellectual influence extends 
 from India to Morocco, from Turkey and the borders of the 
 Russian empire to the central and southern parts of Africa. 
 In comparing it with the Bible, it may be said that the lat- 
 ter differs from it. an<l from every other book called sacred, 
 in having been, so far as its human jiroduetion is con- 
 cerned, a growth of many ages and of many nitnds. It 
 lies in history as a stream of supernatural influences, 
 events, and teachings, extending from the patriarchal 
 times to the complete introduction and establishment of 
 Christianity upon the earth. In tliis respect the Bible dif- 
 fers wholly from the Persian, Indian. Booddliist, and Chi- 
 nese books with which it is so often ignorantly compared. 
 So the Koran is also the product of one mind and of one 
 
 I age. In certain features, however, it hears a much closer 
 
 ; relation to the Jewish and Christian Scriptures than the 
 other writings referred to. It may be regarded, in fact, as 
 
 I a lateral wave from that great tide of religious thought and 
 feeling which came down from the curliest times of human 
 history, bearing in its mid-channel the Jewish theocracy, 
 and culminating in the Christian Church. In other words, 
 the Koran may be regarded with some reason as an npocry- 
 phal book of the Bible, bearing to it a relation similar to 
 that of the weird visions of the Second Esdras. the Wisdom 
 
 ; of Solomon, or the sententious book of Sirach. Itisstilithe 
 heaving of the ground-swell from that old fountain-flood of 
 religious power. Without Judaism and Christianity, Mo- 
 
 : hammedanism anrl the Koran would never have had an ex- 
 istence. Without Abraham and Moses and Christ the Arabian 
 prophet would never have made the appearance he pre- 
 
 i scnts in history as the reaffirmer of the Divine Unity, the
 
 KORAN. 
 
 J.")7!) 
 
 ^' 
 
 rebuker of idolatry, and the restorer of the primitire pa- 
 triarclial or Abruharaic religion. 
 
 The name Konin (Al Konin. with the article, The Koran) 
 is derived from an Arabic verb tjnrd, to "read," and this 
 from the older Slieinitic, meaning to "cry aloud" (icpaw, 
 »pa^(u), to *' pronounce," " utter," *' dictate." It is in this 
 respect like the name Mii/nt (NTp?3), from the cognate 
 }{oi»rew root, and which tlie .lows gave to their ."Scriptures. 
 This probably .'*u;5geslcd it lo .Moliammed. thnu;;li the ap- 
 plication he makes of it is somewhat different. The Jew- 
 ish name was from the public reading — the Koranic, from 
 the idea of recitation or dictatinn to jMohamined himself. 
 Sometimes a word e.vprcssly denoting this is Ui-cd for the 
 )urpose; as in Sura x\v. (J, 7: *• .\nd the unbelievers say, 
 ~IiM is a lie which ho hath contrived; they arc traditions 
 of the ancients which he has caused to be written down, 
 saying that thev wore dicttftrd {tninln) to him, morning 
 and evening. ,Say unto them. He hath revealoil it who 
 knoweth the secrets of heaven and earth; lie the (Jracious, 
 the Merciful." The medium of this dictation was the an- 
 gel Gabriel, who is elsewhere callcil, in the Koran, Ihihn- 
 7X*Hf/i(». the Holy .Spirit (see .\vi. 101, etc.), and sometimes 
 simply Huh, The Spirit, as in l.K.x. 4. Hence also the Ko- 
 ranic name Tonzil, or the "descent," defined in the book 
 Titrifnt as "the declaration or revealing of the Kru-an by 
 means of the angel (or spirit) tlencfntling on the heart of 
 the Prophet." .Some regard Iho word Tamil as denoting 
 the literal descent of the book in successive folios or por- 
 tions from the heavens; but the other view is most in ac- 
 cordance with the spirit of the passages in which the term 
 is used. 
 
 This has been commonly treated by the earlier Christian 
 writers as all a designed imposture, very much as it waa 
 vioweil by the scoffing Arabian Kafirs whom Mohammed 
 pathetically rebukes. Later tierman authorities, on the 
 other hand, esnci-ially Spronger in his I.rbni uml Lrhre 
 'Un Mohauimtul, go to the other extreme in ranking the 
 Arabian reformer with the |>rophets and apostles of the 
 Christian Scripluns, and even with the Founder of Chris- 
 tianity itself. This, however, is evidently done not so 
 much in honor of .Moharamcl as fr>r the disparagement 
 of Isaiah, Paul, and Christ. There is unquestionably a 
 deep conviction of truth, a strong sense of some destined 
 mission, and a fervent enthusiasm prevailing throughout 
 this remarkable work. No man can carefully study it with- 
 out feeling its subjective truthfulness — that is, without be- 
 ing impressed by the thought that the writer, or the preacher, 
 is delivering what he believes to be a true message from a 
 superhuman sphere, whatever may have been the mode ami 
 influences throu;;h which that conviction was produced. 
 The explanation which would so easily resolve it all into a 
 studied dece])tion comes from a shallow overlooking of well- 
 established facts in the human psychology. The earnest- 
 ness and strong devotional spirit manifested in ttie Koran re- 
 pel the idea. There is. moreover, a tenderness of conscience 
 in respect to his supposed mission which one guilty of a long 
 and studied imposition would seem incapable either of feeling 
 or affecting. There is a striking instance of this alluded to in 
 Sura xvii. 7.'i, where there is related a rebuke Mcdiaramcd had 
 received for seeming, on a certain occasion, to have swerved 
 from his instructions under the temptation to palliate some 
 forms of idolatry among his followers. It was at this time that 
 ho olTored the touching praycrreeorded by.\l Zamakhshnri in 
 his commentary on the passage: " We have it from tho Pro- 
 phet. Allah bless lijm I that when this weakness was revealed 
 to him, he prayeil and said, ' Allah, never again leave mo 
 to myself for the twinkling of an eye.' " It is not easy to 
 reconcile such emotion as this, and such utterances, with a 
 protracted scdiemc of harrleneil and deliberate lying. To a 
 similar end may be cited tho instances of tender and cbnr- 
 ilablo feeling that characterize tho earlier parts of the Ko- 
 ran, though in the later chapters strife anil oppression had 
 t.'ndeil to make hi« utterances more fierce ami fanatical. 
 See .Sura ii. .'>!): "Verily they who believe, and those who 
 ;iro Jews, and the Christians, and the Sabienns, yes, every 
 one who believes in (lod ami in llie day of judgment, and 
 who rloes that which is right. —to all such is there recom- 
 p-nso from their Lord; they have nothing to fear: they 
 shall not bo grieved." A ililferent language is found iii 
 some other parts, which commentators. Christian as well 
 MS Mohammedan, have labored to reconcile: but it is better 
 lo admit the inconsiilency. A deliiiernte dei'eption would 
 have avi>ided or suppressed it. As having the same bear- 
 ing, may bo meutmned the places where he speaks not 
 only reverently but temlerly and lovingly of Jesus, or 
 "'/«o 'hriiu Mnii)iimii (son of Mary), Wind of truth," as 
 he calls him. Sura xix. :'..'i. acknowledging liim as one 
 grenter than himself— a revere ncc which he also pays to 
 Abr:ibam and Moses. Passages elsewhere which are inter- 
 preted as teaching persecution, or the enforcement of relig- 
 ion by the sKcir I. are to be regarded in the same light as 
 
 coming from a change of temper, and as having been still 
 further perverted by the fanatical bigotry of his immediate 
 followers. It may be doubted, however, whether they were 
 ever meant to bo ap])lied to .lews and Christians, of whom 
 Mohammed speaks so charitably in the passage cited. 
 Throughout the better part of the book the Kafirs, or uii- 
 6c/t'ciTr«, who arc to be forced into truth and puritv by the 
 cUnnsiuff sword of Islam, arc the unclean alul bloodv pagan 
 idolaters whom he regards as in alliance with Sbcitan (Sa- 
 tan, Eblis) and the Jins. 
 
 As the idea of crude imposture is untenable, so also does 
 the more plausible explanation of an excited enthusiasm fail 
 to remove all the difliculties of this remarkable literary and 
 religious phenomenon. The Koran is a book which can 
 only be interpreted on the ground that the author himself 
 strongly believed in it as coming from some other source thiin 
 llis own conscious and voIunt:iry mental exercises regarded 
 in their normal condition. There have been, even in mod- 
 ern experience, too many wullattestcd cases of the ecst:itio 
 trance, of abnormal visionary states, of clairvovant and 
 somnambulic titterances, to warrant the summary rejection 
 of such explanations. .Mcdiammed's epile]itic eomlition of 
 body made him a fit subject of such influences, from what- 
 ever sphere we nuiy regard them us coming. His high ge- 
 nius gave them a more intensive form and a more elevated 
 character than ordinarily characterize such utterances in 
 our own times. We know, loo, that similar claims have 
 been ])ut forth by men characterized not so much bv imag- 
 ination as by the loftiest reason. The iatMoi'iot'of Soc- 
 rates, so solemnly asserted by bim in his last moments, 
 belongs to this class of psychological phenomena. The 
 power and value of tho utterances produced arc to bo 
 judged by the evidence they give of the genius and mental 
 rank of tho one from wlnun they inoceeil, and the coloring 
 recei\'ed from the outward infiucnees ()f the age in which 
 they appear. Tliey may be trilling, they m;\y lie unmean- 
 ing, or they may rise to an eloquence and a dignity pro- 
 ducing, as in this case, the mightiest efTccIs, and demand- 
 ing, therefore, our awed respect, though higher evidence 
 may be required to certify them as an actual and direct 
 revelation from the Divine sphere. The careful and intel- 
 ligent rettiling of the Koran furnishes the best proof here. 
 Let a man carry steadily along with such rending the 
 thought of colli artifice, of deliberate lying, or studied im- 
 ]iosture, and the idea is continually refuting itself It 
 would have been a very dill'eicnt book produced in that 
 way. Its very extravagances, its rhapsodies, its sudden 
 emotional transitions, its weird pictures, mingled at times 
 with the sublimest ideas, give conclusive proof of a deeper 
 anil more mysterious origin. 
 
 There arc other names for the Koran to be found in the 
 book itself, such as Al Kltuh, " the Scripture," liikr, " me- 
 morial" (used like the Hebrew zikcr,zikl-ariiii). Al FiirLan, 
 etc., which are of little significance in determining either 
 its form or the nature of its contents. The latter would 
 strictly mean, the book divided into sections, as the Hi'lircw 
 pprek is nscil for the shorter divisions of the Talmud. Keg- 
 ular division, however, is very far from being a feature of 
 the Koran. Its one hundred and fourteen chapters vary 
 greatly in their length, from forty octavo pages, which is 
 the length of Sura ii. in Fliigel's edition, to a short para- 
 graph containing a verse or two, which is the extent of a 
 largo number towards the end. Besides this, there is an 
 artificial division, subsequently made, into sixty-five equal 
 portions, called Ahzfib, and each of these again subdivided 
 into four equal jjarts. Another makes thirty portions, but 
 all tlieso are simply for the use of renders, and made in im- 
 itation of the synagogue sections for the worship of the 
 Jews. There aro mentioned seven principal eilitions or 
 ancient copies — two named from Medina, one from Alecea, 
 one from Cufa, one from itasrii. a sixth called tho Syrian, 
 and a seventh styled the common or vulgatc edition. Tliev 
 differ slightly in the reckoning of the whole number of the 
 verses, a variation arising from n few difierences of divis- 
 ion : but they all agree in the same total of words, which 
 they make to be 77.(i."fl, and the same total of letters. 
 .T2.'!.01.'( : the Mohammedans, as ,Sale says, having imitiilrd 
 in this respect the superstitious carefulness of the.lewi!.|i 
 Mftsorites. There can be no <loubt of a wry ancient wri- 
 ting, whether made by .Mohammed himself, or by some of 
 his lievoted followers, but the principal means of promul- 
 gallon in the beginning was most probably by oral recita- 
 tions made by those who had eominiltcil to memory partic 
 ular Sums, and in some cases the entire Koran. That this is 
 by no means incredible appears from the same fact nnd the 
 same practice as now exhibiteil in the Mohammedan schools 
 in India, an. I even in the inlerinr of Africa. The solemn 
 recitation of iMobammed, believeil, a" it was, to have come 
 from the nneel, must have made a deep impression upon 
 the minds of his early disciples, thus aiding the memory 
 Id receiving and retaining the romarknblo words. Tho
 
 1580 
 
 KORAN. 
 
 .'/' 
 
 belief in this is also aided by the fact of a class of racn in 
 after times professionallv devoted to this practice, and dc- 
 rivinj; from it a special name. Thi-y were called huffii(hun, 
 rnttotlrs^ connervatoreti, qui Cornnujn ineworin lenetit; resem- 
 bling in some respects the old Homeric chanters. They 
 are referred to in Ahmed's Hinlori/ n/ Timur (Manger ed.), 
 p. 871, where the names of a mimlier of them are given. 
 (See also llerbelot. nUil. Orient., 202, and Pocock. Spe<-lm., 
 X-S.) So the Koran itself is called Mahfndz, "the book 
 preserved." The term is used Sura l.\.txv. 22, though there 
 applied to a tablet, whether literal or as figurative of the 
 memory: "Nay. it is a glorious Koran, prcscrvcil (in mem- 
 ory ) as on a tablet;" though some would interpret it as 
 moaning a tablet kept in heaven— the original in the Divine 
 mind. . 
 
 The Koran, as has been said, is a reflection from the 
 Bible, however distorted and apocryphal the image it pre- 
 sents to the f'bristian mind. It admits the divine author- 
 ity of the Jewish Scriptures. It may be said, too, that its 
 inlluence as a book gives a more encouraging basis for 
 Christian missionary effort than can be found in the worn- 
 out religions of Boo'ddha. Brahma, and Confucius. In dis- 
 tinction" from them it is a live book and the text of a living 
 religion. It belongs to the side of positive theology, bav- 
 ingfor its ground, like the Jewish and Christian, the 
 , Vo/A Ychnriih. " the fear of God " — of a personal God— in- 
 stead of the empty theosophy or mystic nature-worship 
 that characterizes those systems of the remoter East. In 
 opposition to their materialistic dualism, their elusive pan- 
 theism, their cold subjectivity, stand out the glowing devo- 
 tion, the snblime earnestness, the pure, distinct, and lofty 
 th-.-ism of the Koran. Its doctrine of Allah's sovereignty, 
 of his immovable throne, of his eternal decrees, of hiseon- 
 tinual person.il providence, is the antithesis of their physi- 
 cal fate. So, too. does its teaching in respect to a great 
 judgment to come, a resurrection-day of final account, 
 " the book " in which each man shall read the true value 
 of the life lived by him in this preparatory world, the 
 '•meeting of his siiis that have gone before him," and above 
 all, its sublimely rigorous doctrine of prayer, place it in 
 direct contrast with the poor, barren worldliness which is 
 all that we get from the best selections made from the writ- 
 ings of Confucius. In view of these facts we cease to won- 
 rler at its triumph wherever it has met those lifeless creeds. 
 It is all the more hopeful for Christianity that it should 
 have had such a pioneer or forerunner in India and China. 
 Better to contend with Mohammedanism itself, when the 
 time comes, than with those dead systems, who.sc inertia or 
 want of religious susceptibility presents a harder and more 
 ho]ieless antagonism than the vitality of eveii Mohammedan 
 error. The very fact that the Koranic religion is sharply 
 controversial gives all the more encouragement. It is evi- 
 dence of some kind of life : it shows that it has something 
 to contend for. It is better to meet the jealous Islamite in 
 this way than to encounter the meaningless pantheism of 
 the Hindoo or the stolid indifference of the Chinese. VVith 
 the first there is a common ground, giving hope of ultimate 
 agreement. The Koran has all those grand theistic elements 
 of religion that demand the Christian »/)pc/rr/fi/— that is, 
 the doctrine of ihr croni, or that mediatorial idea which 
 may he said to be the great lack of Islainism. When other 
 enemies are slain, clear discussion may bring that media- 
 torial idea to light, and thus show that the Ar.abian enthu- 
 siast had really something which may be called a mission 
 for that dead iEasleru world. 
 
 Neither can it be denied that the Koran produced a most 
 salutary reformation in its own times. Neither the Ish- 
 maelite nor the Joktanite Arabians had wholly lost the 
 old patriarchal or Shemitic monotheism. But it had be- 
 come much darkened and corrupted by Sabiranisin. and 
 some still grosser forms of creature-worship that had come 
 in. The Koranic name for this, ;l/<.«Ait kunn (" who make 
 sharers, partners"), is suggestive of Paul's description of 
 the beginnings of iilolatry— " The worship of the creature 
 <i/on7 iriih the Creator, or h'ni'lr the Creator (iropi ii»' 
 rriVaiTa, Rom. i. 25. See especially Koran. Sura xyi. 1"2). 
 Some had gone farther than this, even to what might he 
 called demon-worship, occompanied with the foulest prac- 
 tices. The change in this respect produced by the promul- 
 gation of the Koran was sudden ami extensive. It was 
 also the means of a reformation of morals, and the putting 
 away of some exceedingly barbarous and revolting customs. 
 Thus, infanticide was very commonly practi.sed, especially 
 the putting to death of female children, ond even burying 
 them alive. There is a most touching allusion to such a 
 horrid custom in Sura Ixxxi. The passage is gi^ven at 
 some length, as a specimen also of the peculiar Koranic 
 rhythm, and of the weird style that especially chnraeteriies 
 some of these later chapters. It is entitled Tnkirir, or 
 the •• Fidding up." from the verb in the first verse, hlh' 
 o»A-»/i<iin«ii koirmral. It is a description of the day of 
 
 iudgment. and we have rendered it almost word for word, 
 witira few slight freedoms in the use of the active for the 
 passive, in order to preserve something like the rhyming 
 cadence : 
 
 " When the sun [its face! is shroudine. 
 
 When the stars are downwards gliding. 
 
 When the hills are lightly moving (Jer. iv. 24 ; Ps. ciiv. 4), 
 
 When the camels ten mouths gone, 
 
 T'ncared for now. are left alone; 
 
 When the rabid ticasts are gathering, 
 
 When the seas are hotly boiling. 
 
 When fto liodiesl souls are joining, 
 
 ll7;r;i thf hnrifd habr ix axhinij 
 
 f-hr what critni' lA* yulhlpss slm/init ; 
 
 When the sealed books are opeoing, 
 
 When the heavens are deparlini: ; 
 
 Thin when hell is fiercely buruiiig, 
 
 And when Paradise draws near, 
 
 Knows each soul what to the presence it hath sent before." 
 
 The Koran abolished the cruel practice alluded to in the 
 verse above, and others of a similar kind. This was done, 
 not in a cold humanitarian way, which is seldom long or 
 intensely elTicacious, but by an appeal to the deepest re- 
 ligious feeling. 
 
 Personifications of nature are not frequent in the Koran, 
 but there are some examples that present a striking com- 
 bination of the moral and physical sublime. Thus, in 
 Sura xxxiii. 72. God is represented as offering " the faith " 
 (truth, law, conscience, accountabilityl to nature, to the 
 heavens, the earth, the mountains. They are "afraid of 
 it :" thev " shrink away from the tremendous charge." But 
 man undertook it— presumptuous man, "ignorant and un- 
 just (to himself)." Hence his peril and his woe. It is. h<iw- 
 eyer. in its descriptions of the Dixine justice, the Divine 
 unity, the Tliraiic ../ AUnli — an expression Mohammed so 
 frequently uses — and the Divine majesty generally, that 
 the Koran is especially magnificent. See, among other 
 similar examplesi Sura lis. 22: "God. beside whom there 
 is no God. who knoweth the future (the hidden), as he 
 knows the present — God most merciful, God the King, the 
 Holy, the Giver of peace, the Ever-to-be-trustcd. the 
 Keeper, the Almighty, the Great, the Most High ; God the 
 Creator, the Maker, the Former, exalted above all idols, all 
 partners of His throne. Whatever is in heaven and inearth, 
 let it praise Him. the Strong, the Wise." 
 
 Aside from the great defect before referred to, there arc 
 two things in the Koran which may be regarded as positive 
 deformities. One is its doctrine of polygamy, and the other 
 the too sensual aspect it gives to the happiness of Paradise. 
 In regard to the second, however, it may be said that the 
 representation of the beautiful females was ailapted to the 
 Arabian ideas, and is therefore adopted among the other 
 symbols of spiritual joy. such as "the gardens, the fair 
 rivers, the perennial fruits." which enter also into the bib- 
 lical pictures. There is an evident int. ntion to make it as 
 |Uire as the human conception will allow. That a degree 
 of spirituality is intended is shown by the Arabic words 
 which the Koran brings into use respecting the two worlds. 
 The great idea in the one is rcrtninti/, assuralici:. rtmiilii. 
 Hence the phrase that occurs so frci|ucu(ly in connection 
 with the "garden and the fair rivers," Cli,iliiliiia fihmihihin 
 
 •' they abide there for ever." In contradistinction to this 
 
 there are two names for the present world that are most 
 expressive. They are niiiii/n and Al-njrltii; the first de- 
 noting the near world, the world of sense, the common, and 
 sometimes the mran worhl. in distinction from the glorious 
 and the strong ; the second is literally the rolling or A.i«(cn- 
 ii,,/ world, the transitory, quick-vanishing world, the failing 
 worhl, miiii</ii« rnilurtiH. in distinction from the permanent 
 and the immutable. (See Sura xvii. 10, 20, and many other 
 places.) Besides these, there is the general term for the 
 oih.-r or afterlife, Arlienil, corresponding to the Hebrew 
 n'"<nx. as we may suppose it to be used in the prayer of 
 Balaam (Num. xxiv. 14). 
 
 For the fullest details respecting the Koran, see Sprcn- 
 ger's I.rhc, nil./ Uhrclha M.Jinmmud : Freytag. Einlritunj 
 In (/o» Stmlliim tier arabl»rlien S/.rarlir ; llerbelot. Bi'6/io- 
 thiqnr Ori,ni„le, arts. " Koran " and " .Mohammed;" and 
 Sale's Intrmlni-limi. The last is especially to be commended 
 for candor ami fidelity. Much valuable information, espe- 
 .■iiiUy in regard to the influence of the Koran in Central and 
 Western Africa, may also be obtained from an article by 
 Pr.d". BIyden of Liberia College in the Mitlimlitt Qunrlcrli/ 
 l/nicc for Jan.. ISfiT. Among native Arabian authorities 
 that give tho fullest information may especially be men- 
 tioned the two great commentators. Al Bei.lawi and Al 
 Zaiiiakhshari. The fi.rmer is the better known and tho 
 most frequenllv referre.l to. The latter (see the latest 
 edition, published by W. Nassau I-ees, Calcutta, IS.Ifi, in 
 2 quarto vols., pp. Iti47) is an immense mine of theology, 
 phih.sophy. .Arabic grammar and lexicography, besides 
 aboun.ling in copious citations from Aj;abic poetry and 
 general literature. 
 
 T.4Vi,ER Lewis.
 
 KOK A T— KOSTROMA . 
 
 i:ksi 
 
 Korat% a small independent territory lying between | 
 Siam ttiid Cambodia, pituati'd "n an clcviitud table-land, j 
 Copper-mines art- wurked by the natives, and the sugar- 
 cane is cultivated. l*op. about 60,000; of capital^ also 
 called Korat. "OOU. 
 
 Kordofan'y a territory of Soodan, Central Africa* be 
 lonj 
 
 and 
 
 ing to Ejjypt, and situated between lal. 11" and Ia° N. 
 between Ion. 28*^ and 32* K., bounded on the E. by 
 Seuuaar, from which it is separated by the White Nile, and 
 on the W. by Darfoor. Area. 12.tMH) s.juiire miles. Pop. 
 600,000. The iuhahifants aro a mixture (►(' negroes and 
 Arabs professing Mohummodanism. Kordofuu is a sa- 
 vanna, dry in the hot season, but covered with luxuriant 
 verdure during the rainy season. The breeding of horses, 
 cattle, and eauiels is tho chief pursuit of the inhabitants. 
 Cap. Kl Obeid. 
 
 Hornegarf or Koornagrtrioe, town of Ceylon, 55 
 mile.-' X. E. of CoIomi)n. beuulirully situated. It is a resort 
 of pilgrims, on account of an ancient temple where a foot- 
 print of Booddha is adored. 
 
 Kdr'ner f Karl TiiKonon), b. at Dresden, Saxony, Sept. 
 2^, 1701: ft'll in a skirmish at Wobbelin, in Mecklenburg, 
 An;;. 2ti, 1813. His wh(»le life was consecrated to the one 
 idea of rousing his countrymen airiiinst the humiliating and 
 almost infamous despotism which Napoleon exercised over 
 thom ; and although he died in tho twenty-second year of 
 his age, ho saw the idea of his life realized, and ho heard 
 the world say that this great result was in no small degree 
 due to him. Even when a very young man. studying 
 in Freiberg and Berlin, he spoke with sm-h velunience 
 against the French that it was considered necessary for 
 the sake of his safety to send him to Vienna. Hero he 
 liej^an to write for tho stage, and was very successful, but 
 of his ilramas Zriinf is the only one which deserves atten- 
 tioTi. .After the disastrous issue of Napoleon's campaign 
 in Russia, Korner left Vienna and volunteered as a private 
 in the Prussian light-horse of Liitzow. and his great per- 
 sonal valor in eon nee t ion with his inspiring war-songs 
 mnde him in a few months the pride and the enthusiasm of 
 his countrymen. After his death his sons^s were collected 
 under the title f,n>r uiid Srhtrrrtj and several of thom are 
 as thrilling with their genuine beauty as exciting with their 
 wild inspiration. Clkmkns Pktkhsen. 
 
 Kdros* See Kis-Kunu9 and Xagv-Kohos. 
 
 Kortetz', nr Cortitz^ an island of Uussia. in the gov- 
 ernment of Yckaterinoshn , is formeil by the Dnicjier, and 
 rises 10 J feet above the river, framed in un all Fides by granite 
 clilTs. It was one of tho strongholds of tho Cossacks, but 
 after their removal in 1781 by Catharine II. it was settled 
 by (lerman .Mennonites. 
 
 Kort'right, post t p. of Delaware co., N. Y. Pop. LSI 2. 
 
 Kor'vcy, or Corvey, villugc of Westphalia, on thn 
 We.i;r, is celebrated for its Benedictine abbey, founded in 
 HIO by Louis the Pious. It was during the Middle Ages a 
 fiiiioui' centre of leurning, and from it issued Ansgarius, 
 Bruno. Wiltekind, \Vib:iId, and others. The massive build- 
 ini;s of tho former abbey aro now occnpie<l by tho prince 
 of Hohenlohe-.Schillingsrurnt as a residence. 
 
 KosciilM'kOf county of N. Indiana. Area, 558 square 
 mile-. It is very fertile, and is generally undulating. 
 Cattle, grain, wool, and lumber are staple j)roduet'<. Tho 
 county is traversed by the Pittsburg Port Wiiyne and Chi- 
 cn-^o and the Cincinnati Wabash and Michigan R. Ks. 
 Cap. Warsaw. Pop. 23,531. 
 
 KosciiiHko,post-v., cap. of Attala co., Miss., tho present 
 northern terminus of tho New Orleans .Tuckson and Great 
 Northurn R. R., is situated nearly at the geographical cen- 
 tre of the State; has 3 ehurehes. 2 liotcls, 25 stores, 15 
 shops, and 2 weekly nowspjpers. Principal business, rais- 
 ing cotton, of which 25.000 bales are Khi]iprd yearly. Pop. 
 577. R. Wai.poi.k, Ed. " Centual SxAn." 
 
 KoHciusko (THAnoEis), [Tftdeuiz KoMciuMsko], b. Fob. 
 12, 1 7 Hi. at .Mereezowszczy/.Tia. in Lithuania, of an nneirnt 
 princely race. Edueat<-d in Warsaw. Paris, and other Eu- 
 ropeim capitals, he was made an (dlicor in a regiment ; but 
 having sui'd in vain for the hand of adaughti-r of the vice- 
 grand general of Lithuania, and the king of Poland him- 
 self bring unable to forward bis suit with the unwilling 
 father of tho young lady (to whom Kos-iusko had bien a 
 tutor), the young soldier sailed in 1775 from Dantzie for 
 the V. S., by way of Martinique. In I77fi he was made 
 colonel of ongineers. lie servnl gallantly throuch tho war 
 of tho Revolution, was made a member of thi- Cincinnati, 
 a Itrinadier-iieneral by brevet, and received the thanks of 
 Congress. Returning to his native Inml, he fought fop his 
 country in tho wars of 1702-01 against the pnrtitioners 
 of Poland : but, notwithsfandinu th'' prodigies of valor per- 
 formed by the unhappy Poles, with Kosciusko at their bead, 
 
 they were totally overpowered at Macieowioe, whore their 
 commander fell covered with wounds. Imprisoned at St. 
 Petersburg, he was set free in 17'Jli by the emperor Paul. 
 from whom he refused the oiler of a sword, lie revisited 
 the U. tS., where ho received a pension and a grunt of land, 
 but in the following year he retired to France, displeased, 
 we are told, by the passage of the Alien law. In ISUl ne 
 lixcd his residence ot tioleure, Switzorland, and in the fol- 
 lowing year set free the serfs on his jiaternal estate. D. at 
 Solcure Oet. Hi, 1817. The statement very olten made with 
 regard to Kosciusko (that he exclaimed '*/V»i'j» PvlouiiE.'" as 
 he fell wounded in his last fight) he always indignantly de- 
 nied. (See J. L. Chodzko, IlUtury of KoHciusko, Militarij, 
 Political, and I'riiatc.) 
 
 Ko^ciiisko^ Mornit, the highest peak of the Austra- 
 lian Alps. 7171) feet higli, is situateil nearly in lat. 30° 30' 
 S. and Ion. 134° 30' W., on the boumlary between the prov- 
 inces of New Stmth Wales and Victoria, about equidistant 
 between Sydney and Melbourne. The chain of mountains 
 to which it belongs affords tiie most pirturcsque scenery on 
 the Australian continent. The great Murray and Murrum- 
 bidgec rivers take their rise nearly at the base of Mount 
 Kosciusko. 
 
 Koshkonong% tp. of Jefferson co., Wis. It includes 
 FoitT Atkinson (which see). Pop. 3202. 
 
 Koslin% town of Prussia, in the province of Pomerania, 
 on the Miihlc-nbach. It has considerable niannfacturts of 
 ribbons, stockings, tobacco, paper, and Eoaj). Pop. 10,S-18. 
 
 KoslOV% town of European Russia, in the government 
 of Tambov, on the Voronezh. It has large manufactures 
 of woollen and linen fabrics. Pop. 2S,GI3. 
 
 Kossc, post-v. of Limestone co.. Tex., on tho Houston 
 and Texas Central R. K., 13 miles N. of Bremond. 
 
 Kos'suth, county of N. Iowa. Area, 432 square miles. 
 It is traversed by the Des Moines River and the Iowa and 
 Dakota division* of the Chicago .Milwankeu and St. Paul 
 R. R. The soil is fertile. Grain is tho staple product. 
 Cap. Algona. Pop. 3351. 
 
 Kossuth, popt-v. of Des Moines co., la., 2 mile:; from 
 Kossuth Station (Mediapolis P. 0.) on tho Burlington Ce- 
 dar Rapids and Minnesota R. K. 
 
 Kossuth, post-v. of Salem tp., Anglaizo co., 0., on tho 
 Ohio Caiinl. It is also called Six-mile Aqueduct. Pop. 112. 
 
 Kossutli, tp. of Manitowoc co., Wis. Pop. 21SG. 
 
 Kossuth (Loris. or. strictly, Lajos), b. at Monok, 
 Hungary, Apr. 27, 1802, of a family originally Slavie.and 
 not Magyar, but of noble rank and of the Lutheran faith. 
 Louis was carefully educated, and in 1S22 became a suc- 
 cessful advocate of Monok ; rcmovedin 1S31 to Pesth ; was 
 a member by proxy of tho upper house of the diet of 1832- 
 3l»; and by liis ceaseless activity as a writer ancl journalist 
 did nun-li to disseminate liberal jirinciples; was impris- 
 oned at Bnda 1S37— 10 as a ]ntlilieal ofi'ender ; was editor 
 <d' tho !\Mth Jnnrmd 1811-11; entered the lower house of 
 tho diet in Isl", and became tho leader of tho liberals; 
 headed the deputation of IS IS dennmding a new ministry, 
 in which he became minister of finance; proposed in IS 10 
 tho independence of Hungary ; was during tho Hungarian 
 war for liberty provisional governor of Hungary, Apr.- 
 Aug., IStO, and was succeeded by Giirgei; escaped to Tur- 
 key, where he was protected, notwithslandini; the demands 
 of Austria and Russia for his extraililion. In ISjl he was 
 allowed to go on board the U. S. steamer Missi^siiipi, whieh 
 had been sent out for Inni by tho U. S. government ; visited 
 Kngland ; mado thetour of tho U. S. lS;')l-.*)2, and delivered 
 many eloquent (hough fruitless appeals fur the influence of 
 the U. S. in bi-half of the prineiplc of non-intervention, 
 believing that if Russia had not assisted Austria in ISIO, 
 Hungary wouM have become free; has since IS.^2 resided 
 chieliy in London and Turin, engaged in political projects, 
 in pul>lie speaking, in writing for liberal journals, and lat- 
 terly in seicntiti*^ observations. During the wars of Austria 
 against France (1S,'»0) and Prussia (ISOt'i) he was actively 
 engaged in preparing for insurroclions in Hungary, but 
 the speedy termination of both wars frustrated his hopes, 
 lie biM been several times eleetetl iti his absence to the diet 
 of Pesth, and sinee the reorganization of the Austro Hun- 
 garian empire ( I**!'*"! has been free to return to his native 
 land, but lias declined to do so. condemning tho arrange- 
 ments whieh were nceepled by the Hungarian liberals. Kos- 
 suth in his best days was one of tho most impassioned ami 
 effeelivo of publie speakers, and possessed a marvellous 
 capneily for the aef|nisition of languages. 
 
 Koslro'mn, government of European Russia, pilu- 
 ated nearly in the centre of the co\intry, and trn^'erfcd by 
 the Volga". Area, 30.S34 square miles. Pop. 1.101.000. 
 The surface is low and flat, dotted with lakes, and covered 
 with dense forests. The climate is eovorc, yet good crops
 
 15»2 
 
 KOSTROMA— KRASICKI. 
 
 of grain are produced. Tar, pitch, and potash are manu- 
 factured, and much timber is exported. 
 
 Kostroma^ town of European Russia, the capital of 
 the govcrniui-nt of the same name, on the Kostroma, near 
 its influx into the Volga. It has 40 churches, 2 monas- 
 teries, a poniinarv, a gymnasium, and several other educa- 
 tional in.-^titiitions. large manufactures of leather and Uiien. 
 and an important trade in corn and timber. Pup. 24,411). 
 
 Ko'Cah, one of the independent Rajpoot states, under 
 E:ii;!ish protection, in Hindostan. Area, 4400 square 
 mill'--. Pop. 440,000. Its capital. Kotah, is situated on 
 the riiuml.iil. in lat. 25° 9' X. and Ion. 75° 5' E. ; it is for- 
 tified, and is a town of some importance, having good ba- 
 zaars, many temidcs, and substantial houses. 
 
 KoHhen, town of Germ.iny, in the duchy of Auhalt, 
 has a handsome ducal palace with several fine collections, 
 is the seat of civil and military authorities, has good edu- 
 cational institutions, breweries, tanneries, iron-foundries, 
 and manufactures of tobacco, vinegar, carriages, and brass 
 articles. Pop. 10.59.3. 
 
 Kot'zebue, von f ArctTSTrs Frtedrich Fcrdinand), 
 b. in Weimar May ?>, 1701 ; studied law at Jena, and after 
 fini^bin;; his studies he went in 17S1 to St. Petersburg, 
 where he was introduced to the empress. From that time 
 he was always more or less intimately connected with the 
 Russian court. Catharine nominated him a counsellor, 
 and gave him a pension. Paul sent him to Siberia, but 
 recalled him and gave him an office. Alexander used him 
 first to stir up the popular hatred against Xapoleon, and 
 then after the Restoration he kept him in Germany with 
 a salary of 1 j.OOO roubles a year to report on the liberal 
 movements. This was by the Germans consideretl as a sort 
 of espionage, and under the general excitement a young 
 student, Sand, broke into his study and stabbed him at 
 Mannheim, Mar. 2.'t, 1819. Even before he went to St. 
 Petersburg the first time, in the twentieth year of his age, 
 he had written quite a number of tragedies, comedies, 
 dramas, and farces, and he continued <luring his whole 
 life to evince the same versatility and proliticnoss. He 
 wrote about 100 plays. He attempted every descrip- 
 tion of drama and every style, and, in a certain sense of 
 the word, he succeeded in them all. His jilays were trans- 
 lated into every language which had a stage, and for more 
 than a generation they reigned absolutely in the whole 
 theatrical world. But between 1S20 and 1S">0 they disap- 
 peared, succeeded by tliose of Eug&ne iScribe, and now only 
 a very few of them — as, for instance. The Stranger, Pizarro, 
 The Indians in London^ The Tico Kfinffsberrjerg, etc. — can 
 
 be met with, and even these only in the suburbs of their 
 native country. Ci-emens Petkrsek. 
 
 Koirba, town of Southern Russia, at the foot of the 
 Caucasus, on the Koiib.an River. It has considerable trade 
 with Astrakhan and Persia, and some stlk manufactures. 
 . Pop. 0405. 
 
 Koiiban', a river of Southern Russia, rises in the El- 
 brooz Mountains, flows Ijetween the governments of Stav- 
 rojiot and Circassia, and empties itself ])artly into the 
 Black Sea, partly into the Sea of Azof. 
 
 Kouli Khan. See Nadir Shah. 
 
 Kou'miss, Kumys, or Kumiz [Russ. knmyti^ of 
 Mongolian origin], a fermented beverage made from 
 mare's milk in the steppes of Russia by the Kirghecz, 
 Tartars. Bashkeers. Calmueks, etc. Tlie alc(diol is derived 
 from the milk-su'^iar, which is present in mare's milk in 
 larger quantity than in the milk of other animals, us is 
 Been in the following table by Jagielski : 
 Conipnaition of Mitk. 
 
 
 Marc. 
 
 7.3 
 2.1 
 
 AS9. 
 
 Womao. 
 
 4.8 
 2.9 
 2.9 
 0.2 
 
 lO.S 
 89.2 
 100.0 
 
 Shi!<>p. 
 
 Goat. 
 
 Cow. 
 
 6.4 
 1.3 
 1.9 
 
 6.4 
 2.4 
 4.8 
 0.9 
 
 13..') 
 86..5 
 
 100.0 
 
 4.3 
 8.4 
 4.4 
 0.8 
 
 12.9 
 87.1 
 
 100.0 
 
 4.6 
 
 Butter 
 
 36 
 
 
 5 1 
 
 Salts 
 
 
 Water 
 
 
 10.9 
 
 S9.I 
 
 IHU.O 
 
 9.6 
 90.4 
 
 100.0 
 
 13.9 
 86.1 
 
 100.0 
 
 The fresh milk is diluted with one-third to one-sixth water, 
 and placed in a sack of goat skin or the skin from the en- 
 tire hind quarter of a horse, the wider end serving for the 
 base, and the leg portion for the neck. There is generally 
 added some yeast, the sediment from a previous brewing, 
 called kor, to induce fermentation. Frequent stirring or 
 shaking is essential to success. In from twelve to twenty- 
 four hours the fermentation is complete, the product being 
 known as ''young koumiss" or naumal. Fresh milk is 
 added daily, and as the product is concentrated by the 
 evaporation of water from the surface of the hide, the old 
 koumiss is much stronger than the new. Kounlis^ is an acid 
 
 liquid ofa not unpleasant pungent taste and an ethereal bou- 
 quet. Iteffervesces when poured intoaglass. Itis very intox- 
 icating to persons not accustomed to its use, and produces 
 drowsiness. Besides alcohol and carbonic acitl, it contains 
 the other constituents of the milk, except tl»e sugar, and is 
 consequently very nourishing. It is easily assimilated, even 
 by invalids, and the hardy vigor of the Tartars is attrib- 
 uted to its general use among them. Koumiss yields by 
 distillation a strung liquor called by the Calmueks nrrarn^ 
 rack, or rarkij. From the residue in the still they make a 
 kind of hasty-pudding. 
 
 Beverages somewhat similar to koumiss have long hecn 
 made in the Orkney and Shetland islands, in Arabia (called 
 lehan), and in Turkey (called i/anitsf). 
 
 Koumiss has recently attracted much attention among 
 European pliysicinns, and its manufacture has been intro- 
 duced at Moscow. St. Petersburg, Vienna, and London. It 
 may be made from the milk of any animal. The followini^ 
 analysis was made by Wanklyn of the contents of n boHle 
 of koumiss, twelve days old. made from cow*s milk at the 
 establishment of E. Chapman & Co. in London: 
 
 Water I0,Gf;2 grains. 
 
 Aleoliol 192 " 
 
 Caseine and albumen I2S " 
 
 Su^ar (lactose) n.S2 " 
 
 Lactic acid ViO " 
 
 Fat 36 " 
 
 Ash W " 
 
 Carbonic acid IJiO " 
 
 12,000 grains. 
 
 It is claimed that koumiss is most valuable for the treat- 
 ment of extreme debility and all the phases of impending 
 marasmus. It is said to have specific action in diabetes. 
 (For further information consult Johnston's ChemiKtrjf of 
 Commnu Life; Wagner's Jahresherichte, vol. ii. 243, and 
 vi. 421; The Milk Journal, i., 64: BrUinh Med. J.y Feb. 
 21, 1874 ; Pharm. J. and Tram., Feb. 28. 1874; The Amer- 
 ican Chemist, vol. v., June, 1875.) C. F. Chakdler. 
 
 Kous'so, or Cusso [an Abyssinian term], a drug con- 
 sisting of the flowers and unripe fruit of Bmi/ern anthel- 
 minfirit, ft small rosaceous tree of E. Central Africa. It is 
 an efficacious and safe remedy for tapeworm, but costly. 
 
 Kouznetsk, town of Russia, government of Saratov, 
 has large tanneries and trade in timber. Pop. 13,107. 
 
 Kov'no, government of AA''estern Russia, bounded by 
 Prussia and Poland, and watered by the Niemen and its 
 tributaries. Area, lO.lIo square miles. Pop. 1,131.248, 
 most of whom arc Roman Catholics, many Jews. The 
 surface is low and flat, and more than two-thirds of it are 
 covcreil with lakes and dense forests. Besides rye and 
 wheat, flax and hemp are extensively cultivated. 
 
 Kovno, town of Western Russia, the capital of the 
 government of Kovno, at the confluence of the Vilia and 
 the Niemen. It has many good institutions for military, 
 theological, and scientific education, but its manufactures 
 and trade are insignificant. Pop. 34,012. 
 
 KoylHon^ tp. of Tuscola eo., Jlieh. The principal in- 
 dustries are farming and cattle-raising. Pop. 422. 
 
 Koze1sk% town of Eurojiean Russia, in the govern- 
 ment of Kalooga. on the Jizdra. It has large manufac- 
 tures of sailcloth and trade in flax and hemp. Pop. 8387- 
 Krackowizcr {EknstI. M. D., b. in the duchy of 
 Slyria. Austria, in 1822; studied medicine at Vienna and 
 Padua; as captain of the Students' Legion was involved 
 in the insurrection of 184S, and finally came to America; 
 practised at Brooklyn. X. Y. ; removed to New York City : 
 established the tierman dispensary; was member of the 
 committee of seventy during the municipal reform ; assisted 
 in reorganizing the Bellevuc Hospital Medical College in 
 1874, nnd contributed to several medical periodicals. 1). 
 Sept. 2::, lS7o. 
 
 Knuo'va, the capital of Little Wallachia, on the left 
 bank of the Schyl. It has several good educational insti- 
 tutions and a beautiful public park. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Kra'kcn [Xorse], a fabulous sea-monster described 
 first under this name by Pontoppidan, althoujih Olaus 
 Magnus, Gesner, and other old writers have substantially 
 the same accounts. The tales of the kraken seem to have 
 been exaggerated reports of large ccphalopods and whales. 
 Stories of its devouring ships, of its back being taken for 
 an island and men landing upon it, etc., rccull similar 
 fables in Lucian's and Pliny's works and the Arahian 
 Xiffhtu: but Lucian's narrative is a witty satire on the 
 credulity of other writers, who in all ages have seriously 
 recorded these mons'rous fables. 
 
 Krasic'ki (Icnacv), b. at Dubiecko, Galioia, 1734; 
 studied theology in Rome: was macle bishop of Ermcland 
 in 1707, archbishop of Gnesen in 1795, and d. at Berlin lAJar. 
 14, 1801. As Krmeland was annexed to Prussia io 1772,
 
 KRASINSKI— KREMLIN. 
 
 1583 
 
 I^rasicki became a Prussian subject, and bis talents and 
 elegant attainnienta soon made him a favorilo of Frederick 
 II. His writings, which were collected in AVursaw in ten 
 volumes in ISU.f, are mttstly aatirieal, and procured for 
 him the name of the Polish Voltaire. His Monomnckia 
 ("War of Monks")» a satirical epic, and his faVjlcs have 
 been translates! repeatedly both into tJeriuan and French. 
 
 Krasiii'ski (Zv(:mc;nt Napoleon). Cot nt, b. in Paris 
 Feb. ly, XM'ly a son of Count Wyncent^- Krasinski, who 
 after the fall of Napoleon held tlie highest position in the 
 Russian government. The snn, however, declined all offers 
 from Russia. When he became of age he left his native 
 country, lived in different European capitals, and d. in 
 Paris Feb. 24, ISOH. But his poetical productions were re- 
 ceived by all Poles with the greatest enthusiasm, and caupcd 
 now and then considerable excitement. His principal 
 works arc — Xiehimka Komrd;ifi, a drama in three parts 
 (IS;!7-1S), Przrttsirit (" Before Dawn "), and Psalmtj przy- 
 aztosci ('■ Ilymn^ of the Future"), lyrical poems in which 
 a glowing patriutifm is combined with a deep piety. 
 
 Krasnoslobodsk', town of Russia, in the government 
 of Pcii7.li, on the Mok:;ha, carries on an extensive trade in 
 corn. Pop, 77152. 
 
 Krasnovodsk% a Russian fortress, on a bay of the 
 same name, on the south-eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, 
 in lat. 10° N., is an important starting-point for seicntilic 
 and military expeditions to Central Asia. Peter the Great 
 understood the iin]»ortanee of the point, and used it in an 
 undertaking against Khiva, but afterwards it fell into de- 
 cay, until it was once more oci-upied and fortified in Nov., 
 1^6'.). 'From here the savants Kadde and Siewers explored 
 the flora and fauna of the adjacent steppes ; fifteen meteor- 
 ological stations were established in Toorkistan; and the 
 engineer Kosclikul ina'lo a geological map of the vicinity. 
 In connection with a military expedition against the Toor- 
 koman fortress Kisyl-Arwat, about I.'jO miles to tho S. E. 
 of Krasnovodsk, important geodetic labors were under- 
 taken under the leadership of Col. Stehnirzky. purporting 
 to re-establish the old water-road between the Caspian Sea 
 and the Sea of Aral by employing the old bed of the Oxua. 
 During the great expedition against Khiva, led by (ien. 
 Kauffinann in 1H73, one of tho three advancing columns 
 started from Krasnovodsk. Augitst Nikmans. 
 
 Krasnoyarsk', town of Siberia, in the government of 
 Yeniseisk, on the Yenisei. It is a neat town, with consid- 
 erable trade in fur au'l leather, and important gold-mines 
 in the vicinity. Pop. 7028. 
 
 Kraszew'ski (Jozkf Ionacv), b. at Warsaw in 1S12; 
 studied ai Vilna; settled in Volhynia; went in 18G0 to 
 Warsaw as cililor of Gnzetn i'^lnhn, and removed in l^ti.'! 
 to Dresden. He is tho most prolilie writer in tho modern 
 Polish literature, and he has both talent and education. 
 Ho has written a largo epic, Anofiflun (3 vols., lSiO-j;t), 
 treaiing a subject of the history of Lithuania; a great 
 number of novels anil romances depicting Polish life; sev- 
 eral historical works; and a multitude of monographs, 
 travelling sketches, critical essays, etc., tho whole compris- 
 ing over IllM) volumes. 
 
 Krausc ( Kari. Christian FniRnnirH), b. at Kisenbcrg, 
 in tho duchy of Saxc-Altenburg, May G, 1781 ; studied at 
 Jena; lectured on philosophy at Berlin, Gottingcn, and 
 Munich, but lived for I lie most time at Dresden as a private 
 m;in, and d. at Munich ^ept. 27, \^?.2. His views of tho 
 human race, as forming pari of a higher and more spiritual 
 realm, led him to peculiar ideas concerning tho destiny of 
 mankind, the development of human life, and tho organi- 
 sation of human society; and these ideas brought him in 
 connection with the Freemasons. His writings in this line, 
 Dir ilrci nllmtrn KitnnturhHnilr.n rfcr FfrimiturrrhrudcrHrhiift 
 (1810), Ifiiherc VrrtfrtHtiifuiiff lirr erfit uherfir/rrttm (irutiff- 
 »t/mf>nlr drr Freimnnrrrri f ISIO), and Urbitd dcr Meniichhfit 
 (isll), attracted much attention. 
 
 Kraiitli (CiiAur.KS Piiii.n'), D. D., b. in Montgomery 
 CO., Pa., May 7, 17U7; reeeiveil a thorough education at 
 hcHn-.', and early showed a talent for pliilology. At the age 
 of eighicen he commenced the study of medicine, but a 
 changi! in hia religious views led him to enter tho ministry 
 of the Ijutheran (.^hurch. Ho was licensed 1819, and be- 
 came pastor in Marlinsburg, Va. ; went to Philadelphia in 
 1827 ; was president of Petinsylvnnia College iSV.l-.'iO; 
 professor of biblical and Oriental literature in tho theolog- 
 ical seminary of the Cicneral Synod at Gettysburg lS;i'*-fi7; 
 d. May l!0, I8ft7. Dr. Kraulh had every quality which en- 
 sures a large ilistinetion, rxerpi ambition. His mind was 
 of a very high order: his IcHriiing extensive and exact ; 
 his power of nioving men as a preacher exlraonlinnry ; 
 and his character one of the most exquisite purity and 
 completeness. Ho wrote much, but published eompara- 
 tivcly little. His theological position was that of uncom- 
 
 promising adherence to tho doctrines of evangelical Prot- 
 estantism, of great moderation on points in dispute, and of 
 cautious adjudication between tho claims of conservatism 
 and progress. A very complete sketch of his life and labors 
 was given in the Evdntjclicaf lievieir, Jan., 1SC8, by Prof. 
 M. L. Stoever. (Sue also McCliutock and Strong's Cyclo- 
 pndifi, V. IGD.) 
 
 Krauth (Charles Pouterfield), S. T. D., LL.D., son 
 of Charles Philip Krauth, b. Mar. 17, 182.t, at Martins- 
 burg, \'a. ; graduated at Pennsylvania College, tlettye- 
 burg, lS;i'J; became a licentiate in 1841 ; labored at Balti- 
 more, Md., 1842-47 ; ordained 1812; pastor in Winehcstcr, 
 Va., 1848-65; in Pittsburg. Pa., ISOj-il) ; in St. Mark's, 
 Philadelphia. 1859-Gl; had temporary charge of St. John's 
 1SG4-05 and 1874-75; labored in mission churches at 
 Canton, Md., 1841. and in St, Stephen's and St. Peter's, 
 Philadelphia. He spent ten months, 1852-5.'!, in St. 
 Thomas and Santa Cruz, D. W. I.; for nearly three 
 months during the prevalence of yellow fever officiated 
 as jtastor in St. Thomas; subsequently ]uiblisheii Skrlrhra 
 of a Wintrr and Sprhuj in thr Jhiniufi W'rut Indies. He 
 became editor of the Luthrmn 18f>l ; in 18("i4. Oct. 4, was 
 inaugurated as Norton profcssorof systematic tluMtlogy and 
 ecclesiastical polity in the Lutheran Seminary in Philadel- 
 phia, and is the author of its constitution. In lsfi8 the 
 chair of intellectual and moral philosophy in the Univer- 
 sity of Pennsylvania was offered to Krauth : he was cliosen 
 its vice-provost in ]87o: in 1874 the department of logic 
 was attached to his chair. He is a member of the Histori- 
 cal Society of Pennsylvania; of the Pliilosojihical and Ori- 
 ental Societies: of the American eommittec (Old Testament 
 Company) co-operating with the British revisers of the au- 
 thorized version ; and of the American Bible Society's com- 
 mittee on versions. Besides numerous translations from 
 different languages, and many critical and annotated edi- 
 tions, ho has written in the line of practical theology — 
 Pastoral Office (1845), Chn/Mostom (184*)), Tranfjhjurution 
 (1850), Popular Amii^onfintn (1851). The Iiihh\i Pcr/e^t 
 fiaok (1852), The Old Church on fhf f/ifl (1854). Pm-rrtt/, 
 three essays (1858), Christ and I/is Khujdom in Shadows 
 (187-1). His published sermons on national occasions are — 
 The Former Dayn oud These />«»/«( 185fi), Tht: Altor on the 
 I'hrrshiuff-Floor (\S57), The Tiro Pa<jeauts,on the death of 
 Pros. liincoln (181)5). In illustration of the doctrines, his- 
 tory, and usages of the Lutheran Clinrcb he wrote The Tt- 
 <jau ArticlcK (1851)), The Lord's JJai/, Thcolmpcal Fuci/rlnpie- 
 dia from the Sevcnteeutli to the Niticteenth Cruturi/ (1857), 
 Chrintinn Liberti/ (1860), The EvautfcUcnl Mat^s and the 
 Jiomish Mass (18C0), The Lutheran Church, I/rr Glory, etc, 
 (18fi;5), The Augsburg Cuufcssian, translated and annotated 
 {\>>6\i). The Conservative JicformatifU, and its Thcolotjy aa 
 repreHcuted in the Augsburg Confession and in the History 
 and Literature of the Evangelical Lutheran Church (1871, 
 8vo, pp. 858). Dr. Krantli has been a constant laborer in 
 tho liturgical movements in the Lutheran Church, and writ- 
 ten in this lino Sunday Scrriets of the Churches if the licf- 
 orniation (on the basis of Alt's Cultus, 185;>), The Jubilee 
 Service (1867), Common Prayer, arrangrd from thr CollfCtB 
 in Ancient i'eein the Lutheran Church ; The Church Hooh of 
 the General Council (18fii)); The LHunjical Muvcmrnt in 
 the. German lirformrd and Presbyterian Churches. Ho has 
 been associated with the organization of the general coun- 
 cil of tho Lutheran Church in America: wrote the Pcffly 
 to the Pope'M Letter, adopted Nov. 0, I8t)i); the Thcsrs on 
 Jusfificalion (1870-74) ; was elected ])resident of the coun- 
 cil 1*870, has held that office to this time (1875), and is 
 chairman of its committee for the preparation of a consti- 
 tution for congregations and synoils. 
 
 Dr. Krauths lil)rary is one of the most carefully selected 
 in our country, and contains aboiit Lt.OOO volumes, largely 
 of the class of l«ioks which are the primary sources of in- 
 formation in the departments of his investigations. He has 
 published a number of papers on " the internal history an<l re- 
 lations of the Authorized English Version of the Serijitures, 
 and of the Translations and Texts which have intluenecd it." 
 
 KrebH (Jttns MnnAKi,). T>. D.. b. at Hagerstown. Md., 
 May 6, IStll; graduated at Diekinson College in 1827 and 
 at Prini'cton Theological Seminary in l^'M); was l8;U1-07 
 pastor of the Rutgers street ehurch. M. Y., and held many 
 prominent positions in tho Old School branch of the Pr»s- 
 iiyfcrian Church. He was the author of several devotional 
 and other works, chiefly of a religious character. D. iu 
 New Vork Sept. :U). lSfi7, 
 
 Kromrnets', town of Kuropean Russia, in tho govern- 
 ment of Volhynia. on the Irwa, which, however, is not 
 navigable. It has seven annual fairs. Pop. 10,486. 
 
 KremcntclinoK', town of Kuropcan Russia, in Iho 
 government of Poltava, on the Dnieper. It has manufne- 
 tures of rope, leather, tnllow. and a brisk trade. Pop. 2.'»,848. 
 
 Kremlin. See Moscow.
 
 1584 
 
 KREMNITZ— KRUPP. 
 
 Krem'DitZy town of Hungary, situated in a deep val- 
 ley among barren mountains, and provided with water by 
 an aqueduct aU miles long. Its eold and silver mines arc 
 tho richest in Europe. Pop. 6330. 
 
 KremSy town of Lower Austria, on the Krems, at its 
 intlux into tho Danube. It is famous for its mustard and 
 wine. Pop. 5300. 
 
 Krem'sir, town of Austria, in the province of Moravia, 
 is beautifully situated on the March; it is well built, the 
 seat of several civil and ecclesiasticiil authorities, and has 
 good educational institutions, many line buildings, and an 
 active general trade. Pop. 'JllO. 
 
 Kreutz'nach, town of Rhenish Prussia, on the Nahe, 
 at its intlux into the Ubine. It has celebrated salt springs, 
 much used for bathing, and largo manufactures of brandy, 
 champagne, chocolate, and tobacco. Pop. 10,y3j. 
 
 Kreuz'er, the name of a small coin which originated in 
 the Tyrol in the thirlcenth century, and became very com- 
 mon all over Germany since the fifteenth. At present, 
 since I.S5S, it is made only in the South German states of 
 copper. 100 to a gulden. It received its name, cruciatua, 
 cti(fi/t;r, from a cross imprinted on it. 
 
 Kris, or Crease, the dagger of the Malays, often 
 cnriou?!y twisted, the more seriously to mangle those who 
 are wounded by it. It is of native manufacture and ex- 
 tremely well tempered. 
 
 Krishna. See IIindc Religion, and Mahabharata. 
 
 Krishna River. See Kistnah. 
 
 Kroe'ger ( Adolph E.). b. in 1837 at Schwabstadt. near 
 Friedrich?tadt, in the duchy of Sleswick. where his father 
 was a minister. In 1818 the whole family emigrated to 
 America, and settled at Davenport, la., and soon after 
 young Kroeger entered into business life as clerk in a bank- 
 ing-house. From 18.")7 to ISGO he was engaged as trans- 
 lator on the New York Times. During the war he served 
 on the staff of Fremont. After the war be settled at St. 
 Louis, Mo., where he is still residing. Both by his trans- 
 lations of Fiehte and by numerous essays in difTcrent 
 periodicals he lias contributed much to a better understand- 
 ing of and a more widely spread interest in German litera- 
 ture and philosophy. He is a steady contributor to the St. 
 Louis Joiininl of' Speculative PhUosuphif. In 1873 he pub- 
 lished The Mintiesiiif/cra of Gcrmanif, containing translations 
 of Walter von der Vogelweide, Ulrich von Lichtenslcin, etc. 
 
 Krolevets', town of European Russia, in the govern- 
 ment of Tchernigov. It has a much-frequeuted annual 
 fair. Pop. fill! 7. 
 
 Kro'nenbcrg, town of Rhenish Prussia, on the Wip- 
 pLT, li;is uiauufactuves of silk and of iron and steel goods. 
 Pop. 7S74. 
 
 Kron'^tadt, town of the Austrian empire, in Transyl- 
 vania. It is an old city, consisting of an inner town sur- 
 rounded by walls, its three suburbs respectively inhabited 
 by Germans, Szeklers, and Wallachs. It is a thriving and 
 very neatly built town, with many beautiful gardens and 
 promenades. Pop. 28,1)14. 
 
 Kroos* See Liberia. 
 
 Krotos'zyn% or Krotoschin, town of Prussia, in 
 the province of Po;;en. It has manufactures of tobacco 
 and linen, and a large trade in wool. Pop. 7688. 
 
 Krozet' (or Crozel) Islands, a group of four small 
 islnnds in the Indian Ocean, between Kerguelen and Prince 
 Edward islands. They arc uninhabited, and visited only 
 by sealers, Tho easternmost, situated in hit. 27° S.. Ion. 
 48° E,, was selected in IS7I as a station for the observation 
 of the transit of Venus by the American astronomers; but 
 owing to tempestuous weather the party were unable to 
 land, and the station was unoccupied, 
 
 Krii'dener, von (Jt mask), b. at Riga Nov. 21. 17fi4, 
 a daughter of Haron von WietinghofF, one of the wcallbiest 
 Livouian noblemen, and a granddaughter of the famous 
 Russian field-marshal .Miinieh. In 1783 she married Baron 
 von Kriidener. whom she accompanied to A'cnice and Co- 
 ])enhagen, and to whom she bore two children. In 1789 
 she made a journey to France, from which she sent her 
 husband a milliners biil of 20.000 francs for the first three 
 months, and from which she returned in 1791 with M. de 
 Fregcville, a young lieutenant of hussars, disguised as her 
 footman, .\fter that timo the couple lived separated. The 
 fame of Madame dc Stai-l tempted her into literature. Va- 
 
 l/tir, oit fettrca de (ntaUtve de Liuttr <l Ernent de G , 
 
 was produced, correcteil, read aloud in tho salons, and at 
 last published at I*aris in 1803, after the most careful 
 preparation. Tho result was a perfect success, quite a 
 sensation, which, however, did not satisfy the authoress, 
 ll^r connections with Jung-iStilling and the Moravian 
 B.'cthreu had now the ascendency over her mind, and she 
 
 appeared in the world as a Sister of Charity, a preacher, a 
 pr<»phetess. In 1815 she held a sort of religious reunions 
 in her hotel in Paris, and [leople of the highest rank crowded 
 her salons; the emperor of Russia, Alexander, was among 
 her visitors, lie invited her to the grand review over the 
 Russian troops in the plain of Chalons, and the sight in- 
 spired her as the beginniug of the '• reign of Christ on 
 earth.'' From Bale, where she attempted to ctmtinue her 
 religious assemblies, she was expelled; also from Baden, 
 Wiirteraberg, Bavaria, Saxony, and Prussia. In 1818 she 
 was escorted by the Prussian police to the Russian frontier, 
 and on entering her native country she was forbidden to 
 preach and to appear in St. Petersburg and Moscow. She 
 found, nevertheless, an opportunity of visiting St. Peters- 
 burg, and attempted to renew her friendship with tho em- 
 peror. But her enthusiasm for the Greek revolution, and 
 her indiscretion in working for her ideas, were too great 
 for tho Russian diplomacy. She was banished from St. 
 Petersburg, and went in 1824 to the Crimea in order to 
 found a colony in accordance with her own ideos of human 
 society. On this expedition she d. at Karassubasar Dee. 
 25, 1824, Her life and character have been subject to much 
 curiosity and speculation; at present, however, most critics 
 agree in considering her a specimen of a not uncommon 
 kind of female character, only that peculiar circumstances 
 forced her gifts and her weaknesses into caricuture. 
 
 Krng (WiLHELM TiiArcoTT), b. at Radis, in PruB.^ian 
 Saxony. June 22. 1770; studied at M'ittenbcrg. Jena, and 
 Guttingcu; was appointed professor in philosophy at 
 Frankfort-on-thc-0«ler in 1801 ; at Kiinigsberg in 1804, as 
 the successor of Kant; at Leipsic in 1809; resigned in 
 1834, and d. Jan. 13. 1812. He took part with great 
 eagerness and with a certain adroitness in all literary and 
 political movements in his time, lie was jiresidcnt of the 
 Tugenbund, formed after the Peace of Tilsit for the rcgcn, 
 eration of Germany. He joined a Saxon regiment in the 
 campaign of 1813. In politics he stood foremost among 
 the liberal agitators ; in theology he wrote liriefe iiber die 
 Prrfrrfihilifiit der tjcuffcnhnrteu Ifffitjinn (1796); in phi- 
 losophy he pretended to have found the true reconciliation 
 between idealism and realism, which he presented in a 
 quite popular form. J'inidainentai philoiKtphie (1803), and 
 afterwards in a more scientific form in his AUtjemcinea 
 I/midtrorterlinvh der jiliifn^npfiiarlien Wisxensclia/ten (4 
 vols., Leipsic, 1827-28). His writings are very numerous 
 and varied : they were popular in their time, but are now 
 superseded. 
 
 Kru'mau, town of Bohemia, on the Moldau, consists 
 of Krumau proper. Latron. six suburbs, and an iunuensc 
 palace or castle with five courtyards. Krumau has large 
 breweries, and a famous bccr-vault excavated in a solid 
 rock. Pop. GCOO. 
 
 Krum'macher (FniEDRice Adolf), b. at Tecklenburg, 
 in Westphalia. July 13. 17(»8. and d. as minister of the Re- 
 formed congregation at Bremen, Apr. 14, 1845. His Aij«- 
 fdrit (1805) became a very popular book, ran through many 
 editions, and was translated into English. lie wrote sev- 
 eral other works, poetical and religious, none of which at- 
 tained great popularity. — His son, FitiEimirn Wilhkmi, 
 b. at Duisburg. in Rhenish Prussia, Jan. 28, K^'O, and d. 
 as chaplain of the court at Potsdam, Dec. 10. 18r»8, wa? a 
 rather harsh opponent of the rationalistic school of theol- 
 ogv, but he was a very eloquent preaeher. Of his writings, 
 Kii/uh the Tithhite, The Last D'lt/a of Eliaha, Snfumon and 
 t/ic Shidamite^ fjfiiiipsta into the Ktut/dom of Ifenren, Darid, 
 Kintf of hratf, and his Autobiography have beeo trans- 
 lated into English. 
 
 Krupp (FniKURirn). The Krupp cast-steel works at 
 Essen, in Rhenish Prussia, were founded in 1810 by Fried- 
 rich Krupp. After his death, in 182r», his widow and sons 
 took charge of the establishment in company until 1848, 
 since which time one of the sons, Alfred Krupp. carries on 
 the business alone under the firm-name of Friedrich Krupp. 
 Like his father, he had many difficulties to overcome before 
 he achieved any signal success, but the introduction of steel 
 for cannons exercised a decisive influence on the prosperity 
 of the works. At present the establishment covers an area 
 of more than 400 hectares and employs over 12,000 hands, 
 besides about 5000 men engaged in the mines and smelting- 
 houses, 2000 in the building department, and 739 in the 
 administration. Tho quantity of steel produced and 
 consumed for casting amounted in 1872 to more than 
 125,000.000 kilogrammes: the articles manufactured com- 
 prised axles, tires, wheels, etc. for railways : rails and 
 springs for railways and mines; axles for steamboats; dif- 
 ferent parts of machinery, rollers, etc., and cannons, gun- 
 carriages, and guns. In 1873 there were 1 100 furnaces of 
 different kinds in operation ; 275 coke-ovens. 204 smiths' 
 forges. 240 boilers; 71 steam-hammers, of which 3 were of 
 100 cwts., 1 of 200, 1 of 400. 1 of 1000 : 28r. s'cam-cngines.
 
 KRUSENSTEKN— KriiX. 
 
 15.^5 
 
 of which 6 were of 150, 1 of 200, 1 of 500, 3 of 800, and 1 
 of lunu horso-power: and 1050 machine-tools. In 1S72 
 500,0011,000 kilut:rttmmc9 of cual. iL'j.OIHi.OOil kiloi^Tuiuines 
 of cuke, 3,500,000 cubic metres of wnter. ami o.UOu.tluO cubic 
 metres of gua were consumed. Of means of eornniuuioatiou 
 the ostHblishmeut possesses 52. K kilonielre.'^ of railway, 15 
 locomotires, i^OO ears, nnil a complete system of telegraph: 
 206 dwollius^-houses for officials, 2048 for wi>rkingnieu, 
 several ho.^pitals, a chemical laboratory, a photographic 
 and a lithographic cslablisliment, etc. belong to the works; 
 414 mine:^ and several smelting-housies, with 11 blast fur- 
 nacpf!, produce annually about 10,000,000 kilogrammes of 
 pig iron. Rich deposits of iron ore in Northern Spain be- 
 long to .Mr. Krupp. 
 
 Mo,«t arllllerists consider the Kru])p cannon to be the best 
 in the world. They are mo.*Jt extensively used ; more than 
 ];i,000 pieces have already been produced. Since lS72 the 
 whole German army has been jiroviiled with a new field- 
 gun invented by Mr. Krupp. The system of his cannon 
 is the breech-loadiug ; their peculiarity consists partly in 
 the appropriateness of the metal, partly in the construction. 
 At the Vienna Expitsition he exhibited the following can- 
 nons : I. 304 cm. cannon ; calibre. ;105 mm., length of tube 
 6.7 m. ; length of bore. 5.77 m. ; weight of tube, 30,000 k. ; 
 of the filled steel grenade, 200 k. : of charge, 00 k. ; of 
 cast-iron long grenade. 257 k. 11. 28 cm. howitzer; cali- 
 bre, 280 mm.; length of tube. .*t.2 m. ; length of bore, 
 2.5 m.; weight of tube, lO.noO k. ; of filled grenade, 
 \'J'.i k. ; of charge, 20 k. III. Short cm. ship cannon; 
 calibre, 200 mm.; Icngtii of tube, 5.2 m. ; weiglit of tube, 
 18,000 k. : of grenade, 1S4 k. IV. hong 24 cm. cannon 
 for casemate ships; calibre. 235.4 mm.; length of tube, 
 5.23 m.: weight of tube, 155.000 k. ; of steel grenade, 
 filled, 135 k.: of cast-iron grenade, filled, 118.5 k. V. 
 Li»ng 21 cm. cannon; calibre, 2ii0.3 mm.: length of tube, 
 4.708 m.: weight of tube. 10,000 k. ; filled steel grenade, 
 95 k. VI. 21 cm. siege cannon : calibre, 200.3 mm. ; length 
 of tube, 3.400 m. ; weight of tube, 3000 k. ; filled gre- 
 nade, 70 k. VII. Long cm. cannon; calibre, 172.0 mm.; 
 length of tube, 4.250 m. : weight of tube, 5000 k.; filled 
 steel grenade. 55 k. VIII. 15 cm. siege cannon ; calibre, 
 1 rj.l mm. ; length of tube, 3.44 m. ; weight of tube, 3000 
 k. ; filled grenade. 28 k.; charge, 6 k. IX. Long 15 cm. 
 cannon : calibre, 140.1 mm. ; length of tube, 3.S5 m. ; 
 weight of tube, 4000 k. : filled steel grenade, 35 k. ; filled 
 cast-iron long grenade, 28 k. X. 12 cm. cannon; calibre, 
 120.3 mm.; length of tube, 2.925 m. : weight of tube, 1400 
 k. ; filled steel grenade, 17.5 k. ; filled cast-iron grenade, 
 15.5 k. XI. cm. field cannon ; calibre, 91 .5 mm. ; length 
 of tube, 2.04 m. ; length of bore. l.sl'J m. : weight of tube, 
 425 k.; filled grenade. 0.9 k.; charge, O.fi k. XII. 8 cm. 
 fieUl cannon; calibre, 78.5 mm.: length of tube, 1.0:'5 m.; 
 weight of tube, 295 k. ; filled grenade, 4.3 k.; charge, 
 0.5 k. XIII. fi cm. mountain cannon; calibre, 60 mm.; 
 length of tube, 1.25 m. : weight of tube, 107 k. ; filled 
 grenade, 2.3 k. ; charge, 0.2 k. AuorsT Nikmann. 
 
 Kru'spnstern, von (.^dam JonAxx), b. Nov. 19, 1770, 
 a^ Ilag^ud, K;«thonia, and cduoatcfl at the naval academy 
 of Kronstadt: served 1793-99 in the Uritish navy, and un- 
 dertook, from Aug. 7, 1803, to Aug. 19. 1800. a" scientific 
 anl commercial cxpcditi<in at the expense of the Russian 
 government to the northern coasts of the Pacific. The ex- 
 pedition was a great succes-s, and has been described by 
 Krusenstern himself in his lifiie um ifir \\%/t (3 vol?., 
 1810-12. translated into English by Iloj.pner in 1813). 
 From 1824-27 he published Atftti tfn Vnc/nn /*nciji»/iie (2 
 vols.) and RrcurU de nf'tnnirm fiifiim/fntp/iitfiifH, ptmr ner- 
 vi'r ii'(tn(t/i/»e et ii'r.rpfiriilimi tl /'tttttm f/** l'i)rfttn /'artfittite. 
 
 In 1829 he was made a vice-admiral, iu 1841 an admiral, 
 and d. Aug. 24, 1840. 
 
 Krylof (Ivan AxnnKiviTrn), h. Feb. 14, 1708. d. Nov. 
 21. IS 14: passed the early years of his boyhood in the dis- 
 tant pn»vinco of Orenburg, where his father was serving 
 aijainst the rebels of Pugatcheff. and subsequently in Tver. 
 His father died when he was fourteen, and he was then 
 ob!i.;ed to enter the goverinnent servic in Tver, and after- 
 war. U in St. Petersburg, at a salary of two roubles a month. 
 He rei-eived a good education from his mother. His first 
 iiroduetion, at the ago of sixteen, was Co/rhiitun. In 178S 
 im entere.l into journalism, iu which be continueil until 
 1790, when all the jirivate priritirigofllceR were closed by 
 the emperor Paul, por some years after he resided on the 
 estate of Prince Galitzin, teaeliing the children and acting 
 as ft frien<l to the family. On the accession of the empe- 
 ror Alexander in 1801. IVinee tialitzin was made governor 
 of Livonia, and appointed Krylof his seeretary. His pas- 
 sion for cards caused him to leave the service iind tn wan- 
 der about Hussia for two years. In 18n5 he wrote his first 
 fables, which bad a great success, and from this time on 
 his literary activity was entirely confined to fable-writing. 
 Vot,."TI.— 100 
 
 His first essays were chiefly adaptations and translations 
 of La Fontaine, but he afterwards wrote wholly in the na- 
 tional vein, touching sometimes on politics, especially on the 
 stirring events of 18I2, though principally on moral and 
 social topics. From 1812 to 1841 he occupied a position 
 in the imperial public library, lie never married, and par- 
 ticularly iu his latter days led an almost solitary life, con- 
 fining himself to occasional visits at the houses of one or 
 two friends. Eigkxk Scmivlkr. 
 
 Ku^blai Khan, the founder of the twentieth or Mongol 
 dynasty of emperors of China, was a gramison of ticnghis 
 Khan, b. early iu the thirteenth century in Tartary.of which 
 country he was the reigning sovereign, when about 1250 
 his aid was invoked by Li-Sung, emperor of China, against 
 the Oriental Tartars. Tliis task having been successfully 
 accomplished, Kublai Khan remained in China with his 
 largo and well-disciplined army. Afier the death of Li- 
 Sung and of his imljccilc successor, Kuhlai Khan assumed 
 the title of emperor of China, excluding the infant claimant 
 of the throne. His undisputed reign dates from 1279. after 
 which he extended his empire by the c<in<|uest of Tonquin, 
 Cochin China, and other adjoining countries, until bis 
 limits reached the Arctic Ocean, the Straits of Malacca, and 
 the Euxinc. lie sent a naval expecliti(m for the conquest 
 of Japan, but it was partially destroyed by a tempest, and 
 the remainder easily defeated by the .Ja])antso. Under his 
 reign the celebrated \'cnetian traveller Marco Polo resided 
 many years at theimjierinl court, of which he has given so 
 vivid a description. (See Katiiav, by Col. Heniiv Yi'le.) 
 
 Kuenlun', or Koulkoiin, the name of a mountain- 
 range of Central Asia, wliieli commences near the point of 
 lat. 35° N. and Ion. 75° K.. from which tlie Himalayiis, the 
 Hindoo-Koosh,and the Bolor-Tagh radiate in three difiVrcnt 
 directions, and stretches eastward, forming the northern 
 boundary of Thibet. The eastern parts of (his mountain- 
 range, which extends into China jiropcr, are almost un- 
 known to us, but the western part, generally known by the 
 names of Karakorum and Mustagb, rises to a height of 
 21.000 feet, is covered with tremendous glaciers, which 
 sometimes descend to 10,000 feet, and forms deep. wild, hut 
 beautiful and exceedingly fertile valleys. Karakorum is 
 properly the name of a pass, 18,000 feet high, leading from 
 Thibet into Chinese Toorkistan. 
 
 Kufic Writing. See CtJFic Writing. 
 
 Kug'Icr (FitANz TiiixiDou), b. at Stettin Jan. 19,1808; 
 studied lii>t(iry, philology, and art in IJerlin, lleitlelbcrg. 
 and Italy, and was a(q»oinIed (iroftssor in the line arts at 
 tbo University of Berlin in 1833, His Hamibitch dcr 
 GrRchichte dtr Malerei von Iiunntaiitin dcr Grosne bin an/ 
 (lie tieiitrc Zcit (2 vols., Berlin, 1837), and his llaudhuvh 
 der KiniMtfftHchifhtc (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1841-42), arc excel- 
 lent productions — clear, comprehensive, and very instruc- 
 tive: the former of them has been translated into English. 
 His Kltimn Si-hrlfitn iitid Studit-u zur Knnsff/cschiclitr (3 
 vols., Stuttgart, 1853-54) contains many valuable essays 
 on the history and philosophy of the fine arts. Very little 
 interest, on the contrary, have his dramas and poems, and 
 his History of Frederick th>' Great, though the latter is very 
 much read in Germany. I), at Berlin Mar. 18, IS58, in tho 
 midst of a large work on the Grirfiic/itc der Hdukunst, of 
 which he finished only tho three first volumes. 
 
 Killin ( A tiAMiKiti), b. at Kiinigsberg-in-dcr-Ncumark, 
 in llie Prussian province of BramUnbing. Nov, 19, 1812; 
 studieil philology at tho University of Berlin since 1833, 
 and became teacher at the gymnasium of Cologne in 1841, 
 and in 1850 profcf-sor. As editor of Zritnchrift fUr ver- 
 iffrirhcudc Sprarh/'orsidiiitif/ and /iritriitft ziir vrrjffriiht tiifr 
 Spntrh/tirHrhumf he has contributed much to the growth 
 of comparative philology. an*l by his IHe lirrnhkuufi dra 
 Fenrrn iniil drn G'otfcrtranlcH { Berlin. 1859), as well as other 
 researches in the same line, ho inaugurated tho new science 
 of comparative mythology. 
 
 Kiihn (FiiANz). banm von Kuhncnfeld, b. in 1R17; en- 
 tered in 1837 the \>t nginunt of infantry as a lieutenant ; 
 distinguished himself in iSls and 1810 in the war in Hun- 
 gary an'I Italy: was employed on the stafl" and as teacher 
 of strategy at the Military Aeadt my of \'jenna, and occu- 
 pied in 1859. in the war in I'pper Italy, the important posi- 
 tion of chief of stuff to (lyulay. After this unfortunate 
 war bo receiver! ihi' eoiniuand of the 17tli regiment of in- 
 fantry, and in the war of I SOO be was made a nnijnr-general 
 ami ehargcil with the defence of tho Tyrol against Hari- 
 baldi. He was successful in the performance of this task, 
 and was promoted to bp field-marsbal-lieutenant. In 1868 
 be ua> appointed minister of war for the whole empire, and 
 devoted liimself with great energy to tho reorgani.-alion of 
 the arniv. managing \vith delicacy and prudence tbo many 
 difllculties which arose from the discrepancies between 
 Austria and Hungary. In June, 1S74, ho rotired from this
 
 158t:> 
 
 KCHNOL— KUKISCHE-HAFF. 
 
 position, in consequence of one of those fluctuations so com- 
 luon with the Austrian government, and assumed the com- 
 mani.l of Griitz. Augtst Niemann. 
 
 Kiih'nol, or Kuehuoel (Christian Gottlieb), b. at 
 Leipsic Jan. 2. 17t.>S ; studied th('oU)gy in the univcr^-ity of 
 his native city, where he began to lecture on biblical exe- 
 gesis anil hcrmcneutica at the age of twenty : became pro- 
 fessorof philosophy in 171tO, and preacher in 17y*>. In 1801 
 he acce])ted a professorship atGiessen. and remained there I 
 until his death, Oct. 15, Itfil. His earliest original work 
 was on MvuHiaiiic Propheciea (1792 ). in German, after which 
 he published (in 1794) Notes on the New Tcntnment, /mm \ 
 the Apncn/f>h(i! lioukfi of the Old Tt-atuineiit, in Latin, and in 
 17y'.> ThepHuhns in Metre, in German. The great work of i 
 his life was his Latin Commeutuvif un the Hintoricaf liookn 
 of the Nfw Testament (Leipsic, 4 vols.. IS07-lt*: 4th ed. 
 1S37), which had great popularity, and was reprinted in 
 London ( 1S37, 3 vols.), with the addition of the Greek test. 
 Kithniil is credited with many of the best qualities of a 
 bibliiMil interpreter, and held a middle ground between 
 orthodoxy and neology. 
 
 Ku'ka, or Kukawa, town of Central Africa, the cap- 
 ital of Uornoo. in lat. 12° 55' N. and Ion. 13° 26' W., on tbe 
 western shore of Lake Tchad. Pop. 8000, 
 
 Ku-Klux KIan,or Ku-KIux [named, we are told, in 
 imitation of the click heard in cocking the rifle ; kfan is the 
 word c/(in in a new orthography], a former gecret associ- 
 ation of ex-Confederate soldiers, first heard of in Tennessee 
 in 186?*. The society soon spread into several other States 
 of the South, and many murders and other crimes were 
 committed by its members, who were dressed in fantastic 
 disguises. The victims were chiefly freedmen. pei-sons of 
 Northern origin, and Southerners accused of favoring the 
 reconstruction acts of Congress. The great budy of the 
 Southern people never approved of this method of settling 
 the questions involved, and greatly deplored the crimes of 
 the Ku-Klui. In Apr., IS71, Congress made these offenders 
 punishable in the Federal courts, and authorized the Presi- 
 dent to suspend the habeas corpus act when necessary to 
 the preservation of order. These measures, and the em- 
 ployment of U. S. troops in the troubled districts, soon 
 brought the disturbances to an end. 
 
 Ii.ula'9 town of Austria, in the province of Serbia, with 
 some manufactures and a lively trade. Pop. 6908. 
 
 Knlja, or Kuldsclia, province of Asiatic Russia, in 
 the giivernment of Toorkistan. Area, 25,500 square miles. 
 Pop. in 1S71, 114.;i;i7. It was formerly Soongaria, the ex- 
 treme X. W. province of the Chinese empire, but a few years 
 since it declared its independence under a native sultan, 
 and in May, 1871. the Russian government seized and an- 
 nexed the country in aceordanee with a previous agreement 
 with China. The capital, Kulja, called also ^fVc*', is situated 
 on the Eelec River, and has considerable trade. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Kulm [Bohemian Chfumnl, village of Bohemia, 8 miles 
 N. E. of Teplitz, is noted for the battle which took place 
 here Aug. 29-30, 181.3, and in which a French corps under 
 Vandamme was surrounded by the allied Russian-Austrian 
 army, ami compelled to surrender after a desperate resist- 
 ance, with 80 pieces and 10,000 men, having lost 5000 men. 
 
 Kulm 9 town of Prussia, in the province of Prussia, on 
 the Vistula. It has some manufactures of linen and some 
 trade in corn. Pop. 72G3. 
 
 Kumaon'9 territory in the north-western part of Hin- 
 dostan, forming a province of the presidency of Agra, 
 British India, and situated between 20° and 31° N. lat. and 
 between 78° and 81° K. Ion. Area, 11,000 square miles. 
 Pop. 605, 010. It is mostly covered by the Himalaya Moun- 
 tains, with the exception of a belt of lowland from 2 to 
 15 miles broad extending along the foot of the mountain- 
 range. Two crops are gathered here yearly ; rice, sugar, 
 and indigo form the one — wheat and Kuropean fruits and 
 vegetables the other. The tea-jtlant has lieen introduced 
 with success. The capital is .Vlmora, situated 5337 feet 
 above the soa. 
 
 Kuniquat,the Citrus Japan ka, a v&T\eiy of the orange 
 which is perfectly hardy in Japan and China, and would 
 probably succeed in inauy parts of the U. S. The shrub 
 and its fruit are both very small, but the fruit is of excel- 
 lent qualify. 
 
 Ku'nersdorf, village of Prussia, in the province of 
 Brandenlmrg. Here Frederick the Great was utterly de- 
 feated by the combined liussian and Austrian forces, Aug. 
 12, 1751). 
 
 KuDg, pRiscF,, b. in 1835. was uncle of the late em- 
 peror of China, and as regent hecame the virtual ruler of 
 that country at the accession of the former in 1861. In 
 1860, at the time of the capture of the Pei-II<i forts an-l 
 of tho summer palace of Peking, he advised the emperor 
 
 to sign the peace with tho French and English. Prince 
 Kung is the leader of the small party in China which ad- 
 vocates friendship with Christian nations, and the intro- 
 duction in the Celestial empire of Cheir industrial, scientific, 
 and manufacturing processes. He agreed with Anson Bur- 
 lingame, then American minister at Peking, to send him in 
 1S68, as envoy extraordinary of China, to the V. S. and 
 European powers, in order to form with thrm all alliances 
 on a very enlightened basis, ile became afterwards prime 
 minister, and concluded peace with Japan, after the For- 
 mosan troubles, Nov., 1874. On that occasion he was ac- 
 cused of having given way to foreign influence, and was 
 even condemned to death, but on the following day an im- 
 perial decree reinstated hini in all his offices, which he re- 
 tained until the death of the young emperor, Jan. 17, 1875. 
 
 Felix Aucaione. 
 
 Kuu^iir% or Kooni^oor, town of European Russia, 
 in the government of Perm. Its manufactures of Russian 
 leather are celebrated as the best in the world. Its vicinity 
 has very rich iron-mines. Pop. 8208. 
 
 Kun*Hegyes% town of Hungary, on the Theiss, has 
 71L'> inhaliitants, mostly Calvinists. 
 
 Kunnoilj', town of British India, in the presidency of 
 Agra, on the Kali Nuddi, 3 miles from its junction with 
 the Ganges, was at one time a flourishing town, but is now 
 only a vast field of ruins, of which some Mohammedan 
 tombs are interesting, and bear witness to the former 
 splendor of the place. Pop. 15,000, who live miserably. 
 
 Kun-Szent-Martony', town of Hungary, on the 
 Koros, has ','001 inhabitants. 
 
 Kun-Szent-Miklos', town of Hungary, on the Dan- 
 ube, has 5751 inhabitants, chiefly Protestants. 
 
 KuDth (Karl Sigismind},!!. at Leipsic June IS, 1788; 
 studied natural science at Berlin; lived 1813-19 at Paris, 
 engaged in the editing of Humboldt's and Bonpland's bo- 
 tanical collection: was npjiointed professor of botany at 
 Berlin in 1820, and d. Mar. 22, 1850. His principal works 
 arc — Enmncratio plaiitariim onniium hueueque cotjnita- 
 rnm (5 vols., Stuttgart, lS33-50)and Lehrbuch der Jiotnnik 
 (1S47). 
 
 Knnze (John Christophf.r), D.D., b. in Saxony about 
 1740 : studied at Leipsic and Halle : entered the Lutheran 
 ministry, and cume to Philadeljthia in 1770 as associate 
 pastor of the German churches in that city. For several 
 years he was a professor in the University of Pennsylvania. 
 In 1784 he ncct-pted a pastoral call to the city of New York, 
 where be resided for twenty-three years, until his death, 
 July 24, 1807. He added to his pastoral duties those of the 
 
 iirofessorship of Oriental literature in Columbia College. 
 lo was celebrated as a Hebrew scholar, being consulted 
 even by the rabbins upon the philological interpretation of 
 their Scriptures. He published several works, among which 
 •were a Ilinftprtf 0/ the ChriHtniu Rrliijion nnd of the Lutheran 
 Church, a t'literhiam and Liturr/i/, and a Lutheran Hymn 
 au't Pra>/er Hook. 
 
 Kuper (Sir Augtstis LtoroLn), K. C. B., G. C. B., 
 b. in 1800; entered the royal navy in 1823; served on 
 South American and Mediterranean stations and in China, 
 attained the rank of rear-admiral in L^-OLnnd was appointed 
 commander-in-chief on the East India and China stations, 
 conducting with success the operati<ms in 1864 on the coast 
 of Japan, and for which services was crcatdl a K. C. B. ; 
 subsequently promoted in the navy to be full admiral. 
 
 Kuppcrwunje', town of British India, in the presi- 
 dency of Bombay, in lat. 23° 3' N., Ion. 73° 9' E., is for- 
 tified and has some trade. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Kiir^or Koor, a river of the Caucasus, rises in Turkish 
 Armenia and flows to the Caspian Sea. Its course is so 
 irregular and its currents so rapid that it is entirely unfit 
 for navigation. In most places it is even impossible to 
 bridge it. 
 
 Ku'rile (or Koorilc) Islands, a group of twenty-six 
 islands in the North Pacific Ocean, near the Asiatic coast, 
 forming a chain 700 miles in length, from Kamtchatka to 
 Yesso, tho northernmost island of Japan. Estimated area, 
 3000 square miles. Pop. uncertain, but very small. The 
 surface is irregular and mountainous, with eight or fen 
 active volcanoes, one of which is from 12,000 to 15,000 feet 
 high. The inhabitants of the northern islands resemble 
 the natives (»f Kamtchatka : those of the southern are chiefly 
 Ainos. a race found also in Yesso. These islands arc divided 
 into Great and Little Kuriles, the former belonging to Japan, 
 and the latter to Russia, but by a treaty signed June. 1^75, 
 Japan has acquired sovereignty over the whole group. 
 There are iron and copper mines; the seal-fishery and fur- 
 trapping is of some value. 
 
 Kn'rische*Haff, a lagoon on the northern coa?t of 
 Prussia, extending from Labian to Mcmel, separated from
 
 KURNOOL— KYTIIUL. 
 
 15«7 
 
 the Baltic by a narrow belt of land called " Kurische-Noh- 
 ruDg," and communicating with it through a channel of 
 hardly 1000 feet width, called *' Mcmel Deeps." Its water 
 is fresh and in most pluces shulluw. 
 
 Kurnool', nr Kurnul^ town of British In'lin, in the 
 presidency of M;idras, the capital of a district of the same 
 name. It 13 situated on the Tamhudra, is strongly forti- 
 fied, and has about 20,0U0 inhabitants. 
 
 Kurrachee'9 town of Sinde. on an inlet of the Ara- 
 bian Sea, is miles X. \V. of the mouth of the Indus. As 
 all tbe branches of the Indus are barred by sandbanks, 
 Kurrachee is the only seaport on these coasts, and as it 
 has railway communication both with Hyderabatl and with 
 Lahore, it carries on an important trade. Pop. 22,000. 
 
 Kur'shee* town of Central Asia, in the dominions of 
 Bokhara, has some fine mosques, bazaars, and public baths, 
 and carries on a considerable tra<ie in cattle, carpets, and 
 horsecloths. Tobacco is extensi\'ely cultivated in the 
 vicinity. Pop. about 10,000. 
 
 Kurtz (Benjamin), D. D., LL.D., b. at Harrisburg, Pa., 
 Feb. 28, 1705; was at fifteen years of age an assistant 
 teacher in the Harrisburg academy, and afterwards gave 
 private instruction in ancient and modern languages; 
 stutlied theology :it Lebanon, Pa., under the direction of 
 Uev. Dr. George Lochmau, and was licensed to preach in 
 181j by the Lutheran synod of Pennsylvania. Ho was 
 successively assistant at Baltimore to his uncle. Rev. Dr. 
 J. I>. Kurtz, pastor at Ifagerstown, .Md.,and at Chambers- 
 burg. an<l in lS;;;i settled at Baltimore as editor of the 
 Luthfriin Ohsprvr. He conduuted that paper for twenty- 
 nine years, making it a leading representative of the Lu- 
 theran culture in America. Dr. Kurtz took an active part 
 in foundling the theological seminary of his clcnomination 
 at (Jettyshurg, spending two years in (Jermany flS2o-27) 
 seeking aid for it; he was also a Iea<Iing manager of the 
 Lutheran Book Company estaldished at Baltimore in 1840, 
 and was the chief founder of the Missionary Institute at 
 Selinsgrove, Pa. He wrote several theologi<'al books, was 
 an eloquent speaker, and was recognized as a leader and a 
 great power in the Lutheran Church. D. at Baltimore 
 Dec. 2'J, I8G6. 
 
 Kurtz (Jons Daxiei,), D. D., b. at Ocrraantown, Pa., 
 in Kfl.'t; studied Lutheran theology under the direction of 
 his father, Kev. John Nicholas Kurtz, and subsequently 
 under that of Rev. Dr. H. E. Mlihlenburg of Lancaster, 
 and wag licensed to preach by the synod of IN-unsylvania 
 in I7S1. In 1786 he was ordained pastor of the principal 
 Lutheran church at Baltimore, Md., and held that post for 
 nearly half a century, until in 18;{2 ho resigned on account 
 of advancing age and infirmity. He was tme of the found- 
 ers of the Ueneral Synod of the liUthfiran Ciiurch. a direc- 
 tor of the theological seminary, and closely identified with 
 all the benevolent institutions of his Church. D. at Balti- 
 more Juno 30, 1856. 
 
 Kurtz (John \icnoLAR),b. at Lutzclindcn, Nassau, Ger- 
 many, about 1720; studied theology at Gicssen and Halle, 
 and in 1745 came as a missionary to his countrymen in 
 Pennsylvania. He was the first Lutheran minister or- 
 dained in the British colonies in America, labored succes- 
 sively at New Hanover, Tulpehoeken, (lermantown, and 
 York, Pa., and spent much time in perilous missionary 
 journeys through the frontier settlements, exposeil to the 
 tomahawk and the scalping-knife. He was pastor at York 
 when the Continental Congress hfid its sessions there dur- 
 ing the Revolution, and gave evidence of his patriotism by 
 his solicitude to relieve the sufferings of the soldiers. At 
 the age of seventy ho n-tired from the ministry, and spent 
 his remaining years with his son, Kev. Dr. J, D. Kurtz, at 
 Baltimore. wht?re ho d. in 17U4. 
 
 Kliskoquim', a river of Alaska, rises in the Chigmit I 
 Mountains at about lat. fil° N., and flows .S. W. more than ' 
 500 miles into Kuskoqtiim Bay. Its course has never been ; 
 explored by white m<*n, and its valley is occupied only by 
 a few wandering Indians and Ksnuimaux. the former being 
 Kenaians, and the latter a sub-tribe of the Koniagas, called 
 Kuskoquigmutes. 
 
 Kiiss'nacht, a v. of .^iwitzcrland. in the canton of 
 Schwytz, on an arm of the Lake of Lucerne, at the foot of 
 the Rigi. Hero is Tell's chapel, and many localities re- 
 lating to the myth of Tell arc shown in and around tho 
 villagi-. Pop. 2:ion. 
 
 Kiisteiid'Ji, or Ki»tcn4jehf small town of European 
 Turliey. oa the Black Sea, near the termination of Trajan's 
 AVall. It carries on some trade in corn. Pop. about 5000. 
 
 Kiistrin'f town of Prussia, in tho province of Branden- 
 burg, at the confluence of the Warta and thi* Oder. It is a 
 fortress, but only of the third rank, and has il,)o4 inhabitants. 
 
 Kutni'eh, or Kutaya^ town of Asiatic Turkey, in Asia 
 
 Minor, on tho Pusak. It has many mosques, palaces, 
 public baths, and promenades, and a considerable trade in 
 meerschaum, opium, tobacco, and goats' hair. Poj). 2S,9G:i. 
 
 Kutais'y government of Asiatic Russia, in Caucasia, 
 is bordered W. by the Black Sea, S. by Asiatic Turkt-y. 
 and E. by the govcrnmrnt of Tiflis. Area. 8000 square 
 I miles. Pop. 605,0(10, The surface is mountainous. The 
 ! capital, Kutais, is situated on the Rion (the ancient Thasin), 
 and has 826.3 inhabitants. It stands on the site of the an- 
 cient CuttttiHiHin or Cytiitt, the caj)ital of Colchis, is forti- 
 fied, and carries on some trade in corn, wine, and cattle. 
 
 Kutchillf an Indian nation of Alaska, occupying tho 
 upper valley of tho Yukon (or Kwiehpak) River through 
 a great part of its course. Tliey are found as far E. as 
 Mackenzie's River, and arc divided into a large number of 
 petty tribes. 
 
 Kut'tenbcrg, townof Bohemia, haslarge cotton manu- 
 factures, and in its vicinity important cojiper and lead- 
 mines. Pop. 12,727. 
 
 Kutu'soff (Mikhail or MiniAEL), b. 1745; entered 
 the Russian army at the age of sixteen; became major- 
 general in 1784; was tho leader under SuvarofF in tho 
 memorable assault nnd capture of Ismail ; became lieuten- 
 ant-general in 17in : was amViassador to Constantinoph." in 
 1793, and fillcil other diplomatic jiosts up to the Russian 
 war against Napoleon, when his services were put in re- 
 quisition. In l-sOo he entered Germany at the head of 
 50.000 men, defeated Mortier at Dlirrenslein, and disap- 
 proved of the plan followed by the allies at the battle of 
 Austerlitz. His greatest title to glory is in the final results 
 which he obtained in the Russian campaign. In Aug., 1812, 
 he was appointed generaUin-ehief, and though he lost the 
 battle of Borodino, and could not prevent the capture of 
 Moscow, still, his energy caused the Russians to reeovir 
 confidence, and he received the baton of a field-marshal. 
 After the evacuation of Moscow, Kutusoff hotly pursued 
 the French, infiieted on them great losses in the battles of 
 Malo Jaroslavatz, Krasnoe, and Smolensk, for the latter of 
 which he was created prince of Smolensk, and while pur- 
 suing the Ereneh in Prussian Silesia, d. of a malignant 
 fever at Bunzlau, Apr. 28, 1813, Felix At caigne. 
 
 Kiit'zing (Fuikdrioh Trai'gott), b. at Ritteburg, in 
 Thuringia, Dec, 1807; studied at Hallo; travelled in 
 Southern Europe, especially exploring the flora of the 
 coasts of the Adriatic, and was aj)pointed in 1835 professor 
 of natural science at Nordhausen. His principal works 
 
 are Die Unncanfilmnj ujedeicr Alfjruformen in hnhcrc { 1839), 
 Phycohigin t/eiicrtifitf (1843), Phi/cofogia f/criiifinirn (1845), 
 Specirn Afffdvum (1849). His researches have principally 
 concerned the Alga*, and led him to the same fundamental 
 ideas as those of Darwin. 
 
 Kutz'towii, p<ist-b. of Berks co..Pa.,qn tho Allcntown 
 branch of the Philadelphia and Reading R. R., has 2 
 weekly ncwsjiapers, an iron-foundry and furnace, and a 
 eo.achmaking establishment. It is the sent of the Keystone 
 State Normal School, which has 400 students. Pop. 1' 15. 
 Rev. a. R. Hohnk, Ed. *' National Ei>l'catur." 
 
 Kwang-See. See Qtanc-Skk. 
 
 Kwang-Tun^. See (^rANnriNfi. 
 
 Kwei-C'hii, KmcicIiow, or Queichow, iirovinoo 
 in the S. \V. of China, lying between Se Cliuen. Hu-Nan, 
 Quang-See, and Yun-Nan. Area. 64,547 square miles. Pop. 
 5.228.219. It is a rugged, mountainous country, of which 
 c<q>per, iron, lead, ami quicksilver arc the most valuable 
 proilucts. Clip. Kwci-Yang. 
 
 Kw'irhpak River. Sco Ytkon. 
 
 Ky'Riiitc [Gr. «varo?, "Idur"], a natural silicate of 
 alumina, crystallizing in the trieUnic system, commonly of 
 a pale-blue color (whence its imme),but occasionally white, 
 gray, or black, and generally occurring in long-bladed 
 crystallizations. 
 
 Kynni/iiig. Sec Timiiku, Pukskrvation and Fire- 
 PR(joi--iN(i or. 
 
 Kylo^s Springs, tp. of Jaokson co., Ala. Pop. 407. 
 
 Kymiirgrr, tp. of Talladega co., Ala. Pop. lOl.'i. 
 
 Kyr'n', tho first word in <ireek of *• A'i/ri> cicisnn." 
 " Lord, hiivo mercy," a ]>etition often occurring in (ho 
 liturgies, masses, and other ofliccs of the Catholic Church. 
 Hence tiic name h'ifric is used to designate tho opening 
 movenirnt of musical masses, ret|«iems, and various ser- 
 vices wbicdi commence with the words h'l/rir ff< imni, I'ln-intc 
 rhiiinn. For this reason the term is opplicd in the .Angli- 
 can Church to tho responses between the commandments 
 in the Communion office, " Lord, have mercy upon us." 
 
 Kythul% town of British India, in the presidency of Ben- 
 gal, the capital (»f a district of t)ie same name. It is a well- 
 built city, with a magnificent palace and 60,000 inhabitants.
 
 1588 
 
 L— LABEL. 
 
 L. 
 
 L, one of the consonants called liquids, representing a 
 sound fciunil in almost every language. It quite constantly 
 stands for tlic same sound in all languages using the Roman 
 al(diahct; although tl in French {mouillf) undergoes a 
 peculiar softening in certain situations, while II in Spanish 
 {lit in Portuguese) has a sound like / followed by.y a» a con- 
 sonant. LI in Welsh has a peculiar aspirated sound not 
 fonnd in Knglish. L is to some extent interchangeable 
 with other consonants, ))articuhirly with li and the mutes. 
 \f, a numeral, L stands for fifty; as an abbreviation, it 
 represents the Latin proper name Lucius. 
 
 Laa'laiid, or Lollaiid, an island of Denmark, in the 
 Baltic, separated from Falster by Guldborgsund. Area. 
 452 square miles. Pop. 5(;,000. It is low and flat, but 
 fertile ami well cultivated. Large crops of wheat are 
 raised : fine forests of oak and beech cover a large part of 
 the island. Principal towns are Maribo and Jfaskov. 
 
 Labadie'Mr.ANl.b. Feb. 13,1610.at Bourg-en-Guiennc, 
 and educated at Bordeaux by the Jesuits, in whoso order 
 he became a distinguished professor. In 163;i he left the 
 Jesuits, and commenced preaching peculiar doctrines of 
 his own, having considerable success at Paris, at .^micns, 
 at Bazas, and at Toulouse. He obtained many followers 
 through his eloquence and learning, claimed to have re- 
 ceived the spirit of John the Baptist, and predicted the 
 end of the world in lfi66. Finding no rest in the Roman 
 Catholic Church, and being subject to persecutions, he 
 publicly embraced the Reformed creed in 1650 at Jlontauhan, 
 where he preached for several years a return to apostolical 
 religion on pietistic principles. In lliii? he became pastor 
 at Orange, and in 16.')9 at Geneva, where he gained many 
 proselytes, but created such disturbances that he soon with- 
 drew, and for several years travelled through Germany and 
 Holland. In liiiili he became pastor of a Walloon church 
 at Middelburg. Midland, where several persons of import- 
 ance cinljraced his doctrines. His most celebrated di.sciples 
 were two ladies, Anna .Schurmann and .\ntoinette Bouri- 
 gnon, the former distinguished for her learning in the Ori- 
 ental languages, the latter as authoress of many devotional 
 publications. In 1669 he removed to Amsterdam, anri 
 formed a body of followers known as Labadists. Expelled 
 from Holland in 1670 as a dangerous sectarian, he went to 
 Erfurt, where the princess palatine Elizabeth protected 
 him and became his disciple. He afterwards went to Bre- 
 men, and finally to Altona, where he d. Feb. 2, 1674. His 
 discii>les settled in the duchy of Cleves, where they existed 
 for nearly a century. Early in the eighteenth century some 
 Labadist missionaries settled on the backs of the Hudson 
 in New York, but do not seem to have founded any churches. 
 Labadic's iloctrines were a combination of mysticism with 
 Calvinism ; he held to illumination by the Holy Ghost as the 
 means of salvation superseding the Bible, rejected infant 
 baptism and the observance of the .Sabbath, and taught 
 communism in property. The Roman Catholics circulated 
 many charges of immorality against his teachings, but 
 without reason, his practices having been ascetic in the 
 extreme. He left numerous writings, now extremely rare. 
 Lab'arec (Benjamin), D. D.. LL.D.,b. at Charlestown, 
 \. II.. June .1, 1801 ; graduated at Dartmouth in 182S,and 
 at Andover Theological Seminary in 18:U ; was ordained at 
 Bradford, Mass., IS.Jl ; was professor of Latin and Greek in 
 Jackson College, Tenn., lS.'i2-:i6, its president 1S.'!6-S7; 
 president of Middlebury College, Vt., 1840-66; held a 
 j.asturatc at Hyde Park. Mass., 1S69-71. 
 
 Lnbarraque's' Solution ( Liquor Sndit Chlnrlimi^), 
 a solution of chlorinated soda formed by mixing the solu- 
 tion of fodic earbcmate with that of the best quality of 
 blcaching-powder (the so-called chloride of lime). It is 
 very valuable, both as a remedy and as a general disinfect- 
 ant, lis chemical constitution is indetinite. See S01HV.M. 
 I^ab'arnm [etymology doubtful], the name of the prin- 
 cipal standard of the Roman armies after the conversion 
 of Constantine. It was a banner home upon a cruciform 
 standard, and had the monogram of Christ, with the letters 
 alpha and omega. It was designed to commemorate the 
 conversion of Constantine, and was an object of adoration 
 to the troops. 
 
 Labaf (Jean Bapttste), b. at Paris in 1063; entered 
 the ortler of the Dominicans in les.") ; was appointed pro- 
 fessor in mathematics and philosophy at Xancy in 16S7. 
 and went in 1693 as a missionary, first to Martinique, and 
 then to Guadeloupe, where he remained till 1705. He 
 
 worked not only »s a missionary, bnt also as a scientist, 
 besides being a man of great practical ability. He founded 
 the city of Basse-Terrc and took part with great energy in 
 the defence of the island against the English. On his re- 
 turn to Europe he lived (or some years in Spain, then in 
 Italy, and afterwards in Paris, where ho d. •Ian. C, 1738. 
 His principal writings are Xoiirfaii vyaije tttix ties de 
 l'Am(riqtie (6 vols.. 1722). Voi/ni/e en En/inyiic et Itnlle (S 
 vols.. 17.10), Helalion hittoriqnc de V Ethiopie oecidentale 
 (5 vols., 1722). 
 
 Lab'danum, or Lad'annm, the resin of Cistns ere- 
 tivHn, htitrlf'oliuH, and Ittdaui/erh't, small evergreen shrubs 
 of the order Cistacea?, growing chiefly in the Levant. It is 
 combed from the beards of goats and the fleece of sheep 
 that browse u|ion the hills when- it grows, and is also col- 
 lected by drawing a rake over the plants. Leathern thoogs 
 are attached to the rake, and to these thongs the resin ad- 
 heres. It is nsed as an incense an<l as a fumigation ; also 
 sometimes in plasters. It was formerly valued as a stimu- 
 lant and expectorant. 
 
 La B^dollifere, de (1?mile Gigailt). b. at Paris 
 1814. He is especially known as one of the most assiiln- 
 ous contributors to the journal Le SIfcIc, which he recently 
 left for f.e Antioiial, another republican paper of Paris. 
 La Bfdolli^re began his literary life by writing the Pulilical 
 Life (if the Mnrquis de La Fni/elte in 1R33. which work at- 
 tracted public attention to him. He has translated many 
 English and American books — Unrle Tum't Cnbin, t\ie nov- 
 els of Fenimoro Cooper, etc. He has written also Hitlory 
 of the Xntioiml Giiiird, Hitton/ of llie Miiiinem and Prirale 
 Life of the French. The Xew Paris, Hinlory of the Me.rierin 
 Wnr, etc. All these works are animated with a high spirit 
 of liberalism. Fii.ix Aicaigne. 
 
 La Bedoy^re, de (Charles HrrnET), Coi'st, h. at 
 Paris 1786; shot there Aug. 19, 1815. His historical fame 
 is due to the fact that he was the most exact personification 
 of the persecutions which the Bonapartists had to 8ufl"er at 
 the hands of the Bourbon restoration after Waterloo. La 
 B6doyere. though of an ancient legitimist family, had be- 
 come the admirer of Napoleon and taken service in his 
 armies. Ho did not resign his military functions on the 
 first fall of Napoleon in 1814. and was colonel of an in- 
 fantry regiment when the emperor landed in France from 
 the island of Elba in 1815. La Bedoyere, like the whole 
 army and the whole of France, joined Napoleon at Vizille, 
 who, on arriving in Paris, made him his aide-de-camp, 
 general of division, and senator. On the return of the Bour- 
 bons after the •• Hundred Days," La Bfdoyere was arrested, 
 tried by a drumhead court-martial, and shot. 
 
 Felix ArcAinxE. 
 Ija'bcl [Lat. labellum, "lip" or "tassel"]. In its 
 original sense Inhel meant a narrow strip of paper or parch- 
 ment used in affixing a leaden seal to a deed or other in- 
 strument of writing. Verification is still the intrinsic idea 
 of the label, although its mechanical function has disap- 
 peared, and in its legal sense it has been justly termed a 
 qiirmi trademark. Like the trade-mark, it implies pro- 
 prietary rights defensible both by common law and stat- 
 ute (see Trade-marks), but differs from it in including 
 proper names, descriptive terms, etc.. and in excluding 
 merely arbitrary symbols. Although the distinctions be- 
 tween a label aiid a trademark may appear at first glance 
 shadowy and uncertain, they are substantial and readily 
 deducible from the ethics of the numerous judicial decisions 
 on record ; provided always that the rhnrarter of the spe- 
 cific matter decided upon be considered without regard to 
 the terms used by the court in its designation : for the word 
 "trade-mark" has been frequently applied even by learned 
 judges to indicate a label, and hence the confused ideas 
 current as to the true nature of the latter. 
 
 In the V. S. previous to the act of Congress approved 
 I June 18, 1874, and which went into effect Aug. 1 of the 
 same year, no provision existed for the registry of labels, 
 and infringements were tried in equity under rulings sim- 
 ilar to those governing trade-mark cases, but based more 
 upon the substantial justice of each suit, as in eases of un- 
 fair competition in trade, than upon the clearly defined 
 axioms that govern the disposal of tradc-mnrks. The act 
 just mentioned, however, although faulty in many respects, 
 afi'ords a basis for the building up of a system of law and 
 practice which will undoubtedly ensure to labels a defined 
 status and value which the isolated and to some extent
 
 LABERGE— LABIAT.E. 
 
 1589 
 
 discorrlant decisions of different State courts have failed to 
 give them. As officially staled, the scope of this net is as 
 fnMows: ". *?<<*. S. That in the construelion of this act the 
 words * enjraving," 'cut.' and *]»rint' phall be applied only 
 to pictorial illustrations or works connected with the tine i 
 art<. and no prints or labels designed to be used for any 
 other articles of manufacture shall bo entered untier the 
 copyright law. but luny be registered in tlio patent office. 
 And tho commissioner of patents is hereby charged with 
 the supervision ami control of thf entry or registry of such 
 prints or labels, in conformity with the rfKuhitions provicled 
 hv law as to copyriijht of prints, except that there shall be 
 paid for recording tho title of a print or label, not a trade- 
 mark, six dollar-5. which shall cover the expense of furnish- ' 
 inn a copy of the record, under seal of the commissioner 
 of patents, to the party entering the same. Scr. ^. That 
 all laws and parts of laws inconsistent with the foref;oin^ ' 
 provisions be and the same arc hereby repealed. Sec. 5. i 
 That this art shall take effect on and after tho first day of 
 Aiijfust, eighteen hundred and seventy-four. Approved 
 June 1^. 1S74." 
 
 *' By the word 'print,' as used in the said act, is meant 
 any device, picture, word or words, figure or fisuros (not a 
 trade-mark », impressed or stamped dirct-tly u]>on the arti- 
 cles of manufacture, to denote the name of the manufac- 
 turer or place of manufacture, style of gooils, or other mat- ; 
 ter. By the word Mabel.' as therein used, is meant a slip i 
 or piece of paper, or other material, to be attached in any ' 
 manner to manufactured articles, or to bottles, boxes, and 
 packages coutainini; them, anil bearing an inscriptiou (not 
 a trade-mark), as. for example, the name of the manufac- 
 turer or the place of manufacture, the quality of goods, i 
 directions for use, etc. By tho words * articles of manu- I 
 faclure' — to which su'-h print or labpl is applicable by saiil 
 act — is meant all vendible commodities ]^rndni'od by band, 
 machinery, or art. lint no such print or label can be regis- , 
 tered unless it properly belongs to an article of commerce, 
 and be as above defined; nor can the same be registered ; 
 as such print or label when it amounts in law to a technical I 
 trade-mark." ' 
 
 It will ho seen that the act in question excludes trade- 
 marks per **•, together with matter relating to the fine arts 
 and belles-lettres. In addition to these, it also excludes 
 designs or articles the form and configuration of which are 
 intended for the decoration or artistic improvement fns dis- 
 tinguished from the mechanical or functional) of manufac- 
 tured articles. | 
 
 The registry of a label is specially desirable in those 
 cases wherein business interests are identified with the sale 
 of an article known by the term by which it would naturally 
 he designated, as. for example, the word "Akron." for a 
 material produced at Akron, an illustration taken from the 
 noted case of Newman r«. Alfonl ( (*.) Barbour's Reports, p. 
 5S.S>, in which the cement obtained from a bed in the vil- 
 lage of Akron. Krio co., X. Y., was designated as Akron 
 cement. Any one could quarry and prepare cement in tho 
 village, and sell it as .Akron cement, for sur-h is the proper 
 term to indicate the article. But parties in Syracuse, 
 N. Y., made a cement obtained from another locality, and 
 sold it as Akron cement. The court enjoineil them. It 
 was shown that the plaintiffs had made known to the world 
 the merits of the cement-be<l in Akmn. au'l the market of 
 the product depended essentially upon the title given it. 
 The sale of another article under the name, therefore, not 
 only defrauded plaintiff of tho profits that would otherwise 
 accrue, but deludc'l the public into purchasitig what it ilid 
 not wish. The labtd. therefore, nlthouirh lacking the in- 
 herent characteristic of a trade mark, that of exclusive pro- 
 prietorship. cxclu<les competition from all except those in 
 co-equal possession. The question as to whether tho regis- 
 try of the term as a hibel would exclu'le another in tho 
 same locality from using it has never yet been decided, but 
 in all probability a decision wouhl be in the negative. If. 
 however, the party registering owned the entire source of 
 snp]>ly, as of cement, iron, or otlier product, in the locality, 
 the term, under the practice of the patent office, woubl be- 
 c'tnie a trade-mark, and would bo regiMtored as such, and 
 not ni a label. 
 
 A^ with a geographical, so with a proper name; for 
 alMiongh tho arbitrary form of a person's signature may 
 c'MMtitule a trade-miirk, his name alone cannot. Any one 
 named Holloway has a right to make llolloway's pills, but 
 one llollowiiy must not so frame his labels as tu rleceivo 
 the public with the i<lca that the articles vended by him 
 are the wares of another. This was decided in the rolls 
 court in Kngland about twenty-five years ago, and the 
 principle holds good in American practice. The master of 
 the r'lIU declared that "the defendant's name beine Hol- 
 loway, be has n right to eonstituto himself tho vender of 
 Hollnway's pills and ointment. . . . But he has no ritrht to 
 do so with such additions to his own name as to deceive 
 
 the public, and make them believe that ho is selling tho 
 plaintiff's pills and ointment." In Burgess r«. Burgess, in 
 chancery. ls.');l, another English case, the court aflirmed 
 the right of any one hearing the name of Burgess to make 
 and vend "Burgess's Anchovy Sauce," but compelled tho 
 defendant to remove certain accessories from his store 
 which tended to mislead the public into tho belief that they 
 were jmrchasing from another person of the same name. 
 But had some person, not of this name, adopted the term, 
 there is no <loubt tliat a permanent injunction would have 
 issued. And could it have been shown that a person named 
 Burgess had used the label, not in the hnua-ftiic pursuit of 
 a legitimate business, but with intent to trade on the repu- 
 tation of another dealer, an injunction would have issued 
 as a matter of course. As the law concerning labels, 
 although now embodied in statutes, rests fundamentally 
 upon commercial equity, the jurisprudence of different 
 countries shows, in the main, great uniformity in the drift 
 of tlecisions. For instance, the view just previously ex- 
 pressed is sustained by a noted French case, in wluch an 
 association organized by one Th. Roedercr was enjoined, 
 with especially humiliating conditions, from using tho 
 name Roederer except in a manner so conspicuously dis- 
 tinctive as to show at a glance that the article sold was not 
 that of the celebrated wine-merchants of the name. An 
 action brought in a V. S. court would, so far as the above 
 points are concerned, be decided in accordance with tho 
 above acknowledge*! princijdes ; in other respects tho 
 analogies of the law of trade -marks wcmld prevail. In some 
 of the States local laws provide for the puiiishnirnf of in- 
 fringers upon a label, and in such instances the courts of 
 the State are the proper tribunals. Even where no such 
 laws exist, an action under tlie common law may be main- 
 tained, the choice of courts resting with the lawful owner 
 of tin' label. But registry in the U. S. patent office is 
 always desirable, not only as bringing the matter within 
 the scope of the V. S. courts, but for the reason that it de- 
 fines the precise character of the label, and because it is 
 notice to the public that it is claimed, so far as his option 
 and volition can secure it, exclusively by the party regis- 
 tering the same. 
 
 Strictly speaking, the so-called copyrighting of labels 
 never gave any security or protection to them in point of 
 law, although to a certain extent useful in advising tho 
 public of the asserted proprietorship. But as this is now 
 forbidden by law, no further consideration need be given 
 it. Pictures, engravings, etc. relating to the fiiu' arts, and 
 printed matter considered apart from a Cfunmcrcial product 
 or article to which it is attached, are subjects for cojiyright, 
 and no matter embraced within either of these divisions can 
 be protected either under the act of Congress or by State 
 or common law. A " design " being in llie nature of things 
 arbitrary, and distinct in configuration from any other, 
 may be used as a trade-mark, provideil that its use for this 
 purpose is by its originator, patentee, or owner as a design, 
 nut as for trade purposes it may thus be brought within 
 the scope of n trade-mark, it cannot properly be registered 
 as a label. Jamks A. AVuitnky. 
 
 Laberpe' (Ciiart-KS JosfpiO, b. in Montreal in 1827; 
 was educated at tho college of St. Hyaeiiithe, and became 
 a lawyer in 1S48; in IS.^il he entered the Canadian Parlia- 
 ment as a liberal : in 1S6S he was solicitor-general for Can- 
 ada East. He was an able public speaker, and was for a 
 time eclitorially connected with the FvonrO'Citunfiinu of St. 
 .Tohn's, Quebee. and was later chief editor of Lr Xitti'onnl, 
 Montreal. He was for a time a licutcuant-coloncl of vol- 
 unteer troops. D. in Aug, 1S74. 
 
 liftbotlo', county in tho S. E. of Kan:*as. bounded on 
 the S. by Indian Territory. Area. iV2i square niibs. It 
 is drainr<l by (he Neosho and its branches, and by aUluents 
 of the Verdigris. Valuable coal is found, and the cminty 
 is generallv level and fertile. (Jrnin and stock are staple 
 products. The county is traversed by the Missouri Kansas 
 and Texas U, K. Cap. Oswego. Pop. 997.1. 
 
 T^nbolto, post-v. and tp. of Labette co., Kan., on tho 
 Labette Biver and the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. K., 
 9 miles S. of Parsons City. Pop. 2S1I. 
 
 Lnbitt'tiT [Lat. fahin, "lips," from the two-lipped co- 
 rolla 1, one of the larger of the mon ope talons onlers of phie- 
 nogamous plants, well marked by tlie o|q>osite and mostly 
 aromatic leaves, square stems, liilabinte corolla. f"ur tli- 
 dynamous, or only two stamens, and a four-parted ovary, 
 forming four seed-like millets Cnaked seeds of the old bot- 
 anists) around the base of a single style. No plants of tho 
 order are known tliat are in the least degree hurtful. The 
 essential oils which give an aronmtie charoetcr tn many of 
 them are separated by distillation for medicinal purposes 
 ' or for use in perfumery. Several, sueh as thyme, summer- 
 I savory, and the liko, are the "sweet herbs" of kilchen- 
 I gardens. Lavandula vera, a shrub cultivated throughout
 
 1590 
 
 LABIENUS— LABOR. 
 
 Germany, and widely in England, has fragrant flowers, 
 from which the officinal oil of lavender is produced. Itoa- 
 mnrinm otncimtliK is au evergreen shrub of the S. of France 
 and the contiguous coast of Italy, the leaves and flowering 
 tops of wliich yield the volatile and fragrant oil of rose- 
 mary. It is believed that the essential oils just referred to 
 are constituents of cau-de-colognc. Mtnthu piperila is the 
 well-known peppermint. It is cultivated on a vast scale 
 in Southern Michigan, Western New York, and Ohio. 
 
 In 
 
 St Joseph CO.. Mich., there were in 185S, 2000 acres de- 
 voted to its growth. A ton of dried peppermint yields about 
 3 pounds of the es.sential oil. Spearmint is a closely allied 
 species, cultivated for its aromatic oil. Many other plants 
 of the order are widely known and safely used in domestic 
 medicine— pennyroyal, American pennyroyal, hyssop, horo- 
 hound, and the "like. A few are cultivated for ornament, 
 such as Chinese Perilln, several scarlet and blue sages, and 
 ColeuJi, with richly-colored and often variegated leaves. 
 
 Asa Gii.w. 
 Labie'nus(TiTrs),h. about 98 B.C.; tribune in 6.3 B.C., 
 when Cicero was consul ; accompanied Ca>sar as his lien- 
 tenant to Gaul, and distinguished himself in bi B.C. by his 
 two victories over the Treviri, and in 52 in the campaign 
 against Vercingetori.t. Although he entered public life 
 under the ausjiices of Ca>sar, and served him for many 
 years, he nevertheless sided with Ponipey when the civil 
 war broke out. and made himself conspicuous by the mean- 
 ness and cruelty with which he treated those of C.-vsar's 
 soldiers who fell into his hands at the battle of Dyrrhachium. 
 After the defeat of Pharsalia he fled to Africa, and thence 
 to Spain after the defeat at Thapsus. In Spain he fought 
 against Ca!sar at Mnndn, and by his mistakes the battle 
 w"as lost. D. 45 b. c. He was not without literary ability, 
 but ho was a loose and vain character, and his blunders 
 and crimes have thrown his successes into the shade. 
 
 Labienns, Les Propos de, the title of a bitter satir- 
 ical invective against the second French empire, and per- 
 sonally against Napoleon III., which appeared in Paris in 
 ISfi.i, immediately after the publication of the first volume 
 of Napoleon's life of .Julius Caesar. Labienus is represented 
 to be a soured, disgusted, and obstinate republican living 
 under .\ugustus. against whose usurpation and tyranny he 
 perpetually chafed. He is represented to have written a 
 history of "his country, of which he reail jiassages in secret 
 to his friends. His grandfather is said to have served 
 under Julius up to the crossing of the Rubicon, and his 
 father to have joined the Parlhians rather than support the 
 triumvirate. This was supposed to point to Victor Hugo, 
 whoso father was a general under the first republic ; but as 
 this latter also served the empire, the coincidence is not 
 complete. The due d'Aumale wrote a life of the great 
 Condi'' which was printed privately forhis friends, and was 
 seized and confiscated. This was a point of similarity with 
 Labienus. who, however, by hypothesis, could not have 
 been of royal extraction. The author probably did not 
 mean to i.oint definitely to any individual. The appear- 
 ance of a volume of Memoirt by Augustus is the occasion 
 of a special outburst of the spleen of Labienus. with which 
 the satire concludes. The author was M. A. Rochcard, an 
 ex-professor in a provincial college. His name was on the 
 title-page, and he was condemned for his pains to four or 
 five years' imprisonment, but escaped by taking refuge in 
 Brussels. F- A. P. Bahnard. 
 
 La Billnrdiere, dc (JAcqrES Jti.iF.s), b. at Aleni;on 
 Oct. 2:t, I7i5 ; studied medicine and botany at Montjjellier ; 
 travelled in France, England, and Italy; made in li8G-S7, 
 at the expense of the government, a journey in Syria and 
 Palestine; accompanied the expedition of D'Entrecasteaux 
 in 1791 ; was taken prisoner in 1703 by the Dutch at Java, 
 
 while his botanical collections were carried to England; 
 was liberated in 1795, and resided afterwards in Paris, 
 where in ISOO ho was elected a member of the Institute. 
 D. at Paris Jan. 8, 1834. He wrote /coiiri plantarnm 
 
 Sjrin: vnri.innn (1791-1812), Sovir /lollautllir phlillnrum 
 specimen (}>)0i), Ilelalion dii nj/tit/e n la rechmht (Ic La 
 Piroute (1800), besides a great number of monographs and 
 essays. 
 
 Lablache' (Lnoi'), b. at Naples Dec. 17, 1794; made 
 his dC-but as a basso in 1812 in his native city; achieved 
 his first great success in Vienna in 1824, and sang from 
 1830 to 1857 alternately in Paris and London, making oc- 
 casional trips to St. Petersburg and Naples. D. at Naples 
 Jan. 23, 1858. His principal performances were Figaro, 
 Leporello, Dulcamara, Don Pasquale. etc., but he also sang 
 Henry VIII. in -liiim Ilolnm, and Giorgio in / PuritanI, 
 making a most powerful impression. 
 
 La'bor [Lat.],in political economy, denotes one of three 
 great agencies by which wealth is produced, the others be- 
 ing land, or nature, and capital. A celebrated German 
 economist divides industrial history into three periods, in 
 
 the first of which nature is the chief productive agent; in 
 the second, labor; in the third, capital. In the first of the 
 three periods wealth consists mainly of natural i)roduec. as 
 in the hunting and .pastoral stages, and likewise in the 
 early stiige of industrial jirogress in new and prolific 
 regions, where wealth lies, as it were, on the surface. In 
 the second period— the later centuries of the Midille 
 Ages, for example — agriculture progresses, handicrafts 
 multiply, considerable manual skill is developed, and 
 labor plays the principal part. In the third period 
 production takes jdace on a large scale, machinery su- 
 persedes handicrafts, as in the case of the haudlooin. and 
 labor and land become the ministers of the mechanical pow- 
 ers, materials, money, and credit, at the command of the 
 capitalist. This generalization, though rough and needing 
 some qualification, puts in a strong light one truth in par- 
 ticular which it is of great importance to the working 
 classes to recognize— namely, that labor is not the only 
 productive agent, that capital gains ground with industrial 
 progress in respect of the contributiim which it makes to 
 production, and that all theories on behalf of labor which 
 omit to take this fundamental economic fact into account 
 are fallacious. Thus, the leading doctrine of some Gerninn 
 Socialists, that all wealth is the proiluct of labor, eai.ital 
 itself only accumulated labor, and that the working classes 
 are therc"fore entitled to the whole produce of every coun- 
 try, is unsound and delusive. The steam-engine is the 
 typical feature of modern industry, and it was mainly the 
 p"roduct. not of manual laborers, but of the genius, enter- 
 prise perseverance, and command of funds of two em- 
 ployers of labor. Watt and Boulton. With the steam-en- 
 gine came production uu a great scale and for distant 
 markets, needing large advances of capital and new powers 
 of direction and enterprise. Yet, although capital has be- 
 come the dominant element in most of the chief depart- 
 ments of industry, both labor and the powers of nature do 
 absolutely much more in our d.ay, though relatively less, 
 for the production of wealth than formerly. Walt com- 
 plained that the main ditficulty of constructing his steam- 
 engine arose from the unskilfulness of bis workmen ; work- 
 men now easily and rapidly make far more perfect machines. 
 Again, wealth increases fastest, and both profits and wages 
 are highest, in the civilized world where natural resources 
 and advantages, such as fertile soils, mines, water-commu- 
 nication, arc greatest. Coal and iron, for example, played 
 an insignificant part in medieval industry; the natural 
 riches of whole continents lay idle ; and numerous products 
 of nature which were then unknown or valueless are now 
 sources of wealth. A still more important consideration 
 in reference to the three great productive agents, land, 
 labor, and capital, is that their separate ownership is not 
 an essential or a universal condition of things. A peculiar 
 course of national history and a peculiar legal system led 
 to a separation of society in Great Britain into three great 
 classes— landlords, capitalists, and laborers ; and English 
 economists, with the tendency to premature generalization 
 which characterizes infant philosophy, were led to reason 
 i as though this were the natural and necessary consequence 
 i of industrial progress, and as though rent, profit, and wages 
 must belong everywhere and always to difi'erent classes. 
 i But the severance" of the laborer from landed property is 
 an exceptional fact in the modern world, being peculiar to 
 British industrial economy. And although co-operation is 
 in its infancy, it has succeeded in several forms; and in 
 Great Britaiii itself the recipients of wages are in a con- 
 siderable number of cases partners also in profits. 
 
 There is, however, in all civilized countries— and there 
 must for generations to come, if not always, be— a large 
 class living by manual labor and in the receipt only of 
 wa<'e9. The causes which determine the material condition 
 of This class and their real income must long retain the 
 highest importance. These causes arc not to be summed 
 up, as some eminent economists have supposed, in any sin- 
 gle law or formula, such as the projiortion of capital to 
 laborers; thev vary in difi'erent circumstances, m different 
 places, and in difi'erent stages of economic progress. 1 hus, 
 the etfect of an increase of poimlation on wages is very 
 different in different regions. In Flanders, for example, 
 wages are kept down by excessive population, but 
 in new countries, such as the Western States of America 
 and in Australia, an incrca.se of laborers may raise m jilace 
 of reducing wages, by rendering possible a better division 
 of industry and the ilovelopment of the immense resources 
 of nature. In such regions, too, wages are often paid 
 chiefly not out of capital, but out of the ultimate produce. 
 Even"in old countries, where they are paid chiefiy out ot 
 capital, it is an error to suppose that the rate of wages is 
 absolutely fixed by the ratio of the amount of capital to 
 the number of laborers. (See Strikks. Trades Usions, 
 Waues ) What it is desirable to draw particular attention 
 to here, however, is that the rate of wages, or the price of
 
 LABORATORY, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL. 
 
 loiil 
 
 labor, does uot in the majority of cases by ilsolf determine 
 the amount of the real income of the workinir classes. 
 though it is one of the conditions which do su. NVhere the 
 hiburcr is paid altogether in food and other commodities. 
 bis na.^c^ uud his rcul income are identical. In nicdiieval 
 Kurope this was for the most part the case. And lu many 
 parts of Germany to this day, and in ?omo parts of Eng- 
 land, the farm-laborer receives part of his wtigcs in kind. 
 In the U. S.. likewise, and in Australia, board or food 
 .^'imetimes forms part of the price of labor. Nevertheless, 
 the decided tendency of modern industrial economy is to 
 suhstituto money payments for wages in kind : and wher- 
 ever this change takes place, or in so far as it does so, the 
 real income of the laborer becomes subject to more com- 
 plex conditions, and ceases to depend solely on the rate of 
 wages or on the tenns of the exchange between employer 
 and employed. For the workman then makes not one ex- 
 change only — namely, the sale of his labor for food and 
 other article?— but a number of exchanges, by means, first, 
 of the sale of his labor, and subsequently of the purchase 
 of the various commodities which he consumes. The term 
 " real wages," which is still sometimes employed, is in this 
 c:iso inappropriate and misleading, an tending to shut out 
 of consideration some most important elements of the real 
 income of the working classes. Two workmen may be 
 r:irning exactly the same wages, yet the real income of the 
 one may be increasing, that of the other decreasing, be- 
 c;iuse the articles which the former buys are falling, those 
 on which the latter spends his wages rising in price. There 
 are places where the laborer contracts to work for a year at 
 a fixed rate of monthly or weekly wages ; here the amount 
 of commodities constituting bis real income depends partly 
 on the seasons, on taxation, and on various circumstances 
 quiteindependentof his wages. some of which were not even in 
 existence when his wages were fixed. It is one of the most im- 
 portant results of the introduction of money as the medium 
 of exchange that the working classes have become <lirectly 
 and deeply concerned in matters — improvements in produc- 
 tion, tari^s. tuxes, laws, forms of association, investments for 
 savings — which otherwise would only remotely affect them, 
 or not at all. That admirable modern institution for the 
 economical purchase of commodities, the co-operative store, 
 owes its origin to the change in industrial economy which 
 substituted payments of wages in money for payments in 
 kind. The immense purchases of land which the working 
 classes have made in rranco and other parts of the conti- 
 nent of Europe are among the results of money-wages. 
 The legal system which has excluded the British laborer 
 from the owiierahip of land has led some British econo- 
 mists to look to co-operative association, by which the 
 workman becomes a partner in capital, as the only mode by 
 which any considerable number of the working class can be 
 raised from the condition of living from hand to mouth, and 
 the only solution of the labor question. But in France there 
 are t.OOO.UOO land-owner.-^ cultivating their own ground, 
 besides many more whose land is farmed by tenants, and 
 the number yearly increases by the purchase of little plots ; 
 in (Icrmany, Switzerland, and Belgium the number of small 
 ]»roprietors, who would otherwise bo only laborers for hire, 
 is very large, and land in those countries is the favorite 
 investment for savings from wages. In the V, S. there are 
 now probably :i, 000, 000 farms, and the rapiility with which 
 tlio number increases is shown by the following figures: 
 in IH.'.O, I.U'J.or.t: in isno. 2,11 n. 077; in 1S70, 2.0.VJ,9Sj. 
 Even in England a great number of working men ar« own- 
 ers of house property, and hundreds of thousands of the 
 English working classes of both sexes have invested sav- 
 ings in building, benefit, and friendly societies. The in- 
 security, indeed, of many of these investments shows the 
 loss which the laborer in (Jreat Britain sustains from the 
 inaccessibility of land. In countries, moreover, in which 
 lanil is accessible to the working classes, it not only pro- 
 vide.H a healthful occupation and a secure investment 
 for those who acquire it, but also raises the standard 
 of wages in other occupations. An American employer 
 pr>inted out to the English trades-uinon commission that 
 in the Stales the price of labor is in a great measure 
 regulated by what a man can make out of luncl, which 
 there competes with capital in the labor-market. What 
 is called the labor question is not, however, susceptible 
 of any single solution, be it co-operation, a good land 
 system, secure savings banks, nr any other method. All 
 the methods, moral and intellectual as well ns material, 
 which benefit and elevate all classes, and not the working 
 classes alone, must concur in the solution '>f the problem. 
 The iidvautages which the laborer derives froui education, 
 newspapers, books, cheap postage and locomotion, sanitary 
 improvements, medical science, show how his condition de- 
 ](onds on the general progress of civtliration : nnd the fu- 
 ture doubtless has iu store additions to his welfare undreamt 
 of lit |)rc.-4cnt. T. E. Ci.iffk Lkslie. | 
 
 Lab'oratorVf Physical aud Chemical. For the 
 
 first fourteen or fifteen hundred years of the Christian era 
 the grand sciences now known as physics and chemistry, so 
 far as they had advanced, were known under the names of 
 the " Egyptian art " or the " black art " ( whence the word 
 ''Chemistry" or '* Chemie," from Cheni, Egypt), and were 
 chiefly cultivated in secret, being condemned as shameful 
 and illegitimate by the State, and as impi(jus and danger- 
 ous by the Church. The amazing power and progress ly- 
 ing here in latent forms were no doubt instinctively felt and 
 recognized; and from the element in humnn nature which 
 holds oninc iymthtm pn* terrihifi, these studies were rightly 
 regarded as fraught with peril to all existing institutions 
 and authorities, and to the perpetuity of the prevailing 
 ideas that had been carefully inculcated in the minds of 
 the illiterate mass of men — ideas which were naturally con- 
 trived with the most anxious care to assist iu upholding 
 those authorities and institutions. Thus it was that the 
 laboratory — which in our day is claimed to be the fountain- 
 head of our greatest arts of civilization, and which is the 
 sphere that now absorbs many young men who feel within 
 them the God-iniplantcd ambition to arid something to the 
 sum of real knowledge, and to die that denth which comes 
 to all with a consciousness that life has not been spent in 
 vain. — thus it was that philosophical and chemical labor 
 of all kinds, during all these centuries, was driven into 
 holes and corners, and classed with astrology, alchemy, 
 jugglery, diabolism, spiritualism, and all that genus of 
 mysticism, quackery, trickery, and fraud. Thus, as we 
 recede, in trying to trace the past history of civilization, 
 before the present ep<»ch of printed books, we find it almost 
 or quite impossible to obtain satisfactory ideas of labora- 
 tories or of their occupants antecedent to this epoch. The 
 records of those days, consisting of manuscripts and pic- 
 tures, are both rare and inherently defective. The true 
 stuclents of science then rarely wrote books, and still more 
 rarely painted pictures. The only branches of chemistry 
 and natural ]diilosophy which received any countenance 
 from the powers that were, and any aid from the possessors 
 of the existing \vealth. were such as presented the promise 
 of immediate and direct additions to that priwer anil 
 wealth. The only natural si-ience held to be "practical " 
 in its character— as held even now by many — was such as 
 would help to innlu- jjioh*// for individuals ; additions to 
 the sum of human knowledge, involving the greatest good 
 to the greatest number, being as dust in the balance. 
 
 Naturally and necessarily, such books as may have been 
 written by true men of science were not valuecl. copied, or 
 preserved: probably not sought after for public libraries, 
 nor even admitted thereinto, unless they bore the stamp 
 and held the jargon of mysticism of some sort — astrology, 
 gold-making, miracle-mongery, or the preparation of nos- 
 trums and specifics. Paintings — of engravings there were 
 none — were founderl almost wholly upon the popular ideal 
 of the haunts of these popularly-reputed mystics, and are 
 not, of course, to be fairly or justly accepted as represent- 
 ing the real science of those days. The engraving we pre- 
 sent with this, therefore, of a medb-eval laboratory of a dale 
 nearly .'iHO years ago, must be viewed with due allowance, 
 no doubt, for the necessary coloring of the mind <if the ar- 
 tist with the prevalent idea of sucli places and sueh pur- 
 suits. The artist in this case was the elder Teniers. and 
 the date of the original painting — in the (lallery of the 
 Li)uvre in Paris — somewhere about the close of the six- 
 teenth century. Students of the history of science will re- 
 member that this was a generation previous to the birth 
 of Becher. and two generations before that of StabI, the 
 two chemists who were the f'uinders of the first scientific 
 system of chemistry, the jihlogistic system: which, witli 
 tiiP substitution of the idea of fm n'vit for that of i)bIopis- 
 ton,may be held as still standing at this present day. The 
 art of printing was then a century and a half old, and 
 printed books appear in this painting, prominently exhib- 
 ited. We kn<iw. from very numerous facts on record, that 
 the chemists of the day of this painting, the sixteenth cen- 
 tury — many of whoso names even are uncertain or unknown 
 — ma<lo groat discoveries — discoveries \vhich we are sure 
 could not have been made without long, exhaustive, ainl 
 unselfish labor and research. In spite of the assertion — 
 oft repeated, but not by those who vtakf discoveries — that 
 they are ''mostly made by accitlcnt," we do not find at the 
 present day that aeeident plays any important part in the 
 progress of human discovery. All now methods, nmteriiils. 
 arts, theories, gencralizatiims, and principles, all that is 
 entitlcfl to the rank of a discovery, come in these days to 
 men in the laboratory, as the sefjuences of indefatigable 
 study and labor, inspin-il by a patient enthusiasm, devoid 
 of nil tinetiire of sordid ealeulatiou, nnd <'crtainly con- 
 (hicted with as great an avoiilanec <)f the cli-ment of aeci- 
 d'-nt or random-work, as in any human pursuit whatever. 
 Those who pursue science consider themselves justified in
 
 1592 
 
 LABORATORY, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL. 
 
 believing, therefore, tliat it has ajivays been thus: and that 
 the many funtlanientul discoveries, the new materials, 
 methods, and nrls which came from the laboratory during 
 the so-called alchemical times, were neither accidental nor 
 
 the results of empirical work, but arose from the same 
 identical sort of research, by the same sort of men, as iu 
 our own day. 
 
 To illustrate this assertion, the cut is presented of the 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 A chemist's hiL 
 
 ui 11 
 
 ixti-.-iiUi 
 
 ancient laboratory furnace of the famous Gcber, 1100 years 
 old. It will be observed that this apparatus involves a 
 number of inventions and principles often supposed to be 
 of modern origin, among them that of the so-called " base- 
 burning" stoves. The name Atlmnor was derived from 
 this feature, meaning '• deathless " or never-expiring. 
 
 V^ 
 
 Fig. •-'. 
 
 Ti)«tr f ff^ Allraor. 
 
 Gctxr's Tuwer of Alhanur ^ab■rut A. D. 
 
 1, the ashe hole; 2, a, the ashe hole: 6, 1, the ashe hole; 2, 
 
 the focus or fire- the focus or fire- the focus; 3, the 
 
 roome;:i, the place roome; c, the pas- kettle where the 
 
 wherelheashesor sages made for water of the Bal- 
 
 8and for the Hath communication of neum is put; 4, a 
 
 arc placed; 4, a the Are; rf, the round (of wood. 
 
 Watt rasse ; .'», a empty place of the hay, or sonic other 
 
 classe dish ; 6, the Tower; r.thesolid soft matter) to 
 
 Eeijister of fire;", part of the Tower ; keepc vpthe Lim- 
 
 Ihe entrance of ^, the cover of the beck b<xiy ; .'>, the 
 
 the fire or heat Tower; (?, two sev- curcubite, with its 
 
 from the Tower of erallcircleswhere- Limbeck head; 6, 
 
 Alhanor; 8. the in the cover is in- the ReKiaters of 
 
 Iron plate or Ves- layd. fire; 7. the stoole 
 
 sel containing the or table to keepe 
 
 Sand or ashes. up the Re<ipiem; 
 
 8, the Recipiem. 
 
 Chemical Lahoratorieu are at present too numerous and 
 too easily accessible to make it necessary to illustrate their 
 
 ur> , li'ilii Li p.uullu;^ by the elder Tcuicis. 
 
 arrangements by a graphic representation. In well-ap- 
 pointed institutions, as at the School of Mines of Columbia 
 College, distinct laboratories are now provided for each 
 kind of study and investigation. Thus, there is a qualita- 
 tive laboratory, a quantitative laboratory, an assay labor- 
 atory, a photometric laboratory, a photographic laboratory, 
 a laboratory for gas analysis, and a blowpipe laboratory, 
 each of which is provided with the apparatus and fixtures 
 required for the work for which it is designed. 
 
 A Phytical Lahorntnrij, as its name would indicate, is an 
 establishment provided with all the appliances needed in 
 the prosecution of research in subjects of physical investi- 
 gation, such as those of heat, light, electricity, etc. Such 
 an establishment may moreover be specially adapted to 
 each or all of the following objects: 1st, The instruction of 
 students in such general methods of accurate measurement 
 in the various subjects as lie at the foundation of all re- 
 searches in each of these departments. 2d, The prosecu- 
 tion of original investigations by which new facts and laws 
 may be discovered, and additions made to the general stock 
 of human knowledge in these directions. 3d, The appli- 
 cation of scientific methods to the examination of commer- 
 cial products or materials, to test their value, elBciency, or 
 improvement under treatment by new processes. 
 
 To present an interesting and instructive contrast with 
 the laboratory of media-val times, above depicted, and to 
 furnish an index of progress in this regard, an interior 
 view of the physical laboratory of the Stevens Institute 
 of Technology, prepared at our request by President Henry 
 Morton, is given here. The space occupied by this depart- 
 ment in the Stevens Institute is as follows: 1st, A largo 
 room 40 bv 60 feet, illustrated on the next page, atd 
 which is used as a general laboratory for such work as can 
 be pursued under ordinary conditions. 2d, An optical 
 room, containing a large collection of rare instruments, 
 especially for polarization, and used chiefly by students 
 engaged on problems in that subject, ."id, An optical room, 
 especially arranged for observations in diffraction, spec- 
 trometry, and the like. 4th, A large room employed chiefly 
 for investigations in acoustics, although used also from 
 time to time as a lecture-rooin. 5lh, A ]ihotonietric-room, 
 provided with a complete set of photometric apparatus by 
 Sugg of London, fitli, A photographic-room, with dark 
 closet, cameras, and lenses of various sorts. 7th, An eleo-
 
 LABORATORY, PHYSICAL AN'D ClilCMICAL. 
 
 15'J3 
 
 trical measurement-room, oontaining a complete set of in- 
 struments fur this purpose, iucludiugTbompsou'sufltatic gal- 
 vanometer of high resistance aud a water-buttery of 6.50 cells. 
 The largo room represented in the cut is divided by 
 double oasc3 into ten alcoves on tho sides, caoh devoted to 
 
 the use of special instruments, and each occupied by an 
 appropriate table. The middle of the room is occupied by 
 a series of tables and of largo pieces of apparatus, such as 
 the great induction coil in the foreground, the large electro- 
 magnet in the distance, etc. etc. 
 
 FlQ. 3. 
 
 Tho ii*'W l.;»'toraiMry lor r«' 
 
 :i[i<l instruction in in 
 
 -I' - nr N;itiiriit riiilosopliy at the Stevens Iii-suiutu ut lecliiioln^')-, ui 
 Uubukun, K. J. 
 
 At tho present day, so mn.nv difT'Ti^nt briinnhos of applied 
 Bcivnco are undergoing rapid clovflopment that spooitio 
 l;indj«jf tcrhnirnl laboratories oxi-ft in considoraljlo variety, 
 in which tho analytical and cxperimontal researches arc 
 carried on exclusively that jiertain to special teohnoloijical 
 artH. These special laboratorii-s aro fo numorous that wo 
 c;in do little niorothan mention somoof the more important. 
 
 .\f f'ltftirtfirril Lahufitoriett. — Those nro of several kimlw. 
 Attached to our mints and assay-offioi-s aro special assay 
 la'turatories, in whieh immense numlKTS of delicate assays 
 of ;;old and silver luilli'in aro cmfimially oon'Iueted; and 
 in the samo CHlablisbnicnts an' nn-Hiti;; iind roiiiiintj labor- 
 atories, in which vast quant itics of gold and silver are 
 parted, refined, melted, cast, and prepared for the coining 
 departments by methods of high interest. Other motnl- 
 Iurgi<;al laboratories are spceialiy devoted to tho assaying 
 of irin and steel, and their ores, slaps, etc., by methods 
 chiefly vnliiractric. for tho sake of rapidity. 
 
 frna Lnhoratorirn, such n« nhtmhl hr attached to all our 
 gasworks, the operations of photometry and oudiometry 
 being specially carried on in these, with many others. 
 
 A'jfii-tthund Lnhnrnfttrirtt, ns in nnr agrieultnral schools, 
 and in the agriiMiltural dopartnient ut \Va^hingt<»n. 
 
 Tho Muifar-n-finhifi art requires at the present day labor- 
 atories in which peculiar operations aro oarriod on, as, for 
 instance, with tho polariseope. 
 
 The arts of </i/'tMy, cft/int-prhitinf/, and hlearhiitff require 
 alsoehemical and analytical invest! gal ions of various l^iniis. 
 so that many spoeial laboratories exist devoted to llu^e. 
 Tho same may l)o said of nonp and vamlfv m»kimj. 
 
 In Knglau'l, at tho present time, many spceinl and very 
 important government labr)ratorios are being organized and 
 perfected — -whieh it is to be hoped will be imitated ^oon 
 among us — to prosecute continual and special analyses of 
 all articles of food and medicine, to ensure purity and de- 
 tect fraud. 
 
 We may add to theso phnrniamtdrnf laboratories, in 
 whieh medicines are elaborated ; rfrrtnt-wta/hiri/i'ttl labor- 
 atories, in whieh elcetro-plating and electrolyping are 
 proseeutod ; ancl telrffrnph laboratories, in which numer- 
 ous special arts are practised, arising out of tho great de- 
 relopment of olcctro-telegraphy. Hesuy Wuutz.
 
 l.V.I-l 
 
 LABOKDE— LABRADOR. 
 
 Laborde' (Maximilian), M. D., b. in Edgefield, S. C, 
 Juue 5, 1SU4: graduated at the College of South Carolina 
 in Columbia in 1S21 : took the degree of M. D. in the Med- 
 ical College of Charkston in 1S2G. His tastes, however, 
 led him more toward the pursuits of literature and science 
 than to the practice of medicine. Ue soon became a dis- 
 tinguished contributor to BitmeU'a Mmjaziiie, the Smitliern 
 Qiuu-tert)/ licvieu; and other like periodicals. lu l-S+2 he 
 became professorof logic and belles-lettres in his alma mater. 
 This position he held until the close of the late war. In 
 the reorganization of that institution subsequently to the 
 war, whereby it is no longer styled the College (but the 
 University) "of South Carolina, Dr. Laborde was assigned 
 the chair of rhetoric, criticism, elocution, and English lan- 
 guage and literature. This position he assumed, and filled 
 with great ability. He also wrote several books of merit, 
 especiallv the Histoi-i/ ../' S'<,iith Carullna Culhrjc. In con- 
 junction with other labors he had for a number of years 
 performed the high trusts of the office of president of the 
 board of regents of the State lunatic asylum. D. at Colum- 
 bia, S. C, Nov. 6, 1873. A. H. Stephens. 
 
 Laborde, de (Alexandre Louis Joseph), Coint, b. 
 at Paris Sept. 15, \~~i; served in the Austrian army in 
 the first campaign against the French republic ; returned 
 to France after the peace of Campo Formio ; filled several 
 diplomatic missions under Napoleon ; was elected a mem- 
 ber of the chamber of deputies in 1822 ; took part with 
 great energy in the revolution of IS.'iO ; was made a briga- 
 dier-general and aide-de-camp to Louis Philippe, and d. at 
 Paris Oct. 24, 1842. His Wynye jii'lorcaque el hislonqiie 
 en Espagne (4 vols, fob, 1807-lS, with 90U engravings) is 
 a work remarkable for its learning and aecurateness, and 
 unique in its elegance. It was followed by Itineraire di- 
 .ertptif de VEspa.jnc (5 vols., 1809-27). He also wrote 
 Leu monHmculs de la France (2 vols., 1832-36, with 259 
 plates), Versailles, ancieii et modern (1839-40), etc. 
 
 Laborde, de (Henri), Viscount, b. at Renncs, France, 
 May 2, 1811 ; studied under Delaroohe ; exhibited in 1836 
 Haijar in the Wilderness. His Capture of Damietta (1841) 
 and Kni'jhts of St. John of Jerusalem (1845) are at Ver- 
 sailles. Ho wrote In,jrcs, sa Vie et sa Doctrine (1870). 
 
 Laborde, de (Leon Emmanuel Simon Joseph), Mar- 
 tiuis. ason of Count Alexandre, b. at Paris June 12, 1807; 
 studied at (jtittingen; 
 
 „ „ ^._, travelled in the East; held several 
 
 diplomatic positions ; was curator of the antiquities of the 
 Louvre from 1848 to 1854, and director of the archives of 
 the empire from 1856 to his death, Mar. 30, 1S69. He 
 wrote Voyage de f Arable PHree (1830-33), Voi/ayc en Orient 
 (1837-64), and several other works relating to arohffiology 
 and art. 
 
 Labouchere' (Henry), Baron Taunton, b. in London, 
 Eno-land, Aug. 15, 1798; was educated at Oxford; trav- 
 elled in the U. S. with Mr. Stanley (afterwards Lord Derby), 
 making the acquaintance of the leading members of the 
 government and Congress at Washington; entered Par- 
 liament in 1826, and soon became recognized as one of the 
 Liberal leaders ; was member for Taunton from 1830 to 
 1859, when he was made a peer ; filled many administrative 
 posts, having been lord of the admiralty (1832), chief sec- 
 retary for Ireland (1846), president of the board of trade 
 (1S47), and colonial secretary (1855-58). D.July 13, 1869, 
 leaving no male heir.— His nephew, Henry dv Pre La- 
 bouchere, b. at London in 1831, served ten years in tho 
 diplomatic service ; became a member of Parliament in 
 1865, and attracted attention by his able letters written 
 from Paris to the Daily A'eim during the siege of that cap- 
 ital by the Germans. They were published in a volume 
 with the title Diari/ of a Besieged Uesident in /'<in« (1871). 
 Labouchfere (Pierre Antoine). b. at Nantes Nov. 
 26, 1807, pursued a mercantile career till 1836; then stud- 
 ied painting in Italy and under Dclarochc, and became 
 known especiallv by" his representations of subjects from 
 the time of the Keformation. Luther at the Did of Worms 
 (1357) and Luther's Death (18G6) became very popular. 
 
 Laboulaye' (finouAnn Rene Lefebure), b. at Paris, 
 France, Jan. 18, 1811 ; studied law while following n me- 
 chanical trade, and astonished the literary world in 1839 by 
 publishing a learned Histonj of Landed Properly in Europe 
 from the Time of C'^nsiantine to the Present, on the title- 
 page of which the author announced himself to be a type- 
 founder. The book was cnuronu,' (crowned ) by the Academy 
 of Inscriptions. In 1842, after being admitted to practise 
 before the royal tribunal at Paris, he published an Essay 
 on the Life and Doctrines of Sarigny, and in the following 
 year Researches on the C'icil and Political Condition of 
 Wtnnen from the Times of the Romans to the Present. In 
 1845 he "wrote an Essay on the Roman Criminal Legislation 
 respecting the Hesponsihilities of Magistrolrs. which again 
 won the crown of the Academy of Inscriptions, and pro- 
 cured for its author an election as one of the members of 
 
 that body. In 1849 he became professor of comparative 
 legislation at the College de France, and distinguished 
 himself by the clearness with which he expounded the 
 principles of legal science. He also began from this time 
 to take a prominent part in politics as an ardent republican, 
 and during the eighteen years' existence of the Second 
 Empire there was in France no more able, active, and 
 vigilant worker in the committees and public meetings of 
 the Liberal opposition than M. Laboulaye. His attention was 
 attracted to the institutions of the U. S. as affording some 
 useful models for introduction in France, and he devoted 
 much time for several years to their careful study. He 
 published a valuable Political History of the U. S. from the 
 First Attempts at Colonization to the A Hoption of the Federal 
 Constitution, of which vol. i. ajqiearcd in 1855, and vol. iii. 
 and last in 186G. He translated W. E. Channing's works 
 on social topics (1854), prefixing a life of Dr. Channingand 
 an essay on his doctrines, and brought out in 1855 that 
 author's work on slavery. He wrote largely for several 
 Tears in the 7?ci-iie de Legislation and other periodicals, 
 from which he collected in 1855 a volume of Contcmporori/ 
 Studies on Germany and the Slarir Countries, and in 1856 
 another on Religious Liberty. In 1862 he rendered a vast 
 service to the U. S. by an exposition of the causes of the 
 American civil war in the work entitled The Vnited States 
 and France, and lost no opjiortunity to inculcate his opin- 
 ions bv speeches. In 1863 he published perhaps the most 
 popular of his works, Paris in America, an amusing study 
 of American characteristics, which has been republished m 
 ei-'ht or ten editions in the republics of Spanish America, 
 where it now forms one of the principal sources from which 
 opinions are formed about the U. S. In 18C5 he wrote tho 
 Programme of the Liberal Party, and edited in 1866-67 the 
 Memoirs and Correspondence of franl.lin. He was many 
 times an unsuccessful candidate for a seat in tho National 
 Assembly. In 1870 he, inclined to favor the reforms pro- 
 posed by Napoleon and E. Ollivier, and from his professional 
 chair advocated an affirmative vote in the plebiscitum of 
 May. He was elected to tho National Assembly in July, 
 1871 was made chairman of the committee on the higher 
 education, and in 1874 secretary of tho committee of thirty 
 on the (republican) constitution, in which capacity ho 
 maintained (1875) a prolonged battle with tho monarchists 
 of every type. In 1873 he was made director of tho Col- 
 K-go de" France. Of all living Frenchmen, ho is perhaps 
 the best entitled to the admiration and gratitude of Ameri- 
 cans. Porter C. Bliss. 
 
 Labonrdonnais', de (Bertband Francois Mahe), 
 b atSt.Malo, France. Feb. 11.1699: entered the navy earlj-, 
 and became a captain in 1724. Having served for somo 
 time in the Portuguese navy, returned to Franco m 1 . ,..% 
 and was made governor in 1734 of Isle do France and 
 Bourlxm, which colonies prospered much under his rule 
 through the introduction of cotton, sugar, and indigo cul- 
 ture, and the building of fortifications, canals, aqueducts, 
 hospitals, and shipyards. His administration has become 
 celebrated through 'St. Pierre's romance, Paul and Virginia. 
 Durino- (ho war between England and France was very 
 succeslful in his undertakings against the English in the 
 East Indies In 1740 bombarded and took JIadras, and 
 levied a war contribution of 9.000,000 francs. But tho 
 French governor-general, Duplei.^, became jealous, and 
 discharged him. On his return to Paris in 1748, was 
 thrown into the Bastile, where he lay for three years. In 
 1751 a commission declared him innocent of all the charges 
 brought against him by Dupleix. Liberated, but broken 
 in spirit, he d. Sept. 9. 1753. His widow received a pen- 
 sion. In 1859 a statue was erected to him in tho Isle ol 
 Bourbon, now Reunion. 
 
 Labrador' [Port. /,n/.rorfor, " laborer," or lerrcilabo- 
 rador, ••cultivable land"], a name vaguely applied to 
 that part of the peninsula lying between the Atlantic 
 Ocean and Hudson's Bay, of which the waters flow neither 
 into Hudson's Bay nor Hudson's Strait. The land whose 
 waters flow into" the bay and strait above mentioned 
 was for two centuries the property of the Uu<lson s 
 Bay Company, and was (1809-71) sold by them to the Do- 
 minion of Ca'nada. Labrador proper consists of two parts. 
 That part whoso waters flow into the Gulf of St. Lawrence 
 formerly belonged likewise to the Hudson's Bay Company, 
 and now constitutes the district of Labrador, in Saguenay 
 CO., province of Quebec. Canada. This coast is inhabited 
 chiefly bv Indians and by Canadians, mostly of French 
 descent ■ In 1 873 the country was reported to bo in a pros- 
 perous condition. The catching of seals, herring, codfish 
 mackerel, salmon, trout, halibut, and fur-bearing animals 
 is the r.rincipal industry. The population is increasing, 
 
 he houses gener.ally neat and comfortable and the prices 
 of Voods very moderate. The eggs and f^.th^f »f "''-^ 
 fowf are gathered to some extent. At Mois.e there are
 
 LABKADOKITE— LAC. 
 
 1595 
 
 quite extensive iron-works. The Indianu have been partly 
 civilized l>y the efforts of Roman Cuthoho mifsiouaries. 
 They are of the Micmac, Mingan, Seven Island, Betsia- 
 mite, and other tribes, Pop. in ISll, exclusive of Auti- 
 cusli Island (pup. 102), and inclusive of the three la«t- 
 named tribes of Indians, 3597. 
 
 That part of Labrador whose waters flow directly into 
 tlio Atlantic, and which lies between Cape Cbudleigh on 
 the N. \V. and the Straits of Belle Isle uu the 6. E., is the 
 r».-gion mure generally called Labrador. It belongs, like 
 the former region, to the British empire, but not, like it, to 
 the Dominion of Canada. It is at present under the jurisdic- 
 tion of Newfoundland. It is governed by a summary court 
 of civil and criminal jurisdiction, whose judge is also magis- 
 trate and coroner. There is a bailiff attached to the court, 
 aud there are several justices of the peace. The court is 
 held upon a revenue cutter. The revenues are in the care 
 of a collector and his deputy, whose principal office is at 
 Blanc Sablon. There are usually but one or two govern- 
 ment mails despatched to Labrador during the summer. 
 The people are not litigious. Most of the cases before the 
 court arise from disputes with regard to the herring fishery. 
 This coast is rooky and precipitous, much broken by bays 
 and inlets. Small islands abound. The native inhabitants 
 are mostly of the Esquimaux race. Nearly all of them have 
 been converted to Christianity by the labors of Moravian 
 missionaries. The principal mission-stations are Naiu, 
 Ukkak, Hopedale, Hebron, Zoar, and Rama. There are 
 other missions, Roman Catholic and Protestant, the former 
 among the Indians of the interior, who arc very few in 
 numbers. The country is so rocky and rough, and the 
 climate so intensely cold In winter (when the temperature 
 averages lower than that of Ureeuland), that Lalirador 
 would bo worthless were it not that its coasts abound in 
 the harp and hooded seals (whose fur and oil arc very valu- 
 able), and that the sea is abundantly stocked with codtish 
 and lii-rring of the best quality. The streams, too, abound 
 in salmon-trout, which are extensively taken ami salted. 
 Furs and feathers are collected to some extent. Seal and 
 tish-offal are beginning to be exported for fertilizers. The 
 land-products are few in number. The llora is limited. 
 The forests consist of stunted birch, willow, juniper, aud 
 poplar trees. The interior is rough and barren, having a 
 rocky surface, with sandy valleys and numtrouc swamps 
 and lakes. Near (he settlements a few potatoes and other 
 vegetables are raised. During the short summer the coast 
 is visited by great numbers of vessels, mostly from New- 
 foundland, England, Jersey, and the U. S. The New- 
 foundland seal lisheries employ numerous sailing vessels 
 and quite a number of steamers. The population of that 
 part of Labrador under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland 
 in isiiy was 2179, exclusive of the aborigines. Disease 
 and famine have greatly reduced the numliers of the latter. 
 In IS'U the mission-station of the Moravians numbered 
 only 1201 souls. This gives for this whole peninsula, with 
 jOO.OOO square miles of area, a population, exclusive of a 
 few wild aborigines, of only 7277 souls; '.iJ*J7 of whom, on 
 the S. coast, bclnng to the province of t^uebco ( 1^71 ) ; 2179 
 to the Newfoundland sottlemonts ( ls69), ami the remainder 
 ( IS70) to the Moravian missions. (See Hind's Ej-plorations 
 It/ the Interior of the Labrador Peninmtltt, ISfiH.) 
 
 ClIAULES W. GrEFNF. 
 
 Lab'radoritef a soda-Ilmo feldspar (see Frldhpar) 
 orystultizing in the tricltnic system, and originally ob- 
 t-iiiuf'd from the eoast of Labrador. Some specimens when 
 turned in different lights display to perfection a " chango 
 of colors." 
 
 Lab'rador Tea {Lrdum UttifnUum), an evergreen 
 shrub of the hi-nth fiimlly found in mar-thy soils from Penn- 
 sylvania northward. The natives of Labrador use the leaves 
 us a sub.4tituto for tea. 
 
 Labrau'da, in classical geography, a city of Caria, 
 Asia .Minor, near Mylasa, celebrated for its temple of Ju- 
 piter (Zeus Stratios). The ruins found at lakli, near Kizel- 
 jik, where sixteen columns of an Ionian temple are still 
 standing, wero identified by Chandler and by Sir Charles 
 I'Vllows a!< those of Labranda, but Leake believes the true 
 !.ile of the city to have been iu the hills N. E. of Mylasa. 
 
 \ti\ Urea, a small town on the south-western extremity 
 f.f the island of Trinidad, in the West Indies, 10 miles from 
 San Ftrnando, is noteworthy from its oxtensivo exporta- 
 tion of ii^phaltum. 
 
 Kah'ridic [from LahruH^ the typical genus, and t*/*-], a 
 family of acanthopteryglan teleucephalous liwhes, having 
 the lower pharyngeal bones united in a snlid inaf<s, and 
 the upper chiefly or wholly represented by the third bono, 
 which is fixedly articulated to the fourth ^uperinr branch!- 
 hyal ; the form is oblong or elongated ; tlie scales cycloid; 
 tli4< upper maxillary bones articulated in a complex man- 
 ner; rhe teeth cnic or confluent into an osseous ridge, tho 
 
 dorsal entire, and with its spinous portion generally larger 
 than the :foft. and the ventral fins jugular. The lamily is 
 a large one. embracing our blackfish [Tautoya onitis) and 
 burgall I Tttut'HjifltihrtiH ti(Upergiig). Thko. Gill. 
 
 La Bniyore, dc (Jkan). b. at Dourdan, in Normandy, 
 probably in !fi4ti. and held a little oflice in the civil service 
 at Caen! when Bossuet called him to the court of Versailles 
 as teacher to the prince of Conde. The rest of his life he 
 spent at Versailles. ChantiMy. and Paris, always belonging 
 to the court, where ho enjoyed a pensi(m of 1000 francs a 
 year, but ocmipying a retired though dignified position. 
 b. May 11, llVJfi. In 1088 ho published his Caractins de 
 ThPophrtXHte, tradnitH dx'/rec, on leu moeitrs d^ ceHi'erfe. Two 
 more editions followed in the same year, nine during the life- 
 time of the author, and a great number in the next century. 
 It has been translated into most European languages— 
 into English by Rowe in 170*,* — and its reading is >tiU 
 found both interesting and instructive. It is a work of in- 
 sight, not of inspiration. There is nothing in it of a cre- 
 ative imagination which reveals the depths of human na- 
 ture through immediate intuition. But it contains much 
 of tliat fine and acute observation which arrives at a full 
 understanding of human characters through actual expe- 
 rience. Its style is elegant and Its tone noble. After his 
 death was published, under the title of Dlalntjnes post- 
 humca eur le Quntt'sme, a work which ho left unfinished. 
 
 Ci.EMKNS PeTKIISKN. 
 
 Lablian', an island in the Malay Archipelago, or rather 
 in the China Sea, 60 miles from the N. coast of Borneo aud 
 COO miles N. E. of Singapore. Area, 45 square miles. Pop. 
 4.sy3. The island was ceded to Great Britain in 1S46 by 
 the sultan of Brunai (Borneo), and a settlement called Vic- 
 toria has been made at the S. E. extremity. Its chief im- 
 portance is derived from its central position with regard 
 to Borneo, Anam, the French colony of Cambodia, and 
 the Spanish colony of the Philippines. There is a fair port, 
 a good supply of water, and abundant mines of coal, for 
 conveying which a railway 5 miles long has been built. 
 Sago, camphor, birds* nests, and pearls are the chief ex- 
 ports. Labuan is the seat of a colonial bi-^hopric; it had 
 in 1H72 a tonnage of 7000 and an export trade of £185.000. 
 Labur'num [Lat.], the name of the Lfibiinium vnfijnre 
 ami niplinnn. two highly ornamental European small trees 
 or shrubs of the order Lcguinino?)e, cultivated in shrubberies 
 in the V . S. They have abundant yellow flowers in early 
 summer. The wood is hard, heavy, dark-colored, and valu- 
 able to the carver and turner. The bark. leaves, and seeds 
 are poisonous. The first-mentioned species is called Eng- 
 lish, the other Scotch laburnum. 
 
 Labyc ( ItiKinoNNf:), a French theologian, b. at Rovin, 
 department of Ardennes. France, Mar. :il, 1712; entered 
 the Dominican order in 1728 ; studieil theology at the Uni- 
 versity of Douai; taught for some time in tlie College of 
 St. Thomas, but retired afterward to his native town, whero 
 he formed an excellent library, with which was connected 
 a cabinet of natural history. D. Jan. 7, 171»2. He wroto 
 Sniiniia Siinuiiir I. Thumit, nivv cumpcndinm tfiftdngiie 8cho- 
 litHtirn w ninrtdia I\ IHUnart (0 vols., Liege, 1754). 
 
 liabynetUN, a name frequently occurring iu Babylo- 
 nian history, but uncertain with respect to its significa- 
 tion. It is applied only to the monarcbs. but whether it 
 is used as a proper name or a title cannot be deeiiled. One 
 Labynetus is mentioned by Herodotus (i. 74) as mediating, 
 in conjunction with a prince nf Cilicia, a jieaco between 
 Cyaxarcs and Alyattes. From the chron(dogy it is evident 
 that this Labynetus must have l)een idenlioal with Xebu- 
 chadnczrar. Another Labynetus is mentioned by the samo 
 author ( i. 77) as a contemporary of Cyrus and Crresus. with 
 the hiller of whom he was in alliance. This Labynetus is 
 the same as the Belshazzar of the prophet Daniel. 
 
 Lab'yrinth (Gr. Xa^epii-^ot], in Greek archa'ology, a 
 subterran<'an cavity, natural or mure fnquenlly artificial, 
 with intricate passages. The most famous, that of Egypt, 
 one of the Seven Wonders of tlu- World, was near Arsinoe 
 and beyond Lake Ma'ris. It had I JOO subterranean rooms, 
 and as many above ground, and had a wall around it. If 
 is believed to have been a royal scjiulchre. The Cretan 
 labyrinth, where the Minotaur was ktpt. Is believed to be 
 mythical. Saiiios. Leninos. and othi-r ancient places had 
 labyrinths in imitation of that of Egypt. 
 Twibyrinthodon. Sco Ai>ri:Ni>ix. 
 liar ( I'r. l-"fi' : (ier. (iummfhirk]. Stirk-lac, Sccd- 
 lac, laiiiip-lai', Shrll-lac, and Liic-dyr, a rc!*in- 
 ous substance produced by the puncture ui' the female in- 
 sect of Ciurut I'lcrn or t-.Jiriii upon branches of cevoral 
 plants, as tlio Firu» rtdu/iona (the bo tree or religious treo 
 of the Hiniloos). the Hhnmnut jujuhn, tho Cro/.oi huri- 
 f't-nim (or bihar tree), and the Itiitm fnmdtntn {or (ho 
 butea tree), which grow in Slam, Assam, Pegu, Bengal,
 
 1596 
 
 LAC. 
 
 and Malabar. Tho female insect is of the size of a louse 
 — red, round, flat, nnd wingless. The male is twice as 
 
 iar-jio as the female, and hus four wings. Soon after ilia 
 punctured the twig becomes incrueted with a mammillated 
 resinous substance, red, hard, and nearly tran.'^parent. It 
 serves the double jiurpoise of protecting the eggs and of 
 supplying food for the young maggots in a more advanced 
 slafe. The mothers are held by the adhesive fluids whieh 
 exude from the punctures, and contribute their substance 
 to the mass. The characteristic constituents of the incrusta- 
 tion arc the lac-resin, derived from the tree, and the lac- 
 dyo, analogous to that of the cochineal, Ctx^cus cacti, con- 
 tained in tho insects. The most valuable product is ob- 
 tained by breaking off the twigs before the brood escapes, 
 and drying them in the sun. 
 
 Stlrlc-tttc. — These dried twigs are called stick-lac, and 
 from thorn the other proihicts are i)reparcd. That from 
 Siain is the best, tlie inerustntion being oflcn a quarter of 
 an inch thick all around the twig; that of Assam ranks 
 next. Dr. John gives the following analysis of stick-lac : 
 
 An odorous resin 6G.65 
 
 Resin in<>olublc in ether) lg ^S 
 
 " laecin J 
 
 Coloring-matter (analogous to that of cochineal).. 3.75 
 
 Laceie acid 0.G2 
 
 Extractive 3.i>2 
 
 Skins of insects 2.08 
 
 Wax 167 
 
 Salts I.W 
 
 Sand 0.fi2 
 
 Loss _2 90 
 
 100.00 
 
 It is insoluble in water, to which it, however, imparts its 
 red coloring-matter. It is partially sohil>lc in alcohol, 
 coloring it red; is insoluble in fatty and essential oils. 
 
 S'td-lnc is the resinous concretion s?parafcd from tho 
 twigs, coarsely pounded, and washed with water, by which 
 much of the coloring-matter is removed. AVhen it is de- 
 sired to secure tho lac-dyo also, hot water is used, to which 
 a little soda is often added. 
 
 Lum}i-hic is 8im})!y sced-Iac melted into lumps. 
 
 ShfU'lac is prepared from seed-lac by placing it in bags 
 of cotton, about -i feet long and inches in circumfercnee, 
 and warming it over a charcoal fire. When the resin be- 
 gins to melt the bag is twisted, and the clear resin is al- 
 lowed to tlow over the smooth stems of the banyan treo or 
 planks of fig-wood, when it cools in thin layers or scales. 
 Ilatchett has published the following analyses of these dif- 
 ferent forms of lac : 
 
 Stick-lao. 
 
 Resin 68.0 
 
 Coloring-matter 10.0 
 
 "Wax 6.0 
 
 Gluten 5.5 
 
 Foreign bodies 6-5 
 
 Loss 4.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 Lnc-resin \s very valuable, much harder than colophony, 
 and easily soluble in alcohol. It may be nbtaine<l pure by 
 treating shell-lac with cold alcohol, and filtering the solu- 
 tion in order to separate a yellow-gray pulverulent matter. 
 AVhen the alcohol is again distilled olT, a brown, translu- 
 cent, hard, and brittle resin, of specific gravity I.I.IO. re- 
 mains. It melts into a viscid mass with heat, and ditfuses 
 an aromatic odor. Anhydrous alcohol disfsulvcs it in all 
 proportions. According to John, it consists of two resins, 
 one of whieh dissolves readily in alcohol, ether, the volatile 
 and fat oils ; while the other is little soluble in cold alcohol, 
 and is insoluble in ether and the volatile oils. Unverdor- 
 ben. however, has detectecl in shell-lac — (1) a resin solublo 
 in alcohol and ether; (2) a resin soluble in alcohol, insol- 
 ulilc in ether; (^i) a resinous body little soluble in cold al- 
 cohol; (4) acrystallizable resin ; (5) a resin soluble in alco- 
 hol and ether, but insoluble in petroleum, ami nncrystalliz- 
 ablc; (6) the unsaponified fat of tho Coccuh insect, as well 
 as oleic and stearic acids; (7) wa.K : (8) the fnrciue ot Dr. 
 John; (0) an extractive coloring-matter. Dilute h^-dro- 
 chloric and acetic acids dissolve shell-lac readily; nitric 
 acid slowly; strong sulphuric acid not at ail. Like most 
 other resins, it has a strong aflinity for bases, with which 
 it forms definite compounds. It dissolves in aqueous pot- 
 ash, soda, carbounte of soda, etc. It deprives the caustic 
 alkalies of their alkaline taste. Tho solution in caustic pot- 
 ash is of a dark-red color, and dries into a brilliant, trans- 
 parent, reddish-brown mass, which may be redissolved in 
 bnth water and alcohol, liorax renders five times its weight 
 of shell-lac soluble on boiling with water. This solution is 
 equal for many purposes to spirit varnish, and is an excel- 
 lent vehicle for water-colors, as when once drie<l water has 
 no effect upon it. India-ink rubhtd up with this liquid 
 forms a m<tst valuable hthcl-ink for the lahorntory. as it is 
 not affected by acid vapors. Sal-ummouiao is also a sol- 
 
 vent for shell-lac, and the solution has been suggested as a 
 substitute for the alcoholic solution. 
 
 /ifeacfied Shell-lii'-. — By passing chlorine in excefs 
 through the dark-colored alkaline solution the lac-resin is 
 prccipilJiteil in a colorless state. \Vhen this precipitate is 
 washed and dried, it forms with aleohol an excellent pale- 
 yellow varnish, especially with the addition of a little tur- 
 pentine and mastic. By exposure in thin shreds to the 
 sun's rays or in a finely-divideil state to ehlorine-watcr, 
 or by reducing it to a line jiowder. susjiending in water, 
 and passing hydrochloric aeid va])or into the menstruum, 
 the dark-colored varieties are bleached. When this is done, 
 however, the resin loses many of tho.'ie qualities that so ad- 
 mirably recommend it for some kinds of varnishes, but it 
 answers well for making sealing-wax. 
 
 Usee of Shril-fnc. — In India lac is fashioned into rings, 
 beads, and other trinkets. It is the material of which tho 
 best modern sealing-wax is made. Turpentine is added to 
 promote fusibility and prevent brittU-ness, Earthy matters 
 are added to increase weight ami to prevent too rapid 
 fusion. For red and other light-colored sealing-wax very 
 pnle or even bleached shell-lac is used, while for black and 
 dark colors the darker-colored shell-lac is equally suitable. 
 The following are common proportions, the first being tho 
 best, Venice turpentine being used in it: 
 
 1. 2. s. 4. 
 
 Shell-lac 500 300 .340 330 
 
 Turpentine I2j 400 370 330 
 
 Chalk or magnesia 140 110 
 
 Gypsum or zinc-white Vo 
 
 Sulphate of baryta 60 160 
 
 Vermilion .375 65 120 165 
 
 Oil of turpentine ... ... ... 15 
 
 1000 lUUO 1000 1000 
 
 Tho materials are melted together in an iron pan, with 
 constant stirring. The cool but still soft ma?s is rolled on 
 a slab of marble and shaped into sticks, or the fluid mass 
 is poured into brass moulds. The various colors are im- 
 parted by cobalt blue, chrome yellow, bone-black, etc. 
 Perfumed sealing-wax contains gum benzoin, storax, or 
 balsam of Peru. Inferior sealing-wax is colored red with 
 oxide of iron instead of vermilion, or it is e\en made of 
 common rosin with gypsum or chalk. New Zealand resin, 
 from XXvi Xftnthnrrhten hantHii, is frequently used in place 
 of shell-lae. Media'val sealing-wax was a mixture of bees- 
 wax with turpentine and coloring-matter. 
 
 ShcIMao is used for the preparation of varnishes and for 
 japanning, tho ordinary shclI-lac varnish being a simple 
 alcoholic solution. It is used for stift'ening hat bodies and 
 many other purposes. Its solution in sal-ammoniac and 
 water has been suggested as capable of numerous applica- 
 tions. It is made by placing :• parts white shell-lac. I part 
 sal-ammoniac, and 6 to H parts water in a close vessel for 
 twelve hours, then boiling with c<instant stirring till tho 
 shell-hie is dissolved. The solution may be used as a stiff"encr, 
 waterproofer, or vehicle for pigments and dyes, as paint 
 or varnish. 
 
 Lft'--(/if and Iftr-lake are tho secondary or by-products 
 of the purification of stiek-lac. The coarsely-powdered 
 stick-lac is macerated with hot water, to which a little soda 
 is sometimes added. Tho red liquid thus obtained is 
 .""trained through canvas and evaporated over a charcoal 
 fire or in the sun. The residue is made into little cakes, 
 which are known as htr-i/ifr, and. as they appear in com- 
 merce, contain about 60 per cent, of coloring-matter, 2a 
 of resin, 25 of earthy imjiuritics. Ltic-fukc is obtained by 
 precipitating with ulum the decoction from stick-lac, pre- 
 pared with weak caustic soda. The jireeipitate is pressed, 
 moulded into cakes, and dried. It contains coloring-matter 
 ^yi), resin 40, alumina 9, impurities 1. Messrs. Brooke, 
 Simpsi)n A Spillcr of Manchester, England, have intro- 
 duced into commerce a lac-dyo superior to that imported 
 from India. They treat stick-lac with weak ammonia, and 
 Jireeipitate the solution with chloride of tin. The coloring- 
 matter of lac dye is analogous to that of cochineal, car- 
 minic oeid. but its absolute identity has not been estab- 
 lished. The shades produced by it are less bright, but more 
 permanent. Lae-dye and lake are chiefly employed for 
 ilying woollen fabrics scarlet; 2 or .3 parts produce the same 
 effect as 1 of cochineal. The solvent for the dye is cither 
 sulphuric or hydrochloric acid ; the mordant is chloride of 
 tin and tartar. Tho following processes for preparing tho 
 dye for use are given in Watts's /tirtifni'irif of Chemidirtf : 
 ( 1 t A mixture of 4 parts of lao with strong sulphuric aeid 
 is allowed to stand for 24 hours in summer and 48 in win- 
 ter, then diluted and stirred with ;U parts of water, and 
 again left to clarify. The clear liqui<l is poured into an iron 
 pot, and mixed with the wash- wa tor <»f the previous residue ; 
 the solution is mixed with a quantity of lime sufficient to 
 neutralize four-fifths of tho sulphuric acid, and the precip-
 
 LAC— LACE. 
 
 l.V.)7 
 
 itato of pypautn is irmoved : the liquid ia t)ipn rendy for 
 use. This is the mode of preiiurntion chiefly n«lnpifd in 
 England. (2) .^2 parts of lac-dye are triturnt.d with 10 to 
 12 parts of sulphurio acid of specific gravity l.Sj. or hy- 
 drooblorio acid of specific {gravity I.IM. e:u-h diluted with 
 three times its weight of water. Tlie mixture ir* left tu 
 itself for 4S hours in winter or 24 hours in summer, and 
 then mixed with the requisite quantity of river-water. (3) 
 .12 p:\rts of Iftc-dyo are triturated with 12 parts of hydro- 
 chloric acid of specific gravity 1.14S. diluted with unequal 
 weight of water; the mixture is left for 24 hourii, and fre- 
 quently stirred, and then diluted with water. To dye with 
 the color thus prepared, each pound is mixed with three- 
 quarters of a pint of «io-called lac-spirit, a aolulion of slnn- 
 nou*» rhloriile prepared hy dissolving 1 pouncl of tin in 20 
 pounds of fuming hydrochloric acid, the mixture being left 
 to itself for 6 hours before use. C. F. Chanih.kh. 
 
 Lac fitindostanco], the sum of 100.000 rupees, worth 
 about $5(1.000. The term is used in Kast Indian couimercc. 
 One hundred lacs make one crore of rupees. 
 
 La Caille, de fXicoLAS Lot-is), b. Mar. IJ, 1713, at 
 Rumigny, in Charapagne ; studie<I mathematics and astron- 
 omy ; made himself known by his participation in the sur- 
 vey of the French coast between Xantcs and Hayonne, and 
 in the measurement of the arc of the meridian, and was 
 appointed professor in astronomy at the Colb'ge do Maza- 
 rin at Paris in 1741. In 1750 went to the Cape of Good 
 Hope, and in 127 nights determined !)S00 stars hitherto 
 uniietcrmlncd : and in connection with Lalande in Berlin 
 he established the distance of the moon, IMars, and Venus. 
 He evinced the same energy in his literary activity, which 
 comprises, besides his Astroiiomim Fnudumentn (1758), 
 Ttihitl/r Solaret (1758), Olmervtitiomi tmrSI''* ftoilcn (hi zodi- 
 arjiie (1763), .«everal elementary handbooks, and a number 
 of essavs which have been of great iDfiueuco on navigation. 
 D. at Paris Mar. 21, 1702. 
 
 Lacando'ncSf an Indian tribe of Central America, 
 inhiibiiiiig an extensive unexplored region of Norllicrn 
 Guatemala, near the frontier of Ilelize, on a river of tho 
 same name tributary to tho I'sninasinta. Tbcy formerly 
 extended into Chiapas and Ta!)asco, but aro now found 
 only in tho region of the Cliieho Mountains. They. like 
 tho neighboring Itzacs of Lake Potcn. belong to the Maya 
 stock, and do not di^er in point of actual civilization from 
 the other fractions of thtir race in Yucatan. Tbcy formoro 
 than three centuries kept up a warfare with the i^paniards, 
 but havo generally been pacific of l:i(o years, and, though 
 allowing no whites to visit their settlements, .'Sometimes 
 traffic a little on the frontiers, giving tol>at'oo and earsa- 
 parilla in exchange for trinkets and firearms. They aro 
 nominally subject to Guatemala, but are in fact entirely 
 independent, never having received laws from or paid trib- 
 ute to tho whites. They still Jtractii^e their ancient relig- 
 ious rites, and havotownsof sctnio extent, though tho mng- 
 nifieent description of their eilio t<dd to Mr. John L. 
 Stephens by tho cura of Quieh<5 is but a romance. (See 
 Stepliens's TnnifM tu Cvntrnt Anicn'ra, and AIorelct'B do. 
 (trans, by Mrs. Squior, Now York, IsrO).) 
 
 Lac'cadivcs [Sans. f(tKkr,*'a hundred thousand." and 
 ffir^, " island "], a numerous grouj) of small islands in the 
 Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea), consisting of twenty clusters, 
 100 milcsfrom (he Malabar const. Area, 744 s(|narn miles. 
 Pop. 7000. They aro of coral formatiun, the largest being 
 only 7 miles in length, and most of them are mere barren 
 rocks. From the dangers of I ho surrounding reefs the Lac- 
 cailives are little frequented by navigators. The natives 
 are called Moplays, are Mohammedans of .Arabian descent, 
 and live in stono huts. Tho only cunraerco is in cocoa- 
 fibre and betel-nuts. The islands pay tribute to Cananoro 
 in the presidency of Madras. They were discovered by 
 Vasco da Oama in 1499. 
 
 Lace [Oltl Fr. farin, lacet, from Latin Incinin, the guard- 
 hem of a robe: in Karly English htrr meant simply a fas- 
 tening or to fasten, in common with th(? Aug. -Sax. farrr-nn, 
 to " cttteh, to hold," probably allif-d to the (ireek Atyui and 
 Latin lifjnre ; Sanskrit, hujati], an ornamental open-work 
 of thread, twisted, plaited, or woven into patterns. Itself 
 comparatively modern, laee is derived front two mnut an- 
 cient kinds of work, netting and embroidery, the former of 
 which was used by tho Kgyptiatis to ornament the borders 
 of some festival garments; indeed, the network of blue 
 heads found on mummies mny. as it was marjr with the 
 needle, be regarded as a sort of Inco, The (Jreeks iind Ro- 
 mans bordered their rnbes with embroidery, enlled. when 
 of superior qiiality. npuH /'firi/ffintium, from the skill with 
 which it was executed by Phrygian workers. Among early 
 Christians it was customary for women to wear veils during 
 piibli.i wnrship. an<i writers of the second century com- 
 plainnl that too often thiiso coverings minislered rntlier to 
 vanity (ban tn modesty, being frequently uf netting inter- 
 
 woven with gold or silver, through which the face was visi- 
 ble. Anglo-Saxon embroidery, known as opitu Aiuf/icmnim, 
 was esteemed even in Kome : tho cope and maniple of St. 
 Cuthbert, found in his coffin, and still preserved at Durham, 
 
 are gotnl specimens of this work, 
 I Lace may be di\ idcd into two principal classes — point 
 and pillow lace, the former being of much the greater anti- 
 ' quity. We cannot decide when point was first made, fo vciy 
 I gradually was it evolved from netting and embroidery, with 
 which it is often confoumled in old records. The Italians 
 probably derivcl it from Ityzantiuni, since its earliest de- 
 velopment may be traced to Venice, Genoa, and other towns 
 engaged in commerce with the Greek empire. The oldest 
 point is of two kinds — fnris, or point roinptS ("counted 
 stitch "), ami cut-work {point conpr). Lncis usually con- 
 sisted of netted squares, made in tlic ordinary way on a 
 mesh, then joined with the needle, and darned or embroid- 
 ered in a pattern, like the modern "guipure d'art ;" or de- 
 signs cut out of linen were laid on the netting and secured 
 to it by embroidery. The open ground, again, was some- 
 times formed by drawing tbrcafls in a piece of linen and 
 fastening them with the needle where they cro.s?od each 
 other. For cut-work, threads were stretched netwiso 
 across a piece of linen, called '/uintin from the place of its 
 manufacture, and a pattern was made by sewing round 
 with butt<inliole stitch tbo.'^e parts of the linen intended to 
 remain, antl cutting the rest away. By degrees, skilful 
 workers arrived at making the thick part entirely with the 
 needle, using variations of two stitches (Figs. 1 and 2), 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 Fir. 2. 
 
 similar to those in modern point. The name "cut-work," 
 though inapprojiriate, was long retained, and as late as 
 1(140 we find it applied to Italian lace by John Taylor, tho 
 Water Poet, in bis Pruijuc of thr J^'rcclle. Embroidery, 
 lncis, and cut -work were often e<)ml)ined in one piece, 
 squares of darned netting alternating with squares of cut 
 and embroidered linen; and this work, which was used 
 chiefly for largo articles, sucli as coverlets and altar-cloths, 
 was sometimes white or unbleached, sometimes varied with 
 gold, sih or, or colored threads. Tho earliest pat tern -books 
 extant date from the sixteenth century, and are extremely 
 rare, most of them having been worn out in the using. Tho 
 best known ia that of Vinciolo, a Venetian (about 1G12), 
 who gave new designs, besides reimblisbing many from 
 older books. Among those wo may notice /-<■ Llvre ;kju- 
 veftu dfS Patronn (it; Lingerie (llerlin, 152.*)) ; /Cnittin;/ nnil 
 Lace /'(ittcrna, Hans Sibmaclier ( 1597, reprinted at Vienna 
 1S6G). having a curious frontispiece representing a work- 
 room where an aged female is directing several ytiung pu- 
 pils; La /'i((ti</nfl (ir CAIifuiNr inflitntriciiMr, M. Mignerak 
 iU»05). The designs in tbesc an<l contemporary works on 
 tho same 8u!)ject aro either geometrical or attempts at de- 
 picting sacretl, historical, or allegorical scenes. Sibmaclier 
 gives St. George and the Dragon to bo worked in lacis ; 
 i\Iignerak shows how the seasons, the elements, the death 
 of Lucretia, etc. may be more or less adequately repre- 
 sented with the needle. In the South Kensington Museum, 
 London, a large piece of lacis in many compartments con- 
 tains in each a Kible picture wrought on a netted groinnl. 
 As pattern-books were expi-nsive nnd easily damaged, it was 
 usual for ladies, in (be times when needle-industry ranked 
 as a cardinal female virtue, to preserve ilcsigns and stitches 
 by working lace-samplers or " sam-cloths," which aro still 
 kept as heirloonts in many families. 
 
 In the sixteenth century laee became n very general or- 
 nament (tf both male and female dress, and we find it fre- 
 quently mentioned in royal edicts and accounts : " H peces 
 of yolowc (yellow) laee were bought for Henry VHl. at a 
 cost of 5<». 4*/." A sumptuary law of Queen Mary foibado 
 the wearing of "white woorkes, alias eut-woorkes, miuio 
 bcyon'Ic the seas." Stubb<'s, in his denunciation of" rufl"«s," 
 ileclares them to be "clogged with gold, silver, or silk lace 
 of stately price, wrought atl over with needle-work, speckled 
 an(l sparkled liere and tJK-re with the sonne, the moone, 
 the starres. an'l many other antifpiities siraunge to be- 
 holde." For lho«e muidi-reviled yet long-triuiu]>liant ar- 
 ticles of dress, pillow-lace, being lighter than point, was a 
 favorite edging. This work, usnaily supposed to havo 
 been invented by Ilarlmrn Uttmann. wife of a master-minor 
 of St. Annaberg, in Saxony, is by Joseph S^-guin pronounced 
 of Italian origin. " From Italy," says he, "a kni>wlcrlgo 
 of tho art passed into France, whence it was acquired by
 
 loil.S 
 
 LACE. 
 
 the lace-makers of Flanders." Be that as it may, Belgium 
 is now the special home of this beautiful fabric. The lace- 
 pillow is a round or oviil boiird forming the base of a hard 
 cushion : the worker places it upon her knees, lays on it a 
 strip of parchment pricked with holes which indicate a laco- 
 pattcrn, and sticks a jiin through each hole so that its point 
 enters the pillow. The thread for making the lace is wound 
 on bobbins, small pieces uf wood, hone, or ivory about the 
 eircuniference of an ordinary lead-pencil, having round 
 their upper ends a groove or neck to receive the threail ; 
 by the twisting and crossing of these the lace is formed. 
 The ground or "mesh" is made by plaiting (I'ig. 3) or 
 Fig. 3. Fro- *• 
 
 twisting the threads (Fig. 4): the pattern, technically 
 called "gimp." by weaving or "clothing" (Fig. 5. These 
 figures, as also 1 and 2, represent the stitches pj^ g 
 considerably magnified). A large number 
 of bobbins is needed, as many as 1200 being 
 sometimes employed on one cushion. Those 
 not immediately in use hang over the front 
 of the cushion, each by its own thread, which 
 is sti looped as not to become unwound. The 
 leading lines of the pattern are sometimes 
 miirked bv pins with colored heads, and the 
 " gimp " threads are wound upon colored bobbins. Early 
 piTlow lace, like contemporary point, was of stiff design, 
 and m.ay be compared to the more formal of modern crochet 
 edgings. But towards the close of the sixteenth century 
 lac°e of all kinds changed from the geometrical to the flow- 
 ing style, as may be seen by comparison of Holbein's pic- 
 tures with thoso'of Vandyke. And every year it was more 
 generally and profusely worn. At Queen Elizabeth's death 
 3000 lace-trimmed habits were found in her wardrobe. 
 Charles I. wore hunting-dresses adorned with rich point. 
 In France, and all countries where French fashion-laws 
 were obeyed, lace during the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 centurieswas used lavishly for nearly all articles of dress. 
 The falling collars and cravats which succeeded ruffs were 
 either made of lace or deeply bordered with it. Ladies 
 wore lace head-dresses, lace flounces, ruffles of lace at the 
 elbow, aprons frilled with or composed entirely of lace. 
 Gentlemen had lace cuff's or ruffles (called pleiirrtisen. 
 "weepers") which fell over the hand, and thus, it was 
 said, facilitated cheating at cards; they wore Ince-trimnied 
 garters, deep frills of lace at the knee, lace roses in shoes, 
 even quillings of lace to fill up the wide boot-tops that 
 were fashionable about 16(12. Infants' robes, caps, and 
 cradle-furniture were made of rich lace, and it was used 
 for curtains, for coverlets, even for bathing wrappers. 
 Drayton's prettv conceit for a head-dress which tiic shep- 
 herd Lalus promises to his mistress must have been in- 
 spired by the sight of some beautiful lace of flowery pat- 
 tern : 
 
 " For thy head Tic have a Tyer 
 Of Nettim; made of Strawlicry wver. 
 And in each kmit that doth couiimsc 
 A mesh, sliall slick a halfe-blowne Rose 
 Kcil, ilainaskc, white, in order set ; 
 About the sides shall run a fret 
 Of primroses; the Tver throiichnut 
 With Thrift and Daysyes frindccd about." 
 
 (77is .Viixs' ElUiiim, Nimphall ii.) 
 Great sums were spent upon lace, and as it was nearly all 
 brought from Italy, Venice and Genoa were enriched with 
 the fortunes of French nobles. For this reason its impor- 
 tation w.as, between 1620 and 1060, forbidden by many 
 edicts, which, however, had little efl'ect except to inspire 
 numerous satires: of these, La Jii'iulle dei PimoemeHtii 
 ("The Kebelliim of the Laces") is specially valuable, since 
 it names every kind of lace known at the time. .Soon after 
 the edict of li'.fiO the minister Colbert, resolved that France 
 should have a lace manufacture of its own, sent to Italy 
 for workers, and established them near Alenfon, where 
 thev instructed a number of French girls in the art of 
 making point. Alenjim lace, which, though derived from 
 that of \'enice, difl'cred considerably from it. was by Louis 
 XIV. called imini lU fnim;-, and being patronized by that 
 monarch, soon became indispensable to all his courtiers. 
 In 1065 a company was organized with the monopoly of 
 its sale for ten years, during which time the shareholders 
 received over and over again the amount of their original 
 
 investments. The manufacture of "point de Franco," 
 though affected, like every kind of French industry, by the 
 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, flourished until the 
 Revolution, when nearly all demand for lace ceased, and 
 many Alenfon workers, having uiinistcrcd to aristocratic 
 lu.'iury, shared the fate of their high-born patrons. It was 
 revived by Napoleon I., and there e,\ist here and there 
 fragments of a suite of bed-furniture powilered with the 
 imperial bees, which was made for him at immense cost. 
 Venice point is no longer worked, e.tcept by skilful repro- 
 ducers of old lace. The raised kind was especially beauti- 
 ful, and had the appearance of carving or bas-relief, the 
 outlines of the jiatterns being worked over thick rolls of 
 cotton. The flowers were filled in with delicate lace-stitches 
 (technically called mo(/<») and couiiected by linden, or bars, 
 of e.xquisiie lightness varied by little stars and picots. or 
 pearl loops. A similar lace was made in Spanish convents 
 and devoted to church purposes, such as altar-furniture, 
 vestments, and the dresses of images. In the island of 
 Ccphalonia much Italian point of geometrical design has 
 been found in tombs and sold under the name of " Greek 
 lace." P<iint d'Alenfon, the most costly and complicated 
 of needle-laces, is made in small segments and by twelve 
 difl'erent workers, each of whom has her s|ieeial province. 
 The pattern is printed off on pieces of green iiarchiiicnt 
 about ten inches long, each segment numbered in its order; 
 the pattern is then ],ricked upon the parchment, which is 
 stitched to a piece of coarse linen folded double. The out- 
 line of the pattern is traced out by two threads fixed by 
 small stitches passed with another needle and thread 
 through the parchment and its linen lining. The ground 
 is ne.vt worked in fine riecriu ("net") backward and for- 
 ward at right angles to the border: the flowers are worked 
 in, and the various "modes" or "fillings" are introduced. 
 Tlie threads which unite lace, parchment, and linen are 
 next cut by passing a razor between the folds of the linen, 
 and the niany segments are joined by an invisible stitch 
 called "assemblage." Point d'Alenfon is the only lace 
 in which horsehair is introduced along the edge to give 
 firmness to the " cordonnet." The horsehair has the dis- 
 advantage of being apt to shrink in washing, and thus 
 impair the beauty of the point. Until the Revolution 
 there was made at Argentan a point resembling that of 
 Alenfon. but with heavier flowers and a " bride" ground 
 of large hexagonal meshes worked over with button-hole 
 stitch. The art of making this lace, which was very strong 
 knd effective, is entirely lost. Pillow-lace is either worked 
 in one piece on the cushion, in which case it cannot be of 
 any great width, or is made in separate flowers, afterwards 
 connected by " brides " or applied on net. Of the hiller 
 kind are Brussels, Honiton, and guipure de Bruges. The 
 best Brussels lace is made of wonderfully fine thread, the 
 flax for which is grown in Brabant and steeped at Courtrai, 
 the I,ys water beiug very clear. This thread is spun in 
 cellars, since contact with dry air causes it to break : a ray 
 of light is thrown on it, but the spinner is guided chiefly 
 bj- touch, and stops her wheel when she feels the slightest 
 unevenness. The number <.f expert spinners being small, 
 and their work tedious and unhealthy, real Brussels thread 
 is very expensive, costing from 20.000 to 50.000 francs per 
 pound. Machine-made thread is therefore generally used, 
 tint it has never attained the fineness of that spun by hand. 
 The most costly Brussels lace has a fine needle-marle ground, 
 called jifi'it if 'I'nir/iiHlc, rarely used exce])t for royal trous- 
 seaux ; the pillow-made ground, though much less expen- 
 sive and durable, is also of great value, and is commonly 
 replaced by fine machine net made at Brussels for the pur- 
 pose. The flowers are sometimes worked with the needle, 
 but more frcquentlv on the pillow: a fine " cordonnet " 
 marks the outlines of the pattern, which is formed with a 
 variety of beautiful "modes." A piece of Brussels lace 
 passes through seven different bauds, each worker having 
 her own department, and knowing nothing of the intended 
 effect, which is decided by the head of the establishment. 
 Laee-making is taught in schools, of which there are over 
 000 through Belgium, many being attached to convents. 
 Brussels flowers coming soiled from the lacemakcrs' hands 
 arc too often prepared for sale by means of white le;id: 
 this process, besides being injurious to health, renders the 
 l.aco liable to turn black on exposure to heat or sea-air. in 
 which case it can never be cleaned. Iloniton, the most 
 valuable English lace, is made along the Devonshire sea- 
 coast. The flowers, now generally copied from nature, are 
 of fine woven or cloth-stitch, a thicker thread marking the 
 outlines. Thev are either" applied" on net or connected 
 by "brides," which, like the pattern, arc worked on the 
 pillow; needle-stitches are occasionally introduced. Gui- 
 pure de Bruges, sometimes called " duchesse " lace, resem- 
 bles Iloniton, its sprigs being united by "brides." 
 
 Of the manv laces made in one piece on the pillow, \ a- 
 lenciennes is the most esteemed. Before the French Rev-
 
 LACE-BARK TREE-LACHAMBEAUDIE. 
 
 1599 
 
 olu.ion it was worked c'>-"y,»Vy»^;,tr„^,."'''u ^as ' 
 
 cost sometimes »' ™YLd formi >" both ground and ,mt. 
 tern, and as it ncars ^ „ p^niser pronounces 
 
 in irilh stitches, and was very penshaWe, as llu- vellum was 
 Lff" ed h dan, >. Thread guipures, --".M.ng he mod- 
 ern nun;, Maltese, and Russian, were made in Il.ilv a-id 
 Flanders Some speeimens of Russian ace now ,n the 
 Sm^h Kensington 'Museum, arc remarkable for bold and 
 
 '"nund'e"!'"; both black and white, is either worked en- 
 tire Iv on he pillow, like fhantilly. "r has p.llow flowers 
 tirely "" ""' • p, ,^ rhantillv laeo is now made 
 
 X^^^at Bav ux Orammont, in Belgium, produces blaek 
 face an ar-e ,,nantities are manufactured ,n >pain par- 
 "cuiarlv at M.nagro. where l2,(H.n workers are emp oyed. 
 Wh He hhrndc mantillas are worn by Spanish ladies at bull- 
 fi?hs Irish lace comprises ero.-het gn.purc. very fine 
 fait ng farriekmncross, a kind of cut-work, and embroid- 
 Irv Im. m^ehine net, called " Limerick l^ce/' The las^ 
 named variety is suitable for large articles, such as veils and 
 Soinee. Worsted, mohair, and •'yak' ace, used of la o 
 year, 7or dross-trimming, arc made ehielly at Le Puy. 
 ijTcek and Italian peasants work aloe-.ibres •"<" - '-» 
 which ihough pret.l, has the disadvantage .d not wasli- 
 Tn. ,VMnetimes^,owever, it is dyed blacd,, and thus re i- 
 le^ed more useful. A natural lace is furnished by the 
 ];r'«"/,n..,-r,.., a lofty West Indian '--^ «""7'; « 
 flowers and large smooth leaves: its inner bark may, after 
 ™a^eIaf?on "water, be separated into line layers resem- 
 bling n t «"»hl -d silve'r laees. employed for uniforms 
 and eonrt dress, arc made either of very fine wire or si k 
 covererwith afine flat thread of «'>1;1"'^"V"'.' "wldh 
 M chinery is now S-orally used in the inanufad,,. which 
 is carried on in I.on.lon, Belgium, I aly and Frame 
 
 The first machine net, made at Nottingham about ,«n 
 anon t le ordinarv stocking-frame, was a looped fabric, 
 Xen with a single thread, and resembling an open knit- 
 "^g bo"h in appearance and liability to nivel. Improve- 
 ments in its nmnufacturo were introdneed by Hammond. 
 Robert Frost, Flint, and others, but the object of iiiventors- 
 "atel, animi.ation of the tirin '"ree -d --side, meshe, 
 „f nil ow-work-was not attained until 1S( I, wh.ii lentn 
 cf/a t "long watching a woman at her pillow, and eare- 
 
 llV iin^avelling some pieces of pillow '"-■""";;;;';: 
 
 to liiake twist bobbinet. l.-^ee Nr.Ts.) I,aee pa terns are 
 
 ior d in bobbinet either in a frame by hand, like I.i.ner- 
 
 ck lace, or by an adaptation of the .Iae,,u,.r, apparatus to 
 
 ho n "maehfne. Wllen the ""^^'Yl^^T'^^Zn:^. 
 si.sts of separate sprigs, »•"!>. or dots, the tek pa ter,, 
 thread (called" gimp "j is earned fr"". -n - b^ o -r^ 
 and afterwards cut away by ehildren. Net who li nas men 
 ?or« in tTio working 8 eonfided to laee-menders, who 
 
 ; . V r place the damaged meshes. In No'-^'-";:;';^ 
 chief ieaL.f the English mnehiue-laee trade, in .sfi there 
 
 verc 2^0 lace manufacturers, employing -;-;';'"'f "jj; 
 endnecrs, laeo-dressers. sinreh-makers. designer , a..d 
 drnu"h" men! besides mfiW female operatives. Phe nm- 
 rtraugnismiu.i'ii Tisflni)- the wages and profits 
 
 terials used cost about il.i l.i.oo". mi^ ""^ i 
 
 came to £3,115,000, and the net returns to about t,'..UO.OO0. 
 
 English machine-nel was formerly smuggled into France. 
 but the French now eicel in the liner kinds, and show spe- 
 cial taste in their patterns. Their principal lace-inakirg 
 towns are Calais, Camhrai. l-yons, »-t. Omer. Lillc M. 
 Ouentin. and Caen. Embroidery on machine-net is done 
 in Paris. Every kind of piMowdace is imitated Ijy nui- 
 ehinerv, and so "aceuratelv as to deceive a superficial or 
 ignorant observer. But in this, as in all work, that done 
 by hand, even though faulty, has a cJrrrocf,,- which no 
 niachine can sujiply ; and the very evenness and flatness of 
 "imitation "lace make it of little value from an artistie 
 
 point of view. ■ m \ . 
 
 .1 Peguin's new work, already cited, contains fifty brau- 
 tifui photographs of oi.lan.l mo.lern hand made lace. //.«- 
 (orvoV r.uc; F. Burv Palliser (London. M^C,-,. 8vo) ; Ik^,./,:, 
 for lnrr-mal:l,,g, Mrs. Hailstone (187(1. fob): V. Touche, 
 Thr II.n„lhn„k of /'■>!:'! Luce (1871); Gmpu,;- d Art, 
 Madame (ioubaud (ISTO). Janet Titkf.v. 
 
 > Laco-Bark Tree, the Lay,-Ua Hutearta «. large tree 
 of the order ThTmelaeca>, growing in the \\ est In.Ues. 
 Its white inner bark, after maceration in fre.-h water, is 
 stretched out into a material curiously resembling coarse 
 lace. 
 
 Laceda-mon. See L.vconh and Spauta. 
 I,accdo'gna[Lat. .4 ,,,„7o"m], town of Southern Italy, 
 in the province of Avelliuo. This town is beautifully sit- 
 uated, and is of much historical interest. Like so many 
 "rher places in Italy, it.s neighborhood abounds i„ Roman 
 antiquities. The cathedral was originally a temple of (ob- 
 tor and Pollux. Pop. in lH7t. Ili:!2. 
 
 Lac^-D^de, de (liKRXAitn CrmiAiN Ktiknne m i.a 
 V,M K stMr.iu'os,, CoiNT, b. at Agcn Dec. 26, 175fi : early 
 showed great fondness for music and for physics and nat- 
 ural seicMice; went to Paris in 177f. under the patronage of 
 Buffon and the musician filuek ; became sub-demon trator 
 in the Royal Cabinet 1780; member of 'be Institute and 
 nrofcssor of herpetology at the Museum of Natural His- 
 tory 17% : president of the senate 1801 ; was grand ehaii- 
 cJL of the Legion ..f Honor Jsn.-M ; re.eii ere.l the 
 chamber of peers in 1819 : d at Kj.inay Oct. fi. 18 >o. H 
 earlier works on science and mus.e are unimportant ; bis 
 beat works are m.to/re „a,„r,ll. de, <,un,lrupr,h, onjKirc. 
 f, ,lr^ ,crDr,il-, (1788). //;»»'.<■" nnturclh da, reptde, (1.^J|, 
 ^tVrc L";,„.«c ,L poU.o,„ (1798-1803), Uistoire uatu- 
 relle dm cdiieft (1804). 
 
 I.a'cewillO, post-v. of Braintrim tp.. Wyoming Co., 
 Pa on the E. branch of the Susquehanna River and on 
 the'Lehigh Valley R. R., 2H miles N. W. of lunkhannock. 
 I.achaise' (FnAsro.s n'A.x). b. Aug. 25, 11124 at the 
 Ch-iteau of Aix, France. He was grand-nephew <-nhe cele- 
 brated Father Colon, confessor of Eouis \ 11. an,l of Henry 
 IV afterthe latter's abjuration. Laehaise ha.l tlurelore rap- 
 idly risen to be " provincial '•-that is, a ^^^ ^^'^'''^^ ^^ 
 he .Tcsuitical order. In 1H7.'. he became confessor of Louis 
 XIV.. tolerated the many mistresses of this king was con- 
 ce , ei in the Revocation of the Edict of N"" -• >-; ° 
 persecution of Protestantism, and of F/nelon and oth.r 
 iberal .relates of the (iallicaii Church. Louis X H . enused 
 o be built f..r Father Laehaise a splendid mansion ,n one 
 : o the eastern suburbs of Paris. In 1 <(V1 the grounds were 
 chosen as a fit place for the largest eemeter.v of ''-r'^- »■ 1, eh 
 is known as the •' Cimetifre duPire Laehaise. D...in. 
 1 20 170'! He wrote in Latin a book on philosophy, le,,- 
 
 ^:Z,2r,.i;. i, J.r.,,i'. being an ^^^^^^ "^ ^^^^^^'^ 
 lectures, and some academical essays. I'tLix AiCAioNt.. 
 
 ' I.afhambraiidie' (PikuueI. b. at Sarlat, department 
 of lordogne. in 180C,. would have not been much known if 
 he Kid not been mixed up. though in a quite sccondaiy de- 
 cree with revolutionary movements iii Iranec, and if h,s 
 falls 1 ad not reflected some of the .s,.eial,s le ideas eur- 
 re t inis:;0 and 1818. Lachamb.audie only received a 
 „rin.V instruction; he joined the St. Simonians, and 
 
 lo, Is to their chief, M. Eufnnlin, he was able to publish 
 "/;,/.!'/•:.';': ^ 18.^9. Though very lil.er«l in their 
 
 eaehi. gs. their m.iralily was so appropriate and so ,„..u,l 
 
 bat 1.V received the annual pri^e of the French Academy. 
 I8IS during the Uevolulion. and at the time of lie 
 ,.',„„ d-ftni (d- Dee.. 18.-,1. Lachambeaudie assoc.ated with 
 Esouiros. Illanqui. and other ultra radicals. In .lune. MS 
 at-t?. the insuraction of .Tune, he was released H'rough the 
 enorls ofB.-ranger; and in 18,',1 l,c was prevented from 
 being transporte.1 to Cayenne, thanks to the duke of Per- 
 
 T;"v, who'had been twenty years ago his rnend and o^ 
 writer for ft poetical review then published (IS 9) in tno 
 
 depart"-"' "' '■"■'"■■ '""•'">■"'"■";•■'''■ '^"rv"'o 18 sTnd 
 eeieration under Louis Philippe, the republic of I»18. ""1 
 f,„. uipirc. what B^ranger had been for Fre.Kdimen^n.^^^^ 
 the Restoration.
 
 IGOO 
 
 L ACH ES— LACLEDE. 
 
 Lach'es [Old Fr. McAt-Mc, from Fr. /(icXc, " negligence ;'* 
 Lat. la^us^ '• loose," " lax "], a term employed in law to de- 
 note negligence, remi;ssae^8, or UDreasunablo delnj in en- 
 forcing or attempting to enforce a legal ur equitable right or 
 claim. It is most commonly used with reference to claims 
 arising in a court of equity which are not affected by an ex- 
 
 ?ress statute of limitations. (See Limitatioss, Stati'Ti; of.) 
 t is a rule of equity not to encourage stale demands or give 
 relief to parties who sleep upon their rights. A clnim must 
 bo us.-icrted with reasonable diligence, in order that the in- 
 terests of other parties may not be unduly prejudiced by the 
 diffioulty of procuring the necessary evidence nfter a long 
 interval has elapsed. In the case of legal titles and leiral 
 dfinands, however, courts of equity usually act in obedience 
 to the statute of limitations, in conformity with the prac- 
 tice of courts of law. In some States, also, there arc 
 special statutes of limitations applying to equitable causes 
 of action. But where this is not the ca^e, and a demand 
 is striotly of nn equitable character, the statute of liuiita- 
 tions applying to legal actions is not an absolute bar in 
 equity as at law, though it is frequently followed in analo- 
 gous cases. But where the analogies of the law do not ap- 
 ply, a court of equity is governed by its own inherent doc- 
 trine of discountenancing stale demands. What shall be 
 deemed an unreasonable delay is not determined by any 
 precise and definite rule, but must depend upon the cir- 
 cumstances of each particular case. A long delay which 
 would ordinarily be deemed laches may be excused when a 
 party is in ignorance of his rights, without any fault or re- 
 missness on his part: when a transaction is involved in 
 obscurity, so that information in regard to it cannot be ob- 
 tained ; when he was under duress or undue influence which 
 prevented him from asserting his rights; or where he labors 
 under a legal disability, as insanity, coverture, infancy, and 
 the like. Poverty or pecuniary embarrnssmeut, however, is 
 not a sufficient excuse for delay. (See Kerr on Fraud and 
 MUf'd-e, pp. :i0.'i-.312, Am. ed.) 
 
 (teorge Chase. Reviseb by T. W. Dwight. 
 
 Lach'esis [(ir., the name of one of the Fates], the Cran- 
 pcdnrejihaluH Lnchen'iH or Lachesis mutus, one of the most 
 dreaded of the venomous serpents of tropical America, 
 called bushmastcr, curucucu, and couanacouchi. It has 
 been known to exceed twenty feet in length, is partly ar- 
 boreal in its habits, and often attacks man with the greatest 
 fury. Its poison is very deadly, and when greati}' diluted 
 constitutes a favorite remedy with homocopathists. 
 
 Lachine' [Fr. for " China," so named by the early ex- 
 
 ?lorers, who hoped to reach China by passing up the St. 
 ,awrencej, a v. of Jacques Cartier co., Quebec, Canada, on 
 Montreal Island. A ship-canal S\ miles long extends from 
 Machine to Montreal harltor, and surmounts the Lachinc 
 Rapids. It is connected by rail with ]\Iontreal,9 miles dis- 
 tant, and by steam-ferry with Caughnawaga across the 
 river. It is a thriving place. Pop. IGKfi. 
 
 La'chish, a city in Southern Palestine, among the 
 mountains separating the territory of Judah from the She- 
 phcluh, or plain of the Philistines. It was an almost im- 
 pregnable hill-fortress, as its name probably signified, but 
 was taken and partially destroyed by Joshua and fortified 
 by Uohoboam. It resisted for a long time the assaults of 
 the Assyrian army under Sennacherib, and the biblical ac- 
 counts afford no indication that it was taken ; but auKmg 
 the cuneiform inscriptions discoverccl by Layard at Kou- 
 yunjik several were carved on large slabs representing the 
 siege and capture of Lnkhlfthn, giving a ground-plan of 
 the fortress, and a picture of a procession of Jewish cap- 
 tives from the same place appearing before Sennacherib. 
 Tliis interesting discovery has given rise to much discus- 
 sinii. I,achish was afterwards taken by XeVtuchadnezzar at 
 the dnwafall of the kingdom of .Tudah. Its rnins have been 
 id -ntified by Raumer, Van dc Velde. and Thomson with 
 the modern village Vm-LakiH, on a round knoll covered 
 with heaps of stones, on the left of the road between Gaza 
 and Hebron. Other geographers, however, question the 
 correctness of this idcntilieation. 
 
 Lach'lailf a river of East Australia, rises in Xew South 
 Wales joins the Murrumhidgce in ^i° .10' S. lat. and 14-1° 
 10' E. Inn., and after 400 miles enters the Murray. 
 
 Lach'mann (Karl). D. D., LL.D., h. at Brunswick, 
 Germany. Mar. 4, 170.1; studied at the universities of Lcip- 
 sic and Gottingen; founded at the latter a philological 
 society in union with Bunsen and Schulzo ; entered the 
 army as a volunteer in 1S1;J, and served in the Waterloo 
 ciimpaign : became professor extraordinarv at Kiinigsberg 
 in ISIS and at Berlin in Is20; ordinary professor in 1828, 
 nnd member of the Academy of Sciences in 18;tfl, remain- 
 ing at Berlin until his death, Mar. 1.1, 18.>1. His life was 
 chiefly devoted to the preparation of critical editions of the 
 classics, of the New Testament, and of the masterpieces of 
 early German literature. lie published an eseny On the 
 
 primitive Form nf the Poem nf the XilirltnttfCn Koth (1816), 
 translations of Shakspeare's Sninifts and Macbeth (1820\ 
 critical editions of the yifnlnnf/cufifd (182(i), Walter ron 
 der Vo(/ehceide (1827). Ctttutdnt, Tifmlhi/i, and Pmpcrtiiis 
 ( 1829), ]r*.//nfm von Eacheub'nh (18;io). Vlrivh von Lichten- 
 titein (1841*), Caina (1841), liubriun uud Arimiun (1S4.'>), 
 Studies on the Hind (1847). LucretiuH (I8j0), and edited 
 Lcssing'e com]>lete works (13 vols., 1838-40), besides nu- 
 merous studies upon classical and early German philology 
 and literature. His great work, however, was his edition 
 of the (Jreek text of the New Testament (18.11), the first 
 which had any pretensions to be called critical, and wliich 
 is not yet entirely superseded by the labors of Tischcndorf. 
 His readings were taken from a limited number of the 
 earliest codices, from the citations of Origen. Irena'us. Cyp- 
 rian, and the earliest Fathers, from the friigmentg of the 
 Latin versions previous to the Vulgate text, which was re- 
 printed at the foot of the page. (See hie Biography, by 
 Hcrz. Berlin, 1851.) 
 
 Lach'rymiP Chris'ti [Eat.. " Chrir^fs tears "], a sweet 
 but very spirited wine of the group called muscatel, has a 
 fine bouquet, is produced chiefly upon Monte Somraa. near 
 Naples, in Italy. It is white (sometimes red), and of me- 
 dium alcoholic strength. Large quantities of wine from the 
 Levant and Southern Italy are soM as Lachrymm Christi. 
 
 Lach'rymal Gland, or^Tear Gland, the organ in 
 man and other animals which jtroduces tears. In man it 
 is of the shape and size of an almond, and is found above 
 the outer angle of the eye. Its secretion is discharged by 
 some seven duets into the space between the eyeball and the 
 lid. At the inner angle of the eye may he seen two snmll 
 apertures through which the supply of lachrymal secretion 
 is taken up by the lachrymal cnnals. passed into the lachry- 
 mal sac. and thence, through the nasal duct, into the nose. 
 
 Lach'rymatory [Lat. tafri/mn. a " tear"], a popular 
 name fnr the supposed " tear-bottles " of the ancients, small 
 glass or earthen vessels found in ancient Greek and Roman 
 tombs. That they ever really contained the tears of mourn- 
 ing friends is probably fabulous. 
 
 Lack, tp. of Juniata co., Pa. Pop. 1290. 
 
 Lackauan'na, or Lackawannock, a small river 
 in Pennsylvania, rises in Susquehanna co., near the N. E. 
 corner of the State, flows S. W, through Luzerne co., and 
 enters the Susquehanna River at Pittstou. its lower course 
 for .10 miles passes through the larj^est and most abundant 
 anthracite coal-basin in America, to which it gives name. 
 though it is sometimes called the Wyominj: basin. The 
 chief emporium of this basin is Scranton. formerly called 
 Lackawanna. A large portion of the anthracite coal nsed 
 in New York City and in the New England States is fur- 
 nished by this coalfield, which has an area of 108 square 
 miles, and a thickness of from 5 to 14 feet at a depth vary- 
 ing from 100 to 400 feet beneath the surface. The.annual 
 production, including the Wyoming Valley as n part ol the 
 same field, is over 10.000.000 tons, and furnishes constant 
 freight to several railways, with very numerous branch 
 lines. Next to Scranton. Wilkesbarre, Pittston, and Car- 
 bondale are the chief seats of the mining industry. 
 
 Larkawanna, post-v, and tp. of Luzerne co., Pa.. 3 
 miles S. W. of Hyde Park. Pop. .5i;i3, 
 
 Larkawan'nock, former tji. of ^ferccr co., Pa., now 
 called West Laekawannock. Poji. 1070. 
 
 Lackawax'en, post-v. and tp. of Pike co., Pa., on the 
 Erie R. R.. at the junction of the Honrsdale branch, and 
 at the confluence of the Lackawanna River with the Dela- 
 ware, here crossed by railroad and canal, the latter being 
 carried over by a suspension aqueduct. Pop. 17;'f7. 
 
 Laclede' (formerly Kinderhook), county of S. W. Cen- 
 tral Missouri. Area, about 690 squnre miles. It is a rough, 
 broken region, with fertile valleys and deposits of iron and 
 lead. It is traversed by the Atlantic and Pacific R. R. 
 Tobacco, cattle, and grain are leading products. Cap. 
 Lebanon. Pop. 9380. 
 
 Laclede, post-v. and tp. of Fayette co.. III., on the 
 Illinois Central R. R.. 34 miles N. E. of Centralia. Pop. 
 of V. 1;.9: of Ip. 1242. 
 
 Laclede, post-v. of Linn co.. Mo., at the junction of 
 the Hannibal and St. Josopli and tlio Uurlington and South- 
 western R. Rs., 97 miles E. of St. Jo.-^cph. has 2 churches, 
 3 hotels, 1 flouring-mill, a fine brick school-house, 1 weelily 
 newspaper, and 20 stores, is surrounded by a rich farming 
 eouniry. and ships large quantities of grain. Coal is abun- 
 dant in the vicinity. Pop. about 1000. 
 
 W. J. Porter, for En. "LAci.EnE Reitblicak." 
 
 Ijacl&de (Pierre Ligteste). the foumler of St. Louis, 
 Mo., a native of France, was in 1762 a resident of New 
 Orleans, when he established the Louisiana Fur Company 
 under a charter from the director-general of the colony,
 
 LACMUS— LA CROSSE. 
 
 1601 
 
 f^ivinf^ it the exclusive right of trading with the Indiana on 
 the Missouri. The pioneers under his direction made the 
 first setllement un the site of St. Louit* Feb. \o. IT'il, erect- 
 ing a largo house and four storeri, and named the place in 
 honor of L'»uis XV., then king of France. 
 
 Lacmiis. .Sec Litmls. 
 
 La'con, po>-t-v. and tp.. cap. of Marshall co.. III., on tho 
 Illinois Kiver :ind a branch of the Chicago and .St. Louis 
 K. K., I.IO miles .S. W. of Chicago, has 7 churches, 1 bank, 
 1 weekly newspaper, a court-house and jail, a sliawl-niill. 
 3 flouriug-niitis, a distiller}*, and several hotel?, store?, and 
 Fhops. Large quantities of grain arc .-^hipped from this 
 place. Pop. of V, 2105: of tp. LM4H. 
 
 ."^rKXCEU ElLSWOHTII. Ei>. " HoMK JnCRNAL,*' 
 
 Laco'na, po?t-v. of Sandy Creek tp., O.^wegoco., X. Y., 
 near Lake Ontario, is the N. terminus of the Syracuse 
 Northern U, K., and is oa the Rome Watcrtowu and Og- 
 dcnsburg K. K. 
 
 Laco'nia^ or LaccdiPmoiif the southernmost division 
 of the ancient Peloponnesus, was boun<led W. by .Messenia, 
 N. by Arcadia and Argolip. and E. and S. by the Argolinn 
 Gulf, the Myrtoan Sea, tho Laconian and Messeniau (lulfs. 
 To the S. it ended in the two promontories of T:euarus and 
 Malea, the present Cape Matapan and Cape Malio. To tho 
 Laconian Gulf flowed the Eurotns. on whose banks was 
 tho capital of Laconia, Sparta {which see). 
 
 Lacouia, post-v. and tp., cap. of Belknap co., N. 11. 
 (partly in Gilford tp.), 28 miles N. of Concord and 102 
 N. of IJoston, upon the Winnipiseogee Itiver, between the 
 lake of that name ami Grand Cay, and on the Boston Con- 
 cord and Montreal R. R., is a flourishing manufiicturing 
 village, having 7 hosiery-mills, 1 flannel-mill, an extensive 
 car manufactory, 1 weekly newspaper, 6 churches, 2 hotels, 
 .1 banks, numerous stores, and various minor industries. 
 The views of lake and mountains are picturesque. Pop. of 
 tp. 2:iO'j. 0. A. J. Vai GRAN, Ed. "DrMomAT." 
 
 liaconlaire' ( Jeam Bai-tiste Henri), b. May 12, 1S02, 
 at Uecey-sur-Ourco, in the department of Cote d'Or; stud- 
 ied law at Dijon, and went in 1821 to Paris, where a bril- 
 liant career seemed to open for him as an advocate. But 
 suddenly he entered the seminary of St. Sulpiee; was or- 
 diiined a priest in IS27 ; became preaclicr at the ColK'go do 
 Henri IV. in ls;iO; and founded tho journal L'Arcnir in 
 connection with Lamcnnais and Montalembert. His stand- 
 point was a most singular combination of ultmmontanism 
 in religion and radicalism in politics, and the tone of Wxa 
 sermons and articK'S was extremely violfiit. Summoned 
 before the civil court, ho was acquitted, but when tho popo 
 in 1832 denounced his ideas, he immediately retracted and 
 submitted. In Is.'JS he began his celebrated cm/rrenctH in 
 Nutre Oame, which drew immense audiences, and in 1812 
 he onleretl the order of the Dominicans. In 184H ho was a 
 member of tho Constituent Assembly, though without exer- 
 cising any influence, and after 1853 — in which year he was 
 orclered to leave Paris on account of one of his ultramon- 
 tane-radical sermons — ho lived in retirement at Korfizo, 
 where ho d. Xtiv. 22, IStil. Besides his C»jii/4rence€ tin 
 Xtitre Dame ilc l\iri% {\ volfl., 1 8 1-1-5 1), he wrote Vie de 
 St. Dominiifun (1810; new ed. 1858), Leftrm it un Jenne 
 i/itmmtt ( I85M), iJiscoum mir le Droit et le Omtir dp la Pro- 
 ju'ifif (1858), etc. — His brother, Jean TiihionoRE, b. at 
 Recoy-8ur-Oureo Feb. 1, 1801 ; studied law at Dijon ; after- 
 wards dr-TOterl himF^elf to natural science; ma<le four voy- 
 a:;efl to South America between 1825 and 1 8;i2, exploring 
 Bra7.il, tho Argentine Uepublie. and Chili: travelled in 
 Senegal ; became cilitor of tho Trmp^ (18.'12), in 18.15 pro- 
 fessor of loology. and in 1838 of comparative anatomy in 
 the Tniversily of Lii'-ge, Belgium; \Trote several valuable 
 works on natural history and entomology, and d. at Li^'^go 
 An:;. :il, 1870. 
 
 Lac'qiier [from Lap (which sec)], a varni>*h, transpa- 
 rent or coIorc<l, for covering wood, papier-maeb/', U-atber, 
 or metal. It is of many kinds. In most of them lac is an 
 im]>ortant ingredient. Annofto and <lragon*s blood give red 
 tints, nnd gamboge, aloes, etc., yellow. Larqucrs, well ma<le 
 nnd I'kilfully npplied, will take a high polish and withslnn'l 
 lH»t aii'l etdd water, and even alcohol. The Jnpancso and 
 ChiiieHo excel in the art. 
 
 \tt\v qui Parle, ennnty of Minnesota, boiin<led W. by 
 Dakota and N. K. by Minnesota River. It is traversed by 
 LiK? i(ui Parle iind numerous other streamn, und is adiiplfd 
 to grain-culture. Cap. Lac qui Parle. Pop. 1-15; it has 
 greatly increased since the census. 
 
 Lac i\\\\ Parle, post-v. and tp., cap, of Lac qui Pnrlo 
 CO., .Minn., on the N. side of the Infpab or Lac f|ui Parle 
 River, about 2 miles above its confluence with lh<' Minne- 
 sota. The first house was built in 1870; it now (1875) has 
 a newspaper and all the usual necompaninn-nls of a grow- 
 ing town. It is on tho line of the projected Hastings and 
 Vor. 11. -111! 
 
 Dakota R. R.. miilway between the St. Paul and Pacific 
 R. R. on the N., and the Winona and St. Peter on the S. 
 It has a large school, 1 hotel, and 1 weekly newspaper. 
 Pop. of tp. 307. C. J. Co«HLAN, El>. " PUFSS." 
 
 La Crescent', post-v. and tp. of Houston cc, Minn., 
 on the Mississippi River, opposite La Crosse, Wis. It is 
 the E. terminus of the Southern Minnesota R. R. Pop. 
 
 of V. 380; of tp. yr.i. 
 
 Lacretelle' (PieuhPv Louis), b. at Mctz in 1751 ; prac- 
 tised law, first ut Nancy, and then, from 1778. at Paris, 
 where he lived in intimate connection with Malesherbes 
 and Laharpc. Uncler the Revolution took part, though 
 with great moderation and cautiousness, in all the jirinci- 
 pal political movements, but after ISOI lived in retirement. 
 I'nderthe Restoration belonged to the opposition, and his 
 Mrrriirr d'- Frattrc nnd Minerrr Fi'nnrfn'n, published in con- 
 nection with S»'gur and Benjamin Constant, were succes- 
 sively suppressed. I). Sept. 5, 1S24. Besides a number of 
 juridical and political works, he wrote Pfn-fraitu rt Ta^ 
 fdraxr, Etudes eur ht lirtofuti'ni Fraiiraiitf. and MrASfn'r^ea 
 <y MahfhrrhrH, which arc of great interest to the student 
 of the history of that period. 
 
 Lacretelle, de (Jean CiiAni.Es DoHiNigrE), b. at 
 Metz, France. Sept. 3, 17ti6: studied at the College of 
 Nancy: was admitted to tho bar at the age of eighteen; 
 wrote at Nancy a tragedy and several academic essays ; 
 went to Paris in 1787 ; assisted his brother Pierre in writ- 
 ing for the Enryrlnpfdic MMhoditjuf ; became an editor of 
 the .J>>urn(if den Dflmtn. fur which ho reptn-ted the sessions 
 of tho National Assembly; became in 17iMI secretary to tlio 
 due de Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, with whom he was ns- 
 aociat<'<l in the project of favoring tho king's escope ; made 
 himself popular ns an advocate of the constitution at tho 
 Club des Feuillants ; wrote the most extensively circulated 
 account of the execution of Louis XVT. ; was associated 
 with .Aiidrr- Chrnicr in editing the Jnuniaf dr Pnriti ; ex- 
 erted himself in speeches and with the pen to save tho 
 Girondins from the popular wrath ; was accused of being a 
 royalist, arrested after a long residence at Kpinay, and kept 
 in prison two years (1797-09); became ]trofeseor of history 
 in Paris 18011, imperial censor 1810, was admitted to tho 
 Academy in I8II, nnd ennobled by Louis XVIII. in 1S22. 
 Ho remained professor of history for thirty-six years, and 
 wrote eight valuable histories, covering all the period from 
 tlio outbreak of the Revolution to 184C, and several earlier 
 periods. D. at M^lcou Mar. 2fi, 1855. 
 
 La Croix, tp. of Emmet co., Mich., on Lake Michigan. 
 Pop. oo;;. 
 
 Lacroix' (Paitl). b. at Paris. France. Feb. 27. 180(^; 
 was educated at the ColK-ge Bourbon, and has written, un- 
 der the pseudonym of ** Le bibliophile Jacob," a vast num- 
 ber of ronnuu'es and works of curious learning about the 
 books, the history, manners, and custoiris of the Middle 
 Ages ; distinguished himself by his efVorts to improve 
 tho Biblioth^'|uo du Uol ; was apjiointed in 1855 conserva- 
 tour of tho .Arsenal Library, and has edited since 1851 the 
 Jlerue Unirerinlle des Arta. His best works are probably 
 tho Arts (in moifiu /J;/e rt (1 r/p'itptr tie la liennissauce { ISHSI, 
 Mfpurs, umnftH ft rOHtnmiH tui mnyin rf'/c, etc., with 4-1 1 phltcS 
 (1871). and /-*( riv mi/itotn- rt fa vir refii/ieime nu vioi/cn 
 bffr (1872). which have all been tran.'-luled into English. — 
 liis wife, Ai'oi.iJNK Bii-'KK. has written some popular novels : 
 and his brother, Jn.fs. b. in Paris May 7. iNO'.i. has had 
 success as a writer of dramas and as u trnnslutor, imitator, 
 and critic of Sbakspeare. His (Kdi/ni» /ur. a translation 
 from Sophocles, was succfssfully produced on tho stage in 
 1858, and received in 18G2 from llic French Academy a 
 grand prix of 10,000 francs. 
 
 Lacroix (Siivksthk Francois), b. nt Paris in 1765; 
 
 becnuH' professor of nialheunities nt the nmrino schitol of 
 
 Boeh<forl in 1782, held^subsecincntly the same nosition at 
 
 the normal school, the Keolo I'olytechnique. Sorlmnne, and 
 
 ! ('(db'ge de France, and d. at Paris May 25, 1843. |i;» 
 
 I noble cbaractor. instructive lectures, and very useful hand- 
 
 I bonks, bcsifles Trnite du Cutiul di(f/rrutir{ rf iufr;fral, made 
 
 him (juite a popular man, ami on tho re-eslablislimcnt of 
 
 the Academy under XapoIe(ui he was one of the very few 
 
 of the i>riginal members living. 
 
 La CroNMC, the "national sport" of Cnnadn, a field- 
 game of Indian origin. The players have a misxr — a hick- 
 ory rod some six fed long, bent in the shape of a bisliop's 
 pastoral ern»»k ; aerojm the crooked part leather thongs aro 
 stretched in a network. There is a rubber ball some three 
 inches in diameter. Tho object of each of the two par- 
 ties in the game is to send the ball over the goal of Iho 
 other party. Tho ball in not thrown, but carricl on the 
 rrits^r. It may. if necessary, be thrown froni one plnycr 
 to another, but is not to he touched by the band. 
 
 IjO Crosse, county in the W. of Wisoonsin, bounded
 
 1G02 
 
 LA CROSSE— LA CYGNE. 
 
 on the "W. by the Mississippi River. Area, 450 square 
 miles. It is tltversified, generally fertile, and i? traversed 
 by the Milwaukee and St. Paul K. H. (La Crosse division). 
 Cattle, grain, and wool arc leading products, t'ap. La 
 Crosse. Pop. 20,297. 
 
 La Crosse, post-v. of Izard co.. Ark., 30 miles N. \V. 
 of Batc.-iville, has one weekly newspaper. 
 
 La Crosse, city and cap. of La Crosse co., Wis., 100 
 miles W. of Milwaukee, is finely located on the E. bank "(' 
 the Mississippi, at the mouth of the Black River from llio 
 N. and the La Crosse River from the K.. the former trib- 
 utary having an annual lumber product of 260,000,000 feet, 
 and the latter draining one of the finest farming valleys of 
 the State. Opposite in Minnesota is the Root River Valley, 
 a brge and rich agricultural section, which is pierced for 
 200 miles by the Southern Minnesota K. R.. of which La 
 Crosse is the cistern terminus. The main commercial sup- 
 ])ort of La Crosse is derived from the Black River lumber 
 and wholesale trade with Southern Minnesota. The Chi- 
 c^igo Milwaukee and St. Paul and the Chicago Dubuque and 
 Minnesota R. Us. connect with the East, North, and South. 
 La Crosse has L'l church buildings (worth §300,000), 3 
 banks. 2 daily, a weekly (1 German and I Norwegian), and 
 3 monthly newspaper.^. 3 school-buildings worth $15,000 
 each, and 4 others of wood, a library association with 
 2.3011 voltimes, a fine court-house {cost $40,000), where the 
 U. S. courts for the western district of Wisconsin meet 
 twice ayear, an opera-house, acustom-house with the largest 
 registry of tonnage between St. Louis and St. Paul. steam ' 
 saw-mills, 2 steam flouring-mills. an extensive machine- ' 
 shop {cost SfiO.OOd) and several smaller ones, ■> agricultural 
 implcnont factories, the largest yard above St. Louis for 
 building steamboats, j large breweries, and 20 wholesale 
 firms. The assessed valuation is §3.000,000. Pop. in ]870, 
 77Soj by State census of iS7o, 11.012. 
 
 E. B. Usher, Ed. " Liberal Democrat." 
 
 Lac Surphuris {milk »/ milphnr), finely divided sul- 
 phur, precipitated by acids from solutions of alkaline and 
 alkaline*earthy persulphides. {See Stlphur.) 
 
 Lactan'tius (FiRMiANrs).one of the Christian Fathers, 
 b. about the middle of the third century, either at Firmum, 
 Italy, or In Africa ; studied rhetoric at Sicca in Proconsular 
 Africa; became a distinguished orator, and one of the most 
 learned men of his time. At the invitation of the emperor 
 Diocletian he settled at Nicomedia as professor of Latin 
 eloquence (301), became a Christian, and having been a 
 witness of the persecutions of the times, wrote his works 
 in defence of tiie new religion. lie was called by the em- 
 peror Constantine to Treves as tutor to his son Crispus, 
 and is supposed to have d. there about 32j. Lactantius 
 was called the "Christian Cicero;" ho wrote an important 
 work, Divinnrum fiiatitutiontim libri VII. , and smaller 
 treatises, iJc Ira D*i and De Opijtrio Ihi, vcl Formatione 
 Hominis. The famous work on the death of persecutors 
 ( Dc Mortibua I'rrnccuti>nim ), attributed in the only existing 
 manuscript to a Lucius Coelius or C:eeilius Lactantius, is 
 now generally thought to belong to a later date, perhaps to 
 another Lactantius, as the best authorities never give those 
 names to Firmianus. The first edition of Lactantius was 
 printed at the monastery of Subiaco in 14(15, being one of 
 the iirst specimens of the typographical art. The best 
 editions are those of ]^e lirun and Lcnglet du Frcsnoy (2 
 vols., 4to, Paris, 174H), and by Fritzsche (Leipsic, 1842-44, 
 2 parts). Two other editions were printed at Rome iu 
 140S and 1470, 
 
 Lac'teals [Lat. lac^ iactis, "milk"], the lymphatic 
 vessels of the small intestine, a part of the general ab- 
 sorbent or lymphatic system, pervading all parts of the 
 body, distinguished as lacteals, since they imbibe from the 
 glandular mucous surface of the pmall intestine, following 
 the ingestion of fatty food, a milky, white, opaque fluid, 
 "the chyle." The chyle is fat digested by the pancreatic 
 and biliary fluids, reduced to an emulsion, molecular par- 
 ticles of fatty matter suspended in an albuminoid liquid. 
 The laoteals take up the chyle, traverse the mesentery, and 
 terminate, by two or throe small trunks, in the thoracic 
 duct, iiero the eliyle mingles with the more watery, opales- 
 cent lymph, and with it passes up to enter the left sub- 
 clavian vein, and becomes a nutritive element of the blood. 
 (See LvMPiiATics.) E. Darwin Hi dson, Jr. 
 
 Lac'lic .\cid [Ger. MUch^llure: Fr. acide hctique^, 
 acid'- tuincaiffnc of Braeonnot : the acid which is formed in 
 milk when it turns sour, and which exists ihercfuro in but- 
 termilk. It is CslIeOs, and is formed from lactose or milk- 
 sugar, as follows : 
 
 Ci^HwOio + 2H2O = 4CsIl603. 
 The souring of milk is not therefore a process of oxidation, 
 but, like the vinous fermentation of sucrose or glucose, a 
 molecular breaking up into simpler molecular structures; 
 
 lactic acid, like alcohol in the other case, being an inter- 
 mediate product of decay or dissolution. Sucrose under- 
 goes the lactic fermentation like lactose, under the influ- 
 ence or impulse of the same special ferments. 
 
 The names of Scheele, Braconnot, Bcrzelius, Liebig. and 
 other great chemists arc associated in the early history of 
 the discovery of lactic acid and the extended controversies 
 that grew out of it. Braconnot found it in sour beer, sour 
 meal, sour beet-juice, fermented rice, and many other places, 
 and, supposing it new, culled it imttf iv ucid, after his birth- 
 place. Nancy. Berzelius appears first to have announced 
 that it occurs as a normal constituent of flesh, deducing im- 
 portant physiologiciil conclusions. Liebig denied its oc- 
 currence in flesh, but afterwards found therein garcnfacfic 
 iiciti, an ispmere or metamere of lactic acid, which Strecker 
 found to be convertible into ordinary lactic acid by heat. 
 Mitscherlich first prepared pure lactic acid by decompos- 
 ing lactate of zinc with sulphuretted hydrogen. A color- 
 less syrupy liquid: deliquescent; docs not freeze at 12'' 
 below zero F. : density = 1.215. It appears strangely like 
 Qhfcrrine, Call803, in its properties, though intensely sour, 
 while the latter is intensely sweet. 
 
 Lactic acid has been produced by many artificial chem- 
 ical transformations: probably the most interesting being 
 that of Lippmaun. who formed it by synthesis, by combin- 
 ing olofiant gas and oxychloride of carbon, which gives 
 parulactifUc cfiforif/e: 
 
 COCI2 + CalU = CsHiCIaO. 
 This, with alkalies, gives salts of paralactic or Liebig's 
 sarcolactic acid, which then, by heat, as aforesaid, will give 
 us the ordinary lactic acid of buttermilk. 
 
 Several methods of manufacture are given. One is to 
 mix 6 pounds of cane-sugar with one half ounce of tar- 
 taric acid {to convert it into glucose), and after forty-eight 
 hours to add 3 pounds of prepared chalk and 4 ounces of 
 roftrn curd, which latter ferments the glucose to lactic 
 acid. Stir the mass daily in a warm jdace {00° F.). In a 
 week or so it becomes a paste of lactate of lime, which is 
 dissolved by boiling in water with some hydrate of lime. 
 The lactate must be evaporated, pressed, washed with cold 
 water, and pressed repeatedly for purification, tlien decom- 
 posed by sulphuric acid. A crude lactic acid thus cheaply 
 prepared might probably be used as a condiment or ingre- 
 dient of food, confectioner}', etc. To get it pure, it is fur- 
 ther converted into zinc lactate, which is then decomposed 
 by sulphuretted hydrogen. Lactic acid has a great solvent 
 power over phnttplntlc of lime, and to this some attribute its 
 known medicinal virtues. 
 
 The lactic fermentation of sugars is referred by Pastrur 
 and others to the action of the common yeast-fungus !\-ii- 
 cif/ium Qf'jucum, as the aU-oholic fermentation to that of 
 Torultr. It is said that filtering common brarer'n i/cu-t 
 through paper will separate it into two portions: that 
 which passes through containing the smaller PeniriUium 
 cells, and therefore inciting lactic fermentation, while the 
 larger cells of Toniht will remain on the filter, which will 
 therefore cause a saccharine liquid to enter into vinous fer- 
 mentation, (See Fermestatio.v.) 
 
 Lnrtateit. — Somc of the salts of lactic acid are used iu 
 medicine. Hexry Wtrtz. 
 
 Lactin and Lactose, f^e Mii-K-srcAU. 
 
 Lactom'eter [Lat. h^c, " milk," and Or. MfTpo*-, " mea- 
 sure"], a graduated cylinder for roughly estimating iho 
 amount of cream in milk. The term is often applied to the 
 f/(^^/crome^■/■, which is a hydrometer for showing the specific 
 gravity of milk. (,Seo Mir.K.) 
 
 Lactuca'rium [Lat. lactnra, "lettuce"], a drug con- 
 sisting of the dried milky juice froni the mature stem of 
 difl'erent species of Lrtctur.u or lettuce. It is in reddish- 
 hrciwn lumps, masses, or cakes, of an oj>ium-like smell and 
 bitter taste. It was introduced intu medicine in 1700 as 
 having the property of allaying pain and procuring sleep, 
 like opium, but its powers are exceedingly feeble, and it 
 cannot be relied upon. Edward Cimitis. 
 
 Lacustrine Villaf^cs, or Lake Dwellings. Sec 
 Pai.epits and Prehistoric Max. 
 
 La'cy {Li'is), b. in San Rnque. Spain, in 1772; distin- 
 guished himself in the war of independence against Napo- 
 leon, in which he was one of the earliest leaders, with the 
 rank of lieutenant-general. On the establishment of ab- 
 solutism by Ferdinand VII.. Lacy was at the head of a con- 
 spiracy for the restoration of the constitution, which was 
 to have broken out Apr. a, lfjl7. in Catalonia, but the plot 
 having become known, he was seized, tried by court-martial, 
 and condemned to death, the sentence being secretly pro- 
 nounced and executed at the castle of Bellver, Mnjorca, 
 some time in the same month. 
 
 La Cygnc, post-village of Linn co.. Kan.» on the Mis- 
 souri River Fort Scott and Gulf R. R., 63 miles S. of Kan-
 
 LA D A K H— L A DRON ES. 
 
 1603 
 
 SIS City, bas n fioe public scboo!. 3 churches, 2 banks, 2 i 
 hotels, 1 weekly nL•w^[Japer, and su]H'rior water-power, ' 
 making it a de^i^a^_^le locution ibr luanufiictures. There 
 are 4 lodges, 1 grange society, a puljlic library, and a num- 
 ber of croecry, hardware, and drug stores. Town-site wa« 
 laid out in 1870. Pop. about I40U. 
 
 Aldert Gore, Ed. "JorRNAL." 
 
 Ladakh% or Middle Thibet, an independent terri- 
 tory in Central Asia, extending from 32° to oG° N. lat., 
 and from Tt*" to 7\t° E. Ion., between Great Thibet in E. 
 and Little Thibet in W., and separated N, from Toorkistan 
 by the Karakorum, S. from Cashmere by the Himalaya. 
 Area, estimated at oO,000 square milts. Pop. loO.OOU. It 
 is a wild mountainous region along the upper course of the 
 Indii^, mostly of ^ sterile soil and with a severe climate. 
 But it is well cultivated, and its inhabitants, who are Mon- 
 golians, professing a kind of Lamaism and governed by a 
 thcocratical despotism, raise large crops of wheat, barley, 
 an-i buckwheat, besides rearing iramenso henls of shrt-j., 
 which jiupply most of the wool use<l in Cashmere. The 
 mountains contain iron, copper, and lead, and a very im- 
 portant transit-trade between China and Ilindostan is car- 
 ried on by mules and sheep. Cap. Lt:ii (which see). 
 
 Ladanam. See LABnAMM. 
 
 Ladd I William), h. at Exeter. X. H.. May 10, 1778; 
 graduated at Harvard College in 17*J7; was for pome years 
 a captain in the merchant marine, and was one of the prin- 
 cipal founders of the American Peace Society, of v.hich he 
 was for many years the president. He edited in behalf of 
 that society the Friend of Peace, and afterwards the Har- 
 biu'jer o/ /''•rtfc, and publii'hed many occasional writings 
 upon the same topic, of which the most important w.as An 
 linnntf on a Comjrcita of Natioit9 (IS4UJ. D. at Portsmouth \ 
 Apr.'.J, IS41. 
 
 Ladi'gaf post-v. and tp. of Calhoun co., Ala., on the 
 Sclma Home and Dalton R. U., 36 miles S. W. of Rome, | 
 (ia. Pop. 1605. 
 
 Lading:, Bill of, .See Bill of Ladisg, by Prof. T. | 
 W. Hwi.wiT, LL.L). I 
 
 La'dislaSy or Lancelot, king of Naples, surnamed j 
 Tin: LiUKHAL and inv. Victoriois. b. about I;l76: succeeded ! 
 his father, Charles III., under the regency of his mother | 
 Margaret, in 13S6: was driven from Naples in July, lliS7, 
 by his competitor, Louis II. of Anjou, whom Pope Clement 
 VII. (of Avignon) had invested with the crown; was re- 
 instated by Otto of Brunswick the same year; repulsed two 
 invasions made by Pope Urban VI. in lliSS; was crowned 
 at Gaeta May 21*. 13110. by a legate of the nev[ pope. Boni- j 
 face IX.; maintained a war for several years in the heart j 
 of his kingdom against his rival, Louis IT., who was in I 
 possession of the capital ; recovered that city July 9, l.'!99; ; 
 was a candidate for the throne of Hungary, and actually j 
 crowned Aug. o, H0.'{, but soon withdrew his claims; at- | 
 templed to seize Home in Aug., I4UJ; was excommunicated 
 and deprived of his kingdom by the pope June IS, 140G; 
 entered Rome in 140S, retiring in a few months; after a 
 long series of alternations of fortune again took by sur- 
 |»riso and plunilered that city June S, I4l.'i, and d. at 
 Naples .Aug. Iti, U14. Ue was perhaps the earliest mttdern 
 Italian ruler who conceived the project of the unity of 
 Italy ; was also a claimant of the throne of Proveneo and 
 a candidate fur the imperial crown of Germany. 
 
 Ladislas I. (LoKTrK), king of Poland, b. in 1260: 
 succeeded to the dukedom of Poland in 121*6; was deposed 
 in 1.300, in \?hieh year he attended the jubilee at Rome; 
 was restored in 1304; carried on a long war with the Teu- 
 tonic Knights ; assumed the title of king of Poland in 1320 
 by permission of Pope John XXTI. ; d<*fcated the Teutonic 
 Knights at Plowco iSept. 27, 1321, and d. at Cracow Mar. 
 10, 1333. 
 
 Ladislas II., king of Poland. See Jacrllok. 
 
 LadislnH III., king of Poland. Sec Ladislas V., king 
 of Hungary. 
 
 Ladislas IV., king of Poland, b. nt Cracow Juno 0, 
 l.VJJ; succeeded his father. .Sigisniund III.. Nov. 13, 1()32; j 
 compe'Ieii the Russians to raisr the siege of .'Smolensk 
 0''»32l: drfratod the Turks in .Moldavia (ir.3U, and the 
 Tartars of the Crimea; made a truce for twenty-six years 
 with Sweden (1635) ; began a wir with the Cossacks ( 1637) ; 
 married a daughter of the German emperor Ferdinand 
 (1637), and d. in Lithuania .May lit, K.IS. Wv was an able 
 and energetic prince, sprung in the female line from the 
 Jat;ellons. and had such a reputation for valor that in his 
 early youth a party among tho Russians wished to make 
 him their c7,ar. 
 
 Ladislas, or Lndislnns, the name of seven kings 
 of Hungary: Lapislas I., xiir. Saint, called also Lanct.lot, 
 b. about iU41; succeeded his brother, Ueysa I., in 1073; , 
 
 was victorious over the Wallachians. Bohemians, Russians, 
 Cumans, and Poles: conquered Croatia and Dalmatia (10^7 i 
 for the crown of Hungary; promulgated a new code of 
 laws nt the diet of Zablon (11192); stimulated comniereej 
 aided Boleslas II. in obtaining the throne of Poland ; pro- 
 jected the delivery of the Holy Laud from the Moslems; 
 erected many churches and monasteries, and favored the 
 clergy in their efl'orts to civilize the Hungarians. D. Julv 
 29. lUi'a. He was canonized by Pope Celcstine III. in 
 111*2. — Ladislas II., b. about 1134: crowned July \b. 1161, 
 and d. Jan. 14, 1162.— Ladislas III., b. about llSo; woe 
 elected in 1204 to succc-ed his father. Emcricb. but d. May 
 7. 1205. — Ladislas IV., surnamed thk Clman. b. about 
 1250; succeeded his father, Stephen IV., in 1272; made 
 war upon and at first defeated the Cumans (1282), but tho 
 latter, reinforced by vast hordes of Nogai Tartars or Mon- 
 gols from the plains N. E. of the Black Sea {the empire of 
 Kiptchak). overran and ravaged all Hungary (1285). He 
 then made terms with the Cumans. adopted some of their 
 customs, repudiated his wife, and married one of their 
 princesses, whence his surname, but was finally assassinated 
 by them July 19. 1290.— Ladislas V. (III. of Poland), b. 
 Oct. 31, 1424 ; succeeded his father, Ladislas U. ( Jagell(.n), 
 as king of Poland in 1434; was elected king of Hungary 
 in 144U by the influence of the famous John Huniades, 
 vaivode of Transylvania, by whose aid he defeated the in- 
 vading Turks in two great battles (1412-43): made a ten 
 years' truce with the sultan Aniurath II. at Szegedin in 
 June, 1444, acquiring thereby the sovereignty of Wallachia, 
 but at the instigation of Cardinal .Julian ol>tained a papal 
 dispensation from his oath, and invaded Bulgaria, where 
 be was defeated and killed in battle, with a great part of 
 the Polish nobility, at Varna, Nov. 10, 1414. — Ladislas 
 VI., THE PosTnrMoi'S, son of Albert of Austria, emperor 
 of Ciermany and king of Bohemia and Hungary, b. Feb. 
 22, 1440, several months after his father's death, when 
 Ladislas V. had already been jilaced upon the throne; was 
 elected king in 1445: assumed the government in 1451; 
 was crowned king of Bohemia Oct. 28, 1453, and d. at 
 Prague Nov. 23. 1457. He was cowardly and cruel, and 
 persecuted the followers of John Huss. — Ladislas VII.. 
 eldest son of Casimir IV. of Poland, b. about 1456; was 
 designated as his successor by iJcorge Podiebrad, king of 
 Bohemia. July 19, 1469 ; crowned at Prague Aug. 16, 1471 ; 
 entered Hungary with an army on the death of Mathias 
 Corvinus in 1496 ; was j>rocIainied king and crowned Sept. 
 21; fought against the Turks, and repulsed the army of 
 Bajazet in 1501 ; made peace at Buda Aug. 20, 1503; per- 
 mitted tho proclamation of a crusade against the Turks in 
 1514, and d. at Buda Mar. 13, 1516. Porter C. Bliss. 
 
 Ladmirault', de (Rkne Patl), distinguished him- 
 self in tlie war with Germany (1870-71); commanded the 
 4t!i corps in the battles of Courcelles, Aug. 14, Vionvilte, 
 Aug. 16, and (jravelotte, Aug. 18, 1870; on the capitula- 
 tion of Metz became a jtrisouer of war, but on his return 
 after the conclusion of peace received, in recognition of his 
 brilliant services, the command of the territorial division 
 of Paris, and was appointed governor of the capital. When 
 in 1873 tho arrangement of territorial divisions was abol- 
 ished. Ladmirault retained his position of military govern- 
 or of Paris. ArcrsT Niemann. 
 
 La^dopa, tho largest lake of Europe, comprising an 
 area of 6sUI S(|uare miles, situated in Russia, between tho 
 governments of Viburg, Petersburg, and Olonctz. It re- 
 ceives the water from the lakes of Onega. Sainm, and II- 
 men. and sends it through the Neva to tho Baltic. On 
 account of shallows, sandbanks, and sunken rocks naviga- 
 tion is very dangerous on this lake, and canalK have bei-n 
 constructed connecting the Neva with those rivers which 
 flow into the lake, and iboreby establishing a water-com- 
 munication through tho Volga between the Baltic and the 
 Caspian Sea. 
 
 LadO(;a, po«t-v. of Montgomery co., Ind., on the Louis- 
 ville New Albany und Chicago It. R., II iniles S. K. of 
 Crawfordsville, is a thriving mercantile and manufauturing 
 town. 
 
 Lado'nia, post-v. of Fannin co., Tox., 13 miles S. E. 
 of Haiham. on N. fork of tho Sulphur River. It has I 
 weekly newspaper. Pop. 516. 
 
 Ladorc', post-v. and tp. of Neosho co., Kan., on tho 
 Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R. Pop. 839. 
 
 Lndroncj)', or iHariannc Islands, a group of 
 twenty islands in the Paeific Ocean, belonging To Spain, 
 anil situated between 13° an<l 21° N. lat., and between 
 144° and 146° E. Ion. They are of volcanic origin, have 
 a warm but not unhealthy climate, and comprise an nrca 
 of 1251 square miles of fertile land, hut only two of them, 
 Guguan and Rota, arc inhabited. They were first discov- 
 ered by MagclhacDS in 1521, and called Las Islas do los
 
 1604 
 
 LADY— LAFAYETTE. 
 
 LadroDes (the TbieveR' Islands) on account of a Btrong 
 propensity to theft observed in the natiyes. In 1667 the 
 Simniards established a regular settlement on Guguan.aiid 
 culled the inlands Mariaune Islands, after Queen Maria 
 Anna. At the time of this settlement the islands had 
 about 100,000 inhabitants, who received the settlers well, 
 and made great progress until the Spaniards begun to at- 
 tack their independence, when a war broke out which ended 
 nearly with the extermination of the natives. Theprestmt 
 number of inhabitants is not more than fiOOO, and of these 
 many have been transferred by the I^paniards from Luzon. 
 Principal town, San Ignazio do Agafia, situated on Gu- 
 guan. 
 
 La'dy [Ang.-Sax. hlafdlfje^ probably originally mean- 
 ing " bread-keeper "], a woman of good social standing : a 
 term correlative with rfentUman. In Great Britain the wife 
 of a nobleman is legally styled '■ lady," and the title is by 
 courtt'sy given to daughters of nobles and the wives of 
 knights and baronets. The Virgin Mary is often desig- 
 nated " Our Lady.'* 
 
 La'dy-bird [Ger. Marieyihafer, " Mary-bug **], a com- 
 mon name for coleopterous insects of the family Coccincl- 
 lida^, of which there are more than 1000 species and many 
 genera. They are extremely useful to farniers. destroying 
 vast numbers of aphides or plant-lice: but are tlie ob- 
 jects of many popular superstitions, and arc by many 
 viewed with a vague and unreasonable dread. They are 
 usually of an elongated hemispherical shnpe, frequently 
 having bright colors, and are often spotted. The species 
 are quite difficult to distinguish. 
 
 Lady Day, the 25th of March, the feast of the Annun- 
 ciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary. In England it is ouo 
 of the quarter days upon which rent is usually payable. 
 
 Lady's Slipper* See Cypripedium. 
 
 Lae'laps [Gr. AaiAai/r. a "storm"], a genus of fossil 
 saurians found in the cretaceous strata of various parts of 
 the U. S. The creature was carnivorous, Ptirac twenty-five 
 feet in length, and doubtless walked upon its immense hind 
 legs like a bird, for its fore legs were very small. It must 
 have obtained its prey by leaping. L. aquilunt/His is the 
 largest known species. 
 
 Laon'nay tp. of Logan co.. 111., traversed by the Gil- 
 man Clinton and Springfield R. R. Pop. 691, 
 
 Laennec' (Rene Theodore Hvacinthe). b. at Quim- 
 per, lirittany, Feb. 17, 17S1; studied from ISOO medicine 
 in Paris: obtained the degree of M. D. in 1804; became 
 principal physician at the Necker Hospital in 1816, and 
 professor of medicine at the College de France in 1S22. In 
 1S24 retired, on account of his health, to his native town, 
 where he d. Aug. 13, 1826. Was the inventor of the 
 Stethoscope (which see). Besides articles in different 
 medical journals, he wrote Traitf (fa rtiunruftation mediate 
 et licH via hid i ft ilrn pnunitniH et dii rcenr ( ISl'J). 
 
 LiTStryRones, the name of a race of giants men- 
 tioned by Homer {Odj/nspi/, x. 80-1^2). Homer, however, 
 docs not know anything about their abode, as little as 
 about that of the Cyclops and other fabulous nations, but 
 later traditions assigned Leontini in Sicily or Formiae in 
 Xaples as the homestead of the La'strygones. 
 
 Laet, de (.Ias), h. at Antwerp ; was in 1633 a director 
 of the Dutch East Inclia Co., and was an intimate friend 
 of Saumaise (Sahnasius). Published nearly twenty learned 
 geographical works in Latin, several of which formed pnrt 
 of the miniature series of /{rpuhficH issued by tlie Elzevirs 
 ot" Leyden. Mnintained a sharp literary controversy with 
 Grotius about the origin of the American Indian tribes 
 (1613-41). His most important works were ynrus Orbin 
 (folio, Leyden, 1633) and H intoria Nnturah's Jiraaih'a' {l6iS}. 
 D. about" 1649. 
 
 liHi^ta're Sunday, >Iid-Lent, or Domiuica de 
 Rosa^ the fnurth Sunday in Lent, the diiy on which the 
 pope blesses the Golden Rosk (which see), /jftftre, "re- 
 joice," is the first word of the introit in the missal for this 
 day ( Isa. Ixvi. 10). On this day only is the organ played 
 during Lent, 
 
 La Farge'ville, post-r. of Orleans tp.. Jefferson co., 
 N. \ .. on the (.'haumonl River. It has an academy. 
 
 La Fari'na (Giiseppe), b. at Messina in ISl.'); d. in 
 1S63. At the ago of eleven he comj)osed a hymn to Italy 
 which excited great admiration. In 1S37. after an in- 
 effectual attempt to detach Sicily from the dominion of the 
 Bourbons by heading a popular insurrection, he fled to 
 Tuscany. The following year he was amnestied and re- 
 turned to Sicily, but after about three years he was once 
 more forced to retire to Tuscany, Here for several years 
 he occupied himself with literary pursuits and in efforts to 
 promote Italian indepenrlence. The revolution of IS4S took 
 Lim back to Sicily; no was elected deputy to the Sicilian 
 
 Parliament, then appointed commissioner to the courts 
 of Turin, Florence, and Rome, and in August of the same 
 year he became minister of war and of the marine. In the 
 spring of 1S4'J he took command of the University Legion 
 against the Bourbons, and when the liberal cause was lost 
 he escaped to Paris, where he continued in relations with 
 Daniel Manin and other patriots till 1S:)3, After a few 
 months' stay at Tours he established himself at Turin in 
 1854. Here he made great efforts to strengthen the politi- 
 cal party in favor of a united constitutional monarchy un- 
 der the house of Savoy. He co-operated with Cavour in 
 the war of 18.^9, and with Garibaldi in org.inizing the nu- 
 merous volunteers. In 1860 be was elected deputy to the 
 Italian Parliament from six districts. Among the many 
 historical works of La Farina, La S'ton'a d'ltnlin may be 
 specially recommended for the warmth and patriotic elo- 
 quence with which it is written. Two volumes entitled 
 // Epiatohn-io di Giuseppe La Farina were published at 
 Milan in 1869. 
 
 Lafave', tp. of Scott co., Ark. Pop. 175. 
 
 La Fayette', county of S. W. Arkansas. Area. 1060 
 square miles. The soil is generally level and very fertile, 
 but requires drainage. It is partly prairie and partly hard- 
 wood timber, and is traversed by the navigable Red River 
 and by the Cairo and Fulton R. R. Cotton and corn are 
 leading products. Cap. Lewisville. Pop. 9139. 
 
 Lafayette, county of Florida, bounded on the E. hy 
 the navigable Suwanee River, and on the S. W. by the 
 Gulf of Mexico, is extensively covered with forests, and 
 is quite level. Corn is the principal product. Area, 925 
 square miles. Cap. New Troy. Pop. 1783, 
 
 La Fayette, parish of S. Louisiana. Area, 230 square 
 miles. It is level, very fertile, and is traversed by the 
 n.avigable Vermilion Bayou. Cattle, corn, rice, and cotton 
 are leading products. Cap. Vermilionvillc, Pop. 10,388. 
 
 La Fayette, county of N. Mississippi. Area. 607 
 square miles. It is generally level and highly productive. 
 Live-stock, maize, and cotton are leading products. It is 
 traversed by the Tallahatchie and Yockenev rivers and the 
 Mississippi" Central K. R. Cap. Oxford. Pop. 18,802, 
 
 La Fayette, county of W. Missouri, bounded on the 
 N. by the Mis^rouri River. Area. 585 square miles. It is 
 generally level and highly fertile, partly timber and partly 
 jirairic. Coal, limestone, and sandstone are found. Cattle, 
 grain, tobacco, and wool are staple products. Flour and 
 lumber arc leading manufactures. It is traversed by the 
 Lexington branch of the Missouri Pacific R. R. Cap. Lex- 
 ington. Pop. 22,023. 
 
 La Fayette, county of S. W. Wisconsin. Area, 630 
 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by Illinois. The 
 surface is diversified, the soil fertile. Cattle, grain, and 
 wool are stajdc products. Wagons and carriages are lead- 
 ing articles of manufacture. Lead and zinc are found. The 
 county is traversed by the Mineral Point R. R. and the 
 Pecatonica River, which affords good water-power. Cap. 
 Darlington. Pop. 22,659. 
 
 La Fayette, post-v. and tp., cap. of Chambers co., 
 Ala., SO miles N. E. of Montgoniery. on the East Alalmnia 
 and Cincinnati R. R., has 4 churches, 3 hotels, 1 weekly 
 newspaper, a male high school, and a fenmle college. In 
 1S74 it handled 6000 bales of ctton. P.. p. of v. 1382; of 
 tp. 1694. W. C. BLEnsoE, En. "Clipper." 
 
 Lafayette, tp. of Crawford co.. Ark. Pop. 902. 
 
 Lafayette, tp. of Ouachita co., Ark. Pop. 1131. 
 
 Lafayette, tp. of Scott co., Ark. Pop. 400. 
 
 Lafayette, post-v., cap. of Walker co., Oa.. 16 miles 
 S. W. of Tunnel Hill, a station on the Western and Atlantic 
 R. R. It is in a beautiful mouutain-regiou. Pop. 251. 
 
 Lafayette, tp. of Coles co., III. Pop. 1265. 
 
 Lafayette, tp. of Ogle co.. 111. Pop. 467. 
 
 Lafayette, post-v. of Goshen tp.. Stark co., III., on the 
 Peoria and Kock Island R. R. Pop. 2S1. 
 
 Lafayette, tp. of Allen co., Ind. Pop. 1471. 
 
 Lafayette, tp. of Floyd co.. Ind. Pop. 1576. 
 
 Lafayette, tp. of Madison CO., Ind. Pop. 1452. 
 
 Lafayette, tp. of Owen co., Ind. Pop. 1071. 
 
 Lafayette, city, cap. of Tippecanoe co., Ind., on the 
 Wabash River and Wabash and Erie Canal, at the inter- 
 section of the Louisville New Albany and Chicago and 
 the Toledo Wabash and Western R. Rs., and terminus 
 of the Indianapolis Cincinnati and Lafayette, the Cincin- 
 nati Lafayette an<l Chicago, and W. division of the Lafay- 
 ette Muncie and Bloomington R, Rs. The E. division of the 
 latter road is graded and ready for equipment. Lafayette 
 originally derived its chief importance from being the head 
 of navigation on the Wabash River, and then received an
 
 LAFAYETTE— LAFITTE. 
 
 1605 
 
 impetus vhicb haa suntaioed its growth since the abandon- 
 mc'utof the upper Wabash as a channel of commerce. La- 
 fayette has 2a ohurches, 1 (Sunday) weekly, and 3 daily 
 newspapers, U pubtio-i^clioo] buildinj^s, besides several de- 
 nonainationat academies, street railroad, ga.'^wurks^ paid 
 fire department with fire-alarm telegraph, an elegant opera- 
 houje. State agricultural college (Purdue L'uivor?ity ). and 
 a large nuinbcr of manufactories of difTereut kiud^. There 
 are 6 national, 4 private^ and 2 savings banks, with an 
 aggregate capitol of nearly $3,000,000. The wholesale 
 trade is heavy, especially in grocerici and boots and shoes, 
 while the retail traffic finds abundant supplies in the rich 
 agricultural region of which Lafayette is the centre. The 
 scenery in the vicinity is very beautiful. Pop. 13,506. 
 .S. Vater, Plb. '■ Uailv Joi h.val." 
 
 Lafayette, tp. of .Allamakee co., la. Pop. 1120. 
 
 Lafnyettc, tp. of Bremer co., la. Pop. S67. 
 
 Lafayette, tp. of Keokuk co., la. Pop. 959. 
 
 I.a I'ayrlte, tp. of Story co., la. Pop. 401. 
 
 I^nfayette, a v. of Centre tp., Doniphan co., Kan., on 
 the .Mi.-'suuri lUver. Pop. 54. 
 
 Lafayette, post-v. of Christian co., Ky., 22 miles S. W. 
 of Ilopkiusvillc, the county-scat. Pop. 215. 
 
 Lafayette, a v. of Motcalfe co., Ky. Pop. 53. 
 
 Lafayette, post-v. and tp. of Gratiot co., Mich., 10 
 miles K. 'if Iihaca, the county-seat. Pop. 288. 
 
 Lafayette, tp of Nicollet co., Minn. Pop. 594. 
 
 Lafayette, tp. of Clinton co.. Mo. Pop. 2007. 
 
 Lafayette, t]). of Nemaha co., Xeb. Pop. 018. 
 
 Lafayette, post-v. and tp. of Sussex co., N. J., on the 
 Sussex K. U. Pop. SS4. 
 
 Lafayette, po«t-v. and tp. of Onondaga co., N. Y., on 
 the Syracii^'c and Hinghamton R. U. The township is hilly 
 and fertile, and is in part occupied by the Onondaga In- 
 dian Reservation. Pop. of v. 135; of tp. 2233. 
 
 Lafayette, a v. of Jackson tp., Allen co., O. (Herring 
 P. 0.). on the Pittsburg Kort Wayne and Chicago R. R. 
 Pop. 337. 
 
 fjalavctte, *p. of rofihocton co,, 0., traversed by tbo 
 Pit:.-<Kiirg iiihI C'iiicinDiiti U. K. Pop. t»20. 
 
 LafayrttCy post-v. of I>ccr Creek tp.. Mndison co., 0., 
 4 miles N. K. of London, tUo couuty-seat, and on the Na- 
 tional Koud. Pop. I CI. 
 
 Lafav^^tte, a v. (Whittlesey P. 0.) and tp. of Medina 
 CO.. O. Pup. 1109. 
 
 Lafayette^ poat-v. and cap. of Yarabill co., Or., 32 
 milefl S. \V. '^f Portlund, on tbo Vamhill River and near 
 tbo Oregon Central U. li., ha^ a cburob, a botel, a weekly 
 newspaper, an academv, a flourinf^-mill. 2 drug-stores, and 
 A number of inercai)lilu and inanufaeturing estaldi6bincnti<. 
 It i? situated in a fine agricultural tliptrict. P(»p. about 6.'>o. 
 DoKiEis A IIkmuickk. Ens. '* Coi uicre." 
 
 LafayettCf v. and tp. of MrKcan co., Pa., on a brancb 
 of the lIutTalo Itradfurd and Pittsburg K. R. Pop. 591. 
 
 Lafayette^ a v. ( Hossville P. 0.) of Fayctto co., Tenn., 
 on the Memphis and Ohio U. R. 
 
 Lafayette, po»t-v., cap. of Macon co., Tcnn., 22 miles 
 N. of Cftrtiiiij;e. Pop. lOl. 
 
 Laftiyf'tte, tp. of Pleasants co., W. Va. Pop. 307. 
 
 Lafiiycltc, pDCt-v. ami tp. of Chippewa co.. Wis., 6 
 mihM \. K. of Eau Claire. Pop. ItTH. 
 
 Lafayi^tto, a v. (Sparta P. O.j rmd tp. of Monroe co., 
 Mis., 'Ml the I'll ('rosi40 divisiuit of tbe Milwaukee aud St. 
 Paul U. K. Pop. 192. 
 
 La Tayrtte, tp. of Walimrlh co.. Wis. Pop. 10.32. 
 
 La Fayette, de (.Marik Pur, .Tn.^s Rorn Yvns flii.- 
 BKUT MoTiFii), .Maiiqi'IS. b. at the ebi\tr)in Cbava(tnac, Au- 
 verjjno. Sept. rt, 1757, of an aneient family. His father 
 wft!* killoil at Mindon, and on hix mother*!* death in 1770 
 ho fell heir to larjfo enlutes ; married in 1771 a jprand- 
 (laughtcr of the due do Noiiillcs; entered the guanlH, and 
 while a captain of dragoons in 1 77'^ delerminod to join the 
 American lU V(iltiti(iniHl<< : fitted out a yiicht at his own ox- 
 peiiHc, and landed Apr. 21. 1777, m-ar (tf.rgetown, 8. C. ; 
 served an mnjor-goneral 1777-.s:t without pny, furniflbing 
 also clothing and eamp e<|uipnge at bir* own expense to tbo 
 neetly pntriot«i: was wounded at Hrandywinc, and fouglit 
 with great honor at M<Mimoulh ; wii<i in France I77U-H0, 
 where he induced the kin;: to send Uoebambonu to Amer- 
 ica ; coinlueted the eampaign in Virginia, whieh ended so 
 brilliantly in the siege and capture of Vorktown ; an<i then 
 returned ti> France; visited the V. S. again in I7'*4; ex- 
 erted hinipelf to prneure th«' aholitjon of nlnvery in the 
 French colonies, and freed and ednpntod hi<i own slnvro at 
 Cnyenne ; wa^ in the Aj^nemhly of NotaMeF". Paris, 17H7 : 
 
 demanded the convocation of the States General, to which 
 be was a deputy, 178l>; became vice-president of the Na- 
 tional A>;8embly. cominnndant of Paris, and chief com- 
 mander of the national guards, which he organized, 17H9; 
 founded the clultf^ of Feuillunts 1790; protected the king 
 and queen from the nmli t)r Oct. 5 and C> ; commanded suc- 
 cessfully the army of Flanders 1792; denounced the Jaco- 
 bins, from whom ho escaped to Flanders, but was impris- 
 oned for live years by the Austrians at Olmiitz: was liber- 
 ated by Kapoleon. and returned to France in 1790, but 
 would never become a partisan of Napoleon ; lived princi- 
 pally upon bis estate of La Grange; was in the French 
 House of Representatives lbI5; in the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties iSlS : visited tbo U. S. in lS2-l-2r<, and received a grant 
 of $200,000 and a township of lanrl ; was chosen to tbe 
 Chamber of Deputies 1S27; took part in isJiO, and com- 
 manded the national guard, but not in person. La Fay- 
 ette d. at Paris May 20, 1^34. It would be hard to over- 
 estimate the services done by La Fayette to the cause of 
 American liberty. In France be was an ardent and con- 
 sistent democrat, but he was ready to sacrifice his own pref- 
 erences for the advantage of tbe public. Even bis enemies 
 admitted his perfect honesty, his courage, and his ability. — 
 His son, Gkorges AVasbington La Favj:ttk (1779-1849), 
 and his grandsons, Oscar (b. ISIG) and EnMOsn (b. 1S18), 
 have ligured in French politics as republicans. 
 
 Lafayette College at Ea?ton, Pa., at the junction of 
 the Delaware. Lcliigh. and Rushkill rivers, and of many 
 canals and railroads — a site known from the earliest times as 
 a centre of Indian occupation, and of missionary-work by 
 David I'rainerd ami others — was chartered in lH26. Rev, 
 George Junkin. I). D.. was the (irst jiresident. It has been 
 from the first distiiiguisliod lor ehejip living and thorough 
 study, especially for students preparing for the ministry, 
 and at first undertook to find manual labor for students 
 who wished it. Since 1S55 it has also been known for its 
 course of Anglo-Saxon and Englit-b in connection with 
 comparative phihdogy under Prof. F. A. March. LL.D.. in 
 which it has been a pioneer, and trained many teachers 
 and professors in other American ctdlegcs, and has now a 
 European reputation. It is also known to the scientific 
 wiirlii as in some sense the bead -quarters of meteorology in 
 America, for hero, since 1.S53. the observations of the gov- 
 ernment oflicers and tbe collections of the Smithsonian 
 In.-^titution. suj>plemented by the world-wide correspond- 
 ence of Prof. J. II. Cotlin, LL.D., have been reduced and 
 prepiired for publication under the iHrcction of that em- 
 inent meteorologitit, I'nder tbe presidency of Rev. W. C. 
 Cattell, D. D.. and since 1>'^'J5 it has still further become a 
 centre of scientific and technical instruction for the coal 
 and iron regions of Pennsylvania and New .Jersey, in tbo 
 midst of which it is situated. It has received nearly 
 $1,000,000 of new endowment, of which about one-half 
 has been given by Mr. A. Pardee of Hazleton. Pa., and 
 #."(iO,OU(l bus been exjieniled in the buildings and appara- 
 tus for scientific and technical teaching and iiivestigutiuu. 
 The flora of Pennsylviyiia, in charge of Prof. T. C. Porter, 
 D. D., is the most complete in existence. The Anglo- 
 Saxon and Early English department of the library is 
 jirobably tbe best in the country. The college now offers 
 fixe schools or courses of stu<Jy of four years each, leading 
 to degrees ; two of general culture — the classical and the 
 scientific; and three technical — mining engineering, civil 
 engineering, and ebemistry. In the clashieal school there 
 are two piinillel courses — one the ennmion college course in 
 h<-athen authors; the other in the Latin and Greek of 
 Christian authors, the latter eslnblisheil in L^72, and sus- 
 tained by tbe munificence of li. Douglass, Esq., of New 
 York City. Special courses of two terms eaeh are given on 
 iron, road engineering, and cbemixlry; and any person 
 prepared to do so may devote his whole time to any branch 
 of learning or science taught in the college, either in an 
 under-graduato or post-graduate course. A law school 
 has been organized, and will npi n in t)ctoberof this year 
 (IS7.'>). There are 2S resiilenl profc-^sors and tutors. I non- 
 resident lecturers, and .110 students, nearly etjually divided 
 betwee?i the (dd and new courses. Traill Grkkn. 
 
 LaHtaii' i.InsFi-n Fran'vih). b. at Bordeaux in 1G70; 
 became a .lei'tiit priest ; came tit I'anadii as a missionary in 
 1712; was stationed at the Iro(|n<'is nli^sion at Sault St. 
 Louis, and studied closely the Indian ehaiaeter. Discov- 
 ered also the ginxeng-plant. Returning to Franco in 1717, 
 wrote his two esteemeil works — Mtruni dm Sniiraifm tnn(- 
 ri'tfUtiiu^ (1721) and Uimin'ir dm fi/itniirrtrM tlru Portiuftih 
 (lanMlr .y.mr.au .l/oM/Zr { 1 73.1). I), at Pordoaux July 3. 1746. 
 
 Lafittc' iJACQiKs), b. at Rayonne, France, Oct. 24, 
 1707, was the son of a poor caqienter: went in I7H7 to 
 Paris: became in 17SS a nookkeeper in the hanking-houso 
 of Pi'rr''Kaux ; was soon ailmitte<l l<> (he firm by reason of 
 his finaiKMal ability ; became a regent of the Rank of 
 France ISll'.f, and in IHI 1 its governor : was in the Cham-
 
 llJDIi 
 
 LAFITTE— LA FOURCHE. 
 
 ber of Deputies 1810-17; acquired great reputation by his 
 
 patriotic uiau-.igemeut of the pu'ilic finuuccs : became 
 I'anker to NapoKun iiiul LouisXViil.: was widely belovej 
 for his geniTo3ity, huuesty, and constant devotion to the 
 cause of good government, his own preferences being demo- 
 cratic ; supported the revolution of 181^0 ; was minister of 
 finance 1830-31, soon after which he suflercd great pecu- 
 niary losses. D. in Paris May 20, 18-14. 
 
 Lafitte* (Jean), b. in Franco about 17S0. He has 
 b?eu made the subject of Ingraham's romance, The /'irate 
 of the Onff. According to (what appears most authurita- 
 tivc) writers in De Bow's Jifvivir. vols. xil. and xix., the 
 former of whom refers to the late John R. Grymes. who he 
 says was once Laffitc's counsel, he came from IJordeaux 
 or Marseille?', and was, "within the recollection of old cit- 
 izens now living," a blacksmith, " who kept his forge at 
 the corner of 15ourbou and St. Philip streets." This is, in 
 a subsequent volume (xxiii.), referred to as an ''idle story" 
 by a writer who styles him one of three brothers whose 
 (trivateering operations led him to Galveston Island, and 
 then to Barataria, ''keeping as agents in New Orleans bis 
 two brothers/' etc. 
 
 The cession to the U. S. of Louisiana was followed by 
 events — especially the war betwecu France and Spain — 
 which made the Gulf of Mexico " the arena of the most ex- 
 tensive and profitable privateering" depredations upon the 
 rich commerce of Spain. At the period of the taking of 
 Guadeloupe by the British (1806). most of the privateers 
 commissioned by the government of that island, and whi..di 
 were then on a cruise, not being able tu return t'j any of 
 the West India islands, made for Barataria, there to dis- 
 pose of their prizes, which could not be admitted into any 
 of the ports of the U. S., we being at that time in peace 
 with Great Britain. Most of the commij^sious granted to 
 privateers by the French government at Guadeloupe hav- 
 ing expired some time after the declaration of the indc- 
 pendenee of Colombia, many of the privateers repaired to 
 her port of Carthagena for the purpose of obtaining from 
 the new government commissions for cruising against 
 Spanish vc3:>els. Having duly obtained tlieir commissions, 
 they in a manner blockaded for a long time all the ports 
 belonging to the royalists, aud made numerous capture?^, 
 which they carried into Barataria. (See Bauatauia Bay.) 
 It is asserted by Latour, from whom wo have quoted {Hist, 
 of the War in E. Floriila and Louisinntt)^ that public auc- 
 tion-sales were made of the cargoes of their prizes. " From 
 all parts of Lower Louisiana people resorted to Barataria, 
 withont being at all solicitous to conceal the object of their 
 journey. In the streets of New Orleans it was usual for 
 traders to give and receive orders for purchasing goods at 
 Barafaria with as Uttlo secrecy as similar orders are given 
 for Philadelphia or Now York." While Latour denies that 
 these men were really pirates, lie admits that they auda- 
 ciously infringed our laws, and committed a great offence 
 in smuggling into the territory goods captured from nations 
 with which we were at peace. 
 
 Preparatory to the expedition against New Orleans, Lt.- 
 Col. Nichoils, commander of the British forces in the Flor- 
 idas, made overtures by letter, dated Peusacola, Aug. 31, 
 LSU, to LafBte, "with his bravo followers, to enter into 
 the service of (Jreat Britain;" ho is offered the rank of 
 captain, and lauds arc fo be given to "all in proportion 
 to respective ranks." The letter was delivered hy Capt. 
 Lockyer, R. N., commanding an armed brig which Sept. 
 2d visited Barataria for that purpose, and who personalhf 
 offered him, aceonling to Latour, besides the rank of cap- 
 tain, the sum of $;;0.l)0(). These offers he communicated 
 to the governor of Louisiana hy letter couehcd in language 
 which girea evidence of a cultivated mind and of elevated 
 sentiments. "I offer (writes he) to you to restore lo this 
 Slate several citizens, who perhaps iu your eyes have lust 
 that sacred title. I offer you them, however, such as you 
 could wish to find them, ready to exert their utmost efforts 
 id defence of the country. This point of Louisiana which 
 I occupy is of great importance in the present crisis. I 
 teuiier my services to defend it ; and the only reward I ask 
 is that a stop be put to the conscription against mo and my 
 adherents by an acf of oldivion for all that has been done 
 hitherto. I am the stray sheep wisliing to return to tlie 
 sheepfold. If you were thoroughly acquainted with the 
 nature of my otVences, I should appear lo you mucli less 
 guilty, and still worthy to discharge the duties of a good 
 citizen. I have never sailed under any flag but that of the 
 republic of Carthagena, and my vessels are perfectly regu- 
 lar in that respect." No answer appears to have been given, 
 and, indeed, an expedition already in preparation under 
 
 • The name is thus most commonly spelt, and is so in Latour's 
 IlUftory; but in the appt-ndix to that work tho signature to the 
 several letters Ihciu juitilisli-'d is printed .1. LngV" ; and It is so 
 spelt in the headinc to itie If-lierol Li.-(.:ol. Nichoils; beaee this 
 was probably his own and the correct speUing. 
 
 Commodore Patterson to break up the association at Bara- 
 taria (where, however. Laffite and his men were not found) 
 was carried out. Subsequently (about the middle of De- 
 cember), when the invasion of New Orleans was imminent- 
 ly pending, the governor of Louisiana issued a proclama- 
 tion inviting, and Gen. Jaekson accepted, the services of 
 Laffite and iiis men, a portion <»f whom formed a corps un- 
 der Cajjts. Dominique aud Beluche, and were employed on 
 the lines, where with distinguished skill they served two 
 twenty-four pounders in batteries Nos. 2 and 3. Others 
 enlisted in one or tlic other of the companies of mariners, 
 under Capts. Songis. Lagaud, and Colson, and served at 
 Forts Petite Coquille (uow Fort Pike) and St. Philip, and 
 Bayou St. JohD.f 
 
 On the fith of Feb., ISlJi, Pres. Madison issued a procla- 
 I mation stating that "'it had been long ascertained that 
 many foreigners, flying from the dangers of tlicir own 
 I home, and that some citizens forgetful of their duty, hail 
 co-operated in forming an estaldishinent on the island of 
 , Barataria, near the mouth of the river JVIississippi, for the 
 purpose of a clandestine antl lawless trade. . . . But it 
 has since been represented that the offenders have mani- 
 fested a sincere penitence; that they have abandoned the 
 prosecution of the worst cause for the support of the best, 
 and, particularly, that they have exhibited in the defence 
 of New Orleans unequivocal traits of courage and fidelity ;** 
 and granting full pardon for acts therein defined, provided 
 that certificate in writing be produced from the governor 
 of Louisiana stating that the person ''has aided iu the de- 
 fence of New Orleans." The subsequent career of Laffite 
 is involved in uncertainty. J. G. Barnard. 
 
 La Fleche, town of France, in the department of 
 Sarthe, on the left bank of the Loire, has manufactures of 
 paper and leather, aud a brisk trade in grain, wine, wax, 
 cattle, and fowls. The palace, which was liuilt by Henri IV., 
 and which for some time belonged to the Jesuits, who here 
 had a celebrated school, is now used for a school of artil- 
 lery. It contains a picture-gallery and a library of 20,tJU0 
 vols. Pop. I)2y2. 
 
 Laflin (Addison H.), b. in Lee. Mass., Oct. 2-1. 1823; 
 graduated at Williams College in 1843; removed to Her- 
 kimer co., N. Y.: elected in 1867 to the New York senate; 
 in 1804 to Congress as a Republican ; re-elected in I8(i6 and 
 lSf)8. and ajjpointed in 1871 naval officer of the port of New 
 York, which office he hold till Feb. 1, 1877. D. Sept. 2-1, 1878. 
 
 La Fontaine', de f Jfan), b. at Chateau Thierry in 
 1021; d. IGUO. Was protected at first hy the duchess of 
 Bouillon, then by the prince of Cond{s Fouquet, Henrietta 
 of England; but was too frank, too ojion-spoken, ever to 
 succeed in securing the favors of Louis XIV. Had for 
 fricn<ls Moliere, Racine, Boilcau, and was member of the 
 French Academy. Wrote at first his Contes. a set of sh<»rt, 
 lively, but rather licentious novels ; but his great and clas- 
 sical work, known throughout the world, is his Fables, some 
 of them taken from iEsop and Pha?drus, which have been 
 translated into every language. an<l of which many have 
 been committed to memory hy children in every S(d:o(d. La 
 Fontaine, like Moliere, had a larger and hctler heart thao 
 most of the French writers of the Louis XIV. period: he 
 held fast by his protector, Fouquet, even after the ruin in- 
 flicted, through a personal jealousy, on handsome and 
 kingly-looking Fouquet by the roi eofcil (Sun King), as 
 Louis' XIV. liked to be called. Felix ArcAiGxi-:. 
 
 Lafontaine iSir Loris HirM'oi.VTK), Bart., b. at Bou- 
 chervillc. Lower Canada, in Oct., 1^07; became a prom- 
 inent advocate and politician ; accused in 1837 <)f sympathy 
 with the insurgents, a reward was offered for him, and he 
 escaped to Europe, but was recalled, and became premier 
 of Canada for some time, resigning his oflice in 1851. In 
 18j3 ho became chief justice of the queen's beach, a baronet 
 in 18j4. and d. in Montreal Feb. 20, IStU. 
 
 La Fourclio, parish of S. E. Louisiana, bounded S. 
 and S. E. by the Gulf of Mexico and Barataria Bay. Tho 
 surface is flat, and abounds in lakes and bayous, often 
 navigable. Ahuig the Bayou La Fourchearesomeof the best 
 lands in the Attakapas region. Rice, sugar, molasses, and 
 corn are leading products. Area, 102j square miles. Cap. 
 Thiboiieaux. Pop. 14,710. 
 
 La Fonrche, a bayou in S. E. Louisiana, an outlet of 
 the Mississippi, which begins at I>i>naldsonville on the right 
 banU, and flows S. E. through the parish of La Fourche In- 
 terior to the Gulf of Mexico, with a total lengtii of 150 
 miles. Il is navigable by sieamboats for about 100 miles 
 from its mouth, and is one of the principal channels of com- 
 munication between the Gulf and the interior. 
 
 + Fortifving Barataria (Grand Terre Island) or the passes of 
 Barataria Bav formed no part of the services rendered by these 
 nt'-n. When' the writer, twt^nty-one years after the bailh* of 
 New Orleans, visited (irand Terro Island, scarcely a trace of Laf- 
 flte'8 occupatlou remained.
 
 LAFUENTE— LAG RANGE. 
 
 1607 
 
 Lafacn'te (Modesto), b. at Revnnal do los Caballeroa, 
 near CcrviTii. Spain. May 1, ISnii: studied philosophy and 
 theology at Leon aud atthc I'nivcrsity ol' Santiago Com- 
 postclla: became in 1S30 professor of rhetoric, and after- 
 varda of philosophy, at Astorga; began in JSll to publish 
 under the pseudonym of " Fray (ierundio " a scries of sa- 
 tirical cssavs, and' in 185(1 issued the fir.«t volume of an 
 elaborate Htmimj of Spain, completed in l>^fi2 in 2G vols. 
 
 Lngcr Beer. See BtEn, by Piio:-. C. F. CitAXDLER. 
 
 La'go Maggio're, the longcstof the lakes of Northern 
 Icily, situated between Piedmont, Lombardy, aud the Swiss 
 canton of Ticino, and traversed, or rather formed, by the 
 river Ticino, which carries its waters to the Po, is 40 
 miles long aud 2 miles broad, and remarkable for the beauty 
 of its aceuery. wild, rugged granite mountains alternating 
 TFith vincelad hills. 
 
 Lagomy'id.'B [from Lagomys, Xnyu;, "hare," and »»"s. 
 "miuse," and -idx], a family of mammals of the order 
 Glire.t or Kodesti.\ (which see), anil sub-order Duplieiden- 
 tau, externally resenibliug a guinea-pig [Cftvia apcrcn) 
 an I to sonic extent a rabbit, having a squat body, with the 
 binder limbs not very greatly exceeding the fore ones, the 
 back arched, and the bu'tocks projecting backward: the 
 heal is deep, but the profile scarcely arched backward; the 
 eyes small, the snout hare-like, the ears short, and the tail 
 almost wanting. The skull is depressed, the rostral portion 
 motleratelv produced and narrow, and the interorbital area 
 narrow and without well-delined supraorbital processes; the 
 orbits are oval and rather small ; the nasal processes of the 
 Bupramaxillary bones have each a single largo aperture, 
 and are not perforated in a sieve-like manner; the lower 
 jaw h-is the ascending rami nearly vertical and the con- 
 dyles correspondingly advanced, and the angular processes 
 extend very little forward. The teeth have the four upper 
 and two lower incisors (j ;< 2) characteristic of the Diipli- 
 cidentati, and five molars in each jaw ( M. j ; P. M. § X 2) ; 
 the upper are (as in the Lcpuridiu) mostly (M. 2 ; P. M. 1) 
 provided with vertical grooves on the outer as well as inner 
 surface, and three transverse ridges of enamel, but on the last 
 "asinall extra Ioop"i3 developed; the molars of the lower 
 j.iw have each the groove on the outer surface, as well as 
 inner, very strong. The clavicles are wanting. This fam- 
 ily includes a few species combined in one genus ( Lfif/rtiiii/i, 
 Cuv.), which was formerly associated with the hares and 
 rabbits in the same family; but the numerous diiVcrenees 
 between the two groups have caused modern mammalogists 
 to separate Ihcm. The Lagomyidte are of amalUr sine than 
 most Leporida>, tho largest not exceeding the guinea-pig in 
 Bize; they inhabit cold mountain-regions, and species are 
 found in Xorthern Asia and Eastern Europe, as well as tho 
 Himalaya Mountains and tho Rocky Mountains, the latter 
 being the Lnijumtjn pvincept of Richardson, or the " little 
 chief hare." Tiieodoke Gii,l. 
 
 Lagoon' [Lat. Incimii, a "hollow;" Sp. layuna], a shal- 
 low lake, usually eommuuicating with the sea or with some 
 river. The name is also given to the water enclosed in 
 tho atolls or circular coral islands. 
 
 La'gOS, a British colony on the coast of Dahomey, W. 
 Africa, extending from tho river Yerewa to Ode. Pop. 
 obnut OO.UDii, uf whom less than lOn are whites. The prin- 
 cipal settlement is on tho island of Lagos in tho Bight of 
 Benin, at the mouth of the Ikorodu Lagoon, from which it 
 derives its name. The territory uuiler British protection 
 extends only Ul or 12 miles inland. The trading-posts are 
 Ba'lagry, Palma, and Leekie. the exports being palm oil, 
 cotton, indigo, and groundnuta. The town of Lagos has a 
 population of .'SO.OOU, is the seat of Catholic and Wesleyan 
 missions. AVas once famous for the slave-trade, but was 
 conquered in ISJl, and ceded to Great Britain in 1801. 
 
 Lagos, town of Portugal in the province of Algarvo, 
 on the western side of a large bay. The harbor, however, 
 is not lit for large vessels. Pop. HiMO. 
 
 Lagos, city, capital of a canton of tho same name in 
 the stale of Jalisco, Mexico, near tho frontier of tho state 
 of (iuauajuain, noted for its fine churches and factories, and 
 for the abundant dcpusils of iron ore in the vicinity. It is 
 acentral point in .Mexico, and as sueh has been designated as 
 the place of juEietion of the three principal railroa<l» to be built 
 by governincnl aid, and which will cunneit Lagos rcspeet- 
 ivelv with the eily of Mexico, with the Rio Grande, and 
 with tho Pacific. Pop. about 25,1100; of canton, 1)0,000. 
 
 Lagosto'mintc ffrom Laitottontun, Aaywc " hare," and 
 o-ron". ■■ month." and -in/r], a sub-family "f the family 
 Chinehillidrt). whose only known species is ilistinguishcJ 
 by a rat-like form, but with a bushy tail, a broad muffle, 
 upper lip with a vertical groove like a hare's (ami hence 
 tho name), moilerate ears, ami imperfect feel — i'. e. tho an- 
 terior with four toes, and the pnslerior with three, the for- 
 mer having eoinparativcly short and pointed nails, and tho 
 
 latter long, compressed, and acutely-pointed ones; tho 
 molar teeth have mostly only two narrow lamelUe, but in 
 the hindermost u]ipor ones are three. But one species is 
 known — the viscacha or Ltujniii<,mua lrii:hodaclijhis or muxi- 
 mu»; it is a characteristic animal of the Pampas of South 
 America, where it burrows in a clayey or sandy soil; it 
 has the singular habit of bringing to the mouth of its bur- 
 row every hard object which takes its fancy, such as bones 
 and stones. Theodoue Gili.. 
 
 Lago'tis, or Lagidium, a genus of the chinchilla 
 family of mammuls. with two species, L. Cnvteri and L. 
 patlipes, is tho mountain viscacha. inhabiting the west- 
 ern slope of tho .\ndcs in Chili, Peru, and Ecuador, and 
 must not be confounded with the viscacha of the plains 
 (Lnr/oatomiu). It is about the size of a hare, and burrows 
 in tile rocks. The fur is long and soft, and falls out as soon 
 as the animal is dead. 
 
 La Grande, post-tp.. cap. of Union co., Or., on the 
 S. side of tirandc Ronde Valley, SO miles S. E. of Walla 
 Walla, and on the line of the projected Portland Dalles 
 and Salt Lake R. R., has Federal and State land-offices, is 
 supported by its proximity to the mines of Eastern Oregon 
 and Idaho, and is eslcbratcd for the even temperature and 
 heallhfulncss of its climate. There is a weekly newspaper. 
 Pop.' 6 10. E. S. McCoMAS, Rfjhler Stule Lands. 
 
 La Grange, county of X. E. Indiana, bounded N. by 
 Michigan. Area, oS4 square miles. Its surface generally 
 consists of level ami productive oak-openings. Cattle, 
 grain, wool, and lumber arc leading products. It is trav- 
 ersed by the (Iraod Rapids and Indiana R. R. Cap. La 
 Grange. Pop. 14, US. 
 
 La Grange, a v. of Colbert co., near the N. W. corner 
 of Alabama, scat of La l5rango College, a thriving Presby- 
 terian institution founded in ISIiO. 
 
 La Grange, ip. of Lafayette co., Ark. Pop. 2784. 
 
 La Grange, post-v. of Richland tp., Phillips co.. 
 Ark., 15 miles N. W. of Uelena. Pop. G2. 
 
 La Grange, post-v. and tp., cap. of Troup co., Ga., 71 
 miles S. W. of Atlanta, on the .\tlanta and West Point R. R., 
 has 5 churches, 2 banks, 2 hotels, 2 female colleges, 1 nialo 
 high school, 1 steam grist-mill, 1 furniture manufactory, 34 
 stores, sonic of the finest flower-gardens in tho South, aud 1 
 weekly newspaper, the oldest in tho Sttitc, which won tho 
 $50 gold medal atthe Georgia State fair in 1S73. Pop. 2053. 
 .1. T. Wateumax, Ei>. "La Grange Rei'ohter." 
 
 La Grange, tp. of Bond eo., III. Pop. lOCO. 
 
 La Grange, poat-v., cap. of La Grange co., Ind.. in 
 tho centre of the county, on the Grand Rapids and Indiana 
 R. R'., 15 miles N. W. of Fort Wayne, has 4 churches, 2 
 banks, 1 weekly newspaper, 2 school-houses, 1 large hotel, 
 and tho usual number of slores and shops. Pop. 1038. 
 JcjiiN II. Rahick, Ed. "Stanuahd." 
 
 La Grange, Ip. of Harrison co., la. Pop. 308. 
 
 La Grange, post-v., cap. of Oldham eo., Ky., on tho 
 Louisville arol Cincinnati R. R., near the junction of tho 
 Lexington and Louisville R. R. Pop. 612. 
 
 La Grange, post-tp. of Penobscot co.. Me., on tho 
 Bangor and Piscataquis R. R. It has good water-power 
 and manufactures of lumber, etc.. and is the site of a re- 
 markable ridge, the result of glacial action. Pop. 622. 
 
 La Grange, post-v. and tp. of Cass co., Mich., 4 miloa 
 N. W. of Cassopolis. Pop. 1884. 
 
 La Grange, city of Lewis eo.. Mo., on the Mississippi 
 River and Mississippi Valley and Western R. R., 175 miles 
 above St. Louis. II above tjuiney. 111., and 30 below Keo- 
 kuk, la., has II chuivhcs. 2 hotels, 1 national bank, I 
 savings bank, 1 weekly newspaper, a chartered enllege, 
 tobacco manufactories, several largo flouring and planing 
 mills, a mammoth rolling-mill for turning out railroad iron, 
 and considerable river mule. Incorporateil as a city in 
 lh53. Pop. 1576. It. M. Wai.i.aie, En. " Demociiat." 
 
 La Grange, tp. of Dutchess co.. N. Y. It is traversed 
 by the Duiehess and Columbia R. R., and contains several 
 villages. Pop. 1774. » 
 
 La Grange, post-v. of Lenoir co., N. C._. on tho Allan- 
 tie and .N.irtb Carolina R. R., II miles from'Gcdilsborongb, 
 hap 2 churches. 2 curriage-shiqis. 4 secret societies, 1 feninlo 
 high school, I weekly newspaper, and ships annually 3000 
 bales of cotton. Pop. about 300. 
 
 B. W. Nasii. Ed. "Baptist Review." 
 
 La Grange, a v. of Wells tp., JelTrrson eo..O.. on tho 
 Ohio River and on tho Cleveland and Pittsburg R. R. 
 (Phillipsburg P. 0.1. Pop. 228. 
 
 La Grange, post-v. and tp. of T,orain eo., O., on tho 
 Clev. laii.l I'..luml.u8 and Cincinnati R. R., 24 miles S. W. 
 of Cleveland. Pop. LiOU.
 
 1608 
 
 LA GRANGE— LA HAKPE. 
 
 La Grange, post-v. of Bell co.^ Tenn., oa tho Mem- 
 phis ami Charleston R. R. Pop. 760. 
 
 La Grange, post-v., cap. of Fayette co., Tex., on the 
 E. bank of Colorado River, 25 miles from Columbus, 20 
 miles S. of the Central R. K.. and 14 miles N. of the '" Sunset 
 Route," has 4 churches, 4 schools, 2 weekly newspapers, a 
 public hall, and 20 or more business-houses. Pop. HGo. 
 J. J. GosSLER, Ed. " New Era." 
 
 La Grantee, post-v. and tp. of Walworth co.. Wis., 8 
 miles E. of White AVatcr, a station on the Milwaukee and 
 Mississippi R. R. Pop. 1039. 
 
 Lagrange' (Joseph Lons), b. at Turin Jan. 25, 1736; 
 d. at Paris Apr. 10, 1S13. He was, by the rivalship of La- 
 place only, says Prof. Nichol, prevented from " bein;; held, 
 by comiuon consent, the most illustrious geometer of mod- 
 ern times." Though born in Italy, as his name indicates, 
 ho was of French extraction. At the age of nineteen ho 
 was made a professor of geometry in the Royal School of 
 Artillery. In 1766 he was invited to Berlin by Frederick 
 11. (who as the "greatest king" expressed the desire to 
 have the "greatest mathematician " of Europe at his court) 
 to succeed Euler as mathematical director of the Academy, 
 of which he was made president. Here he wrote his Me- 
 cnuiffite Anufiftirfue. After the death of Frederick (17S6) 
 he received invitations from the sovereign of his native 
 Sardinia, as well as those of Naples and Tuscany, but ulti- 
 mately accepted one in 17S7 to take his residence at Paris 
 (receiving a pension from the Academy, of which he had 
 been elected in 1772 a foreign associate), where the rest of 
 his lite wa? passed. 
 
 The method of the Variation of Parameters, expounded 
 to a certain point by Euler, but perfected by Lagrange, is 
 one of his important contributions to analytical mechanics. 
 The ellipse which a planet would describe around the sun 
 were there no other attraction undergoes fluctuations of 
 form by attractions of other heavenly bodies. The essence 
 of the method in question is that, holding fast to the idea 
 of the simple curve — the ellipse — though it be never real- 
 ized, the actual motion of the body is conceived to be on 
 an elliptic curve, the pantinctern (or elliptic elements) of 
 which are ever varying through the disturbing action of 
 foreign attractions. To subject this motion, which under 
 the name of "revolving orbits" had its origin with New- 
 ton, to .analytical calculation, and to determine the in- 
 fluence of each planet in disturbing the elliptic motion of 
 othi^rs, was the problem the solution of which is in great 
 degree due to Lagrange. As a natural sequence to this 
 problem arising out of this perpetual change in the planet- 
 ary orbits comes the greater problem of the ataffilit^ mid 
 pernntneiice of the solar sifateniy the establishment of which 
 is Lagrange's greatest achievement. Tbe orbits being thus 
 in constant fluctuation, it is of the highest interest to know 
 whether the resulting changes be necessarily limited in 
 amount, or whether they will progressively increase until 
 the Htubilitij of the solar system sball be destroyed. 
 
 Lagrange demonstrated (though Laplace had preceded 
 him with a partial demonstration) that the fluctuation of 
 the orbital elements is limited to small amounts, and is 
 periodic, extending, however, through long periods of time. 
 Thus, €. <f,, the eccentricity of the earth's orbit, now dimin- 
 ishing, will continue to do so for 21.000 years, and then 
 begin to increase. At the same time the apsides and nodes 
 are in motion. The grand cycle of the earth's perihelion, 
 which coincided with the vernal equinox 4089 years B. C. 
 (about the date ehronologcrs assigned to the biidieal as- 
 count of the Creation), will be eoitipletcd in 110,000 years, 
 
 "Some of the (orbital) ellipses." says Prof. Forbes (6th 
 Dissertation, Eucyc. lint.), "will elongate, whilst others tend 
 to become circles; their planes will vary in inclination, but 
 ultimately be stayed within the limit which human saga- 
 city had predicted myriads of years before. * These.' says a 
 French analyst, * arc the jiendulums of elernity, which beat 
 ages whilst ours beat seconds.* And amidst all these varia- 
 tions, subject to law and to impassable limits, the Major 
 Axes of the orbits preserve a steadfast uniformity, or are 
 subject only to transient fluctuations ; and thus permanence 
 arises in the midst of tfhange, and the perfection of the sys- 
 tem is demonstrated by the very nature of the disturbances 
 which seemed at one time inevitably to limit its duration." 
 " These results may be considered as among the most 
 astonishing with which science brings us acquainted. 
 The range of insight which man has acquired into the past 
 and future history of the universe throughout periods cora- 
 jiarcd to which the whole existence of his species is but a 
 epan, enhances our admiration of the reasoning power 
 which can attain to knr)wledgc so high and excellent." 
 
 Laplace had asserted the invariability of the major axes 
 of the planetary orbits, which involves the fort of stability. 
 But Lagrange, says Prof. Niehol, "from a higher flight, 
 showed the necetaity of that stability;" and that it resolts 
 
 I from the ditipogitions of the elements in nearly the same 
 plane — the almost circular form of the orbits, and the uni- 
 furni direction of the motions therein. The iniportunce of 
 such assurance is enhanced when one is reminded that 
 Newton believed that our system contaiaed the seeds of 
 dissolution. 
 
 After the mention of these two opera mngiin of Lagrange, 
 his miunr works, though there is scarce a topic in physical 
 astronomy or in mechanics or pure mathematics which he 
 has not touched and shed liglit upon, must be passed by 
 without notice. (A very complete enumeration and analysis 
 of his writings is attached to his biography in the 8th ed. 
 of the Kucye. Brit.) Happy in the atlectionate attach- 
 ment of the young wife he at the age of fifty-six had mar- 
 ried (his first wife dying soon after marriage, twenty years 
 before), living in intimate relations with Laplace, Euler, 
 D'AIenibert, and other renowned contemporaries, escaping 
 the misfortunes to which the French Revolution subjected 
 nearly all his contemporaries, and retaining throughout his 
 scientitic appointments, Lagrange's residence in Paris was 
 tranquil, and he died universaily respected and regretted. 
 "Take him as a whole," says Prof. Nichol, "abstnict sci- 
 ence has in modern times possessed no other servant so 
 great." J. G. Barsard. 
 
 La Granja, or Sau Ildefon'so, town of Spain, in 
 the province (»f Segovia, with a magnificent palace built 
 in 1724^ by Philip V., and situated about 4000 feet above 
 the sea. Here Maria Christina was surprised (Aug. 13, 
 I83fi) by a number of conspirators and compelled to restore 
 the constitution of 1S12. Pop. 3S50. 
 
 La Greux, tp. of Arkansas co., Ark. Pop. 355. 
 
 La Gro, post-v. and tp. of Wabash co., Ind., is on 
 the Toledo Wabash and Western R. R., W' abash and Erie 
 Canal, and Wabash River. Pop. of v. 519; of tp. 4066. 
 
 La Guay'ra, town of Venezuela, South America, the 
 harbor of Caraccas, on a narrow strip of land between the 
 sea and the wall of the inland plateau, which rises at onea 
 to a height of about 3000 feet. It is one of the hottest 
 places on earth, very unhealthy, and often visited by earth- 
 quakes. Its harbor is an entirely open roadstead, where 
 the water is always agitated, and where loading and un- 
 loading are very difiicult. It is nevertheless the principal 
 port of Venezuela, and the importation of manufactured 
 goods and the exportation of coffee, cacao, cotton, sugar, 
 indigo, and hides are extensive. Pop. about 8000. 
 
 La Gueronnierc, de (Lons Ktiexne Arthur Dt?- 
 BRKriL Hkliux), Viscoi XT, b. in Poitou, France, in 1816. 
 In 18J0 ho became chief editor of the Puye- and attracted 
 great attention by his Portraits polit it jtttn o^ Louis Napo- 
 leon and the count of Chambord. After the ctmp d'hat 
 of Bee. 18jI, ho became a decided supporter of Napo- 
 leon, was elected a deputy, became a member of the Con- 
 aeil d'£tat (1853), and took charge in tlie ministry of 
 the interior of the delicate relations of the government 
 to the press and to literature, in which capacity his con- 
 ciliating manners enabled him to discharge his functions 
 with advantage. In ISGl he was made senator, and be- 
 came one of the most popular orators, especially on the 
 questions relating to Italy and to home government. In 
 1S6S he was made ambassador to Belgium. Ao a writer, 
 M. do La Gueronnidre became tbe most trusted organ of the 
 Napoleonic policy, and his pamphlets {brochure*) were 
 often the first indication of coming events. 
 
 La HarpC) post-v. and tp. of Hancock co.. UK, on the 
 Toledo Peoria and Warsaw R. R.. at the junction of the 
 Burlington branch. It has 1 weekly newspaper. Pop. 1741. 
 
 La Harpe, de (Fhkokric Cesah), b. at Rolle in the 
 canton of Vaud. Switzerland, in 1754 ; studied law at the 
 University of Tdbingcn : became tutor to a younir Kussian 
 nobleman, with whom he travelled through Italy and 
 France, and was recommended by Baron t^rimm to Cath- 
 arine II., who appointed him tutor to her two grandsons, 
 Alexander and Constantinc. His enthusiasm for the 
 French Revolution made his stay in Russia somewhat diffi- 
 cult, and in 171'3 he left the country, but received a pension 
 for life, and resided partly in tienevn, partly in or near 
 Paris, until 1S14. On his visit to Paris the emperor Alex- 
 ander received his former tutor with great esteem, made 
 him a Russian general, and exercised through him consid- 
 eralile influence on the political reorganization of Switxer- 
 land. In I8I7 returned to Lausanne. D. Mar. 30, 1838. 
 
 La Harpc, de (Jean Frax^ois), b. at Paris Nov. 20, 
 1731); made his debut as a poet in 1759 with a volume of 
 ffrro'idefi, wrote Waririck- ( 1763), Tinudeon ( 1764), and two 
 other tragedies ; was in 176S literary critic on the Merciire 
 dr France ; gained several prizes from the Academy; ob- 
 tained applause by a drama, Meiauie, oh la lieliffieit^e 
 (1776) : was elected member of the Academy, and in 1786 
 appointed professor of literature at the oewly-establisbed
 
 LAIIASKA— LAITY. 
 
 1609 
 
 LycC'C. Hero largo audiences gathered year after year to 
 hear his lectures on literature, from which originated his 
 best worlc. ('onm de hi titt/rttfiirc nnct'emie ct inotlente {10 
 voU., nyO-ISOo). Embraced the Revolution with great 
 enthudiasin, and lectured with the red cap on hie head. 
 Was nevertheless arrested and kept in prison for some time, 
 and this incident wrought a sin<;ular change in him; the 
 philofiopher of the school of Voltaire beearae a fervent 
 Cath'tlic. As a poet, La Ilurpe is entirely forgotten, but 
 his Count fit; ta littfrntHfe is still an interesting and instruc- 
 tive book, in spite of the superficiality and harshness with 
 which some parts are treated. D. Feb. 11, 180-'{. 
 
 Ijahas'kaf po^^t-v. of nuckingham tp., Bucks co., Pa., 
 6 miles N. K. of Doylestown. 
 
 Lahijail% town of Persia, in the province of Ghi Ian. near 
 the Caspi.ni Sea. It has some silk mLinufactures. Pop. "000. 
 
 La IIoutan% de (Aumaxd Loris de Dklondaiue). 
 BviEON, b. near Alont dc Marsan, Ciascony, France, about 
 Itl(i7j camo to Canada, probably 0^3 a private soldier, in 
 I6S:i, in one of the companies of marines sent by Gov. de 
 la liarre agaiust the Iroquois, and was afterward in De- 
 DOQvillo's expedition against the SenccaSi being stationed 
 successively at Chambly and at Forts Frontenac, Niagara, 
 and .'^t. Jiisoph's. In ItiGS he was sent to Michilimackinac 
 and .*^auU .Ste. Marie, was at Green Bay in KiG'J, and pre- 
 tended to have explored the head-waters of a branch of 
 the Mississippi. Returning to Quebec, he sailed for 
 Franco in lO'JO, came back the following year, and was 
 sent by Count Frontenac witli despatches to the French 
 government announcing the failure of Sir WilHiim Pliipps' 
 expedition against Quebec, The vessel put in to Placentia, 
 Newfoundland, and La Ilontan rendered such good service 
 in defending that port from an attack by the English that 
 ho received a command as lieutenant in Newfoundland 
 and Acadia. In lOUil he became involved in difliculties 
 with the governor, mado his escape to Portugal in a mer- 
 chant vessel, and thence passed to Spain, Denmark, and 
 England. Having been dismissed from the French service, 
 and being unsuccessful in his endeavors for reinstatement, 
 he published at the Hague in 170,'i his adventures in America 
 under the title Xomcnux. \'tn/a;/r9 tie M. te bnrnn de La- 
 hutttnn ilan» I' Ameriffue S*jjlentrinii<ile (2 vols.), and added 
 a third volume, iJinlot/ue tie if. Ic baron de Lahontaa et 
 d'uH tauvntje dunn i' AuUiitfue, avcc lea rut/af/ea du mime en 
 /'oWtiya/ (Amsterdam, 1704). These volumes were widely 
 Girculatc<l, bnt are entirely untrustworthy for details of 
 fact, the geography and ethnography of the upper Missis- 
 sippi being completely fictitious, though lung relied upon 
 by compilers, U. in Hanover in 1715, 
 
 Lahore', the jirincipal city of the Punjaub, British 
 Iniiia, ;<ituatrd on tlie western bank of the Ravee, in lat. 
 :U^;ili'N. and Ion. "I^IH'E. The eity itself is surrounded 
 with a high brick wall, and consi.-^ls mostly of narrow, 
 dirty, and overerowtled streets between high houses, which 
 present only bare walls toward the streets. But it has 
 many magnilicent Mohammedan mosques and Hindoo 
 temples, iiri'l its extensive bazaars arc well stocked. Out- 
 side the wall arc other fortifiealioiis, strctehing 7 miles in 
 circuit, enclosing the most bcautit'ul antl luxuriant gardens 
 and promenades, interspersed with large monuments and 
 ruins of tlie former Hfilendor of the city, when it was tho 
 residenee of the Mogul emperors iind luul I.IIDOJHIO inhab- 
 itants. Sinec I'SPJ it has been a Ih'ilit'h po^scsi-ion. and it 
 is said to be rising again. Its present pop, is estimated at 
 about 100,000. 
 
 Lalir, town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden, 
 on tliu Shatter. It has some mamifaetures of sailcloth, 
 vine;^ir, tobacei>, and paper. Pop. 7103. 
 
 I^nh'sa^or Kl*.Vir»ta i whieh tatter word in the Arabio 
 language means a tract of land where (he water sinks 
 through tho surface, but is rt^tiiiiied by a lower layer), tho 
 name of an independent i|oniini<m, situated on tho eastern 
 shore of Arabia. 00 miles S. W. uf Katif. in lat. 2.>° 25' N., 
 Ion. -10° I.V E., anil comprising nn extensive valley, fertile 
 and well watered, and a largo capital, tlmirishing and well 
 built. Wheat, millet, and all kinds of fruits and vegetables 
 are cultivated, and horses and sheep are extensively reared, 
 but dales and camels arc the two principal items of tho 
 wealth of tho country. The population of (he distriet 
 numbers about 50,000 ; of tho town, about lO.iMHI. The 
 former namo of tho tribe and its abode was Iledjaz. A 
 small trilmlo is annually paid to tho Turkish sultan. 
 
 Iini'l>aeh« or Laybnoh, town of Austria, cap. of 
 duehy of ''arniidn, beautifully siluatrd on n plain on a river 
 of the same name, on the nmd from Vienna to Trieste, is 
 an olil town, with some manufaetures, n eonsidorabJo trade, 
 many good edueational institutions, and several intoresting 
 buildings ; as, for instance, the cathedral of St. Nicholas, 
 the G.ithio town-house, the castle- and tho palace of Count 
 Aueraberg. Pop. 23,032. 
 
 Laid'lie ( ARriiiBAi-n), D. D., b, at Kelso, Scotland, Dec. 
 4, 1727: graduated nt the University of Edinburgh: was 
 ordained in 1 75'.'. and was for four years pastor of the Scotch 
 church at Flushing, Holland, where he acquired a know- 
 ledge of the l>uteii language and the theology of Ihc He- 
 formed (Dutch) Church, with which ho was thenceforth 
 conneeted. As a consetpieneo of a sharp controversy in 
 New York as to the language to bo used in preaching to 
 the churches founded by the Dutch colonists. Dr. Laidlie 
 was called to the pastorate of the Collegiate church, and on 
 Apr. 15. 1704, preached at the Mitldle Dutch church the 
 first English sermon addressed by a regular pastor to an 
 American Dutch congregation. His ministry was marked 
 with great popularity and success. Early in the war of 
 the Revolution ho retired from New York to Red Hook, 
 N. J., where he d. in 1778. 
 
 Laing ( Ai.i-:xAM)i:u GoutxiNl.b. in Edinburgh. Scotland, 
 Dee. 27, 1701. entered the British iirniy : served some 3'enr3 
 in the West Indies, and was in ISl^O aide-de-camp to the 
 governor of Sierra Leone. AVas employed in negotia- 
 tions with African chieftains for the supjiression of the 
 slave-trade, and explored the upper course of the Niger. 
 Returning to England, was promoted to the rank of 
 major, nnil in 1820 undertook an overland journey from 
 the Meiliterranean to the Gulf of Guinea. Setting out 
 from Tripoli in July with a caravan of native traders, 
 reached Timbuctno in August, but was s<ion after murdered 
 near that city. Hud [lublishid an account of his earlier 
 explorations. Travels throHtjh the Tlnumncc, Kooraitkoy and 
 SoolliiKt Cinintriea to the Sources of the Rokelle and Niger 
 (London. 1825). 
 
 Laillg (Mau'OI.m), h. on tho island of Mainland, Ork- 
 neys, in 1702; studiecl at the University of Edinburgh, ond 
 was called to the bar in 17.'^5, but devoted himself chiefly 
 to literature. Wrote a continuation (»f Henry's JIiHtory 
 of Great Itrita'in (17^5), and a ffiM(<»ri/ of Scotland frovi the 
 Union of the (h'ownn to the Union of the Kinf/do/im (ISOO), 
 with dissertations on tho Gowry conspiracy and on tho 
 Ossian poems, adding in the second edition an essay ar- 
 guing the guilt of Mary Queen of Scots in the murder of 
 Darnicy. Was eleeted o member of Parliament in 1S07, 
 and d. in the Orkneys in Nov., 1818. 
 
 Laillg (SAMfKL). of Rapdale, Orkney, brother of Mal- 
 colm, was author of several of the most instructive works 
 of travel published in the ju'cscnt century. Among them 
 are books on Xorwai/ {IS'M), Sictdcn (IS.'iS). Xofcn of a 
 Trardlcr in Franrr^ Prwaiia, and Switzerland (1841), iSV>- 
 cial and PuUtical State of the European People in IS/fS and 
 IS49 {\^o(\), and Ohnervations on the Social and Political 
 State of Denmark (IS52). 
 
 Lainf;(SAMii:i.),b. at Edinburgh, Scotlnnd. in 1810, son 
 of Samuel Laiiig the traveller; graduate'! nt Cambridge 
 (is;i2j, and at Lincoln's Inn; was admitted to the bar in 
 1840; became private secretary of Mr. Labouchere. presi- 
 dent of tho board of trade, ami afterward a member of tho 
 railway commission, and had much to ilo with the relations 
 of tho government to the railways, then bi-ing rapidly ex- 
 tentlod. To his eft'orfs the public were indebted for tho 
 convenience of " juirlianienlary trains" at a minimum rate 
 of payment of one penny per mile. In I8IH he became 
 eluiiriuitn of the Brighton Railway Company, in IS.>2 
 chairnnm ol the Crystal Palace Company; entered Parlia- 
 ment in 1852 for his native district ; was finaneial secretary 
 to the treasury in 1859, and wont to India in I8fi0 as min- 
 ister of finance. Returning in 1805, he again entered Par- 
 liament, and resumed in 1807 tho chairmanship of the 
 Brighton Railway Company. 
 
 Lniiips'hurf;, posl-v. of Shiawassee eo., Mich., on (he 
 Jaekson Lansing and Snginaw R. R. It has manufaoturcB 
 of castings and lumber. 
 
 Lnird I.Toun). h. at Grcenoek, Scotland, in 1805, was 
 the lirst buibler of iron steamshijis in isjit. and was for 
 many years head of the great firm of .lohn Laird A Sons, 
 iron shipbuilders and engineers at Birkenhe»d. near Liver- 
 pool, As builder of the Conferlcrate jirivnteer Alabama 
 his name has become a part of the history of the American 
 civil war. Mr. Laird filled many posts of responsibility in 
 conneetion with eiunmeree and jiublie works, ancl was a 
 member of Parliament from iHOl until his death at Birken- 
 hen.i. O.-t. 2'.i. IS7I. 
 
 liair^A StntioUt postv. of Harrison co.. Ky., on tho 
 Kentueky Central R. R. 
 
 I<n'itv [remotely from the Gr. Aadc, the " pe<tple'*]. a 
 term ehietly used to distinguish the unordaineil peopio 
 from the elergy. The term is also sometimes employed by 
 persons in the professions of medieine and law to distin- 
 guish non-professional from professional persons. So also 
 mi'tnbers of certain voluntary associations speak of tho un- 
 initiated OS the laity. Convents have lay brothers and lay 
 sisters and lay eldors, lay prooohors.
 
 IGIO 
 
 LAJAED— LAKE. 
 
 M 
 
 Liuard' (Jean Baptiste Felix), b. at Lyons, France, 
 ar :iO, 1783; aocouipaniuJ as secretiiry a mission to Per- 
 sia in lSn7; liccuino iuturested in the study of OrifUtal re- 
 li'ions and Oriental intlui-nccs upon ancient Orocci', and 
 iinido a fine colleetiou of cuneiform cylinders, wliieh were 
 obtained bv the luiiierial Library, liy tlic aid of the 
 labors of Boi.p and Schlegel in the young science ol com- 
 parative philologv, as well as by bis own researches. La- 
 iud was enabled to broach a theory of the common origin 
 of the races now called Arvan, which has since been con- 
 firmed in most points, lie filled diplomatic posts in Greece, 
 Russia, .and Penniark until the tall of Napoleon I. ; was 
 afterward employed in the liuaneial department; was elect- 
 ed in 18:!0 a member of the Academy of luscriptioos, and 
 wrote most of vols, xviii. and xi.\. of tho vast work edited 
 hv that body, nUl„u-e littcrairo ,le la Fmm-c, his oontri- 
 bntions bein<' upon tho early rabbins, soliolasties, and ju- 
 risconsults. Of his numerous and learned miscellaneous 
 writings, the most important is tho lleclurchet sur te Cnlle 
 publiiPrI Ut .T/:/./J,v» ,le MUhra en Orient ct en Occident 
 (Paris, 1S17-48'). V. at Tours in Sept., 1858. 
 
 Lakanal' (.Ioseph), b. at Seires, France, July 14, 1762 ; 
 studied theology ; became professor of ihetorio at Bourgcs, 
 and of pbilosophv at .Moulins: was elected to the National 
 Convention: dislin>;uished himself by his solicitude for the 
 io'c-P^t, of the sciences and of literature ; was the princi- 
 pal founder of the Museum of Natural llisloiy, of the 
 AcaAemy of Sciences, and other institutions of higher edu- 
 cation ; 'entered the Council of Five Hundred (17'.)5) ; was 
 professor at the Lvcee Charlemagne under tho consulate 
 and empire : was a' refugee in 1815. as having voted for tho 
 dea'hof Louis XVI.; settled in the U.S.; was favored by 
 Jefferson ; received from Congress a grant of 500 acres of 
 cotton-land in Alabama, and became a planter; was chosen 
 president of the University of Louisiana; returned to 
 France after the revolution of 1830 ; was re-elected to the 
 Academy of Sciences in 1831, and d. at Paris Feb. 14, 1845. 
 Lake [Lat. hicua], a body of water nearly or quite sur- 
 rounded bv land. Lakes derive their forms .and character 
 fr.ini the iialurc of their basins and tho region in which 
 tbev arc found. Mountain-lakes, being valleys filled by 
 runnin" streams, are long and narrow, rarely of great size, 
 but often of great depth. Lake George and Lake Cham- 
 plain in the Appalachian .Mountains, the lakes of Con- 
 s'ance. Zurich. Lucerne, and Geneva on the N. side, Lago 
 Ma'i-iore and Lago di Como on the S. side of the Alps, all 
 renowned for the beauty and loveline.«3 of their shores or 
 the grandeur of the surrounding seen.^ry. are fair cx.amples. 
 TheTr length exceeds their width twenty or thirty times. 
 The depth^of Lago M,ig;iore, which is hardly 3 miles wide, 
 reaches, according to the Italian engineers. 2f.l3 feet below 
 its surface, or more than double the depth of Lake Superior, 
 and 1921) feet below the level of the ocean. .-Jometimes their 
 forms arc very irregular, for the water of a mountain-lake 
 often covers several contiguous valleys, as in the Lago di 
 Como, with its two long branches, and the lakes of Lucerne 
 and Lugano, which owe their strange and crooked form to 
 the fact" that each fills four distinct valleys, crossing each 
 other almost at right angles. 
 
 Lakes in plains and plateaus, being simple depressions in 
 a uniform snrfaee, arc generally of larger size, and wider , 
 compared to their length, but relatively of no great depth, i 
 The larg'-sl lakes of the globe, the so-called Caspian and 
 Aral seas in Asia, the eciuatorial lakes of Central Africa, the 
 great North American lakes, and Lake Titieaca in South 
 America, all belong to this class. Their vast expanse and 
 the tamcness of their shores deprive them of the picturesque 
 beauties whicb adorn the mountain-lakes. 
 
 Most lakes receive and send forth large rivers, of which 
 tbev seein to bo an expansion. In their basins the wild 
 alpine torrents spend their force, and their muddy waters 
 flow out purified and transparent. The lakes arc thus the 
 regulators of the mountain-streams, preventing ilestructivo 
 freshets ; they perform the same office in the low plains. 
 
 Snii Lnkct. — Numerous lakes, however, in the interior 
 of the continents, though receiving aflluents. have no out- 
 let, some of their water losing itself in the sandy ground, 
 but the greater portion passing into the atmosphere by 
 evaporation. These are usually filled with salt water. All 
 tho surf.ace of the continents being an olil sea-bottom, the 
 presence of salt is very natural. Fresh-water rivers and 
 lakes can only bo found after the surface has been thor- 
 ouzhly wa.dicd and the salt carried away by streams hav- 
 ing access to the ocean. The Caspian and the Aral seas, 
 nt^the bottom of the vast depression which lies between 
 Europe and .\sia, arc the most extensive salt lakes. The 
 Caspian Sea, though receiving tho Volga, the largest river 
 of Kurnpe, and many others of considerable size, evaporates 
 so much ivater that its surface has been found by the Unssian 
 academicians to be S3 feet below tlio level of the Mediter- 
 
 ranean, and varying with the seasons. Many lakes in tho 
 neighborhood ooze away during the summer, leaving a 
 pure, white crystalline crust of salt. One of them, tho 
 Ellon Lake, between tlic Volga and Ural rivers, furnishes 
 thus an annual crop of over 100.000 tons of salt. 
 
 More remarkable than all is the Dead .Sea, which lice in 
 the deepest part of a long valley, sunk from 4000 to 51.00 
 feet below the surrounding country, its surface being 1286 
 feet, and its bottom over 2500 feet, lower than the level of 
 the Mediterranean. Its feeder, the river Jordan, alone 
 among the streams of the earth. acconi)dishcs nc;irly its 
 wholc'career below the level of tlic sea. When expanding 
 into the Lake of Tiberias, the beautiful sheet of water whose 
 shores witnessed so many of Christ's miracles, it is nearly 
 C20 feet below the surface of tho Mciliterranean. I!y an- 
 other long step of over 610 feet downward its fresh waters 
 mingle with the bitter floods of the Dead Sea. In this last 
 reservoir the salt has accumulated so as to transform the 
 water into a heavy brine, which may be the remnant of an 
 ancient sea of miieh l»rger extent, gradually reduced by 
 evaporation to its present si/.c. The other continents have 
 also their salt lakes, and North America can boast of the 
 Great Salt Lake of Utah as one of the finest specimens of 
 its kind. 
 
 O'cntiraphical Dialiihiilmu <,/ intr».— Lakes are not uni- 
 formly spread over the contineuts. They are most numerous 
 in the northern regions of Asia, Europe, and North America, 
 but more thinly scattered farther S. and in the southern 
 continents. .\sia is pre-eminently the land of the salt 
 lakes. Both in its north-western steppes from the Caspian 
 to Lake B.alkash. and in its vast central highlands, they 
 occur in countless numbers. The Altai and Daourian 
 mountains, however, contain the largest alpine lakes, among 
 which the kingly Baikal, nearly 500 miles long, holds the 
 first place. 
 
 In Europe the most characteristic and celebrated are the 
 mountain-lakes which adorn the Alps of Switzerland and 
 Scandinavia, and the more modest chains of the British 
 Isles. But the greater number and the largest are found 
 on the slight swells an'l in lowlands which surround the 
 Baltic Sea in Northern Germany, Western Uussia, Finland, 
 and Sweden. The lakes of Ladoga and Onega in Kussia, 
 and those of Wcner and Wetter in Sweden, are the most 
 extensive among the European lakes. 
 
 In Africa the great platcau-lakcs ore typical of the 
 continent. The majestic Ukcrewe, or Victoria Nyanza, 
 and the Albert Nyanza at the sources of the White, the 
 Tzana at the head'of the Blue Nile, Lakes Bangwcolo and 
 Tanganyika, probable head-waters of the Congo, Lake 
 Nya"si in the Zambese basin, are all crowning the table- 
 lands of Central Africa. 
 
 But North .America is peculiarly rich in this respect. 
 Ko continent presents a more remarkable chain of large 
 lakes than that which stretches from N. W. to S. E. in the 
 Arctic plains, along the line of contact of the oldest geo- 
 logical formations, to the Appalachian Mountains, compris- 
 ing the Great Bear and Great Slave lakes. .Athabasca. Lake 
 Winnipeg, and the five great lakes from Superior to On- 
 tario, forming together the largest extent of fresh water 
 on the face of the earth. This abundance of lakes in the 
 northern part of the continent renders their almost com- 
 plete absence in the basin of the Mississippi the more re- 
 markable. AknoldGiyot. 
 
 Lake. This term is applied to pigments prepared by 
 com. lining animal or vegetable dyes with melnllic oxides, 
 usually alumina or oxide of tin. Almost all coloring-inatterB 
 may be made to produce lakes, but in practice a few only 
 
 arc found available for this purpose. 
 
 Lakes are used as 
 
 pigments for painting, for wall-paper, and in calico-print- 
 
 Itcd in/.v«.— (1) Carmine lake, called also Florentine, 
 Vienna, Munich, and Paris lake. This has a beautiful red 
 color, and is the finest of all lakes. It is made by adding 
 an alkali to a decoction of cochineal mixed with alum. In- 
 ferior cochineal, and the residues and mother-liquors from 
 the preparation of carmine, arc employed for carmine lake. 
 This lake was manufactured at Florence from kcrincs before 
 cochineal was known in Europe. A finer lake may be 
 made by adding freshly precipitated alumiua to the mother- 
 liquor from carmine. (2l -Madder lake(»ler. Krn/./.r.irmine) 
 is extensivclv prepared. It has a more or less deep rosc- 
 colnr. with a'bluish tint. The following is Persoz's process 
 for preparing it ; Madder is washed with cold water wherein 
 some sulphate of soda is previously dissolved, and boiled 
 for about twentv minutes, with ten times its weight of a 
 10 per cent, solution of alum free from iron. The liquid is 
 filtered and cooled to 40° or 35°. The red-colored solution 
 is then treated either (.i) by saturating cautiously with car- 
 bonate of soda equal to from one-tenth to one-eighth the 
 weight of the alum used, so as to cause the formation of a 
 i basic alum, which remains in solution, aud which is pre-
 
 LAKE. 
 
 1611 
 
 cipitatcd on boiling, as an insoluble basic sulphate of alu- 
 mina, bulilin;; ull tbe coloring-matter in combination. Or 
 III) by uililiii.; a solution of acclatc <pf Icail. containing 7S 
 parts of tbe s:»lt for every 100 of alura used, tiltering Irom 
 the precipitated sulphate of lead, and boiling to precipitate 
 a colored basic acetate of alumina. This is much finer than 
 tiiat precipitated by carbonate of so. hi. Flowers of madder, 
 garaucino. or other preparations of ma Jdcr may lie used iu 
 phice of tiic root. The coloring-matter of madder may be 
 extracted by an alkaline solution, and precipitated by alum. 
 (.!) lirazil-ivood lake, known also as Vienna ball-lake, Flor- 
 en:ine, Berlin, new lake, etc. The wood is boiled with 
 water, and the solution should be left some time to permit 
 certain impurities to .settle. The addition of a little glue 
 or skimmed milk is advantageous. A solution of alum and 
 tin crystals is added, ami precipitation effected by caustic 
 potash, taking care not to add an exe 'ss, or by carbonate 
 of soda. A slight excess of potash gives the lake a violet 
 tint. 
 
 Kio('f (inrf Purple Lakes. — (1) Logwood gives a violet 
 lake on the addition of an alum solution to its doeoction, 
 and precipitation cold by carbonate of potash. (2) Alknnet 
 yielrls a purple lake when tbe finely-cut roots are boiled 
 with potash, and the solution is precipitated by alum, 
 
 Yellmr Lnkef. — ( 1 ) Persian or French berries furn ish a yel- 
 low lake called Dutch pink. Potash or soda is ndiled to tbe 
 decoction, and then a solution of alum is poureil in as long 
 as a precipitate occurs. Tbe color is brightened by treat- 
 ing the moist precipitate with a tin solution. (2) Fustic 
 lake : the decoction of the wood is treated with a litllo gluo 
 or skimmed milk to remove tannic acid, then made alka- 
 line, anrl precipitated with alum. (.'!) Qiicrcilnm lake is 
 miide in the same manner. ( t) Weld lake is mjide in the 
 same manner. (5) .\nnofto lake: the aqueous solution of 
 annotto is mixed with carbonate of soda, heated to boiling, 
 and precipitated by an excess of alum. 
 
 Oiiiiige l.nko. — (I) Annotto: by boiling annotto with 
 carbonate of soila, and pre.'ipitating by alum or salt of tin, 
 an orange lake is obtained. The color is still deeper if the 
 annotto is fir.st boiled with water and the solution rejected. 
 (2) Turmeric boiled with potash and precipitated with alum 
 gives an orange lake. 
 
 IHhc inkm are seldom prepared. (1) Logwood solution 
 mixed with sulphate of copper, and precipitateil cold with 
 |icita-ib, gives a bine lake. (2) .'^ulphindigotic acid mixed 
 with alum, and precipitated with carbonate of potash, gives 
 a peculiar blue lake. 
 
 Urefn Lnkm are usually prepared by mixing blue and 
 yellow lakes, or blue pigments, such as Prussian blue, 
 ullratnarine, indigo, etc., with yellow lakes. ( I ) Coffet; 
 lake: a very good green lake is made by exhausting 1 
 pound of bruised collee-bcrrics with 1 gallon of water, ndtl- 
 ing 2\ to .3 pounds of sulyibate of copper, and precipitating 
 with caustic potash, avoiding an excess. Jly moistening the 
 precipitate with vinegjir anil exjiosing it to the air, its color 
 is bcighlencd. (2) Weld yields a green lake by similar 
 treatment; and liy adding alum to the sulphate of copper, 
 and precipitating by cold carbonate of potash, various tints 
 can be obtained. 
 
 Olfier Cohrg. — Lakes of other colors can be prepared in 
 a similar manner, but true lakes are rarely nmdo except 
 those of cochineal, madder, and Bra7.il-wood. Lakes of 
 great variety of shades may also be obtained by the substi- 
 tution of bismuth or antimony solutions for those of alum 
 and tin. 
 
 Ailullrrnlliiii of Lnkrt. — Starch, gypsum, China clay, 
 barytcs, etc. are extensively used to adulterate lakes, in- 
 creasing the yield at the sacrifice of brilliancy. To secure 
 Iburough mixture niih the lake, they are often added to 
 tbe solutions before prci-ipitation. 
 
 Aniline Liikf, so called, are not true lakes. They are 
 made of all colors. They are easily prepared by dissolv- 
 ing 1 gramme (IJ grains) of the aniline color in 4 kilo. (J 
 l)iut) of 9.) per cent, alcohol, adding 10 grammes (4 ounce) 
 gum copal, and when all is dissolved mixing in dry starch 
 to a uniform mass, which when dry is reduced to pnwdiT. 
 Aiirino produces a variety of beautiful precipitates if mixed 
 with metallic or earthy solutions, and (brown down by the 
 cautious addition of an alkiili. Tliese are merely bydrated 
 oxides or snb-salts, with wbieh tin' aurine is meebanically 
 ini'orporaled; on washing with distilled water they lose 
 their color. C. F. CMANnt.Kii. 
 
 I.nke, county of California, consisting of the valley of 
 ('lo:ir Lake, which is some SO miles N. of ."^iin Francisco. 
 It is enclosed by the Hear .Mountains on the I'l. and Mayn- 
 cannas Mountains on the W., both of which are arms of 
 the t^oast Uange. .Area, X'.',\\ sr|uaro miles. It contains 
 much excellent farming laud. Cattle, wool, and dairy 
 products are the agricultural staples. .><ulpbnr and borax 
 abound, the hitler especially iu Borax Lake, Cap. Lako- 
 port. Pop. 2»li9. 
 
 Lake, county of Colorado, extending W. from the 
 Rocky Jlountains to the E. border of Utah. Area, ICUD 
 square miles. In the E. part the -Arkansas River rises, 
 and also the Gunnison, one of the head-streams of tbe Col- 
 orado of the West, It abounds in timber. There are 
 m!iny lofty mountains iu the county. Gulch-mining for 
 gold is a leading pursuit. Cap. Dayton. Pop. 522. 
 
 Lake, unorganised county of S. E. Dakota. Area, 076 
 square miles. 
 
 Lake, county of X. E. Illinois, having Wisconsin on 
 the N. and Lake Michigan on the E. Area, 390 square 
 miles. It is level and fertile, the soil being a clayey loam. 
 Cattle, grain, and wool arc largely produced. The county 
 is traversed by two divisions of the Chicago and North- 
 western R. R. Cap. Waukegan. Pop. 21,014. 
 
 Lake, county of N. W. Indiana, having Lake Michi- 
 gan on tbe X., Illinois on the W., and Kankakee River on 
 the S. The extreme X. is sandy and the S. part morshy, 
 but tbe rest is very fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are. 
 staple pi-oducts. The county is traversed by several rail- 
 roads, mostly centring at Chicago. Area, 4S0 square miles. 
 Cap. Crown Point. Poji. \'l,'.'>'.\\i. 
 
 Lake, county of Michigan. Area, .576 square miles. 
 It is very level, and generally has a good soil, but is mostly 
 covered with forests. Pop. 548. 
 
 Lake, county of X.E. Minnesota, hounded N. by Can- 
 ada and S. E. by Lake Superior. -Area, HCOO square miles. 
 The lake shore is abrupt, and characlcri/.ed by numerous 
 short, rapid streams. The interior is a succession of pine- 
 covered ridges, diversified by numerous lakes and flat, 
 boggy tracts covered with small larch trees. Cap. Beaver 
 Bay. Pop. 135. 
 
 Lake, county of X. E. Ohio, bounded X. W. by Lake 
 Erie. Area, 220 square miles. It is undulating, and has 
 a productive clay soil. Iron ore is found. Live-stock, 
 grain, wool, and fruit arc leading products. Carriages, 
 l)riik. and lumber are important manufactures. The county 
 is traversed by the Lake Shore and the Painesville and 
 Yonngslown R. Rs. Cap. Painesville. Pop. 15,935, 
 
 Lake, county of X. W. Tennessee, bounded W. by Ihe 
 Mississip]ii River, N. by Kentucky, and E. by Rcelfoot 
 Lake and River. Area, 150 .square miles. It is level, well 
 wooded, and fertile, but partly subject to overfiow. Indian 
 corn is the staple product. Cap. liptonvillc. Pop. 242S. 
 
 Lake, tp. of Cook eo.. 111., contiguous to Chicago, on 
 the S. of that city. Pop. 3300. 
 
 Lake, tp. of Allen CO., Ind. Pop. 1309. 
 
 Lake, tp. of Xcwton Co., Ind., lying N. of Beaver 
 Lake. Poji. 378. 
 
 Lake. tp. of Cen-o Gordo eo., la. Pop. 11C4. 
 
 Lake, tp. of Monona Co., la. Pop. 17K. 
 
 Lake, Iji. of Muscatine CO., la. Pop. 843. 
 
 Lake, tp. of Dorchester co., Md. Pop. 1409. 
 
 Lake, tp. of Berrien co., Mich., on Lake Michigan. 
 Poji. 1002. 
 
 Lake, tp. of Huron co., Mich. Pop. 320. 
 
 Lake, tp. of Lake co., Mich. Pop. 28. 
 
 Lake, post V. of Scott CO., Miss., on the Vicksburgand 
 Meridian It. K. 
 
 Lake, tp. of Buchanan CO., Mo. Pop. 297. 
 
 Lake, tp. of Humboldt CO., Xov. Pop. 117. 
 
 Lake, Ip. of Ashland co., 0. Pop. 701. 
 
 Lake, tp. of Logan Co., 0. It contains Ihe city of 
 Bellefontaine. Pop. 3753. 
 
 Lake, posl-v. and Ip. (the former also called Cmox- 
 TOWS), .Stark co., 0., 12 miles S. E. of Akron. Pop. 2113. 
 
 Lake, tp. of Wood co., 0. Pop. 1120. 
 
 Lake, post-tp. of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 597. 
 
 Lake, tp. of Mercer co.. Pa. Pup. 524. 
 
 Luke, Ip. of Williamsburg co., S. C. Pop. 873. 
 
 Luke. Ip. of Milwaukee eo.. Wis., on Lake Michigan, 
 just S. of Milwaukee. Pop. 2974. 
 
 Lake (Gi:ii,inn), Visroi'NT, b, in England- ,Iuly 27, 1714 ; 
 entered the army in I75S; served in the closing ciimpaigns 
 of the Seven Years' war. in the American war (17S1), and 
 in Holland under the duke of York in 1793-91; rosololho 
 rank of general; was eonimnniler-in-cbief in Ireland dur- 
 ing the insurrection of 1797-9S: defoaled the rebels and 
 recovered Wexford .lune 21; ilefeated the French troops 
 under Humbert nt Killala Sept. .S ; was made commander- 
 iu-ebief in India in Isuil; conducted the Mahratta war 
 (1N03) with brilliant success, taking Delhi (Sept. 12), Agrft 
 (lint. 17), and winning the decisive victory of Lnsivareo 
 |N"V. I 1. which br.iu;;bl the .Mo-iil emiie.or i vassalage
 
 1612 
 
 LAKE BELT-LAKE SUKVEY. 
 
 e Charles, post-v., cap. of Calcasieu parish, La., 
 I on Lake Charles and Calcasieu River, .Ml miles N. 
 
 to England, for which he was made (Sept. 1, 1804) Baron 
 Lake of Delhi and Laswaree. He defeated Holkar near 
 Bhurtpoor A\)T. 2, 1.S05 ; returning to England in 1S07 was 
 made viscount (Oct. ."1), and appointed governor of Plym- 
 outh, where he d. Fcl). 20, ISOS. The title became extinct 
 by the death of the third viscount, June 24, 1S4S. 
 
 Lake licit, tp. of Martin Co., Minn. Pop. 29G. 
 
 Lake Uutler, post-v., cap. of Bradford co., Fla. It 
 is U miles S. from Olustec, a station on the Jacksonville 
 Ponaacola and Mobile R. R. 
 
 take 
 
 situated.^ - 
 
 of the Gulf of Mexio.i, M miles E. of .Sabine River, and 
 ■»00 miles W. of New Orleans, on the (unfinished) New Or- 
 leans and Texas R. R. It has 11 steam saw-mills, 1 week- 
 ly newspaper, 4 churches, 7 orange-groves, 11 stores. 80 
 lumber-schooners making vorages from Calcasieu River to 
 Galveston, Tcs.. chiefly for the transportation of lumber, 
 which constitutes the leading industry. Pop. about 500 
 J. \V. Bin-AX, Ed. " Weekly Echo. 
 Lake City, post-v., cap. of Columbia Co., Fla., CO 
 miles \V. of Jacksonville and 105 E. of Tallahassee, on the 
 Jacksonville Pcnsaoola and Mobile R. R.. has 5 churches, 
 3 schools, .I weekly newspapers, and the usual number of 
 stores and hotels." It is surrounded by bright silvery lakes 
 abounding in the most delicious tish. Pop. 964. 
 
 E. G. JoHNSoy, Ed. " Herald." 
 lake City, post-v. of Calhoun tp.,cap. of Calhoun eo., 
 la., on Lake Creek. 27 miles S. W. of Fort Dodge, has 2 
 churches, 2 hotels, 1 weekly newspaper, a fine brick school- 
 house, with the usual proportion of stores and shops. Situ- 
 ated in the midst of a rich farming country. Pop. 103. 
 Eahi. Billings, Plb. " Pioneer." 
 Lake City, post-v. of Missaukee eo., Mich., on the E. 
 shore of Wintergreen Lake, was laid out in 1873 in the 
 midst of a lumbering and fanning region; has a weekly 
 newspaper, stores, and saw-mills. 
 
 S. W. Davis, Ed. "Missaikee Reporter.' 
 Lake Citv, post-v. and tp. of Wabasha co.. Minn., on 
 the Lake Pepin and Chicago and the Milwaukee and St, 
 Paul R. Rs., D.T miles below St. Paul, contains 4 large 
 steam-elevators, several saw and flouring mills, a large 
 foundry and machine-shop, a plough and 2 w.-igon manu- 
 factories, several churches. Masonic and other lodges, 2 
 banks, 2 weekly newspapers, a public library and 10 or 12 
 stores. The town is hand.somely laid out, is the market 
 of a thickly settled and productive wheat-region, and the 
 scenery on Lake Pepin is admitted to be the most beautiful 
 on the upper Mississippi, and for grandeur to vie with any 
 other region in America, resembling that of Lake Geneva. 
 Pop. 2fili8. E. C. Spacldino, Ed. " Lf.^der." 
 
 Lake Crys'tal, post-v. of Judson tp.. Blue Earth co., 
 Minn., on the St. Paul and Sioux City R. R. 
 
 Lake DweUings. See Palefits and Pre-historic 
 Man. 
 
 Lake For'c§t, post-v. of Shields tp.. Lake co.. III., 
 on Lake Michigan and on the Milwaukee divifi.m of the 
 Chicago and North-western R. R.. 8 miles S. of Wauke- 
 gan, and 28 miles from Chicago, is laid out in curvilinear 
 form. It is tho seat of Lake Forest College, and has a 
 female seminary. 
 
 Lake Fork, tp. of Logan co., 111. Pop. 398. 
 Lake <;corge, the P. 0. name of Caldwell (which 
 see), the cap. of Warren co., N. Y. 
 
 Lake Haus'kah, tji. of Brown co., Minn. Pop. 215. 
 Lake Ilen'ry, tp. of Stearns co., Minn. Pop. 159. 
 Lake Johaii'iia,post-tp., Pope co., Minn. Pop. 219. 
 Lnkc'land, post-v. and tp., Washington co.. Minn., on 
 St. Croix Lake, almost opposite Hudson. Wis. Pop. 595. 
 
 Lake I/ancrinp, post-v. and tp. of Hyde co., N. C, 
 on Mailamuskcet Lake and Canal. Pop. 2235. 
 
 Lake LiTian, post-tp. of Kandiyohi co., Minn. Pop. 
 238. 
 
 Lake Marmc, tp. of Monongalia co., Minn. Pop. 196. 
 Lake .Ha'ry, tp. of Douglas co., Minn. Pop. 244. 
 Lake Mills, post-v. of Winnebago co., la. It has 1 
 weekly newspaper. 
 
 Lake Mills, post-v. and tp. of Jefferson co., AVis., 9 
 miles X. W. of .lefforson, the capital of the county. Pop. 
 of V. 590; of tp. 1509. 
 
 Lake of the Woods, a large lake on the boundary 
 between Pembina co.. .Minn., and the Dominion of Canada. 
 A small detacheil portion of Minnesota lies on its N. W. 
 side. Its principal atllucnt is the Rainy Lake River, and 
 its waters flow N., through the Winnipeg River into Lake 
 
 Winnipeg. It contains many small wooded islands, apart 
 of which are in Minnesota and a part in Canada. It is 
 but 977 feet above the sea-level, being 598 feet lower than 
 Lake Itasca. Wild rice {Zlzmtia aqimlica) grows along its 
 shores abundantly. 
 
 Lake Pleas'ant, tp. of Hamilton co., N. Y., in the 
 Adirondack region. It contains Sageville, the county-seat, 
 and the beautiful Lake Pleasant. It is a place of summer 
 resort, and has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 318. 
 
 Lake Poets, a name given by the Eilinliiirijh Jieiieic 
 to a number of English poets, of whom Coleridge, Words- 
 worth, and Southey were the most important, who at the 
 beginning of the present century lived in the lake region 
 of "Westmoreland and Cumberland. England. They had 
 little in common except the desire to break away from the 
 conventionalities of the literature of that day. 
 
 Lake'port, post-v., cap. of Lake co., Cal., 28 miles 
 N. E. of Cloverdale, tho terminus of the San Francisco 
 and North Pacific R. R., on the shore of Clear Lake, has 1 
 bank, 1 weekly newspaper, 2 churches, 2 hotels, I flpur- 
 mill, 7 stores, numerous mineral springs, and 2 steamers 
 plying on the lake. Principal business, farming. Pop. 
 248. " J. B. Baclis. Jr., Eo. " Lake Co. Bee." 
 
 Lakeport, post-v. of Sullivan tp.. Madison co., N. Y., 
 on the S. shore of Oneida Lake. Pop. 134. 
 
 Lake Prai'rie, tp. of Marion co., la. It includes 
 Pella and several other villages. Pop. 4958. 
 Lake Prairie, tp. of Nicollet co., Minn. Pop. 828. 
 Lake Prov'ideiice, post-v., cap. of Carroll parish, 
 La., on the W. bank of the Mississijipi, 60 miles .above 
 Vicksburg, has 5 churches. 2 machine-shops, and 1 weekly 
 newspaper. It is located in the heart of a fine cotton- 
 growing section, and ships annually 7000 to 8000 bales. 
 Pop. 320. B. H. Lanier, Ed. " Lake Repiblican." 
 
 Lake Survey. The U. S. shore-line of the great lakes 
 and their connecting rivers, if measured in stejis of twenty- 
 live miles, is about 3O00 miles, hut if the indentations of 
 the shore and the outlines of the islands arc included, the 
 developed shore-line is about 4700 miles in length. Where 
 a lake is narrow and along rivers it is necessary for nav- 
 igation that both shores be surveyed. This increases the 
 a'ctual shore-line to be covered by the survey between St. 
 Regis and Duluth to about 6000 miles— a dimension which 
 giv'J'S some idea of the magnitude of the work. The ne- 
 cessity of accurate soundings and accurate charts for the 
 commerce of these lakes is evident on remembering that in 
 the frequent storms and fogs on these lakes, vessels are 
 never many hours from shore, and that during the summer, 
 coinniercc.ns shown by entries and clearances, is equal to 
 that of all the rest of "the U. S. 
 
 The first appropriation of $15,000 was made in 1841; 
 none was made in 1847, and previous to 1802 the largest 
 annual apiunpriation was $76,000. Since that time it has 
 varied between !?50.000 and $175,000. At first, the survey 
 was confined mainly to special localities, but, progressing, 
 the work was made continuous, and one lake after another 
 was taken up and its .American ,«horc completed. The first 
 chart was published in 1852. It was not till |.'<52 that work 
 on a larger scale was begun, a copy of the Baelie-Wurde- 
 mann base apparatus being then obtained, making greater 
 cision in the triangulalion practicable. 
 
 The work has been" under the secretary of war, at first 
 under tho direction of the chief of topographical engineers, 
 and since the junction of the two corps under the direction 
 of the chief of engineers, I". S. army. The following offi- 
 cers have been in immediate charge of the work : Capt. 
 W. G. Williams, T. E., 1841-45; Lt.-Col. J. Kearney, 
 T. E., 1845-51: Capt. J. N. Macomb, T. E., lS51-.i6; 
 Lt -Col. J. Kcarnev, T. E., 1856-57 : Capt. G. Meade, T. E., 
 1857-61: Col. J. 'D. Graham. T. E., 1861-64; Col. and 
 Brevet Brij.-Gen. W. F. Raynolds. engineers, 1864-70; 
 Major and Brevet Brig.-Gen. C. B. Comsloek. 1870. They 
 have been aided from time to time by such other oflicers 
 of their corps as eould be spared for the work, ami by 
 civil assistants, until a body of men has grown up tlior- 
 oughlv competent for such duty. 
 
 The normal plan for the survey of a lake is the follow- 
 ing • (1) Tho establishment of a primary triangulation, 
 the average probable error of whose angles shall not exceed 
 Aths of a second, the probable error of its bases not exceed- 
 ing innJniTth pc'-' of their lengths. (2) The determination 
 from the primarv triangulation of secondary iioints along 
 the shoreline to be surveyed, not more than ten or fifteen 
 miles apart, these distan'ces being much less when a sec- 
 ondary or tc-rtiarv triangulation can be carried along shore. 
 (?,) .\ detailed topographical and hydrogrnphical survey 
 along the shore based on these points, extending inland 
 ahoul three-fourths of a mile, and bikoward for half a mile, 
 or to tho four-fathom curve. (4) A belt of offshore by-
 
 LA KETON— LALITA-PATAN. 
 
 1613 
 
 drography doDe with a steamer, aod cxtendiug from the j 
 ruur-futhom curve to eight or tea miles from lau<l. (J) | 
 Lines of steamer-soundiugs across the luke. (Ct) Preoi:je i 
 determiuiitious of latitude, longitude, and azimuth at sev- i 
 eral primary Btntiun^. (7) Keductiou of ticld-work and ! 
 construction of the maps. 
 
 lu some eases, on accuuntof special difficulty or cost, the 
 primary triaagulatiou has not been carried nlung the lake 
 shore. Thus, on the American shore of Lake Huron points 
 were determined by a combination of astronoiuiciil work 
 and triiinnuhition. Oa the f).and a part of the W. shore 
 of Lake Michigan the positions of points needed for the 
 maps were obtained by carrying lines of azimuths and lati- 
 tudes southward from known points, the longitudes being 
 computed from their azimuths and latitude.-*. The field- 
 work for Lakes Superior, Huron, Michijyan. St. Clair, and 
 about one-half of Ontario, for the rivers St. Mary, St. Clair, 
 Detroit, St. Lawrence, is now {July 1, 1.S75) completed. 
 Lake Erie remains to be done. Forty-two charts, on scales 
 varying from 55^0*^ ^** ^nihna^^t have been published, and 
 about GUOO are issued innually. The pressure for the gen- 
 eral charts (scale loo^iifjth) has been so great that few of 
 the shore-charts ou a larger scale have yol been published. 
 The primary triangulatiou is completed from Duluth to 
 Chicagt), a distance, measured along its a.\is, of 700 miles, 
 and depends on four bases, of which one is yet to be 
 measured. When the triangulatiou at Chicago is con- 
 nected with that of Lakes Erie and Ontario, the length 
 of the chain wilt be increased to 1300 miles, with three 
 more bases, of which one is measured. Incidentally, this 
 triangulatiou will give an arc of the meridian running N. 
 from Chicago for 4.')0 miles, an arc of a parallel running W. 
 fri>m the E. end of Lake Ontario for (KM) miles, and an ob- 
 lique arc from the same point to Duluth, 800 miles long. 
 These, in connection with those of the Coast Survey, will, 
 in combination with the long European antl Indiau arcs, 
 finally give a more precise determination of the form and 
 dimensions of the earth, which, so far as this continent is 
 concerned, now depends on the Peruvian arc, a short one, 
 and therefore of little value. 
 
 As connected with the lake survoy, determinations of the 
 magnetic elements are made at various points, the heights 
 of the lakes above the sea are being determined, and their 
 fluctuations arc observed. The existence of solar and lunar 
 tides in Lakes .Michigan and Su])eriur has been established, 
 and their values determined. Aid has been rendered to tho 
 State surveys of Michigan and Wisconsin, and the positions 
 of many hundreds of points near the lakes have been pre- 
 cisely determined, wliich will servo as starting-points for 
 State surveys in all the future. C. B. Comstock. 
 
 linKo'tnn, tji. of Muskegon co., Mich., on Lakes Mus- 
 kegon aii.l Michigan. Pop. 1039. 
 
 Lnkc'town, tp. of Allegan co., Mich., on Lake Mich- 
 igan. P*»p. t'ifio, 
 
 Lnketowii) post-v. and tp. of Car\*or co., Minn. Pnp. 
 lo:t'.t. 
 
 liake Viil'loy, post-tp., El Dorado co., Cal. Pop. 246. 
 Lake Vnlley^ tp. of Douglas co., Nev. Pop. 11. 
 Lake View, jiost-tp. of Cook eo.. III., on Lnko Mich- 
 igan, is eonliguouM to Chicago on the X. It contains many 
 fine suburban residences, and a marine hospital, and is the 
 sitcof several beautiful cemeteries. Pop. |SU. 
 
 liako Viria^c, post-r,, cap. of Chicot co.. Ark., on 
 Old lUver Lake, part of a former channel of the Mississippi 
 Kiver. 
 
 Lake Village, post-v. of Belknap co., N. II., at tho 
 outlet of Lakr- Wiiinlpi.''eogee in (iilford and Laconia tps., 
 on tho Boston Concord and Montreal H. U.. 27 miles X. of 
 Concord. It has I churches, 1 hotel, 1 weekly newspaper, 
 railroad repair-shops, several hosiery-mills, foundry and 
 machine-shops. Pop. in village liinils, ubnul !il'>OI1, 
 
 M. A. IIavnis, Plu. " Laki: Vii.LAr.i: Timi:h." 
 Lakevi lie, post-v. ofSalishurytp., Litchfield CO., Conn., 
 6 niile^ E. of Millerton, N. Y. It is a romantic place of 
 summer resort, is t)i<> snit of the Cnnnceticut institution for 
 feeble-minded children, and has a public library. 
 
 Imkeville, post-v. and tp. of Plymouth co., Mass., .1ft 
 miles S. of Bnslnn. It is traversed by the Old Colony and 
 Newport and the Tounton and New Bedfonl B. lis., con- 
 tains several beautiful lakes, large forests and valuable 
 granite ledges, and has 2 churches and a publio library. 
 Pnp. IJ.V.l. 
 
 Lakevillo, tp. of Dakota co., Minn. Pop. 7S0. 
 
 Lakevillc, post-v. of Livonia tp., Livingston co., N. Y., 
 at the toot of Cunesus Lake. It has i cliurehoa. Pop. 
 Ii'.n. 
 
 Lnkeville Plantation, tp. of Penobscot co., Mo. 
 
 Pop. I Its. 
 
 Lak-Nugy, town of Hungary, on the Marog, has 1IJ112 
 inhabitants, mostly engaged in agriculture and tho rearing 
 of cattle and p<»ultry. 
 
 Laksh'mi, a goddess of the Hindu Pantheon. Through- 
 out the whole range of Oriental mythology no creation is 
 to be met with more pleasing than that of Lakshmi. at once 
 the Ceres and the Venus of India, the bride of the Preserver 
 Vishnu, who sprang in the full perfection of maidenly 
 beauty from the foam of the sea, as Homer and Hesiod 
 sing of Aphrodite. According to the Viehuit Purann, " Tho 
 goddess S'ri, seated on a full-|jlown lotus, and holding a 
 water-lily in her hand, radiant with beauty, rose from tho 
 waves. The great sages, enraptured, hymned her with vo- 
 tive song. ViHirnntHH and the celestial choirs sang before 
 her, whilst (jfnrturhi and the heavenly nymphs danced. 
 The Ganges and other holy rivers followed her, attending 
 on her ablutions. The elephant of the skies, taking up 
 pure waters in vases of gold, poured them over the god- 
 dess, the queen of the universal world," etc. Lak^hmi, 
 it has been observed, is also represented as the counter- 
 part of Vishnu, the beneficent protector and preserver. 
 Vishnu is meaning, Lakshmi is speech. She is intellect, 
 he is understanding. He is righteousness, she is devotion. 
 He is Creator, she is creation. He is the male energy, she 
 is the female, and .SVf/,ff of Vishnu. (SeeSAKTi.) Her com- 
 plexion of ekin is delicate saftVon. Her attendant, like 
 that of Minerva, is the owl. This is a curious circum- 
 stance, but difficult of satisfactory exjilanatinn. The sim- 
 ple fact appears to be that Lak^limi has always been such 
 a popular deity in Hindustan that gradually her true cha- 
 racter was lust sight uf. and the attributes and attendant 
 emblems of other divinities were ascribed to her. Tlius, 
 some Hindus have confcmnded her with Saras wuti, tho 
 true goddess of learning of the East, who as such might, 
 like Minerva, be (itiy attended upon by the owl. How- 
 ever, in the early times of the epic period of Sanskrit lit- 
 erature Lakshmi was simply known as the queen of loveli- 
 ness and good-luek, also called Ptnlma, S'ri, Kamiila, Va- 
 rtthiy rtc. (See Sir William Jones's Uifmn to Luktthmi, 
 wherein she is addressed as "the world's great mother.") 
 Hindus, when they perform solemn obsequies in honor of 
 deceased ancestors, almost invariably invoke the consort 
 of the Preserver. As the goddess of fertility she is widely 
 worshipped by agricultural laborers. Balfour states: "The 
 Maliratta cultivators are attentive to her worship, and when 
 tho rufj/ii crops are well above the ground they jiroceed to 
 their fields, where they place five stones round a trie, un 
 which they set pots of vermilion and some wheaten fiour, 
 which they worship us the Puurh-Pumlu." In all of the 
 ordinary worship paid to Lakshmi throughout India it is 
 suflicicnt to state that the ceremony principally consists 
 of offerings of liuwers and grain. The goddess is a very 
 favorite subject of Hindu art. In painting and sculpture 
 she is represented as a very young girl, with the full breasts 
 of a mature matron, thus ty]iifying budding beauty eon- 
 joined with full fertility. She is frequently represented 
 as reclining at the feet of Vishnu. A huge lotus supports 
 them as they ride upon the silver foam of the churned 
 ocean of milk. K. C. Cai.pw km,. 
 
 Lalande% dc (Joskimi Jcrome \.v. Fran(;ais), h. at 
 IJourg-en-Bresse. department of Ain, July II. 17;t^; edu- 
 cated at Lyons by the Jesuits; at Paris studied mathe- 
 matics and astronomy, and in 17^1 was sent to Berlin to 
 make observations complementary to those made by La 
 Caillc at the Cajic of (ioo-l Hope concerning the distance 
 between the earth and the moon. In 1702 was appointed 
 professor of astronomy at the ColIC-gc do France, and direc- 
 tor of tho observatory of Paris. He cumlueted the i'tunuuK- 
 tianrc (Ic IVtnpH from 1700 to 177.'», and from 1701 till bis 
 death. His leelures were exceedingly attractive, not only 
 to the student, but to educated people in general, and his 
 success in diff'using astronomical kuowledgo and interest 
 was very renmrkahle. His most prominent writings are 
 TntitS (i'AMtnmumiv (2 vols., 17fll), Ahr/iji tic Xmi'./k/iom 
 (171(3), AxtroiKwn'f rfcif I)m>ic» (17S5). D. Apr. 4, ISO". 
 
 Lnleniant'(CiiAiii.Ks). b. in Franco Nov. 17, 15S7; ho- 
 eanie a Jesuit in 1007: went to Canada iu 1625 as superior 
 of the niinsions: opened Ibe first schoid in Quebec in iO!JI ; 
 attended Champlain on his deathbed ; returned to France 
 in It'i.tS; became rector of colleges of his order at Boiun, 
 La Fl^ehe, ami Paris, and viee-provincial. D. at Paris 
 Nov. IS, ll'>7 I. He wrote several letters on the missions of 
 Canada, reprinted at Albany in IS70. — His brother JriioBti: 
 ( 160;!-lfi7.'') was superior of (ho Canadian missions 1011- 
 50, and again for several years from 1059, nnd wrote fl vol- 
 ume>' of the Jtnuit livhuhtuH. — His nephew (lAluiiKl,, b. 
 lOlO, a missionary to tho Hurons, was put to death by tor- 
 ture by the Iroquois Mar. 17, lOIO. 
 
 Lali'tn-l*atanS town of Nepnul, Northern Hindostan, 
 It has mauy clvgaut buildings. Ptip. 21,000.
 
 1614 ^ 
 
 Lallemand' ( Gen. CnAni.ES Fn.tN90is Astoise) BAno.s, 
 b. at Me-U June 2:1. U74; entered the army in 1 , U- ; dis- 
 
 L-4LLEMAND— LAMAISM. 
 
 l>. at iMi-u June -■■', 11 n, K.I.V.V.. . — . ■"■■ - ;, . , 
 tiuguishcl himself in the cami-uigns in tgypt, P<"-"'K^ _ 
 Prussia. .Spain, and Russia: was briga.l.er and baron m 
 1811 and was made lieutenant-general and member "I tne 
 chamber of peers on .Napoleon's return from IClba. He ac- \ 
 compauied the etnperor in the Water 00 ean.pa.gn an 
 was sent as oomn.issoner to Capt. .Ma.tland to treat for h.s 
 surrender to the English navy, lie was sent ■> I"-;;™" '» 
 Malta, and on his release went to Turkey. Pers a, and 
 E-ypt in an unsuccessful search for en.idoyment, a ter 
 which ho made his way to the f. S.. where he proposed to . 
 found a colony of French imperialist refugees. A hrst at- 
 tempt htvd already been .na.le in Alabama but as .proved 
 a failure, he, with his brother. Baron Ilenr. Lallemand, 
 located a Vh,,,,,,, d:Uilc on tha Trinity K.ver >" 1«";. 
 then bdoncing to Me.ueo. where in 1.S17 he 1''^™ ''"J f 
 colonists. Driven from Tc.as by the Span.sh autho t.es , 
 in .Mexico. Lallemand an,l his cmpantons fell back upon ; 
 the projector a colony in Alabama, and, aided by a bounti- 1 
 ful ubscription opened in Paris, lands were again ob- 
 Uined and^he so'called »m;. or ™,.,o» of Marengo wa 
 founded ou the banks of the Totnbigbee River. A city was 
 laid out. and named E„.i!rr//I.-: the streets were denomi- , 
 nated from the victories in which the refugees had partici- 
 pated under Napoleon. Lallemand, however, took no per- , 
 sonal part in the Marengo colony. After .Revising nmny 
 wild i.roiects. he settled in Louisiana in 1S19, and opened 
 acorrcspondence with Xapoleon, whom he proposed to carry 
 awav from ,St. Helena. The cs-emperor, dymg >■> IS'21 
 bequeathed 11)0,000 francs to Lallemand. but the 1-rcnch 
 government ojiposed obstacles to his receiving it on account 
 of his bavins been tried and condemned to death in 1- ranee 
 during his absence. In 1823 he fought in the Spanish 
 war- went afterwards to Brussels; entered France without 
 molestation; returned to the U. S., and established a snc- 
 ccssful school in New York. After the revolution of U^..O. 
 Lxllemand was restored to his military and political honors 
 (!><■;■' 1 look his seat in the chamber of peers, and was lor 
 two vears military commander in Corsica. D. in Pans 
 Mar.'o. 1S39. , ^ 
 
 I.nlly'-Tollendal' (Thomas AnTHt;n), Couxt, b. at 
 Romans, in France, in Jan., 1702, of Irish descent, his 
 father having come to Franco with James XL ; received a 
 militarv education ; fought with distinclion at Kohl in 
 l-r! ai Fontenov in 174:,, at Falkirk in 1741., and received 
 in 17,-i7 the comiimnd of an expedition against the French 
 possessions in the East Indies. He was very successful at 
 first : conquered the Coromandel coast and laid siege to 
 Madias, but being left unsupported by the other French 
 commaiulers, he was compelled to surrender at Pondielierry 
 in 17i;i and was brouibt to England as a prisoner. Uav- 
 in.' hci'vdthat his personal enemies accused him of various 
 crfmos. he went to Paris on parole and demanded a truTd. 
 But bv infamous intrigues ho was thrown into the Baslile, 
 and after nineteen months' imprisonment placed heforc a 
 court, which, after a kind of mock trial, condemned lim, to 
 death as a traitor and defaulter. He was executed May .1, 
 178ti Bv tlio indefatigable exertions of his son, Trophime 
 (iSr.ard, supported by Voltaire, a revision of tJio proceed- 
 ings was ordered in 1778, which ended with the complete 
 reversion of the sentence. 
 
 La'ma, or Llama, the Aurhcnin glama, a quadruped 
 of the family Camelidie, an artiodactyl ungulate mammal 
 of the Andes of South America. It is believed to be spe- 
 cifically identical with the ^''^^--V" <"^"''/7 ;„„,,„ 
 lama is domesticated, and employed as a beast of burden, 
 though to a much smaller extent than in the age of the 
 old Peruvian ineas. In fact, it is believed to be the only 
 domestic animal known upon the American eont.nent 
 before the advent of Europeans. The old Peruvians em- 
 ployed immense numbers of lamas. Besides its use as a 
 beast of burden, its flesh is eaten, though it is not big ily 
 esteemed. Its wool is employed as a textile material, but 
 is inferior to that of the alpaca. It is of brown or varie- 
 gated color, slenderly built, and carries about 100 pounds. 
 Lama, or Lamas ((JiiANnb See Lamaism, by Janet 
 
 Tl<KKV. 
 
 La'maism [from Thibetan tmnn, "priest" or "lord J, 
 the nresent religion of Thibet, Mongolia, and a great part 
 of Tartary, is Booddhism, modified by Sham.vsism and 
 SivMSM (which sec), and containing some relies of the 
 ancient Thibetan faith. Its chief characteristic is the wor- 
 shii) of grand lamas, in whom Booddha is supposed to bo 
 incarnate. These priest-gods are very numerous, every 
 lamasery or monastery of note having one at its head, i he 
 most important are: the yOyh-" Jth,-po-chhe. or IMn, 
 Lnma, at Lhassa: the P.in-irhm Hin-pn-Mr, at bKra- 
 Shiss-Lhun-po, in Further Thibet ; the U«mn Tnmba. at the 
 lamasery of the Great Kouren, on the river Toula; the 
 
 Tchanq-Kla-Fo, at Peking; and the &a-Dchu-Fo. at the 
 foot of the Himalayas. After the grand lamas rank the 
 l,hnlul.-ln>. or incarnations of celebrated Booddhis ic saiiils ; 
 and next to these in the lamaio hierarchy come the k-hubil- 
 '„han>. in whom dwell the souls of former patrons or lound- 
 ers of lamaseries. The lower classes ol lamas are incarna- 
 tions of nobody in partir-ular, and gain consideration only 
 bv superior learning or talents ; among them, therelore, aro 
 found scholars, scribes, artists, physicians and sorcerers 
 (which two terms are in Tartary frequently synonymous), 
 praver-makers. and artisans. Tbey form a large proportion 
 of the population— about one-third, according to SI. Huo. 
 ■• In most Tartar families," says this writer, " all the sons 
 except the eldest become lamas, an 1 at the age of seven 
 enter a monastery as ch„hi. (novices or disciples) This 
 «tate of things is favored by Chinese rulers, as it keeps 
 down the population of Tartary ami Thibet, all classes of 
 lamas being vowed to celibacy." The history of Tl |bV»" 
 Booddhism mav, according to Csoma de Koros, be divided 
 into two distinct periods. The first began in the seventh 
 century A. c, when King Srong-Tsan-(^ianibo married two 
 princesses from Nepaul and China. Both ladies brought 
 to their new home images of Booddha and works on the 
 Booddhistic faith, to which the king became a wi ling eon- 
 j vert He encouraged the building of temples and colk-ges, 
 I and sent to India his minister Thumi .'-Jcmbhota who there 
 learned Sanskrit an.l arranged a Thibetan alphabet after 
 Cashmerian characters. Srong-Tsaii-tJambo wrote a his- 
 torical treatise on Booddhism, called .l/n.M-A»i»„. or The 
 Hundred Thousand Precious Commandments, and obtained 
 the name of a,..kr„„„w, (" wheel-turner,' or "e'fe" « or 
 of doctrine"). Manv sacred works were tn.nslattd l.om 
 the Sanskrit, and Booddhism continued to flourish until the 
 close of the tenth century, when King Langtarnia or gLang- 
 dar, opposed and nearly extirpated it. In the eleventh 
 ceniurv it was revived by Atisha, hBromston. and other 
 learned Thibetans, and from this second period cl"le» its 
 division into sects. " Those persons who still adhere to the 
 ancient forms of worship are called u,j,r,m,,p<,, and arc most 
 numerous in the parts of Thibet nearest India. 
 
 In the fourteenth century, Tsong-Kaba, a native of the 
 province of Amdo, efl-ected a revolution in Thibetan Booddh- 
 ism This reformer's birth was caused and accompanied 
 bv miraculous circumstances. He came into the world with 
 a'lon- white beard; his countenance was grave and majes- 
 tic -he spot from' the moment of his birth, all his utter- 
 anJes shiwing a knowledge of the my.^teries of existence. 
 At the age of three years he desired to lend a religions life 
 and his mother, favoring such early devotn.n, hersell cut 
 off bis hair an.l flung it outside the tent. From it sprang 
 a man ellous tree, having fragrant wood and .'e^^es in- 
 scribed with sacred characters. Tsong-Kaba withdrew to 
 ihe mountains, and spent his time in l-myer anJ eoiitem- 
 plalion, but seldom returning to his i.arents ent. Dun g 
 one of his visits thither he met a wandering aiua from tht 
 West, who remained with him and instructed bim 111 re ig- 
 ion. When the teacher died the pupil, eager tor lurther 
 knowledge, travelled westward to seek it. and a last reached 
 Thibet. There he was stopped by a spirit (//,<.). who told 
 him that in that country he was destined to teach prayers 
 and rites. Tsong-Kaba remained at this meeting-place, to 
 wh e was given The name Lh.,-S,. (" land of spirits ), and 
 Tm ledhimself to reform the worship of Booddha. Hega.ned 
 a reputation for sanctity, and in spile of oppo.sitioti f om 
 the priests of higher rank was joined by many '""'"f • ' " 
 were called Yellow Caps to distinguish them Irom the Ked- 
 Cap lamas, 0. adherei'.ts to the old forms The new sec 
 soo*^, spread over all Thibet and Tartary. Its f""- ;■"■ '^•^;' 
 in 1419 at the lamasery of Kaldan. near Lhassa, which he 
 had established, and there, according to Lamaic belief, h s 
 body still remains, unchanged in appearance and m.raca- 
 ou^v supported above the earth. He '■>"'"-"; "-''"f,'^ 
 of w'hich the most important is Lam-]l,m-T„e„.Ho (ibo 
 "Progressive Path to Perfection"). 
 
 The tttle of rO,p:lv„ J!in-po-Mf (" precious " or holy 
 majeriv"). proper to the grand lama of Ti.bel was given 
 " w ,r 1 the ?nd of the fifteenth century. The Mong>.ls call 
 ,1 /M ,', or TM la,nn, by which name he " !^™^'f»'^ 
 know to Europeans. His territorial power dates Iron lOW, 
 when Nag-dva.ig-bLo-b7,aug-rgya-mtsho was made tem- 
 por lord of Thibet by the Mongol conqueror of that country 
 'and China There has since then been a constant succession 
 o? Dalai Lamas, none of whom has made any mark in h s- 
 °orv These Thibetan sovereigns have no share in secdar 
 business, which is transacted by a viceroy called ""'-J''"'' 
 r"s iritual emperor ") and four ministers chosen from the 
 am class The Dab i's office, like that of all other iv.ng 
 Booddha^ is to sit cross-legged in his temple and silently 
 rec I tl e ador..tio„ of .h?falthfal, towards whom he oc- 
 
 cas onally extends bis hand "'.'"I'^rl^'bTv^onlv X; 
 carnatc Booddha never dies. He quits his body only, alter
 
 LAMALINE— LAMAR. 
 
 1615 
 
 a brief period, to enter that of a young child. Therefore 
 when a griinj lama depart? no grief is shown — merely an 
 anxiety to know where he may be found in his new form. 
 Sometimes ho tells this before his wiihdrawiil, ur after it 
 sends a si;^n. whieh is interpreted by the augurs. He com- 
 monly truiisniigrates in Thibet, so thut long ami dangerous 
 journeys must ofd-n be undertaken in search of him. \Vhen 
 the young living Bouddha has been found he must, before 
 his recognition, answer many questions about the lamasery 
 of which ho in his former state was head, and identify 
 among various artieirs those belonging to the late grand 
 lama. This examination, it would appear, is always passed 
 with credit, which fact M. Hue, while owning thntdeception 
 may sometimes bo used, gravely attributes to the possession 
 of the child, not by Booddha. but by .Satan. The litdo 
 grand lama having been joyfully acknowletiged. is con- 
 ducted to his lamasery, where, placed upon an altar, he is 
 worshipped by believers. The Diilai Lama is chosen by 
 lot from three rhaberons or living Booddtias of tender age; 
 at least such a form of election is gone through, but its re- 
 sult is determined by the emperor of China or his mini^ter8. 
 Like iho Thibetan sovereign, the living Booddha of a lama- 
 sery has no real power, that being in the hands of anon- 
 incarnate lama-chief, assisted bj* subordinate officers. 
 
 A lamasery [dOon-pn) or monmtery is very unlike our 
 idea of such an establishment. It consists of numerous 
 houses or hnts built around a temple {Lhn-Khnutf, "spirit 
 house"). The lamas have no common refectory, but live 
 according to their wealth, which, as they arc not under 
 vows of poverty, is sometimes considerable. Those who 
 have reached a certain rank as theological scholars receive 
 an allowance from tho emlowmcnt. Some arc paid liber- 
 ally Ijy tho faithTul for their services as physicians, exor- 
 cists, or intereess.irs for departed souls. Others engage in 
 trade or transcribe the sat^red writings. Each lama has 
 under him one or moro chabis, who ;iut as his servants, and 
 arc instructed by him in religion and the Thibetan language, 
 a knowledge of which is as necessary for a lama as that of 
 Latin for a Human Catholic priest, or of Hebrew for a 
 Jewish rabbi. Lamai temples are built in the Indo-Chinese 
 style, and are profusely adorned with paintings and sculp- 
 ture. Opposite the principal ontran-e is a broad flight of 
 steps surmounted by an altar, upon which arefbo BooiMhic 
 images. In front of the chief id >1, and hardly moro life- 
 like than it, sits the living Booddha. Tho lamas are called 
 to prayer by a blast blown upon a sca-shcM. They enter in 
 prucesjion, bow before the incarnate Booddha, and place 
 themselves in a circle according to tlioir ninl:. Tho service 
 is chanted; a bell is rung at intervals, and there is loud 
 and (to European ears) discordant music. Inecnao is used, 
 tho most o.doomed being brought from Thibet, tho Holy 
 Land of Lamaism. There the inr^aniato Booddbas trans- 
 migrate; tho lamaseries there are largi-r and better endow- 
 ed, tho lamas more learned than tUuso of Tartary and 
 Mongolia. 
 
 Besides tho ehnrmnnaf^ or monk-lama?, there are her- 
 mits {ijalpim) who inhabit cells or eaves and spend their 
 time in contemplation. Also a largo einss of wandering 
 lamas, who travel from tenf to tent and from lamasery to 
 lamasery, receiving evrry where a welcome as ready as that 
 given in Kuropo to the itinerant friar« of the Middle Ages. 
 I'Vmilo lamas, or nuns, form a part of tho Thibetan- Booddh- 
 io sy»tem ; their number, however, is comparatively small. 
 Cleri'^al assistance is not necessary at wcdilings and fune- 
 rals, but the lamas arc generally employed to foretell tho 
 most fortuimte day for a marriage ; to facilitate the passage 
 of a ileparting fail an'l pray for its happy transmigration ; 
 and to specify tho host manner for disposing of the dead. 
 Cremation is u<*ual, but bodies are frequently exposed in 
 lonely places, where they are devoured by beasts of prey. 
 
 As a rule, Lnniaists are devoted to their religion, and 
 give generously for the building of lamaseries and other 
 
 ^^iou9 objects. They arc fond of going on pilgrimages to 
 I >ly places, such a.^ Lhassa ; the lamasery of the Five 
 Towers {Oit-Tn>/), near which Boocldha is said to dwell 
 wi'hin a mountain : and Tsong-Kaba's birthplace, where is 
 a famous lamiisery called Konna bourn ("Ten Thousand 
 Images"). There grows tho tree sprung from the re- 
 furmiir's hair, all efl"orts to propagate which have, says M. 
 Hue, been unsuccessful. Penance forms a part of the pil- 
 grim's duties. Tho more zealous penitents make tho cir- 
 ouit of tho lamasery, prostrating themselves at each step, 
 with their foreheads touching tho ground. Or they carry 
 a heavy Ioa<l (if prayer-books, ami thus gain creilit for 
 having repeated all the prayers therein contained. Lighter 
 forms of penance are^walking round tho lamasery while 
 telling tho beads of a rosary, or turning a wheel called 
 rcArt-A'or ('* revolving prayer"). This devotional machine 
 is usually a sort of barrel, moving u)ion an axis and in- 
 scribed all over with lioorldhi-'tie petitions. The worship- 
 per sets it going, and it turns pr.iyers for his benefit v.hile 
 
 he pursues some more mundano occupation. The most com- 
 mon ros try-prayer is that called the Maui, consisting of six 
 syllables: "Om .\f'tiii Ptidnir Ifoiim" (**0h, the gem in the 
 lotus I Amen"). According to Klaproth, this is tho Thibetan 
 translation of a .Sanskrit formula brought from India by 
 Thumi .Sombhola. Volumes have been written commenting 
 on it, and ascribing to it various meanings. It probably 
 expresses a desire to attain the gem perfection, and be ab- 
 sorbed into Booddha, of whom the lotus is an emblem. 
 
 Kvcn a casual student of Lamaism must observe the 
 similarities between its ceremonial and that of Uoman 
 Catholicism. These wure pointed out by M. Hue. for which 
 frankness his interesting book was placed in the Index Es- 
 punfatorltt>i. To account for them, he premised that the 
 wandering lama, Tsong-Kaba's instructor, was in reality a 
 Christian missionary. The canonical books of Tibet ex- 
 ceed in length those of every other country. They are 
 comprised in two collections, the Kan-^ur {hKnak-Iif/t/ttr), 
 consisting of H^S volumes, containing 108;j distinct works ; 
 and the Tan-jur {hnTti)i-h;fifiii') of '2'2ii volumes, each weigh- 
 ing from four to live pounds in the Peking edition. A large 
 proportion of both collections is translated from the San- 
 skrit, but they contain also many original treatises by 
 Thibetan and Tartar authors. (See Travdit, hy E. U. Hue; 
 the works of Alexander Csoma de Kiiros; />/« Litniaittche 
 Hiernrchir, K. Fr. Kfippeu ; UechcvchcH nnr Ich Lnmjucs 
 TartarcH, P. A, Ilfiinusat.) Janet Tl'CKEY. 
 
 Lamaline^ port of entry of Burin district. Newfound- 
 land, 40 miles by land from Burin, situated on lowgrouinl, 
 which is destitute of trees. Very large codfish are here 
 taken. Pop. rJlO. 
 
 Lamantiii. See Manatee. 
 
 Laniar% county of Ala., once Sanford co. (which sec). 
 
 Ijamar, county of N. Texas, bounded X. by the Ucd 
 River. Area, lUlo square miles. It is b:itf jirairie and 
 half timber-land, very fertile, producing tobacco, cotton, 
 live-stock, and corn. Cap. Paris. Pop. 16,700. 
 
 Lamarf post-tp. of Randolph co., Ala. Pop. fil". 
 
 LamaTf post-v. and tp., cap. of Barton co.. Mo., 20 
 miles from Kansas line in an open prairie country; has a 
 bank, a steam Houring-mill, a saw-mill, ?> chundies. 2 weekly 
 newspapers. 3 hotels, a large graded school, etc. I'. H'l] I. 
 
 Kdwarp Bt'i.i:[t,FOR Ens. '^Soith-west Missourian." 
 
 Lamar, post-v. and tp. of Clinton co., Pa., 8 miles S. 
 of Mill Hall. Pop. l."/Jl. 
 
 Lamar (Lrcius Qiinti's CixciNXArrs), b. July 15, 
 1797; studied law at Judge Gould's Litehlicld schoi.I, 
 Conn., the most funuius institution of the kind then in llic 
 U. S. : admitted to tho bar, removed to Milledgcville. (Ja., 
 in 1819, and soon attained hij^h position in his profession. 
 Ho \vap chosen by the legislature to compile the statutes of 
 the vState from IHIO to ISLMI. In 18;;o he was elevated to the 
 circuit court bench. The duties of this oflice he discharged 
 with great dignity and aliility; his decisions were ciin- 
 siderod of tho highest authority, not only in Georgia, but 
 in the adjoining States. Universally beloved and esteemed, 
 8urroun<led by a happy family, with the brightest prospecls 
 of a high career, and without any known cause, he fell, iit 
 his home in Milledgeville, by his own hand, on .Iu!y I, 
 1S."4, Without any collegiate training. Judge Lannir from 
 boyliood was a lover of books, became distinguished for his 
 attainments in hftlrM-httnn n.m\ for the classic purity of his 
 composition, and in forensic eloquence stood among the 
 first orators of his day. • A. H. SrfiiiiKNS. 
 
 Lamar ( Lrrns QiiNTt^s Cincinnati-s), son of L. tj. C. 
 Lamar, b. in .lasper co., Ga., in lS2f>; was educated and 
 graduated at Kmory College, Oxford, Ga., with llie highest 
 honors of that institution ; studied law, was admitted to 
 the bar, and rose rapidly in his profession; subsequently 
 moved to Mississippi, and settled at Oxford in that State; 
 was elected to Congress in iSjft; was re-elected to Con- 
 gress (tho 3t)lh), an<l resigned his seat in that body after 
 Mississippi passed her ordinance of secession in ISill. 
 At tho outbreak of tho war he accepted a colonelcy in the 
 provisional army of the Confederate States, but was after- 
 wards sent on a Kuropcan mission. On his entrance into 
 Congress in 1>*.'>7. .Mr. Lamar tO(ik a very high position as 
 a debater and orator. Beforo his retirement hestood among 
 the first in iho House. In 1S72 he was ogiiin elected a 
 memberof the House from Mississippi to the llJd Congress. 
 In this body his position was amongst the foremost in 
 logical argument, scbttlarly neomplishmcnts, ]iatriotii.' fer- 
 vor, and forensic display. His .'Speech upon the death of 
 Mr. Sumner was considered one of tho most eloquent over 
 delivered upon the floor of the House. A. H. Steimikns. 
 
 Lamar (MiRAHKAir B.), b. at Louisville, Ga., Aug. Ifi, 
 17l'S: became a merchant and planter; establi.-^hed in 1S28 
 a State Rights* newspap<'r, the ('nhi>iif>ni /in/iiirrr ; re- 
 moved in 183j to Tc.\as, where he was distinguished at tho
 
 1616 
 
 LAMARCK, DE— LAMAS. 
 
 battle of San Jacinto ; became a major-general, attorney- 
 general of Texas, and secretary of war : in 1^36 was chosen 
 Vice-President, and wns (18;JS-41) President of Texas. In 
 184(i ho fought at Monterey and on the Comanche frontier. 
 He wns appointed in IS.'>7 U. S. minister to the Argeutine 
 Republic, and in 1868 to Costa llica and Nicaragua. I). 
 at Richmond, Tex., Dec. lU, 1869. 
 
 Lamarck% de (Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de 
 JIunkt), CiiKVAMER. b. at liarcntin. France, Aug. 1. 1744 : 
 studied at the Jesuits' College at Amiens : entered the army 
 at the age of seventeen, serving in the Seven Years' war, 
 and at it:i close devoted himself to medicine and physical 
 S'jience at Paris, and in I"7t5 published a pni>cr on atmo- 
 spheric vapors, followed by the Flore Fnturaise (1778). 
 In 1770 he was chosen to the Academy of Sciences; became 
 botanist of the Jardin du Roi 17SH; etlited the Dictiommire 
 de Hutnniqne (15 vols., 1785) for Panckoucke's Encyrlo- 
 pfdle Mtthodi<iHe, and was professor of zoology at the 
 museum 1794-1818. His principal works are Si/Hfenic dea 
 animaux 8(ni8 vertrhrea (1801); P/iifoS'iphitr Zoolngiqiie 
 (1809), in which ho announced substantially what is now 
 called the law of evolution, together with some rather fan- 
 ciful speculations; H'lKtnirc natnreUe dfn atu'inanx sant vrr- 
 tebrrs (1815-22); TabJenu eucyclnpfdlqtie de In Botaniqxie 
 (1791-1823), and other works. D. at Paris Dec. 8, 1829. 
 
 La Mard, tp. of Wayne co., 111. Pop. 1349. 
 
 La Mar'mora (Albert), Couxt, elder brother of Al- 
 fonso, b. at Turin in 1789; d. in 1863; received his mili- 
 tary education at Fontainebleau, and in 1808 served in 
 Calabria, then in Lombardy, afterwards in Austria; at 
 Bautzen was decorated by the hand of Xapolcon I. ; fought 
 at Leipsic ; was made prisoner at Torgau. and released only 
 in time to join the Sardinian forces at Grenoble in 1814. 
 Having taken part in the revolutionary movement of 1821, 
 he was banished to Sardinia, where he spent nine years in 
 studying the island, especially its geology. In 1820 ap- 
 peared his first volume of statistics of Sardinia, rejirintcd 
 at Paris in 1839. After traversing the island nineteen times, 
 he described it minutely in a work which does him the 
 greatest honor, and which may well servo as a model for 
 the scientific illustration of any country. He was recalled 
 in 1831 by Charles Albert, his military rank was raised, and 
 he was made member of the Turin Academy of Sciences. 
 In 1818 he went to Venice to assist Manin. After being 
 named to the senate he was sent to Sardinia as royal com- 
 missioner, and by his earnest an<l friendly councils he 
 calmed tlie passions of the Separatist party. In 1857 ho 
 publisbod the third and last volume of his Via<jgio in Sar- 
 dinia. In 1S6U appeared his Itinerarto, 
 
 La Marmora (Alfonso), Maiiqi'IS, b. at Turin in IS04, 
 of an old and noble family; loft the military academy in 
 1823 with the rank of lieutenant of artillery; while in Ger- 
 many in 1830 was greatly struck witli the Prussian military 
 system; reported upon it with a view to the reform of the 
 Piedmontese light artillery ; and on the accession of Charles 
 Albert was entrusted with the formation of mounted batte- 
 ries. In 1831, lia Marmora established a school for non-com- 
 missioned artillery officers ami soldiers, and between that 
 time and 1848 ho visited almost every country in Kurope 
 for purp()ses of military study. He took an active and im- 
 portant part in the battles of 1848; saved the life of the 
 king in the insurrection at Milan ; was sent on a mission to 
 Franco, and on his return was made minister of war. In I 
 1849 he was sent to Tuscany to restore the grand duke; 
 then to Genoa to suppress the republican insurrecti(m there i 
 — an event which he describes in his recent work. L'n Epi- ' 
 aodio drl Hiaorgimenlo Italinno. In Oct., 1849, being again ! 
 minister of war. ho established the system of obligatory 
 instruction in tiie regiments, purged the army of incompc- i 
 tent officers, reduced the number and improved the quality 
 of the troops, enlarged the beraatjlieri c<irps, etc. In 1854 i 
 he organized and took command of the 15.000 troops sent 
 to the Crimea, led them to the victory of the Tchernaya.and 
 returned to Piedmont to resume his post as minister of war. 
 In 1859 he accompanied Victor Emnmnucl to the field, and 
 after the peace of Villafranca ho became president of the ! 
 council. In ISfil he was sent as minister to Prussia, where ' 
 he biid the foundation of the Italo-Prussian nllianee, which 
 he concluded in 18fifl, and by moans of which, notwitbsland- j 
 ing the defeats of t"'ustoza and Lissa, Venice was restored | 
 to Italy. Sent minister to Paris in I8(»7, and was governor 
 of Rome in 1870-71. (See his Qmittrc IH'^rtn-ai, etc., and , 
 Uii po di iuce.) D. at Florence, Italy, Jan. 5. 1S78, 
 
 l.amarque' (Maximimev). CorsT, b. July 22, 1770, | 
 at St. Sever, in the department of Landes: entered the 
 army in 1791, and distinguished himself in Spain by the 
 capture of Fuenterrabia in 1794. In 1801 he was made a i 
 brigadier-general ; took part in the battle of Austerlitz ; ac- j 
 companied Joachim .Murat to Naples in 1808; put down | 
 the rebellions in Calabria; captured the island and fortress ! 
 
 of Capri from the English, and was made a general of 
 division. On his return from Elba, Napoleon made him 
 governor of Paris, and later on he sent him to put down 
 the insurrection in the Vendee, which task he fulfilled with 
 as much forbearance as firmness. On the second return of 
 the IJourbons he left France, being exempted from amuestv, 
 and lived at .\msterdam, but was allowed to return in 1818. 
 In 1828 he was elected a memljcr of the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties, where he sided with the opposition, and exercised 
 some influence by his peeuliar eloquence and disinterested 
 character. D. at Paris June 1, 1832. His funeral, June 5, 
 occasioned an insurrection in Paris, which cost many lives. 
 Lamartine', post-v. and tp. of Fond du Lac co., Wis., 
 7 miles W. of Fond du Lac. Pop. 1367. 
 
 Lamartine, dc (Alimionse Maiuk Lons), b. at Mi- 
 con, Burgundy, Oct. 21, 1790 ; d. at Paris Feb. 28, 1869. 
 His name is popular and classical, not only in France — 
 where for nearly thirty years he held the sceptre of poetry, 
 and during four months the sceptre of power — but also 
 throughout the world, for his works wore translated into 
 every language. Lamartine was for a iew months the real 
 dictator of France, but he was a poctieal statesman, like 
 Castelar of Spain, and no practical results came out from 
 his tremendous political power. Still, he left as a states- 
 man a memory as highly honored as his memory as a poet 
 and historian is elevated and unsullied. He was brought 
 up by his mother with a delicacy and tenderness of senti- 
 ment which is reflected in the M''dtt'ttion», \hc first poetical 
 production of Lamartine. After the first fait of Napoleon 
 I., whose rigid and rough rule disagreed with Lamartine, 
 he took service, being a nobleman by birth, in the body- 
 guard of Louis XVIII. in 1814. When Napoleon camo 
 back from Elba, Lamartine, instead of following Louis 
 XVIII. to Ghent, travelled for four years in Italy and 
 along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. In 1820 he 
 published his first volumes of poetry, Lcs Mf'ditntious, Le 
 I. fie, etc., more than 45,000 copies of which — a large num- 
 ber for that time — wore immediately sold. Ho acted after- 
 wards as attache to the French legation at Naples, London, 
 and then as charge d'affaires in Tuscany, always thanks to 
 the protection of Chateaubriand, who had become the ad- 
 mirer and the friend of the young poet. A young English 
 lady, possessed of a very large fortune, became at the same 
 time enthusiastic of Lamartine, and he married her. In 1832 
 ho made his famous "journey in the East," the descri]ition 
 of which he published under that title. From that time 
 ( 1834) Lamartine, having been elected dejiuty to the French 
 Assembly, divided his life between politics and literature. 
 His Hiatortf of the Girondists, published in 1840, built up 
 his reputation as a liberal; and in 1848 he acted as the 
 leader of the ])rovisional government of the French re- 
 public, in the capacity of minister for foreign affairs. But 
 he was too much of an aristocratic gentleman, of a genuine 
 f/rnnd aeit/nciir, not to oppose the daily increasing torrent 
 of revolutionary passions. He had prevented France from 
 adopting the red flag as its national banner by his eloquent 
 apostroj)he to a Parisian deputatir)n: ''The red flag has 
 (miy gone around the Cliam])^do i^Iars. while the tricolor 
 has made the tour of Europe." After the insurrection of 
 June, 1848, Lamartine sank entirely into political oblivion, 
 and he retired into ])rivate life. But he had lost his poet- 
 ical and literary strength ; he wrote hastily some works, 
 with tho expectation that their sale would jiay up the tre- 
 mendous debt which he had incurred, principally through 
 a generosity of heart. But all bis efforts were fruitless to 
 fill up the abyss; he lived almost in poverty, when in 18f>7 
 the Corps Li^gislatif voted him a large annuity, which 
 softened his last days, for he died two years after having 
 received this testimonial of the gratefulness of France to- 
 wards one of her greatest poets, historians, and most hon- 
 est statesmen. A public subscription was started after his 
 death, and in 1871 a statue was erected to Lamartine near 
 Mricon, at Milly, a village where he had spent his youth, 
 and which he has so often celebrated in his books. To 
 the list of his works already mentioned above can be added 
 among the most remarkable Iliaton/ of the Revobtti'm of 
 IS^S, The Coiifideueea, ToitHaaint L'Oitvertui-e, a drama, 
 (I'oieviere, <7»-«siV//rt, and the numbers of two kinds of peri- 
 odical reviews exclusively edited by him — Lr CniiMci/licr 
 and Coiira Fainificr de Lift/^rattire. FtLix AucAlG.VE. 
 
 La'mas (.Andres), b. at Montevideo, Uruguay, about 
 1817, received an excellent education in his native city, 
 and at an early ago became distinguished both in literature 
 and politics, founding tho Historical Institute of Monte- 
 video, and filling euecessivcly several important offices. He 
 was prefect of Montevideo during a portion of the cele- 
 brated nine years' siege; minister of finance, nn<l sevoral 
 times plenipotentiary to Brazil and Buenos Ayres to nego- 
 tiate the most important concerns of the republic. It is, 
 however, for his vast knowledge of South American history
 
 LAMB— LAMBRUSCHIXI. 
 
 1017 
 
 that bo is best known, bis private collections of manuacripta 
 being perbnp:* (he must important materinls extant upon 
 the subject, lie has published several vulumt-s uf a vast 
 
 Collettioti of Mrmoirs tuid Docnmcnla rehitircto the Histortf 
 
 and (ifographif of the Jiio de la Flata, and uumeroua poems 
 and bisturical treatises. 
 
 Lamb, tp. of Dickinson co., Kan. Pop. -162. 
 
 Lamb Caroline). See Melbouuse. 
 
 Lamb iCii.vhles), b. in London Feb. 18, 1775. His 
 father, who was a servant to one of the benchers of the 
 Inner Tcinpk*. had some literary taste and a rare fund of 
 huuior, and was author of a small volume of verse. Charles 
 was cduca(c<l at the school of Christ's Hospital from his 
 seventh to his fifteenth year, Coleridge being a fellow-pupil 
 an. I friend, and in 178'J obtained a L*ierkship in the South 
 Sea House. In 17'J2 ho became an accountant in the office 
 of the East India Company, and remained at this post until 
 182j, when he retired on a pension. There was a tendency 
 to insanity in the family, which manifested itself in Charles 
 for a short time in 179j» and in his sister Mary the next 
 year, when she killed her mother with a knife. In 1707, 
 Lamb printed a small volume of verses written )ty him- 
 self, Coleridge, an'l Charles Lloyd. He devoted much at- 
 tention to early Knj;lish literature; published in ISO" 
 TaUa /itjtn Sba/:npc<irr, and in ISOS Specimens of Entjllnh 
 Vrtxnuitic Puttn irho litrd about the time of Shakxpenre. Ho 
 twice appeared as a dramatic author, having printed in 
 ISOI a tragedy, John ]\'oodrif, and in 1800 a farce, Afr. 
 
 II , which was brought out at Drury Lane. Neither of 
 
 these plays had the slightest success, and the author wisely 
 devotetl thereafter his occasional literary cffttrts to the field 
 in which he is best known and njost universally appreciated. 
 Several brilliant Eitafii/« appeared from time to time in 
 Leigh Hunt's lirjlcctor (ISlU) and in other periodicals, but 
 it was not until 1S20 that he began the EHHntfH of EUa in 
 the London M'ltjosine. They wore collected in 1S2;1, and 
 established his reputation as one of the most brilliant and 
 thoughtful of humorists. In 1S,J3 ho added the Ln^t Esuayn 
 of Elia. After his retirement in 1S2J from the drudgery 
 of office-labor the remaining years of his life were passed 
 in the companionship of a host of literary friends, to whom 
 be was mueh attached. Among them were, besides Cole- 
 ridge ami IJoyd. Southey, Wordsworth, Godwin, Talfourd, 
 Procter, Leigh Hunt, Hazlitt, De Quinecy, and Hood, and 
 their Wednesday evening sessions at Lamb's house in Inner 
 Temple lane were for several years a markcl feature of lite- 
 rary life in London. Lamb, though painfully moclest and 
 somewhat hesitating in his speech, was an admirable enter- 
 tainer, and his table-talk, of which fragments have been 
 preserved by his biographers, abounds in the rarest wit. 
 His sympathy with the literary labors of others, even in 
 spheres far removed frotn his own, was an admirable trait 
 of character, surpassed only by his absolute freedom from 
 exclusiveness in regard to opinions, religious or philosoph- 
 ical. His feeble and delicately strung physique was too 
 susceptible to the effects r)f liquors and tobacco, which ho 
 nevertheless craved, this bi-ing his only frailtj'. Ho was 
 never married. 1). at Kdmonton Dec. 27, is;i4. An admi- 
 rable biography and selection from his letters was pub- 
 lished by T. N. Talfourd in IStO, and his F.'n>d Mrmorioh 
 in 1S(S. The poems of Lamb, though graceful, were never 
 popular, but his reputation rests securely upon his criti- 
 cisms and the A'#»fi^« of EHa, acknowledged to bo one of 
 the most exquisite volumes in the whole range of English 
 literature. — .Makv Anne L.\mb, b. in London in 17t»j, sister 
 of Charles, was a woman of considerable litt-rary tuk-nt, 
 and took part in siirae of her brother's works, especially 
 the TuUa from Shuktpeaie. She resided through life with 
 Charles, who was tenderly attached to her; received a 
 pension after his death from the East India Company, and 
 d. at St. John's Wood May 20, 1S47. PouTEn C. Huss. 
 
 Lamb (<lcn. John), b. in New York Jan. 1, K^t'i; aa- 
 sistrl his father at the business of optician ami maker (»f 
 mathematical instruments; took a distinguished part in 
 Montgotnerv's expedition against Quebec, in which hi* was 
 wovhuIlmI and taken prisoner ; beeamo major and cohmel of 
 artillery under <len. Knox; and did good service through- 
 out thu war. clo!<iiig liis cari'cr at Yorktown. lie was after- 
 wards a member of the New York legislature, an«l was ap- 
 pointed by Washington collector of customs for the p«)rt of 
 Nrw York, which post ho hchl the remaintler of his life. 
 1>. in New York May .'JI, ISOO. (See Life of Lamh, by 
 Leake. Albany. ls.">0,) 
 
 Lamballe% de (Marie TriEui^sK Lot'isp. de Savoie- 
 CAttii;\lN). I'lMNTESS. 1). at Turin Sept. S, 1710, iind mar- 
 ried in 17fi7 the prince of Laml»alle, son of the duke of 
 Uourbon-Penlhii'vre. who did next year. Petween Mario 
 Antoinette and the princess, who was as much distinguished 
 by her intelligence as by her beauty, arose a friendship 
 which proved true to the last. When the royal family at- 
 Vol. II.— 102 
 
 tempted to flee (May 29. 1791) the princess, who was mis- 
 tress of the royal household, preceded them, but when the 
 attempt failed returned from England to slay with the queen. 
 whose humiliations and sufferings she shared with genuine 
 heroism. Murdered in the massacre of Sept. 8, 1792. 
 
 Lambaye'que, town of Peru, South America, on the 
 Lauibayetjue. b miles from its mouth into the Pacitic, is 
 bcaulifully situated and well built. It has manufactures of 
 woollen and cotton fabrics, and carries on some trade, 
 though its roadstead is over a mile distant from the shore, 
 and very bad. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Lam'bert (Daniel), b. at Leicester, England. Mnr. l.*?, 
 I7(tO ; was remarkable for his great size, and for some years 
 exhibited himself to visitors in London and the large cities 
 of England. Previous to the age of nineteen ho had not 
 been noted for corjiulency, but owing perhaps to a seden- 
 tary life as keeper of a prison, he attained in 17911 a weight 
 of 44S pounrls. and ultimately 739 pounds. He was only 5 
 feet 11 inches in height, strictly temperate in habits, and 
 distinguished for health, octivity. good-humor, and polished 
 manners. D. at Stamford June 21, 1S09. 
 
 Lambert (Johann Hkinimcii), b. Aug. 29, 172R, at 
 Miilhausen in Alsace, in humble circumstances, but suc- 
 ceeded by industry and perseverance in developing his nat- 
 ural talent for mathematics and natural science; travelled 
 much as jtrivate tutor to two young Swiss noblemen, and 
 came in 17(')l to Herlin. where Kreileriek II. made him a 
 member of the Academy of Science and superintendent of 
 the Antronomical Almanac. His Photomvtria.aivide mennnra 
 ct fjradihna hnninis colorum et vmhrtv (1760) contains the 
 first scientific representation of the measurement of the in- 
 tensity of light; and his /n»it/niur'H Orhitn- (\>metaruin 
 I'roprirtatrn still occupies an hontirablc jdace in the history 
 of astronomy. His metaphysical writing's, on the contrary, 
 have become entirely forgotten. D. at Lcrlin Sept. 25, 1777. 
 
 Lambert ffien. John), b. at Kirkby Malham<lale. York- 
 shire, England, Sejit. 7, llilO; studied law. ami on theout- 
 break of the great rebellir)n entered the Parliamentary 
 army as cnptain under Lord Fairfax. Ho was conspicuous 
 ill the ])rineipal battles of the war; was cohmel at Marston 
 M<»or (1014) and major-general in the Scots war. (lO.'.U), in 
 which he gained the actions of Hamilton and Inverkeilhing ; 
 was appointed lord deputy of Ireland in 10J2; was o mem- 
 ber of ('rom well's council and Parliament I UJ.")4) ; and aided 
 Cromwell to become Protector, but opposed his assumption 
 of 8<»vereign power in 16J7, refusing to take the oath of 
 allegiance, and was dismissed from court with a pension. 
 On the accession of Richard Cromwell in ICJS, Uen. Lam- 
 bert headed the confederacy of military commanders which 
 deposed that feeble ruler, and asjiired to the Protectorate. 
 In May, 10.')9. he was chiefly instrumental in tlio reinstal- 
 lation "of the '• Hump Parliament;" defeated the royalists at 
 Chester in August, came into c(uifliet with and forcibly 
 dispersed the Rump in October, thereby becoming head of 
 thu committee of safety and virtual ruler of England. 
 Lambert started with an army to oppose Monk (Nov.), but 
 the troops deserting in great numbers, he was soon seized 
 by order of i'arliainent 'Jan.. lllOtt) onil cast into the Tower, 
 whence ho eseii)ied and reassembled forces against J^lonk; 
 hut being captured a seconfl time, he was tried and eon- 
 deinned to death (.lune, 10fj2) by the new court of king's 
 bench under Charles II. His sentence was commuted to 
 banishment, and he d. on the island of tiuernsey in 1092. 
 
 l^am'bcrtville, postv. of West Amwell tp., Hunter- 
 don CO., N. .1.. on the l>elaware Kiver and the Pelvidero 
 division of the Pennsylvania R. R., II miles above Trenton, 
 44 miles from Philadelphia, and 71 from New York. It 
 has .') churches, 2 weekly newspapers, .O hotels, 1 natioruil 
 bunk, a rubber-factory, iron-foundry, railroad construelion 
 and repair shops, a cotton. 2 paper. 2 spoke, and 2 twine 
 mills, with exeelUMit water-power. INqi. ;{HI2. 
 
 Hazkn a R.uiKUTs, Ens. and Piuh'S. of " Rkaoon." 
 
 Lamb^HC, small town of Algeria, in the province of 
 Constantino, is used by the French as a penal colony. It 
 stands on the silo of the ancient LamhenHn; one of the most 
 important cities of Numidia and the station of a Roman 
 legion. Uuins of an nmpliitheatre. a tem]do of iEsculai)ius, 
 and a niagtiilieent wall with forty gates are stUl extant. 
 
 Lnm'brthf one of the suburbs of London, on the S. of 
 the Thames, opposite Westminster, with which it is ccm- 
 nected by the Waterloo. Westminster, and Vauxhall bridges. 
 Pop. :t79,ll2. Lambeth Palace, an eilifieo of the Middle 
 Ages, has been for evnturios the principal residence of Iho 
 archbishops of Canterbury, and has a line library. 
 
 LnmbrtiNchrni (Rakpaello), Aruk, b. at (ionoa in 
 17SS; d. in lS7;t; passed some years at Rome in the study 
 of theology, after which the young abb/'- returned to his 
 father, theii living in Tuscany, to devote himself to agricul- 
 tural and philanthropic pursuits, going from time to time to
 
 1618 
 
 LAMBTOX-LAMINARIA. 
 
 Florence for the benefit of scientific lectures. At the age I 
 of forty, Lambruschini published his first work— a work | 
 which "proved him an cle-;aut, careful, and thoroughly in- 
 structed writer, anxious to promote all real progress. The 
 habit of training plants suggested to him the true metho<l 
 of training men; Vieusseux entrusted to him the education 
 of his nephew, and he afterwards established a boarding 
 college for boys at his villa of San Carboui. In isati he 
 took the direction of La (Jidda dclV Eilia-alore. In 1848 
 he, with Kicaaoli and Salvagnoli, wrote pulilical articles for 
 La ratria. and was elected deputy to the Tuscan assembly. 
 In ISJ'.I bo published his Lihii delta Edm-aziom; then his 
 I)ialo.,lu mdla hlrnztoue, enlarged an.I reprinted in 18/1. 
 In 185'J he was made in.spector-gcneral of the schools in 
 Tuscany, afterwards of all the elementary schools of the 
 kinu-.loin, besides being entrusted with the superintendence 
 of tbe Istituto di Studii Superior!, in which he was professor. 
 He was a member of the senate at the time of his death. 
 
 Lamb'ton, county of Ontario. Canada, bounded on the 
 N bv Lake Huron ami on the W. by the St. Clair Kiver. 
 Vetrolcum is produced to some extent. The soil li? J'^jy 
 fe-tile. The county is traversed by the Grand Trunk K. K. 
 Cap. Sarnia. Pop. ;!1,U',I4. 
 
 Laine'go, town of Portugtil, in the province of Beira. 
 It is bcautitullv situated at the foot of the Penude Moun- 
 tains, on an alflnent of the Douro, is surrounded by walls, 
 has an ancient castle, an episcopal palace, a college, a fine 
 Gothic cathedral, and many other ecclesiastical monuments. 
 It has been the seat of a bishopric since tha fourth century, 
 and was the residence of the early Moorish kings of Por- 
 tugal. P"p. yooo. 
 
 Lamellibranchiata, or Acephala (a class of mol- 
 lusksi. ,*ce Coxciioi.oiiv, by G. W. Trvon, .Jr. 
 
 Lamennais', de ( UrnrEsFKLiciTE RoBnitr), Abbe, b. 
 June HI, 1782, at St. Malo, Bretagne : acquired very early, 
 throu>'h passionate application to studies, a comprehensive 
 knowFedge of theology, philosophy, and history; adopted, 
 though only after some hesitation, the ecclesiastical career ; i 
 received tlie tonsure in 1811, and took holy orders in 1817. | 
 It struck him that lack of true religion was rtie real cause , 
 of all the mental and nior.al troubles from which the age 
 sufi'cred ; and although he move.l along through many and 
 verv singular windings, and changed his standpoint and j 
 allies more than once, at the bottom of all his different I 
 views of the world lies the idea that the regeneration ol the 
 time depends on a religi.ms revival. The first work in 
 which he set forth his idea with full power was his Lmy 
 siir ni,il:tr''mi<-e en MatilTe de Reliqiia, (4 vols.. 181 i-L'll), 
 a brilliant apology for the Church and the monarchy hailed 
 with enthusiasm bv the I'ltiamonlane clergy and the old- 
 conservative statesnien, hut offensive to the (iallican party ; 
 in the French Church, and hateful to all the different shades 
 of dcmocracv and liberalism. It awakened a certain sus- 
 picion however, even among its best friends. The monarchy 
 w-is not based on its legitimacv. but on its usefulness to the j 
 Church, and in the Church the highest authority was not | 
 sought for in th.' infallibility of the pope, but in the universal [ 
 consent of all Christians. In his next following works, ia 
 Reliqlw, rnmiJerfe dan, /<■« Rapport, arec VUrdrc cud ct pa- \ 
 //(.V;'ii«{2vols.. IS2J-2l))and/Voffr^»</f /t Itfmluiianflde la 
 oJn-e r-.niirr r£,,l!K ( 1 82H ), this idealization of the existing 
 Church and moiiarchy developed into a tendency towards 
 reform of both; and after the July revolution in 18;iO he 
 openly broke with the old monarchy, and tried in his journal, 
 the \i-n,lr, to establish an alliance between the Church and 
 the free constiluthm.al government. He was immediately 
 denounced at Home, and the pope condemned in 18112 the 
 views set forth in the Avndr. Nor was he accepted by the 
 doctrinaires, who felt that his present staiidi>oint was only 
 an intermediate station from which he soon would pass into 
 radicalism. .At the first niiunent he submitted e<iinpletely 
 to the papal condemnation ; the .4rrMii- was suspended. But 
 after a veai's silence and meditation he ]uiblifbeil in lS,i4 
 his I'arid.t d'nn Crayant. which made an unexampled sen- 
 sation : it ran through 1 On editions in a few years, and was 
 translated into all Euiv.pean languages. The jiope con- 
 demned it, and l.amennais answered by his -1;?"ir<-» rff 
 Jlmne (18:!G). By these two books he broke absolutely with 
 the Church, and in his subsequent works, Lr Llir,- dti J'enple 
 
 (lS:i7), A\./.li««f d-iaif rhdannphir {?. vcds., 1841-4.1), JJc la 
 Itellijinn (1841 ), Du I'aMf il de I'Arfnir dn I'eiijilr (\»42). he 
 
 appeared as the apostle of the democracy, as the prophetic 
 cxpouniler of the alliance between Christianity and radical- 
 ism. In 184'J he was a member of the Constituent Assem- 
 bly ; after the rr.n;) r/V(<i( he lived in absolute retirement. 
 D. Feb. 27, lSi4. In accordance with his will, his corpse 
 was brought to Pere la Chaise and deposited among the 
 poor and unknown, without any funeral rites; not oven a, 
 simple stone marks hia grave. 
 
 Lamenta'tions, Book of, a canonical book of the 
 
 Old Testament, following the book of Jeremiah, and gener- 
 ally attributed to that prophet. Itconsists id" fivechuptcrs, 
 each composed of twenty-two verses (except the third, 
 which has sixtv-six), according to the number of letters in 
 the Hebrew alphabet, and is an acrostic, each verse begin- 
 ning with a distinct letter. The contents arc. as indicated 
 by the title, a series of dirges or threnodies upon the down- 
 fall of Israel. Some have found the occasion of its com- 
 position in the defeat of Josiah at Megiddo, and regard the 
 references to the ruin of Jerusalem as prophetic; but the 
 internal evidence is decisive that it must have been written 
 after the event it commemorates. Little opposition has 
 been made by modern critics to the tradition derived from 
 the Sc].tuag"int text and supporteil by the Talmud, which 
 refers its authorship to Jeremiah, treating it as an appendix 
 to the prophecies. 
 
 Lameth', de (Alexandre TniononE Virionl, Cohxt, 
 b. at Paris Oct. 28, 17G0. desccndi d from a noble family of 
 Pieardy ; was one of three brothers who figured largely in 
 French politics during and subsequent to the Revolution, 
 after having rendered services in the American war of in- 
 dcpcnilencc on the staff of Count Uochambeau. Alexandre 
 became a colonel in 1 78;'i, and was elected a deputy to the 
 States General in 178il, taking an active part in the destruc- 
 tion of the privileges of the nobility and clergy. He was 
 chosen president of the National Assembly Nov. 20, 17110; 
 afforded protection to Louis XVI.; tendered him counsels 
 which were disregarded; was a member of the constitutional 
 committee; had frequent conflicts with Mirabeau, and op- 
 posed Robespierre and the Jacobins. On the outbreak of 
 war with Austria (17112), Lameth served as field-marshal 
 in the army of the North ; was accused by the Assembly 
 (Aug. 10). together with La Fayette ; escaped from France, 
 was seized by the Austrians, and imprisoned three years at 
 Magdeburg; repaired to England in 179.'); \vtis well re- 
 ceived by Fox and the Whigs, but being ordered by Pitt to 
 leave the country, joined his brother Charles at Hamburg, 
 
 opening there a eoniniereial house. Under the eo: 
 and empire Lameth was prefect of several depart 
 
 • . . .■ . _ » 1 1... T i.xlD \ \ I 
 
 Under the consulate 
 nieuts ; 
 was appointed lieutenant-general by Louis XVIII. in 
 1814 and during his reign was for four sessions a leader of 
 the opposition in the Chamber of Deputies. Lameth wrote 
 much on ].olitics, his most important work being ILitlone 
 dc I'Agncnddi'c conalilnanle (2 vols., 1828-29). 
 
 I^aineth, de (Charles Malo Fras(,-ois), Count, b. at 
 Paris Oct. 0, 1757, brother of Alexandre ; served as captain 
 on the staff of Count Rochambcau in the American Revo- 
 lutionary war : was wimuded at the capture of a Bnlish 
 redoubt "at Yorktown, and promoted to be colonel. During 
 the Revolution his career was singularly parallel to that 
 of his brother Alexandre; like him, be was at one time 
 (Julv.i 1791) ch.isen presiilent of the National Assembly, 
 served ks field-marshal, had to flee after the events of Aug. 
 10 1792. and .settled at Hamburg. From 1809 to l.-^ll ho 
 served in the army under Napoleon, obtaining the rank of 
 lieutenant-general. After the Restoration he lived in pri- 
 vacy until elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1829 : eo- 
 ope"rated in the revolution of 1830, and d. at Paris Dec. 28, 
 is:i2— His elder brother, CoiST Theodore, b. at Pans 
 June 24 17;'ifi, also served in America, was a deputy and 
 a field-marshal, but took little part in |,olitics. lie wrote 
 a biogra].by of his celebrated brothers, whom bo survived 
 many year.*. D. at Busagny Oct. 19, 1854. 
 
 I.a Mottrie', dc (Jiliex Okkray). b. at St. Malo Dec. 
 ■^ > 1701) ; studied medicine, and was appointed physician in 
 The urmv of the duke of Gramont, but was disebargid on 
 account of his llhlalye nam,; lie de /■.l«,r(tbe Hague. 17 l.i), 
 which lio.d^ was luiblic Iv burnt f.ir its materialism and athe- 
 ism After the publication of La fahtd/ue dn Mfdenn de 
 MncldarrI (Amsterdam, 174fii he was compelled to leave 
 France and sought refuge in HolUand, but he was expelled 
 also from this country on account of his /.-. Eoenlte etnjee 
 (1747) and i: llaniin, .maehine ( Levden, 1748). He removed 
 to Berlin ..11 the invitation of Frederick II.. with whom he 
 lived in great inumaey. Here he wrote /.7/..«mc-;,,,„(e 
 (1748), An dejauir. etc., and d. suddenly Nov. 11. li.'l, 
 from over-eating. Frederick II. wrote his (h„je ; \ <.ltaue 
 called him a-fooir and this different impression which 
 his writings made on his time gives them a certain histori- 
 cal interest ; else they are entirely destitute of scientific or 
 literarv value. 
 1 I.ainina'ria [Lat.], a genus of seaweeds, of which L. 
 ! dddlala. I,ullj,„a. and nae.harlna. all deep-sea plants are 
 ,,r"ii;ed in Europe for the rich supply of iodine aflorded by 
 them when burned as kelp. The stem of Lam.nuna ,1,./,- 
 laia (sea-tangle, girdle) is manufactured into bougies and 
 uterine tents for surgeons' use. In some cases these tents 
 are superior to tents of compressed sponge. It is reniarK- 
 ablc that the sea-tangle of the American coasts, specifically 
 identical with that of Europe, is unfit for this use.
 
 LA MINE— LAMP. 
 
 itjiy 
 
 LaMine,|>09t-r. and Ip. or Cooper CO., Mo., oo La Mine | 
 River, 7 miles W. of Bouneville. Pop. 1088. | 
 
 Lam'ina!* Uay, the festival of St. Peter's chains (Aug. 
 IJ, probably so called because it was an ancient practice on 
 this day to make an offering of bread a« the first fruits of 
 the year ; henco *• loaf-mass," corrupted to Lammas. 
 
 I.am'mcrgeyer [<icr.. ".lumb-vulture"}, called also 
 Grillon and Bearded Vulture, the (Jiipnfim, burba- 
 tut, one of the lar;:est. perhaps (ho largest, of the birds of 
 prey (since the condor has by recen( au(hors been described 
 as rather inferior to the lammcrgeyer in size), an dld-World 
 bird, a vulture in anatomy, but an eagle in habits, rarely 
 feeiling upon carrion. It is a strong and bold hunter, some- 
 titnes reaching ten feet in expanse of wing. 
 
 Lammermoors', a range of hills. 1732 feet high, form- 
 ing the boundary between East Lothian and Kerwickshire, 
 Scotland, and covering the south-eastern part of the latter 
 county, where it presents a bold, rocky, and dangerous coast 
 to the Xorih .Sea. 
 
 Lam'nidie [from Lamna. the typical genus, and -iV/jc], 
 a family of sharks, with a fusiform body ; the caudal fin 
 with the lower lobe a little s[aallcr than the upper: with a 
 keel on each side of the tail ; and two dorsal fins, the first 
 of which is behind the pectorals. Head with a pointed 
 snout: mouth large, inferior; teeth large: the nostrils not 
 confluent with the mouth: the spiracles obsolete or entirely 
 wanting: the branchial apertures very wide. The family 
 thus defined e[ubracc3 several genera, including the nmck- 
 ercl shark and the formidable "man-eater" of the Amer- 
 ican waters. The row of teeth on the upper jaw in all these 
 forms exhibits a break a short distance from (he symphysis 
 on each side, where the teeth are much smaller than the 
 others. Two well-defined groups represent the family — 
 viz. Laranai. in which the teeth are lanceolate or siginyidally 
 curved, and not serrated ; and Carcharodontcs, in which the 
 teoth are triangular and serrated. The two groups arc 
 represented in the .Vtlautic as well as Pacific waters of 
 North America, the .\tlantic species being Imiroptii Oekai/i 
 and C'irckamluii Alu-fmdi. The family was well repre- 
 sented in past geological epochs, and enormous toctn of 
 Cuiclmr,„lnn are found in Tertiary beds. Theouore Gill. 
 
 Lamoille', county of N. Vermont. Area, 450 square 
 miles. It is quite mountainous, but generally very fertile, 
 atlording fine pasturage. Cattle, grain, wool, potatoes, hay, 
 and dairy products are the agricultural staples. Lumber, 
 leather, and starch are manufactured. The county is trav- 
 ersed by the Lamoille Kiver and by the Portland and Og- 
 dcnsburg K. R. Cap. Hyde Park. Pop. 12,-148. 
 
 Lamoille, post-tp. of Bureau co.. III. Pop. 1408. 
 
 Lamoille River rises in the mountains of Vermont, 
 and Hows westward into Lake Chaniplain, through La- 
 moille. Franklin, and Chiltenrlen cos. It furnishes exten- 
 sive water-power. 
 
 Lamoille Valley, a v. of Elko co., Ncv. Pop. 134. 
 
 1,11 .Moin, tp. of MeDonough co., III. Pop. 1107. 
 
 Lainiiine', post-tp. of Hancock co., Me., on the sea- 
 c<iast, .\. of .\It. Desert Island. Pop. 612. 
 
 Ijamont', post-v. of tjttawaco., Mich., on Graml Uiver. 
 
 Lamoute', post-v. of LIk Fork tp., Pettis co., Mo., on 
 the .Missouri Pacific R. R. Po|i. 1S4. 
 
 Lamoriciere, ile (rntiisTopiii-: Locis L£on), b. at 
 Nantes Feb. li, ISOti; was a pupil of the Polytechnic ."^chool ; 
 entered the army, took part in the campaigns against the 
 Arabs of Algeria, and captured Abd-el-Kader in 1847. 
 After the revolution of Feb., 1818, he was elected repre- 
 sentative in the National .Assembly, and as a general fought 
 a:;ainsl (lie Paris insurgen(s. .\s soon as they were defeat- 
 el he was appointed minister of war .lune 28. 1848, but re- 
 signed on the election of Louis Napoleon as President, and 
 in the .\ssembly opposed the Itoiiupartist policy. On the 
 night of the r-oii/j iVfl'il, Dec. 2, Is,, 1, he was sent as pris- 
 oner to the fortress of Ham. and thence exiled from France. 
 In |8(',0 be took the command of the jnipal troops, but was 
 defeated at Castelfidardo by Victor Kinmanuel's generals. 
 Ho returned to France, thanks to a pardioi already granted 
 to him in 1867 by Napoleon III., and <l. in bis clitKeau of 
 Prouscl near .Vmiens Sept. 10, ISGj. Fti.ix At caicse. 
 
 Lnmotte', tp. of ."^anilac co., Mich. Pop. 04. 
 Lainotte, de (Wvtoink HoinAnn). b. at Paris. France, 
 in l'>72; studied in a .lesiiit college; obtained success in 
 writing operas of the pastoral type, and also with four 
 tragedies, on© of which, htfz ftf Canti-n (I72;i). has main- 
 tained a place on the French stage. He became blind at 
 the age of forty; was admitted to the .Vcadeniy in 1710; 
 was dramatic censor, and was noted for the literary para- 
 doxes he maintained in his critical essays. He wrote many 
 fables, odes, and eclogues, depreciated Homer, and brought 
 out an " improved end corrected " lllud in French verse. 
 
 reduced to ten hooks, which involved him in a violent con- 
 troversy with Madame Dacier. D. at Paris in 1731. His 
 complete works form 10 vols. (17o4), 
 
 Lamotte, de (Jf.avnf. nE Lcz nE Saint Remv peVa- 
 I.OIS), CofXTESs. b. at Font^le. in Champagne, .Tuly 22, 
 1766, of a noble but degenerated family; educated by the 
 countess of Boulainvilliers. and received a pension of Louis 
 XV. on account of her descent from the house of Valois. 
 .\ftcr marrying the count de Lamotte. a penniless ad\'en- 
 turer. she settled in Paris aliont I 780. and soon began the in- 
 trigue with Carclinal Rohan which has become famous under 
 the name of the " necklace story." It ended with her convic- 
 tion May M, 1785. She was whipped, brandeil, and put in 
 theSalpetriere. In 1787 she escaped, came to London, and d. 
 there .Vug. 2">. 1701. falling during a night-revel out of a 
 wintlow. (Consult The Difimnnil Sfrklnvi' (Carlyle's) and 
 Louis Blanc's HiMtnire de In lUrolution /niliruiMe, and 
 Campardon's Marie Anloinette et Ic Poifg du Collier (1864).) 
 
 Lamoure', county of E. Central Dakota, traversed by 
 the Dakiita River. .Airea. 1800 square miles. It is almost 
 entirely uninhabited by white men. 
 
 Lamp [Fr. lampe; Lat. hnnpnn; Or. Aa^Taf, from Aa^- 
 ntLv, to "shine"]. Defined till within a few years as a 
 receptacle for oil with a wick for illumination, the inven- 
 tions of the past and present geucration have made it 
 impossible to distinguish between the /nm/< properly so 
 called and any other artificial means of giving light. 
 Known to the Egyptians, Hebrews, and 11 reeks, lamps 
 were originally simple flat vessels of oblong or round 
 shape, at one end of which was a smalt handle, at the 
 other a little projection with a hole forming a nozzle, and 
 with a larger opening on the back anil in the centre into 
 which the oil was poured. The oil used was generally veg- 
 etable, but. .according to Pliny. sometiuKS of liquid bitu- 
 men. These lamps, of terra coKa or metal, many of very 
 elegant form, were placed on nr hung with chains to bronze 
 candelabra. Tareutum and iEgina were famed for making 
 the latter of great elegance. But though the ancients con- 
 fined their ingenuity to the ornamentation of the lamp and 
 its stand. Hero of .Alexandria (b. r. 221 ), in his Tnniis, i.n 
 I'nenmaliet, details four inventions, by one of which "oil 
 can be raised by water within its stand. " and by the other 
 "raised by means of air." All the older lamps formed a 
 crust on the wick, which was renioveil by :i needle or 
 picker; none of them gave a good light, and the majority 
 of the poorest persons of the younger generation, especially 
 in our cities, have literally no idea of the limited artificial 
 illumination, even of the rich, before the days of gas, cam- 
 phcne. lard oil. and hydrocarbons. 
 
 From the earliest times until within a century the lamp 
 remained the same, consisting simply of oil and a wick in 
 a receiver. In 1784, M. Ami Aigand (or, according to 
 some, M. tjuinquct) produced an entire revolution in arti- 
 ficial light by the invention of a liunier with a circular 
 wick, the fiame being thus supplied with an outer and in- 
 ner current of air. the eflfcct of which was increased by 
 means of a glass chimney. Argand was also the inventor 
 of the chimney itself as applied to other lamps. Soon after 
 .\rgand. I'ctcr Kciri I 787 ) made the great invention — which 
 was only fully developed of late by .\ronson — of raising 
 the supply of oil by means of another fluid whose specific 
 gravity is greater limn that of oil, this being generally salt 
 in water. The principal inventions since his arc as follows : 
 .John .Miles (1787) invented a portable carriage-lamp, also 
 one with a reservoir on the same principle as "a birdcage 
 waler-fountnin," and a burner of twisted wire. Th. II. 
 Stokes (1787) patented a new and peculiar method of rais- 
 ing oil in lamps to suoply the wick. and.!. Smcthursl ( 1701 ) 
 anil .1. Lucas, with W. jiaylis (170.!). made ingeninus ap- 
 plications of lenses to light. Eckhardt and Morion (17117) 
 set forth a "method of making lamps and candlesticks by 
 means of sliding pillars, so that Ihcy may be raised or eon- 
 traoted." M. Carcel in 1708 invented a lamp in which the 
 oil was raised by clockwork. This and Stokes's laiiip are 
 the parents of the moderator lamp. Aliout seventy varieties 
 of this or the pressure lamp have been iialeiited in England. 
 A modification of the Carcel lamp known as the Diiicon was 
 lung popular in .Vmerica. In 1810 an American named 
 Wood wrote a singular novel, consisting of the adventures 
 of a lady in search of a really good lamp, in which the 
 successful end was the attainment of the Diaeon. .lames 
 Sinclhurst and .Michael Paul ( 1802) pa(enled the register 
 tube, air-lubes, and a reailily removable burner, wi(h re- 
 flectors. Porter's "automaton " ( 1804) was very ingenious, 
 "the lamp being suspended on an axis counterbalanced by 
 a weight, so as to make it hang level when full and at an 
 angle of 4.'>'^ when empty, so as to feeil itself evenly by the 
 gradual ascent of the burners." (1. li. .Alcoek (1 8015 1 sup- 
 plied oil by means of a piston and tube, also with n lube 
 and syringe, which forced the oil up by compressed uir"ot
 
 1620 
 
 LAMPASAS— LAMPBLACK. 
 
 any heavier fluid than oil." Elizabeth Perr.vman (1809) 
 invented an improved street and hall lamp. J. Smethurst 
 (ISU ) offered several improvements, one of a spiral burner 
 with screw- valve ; also tlic doublc-coue globe. Peter Du- 
 rand ( ISl 1) attempted to "render illumination more soft 
 and agreeable to the eye." Lord Cochrane (ISIS) invented 
 lamps for burning the "spirit" or *'oil of tar," and made 
 an jirrangement for allowing the direct rays of light to 
 fall ]ii*riiendieularly ou the ground bcueath the tlame. 
 •SaimiL'I Parker. Jr. (IS22), made the important impruvc- 
 mcnt of lixing French chimneys upon burnerd by means 
 of metal supports affixed to the turning adjuster of the 
 lampwick. J. C. Haddau and J. Johnston (1838) invented 
 an ingenious candie-Iamp with a spring, the candle being 
 m:uU' without a wick, the wick being in a short tube above, 
 up to which the candle rose as it melted. Robert Kcttie 
 entered (I84o) an improved method of signalizing on sea 
 or land with colored glass lamps, shades. a!id reflectors, 
 also un excellent arrangement of reflectors for liglithouses. 
 W. C. Wilkins (1S40) devised a number of inventions con- 
 nected with raising oil by atmospheric pressure, with gas- 
 burner.-i and heating gas. Robert Hesketh {1SJ2) claimed 
 the invention of the combination reflector, also that of glass 
 iu eorrusated sections, every alternate face being silvered. 
 Edwin Whale (1Sj2) invented candle-lamps which did not 
 require snuffing, and eandle-clooks. Abel Easton (1853) 
 patented a self-generating gas-lamp, the gas being made 
 from spirits of wine. Edward Maneire (1854) patented 
 lamps in which the oil-reservoir was raised above the sur- 
 face of the burner, and so placed that its inner surface 
 acted as a reflector. Ed. Simons (185J) invented an ap- 
 paratus for condensing and absorbing the smoke, etc. aris- 
 ing from gas and other flames, and increasing the light. 
 Theodulo Cavfi (18.'»G) suggested a "continual lamp" to 
 burn twenty-four hours without requiring attention, by 
 means of a ]>lunger and elastic India-rubber tube. John 
 Maedooald (ISj(i) presented imjirovements for regulating 
 the supply of oil to lamps, or of liquids of any kind for any 
 useful ])urposes, by means of air-tubes and valves. Charles 
 E. Ileinke (ISofi) contrived an improved apparatus for 
 illuminating objects beneath the surface of the water, or 
 lighting mines where explosive gases exist. This was an- 
 other form of safety-lamp, originally invented by Dr. 
 Clanny of Sunderland in 181.3, and perfected by Humphry 
 Davy and George Stephenson in 1815, the former receiving 
 all the credit of the invention. A much better lamp of tho 
 same kind was patented by J. Roberts and George Upton 
 ( 1827). A. V. Newton ( ISoO) made an improved construc- 
 tion of lamp for burning hydrocarbons without the aid of 
 the usual glass chimney. M. A. F. Mennous (1859) in- 
 vented a very curious api>aratu8 for the distribution of 
 heat as evolved by lamps, and tho application of it to 
 heating and cooking. A. V. Newton (1860) suggested an 
 improved lamp for burning hydrocarbons without a chim- 
 ney ; and again, in the same year, for smokeless lamps, tho 
 principle being that of a blower supplying enough oxygen 
 to cause complete combustion, il. R. Fanshawe (ISG2) 
 patented a submerged light, or reflect()rs for the purpose of 
 alluring fish. Solomon and A.J.Grant (1804) invented 
 several improvements in lamps for burning magnesium and 
 other raetailie substances, the wire being fed by clockwork. 
 AV. Ryder (ISlU) suggested burning ]iaraffin.etc. in lamps 
 by means of an inconsumable metnfiko» wick or burner — 
 1. e. a wick of gliiss fibres in metal tubes. E. J. C. Welch 
 (136.0) off'ercd an improved clockwork apparatus for sup- 
 plying with a regular pressure air to burners <d" hydrocar- 
 bons. W. B. Dalston (1885) improved an atmospheric- 
 pressure lamp for burning hydrocarbons, in which tho oil 
 was consumed in the form of gas. The apparatus com- 
 prised an air-pump, a cup of alcohol, tubes, a copper coil 
 or cylinder, and a regulator. C. Rahn (ISfij) invented an 
 improvement for concentrating light, applicable to dental 
 and other operations, by means of a combination of lenses. 
 Giaeomo Felice Marehisto (1S65) recorded improvements 
 in apparatus for obtaining light without danger of explo- 
 sion, l)y the use of air which has been rendered influm- 
 roable by aJmixture with the vapors of petroleum and other 
 hydrocarbons. The apparatus consisted of a mechanical 
 motor, a circular chamber and drum in compartments, with 
 opening? for the inlet and outlet of air, the chamber being 
 half filled with air, upon which the hydrocarbon floats. The 
 count De Fontaine >l'>reiiu (ISfi.")) invented an illuminating 
 apparatus for burning petroleum in the open air without 
 the use of a chimney. Count de Mitreau also suggested a 
 number of improvements in the Carcel or moderator lamps 
 for burning mineral oils. Though elaborate and compli- 
 cateil. his inventions arc ingenious ami suggestive. C. T. 
 Mlillcr also made improvements for burning hydrocarbons 
 an<l turpentine, by which atmospheric air was mingled 
 witli the gas. It may be rcraarketl that the difficulty of 
 distinguishing between inventions relative to lampi and 
 
 those referring to general illumination does not appear be- 
 fore so recent a period as 1865, when the introduction of 
 petroleum into England greatly stimulated studies in all 
 ])ractical methods of generating light. Thus, the apjta- 
 ratus of William Clark ( IStJj) for lighting and beating, by 
 comhiuing air and gas from hydrocarbons by means of a 
 simple reservoir and tubes, with diaphragms of wire-gauze 
 to prevent explosion, is as afpplioable to gasworks or cook- 
 ing as to a hand-lamp. H. A. Bonneville (1805) invented 
 a safety-lamp in which the flame must be extinguished be- 
 fore the gauze cylinder can be removed. J. Maublanc 
 (1S65) attempted what has since been perfected by J. 
 Aronson — a kerosene lamp which can be lighted without 
 removing the shade. The lorce of the old Hindoo proverb, 
 that '* it is always dark under the lamp," was attempted to 
 be removed in the same year by Levi Hewitt, who invented 
 a contrivance to remedy tho inci>nvenience caused by the 
 extensive shadow cast under ordinary illuminators, by 
 means of horizontal burners of paraffin. D. Gallafent 
 (1850) attempted to adapt the Argand principle to paraffin. 
 Louis Pebyre (18(35) suggested an improved apparatus for 
 burning hydrocarbon oils in the open air without a chim- 
 ney. It consisted of a cap and two wick-tubes, the former 
 having two air-holes in its top or sides, with an opening 
 below, putting it in communication with the oil-vessel, tho 
 wick-tubes extending above and below the cap. Eliz. 
 Leiehenstadt (1860) patented an ingenious lamp for tho 
 purpose of burning a mixture of crude benzole, camplior. 
 and aconite root. Alexandre Mugnin (ISfiOi offered an 
 improved lamp containing in a reservoir a sjinnge filled 
 with petroleum, in which was a tube of wire-gauze through 
 which a wiek passetl. This wick absorbed only the vapor 
 of the petroleum, forming a gns-larap. William James 
 Current (18G0) invented a system of telegraphing with 
 colored lights, and devised a lamp fur the purpose. Charles 
 Brown (1800) offered a very valuable invention for con- 
 suming smoke from lamps. Edward Howard (1860) at- 
 tempted to make a non-explosive lamp for all kinds of 
 highly inflammable oils. The principle was ingenious, but 
 the application was imperfect. (See Petroleum.) 
 
 The chief improvements in lamps of late years have 
 been, with few exceptions, modifications of the foregoing. 
 It is remarkable that tho first specific invention of the kind 
 ever made, that of Hero of Alexandria, in which the oil 
 was raised by water, involves the pressure principle since 
 developed as the mofhrator in nearly a hundred forms, the 
 last of which is that of Joseph N. Aronson. applied to 
 burning kerosene and other inflammable fluids, though it 
 may be used for any oils. In this the reservoir and tube 
 for oil are accompanied by another containing water, their 
 connection being such that by the least deflection of the 
 lamp from the perpendicular, the oil supply is cut off near 
 the burning point. While burning, this lamp may be rolled 
 on tho ground, upset, or reversed for any time, without 
 danger. Its blaze is remarkably steady and clear, and 
 from the great simplicity of its principle the lamp is not 
 likely to get out of order. The gas-sunlight apparatus of 
 R. G. Berford is intended to concentrate light for work or 
 reading. It consists of a hemispherical cuj> made of glass, 
 filled with water, and placed beneath a horizontal burner. 
 It is especially adapted for reading, engraving, writing, or 
 sowing. The lamp-burner of .1. Aronson (1875) is a sim- 
 ple but effective invention by which a lamp may be lighted, 
 trimmed, or filled even in the dark, without removing tho 
 chimney, globe, or shade, the latter remaining stationary. 
 Capt. Doty, an American, has invented a lamp for light- 
 houses, signals, etc., wliich has been extensively adopted in 
 France. The most important recent inventions in lamps 
 are cliiefly American. Chahles G. Leland. 
 
 Lampa'sas, county of Central Texas. Area, ^^b 
 square miles. It is mostly rolling prairie, with some hills 
 and fertile wooded valleys. It is bounded on the AV. by 
 the Colorado Uiver. Live-stock and grain are staple prod- 
 ucts. The county abounds in mineral springs. Cap. Lam- 
 pasas. Pop. 1344. 
 
 Lampasas, post-v., cap. of Lampasas co., Tex. It 
 has I weekly newspaper. 
 
 Lamp'black. This term is applied technically to car- 
 bonaceous pulverulent matters deposited during the im- 
 perfect fuliginous combustion of carburetted gases or va- 
 pors, in the presence of inadequate supply of air or oxygen. 
 The quality, both as regards fineness and color, for use in 
 pigments, blacking, and printing inks, varies greatly with 
 the materials burned in the manufacture and with tho 
 methods employed. For the cheaper cotnmercial qualities 
 the materials employeil are f/oit-tar, irnofl-t>t>-, petroleum, 
 soft resinous woods like pine, pitrh, roniu. and even hitwin- 
 1IOU8 conJft. In making ordinary lampblack several quali- 
 ties aro obtained at the same time in the same apparatus, 
 bv means of the following arrangement, which is here de-
 
 LAM I'KRTICO— LANCASTER. 
 
 1G21 
 
 scribed in but a general wav : The fireplace is connected 
 with the soot-chambers by means of a brickwork jrallery or 
 horJEoutal flue at least 14 feet lonj;;, in which inferior tarrt/ 
 materiiil tlfposits. A series of chiiiiibcr^ <»r c<»nfli'uscrs then 
 usually fdlluws, in which the successive depot^its increase in 
 fincnci'S and value successively. The la^t chamber has 
 suspended over it a loose conical hooil, of coarse woollen 
 material, through which the (lrau;;ht percolates, and which 
 of course collects the finc!?t black of all. As the pores of 
 this houd become clogged it is shaken or tnppc<I. Its con- 
 tents arc reserved for fine printer's ink and similar uses. 
 
 For special uses lampblacks of special kinds are some- 
 times prepared from costly oils and resinous substances, for 
 which extravagant prices are required. For instance, it is 
 said that the finest tfeiiuhir India inks arc made of soot ob- 
 tained by burning the costly material cnmphtir. It would 
 appear as if the very finest blacks ought to bo now made 
 very cheaply by proper manipulation of our cheap Ameri- 
 can mineral oils. It is also stated that the natural gas of 
 the gas-wells in different sections of the l*. S. may be con- 
 verted into fine qualities of lampblack on a largo scale. 
 
 Lampblack in crude form always contains some oily, 
 tarry, or resinous matters, and sometimes, according to 
 Ueicbenbach, a little naphthaline. Braconnot found in 
 lampblack from resinous wood — 
 
 Carbon 79.1 
 
 Moisture 8.0 
 
 Resin " 5.3 
 
 Tar 1.7 
 
 Ulmlne 0.5 
 
 Sulphate of ummuuia 3.3 
 
 with some other small impurities. When printer's inks or 
 oil colors are to be prepared, these impurities are im- 
 material, but when water-colors are wanted, as when to be 
 ground with gum-water to make imitalion India inks, etc., 
 the resinous and tarry matters must be removed before- 
 hancl. This may be done by careful calcination, but not 
 witimut detriment to the quality of the finer blacks. A 
 better way, therefore, is to work into a paste with heated 
 oi7 of vitriof, which chars and destroys the hydrorMirbon- 
 accous matters. Thorough washing with water yioMs then 
 a very superior material f^or India ink. IIknhv Wimitz. 
 
 Lnmpcrti'co {Fi:ni:i,p:), b. at Viccnza in 183.'i, of a 
 wealthy eouimercial family; received his earliest instruc- 
 tion from his mother, a lady of intelligence and of a strong 
 will: pursued his classical studies as a day pupil in the 
 seminary of Vicenza: his other studies ])rcparatory to a 
 legal course were pro«ecnted at lnjino. At this time he 
 formed relations with Pnsini, Messcdaglia, and Luz/ati. 
 In 1S.'>1 he published an article on the advantages which 
 e<!onomical science may derive from poetry. In IHjD the 
 Institute of Venice honored with a prize his memoir Sufft; 
 fonitr>furuz*r (Ifl tnijlio ilrlV htmn (It Siifz. IHs other prin- 
 cipal works are a memoir Ih N't I Vm « drlfr /)oftn'tie di Gian 
 Alfirin Often; Sulla Stnti'tlicfi Teorica in tjenrrale e an Mcl- 
 rhiorre dioin in pnrtirolnrr ; Shtdii tnlln Lctjinlnzione Minc- 
 ffirift ; fntroduzi'ine ad iiii rorio ili Srt^nzri Evomtmicn ; II 
 Litvoro. Since his twenty-first year he has continued to oc- 
 cupy positions of the highest tru?t in his native town. In 
 iHftft he was elected deputy to Parliament, was re-elocted in 
 1H(17. and was named to the senate by the minister Min- 
 ghetii when ho hail Hcarceiy attained to the required age. 
 
 linmporcc'chio, town of Italy, in the province of 
 Florence. It contains a remarkable work of Luca dclla 
 Uobbia, and is known as the birthplace of Berni, the au- 
 thor of Orlando finminorata. Pop. «2V3. 
 
 linm^prey, or Ijampcr Eel^ the common name of 
 the l'etromy/.onti<lji'. cartilaginous fishes of the grou]* Hy- 
 peroartia, class Marsipobranchii, having an eel-like body, 
 a round sucking nmuth with numerous teeth, and having 
 seven round gill-holcw on eiudi side of the neck. Europe 
 has two abundant species, the /*rfiunn/Z'ni nxiniiu^ and 
 Lantprtrn Jliirintilin; the V. S. have a number of species, 
 among which arc /*. AiiiTirdntiti, very nearly related to the 
 P. mariniii, and species of Lniiifi'trti and nerirly allied gen- 
 era. They arc prized as food by some. The lampreys arc 
 represented in Australia by (he jioiieheil lamprey ((t'mtria 
 Afnttnthm), which has an enormous pouch upon the throat. 
 l.'^ee Pi:tiu)«vzontii».i;.) TiiKoimiu: (Jii.i,. 
 
 I^nmprid'idir [from Lumpri», the type (»f the family, 
 and -idtr], ri family of ueanthopteroun tcle<»erpbalnn«i fishes 
 of the mackerel gniuji. ebanu*teri7.»'d by the much com- 
 prcHscil body, small deciduous scaleo, smiill mouth, abi4cnoe 
 of teeth in adultx, six branehioHtegal rays, long undivided 
 dorsals, multiradiate thoracic ventral finn, nuntorous pyloric 
 cncca. and large posteriorly-bifurcate air-bladder. A single 
 genus ( Laniprit) i.-* known, whose representatives (probably 
 Iwlonging to but one species, the O/nth or A. litiifi) are found 
 in the northern Atlantic and Mediterronean. The A. /una 
 has been reconled as an inhabitant of the onslern American 
 coast, but is doubtless a mere straggler. Tmkoikiki: (Jill. 
 
 Lamprid'ius (iSuus), one of the Scriptoret Niston'ie 
 AufftiHtir, lived at the time of Constantine the Great. Four 
 
 biographies are inscribed with his name — namely, those of 
 Commodus, Antoninus Diadunienus, Elagabalus, and Alex- 
 ander Severus — but there is good evidence, both internal 
 and external, for bis identity with ./Klius Spartianus, to 
 whom the biographies of Iladrianus, Verus, Julianus, 
 Severus, Piscennius Niger, and (leta are ascribed, 
 
 Lamp'sacUM [.Vafi^a»eo«], a (Ircek city on the Helles- 
 pont, in Mysia, 4)ppo!-itc C'allipolls, was anciently called 
 Pityusa, and was famous for its wine and its phallic-wur- 
 ship. Near its site stands the village of Lamsaki. 
 
 Lamp^^shelly a name ai)plie(l in a largo sense to all 
 the HuAciiioroDA (which see), but 
 especially to those of the family Tk- 
 REBnATri.iii.K (which see). The 
 valves are united, and the pedicle 
 for attachment passes out through a 
 foramen of the projecting one. as tho 
 wick passed out of an ancient lamp ; 
 hence the name. Shells of several 
 species of niollusks are also used as 
 lamps (as the Fnsna anttqnus in 
 Shetland). Theokohe (iiLL. 
 
 Lamp'son (Sir Cruris Miranda), Baut., b. in Ver- 
 mont Kept. 21, ISfllj; went in 1S;J0 to England, where he 
 was naturalized in 1848: became a wealthy merchant of 
 London, a Hudson's Bay director, a trustee of the Pcabody 
 fund, and rendered important services in laying the Atlan- 
 tic cable, for which in ISOli be was made a baronet. He is 
 deputy governor of the Hudson's Buy Company. 
 
 Lamps, Safety. See Safctv Lami*s, by Mns. S. B. 
 Hehuuk. 
 
 Lan^ark, town of Scotland, the capital of the county 
 of Lanarkshire. The beautiful scenery in its vicinity at- 
 tracts many tourists. Pop. 6099. 
 
 Lanark) county of Ontario, Canada. Area, 1180 square 
 miles. It is traversed by the Ottawa and St. Lawrence 
 Railway. It abounds in lakes and streams. There are 
 two ridings. Cap. Perth. Pop. ."jI^OUO. 
 
 Lanark, i)ost-v. of Ilock Creek tp., Carroll co., HI., 21 
 miles S. W. of Frceport. on tiie Western Union R. II., hiiw 
 1 national bank, I weekly newspaper, fi churches, 2 hotels. 
 several warehouses and elevators, 24 stores, and a flouring- 
 mill. Pop. 972. J. R. Howi.ett, Ei>, ''Gazette." 
 
 Lanark, tp. of Portage co., Wis. Pop. 471. 
 Ijun'arkshirc, or Clydrsdale, county of Scotland, 
 comprising the upper basin <>[' the Clyde, between Edin- 
 burghshire on tlu! E. and Ayr and Renfrew on the W. 
 Area, 889 square miles, of which only one-half is under 
 cultivation. Pop. 70r>,279. Along tho Clyde the surface 
 is level and well adapted to agriculture, but the southern 
 part is mountainous and the soil nferile. It is rich, h<iw- 
 evcr, in coal, iron, and lead — richer perhaps than any oilier 
 region in (ireat Britain ; 160 collieries and Li iron- works are 
 worked, and 90 furnaces in blast. Almost every kind of 
 manufacture is carried on in or abont (iLAscow (which see). 
 Lanc'ashire, or Lancastorshire, county of Eng- 
 land, liurdering on the Irish Sen. Area, 1905 j-quare miles. 
 Pop. 2.818,904. Tho northern and western parts are cov- 
 ered with ranges of hills which separate Lancashire from 
 the county of York, and of which the highest point, Conis- 
 ton Fell, is 2J77 feet. Tho rest is low and level, consisting 
 <»f a sandy loam, watered by the Lune, Wyre, Mersey, and 
 I Irwell, and generally fertile. Manufactures, however, and 
 not agriculture, arc th'* chief interest of Lanca:shiri', and iis 
 manufactures flepcnd mainly on its immense coal-beds, cov- 
 ering nearly lOO square miles. Alth(»ugh almost everylbiug 
 is manuliicturcd in or arouml Mancliestcr, Liverpool. Hinn- 
 ilton, and Preston, yet c<»Iton goods form the principal 
 item, and in I8tl0 no less than lil.'i.filiO persons were en- 
 gaged in this branch of industry, consuming 2, .192, 000 bales 
 of cotton and producing goods to the value of £80,000,000. 
 Lanc'aHler, county of S.E. Nebraska. Area, 804 square 
 miles. It has a highly fertile soil, productive of grain. The 
 county contains several salt-basins which yield considerulile 
 salt. There are also (|uarrics of fine building-stone. The 
 c<<unty is traversed by Salt Creek, whose waters are braek- 
 itih, and by the various railnuids centring ut Lincoln, tlio 
 capital of the county and tStatc I*op. 7074. 
 
 Lancaster, county of S. E. Pennsylvania. Aren, 920 
 s(|uari* miles. It is a beautiful region, diversified with low 
 bills, and is one of the mowt fertile districts in the worM. 
 Live-stock, tobacco, grain, hay, ami dairy produce are 
 tho principal staples. Tho manufactures arc very im- 
 portant, and include fioiir, carriages, tobacco, clothing, 
 saddlery, furniture, metallic wares, cooperage, leather, iron, 
 lumber, agricultural implements, and many other kinds of
 
 1622 
 
 LANCASTER. 
 
 goods. The county is traversed by the Reading and Co- 
 lumbia and the Pe'unsylvania R. Us. and their branches. 
 The county has much water-power, an abundance of mica- 
 ceous routing-slate and bhu* limestone, and some marble. 
 Cap. Lancaster. Pop. I21.;i4U. 
 
 Lancaster, county of South Carolina, bounded on the 
 N. by North Carolina and on the W. by Wateree River. 
 Area. HOO square miles. It is uneven in surface and gen- 
 erally fertile. Corn and cotton are staple crops. Cap. Lan- 
 caster Court-house. Pop. 12,087. 
 
 Lancaster, county of Virginia, bounded S. E. by Ches- 
 apeiike Ray and P. W. by the navigable Rappahannock 
 River. It is level and naturally fertile. Corn and wheat 
 are staple products. Area, 108 square miles. Cap. Lan- 
 caster Court-house. Pop. 5355. 
 
 Lancaster, town of England, the capital of Lanca- 
 shire, on the Lune, near its mouth. It is a neatly-built 
 tuwn, with an old castle, a fine aqueduct, which carries the 
 Lancaster Canal across the Lune, and manufactures of fur- 
 niture, leather, and cast-iron work. Pup. 17,248. 
 
 Lancaster, post-v, and tp. of Cass co., III., on the 
 Springlield and Illinois South-eastern R. R. (Philadelphia 
 Statiun). Pop. 1239. 
 
 Lancaster, tp. of Stephenson co.. 111. Pop. 08fi. 
 
 Lancaster, tp. of Huntington co., Ind. Pop. 1492. 
 
 Lancaster, i)Ost-v. and tp. of Jefferson co., Ind. The 
 towusiii)) is travorsi'd by the Madison and Indianapolis 
 R. R. ( Bright's Station)." Pop. 1442. 
 
 Lancaster, tp. of Wells co., Ind. Pop. 1381. 
 
 Lancaster, post-v. and tp. of Keokuk co., la. Pop. 
 of V. 135 ; of tp. 1525. 
 
 Lancaster, post-v. and tp. of Atchison co., Kan. Pop. 
 000. 
 
 Lancaster, post-v., cap. of Garrard co., Ky., 1 1 2 miles 
 S. E. of Louisville, on the Louisville Nashville and (Ireat 
 Suuihern R. R. (Richmond branch), has G churches, 3 ho- 
 tels, 1 weekly newspaper, 1 national and 1 deposit bank, 2 
 high schools, a planing-mill, a tobacco-factory, a wheat- 
 fan factory, 4 society lodges, and about 70 business-firms. 
 There is a company of U. S. troops in garrison. Lancaster 
 is in the *' Blue-grass region,'* and is noted for its fine corn 
 and wheat. Pop. 741. 
 
 Jos. R. Rlckkk, Ed. "Central Kenttckv News." 
 
 Lancaster, a thriving and beautiful town of Worcester 
 CO., .Mass., un the Worcester and Nashua R. R., 19 miles 
 N. by E. of Worcester. It has a fine memorial hall, a pub- 
 lic library, a national and a savings bank, and is the seat 
 of thf? State industrial schoul fur girls. Its streets are 
 shaded by noble elms. It is the oldest town in the county, 
 and was incorporated in 1653. Pop. 1845. 
 
 Lancaster, post-v. of Liberty tp., cap. of Sehuyler co., 
 Mo., on the Missouri Iowa and Nebraska R. R., 2 miles E. 
 of the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R., 22r» miles 
 N. W.of St. L«>uis, has county buildings, 3 hotels. 2 churches, 
 1 national bank, I weekly newspaper, a fine seminary build- 
 ing, and a number of stores and shu])s. There is abun- 
 dance uf coal in the vicinity. Prin.'ipal industry, farming 
 and dairying. Pop. 427. 
 
 lliiNiiY A, Miller, Ed. "Excelsior." 
 
 Lancaster, post-tp.. cap. of Coos co., N. II., 137 miles 
 N. of ('uncord, on the lioston Concord and Muntreal R. R., 
 has 5 churches, 2 weekly newspapers, an academy, a sav- 
 ings bank, a paper-mill, a fuundrv, 50 stores and sho^is. 
 Pop. 2248. W. F. Williams, Ed.'" Coos REprnLicAN." 
 
 Lancaster, post-v. and tp. of Erie co., N. Y., on the 
 New Vurk Central and the Erie U. Rs., 10 miles E. of 
 Buffalo. It has 6 churches, a number of manufactories, 
 and a bunk. Pop. ir)'.l7. The Inwnship contains several 
 other villages, and has a pup. of 4330. 
 
 Lancaster, city of Hooking tp., cap. of Fairfield co., 
 0., on the Hocking River, at the intersection of the Cin- 
 cinnati and Zanesvillo with the Hooking Valley R. R., 21 
 miles N. E. of Circleville and 30 S. E. of Culumbus. It 
 has 10 churches. 1 private and 2 national banks, a mag- 
 nificent court-house (cost $150,000), 2 weekly newspapers, 
 several fuuntlries. ll.uring-raills, and manufactorie?. 2 new 
 public-school luiildingfl (cost $30,000 each), a good city hall, 
 and several wine-cellars, one nf which will hold 40,011*0 gal- 
 luns. The State refurm fiirm for bovs is located near by, 
 and maintains 400 b..ys. There are few cities in the U. S. 
 mure beautifully situated than Lancaster. Pop. 4725. 
 
 T. Wktzler. En. " Eaglk." 
 
 Lancaster, tp. of Butler co., Pa. {P. 0. Middle Lan- 
 
 ca.sier). Pup. 1053. 
 
 I«ancaster, city and tp., cap. of Lnnenstor co.. Pa., on 
 tho Pennsylvania R. R., 68 miles W. of Philadelphia, was la 
 
 1818, when William Cobbett visited it, the largest " inland " 
 town in the U. S. It is located in the centre of tho largest 
 and must productive limestone region in the State, if not in 
 the U. S. It was at one time the capital of Pennsylvania. 
 and when the British troops occupied Philadelphia the Con- 
 tinental Congress met here. It is laid out regularly, the 
 streets crossing each other at right angles: the principal 
 streets are macadamized, and the houses almost invariably 
 of brick. There are 14 macadamized roads leading to the 
 city. The city is lighted with gas, has a neat theatre, 3 
 daily and 7 weekly (2 German) newspapers, and 7 monthly 
 publications, fine free schools, and free night schools during 
 the winter months, 33 churches and chapels. 4 handsome 
 cemeteries, a volunteer fire department with 7 steam-engines, 
 3 national banks with a en])ital of over $1,000,000. 5 other 
 banks, waterworks on a vast scale, extensive foundries, and 
 iron manufactures of the most varied kind. There is in- 
 vested here in the manufacture of cotton goods over 
 $l,500,0<fO, employing 1700 hands and paying to them an- 
 nually $450,000 in wages. It is the centre of a large seed- 
 leaf tubacco business, nearly 20.000.000 cigars being annu- 
 ally manufactured. At least 25,000 barrels of lager beer 
 are brewed here annually, most of which finds its market 
 elsewhere. Lancaster has a court-house erected in 1853 
 at a cost of $U»0.0()0. a hospital, almshouse, and prison, 
 all of approved modern construction, and a home for 
 friendless children. It is the seat of Franklin and Mar- 
 shall College and Theological Seminary, under the control 
 of the German Reformed Church, antl was the residence 
 and place of burial of Pres. James Buchanan and of Thad- 
 deus Stevens. Pop. of city, 20,233; of tp. 1002. 
 
 John A. Hiestasd, Ed. " Hailv Examiner." 
 
 Lancaster, post-v., cap. of Lancaster co., S. C, 28 
 miles E. of Chestt^. has 3 churches, 1 weekly newspaper, 
 a high school, a hotel, and several stores and shops. Prin- 
 cipal industry, farming. Pup. 501. 
 
 I). J. Carter, Ed. "Ledger." 
 
 Lancaster, post-v. of Dallas co., Tex., has some manu- 
 factures. 
 
 Lancaster, popt-tp., cap. of Grant co.. Wis., 25 miles 
 N. W. of Galena. III., and 20 miles N. of Dubuque, la., is a 
 thriving inland town, located in the midst of a rich agri- 
 cultural and lead-ore region. It has 1 bank, 2 weekly 
 newspapers, G churches, 4 hotels, a large woollen-mill, and 
 a sash and door factory. Pop. 2710. 
 
 Jons Cover, Ed. "Grant Co. Herald." 
 
 Lancaster, Drcnv and Countv Palatine of, a ter- 
 ritorial division uf England nearly corresponding to tho 
 county of Lancashire, but distinguished from it in law as a 
 separate administrative entity. It derives its origin from 
 a royal charter of Edward III., by which it was conferred 
 upon Henry, earl of Derby, Jlar. 0. 1351, and on his death 
 in 13()2 it was granted to John of Gaunt and his heirs for 
 ever; received a grant of a chancery and palatine privi- 
 leges in 1377 ; became a Crown possession un the accession 
 of Henry IV. tu the throne in 131H). at which time the order 
 of succession to the duchy was declared to be independent 
 of the succession of the Crown, so that should the house of 
 Lancaster lose the latter, it might still retain tho former. 
 This expectation was not met, for on the accession of the 
 house of York in 1401. Eilward IV. confiscated it to tho 
 Crown, and in turn attempted to make it a private appan- 
 age uf hi.s descendants. The result has been that down to the 
 present time the government of the duchy has been vested 
 in the sovereign, not as king of Englancl. but as duke of 
 Lancaster. The county palatine is a jmrtion of the duchy, 
 and is governed liy a separate court, jiresided over by a 
 chancellor. wh() is usually also chancellor of the duchy, an 
 officer who of late years has been a member of tho cabinet. 
 The duehy court is held at Westminster. 
 
 Lancaster (Sir James), b, in England about 1550; 
 cominauded two naval expeditions to the East Indies in 
 15UI and 101)1, which opened trade with Ceylun. Sumatra. 
 Java, and other islands, and was largely concerned in pro- 
 moting tho search after h N. W. passage to Asia. Lan- 
 caster Sound was named from him. D. in 1G20. 
 
 Lancaster (Jusepr), b. in London Nov.. 177S. opened 
 a school for children in Southwark in 171(S on the principle 
 of mutual instruetiun, and having achieved a brilliant suc- 
 cess, numerous sehuuls on the same plan were speedily es- 
 tabli)^hed by him in other cities, and he devoted himself to 
 tho popularization of his mcthttd. He came to the U. S. in 
 I.HIH, where ho had some success, and obtained from the 
 legislature of Canada a grant for the purpose of establish- 
 ing his sj'stem of iuslructiun. He was a Quaker. D. in 
 New York Oct. 24, 1S3?<. His family removed to Mexico, 
 where several of his grandchildren, under the name of 
 Lancaster-Jones, have figured in ]>olitics, and where his 
 system is now (1875) in full operation, supported by legis-
 
 LANCASTER COURT-HOUSE-LAXDIT. 
 
 1623 
 
 lacive grants under the management of a national Lancas- 
 tiTian foeicty. Tlio same system has also been largely 
 adopicd in Colomljia und other parts of South America. 
 
 I/ancaster Court-house, post-v., cap. of Lancaster 
 CO., \':i., fin iiiilcj E. by X. of Kichmond. 
 
 Lancaster Gun, a system of artillery devised by Mr. 
 Lanca-^tir, an Englishman. The guu had a twisted ellipti- 
 cal bore and an elongated elliptical shot, but no grooves. 
 The plan hai not been adopted to any extent. 
 
 Lancaster, House of. See England, John of G AtJHT, 
 IIksky 1\'.. etc. 
 
 Lancaster Sound lends from Baffin's Bay to Barrow 
 Strait, between the island of North Devon on its northern 
 side and several minor islands on its southern. It is 2J0 
 miles long, forms the entrance to the N. W. passage, and 
 was discovered in Ittlfi by Baffin. 
 
 Lancclet. See Amphioxis and Lkptocabdia. 
 Lancelot' (Claidk), b. in Paris in IGlo : was educated 
 under the influence of the Abb6 dc Saint-Cyran, who 
 brought him into connection with the religious association 
 of Port Royal, in Paris. In the schools of this association 
 he taught mathematics and Greek, and wrote for the use of 
 his pupils a Grammin're tjiiifral (ItJGO), Le Jardln dea 
 Uacincf Oircqiict, a Greek dictionary (165"), yoiivelle 
 mith"ftf pour iipprendrf Itt Liijii/iw tfi-erfiur, a Greek gram- 
 mar (Ifij.'i). and several other works. After the suspension 
 of the school iu ICGO, he was tutor to the princes of Conti 
 till IG72, when he retired first to St. Cyran, and then to 
 t^uimperK*, where he spent his time in prayers, meditations, 
 and penitence, and d. .Apr. 15. 11)95. He was neither a 
 great philologist nor a great graiiunarian, though his books 
 are remarkable for clearness and precision : but he was a 
 great pedagogue. His method of instruction and education 
 was in strong opposition to the barbarous pedantry of the 
 Middle .\gcs, and exercised great influence on the method , 
 adopted by the eighteenth century. 
 
 Lan'cers, a name given to such cavalry regiments as 
 are armed with lances. The Cossacks, the Polish lancers, 
 and the Uhlan (lancer) regiments of various armies are 
 among the most celebrated corps of cavalry. Most of them 
 carry a lance or spear of ash, eight, ten, or sixteen feet long, , 
 armed with a steel point and decorated with a pennon. 
 The alh, 9th, 12th, Itjih, au<l 17th British light cavalry are 
 lancers. There is a wide ditference of upiiiii»n among mili- 
 tary critics as to tfao valuo of the lanco in the warfare of 
 the present day. 
 
 Lan'cet Win'dow, in Gothic architecture, is a nar- 
 row \vio<l'i\v with 11 sharply pointed head. Lancet win- 
 dows generally appear in gruiij)S. The hineet window is 
 one of the eharactcristie marks of the Early English or 
 First Pointed .*ityle and the French Ogivalo Priiiiitif; 
 hence these arc often called the Lancet styles of Golliic 
 building. 
 
 Lance'wood, the wood of Gttatteria virgata and hittri- 
 fnl'ui, used (especially the former) for the shafts of car- 
 riages. The tree is tall ami very straight. It is of the 
 order ,\nonaceir. and grows in the West Indies. 
 
 Lancia'no [Lat. Anxnnum], town of S. Italy. This 
 is one i>f the most beautiful towns in the ,\bruzzi. It has 
 many fine public buildings, among which the eathe<lral 
 should bo first named. This church. "Our Lady of the 
 Bridge," stands high above the river-valley on grand and 
 lofty Koman bridges of the time ofl)ioctet Ian, and from some 
 points of view seems to be suspended in the uir rather than 
 resting on the earth. Its architecture, both external and 
 internal, is striking, I.aticiano is in railway communication 
 with Ancona and with Naples, and good common roads 
 connect it with the ncighliuring towns. It nmnufacturen 
 linen on a large scale; also silk, wool, and various chemical 
 products. Pop. in 1874, 17,.'ilO. 
 Land. Sec ItKAt, Piiopkbtv. 
 
 liUndntr, posl-lp. of Grafton co., N. H., 8,'> miles 
 N. N. W. of Concord. It has extensive manufactures of 
 starch, lumber, etc. Pop. 8S2. 
 
 Lan'dau, town of Uhenish Bavaria, on theriver Queich, 
 It was from olden times n fortress. In the Thirty Years' 
 war it was taken eight times. It is still a fortress, and has 
 considerable tobacco manufneturcs. Pop. I2.;in.'i. besides 
 a garrison of more than GMOil persons. In Ifisi it wiis fnr- 
 titied by Vauban, atid was supposrcl to hnvi- been lutide 
 impregnable, but in 171)2 lionis of Baden took it. 
 
 Land'-crab, a name applied to a rather large number 
 of crab^, remarkable as being gilled animals, which in the 
 perfect state are air breathers. One of the best known 
 species of tho U. S. is the tielaiiinua vocan* or fiddler. 
 (See t'li \n.) 
 
 Lan'denburg, post-v. of Xow Qardon tp., Chester oo.. 
 
 Pa., on the Wilmington and Western R. R., 20 miles N. W. 
 of Wilmington. 
 
 Lan'der, county of Nevada, bounded N. by Oregon and 
 Idaho. Its surface is broken by numerous N. and S. 
 mountain-ranges and valleys. Some of the latter arc fer- 
 tile, and arc especially adapted to stock-growing. The 
 county is traversed by Humboldt River and the Central 
 Pacific H. R. Silver and lead are mined and smelted, and 
 some gold is obtained in the N. Cap. Austin. Pop. 2SI5. 
 
 Lander (Gen. Fkedehic Wkst), b. at Salem, Mass., 
 Deo. 17, 1S22 ; studied at the .Military Academy at Norwich, 
 Vt., and conducted two perilous surveys for a railroad to 
 the Pacific, being the only survivor of the sccoud expedition. 
 In May. ISfil. he was appointed a brigadier-general; dis- 
 tinguished himself for daring in the Virginian campaigns, 
 and d. of congestion on the brain at Paw Paw, Va., Mar. 
 2, 1862. — His wife. Jean Margaiset Davkxpout, b. in 
 Wolverhampton. Eng., May 3, I82'.l. was a distinguished 
 actress previous to her marriage in ISCO ; acted as a hospital 
 nurse during the war; and in 18C5 returned to the stage. 
 
 Lander (Loiisa), b. at Salem, Mass., about IS.'io, early 
 manifested her genius for sculpt arc by modelling likenesses 
 of members of her family and executing cameo heads ; 
 went to Rome in 1S55 ; became a pupil of Crawford, and 
 Soon after finished in marble her two earliest statues, To- 
 Diiy and Guluha, which obtained her considerable celebrity. 
 Among her later works are busts of Hawthorne and Ijov. 
 Gore of Massachusetts, statuettes of yinjiiiin lime and 
 L'lidinc, a life-size statue of Vinjiiiin. a reclining statue of 
 Eriiiigeliiic, Etiziibelh, the Ejcih of Silicriu, a statuette of 
 t'ercs moiiniiiii/ /or Piuaerpiiie, A Si)lplt Alitjhtiiig, and 
 several portrait busts. 
 
 Lander (KunAnn). h. in Truro, England, in 1804; ac- 
 companied Cnpt. Clapperton on his second .Vfrican expe- 
 dition, and |)ublished the narrative from ('lai>pcrton's pa- 
 pers (182'J-.'iO). In 1830 he ami his brother John made a 
 successful expedition, descending the Niger to its mouth. 
 In 18:J2 Ije returned to the upper Niger in two steam-ves- 
 sels, on a commercial expedition, was mortally wounded 
 in a conflict with the natives, and d. at Fernando Po Feb., 
 18.14. 
 
 Landernau', town of France. 14 miles E. of Brest, in 
 the department of Finistcrc. It manufactures good leather 
 and pajier. has a consi.lerable trade iu wine and iron, a good 
 harbor, a fine Gothic church, and extensive marine barracks. 
 Pop. 789.!. 
 Lan'dcrsville^ post-v. and tp. of Lawrence co., Ala. 
 
 Pop. i;3i. 
 
 Landes, department of France, bounded N. by tho 
 Girou.le, S. by the Basses-Pyrenees, and W. by the Bay of 
 Biscay. Area, S590 square miles, with :i0n,52S inhabitants. 
 The eastern and southern parts are hilly and fertile, and 
 well adapted for agriculture; much aud excellent wine is 
 produced. But the western part, bordering on the ocean, 
 consists only of desolate tracts {Iniidm) of sandbanks, 
 marshes, and swaiu])S, covered with bcath and dwarf 
 shrubs, and inhabited by a few scattered families, whose 
 members stalk along on stilts in the sand, herding their 
 ?heep and swiue. On thedowus arc planted foreslsof pino 
 and cork trees, and these plantations afford some resources 
 to the inhabitants in cork-cutting and charcoal-burning. 
 In 18C.1, out of ;i8,UUj children, 1S.590 received no school 
 inrorumlinn ut all. Cap. Mont do .Marsan. 
 
 Land'KrovCj post-tn. of Bennington co., Vt., 12 miles 
 N. E. of Munchester. It has manufactures of lumber and 
 ohair-slock. Pop, 302, 
 
 Lan'dis, tp. of Cumberland co., N. J. It contains tho 
 town of \ivEi,ANii (which sec). Pop. 7079. 
 
 Lan'disburg, ])ost-b. of Tyrone tp., Perry co., Pa. 
 Pop. IIG'.I. 
 
 Lan'disvillc, post-v. of E. Hcmpfield tp., Lancaster 
 CO., Pa., 12 miles N, W, i»f Lancaster, at the crossing of tho 
 Reading and Columbia and the Pennsylvania R, IU. 
 
 Landit', a celebrated historical y'oi'rr, or fair and mar- 
 ket, which was tho type of those of the same kind so nu- 
 merous in the Middle .-Vges, and which are now continued 
 in France only by tho famims /'h'iti of Bcaucairc and the 
 ham and gingerbread fairs held in Paris during the weeks 
 preceding ami following Easter, The name hiudit is a 
 corruption of Lttttdi, .Mitnday : for tho Lniidit fair opened 
 both In Paris and in .'^t. lienis on the first .Monday after 
 tho 1 Itbof ,lune, St. Harnabas's Day. The talcs and books 
 of Ihe .Midillo Ages arc filled with allusions to the Landit, 
 which lasted for one week, and which was much frequented 
 by the university students. It was both a t'estival, a kind 
 oi French kermesse, and n market. It is said that Charle- 
 magne instituted the Lanilil, which wn« solemnly opened 
 every year by a procession iu which attended the bishop
 
 1624 
 
 LAXDIVAR— LANDLORD AND TENANT IN LAW. 
 
 of Paris, with the rector of the university, all the priests 
 
 and officials, and the students. The Revolution put an 
 end tu the Landit, and now it is no more than au ordinary 
 market for sheep, which are allowed to be brought to St. 
 Denis and sold there between the Xlth and ll^th of June of 
 each year. Felix Aucaigne. 
 
 Lamrivar (Rafael), b. in Guatemala Oct. 27. 1731 : 
 graduated at the university of that city ; entered the order 
 of Je^^uits in 1750 in Mexico, and rose to be the head of the 
 seminar^' of San IJurja. Expelled as a .lesuit on the sup- 
 pression of that order in Spain and America (1707), he 
 passed his remaining years at Bologna, Italy, and acquired 
 distinction by his elegant Latin poetry, descriptive of 
 tropical life in America. Besides miscellaneous verses, he 
 published in 1782 Hnxtirntio McricanUf in fifteen cantos, in 
 which he describes the lakes of Mexico, the volcanoes, the 
 mines of gold and silver, the wild animals, binls, and plants 
 of New Spain, upon the model of Virgil's Gcoryiva. I), at 
 Bologna Sept. 27. 17'.);;. 
 
 Landlord and Tenant in Law. This phrase is 
 used to expr?s5 a relation between the owner of land and 
 one to whom he transfers it for such a period or in such a 
 manner as to leave an interest still remaining in himself, 
 technically called a reversion. The more common mode of 
 tran-^fer is to create an estate in the land for a fixed period, 
 called an estate for years. It is not necessary that the time 
 should be measured by years, the leailing thought being 
 that the time for the commencement and the termination 
 of the estate is certain. Thus, an estate for a month, or 
 even for a day, is of the same grade as one for a tliousand 
 years, unless there is some statute to the contrary. The 
 common law makes a principal division of estates into 
 those of freehold and less than freehold. An estate for 
 years belongs to the latter class, and is thus inferior in 
 dignify to an estate fur life, which is a freehold. An estate 
 for years is ranked as a chattel, no matter how long it may 
 liist. Partaking to some extent of the nature of land, it is 
 called a chattel renl. The reason of this rule is of a his- 
 torieul nature. When these interests were first introduced 
 into the law, they belonged to the sphere of contracts. 
 They were granted to husbandmen, whose only remedy 
 in case of a violation of right was derived from the law 
 of contracts. The right itself was of a personal nature. 
 Although a tenant for years is now regarded as having an 
 est;i!e in the land, it partakes to some extent of its original 
 character. Accordingly, if an owner of it dies, his nnex- 
 pired interest does not descend to his heirs as land, but 
 passes to his administrators or executors as a chattel. An 
 owner of such an interest is said to have a term for ye.ars. 
 The word "term" is here used to point out the fact that 
 the estate has a fixed and definite termination. A distinc- 
 ti(m is thus drawn bet\veen the meaning of the words 
 " term " and *' time." Thus, if one should grant an estate 
 for three years to .A, and at the end of bis tfrm to B, the 
 estate of the latter would begin whenever A's interest might 
 terminate, whether by surrender of his estate or by lapse 
 of time. If, on the other hand, the word " time " had been 
 nscd, B's estate could not commence in possession until 
 three years had actually elapsed. 
 
 An estate for years usually commences by means of an 
 instrument called a hnte. The person making it is called 
 a frrtxor, and the person receiving it is termed a fe»HCc, It 
 frequently becomes imjiortant to distinguish between a 
 lease and an agreement for a lease. One of these creates 
 an estate, and is '' executed " in its nature : the other con- 
 fers a right to an estate, and is "executory." The rights 
 and remedies in the two cases are quite different. In the 
 case of a strict lease, the lessee may insist on possession 
 when the proper time arrives, and to that end, if possession 
 be refused, may bring an action of ejectment; in the case 
 of an agreement for lease, his regular remedy would be to 
 bring au action in a court of equity to obtain a lease, and 
 subsequently he might, by means of the lease thus ob- 
 tained, acquire the possession. To which class any 
 particular instrument belongs depends mainly upon the 
 intention of the parties as derived from the terms of the 
 contract. Kntry by the Icssqc is an essential element 
 in constituting an estate for years. A distinction is thus 
 taken between the strict estate and an intertnac termini 
 (or a mere interest in a terra). This phrase is applied in 
 two ways. Its first signification has reference to the in- 
 terval between the execution of the lease and the time fixed 
 for the estate to eommr-nce. Thus, if a lease were executed 
 in February, and the estat« was to commence in possession 
 on May 1st, during the intervening period the lessee would 
 have an " intercsse termini." This expression also applies 
 to the case where the time for taking possession has arrived, 
 and yet there has been no entry. The lessee cannot avoid 
 responsibility by refusing to enter, though the remedies of 
 the lessor would not be the same as if an entry had taken 
 place. Nice distinctions, which need not here be discussed. 
 
 are derived from the doctrines of tnter«««e Urmini. One im- 
 portant difference between the first form of it and that of an 
 actual lease may be noted. If a lessee has actually taken 
 possession of a house and lot, and the house be destroyed 
 by fire wholly without his fault, the lessee, in the absence 
 of an agreement or of a statute to the contrary, is liable 
 for rent. This would not be the case if ho had but an 
 intercsse termittt. When the relation of landlord and tenant 
 has been fully constituted, there is a twofold relation, or 
 so-called " privity," between them— privity of contract and 
 privity of estate. Privity of contract is derived from the 
 terms of their agreement ; " privity of estate " partakes of a 
 feudal origin, and expresses all the relations springing up 
 between the parties from the fact that one of them has a 
 temporary interest, and the other is the ultimate owner. 
 This is a very important distinction, and will he again 
 recurred to in the course of this article. These observa- 
 tions are preliminary to a discussion of the main subject, 
 which is very complicated and forms the topic of extended 
 treatises. It will only be possible to give a cursory view 
 of the rights and relations of the parties. The subject 
 will be considered under the following principal divisions: 
 I. The creation of the relation ; 1 1. Its termination or de- 
 struction ; III. The respective rights and obligations of 
 the parties; IV. Assignment and sub-letting. 
 
 I. It has been already observed that the common course 
 is to create this relation by a written instrument. By the 
 rules of the common law an estate fur years may be created 
 orally. The statute cf frauds (see FitAuns, Statute of), 
 however, applies to the case, and the estate, uuless the term 
 be short, must be created by writing. The terms of the 
 statute vary in the different States as to the estates which 
 maybe created without writing. The general fact remains 
 that oral leases are only allowed where the term is short. 
 In some of the States the name of the lessor must be 
 subscribed; in others, it may appear anywhere in the 
 instrument. An agent may act for the lessor, but where 
 the latter must execute a written lease the agent should 
 have written authority, and should sign the principal's 
 name, adding his own as agent. It is prudent, in most 
 cases, though not usually necessary, to attach a seal to the 
 instrument. The rules as to parties are substantially the 
 same as in other contracts. The presumj>tion is that an 
 owner may lease; incapacity is the exception. The prin- 
 cipal classes of incapacitated persons are the insane, intox- 
 icated persons, such as are under duress, infants, and married 
 women. The latter may in some States by statute make 
 leases ; the transactions of infants are in general voidable, 
 rather than void, and may be ratified upon attaining ma- 
 jority. The same general rule applies to persons mentally 
 unsound, who may ratify on the recovery of their reason, 
 unless they were at the time of entering into the lease un- 
 der judicial guardianship. In that case, by a technical 
 rule, the lease is wholly void. Trustees may. acting within 
 the scope of their trusts, make leases, and so also may cor- 
 porations under like limitations. The capacity to take a 
 lease which is clearly beneficial to a lessee may exist even 
 whore he could not be a lessor. Thus, a young child or a 
 person bereft of reason may be presumed to acce]>t a ben- 
 efit when he could not be allowed to assume a burden. As 
 a general rule, a lease can only be made of such an interest 
 as a lessor may have at the time of its execution. Thus, 
 if a person having a life estate in land should jiurport to 
 lease it for twenty-one years, and should die within a few 
 days afterwards, the lease would terminate at the moment 
 of his death. Owing to this fact, life tenants are frequently 
 unable to make advantageous leases. To remedy this de- 
 j feet it is not uncommon for one who creates a life estate to 
 ! confer upon the life tenant a pmccr (see Powers) or author- 
 j ity to create a lease commencing during his tenancy, and 
 i continuing for a moderate period — viz. twenty-one years. 
 ' If this power is executed, the result is. that while the life 
 tenant lives the rent is payable to him; after his death, to 
 the next owner for so-called reversioner). Should his death 
 I occur during the currency of a quarter, the rent belongs as 
 I a unit to the reversioner, unless there is some clause in the 
 ' instrument or a statutory provision to the contrary. Should 
 the life tenant live till after the expiration of the lease, he 
 may execute another under the power, etc. 
 I Should a party having no interest whatever in land pur- 
 ' port to make a lease of it, he would of course convey noth- 
 i ing. Still, should be afterwards acquire it. the instrument 
 might operate, on the theory of an estoppel (see Kstoi'PEl), 
 to prevent him from setting up a title as against his lessee. 
 This would only be where he had no estate icfmtever when 
 he made the lease. If he had some estate, though less than 
 what he purportC'l to convey, the lease would pass what he 
 had, and would spend its force. If he had, for example, an 
 estate for ten years, and made a lease for twenry, the lease 
 would pass the ten years, and would have no further ope- 
 ration.
 
 LANDLORD AND TENANT IN LAW. 
 
 1625 
 
 II. The Di»$olution or Deatruction of the Relation. — The 
 leading modes in which the relutiou of landlord and tenant 
 may be broken up or dissolved are — (1 1 by eviction, (2) by 
 surrender, (^S) by merger, (4| by destruction of the subject- 
 matter of the lease, (6) by forfeiture, iuotuding the act of 
 disclaiming the relation on the part of the tenant. 
 
 (1 ) Erirtidii. — By this term is meant the act of depriving 
 the tenant of the estate. It may be either by some person 
 having a superior title, or by the landlord. A mere stranger 
 or wrongdoer cannot legally cause an eviction. Should such 
 a person turn the tenant out of possession, he would stilt 
 be liable to pay rent. But in the case of a true eviction 
 the tenant is discharged. An eviction may either be partial 
 or total. The former does not necessarily discharge the ten- 
 ant absolutely. Ho may still be liable to perform in part 
 the obligations of the lease. Thus, if a landlord should 
 leaj'c two houses for a gross rent, and the tenant should be 
 evicted from one of them by a persun having a better title, 
 rent would still be ilne for that portion of the premises ac- 
 tually enjoyed by the tenant. This rule does not apply to 
 a partial eviction by the wrongful act of the landlord. In this 
 case the entire rent issuspenclcd while the eviction continues, 
 as he is guilty of a breach of his portion of the contract. 
 The doctrine of "constructive eviction" should be referred 
 to. This is a modern principle, allowing the tenant, in case 
 the landlord renders the occupation of the premises practi- 
 cally valueless by his own wrongful act, to abandon them, 
 and make use of this theoretical eviction as a defence to the 
 payment of the rent. Thisgroundcannot be taken unless the 
 tenant vacates the premises. The mere deterioration of the 
 premises in value is no eviction. Accordingly, if one hires 
 a house and lot, and the building is accidentally destroyed 
 by fire, the tenant cannot, by the rules of the common law, 
 leave the premises and ccaso to pay rent. The land still 
 remains, and by legal theory the rent is indivisible and can- 
 not be apportioned. So- far is this doctrine extended that 
 if the landlord insures with his own funds, the tenant can- 
 not insist that the insurance-mnney be applied to rebuild 
 the house, though ho might if the premiums of insurance 
 bad been paid by himself, as ho would in that case prac- 
 tically be the insurer. There may bo a clause insertecl in 
 the lease that on the buildings becoming untenantable the 
 tenant may abandon the premises and be relieved from lia- 
 bility. The .same recult is attained in some of the States 
 by statute modifying the common law. The rule itself is 
 not to be extended to the ease where llie subject-matter of 
 the lease has wholly ceased to exist. This is not properly 
 a ease of eviction, but rather of a want of material for the 
 contract of the parties to operate uj)on. The doctrines of 
 eviction sometimes work a hardship, as where a landlord 
 who has failed to receive rent ejects u tenant for that reason 
 during the currency of a quiirter. He may thus lose bis rent 
 for the portion of time whicli has elapsed since the last rent- 
 day. This result, however, may be avoided by the insertion 
 of appropriate claui'es in the lease. 
 
 (li) Siirremirr. — By this word is meant the act of the ten- 
 ant yielding up his estate to the landlord. It requires the 
 assent of both parlies. A surrender may be mado either 
 by words or acts. When made by words, the stAtutc of 
 frauds as to the necessity of writing may be applicable: 
 when mado by acts, no writing will lie necessary. This is 
 called a surrender by '* act and operation of law." Such a 
 surrender will only take place where the oct on which re- 
 liance is pla4;ed is iiir»iiin'itnit with the continuance of the 
 tenancy. Thus, if the landlord f-hould substirute a new 
 tenant in tlio place of the former one with his consent, or 
 should hiiuHcIf take possession in the same manner, a sur- 
 render might bo presumed, as there would be a plain in- 
 consistency between the new state of things and the con- 
 tinuance of the tenancy, Hnwi-ver. if the liiiidlord should 
 merely assent in wordn to the tenant's leaving the prem- 
 ises, without taking any step on his part, there would be 
 no surrender by means <if an art of which it couhl be af- 
 firmed that there wa« an inconsistency between it and (he 
 continued enjoyint-nt by the toinint of the jiremises; and if 
 the statute of frauds were not complied with as to writing, 
 there would bo no valid surrender. The delivery and accept- 
 ance of the key have in numy instances been hold to be evi- 
 dence from which un intent to surrendf-r might be inferred. 
 The effect of a surrender in to break u|> the relation of land- 
 lord and tenant. Accordingly, if it should take place tluring 
 n qinirter. no rent could bo eollecte<l for that portion of it 
 which had elapsed. This remark, of course, could not he ap- 
 plied to rents which had aedially become duo bof«ir« the 
 surrender. Nor can a surrrnder be held to affect the pre- 
 viously acquired rights of third persons. An instance of 
 the application of thix rule is found in case the tenant has 
 made a sub-lease of which tlie landlord is cognizant. The 
 landlord could not iiecejd a surrender so as to impair the 
 rights of the under-lenniit wilhotil Ins consent. 
 
 (3) .\hnj^>'. — This topic resembles that of surrender. It, 
 
 I however, proceeds upon a different theory. It depends upon 
 a rule of law founded upon jtublic convenience, jirevcuting 
 a person from holding inconsistent rights and interests in 
 the same property. In the ease now under consideration it 
 might be applied to the act of the tenant acquiring the cstiitc 
 of the landlord, as well as to that of the landlord in becoming 
 owner of the lea^c. In either case the estate of the tenant 
 would in general merge in that of the landlord. Another 
 form of statement is that the prior estate merges in that 
 which is future and reversionary in its nature where the 
 latter is of a superior or of an equal grade. Thus, an es- 
 tate for years may merge in a life estate, or even in an 
 estate for years reversionary in its nature. The subject 
 of merger is full of thorny distinctions, for a full account 
 of which Mr. Preston's treatise on the subject may be con- 
 sulted. It is not necessary or expedient to present them 
 here. It may be much controlled by the intent of the par- 
 ties wherever any good reason can be found for keeping 
 the two estates distinct and separate in the same person. 
 
 (4) Deati-nction of the SiihJfCt-iiialttr. — The rights and 
 obligations growing out of the contract arc reciprocal. 
 They depend upon the existence of jiroperty to be leased. 
 If that is totally destroyed, the contract is at an cud. An 
 illustration may be found in the lease of a room in a build- 
 ing which is totally destroyed by fire. The room having 
 ceased to exist, the relation of landlord and tenant is ter- 
 minated. 
 
 (5) Fur/t'ittirc. — There are various grounds on which a 
 lease may be forfeited. They depeml in general upon 
 clauses found in the instrument of demise. Forfeiture may 
 also be caused by a violation of the implied obligations 
 growing out of the contract, as by disathrming the land- 
 lord's title, and transferring the j)crforniance of the ten- 
 ant's obligations to another. Spoil or destruction of the 
 premises, termed waste (see W.\stk), is also a ground of 
 forfeiture, as being a breach of the tenant's duty. It is, 
 however, a general rule that a mere wrongful act or breach of 
 contract docs not of itself causeadissolntion of the tenancy. 
 It rather gives the landlord an o]ttion to uphold or to over- 
 turn the estate. Accordingly, if no afhrmative steps are 
 taken by him the estate will continue. He may also waive his 
 right to enforce the forfeiture, either by express words or by 
 implication. An instance of the latter is an acceptance of 
 rent with full knowledge on his part of a breach of contract. 
 This subject will be again referred to in connection with 
 (\>»ditioi>n. I'orfeiture when enforced terminates in evic- 
 tion. It is, however, a lawful act, ami the result of o right 
 exercised under the contract, while eviction, as ordinarily 
 understood, is either an art performed by a stranger having 
 a superior title, without reference to the contract, or is a 
 wrongful act on the landlord's part. 
 
 III. There are certain rights and obligations implied by 
 law from the relations of tlie parties. These may bo in- 
 creased, modilicd. or diminislied by special clauses in the 
 lease. The jiarties nniy make any agreement not incon- 
 sistent with law m- with the rules of pul>lic policy. It will 
 not bo possible to arrange, or even tt) state, the special pro- 
 visions thus resorted to. They assume two general forms: 
 they arc either ennditicms or covenants. The main dis- 
 tinction between these is that the office of a condition is to 
 enable the lessor to declare the lease forfeited: that of a 
 covenant is to confer a right of action in case of its breach. 
 This action will sometimes bo in a court of law for dam- 
 ages ; at other times, in a court of equity for an injunction 
 or a specific performance of the covenant. A clause may 
 be drawn both as a condition and a covenant, when tlie 
 lessee will have his choice of remedies. Tl»o ruk-s of law 
 governing conditions are more strict than tlH)Be which pre- 
 vail coneerning covenants, since a forfeiture is frequently 
 very severe. The distinction miiy well be illustrated in tho 
 case of non-payment of rent. Where there is n condition 
 in a lease entailing a forfeiture for its non-payment, it is 
 necessary for the landlord to dcnniml the exiu't rent on the 
 day it is due at a specified hour at the front door of the 
 house, etc.. otherwise the forfeiture eould not take place. 
 If his object were simply to collect the rent by actioti,this 
 precision would not be necessary. If the tenant did n«tt 
 pay promptly an action could at once be maintained. An- 
 other instance may be alluded to. There is frequently a 
 Cfindilion that a lessee shall not assign without thu consent 
 of the lessor. i\ consent to assign to one person dispenses 
 with the eontlilion altogether. The doctrine of waiver is 
 also reftdily applied, and tho courts infer thai a forfeiluro 
 is waived by any ae( on tho landlord's part inconsistent 
 with it, such as acceptance of rent with knowbrdgo of the 
 oct of forfeiture. 
 
 Independent of express clauses in tho lease, tho law will 
 in general impose upon the tenant the Odiowing duties: 
 (1) to pay rent, |2| to render fculiy or to be faithful to tho 
 h'flsor. (.'I) to refrain from (>oniniitting nets of waste, (4) 
 to make ordinary repairs, (5) to render up possession at
 
 1626 
 
 LANDLORD AND TENANT IN LAW. 
 
 the end of the term. <\) The duty to pay rent is fairly to 
 be implied from the enjoyment of the premises. There is 
 usually an e.tpress covenant to this effect. Where there is 
 none, the tenant may he liable to a reasonable amount for 
 '• use and occupation." Kent until it is due is deemed to 
 be real estate; after it is payable, even though not paid, it 
 becomes a debt, and is a mere right of action, and is re- 
 garded as personal property. The landlord's right to rent 
 is of a dilTorent nature from the tenant's estate ; the former 
 is incorporeal, the latter is corporeal; the former is real 
 estate, the latter is personal property (chattel real). (2) 
 Fealty is a word of feudal origin, and expresses the duty 
 of the tenant to be faithful to the landlord. The leading 
 rule in modern law. derived from this view, is. that the 
 tenant cannot dispute the title of the landlord. Practically, 
 the rule amounts to this, that so long as a tenant remains 
 in undisturbed possession he cannot set up as a defence to 
 an action for rent by his landlord that the latter has no 
 title. On similar principles, all encroachments made by 
 the tenant on the land of others enure to the benefit of the 
 
 iTndlord as between him and the tenant. In other words, ^—^ „w..„.. -. r.i..;„ 
 
 he at r is norpermitted to deny that he was acting for | part. This f-* ^-^'Lv .ncreases ";«/°;P'^7''-^j°V 'rU": 
 his landlord. The rule ceases to prevail as soon as the terests and rights connected with thi. subject. The trans- 
 
 transgress statutes to prevent forcible entry, and may, per- 
 haps.'be regarded in that case as nugatory by the courts. 
 Should the landlord permit the tenant to hold over for a con- 
 siderable period of time beyond his term, he may become 
 a "tenant at sufferance." (See Tenant at Sufferance.) 
 
 Thus far, the duties of the tenant have been considered. 
 Those of the landlord may be briefly referred to. They 
 are principally to secure the tenant in quiet enjoyment of 
 the premises, "and to discharge all taxes upon the land un- 
 less there is some agreement to the contrary. In every 
 sealed lease there is an implied covenant by the landlord 
 for quiet enjoyment. This means such enjoyment as 
 agaiust persons having a paramount title. The tenant 
 must defend himself against strangers. It is the better 
 opinion that if the State takes the land under the right of 
 eminent domain, the landlord is not responsible, nor has 
 the tenant any defence for that reason to an action for rent. 
 This is not deemed to be a paramount title, and the tenant 
 must look to the State for indemnity. 
 
 IV. Agsiipunent timl .S'lii-franiic.!/.— Either of the parties 
 may assign' or transfer his interest, cither in whole or in 
 
 tenant is evicted by some person having a superior title. 
 So, if he be threatened with an eviction by such a person, 
 be may yield the possession to him or become his tenant, 
 and set "up these facts as a defence to any action by his 
 lessor. It may be further stated that the tenant, while he 
 cannot deny his landlord's original title, may show that it 
 has expired or has been subverted. Thus, if the lessor has 
 fallen in debt, and his estate is sold on an execution, the 
 tenant may purchase it and himself become owner. The 
 effect of such a transaction would be to destroy the claims 
 of the lessor under the lease. (?.) The subject of waste 
 will be treated separately. (See Waste.) It is enough to 
 say here that it is an act on the part of the tenant to 
 the injury of the landlord, and leading to a forfeiture. 
 It is either negative or positive, " permissive or voluntary." 
 Under this doctrine it is the duty of the tenant to refrain 
 from cutting down timber trees, or destroying or impairing 
 buildings, or opening mines, or from acts of neglect tend- 
 ing to injure the estate. He is to use the property as a 
 prudent owner would, without doing injury to the rever- 
 sioner. As he is in possession, he is bound to sec that 
 others do not commit similar acts. He is in some sort an 
 insurer, though his liability is not extended in this country 
 so far as to make him responsible for accidental fires, 
 though he might be for such as were caused by his negli- 
 gence. There may be clauses inserted in the lease permit- 
 ting him to commit waste, either in an unlimited way or 
 under restrictions. These will not be extended so far by the 
 courts as to allow mere wanton destruction, and acts of 
 that kind will be restrained by courts of equity. (4) The 
 tenant is also bound to make ordinary repairs. He must, 
 for instance, keep roofs and windows tight. Accordingly, 
 in the absence of special agreement, he cannot call ui)on 
 the landlord to make repairs. This matter is frequently 
 regulateii by special agreement, the landlord assuming 
 more or less fully the duty of making the repairs. If a 
 tenant agrees to "make full repairs, he will, in general, be 
 liable to replace buildings destroyed by an accidental firo 
 or otherwise, the word " repair" being construed as equiva- 
 lent to •• rebuild." A duty sometimes springs up as be- 
 tween the tenant and third persons or the public to keep 
 the premises in good order. Thus, if he should allow them, 
 being on a public street, to become dilapidated and to cause 
 injurv to persons passing by, he might be liable to an ac- 
 tion for damages. (5) When the tenant's term ceases ho 
 should render up possession to the landlord. At this point 
 a question frequently arises as to his right to remove such 
 improvements as ho may have made for the purposes of 
 trade or manufacture, or for other reasons. This topic has 
 been fully discussed in the article on fixtures. (See Fix- 
 Ti'iiES.) If the tenant continues in possession after his 
 term expires, legal proceedings to eject him may be resorted 
 to. The regular course is to bring an action of ejeetinent 
 against him. This remedy is expensive and dilatory, while 
 despatch is frequently of great consequence to the laud- 
 lord's interests. Statutory remedies of a summary nature 
 are resorted to in a number of the States. These provide 
 in substance that the tenant mivy be summoned before a 
 magistrate — e. ij. a justice of the peace^and required to 
 show cause why he does not leave the premises. This 
 summons is speedily returnable ; it may be within a few 
 hours. If no good cause for the delay is shown, a man- 
 date is addressed to an officer of the court requiring him to 
 dispossess the tenant. In some iuetances the landlord takes 
 the law into his own haluU. and by his own act dispossesses 
 a refractory tenant. This course is to be discouraged, par- 
 ticularlv ill those States where the summary proceedings 
 prev 
 
 ; and may lead to a breach of the peace, and may | general no greater rights than the lessee. 
 
 fer of interests may be considered under two principal di- 
 visions: (1) Bv the tenant; (2) by the landlord. 
 
 (1) A distinction must be taken in the outset between 
 assignment and a sub-tenancy. In a complete assignment 
 the "tenant parts with his entire interest ; in a partial as- 
 signment he transfers all his interest in a portion of the 
 premises. The case may be illustrated by a lease of two 
 houses for a specified time and for an entire rent. Should 
 the tenant sell all his interest in one of the houses, there 
 would be a partial assignment. In a sub-tenanoy the tenant 
 still retains some interest. The importance of the distinc- 
 tion between the two transactions is very great, as an en- 
 tirely different set of rules is applied in the two cases. In 
 order to understand the efl'ect of an assignment it is neccs- 
 sarv to recur to the subject of " privity," which has already 
 bee'n referred to. It was stated that there is between a land- 
 lord and tenant a twofold privity— that of contract and of 
 estate. When an assignment takes place there is privity of 
 estate between the lessor and the assignee: the privity of 
 contract between the lessor and the lessee remains as before. 
 The result of this theory is that the lessor has his choice of 
 remedies. He may eithe"r pursue the lessee upon the " privity 
 of contract." or the assignee upon the "privity of estate." 
 This proposition involves the doctrine of covenants '■ run- 
 ning with the land." By this technical phrase is meant that 
 there are or may be two classes of covenants in a lease, some 
 of which may bind an assignee, and others not, since they 
 Bolely affect the lessee. Those which will bind an assignee 
 are said " to run with the land." It is frequently a question 
 of much nicety to determine whether a covenant has this 
 characteristic. As a generol rule, in order that a covenant 
 may bind an assignee it must concern the property em- 
 bra"eed in the lease. Instances are promises to pay rent, 
 to keep a house insured, to cleanse a sewer upon the 
 premises, etc. etc. In some instances a covenant which 
 would not regularly "run with the land" is made to do so, 
 because the assignees of the lessee are referred to in the 
 lease. When the promise has nothing to do with the land, 
 or is "collateral," it will not be binding upon the assignee. 
 The details of this subject are well stated in a note to 
 Spencer's ease in SiiiUh's Lfadimj «i»f». The lessee, in 
 any event, remains liable during the entire tenancy, or 
 un"til the contract between the parties has spent its force. 
 The assignee, on the other hand, being liable to the lessor 
 only on the ground of his relation to the estate, may ter- 
 minate all responsibilitv to him by making an assignment 
 to a second assignee. He may even assign 1.. a beggar to re- 
 lieve himself from liability. There may thus be an in- 
 definite series of assignees, any one of whom will be liable 
 for a breach of covenant occurring during his ownership, 
 but not for anv transpiring after he has parted with his 
 estate. However, if the lessee is made liable, he will in 
 general have a remedy over as against the assignee who 
 was owner when the breach of covenant took place. Ibe 
 loswee is on this view deemed to be a surety for the assignee. 
 Similar principles will be adopted in the case of a )iarlial 
 assignment. Such an assignee will be liable to the land- 
 lord in proportion to the interest which he has acquired. 
 None of these rules will be applie.l to a sub-tenancy. As- 
 1 sume for exauiide, that a lessee has taken a lease for five 
 years, and then sub-lets the entire premises for lour years, 
 "retaining one year at the close of the term to himself. He 
 has thus become landlord to his own lessee. There is now 
 ' no •' privity of estate" between the original landlord and 
 the 6ub-le9"6ee. The latter does not claim the estate of the 
 original lessee, but holds under a new and derivative con- 
 tract It is. however, true that the sub-lessee can have in 
 
 His interest
 
 LAXDO— LANDSCAPE GARDENIXO. 
 
 1G27 
 
 being derived from that person^s estate^ must stand or tall 
 with it. If, therefore, the lessee fails to perform bis cov- 
 enants, so us to he liable to eviction, the sub-lessee may 
 also be deprived of his estate. If threatened with an evic- 
 tion for that reason, he may by agreement with the original 
 lessor become his tenant, and relieve himsetffrom obligation 
 to his own immediate landlord, the original leiisee. 
 
 A word should be added as to the effect of a mortgage of 
 a lea^e. This is properly to be regarded as an assignment. 
 A lease being a chattel interest, a mortgage' of it must, ac- 
 cording to the usual rules prevailing in mortgages of chat- 
 tels, be regarded as a sale or assignment. Still, it is not in 
 general deemed to be ?uch an assignment as to render the 
 mortgagee liable upon the covenants in the lease binding 
 upon the lessee, and *' running with the land." unless the 
 mortgagee goes into possession. In that case he would be 
 liable. 
 
 (2) Am'ifttmfnt* by the Landlord. — For the sake of clear- 
 ness, the only case that will be considered is that of an 
 owner in fee parting wi»h a smaller estate than he pos- 
 sesses. In such a case ho has a reversion to which rent and 
 fealty are incidental. If he assigns his reversion, the rent 
 goes with it. though it is not expressly mentioned. This 
 remark would not be a|)plicable to rent then due, which is 
 a mere debt, and in legal contemplation separated from 
 the land. The rent, even when not due, may be assigned 
 by express words without the reversion, or the reversion 
 without the rent. There were some difficulties in the com- 
 mon law attending an assignment hiyih of the lease and the 
 reversion. These were removed in England during the 
 reign of Henry VIII. by a well-known enactment by Par- 
 liament, sometimes called the statute of monasteries. If 
 there are any covenants in the lease binding on the land- 
 lord, these, if they are of a nature to ** run with the land," 
 will attach to the purchasers of the reversion. There may 
 be a partial as well as a total assignment of the reversion. 
 The same general rules as to proportional rights and liabil- 
 ities will be applied as in the case of a partial assignment 
 of a lease. The reversion may be apportioned by operation 
 of law, aa where the owner dies leaving several heirs who 
 take undivided interests as tenants in common. In order 
 to render the lessee liable to the assignee of the reversion, 
 notice of the assignment must usually bo given. If not. 
 any payment of rents made to the lessor before notice of 
 the assignment must be allowed to the lessee. Registration 
 of tbe assignment will nut bo notice to the lessee, as he could 
 not be expected to examine the public records lo see if an 
 assignment has taken place. He may assume, until ho has 
 notice to the contrary, that the original slate of things con- 
 tinues. (See RKGiSTRATioy.) (Further information upon 
 the general subject may bo sought in the works on real prop- 
 erty, such as Cruise's Ditfrnt ; Washburn on /{ruf Properti/ ; 
 Hitliard on do.; Kent's Commentaries ; Piatt on Leaner, 
 also on Currnnntn, etc, etc.) T. W. D wight. 
 
 Lan'do, Poi>k, b. at Sabina, succeeded Anastasius III. 
 in 'Ji;; ; d. in 9U. 
 
 Landon (Lktitia Elizabeth). See Maclean. 
 
 lian'dor I^Waltrr Savace), b. at Ipsley Court, War- 
 wickshire. Kngland, Jan. HO, 17".'). Being the son of 
 wealthy parents, he wa^ intended for the army: received a 
 careful early training from private tutors and at Rugby 
 School (ITSJ): entered Trinity College. Oxford, in 17l»3; 
 was rusticated in the summer of 17iM for a breach of dis- 
 cipline, and never returned; printed in 17*.)j a small vol- 
 ume of poems, which attracted no attention; studied law, 
 thou<;h never called to Ihe bar, au'l issued in 17yH u poem 
 {Ofhir) of considerable length, which in 1S02 he published 
 in a Latin translation {fii'hiruit), and which .TcflVey de- 
 clared to l>c e(|ually uiiinfellijfible in both languages, while 
 Southey ancl De (Juinccy prided themselves upon being its 
 only reajlers. Landor visited Paris in 1H02, Buecceded 
 soon after to his patrimonial estates, spent immense sums 
 in improving them, in buyinj^ others in .Monmouthshire, 
 and in huihlin^ a )>alatial tnnn-ion : but in HItrt, in a mo- 
 ment of irritation. si)lrl all his lands, ordered his magnifi- 
 cent house to he torn down, and prepareil lo live abroad. 
 In I SUM he raised a body of troops at hit own expense, 
 joined the S)ianish general Blake in defending the Penin- 
 sula njjain^t Ihe French invasion, and contributed a large 
 sum lo Ihe Spanish military treasury, receiving the thanks 
 of the supreme junta and a eommiosion as colonel. Lan- 
 dor married in 1><11 ; resigned his commission on the relurn 
 of Ferdinand VII. to Spain, and in 1^1. 'i settled in Florence, 
 Italy, where for seven years he occupied the palace of Iho 
 Metlicis, and afterward* houghl the celebrated villa (ihe- 
 rardesca at Fiosole. In 1*12 he published Cnuut Jufimi, a 
 Trof/rt/i/, irhich elicited the warmest praise frim Southey; 
 in ls2o. A/7//10 Hfrnira, in Latin fpnhlished at Pi-ja); in 
 Ift24, another volume of Lnthi f^i^rmn. and in the same year 
 the first series (2 vols.) of hit) most celebrated work, Imagi- 
 
 nnry Conreraations 0/ Literary Men and Statesmen, of which 
 the second series appeared in 1.^29. This work in its best 
 passages rises to a sublimity rarely equalled in English lit- 
 erature, while there is an abundant display of cynicism, ill- 
 temper, and worse logic. A passionate enemy of conven- 
 tionalism and of tyranny, whether political or social, he 
 indulged in startling paradoxes, defending Tiberius and 
 Nero, and advising Ihe Greeks in their struggle willi Ihe 
 Turks to discard firearms and employ only the weapons of 
 their classical forefathers. After thirty years' residence in 
 Italy. Landor took up his residence at Bath in IS.'tS, pub- 
 lished in 1836 one of his best works. PericUn aud Attpaniaf 
 followed by -4 Entire on Sntin'utt (183C), Pfutameion and 
 Pentnlogue (1S."?7), and the dramas Atfdreu of Hiuujary and 
 Giorniina of Xaphfi. all written in Italy; The flrlhuics 
 (1847), Popery^ Britinh and Foreujn (1S51), LaiH Fruit nff 
 an Old Tree (18o3), Antony and Octnriufi (18.50). and Dry 
 Stirls Fayotrd {1858), besides some minor works and a 
 voluminous literary correspondence in the columns of the 
 Examiner. The last-named volume contained some poems 
 satirizing a lady at Rath, who ol)tained a verdict against 
 the poet for libel, with a judgment of £1000. It was evident 
 to his aclmircrs that the great poet was in his dotage, but the 
 public refused to accept such a doubtful excuse, and amid a 
 storm of obloquy Landor retired to Florence, where he d. 
 Sept. 17, 1864. A collective edition of his works ap- 
 peared in 1S40 (2 vols.), and a complete edition, to be con- 
 tained in 7 vols., was commenced in 1874. His biograjihy 
 was written by John Forster (I8)»y; new ed. 1874). Lan- 
 der's writings have never been popular, but they all con- 
 tain unmistakable evidences of a high order of genius, 
 which is best appreciated by the ** fit audience though few " 
 of poets possessing kindred gifts. PoittKn C. Bi.iss. 
 
 Lands'bcr^« town of Prussia, in the province of Bran- 
 denburg, on the Warta. It has large breweries and cele- 
 brated nurseries of fruit trees. Pop. 18,6;U. 
 
 Land'scape Gar'dcnin^* Landscape gardening is a 
 branch of horticulture, the highest results of which may be 
 attained by processes of a comparatively simple ehar.icter 
 — simpler, for instance, than those of kitchen or of floral 
 gardening. Failure of success in it being oftener duo to a 
 halting purpose than to lack of science, of means, or of 
 skill, this artielo will be chiefly given to establishing the 
 definition and limitation of the general end proper lo the 
 art; some indications Icing incidentally presented of the 
 manner in wliich, under the requirement of different indi- 
 vidual tastes and different local conditions, it may be ju- 
 diciously pursued. 
 
 There are two other branches of horticulture, which in 
 ordinary practice are often so much confounded with that 
 of landscape gardening that the rcacler may find it conve- 
 nient to have lliem set apart from it at the outset. One of 
 them is the cultivation of plants with special regard to an 
 interest in their distinctive individual qualities. The other 
 is the cultivation of plants (trees, shrubs, perennials, and 
 annuals) with a view to the production of effects on the 
 principles commonly stu<lied in the arrangement of precious 
 stones, enamel, and gtd<l in an elaliorate piece of jewelry, 
 or of flowers when sortecl by colors and arranged for the 
 decoration of a head-dress, a dinner-table, or a terrace. 
 Whether, in any undertaking, one of these two leading mo- 
 tives or that of landscape gardening bo adopted, it may bo 
 jjresumed that the result will satisfy that motive in pro- 
 )iortion as it shall bo followed to Ihe end with singleness 
 of purpose. We now turn, therefore, from the two wliich 
 have been defined to consider what, in distinction from 
 them, the lea^ling motive of landscape ganlening nmy be. 
 
 Derivatively, the wonl "lanilscapo" is thought to apply 
 only to such a scene as enables the observer to comproliend 
 the shape of the earth's surface far before him, or, as we say 
 in common idiom, " to get the He of the land," the land's 
 shape. Consistently with this view, it will bo found, on 
 comparing a variety of scenes, that those which woubl bo 
 most ui)hesitalin(;ly (dassed as landscapes are distinguished 
 by a certain degree of breadth and distance of view. Look- 
 ing at the face of a thick wood near at band or of a precip- 
 itous rock, we do not use the term. Pursuing the compari- 
 son farther, it will be found that in each of those scenes to 
 which Ihe word more aptly aj)idies there is a more marked 
 subordination of various iletails to a characteristic effect of 
 the scene as a whole. As Lowell says, " A real landscape 
 never presents itself to us as a disjointed succession of* iso- 
 lalc(| parlicutam ; wo take it in with one sweep ot the eyes 
 — its light, its shadow, its melting gradations of distance." 
 But there are many situations in which plant-beauty is 
 desired where the area to bo operated upon is so limited, 
 or so shaped and eirtfinifttanced. that the depth and breadth 
 of a landscape scene must be oonsideretl impracticable of 
 attainment. In America gardening is required for the dec- 
 oration of places of this class many thousand times for one
 
 1628 
 
 LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 in which such restraining conditions are not encounterefl; 
 and the question may he asked whether they must all be 
 cxchidcd from the tield of landscape gardening, and if not, 
 what, in these cases, can be the siguitieaueo of the prefix 
 '* landscape "? As a general rule, probably, so many pur- 
 poses require to be served, and so many diverse conditions 
 to be reconciled, that the only rule of art that can be con- 
 sistently iipplied is that of architecture, wliich would pre- 
 scribe that every plant, as well as every moulding, shall 
 bear its part in the " adornment of a service." To this end, 
 parterre and specimen gardening are more available than 
 landscnjie gardening. But it may hap])eu that where, with 
 duo regiird to considerations of health and convenience, 
 there would be st^ant space for more than two or three middle- 
 sized trees to grow, there will yet be room for a great deal 
 of careful study, and, with careful study, of success in pro- 
 ducing effects the value of which has nothing in common with 
 either of the objects of horticulture thus far defined. 
 
 As an example, suppose a common village dooryard, in 
 which are found, as too often there may be, a dozen trees 
 of different sorts planted twenty years before, and that, by 
 good chance, among them there is one, standing a little 
 way from the centre, our fair Western kinsmaid of the 
 linden (7*. httcmphijlUt). Trampled under by ruder and 
 greedier neighbors, and half starved, youth and a good 
 constitution may yet have left it in such condition that, all 
 the rest being rooted out, sunlight given it on all sides, 
 shortened in, balanced, cleaned, watered, drained, stimu- 
 lated, fed, guarded from insidious enemies, its twigs will 
 grow long, delicate, and pliant; its branches low and trail- 
 ing, its bark become like a soft, finely-grained leather, its 
 u]tper leaf-surface like silk, and its lower leaf-surface of 
 such texture and tint that, with the faintest sunlight and 
 the softest summer breeze, a constant wavering sheen, as 
 of a damask hanging, will be flowing over the whole body 
 of its foliage. While it regains its birthright in this re- 
 spect it will also acquire, with fulness of form and moder- 
 ate play of contour, a stateliness of carriage unusual in a 
 tree of its age and stature. If landscape gardening is for 
 the time to take its order from this princess of the fields, 
 and all within the little court m.adc becoming with her 
 state, the original level surface of the ground need be but 
 slightly modified, yet it may perceptibly fall away from 
 near her, dipping in a long and very gentle wave to rise 
 again with a varying double curve on all sides. There 
 cannot, then, be too much pains taken to spread over it a 
 velvet carpet of perfect turf, uniform in color and quality. 
 Looking upon this from the house, it should seem to be 
 margined on all sides by a rich, thick bank, generally low 
 in front and rising as it recedes, of shrubs and flowering 
 plants; the preparation for which may have required for 
 years a clean-lined border, curve playing into curve, all the 
 way round, A very few plants of delicate and refined cha- 
 racter may stand out in advance, but such interruptions 
 of the quiet of the turf must be made very cautiously. Of 
 furniture or artificial ornaments there must be none, or 
 next to none, for even bodily comfort may willingly defer 
 a little to the dainty genius of the place. They may well 
 walk, for instance, a few steps farther who would take a 
 lounging seat, put up their feet, and knock the ashes from 
 their pipes. Vet a single Chinese garden-stool of a softly 
 mottled turquoise-blue will have a good effect if set where 
 a flickering light will fall upon it on the shady side of the 
 tree. The rear rank of shrubs will need to stand so far 
 back that there will be no room to cultivate a suitable 
 hedge against the street. The fence will then best be a 
 wall of cut stone, with decorated gate-piers; or with a base 
 of stone it may be of deftly-wrought iron touched with 
 gilt. By no means a casting with clumsy and overdone 
 effort at feeble ornament — much better a wooden construc- 
 tion of less cost, in which there is a reflection, with variety, 
 of the stylo of the house if that is of wood also, c)r if it is 
 not, then something like a banister-rail of turned work, 
 but with no obviously weak parts. The gateway being 
 formed in a symmetrical recess of the fence nearly opjiosite 
 the tree, the house-door being on the side, the approach to 
 it will bend, with a moderate double curve, in such a way 
 as to seem to give place to the tree, and at the same time 
 allow the greatest expanse of unbroken lawu-surface. Near 
 the gateway, and again near the corner farthest from it, 
 there may be a small tree or a cluster of small trees or large 
 shrubs, forming low. broad heads (dogwood grown in tree- 
 form, sassafras kept low, or, to save time, the neat white 
 mulberry), the tups of which, playing into that of the 
 loftier linden on the right, will in tiiue give to those sitting 
 at the bay-window of the living-room a flowing sky-line, 
 depressed and apparently receding along the middle. If 
 there is a tall building over the way with signs, or which 
 otherwise offends, and the sidewalk space outside admits, 
 we will plant upon it two trees only, adjusting them, as to 
 both kind and position, so that they will almost repeat the 
 
 I depressed line of the nearer foliage, at no greater distance 
 I than is necessary to obscure the building, t^uite hidden it 
 I need not be, lest, also, there should be some of the sky 
 lost, banishment from the lower fields uf the sky being a 
 punishment that we should strive not to need. But let us 
 hope that at the worst we have but our neighbor's stable 
 opposite, and that the tops of more distant trees may be 
 seen over it; we shall then still bo glad to have the chance 
 of bringing up two trees, set somewhat farther apart than 
 before, on the roadside, as their effect will be to make an 
 enlarged consistency of character; to close in and gather 
 together all that makes up the home-scene, and to aid the 
 turf in relieving it of a tendency to pettiness and excite- 
 ment which lies in and under the shrubbery. 
 
 Let a different theme be sung on the same ground. Sup- 
 pose that it is an aged beech that we have found, badly 
 used in its middle age as the linden in its youth — storm- 
 bent, lop-limbed, and one-sided, its veteran trunk furrowed, 
 scarred, patched, scaly, and spreading far out to its knotted 
 roots, that heave all the ground about like taut-set cables. 
 If we had wanted a fine dressy place, this interesting ob- 
 ject would have been cut away though it were the last tree 
 within a mile. Accepting it, nothing would be more com- 
 mon, and nothing less like landscape gardening, than to 
 attempt to make a smooth and even surface under it. Let 
 it be acknowledged that fitness and propriety require that 
 there should be some jdace before the htmse of repose for 
 the eye, and that nowhere in the little property, to all parts 
 of which wo may wish at times to lead our friends in fine 
 attire, can we risk danger of a dusty or a muddy surface. 
 Starting from the corner nearest the tree, and running 
 broader and deeper after it has passed it and before the 
 house, there shall be a swale (a gentle water-way) of cleanly 
 turf (best kept so by the crojiping of a tethered cosset and 
 a little play now and tlien of a grasshook, but if this is 
 unhandy we will admit the hand lawn-mower). Now, to 
 carry this fine turf right up over the exposed roots of the 
 beech would be the height of landscape gardening indeli- 
 cacy ; to let it come near, but cut a clean circle out about 
 the tree, would be a landscape gardening barbarism. What 
 is required is a very nice management, under which the 
 turf in rising from the lower and presumably more humid 
 ground shall become gradually thinner and looser, and at 
 length darned with mo^s, and finally patched with plants 
 that on the linden's lawn would be a sin — tufts of clover 
 and locks and mats of loosestrife, liverwort, and dogtooth- 
 violets ; even plantain and sorrel may timidly appear. 
 The surface of the ground will continue rising, but with a 
 broken swell towards the tree, and, in deference to its bent 
 form, hold rising for a space on the other side; hut no- 
 where will its superior roots be fully covered. 
 
 Suppose that we are to come to this house, as it is likely 
 we may, three times out of four from the side opposite to 
 where the beech stands ; our path then shall strike in well 
 over on that ()])p<jsite side and diagonally to the line of 
 the road: there will be a little branch froni it leading to- 
 wards and lost near the tree (the children's path), while 
 the main stem bends short away toward a broad bowery 
 porch facing the road at the corner nearest the gate. The 
 path must needs be smooth for ease of foot and weleome- 
 ness, but if its edges chance to be trodden out a little, wc 
 will not be in haste to fully repair them. Slanting and 
 sagging off from a ringbolt in the porch there is to be a 
 hammock slung, its farther lanyard caught with two half- 
 hitches on an old stub well up on the trunk of the beech. 
 \ strong, brown, seafaring hummo<rk. There shall be a 
 scat, too, under the tree of stout stuff, deeji, high-backed, 
 armed, and, whether of rustic-work or plank, fitted by 
 jointing (not held together by nails, bolts, or screws). It 
 may even be rough-hewn, anil the more checked, weather- 
 worn, and gray it becomes, without dilapidation or dis- 
 comfort to the sitter, the better: here you may draw your 
 matches and clean out your pipe, and welc<>me. Wc will have 
 nothing in front to prevent a hedge, but must that mean a 
 poor }tretenee of a wall in leafage ? rerhajts it must have 
 that character for a few years till it has become thick and 
 strong enough at bottom, and always it may be a moderately 
 trim affair on the roadside, otherwise we should be tres- 
 passers on our neighbors' rights. But its bushes shall not 
 be all of one sort, and in good time they shall be bushes in 
 earnest, leaping up with loose and feathery tops, six, eight, 
 and sometimes ten feet high. And they shall leap out also 
 towards us. Yet from the house half their lieight shall bo 
 lost behind an under and out-growth of brake and bind- 
 wecil, dog-rose and golden -rod, asters, gentians, Inilter- 
 cups, poppies, and irises. Here and there a spray of low 
 brambles shall bo thrown out beforo all. and the dead gray 
 canes of last year shall not be every one removed. There 
 will be coves and capes and islands of ehickweed, catnip, 
 cinquefoil, wild strawberry, hcpatica, forget-mo-not, and 
 lilics-of-the-valiey, and, still farther out, shoals under the
 
 LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 1629 
 
 turf, where crocuses and daffodils are waiting to gladden 
 the children and welcome the bluebird in the spring. But 
 near the gate the hedge shall be a little overrun and the 
 gateposts overhung ao.l lost in sweet clematis : nay, as the 
 gate must be set-in a little, because the path enters side- 
 wise, there shall bo a strong bit of lattice over it, and from 
 the other side a honeysuckle shall reinforce the clematis ; 
 and if it whirls off also into the thorn tree that is to grow 
 beyond, the thorn tree will bo none the worse to be held to 
 a lowly attitude, bowing stiffly towards the beech. Inside 
 the gate, bv the pathside, and again down by the porch, 
 there may be cockscombs, marygolds, pinks, and pansies. 
 But nothing of plants tied to the stake, or of plants the 
 names of which, before they can command due interest, 
 must be set before us on enamelled cards, as properly in a 
 botanic garden or museum. -Vbovo all. no priggish little 
 spruces and arborvit;cs, whether native or from Satsuma ; 
 if the neighbors harbor Ihem. any common wooJside or 
 fence- row bushes of the vicinity may bo set near the edge 
 of the property to put them out of sight : nannyberry, 
 hazel, shadbush, dogwood, even elder, or if an evergreen 
 (conifer) will befit the place, a stout, short, shock-headed 
 mountain-pine, with two or three low savins and a pros- 
 trate juniper at their feet. Finally, let the roadside be 
 managed as before. Then, if the gate bo left open nut 
 much will 1)0 lost by it ; not all the world will so much as 
 look in, and some who do will afterwards choose to keep 
 the other side of the way. as it is better they should. Yet 
 
 ", ur the old seat under 
 
 As with reference to Landscape effect, it is not to be 
 overlooked that nature acts both happily and unhappily. 
 A man may take measures to secure the happy action and to 
 guard against the unhappy action in this respect with no 
 more effrontery than with respect to the production of food 
 or protection from lightning, storm, frost, or malaria. Ho 
 need not wait for the slow and uncertain process by which 
 in nature a certain position would be adapted for a certain 
 tree. He may make the soil fertile at once. He need not 
 take the chance that a certain thick growth of saplings will 
 be so thinned by the operation of what are called natural 
 causes that a few of them may yet have a chance to become 
 yigorous, long-lived, umbrageous trees. Knowing how 
 much more valuable a very few of these will be in the 
 situation, with the adjoining turf holding green under 
 their canopy, than the thousands that for long years may 
 otherwise occupy it, struggling with one another and bar- 
 ring out the light which is the life of all beneath them 
 ho may make sure of what is best with oxe and bill- 
 hook. The ultimate result is not less natural or beautiful 
 when ho has done so than it wnuld have been if at the 
 same time the same trees had been eaten out by worms 
 or taken away, as trees sometimes are, by an epidemic 
 disease. 
 
 On the other band, there are several considerations, ne- 
 glect of which is apt to cause too much to be asked of 
 landscape gardening, and sometimes perhaps too much to 
 be professed and attemjitcd. The common comparison of 
 the work of a landscape gardener with that of a landscape 
 
 l^n'r'r^f wm i:yn!;hi:::\;nd;rvle;-;i;;t^u;;w-or [ painter, ..r e.atnp.e,- easily — - "^J^^, -If-^^X 
 " ■ •■■ ■ a scene ! The artist in landscape gardening can nevei have, Ike I he 
 
 ruile or vulgar: on the contrary, there will be 
 of much relinement as well as of much beauty, and those 
 who live in the house, especially if they have a way of 
 getting their work or their books out under the beech, will 
 find, al the sun goes round ami the clouds drift over, that 
 taking it altogether there is a quality more lovable in it 
 than Ts to be found in all the glasshouses, all the ribbon 
 borders, all the crown jewels of the world. 
 
 The same will be enually true of the result of the very 
 different kind of gardening design first supposed. We 
 come thus to the iiueslion. What is the distinctive quality 
 of this beauty? In each case there has been an ideal in 
 view, and in each clement introduced a consistent pursuit 
 of that ideal, but it is not in this fact of consistency that 
 we find the beauty. Wo term it landscape beauty, although 
 there is none of the cxjianse which is the first distinguish- 
 ing quality of a landscape. This brings us to the consid- 
 eration that from the point of view of art or of the science 
 of the imagination we may ask for something more in a 
 landsca)ie than breadth, ilepth, composition, and consist- 
 ency. A traveller, su.bbnly turning his eyes upon a 
 landscape that is new to him. and which cannot be directly 
 associated with any former experience, may find himself 
 touchcrl as if by a cicep sympathy, so that in an instant his 
 eyes moisten. After long and intimate acquaintance with 
 such a landscape it will often be found to have a persistent 
 inftuence which may be called its charm— a charm possibly 
 of such power as to appreciably affect the development of 
 the character and shape the course of life. Landscajics of 
 parlioular type associate naturally an.l agreeably with cer- 
 tain events.' Their fitness in this respect is due to the fact 
 that, through some subtle action cm the imagination, they 
 affect the same or kimlred sensibilities. If in these door- 
 yards there is something to which every element contrib- 
 utes, comparable in this respect to a poetic or a musical 
 theme, as well, in the one case, of elegance and neatness, 
 carried perhaps to the jioint of quaint primness, as in the 
 other of homely cninfort and goo.l-nature, carried close to 
 the point of careless habits, then the design aiol process by 
 which it has been attained may lay some slight claim to be 
 considered as a work of art, and the highest art-significaiicc 
 of the term landscape may properly bo used to distinguish 
 its character in this respect. 
 
 In the p.issibilitv, not of making a perfect copy of any 
 charming natural iandscaiie. or of any parts or elements of 
 it. but of leading to the production, where it does not exist, 
 under required conditions and restrictions, of some degree 
 of the poetic beauty of all natural landscapes, wo shall thus 
 find not only the special function and the justification of 
 the term landsca]ie gardening, but also the first object of 
 study for the lamlscape gardener, anil the standard by 
 which alone his work is to be fairly judged. 
 
 There are those who will oHcstion the propriety of re- 
 garding the production of tlie poetic beauty of natural 
 landscape as the enil of landscape gardening, on the ground 
 that the very term " natural beauty" means beauty not of 
 man's design, and thai the l.isl result of all man's labor 
 will be but a poor counterfeit, in which it is vain to look 
 for the poetry of nature. .Much has been written to this 
 effect ; with what truth to the nature of man it will bo well 
 eiiutiously to consider. 
 
 landscape painter, a clean canvas to work ujion. Always 
 there will be conditions of local topography, soil, and cli- 
 mate by which his opcriitions must he limited. He cannot 
 whenever it suits him introduce the ocean or a snow- 
 capped mountain into his background. He cannot illu- 
 minate his picture with constant sunshine nor soften it by 
 a perpetual Indian summer. Commonly, he is allowed 
 only to modify the element? of scenery, or perhaps to bring 
 abo'ut unity a"nd distinctness of expression and suggestion 
 in a locality where elements of beautiful landscape already 
 abound, but arc partly obscured or seen in awkward, con- 
 fusing, and contradiet"ing associations. This is especially 
 likely to be the case in undulating and partially wooded 
 localities, such as in America are oftenest chosen for rural 
 homes. Again, the artist in landscape gardening cannot 
 determine precisely the form and color of the details of his 
 work, because each species of plant will grow up with 
 features which cannot be exactly foreknown in its seed or 
 sapling condition. Thus, he can see his designed and im- 
 aginary landscape only as one may see an existing and 
 tann-ible landscape with half-closed eyes, its finer details 
 not'being wholly lost, yet nowhere perfectly definable. 
 Still, again, it is to be remembered that works in landscape 
 gardening have, as a general rule, to be seen from many 
 points of view. The trees which form the background, 
 still oftener those which form the middle distance, of one 
 view must be in the foreground of another. Thus, the 
 working out of one motive must be limited by the necessi- 
 ties of the working out of others on the same ground, and 
 to a greater or less degree of the same materials. I'lnally, 
 the conditions of health and convenience in ei.nnection 
 with a dwelling are incompatible with various lonns of 
 captivating landscape beauty. A house may be placed in 
 a lovely situation. Iherelore. and the end of long and costly 
 labors of improvement abmit it prove comparatively dull, 
 formal, ami uninteresting. What is lost is a part of the 
 price of health and convenience of dwelling. The Iand- 
 scaiie gardener may have made the best of the case under 
 the conditions prescribed to him. 
 
 It has been sabl thai landscapes of ft particular type as- 
 sociate naturally and ngr.eably with certain events. It is 
 to be added that the merit of landscape gardening consisis 
 largely in the degree in which their designer has been in- 
 spired by a spirit congenial te elcmenis of locality and oc- 
 casion which are not, strictly speaking, gardening elements. 
 The grounds for an ordinary modest home, for instance, 
 may ilesirablv be designed to give the house, gardens, and 
 offices an aspect of retirement and seclusion, as if these had 
 nestled coiilv down logelher among the trees in escape from 
 the outside 'world. The gnoinds of a great public loiibl- 
 a monument of architecture— will, on the other hand. 
 
 'cale, nf open, simple, and broad 
 es of foliage, as convenience of 
 very Irce arranged in subordi- 
 
 ing- 
 
 be desirably as large in 
 
 in spaces of turf and mai 
 
 aiiproueh will allow, and . 
 
 nation to, and support of, the buiMing. The grounds of a 
 
 church an.l of an inn. of a cottage and of an arsenal, of a 
 
 burvingplaco and of a place of amusement, will thus dif- 
 
 fer,'in each case correspondingly to their primary purpose. 
 
 Uealiling this, it will be leeognized that the choue ol tho 
 
 site, of the elevation, aspect, entrances, and outlooks of a
 
 1630 
 
 LANDSEER— LANE. 
 
 building for no purpose oan be judiciously determined ex- 
 cept in connection with a study of the leading features of 
 a plan, of its approaches, and grounds. Also, that in the 
 desi»n of roads, walks, lakes, and bridges, of the method 
 of dealing with various natural circumstances, as standing 
 wood, rocks, and water; in a determination of what is pos- 
 sible and desirable in respect to drainage, water-supply, 
 distant ]>rospects to be opened or shut out, the avoidance 
 of malaria and other 'evils, — all these and many other du- 
 ties are necessarily intimately associated with those of gar- 
 dening (or the cultivation of plants) with a view to land- 
 scape effects. Frederick Law Olmsted. 
 
 Land'seer (Charles), son of John and brother of 
 Edwin, b. in 1799; received instruction from his father; 
 studied in the schools of the Royal Academy, and exhiljited 
 in 1S2S; was chosen an associate in 1S;J7, a member in 
 iS45, and keeper in 1S51. He was a painter of historical 
 pieces. His I'liimlering of Bmiiuj Hvtite. an incident of 
 the civil war in England, is well known. Other pictures are 
 —Cbti-i'S't Harl:,<rc in Prhmi, The De/mrluru of Chnrle^ II. 
 in l)i>.,„he, The .Voi.i-« „r Melrose, The Iletitn, of the Dove 
 to the 'Ark. D.July 22,1879. 0. B. FnoTHiNGnAM. 
 
 LanUseer (Sir Euwis), younger brother of Charles, b. 
 in Loudon in 1S02; excelled while a boy in the painting 
 of animals; became a student of the Academy in 1816; 
 began to exhibit when only fourteen years old. Sketches 
 made when he was but live years old are in the South Ken- 
 sington Museum. In 1S20, at the suggestion of Uaydon, 
 he look advantage of the death of a lion at E.\cter Ex- 
 change to study the anatomy of the animal, and subse- 
 quently he painted several pictures introducing the lion — 
 The Liuii Ileposiioj, The Lion Dislnrhcil, Van Ambuigh and 
 the {.ions. The four bronze lions at the base of the Nelson 
 Monument in Trafalgar Square were his work ; they were 
 done by order of the government (1SJ9), and uncovered 
 Jan. .'il, 1S67. Landseer is beyond question the greatest 
 animal painter of his time as respects anatomical truth, 
 vigor of treatment, and power of characterization ; he 
 treats his subjects suggestively, often with humor, and ex- 
 cels equally in producing comic and tragic effects. Uis 
 pictures, which are very numerous and of great variety, are 
 too well known through engravings to need mention. Some 
 of his best originals may be seen in the Vernon Collection 
 (National Gallery) and the Sheepshanks Collection at South 
 Keusinglon. His subjects were taken from animal life in 
 all regiljus — deer of the Scottish Highlands, polar bears 
 from the Arctics, and dogs of every breed. Edwin Land- 
 seer was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1S26, 
 and a member in ISSl. In ISaO he received knighthood 
 from the queen. On the death of Sir Charles Eastlake in 
 ISfiO, he was elected president of the Royal Academy, but 
 declined the honor. 0. B. Frothi.ngbam. 
 
 Landseer (John), b. in 1761 ; d. Feb. 29, 1852 ; was 
 the son of a jeweller: received his earliest instruction from 
 \Vm. UyTne. His first jiroductions were vignettes for Mac- 
 lin's Bible and liowyer's Hisiori/ of Knijland (179:!); in 
 1799 was engaged on a series of views in the Isle of Wight 
 for J. M. W. Turner and J. C. Ibbetson ; afterwards pub- 
 lished engravings of animals, after Kubens, Snyders, 
 Rembrandt, and others; in 1806 gave lectures on engrav- 
 ing at the Royal Institute, which were puldishcd ; in 1807 
 was chosen associate engraver by the Academy ; in 181i 
 began a series of line engravings illustrating the antiqui- 
 ties of Dacca (British India), 20 plates: in 1817 read a 
 paper to the Society of .-Vntiquaries on Enijnired O'emi Jrom 
 Jiaii/lon, and later gave a course of lectures on Emjiaved 
 
 Hieioylyphies ; in 1821! published Sahiran Keseaiehea, a 
 
 volume, and in 18.14 a catalogue, descriptive, explanatory, 
 and critical, of the earliest pictures iu the National Gallery. 
 As late as ISil exhibited at the Royal .\cademy views of 
 Druidical temples in the islands of Guernsey and Jersey. 
 One of his early pictures, J)or/s of .Ml. St. Jlnnard, was 
 finely engraved by his father. 0. B. Frothlngiiam. 
 
 Landseer (Thomas), A. R. A., elder brother of Edwin 
 and Charles, an engraver of ability and repute. His best 
 work is the reproduction of his brother's pictures, which 
 he executed with spirit and delicacy. The pinte of Rosa 
 Bonheur's llorie fair, published in 1861. gave him celeb- 
 rity. He wrote the /.i/e of William llexriek (artist) in 2 
 vols. (1871). D. Jan.,'l88i). 0. B. FROTHi.vGnAM. 
 
 Land's End. See Cornwall. 
 
 Laud^iTord, post-v. and tp. of Chester co., S. C. Pop. 
 2100. 
 
 Lands'hnt, a quaint old town of Bavaria, capital of 
 the district of Lower Bavaria, on the Isar. It has large 
 breweries and manufactures of tobacco, and many inter- 
 esting buildings, among which are St. Martin's church, 
 built in 14.i0, with a tower 454 feet high ; the old castle, 
 built in 1232 ; a royal palace, with beautiful frescoes. From 
 
 1800 to 1826 it was the seat of a university, previously lo- 
 cated at Ingolstadt, and subsequently removed to Munich. 
 In the tifteeuth century it was the capital of the duchy of 
 Bavaria-Landshut. I'op. 14,141. 
 
 Land!ihut,town of Prussia, in the province of Silesia, 
 at the confluence of the Zieder and the Bober, has some 
 linen and woollen manufactures, and is noted for the vic- 
 torv which the Austrians gained here over the Prussians, 
 June 23, 1760. Po)). 6673. 
 
 Lands'krona, town of Sweden, in the province of 
 Malmi), on the Sound, has a good harbor, and some manu- 
 factures of leather and tobacco. On the island of liven, 
 a mile distant, was the residence and observatory of Tycho 
 Brahe. the celebrated astronomer, of which nothing now 
 remains. Pop. 7323. 
 
 Land'slipt a sort of avalanche of earth and rocks from 
 the sides of mountains or hills. Earthquakes, frost, and 
 especially the action of water, are frequent canses. Soils 
 resting on inclined planes of smooth rock or upon beds of 
 loose gravel are liable to slide en innxse during long-con- 
 tinued rains. Elevated peat-swamps have been known to 
 absorb so much water as to burst and deluge lower regions 
 with torrents of muil. Underlying strata of clay may be- 
 come liquefied and gush out, leaving the surface to topple 
 in. A remarkable land-slide occurred near Nice, France, 
 when the castle and village of Roecabruna, surrounded by 
 oran<'e and lemon groves, moved for some distance down 
 the mountain without disturbing the houses. One of tlie 
 most famous land-slides was that in which Goldau in 
 Switzerland was destroyed. In 1826 there was an extensive 
 land-slide 2 miles from the Notch in the White Mountains 
 of New Hampshire, which destroyed the Willey family, 
 choked up the Saco River, and flooded the surrounding 
 country. 
 Landstnrm. See German Empire — Armij and Xnry. 
 Land Tax, a revenue derived by a government from 
 an assessment on land. (See Taxation, by Rev. A. L. 
 Chapix. S. T. D.J 
 Landwchr. Sec German Empire— -limj and Nary. 
 Lane, county of W. Kansas. Area, 720 square miles. 
 It is a prairie region, watered by tributaries of Walnut 
 Creek. 
 
 Lane, county of Oregon, extending from the Cascade 
 Range W. to the Pacilic. Area, l.inil square miles. Its 
 E. part is in the Willamette Valley, and is highly fertile. 
 Cattle, grain, and wool are leading products. The county 
 is traversed by the Oregon and California R. R. Cap. 
 Eugene City. Pop. 6426. 
 Lane, tp. of Warrick co., Ind. Pop. 870. 
 Lane, tp. of Greenwood co., Kan. Pop. 320. 
 Lane (Ebenezeri, LL.I).. b. at Northampton. Mass., 
 Sept. 17, 1793; graduated at Harvard in 1811; studied law 
 with Matthew (Jriswold, bis uncle: removed in 1.'*I7 to 
 Ohio, and in 1822 became a resident of Sandusky. He was 
 1824-30 a judge of the common pleas; of the State supreme 
 I court 1S30-37: chief-justice 1837-45, and aftcrivards a 
 railroad manager. 1). at Sandusky, 0., June 12. 1866. 
 
 Lane (Edward William), Ph. D., b.at Hereford, Eng- 
 land, in 1801 ; was educated for the Church, but never took 
 ; orders; went to Egypt in 1825, and resided there three 
 ! years, studying the -Arabic language and literature, and 
 making two voyages up the Nile; again spent two years 
 there (1833-35), preparing, at the request of the Society 
 for the Diffusion of I'seful Knowledge, bis popular and 
 entertaining work on the Manners and Cnstoms of the Mod- 
 ern Ei/i/ijllans, which was published in 1830 : made a trans- 
 lation 'of the ,l;<r(,/.iii Xiijhts, with notes (1841); went to 
 Egypt for the third time in 1842, and afterward resided in 
 Cairo, principally engaged in the preparation of an .\rabio 
 lexicon, under tlie patronage of the iluke <if Northumber- 
 land, and after the death of that nobleman with the sujiport 
 of the British government. The first part appeared in 
 IS63, the second in 1865, and others more recently, but was 
 left unfinished. Mr. Lane also published .Silceliont/rom the 
 ICnr-an (1843) and Arabian Tales and Anerdotet (1845); 
 was in 1864 made correspi>nding member of the Institute 
 of France, and in Feb., 1875, received the degrees of mas- 
 ter of philosophy ami doctor of literature from the I'ni- 
 versity of Leyden. D. Aug. 10, 1876. 
 
 Lane (Rev. Geouge W.), b. in Wilkesbarre, Pa., Jan. 
 15, 1815, a son of the Rev George Lane: was licen.sed to 
 preach in Georgia in Mar., 1834: was classical teacher in the 
 manual-labor school near Coviugton, Ga., and then, for ten 
 years, professor of languages in Emory College. He was a 
 man of large attainments and indomitable energy. lealous 
 and successful as a minister, and belonged to the Georgia 
 M. E. conference. D. Sept. 21, 1848. T. 0. Summers.
 
 LANE— LAXGDON. 
 
 1631 
 
 Lane (ilKNRy S.l, b. in Montgomery co.. Ky., Feb. 24, 
 lull : wiis early in life admitCcti lo the Indiauii bar; was 
 ID Congress ISIl—t.'t; lieutenant-coloDcl of volunteers in 
 the Mexican war; choeen U. S. Senator in 1S50, but un- 
 sealed; elected go^'ernor of Indiana 18G1 ; V. &. Senator 
 from Indiana 18t>l-C7. 
 
 Lane i.Tamks Hevrv), b. at Lawrcnceburg, Ind., .Tune 
 22. \^\i. was a son uf llou. Amos Lane, an able lawyer 
 and politiiMsin. J. H. Lane was iidmitteil to the bar in Is40 ; 
 enlisted in the 3d Indiana Vols, in 1810 as a jirivate. but 
 became a colonel, and at Buena Vislu eomiuandcd a bri- 
 gade with great credit ; was IS47-4S colonel of the ^th In- 
 diana. In 184S he was chosen lieutenant-governor; was 
 in Congress 1853-55, and voted for the Ncbrai^ka bill; re- 
 moved in 1855 to Kansas: was a prominent member of the 
 first Free State government; was president of both the To- 
 peka and the Leavenworth ( 1S57) constitutional convcn- 
 tioii-j. and major-generni of the Free State forces. In 185G 
 he was chosen by the Free State legislature as U. S. Sen- 
 ator, but was not allowed a scat, and in the same year was 
 indicted for high treason by the enemies of the Topeka c<m- 
 stitution. and compelled to flee. In IS.">S he was indicted 
 and tried for the murder of a neighbor whom ho had killed 
 in a fjuarrel. l>ut was accjuitted. In I SOI. and again in I8f)5, 
 he was sent from Kansas to the U. S. Senate. lie served 
 efliciently for some time during the civil war as a brigadier- 
 general of volunteers. In ISfiCi ho received a ])aralytic 
 stroke, and on July 11, 1866, took his own life, at Leaven- 
 worth, Kan. 
 
 Lane (Rev. Jons), b. in Virginia Apr. 8, 1789: entered 
 the ministry in the South Carolina M. K. conference in 181-t, 
 and in ISIG became a pioneer of i^fethodism in Mississippi. 
 He was present at the first session of the Mississippi con- 
 ference, in which for many years ho was a standard-bearer. 
 He ivaa also a probate judge in AVurrcn co., where ho exer- 
 cised a wide innuence. haviug married a daughter of Mr. 
 Vick, after whom Vicksburg was named. D. at Vickaburg, 
 Miss., Oct. 10, 1855. T. 0. Simmeks. 
 
 Lane (.rosi:iMi).b. in Buncombe co., X. C, Dec. 14, IROl; 
 removed in youtli to Indiana, where he engaged in mercan- 
 tile pursuits and in ]M)Iities : served iis colonel of tlio 2d In- 
 diana Vols, in the Mexican war, and was made a brigadier 
 and brevet major-general for gallantry at Bucua Vista and 
 in many minor actions; became in ISIS, an<l again in 1S53, 
 governor of Oregon Territory; was a delegate in 1851-5Uj 
 U. S. Senator lS5'.t-fiI ; ami iu iSf'.O was nominated for 
 Vice-President on the Breckenridgo ticket. 
 
 Lane fSir Rammii, b. in Xorthamjitonshire, England, 
 about 15:»0; entered the service of (Juoen Klizabelh in 150.'i 
 as equerry; served with credit in the rebellion of 15(19, and 
 in Ireland in 15S3-84, and was appointed by Sir Walter 
 Huleigh in Feb., 15S5, governor of Virginia. Ho aban- 
 diined the province in the following year, returning to Eng- 
 land with Sir Francis Drake; was colonel in Drake's exjic- 
 dition against Portugal in 15^1); wounded in an Irish cam- 
 paii^n in 1591, knighted in 1593, antl d. iu Ireland iu 1604. 
 
 I^nne Prai'rie, tp. of Otter Tail co., Minn. Pop. SO. 
 
 LiliK'N, tp. of Morgan co., Ala. Pop. 722. 
 
 LuiurN'boro'y poat-v. and tp. of Anson co., N. C, on 
 the Carolina Central U. R, Pop. 129:!. 
 
 Lanen'borough, a pleasant post-tp. of Berkshire co., 
 Ma^s., on the i'ittsfield and North Adams R. R., 5 miles 
 N. of Pittsficld. It has quarries of niarlile and limestone, 
 and mines of iron and glass-sand, a literary as.^ociutioD, 4 
 churches, a public library, and nninufacturcs of iron, glass, 
 lime, etc. It is widely known for its scenery, at some points 
 wild and grauil, at others remarkably beautiful. Pop. 13y.'{. 
 
 Lnncsboroii;;!!, posl-v. of Carrollton tp.. Fillmore co., 
 Minn., on tho Southern Minnesota K. U., 50 miles W. by S. 
 of La Crosse, Wis., has 1 weekly newspaper. Pop. C55. 
 
 LaneHborou^hf post-v. of Harmony tp., Suscjuehanna 
 CO.. Pa., on the Krie U. R., 1 mile N. K. of Susquehanna 
 Dt'pftf, and on the Susf|uehanna River. 
 
 LnncN'burg, tp. of Lc Sueur co., Minn. Pop. 1123. 
 
 lianeN treek, post-tp.of Union co.,N. C. Pop. 1575. 
 
 Lanes'ville, a thriving post-v. in the X. K. part of 
 Gloucester tn., Essex eo., Mas;*.. 5 miles from Glouoeater 
 Village, on the N. shore of Capo Ann. 
 
 Lnnc'villc, tp. of Halo oo.. Ala. Pop. 25fln. 
 
 LnnYrnnc, b. at Pavia, Italy, about 10(15; studied at 
 Bologna, and taught juricpru'lence and dialectic at Pavia 
 with applause: removed to Frnnee. and. probably in 1039, 
 settled at Avranches; entered the Rpne<lietine abbey of Bee 
 1042, which soon became a renowned school of theology, 
 
 ?atristics, and dialectic; was maile prior in IflCc took part 
 050-09 in tl»e controversy with Berengarius: lieranif ab- 
 bot of Caen lor.f., and was appointed arclibi-bop of Canter- 
 
 bury by William the Conqueror 1070 — a position which was 
 rendered a trying one by the solf-will of the Conqueror and 
 his successor, the refractory conduct of some of the clergy, 
 and the unsettled relations of the po])e to the king in re- 
 gard to church preferments. Lanfrane was one of the foun*!- 
 crs of scholasticism. His most important existing works 
 arc De c<»rpmr it «amjuhir Domini and commentaries on 
 the Pauline Epistles. D. at Canterbury May 24, I0S9. 
 
 Lanfrey' (PiEnitK), b. in 1828 at Chambi'Ty, Savoy, then 
 a part of the kingdom of Sardinia. His father was a 
 Frenchman who had been a military oflieer under the em- 
 pire. Pierre entered the Jesuit college at Chambf^ry. I>ut 
 left on account of having written a pamphlet against his 
 reverend instructors, and compleled his studies at the Col- 
 lege Bourbon in Paris, where iie qualified for the bar. but 
 afterwards turned his attention to pliilosophical and his- 
 torical studies. His first work. T/ir Chnrrh and the Phi- 
 hsophrm of the Eiffhtertith Vruturif ( 1S57), made a consid- 
 erable sensation, which was deepened by An Efm'tt/ on the 
 French /icrohition ( 1 S5S). Tftr Politicnl Histori/ of the Poprg 
 (I860). Political Stndirs and Portraits (18G3), and The 
 ReHtnratinn of Poland (ISG3). In ISG7. M. Lanfrey ct»m- 
 mcnccd the publication of his most important work, a 
 Iliston/ of y/fpn/eon /., of which the fifth volume ap- 
 peared in IS71. the ablest and niot-t complete arraignment 
 of the First Enipiro at the bar of hif^tory that has a])peart d. 
 M. Lanfrey served in tlu^ moln'/es of Savoy during the 
 Franco-Cierman war, was elected to the National Assembly 
 in Feb., 1871, and in October of that year was appointe<I 
 by Thiers minister to Switzerland, but resigned in 1873; 
 elected life senator in 1S75. D. Nov. 15, IS77. 
 
 Lang fJoiiv Di'NMORr), D. D., b. at Largs. Ayrshire, 
 Scotliind, about ISOO ; emigrated to Sydney at an early age, 
 and becunie ]>rincipal of tho Australian Cidlege. In ]S:;i 
 ho pnldished The lUstnrj/ <>/' AVm- South Wafe>t, both an a 
 i*cual Sftt((incnt and ax a Britinh C(doni/,t\ictirsl historical 
 work on that colony possessing any claims to fulness and 
 authority. It has passed through several editions. Dr. 
 Lang wrote briefer works upon other separate colonies, 
 including New Zealand (IS't)), Philipshuid (1847), CooKs- 
 lancl ( 1S47), and Freedoin and Independence /or the Gtddtn 
 Landi of Australia (1853), republished iu 1870 under tho 
 title The Cominy Event. 
 
 Lang (Louis), b, at Wnldsee. Wiirtemberg. Mnr. 29, 
 1814; became noted at an early ago for skill in painting 
 likenesses in pastel ; resided at Constance ( 18oO-.'M 1 ami at 
 Paris (1834-37); eame to the U. S. in 1838; went to Italy 
 in 1841, studying at Venice, Bologna, Florence, and Ron.e; 
 then spent two years in tho U. S. ( 184 5— 17), engaged in the 
 artistic decoration of houses, an<l after another visit to 
 Rome (1847-49) made his permanent residence in New 
 York City. 
 
 Lang'dale (SlrM.vnMADi'KE),b. in Yorkshire. England, 
 aij<Mit I.VJO; was sheritl" of that county in D)42: cmbractd 
 the Royalist cause, and became one of tlie most valiant 
 generals of Charles I., defeating the Scotch at Corbridgo 
 and raising tho siege of Pontefract Castle (1644); com- 
 manded at the battle of Xaseby, June 14, IG45. which was 
 lost through the imprudence of Priuc<- Rupert ; joined ALmt- 
 rose : was defeated; escaped to the Isle of Man; uent 
 thence to the Continent; joined the Scotch royalist army 
 in 1G48: took Berwick by surprise (May); defeated by 
 Cromwell at Preston (Aug. 17): captured and im]irlsnii(d 
 in Nottingham Castle; escaped to Flanders; was made 
 baron by Charles II.: was lunl li(iitenant of Yorkshire <in 
 tho Restoration in ll'.fiO. nml cl. at York Aug. 5, 1G61. Clnr- 
 ondon in his ///«^>rl/ of ihr HduUion gives him a high repu- 
 tation for courage and skill. 
 
 Lang'deH (CnnisTiu-nKR CuLfMnis). A. M.. LL.B., 
 
 A. B.. dean of the law faculty <if Cambridge I'nivcr.'ily, 
 Cambridge, Mass., b. in Hillsborough en.. N. M.. May Tl, 
 1826; entered Phillips Exeter Academy in isi.'i, and Har- 
 vard College in LS48; left college to pursue teaching in 
 1849, and decided not to return, hence did not graduate 
 with his class; in IS50 began the study of law, and at- 
 tended Harvard Law Sch()ol in the sub^cquent year. At 
 the annual eommeneonicnt in 1853 110 received the degree 
 of LL.n.. and at the following eomnicncemcnt the honorary 
 degree of .\. M.; removed to New York, where he practised 
 law until be was appointed Dane professor of law in Cam- 
 bridge I'niversity. .\t the annual commencemeiil in 1870 
 he received the <legree of \. B. as a niember of llie class of 
 LS5I. and was nppointecl to the position he now hobU at 
 tho beginning of the academic year of 1870-71. 
 
 J. S. Oinnoss. 
 
 'Lanf;'tlon« jtost-tp. of Sullivan eo.. N. H.. 50 miles W. 
 of Coneord. D has mnnufactures of lutuber. Pop. 4 11. 
 
 Langdon (CiiAHi.KS C.). of Northern birth: emigrated 
 about is.'IG to Alabama, and became a nierchant of Perrv
 
 1632 
 
 LANGDON— LANGLOIS. 
 
 00. ; was afterwards editor of the Mobile lirghler, a Whig 
 paper; was mayor of Mobile, and in 1861 opposed seces- 
 sion ; chosen in 1.S6J to Congress, was not allowed to take 
 his seat : was the founder of Uitronelle, Mobile Co., Ala., 
 where he has since resided. 
 
 Laiigdon (.rmiN), LL.D., a patriot of New Hampshire, 
 b. at I'l.rt-'niouth in 1741, became a successful moreliant of 
 that town. In 17"l he assisted in securing for the colonies 
 the ordnance stores in the fort near Portsmouth. In 1775 
 he was sent to the Congress. In 177f) he bccauie navy 
 agent. Speaker of the New Hampshire assembly, and judge 
 of the common pleas. He gave the money with which 
 Stark's famous brigade was equiiipcd, and in person com- 
 manded a company at Bennington, Saratogiv. and elsewhere. 
 In 177n he was president of the New Hampshire convention 
 and Continental agent. In 1783 he was sent to Congress, 
 and was afterwards more than once Speaker in the New 
 Hampshire legisl.ature. He was president of New Hamp- 
 shire in 1785, and in 1787 was in the convention which 
 drafted the Federal Constitution. In 1788 he was governor, 
 and again in 1805-09 and lSIO-12. He was a U. S. Senator 
 1780-1801, and declined the secretaryship of the navy and 
 the Vice-Presidency of the U. S. 1). Sept. IS, 1819. 
 
 Langdon (Samuel), I). D.. AnERnREx, b. in Boston, 
 Mass., Jan. 12, 1723, and graduated at Harvanl in 1740. 
 He became master of a grammar school at Portsmouth, 
 N. II.; was a chaplain in the Louisburg e.spedition 1745; 
 assistant minister, and afterwards (1747-74) pastor, of the 
 First Congregational church at Portsmouth ; president of 
 Harvard College 1774-80. and afterw.ards a minister at j 
 Hampton Falls, N. H. He was prominent in the public ; 
 affairs of the State. Published many sermons, and several 
 volumes upon theological and religious subjects. U. Nov. 
 29, 1797. 
 
 Langdon (WonnBrnv'l.brotherof .John Langdon (1741- 
 1810), h. at Portsmouth. N. H., in 1739 : served in Congress 
 1770-80; ajudgeof tlie New Hampshire supreme court 1782, 
 and again 1786-90, and held other public offices. D. at 
 Portsmouth Jan. 13, 1805. 
 
 Lange (Joranv Pkter), b. Apr. 10, 1802. at Sonnborn, 
 near Elberfeld, in Rhenish Prussia, in humble circum- 
 stances; acquired his first education by his own energy; 
 •attended for a year and a half the gymnasium of Diissel- 
 dorf : studied theology at Bonn ; preached in several places, 
 and was ap|iointed professor of theology at Zurich in 1841, 
 and in 1854 at Bonn. His Lrhrn Jrs„ (3 vols., 1844-47), 
 translated into F.nglish by Sophia Taylor and J. E. Ryland 
 (Philailelphia, 1872). Chrlnlliehe Dmjmalik (Z vols., 1849- 
 52), and Ap„Fl,Jhi-hr y.,ll,dli-r (2 vols., 1853-54), exercised 
 a widespread and highly bencfici.al infiuence; of his Thco- 
 JnrjUrhhamihilm-he llihrlirfrk an English edition has been 
 prepared under the title of £nii./f'» Cnmmenlnry, by Philip 
 SclwafT, and published at New York ( 1865, teq.). 
 
 Lang'eland (''long land"), an island of Penmnrk, in 
 the Baltic, between Funen and Laaland. It is 33 miles I.mg 
 and 3 miles broad. Area. 106 square miles. Pop. 18,399. 
 It is exceedingly fertile, producing wheat, apples, good tim- 
 ber, and excellent cattle. Principal town, Rudkiiibing. 
 
 I/an'gemarcq, town of Belgium, in the province of 
 West Flanders, has extensive manufactures of lace and 
 linen. P,.p. 615S. 
 
 Lan'genbielaii, a number of villages in Silesia, Prus- 
 sia, un the IVila, consisting of I'pper, Lower, Oreat, Lit- 
 tle, New, and 01,1 I.angenbielau, which together form a 
 town of 12,700 inhabit.ants. Many kinds of manufactures 
 are carried on, especially cotton. 
 
 Iiangensal'za, town of Prussia, in the province of 
 Saxonyl numbering about 10,000 inhabitants; was several 
 times "the theatre of battles. On Feb. 15, 1701, the allied 
 Prussians and Englishmen, under Sydow and Spiircken, de- 
 feated the (lerman imperial anuy nnder Steinville; Apr. 
 17, ISI3, the Prussians defeated the Bavarians: June 27, 
 1866. a bloody contest look place between the Prussians 
 and the Hanoverians. Under the commanrl of King (Jcorge, 
 who had allied himself closely to .\ustria, the Hanoverian 
 army, numbering about 20.000 men. broke u|i from Giit- 
 tingcn and moved southward in order (o join the Bava- 
 rians, who stood on the other side of the Thiiringer Wald. 
 A Prussian corps nnder the command of (len. von Fliess, 
 reinforced by tri>ops from Saxe-Dotha. anrl numbering 
 about 10,000 "men, pushed forward from fiotha in order to 
 detain them. .\t Langcnsalza an encounter took ]dace, in 
 which the Hanoverians, although victorious, sutfered so 
 much that they were unable to continue their march. They 
 lost 102 officers and 1327 men; the Prussians, 846 in all. 
 As a superior number of Prussian troops came on from 
 other sides during the next days, the Hanoverians had to 
 capitulate ; the army became jjrisoners of war, and soon 
 after the kingdom ceased to exist. Augitst Niemann. 
 
 Langeron', de (.\sdraclt). Count, b. at Paris Jan. 
 
 13, 1703: served in America as sub-lieutenant during the 
 closing year of the war of the Revolution ; rose to be 
 colonel in 1786; emigrated from France at the outbreak 
 of the French Revolution; took service in Russia in 1790, 
 first against Sweden, and afterwards against Turkey ( 1790 
 -91) ; was with the Austrian forces in the invasions of the 
 Low Countries and of France (1792-94) ; returned to Rus- 
 sia, and rapidly rose to the rank of lieutenant-general and 
 count (1799) ; commanded a Russian division at Austerlitz, 
 and on the Danube in the Turkish war from 1S07 to 1812; 
 bore a ilislinguishcd )uvrt in resisting the grand army of 
 Napoleon in the invasion of Russia (1812-13), in the vic- 
 tory of Leipsio(Oct. 18), and the advance upon Paris (1S14); 
 was governor-general of New Russia in 1822; served in 
 Turkish war 1828-29, and d. at St. Petersburg July 4, 1831. 
 He left MS. memoirs which were used by Thiers in the 
 History of the Connxdate and Empire. 
 
 Langevin' (Hector Louis), C. li., h. at Quebec Aug. 
 15, 1820 ; was educated at the Quebec College and in Mont- 
 real; became an advocate in 1850; was for a time a jour- 
 nalist in Montreal, and afterwards in tjuebec ; was mayor 
 of Quebec 1857-60. and a member of the Provincial Par- 
 liament 1858-66. In 1S64 ho became solicitor-general, and 
 in 1860 postmaster-general. He was ( 1866-69) secretary 
 of state in the Dominion cabinet, and 1869-72 minister of 
 public works. He sits (1875) in the House of Commons 
 for Dorchester, Quebec; was made C. B. in 1868. Author 
 of Droit AdmiiiiHtrotif des Paroisnes (1862), aud is a con- 
 servative in politics. 
 
 Lang'ham, de (Simon), Cardinal, b. probably at 
 Langham. Rutlandshire, England, about 1310 ; became n 
 monk in Westminster in 1335, prior and abbot in 1349, 
 high treasurer of England 1360, bishop of Ely 1362, chan- 
 cellor 1363, and archbishop of Canterbury by papal pro- 
 vision July 22, 1366. His most noted action was the re- 
 moval of Wyclifie from the wardenship of Baliol College, 
 Oxford, in which he was su[iportcd by Pope Urban V., who 
 signalized bis approval by making Langham a cardinal- 
 presbyter (1368). while the king, Edward III., was favor- 
 able to the Reformer. The new cardinal was forced to re- 
 sign his archbishopric (Nov., 1368), and retired to Avignon, 
 where he became a trusted counsellor of Pope Gregory XI., 
 and d. July 22, 1376. After the accession of Richard II. 
 his remains were removed with great pomp to Westminster 
 Abbey in 1379. 
 
 Lang'horne (JonN). D. D..l>. at Kirkby-Stephen.Weet- 
 morelanil. England, iu Mar., 1735: entered Clare Hall, Cam- 
 bridge, in 1760; became curate of Si. John's, Clerkenwell, 
 and of Blagden. Somersetshire, and was some time assistant 
 preacher of Lincoln's Inn. In 1708 he removed to Folke- 
 stone, where his brother William i 1721-72) was perpetual 
 curate, and with him made a translation of Plutarch's /.Ives 
 (6 vols., 1770), which still holds its position as one of the 
 most wiilely-read of any translation from a classic author. 
 Ho publisiied many poems, tales, and sermons of little 
 value, and in 1777 became prebend in the cathedral of 
 Wells, Somersetshire. D. at Blagden Apr. 1, 1779. 
 
 Lang'land, Langplande, or Longland (Robert), 
 b. probiiblv at Cleobury .Mortimer, Shro], shire, about 1332 ; 
 was educated at Oxford ; became a fellow of Oriel College, 
 and a monk at Malvern. His Vision nf Piers Plowman, in 
 alliloralive verse, written about 1362. was a satire upon the 
 clergy, and is one of the earliest works written in the Eng- 
 lish language ; first jointed in 1550. The best edition is 
 that of Thomas Wright (London, 1856). Langland d. 
 about 1400. 
 
 Langles (Loris MATniEr), b. at Perenne, Haute-Loire, 
 Aug. 23, 1763; studied Oriental languages at Paris, and 
 attracted considerable attention in 1787 by his translation 
 into French from the Persian of Tamerlane's Institutes. In 
 1789-90 he edited Father Amiot's Mantchoo-French dic- 
 tionary, and in 1795 he induced the French re|.ublican 
 government to establish a special school of Onental lan- 
 guages, of which he himself became the first administrator 
 1 and professor in the Persian. Tbrougli this school, and 
 through the geographical Society of Paris, (if which he 
 also was the founder, he exercised a large and beneficial 
 infiuence. He was also the author of numerous works re- 
 lating to Oriental languages and literature. D. at Paris 
 Jan. 28, 1824. 
 1 Langlois' (Victor), b. at Dieppe Mar. 20, 1829; stud- 
 1 ied Oriental languages, and travelled in 1852-53 in Cilicia 
 and Armenia, where he discovered over eighty new (ireek 
 i inscriptions, and unilertook excavations at Tarsus, from 
 which bo brought many interesting antiquities to Pans. 
 ' In 1867 he pubiishod Le' Mnnt .Ulios el ses Mouaslires. con- 
 I taining a pholo-lilhographic reproduction of the gcogra|)h- 
 ical work of Ptolemv. In 1SG8 ho began the publication
 
 LAXGNAU— LANGUAGE. 
 
 1683 
 
 of CoKectwit dea Hintorienw anciena et modernes de I'Armi- 
 ni>, which was uotiuiijbcU wkcD bu d. May 14, ISGU. 
 
 Lang'imu, towu of Switztrlund. in the canton of Bcmc, 
 hns iron-fuumlrii-s. tanneries, inauufactures of tobacco and 
 watches, and au active trade in liucn and cheese. Pop. 
 53CI). 
 
 Lango'ln, post-v. and tp. of Benton co,, Miun., on 
 the MiMsissij.jii Uiver. Pop. Hit. 
 
 Lnns Plantation, tp. of Franklin co., Me. Pop. 36. 
 
 Langrcs, tuwn of Frnnce, in the depnrtiucnt of Haule- 
 M.irne, situated on the left bank of the Murne, ou a plateau 
 at an delation of liGO feot. It is au old town, with a ca- 
 thedral of the eleventh century, a college, and theological 
 seminary. Large trade in grain and cattle, and celebrated 
 raanufacture of fine cutlery. It is the birthplace of Diderot, 
 to whose memory a ra'inuinent was erected here. Pop. 8320. 
 
 Lang's, tp. of Darlington co., S, C. Pop. 1211. 
 
 Langs'ton, post-v. of Montcalm CO., Mifh., 10 miles 
 from Greenville .Station, which is ou tho Detroit Lansing 
 and Lake Michigan K. K. 
 
 Lnngston (John Mfrokr), LL.D., b. at Louisa Court- 
 hou.^c, Louisa co., Va.. Dec. 14. 1829. By birth a slave, ho 
 was emancipated when six years old: educated at Oberlin 
 College, where he graduated in 1849, and from the theolog- 
 ical department of the same college in 1853; jitudied law, 
 being admitted to the Ohio bar in IS51; pursued his profes- 
 sion for thirteen years in Ohio, when he was called to a pro- 
 fessorship in the law department of the Ilowanl Tniversity 
 at Washington, D. ('.; became dean of the faculty, and in 
 IS'.'J vice-president and acting president of the university. 
 Was appointed in 1871, by the President of the U. S,, a 
 member of tho board of health of the District of Columbia, 
 of which in 1S7j he was elected secretary. Author of va- 
 rious addresses ami papers upon political, biographio, lit- 
 erary, and scientific subjects, and is distinguished as an 
 orator and scholar. 
 
 Lang'8troth (Lorenzo Lorratne), b. at Philadelphia 
 Dec. 2j, ISIU; gra<luated at Yale IS.U; tutor there 1^31- 
 35; pastor of the South Congregational church, Andover, 
 M:iHS., 183t)-39; principal of ,\bbott Female Seminary, 
 Andover, 1838-39; of (irecufiuld (Mass.) High School 
 1839-43; pastor of Second Church, Grccnfieid, Mass., 
 1843-48; principal of a young ladies' school, Philadelphia, 
 18iH-.'i2. Since 1858 has resided at Oxford, O. Mr. Lang- 
 Btroth is famous as tho inventor of the movable-couib hive, 
 which has wrought a revolution in bee-keeping. Author 
 of tho ///*■*: fuifi //out I/- /ice, etc. / / X •? i 3 "^ 
 
 Lang'toft (i*i:TBU),b. in the second lialfo^ the thirteenth 
 century, was a canon of tho order of St. Auguj^tine at Brid- 
 lington, Yorkshire, and derived his name from a parish of 
 tho same county, perhaps his native idace. lie translated 
 from tho Latin into French verso Herbert Bosenham's Life 
 of Thoiiutn tl /itr/:ct (1300?), and wrote, also in verse, a 
 French Cfnonicle of Kmjftmd from the siege of Troy to tho 
 reign of Kdward I., translated into English verse by Robert 
 de Brunne, and edited by Ilearno (Oxford, 1725). 
 
 Lang'ton (Stfj-hkm). CARniNAi,, b. in Devonshire, Lin- 
 coln, or Sus'-ex, Eiig., about 1 1 00; was educated at Paris, 
 taking degrees in philofophy and theology; became a pro- 
 fessor and chancellor of tlio university and canon of Notro 
 Dame; was a fellow-student with Lothario Conti, who bc- 
 camo pope in 1I9S, unit was named in tho same year a 
 member of tin- papal household. In 1200, Langtou, while 
 on a visit to Rome, was made a eaflinul. and in December 
 of the same year wa-* by exprc?<s oriler of the pope elected 
 archbishop of Canterbury in opposition to the wilt of King 
 John. Though consecrated b\- the pope at Vitt>rbo in June, 
 1207, Lan;5ton was not permitrrd to take pim'^ession of his 
 800 until the submistsinn of Kin;^ John to iIk- papacy in I21.'t, 
 when he inimeiliately joined the insurn<*nt barons in their 
 con6ict with that monarch, a>!^i»led ihi'm at Bury St. Ed- 
 mund's (Nov. 20, 1214) in drawing up the basis of Magna 
 Charta, and heatled the lint of buronial signers of that in- 
 strument at Riinnvmede (June 15, 1215). For this conrluet 
 ho incurred tho ceiisure of the pope, imd notwilbstaniling 
 a visit to Home was siispclTTed frOm bis runcrionTIn De- 
 cember of that year, but restored Feb.. II'IO. Ho returned 
 to England in 1218; rrowned Ihnry III. in 1220; presided 
 at tlio ('ouneil of Osn«*y in 1222. wliirh drew np a code 
 of canon law; watched over tlie ol.Hcrvaneo of Magna 
 t'haria; and in 1223 again jdneed himself at tin- head of 
 tho barons to demand its eoiifirmation fr<tin Hmry III. 
 The divijtion of the Bible into chapters has been c^nimiHily 
 attributed to hini- TTc Ts n-presentcd ns having been a 
 ntan of great b'urning and author of numerous theological 
 works, none of which, however, is extant. D. nt Slindoo, 
 Sussex, July 9, 1228. (Sco Hook's Aichbinhvpt of Can- 
 tcrbnrv.) 
 
 Vol. IL— 103 
 
 lian'guage. The word /anyuar^e comes from the Latin 
 linguUf " tongue," through derivative forms represented by 
 Fr. Imujntje, It. liniftiatftjio. It signifies, then, primarily, 
 utterance by the tongue, that being the most active and 
 essential of the articulating organs. It is in nccordonco 
 with this that we use the word ; it denotes orticulate utter- 
 ance for the expression of thought. But this also in two 
 ways. First, wo mean by language the general power or 
 faculty of expression of thought by nrtieulale utterance, a 
 power possesr-cd and exercised by all normally conFtiti;(cd 
 and circumstanced human beings fnot by the deaf nor by 
 the solitary); in this sense, «7>ff -A is its common synonym. 
 Secondly, we mean a particular body of articulate utter- 
 ances, signs for thought, used in some definite community, 
 present or past, as their means of expression; intelligillc 
 between members of that community, but not to outsiders. 
 It is of the highest inij)ortance to hold these two senses 
 clearly apart, for ui>on their confusion depends no small 
 part of tho falso views of language more or less commonly 
 held. 
 
 AVe shall begin by considering the extrrnal body of lan- 
 guage, the audible sounds. These are produced by on ap- 
 paratus locatc<l in the throat and mouth, supplied with ma- 
 terial by the lunjrs. The lungs send forth a current of air 
 through the throat and mouth. This rtctivts tone and 
 pitch in the larynx by the action of the vncsil cords, which 
 are tho membranous edges of a pair of half-valves, capable 
 of being brought close together and made tense across the 
 passage of the throat, so ihut the expelled air causes them 
 to vibrate like the tongue or reed ot an organ-pipe; and 
 this vibration, transmitted to our organs of henring by the 
 sympathetic movement of the air, is cognized by us as 
 sound. Above this vibrating apparatus is set the cavity 
 of the pharynx, the mouth, and the n(»?i', in the manner 
 of a sounding-box : anel voluntaiy tdiiiniies niaele in the 
 walls and apertures of this box diftcrenliate the sound, 
 giving rise to a great variety of dislinguit-bable products, 
 which are our aljdiabetic sounds. That branch of lin- 
 guistics which concerns itself with the physical character 
 of alphabetic sounds, as dependent on the voluntary move- 
 ments of the organs. Is called phonetics or phonology : it 
 involves something of acoustics, and something of anatomy, 
 but is quite distinct from either. A very brief conjiilera- 
 tion of its leading principles will be all that is needed here. 
 
 Tho number of distinct articulations capable of being 
 nroduced by the organs of utterance is indefinitely great. 
 Nearly 300 have been represented separately by Ellis in his 
 " PalaHjtype " (first chapterof AVir/y EvgUnh Proniimititiou). 
 But many of these are variations, hardly perceptible to any 
 but skilled and observant ears, of what is practically the 
 same sound; and no single language uses for purposes of 
 speech more than a fractiv)n of this nuniber. The most im- 
 portant division of the system is info vowels and cemsonants. 
 The vowels are the e>pener sounds, those in which the modify- 
 ing action of the mouth-organs on the intonated currents of 
 breath is le-ast, which are therefore mainly tone; the con- 
 sonants are the closer sounds, those in wliich the element 
 of oral action prevails more or less over that of tone. Upon 
 the antithesis of vowel and consonant, the succession of 
 alternutely opener and closer sounds, depends what we call 
 tho nificul'ttf character of our utterance; tho stream of 
 audible ttouud. consisting especially of the vowels, is nar- 
 rowed or cut oil' from point to point by the consonants, and 
 so broken into articnlif *' joints," being thus made both 
 distinct and flexible to a degree that would be attainable 
 in no other way. There is a class of eoni-onants — p h. kg, 
 id — in which tlic interference of the mouth-organs with tho 
 stream of breath is carried to tho extreme of complete 
 stoppage: these are ealled mutes (stops, cheeks). Thero 
 is another in which the organs are so closely tipproached 
 that a rustling or buzzing is heard at the orilice. and is tho 
 conspicuous element in tho sound produced: the.<e nro 
 called fricatives; Ibey are eonveniently divided into sibi- 
 lants — such as It z, «/* zh (of azure) — and spirants — such as 
 /r, tho two f/f-sounds (//iih, thru), ami the (ierman eA. 
 Another very distinct ehif^s is that of the nasals or re- 
 sonants ; in these there is a eonijdete closure of the mouth- 
 organs at the same points as in the utterance of the mutes, 
 but the nasal passa;re is unclosed, so that the eounils are 
 sonorous and eonlinuable — as m, n, vg (in m'tiging) : in the 
 nnsrtl voivels (e. g. of I'reneb) there is an unelosuro of tho 
 nasal pavsiigo along with (trdinary vowel utterance, giving 
 an addcfl twang to tho prmluct. One more class of con- 
 sonants remains, the xenii-vowels ;/• »'', ', r — sounds wliieii 
 stand on the line between vowel imd consonant.// being only 
 in(inite.«ima1ly difierent from the i' of pt'qur (the /r-sound), 
 and ir from the k of nifc (the oo-^nund) : and / and r being 
 convertible, and by many languages converted, to vowel 
 use?. 
 
 In English, and In the majority of other languages, there 
 arc in tho mouth three places of complete closure, produ-
 
 1634 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 oiDg mutes — a front, or labial, at the lips, giving p and 6 ; a 
 back, or palatal, between the back of the tongue and the 
 soft palate, giving /,- and ij ; and an intermediate, or lingual, 
 between the tip or front part of the tongue and tlie roof of 
 the mouth at or back of the upper front teeth, giving ( and d. 
 The last two pairs may vary in character according to the 
 phu-e on the palate and the parts of the tongue used ; and 
 different ('s and Ic's are sometimes found side by side in the 
 same language. Usually there is, as in English, a cor- 
 responding nasal to each mute closure. But the other conso- 
 nants alsolend toward the same organs of production : thus, 
 the /"and i- and w are more labial ; the (/i, the s and s, and the 
 r aiid I, are Ungual ; and the cli. the sli and i/i, and the y 
 are more palatal. And even the vowels show the same tend- 
 ency: from the n-sound of /nr, which is the purest alpha- 
 betic tone, most unmodified by the niouth-organs, the tongue 
 approaches the palate, toward the /--position, more and more 
 in the a of pan, the e of pen, and the j of jnn, giving thus 
 a palatal scries of vowels ; and the lips are more and more 
 rounded and approached in the a of all, the o of jiole, and 
 the n of ride, giving a labial series. 
 
 There is one more principle of relationship to be noted: 
 that of sonant to non-sonant or surd sounds. The « and 
 z, for example, are uttered with the same articulating po- 
 sition of the mouth-organs, but the former with simple 
 breath, the other with intonated breath or sound: the 
 former a hiss, the latter a buzz. .\nd the difference of ( 
 and d is the same, sound beginning in the former only im- 
 mediately after the breach of mute contact, which is made 
 witli breath alone, but in the latter before the breach, by 
 forcing :iir enough to support for a moment the sonant 
 vibratTon of the vocal cords up into the closed cavity of 
 the mouth. Thus, the mutes and fricatives go usually in 
 pairs, of surd and sonant. But in the opener positions the 
 mere breath is not sufficiently characterized to give an 
 alphabetic constituent for each position, and we throw all 
 the different products together as h. 
 
 The principles, then, which determine the system of the 
 alphabet arc: (1) the degree of approach of the organs, 
 between the absolute openness of a {far) and the absolute 
 closure of k, t, p ; (2) the particular organs or parts of the 
 mouth brought toward or against one another: and (3) the 
 kind of material furnished to the mouth-organs by the 
 throat, whether breath or sound. Annexed is a sample 
 alph.abet thus arr.anged, containing (with neglect of some 
 miuor distinctions) the simple sounds of the English lan- 
 guage : 
 
 vowels. 
 
 
 V 
 
 r. I 
 
 tv semi-vowels. 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 m nasals. 
 
 
 surd. ? 
 
 
 
 aspiration. 
 
 -> 
 
 sonant, 
 surd. 
 
 zh 
 sh 
 
 z 
 
 sibilants. "» 
 
 p 
 
 sonant, 
 surd. 
 
 
 dh 
 
 th 
 
 ^ \ spirants. j 
 
 '? 
 
 sonant. 
 
 fj 
 
 d 
 
 1 mutes. 
 
 
 
 k 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 palatal 
 
 liuKual 
 
 laiiial 
 
 
 
 sorics. 
 
 series. 
 
 scries. 
 
 
 In this scheme, a represents the <i-sound in pan, A the 
 sound in all, and. a the "neutral" vowel-sound in hut. hurt. 
 
 that are found in anv human alphabet, and n great many 
 more; and (apart from special individual disabilities) any 
 sound is equally easv at the outset, bctore habits are form- 
 ed, to all human beings : there is nothing eharacteriBfic of 
 race in the aljihabets of different races. But each person 
 grows up to produce bv imitation just those sounds which 
 he hears others make "about him. Some sounds, however, 
 are easier and sooner learned than others: the norm in 
 every language is given by the practised adult speakers, 
 and "the child, beginning by reproilucing only imperfectly 
 what he hears, gradually acquires the same facility and ac- 
 curacy as his fellows possess. .lust so, every well-endowed 
 child is capable of gaining the skill of eye and hand re- 
 quired for any one of an indefinite number of trades; 
 and he actuaflv gains that to which he is made to apply 
 himself. Without such application he would learn none; 
 and so he would acquire no language if he were not taught 
 it. There are, we shall sav. a thousand different languages 
 in the world, and each of tbcm has a different word for 
 " hand." or " green," or " run :" there is no reason why any 
 human' bein" uses one of these thousand words instead 
 of another, except that he hears it used by others, and then 
 hims"lf learns to reproduce it by imitation, and to associate 
 it with the same idea which it reiiresents in their use. 
 There is no such relation between the articulating appa- 
 ratus and the apparatus of mental action, of perceiving, 
 and comparins. and judging, that anywhere in the world 
 a human being produces a series of articulate sounds by 
 an internal and natural impulse as representative of a con- 
 ception. The relation of uttered signs for ideas is precisely 
 what that of acted signs would be; the hands and arms aro 
 capable of making an infinity of combinations of motions, 
 and, as the experience of the deaf-mute shows us, a person 
 is capable of .associating conceptions with these motions to 
 such an extent as to make them a full apparatus for the 
 expression of thought. We see clearly enough that the tic 
 between such signs and the movements of the mind is an 
 external and artificial one; but it is not less the case with 
 our own si^ns. That is to say, every uttered word is an 
 arbitrary alid conventional sign— arbitrary, because any 
 other could have been made to answer the same purpose; 
 conventional. becaus=e the selection of this one has its sole 
 crround in the accord.ant usage of a community. It was 
 Teamed bv the direct instruction or from the examjile of 
 others who used it alreadv ; it has no lie with its inner con- 
 tent or meaning save that of a mental association. He 
 who has acquired and learned to use one set of signs may 
 add another and another, and use them also wilh readiness, 
 even forgetting, if the shift be made early enough, his first 
 acnnired set, or "native language." in their favor. 
 
 We see, then, cleailv, what the " gift of language is to 
 man It is a general power of expression. It consists in 
 such gifts of mind and of body, and in such command 
 over tliem, that anv human being can possess himself of 
 any of the systems of expression established and current 
 in 'the world," and make use of it. more or less perfectly, for 
 communication and for the operations of his Inought. It 
 places all existing languajes within his reach, but puts 
 none into his possession : he can learn to speak anything, 
 but can speak nothing without learning. But the power 
 to use implies also, at least to a certain extent, the power 
 to produce. If there could be such a thing started as a 
 ■ ■ -.--,. » beings, it would, by the 
 
 Thn snoken alnhabct of every lani-ua'-e may be reduced speechless community of human ^ 
 
 ihc spoken ai^pnaoci oi every i.iu„i ^o , ^.^__ _^ , _^ exercise of its gift, make a beginning of supplying itself 
 
 a language, which would become increased .ami extended 
 and perfected until, after generations enough had made 
 their contributions to it. it would compare with some of 
 those now current. Of what kind the beginnings would be 
 we shall see belter after considering the main facts relating 
 to the life and growth of the existing tongues. 
 
 Men are, even now and everywhere, makers as well as 
 learners and users of language. If the whole life of lan- 
 guage consisted in simple teaching and learning, every 
 language would continue the same from age to age. But 
 not'onc does in fact continue the same: all are changing, 
 some more and some less rapidly. The English has changed 
 so that the form of a thousand years ago, which we call 
 An^lo-Paxon. is as a wholly strange tongue to us. I.ntin 
 cha'igcd into Old French, and this into modern French ; old 
 lli.'h-Gerroan changed into Middle, and this into ^cw : and 
 so on. This is simply the effect of the collective mind of the 
 speaking community working underneath its apparatus ot 
 
 to a systematic form resembling this. Alphabets are, how- 
 ever, of very different character as regards both the num- 
 ber and the identity of the sounds composing them. And 
 Languages differ not only in their sounds, but in the coin- 
 binations of sounds allowed in forming syllables, and in 
 the combinations of syllables allowed in forming words. 
 Some have hardly more than a dozen articulations, all told, 
 while the Sanskrit and English each possess near fifty: 
 some allow only one consonant in a syllable, and that 
 always before the vowel, while the English makes such in- 
 tricate and difficult combinations asKlranda, tiorl/tha; some 
 (as Chinese) admit only words of one syllable, while Amer- 
 ican Indian languages sometimes count the syllables of a 
 word by the score. And as they differ in these respects, so 
 also, and much more, in the combinations of sounds by 
 which they represent any given conception ; whence the 
 diversity and mutual unintelligibilily of human languages. 
 This diversity, which is very different from what we might 
 feel ourselves authorized to expect, considering the funda 
 
 mental unity of the human mind and its operations, i"8"o"ne ! expressi™, and adapting the latter ♦.'''';,, ':|;"'''Xf„"'hat 
 - - ' • ■ and shifting )ircferences. Nothing is plainer tnan inai 
 
 whatever new knowledge and altered conceptions may arise 
 in a comniunitv must somehow find e.xpression in its speech 
 —that the passing out of mind of old conceptions is accoin- 
 panicd by the oblivion of their signs (if not transferred to 
 new uses): and then there is. besides, a kind of wear and 
 tear of words, by which they change shape or disappear. 
 
 of the problems which the science of language has to ex 
 plain. 
 
 We hayc said that articulate sounds are produced by the 
 voluntary action of their utterers. Of course this does not 
 imply that the speaker understands at all the mechanism 
 which he sets in motion, or commands it otherwise than as 
 he commands the mechanism of locomotion or of gesture 
 
 he commands the mechanism ot locomotion or nt gesiure. lea. oi ..u,..., .., ........ ~..^, -■■-■■„ ■ . ^^^ ,j^ 
 
 Each human organ is capable of making all the sounds I and a constant production of new material to taKC me
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 lC3o 
 
 place of what is lost, nnd to extend and improrc the mcane 
 of oxpreesioD. To nndorstund these chaiijii'S is to under- 
 stand the growth of hnijrua^f'; and in order to bo undcr- 
 stoiid, in tliGuisoh'es and in their oaui^e^, they need to bo 
 Studied in tlieir detail; the general eflcct is only the sum 
 of <lotails. ca<di of which has its own history and occasion. 
 
 Tho chiingcs of language may be best grouped under 
 three heads: (I) alterations of old materiul ; (2) loss of 
 material ; {'.i) ndditionsi of new material. Alterations of 
 old inaterial, again, are made either in the external audible 
 form of words or in their internal content, their meaning. 
 Each kind of alteration is indepemient of the other; and 
 for tho ruason that tho tie between form anil meaning is. 
 as pointed out above, only one of the convenience of use; 
 otherwise tho two could not he divorced. Each is dctcr- 
 minod by tho requirements of the convenience of theusers; 
 and this, f>o far as alteration of outward form is concerned, 
 makes towards ease of nttcrance, economy of tlie muscular 
 offnrL of enunciation. The princi[ilo of eaec is that which 
 underlies the whole department of phonetic change. It 
 shows itself most ohviousiy in the constant abridgment 
 which words undergo by tho lo.'^s of initial, and especially 
 of final, sounds and syllables, and the omission or con- 
 traction of interior elements. Thus, benr in "wo bear" 
 is fr^m hititramaitiy bore in "we bore" from b'tb/iontiasi, 
 hnd in " had wo "' from hiibnid^-drima ; nlnut is from rlee- 
 monnnf: and so on. Wo may follow the gradual re(iuction 
 of a word like bh<irnmitni through such forms Xi9 phrromca 
 (dial, (ireolt) and/VrriHirt* (Lat.), and bnimm (Goth.) ; and 
 so in innumerable similar cases. By this means especially 
 tho endings which once showed the grammatical forms of 
 words aro worn out and lost. As i« well known, no lan- 
 guage shows the results of this abbreviating process in such 
 a d.greo as the English. The monosyllables which form 
 two-thirds to (hree-(|uartcr8 of our language as spoken or 
 written were all of them words of two or three or tnore 
 syllables in its earlier condition. But also tho constituent 
 elements of words that are sparerl become variously altered. 
 Tho character and extent of the spoken alphabt't are all 
 the time slowly changing. Old sounds go out of use : new 
 oncH are introduced ; both vowels ond consonants are shifted 
 to other places and moiUs of utterance. Thus, the old 
 In'lo-European aspirates (mutes with a puff of jlafuit, a 
 kind of A, following the broach of their contact) have long 
 sineo disappeared in Europe, becoming variously altered ; 
 tho root b/iftr, instanced above, is in ancient Greek ^)Acr 
 (;//i). in modern Greek, as in Latin. />»■ (tiie/a sound not 
 found at all in tho original alphabet) : in (lermanic, brr ; 
 tho huh of hftban (our bavn) Is Latin cap (cnpcrc) ; and so 
 on. All such transitions of sound are more or less strictly 
 reducible to rule, being governed by the physical relations 
 of sounds and by the general tendencies of language, an 
 modified by tho special tendencies and habits of eaoli par- 
 ticular community. To trace them out, and, so far as is 
 possible, explain them, is the task of phonetic science. As- 
 similation is the head under which the larger part of them 
 fall ; both on the smaller scale, making diflicult conibiua- 
 tions more pronounceable, and on tho larger scale, approx- 
 imaMng tho whole vowel and consonant systoms to one au- 
 olber, making thn vowels closer and the consonantsopener, 
 and thus filling up the alphabetic system with intermediate, 
 more sli-^jhlly din'orentiated, soiuuls. In Indo-European, h 
 was tho only fricativcconsonant, and « (f'ur). i ( piifite), ami 
 u (cii'c) iho only vowel-sounds, and a formed a quarter to 
 a third of tho whole utterant^e, while wJtli us n has sunk to 
 much less than a hundredth. There aro examjiles of tho 
 opposite principle, dissimilation, and more difficult and 
 anomalous eases; of which the most note<l and intricate is 
 the so-called (irimm's law of the rotation of mutes in Ger- 
 manic language, whereby, of the original surd, aspirate, 
 and sonant mutes (in this order) each if by the majority of 
 Gci'iiumic dialects pushed around one step, and in the lligh- 
 (ierinan two steps; thus. .^ans. tmt, Eng. (hut, Gcr. tlfiit 
 (th-^ sibilant replacing the aspirate). 
 
 Tho changes of internal content or meaning of words are 
 quite as indefintlely various as those of form, and even 
 mitro irredu"iblo to systematic order. There is hardly a 
 conceivablo transfer of use which may n<»t be found exeui- 
 plilierl in tho history of words. But much the greater part 
 of them may be rutlely cla"sified un<ier two great heads — 
 restriction anil extension. By restriction or apcciali/.alion 
 is meant tho taking of a general word expressive of (|uality 
 or action, and making of it the specific appellnlion ol s«une 
 thing or class of things possessing that along with other 
 qualities. Thus, the vm is named from its " shining," tho 
 m'M.ji from her '* niensurint; " of time; a pfnurt from its 
 '* wandering " motion ; tlx- e/re^rV force from its displaying 
 itself in "amber" (when rubbed); a rmtrmf from the 
 shapo of tho "growing" moon; a bonrd from its b"ing 
 *' broad " in ])roportion to its thickness; and so on. This 
 is one of the earliest, most conetaot, and moat fruitful 
 
 methods by which names of things have been won. But a 
 name, once won, becomes the appellation of a class of rehitcd 
 things, and the limits of classes are constantly shifting and 
 spreading by direct an<l indirect means. Even huh and moon 
 become class-names when tho progress of astronomy dis- 
 closes other bodies of analogous character with tbera ; planet 
 is, by the same means, both changed in application (mado 
 to exclude hhh and include earth) and widened (to take in 
 Uranus and Neptune and the asteroids). But not tics of 
 scientific classitication alone, lies of analogy, of every kind 
 and dogroe. aro used to extend the sphere of application of 
 words, lioafd is made to signify the ** table," and then the 
 food set on it, and the body of men that sit round it (board 
 of directors, etc.). Post, literally ''put. placed," gets a 
 whole scheme of meanings, seemingly of utter diversity, 
 although each is real!}' fastened to some one of the others 
 by a traceable tie of association. Thus, a great part of 
 our words come to have a variety of senses more or less re- 
 mote from one another — senses which it is the oflicc of the 
 lexicographer to place in tlieir right mutual relations, but 
 which the ordinary speaker would often be puzzled to ex- 
 plain. But there arc two special departments of this change 
 which require a word or two of additional notice. In the 
 first ])lace, ail our expressions for intellectual and moral 
 conceptions and relations arc obtained thus from terms 
 originally indicative of what is physical and sensible: 
 thus, right is "straight," and n-rony is '* wrung " or *' twist- 
 ed ;" undfratand is "stand in the midst " of anything; im- 
 ply is " fold in," a]tphf is " fold to," rrpfij is " bend back," 
 complif is "bend along with ;" dnrlnp is " unwrap ;" occur 
 is ■' run against ;" apprehend is " take hold ;" and so on. 
 In tho second place, words indicative of relation, form- 
 words, connectives, auxiliaries, are made from words for- 
 merly of more definite and material meaning by a gradual 
 extension so wide that it results in a coniplete efl'aceuient, 
 by attenuation, of that meaning. Thus, the verb he, the 
 copula between subject and predicate, is mado up of roots 
 signifying originally " grow," " dwell," " sit," " stand," and 
 the like. The auxiliary have, now a sign of past time (/ 
 barn done), of future obligation ( / have to <jo), and so on, is 
 from a root meaning "seize." "grasp;" vill cf)nies from 
 "encloae," fthall from "offend," may from "be strong." 
 The articles are from demonstratives and numerals: rela- 
 tives, from demonstratives and interrogatives ; conjunc- 
 tions, from adverlis niul other parts of speech. 
 
 By both these methods the material of a growing and 
 cultivating language is constantly undergoing conversion 
 to liner, more formal, more coneej)tual uses, and this is 
 perhaps tho grandest general movement that goes on in it. 
 There aro minor movenunls id' every kind, many of which 
 aro mado tlie subject of exposition and illustration in such 
 works as Trench's Stndi/ of IVordt and JCufflinh J^ttut and 
 PrcHf-ut; there is no space to dwell ujion them here. 
 
 Tlio second general division of linguistic change is that 
 of loss. It is a comparatively simple subject. As language 
 is maintained and kept in existeneo only by use, disuse 
 causes <li8appcaranee of any of its elements. A wonl is 
 lost when tho eoncejition for which it stood dies out of 
 men's knowledge and remembrance; so, for examjile. the 
 phraseology of ancient religion and ancient arts, when 
 these aro superseded by n";w, unlc-s, indeed, some of the 
 old words should take on new and changed meanings ; then 
 we have only that minor kind of loss which consists in the 
 ilisappearance of an internal content. But words are also 
 crowded out of use by the uprisal of new terms which come 
 iulit fashion an<l make Ihcm dispensable. When, for ex- 
 ain|de, the Hood of words of Latin origin was brought in 
 upiMi I'ingliah, it eaus<,'d the obsolescence of nuniy an equal- 
 ly good term of Saxon (trigin ; and sporadic cases are al- 
 ways liable to happen of words being allowed by careless- 
 ness, as it were, lo die out, which we nflcrwards regret. 
 
 A moro important deparlitient of b'Ss consists in the dis- 
 appearance of the signs of grammatieal distinctions, and 
 with these of the consciousness uf the distinctions them- 
 selves. chi<'fly as a result of the wearing-out processes of 
 phonetic decay. As alrcaily noted, no modern language 
 ttffers such abuixlaiit exemplification of this as our Engli>h. 
 Thus, the seven original cases (d our family have been re- 
 duced to two (in certain pronouns, three) ; the five origiinil 
 tenses, to two; the agreement of tho adjective with its 
 rntun, in two forms of ileelcnsion, is entirely lost; the 
 scheme of artificial or graminatieal gender is obliterated; 
 the subjurielive mood is nearly gone. But the same thing 
 is true in less degree of all tho languages akin with ours, 
 and of all others which have any grammatical structure at 
 all. The law of abbrevialion is inex()rable in its working, 
 and. along with what can well enough be spared, takes 
 away what is valuable. 
 
 The third division of change includes additions to tho 
 material of language. Of the addition of new meanings to 
 old words, Buffioioat nolioo hoA already been taken ; and it
 
 168G 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 is evident that by this means the resources of expression 
 of a language may be very much increased without auy 
 corresponding outside show. It is possible, too, to no small 
 extent, tu pile away the results of new knowledge in the 
 oM words : however much we may come to know more than 
 of old about the Ktin, hrtit, ri'itiitf/ and /alii mj, and innumer- 
 able o'.hnr subjects, it docs not disturb our employment of 
 the traditional names. These are just as real parts of the 
 growth of language, produced by the same forces and for 
 the same purposes, as the more external aclditions. Ex- 
 tcrntil additions are of two kinds: those made by borrow- 
 itig from abroad, and those made by the development of 
 native material. Borrowing is a wcllnigh universal pro- 
 cess of language-making; there is hardly one unmixed 
 tongue in the world, unless here and there a dialect which 
 never comes into contact with any other. But only thoso 
 languages borrow on a large scale of which the speakers 
 have derived to a large extent their cullnre, knowledge, 
 institutions, from other cnmmunitie.s. The Persian in this 
 way gets material of expression indefinitely from the Ara- 
 bic ; the Turkish, from the Persian and Arabie ; the modern 
 dialcf'ts of India, from the Sanskrit; the Japanese, from 
 the Chinese. And so all t)ie pp'>plc3 who inherit (irrck and 
 Roman civilizatitm have taken abunrJantly from the Greek 
 and Latin vocabularies. And our English has borrowed 
 more than any other language that is not descended direct- 
 ly from the Latin; partly because the forcible fusion of a 
 Gcrm.anic and a Romanic diak'(;t which was the result of 
 the Xorman Conquest opened the d>)or to such borrowing 
 and made it easy; and partly because the native processes 
 of composition and derivation in Kuglish had become so 
 inactive tliat not much growth could be accomplished by 
 their aid. As our vocabulary presents itself in tlic diction- 
 aries, about live sevenths of it arc of classical origin. Of 
 course, in actual use, in speaking or writing, the propor- 
 tion is very different, because the core of the language, 
 embracing the words of most frequent upc, is almost ex- 
 clusively Oeimanic ; the Germanic part is fiO to I'D per cent. 
 Names of things are most easily and directly borrowed, 
 connectives least easily, grammatical apparatus, endings 
 of derivation anrl inflection, almost not at all. The foreign 
 material is stripped of its native grammatical form, and 
 often shapel over a little to assimilate it to the native stock 
 of the borrowing language; ami it i< prepared for free prac- 
 tieal use by means of the grammatical apparatus of the lat- 
 ter, each borrowed element thus often becoming the nucleus 
 of a little family of derived and inflected words. What thus 
 conifs into a language is to a very great extent only words 
 of loarne I use, employed almost exclusively by those who 
 know it as of foreign origin and recognize ils source; but 
 more or less of it, according to circumstances, works its way 
 down into popular n^o, and is then in no way distinguish- 
 able from that which is of idtimately native growth: the 
 mass of speakers use their words simply because they arc 
 in use, neither knowing nor caring whence they came. 
 
 For obtaining new resources of expression out of the old 
 material of a language, the mothoils cannot, of course, bo 
 very various. In the course of the phonetic changes of 
 language a single word sometimes divides into two or even 
 more forms, which then go on to lead an imlependent life; 
 so Anglo-Saxon n/'bas separated into of nniXoJf, Anglo-Saxon 
 dn into otir and nn or «, erihwtt into also and a« ,- and we 
 have such doublets as mhiUte and mlinitf, condurt and co;i- 
 rfH'7, (frntle and rfrntrrl and grntilr, and so on; but such a 
 method operates only on a very restricfcil scale. A process 
 of much wid-^r reach and greater importance is that of the 
 forma'ion of compound words, which is very extensively 
 and fruitfully resorted to by all the tongues of our family, 
 althou:?h much more by some than by others. Wc have in 
 English, for example, combinations of every grade — from 
 suL'h loose ones as bo'tkrover, rhnh--hitrk, througli closer, 
 like trth/ecfoth, in/culaud, homefttcai/, vailrnttd, steanibuat. to 
 such as have been so far altered in pronunciation or mean- 
 ing, or both, that we do not ordinarily think of them as 
 compound at all, like hrptihfn>;t, forvh'oil. Ifxitfiipniti, or 
 such as have their origin wholly concealed from all but 
 learned ovcj*, like »itch and wltirh (from no~h'ke and ipAo- 
 likc). Many a flccmingly simple word of ours is proved 
 by biatorical inquiry to bo put together, no great way back, 
 from two or more others. For we are always ready to for- 
 get tiie origin of tbo terms we use when thoy aio once 
 made and put to use; and then the processes (»f ]»honctic 
 cliange seize upon them and alter and disguise them past 
 recognition. 
 
 Very frequently these processes act only upon one, the 
 lat'cr. of two members of a compound, converting it into 
 a dependent addition to the other. Thus, our /i/ in ffodfi/, 
 mnnit/, bomehfy etc. is to us a mere suffix, forming adjec- 
 tives from the nouns if id, man, hinue ; or, in other words, 
 as /';■/•*'/»/. frii/y, it makes ndver'ns from adjectives; but in 
 Anglo-Saxon it was an appended adjective, tic, lice, our 
 
 like. The d which makes the past tense of our *' regular " 
 verbs is similarly traceable to the verb did^ added as an 
 auxiliary in early (ierman language to some verbal word. 
 The ai of French vhaiitcrai is an auxiliary — J'«i, " 1 have." 
 The bavi, bii^ and vi of Latin verbs arc of the same origin ; 
 so is the <Tw {n/t) of the tireek future. These are but ex- 
 amples of a large number of endings or suflixcs whicli come 
 demonstrably from independent words, at first compounded 
 with other words, then disguised in form, and finally com- 
 ing to be felt as mere modilicatory a]>pendages, and ex- 
 tended in use in that office. No other method of producing 
 such elements of cxjircssiou is known through all the his- 
 torical epochs of language. It is true that by no means 
 all suffixes admit of this explanation; but that is because 
 the evidence wliich would constitute an explanation is no 
 longer attainable. The facts in our language which seem 
 to make against it — especially the instances of internal 
 change like man men^ lead led, tfira yare — are capable of 
 easy explanation as inorganic or accidental results of 
 plionetic change, and traceable to original external addition 
 like the rest. In ^hort. we have here a method of linguistic 
 growth which is in corajdetc accordance with the facts and 
 tendencies of known linguistic history, and which, in the 
 opinion of the l>est modern students of language, is capable 
 oi' having produced the whole structure of speech. It works 
 very slowly, indec<l, as conii)arcd with wholesale borrowing, 
 but its effects are intinitely cleeper and more important. 
 
 All those methods of ehange are carried on, it will be 
 observed, in the interest of convenient expression. Tltcrc 
 is new knowledge of every kind to be provided for — new 
 facts, new classifications, abstractions, deductions: and 
 there are, not so indispensable, but as inevitable, changes 
 of the instrument of expression itself in its uttered form, 
 in its apparatus of connection and relation. As a whole, 
 the proce:58 seems a biglily intricate one, but in its details 
 it is perfectly intelligible. It is a constant name-making, 
 a never-ending satisfaction of the individual needs of ex- 
 pression, as suggested by an<l built ujion the already sub- 
 sisting uses of a language, as governed in the mode of 
 satisfaction by the existing habits of speech, and by the 
 circumstances of the ease. The idea being conceived, the 
 mind reaches after the means of its significati<»n, and finds 
 this wherever it lies most ready at hand. The mind is 
 easily content : no nicely adajited sign, essentially bodying 
 forth the conception, is required: only a representative 
 which shall be iienccfi>rth ns,sociated with the conception, 
 and one having such relation to antecedent expression that 
 it shall commend itself to the acceptance of the community. 
 For this is an ordeal which everything in language must 
 pass. Nothing is language until it is adopted by a com- 
 munity as its means of communication. Though every 
 individual change jtroceeds from individual action, and luis 
 its own time and jilaee and occasion of origination, the 
 common action is equally a factor in its history. 
 
 It is easy to find, in the antithesis of individual action 
 and that of the community, the explanation of dialectic 
 variation. Every language is all the time changing; it 
 changes by specific items, v.liich begin with individuals and 
 .spread by communication, by imitation, through the whole 
 mass of the community. So long as they do thus spread, 
 the langu.agc of the community, liowevcr rapidly it may 
 change, remains homogeneous throughout its whole terri- 
 tory, with the exception of those minor local and class dif- 
 ferences which jirevail within the limits of every existing 
 tongue without disparagement to ils unity, because those 
 who speak it can all understand one another in reference 
 to the most necessary subjects. iJut if the parts A and ii 
 and C, and so on, become separated from one another, so 
 that the changes initiated in A do not spread into II and C, 
 nor thoso made in li or C into the rest, then the local dif- 
 ferences begin at once to be multiplied and deepened; 
 mutual intelligcnco becomes more and more diflicult, an(l 
 finally impossible: and different languages are the result- 
 All, then, that makes for unity of community represses 
 dialectic growth. And the forces of culture are those which 
 work most efficiently toward this result. A literature, 
 writing, instruction, tend to check the rate of change of a 
 language, and to efface local and class differences already 
 exisling. Ignorance and barbarism both encourage rapid 
 alteration, and. by favoring the isolated and antagonistic 
 position of districts and tribes, make for divarication also. 
 The maintenance of wide-extended unity of speech, be- 
 cause of wide unity of other institutions, is possible only 
 under civilized conditions. 
 
 The state of language throughout the earth is precisely 
 what the principles here laiil down would lead us to ex- 
 pect. The world is full of dialects, some closely and ob- 
 viously akin with one another, others having resemblances 
 discoverable upon closer examination, others apparently 
 unrelated. If speech began to exist along with a single 
 race or a limited number of races of human beings, and
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 1637 
 
 Spread with tbcni IVum land to laud and from coDtlDcnt to 
 oontineDt.cvcr nlttTiDg aud divaricuCing diulecticully with 
 every new <livisiou oIl ii race ur cumtuunity, the result 
 would linully bo what we see it tu he. In the luu<; ages of 
 barbari!«iii the j;iuwih of diaU-ets was the prevailing teud- 
 oucy ; sinoe civilization has become tho ovenvlieliuing 
 fiirco in the history of (he worhl. the tendency is the other 
 way : iho cuUivated dialects of the leading nations aro cx- 
 tendini:. and crowding out divorsit_v, and even encnuraging 
 men to luok forward to a time when one or two languages 
 shall prevail universally. 
 
 Such being the ca^-^e, it is evidently one of the first ob- 
 jcots tu bo aimed at by the students of language tu make 
 a classificatioD of all human dialects according to their 
 relationship and its degrees: only thus can the way be 
 prepared for the historical research of language in general. 
 And this *vork has been accomplished, so far as the assem- 
 blage of matrrials has made it possible — jtrovisiunally, that 
 is tu say, and with full acknowledgment uf the probability 
 of aincndnieot and improvement hereaftor. And at least 
 tho main outlines of the classification wo have here to re- 
 view. In imitation of genenlngieal phraseology, the dia- 
 lects regarded as demonstrably de.'jcendcd from a common 
 ancestor aro called a " family," ca;;h family being tlicn di- 
 vided into branches, sub-braDches, etc., as may be found 
 convenient. 
 
 Im/o-EHropenn Ftiinih/. — This is sometimes also called 
 Aryan, ur, by the (iormans, Indo-Germanic. It is the 
 family to which our own tongue belongs, with must of tho 
 other languages of Europe, and with those of Suuth-wcstem 
 A^ia; and it is by far the most important of all. It is di- 
 vided into seven principal brunches. There is (1) the /n- 
 (iitin, or Sanskritie. an intrutler into India from the X. \V., 
 prjbably not more than liiHiO to ;iU0O years B. c, and 
 gradually filling all the northern country, with a part of 
 the southern peninsula, the l>ekban ; the rest remaining 
 in puj»st'ssiun of tho mure ab(»riginal Dravidian tribes. Its 
 oldest language is the Sanskrit, the earliest parts of the 
 literature of which, the hymns of the Veda, go back prob- 
 ably to near 2000 u. c, the remotest date anywhere reached 
 among Indo-European records. The language is alf^o less 
 altered, by changes either of form or of meaning, from the 
 original common speech than is any other; an«i hence tho 
 iSanskrit takes the leading place in all researches into the 
 oMest language-history of the whole family. The great 
 groups of varying dialects known as Hindi, Bengali, Mab- 
 ratti, are the modern repri-s<-nlatives of the branch; and 
 between them and the Sanskrit lie the Prikril dialects aud 
 the I'llli, the sacred language of Southern Hiiddhism. (2j 
 The Iraninn branch, oc'tipying the great,, Iranian plateau 
 between the borders of Mesopotamia and of India. It is 
 nearly akin with tlie Indian, auil the two are often, aud 
 very properly, combined togi^ther into a single *• Aryan " 
 branch; their oldest dialects are hardly more unlike tlian, 
 fur example, some of tho Ocrmanio languages aro unlike 
 one another. Tho eldest records of the branch of definite 
 dft'c are the cuneiform inscriptions of Darius and his sue- 
 cessiirs (from about JOO ». i\); in part, probably, older is 
 the iSible of the Zoroastrian religion, tho A vesta; its lan- 
 gtiage is called tho Zend, (»r Aveslan, or Old Bactrian. Of 
 cnn:oiderahly later date is the prublcmatical Iluzvilresh. or 
 I'ehlevi; and the Ptlrsi but little precedes tho Modern Per- 
 sian, which has a great and valuable literature, beginning 
 from al)out 10(10 a. d. To this branch belong also I lie 
 Kunlish, tho Ossetic in the Caucasus, and probably the 
 Afghan ; also the Armenian, which has a literature going 
 back to the fifth century of our era. (ti) Tho Greek brnneh. 
 Of this Iho history is too well known to require more than 
 a wor<l here. It has in the poems of Homer the oldest 
 monuments of the family outside of India. What wcro 
 the relatione, tu it and to the fauiily, of the languages on 
 tho N., and of those on the E., in Asia Minor, is very uo- 
 cerlain, and will perhaps never ho determined. Tho present 
 Albanian, or Skipetar, regardeil aH mu<lorn representative 
 of tho ancient lllyrinn, is of disputed eliaraeter, but more 
 probably Indo- Kurojiean. (I) The lutlir branch. This 
 included a considerablo nuinbor of the languages of Italy ; 
 and of some of them, especially the Osean and the I'mbrian, 
 considerable remains aro left; uf ulhers. as Vulseian and 
 Sabine, tho merest fragments. All were wiped out by tho 
 Latin dialect of Unme, which aUo extendecl itself, along 
 with It<iman dominion and institutions, in both directions 
 through Southern Europe, giving rise to tho muilem group 
 of the U' I manic languages, embracing as its principal 
 menibors the Italian, Kreneh, Provencal, Spnnish and 
 Portuguese, Humansh. and Walhichinn, each inelutling a 
 greiit variety uf dialects. Tho literatures of these modern 
 languages commence between tho tenth and thirteenth 
 centuries; fragments of Latin como down from tho third 
 century u. c {;'») Tho Crftic branch. The Celtic lan- 
 guages formerly occupied a very broad space iu Europe, 
 
 but they have been continually encroached upon by buCh 
 Romanic and Germanic, until now they survive only on 
 the farthest western edges of their old territory. Tho 
 Welsh, the Cornish (extinct since tho end of the last 
 century), and the Armoriciui of Hrittany constitute tho 
 Cymric divisiun of the extant dialects; tho Cjadhelic in- 
 cludes the Irish, the tiaelie of Scotland, and the Manx of 
 the Isle of Man. Irish and Welsh monuments go back to 
 the eighth and ninth centuries. (0) Tho Sf'nosti'c, or Siavo- 
 Lcttic branch. The seat of the Slavonic languages is in 
 Eastern Europe. The important members of the eastern 
 subdivision are Russian. Bulgarian, and Servian; of the 
 western, Polish aud Iluhcmiau. The earliest Slavonic 
 record is a Bible versiun made iu the ninth century. The 
 branch is a double one, in virtue of being made to include 
 the more remotely but still specially kindred Lettish dia- 
 lects — namely, tho Lithuanic, Livonian, and (extinct) Old 
 Prussian. These have no records older than the sixteenth 
 century, but the Lithuanian especially is distinguished 
 by the primitivcness of some of its forms. (7) The 
 Germanic (or Teutonic) branch. This is divided into 
 four sub-branches. The Ma;so-Gothic, or dialect of the 
 (iuths of Mcesia, is long since extinct, and is represented 
 only by parts of a Bible version made by lUfilas in the 
 fourth century. It occupies, as both oldest in time and 
 most primitive in structure, much such a position in the 
 braneii as the Sanskrit occupies in the family. The Scan- 
 dinavian sub-branch tills Denmark, Sweden, Noiway, aud 
 Iceland. It has its olilest living representative in the Ice- 
 landic, and its oldest and most original monuments also 
 eomc from Iceland iu manuscripts of the twelfth and thir- 
 teenth centuries. The more jirojicr German is divided into 
 the lligh-derman of the c.ntral and southern region, and 
 the Low-German ol the northern lowlands. The High- 
 German begins its Old period in tho eighth century, its 
 Middle in the tweltth. and its New in the sixteenth; what 
 we cull the German language is its only cultivated dialect. 
 A great partultlie Low-German territory in Germany now 
 acknowledges the supri macy of tho literary High-German ; 
 but the Ketherlandish ur Dutch has an independent culture 
 and literature, and the English is its colonj", brought to 
 Britain by the Angles and Saxons in the fifth century and 
 later. Tlic oldest Anglo-Saxon remains arc from the sev- 
 enth century. 
 
 Respecting all this great and important body of lan- 
 guages is to bo held, in conformity with the principles laid 
 down above, that they are descended frum the tongue of a 
 single community which lived somewhere, within narrow 
 limits, at some remote period, and by sprtad and emigra- 
 tion broke up, over and over again, into separate parts, 
 with the inevitable consequence oi tho breaking up uf its 
 speech into dialects. Where antl when that original com- 
 munity lived it is wholly imputsible to determine from any 
 evidences as yet brought to light ; certainly, language does 
 not give, and cannot be expected ever to give, any definite 
 information about it. The question of the time depends 
 wholly upon the grander and now much moc»te<l question 
 of the antiquity of man on the earth; tho historical lin- 
 guist will only say tliat ho does not know well how to ctMU- 
 pretJS all the events of Indo-European language-history 
 into the brief space of tiOtJO years, and will wlIcohic an ex- 
 tension of the period ; hut what extension to ask for he 
 dt>es nut at present know. As for the place, the popular 
 impression which fixes it about the Hindu-Kush or in Bac- 
 tria has no defensible basis whatever ; the facts of huiguage 
 admit of being reconcildl with almost any theory that can 
 bo suggested. It is now prevailingly lield by linguistic 
 Scholars that the European branches must have constituted 
 a community together for 8(»nie time after their common 
 separation from the Asiatic or Aryan braneli ; but that 
 proves nothing. The Slavonic and Girnianic branches are 
 also believed to be of especially near kindred ; whether the 
 Celtio branch shall be reckoned lis independent, or more 
 closely connected with the Italiean, is a disputed point, as 
 is also the special ^elation^bi^l of tho two classical lan- 
 guages. While language is thus silent as to ]>lace and 
 time, it gives some definite information respecting the con- 
 dition of the primitive ooinniunity, showing it to have 
 been nut merely nomadic, but of setllccl and agricultural 
 lif'', with well-developed family organization, with domes- 
 ticated aninmis, with some of the arts of life, aud with 
 knowledge of a metal or two. 
 
 The history of 'development of iDdo-Eurnpcan language 
 is better tindorstoud than that of any other family, the ma- 
 terials being cxcepti<)nally abundant. a!id lia\ ing received 
 an amuunt of study which has been bestowed up'Ui nu other; 
 its nmin features are pretty clear, though tture remains 
 abundance of obscurity in its details. The language began 
 in a condition uf munosyllabie "roots" (analogous with 
 those of which, fur example, tho Chinese language is even 
 down to the present time composed), utteranct'^ which were
 
 1638 
 
 LANCxUAGE. 
 
 neither noun nor verb, nor any other "part of speech," 
 but were as rcaUy to turn to the uses of one as of another. 
 They were of two elnsses — verbal roots, expressing material, 
 sensible aet or quality ; and a small number of pronominal 
 or demonstrative roots, indicating position and direction. 
 That the distinction of these classes is primitive is by no 
 means certain : but it is at any rate earlier than the growth 
 of Indo-European structure. The first important step of 
 growth, it seems, was the making of a predicative or as- 
 sertive form — a verb; it was done by couibining with ver- 
 bal roots certain affixed pronominal elemcnls, and " under- 
 standing " the copula between them ; thus, dit-mi, " giving- 
 I," to be used henceforth only in the sense •• I [am] giving" 
 (or, " a giver;" or "giving-minc "). Thus were made the 
 three persons of a verbal form, in three numbers, singular, 
 dual, and plural ; and the addition of a preterit "augment"- 
 tense, a-rUl-mi, " then-give-I " — !. e. "I gave," a redupli- 
 cated preterit or perfect (/(t-rfu-mi'. " give-give-I " — i. e. "I 
 have given," and a future, dd-Hj/aiiii, probably " I am 
 going to be giving," left to this simpler form the character 
 of a present. More or less of an imperative, o|italive, and 
 subjunctive, and of a middle or reflexive voice, also were 
 products of the original tongue before the separation of 
 the branches. The establishment of a verb left the re- 
 mainder of linguistic material in the condition of noun, 
 noun substantive and noun adjective; for these two parts 
 of speech were at first not held apart. A system of inflec- 
 tion was by similar means (very hard to understand in their 
 detail) created for these also, indicating case, number, and 
 gender. Of eases there were seven, besides the vocative — 
 namely, nominative or subject-case, accusative or lo-case 
 (also direct object), ablative or /rom-case, locative or in- 
 case, instrumental or %-case, dative or/or-case; and geni- 
 tive, case of general relation or appurtenance. Of num- 
 bers, there were the same three as in the verb : and the dis- 
 tinction of gender, which, founding itself on the natural 
 differences of sex, extends itself to all objects of thought, 
 being only in small part governed by sex, is something 
 very characteristic of our family ; much the smaller number 
 of human languages make any account of such a distinc- 
 tion. The pronouns are a class of words inflected like 
 nouns .and adjectives, but coming from pronominal instead 
 of verbal roots. From the same roots come naturally the 
 first adverbial words, indicators of position and direction ; 
 the other particles, prepositions, and conjunctions are yet 
 later to arise. The interjection is no "part of speech," but 
 rather an unanalyzed, holophrastio utterance, analogous 
 with the undeveloped root. Thus, by combination of ele- 
 ment with element, and the assignment of the combinations 
 to specific uses in definite connections, this language arose 
 from a mere indefinite intimation of intended meaning, 
 such as our exclamations give, to orderly and distinct 
 statement— first in single clauses, then in elaborate com- 
 binations of clauses, in periods. How much time the pro- 
 cess occupied it is impossible to say, but it must have been 
 a long time ; and before the separation of the branches took 
 place a height of synthetic development was reached from 
 which, although every branch has more recent synthetic 
 formations to show, there has been on the whole a reces- 
 sion, by the substitution of more "analytic" moans of ex- 
 pression of relation, of form-words and aux'iaries — our 
 own English being, as in other respects, the most marked 
 and extreme example of the new tendency. 
 
 The importance to us of the study of Indo-European 
 language lies partly in the fact that it is our own family, 
 and that also to which belong the tongues of the founders 
 and leading representatives of our civilization, so that the 
 study is connected in its bearings with a variety of other 
 inquiries in which wo are especially interested. It has also 
 been the principal foundation, and almost the initial phase, 
 of the general science of language, because there was no- 
 where else in the world so large and varied a body of re- 
 lated linguistic phenomena, by the examination of which 
 the general laws of linguistic life could be deduced, and 
 methods of research worked out which might be fruitfully 
 applied where the material was less abundant, and exhibited 
 a less length and breadth of development. Ileneo, and not 
 from any over-estimate of this language, as alone worthy 
 of investigation, or as furnishing the norm of human 
 speech, comes the conspicuous absorpti<>n of linguistic 
 students thus far in Indo-European studies. At the pres- 
 ent time the profounder comparative stuily of other fami- 
 lies also is well prepared for, is becoming more and more 
 urgent, and is engaging more and more labor : although 
 none has yet received anything like the same degree of 
 comprehensive and penetrating examination as the Indo- 
 European family. We shall, aooordingly, review the others 
 much more briefly. 
 
 The Sri/th!'iii i>r Ural-Altaic Family. — This group of 
 languages, widely coterminous with the Indo-European, is 
 often also called the Turanian, and is generally reckoned 
 
 to contain five great branches: (1) The Finno-Hungarinn, 
 chiefly European in locality, including, besides Finnish 
 and Hungarian or Magyar, the Lappish and the dialects 
 of a host of unimportant tribes stretching through North- 
 ern and Eastern Europe across the Ural chain. (2) The 
 Samoyed, along the shores of Siberia, from the White Sea 
 to the Yenisei, and up that river to the Altai Mountains, 
 probably its original seat, (.'i) The Turkish, recent occu- 
 pants of Asia Minor, and overlapping the border of Europe, 
 extending over a vast tract of (.'entral Asia, and having an 
 important branch, the Yakut, even on the Lena, to its 
 mouth. (4) The Mongoliiin. yet f:irthcr East, but nowhere 
 reaching the ocean. (5) The Tungusic or (from Ihenameof 
 the principal people) Manchu, beyond in the north-eastern 
 end of Asia, save its peninsulas and islands; the ^lanebus 
 have also held China in their grasp during the past two 
 centuries. The languages of the first or westernmost 
 branch do not difl'er remarkably in their general character 
 from the Indo-European, but have more of what is called 
 the "agglutinative" type: that is to say, root or theme 
 antl ending are less intimately united, rather "stuck to- 
 gether" than fused together, the ending retaining a moro 
 independent character: this results both in a greater regu- 
 larity and a greater intricacy of formation. But the two 
 easternmost members are of a much less developed and 
 more jejune character, verging on the stifl' incxpressivc- 
 ncss of monosyllabism ; and this, in connection with other 
 peculiarities, linguistic and physical, casts some doubt on 
 the coherence of the family. There is neither abundance 
 norantiquity of literary productiveness among the Scythian 
 races; their main part in history has been war and dev;is- 
 tation : the wild and curious mythic popular poetry of the 
 Finns (the Kahrala) is their most original work, unless, 
 indeed, it shall turn out to be true, as is eliiimed of late, 
 that the "Accadian " people, who laid the foundation of 
 Mesopotamian civilization, and invented the cuneiform 
 writing which was afterwards borrowed and ado]ited by 
 both Semitic and Indo-European peoples, was Scythian, 
 of the Ugrian branch. This would carry the antiquity of 
 Scythian language back to a point fully as remote as that 
 reached either by Indo-European or Semitic. It cannot be 
 long now before this question is settled. 
 
 Of the various and diverse languages of the North-eastern 
 Asiatic waters, the JajianeKe is the only one that deserves 
 mention. It is, though highly polysyllabic, of an exceed- 
 ingly simple structure, phimetically and graniuiatically, 
 much like the Mongol and Manchu, and may perhaps yet 
 be proved of one family with them. Its culture is derived 
 from China. 
 
 The S. E. of Asia is filled with languages which have 
 monosyllabism as their distinctive characteristic. The 
 Cliiiiese is by far the most pr<iininent and important among 
 them. This is a language in the highest degree remark- 
 able for the paucity of its resources and the exceeding deft- 
 ness with which they are used, so as to |ierform the duties 
 of a highly cultivated speech during an unpreeedcntedly 
 long period. The Chinese literary monuments go back to 
 nearly 2000 n. c, and are of great variety, extent, and 
 merit. The language is composed of only some 500 differ- 
 ent ivords, as we should write them : but their number is 
 raised to about 1500 by the tones of utterance, this clement 
 having been pressed into the service of intellictual distinc- 
 tion in the scanty monosyllabic tongues, both Chinese and 
 Farther Indian. The means of formal distinction are in 
 part form-words, particles and auxiliaries, and in part 
 |iosition in the sentence. The intelligibilily of the literary 
 language is much aided by the mode of writing, which is 
 to a great extent indicative of meaning, instead of pro- 
 nounced form. The popular dialects are numerous, and so 
 diverse as to be like so many independent languages. 
 Some of them are saiil to make a degree of approach to an 
 agglutinative structure. _ • 
 
 The onlv tie to connect the Farther Imlian and the Him- 
 alayan (at least in part) with the Chinese dialects is their 
 common nionosvUabie structure. The liurmcse, Siamese, 
 etc. have literatures of no great antiquity founded on that 
 of India, whence comes their religion I Buddhism) also; 
 and nearly the same is the case with the Thibetan. A vast 
 deal has still to be done to make clear the character and 
 relations of this great and perplexing confusion of littlo- 
 known and unimportant dialects. 
 
 Off this corner of Asia lies Iho vast and scattered array 
 of the isles of the Pacific. They arc occupied by at least 
 three independent and wholly insular races and language- 
 families. Australia and Tasmania arc the home of one, 
 the Aimtrallati. New Guinea, part of Horneo, and the moro 
 inaccessible parts of several other islands and groups, are 
 inhabited by a black race with frizzleil hair, the Papuan or 
 Negrito; its dialects are almost entirely unknown, but aro 
 bebeved to be unrelated with any others. But the great 
 j islands nearest ^Malacca (and Malacca itself by recent im-
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 1639 
 
 migratioD), and the shores of the others just mentioned, 
 anil the scattered groups within the limits innrked by For- 
 uioaa iiud Xl-w Zciiland, by Madagascar aud Kaster Island, 
 aro Iho liouio uf an immense and well-deliut-d tuniily, the 
 Mnlnjf- l^iffyncKiaUf in three branches — Malay, Melunesian^ 
 and Polynesian. Several of the dialects of the Malay 
 branch have literary culture, derived from the mainland; 
 that of Java and Ilali, coming from India, has rocuidr^ go- 
 ing back oven to the lirst centuries of our era. The Malay 
 has adopted I?lam, and with it the Arabic alphabet. These 
 languages, though not monosyllabic, arc nearly bare of 
 structural development, not having evrn a clear distinction 
 of noun and verb, nor anything that cmld fairly ))0 called 
 inflection. Their phonetic form is also simpler than that 
 of any other known tongues. 
 
 The Drtiviii'tin group of languages, of Southern India, 
 is of an a;rgluttna(ive type, somewhat resembling tho 
 Scythian, aud some linguistic sch<)lars have been ovcrhasty 
 to pronounce it a branch of the Scythian family, lis prin- 
 cipal members aro the Tamil, Canarese, and Telugu. They 
 have literatures of some antif[uity, founded on tho San- 
 skrit, their culture having been derived from the Aryan 
 races of the North. 
 
 The Caucasus region is filled with a medley of peculiar 
 dialects, apparently akin with no others in the world, aud 
 for the most, [tavt unrelateil even with one anotlier. 
 
 The Srnu'ti'^ Fann'fi/. — This is the only Asiatic family re- 
 maining to be considered. Its home is in tlie great but 
 barren and thinly populated peninsula of Arabia, with its 
 border-lands — Palestine and Syria on the X. W., Mesopo- 
 tamia on tho X. E. — and with an outlier in Africa, across 
 tho Straits of Babclmaiideb. It is usually ilivided inio 
 three branches — Syriac, ranaanilic, and Arabian — but the 
 recent resurrection of the Assyrian language from tho 
 cuneiform inscriptions of Nineveh and Babylon has brought 
 to light so peculiar a dialer-t as to make it better to rank 
 tho Syriac or Aramaic with tho Canaiinitic, leaving the 
 A.'syrian alone as third division. The members of the 
 central branch would be, then, the II( brew with the other 
 related Palestinian dialects, tlie Phfenieian with its Car- 
 thaginian colony, and the Syrian or Chaldce. Tho solo 
 surviving literature of the Uobrew, written during the Kfo 
 of tho language (it became extinct as averiiacular fourcen- 
 turics before t.'hrist). is our Old Testament ; its oldet't parts 
 come from near tho middle of tho sec »nd thousand years 
 D. C. Neither Pliocnicia nor Cartliago has left any litera- 
 ture ; their language, very closely like tho Hebrew, is known 
 only from inscriptions. Of the Moabitic, a remarkable 
 monument, from "JOO it. c, was discovered a few years ago ; 
 tho language was almost pure IK'brew. The Hebrew has 
 been kept in artificial learned existence, like tho Latin, 
 and has an immense literature as such. Apart from an 
 Aramaic passage or two in the Old Testament, the abun- 
 dant Syriac lilcrature commcncea in the second century 
 with a Christian Hiblo version. The Assyrian literatuD-, 
 inscribed and impressed on alabaster and on clay tablets, 
 is now coming rapidly to light, and furnishing un<l ]iromis- 
 ing information of the highest interest, especially in its 
 bearing on biblical history ; its records are perhaps as old 
 as the biblical. The Arabic proper makes its appearance 
 only recently, pt>sHessiug but few records which are older 
 than Mohammed {seventh century) ; but tliero are in tlio 
 suuth-wcstern corner of tho peninsula remains of a wholly 
 indcpendeiit and much oliler civilisation, and of dialects, 
 called Ilimyaritie, very dilTirent from the classical Arabic. 
 The Seiniiic dialects of Abyssinia are a colony from these, 
 ami nearly akin with them: the Klhiopic, or (ice/, has a 
 Christian literature dating from tlie fourth century ; the 
 Amharic, which has crowded (he other out of cultivate<l use, 
 does not appear until the twelfth or thirteenth. This is 
 tho ancient distribution of Semitic dialects: since the rise 
 of Mohammi-diinisin the Bedouin Arabic has sprea'l itself 
 over nearly tho whole Semitic territory, extinguishing tho 
 other dialects, has taken possi'Ssi<in of Kgy]>t,now its main 
 scat of literary cultivation, and of the whr>lc northern bor 
 der of Africa, and has influenced, and more or less fille(l 
 with its material, tho Persian, Turkish, anrl llindustuiii, 
 and even the widely sundered Spanish and Malay, thus 
 winning a sway eompiirable to that of thf Latin, (hough 
 falling far short of the Latin in (lie iinpr>r(ance of tho do- 
 riveil languages to which it lias given birth. 
 
 The Semitic rneo has played a far greater part in history 
 than any other, save only the Indo- European, and its lan- 
 guages possess a corresponding degree of importance. 
 Their range (d* ilialoetic (iitTerenees is much les>< (han that 
 prevailing in our family ; they are olosrly kimlred forms 
 of speech. Not, apparently, beenuse they have been more 
 recently separated than the Indo-Kuropran diiileets, but 
 because their structure has been especially rigid and un- 
 changing. The Semitic structure is more peculiar and 
 probtema'ical than that of any other family of languages. 
 
 Its striking characteristics are its tri-consonantal roots and 
 its internal flexion. The roots, namely, have not, like the 
 Indo-European, each a constant vnwel. which is, even if 
 more varialjle than the consonants, an integral part of it; 
 the vowel or vowels in Semitic have a formative value, are 
 indicative of relation, not less than tho vowels of m«« and 
 men, of hind and fmtnii/ and Imiid and bond. And (with 
 insignificant exceptions) the radical consonants are thr{*e, 
 no more and no less. Suffixes and prefixes — and even in- 
 fixes, elements inserted within tho body of the root — are 
 not unknown, but tho sphere of their application is limited, 
 because so much of what is done in Iiido-Kuropean by af- 
 fixes is here accomplished by internal change of vowel. 
 Thus, for example (in Arabic, which is by far the moSt 
 primitive and transparent in its structure of all the dia- 
 lects), all that we can call the root corresponding to "kill" 
 isiy-f-/; tftitfifn is a third person singular, meaning "ho 
 killed," and f/iitila its passive, ** he was killed," «»/(«/« its 
 causative. 'Mic caused lo kill," <ytf^(/a its conative, '* ho 
 tried to kill," tji^a^r^n its reflexive, " he killed himself," 
 and so on. Then {n)rjtiii is imperative, "kill !" and a sec- 
 ond set of verbal persons (hardly to be called a tense) has 
 this form of the root ; iftuftnfu, latfiufu. <t<fliifn, and so on. 
 The active participle is tfdtil, "killiug," the intensive 
 iqftlf, "causing to kill," the passive mrtfjtul, "killed." Tho 
 infinitive or verbal noun is (/«//. "act of killing;" and qltl, 
 "enemy," and r/^r/, *' murderous," are specimens of deriva- 
 tive words. These examples arc sufficient to bring out tho 
 remarkable features of Semitic speech. We have paralleled 
 above the internal fiexion with the Germanic ith!mtt of h'md 
 and hmiud and their like: but the essential diflercnce be- 
 tween tho two coses is, that what in Indo-European is 
 rather a sporadic phenomenon, antl capal.de of easy expla- 
 nation as the i7i(««/-accidental result of phonetic change 
 consequent upon external additions, in Semitic is the very 
 life and soul of the language, irreducible to anything dif- 
 ferent. It is, however, tho prevailing belief among lin- 
 guists that this condition ol Semitic language must be 
 tho result of a very peculiar history of development out 
 of beginnings more analogous with those found in other 
 families of speech ; and attenijits are constantly making to 
 penetrate tho secret of tho development, but as yet without 
 any considerable measure of success. It is very certain, 
 meanwhile, that there can be no proof of any relationship 
 between the Semitic and any other family until the attempts 
 prove successful. It is a favorite subject of effort with pome 
 ])hilologists to demonstrate tho primitive unity of the 
 Semitic and Indo-European races: and there are many 
 indications outside of language which favor the conclu- 
 sion ; but thus far, at any rate, the language is an impassa- 
 ble barrier. 
 
 Tho other peculiarities of Semitic structure are of small 
 account as compared with those already noticed. The verb 
 tends more to conjugational distinctions, such as were 
 illustrated above, than to rlistinetions of ti-nse and nmoij. 
 It marks the difTerenee of gender in its personal inflection. 
 The noun is almost destitute of case variation ; it anil tho 
 verb have the three numbers found in early Indo-European. 
 Secondary derivation, or the forming of derivative from 
 derivativi', is almost unknown, as is also the formation of 
 compounds. Connectives of clauses are few and simple. 
 
 Among tho languages of Africa, those nearest to Asia, 
 grouped together as the ffaitiitic /ninth/, are often elainu'd, 
 but on gnumds which mn«t be pronounced thus far insuffi- 
 cient, to be akin with the Semitic. The family is reckoned 
 to comprehend three branches — tho Egyptian, the Libvun 
 or Uorber. and the Ethiopian ; (he most conspicuous mem- 
 bers of the last aro (he (lalla and Somali. The Egypdan 
 of the modern period is the Coptic, which has a Christian 
 literature beginning early in our ei-a; it was overpowered 
 by tho Arabic, ami became extinct several centuries ago. 
 The ancient Egyptian is tho language of (he hier()glvphs, 
 and has older records (han any other form of human speech, 
 renching, in scanty measure, probably into tho fourtn mil- 
 lennium before Christ. The Egyptian is a tongue of the 
 simplest possible structure, with deficient distinction of its 
 parts of speech, and with ^ery little flexion; go entirelv 
 lacking (ho oharaeteristic featuris of Semitic lhat> in spite 
 of apparent coincidences in their pronouns, (ho two cunnnt 
 well bo brought together until tho riddlo of Semitic struc- 
 ture is solveri. 
 
 The extreme south of Africa is occupied l)y the Hottentot 
 and Bn<'hman dialects, which have been recently elaiiued, 
 though prol.jibly without good reason, to bo connected with 
 the Itamilic family. N. of them, and up tti the eipiator, 
 are founil the branches of a w<-ll-defined family, the .V-.k/A 
 A/n'rnii (or Bantu, Kafir). The mnrk<'d pr-.-uliarity of 
 its structure is its use of pn-fixes, instnid of suffixes, as 
 principal inllectional apparatus. Those of its languages 
 which border upon tho Hottentot share with tho latter 
 (from whi.m they aro believed to have derived tho pccu^
 
 1640 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 liarity) the possessioo of clicks, or smacking and cluckiug 
 eounits, in their alphabetic system. 
 
 Between the Simth African languages anil the Great 
 Desert lies a perfect Babel of languages and races, into 
 the little-understood classification and characterization of 
 which we cannot here enter. Even the best authorities are 
 greatly discordant in their treatment of it. 
 
 The J!a?que, on the border between France and i^pain, 
 by the Bay of Biscay, is the only other language of the 
 Old AVorld which calls for mention. It is unrelated with 
 anything else in the world, and perhaps a relic ot a fsimily 
 which occupied at least s<imc part of Western Eurojie be- 
 fore the intrusion of llic Indo-Kuro])ean peoples. It is of 
 an intricately agglutinative structure, commonly styled 
 polysynthctic. 
 
 The same polysynthelic structure characterizes tho lan- 
 guages of the New World, in the main, and is the only tie 
 by which, if at all, they are to bo connected together as a 
 single family. Tho peculiarities of its manifestation, and 
 tho classification of tho American dialects, are fully dis- 
 cussed in the article on tho Indian Languages of this con- 
 tinent. 
 
 The classification horo given is strictly a linguistic one, 
 making no a:;count of tho c:hnological division of human 
 races. Between tho two there ia not a necessary accord- 
 ance. Every language, as \7e have seen, is an institution, 
 kept in existence, like all the other parts of our acquired 
 and accumulated culture, by a process of teaching and 
 learning; it docs not go down by descent. Just as any in- 
 dividual c:in, if circumstances favur or require, learn as his 
 first languago or "native tongue" a dialc?t wiiich is not 
 that of his ancestors, so a community — which in this re- 
 spect is only an aggregate of individuals — can do the same. 
 And such cases have occurred, over and over again, in the 
 history of the world. Like the useful arts, the sciences, art, 
 religions, a language may be abandoned by a race which 
 had produced it, or assumed by one which had no part in 
 its production, because naturo makes all men capn,!>!e of 
 speech, but prescribes to no one what speech ho shall use. 
 Yet, wliile a language is a traditional institution, it is the 
 most clinging and persistent of institutions, and also the 
 one running out into the greatest infinity of detail and 
 possessing the most notably objective character. Words, 
 sentences, grammatical structure, can be recorded and 
 turned over and compared almost as if they wero real sub- 
 stances like fossils or archtoological remains. The.;o qual- 
 ities make languago, beyond any othtr human product, of 
 value in tracing out tha relations of th^; differeut sections 
 of the human race anterior to tho epoch where trustworthy 
 historical record begins. I?^s evidcuco yields no certainty, 
 hut only a probability. Human communities have been 
 influencing one another since the beginning of time; and 
 it is not possible to say absolutely of any race on earth that 
 it has not obtained its speech somewhat as the French got 
 their Romanic, or the Xormans their French, or the Irish 
 their English. But it is only the forces of a highly-devel- 
 oped civilization that give a language tho power to propa- 
 gate itself widely beyond its natural limits — that enable a 
 minority of a mixed community to determine the speech of 
 the whole: the ruder the people, the greater tho probability 
 that its linguistic relations represent its tics of blood. 
 Hence, tho trustworthiness of linguistic evidence is great- 
 est where it is most desired, among wild and primitive 
 races, as to whom recorded history is silent. The ethno- 
 logical problem is doubtless too tlifficult to be ever com- 
 pletely solved by us; the mutual encroachmonta and super- 
 positions of races, with consequent mixture i>f blood and 
 of speech in every degree, the dwindling and disappearance 
 of one race, and the expansion of another to greatness, form 
 a web so intricate ihat it will never bo unravelled. But in 
 the present condition of ethnolugv, language is the richest 
 and most reliable source of information. There are ulti- 
 mate questions which it cannot decide, and as to which 
 zoology and biology will probably some day show a higher 
 authority. Suc^h, for example, is that of the unity or va- 
 riety of the human ra-je : here linguistic science can only 
 say that there are, on the one hanil, no differences between 
 hum.an languiigos which might not be the result of later 
 divergence from a common nucleus; and that, on the other 
 hand, there are a great many languages so unlike that they 
 can never be proved descended from the same ancestor, 
 since they show no correspondences which might not bo 
 the result of ftc:ridont. Linguistic material is not. like 
 physit-al, analyzablc to its minutest elements; creation, 
 annihilation, trausmutafion. are the commonest of pro- 
 cesses within it: it yields its results only to historical 
 methods of investigation. Thus far. it has been found pos- 
 sible even to unite into families only languages wliich had 
 the bond of a common structure; correspondences of ma- 
 terial, of radical elements, anterior to the growth of struc- 
 ture, have not been available; and although it need not be 
 
 declared impossible that they may yet be found available 
 between certain families, it is absolutely imytossible that 
 they should be so between all. Koot-comparisons. among 
 families of unrelated structure, are in the very highest de- 
 gree ]>rccarious; none yet made are to bo approved as 
 sound. 
 
 The question of tho origin of language has assumed an 
 entirely new aspect in consequence of the recent progress 
 of linguistic science. It is clearly seen that language as a 
 concrete possession, a stock of words and phrases used for 
 the commuuication and elaboration of thought, is in no 
 jiropcr sense of the word a gift, a natural capacity, a fac- 
 ulty, but rather an accumulated acquisition, the outcome 
 of certain faculties and tendencies which belong to man 
 and are a characteristic part, of him. To maintain the di- 
 vine origin of language now is simply to hold that man 
 was endowed by his Creator with those faculties and tend- 
 encies, with the foreseen and intended purpose that he 
 work them out to the possession of language : as, in a dif- 
 ferent but still essentially similar way, with the capacities 
 that have brought him to tho possession of his other insti- 
 tutions — of regulatf^d society, of art. of the arts of life. 
 To hold that he was put in possession at his birth of a de- 
 veloped speech is analogous to holding that he was pro- 
 vided with houses and clothes and instruments and ma- 
 chines. The formal structure of language. e\cn the more 
 formal part of its vocabulary, we see to have been devel- 
 oped by degrees out of a simple body of formless roots, 
 indicative of external, sensible acts and qualities — in the 
 same manner, and for the same reason, that instruments and 
 machines have been developed out of simple sticks and 
 atones and flakes of flint, that architecture began with 
 caves and huts, and dress with skins of animals and fig 
 leaves. To investigate the origin of languago is to inquire 
 how these rudiments of speech were produced. The inquiry 
 is not a part of the historical science of language, becauso 
 history brings us only to the recognition of these, and to 
 the recognition of them only in their kind, not in their 
 concrete identity as sueh and such utterances. But it is 
 au essential and prominent part of linguistic philosophy as 
 a branch of anthropology, and can only be properly treated 
 by one who understands tho facts of later language-history, 
 and can read their meaning. 
 
 To express himself is natural to man. and he has for 
 that purpose a variety of instrumentalities — namely, ges- 
 ture, grimace, and utterance. All are capable of beiug put 
 to use, apart from anything conventi<mal, between human 
 beings anxious to understand one another; and ail are, 
 under dotermiuiug circumstances, so put to use. That any 
 one of them should bo employed with the intent to commu- 
 nicjite is enough to constitute au act of language-making. 
 It is by the addition of this intent that they pass over from 
 the condition of natural to that of conventional expression. 
 The sphere of natural, instinctive expression is limited to 
 the feelings or emotions of the cxpresser; it is purely sub- 
 jective, and, so far as the action of the voice is concerned, 
 it extends only to tones; it does not include articulations, 
 specific combinations of vowel and consonant. There is 
 nowhere, in the whole domain of language, anything going 
 to show that a sound or combination of sounds is ever pro- 
 duced as tho natural representative of an act of the intel- 
 lect, a conception or a judgment. While human expression 
 remains instinctive and emotional, it is not language, any 
 more than that of tlie lower animals, with which it is anal- 
 ogous. But when, for instance, a cry whi<-h was at first 
 tho direct outburst of jjain or pleasure or disgust or warn- 
 ing is repeated or imitated for the purjioso of giving to an- 
 other an intimation of pain, etc.. then the making of lan- 
 guage is begun. The lower animals, some of them, are 
 able to make a beginning here; if a dog stands at a door, 
 and scratches or barks in order to attract attention and bo 
 let in. waiting for the opener who, he knows, will an.swer 
 his call, that is an act of language-making as genuine and 
 perhaps as good as the earliest attempts of a human being 
 Would be. There is, to be sure, an essential difl'crence be- 
 tween the two cases: but it lies only in this: the dog, with 
 his limited powers, can go no further; he is incapable of a 
 continuous progressive development ; but the man sees and 
 appreciates what is gained by his linguistic act, and tries 
 it again, and tries others; and so. by a gradual process of 
 accumulation, he arrives at a body of expressions which 
 use by and by renders conventional; and by manipulation 
 of them he comes to linguistic structure, and finally, in 
 races more gifted or more tavored by circumstances, to vo- 
 cabularies and grammars like our own. Then, by a process 
 of development showing the most striking analogies with 
 that just described, he adds the art of writing, a mode of 
 record of speech which continncs and completes its value 
 both to the individual and to the race. 
 
 This exposition shows tho true ground on which the dif- 
 ferent relation of men and of the lower aniimils to language
 
 LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS— LANGUEDOC. 
 
 1641 
 
 is to be put and argued. Usually, tho great and ruinous 
 error is coiumiUcd of assuming that at the bc^iuning cer- 
 tain uuiiibiuutioDs ut' sounds must have naturally signified 
 goinothir.g lo mau, aud then of searching anxiously for 
 siuiilar {ihenuuiona among the animals: also. This can 
 never lead to auy valuable result. The true point for the 
 attention of naturalists is this: What signs are to be discov- 
 ered in animals below man (like that quoted above of tho 
 dog) of the power to adapt means to ends in the way of ex- 
 pression, with more or less of free consciousness and intelli- 
 gence? That their power is extremely limited is clear 
 enough from the fact that no nice or community of animals, 
 80 far as we know or have reason to suspect, possesses any 
 conventional language kept up by teacliing and learning. 
 It is hero just as in the ease of instruments: the power to 
 uso a stick or a stone as tool or weapon cannot be abso- 
 lutely denied to certain animals; and men began with 
 nothing better: but, except in man.it is not a growing and 
 developing power. With the animals it remains a natural 
 gift; with man it becomes by degrees an institution, and 
 leads to tho possession of ships aud steam-engines and 
 cannon. To ascribe the lack of language in animals to the 
 wnnt of some specific mental power is an error, like tho 
 error of ascribing its possession by man to the addition of 
 some specific mental power, some linguistic faculty or lan- 
 guage-sense. Tho lack and the p<tsscssion arc both alike 
 tho results and indications of a whole eust and grade of 
 mentiil capacity. <d" combinations of Huiulties wliicli show 
 themselves abundantly also in other ways. No animal 
 below man has any accumulated results of the exercise of 
 his natural powers, any iustitulions — any civilization, in 
 fihort. To make language dependent on a power of form- 
 ing general ideas or concepts is least of all t<) be approved ; 
 for it is past all reasonable (|ucstion that the lower animals 
 do form such, in their degree and xvithin their limits ; noth- 
 ing like intelligence is possible otherwise. The power of 
 the dog in this respect is not sensibly dificrent from that 
 of the wholly undeveloped aud speechless man ; but the ac- 
 quifiition of language, impossible to Iho dog, trains and 
 e<|uips the power in m:in, and makes it capable of vastly 
 higher and more abundant work. 
 
 The prominence in existing language everywhere of tho 
 voice Its means of expression has its ground, not in any 
 especial nearness of the organs of utterance to tho move- 
 ments of the soul, but only in a kind of natural selection 
 and survival of the fittest. The voice is, for obvious rea- 
 sons, tho most available instrumentality, in the infinite va- 
 riety and rapidity of its apprehensible combinations, in the 
 small expenditure of muscular effort which they cost, in their 
 power to command attention from any direction, and in tho 
 dark as well as in the light, and in the liberty afi"orded the 
 hauiia for other work at tho same time. Experience brought 
 all this to light. even as it has brought to light Iho various 
 availabilities of wood and slone aud metal. That we find 
 every part of the human race, at the very beginning of our 
 knowledgeof it, in possession of a spoken language, a more 
 or less complete system of vocal »igus for ideas and their 
 relations, means no more than that the whole race had 
 lived long cnttugh to have worked out its natural gifts to 
 their ncceSf'ary and intended results. It by no means 
 proves that there was not a time when gesture, more than 
 utterance, was tho principal nu-ans of expression, or even 
 that for a period, of duration inipo.-^siblo to determine, men 
 may have had no expression different from or higher than 
 that of tho auijnals next beneath Ibeni in the scale of cre- 
 ation. Tho natural (as distinguished from the conven- 
 tional) means of expression atill continue most important 
 auxiliaries to language; for anything but tho driest scien- 
 tific statement, tone and gesture and jjosturo and facial 
 expression are requisite; they are the subjective means 
 whereby tho personality of tho speaker is impressed upon 
 the hearer — whereby he moves, excites, persuades. And their 
 power is greater and their aid more indispensable the lower 
 tho grade of the language and of those who uso i(. In tho 
 highest elaboration of S|irei-h. and with those trained to 
 employ and interpret it with the keenest ?ensibi!ily, even 
 t!io written page shows tho reader the very tone and action 
 of tho writer — seems to smile or scowl or weep or excite. 
 
 Out of tlie leading part asuunu^l by the voice grows tho 
 imporlanco of onomatop(i>ia, or the vocal imitative princi- 
 ple, in Iho earliest history of language. The intent being 
 to make an intelligible sign, and the voice tho instrument, 
 audible sounds are the matlers most easily signified. This 
 is just as natural and necessary as that in a written system 
 of signs the outlines of visible objects are most easily, and 
 therefore earliest, signified. A hieroglyphic mode of writ- 
 ing, intended for the eye to understand, begins with pic- 
 tures of things that strike tho eye, and proceeds from them, 
 in various ways, to inrlieate matters of more varied and 
 oven of subjectivo knowledge. A system of audible signs 
 begins in like manner with a rude, sketchy dejiietion, as it 
 
 may be called, of audible sounds, and arrives, by figurative 
 transfer and by various ties of association, at the intimation 
 of other classes of acts and qualities. The sphere of imi- 
 tation is by no means restricted lo the actual sounds occur- 
 ring in nature, though these may well enough have been 
 the first subjects of reproduction. What its limits are may 
 be best seen from the range of ononiatopoctie expression in 
 existing languages. There is a figurative imitation, where- 
 by rapid, slow, abrupt, repealed movements are capable of 
 being signified by combinations of sounds which mako 
 through the car upon the mind somewhat the same im- 
 pressions as the movements themselves through the eye. 
 And while this was a jirincipal suggestcr of the means of 
 mutual intelligence, it may well enough have been found 
 even more fertile than we now regard it as being. Our 
 recognition of the value of the imitative principle is thus 
 founded njion our general theory <if language, in combi- 
 nation with the fact that the same principle continues 
 efiicicnl, in greater or less degree, through the whole his- 
 tory of language; it docs not depend upon our ability to 
 trace the main mass of material in any existing langungo 
 to an ononiatopoctie origin. For. tlie intent being simply 
 to ])rovidc by the most available means for communication 
 between man and man, ononiatopceia would bo gradually 
 crowded out, after tho provision of a certain quantity of 
 intelligible signs, by the later and now almost exclusive 
 method of the combination and variation of those signs; 
 and, with that readiness to forget derivations and disguise 
 etymologies which is a leading aud most valuable feature 
 in universal language-history, the signs of imitative origin 
 would be hidden and disap]>ear. 
 
 If by such methods as tliosc here described there could 
 bo made a suflieient working provision of signs, to be de- 
 veloped by degrees into such languages as we now find in 
 the world ; if these methods are in harmony with the known 
 history of language, the one stage passing into the otlu-r 
 without a break or a change of governing principle: if, 
 from what we know of man anil of his linguistic ca}>acilies 
 aud activities, these are the methods by which a new lan- 
 guage would bo created if it were possible that a com- 
 munity of human beings should begin life again without 
 any, — then this is such a solution of the problem of the 
 origin of language as science demands. 
 
 it may be brielly pointed out. in conclusion, that there is 
 no relation whatever between the develojiment of language 
 and any dcvelo]inient of nnin himseif out of a lower tyjio 
 of animal. JIan was man in endowment when the j)roduc- 
 tion of his jnesent speech began : its acquisition, like that 
 of the other parts of his civilization, has only helped in Ibe 
 development of his powers, raising him higher and higher 
 in the scale of manhood, and being, of all his aequisilions, 
 the one most fundamentally in)])urtaut, most needful aud 
 helpful to eveiything else that he jiossesses. 
 
 The view of the history, nature, and origin of language 
 here compendiously ])rcscnted will be found worked out in 
 much greater fulness in the writer's works, Laiujuuijc uud 
 the Studi/ of LftiujtKUje (New York. 1807), The Life aud 
 Growth of Lnnifwiije { IH7&), and Oriental and Linyaisiic 
 Studies, i. (1^72). Other general works on the subject in 
 English ore M. Miiller's Lccturrs on the Scioire of l.an- 
 ffmufc; H. We<lgwood*s Orii/in <f Lnuffuatfe ( London. 1S()6); 
 F. W. Farrar's Chitjitcm n» l^autfuatjc, Familice of Lanfjnaije, 
 etc.; A. II. Sayce's Principles of Comparative Philvlof/y 
 (London, 1871). 
 
 To trace the history of the study of language, from Iho 
 often surprisingly acute but crude and narrow speculations 
 of the ancients down to and through the reuutrkablc col- 
 lections, comparisons, analyses, deiluetions, of the great 
 linguistic scholars (especially in (Jcrnuiny ) of this century, 
 constituting tho vast and rieh department of ** coniparalivo 
 philology," is a task by itself, and will not here bcattempteil. 
 The best auth»»ritie8 for it are L. Lersch, Sprachphilunopliic 
 dcr Alien (I.S40); II. Pteinlhat. fienchivhte der Sprnvhtcis- 
 Hcnnchnft bti dm Orirrhtn nnd flUmcnt (18C:i); T. Benfey, 
 t^iHrhichfc drr Sf>rnrhuinMriiHrhaft umi dcr OrientnliKchvn 
 Philnloijic in iJtut^vhland (iHf.U). J. Jolly has added a 
 general sketch of tho history to bis (tcrman translation of 
 the writer's Lantfutiifv aud the Stndtf tf Lnnt/nnijc {M\iu\t.h, 
 1H7I). nnd some interesting details are given in the fiist 
 series of Miiller's Lecturer. W. D. AViiitnuy. 
 
 Lanciint^o of Flowers, a sentimental systrm of 
 floral >yinliolH by means of which it is intended that tho 
 more tender feelings an<l passions shouhl be expressed. 
 Among the Turks nnd Persians we are told that the hm- 
 guage of flowers has received much attention, and is carried 
 to great refinement and expressiveness ; but in othercoun- 
 tries it is chiefly used by young persons of both sexes. Tho 
 literature of the subject is extensive, but not important. 
 
 liniiKilodoc', one of the old provinces of Franco, 
 bounded S. by tho Mediterranean and E. by tho Rhone; it
 
 1642 
 
 LANGUIDIC— LANSDOWNE. 
 
 bore while a Roman province tlie name of Gnllia Xarbo- 
 nemii : passed Iroin Uie Komans to tlie Gotlis, from tlic 
 Goths to the Saraoous, and from the Saracens to thci'ounts 
 of Toulouse ; iu \-M\ it was finally annexed to the French 
 orown. In the Middle Ages it received the name of Laugue- 
 doo [tau'iitc d'lic), from the circumstance that its inhab- 
 itants expressed "yes" by vc, while in the northern pnrt 
 of France it was expressed by oil. It is now divided into 
 the dcpartiuents of Anleche, Audc, East Pyrenees. I ppcr 
 Oaronne, tiers, U^rault, Lozere, Tarn, and Taru-et-Uaronne. 
 Langiiitlic', town of France, in the county of Morbi- 
 han, has (;;1S2 inhahitauts. 
 L.'AngniIIe', tp. of Phillips co.. Ark. Pop. SOO. 
 l,».\nsuille, post-v. and tp. of St. Francis co.. Ark., 
 on the M.miihis and Little Rock K. It., and on the L'An- 
 guillc River. Pop. 30C. 
 
 Lanier', tp. of Preble co., 0. Pop. 1634. 
 Lanjuiuais' (Jk.\n Dexis), b. at Konnes Mar. 12, 
 Vib'i; studied law; practised for some time at the bar; 
 was appointed professor of ecclesiastical law in his native 
 city in 1775, and became conspicuous as a man of superior 
 talent, when in 17Sy he was elected a deputy to the States 
 General. As a member of the Convention he sided with 
 the Girondists, and opposed all extreme measures. On 
 June 2, 1793, he was arrested, but escaped to Renues. and 
 resumed bis seat in the .Assembly in 17UJ, after the fall of 
 the Terrorists. During the Directory he was a member of 
 the Council of Five Hundred, and of the senate during the 
 consular rule, in which latter position he led the opposition 
 against the monarchical tendencies of the government of 
 Napoleon, who nevertheless made him a count on the es- 
 tablishment of the Empire. He voted for the deposition 
 of the emperor in I8U, was made a peer of France by 
 Louis XVIII., and advocated liberal principles during the 
 Kestoration, in opposition to the reigning political and 
 ecclesiastical reaction. He was a man of great literary 
 attainments, and after his death (Jan. 13, IS271 his son 
 published a collected edition of his writings {I vols., Paris, 
 IS32), containing valualile contributions to the sciences of 
 politics, archfeology, and language. 
 
 Lank'ester (Enwix), M. D.. LL.D., F. R. S., b. at 
 Melton, Suffolk, England, Apr. 23, ISU; studied medicine 
 at University College, London, l!*3i-37 ; graduated at Hei- 
 delberg 1839; became lecturer at St. George's school of 
 medicine 1843; secretary of the Ray Society 1844; pro- 
 fessor of natural history at New College. London, 1850; 
 president of the Microscopical Society ISo'J. and elected 
 coroner for Central Middlesex (city of London) 18C2. He 
 acquired wide fame as a lecturer and writer upon sanitary 
 and social science, physiology, botany, zoology, foods, mi- 
 croscopy, etc. ; was author of many valuable reports and 
 scientltic papers, and of various hooks upon the above 
 Bubjects, mostly designed for popular u.se, and since 1866 
 edited the Journal of Social Science. D. Oct. 30, 1S74. 
 
 Lan'man (Chaules), b. in Monroe, Mich., .Tune It, 
 1819, the son of Charles James Lanman; received an 
 academical education in Plainlield, Conn.; was a clerk iu 
 New York from 1S35 to 1845, when for a few months he 
 edited the Monroe Ouzt^nr; was associate editor in 1841) of 
 the Cincinnati Clironirlr, with E. D. .Manstield: and after 
 making a canoe tour of the Mississippi and through Lake 
 Superior, returned to New York, and was associated as a 
 writer with the ll'tihi ICxpress. In ISIS he liecame a cor- 
 rcsponilent of the .Vulioiial fntelliffriicrr, travelling exten- 
 sively through the U.S.; settled at Gcorgetoivn, l>. C, and 
 held at Washington the positions of librarian of the war 
 department, librarian of copyrights in the state department 
 and private secretary of Daniel AVebstcr, librarian of the 
 interior deiiartmcnt, and librarian of the House of Ueprc- 
 eentatives. In 1857 ho became the .\merican correspond- 
 ent of the llhulraled Lnndnn Xcim, and in 1869 of the 
 London Atltrn^Tiini. He has published E»na}j» for .Summer 
 Jioura, 3 eds. ; A Summer in the \Vildcrne«9; A Tour to the 
 Hirer Sotjuenoy, republished ill England; Lettem from the 
 Alleghany Mountoinii; Occasional Rerordu of a Toiirint ; 
 Private Life of Daniel Websterj republished in England: 
 Adeentures in the Wilds of America, made from previous 
 publications, in 2 vols., and republished in England, with 
 introductory letters from Washington Irving; Oirtionary 
 of Congress, 6 eds., three of theui published by the general 
 government; Life of Witlinm Woodhrid/je: edited Prison 
 Life of Alfred Ely, and two volumes of Sermons by Rev. 
 Octavius Pcrinehief. Since 1871 he has been American 
 secretary of the .liipaneso legation, and has published The 
 /?,'(/ Hook of .Michigan and The Japanese in America, the 
 latter reprinted and very successful in England. 
 
 I^anman (Chari.ks James), b. nt Norwich, Conn., July 
 5, 1795; graduated at Yale in 1SI4; was admitted to the 
 bar at New London, Conn., in 1817 ; removed to French- 
 
 town, now Monroe, Mich., and held various public offices, 
 such as judge of probate and U. S. receiver of public moneys 
 (1823-32). He was one of the most promiueut and public- 
 spirited of the early citizens of Michigan ; returned in 
 1835 to Norwich, Conn. ; lost much of bis property in the 
 financial crash of 1837; was mayor of Norwich in 1838; 
 removed to New London, Conn., in 1SG2. D. July 22, 1870. 
 lianman (James), h. at Norwich. Conn., June 14,1760; 
 gvaduatcd at Vale in 17SS; was admitted to the bar in 
 1791 ; held numerous important State offices; was a V. S. 
 Senator 1819-25; held judgeships in the State courts 1826 
 -29; was mayor of Norwich 1831-34. He was the step- 
 father of Park Benjamin. D. Aug. 7, 1S41. 
 
 Laiiman (Joseph), U. S. N., b. July 11, 1811, in Con- 
 necticut; entered the navy as a midshipman Jan. 1, 1825; 
 became a passed midshipman in 1831, a lieutenant in 1835, 
 a commander in 1855, a captain in ISGl, a commodore in 
 1862, a rear-admiral in 1867. Commanded the Minnesota 
 at the attack u|)on Fort Fisher, Jan. 15. 1865, and is thus 
 commended by Rear-admiral David D. Porter in his official 
 report of that action : " Commodore Joseph Lanman, com- 
 manding the Minnesota, was selected to lead the line, his 
 vessel being the slowest and least manageable. I recom- 
 mend him to the consideration of the department as one on 
 whom thev can place the utmost reliance, place him in any 
 position."" D. Mar. 13, 1874. Fo.\hall A. Pakker. 
 
 Lanner. See Falcos. 
 
 Lannes (Jean), b. at Lectoure, in Guienne, Apr. 11, 
 1769, of poor parents, and apprenticed in his fifteenth year 
 to a dyer; in 1792 left this occu|iation and enlisted in 
 the army, where he soon rose to the rank of a colonel; 
 w.as nevertheless discharged in 1795. at the reorganization 
 of the army, but in 1796 followed Napoleon to Italy as 
 a volunteer, and very soon attracted his attention by his 
 boundless audacity ; distinguished himself in every battle 
 by some daring feat, and was made a brigadier-general 
 in 1797; in 1798 accompanied Napoleon to Egyjit, re- 
 turned with him in 1799, and rendered him great ser- 
 vices by his faithful adherence on Nov. 9. 1799, in reward 
 for which he was made a general of division in 1800, 
 and commander of the consular guard ; led the vanguard 
 when in the same year the army crossed the Alps at St. 
 Bernard, and gained a brilliant victory over the Austrians 
 at Monlebcllo. On the establishment of the empire lie was 
 made a marshal. He led the memorable siege of Saragossa, 
 and compelled the city to surrender Feb. 21, 1809, and nt 
 Ratisbou he was the first who put the scaling-ladder to the 
 ramparts. When he greiv older his judgment developed 
 rapidly with his courage, and Napoleon considered him 
 one of his best generals, when his career was cut off sud- 
 denly in the battle of Essling, being mortally wounded, 
 and d. a few days after in Vienna, May 31, 1809. 
 
 liannion', town of France, in the department of Cfttcs- 
 du-Nord. It manufactures several kinds of coarse woollen 
 and linen goods, and has some general tr.ade. Pop. 6598. 
 
 La Noue, de (Frani;ois), b. in 15:11. in the vicinity 
 of Nantes, of an old noble family of Brittany: embraced 
 the Reformed creed, and distinguished himself in the army 
 of the prince of Cond6 as one of the most valiant Hugue- 
 not soldiers. At the siege of Fontenay-le Comte, in 1570, 
 he lost his left arm. and had it replaced by one of iron, 
 whence he received bis surname. Bras dc Fvr. In 1572 ho 
 went to La Rochelle, trying to bring about a reconcilia- 
 tion between the city and the king. Having failed in this, 
 and seeing that there was no other means of safety for his 
 partv than open war, he took the command of La Rochelle, 
 and defeniled the city for four years with great success. 
 After the conclusion of peace in 1578 he Vent to Flanders, 
 entering the service of the Low Countries: was taken pris- 
 oner by the Spaniards, and retained at Madrid for five 
 years, but at last exchanged in 1585 for Count Egraont. 
 Under Henry IV. he again fought for the cause of his re- 
 ligion, and d. .Aug. 4, 1591, from a wound he received at 
 the siege of Lamballe. During his several imprisonments 
 be engaged in literature, and his Bisrours politif/nes el mi- 
 litaircs fBaic, 1587) have been often republished. His cor- 
 respondence was published in 1854. 
 
 Lans'dale, post-b. of Gwyncdd tp., Montgomery CO., 
 Pa., about 25 miles N. of Philadelphia, on the North 
 Pcnn.sylvania R. R., at its central point and junction with 
 the Doylestown and Stony Creek hranehes. It has a 
 churoh, 3 hotels, 1 national bank, 2 weekly newspapers (1 
 German), agricultural m.achinc-works, foundry, carriage 
 manufactories, telegraph-office, planing-mills, a number 
 of stores, etc. 
 
 F. WAGVEn, Prop. "Lansdale Reporter. 
 Lans'downe (Hexrv PETTv-FiTZMAtRicE), third 
 MAlt«iKs.s OF. b. in London, Engband, July 2, 1780, second 
 son of William Potty, first earl of Sheldcbne (which see).
 
 LANSDOVVNE— LANSING. 
 
 1643 
 
 who in 17S1 was crcfited marquess of Lan?downe; educated 
 at Weslminslcr School aud at Edinburgh under the tutor- 
 ship of Duj^atd Stewart : graduated at Trinity College, Caui- 
 hridgc, in I^Ol, aud uuder the uamc of Lord Henry Petty 
 was clioseu as a Whig in 1S0« to u seat tn I'arliameut for 
 the borough uf CaJDc. Iludistiuguii>bed lliIu^^etf in debate, 
 giving his chief attention to tiuaucc; wa:* elected member 
 for the University of Cambridge in ISOG on the death of 
 Pitt» and io the same year became chanccllur of the ex- 
 chequer in the ministry of Grenvillc and Tox, retiring from 
 office iu 1807. On the" death of bis elder brother in 180lt, 
 ho succeeded to tho title, and became one of the heads of 
 the Liberal party in tho House of Loids, being an early 
 advocate of Catholic emancipation, the abolition of slavery, 
 parliamentary reform, and free trade. On the return of 
 tho Whigs to power iu 1827, ho became secretary of tho 
 home department under Canning, secretary of foreign af- 
 fairs under Lord Goderich (ISL'S), lord president of the 
 council under Earl Grey from Nov., 18;;i», to Nov., 1S34, 
 under Lord Melbourne from Apr.. 1835, to Sept., ISIl.and 
 under Lord John Russell from July. 1810, to Feb.. 18J2. 
 Fur many years he had beentbe Liberal leader in the upper 
 house, when ho resigned that position iu 18J2, not intend- 
 ing to return to office, but in December of the same year, 
 on tho formation of the Aberdeen ministry, he consented 
 to take a seat in the cabinet without a portfolio, and again 
 in the first Pulmerston ministry, Feb., I8jj, to Feb., 1858. 
 He was a man of cultivated taste, formed a splendid library 
 aud collection of art-treasures, was a generous patron of 
 literature, and made Lausduwne House the centre of polite 
 
 society in England. He was a trusted adviser and friend 
 of tho queen, but refused a duUedum and the premiership. 
 After the death of the duke of AVellington he was the patri- 
 arch of tho House of Lords, and perhaps tlie most univer- 
 sally honored statesman of the realm. I), at liowood 
 House, Calne. Jan. 31.180.'}. — His son Hrxnv, fourth mar- 
 quess, b. in ISIG. d. in July, iSfifi; his grandson, llESitY 
 CiiARLKs Kkith FiTZMAiRicr:, fifth marquess, b. Jan. 14, 
 IS 15, was lord of the treasury ( 1 808-72 ) and under-sccretary 
 of state for war (1872-71), in second (iladstono ministry. 
 
 Lansdownc (William Petty), Marquess of. See 
 Shelblrnk, Earl of. 
 
 L'Alise, post-v. and tp., cnp. of IJaraga en., Mich., on 
 Keweenaw liay, Lake Sui)eri()r ; is the N. AV. terminus of 
 tho Marquette Houghton and Ontonagon R. R., and has a 
 lino of iron steamers ruuuiug to the ports of tho copper- 
 region. Pop. 33. 
 
 Lan'sin^, post-v. and tp. of Allamakee co., Ta.. on tho 
 Missisj:i]>pi Uiver and the (')iicago iJubiiquo and Minnesota 
 R. U., 81 iriiles N. uf l)ubuque, has several eburcdies aud 
 hotels, 1 national and 1 savings bank. 3 weekly newspapers 
 (1 German), 2 steam saw-mills, a furniture factory and 
 flouriug-mill (both steam), an agricultural implenunt fac- 
 tory, a large school building, and numerous lunincss houses, 
 has daily ferry connection with Wisconsin, aud handles an- 
 nually 75U.0(M) bushels of grain. Pop. of v. 175.'j ; of tp. 2jl9. 
 James T. Metcalf, En. "Mirror and Chroniclk." 
 
 Litinsin;;, city and tp. (tf Ini,'hnm co.. onp. of the Stat© 
 
 N, u 
 
 of Michigan, is «itnated on Grand River, about IIH) miles 
 from its miiutb, at its confluence with tho Cedar, anil on 
 the Chicago and Lake Huron, tbo Detroit Lan^-ing nnd 
 Luke Miidiignn. tho Lake Shore and Michigan Soulliern, 
 and the Michigan Central R. Us. It has two oilier less 
 important lines of railroad, and others are projected. 
 Lan!«irtg was laid out by the State ns a capital in 1817, and 
 was projected on a lilicral Mcale. with avonue^* seven and 
 five rods in width: is situated on high land r»n both sidefi 
 of tho river, is St miles W. of Detroit ami 00 S. W. of Sag- 
 inaw. It has 2 national nnd 2 private bnnkp. a gaslight 
 and a fire insurance eompany, 10 churelicK, 3 hotels, an 
 opera house. 3 weekly newflpapern, iron-works, superior 
 common and high sehonls, a female anrl a oommereial col- 
 lege, State Agricultural College, State Reform School, State 
 
 Lansing, Mich. 
 
 Library of 20,000 volumes, several private literary nnd li- 
 brary associations, and a young men's lecture society. 
 (Jrand River is spanned by 4 iron bridges and 1 wooden 
 one. Tliero is a noted mineral spring. The fine water- 
 power has made Lansing an important manufacturing cen- 
 tre, ami it has a large eom[dement of niereantih' Iiousch 
 and of professional men. Tbo State eapitid is on high 
 ground, fifty feet above tho river; an appropriation of 
 $l,200,ll0lt was mado in 1874 for a new building. A eity 
 government was organiited in 1851). Pop. of oily, 5-11; 
 of tp. exclusive of city, 82:{. 
 
 W. S. GKonor, En. "Statk RrnrnLiCAN." 
 I>aiisinf;, powt v. and tp. of Mower eo., Minn., on tho 
 MilwauUrc and St. Paul U. R. (Iowa and Minnesota divia- 
 ionj. pop. 77;L
 
 1644 
 
 LANSING— LAODICEA. 
 
 Lansing, tp. of Tumpkins co., N. Y., on the E. shore 
 of fayugii Lake. Pop. 2S74. 
 
 Lansing i.roiis), b. at Albany, N. Y., Jan. .".0, 17;U: 
 stuilicii law witli Ilobl. Yatfs ia Albany ami James Diiaiic 
 ID New York t served in the Revolutionary war as niililary 
 secretary to Gen. Schuyler; was for seven years a nienibcr 
 of the legislature, for four years mayor of Albany; mem- 
 ber of tlfe Old Congress 1784-88; member of the Slate 
 convention for considering the U. S. Constitulion, which 
 he opposed, leaving the convention; commissioner in 1790 
 to seille the Vermont controversy; appointed judge of 
 New Y'ork supreme court Sept. 28, 17!lll, chief-justice Feb. 
 l,i, 179S, and chancellor of the State from Oct. 21, ISOI, to 
 18U. I). Dec. 12, 1829. 
 
 ljan'sin!;bura;h,po3t-v. and f p. of Rensselaer CO., N.Y., 
 3 miles N. of Troy, on the Hudson River, nearly opposite 
 the confluence of the Mohawk, has 6 churches, 6 hotels, 1 
 weekly newsjiaper, established in 179S, 1 savings bank, an 
 academy, !! public schools, 25 brush-factories, 2 oilcloth and 
 2 cracker fautories, 5 malt-houses, a fire and a police dc- 
 p;\rlment, and is connected with Troy by a street railroad. 
 It is perll.aps the chief point in the U. S. for the manufac- 
 ture of brushes, oilcloth, and crackers. It has considerable 
 river trade, and is connected with Waterford by a bridge 
 across the Hudson. Named from the founder, Abraham J. 
 Lansing, who settled here in 1771. Pop. of v. Go72; of tp. 
 6S01. J. <i- Scott, Ed. '• Gazette." 
 
 Lan'singville, a v. of Hamdcn tp.. Delaivare CO., N. T., 
 on the S. side of Delaware River. Pop. 110. 
 
 Lansingville, post-v. of Lansing tp., Tompkins CO., 
 N. Y. Pop. 07. 
 
 Lanta'ua, a genus of mostly tropical shrubs of the 
 orJor Verbeuacca;. Many have stimulant and aromatic 
 qualities, i. /iseiuloilica is highly esteemed in Brazil as a 
 substitute for tea. A number of the species are beautiful 
 greenhouse shrubs, notably L. camara and inl.rta of trop- 
 ical America. The U. S. have at least two species native 
 to the (lulf States, L. camara and inroliu-mfa. Some have 
 square stems. The flowers are mostly showy and of chang- 
 ing color.^. 
 
 Lan'tern [Lat. lauima, Interna], a portalile or fixed 
 artificial light, enclosed in a suitable case to protect it from 
 the action of air-currents. Ancient Rome, Greece, and Car- 
 thage employeil lanterns. The lantern also appears, but not 
 frequently, on Egyptian monuments. Thin layers of horn, 
 oilcil or wa.\ed pajjer, or linen, bladder, and other translu- 
 cent substances were used, .\idhelm, bishoi) of Sherborne 
 in ICngland, mentions glass lanterns in 70o A. D. Tlic East- 
 ern nations, and especially the Chinese, excel in the making 
 of ornnmcntal lanterns. — On the evening of the lith of 
 January tlie Chinese eelol)ratc the Feast of Lanterns. 
 .SjMietiiues the wealthy Ciiinese spend tiiousanrls of dol- 
 lars ou a single lantern, whose sides are often of silk, and 
 whicii m:iy have a diameter of twenty-five feet. It eon- 
 tains usually a great number of wax candles. The origin 
 of the lantern-festival is vat'iously stated. 
 
 Lau'tern-fly, a name given to several insects of the 
 family Fiilgoridx, some of which arc reputed to emit a 
 brilliant light from the forehead. Of these, Fnl-iora ran- 
 delaria of China and F. Iniiicniaria of Guiana are the best 
 known species, but it is doubtful whether they really emit 
 any light. Tiiey are nearly three inches long, and arc the 
 largest of tlie Ilemiptera. Some of the genera produce a 
 fine wliito wax, utilized in the S. K. of Asia. 
 
 Lan'thanuin [(Jr. haviivtiv, "to escape notice"], an 
 elementary metal of rather rare occurrence, to which Mo- 
 sander, its discoverer, in 18:19 gave this name, because it 
 had remained concealed, in combination with cerium, for 
 thirty-six years. Mosander also found in 1S42 in oxide of 
 lanthanum another rare metal, d'ultfiniiun, which he named 
 from the Greek 5i6wMo«. *' twofold " or *' twin," from its con- 
 generic association with lanthanum and difficulty of dis- 
 tinction therefrom. Didymium gives rose-colored salts and 
 solutions, while those of lanthanum, when ])ure, are white. 
 Those three rare and curious metals, cerium, lanthanum, and 
 didymium, arc usually found in combination in the minerals 
 cerilc, nttauilf, min-oinontitc, mosaiulrite, etc.; but the One 
 here under consideration, lanthanum, occurs by itself, as the 
 beautiful mineral laiilhaiilic, in at least three American lo- 
 calities — in the zinc ores of Saueon Valley, Lehigh co.. Pa., 
 at the Canton mine in Georgia, and at the Sandford ore- 
 bed, Moriah, Essex co.. N. Y. Lanthanite is carbanate of 
 iauthaiiniiti n.rtiUj or /ont/mim, La2C03,.'iH20, containing 55 
 p'*r cent, of lanthana. It is sometimes pink in color, from 
 the presence of its roseate twin-sister, didyniia. Lnuthnna 
 is a white oxide, like lime or magnesia, very heavy, density 
 a''Out 6, which absorbs carbtmic acid and water from the 
 air, and slakes with water, like lime, to a hydrate. 
 
 llESllY Wdktz. 
 
 Lan'thopine [Gr. KavBivtiv, "to escape notice," and 
 6;r6«, for '■ Opium "], a base homologous with papaverine, 
 contained in opium. (See Watts's Diet., Sup/jlemcnt.) 
 
 Lanu'viiim^ an ancient city of Latium, 20 miles S. S. E. 
 of Rome, where now stands the hamlet Civitii Lavigna. It 
 was anciently a place of much importance, famous especial- 
 ly for its temple and sacred grove of Juno Sospita. It was 
 one of the members of the Latin League, and the birthplace 
 of the emperor Antoninus Pius. Few remains of the old 
 town now exist. 
 
 Lan'za (Giovanxi), b. in 1815 at Vignala, Piedmont; 
 stu'licd medicine at Turin, and practised in his native city ; 
 in 1848 was elected a member of Parliament, and espoused 
 the policy of Cavour; in 1805 entered the cabinet of 
 Cavour as minister of puljlic education, and in IS5S ex- 
 changed this ofiice with the ministry of finance; in 18;'i9, 
 after the Peace of Villafranca, resigned, together with 
 the whole cabinet of Cavour, and then worked simply 
 as a member of Parliament, of which he was elected 
 president several times: in 1804 took charge of the min- 
 istry of the interior under La Marmora, but retired in 
 1865. Once more entering Parliament, and having been 
 elected president in Sept., 18G7, he opposed the financial 
 policy of the ministry of Mcnabrca, and resigned his presi- 
 dency when the ministry triumphed. His re-election in 
 1809 caused the dissolution of the ministry, and he now 
 undertook to form a new eainnet himself. He occupied 
 theminisfry of the interior, and the other members belonged 
 mostly to that section of the Right which had supported 
 Menabrea's internal policy, but opposed his financial mea- 
 sures. Lanza endeavored to introduce the greatest possi- 
 ble parsimony to bring order into the internal affairs of the 
 kingdom. Nevertheless, as the annexation of the papal 
 states in 1870 took place while he held office, large ex- 
 penses for the army and navy were necessary. The pecu- 
 liar tendency of the Itali.an Parliament to grant the ex- 
 penses, but to reject the taxes, overthrew the cabinet of 
 Lanza in 187.T. June 23 he gave in his resignation, as 
 the Parliament would even not allow Sclla's tax-bill to bo 
 discussed. AiOfST Xiemasm. 
 
 Lanzaro'te, the most N. E. of the Canary Islands, 
 comprises an area of 325 square miles, with a population 
 of 17,JU0. It rises to the height of 20110 feet, and contains 
 several active volcanoes. It is very fertile, and produces 
 the finest grapes and wines on the Canaries, but it is much 
 exposed to drought. Teguise is the capital; Arrecife, the 
 principal port. 
 
 Lan'zi (Li-ir,i), b. at Monte dell' Almo, Italy, Juno 14, 
 1732; entered the order of the Jesuits in 1719, and became, 
 after its dissolution in 1773, assistant director of the gallery 
 of Florence. He now devoted himself much to the study 
 of art and archa;ology, especially Etruscan language and 
 antiquities, and his two works on these subjects, Sagrfio di 
 liiiijiia etrntfca (3 vols., 1789) and Storia pittarica drti'Ilafia 
 (6 vols., 1792), attracted great attention — also in foreign 
 countries ; the latter was translated into English by Thomas 
 Roscoc. D. Mar. 30, ISIO. 
 
 Laoc'oon [Gr. Aao«d«)v], a Trojan patriot and priest 
 who opposed the introduction of Sinon's wooden horse into 
 tho city of Troy, and was, with his two sons, slain by two 
 great serpents from the sea. His myth is variously given, 
 but tho account in Virgil's jEncid is the best known. Tho 
 death of i^aoeoiin and his sons is the subject of a noble 
 group now existing in the Vatican. It is described by 
 Pliny, and was rediscovered on the Esquiline Hill in 1 JOfi. 
 It was executed by Agesander, Alhenodorus (his son), and 
 Polydorus, Rhodian artists who probably lived in the lime 
 of 'Til us. The Laocoiin has been made tho subject of Les- 
 sing's masterly criticism. (See bis Laocoon, translated by 
 Ellen Frothingham, 1875.) 
 
 Laodice'a [Gr. ,\ao4.icaca], the name of six Greek cities 
 built liy the Seleuciila;, mouarchs of the Syrian empire, 
 who after the death of Alexander the Great were the chief 
 representatives and inheritors of his Eastern conquests, five 
 of them having been named in honor of Laodice, w'ife of 
 Seleucus Nicator, and one in honor of the wife of Antioehus 
 Theos. Of these, one in .Media, one in Mesopotamia, and 
 another on the Orontes in Pheenicia (called Cabiaiia by 
 Ptolcmv and ad lihanum by Pliny), have not been iden- 
 tified in" modern times. I. LAonirEA Combpsta [Gr. K<iTa«- 
 Kii.vy.ivr,. tlie "burne.l"], now Ladik, situated to the N. \V. 
 of Iconium on the highroad from (irecee to the Euphrates, 
 anil variously .assigned to Lycaonia, Pisidin, and Galatio, 
 as the boundaries of those provinces were ehan'.'cd. Strabo 
 derived the name from the volcanic nature of the surnumil- 
 ing country, but Hamilton (Kcnearclics. vol. ii.) asserts that 
 there is not a particle of volcanic or igneous rock in tho 
 neighborhood, and proposes to derive the name from some 
 confl.agration. Leake (Asia Minor, p. 44) found at Ladik
 
 LAON— LAOU-TSZE. 
 
 1645 
 
 more numerous fragments "f ancient architccturo-ftntl sculp- 
 ture than at any other place visited by liiin in ihut country. 
 Imperial coins of the reigos of Titus and l>oini(ian show 
 that it must have hccn a largo city. — II. La'Hucka ad 
 Lyci'M, now EHhi-IUHHtir, a city in the S. W. of Phrygia, 
 somelime-i reckoned to Onria and to Lydia, near Colussaj, 
 4(1 miles E. of Ephcsus and fi miles W. nf Ilierapolis. situ- 
 ated on the spur of a hill between thcvalleysof the Asopus 
 and Caprus rivers, which hero fall into the Lycus, was 
 originally called Dionpfffi^ and afterwards 77io'f*, and bav- 
 in;^ been rebuilt by Antiochus II. (Tlieos). 2ri0 D. c, was 
 named from hi^ wife LAonuM:, by whom he was poisoned 
 D. (-'. 24(j. From the Syrian monarcdis it passed to the kings 
 of Pcrgamu3, and was annexed to the Roman empire on 
 the death of Attains IH.. I'^l B. c, wlien it became the 
 capital of the vast province of (irealer I'liryj^ia. and rapidly 
 took position as one of the most populous, splendid, and 
 wealthy cities of Asia Minor, distinguished also in liter- 
 ature, noted as the seat of a great medieal school, and was 
 the official residence of Cicero during his (iroconsulatc in 
 A?<iiv (Ut-.Mi); an'l very interesting accounts are to be 
 found in the great orator's correspondence. It became the 
 residence of great numbers of Jews ; was one of the earliest 
 scats of Christianity in Asia Minor, the church having 
 been founded by Paul, who wrote an episilu to the Laodi- 
 ceans (now lost ), mentioned in the Epistle to the Ephe- 
 siani". According to the superscription to I Timothy, Paul 
 wrote that epistle from Laodicoa, called "the chiefcst city 
 of Phrygia Pacotiana," but there is no further notice of his 
 visit. The terrible threat conveyed by the uutborof Keve- 
 lation to the "an^el of the chureh of the Laodiceans, ' one 
 of the seven churehes of Asia ( iii. 14-22), will readily occur 
 to mind, and has rendered the term LainUccnn a synonym 
 for Inkeirnrm, " neither cold nor hot." The city was nearly 
 dcstroycfl by earthquakes in the reign of Tiberius, but 
 quickly restored, ancl was the scat of two impurtant general 
 councils of the Christian Church: the first, whose date is 
 variously placed fmin ;!fi3 to ;t72, enacted sixty canons, one 
 of which defined the books fthence called cmioniml) of 
 Scripture; the set:ond in -170 eonilemneil the Eutyebians. 
 It was again overthrown by an earthquake in 401, was 
 captured by the crusfulers in I1'.I9, by the Turks in 12j.t, 
 and finally destroyed by Tamerlane in 1402. Its splendid 
 and wid'dy scattered ruins, including a stadium, gymna- 
 sium, aqueduct, and three theatres, have been frequently 
 described by modern travellers. (Sco good account in 
 Smith's i>ivi. Oco'f. ii. 122.) — III. LAonic^:\ ad M\ni^, a 
 city of Syria, founded by Seloucus Nicator, now L\takia 
 (whiiih sec). Poktbu C. Hi.iss. 
 
 I^aon' [Late hat. Lnndminm'], town of France, the an- 
 cient /.n'fifitntnu (■fitr'ttniii, the llihrnx of Caesar, capital of 
 the department c)f Aisne. is situated on the top of an iso- 
 lated hill with steep declivities, and surrounrled with a wall 
 flanked with towers. Its (iothic cathedral, built 1114, 
 crowning the top of the hill, adds much to the picturcsquc- 
 ness of its appearance. This ancient city was the scene 
 of an ecclesiastical council in 9 IS. was taken by tlio Eng- 
 lish in ! 12H, was memorable in the wars of Napolroii i. 
 and in the Franeo-tJerman war of |H70, having capitulated 
 to the (lernians Sept, 'J. If has a palace, often the residonco 
 of French monarchs, and a famous library. Pop. 10,208. 
 
 liao'nn, post-tp of Winnebago co., III. Pop. 742. 
 
 Ijiionay postv. of Pomfret tp.. Chautauqua co., N. Y., 
 on Siw l.'rcek, and on the Dunkirk Warren and Pittsburg 
 U. K. It has 2 churches and several manufacturing estab- 
 lishments. Pop. 21S. 
 
 La'os, country of Farther India or Indo-Cliina, nearly 
 in the centre of the vast peninsula S. of t'hina, bounded N. 
 by the Chinese province of Yun-nan, E. by Tonquin and 
 Annm, S. by Siam. and W. by the Shan states. Area, en- 
 tirely uncertain, as well as pop., which is estinmled at 
 ],.50li.0l)n. The Shan states r,n the \. W. were formerly a 
 part of Ij'ios, but are now separate. Lao^ is travers'-d by 
 the great Mc-kongor f-imbodia lliver, and consists chiefly 
 of the fertile valley of this river, which is very produetive 
 of sugar, rice, tobneeo, gums, br-tel-nnts, and other fruits, 
 which with leak, saiidal-wond. and gold-dust form the chief 
 exports. Formerly independent, the tribe) of Laos have 
 since the eighteenth century acknowledged a nominal do- 
 pcndimcp upon Siam. The people are related to the Hur- 
 me-(e in blood, language, religion, and customs; they are 
 ingenious artisans, and trade with Tonquin and Siam. 
 Cap. Cliii-ngmni. 
 
 l.a'oii-Ts/e, otherwise T^ao-Tscn^ I>no«t86e, or 
 Ijao-kiiin, a Chinene moral pliibfsnpher whose teachings 
 have many points in oimmon with thoso of .Sankhya 
 Booddlia, of whom he was eontempornry. Lao-tse means 
 in Chini'so "aneient sage." ilis family name was Li-pC-- 
 yang. and he was born in the third year of the emperor 
 Ting-ouaug, of the dynasty of Tscheu, near Lai in the 
 
 principality of Thsou, This would be, according to Rein* 
 old von Pliinckner, at the end of the seventh century, but 
 another account places the year of his birth about Ct)4. 
 Little is known of Laou-tszo except that he was state 
 librarian and keejxT of the records at the imperial court 
 of Tseheu. nn'l that having resolved in advancing age to 
 retire from China, probnbly to India, be ren)aini'<l for a 
 short time on the liorder, llan-kow, where he was per- 
 suaded by the general Yun-hi to at least leave some record 
 of his doctrines in a book, ile did so, the result being the 
 LftD-tic Tno-te-hiiuj (" The Road to Virtue"), a small col- 
 lection of aphorisms which probably contain more deep 
 philosophy set forth in a spirited and genial form than 
 can be found in any other work of the same size. It has 
 within a few years been translated into the principal Eu- 
 ropean languages, and extensively coniinented on. Lanu- 
 ts/.c makes all things proceed frtjm and live in an infinite 
 First Cause, which he calls T<ui. and which John Chalmers 
 thinks best to leave untranslated, because neither " Way," 
 '* Reason," nor " The Word " gi\es it exactly. lie placed 
 moral pcrlection in the indiviihial, in independent realiz- 
 ing of truth, and in self-discipline, being in nil resjiects 
 the opposite of Confucius, who exhorted blind obcdienco 
 to old customs and the doctrines of the ancient pages. 
 Confucius is said to have taken a long journey lo visit 
 Laou-tszc. They met and interchanged their views, until 
 Laou-tszo, probably wearied by the narro\v scope of the 
 opinions of Confucius and bis frequent quotations of the 
 ancients, sharply exclaimed, *' Why talk for ever on of 
 men who are long dead, and whose very bones are dust? 
 Only their words remain and arc heard. When the wise 
 man meets with opportunity, he rises with it; if he does 
 not, he lets the weeds grow, goes his way, and follows his 
 destiny. I have beard that a shrewd nierehaut conceals 
 his opulence, and the sage of pci'fect virtue loves to seem 
 simple. Put away your priile and your many desires, with 
 the endless ambition wliieb is manifest in yonr manner. It 
 is all folly : and that is all I have to say."' This was a cut 
 direct, but it was natural. Ci»nfucius followed the ancients, 
 and aimed at establisliing society upon conventional rules, 
 while Laou-tszc. a rationalist, yet a mystic, despised glory, 
 the world, the llesh, and {as a writer in Lnnnisse adds) the 
 devil as known to Christianity, (.'onl'ueius is said, on re- 
 turning to bis scholars, to have remarked. *'liirds, 1 know, 
 can fly, fish can swim, and beasts run. The running ones 
 may be snared, the swimming hooked, and the flying snared. 
 But I know not how the dragon rises on the wind and clouds 
 toheaven. I have Seen I*aou-tsze. anil he is like the dragon." 
 Tradition stsites that Laou-tszc when last seen was mounted 
 on a black ox. and rode away into the western wiJdcnirss 
 of Thibet. Brimze figures representing him thus riding 
 may be seen in every shop of Chinese and Japanese goods. 
 From his disquisitions on Tau, tlie great cause and spring 
 of life and morals, or that wbicli with him takes the place 
 of the Deity or the Absolute, Laou-tsze became the head 
 of one of the great religions of China, known as the Tauist. 
 lie did not distinguish between spirit an<I matter, lieing. in 
 fact, a pantheist, and, like lioucldha. he seems to identify 
 pure existence, devoid of passion and t arlhly emotions, with 
 a state which is not to oe separated from non-existence. 
 His philosophy embraces much that resembles the Itleuti- 
 t'dtHlrhrvy a (b)etrinc of identity, of Sehelling, and still more 
 the bold jiarailoxes of Hegel as to the logi<-aI sameness of 
 "Being and Not-Being." Yet from this mysterious un- 
 known Being of nature be deduces a vigorous and beauti- 
 ful moral ereed. The water that bublileil up in the spring 
 of the valley came from be knew not where, and s<i it eaine 
 from unn-hrrr. from nothing. That spring fl<»ws on for 
 ever — a symbol, he thought, of all existence, which con- 
 tinually flows from non-existence. And yet the eternal 
 Tun is ticither one of these nor the other, but the slumber- 
 ing possibility of !)oth. Th<' following extracts give an iilea 
 of the style of Laou-tszc: '* The reason ( Ttnt) which can bo 
 reasoTied is not the eternal lEeasun — the name wliieli can be 
 named is not the eternal Name." "When in the world 
 beauty is recognized to be beautiful, straiglitway tliero is 
 ugliness. When in the world goodness is recognized to bo 
 goofl. straightway there is evil. And thus in like nmnnrr 
 existence and non-existence mutually originate each other; 
 so also diflictilty and ease, long and short, treble and bass, 
 before and after." Laou-tsze often suggests Emerson, and 
 the latter in his essay on Cumprimntion has extended the 
 idea of the former, that " an inevitable (/ualtmn bisects na- 
 ture." ** It is after wisdom has conferred renown that there 
 are great shams. And it is not until a nation bus got into 
 a disordered state that there are patriots" {i. e. faithful 
 ministers). 
 
 Laou-tsze lived in ft great ago. " Ho wa<? contemporary 
 with Booddba in India, with Jeremiah. Habakkiik. Daniel, 
 and Kzekiel in Judiea. with Tbales. Anaximander, Pythag- 
 oras, Hcraclitcs, and Xenophanes in Greece, while at the
 
 1646 
 
 LA PALA— LAPIDARY. 
 
 same time an immense reformation of the doctrines of 
 Zoroaster took place in Persia." It seems impossible while 
 studying his seiitenocs. so full of sagacity and dec]) wis- 
 dom, to doubt that some of this Western influcnee had 
 reached him. 
 
 The principal works on Laou-tsze, in the order of merit, 
 area? fallows ; L'to-tsr'e Titit 'J'e ICTnt/, ttns ifcm ChineHitiflitn 
 tit* Drnttffie nheruct^it, eiiif/eleitet mtfi comnicntirt. von V ie- 
 tnr VDii Strauss (Lcipsic, 1870); Le Livre ih fn Vnie it de 
 la VcrtH, traduction dc M. Stanislas Julien (Paris, I.S42j, 
 to which may be adclcd The Speculations of the Old /'hifos- 
 opher Lau-tHze on MetaphysifS, PoUti/. and Muraliti/, by 
 John Chalmers, apparently in great part a translation from 
 the version of Julien (Loudon, 1S6S). Le Tao-te-h'm(j, on 
 Le Livre rfrfrf dv In Ruismi supreme et de la VcrtUj par Lao- 
 tscii, traduit par G. Pauthior (only the first part of tliis 
 published): Memoires de I'nnciennc Academic dcs Inacrip- 
 tinns (vol. xxxviii.). by De^uigncs : Mf moires sur ht Vie cf 
 la Doctrine de. Lao-tsen, by Abel Remusat ; the (Tcrman 
 version by Rcinold von PlUnckner (Ltio-tsn T6.o-te-king. 
 Leipsic, 1870) is rather an extravajant paraphrase than a 
 translation, it beinj; difficuU. or often impossible, to recon- 
 cile any of its phrases with those of the other versions. 
 The remarks of the early Jesuits yn Laou-ts/.e are as ab- 
 surd as they are contradictory, Pere Couplet (Uifi7), in 
 common with Montucei (1S08), seeing? in him almost a 
 Christian Trinitarian, while Pere du Ilalde (I7r.f)) abuses 
 him as an atheist and destroyer of all morals, in which 
 opinion he was followed and outdone by tlie Fathers Bou- 
 vet, Fouquet. Pr^mare. and Amiot. A good English trans- 
 lation of Laou-tszc's work is desirable. C. G. Lelasd. 
 
 La Pa'la, tp of San Diego co., Cal. Pop. 120. 
 
 Lapal'cong, tp. of Warren co., N. J., on the Delaware 
 River, opposite Easton, Pa. Pop. 1150. 
 
 La Paz, seaport of Mexico, cap. of tho territory of 
 Lower Calilornia, on La Paz Bay, W. coast of the Gulf of 
 Calif )rnia, is tho scat of a deeliniug pearl-fishery; exports 
 to San Francisco tropical fruits and hides. Pop. about 1000. 
 
 La Paz de Ayacucho, city of Bolivia, the capital of 
 the dL-pirtnunt of La Paz, and one of the capitals of the 
 rejiublic, in la^ 10° oO' S. and Ion. GS° H)' W., at an 
 elevation of 12.22(5 feet, on both sides of the river Chu- 
 queapo. Well built, with an agreeable climate, and beauti- 
 fully situated, its promenade or alnnuda presents a splen- 
 did view of the tllimani, and is said to be the finest in Bo- 
 livia. It was founded in lo-lS; is the chief commercial 
 city of Bolivia, transacting a large foreign trade with the 
 Peruvian ports of Arica and Islay, with the latter of which 
 it has been brciu'iht into close connection by the completi(m 
 of the Aroquipa Railway to Puno on Lake Titicaca. It has 
 a beautiful cathedral, 14 other churches, a university, schools 
 of law, medicine, theology, and science, and has frequently 
 been tho seat of the national government. Pop. 8li,000. 
 
 Lapeer', county in the E. of the southern peninsula of 
 Michigan. Area, 6M0 square miles. It is uiululating and 
 fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool arc staple products. Lum- 
 ber and flour are leading articles of manufacture. It is 
 traversed by the Detroit and Bay City and the Port Huron 
 and Lake MiL-higan R. Rs. Cap., Lapeer. Pop. 21,345. 
 
 Lapeer, city and tp., cap. of Lapeer co., Mich., 60 miles 
 N. of Detroit, at the junction of the Detroit and Bay City 
 wiili Chicago and Lake Huron R. R^. A branch of the 
 former railroad, G miles long, connects with Fish Lake. 
 Lajieer has 1 national hank, 2 weekly newspajiers, 9 
 churches, 7 hotels, several large mills and shops, and many 
 stores. It is in a fine farming region, ami is the head- 
 quarters of a large business in ])ino lumber and shingles. 
 Pop. of city, 1772 J of tp. exclusive of city, 1IU)2. 
 
 S. J. ToMi.iNsoN, Ed. "Ci.AniON," 
 
 Lapeer, post-tp. of Cortland co.. N. Y. It contains 
 the beautiful cataract called Hunt's Falls, on Fall Creek, 
 71 feet high. Pop, 7:15. 
 
 Iia Perouse, de (Ttan Franc^oir nn Oai.attp), Coi'nt, 
 b. at lino near Albi, France, Aug. 22, 1741 ; entered the navy 
 in 17-")(i; served in the American war of independence, and 
 was placed at the bead of an exploring expedition which 
 Louis XVI. fitted out, and which left Brest Aug. 1, 178a. 
 Doubling Capo Horn, Ija P^rousc followed the American 
 coast to Monterey, California, crossed then the Pacific, and 
 followed the Asiatic coast from Manila to Petropaulovsk. 
 From this place he sent his journals and charts to Pari.s, 
 and in Sept., 1787. he started southwanl. A letter was re- 
 ceived from him dated Botany Bay, Feb. 7, 1788, and from 
 this place it was his intention to go to the Isle de France 
 by way of Van Dieraan's Land, but nothing more was ever 
 heard of him. It is probable, however, according to re- 
 searches made in 1791 by Admiral d*Entreca?tcaux and 
 I>umont d'Urville in 182S, that he was shipwrecked in 
 17S8 at Vanikoro, in the New Hebrides group of islands. 
 
 Lap'ham (Increa.se Allkn), LL.D., b. at Palmyra, 
 N. Y., .Mar. 7, Isll. Was a civil engineer; was employed 
 on the Miami, Welland. and Louisville canals. Was sec- 
 retary of the Ohio canal commission 18S3-35, and early 
 won a wide fame as a botanist and geologist. In 1S;JG he 
 removed to Milwaukee, Wis., where he has held many ]»ub- 
 lic offices. In 18fi2 he became president of the Wisconsin 
 Historical Society. He published valuable papers and 
 works on the geography, gculogy. mineralogy, anti history 
 of Wisconsin, was a careful obsL-rver of the meteorology of 
 tho region, and prepared a memorial to Congress showing 
 the necessity of storm-predictions for the benefit of com- 
 merce, and how they could be secMired. the suggestions of 
 which were subsequently carried out. All branches of 
 physical science engaged his attention, and he did more 
 than any other man in the State to develop and stiniuluto 
 scientific investigation for practical ends. In 1873 he was 
 appointed to take charge of a geological survey of the State. 
 He organized the survey, and conducted it with great ef- 
 ficiency for two years, nntil, in consequence of a ]>olitical 
 revolution, ho was superseded. He had prepared two able 
 reports which are yet unpublished. He d. suddenly at 
 Ocouomowoc Sept. 14, 1875. 
 
 Lap'idary [Lat. ?r»;)K/arj'»«, a "stonecutter," from lapiSf 
 a " stone," but limited to one who works in precious stones]. 
 By some writers a distinction is observed between the en- 
 graver of ycHis and cameos and the lapidary, the latter being 
 supposed to merely prepare precious stones for jewelry 
 by cutting and polishing them. Of lateyears, since a great 
 demand has sprung up for imitations of ancient Scotch 
 jewelry and for tierman beads, all of agate, carneli.in, and 
 other third-class stones, the lapidary has been chiefly de- 
 voted to this class of work. The first step in polishing a 
 stone is to slit it. This is effected by means of a circle or 
 disk of thin sheet iron placed horizontally, and made to re- 
 volve by very simple machinery. Dianioud-dust is applied 
 to the edge of the iron plate, and sperm oil drops upon it 
 from a can. A raised edge around the tal)le is provided to 
 prevent the loss of the dust. A small quantity on the disk 
 will, if pro|icrIy managed. last all day without appreciable 
 loss. Wh-^n cut, the stone is ground on horizontal wheels 
 made of lea<l, brass, iron, or alloys, and sometimes of wood 
 of different degrees of hardness. The wheels of metal are 
 calloil Inps. On these is spread emery, diamond, or corun- 
 dum powd'T. and sometimes the powder of agates and other 
 gems. For the la-t polish, wheel:^ are used covered with 
 cloth, leather, or hard brushes. The powders of diamond, 
 etc. gradually imbed themselves so firmly in the lead or 
 other soft metal of which the wheels are made that the stone 
 yields to tliem. It is held either with the fingers or by wax 
 in a hollow at the end of a stick, and pressed against the 
 wheel. The /((rcf«, or flat surfaces which give brilliancy to 
 transparent stones, are cut by a very simple contrivance. 
 By the side of the horizontal griuding-whcel is )>laced an 
 upright heavy, club-like piece of wood, resembling a long- 
 necked, very narrow bottle reversed. Into this, in difi"ercnt 
 places, a rod is stuck, at one end of which the gem is affixed 
 with cement. The gem presses on the wheel as it revolves, 
 and the surface is cut away. To make a new facet the rod 
 holding the gem is simply stuck into another hrde. which 
 gives a new inclination or a new angle. The diamond- 
 jiowder used is made from bort, or cheap coarse diamonds, 
 and sells at from £1 to £2 per carat. The workmen acquire 
 wonderful facility in shaping and polishing stones, and 
 from a given pattern will produce any object required with 
 great rapidity. Certain gems, such as the cairngorm, are 
 very elegantly cut in Scotland, but the great mass of beads, 
 bracelets, and inferior '* Scotch "jewelry comes from Ober- 
 stein in Germany. (See Gems.) (For further information 
 consult the woriis of Dr. A. Billing. Dr. Feuchtwanger, 
 King, and HoUzapfel.) Cmaki.ks (J. Li;i,and, 
 
 Lapidary. In writing, this word is applied to a style 
 peculiar to inscriptions, and which derives its name from 
 liipis, a ** stone," from being commonly applied to monu- 
 ments. As it was developed at a time when Latin was 
 principally used for such purposes, its rules are in reference 
 to that language. It has, says Larousse, its special rules, 
 its consecrated abbreviations, its ready-made formulas, and 
 its conventional archaisms. It affects to be ancient and 
 unchangeable by perpetuating words no longer in common 
 use. anil exerts itself chietly to be concise, without neglect- 
 ing great words or pompous forms. It is very difficult to 
 write well, and in ancient forms is much more difficult to 
 read, owing to the abbreviations, by which words are often 
 represented by single letters. The commonest abbreviations 
 in Latin inscriptions are the following: 
 
 Ab I'rbe ComlUa, " Year of the 
 buildini; of the city " (Rome), 
 or " from the building of the 
 
 A. K, Artinm Baccalaureus, 
 
 Bachelor of Arts. 
 A. M.. Aflium Magister, Master 
 
 of Arts. 
 A. U. CyAnno Urbis OindUce^ or 
 
 city.*' 
 COSS., Cbnsules, consuls.
 
 LAPIS LAZULI— LAPLACE, DE. 
 
 1647 
 
 CS.. CbHJtttt. I K.. JTalfndU, "At (or In) the 
 
 C VIR., Ckniatn fir, a magU- { Kalfiid:*." 
 
 trail'. ; L., I.ihrr'us, a frccdinan. 
 
 CC VV.. Clarissimi VJrC, tery , N, A' •/*".». nephew. 
 
 ilhHiri MIS miMi. O. T. B. tj.. Ov.«i ttia bene 71*i*m- 
 
 D. M., Ifiis MuHibtis, "To the I cnit/. '*M:iy your boiiea rest 
 
 M.-iiiL's." j well :" 
 
 D. M. S., Diu M'lnibus Sticnimy P. M.. Pim/if^z Maxtmus, the 
 
 '•Allarof the Mant's."' | great pontiir. 
 
 D. S. P. . Pi' tit'i pfcimia, " At hut S. C., Stnattui roruu//o, " By a de- 
 
 own f'xpt-nse." crcp of tho Senate." 
 
 F^ FiHuj, >on. I S. P. Q. R.. S^n>Uw popiihisqiff! 
 
 F8-. /'V<i/fM. brothers. Ronuinus, "The Sonale and 
 
 (J. I). N., Ornio Domini noUrt, \ the Koinaa pe<>pl« 
 
 S. T. T. I... Sit fibi terra hrijc, 
 
 "May the earth be light to 
 
 (ont Iht'el" 
 V. F.. I'irus /rcU, "He did it 
 
 wliih^ alive." 
 V. P.. I'irm poxt/H. " lie erected 
 
 it whilf yet alive." 
 V. S. ]j.. I't'fttin solrit libmx^ " He 
 
 did it to accomplish a vow." 
 
 "To ilii- (ii-niiis i()r tutelary 
 
 spirit* <if nur Ma-'ttrr." I 
 
 H. F. <'.. If-rfx facinwiuni cum- i 
 
 ri'. " Kxe-'ul'-d bv the heir." i 
 n. M. H. N. S., ll'i)C monnm^- \ 
 
 turn hrrfdrrn non seqiiitiir, 
 
 "This ni'tnument (Iik*s not ' 
 
 follow our inb'Titnne)'." 1 
 
 T. O. M.. J'ni O.tfimo ^f'^rimo, , 
 
 " To Juvf, thi b'jst and great- , 
 
 est." i 
 
 Among the peculiarities of lapidary style is that by which 
 a date was e.\pressed hy mnkin;; tho numeral letters promi- 
 nent in an inscription. Of this kind is the followinj^, 
 which was formerly on tho face of an old clock before a 
 tavero in Paris : 
 
 ** AV t?Mps dV rnt ChirL-s T.-* hVU 
 C.'st VI liosleL fVt caiiblrVIt." 
 
 By addin:; !h?3e capitals the date 1405 is obtained. (See 
 Chronockam.) CiiAitt.p.3 G. Lelasi>. 
 
 La'pis Laz'nli [Lat. M/jiV, "stone," and Arab, asii^ 
 *'heavi?n "j, a natural silicate of lime and alumina, with a 
 small amount of sulphurets, crystallizing in the mono- 
 metric system, ami of a beautiful Berlin-blue color. It i,-; 
 highly valued for the manufacture of ornamental articles, 
 and was formerly the sole sourcs of the rich paint ultra- 
 marine, which is now chiefly manufactured artificially. 
 
 Lap'ithiE [Aafftfljti], in the Greek mythology, a race of 
 Thessilians, the d*seen<lants of Lapithcs, a son of Apollo, 
 whoso king was Pirithous, son of Ixion. They overcame 
 the Centaurs in a bloody war, but were in turn humbled by 
 Hercules, as relate I in llcsiod and Ovid. They wore prob- 
 ably an early warlike race of the Pelasgian stock. 
 
 Laplnce' (rvnii.i.KPicRRKTHf'onoRK). b. Nov. 7,170^; 
 entered the French navy early: was niado captain in ISIM, 
 rear-admiral in 1S4I, vice-admiral in IS.i.3, and retired 
 in ISjS. He commanded in two c.\pcilitions of circum- 
 navigation, which he described in 1'".'/".'/'' autonr dn Monde 
 (5 vols., Paris. lS;{.'}-;i9j and Cfitnpat/ne dc Ctrcnmufivigatiun 
 (4 vols., 184J-4S). I). Jan. 24, 1875. 
 
 Laplace, de fPtEnnr: Simox), M\RQrrs, b. at Beau- 
 mont en-Aug'\ in X'iriniindy, Mar. L'.l. ITtO. of poor pa- 
 rcn's: ho was indelttcd to the interest of wealthy friends for 
 almisT^ion to tho College of Caen and the military school 
 of Iloaumont. Brought to tho notice of D'Alembort, who 
 procured him the mathematical mnstership of tho military 
 sehool at Paris, that city bcc.imc his resilience at the ago 
 of eii;h;ccn. Two papers on the Theory of ProbaI»ilittc9 
 printo 1 at tho Academy rUiring the ensuing five or six years 
 arc mentioned by tlio Aendeniy as chosen for publication 
 among many, with the eulogy, "This society has never 
 known so young a person t() furni'ih in so short a time no 
 many important memoirs on subje^ds so diverse and so 
 diffi :ult." He was elected an associate, and in I78.'tamoin- 
 ber. His political career during the Kevolution and under 
 Napoleon has been much commented upon, but ucilhcr 
 space nor adequate data allow its tliscussion here. 
 
 Lapliioo is stylccl by Prof. Forbes (fifh Dissertation, 
 Enci/c. Itrit^ "a sort of exemplar or typo of (he highest 
 oIajh of mathematical natural pnilosophersof tbis, or rather 
 tho immi'dialely preceding, ago;" by Mr. Airy," the great- 
 est mathematician of the past age;" and by Prof. Xichol, 
 "tho titanic geometer." It may bo added thiit (he present 
 a!;o haa proilu'cd no recognized rival; that (o Newton 
 alnno, as a " m;ithematical philosopher," is. in any ncc, supc- 
 riorify concc Ic-I. His more important invcstigaliuns are — 
 his improvements of tho lunar theory ; his discovery of the 
 cause of tlie great inequality of .Tupiter nnd Sntiirn's mo- 
 tions ; his tlir'ory of tho tides; his work on jirobnbililies. 
 Newton's newly disfovered law of gravitation Imd been so 
 successfully applied to the lunar motions ns with one im- 
 portant exception to reconcile ihem to the refpiirements of 
 th^ theory ; th'^ nnoxplainotl exception was " that the mcnn 
 nt'iti'in of (h-* moon has been accelerated from century to 
 century by a minute quantity, which, in the lapse of thou- 
 samls of years, has become rccngnizniilc." The earliest au- 
 thentic observations of eclipse, made a( Babylon in the 
 years 71fl. 720. 721, show that they oceurre I 1} hours ffooiirr 
 thnn if the present mcnn motion of tho mom then obtained. 
 The interval has been Imi-fr than it should liuve been 
 
 found to be, and hence the motion fe^s rapid in former cen- 
 turies. As regards the moon's orbit, "the effect has been 
 that at each lunation she approaches nearer to the earth 
 than during the last hy one-fourteenth of an inch ! thus de- 
 scribing a spiral of almo'it infinitely slow convergence." 
 
 To understand (he ^'olution of this apparent anomaly as 
 finally given by Laplace, il must be remembered that under 
 tho action of central forces the angular velocity of a satel- 
 lite about its primary will be increased by an increase of 
 the central force: that the effect of the sun's attraction on 
 the moon and earth is. on the whole, to diminish the central 
 force between these bodies by a minute qu.antity propor- 
 tional to the inverse cube of the sun's distance.* The dis- 
 turbing effect, therefore, of the sun's attraction is to make 
 the moon".^ motions less rapid than they otherwise would 
 be; anrl whatever diminish*? //o'^* »listiiri)ing effect accele- 
 rates the moon's motion, ^^ow, though the earth's nienn 
 distance from the sun has not varied, the eccentricity of its 
 orbit has been diminishing from the earliest historic times, 
 and with it the arcrni/r inverse cube of the distance. Hence, 
 the secular acre^cr«tion of the moon above descrilnvl ; wliich, 
 however, as also its approximation to the earth, nui.-t cease 
 with the attainment of minimum eccentricity by the earth's 
 orbit, when the reverse effects will ensue. The amount of 
 acceleration is now about 10" of longitude in a century. 
 
 A comparison of ancient observations with modern re- 
 vealed an acceleratii)n of the mean motion of Jupiter and 
 a retardation of that of Saturn, whereas modern observa- 
 tions alone show a contrary effect to be in progress. The 
 revealing after many years of ptu<iy of the source of the re- 
 sulting discrepancy between astntnomical tables nnd ob- 
 servation is regarded as one of tho prouilesi achievements 
 of its author, though Mr. Airy regards his theory of tho 
 tides as furnishing a "greater claim for reputation." 
 
 Analytical expressions for celestial pliennmona can, in 
 general, be but approximations, in which terms considered 
 insignificant, as involving the square, cube, or higher pow- 
 ers of minute quantities, are discarded. Laplace demon- 
 strated that among those which had been thus neglected in 
 the expansions of the mutual perturbations of Jupiter and 
 Saturn were some multiplied by sines or cosines of angles 
 renijered small by sm:ill multipliers. Mathematicians 
 arc familiar with tho tact that, subjected to integration, 
 such terms, by making tlie small multiplier a diristtr, pro- 
 duce quantities of appreciable magnitude. The effect of 
 this discovery and the restoration of such terms was a com- 
 plete reconciling of ancient and moilcrn observations. Thus 
 were removed from the theory of gravity the two most 
 formidaI>le obstacles to its acknowledged adequacy to ex- 
 plain celestial phenomena — the anomaly of the lunar aecel- 
 era'ion and the great inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn. 
 
 Tidal theories, previous to Lajtlace's investigations, pre- 
 sumed the earth lo be at rest, and the waters of the ocean 
 to be in motionless equilibrium between the forces of gravity 
 and the solar and lunar attractions. Laplace had the bold- 
 ness to attempt the solution of a problem in which necount 
 is taken of the mntiunH (relatively to the earth) which tlie 
 fluid particles must receive in order to produce the tides ; in 
 other words, of the forces rer|uired to produce them. All hough 
 this theory, in the writer's opinion, no more really grasps 
 the actual lidnl phenomena of the existing sens of (he earth 
 than the equilibrium theory, it in»idd solve the problem 
 did the ocean cover the whole of the earth's surface with 
 uniform or nearly uniform depth, or did it so occupy a 
 canal continuous between parallels of tatilnde around tho 
 globe; and it furnishes highly interesting and even import- 
 ant results. 
 
 In another paper (Amn\ Jour, of Science^ 1S59) the 
 writer remarked : " If tho actual conjij/ttrution of tho ocean's 
 
 •The sun's a'iracfitm varies as the Inverse square of the dis- 
 tance; but (if the moon be new or full) il is by \\\<} diffeiener 
 only of ilH attraclions on the earth uiid moon, by which one is 
 drawn nuin/froui (he olh'-r, and so tiuirli of iln' mulual ntlnution 
 of earth arid moon nentralizL-d. Now, if A* be the sun's mass, 
 and /> lie its distance from the earth, and d that of Ihc nH«)n, 
 
 •S S 
 
 this difference at time of new moon will be ,„ — ;— — . ■ 
 
 (D — tlYt in 
 Sinecdishut aJgth of A this diffei'cnce will reduce (nearly) to 
 
 * -; and the same for full moon. But on the contrary, when 
 
 the moon (In first or last quarter) and earth areequidlstaul from 
 the sun, il dmn-x th'-m I'ntrthrr, owinu to the slightly ouiverk'cut 
 dircctiotiH of Us attraction, Iliouu'b by hnlf only id the above 
 expressed force. The average effect (neRlcctlng a srnall fluclti- 
 utliig and Hclf-neutrali/Jng force) is a decremi'nt of (lie gravi- 
 tating force between tho earth and moon, equal to "-, which 
 
 may bo computed at ^^ri^b. and by which the period of a luna- 
 tion would he lengthened yj[{y. or \ h<uirs. Il is mtt, however, the 
 tutnl amount of ihe sunN ellect. but its excessively minute (now) 
 u:anin{i fluctuation (owiiiK to the minute increase in the aifratje 
 value of IP. through Ilio pronresslve diminution urecccntri- 
 citvi, thill causes the moon s *' acceleration."
 
 1648 
 
 LAPLACE'S COEFFICIENTS. 
 
 bed is the very basis of a dynamic theory of the tide?, then 
 a theory which is ohlijied to reject entirely tliis actual enn- 
 figura'ion, and instead of ocean-beds of Ihnited areas, iso- 
 lated from each other by dry land in tho*c parallels where 
 the tidal etTects arc the greatest, substitutes an imaginary 
 ocean covering tiio tchofe r/tobe, and of the same depth fol- 
 lowiii<; each parallel of latitude, the problem can be only a 
 raatht'iiiatical one of more or less interest, from which noth- 
 ing; of any practical value, as to the actioit ])licnomena of 
 the tides, can ho expected ;" and Mr. Airy, who speaks of 
 Laplace's investigation as "one of the most sfdendid works 
 of the greatest mathematician of the age," in almost the 
 same breath says,*' As it is, Laplace's theory fails totally 
 in 3]>]ilication. from the impossibility of introducing in it 
 the cun-iideration of the boundaries of the sea :" and Prof. 
 Forbes (fith Dissertation) fully sustains the writer when 
 ho says, *• It is, in fact, like many other productions of the 
 same age and school, a great display of ingenuity and 
 mathematical skill, which hardly yields a .single result 
 worthy of confulencc or agreeing with nature, except by 
 the ahnndonment of its deductive rigor, or a concealed in- 
 duction backward from the phenomena to he accounted for." 
 
 The doctrine of Probabilities — the subjecting to the rigor 
 of mathematical methods subjects which /cimw no law (i\ e. 
 of chance) — furnishes the most subtle and at the same time 
 the most fascinating of problems, occupying as it were a 
 borderland to Metaphysics, Logic, and Mathematics. The 
 ThSoiic (innhftlqnr mtr fen PiuibabHtttx of L;iplace is re- 
 gardeil as quite the ablest specimen of matheniaticai writ- 
 ing of his age; but one which cannot here be discussed. 
 (See Phobabilities.) 
 
 In this brief notice it would be in vain to discuss La- 
 place's distinctive claims to greatness as a mathematician 
 and a ])hilosopher. His mastery of mathematical analysis 
 was perhaps unsurpasst-d, and he has contributed gi'catly 
 to the development of this powerful agent of human rea- 
 son, especially in its application to physical problems. 
 Ho is the inventor of the most powerful calculus (since 
 generalized and enlarged as the Spherical /Jttrmonfr Anat- 
 ysiH) known generally as that of LArLACF-'s (^okfficibnts. 
 (See that head.) It is due, however, to L^jfudre to say 
 that he (according to Dr. Forbes) "was the first to 
 imagine and employ those artifices of calculation known 
 as * La])lace Functions.' " His longest and most system- 
 atic work, the Mf'niui(fnr C^U-^itc, is a compendium of tho 
 proliU'tns of (ihysica! astronomy which had been accumulat- 
 ing for a century, but which arc treated by methods mainly 
 original with himself. This work, though written with en- 
 tire tlisregard to preserviug the order and connection wliich 
 would enable the reader to fuUow him, is justly considered 
 his most imperishable monument. Dr. Buwditch. whose 
 voluminous explanatory notes appended to his translation 
 arc almost an indispensable aid, was accustomed to remark, 
 " Whenever I meet the words of il etit fnn'/c dr voi?- (i. e. 
 it is cii.H}f to ficr), I am sure that hours and pvrhaps days of 
 hard study will he necessary fur nio to discover how it 
 plainly appears." It is certainly a disparagetncnt to the 
 work that it should he so, for I think mathematicians will 
 admit that a little more reganl to order and connection, 
 and a slight condescension to furnish explanation or clue, 
 would make tho work more useful, ccriainly more easily 
 read. 
 
 For a short time Laplace was one of Napoleon's minis- 
 ters. The cause of disagreement is unknown, but his was 
 not tho character of miud best fitted for politics or di[)lo- 
 raacy, and he was evidently out of his element. No moro 
 infelicitous or unjust characterization than that ap])lied hy 
 Napoleon, '* the intinitesimal philosopher," could have been 
 made. No modern mathematician has exhibited greater 
 powers of generalization : and in his Xthit/ar Jlifpnthcuitt 
 wc have one of the grandest conceptions of the origin of 
 the actual Coshiok, as the result of continuous action of 
 physical " laws," and one which has anticipated modern 
 thought in relation to ilcrdopnieut. Lapbicc has been cen- 
 sured for •' meanly " suppressing in the second eilition, pub- 
 lished afier the emperor's fall, the dedication, "yl Napoh'on 
 le Grand," which had been given to the first edition. Mr. 
 Todhunter iff inf. nf the Thron/ of Probahitift/) thinks that 
 "tho fault was in tho original publication, and not in the 
 final suppression;" and that it would have been "almost a 
 satire to have repealed it when the tyrant of Europe had 
 become tho mock sovereign of Elba or the exile of St. 
 Helena." He has. too, on very inadequate grounds been 
 charged with atheism. His Inst words (he died in Paris Mar. 
 5, LS'J7, exactly a century after Newton), so similar in sen- 
 timent to language attributed to his great predecessor, 
 prove that, like that great philosopher, insight into the 
 mysteries of nature deeper than other men's nourished in 
 him not arrogance, but humility ; " Ct- que tiotm cfinuainnouD 
 est pen de chusc; cc fjite nous i'jnorous cat iiitmeune," 
 
 J. G. Barnard. 
 
 Laplace's Coefficients. The properties of these 
 important analytical exjiressions were discovered by La- 
 place while investigating the attractions of bodies nearly 
 splicrical in figure. The total attraction of any body upon 
 a material point is the resultant of the attraction of all its 
 elementary particles: or, to slate in different form, the total 
 effort of the attraction in any given direction is tho integral 
 of the comi)onenls in that direction of tho attractions of 
 all the elementary particles. If j-. y, z be the rectangular 
 co-ordinates of any elementary portion dm {~ pdxdi/dz, 
 p being the density) of the attracting body, and jr',y',z' the 
 co-ordinates of the attracted point, the attraction exerted 
 by dm (varying inversely as the square of the distance) 
 will be 
 
 pdm 
 
 and the componcDt of this panilkl to the axis of x will be 
 
 pf.r' — x)tl.r<fti<h 
 
 and the component of the nttrnclion exerted by the entire 
 body upon the attracted particle will be the triple integral 
 of this last expression. Now, if we put 
 
 -^A 
 
 pdxdi/dz 
 
 [{x' - jc)i + (/ - 1/)'^ + {r' - z)^i (2) 
 
 (that is, T' is the sum of the quotients of the elementary 
 masses, each divided i»y its distance from the attracted par- 
 ticle), it will be found that ( 1 ) is simydy the partial dilfcr- 
 entiai (with sign changed) of V taken with regard to tho 
 
 d V d V 
 
 variable a:'. Hence also — , , and ^ -— give the compo- 
 rt// dz 
 
 ncnts of attraction parallel to the axes of ^ and z; or, more 
 
 generally,— -- is the component of attraction parallel to 
 
 any line of which dn is an element of length. 
 
 The function V, first introduccil by Laplace for gravita- 
 tion, is of great iinportani'o in physics, au'l the name of 
 potentinl has been given to it by the English mathcmnti- 
 cian the late (leorgc Green, who (taking his clue from the 
 use of it made by Laplace) may be said to have created tlie 
 theory as we now have it. In reference to gravitation, not 
 only does the amount of attractive force depend upon it 
 
 (bcinff, in any direction, — — I, but the Kork which (hat 
 dn ) 
 
 attraction is potent to do along anv path is evidently the in- 
 
 /dV 
 rfs, or, — V} hence the name of potential. 
 
 A property of V. easily verified, is that the sum of tho 
 
 second partial dilferentials with respect to eaeh of the co- 
 orclinates of the attracted point is y.rro. provided it be not 
 a part of the attracting mass. In the latter ease (demon- 
 sfration cannot be here given) the sum is —4iTp', Hence, 
 tho property in question is expressed by 
 
 p' being the density at tho attracted point of tho mass. 
 Jlcnce, if we know the potential V with reference to any 
 point included in its oini mnss of which the co-ordinates are 
 a:', y', z'f the variable density will be expressed hy 
 
 "*" dy'^ "*" dz"i 
 
 The determination of T lends nt once to the determination 
 of the attraction upfin any point. V is the inltgial of 
 pdjcdijdz multiplied by 
 
 [(x'- j:)2 ^• {y'~ y)^ + {z'-zW^ , (4 ) 
 
 the reciprocal of the distance bi-'twpen the element flm and 
 the attracted particle. If wo IransfDrm x", r/. z' into (lolar 
 co-ordinates r', 6', at', and x, y. z into /•, 0, w, wc have tlio 
 iijual expressions (the angle being mcasared from the 
 axis of z], 
 
 j-'= I ' sin 9' cos u' : y'= r' sin 0' sin u' : z'=r' cosO', 
 and corresponding ones for x, i/, z. 
 
 If. with Laplace, we represent cos » and cos 9' by m ami 
 il', the above reciprocal will be converted into 
 
 [,•2 + )•'» - 2it' JMf ' + \/n^^Vl -^'-" cos («! — <»') J ]' i ; 
 
 which may bo expanded into converging scries (according 
 as r'> or < r), 
 
 1 r r< 
 
 P<,-, + Pi-.i+ ■P'-Ti+T 
 
 in which Po Pi . ■ ■ ■ and Pi are rational and entire funo 
 
 4„ \(/x'» 
 
 7r\ 
 
 (5)
 
 LAPLACE'S COEFFICIENTS. 
 
 1649 
 
 lions of n, VI — fi.' cos w, ••/l — m^' aio w ; any coefficient /*( 
 is of t dimensions in these quantities (and the sixuic is tnio 
 with regard to the variables m' nod w'), and its numerical 
 value has plus or minus unity for maximum and minimum. 
 
 If wo style the expression (-1) Q. it will be found to sat- 
 isfy the condition (3) (with zero for second member). 
 
 In polar co-ordinates this condition becomes 
 
 and if we substitute for Q the developments (o), it will be 
 found that /'i satislies the condition 
 
 The functions Pi possess remarkable properties discov- 
 ered by Laplace. Hence their name. LafAncca Co^J^^Unta. 
 As resulting from the develupmeuts (j), they are deter- 
 minate, and hence involve only numerical quantities with 
 fi and w, fi' and w'. Other expressions derived from the in- 
 tegration of (7). and onlaining, of course, but one set of 
 variables with arbitrary constants, share in tl»c same prop- 
 erties, and are designated as Lnpluce' a Functions to distin- 
 guish them from the Coefficients. These properties {proofs 
 of which cannot be hero given) are the following: 
 
 1. If Qi and Si be two Laplace's Coefficients or Func- 
 
 /-ft /»2Tr 
 / Qi *Vi dft-dui =: 0, when i and i' are 
 — 1,/ 
 ditferent integers, the sura of which bo not minus unity. 
 
 2. A function F (fi,w) of n, VI— ^i-cosw, and VI —^ 
 einw, which docs not become infintto between the limits — 1 
 and + 1 of Ml And and 2tr, of u, can be expanded in a scries 
 of Lnpf<icf.'*a FunctionH (which is equivalent to saying that 
 any fuuction of a-, y, z can be thus expanded); that is, 
 
 F{^,u»)==Fo + Fi + Fi . . . -(-Fi+ . . . , (S) 
 
 in which Fi is a Laplace Function of tho order i, and is 
 equal to 
 
 That Is, Pt (which contains symmetrically fi and fi.% 
 and also w, ••'), by being multiplied by fin^ function, 
 Fin', Hi'), of }i*,'J\ — m' cos: w', VI — /x' sin w, and intcfrnited 
 as above, is converted into the Laplace Function of i order, 
 of tho development of /' (/x. w). 
 
 The general expression for these coefficients. Pi, is ex- 
 ceedingly complicated. Wo give here, as examples, ex- 
 pressions for Pi and 1*2 only. 
 
 Px = m/ + vrr;:* v'n^'^ cos (« - «')• 
 ft=![u'-J)C/*"-l)+3(i-M')^M(i-**'^)Vcos(«-«') 
 
 + Ml -m"^)( I - 1^"^) COS 2(« - w'). 
 
 The Laplace Functiona, Ft (tho sum of which from t = 
 to I =a to tho order of tho given fuuction, /', constitutes the 
 development of the latter), may be obtained from /' by the 
 indicated process (U), involving the use of the *' Laplace 
 Coufficienis " /\ :f but when tho function /•' Is rational and 
 integral, tho development is more readily made the melhod 
 indicated by Laplace, having recourse to the general forms 
 of Laplace Functions (or Sphrricttl hnrmnnicajf i. e. to the 
 general solutions of differential equation (7). 
 
 I shall not attempt to initicate the processes by which these 
 general form« arc detcrrained, but give thoso of 0, I, 2, 3d 
 orders with the general expression for a harmonic of ant/ 
 order i, calling Si the general solution of (7) with regard 
 to variables m and w: 
 
 
 
 S =Ut 
 
 +('• 
 
 r,W 
 
 -,( 
 
 rl , sin : 
 
 t + If , COS 2 II 
 
 /f'TU3-s^}+(i- 
 
 l- 
 
 '1' 
 
 M- 
 
 •\ A , sinti 
 
 • In relation to those pecultarnunnlltlcM, A, this equation holds 
 for«iVA<rof the twoitcis of variables /a, w, or m'. w'. 
 
 f It is nut unusual to slylc iht? di;vcli>|iinenl (8) as a scries of 
 " Laplace's Otrfficirnl ;" but I ImIIcvc U inoro correct to confine 
 that deslynatlnu to the (jimntitbn A, which appear ni neiiinl 
 "coeflicient?!" in thcMlcvi'lopment (To. These quiin({(i<-<i nre in- 
 deed l-iplnce Kunctiont itr " S/>/trrirat hnrmonir.t," Uut of very 
 ni.Trkcd peculiarily of form; beiii;; biaxutl or double (i. r. pns- 
 scssin.,' I he essential properties, in eac/i of Ibc two seis of varia- 
 bles M. «^ and (x', w') and de>fitute of arbitrary cnnHlants; and 
 thrnuch this double form. Instrumental In eonVertin-^ F(n',ta') 
 Into a I-a|)lncc i'linctioii /•' mul. ilni-*. to (he ilcvclopmcul of F 
 (m tit) in Ijaplace Furulious, or Spherical hurmunies. 
 Vol.. II.— (Ill 
 
 + Z? 3 cosw I +(1— m*)m I a 5sin2»-|- /? 3 cos2cii [ 
 +(1 -m')^ [ A *J*siD 3 w + fljcos Sol 
 
 and in general 
 
 6'^"= 2 
 
 .(1-M^): 
 
 etc. 
 
 I 
 
 '+. 
 
 A sm nut + If cos n n 
 
 (10) 
 
 (;-n)(t -«-l) 
 
 2(2*'- 1) * 
 
 j VI »lUH«-t-y/ CO? HOI [, 
 
 In the foregoing the capital letters, with super and sub 
 fixes represent arbitrary constants. 
 
 To develop any rational integral function F oT jr, t/, Zy of 
 degree f, these variables must first be transferred into polar 
 co-ordinates. 
 
 The general Laplace Function (10) of tho same order (' 
 will be subtracted from it. and the arbitrary constants de- 
 termined by tho condition that the remainder /'*— .V^ shall 
 contain no powers or products of ^ or V 1 — ^■■' of higher 
 than tho t - 1 order. 
 
 This determines Fi of (S). From that remainder (of de- 
 gree I*— 1), tho general expression (10) of next lower order 
 1—1, is subtracted; and the constants again determined 
 by the condition the new remainder shall contain no pow- 
 ers or products of ^ or V I — fi^ of higher order than i — 2; 
 by which Fi-i of (S) is determined; and so on. 
 
 First invented for expressing the attraction of a body 
 of nearly spherical figure, its first application may here be 
 illustrated. It is well known that, except for spherical or 
 ellipsoidal figures the integration of V, (2), is impracticable 
 by direct process. 
 
 Transposed into the variables r, ^, and w, pdxdi/dz be- 
 comes pi'^drdfidia. Tho denominator of V develops, for 
 an external attracted point, into the first of the scries (o). 
 If wc suppose the mean radius of the body to be o, and va- 
 riable radius to be a ( I +//), in which tho greatest value of 
 the variable, y, is supposed to be but a small fraction, and 
 if we integrate I with reference to i-, from r = a, 
 to r = a(l +y), wo shall get (supposing the density p to 
 be constant, and neglecting powers of y above the first), 
 
 for that jiart resulting from the stratum of small variaMo 
 thickness (positive or negative) ay, by wbieli tho given 
 body varies from true sphericity of form. Tliis function y 
 must, of course, be given, in terms of fA, Vl — /x^^cosoi, and 
 ^/l — (I* sin u ; and can bo developed in Laplace Functions, 
 Yo + J'l + J'j + . . . Yi r . . . 
 
 But by (0) - -- 
 
 i^ J —\J 
 
 y Pi (Ifji dui = Yi : hence the 
 
 terms of the integral (11) become, severally, 
 
 (2i + lj r'<'*i '' 
 and henco (since that part of V belonging to the sphere of 
 •lirpa' 
 
 radius a is easily found to bo 
 
 (12) r- 
 
 4irpa' 4irpa* 
 
 { >»^3 
 
 
 ), 
 
 .' 
 
 (2'+l) 
 
 r + 
 
 ...j. 
 
 Thus tho potential r(from wliich can by diGTerentiation 
 bo derived the attraction) is determined. 
 
 If, on tlic other hand, the body {f.y. the earth considered 
 as a fluid enveloping a spherical nucleus) be such that a 
 foreign attrjvction pntdiu-v a slight distortion or deviation 
 from perfect sphericity, many important problems (c. */. the 
 tides) depend on the determination of tins distortion. The 
 
 ' direct effect of the foreign atlructi(m would be determined 
 with comparative case ; but the problem is very much com- 
 
 \ plicated by tho fact that this directly prottuccd stratum of 
 
 I distortion itacf/ reacts upon the particles of its own sub- 
 stance; which secondary action must be taken into account. 
 The potential of that reaction, in terms of the sought quan- 
 
 j tity,_i/,can by aid of ( 12) be cxpreiHrd tinu/i/firafh/, und oom- 
 bincil tcit/i tho potential of the foreign attraction in ex- 
 pressing tlie conditions of equilibrium, and thus tho actual 
 tidal dislortions determined. 
 
 Tho discovery of tlie remarkable functions of Laplnco 
 (whose own demonstration of their properties was regarded 
 as inconclusive, or at least incomplete) was followed by a 
 controversy among eminent marhematieians, the subslanco 
 of which is given by IJ«)wditch in his voluminous notes to 
 botdt iii. chap. ii. ^ I J of tho Mtcaniipte Ctlrnfr. 
 
 The method has since been gencrali/.ed, and, under tho 
 designation of apht-ricul hnrmonic anali/ain, greatly devel- 
 oped (see Thomson and Tait, Natural Pfiifmiop/n/, whero 
 Its objeot is defined to bo "the expression of an arbitrary
 
 1650 
 
 LAPLAND AND THE LAPPS. 
 
 periodic function of two indepen.lent variables in the ; 
 ^ "per form for » large class of I'hy^i-l P-W^XXduc"- 
 in<r arbitrary data over a spher.eal surface and the deduc 
 tio'u of solutions for every point of space ) 
 
 in nve ic^ations of the distribution of electnc.ty and 
 m-, "ne i'.m-of the conduction of heat, etc.-its power alo.,e 
 "n'c.p with the difficulties of the problems The n,c^ 
 hnpor nt application involving grav.tat.on .s o the theory 
 of 'the Fi-uro of the Earth, the attraction ot the mass on 
 each of itf particles being that of approximate y spher.eal 
 la^• rs of m,ltter equally dense through each, but v-y.og n 
 donsitv from layer to layer. Bes.des '''^ ^"^l^^^^ ^ f 
 mentioned, consult Pratt, /'isf'-e oy ihv ha, h, ^l^J"^'"' 
 ^Uctririonnd Ma<„,Hi.m ; J.J. Sylvester, Ao<e.«.. Spher- 
 ical Harmonic. .- Phil. Ma,j., 1ST6 vol. »■ 
 
 A simple harmonic function is deBned under the head 
 utZni,- Motion. A combination of such producesacom- 
 nlcThamooic function. " Fourier's Theorem (wh>ch >s 
 Sot only "one of the most beautiful results «' '-;J-° -" 
 alvsis but mav be sai.l to furnish an indispensable ustru- 
 »rt in rLt;ea.ment of nearly every recon.teques.,^^ 
 
 modern physics ■•) amounts to th.s-viz. ^" '/"°^''f°^7;*. 
 ever between definite values of the variable may be ex 
 nressed as a complex harmonic function. The ^pherical 
 Tarmonic analvsis " is but an extension (^^ence probably 
 "ts name) of {his principle to the expression of quantity 
 arbitrarily distributed over a <pher,cal "y/^"g^^^.^„p_ 
 
 Lapland and the Lapps. Lapland ("the land of the 
 LipW' U the name generally given to an extensive territory 
 o^NCthern Europcltretching along the Arctic Ocean, from 
 the AUantic to the White Sea. It does not form an indo- 
 pentoit poli ical unit, but is divided tefveen Norway 
 Swe don and Russia, and inhabited, besides the Lapps, by 
 Irnns Norwegians. Swedes, and Russians. The general 
 aspect of the "ountn- is rather forbidding. A long, severe 
 winter of nine months, during which the sun does not r se 
 for two months: a short, extremely hot summer in July 
 and ."ugust, during which the sun does not ^,<;' ? j'/P"?! 
 and a fall of a couple of wecks,-such is the climate. The 
 forests of pine and birch which cover the southern parts 
 of the cou'^try soon cease ; barley and po''' -s may be 
 raised as far as 70° N. lat., but only in a few v. alleys. Un 
 Ihc lar"e ablcland nothing grows but liehens and mosses 
 on which the large herds of reindeers feed, which ogethcr 
 w°th hunt g and fishing, afford the inhabitants their solo 
 :esourc-es ol^ife. The'l.apps belong to 'he LaPPO"ian 
 subdivision of the Tschudic races, which ■"•« jf";"^^''^ 
 the philologist Castren to the Finnic group of the great 
 Turanian family. This gives 'h"- '"». P-'/'rih^/nanies 
 
 £=^b«be^.r^ti;oth;r^^ ;:^A^^ 
 
 before Us oecupatiL by Aryans, and therefore hefore the 
 European historical period. Their dwellings on the E. 1 
 sideTf ?he continent Jxtended as far S. as the lower ^ olga 
 hut they were long ago driven from their old home by the 
 steady prrsure of' Finns, Slaves, and others, laterally and | 
 f om belw, until they have been crowded into their present 
 seal Now and then, however, their frontier has been able to 
 ma ntain itself, or even advance upon that of the.r neigh- 
 W'' Thev have always been closely connected with the i 
 Finns, possiblv even ccmfounded, by early observers, bot^^ j 
 ethnically and geographically^, especially '" L^i;''" ''/^'f 
 ancient Fenni, mentioned by Taci us ''Y'; '^«;' ••'■<> ^. of 
 Europe, were probably the ancestors of the Lapps, not ot 
 fhe Xns. They ha>-e a tradition of their former occu- 
 pancy of Sweden or Finland. " The Swedes and Lapps 
 '. they say, " were originally brothers. When a storm came on^ 
 the Swedes put up a board and took shelter under it the 
 Lapps took to a tent ; and ever since the after have lived 
 in te'nts, the former in houses." The primitive wanderings 
 ' of the ancient Sabrae are scarcely distinguishable from 
 those of the Finns. Their later history, too, is only inci- 
 dental to that of their Aryan conquerors, who have either 
 reduced them to the condition of serfs, or forced them into 
 sterile an.l icy regions, where they could never develop an 
 independent nationality. , . e _j.„ 
 
 The Lappish countries now are Lappmark in ^werten, 
 Russian Lapland to the White Sea, and Finnmark, or the 
 March of the Finns, in Vpper Norway, where many of 
 them live. The Lapps subject to Russia are— (I) those of 
 he duchv of Finlaid. N.; (2) those of the government of 
 Archangel. Lallerstedl. in L; S;v.„Hli,„„-ir. counts in Finn- 
 mark 13.000 Lapps to fioOO Finns and 2-,,n00 Norwegians. 
 Friis estimated 156fi Lapps to 174- N'or-vegians ,n 1M5. 
 Since then the Lapps seem for a long time to have in- 
 creased as the Norwegians decreased; then those were sta- 
 
 tionary and the Norwegians increased up to ISSd, though 
 "hould be remembered that the Lapps, Uving been to a 
 
 gr;at extent absorbed, are reckoned as Norwegians Bu ; 
 
 ^h" author considers them as dying out in Finnmark. At 
 ,"° , " . ;„ io-,i| the n.>pu ation of Russian Lap- 
 
 the last oe°^"». ■; \^ ■•.• ,;^ T^Lapps, 1956 were Kar'e- 
 and ""l^^i^^' ^fj,'"' To'Ihise might be added a few Nor- : 
 
 Ir^Ln t'd'Vinrmigrants. Brafe in 1863 counts 28,000 
 
 l.amis under Sweden and Russia. 
 
 The Lapps of the Russian empire, Gurowsk, says, have 
 as i,u,ro,lli>-i. c. provincial natives of non-Russian stock 
 !!Jn or<.anization and rights distinctly recognued by the 
 government. But a narrow policy is exercised towards them 
 
 Ld less done for their improvement than >° ^""'/.Yt her 
 more especiallv in Sweden. The N orwegians. having hither- 
 rreArSthem as hopelessly debased and ignorant, ne- 
 g ected them, but latterly Swedish and Norwegmn mission- 
 Irie have much enlightened and softened both Lapps and 
 F\'„";,_Stockfleth particularly, and the brothers La=s tad.us, 
 Lutherans, who labored in the first half of this century. 
 ! The I npps seem to be physically inferior to the Finns. 
 ' probablv be^-anse less comfortably housed, fed. and clothed 
 i [hou"h they are wonderfully hardy, and quite as courageous 
 i There i« much intermixture of these races at the Finland 
 ' Jrontte ami at the copper-mines. Friis 'h-'^s the mixed 
 race best able to withstand the rigorous el-ma e of the ftir 
 North The Laplanders are wild, savage, and dull, small 
 of I a ure with large head, short neck, small gray-reddi,h 
 evef ha r' dark brown, beard short, hands long, legs thin 
 abdomen projecting, the result of improper or insufEcient 
 
 f od^omp^e.^'ion liiht, chin P-'"'>'"|i,^,^t; trll^avl, 
 inent In disposition they arc peaceable but too slaMsn, 
 aTd ;tuJborn 'withal. They appear f™"^-'^/;^^:',''^" 
 arc reallv knavish and treacherous. The Lap . "'""-""^ 
 „« well as the Finn lives partly upon fish and game, is a 
 herd'man Like the Finn, he catches the fish of the lakes 
 th safmon, the cod, cod-bait, herring and o.her fish of the 
 
 t:t. -^^m:::. onXiSJ'tit 1^"- "i 
 ! s^ -b^a^«^.^tfth!V?. e^i^ 
 
 , and ^hile the s^ow-covered ground -/I '»» .— Z;^'';/ 
 
 render slcd-travelling po^^'bl? '° * "^ ^be Xr h " bul 
 The reindeer has been called the '-camel of the North, but 
 
 seUlers°annot keep these animals, for they will -« <hr.Te 
 
 'fs ailed or confined in pastures and not allowed to wan- 
 
 I der freelv over large spaces. Latterly, steam eommnniea- 
 
 Hon be 'ween Bergen, Trondheim. and Ilammerfest has 
 
 iTven anew inniuUe o trade, and begun somewhat to de- 
 
 felon the resou ces of the country. But from Ilammerfest 
 
 1 N and N. E. reindeers complete the line of eommnnioat.on 
 
 ! The i ai.ps of Finnmark. La .land, and Norway ''"ve eno. gh 
 
 re ndee'r'^neat and skins for themselves and the seed pop 
 
 nlation. many thousands of these animals ^e "g k'"^'» e^e^_ 
 
 vear. They also furnish the Norwegians >"th game some- 
 
 "times as liany as 10,000 grouse in a day. The L..p| ot 
 
 land hunts in winter the squirrel, -b'e ermine ot, 
 
 and bear, and in summer seeks the hsher.cs of the coasts, 
 
 i:x±:^rs;^^^^;i:^:^:^^^frOI 
 
 III, be" hes for beds, very few and -"'P-e u'ens.l j a 
 
 Hx^i:^:-^=iron::qip^=~ 
 
 t'^I ac CO and'ioffee are scarcely known ^u' --'. ^;-'^-:^ 
 
 "■Be"w"e"n'lS.« and lS6o these people lost 14.944 reindeer 
 ei.he by death on the fields or by eonfi.-ation --ee -h.ch 
 
 ' emigrated to Sweden with 20,0011 reindeer. The fa>or.te 
 ::rrnt*s of .he Lapps are hajbplaj-ing an , on e^N^ 
 
 L-n'eXrtrnrali'd^kii^' IwthiU w^th the skide^ 
 
 'IHSSSiSs^^^r^^-H 
 
 I Lapps scarcely understanding each other. There is mucn
 
 LA PLATA— LA.PSE. 
 
 1651 
 
 heathenism among them. Their Christianity, nominally 
 Greek, consists in little more than mtinihlinj; the prayer 
 "Lord Jesiis. Son of God, have mercy ujton me!" The 
 Swedish anti Xorweeian Lapps are Lulheraiis. ami of these 
 all the adiiln are aide to read. The Lajips formerly wor- 
 shipped a fleity called the Storjunker (''great noMe"), to 
 whom they sacrificed a full-grown reindeer. Ticrmes was the 
 divinity next in rank, and Baiwc, or the Sun. Hut the god 
 most venerated liy them was .Jubmel, worshipped also liy 
 Other peoples akin to them, under the name.Juinala, Jiimara, 
 or Num. Their rude wooden or stone idols, often only gro- 
 tesque unhewn logs or blocks, stood within an enclosure 
 of boughs, and were honored with simple riles. I-ike all 
 Turanians, the Lapps believe in supcrualurully wise men. 
 Their noaids or magicians are both their oracles and pliysi- 
 oinns, the medium, in short, between the human and the 
 divine, able to control the spirit world in a degree to make 
 it favorable to mankind. Some ancient famous noaids 
 were mentioned by name in the Sagas. These clever medi- 
 oinc-men are often selected for their office while children, 
 on account of some hiarkcd nervous susceptibility, and 
 trained to throw themselves into real or pretemled frenzies, 
 followed by fainting, preparing for such occasions by fast- 
 ing or stimulants. In these fits or trances the noaid is 
 supposed to be transported by his bird-familiar to heaven, 
 earth, or the realm of the dead, at pleasure, and, being 
 awakeneil by a brother magician, relates his visions to his 
 superstitious and ignorant followers. Like all |iolar people 
 and those inhabiting desolate regions, the Lapps by organi- 
 sation and habit are subject to nervous excitement : their 
 old women especially start and scream at the slightest dis- 
 turbance of fear or disgust, rush frantically about, striking 
 insanelv at every one near, and then faint and iloze for a 
 while. In church a contagious furor sometimes takes place, 
 many striking each other or moving violently about and 
 falling into fain'ing-lits. In their sicknesses, too, these 
 people ore liable to delirium. So that there are many 
 Donids, who fiml it easy to impose upon a ready credulity 
 by their air of mystery, their superior knowledge of for- 
 mulas, song, sleight oi" hand, hieroglyphics on the ninc- 
 druin, and even a certain empiric skill in medicine which 
 some of them accpiiro. There are those among Ibem who 
 profess to have the power of selling favorable winds to 
 sailors, and this superstition is believed in by the Swedish, 
 Norwegian, and Russian peasants, as well as by the Lapps. 
 (For references sec FiNL.\xn.) E. ToititEv. 
 
 I^a Plata. Sec Aiir.K.vTixE Kkimbi.ic. 
 La I'la'ta, county of S. W. Colorado, bordering on 
 Utah and Xew Jle.vico. Area, about 70011 square miles. 
 It contains the Sierra San Miguel Mountains and part of 
 the .Sierra La Plata range, is well watered, and the S. W. 
 portiim is occupied by the I'te Indian reservation. Oold- 
 mines have been discovered here. Cap. Parrott. 
 
 I^a Vlata, post-v. and tp. of Macon co., Mo., on the St. 
 Louis Kansas City and Northern R. H. It has 1 weekly 
 newspaper. Pop. of v. 546 : of tp. loOfi. 
 
 I.a Plata, Kio dc. See Plata, Rio nr. i.a. 
 La Pointc, post-v. and tp., cap. of .'\shland co.. Wis., 
 is a lishieig-station at the S. end of Madeline Island, one 
 of tlie .Apostle group in Lake Superior. It was settled by 
 French missionaries in lOSU. Pop. 1-'2I. 
 
 Ija Porte, county of Indiana, bounded N. W. hy Lake 
 Michigan and N. by .Michigan. Area, loO square miles. 
 A largo portion nf the soil is very fertile. Imt there are 
 Borne barrens, and on the banks of tin- Kankakee there are 
 extensive nnirshes. Cattle, grain, and wrml are largely 
 produced, and lumber is manufactured. The county is 
 traversed by numerous railroads. Cop. La Porto. Pop. 
 27,0152. 
 
 La Porto, post-v. of Plumas eo., Cal., 20 miles S. of 
 
 Quiufry. It is the business-centre of a large niining region. 
 
 La Porto, post-v. of Larimer co.. Col., on both sides 
 
 of Cache a la Poudro Creek, lU miles N. W. of Oreoley, in 
 
 a fertile region. 
 
 Liiportc, city of Kankakee (p., cop. of Laporto co., 
 Ind.. at the intersection of the Lake .Shore and Michigan 
 .Siinlhcm will) the Indianapolis INtu and Chicago H. It., 
 .V.I miles K. cd' t'hieago and 12 miles ,S. of Lake Michigan, 
 has If) churches, i bonks. :i weekly newspajiers, 2 hotels. 
 Holly waterworks, publio library of ;HliM) volumes, an 
 academy, fine schools, numerous mercaniib* houses and 
 manufaclurics, and is the scat of Indiaiii) .\IiilicaI College. 
 Laporte is handsomely situated on a hiLrb plali'iiti on the 
 edge of the rich prairie of tho san)e name, is surrounded 
 with fine driven and promenades thickly skirletl with maple 
 and other shade trees, anil is close to a chain of seven clear 
 and beautiful lakes, which are traversed by steamers and 
 constitute one of the attractions which annually draw hun- 
 
 dreds of summer visitors from Chicago, Indianapolis, Cin- 
 cinnati, and tho South. Pop. GiSI. 
 
 C. U. Powell, Ed. " IlF.nALn." 
 
 La Porte, post-v. of Carlisle and Eaton tps., Lorain 
 CO., 0., -t miles S. E. of Elyria. 
 
 Laporte, post-b. and tp., cap. of Sullivan co.. Pa., 28 
 miles N. E. of JIuncy.on the line of the projected Sullivan 
 and Erie and Muney Creek R. Us., has 2 churches, 2 week- 
 ly newspapers, and one of the largest tanneries in tho 
 U. S., using from 11000 to SOOO cords of bark annually. 
 Lumbering and mining arc important industries. Eagles- 
 mere Lake, noted for its beauty, is 5 miles distant, tho 
 brooks are filled with trout, and doer abound iu the forest. 
 Pop. of b. 14.1 ; of tp. 5:iO. 
 
 J. K. Pin OH, El). "SCLLIVAN Co. Demookat." 
 
 La Porto City, post-v. of Big Creek tp., Black Hawk 
 CO., la., on Wolf t!'reek. 1 mile above its conduence with 
 Cedar River, on the Burlinglon Cedar Rapids and Minne- 
 sota R. R., 15 miles N. of Vinlon. 15 S. of Waterloo, and 40 
 N.W. of Cedar Rapids, has 4 chuivhcs, 2 hotels, I weekly 
 newspaper, a bank, a large flouring-niill, a wagon and car- 
 riage manufactory, and a fair number of business-houses. 
 It is surrounded on all sides by a fine agricultural country, 
 and was laid out iu June, 1S55, by the subscriber. Pop. 
 about 1500. .J. Wasso.n, En. "Phogrhss." 
 
 La Porte tin Thcil (Imiaxcois .Teav Gabiukl), b. at 
 Paris .Tuly l;i, 1742; recciveil a military education, and 
 served in the campaigns of the Seven Years' war, but de- 
 voted all his leisure hours to the study of the Greek lan- 
 guage and literature, and published in 17il5 a translation 
 of ^Kschylus's Ti-ii;i'-tltiin, ami in 1775 of the //)y»)*i«of Calli- 
 maehus. From 1771! to 17S() he resided in Rome, and hav- 
 ing received admittance to the Vatican library, which at 
 that time was generally closed to foreigners, ho brought 
 back to Paris a great number of historical documents illus- 
 trative of French history. Three volumes of these docu- 
 ments were published in 1701, containing among olher 
 things the letters of Pope Innocent III.: but the further 
 publication was interrupted by the Revolution, and the 
 materials were )ilaced in the National Library. In the 
 latter part of his life he was occupied with a translation of 
 the (Icoijraphi/ of Strabo, of which, however, only nine 
 books were finisheil, when he d. May 28, 1815. 
 
 Lap'poiibcrg (.Johaxx Martix), LL.D., b. at Ham- 
 burg .Inly MO, 17'.M; studied medicine at Edinburgh and 
 law at London, Berlin, and Gottingen, receiving the doc- 
 torate in 1811!; ivas for a time minister resident for Ham- 
 burg at Berlin; became in 182:! keeper of tho archives at 
 Hamburg, and was in 1850 plenipotentiary in tho Frank- 
 fort conference. His best work is O'cm-hnhd: run Einilund 
 (1834-.37); ho also wrote valuable histories of the German 
 Hanse Towns, of Heligoland, etc. His JJhiori/ of Eiit/liiiiit 
 relates to the Anglo-Sa.von period, and is the standard au- 
 thority for early English history. It has been translated 
 into English, with notes and additions, by Benjamin Thorpe. 
 The //inhtn/ (>/' EiKfl-iiiil ttti'Itr thi: Xormnnt, comnienced by 
 Lappenberg and linishcd liv Piiuli, was also translated by 
 Thor]>e. Lappenberg d. Nov. 2», 18G5. 
 
 La Prai'rio, a fertile counly of Quebec, Canada, on 
 the S. side of tho St. Lawrence, directly S. of Montreal. 
 Cap. La Prairie. Pop. 11,8(51. 
 
 La Prairie, posl-v. i>t La Prairie co., Quebec, Canada, 
 on the S. side of the St. Lawrence.".' miles above Montreal, 
 has an aeadcniy and a convent. Pop. 1259. 
 
 La Prairie, tp. of .Marshall co.. III. Pop. 1400. 
 La Prairie, tp. of Rock co.. Wis. Pop. 8157. 
 Lapse [Lat. Utptiiii, from tntmr, to "glide," to "fall"]. 
 A devise of real property or a bei|ue8t of personal properly 
 is said in law to lapse wlien the ilevisee or legatee dies after 
 the making of the will and before the death of the testator. 
 The etfect of this at comnion law is that in the case of a de- 
 vise the property deviseil passes to the heir-at-law of tho 
 testator, while in the case of a legacy tho iiroperly be- 
 queathed passes to the residuary legatee if one be named 
 in the will, and if not to the next of kin. (See Kix, NixT 
 or.) The reason why this ilisposilion is made of the prop- 
 erty, instead of its passing to the representatives of the de- 
 ceased ilonee, is that a will takes eflcet only from the time 
 of the testator's death, and the donee can acquire no title 
 unless ho is in being at that time. There is a dislinetion 
 between a lapsed ami a void devise or bequest. The gift 
 is void when the person specified as donee is dea<l or in- 
 compeieiit to take the property at llie time when the will 
 was inatie. The general rule is, that the same disposition 
 shall be made of the property included in the terms of tho 
 gift as in the i-ase of a lapsed devise or bequest. It seems, 
 however, to bo the English rule that a voi'l devise passes 
 to the residuary devisee. These oommon-law rules have
 
 1652 
 
 LAPWAI— LARCENY. 
 
 been to some extent changed by statute. By tbe English 
 statnte of wills (1 Vict. ch. 26) the real estate comprised 
 in a lapsed devise sliull, unless a contrary intention a|. pears 
 in the will, pass to the residuary devisee, if any there be, 
 instead of to the heir-at-Ia>y. It is further provided that a 
 devise or legacy to a child or other descendant shall not 
 liipse if issue of the devisee or legatee survives the testator, 
 but shall take effect as if the devisee or legatee had died 
 immediately after the testator, unless a contrary intention 
 appears by the will. A change similar to this second pro- 
 vision has also been made hy statute in New York, and also 
 in several other States of this country. 
 
 A legacy is also said in some cases to lapse even though 
 the leg'atec dies subsequently to the testator. This happens 
 when the vesting of the leg.acy depends upon a future con- 
 tingency, and the legatee dies before the contingency oc- 
 curs. Thus, if a legacy bo given to one ichen he attains, 
 or if he attains, the age of twenty-one, and he dies before 
 that time, it is a lapsed legacy. (See Lecacv.) 
 
 George Chase. KEViscn by T. W. Dwioht. 
 Lapwai', post-v. of Nez Perc^ co., Id., 12 miles S. E. 
 from Lewiston. Pop., including U. S. troops, 91. 
 
 Lap'wing [so called from the flapping of its wings in 
 flight], or Pee'wit [named from its note], the Vunellus 
 cHelitlim. a game bird ctimmon throughout a great part of 
 the Old World, but unknown in America. It is referred to 
 the plover family. Its flesh is excellent. It strives with 
 great ingenuity to conceal its nist, which is greatly 
 sought for the "eggs, which are sold in quantities as plo- 
 vers' eggs. 
 
 Lar, town of Persia, cap. of the province of Laristan, 60 
 miles from the Gulf of Persia. It is famous for its manu- 
 factures of sword-blades, muskets, and silks, and has fine 
 bazaars. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Lar'amic, county of Wyoming Territory, bounded N. 
 by Montana. E. by Dakota and Nebraska, and S. by Colo- 
 rado, extending N. and S. the whole length of the Territory, 
 4 degrees of latitude by J a degree in width, and includes 
 the Wyoming portion o'f the Black Hills, belonging to the 
 Ogallalla Sioux, where gold was found in 1SV4, and which 
 were explored in the summer of 1875 by hundreds of miners. 
 Area, about 14,0(10 square miles. It consists largely of the 
 elevated Laramie Plains, well adapted to sheep-raising, and 
 is broken by the Laramie range of mountains. The county 
 is traversed by the North Platte, the N. and S. forks of the 
 Big Shycnne, and hv the Union Pacific U. R. Cap. Chey- 
 enne city. Pop. 2Q'jr; in 1S75, 6000. 
 
 Laramie, city, cap. of Albany co., Wyoming Tcr., on 
 the Union Pacilic R. R., b7 miles' by rail N. W. of Chey- 
 enne, and 7122 feet above the level of tlie sea, laid out in 
 Apr., 1S(18, when the railroad reached this point, lies in 
 the midst of the Laramie Plains, is regularly built, chiefly 
 of wood, with a few structures of stone, has 5 churches. 2 
 daily newspapers, I national bank, a court-house and jail, 
 several hotels and schools, and numerous stores. The rail- 
 road company has established here extensive maehine- 
 shops. A stream of clear cold water passes through the 
 city, and is fed hy a spring at the foot of the lilaek Hills, 
 a few miles E. Laramie is the second town in the Terri- 
 tory in point of population, which is rapidly increasing; 
 it is noted as the first place in America where a female jury 
 was empanelled. Po)i. about .3000. 
 
 Larnmic, a river in Wyoming Territory, formed by 
 the union of two branches, the Big ami the Little Laramie, 
 which rise in the Medicine Bow ^lountains. and flow N. E., 
 skirting on the E. the plains of the same name. It enters 
 the X. fork of the Platte at Fort Laramie, and is much 
 used for floating lumber from the mountains. 
 
 Laramie Mountains, a riingc vising at the Red 
 Buttes, near the Sweetwater River, Wyoming Tcr., and 
 extending in a curve southward to the Arkansas River, 
 near Long's Peak in Colorado, forming a wall which closes 
 in the Laramie Plains to the N. E. and E. Geologically, 
 it is composed of a nucleus of red syenite, with margins 
 of fossiliferous formation. Carboniferous, Triassic, Jurassic, 
 Cretaceous, and in some places lignite Tertiary, the beds 
 inclining from a central axis at different angles. This 
 range is connected with the Big Horn Mountains and 
 Black Hills by low anticlinals extending across the prai- 
 rie, tbe most complete and beautiful to he found in the 
 Rocky Mountain region. The numerous branches of the 
 Platic rise in this range, of which the principal summit is 
 Lar.amic Peak. Coal has been found in them in consider- 
 able quantities. 
 
 Laramie Peak, the loftiest summit of the Laramie 
 Mountains, in .Mbany CO., Wyoming Tcr. 
 
 Laramie Plains, an elevated table-land in Wyoming 
 Territory, lying iu Carbon and Albany counties, S. of the 
 
 N. fork of the Platte, between the Laramie Mountains on 
 the N. E. and the Medicine Bow spur of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains on the S. W., watered by the Big and Little Laramie 
 and Medicine Bow rivers. The tops of some of the sur- 
 rounding mountains are covered with perpetual snoiv, and 
 the mean altitude of the plain being above 7000 feet, the 
 summer is always short and the winter severe. The prin- 
 cipal cereals can be raised, but the soil is more suited to 
 potatoes, turnips, bcaus, peas, and other vegetables, which 
 have been successfully cultivated at Fort Sanders, a mili- 
 tary post on the S. W. margin of the plains. Grazing will 
 be "an important industry, and vast beds of iron and coal 
 of good quality have been found. 
 Larash, or Larache. See El Araiseb. 
 Larceny [contracted from lairoriut/, from Lat. ?a(ro- 
 cinimii. " theft"], the wrongful or fraudulent taking and car- 
 rying away by any person of personal property belonging to 
 another, with a felonious intent to convert it to the taker's 
 own use, without the consent of the owner. When the prop- 
 erty is taken directly from the house or person of the owner 
 the offence is termed mixed or compound larceny ; in other 
 eases it is called simple larceny. Simple larceny was fur- 
 ther distinguished at common law as grand or ]ietit lar- 
 ceny, the former being the theft of goods above the value 
 of twelve pence, the latter the theft of goods below this 
 value. But the distinction between grand and petit lar- 
 ceny has been abolished in England and in many of the 
 States of this country by statute. While in some of the 
 States it is still retained, the value of the property upon 
 which the distinction depends has been generally changed 
 by legislation. In New York, for instance, the property 
 must have a greater value than $2J in order that the steal- 
 ing of it may be grand larceny. If it he worth this nmount 
 or less, the theft is petit larceny. At common law the only 
 importance of the distinction was that the severity of the 
 punishment inflicted differed in degree according to the 
 grade of the offence. Both forms of the crime were felonies. 
 (See Fklosv, Crime.) But in those States where the dis- 
 tinction is retained, grand larceny is sometimes declared 
 to be a felony, while petit larceny is made simply a mis- 
 demeanor. This is the case in New Y'ork. The taking and 
 carrying away, which are necessary elements in the oH'cnco 
 of larceny, are also technically termed caption and asporta- 
 tion. It is not requisite, in order that the crime may bo 
 complete, that the property should remain permanently in 
 the thief's possession or be removed to any considerable 
 distance from the position which it previously occupied. 
 It is a sufficient asportation if every part of the thing stolen 
 be removed from tbe )ilace which that part occupied, even 
 though the entire article is not wholly removed from its re- 
 ceptacle or the place where it had been jiut. On this ground 
 it was adjudged larceny where a jicrson lifted a bag which 
 he was intending to steal partly out of the boot of a coach, 
 but was detected before its complete removal. So if a sword 
 be drawn partly from a scabbard, or if goods be removed 
 from one ]iart of a wagon to another by one who intends 
 to commit a theft, the larceny designed is sufticicntly per- 
 petrated, though the thief had only momentary possession. 
 But. on the other hanil, if a bale of goods resting upon its 
 side be merely lifted anil set upon end, there is no complete 
 asportation, since some small portion of the goods still re- 
 tains its former position. The strictness with which the 
 rule is adhered to that every p,article of the properly stolen 
 must bo taken from its former position thus results in very 
 nice distinctions, since the determination of the question 
 whether a certain act of attempted larceny was criminal or 
 not criminal may turn upon the point whether an iusig- 
 nificiint part of the goods was moved a very snuill distance 
 from the place which it previously occupied. The rule is more 
 practical of application than ctiicacious as a means of de- 
 termining with reasonaldc accuracy the v.arious degrees of 
 moral turpitude in acts of intended theft. It is further 
 necessary, in order that larceny may be committcil. that 
 the property should be entirely in the possession of the 
 thief, though but for a moment. Thus, where goods were 
 fastened by a string to a shop-counter, and a thief, in at- 
 tempting to carry them away, removed thtm only as far as 
 the string would permit, it was held that the owner was 
 not completely deprived of his possession, and that conse- 
 quently the intended larceny had not been fully perpetrated. 
 But where a ring was snatched from a lady's car. but fell 
 immediately afterwards from the thiers hand ir'o her hair, 
 where it was subsequently found, the entire possession which 
 the thief had hail, though only instantaneous, was deemed 
 sufficient to warrant his conviction for larceny. On account 
 of this rule, that the briefest interval of complete po,"se8- 
 sion is sufficient, immediate restitution by the thief after 
 taking the property will not lessen nor do away with the 
 criminalitv of the offence. 
 
 It is a fundamental legal principle in regard to this crime
 
 LARCENY. 
 
 1653 
 
 that there can be no larceny committed without an act of 
 trcsjmss. Trespass, as the term is used with reference to 
 personal property, is an injury to or violation of a person's 
 title and postjct^sory interest in chattels, and consists in 
 wrongfully depriving him of possession against Lis will. 
 Hence, larceny may be committed not only by taking goods 
 away from one in whom the absoiuto title to them is vested, 
 but al!<o by taking iliem from any one who has a temporary 
 ownership nnd an immediate right of pot^sesslon. The 
 ownership of the property may be either general or special, 
 and the possession may be either actual or constructive. A 
 
 Ecrson is said to have a general or absolute title when ho 
 as an exclusive right of permanent ownership, while one 
 has a special title or special property in chattels when he 
 has them in his possession, and retains them for a limited 
 period, subject to the claims of the absolute owner. A 
 bailee, for instance, would have a special property in goods 
 entrusted to his ehargc. and a person would be guilty of 
 larceny from him who took the goods from his possession. In 
 all cases of simple bailment, where the absolute owner is en- 
 titled to resume possession of tho goods at any time at his 
 own option, if they arc stolen by a third person while in tho 
 custody of tho bailee, they may be described in the indictment 
 against the thief as the property of either the bailor or tho 
 bailee. The former has tho constructive and the latter the 
 actual possession. A general owner may even be adjudged 
 guilty of larceny if betakes his own goods away from the per- 
 son who has tho special ownersiiip of them for thctime being, 
 with a feloniuu-s intent to charge tho latter with their value. 
 But there can bo no theft from a person who has not a legal 
 right to tho possession of tho goods taken. A servant is 
 never deemed in law to have tho possession of tho goods 
 committed to his charge by the master, but only tho custody. 
 Ho lias neither tho general nor the special ownership, and 
 the possession is constructively in the master. If, therefore, 
 tho property is stolen while in the charge of the servant, 
 the theft is committed again.';t the master, and not against 
 the servant. But goods in the possession of a thief arc re- 
 garded in law OS iiis property to sut-h nu extent that a per- 
 son wlio steals thorn fiont him will bo guilty of larceny. 
 In like manner, a finder of property has a special riglit of 
 oivnorship in it as against all tho world but tho true owner, 
 and a wrongful deprivation of his posFCssory interest would 
 cons:i*.utc an act of larceny against him. 
 
 As larceny involves nn act of trespass, it cannot bo com- 
 mitted by any one who 1ms himself a right of property and 
 oC immediate possession in the goods taken. If, therefore, 
 a bailee converts to his own use the property entrusted to 
 him during tho continuance of tho bailment, ho is not 
 guilty of larceny. Hut if th" bailment has terminated 
 when the gootls arc taken, as if they ar(^ taken by a carrier 
 after they have been transported by him to tlic place of 
 destination anr| there delivered, a trespass is committed, 
 and tho act is therefore the offence of larceny. The rela- 
 tion of bailor and bailee may also be tormiimted before the 
 nattiral expiration of the time for whifh the contract was 
 formed between the parties, by a wrongful act of inter- 
 ference *vith the property on tho part of tho bailee, who 
 will subsequently be guilty of larceny if lie appropriate tho 
 goods lo his own use. If, for instance, n carrier of goods 
 " breaks bulk," as it is termed, by wrongfully opening a box 
 or bale or package which he lias received for transportation, 
 be ceases immoiliately to have any right of ownership in 
 the good." as a bailee, and if he abntracts and carries away 
 any portion of them he is chargeable with larceny. This 
 rule leads to the peculiar result that if :i bailee takes llie 
 entire package entrusted to him. he commitu no crime* but 
 only a breach of trust, while if he breaks it open and takes 
 a part of the contents, he perpetrates larceny. Tho prin- 
 ciple already stated, that a servant has the custody and not 
 tho possession of his master's gnods, renders it on aet of 
 hireeny for him to convert to his own use tho property 
 which ho has received from the master. But if tno prop- 
 erty was received from sonu^ tliird person for delivery to 
 tho nmsler or to be held for his use, the servant would 
 not bo guilty of larceny in appropriating it, for the reason 
 that it had never come into the master's possession, and 
 therefore no act of trespass eould be rommitled against tho 
 master by pernmnently retaining it. Tins defeet in tho 
 common laiT, which deelari'd such an aet of conver-^ion by 
 a servant no crime, but only a breaeh of trust, has been 
 remedied by legislation in recent times, by whieh sueli nets 
 of wrongful appropriation have boon declared eriminal of- 
 fences, anci have received the name of embezzlement. (See 
 Emukzzi r.MKNT.) 
 
 Finders (»f lost goods have no right to detain them from 
 tho possession of the true owner if he is known : nnd if thoy 
 appropriate the property to ilieir own use when they know 
 to whom it belongs or have reasonable means of nseertain- 
 ing the true owner, they are guilty tif larceny. If, for in- 
 stance, carriers of passengers find in their vehicles pack- 
 
 ages of goods upon which the name of the owner is marked, 
 they cannot retain and dispose of them as their own prop- 
 erty without committing tiiis offence. But if articks be 
 found, and there is no means of discovering tho owner, 
 there will be no larceny though tho finder subsequently 
 applies them to his own use. This is true oven though the 
 owner may have been discovered in the mean time. 
 
 It is a general principle that larceny must be eommitled 
 against the will of the owner of the property. If the goods 
 are taken by his consent, which has been fairly obtained, 
 no wrongful act of any kind is committed. But if his eon- 
 sent be procured by fraud or stratagem, tho asportation 
 will in some cases constitute larceny. It is necessary at 
 this point to distinguish between that frau<lulent acqui- 
 sition of the chattels of another which will constitute lar- 
 ceny, and that fraudulent taking which constitutes the 
 criminal offence of obtaining goods by false pretences. (Seo 
 Chkat.) When the owner Intends, in consequence of the 
 fraudulent devices by which lie is iniluenced, to part with 
 the absolute property in tho goods, retaining no interest in 
 himself, the person who receives the goods is guilty of tho 
 crime of using false pretences. But when he intends 
 merely to part with his possession of the property for a 
 certain interval, instead of his entire ownership, but tho 
 person who by artifice obtains his consent lakes the goods 
 with tho secret design of appropriating them to his own 
 use, hirceny is committed. The act of taking another's 
 j)roperty is deemed to bo a trespass unkss the consent of 
 tho owner is given with a full comprehension on liis part 
 of tho receiver's intent with reference to the transfer of 
 ownership. In case of fraudulent larceny the poasrssion 
 of the goods is given willingly, but tho owner is still de- 
 prived of liis propcrit/ in them against his will. If, for 
 example, a person hires a horse and carriage for a limited 
 lime, but appropriates tiiem to himself, he commits larceny, 
 because the owner only intendcfl to give liim the use of the 
 property and not tho title. But where one obtains a pay- 
 ment of money by presenting a letter falsely purporting to 
 be an order from tho creditor, and appropriates the funds 
 to himself, ho is guilty of obtaining property by false pre- 
 tences. If property bo obtained by fraud from a servant, 
 it will be larceny when tho servant is merely entrusted 
 with the possesb^ion of tho goods for a special purpose, nnd 
 has no authority to part with tho property in them except 
 to fulfil the special ])urposo for which they were entrusted 
 to him. But when lie has a general autliority to dispose 
 of his master's jiroperty, a person may procure a transfer 
 of ownership from liim by fraud, and will then be cliarge- 
 abie with false jtrctences. 
 
 The trespass committed in taking the property must also 
 bo nccomjianicd by a felonious intent to deprive the owner 
 of his entire ownership, and convert (ho property to tho 
 taker's own use or dispose of it for his benelit. The goods 
 must bo taken, as it is expressed in technical legal jihrase, 
 futiiiin fiirandi — with a design of stealing. Thus, if prop- 
 erty be taken upon a claim of title or merely by niielake, 
 or if tho intent is Eimi)ly to use the articles and afterwards 
 to return them to the true owner, no larceny is perpilralcd, 
 becauso the felonious intent is wanting. The wrongful 
 purpose must also exist at the time of the taking. If the 
 property be acquired rightfully, nnd with no design of 
 misappropriation at the tinio it is received, a subsequent 
 conversion of it with felonious intent by the person having 
 it in his possession will not eonstituto larceny. If, for ex- 
 ample, a person should find an article, and lakt> it with tho 
 intention of restoring it to the owner when diseovere<l. but 
 should afterwards appropriate it to himself, he would ho 
 chargeable merely with an act of trespass ami not of lar- 
 ceny. Tho same rub' np[dies when property is taken at 
 first in the eommission ">f a trespass, but with no design 
 of depriving the owner of it permanently. It is sometimes 
 stated in treatises upon eriminal law and in tho reports 
 that there can be no larceny unless properly bo taken /nrri 
 cnunn — for the sake of gain r)r profit to the thief. This 
 doctrine is only sustainable at the present day by giving 
 to tho icrm ill rri ("gain") a much more comprehensive 
 meaning than it was formerly held to bear. It must be 
 used to denote not merely pecuniary profit to the thief, but 
 any advantage, whelber pecuniary or otherwise, which ho 
 obtnins by the ae(|uisition of the properly, whcllorthis bo 
 a direct or indirect result of the taking. Tlius, it has been 
 adjudged laroeny to lake an article with intent to present 
 it (o a frieinl; or to intercept and burn a letter to supprej^s 
 inquiries it may suggest concerning the thief's eharacler; 
 or to take and kill a liorse, that his existenec might not 
 furnish evidence against a third person who bad been ac- 
 cused of stealing liim. Some cases have denied the doc 
 trino of iticri cf/KKa entirely. 
 
 It is only personal property which is tho subject of lar- 
 ceny at eommon law. Anything which is deemed in law 
 to bo real property, or to savor of tho realty, cannot (hero-
 
 1654 
 
 LARCH— LAREDO. 
 
 foro 1)0 stolen. If soil be taken from a. person's land, or 
 apples from his fruit trees, or grass and grain be cut down 
 and carried away, no larceny is committed. Those classes 
 of articles which, in themselves personal properly, have 
 become so attached to laud as to form a part of the really, 
 an<l are denominated iixtureg. arc not subject to larceny. 
 (See FiXTfUKs.) But when things which once belonged 
 to the realty have been severed from it, and fubscqueutly 
 carried away with felonious intent to B]>propriale Ihem to 
 the laker's own use, the act will amount to larceny, because 
 by reason of the severance the articles become personal 
 pVonertv. The severance may be made either by the thief 
 or l>v some third person, and it is not necessary that any 
 particular interval of time should intervene between this 
 and the a.'>portalion. The two .acts need only be so much 
 separated as not to constitute one transaction in order that 
 the taking may bo larceny. Otherwise, it is only an act 
 of trespass. At common law, also, choscs in action are not 
 the subjects of larceny, since they are regarded as mere 
 evidences of a right, without intrinsic value in themselves. 
 (See CnosE in Action.) There can be no larceny, more- 
 over, of animals /'i-a.- imiiirie (I.e. of a wild nature), so 
 long as they arc unreclaimed or unconfined. (See Feb« 
 Natir.e.) If such animals are reclaimed from their wild 
 state by being tamed, they become the subject of this of- 
 fence, provided they are tit for food, but not otherwise. 
 Thus. ]»igcons, hares, deer, swans, etc. may be stolen when 
 reclaimed, but dogs, eats, bears, foxes, squirrels, etc. can- 
 not. If an animal is dead, it is of course subject to lar- 
 ceny if it be suitable for food. The same is true if an an- 
 imal be confined. These common-law rules in regard to 
 the kinds of property which may be stolen have been much 
 changed in modern times by statute, and it is now gener- 
 ally provided, both in England and in this country, that 
 choses in action and a large variety of articles which savor 
 of the really, but are readily detached from the land with 
 which they are connected, may be the subjects of larceny 
 or its eriuivalent. Various other important changes of the 
 common-law principles applying to this crime have also 
 been mailo by legislation, which must be ascertained by 
 special reference to the statutes of dilTerent Slates. (Con- 
 snlt the works of Bishop, Wharton, Russell, Chitty, and 
 Colby on Criminal Lnir. i?ec also RoiinERV.) 
 
 George Chase, Revised by T, W. Dwight. 
 
 Larch [Or, Wpif], applied to trees of the genus Larix, 
 conifers with deciduous leaves. The Larix Eiiropaa, called 
 " Scutch larch " in this country, is not a native of Great 
 Britain, though very extensively grown there. Its wood is 
 valuable for a great variety of purposes. In Russia, 
 "Orenburg gum," a wholly soluble and edible product, is 
 obtained from tho charred trunks of this tree, as is Brian^on 
 manna in France. Tho Himalaya larch is Larix Grif' 
 fithtii. (For tho American larch, see Hackmatack.) 
 
 Lar'com (I.tcvl, b. at Beverly Farms, Mass., in 1826; 
 was for a lime a teacher in Illinois. She compiled flrratli- 
 iti'imii' the lleiirr Life (l.sOG). and is author of I'lirinn (ItiGS). 
 Her literary career began while she was an operative in a 
 Lowell factory. She has been an editor of Our Young 
 Fut/:e, a children's periodical. 
 
 Liarcy', de (Chaiiles Pai'lin Roger he Saubekt), 
 liAUos, b. Aug. 211, 1S05, at Vigan, in tho department of 
 Gard. France; sturlied law, and was aduiitled lo the bar 
 in lS2ii ; became a member of the Chamber of Deputies in 
 Ks:)U, and being a legitimist and liberal took |iart with great 
 energy in the opposition against Guizot. After the fall of 
 the ,Iuly monarchy in IStS, he accepted the Republic, and 
 sat in the Constituent and again in the Legislative .■\s9em- 
 bly, but retired into private life after the cou/j d'ftat. Elect- 
 ed a member of the National Assembly in 1K71, he was ap- 
 pointed minister of jiublic works by Thiers in February of 
 the same year, and held tho position to June, 1X72; voted 
 for the preliminaries of peace, the validity of the elections 
 of the Orleans princes, the dissolution of the national guard, 
 and against the maintenance of the commercial treaties. 
 His pamphlet. La Ii<rt>lulioti tfe la /'';'«j(cc. made great sen- 
 SAlion in \^Z\: in 18B0 he published tho first part of Vet 
 VicissiltiilfiH politiqnes de la France. 
 
 Lard [Fr. lanl, from Lot. lardiim"], tho oily part of hog's 
 fat, extracted by melting at the temperature of boiling water, 
 exicnsively used for culinary purposes and for the manufac- 
 ture of candles, illuminating oil, pomades, unguents, and 
 soaps. The ordinary lard of commerce is obtaineil from 
 tho entire fat of tho animal; the best quality is that de- 
 rived from the fat which surrounds the kidneys. It is often 
 adulterated to the extent of 2b per cent, or more by the ad- 
 dition of alum, lime, mutton suet, starch, potato flour, or 
 other farinaceous substance, while water may bo employed 
 for the same purpose up to 12 per cent. The presence of 
 water is detected by the loss of weight umlcr moderate 
 heat; that of starchy substances by changing to a blue 
 
 color in a solution of iodine. The composition of lard is 
 02 parts oleino to 3S of stearine and palmiline, the former, 
 called lard oil, being used for lubricating machinery and 
 for illumination, while the latter is chiefly employed for Ihe 
 m.anufacture of hard candles. Lard is one of the chief pro- 
 duct? of the Ceulral States of the U. S.. Chicago and Cin- 
 cinnati being largely engaged in this industry, which has 
 reached nearly 2."»b,tH)(),(lUU pounds per annum, as shown by 
 a comparison of the statistics of several years. Lard is the 
 chief material employed in pharmacy, in combination with 
 vegetable balsams and oils, for the ])reparalion of unguents 
 and cerates, for which purpose, however, only the best qual- 
 ity can be atlvantagcously used. Lard oil is exported from 
 the U. S. in immense quantities, cliielly to France, where it 
 is largely used for the adulteration of tdive oil. Lard oil 
 is often mixed with 2."i per cent, of rosin, tlic latter substance 
 forming an acid wliich protects the oleine from its tendency 
 to rancidity when exposed to dampness, and also increasing 
 its power of illumination. The melting-point of pure lard 
 varies from 78° to 87° F, 
 
 Lardiz'abal y Ifribe (Migtei.), b. in the province 
 of Tlascala, Mexico, in 1744 ; studied at Puebla and at the 
 University of Valladolid in Spain ; obtained high scientilic 
 employments at court, but. incurring the displeasure of the 
 favorite Godoy, was exiled in 1785 to the Basque provinces, 
 where he became the head of the seminary at Vergara. In 
 ISOS he was restored to favor by Ferdinand VII.. and ap- 
 pointed a member of the council of the Indies : retired to 
 Cadiz before the French invasion : was elected representa- 
 tive for New Spain (Mexico) in the central junta (Sept.), 
 ancl became a member of the regency ; came into conflict 
 with the Cortes in 1811. by whose order he was imprisoned 
 at Alicante; was exiled from Spain in Aug., 1812, proceed- 
 ing to England; returned to Spain in 1814 as councillor 
 of state and universal minister of the Indies under the abso- 
 lutist government of Ferdinand VII., exercising immense 
 power ; again fell into disfavor a year or two later, and was 
 imprisoned in the castle of Pamplona, and passed his Inst 
 years in honorable exile at the head of the seminary of 
 Vergara, Biscay, where he d. Dec, 182.1. — His brother, 
 Mamel. b. at tlascala Dec. 22. 17.19, was a learned magis- 
 trate at the Spanish court, and perpetual secretary of the 
 Spanish Academy. D. about 1818. 
 
 Lard'ner (Dioxvsiis), LL.P.. b. at Dublin Apr. 1. 
 17'J.1; graduated at Dublin University 1817: remained in 
 his college, of which ho was for a time chaplain, until 
 1827. and received many honors, mostly for excellence in 
 mathematics and j.hysics ; abandoned the clerical profes- 
 sion ; became in 1S28 professor of astronomy and physics 
 in the University of London; resided lS4l)-45 in tho 
 U. S., and afterwards in Paris, where he d. Apr. 29, 
 1859. The greatest of bis works was the publication of tho 
 Cabinet Ci/rlnpnitia in I;i4 vols.. 12mo (lS:iO-14), composed 
 of a series of treatises, partly written by himself; also pro- 
 duced an Al(iehraic Qeometry (1823), a work on Caleulua 
 (1825), on the Steam-Ent/ine (1828), a scries oi Handbooks 
 upon science (IS51-5fi), the Muaxum of Science and Art 
 (1854), and other works. 
 
 Lardncr (.Iahes L.), U. S. N., b. Nov. 20, 1802, in 
 Pennsylvania; entered the navy as aniid>bipman May 10, 
 1820: became a lieutenant in 1828, a commander in 1851, 
 a captain in ISiU. a commodore in 1862, a rear-admiral on 
 the retired list in 18l',ri; commanded the U. S. frigate Sus- 
 quihnnna at the battle of Port Royal, where he distin- 
 guished himself by his skill and bravery. Rear-admiral 
 Dupont characterizing his "close support" of Ihe flagship 
 as " a very gallant thing." Foxhai.i. A. Parker. 
 
 Lardner (Xathaxiei.), D.D., b. at Hawkshurst, Kent, 
 ,Iuno 6, 1G84, an English Presbyterian minister of Uni- 
 tarian proclivities; studied at Utrecht and Leyden 1099- 
 17U:!; was long minister of Crutched Fri:irs. London; is 
 chieflv remembered as author of The Crcilihiliitj of the Got- 
 prl Hittory (5 vols., 1727-4.1), first delivered as a series of 
 lectures at the Old Jewry, and still a standard work ; pub- 
 lished also a Hinlori/ of the Apnullr h and Eranr/cliilf ('i vols,, 
 1750-57), Letter on ihe Logon ( 1759, distinctly Socinian), 
 ./riPi'«/, and Heathen Testimonies (1704-07), a llisturi) of 
 /lerelief nf the I'irtt Tiro Centuries (1780), etc. D. at 
 Hawkshurst July 24, 1768. 
 
 Lare'do, post-v.. county-sent of Webb co., Tex., on tho 
 left bank of the Rio Grande, 2011 miles above its mouth, at 
 the crossing of tho high-road between San .-Vntonio, Tex., 
 and Saltillo, Mexico, 400 miles S, W. of the former city, 
 was founded by Spanish settlers in the latter part of tho 
 eighteenth century as a frontier town of .Mexico, and suf- 
 fereil much then and since from Indian inroads. On the 
 annexation of Texas to the U. S. nmny of the Mexican in- 
 habitants moved across the river and founded Nuevo La- 
 redo. Tho town is tho American terminus of tho chartered
 
 LARES— LARK. 
 
 1655 
 
 luteraatioDal K. R., which is to unite the U. S, with Mex- I 
 ico. It has a cuD^iUorablo trade with Mexico. Pup. 2040. 
 
 La'rcs [pi. of tttr, Etruscnn for "lord"]. In the re- 
 ligion of ancient Rome the Lares were tutelary ^pints^ 
 public or private. The domestic Lares appear to have 
 been originally the spirits of the departed lufuibers of the 
 family, and wore worshipped with slmplt' but very devout 
 eervicea. The Lares diflered from the Manes, which were 
 spiritu that were supposed to hover nciir the tomb. The 
 Penates included other domestic spirit?, not ancestral. 
 Public Lares had care of highways, ship?, fields, etc. The 
 images of the Lares were also worshipped. 
 
 Larg^e, one of the characters or notes in aneient music, 
 and the hmgest in point of duration. The notes formerly 
 in use were, in the order of their respective time-values, 
 the largo, the long, the breve, and the somibreve. They 
 were commonly written thus: 
 
 Large. Long. Breve. Seraibrove. 
 
 The relative duration of these notes was, theoretically con- 
 sidered, equivalent in proportion to 8, 4, 2, und 1. the 
 "large" being equal in time to two longs, or four breves, 
 or eight Bcuiibreves; the "long," to two breves or four 
 Bemil>rcve9; and the ■•breve," to two semibrevos. It may 
 be considered certain, however, that these ratios were not 
 very accurately observed in the pracfice of music, but were 
 regarded only as approximate measures of slowness or 
 rapidity, subject always to such variations and irregulari- 
 ties as might take rise from the feelings of the performer, 
 or {in vocal music) from the accentuation, purport, and 
 proper expression of the words. The actual length of time 
 represented by each of these ancient notes was alto much 
 less than would be inferred from the names of the first two, 
 which suggest a highly prolonged duration. It will bo 
 observed that while in modern music the "breve" is the 
 longest note in use, yet in ancient music its duration was 
 short, as indicated by its name aud by comparison with 
 the " largo " and the " long." A note such as tho " large," 
 equal in length to four breves, eight semibreves, or sixteen 
 minims, would, of course, be impracticable if the old time- 
 table were not essentially difl'crent from our own as a 
 measuro of rapidity. .Some idea of the rate or speed of 
 the old notation may probably be derived from tho hear- 
 ing of (iregorian music as still in use in the Church of 
 Rome, where the mode and velocity of chanting, as handed 
 down by tradition, may bo taken as a sutticicntly correct 
 representation of the time- value of the ancient note. 
 Judging by such a standard. Ilie ancient liirge, long, breve, 
 and semibreve would, at the longest, be only eijuivalent to 
 our present breve, semibreve, minim, and crotchet ; while 
 this relative proportion might probably be still better rep- 
 resented by our semibreve, minim, crotchet, and quaver. 
 Hut in the absence of any positive rule for the translation 
 of ancient notes into their ef|uivrtlents uiidi-r tho modern 
 system, tho most common mn<!c! followed by musicians is 
 to render the long by a semibreve, tho breve by a minim, 
 and the semibreve by a crotchet, as in tho example follow- 
 ing: 
 
 Ancicn 
 
 ..gf^^g^^-z 
 
 3E 
 
 Good Lord, dc • Ht - er us. 
 
 Modern. 
 
 =S3= 
 
 '^^^m 
 
 (Seo Notation.) William Staunton. 
 
 Lar'gO [It.], in music, a term denoting a slow and 
 rather heavy movement, with a rate of progress somewhat 
 faster than " grave " or •' adagio." Lnnj/nttt,, iho diminu- 
 tive, aud lari/hiniiinio, the superlative, indicate respectively 
 a decrease rir increase of slowness, tho latter being hardly 
 distinguishable from "grave," " adagieaimo," and other 
 terms implying extreme slowness. 
 
 La'rif town of Italy, in tho province of Pisa, about IR 
 miles S. of the city of Pisa. Its old forlifioations and cas- 
 tle are still in good condition. Pop. in 1K74, 10,081, 
 
 Laric'iOf or Corsican Pine {PinuH Lnncio)t a 
 large pino of the S. of Kur(»pe, esteemed for its timber aud 
 its resin. It grows well in the most barren sands, and, 
 with other species, has been extensively pbinted in the 
 Landes of S. W. France, thus transforming a waste of 
 worthless land into valuable plantations, and preventing 
 tho destruction of fertile regions by tho moving of Band- 
 dunes, 
 
 Lar'idtc [fromZarii*,*' gull." and the family termination 
 • iV/.'], a family of birds distinguished by the schizognatli 
 palate, lateral open Dostrils, feet completely webbed between 
 
 the three anterior toes, hallux or posterior toe rudimentary 
 (aud free) or obsolete, and wings elongated and pointed. 
 These are the chief and superticial distinctive characters of 
 the family, which embraces several well-marked minor 
 groups, distinguished by most recent authors as sub-families 
 — viz. (1) the jajgers (Lestridinie), (2) the gulls (Larinw), 
 (;>) the terns (.Sternina'), aud (4) tho skimmers (Ilhynchop- 
 inaj). These groujis are very trenchantly distinguished from 
 each other, but the first two and last two are contrasted with 
 each other, the jiegers and gulls on one hund being closely al- 
 lied, aud on the other the terns ancl shearwaters. The sub- 
 families themselves are very homogeneous, the various 
 members of each differing very little from each other. Rep- 
 resentatives are found in every sea, and sometimes wander 
 far inland. A M<Hi»ujr<iph of fhr Xitrtfi Amen'mii Lan'tiir 
 has been recently (1^74) published by Dr. E. Coues in his 
 Sirds of tliv XoitIi-ic€«t (pp. 6sy-7i;). TiiEonouE Gill. 
 
 Lari'^ot. The name of one of the stops in an organ, 
 otherwi^e known as tho "nineteenth." It consists of a 
 single rank of mclal pipes, and is tuned an octave above 
 the twelfth stop, or two octaves and a fifth {i. r. a nine- 
 teenth) above the diapasons. It occurs also as one of tho 
 ranks of the scsquialtcra and mixture stops. 
 
 Lar'imcr, county of Colorado, bounded W. by the 
 Medicine Bow Mountains and N. by AVyoming. Area, 
 2000 square miles. It is watered by Cache la Poudro and 
 Big Thompson creeks, which afford irrigation aud water- 
 power. It is a fertile region, producing grain, hny. butter, 
 and wool extensively. Lignitic coal and silver are found. 
 Cap. Fort Collins. *Pop. «;JS. 
 Larimer, tp. of Somerset co., Pa. Pop. 951. 
 Lar'iliiT [frtun Larug, a ''gull," and the sub-family affix 
 -i'n/r], a sul)-fauiily of Laridu', characterized by a well-de- 
 veloped beak, whose upper mandible is hooked and projects 
 downward in front of the upper, and has no cere at tho 
 base. In this are included the birds familiar to every one 
 who has been along the shore as "gulls," but under this 
 common designation are embraced many species. In the 
 most recent general catalogue of birds {Hauil-lixt of Genera 
 and Species of Itirdn, by George Robert Gray) 7r> species 
 are enumerated under five genera — viz, JihodoHhihin, with 
 1 species; Lmus, with 18 sections and 68 species; Xemn, 
 with 2 sections and 2 species: Pa(/opfii{fi, with 2 species: 
 and Jilnmt, with 3 species. Many of these, however, are 
 undoubtedly varieties. Dr, Coues recognizes ten American 
 species, and in addition two varieties — viz. Lama, with 5 
 sub-genera (including Paijuphila and Rissa)M\<X~ species; 
 lifiodoMttfhia. with its single species; and A'oiia, with 2 
 sub-genera and species. LaniM has a square tail, and in- 
 cludes the largest and most common species; lihodnHtelhia 
 has A wedge-shaped tail ; and CrenfjniH a forked tail. Tho 
 species of the last two genera arc inhabitants of tho arctic 
 regions, and lexcejit A', sabinei) are very rare. 
 
 TnKonoRE Gill. 
 Larin'sa^ town of Kuropean Turkey, in the province 
 of Salonieu, on tbi" Saleinbria, It has extensive manufac- 
 tures of cotton and silk goods, mid a large trade in wine 
 besides a very important transit-trude, Po]>. 2j,(iOU, 
 
 Laristan', district of Persia, part of the province of 
 Fursistan. and bordering on the Persian Gulf. It is mostly 
 an arid sandy wuste, and the guinea-worm is so frequent 
 as to become a perpetual plague. 
 
 La Rive* Ue, the name of two eelebrnled Swiss physi- 
 cists, father and son. — Chahlks GASPAru*. b. at Gi-iieva, 
 Mar, 14, 1770; resided from 17it4 t<. 1791) at Kdinburgh on 
 account of the political disturbances in his native country ; 
 returned in 171IU to Geneva, and look charge of its insane 
 asylum ; founded a museum of natural science and a botan- 
 ical garden, and delivered annual courses of lectures on 
 medicine and chemistry. 1), at Cieneva I^Iar. IH, Is;i4. — 
 AiGi'STK, b. at (ieneva Oct. 1, 1801 ; studied chemistry and 
 natural science under his father; was professor at the 
 Academy of (icneva. and since I8fi4 one of the eight foreign 
 members of the French Academy. !►. at Marseilles Nov. 
 27, IS73. Kleetrieity, its theory as well as its practical ap- 
 plicability, formed the principal subject of their investiga- 
 tions, and both of them coinmuuicated to different scien- 
 tific papers — liibfiothi^tpie Uin'rniirffe, Atitlftlri dr C/tiiiiir,* 
 
 etc. — a number of valuable essays relating lo this braiieh 
 of natural science. The princinal work of Auguste de la 
 Rive is his Traitf d* ElcctricitS thforiqne applicfe (;J vols,, 
 Paris, IS.^,4-.'i8). 
 
 Larix. See LAncii. 
 
 Lark [Ang.-Pax. lu/crr; Scotch, lnvn>rK-], a popular 
 name of several passerine birds of the group Oscines (sing- 
 ers). The true lurks are of the family Alaudidu'. of which 
 tho skylark (d' the Old WmUX ( A/'iuda fin-ni-iM} is the typ- 
 ical spirit. This most intere.stine bird is a great favorite, 
 from its sweet song, which it sends forth while soaring
 
 1656 
 
 LARKHANA— LARREY. 
 
 aloft in clear weather. It is a fine cage-bird, and is now to 
 some extent naturalized in the U. S. by the laudable efforts 
 of the acclimatization societies. Europe has several other 
 species of .4Aiif'/(r. The liorned skylark {Eremnphitn cnr- 
 untn) is one of the most familiar bird<! of the great Western 
 plains of the U. S. The shorclark yOtoantt afpciti-iit) is a 
 very sweet singer. Tho well-known meadow-lark of the 
 V. S. (Stnrnet/'t maffim) is of the oriole family. There are 
 two varieties, the eastern and the western, which differ en- 
 tirely in their song. 
 
 Larkha'na, town of British India, in the presidency 
 of Uombay, in the district of Sinde, 7 miles AV.of the Indus. 
 It is fortified, has a larj^e trade in grain, and manufactures 
 of cotton and silk goods. Pop. 9000. 
 
 Lark'insbiirs, post-v. and tp. of Clay eo.. 111., on the 
 Springfield and Illinois South-eastern R. K. Pop. 976. 
 
 Lark'insvillev postv. and tp. of Jackson co., Ala., on 
 the -Memphis and Charleston R. K. Pop. 2(108. 
 
 Lark'spur^ a popular name of the herbs of the genus 
 
 Befphinitirn (order Kanuucnlacea?), which are found in the 
 cool regions of both continents. The U. S. have eight or ten 
 native species, and Europe as many. They are poisonous 
 herbs, and have a limited nso in medicine. Several of 
 these, with some Asiatic species, are favorite garden flowers. 
 
 Lar'ned, post-v., cap. of Pawnee en., Kan., on the At- 
 chison Topeka and Santa Fe R. R. and the Arkansns 
 River, is the station for Fort Lamed. It has 1 weekly 
 newspaper. Pop. about ."500. 
 
 Larnod fBKNJAMiN F.), b. in Massachusetts in 1791; 
 entered the U. S. army as ensign of the 21st Infantry in 
 Oct.. ISl.'J; served with distinction throughout the war, 
 and for gallant conduct in the defence of Fort Erie, where 
 he commanded a eompnny, was brevetted captain ; retained 
 as regimental paymaster on the reduction of the army in 
 181o ; during the Mexican war was marie deputy pay- 
 master-general, and on the death of Gen. Towson succeeded 
 him in ISjt as paymaster-general of the army, with the 
 rank of colonel : from that date until his death discharged 
 the responsible duties of his office with rare integrity. The 
 outbreak of civil war largely increased his labors, and called 
 fur a reorganization of his department, which be thoroughly 
 accomplisherl, hut at the expense of his life, for his over- 
 tasked powers gave wav, and he d. at his residence in 
 Washington, D. C, Sept. 6, 1S62. 
 
 Larned (Simon), b. in 17,^4 at Thompson, Conn,: was 
 a Revolutionary officer who settled at Pittsfield. Mass.. in 
 17S4. He was a member of Congress 1S04-0.): eolnnel 9rh 
 XJ. S. Infantry 1S12-1.J. and afterwards sheriff of Berkshire 
 CO., Mass. D. at Pittsfield Nov. 9, 1S17. 
 
 Lamed (Svlvkstkr), son of Col. Simon Larned, b. at 
 Pittsfield, Mass., Aug. .31, 1796; graduated in L^l.tat Mid- 
 dlebury College; studied theology at Princeton, and in 
 1SI7 was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry, ilcwcnt 
 to New Orleans, where he was distinguished for the rare 
 eloquence and power of his preaching. D. of yellow fever 
 An^. 31, 1820. (See his Life and Sermons, by 11. R. Gurley. 
 184L) 
 
 Larned (Wim.tam ArcrsTrs). A. M., b. in Thompson, 
 Conn., .June 2:5. ISOfi: graduated at Yale 1826: taught in 
 Salisbury. X. C, 1S26-2H ; tutor and theological student at 
 Yale 182S-;j| ; was ordained lS."51-35 pastor of a Congre- 
 gational church at Mill bury. Mass.; was instructor in He- 
 brew and Greek in a theolo-^ical school at Troy. N. V., 
 1835-37; professor of rhetoric and Enejlish literature in 
 Yale College 1S39-G2. D. at New Haven, C.nn.. Feb. 3, 
 13<>2. Prepared an edition of Demosthenes On the Croien; 
 editor of tlie A'ctc EmjluutUr ISJl-jj. 
 
 Lar'nioa, town on the southern shore of tho island of 
 Cyprus, Turkey, in a fertile but very unhealthy plain. It 
 has nn harbor, hut a good roadstead, ami carries on an ex- 
 teni^ive trade, exporting silk, wool, and oil, and importing 
 iron, paper, and colonial products. It is annually visited 
 by 61)0 or 700 vessels of 60,000 tons burden. Pop. about 
 11). 01)0. ^ 
 
 La RorhefoiiranldS de fFRAN(:ois), Ditkk, prince 
 of M.irsillac, b. at Paris Dec. 1'.. ICr3; received a military 
 education, an<I served for some time in the armv. but the 
 element in which he felt perfectly at home was'tho court 
 intrigue. While yet a young man he took an active part 
 in the contest between Anne of Auflria and Richelieu, 
 which ended with his banishment from Paris. On the 
 death of the car.Iinal in lfi.!2. he Immediately returned to 
 the court, but heini; poorly rewanled bv the queen, he 
 sought an alliance with tho leaders of the Fronde ; and in 
 order to acquire influence and become of importance he 
 established and carried through a love-intrigue with Ma- 
 dame dc Longueville, a sister of the prince of^Conde. This 
 time too, however, bis political enterprises brought him 
 
 nothing but trouble, and after 1660 ho gave up all am- 
 bitious plans and lived solely for literature and social en- 
 joyment in intimate intercourse with Mesdames dc Sable 
 and Sevign6, and with Buileau. Racine, and others. In 
 lGti2 appeared his Mi moires, and in 1065 his Hpjlcxionii. 
 The latter made a great sensation, as well on account of 
 its elegant style and acute observations — for which rcafon* 
 it is still considered a classical work in France — as on ac- 
 count of its philosophy, by which the difference between 
 virtue and vice is reduced to a mere conventionality, and 
 egotism is established as the principal if not the only spring 
 in the human will. D. at Paris. Mar. 17. IfiSO. — Another 
 member of the same family, FitANrors Ai.exandrb Fn£- 
 PKRii: UE LA RocHEFOi'cAULn-LiANroi RT. b. at Paris Jan. 
 II, 1747; lived mostly on his estate of Liaucourt ; was 
 president of the National Assembly in 1789; emigrateil in 
 1792 ; lived in England and the U. S. ; returned to France 
 in 1799 : was much in public life under tlie Restoration as 
 an advocate of liberal measures, and d. at Paris Mar. 27, 
 1827. He was a very voluminous writer on different social 
 topics, but his name is best known as that of a great prac- 
 tical philanthropist. He established the first model-farm 
 in France, introduced vaccination, founded at Liancnnrt a 
 school for industry and art, which developed into the cele- 
 brated Kcole des Arts et Metiers of Chalons, brought the 
 method of mutual instruction into use, and established the 
 first savings bank in France. 
 
 La Rochejacqiielcin', de fllFvnt nir Vfrgf.r), 
 Count, b. Aug., 1772. at the chateau of La Durbellierc, in 
 Vendee; did not emigrate when the Revolution broke out, 
 but joined Lescure, became for a short time the distin- 
 guished leader in the first Vrsdfan War (which see), and 
 was killed Mar. 4, 1794, at the battleof Nouai 116, near Chollet, 
 La Rochejaequelein is the noblest personification of those 
 royalists who thought sincerely that only the return of 
 France to the legitimist monarchy could give the conntry 
 peace and happiness. He was a reactionary La Fayette, 
 and when he was chosen as gcneral-in-ebief of the Ven- 
 dean^, be said to his soldiers, ** If I fall back, kill me ; if I 
 go forward, follow me; if I die, avense me I"' He took 
 part in all the early battles fought in Vendue against the 
 republicans, and after he had been chosen chief of all the 
 royalist armies be defeated twice the army of the National 
 Convention around Autrain. and occupied Le Mans, La 
 Fli'^ehe, Laval, and other cities. — His nephew, Henri de la 
 RornF.iACyi'Ei.EiN, the latest celebrated representative of 
 that historical family, gave up its ultra-legitimist opinions, 
 rallied to the imperial regime, was made a senator by Na- 
 poleon III., and d. in 1867. Fti.ix Atcaigne. 
 
 La Rose, post-v. of Marshall co.. III., on the western 
 division of the Chicago and Alton R. R., has 1 weekly 
 newspaper. 
 
 Larousse' (PiEnnr.l.b. in 1S16 at Toucy. department 
 of Yonne ; began to be known as jiartncr of Roycr, a eele- 
 bratrd Paris pul)lishcr of books for primary education. 
 Many of these books are used now in French schools, and 
 were written by Laroussc himself. In 1803 he conceived 
 the idea of his universal dictionary ( iJivtiounnirc tin XIXe 
 ftirrlr), and set at work surrounding himself with the best 
 writers. The work was published by subscription, and had 
 an immense success, (hough it slowly appeared periodically 
 in small /««ei>ii/c« in a pamphlet form of about fifty pages 
 each. Larousse exhausted bis strenirth in this stuj)endous 
 work, and he d. Jan., lS7r), leaving his encyclopaedia at the 
 letter M. He was a moderate but strongly-convinced re- 
 publican. Ftl.IX AtTAIGNE. 
 
 Lar'ra, de (Mariano .Tosk), b. at MatJrid. Spain. Mar. 
 24, ISOO ; known under the pseudonym of '* Fifjaro " as tho 
 most popular modern satirist, dramatist, and critic of bis 
 country, after a short career abounding in tumultuous ad- 
 venture, d. by bis own hand at Madrid Feb. 13, 1837. His 
 works have been many times reprinted in Spain, Mexico, 
 and South America. 
 
 Ijar'rabee, tp. of AVaupacca co., Wis. Pop. 362. 
 
 Larramcn'dif dc (Mantel), b. in Biscay about 1600 ; 
 was a .Tesuit. and became the principal authority upon his 
 native language, the liasque. of which he prepared a gram- 
 mar and dictionary, and maintained it to have formerly 
 been universal in Spain. The titles of his works arc El 
 fnipnsihfe Veut^tdo (KIO). Antiffurdad if Unnernfrlidnd del 
 Unitruenre en Eipn^tt (1728), Dicdonnrio trifiufjue del Cas- 
 tefhnio, finaeiieurc i/ Lathi (174.'>). D. in Biscay about 1750. 
 
 Larrey' (Dominique Jean), Raron, a famous military 
 surgeon, b. at Baudean, Ilautes Pyrenf-cs, in July, 1766; 
 studied surgery with his uncle. Oscar Larrey. a successful 
 surj;eon of Toulouse, under whose care the baron's elder 
 brother, Charles Francois Hilaire Larrey, M. D. (1774- 
 1810). an able surgeon and writer, was also trained. Tho 
 younger Larrey went in 17S7 to Paris; entered the navy;
 
 LARREY— LA SALLE. 
 
 16.57 
 
 returnetl to Paris; studied under Dessault and Sabaticr; 
 joincd the army in 1791i ; invented the unihulauce vuUmte 
 1793, and was made sur^jeon-in-chief ; served in Kgypt, 
 Germany, Spain, everywhere disphiying the grandest 
 courage and perfect devotion to the eonifnrt and honltli of 
 the troops, and especially to the wounded, whether Iriouds 
 or enemies ; was mailc a baron on th<- lifld of Wa^^riim 
 1S09 ; was wounded at Austerlitz and Waterloo; made 
 countless and exceedingly iuiportaut improvements in 
 operative and clinical surgery, and made important obser- 
 vations in general medicine. D. of pneumonia at Lyons 
 July 25. 1S42. 
 
 I^arrcy {Kki.ix IltppoLVTF.) M. D., Bahon, son of the 
 great Baron Larrey, h. Sept. KS, ISOS: entered the army, 
 and in IH32 received his degree at Paris ; became professor 
 of pathology at Val de Grace 1841 ; becatne sanitary in- 
 spector of the army 1S5S ; was chief surgeon in the Italian 
 campaign 1861*, and the author of several medical and sur- 
 gical books and of many professional papers. 
 
 Lartet' (KnoiAnn), b. at St. Guf-rand, France, in ISOI ; 
 has been one of the most distinguished promoters in France 
 of researches in fossil palipontology and pre-historic an- 
 thropolojjy, having been for many years professor of the 
 former science in the Museum of Natural History at Paris. 
 Among his numerous discoveries may be mentioned the 
 mammalian remains in the Miocene deposits of Gers (1837), 
 including entire skeletons of MaHtodmi awjustidcus, and 
 affording the first proof of the existence of fossil monkeys 
 in Europe. Subsequently he worked with (Jaudry in de- 
 veloping the palpcontological results of excavations in the 
 Miocene beds of Piterini, an'I aided Christy in exploring 
 the caves of Perigord, as well as in the publication of the 
 results in the lirtitptiir Aquitnnterr (isr>7-71), a work on 
 the pre-historic ethnohtgy of P6rigord. 
 
 Larue'y county of Central Kentucky, bounded N. E. by 
 Salt UivL-r. It is undulating and fertile. Cattle, tobacco, 
 and grain are staple products. Area, 400 square miles. 
 Cap. HodgensviUe. Pop. 8235. 
 
 LaruCy post-v. of Montgomery tp., Marion co., 0., IH 
 miles U'. of Marion, on the Scioto Kiver and Clcvi-hind Co- 
 lumbus Cincinnati and Indianapuli.s R. U., has 1 weekly 
 newspaper, 2 hotels, flouring and saw mills, a factory, a 
 union school, various stores and warehouses. Principal 
 business, farming and lumbfring. 
 
 J. A. Moi sKit, M. 1)., roH Fd. " LAurn Citi/.kn." 
 
 Lar'va [ Ijat. for " mask." so called becnuse it was onco 
 believed to conceal a perfect insect], in the life of most in- 
 eects and of many infcriftr invertebrate iininials the con- 
 dition or stage of devebipnu-iit which follows the batching 
 of the egg, and which in most insects is fincceede<l by the 
 pnpa or chrysalis state. The larva* of flies (Diptera) are 
 catlcil maggots; those of coleopterous insects are grubs; 
 those of moths and other Lepidoptera are catorpillars. A 
 tC'Jfx (plu. •ro/iV^j*) is the larval condition of a trematodc 
 worm. There is really no one stage of dev<'Iopment in the 
 larval state, for it is usually one of most active progress, 
 lu some cases another condition, the senii-jjupa, precedes 
 the pupa form into which the larva is changed. 
 
 Lar'will, post-v. of Whitley co., Ind., on the Pittsburg 
 Fort Wayne anri Chicago K. U. 
 
 Ijarynt^i'liH [from (5r. Adpi-yf, "larynx"], an inflam- 
 mation of the mucous membrane lining the larynx. It may 
 first bo divided into acute and chronic varieties, and the 
 chronic subdivided into simple chronic catarrh of the larynx, 
 laryngeal phthisis, and syphilitic laryngitis. The first of 
 these, acute laryngitis, generally commences as an inflani- 
 miition of the pharynx, which is afterwards communicated 
 to the larynx, although it does occur imlcpondently in the 
 larynx itself. The cause is generally " a cold," or exposure 
 to sudden ehiingcs ijf tcmprrature, or it may ho Irautnatic; 
 and the sympttuns consist of hoarst^iess, a sensation of 
 tickling and dryness in the throat, and more or hss cough 
 and expectoration. With ordinary care It subsides in a 
 couple of days without any ine.lieal intorforcneo, or at most 
 a warm bath ftdlovTcd by gmde diaphoresis. In very severe 
 cases inhalations of infusion of hops may bo used every 
 two or three hours with decid'd advantage, but we should 
 ho very wary about making astringrnt local applications 
 with a sponge or brush. Simple chronic catarrh of the 
 larynx is usually a sequela of the aculo form, or arises by 
 extension of a similar inflammation of the [pharynx and 
 posterior nares. The symptoms arc somrwhnf simihi- to 
 tho^c of the acute form, though not as well marked, nnd in 
 addition there is an almost constant hawkingand hemming 
 kept up by the patient to clear his throat from the contin- 
 ually accumulating mucus. In the treatment of this, as in 
 that of all intlainmalions. the first indication is to remove 
 all irritati<»n, and the patient should be cautioned against 
 swallowing largo masses of food ut a time, or, what is a 
 
 very common practice in this country, partaking of very 
 warm dishes, followed by large draughts of ice-water. All 
 the food taken should be of equable medium temperature, 
 neither too hot nor too cold, and the inhalation of hot nnd 
 cold air and noxious vapors, dust, etc. should be avoided 
 as much as possible. Besides all this, the general health 
 should bo by no means neglected, and local medication 
 seems to be very beneficial. Standard solutions of nitrate 
 of silver, sulphate of copper, perehloridc of iron, iodine, 
 etc. are those most commonly used; they seem to produce 
 a better result wIicti changed from time to time, and the 
 application should bo made by means of a cnmcrs-hair 
 brush from twice to five or six times weekly. 
 
 ' Laryngeal phthisis occurs in connection with pulmonary 
 phthisis; the symptoms ditVer lifllo from those of an or- 
 dinary laryngitis, but upon examination the cartilages arc 
 found thiokeued. and often there is ulceration affecting both 
 them and the cords. Syphilitic laryngitis exists as a mani- 
 festation of that dire affection, syphilis. It is jirincipally 
 from the previous history of the ciise nnd an exploration 
 of the chest that we differentiate it from laryngeal jihthisis. 
 Sometimes the destruction of tissue is appalling. In the 
 latter two varieties the chief reliance must be placed on 
 the constitutional treatment of the disease of which they 
 arc but symptoms ; but still, local medication shoulil not 
 be ignored. In ulcerative laryngitis, from whatever cause, 
 powdered iodoform seems to have the most beneficial eflcct. 
 
 KinvAIlD J. BIRMINGHAM. 
 
 liaryn'{;oscope fGr. Aapi-yf. " larynx." nnd <rKontlv, to 
 "examine"], an instrument proposed, and in jiart intro- 
 duced, by Mr. Liston, and employed by other eminent .•sur- 
 geons of his time: hut greatly improved and first system- 
 atically used by the late Prof. Czermak. It is emjiloytd 
 for examining the eonditiou of the diseased larynx, nnd 
 also for observing the action of the vocal cords during 
 phonation. It consists of two mirrors; the larger one. 
 concave, throws light upon the smaller, which is held in 
 the throat of the patient and illuminates the interior of 
 the larynx, at the same time presenting a reversed ininico 
 of the glottis, voeal cords, and surrounding parts. The 
 laryngoscope is of great value in treating local diseases 
 of the throat. 
 
 I^ar'ynx [Gr. Ao/jvyf ], the organ of voice, situated at the 
 upper part of the windpipe. The lower part of it is cylin- 
 drical, and scarcely wider than the windpipe, but above it 
 widens out and forms a triangular-shaped box, which is at- 
 tached to the hyoid hone by various muscU s. It is situated 
 in front of the o-sopbagus, and immediately beneath the in- 
 tegument on the front of the neck, where it forms a projection 
 known as the pomum Adnmi, \\h\v\\ is very prominent in 
 males. The larynx is composed of various cartilages, nine 
 in number, the most important of wliieli are the thyroid, 
 cricoid, two arytenoid, and the epiglottis. It is moved by 
 a number of niu5cI^.'S, and lined with mucous membrane, 
 which in places is thrown into dupHcaturcs or folds, con- 
 stituting the ary-epiglottic folds, the ventricular bands, 
 and tiie vocal conls. 
 
 The function of the larynx is twofold — the production 
 of the voice, and protection to the lungs and bronchi dur- 
 ing respiration. The manner in which the voice is pro- 
 duced is as follows: The vocal cords, which are stretched 
 across the laryngeal tube, arc relaxed when the voice is at 
 rest, but as soon as there is u desire to produce a sound, 
 they arc put on the stretch, and approximated by certain 
 muscles connected with the larynx, and at the same lime 
 the air is driven forcibly through them from the lungs. 
 Tlie qmility of the sound is regulated by the degree of ten- 
 sion nnd npproximiition of the cords, nnd the force with 
 which the column of air is driven through the aperture. 
 This has nothing to do with nrticulntion, which is produced 
 by the lips and tongue. The movements of the larynx 
 during rcf-piration are as follows: At each iu'-pirafion the 
 vocal cords are separated and the larynx freely opened, but 
 in expiration it is partially closed by the relaxation of the 
 vocal cords. The larynx further protects the lungs from 
 the invasion of any foreign ))o<ly. We are all nequninled 
 with the violent coughing produced by a crumb of breml 
 wbieli has been drawn in by a sudilen inspiration. The 
 larnyx is subject to many aflections, the most common of 
 which aro laryngitis, or inflammation of its lining mem- 
 brane; paralysis of some of its muscles; growths on the 
 cords; ulcerative and laryngeal phthisis. 
 
 KhWAIU) ,1. BKHMINfJIIAM. 
 
 l.n Salle, county of N. Central Illinois. Area, 1152 
 square miles. It is level and very fertile. Cnftle. grain, wool, 
 anrI hay are largely produced. Bituminous cool nnd sand- 
 st<me are obtained extensively. Carriages, harnesses, nnd 
 flour are the chief manufactures. The county is traversed 
 by the Illinois nnd Fo\ rivers nnd by numerous railroads. 
 Cup. Ottawa. Pop. (»(>,7y2.
 
 1658 
 
 LA SALLE— LASSA. 
 
 I La Salle, county of S. W. Texas. Area, 1470 square } 
 
 milts. It consists of extensive and rather dry undulating I 
 prairies, watered hy tbe Frio and Nueces and their branches. 
 1 It is a groat stock-range, where cattle and sheep are pas- 
 
 tured. Pop. oy. 
 ! La Salle, eity and tp. of La Salle co., III., on the N. 
 
 bank of the Illinois River, at the intersection of the Illi- 
 t nois Central R. R. with the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific 
 
 ! R. R., ilil miles .•>. W. of Chicago and 1 mile li. of Peru. It 
 
 ! is situated at the head of navigation on tlie Illinois, ami is 
 
 I connected with Chicago by the Illinois and Michigan 
 
 ■ Canal. The adjoining city of Peru is practii-ally a suburb 
 
 of La Salle, which will undoubtedly soon absorb it in the 
 same municipal org.anization. Zinc-smelting establish- 
 ments, four in number, one being the largest in the coun- 
 try, form an important feature of business: a glass-factory 
 is in successful operation; hydraulic cement is produced 
 upon an extensive scale; and 2110.000 tons of ice are an- 
 nually sent down the river to a .Southern market. It has 
 gasworks, and a street railroad connecting La Salle with 
 Peru was completed in l.''"4. The canal connection be- 
 tween tho Mississippi and the great lakes has recently been 
 greatly improved in the vicinity of La Salle. There is a 
 gooil supply of bituminous coal within the city limits, and 
 the )>l.ace offers great inducements to manufacturers. There 
 are :i weekly newspapers. Pop. of city, 52110; of tp. .'i452. 
 
 R. C. Stiivens. 
 La Salle, post-v. and tp. of Monroe co., Mich., on the 
 Michigan Southern R. R. (Detroit division). Po]i. 1S92. 
 
 La Salle, ile Mean Baptiste), D. D., b. at Rheims, 
 France, ,\pr. liO, lti.")l ; became a cathedral canon at Kheims 
 when seventeen years old; received the doctorate after 
 studying at the Sulpitian school, Paris; became a priest 
 Kill ; ilevoted himself to the instruction of the poor; 
 founiled the Brothers of the Christian Schools, an order 
 which received papal approval in 1725. D. Apr. 7, 1719. 
 Numerous miracles are credited to him, and in 1840 he was 
 declared '■ Venerable " by Gregory X\'I. 
 
 La Salle (Ren£ Robert Cavelier), .Sieur ns, b. at 
 Rouen, France, in 164.3; became a .lesuit, but, renouncing 
 his profession, embarked for Canacla in IfiOG ; became a fur- 
 trader; in 101)9 set out to find the N. W. passage by way 
 of the great lakes; explored Lake Ontario, and in 1671 
 discovered the Ohio ; went to France in 1674; was ennobled 
 and received important grants in Canada. Returning in 
 167S from another voyage to France, he explored the great 
 lakes, and attempted to colonize their shores; descended 
 the Illinois and the Mississippi, reaching tho (lulf of 
 Mexico Apr. 9,1682, and named the region Louisiana. In 
 168:5 ho went to France, and, having received a commission, 
 endeavored in 1684 to plant a colony in Louisiana, but 
 the voyage was disturbed by dissensions, and ho landed 
 in Mar., 1685, in Matagorda Ray, Tex., and built a fort. 
 His followers were much reduced in numbers, and having 
 deciilcd to g<» by land to Canada, he was murdered by his 
 own men on tho banks of a branch of Trinity River, Mar. 
 19, 1687. 
 
 Las An'imas, county of S. E. Colorado, extending W. 
 to the Rocky Mountains. Area, 7000 square miles. The 
 W. part is mountainous, the E. part a grassy plain. The 
 Cimarron and Purgatory are the principal rivers. It con- 
 tains coal, iron, gypsum, fireclay, marble, and considerable 
 timber. It has good grazing and farm lands. (Jrain and 
 wool are staple products. Cap. Trinidad, Pop. 4276. 
 
 Las Animas (West), post-tp. and cap. of Bent co., 
 Col., situated on Arkansas River at its crossing by the .Ar- 
 kansas Valley branch of the Kansas Pacific R. R., 2 miles 
 above the mouth of Las Animas River; it was laiil out in 
 1873; has a newspaper and all the usual accessories of a 
 rising town. It is the government freigiiting-point for 
 New Mexico, and has a large cattle-trade. Pop. 500. 
 
 Charles W. Bowma.v, Ed. '■ Leader." 
 
 Las'car [Hind. lnnbkn)\ an "army "], properly, an East 
 Indian cjimp-follower, but the name is now applicii in the 
 East Indies to boatmen, sailors, and other low-caste menials. 
 The lascars are able seamen, but cruel and treacherous. 
 There is a company of gun-lascars at IIong-Kong in the 
 Bvi'ish colonial eorvico. They are Malays, and number 
 176 men. 
 
 Las'caris, the name of two celchrated Oreek grnm- 
 raarians who took refuge in Western Europe after the final 
 overthrow of the (ireek empire by the Turks, and contributi'd 
 very much to the introduction of the study of the t^rcek 
 language, literature, and philosophy into Italy and France. 
 Anoreas Joanses, h. about 144.'p, at Rhyndacus in Phry- 
 gin. whence he received the surname RnvMtAcENfS. He 
 liveil in Italy and France at the courts of Lorenzo do' 
 Medici, for whom he puhlishetl his eelebnited Aniholnffia 
 Grifca; of Louis XII., who used him in several diplomatic 
 
 missions; and of Leo X. and Paul III. B. in Rome in 
 15:15. — Of the life of Coxstantixe Lascaris very little is 
 known. He lived mostly at the court of Francesco Sforza 
 in Milan, where he wrote his famous (irammatica 6'rjun, 
 but he also taught in Florence and Kaples. D. in 1493. 
 Las Casas, de (Bartolom£). See Casas. 
 Las Cases, de (Emmanuei, Augistin Diei'iwnxe 
 Marie Josei-ii). Mari^i'is, b. at Las Cases, in Languedoc, 
 in 1766 ; entered the navy ; emigrated in 1791 ; served lor 
 some time in the army of the prince of Conde ; lived later 
 on in Londcin, where he published his Atian hintorique 
 (1803) ; returned in 1805 to France; held several offices in 
 the civil and military service during the om])ire, and ac- 
 companied Napoleon to St. Helena in 1815. A letter he 
 wrote to Lucien lionaparle (Nov. 27. 1816). and in which 
 he spoke freely of the manner in which Napoleon was 
 treated, caused him to be arrested and transferred to the 
 Cape of Good Hope. After thirteen months' imprisonment 
 he was liberated ; resided in Belgium, and returned after 
 the death of Napoleon to France, where, in 1824, he pub- 
 lished his Mrmitriftl tU ^t<\ f/r/iiic, containing a record of 
 the remarks which Napoleon had made to him in their con- 
 versations. D. May 15, 1842. 
 
 Las Cru'ces, post-v. of Pofia Ana co., N. M.. on the 
 Rio Grande, 3 miles above Mcsilla. It has 2 weekly news- 
 papers. 
 
 La Sieur, tp. of New Madrid co.. Mo. Pop. 2004. 
 Las'ker (Edward), b. Oct. 14, 1829, at Jarocin, in the 
 Prussian province of Puscu ; studied jurisprudence and 
 mathematics; spetit three years in England studying Eng- 
 lish constitution and law ; and received in 1856 an oflice in 
 the Prussian government. His creed, however, and his con- 
 stitutional views, which he set forth in several excellent 
 papers, prevented him from advancing in the service ; in 
 1870 he was appointed an attoruey-at-law in Berlin. Since 
 1865, in which year he was elected a member from Berlin 
 to the Prussian house of deputies, Lasker has devoted him- 
 self with great energy and steadily increasing influence to 
 his parliamentary career, regardless of his practice as an 
 attorney and of other personal interests. Until 186s he 
 represented in tho house of deputies a district of Berlin, 
 and then Magdeburg; in the North German and in the 
 German diet he represented first a district of Berlin, and 
 then one of Saxc-Meiningen. At first, his political con- 
 viction allied him with the progressive parly, but when it 
 became evident that Bismarck's policy aimed at tho estab- 
 lishment of a united Germany, Lasker became one of the 
 founders of tho nati<mal liberal party, which still has the 
 majority in the Parliament. In the internal development 
 of the empire he always stands for that which is right, for 
 the strict fulfilment and judicious development of the law ; 
 and in pursuing this aim he pays regard to none, to no 
 powerful party, to no ]iowerful person, not even to tho gov- 
 ernment itself, with which he agrees in other questions ; as, 
 for instance, with respect to foreign policy. On all import- 
 ant laws of a more recent date, especially on those concern- 
 ing trade and traflic, usury, imprisonment for debt, loans 
 with premiums, etc., he has exercised a decisive influence. 
 What has made him most popular, however, was his attack 
 on the ministry of commerce (Feb., 187.'!) ; he attacked di- 
 rectly one of the highest oflicials In the ministry of stale, 
 and several princes. August Niemaxn. 
 
 Las Pal'mas, town on the north-eastern coast of (Iran 
 Canaria. one of the Canary Islands. It is beautifully sit- 
 uated at the feet of lofty hills, with a spacious and good 
 harbor. It is also well built, with a fine old cathedral and 
 many beautiful promenades. It has some manufactures of 
 glass, leather, woollens, and hats. Pop. 11,400. 
 
 Las Pi'las, an extinct volcano in Nicaragua, forming 
 one of the chain called Los Marrabios, extending across 
 the plain of Leon. Nearly at its foot a new volcanic cone 
 several hundred feet high was formed in 1850 by an erup- 
 tion which lasted a month. 
 
 Las'sa, Lliassa, or H'Lassa, the capital of Thibet, 
 situated in lat. 29° 30' N. and Ion. 91° 40' E.. on a plain 
 9500 feet above the sea and encircled by lofty mountains. 
 It is a very lively and well-built town, with a population 
 estimated "at 50,000, and nn extensive trade in precious 
 stones, gold, velvet, silk, and cashmere. Its principal im- 
 portance, however, it derives from the Booddha-la, a temple, 
 with adjoining palaces, monasteries, and schools, situated 
 on the top of a hill close by the city, with which it is con- 
 nected by a magnificent road. The Booddha-la. or " moun- 
 tain of Booddha," is the residence of the Dalai Lama, tho 
 pope of Booddhism. Thousands of pilgrims come annually 
 to visit it ; hundri'ds of them stay there to complete their 
 theological and |ihilosophical education; and all of them 
 leave behind them a present to the Dalai Lama. The tem- 
 ple and palace, which cover many acres of land, glitter with
 
 LASSEN— LATHAM. 
 
 1659 
 
 golden domes and miuarcts nntl columns, and it \s said that 
 few places ou earth contain sucli enormous treasures of gold 
 and precious slouos as thv Booddbala. Ilut t'orcigners-^lhat 
 is, ail who are not Booddbists — are Ibrbiddco to enter not 
 only the Booddbala, but also ibc city. 
 
 Las'sen, county of N. California, bounded E. by Ne- 
 vada. Area, -M32 square miles. It consists of arable val- 
 leys, dry sago plains, alkali flats, and rougb mountains. 
 Tbc greater part has its drainage into lakes with no out- 
 let, drain and live-stock are the chief products. Cap. 
 Susanville. Pop. i:i27. 
 
 Lassen, tp. of Tehama co., Cal. Pop. 2-10. 
 
 Lassen (t7HRisTiAx), b. at Bergen, in Norway, Oct. 22, 
 180U; studied at Chrisliauin, Heidelberg, Bonn, Paris, and 
 London ; attracted great utteiiliou by hia EnHni mir h- Hull, 
 written in connection with Burnout' | Paris, IS2i>), and his 
 edition of /litopttdetft, a c()llcction of Indian fables, made 
 in aounection with A. \V. Schlegel (Bonn, 1S21*); and bc- 
 onme professor in Indian languages at the University of 
 Bonn in IS.'JO. By liis critical editions of Itmtitutiotiea 
 liti'fHfe Pfncn'lica ( \^,i~), AntbuUtfjia Sonmcritn (1838), etc., 
 and by hid numerous linguistic, areha'ologieal, and histor- 
 ical writings he became the founder of tbe study of Indian 
 language, literature, and history in Europe. His princi- 
 pal work was his Im/iirhe Attcrthttmufcuyide (4 vols., Bonn^ 
 1844-62}. D. May y, 1S76. 
 
 Lasscn*s Peak, in the Sierra Nevada, Shasta co., 
 Cal., rises H),;>71 feet above the sea. 
 
 Las'sile, tp. of Union co., Ark, Pop. 782. 
 
 Las'so [Sp. Ifizo^ kindred to the word lace], or Lariat' 
 [Sp. f't rifttii], a long thong of ox-bide or rope of horse- 
 hair used by Spanish-American iierd«men and hunters for 
 catching cattle, horses, or game. A running noose at the 
 end is dexterously east over the neck or legs of the beast, 
 the other end of the lasso being fastened to the saddle, from 
 which the lasso is thrown. 
 
 L^Assomption', county of Quobeo, Canada, bounded 
 on the S. by the St. Lawrence. It lies directly N. of Mont- 
 real. Cap. L'Assomption. P<)p. lj,473. 
 
 L'Assomption, ]iost-v. of L'Assomption co., Quebec, 
 Canada, on L'Assomption River, is the seat of a college 
 and convent. Pop. 1210. 
 
 I^as'tra a Sign'a, town of Italy, in the province of 
 Florence, on the Kft bank of the Arno, about 8 miles f». AV. 
 of the city of Florence. It is well built, and was a for- 
 tified town under the Florentine republic. Pop. in 1817, 
 10,276. 
 
 La'sus [Aaaov], son of Chabriuua or (according to 
 Schneidewin) Charminus, a (}reek dithyrambic poet and 
 hymn-writer of Uermione in Argolis, flourished about 510 
 D. c. He was a contemporary and rival of Simonidcs, and 
 the reputed teacher of Pindar. Of all his poems, only a 
 fragment of a hymn to l)einetcr remains, which is given 
 in Bcrgk's I'ottif Lyi-iri Cirirci. 11. Duisi.KU. 
 
 Las Ve'gas, post- v., cap. of San Miguel co., N. M., 70 
 miles E. of Santa ¥6, on tbe Pecoa Kiver, has 2 churches, 
 2 weekly newspapers, 2 hotels, a public sebuol. 2 denouii- 
 national schools, a door and sash factory, mineral hot 
 springs, and a large number of stores. Within a few miles 
 are 6 grist-mills and M s-iw-mills. The Atchison Topcka 
 and Siinta Fe U. K. will, when completed, pass a few 
 miles to the N. of Las V'ugas. Cattle-raising and farming 
 arc the chief industries. Pop. about 1.^00. 
 
 Loiis IloMMKi., Fd. '• (Jazette." 
 
 lintnki'nh, or Ladiki'yeh, the ancient Laodk-ka ad 
 Mauk I which see), town of Asiatic Turkey, in the province 
 of Syria, on the Mediterranean. It has many mosques, 
 among which arc several beautiful ones, and a consider- 
 able trade with Kgypt, espeeially in tobacco; yet it bears 
 a general aspect of dilapidation and downfall. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Lateen' Sail [It. Ittlhm, "large or broad"], a trian- 
 gular sail, used mo^dy upon small vessels in thr Mediter- 
 ranean. The anterior and superior edge is faHlened to a 
 long yard which is crossed at about one-third of its length 
 by a short mast. Tbe yard inclines about 4j° to the 
 horizon. 
 
 Latent Heat. See IIkat, by Pnnp. W. P. Taow- 
 DniixiK, .\. M. 
 
 I<aleral Pressure of laquiils. Sec IlvnRODY.SAU- 
 irs and II voiiostath s, by .1. !'. Fiii/Ki.i.. C K. 
 
 Lat'eran is the name of a place in Rome occupying 
 the site of the estates of the aneieitt Konniii family Latr- 
 ranim. The two principal buildings situated in the place 
 are tlio church of S. tiiovunni and the palace. The old 
 Latenin palace became imperial property under Nero, who 
 put I'laulius Lateranus to death and contiseuterl his es- 
 tates. Constantino the Ureal preacnied it to the pope, and 
 
 I it was the pontifical resideuoe until in LiOO the Holy See 
 
 I was transferred to Avignon, On the return of Gregory 
 
 XI. to Rome in L177. he took up bis residence in the Vul- 
 
 ; iean. Having been burnt down under the reign of Clement 
 
 iX., the Latenin palace was rebuilt in IjJS under Sixlus 
 v., but it reuKiiued unoccupied until innocent XII. in HHiii 
 made it an orpbnn asylum. In ls4.'i, liregory XVl.estab- 
 j lished hero the ^luseum (Tregorianuui Lntcranensc for an- 
 j tiquities, tbe Vatican and Capilolinc museums affording no 
 I more space. The church, S. Giovanni in Lateruno. was 
 founded by Constantino the Great, overthrown by an earth- 
 quake in 806, rebuilt by Sergius 111. 001-11, burnt down 
 in i;t08, restored by Clement V., and subsequently much 
 altered and modernized by Martin V., 14;J0, Pius 1\'., Iii60, 
 Borromini. IGoO. and llulileo, 1734. For centuries it was 
 the principal church in Christendom — Omnium urhiit ct 
 orhiH rcclcniarniu mater ct caput. Five great cecumenical 
 councils were held in its vaults. The popes are still crowned 
 here, and from the balcony of its front facade the Holy 
 Father blesses the people ou Ascension Day. 
 
 Lat'eran Coun'cils — thus called because they were 
 held in the church of St. John Lateran in Home — com- 
 jtrise, besides six minor, five great (Veiimeiiical councils — 
 namely, (1) that convened by Calixtus If., and opened 
 Mar. 18, 112;i. by which the long strife between the popes 
 and the German emperors concerning investiture was 
 eniled on the following terms: "The eniperor surrenders 
 to tlod, to Sts. Peter and Paul, and to tbe I'atliolie Church 
 all right of investiture by ring and stuff. . . . The pope 
 agrees that the election of German prelates shall be had in 
 the presence of the emperor, provided it is without vio- 
 lence or simony." (2) That convened by Innocent II., 
 and opened Apr. 20, IK'.O. by which the anti-jiope. Ana- 
 cletus II., and all who had received oOice under him. were 
 deposed. (;i) That convened by Alexander III., and opened 
 Mar. 2, 1170, by which it was established that henceforth 
 *' tbe election of the popes shall be confined to the college 
 of cardinals, and two-tiiirds of the votes shall be required 
 to make a lawful election, instead of a majority only, as 
 heretofore." (4j That convened by Innocent III., and 
 opened Nov. II, 121 J, by which a crusade was determined 
 upon for the libenition of Palestine from the infidels, tbe 
 heresy of the Waldenses was condi-mned. and the doctrine 
 of transubstantiation established its an article of failb. 
 (5) That convened by Julius II., and opened May 3, 1.M2, 
 by which tbe acts of the Council of Pisa were annulled, 
 and the concordat coneluded in I.'jID between Francis I, 
 and Leo X., who succeeded Julius II., and closed the coun- 
 cil in 1617, was substituted for the Pragmatic Sanction of 
 Bourges. 
 
 Lnter'za [Lat. Fratuertium], town of S. Italy, in the 
 province of Leccc, about 35 miles S. W. of Taranto. Pop. 
 in 1874. 6;U8. 
 
 La'tes [properly taio or latuf, Gr. Aotos], a genus of 
 large Percidic, of which is F^utrn nifottrun, the fiimnus fish 
 from which Latopolis in Egypt took its name. This fish 
 is the largest in that stream. It is three feet long iin«l of 
 fine flavor. L. ucf-HtH is an excellent food-fish of the tidal 
 parts of the Ganges. 
 
 La'tex [Lat. for "juice"], the tbirk, milky juice of 
 certain plants, as the milk-wted. celandine, etc. It is dis- 
 tinct from the true sap, and in contained in a set of tubes 
 called '• laticilerous vessels." Many iniporliint products, 
 such as opium and caoutchouc, are tbe ihied latex of some 
 one or more species of jdants. In snme plants the latex 
 exhibits the pnemtmenon culled cyclosis. 
 
 Lath« a thin strip of boarti used to nail upon tbe up- 
 rights of house-walls. I'pon the biibs tbe plaster is laid 
 by the trowel. Laths are now sawed out complete by ina- 
 ohinery. Formerly, a wide and Ibin board was split into 
 laths. Laths are generally miide cd' small sticks; any kind 
 of wood which will not warp will serve for laths. 
 
 Ln'tlinin (John), b. at KItham, Kent. England, June 
 27, l7tU; studied medicine and natural history; estab- 
 lished himself in 17(Kt as a physician nt I)artford; aided 
 Sir A. Lever in forming bis museum, and was one cd' Ibc 
 founders of the Royal Society ond of the Liniuean Society. 
 Besides papers on medicine and natural history, ho was 
 the autlHir of a (Imrml Si/noptn'ii nf liirdu {S vols., 1781- 
 IHOI ) and of an Atrfrj- Oniif/mfntjirnit (I79I), both which 
 were combined in a new edition under the title .1 (J*unal 
 HiHtnrif uf iiirdn (10 vols., 1821-24). D. at Komsey Feb. 
 •I, is:!7. 
 
 lifithnm CMii-ToN S.), b. at Columbus, 0.. May 23, 
 IS27; graduated at Jefferson College, Pa., in ls|5; became 
 a lawyer of Alabama, and was clerk of the courts in Ru«- 
 sell CO. lS4S-r)0; clerk of the recorder's court. San Fran- 
 cisco, Cal.; a district ottorncy ISoO-al ; a member of Con- 
 gress from California lSj;t-5j; collector of the port of San
 
 1660 
 
 LATHAM— LATHE. 
 
 Francisco 1855-57; governor of California ISGOj U.S. 
 Senator 1861-67. 
 
 Latham (Robkrt Gordon), M. D., F. R. S.. b. at Bil- 
 linj;sljorou;;h. Lincolnshire, Eng. : was educated at Eton 
 and L'ainhridiie, where he became a fellow of King's Col- 
 lege and received degrees in arts and in medicine; became 
 a lecturer al Middle.«ex Hospital: published Xorimtf and 
 the Av>rirc'/mH« ( l^^ill) ; translations from the Swedish, 
 etc.; became in 1H4I professor of English literature in 
 University College, London ; published a work on 7'Ae 
 English Lnu^ufvje llS41), a series of English grammars 
 (lSt:!-50), liisiorif of the Englinlt Lnngumje (!S4'.»), Hnud- 
 b'i'ik »f the EnijltHh Lniu/unge (1851), a translation of Syd- 
 enham's Wurh-ft ( 1848-.l'j), Xatiiral Hilton/ of Man (1850), 
 Mtiit and his Migratious (1851), a series of works on eth- 
 nology (1850-59"), Comparative Phiiufogi/ flS(12). a tho- 
 roughly revised edition of Johnson's /Jictiouart^, in 36 
 numbers (1857-70), and other works. 
 
 Lathe [Fr. tour; Ger. Drihbanlc], a machine for shap- 
 ing materials by the process called turning. It has a great 
 variety of forms, as the •* foot-lathe." the " engine- 
 lathe," the "lathe for turning irregular forms," or as 
 classified by reference to the art to which the tool is pecu- 
 liarly adapted. In the lathe the material to be shaped is 
 sustained by two ■* centres," between which it is given a 
 motion of revolution, while a turning- tool, held by the 
 hand of the workman or by a tool-holder attached to and 
 moved by a "slide-rest," cuts away the exterior, and gives 
 the mass the sliape required in the finished piece. 
 
 The lathe was known in very early times. Its invention 
 is claimed by Diodorus Siculus for Talus, the grandson of 
 Daedalus; Pliny ascribes it to Theodore of Samos (740 b. c), 
 and spates that Phidias and Pericles were very expert in 
 its use. Cicero called the workmen using the lathe *'ra«- 
 cnlarii.'* Phidias is supposed to have been the first to 
 adapt the machine to turning wood. It had previously 
 bc;en used in turning vases and other forms in clay; and 
 the potter's wheel, which is a kind of lathe, was in use 
 among the ancients. It is mentioned in the Bible as used 
 by the Hebrews. Very rude lathes were used in Europe 
 at a period which antedates history, and they are still met 
 with in some jiarts of the country. Turned objects in 
 WDorl were exhibited at the international exhibition at 
 Vienna in 187.'l, made by the peasantry of Galicia, among 
 the Carpathian forests, on these old lathes. Fig. 1 repre- 
 sents this tool. The work- 
 man goes into the forest, 
 selects two trees growing 
 side by side, and close by 
 a young maple or beech. 
 Two maple cones inserted 
 in the trees serve as cen- 
 tres, .ind the block to be 
 turned is fixed between 
 them, the end being first 
 trimmed to cylindrical 
 shape to take the '* bight" 
 of tlie rope, one end of 
 whicli is attached to the 
 eml of the sapling, and 
 the other to the treadle 
 seen below. The cross- 
 bar, d, is a rest to sup- 
 port the turning-tool. The treadle btini^ worked by the 
 loot, the piece revolves, and the turning is readily performed. 
 Lathes were adapted to other than cylindrical forms of 
 revolution in comparatively modern times. Leonardo da 
 Vinci, Jacques Besson, Salomon de Cans, and Jerome Car- 
 dan produced modifications and improvements, having for 
 their object the production of oval and other geometrical 
 figures. The engine-lathe, with its slide-rest, was tho in- 
 vention of Joseph Bramah, an English mechanic, in 1791. 
 The lathe for turning irregular forms was invented by an 
 ingenious Americ.in mechanic, Thomas Blanehurd, about 
 1820, and was by him applied to turning gun-stocks and 
 shoe-lasts. 
 
 Tho metal-worker's engine-lathe has been variously 
 modified by many inventors. Tho most efiieient and per- 
 fect machines of tins class are built by the leading manu- 
 facturers of machine tools in tho U. S. This is the most 
 generally useful and most indispensable tool of the whole 
 collection of tho metal-worker, and it is hardly less im- 
 portant in wood-working. 
 
 The art of turning is often made nn independent in- 
 du>!try. It employs large numbers of workmen, and some 
 of the finest illusKtrations of manual dexterity and of ar- 
 tistic skill are produced by the use of this tool. (See Titrn- 
 iNc.) The lathe is usually so constructed that the work 
 may be placed between two conical pointed "centres," one 
 of which is stationary, and the other of uhicb revolves, 
 driven by the foot or by other power, and communicates its 
 
 Fig. 
 
 motion to the work. AVhile the piece is thus rotating about 
 the line joining the centres, the cutting edge of the tool is 
 brought against the exterior or the projecting jtorlions, 
 and It is gradually worked into the required shape. When 
 the axis remains constant in ])osition, the tool being moved 
 inward and outward, or laterally as required, the surface 
 becomes that of a solid of revolution, composed, usually, 
 of cylindrical combined with spherical, spheroidal, or other 
 geometrical forms. The axis is sometimes changed in po- 
 sition during the operation of turning, as in the "rose- 
 engine," by which oval and many intricate combinations 
 of regular figures are produced. Hand-turning is usually 
 adopted in working wood and ivory. The tool is carried 
 in the hand of the operator^ a rest being provided to sup- 
 port it beneath while it is moved in the horizontal plane 
 by the turner. In the engine-lathe used for working metal 
 tliC tool is secured in a tool-po.-^t erected upon a slide-rest, 
 which latter is moved horizontally by suitaljle mechanism, 
 worked either by hand or by the automatic "feed-motion" 
 of the lathe. In the "chuck-lathe" the work is carried in 
 a chuck mounted on the end of the rotating spindle, which 
 in tho first described or centre lathe earrit s the live or ro- 
 tating centre. The chuck grasps the work firmly, and thus 
 enables the dead centre to be dispensed with when turning 
 short pieces. 
 
 The foot-lathe is driven by the foot of the workman, 
 operating a treadle beneath. When the tool is larger, and 
 is driven by steam or water power, it is called a power- 
 Jathc. Nearly every trade uses some form of lathe, which 
 by some peculiarity of detail is cppeeially fitted for its 
 work. The forms of the lutbc are therefore Qumcrous^ 
 while the variety of attachments is enormous. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Screw-cutting engine lathe, with foot motion. 
 
 Fig. 2 represents a very complete foot-lathe, as made by 
 Chase & Co. of New York City for general work. A hori- 
 zontal shaft, extending beneath the bed of the lathe from 
 end to end, carries a pulley balance-wheel, which by means 
 of a belt not shown drives the spindle which runs in bear- 
 ings in the "head" of the lathe at the leO. This driving- 
 shaft is turned by a treadle which is worked by the foot of 
 the turner. The slide-rest, seen at the middle of the lathe 
 between the two heads, is moved either by hand, or auto- 
 matically, by a small shaft running from end to end of tho 
 lathe, and partly concealed by that portion of the slide-rest 
 which carries the handle for attaching and detaching it. 
 The tool is shown in its place in the tool-holder, which is 
 mounted upon and carried by the slide-rest. The back 
 centre is shown nt tho right, and the back-head, in which 
 it is carried, is adjustable in position at any distance from 
 tho fixed head, and is clamped by tho nut and handle seen 
 beneath it. Tho centre is moved backward and forward 
 by the handle at the right, which turns a screw within tho 
 shell, and when in adjust?nent it is clamped by a smaller 
 set-screw or clamp, seen above it. The train of gearing at 
 the end of the lathe adjacent to the driving-head is used 
 to determine the relative motion of the tool and the work, 
 when it is desired to secure an exact velocity-ratio, os in 
 cutting screws. The ge.iring seen behind the driving- 
 spindle takes its motion from the pinion on that spindle at 
 the left, and, turning with the belt-cone, transmits it, with 
 a reduced velocity-ratio, to the gear on the driving-spindlo 
 at the right. This gear drives the live spindle to which it 
 is keyed. With this arranc^ment the driving-pulley and 
 its attached pinion turn loosely on the driving-spindle.
 
 LATHE. 
 
 1661 
 
 A rapid uiution of tlio driving-wheel is thus converted 
 into a blow, stroog movcniebt of the live centre, and the 
 latho is thus adapted to turning metals. Throwing the 
 baok-gcaring out of gear, the largest gear can bo clamped 
 to tbo belt-eune, and the driving-spindle then jiartakes of 
 the rupid motion of the latter, turning witli the higher 
 velocity required lo working wood and other soft materials. 
 Both the back-gearing and the screw-cutting attachment 
 are usually dispensed with in lathes intended for turning 
 wood only. Fig. 2 represent:; a Inrgo foot-lathe, capable 
 
 Fia. 3. 
 
 Jeweller's lathe. 
 
 of taking pieces 10 inches in diameter and -10 inches long. 
 A more u:iual size turns pieces G or 8 inches in diameter 
 
 and about 2 feet long. The jeweller's lathe, shown in Fig. 
 3, illustrates this style. 
 
 The finest fitting and the best workmanship is expended 
 upon the head-stock of the lathe. Fig. 4 is a sectional 
 drawing of this part of the tool, as made at the Free In- 
 stitute of Industrial Science at Worcester, Mass. It rep- 
 resents the best of practice. This lathe resembles in gen- 
 eral structure that shown in Fig. 2, The foot-motion is 
 omitted, this being a power-lathe. It is 8 feet in length, 
 "swings" — i". e. it can turn a piece of the diameter of — 10 
 inches, and weighs l.'^iiu |M>uuds. The spindle A, A is of 
 hardened cast steel, ground perfectly cylindrical, «//<r hav- 
 iiiff been hardened^ to avoid danger of change of form in 
 the process of hardening, to secure absolute truth in size 
 and shape, and to obtain perfect smoothness and the de- 
 sired hardness. The box. ii, carrying this spindle is sub- 
 jected to all the strain thrown upon the latter, whether by 
 the weight of the piece or by the force exerted by the tool. 
 Here it is made of a single piece of steel, fitted approxi- 
 mately to finished size, hardened, and finally ground to 
 exact form and to fit. The fpiudlc-bcaring, C, (', where it 
 turns in the box, is conical, and capable of adjustinoiit 
 longitudinally to take up the looseness occasioned by the 
 wear which takes place even with hardened steel journals 
 running in hardened steel bearings. End-play is prevented 
 by the nut, D, D, and the set screw, E, K, which hr>ld the 
 spindle snugly in a position such that it may turn freely 
 without either side or end play. The back end of the 
 spindle is carried in the journul, F, its box being held by 
 the cap-screw, G, U. The conc-pullcy, 11, II, turns loosely 
 on the spindle when the back-gear is in action, and is 
 clamped by the sliding-bloek. I, and screw. J. when llie 
 spindle and the cone are to move together, the cone driving 
 the gear, K, K, directly, and the latter carrying the sj)iii(lle. 
 to which it is secured by keys. The pinion. L. L, on the 
 cone-pulley, drives the back-gear. A spindle. M. M, car- 
 ried on the rear plate of the head-stock, X, N, carries tlio 
 feed-cone pulley, O. The belt-cone, II, II, and the back 
 gearing are given broad bearings. 
 
 Head-stock, IC-lncb engine lathe, made at Free Institute of Industrial Science, Worcester, ^(ass. 
 
 A good lathe must he capable of turning a truly cylin- I the way when using it. Pieces carried between 
 drical surface, and of |)roduciiig a perfectly plane face are connected with the face-plate by a** dog," a 
 upon the end of the cylinder, or of any piece secured in the j.^^ j- 
 
 latho in such manner that the faee to be finished shall lie 
 in the transverse plane. These requirements are attained 
 by skilful design and careful fitting. Lathes used in 
 screw cutting are driven by an arrangement of belting 
 which permits them to bo turnecl in either direction at 
 pleasure. As the reversal of motion usually occurs very 
 suddenly, "friction-pulleys," which are not afleeted by 
 shocks, are generally used. Lathes for turning metals are 
 driven at speeds much less than those adopted in working 
 wood. These speeds arc : 
 
 Material. Fcet per minute. 
 
 Iron, chillufl white cost r> 
 
 '• soft itray b't 
 
 Steel 15 
 
 Iron, wrouicht 20 
 
 Wtw^'s and bronze BO-CO 
 
 Wood 1500-4500 
 
 Pieces to bo turned are frequently of such shape that it 
 is more convenient to b»dt them upon a "face-plate" than 
 to hold them between centres. J)isks, pulleys, wheels, and 
 similar pieces aro thus held. The faco-plato is a strong 
 disk of metal of convenient sixe. having a hub on the rear 
 face, bon-d and having a screw threat! cut insiile it to fit 
 the thread cut on thn end of Iho spindle P, Fig. I. Tho 
 dead ei-ntre and pLippet-head aro drawn back entirely out of 
 
 the centres 
 clamp hav- 
 
 Judson lath 
 
 ing a projecting arm which enters a slot cut in the face-plate, 
 and aio thus driven. Pieces for h liich the faec-jtiato is used
 
 1662 
 
 LATHE. 
 
 mny be sometimes more conveniently held by a "chuck." 
 This coDSists of a tjici'-plale carrying on its face a set of 
 projecting pieces, movable in radial lines by means of 
 screwp, cani.-^. or other mechanism, either together or inde- 
 pentlently. The piece to be turned is placed between these 
 jaws, and they are forced together, seizing the work firmly, 
 and compelling it to turn with the face-plate. 
 
 Fig. 5 represents the Judson chuck in elevation and in 
 part section. The jaws are forced together or separated by 
 the screws shown, which screws are turned by a wrench, 
 shown in use on the lower one. Circles 1, 1, 1, 2. 2, 2, 
 scored on the face, enable the workman to secure a sym- 
 metrical adjustment when it is desired. The jaws being 
 
 independently adjustable, unsymmetrical pieces may be 
 chucked readily and accurately. The wedge-shaped lug 
 which connects the nut of each screw with its jaw causes 
 the same force which drives the jaw a.^rainst the work to 
 press the former more firmly against the face-plate, thus 
 holding the work firmly and snugly. The shell of this 
 apparatus is usually of iron : the jaws should be of steel ; 
 the screws are of wrought iron. A "scroll-chuck" has a 
 similar form, but the jaws are moved simultaneously by a 
 spiral feather on the face of a disk within the casing. 
 These chucks, if accurately made, always place the piece 
 symmetrically on the axis, but they cannot be used for un- 
 symmetrical work. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Horton's chuck. 
 The Horton chuck, Fig. 6, combines tiie distinguishing I moved by a set of geared screws turned by a circular rack, 
 features of both the forms just described. The jaws are ! of wrought iron, sliding in the circular groove cut in the 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 
 The lathe for turning irregular forms. 
 
 A, gun-stock; B. cutter-head; C. former; D, Kuide-whcel; E. E, E. E, swinging frame hoHinc cutter-head and guide-wheel; F, F, 
 cutter-head belt ; G. drivinc-shaft ; H, drivlnR-bclt ; I, belt to first counter-shaft : J. belt from first counter to second counter- 
 shaft K ; L, ImU to fe«il-sbufl ; M, fted-motion ; N, shipper for feed-niutiun M. ana revolving motion T; O, hand-feed; P, sliding 
 t»hle ; R, R, R, R. shaft aud connecting gears for revulTing the stock A and former C ; S, hand-wheel ; X. clutch on revolring 
 shaft B; U, revolving stop-belt.
 
 LATHROP— LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 1663 
 
 back-plate. The front and back plates are nicely fitted to- 
 gether, !'o that no dust or dirt can get inside. Taking out 
 the rack, the jaws are uiuvable independently. The face 
 of the jaw has a slightly raised portion, and a groove is cut 
 at the corner whcru it meets the *' bite/' to allow of accu- 
 rate regrinding. 
 
 Fig. 7 represents the lathe for turning irregular forma 
 originally invented by IJlanchard, and n^ now used at the 
 U. S. artit-nal at Springfiehl, Ma.^s., i>f whiu-h drawings arc 
 kindly furnished by the commanding otTiccr. 
 
 In this beautiful machine the |)attcrn or former, C, is 
 mounted between centres parallel with the piece to be made 
 its duplicate, and is revolved at precisely the game rate of 
 speed. A cutler-head, IJ, carrying several knives and driven 
 by the belt, F, swings in the frame. E, K, E, on the centres 
 at the base. A guide-wheel, D, bearing against the former, 
 C. throws the frame and cutter-head in and out as the guide- 
 wheel and the gun-stock revolve synchrouou!*ly, making the 
 latter a fac-simile of the ])attern. A slow, uniform motion is 
 given the frame in the longitudinal direction, thus shaping 
 the piece from end to end. Many modifications of this copy- 
 ing tool are now made for special uses. 
 
 In the *' ro^e-enginc lathe " the spindle carrying the work 
 is movable, and is vibrated by a guide-wheel or pattern- 
 wheel turned at a fixed rate of speed, and having an out- 
 line which is determined by the shape of the design to bo 
 cut. Sfvcral wheels being used in succession, intricate 
 and beautiful geometrical combinations arc obtained. (Sec 
 Hfdtzaptfers Mrchanical Mtinipuiatioiis; The Luthe and its 
 tV»; .^fnnttft iiu Tounicnr.) R. li. TlU IISTON'. 
 
 La'throp, post-v. of San Joaquin co., Cal., on the Cen- 
 tral Tacilic U. H., 9 miles S. of Stockton. 
 
 Lathrop, post-v. and tp. of Clinton co.. Mo. It has 1 
 weekly ni'wsp;iper. I'op. of v. b2'.i; of tp. 1782, 
 
 Lathrop, post-tp. of Susquehanna co., Pa. Pop. 983. 
 Lathrop {John), D. D., b. in Norwich, Conn., May 17, 
 1710; graduated at Princeton in 1703; taught for a time 
 in the Indian school, afterwards Dartmouth College: was 
 (I7fi^-l>*l(l) a Congregationalist minister of Boston, first 
 over the Old Xorth, and then over the Second church. His 
 degree of I>. I), was conferred first by Harvard, and then 
 by Edinburgh I'nivcrsity. D.Jan.l, IStO. — His son, .Jons 
 (b. Jan. I.'i. 1772: d. Jan. .10, IS20), wasa famous wit, poet, 
 and orator of the early years of the reimblic. 
 
 Lathrop (.John HiniM). LI*.!)., b. at Sherburne, N. Y., 
 Jan. 22. 17'.i'J: graduated at Yale in 1819, and was a tutor 
 there IS22-20; beeame a lawyer in 1826, and afterwards 
 tau(;ht in Norwich, Vt.. and (iardiuer, Me.: professor of 
 mathematics and natural philosophy in Hamilton College 
 lS29-:ij; of law, history, etc., 1835^0; president of the 
 University of Missouri 1840-t9 ; chancellor of the Univer- 
 sity of Wisconsin 1849-59; president of Indiana University 
 is;)9-ti0; profrssor of Enj^Hsh literature in the University 
 of Columbia. Mo., 1800-62. and its president 1865-66. D. 
 at Cohunbin, Mo., Aug. 2, I8(i0. 
 
 Lathrop (Joskph), !►. !>.. b. at Norwich, Conn., Oct. 
 20, 1731 ; grailuated at Yale College in I7a4 : became pas- 
 tor of the Congregational church in West Springfield in 
 17.'>6, and retained that position sixty-four year.'\ until his 
 death, I>ce. 31. 1820. His published works in 7 vols. 
 ( I796-I8III ) are eompiisfd almost entirely of sermons, sev- 
 eral of which, entitled ]\'nfri» In Sfierjt*M Ctothiiij, elicited 
 by troubles in his parish, bad a wide celebrity. Tbo last 
 volume contains an autobiograjdiy. 
 
 Latia'no, town uf Southern Italy, in the province of 
 Lecce, about II miles S. of HrindiMi. Pop. in 1871, 5953. 
 LatiUidn' [frnm LniUnn, ft typical genus, and the ter- 
 mination -I'/.'], a ("arnily of fishes <if the order Tclcopt'])bali 
 and sub-order .'\canth«»pteri. distinguished by sub-jugular 
 ventral fins, each of which has a spine and five branching 
 ravd ; a more or less ehmgatetl body (the vertebral cidumn 
 hiiving mure than Ww abilominal and ftiurtcen camlal ver- 
 tfliraM, covered with scah-v. und with the lateral line sub- 
 mcilian along the tail ; an elongated dorsal fin, of which 
 the spinous portion is shorter than the soft ; ami a com- 
 pressed head, with a snout truneatcil or moderately pro- 
 duced. These are the principal diagnostic characters of a 
 group of fishes which have been variously ])laeer| by iliffer- 
 ent naturalists, Cuvier having referred some forms to the 
 Perciilii'. and others to the I.abridu' : and (iiinther having 
 refcrretl all to the family Trachinidie, except MnlnrnnthuH^ 
 for which he framed a jieculiar family— -Malacanlhidie. It 
 embraces not many genera, but eonibiniilde nn<ler several 
 gruups of genera, or possibly subfamilies — \\i.. Imtim, 
 with three genera, Lutiluu, i'ltnlitlittHun, and Pmltttitua ; 
 M Ai-ArANTMi. with the Mithirauthun: and PiNgrii'inF.s, with 
 the genus l*i}U{uij>rn. All the genera are tropical, the I'in- 
 qttipfiifii being peculiar to America, and tlic others tropi- 
 cupolitau. TiiicononK Gill. 
 
 Lat'imcr (Hugh), D. D., b. at Thuroa«ton, Leicester- 
 shire, England, in 1491, was Iho son of a thrifty yeoman; 
 was educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he was chosen 
 a fellow I juy : passed a bachelor 1510, and a master 15U ; 
 was cross-bearer to the iinivcrsity, and in 1516 became 
 Greek professor; was ordaineil a priest at Lincoln ; became 
 a Protestant by reason of the laliurs of liilney; was dis- 
 missed from the university as a heretic by Wolsey 1527; 
 became chaplain to Henry VIII. 1530; beeame rector of 
 West Kingston. Wilts. 1531 ; was excommunicated, but ab- 
 solved on his submission, 1532; chaplain to Anne Uolcyn 
 1534 ; became bishop of Worcester 1535 : resigned his oftico 
 1539. not being able to accept the Six Articles (31 Hen. 
 VIII. c. 14t, and was imitrisoncd in the keeping of the 
 bishop of Chichester: was afterwards silenced by authority 
 and shut up in the Tower 1546—17; declined his former 
 bishopric 1548; was preacher to Edward VI. 1549-50; im- 
 prisoned in the Tower by proclamation of t^ueen Mary 
 1553; transferred to the Hocardo of Oxford, with llidley, 
 1554 ; tried and condemned by order of Cardinal Pole 1555 ; 
 and burned at the stake with Uidley in the ditch near Ba- 
 liol College Oct. 16, 1555. Latimer was one of the most in- 
 fluential and fearless of the English Ueformers, and his ad- 
 mirable SvrnuniH (4 vols.. London, 1845) are models of for- 
 cible and witty speech. (See his Life, by Rev. K. Demaus, 
 1869.) 
 
 ! Lntimor ( Jamks EujahI. A. M.. S. T. P.. b. Oct. 7, 1826, 
 at Harlffird, Conn. : graduated in 184S at the Weslcyan 
 
 ; University; entered the Methodist Episco])al ministry: 
 was for many years an instructor in the seminaries of his 
 Church, and held pastorates in the State of New York 1861 
 -69; became in 1870 professor of systematic theology in 
 Boston University. 
 
 Lal'imorc, post-tp. of Adams co., Pa. Pop. 1230. 
 I^at'in Churchy a name ajjplied to the Koman Cath- 
 olic, the Occidental, or Western Church. It is antithetical 
 to Greek Catholic, as the title of the Oriental or Eastern 
 Church. After the separation of tlic Greek Church from 
 the Koman (ninth to eleventh century) the Catholics of the 
 West were called Latins, because of their retention of the 
 Latin language in the church service. In association 
 with this distinction we sjicak of the Latin Fathers after 
 (not before) the separation, Iho Latin ritual, the Latin 
 clergy. A Greek latini/.ed is a convert from the Greek to 
 the Koman Church. (See Aschbaeh, Alhj. K. L, (1850), iv. 
 12; Bcrgicr, Theulo(ji<; in ICiu'j/clnp. Mcthodique (\1i>\3), ii. 
 408; Milman, Lutin ChriHtianiti/ (1854).) C. P. Kkauth. 
 
 Lati'nif in the government of ancient Rome, were in- 
 ferior citizens of a class superior to the Peregrini. Tho 
 term originally designated the jieople of Latium ; these 
 after the Social war attained an inferior kind of citizen- 
 ship, the nature of which is not clearly known. The jiia 
 ttttii, hittiuitiiH, or Latium ( Latin (irivilcgc) was afterwards 
 extemleil to nmny cities, towns. an<i colonies in foreign parts, 
 and the Latini and their descendants, even though living at 
 Rome, possessed only tbo Latin and not tho full Roman 
 citizenship. 
 
 Latini (BniNKTTo), b, at Florence in 1230; belonged 
 to the party id'the Guelphs; was exiled in 1261 ; lived for 
 several years in Paris; returned after the <»verthrow of tho 
 Ghibellines to Florence, where he d. in 1294. lie is better 
 known as the teadier and friend of I>!inlc than on account 
 of his own writings, tho most remarkaMe of which is his 
 Lirrr dr trfnor, written in French, translated into Italian 
 in 1474, and containing a compendium of the whole wis- 
 dom of his time. 
 
 Latin Language. Latin is a member of that great 
 family of languages calle<l Indo-European, ami aico, but 
 less properly, Indo-Gernianic or Aryan. This family em- 
 braces the Sanskrit, Persian, Lithuanian. Greek with its 
 modern representative Romaic, Latin an<l its modificntions 
 the Romance tongues, Celtic, Gcrnuin, ami English. These 
 languages, for the most part, present striking resemblances 
 in words, in infiections, and in general granunatica! struc- 
 ture. Tho Sanskrit is tho oldest of them all, and throws 
 more or less light on the obscurities of all the rest. The San- 
 skrit has prevailing usages which pass away in its descend- 
 ants, as the ending -»</of tlie firht person present indicative, 
 which appears in a limited number of words in tJreek, in ft 
 modified form in two In Latin {nun and inqtinm), in only 
 ono in EngliRh (am), further modified in the Oerman 
 hin, and utterly disappearing in other tongues; it has a 
 dual as well as singular and phiral for its nouns, pronouns, 
 adjeclivcs, and vcr!>s, which the Greek po.«ses,-eil, but was 
 little inclined to use, which the Latin retained only in duo 
 an<l (i»i/<".and confused in »«>» and ro*. and whioh the Eng- 
 lish and GeriuHU have retained in only one word. Iirain, 
 ztrtt-n : it had both augment and redoplicutiiin. in which 
 tho Greek nearly followed it, while the Latin retained only
 
 1664 
 
 LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 reJuiilicition, nod that in certain verb?, the German an 
 aiij^iueut in the |)nft participle of simples, the last faint 
 trace of which appears in some old forms in English, as 
 i/ihpt : it had eight cases, which kept certain relations dis- 
 tinct which were afterwards confused, as the genitive, da- 
 tive, and ablative, which last was lost in Greek, and in 
 Latin also was mostly lost as a separate form, and in use be- 
 came very complicated and irregular; in making its redu- 
 plicalive syllable it illustrates, with one exception only, 
 the order of the development of the L.atin vowels, a, u, ii, e, 
 i ; and in its words, .is will be seen below, it is sometimes 
 more closely allied to the Celtic or Germanic than to the 
 Greek or the Latin. In former times it was customary to 
 regard the Latin language as descended, and that very 
 directly, from the Greek, and real or fancied connections 
 wore tr.^ccd out between nearly all the Latin and Greek 
 words. Others, who discovered in the Latin language 
 words and forms which occur in the German and the 
 Celtic, were led to believe that the Latin was largely de- 
 rived from the Celtic. But in resolving such a question 
 there are very great difficulties. How are we to know 
 whether the IL'ellio or the Latin form is the older? We 
 may generally receive the statements of the Romans them- 
 selves as to the origin of certain words which they dis- 
 cussed, but as we have no monuments of Celtic earlier than 
 the seventh century of our era, how is modern research to 
 decide whether the Celtic word is an old collateral form of 
 the Latin, or was actually carried by the Romans in their 
 conquests and deposited among the strange people ? Was 
 the Ccltio tir, for instance, an original word with this people, 
 or only the barbaric form of the Roman icrni ' While in 
 some cases one of these views might be correct, and in 
 other cases the other, we can only assert with confidence 
 that the Latin belongs to the same family as the above, 
 but more closely resembling the Greek in its oldest elements 
 th.in any other member, and afterwards, in historic times, 
 following the development of the Greek, adopting words 
 from it with no change of form, or only such as convenience 
 or regard for analogy required, imitating its construction, 
 as in modern times English and French have imitated each 
 otlier. and first translating and then imitating its literature, 
 as Early English dealt with French and with Itali.an. 
 
 To show how far this resemblance extended in some of 
 the most ancient forms, and with what remarkable excep- 
 ti<ms, we subjoin four comparative tables of groups of 
 words, putting the Latin words in italics only when they 
 are identical with the Greek or closely allied to it, and en- 
 closing in parentheses such words as are more remotely 
 connected in the group, or ch.angcd in meaning, or both: 
 
 I. The names of the human body and its parts : 
 
 BnylUh. 
 
 body, 
 
 skin, 
 
 bone; G. Bein (= leg, 
 
 bone), 
 hair; G. Hanr^ 
 head; G. Jfaupt, 
 back, 
 
 ueek, 
 
 shoulder, 
 
 arm ; tl. Arm, 
 brcii^t ; (i. lintM, 
 heart ; (1. Ilerz ■ 
 
 face, 
 
 brow ; St. bhnt, 
 eye; Goth, auqo; 
 Aitge; St. akshi^ 
 car, 
 
 nose. 
 
 corpus ; 
 
 i cutis: (G. IIaut = 
 I hide), 
 
 crinis, 
 caput ; G. 
 dorsum, 
 
 Kopf, 
 
 < coUuui ; G.I/als; \ 
 I Goth, hall, / 
 
 humerus, uments, 
 
 brachium, 
 pectus, 
 
 cor (core), 
 
 facies, 
 
 /roiw, 
 
 ocultts, 
 
 aurii; G. Ohr, 
 (nasus; St. «as;'l 
 1 G. -Vttse, J 
 
 G. 
 
 i XP'^^ (tTKVTO^ or 
 
 ( KVTo^ — hide). 
 oCTToGi'; Ht.aslhi. 
 
 vCjtov. 
 
 avxrif. 
 
 (ot/nos; Goth.amsa; 
 ( St. amsa. 
 
 KapSia., Kpa^ia, K^p. 
 
 WpOiTdiTOy. 
 
 (of^pii? — eyebrow). 
 ous (iiTOf ; Goth. aujo. 
 
 OTofia. 
 
 iDcua; archaic) v-^,^ 
 dingua, ; yA"<r<ra. 
 
 densdentis; G.Zahn^ oSovc o^oito^. 
 
 mouth; Goth, mitnths 
 
 G. Muml^ OS. 
 
 longiu*;Golh. tungo;\ f Ii 
 
 (;. Znnge. / 1 
 
 tooth ; SI. d'tt danta, 
 lip; it. Lfp/f, 
 hanA;(i.}Jand;Goth. 
 
 hatitfiis, 
 ftst ; G. Fatixt, 
 L'llww; {j. EUrnhogen, 
 
 toe, G. Zehe^ 
 
 nail ; G. Nagel ; St. 
 
 le-'. 
 
 kui'c; Goth. ^SThiu; G. 
 
 /Cuir, 
 fool ; Goth, fotus ; G. 
 
 Fuss, 
 
 II. The names of the Dcitj and of human relations: 
 
 God; G. Gotl; Goth. 
 
 GudoT GiUK, Detu,IHvm; Si.d€va; e«k, (Zevs) Ato?. 
 
 fingfr; G. Finger; \ 
 
 labium, 
 
 xeiAo^. 
 
 maniis; arch. AiV, 
 
 x«i'p- , 
 
 puonus. 
 
 vliia ; Goth, aleina, 
 
 nvyfiri. 
 uikiirq. 
 
 digUus; Ft. doigl. 
 
 SdxTvkoi. 
 
 unguis, 
 criis, 
 
 O-xeAos. 
 
 genu. 
 
 yoi'u; St. f7flrnu. 
 
 pes pedis. 
 
 iroii? TToSd? ; St. pad. 
 
 man ; G. Mann ; 
 (iuth. man, 
 
 father; Goth, fadar; 
 
 ti. ra/er. pater, 
 
 mother; *.i. Mutter, mater, 
 son; G. Sohn; Uoth. 
 
 Sunns; St. sunn, filius, 
 daujrhter; Goth, "i 
 
 dnuhtar; G. /)och-> fiUa, 
 
 /('»■ ; St. duhitri, I 
 brother; Goth. 6ro-| 
 
 t/inr ; ii. Bruder ; > frater, 
 
 St. bhrntri, \ 
 
 sister; (ioth.,9t'(Var; 1 
 
 G. ikhwester ; St. ^ soror, 
 
 svasn, 
 
 Latin. 
 homo huminis; 
 
 Lioth. gnmtt, 
 vir ; A.^. u-er; 
 
 Celt. Jear, 
 
 f avBpiifno^. 
 
 \a.vrip ; St. nri. 
 
 n-aTijp ; St. pUri. 
 y.r\-rqp \ St. matri. 
 
 Buyarffp. 
 
 \ clansman). 
 
 uncle ; G. Onkei, 
 
 aunt; G. TbrUe; Ft.} 
 
 tante, J 
 
 nephew ; G. Ke^Te, } 
 niece ; G. Nichte, J 
 
 boy (G. Bube, pro-"| 
 
 viue.), > 
 
 girl. \ 
 
 maid ; G. Magd; Goth. 
 
 viagalhs, virgo, 
 
 III. Pronouns: 
 
 I ; G. ich; Goth, ik, ego; C. me, mi, 
 me; G. viich; Goth. 
 
 viik, me, 
 
 thou : Goth, thu ; G. du, tu, 
 thee; (1. dich ; Guth. 
 
 thuk. te, 
 
 we; Goth, veis; G.~ 
 
 tcir, 
 ye ; St. yvyam ; G. 
 
 ■ihr, 
 he, she; G. er, sie ; 
 
 Goth, sa/i, is, so, hie, sui (reflex.), 
 
 it; G. es; that; Goth. 
 
 l/ia(u, id. 
 
 who, what (G. wer, 
 
 u-as), qiii, quod, 
 
 who? what? G. werf 
 
 u-a.s f Goth.iroj .*" u^a f quis f 
 whether? (ob3.);Goth. 
 
 uaihar t uler t 
 
 IV. Cardinal nurabera : 
 
 f patruus, 
 1 uvunculus, 
 I am it a, 
 \ matertera, 
 
 fnepos,l'i;,h/," 
 
 \»«P"^. J meaning, 
 
 \puer, \ (St. ptdni 
 [puelta,] = son), 
 
 a5cA^^. 
 
 \ aScA^idi). 
 
 nos ; C. ni, 
 
 vos; Goth, jus, 
 
 quid f 
 
 irapOivov. 
 
 cyui, tytav ; St. oham. 
 
 cV^tMc ') St. md, 
 
 ffii, TV, Tiii'Tj ; St. tvam. 
 
 ffi, Te; St. tva. 
 
 {^fi.«tc (vJi, dual); 
 St. nau. 
 fvfific (o'4'<^( dual); 
 \ St. ram, 
 
 (t obs.) iv. 
 
 09, o; St. yah. 
 Ti9 ; Ti ; St. kafi. 
 irdrepof ; St. katara. 
 
 Gothic. German. English. Zatii 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Btnucan 
 (from CorsscD). 
 
 a ins. 
 
 cm, 
 
 iffii, zwei, 
 thrri.t, drei, 
 fidvor, rier, 
 /itnf, /iiii/, 
 sAcJis, scchs, 
 sibun, sif^en. 
 
 ahtan, acht, 
 
 nitm, neun, 
 toihun, sehn. 
 
 one, tinus, 
 
 two, duo, 
 
 three, ires, 
 
 fou r, quatuor, 
 
 five, quinque, 
 
 six, sex, 
 
 seven, seplem, 
 
 eight, octo, 
 
 nine, 
 
 ten, 
 
 di <fd9, 
 
 £vo, 
 
 Tp«t9, 
 
 Satukrit. 
 
 ^eka ) 
 
 ^Uleb. }eca or un-. 
 
 I echad), > 
 
 dva, teis. 
 
 iri, tri-. 
 
 TeTTapt^,chtiittr, cbuar-. 
 wftrre, paiichan, cain-orcvin'. 
 
 shaxh, sees- or sfs-. 
 
 saptan, se/u-OT-^eAtu-. 
 ,, c uhlar-nthtar-, 
 
 <^^^^\ titar-orvtan-. 
 
 navnn, ««-. 
 
 dasan, lecu-. 
 ainli/, ei/f or elf,c]i:YCn,undecim , ei-fitifa, ekudasn, tesne-eca. 
 
 7iovem, 
 decern. 
 
 cirrd, 
 
 OKTW, 
 
 2e'Ka, 
 
 tvalijf, ziv6/f, " twclve,duo</ec(m,6w5cKa, dvasada, tesns-teis. 
 
 Interesting facts maybe gathered from the.^c tables, and 
 from similar ones which our space does not allow us to in- 
 troduce here ; as that a generic word in one language may 
 brcomo specific in another; as Gr. fiijp, Eng. deer; G. 
 Ifmifl, Eng. hound; Lat. dif/itns, Fr. (fottjt, Eng. tor; that 
 in sumc instances the English or the English and the Ger- 
 man retain an old form lost to the Latin; as Gr. opo</»o9, 
 r<vf»/V Gr. irdTov, pttth: G. P/nd; that in some cases, where 
 the word is generally preserved, the modern form may be 
 nearer to the Sanskrit than to the classical form; as Gr. 
 ovott.a', \jXtX. nomen : G. Xante; Fng. name; St. nutiinn : (ir. 
 ij&v^; Lat. auavig; Eng. siccct; St, evUdu; and that there 
 arc interesting cases of change of moaning ; as (tf. wdrTos = 
 sea; Eng. /joh/:/; Lat. niarc = sea: Eng. mfrv. a lake : lleb. 
 elcph ^ a,xi ox: Gr. eAe.^a9 = nn elephant; Gr. icoirpos = a 
 wild-boar, which seerns to be the Lat. coper, a goat, as well 
 as apcr, a wild-boar: and that pronouns and numerals arc 
 the least variable elements in language. 
 
 Certain languages of Italy, the Oscan, Umbrian. Celtic, 
 Mcssapian, and Etruscan, have affinities to the old Latin 
 more or Ie?s close, and i)robably in this mdcr, and these 
 languages have substantially the same alphabet with it. 
 
 The remains of the Sabine and Oscan belong to a period 
 when the Saliincs had mixed themselves up with the con- 
 quered Ausonians.and had learned their language; of this 
 we have certain specimens, therefore properly called r^a- 
 bello-Oscan. The most important of these arc the Hantine 
 Ttihh, the Cipptis AhcUanim, and the Tabht o/ Aj/nmie. 
 The Hnntino Table, now in the Museo Borbonico, is a 
 bronze tablet found in 171*3 at Gppido. on tho borders of 
 Lucania. and called Tabula Bantina from tho name Bnuftre 
 in tho inscription, which seems to refer to the neighboring
 
 LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 1665 
 
 city of liftntin in Apulia. The Cipnus Abcllanus, a fltonc 
 tablet, w:is moved fruiu Avellii Veccuia to the muilern vil- 
 Iai;e of this name iu l(»,S6. and there used as a dourstep 
 till iu 1740 it was noticed and removed to the museum of 
 Nttla. The lironxe tablet of Agnone was so called from the 
 place near which it was found in 1848. Among these re- 
 mains wc find the following: uaiai ~ arso, a mm ft i ^ ma-tri 
 (comp. Ileb. em ), mit — al, antcr^ inter, com = cum (prit'p.), 
 dckittjftioi -- dictario, <iiovei — Jovi, diumpniH = lymphis, 
 thtrad — extra, eatud — esto, horto = Imrtura, int ^ est, 
 Av(M = civis, //*/a/oi"« = legatis, /("i*fVurf = liccto^ m(ij*« = magis 
 (comp. Fr, mui'i* and It. wai"), nep = nee, ncque, «f = ne, 
 paterei = patri, 7)011 =cura {i. e. quuui), pim zj= que, prti = 
 ftT'Ji, pntter = prujter, naa/itom — sacrum, eenatein = senatus, 
 8vai = si, triom = terra, vium -^ viam. 
 
 The relics of I'mbrian arc contained on. seven tables in 
 a state of perfect preservation. They were discovered in 
 1444 in a subterranean chamber at La Sehicggia, near the 
 ancient city of /(/ucium, now (luhhiu or Cijithio, and hence 
 styled the I'jui'iuc or Euijubinr Tables. Iguvium lay at the 
 foot of the .'Vpeniiines, near the Via Flaniinia. and is known 
 to have been an old Umbrian town ; this circumstance is 
 the foundation of the belief that these tables are specimens 
 of the L'mbrian tongue. Tliey relate chiefly to matters of 
 religion, and are written, some in Umbrian or in Etruscan, 
 and others iu U<unan characters. Lepsius infers that the 
 former were written not later than a. r. c. 400, and the latter 
 cir. A. V. r. 6.>0. The L'mbrian, being subjected to disturbing 
 causes not uiilike those wliich at a later period afl'ected the 
 Latin, exhibits some of the characteristics of the Uomance 
 l'in;^iies. Wo find the ending -« for -nm ; 9 and d final arc 
 constantly dropped; there is a tendency to substitute 
 liquids for mutes ; and o is softened to h. Kxamplea of 
 Umbrian words are : o^<'r = ager, ahtu = actutum, af/a = 
 albtis, under = inter, aia ~ ara, nr<,'t"»= avibus, hcnci = 
 venieg, dicom = dicere, eit - est, e^tii = esto, far— far, 
 /utu — fatum./crnie — ferina,/trM — facito, /ra/cr = frater, 
 pater = pater, i/e = ibi, kventm- = quaestor, mann ■= manus, 
 mentrn — magistcr (comp. It. mnentro), main = magis, ncp — 
 noc, ncque. nuntrn and Home ^ nonion, namer = uumcrus, 
 one ^ ore, pir -z nvp.jirc, ptiplna — populus, rca = res, xnfcrc 
 
 — sacrum, ncnt — sunt, *r/"=^ sues, «c»iia'= cena, tujh ~ ta- 
 bula (comp. Fr. tdble), tra ~ trans, nri7*iim = cum ore (with 
 this kitm enclitic comp. mecuiHf etc.; It. mcco, etc.). 
 
 While the relation of the Celtic to the early Latin is very 
 obscure, yet there is reascjn to belie\ e that the relation was 
 important in earlier, as wc kno^v it to liave been in later, 
 times. The Celts had preceded all other races in the west- 
 ward movement : they arc mentioned even by Herodotus 
 ns living beyond the I'illars of Hercules, and they had filled 
 .the Transalpine plain jirobably soon after the time of the 
 Tarquins. There must have been a substratum of (,'elts in 
 Italy at a very early period: for ancient authorities assert 
 their connection with the Uiubrians, and this fact is in- 
 dicated by the name of tlieir country, UmhrUt, and of their 
 chief river, Cmhro, compared with Jlumhrr, t'l/mri, and 
 the like. The Celts arc known also to have occupied the 
 neighboring Liguria. A great authority, tSchlcichor, is of the 
 opinion that the Celtic ami the Latin were more closely con- 
 nected in pre-histr»rie times than the Latin and the (ireek. 
 We subjoin a eomparativc list of a few out of the many 
 Celtic words connected with the Latin ; and thou,:;b, as wo 
 have saiil above, the priority of the one to the other cannot 
 be made out, they present an element sometimes only ob- 
 scurely related to the Grcck^ and sometimes quite inde- 
 pendent of it : «rVe-^ alius, ar — ad (cf. ar in arbiter, 
 arcesso, etc.), nrbha — arvuin, arch -^ area, arm or arr — 
 anna, cahit = cantus, canrri = cantor, car — amicus (comp. 
 crtriiJ<), cnua — caseus, ctaidtb - gladius, cm — cruor, cimt 
 = cutifl, dant or dtnit - dens dentis, din ^ deus, dii: or diit 
 
 - dies, /aiih = vaies, frar or r/rir ^ vir, Jin = finis, furch ^ 
 fuTca, fjarin ^gravis, tadcn ^ latro, lahn = lux legie, larhd 
 or /ait ^ htc lactis, Inch --^ laeus. me or mi -^ ego, me, mo- 
 uadh -- mons montis, nmr or mitir more, ncad -■- nidufl. 
 Ml ^ DOS, noeth or nockd - nudus, nitmcrui — nuinihir, ober 
 ~ opernri, 01 = ovis, on? =- ursus, our, nur, or or ---- aurum, 
 ubh -= ovum, pain -- panis, pan quando, piom - plum- 
 bum, jtor ^ puer, rt'y or rtiy rex regis, r«i7A — rota, «mcc 
 -^ sacer, itain stannum, tarhh taurus, tc or ti - tu, to, 
 tir -- terra, tra trans, tn^j ^ duco. 
 
 The Alessapians or lapygians were settled in Iho S. of 
 Italy. Scanty fragments of their ilialect are founti pretty 
 frequently in the Terra d'<Hranto ; they are in (Jn'ok letters, 
 and almost always written from left to right. This dialect 
 seems to have preserved Iho Lithuanian elements with little 
 change: and subjected to no influences but that of the (ireek 
 colonists, into whose idiom it was rapidly absorbed, it may 
 bo regarded as a pure reiiinant of the old Italian. Sonic 
 Messapian words that have come down to ns with their 
 meanings are : irai^c = panis, ^pivho^ (whence /irumtiHiitm) 
 3E ccrvus (comp. Litb. brvdit — elk), fiavftia ■-= domus (coiup. 
 Vol.. II. — 10;, 
 
 G. bnucn = to build, and Eng. boircr); and among the 
 words iu the inscriptions we find IN©I = inde, and MOHKo:i 
 ^ i^farcus. I 
 
 The Etruscans were called, by the Greeks, Tyrrheni and 
 Turseui : by the Romans, Tusci and Etrusci : and by them- 
 selves, liasena or Kasenna. According to Herodotus, the 
 Tyrrheni were originally Lydians, who during a grievous 
 famine sought a new home, and under Tyrsenus came to 
 the country of the Umbriaus (*Om^pi.koc). which was thence 
 called after him Ti/mruia. All that modern research is as 
 yet able to say of their ori;jin is, that they were a foreign 
 people that came by sea, and that they were akin to nations 
 of Greece and Asia Minor. Their language, which has 
 been preserved in a great number of inscriptions on monu- 
 ments and fictile vessels, has exercised the ingenuity of 
 scholars with small results as yet. The longest of these 
 inscriptions is one of forty-six lines from Perugia. Their 
 al))habct is the medium through which the Oscans and 
 Umbriaus seem to have deriveil their characters. The in- 
 scriptions aro written in almost all cases from right to left, 
 according to the Semitic and the most ancient Greek cus- 
 tom. Various theories on the origin of the Etruscan lan- 
 guage have been propounded. Dr. Donaldson has at- 
 tempted to prove its Scandinavian or Low German cha- 
 racter ; Padre Tarquini and others, its Semitic afiinitics ; 
 but at present all that can be asserted with confidence is 
 the Pelasgic or old (Jreek character of the language. AVhat 
 was wanting to enable scholars to form a certain or highly 
 probable judgment was a critical examination of all the 
 remains of the language ; and this the learned Corssen has 
 happily now furnished us in his great work Utbir die 
 Sprache die Etrunhcr (Lcipsic, 1874-76). Wo give the 
 following specimens of Etruscan words: ocAr = ager, 
 aypoc, antes — ventus, avt(io%^ auk = ac, atrium = atrium, 
 «ri7 = £cvuin, aiwr, baltca — balteus, belt, cana = cantor, 
 cn/)ra= capra. r«««j'« ^ cassis ; rtcr ^ mors (comp. kjjp), 
 c/nn = filius vel filia (comp. Gael. f7">i), r/niHjms ^ equus 
 (comp. the Homeric in-TrofiaMos), esmi — snm (comp. St. 
 asm! and Gr. ti/u'Ot hiHtcr — histrio, itiia = idus, lar ~ do- 
 minus (comp. lar)^ mala -^ mains, urpoR — nepos, spend- 
 thrift (Fcntun 9, 14), iimH -= sol iSabine, ausci), vcrnc — -nvp, 
 Umbr. pir: and the following proper names: Alpnan = 
 Albinus, Aplu = Apollo, Caiia = Caius, Mcnrva = Minerva, 
 Hcrcfe = Hercules, Titr ^ Titus, Vipia -^ Vibia. 
 
 77ic Af/'fiabct. — The Semitic alphabet had originally 16 
 characters: the Oscan and the I'mlirian had 20 each; the 
 Etruscan 19; and the old Latin, 1*1. The Etruscan letters 
 seem to bo a modification of the (Jreek, with some new 
 characters. The Italian alphabets from the first contained 
 Y, H.'P, X. which were invented, or at least newly applied, 
 by the (irceks. Put beside this Greek alphabet borrowed 
 from the earliest Hellenic settlers, there was a later set of 
 Greek characters, which the Latin derived from the Greeks 
 of Cuma?, probably under the Tarquins, when there were 
 special relations between Home and Cuinie. Put the 
 Humans, showing in this their jiraotical tendency, sup- 
 pressed letters for which they had no sound.-', as ie>, «!•, X 
 (eh); they mostly dropped K as unnecessary, altered the 
 shape of C for convenience, added Y and restored Z. For 
 some time C represented both the medial (/.) and the 
 tenuis guttural {;/), and then G was introduced by the 
 frcedman Sj). Carvilius (cir. a. r. c. ;'i2.'i), th<uigli Gains 
 and (inteuB were to the last indicated by the abbreviations 
 C. and CN, In Cicero's time the number of letters was 
 21 (/>-■ Itiimum Xalnra,'!, IKJ), but before his death Y {}j) 
 was intro<luced to transcribe (ireek words, and Z was re- 
 stored, and cla.>»8ieal Latin confined itself to the use of the 
 following 2.1 letters: ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPQRS 
 T V X Y Z, J and U being mere modern devices to discrim- 
 inate between the powers of 1 and V respectively as vowels 
 and as consonants. The Greeks retained the names of the 
 old Pho'iiician hieroglyphics, but the Uomaiis dropped 
 them, and named the signs, mneli as we do, by their sounds. 
 y/c aid /jiitiii. — We have some interesting remains of 
 the old Latin, considered as contemporary and akin to the 
 old Italian dialects, such as it was before (ireek civilization 
 and culture had begun seriously to work upon it. For tbo 
 earlier centuries we have only a few brief inscriptions of 
 religious ami legal import. As we approach the Punio wars 
 the inscriptions become more numerous and complete, but 
 we are here near the time when the Latin language began 
 to be inoililled or to lose its proper characteristics under 
 the pressure of (ireek influence, and to be transformed into 
 the idiom of the Augustan age. 
 
 (Jne of the most important and ancient specimens of the 
 genuine Uoiinin language is the f\trmrn Fnitrum Arrafiumf 
 the S(»ng of the Arval Prothers, discovered on marble tab- 
 lets in 1777. while workmen were digi;ing out the founda- 
 tions of the sacristy of .Sf. Peter's at Home. These tablets 
 are probably not older than A. u. r. ;'>:tj (n. c. 219), but 
 there ia every reasoa to believe that the song itself is the
 
 1666 
 
 LATIN LITERATURE. 
 
 same that was sun;* in the earliest ages of Rome. Every 
 word of this ancient hymn can be made out with a high 
 degree of certainty. We here find enon (ace.) = nos, with 
 which we may compare the G. tni* ; Lfmen — Lares ; *i'n» 
 for sinas; ndvncnpit for ad vos capite, which may be illus- 
 trated by the usage of comedy in after times; berbcr for 
 verbere or verbera; and (inUn for solis, with which we may 
 compare <r€Aa«, ^Ato?. Two relics of a similar character have 
 been preserved by Cato. Further discoveries relating to 
 the f'ratres Arvahn were made in 1S66 at the fourth mile- 
 stone of the Via Portuensis, consisting of 72 lines contain- 
 ing the acts of the order i \. f. c. 754). Several fragments 
 of the Salian Hymns also have been handed down by 
 Varro. Fragments of the oldest Koraan laws have been 
 preserved by Varro, Pliny, and Festus, but the most copi- 
 ous as well as the most important are the remains of 
 the /hioficrim Tahitfir, the Twelve Tables. These were 
 engraved on tablets of bronze, au'i publicly set up in the 
 Oomitium. A. u. c. 304 (b. c. 449); and it may he added 
 here that the Romans had no other liody of codified law 
 till the time of Justinian, in the sixth century after Christ. 
 Beside the tablets just mentioned, they have been preserved 
 chietlj by Cicero, Varro. hivy, Pliny, Festus. Aul. Gellius, 
 Gains, and Ulpian. Thfi Kpituphfi <>/ the Scipivs (a. v. r. 
 456-588) are very important and interesting specimens of 
 early Latin. They are examples of a custom introduced 
 from Greece, are the earliest dated inscriptions of anycon- 
 siilcrable length, and are very useful in settling points of 
 archaic quantity. In these documents, m in the accusative 
 and d in the ablative singular are generally wanting, but 
 each occurs once : « in the nominative is sometimes added, 
 sometimes omitted; and consul is written both coiwi^ and 
 cdHol. .Some words are spelt indifferently with o and i/, but 
 the use of r between two vowels, for the earlier f, is invari- 
 able. The inscription of the Cuhimna fiotitratn, contained 
 on a bronze tablet found at the foot of the Capitol in 1565, 
 commemorates the naval victory of C. Duilius, a. u. c. 494 
 (b. r. 260), This preserves many archaic forms, such as d 
 in the ablative, C for G, and single instead of double con- 
 sonants, Ritschl, however, suspects that this inscription 
 suffered a restoration, and that with forms that did not 
 belong to the period of the victory. To these may be added 
 the Senntun (^onsuftntn dr /iaccfiaunfifniH, belonging to 
 A. r. c. 668 (b. r. 186). and found in Calabria in 1640; 
 and the Lrx Tkoria de A'jria. or .Agrarian Law of Sp. 
 Thorius, passed, according to Rudorff, a. u. c. 643 {b. r. 
 Ill), which presents a specimen of tho formal written 
 language of the age immediately preceding that of Cicero. 
 
 Chaules Short. 
 
 Tjatinliiteratnre. The literature of Rome is less orig- 
 inal and ooinpietc than that of (Jreeoc, with which it stands 
 most closely connected, but it can hardly be said to be less 
 important. For Roman law everywhere underlies the con- 
 stitutions of Europe: the language of Unme is the parent 
 of several of )ier chief tongues ; her literature has always 
 been the chief study of the schools ; she has given to Chris- 
 tianity its nomenclature: and from her great power of 
 assimilation and adaptation she has preserved to us what- 
 ever was most valuable of the Greeks, and probably of all 
 other nations with which she came in contact. 
 
 The literary life of the Romans nmy be divided into 
 three periods: (I) The Archaic Period, beginning A. r. c. 
 h\\ (n. c. 240)^ when Livius Andronicus exhibited tho first 
 regular drama in Latin at Rome; (2) the Mid«Ue Period, 
 the Ciceronian and the Augustan age, which begins a. i'. c. 
 671 (b. r. 83); (3) The Imperial Age, beginning A. n. 14. 
 
 The Archaic f*erimi. — The earliest literature proper of 
 the Romans, as of other nations, was poetic, and the earliest 
 author Livius Andronicus, a. u. c. 470-550. He trans- 
 lated the Odt/Hsci/ of Homer into Saturnians. and also ren- 
 dered from the Greek tragedies, imitating the easier Greek 
 metres. Cn. Nsevius began to exhibit plays a. r. r, 519, 
 and with more originality than Anclronicus. T. Maccius 
 PInulus fc, A. r.c. 500-5701 was a prolific writer of comedy. 
 Of the plays ascribed to him. twenty-one were considered 
 certainly genuine, of which we have twenty, more or less 
 complete, and nineteen others were probably genuine. He 
 borrowed bis plots from tho Greeks, but wirkerl them up 
 antl with grt-at ability. His measures are skilfully handled, 
 and sometimes with harmonious effect ; his diction is of great 
 importance in the history of Latin. His plays long main- 
 tained their popuhirity, nnd have been extensively studied 
 and imitated in modern times. Q. Knniiis (a. v. r, 515- 
 585) had a higher social and political position than the 
 literary men that ]»reeed(d bim. and was the first to attain 
 tho full privileges of a Roman citizen. Cicero was very 
 fond of him, and largely (uioted bim in his writings, and 
 Horace styles him Patrr Enniui as the founder of Latin 
 poetry. His greatest work was the Atnutfra, or history 
 of his nation, from the arrival of ,Kneas in Italy down to 
 the poet's own time. He also wrote tragedies, mostly after 
 
 Euripides, and Satnnr — ^(hat is, probably, miscellaneous 
 poems in various measures. We possess them only in frag- 
 ments. M. Pacuvius (e. a. u. c. 534-6221, the nephew of 
 Ennius, was a painter and a poet. There are extant frag- 
 ments of his tragedies imitated from Sophocles ; we have the 
 titles of twelve of his plays. To this period belong Statius 
 Ciecilius, an able imitator of the Greek New Comedy, and 
 Lusrius Lavinius, the rival of Terence, against whom nil 
 the Terentian Prologues are directed except that of the /fc- 
 ct/ra. P. Terentius (a. r, r. 569-595) at an early age came 
 from Carthage to Rome, where he was a slave of the sen- 
 ator Terentius, by whom he was educated and set free. He 
 was intimate with Scipio Africanus the Younger, and hence 
 the rumor that Scipio was the author or elaliorator of the 
 plays of Terence. We have of him six comeilies, and prob- 
 ably these are all that he wrote. They were great favorites 
 with the ancients, as they have been with the moderns. He 
 has not the versatility of Plautus, neither has he his extrav- 
 agance; his verse is not so varied, hut it is more melodi- 
 ous ; his language is truly Roman, and his phrases often 
 reappear in the best works of the best period of the litera- 
 ture. His plays also have often been imitated in the modern 
 drama. Roman prose, like English, was reached by an in- 
 termediate step, the earliest Roman historians emjiloying 
 the Greek language. These were Q. Fabius Pictor (c. 
 a. v. c. 525) and L. Cincius Alimentus. M. Porcius Cato 
 (a, r. c. 520-605) was the first real Latin jirose-writcr. Jlis 
 writings wore numerous and various. He wrote ()rii/hie» 
 in seven books, an account of the Italian tribes, aud pub- 
 lished instructions on agriculture, health, and eloquence, 
 hut only his Oe Be Ruttticn has been preserved entire. 
 There were orators of this period, as Fabius Maximus. ftL 
 Cornelius Cethegus. the Gracchi, and others ; and also 
 jurists, as Sextus JEliue. who wrote the first Roman treatise 
 on law, L. Attius or Accius (a. r. c. 584-c. 650) wrote 
 tragedies after the Greek, and dealt also with pure Roman 
 subjects. He wrote other works, and resembled Ennius in 
 the varied character of his writings, but he was more pol- 
 ished and accurate in style. I^. Afranius (b. c. a. i:, c. 
 605) wrote Fahultc Tixjatfe, of which we have the titles. He 
 combined the popular manner of Plautus with the elegance 
 of Terence. C. Lucilius (c, A. v. c. 606-651) was the father 
 of satire proper (//or. S, ii. 1 and 10), His writings of 
 this class were numerous, of which we now have upwards 
 of SOO fragments, very valuable in the study of early Latin. 
 An important literary work of Sulla's time, and one much 
 copied and used in the Middle Ages, has come down to us 
 in the Rhetorica ad //^rrjuM'KHi, a complete manual adapted 
 from Greek s<»urces. It is by an unknown hand. 
 
 The Middle Heriod.~T\\\'s is the Golden Age of Latin 
 literature, and may be subdivided into two periods, in the 
 first of which, the Ciceronian, prose culminated; aud in 
 the second, the Augustan, poetry was pre-eminent. 
 
 The Ciceronian Arje. — M. Terentius Varro (a. r. c. 
 638-727). styled by Quintilian vir /{nmanomm entditissi- 
 miis, of ancient family and senatorial rank, was an exten- 
 sive writer, versatile in matter and in form. Tho total 
 number of his works was seventy-nine, of which four were 
 written in verse. His prose writings embraced literature, 
 eloquence, history, jurisprudence, grammar, philosophy, 
 geography, husbandry. au<l other subjects. M. Tullius 
 Cicero (a. v. c. 648-711) was born near Arpinum in 
 Latium; his father was a Roman knight. He was endowed 
 with great talents, had iron industry, was kind and gene- 
 rous in his disposititm. and cherished the loftiest aims. 
 His tone of mind qualified him to become the interpreter 
 and transplanter of Grecian culture and refinement. He 
 was ft true patriot and full of good intentions, hut was 
 without calmness and that courage which might have 
 carried him safely through all the dangers and distrac- 
 tions which beset bim. Cicero possessed, to a marvel- 
 lous degree, that Roman power of appropriating and as- 
 similating foreign ideas to which we have adverted. He 
 thus enrichecl Roman literature by introducing into it sev- 
 eral new departments not previously attempted. Ho be- 
 came the creator of a standard prose so refined and so 
 suited to the genius of the Latin language that it was 
 never afterwards surpassed. The real business of Cicero's 
 life appears in his legal and ]>olitical speeches, and hero 
 his ability shows to the greatest advantage; the know- 
 ledge and experience gained in this career were turned to 
 the highest account in the rhetorical treatises which ho 
 composed toward the end of his life. His later composi- 
 tions also included political science, ethics, the philosophy 
 of religion, and theoretic philosophy. Reside all this, his 
 extensive personal connections and his social dispositirui 
 led to a voluminous correspondence. Of his speeches, fifty- 
 seven have come down to us; we have twenty in fragments, 
 and we know of thirty-three more delivered by him, mak- 
 ing in all 110, Of these, the most famous are those against 
 Catiline, for Milo, against Verrcs, and the second against
 
 LATIN LITERATURE. 
 
 1667 
 
 Antony {Ttic. Dint. <le Or., 37; Jiw.. Sat. 10. 125 teq.). 
 In llie case of Verrcs. Cicero prosecutcil, iind llurtensius, 
 bis great rival, delcndcd ; nnd Cicero by his success became 
 head of iho bar, icj- jmlirii'rum. Tbo extant rhetorical 
 works of Cicero are — tiluttirica. or Ve /nrrttiionr, an im- 
 inaluro work ; Vt- Oniiurr, written A. i'. c. 699, composed, 
 after the manner of Plato, in a dialogue, and between the 
 two greatest orators of the precetliug period, L. Crassus and 
 M. Antonius. and several others ; this work is one of the most 
 elaborate productions of Cicero, varied in its contents and 
 graiiil and el"nuent in stylo ; De Vluria Oratvrilnis, or /inilint, 
 a history of Komau eloquence; Oiulur ml .M. lirulnm, Cic- 
 ero's /<!•/ iptn-d on rhetoric, giving his ideal of an orator: 
 I'arliiiinn Oinlnriir, a sort of catechism of rhetoric: Tnp- 
 ic.i ml V. Trcbuliiim. an explanation of Aristotle's ToiriKi, 
 written down from memory during a sea-voyage— a mar- 
 vellous feat; l)e U/jlimo Ij'nirre ((rrttonim, forming the in- 
 troduction to his translation of Demosthenes' and /Eseliines' 
 speeches for and against Ctesiplion. which translation is 
 lost. The four collections of letters that have come down to 
 us, if we count in ninety addressed to Cicero, contain alto- 
 gether Hti4. and are a treasure of contemporaneous history, 
 and on some matters the sole authority extant. They con- 
 sist of— .■!</ FmnillureH, 10 hooks (A. i:. r. 091-711); Ait 
 Allicum, 12 books (a. y. r. 6S6-71 1 ) ; .Id Qniiiliim Frnlrem, 
 3 books I A. 1-. c. fl91-7llU): .id M. Ilnilnm. 2 books (ques- 
 tioned by Markland. Lond.. 1745: defended by C. !•'. Her- 
 man, liiitting.. 1844|. Cicero studied philosophy originally 
 to perfect himself as an orator, and in his later years wrote 
 on the subject partly as a matter of ambition, and partly 
 as a solace amid his troubles and in the thoughtfulness of 
 declining life. Admirable as the matter sometimes is, and 
 important as it sometimes is from the circumstance that it 
 is our only means of knowing the system or view in ques- 
 tion, the form is scarcely less admirable (»r important. Be- 
 ing the first Uoman ivriter who treateil philosophical sub- 
 jects in a clear and elegant manner, he created the philo- 
 sophical stylo in Latin. The following is a list of his 
 extant works in this department: Ih- llrpnbtirii. 6 books, 
 of which scarcely a third has rcachecl us : l)f I^ptfilntn, 
 probably in 6 books originally, of which we now possess only 
 three and some fragments: I'nrndti.ni, an exposition of six 
 striking maxims of the Stoics: ('ununliitin, on his daugh- 
 ter's death, of which only fragments exist; Huriemim, on 
 the praise of philosophy, now fragmentary: l)c t'inilma 
 Unuorum €t Miitm-nm, in i} books, a compilation on the 
 doctrines of the Greek sects concerning the Supreme (iood 
 and Evil, perhaps the most carefully elaborated of all his 
 phitos^iphical works: .\cmtcmicn,ov doctrines of the Acad- 
 emv, originallv in 2 books, afterwards rewritten in 4 books; 
 we have now the second hook of tlii> 1st ed., and of the 2d 
 ed. the first part of the first ami some fragments ; TiiHrn- 
 /.(ii/r l)lM/iu(rttiaiirii, in 5 books. On certain metaphysical and 
 moral piints; TimriiM, a free rendering of Plato's dialogue 
 of this name: fjr Itrnriim .\iiinni, in 3 books, mainly ex- 
 crTpts from the (ireek philosophers on this subject: Cnlo 
 Miijiir, or praise of r)ld age. containing materials drawn from 
 I'liilo. .Xenophon. and others, with a eari'fnl delineation of 
 Cat'i's character, finished in style and important in matter; 
 /)c lUriiialione, in 2 books, a supplement to (>'■ Ihnniin 
 .Vdinrii : /<<■ Fnio, now in mutilated form, attacking the 
 views of the Stoics and defending those of the Arademics ; 
 Lrrliin, rir praise of friendship, largely ilrawn from lircek 
 sources, composed in a highly interesting manner; />«■ 
 titnrlii, in 2 books, read by Petrarch, but since lest; JJe 
 OlTiriin, in 3 books, addressed to his son to form his morals, 
 hastily written and praeti.al, containing some just an<l pro- 
 foun.r views andeuliveni-cl by illustrations from Roman his- 
 tory. In Iho ileparlment of jurisprudence he wrote lie Jim; 
 Cieili, He inaile some attempts in history, as Cntiuiii-iitiiriitii 
 Cr.B«iW<i(ii«.Viii'anil .4 </"iiV"Mi/.i, which arc lost. In poetry this 
 groat prosi'-writer. like our .leremy Taylor, was liltli' more 
 than a versifier, and only subjeefed himself to tlu' ridicule 
 of the great poets, as Juvenal I.V.l^ lit. 124 x./.i and .Mar- 
 tial (2. S9, 3 »<•</.). Cicero's freedman nnd friend. Tiro, sur- 
 vived him, and published his orations and letters. C. Ju- 
 lius l^iesar (a. I'. t\ B5I-71II| hail the most varied talents; 
 he was second as an orator only to Ciceri>— was a historian, 
 a grammarian, a great statesman and general. Ilf his 
 literary works the most important has come down to us, 
 Cnminrutnrii dp Itrtln liittliro, in 7 books, and Or ttrttn 
 Cirili, in 3 books : and iifler his death the last year in Haul 
 and the .Alexandrine. African, and Spanish wnr-^ werc> nar- 
 raleil by his friends, the first two by A. Hirlins, aii.l Ihi' 
 last two by some unknown hand. Ciesar's style is a model 
 of simplicity, precision, and directness, with little rhetori- 
 .■al nniainenl. Cornelius Nepos (c. A. r. c. 000-730). the 
 friend of Cicero and .\llicus, and also of Catullus, was a 
 somewhat voluminous writer of history and biography, but 
 only a portion of his l)r Vlrii ///ii«fri/<ii« is extant. His 
 style is graceful, hut deviates in some points from classic 
 
 usage. T. Lucretius Cams (c. A. u. c. 656-699) in his l)e 
 Neriim Saiiiru. in 6 books, treated of physics, of meta- 
 physics, anil the Epicurean ethics, in imitation of Em|ic- 
 docles and Ennius. This work is important as being the 
 fullest exponent of the doctrines of Epicurus, and though 
 written in an archaic style, it was composed with great 
 mastery of thought and expression. He received little at- 
 tention in his own age, but the Augustan poets admired and 
 copied him. He has been fortunate in his treatment in 
 modern times, having been edited by the great Lachmann 
 (Berlin, 18all-00) anil by a consummate English scholar, 
 Mr. Monro (Camb.. 1800-73). C. Sallustius Crispus (A. u. f. 
 667-720) devoted the last years of his life to history. Of 
 his works we have liit/iim <_'ttfitiiiai-iitin and liiUum Jiiijnr- 
 tliinum complete; of his Hinloriir, in 5 books, we have only 
 fragments. He was the first Roman historian who wrote 
 according to fixed rules. Like his great model, Thucydides, 
 ho was sententious and concise, soinetimes even to obscuri- 
 ty. He deviated from the usages of his time, perhaps 
 largely through hatred of Cicero, and nflTcctcd archaic dic- 
 tion. ' C. Valerius Catullus (a. u. e. 007-700), called by 
 TeufTel the greatest lyric poet in Latin, and by Niebuhr 
 the greatest poet Rome ever possessed, except perhaps some 
 few of the earlier ones, followed at first the track of the 
 Alexandrine poets, but afterwards developed rich lyrical 
 talent which was ripened by love and a bitter cxperieuoo 
 of life. The 116 pieces that have come down to us refer to 
 such a variety of topics, are composed in so many different 
 styles nnd metres, that it is hardly possible to classify them. 
 Some are strictly lyrical, one is a legendary heroic, four 
 may be called elegies, and several epigrams. His genius 
 adorned whatever it touched, but it is every way to be a 
 matter of profound regret that many of his poems are de- 
 filed by gross coarseness and sensuality. P. Vergilius Maro 
 (a. !-•.<• 684-735), by way of eminence the Roman poet, 
 was alike distinguished for ability, learning, delicacy, and 
 amiability. His extant poems are. ten Kilinjn or bucolics, 
 imitations and partly translations of Theocritus : (imnjha, 
 in 4 books, in which he partly availeii himself of his own 
 experience in youth and p.irtly drew ou the lircek writers, 
 especially on Xenophon and Hesiod, and partly on the 
 Roman writers Dn llilni» /tnillrig ; the masterly diction 
 of this work makes it the most perfect Roman poem as a 
 work of art ; the .'Kmid, in 12 books, on which Vergil spent 
 Iho last ten years of his life, and dying regarded as in an 
 unfinished state. In this poem, which has taken its place 
 among the great epics of the world. Vergil partly availed 
 himself of IJreek models, and partly relied on his exten- 
 sive studies in Italian legends, history, and localities. Bo- 
 side these undoubtedly genuine works, we have several 
 Viirmhiii .Miiiiini. )ierhaps wruugly attributed to him. As 
 to the form of his name, the in.scriptions of the time of the 
 Republic and of the first centuries of the Christian era are 
 in favor of Vcriiitiiiu ; the earliest dated instance of the use 
 of the form ViniiliuK belongs to the fifth century after 
 Christ. (J. llnra'lius Elaccus (A. n. c. 089-740) has shared 
 with Vergil the greatest popularity among all the Roman 
 poets. The branch of poetry he first cultivated was satire ; 
 of this we have two books or eighteen pieces; his A'/mi/ioi 
 l.iliiv, of about the same dale, a sort of satire of a inoro 
 special character, contains seventeen pieces. He aller- 
 wards resolved to transplant Aleieus and Sappho into Ro- 
 man soil, and the result is the three first books of the Ciir- 
 miiiii or odes, to which he added a fourth after an interval 
 of about six years. These are the most elaborate of all 
 his works, 'fho K/iininlit. 23 in number in 2 books, aro 
 of the same general character as the Sulhii. but being 
 wriltin in the maturity of his learning and ability, have 
 higher qualities ami arc in a more perfect form; the third 
 of the second book, the .lr« /'i,<fiVri. treating of lesthetio 
 questions in the Ureek style, is the most fumoos of the 
 Epistles. Albius Tibullus (c. A. f. r. 700-73.')) followed the 
 Alexandrine pools in his choice of annitory subjects; his 
 representations are nalural and his style very simple. Wo 
 have four books of /■.'/■'/iV" under his name, of which the 
 third is by an imitator of Tibullus; Lygdainus is his real 
 or ficlitious designation. Sextus Propertius (c. a. f. c-. 
 70.1 7311) was also an elegiac poet, ond a disciple of the 
 Alexandrines, learned and often obscure, but lively and 
 original. Ho has left five bnoks of Klii/im. P. ttvidius 
 Naso (A. t'. r. 71 1-770). the most pridific of the great poets 
 of Riilne. was carefully bred as a pleader, but from natural 
 bent turned off into the path of poetry. The following 
 are his works now extant ; Umiidit, 2\ letters in elegiac 
 verse, feigned to have been written by Indies or chiefs in 
 the heroic age ; l.ihri Amiirum, 49 elegies. chicHy amatory 
 pieces: .4i» Amnlnriii, «. didaclic jioem in elegiac verse; 
 Urmrdiii ,4iio.ii«, of Ihu same charailer and form ; .Meia- 
 mor/iAi.ncoii l.ihri AT., a collection of Iho most remarkable 
 fables of classic mythology, in dactylic hexameters; /'«»- 
 (oriiiii I.iliri VI., an oxiiosilion in elegiacs of tlio festivals in
 
 1668 
 
 LATIN LITERATURE. 
 
 tlie Roman calendar: Tri/itium Lihri V. and Kx I*outit Lihri 
 / r,, the former consisting of 50 elegies and tlie latti-r of (fi, 
 d('Scril)ing his sufferings on his way to exile and while he was 
 in exile; /fci's. a poem in elegiacs written against an enemy 
 whose name is concealed : Nalieutityni, a fragment in hex- 
 ameters on fishes. Ovid had a most fertile mind, possessed 
 great niiis'tcry of form, and treated his subjects with inim- 
 itable ease and grace, and had he been as retined as Vergil, 
 he would have rivalled liim in fame. T. Ijivi\is of Patnvium 
 (a. u. r. 095-770) was the most important prose-writer of 
 the Augustan ago. He wrote on philosophy and on rhet- 
 oric, but his great work was his .!/> Vrbc Confiita Libri, or 
 history of Rome from the foundation of the city to A. v. r. 
 745, in 142 books, of which only 35 are extant, being the 
 first decade and books 21—45 ; but we have a summary, 
 I'vruH-hir, of most of the lost portion. For his matter ho 
 drew especially on Polybius and the later annalists; but 
 his manner, eminently natural and lively, of relating events 
 and of depicting moods and characters, was his own. His 
 diction was wanting in strict classical Latinity, and its 
 provincial characteristics were designated as piitnvinitas 
 (Qnint. 15, 55). Justinus, who, with Florus, probably 
 livc<i in the age of the Antonines, abridged the Vniveranl 
 Jfixton/ of Trogus, a work in 44 books, written in the ago 
 of Livy. Vitruvius Pollio composed (c. A. v. c. 740) Ife 
 Arrhitectura Lihri ,V., and dedicated it to Augustus. 
 
 The Imperial Ar/e, the Silver Aje of Roman Literature. 
 The Firnt Centnrif, A. D. 14-117. — M. Vclleius Patorculus 
 (a. n. 30) treated the history of the Empire in his abridg- 
 ment of Roman history in two books. His words are clas- 
 sical, but his style is affected and pompous. To the same 
 period belongs Valerius Maximus, whose Fnctomm et Bic- 
 tornm Mfmorabtlium Libri IX., addressed to Tiberius, 18 a 
 compilation made without, taste or discrimination. A. 
 Cornelius Cclsus, of the time of Nero, wrote on various 
 practical matters, and composed an encyclopjedia, of which 
 the eight books treating of medicine alone have reached us. 
 Phasdrus, partly under Tiberius and partly under his suc- 
 cessor, published his book ni^ ^EHopean Fabhn in good iam- 
 bic senarii, and in good literary style. L. Anua-us Seneca 
 (c. A. u. c. 750-A. D. f)5), the most brilliant figure of his time, 
 in genius and culture may be compared with Ovid. His 
 works were on a great variety of subjects, but composed 
 with an aim to brilliancy rather than accuracy. Many of 
 them are known only in fragments or by quotations. 
 Among those extant may be mentioned EpiHtnls: mi Lucil- 
 imuy Apocolocifntogix, a satire upon Claudius, and De lie- 
 nejiciin. We have also as attributed to Seneca t-ertain epi- 
 grams and tragedies. The latter, eight in number, agree 
 in the main with one another and with the prose works of 
 Seneca. Q. Curtius Rufus, under Claudius, wrote Hintoriif 
 Afexandri Maf/ui, in 10 books, (he two first of which arc 
 lost. He is rather a rhetorician than a historian, and in 
 his style somewhat resembles Seneca. Contemporary with 
 Seneca was Columella of Gades, who wrote De lie linitira, 
 in 12 books. Under Caligula or Claudius, Pomponius Mela 
 wrote his JJe Chronofjraphia^ in 3 books, the earliest geog- 
 raphy we possess. A. Persius Flaecus (a. d. 34-62) wrote 
 some compositions that have been lost, and six satires, 
 which are mostly reflections on tenets of the Stoics, with 
 extensive employment of Horatian words and phrases. M. 
 AnnasuH Lucanus, a friend of Persius and nephew of Sen- 
 eca (A. D. 30-()5), wrote on various subjects in prose and 
 verse. We have hi? Pharaalia^ in 10 books, an unfinished 
 epic on the civil war between Porapey and Caesar. It is 
 historically accurate, but (he style is artificial and pathetic. 
 possessing great beauties and great defects. In Noro's 
 time arose that ethical novel which we have under the 
 name of Petronius Arbiter. Originally a largo work, it 
 is now a heap of fragments, the largest of which is the 
 Centt TrimftlrhioniH. C. PHuius Secundus, Pliny the Elder 
 (a. T). 23-7'J), an officer and inspector of finance, was 
 also a person of great and diverse literary activity. Of his 
 works there is extant only his Aatitratia I/iittorin, in 37 
 books, a sort of cneyclopa'dia of natural science. It was 
 compiled from a great number of authors, and is admirable 
 for its extent, but bears marks of haste, and is composed 
 in an uneven style. It long enjoyed great authority. The 
 only poet of the lime of Vespasian that has come down to 
 us is Valerius Flaecus, whose Artjonautim. in 10 books, is an 
 imitation of Apollonius of Rhodes. The style is pretentions 
 and the phraseology mostly derived from Vergil. Under I»o- 
 mitian wrote C. Silius Italicus (a. n. 25-101). originally a 
 )>Dlitieian, then a literary man. He wrote the /^/fHiVrt. apoem 
 in 17 books, deriving his matter from Livy and Polybius. 
 and in stylo imitating Homer and Vergil. At the same 
 jicriod (c. A. i>. 45-'.MJ) lived P. Papinius Statius. His 
 earliest and largest work was the TbrbaiH, in 12 hooks, 
 drawing on Antimachus for material and following Vergil 
 in form; he \oR his Arhi(/ein unfinished: his Si fvpr, in 5 
 books are very interesting, forming valuable sketches of 
 
 the time. Mostly under Domitian also lived M. Valerius 
 Martialis fc. a. d. 42-102) : we have by him fifteen books of 
 ejtigrams, turning on the social life of Rome in those days, 
 with all its grossnessand servility. Martial appears in these 
 writings almost equal to Ovid in ease ami elegance of poetic 
 form, but sinks quite below him in moral detrradation. 
 M. Fabius Quintilianus (c. a. d. 3.)-il5) holds a high place 
 among the prose-writers of this period. Educated at first 
 for the bar, he afterwards became the most distinguished 
 teacher of eloquence in Rome. He composed a work on 
 the causes of the decay of oratory, which is lost ; we happily 
 still possess his great work /nxtitutio Oratorio, in 12 books, 
 on the complete training of the orator. This work is very 
 valuable for its matter, and treats the subject in an inter- 
 esting and judicious manner. Quintilian was sensitive to 
 the faults of the diction of his period, and continually reverts 
 to the earlier and better usage, never wearying of praising 
 and recommending Cicero; but t^tiintilian's own style 
 seems artificial and ungraceful to the admirers of that con- 
 summate writer. Sextus .Tulius Frontinus (e. a. d. 40-103), 
 a distinguished engineer, has left records of his experience 
 and studies ; we have extant Strataf/riuatn, a work on 
 tactics, and De Aqnig Vrbin Jioni/r, in 2 books, written in a 
 concise and refined style. The most eminent poet of the 
 time of Trajan is J). Junius Juvenalis (c. a. d. 47-1301, 
 who turned from the study of oratory and the pursuits of 
 wartothe study of poetry. We have by him sixteen satires, 
 the last of which betray the infirmities and faults of age. 
 The earlier satires depict the vices of Roman society in a 
 manner always interesting, and sometimes horribly vivid. 
 His style is concise, energetic, and always suited to his 
 theme, only he indulges now and then in a flash of sarcas- 
 tic wit even in his most grave passages. Among the 
 prose-writers of the time of Trajan, the first place has been 
 conceded to C. Cornelius Tacitus (c. A. D. 54-119). His 
 extant works are Dia tot/us de Oratorihun, composed 
 with a fulness and grace not found in Tacitus's other 
 writings: Ajfriroia, a valuable biography of his father-in- 
 law, reminding us by its manner now of Sallust, now of 
 Cicero ; Oemnmia, written in a sympathetic spirit and with 
 a high rhetorical coloring; //fsfonff, a narrative chiefly of 
 the Flavian dynasty (a. p. 69-96), originally in fourteen 
 books, of which only the four first and the first half of the 
 fifth have come down ; Auuafen, or Ab ExcrnHn Dlri Autfu»ti, 
 in 16 books, a history of A. D. 14-68, of which we now 
 have only the first and the last third. His style is very 
 peculiar; it is concise often to harshness, audacious in its 
 irregularities, and withal of a poetic coloring; it is com- 
 monly sententious, but on special occasions grand and son- 
 orous, and then reminds us of the best periods rounded by 
 the hand of Cicero. C. Plinius CflpciUus Seeundus, Pliny 
 the Younger, nephew and adopted son of Pliny the Elder 
 (a. It. 62-113). was a fluent, smooth, and interesting 
 writer. We have of him the speech in which he returned 
 thanks to Trajan for the consulate, commonly called Pane- 
 ijip'icAot; Kpiotuhr, composed with a view to publication, 
 in 9 books; and EpiaUds- Plinii et Trajant, in an unfin- 
 ished state. 
 
 The limit assigned to this article allows us to add 
 scarcely more thau the chief names of the rest of the Im- 
 perial l*eriod. 
 
 Of the nevnud century of our era are Suetonius, the au- 
 thor c)f the Lires of the Twelve Cfr&arn ; Florus. who wrote 
 an abridgment of Roman history ; Terentius Scaurus, the 
 grammarian; the historian Appian. who wrote in (Jreek; 
 the jurists lUpius and Gains; the critic Aulus (lellius, au- 
 thor of tho Shorten Attirir ; Appuleius. author of the Met- 
 ftinorphonfH : Minucius Felix, whose Octavitts is tho earliest 
 extant work of Christian Latin literature: Tertullian, a 
 defender of Christianity ; Aeron and Porphyrion, the classic 
 commentators: the Vrrnio ]'ctun of the Hible, at"tcrwards 
 revised and called the Vnh/ata. In the third rt7tfuri/ we 
 find the jurists I'lpian and Julius Paulus ; Cyprian, bish- 
 op of Carthage, chiefly an apologist: Nonius the lexicog- 
 rapher; Terentianus Maurus, a writer on metres: Ar- 
 nobius. a Christian apologist, and Laetaiitius his pupil, the 
 most elegant of all the Cliristian Latinists. To the fourth 
 crutur)] belong the grammarians Victorinus and Donatus; 
 Eutroj)iu8 the historian; tho theologian Hilary; the poet 
 Ausonius: Damasus. one of the earliest writers of Chris- 
 tian hymns; Ammianus the historian: the grammarian 
 Servius ; St. Ambrose, whose hymns appnuieh classical 
 perfection ; St. Jerome, the translator of the liible and re- 
 viser of the earlier version : Prudentius. the greatest of the 
 i'hristian poets: Claudiau, the last classic poet; and St. 
 Augustine, the theologian, the greatest of tho Latin Fa- 
 thers. This period, the period of decay, cannot well go 
 beyond tho time of the philosopher Boethius, c. A. D. 500, 
 and certainly not beyond the age of Justinian, under 
 whom the great Corpus Juria was drawn up, in the middle 
 of the sixth century, Cuables Shokt.
 
 LATI.NUS— LATROBE. 
 
 I(j(i9 
 
 Lati'miSy a king of Latium, was, according to tho com- 
 mon tradition, a son of Founu? and tho nymph Marien. and 
 the father of Lavinia. whom he gave in mnrriajrr to ^iira?. 
 But heside!^ this there were many other dificrcnt traditions 
 concerninj; his descent and history. 
 
 Lat'itude, on the earth, 18 the distance of a place from 
 the equator measured on the meridian pa«?ing through the 
 phice, and expressed in denominations of circular measure. 
 To the ancient geographers the largest dimension of the 
 known world was that which lay in the direction E. and W. 
 Hence distances measured E. or W. from a meridian as- 
 sumed as an axis of reference were called longitudes (Lat. 
 Aiiiyr7if(/o, '* length "), and those measured in the transverse 
 direction, latitudes (Lat. Inti'tuito, " breadth "). Geographi- 
 cal latitude is the angle made by the vertical (or perpen- 
 dicular to tho horizon) at the place and the plane of the 
 equator: but as the earth is not truly spherical, this verti- 
 cal is not usually coincident in direction with the radius 
 drawn to the place from the earth's centre. Tho angle 
 made by this radius with the plane of the equator is called 
 the geocentric latitude. Geographical latituilc is also the 
 angle made by tho horizon of the place (which is the plane 
 touching tho earth at the (dace) and tho horizon or tangent 
 plane of that point of the equator in which the meridian 
 of the place cuts it: and as this last plane is necessarily 
 parallel to the earth's axis, it follrtws that the latitude of a 
 place is equal to the angle which its horizon makes with 
 the earth's axis, and that the elevation of the pole above 
 tho horizon is equal to the latitude of the place. Hence, 
 if tliere were a star situated truly in the pole of the eeleslial 
 sphere, the latitude of any place at whieh such star could 
 be Been could be determined by the sintple observation of 
 that star, correctifm having been made for the effects of 
 refraction, aberration, and nutation. As the star called the j 
 pole-star is not truly in the pole, wheu it is observed for i 
 latitude further and more important correction is necessary i 
 for its position at the time of observation relatively to the 
 true pole. A meridian observation of any star or other 
 celestial body, whose declination (distance from the equi- ' 
 Doclial or celestial equator) at the time of observation is 
 known, affords an easy means of determining latitude. 
 Meridian observations of stars passing near the zenith fur- 
 nish the most satisfactory results, being hardly perceptibly 
 affected by refraction. Observations of celestial bodies out 
 of the meridian may also, with proper auxiliary data, be 
 used for ascertaining latitudes, the varying conditions pre- 
 senting several distinct problems in spherical astronomy. 
 Latitude in the heavens is tho distance, in angular mea- 
 sure, of any celestial object from the ecliptic, or plane of 
 the earth's orbit, measured on a secondary (that is, a circle 
 perpendicular) to tho ecliptic. The latitude is geocentric 
 if given as it would seem if observed from the centre of the j 
 earth, and heliocentric if given in like mariner as if observed 
 from the centre of the sun. F. A. P. BARNAnn. 
 
 Latitlldina'rians, a former Broad-Church party in 
 the ('huroh of England. Their chief scat was Cambridge, 
 and the reign of Queen Anne was their most flourishing 
 period. The Latiludinarians attempted to unite the I'uri- 
 tan and Presbyterian elements with the national Church. 
 They wore strongly Protestant and Low Church in their 
 foelinffs. and generally Arminian or indifferent in doctrine. 
 Burnet, Whialon, Tillots<in. Chillingwortli, Cudwnrth, More, 
 Gale, and Wilkins were among their greatest names. Tho 
 modern Hroad-Chureh parly is also called Lalitudinarian. 
 La'tiiim^ during the Roman empire the most fertile 
 and most den-iely peopled province of Italy. Its undu- 
 lating plain, rising from tho Mediterranean to the Apen- 
 nines, produced the choicest wines, and contained, bewitles 
 Rome, the capital of the empire, many populous and flour- 
 ishing towns; as, for instance. Alba Longa, Tusculum, 
 Ardea, Lavinium, Antium, and Corioli. By neglect the 
 water-courses anil the whide ilraining system of tlio plain 
 fell into disorder, nn<l (hustho whole coast-district between 
 Antium and Terracina was transformed Into an unproduc- 
 tive and pestiferous swamp, known as tho Pontine ^larKlics. 
 Ijato'na [Gr. Letu], in Grecian mythology, the mother 
 of Apollo au'l Diana (Artemis) by Jupiter (Zeus). Pur- 
 sued by a serpent sent by Juno (Hera), she fled frtim place 
 to place, until at last she found rest nn the floating inland 
 of belos, whieh Jupiter fixoti firmly for her. and wliere she 
 bore him t\To children. Atlhoiich the myths relating to her 
 were much enlargerl by later writers, no xpecial worship was 
 over instituted fur her, and hhe hn<l no temples of her own. 
 Latoar'd*,Vuvrr4:nr',drfTn^oi>nM.K M\t.oCouKKT). 
 b. at Carhaix. iJrittiiiiy, N<»v. '2'.\, I74''>: edui'tited at the 
 college of Quimper; entered military service in 17»>7: served 
 for some tinte in the Spanish army, and <)islingui-'hed him- 
 self in 1782 at the siege of Port Mahon ; wa-^ a captain at 
 tho outbreak of (he Revolution : fought with brilliant suo- 
 cess in llic republionn armies of the At|is autl the Pyrenees, 
 
 I and became the commander (although still retaining the 
 sitnple title of captain) of a vanguard of 8000 men, com- 
 posed of all the companies of grenadiers, which soon be- 
 eamc famous as " the infernal cohimn." and more than once 
 decided the battle by its irresistible impetuosity. In 1795 
 he retired from service on account of ill health, and mak- 
 ing a sea-voyage he was taken by an English cruiser and 
 held as a prisoner of war till 1797. He re-entered the 
 army a? a substitute for the last son of one of his friends; 
 fought under Massena in Switzerland, and then at (ho head 
 of his own company in Germany, where he fell at Ober- 
 hauscn. Bavaria, June 27. 1800. His indomitable courage, 
 his noble pride, and the generosity and simplicity of his 
 character made him the idol of the soldiers. After his 
 death his heart was embalmed and carried in a silver va?e 
 by his company, anrl his name continued to be called at 
 roll till 1S14, the oldest sergeant answering. " l>ied on the 
 field of honor." He had a passion — not unsuccessful — for 
 linguistical studies, and published in 17H2 A'inreUe'i Jie- 
 chcrrhrs nur In Latufiie, VOrirjiue ct Irs Aiitit/uit^H i/e/i lirC' 
 M»*. whieh was reprinted iu 1802 under the title Oritjinea 
 
 Gnuloinea. 
 
 |ja Trappe, a retired valley in the department of Orne 
 (Normandy). P" ranee. 8 miles N. of Mortagne, where in 
 1140 a Cistercian abbey was founded under very severe 
 rules, from which originated the celebrated religious order 
 known as the TitAi'PtSTs (which sec). 
 
 I^atroille' (Pierre AxnRKl, b. at Brives. in the de- 
 partment of Corrcze, France, Nov. 29, 1762: studied first 
 theology, and was ordained priest in 17Sfi, hut devoted 
 himself afterwards to the study of entomohtgy : became 
 superintendent of the entomological division of the Museum 
 of Natural History at Paris in 1708. member of the Acad- 
 emy of Sciences in 1814. and professor of zoology after the 
 death of Lamarck in 1820. and d. Feb. 6. l8."i.'J. "The most 
 prominent of his numerous and voluminous writings are — 
 Ifinfiiire nattirri/e (lea CruHtart'ti et tfrn Inxertpft (\ 4 vo]s., 1S02 
 -05), Genera Cruatacfttrum <t InHrrtorum (4 vols.. 18flft-09), 
 Coiirg iV Entomofngie (is;jl). He also wrote parts of Buf- 
 fon's Natural History and the entomological part of Cuvier's 
 Jitf/ne animal. 
 
 La'tro (M. PoRCirs), of Spanish birth, flourished in 
 Rome in the time of Augustus. He is highly spoken of 
 by Quintiiiau, and also by the elder Seneca, who had known 
 him from boyhood, and who has given in his CourrttrrrHiK 
 interesting details of his personal and professional charac- 
 ter, and specimens of his declamations. Among his pupils 
 was the poet Ovid. He d. b. c. 4. having taken his own 
 life, according to Jerome, while suft'ering from a severe 
 fever. His writings have perished ; for the Derlamatio in 
 C .Saffitathim Crinpitm and the Dcclaniatt'o in d'ceroncm 
 have been ascribed to him without sufficient reason. (See 
 BUhr's Gcurh. d. Hiim. Lit., vol. ii. p. 488; Lindner, Be 
 M. Porcio Latrune Cummentatio, Brcslau, 18,'>.').) 
 
 H. Drisi.er. 
 
 Ijatrobe% post-b. of Westmoreland co.. Pa.. 41 miles 
 E. of I'ittsburg, on the Loyalhannn Creek, at the junction 
 of the Ligonier Valley and Pennsylvania Central R. Rs., 
 has I weekly newspaper. 7 churches. 2 hotels, 2 banks. 1 
 college, and 1 convent (St. Vincent and St. Xavier), ;t largo 
 coal and coki- companies, a paper-mill, 2 itlaning-mills, 
 several large flouring -mills, carworks and machine-shops, 
 and the usual number of stores and shops. Pop. 1127. 
 Charles B. Fink, hu. "Apvaxck." 
 
 Latrobe (Benjvmin Henry), b. in Yorkshire, Eng- 
 land, May I, ]7t<7 ; was educated at the University of Lcip- 
 sic : served in the Prussian army ( 1785) ; returned to Eng- 
 land ; studied architecture: became surveyor of public 
 offices of London (I78S(; came to the V. S. in 179t>, built 
 tho bank of Pennsylvania, the Schuylkill waterworks, the 
 cathedral and exchange at Baltimore, completetl tho Capitol 
 of the U. S.. and rebuilt it after its destruction in I8I5; 
 built steamboats at Pittsburg iu tho same year, and d. at 
 New Orleans in Sept., 1820. 
 
 Latrobe (BENJ\Mfv H.>, b. in Philadelphia, Pa.. Dec. 
 Ifl, I80fi : graduated at St. Mary's Ctdlege, Baltimore. iSL'.'t ; 
 studied law, an<l was admitted to tho luir: after practicing 
 his profession in New Jersey and Baltimore for a few years, 
 abandoned it to become a civil engineer, and in 18;{0 was 
 appointed assistant to.Ionnthan Knight, then chief engi- 
 neer of the Baltimore and Ohio H. K. Co., as such locating 
 the Washington branch of (hat road and that between Point 
 of Bocks and Harper's Kerry, and many other important 
 divisions; was chief engineer (tf the Baltimore and Port 
 Deposit B. R., locating and completing it ; suceeedetl Mr. 
 Knight on his retirement in lS42. and flnished the road 
 to Wheeling. Va. ; has been chief engineer and president 
 of various railroad companies, besides consulting engineer 
 for various State govoromcDts, and is frequently consulted
 
 IbTO 
 
 LATROBE— LAUDER. 
 
 by the general governmeDt on important works of internal 
 improvement. 
 
 Latrobe (Charles Joseph), b. in EnglanJ early in the 
 ninutet'Uth century ; author of sevenil works of travel of 
 high merit, among which are The Alpenstuvk, or ^^k-etckea 
 vj Steins Sct-urri/ utid Mtinnerg (1829), The Rambler in yurth 
 Ametica hi 1S3^~3S (1835), and Tht /iamUer in Mexico in 
 18S4 ( lt>''i61. Mr. Lalrol'c accompanied \Va«hingtoa Irving 
 in his "tour on the prairies." 
 
 Lat'ten [Fr. (niton], a kind of sheet bronze used in the 
 Midille Ages for making church ornaments, monumental 
 brasses, and the like. lu later times latten denotes simply 
 sheet brass or other sheet metal. 
 liatter-Day Saints. See Mormonism. 
 Lat'timore (Samiel Allan). Ph. D.. LL.D., b. May 
 31. 1828, at Liberty, Ind. ; graduated in KS50 from Asbury 
 University, Greencastle; became professor of <Ireek at the 
 same university in 1852, of natural science at Genesee Col- 
 lege, Lima, N. Y., in 1860. and of chemistry at the Univer- 
 sity of Rochester, N. Y.. in 1867. 
 
 Lat'ty, tp. of Paulding co., 0. Pop. 294. 
 LatiideS de {Hesri Masers). b. Mar. 23, 1725. near 
 Montagnac. in the department of H^rault, France ; received 
 a military education, and went in 174S to Paris to study 
 mathematics. Anxious to make himself conspicuous some- 
 how, he obtained an audience with Madame de Pompadour, 
 and told her that a conspiracy had been formed against her 
 life, and that a box containing a subtle poison would be 
 sent to her through the post. The box came, but its con- 
 tents were found to be ashes only, and it was discovered that 
 Latudo himself had sent the box. He was thrown in the 
 Bastile, and as he escaped, but was caught again, bis term 
 of punishment was prolonged. Three times he escaped, and 
 three times he was caught again, and thus it happened that 
 he was kept in prison for thirty-five years as a punishment 
 for a mere foolishness. In 17S4. Madame Legros, who in- 
 cidentally became acquainted with his history, procured his 
 liberation, a pension was given him, and the whole unfor- 
 tunate affair — for it was hardly anything more — was for- 
 gotten. But when the Revolution broke out the case was 
 brought before the public with all its details, and used as a 
 means of exciting the revolutionary hatred against the old 
 regime — a purpose for which the story was eminently well 
 suited. Latude published hia Mf moires in 1789; his advo- 
 cate Thierry. Le Despotisme dSroHr {Z vols., 1791-92), and 
 in 1793 a court awarded him 60,000 livres in damages, to 
 bo paid by the heirs of Madame de Pompadour. Thus, the 
 French people made a similar mistake to that which the 
 mistress of Louis XV. had made. She took Latude for a 
 criminal; they made him a hero: both forgot that he was 
 a fool. A later world has been more just ; it pities him. 
 D. Jan. 1. 1805. 
 
 Lau^bailf town of Prussia, in the province of Silesia, 
 on the Queiss. It has a bell-foundry, .several breweries, and 
 manufactures of cotton and Hueu goods, cloth, and tobacco. 
 Pop. 6G10. 
 
 I^au'be fllEi.N-RicH). b. at Sprottan, in Silesia, Sept. 18, 
 1800; studied since 1826 theology at Halle and Rreslau, 
 and settled in 1832 in Leipsic, devoting himself exclusive- 
 ly to literary pursuits. He travelled much in Germany, 
 France, and Italy ; was often persecuted, and several times 
 imprisoned, for his participation in the revolutionary move- 
 ments of his time ; sat in the German Parliament of 1848 ; 
 waa director of the Burg theatre of Vienna from 1849 to 
 1807, and of the theatre of Leipsic in 1808-09. His writ- 
 ings are partly historical — Dan ueue Jahrhumlert (2 vols.. 
 1833). Moilf^rnen Characterintiken {2 vols., 1835), Geackichte 
 dtr Dentuchen Literatur (4 vols., 1840), Daa crstc Deutsche 
 Pitrlnment (3 vols., 1849), Dan /iurfftheatcr (1868), etc.; 
 partly travelling sketches and novels — Framosischc Lust- 
 er hi Utter {'A vols., 1840), Bnsjttnffp Europa (4 vols., 18.H3-37), 
 Der deutsche Krietj (9 vols., 1803-66), etc.; partly dramas 
 — ^fonfttdeschi (1845), Die Carlssrhuler (1850), O'rn/ Es^ex 
 (1856), etc. He is a man of enterprise, of practical ability. 
 and of some talent, but he has no genius, and his studies wore 
 superficial. As a writer of fancy his mastership of all the 
 technicalities of art often enabled him to produce striking 
 effects, but he never made a lasting impression. As a his- 
 torical writer his mental vivacity and varied personal ex- 
 perience make him very entertaining, but he never in- 
 structs. Clemens Petersen. 
 
 Laud (William), b. at Reading, Berkshire. Oct. 7, 1573, 
 was the son of a rich clothier; entered St. John's College, 
 Oxford, in 1589; became a fellow in 1593; took his degree 
 aa master of arts in 1598; and was ordained a priest in 
 1601. From 1601 to 1021. in which latter year he was cod- 
 secrated bishop of St. David's, ho held several minor posi- 
 tions. In 1607 he was appointed vicar of Stanford, North- 
 amptonshire; in 1609 rector of West Tilburv, Essexshire; 
 in 1611 president of .St. John's College, Oxford; and ia 
 
 1615 archdeacon of Huntingdon. In all these positions he 
 plainly showed his character, and by degrees he attracted 
 the attention of James I. He was a learned man and a 
 liberal supporter of learning; an exemplary clergyman, 
 energetic, dignified, and benevolent to the poor; but he 
 hated the Puritans, and the fearlessness and consistency 
 with which he resisted, and, later on, even persecuted them, 
 made the hatred reciprocal. He was a churchman, rather 
 than a theologian. His religion had a color of sacerdotal- 
 ism. He understood the Church better as a worldly insti- 
 tution than as a spiritual necessity, and its rites and cere- 
 monies were to him of paramount importance. In 1617 ho 
 accompanied King James to Scotland, and an attempt was 
 made to introduce episcopacy into the government of the 
 Sc(»tch Church, but it failed. After the accession of Charles 
 I., Laud was removed to the sec of Bath and Wells in 1626, 
 and in 1628 to that of London. In 1624 he was made a 
 member of the court of high commission, in 1627 a privy 
 councillor, and after the assassination of Buckingham he 
 actually became prime minister. In 1630 he was chosen 
 chancellor of the University of Oxford, and in 1033 he was 
 made archbishop of Canterbury. These powerful and in- 
 fluential positions he used with more passion than pru- 
 dence, and more energy than justice, to carry through his 
 ecclesiastical views. The Puritans were everywhere and in 
 every way repressed. People who would not conform to the 
 Established Church were fined, imprisoned, branded on the 
 forehead, and exiled ; in some eases they even had tlieir 
 ears cut off and their noses slit open. His spies were every- 
 where. The smallost congregations of Separatists were 
 broken up, and even the devotion of private families did 
 not escape his control. But if the exertions were great, the 
 purpose was rather small. Besides these harsh and tyran- 
 nical measures in order to compel people to conform to the 
 Established Church, that which the archbi:^hop did to per- 
 fect the institution itself was rather of a jietty character — 
 regulations with respect to the proper place of the altar, 
 the due manner in which the altar ought to be railed in, 
 ''Sunday sports," etc. The result was a deep and itnplac- 
 ablc hatred. In 1635 a new attempt was made to intro- 
 duce the episcopacy into the Scotch Church, and this time 
 it led to the Scotch rebellion, which ushered in the English 
 revolution. When in 1640 the Long Parliament met, the 
 archbishop was impeached for higli treason, and by order 
 of the Commons brought to the Tower. There he remained 
 three years, exposed to many indignities. At last his trial 
 came on, and although he defended himself admirably, and 
 was not found guilty by the Lords, the Commons sentenced 
 him to death and gave order to his execution, which took 
 place June 10, 1644. A complete edition of his works was 
 publishe<l in London 1857-60; his Dinry and his letters are 
 of great historical interest. Clemens Petersen. 
 
 Lairdanine [from/(iii(/nnt(»i],a base homologous with 
 morphine and codeine, contained in opium. (See Watts's 
 
 Diet., Snj'jjlcmcnt.) 
 
 Lau'danum [probably from Lndannm or Labdanum 
 (which seel], the tincture of opium, made by soaking the 
 dried and powdered drug in alcohol. It is a valuable 
 opiate, though of variable strength. It ought never to be 
 given to young ehildreu as a domestic remedy. It has a 
 more stimulant and astringent effect than morphine, and 
 frequently causes headache. 
 
 Lau'da Si'on Salvato'rem ('' Praise the Saviour 
 of Zion "), a sequence sung in the Roman Catholic churches 
 on Corpus Christi Sunday. It is a rhymed Latin hymn by 
 Thomas Aquinas, in twelve stanzas — nine having six lines 
 each, two having eight lines each, and one, the twelfth, 
 having ten lines. 
 
 Lau'der (RonEnr Scott), R. S. A., b. at Silver Mills, 
 near Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1803; studied painting at 
 Edinburgh and London under the patronage of David Rob- 
 erts and Sir Walter Scott : spent five years in Italy ; resitled 
 from 1838 to 1849 in London, and for the remaindc-r of his 
 life in Edinburgh, where he d. Apr. 21, 1S09. He was a 
 <ft-nre painter of great merit, his best works being scenes 
 from Scott's novels. His Christ tcuchiiiff ilnmilitif was pur- 
 chased by the Scottish Association for the Encouragement 
 of Art, and presented to the Scottish National Gallery at 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 Lauder (Sir Thomas Dick), Bart., b. near Edinburgh, 
 Scotland, in 1781, only son of Sir Andrew Lauder, sixth 
 baronet of Fountainball. Haddingtonshire; was a contrib- 
 utor to Blnckirood's Mar/axine from its commencement, and 
 so successfully rivalled Sir Walter Scott in his peculiar de- 
 partment of historical fiction that several of his tales were 
 attributed to the author of Waverley. Among them were 
 Lochandhn (1825). The Wolfe «/ Hudenoch (1827), Hiifh- 
 land Jiumldra, irith Lfnuj Taiti to Shorten thr Way (1837), 
 and Lvfjendiirif Tnle- u/the Hi'/hlandn (1841). Hc was an 
 
 active member of scientific and antiquarian societies, edited
 
 LAUDER— LAUGHTER. 
 
 1671 
 
 several works on natural history, and was a contributor to 
 the Edinburgh Eiwyclopttdia, \>. near KdinburgU May 29, 
 
 18-18. 
 
 Lauder (William), b. in Scotland early in tho eight- 
 eenth century: educated at Edinburgh I'niversity; pub- 
 lished in 17iiy a collection of modern Latin verso; and 
 becoming a tearher of Latin in Loudon, contributed to the 
 Oentlemnnn Mmjuziuf in 1747 a series of articles attempt- 
 ing to pntve that Milton had in his /*(irn</inv Lont borrowed 
 largely from modera Latin poems by (irotius, Maseuius. 
 and others. These essays were reprinti'd in a volume in 
 1751, with a preface by Dr. Samuel Johnson, but it was 
 soon uiieertnineil that the work was an iinposture, tho par- 
 allel passages quoted being either forged or taken from a 
 Latin translation of the i*ni-ndi»e Lost. Lauder confessed 
 his offence, and went to Barbadoes, where he d. in 1771. 
 
 Lau'dcrdale, county of N. W. Alabama, boun«lcd N. 
 by Tennosft-e and S. by the Tennessee River. The \V. end 
 touches Mississippi. Area, GJO square miles. It is gener- 
 ally very fertile. The N. part is a rolling plateau. Cot- 
 ton, pork, and corn are the chief products. Cap. Florence. 
 
 Pop. \:y,\VM. 
 
 Lauderdale, county of Mississippi, bounded E. by 
 Alabama. Area, 720 square miles. It is generally level 
 and extremely fertile. Corn and cotton arc staple products. 
 It is tnivt-rsed by the Mobile and Ohio and the Vieksburg 
 and Mni-hau \\. Rs. Cap. Meridian. Pop. 13,102. 
 
 Lauderdale, county of W. Tennessee, having the Mis- 
 sissippi KiviT ou its western boundary, which separates it 
 from Arkansas, the Forked Deer Creek partly on the N., 
 and the liig Ilatchic River on the S. Area, .'iiJU square 
 miles. Th«' surface is level and the soil fertile. Corn, cot- 
 ton, and wliL-at are tho chief productions. Cap, Kipley. 
 
 Pop. iu.n;;h. 
 
 Lauderdale, post-v. of Lauderdale co., Mis«., on the 
 Mobile nnd Ohio R. R.. 19 miles X. of Meridian, has a 
 church, a semi-monthly newspaper, an orphans' home, and 
 ii Iiir^e business in shipping cotton. One mile S. E. am 
 tho Laiid<'rdalc Springs, a favorite watering-place. Pop. 
 2.M). \Vm. II. IlooAS, .Manager "(Orphans' HoMK Ii.\NNKii." 
 
 Lauderdale (Col. Jami:s), b. in Virginia about 1780 j 
 removcil early in the present century to West Tennessee; 
 bore a distinguished part in the Crt-ck war under Gens. 
 Coffee and Jackson, an'l wus killed while fighting with 
 great gallantry at the first battle of New Orleans Dec. 2.'*, 
 IHII. Several counties and towns ia the Southern States 
 were named for him. 
 
 Landerdale (Jamfs maitland), Eifinrn Earl op, b. 
 in SL'oIland in J ".'>*.) ; entered Parliament in I7SU; was ono 
 of the managers of the impeachment of Warren Hastings 
 in 1788; succeeded to the title in 17^'.', and was elected one 
 of the 8i.Ytccn representative peers of Scotland; favored the 
 French Revolution ; visited France, and formed an inti- 
 macy with Krissot and the leading Girondists; energetic- 
 ally opposed all tlie war-measures of Pitt ; rewigned his 
 scat as ri'prescntativo peer: became a citizen of Ijonilon, 
 and ran unsuccessfully torslicriff; wrote much upon finance 
 ami Indian affairs, and on the accession of the Wliigs in 
 1.S06 became a baron of the United Kingdom, privy coun- 
 cillor and chanci'llor of Stuthind. In -Aug., 1.SII7, he was 
 charged with an unsuccessful mission to Frunce to treat 
 for peace ; resigned the chaueellorship the same year; con- 
 tinued in tho House of Peers to oppose the wur-pidicy ; in 
 1SI6 cntleavorcd to obtain the release of Napoleon from St. 
 Ilcli'na by act of pHrliainent. Hi- publisht-d in iSOl u very 
 popular Wi)rk, An Inifuiry I'litu tht: Snturc and Oriijin oj' 
 
 Pithtif W'li/t/i, and in i>-ii'J a treatise on tho system of 
 government for India. D. Sept. I.'l, LS^Jl). 
 
 Lauderdale tJonv iMaitland). Dtkrop, b. at Lctb- 
 ington, Scotland, May lU, Hllli; educated ns a rigorous 
 Covenanter; was commissioner to treat with Charles I. in j 
 his prison in tho I^lc of Wight, and obtained the signature I 
 of the treaty known as tho ■* Kngagement" (Dee. 2r», Ifil"), 
 by which tho king was again recognized in Scotland; was 
 tho chief favorite of Charles II. <luring his brief rule in 
 Scotland (IftlU-^l): was taken prisoner at tho battle of 
 Worcester (Sept., ICjI), and remained nine years in tho 
 ToWlt and other prisons; was made secretary of state and 
 high commissioner in Scotland by Charles II. in Itifiit; re- \ 
 ceivect in rapid successitm all tho highest posts in Scotland, 
 of which kingdom lie was tho virtual ruler for nuiuy years ; 
 was created duke of Lauilenlale in lC7.'t ; raised to the Kng- i 
 lish peerage in Ili7i as Kiirl tlnilford, and sworn of tlie i 
 privy council, forming a member of the celebrated Cafml ' 
 ministry. He was a tlatterer of Charles, ami has been 
 painted in the darkest colors by Maenuhiy in his Ilintory 
 u/ En'jhtnd. D. at Tunbridgo Aug. 24, If.HI. 
 
 Lau'dnn, von (GinroN Krnst), Baron, b. at Trotzen, 
 Livonin, Oct. 10, 17 HI. of a Scottish family, and entered in 
 
 his fifteenth year the Russian military service, but was dis- 
 missed after the Peace of Belgrade (i7;i9) with the rank of 
 a lieutenant. He now offered his services to Frederick II. 
 of Prussia, but was not accepted, because the king disliked 
 his face. He then went to Vienna, was employed as a cap- 
 tain, and fiKight in the Bavarian and in the second Silcsian 
 war, not without distinction, but without promotion. Alter 
 the peace he was removed to a regiment stationed ou tho 
 Turkish frontier, and here he was nearly forgotten. In 
 the first year, however, of the Seven Years' war he distin- 
 guished himself as colonel of a regiment of Uhlans — so 
 much that in 17r»7he was made a general. His commission 
 came to him through the hands of the Prussians, accom- 
 panied by a congratulatory letter from Frederick II. At 
 Kuncrsdorf ( Aug. 12, 17J'J) he decided the battle and turned 
 the victory whicli the Prussians had gained over the Rus- 
 sians into a complete rout of the Prussian army. Having 
 been made a fielii-miirsbal and placed at the head of an in- 
 dependent corps of .'10,(100 men. he defeated the I*russians 
 once more at Landshut ( June 20, I7tJ0), an<l took Scbweid- 
 nitz (Oct. I, Kfil). After the Peace of Hubertsburg ho 
 lived in retirement on his estates, engaged in studies, until 
 Joseph n. placed liim at the comiimnd of tho whole Aus- 
 trian army in tlie war against the Turks. Tlie campaign 
 was a most brilliant one; the Turks were repeatedly de- 
 feated and Belgrade was taken. In the Bavarian war of 
 succession he commnnded the .Austrian army, and succeeded 
 in placing the Prussian armies in a very difficult position 
 when peace was concluded. The Austrian emjiirc gave him 
 tho title of generalissimo, which none but Eugene had ever 
 had. and overloadetl him with dotations and honors. I). 
 suddenly at Ncutitschein July 14, 1700. 
 
 Laudouiiilre, de (Ukni^: Goilatne), b. in Franco 
 early in the sixteenth century ; was sent by Admiral Coligny 
 along with Jean Ribault to found a colony in Florida ; 
 sailed from Diepjio Feb. 15, I5f>2, and left tho colonists at 
 Port Royal ; returnc'l with three ships to their relief in 
 l.')tU: found the settlement abandoned; entered the river 
 St. Jfdin's, called by him the river May, and built Fort 
 Caroline. In the surprise and masi^acre perpetrated there 
 by the Spaniunls under Menendez {Sept. 20, 1565) Laudon- 
 nicre escaped with but a few followers ; arrived in Franco 
 in Jan., 16t)0 ; was coldly received by tho court, and spent 
 the remainder of his life in obscurity. He published in 
 IjSfi an account of his adventures, Ih'ntoire notable de fa 
 Fluridr. vtnxtruant IvH tmis rotfaf/rn /aifti eu ivrde par des 
 capitainei et den pilutea fran^ais, (See alsoT. Irving's Con- 
 queat of Florida.) 
 
 Lau'enburg, duchy of Northern Germany, bounded 
 by Ilolsicin. Mecklcnliurg, Hamburg, and Hanover. Area, 
 454 square miles. Pop. 40,5)G. Cup. Butzcburg, the only 
 other towns being Lauenhurg and Miilln. Important in 
 the Middle Ages, Lauenhurg has during the present cen- 
 tury become of fo little value as to have several times served 
 as a make-weight in treaties. It was taken by Franco 
 from Hanover 180M, incorporated with the French empire 
 ISIO, regained by Hanover IS!.'!, ceded to Prussia 1815, 
 ami transferred to Denmark the same year. In 18G4, after 
 tile Danish war, it wris ceded lo Austria ami Prussia, and 
 by the convention of Gasteiu (isr)5) it wiis acquired by tho 
 king of Prussin for the sum of l,M75,00it thalcrs, paid from 
 his own pocket, whereupon he became its duke, and has 
 conducteci the administration separately from that of 
 Prussia. 
 
 LaurnbuTf;, town of Prupsia, in the province of Pom- 
 eraiiiii, on tbc Leba, has inanufaelures of lincu and woollen 
 fabrics and ^ aluablc li^heries. Pop. OjoO. 
 
 I^angh'ery, tp. of Ripley co,, Ind. Pop. 1874. 
 
 J«aiigliiiig <>aN. See NiTitooKN. 
 
 Laugli'tcr [Ang.-Sax. hlxihtor, from hUnhhnn, to 
 '* laugh "J consists of convulsive, and to a certain ex- 
 tent involuntary, actions of the muscles of respiration, by 
 means of which the uir, being expelled from the chest in 
 a series of jerks, produces a succession of short, abrupt 
 sounds, variously^ modified according to individual pecu- 
 liarities : at the same time the angles of the mouth are 
 drawn backward an<l upward; the upper lip is ehvnteil ; 
 tho nostrils are expanoed ; (he lower eyelid is slightly 
 raiseil, anil (he external angles of tho orbital iq>cnings 
 tlirown into wrinkles by (he contraction of tho lower pint 
 of the orbicularis iialpi-brarum muscles, wliile the eyes as- 
 sume a peculiarly bright iipj)earunce. If the action be suf- 
 ficiently intense <.r jirc.longed. tears are shed through the 
 compression exerted an the lachrymal sacs, the brows ore 
 elevated, and other muscles of the body may participate to 
 such an extent that tlie head, trunk, and limbs are thrown 
 into movements, and even (ho contents of the bowels and 
 blailder may bo evacuated by tlie expulsive efforts of the 
 abdominal muscles overcoming the normal contractility of 
 (he sphincters.
 
 1G72 
 
 LAUGnXER. 
 
 Tins roinarkable category of actions, which in its en- 
 tirety Via call Imt'/hter, may be originated in various ways. 
 In children antl weak-minded persons, and in certain ani- 
 mals, it is, as Darwin asserts, the expression of pure pleas- 
 ure, hut in the normally constituted adult the most intense 
 jileasurc unmodified by other emotions does not appear 
 to he capaldc of exciting laughter. At the same time, it 
 must be admitted that, no matter how induced, laughter is 
 always indicative of a certain amount of high spirits and 
 eelf-satisfaction. combined sometimes with a sense of su- 
 periority. The exciting causes of laughter are, as a whole, 
 not thoroughly understood, and have been the subject of 
 very diverse opinions from physiological and psychologi- 
 cal writers, none of wliich appears to be entirely correct or 
 to include all the emotional or other excitations. Thus, 
 Hohbeg assorts that "laughter is a sudden glory arising 
 from sudden conception of some eminency in ourselves by 
 comparison with the intirniity of others, or of our own 
 formerly.*' But this explanation by no means covers the 
 ground, for wc very frequently laugh at matters that in no 
 way concern ourselves, as, for instance, at a humorous re- 
 mark made by another, or at some striking incongruity of 
 action in an individual which cannot by any means be con- 
 nected with our own being. As Bain remarks, Hobbes'a 
 definition will only apply to the laugh of victory, ridicule, 
 derision, or contempt against persons whom we ourselves 
 have humiliated. Bain has very well shown that mere in- 
 congruity is not of itself always sufficient to excite laugh- 
 ter, although such is the generally received opinion. There 
 arc many incongruities whicdi. as he says, may produce any- 
 thing but a laugh. A little reflection will enable any one 
 to call up hundreds of such without there being developed 
 the slightest disposition to laughter. It would seem, how- 
 ever, that the incongruous in certain forms is capable of 
 causing laughter. Thus, upon one occasion the writer wit- 
 nessed the fact of a whole congregation of devout worship- 
 pers thrown into paroxysms of the most intense laughter 
 by the attempt of a dog which had entered the church to 
 pass through the chancel-railing to reach his master, the 
 officiating clergyman. When half through he stuck fast, 
 and hy no effort could he either a<lvance or retreat. His 
 cries drowned the voice of the minister, and he was finally 
 with difficulty extricated by the senior warden and the sex- 
 ton, and carried howling out of the church. In this in- 
 stance the incongruity was of the most marked character, 
 and there was in addition the sudden revulsion of feeling 
 whieh so frequently excites laughter. To use the language 
 of Herbert Spencer — who lays great stress on this sudden 
 interruption of the course of one emotion by the instan- 
 taneous development of another — the channels through 
 which tiio discharge was about to take place were closed, 
 and a new channel opened. In another instance which 
 camo under the writer's notice the incongruity and revul- 
 sion were still more evident — more even than in the case 
 given by Spencer of the tame kid snuffing at a pair of de- 
 voted lovers in the most highly wrought part of a sensa- 
 tional drama. Two lovers on the stage had reached the 
 culmination of their fate, and were dying in each other's 
 arms. The intfsrest of the audience was worked up to the 
 highest pitch: many were in tears, and then the curtain ■ 
 slowly descended. But the dead lovers had fallen too far 
 to the front, and wheu the curtain reached the stage they 
 were between it and the footlights. In an instant the idea 
 of the ludicrous was aronsed, aud amidst peals and shrieks 
 of the most convulsive laughter from the audieuee the two 
 actors had to get up and walk abjectly from the presence 
 of the crowd. 
 
 True wit does not excite laughter, for the reason that in 
 true wit there is the very reverse of incongruity ; but the 
 attempt at wit. being incongruous, does give rise to the 
 idea of the ludicrous, and hiughter is produced. This is 
 well sliown in the following lines from the signboard of an 
 inn kept by one Littlejuhn : 
 
 " Ve who love old wine and good, 
 Come ill ami drink wiih Roliin Hood: 
 If llohin Hood is not at home, 
 Come in aud drink with Little John." 
 
 There is nothing incongruous in this; it is witty, but 
 though it causes pleasure and may excite a smile, it does 
 not cause laughter. In the course of time. Iiowever, the 
 inn camo into the possession of Jacob Snodgrass. who, 
 ignorant of the relation between Robin Hood and Little 
 John, but knowing the persuasive power of the old sign, 
 and wishing to continue it as far as truth would allow, left 
 it intact with tho exception of erasing the name of Little 
 John and substituting that of Jacob ^nodgrass. Nobody 
 ha<l ever laughed at the old sign, but every one hiuirhi-d at 
 tliis. for the incongruity between Robin ilood and Jaeob 
 Snodgrasa was so palpable that the impulse to laugh was 
 irresistible. 
 
 The incongruous, to be capable of exciting laughter, 
 
 must be of such a character as to produce no other strong 
 emotion. If this latter occurs, the sense of the ludicrous 
 is overwhelmed by the more powerful feeling which tho 
 event occasions. Tbu?, if in the instance cited of the dog 
 sticking fast in the ehancel-railing the struggles of tho 
 animal to get free had ignited some lueifer matches acci- 
 dentally near him, the emotion of fear would have arisen in 
 the minds of the congregation, would have overwhelmed 
 all idea of the ludicrous, aud cries of fright, not laughter, 
 would have been the result. 
 
 The theory of Dumont is, when analyzed, not materially 
 different from that which ascribes laughter to a perception 
 of incongruity. According to this author, wc laugh when 
 the mind is concerned with facts of such a nature as to 
 cause us to think at one and the same time that a thing is 
 and is not. In other words, when we are forced to affirm 
 and deny the same thing — when, in sliort, the understand- 
 ing is obliged to conceive simultaneously two contradictory 
 relations of one thing or circumstance. " It is certain," he 
 says. " that wc can no more succeed in uniting two con- 
 tradictory elements in a single conception than we can 
 cause two bodies to occupy the same space at the same 
 time. But two distinct forces can so act upon two bodies 
 as to push them towards the same space, aud thus to cause 
 a shock or a succession of shocks. In like manner, diverse 
 circumstances can prompt the understanding to attempt to 
 make two contradictory ideas enter into the same concep- 
 tion. From this attempt a kind of intellectual contest re- 
 sults, of which laughter is the expression." This contest 
 between contradictory ideas is nothing more than the sense 
 of incongruity to which, as a cause of laughter, the atten- 
 tion of the reader has alrea<ly been directed. 
 
 But besides those causes of laughter which are entirely 
 intellectual in character, there are others which are sensa- 
 tional, others which arc partly sensational and partly in- 
 tellectual, and again others which are pathological. As an 
 instance of a sensational cause (classed erroneously by 
 Bain as mechanical), tickling may be mentioned. Among 
 the pathological causes hysteria jtlays an important role, 
 and the abnormal condition of the mind from which laugh- 
 ter is evolved as an expres::^ion of grief (sardonic laughter) 
 may be placed in the same categoiy. Among the mixed 
 ; sensational and intellectual is the fact that individuals, 
 , especially children, laugh when the motion of tickling is 
 made towards them. Ilere the laughter is the result of tho 
 perceptirm of the approaching finger performing the motion 
 . of tickling, evoking the recollection of previous ticklings. 
 j According to Darwin, the anthropoirl ajics utter a rcitcr- 
 I ated sound when they are tickled un<ier the armpits. The 
 I laughter from tickling is of reflex character, and scarcely 
 i if at all under the control of the will, though such control 
 I may be acquired by repeated eff'orts. 
 
 But there is frequently another governing factor in the 
 ! laughter from tickling, besides the mere sensational ex- 
 t citation. AVe laugh when we are tickled by others, but we 
 I do not laugh when we tickle ourselves. This is especially 
 the case when the motion is made on the skin covering the 
 siiles of the chest. The fact iijtpears to be that in order 
 ; for laughter to result from tickling wc must be in igno- 
 j ranee of the exact spot which is to be tickled. Wheu we 
 I know it, as we do when we are about to tickle ourselves, 
 I laughter does not result. 
 
 I Bain asserts that cold and some kinds of acute pain 
 I cause laughter, but this is ])robably erroneous. The laugh- 
 I ter of young infants in their sleep, commonly ascribed by 
 ! mothers and nurses to colic, is more likely due to pleasant 
 [ dreams. 
 
 Tiie mechanism of laughter, so far as the muscles of the 
 
 I face are concerned, has been admirably studied through 
 
 ! the agency of electricity by Dr. Duehenne (de Boulogne), 
 
 anci previouslv, verv philosophically, by Moreau (de la 
 
 Sarthe) and Si'r Charles Bell. 
 
 flihfioifntph If. -^Thomas Hobbes, Coiiipfrte Wor/-*, edited 
 by Sir Willimn Molesworth. Latin and English (London, 
 18.19-45, op. Human Xatiirc) ; Moreau (de la Sarthe), Sitr la 
 Structure, hi* L'tfiffeg et lea f-aractl'ren da (IfJfVroiteti parties 
 dp In face de V ihnnmc. art. .'?, t. iv. of L' Art dc vmniaitre 
 leu Homme- par f<i /'/iifKloffnoinir, par Gaspard Lavater 
 (Paris, 1820); Sir Charles Bell, Tlir Auafomt/ ami Phtfm'- 
 o/nffi/ of E.rprefminn (3d cd.. London, 184-1); Alexander 
 Bain, The Emotions and the ]\'tfl (2d cd., London, 
 ISG.^); L$on Dumont. Du Catinr/) dn /iirr (Paris, 1802); 
 
 . 'flit'orie Hrirntifiipie de la Seunibitit^, le 
 
 P/niMtr et la I'cinr (Paris. 187o); Herbert Spencer, The 
 Phifniolofftf of Lan<fhtcr { Eniatfii, 2d series. 18(53: published 
 in the U.S. ns IlluHtratittuHfif Vnivrrnnl Protfrcss, New York, 
 1861); G. B. Duehenne (de Boulognel. Mi^caninme de la 
 Phi/ninfjnomie hnmnine. ete. (Paris, 18fi2); Charles Darwin, 
 The Erpresfiinn of thc^ Emotions in Man and An tmnh (hon- 
 don, 1872) ; I. Luys. Etndea de Phy»ioloffie et de Pafhofojie 
 cfr^bralea (Paris," 1S74). *W. A. Hammo.nd.
 
 LAUGIER— LAURENCE. 
 
 1673 
 
 Lau^ier' (AsnRfi), b. at Paris Aug. 1, 1770: was em- 
 ploTcd l»y the Convention during the French Hcvolution 
 in collecting the bells from the ehurehes of Bretaffne to be 
 melted into cannon ; was afterwards at the hea<l of the 
 office for the inanufaoture of powder ; served iu the medical 
 corps of the army ; became professor of pharmacy and 
 chemistry at several institutions, assistant professor at the 
 Museum at Paris in ISOl?, and professor in ISId, on the death 
 of Fouroroy, who was his relative. Laugicr made numerous 
 important chemical discoveries, recorded chiefly in the 
 AitnaleM of the Museum ; he was long a nicmher of the dc- 
 partiiieut of public instruction, and along with Foureroy was 
 the organizer of a large number of colleges and lyeeums. 
 He puKJifihed a Courn de. Chimic ffrni'raic (3 vols, Itj2S). 
 D. at Paris Apr. 18, 1832. 
 
 Laugier (AiT.rsTE Ernest Paul), son of Andrf', b. in 
 Paris Deo. 22, 1812 ; studied astronomy under Arago ; ob- 
 tained a post in the observatory at Paris ; made important 
 discoveries in regard to ma;2:netism. comets, eclipses, me- 
 teors, and solar spots; made improvements in astronomical 
 clocks: determined the exact latitude of the Paris obser- 
 vatory (IS-V?), correcting previous errors, published a cata- 
 logue of 53 nebulas and another (1857) of the declination 
 of 140 stars, and contributed many astronomical papers to 
 the CounniiH'turr dn Triiipn. He was long associated with 
 Arago in researches on terrestrial physics, and was for 
 Borae years president of the Academy of Sciences. D. at 
 Paris Apr. 5, 1872. 
 
 Laiincr, a species of sand-eel. Sec Ammodytes. 
 
 Lauu('('!^'Con9 parliamentary and municipal borough of 
 England, tormcrly cap. of the counfy of Cornwall, on the 
 Kensey Kiver, a tributary of the Tamiir, 22 miles X. E. of 
 Plymouth, with which it is conucoted by railway. It is 
 situated on a steep hill, at the top of which arc the ruins 
 of Castle Terrible, built by the ancient princes of Corn- 
 wall; has elaborately carved gates, several public buildings, 
 and a grammar school founded by Quceu Elizabeth. Pop. 
 5U0. 
 
 Xjaunceston, the second town of Tasmania or Van 
 Dicmen's Land, cap. of the county of Cornwall, situated on 
 the river Tamar at it^ confluence with the Esk, 32 miles 
 S. E. of Port Dalrymplc, has 22 churches, 30 schools, 5 
 banks, 3 newspapers, commodious government buildings, 
 and a considerable trade with .South Australia, and X'ietoria, 
 exporting wool, timber, and fruits, and importing manu- 
 factured goods. Pop. lO.OSS. 
 
 Launch, the principal boat attached to modern ships. 
 Ships of the largest hize sometimes have steam launches, 
 and these in the uavul service frequently carry a piece of 
 artillery, and are very serviceable iu shallow waters and 
 rivers. 
 
 Lannch'ing [Fr. lancer, "to hurl out"], the removal 
 of a new ship from the shipyard to the water. .Ships are 
 usually l>uilt upon inclined wooden ways, and when the 
 hull is flnished the vessel is allowed to slide stern foremost 
 into the water. The spurs are usually set up after launoh- 
 ing. The Itreat Eastern was launched sidewise into the 
 Tliames( 18i>8), powerful hydrostatic pressure being required 
 to force her into her proper element. 
 
 Laun'tlalr, tp. of McLean co., III. Pop. 835. 
 
 La I nion. Sec Tsiun. 
 
 Lau'nitz (ItoiiEUT ERKitiiARD), b. at Higa, Russin, Nov. 
 4, IHiUi; studied in Uoino under Thrirwiildsen, and settled 
 in 182S at New York, where he d. Dec. 13, IS70. Tho 
 battle monument at Frankfort. Ky., the Puliiski monument 
 at Savannah, (la., the monument to George 11. Thomas at 
 Troy, .V. v., were executed by him. 
 
 Lail'ra [l-ir. \avpa, a "defile," or, ns some say, a name 
 taken fr'Hu ii district in ancient Alexandria], in former 
 times, anrl especially in tlie Levant, a collection of hermils" 
 cells, each of whoso occupants either provided for himself 
 alone, or at most passed but two days in the week in the 
 community of his brethren. Tho tenants of the laura w«ro 
 subject to severe rules. Solitude, silence, and a most mea- 
 gre diet were the lot of all. 
 
 Ijaiira'ceiP [from AniirH*. the typical genus], a natural 
 ord r of exogenous plants, chiefly tnes. often of j,'real size. 
 This oriler is mostly tropical, and prorluces many trees of 
 great economic value. Among its products are cassia, cin- 
 namon, camphor, and many valuable drugs and timber- 
 woods. Tho sassafras, bay, and a few other shrubs and 
 trees of tho V. ?>. arc lauraeeous. 
 
 Laii'ramic, tp. of Tippecanoe co., Ind. Pop. 21 14. 
 
 Lau'ra Town, tp. of Stokes co., N. C. Pop. 1117. 
 
 Lniiroa'na di Borrl'lo, town of R. Italv, in tho 
 province <if Heirffio di <'ulabria, about 2U miles E. of Pal- 
 mi. Pop. in 1S74, 5807. 
 
 Lan'rel [Lat. Lnttmg], a name properly belonging to 
 the LnnruH nobilin or bay tree of Europe, Asia, and Africa. 
 In the warmer parts of Europe it becomes a large tree. Its 
 wood has a limited use in the arts: its essential oil is em- 
 ployed in perfumery; its fruit yields a fixed oil, used in 
 veterinary medicine: its flowers aflbrd rich bee-pasture; 
 its leaves were the material of the luurel crown of victors 
 in war and of successful poets and artists. The name is 
 often loosely extended to all the Lauraccse, to which this 
 tree belongs. Shrubs of the genus Kalmia (which see) are 
 j called laurels in the U. S. Some of the larger rhododcn- 
 ! drons of our country are called mountain-laurels. Tho 
 evergreen cherry trees are called Ciif:nr:v Lairei. {which 
 see). In (Ireat Britain they are often simply called laurel. 
 The Portugal laurel is one of the cherry laurels. Several 
 kinds of magnolia are known locally in tho U. S. as laurel 
 trees. In England the Dnphue taurcolti is called spurge 
 laurel. It is a handsome European evergreen shrub, some- 
 times planted in the TI. S., and is of the order Thymelacea;. 
 It has a poisonous bark. 
 
 Laurel, county of S. E. Kentucky. Area, 430 square 
 miles. It is hilly and mountainous, but much of the soil 
 afi"ords fine pasturage. The grain cro]) is the most im- 
 portant. The county is traversed by the Knoxville branch 
 of the Louisville and Nashville K. R. Cap. London. Pop. 
 6016. 
 
 Laurel, post-v. of Little Creek hundred. Sussex co., 
 Del., on the Delaware R. R,, 7 miles N. of Dclmar, and on 
 the navigable Broad Creek. Pop. 1U80. 
 
 Laurel, post-v. and tp. of Franklin co.. Tnd.,on Whito 
 Water River and White Water Valley R. R. It has 1 
 weekly newspaper. Pop. of v. 741 ; of tp. 1942. 
 
 Laurel, a v. (LAriiFi, Factorv P.O.) and tp. of Prince 
 George's co.. Md., on Patuxent River and on the Washing- 
 ton branch of the Baltimore and Ohio ii. R., has a large 
 cottou-mill. Pop. of v. 1148; of tp. 1684. 
 
 Laurel, tp. of Asho co., N. C. Pop. 456. 
 
 Laurel, post-v. of Monroe tp., Clermont co., 0., 15 
 miles S. of Bnlavia. Pop. 126. 
 
 Laurel, tp. of Hocking co., 0. Pop. 1343. 
 
 Laurel Creek, tp. of Watauga co., N. C. Pop. 585. 
 
 Laurel Factory, Sco Lauhki,, Md. 
 
 Laurel Fork, tp. of Carroll co., Va. 
 
 Laurel IlilK 'p. "f Lincoln co., N. C. 
 
 Laurel Hill, tp. of Richmond co., N. 
 
 Laurel Hill, a beautiful cemetery within the limits of 
 the cily of Philadelphia, on the left bank of the Schuylkill. 
 The grounds comprise more than 20 acres, picturcs(piely 
 situated u]>on several hills, are ornamented with great taste, 
 and have a fine tJothic chapel. (See Philadkli'Mia.) 
 
 Laurel Hill, a range of mountains in Western Penn- 
 sylvania, rising in Camliria co., and running S. W. as tho 
 boundary between Somerset co. on tho E. and Westmore- 
 land and Fayette cos. on the W. 
 
 Laurel Junction, p(>st-v. of AVood eo.. West Va., at 
 the juneljon <»f the Laurel Fork and Sand Hill K. R. with 
 the Baltimore and Ohio U. R. It is an iui)>'>rtaiit point 
 in the trade in petroleum, which is obtained in large quan- 
 tities in tho vicinity, anil brought here by pipe and rail to 
 be tanked. It is called also Laiiiei. Fohk. 
 
 Laurell, tp. of Madison co., N. C. Pop. 992. 
 
 Laurel Ri<lf;e, a rnnge of mountains rising on tho S. 
 bank of the A'nugbiogheiiy River, in South-\vest<rn Penn- 
 sylvania, and trending S. W. to Cheat River, through Tay- 
 lor, Marion, anci Monongalia cos., West Va. 
 
 Lau'rence (BirnAnn). !>. C. L., b. at Bath, England, 
 in 1760; graduated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in 
 1782; look orders in the Church of England; preached the 
 Bam|»t<in lectures ISO) ; appointed Soon after to the rectory 
 of ,\Iersbam, Kent ; bceiiine r*'gius ]irofessor of Hebrew 
 and canon of Christ Church. Oxford. IS14: archbishop of 
 Cashol IH22. and d. at I>uhlin Doc. 28, 1S38. Archbishop 
 Laurence was one of the restorers of Oriental studies in 
 England, and ]ierhaps the only high dignitary of his times 
 who cultivated the diali'cH ()f the Semitic languages. His 
 most important service to theology was the recovery from 
 Ethiopic manuscripts of several interesting apocryphal 
 works, often quoted by the early Fathers, but supposed to 
 have been Inst. These were the Anrnit>i'nu of' the /*rn/>hft 
 hnitih, edited with Latin and English versions in IHI9, 
 and Thr Iiu.,k of Enoch thr Prophrt (1821 : 3d od. IS3B). 
 He brought out a now version of Fourth Esdras (1S20), 
 also from the Ethiopic; published A /HiHrrtntion on the 
 
 LufjuM uf St. Jnhn (1808), Critirni lirfh-rti,m» on thr Vui- 
 tarittn Vrr^ion of the A'rir Tefttammt I I S 1 1 ), i)n thr Ejitt- 
 e«cc of the Soul after Death (1834), and numerous <»cca- 
 
 Pop. 2197. 
 Pop. 430. 
 C. Pop. 2127.
 
 1674 
 
 LAURENE— LAURVIG. 
 
 sional essays and sermons. — His elder brother, French 
 Lavrence, LL.D.. regius professor of civil law at Oxford 
 (d. 1S09), was author of Critical fiemark/i on JJetarJieti Pas- 
 aaf/ett uf the Ncic Tetstameut (1810) and other works, but is 
 best known for his iwierc^iin^ Correspondence loith Ldmund 
 linrhe, imblisiied in 1827. 
 
 Lau'rene,or Laurol [Lat. ;a?irH», "laurel "],CnHi6, 
 a hydrocarbon homologous with benzol. (See Watts's Did., 
 Sitpplcninitf p. .'104.) 
 
 Lau'rensy county of S. Central Georgia. Area, 759 
 square miles. It is generally level and bus a good soil. 
 Cotton and corn are staple products. The county is trav- 
 ersed by the navigable Oconee River, and has extensive 
 forests. Cap. Dublin. Pop. 7834. 
 
 Laurens, county of N. W. Central South Carolina. 
 Area, 000 square miles. Its surface is varied, its soil well 
 cultivated and productive. Cotton and corn are staple 
 products. Flour is llie chief article of manufacture. Cap. 
 Laurens Court-liousc. Pop. SS^J-'iG. 
 
 Laurens, post-v. and tp. of Otsego co., N. Y. The vil- 
 lage has manufactures of importance, and there is a sulphur 
 spring in the vicinity. Pop. 1919. 
 
 Laurens, tp. of Laurens co., S. C, containing the county- 
 seat. Pop. 4289. 
 
 Laurens Court-house, post-v., cap. of Laurens co., 
 S. C, on the Laurens R. R., 31 miles N. W. of Newberry. 
 It has 1 weekly newspaper. 
 
 Laurens i IfEVRV), b. at Charleston, S. C, in 1724, of 
 Huguenot stin-k ; was well educated in Charleston and Lon- 
 don; acquired an ample fortune in mercantile business, and 
 was consjiicuous in the contests with the Crown admiralty 
 judges, whose injustice was then great, lie served as a 
 major against the Cherokees ; went to England in 1771. and 
 while thrre strove to avert a war; became in 1774 president 
 of the South Carolina congress; in 177() was sent to the 
 General Congress, of which he was president 1777-78. In 
 1779 he was sent as U. S. minister to the Netherlands, but 
 was made a prisoner by the British while at sea, and kept 
 a close prisoner in the Tower for tifteen months. In 1781 
 he was released, and appointed by the Congress one of the 
 commissioners to negotiate a peace, with Franklin and Jay 
 as his colleague?, t). Dec. S. 1792, at Charleston, S. C, and 
 by a diroeti<Mi in his will his body was burned and the bones 
 afterwards buried. Many of his pamphlets and other pa- 
 pers have been reprinted. 
 
 Laurens (Col. .Ton\), ''the Bayard of the American 
 Rcvolutiuu," b. in n.'j^i, a son of Henry Laurens; educati-d in 
 England, an<l in 1777 joined the army, and was placed upon 
 the staff of Washingttin, who loved him as a son. From 
 Monmouth to Ynrktown he was in all of Washington's bat- 
 tles, and in all displayed (he utmost valor, so that Wash- 
 ington is reported to have cheeked him for rashness. He 
 wounded Gen. Charles Lee in a duel, and the latter declared 
 he "could have hugged the boy " for his handsome behavior 
 on that occasion. Ijaurens was badly wounded at German- 
 town and Coosahatchie. In 1780 he went as a special min- 
 ister to France, and successfully negotiated a loan. Re- 
 turning, he served with great and even unnecessary activity 
 under Greene, and was killed in the contest on the Comba- 
 hee, Aug. 27, 1782. (See his Life and CorreapondencCf by 
 W. (J. Sims, 1867.) 
 
 Laurent' (Francois), b. in Luxemburg July S, 1810; 
 studii'il law at Louvain and Liege, and was appointed pro- 
 fessor in civil law at the University of Ghent in 18.'J5. His 
 historical essajs have been collected under the title Etudes 
 Hiir I'HiHtoire de VHnmunit^ (14 vols., 1860-68). 
 
 Lauren'tian .Mountains, the principal range of 
 British Atneriea, forming tlu; watershed bt-tween Hudson's 
 Bay, the St. Lawrence, and the great lakes, and between the 
 same bay and the Mackenzie River. It rises near the Atlantic 
 sea -coast of Labrador, sweeps S. W. across the Ottawa River 
 to Lake Ontario at its outlet, thence curving N. W. skirts 
 Georgian Bay, Lakes Huron and Superior, and thence N. to 
 the ,\rctie Ocean, with a total length of ;JOU0 miles. The fun- 
 damental series of rocks, called the Laurentian System by 
 Sir William Logan, consists of highly metamorjihosed sedi- 
 mentary deposits of hornblendic and micaceous gneiss, al- 
 ternating with mica schist, and abounding in beds of 
 crystallized limestunc and of magnetic oxides of iron, as 
 well as vast masses of granite, syenite, and greenstone. 
 This system is believed to be older than any of the Silur- 
 ian strata in (Jreat Britain, and even to be the oldest on 
 the globe. Indications of organic life have been detected 
 and classified by Dr. J. W. Dawson as Ettznun Cunndcnn*-, it 
 being still uncertain to what groups they should be referred. 
 
 Lauren'tiuft, Saist, was, according to tradition, a 
 pupil of Sixtus II.. who made him deacon, and uftcrwards 
 archdeacon and treasurer, at Rome. In 268 a. d. the magis- 
 
 trate, during the Valerian persecution, commanded Lau- 
 rentius to reveal the treasures of the Church ; accordingly, 
 the saint collected a company of poor, sick, lame, and blind 
 persons and presented them as tlie required treasures ; for 
 which act he was condemued to be broiled alive. He un- 
 derwent martyrdom with great courage and resignation 
 Aug. 10, 258. 
 
 Laurenza'na, town of S. Italy, in the province of 
 Potenza. situated in a mountainous and not very fertile 
 district. It is not on the line of any railway, and is even 
 without carriage-roads, but liy means of mules it carries on 
 a considerable trade with the neighboring provinces. Pop. 
 in 1874. t)966. 
 
 Lau'restine, or Lauresti'nus, the Vihnmum Tinus, 
 an Old- World shrub, one of our tinest cultivated evergreens, 
 belonging to the order Caprifoliaeeoe. It has somewhat 
 poison4>us qualities. 
 
 Lau'ria, town of S.Italy, in the province of Potenza^on 
 the high-road from Naples to Calabria. It has fine churches 
 and other good buildings, and was the birthplace of the 
 celebrated Admiral Ruggiero di Lauria. P. in 1874, 10,690. 
 Lau'ric Acid [Lnt. /ftuniti, " laurel "]. Laurostcaric 
 Acid (Marsson), Pichuric Acid, or Pichurinitalg- 
 S^LUre (Sthamer), Ci2H2i02. This fat acid belongs in the 
 fatty group of monatomic acids, CnllanOj, and was first 
 described by Marsson (.4»ji. Phdi-m., xU. 4:j, 1842) from the 
 fat of the bay tree (Laurw* wthiiix), and by Sthamer (/. c. 
 liii. .39.'!) from the fat and the volutile oil of the pichurim 
 bean {FnhiF Pichurim jnaj.). Gideon E. Moore also found 
 it in the wax of ^fl/rica ceri/era {Sif/. Jmtr. [2],xxxiii. 313). 
 It exists as a glycidc f laurostearine or laurine), from which 
 it is prepared by saponifying these fats or the wax by 
 caustic alkaline solutions, and after the soap is separated 
 by common salt (Marsson), decomposing the soaps thus 
 formed by hydrochloric or tartaric acids. Laurie acid also 
 exists in other like vegetable bodies, sometimes in connec- 
 j tion with niyristic acid (ChH2sOi'). as in Myrica cerf/era 
 ' and the so-called Dika bread ( Mmujijeru Gahouensin),ti.\\^ 
 j in a salve-like fat obtained from Coccus Axin, the Aye or 
 axin of the Mexicans. In connection with many other 
 fatty acids, it exists in spermaceti and in the oil of the 
 cocoanut. It fuses at about 4:1° C. to a colorless oil, and 
 I solidifies to a scaly crystalline white mass, and crystallizes 
 I from its alcoholic solution in white tufts and silky needles, 
 t or sometimes in nearly translucent scales. It dissolves 
 [ readily in alcohol, and yet more freely in ether. Its alco- 
 I liolic solution has a feebly alkaline reaction. It is quite 
 insoluble in water, but when boiled in it volatilizes with 
 ! the vapor. The sodium, potassium, and barium salts of 
 ■ lauric'acid are soluble in water. The salts of the heavy 
 ' metals with lauric acid are insoluble, or sparingly so. The 
 ! calcium salt Ca" (Ci2H2302)2 obtained by mixing the solu- 
 j tious of hiurate of sodium and calcium chloride is resolved 
 I by distillation into calcium carbonate and laurostearone=s 
 j Ca"C03 + C23H«0. B. Silliman. 
 
 Lau'rinc | Lat. /aur«»." laurel "], or Bayberry Cam- 
 phor, ('221130*^3. n crystalline body obtained from the ber- 
 ries of the bay tree. 
 
 Lauriston% de (Jacques ALEXANunF. Behnard Law), 
 Makqiis, b. in Poudicherry, India. Feb. 1,1768: was a 
 companion of Napoleon at the military school of Paris, 
 and distinguished himself in war and diplomacy during 
 the Revolution, the Consulate, and the Empire. His de- 
 fence of Ragusa against the Russians was a brilliant ex- 
 ploit, and the battle of Wagram was decided by his valor 
 and judgment : and be was the negotiator of the marriage 
 of Napoleon with Maria Louisa. He was favored by Louis 
 XVIII., being made a manjuis in 1S17 and marshal of 
 Franco in 1S21. D. at Paris Juno 10, 1828. 
 
 Lnu'rite, a sulphide of ruthenium and osmium, which 
 occurs in small, iron-black, lustrous crystals, associated 
 with native jjlatinum. in Rorneo and Oregon. It contains 
 sulphur :^I. 79 per cent., ruthenium f).^. IS, and osmium 3.03, 
 agreeing nearly with the formula 0sS4.12Ru2Ss. It was 
 discovered by Wiihler, and named in honor of Mrs. C. A. 
 Joy. (See Ann. Ck, Pharm., cxxxix. H6, and Ztitsch.f, 
 Cfi [2], vi. 85.) 
 
 Lau'rium, a range of hills in Attica, Greece, famous 
 in ancient times for rich mines of silver, lead, zinc, and 
 antimony. At the beginning of our era these mines were 
 deserted, being considered exhausted. In ISG.'i a foreign 
 company began to rework with profit the refuse left by 
 the ancient miners, and have recently reopened the mines 
 themselves. 
 
 Laur'vig, town of Norway, on an inlet of Christiania 
 Fiord, has a good harbor, large distilleries, some trade in 
 timber, and very important iron-works in its vicinity. 
 Pop. about 5000.
 
 LAUSANNE— LA VATER. 
 
 1675 
 
 Lausanne' [unc, Aaiwaiiiiim],city of SwitKerland, capi- 
 tal of tUv Clinton of Vaud, on the northern shore of the Luke 
 of (icnt'Vrt, built on two hills. connei*tt'd by a t*plendid bridge 
 of granitf.has a beautiful Gothic cathcdriil, connnencid about 
 lOUO, completed in lli7j, a library of DO.UOl) volume!', many 
 good educatiooal institutioufi, and several manufiictories of 
 tobacco, leather, and gold and silver ware. On account of 
 its beautiful ^litualion on the southern slope of the Jura 
 Mountain?, and near the Lake of (Jeiieva, it attracts yearly 
 a great number of tourists, who generally reside here for 
 some time. Lausanne is famous in literary annals from 
 having been the residence of lluller, Voltain-, and Cibbon. 
 The hou?o occupied by the latter while writing his cele- 
 brated liUtnrif is still shown, and visite.i by multitudes of 
 travellers. Hyron wrote here his Pn'no}ur "/ Chilton. An 
 ecclesiastical council was held here in 14J'J, a conference 
 between Calvin, Farel, and Viret in hKiO, leading to the 
 adoption of the creed of tlie Hefurmed faith, ami in modern 
 times it has been the scene of a noted peace congress (.Sept., 
 1S71) and a Masonio universal coDventioa (1875). Pop. 
 26.520. 
 
 Lniisnnnf , tp. of Carbon co., Pa. Pop. 141B. 
 Laiiztin', de { AiiMAxr) Louis de Gontaut), Ditke, b. in 
 Pari.". !■■ ranee. .\pr. IJ, 1747; commanded a naval expedi- 
 tion which captured Senegal and Gambia from the English 
 (1779); took part in the American war (17JS0-ts:{) at the 
 bead of " Lauzun'a Legion:" afterwards succeeded to the 
 title of due de Biron ; was a deputy to the States General ; 
 a confidant and secret agent of the duke of OrKrans; ap- 
 pointed general-iu-chief of the army of the Rhine July W, 
 17y2, of the army of the coasts of La Hochelle May 16, 
 179.'i; took Siiumur, and defeated the Vendcans at Par- 
 thcnay. He then tendered his resignation, but being ac- 
 cused by Carrier before the Committee of Public Safety of 
 too great lenity to the Vendeans, he was deposed, thrown 
 into the Abbayc prison, tried for conspiracy before the 
 Kcvolutionary tribunal Dee. ;tl, 17y;i. and executed the 
 same day, meeting hie fate with cynical courage. Lauzun 
 had great ability, but was dissolute and unprincipled. His 
 Miiiutirm were jmblislied at Paris in IS22. 
 
 La'va [Lat. lavme, to "wash"], the material, fused 
 or solidified after fusion, which has escaped from a vol- 
 canic crater. The term is, however, applied gencrully to 
 those volcanic roeks which are filled with ragged cellules. 
 If extremely light and loose, it is called scoria or slag. 
 There are several varieties of lava. Molten lava (lows like 
 molten glass or iron, a portion being usually unfuscd and 
 held in suspension in the fused portion, which is, indeed, a 
 Dative glass. The boiling motion sometimes observed in 
 hot lava is due to the escape of steam, sulpliur-vapor. car- 
 bonic acid, air. etc. Lava-beds, after cooling, snmctimes 
 exhibit great caverns, which are a>erilied to the Honing 
 off of the lower strata of the lava after the coiding of the 
 surface. (See Volcano, by PnoK. Aunold Guvot, Ph. D., 
 LL.D.) 
 
 Lava Ornaments (so-called) arc made of iron slag, 
 which is m<'lt«-<l utid manufactured into vases and other 
 small ornamrnlul and useful articles. 
 
 liavac'a, county of S. Central Texas. Area, 920 square 
 miles. It is partly timber-ianil, and has considerable ureas 
 of prairie. Nearly all the soil is very productive. Live- 
 stock, corn, cotton, woo], and fruit are important prod- 
 ucts. The county is well watered by the Navidud and 
 the head-slreams of the Lavaca Kiver. Cap. ILillettsville. 
 Pop. DIGS. 
 
 Lavaca (Pokt Lavata P. 0.), seaport of Calhoun co., 
 Tex., on the \V. side of Lavaca Itay, an arm of Matagorda 
 Hay. It is the S. K. d'rminuH of the Mexican (iulf and 
 San Antonio K. K., and has an extensive coastwise trade. 
 Pop. 7tiS. 
 
 Lavngn^af town of Italy, in the province of Genoa, 
 famous fur its excellent quarries of slate (Chiappami). This 
 slate la extensively used for roofs, pavement?*, and other 
 domestic purposes, and is largely exported to vari'ius Ku- 
 ropcan countries, and also to .\mcrica. The public build- 
 ings of the town are imposing, especially the churches. 
 Pop. in IH74, 6HSS. 
 
 I. aval', town of France, the capital of the department 
 lit .Miiyerine, on tlie Maycnno Uiver. It is nnted for il.^ linen 
 nianufa<;tures ; linen goods to the value of half a million 
 franco are sold at eacl» of its monthly miirkets. Among its 
 other manufactures are paper and earthenware, and it has 
 a bri?*k trade in grain, timber, and cattle. Pop. 22,RU2. 
 
 Laval, county of Quebec. Canada, consisting of the 
 Isle J^sus. an island 2-1 miles long and miles broad, lying 
 between the Ottawa River on the N. W. and the Ilividre 
 dcs Prairies nn the S. K. Pop. 9172. 
 
 I^aval, tie (Puan'.ois ok MoNXMonKxrv), b. of an nn- 
 cioDt and noble family, at Laval. Krance, Mar. 2.'^, 1622; 
 
 becamev^ priest id Paris 1tJ45; declined the bishopric of 
 CochinX'hina in 1651 ; became archdeacon of Evreux in 
 1663: bishop of Petra;a in jmrtibuH and vicar-opostolic of 
 New France in 16.)S. In 1663 ho founded the seminary of 
 Quebec, and in 1660 consecrated the parish church of Notre 
 Dame, lu 1674 he was bishop of the new see of Quebec, 
 from which he retired in 1688 to his seminary, to which ho 
 gave his worldly possessions. Ho was de facto ruler of 
 Canada, in civil as well as ecclesiastical affairs. The 
 Laval University at Quebec commemorates his name. D. 
 at Quebec May 6, 1708, 
 
 Lavailo', post-tp. of Sauk co.. Wis. Pop. 881. 
 
 La Valliere, de (Loiisk). b. in 1644 in the province 
 of Touraine ; was one of the *' filles d'honneur " of the 
 duchess of OrK'ans ( Henrietta of England), when she be- 
 came in 1001 the mistress of Louis XIV., whom she loved 
 sincerely and for himself, not for his royal title, as did 
 afterward Montespan. Maintenim, etc. She represented 
 the only poetical ray which brightened the life of the man 
 who was called the "sun king" (roi" aoiril). Mile, ile la 
 Valliere never used her influence except fordoing good to 
 everybody, and she was so much ashamed of her equivocal 
 situation that she entered a convent as soon as the pnsfion 
 of Louis XIV. for Mademoiselle de Montespan and others 
 allowed her to bury herself in a religious life. The king 
 took her forcibly once from the convent in 1670, but at last, 
 in I67o, she took her religious vows under the name of Sister 
 Louise of Mercy {Sceur Louine tlr lit MiHrnoortlc). D. at 
 the Paris Carmelite convent in 1710. She left Lcttevti and 
 RrftectioiiK OH the Merri/ of (Jod. Felix AiCAiGNK. 
 
 Lavandula Spi'ca, the broad-leafed lavandula. yields 
 oil of spike (the true luit not the eommon eoniniercial arti- 
 cle), which is valued by painters and nrti.*ans, and is used 
 in farriery. 
 
 Lavatcr' (.Tohan.v Caspar), b. at Zurich, in Switzer- 
 land, in 1741 : ijjtudied theology, and in I 76 I was iipjiuintcd 
 preacher, first of the orphan house, then of St. Petri church 
 in his native town, which positii»n he held till bis death, in 
 ISOl. The most prominent trait in his character was his 
 absolute veracity. Trutli was with him not a duty, but a 
 passion — not the honor of his soul, but the necessity of his 
 nature. Wherever he l"<iund truth, with Christ or Cugli- 
 ostro. with Spinoza or Mesnier, he acknowledged and ac- 
 cepted it unconditionally. IJul the consiqucnce was. that 
 bis adversaries took the opjiortunity of accusing him of 
 almost every kind of heresy which ever had appeared iu 
 the history of Christianity. "With his character corre- 
 sponded his talent. As his veracity was a pas.-^ion, and 
 not a pedantry, his conceptionsof truth and fali^ehootl were 
 intuitions, and n<»t products of analy.'-is. Rapt in enthu- 
 sia,5m or struck by horror at what he saw, he painted Ins 
 visiims with a lovu or hatred which generally eommnnded 
 the feelings of his audience, but which often gave his views 
 a distasteful one-sidedness. His friendship with tJoetlie is 
 one of the most beautiful instances on record of mutual 
 sympathy, and ils elevating and expanding influence on 
 human character. Hut when in 17Sj he wrote his J'outiua 
 I'iliitHH be gave such a picture of a no-Christian that 
 Goethe literally shrank from him with all the aver.<if)u and 
 antipathy of which his nature was capable. Lavatcr came 
 to his door and wrote his name on the tablet, but Goethe 
 remained unmove<l, and would never see him any more. 
 There was always a tendency towards mysticism in Lava- 
 tcr, but in his earlier days lie was conscious of this tend- 
 ency, and — for instance, in liis AuHHirhttn in dir Eirii/ktit 
 \*' Peeps into Ktcrnity" ) — the reader is charmed witliout 
 lieing duped by Itis mysticism. Put when he grew olil he 
 became visionary, a prey to the <tbfcurity of ebarlatiniry, 
 ami his fervor and zeal turned into fanaticism, lie hailed 
 the French Uevulution with unbounded enthusiasm, but 
 when the king was beheaded he at once turned around and 
 bceanio one of its bitterest opponents. Even his life was 
 (»ften in danger, and when, in 170it, Massena todk Zurich 
 he was fired at in the streets, where he administered help 
 to tlie wounded and dying, and he d. two years alter from 
 a wound he received on that occasion. His poetical writ- 
 ings are entirely without interest, nnd his religious writings 
 are so interwoven with the interests of the monuMit that 
 they cannot lie iip]»r(''-iatrd. hardly even underslimil, with- 
 out a thorough knowledge of the state of the (icrnnin civiliza- 
 tion at the end of the eighteenth century. But bis Phtfuioff- 
 nominrhr Frtufmrutr, wliieli he published 177;')-78 in four 
 large volumes, profusely illustrated and very expensive, 
 will nevrr ceuse to intercut nmnkincl. That book started a 
 new idea, or. rather, it deseribcil a natural and necessary 
 process which lakes place whenever man meets man. with 
 such exactness and telicity as to raise this proeefs from n 
 dull and sluirgish i>raetiee !<» a conxeious and free mental 
 activity. Where there is combinalion there is significance, 
 where there is movement thcro is character. Consequently,
 
 1676 
 
 LAVAUR— LAW. 
 
 the human figure, which is the finest combination known, 
 must signify something of its nature, ami the motion of its 
 parts, the play of its feature?, must express something of its 
 character. IJut before Lavater this had never liein said. 
 The impression made by the outward appearance had l>een 
 overloolied. I'eople had judged one another from their 
 ch)thes. And when Lavater demonstrated that the soul, 
 the character, the history of an individual, was painted 
 on his face, that a human face might be read like a printed 
 leaf, he produced the profoundest sensation. I'eople were j 
 panic-stricken. They began to wear masks. They left the 
 drawing-rooms when a person entered who believed in 
 Lavater. No less was the enthusiasm. People felt that 
 a new signification had been added to beauty, a new eharm 
 to life, a new sensibility to the soul. It has been argued 
 against the Plii/nii^yiininische Frnr/mailc lha.1 the author has 
 tried to make physiognomy a science, but the criticism is 
 hardly just. Lavater knew very well that physiognomy is 
 a taleiil and not a science ; and although he is very anxious 
 to establish rules and show how a certain vice, for instance, 
 always affects a certain feature in the same way, he is as 
 anxious to impress upon his readers that the rules are 
 subordinate to the total impression, and the single fea- 
 tures must be interpreted by the view of the whole. His 
 rules are to him a convenience, and hardly anything 
 more. Clemens 1'eteusen. 
 
 LavaurS town of France, in the department of Tarn, 
 on the .Agout. It is the entrepot of the silk produced in 
 Upper Languedoc, which is spun here, and then sent to 
 Lyons or Paris. Pop. 7438. 
 
 Laveleye' (Kmile Louis Victor), b. at Bruges, Bel- 
 gium, Apr. 5, 1822 ; studied at the Athenasum of his native 
 city, and at the College Stanislas in Paris, and took high 
 honors in the law course at the University of tihent. From 
 1818 onward he has been entirely occupied with those eco- 
 nomical studies which have given him so great a reputa- 
 tion. At first he wrote in the Belgian periodicals, defend- 
 ing liiieral principles against the Ultramontanes ; became 
 from 18j8 a constant contributor to the lievtie des Lfeux 
 Mundet ; was in ISIU appointed professor of political 
 economy at the University of LiSge, and in 1867 repre- 
 sented Belgium as member and secretary of the inter- 
 national jury upon paintings at the Paris Universal Expo- 
 sition, lie has been honored with membership in the' 
 Royal Academy of Belgium and the French Academy of 
 Moral and Political Sciences. Among his numerous works, 
 that <ni Property nnd its Primitire Forms (1874) has already 
 become a classic. In June, 1875, he published a small vol- 
 ume <)n the liell'ftous Conflict in Europe, with a preface by 
 W. E. Gladstone. 
 
 LaveUlo, town of Italy, in the province of Potenza, 
 of ancient origin. It suffered severely from an earthquake 
 in IS.'il. Pop. in 1874, 5709. 
 
 Ijav'enderf the Lavnndida vera, a labiate shrub, a na- 
 tive of the S. of Europe, very extensively cultivated for its 
 fragrant Bowers, which yield a volatile oil much u.sed in 
 perfumery. Lavender-water, spirit of lavender, ete. arc 
 of considerable service in pharmacy and medicine. 
 
 La'vcr, a name ap])licd to several edible seaweeds, such 
 as L'frit latinsima, Porphr/m btciniatit, and P, viihjarie. 
 These are quite commonly eaten as luxuries in Europe, 
 either pickled or stewed. 
 
 Laverdiere (Ci.AinE II.), b. at Ch.1teau-Richcr Oct. 
 23, |H2fi: was ordained a Catholic priest in 1851: became 
 a professor in the seminary and librarian of Laval Lniver- 
 Bily. He look part in the publication of three volumes of 
 Jesiill /^^^l(l'o)l« (1858) concerning early missions in Canada, 
 edited the voyages of Champlain (5 vols., 1870), with notes 
 and a biography, the Journal des Jt'uniUs (1871), wrote a 
 J/lutoire flu (Janada for schools, and several smaller treatises 
 upon subjects connected with early Canadian history. 1). 
 at Qucliec Mar. 27, 1873. 
 
 Lavialle' i Pikrre Joseph), D. D., b. at Mauriac, France, 
 in 1820; eame when twenty-three years old to the U. S. ; 
 was ordained a Roman Catholic priest: served for a while 
 in New York, and then became president of St. Mary's 
 College, Ky.. and was its president 1855-G5. In the latter 
 year he was made bishop of Louisville. He founded a 
 number of schools and charitable institutions. D. near 
 Bardstown, Ky., May 11, 1867. Bishop Lavialle was a 
 man of extraordinary energy and ability, and w;is highly 
 esteemed by Protestants, as well as by those of liis own 
 faith. 
 
 Lav'ington (George). D. D., b. in Wiltshire, England, 
 in 1683: became can<in of St. Paul's, London, in 1732, and 
 in 1747 bishop of Kxeter. Becoming involved in a con- 
 trriversy with Wesley and Whitefield. he wrote in 1749 The 
 FfithuniaKin itf the Mrthodintit nnti Pajt'mtH t^ompared, an 
 
 amusing and well-written work, not without some passages 
 
 of a too broad raillery, and very defective as a statement 
 of facts. In 1755 he published a work of similar character 
 respecting another sect of dissenters. The Morariann Com- 
 /jared and JJeleclcd. Bishop Lavington partially retracted 
 his language towards Wesley, and partook of the communion 
 with him as late as 1702, in which year he died. 
 
 Laviti'lniTif now Priitica, an ancient city of Italy, in 
 Latium. was situated 17 miles 8. of Rome, near the sea. It 
 was founded, according to Iraditifni. by .^neas, on his arrival 
 in Italy, and named after his wife Lavinia, and was in early 
 times the sacred metropolis of the Latin cities, but never 
 acquired any importance, political or commercial. The 
 name was often confounded by classical writers with that 
 of another ancient Latin city, Lanuvium. 
 
 Lavoisier' (.\ntoine Latrest), an illustrious savant, 
 one of the fathers of modern ehernislry, b. at Paris of 
 wealthy parents .\ug. 16, 1743; studied at the College 
 Mazarin : pursued astronomical knowledge under La 
 Caillc: learned botany under Bernard dc Jussicu; worked 
 in Rouelle's chemical laboratory in the Jardin des Plantes; 
 became an associate of the Academy in 176S: obtained a 
 farmer-generalship in 1769, in order to increase his income, 
 his expenditures in chemical research requiring a large 
 outlay of money : took a prominent part in public affairs, 
 writing numerous and able papers on state questions: dis- 
 covered the composition of water in 1783: and made many 
 important researches in physics. In chemistry, the science 
 to which his attention was ehic8y directed, he made not 
 only important discoveries and great inventions in appa- 
 ratus and in methods of work, but he was one of the first 
 and ablest of philosophical chemists, the destroyer of the 
 false theories of Stahl and Priestley, and was the principal 
 inventor of the system of chemical nomenclature which pre- 
 vailed exclusively for more than fifty years after his death. 
 Lavoisier was guillotined by the Jacobins May 8, 1794, on 
 account of his former connection with the farming of the 
 taxes. The most important of his works are Traitf de 
 Chimle ( 1789) and Me moires de Physique et de tVii'/n/c, which 
 includes his principal occasional scientific papers. 
 
 Law. When the magnitude of any quantity is altered 
 by changes of any other quantities, the statement of the 
 relation existing between them is known as a law of nature. 
 Thus, the fact that the force of gravity is inversely as the 
 square of the distance is known as the law of gravitation, 
 and the equality of the angles of refleeiiou and incideiiee is 
 the law of reflection. Generally, iaivs may be expressed 
 by equations, and the highest aim of scientific investiga- 
 tion is to determine the form of these equations, and to show 
 that they follow from simple well-established laws. Laws 
 seldom seem exact, owing to various disturbing causes, but 
 if these are properly allowed for, the true law is never 
 deviated from in the ordinary course of nature. The 
 failure of one or more of these laws in a particular case 
 constitutes a miraele. The term "law" is also applied, 
 but less ]iroperly, to the statement of any general fact, 
 as that all bodies possess mass or that matter is impene- 
 trable. K. C. Pickeri.vo. 
 
 Law [Lat. lex : Ang.-Sax. lag]. When taken in its 
 widest and most comprehensive manner, without limitation 
 to any particular subject-matter, certain essential and ele- 
 mentary notions are implied in the term Law, all neces- 
 sary to its complete and accurate meaning. These essen- 
 tials are (1) a lawgiver; (2) an inferior subject : (3) a 
 command; (4) power in the lawgiver, resulting from some 
 organic relation between himself ami the subject, to en- 
 force the command. As the utteronce of a command 
 implies the formation of a wish and an act of the will, it 
 follows that the lawgiver must necessarily be a rational, in- 
 telligent being, and, so far as we are acquainted with ex- 
 istences, must be either God or man. The authors of all 
 law, then, in a true sense of the term — the only lawgivers 
 possible — are the Divine Ruler of the universe, and men 
 who may be clothed with authority over individuals or over 
 that organized aggregate of individuals which forms the 
 state. The commands which God issues in reference to 
 material objects, whether animate or inanimate, and which 
 prescribe rules concerning all the movements and pro- 
 cesses of the physical creation, fall under our general 
 definition, and are truly laies. They certainly differ in 
 a most important feature from the commands addressed 
 to rational beings, since they are wholly without any 
 moral quality : but it is only upon the assuni|>tion that the 
 invariable order and sequence of acts and events in the 
 material universe are the results of commamls uttered and 
 rules set by a conscious and intelligent lawgiver that the 
 phrases " Inies of nature." "physical taies," "lairs of nat- 
 ural science," and the like, become at all proper and ad- 
 missible: without this assumption such forms of speech are 
 self-contradictory and un.scientific. The other and more 
 perfect class of the divine laws embraces those set by Him
 
 LAW, CANON. 
 
 1677 
 
 to rational bcinps. to mankind. Hero tho inferior subjects 
 arc endowed with n free will, arc clothed with an ability to 
 choose between an n^^enl and u refu:*al to roniply with 
 the command. The command to do or to forbuar, which is 
 only the exprcspcd will of the lawgiver, in iti^elf creates in 
 the rational subject ft ct»rre!«|>ondin(j duty or (ddigation to 
 do or to forbear ; he is bound to obey. When, llierefore. 
 tho subjfct? of God"? laws are intelltf;ent beinps. a fifth 
 essential clement is involved in the peneral concc|ition of 
 law, and that is tho notion of duty or obligation. Again, 
 as the choice exists between obedience and dif;(»bi>dicnce, as 
 the inferior subjects may violate the duty which has arisen 
 from the promulgation of the cnnimand. the power of en- 
 forcement residing in the lawgiver is exercised by the 
 threat and impo-jition of some evil as a consequence of tho 
 violation. Ilcnec we find a sixth essential element involved 
 in the general conception of law when addressed to rational 
 beings — that of compelling obedience by tho danger or fear 
 of suffering evil in the event of disobedience; which evil, 
 thus imposed as a penalty, is termed the iinnctiun of the 
 law. Sufh is the nature of (Jod's law.wliich is addressed to 
 rational beings, and which may be collectively designatecl 
 the "moral law," since its commands necessarily create an 
 obligation resting upon those to whom they are addressed, 
 and obedience or disobedience is therefore always a moral 
 act. 
 
 liuman laws, or those which arc set by human la-wgivers. 
 are all of the samo essential nature as those which have 
 collectively been designated the moral law of (Jod. The 
 differences are plainly those of degree, and not of kind. The 
 object of nil liumari law — or, in other words, of all com- 
 mands uttered by the constituted lawgiver — is to ]>rcscribe 
 and impose duties, to create and define rights, and to cn- 
 ffireo the observance of both. A brief analysis will disclose 
 the general nature of all such jural rights and duties, 
 and will explain their genesis, or how tbey arise from the 
 commands of the lawgiver. T select for the purj)OFe of this 
 analysis the highest type of human legislation — namely, 
 the municipal law. or that of independent sovereign na- 
 tions, in which all commands are uttered by the supreme 
 power of the state, whatever be the form of the government, 
 or whatever department thereof possesses this legislative 
 function. The object of every command is to impose a 
 duty an<l to ereate a right, and its effect is tlius necessarily 
 twofold : tho duty rests upon some person or class ot per- 
 sons, and a corresponding right is given to another person 
 or class of persims. Two r|i;jtinet individuals or groups 
 are thus nei^essnrily affeetetl by every command, and they 
 are placed by it in a relation of d^-pendencc. or even of an- 
 tagonism. All rights created by the law are correlative to 
 duties, and all duties are correlative to rights. The supreme 
 power in the slate issues a command, the effect of which is 
 to clothe a given person with a certain right. Now, a legal 
 right in its highest and widest sense is nothing but a claim 
 that another person or class of persons sliall do s<jme act 
 or forbear from some act respecting the individual who 
 hrdds the right. We could have no legal rights were there 
 not other persons whom these rights obliged to do or for- 
 bear towards us. Every right, then, residing in one person 
 corresponds or correlates to a iluty devolving upon another 
 person or class i>f persons. All possible rights and duties thus 
 crcafetl or ifuposied by tlieeoniniamlsof the supreme (lo wer in 
 the state belong to one or the other <if two elasses : they an- 
 either private or public. In the (irxt class the duties rest 
 upon persons, and the corrcsponrling rights are held by 
 other persons, so that the command always iind neeessarily 
 affects two <lifferent sets or groujis of iixlividuals, both 
 standing in the, came subordinate relation to the shite. In the 
 flectmd class the duties also rest upon persons, but the cor- 
 responding rights are hehl by that organic nggregatooreom- 
 munity of persons which constitutes the state. This capital 
 lino of dislinclion in reference to the bidders of rights not 
 only separates all the jiriniary rights and duties into two 
 grand departments, but it also divides the remedies for their 
 violation into the corresponding classes of civil and criminal. 
 These iluties are either positive — that is, nVdigations to do 
 some act ; or negative — that is. obligations tt> refrain or 
 forbear from some act. When the determined person upon 
 I whom the duty n-sts, or any one of mankind where tho 
 
 duty rests upon all, neglects to do tho act which liis posi- 
 tive obligation requires of him, or docs the act which his 
 negative obligation forbids him to do. he commits an in- 
 jury, offence, or delict. A delict, injury, or offence is, 
 therefore, at once the violation of a duty resting upon the 
 offender and the infringement of a right poHsessed by some 
 other person. Such violations of duty must be redressed, 
 and fi)r this purpose the law is provided with sanctions. 
 Injuries themselves are divided into two general classes, 
 exactly corresponding to the disfinctioii of rights into 
 private and public already stated — namely ( 1 ) tliose wliich 
 primarily affcot the rights of private porsous, aud are re- 
 
 dressed by private remedies pursued by the injured party; 
 and (2) those whicli primarily affect the state, and aro 
 redressed in its name by means of [lunisbments inflicted 
 upon tho wrongiloer. It sometimes happens that the same 
 pnysical act is both a public and a private injury, and e.v- 
 poses the offender to both a criminal punishment and a 
 private remedy. It is plain, however, that iu such cases 
 two distinct rights are invaded and two distinct, duties aro 
 violated l>y the same physical act. liow far this double 
 nature of wrongs an<l this ilouble re<lresa therefor shall bo 
 allowed, greatly varii's in different systems of national law, 
 according to their notions of public policy. 
 
 The essential elements wbich enter into the conception 
 of law set by human authority having been thus deter- 
 mined, I proceed to describe its grand divisions or depart- 
 ments and the general nature of its subject-matter, without 
 reference to any particulor natii»nal forms, or to any special 
 modes of enactment or distribution of governmental func- 
 ti<tns. The law, considered both objectively and subject- 
 ively — that is, both as a system of rules creating rights 
 and imposing duties, and as a method and a power of es- 
 tablishing further rules — consists of two distinct depart- 
 ments, two sciences — ^jurisprudence and legislation. Juris- 
 prudence in its primary signification denotes the laws 
 which have been enacted, either the entire body of exist- 
 ing legal rules which prevail in any particular state, or the 
 features which aro common to all tho national systems as 
 tbey have been established in different countries and at 
 different times. Asascienceit is occupied with the study and 
 investigation of these laws. It is naturally separated into 
 two divisions, which may ajtpropriately be called general 
 and particular. General jurisprudence is employed in the 
 discovery, examination, and arrangement of institutions, 
 principles, and rules which aro found as parts of all ex- 
 isting legal systems, and especially of tlioso whicli have 
 far advanced in the march of civilization. It does not 
 represent the whole law of any country, but rather the 
 similitudes between the laws of different countries. Par- 
 ticular jurisprudence is concerned only with the whole 
 existing la\v of a specified country, in whatever form this 
 may have issued from the bands of tiie legislator who hail 
 called it into being as a collection of positive rules — that 
 is, with the municipal law. In determining the exact im- 
 jiort of this term, another conception is introduced and 
 joined with that of the law — the conception of the state. 
 The state or nation — for tho words are iu this respect syn- 
 onymous — is an independent, separate, and sovereign polit- 
 ical society, with its own organization and government. 
 The coneejition of the state may be summed up in the sin- 
 gle but most comprehensive term. p(ditical s<jvercignty ; but 
 this includes the attributes of political independence, ])oIiti- 
 cal equality, and absolute power within t lie domain of legisla- 
 tion. From the union of the notions inv<dvcil in the terms 
 "law" and '* the stiito" wo complete the description of tlic 
 complex result which is denominated the " municipal law." 
 It is the entire body of positive jurisprudence winch belongs 
 to a se])arate and sovereign political society, a state; wbich 
 is promulgated in its name and by its authority, in what- 
 ever manner that authority nniy bo exercised ; and which 
 is absolutely binding, throughout the territorial jurisdiction 
 of that state, to the exclusion of all and every other law. 
 
 While jurlKprudciiec is comersant only with hiws which 
 have been enacted, legislation has to do with laws which 
 should beenacteil, anil with the process of enactment, with 
 the discovery and statement of what tho law as a whole 
 ought to be, and willi the bringing of it into an agreement 
 with that perfect standnrib .Turisprudenco and legislation 
 are therefore, in respect to their ultimate objects, separate, 
 but in their study as sciences, and in tho actual operations 
 by wbich their objects aro attained, they must necessarily 
 be combined. John Noiiton PoMicitov. 
 
 |jn\V«<'nnon. The term *• canon law" designates tho 
 body of rules and reguhitions wbich were primarily estab- 
 lished by the Christian t'hurch and enforce<i by ecclesias- 
 tical auth<irity. hut which in the course of time became ex- 
 tended to many matters purely civil, ami were recognized 
 and sanctioned by tlio tribunals of tho state. After tho 
 Roman empire became Christian, and tho Church became 
 in part i<lentilied with it, there arose a threefold jurisdiction 
 of the ecclesiastical triliunals— that is, of tho bishops iu 
 their various degrees i»f dignity and adminislratlvo au- 
 thority. (I) This jurisdiction was exercised in respect of 
 any subject-matler whatever, civil or otherwise, over all 
 the clergy, over oil persons in h<dy orders. (2) The jurisdic- 
 tion exteuih'd over laymen in relation to all matters strictly 
 ecclesiastical — ([uestions pertaining to the internal order, 
 discipline, doctrines, anil observances of tho Church, (H) 
 It also extended over laymen in relation to cerloin special 
 subjects, whieh, although strictly civil, and in moclern sys- 
 tems of national jurisprudence universally regarded as such, 
 were claimed by tho Church to have a peculiar religious
 
 1678 
 
 LAW, THE CIVIL. 
 
 aspect and to nearly concern the ("oul's welfare. The most 
 important of those special subjects were marriage and di- 
 vorce and the succession to the personal estates of deced- 
 ents. The term canon law has a direct and primary rela- 
 tion to the creative source by which the rules that compose 
 it are uttered — namely, the law-making; [)Ower of the Church 
 considered as an organic and independent society capable 
 of lejrislating within a certain domain and upon a certain 
 chiss of subjects. It is broader than the ecclesiastical hiw, 
 for while it embraces within its scope everything; that per- 
 tains to the or;»ani7.ation, order, doctrine, and discipline 
 of the Church, it also extends to many other topics which 
 have only a very indirect connection with these purely ec- 
 clesiastical matters. In short, it is to be regarded as a 
 comprehensive system of regulations, primarily established 
 by the legislative authority residing in the Church, relating 
 to subjects both spiritual and temporal, and administered 
 by both spiritual and temporal tribunals. 
 
 The canon law as a separate and completed system is, 
 and for several centuries past has been, contained in col- 
 lections of digests and codes which taken together are de- 
 nominated the Corpm Jnrh Catinnt'ci. The Roman law. 
 by the orders of the emperor Justinian, had been arranged 
 in three separate compilations — the Pandects or Digest, 
 the Cude, au'l the Novell? — and in this compact form was 
 known as the Cftrjntfi Jiirin Civilift. In direct imitation of 
 this proceeding, both as respects name and method, the 
 Corpti/t Jiirh Cauotn'ri is composed of three distinct parts — 
 *' Tlie Decree." '* The Decretals." and ** The Extravagantes " 
 — which have some correspondence with and analogy to 
 the Pandects, the Code, and the Js'ovells. I, '* The De- 
 cree.'^ — This work was composed and published about the 
 year 1140 by flratian.a Benedictine monk of Bologna, who 
 tuidertook the task at the request of St. Bernard, with the 
 immediate object of furnishing a treatise for use in the 
 university at that city. It is based upon all the previous 
 legislation of the Church, which was treated as authorita- 
 tive, and which was scattered through numerous compen- 
 diums, acts of councils, and decretals of popes ; and it is, in 
 fact, a cotnjilcte collection or epitome of the canon law as it 
 then existed and was in force throughout the Western 
 Church. The name given to it by the author was ^0*1- 
 cnylaiitia Diftcnrdnnthim Canonum, but it is generally 
 known and cited as the *• Decree of Gratian " ( Decretum 
 Grrftiani), or more often as the "Decree." It consists 
 chiefly of extracts taken, as above stated, from all other 
 writings that contained the law in a scattered and confused 
 sha]>e, and these citations are arranged and classitied ac- 
 cording to their subject-matter, being connected by a text 
 which the author himself composed. In other words, these 
 extra'?ts do not, as in the Pandects, make up the entire 
 work ; the legal principles, doctrines, and rules are given 
 by the author in his own language (technically, rfi'c/« Ura- 
 ti'rtHi)^ and the citations are annexed thereto as proofs or 
 illustrations. Tlie whole body of the jurispruilence as it 
 then existed is thus presented in an orderly and scicntitic 
 method. The '* Decree " is divided into three parts. Part 
 First contains 101 sections or paragraphs — technically 
 called ''distinctions" {tliatinctioiicti) — and the important 
 subject? of which it treats are the nature ami sources of 
 dilTercnt kinds <tf law, and especially of the ecclesiastical 
 law, persons in holy orders, and the bishops and other 
 higher ranks of the clergy. Part Second is quite different 
 in its external form, and consists of thirty-six *• causes " or 
 cases (rnu»!r), which are first stated, anrl under each arc 
 placed the legal questitms that arise therefrom It/uxfititnieit), 
 which questions are then solved by ap]>ropriate extracts 
 similar to those in the first part. The thirty-second '* cause" 
 and third "question" is a special treatise on the subject 
 of penance ( />c ;>n'')n'^'ji//a), and is separated into seven 
 "distinctions." Part Third, which has for its title *' />e 
 Connecrationc," is divided, like the first, into " distinctions." 
 It treats of the consecration of churches, of the sacraments, 
 and of the performance of divine service. The work in all 
 its parts contains about HOOO extracts, each being indicated 
 by the letter C, which signifies "caput" or " i-npitnhtm," 
 and not. as has generally been supposed, "canon." Although 
 the " Decree" was the compilation of a private person, its 
 substance was taken from the existing law ; it was at once 
 sanctioned ami ajiproved by the highest authority in the 
 Church — by popes themselves — and thus acquired ail the 
 force of original legislation. Its text has been the object 
 of numerous commentaries, or. as thev arc technically 
 termed, glosses, the most important of which, the (Homm 
 onh'nfiria, is usually printed with it. Many editions have 
 been issued from time to time: and in consequence of a 
 decree made by the Council of Trent a revised and cor- 
 rected edition was prepared by papal command under the 
 care and direction of several learned doctors, and was finally 
 published A. i). 15S0. II. The second part of the Corpita 
 Juris fniioHt'ci, called "The Decretals, consists of three 
 
 distinct subdivisions: (1) "The Gregorian Decretals," or 
 decretals of Pope Gregory IX., in five books; (2) the 
 " Liher Scxtita" or the ** Srrtns" being a coUuction of de- 
 cretals prepared by order of Pope Boniface VIII. ; and (3) 
 the "Clementine C<mstitutions," or decretals published by 
 Pope Clement V. The following is a brief description of 
 these compilations. After the great work of Gratian was 
 completed, numerous collections of subsequent decretals 
 were made by private persons, which possessed a greater 
 or less amount of authority, but which, on the whole, 
 tendeii to produce confusion and uncertainly in the study 
 and administration of the canon law. To remedy this evil, 
 Pope Gregory IX. directed his chancellor, Raymond, a 
 Benedictine monk, to prepare a new compilation, which 
 should be based upon and should take the place of all those 
 to which reference has been made. Raymond accordingly 
 in 12.'i-4 published his Qulutjtic Lifni Ihcrcttth'um Gregorii 
 Nnnt\ which was at once approved and ordered to be used 
 in the courts and the universities. It contains not only the 
 decretals \vhich had appeared since the " Decree of Gratian," 
 but also some of a more ancient date which had been 
 omitted from that work, together with extracts from the 
 Fathers and from acts of councils, the whole being arranged 
 in five books and distributed into tilk-s, and again into 
 chapters. The principal subjects of which it treats are the 
 organization and jurisdiction of the spiritual courts, the 
 proceedings therein and their sentences, the clergy, be- 
 trothal and marriage, and crime. The same condition of 
 affairs again arose at a subsequent perioil; the same need 
 was felt, and the same remedy was adopted. Pope Boni- 
 face VIII. caused another compilation to be made, con- 
 taining all the decretals which had been issued since that 
 of Gregory. It was publi.«hed in 1208, and follows the 
 same order of arrangement as its immediate predecessor; 
 and under the notion that it was the supplement to that 
 work it was called Liber Serins. Pope Clement V. in the 
 year 1318 issued a collection of his own decretals and of 
 the decrees of the Council of Vienne, over which he pro- 
 sided, which is known as the " Clementine Constitutions." 
 To the text of all these decretals commentaries or "glosses " 
 have been added, which have acquired a certain authority 
 from long-continued usage, from the judgments of courts, 
 and from the teachings of universities. HI. The " Extrava- 
 gniiten." — This third part of the Corpus Jurin Canonici con- 
 sists of two divisions — the " Extravagantes of John XXII." 
 and the "Extravagantes Communes." The former con- 
 tains certain decretals of the pope whose name it bears, 
 collected by an unknown author, and published without 
 official sanction in 132j. The latter is a collection of de- 
 cretals by various popes from Urban VI. to Sixtus IV., 
 A. i>. 148.3. Neither of these compilations was made with 
 authority, nor did they originally form a part of the Corpus 
 Juris Canonici, but iu 1682 they were incorporated into it, 
 and placed upon the same footing as the other decretals by 
 Pope Gregory XIII. John Norton' PuMKttoY. 
 
 Law, The Civil, The " civil law " (jus <irilr), in its 
 strictly technical import, denotes the body of Roman juris- 
 prurlence collected by order of the emperor Justinian, ar- 
 ranged and digested in the compilations which taken to- 
 gether bear tho name Corpus Juris Civi/is. In this form 
 it became to a great extent the basis of the municipal laws 
 of the continental states of Europe. The term is not; there- 
 fore, exactly synonymous with " Roman lnw,"and docs not 
 describe that system in its condition as the actual juris- 
 prudence of the Roman empire: it was first used in its 
 jircscnt special sense by the jurists of the Middle Ages, and 
 was applied to the collections made by .Justinian to distin- 
 guish them from the "canon law." The civil law of tho 
 Roman state and the canon law of the Roman Church thus 
 stood side by side, and were the two great sources from 
 which the jurisprudence of modern Europe has been largely 
 derived. A description of the civil law, therefore, requires 
 some account of the Roman law, of which it was in fact the 
 final stage. The Roman law, as a national jurisprudence 
 from the foundation of the city to the death of Justinian, 
 in whose reign it was fixed in its present shape and ceased 
 to be a growth, exten<ied through period of about 1300 
 years, and from an archaic state of barbarism it was trans- 
 formed through progressive stages into an enlightened and 
 philosophic code, so wise and just in its principles, and so 
 lofty in its practical morality, that it is susceptible of little 
 imjtrovement from the culture of the present age. So far 
 as the narrow limits of this article will permit. I shall 
 sketch in a very general manner ( 1 ) the external history 
 rtf its development — that is. the forms, means, and modes 
 by which the law was created, and the process of growth 
 from its primitive rutleness to its final perfection : and (2^ 
 the more important and characteristic features of the law 
 itself, the principles, iloctrines. and rules which were at 
 length gathered into the compilations of Justinian. This 
 latter account must necessarily be exceedingly imperfect,
 
 LAW, THE CIVIL. 
 
 1679 
 
 and 18 given simply to illu^lrnte tbe spirit of the Koman 
 jurispruilcncc and it? method of development. 
 
 Hitturirul Sketch. — Little is known with absolute cer- 
 tainty of the law in the earliest centuries of the Uonian 
 state, during the period of the kings. The political or- 
 ganiiatiun was in the highest degree aristocratic, and all 
 power was held by the superior orders, the patricians 
 \pnpu(n»). The commons {pUbi), though free, had sub- 
 stantially no voiec in the ninnngement of public affairs, and 
 even the private law discriminated harshly against them. 
 It is inferred upon general principles — that is. from the 
 general nature of barbarous societies — that the laws, or 
 wha* were called the laws, consisted almost entirely of 
 tribal customs, which were banded down by oral tradition, 
 and the knowledge of which was possessed exclusively by 
 the ruling classes. It is certain that for several centuries 
 I ho law largely partook of a religious eharaeter, was in- 
 timately connected with religious observances, and enforced 
 by religious sanctions. After the overthrow of the kingly 
 power, and as the result of a political revolution in which 
 the commons ( ptrbn) ncquired an accession of authority, 
 in the year -1.52 b. o. and ;i*'2 of the city a partial code was 
 prepared and adopted, which became, and ever after was. 
 the basis of the Roman jurisprudence — that is. all future 
 growth of that jurisprudence was actually or fictitii)usly 
 constructed upon it as a fountlation. This code was the 
 celebrated Law of the XII. Tables, or the XII. Tables. 
 The contents of this statute as a whole, and even its order 
 and arrangement, are unknown. Certain extracts from it 
 have been preserved in the writings of various authors, and 
 from them modern jurists have attempted to reconstruct 
 the entire text, but the result is of course conjectural. It 
 seems to bo established, however, that among other sub- 
 jects the first, second, and third tables treated of judicial 
 proceedings: the fourth of tbe paternal power, the power 
 ofthc pnt*-r/tinn'lia8 over the family : the tilth of heirs and 
 persons under the care of tutors, and iloubtless of thu whole 
 subject of succession : the sixth of property and possession ; 
 the seventh of buildings and tii'lds ; the eighth of delicts — 
 that is, of injuries to person or pr<»perty from wbieli a right 
 of compensation arose: the ninth of public and political 
 law; the tenth of the law relating to sacred rites and ot)- 
 servances; and that the eleventh an<i twelfth were supple- 
 mentary to the others. A part of this code was certainly 
 political : that portion which rclatcil to the private law was 
 probably an enactment in a statutory form of the pre- 
 existing customary regulations, witlniut substantial change. 
 For a htng period subsequent to the epoch of the XII. 
 Tables, the public history of Korae was a continuous con- 
 flict between the aristocracy ( />o/>i(/i(«) and the commons 
 {ptchn), which resultt'd in the Inttcr's obtaining complete 
 political equality with the former ; but tiiis struijgle ha^i 
 no interest for us except in its eftVet upon the aclniil law- 
 creating power of the state. In Ktigland and the I'.S. thi- 
 law-making power is conferred upnn two ilistinct depart- 
 ments, the legislature and the hijrher courts, the authority 
 of the lesislalure, however, being supreme. In other 
 words, the actual law of Knjfland and uf this country was 
 partly made by the legislature in tbo form of statute.-, and 
 partly made by the courts and promulgated in the form of 
 judicial decisions, the latter being so far inferior that it 
 can be altered by statute. The law of K<fme grew up in 
 exactly the same metbnd. by a process e.vnctly tbe same in 
 its essential nature, altbou;;!! differing somewhat in its ex- 
 ternal form. A portion of it was stnlutory. and a portion 
 — an<I during a long period of it^ liistory by fnr the gn'ater 
 portitm — was the law <d' judicial deeisiiui, or what Hi-nthnni 
 flneeringly cnlk-d *'judt;e-Tiiade law." I will briefly de- 
 Bcribe the modes in which these two species '»f the legisla- 
 tion were effected prior to the time when the legislative 
 function became possessed exclusively by the emperor. 
 Ttie uolitical constitution of the state provided three dif- 
 ferent official assemblies of the eitizens — that by the centu- 
 ries {vitmitin ren(urifitn), which consisted of both patricians 
 and commons; that by the curies {romitiu curiaUi), which 
 was composed of the patricians alone: and that by the 
 tribes {cnmitia trilintn), which was cmifmed cxehisivcly t<i 
 the communs. The resolution;^ cftlie centuries were termed 
 '• laws " (/ff/cf), statutes, and were always binding upon the 
 whole state J those of the other assemblies were originally 
 binding upon their respective orders alone, but in the year 
 4r.,'( of the city, in consequence of a statute (/''j- //inftimia), 
 they were clothed with all the efficacy of laws. The as- 
 semblies of the patricians soon lost their legislative func- 
 tion, and were long retained tor certain formal purposes 
 only, while those of the tribes greatly increased in im- 
 ])ortnnce, and their ordinances \ plriii'tiritn) became a 
 common form of legislation. Durinc the republic the 
 senate did not possess the power of law-making, hut 
 upon the establishment of the empire the popular assem- 
 blies were abandoned, and their function was transferred 
 
 [ to the senate: its resolutions (geuattta consultu) for a 
 while thereafter took the place of both the "laws "and 
 i the •'plebiscites" — that is, became the only s|iccies of 
 ' statutes. The law of judicial decision, on the other hand, 
 was created iiy the magistrates, by far the most important 
 of whom was the pnvtor. This office was first instituted 
 soon after the inauguration of the republic. Its terra 
 was but one year, so that the changes in the actual incum- 
 bents were very frequent. The law-making function of the 
 pra'lor was exercised in tbe preparation and promulgation 
 of an official declaration or doeument termed the ''edict." 
 Upon entering on tbe duties of his office each pra?tor issued 
 a statement of the legal principles, doctrines, and rules by 
 which he should be guided in administering justice during 
 his term. Each new magistrate would adopt the whole or 
 the greater part of his immediate predecessor's work, and 
 annex such improvements, amendments, or additions as he 
 thought proper. In this manner the edict became a con- 
 tinuous and. to a certain extent, systematic body of juris- 
 prudence, based upon the XII. Tables a^ its foundation, and 
 increasing each year by the work of successive magistrates. 
 That portion of it which, onrc established, was continued 
 from year to year without change was termed edictum per- 
 prtiiHin, and since it was borrowed by eacdi prtvtor from 
 his immediate predecessor and incorporated into his own, 
 it was also named r<iirtiint franiffatititiiit. Tlio new portiim 
 which a magistrate added was called efiiitmn )i'nutii. It 
 must not bo supposed that the pnvtorian edict bore any 
 resemblance to a modern statute or to a decision of a mod- 
 ern court, much less to a modern code or digest. It did not 
 contain a statement of principles in a general and compre- 
 hensive form, nor of abstract rules of conduct defining the 
 primary rights and duties of citizens. Like all legislation 
 in a certain period of social development, it was almost en- 
 tirely a mere nnnouncement of the remedies which would 
 be allowed by the magistrates under specified circumstances, 
 and which had not been provided for by the pre-existing 
 law. The law as created by the edict was in substance iho 
 enumeration of remedial rights, remedies, and actions, 
 ratlier than the utterance of general rules of conduct. 
 About the year 50S of the cily. after the conquests of Rome 
 had been widely extended, and its relations with foreigners 
 hail become constant and intimate, they not being regarded 
 as amenable to or governed by tbe law jiertaining to its cit- 
 izens (/(/» civf'ic), a special pra-tor was c(tnslituted with ju- 
 risdiction over legal controversies iu which bidh or one of 
 the litif^ants were foreigners. lie was called the jtrntor 
 percf/rhiu^— that is, the j»r;ptor for strangers { pcrct/rttti) — 
 to distinguish him from the ordinary magistrate, who then 
 took the name prntor urbniiuH. As the pra*ti>r (teregrinus 
 was not in any manner restricted by the Human law per- 
 taining to tbe citizen { jiift rivih), but could witlmut limitation 
 invoke the rules of law common to all nations (Jim fftnliidu), 
 which in time came to be considered as identical with the 
 general principles of abstract justice and equity, his edict 
 was the most important instrument in shaping the entire 
 jurisprudence of the state, in freeing it frinn its primitive 
 technicality and barbarism, and in bringing it to an agree- 
 ment, with the essential rules of right. The principles 
 which lie announced were in time aiioptcd by the prittoy 
 urhttiiun, and thus the Uonmn law in all its depart mcnts 
 was brought under the influence of the same legislative 
 forces. The process of judicial legislation which has been 
 thus described seems on tbe surface to be very different 
 from that pursued in the courts of England and of the 
 r. S., but it is essentially the same. Tbe Uonuin nmgis- 
 trate attempted to anticipate all the fads, events, and 
 transactions that ini^bt arise during bis official term, and 
 to lay down a prcvitpus rule applicable to them ; while the 
 Kngli.-^h and American court waits till the acts and events 
 have happened, and have been brought before it in a foren- 
 sic dispute, and then fnr tbe first time dcelarcs the rule 
 which determines the rights ami obligations of the parties. 
 Our judges legislate r.r post fuctn, in the form of single 
 decisions; the Roman nmgistrates legislated before tbe 
 fact in the form of a more general etlicl : both plainly 
 aeeompli^'h the same purpose in the political organizaticm 
 of the slate. Certain inferior magistrates »d" the city, and 
 especially the judicial officers of the provinces, possessed 
 (he power of issuing an edict, and that of tho provinces 
 {rdivtum pntfiitriit/r) was of great im]>ortancc. The con- 
 struetive and legislative laltors of the pradors — for their 
 number was largely increased — continued through the re- 
 public, and reaehed their lieigbt during the early period 
 of the empire, but deelined and finally ceased after tho 
 law-making function of the emjieror had been firmly estab- 
 lished. The cdii't itself had grown to be long, and doubt- 
 less unwieldy. At length (a. n. 1.10), by eommand of tho 
 emperor Hadrian, it was entirely rearranged ami put into 
 a permanent form by Salvias .Tulianus. a professional juris- 
 consult. Un<lcr the name cdirtum pfipttniim it remained
 
 1680 
 
 LAW, THE CIVIL. 
 
 from that time uiichanfred. the official coJo of the **jiidge- 
 mmW law." anil iipnii it the succeeding rare of jurists ex- 
 peinic-d ihcir labors and their learning in the form of eom- 
 montfiriesnnd treatises: it was sejmrate*! into titles according 
 to the subject -matter, following the order of the XII. Tables. 
 It lias heen suggested by some modern writers that in this 
 work of redaction the three great edicts — that of the pnetor 
 nrbanus, that of the jir!»?tor ])eregriiius, and that of the 
 provinces — -were consolidated into one. If this was so, the 
 process was the same which would take place in this country 
 or in England if the rules of equity and of the common 
 law sliouid be combined and reduced into a simple harmo- 
 nious system by rejecting from the one all that was in 
 coiilliet with the more just and moral doctrines of the other. 
 Another force which was greatly eflicient in promotifig and 
 guiding the development of the law through the formatix'e 
 period I have not as yet mentioned : namely, the opinions 
 of learned jurists (rcsponsa prudeuthim). It has sometimes 
 been said that these utterances of the jurisconsults always 
 had an absolute authority and were binding upon the courts, 
 and that the jurists themselves were thus actual legislators, 
 ] recognized as forming a part of the la\v-making machinery 
 
 of the state. This is a mistaken theory, and presents a 
 very erroneous view of the Roman legislation. As has been 
 already described, the only constituted means for the crea- 
 tion of law were the statutes passed by the citizens in their 
 as-iemblies, or afterwards by the senate, and the edict of tho 
 praetors. Whatever part the jurisconsults as a class played 
 in tho great work of legal development — and it was a most 
 important one — was by way of infiuence, was moral, and 
 chiefly consisted in advising and assisting the magistrates 
 in the performance of their legislative work, and in aiding 
 the courts in the decision of causes. Beyond a doubt, the aid 
 was great, the advice and guidance were powerful and eflec- 
 tive, but they were not compulsory. l>uring the flourishing 
 period of the republic, and down to the time of Cicero, many 
 of the ablest, best, and most learned citizens devoted them- 
 selves tothestudy of thelawasasoienceandasan art. They 
 were not advocates like Cicero; they formed a distinctive 
 class, to whom, on account of their special knowledge, the 
 names "jurisconsults" and jwrtif/eiirej* were given. They pub- 
 licly instructed students; they were consulted by litigants, 
 to whom they gave legal opinions. During the earlierperiod 
 to which reference is now made they did not compose sys- 
 I tematic treatises upon the law, but contented themselves 
 
 with answering the cases, actual or hypothetical, which 
 were presented to them. Tliese answers, technically termed 
 j rfipitnttn pnnleudum, when cited to the courts would un- 
 
 \ doubtedly be used with much effect in determining the de- 
 
 cision, and the effect would depend upon the reputation of 
 the person whose opinion was quoted. It cannot be doubted 
 also that in preparing his edict each ]ira?tor availed him- 
 self of all the aid he could obtain from the learning and 
 wisdom of these professional experts; and this is the more 
 probable from the fact that the pra'tor himself was often, 
 if not generally, chosen from the same class, and ho would 
 naturally be anxious that his legislative work should meet 
 the approval of all his fellow-jurisconsults. After the 
 empire was established the position of tlieso jurists was 
 somewhat altered. Augustus accordtui to their opinions a 
 certain legal authority, but required an imperial sanction 
 or appointment for those who desired to exercise tlie func- 
 tion. Hadrian afterwards ordered tliat their juridical ojiin- 
 ion should have the force of law, itrc)vidtMi tlicy all agreed, 
 but if they differed tho judge should be at liberty to ftdlow 
 ■whatever one he ])leased. The character of the jurists 
 themselves was al^o greatly changed. In the second and 
 third centuries of our era a class of juridical writers arose 
 far surpaissing tho earlier prttfhnleH, whose labors brought 
 I the law to tho highest condition which it reached. They 
 
 ! introduced the philosophic element ; they created tho sys- 
 
 ! tem of classitication, which has remained substantially un- 
 
 I changed to the present day ; they com])Osed elaborate 
 
 treatises either upon the law as a whole or upon some 
 spcL'ial department, and it was from these treatises that the 
 material was taken which formed the Uit/eHt afterwards 
 compiled by the eommaml of Justinian. Kinally. most of 
 them occupieil high official positions under the various em- 
 
 fterors, and thus took an active part in the work of legis- 
 ati<)n, eitiier by framing the "constitutions'' issued in tho 
 name of the cm])eror, or by rendering the decisions in his 
 supreme Ofurt of appeal. Of these illustrious men, whose 
 labors have influoneed the jurisprudence of the entire civ- 
 ilized world, five stand in acknowledged pre-eminence — 
 Gains. Papinian, Paul. I'ljiian, and Mu<iestin. (iaius, who 
 wrote in the time of the Antonines. held no office, hut was 
 a private teacher of the law. Of his works, the InstitulcH 
 has been preserved almost entire, and its discovery in 1816 
 marked an era in the study of the Roman jurisprudence. 
 Papinianus was the praetorian prefect, supreme judge of 
 appeal, under Septimius Severus, and was murdered by 
 
 his son and successor, Caracalla. lie was universally re- 
 garded by all writers who succeeded bira as the foremost 
 and greatest of the Roman jurists. Nothing remains of 
 his numerous works except the extracts found in the ran- 
 fleets, of which there are a great number. Paulua was pnr- 
 torian prefect under Alexander Severus, a. d. 222. Resides 
 the quotations contained in the Ifitfrnt, one of his treatisee, 
 Receptfc iSenteiitiff, still survives. Ulpianus wrote iluring 
 the reigns of Septimius Severus and Caracalla, and was 
 killed by the soldiery (a. n. 228) while praetorian prefect 
 of Alexander Severus. The Panrlerts contain a greater 
 number of extracts from his works than from those of any 
 other jurist. Fragments of a separate treatise are also 
 extant. Modestinus lived and wrote in the reign of Alex- 
 ander Severus. and was a mtmher of his council, ile is 
 only known to us by his contributions to the D'ujeHt. At 
 the final overthrow of the republic the popular assemblies 
 lost the po^ver of enacting statutes, which was for a while 
 transferred to the senate: it soon, however, became prac- 
 tically, and ere long openly, tho attribute of the emperor 
 alone. Finally, when the jieculiar function of the pra'tor 
 had ended, the whole legislative authority was centred in 
 the supremo head of the em|)ire, ami there remained as 
 long as there was any life or creative force in the law itself. 
 The official declarations by the emperor were gencrically 
 termed "constitutions," and were of three species — edicts, 
 decrees, and rescrij)ts. "Edicts" were legislative in their 
 character, addressed to the wlude empire, and in every re- 
 spect tlie same as the *' hf/f*" of the earlier form of the 
 government, and as the statutes of the jiresent day. "De- 
 crees" were judicial decisions rendered in causes brought 
 before the emperor on appeal: while "rescripts" were 
 official answers made to those who consulted him whether 
 as public functionaries or as private persons. Decrees and 
 rescripts had not the force of general statutes, but were 
 used as precedents, and arc found in the collections of im- 
 perial constitutions. It must not be supposed that the 
 emperor personally prepared and issued the constitutions. 
 Although done in his name and by his command, they wore 
 usually the work of professional jurists who filled high 
 offices of state, and who were often the ablest, purest, and 
 most learned men of the empire. It thus happened that 
 some of the best examples of philosophical legislation ap- 
 peared during the reigns of the very worst of emperors, 
 such as Commodus. Caracalla, and Nero. From the time 
 of Alexander Severus, which may be regarded as its cul- 
 minating epoch, the Roman law rapidly declined; all 
 power of progress had gone: and at length the appeal 
 was constantly to the past and to the writings of the dead 
 jurists. As an illustration of its condition, of the loss of 
 all intellectual vigor, and of the bliml reliance upon au- 
 thority, an imperial constitution made a. n. 426 by Theo- 
 dosius II. and Valentinian III. ordered that in the decision 
 of causes the judge should always follow the opinion ex- 
 pressed by a majority of the five jurists whose names have 
 already heen mentioned ; but if there was an equal division 
 among those of the five who hail expressed an opinion on 
 the particular p<iint, that of Pa(>inian should prevail: and 
 if he was silent, then the judge could exercise his own dis- 
 cretion. Some attempts were made at a partial codifica- 
 tion during this final jieriod of decadence. Two collections 
 of imperial rescripts were prepared by private jurists — one 
 by Gregorianus (a. t>. ."^Ofi) and the other by Hermogianus 
 (A. n. .'jtJ6). Tho emperor Theodosius II. (a. d. 43S) pub- 
 lished a code containing the general constitutions (edicts) 
 issued since the conversi<in of Constantino to Christianity, 
 which was during the same year adopted by Valentinian 
 HI. in the Western empire. Although superseded in tho 
 East by the compilations of Justinian, it long continued to 
 be used in the West, and was the collection of laws chiefly 
 known U> and employed by the Germanic tribes which 
 overran the Western empire. A portion alone of this code 
 has heen preserved, somewhat condensed, in the i^reriarium 
 of Alaric. 
 
 The emperor Justinian commenced his reign a. I>. 527. 
 In 528 he appointed a commission of ten jurisconsults, 
 among whom were Tribonian and Theophilus, with direc- 
 tions to select from all the existing imperial eon.^titutions 
 those which were operative, and to arrange them in a sys- 
 tematic order. They were permitted to change the words, 
 to combine several constitutions into one, and to make 
 other modifications that would better express the sense, 
 but were forbidden in any manner to alter the law itself. 
 Their work was completed in one year, and published with 
 the title Cotiex Jiinthn'uuus, but was soon supplanted by 
 another. After the compilation of the DUfcst this original 
 code was revised by a diflerent commission, a considerable 
 number of new constitutions which had been issued by tho 
 emperor was added, changes thus rendered necessary were 
 made, and the new eilition was published a. p. 534, under 
 the name Codex Repetitte PraUctionia. This work, known
 
 LAW, THE CIVIL. 
 
 1681 
 
 as The Code {Coder)^ has been preserved to the present 
 day, the earlier edition being entirely lost. It contains 
 the imporiul constitution!! from Hadrian to Jti^^tinian ; it is 
 divided into twelve books, each of these into titles: each 
 title confains a number of constitutions arranjjed in a 
 chronological order, with the nnrnes of the emperors who 
 were their authors and their dates. In the year 6.'i0 the 
 emperor created another commipeion of sixteen, at the head 
 of which was Tribonian. and entrusted to them the task of 
 compiling a body of the existing law from the writings of 
 the great jurists. According to the general plan which he 
 prescribed, all the juridical works of authority were to bo 
 consulted and extracts made from them: these quotations, 
 with such modifications as should be necessary to explain 
 the meaning and harmonize the whole result, were to be 
 collected into fifty books, and arranged according to the 
 order of (he edict after it had been revised under Hadrian 
 (edicttim prrpetidiin). The commission finished their labors 
 in three years, and in 5Z3 published the result under the 
 name of f*aiiderts or The lUijtHt, In compiling the Dt'f/est 
 selections were made from more than 20011 different trea- 
 tises written by thirty-nine jurists, most of whom flourished 
 within the period of about 100 years from the fr)rmaIion 
 of iho perpetual edict in the reign of Hadrian to the death 
 of Alexander Peverus. Following the plan projiosed by 
 the emperor, the JJufHt is divided into fifty books; each 
 book, with the excejition of three, is separated into titles; 
 and each title into sections, which consist of the extracts 
 from various authors. The internal arrangement and clas- 
 sification of the material itself which forms the body of the 
 l)!ijrHt are universally admitted to be very defective. Hav- 
 ing provided for these great compilations of the law, Jus- 
 tinian ordered an elementary work to be com])08ed and 
 entitled The fnxtitutrH. It was prepared by two jurists, 
 Thcophilus and Dorotheus. under the supervision of Tri- 
 bonian, and was published about tlie same time as the 
 Di'ijrttt. Chiefly based upon the IitHtitutcH of Gains, it is 
 separateil into four books, and these into titles, and deals 
 alone wirh the private law. Thr fnstitntcn was written prin- 
 cipally for use in the law-schools as an introduction to the 
 study of jurisprudence, and this use has continued un- 
 changed to the present day: no other elementary work has 
 supcrsedcfl it. It was the design of .Tustiniun th:it the en- 
 tiro body of the Roman law should l>c comprised in the 
 Code and the DitjcRt, and to that end he forbade any refer- 
 ence to or citation of the ancient jurists either in the courts 
 or the schools, and abrogated all the conf^titutions which 
 were not found in !iis collection; he even prohiltitcd all 
 commentaries upon the J^undctti. The cm(>cror, however, 
 did not restrain himself from making additions to the law 
 which he had corlined, but lie issued from time to time new 
 constitutions iuovrflte cuimtltittionrs), the number of winch 
 exceeded U'lO, some of them relating to very important 
 points of the private law. They were oflicialiy published 
 after his death, and are known as The Kovefls. The four 
 works thus described, The Panderftt or Diycut, The Coda, 
 The fiiiif{tiite9,and The iVorc/^w, constitute the Cvrjjua Juris 
 CivifU. 
 
 These law-books of Justinian were not immediately in- 
 troduced into the West, and in fact the Koinan law was 
 for a long time perpetuated among the !>arbarian invaders 
 of the Western ])rovince8 by means of very inferior and 
 imperfect compilations, itml not by the ('orpun Jniin CtvUin. 
 From A. r>. 41.') Iho Visigolh^ had established themselves 
 in Southern <«aul. About the middle of the same century 
 the kingdom of (he Iturgundians was founded on the Rhone. 
 In t'.f.'I, Iliily was subjugated by the Ostrogoths. For these 
 three kiiigdoios three ditr<'rent eorles were formed, liy which, 
 rather than by thn-c of Justinian, the Roman law was kept 
 alive among all the Ci-rmanic peoples. The first of these 
 was the AW/. 7 of Theodoric ( ICdirtum Throdon'ri), prepared 
 in /iOO for the Ostrogoihs. It contained extracts from the 
 sources of the Roman law. freely treated ; it was very short 
 and incomplete, Imt it left the existing law in full force in 
 all cases for which it did n(!t expressly provide. The 
 secitnd was the ftren'ariiiin, composed by Alaric in .'VOC for 
 the Rrimans within the kingdom of the Visigoths. It 
 cnnlained a part of the Theodosian code, and extracts from 
 (lie novclls annexed thereto, from two wnrks of (laius and 
 I'auliis, from the (Jrcgorian and tlic Hcrmogmian codes. 
 and fnun a treatise of Papinian. Tbe third and least im- 
 portant of those compilations ivas that made for the Bur- 
 gundians, about 517 — Lrx litnnuun Ihinjuiidi»nuin, some- 
 times though erroneously named I'upinuuM. I'pon the 
 defeat of the Ostrogntlis in hh\ under Justinian his collec- 
 tions were introduced into Italy, hut they retained their 
 position of authority for a short time only. In Sfirt the 
 Lombards subjugated the greater part of Italy, and the 
 (leruiariic tribes I'roni tliat time were establi>*!u'rl in per- 
 mant-nt supremacy over the entire Western I'uipire. (See 
 Falck. Encyclopedic Juridit^ue, ^ SO.) This political revo- 
 Voi.. it.— 100 
 
 lution did not blot out the Roman law, which continued to 
 exist as an actual jurisprudence, but under a very peculiar 
 form, utterly unknown to modern usages and opposed to 
 modern conceptions. The Germanic invaders wherever 
 they spread did not destroy the Romans nor impnye upon 
 them a new law. Each race, living ujion the same soil, 
 preserved and obeyed its own laws, which were thus no 
 longer territorial, as are laws at the present day, but were 
 ; pergonal, in that they applied to different classes of persons 
 dwelling in the same country. According to the general 
 rule, each person was subjected to the law of his birth — 
 Roman to Roman, Frank to Frankish, or IJurgundian to 
 Burgundian. Wherever, therefore, the province had be- 
 come thoroughly Romanized, wherever the Roman dominion 
 had been fully established, as in Gaul. Spain, and Italy, 
 there were left, even after the su|ireniacv of the German 
 invaders, the remains of Roman institutions, laws, and 
 modes of thought. The codes above mentioned, compiled 
 after the conquest, altltough exceedingly imperfect, were 
 vastly superior to the (Jermanic laws and customs with 
 whicli they were contrasted, and as society gradually be- 
 came settled they were taken as the basis of the Iegi.slation 
 that was created for the nations which finally came into 
 existence from the united pojmlutions. In this manner 
 the Roman law was Instoiically, and as it were uncon- 
 sciously, incorporated into the jurisprudence of the conti- 
 nental nations, and was the great storehouse of principles, 
 doctrines, an'l rules whence the material of that jurispru- 
 dence was drawn during its process of development. The 
 imjiortant influence exerted by the ecclesiastics in tliis 
 work has already been described in the article upon the 
 Canon Law. and the cxjihination need not be repeated. 
 The reason is plain why the like effect was not produced 
 in the legislation of England. The Saxon invaders of 
 Britain found but few traces of the Roman institutions ; 
 there was no opportunity for a "personal" law with them; 
 all was territorial. The Saxon customs prevailed to the 
 exclusion of all others throughout the kingdom ; the Roman 
 law was not left side by side with them, to grow up, and 
 finally to overshadow them. The only influence which it 
 exerted upon the legal develojiment during the Saxon 
 domination was through the ecclesiastics and the canon 
 law which they administered. In addition to the foregoing 
 silent, unconscious, historical method by which the law of 
 the dead empire was perpetuated and macle dominant over 
 modern states, there was another open, external, conscious, 
 and intentional cause which exerted a powerful aid in pro- 
 ducing that result. About the beginning of the twelfth 
 century a spirit of free inquiry was suddenly awakened 
 throughout Europe, and one of its earliest and most remark- 
 able manifestations was shown in the scientific study of the 
 Roman law, which, eoinmencing in Italy, soon extended to 
 France, Spain, and even to Kngland. A school was foundc<l 
 at Bologna in which Irnerius commenced to lecture upon 
 the Corpus Juris Cirilin {a. n. 1120). The professors at 
 Bologna, as a part of the instruction which they gave to 
 their students, t^omposed short nr)tes upon the text of tbe 
 JJirfcHt and the Codr, explanat<uy of obscure and doubtful 
 passages. To these notes the name " glosses " was given, 
 and the entire school of early commentators have been 
 dfuiotninatcd "glossators." The glosses themselves were 
 collected and revised by Accursius (a. n. 121*0-0(1), and 
 form the earlier body of commenlarics upon the books of 
 Justinian. From Bologna the study of the law r!i]iidly 
 spread over Europe, anil lectures were even delivered at 
 Oxford in 114y. The effect of this movement \\\n\n tho 
 local jurisprudence of the Continent was immediate and 
 profound. From the universities the influence extended 
 at once to the tribunals, and the Roman taw was (hence- 
 forth acknowlcdgC'l (o be X\\v- comnitm law of Europe. 
 
 The Snlmtnure o/ the Homon Luir. — Tlic limits of this 
 article will not ])ermit even an outline of the law i(sclf, and 
 I shall merely attempt to explain and illustrate its inter- 
 nal growth and gratirnil transformation. In thi* primitive 
 perioil, nlthough even tlicn .-showing the wnmierful capa<'ity 
 of (he Roman people for legislation, the laxv as a whole 
 was exceeilingly arbitrary and technical, dealing in ex- 
 ternal symbolic acts, demantiing a strict observance of 
 prescribed formulas, and without a single element of 
 abstract morality and justice. Tho Romans conceived of 
 their law as applying only to the citizen, and thence termed 
 H jitu rieile. Its rules eoercerl none but citizens, and while 
 strangers and f<)reigners. even when permanent inhabitants 
 of the territory, could obtain none of the advantages which 
 it conferred, they were at the same time free frnni its pe- 
 culiar liurdens. Siilo by side, however, with this strictly 
 national law of the state and the citizen, the Romans from 
 an eiirly day conceiveti of another system of jural rights 
 which they regarded as common to all natinns. and therc- 
 fnre irvinvd Jim t/enfiuni- — tho law pertaining to all nations. 
 Whenever a judicial controversy arose in which a foreigner
 
 1682 
 
 LAW, MUNICIPAL— LAW. 
 
 or stranger was a piirty, since the law for the citizen (lid 
 not apply to him, the magistrate fell back upon the rules 
 ■which ho found prevailing among all the jicoplcs with 
 which he was acquainted. .\s these regulations were thus 
 common, and not local and particular, it necessarily followed 
 that they were based upon some universal principles, and 
 were not as arbitrary and technical as the corresponding 
 rules of the Koman civil law. The notion thus introduced 
 from an actual observation of the neighboring peojiles was 
 greatly extended in subsequent times, until at length, under 
 the philosophical jurists of the early empire, the jun ;/cii(iiim 
 came to be considered as synonymous with absolute right, 
 justice, and equity. Again, it frequently happened, cs- 
 jiecially after trade and commerce had sprung up, that in 
 controversies between citizens questions would arise that 
 were not covered by any existing rule of the Koman civil 
 law, and the magistrate would be required to exercise his 
 legislative function. Here also in creating the new rule ho 
 naturally invoUeil the broader and juster doctrines which 
 he had introduceil while adjudicating upon the rights of 
 strangers. There thus existed in the administration of 
 justice two widely different systems: (1) the original civil 
 law of Rcmie, which was enforced against the citizen in all 
 cases that were expressly provided lor by its rules or that 
 could be fairly brought within their operation ; and (2) a 
 boily of rcgidations contained in the prajtorian edict, 
 prim,arilv applicable to persons who were not citizens, but 
 afterwards extended to citizens, and enforced in all cases 
 where the former system was silent. The internal growth 
 of the Roman jurisprudence as a whole, as a single munici- 
 pal law for the Roman state, consisted in the steady ex- 
 pansion and development of the latter branch under the 
 edictal legislation of the pra'tors and the scientific labors 
 of the later jurists, until it finally displaced and completely 
 absorbed the original civil law, of which no traces are left 
 in the compilations of .Justinian. This statement may be 
 illustrated by a reference to a few of the most important 
 divisions. So far as it is concerned with primary rights, 
 the Roman law is separated into three grand departments: 
 (1) the status of per.«ons; (2) things as the objects of 
 rights: and (3) obligations. In the primitive period tho 
 status of persons formed by far the most important de- 
 partment of the national jurisprudence. The peculiar 
 feature of the early society around which all rights and 
 duties were grouped was the family. Its head was the 
 paterfamiUitt. It included his wife, all of his descendants 
 who iiad not been emancipated or transferred to another 
 by marriage, the wives of his male descendants, all persons 
 incorporated into it by adoption, and the slaves. The legal 
 authority of the paterfamilias was prodigious, and em- 
 braced three distinct branches— the paternal power (pntca- 
 tas), the marital power (maii»«). and the power over things 
 (rfomriiriim). Ho was thus tho legal representative head 
 of his wife and children, and other descendants; all their 
 labors and acquisitions within the sphere of private affairs 
 belonged to him. Even the tics of relationship, and tho 
 rights'and capacities incident thereto, were not determined 
 by tho common descent and a common blood, but by tho 
 subjection to a common paternal power. This primitive 
 condition of tho family, of which a slight outline only h.a3 
 been given, was gradually changed ; the paternal and tho 
 marital powers diminished, and finally disappeared, and 
 tho family as exhibited in the books of Justinian is sub- 
 stantially" the same as in the modern law. The early rules 
 of property were to the last degree arbitrary and unjust. 
 Tho strictly legal property in things, the only one recog- 
 nized bv tiie civil law {ilomiiiium c.r jure ijniiitiim), could 
 only beacquired, held, or transferred by a citizen. Things 
 as the subjects of property were separated into two classes 
 — rm mnnripi and res nee maitcipi, the former embracing 
 land in Roman territory, slaves, horses, cattle, and beasts 
 of burden, and the latter all other things. To constitute 
 a valirl transfer, oven between citizens, of articles belong- 
 ing to the first class, required the observance of certain 
 exceedingly technical formulas termed "mancipation," or 
 a constant possession for one year called "usucapion.' 
 A stranger could acquire legal property (ilomhiinm) in no 
 manner. These unjust and arbitrary rules of the civil law 
 were utterly abrogated by the prretorian legislation. By 
 inventing, protecting, and enforcing a species of property 
 denominated in boniSf which was based upon principles of 
 justice and equity, and which could be held in things of 
 all kinds, and acquired and transferred in simple and 
 natural modes, this entire department of the law was revo- 
 lutionized, and became the comprehensive and complicated 
 system suited to a wealthy and commercial people. In the 
 primitive condition of the law obligations resulted cither 
 from ci>ntracts or from delicts. The rudeness and tcchni- 
 calitv which characterized other parts of the system were 
 especially ]>rominenl in all that related to contracts. Four 
 classes alone were recognized as binding — that is, as raising 
 
 any obligation — and these did not depend upon good faith, 
 or a valuable consideration, or any other element of riglit 
 and equity, but upon a compliance with the prcseribcJ 
 forms. These four classes were — (1) Those made by the 
 thing (re), which became binding by a delivery of the 
 thing to which they related; of which class there were 
 four species — loan (wiidmui), where the same amount was 
 to bo returned; com.iintliilniii, where tho very thiug loaned 
 was to bo returned ; deposit (dcpuiiliim), and pledge (;)cj- 
 tinc). (2) Those made by words (verbit). These were 
 executory agreements, v/hich became binding by the use 
 of certain specified words put in the form of a question 
 and answer. (•") Those made by letters (/i'(c/i»), which 
 became binding by tho entry of a memorandum in the do- 
 mestic books of account of the parties. (4) Those made 
 by con.'^cnt {consensu), which became binding by the mere 
 consent of tho parlies, without any formalities. Of this 
 class four species alone existed — sale, hiring, partnership, 
 and a kind of bailnietit. The changes wrought by the 
 pr;etorian legislation in tho law of contract were more 
 numerous and important than those made in any other 
 department. In tho place of these few and arbitrary rules 
 a system was built up which, with a few special additions, 
 is sufiicicnt for all the business and commercial transactions 
 of modern society. John Xobton Pomeuoy. 
 
 Law, .llunicipal. See Municip.vl Law, by Pnor. 
 T. \V. i>\viGHT, LL.D. 
 
 Law (.\XDRF.W), b. in Connecticut about 1V4S ; graduated 
 at Brown University 1773; became a clergyman, and was 
 for forty years a teacher of music ; published a Cotleetion 
 of Hymn-Tunes (17S2), The Hndiments of Music (1783), 
 
 The 'Musical Maijitzine (1792), and The Art of Singing (3 
 parts. 1803). He was author of tho well-known tune 
 " .-Irchdale." invented four characters to express the four 
 syllables of music, and was one of the earliest .\mericnn 
 musical composers. D. at Cheshire, Conn., in July, 1821. 
 Law (EnsirxD), I>. D., b. near Cartmel, Lancashire, 
 England, iu 17Ua ; was educated at St. John's College, 
 Cambridge, of which he was chosen fellow upon graduation 
 in 1723; obtained the rectory of tiraystoek, Cumberland, 
 in 1723; became archdeacon of Carlisle in 1743. master of 
 Peterhouso College, Cambridge, in 17i4, librarian of the 
 university, professor of casuistry, anil archdeacon of Lin- 
 coln soon afterward, prebendary of Durham in l"fi7, and 
 bishop of Carlisle in 1768. D. at Rose Castle, Carlisle, 
 Au<'. 14, 17S7. Bishop Law was one of the most learned 
 and liberal prelates and acute metaphysicians of his age; 
 translated from the L.atin Archbishop King's Essay on (he 
 Origin of Eeil (1731). with copious notes: wrote an En- 
 qitiri/ into the Ideas of Space and Time (1735), Considera- 
 tions on the Theory of Itcligion (1745), and IteJIeclionB on 
 the li/'c and Character of Christ ( 1 749). lie published an 
 edition of the Works of John Locke (1777), with a biogra- 
 phy of that philoso]ihcr, of whom he was an admirer and 
 follower. His Considerations, " a work of singular beauty," 
 was often reprinted, and was edited in 1820, with a Life 
 by Dr. Paley. — llis eldest son, Eowaud, was the first Lonn 
 E'LLKNiionouGn (which see); another son, GnoiicE llExnY 
 (17C1-1S45), became bishop of Chester in 1812 and of 
 Bath and Wells in 1824; and a third son became bishop 
 of Elphin. 
 
 Law (John), of Lauriston, b. in Edinburgh, .Scotland, 
 Apr. 21. 1071, oldest son of a goldsmith and money-changer 
 who accumulated a fortune and bought the large estate of 
 Lauriston. which John inherited, deriving from it his title. 
 .•\t the a^c of twenty Law settled in London, and soon be- 
 came prominent in financial circles, though addicted to 
 gambling and dissipation. Having killed an antagonist in 
 a duel (1094), ho was condemned to death, but escaped from 
 prison anil took refuge in France, travelling thence into 
 Italy and Holland, and was for some time connected with 
 a banking-house in Amsterdam. Returning to Scotland in 
 17tlO, ho published a pamphlet advocating a state bank, but 
 as the project met with no favor at home, he presented it 
 to the French government, with the same result, .\nother 
 pamphlet was issued on the same subject in 1705. For sev- 
 eral years Law led a wandering life in European capitals, 
 gainin" large sums at the gaming-table, until the death of 
 Louis XIV. in 1715 opened a field for his grand scheme. 
 The kingdom was burdened with an enormous debt, and 
 the regent caught at a plan which promised unlimited gain 
 to the state. A private "general bank," with a capital of 
 fi, 000.000 livres, was chartered under letters patent of May 
 2, 1710. and began to emit vast quantities of notes, redeem- 
 able in specie, discounting bills of exchange, and accepting 
 at par the government paper, then at SO per cent, discount. 
 The national credit and the general prosperity immediately 
 received an immense stimulus: the vicious principles in- 
 volved were not at first detected. Law was hailed as a na- 
 i tional benefactor, and in a few months had issued notes for
 
 LAW— LAWN. 
 
 l(i.s:] 
 
 nearly 20,000.000. But their circulation was limited to a 
 few large cities, until in Apr., 1717. the government decreed 
 that Law's notes should he accepted in payment of impost?. 
 Another feature was added to the scheme in Aujr.. 1717. by 
 the formation of the celebrated iMi8:<issippi or West India 
 Company, with a capital of lOO.OOU.dOO livrcs, a monop- 
 oly of tr:ul'? witii Canada, and sovereign rights over the ter- 
 ritory c)f Louisiana, which was to be colonized upon a vast 
 scale. Parliament was hostile, and in Aug., 1718. prohib- 
 ited the receipt of Law's bank-notes in payment of taxes; 
 D'Argenson. president of the council (tf finances, lent his 
 patronage to a rival Western company called the yl;i/j'- 
 Si/9trm, but Law's star was still in the ascendant, and the 
 decree of Parliament was declared invalid by judicial in- 
 terposition. By royal edict of J)cc. 4, 17IS, the "general 
 bank" was transformed into a roi/nl hauK-, with Law as 
 director and the king as security. Another edict of May, 
 1719, conferred a monopoly of East Indian and African 
 trade upon the favored organization, which now absorbed 
 the EatJt India Company, took tlio name of '' (^onipany of 
 the Indies." augmented its capital, and undertook to pay 
 the national debt, agreeing to lend the kiug 10,000,000.00*0 
 livres at ,1 per cent. Au unexampled fever of specula- 
 tion now carried the shares to .10 or 40 times their original 
 value, antl nearly 20,000,000,000 in notes were issued. On 
 Jan. .'>, 1720, Law received the appointment of oontroller- 
 gencral of the finances, and in Xlarch he united the royal 
 bank to the Company of the Indies. It was in the conver- 
 sion of paper demanded by this colossal operation that the 
 utter bankruptcy of the company was first perceived. The 
 government, becoming alarmed, issued an edict deposing 
 Law from tho controllership, abolishing the bank, and de- 
 priving the company of its home monopolies and its connec- 
 tion with the state revenues. As a commercial corporation tho 
 company struggled for existence during several months, and 
 disappeared in November. In December, La\v quitted 
 Frani'c. carrying with him only a few hundred !ouis-d'or, 
 and loatleil with the public execration. lie travelled on tho 
 Continent for some lime, returned to fireat Britain by per- 
 mission of tho ministry, received a pardon for his early 
 crime, was presented at court, and entertained illusive hopes 
 of repairing the disasters of the " system." in which he pre- 
 served a genuine confidence. A friend in France, the mar- 
 quis dc Lassay, gave him for some years a pension of 
 20,000 livres. He gradually fell into obscurilj', and d. in 
 poverty at Venice Mar. 21, 1720, His remains wore buried 
 in the church of iSan Gemiano. from which tliey were trans- 
 ferred in 1808 to that of Sau Moise by the celebrated Mar- 
 shal Law, a grandson of his brother, who founded in Franco 
 a noble family, still flourishing under the namo of Law t>£ 
 Lai'risto.v. Tho complete works of John Law were trans- 
 lated for tho first time into French in 1790. They were re- 
 printed in 1^12, and liavo since been inserted in the great 
 collection of tho writings of the principal economists and 
 financiors of the eighteenth century, published by M. Guil- 
 laumin, (See Thicrs'a Ifistoire fie Law {ISitS) ; John P. 
 World's Mrmoira of the Life of Jtthn Law (1824); and 
 Mackay's Mcmoirt of Extraordinary Popnlnr JJehiaiont 
 (1850).) (See Mississii'i'i Sciiemk.) Porter C. Bliss. 
 
 Law (John), b. in New London, Conn., in 170G, was 
 son of Lyman : graduated at Yale t'ollege 1814 ; admitted 
 to the bar in 1817; emigrated to Indiana and located at 
 Vincennes, where ho was successively elected prosecuting 
 attorney, member of the legit^laturo (I82.*t). and judge, 
 holding tho latter office eight years. In iS.'iR he was ap- 
 pointed receiver of public moneys: in ISTiS, judge of tho 
 court of land claims ; removed to Evansville ; was elected 
 in I8rtO a member of Congress, and re-elected in 18C2. IIo 
 drew up and reported the bill assigning a jiension to tho 
 surviving soldiers of the Revolution, and has been presi- 
 dent of the State Historical Society. 
 
 Lnw (Jon ATI! vn), b. at Milford., Conn.. Aug. fi, lrt74 ; 
 gratliiatcil at Harvard in lOlt;*; studied law, and practised 
 at Milford. and was a magistrate for more than thirty 
 yeiir^, having been ehief-justice from I72j to 1741, and 
 governor froui 1741 until his death in May, 174L 
 
 l.nw (Lyman), b. at Xew Lomlon. Conn., Aug. 10,1770 ; 
 graduated at Yale College 1701 : studied law with his 
 f.ither. Uichard ; served in tho State legislature, of which 
 ho wa--r at one lirac Speaker, and was a Represi'ntativo in 
 Congri'ss 1811-17. 1). at New London Feb. .1, IS42. 
 
 Law (UirHARh). LL.I)., b. at Milford, Conn.. Mar. 17, 
 17.'i:!. sin of Gov. Jonathan; graduated at Yule Cidlego in 
 17Jl ; Htuilieil law, and practised at New liomlon. where he , 
 be.'.inie chief judge; delegate to Continental Congress 
 1777-78 and 1781-84; mayor of New Londtm for more 
 than twenty years; justice tind ehief-juslieo of supremo 
 court of State, and district judge by appointment of Wash- 
 ington. He aided Roger Sherman in revising tho Connec- 
 ticut code of statute law. B. at New London Jan. 20, IbOO. 
 
 Law (WiLi.iAsi), b. at King's Cliffe. Northamptonshire, 
 England, in IfiSC; was admitted into Emmanuel College, 
 Cambridge, 1705; became a fellow of that college 1711 ; 
 graduated as M. A. 1712; took orders in the Church of 
 England, and preached for a time in London, but on the 
 accession of the house of Brunswick to the throne (1711) 
 forfeited his fellowshij) and bis prospects of advancement 
 in the Church by refusing, as a Jacobite, to take tho oath 
 of allegiance. He never again officiated in public as a 
 ctergynian. In 1717 the bishop of Bangor, Dr. Benjamin 
 Iloadley, having in a sermon before the king given rise to 
 tho famous "Bangorian controversy" by attacking the 
 non-jurors, Law wrote in reply 7'firee Letters to Bishop 
 Hoadlejf, remarkable for their close reasoning and com- 
 mand of language, which placed him at once in the front 
 rank of the defenders of authority both in Chundi and 
 State. In 1724 he wrote one of the best of the numerous 
 replies to Mandeville's Fnhlc of the livrn (republished with 
 introduction by Rev. F. D. Maurice, 1S44), and in 1729 his 
 masterpiece, the Srrioun Cull to u Ihrout and J/ffif Life — 
 .a work fo which Dr. Johnr^on attributed his eon\crsion, 
 which had great influence upon the brothers "Wesley, and 
 which elicited the warmest praise even from the pens of 
 tho historians Gibbon and Maeaulay. Shortly before this 
 lime Law became tutor to Edward (iibbou, father of the 
 historian, accompanied his pupil to Oxford, and was for 
 several years a member of liis family at Putney. Between 
 the years 17.'J.1 and 17.'U» be became acquainted with the 
 writings of the German mystic Jakob Biihrne, and adopted 
 his teachings, which influenced the treatises On the Sao-n- 
 meH((1737), Christ ion liriji neration (17'iO), and his numerous 
 other tracts. In 1740 a wealthy widow lad}', Mrs. Ilutcho- 
 son, and Miss Hester Gibbon, sister of his pupil, resolved 
 to spend their lives in a quasi-conventual manner, devoting 
 their fortunes to charity, aud engaged the services of Law 
 as chaplain and almoner. The three thenceforth resided at 
 King's Clifl"e, and Law now prepared a series of works ex- 
 pounding tho doctrines of Biihrne ; these were The Woif to 
 J)iviue Knowledge (1740), The Spirit of Prayer, and 'The 
 Spirit of Love. He also wrote some illustrative materials for 
 a translation of tho works of Bohmc executed liy the ladies 
 above na?ned, but published after bis death under the name 
 of Law (4 vols., 1701-Sl). Ho d. at King's ClifTo Apr. 0, 
 17{)1. In the following vear his collected works were pub- 
 lished in 9 vols. (See hi's Life, by R. Tighe (18i:i). aud a 
 volume of Notes and Materials for bis biography, printed 
 for the Theosophian Library, 1800.) 
 
 LaAVes (Hknrv), b. about IfiOO at Salisbury, England. 
 where his father, Thomas Lawcs, was vicar-choral in tho 
 cathedral. Educated as a classical musician under the in- 
 structions nf .John Cooper, he became about l(i2.'> one of 
 the "gentlemen of the royal chapel" to Charles I., and 
 acquired celebrity as a composer of music for masques and 
 songs. Milton's Mamptc of f'omnn was set to music and 
 brought out under his personal dirfction at Luillow Castio 
 in 16u4. an<l the great poet. prolial!ly a pupil of Lawes in 
 music, bestowed upon him extraordinary eulogies in sev- 
 eral of his poems. Waller, Herrick, and Phillips wrote of 
 him in a similar strain, and were indebteil to him for tho 
 populari/.ati<»n of many of their songs. The music of Lawes 
 was of the Italian style, and was of very unequal merit. IIo 
 was a royalist; remaine<l in the service of the king as "clerk 
 of the cheque" until 1010. and composed the anthem for 
 the coronation of Charles II. He published in lOj^ Ayrca 
 and JJialtnjitcn,fnr f)nr. Tiro, and Thrrr I ot<Ti, comprising 
 l.'iO pieces. D. at London in Oct., lliG2, and was buried 
 in Westminster Abbey. — Hiselderbr(»tber, Wii.mam Lawks, 
 also a gentleman of tho chapel, and killed at the siege of 
 Chester, was associated with Henry in several of his musi- 
 cal undertakings, eomp(t-ied the music for Sandys's verj^ion 
 of the Psalms (1648), and for many songs of that period. 
 
 Lawler (Joab), b. in North Candina June 12. 1700; 
 was educated for the ministry, and became a Baptist cler- 
 gyman ; served from 1820 to 18;tl in tho lower house of the 
 Alabama legislature ; was elected Slate senator IS.'H ; was 
 receiver of public moneys I8;i2-.'tr), treasurer of the I'ni- 
 versilv of Alabama |8:t;{, nnd elected to Congress in 1834, 
 D. at "Washington, D. C. May 8, 1838. 
 
 Lnw'lcfj jjost-v. of Chickasaw CO., la., on the Chicago 
 Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R. Pop. about 400. 
 
 Lawn, from the Old Knglish Intend, nn open clear place, 
 meant formerly an open space between woods, but is now 
 mostly restricted to a space of ground covered with gra^s 
 for orniinieutal purposes. In order lo produce a thick - 
 turfed, dark-green, velvety lawn, the soil, especially if 
 light, should lie well provided with manure, and worked so 
 deeply as to allow the plant to e.^tend its roots bel<»w tho 
 stratum generally reached by a surface-drought. The seed 
 used should bo a mixture of red-top and while clover, in 
 the proportion of three parts of thu former to one of tho
 
 1684 
 
 LAW OF NATIONS— LAWRENCE. 
 
 latter; but it is not recommended to mix the Rrass-seed I 
 with that of some grain, which is often done. The idea is 
 to produce shade for the young grass-plant, but the effect 
 really is that it is starved. A third and indispensable 
 condition is frequent mowing — once a week, at least once 
 every two weeks, and each spring a little top-dressing, es- 
 pecially on any poor spot. 
 
 I,nw of \ations. See Internation.4L Law. 
 Law of Storms. See Storms. 
 
 Law'rance (.Toun), b. in Cornwall, England, in 1760; 
 caiuc to New Yorlc in 1707 ; was admitted to the bar in 
 1772 ; w,as aide-de-camp to Washington in 1777, and judge- 
 advocate at the trial of Major Andr€ : member of old Con- 
 gress 178.i-8fi. of the new Congress 1789-0.3 ; U. S. district 
 juilge 1791-96; U. S. Senator 1795-1800; presiding over 
 the Senate in 1798. He was a zealous defender of Wash- 
 ington and Hamilton. D. at New York Nov. 10, 1810. 
 
 Law'rcnce, county of N. W. Alabama. Area, S.'iO 
 square miles. It is bounded N. by the Tennessee River. 
 The S. part is a high plateau. As a whole, it is a very fer- 
 tile county. Cotton, corn, and live-stock are largely pro- 
 duced. The county is traversed by the Memphis and 
 Charleston R. R. Cap. Moulton. Pop. 16,6.i8. 
 
 Lawrence, county of N. E. .\rkansps. Area, 540 sqtiare 
 miles. It is a fertile Wooded plateau, with ridges and rich 
 alluvial valleys. Cotton and grain are proiluced. The 
 county has rich ores of iron, copper, zinc, and lead. It is 
 traversed bv Black River and by the Cairo and Fulton 
 U. R. Cap.' Powhatan. Pop. 5981. 
 
 Lawrence, county of S. E. Illinois, bounded E. by the 
 Wabash River, which separates it from Indiana. Area, 400 
 square miles. It is partly uneven and partly level, with 
 ccmsiderable timber and some swamps. It is traversed by 
 the Euibarras River and by the Ohio and Mississippi and 
 the Cairo and Vincennes R". Rs. The soil is fertile. Cat- 
 tle, grain, and wool are staple products. Cap. Lawrence- 
 ville. Pop. 12,53:i. 
 
 Lawrence, county of S. Central Indiana. Area, 444 
 square miles. Its surface is broken and well timbered. 
 The soil is productive. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple 
 products. Coal is found in some places. The county is 
 traversed by the E. branch of White River and by the Ohio 
 and Mississippi and the Louisville New Albany and Chi- 
 cago R. Rs. Cap. Bedford. Pop. 14,028. 
 
 Lawrence, ccmnfy of E. Kentucky, bounded E. by 
 West Virgiuia. Area, 642 square miles. It is mountain- 
 ous, with fertile valleys. Corn is the chief farm product. 
 Coal is found in great quantities and of superior quality. 
 The navigable Big Sandy River washes its E. border. Cap. 
 Louisa. Pop. 8497. 
 
 Lawrence, county of S. Central Mississippi. Area, 
 581) square miles. It is gener.ally fertile. Corn, rice, and 
 cotton are staple products. The county is traversed by the 
 Pearl River. Cap. Monticello. Pop. 6720. 
 
 Lawrence, county of S. W. Missouri. Area, 576 square 
 miles. It is undulating and in part billy, with a large area 
 of timber-land. Copper, lead, and iron ore have been found. 
 The soil is good. Live-stock, grain, tobacco, and wool are 
 staple products. The county is traversed by the .\tlantic 
 and Pacific R. R. Cap. Mt.'Vernon. Pop. 1.1.067. 
 
 Lawrence, county of S. Ohio, bounded S. E. and S. \V. 
 by the Ohio River, .-irea, 400 square miles. It is uneven, 
 but fertile, (train and tobacco are staple crops. Coal and 
 iron are mined, the latter very extensively. Iron, charcoal, 
 and cooperage are leading manufactures. The county is 
 traversed by the Iron R. R. Cap. Ironton. Pop. "1,;!80. 
 Lawrence, county of Pennsylvania, bounded W. by 
 Ohio. .\roa. 42."> square miles. It is uneven, but fertile. 
 Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. Lumber and 
 flour are leading manufactures. Coal and iron ore are mined. 
 It is traversed by Beaver River and its affluents, and by 
 the Erie and Pittsluirg and the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and 
 Chicago R. Rs. Cap. Newcastle. Pop. 27,298. 
 
 Lawrence, county of Tennessee, bounded S. by Ala- 
 bama. Area, Olio square miles. Its surface is mostly high, 
 healthy, and productive. Oraiu and tobacco arc staple 
 products. There is abundant water-power. Iron is mined 
 to some extent. Cap. Lawrenccburg. Pop. 7601. 
 Lawrence, tp. of Sanford co., Ala. Pop. 5:!7. 
 Lawrence, tp. of Lawrence co., Ark. Pop. 244. 
 Lawrence, tp. of Lawrence eo., 111. Pop. 1492. 
 Lawrence (.Sedan P. 0.). a v. of Richl.and tp.. He Kalb 
 CO., Ind., on the Michigan Southern R. K. (.\ir-liue divis- 
 ion). Pop. 176. 
 
 Lawrence, post-v. and tp. of Marion co., Ind., on the 
 Cleveland Cincinnati and Indianapolis R. R. Pop. 2360. 
 Lawrence, city, cap. of Douglas co., Kan., on both 
 
 sides of the Kansas River, at the junction of the Kansas 
 Paciiic with the Leavenworth Lawrence and Kausas U. R., 
 3S miles S. W. of Leavenworth, has 17 churches, 2 national 
 ancl 'i other banks, a public library, ,'i daily. 2 tri-wcekly, 
 and 4 weekly newspapers, and is the seat of the State I'ui- 
 versity. Lawrence is the second city of the State, both as 
 to ]iopulation and wealth : has a dam across the Kansas 
 River nearly completed, which will afford 3000 horse- 
 power, the largest pork-packing establishment in the State, 
 a woollen-factory, iron-foundries, machine-shops, planing 
 and llouring mills, tanneries, and a large nunil>er of mer- 
 cantile houses. Si.x railroads centre here, affording low 
 freights ami easy communications in all directions. Law- 
 rence has had an eventful history. It was founded in 
 1854 in the midst of the struggle for a free State, and was 
 the bead-quarters of John IJrowu, Lane, Robinson. Con- 
 way, and other noted leaders. It was burned in 1863 by 
 the Quantrell raid, but has been rebuilt, and is now one of 
 the most beautiful and enterj)risiug cities of the ^Vcst. Pop. 
 8320. T. D. TnAciiF.ii, Ed. " I)AiLV JotRNAI.." 
 
 Lawrence, city and one of the caps, of Essex co., 
 Mass., on both sides of the Merrimack River, 26 miles 
 N. W. of Boston, on the Boston and Maine, the Lowell 
 and Lawrence, and the Manchester (N. 11.) and Lawrence 
 R. Rs., was until 30 years ago an almost uuiuhabited waste, 
 forming portions of the towns of Andover and Jlethucn. 
 The river in its natural condition floweil over a bed of 
 rooks at this pla^e, having a descent of 26 feet, without 
 any sudden fall, for the distance of about half a mile, af- 
 fording unrivalled water-power, which in 1845 led to its 
 selection for a uianufajturing centre. By the efforts of 
 .Vbbott Lawrence, Nathan Appleton, and other enterpris- 
 ing capitalists of the State, the Essex Company was incor- 
 porated in that year, proceeded to construct a dam of solid 
 granite across the rapids, and opened a canal 90 feet wide 
 and U miles long for the utilization of the water. This 
 dam, 900 feet long and 40 feet high, one of the most sub- 
 stantial constructions in New England, was completed Oct. 
 14, 1847, at a cost of $250,000, and on Feb. 24, 1848, the 
 first wheel was set in motion by water from the canal, since 
 which time the industries of the place have acquired a 
 rapid and almost unexampled development. A second 
 canal has recently been built, on the opposite side of the 
 river. The most important establishment? are the Atlantic 
 cotlon-inills. capital $1,500,000, employing 1800 looms and 
 1400 operatives; Pacific Mills, capital $2,500,000, employ- 
 ing about 5000 operatives: and the Washington Mills, cap- 
 ital $1,650,000, 1265 looms, and 2900 operatives. Other 
 prominent establishments are those of the Lawrence duck 
 and woollen mills, Hoadley steam-engine works, the Ev- 
 erett and Pemberton mills (cotton and woollen), .Arlington 
 woollen, Russell, and other paper mills. The Pacific mills 
 occupy a vast area; their buildings are of colossal dimen- 
 sions and considerable architecturiil beauty, this company 
 being noted for the educational and social advantages it 
 offers to its operatives with its fine library (6000 volumes), 
 reading-room, relief societies, and hospitals for the sick 
 and aged. The original Pemberton mill, a brick structure, 
 suddenly fell Jan. 10, 1800, burying 700 persons in its 
 ruins, of whom 91 wore killed or mortally injured. The 
 new building is very strongly built. The city received its 
 name in honor of the Lawrence family, its principal found- 
 ers : was incorporated as a town .Vpr. 19. 1847, and as a 
 city Mar. 21, 1853; has 21 churches, 3 national and 3 sav- 
 ings banks, 2 daily and 4 weekly newspapers, 59 public 
 schools (graded), a public library (14,000 volumes), very 
 fine high and grammar school-houses, a beautiful common 
 (17 acres, with miniature lake) and park, excellent water- 
 works and fire department, court-house, city-hall. Masonic 
 temple. Odd Fellows' and music hall, several institutions 
 of public and private beneficence, numerous manufactures 
 of machinery, carriages, hardware, and flour; an assessed 
 valuation of" $24,1 17,373, a large proportion of which con- 
 sists of capital invested in manufactures, which afford em- 
 ployment to nearly 15,000 operatives. The prosperity and 
 enterprise of Lawrence are notable phenomena of Amer- 
 ica. Pop. in 1850, 82S2; 1860, 17,039; 1870, 28,921. 
 
 Oeobgi! S. MEnaiLL, Ed. " Daily Amehicas." 
 
 Lawrence, postv. and tp. of Van Buren co., Mich., 9 
 miles W. from Paw Paw. It has 1 weekly newspaper. 
 Pop. of V. 555; of tp. 1927. 
 
 liawrence, tp. of Mercer co., N. J. Pop. 2251. 
 
 Lawrence, tp. of St. Lawrence co.. N. Y. It is level 
 and very fertile, contains several flourishing villages and 
 7 churches, and is traversed by the Ogdensburg and Lake 
 Champbiin R. R. Pop. 2577." 
 
 Lawrence, tp. of Lawrence co., 0. Pop. 1245. 
 
 Lawrence, tp. of Stark co., 0. It contains Canal 
 FtLTox (which see). Pop. 3366. ' o.„.:„„rM 
 
 Lawrence Station (N.
 
 LAWRENCE. 
 
 UiSry 
 
 Lawrence P. 0.) is on tho Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chi- 
 cago U. U. 
 
 Lawrence, tp. of Tuscarawns co., 0. Pop. 1-179. 
 
 J>a\vrencCy post-tp. of Washington co., 0. Pop. 28C0. 
 
 J*nu reuoe, (p. of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 1720. 
 
 Ijawrence, tp. of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 1/57. 
 
 Lawrence, tp. of Brown co., Wis. Pop. 7oO. 
 
 liftAVrence, Saint. Sec L,vi iikntiis, Saint. 
 
 Lawrence (Abbott), LL.D., b. at tiroton, Mass., Dec. 
 Ifi, I7'J-. His father, Samuel Lawrence (1754-1827), was 
 a Revolutionary officer. Abbott Lawrence studied iu the 
 academy at Groton, and became iu 1S1)S a clerk, and in 
 ISII a p:irtner in tho dry-goods business of his brother 
 Amos iu itiiston. In this business he often visited Europe. 
 He was an early advocate of the protective taritl", engaged 
 Iarg<dy in manufacturing, and was ouo of tho principal 
 founders of tho city of Lawrence, Mass. He was a member 
 of Congress ls;jj-;{7 and lS;jU-n ; was in lSt2 a commis- 
 sioner to settle the Aroostook boundary (question; U. S. 
 minister to (ireat Britain IS4'J-J2. He founded tho Law- 
 rence Sjientific School of Harvard University, founded 
 scholarships and prizes in public schools, and was a Iil)cral 
 benefactor of tho Oroton Academy, now known by his 
 name. Jle was liberal in ail philanthropic and charitable 
 causes. He received in 18j t the honorary degree of LL.D. 
 from Harvard University. U. at Uo.«ton .Aug. 18. 1S.'>5. 
 
 Lawrence (Amos), b. at Groton. iMa^s., Apr. 20, 1780, 
 and studied in the academy of his native place. In IS07 
 he set M\t a mercantile business in Boston, and in 181-1 his 
 brother Abbott became his partner. Ho acquired a largo 
 fortune, wliich he freely and unostentatiously employed 
 fur tho good of the public and of individuals, bestowing in 
 tlic most unobtrusive and noiseless way hundreds of thou- 
 ■^ands of dollars for benovolent uses. D. in Boston, Mass., 
 Dec. 31, 1852. (See Extntrf/i from hia Ifittn/ and (\n-rc- 
 gjiomience, tcith Memoir by W. K. Lawrence, his son, 18J5.) 
 
 Lawrence (Eioknr), b. in New York Oct. 10, 182:i; 
 graduated at New Vork University in 1^41; has written 
 Liir<i of liritinh UiHturi(ttnt. and is a vulumimuis contributor 
 to Harpers' periodicals, chieMy upon subjects connected 
 with the political inUuence of the Roman Catholic Church, 
 of which he is an earnest opponent. 
 
 Lawrence (Gkoiujk Alfhko), b. in 1827 in England; 
 was educated at Rn^by und iJaliol College, Oxford, where 
 he graduated with honors in ISIS; was ndniitted to tho 
 bar: author of (/cy Livi)n/»tfnir, Strmd tmd (i'unt. Unrrcn 
 Jlouof, and other popular novels. D. Sept. 21, 1876. 
 
 Lawrence (Sir Hkvuy Montoomery), b. at Matura, 
 Ceylon, June 28, ISIifi: studied at tho Military Co!Iet;c at 
 AdJiscombe; went to India in 1x21 as a cadet in tlie Ben- 
 gal artillery; took part in the Af(;han war in lSl;t; was 
 acnt in the same year as British resident to Khatmandooj 
 participated in the Sutlej campaign ; was resident at La- 
 hore from 1810 to I'^ltt; thr-u chief' of the board of admin- 
 istration in the Punjanb, agent of the governor-general in 
 Rnjpootana ( 1S52). ari'l in 1S.'>7 commisr^ioner in Oudc. He 
 eondiictecl tho memorablo defence of tho British residency 
 at liUcUnow againj't the mutineers, until on .luly 2 ho was 
 mortally wounded, and tl, at Lueknow .July 1, 1857. (Soo 
 his At/V, by Kdwardes and Merivale. London, 1872.) 
 
 Lawrence (Cnpt. Jamks), b. at Burlington, N. J.. Oct. 
 1. 17*^1 : entered tho V. S. navy as a tnidshipuian in 17'.I8; 
 became lieutenant in 1S02; took part in the war with Tripoli 
 (181)1-05); was appointed in 181(1 to tho command of tho 
 Hornet ( IS), with the rank of master-commandant ; cruised 
 in Com. Bainbridj^e's squadron on the South American 
 coast at the clo«e of 1SI2. anil on Feb. 21, 18i;{, captureil, 
 near the mouth of tho Heincrara River, the British sloo]i- 
 of-war Pencrick ( 18), after an engagement of liftcen min- 
 ute?. Tho Peacock had six feet of water in her hold when 
 she surrendered, and went down immediately after with a 
 number of men of both crews. Returning to New Vork 
 with these prisoners, and those of several other prijtes, 
 Lawrence received from Congress a gold medal, was pro- 
 moted to bo captain (Mar. 4),an<l commander of the frigate 
 Chesapeake. On Juno I, while ho was lying in Boston 
 harlinr, tho British frieate Shannon (:!8), Capt. P. V. Broke, 
 came iu si^ht with tho express design of fiyhiinK the Chesa- 
 peake. Capt. Lawrence aeeepteil the implied challenge, 
 liut both he and his principal onieers were soon mortally 
 woun'led, antt the Chesapeake, lieing mueb disabhvL was 
 taken by assault, anil carried into Halifax, where he d. 
 July 5, ISLJ. Hi8 exclamation on being carried below, 
 " Don't give up tho ship!" became a household word in 
 the U. S. 
 
 Lawrence (Jasos Vai.i:nti\k 0*Ruikn1. M. D.. b. in 
 New Orleans. La., in 1791; grailuated in medicine at the 
 University of Pennsylvania in 1816, having previously for 
 
 some time been house-physician to the Pennsylvania Hos- 
 pital. After securing a lucrative practice in New Orleans 
 he returned to Philadelphia, where in 1822 he gave a six 
 months' course of lectures on anatomy and surgery, and 
 prepared for the press a work on morbid anatomy. I>. 
 Aug. 19, 182."L His p.apers were published in tho Phila. 
 Jour, of Med. (uid Pliyn, Sciences. P.\UL F. EVK. 
 
 Lawrence (John Laikh Mair), D. C. L., Baron, b. at 
 Riehm«)nd, Yorkshire. England, Mar. 4, 1811 ; was edu- 
 cated at Haileybury College, where he became proficient 
 in Oriental languages and laws; went to India in 1S2'J us 
 a cadet in the Bengal civil service; filled various subordi- 
 nate administrative and judicial posts, and in 1840, after 
 the first Sikh war, was called to tho responsible office of 
 chief commissioner of the Punjanb, becoming lieutenant- 
 governor in 1819. In this post, which he retained many 
 years, Lawrence displayed rare talent in the government 
 of a naturally turbulent race, and with such perfect success 
 that the Punjaub, far from joining the mutiny of ls.')7, as 
 was anticipated, was able to send forces of Siklis and Pun- 
 jabees to the relief of Delhi. His co-operation with Can- 
 ning, Havelock, Outnun. and Cly<lc for the suppression of 
 the mutiny was of inestimable value, and gave him popu- 
 lar fame as '* the saviour of India." Having returned to 
 England in 1858, the last special court of directors of the 
 East India Company, on the eve of its abolition, conferred 
 a pension of £2000 upon Lawrence, who also received a 
 baronetcy, and was sworn of the privy council. He was 
 viceroy of India from I8fi;j to 1868, and was created a 
 baron 'in KSOy. D. June 27, 1879. 
 
 Lawrence (Sir Thomas), b. in Bristol, England, in 
 1709; d. Jan. 7. 1880. His father was a tavern-keeper. 
 When a mere child he made sketches in chalk ; at ten he 
 used the crayons with skill ; at seventeen he painted in oil ; 
 ho was but thirteen when he received a silver palette and 
 five guineas from the Society of Arts for a copy of The 
 Traniifitjurutiou ; at the age of twenty-two, being younger 
 than the rules required, he was made a" supplementary as- 
 sociate" of the Royal Academy, and paintetl portraits of 
 tho king and queen : in 1794 he was elected an academician ; 
 in 1815 he was knighted: in 1820 he became jiresidcnt of 
 the Academy. Lawrence came to London in 1789. Reynolds 
 befriended him with counsel and influence, and so diligent 
 was he that during his first year in London he exhibited 
 at Somerset House seven portraits of women. Flattered 
 by his success in ])ortraits, Lawrence was moved by an 
 ambition to attempt historical painting, and produced Sntun 
 Sitwrnnuitiff hit LcyjouK, the subject taken from Milton; but, 
 thfuigh the picture was praised by his admirers, its recep- 
 tion did not justify his abandonment of the department in 
 which he so far cxcelleil all otliers. The most distinguished 
 men and women of the time sat to him; his prices were 
 high, rising in 1810 to 100 guineas for heads and 400 for 
 fill I -lengths — more than thrice his earlier charges. In 
 1814 tho princo regent commissioned Lawrence to paint 
 the sovereigns, generals, and statesmen who were in league 
 against Napoleon. The famous Waterloo gallery at ^Vind- 
 sor is the result. In \'ienna he jtainted the emperor of 
 Austria; in London he painted Bliichcr and Plaloff; in 
 Rome he painted Pius VI I. and Cardinal iionsalvi. Honors 
 were showered on him at home und abroad; foreign acade- 
 mies elected him to menibcr>bi}p : he was made a chevalier 
 of the Legion of Honor. A handsome person and elegant 
 manners nidetl Sir Thomas in his profession with tho no- 
 bility and peojilc of wealth. His jdctures are remarkable 
 I for richness of c(dor, a mingled stdtness and splendor that 
 was of great eiTect. particularly in the portraits of women, 
 which ore preferred to those of men. So great was tho 
 fame of Lawrence that a school of art was formed nfler his 
 example, but of late years his fame has been declining. 
 (See J/' f»o/r* «"(/ forrc*y>wti(/t'Hcc, by I). E.Williams, Lon- 
 don, 18:il, 3 vols.) 0. B. Frothingiiam. 
 
 Lawrence (Timothy Bigki.ow), b. in Boston, Mass., 
 Nov. 2.5. 1>»20, a son of Abliott Lawrence; graduated at 
 Harvard in 1810; was an attaclu'' of the .American legation 
 in London during his father's resiilence as minister at the 
 British court, und remained in that position until IS55; 
 was U. S. consul-general in Italy 1802-09. \). in Wash- 
 ington, n. C., Mar. 21, 1801). 
 
 Lawrence (Sir William). B \rt..F. R. S., b. at Ciren- 
 cester, Kngland, .luly 10. I78;>; studied surgery for five 
 years as apprentice to Dr. Abernethy ; became in his 
 twentieth year demonstrator of anatomy at St. Bartholo- 
 mew's Hospital; professor of anatornv and sur^rery at Iho 
 Collegcof Surgeons (1815-191. and director »d" St. Bartholo- 
 mew's (1819), which position he retained until lsC5. His 
 name is intimately connected with the progress of practical 
 surgery in En;xlan<i, to which ho made brilliant contribu- 
 tions, described in a long series of papers in the TnmitaC' 
 tivun of the Medical and Chirurgical Society. He was re-
 
 1686 
 
 LAWRENCE— LAWSON. 
 
 markaMe for varied attainments beyond the line of his 
 jirofessiou : possessed an elegant literary style ; was un- 
 rivalled OS a lecturer; was twice president of the College 
 of Surgeons, member of a host of scientific societies, and 
 surgeon oxtnii>rdinary to the queen, by whom he was made 
 a baronet. His most important works were the Lrrtures 
 on PhifHiohitjif, Zooh^ijy^ and the ^'atural Histori/ of Man 
 (IS19: Dth ed. ISIS), the Tt-eatiee on Heniia (1807), and 
 the Treatise on Diseases of the Ei/e (18-il), edited iu the 
 U. S. by Dr. Isaac Hays (1347 ; new ed. 185S). 
 
 Lawrence (William), b. at Mt. Pleasant, 0., June 26, 
 ISl'J; graduated at Franklin CuUege, 0., in lSo8. and at 
 the Law School of Cincinnati in 1840; settled at McCon- 
 nellsville, and afterwards at Bellefontaine, 0.. and engaged 
 with success in law-practice; edited (1846—47) the Logan 
 Gazette, and at one time the Western Law Monthh/; was 
 often in the senate and lower house of the Ohio legislature ; 
 was the founder of the reform school and of the free banking 
 law of the State; a judge of the common pleas 1850-64; 
 for some time colonel of the 84th Ohio in the civil war; a 
 member of Congress 1865-71 and 1873-74. Author of a 
 work on the Ohio Civil Code, The Law of Interest and 
 Usitri/, and comjiiled vol. xx. of the Ohio Heports. 
 
 Lawrence (William Bkach). LL.D.. b. in New York 
 Ci(y Oet. 23, ISUO : graduated at Columbia College in 1818 ; 
 studied law in Europe; admitted to the N"ew York bar in 
 1S23; secretary of legation in London 1826-27; chargfi 
 d'affaires ad interim 1827-28; resided for some time in 
 Paris, where he made a translation of Barb^ Marbois's His- 
 ton/ of Lonibinna, and its Cession htf France to the U. S. 
 (1830), adding an introduction and notes. Returning to 
 the U. S. in 1832, he delivered a course of lectures on po- 
 litical economy at Columbia College, published in 1834; 
 gained a prominent jiosition in his profession : was influ- 
 ential in promoting the Erie Railway enterprise ; was vice- 
 president of the New York Historical Society 1836-45, to 
 ■whoso Proceeditifjs he was a frequent contributor; wrote a 
 Historic of the Negotiations in reference to the Eastern and 
 North-eastern boundaries o/the U. S. ( 1841 ), a brief Memoir 
 of Albert Gallatin (1H43), a small volume on the Coloniza- 
 tion of Xew Jersey (1843), and numerous articles in the 
 quarterly and monthly reviews. In 1850 he became a 
 resident of Rhode Island, where he became lieutenant- 
 governor and acting governor in 1851, and member of the 
 constitutional convention iu 1853. He was a member of 
 the Social Science Congress which met at Bristol, England, 
 in Ot;t., 1869, and lecturer on international law (1872-73) 
 at the law school of Columbian College at Washington, 
 I). C, in which city he has been em])loyed for several years 
 as an advocate in cases of iuternatioiuil claims, especially 
 those arising from the Treaty of Washington of 1^71, and 
 has published several arguments and hrochnrcs upon that 
 subject. His most important original works have been The 
 Law of Charitable Uses {\^\b). Visitation and Search (1858), 
 a Commcntarif on the Elements of International Law (in 
 French, 3 vols., Lcipsic, 1868-73), Disabilities of American 
 Women Married Abroad (1871), and Administration of 
 Effiiti/ Jurisprudence {Boston, 1874). Ho is. however, best 
 known by his valuable edition of Wheatou's ICl'-mcnts of 
 International Law, with an introduction, memoir, and copi- 
 ous notes (1855 : revised ed. 1803). 
 
 I^nw^renceburg^ city and tp., cap. of Dearborn cc, 
 Ind,, <tn the Ohio Kiver, 20 miles below Cincinnati, on 
 the Ohio and Mississippi and the Indianapolis Cincinnati 
 and Lafayette U. Rs., has 2 national banks, 2 weekly news- 
 papers. 7 churches, the usual number of stores, several ho- 
 tels, and a large number of furniture manufactories. It is 
 the terminus of the White Water Canal, whieh affords ex- 
 cellent water-power. Pop. 3159; of tp. exclusive of city, 
 1708. E. F. Sibley, Ed. *' Democratic Register." 
 
 Lawrencebur^y post-v. and cap. of Anderson co., 
 Ky., lU miles S. of Frankfort, on the line of the proposed 
 Frankfort and Harrodsburg R. R., has 3 churches, a 
 national bank, and a seminary. Pop. 393. 
 
 Lawrencebur^, post-v., cap. of Lawrence co., Tenn., 
 on the projected Memphis and Knoxvillo R. R., 20 miles 
 W. of Pulaski and 80 S. W. of Nashville, on Shoal River. 
 40 miles above its confluence with the Tennessee, has 4 
 churches, a Catholic convent, 1 weekly ne^vs])apcr. 3 hotels, 
 4 large cotton-factories, and the usual number of stores. 
 There are fine beds of iron in the vicinity. Pop. 351. 
 
 Tbomas B. Malonk. Ed. " Joirnal.'* 
 
 Lawrence University of Wisconsin, an institu- 
 tion of learning in Apjdeton, Outagamie co., Wis. It was 
 founded in 1817, the Hon. Amos A. Lawreneo of Roston, 
 Mass., offering to give $10,000 towards the estiildishmcnt 
 of a collegiate school, provicled an additional $10,000 should 
 be raised by the Methodist denomination. This was done, 
 and the first classes were formed in ilie ])repftratory depart- 
 ment in the fall of 1849, In 1852, Rev. Edward Cooke, 
 
 D. D., was elected president of the college, and entered 
 upon the duties of his ofliee with the collegiate year begin- 
 ning in 1853. According to the catalogue of 1873-74, the 
 number of different students in attendance during the year 
 was 377, of whom i<o were in the regular college classes. 
 The whole number of graduates up to 1873 was 148, of 
 whom about one-third wore ladies. The library of the 
 institution was founded by the Hon. Samuel Appleton of 
 Boston, Mass., by a donation of $10,000 ; it now comjiriscs 
 7000 volumes. The jiroperty of the university amounts to 
 about $180,000. Besides the original donation of Mr. 
 Lawrence to the foundation of the institution, he has fa- 
 vored it with several additional gifts. Dr. Cooke resigned 
 the presidency about 1800, and wiis succeeded by R. Z. 
 Masi>n, LL.D., who resigned in 1805. and was succeeded 
 by Rev. (i. M. Steele. D. D., the }>resent incumbent. The 
 courses of instruction in the college are two, classical and 
 scientific. There is also provision for instruction in civil 
 engineering. In the academical department the facilities 
 for a broad English culture and business education are 
 ample. J. H. Worman. 
 
 Law'renceville, tp. of Henry co., Ala. Pop. 1194. 
 
 Lawrenceville, post-v., cap. of Gwinnett co,, Ga., 15 
 miles N. E. of Stone Mountain, beautifully situated in the 
 centre of a fine cotlon-produeing district, has 2 ehurchcs, 
 2 academies, 1 weekly newspaper, a handsome court-house, 
 and considerable trade. 
 
 Lawrenceville, post-v. of Lawrence tp., cap. of Law- 
 rence CO., Ill,, on the Embarras River, at the junction of 
 the Ohio and Mississippi with the Paris and Danville R. R,, 
 9 miles W. of Vinceunes, has 3 churches, 2 weekly news- 
 papers. 2 hotels, and a number of stores. Principal busi- 
 ness, farming. Pop. 455. 
 
 Mary Blntin, Ed. "Riral Republican." 
 
 Lawrenceville, post-v. of Lawrence tp., fiercer co., 
 N. J., miles N. of Trenton. It has a boys' high school 
 and seminary for young women. 
 
 Lawrenceville, post-v. of Lawrence tp., St. Lawrence 
 CO., N. v., on the Ogdensburg and Lake Champlaiu R. R., 
 and the seat of a fine academy. Poj). 350. 
 
 LaAvrenceville, post-b. of Lawrence tp.. Tioga co,, 
 Pa., on Cowanesque Creek, at the junction of the Corning 
 Cowanesque and Antrim and the Tioga R. Rs. Pop. 478. 
 
 Lawrenceville, post-v., cap. of Brunswick co., Va., 
 20 miles W. of Ilieksford Station. It has 1 weekly news- 
 paper. 
 
 Laws, tp. of Williamsburg co., S. C. Pop. 1274. 
 
 Law'son (.John), a native of Scotland, who in 1700 be- 
 came surveyor to the province of North Carolina, and in 
 1701) published a valuable work, A New Voyage to Caro- 
 lina, containing the Exact Description and Natural History 
 of that Country, etc., with a good map and accurate illus- 
 trations. In 1712, while engaged in prosecuting his sur- 
 veys, he was taken ]>risoner by the Tuscarora Indians, and 
 burned at the stake as a supposed usurper of their hinds. 
 His New Voyage was reprinted at Raleigh, N. C, in 18C0, 
 
 Lawson ( L. M.). M. D., b. in Nicholas co., Ky., Sept. 
 10, 1S12,- graduated in 1837 at Transylvania University, 
 where he became j»rofessor of anatomy iu 18-13. He sub- 
 sequently filled the chair of materia mediea iu the Medical 
 College of Ohio (1847), occupied similar posts iu the Ken- 
 tucky School of Medicine at Louisville (1854), the Univer- 
 sity of Louisiana at New Orleans (18(>0), returning to the 
 Ohio College in 1857 and in ISOl. He conducted the 
 Western L<i net/ from 1842 to 1804. edited Hope's Morbid 
 Anatomy {1811), and published his best work, a Practical 
 Trtatise on Phthisis PulmonaUsf in 1SG4. D. at Ciocinoati, 
 0., Jan. 21, I8G4. 
 
 Lawson (Thomas), b. in Virginia: entered the navy 
 in iNDil as surgeon's mate, which position he resigned in 
 isll to take a similar position iu the army; in 1S13 was 
 promoted to be a full surgeon, and after serving in this 
 capacity for twenty-three years was appointed surgeon- 
 general of the army, with the rank of colonel. This re- 
 sponsible position he ably tilieil for a quarter of a century, 
 during which time he labored incessantly to improve the 
 condition of his corps, and it was under his direction that 
 the publiention of statistics aud reports by the medical 
 otficers of the army was inaugurated. Of a fiery, ehivalric 
 nature, he acted as colonel of a regiment of Louisiana vol- 
 unteers in the Florida war. and as chief medical otlieer 
 ae-.'ompanied the general-in-chief throughout the war with 
 Mexico, gaining the brevet of brigadier-general for bravery. 
 D. at Norfolk. Va.. May 15, 18Gi. 
 
 Lawson (Sir Wilfrid). Bart., b. in Cumberland, Eng- 
 land, iu 1829; became at an early age an enthusiastic ad- 
 vocate of the temperance movement; elected to Parliament 
 for Carlisle in 1859, and introduced in Mar., 1864, the mea-
 
 LAWSOXS— LAYEKING. 
 
 1687 
 
 sure well known ns the Permissive Bill, the main principle 
 of which \) the giving to two-thirds of the inbuhitanis of 
 any parij'li or township an nheolutc veto npon all licenses 
 for the sale ^if intoxitating liquors granted within their 
 district. Defeated at the clccliou of lS(i:>, ho was returned 
 at the head of the poll in IS6S as a supporter of (iladslone, 
 and again elected in Foh., 1874. lie is the leader of the 
 Inilod Kingdom Temperance Alliance, and its spokesman 
 in Parliament, where he figures also as u frequent opponent 
 uf Disraeli upon other subjects. 
 
 Lawson's, tp. of Somerset co., Md., on Tangier and 
 Pocomokc sounds, traversed by the Eastern Shore 11. H. 
 Pop. 3.)49. 
 
 Law'ton, post-v. of Antwerp tp.. Van Burcn co., Mich., 
 ir, iniks .■'. W. "f Kaluiuaioo, at the junction between the 
 .Michigan fintral and the Paw Paw li. Us., has a large 
 blast furnace, a foundry and machine-shop, a |doughfac- 
 torv and planing-inill. 2 wagon-sho].s. 1 weekly newspaper, 
 several churches and schools, and the usual number of 
 si. ires, shops, ami smaller manufacturing establishments. 
 Tbo principal industries arc farming and fruit-raising. 
 Poji. 1081. E. V. IIavdkn, Ed. " Tuibune." 
 
 Lawton, tp. of lieaufort co., S. C. Pop. 3905. 
 Lau'ton ((icn. Ai.KXAsnKii R.), b. in Beaufort dist. 
 (now CO. I, S. C, about 1S20: graduated at West Point in 
 1339, when be was commissioned as second lieutenaul in 
 the Ist Artillcrv, an.l stationed on the northern frontier 
 until ISIl. Tlien resigned; studied law at Harvard Law 
 School. Mass., and commenced the practice in Savannah 
 in 1812. Soon rose rapidly in his profession, and was 
 repeatcillv elected to the State legislature, first to the 
 house and then to (he senate, where he achieved great dis- 
 tinction. Upon the organization of the Savannah and 
 Augusta K. H. in IS 111, he was chosen its first |iresident. 
 In "Apr., isr.l.hewas appointed brigadier-general in the 
 provisional army of the Confederate States, and was put in 
 command of the coast of (icorgia. This positionhc held 
 until June, |8ri2, when he was transferred to Virginia, 
 where ho serveil with Stonewall .Jackson in his several 
 campaigns: received Ihc eominand of a division, and was 
 severely wounded at Sharpsburg, disabling him for a year, 
 after which he served as quarlerniastcr-geiieral until the 
 close of tho war. After the surrender in ISCa he resumed 
 the practice of law in Savannah, which he still pursues 
 with eminent success. Ho is also at this time (1870) a 
 distinguished member of the legislature from the county 
 of Chatham. A. H. Steimikn.s. 
 
 Lawyer. See .\TTnnNr:Y, BAnnisTKii, Kino's Coux.sei,, 
 Anvoi-ATK, Sii.iriTon, Pnoi-Toit, Skukeast-at-Imw. 
 
 Lay (Bi-.v,iAMiN), b. at Colchester, England, in IGSl ; 
 settled at Barbadoes in 1710; became obnoxious on ac- 
 count of abolition principles, and being a Quaker removed 
 to Abinglon, Pa., where ho was one of the earliest and most 
 zealous agitators against slavery, in which connection ho 
 was an associate of Franklin and Bcnezet. He scp.aratid 
 from tho Society of Friends in 1717 on account of slave- 
 holding being permilte.l lo ils nunibers, but had tho pleas- 
 ure at a later day to see that body assume an attitude 
 similar to his own. In 1737 ho wrote a ])ainplilet, AH 
 
 Sl<irrl:rr)„;-)i llint l.ri/, ill'- Iiinnrnil hi /Inniliiiji; .■l/»o«(.((.«, 
 printed l.y Franklin, lie oppose.l tea-drinking, distributed 
 religious books as prizes in the schools, and mannfacturcd 
 his own clothing, so as not lo avail himself of the products 
 of slavo-labor. D. at Abington in 1780. 
 
 Lay (IlKfiuv CiiAMi'i.iN). I). I)., LI,.D..h. at Riidimond, 
 Va., Dec. 8, 1823: gradualed at the rniversily of Virginia 
 in 1812, and at the Theological Seminary of Virginia; or- 
 dained deacon .fuly 10, IS 1(1; was minister in Lynnliaven 
 parish, Va., until .June, 1817, when ho removed to the church 
 of tho Nativity, Hunlsville, Ala.; ordained priest July 12, 
 18 IS ; consecrated missionary bishop of the South-west Oct. 
 23, 18.)i), and translated to the diocese of Kaslon Apr. 1, 1809. 
 liay'ainon, a priest at Krnelv on Ihc Severn River, 
 Wori-eslersliire, England, flourisheii in the second half of Ihc 
 Iwclflh century as the author of the llnii. a rhyming chron- 
 icle of English history from the lime of the faliulous Brutus 
 of Troy to tho death of King Cadwallader dlsw A. n.). His 
 work is an amplified Inuisbitioii <ir Ilie Hrnl il' Aniilrleni: 
 of tho Anglo-Norman pool Waco, llie nddilions being ilc- 
 rived chiefly from the writings of Bedo and St. Augustine 
 of Canterbury, while Waco's work is itself lillle more than 
 a translation' of (leolTrey of Monmonlh's l,alin //i«i.,iiVi 
 Jlril/oniim. The value of liayamon's chronicle is mainly 
 philological. It contains ;'.2.2.iO lines, some allileralivc, 
 hut more imitating the imperlVcl rhyme of ils Anglo-Nor- 
 man original. Tin- best edition is that of Sir Frederic 
 Madden, with a literal Iransliition. notes, and a grammali- 
 cal glossary, published by the English Society of Antiquaries 
 (3 vols., 1.847). 
 
 Lay'ard ( Aistes Hen-ky), D. C. L., b. of English parents 
 at Paris. France, Mar. 5, 1817 ; spent several years of his 
 youth in Florence, Italy, and commenced the study of law 
 in England. In 1839 ho undertook a course of Eastern 
 travel extending over several years, chictly within the 
 Turkish empire; learned Persian and Arabic; was for a 
 time correspondent at Constantinople for a London paper ; 
 spent many months in 1842 in cxidoring the antiquities of 
 Susa and S. W. Persia ; and passing through Mosul, became 
 deeply intereslcd in the cxcavalions then being made by 
 the French consul, M. Botta, at Khorsabad, the supposed 
 site of Nineveh. After consultations at Conslanlinople, 
 the British minister. Sir Stratfonl (fuming, ofl"ered to as- 
 sume a portion of the expenses of similar excavations, and 
 Layard, returning to Mosul in lS4fi, began that scries of 
 wonderfully successful researches which lias made the Brit- 
 ish Museum the richest Oriental museum in the world, and 
 laid the foundation for the reconstruction of ancient Orien- 
 tal history by means of the copious cuneiform inscriptions. 
 Accounts of these discoveries were given by Layard in 
 Nhierrh and ilt JlriiiaaiK (1849). The British government 
 in 1849 ajipointcd him attache to its legation in Constanti- 
 nople, and ho undertook for the British Museum a second 
 series of excavations in Assyria and Chaldea, which resulterl 
 in another Kurk, Discoveries ammiij the Ruins of Ninercli 
 and Itnhiilim (1863). lie also published 2 vols, of engrav- 
 ings of the Moiiiimrnls of A'i„<-r(h ( 1849-53), and a volume 
 of inscriptions (1851). In 18.'i2, Layard was elected to Par- 
 liament for Aylesbury, and for a few weeks was under-see- 
 rctary of slate for foreign affairs in Lord John Russell's 
 administration. Ho was again on duly in the legation at 
 Constantinople for a short time in 1853, and took an active 
 part in tho House of Commons in the debates on Eastern 
 questions, advocating a vigorous policy against Russian 
 aggression. He visited the Crimea in 1854, witnessed tho 
 battle of the Alma, and examined the condition of the army, 
 concerning which he .soon afterward gave testimony before 
 a parliamenlary committee, the appointment of which ho 
 was instrumental in procuring. In 1855 he became one of 
 the leaders of the Administrative Reform Association; was 
 chosen lord rector of Aberdeen University in 1855 and 
 1S5C; was defeated at the election of Mar., 1857; spent 
 some months in India during the great rebellion of 1857- 
 58; was elected to Parliament for Southwark in IsfiO, and 
 appointed by Lord Palmerslon in July, 1801, under-sec- 
 rctary of state for foreign affairs, holding lliat iiost until 
 the fall of the Russell minislry in July. 1800. In that year 
 ho became a trustee of llie British Museum ; was chief com- 
 missioner of works and privy counsellor in (lladslono's 
 administration (Dec., IS08I until in Nov., 1809, ho accepted 
 the post of envoy at Madrid, where he slill remains (1875), 
 having rendered im]iorlaiit services, both to England and 
 incidentally to the U. S., during the troubled period of his 
 diiiloinatic life in Spain. 
 
 Lay'cock (Thomas), M. D., h. Aug. 10, 1812, at Weth- 
 erby, Yorkshire; was educated at London, Paris, and (!iit- 
 tingcn, where he received degrees ; became professor of tbo 
 practice of physic and of clinical medicine at lOdiiilnirgh 
 1855; physician to tho queen in Scotland 1809; wrote and 
 observed "much upon sanitary science, physiology, mesmer- 
 ism, insanity, etc. Author of 7'/ie AVrroii* Diseases uf 
 H'omcli (18411), J/i'/i(/ mid Hiitin. in- ihf Vorrrltilions of Puil- 
 srioiiswss iind Oryaniztilioii (1800; 2d ed. 1809), Method) 
 of Mrdioil Uliser'vitlion, etc. D. Sept. 21, 1870. 
 
 Lay Days, a term used in the law of shipping to de- 
 note Ihe days allowed to llie charlerer or freighler of a vessel 
 by Ihe terms of the cliarler-])arly for loading and unbiad- 
 ii'ig. For detaining Ihc vessel during this slipulaled time 
 no expense is incurred by the charterer, but if Ibis lime is 
 exceeded he is obliged to pay lo Ihe master or owner a cer- 
 tain sum for the aiblilional deU-nlion. the amount of which 
 is usuallv delermincd beforehand by a provision in tho 
 charter jiarly. The sum to bo paid is teebnically termed 
 demurrage. '(See DEMrniiAGE.) Lay days for unloading, as 
 a rule, commence when the vessel has arrived at Ihe usual 
 place for discharging the cargo. When such place is a 
 dock, they commence when she enters Ihe iloek, and not 
 when she' reaches the wharf. The jiarlies may. however, 
 make a special agreement as to the time when Ihey shall 
 begin. Sometimes this depends upon usage. (See CiiAiiTiii- 
 Paiitv.) In the absence orcusloni to the contrary, Sunday 
 is included in Ihe compulalion of lay days al Ihe port of 
 discharge. (ii:omir, CiiAsi:. Revised nv T. W. Dwibht. 
 
 Lay'cring, or LayiiiKi the propagation of herbaceous 
 plains by pegging down branches and covering ihe portion 
 to be rooted wilh carlb, or of trees by bending down a low 
 branch, )>egging it to Ihe ground, and partly covering it 
 wilh earth. The covered part takes root, and as soon as 
 the roots are well devclo|ied llie layer may be cut olV and 
 planted as a new tree. It is thought that a notch cul in
 
 1688 
 
 LAYNEZ— LEAD. 
 
 the branch between the trunk of the parent tree and the 
 covered part favors the early development uf the new roots. 
 
 Laynez' (Diego), b. in 1512 at Almazan iu Castile: 
 studied at Alcala and Paris: became the general of the 
 Jesuits on the death of Loyola in loJ6. and d. at Home 
 Jan. 10. 1505. He was a man of great natural gift>", and 
 still greater attainments; played a conspicuous part in 
 the debates of the Council of Trent and at the ast^embly 
 uf Poissy; and left several theological works in manu- 
 Fcripf. which, however, no one has been able to road on ac- 
 ci^unt of the bad han<lwriting. His labor in tlie service of 
 the order was very succospful, and his influence on the 
 members was decisive. It is generally acknowledged that 
 tlic peculiar .spirit which characterized the Jesuits issued 
 from Layncz. 
 
 Laz'nristSy a body of Roman Catholic missionary 
 priests, founded by St. Vincent de Paul in 1024. The 
 name is derived from the College of St. Lazare at Paris, 
 their original house given them in 1():12, but their proper 
 title is " Priests of the Mission." They are engaged in for- 
 eign, and especially in domestic missions, and in the teach- 
 ing of theology. They are found in most civilized and in 
 several barlmrous countries, and have fourteen establish- 
 ments in the U. S., including three colleges. 
 
 Laz^ulite [Arab. azul. "heaven," and Or. Ai'flos, 
 "stone"], or Azuritef a mineral composed of phosphate 
 of alumina, magnesia, and iron, and bearing some resem- 
 blance in color to lapis-lazuli. 
 
 Lazzaro^ni [It. fazzaro, "a leper"], formerly the pop- 
 ular name fur the lower classes of Naples, so called from 
 the hospital of St. Lazarus, their customary plaee of refuge. 
 The name is ultimately derived from tiiat of the beggar 
 Lazarus iu the parable. The lazzaroni of Naples number- 
 ed at the close of the eighteenth century nearly 40,000 per- 
 sons, who had no fixed employment or home, but were by 
 turns porters, boatmen, or peddlers, besides their constant 
 recourse to begging. From the Middle Ages they derived 
 the obligation to wear a peculiar dress of the simplest de- 
 scription, were treated by the government as a separate class, 
 electing annually a chief called capo luzzaro, and often 
 took part in political revolutions. They upheld Masaniello 
 in 1647, and fought bravely against the French during the 
 siege of Naples in 1799. During the republican agitations 
 of the present century they generally sided with the Bour- 
 bon monarchy. They are no longer recognized as a sep- 
 arate class, and their condition has much improved under 
 the governmeut of Victor Emmanuel. 
 
 Lea (Hrnry Charles), son of Isaac Lea, b. in Phila- 
 delphia Sept. 19, lS2o; early disjdayed a talent for science, 
 and at the age of fourteen wrote for Si//iiniiHn Jouninl a 
 paper on the salts of manganese. Ho gave much attention 
 to conchology, publishing Description itf ucw Species of 
 S/i'l/s, .and at a later period to the organization of society 
 ill the Middle Ages. He has published a remarkable work, 
 Siipvrntltion and Furce : Essays on the Wai/er uf Law, the 
 Worjer of Battle, the Ordeal and Torture (ISGG; 2d cd. 
 1870), a Historical Sketch of Srtcerdotal Celihaei/ in the 
 Christian Church (1S67), a.iid Studies in Church History: 
 The Rise of the Temporal Power, Benefit of Clerr/y^ and 
 Excommunication (1869). Mr. Lea early became a member 
 of the iinportant publishing-house of Lea A Illanehard, of 
 which he was long the head, ami is now the sole represen- 
 tative. Ho was prominent during the civil war in organ- 
 izing the system of municipal bounties, has written much 
 on political subjects, and has been for years engaged on a 
 work on the history of the Inquisition with special ref- 
 erence to America ( Mexico and Peru). 
 
 Lea (Isaac), LL.D., b. of Quaker stock at Wilmington, 
 Del., Mar. 4, 1792; was engaged in mercantile pursuits iu 
 liis early youth, and devoted his spare time to the study 
 of uatur.al history, especially geology, making collections 
 of fusriils, uiinerals, and shells in the vicinity of Philadel- 
 phia. In 1S15 was elected a member of the Academy of 
 Natural Sciences, and began to coiitriUuto papers to its 
 Journal. From 1S21 to 1851 was a partner with hisfalher- 
 in-law, Matthew Carey, in what was then the principal pub- 
 lishing-house in the V. S., and in 1827 commenced a re- 
 markable series of memoirs upon fresh- water nnrl land 
 moUusks, which were continued for nearly fifty years, and 
 form the materials for a great work upon American I'nion- 
 ida) on which he has long been engaged. In 1828 was 
 elected a member of the American Philosophical Society, 
 was chosen president of the Academy of Natural Sciences 
 in 1 s5S, and i? connected with the chief societies of natural 
 history throughout the world. His private collection of 
 Uniouidie is the richest in existence, embracing nearly 
 10,000 specimens, and his memoirs, read chiefly before the 
 Philadel]»hia societies, number more than 150. ]Io made 
 important discoveries of saurian remains in the red sand- 
 stones of Pennsylvania below the coal-measuret, published 
 
 Contrihutionn to Qeolngy (1S33), Fossil Footmarks in the 
 Bed Sandstones of Potteviilc (folio, with colored plates, 
 185.'!). and, besides other works, collected into 13 vols. 
 (1827-73) his miscellaneous papers with the title Observa- 
 tions on the (Senus Vnio. 
 
 Lea (Matthew Carey), b. in Philadelphia in 1823, son 
 of Isaac Lea ; studied chemistry under Prof. James 13ooth; 
 has printed in the Am. Jour, of Science many analyses of 
 minerals and chemical compounds; has given special at- 
 tention to photography, and published on it an important 
 work, ^1 iManual of P/toto(/nijjhi/ (186Sj 2d cd. 1871). 
 
 Lea (TuoMAS Gibson), b. in Wilmington, Del., Dec. 14, 
 1785, a brother of Isaac Lea. His Catalof/ur of Plants 
 Collected near Cincinnati, 0.> was published iu 1849 by the 
 late Dr. W. S. Sullivant. D. Sept. 25, 1844. 
 
 Leach {Wii.mam Elford), b. at Plymouth, England, 
 in 1790: became in 1809 a pupil of Dr. Abernethy at St, 
 Bartholomew's Hospital ; became an enthusiastic investiga- 
 tor in zoology and curator of the natural history depart- 
 ment of the British Museum. In his work on Crustaceohifjif 
 (1813) he was the first to separate the Insccta of Linnaeus 
 into Mi/viopoda, Araehnida, Insecta, and Crustacea; he 
 published a Zoolofjical Miscellany (3 vols., 1814-17), and 
 commenced a J/istory of the British Crustacea, of which 17 
 parts aj>ptarcd. wheu an affection of the eyes forced him to 
 resign the curatorship. and abandon iu great degree hla 
 favorite studies. D. at San Sebastiano, Piedmont, Aug; 
 25, 1836. 
 
 Lea'cock, post-tp. of Lancaster co., Pa., 7 miles E.of 
 Lancaster. Pop. 1900. 
 
 Lead [Ang.-Sax.], a plummet used on shipboard for 
 taking soundings or measurements of the depth of the sea. 
 The ordinary lead is attached to a line of twenty fathoms ; 
 the deep-sea lead weighs some twenty-five pounds and has 
 a much longer line. (For improved methods of deep-sea 
 measurements see art. DEEr-SEA SorNniNCS, by Prof. W. 
 P. TROwBRinr.E, A. M.) 
 
 Lead [(ler. Blei; ¥r. plomh; Saxon, lo'd; Dutch. /oorf, 
 also meaning a " ball " (suggesting '•load," as of a gun); 
 Lat. plumbum, also Satumum : to the modern word is as- 
 signed a kindred with " clod " and "clot "]. Lead is one 
 of the metals mentioned iu the book of Job, and known 
 therefore in the earliest times. In Numbers, also, among 
 the spoils of the Midianites, lead occurs. It has been 
 maintained that Solomon's verse iu Proverbs — "Burn- 
 ing lips and a wicked heart are like a jiotsherd covered 
 with silver dross" — refers to the glazing of pottery with 
 litharge made from lead. In the hanging gardens of Baby- 
 lon lead existed largely as a building material. 
 
 1. Occurrence in Xature. — Lead is known in nature as a 
 constituent only of solid rocks and soils. It has not been 
 discovered in mineral waters or in the ocean, nor in veg- 
 etable or healthy animal bodies. On life it acts as a poison. 
 Its ores arc numerous. It is found as sulphide, chloride, 
 and iodide, as oxides and oxychlorides, selenides and tellu- 
 ridcs, as sulphate, carbonate, chromate, phosphate, molyb- 
 date, vanadate, tungstate. Its commonest metallic chcm- 
 iral associates are silver, <jold, antimony, and arsenic. 
 Though in its veins in the rocks it is commonly found 
 associated with iron and copper sulphides and other com- 
 pounds, yet it is almost never found crystallized together 
 in the same mineral species with these two latter metals. 
 
 A'atirc Lead. — Metallic lead, as a mineral, has been re- 
 ported at many localities, widely distributed over the earth, 
 but occurs in such minute quantities that it is one of the 
 rarest of all minerals, and difficult to find in mineral col- 
 lections. Though other native metals, such as gold, silver, 
 platinum, mercury (and copper, in a smaller degree), have 
 a great tendency to alloy with lead, yet there are scarcely 
 any well-ascertained cases, among the great number of an- 
 alyses of these native metals on record, of the detection of 
 the slightest traces of lead. This alone is proof positive 
 that these native metals have not been formed by igneous 
 processes, but rather by chemical precijiitation at temper- 
 atures below that of the fusion of lead and its alloys. This 
 argument is strengthened by the fact of the common na- 
 tural association of silver and gold with lead in its ores, 
 especially in galena. Two localities of metallic lead in 
 minute quantities on the American continent are a point 
 in the country immediately N. of Lake Superior, called Dog 
 Lake, where Prof. Chapman of Toronto recognized it form- 
 ing a small string iu white quartz; and in an argentiferous 
 galena of the Zomelahuacan district of Vera Cruz in Mexico. 
 
 2. .Metallurgy of Lead. — In the consideration of the ex- 
 traction of lead from its ores, by far the most important 
 ore is galena, from which very nearly all our lead comes. 
 (Jalena, or galcnitc (the word being the Greek yaA^iTj. 
 "serenitv," from imaginary medieinal virtues early attrib- 
 uted to i't), is Hulphidc of had, PbS, and is the only known
 
 LEAD. 
 
 1689 
 
 compoun<l of this metal with sulphur, conliiinin^j: sO.O per 
 cent, of louii and 13. l of fititphur. There iirt." few metallic 
 orc3 moro easily and simply reducible to the metallic or 
 "rcgulus " form than coiuiiiun galena, and hence, no doubt, 
 the very ancient knowledge of lead possfssed by man. Sim- 
 ple roastinj; of galena in an ordinary fire will drive off tbo 
 sulphur and furnish melted lead. Xevertbeless, as lead is 
 a mctul required by man in enormous quantities* extreme 
 economy is needed in its metallurgical manipulation, and 
 hence this branch of technology is practically by no means 
 80 simple and obvious a business a.-^ might be supposed. 
 
 Lead-smelling furnaces arc of two classes, revcrbcr- 
 atory and blast furnaces, corresponding to two very differ- 
 ent modes uf smelting. We shall speak first of the opera- 
 tion with the nterberatori/ /iiniacc. 
 
 It has been stated that simjjle roasting eliminates metal- 
 lic lead from galena. It has been no unusual occurrence, 
 indeed, in the early history of different countries, and par- 
 ticularly so in America, for hunters and pioneers, ami even 
 for the aborigines after instruction by the former class, to 
 procure their bullets by smelting down galena broken by 
 themselves from the rocks. Some mines of this metal are 
 said to owe their discovery to this need on the part of the 
 primitive explorers. The ability to aeeoniplit^h the rr duc- 
 tion 30 simply proceeds from the following chemical facts. 
 The first effect of a preliminary roasting upon sulphide of 
 lead — in a revcrberatory space, for instance — at a compar- 
 atively low heat, for about two hours, is to oxidize portions 
 of the ma-^s into both oxide of Iea<I and sulphate of lead. 
 On then raising the heat for about half an hour to a bright 
 red, the following reactions take place: 
 
 PbS + 2PbO = ;jPh + SO2. and 
 PbS+ PbSO* = l'Pb-l- :iS02. 
 the products in each case being simply metallic lead and 
 sulphurous acid gas. This is a general description of the 
 most essential steps in the simplest kind of lead-smelting, 
 which requires, however, many further precautions and 
 operations, to detail which would carry us ti»o far. Tlieso 
 two successive steps of oxidizing-roasting an<l smelting 
 are sometimes conducted in separate furnaces. In the case 
 of argentiferous galenas, when their learl is to he subse- 
 quently treated to separate the et'ivcr it carries with it fseo 
 Sii,VKit), much more knowledge and skill than are usually 
 exercised in the smelting operation arc called for to avert 
 loss of silver by volatilization. It appears to have been 
 proved by chemists that certain chemical reactions occur 
 in the mass, accompanied jirobably by intense temperature 
 loc'tfli/, which cause much loss of silver unless the heat bo 
 regulated carefully, and not continued unnecessarily long. 
 The subject is, however, not well understood. In another 
 pro:;ess, in use in France, metallic innt is employed with 
 ores containing much quartz to reduce tbo lead, and pre- 
 vent its ln'ing converted into a fusible silicate, which wiuild 
 be diflicult or impossible to reduce. Tho ciiarge of I ho fur- 
 nace is KtlO pounds of the silieious ore, with frcnn L'llU to 210 
 pounds of scrap iron, excluding cast iron, which is less 
 suitable in this case. 
 
 Lertd-smrltiufi loitk a fflant. — This ia accomplished in two 
 classes of apparatus — the ** cupola furimcc" and the "ore- 
 hearth." The cupola is tho apparatus most used through- 
 out the continent of Europi', being ada]>tablo to poorer ores, 
 while the simple ore-hearths are adaptc<l only for very clean 
 and pure gale?ias, producing at the same time, however, tho j 
 purest and softest lead, which brings tho highest prices. 
 The smelting with a blast in a cupola furnace is sometimes 
 practised upon the raw ore — as by what is called tho Site- 
 9tnH process — in which case waste metallic iron is emi)loyed, 
 OS in the French method above, to tako up the sulphur of 
 tho galena. Six parts of galena require one part of cast- 
 iron scraji : and to Hux out the silica, etc. of tbo ore, about 
 H parts tt( foi-fje rimhr, a highly basic fusible silicate of 
 iron, are added. This mixture an<I coal in equal parts arc 
 thrown separately into tho ton of tho furnace. The lead 
 fusfs down into a cavity in the hearth IhIow the tuyere. 
 and a mutt is also formed of mixed sulphidi -i of lead and 
 iron (usually with silver also), which retiuircs subsequent 
 Rp]iara*e treatment. The action of tho fusible lead-slags on 
 the walls of tho furnace is terribly destructive, and a fur- 
 nace will run but about eitjht ilnyit before requiring a new 
 lining. 
 
 The commonest practice in Prussia, Sweden, France, and 
 Belgium is to roast out the sulphur from tho ore before 
 smelting with a blast. In Prussia a large part of the sul- 
 phur is even saved in this operation, by forming cavities in 
 the upper parts of tho heaps of ore and w<mh1, in which it 
 condenses. Tho expense of the roasting operati(»n is thus 
 nearly covered. Such roasted ore is then fluxed in tho 
 blast furnace with silicious slags from previous operations. 
 A matt is the product, which goes through subsequent com- 
 plex operations to separate the copper, lead, and silver it is 
 liable to contain. 
 
 Ore-hearths are much more primitive contrivances, used 
 where ore is pure and abuuilant, and economy of the same 
 less important than cheapness of plant and saving of lal)or. 
 Without cuts but an imperfect idea can be conveyed. For 
 tho *■ Scotch hearth" the ore is now usually roasteil. though 
 formerly worked raw. This is a very simple opparatus — lit- 
 tle more than a rectangular chamber, with opening in front 
 and tuyere entering at the rear. The lead drains off through 
 a channel in front. In tho case of the "American hearth" 
 — which has been used, among other places, at Kossic in 
 St. Lawrence co., X. Y. — the hearth is sometimes surround- 
 ed with a hollow iron casing, through which the blast passes 
 on its way to the tuyere, thus attaining a high temperature. 
 (Jreat rapidity and eheajmess of working arc thus attained. 
 Even this simple apparatus of the ore-hearth requires much 
 special skill and many precautions in its management on 
 tho part of the workmen, which cannot Ipc entered into here. 
 
 Fumes from Lend-Hinrlthuj. — In all furnace operations 
 with lead much smoko and fume result, cliietly mechanical, 
 but partly through volatili/.ation. Some compounds of lead 
 — pre-eminently the chloride of lead — are very volatile at 
 high temperatures. Even metallic lead volatilizes rapidly at 
 a high reil heat, and boils at a white heat. If any commnn 
 salt or chlorides are present, great loss may result in the 
 furnace. In all cases where economy is an object measures 
 must bo taken to catch and save the fumes. The condens- 
 ing flues or chambers through which the draft or blast is 
 caused to pass have sometimes an immense length. In one 
 case in England a flue Jh-r. miles hnuj and eight feet wide 
 by six feet high saved ./(/'// thousand didlurn worth of lead 
 per annum. Other arrangements are chambers furnished 
 with filters of pebbles kept eonstanlly wet with running 
 water, through which a powerful blower forces the fumes. 
 JJy means of exhausters in other plans the fumes are drawn 
 through a series of water-seals under diaphragms which 
 dip thereinto. Dr. Thomas Richardson, one of the most 
 diatinguishcfl of the liritish metallurgists, relates that the 
 ]iurii)cation of lead-furnace gases by this latter jdiui was 
 so complete that he icatlccd through the exit-jUm without 
 perceiving any fume — an experiment which should not be 
 rashly emulated. 
 
 Jirjiniuif of Lcfid. — Two metallurgical operations coming 
 under this hea<l are of esjiecial interest and importance — 
 tho extraction of tho silver often contained in it, and the 
 converting of hard into soft lead. The former subject will 
 be treated of under SrLVr.ii. Hardness in lead is due to 
 several causes, presence of antimoni/ being the commonest. 
 Exposure of tho Icacl in a fused state on the liearlh of a 
 furnace to continued currents of air over its surface will 
 gradually remove tho antimony and other metallic imjiu- 
 ritics, and yield a soft or softer lead. Such a hearth, it is 
 found, must have an impervious mefallic lining, as other- 
 wise tho very fluid alloy will leak through like water and 
 bo lost. This operation is stateil to be carried on on an 
 enormous scale in England, on hard, antinionifcrous Sjian- 
 ish lead. Chinese tcn-chist f<<td is one of the hard alloys 
 (with tin) that is thus susceptible of being relhied, yielding 
 over 7J per cent, of soft refined lead, tin being separated 
 by this method as easily as antimony. Tlie dross that 
 forms in this jirocess, containing UMially lead wilh tin or 
 antimony, is utilized best, according to Richardson, by 
 treating it with acetic acid, whicli converts the lead into 
 commercially valuable acetate, and the residue on smelting 
 yields good antimony or tin. 
 
 .*{. Chrmirnl CmiHtitiitinii aud Proprrtica. — Lead is one 
 of tho softer and more plastic and sectile of the metals, be- 
 ing only approached in thtse respects, among tlie nietals 
 in common use, by pun- gold. Color, wiicn fresh cut, blu- 
 ish-gray, with beautiful lustre, hut a dull film of an oxy- 
 gen-compound quickly forms over the surface. The mal- 
 leability of lead is great, and its ductility also, but its 
 tenacity is so small that it is drawn into fine wire with 
 great diflieulty. It has so little strength that a wire one- 
 twelfth of an ijieh in diameter breaks with a weight of 20 
 poun'Is. It mells at about G;!i'»° F.. beginning to soften 
 an<i become |>asty, however, at about r»17°. Its specific 
 gravity is certainly somewhat variable, being but 11.07 by 
 the hnvest determination of Playfair and Joule, and ll.llj 
 by the highest figure given, attributed to no less an au- 
 thority than the great itrrzelins; and for diemieally iiure 
 lead llerapalh gives I1.H.'»2. and Karsten ll.itSSS. It is 
 probably ininprrHnifdt; to some degree, wlucli may account 
 in part for the diverse densities. Pliiyfair and Joule found 
 its density in mrltrd form t(» bo ln..*)fi;t. lis crystals are 
 isometrie. Fresh-cut lead does not tarnish in ]jerfeelly 
 dry air, nor in j)ure water entirely free from dissolved oxy- 
 gen, showing that the tarnish is due to conjoint action of 
 oxygen and water. If exposed to both water and air, or 
 immersed in pnrv water exposed totlii' free air, it is rapidly 
 corroded, and a ]>ortion fllnK-tlvrH, If the water contains 
 carbonic acid or carbonates, however, or, according to some,
 
 1G90 
 
 LEAD. 
 
 also sulphates and phosphates, there is formed over the 
 metal a tiliu of an insoluble salt of lead, which retards fur- 
 ther action. A? these insoluble compounds, particularly 
 the carbonate of lead, are somewhat soluble in water con- 
 taininc^ free earbonin acid, some slow action often still con- 
 tinues, and no prudent person will venture to use hahitu- 
 allv. for drinkin;; or cooking purposes, water that has stood 
 for any appreciable time in leaden pipes or tanks, or even 
 in a well or cistern into which a leaden pipe has been in- 
 serted for connection with a pump — a practice extremely 
 common with [ilumbers. Waters containing nitrnfcH, not 
 uncommon in well-waters, are believed to dissolve lead 
 with especial rajjidity. 
 
 4. Uses uf Lend. — In metallic form lead is used for many 
 purposes too familiar to need enumeration. The principal 
 compounds of lead that have known uses are litharge, the 
 protoxide; miutiim, or red lead, the three-four oxide; the 
 carbonate, or irhitf Itaif; the nitrate, chromate, and acetate 
 of lead, all of which will be referred to again : and the sev- 
 eral alloys with other metals, which will be treated of first. 
 
 5. Aiiin/H i,f Lrnd. — Few metals form alloys so easily 
 and in such number as lead ; and to this fact, together with 
 tlie great cheapness of this metal, is due to a large extent 
 its high v.alue to the human race. In an alloy may fre- 
 quently be combined the chemical and physical properties 
 of each of its metallic constituents, and the cheap metal, 
 lead, may thus, to a very important extent, be endowed 
 with strength, hardness, whiteness, brilliancy, and resist- 
 ance to oxidation, while retaining its easy fusibility, and 
 even gaining in this latter respect. Lead alloys readily, 
 permanently, and in various proportions with the metals 
 j)otnssiuni, s(>fllum, arsenic, antimnni/. tfUnrium, hinmitth, tiu, 
 cndminin, manrjnneac, mercurif, silver, f/ofd, pfatinitni, jtal/fi- 
 diiim, and iridium, but apparently not easily or readily 
 with alnminnm, iron, cobalt, nickel, znir, and copper. With 
 some of these latter metals it may be mixed mechanically 
 when both arc in fusion, but on standing more or less sepa- 
 ration, sometimes nearly complete — as in the case of lead 
 and zinc, for example — will be found to occur, owing to 
 differences of density. The alloys of lead will be taken in 
 the order in which they are above enumerated, 
 
 Affot/s tritlt Potassium and Sodium. — The salts of potash 
 and soda with organic acids, if fused with litharge, yield 
 these alloys. Scrulla? prescribes for the lead-sodium alloy, 
 to fuse together at a high temperature lOU parts of litharge 
 and 60 parts of cream of tartar. Two parts of sodium to 
 one of lead give ij. brittle alloy, but with less sodium the 
 compound is malleable. The curious classes of organic 
 compounds containing lead, ethylides, methylides, and 
 amylides of lead, are prepared with the help of the lead- 
 sodium alloy. 
 
 With Arnriiic. — This alloy is white, brittle, and crystal- 
 line, and very fusible. It is of practiejil interest in connec- 
 tion with the manufaeture of lead nhnt, which are formed 
 of a true alloy of lead with metallic arsenic, containing 
 some 2 per cent, of the latter, held by the shot-manufac- 
 turers to be absolutely essential to success in the manufac- 
 ture. 
 
 With Antimoutj. — Here we have alloys of eminent im- 
 portance, tifpe-mrfal being the chief. The alloys of these 
 two metals are harder and more fusible than either metal, 
 while endoweil with peculiar qualities adapting them for 
 making tine and sharp castings. Common ty])e-metal con- 
 tains 17 per cent, of antimony, the remainder being lead, 
 sometimes with a little zinc. Common sterenty]>e metal 
 varies from these proportions within small limits, some- 
 times a little tin being added. Music plates are chiefly tin, 
 Ijcing about fiO per cent, of this metal to ^b of lead and 5 
 of antimony. Some of the various alloys used for ma- 
 chinery-bearings, called ■* Babbit metal'' and the like, con- 
 tain lead and antimony. Emery-wheels, in Europe at 
 least, are made of an alloy of lead and antimony mixed 
 with emery. A large proportion of this brittle metal, an- 
 timony, even 75 per cent., may be added to lead without 
 making the mass brittle, great whiteness, hardness, and 
 capacity for polish being thus attained. Keys of musical 
 instruments, »uch as flutes, etc., are made of such au alloy, 
 containing two-thirds of antimony. 
 
 With Tellurium.' — With this metal, and with its related 
 metalloid selenium, lead forms definite crystallized com- 
 pounds, occurring in nature as crystallized mineral spe- 
 cies. Altttitc is the telluride of lead; clmiathalite, zorgitCf 
 and h hrhachite are selenides of lead. 
 
 With Uismnth. — Malleable alloys when the bismuth is 
 small, but when equal to the lead they become brittle. 
 The most useful alloy with bismuth is one also containing 
 antimony, 70 of lead, 15 of antimony, and 15 of bismuth, 
 which expands on solidifying, and hence has been used for 
 stereotype metal, but from the present high price of bis- 
 muth is costly. 
 
 With Tin, etc, — Here we have some of the most valuable 
 
 alloys of lead, including hard and soft solders, pcictcr, and 
 with bismuth also the common /((*i'6/e allinjs. Three gradi s 
 of solder are in common use : common solder, of equal parts 
 of tin and lead : fine solder, of 2 parts of tin to I of lead ; 
 and a cheaper article, of 2 of lead to I of tin. The follow- 
 ing figures arc the fusing-points of the different alloys, in 
 Fahrenheit degrees: 
 
 Tin 1 to lead 
 
 " 1 " " 
 
 ..25, 
 .10, 
 . 5, 
 .. 3, 
 .. 2, 
 .. 1, 
 
 558° 
 541° 
 
 511° 
 482° 
 441° 
 370° 
 
 Tin It to lead 1, 
 
 1, 
 
 1, 
 
 I, 
 
 1, 
 
 1, 
 
 .334*' 
 34 0« 
 35GO 
 
 305° 
 
 38 1"^ 
 The follow- 
 
 Common pewter contains 4 of lead to 1 of tin. 
 ing are the best-known fusible alloys : 
 
 Lead. Bfsmiill). TIo. Fuses. 
 
 Homberg's alloy 1 1 1 2o2° F. 
 
 Krafffs '' 2 5 1 220° F. 
 
 Xewton's " 5 S 3 202° F. 
 
 Rose's " 1 2 1 201° F. 
 
 The last two will of course melt in boiling water. These 
 fusible alloys are of great value in taking anatomical casts 
 and impressions of delicate and combustible objects, or 
 tliose which will not stand a heat above the boiling-point. 
 By adding mercury, their fusing-points may be lowered 
 still further. Such an alloy with mercury will adhere to 
 glass, and is much used for coating the interior of glass 
 globes, tubes, etc. The alloy called in England Qtt*ena 
 metal contains of antimony, lead, and bismuth I part each 
 with 9 parts of tin. Teapots, spoons, etc. are made of it. 
 With Codinium, fusible alloys of tin and lead similar to 
 those with bismuth may be made, which fuse at even lower 
 temperatures still. This facr was discovered by an Amer- 
 ican chemist named Wood. (See Fusible Metal.) 
 
 With Silver, (jold, Platinum, etc. — Lead has a great affin- 
 ity for the noble metals. It is stated that if a thin sheet 
 of one of these metals be held horizontally, and a drop of 
 melted lead be let fall on it, it will make a perforation and 
 pass through, in consequence of the great fusibility <d' the 
 alloys formed. In the process of assaying, when litharge 
 is reduced to metallic lead in admixture with an ore of gold 
 or silver for subsequent cupellation, the lead takes into al- 
 loy with itself every trace present of the precious metals, 
 the success of assaying as an art being dependent on tho 
 completeness of this corabiuation. In the chemical labor- 
 atory, if any substance containing lead is incautiously 
 heated in a ])Iatinum or silver crucible or other vessel, a 
 perforation is the certain consequence. 
 
 6. The Useful Compounds of Lead. — Litharge, PbO. the 
 protoxide of lead, also called massicot. This is chiefly a 
 product of a special cupellation of metallic lead, carried on 
 for the |>urpose of its manufacture. iSome of it is ?ent to 
 market in scaly or flaky form, as it cools quickly from fu- 
 sion : but the more compact, lumpy portions are ground and 
 constitute levigated litharge. The color of the scales is 
 sometimes yellow and sometimes reddish, but there has not 
 been found any chemical difference between the two varie- 
 ties. Protoxide of lead is also obtainable ^y igniting the 
 nitrate, carbonate, or oxalate of lead. Its density is about 
 H.l.'i. It is dimorphous, crystallizing in tho regular system 
 as cubes and dodecahedra, and also in the trimetric system. 
 Minium, lied Lead, the ."5-4 oxide, I'l-iC^. This is a fine- 
 colored red substance, familiar to all from being used ex- 
 tensively as a pigment and for coloring paper. It is poi- 
 sonous, of course, and should therefore be employed and 
 handled far more circumspectly than is customary. Min- 
 ium occurs as a native mineral in many European localities, 
 and in one known phice in America — Austin's mine, Wythe 
 CO., Va. It is a product uf the continued action of a low 
 red hciit upon litharge while cxjupsed to the air. Its den- 
 sity when pure is about 8.8. Besides its use as a pigment, 
 etc., it is employed as one of the most important materials 
 in the manufacture of lead or flint glass. White Lead, 
 Carbonate of Lead, Ceruse. — This highly important com- 
 pound, PbO.COj, is found native, sometimes in very beau- 
 tiful transparent crystals, as the mineral ecrussitc. There 
 are several American localities of fine varieties — at Thoe- 
 nixvillc. Pa. ; in AVythe eo., Va. ; at King's mine. Davidson 
 CO.. N. C, and other places. The crystals arc right rhombic. 
 White lead is prepared commercially by two methods, the 
 older of which, called the " Dutch process." is somewhnt 
 curious and complex in its character. Sheet lead is roUcd 
 into loose rolls, each of which is placed in an carthrn jar 
 containing a little vinegar at its bottom, the lead not touch- 
 ing the vinegar. These jars are pileil up in alternate Inyers 
 with some material which is fermenting and evolving car- 
 bonic acid gas. spent tan-bark being preferred, though for- 
 merly stable manure was used and thought essential to 
 success. A large building is thus filled with jars and 
 closed. Basic acetate first forms on the surfaces of the
 
 LEAD. 
 
 1691 
 
 sheets, which is decomposed by the atmosphere of carbonic 
 acid, forming carboimle and free acetic acid, which latter 
 then acts again on tVcsli portions of lead ; so tliat liut little 
 vinegar is needed to keep the process g<iing on cimtinuoiisly. 
 The heat of the fermentation helps; and in duo time, the 
 jars being opened, the lead sheets arc found encrusted 
 with white had, which is beaten oiT. ground, and washed. 
 The proilui-t thus ol)tained is deemed superior in " body, ' 
 or opacity in mixture with oil, to that ot any other method 
 y,t discovered, and brings therefore a higher price. Much 
 while lead is made, however, by simpler and more speedy 
 operations, as bv boiling solutions of the nitrate or acetate 
 of lead with litharge, which dissolves to form a basic salt. 
 Carbonic acid gas then precipitates a very good quality of 
 white lead, not generally accepted, however, as equal in 
 bo.ly to that of the old Dutch process. The liquid drained 
 off from the precipitate is boiled again with litharge, and 
 so on. Niiriite of' Lend.— Tilts is used as a material for 
 the preparation of the carbonate and chromatcs. and is 
 therefore, in crystallized form, a regular article of commerce. 
 Aerlnle nf Lend, Smjar of /.<■«</.— This familiar article has 
 well-known uses in medicine. It is manufactured by dis- 
 solving litharge in wood-vinegar or other cheap form of 
 acetic acid. It crvstallizes very beautifully, few objects being 
 more beautiful than a mass of fresh crystals of acetate of 
 lead; but on exposure to the air acetic acid is lost, with 
 formation of a basic acetate, with a little carbonate also in 
 time. Hence sugar of lead has an od.ir of acetic acid, nnd 
 the transparent crystals gradually fall down to a white 
 powder, to disiiolve'which in water requires an addition of 
 acetic acid to replace that which has been lost. It is from 
 this circumstance that the luirulc. which undergoes no such 
 spontaneous change, but remains clean and uniform, is 
 largely supplanting the acetate in commerce of later years. 
 CluomiiteH nf l.fiid : Cliromr-Vrlloic mid Chrome-Iled. — 
 These arc two brilliant and valuable pigments, chrome- 
 yellow being especially so. The latter occurs naturally ns 
 "an elegant crystallized mineral called crocoile. of which an 
 American locality is at Congonhas-do-Campo in Brazil. It 
 was in crocoite "that Vauquelin first discovered the metal 
 rhrnmiiim in 1791. Hhriimi-.t/clliiw is, however, prepared 
 artificially by precipitating a solution of the nitrate of lead 
 with chro'ma"te of jiotash. The brilliant yellow precijiitatc 
 that falls, after thorough washing and drying at a low heat 
 is ready for grinding with oil for pigmentary purposes. If 
 the heat in drving much exceeds that of boiling water, the 
 color will be liable to injury from reducing action of traces 
 of organic matter always present. In calico-printing 
 chrome-yellow is formed on the tissue itself by successive 
 application of the above specified compounds of lead and 
 elir<ime in appropriate ways. This color, however, does 
 not attach itself so well "to silken and woollen fabrics. 
 Chrome-yellow as a pigment is liable to be much adulterated 
 with cheaper substances. .As most of these are insoluble 
 in nitric acid, they may generally be delecleil by heating a 
 little of the color with diluted nitric acid, which should dis- 
 solve it wholly to a clear yellow liquid. C'knimr-red is a 
 chromalc containing twice as much lead as the yellow 
 chromatc : 
 
 Chrome-yellow is PbO,Cr0.v 
 
 Chrome-red " 2(l'bO),CrOa. 
 
 The red pigment is produced from the yellow by several 
 different mcthoiis— either by boiling with lime or an alka- 
 line .-..luli.>n, which takes out half the acid: or by digesting 
 with levigated litharge; or by b.iiling it with neutral yel- 
 low chromalc of potash, which forms biehromato of potash 
 with half its acid : or by fusing it with saltpetre. Its color 
 i.s very fine, consiilcred equal in tint to vermiliim, but, like 
 all lead-colors, it becomes dingy in the air in time, through 
 the action of sulphur, forming black lead-sulpliiile. Clirome- 
 <ircrn should strictly be the green o.xide of chromium, but 
 "most of what passes uniler that name commercially at the 
 present day is a mixture of ehroniate of lea^l with some 
 l.lue pigment — jirussian blue or ultramarine. -A dilute :icid 
 will quickly distinguish such mixtures from true chrouio- 
 grccn, which latter should be totally unacted on. 
 
 llKSiiv WriiTZ. 
 
 I.cad [.\ng.-.Sax. ; Dutch. I^mdl. After iron, this is the 
 most abundant and widely ilistribuled of the metals. II 
 i< bluish-gray in color, ve"ry soft and ductile, but wilhout 
 elasticity. Its specific gravity is ll.lCi. It fuses at 01',!° 
 K., and when raised to a while heat in the open air it vola- 
 tilizes, burning with a blue flame and leaving an oxide 
 known as litharge. Its uses in the arts are very varied, 
 such as f.ir ro.ifing, for lining sinks, cisterns, etc., for shot 
 aiol balls f.ir firearms, and for the luanufaotnro of load 
 pipe. This lalter is formed by mechanical pressure, the 
 softness of the lead permitting of its being forced out in 
 tubes of indefinite length without welding. From Iho fa- 
 cility with which lead pipes are manufaotured, and after- 
 
 wards bent, cut, and united, they arc almost universally 
 employed as conduits for the distribution of water through 
 buildings in cities; and the employment of lead in this 
 connection has created the plumber's trade, which takes its 
 name from pliirnhmn. •' lead." Type-metal is formed of an 
 alloy of lead and antimony, and the alloys which go by 
 the name of pewter or solder are composed of lead and tin. 
 Lead has apparently been in use among civilized nations 
 from the dawn of the historic period. Among barbaric 
 races it seems to have been but little used, its softness maU- 
 in" it of little value to the savage man, whose only use for 
 metals was for the manufa-jture of offensive and defensive 
 weapons and for tools — purposes served much better by 
 bronze and iron. I,ead is found in all the geological forma- 
 tions except the igneous rocks, and deposits of it are known 
 to occur on every considerable portion of the earth's sur- 
 face. In China lead-mines have been worked from remote 
 ages, the metal being there chiefly employed for the pro- 
 duction of sheet lead used to line the chests in which tea 
 is stored and transported. Among the nations of West- 
 ern Europe lead was a]i|iarently first brought into general 
 use by the Romans, who derived a large )iart of their supply 
 from "Spain, where the remains of their smelting- works are 
 still to be seen. Lead occurs as a component element in 
 many minerals, but the lead of commerce is almost exclu- 
 sively obtained from the sulphide, or galena. This consists 
 of lead 86.55, and sulphur !:;.15. Near Ihe outcrops of lead- 
 deposits this ore is sometimes extensively decomposed by 
 oxidation, and the carbonate (cerussite) and the phosphate 
 (pyromorphite)are formed in such quantities as to have an 
 economic value. The other ores of lead which deserve to 
 be mentioned are hnurniniite, autimonial lead ore; memcle- 
 silf, the arseuiale : atujicaitr. the sulphate; and craw/ordile, 
 the' chloride. There are also vanadates, chromatcs, etc., 
 which have only interest to the mineralogist. Nearly or 
 quite all galena contains some silver, and often so much 
 that it is called argentiferous galena, and is one of the 
 most important ores of Silveu (which see). Lead occurs 
 in three distinct classes of deposits — viz. what are known 
 as gash veins, segregated veins, and fissure veins. Of those 
 the first class is confined to the sedimentary rocks, and con- 
 sists of fissures or crevices filled or lined with galena. 
 These arc generally vertical, though sometimes horizontal, 
 when the ore which they contain is said to form Jloore. 
 Gash veins arc usually restricted to a single stratum of 
 limestone, and have apparently been produced by the for- 
 mation of cracks and joints by shrinkage. These joints 
 have been subsequently enlarged by the solvent power of 
 atmospheric water, which has flowed through them and 
 filled or lined them with galena deposited from a solution 
 issuing from the adjacent rock. Segregated veins are sheets 
 of mineral matter found in nietainorphie rocks conforinablo 
 to their bedding. Galena rarely occurs in large quantities 
 in deposits of this kind. Those of Spain are the only ones 
 known which have economic value, and they may perhaps 
 belong to a difierent category. In fissure-veins lead occurs, 
 frequently in large quantities, associated with copper, silver, 
 zinc, antinionv. and many other minerals. It is an imjiort- 
 ant fact that iiighly argentiferous galena is mostly confined 
 to fissure veins traversing crystalline rocks. liy far the 
 greater portion of the lead of commerce is obtained from 
 rocks of sedimentary origin, especially the limestones of 
 the Silurian and Carboniferous ages. These arc the cal- 
 careous sedimenls of nneieni seas, the waters cd' which con- 
 tain lead in solution, part of which was sparsely distributed 
 through the materials that accumulaled at the bottom. Sub- 
 sequently, it was leached out and re.leposited when the sea- 
 bottom was raised, hardened into limeslone, and was trav- 
 ersed by fissures which became channels of drainage. Do- 
 posits of this class are typified by the lead-mines of Wis- 
 consin and Missouri; which will be described in another 
 paragraph. 
 
 Among the leail-producing rations of the globe, England 
 is the first. The product of her mines in I,'<"2 was (10,150 
 tons. This was oblaiiicd chiefly fnim the Cambrian and 
 Silurian rocks of Wales, and from Ihe Carboniferous linic- 
 Blones of Devonshire, Cumberland. Northumberland, and 
 Durham. The next largest producer of lead is Spain, in 
 which the mines worked from the remotest ages have been 
 recently reopened and largely multiplied. The production 
 of lead in Spain was at one time over 10,000 tons per an- 
 num, lint it has now fallen to less than half that amount. 
 The deposits ivhicli have been the most productive are those 
 of the Sii'rra Gadnr. where Iho lead occurs in Lower Silu- 
 rian limesloncs, much in the same way as in the Mississippi 
 Volley. The third in the list of lead-iirodiieing nations is 
 the V. .S., in which the annual product is from 12.000 to 
 l,'>,Oflll tons. Though widely distributed throughout tho 
 eountrv. Iho mining of lea.l is now almost exclusively 
 confined to the •• lead-rcgi..n " of the ii|iper Mississippi 
 and that of tho State of Missouri. Throughout the Alio-
 
 1692 
 
 LEAD. 
 
 gheny belt and the ractnmorphic region of New England 
 giilcna occurs in nunnTous localities. Most commonly 
 it is contained in segregated veins, but is occasionally 
 found also forming part of true fissure or crosiS-cut 
 veins. Nearly all the galena of this region is argentifer- 
 ou.>J, but the quantity is generally small; and with one or 
 two oxcoj»tions all the mines -which have been opened here 
 have failed to be remunerative. The exceptions referred 
 to are the Washington mine of Davidson c<>., N. C, and 
 thL' Wheatley mine, situated at Phfeuixville, Pa. In East- 
 ern New Vork there is a group of lead-mines which at one 
 time produced large quantities of metal, but which have of 
 late years been abandoned. These are the Ancram mine in 
 Columbia co.. the mines near EllenviUe in Ulster co.. and 
 that at Rossie. The EllenviUe mines were itpened in ver- 
 tical veins in the Shawangunk grit which lies at t!ie base 
 of the Upper Silurian series of rocks. In J-Sa^I the Ellen- 
 viUe mines yielded over half a million pounds of lead. The 
 lead-mine at Hossie, St. Lawrence co., N. Y., was at one 
 time very productive, and famous not only for its yield of 
 lead, but for the beautiful crystallized minerals with which 
 it was associated. It ceased to be remunerative some years 
 ago, and has now been for a long time unworked. The 
 lead occurs here in a well-defined vein cutting gneiss rocks. 
 It has an average width of about two feet, half of which in 
 places was solid galena. The vein-stone is chiefly calc- 
 sj»ar. The mines of Phcenixville, Pa., arc located in veins 
 which penetrate the gneiss and Triassic sandstones. Here 
 the lead is associated with considerable copper, and is re- 
 markable fur the occurrence of a large quantity' of phos- 
 phate of load (pyroraorphite). which has been extensively 
 worked as an ore. In East Tennessee and Virginia con- 
 siderable quantities of lead were produced in former years, 
 but the mines in this region have been for some time aban- 
 doned. This has been for the most part due to the abun- 
 dant production of the lead-mines of the Mississippi Val- 
 ley ; and it is highly probable that hereafter, when the 
 means of transportation shall be improved and the col- 
 lateral industries are introduced into this region, the work- 
 ing of some of these mines will be resumed with j)rofit. In 
 Central Kentucky, near Lexington, a group of lead-veins 
 is found traversing the Lower Silurian limestones. These i 
 are fissure veins, of which the vein-stone is chictly sulphate i 
 of baryta. Though containing so much galena as to con- | 
 vey the impression of great richness, It is a question whether ' 
 any of these veins can be profitably worked. The lead of j 
 this region is argentiferous, and a continuous sheet one ' 
 inch in thickness would abundantly pay for mining, but it 
 is doubtful whether this quantity cnn be depended upon 
 in any vein yet opened. It is a matter of no little in- ■ 
 terest in connection with the Lexington lead-veins that 
 at least one of them was quite extensively worked by the ' 
 ancient inhabitants of the Mississippi Valley, (lalena ' 
 seems to have been highly prized by this ancient peo- 
 ple, as it is frequently found in their mounds. It is, 
 however, always in the condition of the ore. and it is : 
 doubtful whether they made any use of the metal itself. ' 
 Probably the brilliant ore was valued for ornamental 
 purposes, as was the mica of North Carolina, also mined , 
 by the same people. The only lead-producing distriotg 
 of the U. S. at the present time arc those of the upper j 
 Mississippi and the State of Missouri. Of these, the first 
 covers the contiguous angles of Wisconsin. Iowa, and 
 Illinois, by far the larger part of the district lying within 
 the first-mentioned State. Lead is here found in gash I 
 veins, contained in the Galena limestone, a portion of the 1 
 Lower Silurian system, and the equivalent in part of the 
 Trenton group of New York. This formation has been ex- 
 tensively eroded by atmospheric action, and forms broad 
 valleys and plains, where the soil, derived entirely from 
 the decomposition of the underlying rock, contains many 
 masses of galena, which in these circumstances is known 
 as " float mineral." These scattered masses frequently lead 
 to important deposits in the rock itself, and thoy arc there- 
 fore sought in the *• diggings" with which the region is 
 dotted over, both for their own sake and because they so 
 often load to something still more valuable. In the (Jaiena 
 district there are two sets of fissures which traverse the 
 limestone, and run, one imperfectly N. and S.. the other 
 nearly nt right angles to this. These fissures are sometimes 
 as much as 500 feet in length, and they have been known 
 to expand into eaves thirty or forty feet wide, ami of equal 
 or greater height. The walls of these fissures are frequently I 
 lined with the sulphides of iron. lead, and zinc, and with ! 
 masses and crystals of calc-spar. These sometimes form 
 stalactites and incrustations in such a way as to show dis- 
 tinctly that they have been deposited from solution in 
 water which continually percolates through the soil and , 
 subjacent limestone. Everything indicates that the lead 
 of this region is indigenous to the Galena limestone, as it j 
 is restricted to it, and all explorations of the underlying | 
 
 and overlying rocks have failed to detect any continu- 
 ation of the lead-veins above or below. It is also apparent 
 that the deposit of lead in the cavities which now contain 
 it is a phenomenon of comparatively modern date, as it 
 could only have taken place when the Galena limestone 
 was raised above the sra-levd. and was traversed by a flow 
 of surface water which drained through its fissures, and 
 more or less completely filled them with ore. It may be 
 even said that the lead is being deposited there at the pres- 
 ent time, for the bones of the elephant and mastodon have 
 been found at the "diggings." in which the cavities were 
 filled with crystals of galena. Such being the nature of the 
 deposits of the upper Mississippi, it may be predicted that 
 they will never be worked over a much larger area than 
 that now covered by the mines, for the twofold reason — 
 that in the district where the Galena limestone is deeply 
 buried it has never served as a channel through which sur- 
 face drainage has passed, and it is therefore probably with- 
 out any considerable fissures; and even though the Galena 
 limestone should contain important deposits of lead where 
 covered by the Hudson River group, its lead-veins would 
 there give no sign at the surface. 
 
 The production of lead in the Galenadistrict was in 1825, 
 664.530 pounds. From this date it rapidly increased, and 
 in 1845 it was 54.494.856 pounds; since when it has grad- 
 ually, though somewhat irregularly, declined, and it will 
 probably never again reach the figures quoted. The lead- 
 mines of Missouri are like in all essential particulars to 
 those of Wisconsin, except that the formation which con- 
 tains them is older — the equivalent of the Calciferous 
 sand-rock of New York — -and the fissures which contain the 
 lead arc somewhat more continuous, giving more system 
 and certainty to mining operations. Among the Missouri 
 lead-mines the '"Mine La Motte '' was first worked 150 
 years ago. and is now valued at more than $500,000, al- 
 though it has at times yielded more than 1,000,000 pounds 
 of lead per annum. ValK-'s and Perry's mines in St. Fran- 
 9ois CO. have been scarcely less productive. In these mines 
 the ore is found in a system of inosculating veins, forming 
 a network of which the limits have not yet been reached. 
 The production of the Missouri mines could apparently be 
 not only largely increased, but maintained at a much higher 
 than the present yiehl for an indefinite period. 
 
 In the far West lead occurs in a great number of localities, 
 but has nowhere been the object of special search or min- 
 ing enterprises, as its value is too low to pay for the neces- 
 sarily great expense of mining and transportatinn in that 
 region. It is abundant in the silver districts of Colorado 
 and Utah, nearly all the silver ores there having the cha- 
 racter of argentiferous galena, and their treatment being 
 greatly facilitated by the lead they contain. In Nevada 
 and California lead is comparatively rare. 
 
 The ore from which lead is almost always extracted fuses at 
 nearly the same temiterature as the metal itself; hence it 
 would seem that the metallurgy of lead would be very 
 simple ; but the facility with which it is oxidized and dis- 
 sipated by heat makes it a matter of no little diflieulty to 
 avoid serious loss in the process of reduction. The different 
 varieties of ore which arc met with also require very con- 
 siderable diversity in their method of treatment. Where 
 the galena is mixed with much silicious matter it has been 
 found most profitable to smelt it in a cupola; but where it 
 is purer, or the foreign matter it contains is calcareous, the 
 Scotch hearth or some form of reverbcratory furnace is used. 
 In the valley of the Mississippi, where the ore contains 
 very little mineral matter, and the galena contains little 
 over an ounce of silver to the ton. the processes adopted in 
 the reduction of the ore arc quite simjile. A reverberatory 
 furnace is usually employed. This has a sloping hearth to 
 carry off the fuscci metal as fast as it is produced. The ore 
 is charged into the h<)t furnace, and is permitted to remain 
 for a time at a low temperature, undergoing a kind of cal- 
 cination. Suhsequently, a higher heat is applied for a 
 time, to be followed by another "firing." so that by alter- 
 nations of smelting and roasting the ore is ultimately de- 
 ]>rived of its metal. Argentiferous galenas require a 
 special and somewhat elaborate treatment, for the details 
 of which, as well as for further information on leod-smelting 
 proper, the reader is referred to the articles Metalll'Rcv 
 and SiLVKH. anrl the previous article, Lead. 
 
 The salts and oxi<les of lead are quite numerous, and are 
 somewhat extensively employed in manufactures and medi- 
 cine. Of these one of the best known is the protoxide called 
 litharge, used as a drier with oils an<l varnishes and in the 
 manufacture of glass. Red lead, or *' minium,'* is a com- 
 pound of the protoxide with the peroxide. It is very gen- 
 erally employed as a pigment, either in oil paints or in the 
 coloring of wall-papers, sealing-wax, etc. It is also em- 
 ployed, like litharge, in the manufacture of glass. Per- 
 haj>s the most important preparation of lead is that of the 
 carbonate of the protoxide. This is commonly known as
 
 LEADING-XOTE— LEAD PLASTER. 
 
 1693 
 
 White Lead (which see). Some of the gaits of lead are 
 highly poisonous, ami. since the quantity of lead used by 
 every civilized community is great, grave accidents are 
 not uncommon from this caussc. The carbonate, the oxide, 
 and the acetate of lead are the most active poisons. They 
 are introduced into the system both by the lutigs and the 
 digestive organs. With those who work much in the prepa- 
 rations of lead, ag painters, plumbers, and those employed 
 in glazing cards, earthenware, etc.. cases of lead-]>oisoning 
 are constantly met with. One of the most striking symp- 
 toms of the disease is what is called *• lea<l colic," or cutlca 
 pictottum. It also produces local or general paralysis or 
 other symptoms, which are always grave and difficult of 
 cure. The use of lead pipe must be regarded as the source 
 of many cases of lead-poiponinjr. It has been prnjiosed to 
 avoid this ikinger by lining lead pipe with tin. and pipe of 
 this kind is now coming into general use. It is but liltle 
 more expensive, and is certainly far safer, than that made 
 from pure lead. (Seo4*EAi» Poisosixc.) J. S. Nkwbkiuiv. 
 
 Lead'ing-Note, in music, the seventh degree of the 
 major sc.ile. or the semitone next below the octave. In the 
 scale of C the leading-note will thus be B ; in that of UJ?. it 
 will be A, anil so in the other keys. In major keys with 
 sharps the la$t sharp of the signature is always on the 
 leading-note. From a certain natural tendency to regolvc 
 itself upwar<l into the octave, the major seventh of the scale 
 is said to lend the ear in that direction, or cause it to ex- 
 pect that the next progression will bo to the octave, and 
 hence its name of /<(i(/tM^-notc. In minor scales the seventh 
 in its natural form is not properly a leading^ote, being a 
 minor seventh above the tonic. It is thus a whole tone 
 below tho octave, and does not possess any sjiecial upward 
 or leading tendency. This defect, however, is removed by 
 the use of an accidental sharp, which brings the seventh 
 into tho same relation to tho octavo as in the major mode, 
 and makes it equally characteristic. The leading-note is 
 considered as the most sensitive interval of the scale, be- 
 cause (as already stated) it creates in the mind of the hearer 
 a peculiar longing or desire for an ascent into the octave 
 above, which it already seems almost to touch. In the ma- 
 jority of cases, especially in cadence?, the car feels disap- 
 pointed and baulked when the leading-note takes any olher 
 direction, and particularly fo when tho progression is a 
 downwani one, Instanees of this are given at a. l>, and c 
 in Ex. 1, and these may bo compared with the true pro- 
 gression as represented in each ease by the black dots: 
 
 Ex. 1. a b 
 
 :;f^^ 
 
 J^ 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 T-3. — \-m- is— (»- i^' 
 
 ■&=&. 
 
 1— t- 
 
 ^ 
 
 :^ 
 
 Exceptions to this general rule, however, occur in good 
 compositions when special effects are to be producecl, or in 
 flowing melodies where the leading-note is not prominent 
 «ff «MrA, or when by an upward spring tho leading-note in 
 its resolution passes over the octavo and lakes the third or 
 fifth abovo. Some casos of this kind will be seen in Ex. 2 
 under tho asterisks : 
 Kx. i 
 
 __.. _, •_]__!_ J 'i J- -.111 
 
 Tho leading-note, as third in tho chord of the seventh on 
 the dominant, is subject also to tho rules relating to the 
 resolution of sevenths. liut in this case the rule of the 
 leading-note as such, and tliut itflVctiiig it as third in the 
 chord of the seventh, arc coinrident in requiring that the 
 progression should bo one semitone upward— r'. c. into tho 
 tonic. WiM.iAM Staunton. 
 
 Leading Qnestion, a phrase used in tho law of ovi- 
 deneo to denote a question put to a witness which is so 
 framed as to suggest or imlieatethe answer desired. Thus, 
 for example, if a witness were oskeil. " I)id he not <lo a 
 certain act ?" or *' I>id he not carry a pistol ?" an affirmn- 
 tive answer would be plainly suggested. It is a general 
 rule in regard to the taking of testimony that learling ques- 
 tions aro not allowable in the direct examination of a wit- 
 ness : by which is meant an exaininati<jn by the party pro- 
 ducing him. The oliject of the rule is to prevent a witness 
 from Ix'ing a facile iuslruuieut in tho hands of skilful 
 
 counsel for the introduction of testimon.v. artfully colored 
 or fabricated, or presenting the facts of the case in a dis- 
 torted or inaccurute form, and to obtain a ver.^iou of the 
 circumstances of the ease which shall dt-pend entirely upon 
 his own recollection. There is particular danger that a 
 witness will be hd upon a direct examination, because he 
 is likely to favor the cause of the party for whom he ap- 
 pears, and to desire that he may succeed in the action. 
 Leading questions are. however, permitted even upon a 
 direct examination when the witness appears to be hostile 
 to the party producing him. or in the interest of the other 
 party, or unwilling to give evidence. They are also allowed 
 where an omission in testimony is evidently caused by a 
 want of recollection, which a suggestion may assist, as 
 where a transaction invidvcs numerous items or dates. The 
 same is true when a particular specification of a matter of 
 inquiry is ncccs:-ary. in order that a witness's attention 
 may bo directed to it. The prohibiti(ni of leading ques- 
 tions only applies to material suljjei^ts of inquiry, and not 
 to that part of tho examination which is merely introduc- 
 tory to the principal points in controversy. Such ques- 
 tions aro allowed at tho preliminary stuge of the exami- 
 nation for the sake of convenience and expedition. Vpon 
 cross-examination, or examination by the opposing party, 
 there is no restriction u]»on inquiry by leading questions. 
 Tho object in this case is to expose the inaccuracies in the 
 witness's direct testimony, and as ho appears in opposition 
 to tho counsel then examining him, there is no danger of 
 his being influenced to subserve their designs. (See Evi- 
 PENCK.) Tho whole subject is peculiarly within the discre- 
 tion of the judge presiding at the trial, subject to review 
 by an appellate court in a plain case of an abuse of the 
 discretion. Geohgk CnAsi-:. Revised by T. W. Dwight. 
 
 Lead, Medicinal Uses of. In this relation the 
 local and constitutional cficets of lead compounds have to 
 be considered. Luralhj^ mlnhh: salts of lead are astringent 
 and irritant, but the latter property is much less marked in 
 proportion to the astringeiicy than in the case of salts of 
 mercury, silver, copper, and zinc. Indeed, weak solutions 
 of lead-salts arc positively soothing. Taken internally in 
 large dose, however, these salts are powerful iriitant])oisons. 
 Solutions of lead salts are used in medicine as local ajipli- 
 cations in catarrhs of mucous membranes and in nuiny in- 
 flammations of the skin, especially where attended by much 
 heat and pain. They should not, however, be used in in- 
 flammations of the eye. except by physicians' prescription, 
 as if there be any ulceration of tho cornea an indcliblo 
 white iqiacity will be produced sit the spot by chemical de- 
 composition of the lead-salt. The preparations used as 
 lotions arc solutions of lead acetate, nitrate, and suliacetate. 
 Two officinal solutions of the latter aro directed by tho U. S. 
 Pharmacopceia. the stronger being commonly called *' Gou- 
 lard's extract," and the latter *' le:id w;iter." From tho 
 former are also prepared a cerate (" (Jnulard's cerate ") and 
 a liniment. Internally, lead-acetate is alone used, its em- 
 ployment being as an astringent in diarrha?as and in bleed- 
 ing from the stomach, hmoluhh lead compounds, like the 
 carbonate, arc simply soothing to moist surfaces, but as. if 
 applied in quantity, they may bo rendered soluble, and 
 thus irritant, or become absorbed, ami thus iiuluco lead- 
 poisoning, other insoluble ])owdrrs, like zinc-oxide or salts 
 of bismuth, are safer. The cniHtltutiounl cfleclsof lead are 
 wholly poisonous, and are brought on by a slow and steady 
 impregnation of tho system with the metal. (See 1-i:ad- 
 PoisoNTNf;.} EnwAitn Ct itns. 
 
 Lead Plaster, Diachylon, or Emplaslruin 
 Plunibi. This familiar plaster of lead is a lead soa]> (see 
 SoAr), formed by the action of litharge or plumbic oxide 
 on olive oil in presence of water. These materials aro 
 boiled together in the jiroportion of (lounds of jdumbio 
 oxide in fine powder. 1 gallon of olive oil, and water 2 
 pints, supplying more water as it ovajjorales, until the oil 
 and lead oxide unite into the consistence of a plaster. Tho 
 glycerine of the oil. set free by the basic power of the 
 plumbic oxide, remains in aqueous solutinn. llic i'alty aciils 
 of Ihe oil forming with the leail the lead plaster, which is 
 made uj) in cylimlrical sticks of a yellowish-white or gray 
 color, brittle when cold, but softening and melting by a 
 gentle heat, when it is readily s]iread upon leather or cotton 
 cloth for use. It is (|uite insoluble in water, and nearly so 
 in alcohol. It is without toste. but has a faint peculiar 
 odor. This prejtaration of lead was well known in ancient 
 surgery. Pliny ( Hint. Xnt., xxxiv. UW) gives a formula for 
 its preparation almost identical with tho one now in use. 
 
 The nature of the reaction which occurs is explained by 
 tho following formula : 
 
 Olclnc. LllhnrffV. WnUr. 
 
 2031X5(0^113303)3 + aPbO -i 3HaO = 
 Plumbic olrKle. Olyrcrlne.
 
 1694 
 
 LEA D-POISONING— LEAF-CUTTER BEE. 
 
 Load plaster may also be prepared Iiy double decomposi- 
 tion, precipitating a solution of acetate of lead by one of 
 soap. 
 
 It 19 employed in surgery on account of its adhesiveness, 
 and for thi:* purpose a portion of resin is adiieri while the 
 diachylon is in a fused state. In this way it is used to 
 hold to2;etlier the edges of wounds in persons of delicate 
 skins. It is also used, spread on cotton bandages, as a 
 strappiiii; for giving support and causing pressure, as in 
 ulcers of the leg. 
 
 In the large way, this important preparation is made in 
 a steam-jacketed copper holding fifty gallons or more, 
 and capable of standing a pressure of alniut 10 pounds 
 per inch, giving a temperature slightly above boiling- 
 point. Lard and lard oil may be substituted for olive oil 
 in the preparation of lead plaster, but by no means will 
 all kinds of animal and vegetable fats answer this purpose. 
 Logan's plaster is made Ijy boiling together litharge, IG 
 ounces; carbonate of lead, IG ounces: Castile soap, 12 
 ounces; butter (fresh), i ounces ; olive oil, 2i pints ; mas- 
 tic (powdered). 2 drachms. By a high heat lead plaster is 
 decomposed, giving off irritating vapors of acrolcinc from 
 the decomposition of the glycerine, and leaving a black- 
 ened residue, with oxide of lead. Diachylon or diachylum 
 is a derivative of far-fetched meaning, from the Greek 
 5ia,\uAo«, ''very juicy," or ''prepared with the juices of 
 plants,'' such having been the ancient practice in prepar- 
 ing this plaster, vegetable juices supplying the place of 
 water. Its chief use in pharmacy is in the preparation of 
 other plasters. Made from the refuse oleic acid of stearic 
 aci<l candle-factories, and mixed with a certain quantity of 
 oil or tallow, it has been used as a wheel grease. A compound 
 of lead oxide with the acids of linseed oil, prepared by de- 
 composing tiie potash soap of linseed oil with solution of 
 acetate of lead, serves, when dissolved in oil of turpeptine, ■ 
 for printing on wall-paper previous to gilding it with gold- 
 leaf or Dutch metal, or dusting it with wool-shearings for 
 the production of flock patterns. B. Silliman. 
 
 Lead'-Poisoning, a diseased condition resulting 
 from the presence of a considerable amount of lead in the 
 system. This condition is induced in various ways : (1) 
 By the use of lead pipe for the ctinduction of drinking 
 water. Happily, a large proportion of the waters used for 
 drinking and cooking have not the power to take up lead 
 in solution; but there can be no doubt that a very great 
 number of cases of lead-poisoning are induced in this way. 
 (2) By the use of lead pipes in racking off wines, cider, and 
 beer; by the use of lead-lined chambers in soda-water ap- 
 paratus and the like. It is very certain that the use of 
 leaden siphons for drawing cider and vinegar from the cask 
 is a very common practice among farmers and dealers in 
 the U. S. ; and a dangerous, senseless, and even criminal, 
 practice it undoubtedly is. (:J) By the use of lead-paints; 
 hence the name ''painter's colio" applied to one symptom 
 of lead-poisoning. Si/mptom^. — Th^sc arc (1) pain, often 
 intense in the abdominal region, with constipation, some- 
 times, though rather rarely, accompanied by acute inflam- 
 matory symptoms; (2) a blue line visible on the gums 
 near the roots of the teeth : the gums and teeth often foul 
 and tender; the breath offensive, the mouth having a me- 
 tallic taste; (."ii ?ometimes icterus or jaundice — the skin dark 
 ra'her than yellow: the patient usually looking pinched 
 and haggard: (-1) there is a certain proportion of cases 
 which liavo 'Mead-palsy," affecting primarily the extensors 
 of the wrist. This is called " wrist-drop," though it is some- 
 times seen with no other indication of lead-poisoning. 
 Lead rheumatism sometimes occurs, and disease of the 
 brain from Icafl-jioisoning, while delirium, convulsions, and 
 coma are not unknown, but arc rare. Trentmcut. — Opium 
 is the sheet-anchor in ordinary Icad-poisoning. It relieves 
 the pain, and even at times the obstinate constipation of 
 this disease. Cathartics are very useful, except when 
 there is much tenderness of the bowels. Then tlieir uso 
 should be deferred for a time. Iodide of potassium is pre- 
 scribed in chronic cases, and is believed to assist in the , 
 elimination of the metal. Sulphuric acid and the sulphates 
 are given with a view to precipitating lead from the cir- 
 culation, aii.l fixing. Kevised by AVillaku Parker. 
 Leudvillo. Sue Appendix. 
 
 Leaf [Ang.-Sax.; Gothic, /«»/«/ Gcr. Laiih ,• denoting 
 something broad and thin], in botany, one of the pieces 
 which make up the expanded portion or green foliage of a 
 plant. Being the essentia! organs of vegotation. leaves arc 
 the most important part of a plant. In them actual as- 
 similation, or the conversion of the plant's inorganic food 
 into organic matter, only takes place. This, accordingly, 
 may be taken as the primary function of the leaf, which 
 may be defined as being, physiologically, an arrangement 
 for the exposure of a large green surface to the light and I 
 air; of "(/recti surface," because it is only in the presence | 
 of the green matter of vegetation (called chlorophyll or I 
 
 leaf-green) that assimilation takes place: and" to the light," 
 because this takes place only under solur radiation. The 
 green rind of shoots subserves the same purpose, so far as 
 it goes ; but the expansion of definite portions of the green 
 surface of the shoots in the form of foliage vastly increases 
 ( tho amount of working surface^ and therefore the power of 
 I vegetal i(»n. 
 
 Considered even as foliage, the word hnfls naturally and 
 I almost inevitably used in more than one sense, both popu- 
 I larly and in descriptive botany; as (1) for the expanded 
 I green blade alone (the lamina of tho leaf): and (2) for 
 ! this and its su])porting footstalk (petiole), and whatever 
 else is normally connected with it. A complete leaf, in the 
 botanist's sense, consists of blade, footstalk, and a ]iair of 
 stipules (lateral appendages at the base of the latter); but 
 these three parts are very commonly re«Uiced.to two, the 
 stipules being wanting or fugacious, and not rarely to one, 
 the footstalk being absent, and so the blade growing di- 
 rectly out of the stem. Indeed, sometimes the blade is 
 wanting, while the footstalk remains, with or without the 
 stipules, or only the stipules arc produced, or there is in 
 the place of the leaf a body not distinctly answering to 
 cither of these three constituent parts. This leads us to 
 the botanist's idea of — 
 
 A Leaf Morphofof/icanr/ considered. — As leaves are pro- 
 duced on the stem at definite points (called uodes), and in 
 a fixed arrangement and order, and as they appear under 
 most diverse forms, and either with or without all the parts 
 which a leaf may have — the deprivation or transformation 
 sometimes being sueh that the organ fulfils little or no 
 function as iTjliage — so the botanist has come to regard the 
 leaf generically, as being whatever body occupies the place 
 of a leaf, however unlike a foliage-leaf it may bo either in 
 appearance or function. The intermediate gradations be- 
 tween ordinary leaves and these various representatives uf 
 leaves, both as regards office or structure and appearance, 
 compels this view, irrespective of other considerations. In 
 the absence of any generic name for this protean organ, 
 which takes almost all forms and functions, the botanist, 
 from the morphological point of view, extends the signifl- 
 cati<m of the term hnf {u cover them all. Leaves as foliage 
 arc the typical leaves. Of these the diversity is great, and 
 the nomenclature correspondingly extensive. The details 
 of structure and terminology need not here be entered 
 upon ; they have a j)lace in every elementary treatise on 
 botany. Suffice it to say. that a foliage-leaf is either simple 
 or compound — simple, when there is a single blade, with or 
 without its footstalk: compound, v:\iC^Ti the footstalk divides 
 or branches, or bears distinct partial blades, called le<i/letn. 
 Of specialized leaves, a series of the more imptirtant modi- 
 fications will serve to illustrate the jilan upon which, in the 
 plant, one and the same organ, fumlamentally, is modified 
 and made subservient to wholly diverse offices. Some aro 
 storehouses of food, in which organic vegetable products 
 for future uso are deposited and concentrated. To this use 
 the first leaves (namely, the cotyledons in the seed of a 
 large proportion of ])ha*nogamou8 plants) arc wholly or 
 partly devoted. So arc the bud-scales of bulbs, which are 
 modified leaves or bases of leaves: while the fleshy leaves 
 of houscleeks. of the century plant, aloe, and such-Hkc suc- 
 culent plants, serve at the same time as ordinary foliage 
 for the production of food, and as magazines for its storage. 
 So bud-scales represent leaves devoted to the use of pro- 
 tection; tho temlrils of the pumpkin arc probably leaves 
 transformed for the purpose of climbing; and in the pea- 
 plant Rfmio of the leaflets of a compound leaf are tendrils 
 for climl>ing, while the rest servo as foliage. In the bar- 
 berry some of the leaves are branched spines : in Sarraccnia 
 and some other plants they are pitchers or tubes in which 
 insects are cauglit; and in the Venus's flj'trap [Ditman) a 
 part of tho leaf, endowed with a special sensitiveness, 
 power of rapid closing, and a digestive apparatus, is 
 clearly carnivorous. (See Piivsior-ocv, VE^•ETABI-E, Dio- 
 N.f:A, etc. Also, Darwin, fuaectivoroua Plnjitu, iSTo.) The 
 *• leaves " of a flower — of the corolla no less than the ealjx 
 — afford another instance so obvious that this name has 
 always been applied to them in common language; and to 
 the morphological botanist the essential organs of the blos- 
 som (stamens and pistils) equally represent leaves, more 
 completely transformed and specialized, and devoted to 
 sexual reproduction. They conform to leaves in situation, 
 arrangement, etc. (For the arrangement of leaves upon the 
 stem, and the laws governing it. sec Pilvl.l.OTAXV. Their 
 anatomic:il structure, behavior under light, action upon the 
 air, and general functions aro considered in tho article 
 Pnvsior.oGV, Vegetable.) Asa Gray. 
 
 LeaT-cutter Bee, a name given to several solitary 
 bees of the genus Mn/'irhi/^, which construct, or sometimes 
 merely line, their cells with bits of leaves cut out by their 
 scissor-like jaws. Jif. cfiifitnruldyi'i, our most common spe- 
 cies, is found also in Europe. It cuts out pieces of rose-
 
 LEAF RIVER— LEAGUE, ANTI-CORN LAW. 
 
 1695 
 
 leaf for its cells, which are of a very ncftt and curious struc- 
 ture. The cell it stufTd with poUcQ, in which it deposits an 
 
 Leaf River, tp. of Oglo co., III. Pop. 1067. 
 
 Leaf lliver, a v. of Perry co., Miss., near the S. W, 
 bank of Leaf River, 10 miles S. E. of Augusta. Pop. 720. 
 
 Lear-Kollcrs (Tortricida*), an imjtortant family of 
 small lepidupterous insects, characterized by sliort bcak- 
 likc palpi. They are mostly nocturiuil, and take their 
 name from the fact that many species make a rude tent by 
 rolling up the leaves of trees, often fastening thorn with 
 siken threads. The number of genera ami species is great, 
 and as a rule the insects are great destroyers of useful 
 vegetation. The genus Tortrix is the typical one. 
 
 Leaf Valley, poat-tp., Douglas co., Minn. Pop. 232. 
 
 League [It. l^gfi ; Span. Utjua ; Fr. ?/V»e, from the 
 Gaelic Unc or /encArf, *'a stooe," as the (Jauid used to mark 
 distances by stones] is a measure of length, used in America 
 mostly for distances at sea, but in Europe also upon land. 
 The nautical league is fl^^th id" a degree, or '^ geographical 
 miles, or 3.457875 statute miles, in England the land- 
 league is ',^ statute miles. In France the legal post-league 
 is 2.12 English miles; in Spain, SOOO vurnSf or 7418 Eng- 
 lish yards. 
 
 League, Achipan. See Acn.cAX Leagite. 
 
 League, .\nti-Corn Law, a name taken by a famous 
 associ:ilinn of Manchester manufacturers, founded in 18o9, 
 for abolishing all fiscal imposts on corn. The first Man- 
 chester election of members of Parliament, which took 
 place in 1832, carried free-trade candidates, that electoral 
 issue being then raised at the hustings for the first time in 
 England. In 1834 the first meeting of Manchester mer- 
 chants was called to consider the question of corn-law re- 
 peal. In IS30 a miscellaneous anti-corn law society was 
 formed in I^ondon, which included 22 members of Parlia- 
 ment. Among the names of the adherents were those of 
 (Jroto tho historian, Ilutne the economist, Sir William 
 Molesworth, and J. A. Roebuck; Ebenezer Elliott, the 
 corn-law rhymer; W. H. Ashursl, a lea<ling promoter of 
 the penny-postage system: Francis Place, tho chief of 
 working-class agitators ; William Weir, subsequently editor 
 of the Dnitif NeioH ; Col. Thomjison, the great expositor of 
 free trade. But no intellect, however eminent nnd various. 
 could avail against monopoly without money aii'l popular 
 opinion, and of these forces the precursor was W. A. Paul- 
 ton, a young surgeon of bright, elastic enthusiasm, with a 
 genius for agitation. In 1838 a Dr. IJirnie had announced, 
 at the theatre, Bolton, hancashire. a lecture on the corn 
 laws. Tho doctor was hiclen with notes, in which be got 
 80 entangled that he could not tell what he had to say, Mr. 
 Thomas Thomasson, afterwards tho executor of Cobden, a 
 man of striking energy of character and commercial sa- 
 gacity, being among the auditors, said to Paulton, who was 
 near him, ** You can speak ; go down on the stage and de- 
 liver the doctor." The spontaneity and capacity which 
 Paulton showed on that occasion led to his being invited 
 to lecture himself, and ultimately he delivered 300 lectures 
 against the corn laws throughout (ircat Britain. Ho be- 
 came Iho private and contidential secretary of tho future 
 League, which his eloquence and thoroughness mainly in- 
 stigated. At a dinner given to him at Boston, Mr. Bright 
 made tho first public speech delivered out of his native 
 town, Rochdale. Later in the same year Dr. B')wriug, 
 then of free-trade r(>put<!, being entertiiined at a dinner in 
 Manchester, .Mr. James Howie cried out, on Mr. Paulton'a 
 health being drunk, '* Why could not wo havo a free-trade 
 association?" A week later one was formed, consisting of 
 seven persons, of whom tho chief was .Mr. Archibabl Pren- 
 tice, founder of the Mititrhnti r Exanihifn; who had him- 
 self, as early as 182^ adviseil Iho formation of such a so- 
 ciety. A subscription of fivo shillings each was adopted; 
 £5000 ca'.'h was wanted before corn -law repeal whs carried. 
 In 1838, Mr. Cobden first became prominent in the Man- 
 chester (.'hainber of Commerce for resistance to the restric- 
 tive commercial policy of the manufacturing trade of tho 
 country. In 18:il) delegates from the manufacturing dis- 
 tricts were appointed to proceed to Ltuidon to press their 
 opinions upon the legislature. Mr. Charles Pellmm Vil- 
 liers, who ten years later became president of tho Poor Law 
 Board, undertook to represent the free-trade question in 
 the House of Commons. On Feb. HI, 18311, Mr. Villicrs 
 moved that certain manufacturers bo heard by counsel be- 
 fore tho bar of tho Huuso of Commons, against tlio corn 
 laws, as injurious to their private interests. Tho m<»tion 
 was rejected by an overwhelming majority. On Mar. 12 
 following, tho day on which the ,\nti-Corn Law League 
 originated, Mr. Villiers again moved "that tho House re- 
 solve itself into a ccunmittec of inquiry on tho corn laws," 
 when only 195 members could bo found to vote for inquiry, 
 
 while 342 voted against it. Discouraged and di!^raayel^ 
 the partisans of inquiry, who had come up from Miin- 
 ohester to await the result of the motion, rushed over to 
 Herbert's hotel, then standing in Palace Yard, opposite tho 
 House of Parliament, to consider what could be clone. It 
 was in that crowded room that Cobden, leaping on a chair, 
 reminded the delegates of the victorious ctt'orts of the Han- 
 seatic League, which three centuries previously had frcid 
 tho trade of the Hanse Towns from the imposts of Ger- 
 man princes. "Let us." cried Cobden, "have an Anti- 
 Corn Law League, which shall free corn and trade also." 
 It was then and there that the League originated. Cobden 
 proposed that a fund of £50.000 be raised, and a consid- 
 erable portion of that sum was subscribed in tlic room. Tho 
 chief Manchester commercial houses followed with sub- 
 scriptions of £50 and £100 each. 
 
 The English corn laws, which had for their object tho 
 restriction of the trade in grain, date as far back as I3G0. 
 At that time the prohibition was against exportation. It 
 was not until 1462 that an act was passed prohibiting its 
 free importation. The object of the Anti-Corn Law League 
 of 1831* was slated by the chairman (Mr. J. B. Smith), on 
 the occasion of Paulton's first lecture in tho Manchester 
 Corn E.Kchange, *• to be the same righteous object as that 
 of the Anti-slavery Society, which sought to obtain for tho 
 negro the right to dispose of himself; and the object of the 
 League was to obtain for the people tho right to dispose 
 of their labor for as much food as could be got for it" in 
 whatever market the exchange could be made. Tho 
 Leaguers little foresaw at the time the formidable work 
 they had undertaken, and only gradually learned them- 
 selves, as the great agitation pr4)cecdcd, the principles they 
 had to establish. What they discovered was that monopoly 
 always had advocates ready m.ade, who, sharing in its ex- 
 clusive advantages, had reasons for being enthusiastic in 
 its defence. Any tradesman would profit could he exclude 
 from the market rival articles of those in which he dealt. 
 His profits would increase at the expense of the purchaser. 
 Themonopolist dealer considers this protection, but the pub- 
 lic, who arc the customers of the market, find it to be but 
 I)rotcclion on one side — the protection of the seller wlnlo 
 10 has bis hands in the pocket of tho buyer. What tho 
 public want is free inircbasc in a free market, the power to 
 procure what they want from whoever has it to orter. Free 
 buying — that is ]»rotection to the customer. The doctrino 
 of the purchaser is as much food as a man can buy, for as 
 much wages as a man can earn, for as much work as a man 
 can do ; and is the natural, an<l ought to be the inalienoble, 
 birthright of every man who has tho strength to labor and 
 the will to work. On other things besides corn, protection 
 was always on tho side of the seller until the Anti-Corn 
 Law League freed all English industry from restrictive im- 
 posts. These *• free traders," as the Leaguers were styled, 
 were opposed by an organized party who took the title of 
 " protectionists," who maintained (I) that protection was 
 necessary to keep certain lands in cultivation ; (2) that it 
 was desirable to cultivate as much laml as ]MJssiltIc in order 
 to improve the country; (3) that if improvement by that 
 means were to cease, there must be depcmlence on the for- 
 eigner for a large (lortion of the food of the peojde ; (1) 
 that such dependence would lie fraught with immense dan- 
 ger. In the event of war supplies might be stopped, for 
 the ports might be blockaded, the result being famine, dis- 
 ease, and civil war. (5) That the advantage gained by pro- 
 tection enabled the landed proprietors and their tenants to 
 encourage nmnufaclures and trade: so much so that wove 
 the corn laws abolished half the country shopkeepers would 
 be ruined ; that would be followed by the stoppage of many 
 mills and factories : large numbers of the working classes 
 would be thrown idle, disturbances would ensue, cajdtal 
 would be withdrawn, and no one could venture to say what 
 would he the final consequences. By this formidable enu- 
 meration it was made to appear that the end of EnglantI 
 was certainly at hand if the corn monopoly was disturbed. 
 No country in the world can hope to put on record a more 
 appalling set of consequences if protecti(ui is menaced. In 
 Lnglan<l they exercised a commanding inlluence oven over 
 the working people, who were induced to believe that it was 
 for their interest that bread was nnide dear. The learned as 
 well as tho ignorant, the aristocracy as well as the small- 
 town shopkeeper, worn under the samo uninstructed terror. 
 Even Sir dames (iraham declared in Parlinmcnt. when a 
 fixed duty on corn instead of a fluctuating one was pro- 
 posed by Lord .lohn Russell, that " it would not be the de- 
 struction of one particular class in tho state, but (d' the stato 
 itself." Sir Robert Peel at first mot tho efforts ctf the League 
 by a sliding scale, varying with tho price of wheat. Tliis 
 wa< a thoroughly English device, worthy the genius of a 
 people who never precipitate themselves even into the truth. 
 Had .Moses been an English premier, instead of nmking tho 
 CommuadmcDts absolute, he would havo proclaimed a slid-
 
 1696 
 
 LEAGUE, HOLY— LEAMING. 
 
 ing soaie of violation. The struggle of the League lasted 
 seven year;?, iiiul cuat half a millioii of money. In the 
 fourth year of their activity ilr. Paulton stated that the 
 League oiuployed upwards of uOO persons in making up 
 electoral packets of tracts, and ilH) otlicr persons in dis- 
 tributing tlifui amongst the constituencies. lu England 
 and Scotland alono they distributed to electors 5.0011.000 
 tracts and stamped publications, while to non-clectur.> of 
 the working class they distributed o, GOO, 000 pultljcatiuns. 
 In addition, the League had stitched up in monthly mag- 
 azines and other periodicals 420,000 tracts. The entire 
 number of tracts and stamped pul>lieati<>ns issued hy the 
 League in the single year IS4;i was 9.020,000. weighing up- 
 wards of 100 tons. Such were the business features of this 
 famous association, iiut its success came from its inspira- 
 tion, and its inspiration came from its renmrkable leaders. 
 Ebenozer Elliott wrote fiery rhymes for it; Col. Thomj)son 
 wrote its Vitierh'tHin; Ocorge Wilson, the chairman of the 
 League, admittedly tiie most efficient public chairman who 
 appeared in England during his day, organized its popular 
 action ; James Noland, a vigorous speaker, acquainted with 
 the people, was a sort of outrider to the League, going into 
 market-towns on market-days on a white horse — perhaps 
 as a pacific emblem, partly a means of conspicuousncss. Ho 
 took the figliting among the belligerent farmers, so that 
 when Bright and Cobdon came the strengtli of the enemy 
 was known, and the local stock of turbulence being ex- 
 pended the great orators obtained a hearing. There was 
 one R. R. R. .Moore, with a voice that ft-Il o!i a meeting like 
 the bursting of a roi^ervoir. It was not what he said, but 
 the sound it made, that produced the oft'ect. The maddest 
 clamor was not hushed; it was overwhelmed by the new 
 roar, which was always reserved to the end of the meeting. 
 His function was to appeal for subscriptions, and he ex- 
 actly answered that end, for when his astounding voice fell 
 upon the meeting no one seemed to have the power of going 
 away. In the hours of argument Mr. Villiers's mastery of 
 the question was ever hcanl, and his high character lent 
 iuflucnco to the cause. Mr. Milner (libson, another Par- 
 liamentary voice, had a graceful and cogent eloquence 
 which always commanded attention. Mr. W. J. Fox. a 
 Unitarian minister, and subsequently M. P. for Oldham, 
 surpassed all the orators of the League of that day in bril- 
 liance of speech. Shorter and more rotund than Charles 
 James Fox, he notwithstanding produced effects of rhet- 
 oric transcending those of his great namesake, and which 
 "brilliance '* but weakly describes. Above all in renown 
 were the great names of Cobden and IJright. Mr. Cob- 
 den, the "pale-faced manufacturer," whom tiio landowners 
 believed, and the farmers were persuaded, was a Man- 
 chester enemy of all agriculture and paid emissary of 
 the Socialist insurgents of the Continent, was himself the 
 sou of a Sussex farmer, and whoso ambition was to die 
 one of that class; and did, seeking and accepting no 
 other distinction than that which his genius east around 
 his name. Ho was the logician of the League. As a mas- 
 ter of lucid statement on the platform or in Parliament he 
 left no equal at his death. When he had made a statement 
 he looked at it and around it, as though he saw it in the 
 air before him. AVhat was deficient he supplied, what was 
 redundant he withdrew, hy putting the question in another 
 way, in wliich he omitted any mischievous word or quali- 
 fied any phrase he had used which might mislead, so that 
 he could not bo misunderstood by accident nor his meaning 
 perverted hy design. This contributed to give the League 
 great ascendency, since all its adherents cr>uld quote with- 
 out fear of contradiction what he said, and his speeches of 
 one day became the authority of the next. Mr. IJright's was 
 a grander and move imposing order of eloquence, at once 
 impassioned and colossal. Cohden presented the facts, 
 Bright put lire into them. AVith the finest voice of any 
 Euroftean orator, lie displayed a measured vehemence on 
 the platform which gave the impression of unknown power. 
 He was the Vulcan of the movement, who forged at red 
 heat and hurled the burning bolts which finally set protec- 
 tion in (lames. These were the great propagandists of po- 
 litical economy who made conquest of the premier, Sir 
 Robert Peel, who won for himself an imperishable name hy 
 repealing in ISIO the corn laws, thus "giving the people 
 bread, no longer leavened," as he promlly said, " by a sense 
 of injustice." Never was such a wreck of political reputa- 
 tions as took place within a few years of the abcdition of 
 protection in corn. Nothing happened which had been pre- 
 dicted by the prognosticators of disaster. Puoi- lands were 
 more cultivated tluin hef(trc ; no stoppage of imports by 
 war has occurred; manufacturers and shopkeepers have 
 thriven beyond all the dreams (tf prosjierity ; instead of 
 rents of land falling, the aristocracy, the chief owners of 
 it, have grown rich while they slept, and farmers have 
 found *' ruin '* a very pleasant thing to them. The working 
 classes have been better instead of worse employed, and 
 
 their wages in large districts now excite the jealousy of 
 curates, while the agricultural laborers are at last able to 
 insist upon improved provision for themselves. A stimulus, 
 inconeei\ able heretofore, has been given to trade; fluctua- 
 tions in the price of corn have decreased ; api)rehensions 
 of insuthcicnt harvests no longer excite dread, and the Brit- 
 ish race are physically much improved since the days before 
 Cobden and Bright arose. The victory of (he Anti-Corn Law 
 League was the greatest ever won by reason in the history 
 of human agitations. Neither in piety nor morals nor trade 
 are men for trusting one another. Everybody is for pro- 
 tecting his neighbor from benefiting himself. Nobody is 
 for leaving freedom free. The princi])le of progress in 
 commerce and social life is not to limit litierty, but to limit 
 injury. It was the establishment of this principle in trade 
 that caused this League to be regarded as one of the histo- 
 ric forces of British civilization. Gkoiu;k J. Holvoake. 
 
 League, Hoi y[Fr./,'f.S'fl("»rf Lk/jk"), called The League 
 par fscellmrc, was entered into in I'tTll jit Peronne, by tlie 
 beads of the Catholic jiarty under the leadershij) of Guise, 
 for resistance to the spread of Protestantism and opjto- 
 sition to the succession of the Calvintstic princes to the 
 French throno. This led to the renewal of the bloody 
 civil wars, which were not ended until 1690, when Henry 
 IV. won the battle of Ivry. 
 
 LeaKe, county of Central Mississippi. Area, 570 square 
 miles. It is undulating and fertile, and is traversed by 
 Pearl River and its aflluents. Cotton and corn are staple 
 products. Cap. Carthage. Pop. 8490. 
 
 Leake (Sir John), b. at Rotherhithe, England, in 1 050; 
 distinguished himself in the naval service during the war 
 of the Spanish succession by taking Newfoundland from 
 the French (1702), for which he was made admiral and 
 knighted: relieved Gibraltar in Oct., 1701, and Mar., 17U0, 
 forcing the French and Spaniards to abandon the siege; 
 took part in the reduction of Barcelona the same year; cap- 
 tured Carthagcnaand Majorca in 170G; became commander- 
 in-ebief of the fleet in 1707; took Sardinia and I\Iiuorca 
 in 1708; became rear-admiral of (Jreat Britain and lord 
 of the admiralty in 1709; represented Rochester in Par- 
 liament for some years, and d. at Greenwich Aug. 1, 1720. 
 
 Leake (Stkphen Martin), F. S. A., b. in England in 
 1702 ; was an eminent autliority upon heraldry and numis- 
 matics: became Clarencieux Herald in 1741, Garter Herald 
 in 1754 ; published a manual of British coins, Summi liri- 
 tfitniic! Hifitftrioj in 17-t', and a Life of his uncle, Sir John 
 Leake, in 17o0. D. in London Mar. S-l, 1774, 
 
 Leake (William Mahtin), b. in London, England, in 
 Jan.. 1777; educated at the Royal Military Academy at 
 Woolwich; obtained a commission in tlie artillery in I7W4; 
 served in the West Indies; sent in 171*11 to Constantinople 
 to instruct the Turks in the use of artillery; appointed in 
 
 1500 to advise the Turks in resisting the French, and pro- 
 ceeded through Asia Minor and Syria to Egypt ; iind in 
 
 1501 was engaged with William Hamilton in making a 
 general survey of I'pper Egypt. In 1S04 he was ajq)ointcd 
 to survey tlie coasts and fortresses of European Turkey, 
 and made a careful exploration of (Jreece. For many years 
 he was frequently employed upon government commissions 
 in the East, and gave the result of his researches in the 
 learned works Jiescarches in Grrrcc (1SI4 ), 7'i'potftaphi/ 
 of Athrns (1S21). Journal of a Tour iu Atiin Minor (182-1), 
 Travch in the Morca (18H0), Travels in Northern Greece 
 (18.3.5). /V/o;joHnr«(«eff (1846), A'irm/smnM Hrffrnira (18.04), 
 Dinpufrd QucntiotiH of Ancient Geoffrapfn/ f I8i^7), antl ///«- 
 torivnf Oiitliiir of the Greek Jierohifimi (1820), and other 
 minor political works. He attained tlie rank of colonel; 
 retired from the army in 1823, and devoted himself thence- 
 forth chiefly to geography. In ls;?.S he married I^Irs. 
 Mnr.=dcn, v-idow of the historian of Sumatra and daughter 
 of the learned Orientalist Sir Cliarles Wilkins. and she 
 rendered him valuable assistance in Iiis literary tasks. 
 Filling important posts in the geographical and antiqua- 
 rian societies of London, he was for many years a lea<iing 
 authority njion Eastern questions. He was an ardent sym- 
 pathizerwith the Greeks in their struggle for independence. 
 I), at Brighton Jan. 0, 1860. 
 
 Leakes'iille, ])Ost-v., cap. of Greene co., Miss., on 
 Chiekasawha River. 
 
 Leaks'villCf post-tp. of Rockingham co., N. C. Pop. 
 20:; 1. 
 
 Leam'ing (Jeremiah), D. D.. b. at Middletown. Conn., 
 in 1710; graduated at Yale in 174;'): wits ordained to the 
 Episcopal ministry in 1748; preached eight years at New- 
 port, R. 1., twenty-one years at Norwalk, and eight years 
 at Stratford. During the Revolutionary war he was im- 
 prisoned as a Tory, contracting a disease of the hip which 
 rendered him a cripple. On account of infirmity he de- 
 clined iu 1783 an election as first bishop of the American
 
 LEAMINGTON— LEATHER. 
 
 1697 
 
 Episcopal Church. He wrote a Defence of the Epiaeopal 
 Gutfemnient of the Church (1766), a Second Vf/encf (1770), 
 Et'idencea of the Truth of Chriatianity (I'SJt. and Ditter- 
 tntinna mi Variona Subjecta ( 1789). D. at New Haven. Cono., 
 8epi. i:.. 1S04. 
 
 Leam'ington, or Leamington Priors, town of 
 EnglniHl, 2 uiilc:^ from Warwick, on the Leain. celebrated 
 for its mineral 8pring;s, saline, sulphurous, and chalybeate, 
 whii'h attract a large number of fashionable guests during 
 the season from October to May. It is wholly of modern 
 growth, and is one of the handsomest places in England. 
 Pop. 22.7.iO. 
 
 Leap Vear. See Calendar, by F. A. P. Baiisabd. 
 
 Lear ( Tobias >, b. at Portsmouth, N. II., Sept. 19.1762; 
 graduated at Harvard I'niversity in \~^^; became private 
 secretary to Washington in KSo; was consul-general at 
 Santo Domingo ^1802) and at Algiers (1S04); was in 1805 
 commissioner to negotiate peace with Tripoli, and return- 
 ing to the U. S. became accountant in the war department. 
 D. at Washington, D. C, Oct. U, 1816. 
 
 Lcar'ned (tJen. Ebrxezer), b. in Massachusetts about 
 1728; was a captain in the French war ( I7o(>-C3) ; raised 
 the ;id Massachusetts regiment at the outbreak of the Revo- 
 lutionary war; was appointed brigadier-general in Apr., 
 1777: took part in the relief of Fort Schuyler (Aug., 1777), 
 and commanded the cpntre at the battle of Stillwater (Sept. 
 19, 1777): was at Valley Forge the ensuing winter, and 
 was forL-ed by broken health to retire from service in Mar., 
 1778. A pension was granted him in 1795. D.at Oxford, 
 Mass.. Apr. I, 1801. 
 
 Lcas'burg, post-v. and tp. of Caswell co., N. C. Pop. 
 1461. 
 
 Lease. Sec Landloiid and Tenant in Law, by Prof. 
 T. W. DwiGiiT, LL.l). 
 
 Lease and Release* See Bargain and Sale, by 
 Pkok. T. W. DwiGiiT, I.L.D. 
 
 Leather [Sax. ieth^r, from /iVAe, "soft:" Ger. Leder ; \ 
 Fr. ruiVJ. the skins of animals prepared by processes which i 
 protect them from putrefaction and render them soft, pli- I 
 al)le, tough, and non-transparent. [ 
 
 Hittorxf. — .^kins constituted the first clothing of man, , 
 and have been more or less perfectly prepared from the j 
 earliest times. Persian and Babylonian leather was long 
 celebrated, and during the first centuries of the Christian \ 
 era the Russians and Hungarians were most skilful tan- 
 ners. The earliest method consisted undoubtedly in cleans- ' 
 \u% and drying the skins. Then fat, smoke, urine, sour 
 milk, brains, etc. were in time found to be cfhcaeious. 
 Later, astringents — nut-galls in the East and oak-bark in 
 the West — were introduced, giving rise to the process of 
 t'ttiin'tnj, and alum to ttiiring. It was not till the close of 
 the eighteenth century that the true nature of the processes 
 began to be understood, when the structure of the skin and 
 the chemical nature of the agents employed had become 
 knuwn. In 1778, Macbride proposed raising skins with 
 dilute sulphuric acid : in 179.1, Dej'eux recognized tannin 
 as a peculiar boly, and in 1795, Seguin showed that leather 
 tanned with oak-bark was a compound of tannin with the 
 animal tissue, and proposed his process of quick tanning. 
 Ranks in ISO I discovered the tanning projiertics of terra 
 japonica, and Pelouze in 1H;U investigated nut-galls and 
 showed the acid character of tannin. Davy, Proust, Vau- 
 quclin, Chaptal, F. Knapp, Rollet. and many other chem- 
 ists contributed important investigations on the subject. 
 Mechanism has done much more than chemistry to expe- 
 dite the operations antl improve the appearance of leather. 
 It is an unfortunate fact, however, that in most cases tho 
 quality of the leather has deteriorated in proportion as tho 
 processes have been quickened. 
 
 The Mnnufartnre of Leather is conducted in three en- 
 tirely distinct ways: I. lanninrf by tho aid of bodies con- 
 tiiiiiing tannin; II. fotri'iiy with alum and common salt; 
 Hi. f*nriM«/ with oil. The whole skin is not converted into 
 leather, hut only thai portion known as Xhc corium or drrntn, 
 which possesses a fibrous texture. This is covered on the 
 hair or bloom side by the epiclermis, consisting of nu- 
 cleated cells, and on the flesh sicle by a fatly tissue, both 
 of whii'h are removed by the tanner. 
 
 I. Tnnninfj. — The skins of almost all quadrupeds may 
 be converted into leather. In practice, the hides of bulls 
 and oxen yield the best leather for soles, harness, and for 
 belting; calves' nkins furnish the best upper leather for 
 boots and choes : lamb, sheep, goat, and buck skins are 
 generally tawed with alum or oil for the preparation of 
 glove, wash, or bookbinders' leather. Most of tho so- 
 called huckakin is now prepared by tawing the skins of 
 wild hog:^ from Africa. Alligators* hides have recently 
 been introduced for boots and t*hoes. Horse, ass, pig, and 
 seal skins are tanned for trunks and saddlerv purposes. 
 \.M,. 11.-107 
 
 Preparation of the Skina. — (1) Steeping or macerating 
 in water is resorted to in order to solteu tho skin and to 
 remove blood and dirt. Fresh hides arc macerated two or 
 three days, dried or salted hides eight or ten days. They 
 are taken out of the water twice daily and put hack again. 
 (2) Cleansing the flesh side is etfected by supporting the 
 hide on a " tree " or " beam," a stout semicircular plank, 
 and scraping it with a dressing-knife to remove the fatly 
 tissue, etc. (3) Loosening tho hair is eff"ected by sweating, 
 liming, or treatnu-nt with depilatories. Sweating is a 
 putrefactive fermentation which is often resorted tu lor solo 
 leather, as lime tends to render the leather brittle. Tho 
 hides are piled up with the flesh side inward in a tank 
 which can bo closed to retain tho heat generated by the 
 fermentation. Some salt or wood vinegar is generally 
 rubbed on them beforehand. When tlic smell of ammonia 
 is perceptible the operation is completed. Similar results 
 are obtained by hanging the hides in rooms heated to from 
 86° to 122° F.^ the air of which is kept moist by steam. 
 Liming consists in placing the hiih's in vats with milk of 
 Hme, frequently transferring them from one vat to another, 
 or taking them out and replacing them, to allow the limo 
 to act equally on every part. When the hair is found to 
 be i)roperly loosened the hides are withdrawn. Depila- 
 tories are used for skins of the smaller animal?, which will 
 sustain neither sweating nor liming. Rhusmn, a mixture 
 of orpiment and two or three times its weight of slaked 
 lime, has long been used. It is rubbed on the hair side of 
 the skin, and allowed to remain in contact till the hair is 
 sufficiently loosened. Sulphide of calcium, which is the 
 active agent in the rhusma, has of late been substituted 
 for it. The refuse lime of gasworks contains a consiiler- 
 able proportion of this comjiound, and may be used with 
 advantage. In (iermany sulphide of sodium is now used, 
 either in solution (I part to 100 of water), or as a paste with 
 three times its weight of lime and a sufficient quantity of 
 water. The paste is ajppliod with a brush to the hair side, and 
 the hides are then covered with damp matting, to prevent 
 tlie drying of the paste; tho process is complete in fifteen or 
 twenty hours. Acid liquids possess some depilatory power, 
 and are sometimes used. The Calmuck Tartars employ 
 sour milk. The acid liquid resulting from the fermenta- 
 tion of barley or rye meal in water has been used. (4) 
 Removing tho hair is efi'ected by scraj.ing on the beam with 
 the dressing-knife. The skins arc then washed in water. 
 (5) Bating is next resorted to for the purpose of removing 
 the lime and the lime soaps which have been formed in the 
 skin. The material employed is the dung of i)igeons, 
 fowls, or dogs, mixed with water. The skins are placed in 
 this, and frequently handled to secure uniform action. Tho 
 dash-wheel is used in large establishments to keep the con- 
 tents of the vat in constant motion and save handling. 
 Rating is very efl"eclive, but it is attended with some dis- 
 advantages. The putrefaction of the liate during the 
 steeping injures the skins, renders them lighter, and di- 
 minishes their strength. Tho jirocoss must therefore be 
 carefully watched ami interrupted at the iiroper moment. 
 Dilute hydrocbl<irie aeiil. and even sugar solutions — 4 or 5 
 
 (jounds of sugar or molasses to (iU gallons of water — have 
 jccn recommended as substitutes for dung. (6) Swelling 
 or raising the hides is resorted to in order to swell tho 
 fibres, and make the skins more susceptible to tho oction 
 of the tanning solutions. The swelling-bath may consist of 
 (ol barley meal and one-tenth its weight of sour dough 
 difl"u8ed in water, which yield by fermentation lactic and 
 other acids; (h) of spent tan-liquor, wliieh contains con- 
 siderable lactic and butyric acid : (f ) dilute sulphuric acid, 
 1 part of acid to H'OO or 15110 id" water. Considerable prej- 
 udice exists against sulphuric acid, tm the ground that it 
 injures the quality of the leather, hut it is still extensively 
 used. (7) Tanninfj. — The tanning materials are various 
 astringent vegetable products which contain tannin (tan- 
 nic acidt. Those most useil are oak, fir. and hemlnek bark, 
 sumac, divi-divi, Valonia nuts, myrohalans. euteh, gam- 
 bir, catechu, and kino. (Sec article Tansr' AciD.) The 
 impregnation of the hides with tannin is efi'ected by (o) 
 placing them between layers of coarsely crushed bark in a 
 vat, which is then filled with water or old liquors; (A) im- 
 mersing them in fir^t a weak aqueous infusion of the tan- 
 ning material, and afti-rwards in a stronger: [r) sewing 
 two hides together into a sack and filling this with the tan- 
 ning solution. The progress of the operation can be ascer- 
 tained by exiinnning ll»e hide on a freshly cut edge, which 
 shows the depth to which the tannic acid has penetrated. 
 When the appearance is uniform throughout the ibiekness 
 the tanning is completed. Quick tanning maybe accom- 
 plished by various means, some good, others objectionable, 
 (n) The a}>plica(ion of hydrostatic pressure to force the 
 liquor through tho hides; (t) cireuhitinn of the liquor 
 among the hides; {c) sewing tho hides into sacks, filling 
 witli oak-bark chips and water, and immersing in vals of
 
 1698 
 
 LEATHER. 
 
 catechu infusion made dense by molasses ; {d) motion of 
 the hides in the lifjuor : (e) frequent withdrawal and work- 
 ing of the hides on rollers; (/) puncturing the hides wilh 
 sharp needles to produce artificial pores; (;/) treatment, of 
 the hides in vacuo. (8) Currying is the jirocess by which 
 the tanned skins, after being converted into leather, are 
 prepared for use. For sole leather it consists in merely 
 hauunenng the dried hide to render it more compact. For 
 upjier leather, used for boots and shoes, it consists of (n) 
 pari rig with a knife to secure uniform thickness ; (i) scrap- 
 ing for a similar purpose; (.) graining with the pommel or 
 graining-board; {d) finishing off with a flattening iron or 
 horn to remove creases, etc.; (e) greasing, which consists 
 in rubbing in a mi.Nture of oil and tallow : the skins are 
 previously moistened, and after the .application of the 
 grease are hung in warm rooms to dry it iu ; (/) blacken- 
 ing, which is effected by an application of a fresh .solution 
 of oak-bark, and then of copperas (ferrous sulphate) solu- 
 tion, to which some blue vitriol (cupric sulphate) has been 
 added; (7) greasing again; (*) applying a solution of 
 glue and (allow; (0 polishing with glass. (For details with 
 regard to special varieties of leather see below, and also 
 Morocco LuATHF.n.) Lacquered leather, commonly called 
 patent leather, is made by applying a varnish to the 
 leather, and then placing it in a stove heated to about 120° 
 F. This causes the varnish to become thin, to spread out 
 evenly, and dry to a smooth, polished surface. Cow or 
 split skins are generally used for this purpose. 
 
 Corduran differs from morocco in being prepared from 
 heavy skins, and by retaining its natural grain. It is a 
 soft, fine-grained, colored leather, usually dyed red, yellow, 
 or black. It was originally prepared by the ancient Ori- 
 entals. It was first introduced into Europe at Cordova in 
 Spain, whence the name. The French name for shoe- 
 maker, cnvdouitifr, is probably derived from this leather. 
 The manufacture of this leather was established at Cor- 
 dova, and for a long time European markets were ohiefiy 
 supplied from this city. The best qualities of cordovan 
 are now made at Constantinople, Smyrna, and Aleppo; 
 Bremen supplies the best German. 
 
 Yufis or liussiii Leather is a very strong, pliant, and 
 watertight leather, usually colored red or black, which has 
 a peculiar penetrating odor, due to the oil of birch with 
 which it is impregnated. It was invented by the Bulga- 
 rians. The best is made in various Russian and Lithua- 
 nian provinces. The name yufts is derived from the Russian 
 jiifti, signifying a pair, and probably due to the fact that 
 two hides are sewed together in the form of a sack for the 
 dyeing operation. The hides of young cattle are generally 
 employerl. but sometimes horse, sheep, goat, and calfskins 
 arc employed. The hides are cleansed with lime in the 
 usual manner. They are swelled in an acid bath prepared 
 wilh malt, exhausted tan-liquor, or hiiKchkn, the dung of 
 dogs rubbed up with water. Willow, fir. and birch b.irk 
 arc employed in the tanning. The hides are first sub- 
 mitted for some days to the action of partially exhausted 
 bark ; they are then placed in vats with fresh bark, or a 
 warm infusion made from it. The tanning requires five 
 or six weeks. The tanned hides are next impregnated with 
 dii/i/iit or elachert, the oil of birch obtained from bireh-wood 
 by dry distillation. It is rubbed in on the Hesh side, and 
 when the hides are thoroughly impregnated, they are 
 stretched till soft and supidc. They are then rubbed on 
 the hair side with .alum solution, grained, and dried. The 
 dry hides are sowed together in pairs, forming sacks which 
 arc filled wilh the dye-liquor, which for red is a decoction 
 of sandal-wood. Tlio dyed leather is dressed by the usual 
 mechanical operations. Russia leather is specially useful 
 for bookbinding, the oil of birch repelling insects. 
 
 II. 'fiiwiiiij wilh Alnmiu'i S'llis ("white tanning") is 
 generally resorted to for sheep and goat skins, though it is 
 also applied to cow and ox hides for moccasin and lace 
 leather. The thick skins are prepared as for tanning ; 
 sheep and goat skina arc nuire carefully cleansed and freed 
 from hair and wool. Lime and fermented bran-liquor are 
 used, however, as already described. The skins are then 
 immersed in a solution of common salt and alum. After 
 removal from Ihe solution and drying Ihe skins appear 
 shrunken and stiff. In order to restore suppleness and 
 flexibility they are dampened with water, and subjected to 
 meeh.anical operations which stretch and knea<I them. If 
 thin they are stretched on a frame to dry. Thick hides arc 
 greased as described under Toituinf/. Fine glove-leather is 
 tawed by a different process. The .skins of kids or lambs 
 arc most carefully handled to avoid abrading or staining 
 them. They arc cleansed and unhaired by lime and bran- 
 liquora as for ordinary tawing. The tawing is effected 
 by applying a paste composed of wheat flour, yolks of eggs, 
 alum, common salt, and water. As the yolks of eggs aid 
 by furnishing tlie oil which they contain in tl»e state of 
 emulsion, which gives the kid leather its highly prized 
 
 suppleness and softness, they may be replaced by an emul- 
 sion of almond, olive, or fish oil. The skins are thoroughly 
 soaked and kneaded in the paste, to which 2 or 3 per cent, 
 of carbolic acid is often added to prevent putrefaction, and 
 packed in heaps. They are then stretched by hand and 
 rapidly dried in the air. They are then dampened, placed 
 in linen cloths, and trodden to render them soft. They 
 are then planed, dried, and planed again, polished by rub- 
 bing with a heavy glass disk or by the apprctcur, simulta- 
 neously with the" application of some white of egg, gum, 
 or fine soap, to give a gloss to the hair side, which is after- 
 wards dyed. 
 
 Shaf/rcen. — Genuine Oriental shagreen (unghi'r, saf/ri, 
 srir/rc) is a variety of tawed leather which has long been 
 celebrated for its hardness and strength. Its appearance 
 is very peculiar, the grain side being covered with globular 
 granules, which are produced by stamping the hard seeds 
 of the wild orach (Chenopodiiim nlbmn) into the wet hide, 
 and afterwards knocking them out. This leather origin- 
 ated in the East, and the best is now brought from Persia, 
 Constantinople, Algiers, and Tripoli. The name shagreen 
 is also applied to fish-skin prepared for covers and for pol- 
 ishing wood. 
 
 III. Tmeing wilh Oil {" Samian tawing "), for the prep- 
 aration of shammy (chamois) or ivash-leather. For this 
 leather the upper or exterior layer of the corium of the 
 thick skins is cut away, as it is too compact and prevents 
 the ready absorption of oil. Thin skins, as those of lambs 
 and goats, are not deprived of the exterior layer. The 
 skins are prepared with lime and the subsequent bran-bath, 
 as in alum-tawing. They are then stretched and rubbed 
 with oil, which is worked in by the fulling-machine. They 
 are then hung in the air. Oiling, stamping in the fulling- 
 machine, and exposure to the air are repeated till a suf- 
 ficient quantity of oil has lieen worked into the skin. The 
 skins are then heaped together in a warm room to produce 
 a kind of fermentation, which must be carefully watched, 
 and occasionally interrupted by airing to prevent over- 
 heating. The oil becomes rancid by these operations, and 
 appears to combine wilh the animal fibres of the skin. 
 The uncombincd oil is then removed by a tepid bath of 
 potash solution, and the skins are wrung out and dried. 
 The softness and suppleness are restored by dressing. 
 Cordovan or Turkey leather is oil-tawed, without having 
 the hair side removed, while the flesh side is blackened in 
 the usual wav. 
 
 Stearic Acid Taicinr). — According to Knapp's researches, 
 a very good white kid leather is obtained by tawing the 
 epidermis (lilosa) from lamb or goat skins in a saturated 
 solution of stearic acid in alcohol. The leather thus ob- 
 tained is very soft, has a whiter color than ordinary glace 
 leather, and a beautiful gloss. 
 
 Sialistio. — According to the report of the ninth census 
 there were in 1S70 in the U. S. 42:17 tanneries, with a cap- 
 ital of $42,720,505, erajdoying 20,784 hands, and paying 
 $7,9:14,416 in wages per annum. The bark employed 
 amounted to 1, 255, ;i4fi cords, valued at $0,089,303; 8,788,752 
 hides, 9,664,148 skins, and other materials of a value of 
 $1,631,234, wore used, the t^^tal value of (he materials be- 
 ing $63,069,491. The products were 17,577,404 sides of 
 leather and 9,794,148 skins, of an aggregate value of 
 $86,169,883. There were also 3083 establishments for cur- 
 rying leather, with a capital of $12,303,785, employing 
 10,027 hands, and paying .$4,154,114 in wages. Theae 
 consumed — 
 
 9,13:!,:W0 sides, value $33,784,271 
 
 4,084,980 skins, value 6,833,215 
 
 2,089,754 gallons oil, value ''oi'?i?2 
 
 Other materials, value 1.305.6 12 
 
 Cost of all materials S43,.56.5,,')93 
 
 and produced 9,133.330 sides of leather and 4,084.980 
 skins, the total value of which was $54,191,167. New York 
 and Boston arc the great markets for all sorts of leather in 
 this country. 
 
 Lilcratiire. — The. Art) of Taniiinr) and Curryinr). by Camp- 
 bell Morfit; A New avd'ComplrIc Trealinc on tlie Artn of 
 Tannine/, Curryimi, and Lealhcr-IJrem'nij, by 11. Dussauee; 
 C. H. Schmidt's Hnndliuch der Lohrjcrhcrei ; Ilandburh der 
 WciHsyerberei ; Die Siiffianfabricalion ; Die Lcdcrfdrbe- 
 kunsl ; Die A'i! rtchnerkuniit ; and Knodorer's Xeue Wich- 
 li<;c Erfindun// in der Lnhijerherei ; Hie Fabrikalion den 
 Lohfiaren Ledem in Deultehland, by F. A. Gunther; Lehr- 
 buck der SohUedertjcrberei. by Von Bichon ; Naliir nnd De- 
 sens der Irerberei, by F. Knapp ; Die Dentnehe (Jerberzeitnnr/ ; 
 Nenea Journal der ijeitammten Gerberei ; Gerber Conner ; 
 Cuire et Pe.anx. by H. Villain ; MaKriel den Indrntries dn 
 t'lii'i-. by J. P. Damouretti ; Cuim el Peanr, by M. Fauler, 
 Rapports dn .lury International Exp. Vnir. 18$7 ; Ure's 
 Dictionary of Artn. Mnnnfaclnres, and Mines; Wagner's 
 rcc/iiin/o./'v ;" Watls's Diilionary ; Muspratt's Chemistry, 
 especially last German edition, C. F. Chandler.
 
 LEATIIEK-WOOD— LEBANON. 
 
 1609 
 
 Leatlier'-wood, Moose*\vood, or Wic'opy, the 
 
 lUrvn piiiugtrin, a shrub of tbo order Thyiuelacea?, i« abun- 
 dant in the iiurtheni parts of North America. Its tough 
 b;irk was Ui^cd by the ludiaus fur thongs or cordage. Tbo 
 bark has irritant cathartic properties, and its decoction in 
 small doses is recommended fur tho cure of sick headache. 
 Its wood is very white, soft, and brittle. 
 
 Leather\vood,post-tp. of Henry co., Va. Pop. 3673. 
 
 Leathcs (StanluvV D. D., b. at EUesborough, Eng- 
 land, Mar. 21, 1S30; educated at ('auii>ridgc ; served us 
 curate in several churches in London ; became in ISO'S pro- 
 fes.^or of Hebrew in King's College, London, and has espe- 
 cially devoted liimself to Christian evidences. IIo was 
 Boylo lecturcrfrom ISfiS to 187*', Ihilsean lecturer at Cam- 
 bridge in 1S73, and Bampton lectun'r at Oxford in 1S74; 
 is a member of the Anglican commission for tho revision 
 of the translation of the Old Testament, and was one of tho 
 delegates to tho Evangelical Alliance in the session of 
 1S7;I in New York. Ilis best known work is the W'itneHs 
 of Si. John to Cfirhf. 
 
 Jj'Eaa qui Court, a former county of Nebraska, now 
 called Kni>x (which sec). 
 
 Leav'el (Rev. Hadi-n), M. D., b. in Madison co., Ivy., 
 May, 1812: graduated at the rniversity of Pennsylvania 
 in 1833; practised medicine in Kentucky and Jli^sissippi 
 for several years, and in 1847 entered tho ministry, in which 
 be rose to eminence. Ho was pastor of t!io Alctbodist 
 Episcopal Church, South, in Vicksburg, at tho time of his 
 death, Sept. 11, 1847. T. 0. f^i'MMEiis. 
 
 Lcav'en [Fr. /er«m, from Lat. fcvarc, to "raise"], a 
 piece of sour dough used for raising bread. The principle 
 of its action is the same as that of Ykasv (which see). 
 
 IjCav'cnworth, county of N. E. Kansas, bounded E. 
 
 i)artly by the Mi.'^souri River and S. by the Kansas River. 
 [t has a rich and well-cultivated soil. Coal is found. Cat- 
 tle, grain, and wool are staple products. Tobacco, car- 
 riages, and clothing arc the most important articles of 
 manufacture. Tho county is traversed by several railroads. 
 Cap. Leavenworth. Pop. 32,444. 
 
 Leavcuwortliy post-v., cap. of Crawford co., Ind., 
 on the Ohio River, CO miles below Louisville, Ky. It has 
 a gracliMi s'shool, a newspaper, and is a good shipping-point. 
 Tho Great Wyandotte Cavo is situated 6 miles E. of the 
 town. Pop. 007. 
 
 Leavenworth^ city and cap. of Leavenworth co., Kan., 
 on the W. bank of the Missouri River. 39 miles from Kan- 
 gas City, Mo., and 312 miles by land above St. Louis ; E. 
 terminus of tho Kansas Central fnarrow gauge) and the 
 Kansas Paoific R. Rs, ; N. terminus of the Leavenworth 
 Lawrence and Galveston, and the W. terminus of the S. \V. 
 line of the Chicago Rock Island and Pacilic R. R., which 
 latter roa<l crosses tho Missouri at this point over a mag- 
 nificent iron bridge constructed at a cost of $l.nOO,OUU. 
 The Atlantic and Pacific, known as tho Missouri Pacific, 
 ami tho Kansas City St. Jo?epli and Council lilufls R. Rs.. 
 also pass through the city.. Leavenworth contains 27 
 churches, 9 commodious school-buildings, several private 
 seminaries, Slate normal schoid, the St. Mary's (Catholic) 
 Academy, 2 orphan asylums, 4 daily and weekly ucws- 
 
 Impers, 4 monthly periodicals, 2 insnrnm-o companies, 6 
 tanks, a paid fire department, and 4 miles of street rail- 
 way. The Kansas State penitentiary is situated 4 miles S, 
 of tho city. Fort Leavenworth military reservation ad- 
 joins the city on the \., and has a military prison. Leaven- 
 wrtrlh d-Tives its chief impnrtancv from the nmnufaoturo 
 of carpets, furniture, stoves, engines, mining machinery, 
 and iron bridges. It is the largest city in tho State, a great 
 centre of trade with the Territories, and is noted among 
 Western cities for its elegant resiliences an<l its many miles 
 of sha<le<l thoroughfares. The first house was built in 1H.")4. 
 I'op. 17, X7;!. J. W. RoBKHTS, K». " CoJIMEnriAL." 
 
 Leaven worth, post-v. and tp. of Brown co., Minu., 17 
 niiU'S S. W. of New Clm. Pop. 433. 
 
 lieavcnworth (Ei-tAs Warneii), LL.D., b. at Canaan, 
 ('olnml>ia co., X. V., Dec. 20, 1SI)3 ; spent his childhood and 
 yuth at Great Harrington, Mass.; graduated at Yale Col- 
 lege in 1S2I; began the study of law the same year in tho 
 ollii'C of William Culleu Bryant at Great Harrington ; spent 
 2 years at tho Litchfield (C(mn.) law-school; admitted to 
 tho bar in Jan., 1827, in which year In- removed to Syra- 
 cuse, N. Y,, where he practised law with success for many 
 years until forced by ill health to abandon it. lie was 
 mayor of Syracuse in 18 10 and IS.'ill; member of assembly 
 in 18.")0 and 18."j7: secretary of State 18.'(l-:).'i, to which 
 ofiice be was again nominated in 18.M); president of the 
 board fif quarantine commissioners ISfifl; elected regent 
 of the university Feb., ISfil ; appointed by President I:iin- 
 coln in Mar.. ISfil, cuinmi.-^inji' r under the convention 
 
 with New Granada; was in 1865 president of a board of 
 commissioners to locate the State asylum for the blind, an^l 
 in the same year trustee of the State asylum for idiots, to 
 which post he was twice reappointed; member for the fifth 
 district of the constitutional commission 1872; published 
 in 1873 the dcncnloijif of the Leavenworth Famifi/ in the 
 U. S., an elaborate work, the result of years of research 
 and correspondence, and was elected 1874 a representative 
 in the V. S. Congress. He is now (1875) president of the 
 Syracuse savings bank, of the gaslight and waterworks 
 companies of that city, and holds numerous other posts of 
 trust and responsibility. 
 
 Leavenworth i Gen. Hknrv), b. in Connecticut Dec. 
 10, 17;C; studied and ])ractised law; entered the army in 
 Apr., 1812, as captain ot" the 2jtli New York Infantry ; was 
 made raajorof tho Uth Infantry in Aug., 1813; commanded 
 his regiment at tho batllis of Chippewa (.luly 5) and Niag- 
 ara Falls (July 23, 181 1). Ijciug wounded in the latter en- 
 gagement; made lieutenant-colonel and brevet colonel for 
 bravery in the above engagements; lieutenant-colonel jth 
 Infantry of tho regular army in Feb., 1818; commandeil 
 expedition against Arickarco Indians on the npper Mis- 
 souri River; made brevet brigadier-general in July, 1824; 
 colonel 3d Infantry in Dec, 182.'). He founded several 
 military posts on the Western frontier, one of which, Fort 
 Leavenworth, was the nucleus of the present flourishing 
 city of Leavenworth, Kau. 1). at Cross Timbers, Indian 
 Territory, July 21, 1834. 
 
 Leaves. Seo Leaf, by Phi>f. Asa Gray, M. D., LL.D. 
 
 Leavltt, tp. of Oceana co., Mich. Pop. 316. 
 
 Leavittf post-v. of Monroe tp., Carroll co., 0., 7 miles 
 W. S. AV. of CarrolUou. It has 1 weekly newspaper. 
 
 Leavitt (Joshua), D. D., b. at Heath, Franklin co.. 
 Mass., Sejit. 8, 17Ui; graduated at Yalo in 1814; studied 
 law, and in LU'.I was admitted to the bar ; ]iractiscd law in 
 Heath, Mass., and I*utney, Vt. ; grailnated in 1826 at tlie 
 Yale Divinity School; was tho highly successful pastor of 
 a Congregational churcli at Stratford, Conn., 1825-28 : 
 editor of the Sttilor'ti Maffnzinr 1828~.'}1 ; of the Xew Yin-!: 
 EvantjeUiit 18:!l-37; of the Kinancipator 1837—17: and in 
 1848 became connected with the Independent, which eoii 
 nection ho retained till his death. Mr. Leavitt was always 
 active in tho cause of Sunday schools, temperance, seamen s 
 aid, and tho abolition of slavery. Ho was a zealous frei-- 
 trader, and greatly iufluencoci the politit-iil opinion of his 
 time. 1». Jan. 16," 1873, in Brooklyn, N. V. 
 
 Lebade'a [.\epa5<to], now Livaoia, an ancient town 
 of Bo-otia, at the northern foot of Helicon, noted for the 
 cave of Trophonius and a famous oracle. 
 
 Leb'anon [Heb„ from Uibimn, " to be white;" Assyrian 
 Labniniu ; <iv. At^ai-o?; Lat. Lihanua ; Arabic Jtbcl Lih- 
 nnn~\, a celebrated range of mountains in Syria, extending 
 about 110 miles along the sea-coast frtnn the Xuhr el 
 Kibir (Kleulherusl River on the N. to the Nahr-el-I.itany 
 (Lcontes) on the S. ; t". v. from the great pass opening into 
 the valley of Hamah (Hamath). hit. 34° 40', to the vicinity 
 of Tyre, in lat. 3;!° 20', and separated by the elevated val- 
 ley of El-Bukaa (Conle-Syria). U) to 20 utiles wide, from 
 the parallel range of Anti-IjKHANon (which see), similarly 
 extending from near Homs (Kmesa) on the N. to tbo peak 
 (d'Jebel-esh- Sheikh {Hcrmon). a few miles S. of Damascus. 
 In tho centre of tho valley of Kl-Bukaa are the niojestic 
 ruins of B,\Ai,Bi:r (wliich see), tho ancient IIcHopoIis, near 
 which rise tho Aasy (Orontes) and Litnny rivers, the ior- 
 mer fl(»wing N. to the Cilician liulf. liie latter S. to the 
 Mediterranean, above Tyre. Physically, the mountains of 
 Lebanon are connected northwards through their prolonga- 
 tion, the .L-bel Nusarieh. with llie great chain of Tauius in 
 Asia Minor, and southward, through the hnver mountnins 
 of Palestine and Moab, with tbo Sinaitic group and the 
 coast range of W. Arabia; and some modern geographers 
 empbiv the name in this wider sense. Lebanon was at the 
 earliest recorded i)eriod the chief geographical feature and 
 eastern limit of Pikkvuia (which see); it was altermitrly 
 subject to Assyria and Kgypt. whose monarchs often em 
 ployed its celebrated cedars to supply timber for their edi 
 fices, and was included within tho boundaries of the llelirew 
 " land of promise " ( Num. x.xxiv. : Deut. xi. 2 I ; Josh. i. 4 ), 
 though it never came into tln'ir possession, unless in a \ ery 
 limited sense for a brief period, and may properly lie con- 
 sidered as the northern boundary itf the ILdy Land. The 
 books, projdietie, poetic, and historiciil, of the Old Tes- 
 tament al)onnil in references to Lebanon, which supplied 
 the timber for Solomon's magniticcnt tempi*- and palaces; 
 and tho term usually, though not uniformly, inclmles both 
 ranges. Lebanon proper was called by the early Arabian 
 geographers Jehel Libnan, and V>y later writers .lebct-el- 
 (Jhurby. "the west mountain," in distinction from Auli- 
 Lfbanon. calbri Jebel esli Shurkv. " iIk- ni-t mnnira ii."
 
 1700 
 
 LEBANON— LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE. 
 
 These names, however, are cow seldom heard in Syria, 
 where, besides local names, the northern section is called 
 Jcbel-Akkar, the central Sunnin, and the southern Jebel- 
 ed-Druze. Between the mountains and the sea the plain uf 
 Ph(jeuicia is of varying breadth, but never more than 10 or 
 15 miles, while spurs are several times thrown off which jut 
 precipitously into the sea. The base of the range has an 
 average breadth of 20 miles ; the peak of Jebel Tiinarun 
 attains a height of 10,j:j3 feet, that of l>ahar-el-Kudib 
 10.051, and Sunnin S500 feet. The elevation decreases 
 towards th© S., and falls rapidly from the " twin-peaks" 
 of Tomat-Niha (G500 feet) to the wild, abrupt ravine of 
 the Litany, whose banks sometimes rise perpendicularly 
 lOUU feet. The mass of Lebanon is a hard, partially crys- 
 tallized Jurassic limestone, surmounted in many places by 
 a grayish white cretaceous deposit, whi-nce perhaps the 
 name, more usually derived from the snows, which cover 
 the main ridge from December to March. The southern 
 section exhibits traces of violent volcanic action, and 
 earthquakes are still frequent, that of ISltT having buried 
 thousands of persons in Safed beneath the ruins of their 
 homes. The inhabitants are chiefly Maronites, a Christian 
 sect, in the N., and Druses, professing a corrupted Moham- 
 medanism, in the .S. These races are rivals, and have for 
 centuries been at feud: a terrible massacre of Christians 
 in 1860 resulted in European intervention. The district is 
 subject to a Maronite governor, depending upon the pasha- 
 Hc of Damascus. There are more than 'Si) ruins of ancient 
 temples within this region, which has still a considerable 
 population. Cap. Nahr-ed-Dammur, formerly called Deir- 
 el-Kamr. Porter C. Bliss. 
 
 Lebanon, county of S. E. Pennsylvania. Area, 300 
 square miles. It consists in the main of the very fertile 
 Lebanon Valley, and is bounded N. W. by a range of the 
 Kittatinny Mountains. Its soil is a rich reddish clay loam. 
 Live-stock and grain are staple products. Clothing, metallic 
 wares, tobacco, furniture, carriages, flour, etc. are largely 
 manufactured. The county is traversed by the Lebanon 
 Valley, the North Lebanon, and the Lebanon and Fre- 
 montR. Rs. Cap. Lebanon. Pop. .'>4,006. 
 
 Lebanon, post-v., cap. of De Kalb co., Ala., on the 
 Alabama and Chattanooga R. R. (Brandon's Station). 
 
 Lebanon, tp. of Sharpe co., Ark. Pop. 609. 
 • Lebanon, post^tp. of Xew London co., Conn., contains 
 several villages, and has important manufacturing interests. 
 Pop. 2211. 
 
 Lebanon, post-v. of St. Clair co.. III., 24 miles E. of 
 St. Louis, on the Ohio and Mississippi R. R., has 7 churches, 
 4 hotels, 1 bank, 1 weekly and 1 semi-monthly newspaper, 1 
 machine-shop, 2 large mills, and a great variety of stores. 
 It is noted for its educational advantages, being the seat 
 of McKendree College (Methodist, founded 1835), the oldest 
 institution of the kind in the West, and is quite a summer 
 resort for residents of St. Louis. Pop. 2117. 
 
 T. W. EcKERT, Ed. "Journal." 
 
 Lebanon, post-v. of Centre tp., cap. of Boone co.. Ind., 
 at the junction of the Indianapolis Cincinnati and Lafay- 
 ette with the Anderson Lebanon and St. Louis R. R., 26 
 miles X. W. of Indianapolis, has 2 weekly newspapers, 5 
 churches, 3 banks, 4 hotels, 3 mills, 3 stave-factories, an 
 acadctDj, and 47 stores. Pop. 1572. 
 
 T. IL Harrison, Ed. "Pioneer." 
 
 Lebanon, post-v., cap. of Marion co., Ky.. 67 miles 
 S. E. of Louisville, on the Kuoxville branch of the Louis- 
 ville Nashville and Great Southern R. R.. at its junction with 
 the Cumberland and Ohio, has 2 national banks, 8 churches, 
 
 2 hotels, 2 weekly newspapers, 3 high schools, 1 carriage 
 and 1 furniture manufactory, and is the shipping-point for 
 the productions of several counties. Pop. 925. 
 
 James W. Hopper, Eik " Standard." 
 Lebanon, post-tp. of York co., Me., on the New Hamp- 
 shire line and on the Portland and Rochester R. R. It has 
 
 3 churches. Pop. 1953. 
 
 Lebanon, tp. of Clinton co., Mich. Pop. 1119. 
 
 Lebanon, tp. of Dakota co., Minn. Pop. 216. 
 
 Lebanon, tp. of Cooper co.. Mo. Pop. 3316. 
 
 Lebanon, jiost-v. and tp., cap. of Laclede co., Mo., on 
 the Atlantic and Pacific R. R., 185 miles S. W. of St. Louis. 
 It is very pleasantly ?ituated. contains 5 churches, 2 news- 
 papers, a first-class seminary and a number of stores, and 
 is the business centre of a large tract of surrounding coun- 
 try. Poj>. of V. 10<»0 ; of tp. 3358. 
 
 J. G. Lehen, Ed. and Prop, of "Anti-Monopolist." 
 
 Lebanon, post-v. and tp. of Grafton co., N. H., on the 
 Connecticut River and Northern R. R., 65 miles N. W. of 
 Concord, directly opposite White River Junction. Vt., has 
 ;'• churches, 1 national and 1 savings bank. I weekly news- 
 paper, numerous stores, a fine park, extensive manufactures 
 
 of furniture, agricultural implements, iron castings, etc., 
 and the only clastic sponge manufactory in the II. S. The 
 W<.'gt Village has a church, a hotel, railroad shops, and the 
 Tilden Ladies' Seminary. Water-power is afforded by the 
 Muscoma River, which falls -100 feet within the town. 
 Principal industries, farming and wool-growing. Pop. 
 3094. E. H. Chenev, Ed. " Frf.e Press." 
 
 Lebanon, tp. of Hunterdon co.. N. J. Pop. 3561. 
 
 Lebanon, post-v. of Clinton tp.. Hunterdon co., N. J., 
 on the New .Jersey Central R. R. It has important manu- 
 factures and trade. 
 
 Lebanon, post-tp. of Madison co.. N. Y., on the Syra- 
 cuse and Chenango Valley R. R. Tlic Midland and llie 
 Utica Clinton and Biughamtun R. Rs. also traverse the 
 town. Pop. 1559. 
 
 Lebanon, tp. of Meigs co., 0. Pop. 1823. 
 
 Lebanon, a v. of Bethel tp., Monroe co., 0. (P. 0. 
 name, Masterton). Pop. 124. 
 
 Lebanon, post-v. of Turtle Creek tp., cap. of Warren 
 CO., 0., 5 miles from the Little Miami R. R. and 30 m. N. K. 
 of Cincinnati, has 7 churches, 2 weekly newspapers, 3 
 hotels, 2 planing-mills, a new town-hall, a public library, 
 a national normal school with 1600 students, a county in- 
 firmary and orphans' home. Principal industry, farming. 
 Pop. 2749. Wm. C. McClintock, Pib. "Western Star." 
 
 Lebanon, post-b., cap. of LeV>anon co.. Pa., beautifully 
 located on tlie Lebanon Valley and the Philadelphia and 
 Reading R. Rs.. 25 miles E. of Harrisburg and 5 miles N. 
 of the great Cornwall iron-hills. It has 15 churches, 1 daily, 
 
 1 semi-monthly, and 7 weekly (2 German) newspapers, and 
 is well provided with banks, hotels, schools, factories, ma- 
 chine-shops, and stores. Copper, marble, and anthracite 
 coal abound, tlie latter supplying 8 large furnaces. It is 
 regularly laid out, well built of stone and brick, has a fine 
 water and gas supply and other modern improvements. 
 Situated on the Swatara Creek and Union Canal, it is the 
 centre of an active trade. The original settlers were (ier- 
 mans, but English is now generallv spoken. Pop. 6727. 
 
 T. T. AVurth. Ed. " CouRiEn." 
 
 Lebanon, tp. of Wayne co., Pa. Pop. 628. 
 
 Lebanon, post-v.. cap. of Wilson co., Tenn., 30 miles 
 
 E. of Nashville, and 6 miles S. of the Cumberland River, 
 
 at the E. terminus of the Tennessee and Pacific R. R. and 
 
 of the Lebanon and Nashville telegraph line, has 7 churches, 
 
 2 national banks, 4 hotels, a large woollen-factory, flouring 
 and other mills, a market-bouse, town-hall. Masonic and 
 Odd Fellows halls, a business and telegraph college, 2 
 female seminaries, several public schools, 1 weekly news- 
 paper and 1 quarterly (educational) periodical. It is th© 
 seat of Cumberland University, founded in 1842 by the 
 Cumberland Presbyterian Church, which is now fully or- 
 ganized with six departments ( including law. theology, and 
 engineering), a library of 6000 volumes, 12 professors, and 
 an average of 301) students, including the preparatory de- 
 partment. Pop. 2073. R. L. C. White. Ed. "Herald." 
 
 Lebanon, post-v. and tp.. cap. of Russell co., Va., in 
 Clinch River Valley, 15 miles N. of Abingdon and 21 miles 
 from the Atlantic Mississippi and Ohio R. R., has 2 
 churches, 1 weekly newspaper, a male and female academy, 
 and several hotels, stores, and shops. Principal business, 
 farming. Pop. of v. 209: of tp. 2246. 
 
 J. IJ. Jones, Ed. '* Rissell Progress." 
 
 Lebanon, tp. of Dodge co., Mis. Pop. 1621. 
 
 Lebanon, tp. of Waupacca co., Wis. Pop. 657. 
 
 Lebanon Springs, post-v. of New Lebanon tp.. Co- 
 lumbia CO.. N. V. It is a place of summer resort. Here 
 is a copious mineral spring, having u constant temperature 
 of 70° F. The waters have nearly the taste of pure water, 
 and are so abundant as to furnish a valuable motive-power. 
 The hotel accommodations are ample, and the waters have a 
 good reputation in many diseases. In the vicinity there 
 arc large manufactories of tbermomelers and of phuruia- 
 ceutical preparations. (See New Lebanon and Moi st 
 Lebanon, N. Y.) Near at hand are several communities 
 of Shakers. The scenery is delightful. 
 
 Lebanon Valley College, located at Annville. Leba- 
 non CO., Pa., on the Philadelphia and Reading R. R., 21 
 miles E. of Harrisburg. It was organized and chartered 
 by the State legislature in 1867. From this time until 1871 
 it was under the supervision and jurisdiction of T. R. Viek- 
 roy. In Juno of this last-mentioned year the board of 
 trustees assumed the control and reorganized the faculty, 
 with L. H. Hammond, the present incunibcnt, as president. 
 The growth of this institution has been gradual and con- 
 stant, and though young it now has a respectable number 
 of students in each uf the college classes. Young ladies 
 are admitted, and have equal advantages with young men. 
 They may pursue the same course of study or the one es-
 
 LEBAS— LECCE. 
 
 1701 
 
 pcciolly arranged for them. In this institution tho joint 
 education of the sexes proves not only successful, but in 
 many respects advantageous. There are cabinets of minerals 
 and a museum well begun, and the trustees have ordered 
 the procuring of a library and complete apparatus during 
 tho present year. ' h. U. H.vmuond. 
 
 lipbas' (Jkax Bai'tiste ApoLi.iNAinE). b. in a village 
 in the ileparlmcnt of \'ar, France, Aug. i:i, I"'.'"; studied 
 at the Kcolc Polytcchnique; was employed since 1823 as an 
 engineer in the French navy : became keeper of the naval 
 inuseura in 1S39, and d. in Paris in 187:!. His name be- 
 came nuite famous on account of his success in tratisport- 
 ing the obelisk of Luxor, weighing oOd.noO pounds, from 
 Thcbis in Egypt to Place de la Concorde in Paris, which 
 ho has described in his L' Obrfisqtie dc Luxor, hittoire de 
 sa tninnhttiun d Puriii, etc. (18.37). 
 
 Lc Bas (Philippe), b. at Paris .Tunc 18, 1794; served 
 first in the navy, then in the army, at last in the oBico of 
 the prefect of the Peine, and was appointed by Queen Ilor- 
 tense governor to Prince Louis Xapuleon in 1820. In 1827 
 ho returned to Paris; was appointed professor in Greek at 
 tho Lyceum in 1829; and made a scientific journey in 
 Greece and .^sia Minor in 1842 at the expense of the gov- 
 ernment. His priiicijial writings are Expfiration rfe« ftt- 
 Hrriptiiina [frrcifHPH ft t'ltiiifx reciieitticH en (ir*'cf (ISS,*)), and 
 Viti/iifje archhtloijiifue en Grice et en Aaie Mincure (1847). 
 D. at' Paris in 1881. 
 
 Lebcau' (Jean Loi is Joseph), b. Jan. 2, 1794, at Iluy, 
 in tho province of Li6ge, Belgium ; studied law, ])raetised 
 as an advocate with great success; founded in 1824 the 
 Junrntii I'tititiijuf de Li<';fc; brought about that ulliimee 
 between the clerical and liberal parties which made it pos- 
 sible for the Belgian provinces to dissolve the union with 
 tho Nethcrlanils ; opposed, as member of the congress of 
 1830 and minister of foreign affairs 1831, the annexation 
 to France and the election of the duke of Nemours as king; 
 served under King Leopold as minister of justice to 1834 ; 
 was called once more in 1840 to the ministry of foreign af- 
 fairs, hut retired before the violent opposition of tho cleri- 
 cal ]iarly. D. in his native city Mar. 19. 18G5. lie wrote 
 ObaiTVutinna aur le Ponvoir Rotfal dana ica Etuta Conatitn~ 
 tionrja (1830). (See Lea Fondateura de la Monarchie BvltfCf 
 by Juste, 1865.) 
 
 Lebedin', town in Kussia, in the government of Khar- 
 kov, with considerable local trade and manufactures. Pop. 
 13,377. 
 
 Leblanc' (UrhaisI, b. at La Commanderie, Dcux- 
 Sdvres, France. Nov. 20, 1798: studied veterinary science 
 at tho school of A I fort, where he afterward became professor ; 
 was appointed surgeon to the prefecture of police at Paris 
 in 1832, and elected member of the Medical Academy. Be- 
 sides a great number of minor essays, communicated to 
 various medical periodicals, he published, together with 
 Trousseau, Atlita dn IJirtionnaire de Midevinc et de Chi- 
 rurt/ie vfterinnirea, and, together with Follin, Traits, dc 
 fnitfintuf/ie ciuHjnir/-e (2 vols., 1866). 
 
 I,e lltnirf post-tp. of Erie eo.. Pa., on ^ branch of tho 
 Pliil!i.|.l|.lua and Erie R. K. Pop. 1748, 
 
 1,(1 liii'iir (Edmovo), marshal of France, b. at Paris 
 Dee. fi, 1809; received his military education in the Keolo 
 PoIyteehnif|ue : entered the artillery in 1822, and distin- 
 giiished himself as oflieer in the staff during the expedition 
 against Constantine. From I8:',7 to 1840 he served in Algeria; 
 returnetl then to France ; bcL-ame second commander of the 
 Keolo Polyteehniquo in 1818, and went in 1864 to Crimea 
 as colonel and chief of the stalTof the artillery. Here ho 
 dislinguisheil himself greatly, both in the battle of Alma 
 and at the artillery attack on ,^ebaslopoI, which ho partly 
 leil ; in Ni>v., 1861, he was made a brigadier-general. After 
 tho close of the Crimean campaign he was sent tc Kinboorn 
 as coininander-in-ehief, and remaineil there to 1865. Ho 
 then received the command of the artillery of the guard; 
 was made a general of division in 1867, aii'l look an im- 
 portant anil l)rilliant part in the Italian war of 1869. In 
 1889 ho was commanrler of the 8th corps, stationed at Tou- 
 louse. Unfortunately for him, Niel d. Aug. 14. 1889, and 
 be was called npttn to succeed him as minister of war, for, 
 allli'ni;.:b an exeidlent ofiieer, he was unable tn master an 
 administration of such dimensions. Mar. 21. 1870, he was 
 created a marshal, and four months afterward the war with 
 tlermany began. Since the last victorious wars the or- 
 giini/.atiim of the French army had made great progress 
 uiiiler the talented and energelieni government of Niel ; 
 thus Lo Bieuf believed that tho army was fully prepared 
 for war. Hut he had not been able to understand how 
 much superior was the organization of the (lerman army. 
 Jle received the eminent position as chief of the staff of the 
 emjieror — that is, of actual commander of the army, as the 
 emperor, even bodily, was unable to command in jicrson. 
 
 But this task was too heavy for the marshal. The dispo- 
 sitions of the French army at the end of July, 1870, and 
 the first strategical measures against tho invading (iernian 
 army, showed the greatest lack of preparation and a fatal 
 weakness in the command. A short time after (.^ug. 12, 
 1870) Baiaine was made commander-in-chief, and Le litcuf 
 received the command of the 3d corps. In this position he 
 took an active and brilliant part in the battles of Vionvillo 
 and Gravelotte ( Aug. IG and 18), and fought at Noissevillc 
 (.\ug. 31 and Se]it. 1 ) with such a furious stubbornness that 
 the French army jirobably would have succeeded in break- 
 ing through the tierinan lines if tho other generals, and 
 especially liazainc himself, had shown an equal valor. At 
 the surrender of Metz he became a prisoner of war. He 
 lived in Cassel, where Napoleon resided, and after peace 
 was concluded went to the Hague. Ai'OfST Niehass. 
 
 Lebon' (.Toseph), b. at Arras in 1786. was curate of 
 Neuville when the Revolution liroke out, and in 1792 was 
 elected representative. Soon after ho was chosen commis- 
 sioner in his own department of Pas-dc-Calais, and displayed 
 an energetic violence against the reactionary party. When. 
 after the illli Thermidor, this party came into power, Lebon 
 was tried for his alleged revolutionary excesses, sentenced 
 to death, and guillotined Oct., 1796. His son published in 
 1881 a book, J. Lebon in Ilia I'rivnie and Political Life, 
 which attempts to exonerate his father from some of the 
 atrocities attributed to him. Fii.ix Atcaigne. 
 
 Le Hrc'toii' Flats, an important suburb of Ottawa, 
 the capital of Canada, is situated on Chaudierc and Victoria 
 Islands and on the Canada Central Railway. It nianu- 
 faclures immense ([uantilies of lumber, flour, castings, and 
 otlier goods. Pop. about 2000. 
 
 Lebri'ja, town of Spain, in the province of Seville, 
 manufactures woollen cloths, hempen fabrics, pottery, brick, 
 tiles, glass, and soap, and is celebrated for tho excellent 
 oil produced in its vicinity. Pop. 10,338. 
 
 Le Bnin (CnAKi.Es),b. at Paris Mar. 22. 1819; studied 
 under Nicolas Poussin in Paris and Rome : was made a 
 member of the Aeaiiemv of Painting and .Sculpture in 1818 ; 
 first painter to Louis .\1V. in 1881 ; director of the manu- 
 facture of (iobclins tapestry and president of the Academy, 
 ond d.at Paris Feb. 12, 1090. Tho most prominent of his 
 works are a series of pictures of the history of Fiance dur- 
 ing the reign of Louis XIV.. at Versailles, and another 
 series of pictures illustrating the life of Alexander tho 
 Great, in the Louvre ; but besides these a great number of 
 historical, religious, and allegorical pictures is scattered 
 through other French and European galleries. Tliey rep- 
 resent in the art of painting the same taste, the same 
 wstbetical ideal, as that which is represented in poetry by 
 Corneille. Racine, and Boilcan. They contain nuieh which 
 deserves to be admired — an inexhaustible invention, a re- 
 fined sense for effect, perfect elegance in forms and arrange- 
 ment, etc. But the feeling is generally tame and shallow. 
 the allegories arc often very superficial, and tho incon- 
 sistencies of I he costume are sometimes irresistibly ludicrous. 
 In his time he exercised an enormous influence. Not only 
 the painters and sculptors, but all artists, from the vase- 
 maker and jeweller down to the sign-painter and job- 
 printer, f'ollowcil his taste, which for a generation or more 
 was reigning absolutely. 
 
 Lcbriin (Ciiaki.es Frasijois), duko of Piaeonza, b. at 
 St. Sauvenr-Lendclin, Normandy, Mar. 19, 1739; was for 
 several years secretary to the ehancellor, Maupeou. After 
 the ncee'ssion of Louis XVI. and the dnwufall of Maupeou 
 ho lived in obscurity until 1789. whin bis paniplibt, I.a 
 mix du citoi/en, attracted considerable attention. He was 
 elected a deputy to the Slates General, and ns n member 
 of the Constituent Assembly he acquired both influeneo 
 and authority by his modenilion and by his insight in 
 financial maiters. Having bten imprisoned during the 
 Reign of Terror, he entered, under the government of Ihe 
 Direetorv, Ihe Council of Five Hundred, and was chosen 
 its )iresiilent Feb. 20, 1798. He allied himself very closely 
 lo Gen. Bonaparte, and was made third consul by him Nov. 
 9, 1799. On the eslablishment of the empire he became 
 minister of finances, or urch-treasurer, in 1^08 governor of 
 Liguria and duke of Piacen7.n, and in 1810, on the abdica- 
 tion of King Louis, governor of Holland, whence he was 
 driven by Ihe allies in 1814. After the first restoration he 
 was made a peer of France by Louis XVlll., but having 
 during the Hundred Days received the title of grand mas- 
 ter of Ihe university from Napoleon, ho was excluded from 
 the Chamber of Peers on the second restoration. In 1819, 
 however, he was allowed to lake his seal, and in the do- 
 bates he silled with tho constilulional opposition. I). June 
 16, 1824. His MiiMiirea were published in 1829 by his son. 
 I.cc'oc, the former Terra d'Otranto, a province of Italy, 
 belonging to tho division of Apulia. Area, 3293 square
 
 1702 
 
 LECCE— LECOMTE. 
 
 miles. Pop. 49;i,594. It is traversed by the Apennines, 
 and produces corn, tobacco, wine, olives, and in some places 
 cotton, but often sutlers from severe droughts. 
 
 Lpcee, the ancient Lifcia or Lu/iui, one of tho most 
 beautiful towns in S. Italy. It is situated in tho prov- 
 ince of Leeee, lat. 40° 42' N. and Ion. :X° 40' E., on a plain 
 between the Adriatic on the N., tho Gulf of Taranto on the 
 \V.. and the Ionian Sea on the S., precisely at tho point 
 whieh forms the heel of the Italian boot. The town is reg- 
 ularly built of a remarkably fine white stone, and has many 
 interesting edifices, especially churches and cunvcnt?, some 
 of whieh contain admirable works of art. At the {jate of St. 
 Biagio stands a grand triumphal arch erected in commemora- 
 tion of tlie entrance of Charles V. Tho myal manufactory 
 of tobacco is on old establishment, but has rcei'ntly been 
 provided with the best modern machinery, ami tho first 
 quality of Lecccse tobacco is said to be equal to that of 
 Seville. The public library contains 10,000 volnnics, both 
 day and evening schools are established, and the charitable 
 institutions are numerous and well sustained. Lecce (])rob- 
 ably of Cretan origin) was very flourishing during the Ro- 
 man period, escaped the barbarians, and in 1000 A. D. was 
 governed by its own counts, among whom wero Tancred 
 and Bohemond. Pop. in 1S74, 23,247. 
 
 Lec'co, town of N. Italy, in the province of Como. It 
 is delightfully situated on the Adda, near tho point where 
 it flows out from the S. E. arm of Lake Como, at the foot 
 of the Resegone. Leeeo already existed under the Romans, 
 and continued a town of considerable importance through 
 all tho vicissitudes of the Middle Ages. It is now one of 
 the most industrious and prosperous of the small towns of 
 Loiubardy. Its iron and silk manufactories are extensive. 
 In its neighborhood stands the pretty villa in which .Man- 
 zoni wrote a part of his remarkable romance / fmmeisi 
 S/>f>ii. A picturesque road on the E. bank of tho lake con- 
 nects it with Colico, while it has direct railway communi- 
 cation with Bergamo. Pop. in 1874, 7040. 
 
 Lech, a river of Southern Germany, rises in the Vorarl- 
 berg, runs N. through Tyrol and Bavaria, and joins the 
 Danube after a course of about 140 miles. A little below 
 FUssen it becomes navigable for small boats, and for larger 
 from .Augsburg, but it has generally no great commercial 
 importance on account of the irregularity of its course, 
 bottom, banks, etc. Many mills are worked by its waters. 
 
 Lechevalier' (Jean Baptiste), b. at Trclly, Nor- 
 mandy. July 1. 17.i2; studied theology at the seminary of 
 St. Louis in Paris, but did not take orders; accorajmnied 
 in 1784 the count of Choiseul-Goufiicr as secretary to Con- 
 stantinople, and participated with great energy in his ex- 
 plorations of the plain of Troy; travelled much in Spain, 
 En;,'land, Germany, and Scandinavia, and was appointed 
 director of the library of Stc. GeneviJve in Paris in 1805, 
 which position he held to his death, July 2. ISIiG. His Voi/- 
 uijf^ lie la TtimfU- f 1797) and Y'li/aijc d*- In' Pmpnnthle ct da 
 I'uiil Eiijrin (ISOO), in which he pretended to have made 
 many groat discoveries concerning the geography of tho 
 Homeric epics, made a great sensation at tiieir first appear- 
 ance, but are now generally put in the same class as his 
 r'y««'.' ffumer (1829). in which he proves that Ulysses wrote 
 the Iliad and the Odi/tmeif, 
 
 Lech'ford (Thomas), a lawyer from London who set- 
 tled at Boston, Mass., in ni.lS. Ihc first to practise that pro- 
 fession in Xcw England. Ho returned to England in llUl, 
 much dissatisfied with his experience; published in 1G42, 
 I'lninc Vealiiit/, nr Xewcn from Xew Eiiijlaud'a Pieaciit Gov- 
 criimml, etc., and in 1044 Neic Entjlniid'a Adiice to Uld 
 Enijlaiid. Ho is said to have d. soon after. A new edition 
 of the I'lainc Draliiiri, with introduction and notes by J. 
 Hammond Trumbull, was published in 1807. Though writ- 
 ton in a spirit of hostility to New England, it contains val- 
 uable information. 
 
 Lec'ithine [Or. AjViSo?, "yolk of an egg"], tho motiVrc 
 fi»'/Meioic of Gobloy, a phosphuretted fatty body found in 
 the yolk of eggs, the brain, bile, blood, and in the roe of 
 fish. Diakonow gives it the formula ChIIjoN PO9; Strecker, 
 CtjllMiNl'Og. (Sec Watts's Oiri., iii. 500, and Suppl., 778.) 
 
 Lcck'y i Wiii.iAM EnwAnn IlAiiTpni.E), b. near Dublin, 
 Ireland, .Mar. 2(1, IS.;8; graduated at Trinity College, Dub- 
 lin, in 18J9; published anonymously in isiil Tht Leadem 
 0/ I'ahlic Opiiiinn In /ri-laiid'(ne\r cd. 1872); travelled ex- 
 tensively oil the Continent: settled in I>ondon, devoting 
 himself to historical and philosophical researches : and sur- 
 prised the learned world in 1805 by the /Ai»(.>rv nf the !{:«<■ 
 
 antl Injliiencr. nf Ihf Spirit nf liatin'nnl inm in Eiiro'pr. a work 
 
 which united to an elegant style a judicial imjiarlialily and 
 a more than German erudition. It was speedily republished 
 in the U.S., as was also his next work, n Hintoryof Eiirnpran 
 MnraU /mm Auffitgtint to (ViarlfT}ia>pif, whieh displayed the 
 characteristics of its predecessor in a still higher "degree. 
 All these works were translated into German by Dr. H. 
 
 Jt)lowic2, and the UiMtortf of Morula has become a text- 
 book in more than one German university. Lecky is not 
 known to have published anything else except a lecture 
 before the Royal Institution on the /nltuinrf if the Imagi- 
 nation in Ilietori/. He married about 1870 a maid of 
 honor of the queen of Holland, has considerable fortune, 
 and possesses a fine library. 
 
 Le Claire, post-v. and tp. of Scott co., la., on the 
 Mississippi River, U> miles below Clinton, and midway be- 
 tween St. Louis and St. Paul. It is at tho head of the Up- 
 per Rapids, which extend 15 miles to Rock Islaml. It is 
 a place of active trade. Pop. of v. lOO."".; of tp. 1910. 
 
 Le Clear (Thomas), h. at Oswego, N.Y., Mar. II, 1818; 
 attempted at the age of nine years to execute a portrait on 
 a jiine board with lamp-black, \'eiietian red. and white- 
 lead, and at twelve created a sensation by a St. Matthew, 
 for which he filled several orders at two dollars and a half 
 each. In 1832 his father removed to London, Up]ier 
 Canada, where he took some jiortraits, and two years later 
 was employed at Goodrich on Lake Huron to decorate the 
 panels of a steamboat. He afterwards visited Green Bay, 
 Wis., painting portraits of the Indians in that vicinity; 
 returned to London, and after exercising his improvised 
 art for brief periods at Elmira and Rochester, in the midst 
 of jirivations and discouragements, made his way to New 
 York, where in 18.19 he opened a studio in Broadway, and 
 soon gained an honorable position in the artistic fraternity, 
 his jiicture of The Riprimnnd having been purchased by 
 the .'Vrt Union during the palmy days of that institution. 
 From 1844 to ISGO he successfully practised his art in Buf- 
 falo, and painted, among others, the admired pictures The 
 Marble- 1 III i/ers and Youne/ America, Returning to New 
 York, he has since enjoyed popularity as a colorisf, and 
 exhibits great power over details. He has produced strik- 
 ing portraits of ex-President Fillmore, Hon. D. S. Dickin- 
 son. T. B. Thorpe, and Booth as Hamlet; his Itineranla, 
 exhibited at the National Academy in 1802, was praised. 
 
 Leclerc' (Jean), b. at Geneva JIar. 19. 1057; studied 
 theology, and accepted the Arminian doctrines; travelled 
 much in France, England, and Holland; was appointed 
 professor of ecclesiastical history at the Remonstrant col- 
 lege of Amsterdam in 1084: retired in 1728, and il. at Am- 
 sterdam Jan. 8, 1730, The most jirominent part of his 
 comprehensive and varied literary activity was his editor- 
 ship of BibliothefjXie Universelle et I/iatoriqne (2(> vols., 
 1080-93), liibliothhine Choiaie (28 vols., 1703-13), and 
 JUblinthi-fjiie Ancicnnc et Moderne (28 vols., 1714-27). 
 
 Ijeclerc ( Victor Emmanuel), b. at Pontoise, near Paris, 
 Mar. 17, 1772 ; enlisted in the army in 1791 ; distinguished 
 himself at Toulon in the armies of the .\rdennes and the 
 Alps; was a])pointed military commander of iMarseilles in 
 1795, and made a brigadier-general in 1 797 ; married in tho 
 same year Napoleon's eldest sister, Pauline, and went in 
 
 1801, with a large fleet and an army of 30,000 men, to 
 Santo Domingo to vindicate the authority of France over 
 the colony. After a contest of some months a truce was 
 made, but when Toussaint I'Duverture was sent as a prisoner 
 to France, a new rising of tho colored population under 
 Dcssalines took place, and at the same time the French 
 army was attacked antl more than decimated by yellow 
 fever. Leclcrc himself fell a prey to the disease Nov. 2, 
 
 1802. His wife, who had accompanied him to Santo Do- 
 mingo, and behaveil with great coui"age and fortitude, 
 married in 1803 the Prince Borghese. 
 
 Leclercq' ( .Mkhti. Theopobe), b.at Paris Apr. 1, 1777; 
 held from 1810 to 1819 a subordinate place in the civil ser- 
 vice, but lived else on an independent fortune. D. at Paris 
 Fob. 15, 1851. His works consist, besides a couple of novels, 
 of 8 vols. (i{ prorcrbea dramatitpieti, small draums not des- 
 tined for the theatre, but for private ))crformance in the 
 salons. They are rich in the finest and most striking psy- 
 chological observations, and many of them belong, on ac- 
 count of their humor and elegance, to the most exquisite 
 productions of French literature. They were received with 
 extraortlinary applause, and exercised great influence on 
 the development of the French drama. 
 
 Lecocq' (Charles), b. in Paris, France, about 1835, is 
 regarded as the best successor of Auber in comic operas, 
 of which the most successful have been Flvur dc Thf, La 
 Fille dc Madame Aniiot, and GimjU-GiroJla, each in three 
 acts. LeH Prfa Saint Uerrnis, with libretto by V. Sardou and 
 Gille, was brought out in Paris and London in Nov., 1874. 
 
 Lccomte' (Lons), b. at Bordeaux, France, about 1055; 
 was one of the six .lesuits selected for their mathematical 
 attainments to undertake a somi-scientific mission in China. 
 They embarked at Brest Mar. 3, 1080, with the Chevalier 
 de Chaumont, ambassador to Siam, whore they arrived in 
 •September, and were detained two years by the reigning 
 monarch, Phra Narai, who prided himself upon his know- 
 ledge of mathematics. Arrived at Pekiu in Feb., 1088,
 
 LECOMPTON— LECTIONARY. 
 
 1703 
 
 thpy made astroDomicnl obsorvatioDS in various parts of 
 tlie empire for fcvcral year.*, and became well acquainted 
 with the condition of the country and people, and had con- 
 Bidcrable success in making proselytes to Catholicism — a 
 eueccjig much facilitated by their tolerance of many pagan 
 ceremonies which the uii:<sionaries of other orders cou<iemn- 
 cd an idolatrous. Lecomte wasscnt to Home in 10^2, beciiuio 
 soon afterward confessor to the duchess oj liurjtuudy, and 
 wrote a work, Xouveaux Memoires »ur V Etnt pr/ncut (fe fa 
 Chine (3 Vols., 169C-97-1701 ),combininj; much information 
 with an exajrf^erated panegyric upon the Cliiiiese, who were 
 represented a,s havini; always retained a knowledge of the 
 true God." This work, together with Sitr les C^rhnonic» dc 
 in Chine (170U), was censured by the faculty of theology at 
 Paris and by the Congregation at Rome. Lecomte d. at 
 Bordeaux in" 1729. 
 
 Lecomp'ton, post-v. and tp. of Douglas co., Kan., 10 
 miles N. W. (if Lawrence. It is on the S. bank of the Kan- 
 sas River, opposite Perry .*^tat ion on the Kansas Pacific R.R. 
 It was for a time the Territorial capital of Kansas. It is the 
 seat of Lane University (I'nited Rrcthrcn). Pop. 971. 
 
 he Conte (John), M. D.. son of Lewis, b. in Liberty 
 CO.. Ga., l>ec. 4. 18IS; prepared for college under the tui- 
 tion of the undersigned; grmiuated in 1S:;S with high 
 honors at Franklin College, Athens (now University of 
 Georgia) ; studied medicine, taking his degree in I8-U from 
 the New York College of Physicians and Surgeons; mar- 
 ried the same year, and in 1842 began practice at Savan- 
 nah, Ga., and from that time forward contributed largely to 
 the prominent medical journals of the U. S. ; elected in 
 1SI6 to the chair of natural philosophy and chemistry in 
 Franklin College, and resigned in iSa;') to become lecturer 
 on ehcmi?try in the Cidlege of Physicians and Surgeons, 
 N. Y. ; accented in iS.'jfi the new professor?bip of natural 
 and mechanical philosophy in the South Carolina College, 
 Columbia; in IS69 became professor of physics and indus- 
 trial mechanics in the new University of California at Oak- 
 land, and president after the resignation of Pres. D. C. 
 (litman in Apr.. 1875; is a member of the lea<ling Ameri- 
 can scientific societies, to whor'C ])rocee<ling8and various scl- 
 ent i tic journals he hflscoiitrihuled important papers on phys- 
 i'ral se,ience : has published bis addresses of I'liilonophtf uf 
 Mrfficinr i\S i'J ) and Stilt/ 1/ '>/ tfit' /'fii/nir,if Srirurra (ISJ8); 
 
 and contributed 77if? SvLulur IIifptttfuxi« to the !*opnhtr 
 Srirtice .Von/A/y for Apr., IH73. In l>ec., 1857. delivered a 
 course of lectures on the ** Physics of Meteorology " at the 
 Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and in Nov., 1807, 
 one of f<jur lectures on the " Stellar Universe" at the Pea- 
 boily Institute in Baltimore. By the burning of Columbia, 
 S. C., in Feb., I8tj;j, Im lust the nearly coui])leted manu- 
 scripts of a treatise on (Ji-mrul I'liynicn. A. II. Stkphk.ns. 
 
 Le Conte (Maj.JoiiM Raton), brother of Lewis, b. near 
 Shrewsbury. N. J., Keh. 22, 1784; entered the engineer 
 corps of the U. S. army in 1S1;J; was long employed in 
 surveys and fort ifieatious, and retired with the rank of major 
 in ls:il. He was a successful cultivator of natural science, 
 especially botany and zoology. He published Monngrapfm 
 o/ fht' Xitrth Amerirnn Sprrira nj' I'trirultiria, Crfifinla, and 
 iiUfdiit, Olmrrrtitiona of 'Ae North Americnn Species o/ 
 Viofd, and /JfHcriptioitM uf the Spvcim ttf North AmcfXPfin 
 TortoiMca in the Ainiala of the \rw York Li/n-tim of Ntilu- 
 rut Hintory, vols, i., ii.,iii.; A Moiunjvnphjf nf North Amrr- 
 icftn IliHtrroidra in the Itonton Jourti'tl of Ntttuntl Hiatoiy, 
 vol. v., and ifrHcriptionn of thrre uvw Sprcim of Arvicitia, 
 \rith i{rinnrk» upon other North Anirrirtin Jiodcnta, In the 
 J*roceediinj» of the Aradcnit/ of' N'tturaf Scif:)irea of Phila- 
 defphittf in several of which he had the benefit of the sci- 
 entific observations of his brother Lewis. I>. at Philadel- 
 phia Nov. 21, 1860. 
 
 Lc Conte (John L.iWRKsrB), M. D., son of John E. Le 
 Conie. b. in .Vew York .Mav Li, 182r>: graduated in ISIO 
 at tin- New York College of Physicians and Surgeons; made 
 several seientitic excursions in the Western States while a 
 student, and subsequently extended his travels to Central 
 America, tlio results of which were communii!ated to scicn- 
 lilie sorietics and journals. Mis spreialty is the study of 
 North .\mcrican Coleoptera, on which subject he is recog- 
 nized as a high authority. The Smithsonian Institution 
 puhlished in l8(il-iV2 his Cfnnnijirtttion of tht; Cotroptera of 
 North Amrrira, and in I8ft:i-0V> his Liit of lh« Cotroptera 
 i'f North Amrrim. Pr. Lo Conte enten-d the army in 1802 
 :n surgeon of volunteers, and beeaiue a iiiedieal inspeotr»r 
 nf the regular army. He is a meuilKT of the National 
 Ai'ademy of Seienoes, and was in I87;{ elected president of 
 llio American Association for the Advancement of Soienoo. 
 
 IjC Conte (.Iosfph), M. P., son of Lewis, b. in Liberty 
 CO., (la.. Feb. 20, 182:5; sturlied at a private school uniler 
 llie rhiirge of the undersigned: graduated with distinction 
 at Franklin College. Ga., in 1811, and in medicine in New 
 York in 184.>; settled in 184S as a physician in Macon, 
 
 Ga. ; studied natural history under Agassiz at Cambridge 
 in ISJU; became in l85.'i professor of natural history at 
 Franklin College, and of chemistry and geology in the Uni- 
 versity of South Carolina from ISjf> to 18G9, accompanying 
 his brother John in 1809 to California, where he took the 
 chair of geology in the University of California. Resides 
 numerous seientitic papers, he has written on art and edu- 
 cation, and published a work on 77tc; Mutual Jiclatioits of 
 litiigion and Science (1S74). A. H. Stki-iiens. 
 
 Le Conte (Lnwis), M. D., b. near Shrewsbury, Mon- 
 mouth CO., N. J., Aug. 4, 1782; descended from a French 
 Huguenot family that settlccl about the close of the seven- 
 teenth century at New Roehellc. N. Y. ; graduated in 1799 
 at Columbia College ; studied medicine in the office of Dr. 
 David llosack, but never practised, and soon settled in 
 Liberty co., Ga., taking charge of his father's estate, es- 
 tablishing a botanical ganlen. especiully rich in bulbous 
 plants from the Cajic of (lood Hope, where he produced 
 large camellias anil the hybrid Amorif/fit Jt>hn»iniii. In his 
 laboratory he tested the discoveries of elicmists, the fruits of 
 which, averse to ]ml)lisliing, he communicated to his friends. 
 Stephen Elliott and other botanists acknowledged their ob- 
 ligations to him, and by his observations he enriched the 
 monographs of his brother, Major John E. Le Conte. Re- 
 sides occasional rambles in the adjoining counties, he made 
 two scientific excursions to the region of the Altamaha River, 
 the earlier in company with the botanist Dr. William Raid- 
 win, U. S. N.,and the later with Mr. (Jordon, the Scotch col- 
 lector and botanist, who gave an account in I^oudous Gar- 
 dcner*a Mmjazine of the result of many months' residence 
 with him. Dr. Lc Conte devoted much attention to math- 
 ematical studies, and manuscripts on this subject and on 
 native animals and binls. whieh were in the custody of his 
 son. Prof. Jfdin Le Conte, were lo?t by the burning of Co- 
 lumbia, S. C.,in Fc)>., 1805. His death, Jan. 9. 18:^8, result- 
 ed from poison taken into his system by dressing a wound 
 for a member of his family. By his wife. Ann Quartcrman, 
 whom he married in 1812, and who died in Dec, 1820, ho 
 had four sons and three daughters, of whom two sons, the 
 scientists Profs. John and Joseph Lo Conte, still survive 
 (1875), as well as one daughter. A. II. Stephens. 
 
 Leconrbe' (Claurk Joskpo), Count, b. at Lons-le- 
 Saulnier. France, in 1759; spent eight years in the army 
 in early life, without securing any advancement, but at tlie 
 organization of the National (Juurds at the outltreak of tho 
 French Revolution became commander of those raised at 
 Lons-le-Saulnicr, and soon after joined the army of tho 
 Upper Rhine at the head of a battalion from the Jura. 
 He distinguished himself repeatedly in the battles in the 
 Netherlands, especially at Fleurus (.lune, 1794), where he 
 had command of a brigade, and hcbl his position for seven 
 hours against llt.OtiO Austrians. The same qualities were 
 displayed in the campaigns on the Rhine, tho Danube, and 
 in Switzerland, and nuide him general of division in 1790. 
 For partisanship in I'avor of Moreau, Napoleon slruek his 
 name from tiio roll of officers (I8I)1), and he lived in re- 
 tirement at Itourges during the Knipire. Louis XVIII. re- 
 stored liim his rank, and made him grand officer of tho 
 Legion of Honor and count in 1814. Heopi)osed Napoleon 
 on his return f'roui Elba, but finally accepted a command 
 under him in the Jura, with hcad-((uartcr3 at Rcforf, where 
 he d. Oct. 2:t, ISlo. His statue was erected at Lonsdo- 
 Saulnier in 1857. 
 
 Lecouvrcur' (Adrienne), b. at Dnmery, near Epernay, 
 France, .Apr. 5, 1092. In 1702 her parents settled at Paris, 
 and after receiving some instruction from the actor Legrand, 
 she entered tho stage at Strasliourg in 17H). Nrxt year 
 (May 14, 1717) she matle her di- but nt the Thr-Atre Fran- 
 pais in Paris, where she very soini attained the first jjlaco 
 both in comedy and tragciiy. Her character as an actress 
 was not so much the gratid as the touching, and ln'r prin- 
 cipal power was a most wonderful miiniery. Her death 
 was very sail. Maurice of Saxony was her lover; not tho 
 only one she over had, but she loved him deeply, and \>hen 
 he was made duke of (*ourland she sold her diamonds in 
 order to furnish him with the money necessary to take pos- 
 session c)f the country. It wiis alleged that another ol his 
 mistresses, tho duchess id" Ron i I Ion, poisoned her from 
 jealousy, and she d. Mar. 20, 17;ttb \\*iY remains were not 
 allowed lo rest in eonsoerated ground, but were buried se- 
 cretly in a private place. Roused by imligimtion, Vol- 
 taire wrote an ode on her death, but publie opinion was 
 so fixed on this point that he had to leave the city. In 
 modern limes her tragic history was made tho subject of 
 one of the mr)st suooessful dramas of Scribe and Legouv6, 
 in whieh Rachel achieved celebrity in tho r^tir of Adrienno. 
 
 Ijec'tionnry fLat. iectionarium], a service-book con- 
 taining the lections (lessons) of Seripture to bo read in 
 the ehurch. or '\n other eases a list iudu';iting what lossonfl 
 are appointed for different days in tho calendar.
 
 1704 
 
 LECTOURE— LEE. 
 
 Lectoure'f town in France, in the department of (iers. 
 on the right bunk of the Gers. It has a brisk trade in grain, 
 wine, brandy, mulfs, and cattle. Pop. 6122. 
 
 liCc'tiirn [Lat. fff-trutu, from iefjere, Uctum, "to read"], 
 or Anibo, the readiuj^-desk of a church; the stand at 
 which thf lesson for the day is read. These names are used 
 in Uomnn Catholic and in yome Protestant churches. The 
 form is various, and the lecturn itself is either fixed or 
 movable. 
 
 Le'da, in (rrccian mytholofi^y, was the wife of Tyndareus, 
 kin,' uf Siiarta. and by Zeus, whu surprised hrr in the shape 
 of a swan, she was the mother of Castor and Pollux. There 
 are many versions of the myth, but the above is the most 
 common. 
 
 Led'erer (Jonx), known only as an early explorer of 
 the mountain-region of Virginia, wrote in Latin an account 
 of his travels, which was translated and printed in lGT2by 
 .Sir William Talbot, Bart., under the title T/ic DiacovcricB 
 of John Lrfhircr in three several marches from Vinjinia to 
 the Went of Carolina and other parts of the Continent, hryun 
 in Mareh, 1669, and ended in September, 1670 {quarto, 27 
 pp., with a map). Sir William states in the preface that 
 Lederer was driven out of Virginia by ill-treatment from 
 the pDpulaee — that he made his acquaintance in Maryland, 
 and induced him to write this treatise as a vindication. He 
 was probably a Oerman. 
 
 Liedg'er-Lincs, in music, short lines added above and 
 below the five regular lines of the stave. As the stave 
 affords ruum only for a limited number of the notes now in 
 use, the ledger-lines, with the spaces between, are equiva- 
 lent to a temporary extension of the scale, thereby furnish- 
 ing a? many new degrees above and below as may be re- 
 quired. These short additional lines are also a convenience 
 to the eye of the performer, as the notes placed on or be- 
 tween them can be read with great facility; whereas, if 
 the lines were continuous and permanent (forming a stave 
 of eight or ten lines), the same notes could not be read 
 without difficulty and constant risk of error. (SeeXoTATioN 
 and SrAi.i:.) William Stalxtos. 
 
 Ledochow'ski, de (Cardinal Miecislas Halka), i 
 CofNT, b. Oct. 29. 1822, at Ledochow, Galicia ; studied , 
 theology at Warsaw, Vienna, and Rome: became domestic ! 
 prelate and prothonotary apostolic to Pope Pius IX. ; and 
 entering the papal diplomatic service was auditor of the 
 nunciature successively at Madrid, Lisbon, Rio de Janeiro, 
 
 I pnrnons injiaeiium in i^oi ; ana at ttie reqi 
 of the kin; " " ..... . - . ... 
 
 of Une 
 
 of Poland. On May 26, 1873. he led in the protest signed 
 by the clergy against the new Prussian ecclesiastical laws, 
 which placed the choice of bishops and priests in the hands 
 of the people of the diocese or parish. Persistently refusing 
 to appear before the courts to justify his action, his prop- 
 erty was taken in payment of fines, and he was confined in 
 ]trison at Ostrowa. where he has since remained, having 
 been exhorted to constancy by a papal brief of Nov. '.\, 1873, 
 and elevated to the cardinalate in the secret consistory cele- 
 bratutl Mar. lo. 1S75. 
 
 Ledrii'-Rollin' (Alexandre Auoustk), b. at Paris 
 Feb. 2, IS07. began to be known soon after the revolution 
 of July. 1830, by acting as an ''avocat" for the political 
 men prosecuted by tite government of Louis Philippe, or by 
 writing pamphlets and memoirs in which lie indicted in a 
 legal and technical argumentation the repressive measures 
 ordered against individuals or public liberties. He was at the 
 same time a favorite and celebrated lawyer in ordinary law- 
 suitjj, and published dogmatic works and periodical reviews 
 on jurisprudence. In 1861 he was elected member of the 
 Chamlier of Deputies, and upheld openly the pure doctrines 
 of republicanism in the chamber. In 1848 he was. as min- 
 ister of the interior, one of the provisional government of 
 the republic, and put in practice his theory of universal 
 sulTrajjc. When Cavaignae. and afterwards Louis Napoleon, 
 took the power into their hands. Ledru-Hollin continued to 
 fight for liberty as a memberof the National Assembly. On 
 June l:J, 1819, he was the leader of an insurrection at tempte<l 
 to prevent Louis Napoleon from sending the French troops 
 to help in the re-establishment of the pope at Rome. Thcin- 
 surreetion collapsed, and Ledru-RoUin escaped to England. 
 There, though he kept quiet and exclusivrly busy with 
 writing books, his extradition was asked by Napoleon III., 
 under the pretext that he had been participant with Maz- 
 zini in the insignificant plot of Tibaldi against the life of the 
 emperor. But the extradition was not granted, and Ledru- 
 Rollin returned to France in 1870. He did not wish to 
 enter again the political arena : still, the republicans elected 
 him deputy in 1873, and ho was one of the members of the 
 extreme Left in the Versailles Assembly, llcouly delivered 
 
 and Santiago do Chili, nuncio at Brussels, and archbishop 
 of Thebes in partibns iiifidtlium in 1861 ; and at the request 
 : king of Prussia appointed in Jan., 1866. archbishop , 
 lesL'M and Posen, becoming thereby ex ojftcio primate I 
 
 one speech, in favor of universal sufi'rage, which was worthy 
 of the great orator, and was his •' chant du cygnc," for ho 
 I d. soon after (Jan. 1, 187i»). and was accompanied by thou- 
 j sands of Parisians to the cemetery of Pere la Chaise. 
 ' Felix Aucaigxe. 
 
 I^e'dum, Oil of [Gr. A^fioi/. the ''ledum"], an essen- 
 tial oil obtained by distilling the leaves of marsh tea, Le- 
 dum patnstre. It is reddish-yeilow, has an acid reaction, 
 1 smells like the plant, and consists of a hydrocarbon iso- 
 meric with oil of turpentine, and an oxygenated oil having 
 the c()mpositiou of ericinol, CioHieO. 
 
 Le'dlim Palus'tre [Gr. A^Soi-] ( MarA Tea, Hosmariuun 
 SylveMtri»\, a small evergreen shruli growing in swamps and 
 I other wet j)laces in the northern parts of Europe. Asia, and 
 I America, and in mountainous regions of more southern 
 ' latitudes. The leaves have a balsamic odor and an aro- 
 m.atic. camphorous, bitter taste, and contain, among other 
 ingredients, a volatile oil and tannin. They arc thought 
 to possess narcotic properties, and have been employed to 
 allay irritation in whooping-cough, dysentery, leprosy, and 
 scabies. ( U. S. IHf^p.) They are said to protect clothes from 
 moths, are sometimes used as a substitute for hops in beer, 
 and arc employed in Russia to tan goat. calf, and sheep 
 skins into a reddish leather of an agreeable smell, as also 
 in the preparation of oil of birch, for making what is gen- 
 erally called Russia leather.. C. F. Ciiaxdler. 
 
 IjCd'yard, post-v. and tp. of New London co.. Conn., 
 on the E. side of the navigable river Thames, 8 miles 8. of 
 Norwich. The township is traversed by the Norwich and 
 Worcester R. R.. and has a public library and inij)ortant 
 manufactures. Pop. 131>2. 
 
 Ledyardf post-tp. of Cayuga co., N. Y.,on the E. shore 
 of Cayuga Lake. It contains the village of Alrora (which 
 see). Pop. 2221. 
 
 Ledyard (John), h. at Groton, Conn., in 1751; lived 
 for a time among the Six Nations, to whom he intended to 
 become a missionary, and studied in Dartmouth College 
 with a view to that work : but his restless spirit prompted 
 him to embark alone in a log canoe upon the Connecticut 
 River and leave college for ever. He shipped as a sailor 
 to Gibraltar: enlisted as a British soldier, but was soon dis- 
 charged : returned to America during the Revolutionary 
 war; went to London, and sailed as a corporal of marines 
 under Capt. .Tames Cook on his last voyage, of which Led- 
 yard kept a diary, an abstract of which was published at 
 Hartford. Conn.. 1787. In 1782 he deserted from the Brit- 
 ish service when off Long Island. Assisted by Sir Joseph 
 Banks and others, he started, after many vexatious hind- 
 rances, from St. Petersburg (whither be had walked from 
 Stockholm, through Lapland and Finland) for the Pacific 
 Ocean. At Irkutsk in Siberia he was arrested, and was 
 hurried back to the Polish frontier and expelled from Rus- 
 sia for some unknown reason. In 1788, immediately after 
 his return from Russia, he started under the auspices of 
 Sir Joseph Hanks and others fur the exploration of Africa, 
 but was attacked at Cairo, Egypt, by an acute febrile dis- 
 order, of which ho d. Jan. 17. 1789. 
 
 Ledyard fCol. William), b. at Groton, Conn., in 1738; 
 was in Sept.. 1781, commander of Fort Griswold, near New 
 London, whieh he defended with great courage against an 
 overpowering British force until it was taken by storm, 
 when, with more than 100 of his soldiers, he was massacred 
 by the exasperated enemy, Sept. 7, 1781. A monument 
 now commemorates the event. 
 
 I^ee, county of .Alabama, bounded E. by Georgia. Area, 
 620 .square miles. It is hilly, but fertile. Cotton and corn 
 are staple products, and Hour is the leading article of man- 
 ufacture. The county is traversed by the East Alabama 
 and Cincinnati and the Savannah and Memphis R. Rs., 
 and branches of the Western R. R. of Alabama. Cap. 
 Opelika. Pop. 21,730. 
 
 Lee, county in Eastern Arkansas, formed in 1873 from 
 portions of Crittenden. Monroe, Phillips, and St. Fnincis, 
 bounded on the E. by the Mississippi and traversed by the 
 St. Francis an<l L'.Anguille rivers. The surface is for the 
 most part level, well timbered, and fertile, and yields very 
 abundant crops, chiefly of cotton and corn. Cap. Mariana. 
 
 Lee, county of S. W. Central Georgia. Area, 350 square 
 miles. It is level and fertile. Cotton and corn arc the 
 staple products. It is traversed by the South-western R. R. 
 of Georgia. Cap. Starkville. Pop. 0567. 
 
 Lee, county of N. Illinois. Area, 720 square miles. It 
 is level and very fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are the 
 staple products. The county is traversed by Rock and 
 Green rivers, and by various railroads, centring at Dixon, 
 the capital. Pop. 27,171. 
 
 Lee, county of S. E. Iowa. Area, 300 square miles. It 
 is bounded E. by the Mississippi and S. W. by the Des
 
 LEE. 
 
 1705 
 
 Moines. It is extremely fertile, rolling, and well oulti- 
 rated. Cuttle, gruiu, and wuul iire staple products. Car- 
 riages, furniture, harn*-'8ses, tobacco, metallic wareg, coop- 
 erage, luml>er, brick, etc. are auiung the leading articles of 
 manufaeture. Tbc county is traversed by (he Burlington 
 and Soulb-weslern and the Des .Moines \'iiUey U. Us. and 
 a branch of the Chicago IturliugloD and Quiuey li. U. Cap. 
 Fort Madison. Pop. 37.210. 
 
 Ijee^ county of E. Kentucky. Area, 3U0 square miles. 
 It is mountainous, with fertile valleys. Corn is the staple 
 product. The county is traversed by the Kentucky Uiver. 
 Caps, lieatty ville and Proctor. Pop. 3U5J. 
 
 Lee, euunty of X. E. Mississippi. Area, 620 square 
 miles. It is undulating and very fertile. Live-stock, corn, 
 and cotton arc leading jiroducta. The county is traversed 
 by the Mobile and Ohio K. K. Cap, Tupelo. Pop. 10,965. 
 
 Lee, county of S. W. Virginia. Area. .'i76 square miles. 
 It irt bouniled .V. W. by the Cumberland Mountains of Ken- 
 tucky and S. K. by Powell Mountains. The surface is high 
 and partly mountainous. Coal is found. The soil is excel- 
 lent. Live-.-^tock, grain, and wool are leading pn»ducts. The 
 county is traversed by Powell's River, and contains much 
 fine scenery. Cap. Jonesville. Pop. 13,268. 
 
 Lee, tp. of Fayette co., Ala. Pop. 389. 
 
 Lee, tp. of Sacramento co.^ Cal. Pop. 370. 
 
 Lee, tp. of Rrown co., III. Pop. I6G0. 
 
 Lee, tp. of Fulton co., 111. Pop. 1296. 
 
 Lee, tp. of Huena Vista co., la. Pop. 302, 
 
 Lee, tp. of Madison eo., la. Pop. 420. 
 
 Lee, tp. of Polk co., la. Pop. 729. 
 
 Lee, post-tp. of Penobscot co., Me., 60 miles N. E. of 
 Bangor. Poj*. 900. 
 
 Lee, post-v. and tp. of Berkshire eo., Mass., on the 
 Ilousatonic River and R. R., 99 miles N. of Bridgeport, 
 Conn., and in miles S. of Pittsfield, K. terminus of the Keu 
 and Hudson R. R. (in construction) and N. \V. terminus of 
 the Lee and New Haven R. U. (surveyed); has I national 
 and I savings bank, I weekly newspaper, 7 churches, 3 ho- 
 tc\-t, a public library, excellent scliools, 26 paper-mills, 2 
 iron-fijuiiilries, 3 machiue ^hops, i-x tensive woollen -fac- 
 tnrie^, a tr-ttting park, aiirl line niarblc-cpiarrics which sup- 
 plied materials for the Capitol extension at Washington 
 and fnr the Catholic cathedral in Xew York. First settled 
 in 1700, incorfioruted in 1777, and njune(l for Gen. Charles 
 liCe ; first paper-mill erected in iSdO by Samuel Church. 
 Pop. 3800. (.See l/iMtorif of Lrr, by Aniory Gale, 1861.) 
 J. A. RoYCK, Ed. " Valley Gleaner." 
 
 Lee, tp. of Allegan co., Mich. Pop. 249. 
 
 Lee, tp. of Calhoun co., .Mich. Pop. 1123. 
 
 Lee, tp. of Platte CO.. Mo. Pop. 2290. 
 
 Lee, post-tp. of Strafford co., X. II., 33 miles E. by S. 
 of Concord, has manufactures of leather and lumber. Pop. 
 770. 
 
 Lee, post-tp. of Oneida co., N. Y. Pop. 2060. 
 
 Lee, post V. and tp. (the former called also Albany) of 
 Athens CO., O. It is the seat of Atwood Institute (Free 
 Baptist). Pop. 1140. 
 
 Lee, tp. of Carroll co., 0. Pop. 901. 
 
 Lee, tp. of Monroe co., 0. Pop. II 14. 
 
 Lee, tp. of Williamsburg eo., S. C. Pop. 1181. 
 
 Lee, tp. of Aceomao co., Va. Pop, 0183. 
 
 Lee, tp. of Fairfax co., Va. Pojt. 1340. 
 
 Lee, tp. of Shenandoah eo., Va. Pop. 2698. 
 
 Lee, tp. of Caliioun CO.. W. Va. Pop. 008. 
 
 Lee, tp. of Clark eo.. Wis. Pop. 203. 
 
 Lee (Rt. Rev. Ai.iKcn). I>. D., b. at Cambridge, Mass., 
 Sept. 9, 18U7 ; graduated at Harvard in 1827 ; was aiimitlcd 
 to the bar in 1830, and practised law at Norwich, Conn, 
 1S31-33; studied in the General Theological Seminary, 
 N. Y. ; was ordained a iloacon of tbc Protestant Episcopal 
 Church in IS37. and a priest in 1H38; rector of Calvary 
 church, Uockilale, Del., lS38~n; consecrated bishop of 
 Iii-lawurc in ISU, and became also rector of St. Andrew's, 
 Wilmington, Del. He is author of Li/r of St. Peter (1852), 
 Li/f »/ Sf. John (IS6U, Trrnti^r un HuptUm (1864), Me- 
 moir uf SitHtin Mtifmur (I860), Ifurhinijvr ./ Christ (1867). 
 
 Lee (Ann), h. at Manchester, England, Feb. 29, 1730; 
 worked in a cotton mill, and afterwards became a cook ; 
 was married to a man named Stanley, ami foon began to 
 lake part in the conventicles of .lolin iin<l .lunc Wardley, 
 the '>rii;in;il " Shaking Ijuakers,'' whom ^lle nueeceded as 
 the leader of the sect in 1771, soon after which bhe was for 
 a time confined in a jail, and then in a mad-house. After 
 her release she was acknowledged as a " mother in Christ," 
 
 and assumed the title of "Ann, the Word." In 1774 she 
 went with a few followers to New York, and in 1770 settled 
 at Watervliet, near Albany, Here she was charged with 
 high treason and witchcraft, and imprisoned for some time 
 at Albany and Poughkcepsie. This im[>risonment, regarded 
 as ft per.-'ecutiun, brought her many followers. (See Siia- 
 KEits.) D. at Watervliet, N. Y., Sept. 8, 1784. 
 
 Lee {AktihiO, M. D., LL.D., b. in Westmoreland co., 
 Va., Dec. 20, 1740. son of Thomas Lee; educated at Eton 
 and Edinburgh, where hr graduated as M. D. in 1706. 
 and practised at William.sburg, Va. ; returned to Europe; 
 studied law. and was admitted to the bar in 1770; became 
 prominent in jmblie affairs in London, and in after years 
 served as comnuFsioner of Massachusetts, Virginia, and 
 finally of the General Congress, in London, Paris, Madrid, 
 and Berlin successively. While in Paris he and Mr. Izard 
 were involved in serious' differences with Franklin and Silas 
 Deane. In 1781 he was in the Virginia assembly; was in 
 Congress 1782-86, and held other positions of importance. 
 D. Dec. 14, 1792. Mr. Lee's mission in Europe was very 
 fruitful of good to the U. S. Personally, ho was a truth- 
 ful, straightforward, and decided man. a hearty lover of 
 freedom, and wa^ never married. (See his />//V. by R. H. 
 Lee, 1829.) He was a brother of Fnineis Liglitloot, Rich- 
 ard II., Thomas L,. Philip L., and William Lee, all emi- 
 nent patriots. 
 
 Lee (Charles), b. at Dcrnhall, Cheshire, England, in 
 1731, and was the son of a colonel in the British army. 
 When eleven years obi he entered the service; was in 
 Braddock's expedition, and was wounded at Ticonderoga 
 in 1768; distinguished himself in Portugal, but never rose 
 higher in the British service than a half-pay lieutenant- 
 colonel, his meddlesome disposition, quarrelsome temper, 
 and sarcastic speeehes about his superiors interfering with 
 his promotion. He became later a soldier of fortune ; aide- 
 de-camp to the king of Poland and a mnjor-general ; entered 
 the Russian service against the Turks, ancl became notorious 
 as ft duellist. In 1773 he came to America, purchased an 
 estate in Berkeley co., Va., and became an ardent Whig. 
 lu 1776 he was chosen major-general of the Cuntincnlal 
 army ; took part in the defence of Charleston : and in 1770 
 was taken prisoner at Baskingridge, N. J. AVhile in 
 prison it is now considered certain that Lee made treason- 
 able proposiiious to the enemy. In 1778 he was ex- 
 changed, and nt the battle of Monmouth his iiisub<irdin!ition 
 nearly lost the daj'. He was court- mart iulud, and .suspend- 
 ed for one year from command, and soon after was wounded 
 in a duel by Col. John Laurens, who challenged him in con- 
 sequoneo of disres[ieefful language used to (jlcn. Washing- 
 ton. He then retired to Virginia, where he led the life of 
 a hermit; and a disrespectful letter sent by him to Con- 
 gress causeil his dismissal from the service. D. while on 
 ft visit to Philadelphia Got. 2, I7S2. (His Life luis been 
 written by Sir H. Bunbury, by Edward Laugworthy, by J. 
 Sparks, and by G. II. Moore, 1801.) 
 
 Lee (CuAitLKS AI.^'lM:[^). M. I)., b. at Salisbury, Conn., 
 Mar. 3, ISdl ; graduated at Williams College, and took his 
 medical degree at Pittslield, Mass., in 1826; settled in 1820 
 in New York, where he was one of the founders of tlio 
 Northern Dispensary. Ho hold nt various times professor- 
 .••hips in no Icj^s than ten medical schools, and aided in 
 foumling the medical college of the I'ni versify of New 
 York City an<I that of Buffalo, N. Y. He wrote much un 
 medical and other subjects, and was at one time editor of 
 the N. y. Jfiurital of Afctlici'ne. He bestowed much atten- 
 tion upon the colonization or Gheel-svstem of the (reatmeut 
 of the insane. D. at Peekskill. N. Y., Feb. 14. 1872. 
 
 Leo (Ki.KANoii Pkim vj. b. near Natchez. Miss., in 1820, 
 was the daughter of Mnj. N. A. Ware; resided in Pbilu- 
 delphiu and Cincinnati, and bcfiime tbc wife of II. W. Lee 
 of Vicksburg, Miss. With her sister. Mrs. C. A. Warfield 
 of Kentucky, she publislied PovniH by Tico AV#fei« ( 1843) 
 and other works. I), in I860. 
 
 Lee (Ei.i/.A BiTKMiNSTKiO. b. in Portsmouth, N. H., 
 ftboul 179 t, diiugliter of Rev. Dr. .lo.xcph and sister of Rev. 
 J. S. Buekminster. married Mr. Thomas Lee of Boston; 
 wrote Shrtrhm n/ a AVir ICiif/hnul I'lV/fiyr ( 1837). » Ai/. 
 n/ liichler (I8I2|. translated from the German; Wnlt ntnl 
 Viift {18L'>) from the (Jerman of Riehter; Xaomi. or Itoft- 
 ton Tico I/,n,itrr,i )>./r» At/n (1818), J/rmoiV of /{rr. Dr. 
 Ihickminntrf aud Jn^rp/i S. lUtrkmittntfr (18(9), llorfiuu-, 
 thf, Pttrifh Orphan (IS6IM, I'arthruin, or thr Lunt Ihnji »/ 
 Pttffauiitm (1868), [tnd 77ic fi<irr/„fttr'i Maidrn, from the 
 German of B. Auerbaeh. D. in Brookline, near Bo.ston, 
 June 22. 1804. 
 
 Loo iFiiAsris LionTFooT), Bon of Thomas, b. at Strat- 
 ford. Wectmoreliindco., Va.,Oct. I 1, 1731 : received a careful 
 classicnl and KngliMli education from a private tutor ; in- 
 herited an amplo estate; served in the house of burgesses
 
 1706 
 
 LEE. 
 
 troiu 1765 to 1772. and four terms as delegate in the Conti- 
 noutal Congress from 1776 to 1779; was a signer of tlic 
 Declaration of Independence; member of important com- 
 mittees, and frequently chairman of the committee of the 
 whole, lie rendered important services in framing the old 
 Articles of Confederation, and insisting, as conditions of 
 peace with England, upou the right to the navigation 
 of the Mississippi, anjl to tlic Newfoundland fisheries, 
 thereby justly earned the gratitude of New England. lie 
 aeblom spoke in Congress, but exercised great influence, 
 and was a consistent friend and supporter of Washington 
 in the most critical times. Retiring from Congress in 177U, 
 he resumed the life of a country gentleman, distinguished 
 for geniality and wit, but averse to politics, in which he 
 did not again figure e.xcejit by a brief service in the Vir- 
 ginian senate. D. at Monocan, Richmond Co., Va., in 171)7. 
 Lee (FRi;iiERirK George), D. C. L., b. at Thane Vicar- 
 age. Oxfor.lshire, England, Jan. 6, 1832; graduated at 
 tJxford with high honors in 18.)4; toolt holy orders in 
 IS.)!!; was successively curate of Sunningwell, assistant 
 minister of Berkeley c'uapel, incumbent of St. Mary's, 
 -Aberdeen, and vicar of All Siiints', Lambeth, which post he 
 now fills (lS7a). Dr. Leo was from lSo7 to ISIi'J a secre- 
 tary of the Society for the Promotion of the Union of 
 Christendom, founded the I'nion Jiccieic in 1SG3 and con- 
 ducted it until ISC'J, and has been a frequent contributor 
 to the Chiirih ilitijaziiic; has written several volumes of 
 poems and many theological essays, of which (IIuiijuks of 
 the Siipfniatiiru/ and Lyrirs of Light and Life, both pub- 
 lished in 1874, attained considerable popularity. Dr. Lee 
 is a writer of undeniable ability, but his avowed belief in 
 the ecclesiastical miracles of the fourth century and in 
 many modern marvels has exposed him to sharp criticism. 
 Lee (FnEDERicK Ruhakd), R. A., b. at Barnstaple, Eng- 
 land, in June. 1798: served in the Netherlands at an carK- 
 age as an officer of the 56th Foot; studied painting and 
 acquired a high reputation for landscapes, especially of Eng- 
 lisli and Scotch scenery, his pictures having been purchased 
 for the most celebrated private galleries of England. He 
 began exhibiting at the Royal Academy in 1824 ; was elect- 
 ed .\ssociate in 1834 and Academician in 18.'!8. He has exe- 
 cuted notable joint works with Thomas Sidney Cooper, R. A. 
 Lee fU.iNVAH F.), b. in Newburyporl, Mass., in 1780, 
 daughter of Dr. Sawyer, and became the wife of George 
 G. Lee of Boston, Mass. She was the author of many ex- 
 cellent books, among which are Three Ej-perimcnts ofLhinn 
 (18.3S), The Old Pointer, (1838), The Huguenot, in France 
 and America, Hittnry of Sculpture and Sculptors (18j4), 
 Memoir of Pierre TouMaint (1853). D. in Boston, Mass.. 
 Deo. 28, 1865. 
 
 Lee (Harriet), b. in London, England, in 1756; pub- 
 lished in 1786 a novel in b vols., Thi Error, of Innocence, 
 and in 1787 a drama. The Xew I'crroge ; followed at much 
 later dates by two other dramas and another novel. She 
 is best known as associated with her sister (see Lee, Sophia) 
 in the authorship of the Conierhnri/ Talc, (5 vols.. 1797- 
 ISOj), once extremely popular, and reprinted in New York ' 
 in 1857. Eight of the ten tales were from Harriet's pen, 
 the most remarkable being The Oerman', Tale ; and Kruitz- 
 ner, which supplied Byron the jdot, the machinery, and some 
 of the language of Werner. D. at Clifton Aug". 1, 1851. I 
 
 Lee (Gen. Hexry), the father of Robert E. Lee, and a 
 relation of R. II. Lee. b. in Westmoreland co., Va., Jan. 
 29, 1756; graduated at Princeton in 177'i; in 1776 entered 
 the army as a captain of horse, and served afterwards both 
 in the North and South in command (as major and after- 
 wards as lieutenant-colonel) of a partisan corps known as 
 " Lee's Legion," while Lee himself was familiarly knoivn 
 as •' Lighthorse Harry." He became renowned lor bold- 
 ness, .activity, and efficiency. He retired from the armv 
 soon after the battle of Eulaw, in which ho distinguished 
 him.self greatly. He was in Congress in 1786; was gov- 
 ernor of Virginia 1792-95 ; commander-in-chief of the ex- 
 pedition against the whisky insurgents 1794; and again a 
 member of Congress in 1799. In his celebrated eulogy on 
 \V ashiugtou. prepared by direction of Congress, ocour the 
 words, ''First in war, first in peace, and first in the 
 hearts of his countrymen." In 1809 he was confined for 
 debt in Spottsylvania oo., Va., and wrote his Memoim of 
 the War in the Southern Department (1809). In 1814 
 he was in Baltimore, the guest of Mr. Alexander C. 
 Hanson, at the time when the house of that gentleman 
 was attacked by a mob. Gen. Lee took part in the 
 defence of the house, and was nl'ierward put into the city 
 jail lor safety, but the mob entered the jail, and killed 
 or cruelly maimed the whole parly. Gen. Lee never re- 
 covered from his injuries. He went for his health to the 
 West Indies, and d. on the return journey, on Cumber- 
 land Island, (ia., where he was the guest Of Mrs. Shaw, 
 a daughter of Gen. Greene, Mar. 25, 1816. Ho was frank, 
 
 j generous, and impulsive; and in the opinion of Gen. 
 Greene did more than any other man to bring about the 
 triumph of the Americ:in arms in the Southern department. 
 Lee (Henry), a brother of Gen. R. E. Lee. b. at Strat- 
 ford. Westmoreland CO., Va., in 1787; graduated in 1808 
 at William and Mary College: became major 36th Infantry 
 in 1S1:1. He was author of The Compuiijn of 17gl (1824), 
 Life if Niipoleon (vol. i.. 1S.;5|, Ohaercotion, on the Writ- 
 ' '"a' of Tkomu, Jefferson (18:j2j. D. at Paris Jan. 30, 1837. 
 I Lee (He.vry W.), b. at Haindcn, Conn., July 26, 1815. 
 and d. in Davenport. Ia., Sept. 26, 1874; received deacon's 
 orders in 1S38; in 1840 became rector of a church which he 
 had built up at Springfield. Ma.ss. : in 1S48 received charge 
 of St. Luke's church at Rochester. N. Y., where he re- 
 mained till 1854, when he was chosen bishop of Iowa, which 
 position ho held at his death. J. B. Bisnop. 
 
 Lee (Jesse), b. in Prince George's co., Va., Mar. 12, 
 1758; joined the Methodist Church in 1773; in 1783 was 
 received into the conference; in 1787 penetrated New Eng- 
 land, and preached from the Connecticut to the farthest 
 settlements in Maine. He formed the first Methodist 
 '•cl.'vs8"in New England at Strntfield. Conn., Sept. 26, 1787, 
 and the first in Boston, Mass.. July 13, 1792. Ilewasthree 
 times elected chaplain to the l'. S. House of Representa- 
 tives and once to the Senate. In 1S07 he published at Bal- 
 timore. Jill., his History of Methodism in America. D. 
 j Sept. 12, 1810. Abel Stevens. 
 
 I Lee (John), LL.D.. F. R. S., b. in London Apr. 28, 
 1783: graduated at St. John's College. Cambridge, in 
 1806; became fellow, and travelled extensively in the 
 East, luakjng collections of antiquities. In 1815 ho took 
 the name of Lee (his original name having been Fiott) 
 j upon inheriting the property of an uncle, and devoted 
 himself to science. He was a member of fifteen or twenty 
 learned societies, and was for two years president of the 
 Royal Astronomical Society. He erected a magnificent 
 observatory at his residence near Aylesbury. Bucks, and 
 engaged competent astronomers to conduct the observations. 
 D. at Hartwell House Feb. 25, 1866. 
 
 Lee (Leroy Madison), D. D.. b. in Petersburg. Va., 
 1808; joined the Virginia Methodist Conference in 1828; 
 in 1836 was appointed editor of the Richmond Christian 
 Adrocate; in 1859 resumed the pastoral office. He has 
 published Life and Times of Jesse Lee, Atlrice to a Young 
 Concert, etc. .Abei, Stevens. 
 
 Lee (LiTHER), D. D., b. at Schoharie, N. T., Nov. 30. 
 1800 ; became a Methodist travelling preacher of the .M. E. 
 Church in 1827 ; lectured in favor of temperance and the 
 abolition of slavery, being mobbed several times ; seceded 
 on account of slavery from the M. E. Church in 1842: 
 joined the new body of " Wesleyan Methodists," became 
 pastor of a church in Syracuse (1843); president of the 
 first Wesleynn Methodist general conference in 1844, and 
 editor in New York of the organ of that Church, tlic True 
 Wrslci/an. In 1856 he was chosen president of Michigan 
 I'nion College at Leoni, Mich.: resigned and spent several 
 years in Ohio; became in 1864 professor at .Adrian College, 
 Mich.; returned to M. E. Churoh in 1867, and has since 
 been a member of the Michigan conference. Dr. Lee has 
 edited several papers and written various religious and 
 controversial works. 
 
 Lee (Mary Elizabeth), b. at Charleston, S. C, Mar. 
 23. 1S13. was a niece of Judge Thomas Lee. She contrib 
 uted much prose and verse to periodical literature, and 
 was author of Tales from History. D. at Charleston Sept. 
 23, 1849. (See a Memoir, with selections of her poetry, by 
 S. Gilman, D. D., 1851.) 
 
 Lee (Nathaniel), b. at Hatfield, Hertfordshire, Eng., 
 about 1657; educated at Trinity College, Cambridge; be- 
 came an actor and afterwards a dramatic author, producing 
 a new play every year from 1675 to 1681 ; was several years 
 confined in an insane asylum ; aided Dryden in writing 
 iK'lipus and the Duke of Guise. He was killed in an afi"rav 
 in London in 1090. Two of his eleven tragedies. Theo- 
 do, ins and Alexander the Great, were Successful acting 
 dramas throughout the eighteenth centur}'. 
 
 Lee (Richard Henry), signer of the Declaration of 
 Independence, son of Thomas, b. at Stratford, the family- 
 seat of the Lees, in Westmoreland co., Va., Jan. 20. 17:i2. 
 He was educated in England, and after his return marched 
 with a company to join Bradd»»ok. who rejecte4l his services 
 with an ill-judged expression of contempt for the "pro- 
 vincials." He was early chosen to the house of burgesse.", 
 where he at once took a commanding position on the side 
 of popular rights. He was in Congress 1774-77, 1784-85, 
 and 1786-87. He was the author of the famous motion of 
 June 7, 1776, "That these United Colonies are. and of 
 right ought to be. free and independent iStates," etc.. and 
 advocated the Declaration of Independence in a bold and
 
 LEE. 
 
 1707 
 
 brilliaut speech. Duriug 1780 he was for ft portion of the 
 time in I he Ik'lflatthe \iviul of the mililiu of Westmoreland 
 CO. Ho was a Senator from Virginia 17S',t-lt2. ami, though 
 not a FederalisI, .supporte<l the ndntini^tratiuu of Washing- 
 ton with ztal. I>. at Chanlillv, Va., .lunf ID. 1791. He 
 was a man of amiable and noble cbaraetur, uf cuinmundiug 
 presence, excellent abilities, and self-.-iacrituring patriotism. 
 (See his Li/e and Corrcgpondence (182j), by R. 11. Lee, hia 
 grcat-graudaon.) 
 
 Lee f RoBi: rt), D. I)., b. at Twccdmouih, North Durham, 
 Eng., Nov. 1 1, 1S04 ; entered the University of St. Andrew's 
 in 1S24: was ordained in the Church of Scotland in ls:!2; 
 was minir^UT at Arbroath (18;J.1) and at Caniptiie ( IS.'Jfi), and 
 in 1S4.';, on the disruption of the Scottish (,'hurcb, was ap- 
 pointed by the town council of Edinburgh to the pastorate of 
 the Old lirey Kriars' Church. In IS44 he published a transla- 
 tion, witii a preface, of T/u- Th'ses >>/ ICraitnit touchimj Ej- 
 cnininiinirtiti'in, as a reply to the writers of the "Secession 
 Church," who charged the adherents of the establishment 
 with " Erastianism," In 1840 he became regius professor 
 of biblical criticism in the University of Edinburgh, and 
 devoted himself at once to a course of minute investiga- 
 tions upon the text of the Hil>le. which resulted in the great 
 work of bis life, T/ic flnf^ /iihfe, icith tthmtt 60,000 Mar- 
 fjinnl Iie/t-rencc8 and Vartoitii jficndiiif/it, rcvined and im- 
 proved, published at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and London in 
 1851. lie was charged by iho WitiuHt newspaper with in- 
 culcating licresy in regarcl to universal salvation, and vig- 
 orously defended hira^^elf in the columns of the Smtsumu. 
 In 1SJ8, Dr. Lee was a member of a deputation sent to 
 London to appeal before a parliamentary conimitteo on the 
 subject of university reform, and his suggestions were em- 
 bodied in the measure as finally passed. In IS;)7 he jiub- 
 lished a volume ot Prat/fru fur Pnhlic H'orw/i//;, and having 
 employed them in his own parish, was arraigned in IS.VJ 
 before the presbytery of Edinburgh, and later before the 
 General Assembly, on a charge of introducing into public 
 worship a liturgy and certain forms and postures unknown to 
 the Church of Scotland. Dr. Lee argued his own case in a 
 speech of great eloquence, and obtained u verdi<'t in his 
 favor. In l^^t'iO he published The Uefurm »/ tht- Church of 
 Scfjtlnnd in Worvhip, Oovcrnmcnt, and JJurfriiw, in which 
 ho discussed liturgy, postures in worship, instrumental 
 music, and the propriety of observing certain festivals and 
 fasts, with a tenclency towards bringing the Church of 
 Scotland into greater hormony with the age. The (iineral 
 Assembly of ISOII-fil reported favorably upon these views, 
 and on the 22d of Apr., lSfi.5, an organ was first opened in 
 hia church of (irey Friars — an event which niarkr-d an era 
 in the national Church, and has been frequently iniitatctl. 
 The action of 1S(U was, however, reversed by the (Jeneral 
 Assembly of I8G5, and Dr. Leo was preparing to contest 
 his favorite views before the civil courts when he was at- 
 tacked with paralysis, and d. at Torquny Mar. 12, ISiiS. 
 Dr. Lee was the acknowledged leader of "the liberal party 
 in the Scottish Church. (See his IJ/t mul licmuin^, by Rev. 
 R. IL Story, 1870.) 
 
 Lee (Robert Edward), h. at Stafford House, Wcstnoore- 
 land CO., Va., on Jan. lU, 18U7. Having been entered as u 
 cadet at the U. S. Military Academy at West Point in I82i). 
 ho was graduated, second uf his class, in 1H21*. and attached 
 to the army as a sceond lieutenant of engineers on the Ist 
 of July of that year. Habitually employed upon the most 
 iniportnut duties of his corps in time of peace, he ha<l also, 
 previously to |M4(), been specially rletailed to airl in estab- 
 lishing the boundary-lino ootween Oliio and Michigan, and 
 from 1H;I7 to l>^ll wa?» superintending engineer uf the im- 
 provements in the harbnr of St. Louis and of the Minsouri 
 and upper Mississippi rivers, to which was added, from IH40 
 to 1841, the supervision i>f the improvements in the naviga- 
 tion of the Ohio belciw Louisville, and of the lower Mia- 
 sisHippi. Alreafly a captain of engineers since July 'J, Is.'is, 
 ho first saw field-service in the war with Mexico as chief 
 engineer with Gen. Wodl. Hut when (ien. Scott took com- 
 mand for the principal operation against the Mexican cap- 
 ital in Miir.. 1S47, he called ("apt. Leo to his side. In that 
 briiliunl campaign he was conspicuous for professional 
 aldlily as well as for gallant and meritorious c(.nduct. win- 
 ning in quick succession the brevets of miijr)r, lieutenant- 
 colonel, and cobdiol for Itis part in the battles of Cerro 
 tJordo, Contreras, Churubusco. Chapultcpec (in which latter 
 action be was wounded i, ancl in the ciipture of Ibo city of 
 Mexico. Hy the eb»se of the war he bud come to he gen- 
 erally regarded in the army as the «Mie oflicer best fitted 
 ultimately to succeeil (Jen. Scott In ibe chief command. 
 Called tfi Wnshington for a time as assistant to the chief 
 engineer of the nrrny, be resumed hia place on the board of 
 engineers charged with the delVnce of the Atlantic coast. 
 From Sept, 1, 1852. to the end of Mar., lS.).'i. be was super- 
 intendent of tho Military Academy, a position which he 
 
 gave up to assume the duties of lieutenant-colonel of the 
 2d Cavalry, to which he had been appointed on Mar. 3, 
 ISJj, at the formation of that regiment. For several years 
 ho now served on the Texas border; but happening to be 
 on leave of absence, near Washington, at the time of the 
 raid of John lirowu (Oct. 17 to 2.">, 1859), Col. Lcc was 
 placed in command of the Federal forces employed in its 
 repression. Having soon after returned to his regiment, 
 he fell iu command of the department of Texas during tlie 
 greater part of IStlO. On Mar. ll», 18G1, he became colonel 
 of his regiment by regular promotion, but resigned that 
 commission three weeks later (Apr. 26) u])on the secession 
 of Virginia. Repairing to Richmond, he tendered liis s^er- 
 vices to the governor of the State, and by acclamation was 
 appointed commander-in-chief of its fiirccs, with the grade 
 of niajor-generat. Extracts from his letters at the time 
 show the character of the man. Writing to Gen. Scott, he 
 said: ''Since my interview with you on the 18th inst. I 
 have felt that I ought not longer to retain my connnigsion 
 in the army. I therefore ten<ier my rcsigniition, which I 
 request you will recouiuiend for acceptance. It \vouId have 
 been presented at once, but for the struggle it has co^t mo 
 to separate myself from the service to wliich I have devoted 
 all the best years of my life and all the ability I possessed. 
 . . . Save iu defence of my State, I never desire to draw 
 ray sword." To his sister the same day he wrote: *' I am 
 grieved at my inability to see you. I have been waiting for 
 a more convenient season, which has brought to many be- 
 fore mc deep aud lasting regret. Now we arc in a state of 
 war which will yield to nothing. The whole South is in a 
 state of revolution, into which Virginia, after a long strug- 
 gle, has been drawn ; and though I recognize no necessity 
 for tiiis state of things, and would have forborne and pleaded 
 to the end for redress of grievances, real or supposed, yet 
 in my own person I had to meet the question wbelher I 
 would take part against my native State. Willi all my 
 devotion to the Union, and the iec^ling of loyalty and duty 
 of an American citizen, I liavc not been able to nutke up 
 my mind to raise my hand against my relatives, my chil- 
 dren, my home. I have therefore resigned my commission 
 in the army, and save in dtjencc of viy native State, with 
 the hope that my poor services will never be needed, I hope 
 I may never be called on to draw my sword. I know you 
 will blame me, but you must think of me as kindly as you 
 can, and believe that I have endeavored to do what 1 have 
 thought right." I*)nteriug upon the duties of his new posi- 
 tion, he set to work to organi'/.e and develoji the tlefi nsive 
 resources of his State, having assumed "eominaml td" tlio 
 military and naval forces of Virginia" on Apr. 2.'-, 1S61. 
 A month later he directed the occui)ation iu force of tho 
 important strategic position of Manassas Junction, which 
 ho visited about the 1st of June and gave special directmns 
 for its defence. iMeaiiwhile, \'irginia hnving entered tho 
 Confeileracy and Richmond become the capital, Lee was 
 appointed third iu rank of tho five generals by virtue of 
 an act of the Confederate Congress creating that grade — 
 Samuel Cooper, lately ailjutant-general of the U. S. army, 
 and Albert Sidney Jidinston. a brigadier in the same service, 
 being his seniors. For the time he remained at Richmond, 
 generally consulted by Mr. Jefi'erson Davis concerning 
 military afl'airs, until tho early autumn, when he was as- 
 signed to command the forces confronting Gen. Rosecraiis, 
 his lornier junior in the engineer corps. Rut practically 
 reduced to inaction on that field, (»cn. IjCO was transferred 
 to the command of the coast of North and South Carolina 
 and Georgia about Dec. 1, 1801, with impaired rei)Utation, 
 which was not retrieved, in public estimation, on that the- 
 atre of operations. So the notion grew widespread that, 
 wanting in decision antl not a man ot action, lie was un- 
 fittoil for practical warfare. Tho Confederate Congress, 
 however, having created the ofiico of commander-in-chief, 
 Mr. Davis, regarding it us an encroacbnnnl upon the e.\eeu- 
 tivo jiuwer, vctoiil the law, but not long after, or about 
 the end of Mar., 1S(J2, culletl Gen. Lee back to Richmond, 
 and nominally invested bim with the functions in question, 
 which were exercised without material inllnence or control 
 over either the organization or operations of Confcderato 
 armies. It was in this posture of atlairs that tien. .loseph 
 E. Johnst*>n was wounded ut the battle of Seven Pines or 
 Fair Oaks. May .11, 18(12. Leo the following day was ap- 
 pointed to succeed him in the direct command of the army 
 assembled for the defence of Richmond, and his first act 
 was to draw all his troops back to their eneanipnienls near 
 the city. Their casualties in the late engagements had boon 
 rising tiOIH), and their material gainr^ some 10 pieces of ar- 
 tillery, f»7lH) rifles and muskets, with considerable subaist- 
 ence and quurternmster'f. medical, and ordnance stores; 
 but Lee wisely stood, as yet. upon tho defensive, while 
 gathering all possible reinforoenn'nlM from the southward, 
 which .lohnston declares liad. in like need, been withheld 
 from him. In this way, by tho night of June 25, ISG2, Lc'e
 
 1708 
 
 LEE. 
 
 had added from 2l:i.000 to 25,000 men to his forces, includ- 
 ing Jackson's and Ewvll's veterans, fresh from their recent 
 successes in the Shenandoah Valley, and had at his dispo- 
 sition an army 80.0U0 strong, which he soon infused with 
 the belief that he was equal to every emergency in the husi- 
 nesa of war, and that it was invim-ihle under his lead. 
 McCleltan's position, meanwhile, was peculiarly strong; 
 his left and centre, covered by a great morass (White Oak 
 Swamp), extending southward from the Ghickahominy 
 nearly to James River ; only his right (some S/i, 000 men) 
 was at all exposed to attack, but well protected by intrench- 
 meiits and artillery. Thus disposed, there was an army of 
 at least 100,000 men, admirably equipped. His new adver- 
 sary, now reaily for the offensive, put -Jackson in motion 
 with three divisir>ns (I^.OflO), by a wide circuit arounrl the 
 Federal right tc( fall upon its rear with his now well-known 
 vigor, and leaving Magrudor with bandy 25,000 men to 
 shield Richmond from the mass of MeClellan's force, Lee 
 threw Longstreet with 40,000 men forward to a direct attack 
 upon the Union right under Fitz John Porter, late in the 
 afternoon of June 2fi. Under this attack Porter's corps 
 was pressed back behind Beaver Dam Ureek, where he 
 found stable standing-ground; but retreating that night 
 to the stronger position about Cold Harbor, where, rein- 
 forced, he successfully withstood all assaults until the full 
 weight of Jackson's turning movement fell upon and over- 
 powered him, driving his shattered divisions across the 
 Chickahominy, with the loss of twenty cannon and many 
 small-arms. The wise audacity of Gen. Lee's plan of attack 
 gave him the field, hut the nature of the ground enabled Mc- 
 ('lellan, in spite of the extreme demoralization of his troops 
 following the disaster, to effect a consummate retreat, 
 though hard pressed at every step in the several affairs of 
 June 2'^, 29, and 30, to the shelter of naval support in 
 James River and the almost impregnable position of Mal- 
 vern Hill, the attack upon which was repulsed on July 1 
 with a heavy Confederate loss. But Richmond was now 
 virtually relieved from the risk of an attack from McClel- 
 lan and the quarter of James River. A fresh Federal army 
 having been massed soon after in the vicinity of Culpeper 
 Court-house, under Gen. Pope, in menace of an attack from 
 that direction, Jackson was at once detached to confront 
 and stay this fresh danger, and the battle of Cedar Run 
 was won by hira on Aug. 9. Ten days later, leaving a force 
 to secure Richmond from a coHy> tie mf(i'», Lee was in move- 
 ment with his main army for a stroke at Pope — a movement 
 of signal aud-jcity in execution that ended in the com- 
 plete discomfiture of his opponent in the notable actions 
 of Aug. 2l>and;i0, 1S02 — or seeond battle of Manassas — with 
 the loss of 30 pieces of artillery and large stores of war 
 material. Following this brilliant success. Gen. Lee threw 
 his victorious corps swiftly across the Potomac into Mary- 
 land as far as Frederick Town — an operation more boldly 
 and skilfully conceived than thitroughly carried out in ac- 
 cordance with the offensive objects for which it was under- 
 taken. For while the detached operation entrusted to 
 Jacksim resulted in the important capture of Harper's 
 Ferry, so much of Lee's army was diverted to (hat end for 
 so long a period that in the interval, thrown virtually on 
 the defensive, the Confederate general gave M'^Clellan time 
 to concentrate his masses upon and tight him at Antietam 
 (Sept. 17. 1^1)2) when separated from a material part of his 
 army, and with .lackson present, with two of the previ- 
 ously detached divisions, only under the stress of a severe 
 forced march. Under these circumstances Lee was. there- 
 fore, unable to profit decisively from the advantage he 
 gained at the close of that combat, and after standing 
 in position awjiiting attack from his now strongly rein- 
 forced opponent, ho found it expedient to abandon the 
 campaign and retire into Virginia, the major object of his 
 movement having unquestionably been sacrificed to the 
 minor. The Union army having been reorganized during 
 the next month, and a new commander ((Jen. Bnrnsidel 
 given it on the 7th of November, he took tlie offensive 
 with Richmond again as the objective, but Aquia <'rerk as 
 his bane, and reached the N. bank of the Rappahannock at 
 Fredericksburg on the 17th of that month, to liml Gen. Leo 
 in due season ready to dispute his further march. Then 
 came the Ltth of December, with the Idoody conflict of 
 Fredericksburg, which afforded another illustration of the 
 high capacity of the Confederate general as a defensive 
 soldier. With another change of Federal commanders came 
 the battle of Chancellorsville (May 2-4, lsfi3). Lee, as 
 habitual to him, forecasting his adversary's plan, was now 
 able to give another victory to his supremely confident, 
 trustful army, even though his strongest corps, or one- 
 third of his force, was detached at the time. As the whole 
 field or theatre of war stood, after that battle, for the Con- 
 federates in all quarters of their territory, it would seem 
 qlear th.at a comprehensive strategy must have inrlicated 
 the employment of their available resources in a different 
 
 operation from that which Lee next essayed, as is alleged, 
 entirely against his own judgment and advice, under the 
 orders of his ])olitioal 8U])erior — that is to say, the cam- 
 paign ending in mortal disaster to the Confederate cause 
 on the field of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 18G3), from which ho 
 withdrew shorn of some 27.000 of the very 61ite of his army, 
 as well as of its prestige of habitual success, which had 
 made it wellnigh invincible. But, though beaten and 
 foiled, he withdrew and repassed the Potomac with con- 
 summate method and skill, leaving his opponent wholly 
 unwilling to seriously adventure the offensive in turn for 
 ten months. By that time, however, Lieut, -Gen. (Jrant, 
 made commander-in-chief of the armies of the V. S. with 
 absolute powers, took the field against Gen. Lee with an 
 army of over 140,000 men, thoroughly inured to war. To 
 meet this formidable general and army Lee stood as reso- 
 lutely ready as on ail previous occasions, but his redoubtable 
 corps were reduced to within 55,000 infantry and artillery. 
 The object of Grant was to turn his adversary's position, 
 and reaching an open field beyond the AViIderno«s. upon 
 Lee's communications, force him to figlit lor their integ- 
 rity at mortal disadvantage. But altogether too wary and 
 far-sighted to be thus out-manoeuvred. Gen. Lee became 
 himself the assailant at the threshold of the operation, 
 when his adversary was entangled and his corps danger- 
 ously separated in the dense recesses of the Wilderness, on 
 May 5, lSfi4, and inflicted a loss of 20,000 men. On the 
 next day. Grant essaying to move, Lee was again the as- 
 sailant, with the advantage of the affair on his side. As- 
 sailed in turn, however, on May 7, HI, and 12, in tentative 
 operations, Lee's position was found impregnable, so that 
 at the close of the third week of the campaign the aggre- 
 gate of Federal losses rose above 40.000 ofliccrs and men. 
 Grant having skilfully crossed the North Anna on May 21, 
 the gain was immediately so neutralized by the position in 
 which he found his adversary awaiting his further march 
 that the Union army had to retrace its steps, and, led by a 
 wide circuit, was carried to the scene of McCleilan's dis- 
 aster at Cold Harbor within ten milesof Richmond. There, 
 reinforced by Smith's corps, 16,000 strong, making the sum- 
 total of reinforcements 97,000 men added to his army be- 
 tween the 12th and 31st of May, 1803, while the Confed- 
 erates had been strengthened, all told, by less than 20,000 
 men. Gen. Grant on June 3 adventured a direct assault 
 upon Lee's intrenched lines, and it may be said that the 
 annals of war record no more sanguinary repulse than that 
 which was then inflicted. It is noteworthy that by this 
 time the casualties of the Union army reached 00,000, in- 
 eluding 3000 officers: and it remained for Gen. Grant to 
 seek a new line of approach to his objective; that is to say, 
 throwing his army acros* the James and S. of the Appo- 
 mattox on June 14 and 15, 1804, he opened a new campaign 
 at Petersburg of 300 days. Looking at the force employed 
 against him during all that period, and his own compar- 
 atively petty resources. Lee's stand at Petersburg has no 
 parallel in war, and the details of that nmsterly defence, 
 properly related, will form one of the most instructive les- 
 sons in the art of war. From the \ery outset, notwith- 
 standing his great advantages in all war-resources, in the 
 presence of such an adversary as Lee. Gen. Cirant found it 
 expeilicnt to shelter his forces behind strong intrenchments. 
 In the course of the ten months of struggle and combat 
 which ensued, from a concurrence of adverse circumstances 
 elsewhere than at Petersburg, Lee, foreseeing the ultimate 
 issue, would have evacuated that position early in 1.^65, 
 but his political superiors were unwilling to give up 
 Richmond until fiirced away by Federal arms. Re- 
 duced to about 40.000 rifles in his trenches, on Mar. 25, 
 iNfio, the Confederate general, with that astute audacity 
 which had come to be characteristic, essaying the oflensive, 
 delivcrcfl a strenuous, skilfully-aiuted stroke in his finest 
 manner at a vulnerable ])oint in his opp(.neiit's lines : Iiut at 
 the critical moment the supports quaileij. aini the ctiterjirisc 
 miscarried, with a loss which he could ill afford. Now 
 Grant in turn massed two corps au'l all his cavalry for a 
 counter-stroke at Lee's right (lank. But before tlie blow 
 fell, the Confederate general, coiu'cntrating 15,000 men, 
 again smote his menacing adversary with wellnigh "his 
 wonted success." Swinton states, as also that a Federal dis- 
 aster was barely escaped. But the terrible blow fell soon 
 after upon the Conf^cderate lines at Five Forks, which 
 made them untenable. So Lee, retreating, was pressed 
 with such vigor and skill that his surrender at Appomattox 
 was the absolute necessity of the campaign. And iilthougli 
 that cnpitulation embraced only some 27,000 men, but MHIO 
 ai whom were armed, it brought the war of secession in all 
 quarters to an immediate close so soon as the event was 
 known. 
 
 Judged critically, it may be said that rarely has a com- 
 mander been so sharp-sighted and quick to detect the pur- 
 poses of an opponent as was Gen. Leo. Never surj>asscd.
 
 LEE— LEECH. 
 
 1709 
 
 courage, nliioli enaljlc.l liiiii to uiiiko it relatively 
 comparable instrument of his jOans. In the cr 
 
 comii 
 
 if ever equalled, in the art of winning the passionate, per- I 
 soiial love as well as admiration of his troops, he acquired 
 and held an inftueucc over his army to the very last in- 
 stant, foun.led on a suiirimc trust in his judsjcuent, pre- 
 science, and skill, coupled with his cool, stalde. equable 
 
 ' '■ --'-•:-'■• iiio im- 
 
 crisis of 
 disastrous battle, as at Gettysburg, and als.) on tliat day at 
 Petersburg when the whole Federal army seenied surging 
 in upon hFTn through the breach in his lines opened by the 
 exploded mine, den. Lee was seen to be as placid and 
 cheerful, as free from anxiety and clear-headed, as at the 
 close of ft dav of viotory. Strategically defective and ill- 
 eonceived. \ct the (iettysburg campaign was executed by 
 r.ee with a inaslerlv knowledge of the theatre of operations, 
 unsurpassed celerity, and secrecy of movement, and with 
 all possible care of his communications; but it must be 
 added that in that battle, as also previously in the san- 
 guinary assault upon McClellan in \»G2 at Malvern Hill, 
 there was a serious lack of that tactical concentration of 
 his masses on the part of the Confederate general which 
 was essential to success. It is also ap|)arcnt that he was 
 wanting in the talent of administration which distinguished 
 Wellington; unlike whom also, with all his military vir- 
 tues, Lee was careless of the discipline and training of his 
 army. From temperament, likewise, he gave way, as no 
 general so placed ever should consent to do in matters of 
 supreme military concern, to his political chief, and hence 
 not only undertook false campaigns, like that of the second 
 invasion, and maintained too long a position, like that of 
 Petersburg in ISC.j, but ho failed to throw the decisive 
 weight of his great personal and professional authority 
 against that sHtleil )Mdicy of wide dispersion of its forces 
 wliich proved so fatal to the Confederate cause. For the 
 proper measure of ticn. Lee's rank among the soldiers of 
 history, however, seeing what ho wrought with such re- 
 source's as he had, under all the disadvantages that ever 
 attended his oiieralions, it were fair to sujipose what ho 
 might have achieved in campaigns and battles with re- 
 sources at his own disposition equal to those against which 
 he invariably contended. 
 
 In person. Robert K. Lee was of remarkable manly 
 beauty, with a distiiiguishcil martial appearance and car- 
 riage.' Lett at the close of the war without estate or pro- 
 fession, he accepted with alacrity the presidency of Wash- 
 ington College at Lexington, Va., to which simple employ- 
 ment he gave the same devotion, with the like high sense 
 of .lutv, which had distinguished the captain of engineers 
 and the commander of the chief army of one of the bel- 
 ligerents in a mighty civil war. At the same time, not uii- 
 inindful of the largo inlluenco he had acquired over his 
 section, he lost no opportunity to use that influence to 
 soften and assuage the passions and animosities of his 
 people. '•.Madam, <lo not train up your children m hos- 
 tility to the government of the II. S.,"are authentic charac- 
 teristic words which he uttered to one widowed by the war, 
 who in bringing her son to him for education had spoken 
 bitterly. But sixtv-ihree yeiirs of age, with apparent 
 promise of prolongetl health and a life of usel'iiliuss and 
 influence, he was taken suddenly ill, and in a fortnight d. 
 Oct. 12, l«70, at Lexington. Thomas Joiiiias. 
 
 I.ce (Sami:ki.). n. D., b. at Longnor, Shropshire, Eng- 
 land, May II, ITX-I; receive.l his first instruction at a 
 charity school, an.l was at the ago of twelvn apprenticed 
 to a c'arp.nter. While laboring at this trade he acquired 
 Iho chief classical. Oriiiilal, ami modern languages, and at 
 the ago of thirty was enabled to enter Queen's College, Cam- 
 hri.lge, as a student, graduating in due course, taking or- 
 ders in the Cliureh, becoming in 1S111 university professor 
 of Arabic, and regius professor of Hebrew in IS.U. He 
 published a Itrhrrw Oriimmnr, which hail a wide circula- 
 tion in Knglaiid and America ( IKHO), translations of the 
 7V-1I--/. ../• Ml. IlKitifi (is:'.:!), and of the ll.,„l.- o/' ./.,/, ( 1S?,71, 
 and a llrl,rr,r nml K,uji:,h Lexicon (1810). 1). at Barley, 
 Hertfordshire, Dec. I«, lSo2. 
 
 Lee (Samiki. Pim.ifs), U. S. N., b. Feb. 13, IS12, in 
 Virginia; entered the navy as a midshipman Nov ■"" 
 1S2.^; became 
 in 18:17, a coinman 
 
 niodoro in isr.fi.a ri'ar-adininil in 1^70; retired fnon active 
 siTvije Feb. l;i, lH7;i. Commanded the Dneiila with dis- 
 tinguislied gallantry at the passace of Forts .lackson and 
 St. Philip and capiure of New Orleans, "driving off the 
 assailants of the Varulin, and preventing her oflicers and 
 cnnv from being captured by the Conl'cdi rates." From 
 lS(i2 to ISfil commandeil the North Atlantic blockading 
 squadron, and from lf<(lt to ISfi.'i the Mississippi squadron. 
 From ISOfi to ISO? president of the board to examine vol- 
 unteer oflicers for admission into the navy; ISCS to 1S70 
 gnal-onicer of the navy ; IS7tl to Is;.'! in command 
 
 passed miilshipman in ls:t3. a lieutenant »"""" 
 
 lander in IS''.'', a captain in isfi2. a com- ■"•.""' 
 
 , • I :.. lo-n. ...i:..i r, „..i;.„ iiainlii 
 
 chief sign 
 
 of the North Atlantic fleet. 
 
 FoxiiAi.i, A. Paiikku. 
 
 Lee (Sarah Wallis), b. in Colchester, England, in 
 17'J1 : married Thomas Edward Bowdich, whom she ac- 
 coni)ianied to the Cold Coast of Africa in ISU, residing 
 there until 1S22. Mr. liowdich was employed as a com- 
 missioner to conclude a treaty with the king of Ashanteo 
 in 18lo, and with the aid of his wife published in ISl'J a 
 work entitled .1 .V/i«»ioii to Aahaiitec. Ho d. at Bathurst, 
 Isle of St. Mary. Jan. 10, l.'S24. Mrs. Bowdich published 
 in 1825 Storiea of Stynnrje Lands, ill which she narrated 
 with great efl'ect her observations in Africa, edited three 
 illustrated works on mammalia, birds, and shells, written liy 
 her late husband, and prepared other original works of the 
 same character, which gave her an honorable name in the 
 annals of British science. Mrs. Bowdich resided many 
 years in Paris, where she enjoyed the friendship of Baron 
 Cuvicr and other distinguished naturalists, and married 
 her second husband, Mr. Lee. D. in l.'^oO. 
 
 Lee (Sophia), h. in London in May. 17o0. daughter of 
 an actor. and in 1780 wrote a comedy, Tlir Chapter o/.-lcci- 
 <lriitK. which was brought out with success at the llaymarket 
 Theatre. The profits of this play enabled Miss Lee to es- 
 tablish at Bath (1781) a seminary for young ladies, which 
 was for many years conducted by her along with her sister 
 (see Lee, IIa'rriet). with whom her name is inseparably con- 
 nected in the authorship of the celcbr.ated Canttihnri/ Ta/en. 
 Two only of these tales, and the introduction, were written 
 by Harriet. She wrote two novels and a tragedy, which 
 were moderately successful, and another comedy, which 
 proved a failure. D. at Clifton, near Bristol, Mar. 3, 1824. 
 Lee (Thomas), b. in Virginia about the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century; was third son of Richard Lee, a mem- 
 ber of the council and grandson of Richard Lee. the founder 
 of the family in America, who as a Cavalier played a dis- 
 tinguished part in Virginia along with Berkeley in securing 
 tho allegiance of that colony to the Stuarts. Thomas Leo 
 succeeded to the ancestral estate at Stratford. Westmoreland 
 CO.. on the" Northern Neck;" became president of the coun- 
 cil ; and his commission as governor had just been made 
 out when he d. in 17:)0. He had married Hannah, daughter 
 of Col. Philip Ludwell, a member of the council, and by 
 her had six sons, all of whom were distinguished for their 
 public services during the Revolution : Phili]i Ludwell, a 
 member of the council; Thomas Ludwell. b. about 17:{0, 
 member of the hou.se of burgesses, of tho conventions of 
 1775 and 1770, of the Committee of Safety, and one of tho 
 judges of the supreme court, d. soon after, aged 47; Rn-n- 
 ARB Uenrv, Frasxis LicHTFOOT, and Arthiir (see those 
 names); and William, the fifth son, b. about 17:!7; was 
 a-'ent of Virginia in England; elected sherifl' of London 
 iu'l773 and alderman in 1775 ; afterwards diplomatic agent 
 of the U. S. at the Hague, Vienna, and Berlin ; recalled in 
 1779, and d. at Oreenspring, Va.. June 27, 1705. In the 
 third and fourth generation from Thomas this family, al- 
 lied by descent and intermarriage to tho Lees of military 
 celebrity, has produced several influential citizens. . ■ * 
 
 Lec (Wilson), b. in Sussex co., Del., in 17(51 ; became an 
 itinerant .Methodist in 17S 1 ; travelled and preached in Ken- 
 tucky, and after 1701 went to New Englan.l. and shared 
 with'jesse Lee in the founding of Methodism there. 1). in 
 Anne Arundel co., Md., Oct. 11, 1804. AiiEi. Stevens. 
 Lec Centre, post-lp. of Lee co.. 111. Pop. 1028. 
 Lee Centre, postv. of Leo tp.. Oneida co., N. Y.. 9 
 miles N. \V. of Rome, has some manufactures. Pop. 355. 
 Leech [Ang.-Sax. h-rr], a name vaguely apjilicd to va- 
 rious representatives of the order Bdellodea or ^llngllisuga- 
 ria, but especially employed fur the species of the family 
 HirudinidiB. This group has a number of genera and spe- 
 cies, and all of tluin have in common an elongated, flat- 
 tened, and transversely annulate body, which is narrowed 
 anteriorly and obtuse' posteriorly : the anterior extremity 
 has an oval sucker, ami within tho mouth are three jaws 
 converging backwards and denticulated in their margins; 
 ton inconspicuous eyes are developed on the upper lip; the 
 posterior extremity has a large round, .ibliciiiely-iiisertcd 
 sucker. Tho sexes are united in one indivblual. The best 
 known species are the oflicinal leeches (Hirmto ofih-inaliK, 
 rillcinalit. nnA 11. Irorirna). Leeches afl"ord the least 
 painlul means for tho local abstraction of blood. They 
 take from three to five times their weight in blood, six gen- 
 erally being a|iplie 1 for every fluid ounce of blood to be 
 lost. To ilisgorgo the blood, apply salt or squeeie them. 
 The medicinal leech is cultivated in Europe, being kept in 
 ponds in natural meadows, and increase rapiilly. horses, 
 cows, etc. being driven in to feed lliein, or the leeches im- 
 mersed in warm blood deprived of fibrine. They arc kept 
 in clear soft water in jars, and are sensitive to change ot 
 weather. TiiEonoiiE iJlI.t,. 
 
 Leech (John), b. in London in 1817. His father for 
 many years kept tho London Coffee-house on Ludgalo Hill.
 
 1710 
 
 LEECH— LEESER, 
 
 Leech was educated at Charter-house, and was a student 
 at the K(»yal Aciidcmy. As an artist he was neglected. 
 His genius appeared in sketches of character for /hff'^ Life 
 in Lfnidou: in ISl" he began to work as a designer for 
 Ptiticb, and for eij^hteen years made that journal famous 
 among journals hy the wit, originality, versatility, and hu- 
 mor of his pencil. In 1861 a rich Manchester firm enabled 
 tlio artist to reproduce many of his drawings by a ne\vly- 
 in vented mechanical process in large size and colored. 
 These were exhibited at Egyptian Hall. Leech d. Oct. 30, 
 ISGt. 0. B. Frothingham, 
 
 Leech, tp. of Wayne co., III. Pop. 1268. 
 
 Leech''bur;^f post-b. of Armstrong co., Pa., on the 
 Pennsylvania ( entral R. R. and Pennsylvania Canal, 35 
 miles X. E. of Pittsburg, has 4 churches. 2 hoti-ls, 1 weekly 
 newspaper, 1 bank, an academy, a flouring-mill, )^ stores, 
 a wagon and carriage manufactory, tin-factory and roll- 
 ing-uiill : the two latter use for fuel a natural gas obtained 
 friim a well 1200 feet deep. A fine school-building is now 
 (1875) being erected at a cost of $20,000. Pop. .368. 
 
 J. F. Robertson, Ed. "Enterprise," 
 
 Leech Lake* in Cass co., Minn., is 20 miles long, 16 
 miles wide, and discharges its waters into the Jlississippi 
 by the Leech Lake River. Elevation, 1330 feet. It is in a 
 well-timbered region, inhabited by the Leech Lake Indians, 
 a band of Chippewas. 
 
 Lee Creek, tp. of Crawford co., Ark. Pop. 654. 
 
 Leeds, municipal and parliamentary borough of Eng- 
 land, and one of its leading manufacturing cities, situated 
 in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on the northern bank of 
 the Aire, here cros.»;ed by t\vo stone and four iron bridges, 
 which connect the city proper with its two large suburbs, 
 Hunslet and Holbeck, situated on the southern bank of the 
 river. Most of the streets are narrow and crooked, though 
 generally well paved and well lighted. The western part 
 of the city, however, contains several fine streets lined with 
 elegant houses. The most remarkable of the public build- 
 ings are — St. Peter's church, rebuilt in 1838, and the hirg- 
 est of the thirty-six churches of the city; the town-hall, 
 with several fine statues : the grammar school, the corn ex- 
 change, the cloth hall, the borough jail, etc. The city has 
 many benevolent and educational institutions, such as the 
 Mechanics' Institute, founded in 1S24, with a library of 
 13.000 vols.; the School of Art, which annually gives in- 
 struction in drawing to 3000 persons; the AVorkingmen's 
 Institute, numbering about 20U0 members, etc. As a man- 
 ufacturing ])lace Leeds was conspicuous already in the six- 
 teenth century, and the products of its industry were at that 
 time nearly the same as now — namely, woollens, linens, and 
 leather. But at first it was only the coarser kinds of wool- 
 lens which were manufactured at Leeds, while now its cloths 
 can compete in fineness and elegance with those of any other 
 place. About 12.000 hands are employed in this kind of 
 manufacture, and a similar number in that of linens. Of 
 late the iron manufactures have grown very considerably; 
 machinery is annually made to the value of about £2.000,000. 
 Near the citv are the beautiful ruins of Kirkstale Abbey. 
 Pop. 1J1,SJ0" in ISU; 171,805 in 1851 j 207,153 in ISGl; 
 25y,212 in 1871. 
 
 Leeds, county of Ontario, Canada, bounded on the S. E. 
 by the St. Lawrence River. Area. 805 square miles. It is 
 in part united for judicial and other purposes with Gren- 
 ville CO. It is traversed by the Grand Trunk and the 
 Brockvillc Railways. Cap. Brockville. Pop. of Leeds and 
 (Jrenville cos., including Brockville, 57,918. 
 
 fjppds, post-tp. of Androscoggin co., Me., on the Maine 
 i'lMitnil and the Androscoggin R. Rs. It has 5 churches, 
 gooil water power, and some manufactures. Pop. 128S. 
 
 Leeds, post-v. of Northampton tp., Hampshire co., 
 Ma.-s.. on Mill River and on the New llavcn and North- 
 am]itun R. R., 5 miles N. M'. of Northampton. It was the 
 scat of important manufactures, but was almost entirely de- 
 stroyed, with several other villages, May 6, 1874, by the 
 bursting of the Williamsburg reservoir. 
 
 Leeds, post-v. of Catskill tp., Greene co.. N. Y., at the 
 falls of Catskill Creek, which furnishes water-power. It 
 has 2 churches and various manufactures. It is 4 miles 
 N. \V. of Catskill. Pop. 847. 
 
 Leeds, post-tp. of Columbia co., Wis. Pop. 1098. 
 
 I.eedH (.lonN), b. in Bay Hundred. Talbot co., Md., May 
 18. 1705; was for forty years a clerk of the county court 
 and a judge of the Provincial Court; received in 1760 a 
 commission to supervise the returns of Ma.son and Dixon 
 of the boundaries of Maryland and Pennsylvania; pub- 
 lished in 1769 in Philogophtrnf Trnn/tnctionit, Obn^rmtion 
 of the Transit of VenuH^ and while surveyor-general of 
 Maryland d. at Wade's Point Plantation, in Mar., 1790. 
 
 Leek [Ang.-Sax. leac'], the AHimn porrum, a liliaceous 
 
 plant of the onion genus, the mildest in flavor of that whole 
 group of plants. It is extensively cultivated in the kitchen- 
 gardens of Wales, Scotland, and other parts of Europe. 
 Thcro are many varieties, some of which arc much esteem- 
 ed. The lower jiart of the sttm is the part eaten. The 
 juice made into a syrup is a good diuretic and stimulant 
 expectorant medicine, valued in domestic practice. 
 
 Leek, town of England, in the county of PtafTord, on 
 the Churnet. It has some silk manufactures and many 
 good educational institutions. Pop. 10,045. 
 
 Lec'lanaw, county of Michigan, bounded W. by Lake 
 Michigan and E. by Grand Traverse Ray. Area, 310 
 square miles. It is very level, and abounds in lakes and 
 forests. Grain and potatoes are the chief products. Cup. 
 Northport. Pop. 4576. 
 
 Leelanaw, tp. of Leelanaw co., Mich., on Lake Mich- 
 igan. Pup. 8.';o. 
 
 Lee'mans (CoNRADrs),b. at Zalt Bommel,in the prov- 
 ince of Gfldcrland, Apr. 28, 1809; studied from 1826, first 
 theology and then nrcha'ology, at the University of Leydcn, 
 and was appointed first conservator at the Museum of An- 
 tiquities of that city in IS'Mk He was eminently success- 
 ful in gathering together all the archaeological treasures 
 which the city possessed, and arranging them in proper 
 order, and in ls;;i) he was made director of the museum. 
 In 1859 he was furthermore commissioned by the govern- 
 ment to found an ethnographical museum, with which Pie- 
 bold's celebrated Japanese collection was incorporated. 
 Most of Leemans's writings are critical and historical de- 
 scriptions of objects of the museum, but more especially on 
 Egyptian antiquities: among which are his critical edition 
 of the Hicro<jhfphica of Horapollo (1835), and his ^fi^ffjfp- 
 tiftche Monumciitena van het Museum van Andhcdcn te Lev- 
 den (1835-651. 
 
 Lee'pertown, tp. of Bureau co., 111. Pop. .387. 
 
 Leer, town of Prussia, in the province of Hanover, on 
 the Leda, near its junction with the Ems. has several sugar- 
 refineries, cotton-weaving and printing establishments, to- 
 bacco manufactories, breweries, distilleries, and a consider- 
 able boat-building business. Pop. 8932. 
 
 Lee's, tp. of Columbus co., N. C. Pop. 031. 
 
 Lees (FREnKKKK RirHARi>),h. at Mcanwood Hall, near 
 Leeds, England, Mar. 15, 1815; devoted himself from an 
 early age to the temperance cause, and worked with success 
 both by lectures and writings. He published The Jfefn- 
 phifHics of Ouciiism A^rfl^^-cffr/ -(1838-39), the Hintort/ of Al- 
 cnhol ( 1843), and a Treatise ou Lngicy or thr Method, Menus, 
 and Matter of Argument. In 1845 he started the Truth- 
 Seeher in Literature, Philosophi/, and RcUffion, a periodi- 
 cal which continued for several years. In 1853 he repre- 
 sented the British tcnijierance associations of the N. of Eng- 
 land at the world's tetnperance convention in New York, 
 and in 1800 he was presented with a testimonial of lOOO 
 guineas by the friends of temperance in Great Britain. 
 
 Lees'burg, post-v. of Plain tp., Kosciusko co.. Ind., 
 on the Cincinnati Wabash and Jlichigan R. R. It has an 
 active trade. Pop. 320. 
 
 Leesbiirf?, post-v. of Harrison co., Ky. Pop. 144. 
 
 Leesburg, post-v. of Highland co.,0.. on the Bfarictta 
 and Cincinnati R. R., 64 miles N. E. by E. of Cincinnati. 
 Pop. 508. 
 
 Lecsbiirg, tp. of Union co., 0. Pop. 1410. 
 
 Lee.sburg, post-v. and tp., cap. of Loudon co., Va., 
 on the Washington and Ohio R. R., 38 miles N. W. of 
 AVashington, D. C, lies in a fertile agricultural district 
 near the E. base of the Kittoctan Mountain and 3 miles 
 from the Potomiic River: has 6 churches. 1 national bank. 
 2 hotels, 2 weekly newspapers, 1 male and 1 female semi- 
 nary, several fine schools, a steam saw and planing mill, 
 and the usual number of mercantile and industrial estab- 
 lishments. The streets are well paved and lighted, and 
 the court-house square is a large and beautiful enclosure, 
 laid out with walks and shade trees. There are numerous 
 and nourishing lodges of benevolent societies. The battle- 
 field of "Ball's Bluff" lies 2 miles from the town. Pop. 
 of V. 1144; of tp. 4075. B. F. Shketz. En. "JIirror." 
 
 Lee'ser flsAAc), b. in Neukireh, Westphalia. Dee. 12. 
 1806; came to Richmond. Va.. in IS24; was at first engagcil 
 in commerce, but in 1829 beeame rabbi of the jirincipal 
 Jewish synagogue in Philadelphia, and wrote several 
 works relating to Jewish history and doctrine, among 
 which are The Jews and the Mosaic Lair f 1833b Dixroursrtt. 
 Arfjnnienfafire and Devotional (1836). Partutfurse Form if 
 Prai/ers (1837), Descriptive Geotfraphtf of' Pftlr^tine. from 
 the Hebrew of Rabbi .Joseph Schwartz, and a Translation 
 of the Hntt/ Scriptures iO\i\ Testament) /Voni the oriffinnf 
 Hebrew (1853). In 1813 he established a monthly maga-
 
 LEE'S MILL— LEFORT. 
 
 1711 
 
 7.ino. Thr Ocrident anrf Amrn'can Jewinh Advornte; retired 
 from the ministry in ISaO. D. at Philudelphia l\h. 1, 1808. 
 
 Lee's Mill, tp. of Washington co., N. C. Pop. 1522. 
 
 Lees'porCy potJt-v. of Ontetaunco tp.. Berks co., Pa., 
 on the E. sjiic of the Schuylkill Kiver, H miles N. of Read- 
 in^'. Its niilruad station (Kcudiug R. K.) is across the 
 river in Rern tp. 
 
 Lee's Summit, post-v. of Jackson co., Mo., on the 
 Missouri Puritir R. R., 209 miles W. of St. Louis and 2-1 
 miles S. K. of Kansas City, has li churches. I weekly news- 
 paper. 1 hutel, 1 graded school. 1 grain-elevator, and 20 
 i>U!<iness-housc.«. It is one of the garden-spots of Missouri. 
 Pop. about lOUO. L. D. Caumklv. Pru. " Ledokb." 
 
 Leet, tp. of Allegheny co., Pa. Pop. fl29. 
 
 Leete (William), h. in England early in the seventeenth 
 century: eame to New England in 16;i7j was an early set- 
 tler of New Haven. Conn. ; a founder of the town of Guil- 
 ford in 10:19; was for many years chosen assistant and 
 deputy governor, and was governor of Tonneetieut from 
 Ifitil to 1605. Tie was frequently a couimissioner of the 
 colonies between IGJJ and 1G70; befriended and enter- 
 tained the regicides tJofTe, Whalley, and I>ixwell in Mar., 
 IGCl ; was again chosen governor in 167fi, and annually 
 ro-eleeted until his death, at Hartford Apr. Ifi, 1683. 
 
 Leeto'nia, post-v. of .'<alem tp., Columbiana co., 0., 
 at the junetion of the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicag<i 
 and (ireat Western R. Rs.. G.> mik-s X. W. of Pittsburg, has j 
 churches, I bunk, 1 weekly newspaper, 3 hotels, numerous 
 stores. 1 rolling and 1 planing mill, 4 blast furnaces, ex- 
 tensive coal-mines and c<»ke-ovens, a nail and bolt mill, 
 boiler-works, a foundry and machine-shop, luraber-yards. 
 and a fine school building. It is situated in a rich farm- 
 iug country, and was incorporated in IS(ii>. Pup. 12(10. 
 W. Hahuv Watson, E». '• Rcpoutku." 
 
 Leeu'warden, town of the Netlierlands. in the prov- 
 ince of Friesland. It is 10 miles distant from the sea. but 
 in the fourteenth century it lay on the shore of a deep inlet 
 of the sea, wbieh by degrees has been filled with banks of 
 sand and mud and become solid gnumd. The eity is inter- 
 sected by canals, and is neatly built, with many olegnnt 
 houses. Among its educational institutions and scientific 
 societies is particularly notable its society for Frisian his- 
 tory and language. Its trade in cattle, swine, butter, flax, 
 and spirits, and its manufactures of linen and paper, are 
 quite considerable. Pop. 2.'>.4o0. 
 
 Leeu'wenhoeck, von (Antonh-s), b. at Delft, Neth- 
 erlands. Oct. 21, 1632: went in his sixteenth year to Am- 
 sterdam, and entered a merchant'? office, but returned after 
 the lapse of a few years to his native city, and devoted him- 
 self exclusively to the study of natural science. Ho nianu- 
 faetured Optical instruments, especially microscopes, ancl 
 these he applied with the most brilliant success to his re- 
 searches in physiology. Mis principal discoveries were 
 that of the red' globules of the blood in 16";i, that of the 
 infusorial animalcules in IGT.**, and that of the spermatozoa 
 in 1677. By these discoveries he attraetcil general atten- 
 tion, and established connections with nil learned men anil 
 learned societies of his age, such as Leibnitz, the Royal 
 Society of Iion<lon, and others. His writings were pub- 
 lished partly in book-form at Leyden, partly as erunmuni- 
 cations to scientific journals, Aiift KrwHtn, /'hi/onnphimt. 
 Tratmarttouii, etc., and collected in 1721 in 4 vols, under 
 the title Opera oinnin, ittrc nrcnnn uaturrv ope eraet'imi mo- 
 rum mioroHritpini-um ilricrUt, D. at I)clft Aug. 26, 1723. 
 
 LeewnnI Islands* See Antillks. 
 
 LeCrbvre' i I'uANrois .Ioski-ii), dnke of Dantzic, mar- 
 shal of I'raiM-e, b. at RulTacb, Alsace. Oct. 2r>, 17.'*a; enlisted 
 Sept. 10. 177:'', in the French guard, and distinguished him- 
 self greatly by courage and resoluteness on several occa- 
 sions during the Revolution. In 1792 ho was made cap- 
 tain of the 13lh infantry regiment, and his talents now 
 developed v«ry rapidly: in K'.*l he was made a brigadier- 
 general. Having been appoiiit<d commander of the I7lh 
 military division, to which Paris belonged, he supported 
 Napoleon on Nov. 1», 17y'.t, and was made a marshal of 
 Franco at the establishment of the empire. In the war 
 against Prussia he also distinguished himself, especially 
 by the siege and capture of [>ant/.ic (May 26. 1S07). whence 
 be derived his title of duke. Rut his mo.«t brilliant exploit 
 was his campaign in Spain in isOS. He took Rilbao, and 
 defeated the English under Rtake, Nov. 7. In 1814 he 
 commanded the left wing of the army opposing the inva- 
 tion of the allies, but after the abdi«'iitioM of Napoleon he 
 .«ul»niitled to the Rourbons ami was made a peer of France 
 by Louis Will., .lune 4, iNl I. D. at Paris Sept. 14, 1820. 
 lie had twelve sons, who all died before him. 
 
 I.pfebvre'-nosnouettes' fCnAiif.i^sl. Coint, b. at 
 Paris, France, Sept. II, 1773 ; served in the French army in 
 
 Belgium under Dumouriez in 1792: was aide de-camp to 
 Napoleon at Marengo: distinguished himself at Auslerlitz ; 
 became brigadier in IS06, and general of division in IS08; 
 began the siege of Sarag'»ssa in S])ain : was taken prisoner 
 by the English ; escaped from England ; took a prominent 
 part in the Austrian (1809), Russian (1812). and (lerman 
 (ISI3) campaigns, and in the defence of France from in- 
 vasion (ISII): was made a peer by Napoleon in isl.'i: 
 fought at Fleurus ancl at Waterloo ; was condemned to 
 death by the royalists, but escaped to the U.S.; joined 
 with Baron Lallemand in the attempt to found a colony of 
 French refugees in Alabama: was in correspondence with 
 Na])oleon for the purpos4' of effecting his rescue from St. 
 Helena, and received 1. 50. 000 francs by the will of that 
 monarch, and while returning to Europe was lost at sea 
 near Kinsale. Ireland. Apr. 22, 1822. 
 
 Lcicvre (PETr.it Pail), I). H., b. at Roulers, in Bel- 
 gium, Apr. 30, 1804, and educated in Paris; came to the 
 IT. S. in 1828; was ordained a Roman Catholic priest at 
 St. Louis in 1831 : was stationed at New Madrid, Mo., and 
 afterwards became a travelling missionary in the North- 
 west. In 1844 he became bishop of Zela in ptirlibus and 
 coadjutor of Detroit. He was active in the establishuient 
 of charitable, religious, and educational institutions. I>. 
 at Detroit, Mich., Mar. 4, 1869. 
 
 Leffevre (Tansecii) (commonly known as Tanaquil 
 Faber, from the Latinized form of his name), b. at Caen in 
 ]6ir>; educated at the Jesuit College ut La Fleche, where he 
 devoted himself especially to philosophy and classical lit- 
 erature. Cardinal Richelieu appointed him inspector of 
 the press of the Louvre. After the death of Richelieu his 
 salary was irregularly paid, and he was obliged to sell his 
 library. Having resigned his position, he retired to Langres, 
 afterwards to Prcuilly, where he eml>raceil Protestantism; 
 was soon ofter ajjpointed professor in the Reformed acade- 
 my of Saumur. His works were ehierty annotated editions 
 of the classic authors, r. 7.. of Longinus. ^liau, Lucretius, 
 Horace, Pha^drus, Terence, Anaereon. Sajipho, and several 
 others. He translated also into Latin iambics the Fables 
 0/ Ltilcmnu (Saumur, 1673), and wrote IVcv des Poetea grcca 
 anil Mi'thude poitv vommcncer hn //iiiiiuuitfs grecquea ct 
 latins. D. Sept. 12, 1672. He left one son and two daugh- 
 ters, one of whom was Madame Dacier. H. Drislku. 
 
 I.efkosi'a, or Nicosia, the ancient Lriiconia, the 
 cajiital ot Cyprus, and silnatcMl nearly in the midtlle of the 
 island. It is surrounded with walls, and has many inter- 
 esting and elegant buildings, chielly Christian churches 
 transf(»rniccl into mosques. It has some manuiactures of 
 silk, cotton, and leather. Pop. 1S,U00. 
 
 Le FI6 { AnoLPHK Charlks EMMANrKL),h.at Lesneven, 
 France. Nov. 2. 1S04 : received his military education at St. 
 (^'yr; dislinguished himself at the siege of Ctuistantiue in 
 1837, and on the expedition against Medeah in 1S4(.I; was 
 made a brigadier-general after the February revolution, 
 and sent as the ambassaclor of the republic to St. Peters- 
 burg, Sept. 7, 1S!S, he was elected a member ot" the Con- 
 stituent .Asseinldy : returned in the lieginning of ISl'.l to 
 Paris, and was at first an adherent of Louis Napoleon, but 
 became later on one of his adversaries. He was one of the 
 members who in Nov., 1851, proposed that the command 
 of the army should rest with the Constituent Assembly. 
 The jiroposition was not adopted, and shortly after the 
 coup ilVfal he was arrested, liy a decree of .Jan. 9, lS.'t2, 
 he was banished, but in 18,'i9 he was permitted to return to 
 France, where he lived in retirement till the fall of Napoleon, 
 Sept., 1870. During the Revolution be became minister of 
 war, and sat as a meniber for Brest in the National Assembly 
 at Bordeaux, but resigned in .June, IS71, his ofliee in the 
 ministry, ami went again to Petersburg as ambassador. In 
 spite ol the high positions whiidi he bos held since 1870, 
 the part he hos played in public life is nevertheless not very 
 important. Arwisr Nikmasn. 
 
 Le Flore, county of Mississippi, traversed by the nav- 
 igable Ya/<>o River. .Area. 6I.'» square miles. Much of iho 
 surface is subject to overflow, but it is very fertile. It has 
 been formed since the census of 1870. Cap. McNutt. 
 
 Lefort' (Fran<;ois), b. at (Jcneva in 16.')6, of Scot- 
 tish di'siM-nt, and was early placed in a merchant's ofliee 
 in Hamlnirg. Thence he ran away in his fourteenth >ear, 
 came lo Marseilles, and enlisted in (he Swiss guard in 
 the French ser\ ice. In 1674 he left France on account 
 of a duel: enlercil the service of the Nel lierlands : distin- 
 guished himself at the siege of Audenarde, but, templed by 
 the golden promises of a Russian recruiter, he wintin 1675 
 through Arcbanjjcl to Moscow, wdiere he first held a position 
 as secretary to the Danish ambassador, and then became a 
 captain in the Russian army. In I6>^2 he became aecjuaintcd 
 with the c7.ar. Peter the (Jreat, at that time only ten years 
 old. He became his teacher, soon also his friend, and after
 
 1712 
 
 LEFTWICH— LEGACY. 
 
 the revolution of KJ.sy, which made Peter the Great sole 
 ruler of Russia, aod in whiidi Lefort had doue the czar 
 great service, his influence became almost unhoundcd. To 
 some extent the whole direction of Poter's remarkable reign 
 was given by Lefort, and his influence can be distinctly 
 traced out in many of the most important military and civil 
 measures which the czar carried through. But ho d. early. 
 Mar. 12, I (V.MI. in consequence of tlio frightful dissipations 
 which formed the czar's daily habits. 
 
 Lcft'wich (Gen. .TocL),b.in Bedford co..Va..in 1759; 
 was a soldier of the Revolution ; fought at Gcrmanlown 
 and <\imdcn, and was severely wounded at Guilford: com- 
 manded a brigade under Harrison at Fort Meigs in tho war 
 of 1812; bceamo a niajor-gcncral of militia, and was often 
 a member of the Virginia legislature. D. in Bedford co. 
 Apr. 20, ISIG. 
 
 Ijeg'acy [Lat. leyare, to "bequeath'*], a bequest or gift 
 of pcr.^onal property by will or testament. A lo^'acy is to be 
 distinguished from a devise, which is a gift or cauveyauce 
 by will of real estate. Legacies arc of three kinds — gen- 
 eral, specific, and demonstrative. A legacy is sr.id to bo 
 general when it does not amount to a bequest of any par- 
 ticular portion of, or article belonging to, the personal es- 
 tate of the testator, as distinguished from all others of the 
 same kind. A specific legacy, on the contrary, is a be- 
 quest of specified property, which is particularly desig- 
 nated or described, so as to be definitely distinguished 
 from the rest of the testator's estate. Thus, a bequest of a 
 sum of money, the amount of which is named, is a general 
 legacy, while a bequest of all the money which is contained 
 in a certain box or other particular receptacle is specific. A 
 bequest of a horse, of silver plate of a certain named value, 
 of a library, of clothing, or of any article described iu this in- 
 definite way. would be a general legacy : but a bequest of tho 
 horse in the testator's stable, of all the plate wliich should 
 be in a certain house, of a library which the testator had in 
 a particular mom, of the clothing which ho had worn, etc., 
 would be a specific legacy. If there were a general legacy 
 of a chattel, as of a horse, it would be valid, even though 
 the testator had no property of the sort, and the executor 
 wouhl be obliged, if there were sufficient assets, to procure 
 an article of the kind mentioned, in order to meet the be- 
 quest. But when a legacy is specific, only the particular 
 property designated is to be given to the legatee, and if the 
 testator owned no such property the legacy fails. General 
 legacies are sometimes termed pecuniary legacies, but tho 
 designation is inaccurate, as specific legacies may also bo 
 pecuniary, as the examples already given indicate. A be- 
 quest of money will not, however, be a specific legacy be- 
 cause it is directed to be applied to a specific purpose, as 
 for the purcliasc of particular articles for the legatee. That 
 it may be specific there must be a sufficiently particular 
 description in the will, so that the exact fund shall be given 
 to the legatee or applied to his use which the testator allots 
 to him. A demonstrative legacy is a bequest of a certain 
 amount of money to be paid out of a particular fund; as, 
 for example, a bequest of $J00 payableout of the proceeds of 
 tho sale of certain property. This form of legacy is interme- 
 diate between a general and a specific legacy, and partakes 
 of tho legal characteristics of both. The importance of 
 distinguishing between these various kinds of legacies is 
 principally with reference to the doctrines of abatement 
 and ademption which are applicable to the subject of leg- 
 acies. By (tbnUmeiit is meant a proportional reduction of 
 the bequests to various legatees when there are not sufficient 
 assets to make full payment. It is the duty of an executor 
 umler a will to discharge all the testator's lawful debts be- 
 fire paying the legacies, upon the principle that ''a man 
 must be just before he is generous." All the personal 
 nssits may be applied, if necessary, to the payment of 
 dL-'jt.-. even though property bestowed in specific legacies 
 be used for this purpose. But if there bo any residue 
 after the indebtedness is satisfied, it is to be first applied 
 to the payment of the specific legacies, then the demon- 
 strative legncies are to be satisfied, and finally the general 
 Ieg.acies. If (here bo insufficient assets to satisfy tho 
 legacies in cither of these three classes successively, 
 those in tho same class will be reduced proportionally 
 by the law of abatement. But the specific legacies 
 are to be ])aid, even though other legatees are entirely or 
 partly deprived of a share in the assets. Neither specific 
 nor demonstrative legacies will abate with general legacies, 
 unless the testator particularly directs that certain general 
 legacies shall have jirecedence of those which are specific. 
 In some cases general legacies of a particular character will 
 be preferred to others of the same class. Thus, if there be 
 any valuable consideration for tho testamentary gift, as 
 where a general legacy is given in consideration of n debt 
 owing to the legatee or of the relinquishment of any right 
 or interest, as of her dower by a widow, such legacy will 
 
 be entitled to a preference of payment over the other gen- 
 eral legacies. After all the general legacies are paid, any 
 residue of assets will puss to the residuary legatee, if one 
 bo named in the will, ami if not will be distributed among 
 the next of kin. (See Ki\, Next or.) A residuary legacy 
 is so termed because it is a gift or allotment of this remain- 
 der by the will to some designated person. General leg- 
 acies are never subject to abatement for the benefit of re- 
 siduary legatees, and are to be paid in full if there are suf- 
 ficient assets, even though they exhaust the entire residue 
 of the ])ersonal estate. Advmpdun is an extinguishment or 
 destruction of a legacy as a result of some change or loss 
 of the property bequeathed, or of its non-existence, or it is 
 the substitution ofsomo other provision for the person named 
 as legatee which is deemed a satisfaction of the legacy. 
 The first part of this definition applies more a])proj>riatGly 
 to specific, the latter to general legacies. Thus, if the sub- 
 ject-matter of a specific legacy were never in the posses- 
 sion of tho testator, or were not owned by him at the time of 
 death, the legacy fa.ils entirely, and the legatee has no claim 
 against the testator's estate. A legacy of this kind is also 
 adeemed when the specific property designated, though it 
 formed a part of the testator's estate at the time of making 
 the will, was subsequently sold or otherwise disposed t»f by 
 him, or so altered by him in form as to change its identity. 
 Thus, if the thing specified were a gold cup, and the testa- 
 tor should have it made into jewelry, or if a piece of cloth 
 wore made into a garment, the gift to the legatee would be 
 extinguished. So if a debt specially bequeathed be received 
 by tho testator, the legacy is adeemed because the subject 
 of it is extinguished. Ademption may also occur as a re- 
 sult of a removal by the testator of the articles bequeathed 
 from one place to another. Thus, if the testator should be- 
 queath all his furniture as being situated in a particular 
 house, and afterwards remove it to another house, the leg- 
 acy would fail. This would not be the case, however, if the 
 goods were removed by reason of a sudden emergency, as 
 to save them from fire, or if tho removal were effected by 
 fraud or without the knowledge or consent of the testator. 
 An ademption may be p.artial, as where a portion of the 
 property bequeathed is found among the assets of the de- 
 ceased, but not the whole. A pledge or mortgage of tho 
 property by the testator is generally held not to occasion 
 an aclemption. In regard to the rule of ademption, demon- 
 strative legacies difl'er from those which are specific. If the 
 fund out of which a demonstrative legacy is to be paid is 
 not in existence at the testator's death, the legatee will have 
 a valid claim for satisfaction out of the general fund of as- 
 sets, and the bequest to him will rank among the general 
 legacies. Demonstrative legacies therefore resemble spe- 
 cific legacies by cot being subject to abatement witli the 
 general bequests, while they are distinguished from them 
 by not being suViject to ademption. The doctrine of ademp- 
 tion is applied iu courts of equity to general legacies when 
 a parent or other person i;i loco panniin {i. c. standing in 
 the place of a parent) bequeaths a legacy to a child or 
 grandchild, and afterwards in his lifetime gives a portion 
 or makes a provision for the same child or grandchild, with- 
 out expressing it to ho in lieu of the legacy. If this portion 
 or jtrovision be etjual to or exceed the amount of the legacy, 
 I»e certain and not merely contingent, and Ite a gift of the 
 same geueral nature as the legacy, it will be deemed a sat- 
 isfaction or extinguishment of the legacy. This is on the 
 ground of the presumed intention on the part of the testa- 
 tor to substitute one portion for another which ho has al- 
 ready made. 
 
 Legacies are further distinguished as vested or contin- 
 gent. A legacy is said to be vested at the time of the tes- 
 tator's death, when the legatee acquires an absolute present 
 right of present or future enjoyment. It is said to be con- 
 tingent when the right of enjoyment depends upon the 
 happening of some contingency. Thus, a legacy given to 
 a man i/' he reaches the age of twenty-one will not vest 
 until he attains that age: but if it be given to hv pnyahl^ 
 when he becomes twenty-one.it vests at the testator's death. 
 the right being absolute, though the time of enjoyment is 
 deferred. A conditional legacy is a bequest whoso existence 
 depends upon the happening ornot happeningof someuncer- 
 tiiin event by which it is either to take place or be defeated. 
 (See CovniTioN.) A contingent legacy is one form of a condi- 
 tional legacy, the condition being that the legatee shall bo 
 alive at a particular period. (Sec Williams on Exrruforti, ii. 
 1)0;',.) A cumulative legacy is one additional to a previous leg- 
 acy given in the same will. It is sometimes an important 
 question of construction, in determining the effect of a will, 
 whether a second legocy is intended to be cumulative, so 
 that the legatee is entitled to both, or is merely a repeti- 
 tion of a previous bequest, so that only a single gift is be- 
 queathed. The general rule is that when the testator has not 
 plainly dcclarecj a different intention, two or more legacies 
 of the same article or the same amount of money given to
 
 LEGARE— LEGATES. 
 
 1713 
 
 the sarao person in the same instrument amount to but a 
 fiinglo gift. liut bequests of different artiflrs or of differ- 
 ent amounts of money, or of the oumc amount in diflerent 
 instrument!', \fi\\ he generally considered cunuilutive lega- 
 cies. Other distinctions between legacies are not of suffi- 
 cient importance to require speeifio mention. 
 
 As a general rule, all cIhsbcs of persons may bo madoleg- 
 ateeji. But in Englan*! and in several of the States of this 
 country it has been provi^led by statute that a legacy given 
 to any subscribing witnees to a will shall bo void. This 
 enactment has been made on account of the danger of 
 permitting a will to bo supportetl by persons who are 
 beneficially interested in its enntmtp. In New York this 
 rule lA mofliliod by the provision that if the witness would 
 have been entitled to a share in the estate in cnse the will 
 was not established, he shall receive so much of this share 
 as does not exceed the value of the legacy. Alien enemies 
 also, nt common law, arc incapable of taking legacies. In 
 England bequests to Ui'es declared by statute to be super- 
 stitious are void; as, for example, to maintain a chautry 
 priest or to pay for the saying of masres for the testator's 
 soul, etc. lint bequests for "charitable uses," as for the 
 endowment of hospitals or the foundation of insititutions 
 of learning, and for like purposes, arc generally favored, 
 and will be deemed valid. IJiiI if such bequests are charged 
 upon land, in opposition to the policy of the statute of 9 
 Geo. II., ch. 36, they will be void. In the U. *S. the right 
 to make bequests for charitable uses in general exists, 
 unless controlled by statute. (See TnrsTS.) In this way 
 legacies may be given to trustees, though not incorporated 
 for charitable uses. Corporations may take property by 
 bequest, so far as is consistent with the general purposes 
 for which they were formed and the provisions of their 
 charters. The right of a corporation to take personal 
 property by bequest must not bo confounded with the 
 power to take laud by will. (See Will. CottcimATioN.) In 
 New York it is declared that no person, having a husband, 
 wife, child, or parent, shall bequeath to a corporation more 
 than one-half of his personal estate after the payment of 
 his debts. ( In regard to capacity to make a will and convey 
 legacies, see Wii.i.s.) 
 
 At common law, legacies arc not payable until the ex- 
 piration of a year from the time of the testator's death. 
 This period is allowed to the executor to ascertain the 
 nature and value of the property, to collect the assets, 
 to determine the extent of the testator's indebteclness, to 
 satisfy cliarges agaim^t the estate, etc. In this country, 
 where the subject is frequently regulated by statute, the 
 same limit is generally adopted. As a general rule, inter- 
 est is to be reckonetl uj»on the amount of the legacy, for 
 the benefit of the legatee, from the end of the year when 
 the legacy becomes payable. Itut where the legacy is given 
 in payment of a debt due, it will bear interest from tho 
 death of the testiitor. So when a bequest is given by a 
 parent to his child by way of maintenance, or by a hu.s- 
 i>and to his wife in lieu of dower, interest will run from tho 
 time of death. If a legacy be given to an infant, the ex- 
 ecutor will not be justified, by the rules of comiuon law. in 
 paying it lo the infant, or to tho father or to any other 
 relative of the infant, without the stinction of a court of 
 cquitv. If payment should be made without such snii'-tion 
 to the father or relative, tho exeeutor might be eonipelled 
 to pav the legacy again lo tho infant when he became of 
 age. IJut in Knglaud it is now i»rovidei| by statute that 
 tho execulor may relievo hiiusell from responsilolilv in 
 such a case by paying the legai-y into the Hank of Kugland 
 forthe bonelil of the infant. In this country it is sometimes 
 provided by statute that legacies to a minor, if not of 
 greater value than a certain specified sum, may bo paid to 
 the father for the minor's use. Such a statute exists in 
 New York when the bequest is of less value than $J0. 
 When it is of greater value, there are provisions for its 
 j)ayinent to the general guardian or for its investment. A 
 legacy given to a married woman must at common law be 
 paid to the husband, unless it be given for the wife's sepa- 
 rate use. This is true, oven though the husband and wife 
 are <livorccd n mrititn rt thorn. Itut courts of equity may 
 compel a husband, on receiving a legacy given to bis wife, 
 to make a suitable provision for her support. I'ntil such 
 support is provided tho executor may deelJno to pay him 
 tho legacy. In a number of the U. S. it is providcl by 
 statute that married women may take property l»y bequest 
 in the sauio way as if they wen* single. Legacies given to 
 one person in trust for another should regularly be paid to 
 tho trustee. When a legacy is bequeathed by a lenfator to 
 his ere<iilor, it is a general rule in equity that it is to bo 
 deemed as given with a view to tho satisCai'tion of the debt, 
 if the bequoflt he equal to or greater than the amount of 
 tho debt. This rule, however, is not favored, an<l will not 
 bo applied except un<Ier these special eireunistancos, and 
 when the legacy is of the same general nature as the debt. 
 Vol.. U.— 108 
 
 It is a general principle applicable to all legacies that tho 
 legatee does not become fully entitled to the bequest, so as 
 to obtain a right of action in a court of law, until the as- 
 sent of the executor is obtained. lie cannot, accordingly, 
 take possession of the legacy without such assent, and if ho 
 does, may bo sued by the executor, who may recover the 
 value of tho property. The assent of tho executor may bo 
 express or it may bo implied ; as, c.7.. where he acquiesces 
 in tho taking of the property by the legatee. This rule, 
 however, does not affect tlie right of a legatee to proceed to 
 recover his legacy before a court of equity or a probate 
 court. 
 
 It sometimes happens in the administration of estates 
 that legacies are paid by executors before all the debts aro 
 satisfied. Debts may subsequently be proved of which tho 
 executor had no knowledge, ancl if there are no assets re- 
 maining to discharge them, he may bring a suit in equity 
 to compel the legatees to refund to an amount equalto this 
 indebtedness if ho acted prudently in paying the legacies. 
 The residuary legatee would first be compelled to refund, 
 and next the' general legatees. They would refund pro- 
 portionally so far as was necessary to satisfy the debt. So 
 if one legatee received full payment of his share, and it 
 afterwards appeared that there was an original deficiency 
 of assets to pay all tho legacies in full, the other legatees 
 may compel him to refund, so that all in the same class 
 mav receive ])roportionaI amounts upon their respective 
 shares. This wouM not be tho case, however, if tho insuf- 
 ficiency of assets wero attributable to the negiigence, de- 
 fault, or misconduct of the executor, and the executor would 
 himself be solely liable to make up the deficiency. If thero 
 bo a ci)utiugent claim against the testator's estate, the ex- 
 ecutor may retain the assets from the legatees, if necessary, 
 to meet the demand when the contingency occurs. If, how- 
 ever, the legatee offers to indemnify tho executor against 
 the future claim, the indemnity must be accepted and tho 
 legacy paid over. If payment be mudc without requiring 
 a bond of indemnity, the executor will be liable for the satis- 
 faction of the demand, when it becomes due. out of his own 
 estate. But it is frequently provided by statute in tho 
 States of this country that claims against the estate of a 
 deceased person must be presented within a short period 
 after the issue ofletters testamentary, if the executor give duo 
 notice of his appointment. The effect of such a notice varies 
 in the different States. The statutes must be consulted. 
 
 .Turisdietion in regard to legacies is vested in general 
 either in probate courts or in courts of equity. Tho juris- 
 diction in equity, independent of statute, is exclusive where 
 the bequest invidves the execution of trusts charged upon 
 land, or whore remedies of a peculiarly equitable nature aro 
 i sought. No suit will be maintainable in a court of law, as 
 has been seen, to recover a legacy unless it has been as- 
 sented to by the executor. But in all cases where actions 
 at law may bo brought upon legacies tho jurisdiction of 
 equity is concurrent. (Kor tho rules of law in regard to 
 lnp»Al leijfjr'tvH, SCO the article hiPSK. In regard to tho in- 
 terpretation of bequests, sec Inti:iiphktation and Con- 
 STRicTiov. See also Wii.i.s, KxKri'xon. The following 
 treatises may bo consulted on this subject: Williams on 
 Exerutoi»: .Farnian on Wiffx; Ue<lfield on ]yill»: Roper on 
 Leijaeiet; lledfielil on the //'fir nii-l I'ro'ticr nf SurrntffttcH* 
 
 CottrtH.) llr.oitcK Cmasi:. Kkviskd kv T. W. Dwhjiit. 
 
 Lcgnr6 (llufiii S\vi\TON),b. in Charleston, S. C, Jan. 2, 
 17'J7 ; educated at Ucv. Dr. Moses Waddell's famous Willing- 
 ton School ; graduated at the C'ullego <tf South Carolina at 
 Columbia in 1811 ; went to Kurope to further prosecute bis 
 studies, eiiiefly law and literature: returned in 1S20, and 
 practised law in Charleston. In ls;(0 he was honored with 
 the oflico of attorney-general of the State, and at the saino 
 time had charge cjf the .S'ofW/icrfi Qnttitnlt/ AVriMf, published 
 at Charleston, of which periodical he was chief editor, and by 
 the contributions of his pen elevated It to the first rank of 
 publications of its character in the V. S. In 1S;!2 ho was 
 charge d'affaires from the U.S. to lielgium, an«i from 1S37 
 to 1S;!'J was member of Congress from South Carolina; iu 
 lS41-i;i filled the office of attorney-general of tho U. S., 
 and also part of the time was acting secretary of slate. D. 
 smldenly at Boston, Mass., June 10, iSlli, where he bad 
 gone in comjtany with the President to attend the UuiikLr 
 Hill celebration. His fine taste as a writer, his eminent 
 acquirements as a scholar, ami his learning and eloquence 
 as a lawyer, were known and appreciated throughout tho 
 Union. His writings wero collected and published in 
 IS 16 in 2 vols. Svo.— His sister, Mauv Swinton liK(;Aitii 
 (Mrs. Bullen), b. about iSOt), attained considerable success 
 as a painter. She removed in 1M19 to West Poiiil. Leo co., 
 la., whoro she founded and endowed Logar<5 College for 
 women. A. H. Stki'IIKNS. 
 
 I»CK'ntt»j» and Lei^atioil* The Latin word /^-yo^iffwas 
 used of persons commissioned or acting as delegates, and
 
 1714 
 
 LEGATO— LEGEND. 
 
 especially of ambassruiors, of adjutants or deputy com- 
 inantlertj of an army usually appointed by the senate, occa- 
 sionally by commanders themselves, and of (he emperor's 
 provincial governors. In international law *' legation " 
 denotes erabussy. the right of legation, the right to send an 
 ambassador, or the whole subjeet of the nature nnd powers 
 of public envoys : nnd '* legate." the envoy or minister him- 
 gclf, Tht' popes, borrowing the word from the old Roman 
 state, called their principal envoys to the Catholic nations 
 legates a or tie latere. Those were cardinal?, but nuncios 
 (from inintim, a "messenger," an '* envoy ") were not, and 
 thus were a lower grade of papal envoys. T. D. Woolsey. 
 
 Lega'to [It.], in music, a graceful movement in which 
 the notes are connected by a uniform and gliding motion. 
 
 Lc'gend [L:it. Irtfrndtan, from ler/rrc. to *' read "] np- 
 poiirs to have been originally applied in the ecclesiastical 
 dialect to portions of Scripture, and at a later period also 
 to other writings of religious instructioTi or edification, .Tp- 
 pointed to be not chanted, intoned, or recited, but nod in 
 church services, and it therefore nearly eorrespondecl in 
 signification to the modern h^'ioii. In the authorized bre- 
 ^'iarics used in the Romish Church the term Ircttu is now ap- 
 ]ilitd alike to extracts from Scripture ami to lives of saints 
 of post-apostolic ages, which are introduceci into the church 
 services in precisely the same way. The primitive Christian 
 community consisted of two classes of persons — the ordi- 
 nary or secular clergy, whether parochial or missionary ; 
 and the laity or people. The Scriptures, including many 
 books now regarded by all sects as apocryphal, together with 
 exegetical and doctrinal essays and narratives of the lives 
 and deaths of saints, sufficed for the instruction of both 
 elasjcs alike. But besides the clergy and the laity there 
 were, in the earliest ages of the Christian Church, as in 
 most other Oriental religions, a certain number of anchor- 
 ites or hermits living in seclusion not only from the pro- 
 fane world, but from each other, who do not, however, ap- 
 pear to have been usually consecrated to a religious life by 
 clerical ordination, but self-devoted to mortitication of the 
 passions, penance, and ascetic exercises. When these re- 
 oluses became sufficiently numerous to attract attention as 
 a peculiar class, they acquired the name of monitchi (Gr. 
 lAovos, *' single " or '* alone "), whence our word monk. For 
 the sake of mutual suitervision and discipline, and for 
 greater security from persecution and disturbance, the 
 monks grail ually abandoned their individual solitudes, 
 gathered together in small communities, and became co-ao- 
 biif.e, or *' livers-in-common " (Ur. koivo^, pio?), dwelling 
 apart from the world, at first in desert retreats, and after- 
 wards in cloisters or habitations in which each had his 
 separate cell for repose and private discipline and medita- 
 tion. A new literature, designed primarily for the instruc- 
 tion of persons thus severed from the general body of the 
 faithful and devoted to a religious life, sprang up, and this 
 literature was greatly enlarged in extent and modified in 
 character after the establishment of regular orders or mon- 
 astic institutions organized each under its own special 
 rules, and recognized by the Church as permanent bodies 
 corporate. This is the literature of the hfjcud, the signifi- 
 cation of which term was gradually changed, and the com- 
 positions emliraecd under it vari<iusly named according to 
 their ditfereut purposes and character. Thus, there were 
 the lectionen, collectively legendariunt, lectiouarium, or li'bcr 
 Icctionariiie, consisting of lives of saints and confessors, 
 read at their festivals, and ;>r/j?»ro«e«, collectively ;jaM/ojif(/»? 
 or librr pnHHtoualig, containing the passions of martyrs, 
 read on the anniversary of their deaths. This latter term 
 was sometimes applied exclusively to histories of the pas- 
 sion of the Saviour. There were also numerous treatises on 
 cU'in or monastic life — such, for example, as the old Eng- 
 lish Aiifrrn liiirle for the instruction of nuns — which, 
 though not now called legends, were sometimes included in 
 that designation, because, like religious narratives, they 
 were read aloud to the monks and nuns assembled for re- 
 fection :in<l on other special occasions. The nomenclature 
 of all this literature is somewhat confused. The distinc- 
 tions between its branches, which do not seem to have ever 
 been very sharply marked, gradually become obsolete in 
 common usage, and centuries before the invention of print- 
 ing "legend " liad come to signify any religious narrative 
 not taken direetly from the Old or New Testament, even if 
 not designed for ]>ublic reading, but rather for private study ; 
 and it was applied indiscriminately both to prose and to 
 poetic compositions. There is, indeed, no critical distinc- 
 tion between the prose and the poetic legend, except in 
 literary form, and it may be added that many mediocval 
 narratives usually ranked with romances of chivalry — the 
 ff'di/ (ii-nil, for example — areas truly religious in spirit anil 
 historic in character as most of the ecclesiastically accepted 
 legends of the same period. Very many legends exist in 
 both forms, but the Church does not favor verse except 
 
 when employed for strictly devotional purposes, as hymns* 
 and the like, and therefore the authorized legeudarics em- 
 braced prose narratives alone. 
 
 As a general rule — subject, indeed, to some few excep- 
 tions — it may be said that even the most credible legendary 
 annals now extant were not the work of eye-witnesses to the 
 events they describe, or even of contemporary writers, but 
 were compiled from popular narratives orally handed down, 
 or from other sources now quite unknown, lleriee, upon 
 the whole, we cannot perhaps better deline the legend of 
 the Romish and other churches than as a |)rofessed his- 
 tory of sacred persons or niiraeuluus events founded ujion 
 tradition, but practically or formally recognized by the 
 Church as authentic, and entitled, if not to be received 
 as matter of faith, at least to reverence. Legends are, 
 therefore, to the churches which accept them what mythol- 
 ogy was to the old ]>agau, and still is to mauy non-Chris- 
 tian religions. 
 
 At the first awakening of the spirit of historical criticism 
 the palpably unhistorical character of the religious legends, 
 and the intrinsic improbability, not to_ say absurdity, of 
 very many of them, threw a shade of suspieiun which soon 
 ripened into utter discredit on this whole branch of eccle- 
 siastical literature, and the term "legend" acquired the 
 signification of superstitious tale or fictitious narrative, 
 the adjective "legendary," that of fabulous, imaginary, or 
 at best traditional. At present these words are frequently 
 applied to the fragmentary annals and fantastic tales 
 which make up the body of unwritten popular literature, ur 
 what is called the folk-lore, of European and Oriental na- 
 tions. These latter legends are too diversified in origin 
 and critical character to be considered under a single head, 
 and for notices of them we refer to titles Faihy and Folk- 
 lore, confining ourselves in the presmt article to the relig- 
 ious legends of early and mediaeval Christianity and of the 
 modern Romish Church. 
 
 Apart from the few well-authenticated ancient ecclesias- 
 tical annals which have come down to us, the oldest extant 
 legends which can with any confidence be affirmed to bo 
 genuine — that is, not spurious, however little entitled to 
 credit — are some of the sketches of hermit-life in the Vilx 
 Patrum, which are referred, with reasonable probability, to 
 known authors, though other parts of that collection are 
 certainly later fabrications. The old Roman martyrologies, 
 though often ranked among legends, and truly legendary 
 or unhis*t<tric in character, arc catalogues rather than nar- 
 ratives. They were condemned by some of the early popes, 
 and even by Gregory I., notwithstanding his appetite for 
 the marvellous, as of totally unknown origin and unworthy 
 of credit ; and they may safely be rejected as of no histor- 
 ical authority whatever. The legends accepted by the early 
 Church very generally have monks and monastic life for 
 their subject and their object. Tliey were composed for 
 the purpose of holding up that life as the true Christian 
 ideal, the type for the imitation of the aspirant to sanetifi- 
 cation, and of guiding the votary to perfection in the real- 
 ization of it. They were not intended for the world, but 
 for those who had retired from it, or who were preparing 
 to renounce it. Hence, in them the monkish virtues alone, 
 not the social, are exemplified and exalted. In short, they 
 were professitmal. not popular, didactic writings. Though 
 the personal authorship of most old legends is unknown, 
 they were evidently in general the work of monks, to whom 
 the retirement and leisure of monastic life gave both op- 
 portunity and encouragement for this species of literary 
 oeeu])ation. In their departures fioni historical fact they 
 were by no means always intended to be received as true, 
 and therefore to deceive, though numbers of the most ex- 
 travagant have been accejiled by the Church as authentic. 
 Thev were sometimes, doubtless, honest statements of what 
 was believed to be the literal truth, sometimes mere literary 
 cxercitations, and sometimes religious romances exhiliiting 
 the writer's spiritual ideal in the form of an imaginary 
 history. Writers actuated by these various motives would 
 naturally take their images and illustrations from the roost 
 convenient sources. Hence heathen divinities, demigode, 
 and heroes figure in them under various Christian disguises, 
 and the legend of Barhiam and Josuphat, who to this day 
 retain a place as saints in the Romish calendar, has been 
 unequivocally traced to a Sanskrit religious nimanee as its 
 (uiginal. nnd* its heroes identified with Sakya-Muni, the 
 founder of Rooddhism, and one of his disciples. The early 
 legends are often rich in poetical imagery, nnd even thought, 
 and distinguished by an apparent truth of local color and 
 an air of probability scarcely inferior to that of De Foe's 
 apparition of Mrs. Veal. They are therefore of value as 
 illustrations of contemporary life and opinion, notwith- 
 standing the uncertainty of the periods to which they be- 
 long and of the extent to which they have been disfigured 
 by later recensions. 
 
 But with the growth of the temporal power of the
 
 LEG EN DRE— LEGG ETT. 
 
 1715 
 
 Church, and more especially with the increasing influence 
 of monastic corporation?, the aim and character of the le- 
 gend underwent an important clian<;e. Jlonachism had 
 diverged mure and more from the tyjiical form of ordinary 
 social life, and given birtli to new and special interests pe- 
 culiar to large, opulent, and powerful bodies of mcu, prac- 
 tically inilepeniient of the civil power, living in ii^olation 
 from the pursuits and cares, the duties, the hopes, and fears 
 of common humanity, and constituting; a third estate which 
 aimed at ostaldishing a supremacy over the other two. For 
 this new institution and its objects new instrumentalities 
 were required, and the legend, as modified and adapted to 
 a new public and to new purposes, became <»ne of the most 
 efficient of these. Legends began to be addressed not only 
 to the regular but to the parochial clergy and to the laity, 
 whom the dawn of intelligence which preceded the revival 
 of classical learning was rend«-ring accessible to literary 
 influences. The simplicity and true-hcarlcdncss which, 
 in spite of exaggeration and absurdity, make them attract- 
 ive even in an age of culture and religiiius light, disappeared. 
 They became what the (Jeruians call 'J'niileiizrnmniie — tales 
 designed for the diffusion and inculcation of particular doc- 
 trines or maxims, the catch-words or symbols of this or that 
 party in the Church, and more especially for the glorification 
 of particular religious orders, in whose hands Ihcy arc at 
 this ilay among the most potent means of action on the un- 
 reasoning classes which unhappily form a large proportion 
 of the highest as well as the lowest circles in modern society. 
 
 Under the influence of the Reformation the legends of 
 the Church were superseded by translations of the Scrip- 
 tures in the popular reading of Protestant countries, and 
 their circulation was much diminished even in those which 
 continued to adhere to the Cliureh of Home. In the Catli- 
 olic reaction which followed the triumphs of the Kel'orniers 
 strenuous and Buccessful cfi"or(s wore made to rehabilitate 
 the old legendary literature by remodelling the ancient 
 traditions through discreet omissions and the infusion of 
 new elements into their comiiositiou, and to strengthen its 
 influence by reports of modern miracles duly authenticated 
 by ecclesiastical authority. These endeavors have been 
 stimulated to new activity in the present generation, and 
 in no age have su]>ernatural wonders been more abundant, 
 in no age have holder experiments on popular credulity 
 been tried, in none have more determined eflbrts been made 
 to eliiuinato the spiritual and magnify the material clement 
 in religion, than in our own. The legends which have Ijcen 
 rewritten or composed within the last three centuries, and es- 
 pecially in the present, are almost uniformly destitute of all 
 merit except those of style and dexterous adaptation to pur- 
 pose, and have rarely any literary or liislorical interest, un- 
 less as monuments of the aberrations of the human intellect. 
 
 A niicstion of great and growing importance to the doc- 
 trine, the discipline, and the ethics, theoretical and prac- 
 tical, of the churches and peoples who accept religious 
 legenils is. Whether and to what extent they are binding 
 on the faith of believers? This question has been inei- 
 di'nlally much discussed in reference to legends connected 
 with the lives ami miracles of modern saints in treatises on 
 canonization, which rite bears u|ion it in this way : The 
 evidence of miracles wrought on the intercession of the 
 candidate is submitted to a board of cardinals specially 
 named for the occasion, and reported on to the iiontifl', who 
 finally adjudges upim its suflieieney, and in the aflirmative 
 case pronounces the alleged fads established, and decrees 
 the enrollment of the new saint upon the calendar. The 
 whole inciuiry is in the nature of a judicial proceeding, and 
 it conforms so closely to the forensic practice of civil tri- 
 bunals that coimsel are heard for and against the claims 
 of the aspirant, the opposing counsel being complimented 
 with the title of tirlvurnliiit ili'dlinl:, " tho dcvil's iidvoeiile." 
 Now. if the ]iopc is to be considered as acting c.r rallnili/l 
 in rendering sentence, then his judgment is infallible, and 
 of course belief in the evidence on which that judgment is 
 founded becomes obligatory. I'pon the character of the 
 pontiff's action in this ease the wei'.;h( of the numerous au- 
 thorities citeil bv licncdict XIV., />'■ Srrronim llr! Cniiniii- 
 zatioiic (sec I'ra'to ed. of 18:i«. lib. i. cap. I'.', 4.1. 41, 4,'ii, is 
 dcciiledly in support of its infallibility, and tho personal 
 opinion of Benedict himself. Iliough he does not give a 
 formal decision upon it. is evidenlly ravoral)le to that doc- 
 trine. In many cases, indeeil, if not in all— as. for example, 
 in that of the canonization of tho saints Isidore, Ignatius 
 Loyola, Francis Xavier, Teresa il ,Icsu, and Filippo Neri, 
 by llregory XV. — the decree expressly recites that the pope 
 Dirltin Sumine innltnclun, e.r nllinnimil liiir Chrlnlianir mipi- 
 eiilln- Vathftlrd qunm dlriuir rrrllnlil (irnrnliim Driin ijiMc 
 confliluil, . . . dreernll, etc. etc. Here tho assertion of in- 
 fallibility is unequivocally implied. 
 
 The literature of the legend is of vast extent. The most 
 conspicuous collections are the Vilrr- f^tilntw, tlr Vil/l rt 
 Verbis Scniorum, ecu IliHoria Ercmilica (best edition, that 
 
 of Rosweyde, 1 vol. fob, Antwerp, 162S); the Leijeiidn 
 Aurmi, or /liKtnn'ii Lumbardicn, compiled by Jacobus de 
 Voragine in tho thirteenth century, and first printed in 
 1470, perhaps the most widely circulated and at the same 
 time intrinsically among the most worthless of all: the 
 Flos Sanctorum of the .lesuit Kibadineira, commonly known 
 as the GiHcrril f,r,/,iid (first published in Spanish in 2 vols, 
 fob, Madrid. l.'ili'.i-KilO) : this has been augmented by sup- 
 plements, and printed in many languages and in hundreds 
 of editions, and is the source from which most smaller col- 
 lections of legends have been drawn : anil, linally. the Acin 
 Sanctorum, edited by a .Jesuit association known as the 
 Bollandists, from the name of its founder. Of this vast 
 collection, begun in IGUI. about 60 folio vols, have appcareil, 
 ancl it will pr<ibal>Iy extend lo lOl). Tiiero is, moreover, an 
 immense number of legends of inilividual saiuts, and espe- 
 cially of the Virgin Mary. Of these the most extensively 
 known is the Gturic dl Maria of Liguori ( 1st ed. 2 vols. Svo, 
 Venice, 17S4). One of the most remarkable is the Portu- 
 guese Santuariu Marian"{'iU 10 vols. 4to, Lisbon, 170y-2;i), 
 containing tlic legends of more than 2000 miraculous images 
 of the A'irgin in tho Peninsular possessions of Portugal 
 alone. (On this whole subject consult Maury, Let Li'jcudcs 
 jiieuscs du Mcijat Atjc (ISI"): Milman, History of Latin 
 Chritlianiti/i-Uh cd., 1807); and hec^y. History uf Ration- 
 alism in Europe (4th cd., 1870).) Gt:onGE P. M.iiisn. 
 
 tegendre' (.\nniEN-MAUir,), h. in Paris in 17j2 ; d. at 
 his suburban residence Auteuil .lan.'J, 1833. A inalheuia- 
 tician who. says Prof. Nichol. " would have been ut the 
 head of the most illustrious school of modern Europe, had 
 he not possessed as compeers Lagrange and Laijlaee." He 
 early distinguished himself as a successful teacher of mathe- 
 matics in the military school at Paris, and before atluiuing 
 the age of thirty made his d^but in the world of science by 
 one of his finest memoirs — tliat on The Attraction of Sphe- 
 roids — by which he gained admission to the Academy of 
 Sciences (1783). His equally imjiortant investigations of 
 tho Figure o/'tlic Fiancts, considered as made of spheroidal 
 strata whether homogeneous or otherwise, soon followed, and 
 in LSOo his Xcw Method for deterinininffthe Orbits of Comets. 
 Itis Elements of Geometry has been translated into all lan- 
 guages, and has become a classic in that species of liter- 
 ature, lie assisted Dc Prony in tiio calculation of his great 
 logarithmic tables : invented tho rule of the least st/utfres 
 of errors; was author of a work, the Exercices sur le Cafcul 
 integral, and of researches on the Eulerian integrals; both 
 of which woro subsequently developed into tho great work 
 of his life — the Trait/- dcs Fonetiona rllipti<fU€9. 
 
 A funeral discourse was ]>ronounced by Poisson in which 
 he says: "In common with the geometers who have jne- 
 ceded* him, the labors of Legcndro ended only with his lile. 
 . . . Only a short lime jireeediug his death he procured 
 tho most recent ol>scrvations (»f comets of short ])crinds, for 
 tho purjioso of applying and ]ierfccling his methods. . . . 
 The hist(jry of seieiu-c (dicrs nuiny such examples. At an 
 ago nearly equal to tliat which Lc!;:cndro attained, Lagrange 
 died while publishing an enlargqd second edition of his 
 Mecunii/ue Analyiii/uc; Laplace in finishing the 5lh vol- 
 ume of tho Mtcani'jnc Celeste; Euicr while finishing an in- 
 vestigation of the ascensional fo:-cc of balloons." (.Ste 
 Memorial Eneye. of Bailly de Merlicu.K ; and Vcrhulst. I)ct 
 Fonetiiais ellijjti<iucs, ) 
 
 Legeudro, though inferior in range and power of intillect 
 to cither of his three great contemporaries — Lapbiee, La- 
 grange, and Kuler — was nevcrlbeless only int\'rior to lluui : 
 and was one of that age who most jiowerfully coutriloitcd 
 to the advancement of mathematieat science. According to 
 Prof. Forbes, he was the first to imagine and employ those 
 artifices of calculation known usually by the name of 
 " Laplace's functions." \Vhen towards the close (d' his life 
 the discoveries hy .\bel and Jacobi of the ivct//^ distinc- 
 tive characteristic of elliptic functions — their periodicity 
 — gave an nnbioke<l-for extension ond generalization to 
 the applications (d'lhese functions, he welcomed them with 
 a liberality (says I*rof. Fiu'bcs) 'Mvorthy of all commendii- 
 tion." Legcndrc's life, spent in pri\'oey and strcnnons de^ 
 votion to science, was uneventful. (Consult Vcrhulst, su- 
 pra, and Hriot and Bouquet, Th/orie des Fonetions double- 
 mcnt jn'rioditjues.) .1. U. Bahsahh. 
 
 li^K^rt'incnt [Fr.], in music, a term indicating a gay, 
 light, and airy nio\'cment. 
 
 Le <;ott, Ip. of Marion co., S. C. Pop. \M'>:>. 
 
 Lcg'geU (.MouTiMKU I).), b. at Ithaca, .\. V.. A|>r. 19, 
 18:11: removeil lo Ohio in 1817: stmlied law; praeliscd, 
 and was superintendent of schools at Zauesville in 1801, 
 when he raised the 78th Ohio Infantry, of which he was 
 appointed colonel in .Ian.. 18tJ2, ami which he led at Fort 
 Donelson, Piltsfiurgh Laniling. and t'oiintb ; eouinianded 
 at the capture of .Inckson, 'I'enn. : ilelended Ilolivar. Ti nn.. 
 against a largely superior force: appointed brigadier-pen-
 
 1716 
 
 LEGGETT— LEGUMINE. 
 
 era! of voluuteere Nov. 29, 1S62; was severely wounded at 
 ChiimpiuD Hills, aud again before Vickaburg: was iu the 
 Atlanta campaign ; commanded a divi^iun in Sherinan'a 
 march to the stu : brevetted major-gencrul for this latter 
 campaign, he wns iu Aug., 1 S75, promoteil to be full major- 
 gu'iu^ral, which office he resigned the following mouth, and 
 was appointed commissioner of patents Jan. i'.), 1S71. 
 
 Leggett (William), b. in New York City in 1S02 ; grad- 
 uated at (Teorgotr)wn College in 1822 ; was midshii)nian in 
 V. S. navy from 1822 to 1820; published in 1823 a volume 
 of poems, Lrinure Hours at Sea ; wrote for the Mirror his 
 T'llfi />!/ ft Country Svhon/mnster, and established the Critic, 
 a weekly newspaper, in 1S2.S; was associated with W. C. 
 Ilryant in the editorship of the Eieninfj Pont from 1829 to 
 1S;!5: edited the I'iitin Denfcr in ISIiG; was appointed iu 
 18J19 diplomatic agent to (Juatoinala. but before going to 
 his post d. suddenly at New Rochelle, N. Y., Jlay 29, 1839. 
 Two volumes of bis political essays were published by Theo- 
 dore Sedgwick, Jr., in 1840. 
 
 Legg's, tp. of Limestone co., Ala. Pop. 121G. 
 
 Leg'horn [It. Ai'i-orno], a large maritime town in Cen- 
 tral Italy, in the province of Leghorn, lat. 4.S° 32' N., Ion. 
 111° is' E. It stauils on a tongue of land between the mouth 
 of the Calambrouo on the N. and the lowest spur of the Tus- 
 can Apennines on the ^^., 62 miles W. S. W. of Florence and 
 12 miles S. S. W.of Pisa. A navigable canal connects it with 
 the Arno, which enters the sea 7 miles N. of the town, and 
 smaller canals int('r>;ect it in various directions. There are 
 two harbors, the old and the new, the latter — S. of the fi»r- 
 mer and overlooked by the largo lighthouse — being capable 
 of receiving vessels of heavy tonnage, and even ships of 
 war. More than 11,000 ships of various sizes entereil the 
 harbor in 1873, the import and export trade of that year 
 amounting to above $35,000,000. The import trade em- 
 braces cotton, wool, cutlery, hardware, etc.. and colonial 
 products generally. The export trade is in silks, straw 
 hats, borax, coral, and many of its own manufactures. 
 These are very extensive, and consist of oil. soap, tobacco, 
 salt, etc. The port of Leghorn was for a long time free, 
 except for government monopolies, but since 1807 it no 
 longer enjoys special privileges. Notwithstanding this 
 change, the port of Leghorn is one of the most frequcDted 
 in the Mediterranean, and the commerce and general pros- 
 perity of the town are constantly increasing; fine public 
 and private buildings are being erected: facilities for com- 
 munication between its different quarters are multiplying; 
 its suburbs are being extended and embellished: and it is 
 every year more and more resorted to as a fashionable 
 bathing-place. The churches and ])ublie edifices generally 
 are very respectable, and the Jewish synagogue is the sec- 
 ond in Europe in size and richness. The monument to 
 Ferdinand I., near the port, is a work of merit, without 
 being pleasing. The aqueduct and great reservoir which 
 supply the city with water are remarkable constructions. 
 The first notices of Leghorn arc of the ninth century, and 
 relate to the building of a church there, but it had little 
 importance for a long time. At the close of the fourteenth 
 century we find it under the protection of the French king, 
 who in 1407 sold it and its territory to Genoa for 26.0(10 
 gold ducats. Genoa ceded it in 1421 to Florence for 100.000 
 gold florins, and this republic, aware of the value of her 
 new possession, spared no pains to increase its prosperity. 
 Under the Medici the harbor was improved, the fortifications 
 wore strengthened, and exceptional privileges an<l immu- 
 nities granted to the inhabitants; religious toleration was 
 also established, so that merchants of all nations flocked 
 thither. Towards the end of the last century Leghorn fell 
 into the hands of the French, who impoverished it by forced 
 contributions and forced loans, from which it recovered but 
 slowly. The population, consisting of various nationalities, 
 was in 1ST4, 97,096, among whom were 8000 Jews. 
 
 l4e'gion [Lat. tegin, from hrfcre, to "gather," "col- 
 lect"], a military organization of the ancient Romans, com- 
 bioing all the constituent elements of an army, and num- 
 bering from about 3000 to about 6000 men. Originally, 
 service in the legiou was a privilege reservetl to the Roniau 
 citizen of property, the slaves, prohtarii (more children- 
 begetters), etc., being excluded from its ranks, and the al- 
 lied forces being separately organized under the distinctive 
 denominations »orii and nuxilia ; but the distinction be- 
 tween the Borii and R-mmni disappeared when all the Ital- 
 ian states were admitted to full citizenship with the native 
 Romans, and un<ler the exigencies of the civil war all : 
 classes were enrolled in the legions, and the employment 
 of mercenary soldiers became common. The horse and , 
 foot of the legion have already been described (see Cav- ! 
 Atnv and Infantry), the artillery seems to have had no j 
 distinctive ptrnonnef, and the prototyjn's of the modern , 
 "staff departments" have not been minutely described. 
 In imitation of the Romans the armies of France in 1534 | 
 
 and li)J7 were organized into legions, and in 1792 our 
 own army was officially designated as '* the legion of the 
 V. S.," tlio infantry regiments were styled "sub-legions,"' 
 and the major and brigadier general were called respec- 
 tively the legionary and sub-legiouary general ; hut in 
 neither of these cases was the resemblance to the original 
 organization more than nominal. Robert N. Scott. 
 
 Legion of Uoiior^ Order of the, a French order 
 of merit instituted May 9, 1>U2 (I'J Floreal, an Id), by the 
 First Consul, Napoleon Bonaparte. The order has received 
 several modificatitnis since then. It consists of several 
 ranks — viz. grand officers, grand crosses, commanders, and 
 knights. Its distinctions are conferred for civil, but more 
 especially for military achievements. The order pofgesses 
 considerable wealth, of which the proceeds are paid out in 
 pensions to wounded and disabled members and gome oth- 
 ers. Their house at Paris was burned by the Communists 
 May 24, 1871. 
 
 Legna'go, town of N. Italy, in the province of Verona, 
 on the Adige and on the high-road between Mantua and 
 Padua, about 23 miles S. E. from the city of Verona. This 
 town has much strategic importance, and formed one of 
 the four angles, though not the atrongcst, of the famous 
 qiiadri/dtrral. Pop. in 1874, 13,355. 
 
 Legna^no, town in N. Italy, in the province of Milan, 
 about 17 miles N. W. of the city of Milan. It contains some 
 interesting churches, and, among other fine pictures, an io- 
 valuablo one by Luini. Pop. in 1874, 6685. 
 
 Legouv^f the name of two French |)oets of some note. 
 — Gabkiel Marie Jean Baptiste, b. at Paris June 23. 1764, 
 and d. there, insane. Aug. 30, 1812. He wrote tragedies, of 
 which Epirharis et X^ron (1794) made a great sensation on 
 account of Talma's performance of Noru and the allusions 
 of the part to Robespierre : and elegies, of which Lc Mirite 
 de« I'cmmea (1800) proved a great success. 
 
 Legouve (Gabrie!- Ernest Wilfrid), sod of the pre- 
 ceding, b. at Paris Feb. 14, 1807, made his debut in lite- 
 rature with a poem, Deronvertc dc V Imprimerie (1827), 
 for which he received a prize of the Academy; wrote, 
 in company with Scribe. Adricnne Lecmivrcur (1849), Lea 
 Cuutes de la rdnc dc Navarre (1850), Bataille den lJame» 
 (1851), and Lc8 Doi,ftM de Ffe (1858). His tragedy. Mrd^e, 
 in which M.ademoiselle Rachel refused to play, though the 
 refusal cost her a fine of 5000 francs, was translated into 
 Italian, and performed with great success by Madame 
 Ristori. He is also the author of the Higtoirc mora/e den 
 Femmca (1848), which made a success similar to that of his 
 father's poem. 
 
 Lc Grand, post-v. and tp. of Marshall co., la., on tho 
 Chicago and North-western R. R. (Iowa division). Pop. 
 1537. 
 
 Legu'mine [Lat. Ugumeny "pulse"]. This is one of 
 the vegetable protcida, or, as they are sometimes called, 
 albuminoids. (Sec article Albi'minoids, by Piiof. Chand- 
 ler.) It is so extremely similar in its chemical properties 
 and composition to animal cascine, the substance of cheese 
 — that is, of curd of milk — that several distinguished 
 chemists, among them Liebig and Braconuot. have been 
 unable to find any difference, and concluded that they were 
 identical. Other equally distinguished analysts, however, 
 I>nmas and Cahours, have maintained that there is an ap- 
 preciable ditTerence in composition and in chemical nature. 
 Whether the vegetable caseine, plant curd, or Icguinine 
 passes directly, iu solution through tlie blood, into the milk 
 of lactiferous mammals, is a question to be worked out 
 by physiological chemists. Leguminc occurs extensively 
 throughout the vegetable kingdom, but is more especially 
 found in various kinds of seeds and nuts. It derives its 
 name from the fact that, with starch, it makes up almost 
 the whole substance of the seeds of leguminous plants, 
 such as peas and beans. Hence, the powerfully nutritious 
 character of these as food — that is, for those ]»osses5cd of 
 powerful digestion, for vegetable cascine is far from being 
 as readily soluble in the gastric liquids as animal caseine 
 or curd of milk. Peas and beans contain about one-quar- 
 ter of their weight of this plant-curd, and are comparable, 
 therefore, so far as richness in nitrogen is concerned, to 
 eggs or to milk when condensed. Ordinary cow's milk, ac- 
 cortling to the highest determinations on record, contains 
 nttt more than 5^ per cent, of dry cascine by weight; wo- 
 man's milk contains less than 4 per cent. 
 
 One remarkable point connected with the chemical com- 
 position of legumine is a large proportion of phoFphorus in 
 organic forms of combination. Voelcker found in legurnine 
 precipitated from its solutions by acetic acid, and thus freed 
 from all mineral matters, from l.SS to 2. IS per cent, of ab- 
 solute phosphorus. The believers in the virtues of phos- 
 phurettcd foods as uerve and irain nourishers should by 
 this have their attention directed to leguminous aliments.
 
 LEGl'MINOS^E— LEIBNITZ. 
 
 1717 
 
 Lei^umino was prepared in pure state by Duinaa nnd 
 ('ahours from milk of sweet almonds. Tht-v are bruised, 
 S'liikc'l in warm water for Ihreo hours, cnij'lied to pulp, and 
 an equal «ei^,'hl olould water added. In an hour ibe mass 
 U pressed ilirou-jh a clotli. The liquid deposits its starch, 
 and is then filtered. Acetic acid (avoiding excess) now 
 precipitates or curdles the legumine as a white coagulum 
 or curd, which is washed on a filter with water, then with 
 alcohol, dried, pulverized, and treated with other to remove 
 fatty substances. It is more difficult to obtain the vegeta- 
 ble curd pure from beans, ns these contain mucilaginous 
 matters which render the filtration troublesome. This might 
 probably be overcome, however, by some experiment, should 
 it be desirable to obtain eheaply a concentrated " brain- 
 food." Tlie legumine thus prepared is stated by other 
 chemists still to retain in a<ltni.\ture some albumen, to sep- 
 arate which requires re-solution in ammonia and re-pre- 
 cipitation with acetic acid. H. Wi'rtz. 
 
 Legumino's.x [Lat. l^'jumm, a "pod"], or Fabaceie 
 [Lat, f'lhit, a '* bean "]. a large and must important natural 
 order of plants, equalled by no other of the dicotyledonous 
 clas>>. except, possibly, by the related order Rosacea;. Its 
 distinguishing marks are the p;ipiIionaceous corolla and 
 the legume (i. (?. a solitary and simple 2-valved pod, of 
 which the pea-pod is a familiar representative), along with 
 alternate leaves furnished with stipules. Vet no one of 
 these oharactera is without exception, and the papilioaa- 
 oeous belongs to only one of the three great Bub-orders, 
 one of which, the Mimose;i?, has wholly regular flowers. 
 Among the food-plants of (ho order, beans, pease, and clo- 
 ver, also peanuts, are the most important representatives. 
 But there are also many poisonous or very active plants 
 or pro.lucts. among which the Calabar or ordeal bean, now 
 turned to useful account in medicine, is remarkable, inas- 
 much as the plant is nearly related to the common bean. 
 Moreover, both in Australia and California plants of the 
 pulse family, which would be supposed to be innocent and 
 nutritious, prove to be sheep-poisons. Among plants or 
 products of the order with active properties, senna, indigo, 
 copaiva, tolu, kino, and catechu may be specified. Other 
 drugs and dyes of large use are gum-aral)ic, tragacanth, 
 liquorice, copaiba, tolu, tamarinds, sanders-wood. logwood, 
 Brazil-wood, etc. Among timber trees, the locust and rose- 
 wood. Asa Gray. 
 
 IjChf city of Central Asia, capital of the kingdom 
 of Ludakh.'is situated in lat. ."1° 8' N.. Ion. 77° 40' K., in 
 a valley of the Himalayas, at an elevation of 11, 3(^10 feet 
 above the sea, aud forms a station of some importance on 
 the commercial road between Central Ania and India. It 
 is surrounded with a wall of sun-dried brick, surmounted 
 with turrets, and contains a great palace of the rttjah. Its 
 population is variously estimated at from 6U00 to 12,000. 
 
 Le'hi City, post-v. of Ctah eo., I't., on the Utah South- 
 ern R. R., at thu junction of the American Fork U. R., and 
 on the N. shore of Utah Ijake, near the river Jordan. The 
 people profess the Mormon faith. 
 
 Ije'high, county of K. I*cnnsylvania. Area. 350 square 
 miles. It is bounded N. K. by the Lehigh River and N. \V. 
 by the Blue Mountains. The soil is generally very fertile. 
 Thi.-i county contains mi net* of zinc and iron. Live- 
 stock anJ grain are staple prrtducts. Carriages, tobjiceo, 
 brick, clothing, (lour, leather, furniture, iron. lime, metallic 
 wares, and agricultural implements arc leading articles of 
 numufitcture. .Many of the people arc of l.Jerman descent. 
 Cap. Allentown. Pop. 5(>,7y0. 
 
 Lehigh, Ip. of Northampton co.. Pa. Pop. 3-(9G. 
 
 liChigh Kivcr, in Pennsylvania, rises in Pike co., and 
 traverses a region remarkaliitt for its beauty and famous 
 for its great productioo of anlhriuulc coal. It parses the 
 Blue Ridge at Mauch Chunk, and at Ka.'^lon unites with 
 the Delaware. It is nearly IHO miles long, and for 70 miles 
 has been fitted for slack-water navigation. 
 
 Lcliif^h'ton, post-b. of t'arbon co,, Pa., on the W. bank 
 of the Lehigh River, and on tlm Lehigh Valley R. R. and 
 tlie Lehigh and Suscjuehanna division of the New Jersey 
 Central H. R. It has '.i chureheit, it hotels, a fine publio 
 school, and 1 newsptiper. Pop. 11M5. 
 
 II. V. AioitTniMEi:, Kn. "Carbon Advocate." 
 
 I^eh'man, i)oat-v. and tp. of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 709. 
 
 I.ehninn, tp. of Pike co., Pa. Pop. 8;{2. 
 
 Leh'mnnii (CiiAni.Ks Kuvkst Roi>oi.i*i!k Hknui). b. nt 
 Kiel, in Holslein. Apr. 1-1, IHII, and received his first in- 
 struction in the art of painting. by his father; but settled 
 early in Paris, where be studied under Ingres, and began 
 to exhibit in IS^i). His ]>ietures excel in brilliancy of ool- 
 oring. and are generally distinguished by a peculiarly ro- 
 mantic and dream-like feeling, even when the subjects 
 have been choaco from the Bible or the Wreck literature. 
 
 He has also painted many excellent portraits, such as those 
 of Liszt. Alphonso Karr, and Buron Haussmanu. 
 
 Lehinann { Koi>oi,I'Hk). a brother of Charles Lehmann, 
 b. at Kiel, in IIoK>tcin. Aug. 19, 1S19; studied under his 
 father and brother, but resided later on for the niopt part in 
 Rome, and painted mostly fcenes of Italian life and nature. 
 Le pape Sixte- Quint binigsant leg Muraia Puuthm, now at the 
 museum of Lille, is one of his most celebrated pieces. 
 
 Le'ia^ town of British India, in the Punjaub, in lat. 
 31° N. aud Ion. 71° K. It carries on a considerable trade 
 in sugar, cotton, silk, indigo, copper, iron, and wool. Pop. 
 15,00U. 
 
 Ijeib'nitz(OoTTFRiEDWii,HELM),b..Iune 21,0. s., 1646, 
 in Leipsic, where his father was established as a notary 
 public and actuary of the university. The father died when 
 Gottfried was six years old. His mother sent him to school, 
 where he evinced a remarkable love of study and unusuii! 
 talent. Ho learned Latin without the aid of a grammar, 
 simply by reading and re-reading Livy and the Chrono- 
 loijiruf TlifHunyuH of Calvisius. and acquired such fiuency 
 in that language that at the ago of thirteen ho wrote for a 
 wager .'!00 faultless hexameters within six hours. A large 
 number of his works arc composed in Latin. Ho took chief 
 delight in logic, and thus was led to the study of the scho- 
 lastics and of metaphysics in general. At the age of fifteen 
 Leibnitz entered Ibe Leipsic University to prepare himself 
 for active life by the study of law. Ho excelled there, as 
 everywhere; read in 1003 his dissertation De Prhictpio 
 Indtvt'dui, and in 10(10 published his work J)e Arte Combi- 
 natoria, which really contains the germ of all his future 
 achievements in the fields of mathematics and philosophy. 
 In the same year ho left Leipsic, because his ago was urged 
 as a barrier to his obtaining tlio degree of doctor juris, and 
 went to the university at Altdnrf, where he obtained it by 
 his dissertation I)r (Uisibns Pirplexi»yi\,\u\ elicited such gen- 
 eral admiration that ho was ofTevcd a professorship at the 
 university, which he, howo\er, refused. During the winter 
 ho remained at Nuremberg, studying the works of Kepler, 
 (Talilco, Bacon, Gassendi, and Descartes, also continuing 
 his law-studies. Here he made the acquaintance of the 
 celebrated statesman Baron Boinel)urg, the former prime 
 minister of the elector of Mentz. and accompanied him to 
 Frankfort, where he began to jirepare himself for a polit- 
 ical life. He there wrote his famous essay, No\ui MrtfioJus 
 divcf'Uflii' dnrfitdiripti' J nrisprudfutin: (lOfiS), which he sent 
 to the elector of Mentz. accompanied by the sketch of a 
 chart " which would enable any judge or lawyer to decide 
 immediately any given case of law according to the fixed 
 principles of jurisprudence." This so pUasetl the elector 
 that ho appointed Leibnitz assistant to Dr. Lasscr in the 
 elaboration of a reformed code of Roman law. He soon 
 distinguished himself by his various literary labors — so 
 much that within a few years, when barely twenty-four 
 years r)f jige, he was iijqiointed by the elector a member of 
 the court of appeiils. the highest jiidieiiil tribunal of the 
 electorate. His ofiieial labors did not in the least disturb 
 his other studies. He was specially interested at that lime 
 in effecting a reconciliation between Protestants and Ro- 
 man Catholics, and kept up an extensive correspondence 
 with prominent members of both churches (with Bossuet 
 among others), having discovered, as he thought, a basis 
 on which the theories of both churches on the subject of 
 transubstantiation, their main jioint of ditpute. could bo 
 harmonized. Tin* ])reparations nnnle iiy Louis Xl\'. for a 
 war against GermaMy at the same time led him to enter 
 deeply into polities. To the German electors he submitted 
 a memorial, counselling a friendly feeling towards France 
 and the establishment of a united Germany, which, he said, 
 would alone gi\<' peace to Furope. To Louis .XlWlie sub- 
 mitted a memorial, through Boineburg, which counselled 
 an expedition of France against Fgypt, which was so well 
 received by the French king that Louis XIV. expressed 
 his desire for a persomil interview with the author. Ac- 
 cordingly, Leibnitz left Mentz in Miir., ll»72, for Paris, 
 where he submitted a memorial to the king, \\hich. how- 
 ever, has only recently been mude public. Ho pointed out 
 the conquest of Egypt as the key to India and the humili- 
 ation of Holland. Napoleon alterwards carried out the 
 achemo in order to threaten Kngland's jKiwer in the Fast. 
 Leibnitz's main object was to ilivert (he king's mind from 
 a war with (Jernmny by a foreign enterprise ; and jirobably 
 this object was soon discovered, nnd caused the rejection 
 of his scheme. He maile diligent use of his stay in Paris. 
 however, to study its libraries nnd become ac(|uainted with 
 its men of science. News of his friend Boineburg's death 
 compelled him to visit London for a short time, where ho 
 made the acquaintance of Newton. Boyle, and others, and 
 was chosen fellow of the Royal Society. Here the report 
 of the death of his other friend, the elector of Mentz, 
 reached him. When he returned from ICngland, be ilid not
 
 1718 
 
 LE1B>^1TZ. 
 
 go to Mentz, therefore, but to Paris. Here he soon formed ' 
 an extensive acc^uaiutauce, became intimate with Cassini 
 and lIuyghon.«, and was admitted to the highest circles of ; 
 society. In 1070 he accepted the third offer made him by 
 the ciuke of I'runswick-Liineburgof a position at his court, 
 having just then made his immortal discovery of the dif- 
 ferentia! calculus, which he did not make public, however, 
 until 1C84. In 1G7S the duke of Brunswick-Liineburg, in 
 recognition of his many labors in the interest of science 
 and of the country, conferred the rank of counsellor upon 
 him, which made him a member of tbo supreme court. Be- 
 sides his judicial duties and other scientific labors, Leib- : 
 nitz took charge of the duke's mines in the Ilartz Moun- I 
 tains, utilizing the opportunity to study mineralogy, and 
 kept u]i constantly his labors in behalf of a union betvvcen 
 the Protestant and Roman Catholic churches. In 1079 the i 
 duke died, and was succeeded by his brother Ern.'^t August, 
 subsequently elector of Hanover. When, some years later, 
 the princess Sophia Charlotte of Hanover, Leibnitz's pupil, 
 married the prince of Brandenburg, future king of Prussia, , 
 it was deemed advisable in 16S7 to send Leibnitz to Italy > 
 vn a political expedition, but chiefly with a \ iew tu collect , 
 materials for a history of the house of Brunswick (the 
 Guelph family) from its earliest origin. Leibnitz made \ 
 this the great literary work of his life, though, like most 
 of his works, it has been printed only recently. His stay 
 at Rome was one prolonged ovation. Every learned society , 
 elected him a member. The office of custodian of the great 
 Vatican library was offered him, with prospects of a car- 
 dinal's hat, if he would join the Roman Catholic Cliuruh. 
 But, favorably disposed as he was to Roman Catholicism, 
 he never could be brought to join that Church. He did his 
 best to enlist it in behalf of science, and arranged a per- 
 manent correspondence with the famous Jesuit missionary 
 Grimaldi, then leaving for China, through whom he also 
 sent his Science of Dijadica to the emperor of China, so ar- 
 ranged as '"to prove the creation of the world out of nothing." 
 After his return to the Hanoverian court, Leibnitz was ap- 
 pointed custodian of the Wolfcnbiittel Library. His pa- 
 tron, Ernst August, who in 1692 had become elector of 
 Hanover, died in 1098, and although his successor, George, 
 future king of England, retained Leibnitz in his posi- 
 tion, Leibnitz no longer felt comfortable under a ])rincG 
 who took no interest in matters of science and art. Ho 
 therefore accepted a call to Berlin from his former pupil, 
 the princess Sophia Charlotte, and there established the 
 scientific society which has since grown into the Berlin 
 I'niversity. In 1700 ho was sent on a political expedition 
 to Vienna, and made another attempt to unite the Protest- 
 ant and Catholic churches. On his return to Berlin ho 
 found that tho English skepticism of the Lockian School 
 had made its way there, and at tho solicitation of Sophia 
 Charlotte, now queen of Prussia, wrote bis celebrated 
 Tht'ndirre to comliat it. The death of tbo queen in 1705 
 was a severe blow to Leibnitz. More than ever he devoted 
 himself to science. When in 1711 ho met Peter the Great 
 at Torgau, he induced him to found libraries, observatories, 
 etc., aud so interested that monarch that he was invited to 
 another personal conference at Carlsbad. In 1714. Leib- 
 nitz visited Vienna for tho last time, and there wrote for 
 Prince Eugiinc his Monudolojij, the work by which he is 
 most widely known as a philosophical writer. Soon after 
 it was finished, the elector George, being about to leave for 
 England, ordered Leibnitz home to attend to his duties. 
 Leibnitz went back, finished his history of the house of 
 Brunswick, and plunged into other scientific labors, in the 
 midst of which death overtook him, Ni>v. 14. 1716. Only 
 one person, his secretary, Eckhart, followed him to his 
 tjrave. Protestant and Roman Catholic clergy both re- 
 fufied to attend his burial. 
 
 It is almost impossible to convey an idea of the multi- 
 tude of Leibnitz's writings and the variety of subjects upon 
 which they treat. His unpublished manuscripts till the 
 whole side of one of the rooms of the Hanoverian library, 
 and range over the various subjects of law, history, theology, 
 speculative nhilosophy, mathematics, and all the natural 
 sciences. There is scarcely a branch of human knowledge 
 which his wonderful mind has not explored and enriched; 
 and in this universality of his knowledge ho stands un- 
 rivalled in history. Neither Aristotle nor Kant. probabl>; 
 tho other two most universal minds, reach Leibnitz in the 
 extent of their knowledge. And with all this devotion to 
 science he was never forgetful of practical affairs. An ac- 
 complished statesman and politician, he was an untiring 
 correspondent, and in society brilliant and interesting as 
 few men even of his time, when society made great de- 
 mands. Though he never married, he enjoyed the society 
 of ladies, and fascinated them by his courteous manners 
 and conversational powers. During the reign of the late 
 king of Hanover a beginning was made to publish tho 
 complete works of Leibnitz, a literary undertaking of un- 
 
 paralleled magnitude. A few volumes were issued iu truly 
 royal style, but the expulsion of the king and the absorp- 
 tion of Hanover into the German empire unhap]>ily put a 
 stop to the enterprise. The chief points of his philosophi- 
 cal system are three in number; (I) The Principle vf the 
 SiiJ^rient Heitniju. — In human knowledge, says Leibnitz 
 substantially in explanation of this principle, we meet with 
 two different classes of knowledge — one which is based on 
 the formula A = A, and which is self-evident, needing, 
 therefore, no further explanation ; and one which says of a 
 thing (A) that it is not only this (/. <■. .\. I, but also something 
 else. Kant subsequently called the former class analytical 
 and the latter synthetical propositions. Now, of this latter 
 class, adds Leibnitz, it will not do to assert merely that 
 they are true, but a sufficient ground mu.st be shown why 
 they must be true ; and if we cannot show tho ground, they 
 are not proved true. By strictly separating this class of 
 propositions from those that are merely analytical or identi- 
 cal, and applying to all synthetical a^^sertions tho crucial 
 test of the sufficient reason, Leibnitz contends that the 
 higher sciences of physics, metaphysics, etc. can he aa 
 conclusively established as those sciences that rest merely 
 upon the analytical principle. Leibnitz neglects, how- 
 ever, to state what is the sufficient reason which is tho 
 basis of all synthetical propositions, and it was reserved 
 for Kant to complete the work of Leibnitz in this re- 
 spect. It appears, however, from all of Leibnitz's writ- 
 ings whenever he had to apply that principle, that he 
 was quite well aware of the nature of that sufficient rea- 
 son. (See Kant.) (2) Tlie Doctrine of Mouiide. — At an 
 early period of his life, Leibnitz, who till then had ac- 
 cepted in explanation of the universe the then generally 
 received theory of atoms, convinced himself of the insuffi- 
 ciency of this theory, in that it could not explain the activ- 
 ity reigning in tho universe. By tho two conceptions of 
 motion and a world of atomic matter, Descartes had tried 
 to explain, in his famous Prindpin, all the ])!ienomGna of 
 the universe, from tho position and course of the stars down 
 to the construction of the smallest plant, and again up to 
 the highest functions and passions of rational human be- 
 ings. But as this theory was defective, in Leibnitz's opinion, 
 in that it showed no sufficient ground for the motion which 
 vitalizes the universe, he proposed to substitute for the ma- 
 terial atoms spiritual atoms. Ho made public his discovery 
 at an early day, and it excited an extensive discussion 
 amongst the scientific men of his age. In his first an- 
 nouncement of his new theory, Leibnitz calls "spiritual 
 atoms" what ho subsequently termed monads, *• Suppos- 
 ing," says ho in substance, ** that wo look upon this universe 
 as an infinite number of spiritual activities, each again con- 
 taining within itself an infinite number of activities, and 
 each thus limiting the other: then every such monadic ac- 
 tivity must be limited or influenced in a more or less degree 
 by all the others, so that even the smallest monad, if it 
 could become conscious of all tho impressions directed upon 
 it, would become conscious of tho whole infinite world. "This 
 limitation ajjpears to each monad as something foreign to 
 itself, and where this limitation ceases there is itself in its 
 own body. Each monad having clearest consciousness of 
 wltat passes within itself, and increasing that consciousness 
 only as it learns to unravel the impressions produced upon 
 it by the other monads, it is simply by the grade of con- 
 sciousness attained that the monads are distinguished from 
 each other. From tho smallest speek of dust to the high- 
 est seraph this distinction rules; and as each monad carries 
 within itself tho power to reach the highest degree, there 
 can be no creation and no death in the world; everything 
 must bo stea<ly, progressive development or evolution. 
 Matter must be always the same, since the monads are al- 
 ways the same; and force can never he destroyed, since tho 
 monad can never be destroyed. The whole interchange of 
 forces is simply tho result of a greater or less degree of 
 movement on the part (<f the universal force which every 
 atom possesses, and all forces are therefore correlated with 
 each other through motion." Leibnitz's theory of nature, 
 iu its fundamental principles, is thug the same that has re- 
 cently been adopted by the natural scientists of England. 
 (Translations of several short articles written by Leibnitz 
 in ex])ositiiin of this theory can lie found in the Jour. Spec. 
 Phil. (St. Louis), vols, i. (containing the ytimadtdoijii), ii., 
 iii., V.) (;!) Prr-t:HtftUishcd J/nrmoiii/. — There remained, 
 
 I however, one great problem to explain, which was how one 
 monad can influence another one, and which also involves 
 the question how communication between body and soul is 
 possible. This puzzled Leibnitz Tur a long time, until he 
 was insensibly led to an idea whieh, he says, ** surprised 
 me, but which seemed inevitable. This was that the soul 
 
 : or every other real unity must have been created in such a 
 
 ! manner ns to have everytliing arise in it from it." own 
 proper nature, with a perfect tipoutonrity in relation to it- 
 
 ! self, and yet at the same time with perfect conformity to
 
 LEICESTER— LEIGH. 
 
 1719 
 
 the outside thin;;s. That thus our intcmal perceptions — 
 thai is, those in the soul itself, and not in the hrain or in 
 the suhtle parts of the body — being nothing but phenomena 
 related to external thing? or true appearances, and like 
 well-regulated dream?, — that these internal perceptions, 
 therefore, in the s"ui itself come to the soul through ita 
 own original constitution: that is to say, through that rep- 
 re?cntativc character (capable of exprcsiiing outside tilings 
 by relation to ita organs) which was given to it at its crea- 
 tion, and which constitutes its individual character. Thus 
 it is that each of these substances — I'ach representing pre- 
 cisely the whole universe in its own way and according to 
 a certain point of view, and the perceptions or expressions 
 of the external things reaching the soul in this point by 
 virtue of its own laws, as nf a world in itself, and as if 
 nothing existed but God and itself (to use the mode of ex- 
 pressinn of a certain person of elevated mind, and whoso 
 sanctify \s everywhere rccognizeil), must be in perfect accord 
 with all others, whereby the same effect is produced as if 
 they all communicated with each other by a transmission 
 of species or of qualities, as the vulgar philosophers imag- 
 ine. Moreover, the organizeil mass, wherein the point of 
 view of the soul exists, being expressed more nearly, and 
 finding itself reciprocally ready to act of itself according 
 to the laws of the bodily machine in whatever moment the 
 soul wills it — neither ono interfering with the laws of the 
 other — the intelligence and the blood have precisely those 
 movements which are necessary to respond to the passions 
 and perceptions of the soul. It is this mutual rttpport. 
 regulated in advance in each substance of the universe, 
 which produces what wo call their communication, and 
 which alone constitutes the union uf body nnd soul. It is 
 thus that we can understand how the soul has its seat in 
 the body by an immediate presence — a presence that could 
 not be greater, since the eoul is there just as the unity is iu 
 the result of the unities, which is tho multiplicity." 
 
 This is the celebrated theory of a pre-established harmony, 
 upon which Leibnitz also built his religious system, as in- 
 deed none of his discoveries stand apart, but each is closely 
 connected with all others, and the result of the same orig- 
 inal view of tho universe. His mathematical discoveries 
 were the outgrowth of his purely philosophical appercep- 
 tions, no Ie?s than his religious convictions, and it was his 
 distinvery of the monad theory which made him so sure that 
 by its means ho could reconcile Protestants and Honuin Cath- 
 olics on their main point of dispute, the doctrine of trunsub- 
 stantiation. (Mee Kuno Tischer, Leibnitz und Mciiie iSchnle, 
 in vol. ii. of his fieach d^-r rtfluern PhiL; also Erdmann's 
 ed. of his works. 2 vols, f Berlin, 1S4')) ; Foiicher do Tarcil's 
 ed.. 6 vols. (Paris. 18oi)): <»• H. Pcrtz*s ed. (with (imtcfend 
 and tJerhardt). 12 vols. (Hanover. iJerlin.an'l lliiUe. lS4:i- 
 6:M: Onnot Klopp's ed., 4 vtds. (Hanover, I8C1-66) ; Guh- 
 rauer's '/. \V. F. Ltibuitz (2 vols., and ed. of Leibnitz's Ger- 
 man writings. Itreslau (ls;i7-4riK) A. E. Kkokceh. 
 
 liUiccs'tcr, or Leicostershirc, county of England, 
 situated nearly in the middle of the country, bounded N. by 
 the river Trent. Area, SO:i square miles. Pop. 2'\7,i\'2. 
 The ground ts hilly; some coal and lead mines are work- 
 ed; granite and freestone arc quarried. But the rearing 
 of sheep and cattle gives the country its industrial charac- 
 ter: 260,000 acres of land are in grass; and its breeds of 
 cattle and long-woolled sheep are very celebrated. Tho 
 80-called Stilton cheese is chiefly made in this county, 
 which Also is tho principal seat of the English manufoo- 
 tures of hosii-ry. 
 
 LeicCHter^ town of England, the capital of Lcicestor- 
 Bhire, on tho Soar, whose auclent name was Leire, whence 
 the name of tho city. Its manufactures of woollens and 
 hosiery are very important, employing more than 2a, 000 
 hands; also laoo is made hero to a considerable extent. 
 The oily was known to the Itomans under the name of 
 li'tttr, and Roman remains are found. Pop. ll.>,0S4. 
 
 Leicester, post-tp, of Worcester co., Mass.. miles AV. 
 of Worcester, The Boston and Albany H. U. traverses 
 the S. part. The town has a fertile soil, well adapted to 
 grazing, here a lending ttursuit. Tliere arc several villages, 
 7 woollen and II card factories, 1 national bank, a publio 
 library, an academy, a town-hall, K churches, a memorial 
 h;ill, and good water-power. Pop. 27fiS. 
 
 Leicester, tp. of Livingston co., N. Y. It contains 
 several manufacturing villagps. Pop. 1711, 
 
 I^eicpsler, post-tp. of Muneombe co.. N. C. Pop.2180. 
 
 Leicester, post-tp. of Ad.llson oo., Vt., .'» miles N. of 
 Brandon, on the Contra! Vermont R. R. It has manufac- 
 tures of lime and paint. Pop. 0:10. 
 
 Leicester (RonKHT Dudley), EAni. of. a son of tho 
 duko of Northumberland, who was executed for trying to 
 make Liidy .lane Grey queen in l-STiM, b. Sept. 7,15^3; 
 married Amy Uobsarl lA.'iO; was enndojuned as n traitor 
 1554; pardoned 1j.">.'>; bocaino the favorite of t^ucen Eliza- 
 
 beth, who made him K. G. and master of tho horse 1558. 
 The sudden death of his wife in 1660 aroused strong sus- 
 picions that he was aspiring to the hand of the queen. 
 Created carl of Leicester in 1564; in lJt>0, Elizjibcth pro- 
 posed his marriage with the queen of Scots, and somewhat 
 later his secret marriage with tho widow of Essex aroused 
 the anger of the queen ; was sent to tho Low Countries as 
 captain-general in 1585 and 1587, but displayed no ca- 
 pacity; was in 158S generalissimo of the troops raised 
 against the Spaniards. D. in Oxfordshire, Sept. 4, 1588. 
 
 Leicester (Simon de ^lontf'ort), Eaki* or, founder 
 of tho English House of Commons, b. I20C in France, and 
 was a sou of Simon do Montfort, tho vanquisher of tho 
 Albigenses. In 12;il his brother, the Count Aiiiaury do 
 Montfort, gave him the honor of Leicester, inherited from 
 his maternal grandmother, an English lady ; fur this tillo 
 Simon did homage to Henry IIL in 12;n, and in 123^ it 
 was formally granted by the king after his marriage with 
 the king's sister ; was for many years emi)loyod as governor 
 of Gascony, where he conducted many wars with advantage, 
 and twice refused tho French regency ; in England, unlike 
 most other French adventurers of that pcrioii. he took tho 
 part of the barons against the king in the wars of Henry 
 III.'s reign : compelled the king to sign the jirovisions of 
 Oxford 1208, and after tJloucester's death ( 12i>2j became 
 the leader of tho baronial party; dictated terms at tho 
 Mise of Lowes 12G4; summoneil the Parliament of ]2fi.*>, 
 at which knights of the shire and reprcsenlatives of tho 
 boroughs were admitted — the germ of the future Ilougc of 
 Commons; became jut^ticiary of England. Lung tho vir- 
 tual master of tho realm, he was attacked by Edward, 
 prince of M^ ales, at Evesham, and there defeated and slain, 
 Aug. 4, 1265. 
 
 Lcich'liardt (Lri>wiG),b. at Trebitscb, in the Prussian 
 province of Brandenburg, Oct. 2;>, iSlli ; studii d philology, 
 medicine, and natural science at Gottiugen and Berlin; 
 travelled through Italy, France, and Kuglaud, and went in 
 1841 to Australia, where ho made a great name for himself 
 as an explorer. Tho results of hiu first minor travels were 
 published in lieitriiije zur Geolotjie wn Anntnilia (Hallo, 
 1855). His large tour from Moreton Bay on the E. coast 
 to Port Essiugton on the N. coast (1844-40), he described in 
 
 his Journul o/' an Ovt-rinnd I^jrjjidition in Anntftifia from 
 Moreton liui/ to Port Enaijajton (London, 1847). In Dec, 
 1847, ho started on a still greater expedition across the con- 
 tinent from E. to W., but the last report which came from 
 him was dated Fitzruy I)owus Apr. 8, 1848, and later re- 
 searches havo confirmed tliat he jierished on the trip. His 
 biography was written by Zuchold (Leii)sic, 1856). 
 
 Lei'dy, post-tp, of Clinton co., Pa. Pop. 515. 
 
 Leidy (JosRvn), M. D..h. at Philadelphia Sept. 9, 1823; 
 graduated in medicine at the University of Pennsylvania 
 in 1844: devoted himself to biological researches, especially 
 comparative anatomy and vertebrate palivontnlogy, on 
 which jiapers were published in Pror. of Avnd. Nut. Sr{- 
 cnccs of Phila., Trnnti. of Am. Philos. 5oe., an<i Smithsonian 
 Contrihft. to Knotrhdffc ; in 1853 was chosen ])rofeSBor of 
 anatomy in tho medical department of the University of 
 Pennsylvania, and in 1871 professor of natural history in 
 Swart hniore (.'ollege, both which positions ho still fills. 
 I)uring the civil war Prof. Leidy rendered important ser- 
 vice as surgeon at Satterloe Hospital, Philadel]ihia. His 
 contributions to seientiOc periodicals number souie hun- 
 dreds. Among his more important works are I'fora and 
 Fauna vithin Lirimj Animals, Memoir on an E rttnct Sfn'- 
 cirn of American Ox, Auficnt Fmina of Ntbranl-it, Memoir 
 on the E.rtinrt Slotli Tribe of N. A., and Cretaceous Hep- 
 tiles of the V. S., all published by the Smithsonian Insti- 
 tution, and Contributions to the Extinct Vertebrate Fauna 
 of the Western Territories (1H73), published by U. S. Ge<d. 
 Survey of tho Territories. (See an interesting notice of liis 
 life and earlier writings in A. J. Med. Reporter for Sept., 
 1863.) 
 
 Lci^h, town of England, in the county of Lancaster, 
 13 miles W. of Manchester. It has large manufaetures of 
 cambrics, muslins, and silk and cotton goods. Pop. 10,<)2l. 
 
 Lei^h, tp. of Amelia co., Va. Pop. 3464, 
 
 Leigh, tp. of Prince Edward co., Va. Pop. 3391. 
 
 Leigh (Bknjamin AVatkins^. LL.1>.. b. in ChosterfieM 
 CO., Va.. Juno 18, 1781 ; gradiiatotl at William and Mary Col- 
 lego ; practised law at Petersburg, and afterwards at Rich- 
 mond ; was reporter of the court of appeals ; often chosen to 
 the legislature; was appointed n commissioner to revise (he 
 statutes, and again to adjust land questions with Kentucky : 
 and was in I8:t5 elected to tho U. S. Senate, and took a 
 jtrominent part in the ilebates. but resigned in 1837, and 
 passed the rest of his life in retirement. He publishe<l 12 
 volumes of Ueportu of Court of A/>fnaU and lien. Court of 
 Va. (1833-44), D, at Richmond Feb. 2. 1849.
 
 1720 
 
 LEIGH— LEISLER. 
 
 Leigh (Hezekiah G.).I*. D., b. in Perqniiiiftnsco., N. C, 
 Nov. l*;i, 1795. For thirty-five years ho occupied respon- 
 sible positions in the Virginia and North Carolina M. E. 
 conferences. He was one of the foundcr.s and prinoijial 
 supporters of Kandolph-Mocon College, lie had a power- 
 ful inteileot and great executive ability. D. in Mecklen- 
 burg CO.. Va., Sept. 19, 1853. T. 0. Si mmkus. 
 
 Leii^h'ton, tp. of Lawrence co., Ala. Pop. 1283. 
 
 LeiuMitou, tp. of Allegan co., Mich. Pop. 1200. 
 
 Leighton (Alkxandkr), M. D., b. at Edinburgh, Scot- 
 l:ind. in 1668; educated at the university of that city, in 
 wliicli he was professor of moral philosophy from 1GU3 to 
 liilM, when he became a Presbyterian preacher at London, 
 where he also practised medicine; wrote ASpcrtifum licltl 
 Sacra ; or the Lookinff-QUiAH of the Hohf War (1024), and 
 an Appeal to the Parliament ; or St'im'H Plea aijainnt the 
 Prelarie (I02S). For the latter publication, deemed libel- 
 lous with respect to the king, queen, ami bishops. Leighton 
 was sentenced by the Star Chamber to be twice publicly 
 whipped, to lose both ears, to stand twiec in the pillory, 
 to bo branded on the cheek with the letters S. S. (sower of 
 sedition), to pay a fine of £10,000, and to suffer perpetual 
 imprisonment in the Fleet. After eleven years' imprison- 
 ment he was released by order of the Long Parliament in 
 1010, received peeuniary indemnity, and in 1612 was made 
 keeper of Lambeth Palace as a state prison, where he d. in 
 1014. 
 
 Leighton (Frkderick), A. R. A., h. at vSearborough, 
 England, Bee. 3, 1830; received his first instructions in 
 drawing at Rome; entered as student the Royal Academy 
 of Berlin in 1843, and finished a general education at 
 Frankfort; went to Brussels, where was produced in 1848 
 his first painting, Cimabue Jindinff Giotto Drawing in the 
 Fiffd« : studied at Paris and Frankfort, and again went to 
 Rome, where he executed the Cimabue, which, exhibited at 
 the London Royal Academy in 1855, and being by a 
 hitherto unknown native artist, was so favorably received 
 that it was eagerly purchased by the queen. In rapid suc- 
 cession he produced many fine paintings, classical, scrip- 
 tural, and dramatic: especially noticeable are his Triumph 
 o/.l//(Ki> (1856) : Scene from Romeo and Juliet (\>^5i^) ; Star 
 of lirthlrhem, and Michael Anrjelo nursim) hia Dying Ser- 
 vant (1862); HpIch of Troy and David (1865); Syracnuan 
 Bride leading Wild lieastfi to the Temple of Diana (1866); 
 has also executed designs for literary works, among which 
 is Romola. 
 
 Leighton (Robert), D. D., son of Alexander, b. in 
 Edinburgh in 161 1: graduated at the university of that 
 city (1031), of which he became principal in 1053; ap- 
 pointed bishop of Dunblane in 1601, in pursuit of the plan 
 of Charles II.. Sharpe, and Lauderdale to Anglicize the 
 Church of Scotland; accepted it with reluctance; appealed 
 twice to the king to adopt milder measures in the attempted 
 reform (1665 and 1009); accepted the archbishopric of 
 Glasgow in 1670 upon liberal conditions, which were not 
 fulfilled, and he therefore resigned in 1073 and retired to 
 Rroadhurst, Sussex. D, at London June 20, 10S4. His 
 works, all posthumous, arc highly esteemed fur their broad 
 and liberal views ; they include Sernwui ( 1002) ; Prclertionrs 
 Thcoli,gicfp ( 1693); Comir.entnri/ on the First Epintlc of Peter 
 (I0'.)3); and A**//Mn)ioHj» Trade (1703), and have been often 
 reprinted. See his hife by J. N. Pearson, accompanying 
 the Works (4 vols., 1825). 
 
 Lei'ningen^ former principality of Germany, was 
 erected in 1779, comprised an area of 250 square miles, 
 and was situated between the Lower Palatinate and the 
 bishopries of Speyer and Worms. By the Peace of Lun6- 
 vilU- in 1801 it was divided between Baden, Bavaria, and 
 ILsst^, and the prince was deprived of his sovereignty. 
 
 Lein'steTf province of Ireland, comprising the south- 
 eastern portion of the island, bortlering on the Irish Sea 
 and St. George's Channel. Area. 7619 square miles. Pop. 
 1.457,635 in 1861; 1,339,448 in 1871. of whom 1.141,401 
 were Roman Catholics. Before the English invasion this 
 nrovinee formed two kingdoms, those of Leinster and 
 Moath ; now it is dividi-d into twelve counties — namely, 
 Dublin, iMe;ith, Louih. Kildare, Carlow, Kilkenny, King's, 
 Longford, tiueen's. Westmeath, Wicklow, and Wexford. 
 
 Leipo'a ocella'ta, the "native pheasant'" of Aus- 
 tralia, a guUinaccous bird of the familv Mcgapodidse, 
 somewhat smaller than the turkey. Its flesh is good and 
 its oggs are excellent. The nest is a mass of leaves, dirt, 
 and sticks, the heat of which, produced by fermentation. 
 hatches the eggs. The leipoa is a swift runner, but is very 
 stupid, and often tries to csoapo the hunter by hiding her 
 bead in a bush. 
 
 Leip'pa, or Btthmisch Leipa, town of Bohemia, on 
 the Pulsnit/., is the seat of several eJvil and ecclesiastical 
 authorities, and has good educational institutions, exten- 
 
 sive breweries, and manufactures of articles of steel, guns, 
 and glass. Pop. y2tL 
 
 Leip'sic, city of the kingdom of Saxony, with 100,925 
 I inhabitants according to the census of 1871, is situated in 
 I an extensive plain (w)jich often was the theatre of great 
 battles) on the Pleisse. which here receives the Parthe and 
 flows into the Elster. It is one of the most important com- 
 mercial towns of the German empire, the centre of the Ger- 
 man book-trade, and the seat of a celebrated university. 
 The inner town, consisting of ohl, tall houses, one looking 
 very much like the other, presents the aspect of industry, 
 enterprise, and solid wealth; it is encircled by five regular 
 and modern-looking suburbs, and in a still wider circle the 
 whole is surrounded by a number of villages, which join 
 the town like a sort of second-grade suburbs. The inner 
 town is separated from the suburbs by the Promenaden. a 
 circle of beautiful gardens and walks, which occupy the 
 place of the old fortifications, and contain the most im- 
 portant public places of the city, such as the Augustus- 
 platz, on which the new theatre and the museum stand; 
 the Rossplatz, and the Flcischerplatz. In the inner town 
 is the market-place, which contains the town-hall, erected in 
 the sixteenth century, and several other fine buildings. The 
 most important streets are the Grimma, Briihl, Peter, and 
 Katharinen-strasse. The streets of the suburbs are longer, 
 broader, and more regular, but much more quiet; Elster, 
 Kiinig. and Nuremberger-strasse are noteworthy. In spring 
 and fall a Messe takes place at Leipsic — that is. a market 
 in which merchants from all countries come together in 
 order to do business. As the improved means of communi- 
 cation which modern times afford makes such gatherings less 
 necessary, the Messe has, of course, lost some of its import- 
 ance. Nevertheless, it still attracts about 40,000 foreign 
 merchants, often from distant countries, and the aspect of 
 the city is much changed during this time, partly on ac- 
 count of the multitude of shops which fill the market-place, 
 the Augustusplatz, and all surroundings, partly on account 
 of the bustle in the streets. The principal articles in which 
 bargains arc made at the Messe are — fur (6.000,000 thalers 
 annually), leather, cloth, woollens, linens, and glass. The 
 most remarkable buildings are — the new theatre, built 
 from 1864 to 1867, after plans by Langhaus, in Renais- 
 sance style, with a porch on Corinthian columns in the 
 front and a magnificent veranda in the rear; the museum, 
 opposite the theatre, finished in 1858, after jjlans by Langc, 
 and containing on the ground floor a not very important 
 collection of plaster casts, on the middle floor a large col- 
 lection of pictures, among which arc four celebrated land- 
 scapes by Calanie, and on the upper story a large collection 
 of engravings ; the university or the Augusteum. frequented 
 by about 2000 students, and built by Geutcbriick in 1836 
 after plans by Schinckel ; the Pleisseuburg, formerly a cita- 
 del, now used as V>arracks, a large structure, though with- 
 out any artistic interest, commenced in 1549 by the elector 
 Maurice of Saxony. The most remarkable among the 
 churches are— the Nicolaikirche, built in Gothic style in 
 the twelfth century, and the Thomaskirehe, built in the fif- 
 teenth century, and containing a beautiful marble altar. The 
 Gewandhaus, built in 1481, is now used as a conservatory 
 of music, and is the home of classical music in (Jermany. 
 Leipsic appears as a town for the first time in history in 
 1015; before that time it was an insignificant village, in 
 which Henry I. built a castle in 922. During the Middle 
 Ages the fortifications of the city protected its commerce, 
 and Charles V. increased the liberties of its Messe. In the 
 time of the Reformation it supported the new doctrine, but 
 suffered much from the war; and afterwards felt more severe- 
 ly the Thirty Years' war. Tilly took it in 1631 ; later the 
 Swedes and the imperials held it alternately; its prosperity 
 was entirely destroyed. Since 1007 it attracted the book- 
 trade, and since the beginning of the eighteenth century it 
 bt'came the centre of the same in Germany. The Seven 
 Years' war destroyed its enterprise once more, but its fa- 
 vorable locution enabled it to recover quite rapidly. Dur- 
 ing the wars of Napoleon new calamities came over it. 
 From Oct. 10 to 18, 1813, the great battle in whieh Na- 
 poleon was defeated raged in and around it, and all great 
 movements in (Jermany have affected it more or less on 
 account of its central position. ArcirsT Niemann. 
 
 Leipsic, post-v. of Liberty tp., Putnam co., 0., near 
 Dayton and Michigan R. R. (Roanoke Station). Pop. 200. 
 
 Leis'ler (Jacob), b. at Frankfort. Germany; came to 
 America in 1600 as a soldier in the service of the Dutch West 
 India Co.; was some time stationed at Albany, where he 
 engaged in trade with the Mohawk Indians, and acquired 
 some wealth. While on a voyage to Europe in 1678 ho 
 was taken prisoner by Moorish corsairs, obtained liberty 
 by paying a ransom, returned to .America, settled in New 
 York, and in 1083 became one of the commissioners of the 
 court of admiralty. On May 31, 16S0, Leislcr headed an
 
 LEISXIG— LELAND. 
 
 1721 
 
 insurrcotion "for the preservation of the Protestant relig- f 
 ion," took (he fort, declared for (he prince of Orange, and 
 planted within the fort a battery of six {*uns, which gave 
 ori;;in to that name as still applied to the public park at 
 the lower end of Manhattan Ii»land. The deposed lieu- 
 tcnanl-j;overnor, Francis Nicholson, and Mayor Corthmdt 
 tried in vain to restore authority, and retired, the former 
 to England, the latter to Albany. In August, the "com- 
 mittee of cafety " appointed Lcisler conmuiudcr-in-chief 
 with the powers of a governor, and he made unsuccessful 
 efforts to be recognized as such at Albany. In December 
 ho dissolved tl»o committee of safety, appointed a council, 
 and assumed the style of a royal governor, on (he .strength 
 of a despatch addressed " to such (person) as for the time 
 being takes care for preserving the peace and administer- 
 ing the laws in His Majesty'.^ province of New York." 
 Early in liiUO ho sent a small fleet against the French at 
 Quebec. On the appointment of Sloughtrr as governor, 
 Leisler refuged to surrender the fort and the government 
 (Mar., 161)1) until convinced of the former's identity and 
 authority. For this constructive treason Leisler was soon 
 after imprisoned, with his son-in-law and secretary, Jacob 
 Milborne, and both were condemned and executed May Iti, 
 161*1. At a later period the memory of Leisler was re- 
 habilitated by an act of Parliament (161*5), an indemnity 
 was given to his heirs ( IfiDS }, an<l the bones of Leisler and 
 Milborne wore honorably buried in the Dutidi church. One 
 of (ho acta of Leisler during his brief authority ( lOSK) was 
 the purchase of lands at New Rochelle as a place of refuge 
 for persecuted Huguenots. 
 
 Leis'nit?, town of Germany, kingdom of Saxony, on the 
 Muldc, manufactures woollen and linen stuffs. Pop. 6770. 
 
 liCitch (William), P. I)., b. at Rothesay, Scotland, in 
 1814; graduated in IS^iG at the University of tilasgow ; 
 stu'lied theology in the Divinity School; was ordiiiued in 
 the Presbytcriiin Church in IS.'IH. and from lH+;i to IB.'iO 
 was parish minister at Monimail. In the latter year ho 
 was chosen principal of Queen's University at Kingston, 
 Canada, in which office he was installed Nov. 8. ISOO, and 
 for the remainder of his life was actively engaged in organ- 
 izing that institution upon a large basis of modern culture. 
 Principal Lcitch was an enthusiastic scientific observer, es- 
 pecially devoted to animal physiology and astronomy. In 
 I8ft;i he published an esteemed work, (iod'a Glory in the 
 Jleaveua. or Contributions to Astro-theotoijy. D, at Kings- 
 ton M ly S>. iHrtt. 
 
 Lei'tersbiirg, post-v. and tp. of Washington co., Md., 
 6 miles N. E. of llagerstown. Pop. \V,\b \ of tp. 167.'i. 
 
 Leithy town of Scotland, in the county of Edinburgh, 
 on the Frith uf Forth, 2 miles from Edinburgh, whoso port 
 it is, and with which it is connected by continuous ri)ws of 
 bouses. Its streets are nnrroxv, tortuous, and filthy, but its 
 harbor is excellent, 25 feet deep, provided with a break- 
 water, and containing two wet docks and three dry docks. 
 Its shipbuilding, both in wood tind iron, and its manufac- 
 tures of rope, sailcloth, soap, etc., are considerable, and its 
 trade extensive, importing large quantities of grain, wine, 
 hemp, timber, and tobacco. Pop. 44,277. 
 
 Loi^hn, or Ijeytlia^ a river of Austria, rises in Lower 
 Austria, furms for some distance the boundary between the 
 two divisions of the ,\ustro- Hungarian eitipire, called, after 
 the river, (.'isleithania and Transleithania, bn^aks through 
 the Lcitlia Mountains, which rise from IjOO to 20UO feet, 
 into Hungary, and joins the Danube at Altenburg. 
 
 Lcit'meritz, (own of Hohemia, is brautifutly situated 
 on the riglit bunk of the Elbe; contains a splendid cutln'- 
 dral, founded in l>l5i. niid many other remarkable build- 
 ings, among whicli are the episcopal palace, surrounded with 
 walls, the town-halt, and sevoral monasteries; lias a the- 
 ological seminary, a gyninasiutn, and otiier educatiomil in- 
 stituli<ms, iinpttrtant siilmon fisheries, and striiw hut iniiii- 
 ufacture^. and curries ou au active trade in corn, wine, and 
 fruit, pop. Io.U2;i. 
 
 Lertomischl, town of Bohemia, on tboLautschna, has 
 a line palace and park, a beautiful church, and sevoral good 
 ediicalional and benevolent institutions. Pop. ~{)'!<7. 
 
 lieit'nrrffloTTLiKn William). Pn. 0.. b.at Pesth, Hun- 
 gary. Oi't. 14, I'^l'.ll. His father, a Cernian physician, left , 
 Hungary in consff|uence of the revcdution of ISI'.t, and I 
 Bctllod in Turkey, whore (iottlieb, already a(*quainti'il with 
 the olassieal languages, became proficient in Turkisli, 
 Arabic, and moilern (Jreek, stmlying under the best native | 
 professors at Constantinople and itrusa ; learned F']nglish, j 
 French, and Italian at Ihe Hrilish Collei^e at Malta; he- . 
 oaine interpreter to the Engli^li commissariat during the 
 Crimean war. after which he went to Lonilon, was natural- 
 ized as a Hritifh subject, and became professor <tf Oriental 
 languages and Mohammedan law in King's College. In 
 l>*i'i| he was appointed director uf a college at Lahore, in 
 
 the Punjaub: founded numerous societies, schools, colleges, 
 and free public libraries in India: established several news- 
 papers in Arabic and Urdu; promoted the study of the 
 Aryan languages, and succeeded in organizing the Punjaub 
 University upon a broad basis. From 1S60 to ISG8 he was 
 engaged in an exploration of Thibet and other citnntries 
 N. of the Himalayas, and was the tirst to make known the 
 remarkable country of Dardistan, with its interesting group 
 of languages. At a later dale he extended his philological 
 researches to the languages of Cahool. Cashmere, and Ua- 
 dakhshan, excavated an important series of Gra^co-Booddh- 
 ist sculptures, and exhibited at the Vienna Exposition of 
 lS7;i an extensive collection of Central Asiatic antiquities. 
 He lias published a /'hihmophical Orammnr of Aruhic in 
 tho English, Urdu, and Arabic languages; The RnviH of 
 Turkvu ; a' Compnnttlre (irmnmnr of the Dardu Lant/Hai/ci ; 
 Diftfof/Kt^v in those languages : Hittory, Somjs, and Lfijcndu 
 of DardiHtaHftind Onvco-IfoodtUiist Z>/«corenefi, besides nu- 
 merous contributions to the Proceedings of learned societies 
 in London and on the Continent. 
 
 Lei'trim, county of Ireland, in the province of Con- 
 naught, borduring N. on Donegal Bay. Area, 6i:^ pquare 
 miles, or :!92,30;i acres, of wliieh 115,869 arc uncultivated, 
 and 2.'{,748 under water, cuvcreil by lakes, of which Lougli 
 Allen, traversed by the Shannon, is the largest. The ground 
 is billy, very irregnlar, and rugged; coal, iron, and lead 
 are foiind. The soil is cold, stiff, and retentive, except in 
 the valleys, where it is very fertile. Rye, potatoes, and 
 oats are the common crops, sonic cattle are reared. Pop. 
 I.'i5,2i)7 in 1841 ; 111.1115 in 1851 ; 104,744 in 18fi] ; 95.562 
 in 1871. The principal town is Carrick-on-Shannon, with 
 only 1568 inhabitants. 
 
 rr'laiid, post-v. of Adams tp., La Salle co.. Til., on 
 the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., 67 miles S. W. 
 of Chicago. 
 
 Leiand (Charles Godfrey), b. at Pliiladt-lphia Aug. 
 15. 1S24; graduated at Princeton College in 1846, after 
 wliich he spent two years travelling in Europe, and study- 
 ing at Heidelberg, Munich, and Paris, devoting himself 
 especially to lesthotics and the jiliiiosophy of modern civil- 
 ization. Returning to I'hiladelphia in 1848, he studied 
 law, but aijaudoned its practice in favor of the literary 
 vocation, to which ho addressed himself particularly 
 through tho magazines, and acted occasionally as editor 
 of more than one of tho periodicals of that day. While well 
 versed in graver subjects, and well acquainted with all 
 branc-hes of inllrn-lvltrKa, Mr. Leiand achieved his greatest 
 popularity by jiroductions of a humorous or burlesque cha- 
 racter. He has passed several years in Eunqie, and now 
 resides in London, where he is well known in literary circles. 
 Among his works are Thr. I'o^try and Mi/Mtrry «/ Drcnnia 
 (1855K AhlHfcr Khi-Vh Skrtrh-'liook (1855), ^Hunhiuc in 
 Tfion;/ht {\H62), Lvijvnd» of liirdx (1861), Huns lin-itinuuna 
 linditda (5 parts, ' 1867-70), a volume of poems (1871), 
 Etjijptian Sketch' Hook (I87.'5), EwjUnh Gypiien and their 
 LVin'jHHffC (187:M. Fit-S>ni;/ (1S74), besides translations 
 from Heine and SeheflVI. In IN75 he jmblished a volume 
 of Kntjlinh f'l/pni/ /'oriri/ with the as.sistance of Miss ,Ianet 
 Tuckey and Prof. E. H. Palmer. As a writer of dialect 
 poetry Mr. Leiand has shown a considerable mastery of 
 the (|uaint speech of the " Pennsylvania Dutch," and his 
 *' Hreitrnaim " ballads are as highly appreciated in England 
 as in America. 
 
 liClnnd (Hknrv Pkrry). brother of CharlesO. Leiand, 
 b. in Philadelphia Oct. 28, 1S28; was a frequent contrib- 
 utor in prose and verse to Ihe Kniif:t rfutck-rr, the S/'i>il of 
 the TinifH, and other magazines and periodicals. He was 
 endowed with large powers of observation, cultivated by 
 travel, and a keen sense of humor, which would havegiven 
 him eminence in American literature. He publi(<hed two 
 hooks — a vtiluine of travel, Amrriraun in Hoinr. and a col- 
 lection of humorous sketches entitled Thr (I'nii/ l!*iy Mrtrc 
 (1856). During the civil war ho was a lieutenant in tho 
 1 18th Pennsylvania Vols., and was jirostratcd by a sun- 
 stroke, from Ihe effeets of which ho never recovered. D. at 
 Philadelphia Sept. 22, 1868. 
 
 liOtnnd, or Laylonde ( Jons), h. in London, England, 
 about 15011; was edu.-ated at Si. Paul's ScIukiI and at Ox- 
 ford; tocdt holy orders, and devoted himself to Ihe stu.ly 
 of English antiquities. He was appointed by Henry Vlll. 
 one of his chaplains, rector of Popeliiig near Calais, and 
 royal antiquary (I5l!;t). In the latter capacity he was com- 
 missiimed to iinike a survey of Englaiul, a la^k which occu- 
 pied him six years, and was so thoroughly pcrformr<l that 
 tho mass of materials gathered was more than he could 
 arrange, much less prepare for publication. After eight 
 years* solitary labors of classification, he became insane in 
 1550, and d. at Loudon Apr. 18, 15.^2. His account of 
 British authors, entilled (\}ni)iif'nttir{t de SrriptorihuH Uri- 
 
 tannicis, was published in 170U by Dr. .\nthony Hall, his
 
 1722 
 
 LELAND--LEMERY. 
 
 Jtinerar}/ of England in 1710-12 (9 voIs.).aud his Be Hibue 
 Itritnnnicis Collectanea in 1715 (6 vols.), the two latter 
 works being cditc-tl b_v an eminent scholar, Thomas Hearne. 
 Leland's manuscripts were deposited iu the liudleian Li- 
 brary at Oxtonl, and were largely used by Stowc. Cumden, 
 and l->ugdale iu their respective antiquarian works. 
 
 Leiand (Johx), D. B., h. at Wigau, Lancashire, Eng- 
 land, Oct. IS, 1691 ; educated at the University of Dublin; 
 was for oO years pastor of a Presbyterian church at Dublin, 
 where he d. Jan. 10, 1766. His j)oieraical anJ apologetical 
 works were highly esteemed and widely circulated. The 
 best known was A View of the Principal Dcistical Writcra 
 in Emjlnnd in the Last and Present Century (1754), often 
 reprinted. 
 
 Leiand (John), b. at Grafton, Mass., May 14, 17.^4; 
 was 1775-01 a Bajitist preacher in Virginia, and 1792- 
 l^^ll a pastor in Cheshire, Mass., though in fact he was an 
 itinerant, visiting often places remote from his residence. 
 D. at Xurth .\dams, Mass., Jan. 14, 1841. His Life and 
 writings have been twice published since his death. 
 
 Leiaud (Thomas). D. D., b. at Dublin. Ireland, in 1722 ; 
 educated at Trinity C'oUege, Dublin, where he became fel- 
 low and professor of poetry. His translation of the Ora- 
 liiius of Demostheuea (1750-70) was long a standard work; 
 also published a }l!ntorif of the Life and Ileign of Philip, 
 Aini/ of MacedoH (IToS), and a, iJinaertation on the Prin- 
 ciplea of Unman Eloquence (1764), a controversial work 
 directed against Bishop Warburton ; a Hintorif of Ireland 
 (177'!), and several volumes oi Sermons (1769 J, besides nu- 
 merous other works. D, at Dublin in 1785. 
 
 LeI'eges, was the name of an ancient race which was 
 widely spread over Greece, the western coast of Asia Minor, 
 and the intermediate islands, but which, like the Pelns- 
 gians, became incorporated with the Hellenes and disap- 
 peared as an independent people. Herodotus pays that 
 Leleges was the ancient name of the Carians; a later Greek 
 writer places them in the same relation to the Cariansas the 
 Helots to the Lacedajmonians. In the Homeric poem both 
 Leleges and Carians appear as equals and auxiliaries of the 
 Trojans. Thus it appears that there existed a close relation 
 between the Leleges and Carians, but about the character 
 of this relation, and about the origin of the people, nothing 
 is known. What the later Greek literature contains con- 
 cerning this subject is evidently invention. 
 
 Lele«x'(A[)oi.i'nE),b.atPari3Nov.l5, 1S12, and began 
 his artistic career as an engraver and lithographer ; iu 1835 
 commenced to exhibit, and soon gained great rcjiutation 
 as a genre ]>ainter, representing with much humor and 
 grace scenes of life in Brittany, Northern Spain. Algeria, 
 and the streets of Paris during the revolution of 1818. His 
 pictures arc very common in French galleries. — His brother, 
 AitMAND, b. at Paris iu 1S18, studied for some time under 
 Ingres and in Italy, hut turned also to the genre. Ho 
 seems to have a finer sense for the strictly picturesque than 
 his elder brother, but less humor and character. 
 
 Leie'wel (JoAcnisi), b. at Warsaw Mar. 21, 1786; 
 studied in his native city and at Vilua, and became jiro- 
 fcssor of history at the Lyceum of Kremenets in V(jlhynia 
 in 1809, and at the University of Vilua in 181 I, but was 
 dismissed in 1824, being suspected of participating iu secret 
 revolutionary associations. Next year be was elected a 
 member of the Polish diet, and becauie one of the most 
 energetic and iiiflueutial agitators, and one of the most 
 prominent leaders of the Polish rising of 18o0. After the 
 failure of the revolution he tied to France, and lived partly 
 in Paris, partly at Lagrange, the villa of La Fayette ; but 
 ill ls;j3 ho was banished from France on account of his 
 jiiirticipation in diiferent Polish conspiracies. He wont to 
 Lrus-el-*, where he resided for the rest of his life, wholly 
 dcvutcd to science. D. May 29, 1801. His writings are 
 very numerous, but they are all of the highest order. His 
 knowledge is always amjde, and generally exhaustive; his 
 views are large and elevated; his style is pure and very 
 impressive. Besides his Numismatique du Mot/en Af/e ( Paris, 
 1835), Pj/th^as de Marseille et le Geographic de son Temps 
 (Paris, 1836), G^otfraphie des Arahen (2 vols., Paris, 1851), 
 G{n(jraphie du Afoi/'-n ^ije (4 vols., Breslau. 1852-57). all of 
 which arc scientific contributions of the highest value, ho 
 wrote several works relating to the history of his native 
 country which contain some of the most brilliant pages of 
 mcjdern historiography, and which generally are as reliable 
 as they arc interesting. The principal of these works are 
 — Hintonj of Poland (Warsaw, 1829), with a continuation 
 (Brussels, ISl.*?), Oonsidt rations stir l' Etat politirpie de Van- 
 cienne Poloffne, et sur V IHstoire de son Pcnple (2 vols., Paris, 
 1844), La holoijne au Moycn Age (3 vols., Posen, 1845-51). 
 
 Leloug' (jAcgrEs), b. at Paris Apr. 19, 1665; received 
 his first education at Malta, having been destined for the 
 order of St. John, but separated therefrom; studied in 
 
 Paris, and in 1099 was appointed librarian at the oratorium 
 of St. Honors in Paris, where he d. Aug. 13, 1721. His 
 liibliothcca Sacra, a catalogue of all editions and transla- 
 tions of Holy Scripture t,2 vols., 17U9), and his /Hhtiuth^qn-^ 
 hifttorifpic de la Prance (1719), a catalogue of all French 
 historians and their works, arc regarded as model works of 
 bibliography. 
 
 Le'ly (Sir Peter), b. at Soest, Westphalia, in 1618; d. 
 in London in 1680. His father, whose family name was 
 Van dek Faes, took the name Dr- Lvs or Lely from the 
 circumstance of having liverl over a perfumer's shop, whiih 
 bore the sign of a lily. Peter studied at Haarlem with 
 Peter Grebber, but came to England in 1641 as a historical 
 painter, aud soon devoted himself In portraits, at first copy- 
 ing those of Vandyke, who had diid the year before his 
 arrival. Through the influence of William, prince of 
 Orange, he was introduced to Charles 1., whose portrait he 
 executed, along with those of Williiim and Mary. Lcly 
 succeeded Vandyke as court-painter, and rose rapidly to 
 fame and fortune. It was he who painted the portrait of 
 Cromwell, aud who was bidden by his sitter to put in all 
 the pimples and warts. Charles II. conferred on him the 
 honor of knighthood, and commissioned him to paint the 
 "beauties" of his time for Hampton Court. In the same 
 place are several of the portraits of admirals which the 
 duke of York, afterwards James II., engaged this artist to 
 paint. Most of his portraits arc of women, and are of a 
 showy and meretricious character. The artist painted to 
 suit the taste of an abandoned age. His historical pieces 
 are in private collections. The Susanna and the Elders 
 is in the gallery of the marquis of Exeter. Lely was buried 
 in Covent Garden. There is his monument with bust by 
 Gibbon and epitaph by Flatman. 0. B. Fkothingham. 
 
 Lemaire' (Nicolas Eloi), b. at Triancourt, France, 
 Dec. 1, 1767; studied at the College of St. M^nehould and 
 afterwards at Sainte-Barbe in Paris; was appointed pro- 
 fessor of Latin poetry in the College of France, afterwards 
 in the same department in the faculty of letters in Paris 
 (1811); became dean of the faculty (1825): in 1810 Murat 
 named Lemaire as head of his projected University ofNaplrs, 
 but Napoleon was not willing to let him leave France, and 
 settled a pension upon him. After the Restoration, Louis 
 XVIII. favored the ]>ublication of a complete series of the 
 Latin authors, of which Lemaire was constituted chief 
 editor. From the list of writers, made by Louis himself, 
 Lucretius was omitted for political considerations. The 
 series was completed in 142 volumes, to which Lucretius 
 was subsequently added by P. A. Lemaire, nephew and 
 assistant of the editor. D. Oct. 3, 1832. (See \'itice snr 
 N. E. Lemaire par J. L. Gillon, in appendix to the BihU- 
 otheca Latina.) H. Dkislkk. 
 
 Le MarSy post-v. and tp., cap. of Plymouth oo., la., at 
 the junction of the Iowa division of the Illinois Central 
 and the St. Paul and Sioux City R. Rs., 25 miles N. E. of 
 Sioux City. It has a State bank, 2 newspapers, a variety 
 of stores, workshops, and a flouring-mill. 3 churches, 3 
 hotels, etc. It is the centre of a fertile farming district. 
 Pop. 152. J. C ButnANAN, Ed. "Sentinel." 
 
 Lem'berg, city of Austria, the capital of Galicin, sit 
 uated on the Peltov in a narrow valley surrounded by 
 forest-clad hills. It is the scat of the government, aud of 
 a Roman Catholic, an Armenian, and a (ireek archbishop. 
 It has n cathedral, built in 1370 by Casimir the (Jreat, two 
 beautiful synagogues, many splendid palaces, and other 
 magnificent buibiings. Its university is attended hy about 
 1400 students aud has 35 professors. Its manufactures are 
 not important, but its trade, though to a great extent merely 
 transit, is very extensive; it is mostly in the hands of Jews, 
 who number about 25.000. Pop. 87.105. 
 
 IjJ'mery (Nh-olas). b. at Rouen Nov. 17. 1645; studied 
 pharmacology in his native city, at Montpellier, and at 
 Paris, and gave lectures on chemistry which attracted great 
 audiences, and gained the applause of all truly scientific 
 men, as he kept closely to facts, aud abandoned all mysti- 
 cal dreams of a sympathy between the metals and the 
 planets, of an elixir for the prolongation of human life, 
 and other such things. He belonged to the lleformcd 
 Church, and from this circumstance severe troubles arose. 
 In 1683 he left France and went to England, where be pre- 
 sented a copy of the 5th ed. of his ('ours de (^himie, ]iublishcd 
 in 1675, to Charles II.. and was well received. Soon alter, 
 however, the political troubles in England caused him to re- 
 turn to Paris, and after tiie Revocation of the Edict of Nantes 
 in 1685, by which he lost his right of practising ns an apothe- 
 cary and physician, he joined the Roman Catholic Church, 
 and continued his activity as a lecturer aud writer un- 
 molested till his death, Juno 19. 1715. The most promi- 
 nent writings, besides his Cours de Vhimie, are Pharmaropfc 
 univtrscHc (1697) and Traitt dca Droyuts simples (1G98).
 
 LEMHI— LE MOYNE. 
 
 1723 
 
 Lem'hiy oounty of Idaho, bouudcd E. by tho Bitter 
 Uuot Muuutaius. It has scvtral forlile valleys, but is pen- 
 orally mountainous. It has important gold-mines. Cup. 
 Salmun City. Pop. 9S8. 
 
 Lem'in|;toii, pnijt-tp. of Esecx co., Vt., on Connecticut 
 River, ti" miks N. E. of Moutpelior. Fop. 191. 
 
 Lcm'ley's, tp. of Mecklenburg co., N. C, Pop. 971. 
 
 Lem'ma [(ir.A^M^a]. an auxiliary propositicm domon- 
 Ptratcd out of it? re|2;ular order to facilitate tho demonstra- 
 tion of some other proposition. Tho conclusion of the Irm- 
 ma is needed in the demonstration of the main proposition ; 
 and rather than encumber that proposition, a separate 
 demonstration is introduced. Tho eleventh, twelfth, and 
 thirteenth propositions of Book viii., Davics's Le^riifirr,nrQ 
 lemmas. W. G. Peck. 
 
 Lcm'ming, a name applied to rodents of tho family 
 Muridfc and sub-fiimily Arvicolinic (field-mice), belonging 
 to the genus Myodes. Some species are very abundant in 
 the high northern regions of both continents. They are 
 very proli6c, and in Scandinavia arc at times extremely 
 destructive. They are remarkable for their occasional 
 great migrations in search of food. Myod€$ Norvegicus is 
 the typical lemming. 
 
 Ijemnis'catc [Or. Xtijuh-io-kos; Lat./fr;n»(Va/i/«],acurve 
 of the y'oM/-(/j order, shaped somewhat like tho liguro 8, as 
 shown in the diagram. 
 It is the locus of the 
 points of intersection 
 obtained by drawing 
 perpendiculars from 
 the centre of a hy]ier- 
 bola to the tangents 
 drawn to that curve. 
 If tho equation of tho hyperbola is 
 
 the equation of the corresponding lemniscatc is 
 
 If the hyperbola is equilateral, that is, if n = t, this equa- 
 tion becomes 
 
 The curve is quadrible; in the latter case tho entire area 
 iuc]u<Ied within the two branches CA and CC is equal to 
 the square uf the aemi-transvcrse axis, that i?, to «*. In 
 tho figure A and B are the vertices of tho hyperbola, and C 
 is its centre. At A and B tangents to tlie curve are per- 
 pendicular to A B ; the point C is a multiple point, at which 
 tangents to tho curve coincide with tho asymptotes of the 
 given hyperbola. W. Ci. Peck. 
 
 Lem'nos [\T}fivo<;, now Limni or Stalimni], an island 
 in the >^gean, bolmigiug to Turkey, -10 miles S. S. E. of 
 Athos. Area, loO square milcf?. It is of vory irregular 
 outline, is rocky and nilly, ^»J bears strong marks of vol- 
 canic action, but tho valleys arc fertile, and the ancients 
 relate that tho mountain Mosyehlus was sometimes an ac- 
 tive volcano. This island, so famous in history and myth- 
 ology, now contains some 12,000 inhabitants, mostly Greeks. 
 Its chief town, Castro, is the seat of a bishop. 
 
 Lein'on [Ilindostaneo, limbu, iimu, or nimhii, from 
 which the .\rabian (imuu; Sp. fhiifin, etc.], tho fruit of 
 CitniK I i molt ill III. Tho Cilrutt genus, of which the orango 
 and lemon arc the familiar representatives, constituted u 
 natural order, Aurantiacea', which of late is merged in tho 
 large order Rutaceir. The leaves of these trees are noted 
 for tho translucent dots appearing like punctures when 
 held between the eye and the light, these dots being oil- 
 glands and giving tho fine aroiim whieh chnractorizcs tho 
 genus : also for the joint bolow tlio bladr, which shows tho 
 Ii-af to be a compound one rerlueeri to tho terminal leaflet ; 
 and tho petiole below is usually more or loss winged, with 
 loafy borders. Tho lomon tree does not form tho oloso heatl 
 of doep green foliage which is so striking in tlio orango 
 trco, but is of irregular growth, with paler ancl sparser 
 loaves. Tho young shoots are dull purple ; the corolla ex- 
 tornally purplish and internally white ; tho delicate aromn 
 distinct from that of the orango-hloHsom. The fruit is pale 
 yellow, ovoid or oblung, usually crowned by a nipple; tho 
 rind lirm and adherent to tho pulp: (he juice nharpty acid, 
 but in some varieties sweetish. The roughness of tho sur- 
 face of the lemon is owing to the imbedded uil-eollg. These 
 furnish tho oil and essence of Icraon, obtained cither by 
 expression or distilhitii>n. liomon-peel is a well-known 
 flavoring ingredient. Lomon-juice is not only largely used 
 for acidulated drinks and fur elTcrvcscing draughts, but 
 also for the preparation of citric acid, its important ingre- 
 dient. This i^ used in medicine for febrile and rheumatic 
 diseases, and in the arts for certain processes of ealico- 
 rinting, to discharge colors and dccprn the white parts of 
 tiyod with ferric salts. Concentrated lemon-juice is 
 
 I 
 
 lorgcly employed on shipboard for the proiention of f curvy 
 in long voyugcs. The commercial article is derived from 
 the lime and bergauiot, as well as from lemons. 
 
 The lemon is of Indian origin ; tho tree, which probably 
 represents the wild state of both tho lemon and the citron, 
 is u native of the forests of Northern India. The introduc- 
 tion of the tree to Kurope is duo to tho Arabians. Its chief 
 cultivation as an object of industry is on the Mediterranean 
 coast between Nice and Genoa, in Calabria, Sicily, etc. It 
 endures less cold than the orange, and wherever it well suc- 
 ceeds is a more profitable culture. As.\ (Iray. 
 
 Lemon, tp. of Butler co., 0. Pop. 5242. It includes 
 MiddleloWM ( 1'. U.) and other villages. 
 Lemon, ]>ost-tp. of Wyoming co., Pa. Pop. 6.11. 
 Lemon (M.vkk), b. in London, Eng., Nov. .30, IRflO; 
 was author of more than si.\ty plays and farces, many of 
 tlicul highly successful, and of several novels, but will ho 
 ehierty remembered for his long connection with Punch, 
 From the establishment of that paper in 1841 he was as- 
 sistant editor, and in ls4n assumed the chief management, 
 which he retained throngli life. lie was also for many 
 ye.irs literary eililor of the London ItluHiratcd Kfim, for 
 "which he wrote about 100 songs, and assistant of Charles 
 Dickens in the management of Ifousetio/d Words. lie was 
 distinguished for his generous sympathies and his hatred 
 of shams. D. at Crawley, Sussex, Mity 23, 1870. 
 Lemond', post-tp. of Steele co., Minn. Pop. 417. 
 Lem'on, Oilof (0/ciim C/tn'). the volatile oil of lemon- 
 peel, extracted from tho grated rind by pressure or by dis- 
 tillation with water. It may also be obtained by putting 
 the grated peel in hot water and skimming off the oil which 
 rises to the surface. That obtained by pressure has more 
 of the peculiar flavor of tho fruit, but contains mucilage, 
 etc., which make it more liable to change on keeping than 
 that which is prepared by distillation. Oil of lemon is a 
 volatile lic|uid, generally yellow, having the peculiar odor 
 of tho fruit and a pungent, aromatic taste. Its sp. gr. is 
 0.8517. It is sparingly s<dublc in water; dissolves in 7.14 
 parts alcohol of s]). gr. 0.8H17: in 10 parts alcohol of sp. 
 gr. 0.8:'i; in any quantity in absolute alcohol; mi.xes with 
 both fiNed and volatile oils. It dissolves sulphur, plios- 
 phorus, resins, and fats. Kxposed to air and light, it ab- 
 sorbs o.vygcn, with the formation of ozone, becomes darker 
 and more viscid, and evolves a little carbonic acid. It con- 
 sists almost entirely of two hydrocarbons, CjoHis, isomeric 
 with each other and with oil of turpentine, differing from 
 each other in optical rotary power, and in their behavior 
 with hydrochloric acid. 
 
 Oil of lemon is largely used in perfumery and as a 
 flavoring for ice cream and syrups; has the stimulant 
 properties of the aromatics. though in pliarmacy it is chiefly 
 used to im]uirt flavin- to other meilicines. It sh(mld not bo 
 dark-colored or viscid, and should not leave a permanent 
 stain on paper. It is often adulterated with oil of turpen- 
 tine, lavender, alcohol, etc. Tho presence of cheaper oils 
 may generally be reooguiicd by the odor. Turpentine may 
 be detected by noting the behavior of tho oil with regard 
 to polarized light before and alter heating. With pure oil 
 little or no change will be noticed, but when turpentine is 
 present the de.\tro-rotary power will bo considerably in- 
 creased by healing. C. i'. CliANUi.KR. 
 
 Lemont', post-v. and tp. of Cook co.. 111., on the Chi- 
 cago and Alton II. K., 215 miles S. W. of Chicago. Pop. 
 357,'). 
 
 Lcmontcy' (Pikrhk 1<!iioiaiiii), b. at Lyons ,Ian. 14, 
 1702. J)i'puty in the National .Assembly, Lemonley soon 
 turned against the revolutionists, and he fought at Lyons 
 during tlie siege of the city by Couthon. He escaped ali\'0, 
 andfledto Switzerland. lie relumed to France in ISOJ.nnd 
 was elected in 1SI7 member of the Academy. His jirineipal 
 works, whi( li were held in high repute, are Kk'iii/ "ii ihr Mn. 
 narcliical K'li'I'llnhmriil of l.imii A'/ I', and llirturi/ iif the 
 Uriifiiri/. 1). at Paris June 20, 182G. FfxiX AlliAKiNE. 
 
 Lem'onweir, post v. and tp. of Juneau co., Wis., on 
 tho Milwaukee and St. Paul U. U. Pop. 1947. 
 
 liO .Moyne, a Canadian family of eleven hrolhcrfl, seven 
 of whom acted prominent parls in advancing French ex- 
 l]loralions. conquests, and settlements in ,\niericii.~ Their 
 lather. CiiAui.KS i.k Movm:, b. in Normandy, France, in 
 lfi2li, camo to Canada in Hill; lived some years among 
 the llnrons; obtained extensive land-grants; was distin- 
 guished in wars against the Iroquois nn<ler Courcelles and 
 Tracy ; was held a prisoner by those Indians several months 
 in llili.'i, and was created in lOI'iS Seigneur de Longueil, 10 
 which title that of Chaleauguay was al'lerwanls adiled. Ho 
 was for some tiuio military comnmndi-r of Montreal, where 
 he d. in It.S.T.— Of his sons. PiKuiiK and Jkan Haptistk 
 weredislinguisheil in Louisiami. gaining Ihe titles of Sieurs 
 ni; liiENViM.K and d'Iiikuviii k i which see). — Tho oldest
 
 1724 
 
 LEMPA— LENA. 
 
 brother, I. Chaulks, Baron de Longueil, b. in Jlontrcal 
 Dec. lU, 1656; served in his youth in the French army in 
 Flanders: promoted colonization to (_'anada : built a stone 
 fort on his estate at Longueil : was wounded in the repulse 
 of Sir William Phipps's asi^ault upon yuehec in IfiUO: was 
 made governor of Alonlreal and baron in 1 7(H) ; commander- 
 in-chief of the colonial forces: fought against the English 
 expedition of Walker and ^sicholson in 1711 ; was in com- 
 mand at Three Rivers in 1720, and at Montreal from 1721 
 to 1726; rebuilt Fort Niagara in the latter year; was made 
 chevalier of the order of St. Louis, and d. at Montreal .June 
 8, 17211. — II. Jacqies, Sieur de Sainte llelene, b. at Mont- 
 real in Apr., 1669, was sent in Mar., 1GS6, with his younger 
 brothers, I'ierro and Paul (afterwards Iberville and Mari- 
 courti. in an expedition under the c<iinnKiiid of rhevalier 
 do Troyes against the English on Hudson's I!ay, where 
 they had built Forts Monsipi, Ilupert. ami Kichichouanne. 
 These three forts were captured, as well as a vessel of war 
 having on board the English governor-general of Hudson's 
 Bay, Sainte Helene having borne a leading jiart in each 
 action. He was second in command of the expedition 
 which took Fort Corlear (Schenectady) Feb. 9, IfiUO, and 
 in the same year commanded the batteries which repelled 
 the English squadron at Quebec, on which occasion he was 
 mortally ivoundcd. — III. Pail, Sieur de Maricourt, b. at 
 Mitntrcal Dec. 1.^, 1663, participated, as above mentioned, 
 in Troves' expedition against Hudson's Bay. being wounded 
 before Fort Monsipi (June 20, 1GS6); remained with his 
 brother Iberville in command of that district up to 1690, 
 when he aided in the defence of Quebec; took part in 
 Frontenac's expedition against the Iroquois, witii whom he 
 negotiated peace in 1701, and in -Apr., 1704, lost his life, 
 with forty others, in a stockade burned by those Indians. 
 — IV. Jost:i'H, Sieur de Scrigny, b. at Montreal July 22, 
 166S; became an oflicer in the French navy, and in 11)94 
 and I6'J7 commande<l ves.sels in Hudson's Bay in co-opera- 
 tion with the land operations of his brotiier Iberville. Sub- 
 sequently he commanded a squadron ; brought to Louisiana 
 some of its earliest settlers, and in 1718-19 surveyed the 
 coast of that colony. He was engaged in the capture of 
 Pensacola from the Spaniards (.May 14), and repulsed them 
 from Dauphin Island, near Mobile (Aug. 19, 1719). after a 
 siege of a month ; was made captain of a ship of the line 
 in 1720, and in 172.'! rear-admiral ami governor of Koche- 
 fort, France, where he d. in 17.S4. — V. Axtoi.ie. Sieur do 
 Chiteauguay, b. at Montreal July 7, 168.3; became an offi- 
 cer of the French army; brought a body of colonists to 
 Louisiana in 1704; served under Iberville against the Eng- 
 lish in 1705 and 1706; was royal lieutenant in Louisiana 
 in 171S; was eng.aged in the Florida campaign against the 
 Spaniards in 1719; taken prisoner at Pensacola Aug. 7, 
 and cojnmanded at Mobile from 1720 to 1726, when he was 
 removed from otfice and recalled to France; sent as gov- 
 ernor to .Martinique in 1727, and afterwards to Cayenne; 
 returned to France in 1744; was made governor of Cape 
 Breton in 1715; successfully defen<led Louisburg against 
 the New England forces under Peppcrcll, and d. at Roche- 
 fort, France. JIar. 21. 1747. He inherited the title of 
 Sieur de Chateauguay from his brother Loris, b. in Jan., 
 1676, who was mortally wounded in the attack on Fort 
 Nelson, Hudson's Bay, and d. Nov. 4, 1694. — .Another 
 brother, Fkam,ois, b. Mar. 10, 1066, killed in battle with 
 the Iroquois at Kcpcntigny June 7. 1691, was the first 
 Sieur de Bienville, the title having passed on his death to 
 his brother, .lean Baptiste. Sauvolle, the first colonial gov- 
 ernor of Louisiana, has often been incorrectly included as 
 one of the brothers Le Moyne. Portkii C. Bliss. 
 
 Lcm'paf a river of San Salvador, Central .\merica, 
 rises in Lake Guija, near the (xuateiuala boundary, flows 
 E. S. E. nearly 150 miles through the ilepartnicnts of Son- 
 sonate, Cuscatlan, and San Vicente, then bending S. forms 
 the E. boundary of the departments of San Vicente and 
 La Pa/, and the W. boundary of San Miguel, and falls into 
 the Pacific after a total course of 210 miles. The Lempa 
 is the largest stream of the Pacific coast of Central America, 
 and is navig;iblc for a large part of its course. The valley 
 of the Lcini)a is broad and well settled, and one of the most 
 productive agricultural regions within tropical .America. 
 
 Lempritre (Jons), D. D., b. in the island of Jersey 
 about 1750; studied at Westminster School and at Oxford; 
 took orders in the Church of England : was head-master 
 of classical schools at .\bingdon and Exeter; became rector 
 of Meath and Newton-Petroek. Devonshire, in ISll, and d. 
 Feb. 21, 1824. at London. He published in 178S a small 
 tiihlioilieca CTa«»i'co, or " Classical Dictionary." much en- 
 larged in the 2d ed. of 1792. and which has since been 
 many times renrintcd in England and the V. S. It was 
 baaed upon Sabbnthicr's Dirtfonnitire thu Autfum clamtiques, 
 published at Ch'ilons-sur-Marne in .10 vols. (1766-90), and 
 was in turn the basis of Anthon's well-known classical dic- 
 tionary. Dr. Lemprifiro published also a volume of Ser- 
 
 mons (1791), the first volume of a translation of Herodotus 
 (1792), and a Virtionfiri/ n/ Uiiircrnal /iintjrnphi/ (180S) in 
 a single volume, which was reprinted in New York iu 1825 
 (2 vols.), with additions by Eleazar Lord. 
 
 I.emp'stcr, post-tp. of Sullivan co., N. H., 40 miles 
 W. of t'oneord, has 3 churches and manufactures of lum- 
 ber. Pop. 678. 
 
 Lemur [Lat. Irmm; "spectre"], the name of a genus 
 of mammals, bestowed on it on account of the appearance 
 of the aiiimal, and especially its large staring eyes and its 
 nocturnal habits. By the late Dr. Gray the genus was 
 split into three — viz. Vnrci-ia, Lemur, and Proiimia. (See 
 Lemi )iin.t: and Lemurix.c.) 
 
 Le'mures, in Koman mythology, was by some writers 
 used as the general name for all spectres or spirits of the 
 dead, of which the good ones were called (arcs and the 
 evil Inrrir. More commonly, however, lemuro was used 
 synonymously with himr, denoting only those spirits 
 which returned to the upper world with the purpose of in- 
 juring the living. In order to propitiate them an annual 
 festival called Lcmnria was held to their honor, and cer- 
 tain ceremonies were performed on the nights of the 9th, 
 11th, and 13th of May. The days on which tliese rites 
 were performed were considered unlucky, and the temples 
 remained closed during the festival. .A description of the 
 ceremonies is found in the Dfth book of Ovid's t'litli. 
 
 Lemur'idsp [from Lemur, the typical genus, and the 
 family termination -I'lifc], a family of the sub-order Pro- 
 simiic and order Primates, whose Iccth arc of three kinds^ 
 viz. incisors (f Z5 X 2), canines (J X 2), and molars (P. M. 
 t — \\ ^I- 3x2); the incisors of the upper jaw small 
 (sometimes deciduous), and separated into two groups by 
 a symphysial interspace, and those of the lower ja\v larger, 
 contiguous, and proclivous; the canines of the lower jaw 
 proclivous, parallel with and resembling the incisors (and 
 hence sometimes mistaken for them); leg with the hbula 
 and tibia distinct from each other; hind foot with the sec- 
 ond toe armed with a subulate claw, and the other toes pro- 
 vided with flattened nails. This family includes the le- 
 murs, or, as they are sometimes calle<l. half-monkeys, and 
 is confined to the island of Madagascar, the equatorial 
 parts of Africa, and India. A considerable range of varia- 
 I tion is exhibited by its several constituents in the general 
 [ form and proportions, the shape of the head, the develop- 
 ment of a tail (which in some is very large, and in others 
 wanting), the size of the ears, and the length of the tarsus; 
 the morlifications iu these respects have caused the diifer- 
 entiation of the family into four sub-families — viz. Indrisi- 
 na\ Lemurlua?, Nycticebinse, aud Galagiiiinae. The peculiar 
 relations of the family will be more appropriately consid- 
 ereil umler the bead Prosimi.c, aud the minor groups under 
 their titles. TiiRo. Gill. 
 
 Lemiir'inx [from Lemur and the sub-family ending 
 -itm], the chief subfamily of Lemurida?, in which there 
 arc 36 (exceptionally 32) teeth — viz. I. j (sometimes lost 
 from the upper jaw), C. \, P. jM. J, M. Ix-: the neural 
 spines of the jiosterior (last dorsal and lumbar) vertebra 
 inclined forward : the tail elongated, and generally exceed- 
 ing two-thirds the length of the body : the hind limbs con- 
 siderably longer than the fore ones, and with the tarsus of 
 normal proportitms, or moderately elongated; and the ears 
 moderate, with the anterior portion of the helix well de- 
 veloped, folded ()vcr the fossa; of the concita and anti- 
 helix, and witli the tragus and anti-tragus distinctly de- 
 veloped. The group includes the typical lemurs, which are 
 readily recognizable by their external appearance ; the head 
 is produced into a more or less elongated snout, and some- 
 what resembles that of the raccoons or foxes. All the liv- 
 ing species arc confined tc the island of Madagascar. Ex- 
 clusive of I'/iirnrta/t uM (which rather belongs to the Gala- 
 gininie), they are grouped in four gener.a — viz. Lemur, 
 Hupaiemur, Lrpihmur, and Mij-nrtbiia ( Peters, 1874). They 
 are chiefly nocturnal animals, live in the forests of Mada- 
 gascar in the trees, feed on insects and fruit, and associate 
 together in troops. In repose they roll themselves up in 
 the form of a ball, and wind their tail around the body. 
 Their elongated hind limbs enable them to leap with 
 agility. Theo. Gill. 
 
 Ijemtiroidca* a name applied by some to the sub-order 
 Pnosnii-t; ^which see). 
 
 Le'na, one of the principal rivers of .^^ibcria, rises near 
 Trkoolsk. in the mountains N. of Lake Baikal, and enters 
 (ho .\retic Ocean through several branches between Ion. 
 125° and 130° E. It receives the Viiim. Olekma, and Al- 
 dan from the right, and the Viliooi from the left, passes by 
 Olekminsk and Yakootsk, and is navigable from May to 
 November. 
 
 Lena^ post-v. of Stephenson co.. 111., on the Illinois 
 Central U. R., 132 miles N. W. of Chicago. It has a bank, 
 a weekly newspaper, steam flouring and jilaning mills, an
 
 LENA— LENNOX. 
 
 1725 
 
 iron-fouadry, several carriage and wagon niaDufnctorios, 
 nnti other shop?, 1 very fine ftod 2 Pimiller public-school 
 buiMing}!, a school library, 2 hotels, a steam-elcvalor, 4 
 grain-warehouses, and the usual number of stores. Grain, 
 stock, dairy produets, tol>aeco, etc. are the eluef articles of 
 export. Pop, 1294. J. W. Newcohek, Ed. " Star." 
 
 Lena, a v. of Brown tp., Miami co., 0. Pop. 144. 
 
 IjC'iiau (XiKOLAL's), whoso truc uamo was Nikmusch 
 vo\ STREHLENAr, b. at Csatud, Huugary, Aug. 1j, 1S02; 
 studied philosophy, jurisprudence, and medicine at Vienna, 
 travelloa much; visited in 1832 the U. S.; resided after his 
 return to Europe alternately in Vienna, Ischl. and Stutt- 
 gart, but beeame insane in ISIl, and d. Aug. 22. ISr>l), in 
 a lunatio asylum at Oberdobling, near Vienna. He pub- 
 lished his first volume of poems in li>32 ; in liS-if> followed 
 a (lecond; in 1H3^, Fuunl, in 1837, Savonarofa, in 18-12, the 
 Afftt'ijfuarH, and after his death, Don Jimtt. A collected 
 eilition of his works was publishcil at Stuttgart in l.S,")j, in 
 4 vols. It is unquestionable that Lenau was an original 
 poetical genius, and the great impression which he pro- 
 duced in (fcrmuny was not only natural, but just. The 
 extraordinary brilliancy and variety of bis imagery might 
 be the product of study and labor, to some e.\tent at least j 
 but there is, especially in his Polish and Hungarian songs, 
 a fresh gush of genuine feeling, and in his verse a full, 
 round melody which belongs to the genius alone. Never- 
 theless, even in his earlier productions, it is evident that 
 ho endeavors to raise, by the aid of the speculative ]ihilos- 
 ophy, his poetical foundation above that standpoint which 
 ho actually occupies as a living jicrsouality : and this at- 
 tempt at making tho poetry bigger than the poet by help 
 of an artificial substruction — an attempt friMjUcntly met 
 with in the latest period of (jerman literature, I>ut wliich by 
 itself is as impossible as climbing the moon — resulted with 
 Lenau first in forced ideas, unsound excitement, and ob- 
 scure expressions, and then in tho total destruction both of 
 tho genius and the personality. Ci.kmkn« Peteusen. 
 
 Iten^awee^ county of Michigan, bounded P. by Ohio. 
 Area, 720 sijuarc miles. It is undulating, very fertile, and 
 well watered. Cattle, grain, and wool arc staple jirodiicts. 
 Lumber, carriages, cooperage, metallic wares, saddlery, fur- 
 niture, clothing, cheese, flour, machinery, and brick are 
 leading articles of manufacture. Tho county is traversed 
 by the Michigan Southern R. K. and its branches. Cap. 
 Adrian. Pop. IJ.b'Jb. 
 
 IjCn'caSy a tribe of Indians in Honduras, Central Amer- 
 ica, spfuking a language called ChouUil, a Mexican term 
 signifying "barbarian." Tiny arc industrious and peace- 
 able mountaineers, numbering some 40,000, and occupying 
 tho table-lands of Otoro and Intibncat, near Coinayagua, 
 the cajiital of the republic. There arc Chontal Indiiins in 
 Nicaragua and in th(' .Mexican states of Oaxaca and Ta- 
 basi'o, hut their languages arc probably distinct from each 
 other and from that of the Lencas. 
 
 I.i^Encl08' (Anne, called Ninon ns), b. at Paris in 1G15. 
 Pos«e?scd of a small fortune, which she managed very 
 shrewdly, and which enabled her to make love the pursuit 
 of her life without making it a business, she left early tho 
 parental roof and established an independent household. 
 She was beautiful, .•^he was spirite<I; Scarron. Saint-Evre- 
 mond, MoTH^re, Fontcnelle, Larochefoucauld, and others 
 road Iheir works in her salon ; but, above all. she was fas- 
 cinating, and it soon became indispensable for all young 
 men of birth, wealth, and elegant ambitions to be intro- 
 duced to her. One lover followed tho other in rapid suc- 
 ccfl^ion.and this life went on uninterruptedly for more than 
 half a century. She was the mistress of the marijuis of 
 Sevigne ; In the next generation his stm was her lover, and 
 in the third she seduced his grandson. Her own son, who 
 had been educated by the father and kept in ign<»rancc of 
 tho mother, fell desperately in love with her, and when, in 
 order to prevent a horrible crime, she was compelled to re- 
 veal tho secret suddenly to him. the you?ig man blew out 
 lii.^ brains in her presence, but she herself remained com- 
 paratively cool at the affair. At Inst a ehango came. 
 She was now over seventy. Young men began to call her 
 " Mademoiselle do L'Enelos," an<l not. ns formerly, simply 
 " Ninon," Ladies, even of the highest nosilion n'nd <d'lh"o 
 finest eduoalion, now began to crowd her salon, and for 
 many years longer her social position was very brilliant. 
 She felt sad, however, as her letters to Saint-Evremond. 
 who wrote her bictgraphy, show, but there was no remedy, 
 To tho student her eliiiraetcr does not seem to be of any 
 great interest, but her life is exceedingly eharaeteristio of 
 tho ago in which she lived. Her salon and the Revocation 
 of the Edict of Nantes prepare the feeling very well for tho 
 scenes of tho French Revolution. She attained a great 
 rt'^c, dying at Paris Oct. 17, I70i). Clemens Peteusen, 
 
 Lenc'zy, or Lenozyc'af town of Russia, in tho gov- 
 
 f ernmcnt of Warsaw. It hud some linen manufactures. 
 I Pop. 533S. 
 
 Lendina'ra [Lat. Lendennriir'\, a small town of N. 
 Italy, in the province of Kovigo. about 2I> miles S. W. of 
 Padua. This very ancient town was tho subject of much 
 contention during the Middle Ages. It now conluins Some 
 handsome ehurcliee. with tine pictures by Paul Veronese, 
 Scbastiano del Piombo, etc. Pop. in 1S74, 6909. 
 
 Le Neve (.Ioiin), b. in England about 1679; was cdu- 
 catetl at Trinity College, Camln'idge. and became rector of 
 Thorntonle-I^Ioor, Liucohishire. 1). about 1711. He was 
 a zealous collector of biographical materials; wrote J-'atti 
 Ecctr_gitx Aur/lfcaiiB'- (1710), Mnuumcyttn Avylicnnn (D vols., 
 1700-19). //mt« of the Protestftnt Jthhopn (1720), LtvcH of 
 the Archlnshops (172'!), and other minor works. A new 
 edition of the Fault was published in 1S54 (3 vols.) by T. 
 Duffus Hardy, nseistant keeper of the public records, with 
 a continuation down to that year. AVlnle the original edi- 
 tion contained only 11,000 entries, Hardy's edition con- 
 tained data respecting more than 30,000 clergymen of the 
 Church of England. 
 
 Ij'Enfanl' ( Pierre Chahi.es), b. in France in 1755; 
 came to America with La Fayette in 1777, and served in 
 tho Revolution as an oOicer of engineers; became eajitain 
 in 1778; was wounded at tho siege of Savannah; promoted 
 to be major in 1783; was engineer at Fort Mifliin in 1791 ; 
 drew up the plan fur the city of Washington, and was ar- 
 chitect of some of the jiublic buildings at that capital. In 
 IS12 lie was appointed professor of engineering at AVcst 
 Point Military Academy, but declined. B. in Prince 
 George's co., Md., June 14, 1825. 
 
 Len'itivcs [Lat. ienh-e, to "soften"], in medicine, sub- 
 stances which, without specially active virtuis of their own, 
 possess by reason of viscidity the power to mechanically 
 sheathe mucous membranes or raw surlaces from tlie action 
 of irritants. Such are the bland fixed oils, glycerine, and 
 solutions of gummy and starchy substances. 
 
 EnwARD Curtis. 
 
 Lenkoran') town of Russia, in the government of Raku, 
 on thti Caspian Sea. In its vicinity are many hot sulphur 
 sj)rings of great medicinal repute. Pop. 5C14. 
 
 Len'nep, t»)wn of Rhenish Prussia, on the Lcnncp, an 
 atiluent of the Rhine, has exlenfive manufactures of linen. 
 woollen, cotton, and silk fabrics, especially of ribbons. 
 Pop. 7653. 
 
 Lcnuep) van fJACon), b. in Amsterdam Mar. 25, 1802 ; 
 studied law at the University of Leyd< n ; practised with 
 great success as an advocate; was appointed attorney-gen- 
 eral for the province of North Holland, and d. Aug. 20, 
 18G8. Ho made his debut in literature with a volume of 
 poems, Nntiomif Lvijfmh. and shortly after, under the Bel- 
 gian revolution of 1830, his two comedies, the Frontier Vit- 
 Ififfr and the Viflaijr hvyinnl the Fvfut.-rr, were performed 
 with great success. Ho wrote about thirty more dramas. 
 some of whicli were received with great applause. Rut it 
 was chiefly as a novel-writer he gained bis fame Inspired 
 by the example of Waller Scott, he trcaltd the hiKtory of 
 his fatherlaiiil in a scries of romances, about 50 in all, and 
 Severn! of these acquired a great rrnutatiou and were trans- 
 lated into (tcrman. French, and Lnglish ; us, for instance, 
 y/jc JCose o/ hi kniitn autl The AdoptfU Son. 
 
 I^enni-I^rnnpo. See Dei,awakes. 
 
 Lcn'ni .IliHs, jiost-v. of Middbtown tp,. Delaware co,. 
 Pa., on the West Chester and Philadelphia U. R, 
 
 Lcn'uoXy county of Ontario, Canada, bordering on Lake 
 Ontario, includes Aniberst Island in that lake. It is trav- 
 ersed by the (Jrand Trunk Railrtay. The county of Ad- 
 dington is joined to it for judicial purposes. The soil is 
 fertile. Cup. Nepauec. Pop. Ill,;i96. 
 
 Lennox (Charlotte Ramsay), b. in New York in 1720, 
 her father, Col. James Ramsay, being lieutenant-governor 
 of the province ; went to London at tho age of flftecn ; de- 
 votc<I herself to literature, nn<l wrote novels which obtained 
 great [lopularity. She enjoyed the friendship of Richard- 
 Bon and Dr. Johnson. Among her works were a volume 
 of /'.,rm# (1752): The Female Qnij-ntf{l7J:i): Shakni^crc 
 Ufnntratefl (175.1-jI), a collection of talcs used by Bhak- 
 ttpearo in his plots ; /fenriettii, a Xovel ( 1758) ; PhUnnderf 
 a Dramatic /'aWoraM 1758) ; Sophia (170.'1): Father /tru- 
 mttif'a Oreek Theatre; and a translation of the duke of Sully's 
 Mrinoim (Kfil). D. in London Jan. 4, 1801. 
 
 Lennox (Earih and Dukes ok). See Stewart and 
 
 RlriiMoNn. 
 
 Lennox (Lord Oeoror HENnv^ Oen.. b. in England 
 Nov. 27. I7;J7, was second son to Charles !>cnno.\. second 
 duke of Richmond : entered the army in 1751 ; distinguished 
 himself in the German campaigns as aide-de-camp to (bo 
 duke of Cumberland (1757) and to the king (1702); entered
 
 1726 
 
 LENNOX— LENS. 
 
 Parliament ia 1761 : attended his brother, the third duko 
 of Richinoiul, in his embassy to France in 1705: became 
 lieutenant-pcncral in 1777; constaVilc of the Tower of Lon- 
 don and governor of Plymouth in 17S1 : gi_*neral and mem- 
 ber of the privy council in 17G;i. I>. at Stoko Park Mar. 
 2J, IS 05. 
 
 I^ennox i Lord William Pitt), b. in England Sept. 20, 
 17tl'J, the fourth eon of the fuurth duke of Richmond, ancj 
 Ijodijun of William Pitt : educated at Westminster : entered 
 tl]o army ; was for some years attached to the staff of the 
 duke of Wellington ; has been a volumiiiuus contributor to 
 tlR- Sportiiiff Jieview and to several magazines and Ilclv:^Ila- 
 ])i--YS. Among hia works are Comptott A udln/ (l^il), The 
 Tii/t./fiDiter (1843), /'ere?/ Hamilton {lSb2), 'Pfiih'p Court- 
 H«Y/(18,)7), Mcrrie Eu;/f<tn(l (\S!j7), liecreationa of a Sporta- 
 man (1802), Ft/ti/ Vtars' liiograp/iical AV/H/;i/Vr)jce«( J863), 
 Adttittures of a Man of Famili/ (18C1J ; and Draj'ta on mi/ 
 
 Mcmnrif (I86j). 
 
 Lcn^noxville, post-v. of Compton eo.. Quebec. Canada, 
 at the junction of the Massawippi Valley and the Grand 
 Trunk Railways. 3 miles from Sherbrooke: is the seat of 
 liishops' College, a flourishing instituiiun. Pop. about 900. 
 
 I^enoir', county in E. North Carolina. Area. 400 square 
 milo?. It is traversed by the Atlantic and North Carolina 
 K. K. and the navigable Neuse River. It is level and fer- 
 tile. Rice, cotton, and corn are staple products. Cap. 
 Kinston. Pop. 10.434. 
 
 Lenoir, post-v. and tp., cap. of Caldwell cc, N. C, 15 
 miles X. of Morganton. It is the seat of Lenoir Female 
 College. Pop. of v. 446 ; of tp. 2054. 
 
 Lenoir {Gen. William), b. in Brun^vrick co., Va., May 
 .SI, 1751; removed in childhood to North Carolina; took 
 nn active part in the campaigns against the British and 
 Tories in North Carolina and South Carolina; was for 
 sixty years justice of the peace: often a member of both 
 branches of the legislature; president of the senate for five 
 years; then president of the council, and for the last eigh- 
 teen years of his life major-general of the State militia. D. 
 at Fort Defiance, N. C. May 6, 1839. 
 
 Lenormand' (Marie Anne Adelaide), b. in Alenpon 
 j\I:Ly 27, 1772 ; came in 1790 to Paris as saleswoman in a 
 linen shop, and appeared in 1793 as a fortune-teller. She 
 was several times arrested — in 1794. 1S09, and 1821— but 
 this circumstance only contributed to make her more popu- 
 lar. During the empire her rooms were visited by people 
 of the highest rank, even by the empress Josephine, and 
 when, after the fall of Napoleon, she went to Aix-la-Cha- 
 pflle, whe attracted the attention of the assembled mon- 
 archs, especially of Alexander of Russia. After 1830 she 
 was nearly forgotten, and d. in obscurity Juno 25, 1843, 
 but her life, and even her writings, M^moireH historiques et 
 srcrtts stir I'iniperatn'ce Jimt'phiue (1829). etc.. are not with- 
 out interest for the mental physiognomy of those times. 
 
 Lenormant' (Charles), b. in Paris, France, June 1, 
 1802: .studied law; travelled in Italy, where he gave spe- 
 cial attention to archjeology ; became in lS2o inspector of 
 fine arts : accompanied Champollion the younger to Egypt 
 in 1828: took an active part as a member of the commis- 
 sion for ex])loring the Morea : became after the revolution 
 of 1S30 chief of the section of fine arts at the ministry of 
 the interior, keeper of books and antiquities at the royal 
 library, professor at the Sorbonnc { 1835), and professor of 
 Egyptian archaeology at the College of France. He wrote 
 numerous treatises on art, numismatics, ceramics, and 
 Egyptolugy, as well as on religion and history, and was 
 editor for many years of the Corresjjoniiaut magazine. D. 
 at Athens Nov. 24, 1859. — His wife, Amkhe, a niece of 
 Madame R(!*camier, edited the correspondence of that cele- 
 brated lady (1859), besides writing works on Afadame de 
 .SVc/,/ (1802) and the )Vomeit of the Revolution (18fi5). 
 
 I^rnormant (FnAN(;ois), son of Charles, b. at Paris in 
 18:15: was educated by his father, following his footsteps 
 as an an-hneologist, to which ho added a thorough study 
 of the languages of the cuneiform inscriptions, in »vhich 
 department he has become a leading authority. Ho is 
 especially prominent for his important researches in the 
 Accadian language; and after travelling in Egypt, Tur- 
 k'Wt find Greece became in 1874 professor of archavjlogy at 
 the Biblit)th()quo. His Mnmial of the Ancient /listnri} of 
 fhr EaHt (3 vols., 18fi8-69; Am. ed. 2 vols.. 1809-70) is tlio 
 bi'st modern compendium of the results of Egyptian, Phoeni- 
 cian, and Assyrian researches. Other important works are 
 l.ittrr»/i«Hifriolorfiqne9 et (pigraphiquctt (3 vols., 1871-72- 
 73) ; EtndeH nccndifiunea (1873-74) ; Ln ^fngie chez ten Ai- 
 sifvicnft (\9>74), and Le»premierefi CivilinittioHfi (1874). From 
 none of the recent workers in the field of the cuneiform 
 monuments have greater results been obtained. 
 
 I^en'ox, tp. of Warren co.. III. Pop. 948. 
 
 Lenox, tp. of Iowa co., Ia. Pop. 445. 
 
 2 
 
 LenoXy post-v. and tp. of Berkshire co., Mass., 6 miles 
 S. of IMttstield. It was loug the county-seat. It is travert;ed 
 by the Housatonic River and R. R., and has manufactures 
 ofiron. plate glass, lime, lumber, flour, briek. etc. Iron ore 
 and limestone are obtnined here. The town has 4 churches, 
 a public library, and a gond high school. It is a favorite 
 placQ of summer resort. Pop. 1905. 
 
 Louox, tp. of Macomb co., Mich. Pop. 21,34. 
 Lenox, post-tp. of Madison co., N. Y., on Oneida Lake, 
 has several mineral springs and beds of iron and gypsum. 
 It contains Canastota, Oneida, and many other villages. 
 Pop. 9810. 
 
 Lenox, post-tp. of Ashtabula co., 0. Pop. 752. 
 Lenox, tp. of Susquehanna co., Pa. Pop, 1751. 
 Lens, town of France, in the department of Pas de 
 Calais, on the Souchez. an affluent of (ho Scheldt, has im- 
 portant coal-mines in its vicinity. Pop. 5738. 
 
 Lens [Lat. A»«, a "lentil"], in optics, a transparent 
 substance bounded by opposite curved surfaces, or by one 
 plane and ono curved surface, the curvature being usually 
 spherical. The property of a lens is to refract or bend 
 the rays of a pencil of light transmitted through it sym- 
 metrically toward or from a fixed line called the axis. 
 The axis is fixed by the condition that the tangents to the 
 opposite surfaces at the points where it meets them are 
 parallel to each other and perpendicular to this axis. 
 Lenses arc called converging or diverging lenses according 
 to the efi'ect produced by them upon parallel rays. They 
 arc of several kinds, distinguished by the character of 
 piQ I their curvatures. Six 
 
 3 4 5 6 f'*^"^s f^re shown in the 
 
 figure, the first a double 
 convex, the second a 
 plano-convex, the third 
 a double concave, the 
 fourth a plano-concave, 
 the fifth a meniscus, 
 and the sixth a con- 
 vexo-concave or concavo-convex, receiving the one or 
 the other of these names according as the incident light 
 falls on the convex or the concave side. The use of 
 lenses in optical instruments is to aid vision by forming 
 images of objects, to be viewed instead of the objects 
 themselves; which they do by causing pencils of light 
 from the several points of such object to converge to- 
 ward or diverge from corresponding points, in the first 
 instance on the opposite side of the lens, and in the 
 second on the same side. These points are called /(ni". 
 The image is positive and real when formed by converging 
 rays ; negative and imaginary when without being actually 
 formed it seems to exist to the eye receiving the diverging 
 rays. Only one of the pencils from the object can have its 
 axis coincident with the axis of the lens; but every ob- 
 lique pencil has. nevertheless, an axis passing through the 
 optical eeniro of the lens; and the focus of each pencil 
 will be found in the a.xis of that pencil or in the axis pro- 
 longed. It is unfortunately true, however, that the rays 
 refracted from the border of a lens of spherical curvature 
 meet the uxis at a point less distant from the lens than 
 tiiat in which those nearer the centre meet it. Ilcnec, (ho 
 focus of a simple lens is not a single point; or rather, 
 every elementary ring into which the lens may be supposed 
 to be divided produces its own focus; and the distance on 
 the axis between the fueus of the extreme border and that 
 of the rays indefinitely' near the centre is calleil the spher- 
 ical aberration. It is furthermore true tlnit inasmueh as 
 the rays of the difl^erent colors of light arc unequally re- 
 frangible, these difierent colors ha^e foci differently distant 
 from the lens ; the focus of the red being most distant, and 
 that of the violet least. This separation of the diff'erent 
 colors is callrd dispersion, and the distance along the 
 axis between the foci of tlie rays of greatest and Icai^t ro- 
 frangil>ility is called the chromatic aberration. Spherical 
 lenses would tliereforc be of little use in optics if it were 
 not possible so to combine them as to neutralize the 
 effects of both these two kinds of aberration. Chromatic 
 aberration may be corrected -by using a convex lens formed 
 of a material of low dispersive power in corabinati<tn with 
 a concave in which this power is higher. Two such lenses 
 placed in contact may be so adjusted to each other that 
 their absolute dispersions shall bo Cijual and opjiosite, 
 while there is a predominance of refracting power in the 
 converging glass by which it may form an image. In such 
 combinations the converging lens employed is usually of 
 crown glass and double convex, its diverging mate being 
 plano-convex and of flint glass. The convexity of one side 
 of the double convex is in this ease made of exactly the 
 same curvature as the concavity of the plano-eoncave, and 
 tlie tw(» are usually united with Canada balsam or other 
 transparent cement; by which means the loss of light in
 
 LENT— LENZ. 
 
 1727 
 
 consequence of reflection at the surfiices of contact is 
 almost wholly preventcj. Chrumatic tiHirration cannot be 
 perfectly corrected liy a combination of tivo glasses only, 
 beL'ause it is not true that the digpersive powers of different 
 media are in precisely tho eamo ratio for each of the ele- 
 mentary colors'. Combination^ of three different lenses 
 have therofure sometimes been used in telescopes, in order 
 to correct tho very small secondary dispersion which is left 
 in any combiualion of two. But this is a refinement which 
 is in general hardly neceesary. A combination of glasses 
 for the correction of color is called an achromatic combina- 
 tion. A combination designed to destroy the efl'ect of 
 spherical aberration is called aplanatio. The spherical 
 aberration of a single lens can never bo less than 1.07 
 times the thickness of the lens. This is (he amount of 
 aberration in a Ions made of glass having an index of rc- 
 fraetion of 1.5, of which tho two opposing curvatures havo 
 radii in the ratio of one to six. the incident rays falling 
 upon tho more convex surface. If tho index is greater, 
 the disproportion of the radii of curvature must be greater 
 also. For tho index 1.6, it i:« one to fourteen. For the in- 
 dex l.fif'C, it is one to infinite — t". e. a plano-convex. By 
 a combination of a double convex and a meniscus (whose 
 radii nf curvature may be calculated Fig. 2. 
 
 when the index of refraction of the 
 glass is given) the spherical aberra- 
 tion in the axis may be completely 
 corrected, Such a combination was 
 first described by Sir .John Herschel. Hut this is a 
 fact of no practical value, because the aberration of ob- 
 lique pencils in such combinations is very great. A menis- 
 cus having the curvature of a prolate ellipsoid, and an op- 
 posing sphorical concave surface whoso centre of curvature 
 is the more distant foctis, will concentrate rays falling 
 parallel to its axis upon its convex surface truly into that 
 more distant focus: provided the index of refraction of the 
 material is equal to the semi-axis major ilivided l)y tho ec- 
 centricity. A jdano-convex Ions of which the convex side 
 has the carvoture of a hypcrboloid will, on a like supposi- 
 tion as to the index, cause rays incident on the plane surface 
 parallel to its axis to converge truly into the more distant 
 focus of the hypcrboloid. In these cases, however, the ob- 
 FiG. ;J. 
 
 Fio. 4. 
 
 e U 
 
 liquo pencils suffer aberration : and thougli probably for 
 celc^jliiil object'*, in which the extreme obliquity of the pen- 
 cils is very small, ihey might be 
 useful, the diflicully of constructing 
 glasses of such curvature prevents 
 their being used. An achromatic 
 combination of (wo lenses like that 
 shown in Fig. .'I is aplanatic also for 
 two points on tho line of its axis; 
 but tho oblique pencils still havo 
 aberration at these distances. These 
 points arc indicated in the figure at 
 (f and fi. It was discovered, how- 
 ever, in 1S2'.», by Mr. J. J. Lister of 
 London, that thi* aberrations of ob- 
 liqtic pencils from radiants at theso 
 distances are contrary to each other, 
 and also that the focus conjugate to 
 a radiant at the shorter of theflc dis- 
 tances, /', is negative, while that con- 
 jugate to a radiant at tho longer dis- 
 tance, n, is positive; so that if an 
 object be placed at the nearer apla- 
 natic focus of a given cunibiuation, 
 its inmge is a virtual image formed 
 behind itself; and if the placo of 
 tills virtual imago be at the distanco 
 of the remoter a|)lanalic focus of a 
 secon*! combination, a positive image 
 will bo formed beyond this second 
 combination which will bo free from 
 botii spherical and chronmtio aberra- 
 tion, as well in oblique axes as in tho 
 principal axis. In Fig. .'1 tho lino 
 ;/)/ .'*hnws tlie direction ut' a ray froiu f>, and the Vmv /•/ that 
 of II lay fron] a. The first produced toward the right wo\ild 
 meet the axis behind f>. The second continued to the left 
 
 would meet the axis beyond the lens. In Fig. 4, b is the 
 nearer ajjlanatic focus of tho lens /J ; and its conjugate a 
 is tho remote aphiuatic focus of the lens A. liy the use of 
 both lenses, theretore, an object at b will form an image be- 
 yond A which will be free from aberration both of color 
 and of sphericity. This discovery of Mr. Lister was the 
 foundation of the wonderful improvement introduced into 
 the compound microscope about forty years ago. Besides 
 the evils of aberration attendant on the use of spherical 
 lenses, there is another which consists in the fact that the 
 images formed are not plane, but curved, even after aber- 
 ration has been corrected. This defect has, however, been 
 also removed in the Micitost'opi^ by combinations explained 
 in the article on that instrument (which sec). 
 
 F. A. P. Barnard. 
 Lent [Gcr. Lenz, "spring;" according to some writers 
 because tho days ff-iiffthiu; others derive it from fme^ a 
 "lentile," that food being largely eaten iluring the Lenten 
 season], the fast of forty days (not counting Sundays) 
 which begins with Ash Wednesday and ends with Easter 
 Sunday. It is observed by the Eastern, Roman, Anglican, 
 Lutheran, and some other churches. It commemorates the 
 forty days' fast of our Lord in the wiblcrness. The Greek 
 Church lengthens it to forty-eight days. 
 
 Jjentan'do [It.]. Tn music, this term, when applied 
 to a series ot notes, signifies agraiUuil and regular decrease 
 of rapidity. It frequently occurs in connection with medial 
 and final cadences, and in passages marked as expressive, 
 where it has the effect of a gradual dying out or melting 
 away of t!ie sound into comparative stillness. 
 
 IjCn'tile [Lat. fcim'], the Ermm leitfi, an anniml legu- 
 minous herb of the Old World, resembling tlio velcli or 
 pea, and extensively cultivated as food. Tho seed is the 
 part employed. It is smaller, more nutritive, and more 
 digestible than the pea. There are many varieties. It 
 grows well on tho poorest lands, and might be cultivated 
 in the Southern tJ. S. Lcntilo Hour is used for invalids, 
 and is palatalde and excellent. The vine is small, but af- 
 fords excellent fodder for sheep, horses, and cattle. Fre- 
 senius found in lUO parts of air-dried seed — starch 35.5, 
 gum 7, sugar 1.5, leguniine 25, fat 2.5, cclhilose, peotine, 
 etc. 12, ash 2.3, and water 14. Lentilcs have recently been 
 introduced into England. 
 
 Lonti'ni [Lat. Lnoititii], town of Sicily, in the prov- 
 ince of Syracuse, about 2ii miles X. W. of the city t>f Syra- 
 cuse. Interesting vestiges of the ancient city, such as re- 
 mains of aqueducts, cisterns, tombs, etc., still exist, and 
 vases, coins, and inscriptions arc f<)und in abundance. In 
 its neighborhood may still be seen the ruins of the castle 
 of Brieinia, mentioned by Thucyditlcs. In 420 n. c. Tjcon- 
 tini sent to .Athens for help against Syracuse. In 21 1 B. c. 
 it fell into tho hands of the Romans. The present town is 
 composed of respectable buildings, and the streets arc com- 
 modious. Its trade and industry are considerable. Pop. 
 in 1S74, 10,578. 
 
 Lcu''to [ft.], one of tho terms used in music to express 
 a slow aiiit somhie species of movement. liCnto is very 
 slightly qui<-Ucr than " large" and *' adagio." The supcr- 
 lati\i% li ntinfimo, im|)ties a further retardation of time. 
 
 fjen'tllllis was the name of a celebrated patrician 
 family of ancient Home, belonging to tho _//*■»* Cnnufia, 
 Ono of tho most conspicuous members of this family was 
 Publins Cornelius Lentulus Sura, lie was consul in 71 
 B. r., but in the following year he was ejected from the 
 senate, together with sixty-three others, on account of the 
 open scandals of bis jirivate life. This event brought him 
 in connection with that parly in Homo which wished to 
 overthrow tho republican institutions; and alter Catiline 
 left the city in G'A n. v., Lentulus was achnilly at the head 
 of tho conspiracy. Tho umb-rtaking failcil. partly on ac- 
 count of his irresoluleness and weakness, ond it was wholly 
 his awkwardness and ulter lack of cautiousness in his rela- 
 tions to the ambassadors of the Allobrogrs which furnished 
 ('ioero with eviilences on which he conhl arrest tho b nders 
 of tho conspiracy and bring (hem before the court. Len- 
 tulus was strangled in the prison of tho Capitol. 
 
 Lenz (Jakob Miciiaki- Rkinhomi), b. at Sessweyen, 
 Livonia, Jan. 12, 1750; studied at Kiinigsborg, and went 
 in 1771 as tutor for two young nol)lemen to Strasbourg, 
 where ho associated much with (Joethe and Jung Stilling. 
 After (loethe left Strasbourg. Lenz fell desperately in love 
 with Froderiea Brion of Sesenheim, and seems to have led 
 a rather wild life. In 1770 he went fr) Weimar; but un- 
 able to bring his life into harmony with (he (b'man<ls of 
 good society, he soon left ogain, roved omund from pinco 
 to ])lace, half insane, and <1. in iittermiscry at Moscnn May 
 21, I7i»2. His works, mostly consisting of dramas, were 
 collectrd In three volumes in 1M2S by Tieek. Like bis life, 
 they ])resent only a loose series of impulses, incoherent and
 
 1728 
 
 LEO— LEO AFRICANUS. 
 
 often repulsive. But just as his life derives a certain in- 
 terest from his conmction with tJoethe. so his works are of 
 value to the student of Cierman literature as illustrations 
 of the character and teadcneies of the so-called Sturm und 
 JJraug period, 
 
 IjC^Oy a sign of the zodiac, which the sun entert? al)Out 
 July 22 and leaves about Aug. 23. The constellation of 
 the siimc name, one of the finest in the heavens, occupies 
 the zodiacal region corresponding to the sign Virgo, and 
 contains many remarkable nebulae 
 
 Leo, the name of six emperors of the Byzantine em- 
 pire : Leo I„ thk TiiitAriAX (457-474). b. in Tln-aciM about 
 4Un. was only a military tribune when the emperor Marcian 
 died in 457. But Aspar, the conimamlcr-in-chief of the 
 army, dared not grasp at the crown himself, as he was a 
 foreigner by birth, uf the nation of the Alaui, aii»I an Arian 
 by creed. Ho raised Leo to the throne, persuaded tliiit he 
 was too indolent to care for anything more than the at- 
 tributes of power. Leo, however, soon emancipated him- 
 self from the influence of Aspar, and even seized the very 
 first opportunity of getting entirely rid of him. A magnif- 
 icent expedition was nmlertaken in connection with Anthe- 
 mius, emperor of the West, against Genseric, king of the 
 Vandals in Africa. The expedition failed utterly, and the 
 odium nf the failure was thrown on Aspar. The Vandals 
 being Arians like the Byzantine minister, a rumor of trea- 
 son arose, and under the riots which ensued Leo had Aspar 
 killed in the interior of the palace. In the beginning of 
 his reign several successful campaigns had been made 
 against the Huns, but in the latter part military calamities 
 were added to inundations, earthquakes, and conflagrations. 
 Leo I. was the first Christian king who at the ceremony of 
 coronation received his crown from the hands of a bishop — 
 an ominous precedent; he favored the clergy much, and is 
 generally called the Great by the orthodox party; the 
 Arians called him Mnrdfa, the "butcher." — Leo II. (from 
 Jan. to Nov., 474) was a grandson of Leo I., and only four 
 years old at the death of his grandfather. — Leo III., the 
 IsAV RiAN (717-741), b. in Isauria about 680 of poor parents, 
 enlisted in the army, where he rose rapidly, and was com- 
 mander-in-chief of the Eastern army against the Saracens 
 in 7I<>, when Theodosius III. deposed and exiled Anastasius 
 IF. Leo chose not to acknowleilge Theodosius III., march- 
 ed his army against him in the name of Anastasius II., de- 
 feated him, and seized the crown for himself. The Saracens 
 foHuwod him, and besieged Constantinople for two years, 
 but having been routed several times, they were at last re- 
 pelled with great loss. In 726 he issued an edict ordering 
 all images to be removed fr.>ra the churches of the empire, 
 and thus began the memorable contest between the icono- 
 clasts and iconolaters which disturbed the empire for more 
 than a century. The immediate result of the edict was a 
 general commotion, especially in the western jtrovinces, 
 and in 72S the exarchate became lost to the Byzantine 
 crown. — Leo IV. (775-780), b. in 750, a son of Couslantinc 
 v., whom he succeeded. He was mild and tolerant, but 
 weak : his generals, however, were very successful against 
 the Bulgarians .and Arabs. — Leo V., the Armenian (81.*?- 
 820), arrived from the commandership <if the army to the 
 throne through a long series of despicable treasons; but 
 having once established himself firmly on the throne by 
 his brilliant victories over the Bulgarians and Arabs, he 
 showed himself an administrator of uncommon ability. 
 Reforms were introduced, and the wliolo administrative 
 system placed on a footing of honesty and justice. He was 
 violent, however, even cruel, and utterly intolerant. He 
 persecuted the worshippers of images with great severity. 
 At last a conspiracy was formed, and he was murdered on 
 Christmas I>ay in the church, before the altar. — Li:o VI., 
 THE Piiir.osoi'MKK (886-012), b. in 865, a sou of Basil I., 
 whom he succeeded. He was a writer. His OracuUi is a 
 poem in iambic verses, prophesying the fate of the Byzan- 
 tine empii-c : there are several editions of it. His Orntioucs, 
 numbering thirty-three, arc composed mostly on theologi- 
 cal subjects; tiiere is no collected edition of them, but 
 some are found in Baronius's,4njta/fff, others in BiUiothera 
 pfifruiii, etc. Alorc important was his treatise on military 
 afl'airs, mostly consisting of extracts from other writers. 
 There exist many editions of this work, as well as an Eng- 
 lish translation by .John Cheke (155)), and a French by 
 Joly dc Mezcray (1771). The reign of this ruler was one 
 uninterrupted scries of stupidities and failures. 
 
 Leo I., Saint, Pope, regarded by many Protestants as 
 the first real pope, and surnamed the (Jueat. b. about 390, 
 probably at Kome; in early life disjilayed uncommon zeal, 
 knowledge, and capacity, and was often employed by the 
 ]»opes upon important ecclesiastical and political duties; 
 was chosen pope in 440, though only a deacon. Leo op- 
 posed the Pelagian, Manieha'an, Priscillian, and Eutychiau 
 heresies; labored with great ability for the cvtonsion of the 
 
 Roman primacy; visited Attila in person (452), and in- 
 duced him to spare Rome, but in 455 the city was sacked 
 by (ieuseric. Leo d. Nov. 10, 461. Of the many editions 
 of his writings, the best is that of the Bailcriui (Venice, 
 753-757). — Leo II., Saint, became pope in 082, and d. in 
 68^. — Leo III., a Roman, became pope iu 795; crowned 
 Charlemagne emperor of the West, and freed Rome from 
 Byzantine domination. D. June II, 8!6. — Leo IV., a Ro- 
 man, became pope in 847; built the Leonine wall about 
 the Vatican suburb, which is hence culled the Leonine City ; 
 restored the town of Porto, which he colonized with Cor- 
 sicans, and founded Leopolis (now deserted), 12 miles from 
 Civita Vecchia. D. July 17, 855. — Leo V., a Benedictine 
 and cardinal, became pope Oct. 28, and d. in prison Dec. 6, 
 903. — Leo VI., a Roman, became jiopo July 6, 928. and d. 
 Fob. 3, 929. — Leo VII.. a Roman, became pope in 9;J6, and 
 d. in 939. Little is known regarding him. — Leo VIII., a 
 Roman, was made popo by Otho I. in U63, in place of the 
 infamous .lohn XII. Benedict V. was his rival. I). 905. — 
 Leo IX. (lintno), iin Alsatian, cousin-german to Conrad the 
 Salic, b. June 21, 1002 ; became bishop of Taul in 1026; was 
 celobratcd for learning; was nominated pope at Worms in 
 1048, and recognized at Rome in 1049; was largely under 
 the influence of Ilildebrand, afterwards (iregory VII. The 
 great events of his pontificate were tlie Berengurian con- 
 troversy and the great exertions of Leo and Uildebrand 
 for the extension of discipline. I). Apr. 13, 1054. — Leo 
 X. (Ginvnimi de' Medici), son of Lorenzo the Magnitieent, 
 b. at Florence Dec. U, 1475; received the tonsure and was 
 made abbot of Fontedolce and of Passignano when but 
 seven years old; became cardinal in /^f^/o when thirteen, 
 and full cardinal-deacon when seventeen (1492); was exiled 
 with the other Mudici in 1494; served under Julius II. 
 against the French as legate and field-marshal, but was 
 taken prisoner at Ravenna 1512: by the aid uf the em- 
 peror, the pope, Venice, and Spain restored the Medici to 
 Florence 1512; succeeded Julius II. as pope 1513. His 
 pontificate is memorable for the splendor of the])apal court; 
 his extensive patronage of learning and art; the reorgani- 
 zation of the L'niversity of Rome, and the establishment 
 of a committee under the presidency of Lascaris for the 
 publication of Greek manuscripts ; the scandalous and open 
 sale of indulgences iu order to procure the necessary means 
 of building St. Peter's church ; the origination of the Ref- 
 ormation under the influence of Luther, at which he at first 
 laughed as a ludicrous monkish quarrel; the c()ntirmation 
 and extension of the Spanish power in Italy ; and the final 
 suppression of the Florentine republic. As a prince, Leo had 
 illustrious qualities; as an ecclesiastic, he certainly failed, 
 as much from a lack of the ecclesiastical spirit as from a 
 want of knowledge of the tendencies of the critical times in 
 wiiich !ic lived. — LeoXI. (Alcsaandro Ottuciauo de'Mcdici), 
 a grand-nephew of Leo X., b. at Florence 1535; became 
 bishop of Pistoia 1573; archbishop of Florence 1574; car- 
 dinal 1583 : po]>e 1605 ; d. Apr. 27. 1605. after a pontificate 
 of twenty-six days. — Leo XII. (Aunihnle dclln O'emja), b. 
 Aug. 2, 1760; became archbishop of Tyre 1793; cardinal 
 in islO; pope in 1823; extended papal authority, and re- 
 formed some points of the temporal and spiritual adminis- 
 tration. I). Feb. 10. 1829.— Leo XIII. {(nm-acrhino IWci), 
 b. Mar. 2. islll, ut Carpineto, in the di(pcese of Anagni; be- 
 came a cardinal in 1846; chamberlain of the Sacred College 
 in 1877, and pope in 1878. 
 
 Leo (Heinrioh). b. Mar. 19, 1799, at Rudolstadt, the 
 capital of the German principality of Sehwartzburg-Rudol- 
 etadt. Under the influence of Jahn he changed from medi- 
 cine to history, took part in Jena ancl Giittingen with great 
 energy in all the agitation of the ymmg students, and wrote 
 U^hrrdiv Vt'r/dsiiKtij dev fomhardisrfieti Sfiidtc (1820). But 
 suddenly he broke off all these connections, went to Italy 
 with a stipend from the princess of Rudolstadt. and became 
 on his return an enthusiastic admirer of liegel. Having 
 settled in 1828 as professor in history at the l'niversity of 
 Halle, he developed a great productivity, following more or 
 less closely the tracks of Hegel's ideas in his llnudhurh der 
 
 GeirhichU dm Mtttelalters (1830), Gcnrhirhtf der ifnh'mijich- 
 en Stfiatni (3 vols., 1829), Ziruff /iUrficni nicdrrViudixrhe 
 Geuchichten (2 vols., 1832-35). But once more he suddenly 
 and harshly turned against his own f<u'mer standpoint, at- 
 tacking the Hegelian philosophy in a rather curious man- 
 ner in his lh\ Difntcrire^f uiid die f}ciifMrhfu I'liirriKifHten 
 (1836), SriiHchreifiru an Gorren (1838), and Die Jletjclinfjcn 
 (1839). Hengstenberg had now become his idol. Under 
 his influence, and in the service of ultra-reactionary tend- 
 encies, he wrote Lchrhnch der t^nireniiifffCHcfiivhtr (6 vols., 
 1835-441 and Lcii/aden fur df'n Unfrrrirht in dcr V>iii-rr- 
 edfr/egfhichte (4 vols., 1838-40), and a number of articles in 
 the Evangcliachc Kirckemeittmg. D. Apr. 24, 1878. 
 
 Leo Africa'nus (Joannes), originally named Al Has- 
 san luN Mohammed, b. at Uranadu, Spain, about 1485, of
 
 LEO ALLATIUS— LEON. 
 
 1729 
 
 Muoriish parents, who emigrated to Fez io Morocco after 
 the capture of Granada by the Spaaiard^. At the age of 
 sixteen bo accompanied uu uncle on an embassy to Tim- 
 buctoo, and afterward travelled through ."cverul countries 
 of N. and Central Africa, penetrating through Bornoo to 
 Nubia, de:?cending the Nile, and extending his explorations 
 into Persia. Returning from Constantinople by sea io 
 1j17, ho was captured by corsairs and taken to Rome, 
 where he became a Christian, was patronized by Pope Leo 
 X., whose name he took, learned Italian ancl Latin, and 
 taught Arabic. I), at Tunis in 150!*. His great work, the 
 Deiftrtption of Africa, was written in Arabic, published 
 in Italian by Ramusio (1650) and in Latin by Elzevir 
 (K.:i2j. 
 
 Le'o Alla'tius [Latinized form of Leonk ALLArn], b. 
 of (ireek parents in the island of Chios in 1 JS6. lie was 
 taken when nine years old to Calabria iu Italy, and thence 
 in ir.OO to Home to complete his studios; was employed in 
 HJ22 by Pope (ircgory XV. to superintend the transfer to 
 Rume and the incorporation in the \'atican of the Heidel- 
 berg library, which had been given to the pontiff" by tho 
 clectorof Bavaria; was nppointtMUiy Pope Alexander VII, 
 in IGfil librarianof tho Vatican, which office he held till his 
 dL*ath in lfit»9. Leo was a ]»rolific writer: his works were 
 partly editions and elucidations of the classic and ecclesi- 
 astic writers and notices of authors, and partly treatises 
 on the history and doctrines of (he Roman Church and on 
 tho diffcroncos between the Eastern and Western churches. 
 Though the son of (Ireck parents, be was an extreme par- 
 tisan of the Roman Church. A complete list of his pro- 
 <Iuctions ( JO enumerated by Fabricius) is added to his 
 Errrritniio tfe MrtiMuvft Trntporum Aufi'ftiontni (Cologne, 
 |tU.M. and is also given by Fabricius in bis liibtiotheca 
 lirarti, vol. xi. 4.'i7 "yy., ed. ilarles. (Seo Creuzer. Znr Gench, 
 tier C((t>iH. P/iilofoffir.) II. Drisler. 
 
 Leo'beilf town of Austria, in the province of Styria, on 
 the .Mur, is beautifully situated, well built, and fortified. 
 Here a preliminary trenfy was concluded (Apr. 18, 17M7^ 
 between Austria and France, which was followed half a 
 year Inter by the Peace of Campo Formio. 
 
 Le'obschiitZ) town of Prussia, in the province of Sile- 
 sia, on th" Zinna. It has a large trade in wool, ffax, and 
 corn. Pop. S27L 
 
 Leoch'arcSy an Athenian sculptor of the middle of the 
 fourth century n. c, belonged to the second Athenian 
 scliKol. Pliny mentions several of his works, and speaks 
 with enthusiasm c»f llieiii. Uf one, inini/mi^fle curried off 
 In/ the Enifff, which originally was cast iu bronze, there are 
 marble copies in Rome and V^cuicc. 
 
 Le'o Diac'onus, b. about a. d. 950 at Caloc in Ionia; 
 Wiis sent to Constaiitiiiopio to pursue his sturlics, and was 
 j>redeut(iHJ6) when the populaeo brokeoutin revolt agninst 
 tile emperor Nieeiihorua I'hoeas : ticeoiupauied Basil II. in 
 the war against the Bulguriuns, though filling the office of 
 deacon ; wrote a history of the evcnis that took place in 
 his own time from A. n. U.'i'J to D75, valuable for its iu- 
 formaMon, though faulty in style. This work was first 
 published (Paris. 1H[S) by Hase, who has collected in bis 
 preface the chief facl.<* of bis life; reissued in tho Corpus 
 J/iHltri« liyzatitinic (Bonn, IS^H). II. Drisleh. 
 
 Le'o Grammat'icuSf of whose life scarcely anything 
 is known, and wln)so date even is doubttul, wrote, probably 
 at the beginning of the eleventh eeutury, under tho title 
 Chrttiuujruphiit ( \(H3voypa^i.<x \, a narrative of Byzantine 
 events froiu H7.'i to *Jiii a. n. The work is extant, and 
 was published along with Theophanc* by Combefis ( Paris, 
 1G55). H. Ukislkii. 
 
 Leo'la* tp. of Adams CO., Wis. Pop. |S5. 
 
 I*coni'iiisU»r, town of England, in the county of Here- 
 ford, on the Lugg. It is the eentre of the most celebrated 
 cattle-breeding district of England. Pop. 5865. 
 
 Leominster, post-v. and tp. of Worcester eo., Mass., 
 on the Na-fbua Kivrrand on the Boston (Minton and I-'itoh- 
 burg and the Fit^-libtirg R. Rs., 18 miles N. of Worcester 
 and 10 miles W, N. W. of Boston. It has a national and 
 a savings bank, a newspaper. 5 ehurches. a large public 
 lilirary. a high sehool, 2 hotels, and a number of nt'iroa. 
 The principal manufacturing business ecmsisls of horn 
 gitods. furniture, pianos, children's eiirriages. tunning and 
 currying, paper, woollen, linen. lealber board mills, and 
 ft)rk-workp. The village is supplied with ai]ueduet-wator 
 at a cost of about $15(1.(100. and with gnsworks. It is sur- 
 rounded by some of the best farming IuihI in (he county. 
 IV)p. ;isy4. l**. N. RocTWKi.i,. En. " ICnti rtPnisK." 
 
 Le'oilf province of Northern Spain, comprising an area 
 of filfifi s(|uare miles, with .150,002 inhiibilants. It is cov- 
 ered with mountain-ranges, whieb, espeeinlly in the north- 
 ern part, enclose beautiful. wi-ll-waterei|, mii) f.rtilo valleys, 
 while the eastern jmrfs are more level and afford excellent 
 
 Vol.. II.— nt:i 
 
 pasturage. Large flocks of merino sheep are reared; flax, 
 beiup, maize, and fruits arc raised, and many medicinal 
 herbs arc gathered. Together with the provinces of Sala- 
 manca and Zamora it formed the former kingdom of Leon, 
 founded in 74(J by Alfouzo the Catholic, who conquered it 
 from the Saracens, and was united to Castile by Ferdinand 
 III. in 12.10. The inhabitants of this province, who gene- 
 rally arc uneducated and la/.y. but honest antl noble, boast 
 much of the purity of their blood and the antiquity of their 
 Christianity. 
 
 Leon, town of Spain, the capital of the province of 
 Leon, at tho confluence of the Bernesga nnd the Torio. Since 
 tho annexation of the old kingdom of Leon to Castile the 
 city has lost its importance, and although it has a large 
 market for wool and horses, and many beautiful churches 
 and magnificent palaces, its general character is decay. 
 Its eatbeilral, built in the fourteenth century, is perhaps 
 the most elegant specimen of Gothic architecture extant. 
 Pop. 10,040. 
 
 Leon, city of Mexico, state of fiunnajuuto, near tho 
 boundary of Jalisco. It was founded in 1 J7(>, but did not 
 acquire importance until the miildleof the present century. 
 It now claims to be second only to tho capital of the re- 
 public in point <jf population, which is generally estimated 
 I at 100,000. Tho chief industries arc tanning, saddlery, 
 I and manufactures of cotton and woollen stuff's. There are 
 I abundant iron -mines at Comanja. a fi'w miles to the X. 
 I Leon is well built, has a large and beautiful square, with 
 several fine public buildings and churches, and has become 
 the commercial emporium for an extensive region, cspeci- 
 I ally for tho rich plain or bajio of tluauajuato, famous for 
 I its thriving cities and its prosperous agriculture. Leon has 
 ; for years aspired to become the capital of a new state {Es- 
 [ t'ttlo (it( iVutro) to bo formed of parts of duanajuato and 
 j Jalisco, and is not without hopes of becoming the capital 
 of Mexico. A railroad is now (1S75) contracted for by a 
 Mexican company from Mexico to Leon, and another by an 
 .\meriean company from Leon to the Rio Grande, which 
 will vastly increase the importance of this city. 
 
 Leon, town of Nicaragua, and the capital of the depart- 
 ment of Leon, is situated in lat. 12° 25' N., Ion. S6° 57' W., 
 in the centre of a well-watered and well-cultivated plain, 
 200 feet above the sea, and numbers 24.000 inhabitants, 
 Creoles ami mestizoes of difTercnt grades. It is divided into 
 six quarters (canloncs) — Sagrario, San Felipe, San Juan. 
 Calvario, Zaragoza, and Laborio y San Sebastian, and 
 separated only by a street from the Indian town of Sub- 
 liiiba. The city was originally founded by Francisco 
 Fernandez de Conlova in 152:i, on the western border of 
 Lake Managua in Imbita, but on account of various em- 
 barrassments of the location the inhabitants removed in 
 KilO the city, together with the large Inclinn town Sub- 
 tiabfl. to the present place. WmA water was found here, 
 which now is led fntm different springs through the ei(y. 
 Formerly the capital of the province of Nicaragua, and tho 
 scat of a bishop and of the Spanish government. Leon has de- 
 veloped into the best builtcity of the republic. In itscentral 
 part the streets are paved and lighted. The finest building 
 18 (he cathedral, commenced in 1746 by Bishop Marin 
 Bullon y Figueroa. and finished in 1774 by Bishop Vinchcs 
 y Calirera. It belongs to no particular style, but is of im- 
 mense dimensions, though too low in j>roportion to its 
 length and breadth. The front facade is ornamented with 
 a largo qu:Ldrangular lower, whose platform offers a most 
 splendid view. In (he neighborboud td' the cathedral stands 
 tne old episcopal palace, and connected wiih it (he ciMlege 
 of San Ramon, the university of Nicaragua. Both build- 
 ings were founded in lfi7S by Bishop Andres ile las Navas 
 y l^uevedo. The new episcopal palace, situated at the 
 southern corner of the plaza and close to the cathedral, was 
 not finished in IS7;i. At the northern corner of the jJaza 
 stands the old government building. But none of these 
 structures are distinguished by architectural beauty. The 
 ten or twelve other churches of Leon are rather coinmon- 
 plai'o, though two of them nossess interesting peculiarities ; 
 thus, the front facade of tlie churcli Del Calvario is orna- 
 mented with bns-reliefs representing scenes of Holy Scrip- 
 lure, which are not without artistic merit, nnd in the in- 
 terior of (he rhurch I)e la Merced several good pictures are 
 found and a Iteantifiil altar. Several former monasteries 
 have been taken into public use; (bus, the monastery of 
 San Juan de Dios has been transformed into a hospital, 
 which serves as a practical school for medical students. 
 ' Leon has no industry, but some trade through the port of 
 Corinlo. Tho surroundings are very beaulilul. and mineral 
 springs are found on many points at the foot of Sierra de 
 los Marrabios. The town of Subtiaba, situated close by, 
 has a large ehureh, almost as large as (he cathedral of Leon, 
 but no other structure of any imporlaiiee. It is divided 
 into Iwo quarters. San Pedro and Puelila Orande, At the 
 time of the conquest it bad lUO.diio inhaliitanls ; the pros-
 
 1730 
 
 LEON— LEONIDAS. 
 
 ent number is not known. The inhabitants are engaged in 
 some small Indian industry. ArcusT Niemann. 
 
 JjeoUj county of Florida, bounded N. by Georgia. 
 Area, GOO square miles. It is undulating in the N. and 
 level in the S. It is very fertile, and abounds in heavy 
 forests and beautiful lakes and streams. Corn and cotton 
 iire staple products. It is traversed by the Jacksonville 
 Pen^acola and Mobile R. R. Cap. Tallahassee. Pop. 
 15. 2:10. 
 
 liCon, county of E. Central Texas. Area. 1100 square 
 miles. It is bounded E. by Trinity River and W. by the 
 Navastita. The county is fertile, and contains extensive 
 timber-lands. Iron ore and lignitic coal abound. Live- 
 j^tock, corn, and cotton are staple products. The county is 
 traversed by the International and Great Northern R. R. 
 Cap. Centrevillc. Pop. 6523.' 
 
 fjCon, post-v. of Centre tp., cap. of Decatur cc, la., 21 
 miles S. of Osceola. It has a national bank and 1 "weekly 
 ueiTsp:ipt'r. Pop. fS20. 
 
 Leon, tp. of Goodhue co., Minn. Pop. 970. 
 Leou, post-tp. of Cattaraugus co., N. Y. Pop. 1204. 
 Leou, ]tost-tp. of Monroe co., Wis. Pop. 1241. 
 Leon, tp. of Waushara co., Wis. Pop. 869. 
 Leon'ard (Daniel), b. at Norton, Mass., May 29, 1740 : 
 graduated at Harvard College in 1760 ; became a prominent 
 lawyer; was frequently chosen to the legislature, and at 
 first supported the Whig cause with great energy and elo- 
 quence, but at the outbreak of hostilities adhered to the 
 royal cause, losing thereby a considerable estate. He un- 
 dertook to reply to John Adams's arguments against the 
 colonial measures of Lord North, and his letters, signed 
 MasgdchiiHettciii^is, have been pronounced the best defence 
 (if the English government that appeared in America. 
 Leonard left Boston with the British forces (1776) ; resided 
 for a time in London; was many years chief-justice of 
 Bermuda, and d. at London June 27, 1S29. The polemic 
 lu-tween Adams and Leonard was reprinted in 1819, with a 
 ]iri'f;ice by the former, who employed the nom de plume of 
 Sin-itu'ilns. 
 
 Leonard (James), b. at Pontypool, England, about 
 1018; settled at Taunton, Mass., in 1652, and established 
 there the first iron- works in the British colonies of America. 
 D. at Taunton in 1691. 
 
 lieonar'do da Pi'sa, or Leonardo Bonacci, b. 
 at Pisa in 1170 ur ItSO ; spent a great part of his life in 
 travelling tlinuigh Egypt, Syria, and Greece in order to 
 study the dift'crcnt systems of arithmetic, and acquired a 
 great reputation as a mathematician. He was the first to 
 introduce algebra in Europe, and he contributed much to 
 the full understanding of the Arabic system of arithmetic. 
 His principal work. Liber Abaci — which latter word, orig- 
 inally the name of an instrument of calculation, he uses as 
 the general designation of arithmetics — was written in 1202, 
 nnd published in a splendid edition in 1857 at Rome by 
 B. Boneompagiii. 
 Leonardo da Vinci. Sec Vinci, in Appendix. 
 Leou'ardsville, post-v. of Brookfieid tp., Madison co., 
 N. Y. It has a church, a national bank, and manufactures 
 of impurtanee. 
 
 I^eon'ardtown, post-v. and tp., cap. of St. Mary's co., 
 Md.. on Briton's Bay, a tributary of the Potomac River, has 
 2 churelies, a court-house, a jail, a town-hall and library, 
 a weekly newspaper, 2 hotels, 6 stores, 2 wheelwright and 
 blacksmith shops, etc. It is quite popular as a summer re- 
 sort. Pop. of V. 4S5; of tp. 2957. 
 
 B. Harris Camalier, for Ed. **St. Mary's Beacon." 
 Lcon^ de (Fray Lris Ponce), b. at Belmontc near 
 Gr;in:ida. Spain, in 1527; entered the University of Sala- 
 niunoa at an early age, distinguishing himself in classics 
 and philosophy; entered the order of St. Augustine at 
 Salamanca in 1543, devoting himself to a profound study 
 of sacred literature ; became in 1560 a licentiate in theology 
 and doctor of divinity, and in 1561 obtained the jtrofes- 
 sorship of St. Thomas Aquinas (theology) by competition 
 with seven candidates, and in 1571 obtained in a<lditioii 
 the chair of siiered literature. He had become known 
 as the most elegnnt poet of Spain, when, on account of a 
 spirited translation of the Canticle, to which, in opposition 
 to tlie received teachings of the Church, but in conformity 
 with the conclusions of modern sohnlarship, be gave the 
 form of a pastoral eelogue. he was thrown into prison by 
 the Inquisition (1572), upon the double accusation of Lu- 
 1 hor:inism and of disobedience to the decrees of the Council 
 of Trent in having translated a book of Scripture into a 
 modern tongue. He was brought before the high eourt 
 more than tifty times, easily vindicated himself from the 
 first charge, and presented an elegnnfly-written defence, 
 which is one of the admired monuments of Spanish prose. 
 
 It was of no avail thnt he proved the translation to have 
 been made at the request of a friend, and without intention 
 of publication: the liominieans, who controlled the Holy 
 Office, were jealous of his fame as the most distinguished 
 theologian of a rival order, and ho was condemned to the 
 rack; but, fortunately, this sentence was revoked by the 
 higher court at Madrid, and by the urgent efforts of power- 
 ful friends he was liberated after five years' confinement, 
 during which he had written his classic treatise On the 
 JVanirg 11/ Christ (*'De )os Nombres do Cristo"), and com- 
 menced other works, some of which his broken health pre- 
 vented his completing. The university remained faithful 
 to its greatest name, and Fray Luis resumed his lectures 
 with opplause Dec. 30, 1576, on whicli occasion he com- 
 menced his address with the words. ** As we remarked in 
 our last lecture," thus seeming to forget the long and jiainful 
 interval of silence. In 1580, Frny Luis puldished a Latin 
 Commentary on the Canticle ; in 15S3 Thr }*erfccf W'i/f (" La 
 Pcrfecta Casada") ; wrote soon after a poetical panijihrasc 
 of the book of Job, and translations of Virgil's Erloijiu-H and 
 (icnrf/ic9 and some of the Odes of Horace, which were not 
 published during his life. His lyric poems, the finest 
 in the language, shared the same fate, as also his transla- 
 tions of forty of the Psalms. Ho rose to be general and 
 provincial vicar of his order, passed the remainder of his 
 life in perfect tranquillity, and d. at Madrigal Aug. 23, 1591. 
 His poems and miscellaneous works were first published by 
 his friend Qucvedo in 1631, since which time they have 
 been recognized as Spanish classics. (See Ticknor's Spanish 
 Literature and A. Arango y Escandon's Proceto dc Fnii/ 
 Luia de Leon (Mexico, 1871), an elegant and scholarly 
 production.) Porter C. Bliss. 
 
 Leones'sa, town of S.Italy, in the province of Aquila 
 degli Abruzzi. This town, consisting of several small vil- 
 lages, was given in dower by Charles \. to his daughter 
 Margaret, and rich mementoes of that period are still pre- 
 served. Pop. in 1874, 5451. 
 
 Leonfor'te? town &f Sicily, in the province of Catania. 
 This town is situated on the skirts of a mountain about 33 
 mites S. W. of Catania. It is surrounded by a wall, and 
 in the churches may be seen some very gouil pictures. It 
 bus an active trade in grain, oil, almonds, sulphur, wines, 
 etc. Pop. in 1874, 12,010. 
 
 Lie'onhardt (Gerhard Adolph Wilhelm), b. at Ncu- 
 haus in Hanover June 6, 1815: studied jurisprudence at 
 Giittingen and Berlin: entered the service of the Hano- 
 verian government in 1837, and was appointed minister of 
 justice in 1865. For fifteen lears ho was jircsident of the 
 committee of examination in jurispru<lencc. AViicn (in 
 1866) Hanover was annexed to Prussia, Leonhardt was 
 first made president of the court of appeal at Celle. and 
 then chief-justice for the new provinces, Nov. IG, 1867 : the 
 king gave him a scat in the Prussian Herren-haus (" House 
 of Lords"), and shortly after ho was appointed Prussian 
 minister of justice. Both in Hanover and Prussia many 
 important and excclient laws are due to him. and as a mem- 
 ber of the federal council and president of the standing 
 committee on justice ho has created a new criminal code 
 for the Gennan empire. Avgist Niemann. 
 
 Le'onhard, von (Karl C^sar), b. at Rumpeuheim, 
 in the electorate of Hesse. Sept. 12, 1779; studied political 
 economy at Marburg and Giittingen, and hehl several 
 important positions in the Hessian government from 1800 
 to 1S16. At Giittingen the lectures of Bliimenbaeh led him 
 to the study of mineralogy and geology, and he continued 
 to cultivate these sciences with great energy and success, 
 even while in office. In 1816 he was mn<le a member of 
 the Academy of Sciences at Municli, and in i81S he ac- 
 cepted the chair as professor in geology at the University 
 of Heidelberg, where he d. Jan. 23, 1862. From IJ^O? to 
 1829 he edited the Ta8ch< nbiich fiir MiuiraltHjic, and from 
 1S30 to 1858 the Jahrbuch /Ur Mintrattiific. His writings, 
 the most prominent of which arc yulunjrtirhichte der Erde 
 (4 vols., 1836-45), O'rundzuge dcr Mineraloijie (2 vols., 
 1860), etc., are not so much distinguished by originaLdis- 
 coveries and independent researches as by a clear and com- 
 prehensive representation of what was already known. 
 Leo'ni, post-tp. of Jackson co., Mich. Pop. 1376. 
 Leon'idasy post-tp, of St. Joseph co., Mich. Pop. 
 1463. 
 
 Leonidas^ king of Sparta, succeeded his half-brother, 
 Clcomenes, about 490 b. c, and was sent in the spring of 
 ■180. when the Persians had conquered Macedonia, to de- 
 fend the defiles of Thermopylje, between Mount <¥Aix and 
 the Maliac Gulf. With the co-operation of a tleet in the 
 gulf, the defiles could be defended by a comparatively 
 small army, but the Greek fleet was unfit for battle at the 
 motnent the Persian attack began, and, what was still 
 worse, they had forgotten to occupy a practicable pathway 
 which led across Mount (Eta, and which was shown to the
 
 L EON I DAS— LEOPOLD. 
 
 1731 
 
 Pcrsions by a traitor, Ephialtes. For two days the Greeks j 
 resisted llic barlmriun host with great valor; the Persian , 
 losses were eiiorliums. But at daybreak on the third day 
 Leoniihis learned lliat the Persians had found the pathway j 
 and were eoniing in masses across the mountain. There 
 was still time to retreat. But having sent away his aux- 
 iliary Irocips, Leonidas with his SdO Spartans remained in 
 the defiles, and, nceupying a small hill in the centre of the 
 position, they fought to the last man. 
 
 Leonidas [.\<iui'.{« or -Sin], the name of two poets 
 whose remains are preserved to us in the lircek Auihntogi/. 
 The former, a native of Tarentum, flourished about n. c. 
 27Ct. lie composed over 100 epigrams in tlie Dorio dialect. 
 — The other, of .Mexandria, lived in the reign of Nero at 
 Itome. In the Aiitlinlniji/ there are 41! epigrams ascribed 
 to him, some of which arc probably not his. They arc less 
 highly csleenied than those of Lconidas of Tarontum. 
 The poems of both are edited by Jacobs in the Anthnioijia 
 (Jrntn, and by Jleineke (Leipsic, 171)1). H. Drisi.f.r. 
 
 Le'oninc Verse [from Pope Leo II., or from one 
 Leoninus. Benedictine canon of yt. Victor, Paris, in the 
 twelfth century], the rhyming hexameter, pentameter, or 
 elegiac verse, especially in Latin. Traces of this rhyming 
 practice ajipear in Ovid, anil even in earlier poets, but the 
 custom prevailed extensively in the Middle Ages, the rhyme 
 being often barbarously imperfect, and the metre not much 
 belter. 
 
 Leonowens ( A.nn.v IIakriette CuawfouI)), b. at Caer- 
 narvon, Wales, Nov. o, ls;i4, daughter of a British officer, 
 Thomas Maxwell Crawford, who while acting as aide-de- 
 camp to Sir .1. Maenaughton was cut in pieces by the Sikhs 
 on the frontiers of Lahore. She married an olhcer, Thomas 
 Leonowens. upon whose death in India she was left in that 
 country with two children dependent upon her own exer- 
 tions, and resided for some time at Singapore. Through 
 the recommendation of the English consul at that port she 
 was selected to fill the post of governess in the family of 
 the late first king of Siani, who, having learned English 
 from .\meriean missionaries before coming to the throne, 
 <lcsired his numerous children to be educatetl in that lan- 
 guage, of which he was an enthusiastic admirer and culti- 
 vator, having even established a printing-press within his 
 ]>alaco. Arriving at Bangkok in ISt;.'!, she filled for four 
 years not only the position of instructress to the royal 
 household, but of secretary to the king in his extensive 
 English corrcspontlenco, and exerted a considerable influ- 
 ence as a mediator with the king in behalf of the victims 
 of arbitrary oppression, whether natives or foreigners. The 
 present first king of iSiam, then a boy, was the special ob- 
 ject of her careful and successful training, and shortly 
 after his accession to the throne in ISGS abolished slavery 
 throughout his iloniinions. (See ,Siam.) i\Irs. Leonowens 
 on retiring from her post in .Inly, lr*0", settled in the U. S. 
 and engaged in literary pursuits, being now a resident of 
 New York. She has published two interesting volumes 
 upon her Siamese experiences — The ICnyfiiih Govcrnemt at 
 the Ctmrt of Sidin (iHTti) and the Jiumance of the Ifarem 
 (1S72). 
 
 Leontini. See Lkntini. 
 
 Leon'tiu!*, or Leo Pilatiis, a native of Thcssalonion, 
 according to Hody, but Ilatlam nnikes him (on the author- 
 ity of Petrarch's letters) a Calabrian; came to Florence 
 about LIOO A. n., and was employed by the rojjublic at the 
 request of Boccaccio to teach his native language. Ho was 
 the first who publicly lectured on Homer in Western Europe, 
 an<t the first who translated that poet into Latin. Leaving 
 I'lorcnee, he visited Venice, where he met Petrarch, who 
 had studied tJrcek under Barlaam. Thence he went to Con- 
 stantinople, intending to rottirn to Italy, but d. while cross- 
 ing the Adriatic. Gibbon <lescribes his appearance and 
 manners as repulsive. (Ihrlinr (tnri F<tll, vol. viii. ]). 1 IS.) 
 prom hiui Boccaccio colleoted the materials for his treatise 
 ou the genealogy of the heathen gods. (Sec (libbon, /. c. ; 
 Hody, Dc (Jrircit ilhiiilribuii, pp. 1-11.) H. lIlllsi.Ell, 
 
 Ijenp'nrd [Lat. ten, "Hon," and pnrdiiH. a "panther," 
 it ha\ iug been anciently believed to be the offspring of the 
 lion and panther], the /'r/i't liujianlitit or Lcitji'inlun vnriitn. 
 The leopard, though not the largest, is one of the most 
 active and bloodthirsty of the eat family. I'ound through- 
 out a largo part of Africa and of Asia and its islands, it 
 is of even ivider distribution than the lion. It rarely 
 assails man, but among animals, wild and domestic, it is 
 extremely destructive. Its beautifully spotted fur gives ita 
 readily distinguished character. The hhick leopard is a 
 variety brought from Java. The "hunting leopard " bo- 
 longs t(i a very distinct genus of the cat-family ( (jiirpttrtln)^ 
 anil is more properly known as the Chkktaii (which see). 
 
 i/Copnr'di (Hiacomo), b. of a noble family at Reeanati, 
 
 not I:vr from .\ncon;i.in 17'.'^; was taught the rudiments 
 
 of Latin and of philosophy by two ecclesiastics ; at the age 
 of eight began Ureek by himself, and after his fourteenth 
 year pursued his studies without master, or even guide, 
 making unrestricted use of his father's large and choice 
 library. " .M sixteen," says one of his biographers. '• his 
 learning was so vast that it is impossible to speak of it 
 without seeming to exaggerate." lie was comidctely mas- 
 ter of the tireck and Latin languages and classical litera- 
 ture, was familiar with the Fathers of the Church and 
 other later (Jreek and Latin writers, had a scholarly know- 
 ledge of English, French, Spanish, and Hebrew, and was 
 profoundly versed in his own language. Notwithstanding 
 acquirements so disproportionate to his years, his faculties 
 were not in the least clogged by them, and his reason and 
 imagination lost nothing of their astonishing power and 
 individuality. His physical strength, however, gave way. 
 and there were already symptoms of the complicated and 
 cruel malady which finally ended his life. At the age of 
 nineteen, conscious of his great genius and burning with 
 a lofiy ambition, ho longed for the resources of a larger 
 town ; but his father, a zealous Catholic, and already alarm- 
 ed at the skeptical tendencies of his son, refused to consent 
 to his wider contact with the world; and the obedient son 
 reluctantly remaineil at home until 1S22. As it is impos- 
 sible in this brief notice to eniuuerato his works in the or- 
 der of their production, the reader is referred to the biog- 
 r.iphies of Le(qiardi for a list of the brilliant results of his 
 labors during tlieso years. The splendid success of the 
 three poems entitled AW Itullii, Suprn il Moiiiimciiln di 
 Dante, Ad Anrjcli) Mat, etc. induced him to brave all op- 
 position and go to Rome, which ho did in 1822. Here he 
 was enthusiastically welcomed, and soon made the ac- 
 quaintance of Niebuhr, who expressed to Bunsen and other 
 eminent tierinans the liveliest admiration for the learning 
 and genius of tlie jiale. bent, and emaciated young Italian. 
 Ho even procured for him the ofl'cr of tho chair of Ureek 
 jihilosojihy in the Univer.ity of Berlin, but the wretched 
 health of the poet forced him to decline this flattering ofler. 
 His small pecuniary means were soon exhausted, his % lews 
 on the subject of religion prevented him from accepting 
 employment at the papal court, and ho was obliged to re- 
 turn, in the spring of tho same year, to llecauati. where he 
 renmined, with occasional long visits to ^lilan and Bologna, 
 until 1S27. In that year he went to Florence, where he 
 lived — with now and then a visit to his family — until IS:!."., 
 in close friendship with Capponi, Nicculini, etc. The joy- 
 ousness which had nmrked tho first boyhood of Leopardi 
 had faded early away, and was succi-cded by an ever- 
 increasing sadness, which had now darkened into tho 
 deepest melancholy — alike tho cause and the consequence 
 of his hojieless philosophy. No doubt his physical sufl'er 
 ings largely influenced his philosophical beliefs, though he 
 protested vigorously against this ajudogy for them, and 
 insisted that his absolute denial of a beneficent Provi- 
 dence, and his assertion that //o/a was tho only reality, 
 were the results of a free antl earnest exercise of his reason 
 and of the courage which he had to ]iroelaini his conclu- 
 sions. In IS.'i.'i ills devoted frii-nd Uanieri took him to 
 Naples in tho hope of alleviating at least his terrible phys- 
 ical sufl'erings. The elVect of the change was at first bene- 
 ficial, and even Leopardi began to regard life as a thing 
 to bo desired : but neither the clinmte nor the tentlercst 
 care on the part of his generous friend conUl save him, and 
 he expired on ,Inne M. I.s;t7. Leopardi has been compared 
 with Byron, but there is little in connnon between the self- 
 ish bitterness of the great English poet and the profound 
 melancholy id' the Italian — the former a natural outgrowth 
 of unbridled passions, the latter of acute and incessant 
 physical sufl'ering. The student of Leopardi will lie likely 
 to find a stronger jiarallel between his eliaracter and genius 
 and those of Pascal, widely ditl'erent as were their phi- 
 losophical and religious convictions. Though it is not im- 
 probable that had his life been prohmged this earnest 
 seeker after truth would have ultinnitely rested in a less 
 ' desiiairing creed, yet the miserable attempts to uuike it 
 ' appear that Leopardi in his last days sought for a reeon- 
 I eilmtion with the Church have been nnist thoroughly cx- 
 I posed and confuted. (See Maro Alonnier, // ftnti'r t-Mt-' Ite 
 fa Trrn- dt/i Mt,ft» ; also Montanari, tVtinjraJta del Cniitc 
 Lriipardi ; the works of Louis de Sinner, Sainte-Beuve, 
 Schul/,, Kanieri, Uiordani, IJioberti, etc.) The most com- 
 plete collection of Leopardi'fl works yet published was 
 issued from tho press of Lo Monnior nt Florence between 
 i ISI.'i and 1S.')1, under the supervision of dillerent edi- 
 tors. Cauomsi: C. Mausii. 
 Lo'ojtold, post-lp. of Perry CO., Ind. Pop. K02. 
 Leopold I., emperor of Ctermany (l(irif-170.'i), b. at 
 Vienna .lune '.I, 1010, the second son of Ferdinand III. and 
 Maria .Anna of .'<paiii. He was educated for tho Church, 
 but at the death of his elder brother in lO'i.') he became 
 king of HiuiL'nry, rind in ll'js he suoi-eeded his father as
 
 1732 
 
 LEOPOLD— LEPIDODENDRON. 
 
 kiDg of Bohemia aud emperor of Germany. He was a 
 man of small stature and feeble health, with a sour and 
 mclanclioly face, anrl the lip of the Ilapsbiirgers extra- 
 ordinarily developed. He had f^omo interest in ]inj;uistic 
 studies and a fine car for mii'ic. but he was reticent uml 
 stiff in his behavior, a man of rL-(;iiIar and simple habits, 
 but ceremonious, proud, bip;otcd. and hard. Although be 
 was very industrious^ he left the administration in utter 
 confusion, aud in spite of his pcaceableness, or rather 
 timidity, his reign was one long series of wars with Louis 
 XIV., the Turks, and the Hungarians. Of his three wars 
 with France, the two first, which ended by the Peace of 
 Nymwegen in ItJTS and of Ryswiek in IG*J7, arc described 
 in the articles on Lotris XIV. and Wim.iam or Oiiange, 
 and the last one, the SivVMSii AV,\u or Simtkssion. in a 
 separate article. The point at issue between Austria aud 
 Turkey was Transylvania. The Turks held it. and the 
 Hungarians demanded it. In 16l>2 the war began, ami the 
 Turks broke iuto Hungary. But in ^C)C^'^, LeopoUl received 
 troojis fnim the (lerman empire, ."^weden, and France, and 
 money from the j>o])e and the Italian states, and Aug. 1, 
 IfiiU, Montecucc()li succeeded in routing the Turkish army 
 at St. Gothard on the Raab. On Aug. 10 an armistioo of 
 ten years was concluded, in which, however, the Turks re- 
 tained Transylvania, to the great indignation of the Hun- 
 garians. ?^oon after disturbances arose in Hungary from 
 the contest between the national Protestant and the Aus- 
 trian Catholic jiarties. Leopold treated his political ad- 
 versaries with the utmost harshness, and the result was a 
 formidable insurri'ction under the leadership of Tokiilyi in 
 lfiS2. The Hungarians called the Turks to aid. and on 
 July 14, 108.3, an army of 200.000 men laid siege to Vien- 
 na. Leopold had flci. and in spite of the valorous resist- 
 ance of the citizens and the garrison the city would have 
 fallen, and with it the power of the house of Hapsburg, if 
 the Polish king. .Tohn Sobieski, had not arrived before its 
 walls (Sept. 12), and completely routed the besieging army. 
 In 10S7, Archduke Charles of Lorraine defeated the Turks 
 at Mohacs ; in 1097, Prince Eugene defeated thematZenta: 
 aud in 1699 peace was concluded at Carlowitz, by which 
 the Turks ceded Transylvania. Slavonia, etc., and retired 
 behind the Danube, never to endanger Europe again. The 
 Hungarians also submitted, and at the diet of Presburg 
 (16S7) the Hungarian crown was declared hereditary In the 
 family of Hapsburg. Nevertheless, they rose once more, 
 and when Leopold d. at Vienna (May 5, 1705) insurrection 
 ragi'd in his Hungarian countries, and war with France in 
 his Belgian, German, and Italian possessions. 
 
 Leopold II., emperor of Germany (1790-92). b. at 
 Vienna May 5, 1747, the second son of Francis I. and Ma- 
 ria Theresa. In I7fi5 he succeeded his father as grand duke 
 of Tuscany, and proved himself a libera! and enlightened 
 ruler. But, like his brother, Joseph II., and like Pombal 
 in Portugal and Struensee in Denmark, he was a despotic 
 reformer, and his reforms caused great annoyances and dis- 
 turbances. In 1791) he succeeded his brother in Austria 
 and (iermany. and found on his ascension to the throne the 
 vast em])ire in a critical state. With great tact, however, 
 he managed the difiicult situation. He pacified Hungary, 
 quelled the insurrection in Belgium, concluded jicace with 
 Turkey at Sistova in 1791, and re-established the friendly 
 relations with Prussia by the congress of Reichenbaeh in 
 1790. .Just as he had entered a confederation with Prus- 
 sia and Saxony for the support of Louis XVI. against 
 his rebellious subjects, he d. suddenly at Vienna Mar. 1, 
 1792. 
 
 Leopold L, king of Belgium (18.31-65). b. Dec. 16, 
 17911, the youngest son of Duke Francis of Sa.xe-Coburg ; 
 received a very careful education, was made a general in 
 the Russian army after the marriage of his sister to the 
 grand duke Constantine, accompanied Alexander I. to Vi- 
 enna and Paris in 1814, and was married in 1810 to the 
 princess Charlotte .Augusta, heir-apparent of Great Britain. 
 After her death in 1817 he lived in retirement in London 
 or travelling. In 1S.10 he refused the crown of Greece, hut 
 in ls:U he aceepted that of BLdgium, and married in 18;i2 
 a daughter of Louis Philippe, who bore him three children. 
 His reign was calm and undisturbed. He was firm, dis- 
 criminating, ami progressive in his interior policy, an<l 
 he represented liis people with tact and dignity among 
 other sovereigns. D. at Lcaken, near Brussels, Dec. 10, 
 IS 6.".. 
 
 Leopold II., king of Belgium, b. Apr. 9, 1835, a son 
 of King licopold I. and Queen Louisa, a daughter of Louis 
 Philippe of Fr.ance; was married (.Aug. 22, 185:i) to Marie 
 Hcnricttc. a daughter of the archduke Joseph of Austria, 
 and ascended the throne Dec. 10, lSfi5. 
 
 Leopold I., prince of Anhalt-Dessau. generally known 
 as the Old Dhssaieu, b. June .1. 1(170. and evinced even 
 as a boy a strung passion for military business. In 
 
 \(\SS the emperor Leopold I. made him a colonel and chief 
 of a regiment of horse, but in 169'i, at the death of his 
 father, who was a Prussian general-field-raarshal, he en- 
 tered the Prussian service and received his father's regi- 
 ment. He was at once passionate and shrewd, domineering 
 and kind, utterly rough in his manners and often sublime 
 in his feelings. As a youth he fell in love with .Anna Luiso 
 Ffise, the daughter of a druggist, and in spite of all rcmon- 
 , strances, as soon as he was of age ( in 1698) he married her, 
 induced the emperor to raise her to princely rank, and led 
 a noble and happy married life with her. He served from 
 1 698 to 171-j with great distinction and in high and responsi- 
 ble positions under Eugene and Marlborough in the Nether- 
 i lands, on the Rhine, and in Italy, and on the accession of 
 ! Frederick William I. to the Prussian throne he actually 
 became the head of the Prussian army. He was a master 
 in military training. He invented the equal step, and 
 formed those armies with which Frederick II. founded the 
 political power of Prussia. He was at once despotic and 
 inspiring, and that spirit — a spirit of discipline — before 
 which the Austrians broke down at Sadowa and the French 
 
 ■ at Sedan, descends from the Old Dessauer. He was, how- 
 I ever, not only a drill-sergeant, like his royal friend. Fred- 
 I erick William I. : he was also a general. His conquest of 
 
 I Riigen and the capture of Stralsund in 1715 in the war 
 
 ■ against the Swedes were brilliant exploits. Frederick 11., 
 who disliked him because he smelt of the tofmrrf, cnl/cijhim, 
 valued his capacities as a commander very highly. In the 
 first Silesian war he placed him in command of the army 
 
 j on the Hanoverian frontier, and in the second he sent him 
 j t't invade Saxony, where ho won the brilliant victory at 
 ' Kesselsdorf which ended the war. After the death of his 
 ' wife, in 1745, he retired from all participation in public 
 life, and d. on his estate at Dessau Apr. 7. 1747. 
 
 Leopold II., grand duke of Tuscany (1824-59), b. Oct. 
 3, 1797, a son of the grand duke Ferdinand III. He ruled 
 in the same spirit as his grandfather, Leopold I., emperor 
 of Germany, under the name of liCopold II. In 1847 ho 
 
 ' granted a free constitution, and although in 1849 he had to 
 flee to Naples, he was recalled shortly after by his own sub- 
 jects. Thus he weathered the liberal storm, but the na- 
 tional, which soon followed, was too powerful for him. In 
 1859 he iletl wifli his family to A'ienna. No regard was 
 paid to his abdication in favor of his son. His dominions 
 
 I were incorporated with the kingdrim of Italy in conseqiicnco 
 of a popular vote, and he d. an exile at Brandcis, in Bohe- 
 
 i mia. Jan. 20, 1S70. 
 
 j Leos'thenes, an Athenian general of whose earlier 
 
 ! life nothing is known. In 324. when Alexander the Great 
 
 i ordered all the Greek states to recall those citizens who had 
 been exiled for political reasons, several of the states rose 
 in rebellion. Alexander dying shortly after, a league was 
 formed for the purpose of driving the Macedonians out of 
 Greece, and Lcosthenes was placed at the head of the con- 
 federate army. His career was short but brilliant. He 
 routed the Boeotians, wlm sided witii the Macedonians, and 
 then defeati'il Antipater, the Macedonian general, and shut 
 him up in Lamia. But while besieging this city he was 
 wounded mortally in the head by a stone thrown from the 
 r:inij)arts. aud d. two days after, 322 ii. c. 
 
 Lepau'to, Gulf of, also called the (>tilf of Corinth, 
 an inlet of the Mediterranean. 75 miles long and about 16 
 miles wide, between Peloponnesus and the mainland of 
 (Jreece, terminates to the E. in the Gulf of Patras, con- 
 nected with it by tlie Strait of Lepanto. not more than a 
 
 ! mile wide. In this gulf was fought (Oct. 7, 1571 i the cel- 
 ebrated battle between Don John of .Austria, commanding 
 the allied Spanish. Venetian, and papal licet, an<l ,Ali Pa?ha, 
 commander of the Turkish fleet, from which battle may be 
 dated the decline of the Turkish power in Europe. (See the 
 
 I elaborate and very impressive description in Prescott'sy//*- 
 
 I t->rif ../ /'/n'lip II. nf Spuin.) 
 
 Lep'idine [Gr. Acn-i?, "scale," or "bark"]. CioHgN, 
 a volatile, oily base, homologous with chinoline, obtained' 
 with that and other bases on distilling quinine orcinchonine 
 with water and potassic hydrate. Its sp. gr. is 1.072, 
 boiling ]ioint between 200° and 271° *'. The isomeric base 
 iridoline. formerly supposed to be identical with lepidine, is 
 found in the oil of coal-tar. C. F. CnAxni.ER. 
 
 Lepidodeti'dron [Gr. " scale tree "]. a genus of fossil 
 trees, usually referred to the Lyeopodiaeea\ but was once 
 thought to be allied to the coniferous araucarias. Their 
 remains are found in the Devonian rocks and the Lower 
 Coal-measures, and they are believed to have contributed 
 largely to the producti<m of coal. Their surface is marked 
 with scale- shaped spaces, which are the scars of fallen 
 , leaves. Many of them were of great size— 40 to 80 feet 
 high and 3 to feet through. Remains of many species 
 are known, partly American, partly European, and partly 
 common to both couliucuts.
 
 LEPIDOLITE— LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 I73;i 
 
 Lrpid'olitC [Gr. Afir.t. " scale," and A.9o5, "stone"], j 
 a species of mica, crvstalliiing in the trimetric systcni, anil 
 in composition a siiieatc of alumina, etc. with lithia. It 
 is generally met with in granular masses, consisting, as its 
 name implies, of foliated scales. 
 
 liCpidop'tcrn. This term [Or. Aem's, "scale," and 
 irrcpd.'. " wing "] was applied to the huttcrllics and moths hv 
 Linnrcns, in allusion to the fine powdery scales which clothe 
 their wings. liut this is a character of secondary import- 
 ance, ascertain Diplcra(r'ii/cj-. ctc.)and roleo|.tcra. as well 
 as Neuroptera. have the body slightly scaled. The l.epidop- 
 tcra are hetter ilistingui.shcd hy the long, slender larvie 
 (caterpillars), which have usually from two to five pairs of 
 soft, flesh V. unjointed abdominal legs, besides the three 
 thoracic p'airs. They arc active, and eat vegetable food : 
 the pupa (chrysalis) is inactive, the limbs being soldered to 
 the body, the 'whole integument forming a solid ease : while 
 the adult (imago) is distinguished from all other insects by 
 the want of mandibles fitted for mastication (as they exist 
 in a verv rudimentary state), and by the maxilire being 
 united and forming a sucking-tube called the " tongue." 
 Other essential characters are the small head with its large 
 clypeus, the minute lal>rum. the large globular compound 
 eyes, the large, sealed labial palpi held up in front of the 
 face and protecting the tongue, and by the usually broad 
 wings densely covered with minute scales. The l.epidoptcra 
 are essentiallv flying insects ; the broad wings arc strength- 
 ened by hollow rods (the so-called veins, containing an air- 
 tube around which the blood flows), which arc placed near- 
 est together on the front or eostivl edge of the wing. The 
 normal number of these veins is si.x : they are v.ariously 
 brnnehcd, afl"ording characters for distinguishing families 
 an.l genera. .\s they rarely walk, only using their legs as 
 supports while at rest, these appendages are slender and 
 weak, and very uniform in appearance, but frequently the 
 foremost pair of legs are aborted or rndimentary. The 
 head is small, the masticatory muscles being slightly 
 developed, since these insects take little Ibod. ami then 
 only by sucking up dew or honey through their tongue. 
 The thorax, however, filled with the large, powerful 
 muscles of flight, is very largo in proportion to the 
 head, and more or less spherical, duo to the small size 
 of the prothoraeic segment and the rather small third 
 (uietathoracic) segment. The abdomen, or hind body, is 
 cylindrical, about twice as long as the thorax, with no 
 true ovipositor or other appendage, except tv/u valve-like 
 pieces in the female, representing the ovipositor of other 
 insects. In the male there is a pair of hooked forceps 
 adapted f.ir clasping the abdomen of the female during cop- 
 ulation. Heturning to the head, besides the two large com- 
 pounri eyes, are two simple eyes (ocelli ) situated behind the 
 former. " The most interesting organs are the antennie, 
 which vary greatly in the difl'erent groups. In the butter- 
 flies they are knobbed, in the .■sphinx and its allies they are 
 fusiform, in the silkworms ( liombycidu!) they are beauti- 
 
 Calerpillar, chry.salis, and bullertly, male auil female, of the 
 pine silkworm mi>th {Ilumtii/x </i.v>"r). 
 
 fully pectinated, the branches being especially long and 
 well develnpeil in the American silkworm (Trim I'l.lii/ihf- 
 mil.) and f'ecropia. Luna, and I'roiiulhea moths. These 
 branched organs are und.oil.te.lly provided with the sense 
 of hearing, as are the knobbi-.l feelers of the butterflies, 
 which have scattered over the knob little auditory sacs con- 
 necting with the antennni nerve. The hairs clothing the 
 body of a liullerfly or moth are simply modifieil scales, as 
 can be demonstrated by comparing a numbiT under the 
 microscope with the scales taken from the base of the wings. 
 
 where the hairs gradually pass into scales. These scales 
 are inserted by a sort of ball-and-socket joint to the wing, 
 the points of attachment being arranged in irregular raiseil 
 lines. They are more or less notched at the end. and 
 beautifully ornamented with miero.seopic lines. Under the 
 microscope they are colorless, and the varied and rich colors 
 of the wings of butterflies and some moths arc. like those 
 of pearl, due to the interference of light. 
 
 Kegarding the internal anatomy of the Lepidoptera, wo 
 may say that the nervous system is, in its general form, 
 much as in other insects. There are seven ventral ganglia 
 in the adult and eleven in the larva. This decrease in their 
 number is due to the fusion during the pupa state of the 
 first, second, third, and fourth ganglia of the larva, exclu- 
 sive of those situated in the front part of the bead. The 
 two thoracic ganglia or nerve-centres resulting from this 
 fusion distribute nerves to the legs and the muscles of the 
 wings. Meanwhile, the fifth and sixth ganglia of the larva 
 have either disappeared entirely, or been united with the 
 others. (Xnrjj'irl.) In connection with the tongue is a 
 sucking stomach, which opens into the (lostcrior end of the 
 fcsophagus. The silk-glands of the larva are very large, 
 consisting of two long, flexuous. thick-walled glands silu- 
 ated on the sides of the body, and opening l)y a common 
 orifice on the under side (labium), usually at the extremity 
 of a short tubular protuberance. They are most developed 
 when the cater|iillar is about to transform into the pupa 
 state, and is aliout to spin a cocoon. The silk is a glutinous 
 secretion which solidifies and assumes a thread like texture 
 on exposure to the air. There are six long urinary tubes 
 which open into the posterior or pyloric end of the stomach. 
 The ovaries consist of four very long tubes : the copulatory 
 pouch is a remarkably large pyriform reservoir. The testes 
 form two round or oval follicles. 
 
 The metamorphoses of the Lepidoptera are "complete," 
 the larva being worm-like, the pupa inactive and closely 
 resembling the adult, except that the limbs are soldered to 
 the bodv. The eggs of butterflies and moths are more or 
 less spherical, sometimes flattened, usually ribbed, and 
 forming beautiful objects for the microscope. The young 
 caterpillar on hatching often eats up its shell and embryonal 
 membranes before partaking of its true vegetable food. It 
 is then much like the adult, but with the head larger in 
 proportion to the body, and usually wilh<mt the hairs, spines, 
 and warts characteristic of the older individuals, and which 
 are acquired during the subsequent moults. There are four or 
 five of these changes of skin or moults. Previous to moult- 
 i ing the caterpillar slops eating. Ilie old skin, now hardened 
 i and tense, splits asunder on the back, and the calerpillar 
 draws its new body out of the rent, and then considerably 
 exceeds its former size. This is a critical period with the 
 ' insect, and many through weakness and disease rlie during 
 the process. Mr. Trouvelot tells us in his account of the 
 Polvphemus silkworm ( Ai«fiir<tii j\niiirnl!i!, yo\. \. ]t. .W) 
 that when the silkworm is batched it weighs one-twentieth 
 of ft grain, when ten days old one half a grain, and when 
 it has attained its full size, which it does in fifty-six days, 
 it weighs 207 grains, or 414(1 limes its origimil weight. By 
 the time the calerpillar has become fully grown it will have 
 consumed not less than 120 oak-leaves, weighing three- 
 quarters of a pound ; besides this, it will have ilrunk not 
 less than one-half an ounce of water. "So the food taken 
 by a single silkworm in fifty six days equals in weight 
 sii.OOO times the primitive weight of the worm. Of this about 
 quarter of a pound becomes cxcrcmentilious matter, 207 
 groins are assimilated, and over .") ounces have evaporated." 
 Hefore entering upon the pupa state the caterpillar grows 
 restless, stops ealing. deserts its food, and spins a silken 
 cocoon, or. if not a silU-produeing wr.rm. constructs a ruile 
 cocoon of particles of dirt. or. if a borer, in the stems of 
 plants or trunks of trees, of chips made by the larva, fasl- 
 eneil together with silk. Hire it remains for two or three 
 days. Meanwhile, its body contniels in length, ami the 
 skin of the pupa grows beneath Ihat of the larva. AVhile 
 the bodv of the wormlike caterpillar exhibits no difference 
 between the thorax and abdoni the muscles of the grow- 
 ing pupn variiMisly iMiiilract and enlarge benealh the eali-r- 
 pillar skin until tile pupa I'nrm is coniplole. when it works 
 its way out through a rent in the back. This pupa-skin is 
 developed from the hiipmlrrmiii or inner layer of skin, as 
 shown by Weissman. and the rudiments of the pupa and 
 imago exist as small clisks of cells allaehed to fine lraehea> 
 or nerves in the very young caferjiillar. so Ihat ,<wammer- 
 dam's idea Ihat the skin of the pupa ami imago existed in 
 the larva is partially correct. The difl'eront forms of cocoinis 
 are very varied and often beautiful objects. Those of the 
 geometric tir measuring moths are thin, imd often consist 
 simply of a network of threails suspeioled anooig the leaves 
 of the plants on which the calerpillar has IVil. The cocoon 
 of the tv.iiio/io moth is made out of the hairs of the eater- 
 pillar, which are finely barbed and adhere together without
 
 1734 
 
 LEPIDOSIREN— LEPIDOSTEID.E. 
 
 anv silk thread. The most complete cocoons arc those of 
 the silkwortus. Our native silkworm {Tcitn J'ith/jjheniH«) 
 constructs a very perfect cocoon, a continuous thread com- 
 posing it. Mr. Trouvelot states that the Pol,vpheuiu:H larva, 
 when about to .-^pin its cocoon, draws tlie leaves loj^ether as 
 a support for the threads, forming the foundation of the 
 cocoon. "This seems to be the most difficult feat for the 
 worm to aeeomplish, as after this the work is simply 
 mechanical, the cocoon being made of regular layers of silk 
 united by a gummy substance. The silk is distributed in 
 zigzag lines of about one-eighth of an inch long. When the 
 cocoon is made the worm will have moved his head to and 
 fro, in order to distribute the silk, about 2.i4,U00 times. 
 After abuut half a day's work the cocoon is so far eumi)leted 
 that the worm can hardly be distinguished through the fine 
 texture of the wall; then a gummy, resinous substance, 
 sometimes of a light-brown color, is spread over all the in- 
 side of the cocoon. The larva continues to work for four 
 or five days, hardly taking a few minutes of rest, and finally 
 another coating is spun in the interior, when the cocoon is 
 all finished and completely air-tight. The fibre diminishes 
 in thickness as the completion of the cocoon advances, so 
 that the last internal coating is not half so thick and so 
 strong as the (mtside ones." The eoeoon of the Chinese 
 silkworm {Bumhtfx mori) is white or whitish yellow, and is 
 over an inch long ami nearly half asbroadj 3G0 cocoons 
 weigh a pound and a half. 
 
 It has long been known that the females of the Bomhyx 
 mofi and a few other moths have in one or more instances 
 been known to lay eggs which without being fertilized by 
 the males have hatched out. Psi/chc helix was for a long 
 time supposed to reproduce solely in this way, but lately 
 Clans has found the males, which, however, arc exceed- 
 ingly rare. Connected with this subject of parthenogenesis 
 among the Lepidoptera is the occurrence of two forms of 
 the sexes, or dimorphism. Mr. Wallace has discovered two 
 forms of females of PnpHio Mcmnon ; one form is normal, 
 having its wings tailed, as usual among the swallow-taiied 
 butterllies. while the second form is tailless, resembling the 
 tailed male. Pttpilio Pnmmon has three sorts of females, 
 and may be said to be trimorphic. Pttpilio Onneunn is tri- 
 morphic. Our PapiHo Tunnis is dimorphic, the Southern 
 dark form having been described as a distinct species 
 under the name of P. (I'fnucus. Pnpilio Ajax. is polymor- 
 ])hou?, the same batch of eggs having given rise to P. Ajax 
 and varieties Wnhhii, TtJainoui'tle'*, and Marcellua. Lepi- 
 doptera in the larva state arc much exposed to disease, espe- 
 cially those kept in confinement. Pebrinc, a disease due to a 
 very minute fungus, has threatened to exterminate the silk- 
 worm in Southern Europe. Another (lii^ense. muscardine, is 
 due to the attacks of another fungus, the liotn/tuH Jiannianns. 
 Fossil Lepidoptera have occurred in the .Jurassic forma- 
 tion; a sphinx-like moth has been found in the Tertiary 
 beds of Kurope, and an unknown moth in the Tertiary 
 rocks of the Rocky Mountains. A few minute forms have 
 occurred in amber, -'\bnut a thousand species of butterflies 
 alone inhabit this country, and about 25,000 species of Le- 
 jiidoptera in all are known to exist. 
 
 The following synopsis of the different families begins 
 with the lowest and cuds with the highest : 
 
 Sifnopttifi of the Families of Lepidoptera. 
 
 1. Wings variously fissured; larva cither hairy and pupa 
 
 naked {Ptcrophorufi), or naked and spinning a cocoon 
 {Alncita) : I'tcmphorida- (plume moths). 
 
 2. Wings very narrow, more or less pointed ; fringe very 
 
 long; larva very slender, often mining leaves: Tiiieidte 
 (clothes moth, etc.). 
 .3. Wings oblong: larva naked, rolling up leaves : Tortri- 
 cidie (leaf-rollers). 
 
 4. Palpi very long; larva often glassy green: Pifralidx 
 
 { snout motlis). 
 
 5. Wings broad, triangular; larva with only two pairs of 
 
 abdominal legs, and consequently a measuring gait: 
 /'haln-uidie (geometrids, nicasuring-worms). 
 
 6. AVings rather narrow ; larva smooth, cylindrical, taper- 
 
 ing towards both ends: Soctuidn^ (owlet moths, cut- 
 worms, ete.). 
 
 7. lleail unusually small, sunken: antenna; pectinate; 
 
 body hairy; larva hairy, gpinning a thick cocoon: 
 
 Jiomhi/cidn' (silkworms). 
 S. Iligh-colored m<iths. with large heads; antenna' either 
 
 simple, sub-fusifurni, or slightly pectinated: larva 
 
 naked, and humped at the end, or with radiating tufts 
 
 of hairs : Zyiinuida:. 
 9. Wings very long and narrow, semi-transparent; larva 
 
 boring trees: ^ICi/eriadir (borers). 
 10. Largo moths with large heads, narrow wings ; a long 
 
 tongue; larva with a horn on the end of the body; 
 
 pupa often with a free toDgue-caso : Sphingida (hawk 
 
 moths). 
 
 pidosiren. 
 
 11. Antenna; knobbed, wings broad; larva often spincd; 
 chrysalis naked, often with protuberances and golden 
 or silvery spots: Pupilionidve (butterflies). 
 
 A. S. Packard, Jr. 
 Lepidosi'ren [Gr.AeTri?, "scale," and o-cipij*-. " siren "], 
 the typical genus of the family Lepidosirenidu', distin- 
 guished by its very elongated eel-shaped body (it having 
 about lifty-five pairs of ribs) ; the pectoral and ventral 
 •'•fins "or filaments are plain and tapering, and are en- 
 tirely destitute of rayed fringes; there arc five branchial 
 arches, with four corresponding intervening clefts; no 
 external branchial appendage is developed; and tlie cusps 
 of th<' ili ii!:il ji|;!t.> nf ilir jialatc. US well as lower jaw, arc 
 well developed. Tlic genus 
 is represented by only one 
 well -distinguished species 
 I l.rptditHircn pantdoxa, 
 Fitzinger), although two 
 or three have been thought 
 to exist by some. The spe- 
 cies occurs quite generally 
 apparently in the.\mazon River, as well asits tributaries, but 
 is rare : if popular reports arc to be credited, this or a spe- 
 cies of the same genus sometimes attains a gigantic size, 
 though the length of those obtained rarely much exceeds 
 three feet. (See Lepidosirenid.*:.) Thkodore Gill. 
 
 liCpidosiren'idse [from Lepido»ircu, the typical genus 
 of the family, and the termination -ida], a family of fishes 
 of the order Sirenoidea, with an elongated and eel-shaped 
 body covered with modi^rate cycloid seales ; the dorsal and 
 anal arc united with the caudal, and form a continuous 
 homogeneous border for the tapering tail; the pectoral and 
 ventral fins are developed as articulated filaments; the 
 upper labial cartilage has a median pair of conical teeth; 
 the palatine dental plate on each side is elongated and 
 oblong, and has several strong cuspidate vertical ridges; 
 the labial plate is of similar form, and has also several 
 transverse cuspidate ridges; the air-bladder is represented 
 by two lung-like sacs slightly connected together and 
 communicating by a duct, provided with a glottis opening 
 in the floor of the oesophagus. This family is of extreme 
 interest, as it was for a long time a matter of dispute 
 whether its members were fishes or amphibians. Fitziuger 
 (1837) and Natterer (is;ifl), who first described the Ameri- 
 can type [Lcpidosircn paradoxa), referred it to the am- 
 phibians next to Sireu, from which they difi'erentiated it 
 .chiefly by the seales, and hence gave the name Lepidnsinn 
 — i.e. "scaly siren." Owen (1839), who first made known 
 the African type, on the other hand contended that it was 
 a fish. After much discussion they were and are now 
 conceded to bo true fishes, representing a peculiar family 
 (Lopidosirenida;), order (Sirenoidea). and su]>er-order or 
 sub-class (Dipnoi) of the class of Fishes (whieh see). The 
 family is also interesting, as being (next to the related 
 Ceratodontidtf) the most nearly allied to numerous extinct 
 fishes which flourished during PaUvozoic and Mesozoic 
 times, and which until lately were much misunderstood. 
 The two recent genera (LEriDosiREN and PitoTorrEurs) arc 
 alone known, and will be noticed under their respective 
 names. (Sec also Sire.voidei.) Theodore Gill. 
 
 IjCpidoste'idflB [named from the typical genus Lrpi- 
 
 do8teiis (Acms, scale, and octroi', bone) and the family termi- 
 nation -idee], the only existing family of the order Kliombo- 
 ganoidea, distinguished by the elongated and sub-eylin- 
 dricai body co\ cred with rhomboidai scales; the head 
 elongated, ami terminating forwards in a long beak-like 
 snout; the upper jaw projecting beyond the lower, and 
 with the nostrils near the end of the snout ; the fins aio 
 provide<l with fulcra; the short dorsal situated far btdiind, 
 and just above the anal tin ; the stomach is simple in form, 
 but with numerous jiyloric appendages; the intestine has a 
 rudimentary spiral valve. This family, although the only 
 living ty}»e of the- order to whieh it belongs, had numerous 
 relations in the Mesozoic and Paleozoic epochs. The skel- 
 eton has many peculiarities, among whieh is the eumposito 
 structure of the upper jaw, as well as the character of the 
 vertebra", which are eonvex in fnmt and concave behind. 
 There are but few representatives, which are divisible into 
 three groups, by some entitled genera, viz.: Lcpidostmay 
 CifliudfOHtruH, and AtraftonttnH. The genera are regarded 
 by some as nionotypie : i. » . all the forms bLdonging te each 
 are considered to be members of a single speeies; while 
 others, e. 7. Agassiz, admit as many as eighteen or twenty 
 undefined species in the family. The species are found 
 chiefly in the waters of northern America, but representa- 
 tives of one group. Ati-nrtanfrm, descend as far southwards 
 as Central America and Cuba; a species has also been re- 
 cently discovered in China. In the Tertiary epoch the 
 family was represented by forms closely related to the liv- 
 ing American species in Kurope. Theodore Gill.
 
 LEPIDUS— LEPROSY. 
 
 1735 
 
 Lep'^idus, the name of an ancient patrician family of 
 Rome beluDg^iug to thc^milian gens. The most conspicuous 
 membtT of the family was Makci's ^Kmii.k s Lki'IDTS, the 
 triumvir. He was a weak, vain, and avaricious man, des- 
 titute of any talent or any superior quality, but twice — 
 and both times in momenta of the utmost consequence — 
 chance placed the decision of affairs in his hands, lie was 
 praetor in 19 b. c, when the war broke out between Caesar 
 and Ponipey. He sided with Ca'sar. was made his mntjiHUr 
 etfuifmn in 47 n. c, consul in 4t> b. c, and in 44 received as 
 his provinces Spain and Gallia Narbonensis. Ho was just 
 organizing bis proconsular army at Homeland was thus at 
 the head of the only armed force in the city, when Ca?sar 
 was murdered. He used his position to get himself elected 
 pnnti/rx innjci'inun, and having brouglit about a rec4)ncil- 
 iation between Aniimy and the senate, be proceeded to his 
 provinces, flattered and coaxed by both parties. The agree- 
 ment between Antony and the senate did not last long, how- 
 ever, and after the defeat at Mutina, Antony took refuge 
 with Lepidus. and was well received. Octavianus, who 
 up to this time had acted simply as the general of the sen- 
 ate, saw that in a contest with Lepidus and .Antony the 
 cause of the aristocracy was a lost cause, and commenced 
 immediately negotiations which led to the formation of the 
 famous triumvirate in 4'.i n. c. By the partition of the 
 provinces, Lepirlus received Spain and Gallia Narbonensis, 
 and was lelt as governor of Rome while Antony and Octa- 
 vianus proceeded against Brutus and Cassius. But by the 
 second partition, after the battle of Philippi in 42 B. c, he 
 was treated rather slightingly, and received only Africa. 
 This province ho held till ^G b. c, in which year Octavianus 
 orclercd him to join him at Sicily against Sextus Pompeius. 
 Lepidus came, and believed the opportunity favorable for 
 an attempt at throwing off the authority of Octavianus. .At 
 the decisive moment, however, his Sdldiers deserted him, and 
 on liis knees he had to beg for mercy. Octavianus treated 
 him with great contempt, deprived him of his province, 
 though not of his private fortune or of his dignity of pon- 
 tiftj- mnximns, and banished him to Circeii, where ho lived 
 in retirement till his death, 13 B. c. 
 
 Lepor'idrp [Lat. lrpu»^ "hare," and -irfic], a family of 
 duplieidentate glirine mammals, readily recognizable by the 
 external appearance of the body, as well as by the struc- 
 
 The Uabbit. 
 
 ture of the skeleton. 'The hind legs being much more do- 
 velnped than the fore ! alih<nigh not so ilispropitrtionately as 
 in (he kangaroos .'ind jumping mice ), the animal iirogresses 
 by a series of running leaps or short jumps, in which latter 
 case the back is cr«ioked and arched ba<rkwarcl, and gives 
 the characteristic jihysiognomy : the heail is high, arched 
 backward, and ct-mpressed; the eyes lateral and promi- 
 nent; the snout rounded, and with the nostrils converging 
 dt)wnward to a median furrow which divides the lips; the 
 cars are more or loss elongated, and the tail is short and 
 bushy, and turned up. Tho skull is high and conijircssed, 
 the rostral portion much produced and broad, and the in- 
 terorbital urea widened by the development of enlarged 
 and expanding supraorbital plates or procest^cs separated 
 generally by narrow fissures from tho body of the frontal 
 bones fore and aft ; the orbits are ample; the nasal pro- 
 ees?es of the supraniaxlllary bones are perforated in a sieve- 
 like manner; and the lower jaw has the ascending rami 
 very oblique, and the condyles consequently far backward, 
 and tho angular process extensive forward. Tho teelh, be- 
 
 sides tho four incisors of the upper and two of the lower 
 jaw (Jx 2), consist of six molars in the upper and five in 
 the lower jaw on each side (M. \, P. M. 3X2); those of 
 tho upper jaw have mostly (M.2. P. M. 2) a vertical groovo 
 on the outer as well as inner surface; the crowns are broader 
 than long, and have three transverse ridges; those of the 
 lower jaw are broader, and the grooves are much stronger. 
 Imperfect clavicles are developed. Such arc the most im- 
 portant characters common to the hares and rabbits. The 
 species are quite numerous, between thirty and forty species 
 being generally recognized, and are most abunilant in the 
 arctogsean regions (North America, Euroj)e, and Northern 
 Asia) and the temperate zone; representatives arc found, 
 however, far X. and S., one (Lepua glaciah's) extending to 
 the Arctic regions, and others are found as far S. as Brazil, 
 India, and the Cape, but scarcely or not at all in the low- 
 lands of tlie torrid regions. Though thus widely diffused 
 and numerous in species, they agree so closely in structure 
 as to render it doubtful whether there is more than one 
 generic typo among them, although as many as four have 
 been proposed by the late I>r. J. K. Gray. 
 
 There is a remarkable difference in habits between tho 
 hares and rabbits. The hares never burrow, but simply 
 compose a " form " or nest, in which they rest and bring 
 forth their young, and the young aro born covered with 
 hair and with the eyes open. The rabbits, on the contrary, 
 burrow in the ground, and often make extensive tunnels, 
 and in these burrows they live and bring forth their broods ; 
 the young aro brought into the world naked and blind. 
 Notwithstanding such differences, however, there are no 
 corresponding structural characters, and the difierent ani- 
 mals aro closely related. All the American species are 
 *' hares " in the sense thus understood. Theodore Gill. 
 
 liCporiile' [Fr.], a name applied to a remarkable fer- 
 tile hybriii between the common European hare and tho 
 rabbit. Leporides are now extensively breil in France, 
 where they are esteemed for tho table. 
 
 Lcpo'riuSf a native of Gaul; entered in the beginning 
 of the fifth century a monastery in the vicinity of Mar- 
 seilles, and acquired a great reputation for learning and 
 holiness. He afterwards fell into the heresy of Pelagius, 
 and maintained that man has no need of the grace of God, 
 and that Christ was born with a human nature only. Ho 
 was exeomniunieated, and went to Africa. 
 Hero he met with St. Augustine, and so 
 great was the influence of this powerful 
 man on Leporius that in 425 he retract- 
 ed, and was ordained a presbyter by Au- 
 gustine. His retraction, which was ad- 
 dressed to Proculus, bishop of Marseilles, 
 and Cylliunius. bishop of Aix.and pub- 
 lished' in IfiiiU under tho title lihcUm 
 eiiutitl'ttiunin Hire Hdti'n/actt'onis ad epia- 
 copoM (Inlliiv, was much appreciated by 
 tho old Church. 
 
 Lcp'ra [Gr. At'irpa, "leprosy"], adis- 
 ease of the skin, in which scaly patches, 
 concealing a red and inflamed surface, 
 are seen, particularly upon those parts 
 of the limbs where the bones aro but 
 thinly covered. It is not contagious, 
 may last for many years or may bo 
 sp<intancously cured, and does not usual- 
 ly affect tho general health. Arsenical 
 medicines, with applications of tarry 
 " ' compounds and iodide of sulphur, aro 
 
 5^"^^ recommended in its treatment, 
 
 IjCp'rosy [(ir. Aeirpa, ** leprosy"]. "an 
 incurable constitutional disease of adult 
 life, which is especially |irevalcnt in 
 tropical and sub-tropical clinmtes." ( luibt-rt LivifiiHj.) 
 It maybe divided into three forms, as follows: "First. 
 Macular leprosy, characterized by an eruption on the skin, 
 accom|>anied by aniesthesia. Sennid, Ameslhotic leprosy, 
 of which the ehief features arc aniesthesia and diseolora- 
 tions of the skin and atrophy of tho muscles, with ulcera- 
 tion and mutilation of the hands and feel. The thini form, 
 or tubereulatid leprosy, is characterized by a bronzing and 
 tubereulaled thickening of the skin, especially of tho face, 
 oars, hands, and feet, tollowed by similar changes in tho 
 mucous membrane of tlu* u])]»er |)art of the alimentary and 
 resjilratory tracts, ending fatally in from two to fifteen years, 
 by intereurreni disease in some vital organ.'' { Lirrliiitf.) 
 
 Leprosy, or fl'pfinutinniii (inrpnrnm, is a disease which 
 has been known and justly dreaded from the earliest ages. 
 We find frequent mention of it in the Bible, but the diseaao 
 as there spoken of evidently includeil many other skin af- 
 fections, which at that lime they were unable to differen- 
 tiate. The proof of this is that tho cases aro there men- 
 tioned as having recovered, which wo now know would
 
 1736 
 
 LEPSIUS— LEQUESNE, 
 
 have been impossible had they been true leprowy. The 
 IrpiT has always been an outcast from society, both on 
 aeoount of the Ufathsomeness of his disease, and the idea 
 which has prevailed of its contagiousness. During the Mid- 
 dle Aj;es numerous leper-houses were established iu various 
 parts nf Europe, where those suffering from the disease 
 were coiiliueil. and prohibited by law from ajjpeuring in 
 the streets. Now, however, that it is known that the dis- 
 ease can only be transmitted from parent to offspring, the 
 laws are more lax on this point, and a Icpcr-house is a 
 thing seldom heard of. At the present time leprosy is 
 most prevalent in Syria and Egypt, and the cases met with 
 throughout Europe and America are rare. Almitst every 
 drug iu the pharmacojiuiia has been nscd iu the treatment 
 of this dis'-'ase, but without avail, and now the treatment 
 is principally palliative. Good food, clothing, and the pre- 
 vention of marriage amongst lepers are the only means 
 we possess to better their condition and decrease their 
 number. Edward J. Bi:KMiNt;nAM. 
 
 Lep'sius (Kari. Richatid). Ph. D., b. at Naumburg, 
 Prussian Saxony, Dec. 23, 1810, the son of K. P. Lepsius 
 { I77ii-\^b''<), an able archteologist ; studied at Leipsic, G'6t- 
 tingon. and Berlin under Bopp's instruction, graduating at 
 Berlin with a thesis on the Ei GrBiAS Tablrs (which see), 
 which obtained his degree; went to Paris in 183.3, and for 
 his PdliTfHjrnphtf applied to Linguistic lienearches gained 
 the Volney prize; in 1835 made researches in the libraries 
 of Italy: devoted his attention to languages, especially to 
 ■^Egyptology, and wrote Letter to M. RoseUini on the Hiero- 
 fffifphic Alphahet in 1837; went to England in I83S ; pro- 
 jected an expedition to Egypt, which left England in 1842, 
 and with success returned to Germany in 18-4J; became 
 professor at Berlin in 1846; again went to Egypt in 18G6, 
 and discovered at Tanis a bilingual inscription of the time 
 of Ptolemy Euergetes ; has published a valuable work on 
 the Nile, translated into English; and was placed over the 
 Prussian state library in Berlin in 1874. Among liis works 
 are Jhts Todtenbuch der Aer/i/pter {lS-i2), Die Chronoloffie 
 der Ae(f_>/pter (1840), Denkmtiler aita Aegijpten tind Aethio- 
 pien {1849-59), Ueber den eraten iifji/pfischcn Gotfcrkrein 
 (1851), lirie/e una Aegypteit (1852), JCdnit/abtick der alten 
 Aeffi/pter (\H;ii^)y Die (igi/ptische Elle (l855j, Ueber eiuige 
 ii;/'/ptisrhf A'linhtformen, etc. (1871), etc. 
 
 I^eptan'dra [proposed for its generic name by Nut- 
 tall], the pliarmaceutical name of the Culver's physic ( Vc- 
 raiiicn Virginica, order Scrophulariaceae), a tall perennial 
 herb of the Atlantic U. S. which has decided cathartic 
 powers. Its impure resinoid is extracted and sold as lep- 
 taudrin. It is an agent of considerable value, and is be- 
 lieved by many practitioners to act decidedly upon the 
 liver: but this is very doubtful. 
 
 Lep'tis [Pha-nician for '* naval station"], or Great 
 Leptis, so called to distinguish it from another and less 
 imj)nrtaut Leptis, an ancient Sidonian colony and seaport 
 in what is now Tripoli in Barbary. between the two Syrtes 
 and near the modern Tripoli. It had a fine roadstead and 
 an artificial harbor, long since choked vt'ith sand. At this 
 jioint are very extensive ruins, in great ]iart buried in the 
 sand. Le])ti3 once had a large trade, but is now almost 
 without inhabitants. It was one of the three cities which 
 gave the name Tripolia to this region. 
 
 Leptocar'dia [Gr. Aen-Td?, "slender," and KapSia^ 
 " heart " |. the class of vertebrates containing the lowest 
 organized forms of the branch, and formerly confounded 
 with the class of fishes. Only a single genus {Urnnchin- 
 atftmn, Costa, or Amji/n'n.rus, Yarrell) is known, and this is 
 believed to be the surviving typo of a class which must 
 have been rich in representatives in the distant past, but 
 which, on account of the easy dcstructibility of all its 
 parts, has left no recognizfd remains in the rocks. The 
 brain is of the most rudimentary character and not devel- 
 oped into enlarged lobes, as in all other vertebrates ; the 
 skull is also undeveloped, nor are there any rudiments of 
 auditory organs; the skeleton is represented by a simple 
 notocord or embryonic backbone, which is not divided into 
 vertebra', and has no ribs or other appendages, no scap- 
 ular or pelvic arches, and consequently no pectoral or ven- 
 tral fins being developed. The circulatory system is also 
 very simple, and the heart simply tubular and not divided 
 into distinct chambers (and hence the name of the class). 
 The mouth is an elongated aperture bounded by a semi- 
 cartilaginous hoop, which is beset with filamentary pro- 
 cesses clothed with ciliated tentacles; this ojicns into "an 
 expanded pharyngeal chamber, which is s[tlit <m each side 
 by obliquely transverse clefts, through which the water 
 taken in by the mouth is discharged into an " atrial cham- 
 ber." and thence through a pore which represents the bran- 
 chial orifice of the Myxinida?. Such arc the chief dis- 
 tinctive characters of this type. The differences from all 
 others are so great that it is at first difficult to perceive the 
 
 homologies of the various organs and parts with those of 
 the higher vertebrates. So great, indeed, arc the differ- 
 ences that the original dcscriber of the European species. 
 Pallas, failed to perceive any resemblance to fishes or other 
 vertebrates, and referred it to the mollusk genus Limaj-. 
 Quite recently, too ( in 1S74 ), Semper, with a full knowledge 
 of its organization, has deliberatuly excluded it from the 
 vertebrates altogether. By all other authorities, however, 
 it has been referred to the branch of vertebrates, but in 
 various degrees of relation^hij) to the class of fishes. 
 Costa, Yarrell, and most other authors until recently have 
 regarded it as the lowest of fishes. Isidore Geoffrey St. 
 Hilaire, C. Bonaparte, and Moquin-Tnndon (all under the 
 name Myclozoa), and Hackel, Gtgenbaiir, O. Schmidt, Cope 
 (all under the name Leptocardia). and others, have raised 
 the type to class value; and several of them have con- 
 trasted it with all the other vertebrates, and thus expressed 
 their views as to the fundamental nature of its distinctive 
 characters. 
 
 Although the animal is so peculiar, it can be, however, 
 in general terms, compared with the Alarsipobranehiates, 
 and therefore with the other vertebrates : and although the 
 brain is in a rudimentary condition, the jirincipal nerves 
 are developed (though under somewhat doubttul guises), 
 and their relation to the frame-work permits the ]>robable 
 recognition of the homologies of the several regions of the 
 *' head." The muscular system is represented by fiake-like 
 segments or *' myotomes," V-shaped and jjointed forwards. 
 According to Huxley, the oral aperture is large and extends 
 backwards to the level of the junction between the sixth 
 and seventh myotomes, and is there divided from the 
 branchial cavity hy ^ ^"^ vchnn pahiti." Eight [" o — /i "] 
 pairs of nerves are given off from tho ccrebro-sjiinal axis 
 as far as this point. The eighth or most jtosterior of these, 
 which for convenience may be called h, passes out between 
 the sixth and seventh myotomes, and runs down ])arallel 
 with the lateral attachment of the velum. The next five 
 {fj,f, €, d, c) pass out between the first six myotomes to the 
 integument and to the walls of the buccal cavity, Tho 
 foremost two nerves [b and a) pass in front of the first 
 myotome; and the nerve a runs parallel with the upper 
 side of tho notochord to the end of the snout, giving off 
 branches to that region of the body which lies in front of 
 the mouth : this nerve lies above the eye-spot. In Hux- 
 ley's opinion, the eighth nerve (h) corresponds with the last 
 of the prc-auditory cranial nerves in the Ammoccotes or 
 young of Petromifzou, which is the ** portio dnnt;" while 
 those between it and the optic nerve represent, apparently, 
 the third (nwtores oculomm), fourth (pathetici), fifth (^i- 
 tfcnn'naf), and sixth (nbducentea) pairs of cranial nerves in 
 the higher vertebrates, the optic nerves of course being the 
 second pair, while the first («) in Brauchiostoma *' has tho 
 characteristic course and distribution of the orbito-nasal 
 division of the trigeminal." Thus the brad has at least 
 six pre-anditory myotomes, and " on the other hand, from 
 the seventh myotome backwards, a certain number {sup- 
 posed to be eight) of segments answer to the post-auditory 
 or parachordal region of the higher vertehrata." These 
 are supposed to represent ** proto-vertebra>," and thus an- 
 tagonize the hypothesis, at one time so prevalent, that the 
 head of vertebrates is composed of four "vertebra);" and 
 Huxley suggests " that the numerous ])roto-vertebra} which 
 lie in front of the fourteenth of Amphiajrut (Branchio- 
 stoma) are represented only by muscles and nerves in the 
 liigher Vertol)rata." The other characteristics of this cu- 
 rious type will be found in the works of the numerous au- 
 thors who have directed attention to it, the most recent of 
 whom are Stieda of Dorpat, and Huxley and Bay Lau- 
 kester of London. But one genus ( Br:inehiostoma of 
 Costa. 1S34. or Amphifjun of Yarrell, is;;*)) is known, 
 and the species are doubtful. Representatives have been 
 found along almost the entire European coast, but most 
 abundantly in the Mediterranean Sea. the ludian seas 
 (Borneo, etc.), North Carolina, tho Caribbean Sea, and 
 Brazil. They live in the sand from lower water mark to 
 a depth of at least ten or twelve fathoms. They are 
 transparent, and specimens rarely exceed three inches in 
 length. TnKonoRK Gill. 
 
 Lep'tophis [Gr. Acn-Tos, "slender," and 0.^19, "snake"], 
 a genus of non-venomous colubroid serpents of very slender 
 proportions and arboreal habits. Some serpents of tho 
 U. S. [e. tj. grass-snake, or Ci/rfophia irstintH, and ribbon- 
 snake, or Eutivnia Battrita) have been erroneously referred 
 to the genus. 
 
 Lcquesne' (EuoSne Louis), b. at Paris Feb. 15, 1815 ; 
 studied law, an<l was admitted to the bar in 1839, but en- 
 t^-red in 1811 tho School of Fine Arts; became a ]iupil of 
 Pra«lier at Rome, and began to exhibit in 1845. His most 
 prominent works are the Dniuint/ Faun iu the garden of 
 the liU.\cmbourg, the Victor}/ on tho tomb of Napoleon, and
 
 LERAY— LEROUX. 
 
 173 
 
 the Prtfft$iu on tho front of the new opera-house; ho has 
 alsu unnie a number of excellent busts. 
 
 Leniy', tp. of Blue Kartb co., Minn. Pop. -l-IS. 
 
 I^e Ray, tp. of JcflTcrsun co., X. Y, It cuutatns several 
 vill!i;,'('^. IN.p. 2802. 
 
 Le Rays'villey post-b. of Pike tp.. Bra^lford co., Pa, 
 Pop. 2S 1. 
 
 Lerca'ra Frid'di, town of Sicily, in tho province of 
 Puleriiio, jileasantly .situated in a very fertile district 
 abounding in sulphur-mines. Pop. in 1874, OlJi. 
 
 Ler'do dc Teja'da (Sebastian), president of Mexico, 
 b. at .latapa, in the state of Vera Cruz, Apr. 2j, 1825, of 
 pure Spanish ancestry: studied at a college in Pucbia with 
 a view to the priesthood, but. abandoning that purpose, en- 
 tered tho Crtllej^e of San IMoronso in .Mexico and studied 
 law ; wa.'» admitted to the bar in 18Jl ; was chosen rector 
 of San lldofonso in ISj2, and became in Dec, ISoo, one of 
 the magistrates of tho sujtrenie ci)urt of justice. About this 
 time his brother. Mii^uel Lenlo de Tejadii. an eminent states- 
 man and economist, was appointed minister of finance in 
 the cabinet of Pre.-^ident <_"omonfort, and by his energetic 
 policy respecting the privile;^cs and property of tho Cath- 
 olic Church became the leader of the liberal party. To him 
 Sebastian lent such efficient cr>-opcratinn as to be called to 
 the ministry of foreign affairs, which ho accepted .June A, 
 1.SJ7. On the overthrow of Tomonfort in Jan., 1858, ho 
 devoted himself anew to the direction of tho college and to 
 practice at the bar, whore ho soon gained an eminent posi- 
 tion. On tho restoration of tho lilieral government Lerdo 
 was elected to Congress ( Apr., ISiH ). re-elocted in the ful- 
 lowing year, and was three times chosen to tho presidency 
 of that body, the term of that office in Mexico being only 
 one month, lie was president of Congress in May, 18C3, 
 when the capture of Puebia forced President Juarez to 
 abandon the capital of the republic, and was one of the few 
 nroiniucnt statesmen who accompauiod the government in 
 its retreat to San Luis Potosi. In that city he accepted 
 tho post of minister of justice. Sept. 15, and that of min- 
 ister of foreign affairs, Sept. 21, 180)', thereby becoming, 
 next to Juarez, the leading representative of the cause 
 of national independence during the protracted struggle 
 against tho French intervention and the so-called empire 
 of tho Austrian archduke Ferdinand Maximilian. In the 
 successive retreats of thi; republican government to Mon- 
 terey, .■^altillo, Durango, Chihuahua, and Paso del Xorte. as 
 well as in its advance three years later to Chihuahua. Zacatc- 
 CAS.and San Luis Potosi, Lerdo preserved an imperturbable 
 confidence in the ultimate success of the cause to which his 
 entire energies were clevoted, and when tho turning of the 
 tide placed the archduke a prisoner in tlie hands ot Ihe re- 
 publicans, neither Juarez nor Lenlo wavered hof<)re tho 
 most urgent appeals in his resolution to execute upon 
 that prince tho sentence to which he had been condemned 
 after a protracted trial. I'pon tlio restoration of the na- 
 tional government to the city of Mexico in 1807, Lerclo was 
 clectrd president of the supremo court of justice, to which 
 post was annexed the vice-pre-'idency of the republic, but 
 continued to discharge the duties of minister of foreign 
 affairs, and was generally erediterl with being tho origin- 
 ator of tho most important mt-asurcs taken for the rebuild- 
 ing ftf the shattered political edifice. He retired from the 
 cabinet .Ian. 17, 1871 : was an unsuocossful candidate for 
 tho presidency in the clo-tion of July of that year, and 
 upon the sudden death of Juarez (July 18, 1872) succeeded 
 him by virtue of his office as vic^-president. In tho elec- 
 tion of Oct., 1872, Lerdo was chosen president for four 
 years, ending I>ec. 1. I87ft. His administration has boon 
 characterized by a strict adherence to tlie policy established 
 by Juarez, by the enforcement of tho "laws of reform" 
 against the alleged machinations of tho reactionary or 
 '• Church party," and by a rigid suppression of all attempts 
 at rcvolutinn. Ho is distinguished i"or cunsiiniirialc urbanity 
 and great diplomatic sagacity, combinc«| with indexible 
 determination. l*oitTi:ii C. Bi.iss. 
 
 Ler'ici, town of Italy, in the province of (Jenoa. It 
 lies on the (iulf of Spezia in the ini^lst of charming scenery, 
 and has acquired some notoriety from the confinement of 
 Garibaldi within its fortress in 1M12. Its maritime activ- 
 ity is great for its population, which in 1874 was 59 (l>. 
 
 Ler'ida^ ]>rovinco of Spain, bounded X. by tho Pyre- 
 nees and K. by Hareelona. comprises an area of 'Ifll'.i square 
 miles, with ;t:(0,.1lH inhabitants. The northern portion is 
 covered with spurs of the Pyrenees, and rich in iron, cop- 
 per, leatl, zinc, marble, jasper, and gypsum. The southern 
 portion is an extensive jdain, which produces wheat, fruits, 
 and vegetables. i 
 
 Lorida [Lat. /Imfa], town of Spain, tho onpital of the 
 province of Lerida. on tho Segro, is surrounded by walls 
 and strongly fortified, as it is tho key of .\ragon and Cata- I 
 
 j Ionia, and consequently a point of great military import- 
 ance. It has two remarkable cathedrals, one ot the thir- 
 teenth, the other of the eighteenth century; a lyceuni, 
 , and several other educational institutions ; its university, 
 founded in LJUU, was suppressed by Philip V. Pop. 19,027. 
 I Leriiis, The, several small islands off Antibcs, and 
 in the department of Var. France. The largest, Stc. Mar- 
 guerite, was the place of imprisonment of tho ** Man in the 
 I Iron Mask " from 1G80 to 1098. Its fortros?, Kontere^', is 
 I now a ]»rison for military convicts and Algerines, and 
 I Bazaino was here confined (1874). It was the Lmm of the 
 ancients. The next smaller island, St. Ilonorat (/U(inriri<t 
 I Leriu(t), is named from St. Honoratus, archbishop of Aries, 
 ' who founded here in the fourth century the convent of h6- 
 rins, which became a famous school of theology, and passed 
 into tho Benedictine order. After 1650 tho monastery lost 
 its importance, and is now in ruins, and the island supports 
 some agrieullnral inhabitants. There are some smaller un- 
 inhabited islands in the vicinity. 
 
 Ler'ma (Francisco i»e Roxas de Saxdovat.), Dckk of, 
 b. in Spain during the sixteenth century; was made a 
 duke and ]»rirne minister of .*^]»ain immediately on the ac- 
 cession of Philip HI. in 1598, and governed the em]iiro till 
 1CI8, during which period tho exhausted and distracted 
 state of tiie country became more and more apparent. His 
 foreign policy was markcfl by defeats, his internal by cru- 
 elty and weakness. In spite of enormous exertions, he was 
 compelled to conclude peace with England in 10(1 1 and with 
 the Cnitcd Provinces in 1008 on humiliating conditions. In 
 1009 he issued the decree of proscription by which several 
 thousand Moorish families, forming one of the richest and 
 most industrious elements of the Spanish population, were 
 driven out of Spain, anrl their properly, at least in many 
 cases, confiscated. Under Philip 1\'. the animosity against 
 the fallen minister became so strong that an examination 
 was made of his adminstration, and ho was compelled to 
 return a largo sum of money to the treasury. D. shortly 
 after, in 102 >. 
 
 Lermontoir (MicnAEi.), b. Oct. 15. 1814; received a 
 military educatirai, and entered tlio imperial guard, but 
 was removed in I8.'i7 t(» the army of Caucasus on account 
 of a poem he wrote on the death of Pushkin. In 1810 ho 
 published a volume of poems at St. Petersburg, which made 
 a great sensation, and gained for him (he title of* the poet 
 of Caucasus." But a novel ho wrote slnntly after, T/ir ffei') 
 t'f Our Tiuir, caused a duel between him and one of his 
 fellow-officers in the army of Caucasus, and ho was shot 
 July 27, 1811. Most of his works have boon translated 
 into (Jerman by Bodenstodt (IS52), and some of them — as, 
 for instance. The Sontf of Cznr Ivan Vasi'ltevitch — into 
 French by Saint Ren6 Taillaudier. 
 
 IjCrilir'ada [from Lcmira, one of tho genera], a pro- 
 posed order of crustaceans, not recognized by all syttua- 
 atists. They are assigned to tho Entomostraca. and tu a 
 Boction called Pcecilopoda. Tho mouth is for suction, tho 
 thorax not jointed, tho or/^ans very small. The males 
 are totally unlike the females. All arc parasites of very 
 degraded type. They aro often much more completely 
 organized when young than when mature. In tho latter 
 stage they loso tho power and organs of locomotion and 
 of eight. There aro many diverse and strange forms re- 
 ferred to this order, most of which would never be recog- 
 nizofl as crustaceans but for their larval forms. They aro 
 found attached to fishes and other aquatic animals. 
 
 Le'ros [A«po?]. a Turkish island of the .Egean, ?>•' miles 
 S. of Samos, is miles long fr<tm X. to S., and I miles 
 wiile, is very fertile, and has goud harbors. Pop. oOOO. 
 Its people were anciently proverbial fi»i- ill-nature, and its 
 present inhabitants are dcsjiiscd as niggardly. 
 
 liCrot. See PouMorsK. 
 
 liCroux' (Pn-.nnr.), b. at Paris in 1798; studic<l at tho 
 Lyceum Charlemagne; fonnrle<l the (ilnUe newspaper in 
 1821, ns organ of tho philosophers: adhered to the Saint 
 Simonians in 18:il, converting his paper into the organ of 
 their »f)cialiHlic policy: withdrew after the promnlgatinn 
 of the new doctrines of Knfantin. He became in is;i2 
 erlilor of Ihe Hrvur Etfifrfoprdi<inr, and in cnnneetion 
 with Jean Uoynnud, established in 18:iS tho Xrw Eurtf~ 
 rloprrffin, whicli wtts a continuation of the Enctfrl'tpffUr of 
 the eighteenth century. His capital work, Hr V Hunutuitf, 
 ilr Mon Priiirifir ft fir Htm Avitir. appeared in 1>^.';9, con- 
 taining bis philosophical and theolt»gical iihas. consisting 
 in a continued progn-ss of man and nature towards perfec- 
 tion through changing forms. \\f foundeil in 1841 the /fn-uf 
 fii'I^priiflnntr, with Viardot an<l (leorire Sand, ami in 18IS, 
 wad oleotod a representative of the National Assembly as 
 an ultra radical. After the roup tV.'tat of 1851 be emi- 
 grated to tho island of Jersey. and afterwards to Lausanne. 
 Switsorland. Pierro Loroux was a kind of modern and
 
 1738 
 
 LE BOY— LESCHES. 
 
 secular Zwingli, the rpprcscntative of pure and honest radi- 
 calism in philosophy. He wrote also Ckrialiauily and its 
 Democratic Oiif/in, Mullhua and the Econnmitls. ur Shall 
 there he alwni/a Pnnr t Job. a drama, The Samarcae Beach, 
 a philosophic Jioem. The Ptulocran/, or The (lot'crnmeni of 
 the Jlich, etc. JIo returned to France after the amnesty of 
 Aug. 15, 1809, and d. at Paris Apr. 12, 1S7I. 
 
 Felix Aucaione. 
 Lc Roy, tp. of Koono cc. 111. Pop. 1002. 
 I-e Hoy, post-v. of Empire tp., McLean co., III., on the 
 Indiun.npolis Blooniington and Western K. R., has 1 week- 
 ly newspaper. Pop. S62. 
 Leroy', tp. of Benton co., la. Pop. 1S07. 
 Leroy, tp. of Bremer co., la. Pop. 303. 
 IiCroy, post-v. and tp. of Coffey co., Kan., on \cosho 
 River, winch affords good water-power. The town has 
 some manufactures. The station, 2 miles distant, is ou the 
 Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R. Pop. of v. 410 : of to. 
 10114. ' ^ 
 
 liCroy, tp. of Calhoun co., Mich. Pop. 1303. 
 Leroy, tp. of Ingham co., Mich. Pop. 859. 
 Leroy, post-v. of Osceola co., Mich. Pop. 148. 
 Leroy, post-v. and tp. of Mower co., Minn., on the 
 Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R. Pop. 1057. 
 
 Le Roy, post-v. and tp. of Genesee co., N. Y., on the 
 Erie, Central, and Plate Lino R. Rs.. 25 miles S. IV. of 
 Rochester, 50 miles E. of Buffalo, and 10 miles E. of Bata- 
 via, has 7 churches, 2 banks, 2 weekly newspapers, 4 lime- 
 kilns, 4 stone-quarries, several flour, planing, gvpsuni, 
 ]>laster. and saw mills, with fine water-power supplied by 
 Oatka Creek. It is the seat of Ingham University for 
 ladies, and has an academic institute, an art conservatory, 
 and a public library. Pop. of v. 2034: of tp. 4027. 
 
 C. B. Thomson-, Ed. " Gazette." 
 Leroy, posf-v. of Westfield tp., Medina co., 0. 
 Leroy, tp. of Lake CO., 0. Pop. 811. 
 Le Roy, post-tp. of Bradford co.. Pa. Pop. 1144. 
 Le Roy, post-tp. of Dodge co.. Wis. Pop. 157G. 
 Leroy (William E.), IT. S. N., b. Mar. 24, ISIS, in Now 
 York : entered the navy as a midshipman Jan. 11, 1832; 
 became jiassed midshipm.an in 18:iS, lieutenant in 1843, 
 commander in ISGI, captain in 18G0, commodore in 1870, 
 and rear-admiral in 1S74; commanded the Keystone State 
 in a severe engagement with Confederate irou-clads off 
 Charkslon, .S. C. Jan. 31. 1863, and tlie Oneida at the battle 
 of Mobile Bay, Aug. .'). 1S64, and conspicuous on both occa- 
 sions for " gallantry and determination." 
 
 , Foxhall a. Parker. 
 
 Leroy d'Etiollcs (Jean Jacql-es Joseph), b. at Paris 
 Apr. 5, 1798; studied medicine, and took his degree in 
 1824. In 1822 he presented to the Academy of Surgery a 
 set of instruments which he had invented for the operation 
 of lithotrity. The invention was disputed by Civialo and 
 Aniusa;it, who also claimed it, but after close examination of 
 the case the prize was awarded to Leroy d'Ktiolles. The most 
 prominent of his writings is his IlUtuire dc la Lltholrilie 
 (1 839). D. at Paris Aug. 25, 1860. 
 
 Leroy de St.-Arnaud ( Jacqies Achille), b. at Paris 
 Aug. 20. ISOI ; enlisied in ISIG in the body-guard of Louis 
 XVIII., but left in 1S20 the military service, and led for 
 several years a rather adventurous life in Franco and Eng- 
 land. In 1831 ho again entered the army; served at 
 Blaye. where the duchess of Berry was detained; became 
 in 1S37 captain in the foreign legion in .\lgeria. and dis- 
 tinguished himself very much during the following years 
 at the taking of Constantine, by the capture of Bou-Maza. 
 as commander of the province of Constantine. and bv his 
 canipai;.'n against the Kabyles. In 1851 he was made a 
 general and commander of one of the military divisions of 
 Paris. In the same year he became minister of war, and 
 in this position he rendered great services to Xapoleon Dec. 
 2, 1852, for which he was rewarded with the title of mar- 
 shal. In 1S54 he commanded the French armv in the 
 Crimean war, and won the battle of Alma, hut iirSeptem- 
 ber he had to give up his command on account of sickness, 
 and d. on board the Berthollet, Sept. 29, 1854. 
 ,,?'.*''■'','' "le (Jean\ b. at Lery, France, in 1534; was in 
 15ao a Calvinistio minister at Geneva, when ho was engaged 
 by \ illegagnon to acrM,,„panT dig expedition to Brazil and 
 introduce (he Reformed religion in that counlrv (1550). He 
 preached for some time to the colonists on thesmall island 
 in the b.ay of Hio de Janeiro now called Villegagnon, and 
 was thus the first Protestant preacher in the New World. 
 After the unfortunate result of that colony, Lery returned 
 to France ; was in 1500 a citizen of Geneva ; was" afterward 
 preacher at Belleville. Xevers. and Sancerre; lost twenty- 
 two of his congregation by the massacre of St. Bartholo- 
 mew ; retired to Berne, Switzerland, where ho seems to 1 
 
 have passed the remainder of his life, and d. there in Ifill. 
 JIo wrote an account of his Brazilian adventures, Uittoire 
 d'un Voi/ar/e fait en la terre du lirenil (La Rochelle, 1578; 
 often reprinted), and a Jiialoire mimorable de la ville de 
 Sancerre ( 1574). 
 
 Le Sage (Alaix Rexe), b. May 8. lOfiS. at Sarzeau. in 
 the present department of Morbihan ; received his first edu- 
 cation by the Jesuits at Vauues ; studied philosophy and 
 law in Paris since 1692, and began to practise as an advo- 
 cate in 1095, but gave up this career in 109S, in order to 
 devote himself exclusively to literary pursuits, in which 
 undertaking he was aided by the Abbe de Lyonne. who 
 gave him a pension of -600 livres a year. His literary 
 career he began by translating dramas and novels from the 
 Spanish, but from mere translations he rose by degrees to 
 the production of independent works of ; : greatest merit. 
 Of his numerous jilays. which moitly consist of farces and 
 comic operas, the most prominent are Criipin (1707) and 
 7'iircarc((I709), which latter comedy is a satire on the finan- 
 ciers of that time, who are said to have offered the author 
 100,000 francs if he would suppress his w(»rk. A still greater 
 success he achieved as a romancer. Le biahle buiicux ( 1 707), 
 HUtoire de (jttzman d' Al/arache (1732), and especial I V llia- 
 toire de (III lllas de SantiUane (1715), were received with 
 great applause, and the last-mentioned is still a favorite in 
 all civilized countries and with all educated people, on ac- 
 count of its striking psychological observations and refined 
 satire. D. at Boulogne Xov. 17, 1747. His (Eiurea com- 
 pletet (12 vols.) were published at Paris in 1828. 
 Le Sauk, tp. of Stearns co., Minn. Pop. 268. 
 Lesbo'nax [Aecr/SiLraf]. of Mitylcne in Lesbos, lived in 
 the time of Augustus; wrote a number of orations in imi- 
 tation of the Attic orators, of which two have come down 
 to us. They are given in the collections of Reiske and of 
 Dobson, separately by Orelli (Leipsic, 1820).^Another Lcs- 
 bonax, a grammarian, whose date is unknown, has left a 
 treatise on grammatical figures, published in "Valckenaer's 
 edition of Ammonius (Leyden, 1749; reprinted, Leipsic, 
 1822). H. Drisler. 
 
 Les'bos, or Mitylene, .in island of the Grecian Archi- 
 pelago, 10 miles (lisiaut from the coast of Asia Minor, and 
 belonging to Turkey. Area, GOO square miles. Pop. 40,000, 
 of whom 15,000 are Turks. Tho island is mountainous, 
 but very fertile, producing excellent olive oil, figs, grapes, 
 and pine timber; its wine, famous in olden time, is now 
 inferior. Thcophrastus, Alcaeus, and Sappho were born here. 
 Chief town, Castro. 
 
 Lescarbot' (Marc), seigneur de St. Audcbert, b. at 
 Vervins, France, about 1570; became a lawyer; was asso- 
 eiatecj with Do Mont in the colonization of Acadia iXova 
 Scotia) in 1005. and was engaged with Poutriiicourt in the 
 settlement of Port Royal (now Annapolis) until its aban- 
 donment in 1C07. when he returned to France. He pub- 
 lished in 1609 a Hiatoirc dc la .Vfimctlc trance, giving an 
 account of Cartier's voyages to Canada, of Laudonuierc's 
 failures in Florida, and of tho enterprise with which ho 
 was personally connected, the first attempt at settlement 
 having been made on what is now Boon Island on the coast 
 of Maine. lie added a collection of poems, written by him- 
 self and others in the new colony, under the title £i» Miiset 
 de la Ji'otivillc France, one of which relates the defeat of 
 the Micmac by the Armouchiquois Indians in Maine in 
 1007. The descrii»tion of the country and the accounts of 
 the Indians arc spirited, and probably faithful. The vol- 
 ume attracted the attention of Hakluyt, and under his au- 
 spices an English translation of the greater part was pub- 
 lished tho same year, under tho title A'ova Francia, or the 
 Deecriplion of that part of Sew France tchich i> one Couti- 
 uent with Virijinlu (1009). A second edition, enlarged, of 
 the original work appeared in lOlI, and a third in 1013, 
 with the addition of two smaller treatises, La Cimrersion 
 de» Sauiuiffca and Utilation tierniere de ee qui c'rat pass( au 
 vot/aijc dn Sienr dr L'outrincourt. the former having been 
 first printed in 1010 and the latter about 1612. An account 
 is given therein of the disputes between Poutrincourt and 
 the Jesuits, in which Lescarbot sided with the former. He 
 also published in 1013 a poetical description of ,Switzer- 
 land, Le Tablcan de la Snisae, aud in 1029 an account of 
 the repulse of tlie English from the Isle of l\\i6. As 
 early as 1599 he had written a Diacoiira in favor of the 
 union of tho Greek Church with the Catholic. D. about 
 1030. 
 
 Les'chcs fAto-xi']' ''■ n<'!"' Mitylene, one of the class 
 known as the Cyclic poets, nourished about 700 b. c. His 
 poem, entitled the Little Iliad (notpi 'Ui«). treated of tho 
 events subsequent to Homer's great poem, including the de- 
 struction of Troy, from which that j)art is calieil also tho 
 Iteatructitm of Troy {'ixiov iripats). Pausanias has quota- 
 tions from Lescbes, and an extract is preserved in Pro- 
 clus. H. Drisler.
 
 LESGHIANS— LESSEPS, DE. 
 
 1739 
 
 Lcs'ghians, a people of tho Caucasus, Asiatic Uussia, 
 nuinbcriii;^ about 3U0,UU0, and speaking many languages. 
 UnJcr (lie iuQucncc of Sbaniyl thcv unitcl into a siuglc 
 political boily, and for many years carried on a Jirave re- 
 sistance to Russia. Since ISo'J they have liecn peaceable. 
 Their religion, called Muradism, is a form ot' Alohara- 
 medanism taught by a native prophet, who began his re- 
 ligious career about ls;iO. They inhabit the mountains of 
 AVestern l),vghestan, where each village is a fortress. 
 
 Les'lcy (John), b. in Scotland .Sept. 2'J, Ii27; graduated 
 at King's College, Aberdeen ; studied at several continental 
 universities, and in 1JJ4 was appointed professor of ca- 
 non law at Aberdeen. He attached himself to the fortunes 
 of Mary queen of i^cots, by whom he was made bishop of 
 Uoss; became her diplomatic a;;cnt ; was inii)lieatcd in the 
 l)roject for her marriage to the duke of Norfolk, and the 
 consequent rebellion in the N. of England (loliS); went to 
 France in 1573 in her service and for the promotion of 
 Catholic interests; received ecclesiastical appointments in 
 th.it country, becoming in lo0.3 bishop of Coutances in 
 Normandy, and was soon after obliged to take refuge in 
 Brussels, where he d. .May :il, Ijilli. lie wrote much in de- 
 fence of his royal mistress, and published at Rome a his- 
 tory of Scotland, l)r OrhjinrH M'H-ihtiH ct /ifhtiv (ifnliH Sro- 
 
 tot'ntn (Rome, 167S), in 10 books, seven in Latin and the 
 last three in the Scottish dialect. This portion was re- 
 printed in 1830 by the Bannatyne Club. 
 
 Lesley (.T. Pf.tc;ii), b. Sept. 17, 1S19, at Philadelphia; 
 graduated at tho University of Pennsylvania in IS.'iS, and 
 at Princeton Theological Seminary in 1811: was assistant 
 geologist on the first survey of Pennsylvania in IS.ill— tl, 
 and prepared the maps and illustrations for the final report 
 in 1812; after travelling on foot around France, heard lec- 
 tures in the University of Ilalle through the winter of 
 1S44; returned home in 1S45, and was authorized by the 
 American Tract Society to estalilish its colporlage system 
 in the northern and middle counties of Pennsylvania; be- 
 came pastr)r of the .Milton church near Boston in 18-17, and 
 left the ministry in Is.'jU to settle at Philadelphia as a pro- 
 fessional geologist ; was appointed secretary of the Ameri- 
 can Iron Association in 1 So.'), secretary and librarian of the 
 American Philosophical Society in 1 S;')8, professor of geology 
 and mining engineering in the scientilic department of the 
 University of Pennsylvania in 187.3, and State geologist of 
 Pennsylvania in 1871; examined tho Bessemer iron-works 
 of Europe in 18(13; was U. S. Senate commissioner to the 
 Exposition of 1807, and s]ient the following winter in 
 Egypt : was chosen one of the corporate members of the 
 National Academy in 18()-1 ; published n Mmiunl nf Cnal 
 and lit Titpntiniphi/ (ISiifi), a Guide to ikc Iron-wmkt of 
 the U. S. (1858), arid the first series of reports of progress 
 of the geological survey of Pennsylvania in 1875. 
 
 Les'lie^ post-v. and tp. of Ingham Co.. Mich., on the 
 Jackson Lansing and Saginaw R. R., 21 miles S. of Lansing. 
 It has 5 churches, a large union high school, a newspaper, (1 
 magnetic artesian wells of great flow, 3 hotels, 1 private 
 bank,(i steam-mills, 1 iron-foundry, cxlensivo stave-works, 
 and a number of stores. It is in a rich agricultural dis- 
 trict. Pop. I'JSIO. J. W. Ai.i.KX. En. •• Li:sLiE 11i;iialu." 
 
 Leslie (Ciiahi.ks), b. at Ilaphoc, Donegal eo., Ireland, 
 about ItJIJ. His father, Dr. John Leslie, was successively 
 bishop of the Orkneys, of Raphoe, ami of Clogher for more 
 than fifty years, and d. in 1(171, at the age of 1(11 years. 
 Charles was educated at Trinity College. Dublin; studied 
 law at the Temple, London, for several years subsequent to 
 1()71 ; took orders in the Church of England in 1(1811, and 
 was chancellor of the cathedral of Connor in 1(187, but by 
 refusing to take the oath id allegiance to William and .Mary 
 cut olV all prospect of ec ■lesiasticnl preferment. lie then 
 devoted himself to religious and political controversy, for 
 both of which he was well fitted by extensive studies in 
 English hi-story ami law and in theological literature. For 
 thirty-three years he was the leading literary chamiiion of 
 the .iacobites. His works against Jews. Socinians. Presby- 
 terians, (Quakers, and Catholics oucc enjoyed great faiiie. 
 but the only work of Leslie which has exercised any in- 
 fluence in the i>resent century is tho Slimi Mvlhnd irilli the 
 Driait (10!) I), tho argument of which rests principally upon 
 the Christian miracles. Though still esleeined by evangeli- 
 cal theologians, it is regaiilcd as inailiquate lo the wants 
 of the present day, and is now little read. Leslie was for 
 some years at the court of the Pretender on the Continenl. 
 then resided in Italv, returned to England in 1721, and d. 
 Apr. 13, 1722. 
 
 Leslie (CiiAni.rs RniiFnTl, b. at Clerkcnwell, London, 
 of American parents, in 17!M. His father was a watch- 
 maker of Philadelphia. The boy relumed wilh his parents 
 to Philadelphia in ISOO, anil nfier leaving school was ap- 
 prenticed to a bookseller; in 1811 went lo England; studied 
 with West and Allston; waselcctcdoasocinteof the Academy 
 
 in IS21, and member in 1S20. llis first attempts at paint- 
 ing were on a largo scale of historical subjects, but ho soon 
 abandoned this style for another, in which he became 
 famous. In 1833 he >vas appointed professor of drawing 
 at West Point, but held the position for five months only. 
 In 1S47 he was chosen professor of painting at the Royal 
 Academy, held the office four years, and delivered lectures 
 which were published by the title of A Hundhonk/or Yuinif/ 
 I'unitrrit. In 1845 appeared his Lt'/e of I'uunttfbU, the ar- 
 tist. Leslie's productiveness has been very great. His works 
 cover a period of about half a century; they exhibit much 
 variety in subject, but with much sameness of manner. Sev- 
 eral of tho best of them have been engraved. His .time /'ojc 
 nnd Sfendrr, Sir Rmjer d< Coffvln/ (joirtf/ lo ("hnrch, Mnif Dny 
 ill Ihr. Reifiii of Qiii-cii Klizniieth, arc familiar. His works 
 found great favor in Englanil, partly from (he character 
 of his subjects, which were token chiefly from English lit- 
 erature, and partly from (he artist's sympathy with English 
 scenery and manners. They arc full of a sweet humor, 
 elegant in conception, graceful in execution, and finished 
 in style. The best are in the Sheepshanks Collection. Les- 
 lie painted a few portraits and some ceremonial pieces, 
 among which are the Coromttinn of the Qitmi and tho 
 CliriHtcniiKj of the Priiiccge Jlui/al. He d. in Loudon Jlay 
 5, 1859. 0. B. FuoTiiixciiAM. 
 
 Leslie (Eliza), b. ot Philadelphia, Pa., Nov. 15, 1787, 
 sister of C. R. Leslie; accompanied her parents to Eng- 
 land in 17113, returning in ISOU; made her first appearance 
 as an authoress in 1827 with her A'crciit/Z'/iie liei-eiptu for 
 I'anlni, C'ul;rH, iind Si'/rlmeiilii, the popularity of which led 
 to other successful works of the same class. In 1831 she 
 published the Amrricmi Girh' Hook, and having won a 
 prize ofl'ered by Mr. (iodey of the Liidi/'a ISouk by her 
 story .l/i». Wtmliiiiftlon Potts, she thereafter devoted herself 
 chiefly to writing works lor the young, by which she acquired 
 great popularity. Her DomcKtic Cooktrij linok, ])ublished 
 in 1837, went through fifty or sixty editions, while the 
 Home Book (1840) and Liidifa Ucceipt Hook (184(1) were 
 also widely circulaled. Her only novel was entitled ^iiir/i'a, 
 or n Yotimj Liuhj's Vii-in'iliidta ( IS 18). She contributed to 
 Hart's FiiiKiti- Prone Wrilirs of Aiiirrico an interesting auto- 
 biogrnphical sketch. D. at lilouccster, N. J., Jan. 2, 1858. 
 
 Leslie (Gkorbe Drxi.op), b. in London, England. July 
 2, 1835, son of C. H. Leslie: was educated at the Mercers' 
 School, received artistic training from his falhcr and at a 
 school of art at Bloomsbury, and was in 1851 aduiillcd as 
 a student of the Royal Academy. Ho began lo exhibit 
 pictures at the Academy in 1857, was elected an associate 
 of that institution in 180S, and has attained considerable 
 popularity as an artist. 
 
 Leslie (Hknrv Davm)), b. in London, Engliiml, Juno 
 18, 1822: studied music under the direction of Prof. C. 
 Lucas; founded in Is5(i a choral society known by his 
 name, and in 1801 was made ]irineipal of the College of 
 Music, an institution founded in that year on the system 
 of the continental conservatories. He has published sev- 
 eral symphonies, overtures, oratorios, and cantatas, besides 
 various compositions for stringed instruments, and sixty 
 or seventy songs, duets, antlieins, and pieces for the pittUO. 
 In 1804 he composed a romantic opera in three acts. 
 
 Leslie (Sir Joiis), b. at Largo, Fifcshiro, Scotland, 
 Apr. 10, 1706; was educated at the universities of St. An- 
 drew's and Edinburgh; spent two years (1788-89) in Vir- 
 ginia as tutor in one of the Randolph families; settled in 
 London in I791l.and applied bimsell (o science. Hetrans- 
 hued liull'on's Nulnrui llisiori/ of llirdu (II vols., 1793), trav- 
 elled on the Continent as tutor, and was an unsuccessful can- 
 didate for iirofcssorsbips at St. Andrew's and (ilasgow. In 
 1805 he was eleeled by the town-council of Edinburgh 
 profcs.sor of malhenialies in the university of that city, 
 after a vigorous opposKion by (he clergy on the score of 
 dangerously liberal opinions both in politics and religion. 
 In 1819 he succeeded Prof. Playfair in the chair of natural 
 philosophy, which he held through life. He was knighted 
 a fewmon'lhs before bis dealb, ivbieh occurred Nov. 3, 1832. 
 Ho early took high rank as a scientific investigator and 
 I discoverer. His E.rpcriiiiciiliit Iiiijiiirif into the Antnrc ond 
 I Propiuiiiiioii of Ileal (1.804) gaincil the Rumford medal of 
 the Royal S.icioty. From 1809 lo 1822 he |inblished a se- 
 ries of textbooks in geotnclry and the higher iniillieiuatics, 
 and from 1822 to his death a similar series iin natural 
 philosophy. In 1810 he discovered (ho process of artificial 
 congelation. He was tho author of a large number of soi- 
 onlitic articles in the Eneifelopirdin Britaiiiiiea. 
 
 Les'seps, tie (Fi;nniNANi)), Visioh.st, b. at Versailles 
 Nov. 19, 1805 ; entered public life in 1828 as an attach/' ot 
 Lisbon; held various eonsiilnr ofiiees : proposeil in 1851 to 
 Mebenict Said, viceroy of Egypt, the cutting of a canal 
 across the Isthmus of Suez, and published in that year a 
 report, Peicemciit de I'lathmc de Suez cxpoai. A firman
 
 1740 
 
 LESSING— LESTRI DIN-£. 
 
 s:inctioning the enterprise was granted in 1804, and the 
 wnrk was executed 1S09-G9, (For ii sketch of the history 
 of the riuez Canal and the many diffieultit-s, financial, dip- 
 lomatic, and nutiiral. which were overcome largely hy the 
 energies of M. de Lcsseps, see SfEz Canal.) M. do Les- 
 seps since the c(»niplt-tiou of his great work has been the 
 recipient of many honors and rewards, and has directed 
 his attention to other vast projects, such as a central Asian 
 railway and the conversion of the Desert of Sahara into an 
 inland sea. 
 
 Les'sing (GoTTiroi.n Ephraim), b. at Camenz, Saxony, 
 171^11: studied at Leipsic, or rather tried to study, first 
 theology and then medicine, but his innate passion for the 
 theatre, dramn. and literature in general was too powerful ; 
 moved to Berlin, whore, in intimate connection with Moses 
 Mendelssohn and Xicolai, he led for several years an exclu- 
 sively literary life, the most remarkable fruit of which were 
 his Lrfters on L iteniture. In 170" went to Breslau us gov- 
 ernment secretary to Cen. von Tauonzion. and while re- 
 siding there, in the midst of the .Seven Years' w:ir. wrote 
 Miiiiifi fon Harnhelm^ the first national drama of Germany 
 and the inauguration of a grent and brilliant literature. 
 It made a great sensation, and the impression was both 
 widened and deepened by his tragedy, Emifie Gulotti, 
 which soon followed. In 17G9 he went to Hamburg as 
 director of the theatre, and there wrote his Hnmhurqifsche 
 Dramtiinrifie.it series of theatrical reviews, which, together 
 with his Lnokoon, a scries of general critical analyses, 
 not only oxerciseil a great influence on Gorman literature, 
 but raised a new issue in modern civilization : from Ham- 
 burg went to Wolfeabiittel as librarian at the dueal library, 
 and while in this position published the famous Wnlfcn- 
 bUtfehchr Ftaifm<nt<\ the first and perhaps the strongest 
 attack on the historical basis of Christianity. The Fraff- 
 turutc were written by Reimarus; Lessing was only their 
 editor and chaiupiun, but he defended them against the 
 orthodox Church with such superiority of intelligence and 
 brilliancy of argument that the ducal government became 
 alarmed and bade him stop. Although a very independent 
 character, he submitted, and later on set forth his religious 
 views in another form, in his great philosophical drama, 
 Xnthan der Weise, one of his last and most perfect works. 
 His philosophical essay on the development of civilization, 
 TJie Erzlchmiff dea Mcnnckengenchlcchts, followed next year. 
 He d. at Wolfenbiittel in 1781. Lessing's mind is very 
 strikingly characterized by the well-known saying of his. 
 that if God held truth in the right hand ancl doubt in the 
 left, and oflTered him the choice, he would choose the left 
 hand. Truth in the form of dogma, maxim, or rule he did 
 not acknowledge. He understood truth only in the form 
 of something to be searched after, to be striven for. To 
 him, religion was not obedience, but insight ; morality, not 
 duty, but wisdom; poesy, not inspiration, but taste. Al- 
 though Voltaire's antagonist, he is Voltaire's disciple. But 
 in his searchings after truth and in his exertions towards 
 perfection few have ever surpassed him in acuteness and 
 penetrating power, and none in resoluteness and veracity. 
 What, was a needle between Voltaire's fingers became a 
 sword in Lessing's hand. What Voltaire had used only as 
 a brilliant means of repartee, Lessing laid down and car- 
 ried through as a powerful principle. He was a greater 
 critic than Voltaire, and he is the founder of modern art- 
 criticism, of that kind of authorship which at present at- 
 tracts the attention of the greatest and most accom- 
 plished minds in all nations by its analyses and <lennm3t ra- 
 tions of the relation between art on tl>c one side and na- 
 ture, history, morality, and religion on the other. All that 
 hail been written aiiout art before Lessing — by Aristotle 
 and Horace, by lioileauand Voltaire — became insignificant 
 when f.ftohonn and the Ifamhnr<fis''he Di'ftinatiirfjie were 
 puV'lished. It consisted merely of rules, and was founded 
 on the idea that art could be rlcfined by rules. Lessing 
 understood that art is as free in its creations as nature, 
 and. like her. bound by laws, not by rules: and to find out 
 and establish these laws, every one of which opens up new 
 persi>ectives into the philosophy of matter and mind, is 
 the task of criticism. This idea is truly the discovery of 
 a new world, and every point on which Lessing lighted is 
 explored and described with wonclerful completeness and 
 accuracy. A positive system of philosophy and religion 
 Lessing probably did not possess. Yet his criticism on 
 these two fields was not merely destructive. He never 
 took from people their prejudices without giving them a 
 hint or suggestion of how the empty place was to be filled ; 
 and his ideas in philosophy of the infinite perfectibility 
 of mankind, and in religion of the true relation between 
 the Bible and the tradition, have not been without influ- 
 ence. Cl.FMENS PeTERSKN. 
 
 Lessin? (Karl FRiFPRirnV b. at Wartenberg, Silesia, 
 Feb. IS, 18(lS : received his first .artistic instruction at the 
 school of architecture at Berlin ,- studied then for several 
 
 years at DUsseldorf under Schadow. and was appointed 
 director of the gallery of paintings at Carlsruhc in 18.')S. 
 His paintings are partly landscapes, partly historical, and 
 among the latter his I/unm'te« ( is:juj, //ii.?« be/ore the Coun- 
 cil ( ls{2|, Thv Martifi-dom of IIhhh (iSjU). and others, ex- 
 cited great admiratii)n by the strength and richness of 
 their characterization. A pupil himself of the school of 
 Diisseldorf. and laboring in many points under its influence, 
 he has contributed much to elevate and ennoble it. 
 
 Les'ter, post-tp. of Black Hawk co., la. Pop. 844. 
 
 Lester (Charles EnwAnns), b. at Griswold. Conn., 
 July Ij, 1S1.'>, a clescendant of .Timathan Edwards ; resided 
 for a time in the South and West : cnmc to the bar in Mis- 
 sissipjii. and was afterwards ordained to the Presbyterian 
 ministry; was U. S. consul at (lenua. Italy, 1S42— 17, and 
 has attained distinction as a journalist and political lec- 
 turer. Among other works he has published The Glori/ 
 and Shame of Entfland (1S41), Condition and Fate of Eng- 
 land (1S42), Life of Vcf^imeiua (181C), The Napoleon Dtj- 
 nastif (1852). Life of Charles Snmticr (1874), Our First 
 Hmidrcd Yrarn (1874-75), and Several translations of 
 standard Italian authors. 
 
 Lestocq' (Jean Hi:nMAs), b. at Celle, Hanover, Apr. 
 29, 10'J2. His father, a French emigrant, was a surgeon. 
 and the son chose the game profession; in 1713 went to 
 St. Petersburg, and was appointed surgeon in the service 
 of Peter the tireat. Itut was banished to Kazan in 171S on 
 account of his dissolute habits. In 172j. Catharine I. re- 
 called and ajjpointed him surgeon in the service of the 
 princess Elizabeth. He soon acquired complete control 
 over the mind of the princess, and it was by his instigation 
 and by his aid that she undertook the revolution of Nov. 
 2J. 1741, which made her empress of Russia. The king of 
 Poland now made Lestocq a count, the empress gave him 
 a pension of 7000 rubles annually, and for several years 
 his influence in Russian politics was very great. But in 
 1748 the vice-chancellor, Bestoozhcf, succeeded in rousing 
 the empress's suspicion against him. He was arrested, put 
 to the torture, and banished to Ooglitch. In 17G1, Peter III. 
 recalled him to the court, and Catharine II. gave bim an 
 estate in Livonia, where he d. June 12. 1767. 
 
 Lestosau'riis [Or. AjjoT^t. '* pirate." and o-aupoc. "liz- 
 ard"], a genus of extinct reptiles from the Cretaceous of 
 Kansas. (See MosASArnrs, by Prof. O. C. Maush.) 
 
 L'Estrange' (Sir Roger), b. at Hunstanton Hall. 
 Xorfolksbire. England, in lOltJ: was probably educated at 
 Cambridge; accompanied King Charles I. in 1631) in his 
 expedition against the S?ot.=, and being a Bealoue royalist 
 during the civil war was captured in an attack on Lynn 
 (1644), and condemned to death by the Roundheads. He 
 was, however, reprieved, and kept captive several years, 
 until in 1648 he escaped and unsuccessfully trie<l to stir up 
 a rebellion in Kent : after which he flecl to the Continent. 
 He returned to England on the dissolution of the Long 
 Parliament in 1653, and made terms with Cromwell. At 
 the Restorati(m be was appointed censor or " licenser " of 
 the press : established the Public Intelh'fjcncer newspaper in 
 1665 and the Obscrrator in 1679, in both of which sheets 
 and in a multitude of pamphlets he showed himself a most 
 energetic supporter of the Crown. He made translations of 
 .losephus. Cicero's (J^vcs, ^sop's Fables, Erasmus's Col- 
 loffnlea, Quevedo's Visions, and other works, ancient ami 
 modern, some of which possessed considerable merit, though 
 unfaithful and disfigured by flippant phrases. Ho was 
 knighted on the accession of James II., elected to the Par- 
 liament of 16S5, and dismissed from his oflBce of censor at 
 the revolution of 1688, soon after which he became insane. 
 D. in London Dec. II, 1704. 
 
 Lestrid'inw [from Lestris, the generic name, literally 
 "robber." nn<l the sub-family affix -itur], ti sub-family of 
 the faniilv Larida*. distinguished by a well-clcveloped beak, 
 the upjier mandible of which is strongly hooked, overhang- 
 ing the lower, and which has at its base a well-developed 
 cere. In this grouji are embraced the jUgers or gull-hunt- 
 ers, and those names, as well as their scientific designntions, 
 are derived from an alleged peculiarity in their habits, it 
 being affirmed that they chiefly obtain their fofid by pur- 
 suing the smaller gulls after tliey have secured food, and 
 compelling them to disgorge : the fn<ul thus dejected they 
 pounce upon, and, as the bald-hearled eagle does to the fish- 
 hawk, appropriate it to themselves. The species are mostly 
 inhabitants of the polar regions, G. R. Gray recognizing 
 four species from the northern seas and one from the Ant- 
 arctic; but, according to the same authority, two species 
 (not even represented in the British Museum) are found in 
 intermediate regions, one (Stereorariu» //ordifi) being at- 
 tributed to '* Malay. Philippines. Sandwich Islands." and 
 another i,S. spinicnuda) to "Atlantic Ocean. St. Helena." 
 Dr. Coues admits four North American species, which he
 
 LE SUEUR— LETTERS TESTAMENTARY. 
 
 1741 
 
 places in two sub-goncra^ Buphngnsj with one species, aud 
 Stercontrim, with three. TUKODOllB Gill. 
 
 Le Sueur, county of S. Central Minnesota, bounilcd 
 W.bv the Minnesota Kiver. Area, MO square miles. It is 
 fertile, level, niul well womltHl. tJrain anil lumber are load- 
 ing proriiicts. The county eontains a great number of small 
 lakes, an-1 is traversed by the St. Paul and Sioux Cily K. U. 
 Cop. Lc Sueur. Pop, ILfiO?. 
 
 iie Sueur, post-v. and tp., cap. of Le Sueur co., Minn., 
 on the Minne--uta River aud on the St. Paul and Sioux 
 City U. U.. tK'> miles from St. Paul. It has churches, an 
 elegant public school, several wa^on aud furniture manu- 
 factories, and a number of stores. Pop. 1009. 
 
 M. K. PRENDKUGAST, LATK El). ** Lk SlKm CorRIER." 
 
 Lesueur' iErsTA<iiKK b. at Paris in 1G17: received his 
 first artistic inftruetion from his father, who was a sculptor ; 
 i*tudie<l under Simon Vouet, together witli Lebrun. his 
 future rival, and soon became oue of the most esteemed 
 painters of that time in France, but d. at Paris in 16j.>. i 
 His pictures represent subjects of the Bible, St, Paul at 
 Ephftiis ; of the Christian legends. Sceitcn in the Life of | 
 St. Bruno : and of the (Ireek mythology. Scencn in the Life 
 uf t'npiii : and the circumstance that he had never been in 
 Italy, nor raado a thorouj^h study of the history of the art , 
 of painting, gave his genius a freshness, naivete, and I 
 originality which still charm in his pictures, while it is \ 
 ju^t these qualities which are missing in Lebrun, who ; 
 folluwed Pouj^sin to Italy, and succeeded in throwing Le- 
 sucur into the shade. 
 
 Lesaenr (Jean Fran(;ois), b. Jan. l.'i, 17fi3, at Drucat- 
 Plesfliol. near Abbeville, France; was appointed director 
 of music at the cathedral of Seez in 1770, and in 17S0 at 
 the church of Notre Dame in Paris. The innovations which 
 his compositions intniduced into the style of sacrecl music 
 attracted the public, but vrcre not approved of by connois- 
 seurs and the clergy, an<l iu 17SS he gave up his position, 
 and lived for some years in retirement in the country. In 
 170.'t liis opera La Carcrnc made a great success, and in 
 170.3 he was appointed professor at the newly formed con- 
 servatory of music in Paris. This po.-itioii he lost in INOL' 
 on account of dissensions with his eolleai^ues, but in I.SO-I, 
 Napoleon made him director of the imperial orchestra. 
 The mass and Tc fhtim which he composed for the coro- 
 nation of the emperor were received with great applause, 
 and liis opera, Lia fiatulrH, even excited enthusiasm, La 
 Mort </',l»/«7/»(, on the c mtrary, was more coolly received 
 iu 1800, and liis later masses and oratorios failed to make 
 much impression. In 1H17 ho was appointed professor in 
 composition at the reorganiz(Ml conservatory of music, and 
 among his pupils wore IJerlioz, Ambroise Tliomas, Gounod, 
 and l)ictsch. 1). in Paris Oct. C>, ls;i7. 
 
 LetartS ip, of Mtigs co., 0., on Ohio River. Pop, i;>19, 
 
 Letch'ery county of Kentucky, bounded S. E. by Vir- 
 ginia. It is a mountain region, having beds of bituminous 
 coal. Corn is the princijjal crop. Area, 300 square miles. 
 Cap. Whitesburg. Pop. lOUH. 
 
 Letcher (John), b. at Lexington, Va., Mar. 29, 1813; 
 educated partly ut Washington College, but graduated at 
 Uandolph'Mueon College, Va.; studied law and was ad- 
 mifled to the bar iu ISIIO. aud while practising edited a 
 newspaper in his native town ; in 1H.')0 was a member of 
 the State constitutiotml coiiveulion. and a member of Con- 
 gress from is.i;; to l.S.)9, when In- was ducted governor of 
 Virginia. This positii>n ho was hohling when the Slate 
 passed her ordinaiu^e of secession in lSt>|. Though he hatl 
 not favored the policy of .accession, yet as an imliviilual and 
 as chief mngislnile he sustained the action of the State with 
 zeal, energy, and ability. After the war he took no prom- 
 inent part in politics, but resumed the practice of law at 
 Lexington, A. H, StivPiikns. 
 
 Ijetcher (Robert P.), b. in Gerard co., Ky.; was a 
 lawytT by profession ; a member of the Slate logisluturo 
 fnr a number of years, and once Speaker of the house ; was 
 a member of Congress from IS2;i to 1833; was an intimate 
 personal aud political friend of Air. Clay ami .Mr. Critten- 
 den ; was elerti-d governor (»f the State in lH|(i, and was 
 minister to Mexico iu 1819. U. at Frankfort, Ky., Jan. 
 2\, 1S(U. A. II, Stkpiikns. 
 
 Lc'the, in Grecian mythology, was a river in the lower 
 wrld of which tho departed souls drank before entering 
 the Klysian Fields, thereby entirely forgetting all about 
 their life on earth. It was also used as a personification 
 of oldivion. 
 
 Leto. See Latona. 
 
 KctohnU'h'ee, post-tp., Lowndes co., Ala. Pop. 2538. 
 
 Kt*troiiii(>' (.Ji:a» Antoink), b. at Paris Jan. 26, 17H7: 
 studied tho art of painting under David, but fell himself 
 more strongly drawn towards science; worked for several 
 
 years under Mentelle. jirofessor in geography ; travelled 
 from I-SIO to 1812 through France. Italy, aud Switzerland; 
 wrote in 1814 his Cotii-M /(rmrntain; dc Geoi/rapJu'r, tiurienuc 
 ct tnoilvntc. which was often republished; became iu 1831 
 professor iu history and areliicology at the Collljge do 
 France, and in 1810 keeper of the archives of the kingdom. 
 1). at Paris Dec. 13, 1818. His principal works are AV- 
 chernficn pour acnir ^ VJ/istoiic lie VEtjypte (1823), liecuril 
 den InHcrtptiuiiJt yrccfptes ct latinea de V Etji/pte (1842—18), and 
 Dipiomrs ct Cfiurtres dr f'^poquc Merovimjicnne any pnptfiUH 
 et aur vt'lin (1S4-1). Noteworthy among his minor works is 
 his La Statue vacate dc Mcninon (1833). 
 
 I.rtter of Attorney. See Power of Attohney. 
 Letter ol" Credit, a Utter written by one merchant 
 
 ] or correspouileut to another requesting him to credit Uie 
 
 j bearer or the person therein named with a sum of money. 
 
 j Letters of credit are either general or special. They are 
 general when addressed to any and every person to whom 
 
 I they may be presented, and therefore give any person to 
 whom tliey may be shown autlmrity to make advances upon 
 
 I the credit of the drawer. They are special when addressed 
 to a particular indiviilual by name, who alone is authorized 
 lo act upon the request. If advances Ijc made upon a letter 
 of credit by the person to whom it is presented, he has a 
 right of action against the drawer for reimbursement. A 
 privily of contract springs up between tlieui upon accept- 
 ance of the request by the drawee. (See (iiiARANTV. Burge 
 on Surcti/afiip : Bell's Vomnuntaries Laws of Scotland; 
 Story on Bilh.) 
 
 Gkorge Chase. Revised by T. W. Dwigrt. 
 Lette'rej town of S. Italy, in the province of Naples, 
 not far from (.'astellammare. Pop. in 187J, 5610. 
 
 Letterken'y, tp. of Franklin co., Pa. Pop. 2178. 
 Letters. Sec PAL.KOGRAfnv. 
 
 Letters, Law Concerning. Pee Literahv Pkop- 
 ERTv. by Pkof. T. W. D\vi<;nT. LL.D, 
 
 Letters of Administration. See Letti:rs Testa- 
 ment art, A DM I MST RATION. 
 
 Inciters of Marque. See Privateer, War, Marque 
 
 (Ll'.TTERS or). 
 
 Letters Patent. See Patent. 
 
 Let'ters Ko'gatory, a writ or instrument sent in tho 
 name and by the authority of a judge or court to another iu 
 adifFerentcountry or State, requesting that the deposition of 
 a witness be taken who is within the jurisdiction of the for- 
 eign tribunal, to be used as testimony in a cause pending 
 before the judge or court from which the letters are sent. 
 This instrument informs the court abroad of tlie pendency 
 of Iho action, the names of the foreign witnesses, and is 
 frequently nccompanicil by written interrogatories, pre- 
 pared by the litigating parties, upon wliich the witness is 
 to be examined. It also contains an oiler on the part of 
 the court issuing the letters to perform a similar service 
 for the foreign tribunal whenever required. The witness is 
 examined cither before the judge receiving the letters, or 
 before a commissioner apjiointed for the purpose, and the 
 answers, signed and sworn to by the deponent, and duly 
 nuthenticate<l, arc then returned to the court from which 
 tho letters isf^ued. (Sec DKi'i)snniN, Witness.) 
 
 (Ji:ou(;e Chase. Hkviskd hy T. AV. Dwkjiit. 
 
 Let'ters Testamentary, an instrument in writing 
 granted by a surrogate or other judicial officer having ju- 
 risdiction of the probate of wills to an executor as evidence 
 of his authority, and enuxiwering him to administer Iho 
 estate of the deceased. When a person dies intestate, let- 
 ters of n similar ehuraeter are granted to the person wlio is 
 apjjointed ailniinislrator. but they are then termed "letters 
 of administration." By the Kngli,-h common law execu- 
 tors c<iuld perform most of the acts pertaining to (heir 
 ofliec, except engaging in suits in relation to the estate, be- 
 fore obtaining letters lestamentary, since an executor's au- 
 thority and title is deemed in law lo be derived from tho 
 will, and only to be evidenced by the letters granted. This 
 rule has generally been changed in American practice by 
 statute, ami it is usually requirecl that letters testamenlarv 
 must be obtained before an executor will be authorized lo 
 perform any of his usual <lufits in the settletnent of the 
 estate except those of minor iinporlanee. An adininistralor 
 has no authority to net until letters of adiuinislration are 
 granted to him, though after the grant is made his title and 
 authority will, by tietion id" law. relate back to the death 
 of Iho intestate. (See Kution.) Letters granted by the 
 surrogate are only valid within the limits <d" the State in 
 which they are issued. If there are assets of the deceased 
 within a foreign Slate or country, letters must he iKsucd 
 there to subordinate or ancillary aclministrators. and tho 
 principal executor or administrator, as such, will have no 
 authority to administer such assets, unless they arc ro-
 
 1742 
 
 LETTER- WOOD— LEURET. 
 
 raitted to him from the foreign jurisdiction. (See Will, 
 
 ApMIMSTRATOR. EXKri-TOIl, PROBATK. ^TRROGATE.) 
 
 (iKiMCGK Chask. Rkv!si:i) bv T. W. Dwight. 
 
 Let'ter-wood, or Suake-wood, a rare and costly 
 ornamental wood used lor inlaying and veneering, the 
 product of lirosimnm Anbletii, an artocarjiaceous tree 
 of South America. It is so hard that axes of extraordi- 
 nary temper arc required to fell the tree. Its rich brown 
 wood has somewhat letter-shaped marks, which arc nearly 
 black. It is one of the most beautiful kinds of wood. 
 
 Let'tic Race, The, forms a subdivision of the Slavic 
 ^roup, belonging to the Indo-European family, and is 
 ilselt divitied into three branches — the Lithuanians, the 
 Letts, and the Old Prussians. The Old Prussians inhab- 
 ited the region between the Niemen and the Vistula, but 
 were completely Germanized in the seventeenth century. 
 The few remains of their language were collected by Nes- 
 selmaun, and published at Berlin {1JS4))). The Letts, num- 
 bering about 1,000.1)1)11, inhabit Courland, Western Livonia, 
 and the adjacent districts of the governments of Vitebsk. 
 Kuvno, and Pskov. Their language was not reduced to 
 writing until the sixteenth century, on the introduction of 
 the Reformation ; the first book printed in Lettish was the 
 minor catechism by Luther, which ajipcared in 1 j86. Since 
 that time the language has been cultivated with steadily 
 increasing care. Religious books, and even books of fiction, 
 were translated; lyrical poetry, and even plays, were pro- 
 duced by native authors ; and at present Lettish newspapers 
 and periodicals are issued. The Lithuanians comprise the 
 Lithuanians proper, numbering about 7 JO.OOO, and inhabit- 
 ing the eastern part of Courland and the governments of 
 Vilnaand (Jrodno ; the Samogitians or Shamaites, number- 
 ing about Olio, 000, and occupying the governmont of Kovno ; 
 and the Lithuanians in Prussia, numbering about 150.000. 
 The Lithuanian language is spoken in several dialects. 
 Like the Lettish, it was not reduced to writing until the 
 time of the introduction of the Reformation, but it is much 
 older than the Lettish, and exists in a much more prim- 
 itive state, fur which reason it is of peculiar interest to the 
 student of the Indo-Germauic languages. It is rich in 
 songs, of which a small collection was published by Rhesa 
 at Kiinigsbcrg in 1S2j ; and in tales, proverbs, and riddles, 
 of which a collection was published at Weimar in l!^o7 by 
 Schleicher. A Lithuanian dictionary was published in ISo-i 
 by Nesselmann, and a grammar by Schleicher (Prague, 
 I8jG) ; liielenstein gave a Lettish grammar in 2 vols. (Ber- 
 lin, 1863-66). 
 
 Lettres de Cachet. See Cachet, Lettres de. 
 
 Lett's, post-v. of Grandview tp.. Louisa co.. In., on the 
 South-western division of the Chicago Rock Island and 
 Pacific R. R. (Ouonwa Station). Pop. ^S. 
 
 Let'tuce [Lat. lactHca'\, an important salad-plant, the 
 LactHca sdtira, a composite herb, the native country of 
 which is not known. There are many varieties, some of 
 which form heads of leaves and others do not. It is easy 
 of digestion, rather laxative, and gently soporific. From 
 its juice the narcotic LACTrcARii'M (which see) is prepared. 
 There are several Asiatic. Eurnpean, and American species 
 of wild lettuce {Luctuca), most of which have an acrid-nar- 
 cotic quality. 
 
 Leucadia. See Santa Maura. 
 
 IjCucan'ilinc [iJr. Xcvko^. *• white," and Sans, nil, " in- 
 digo"], C^-oHjiNa, a base produced by the action of redu- 
 cing agents on rosaniline, and related to it in the same 
 manner as indigo-white to indigo blue: 
 
 RosAnlllnp. Lcucantllne. 
 
 C-20Hl9N3 + H2 = C20H,lN5. 
 
 (Sec Watts's Dirt., iii. 574.) 
 
 Leuch'tcnberg, in the Middle Ages an independent 
 principality of tiermany, received its name from the castle 
 ol" Leuchtenberg. and was ruled by a landgrave. In 1G46 
 the male line of the dynasty became extinct, and the land- 
 graviate fell to Bnvaria. In 1S17 the Bavarian king, Maxi- 
 milian Joseph, ceded it for 5,000,000 francs to his son-in- 
 law, Eugene Heauharnais, who assumed the title of duke 
 of Leuchtenberg. Area, about SO square miles. Pop. about 
 6500. Cap. Pfreimt. 
 
 Len'cine [Gr. \cvk6<:, " white "], a curious crystalline 
 substance which is among the products of incipient putre- 
 faction of the albuminoid or proteid bodies. Proust was 
 the discoverer of it in cheese, and Braconnot obtained it 
 by treating animal substances with sulphuric acid. It oc- 
 curs diffused widely throughout living animal tissues. Its 
 composition is CellisXOj. Another name now given to it, 
 conveying a theory of its constitution, is amidnmproic acid, 
 represented thus : CgHul XH2)02: as derived from cnproic 
 a^nd. C6H12O2. by replacement of II2 by NII2, amidogen. 
 It was called by its earlier investigators oxide of caatine or 
 
 cn«eoK« oxide. Another crystalline substance, called tf/ro- 
 siitCy which is CsHjiNKs, always accompanies leucine, both 
 in nature and as formed artificially. Leucine is prepared 
 by dissolving washed leim meat in oil of vitriol, removing 
 the latter by chalk, evaporating, dissolving in alcohol, de- 
 colorizing with animal charcoal, and crystallizing. There 
 arc several other methods, however. Leucine may be sub- 
 limed like camphor. It dissolves in warm, not in cold, 
 water. 
 
 The study of these immediate products of metamorphoses 
 of the nitrogcn(ms substances that form animal tissues is 
 of the utmost importance in connection with physiology 
 and the learning of the chemical laws of life and death, of 
 health and disease. In this view, leucine and tyrosine, and 
 their associates and congeners, are bodies of high import- 
 ance, which call for the serious attention and investigation 
 of the chemical student, H. Wirtz. 
 
 Leucip^pus, the teacher of Bcmocritus and the founder 
 of the atomic school in the Greek philosophy, lived probably 
 about 500 B. c, but of his personal life nothing is known, 
 ilis writings have ail perished, and from the notices which 
 Aristotle. Plutarch, and Cicero give it is impossible to sco 
 now how far he had developed the atomic theory. 
 
 Leu'cite [Gr. Aeu»c6y, "white"], a natural silicate of 
 alumina and potash, crystallizing in the monometric sys- 
 tem, and of a gray or white color (hence it is sometimes 
 called " white garnet"). It occurs abundantly in the vol- 
 canic rocks of the Rhine and of Italy. 
 
 Leuck'art (Kahi. Georg Friedrich Rrnoi.F), b. at 
 Helmstedt, in Brunswick. Oct. 7, 1823: studied medicine 
 and natural science at Gottingen under Wagner, and was 
 appointed professor of zoology and comparative anatomy 
 at the I'niversity of Gicssen in 1S50. His licitrilfjen znr 
 Kcuntniss wirbelloser T/ticre {1S4S) and Ueher den Poly- 
 morphiamnn der Individiien (1S51) attracted much atten- 
 tion, but it was more especially his helminthologioal re- 
 searches. Die lilftsenbnndir'urmcr (1856) and Trichina epi- 
 ntlis (1861), which made his name celebrated. He also 
 wrote Die Parasiten den Menschen [2 vols., lSGl-66). 
 
 Leucocytha^'mia [Gr. Aev^d?, "white," icvto?, "cell," 
 and alfia, "blood"], or Leucha*mia, a disease of the 
 human subject, characterized by a very great excess of 
 the white cells in the blood, and by a corresponding dimi- 
 nution of the proportion of red corpuscles. It is accom- 
 panied by enlargement of the spleen or of some of the lym- 
 ]ihatic glands, or of both, and cases are reported accom- 
 panied by disease of the medullary mass in the bones, which 
 mass takes on, or perhaps normally possesses, the lymph- 
 atic function. In some cases the white blood-cells are not 
 to be distinguished from the normal ones: in others they 
 are smaller and accompanied by free nuclei and granules. 
 The liver is frequently enlarged. A hemorrhagic diathe- 
 sis is often developed. The patient wastes away and be- 
 comes anivmic. Of the causatiim and cure of this disease 
 nothing is known. It is always fatal, but often chronic. 
 
 Leu'coline [Gr. A(vk6^, "white"]. C9H7N, a volatile 
 oil^- base, isomeric with chinoline, obtained from the oil 
 of coal-tar. (See C/icm. ^uc. Jour., xvi. 377.) 
 
 Leucorrh<r'a [Gr. AfVKos, "white," and per*-, to 
 "flow"], the "whites," a catarrhal flow from the vaginal 
 or uterine raucous membranes. This disease is an exag- 
 geration of the normal mucous secretion, and is often con- 
 sequent ujion a some\vhat inflammatory condition of the 
 mucous membranes. Rest, the use of iron and otlicr tonics, 
 and astringent washes arc often highly beneficial. Some- 
 times the catamenia assume a leucorrhtval character, espe- 
 cially towards the close. The cervix uteri is often involved 
 in a sub-acute or chronic inflammation, which not unfrc- 
 quentiy is best treated by local caustic or other applications. 
 
 Leiieothea. See Ino. 
 
 Leuc'tra, village of Bwotia, Greece, became famous 
 as the place where the Thcbans under Eparainondas de- 
 feated the Spartans under Cleombrotus in 371 B.C., thereby 
 checking for ever the induence which Sj)arta bad exercised 
 over Greece for several centuries. 
 
 liCuk, village of Switzerland, in the canton of Valais, 
 on the Rlione. It is situated at an elevation of 5000 feet 
 above the level of the sea. and is famous for its hot springs, 
 saline, sulphurous, and chalybeate, which are used for both 
 bathing and drinking, chiefly in diseases of the skin. 
 
 Leuret' (Fra\<;'0is), b. at Nancy Dec. 3, 1797: studied 
 medicine, and took his degree in 1826. Having applied 
 himself with special interest to the study of mental dis- 
 eases, and developed original ideas of the treatment of 
 the insane, he was appointed physician of the insane sec- 
 tion of the Bic^tre, then director of a lunatic a.'jylum in 
 Paris, .and at last director of the Bicf'tre. His most prom- 
 inent writings are Fragments pitychologiques 8ur la Folic
 
 LEUTHEN— LEVEE. 
 
 1743 
 
 (1834), Trnilrmeiil moral i{e la Folic (1840), and Drt Indi- | 
 rations i1 ouiire dam Ic TrailemenI moral de la J-'alie (1S46). 
 I). «t Xancy Jan. fi, 1S51. 
 
 Leu'thcn, village of Prussia, in the province of Silo- I 
 sia, 9 miles W. of Brcslau. Hero Frederick the lircat com- 
 pletely Jefeiilcd the Austrians under Prince C'barles of 
 Lcirrainc on Dec. 8, 17J~. 
 
 Leut'schau, town of Hungary, in the county of Zip?, 
 has J729 inlialiitanis, mostly engaged iu tho cultivation of 
 wine, fruit, saffron, and hops. I 
 
 Leut'ze (Kmmani'EL), b. at Emiugen, Wiirtemberg, i 
 May 24. Ii'lO. son of a mechanic, who on account of his 
 political opinions left Germany for the T. S., and made his 
 homo in Philadelphia. His early passion for art showed 
 itself in rude portraits. A picture representing an Indian 
 Gaziuifun the Setiiiir/ Sun indicated so much talent that his 
 commissions soon enahled him to travel abroad. In 1S41 
 ho arrived in Amsterdam, ami from there went to iJiissel- 
 dorf. and beeamc a pupil of Lessing. His first picture, 
 Cilumbtu lirl'nre the I'imncil of Salamanca, was purchased 
 by the Art Union of Dlisseldorf. At Munich, Leutze be- 
 came an admirer of Kaulbaoli. Tlieneo he went to Italy, 
 visiting the chief citicn and studying the great masters, but 
 he was a German by birth and temperament, and he came 
 back to Germany as to his home, married there, and there 
 lived till ISj'J; then returned to America, and between 
 Philadelphia and Washington passed the rest of his life. | 
 1). in Washington, I'. C, July, l!*l)8. Leutze painted nu- 
 merous portraits, and of eminent pcr.sons, of (ien. Grant 
 among the rest. But his chosen field of art was the romance 
 of history, which he illustrated with such vigor and truth 
 as were in him. In Washington and Philadelphia his 
 work meets the eye of the visitor in public and private 
 places. In the Ca|iitol his WcuUrn Emifiralion is con- 
 spicuous. His W'anliinijlon Crufmimj tht: Dclaifare is famil- 
 iar through engravings. Other pieces, well known and 
 more or less celebrated, arc The Landinri of the Norse- 
 men, Cromwell and hii Daiiijhtci; The /conoclaKt, John 
 Knox ndiiinninhiinf }fartf Stnarl, Volninbua before t'crdinand 
 find Itabrll.i, Wiictiun Mniiiiiem, Godlra. Leutze was a 
 rapid painter, with immense fire and dash. His works are 
 popular with the lovers of action, but distasteful to the 
 lover of delicacy in drawing and color. He was the Amer- 
 ican exemplar of the modern (Jerman school of Kaulbach 
 and Cornelius, with a tumult of passicm all his own. 
 
 0. B. FnoTiiiMiiiAM. 
 Lenzc, town of Belgium, in the province of Haiuaut, on 
 the l)cnder. ha? breweries, distilleries, salt-reDncrics, oil- 
 mills, dyeing establishments, blcaching-grouuds, and manu- 
 factures of hosiery and lace. Pop. (500!). 
 
 Levaillant' (Fraxi.ois), b. in I7J3 at Paramaribo, in 
 Dutch Guiana, of French parents; removed to Kurope in 
 17B:t; was educated at different places in Germany, and 
 in 1777 studied natural seieneo at Paris; in 17.SI) pro- 
 ceeded to the Cape of Good Hope, whence he made two 
 journeys to tho interior of Africa, which ho described on 
 his rerurn to Paris in 178j in his Vniiai/e dana l' Inter ieur 
 fie rA/'rif/ne (Killt) and Srrfmd loi/nf/e (1795). These 
 books were read with great interest and ran through scv- 
 eral editions, though they were much criticiseil by scien- 
 tifio aulhorities. Of unquestionable value were his collec- 
 tions, sold iiartly in France, partly in Holland, and his or- 
 nithological works, /fi«'f"'ic natnrrlledra Oiiieaus d' .U'ri'ilic 
 (0 vols., I79S-1SI2I, Jfiiloire nolnrrllc dct I'errotjuclii (2 
 vols., |.S01-n5). D. at .Sezanne in Champagne Nov. 22, 
 1S21. 
 
 Le'van, tp. of .Tackson co., HI. Pop. 1321. 
 Lcvaii, tp. of Pope co., Minn. Pop. loO. 
 Lrvan'na, post-v. of Union tp., Brown co., 0., on the 
 Ohio lliver. opposite Dover, Ky. Pop. 101. 
 
 Levant', post -l p. of Penobscot co.. Me., .S miles W. by 
 N. ofllaugor. It has manufactures of lumber. Pop. liji). 
 Levant, The, a name of Italian origin. // hronir. It 
 denolis the countries bordering on the eastern part of the 
 Mecliterranean— Asia Minor. .'<yria, and Kgvpt. Like Ori- 
 ent, it signifies " rising, east," and was brought into use in 
 t!ie early .Miildle Ages, when the Italian republics controlled 
 the commerce of Kurope. 
 
 Lev'ee. The word Irrfr is French, and signifies, ninonK 
 other meanings, "raising,"" embankment,"" embanking," 
 "bank," "causeway," "mole." Levees, embankments, 
 dikes, dams, were used by the ancients during the earliest 
 historical periods. Probably the first to use tliein were tho 
 Egyptians in tho Nile valley. Tho Assyrians and Baby- 
 lonians also leveed and reclaimed portions of the valley of 
 the Ku]ibrales and Tigris. The Chinese leveed their great 
 rivers, tho Yang-t7.e-Kiang. or Blue River, and the Hoang- 
 Ho, or Yellow Kiver. Egypt being a rainless country, or 
 nearly so, except near the sea-coast, the alluvial valley- 
 
 lands of the Nile could not be cultivated without irrigation. 
 During tho flood season of the Xilc — the greatest height 
 being reached about the time of the autumnal equinox — 
 water is drawn off through sluices in the levees, and con- 
 veyed through canals to where it is needed; it is there re- 
 tained within leveed areas or basins as long as required. 
 Variations of a few feet in the annual rise of the Nile aro 
 therefore of the utmost importance to the Egyptians, for 
 low inuixlations cause dearths or famines, and excessive 
 inundations destruction of property, disease, and loss of 
 life. The Nile system is one of leveeing and irrigation, but 
 the irrigation includes the inundation of the valley-lands 
 throughout, leaving dry only the mounds on which the cities, 
 towns, and villages are built, or the leveed areas from which 
 the water is excluded. Near Cairo the river levees are from 
 12 to 1.^) feet in height, and but very little higher than the 
 river flood-line. The annual overflow of the Nile lands 
 through sluices — or graduated outlets — for many centuries 
 has caused the gradual elevation of these lands — about four 
 to four and a half inches in a century — and also the elevation 
 of the river flood-line. Below Cairo, at the head of the 
 Delta proper, there has been constructed since 1846 a ma- 
 sonry dam, or "barrage," ])rovided with numerous sluice- 
 gates, across the branches of the Nile, for the purpose of 
 facilitating irrigation during low water in the river. Navi- 
 gation is provided for by means of a lock at the end of the 
 " barrage." It is said liiat 200,000 laborers were employed 
 to strengthen and maintain the Nile levees during the ex- 
 cessive flood of 1S74. 
 
 Queen .Semiramis, Sivys Wheeler, "prevented the overflow 
 of the Euphrates valley by the erection of stupendous 
 mounds or dams along the banks of the Euphrates; and 
 henceforth the laud was irrigated by hand and by engines." 
 In China, says M. line. " the ra.iintenance of the dikes on 
 Yellow River is entrusted to a special board, which forms 
 in the provinces of Cliee, Shan-Toong. and llonan a body 
 independent of the provincial government." In Hindostan 
 levees or embankments, or " bunds," are used to construct 
 reservoirs for the purpose of irrigating the sterile hills and 
 plains, which were only barren for want of irrigation dur- 
 ing the protracted seasons of drought. In the JIadras 
 provinces alone, ('apt. Smith informs us, there exist no less 
 than 43,000 reservoir-tanks in repair, and 10.000 out of re- 
 pair — all of native origin. He estimates the length of 
 the levees or embankments which fcjnu these reservoirs at 
 30.000 miles, suflieient " to put a girdle round the globe." 
 
 In Italy the levee system has been in use for many cen- 
 turies — for reclamation as well as to facilitate irrigation — 
 and the obi Italian engineers announced some truths which, 
 though manifest and plain, are not even yet fully recognized 
 among modern engineers, or those of to-day. They learned 
 that the lower or alluvial portions of turbid or sedimentary 
 rivers can be leveed safely, without elevation of their beds or 
 surface as the result of the increased quantity of water con- 
 fined within the channel by levees; that "derivations," or out- 
 lets, will not permanently lower the tbiod-line iu such por- 
 tions of a sedimentary river: and that a division of the 
 waters of such a river into more than one channel results in 
 tho elevation of the beds and high-water lines of the divided 
 channels. Frisi says : " It is a bydrostatical paradox, 
 commonly taught by Italian engineers in the past century, 
 and uniformly eonfirmed by exjieriencc, that you do not 
 diminish the height of the waters in great floods by less- 
 ening the quantity of the water." Gugliclmini taught that 
 " the greater the quantity of water that a river carries the 
 less will be its fall" or surface slope, and also that "the 
 greater tho force of the stream the less will be the slope of 
 its bed." It has been the pri-valent belief that levees have 
 caused tho rising of the bed anci surface of the river Po 
 until the flood-lino of that river is above the roofs of tho 
 houses in Ferrara. But it is now well known that neither 
 tho flood-line nor the bed of the Po has been elevated at 
 all iluring the past 100 years and more, and that for "the 
 roofs" tho "first floor "of the houses should be snbslitute*l 
 in speaking of the comparative height of the river at high 
 water. Tho exaggerations are due to M. Cuvier, and were 
 alleged to bo based upon statements made by De Prony, 
 but the engineer Lcuubiirdini has pioveii their falsity. 
 j The levees of llollanil. whereby immense areas of land. 
 I submerged from five to fifteen feet below mean tide in Iho 
 i North Sea. have been reclaimed, drained, and cultivated, 
 ' are the most wonderful of any in the world. The levees 
 and hydraulic works of Holland are said to have cost fully 
 $l..'i0li.O0ll.0OO. The whole country is an intricate netivnrk 
 j of rivers, water-channels, and canals bordered by levees, 
 1 and the unconquerable perseverance and industry of tho 
 Dutch people have converted a desolate marsh and lakes 
 into the richest farms and gardens in Europe. By means 
 of steam machinery and windmills these lands arc kept 
 dry. To prevent their being overwheline.l again, the levees 
 ; are placed under a careful system of surveillance.
 
 1744 
 
 LEVEE. 
 
 Levees for the protection of river lowlands, as well as to 
 facilitate the ri-cla.uiation of marshes, morasses, feus, aud 
 overflowed laud, have Iiecn exteusivcly constructed in other 
 piirtions of the German states, aud in France, En^rliind. 
 Ireland, and eli^ewhere. Sinee 1871 the levee system has 
 Ijcen applied on a larj;e scale in California to the reclama- 
 tion of the tule-lands iu the valley of the Sacramento and 
 iSan .Toaquin rivers. The aggregate length of these levees 
 at thiiii time probably exceeds 1000 miles. 
 
 Li vecs an Applied to the Missiftippi Hiver. — The leveeing 
 of the Mississippi Uiver was commenced at New Orleans 
 in about the year 1720, the engineer Dumout dc la Tour 
 having, after locating the future city in 1717, ordered a 
 fnint levee of jU'O feet in length by 4 feet in height aud IS 
 feet wide at top, as necessary to protect the city. In 171 7, 
 De la Tour's observations showccl that the river flood-line 
 w;is three feet higher than the river-bank in the beud where 
 \\v located the proposed city, aud he allowed for a levee one 
 loot above the then high-water line. AVe are informed by 
 tlie historian F. Xavier Martin that in 171S there was au 
 "extraordinary rise of the Mississippi" which greatly 
 discouraged the new settlers. "Bienville." he says, "had 
 selected a site for a city, but the colony not having means 
 to build dikes or levees, the idea was abandoned." Never- 
 theless, the New Orleans levee was undertaken afterwards, 
 and completed in 1726. Soon after the founding of New 
 Orleans plantations were established along the river-banks 
 above and below the city, but each proprietor had to con- 
 struct and inaiutain his own levee. At that time the river 
 during its floods rose above its banks everywhere — from 
 three to four feet in the bends, and one foot or more around 
 the points — thus affording vent to the water through con- 
 tinuous lateral outlets on both banks, and submerging the 
 valley annually: but the reduction of current velocity in 
 the channel, and of chanuel section, prevented the banks 
 from caving rajpidly, therefore the levees required were in- 
 significant compared with what they are now. The levees 
 were low, because the river deposits had kept the banks 
 always nearly up to the flood-line. They were more per- 
 manent, because the banks caved in but little ; therefore 
 levee maintenance then cost but a fraction of what is now ] 
 required. In 1723 small settlements bad already been es- 
 tablished at several points between the mouth of Red 
 Kiver and New Orleans — at Pointe Coupee. Baton Rouge, 
 Manchac, below the Lafourche, at Cannes lirGl^cs, and at 
 Tchapitoulas. In 172H the settlements extended almost 
 continuously "for thirty miles above New Orleans." and in 
 17^16 twelve miles below and thirty miles above on both 
 sides of the river. In 1735 a great flood occurred, which 
 inundated New Orleans aud broke through or overtopped 
 the levees in many places, and probably the New Orleans 
 levee. The range from high to low water observed aud re- 
 corded in that year at New Orleans was 15 feetj which 
 slightly exceeds the range of recent years (11.8 feet, which 
 is to the flood-Iineof I S02, the highest due to a river-rise only 
 reeorded for fifty years ])aat) at New Orleans. This proves, 
 on the assumption that the Gulf level is unaltered, that the 
 river flood-line is no higher at New Orleans now than it was 
 in 1735, if so high. In 1743, says Gayar6, " an ordinance 
 was promulgated requiring the inhabit ants to complete 
 their levees by Jan. I. 1741, under penalty of forfeiture of 
 their lands to the Crown." In 1752, according to Monette, 
 the settlements were nearly continuous for ''20 miles below 
 and 30 miles above New Orleans," while " nearly the whole 
 coast was in a high state of cultivation and securely pro- 
 tected from flitod.<." In 1770 a great flood occurred with 
 inundations, and in 17^2 another. Great floods occurred 
 also in 1785, 171H, and 171*9, and tiuring each of these 
 years New Orleans was inundated. But little progress was 
 made in levee construction from 1703. when France ceded 
 Louisiana to Spain, until 1>>II3, when it passed to the I'.S., 
 after having been ceded back to France by Spain in the 
 year 1800. In 1805 the settlements and levees began about 
 4tl miles below and extended nearly 120 miles above New 
 Orleans; and the Pointe Coupee settlement above had a 
 front of 21 miles on the river. <^>pposite Natchez, near 
 tlio mouth of the Arkansas River, and at New Madrid, 
 small settlements had been made. Both banks of the 
 Ilayou Lafourche in Lower Louisiana were leveeil for about 
 45 miles from the river Mississippi. In 1812, Louisiana 
 was admitted into the Federal Union, and, according to 
 Stoddard, the levees were continuous on "both sides of the 
 rivor from the lowest settlements " to Ba*on Rouge, and 
 on the right bank to Pointe Coup^'O. In 1S28 the river- 
 banks were leveed nearly to the mouth of Red River, and 
 above, here and there on the W. bank, levees were in ex- 
 istence as far up as the mouth of the Arkansas. In 1844 
 tliey were nearly continuous to Napoleon on the W. bank, 
 with many isolated levees between Vicksburg and Memphis. 
 In 18C1 levees extended almost continuously from Cape 
 Girardeau in Missouri, with about 40 miles of openings 
 
 in the aggregate above the Arkansas River, right bank, 
 according to Prof. Forshey, down to near the forts below 
 New Orleans. 
 
 The process of levee construction, as applied to the Mis- 
 sissipjii River, began at New Orleans. The lower Mississippi 
 — that portion below the last atlluent. Red River — was first 
 leveed; therefore the enlargement of the lower river by the 
 closure of its outlets and the confinement of all the water to 
 the channel, took place before the leveeing of the upper river. 
 It was well that it so haj)pened, for had the upper river 
 been first leveed, before the enlargement of the lower river, 
 the flood-height below would have been much increased 
 and the inundations made more frequent and disastrous. 
 To prevent injury and danger to Lower Louisiana, the sugar 
 region, its levee system should be perfected first and every 
 outlet closed. During 150 years, sinee about 1720, the 
 leree system was gradually extended, from New Orleans, 
 about 70 miles below and about 1000 miles above. Every 
 bend, before levees were built around it. was a continuous 
 outlet, for tlie river floo<l-line was several feet higher than 
 the banks in the bends. Even the banks around the points 
 were overflowed before they were leveed, for they were 
 formed by alluvial deposits while inundated, and were 
 leveed because subject to overflow. The lower river was 
 first accommodated to the leveeing up of outlets. The 
 building of levees is nothing else but the closing up of 
 outlets, and the retention between the river-banks and the 
 levees of the waters which previously passed out laterally 
 over the banks. No evidence exists that the flood-line 
 of the lower Mississippi River is the fraction of an inch 
 higher now than it was before the building of the first levee 
 in front of New Orleans, but the area of the river's channel 
 has been increased undoubtedly. Every outlet except the 
 Bayou Lafourche — the high-water capacity of which is only 
 about 12.t)00 cubic feet ]ier second, or less than the one- 
 hundredth part of the ^Mississippi — has been closed below 
 Red River without adding to the height of the river flood- 
 line iu the lower river. Had the levee system been com- 
 menced above and extended downward, the first effect would 
 have been diS"crcnt. 
 
 The last outlet closed below Red River was the Bayou 
 Plaquomine in 18G5. the capacity of which was about 35.000 
 cubic feet per second; but the highest flood-line of recent 
 years below it was that of 1S(>2. which was 0.7 foot above 
 the 1S58 mark opposite New Orleans. In 1871 a storm- 
 tide backed up the river at New Orleans to a height about 
 the same as in 1862, but at Donaldsonville, 30 miles below 
 the Plaqueminc. the river in 1871 was 1.45 feet lower than 
 in 1862. Again, in 1874 an extraordinary storm-tide raised 
 the river (Apr. 15 and 16) at New Orleans about 8 inches 
 above the 1SG2 mark, but at a point 45 miles above New 
 Orleans, and about 30 miles below Donaldsonville. and 60 
 miles below the Plaqucmine, the flood-line of 1874 was 
 about 6 inches below that of 1862. Hence the statement 
 (by the V. S. levee engineer commission in their recent re- 
 port) that the effect of closing the Plaqucmine outlet was 
 to add " ubitut six iiicken to the nurmal jinod-heifjht at Aew 
 Orleansj" seems to want the support of facts. 
 
 The front-lancls at the Belleville foundry, opposite New 
 Orleans, formed by overflow deposits before the river was 
 h-veed, were found (see Ph. fnni Hifil. of the Mins,) to be 
 but three-tenths of a fottt below the flood-Hne of the great 
 flood-year 1858, and they were but 1 foctt below that of 
 1862, the highest known for fifty years. Observation shows 
 that in a current deposits do not generally reach within 1 
 foot of the flood-line. Recent levellings show that the 
 flood-line of 1862 was but 2.1 feet higher than the crown 
 of Old Levee street, opposite Jackson Square (the old 
 Place d'Armes), New Orleans, about 100 yards from the 
 river, and but 4.2 feet above the crown of Cliartrcs street, 
 opposite the square, and about 2li0 yards distant from the 
 river. The river-bank here is the same as it was in 1717, 
 having neither caved in nor receded by accretion. When 
 De la Tour laid out the city in 1717 the flood-line was .^ 
 feet, at least, above the river-bank here, or certainly as high 
 as now ; again showing no rise of the flood-height since 
 then. 
 
 It has been claimed (by XLS. engineers Humphreys and 
 Abbot) that the blue clay bed of the Mississip]d River 
 '• resists the action uf the strong current like marlile." and 
 that therefore " the bed of the Mississippi cannot yield" 
 and aec(imniodate itself to the increased (pmntityof water 
 confined 1o the cliannel by levees. It is therefore assumed 
 by them that no enlargement of water-way occurs, and no 
 allowance for it is made in calculating the effect of adding 
 to the quantity of water by extending levees. It is well 
 known that the action of running water slowly wears away 
 even the hardest primitive and volcanic rocks — as, for in- 
 stance, through the immense canons of the Colorado Ri\'er, 
 and elsewhere all over the world ; and that it dissolves and 
 wears away clay, no matter how firm, cannot be gainsaid
 
 LEVEE. 
 
 1745 
 
 with truth. WlK'Devcr a "cut-off"' occurs iu the Missis- 
 sippi River, the clay bed of the river i^ rapidly excavated, 
 and the ciit-ufT houu hecumcs as hirge iu scciiun as the 
 river clsewliero. Kvery bend of the river below a cut-oft" 
 is escavati'd rnpi<Ily and leu<rtheDe(i,and the deepest water 
 IB always found nearest to the bauk in the bend where the 
 blue clay bed has ju.-*t been washed out. Iu IS7J, for in- 
 stance, the maximum horizontal raiij^e or extent of cavint; 
 at Morganzia. holow Hed Ilivcr. iluring that year was ijl) 
 feet; at I'oint Mauoir. opposite Port Uudson, it was IIUO 
 feet; at Lobdeil's, above I3aton Rouge, it was 460 feel; 
 Dear Bayou (iouta it was 'AoO feet; at Landry's, in Ascen- 
 sion parish, it was 120 feet; in two places iu .St. Charles 
 parish it was .'iOO feet: opposite New Orleans it was 2ni) 
 feet in one place and 220 feet in another, while cavings uf 
 22rt feet, I6l) foct, and 80 feet occurred between New Orleans 
 an'l the forts below:' all of which show that the clay bej 
 of the Mississippi docs yield and wear away from year to 
 year, and far more rapidly than is necessary for the very 
 slow, and in fact inappreciable, yearly increase due to Icvcc 
 extension. A recent comparison of river crosa-sections 
 opposite Jackson and St. Anne streets. New Orleans, by 
 Prof. Forshcy. furnishes another proof that the area of the 
 cbaunel-way is enlarging by yielding of the clay bed. 
 Sections wore taken opposite the above-named streets iu 
 IS50 and in n72. ami the areas of section in 1n72 were 
 54,000 and j6,n00 s^uaro feet, respectively, greater than in 
 1850. Opposite Jackson street the depth had increased 13 
 feet, and opposite St. Anne street it had increased from 150 
 to 165 feet. Opposite the lower portion of New Orleans a 
 like increase of section ancl depth was manifest. 
 
 There is evidence that in muuy phices the lower Missis- 
 sippi is slightly widening as well as deepening. Below 
 Baton Rouge, at a point where, on the left bank, levees 
 have existed since IS05. new levees have been built farther 
 back because of the caving in of the river-bank: ancl 
 directly opposite, ou the W. side of the river, the same 
 thing has occurred. In other places opposite banks are 
 caving in, and the river's width is increasing in straight 
 reaches of (he river. Opposite Baton Rouge — the bank on 
 the E. or bluff side remaining as it was— the W. bank is 
 caving in yi-arly, thereby compelling the construction of 
 new levees farther back. The artesian trell-boringsat New 
 Orleans showed that (he river had cut through clay strata 
 before reaching its present depth. Everything indicates 
 that the Missi«si]>pi River is not and cannot be an excep- 
 tion to the laws which govern the How of water in a!i sedi- 
 mentary rivers, small or great. As the normal maximum 
 quantity of water is increased, the mean velocity of current 
 is acceleratcil, the area of channel- way is enlarged, and the 
 slopes of the bed and surface arc diminished. The levee 
 system, therefore, as applied to such a river as the Missis- 
 sippi, is based upon correct principles, an<l the effeet of 
 levees, if persevered in and maintained properly, will be to 
 lessen the liability to inundations, and, if anything, to re- 
 dace the flooci line: if cut-offs and outlets, which alone 
 interrupt the establishment of a permanent river regimen, 
 are prevented. 
 
 "Cut-offs" precipitate a whole river, by shortening the 
 plane of descent, upon a lower level below the bend cut- 
 ofT. The effects are, a considerable lowering of the flooti- 
 line in the vicinity above; a less corresponding elevation 
 of the flood line in the region below, and for a time a par- 
 tial gorge of water below; a greatly increased velocity of 
 cnrrent above and below an<i through the cut-off", due to 
 the increased slopes of bed and surface: nnd for years 
 afterward, in a great river like the Mississippi, a rapid ex- 
 cava'ion and prolongation of the river-bends below, and to 
 some extent above, thereby compelling the frcfpicnt recon- 
 struction of levees around the bends, and each time on 
 lower ground, and Iherefore higher and much more ex- 
 pensive embankments than ever before, because the river 
 alluvial lancis are highest next the river, nnd they slope 
 downward away from the river. A fall of 15 fret below tlio 
 river flood-line, within a distance of one mile back from 
 the river, is not uncommon above New Orleans, and even a 
 fall of 20 feet within one mile may le f.miid in places. 
 
 When the river was first leveed lub-w ]{v<\ River, em- 
 bankments of from I to 6 feet high, wiili a crown of J feet 
 and slopes of 2 to l,were found sufficient around tbebends, 
 where now levees from 15 to 20 feet high, with a crown of 
 10 feet or more anr| slopes of :\ to 1. are needed, and are 
 n(»w built nnd maintained. A levee 15 feet high. «.f the 
 crown and slopes last named, contains nearly twelve times 
 as much earth, for a given length, ns was required for tho 
 
 • In Tensas parUh, above Red River, n( Kempe\ the eflVet nf 
 the Davis Cut-oir of isc,7 has be.-ii to enuse ;iri nverntfe rnvinnln 
 of the river-bank durlriL' the years iSf.H |o isyn both inrluiive 
 of 1.»00 feet per vear. In lH74tbe eavlnirnt WfNr.n's. same parish] 
 was :Mni) leet. In Concordia parish, at .Marentro. the maximum 
 caving' in 1868 wns 30U0 feet, and 1400 feet in 187;* 
 V,,,.. If.— Ill) 
 
 old levees ; hence the largely increased cost of levee con- 
 struction and maintenance now, with the river flood-line 
 no higher than at first notwithstanding the efi'ects of cut- 
 offs. Kvcry cut-ofl" increases the cost of Icveo maintenance 
 and the danger of inundations ; therefore, so fur as possible, 
 they should be prevented. Above Red River many cut-offs 
 have occurred : below, including one opposite the mouth 
 of Red River, but three in alt have ever occurred. Fausso 
 River Cut-off" dates back to 1722, at the beginning of tho 
 levee era. Red River Cut-off" was made by Capt. Shreve, 
 an employ^ of tho U. S. governmcDt, in 18.'U. The Rac- 
 courci, between the two former, was made bj' the State of 
 Louisiana in 1S4S-4'J, by digging a deep canal three-fourths 
 of a mile long across the neck of the I^ond. The total dis- 
 tance around these three lower Mississipju cut-off's was 
 about 65 miles, and the total fall acrops their necks about 
 12 feet, where the usual high- water slope was less than three 
 inches per mile. Their effect in adding to the caving and 
 lengthening of the river-bends below, and thereby increas- 
 ing the cost of levee maintenance, was, and is still, very 
 great ; for the river has not yet regained its original length 
 and slopes. 
 
 Outlets temporarily lower the flood-line of a sedimentary 
 river, but their final effect always must be an increased el- 
 evation of the bed and surface of such a river, and the 
 contraction of its channel-way ; for the law is tliat tlic less 
 the quantity of water flowing, as the normal maximum, the 
 greater must be ttic slopes of bed and surface. Outlets, 
 therefore, cannot be dc]icnded upon for lowering the fl<»od- 
 line of the lower Mississippi permanently, ami they are 
 not needed, because the extension and perfection of tho 
 levec system never has caused, and will not cause, any ele- 
 vation ()f the river flood-line. Levees, and levees alone, if 
 properly constructed and maintained, can be relied upon 
 for the icclamation of ail the alluvial lands subject to over- 
 flow in the valley of tho Mississippi, and the improvement 
 of navigation will also result from a perfection of the system. 
 
 It has been said (Ph. and llyd. of the Minn.) that the 
 waters of the Mississippi at flood are "undercharged with 
 sediment;" that is, that more could bo sustained than is 
 held up and transported down stream with tho current; 
 therefore, that it contains less sediment than is due to its 
 velocity. This conclusion is based upon observations show- 
 ing that sometimes, in sonic places, when the river is falling, 
 and is at a stage between high and low water, the river-water 
 is more highly charged with sediment than at a Hood stage. 
 It is assumed or erroneously iufericd because of this that 
 no deposits can occur at any stage of the river below an 
 outlet or a crevasse, no matter of what dimensions. It is 
 very well known that iu all turbid streams flowing between 
 banks of alluvium I hi- caving in of I he banks occurs prin- 
 cipally when the floods arc subsiding, when the banks have 
 lost tho support of tho water which they had at a high 
 stage. Then the river-water as it passes around a caving 
 bend becomes ovfrchanjt il with sediment, and as it cannot 
 all bo sustained and transported to tho river-mouth, the 
 surplus is dropped on the next bars beluw, or wherever the 
 velocity or sustaining power of the current is reduced. 
 To assert that the Mississippi is ut all tintfi *' undercharged 
 with sediment," and therefore difl'ercnt from other sediment- 
 ary rivers, because it is in jilaces and at times less muddy 
 at its high stage than when the banks are caving in at a 
 mill stage, is certainly unwarranted. Tho waters of all 
 sedimentary rivers with caving banks are more turbid when 
 and where the banks arc caving in, and the same laws gov- 
 ern the flow of water in the Mississijipi as in other turbid 
 rivers. Tho "clay bed of the l\lississippi " obviously does 
 yield, because the river excavates its bends by untlcrmining 
 its banks, liecpens its channel, and scours out its cut-off 
 channels; deposits nrr made from its waters after tbcy be- 
 come overcbargecl with seilinient by caving banks wherever 
 and whenever there is a loss of current in tho eddies under 
 or below the p<rmls and below outlets. 
 
 As an exatnple oi' tho efl^ecl of nn outlet or crevasse to 
 cause a deposit in. and contraction of, the channel of tho 
 iMississippi below it, the following is given: In IS" I. Apr. 
 II, a crevasse oceurred in a large levee at Bonnet Carrf', 
 left bank of the .Mis-<issippi. Id miles above New Orleans. 
 It becnme i;t70 feet wide, with an area of discbarge of 
 about 32,000 square feel, or nearly one-sixth that of tho 
 river opposite. The range of tho river here from high lo 
 low water is about 21 feet, and the level of the land one- 
 fourth of a mile back of the line of levec which hiid given 
 way WHS 15 feet below the river flood-line. On the I5th of 
 July, when the river had fallen 15 feet, the water ceased to 
 run through the creva«se outlet opening. In the latter part 
 of September, when the river bad fallen 20 feet, sections of 
 the river were carefully taken above anil below this outlet. 
 Tho results, briefly summed up. were as follows: Maximum 
 ilepihy above crevasse, 1 10 and 71) feet on two sections at 
 the then stage of water ; maximum depths of sections below
 
 1746 
 
 LEVEL— LEVELS. 
 
 crevasse, 62 and 04 feet. Firm clay bottom above ; soft, 
 silty oozo bottom, indicating recent deposit, below crevasse. 
 Low-water widths above, 2S8G and 'Mili feet; below, 240G 
 and 2452 feet, showing a reduction in mean width below of 
 521 fret. Low-water areas of upper sections, lS4,fi5.'i and 
 101,107 square feet; of lower seclinns. •)r),640 and 10fi.lf>(l 
 square feet, a reduction of channel section, means of upper 
 and lower, of 73,015 square feet. The widths on the high- 
 water lines averaged .'^105 feet for the upper sections, and 
 3^65 feet below; the width below beinj;; 2110 feet the great- 
 est at high water. The mean high-water urea? of sections 
 were, however, 75,000 square feet less below thim above. 
 It was estimated, approximately, that this outlet or cre- 
 vasse of the full dimensions measured would discharge at 
 high water about one-tenth of the river at flood. Below 
 this crevasse there were, in the next bend as well na oppo- 
 site, extensive deposits of sand and earth, reacliing several 
 feet above the low-water line, irhich ircre knotni to be neir. 
 All of which measurements and observations demonstrate 
 unmistakably that the Bonnet Carr6 crevaspo outlet of 1874 
 did cause a partial filling up and contraction of the river- 
 channel below it. 
 
 Numerous examples of the effects of outlets to contract 
 the river-channel below them on Red River and elsewhere 
 could be given if space permitted. Wc shall mention one 
 only. Tone's Bayou, 20 miles below Shreveport. wirK-ii hail 
 its origin as an overflow coulee of insignificant dimensions 
 twenty-five years ago, now discharges nearly two-thirds 
 of the turbid waters of Red River whieh reach it, and yet 
 the flood-line below is as high as. if not higher than, before, 
 while the channel below has been reduced to correspond 
 with the quantity of water abstracted. All of the water 
 of Red River now passes Shreveport, and the high-water 
 section there is .about 23.000 square feet. Below Shreve- 
 port and above Tone's Bayou three outlets exist on the 
 right bank, and others on the left bank, whereby the river- 
 section just above Tone's is reduced to 9000 square feet. 
 Tone's Bayou itself has a section of 5000 square feet — or 
 had in 1872 — while that of Red River below it has been 
 contracted to but 3500 square feet, and to a width of less 
 than 200 feet. Fully five-sixths of the water of Red River 
 escapes through outlets within about 20 miles below Shreve- 
 port, and yet, while the area of the river's section is reduced 
 correspondingly, the river flood-line is as high as, if not 
 higher than, ever. Outlets therefore cannot permanently 
 lower the flood-line in sedimentary rivers, although, as wc 
 sec in the Mississippi, when they occur suddenly, as cre- 
 vasses, and enlarge rapidly, their effect is to reduce it tem- 
 porarily, or until the river has had time to accommodate 
 itself to its new regimen by deposits in and contraction of 
 its channel below. The result is certain; how soon is a 
 mere question of time. 
 
 In calculating the effects of adding to the quantity of 
 water in the Mi.ssissippi River by closing outlets, or in per- 
 fecting the levee system, or of reducing the quantity by 
 outlets, it will not do to assume that the sectional area of 
 channel- way will be neither enlarged nor contracted — that 
 it is fixed and unchangeable. Tliat certain determinate 
 and determinable relations exist between the quantity of 
 water flowing, the mean velocity of current, the sectional 
 area of channel-way. and the slopes of bed and surface, 
 cannot be ignored or disregarded. They must be admitted 
 to ensure a reliable result. It is evident, therefore, that 
 levees alone can bo relied upon for the permanent recla- 
 mation of the Mississippi Valley lands. The only way to 
 safety and exemption from inundations is to build and 
 maintain adequate levees. Cut-offs should be prevented as 
 long as possible. Outlets arc worse than useless, even if it 
 were possible, which it is not, to provide a separate and 
 leveed channel to the sea for the water so drawn off; they 
 overflow land when rcclamaticm is the end in view. Arti- 
 ficial reservoirs arc impraetieable. and whiit natural swamp- 
 reservoirs there arc above Red River only add to the river- 
 floods, and thereby increase the danger of inundation, by 
 feeding the rise below them. As to the diversion of tribu- 
 taries, it would be useless even if practicable. By uu-nns 
 of levees, and afterwards of interior drainage, every acre 
 of land in the Mississippi Valley, exclusive of drainage 
 channels, may be reclaimed, cultivated, and made the home 
 of millions of ])rospcrou8 inhabitants. According to V. S. 
 engineer Ucn. Abbot, with levee protection and drainage 
 2.500,000 acres of sugar-land, 7.000.000 acres of cotton- 
 land, and 1,000,000 acres of corn-land of inexhaustible fer- 
 tility may be opened for cultivation and settlement. 
 
 The total lengths of levees required to protect the Mis- 
 sissippi front may be stated as follows: In Louisiana below 
 Red River, 500 miles; above Red River, 280 miles. In 
 Mississippi, 380 miles. In Arkansas, 545 miles. In Mis- 
 souri. SO miles. Total, 1785 miles. In Louisiana, the in- 
 terior rivers, b.ayous, and old river l:»kes would require 
 about 925 miles more. ""-- " '^' ■ 
 
 for the maintenance of her supremacy as the greatest cot- 
 ton-produeer in the world, and the only way to maintain 
 this supremacy is to perfect the Mississippi River levee 
 system, and so bring all of the valley-lands int> cultivation. 
 The U. S. alone can do this. It has been demonstrated that 
 the States of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Arkansas have not 
 the means an<l resources necessary for its aceomplishmeni!. 
 Surely, the permanent reclamation of the great Mississippi 
 Valley, with its ten or twelve millions of acres of the richest 
 alluvial lands in the world, is or should be of sufhcicnt 
 national importance to justify its being undertaken by the 
 general government. t», W. R. Bayley. 
 
 Lev'el [.\ng.-Sax. Itr/cl, from Lat. ^/fce//a, "level"]. A 
 level Hiir/'urc is onc that is concentric with the surface of the 
 ocean ; that is, with the surface the ocean would have if 
 the globe were entirely covered with water. Any lino 
 drawn in a level surface is a li rcf line. For ^mall areas, 
 that is, for areas of a feiv miles in extent, we may regard 
 a level surface as the surface of a sphere osculatory to the 
 ellipsoidal surface of the earth at the middle point of the 
 area in question. The surface just described is a surface 
 oi true liAcl. A surface of ajijiurrnt lei-d at any point is a 
 plane drawn tangent to the surfaco of true level at that 
 point. Any line drawn in a surfaco of apparent level is a 
 line of apparent level. The lines indicated by our level- 
 ling instruments arc lines of apparent level, but we may 
 deduce from them lines of true level by making suitable 
 corrections for curvature. W. G. Peck. 
 
 Levclliug. See HvpsoMF.rnY. 
 
 liCvcSling Instruments. The instruments used in 
 
 IcvcHiug are of fwn classes. Those of the Jirst class are 
 used to point out or indicate a lino or surface of a]>parcut 
 level, and arc tcchnicall}' called Irvrh: those of the eccond 
 elass arc used to measure the distances of this line or sur- 
 face of apparent level above the jioints whose difl'erencc of 
 level is to be determined, and these arc called Icrelliuff- 
 rods. W. G. Pkck. 
 
 Levcllingorods. These are rods of wood graduated 
 to feet and deeimuls of a foot, the lines of di\ ision being 
 nuuibcretl from below upward; the of tlie scale is at the 
 bottom of the rod. One of the best consists of a staff of 
 hard wood, cr.pped with metal, usually about 12 feet in 
 length. A sliding vane can be moved up and down by a 
 cord running on pulleys let into the rod. This rod is 
 graduated to hundredths of a foot, and on onc eilgc of the 
 rectangular opening that is made in the vane is a vernier, 
 by means of which the rod may be read to thousandths of 
 a foot. The vane is divided into four sections by lines 
 througli its centre, one parallel to the rod and the other 
 perpendicular to it, and these sections arc painted in con- 
 trasted colors for greater facility in determining the mid- 
 dle of the vane. A second form of IcvcUing-rod is similar 
 to that just described, except that the rod is constructed 
 in two sections, onc of whicli slides in a groove of the 
 other. The arrangement of the graduation is modified to 
 conform to the peculiar character of the sliding joint. A 
 third form of rod is now much used. It eon>ists of a sim- 
 ple rod witliout a vane, the divisions and numbers being 
 so distinct that the readings nniy be made by the observer. 
 This form of rod is mostly employed in connection with 
 the Gravatt level, a level which difi'ers from the Y level 
 already described in having an inverting telescope. This 
 form of level admits of greater optical power, with the 
 same length of telescope, and is therefore better adapted 
 to making close readings at great distances. When this 
 species of level is used the figures on the levelling-rod are 
 both reversed and inverted. 
 
 The differenrc of /tit 7 between two neighboring points 
 may be determined by means of the levelling instruments 
 just described as follows : Let the level be set up at some 
 convenient place and so arranged as to indicate a surface 
 of apparent level ; place a level!ing-rud at the first point 
 and note the height at which it is intersected by the level 
 surface; in like manner, place a rod at the second point 
 and note the height at which it is cut by the level surface; 
 subtract the first of these heights from the second, and the 
 remainder will be the difference of level of the two points. 
 If the remainder is -|-, the second point is bigluT than the 
 first; if the remainder is ~, the second point is lower than 
 the first. In the same manner wc may iletcrmine the dif- 
 ference of level between the seennd point an<l a third point, 
 between the third point and a fourth, and so on, as tar as 
 may be desirable. The total diflcrcnce of level between 
 the first point and the l.ast is then equal to the algebraic 
 sum of all the partial difierences of level. W. G. Peck, 
 
 Levels. Levels are constructed on one of three prin- 
 ciples: 1st. a line of apjiarcnt level is perpendicular to .1 i 
 plumb-line freely suspended ; 2d, a line of apparent level I 
 is tangent to the free surfaco of a liquid in equilibrium; "
 
 LfiVfiQUE— LEVI. 
 
 1747 
 
 and lUi, II ray of light which is pcrpcndiuulur tu h vertical 
 mirror i:* a line of apparent level. 
 
 The level used by bricklayers', carpenters, etc., affords 
 an example of the method of applying ihe first priueiplc. 
 In it» simplest form, this kind o\' level coD^it^ts of a T- 
 shaped frame, the line corresponding to the top of the T 
 bcin-; perrcctly straight and at right angles to a second line 
 draiTn through the middle of the stem of the T. A plunib- 
 linu is atluohed at j'omc point of the ?euonil Hue ; and when 
 the instrnraent is held so that the plumb line corresponds 
 to this second line, the first lino is :i line uf itpparcnt level. 
 Tiio cross lino of the T may be turned downwards, as is 
 usually tho case when used by mechanics, or it may bo 
 turned upwards, in which ca?e, if supported on a suitable 
 stand, it can bo used for the rougher kinds of field level- 
 ling. 
 
 Tho ordinary Y level is an example of tho instruments 
 constructed on thcHecond prinuiplc. It consists essentially 
 of a telescope mounted on two vertical supports, which 
 from their shape are called Y's. Tho Y's themselves are 
 attached to a si»Iid bar, called the fi'mh, which turns about 
 an axis at right angles to it. The tinib aud its axis are 
 connected with a supporting tripod by means of a ball- 
 and-socket joint, so arranged that the axis may be made 
 vertical by tho aid of levdling-scrows. Suspended from 
 the tolescopo is a di-Iicate spirit-level, which, when in ad- 
 justment, is parallel to the line of collimation of the tele- 
 scope. Tho lino of collimation of tho telescope is indi- 
 cated by two cross hairs mounted on an adjustable dia- 
 phragm placed in the common focus of the field lens and 
 eye-piece. The parts of tho instrument are so cnnstructccl 
 that they may be brought into accurate adjustment: that 
 is, into proper relative positions. When the instrument is 
 adjusted the attached level is parallel to the line of colli- 
 mation of the telescope, and both are perpendicular to the 
 axis of the limb, thai is, the line that remains fixed when 
 tho limb is turned in azimuth. 
 
 To use the instrument thus adjusted wo plant the tripod 
 firmly in the ground, and by means of the Icvelling-scrcws 
 bring tho level in such a position that the bubble will re- 
 main in the nii<litlo of the tube during an entire revolution 
 in a7.imuth. The axis of the limb is then vertical, and 
 consequently the line of collimation of the telescope in all 
 its positions is a line of apparent level. 
 
 Levels couatrueted on tho third principle arc called re- 
 Jlcitiufj levels. One form of this class of levels eont-ists 
 of a plate of glass suspended from a ring and weighted so 
 thaf the plant! uf the glass shall always be vertical. One 
 half of the glass is silvered and the <»tlier half unsilvered, 
 tho line of division between the two portions being verti- 
 cal. A tine is ruled across the middlo of the plate perpen- 
 dicular to the one last mentioned, and is consequently hori- 
 zontal. To use the instrument, it is held by the ring and 
 raised or lowered until tho observer sees the image of his 
 eye rolleotod from the rulol horizontal lino on the silvered 
 portion; tho plane through tho eye in that position and 
 the line on Ihe unsilvered portion is a plane of apparent 
 level. Instruments of this kind arc convenient for making 
 reconnaissances, antl al-^o for contouring in topognij)bical 
 surveys, but they arc not very accurate. \V. G. Pkck. 
 
 L^vdqoe (Jkan CnARLKs), b. at Bordeaux, France, 
 Aug. 7, IHIS; made extensive stmlios of the li reck and 
 Alexandrian philosophers; resided in 1H17-4H at Athens, 
 and became profi'SHor in philosophy at tho College dc France 
 in 1.S56; in I'^ti.'f member, and in 1S73 vice-president, of 
 tho Academy of .Moral and Political Sciences, Besides a 
 number of articles in the Remrthn Oftur Afondcn remork- 
 able for erudition, he {>ublishe<l in IStJO Lti Sriencr tin lienu 
 (2 vols.), a work which received priz.esfrom several French 
 academies, but which, as a philosophy of the beautiful, 
 BtamU lar behind what tho modern (lerman philosophy 
 contains on the subject. 
 
 IjCV'en, Loch, a lake of Scotland, in the county of 
 Kinross, abuut II miles in circuit. On an is-land opposilo 
 th*' town of Kinross are remains of IiO<'h Leven ("a^-tle, in 
 which Mary queen of IScots was imprisoned from Juno, 
 1607, to May, 15II8. 
 
 Lever. See Mechanical Powkrs, by Prop. W. P. 
 TnownuinoK, A. .M. 
 
 Le'ver f('iiAitn:s Jamks), M. D.. T,L.I)., h. at Dublin 
 Aug. 31, ISOC; took the degree of M. B. at Dublin Univer- 
 sity ls;il, and of M. D. at (Jjitiingen ; was medical supcr- 
 inteniteut in Londonderry during tho cholera season of 
 is;;i; physician to the legation at Brussels ; editor of tho 
 /Jiiftlin UiiiierMi'tif .}faffax{uc IS12— If) ; vice-consul at Ppezia 
 ls.')S-li7. and afterwards consul at Trieste; ottained great 
 success as a writer of humorous novels, chiefly destriptive 
 of Irish life ami character, among which aro Hnrnf Knrrr- 
 qiirr (1S40). Chniien OWfaffcy (IHII), Arlfmr 0' Lrnry 
 (ISU), The 0'Donughue{\)i\bi Ifnrace Trmplrton (IW49), 
 
 ro/(rre(/aa(1857). The nramUifjhHof fUHhop's Folhj {X^S), 
 Lord Kilifobbin (1872), aud many others. 1). at Trieste 
 June 1, 1872. 
 
 Lev'erett, post-tp. of Franklin co., Mass., on the New 
 London Niirthern R. li., lUG miles W. of Boston, has 
 manufactures of pails, satinets, and lumber, and tobacco 
 18 raised. Pop. S77. 
 
 Leverett ( Ft!i:L)K!uck Percival), b. at Portsmouth, 
 N. H., Sept. 11. ISO.); graduated at Harvard in 1.S21, and 
 was afterwards principal of the Boston Latin School : pub- 
 lished a Latin lexicon (|s;;(;) uud a number of Latin clas- 
 sics, with notes. D. at Boston, Mass., Oct. G. IS.'IG. 
 
 Leverett (Sir JohnI, BAUT.,b. in England in IGIO. and 
 came with his father to America in lO^J^i. He held many 
 important positions, both in Massachusetts aud in Eng- 
 land, where ho was an officer in the army of Cr<tmwell. his 
 intimate friend. In Mas.sachuf^etts he was Speaker of 
 the house KiTm-"!, major-general 1 fiOl'.-T^. deputy -govern or 
 1G71-7-J. and governor ir)7;t-70. In IG7G he was knighted 
 au<l made a baronet by Cliarlcs II. D. Mar. IC, IGTlt. 
 
 Leverett (Jon.v), F. R. S., b. at Boston, Mass.. Aug. 
 2.'), 1GG2. a grandson of Sir John Leverett; gra*luatcd at 
 Harvard in 1G80; was a judge, lawyer, and Speaker in the 
 general court, anrl was president of Harvard t'ollege 1707- 
 24. He had a wide reputation for learning. D. May .*J, 1724. 
 
 Levorricr' (Urbain Ji:an Joseph), b. at St. L6 Mar. 
 11, ISll ; studied at the Keolc Polytechnique, Paris; made 
 some important tliscoveries in chemistry, and in 1S4(J aston- 
 ished tho world by the correct announcement of the place 
 in the heavens where woubl be discovered tho planet now 
 called Neptune. He was director of the observatory of 
 Poris 18fii-7n. to which be was reappointed in 1H72; be- 
 came a senator, an academician, and a grand ofticcr of the 
 Legion of Honor, and did much to promote popular edu- 
 cation. D. Sept. 2:!, 1877. 
 
 Le Vert (Hr-Nitv SrRAcnEv), M. D., b. in King Wil- 
 liam CO.. Va., Dee. 2C, 1804, a descendant of a naval sur- 
 geon from Count Rochambeau's fleet, who after the siege 
 of Yorktown settled in Virginia; graduated M. D. in tlio 
 University of Pennsylvania 1820. and his thesis on metallic 
 ligatures was afterwards published; went to Ahibile, and 
 from his genial disposition, erudition, skill, and nolde im- 
 pulses soon rose to great distinction. He married Octa- 
 via AValton (see 0. W. Le Vert). D. in Mobile Mar. 
 15, I8G4. Pail F. Eve. 
 
 Le Vert {OrrAViA Walton), b. nt Bellevue. near Au- 
 gusta, Oa., abdut 1810, iier father. Col. (ieorgo Walton 
 (son of the signer of tho Declaration of Independence of 
 the same name), removed to Pensacola, Fla., in her child- 
 hood, as territorial secretary, and for a time acted as gov- 
 ernor. Here she imbibed sneh a knowledge of French and 
 Spanish tliat they were almost equally with English her 
 mother-tongues. She was invited while still a girl to se- 
 lect a nnmc for the future capital of Florida, and chose the 
 musical Seminole word Tallahassee. Upon tho expiration 
 of his term of ofllce, (.'ol. Walton removed to Mobile, where 
 his daughter was married in iSi'-G to Dr. H. S. Lo Vert. 
 She had previously spent one or two winters in AVashing- 
 ton, where she enj*<yed the friendship of t'lay, AVebster. 
 Calhoun, and Wasliinglon Irving. an<l acquired distinction 
 for the preeit^ion of the reports she wrote of the famous 
 congressional debates on the removal of the deposits from 
 the U. S. Hank. In lSo;;-f)4, and again in isr>5. Mrs. Lo 
 Vert travelh-(l in Eunqie. was received into the best circles 
 of society in England and on the Continent, and recorded 
 her observations in the interesting volumes called Souvenirs 
 of Travfl (2 vols., I8,'i7). She rendered good service in 
 behalf of the Mount Vernon Association, and was noted 
 for oflict'S of charity during the ci\il war. Slie is under 
 stood to have jirepared two books, Stntrein'rM of Dtntin- 
 guinhed Proidc and »S'oi/iriiiV« n/ tfif W'ttr, which have not 
 yet bien puolished. She enjoyed a great reputation as an 
 accomplished linguist, ei>nver.'iationatist, and leader of so- 
 ciety. D. near .\ngusta. (la.. Mar. K'., IH77. 
 
 Le'vi flleb.. "wreathed "]. in biblical history the third 
 son of Jaeub and Leah. b. in Padan-aram about a. r. I'.'IT. 
 and the ancestorof tmeof tho twelve tribes of Israel. eall« 4 
 by bis name. (See Lr.viTi:s.) Of his nersonnl history lb-- 
 only trait which has been recorded is tlie massacre hIuoIi, 
 with his brother Simcfui, ho perpetrated upon the inlnil - 
 itants of Sheehem lo avenge tho wrong done his sisti r 
 Dinoh (flen. xxxiv.). Levi went into Egypt with lli^ 
 father ond brothers ofter tho elevation ot Joseph, and d. 
 there. Moses and Aaron were his descendauts. apparently 
 in the fourth generation. 
 
 Levi (liEONE). Pn. D., b. at Aneona, Italy, of Jewish 
 parcnfs, June fi. IS2I ; removed in ISIl to Liverpool; was 
 naturalized in 18(7 ; was one of tho founders of the Liver- 
 pool Chamber of Commerce 1849 ; became in 1852 professor
 
 1748 
 
 LEVIATHAN— LEWES. 
 
 of commercial law, etc. in University College, Lomlon ; i 
 became a bairistcr in 1SJ9: received the duutorate frciin 
 Tubingen li<01 ; has done much for the reform of commer- 
 cial law and practice, the utilization of statistics, etc. Au- 
 thor of f'.)mm<-n"i< L'lwii vols.. lS.ill-52). Merrnnlilr Ltiio 
 (]8.')-t). On Tiixaliim (1800), fiitcnintiniiill Vitmmerriiil Law 
 (l.Sf>4), and other works, besides many valuable papers on 
 Btatisticul and commercial science. 
 
 Levi'athan [Hob., " wreathed monster"], in the Old 
 Testament usually designates the crocodile, but in the Tul- 
 mudical writers the whale, the fabulous dragon, or any 
 other creature of monstrous size, may be called leviathan. 
 The name is also used figuratively for gigantic animals as 
 well as other objects. 
 
 Lev'ico, town of Austria, in the province of Tyrol, at 
 the issue of the Brenta into the Lake of Levico. has 0(174 
 inhabitants, mostly employed in the cultivation and manu- 
 facture of silk. 
 
 Leviga'tion [Lat. liciugare, "to plane," "to rub 
 smooth "], a special manipulation of the laboratory, de- 
 viseil for the purpose of converting substances to a smooth, 
 uniform powder. A flat surface, called the "slab," is 
 used to place the substance upon, composed of stone, glass, 
 or metal ; artd a " muller." having a Bat surface below, is 
 propelled round and round with an eccentric motion over 
 the mass. A liquid is always added, usually oil or water, 
 to assist the operation. The process of levigation has 
 passed, probably hundreds of years ago, from the labora- 
 tory into the arts, and paints, printing-inks, and often 
 drugs, are comminuted by a process of levigation, on the 
 manufacturing scale, in so-called "eccentric mill?." Pnr- 
 phi/rizuiiuii is another name formerly applied, from slabs 
 of porphyry being employed. A aputula is an essential 
 adjunct in the small laboratory operation to collect to- 
 gether readily and heap up the mass when spreail by the 
 muller. H. WuitTZ. 
 
 Lev'ings (No.vn), B. T).. b. in Cheshire eo.. N. 11., in 
 170(1: early joined the Methodist Episcopal Church, and 
 in 1818 entered its itinerant ministry as a candidate of tho 
 New York conference; travelled and preached with much 
 popularity and success in New York, Connecticut, Massa- 
 chusetts, and Vermont : was presiding elder over largo 
 districts of his Church, and a member of its Gleneral Con- 
 ference ; in 1844 was appointed one of the secretaries of 
 the American Bible .Society. In this office he often trav- 
 elled over the U. S., preaching with great effect, and suc- 
 cessfully promoting the interests of the society. After a 
 laborious tour through the South-western States he was 
 attacked by epidemic cholera, and d. at t'incinnati on his 
 way home," Jan. 9, 1849. Abel Stkve.ns. 
 
 Ijev'irate Mar'riage [Lat. hvir. a " husband's 
 brother"], the marriage of a widow by the brother of the 
 deceased husband. This custom (common among the an- 
 cient Hebrews, and not unknown at the present day among 
 rude and simple races) was perpetuated by the Mosaic law. 
 It is, however, practically obsolete among the .lews. The 
 canon law expressly fi>rbids such marriage, and in Great 
 Britain it is still viulawful. In the U. S. it is generally 
 permitted to marry the brother of a deceased husband. But 
 the true levirate marriage was compulsory, or at least ob- 
 ligatory (except on certain conditions), but only in case 
 the deceased husband left no male issue. In Abyssinia 
 and parts of Asia the levirate law is still in force. It seems 
 to have prevailed in aneient Italy also. 
 
 LiCv'is, county of Quoboe, Canada, on the S. shore of 
 tho St. Lawrence, opposite Quebec. It is traversed by tho 
 Grand Trunk Railway. Cap. Levis. Pop., including Levis- 
 town, 24,831. 
 
 Levis (formerly Poist Levi), an important suburb of 
 Quebec, Canada, in Levis CO.. is opposite that city, on the 
 S. bank of the ,St. Lawrence (here 1 mile wide), and is on 
 the Grand Trunk Railway. It has a larger trade than any 
 town in Canada e.\cept Quebec and Montreal. It is the 
 scat of a convent, and has a board of trade. The river is 
 crossed by a ferry. Pop. in 1871. 1".,021. 
 
 Ije'vite^ one of the tribe of Levi, a descendant of Levi, 
 one of the sons of Jacob, but in a more limited sense one 
 of those members of that tribe who did not belong to the 
 priestly families of the ancient Hebrews. Tho Levites con- 
 stituted a kind of inferior priesthood. They had no in- 
 heritance except certain cities on either side of the river 
 Jordan ; in which, however, they were not compelled to re- 
 side. There are at the present day some Jewish families 
 who claim a lineage, more or less pure, from the Lcvitical 
 stock. 
 
 lievit'icus [so named in the Vulgate bccanse it is largely 
 occupied with directions for the Levitical service], the third 
 hook of the Pentateuch and of the Old Testamen'. It con- 
 tains the Mosaic law of sacrifices, the laws regarding cere- 
 
 monial uncleanness. the laws with regard to intercourse 
 between Israelites and foreigners, together with brief his- 
 torical accounts, admonitions, and the like. Its direct Mo- 
 saic origin has usually been taken for granted, but several 
 recent (Jerman, Dutch, and English commentators refer it 
 to the ]icriod of E/.ra. (See Pentateuch.) 
 
 Lev'ulose [Lat. Imi-nm. "left"]. Celli^Oo, a variety of 
 glucose. It occurs associated with dextro-glueoso in honey, 
 in many fruits, and other saccharine substances. Fruit- 
 sugar or invert-sugar is a mixture of eq\ml proportions of 
 these two sugars. Cane-sugar is invertetl — that is. trans- 
 formed — into a mixture of dextro-glucose and levulose by 
 warming with dilute acids, or by contact with yeast, peo- 
 tase, etc.: 
 
 Cano-pugnr. Dextro-glacosc. Levuloae. 
 
 C12II22O11 -1- II2O =- CsUliOs +C6Ul206. 
 
 Levulose may be extracted from inverted cane-sugar by 
 adding to the inverted sugar obtained from 10 grammes of 
 cane-sugar 6 gms. of slaked lime and 100 of water. A solid 
 compound of levulose autl calcium is formed, while the cal- 
 cium compound of dextro-glucose remains in solution, and 
 may be separated by pressure. On suspending the precip- 
 itate in water, and decomposing with carbonic acid, the lev- 
 ulose is set free, and can be obtained as a syrup on evapo- 
 rating the filtered solution. Levulose is also produced in a 
 pure state by treating inulin with dilute acids. It is a col- 
 orless, uncrystallizable syrup, as sweet as cane-sugar, and 
 exhibiting most of the reactions of dextro-glucose. It is 
 more easily altered by heat and acids, less readily by alka- 
 lies and ferments. (See Gli'COSE and Src.Mi.) 
 
 C. F. CnA,'«DLEn. 
 Le'vy, county of Florida, bounded S. W. by the Gulf 
 of Mexico, N. W. by the Suwanee River, and S. by tho 
 Withlacoochce. Area, 8.1O square miles. A large part of 
 its area is occupied by (ho " Gulf Hammock." an extremely 
 fertile tract, covered with dense hard-wood forests. Corn, 
 cotton, and lumber arc staple products. The county is 
 traversed by Florida R. K. Cap. Cedar Keys. Pop. 2018. 
 ,Levy (Emile), b. at Paris Aug. 29, 1S2G; studied at the 
 Ecole dcs Beaux Arts, and under Pujol and Pieot, and be- 
 gan to exhibit in 18o4. His most celebrateil pictures are 
 /,.? Souper lilire (I8.)9), Viriiiir/ilorU (1863), Za Moil 
 d'OrpUc (1S66J, and in MusUjui (18G9). 
 
 Lew'es, town of England, in the county of Sussex, is 
 picturesquely situated on the Ouse. on a declivity of the 
 South Downs, and carries ou a considerable trade in grain, 
 cattle, and sheep. Pop. 10,7Jo. 
 
 Lewes, post-v. of Sussex co., Del., on Delaware Bay, 
 2 miles S. W. of Cape Henlopeo. and directly in front of 
 the Delaware Breakwater, which aflords an excellent and 
 ample harbor for vessels of all classes and sizes. It is the 
 terminus of the Junction and Breakwater R. II., which 
 connects here with the Old Dominion .steamship Co., and 
 lies directly opposite and 12 miles distant from Cape May. 
 It has 3 churches, a weekly newspaper, and a number of 
 stores. Wrecking, fishing, and farming form the principal 
 business. Pop. lO'.IO. 
 
 J. H. D. KsowLES, Ed. "Breakwater Light." 
 Lewes (George IIesrv), b. in London. England. Apr. 
 18, 1817: was in youth a clerk in a commercial house; 
 commenced the study of medicine, but abandoned it for 
 that of philosophy and psychology, to which he devoted 
 two years in Germany ; returned to London in 1840; de- 
 voted himself to literature, and speedily became known as 
 a deeji thinker and a writer of uncommon attainments, es- 
 pecially by his articles in the magazines anil quarterly re- 
 views. His earliest important work was the itioijrttjtliii-itl 
 Hintury iif J'hiliiai>iihy /nmi Tlialtt to (.'omtc, published in 
 1847, which foreshadowed his own opinions as being of 
 the so-called Positivist type — a book of considerable ability, 
 which became popular and has reached a fourth edition. 
 From 1849 to 18j4, Lewes was literary editor of the Liiuler, 
 wrote a compenilium of ComtCis PhiloKop/ii/ uf the ^ScicnccB 
 (ISaS), Liitu of Kobcspierrc (I80O) and of Goethe (1S06), 
 Seatide Studi<:» ( 1858), Phi/siiilogy 0/ Cummuit Life ( ISCO), 
 StHtlio 111 Aiiliimi Ai/c (1861), and ,4i-i«to(/<-, « Clinpter 
 from the Uinlory iif .Vciciioe (1864), besides one or two nov- 
 els and dramas of minor importance. Since 1854 he li.as 
 been largely engaged in jihysiological and anatomical re- 
 i searches, some of the results of which were embodied in 
 papers communicated to the British Association for tho 
 ' Advancement of Science — On thf Spimit Curd an a Crnlrc 
 i,f Sfiisnfion and ViiUliim (18."i8), and On the Xrn-nUH Si/g- 
 lem (18.')9). In 1863 he founded the Fortn!i/l,t/i/ Kcrietr, 
 but in Dec. 1866, was compelled t>y ill-health to retire 
 from its editorship. His most ambitious work, that in 
 whicH he purposes to embody his whole system <pf philos- 
 ophy, bears the title Problems of Life and Mind. Vol. i., 
 The Foundation of a Cretd, was published in 1873 ; vol. ii. 
 in 187o.
 
 LEWES— LEWIS. 
 
 1749 
 
 Lewes (Marian Evans), wife of (leorse H. Lewes, and 
 kuuwu by the uont-d^'pinme of U(:uhgg Ei.iot, b. in War- 
 wicksbiri*, KugJaod, ubuiit 1820, was tbe daughter of a poor 
 ourato, but wa.-i adu|iiud by n wealthy clcrgyinau. who garo 
 her a careful eduuatiuu. Ou leaviug the acudeiuy she be- 
 camo a pupil of Herbert Spencer, since become famous ns 
 a philosopher, and under his training acquired great breadth 
 of mental development, learning German, French, and Ital- 
 ian, studying music and art as well as motaphysics and 
 logio. Her earliest literary effort was a translation of 
 Strauss's Li/e of .A«im (1846), followed in ls04 by Feucr- 
 bach's Ettence of Ckrittianitjf. As as-sociale editor of the 
 Wc*tininiiter Urcieio she soon became acquainted with the 
 leading representatives of the schoul of licntham and J. 8. 
 Mill, with which she may he classified. As a novelist her 
 first work was Scene* of Clerical Life (1S58), originally pub- 
 lished in fihickwood. In 1859 Admn Bede proved a uril- 
 liant success, and her reputation was maintained bv The 
 MiUonthe riogn\\^m),S!lii» Mnnieri\^&\), l{omoln{\^m), 
 /V/,V //o// (ISOO), and 3/r.W/'m.r>rA (1871-72), the last of 
 which is considered one of the greatest novels of the cen- 
 tarv. As a poet she has pubtished Tht; Spantnh fii/pf>/ 
 (mS), Agatha (18CU). and Th*- Lrffoul of Jnhal {1H7-I), 
 which would have sufTiccd to establish a poetical reputation 
 of an unknown writer, but have scarcely added to the fame 
 of the great novelist. Her skill as a painter of strongly 
 marked types of character is marvellous. 
 
 Lewes and Rehoboth, hundred of Sussex co., Del. 
 Pop. Jl^s. 
 
 Lew'in fTnoM\s). F. S. A., 1>. at Ifield. Sussex. Eng- 
 land; e>luciited at the Merchant Taylors' Schoul, London, 
 and at Trinity ('ulloge, O.xfovd, taking high lionors iu 
 classics; was admitted to the bar in 18:i:t, and in 1863 
 became conveyancing counsel to the court of chancery. He 
 has written a treatiso on The Lato of TrastH ( IS r2). The 
 Life and Eftintb-n of St. Panl { IS.'>| ). an £*«fiy on the ('hro- 
 nototfjf of the .Veto Trutamrnt {\i^bi),JentJin(viii, n Sketch of 
 die Cit^ and Temple from the Earliest Timet to the Siege bjf 
 Titut (1861), Ciraar't Incajiioit of Hritaiu (1862). Sietjc of 
 Jerusalem b^ Tttua (1 8(1.'!), und Fautt Sacri, or a Keif to the 
 OKrottolojtf of the Xeir Tt-nt anient (lstJ5). In the work on 
 CsBsar's iuv'a<«ion ho questioned the correctness of the re- 
 ceived theories as to the landing-place of that conqueror, 
 and was involved in a controversy on the subject with Dr. 
 Airy, the astronomer-royal, which led to a new survey by 
 the admiralty of the tides in the British Channel near 
 Dover. For more than twenty years after the publication 
 of his early work on St. Paul, Mr. Lcwin was ent;age«l in 
 the study of the apostle's missionary journeys, visiting in 
 person through a series of years nearly every place named 
 in the New Testament in connection with i*aul, collecting 
 the geographical data of antiquity, and illustrating his 
 materials by accuratu modern plans of the localities in 
 qaostion. As the reMult, a revised edition of his work on 
 St. Paul appeared in 1871 in two large volumes, splendidly 
 illustrated. Mr. Lcwin's views upon the sacred localities 
 in Jerusalem, especially the site nf the temple, have given 
 rise to much controversy in cm nee t ion with the rival 
 theories of Roltinson, Williams, ami Fergnsson. 
 
 Lew'is, or Lcw'iMHOn [said to have been invented by 
 Louis XIV,, though known long before his time], a simple 
 and effectivo elamp by which to raise blocks of stone. Three 
 iron keys, suspended Iroui a cross-bolt, are let into a tish- 
 tail-shapcd hole in the stone. Tho three keys together fill 
 this hole, and the stone can be lifted by moans of the cross- 
 bolt, which is attiiched to a erano. When the stone is in 
 place tho b(dl is withdrawn, tho middle key, which is 
 straight, is slipped out, and the lateral wedge-shaped keys 
 are then readily removed. There is also an ap])aratus called 
 tho lewis used for shearing cloth. 
 
 Lewis, county of N. K. Kentucky, Iioundcd N. by the 
 Ohio Uiver. It is a hilly but fertile limestone region. Areo, 
 401) square miles. Corn is the largest agricultural product. 
 Cap. Vanceburg. Pop. 'Jllo. 
 
 Lewifif county of N. E. Missouri, bounded E. by tho 
 Mis.'issippi River. Area, 5011 square miles. It is rolling 
 aud fertile, aiiounding in limber, ennl. anci limestone. Cat- 
 lie, grain. aii<l wool are staple pruduots. Ii. is traversed 
 by the Quiney Missouri and Pacific and the Mississippi 
 Valley and Western K. Us. Cap. Monlieello. Pop. 16,114. 
 
 LewU, county of N. New York. Area, I28S square 
 miles. The county is trnversed by Itlaek River, the valley 
 of which is very fertile, hut the E. ])orlion and a part of 
 tho W. are chiefly wilderness, covered by forests. Cattle, 
 grain, wool, hay. butter, and cheese are extensively pro- 
 <luced. Lumber, carrioges, leather, cooperuire, saddlery, 
 pajier, paper-pulp, hemlnrk extract, and wooch-n wares are 
 leading articles of manufacture; but dairying is the prin- 
 cipal indiistrv of tho counlv. which is traversed by tho 
 Utiea nnd Bliick River R. R.* Cnp. Lowvillo, Pop. 28,fiil9. 
 
 Lewis, county of W. Middle Tennessee. Area, 420 
 square miles. It is uneven and generally fertile, but is not 
 cxten:^ively settled. Indian corn is the chief product. Caji. 
 j Ncwburg," Pop. 11)86. 
 
 I Lewis, c<»unty of Washington Territory, extending W. 
 
 from the Cat^cade Range. Area. 182U square miles. The 
 
 W. part is level and fertile. The E. abounds in forests and 
 
 is broken by mountain-ranges. Tho county is traversed by 
 
 I the Northern Pacitic R. R. Grain is the staple product. 
 
 ( Cap. Claquato. Pop. 888. 
 
 I Lewis, county of N. Central West Virginia. Area, 530 
 square miles. It is hilly and rolling. The soil is uniformly 
 i fertile. Tobacco, live-stock, wool, and corn are the chief 
 I staples. Grazing is extensively followed. Coal and iron 
 abound. The county is traversed by the W. fork of the 
 ' Monongahela Uiver. Cap. Weston. Pop. 10,175. 
 Lewis, tp. of Coosa co., Ala. Pop. .t67. 
 Lewis, tp. of Clay co., Ind. Pop. 1220. 
 Lewis, post-v. of Cass tp., Cass co., la. Pop. 400, 
 Lewis, tp. of Holt co.. Mo. Pop. 4081. 
 Lewis, post-tp. of Essex co.. N. Y.. in the Adirondack 
 region, has beds of iron ore and a mineral spring. Pup. 1724. 
 
 Lewis, tp. (P. 0. West Leyden) in Lewis co.. X. Y., is 
 largely covered with forests, aud has 5 churches. Pop. 1252. 
 Lewis, tp. of Brown co., 0. Pop. 2817. 
 Lewis, tp. of Lycoming eo., Pa. Pop. 963. 
 Lewis, tji. of Northumberland co., Pa. Pop. 1228. 
 Lewis, tp. of Union co., Pa. Pop. 1007. 
 Lewis, tp. of Mason co., West Ya. Pop. 1364. 
 
 j Lewis (Gen. Axnui:w), b. in Ulster, Ireland, about 
 
 ' 17^.0 ; was brought to Virginia in 1732 by his father, who 
 settled at Bellefontc, Augusta co., and was tho first white 
 resident of that county. Andrew was a volunteer in the 
 
 I campaign to tbe (.)hio in 17;') I ; was a major in RraiMock's 
 
 I expedition, and present at the great defeat on the Monon- 
 galieia (July, 1751)) ; commanded the Sandy Creek cx]>edi- 
 tion in 1756; was taken prisoner by the French in 1758 
 near Fort Duqucsne, and taken to Montreal ; was the Vir- 
 
 ' giniun commis-iioncr in the treaty made with the Iroquois 
 at Fort Stanwix in 1708; was made brigadier-general in 
 1774, and commanded the Virginia troops in the victory 
 over the 8hawncc confederacy at Point Pleasant at tho 
 mouth of the Great Kanawha River. Oct. 10, 1774. prob- 
 ably the severest enga^cenient with the Indians recorilcd in 
 American annals u]) to tlint time, lie was lor sevcrol years 
 
 : a member of tho house of burgesses, took part in the con- 
 vention of 1775, was n]q>ointed a brigadier-general by Con- 
 
 i gross at Washington's request in 177'>. and was engaged in 
 
 ' military operations ogninst Lord Dunmore. He resigned 
 his eomniission on account of ill-health in 1777. anil d. in 
 
 I lUdford CO., Va., in 17SII. Gen. Lewis was distinguished 
 for athletic powers and an imposing presence, and was 
 highly esteemeil by Washington. His statue occupies one 
 of the pedestals apmnd the Washington mnnunn-nt at Rich- 
 mond. He had four brothers who are ujentittned in \*ir- 
 
 j giniun annals: i^AMi KI-, who eomnianded a company at 
 Uraddock's dcleat : Thomas ( 1 718-1*U), who advocated Pat- 
 
 I rick Henry's resolutions in the house of burgesses in 1765, 
 wi s*tt member of the State e<mventions of 1775 and 1776, 
 one! of that fi>r the ratilieation c»f the Federal ('<in.>;titution ; 
 W II. I.I AM ( 1724-1811 ), who served under his brother in the 
 
 I French aud Indian war, and was colonel in the Revolution ; 
 
 \ and CuAriLRS. b. in Virginia, who iilso became colonel, and 
 WHS killed at the battle uf Point Pleasant, Oct. 10. 1774. 
 
 Lewis (\)u>), M. I)., b. at Auburn. N. Y.. Mar. 3. 1823; 
 
 . studied at the Harvard Miilieal S<di(«>l in Roston. and 
 practisecl for a time at Port Hymn, N. \ ., and at Rufltilo, 
 
 I where he published a monthly medical magazine, in which 
 ho inculcated the importance of gymnastics as a necessary 
 part of a good education, ond proposed to replace tho use 
 
 I of drugs by dii-t and exercise. He fnumled at Ronton in 
 
 I iSOitun inslilulion fnr training teaebers.nn<l estllbli^lled in 
 the following year at Lexington, Mass., an academy fur 
 young ladies. In Sept., IS6H, tho institute at Lexingt'oi 
 was destroyed by lire, and \>r. Lewis then engaged in medi<-ul 
 
 ; praeliee in Roston. Has publir^hed The Avw t_ii/iiiii<isti,'4 
 
 i ( 1862 ), UVo/* Liiuj/Hf and lloir fit Main them Siroii;/ I 1 SC.i ). 
 
 I Tiilh»itt.oiit l*iitpii'H Sfumaihn{\V>lK)), Our 0'ir/« ( 187 0. and 
 Vhat» irith yoniuj Women (1874). 
 
 j Lewis fPixoN Hali.), b. in Dinwiddio co., Vo.. Aug, 
 I 10, |S02; removed in youth to Hancock eo., t^a.; was ed- 
 ] ucated a( .Mount Zion Academy and South Carolina College; 
 t removed befori- I S'J.'l to Autauga eo., Abi.: entered public 
 
 life when twenty-three years old, and at once took a leading 
 I po^ilicm ns a Slate Rights man; was in Congress 182H~44; 
 
 U. S. Senator 1844-48. D. in New York Oct. 25, 1818. 
 I Mr. Lewis was o ccessively corpulent, weighing 450 pounds.
 
 1750 
 
 LEWIS— LEWISBURG. 
 
 but possessed no small de;rco of iiliysical activity. He 
 was an able Mij>porter of extreme State Eights views. 
 
 Lewis (Ei.i.isl, M. D., LL.D., h. at Lcwisberry, York 
 CO., Pa., May 115. 17;iS ; was a printer iu his youth," and in 
 1822 came to the bar ; in 1824 was deputy atloruey-gen- 
 cral of Pennsylvania, attorney-general in 1S.^.■!, held va- 
 rious judgeships in the district and supreme courts of 
 Pennsylvania, became in 1854 chief-justice of the latter 
 court, and in lSo7 was rechosen. ilis skill in medical 
 jurisprudence won for him the honorary degree of M. D. In 
 ISiS he was appointed a commissioner to revise the crimi- 
 nal code of the State. He wrote Ahriili/m' nl «/' tlic Crimi- 
 nnl law nf the U. S. D. in Philadel])hia Mar. I'J, 1871. 
 
 Lewis (EsTKLLA Ansa Robinson), b. near Baltimore, 
 Md.. .•ipr., 1824; was educated at Mrs. Willard's seminary 
 at Troy; married in 1841, Sidney I). Lewis. Esq.. of Brook- 
 lyn, since deceaseil, and has resided chiefly in Europe. She 
 published the volume of poems entitled The Itctord of the 
 lleiiit in 1844, The Clnld „f ihe Sen in 1S48, The Mijths of 
 the Miiiiiiicl \n 1SJ2, and T/e^cmx/i, a tragedy, in 1863. A 
 collection of her poems was issued in the T.'S. in 1S58 and 
 in England in 18(i6. She has since published the tragedies 
 S»pi>hn of Leaboa (ISGS). The Khif^ Siraiiiriem (1869), and 
 a series of letters upon European topics addressed to Amer- 
 ican journals over the signature SlcUa. 
 
 Lewis (Francis), one of Ihe signers of the Declaration 
 of Independence, b. at Lhindaff, Wales, in Mar.. 17l:i, and 
 educated at Westminster; became a merchant of New 
 York, and in 1757 was on the stalf of (Jen. Mercer, and 
 was captured at Oswego and sent to France; received 
 a grant of 5000 acres from the British; was 1775-79 
 a member of Congress, and was afterwards exceedingly 
 useful to the country, especially as an importer of military 
 stores. His wife and himself were long imprisoned bv the 
 enemy, and the greater part of his estates was destroyed. 
 D. in New York Dec. 30, 1803. 
 
 Lewis (Sir Geouoe Cornewali,), Bart., h. in Radnor- 
 shire, England, Oct., 1806; grivduated with high honors at 
 Oxforii, in 1828; came to the bar in 1S31 at the .Middle 
 Temple; entered Parliament in 1847; Wiis an under-secre- 
 tary of state 1848 ; secretary of the treasury 1850-52 ; chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer 1855-58 ; became secretary of state 
 for the home department 1859, for war 1801, and" was one 
 of the translators of MUller's Iliatonj dnd Aniiquitlea of' 
 the Doric Race (1830) ; author of Oz-iJ/Zn ,,/' Jtomatire Ln'ii- 
 (/•'"tjca (1835). Iiijluence of Anthurili/.iii Miillera of Opinion 
 { 1849), Methods of Obaervntiuu and Heiiaonimj in Politics 
 ( 1852), fnrjiiiri/ into the CredibiUty of Enrti/ liomnn ffialoiy 
 (1855); editor of the Edinburgh Reeiew '(1851-55), wrote 
 Aatrunomi/ of the Ancients (1801), A /ha/wpie on the Heat 
 Form of (Jorrrnment (18G3). He also transUatod a part of 
 Miiller's Hiatorij of the Literature of Ancient Oreece. D. 
 in Herefordshire Apr. 13, 1SG3. 
 
 Lewis (.loHN FnnnERicK), R. A., b. in London, Eng- 
 land, .luly U, 1805: first attracted attention by a series 
 of studies from wild animals which were engraved by him- 
 self; was next engiiged in making sketches of inanner.s and 
 costumes in Spain, of which lithographic copies were pub- 
 lished in 1833-34 in 2 vols.: resided on the (.'ontinent, 
 chiefly in Italy, from 1838 to 1851, making long visits to 
 tireece, Turkey, and Egypt; exhibited in 1853 a scrici? of 
 64 copies in water-colors of the most fiunous jiicturcs of 
 the \ enetian and Spanish schools, which colleelion was 
 purchased by the Scottish Academy; was president of the 
 Society of Water Colors from 185.5 to 1858; elected asso- 
 ciate in 1859, and member of the Royal Acndemy in 1865. ) 
 D. Aug., 1876. I 
 
 Lewis (John Thavers), T.L.I)., D. D., b.. Tune 20, 1825. ( 
 at Cork, Ireland; graduated in 1840 at Trinity College, 
 Dublin; was appointed curate of Newtown Butts in 1848; ' 
 went as missionary lo Hawkesbury in Canada in 1850 : be- 
 came rector of Brockville in 1855; was nominated bishop i 
 of Ontario in 1802, and wrote much for jieriodicals. 
 
 Lewis (Matthew RnEBonv), "Monk Lewis," b. in 
 London. England, .July 9. 1775; was educated at Oxford 
 and in (Icrmany. llis famous romance. The Monk (1795), 
 was in its original form so obscene that he was obliged to 
 suppress the first edition, but in its amended form it had 
 an immense popularity. Ho fell heir to great West Indian 
 estates, and exerted himself to improve Ihe condition of 
 his slaves; was the literary associate of Sir Walter Scott, 
 author of many tales, plays, and poems, mostly full of su- 
 pernatural horrors, and. except The Monk, mostly forgot- 
 ten. The Journal of a in »t Indian Proprietor (1834) is 
 one of his best books. Lewis was a man of amiable and 
 benevolent character. D. at sea May 1 1, 1818. 
 
 Lewis (.Meriwether), h. near Chnrlottesville. Va.. Aug. 
 18, 1774, the son of W. F. L"wis. a wealthy citizen: vol- 
 unteered in the •• Whisky Xnsurrootion " of 1794; became , 
 
 .an ensign in the regular army 1795. and captain in 1800. 
 Soon afterwards he was Jetierson's private secretary, and 
 in 1803-00 he. with ('apt. William Clarke, was sent 'upon 
 a famous expedition to the Pacific Ocean. In 1807, Lewis 
 was made governor of Louisiana Territory. He was ha- 
 bitually suliject to depression of spirits, and in one of his 
 hours of melancholy look his own lilc, near Nashville, 
 Tenn., Oct. 11, 1809. (His memoir was written by Mr! 
 Jefferson, and published with Biddic and Allen's iVarradw 
 of the Lewis and Clarke Expedition, 1814.) 
 
 Lewis (Gen. Morcan), b. in New York City Got. 16, 
 1754, son of Francis Lewis; graduated at Princeton in 
 1773; studied law in Ihe office of John Jay; joined Wash- 
 ington's army at Cambridge in June, 1775; was made cap- 
 tain of a rille comjiany in Aug., major of 2d New York 
 regiment in Nov., colonel and chief of staff to Gen. Gates 
 in June, 1770 ; was at the battle of Saratoga, and was dis- 
 tinguished in Gen. Clinton's cam|>aign against Sir John 
 Johnson in the Mohawk Valley, especially at the bailie of 
 Stone Arabia. After the war he was admitted to the bar 
 in Dutchess CO., became a judge of common pleas, was 
 elected attorney-general in 179i, made judge of the su- 
 preme court of the State in 1792, and chief-justice in 1801. 
 He was governor of New York 1805-00; member of the 
 legislature 1808-11; quartermaster-general, with the rank 
 of brigadier-general, in 1812; promoted to major-general 
 in 1813; was engaged in the operations on Ihe Niagara 
 frontier in Apr.. 1813, and was in command of the defences 
 of New York Cily in 1S14. He subsequently devoted him- 
 self to literature and agriculture, delivered an address be- 
 fore the authorities of New York City on the centenary 
 anniversary of Washington's birth, Feb. 22, 1S32; was 
 president of the New York Historical Society in 1835, and 
 (1. in New York .\pr. 7, 1844. 
 
 Lewis (Tayler), LL.D.. L. H. D., b. at Northumber- 
 land, Saratoga co.. N. Y.. JIar. 27, 1802; graduated at 
 Union College in 1820; studied law at .Albany, and began 
 to practise at Fort Miller, but relinquished this pursuit, 
 and devoted himself exclusively to the study of the clas- 
 sical languages .and literatures of Hebrew'. Syriac. and 
 Arabic, became professor in Greek at the University of 
 New York in 183S, aud at Union College in 1849. Be- 
 sides several translations and numerous articles in periodi- 
 cals, he wrote The ,Si.r Dai/s ,f Crrali'jn (1855), The Bible 
 and Science (IS50), The /Jiriiir Unman in the Scriptures 
 (1860), and. together willi E. W. Blyden and Theodore 
 Dwight, The People of Africa, their Character, i^nndilion, 
 and Future /'roapccis (1871). D. at Schenectady, N. Y., 
 May 11, 1877. 
 
 Lewis (WiNST.owl, b. in Boston, Mass., July 8,1799; 
 graduate of Ilarvanl University in 1819; proceeded to 
 Europe, and pursued his medical studies under Dupuy- 
 tren in Paris, and in London under Dr. ."Vbernethy : re- 
 turning to Boston, at once look a leading position in the 
 profession, and succeeded Dr. Warren as consulting phy- 
 sician of the Massachusclis General Hospital; was also 
 city physician of Boston ISOl; re)ieatcdly eliusen to the 
 State legislature ; was president of Ihe N. E. Historical and 
 Genealogical Society 1: 01-60: and a prominent member of 
 the order of Freemasons, of which he was for many years 
 granil master of .Massachusetts. D. at Boston Aug. .3, 1875. 
 
 Lewis nn«l Clarke, county of W. Central Mon- 
 tana. .Area, 2'i|9 squ:iic miles. It is boiinde.l E. by the 
 Jlissouri l{iver and N. by Ihe Medicine Kiver. It has 
 good grazing and fiirin lan<l. iirodneing bullcr and grain. 
 Gold qunrt it-mining is the principal industry. Cap. Helena. 
 Pop. 5040. largely increased since the census. 
 
 Lew'ishorry, p.>sl-b. of Newberry tp., York co.. Pa., 
 12 miles S. ol' llarrisburg. Pop. 268. 
 
 Lew'isboroii^h, post-tp. of Westchester co., N. Y., 
 on the Connecticut line. Poj). IGOl. 
 
 Lew'isburp, post-v. of Faulkner co.. Ark., on Ihe Ar- 
 kansas lliver, 50 miles above Little Rock, has 2 churches, 
 2 schools, 3 hotels, a carriage and wagon faetorv, etc. 
 Pop. 239. E. B. Henry, Ed. "Western Empire." 
 
 Lewisbnr^;, tp. of Montgomery co., Kan. Pop. 827. 
 
 Lcwisbiirg, a v. of Mason co., Ky., on the Jlaysvillo 
 and Lexington R. R. Pop. 151. 
 
 Lewisblirg, a v. of St. Tammany parish. La., on the 
 N. shore of Lake Ponlehartrain. Poj). 110. 
 
 Lewisbiiri;, a v. of Champaign co., O. Pop. 733. 
 
 Lcwi»biirg,p.-v. of Harrison tp., Preble co., 0. P. 391. 
 
 Lcwisburc, post-b., cap. of Union oo.. Pa., on Ihe 
 W. braiieli i.r the ."^usqii'-hanna River, opposite the Lewis- 
 bnrg juiielinii on the Philadelphia and Erie R. li.. 68 
 miles N. of Harrisbiirg. has 7 cluirches, 2 banks, 2 weekly 
 newspapers, 2 extensive manufactories of agricultural im-
 
 LEWISBURG— LEXICON. 
 
 1751 
 
 plemcnts, a large aod well-appointed boat-,vard, a woollen 
 factory, uiid iruo-works. It i:^ the seat of a university 
 and an academy. Large quantities uf graiu are annually 
 ghippcd from this point. A railroad connects il with Tyrone. 
 Pup. i'.ILM. J. R. C'uiiNKLits, Ed. " CHitosuLii." 
 
 Lewishur^y post-v. aud cap. of Marshall co., Tenn., 
 50 miles S. of Xiishville and 21 miles W. of Shelhyville, 
 on the Duck Kiver Valley U. K., has H husiness-houscs. 4 
 churches, | weekly newspaper, 1 hotel, a male and female 
 institute, a plough and a f hoc factory, and other imlui^trles. 
 Pop. :tL'2. G. WvTHi: Ewisg, En. "Gazette." 
 
 I*ewi«ibarp9 post-v, and tp., cap. of Grecnhrier co., 
 West Va., on the line of the James Uivcr and Kanawha 
 turnpike. 4 miles from the Chesapeake and Ohio R. R., and 
 y miles from the Greenbrier White Sulphur Springs, has 5 
 churches, 1 hank. 1 weekly newspaper, .'» puliHc and several 
 private schuols, and 10 slnres. Is in a fine blue-grass coun- 
 try. Pop. S75. B. F. H.viiLow, Ed. •* Isdepesdent." 
 liCWis Creek, tp. of Wushington co., Ala. Pop. 12J0. 
 Lewis Fork, tp. of Wilkes co., N. C. Pop. 1062. 
 Lewis Fork, the southern branch of the Columbia 
 River, in Idaho Territory, called also Shoshone, Snake, 
 and Saptin or Siihaptin River. (See Shoshone:.) 
 
 Lcwis'ia,a plant o( the Portuinca family, named from 
 its discoverer, Capt. Meriwether Lewis, who found it in the 
 mountains about the sources of the Columbia River. It is 
 found as far S. as Arizona. The root is called racine nmvrc 
 by the Canadian voyageurs. and is used for food by the Ore- 
 gon Indians, who call it upatlum. It 3'ields abundance of 
 starch. 
 
 Lew'isport, post-r. of Hancock co.. Ky., on tho Ohio 
 River, 8 miles above Rockport, Ind, Pop. ;tOS. 
 
 Lew'iston, post-v. of Trinity co.. Cat., on Trinity 
 River, in a goldininiD!!; region among lofty mountains, 14 
 miles N. E. of Wcaverville. Pop. ',y.iS. 
 
 Lewiston, pnst-v. and cap. of Nez Perc^ co.. Id., at 
 the junction uf the Snake and Clearwater rivers and head 
 of ste.inilioat navigation, tHI miles from Walla-Walla, Wash. 
 Ter. It was formerlj- tho capital of Idaho. It has 1 weekly 
 newspaper. 
 
 Lewiston, city of Androscoggin co.. Me., .10 miles E. 
 of Portland, situated on the Maine Central R. R. and on 
 Androscoggin River at one of the most powerful water- 
 falls in Xcw England: is largely engaged in the inanufac-* 
 turc of cotton and woollen fabrics; has 13 churches, I 
 daily and 2 weekly newspapers, 2 national and H savings 
 banks. Bates College t Free Baptist) and thcdogicul school, 
 fine school system with costly edifices, a public library, 
 and an elegant city building with one of the largest public 
 halls in New England. In tlie park in the centre of the 
 city is a soldiers* m<mumcnt surmounted liy a bronze statue 
 by Simmons. There ure 10 cotton-mills, with 212,548 
 spindles, and 5 woollen-mills, with S7.7.'>0,000 invested, 
 which manufactured by water-power in 1H7.3, ."l;), 000,000 
 yards of cotton and woollen poods, v.ilued at $Il,yO0,000. 
 Tlio river here falls .'»0 feet over a ledge of rocks, and tho 
 surrounding scenery is highly picturesfjue. hewiston is 
 now flS75) tho second city of the State in population, 
 having largely increased since 1S70, when the number 
 was l;t,000. F. L. DiNni.EY. Ed. ** Evkninu JotitNAi,." 
 
 Lewiston, pnst-v. of Winona co., Minn., on the Wino- 
 na and St. Peter K. R., Hi miles by rail W. of Winona. 
 
 LeWiNton, p(»st-v. and tp. of Niagara co., N. V., on 
 the Niagara Kiver, opp'<silc t^utenston, <'anada, is the N. 
 terminus of tho BuHalo and Niaj^ara Falls R. R., and is 
 at the head of navigutinn from Lake Ontario. It has 4 
 churches, and was furnieriy connected with Queenston by 
 a suspousion bridge. It is partly occupivd hy thi; Tus(!a- 
 nira Indians. Lewiston is the seat of the seminary of Our 
 Lady of the Angels. Pop. of v. 770; of tp. 20.)«. 
 LcwiNton, tp. of Lunenburg co.. Va. Pop. 1805. 
 Lpuiston, po.-t-tp. of Columbia co., AVis. Pop. 1031. 
 lii'W'istown, post-v. and tp.. cap. of Fulton co., III., 
 on the Lewislown branch of tin- Chicag*) Burlington and 
 tiuincy B. R., 60 niiks N. W. of Springfield, has 1 national 
 b:ink, I weekly newspiipcr, 2 hotels, carriagr, wjig<tn, wool- 
 len, plough, spoke, ami hub factories, (louring and saw 
 mills, and a numher of stores and shops. Pop. of tp. 
 2ttj2. W. T. Davidson, En. •* Fii.ton iJEMoruAT." 
 
 Lewi8tOWnf poRt-b., cap. of Mifilin ei>.. Pa., on tho 
 Juniata River one! Canal, 01 miks AV. of jlarrisburg. is on 
 the main line of the Pennsylvania R. K.. and teruiinus of 
 two of ita branches, has 7 churchi's, 7 Imfels, '.'> banks, 3 
 weekly newspapers, an neademy, a fine piiblir scbo<d build- 
 ing, 2 flouring-rniils. 2 furnares ; Mann's a.\e-factories, Lo- 
 gan's steel-works, and Logan's trout-ponds are located in 
 tho vicinity. Grain, iron, and coal are largely shipped. 
 
 The surrounding mountain-scenery is surpassingly grand, 
 attracting numerous visitors during the summer months. 
 Pop. 27.{7. Fitvsi.NGEn Buos., Pubs. "Gazette." 
 
 Lew'isville, post-v., cap- of La Fayette co., Ark,, 19 
 miles S. E. of Fulton. 
 
 Lewisvillo, post-v. of Franklin tp., Henry co., Ind., 
 on the Columbus Chicago ami Indiana Central R. R. 
 Pop. 4 in. 
 
 Lewisvillc, post-tp. of Forsyth co., N. C. Pop. 816. 
 
 Lewisville, post-v. of Summit tp., Monroe co., 0. 
 Pop. 124. 
 
 Lcwisvillc, a b, (Ulysses P. 0.) of Ulysses tp.. Pot- 
 ter CO., Pa. Pop. 226. 
 
 Lewisville, tp. of Chester co.. S. C. Pop. 2507. 
 
 Lewis-wilh-llarris, the largest and northernmost 
 of the Outer Hebrides, separated from Ibe mainland by 
 the Minsh Channel, comprises an area of 770 square miles, 
 with 23,666 inhabitants. The coasts, especially of the 
 southern part, Harris, are wild and rugged ; in the interior 
 tracts of swamp and peat-moor occur. Barley and potatoes 
 are cultivated, but fishing is the principal occupation. 
 The inhabitants speak the Gaelic language, though in tho 
 northern part there is a colony of purely Scandinavian 
 descent. Stornoway. situated on the eastern coast, is tho 
 only town of the island. Remains of Druidical structures 
 ' arc very frequent, and remnants of forests which formerly 
 
 covered the surface are everywhere met with. 
 I Lex Domicilii. See Domicile, Inteuxational Law, 
 
 ; PltlVATE. 
 
 I Lex Fo'ri [Lat., the " law of tho forum"], tho law of 
 I the jtlacc or state where a remedy is sought or action insti- 
 tuted. It is a well-established legal doctrine that the forms 
 ; of remedies, the modes of procedure in the conduct of suits, 
 and the execution of judgments arc to be regulated e.xclu- 
 ; sivcly I)v the laws of the place where tho action is brought. 
 j This rule is applie*! in determining what jtarties are legally 
 entitled to maintain and defend actions, what form of ac- 
 tion should be brought, and what kind of process ma}' be 
 employed in securing the enforcement of a claim. For in- 
 ! stance, a written instrument having a scrawl instead of a 
 I regular seal would be considered in some States as a sealed 
 I and in others as an unsealed instrument, and the appro- 
 I ])riatc form of action might therefore vary in different States, 
 being governed by the Irj- fori. Arrest and imprison- 
 ment might not be allowable upon a certain ebiini by the 
 ' law of llie place where the contract was made {l'\r loci con- 
 I tiactun), but might be adopted as a mode of legal process 
 if permitted by the law of the State in which the action 
 was instituted. The defence of set-off (sec Set-ofk) or of 
 I discharge under insolvent laws (see iN.soLVKsrv) is also 
 I governed by the lex fori. The same is true of defences 
 under the statute of frauds (see FnArns, Statute ok) or 
 under the statute of limitations (see Limitations. Statiti; 
 ok). All suits must I.e brought within the period prescribed 
 by the law of the country where the suit is brought, or 
 they will be barred. (See Lex Loci, Lex Rei Sit«.) 
 
 Gkoiuje Chase. Revised by T. W. Dwic:ht. 
 Lcx'icou, Uietionary, Thesaurus, Vocabulary, 
 <■lo^Ha^V. The first two of these words are the etymo- 
 logical equivalents of each other, the Greek A«fn, the source 
 of the one, corresponding in signification to ihc Latin dirito, 
 the parent of the other. A*fts and dirfio, though sometimes 
 used in the sense of *roi (/.both mean rathera phrase, a umnitrc 
 rfc (///■*-, or at h-ast a special use of a term, than an ordinary 
 single vocable, and the explanation of sueh phrases was 
 tho original oflico of lexicons or dictionaries. Tho titles 
 '* lexicon " and " dictionary " are of comparatively modern 
 origin, because, though there were exiilaiiatory lists of tho 
 Arfrtc or diciiofun of particular (ireck and Latin autbi>rs, 
 true dictitinarics or eolleetivo vocabularies of the whole 
 verbal stock of particular languages hardly existed in tho 
 classic ages. There is no well-established ilistinction of 
 use or meaning between the two words, though "lexicon" 
 is perhaps more frequ<'ully iipplied than "dictionary" to 
 the larger word-books o! the llelirew, (Jreek, Arabic, San- 
 skrit.and other deatt or unfaniiliar langiniges. In pre.^^i-tit 
 usage a lexicon or tlielionary. in its complete normal foriii. 
 I is a general listed' the aulliori/rd words, phrases, and idiom- 
 atic expressions occurring in the litrraluie of a given Ian> 
 I guage, with indications of the pronunciation, the etymol- 
 I "K.v. and the history of each word, with equivalents, defi- 
 ; nitions, or explanations in thi* satno or in ati(*iher (ongue, 
 and with exemplificulions of the act^ial use of the words in 
 I combination with others, and illustrations of peculiarities 
 in their grammatical relations. Many dielionaries, hoth 
 ' for greater clearness and for saving space, now introduce 
 ' engravings of material objects in cases where verbal de- 
 senptions would necessarily be unintclligiblo or prolix. 
 1 This is a real iinprovement, and the objcotions which have
 
 1752 
 
 LEXIXGTOX. 
 
 IVrl Z"°^ «g»'n'' it have generally their foundalion in 
 pure lcxicogrii|ihical pedantry. 
 
 Al/,em„n,H j. also a general explanatory word-list, but 
 .rofesaedly mure eop.ous than ordinary dictionaries, and 
 provided with more of citation and discussion in illustra 
 tion and support of the definitions ascribed by it to the 
 words w a,., compose it. In English this term is not often 
 applied to dictionaries ol modern languages, however volu- 
 minous and complete. 
 
 A rocabulury is an expository catalogue of words, but in 
 l^nglish use It commonly comprises only technical or pro- 
 fessional terms occurring in a particular author or in agi ven 
 art or science, though it is also applied to partial lists of 
 words collected from little-known tongues. We eninloy 
 vocabulary, too, as the e(,uivalent of the (ierman It',,,;. 
 Z'l"' " " 'y'"^-'">,'^y i">pl.ving not a list of words, but 
 the entire verbal wealth of a given language as disnh.ved 
 in Its literature or speech. This u.se of this word is hardly 
 authorized in the Romance languages, and lliev oflcii apply 
 the term " vocabulary " to copious general dictionaries 
 
 A y/,«,„r^ ,s a work of a lexical character, but com- 
 mon y restricted to obsolete, provincial, obscure, or tech- 
 nical words. It may embrace only such as are employed 
 by a particular author or class of authors, or it may aim to 
 comprise all the anthiuated or professional words of a lan- 
 
 iZr^i °r •. ■? ""''""''S ""1-f in a particular stage or 
 period of It. In continental lexicography, " Hoss.arv " is 
 generally confined to explanatory lists'of obsolete word, 
 or ol words employed in senses different from classical o^ 
 
 of" won°s of"arr='' """^ '' ""^ °"'° "PP""'' '» <=»'l«=tio"« 
 But. after all, the common nsage, even of lexicographers, 
 does not always accurately discriminate between any two 
 ol these words, and onr definitions must accordingly bo 
 taken with some latitude. ° ' 
 
 The order of the words in lexical lists is usually alpha- 
 betical, but in certain languages an etymological .arra , ■he- 
 rder wKiehT''' .^"" '""•^' '"*""•'■'■• ">» "'iie»l forms 
 under wh ch derivative words are grouped commonly fol- 
 
 i' nh r.t ? % > ^" '"'"" alphabetical dietionariel the I 
 alph bet Itself does not conform to the ordinarv modern 
 A I I. sequence, but the letters are arranged according to 
 their idionological affinities. There are also word-bloks in 
 which a classification according to primary signification, 
 without^ reference to real or supposed radical forms, ha ' 
 been adopted. Dictionaries of these classes require for 
 convenient use and are often provided with, an alphabet- 
 ical index. The Spanish and Knglish dictionary of Fer- 
 nandez IS remarkable as having the words of the two lan- 
 guages under a single alphabet. Besides general lexicon" 
 whether of words or of science, literature, or art '« D?o-' 
 T.ONARY), modern philology has given birth t.. numenms • 
 new classes of word-books. Thus, almost all the prbici "al 
 lumg languages have diclionaries of their dialects and 
 even America, remarkable as it is for substantial unifo niity 
 of speech whether in its Hispanic or in its Anglo-Saxon 
 dis nets, has furnished imporlant contributions to English 
 dialectology 11, lartlelfs D.c.onan, of ^m.r,>„,„„„, (2d 
 ed.. Boston, UM) and in other kindred glossaries There 
 are also dictionaries of pronunciation, of prosodv. and of 
 rhymes; of etymology.- of idiomatic and conventional 
 1 hrases; of grammatical diffienllies; of synonyms and of 
 rhetorical analogues or equivalents; and in the essentially 
 homogeneous languages, as (Jerman, of foreign' words 
 Lopied*™ ""'"' ""■ '"'' <^<'"'l'''^^'<^'y naturalized and 
 
 All dictionaries, even those of science and art, are essen- 
 tially word-books, for the knowledge of words is the know- 
 ledge ol things, inasmuch as the full comprehension of the 
 nomenclature of a given science implies the mastery of the 
 science Itself. No lexicon or other list of the words of a 
 living language, or of the terminology of a progressive 
 
 knowledge, can ever be complete, for new words are formed 
 and introduced faster than lexicographers can collect them, 
 and the hourly discoveries of science are hourly demand- 
 ing the coinag.. of fresh terms to enunciate them. A cer- 
 tain tune must elapse before the claims of a new word to 
 1. ."■«? 1 r f '"'^"''^^'V- "■'"^"'O'- in literature or in art, can 
 hodv of "h"; ""'' "^•'■^""■'•'i-- «nd besides, no scholar or 
 body of scholars, no student or association of students of 
 
 fn,„'ir',"""f 17 ^"""'. '''"" "'«■ """■' "^'''"""o of human 
 f, b ^ r 7:r ^'"^attalnment. or with the rapid mul- 
 tpicaton of the words in which new ideas require to 
 clothe themselves. Dictionaries, whatever their ringe or 
 
 dllTr'VT "i' ."'.'"" '■"P'-'-f''''' -iigests, and, like the 
 digests of legal adjudications, are never lo be cited as „„. 
 ffr,.""' "emplified use of ,he words by rabbis in 
 
 iterature or in science is the authority. Hence, the real 
 test of a lexicon IS the multitude of its judiciously selected I 
 citations. In ih.s i„y ,hc crowning excellence of Dr. .lohn- 
 eon 8 Ji„gl„l, Dictwnary, and the destruction of the 40,000 I 
 
 Uie" ^ . 1 ' "'',"'' ^ ^••"■"fi""'! "> ^ave space is one of 
 the greatest losses that English lileratnre has sustained. 
 
 All literature, especially poetry and jurisprudence in- 
 hues to arch.aic forms of expression, and its' diction ,Td 
 other respects less readily inlelligible than that of ordinal? 
 conversalion. Hence, explanalory lists of peculiar y<«ablcj 
 and verbal combinations, first, no doubt in the fo7,n of 
 m rg.ual glosses must have been almost coeval wi,h tho 
 1th of written literature itself. These glosses, gradually 
 collected into separate voluuies, were the earliet lexicons^ 
 Ru 1 men ary dictionaries have been found stamped even 
 on he bncks of Assyria, and more or less complefe lexica" 
 eolee,.ons existed a. a very remote period inPallUecI 
 uated nations of the East, as well as in Hrecce The 
 
 ^Te th""'?," °"'-^^»'"-. »'■ »'- fo-lh century, is satd 
 to be the oldest European general dictionary extaLl. In- 
 comp etc as were the ancient dictionaries, they hayc been 
 of extreme v., ue to scholars, for the very reason that, be ng 
 designed exclusively for the elucidation of rare words o? 
 
 for''ea7,;'"'"' ^""■''i"'"--- ">« ^r-e and labor ^ q si"e 
 for cataloguing and explaining familiar ex,,ressiu'„s of 
 every-day life have been spared, and the co, ipile s have 
 consequently been able to be more full and thorough in the 
 exposition of really difficult words and phrases. Hence 
 
 the Tr e" f ^'"' '" ""•'' """'-''-''' '"' ""^ knowledge of 
 the force of many i^„f ,,,y„^„.^, „, "once-used irm-ds " 
 eehnical tenns, and .he like, which without them would 
 haie reinained quite unintelligible. And this is equally 
 true of the more primitive word-books of modern lan- 
 guages. Palsgrave, Florio, Colgrave, and slill older vo- 
 cabuaries answer many questions in English philology of 
 which we have no other solution. 
 
 It does not appear that tho Greeks and Latins had 
 bilingual lexicons, or dictionaries explaining their word- 
 list in another tongue. Instruction in forefgn languages 
 W.TS oral as. in fact, it continued to be. substantiallv in 
 modern hiirope until the seventeenth century. Tho pupil 
 in general had little or no .self-help, and his teacher was 
 his dictionary. Modern dictionaries of the learned 1-in- 
 guages. indeed, existed at an earlier period, but Sieph.ns 
 and the other great lexicographers of the sixteeulh century 
 labored for advanced scholars. no( for tyros; and this ex- 
 plains why not only Greek and l.alin dictionaries hod their 
 j explanations in the latter language, but why even the old 
 i'.uglish and bennan word-books employed the same uni- 
 versal medium for defining obscure words of the vernacu- 
 lars ISotwithstandiiig the immense importance which the 
 rapidly increa.sing study of foreign languages has given to 
 dictionaries ol this class, the principles of bilin.'unl lexi- 
 cography, at least in regard to modern langmiges, do not 
 appear to have ever been well eonsidere.l and discu-^sed 
 and consequently there are few bilingual dictionaries of 
 iving languages which have any pretensicms to philo- 
 logical merit Hilperfs (Jermau-Euglish dictionary may bo 
 said to have been gooil for its time, and the same" rem'ark 
 1 may be applied to Fleming and Tibbins' French and Eng- 
 ish dictionary, but the latest editions of boll, arc far be- 
 iiiid the demands and the possibilities of the age. Of other 
 bilingual general dictionaries of living languages, tho only 
 I hree known to tho writer whi.h can be pnuiounce,! even 
 1 tolerable are the late edition of Kraiiicr's Dulch and French 
 j dictionary, the German and French dictionary of S.vh« 
 I and the Icelandic and English dictionary of Cleasby and 
 j I igfusson, which, with great comjiression and economy of 
 j sjiace, are all truly excellent, 
 
 j The material form and construelion, soarcoly less than 
 
 ! the literary execution, of lexicons is a matter of very great 
 
 importance, especially in an ago whose habits of stu.Iy 
 
 ' "" '"Very scholar to unshelve and reshelvo dictionaries 
 
 twenty times in a day. The principles of convenience in 
 this respect arc almost universally sadiv neglected by lexi 
 cographers and compilers of eneyclop.Tdia.s ind other" books 
 ot reference. \\ c are acquainted with no satisfactory essay 
 on this subject, and for want of a belter we refer to a scries 
 of enlieisms on the form, composition, and statistics of 
 " ebslers and other dictionaries by tho writer of tho pres- 
 ent article in the New York X„i,;.,i for 1S65. (For a list 
 of important lexical works see our article Dicrioxvnv 
 and wo may notice the following a.l.litinnal general dic- 
 tionaries : of Sanskrit, that of Biihtlingk and Hoth. just 
 finished at St. Petersburg; .Sanders' (icnnan Dictionary 
 very full, but arranged on bad [irinciples, very badly Car- 
 rie 1 out; Tominaseo's very voluminous Italian Diction- 
 ary, now advance.l to letter .S',- De \ries and To Winkel's 
 important Dictionary of the .\etlicrlan<lish I,an<'uage- 
 J-ane s great Arabic I.exi.'on, rather more than half issued • 
 and two new editiims of Facciolati and Forcellini's Latin 
 Dictionary, at I'rato and at I'adua. (iwinnK 1'. Marsh 
 
 I.ex'ington, county ..f Central .South Carolina. Arc-i, 
 701) square miles. It is hilly, with a good soil. It is bounded 
 on thcN.E. bythcCongarce River. Liyc-slock, rice, corn, j
 
 LEXINGTON. 
 
 1753 
 
 aod cotton are leading products. Flour is the chief article 
 of mftniitacture. It is traversed by the Columbia nnd Au- 
 gusta K. It. Cap. Lexington Court-house. Pop. 12,988. 
 
 Lexington, tp. of Dallas co., .\Ia. Pop. li.>U. 
 
 Lexington, tp. uf Lauderdale co., Ala. Pop. 12G6. 
 
 Lexington, post- v. .cap. of Oglethorpe co..Ga..Hcar the 
 Athens brunch of the Georgia K. K. ^Ckawfokd Station). 
 
 Lexington, po<it-v. and tp. of McLean co.. 111., on the 
 Ciiioago and Alton It. U.. 100 miles tS. of Chicago and 15 
 W. of Bloomington, has 6 churches, 2 banks, 2 weekly 
 ncw.tp iperR, 1 hotel, a public graded !»ehool, lodges of Patrons 
 of lliifliiandry, and a K"od trade, dealing largely in stock 
 and farm products. Pop. 24U1. Ed. " Estkrpuise." 
 
 Lexington, po«t- village of Scott co., Ind., on the Lex- 
 iogton briiiuh c^f the Ohio and Miiisiiisippi U. K. Pop. of 
 V. 4(U: of tp. 2529. 
 
 Lexington, tp. of Johnson co., Kan., on the Kansas 
 Uivcr and the St. Louis Laivrcnce and Western R. II., on 
 waich is De Soto Station. Pop. 1.250. 
 
 Lexington, city, cap. of Kayetto co.. Ivy., on a branch 
 of iho Elkhorn liiver, Go miles S. E. of Louisville and 20 
 milea S. E. of Frankfort, on the Louisville Cincinnati and 
 Lexington and the Kentucky Central R. Rs., has IB 
 churches, I State and 3 national banks, 1 daily. 4 weekly, 
 and 2 ?emi-wo?kly newspapers, 7 free sehouls, 2 private 
 Catholic schools, 5 denomin:itioual female seminaries, a 
 U^jrary company owning 10. 000 volumes, a State insane 
 asylum, au orphan asylum, carriage, bagging, and rope 
 f^'jlories, and a large trade sustained by the resources of 
 the fertile and beautiful surrounding country. Tho city is 
 regularly laid out at right angles, is well built, well jjaved 
 and lighted, an 1 the streets are bordered with shaile trees. 
 Founded by Col. Robert Patterson in May, 1775, tho town 
 received i!j» name in commemoration of tho battle of Lei- 
 in'^ton fought the preceding month. It was incorporated 
 in 17'S2, was f'lr a lime Iho State (capital, and eoon became 
 tho principal scat of wealth and culture W. of tho Allc- 
 ghauies, an<l celebrated as the home of several eminent men, 
 chief of whom was Henry Claj', to whose memory a monu- 
 ment has been ereetcrl in the beautiful ctMuetory. Transyl- 
 vania University, the oldest college in the Western StiUcs, 
 wai founded hero in 1798. antt had law and medicul dopart- 
 msnts. Tho Kentucky State University, chartered in ISjS, 
 aud opened at Harrodsburg in 1859, was removed to Lox- 
 in-^ti'U in 1805, and Transylvania University was com- 
 binvd with it. The new instittilion had iii 1^72,21 prules- 
 8ors, 9 other oJficers, 579 students, and 20,000 volumes in 
 il« libraries. Pop. 11,801. 
 
 Lexington, post-tp. of Somerset co.. Me., 24 miles 
 N. W. of Xorridgcwfick. Pop. 397. 
 
 Lexington, post-v. and tp. of Middlesex co., Mass., 
 11 mik-* \. W. nf Ho8ton,on the Boston Lowell and Najih- 
 ua R. K. (Lexington branidi). has 5 ehurches, 1 savings 
 bank, I we.-kly newspaper, a line high school, aud a public 
 library with .'J500 volumes. There are uo manufactures, 
 tho principal business being farming, dairying, and raar- 
 ki!t-gardt'iiiug. It was settled in 1012 unrler the name of 
 "Cambridge Farms." and probably received its name from 
 Lexington ( Laxington or La.vtnn). Nottinghamshire, Kiig- 
 lanil, of whicli place Francis Whttmore, au early settler, 
 was a native. Memorable as the spot where tho lirst blood 
 was sht-d in tho Revolutionary struggle, this historic town 
 possesses many m<>uien(oesof that period. A modest granite 
 monument upon the village green tells its story of lite sac- 
 rificed fur prin.-iple, while a beautiful memorial-hall ia elo- 
 quent with tablets and statues of .John llaneoek, Samuel 
 Ad imf, tho tuiuute-man of 1 775 ami the soldier of IHfil. The 
 two f'irtuer trero inaugurated at tho centennial celebration 
 of tho battle of Lexington, Apr. 19, 1775, an occasion 
 whieh was brilliantly sueec-sful in Iho many thousands 
 of visitors attracted from all parts of the Union, including 
 tho national and State executives, and elicited eloquent 
 oration* an'l genuine poetry. Lexington is tho native 
 plai;e of Theodore Parker, whose granclfutber, Ciipt. .John 
 Parker, commanded tho company of minnfe-meii flred upon 
 by the British troops in 1775. Pop. ot tp. 2277. (See the 
 excellont Hintury of Lexinytun, published in 1808 by Uou. 
 Charles IludsiMi.) 
 
 On the evening of tho 18th of April. Gnn. flago de- 
 spatched a force of SOU men, untler Llrut.-t'ol. Smith, to 
 Concord for tho purpose of destroying tho military stores 
 there collected, and in anticipation hud picketed the roads 
 leading from Ronton to prevent the news of the intended 
 expedition from spreading. Tho capture of Hanenok and 
 Adams, who wore at Lexington, was also e'niternplatcd. 
 But in these excited times everybody was on the niert. and 
 the first movement of the enemy was at once maile known 
 by preeoncerte«l signals. an<l Paul Revere, rowing across to 
 the Charleslown shore, mnunted his hor^o Jiiid rnile swiftly 
 
 away towards Lexington, arousing each household us ho 
 went; the bells of the village churches now rang out the 
 ularm ; signal-guns were fired and other messengers were 
 arousing the eounivy. By midnight Paul Revere had ar- 
 rived at Lexington aud given the alarm: the militia at 
 once assembled on the village green, but there being no 
 signs of tlic enemy, they were dismissed to await their 
 coming, after a number of men had been sent out towards 
 Boston to report the approach of the British. It was about 
 4i in the morning when Major Pitcairn, with six com- 
 jiauies, who hud surprised and cajitured all the outposts, 
 arrived within a mile or two of Lexington. A general 
 alarm was now sounded, and tho militia to the number of 
 GO or 70, under commancl of Capt..lohn Parker, were drawn 
 up in lino upon the green. Pitcairn. moving rai>idly for- 
 ward with his men, himself rode up and ordered the militia 
 to surreniler and disperse. The militia, however, held their 
 ground, and after tiring a volley over tlieir heads without 
 effect, a second fire was poured into the American line, 
 which killed eight, and wounded ten of the little band. 
 Capt. Parker, seeing that further resistance w<iuld result 
 in the certain destruetion of all hands, ordereil his men to 
 disperse, which they did, some discharging their muskets 
 at the British as they retired, inflicting, however, but little 
 injury upon tho enemy (three of the regulars were wounded 
 and Pitcairn's horse struek), who now pressed on to Con- 
 cord, six miles beyond, wbenec Revere, continuing bis ride 
 with Kbcnezer Dow and Dr. Samuel Preseott, hacl hnstened 
 to spread the ahirm. Rt-vere and Dow were captured by a 
 British patrol : Preseott, however, barely escaping, succeed- 
 ed in reaching Concord. The Lexington men rallied after 
 the departure of the regulars, and ft>IIowed on to Concord, 
 and in the retreat of t!»e British wbieh followed the battle 
 at Concord bridge, joined in the pursuit, wbieh only termi- 
 nated on tho arrival of th(k regulars at Charlest<iwn Neck, 
 under the guns of their shipping. In this pursuit three 
 more of the Lexington militia were killed. During a visit 
 in 1S52 of Kossuth to '* the birtbplucc of American lil>erty," 
 he said of the fallen heroes of tlmt day: '' It is their sac- 
 rificed blood with which is written the preface of your na- 
 tion's history. Their death was, an<l ever will be, the first 
 bloody revebition of America's destiny, and Lexington the 
 opening scene of a revolution that is destined to change the 
 ebiiracter of human governments and the condition of the 
 liuman race.'' In 1799 a small nuinument was erected upon 
 the spot where began the contest of the Revolution. 
 
 Fkank E. WKTHirriKi.i,. En. *• Minttk-Man." 
 
 Lexington, post v. and tp.. cap. of Sanilac cm., Mich., 
 is a ]iort of entry <ni L:iUe Huron, 20 miles N. of Port Hu- 
 ron, has 5 ehurches, 4 hotels, I weekly newspaper, a flour- 
 ing-mill, 1 woollen and 2 furniture fiurtories. and a num- 
 ber of stores aud shops. Pop. of v. iib(»ut 1(100; of tp. 
 243.3. C. S. NiMs, Ed. ".Iki r^RsoxiAN." 
 
 Lexington, post-tp. of Le Sueur co.. Minn. Pop. 507. 
 
 Lexington, post-v., cup. of Holmes co.. Miss., situated 
 equidistant between the Yazoo Biver nnd the Mississippi 
 Central R. R., has l eburehes, I weekly newspaper, 1 
 hotel, 2 schools, and a number of stores and shops. Pop. 
 
 7N. HnsKlNS A Wll.MAMS, Pt'US. " AdVKUTISKR." 
 
 I<exingt(»n, eity. tp.. and Clip, of Lii Fayette eo.. Mo., 
 on Ihi* S. bunk of tlie ^Missouri River and (he Mist^ouri Pa- 
 cific R. R. iSedalia branch). 250 mile^ W.of St. Louis (.'170 
 by the river) and 40 miles E. of the Kansas line; is situ- 
 ated on a high bluff :M10 feet alx.ve the river. The ter- 
 minus of the St. .Joseph and Lexington R. U. is at North 
 Ijexingtim. on the opposite biink of the river, where also 
 the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. U. passes along 
 tho rivcr-botlom. The eity has 10 ehurehes, 4 hanks, 4 
 weekly newspiipers (I (Jerman), il female seniinarie.^, hthI 
 excellent pulilic sehoolji, and is the centre of the hemp- 
 growing region. Immense strata of coal, reputed the best 
 in the State, underlie the whole county, and furnish the 
 h'adiug article itf commerce. Lpxingtr)n wiis settled in 
 |k:I7; it is healthy, and enjoys sulistanlial commenMiil 
 prosperity. In Sept., 1^01. a Union force of ulmut 2S00 
 men, under Cnl. .Tiiiues .Mulligan, occupied the hill on the 
 N. R. of Lexington, which naturally strong position was 
 fortified and held against a Confederate force of some 25,H00 
 men, under (Jen. .'Sterling l^ric*-; the siege terminating; on 
 the 20th in the >urren"ler of (be town and garrison. Miii"r 
 Frnnk .1. White retook the tr.wn Oct. 10, capturing fiOor 
 70 prisoners, and releasing such of Mulligan's b-ree us were 
 fouud there. Again, in Oct., IHOl. (he army of (Jen. Price 
 here n(tacke<I (ii'U. Blunt, who afti>r a two hours' resistance 
 withdrew. Pop. uf eity 1:17.'.; of tp. O.t.iO, 
 
 M\i(K L. ru: Motti:. Kf». **Ri:oisTnn.*' 
 Lexington, pnnl-tp. of (Jreene co., N. Y.. among the 
 CatsUill .Mountains, has 3 churches, and contains n natural 
 ice-cave. Pop. Ut7I. 
 
 Lexington, post-v. ond (p..oop. of Davidson co.. N. C, 
 on the Nurtli ('iirnliM:i B. li. Pop. "f v. 175: of tp. 2289.
 
 1754 
 
 LEXI NGTON— LEYDEN. 
 
 Lexington, post-v. of Richland CO., 0., on the Balti* 
 more and Oliio K. K. ( Lake Erie div.). Pup. -132. 
 
 L(CxiiigCon« tp. of Slark co., O. It contains the city 
 of Ai.LiANrK (which sec). Pop. 57U0. 
 
 Lexingtou, tp. of Lexington co., S. C. It contains 
 the county- seat, Lexington Coubt-uouse (which sec). 
 
 Pop. ir.ii.i.' 
 
 Lexington, post-v. and cap. of Henderson co., Tcnn., 
 an inland town, ;1U miles E. of Jackson, has '2 church(\«, 2 
 hotels, 1 weekly newspaper, and an academy. It was lo- 
 cated in IS21, was seriously damaged durinj^ the war, but 
 is now being rapidly rebuilt. Piip. about 3l'0. 
 
 L. M. Foun, En. ** Kkporter." 
 
 Lexington^ post-v. of Burleson Co., Tex. Pop. lo7. 
 
 Lexington^ post-v. and tp.. cap. of llockbriugo Co., 
 Va.. situated in the " Valley of Virginia," on the N. branch 
 of James River. :\b mik-s N. N. W. of Lynchburg, has 7 
 churches, 3 hotels, I weekly and 1 somi-nionlhly news- 
 paper, I bank, a public library, a foundry, flouring-mills, 
 and a number of business-houses. It has unlimited water- 
 ]^ower, and is the head of canal navigation on the James 
 Kivcr and Kanawha Canal, and on the line of the Valley 
 11. K. The celebrated N;itural Bridge and the iiiuturosquc 
 Peaks of Otter are in the immediiite vicinity. Washington 
 College was founded here in 1798 by licorge Washington, 
 and the Virginia Military Institute (the West Point of the 
 South » established in ls;;9. The former was reorganized 
 after the civil war as Washington and Lee University, un- 
 der the presidency of Gen. Robert E. Lee, who resided here 
 until his death. It now has over 20 instructors, nearly 300 
 students, and a library of 10,000 volumes, while the Mili- 
 tary Institute has 12 professors, 300 students, and a library 
 of oOOl) volumes. It receives an annual appropriation from 
 the State, which appoints a certain number of cadets. Stone- 
 wall Jackson was a professor at this institute, and, like Gen. 
 Lee, is buried here. Pop, of v. 2S73: of tp. 3948. 
 
 Bahi'LAv & Co., PfDs. "'Gazette." 
 
 IjCXington Court-house, post-v. of Lexington tp., 
 cap, of Lexington co.. 8. C, on the Charlotte Columbia and 
 Augusta R. R., 12 miles AV. of Columbia, has 3 churches, 1 
 weekly newspaper, several schools, 2 hotels, an excellent 
 water-power, supplying 1 flouring-mills, and manufactories 
 of cotton -yarn and furniture. It is a noted place for sum- 
 mer resort; famous also for its fruits. Pup. in 1S74 aliout 
 450. G. M. Hahman. Pirt. "Dispatch." 
 
 Lex Lo'ci [Lat., the •• law of the plnce "],a phrase used 
 in law as a common abbreviation for the more complete 
 expression lejr /oci* contrttcttm, the " law of the place of a 
 contract." It is a general principle of ]jrivate international 
 law that the validity, interpretation, an<l olpligatory f(»ree 
 of personal contracts are to bo determined by the law of 
 the place where the contract is made, if that is also the 
 place where, by the stipulations of the parties, the agree- 
 ment is ro be performed. But if a different place of per- 
 formance is agreed upon, this is deemed the place of the 
 contract, tho law of which is to be followed in its construc- 
 tion, the determination of the rights acquired under it, and 
 the duties and obligations which it imposes. The rule may 
 be briefly stated, that a contract valid by the law of the 
 place where it is made or is to be performeil is valid every- 
 where, and if void by sueh law is void everywhere. This 
 rule, however, is not without important exceptions, for a 
 contract may be valid in one country which would not bo 
 euforcible in another, on account of its being considered 
 in the latter as injurious to public morals or welfare, or iu 
 contravention of public policy or some positive law. There 
 is no binding obligation resting upon any state to give 
 force anci effect to contracts made in other states; and 
 though this is generally done, it depemis entirely upon in- 
 ternational comity, which will not be extended so far as to 
 operate disadvantagcously to the interests or public insti- 
 tutions of the state in which the contract is sought to he 
 enforced. The capacity of the parties to contract, as de- 
 termined by minority, coverture, guariliansliip, and other 
 causes of personal disability, is also, as a general rule in 
 English ami American law, governed by the le-r f»ci con- 
 traHntf. The place where the contract is made is that in 
 which the assent of tho parties first concurs and becomes 
 complete. For instance, if a proposition he made by a 
 jicrson in one place to a person in another, and an assent 
 to tho offer be depo-ited in the mail addressed to the first 
 party, the contract is generally deemed t<t be fully made at 
 the time and place of mailing the answer. The hx luri 
 also governs as to the formalities and modes of authenti- 
 cation necessary in the execution of contracts. (See Inter- 
 national Law. Private ; Lkx Foim ; Lex Rki SiT.t: ; Story 
 
 on the Conjlirt o/ Lnirt ; Wcstlake's Priratr Inlt^fmitional 
 
 L'tir.) (teohrk Chase. Revised nv T. W. Dwi^iit. 
 
 XjCX Ro'i Si't.T [Lat., the " law of the place of tho sit- 
 uation of a thing "J, The transfer of real estate, the ten- 
 
 ure by which it may be held, and all contracts or acts in 
 regard to its numagenient, enjoyment, or disposition, are 
 governed by the law of the place where such jiropcrty is 
 situated. It is only in relcrence to real jiroperly that this 
 invariable rule prevails. The ownership, luujiagemcDt, and 
 conveyance of personal property are governed in some cosea 
 by the law of the jdaee where the owner is domiciled (sec 
 Domicile), iu other cases by the law of the place where eon- 
 tracts in regard to it arc made or are to be performed (see 
 Li:x Loci). These laws may be either those of the state or 
 country where tho personal estate is situated, or those of 
 some other state. The ca[)acity of persons to take or trans- 
 fer real estate is also determined l»y the Icj- rt! Kttfc. If, 
 for instance, aliens arc prohibited by the laws of a country 
 from holding lands, they can obtain no valid title to real 
 property situated therein, whatever may be the law of the 
 place of their domicile. The fornuilities to be observed and 
 the modes of conveyance to be employed must be thoso 
 which the local law prescribes. Thus, it is a general rule 
 at common law that a seal is required to an instrument con- 
 veying an interest iu lands, and therefore a deed executed 
 without a seal in a country where this was not required 
 would be hehl invalid as a conveyance of land in a state 
 where the cnmuion-law rule prevailed. Tho /f.r rei «itfe 
 further determines the interest in real ])roperty which may 
 bo transferred. If this law provides that an owner of laud 
 shall not alienate more than a certain portion by devise or 
 any other specified method, no larger interest can be trans- 
 ferred, although the instrument of conveyance be executed 
 iu a foreign country. The law of the place of situation 
 governs not only real property of a corporeal nature, as 
 land, but also that which is incorporeal, as servitudes, 
 easements, rents, etc. (See Inteh-natioxal Law, Private; 
 Lex Loci; Lex Fori.) 
 
 George Chase. Revised bv T. W. Dwight. 
 
 Lcy'dcn [nnc. Lni/diftuim Ufiinvnrmn : Fr. /*#■_</(/(■], an 
 important city of the Netherlands, iu the province of South 
 Holland, on the Old Rhine, G miles from its outlet in the 
 North Sen. It is intersected by canals, kept exceedingly 
 clean, well built, with straight and broad streets ; its Breede 
 Etraat is cou>idcred one of the finest streets in Europe. 
 Thus, although tho former splendor of the city is almost 
 entirely lost, there is not the least indication of decay. It 
 was once a strong fortress, and the siege which it sustained 
 from the Spaniards in 1.073-74 made it famous. For seven 
 weeks there was no bread within the walls, but tho bur- 
 ghers still resisted, though the hunger became almost un- 
 bearable. At last the prince of Orange came to their reseue. 
 The dikes were opened, and the waters, which drowned a 
 great number of the besiegers, carried a fleet of 200 boats 
 loaded with ]>rovisii'ns to the city. Now the bastions arc 
 covered with windmills, and the citadel and the towers 
 transformed into storehouses. As a reward for the valor 
 the city evinced during the siege the prince of Orange 
 founded a university here, and it soon became one of the 
 most celebrated institutions of learning in Europe, adorned 
 with such names as those of Scaliger, (Jomar, Arminins, 
 Grotius, and Utscartcs. An immense trade in books de- 
 veloped at the same time, and its Elzevir editions are 
 world-renowned. Now. the university, allhough an insti- 
 tution of good reputation, has hut iiOU student.", and tho 
 city only .'» printing-offices. In the seventeenth and eight- 
 eenth centuries Leydcn was one of the cloth-manufac- 
 turing centres of the world. It had 100, OOU inhabitants, 
 and its broadcloths commanded the higliest ])riees at any 
 fair. Now, it 1ms only ;ilM21 inliabilants, and only half a 
 score of factories, employing about 1000 hands. Yet, al- 
 though retiring from the bustle of life, Leydcn shows no 
 signs of decay ; it seems only to rest and prepare itself for 
 any new chance which may come up. The great j.ainters, 
 Metzu, Mieris, Dow, and Rembrandt were horn here. Tho 
 Pilgrim Fathers who left England for Amsterdam in lOOS 
 remained in Leydcn from 1609 till their departure for 
 America in 1020. 
 
 Leydcn, |)ost-tp. of Cook co,. III., 10 miles N. W. of 
 Chicago. Pop. \\M. 
 
 Leydcn, post-tp, of Franklin co.. Mass., i) miles N. of 
 Greenfield. Leyden (Jlen is a place much visited for its 
 romantic scenery. Pop. 618, 
 
 Leydcn, post-tp. of Lewis co., N.Y., on the Utica and 
 Black River R. R., has >itone-quarrie8 and various mann- 
 facluriug interests, and contains several villages. Pup. 204^. 
 
 Leyden (John), b. in Denholm, Roxburghshire, Scot- 
 land, Sept. S, 177 J; studied at Edinburgh Cniversity ; was 
 ordained in 1798, but soon abandoned the clerical for tho 
 medical profession, and in 1802 obtained an appointment 
 as assistant surgeon in India. Ho first residi-d at Madras; 
 studied the Oriental languages, and removing to Calcutta, 
 became professor of Iliudostanec in Fort William College. 
 He afterwards became a judge and assay-mastcr at the
 
 LEYDEN— LIBEL. 
 
 1755 
 
 mint. He accompanied the Eu^li^h expedition against 
 Java, and d. at Hniavia Auj^. 21, ISll. Among other works 
 he wrote u HiHtnricttl Acrount of Di»coveri*a and TmveU in 
 A/i'ica and uii EfHfty on fhe Lttnjfiinffes and Literature o/' the 
 Jiifto-Chiume \ti(if,nif, in vol. x. of Agiotir littearchr^: also 
 Ponnn nnd fin/fttf/f. ]>u)>li^bid after his death. The cen- 
 tennial of his hirth was iu ISTit celebrated iu Scotland. 
 
 Leyden (Licas van ; real name LfCAS Jaoobkz), b. at 
 Lcydcn, Netherlands, in 1401; was a contemporary and 
 friend of .-Mbert Diirer. His genius was ])rccoeious and orig- 
 inal. Under the tuition of Engclhrechtsen he made such 
 progress that at the age of twelve he was already distin- 
 guished, lie painted in oil, distemper, and on glasp, and 
 excelled in history, portrait, and landscape. His pictures 
 are rare, and fine impressions of his prints are scarce and 
 costly. Iliij most important picture is a Ao.r Jii(f;/inr„t in 
 the town-lmuse at Leyden; the Ctrd-PIai/cm, tho Virgin 
 Hud C/tifd in the Munich (Jallcry, the Portrait of the Empc- 
 rttr Marimiiian in the IJelvidere at Vienna, and the /yr^rcjif 
 from the Crona in tlie cliurch formerly of the Jesuits in 
 Paris arc remarkable. As an engraver he held rank with 
 Diirer and Marc Antonio. His Eufruftpicjcl is said to bo 
 the rarest of all prints. Lucas exerted a powerful influence 
 on the artists who came after him, by deciding them to take 
 fresh subjects and treat them naturally. His industry was 
 great, for in spite of the brevity and dissipation of his 
 life upwards of 100 paintings and 171 prints are ascribed 
 to him. P. in \ti?,Z. 0. B. Fi!Othingham. 
 
 Leys (Jons Aigist IlrNitY), b. at Antwerp Feb. IS, 
 1815 ; was destined for the Church, but at the ageof fifteen 
 entered the studio of IJrakeker, his brother-in-law; ex- 
 hibited in 1^:1.1 a picture that excited remark, Cumbnt nf a 
 (irenndicr with a C'tHmirk; travelled and 8tu<lied in France 
 and Holland, and on his return till his dcfith, Aug. 20, 
 ISdil, lived iu his native city. The artist^took the subjects 
 for his canvases from the history of his own country and 
 tlic life of the Middle Ages, and painted with the fidelity 
 and feeling of one who describes what ho tlioroughly knows 
 and is imbued with the spirit of what ho depicts. His 
 work has the solid reality of Irudi and the earnest glow of 
 natural feeling. Few of his pieces have come to the U, S. 
 His chief works, sueb of tliem as were not painted for his 
 rich patron, M. Couteau. were executed, it is said, for pub- 
 lic places in Belgium. Three pietur(8 which he sent to the 
 Fxjiosition in Paris of 1S60 obratne<l for him one of the 
 grand medals of honor. To the Exposition of 1 SG7 he sent 
 eleven pieces. an'l was again honored by a nudal. In lS4f> 
 he was decorated with the orilcr of Leopold ; in 18j1 i-aiscd 
 to the rank of officer; in 1SG7 made commander of the 
 order, and promoted to the dignity of olTieer in the Legion 
 of Honor. Ho bad already been created a baron by Leo- 
 pold I. and elected a member of the Royal Academy i»f Bel- 
 gium. 0. B. FllOTIIINGHAH. 
 
 L^lfdpitul, de (MirHF.i), h. at Aiguepersc, in the 
 presi ht d«'p:irtni'iit of Puy de Dome, about 1^01; studied 
 juri-prudeuce at Padua; was sent by the French court in 
 1;')I7 to the Council of Trent, whicli had just removed to 
 Bologna; became in I5.!»l presitlenl of the court of ac- 
 counts, and in l.'»r»0 chancellor of Fnineo. By his ability and 
 integrity he gained tin- respect of all parties, but the policy 
 of moderation by wliieb he endeavored to pacify the tu- 
 multuous state of the popular mind made bim many ene- 
 mies, and several of his nteasurcs, by whicli he prevented 
 the establishment of the Inquisition in France and author- 
 ized the free exerci.se of Protestant worship, as well as the | 
 circumstance that his family became Protestant, made biui ! 
 suspected in the eyes (tf the Catholic parly. In Ijlls ho ' 
 resigned his oflico and relireil to his estate at Bi'Uebat, in 
 the present dejMirtment of Seinc-et-Oise, where lie d. Mar. 
 l.'I. 167<L His (Envren, containing Latin poems, speeches, 
 and memoir.^, were published in 1821 at Paris iu 4 vols., 
 and his poems separately in IH27. 
 
 Ivia'iia [Fr. finn*], a name(usually found in the plural) 
 npplied to the climbing and twining woody plants which, 
 in some tropical countries {as Brazil), entwine tliemsolves 
 among forest trees, otien rendering great areas of land 
 q'liro impenetrable. They belong to a gre:it number of 
 tlitferent natural orders. Some are of vi-ry greiit size, nnd 
 by their constriction and weight they often kill tho trees 
 wbieh support them. 
 
 Ki'as, The, a group of strata occurring In Western 
 Europe and lubinging to the Jurassic period. The word 
 WIS originally a local term, a eorru|iti'ni, it is snid, of 
 " biyers." in allusion to the thin bedded liiiu-'runes that in 
 :)s lower portion alternate with marls. It is divisible into 
 two natural groups, the older of whieli combines tho strata 
 tliai nre known as the Lower and Middl<< Liiis. The Lower 
 Lias rests below on the Kenper, and ennimenced by limo- 
 sfones, which we find giving pince os wc' n- -"iid the series 
 to bluish marts. Where the entire aeries is wril developed 
 
 we find the bluo ciarla succeeded by gray marls (of the 
 Middle Lias); these become micaceous, and finally arena- 
 ceous, passing above into the " Middle Lias Sands," which 
 in turn are capped l)y a highly ferruginous and sometimes 
 arenaceous limestone known as the " Marlstone." Suc- 
 ceeding to the Murlstonc we fiml a similar series of strata 
 recurring — namely, the "Upper Lias Limestone," the 
 '• Upper Lias Clay," and tho " Upper Lias Sands," which 
 arc capped by the inferior Oolite limestone of the next 
 formation. To the palaeontologist the Lias is classical 
 ground; in both (jermany and England it has yielded 
 hundreds of perfectly preserved skeletons of saurians 
 {IckthyoBnnri, PfcsioHnnri, Tdrostturi, Scciidunaunni) and 
 of Ptcroducf>/fn; from 70 to 100 species of fish, often most 
 beautifully preserved: and a host of Mollusea(y70 species 
 are recorded from the English Lias atone), amongst which 
 Ammonites, Belemnites, and Brachiopods are especially 
 abundant. Pentacrinitcs abounded in the Liassic waters, 
 Crustnceana and Echinoderms left their remains more spar- 
 ingly, and corals were not so abundantly represented as in 
 some other secondary formations. We may on the whole, 
 however, safely affirm that the fossils of ibe Lias give us 
 tho most compb'tc representation that we have yet found 
 of any extinct fauna. The most characteristic forms of 
 tho Lower Lias arc (jr>/pfiff-tt incnrva, Lima fp't/autca, and 
 .Ammonites of the group Aricten; of the Middle Lias. Am- 
 monites of the group Aiutilffici: and of the Upper Lias, 
 Ammonites of the group Fafci/cri; the vertebrate remains 
 are met with most commonly in the limestones of the Lower 
 Lias and the mnrls immediately over them, and again in 
 tho Upper Lias limestone. The Marlstone of Yorkshire, 
 England, has of late years ])roveil to be one of the most 
 valuable sources of iron ore. This Cleveland Ironstone, 
 as it is termed, is an argillaceous carbonate of iron, yield- 
 ing on an average about :iU per cent, of iron. Ace(»rding 
 to Ansted. it extends over a district of some hundreds of 
 sfjuare miles, in a stratum, generally (tolitic in structure, 
 sixteen Oct in thickness, and from which are annually ob- 
 taine<l I.Olio.uou tons of ore. EitWAkD C. II. Dav. 
 
 Liba'iiius, b. at Antioch in 314 or 310, and d. there 
 shortly after .'JOl, in the reign of Arcadius; studied at 
 Athens, and mentions Cleobulus. Didymus, and Zenobius 
 as his teachers, but acquired his education principally by 
 private study of tho old (ireek writers, whom he often im- 
 itated with success, jind for whom be alwnys showed great 
 enthusiasm. Ho first set up a privntc sciinol of rhetoric 
 at Constantinople, and his teachings conquered the atten- 
 tion of the students so absolutely that the schools of the 
 oflicial teachers were deserted. These nf»w brought nn ac- 
 cusation of magic against liini, and by (be jiid of the j»re- 
 fect, Limenius. a personal enemy of Libanius, tliey suc- 
 ceeded in getting Iiim expelind from the city, about 34fi. 
 He went to Nioomcclia, where he taught with equal success 
 for five years, but when recalled to Constanlinople he was 
 rather coolly received, nnd, persecuted by the intrigues of 
 his rivals and harassed by domestic trouldes and ill-health, 
 he gave up teaching and livei! in retirement in his nalivo 
 city. He was vain an<i meildlesome in character, and tho 
 moderation «)f his views — his toleratifin, for instance, to- 
 wards Christinnity, though himself a piignn — was due. at 
 least to some extent, to his being a rhetorician and not a 
 philosopher; ho cared more for the form thiui for the sub- 
 stance. But ho was, nevertheless, a man of superior talent 
 and of friendly disposition, nnd stood in intimate con- 
 nection not only with Juliiin the Aposinte. but nl.to with 
 St. Cbrysostom and St. Biisil. A eonsidernldr number of 
 his writings are still extant. His orations, declanmtions, 
 etc. have been published by Reiske (4 vols., Leijisio. 17III- 
 1*7), and his letters, which nre very interesting nnd of 
 great value for the ntudent of the history of that period, 
 by I. C, Wolf (Amsterdam. 17:'.S). There exist, however, 
 still many letters by him, in manuscript and unpublished, 
 at Madrid, Venice, and other places. 
 
 Liba'tion [Lat. tibnrc, to "pour"], on offering of 
 wine. milU, oil, or other fluid as a ceremony of divine wor- 
 ship. The Mosaic law requirerl lilmtions (drink offerings) 
 of wine, anti similar practices were eonimon among tho 
 
 Iiagans of antiquity. Libations were poured upon tho 
 loarlh before meals in honor of the Ronmn Lares, and be- 
 fore sacrificin* wine often was poured upon the victim's 
 head, upon the altar, or upon tho ground. Libations wer« 
 often employed in the conrirmation of public treaties with 
 foreii.'n states. 
 
 lii'hau, town of Uus^iia. in tho government of Cour- 
 land, on the Baltic. It has a eunsidi>rable shipbuilding 
 intere8t nnd largo trade in timber and corn. Its harbor 
 freeies later than other harbors of tho Baltic, and is earlier 
 free <,f ice. Pup. KODO. 
 
 I*i'brl fl<at. fihrthiM. 'Mittlo book," "pamphlet"]. Tho 
 term " libel " has in le:;al usag'' two diverse significations.
 
 1756 
 
 LIBEL. 
 
 As employed in one sense it deuotea a particular mode of 
 defaiuatiuu of character, constitutiug an otVeDce puuisbablo 
 at law, while in another application it denote;^ one uf the 
 ploadingfl employed in proceedings in courts of admiralty. 
 
 I, Libel as denoting defamation of character, and con- 
 sidered as the basis of a civil action, may be defined as a 
 malicious publication in printing, writing, signs, or pic- 
 tures imputing to another something which has a tendency 
 to injure his reputation, to disgrace or to degrade him in 
 society, or to hold him up to hatred, contempt, or ridicule. 
 As distinguished from the oflence of slander, which is de- 
 famatory matter addressed to the ear, libel is defamatory 
 matter addressed to the eye. (See Slandku. ) Libel is 
 moreover ili^^tinguished from slander in this respect — that 
 it constitutes both a criminal offence and a civil injury, and 
 is therefore punishable both by indictment and by a civil 
 action for damages. Slander, on the other hand, is only a 
 civil wrong, a violation of private rights, and is never in- 
 dictable, the only available mode of redress being a private 
 action. iJut while it is generally true that a libellous charge 
 is both indictable and actionable, this is not invariably the 
 case. There are certain forms of libel which constitute 
 criminal offences, but which will not support an action for 
 damages, inasmuch us they are not deemed in law to bo 
 in violation of individual rights. The definition of libel, 
 therefore, which has just been given, and which describes 
 it merely as an offence against the right of reputiition, is 
 not sufficiently comprehensive to include iti^ full extent of 
 meaning and application in its criminal aspect. All ac- 
 tionable libels arc also indictable, but the converse of the 
 proposition is not true that all indictable libels are also 
 actionable. AVhile the general deliniiion, as above given, 
 embraces modes of defamation or injury which are open to 
 both forms of redress, those varieties of libel which are dis- 
 tinctively of a criminal character may more conveniently 
 be cln.S3ificd and described separately. These are of three 
 principal classes — libels which blacken the memory of the 
 dead, libels upon the government, and obscene libels tend- 
 ing to corrupt the public morals. Of these, the first class 
 is of the most importance. Publications reflecting u)'on 
 the memory of one who is dead, vilifying him or tending 
 to detract from his posthumous reputation, arc regarded in 
 law as likely to excite the animosity of his family, and pro- 
 voke them to measures of retaliation or punishment, and 
 thus to occasion violations of public peace and order. Uut 
 only such criticism of the character or conduct (if a deceased 
 person is criminal as is made with malevolent purpose, with 
 a design to degrade his memory. Fair and honest consid- 
 eration of his actions, motives of conduct, and mode of life 
 is allowable. Libels against the government consist of 
 calumnious publicatitms in denunciation or unwarrantable 
 criticism of the established governmental system or in cen- 
 sure of methods of administration, provided the alleviations 
 arc of such a nature that their natural tendency or evident 
 purpose is to promote disaffection among the citizens or to 
 excite a spirit of revolution. But indictments for libels of 
 this kind are very rare, and would probably not be sus- 
 tained at the present day except in very extreme cases, 
 though the rules of the common law in most of the States 
 probably remain unchanged. Obscene or immoral libels 
 arc such indecent or immodest publications as tend to de- 
 stroy the love of purity, morality, and virtue, and corrupt 
 the public morals. This form of libel is generally at the 
 present d.ay made the subject of express statutory provis- 
 ions, whose object is to repress such pernicious ]>ublica- 
 tions, and punish those who issue them with severe pen- 
 alties. It is, moreover, somewhat unusual now to designate 
 such publications as libels, though t\icy are so considered 
 and classified at common law. 
 
 Uut the most common forms of libel are those which con- 
 stitute both civil and criminal offences, and which affect 
 the reputation of some living person. The theory of law. 
 however, upon which libel is adjudged to be a criminal 
 offence is essentiiilly diverse from that upon which it is de- 
 clared to bo a civil or private injury and open to redress 
 by an action for damages. It is regarded as n tort or pri- 
 vate wrong, because it is a violation of the right of rejuila- 
 tion which inheres in every individual. (See Tout.) Uut 
 a crime is a pulilic and not a private wrong — an offence 
 against the community considered in its social aggregate 
 capacity, instead of a violation of personal rights; and 
 libel is adjudged to be a crime, not because it is an in- 
 fringement upon the right of reputation, but because it 
 tends to public detriment. Thu?, libels nguinst the gov- 
 ernment and obscene libels are indictable because in the 
 one case the tendency is to weaken or destroy the alle- 
 giance of citizens to the state and foment intestine dis- 
 ordeis, and in the other to occasion a pernicious laxity of 
 mor:iIs. Uut libels which blacken ihe memory of the dead 
 an 1 those which injure the reputation of the living are in- 
 dictable on account of their tendency to occasion breaches 
 
 of the peace, by provoking the person defamed, or his rel- 
 atives and friends if he be deceased, to punish the libeller. 
 In former times it vvas viewed as a natural and probable 
 , consequence that the libeller would be challenged to fight 
 ' a duel or would be assaulted : and upon this legal pre- 
 . sumption the jurisdiction of criminal courts over this of- 
 fence was based and still depends as a matter of principle, 
 though the probability that acts of violence will be resorted 
 to in a particular ease is a wholly immaterial point. 
 
 A more definite and specific slatement as t<» the point 
 what charges against a person'.s reputation will be consid- 
 ered libellous than is comprised in the general definition 
 already given is hardly practicable. Every form of ma- 
 licious defamatory publication which is calculated to make 
 a jierson appear ridiculous or contemptible is to be deemed 
 a libel, and modes of casting derision and degrading im- 
 putations are of course infinitely various. It has been held, 
 however, that mere terms of general abuse are not libellous, 
 though the discrimination between charges that are libel- 
 lous and those that are merely abusive is necessarily diffi- 
 cult. It has also been decided in some cases that charges 
 of violation of etiquette, of good taste, or the rules of polite 
 society are not actionable. As illustrations of charges 
 which have been adjudged libellous the following may be 
 referred to: Imputations of fraudulent or dishonest con- 
 duet; of committing any crime or of being guilty of any 
 dishonorable practices ; against a professional man of unfit- 
 ness to practi.-'C his profession; of incoutinency or un- 
 chastity ; or assertions that a dealer's wares are adul- 
 terated, or that he knowingly sells bad articles, etc. It is 
 ! not necessary that the charge should be expressed in the 
 form of direct and positive assertion. An ironical mode 
 of conveying an imputation will be suflacient. So a de- 
 famatory charge may be made by indirect allusion, by 
 , covert innuendo, or in the form of an interrogation. It is, 
 I moreover, not requisite that the person defamed should be 
 mentioned by name iu the libel, or should be referred to 
 with such ddinitenci-s of description that all who saw the 
 publication would know to whom it applied. It is enough 
 I if the designation be to such a degree specific that the nat- 
 ural and reasonable understanding of the charge would 
 be. at least among some portion of those to whose know- 
 ! ledge it came, that a particular person was alluded to. Thus 
 it has been held that a person whose name was indicated 
 merely by a:Herisks, but who was otherwise sufficiently de- 
 , scribed, migiit maintain an action for libel. All persons 
 i who take part in the dissemination of the libel by rcjiuhli- 
 cation arc responsiljle to the same extent as the original 
 libeller. It is no defence to one who circulates a charge of 
 this kind that ho was not himself the author of the impu- 
 < tation. Hence, publishers of newspapers are responsible 
 for whatever statements of a libellous character appear in 
 their columns, though these may he merely copied from 
 some other paper or ]>ublication as matters of interest. 
 This is true even though the name of the author be given 
 ' in connection with the publication, t^o it is no excuse that 
 ■ a libellous publicatitm is based ujiou a widely circulated 
 rumor, even though this be generally credited and have a 
 reasonable semblance of truth. 
 
 As regards the nature of the defamatory charges which 
 ! will sustain an action by the party defamed, there is an 
 important distinction between libel and slander. While 
 every form of imputation calculated to bring a nian into 
 contempt will be adjutlged libellous if written or printed, 
 there are only certain kinds of defamatory charges which 
 if circulated orally will be a<ljudged slanderous. These 
 will be considered in the article on slander. (See Slander.) 
 The reason for this distinction between the two species of 
 defamation is that the wider circulation which charges are 
 likely to receive, and their more permanent cbaracttr, if 
 written or printed, than if merely spoken, are calculated to 
 render them more productive of injury to a person's repu- 
 tation, and to make refutation j)articular]y diflicult. It 
 fullows as a natural result of this distinction that the au- 
 thor of a defamatory charge may bo wholly relieved from 
 legal accountability because he only circulated it by word 
 of mouth, while another to whom he communicated it, and 
 who published it and thus extended its circulation, will be 
 liable to an action or prosecution for libel. 
 i It is an essential element iu libel that the defamatory 
 charge ho made with niaiice. But the word "malice" is 
 used in this connection not in its popular but legal mean- 
 ing. A legal distinction is made between malice in law 
 and malice in fact. Malice in fact denotes actual malev- 
 olence, positive ill-will, spite, or animosity against some 
 person to whom an injury is done; and this phrase has 
 therefore much the same signification as the simple word 
 I "malice'' in common acceptation. Malice in law, on the 
 I other hand, signifies that intent or disposition of mind 
 j from which proceed wrongful act? done intentianally. with- 
 I out just cause or excuse. This use of these phrases is not
 
 LIBEL. 
 
 1757 
 
 confined to the law of libel, but appertains to various 
 oriiuiiKil unJ tortious acts. Tho lualico which is a nccee- 
 eary in;;rcclient iu lilnl is not. cxcipt in special cases, 
 tnalice in f;icf, but inaliee in law, a(i«i ils existence is in- 
 ferred from the defamatory nature of tiie imputation and 
 tho absence of Icijal justification. If, for example, one man 
 traduces another in a i>ubli?hed statement, and tliere arc no 
 attemlant circumstances connectecl with the making of the 
 charj^e to render it lej;al and justitialtlc, or. as it is techni- 
 cally termed, a '* privileged communication," it will be ina- 
 lioiou.4, and therefore libellous, whether the traducer knew 
 the other or not, or whether he intended to ilo him an in- 
 jury or not. .\s every man is presumed to intend the nat- 
 ural consequences of his acts, an intent is imputed to him 
 in such a case which would reasonably be expected to ac- 
 company and occasion libellous accusations. Malice in 
 such cases is a conclusion of law wliich the plaintiff is not 
 requireil to prove, nor ttic tlefcndant permitted to deny. 
 Malice in fact need not be proved to exist in order to sus- 
 tain an action for libel, but evidence to this effect may bo 
 given for the purpose of enhancing the damages. The pre- 
 sumption of malice will be made in all eases of trial for 
 libel, except in regard to conimunications ma'le under cir- 
 cumstances of privilege. As respects these the existence 
 of actual malice must be established. The same principles 
 prevail in regard to actions for slander. In criminal prose- 
 cutions forlibel also the same general distinctions are main- 
 tained in relation to tho subject of malice as in civil pro- 
 ceedings. 
 
 It is furthermore necessary that the defamatory charge 
 be piililiihf'l. But the meaning attached to the term •' pub- 
 lication " is somewhat diverse in the criminal and tho civil 
 law. This distinction ilepends upon the difference of theory 
 which has been already referred to. As a civil action is j 
 maintainable because the plaintiff's reputation has been in- j 
 jurecl, the libel is said, in reference to this mode of redress, 
 to be published only when it is communicated to some other 
 person than the plainliff himself. It will be suUicicnt if 
 it be communicaled to the |ilaintilT's wife, since for this 
 purpose husband and wife are not regarded as (me. But in 
 criminal law it is held to be a suflicient publication if tho 
 obnrgo bo communicated simply to the party defamed, 
 since in such a case it has a tcmlency to cause a breach of 
 the peace in tho same way as if brought to the notice of i 
 third persons. It has been held in a civil case stitficieiit 
 publication to read defamatory charges contained in a let- 
 ter or any written or printed document to a third person, 
 even though he did not himself sec the article. 
 
 The principal defences to an action or a prosecution forlibel [ 
 arc (1) that the charge is a '* privileged communication." 
 ancl (2) justification. .^ communication or publication is 
 said to bo " privileged" when, though containing stalemnntg ! 
 that wonbl or.linarily be decme.l libellous, it is yet held in 
 law to bo justifiable because made in the discharge of some 
 public or private duty, legal, moral, or social, or in the pro- 
 tection of imi>ortant interests, or in the furtherance of pulilic 
 welfare, etc. The peculiar circumstances under which the 
 imputation is made are regarded as rebutting the presump- 
 tion of malice which tho law usually makes in cases of 
 defamation of character, and afford in some cases a full, 
 and in others a qualified, ilcfence to the action or jiroseeu- 
 tion. When they afford a full defence, the publication is 
 said to be absolutely privileged; when they furnish only 
 a qualified defence, flic communication is conditionally 
 privilegeil. In cases cit the lalli'r kind the action i r pri>so- 
 cution will be sustainable if actual malice or malice iu fact 
 be provcrl to have aduatcd the defendant's conduct in 
 making the charge. The existence of actual malice, being 
 a question of fact, is to be dctermine.l by the jury upon tho 
 testimony adduced before Ihcm, and not by the court. If 
 a publiclition is known to be false by the party tnaking it, 
 an IsulBeient evidence to this effect is given, actual malice 
 is plainly and un(|Uestionably inlciable, and he loses the 
 benefit of tho privilege claimed. But if a publication be 
 absolutely privileged, it cannot under any circumslances 
 become liie subject of legal proceerlings for redress or pun- 
 ishment, whether civil or criminal. Proof of actual malice 
 will not in such acase deprive the difamer of the privilege. 
 There arc two clauses of communications which arc abso- 
 lutely privileged: (I) Proceedings in legislative assem- 
 blies' in tho regular transaction of public business, as the 
 reports of members upon any subject, written speeches, 
 etc.; (2) proceedings in judicial tribunals which are per- 
 tinent to any cause of which the court has jurisdiclion. 
 This rule is cslablisheil in order that li'gislaiors, judges, 
 counsel, jurors, witnesses, etc. may be fearless in the pcr- 
 f.Minance of their official (luti< s, and active and diligent in 
 I'erreting out corruptictn, inci'inpetence. and violation of 
 law, unileferred by apprehensions of being harassed by legal 
 proceedings. This privilege is usually secured lo legislators 
 by conslitulional provisions. (See U. P. Conslitution. AH. 
 
 I. J fi, and State constitutions.) Other classes of privileged 
 eoiumunications are conditional or qualified, tho privilege 
 being complete only when the charge is made buna JiiU, ia 
 full belief of its truth. \ few instances of publications of 
 this kind may be mentioned for tho sake of illuslralion : 
 Petitions to the legislature or proper [lublic officer fur the 
 purpose of securing reforms in which the petitioners arc 
 pariicularly interested as citizens; communications by 
 public officers acting in the discharge of o public duty ; 
 charges made by the officers or members of a religious 
 organization or public or private association against a 
 fellow-member in the course of the regular disiripline of 
 the body to which they belong ; private confidential com- 
 munications between relatives or friends to prevent an- 
 ticipated injury to their special interests ; communications 
 between persons engaged in a common business enterprise 
 in strict reference to their iiusiness affairs; statements con- 
 cerniaig the character of servants n)adc to those who intend 
 to employ them ; fair and honest reports of trials without 
 defamatory comments; the publication of speeches and 
 proceedings in legislative bodies. The privilege in these 
 last two cases is sometimes niiuic the subject of express 
 statutory or constitutional provisions. So reviews of books 
 or literary productions of any kind are privileged if the 
 critic do not step aside from a consideration of the work to 
 defame the author's private character. The same rule ap- 
 plies to criticisms upon works of art or of one journalist 
 upon another. Tho same principles in regard to matters 
 of privilege prevail in the law of slander us in the law of 
 libel. 
 
 A "justification" is a plea in defence that the defama- 
 tory allegations ore true, and therefore justifiable. lint 
 here, also, there is a dift'crencc between the rules of crim- 
 inal and those of civil procedure in regard to this offence. 
 It has always been a rule of law that in a civil action for 
 libel a plea that the charge is true is a valid and effectual 
 defence, since a man is entitled to no better reputation than 
 his actual character would warrant. .\s the theory upon 
 which tho civil action is based allows the recovery of dam- 
 ages for the injury which the reputation of the i)arty de- 
 famed has sustained, he is entitled to recover nothing if 
 tho injury is really aflributablu to his own misconduct. 
 But in crimiual proceilure a different rule was ndo|)ted, ami 
 it even became a maxim at common law that " the greater 
 the truth the greater the libel." This was on account of 
 the principle that the criminality of a libel depended upon 
 its tendency to cause a breach of the peace. The view was 
 taken that a person defamed would be likely lo be more 
 incensed, and more inclined to retaliafiun, if the charge 
 were true than if it were false, by reason of the great dif- 
 ficulty or impossibility of successfully refuting it. This 
 rule has been modified in modern times by statute or con- 
 stitutional provision, and it is usually the rule that the 
 truth of the allegeil libellous matter shall be a defence in a 
 criminal prosecution if the ]iublication be made with good 
 motives and for justifiublc ends. It is evident, however, 
 that even with this change there is an important dificrenco 
 between civil and criminal proceedings upon this point, 
 ir " good motives and justifiable ends " bo not jiroved in a 
 trial ujioii indietmenf. the truth is not, as in a civil action, 
 an effectual defence. It was a rule of common law that a 
 justification must be as broad as the charge, and if the 
 truth of the allegation were not substantially proved tho 
 plea was equivalent to a re]Htilion of the libel, and in a 
 civil action would aggravate the damages. 
 
 Libel considered as a crime was af common law a misde- 
 meanor only, and not a felony (see C'liiMK, Felony), and tho 
 statutes which have been generally enacted in this country 
 defining the ofience and declaring its punishment have usu- 
 ally left this rule unchanged. As respects civil ai-lii>ns for 
 libel, the question as to the measure of damages which may 
 be awarded becomes of much importance. (See Mkasirk of 
 Damaoi-.s.) It nuiy be shown by way of mitigation of dam- 
 ages that the pbiintin' was a man of blemislied or mini d 
 character befori- the publication of the libel, so that he li:t-- 
 sustained comparatively little injury; or that a fidl iiud 
 unqualified refraction was subseqiu'iitly made; or that the 
 defendant was insane or intoxicated when the charge was 
 made I or Ihni he was provoked by previous libels of the 
 plaintiff upon liiiuself, etc. If was a rule of common law 
 that fuels tending to establish the truth of the charge were 
 not to be used in mitigation of damages, but only by way 
 I of "justification. " This rule has, however, been changed 
 in a number of the States by statutes providing, in sub- 
 stance, that fads anil circumslances which tend lo prove 
 tho truth of the charge, but fail to airmunt lo complete 
 justification, may bo given in cvidenoc lo reduce tho uain- 
 nges. A defendant in these States is permitted to sot up a 
 plea of juslificalion. together with a plea of mitigating 
 circumslances, although the one plea alfinns thetriilll of 
 the charge and the other impliedly admits its falsity. This
 
 1758 
 
 LIBELT— LIEERIUS. 
 
 rule, however, though not sti-ictly logical, has been thought 
 to ho hotter adaptcU thau tho cuminou-law doctriue to \vork 
 fiuhstautial justice hetweeii thu parties. 
 
 Thoro is an importaut distmciion between civil and crim- 
 inal proceedings for libel as to the province o!" the jury in 
 the construotion of tho alleged libellous charges. In a 
 civil a<iti<>n, when tho words of an alleged libel are unaui- 
 biguon^, the question whether the publication is actually a 
 libel is to be determined by the court, and not by tiie jury. 
 But if the words are of doubtful meaning, the question 
 becomes one of fact for the decision of the jury. In re- 
 spect to criminal prosecutions, there was at common law 
 much uncertainty as to the proper function of the jury in 
 this respect. It was held in England by a nnnilK-r of de- 
 cisions of tho court of king's bench that tho court alone 
 had power to determine whether the subject of the publica- 
 tion was or was not a libel, as in civil cases. But this rule 
 was muoh controverted, and to reduce the matter to ccr- 
 tiiinty a statute was passed giving power to tlie jury to 
 render a general verdict of guilty or not guilty upon tho 
 wliulo matter in issue, and thus to determine questions both 
 of law and of fact. Similar statutes or constitutional pro- 
 visions have been adopted in a number of the States of 
 this country. The construction of t!ie alleged libel is thus 
 mailc to devolve upon the jury, instead of upon the court. 
 This is an anomalous provision in criminal law, and pecu- 
 liar to prosecutions for this offence. It is a general rule 
 in tho interpretation and construction of Ubnls that the 
 language is tn be understood in its natural and ordinary 
 i^cnso. If obscure and ambiguous languago is urvod, or 
 that which is figurative or ironical, its sense is to be gath- 
 ereil from the context and the facts and circumstances 
 uu ler which it was used. (See for general rules Inter- 
 PRKT.VTirtv AND CoNSTnucTiON. Cousult ou this general 
 subject the works of Bishop, Wharton, Russel], and Chitfy 
 on On'nintnl Law; Townscnd on Lilicl and iSfanil'^r! Ad- 
 dison on Torts; Hilliard on Torts; Starkio on Slander; 
 IlearJ on Ltfiel and Slander.) 
 
 II. IjIBKL in admiralty practice denotes tho first plead- 
 ing of the comj>]ainant in a suit, and contaius a statement 
 of his cause of action. In England the word is also ap- 
 plicfl to a similar jdoadiug in the ecclesiastical courts. A 
 libel in admiralty is not required to bo drawn in any spe- 
 cific form. It should, however, be addressed to the proper 
 judge, should state the names of the parties acouratelj, 
 and should contain a clear and comprehensive statonieut 
 (usually in propositions or ''articles") of the facts upon 
 which the libellant bases his suit. The libel should also 
 incluiio a prayer for relief. A libel answers to the decla- 
 ration or complaint in a civil action. The plaintiff in an 
 admiralty suit is termed the libellant. and the defendant 
 the respondent. fSee works on Admiralty/ Practice.) 
 
 George Ch.vse. Revised by T. W. Dwight. 
 
 Li'belt fKAROL), b. at Posen Apr. 8, 1S07; studied 
 philosophy and mathematics at Berlin, where he gained a 
 prize fi>r his essay De Panthei8>iio,a.vn\ acquired the degree 
 of Ph. I), in 1S2'J ; served in ISoO as an officer in the ar- 
 tillery, and distinguished himself in the battle of Ostro- 
 lenka and at the defence of Warsaw; retired after tho 
 failure of the revolution to his estates in Posen; founded 
 in ISlO the successful periodicals T^/godnik literacki and 
 Jioh; to which the best I*olish writers contributed ; was ar- 
 rcstel in ISKJ for participation in the conspiracy of Mic- 
 ro?lawski. bul liberated on the outbreak of tho revolution 
 at Berlin in ISIS ; took part afterwards in politics as mem- 
 ber of tho Slavic congress at Prague in 1S40, and as leader 
 of the Polish fraction in the second Prussian chamber 
 in ISj'J; commenced the publication of his philosophi- 
 cal writings, the most prominent of which are Filnznfin i 
 Krytjfka ("Philosophy and Criticism"), (5 vols., Posen. 
 isLCsO), and E>ftHt/}:a (*' ^Esthetics "), (3 vols., Posen, 
 ISJI); he also wrote a number of mathematical, economi- 
 cal, and agricultural essays and pamphlets. His philo- 
 sophicjil works have been translated into German, and have 
 attracted considerable attention as an individual develop- 
 ment of (he ideas of the German philosophy. 
 
 lii'bcr, post-v. of Jay co., Ind. 
 
 Libc'ria, a republic on the wcptrrn const of Africa, 
 founleJ in ISi'O by the American Colonization Societv 
 (which sec), and established as an independent state in 
 1817, is situated between 4° 2U' and 7° 20' N. lat., anrl 
 stretches along the Atlantic from the Sherboro River on the 
 N. \y. to the Pedro River on the S. E., a distance of about 
 COO miles, extending inland from the coast from 10 to 40 
 miles. Its area, which is steadily increased by purchases 
 from the native tribes, was estimated in 187.*i at 9700 square 
 miles. The shore is elevated and rocky in the S. E., bnf 
 otherwise low, generally sandy or gravelly. seUlom marshy. 
 In the interior the country rises, swelling into fores^t-covered 
 hilts and lofty mountain-ranges traversed by fine valleys. 
 
 Many streams flow to tho ocean, but none of them is 
 navigable for more than 20 miles from tho mouth ; the 
 most important are tho St. Paul, navigable for IS miles, 
 and having 7 feet of water at low tide on the bar at its 
 mouth ; the St. John, the .Junk, and the Cape Mount River. 
 The climate is thoroughly tropical. Of the two seasons, 
 the dry lasts from October to June, and the wet Irom Juno 
 to October. In the dry season the average heat is S4° F., 
 tho thermometer seldom rising above 90° in the shade; in 
 the wet season the average Ihjit is 70*^, the thermometer 
 never falling below 00°. To the white man the climate is 
 deadly — not from its excessive heat, but probably from 
 miasmata; and even the negro, when born and reared in 
 another climate, suffers (tn his arrival here fntm the so- 
 called African fever. Tho natives, on the contrary, are 
 robust, healthy, and long-lived. The soil is generally very 
 fertile. The princip.al farming districts lie along (he banks 
 of the St. Paul. Here the sugar-cane grows luxuriantly ; 
 the produce of K'--71 was estimated at ^00,000 pounds. 
 Cotton is indigenous, and yields two crops annually. Cufftc 
 of excellent quality is cultivated with success in the in- 
 terior. The cereals, maize, rice, wheat, barley, and oatsj 
 the vegetables, cabbages, peas, beans, tomatoes, cucumbers, 
 etc. ; and the fruits, lemons, oranges, guavas, tamarinds, 
 pomegranates, pineapples. African jiea^hcs, etc., are easily 
 raised. The forests contain teak, mahogany, rosewood, hick- 
 ory, poplar, several kinds of gum trees, dyewoods, medicinal 
 shrubs, and different varieties of useful palms, among which 
 is the nut-bearing palm, from which jialm oil is made. 
 Wild animals, the ele])bant, hippopotnmu.«, crocodile, leop- 
 ard, etc., are now nearly exterminated. Of minerals, iron 
 abounds, and copper is said to occur in the interior. The 
 inhabitants of the republic numbered, according to tho 
 latest estimates, about 720,000, of whom about 19,000 were 
 Americo-Liberians, and tho rest natives. The natives be- 
 long to different tribes : tlic A'eys. mostly Mohammedans, 
 among whom the Protestant Episci)pal Cliurcb of the U. S. 
 has established a mission school at Totocoreh ; the Pessehs, 
 entirely pagans ; the Bassas, among whom the American 
 Baptist missionaries established a mission in 18H5 ; the 
 Kroos, mostly idolaters; tho Maudingos, the most gifted 
 of the tribes under the jurisdiction of the republic; and 
 others. The Americo-Liberians have a regular system of 
 schools, and are progressing in all branches of civilization. 
 Industrial processes and manufactures have been started 
 among them, and a lively trade has sprung up between the 
 republic and the U. S., Gr<rat Britain, Belgium, and Ham- 
 burg. Palm oil, sugar, cotton, coffee, ivory, camwood, 
 arrowroot, etc. arc exported ; cotton goods, cutlery, powdc r, 
 and tobacco are imported. The country is divided into 
 four counties — Mesurado, Grand Bassa. Siuon, and Mary- 
 land. The capital, Miuirovia. is situated on Cape Mesu- 
 rado, and has about l.'I.OOO inhabitants. Other settlements 
 are New Georgia, CaMwell, \'irginia. Edina. Greenville, 
 Lexington, Buchanan, Millsburg, etc. The annual revenue 
 is about $1(10, UOO, almost exclusively derived from custom- 
 house duties. A public debt of ^JUO.OOO was contracted in 
 1.S71. Tho constitution of the republic is modelled after 
 that of the V. 8. All men are born free and equal. Elec- 
 tions take place by ballot, and every male citizen who pos- 
 sesses real estate has the right of suffrage. But no white man 
 can be admitted to citizenship, and none but citizens can 
 hold real estate in the republic (a temporary provision). 
 The president is elected for two years; the senators for 
 four; the representatives for two. Each county sends two 
 senators to the legislative assembly, and one representative 
 for every 10.000 inhabitants. The first president was 
 Jose]th Jenkins Roberts, who served four terms, from ISIS 
 to 1856, and was once more elected in 1S7I. The official 
 language is tho English. (See Stockwell, The lUpnhlic of 
 Liberia^ its Geography, Climate, S"if, and J*rodnrtiou8, with 
 a History of its turli/ Stttlenunf, New York, 1S68.) 
 
 Ijibe'rinSf Saint, a bishop of Rome, reckoned in the 
 series of popes after Julius I., whom be succeeded May 
 22, :{50. The Semi-Arians, countenanced by the emperor 
 Constantius, were then in tlio ascendant, and in the coun- 
 cils of Aries {:)i>'.l) and Milan {'.'.i*'*) they condemned the 
 doctrincof .Mhanasius. Liberius, togeilicr with some other 
 Western bishops, having refused to sign this condemnation, 
 he was arrested by the emperor's order and taken to Milan, 
 where Constantius endeavored to secure his obedience by 
 personal solicitations. Finding him resolute in maintain- 
 ing his previous attitude. Constantius declared Liberius 
 deposed from the bisliopric of Rome, banished him to 
 Berea in Macedonia, and had Felix, a deacon, consecrated 
 in bis place. In ."i.iS, Liberius was restored to his post in 
 consequence of a petition from the principal ladies of Rome. 
 The Council of Ariminum (Rimini ). ctrnvened in 3.'i9 for 
 the settlement of <loctrinal difficulties, at tirst followed tho 
 suggestions of Liberius by confirming the Nicene Creed 
 and condemning Arius, but gave way to the influence of
 
 LIBERTY. 
 
 1759 
 
 ConsLintiup. and finally accepted an Arian confession of 
 faith prMpused by him. liiheritis ha^ been falsely accused 
 of hav 'iu% signed this confession, a^ well aa of buving pur- 
 cha3?d hid recall from Bcrea by ^ubuii.«.''iun to the nnperor's 
 will as regarded Arinnism. Ho built tbo basilica now 
 called iSiinta Maria Ma3;giore. D. in .'lOrt, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Damasus I. His festival occurs in the Catholic 
 calendar Au^. 27. and in the Greek Sept. 2.1. 
 
 Lib'erty [Lat. lifn-rtaa, " freedom "J, in the abstract, de- 
 notes tlio power of acting as you will ( pnnteritan ritcmii ut 
 vtlii — Ctccru); but for a finite being this tlefinition has 
 to be modified into the power of acting as ymi will within 
 the ?i>here of existence pertaining to the individual. It is 
 assumed also that the will itself is free, in view of motive?, 
 to choo-e what appears to be (he greater guod before the 
 leas, or the less bclore the greater. ' For an infinite being 
 the highest freedom coincides with the highest moral ne- 
 cessity; that is to say, there is one cuur5o. nnd one only, 
 which his perfection of nature requires him to choose, and 
 makes it certain that he will choose. And for a finite being, 
 moral exocllenco, united with the greatest perfection of in- 
 tellect pertaining to human nature, wilt make the best 
 course of action curtain within his sphere of existence. 
 
 Liberty in the sphere of the citizen cannot be understood 
 without a correct idea of rights. Here we raust refer to the 
 articles Ji stick and Rights, and will only add that per- 
 sonal and civic liberty may pertain to a man, while in par- 
 ticular cases he rcnonnccs the exercise of it; in which case 
 a man waives his right — that is, freely renounces what he 
 was free to own, do, or enjoy. Liberty in this sphere con- 
 sists in the powi^r of freely exercising those rights which 
 may bo deduced from a true idea of the nature and destiny 
 of man. The entire, or nearly entire, absence of such 
 rights makes a man a slave. To be authorized to exercise 
 sjmc of them is imperfect liberty ; to enjoy all of them is 
 perfect liberty. Sometimes the liberty exists in a degree, 
 although tbo individual would bo injured if he were free to 
 act as he chose. .Such is the case with children, who have 
 rights even against their parents, yet cannot, umlcr wise 
 law, exercise the rights of contract and of testament, bc- 
 ciusQ they would be in danger, if they did, of injuring them- 
 selves. 
 
 Political liberty implies a share in political power, and 
 those restraints on a government and on individuals which 
 are necess.iry for the protection of one and of all in the 
 civil and political spheres. 8uch liberty consists in the 
 right of voting, the right of holding ofi'ice. in a great va- 
 riety of institutions and of guaranties, and in certain free 
 modes of action in concert wiih others, such as the rights 
 of association, of discussing, petitioning, and remonstrating 
 a:;iinsL [lublic measures, of freedom of the press, and others. 
 What may be called personal liberty and equality of iudi- 
 vi lual rights may exist without equality of political rights. 
 Thus, a man who cannot read, or who docs not bold a cer- 
 tain amount of property or p:iy a certain house-rent, may 
 have uo right of sutfragc or eligibility to office. So a wo- 
 man, a male minor, a foreigner, may have no Buffriige : a 
 man over seventy may be incapable of holding a judicial 
 office, or a man under thirty-five be ineligible to that of 
 Prcsi lent of the U. S. All these last-nieulioued disquali- 
 fications exist under our form of government. Have such 
 persons, then, no complete political liberty ? In the most 
 exact uso of terms we must <lcny that their status is e({ual 
 to that of some others, although the distjualifications atloct 
 all, in each of the classes afi'ccted, alike. We do m:iko a dif- 
 ferer.cc between ci'rr« ojitt'mo jitrp, and c/m'« tuni optiuntjitre 
 (citizens enjoying the best right, and citizens enjoying a 
 right that is nt»t the best). Hut under free institutions 
 these disqualifications are so few that the persons affected 
 by them arc in no danger of having their personal liberties 
 invaded, especially iis they are connected by close relations 
 with others who have a somewhat greater share of political 
 power. If, however, a larger part of a community was shut 
 out of suffrage and the p<»wer to hold office, in order to keep 
 power in the hands of another distinct part, the guaranties 
 of personal rights would not be felt to be great enough, and 
 the prohibited good would be much coveted, while yet not 
 one of a thousanrl, perhaps, of such persons would under 
 unlimited suffrage ever hold offiee. T. D. Wlmh.sev. 
 
 Liberty, county of Floridn. bounded E. by the Ocklock- 
 onoL-e and U'. by the navigable Appalachieola Kiver. Area, 
 6o0 square miles. It is sparsely settled, and is mo.nlly em- 
 ployed as a cattle-range, but contains much good land. 
 Cap. Itristol. Pop. I(t50. 
 
 liiberty, county of E. (teorgia. Area, 770 square miles. 
 Its E. extremity reaches St. ('atharine's SouncI ; its S. W. 
 border is washed by the navij^ablc Altanmha Uiver. The 
 surface is level, well timbered, and in jmrt marshy. Rice, 
 eotlon, and corn are staple products. It is traversed by 
 thcAtlanticandiiuif H. K. Cap. Walthourville. l*()p.7r.SS. 
 
 Liberty) county of S. E. Texas. Area. IGOtt square 
 miles. It is partly prairie and partly fine timber-land. The 
 county is travLTsed by the Trinity River and the Texas and 
 Now Orleans U. R. Petroleum has been found and min- 
 eral springs are abundant. Livestock and cotton arc the 
 chief products. Cap. Liberty. Pop. 44U. 
 
 Liberty, tp, of Carroll co.. Ark, Pop. 253. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Independence co., Ark. Pop. 455, 
 
 Liberty, post-tp. of Ouachita co.. Ark. Pop. 908, 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Pope co.. Ark. Pop. 741. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of St. Francis co.. Ark. Pop. 27.3. 
 
 liiberty, tp. of Van Uuren co.. Ark. Pop. 2^5. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of White co.. Ark, Pop. 368. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Klamath co., Cal. Pop. 348. 
 
 Liberty, post-tp. of San .Joaquin co., Cal. Pop. 1231. 
 
 Liberty, post-tp. of Adnms co.. III. Pop. 1623. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Effingham co,. 111. Pop. 60-1. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Crawford co., Ind. Pop. 7o7, 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Delaware co., Ind. Pop. 1G39, 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Fulton co., Ind. Pop. 1429. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of (Irani co., Ind. Pop. 1989. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Hendricks co., Ind. Pop. 2478. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Henry co.. Ind. Pop. 1884. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Howard co., Ind. Pop. 1C97. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Parke co., Ind. Pop. 1540. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Porter co., Ind. Pop. 798. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Shelby co., Ind. Pop. 1465. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of St. Joseph co., Ind. Pop. i:;94. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Tipton co., Ind. Pop. 1740. 
 
 Liberty, post-v. of Centre tp., cap. of I'nion co., Ind., 
 on the Cincinnati Hnmilton and Indian.TpoIis R. R.. near 
 the E, fork of the Whitewater River. .^0 miles N. W. of 
 Cincinnati. O.. and 70 miles S. E. of Indianapolis. It has 
 2 national banks, 2 large Houring mills, an a'.rncultiiral im- 
 plement manufactory, planing-inills and shops, 2 hotels. 
 good schools, 4 churches, 1 weekly newspaper, a nunibcr 
 of stores, etc. Principal business, farming and stock- 
 raising. Pop. 700. C. W. Stivers, En. *■ Herald." 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Union co., Ind. Pop. 763. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Wabash co., Ind. Pop. 1816, 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Warren co., Ind. Pop. 1176. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of AVells co.. Ind, Pop. 1097. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of White co., Ind. Pop. 888. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Ruehanan eo., la. Pop. 1272. 
 
 Liberty, post-tp. of Clarke co., la. Pop. 778. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Clinton co., la. Pop. O.'JI. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Dubuque co., la. Pop. 1102. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Jefferson co., la. Pop. 1082. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Johnson co., la. Pop. 640. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Keokuk co., la. Pop. \\3h. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Lucas co.. la. Pop. 600. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of .Marion co., la. Pop. 1532. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Marshall co., la. Pop. 709. 
 
 Liberty, t[>. of .Mitchell co., la. Pop. 173. 
 
 Liberty, ip. of O'Rrien co.. la. Pup. 715. 
 
 I>ibrrty, tp. of Ringgold co., la. Pop. 243. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Scoitco., la. Pop. 1193. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Warren co., la. Pop. 891. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Wright co.. In. Pop. 269. 
 
 Ijibrrty, tp. of Howard co., Kan. Pop. ."94. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Labette co., Kan. Pop. 720. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Linn co., Kan. Pop. 480. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Woodson co., Kan. Pop. 363. 
 
 I^iberty, post-v., cap. of Casey co., Ky., on the Louis- 
 ville and Cincinnati R. R. 
 
 Lil»erty, post-tp. of Waldo co., Me.. 16 miles W. of 
 Bclfiu-'t. has manufactures of leather, axes, pegs, handles, 
 bootj*, shoes, wooden ware, furniture, and woollen and other 
 goods. Pop, 907. 
 
 Liberty, post-v. and tp. of Frederick co., Md.. 1 1 miles 
 N. E. i»f Frederick, hns 4 churches. :'. sehonis, I iirinting- 
 ofiiec. 2 hotels. a lodge of Red Men mid 1 of (lood Templars, 
 and stores, 8hnp>i, etc. The principal business of tbo sur- 
 rounding neighborhood is farming. Pop. 3281. 
 
 J. S. L. RoDuiCK, El). "Tiir. Ranvku of LifiiiT." 
 
 I^iberty, poattp. of Jackson co., Mich. Pop. 1070.
 
 1760 
 
 LIBERTY— LIBERTY, RELIGIOUS. 
 
 Liberty, posl-v., cap. of Amite co.. Jliss., has 5 churches, 
 2 newspapers, .'i hotels. L' drug nud several other stores. 
 Principal business, cotlnn-plaulinj;. Pop. jlio. 
 
 Miss P. W. FuHSVTHE, En. "Advocate." 
 Ijiberty, tp. of Adair co., Mo. Pop. 834. 
 Liberty, Ip. of Bollinger co., .Mo. Pop. 1680. 
 Liberty, tp. of Callaway co.. Mo. Pop. 1646. 
 Liberty, tp. of Cape Girardeau co., Mo. Pop. 870. 
 Liberty, post-v. and tp., cap. of Clay co.. Mo., on the 
 Hannilial and St. Joseph R. R, ( Kans,as"hranch), Ifi milps 
 S. of Jlolt, has 2 weeklv newspapers and considerable 
 trade. Pop. of v. 1700 ; of tp. 4Hal. 
 Liberty, tp. of Cole co., Mo. Pop. 901. 
 Liberty, tp. of Crawford co., Mo. P.ip. 1071. 
 Liberty, tp. of Daviess co., Mo. Pop. 781. 
 Liberty, tp. of Grundy co.. Mo. Pop. 103C. 
 Liberty, tp. of Iron co., Mo. Pop. 479. 
 Liberty, tp. of Macon co.. Mo. I'op. 1210. 
 liiberty, tp. of Madison co.. Mo. Pop. 480. 
 Liberty, tp. of Marion co., Mo., contains Palmyra 
 (whi(:h see). Pop. .'iS71. 
 Liberty, tp. of Phelps co., Mo. Pop. 470. 
 Liberty, tp. of Pulaski co.. Mo. Pop. 893. 
 Liberty, tp. of Putnam co., Mo. Pop. 1174. 
 Liberty, tp. of Schuyler co.. Mo. Pop. 1529. 
 Liberty, tp. of St. Fran}ois co.. Mo. Pop. 1405. 
 Liberty, tp. of Stoddard co., Mo. Pop. 1.107. 
 Liberty, tp. of Sullivan co., Mo. Pop. 772. 
 Liberty, tp. of Washington co., Mo. Pop. 879. 
 Liberty, tp. of Cass co.. Neb. Pop. 400. 
 Liberty, tp. of Gage co., Neb. Pop. 770. 
 Liberty, tp. of Richardson co.. Neb. Pop. 506. 
 Liberty, post-v. and tp. of Sullivan co., N. Y.. on the 
 New York and Oswego Midland R. R. The township has 
 an uneven surface, with two ponds, the chief industry be- I 
 ing dairying and stock-raising. The village has 4 churches, 
 2 weekly newspapers, and a normal institute. There are 
 5 other post-offices within the township— Liberty Falls, 
 Parksville, Red Rrick. Robertsonville, and StevcnsviUe. 
 Pop. of v. about 500 ; of tp. 33S9. 
 Liberty, tp. of Lincoln co., N. C. Pop. 1170. 
 Liberty, tp. of Nash co., N. C. Pop. 2SC0. 
 Liberty, tp. of Randolph co., N. C. Pop. 1009. 
 Liberty, tp. of Yadkin co., N. C. Pop. 1588. 
 Liberty, tp. of Adams co., 0. Pop. 1377. 
 Liberty, tp. of IJutler co., 0. Pop. 1443. 
 Liberty, tp. of Clinton co., 0. Pop. 1184. 
 Liberty, tp. of Crawford co., 0. Pop. 1597. 
 Liberty, tp. of Delaware eo., 0. Pop. 1395. 
 Liberty, tp. of Fairfield co., 0. Poji. 3000. 
 Liberty, a V. (Kimbolton P. 0.)and tp. oftiuernsey co., 
 0.. miles N. of Cambridge. Pop. of v. 169 ; of tp. 1163. 
 Liberty, tp. of Hancock co., O. Pop. 1011. 
 Liberty, tp. of Hardin co., 0. Pop. 2308. 
 Liberty, tp. of Henry co., 0. Pop. 1760. 
 Liberty, tp. of Highland co., 0., contains the village 
 of Hillsborough. Pop. 51S9. 
 
 Liberty, tp. of Jackson co., 0. Pop. 1747. 
 Liberty, tp. of Kno.\ co., 0. Pop. 959. 
 Liberty, tp. of Licking co., 0. Pop. 837. 
 Liberty, tp. of Logan eo., 0. Pop. 1624. 
 Liberty, tp. of Mcreer co., 0. Pop. 779. 
 Liberty, tp. of Putnam co., 0. Pop. 1120. 
 Liberty, tp. of Ross eo., 0. Pop. 1460. 
 Liberty, tp. of Seneca co., 0. Pop. 1668. 
 Liberty, ip. of Trumbull co., 0. Pop. 2420. 
 Liberty, ip. of Union co., 0. Pop. 1414. 
 Liberty, tp. of Van Wert co., 0. Pop. 1174. 
 Liberty, Ip. of Washington co., 0. Pop. 1632. 
 Liberty, tp. of Wor>d co., 0. Pop. 905. 
 Liberty, (p. of Adams co.. Pa. Pop. 860. 
 Liberty, tp. of Bedford co., Pa. Pop. 806. 
 Liberty, tp. of Centre co.. Pa. Pop. 1062. 
 Liberty, tp. of McKean co., Pa. Pop. 1093. 
 Liberty, tp. of Mercer co., Pa. Pop. 034. 
 Liberty, tp. of Montour co., Pa. Pop. 1229. 
 Liberty, tp. of Susquehanna co., Pa. Pop. 1030. 
 
 Liberty, post-tp. of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 1379. 
 Liberty, tp. of Orangeburg co.. S. C. Pop. 408. 
 Liberty, post-v., caj). of Liberty co., Tex. Pop. 458. 
 Liberty, ]iost-v. and tp.. cap. of Bedford co., Va., on 
 the Atlantic .Mississippi and Ohio R. R., 25 miles W. of 
 Lynchburg, has 7 tobacco-factories, with 2 large additional 
 ones in course of construction, 2 tobacco-warehouses, 2 
 banks, a school, 2 weekly newspapers, and 7 churches. The 
 Peaks of Otter, 10 miles distant, rival the White Mountains 
 in grandeur and sublimity. Pop. of v. 1208; of tp. 5840. 
 Jamks R. Grv, Ed. " Bedford Sextixel asd News." 
 Liberty, tp. of Marshall co.. West Va. Pop. 2062. 
 Liberty, tp. of Ohio co., West Va. Pop. 1362. 
 Liberty, tp. of Grant co., Wis. Pop. 907. 
 Liberty, tp. of Manitowoc co.. Wis. Pop. 1430. 
 Liberty, tp. of Outagamie eo.. Wis. Pop. 461. 
 Liberty, post-v. and tp. of Vernon co.. Wis., 9 miles 
 S. E. of Viroqua. and on Kickapoo River. Pop. 414. 
 
 Liberty Grove, tp. of Door oo.. Wis., on Green Bay 
 and Lake Michigan. Pop. 333. 
 
 Liberty Hill, posl-v. of Williamson co., Tci. Pop. 47. 
 Liberty, Religious. The distinction is quite clear 
 and broad between what is civil and wh.at is religious. 
 Civil government is not to support or binder any form of 
 religion. Privileges are not to be granted nor arc injuries 
 to be inflicted because of religious belief. A state is mani- 
 festly unable to e.\ercise minute supervision over religious 
 opinions. The state cannot go behind the overt act. Re- 
 ligion looks to tlic posture of the mind and the heart. 
 Men are bound to submit their judgment on points of faith 
 to no visible body. Religious liberty is absolute freedom 
 of religious opinion and worship, the equality of all 
 churches, religious associ.-itions, or persons in the way of 
 protection or restraint by the legally expressed will of the 
 nation. Toleration is the assumption ot' the right by civil 
 process to control religious affairs. Toleration cj- ri' ler- 
 iniiii implies that the slate prefers one or more forms of 
 belief, but graciously allows others. To permit implies the 
 right to prevent. 
 
 The New Testament contains no precept favoring a na- 
 tional or state religion, or interference by government with 
 the right of worship. It recognizes a clear distinction be- 
 tween "the things which are God's" and "the things which 
 are C;csar"s." Disciples of Christ were such not by com- 
 pulsion, but by free choice. The kingdom set up was not 
 of this world, acknowledged no temporal head, asked no 
 help from, nor alliance with, civil power. T'ntil the third 
 century I'hristianily had the hostility of governments. A 
 state religion, under pagan governments, subjected the 
 early Christians to severe persecutions. Unfortunately, 
 Constanline in 313 established Christianity by law, and 
 since that lime Christians, when they have obtained pow- 
 er, have allied their religion with civil authorities. When 
 papacy was established and became strong, thegovcrnments 
 of Europe were not so much in alliance with, as in sulijec- 
 tion to, the ecclesiastical power. According to the Roman 
 Catholic theory, states have rights only bv permission of 
 superior authority expressed through the Church. When, 
 as the result of the Reformation, several slates in Europe 
 renounced the authority of the pope. Protestant kings and 
 governments, as a substitute lor papal dominion, a.-sumed 
 to themselves authority over religion. In some instances, 
 when the pope's authority ceased in the realm, much of the 
 authority exercised by him was claimed by sovereigns, who 
 became the licads of the Church in their respective domin- 
 ions. Civil governments in Europe universally claimed 
 and exorcised the right of legislating upon ecclesiastical 
 and s|)iritual matters. The power of legislation or control 
 extended to the very being and constitution of the state 
 Church — to its creed, ministry, offices, and ordinances. 
 The Church became comjdelely at the disposal of the civil 
 power in temporalities and in spiritual comlition. 
 
 .As the result of this claim on the jiart of the separate 
 governnionis, a national Church was established in each. 
 The Church thus established or denomination taken into 
 alliance became the recipient of state favors, was supjiorl- 
 cd by stale property, endowed with manifold and exclusive 
 privileges, ami became a part of the government. These 
 national establishments rested at first on the prineijde of 
 making citizenship and church-membership coextensive. 
 To secure conformity and crush dissent, lives were some- 
 times taken, properly confiscated, civil and educational 
 disabilities imposed, ami other repressive measures enacted 
 and enforced. Under the humanizing influences of Chris- 
 tian civili2.ation this harshness has been greatly modified. 
 In every government of Europe there has been more or 
 less relaxation of rigid rules. Toler.-ition is becoming gen- 
 eral, and the tendency is towards unrestrained liberty of
 
 LIBERTYVILLE-LIBRARY. 
 
 1761 
 
 worship. In Franco several denominations receive gov- 
 ernment patronage. In Germany, although the govern- 
 ment claims the management of ecclesiastical affairs, there 
 is little interference with the right of worship. In Russia 
 iiroeress has not been so marked, but even there the public 
 opinion of Christendom has made itself felt in opening 
 prison-doors and obtaining exemptions. The revolutions 
 in Spain and Italy have rid those countries of former cx- 
 clu»ivenc", and now different forms of faith are entitled 
 to protection. In Great Britain the change has been mar- 
 vellous. Tho colonics enjoy perfect liberty of religion. 
 The Anglican Church has been disestablished in Ireland. 
 It «lill remains the establishment in England, as the Fres- 
 bylerian is the establishment in Scotland, with many priv- 
 ileges, but there is now no public position, not ecclesiasti- 
 cal, for tho tenure of which a particular religious belief is 
 required, except tho throne and the office of governor of a 
 few colle-es. These reforms in Europe indicate tho irre- 
 sistible advance of public sentiment. Propagation of rc- 
 li.»ion has almost ceased to bo regarded as one of Iho ends 
 of government. It has been found quite as easy to perse- 
 cute or bribe into one religion as into another. The con- 
 nection of Church and Slate is increasingly reg.arded as 
 corrupting to the Church, destructive of the purity and spi- 
 rituality of religion, and antagonistic to the rights of men. 
 The success and popularity of American ideas of govern- 
 ment have contributed largely to these gratifying results. 
 A distinctive American principle of government is, that 
 what is religious is necessarily, from its very character, 
 beyond the control of the civil government. In the U. S. 
 religious liberty is an absolute prnmnal right. All denomi- 
 na'fons, churches, and religious faiths are equal and free 
 in tho eve of the law. Xone receive gratuities, none arc 
 subjected to inequalities. There is entire divorce of Church 
 and Slate. So long as private rights are not violated, no 
 one is restrained from publishing or advocating his opin- 
 ions on religion or morals. Voluntaryism is tho universal 
 rule. Worship is sustained, ministers arc supported, church- 
 houses are built, missionary operations are carried on, by 
 purely voluntary contributions. The Constitution of the 
 U. S. contains these two articles: "No religious test shall 
 ever be required as a qualification to any office or public 
 trust under the U. S. :" " Congress shall make no law re- 
 specting an cstablishmont of religion, or prohibiting the 
 free exercise thereof." The State constitutions are equally 
 emphatic, and generally more specific in the expression of 
 their jealousy of ecclesiastical ambition and sectarian in- 
 tolerance. Absolute religious liberty is the contributioti 
 of the U. S. to the science of politics. Many external 
 causes conspired to give us the vantage-ground in the es- 
 tablishment of soul liberty. To Rhode Island belongs tho 
 pre-eminent honor of being the first state m tho world to 
 incorporate in its organic law, and to practise, absolute re- 
 ligious liberty. Other colonics set up some forms of Chris- 
 tian worship and established some articles of faith. In 
 New En"land a kind of theocratic government was estab- 
 lished, "in South Carolina, New York, and Virginia tho 
 Episcopal Church was established. In some of these States 
 harsh attemiits were made to enforce conforinily. \ cry 
 early there was positive and prolonged resistance to the 
 attempt to perpetuate the establishment of tho English 
 Church in tho cidonics, and the evidence is conclusive that 
 such an attempt hastened the beginning and aided in Iho 
 success of the American Hcvolution. J. h. M. tf buy. 
 
 Lib'erty ville, post-v. and tp. of Lake co., 111., 32 miles 
 N. W. of Chicago. Pop. 12;)0. 
 
 Libocc'drus [Or. A.So«, "tears," or "frankincense," 
 and rclrw, "the ce.lar"], a genus of conilerous trees, of 
 which four species arc known— two in New Zealand, one 
 in Chili, and ono (A. </«u,r<ii») in California, where it was 
 discovered by Eremont, and is now known as " white cedar. 
 In France and England it wa,s for some time confounded 
 with tho riiiijii i/i./nnf.'i or arbor vita) of Oregon, which it 
 somewhat resenibies. The California species is found only 
 in the mountains, generally at an elevation of inon feel or 
 more. It is a beautiful tree, attaining a height of 120 to 
 200 feel, with a trunk or 7 feet in diameter, and a pceu 
 
 vhile the 
 
 liar fibrous bark, much like that of Snjiinii 
 
 It has a yel- 
 
 lowish wood of great durability, the leaves are glossy an 
 
 1 
 bright, and the elegant form of the young tree has brought 
 it into request as an evergreen. 
 
 I.iboiirnc', town of France, in the government of 
 Oironile, on Iho Iionlogne. at its confluence with tho Isle. 
 It is a handsome and thriving town, with large inanulac- 
 tures of leather, ropes, nails, and yarn, and trade in wine, 
 salt, grain, and timber. Pop. i;(,665. 
 
 I.i'brft [Eat., "The Halaneo "], the sign of the Zodiac 
 
 which the sun enters at the autumnal equinox (about Sept. 
 
 2:i). Tho constellation Libra has no very rcinarkablo stars. 
 
 Vol.. U. — Ill 
 
 It corresponds at present to the sign Scorjiio 
 sign Libra corresponds to the constellation V irgo. 
 
 Li'brary [from tho Lat. libraHum. a " repository of 
 books ■'], a collection of volumes, whether manuscript or 
 printed, containing tho product of human thought. Libra- 
 ries arc to be ranked among tho foremost agencies of civili- 
 zation. The great development which they have undergone 
 in modern times, and especially during the last twenty 
 years, both in Europe and America, has very nearly doubled 
 the numerical extent of the principal collections, while many 
 more progressive libraries have advanced in a still greater 
 ratio. 
 
 The oldest approximation to libraries of which any rec- 
 ords exist were brought to light by recent Assyrian discov- 
 eries, and consist of the Babylonish books inscribed on clay 
 tablets, supposed to have been prepared for public instruc- 
 tion about GaO b. c. It is said that Pisistratus founded a 
 library at Athens about 537 n. c. though there is no clear 
 evidence of the fact. Strabo says that Aristotle was the 
 first known cidlector of a library, which he bcquealhed 
 (B. c. 322) to Thcophrastus ; and this library, through suc- 
 cessive hands, at length found its way to Rome on the cap- 
 ture of Athens by Sylla. The story of the great Alexan- 
 drian library, founded by Ptolemy Soter, and burned by 
 order of tho' caliph Omar in the seventh century, rests on 
 insufficient evidence. Its alleged number of volumes, stated 
 by different writers at from 100,000 to 700,000, so vastly 
 exceeding tho aggregate of any library of the Middle Ages, 
 or indeed for three centuries alter the introduction of print- 
 in", throws discredit upon Iho wlicde story, except the sin- 
 gle fact of the existence of a collection of books at Alex- 
 andria. Plutarch says that the library of Lueullus at 
 Romo was open to all, and this antedated the library of 
 Pollio, which Pliny asserts was the first public library es- 
 tablished at Rome. Suetonius relates that Augustus col- 
 lecteil in the temple of Aiiollo two libraries of Greek and 
 Latin writers, while Tiberius and Doniilian assembled 
 manuscripts to add to these libraries, and employed scribes 
 at Alexandria to copy works there preserved. Many Ro- 
 m.ans,and notably Cicero, collected extensive libraries, not- 
 withstanding tho' limitations which tho great cost of copy- 
 ing and tho scarcity of books and material entailed upon 
 tho collectors, St.'jeromc records that St. Pamphilus of 
 CiBsarea (a. d. liO'J) made a collection of ;!0,0110 volumes, 
 chiefly religious, with a view of lending them out to read. 
 This,'if authentic, is the first record of a circulating library, 
 except some obscure notices in the Latin writers. 
 
 The libraries of the Mid.llc Ages were very limited in 
 extent, and were of monkish origin. One of the earliest 
 known was the still existing library of the Swiss abbey of 
 St. Gall, which claims an antiquity of 1000 years. As 
 early as tho thirteenth century Ibcre arc records of a 
 library-tax levied on all the members of an individual mon- 
 astery. Indeed, many mediieval conventual inslitutions 
 n'ero'univcrsitics for t'he copying or reproduction of books, 
 and rendereil incstiniablo service in preserving before tho 
 invention of the printing-press precious manuscripts which 
 mi.'ht otherwise have been lost. The first approach to a 
 library in England is said to have been nine precious 
 MSS. brought by Augustine on ft mission from Pope Greg- 
 ory the Great (A. D. .')90). and preserved at Canterbury. lu 
 fiCS this deposit at the monastery of Christ Church was en- 
 larged by the library of Theoilore of Tarsus, brought from 
 Rome in the same year. The abbey of St. Alban's had 
 gathered quite a collection by the year 1100, and other inon- 
 osleries of the English Benedictines eolleeleil a few hun- 
 dred volumes. The monastery of Croyland bad 300 vol- 
 umes and 100 tracts, all of which perished by fire in lOUl. 
 Ricdiard of Bury (a. n. 1. •;:!:!) was an enthusiastic book- 
 collector, and ha's eloquently written in praise of libraries 
 in his I'UIM'ihInii. Among the earliest royal libraries, that 
 of Charles VI. of France numbered 1100 v<duines iu Ull. 
 As late as the reign of Henry VIII. the royal library of 
 the British crown contained only .•1211 voluincs. In striking 
 contrast to this literary poverty in England and France is 
 tho splendid library of Matthias Corvinus, king of Hun- 
 gary, which at his death in 1 IHO numbcriid .-.0,000 volumes, 
 nearly all .MSS. Forty years afterward this precious col- 
 leclio'u was pillaged and'burneil by the Turks. Lorenzo dc' 
 Medici gathered a great library, which still forms the basis 
 of tho Laureiiliaii library of Florence. In l.'iJtt the royal 
 library of France, then containing 2000 volumes (of which 
 imlv riboul 200 were prinloil books), received by royal ordi- 
 nai'iee the privilege of a cony of every book printed in 
 France. This was tho foundation of the copy-tax, which 
 has been Iho means of enriching so many of the great gov- 
 ernment libraries of Europe. That of France had grown 
 to 200,000 volumes as early as 17S0. and was then, as now, 
 the foremost library in the worbl. Italy, which has l.ing 
 
 enjoyed the reputation of being rich in libraries, and which 
 possesses many manuscript treasures and early printed
 
 1762 
 
 LlBIiARY. 
 
 books, i-s poor in collections of modern literature. The 
 library of tbu Vatican, the most preL-ioua in Kour', contains 
 about*lUO,UOO volumes of printed boukw aud 26,UUU MSS. 
 In Germany, the land of books and universities, aro more 
 libraries of great exteut and value than in any other Eu- 
 ropean country. Petzholdt. in his AdrcHubuth dcr Uih- 
 liothfkcn DetUechlandi (1875). enumerates 10 U libraries 
 of all grades in Germany. Austria, an<l Switzerland, twenty 
 of which contained over 200,000 volumes each. Tholarf^cst 
 collentiona aro the Royal Library of Berlin. 700.000 vol- 
 umes, including pamphlets ; the Imperial Public Library, 
 Vienna, 400,000; the Royal Public of Dresden, 500,000, 
 and 100,000 pamphlets ; and the Royal Library at Munich, 
 ■JOO.OOO books, to which must be added 400,000 pam])hlcts. 
 The latter library has lung passed in statistical tables as 
 the second in Europe; this claim was based on the fal- 
 lacious system of enumeration, which counted every thesis 
 and tract as a separate book — a metliod which would swell 
 many collections in our table to double the figiirt-s claimed 
 for them. France has, besides the National Library, half 
 a dozen collections of 100,000 volumes or upward, and the 
 provincial libraries of that country furnish superior oppor- 
 tunities for improvement. Spain ha;- about SO jiublic 
 libraries, containing altogether some 700,000 volumes, of 
 which the largest, the National Library at Madrid, has 
 220,000. The Imperial Library of St. Petersburg, now 
 containing over l.ilOO.OOO volumes, is, next to the libraries 
 of Paris and tho Briti.^h Museum, the richest in Europe. 
 Of Northern European liliraries, the Royal at Copenhagen 
 contains 500,000 volumes, all others being of small account 
 in comparison. 
 
 In England the library of the British Museum dwarfs 
 all other collections. Founded in 175.3 by the wise and 
 timely purchase of Sir Hans Sloane's collection for £liO.OOO, 
 it received no other grant of public money for its increase 
 until 1S07, or more than half a century. But it has been 
 fortunate in munificent gifts of many valuable private col- 
 lections, and during the last thirty years there has been a 
 systematic and highly successful eflbrt to collect in London 
 a great monumental library whose fundamental idea should 
 be inclusivcncss, not exelusiveness. For many years past 
 the sum expended for books and binding has been £10,000 
 (or SsO,000) annually, and the British Museum Library 
 now counts 1,150,000 volumes. Next to this stands tho 
 Bodleian Library at Oxford, the oldest and most valuable 
 collection, next to the British Museum, in England, now 
 numbering over 3;)0, 000 volumes. The library of the Faculty 
 of Advocates of Edinburgh stands next, with oOO.OOO vol- 
 umes. The University of Cambridge numbers 250,000, and 
 the library of Trinity College, Dublin, has about 150,000. 
 These live libraries enjoy the benefit of tho copy-tax, and 
 can each claim one copy of every work printed in the 
 United Kingdom. In Great Britain there are only nino 
 libraries exceeding 100,000 volumes each. Provincial and 
 town libraries are, however, springing up, having been 
 originated as recently as 1850 with the Manchester Free 
 Library. Tho fact that for nearly a century and a half 
 after Shakspcarc'a time there was no ]iublie library in Lon- 
 don speaks volumes as to the very recent development of 
 this means of public enlightenment. 
 
 In tho U. S. the annals of tho foundation and growth of 
 libraries show that while our collections can never hope to 
 rival those of Europe in manuscripts or early printed books, 
 they will one day equal them in the number and extent of 
 the collections. The first foundation of an American library 
 was in 10;iS, when the library of Harvard College was started 
 at Cambridge. Mass. In 1700 a public library was founded 
 at New York City, which was known for over half a century 
 as the City Library, but, not flourishing in that form, was 
 converted into a subscription library in 1751, becoming tho 
 New York Society Library. Y'ale College Library was 
 founded in 17011. In 17111, Dr. Franklin and his associates 
 founded in Philadelphia a library company still in exist- 
 enoe. which has the honor of having been the first subscrip- 
 tion or proprietary library of which we have any record. 
 At the date of its formation no town in England possessed 
 a subscription library. The Library of Congress — or. as it 
 was called in its ffrst general catalogue, the Library of the 
 United States — was founded in 18U0, on the establishment 
 of tho seat of government at Washington. The Capitol 
 and library having been burned in 1S14 by the British 
 army, Congress purchased ex-Prcsidcnt Jefferson's c(dlec- 
 tiou of 700O volumes as the basis of a new library, which 
 was gradually increased until IS51, when it had reached 
 65,000 vohnncs, and was again nearly consumed by fire, 
 only 20,000 volumes being saved. Tho collection has since 
 grown with rapidly acc(derating volume, until it now numbers 
 over 280,000 books, besides 50,000 i>amplilels. The valuable 
 scientific library of tho Smithsonian Institutitm was incor- 
 porated with tho collection in 1800. The Library of Con- 
 gress is rich in history, jurisprudence, political science, and 
 
 books relating to America, while no other department of 
 letters has been neglected in its formation. It is the ouly 
 American library receiving the benefit of the copyright 
 law, through which it will in time come to possess an ap- 
 proximately comjdolo representation of tho entire product 
 of tho American press. The ])reservation in .a national fire- 
 proof repository of all tho national literature, with a selec- 
 tion of tho best literature of all other countries, is a boon 
 which will be more and more appreciated by scholars with 
 the advancing development of tho country. Next to tho 
 Library of Congress in numerical extent stands tho Public 
 Library of Boston, founded in 1848, and now numbering 
 225,000 volumes, besides 60,000 moro in its eleven branches 
 or subsidiary libraries in tho suburbs of that city. This is 
 unquestionably tho most widely useful collection of books 
 in America, lending its volumes froo of charge to all citi- 
 zens. Its example has been widely followed in other 
 cities and towns, not only in Massachusetts, but in tho 
 V/est, where Cincinnati and Chicago have each rapidly in- 
 creasing free-lending libraries, supported, like that of Bos- 
 ton, by funds derived from municipal taxation. 
 
 Tho school-district library system, originated by New 
 York in 1S08, has been adopted by ten to twelve States, tho 
 books collected being paid for by a proportion of the school 
 taxation fund of the respective States. The State libraries 
 of the country are many of them collections of considerable 
 extent and value. That of New York at Alb.iny is the 
 largest, numbering 95,000 volumes, and furnit^hing a model 
 of a well-stored and liberally managed public library, free 
 to all. In tho other States, and in all of the Territories, 
 libraries have been gathered at tho scat of government, 
 primarily for legislative uses, and consisting chiefly of doc- 
 uments, all of which arc, however, open to public use and 
 reference. 
 
 A class of subscription libraries which have had much 
 success in America are tho mercantile libraries, of which 
 those of New York and Boston were founded in IS20, tho 
 Philadelphia Mercantile in 1821, the Cincinnati in 1S.*15, 
 j and the San Francisco in 185IJ. Twenty-nine of these li- 
 I braries were established from 1820 to 1870, inclusive. Of 
 : professional libraries, law, medical, theological, and seien- 
 lific, there are many. Tho largest medical collection in tho 
 country is tho library of the surgeon-general's oflice at 
 I Washington, numbering 37,000 volumes; next to which 
 ; stands the library of the College of Surgeons, Philadelphia, 
 I with 18,000. Several of the historical societies, of which 
 more than 100 havo been organized in tho U. S. since 1789, 
 have valuable libraries, those of New York and Massachu- 
 setts being especially rich in early American books and 
 pamphlets, and in manuscripts. Public libraries founded 
 1 by individual bequest are becoming numerous. Some of 
 the principal are tho Astor and the Lenox Library at 
 New York, the Watkinson Reference Library at Hartford, 
 and tho Pcabody Institute Library at Baltimore. 
 
 By tho census of 1870 there were reported 107,073 private 
 libraries in the U. S., containing 25,500,000 volumes. The 
 superintendent of tho census expresses the opinion that 
 this is far below the truth for tho whole country, and adds 
 that it is difficult to sec what value attaches to an enumera- 
 tion of private libraries which includes such ephemeral pro- 
 ductions as school-books, public documents, Sunday-scliool 
 literature, and pamphlets. By the same census the public 
 libraries in the V. S., including in that designation every 
 little collection down to parishes and Sunday schools, as 
 well as iho large libraries ojten to public reference, num- 
 bered 55,580 collections, aggregating about 20,000,000 vol- 
 umes. According to the report of the bureau of education 
 for 1874, the number of libraries in the U. S. which returnetl 
 their statistics was "HO, with an aggregate of 7,700.1 18 vol- 
 umes. This enumeration, however, is properly confined to 
 the libraries which can be fairly considered jiublic or asso- 
 ciated. 
 
 The following fable exhibits all the libraries of the world 
 known to contain 100,000 volumes or upwards at the latest 
 dates : 
 
 City, Library. Volumes. 
 
 Athens University 125,000 
 
 Auu'sburg City lOO.dOO 
 
 ,, , f Royal r-'0,ouO 
 
 ^*^'"^«'"° i and pamphlets ir.0.000 
 
 Bale Public KMI.OOO 
 
 Berlin Royal 700.000 
 
 " University 115,000 
 
 Bologna University 20n,ono 
 
 Bonn University 1«0,000 
 
 Bordeaux Citv 12:1,000 
 
 „ , ( Puidtc 225,01)0 
 
 ^°*'o" (Branches fiO,OnO 
 
 " Athenceura 108,000 
 
 Brcslau University 340,000 
 
 Brussels Royal 2.')0,on0 
 
 Buda-Pesth Public 200,000 
 
 " University m'i.OOO 
 
 Cambridge, Eug University 250,000
 
 LIBRI CARRUCCI DELLA SOMMAIA— LIBYAN SEA, THE. 
 
 1763 
 
 city. Llbntrr. Voliimw. 
 
 Cambridge, Mass....narvar(l College 210.000 
 
 CarlTulic (iraiid ducal 110,000 
 
 Camel National 120.000 
 
 Chrialiauia I'niviTsity 200,000 
 
 Copcnliogcn Koyal 500.000 
 
 ' ■• Univerallv 200,000 
 
 Cracow rnivereltv 140,000 
 
 Darmstadt Grand ducal S80.000 
 
 . ( Rovnl Publi.- 600,000 
 
 "'■'•'a'^" \ and pamnlilcis 400,000 
 
 Dublin Trinity Collece 1.50,000 
 
 Edinburgh Facullv of Advocates 300,000 
 
 •■ rnlvcrsitv i:iO,000 
 
 Erianaen University 110,000 
 
 rinri-noe National 200,000 
 
 Krankforl City I.'i0,noo 
 
 KreiburK University 2W.OO0 
 
 (iioMi-n.. ITnlversity l.'iO.OOO 
 
 Gli-Kow Vnivcrsity I0.->,000 
 
 Cotha Diieal 240.000 
 
 GottlnKen University 400,000 
 
 llaRuc Royal 100,000 
 
 Halle Vniveraity 100,000 
 
 lliimburu Citv SOO.OOO 
 
 Hanover Roval Public 170,000 
 
 HeiilclberfT. University 300,000 
 
 HeislDKfora University 140,000 
 
 Jena University 180,000 
 
 Kiel University 1.10,000 
 
 KiiniKsbcrg Roval and University 220,000 
 
 Leipsic City 100,000 
 
 •' University SoO.OOO 
 
 Li.sbon National 100,000 
 
 Liverpool Public 100,000 
 
 London British Museum 1,1.10,000 
 
 Lvons City 120,000 
 
 Madrid National 220.000 
 
 Manchester Public 120,000 
 
 Marburg. University 120,000 
 
 Mentz City 110,000 
 
 Mexico National 100,000 
 
 Milan Anibroslan 100,000 
 
 " Brera 18.1,000 
 
 Modcna Esll 100,000 
 
 aioscow University 100,000 
 
 ., ,, (Roval 400.000 
 
 *'''""^" t and pamphlets 400,000 
 
 Universilv 2«0.000 
 
 Mfinster Royal Paul 100,000 
 
 Naiilfs National 2«i).000 
 
 New Haven Yale College 101,000 
 
 New York Astor 1.10,000 
 
 Mercantile lf.0,000 
 
 Oxford Bodleian 3:10,000 
 
 Padua University 100,000 
 
 Paris National 2,000,000 
 
 Arsenal 225,000 
 
 " St. Genevieve 200.000 
 
 " Sorbonne llo.oofl 
 
 " Maiarin IHO.OOO 
 
 " Institute 100,000 
 
 Parma Public 140,000 
 
 Pracuo University 1.12,0(iu 
 
 Rome Vatican 101,000 
 
 " Casanata 100,000 
 
 " Angelica 100,000 
 
 Rouen City 120,000 
 
 R„»l,>ck University 140,000 
 
 St. Pelersburf Imperial 1,100,000 
 
 " Academy of Sciences i:io,ooo 
 
 Stockholm Royal 12.1,000 
 
 Slra.il)Ourg Uity.„ 3l)0,00« 
 
 Stuttgart Royal Public 180,000 
 
 Treves City 100,000 
 
 TObiniicu University 220,000 
 
 Turin University 1.10,000 
 
 llpsal University 1.10,000 
 
 Venice SI. Murk's ISO.OIH) 
 
 Vienna Irnnerial Public 400,0(10 
 
 " University 210,000 
 
 Waiblngton I.ilirarv of Congress.. 280,000 
 
 W.iniar (irand ducal 170,000 
 
 Wolf.iibQtlcl Itrunswiek Ducal 2.10,000 
 
 Wnrr.burg Universlly 2(HP.O0O 
 
 Zurich City 100,000 
 
 The subject of library economy and inanaf;enicnt can 
 here bo touched on only in the briefest manner. Three 
 points nro of cardinal im|iortance : library buildinps, the 
 chisiificalion of books, and tlio catuloguc system. While 
 most libraries arc bestowed in dark and ill venliiiited 
 builiiings, (here arc some inoilern constructions wliich afford 
 wortliy repositories for the learning they contain. Kvery 
 library building should be isolated nnd fireproof, with 
 adequate room for expansion. The classifieatic»n of every 
 library by subject-matters is indispensable to economy of 
 time in ihe supply of books anrl information, and to the 
 highest utility of the library. Yet many of the eolleotions, 
 iiii'ludiug some of the largest in Murope and Aincricft, have 
 no principle of arrniiKement other tlinn Iho si/.es of the 
 volumes or the order ol acquisition. Tlie calHlo(;ue system 
 most universally employed is the card calalogue in inanu- 
 si'ript, by which a strict alphabetical arrangement is so- 
 cured, and the accessions to the library can be kept con- 
 stantly catalogued up to dale. The printing of catalogues 
 has been abandoned by most of the largest collections, in- 
 
 cluding the principal government libraries of Europe, as 
 too expensive ami laborious to be kept up witiiout falling 
 hopelessly into arrears. When it is considered how enor- 
 mous is the production of jpriuted matter, and that tho 
 principal libraries both in Eurojie and in the U. S. have 
 doubled during the last twenty-five years, this deprivation 
 to tho public of the boon of printed catalogues of tlio 
 largest eoUectious is partiall.v explained. Yet there is no 
 library hitherto gathered, however large, which contains 
 anything like a complete collection of the literature of all 
 nations, or even of its own. Every national library should 
 have for its object the collection and preservation, on tho 
 exhaustive system, of all that the country within which it 
 is located produces. The use of a great library is not for 
 one generation only, but its value is developed by passing 
 into the hands of successive generations, and furnishing a 
 complete record of the progress of letters from age to age. 
 The private libraries of a country, after they have served 
 their purpose to the owners, continually tend to feed tho 
 public collections. A great capital like London, Paris, or 
 New York constantly receives a flood of private libraries, 
 whicii are poured into auctions or otherwise sold, and from 
 them the vigilant enlleclors for our public libraries arc 
 always recruiting and enriching them. 
 
 The relation of libraries to popular education has como 
 into prominence onl,y within tho last few years. If, as 
 Carlyle remarks, "the true university of these days is a 
 collection of books," and all edncntion is to teach us how 
 to read, the importance of cherishing and e.-vtenJing thcso 
 aids to civilization can hardly bo overrated. A good 
 library is like a dictionary — not a mere mass of pages to 
 be read through, but a v.ast repository of learning for tho 
 continual use and reference of all comers. That is the best 
 library, and he is the most useful lil)rarian, by whoso aid 
 every reader is enabled to put his finger on tho fact ho 
 wants at the moment it is wanted. A. II. SporrouD. 
 
 Li'bri Carnic'ci del'ln Sommai'a (Gitili.ahmf. 
 BniiTUs Ini.us TiMOi.to.v), Coi^vt, b. at I'lorcneo Jan. 2, 
 1803 ; studied mathematics, and was appointed professor 
 at tho l^niversity of Pisa, but being implicated in the po- 
 litical disturbances of IS;;0, fled to Franco, where he 
 was naturalized in ls;j;i: first ingratiated himself with 
 Arago, and became professor at the Sorbonne: then with 
 Guizot, and was made inspector-general of public instruc- 
 tion and public libraries; but in 1.S17 was accused of steal- 
 ing large numbers of costly books from the libraries, and 
 was condemned to ten years' imprisonment, lie had fled 
 to England, however, and returned afterwards to Florence, 
 where he d. Sept. 2S, lS(iU. His Histoirc dcs ScieuccH lunthf- 
 yytatiifiicH en Itii(iv{ Paris, l.'t.'JS—ll ) enjoys a great reputation, 
 as do also his numerous annotated catalogues. 
 
 Liblir'nia, in ancient geography, a mountainous dis- 
 trict of Illyricum extemling along tho coast of the Adriatic 
 in the present Croatia and Dalmatia. Its inhabitants wero 
 famous as sailors, or rather as pirates, and from tliein tho 
 Romans adojjtcd those small, fast-sailing vessels with tho 
 one large lateen sail which were known under tho name of 
 naccH Littiinw, or simjily Lihiiniir. 
 
 Lib'ya, the name which often was given by Iho an- 
 cients to the whole continent of Africa, but which was 
 generally applied only to that part which is now cjillcd tho 
 Libyan Desert, extending from Egypt to Fezzan and from 
 the Mediterranean to Darfoor, and consisting of vast stony 
 terraces, sometimes co\'ered with sand and gravel, aud 
 eometimes broken by oases, Seewah being the largest. 
 
 Jiib'yans, The, occupied in ancient times Iho wholo 
 northern coast of Africa with the exception of the delta of 
 the Nile, and according to Lepsius and other ^Egyptologists 
 they probably at one time occupied this territory too, but 
 were driven out by the Egyptians. They were a .seafaring 
 nation, and harassed the Egyptians with continuous in- 
 vasions, until their power was checked in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury B. r, by Tholhines III. In the fourteenth century 
 n. c, when Ihe Pelnsgians on the nortlicrn coasts of Iho 
 Meiliterrancan haci acquired some imporlanco on Ihe sea, 
 the liibyans renewed their attacks on Egypt in eonnectitin 
 with the Tyrrhenians and Aehicans, nnd conquered T^owcr 
 Egypt, but were entirely defeated by Rameses II, At tho 
 period when the PlKenieiaiis founded Carthage, and tho 
 If reeks Cyrene.tbe Libyans seem to have become enfeebled. 
 They were pressed back from Ihe coast, ami submitted com- 
 pletely to Ihe Uoinans, and fell partly into barbarism. (With 
 respecTt to their ethnographical and linguislical relations, 
 see Ihe articles Hkkiikiis, M.^n and his iMicu.itioss, and 
 Skmitic Hacks ano Lanocaoks.) 
 
 Libyan Sen, The, in ancient geography, was that 
 part of the Mediterranean which is situated between tho 
 island of Crete, the delta of Iho Nile, and tho territory of 
 Carthage, or Africa proper. Sj/rtls Mnjor and Syrtis Minor 
 were iulots of tho Libyan Sea-
 
 176-4 
 
 LICATA— LICENSE. 
 
 Licata. Sco Aucata. 
 
 Li'cense [Lat. licmda'] signifies primarily permission, 
 and as used in la\v denotes a privilege, po\Ter. or antliority 
 granted by an individual or a public or private body to do 
 a specified act or series of acts, to earry on n particular oc- 
 cupation, and the like. Thus, an oral permission given 
 by a landowner to another person to pass over the land or 
 to erect buildings or otlier structures upon it is a lieensc. 
 Trades of various kinds are frequently so regulated that 
 the right to follow them depends upon statutory license, as, 
 for instance, to pell liquors, to keep a tavern, to engage in 
 hawking and peddling, etc. This variety of licenses will 
 be considered under the topic Licensk Laws (wliich see). 
 The subject of license has particular importance in law 
 with reference to real property, and will be examined in 
 this article wholly from this point of view. A license ap- 
 pertaining to land must be distinguished from an ease- 
 ment. An easement is a permanent, irrevocable interest in 
 the land, which, in accordance with thn requirements of the 
 statute of frauds, can be strictly created only by a sealed 
 instrument called a grant, or its equivalent, prescription. 
 (Sco Easemen-t; FrtArns, Stattte of : Pkesckiptiox.) An 
 easement amounts in reality to an estate in the land, and 
 is therefore not subject to ilefeasance by any act of the 
 grantor, except when depending upon a condition. A 
 license, on the other hand, is a mere privilege or authority 
 to do a particular act or series of acts upon another's land, 
 or upon one's own land in such a manner as to deprive an 
 adjacent owner of certain rights which he possesses, as, 
 e. ff., an easement of light. It is simply a permission of a 
 temporary nature not capable of assignment, and valid 
 though oral. It is true that licenses are sometimes given 
 by instruments with or without seal, but they would be of 
 the same validity and effect if granted orally. The ques- 
 tion whether .a jiarticular transaction is a license or an ease- 
 ment cb'pends upon its nature and the intent of the parties, 
 and not merely upon the point whether there is a writing. 
 Licenses are either express or implied. They are express 
 wlien permission is given in definite and specific terras to 
 do a jiarticular act; implied, when from the fair interpre- 
 tation f)f the dealings of the parties permission to enter 
 upcm the licenser's land or to do any act thereon may bo 
 presumed. Thus, if a purchase be made of goods which 
 are upon the land of the vendor, the purchaser has an 
 implied authority to enter during a reasonable time in 
 ord M- to remove them. The act of opening and keeping a 
 place of business gives .in implied license to any one to enter 
 for the purpose of transacting such business as is usually 
 carried on there. Thus, railway stations are kept for public 
 accommodation, and may be freely entered by anv one who 
 desires to become a passenger. So an entry into the house of a 
 friend or neighbor for the purpose of paying him a visit is 
 allowable, because the relations of intimacy between the par- 
 ties afford ground for a natural inference that no objection 
 would be made. Onsimilargrounds, public officers, by a mere 
 rub^ of law, sometimes called an implieil license, are justi- 
 ficil in entering upon any person's land to execute, when 
 necessary, legal process. There is no implied license, how- 
 evor, for an officer to enter a man's dwelling-house in the 
 service or execution of civil process, unless ho finds it open. 
 There is a maxim of law that ''every man's house is his 
 castle,'' and accordingly it can be only broken open by 
 the pcace-ofBcer when the process is criminal, and when 
 entrance has been demanded and refused. (Seo ExrcuTiON*, 
 Finiu FiriAS.) In this class of cases the oiBcers may enter 
 even again:«t the will of the owner and in disregard of his 
 exprnps prohibition or remonstrance. 
 
 Licenses are further distinguished as executory and exe- 
 cuted. This distinction is of considerable iraportauce, as 
 affe:!ting the question whether a license is revocable by the 
 grantor. Li(icnsc3 are said to i>o executory when the privi- 
 In^n given is yet to be exerci=;ed: executed, when it has 
 already been exercised, either in whole or in part. It is a 
 general principle in courts of law, as distinguished from 
 courts of equity, that all licenses, whether executed or ex- 
 ecutory, are revocable at the pleasure of the grantor, pro- 
 vided they are not coupled with any interest in property. 
 But when the lirenso is coupled with the grant of an inter- 
 est, or where an interest exists whose value, continuance, 
 and enjoyment depend upon the license, there is, in gen- 
 eral, no power of revocation. Hence, the right of a pur- 
 chaser of personal chattels to enter upon the premises of 
 the vendor within a reasonable time, and remove the arti- 
 el' -' to which he has acquired a right by the sale, is irrevo- 
 cable by the vendor. Permission to fell and carry away 
 standing timber upon the land of the licenser will give an 
 irrevocable right to remove the timber after it has been cut, 
 unless there be unrenflouable dehiy in making the remov.il. 
 Put until the trees are felled, the privilege, if it does not 
 amount to an easement, can be wilhdrawn. for not until 
 that time is any right of ownership in the timber acquired. 
 
 In like manner, a license to a person to kill game for his 
 own use upon the licenser's land will give him an irrevo- 
 cable right to carry away the game which has actually been 
 killed. But where there is no proprietary interest connected 
 with the license, it is, if executory, revocable at any time. 
 For instance, a license to hunt in a man's park, orto fish 
 in his waters, or to pass through his land gives the licensee 
 no permanent interest, but merely a privilege whose con- 
 tinuance depends entirely upon the will of the landowner. 
 It is thus seen that no mere license can create or transfer 
 an indefeasible interest in real property. A license is, in 
 reality, in the nature of a power, and is governed by the 
 same general rule as powers, that they are essentially revo- 
 cable at the will of the person who creates them. (See Pow- 
 ers.) The same principle, qualified by previous statements, 
 prevails in regard to executed licenses, except in courts of 
 equity. There is, however, a distinction necessary to be 
 taken between such executed licenses as arc and such as are 
 not attended with expenditure. Licenses of the latter class 
 are revocable at any time, both at law and in equity. A 
 license to deposit property — e. ff. coal — upon a man's" land 
 is of this nature. But where expense has been incurred in 
 carrying into effect the authority given by the license, 
 courts of equity in some of the States adopt diflTerent prin- 
 ciples from those prevailing in courts of law. At law, it is 
 held that though the licensee may have sustained expense, 
 and may be subjected to necessary loss and injury, the au- 
 thority may nevertheless be revoked at pleasure by the 
 licenser. If, for instance, the licensee were to construct 
 a drain across the licenser's land to carry off waste water 
 from the premises of the licensee, the privilege might be 
 withdrawn at any time, even though the drain may have 
 been in use. So if a house be erected upon another's land 
 by license, the right to occupy or use it may be revoked 
 whenever the licenser may desire. The right of revocation 
 is sustained at law in these and similar cases because a con- 
 trary rule would be virtually in contravention of the statute 
 of frauds, since an indefeasible interest in land would bo 
 created without the use of writing. But in equity there is 
 not such strict adherence to the provisions of the statute of 
 frauds as at law. and they arc sometimes disregarded when 
 to observe them would be likely rather to encourage or pro- 
 mote fraud than to prevent it, or would operate as a denial 
 of substantial justice between the parties. Therefore, it is 
 held in some States in courts of equity, or in courts having 
 equitable powers, that where expense has been incurred by 
 the licensee on the faith of the license, so that he would 
 sustain loss if it were revoked, no power of revocation re- 
 mains, and he acquires an absolute right to the continued en- 
 joyment of the license and a permanent interest in the licen- 
 ser's laud. In some cases the delivery of a deed or writing 
 has been required in order to confirm the licensee's right. 
 This equitable practice proceeds upon the doctrine of equit- 
 able estoppel, (he view being taken that the licensee should 
 not be deprived of the benefit of the expenditure which he 
 was encouraged to make by the very party who seeks to 
 render it fruitless. (See Estoppel.) Equity treats the license 
 t bus executed as a contract giving absolute riglits. The courts 
 of Pennsylvania have perhaps gone farthest in maintaining 
 this doctrine. But the same general principle is sustained 
 by decisions iu England and a number of the States of this 
 country. An executed license, on this view, becomes equiv- 
 alent to an executed oral contract for an easement, which is 
 treated as though it were a grant under senl in equity when 
 the parties cannot be restored to their original position. 
 An executed license is irrevocable, both at law and in 
 equity, when by force of it some act is done upon the 
 licensee's own land the effect of which is to imjiair or destroy 
 an casement appurtenant to the licenser's property. If, for 
 instance, a landowner has an casement of light over the 
 premises of another, and gives permission to the latter to 
 erect a wall or a dwelling in such proximity to his land as 
 to darken his buildings or entirely cut off the light, he can- 
 not countermand the lieensc after it has been carried into 
 effect. The license when executed operates as an abandon- 
 ment of the licenser's right to the light, and this is sufficient 
 to extinguish an easement. This reasoning would not apply 
 to a license executory in its nature. 
 
 A license is a full justification for acts done carefully 
 and prudently in pursuance of the authority given, and re- 
 lieves the licensee from all liability for such acts, and for 
 the consequences which may subsequently result from tluir 
 performance. The rale is sometimes expressed briefly in 
 this way — that a license excuses all trespasses committetl 
 under it until it is properly revoked. But for the conse- 
 quences of negligence or unskilfulness in the performance 
 of the act permitted, the licensee will not be relieved. There 
 is a legal obligation resting upon every man to exercise, in 
 respect to the rights of others, a reasonable degree of care 
 and caution in what he docs, and from this duty the license 
 will afford no exemption. A license is in general a priri-
 
 LICENSE— LICENSE LAWS. 
 
 1765 
 
 lege of a personal nature. The dealh of either party ope- 
 rates as a revocation of it. So, if the licenser conveys to 
 another the premises to which the license appertains, it is 
 extinguished without any express act of revocation. These 
 rules however, apply to 'more licenses, and do not extend 
 
 to licenses coupled «ith an interest. A !i«nsoJs so,nel_an.s , ;—,;^;;;--;i^f „„,;„„, „„„„„y: The nature of thcso 
 
 t"on, and the > licenses will l.Upparent from the following eN.«nple,whe,o 
 
 licensee can recover back tho money paid. For ex 
 , the sale of a ticket to witness a theatrical perform 
 
 «idcred with a view either to certain unusual effects or to 
 enrich and strengthen (even by irregular means) some 
 otherwise meagre spot in the harmony. To avoid suspici.>n 
 of ignorance, it is customary with some writers to mark 
 such iirogressions with the words "con licnna," but in 
 Bach. Ilaydn. Mendelssohn, and many others licenses occur 
 
 granted upon the payment of a consideratio; 
 revoked, there will be a failure of considerati 
 license* 
 
 ample, -II, 
 
 ance or other similar entcrtainiiieht is in general but a 
 license to the purchaser to enter the building and be one 
 of the spectators. But the license may be revoked before 
 the performance is concluded and the purchaser required 
 to leave the premises. lie will in such a case have a claim 
 against the proprietor of tho theatre or other place of en- 
 tertainment for full reimbursement, or for the recovery of 
 a proportional amount of the sum he has paid, as the case 
 may be. (Sec tho leading case of Wood v. Lcadbitter, 13 
 Mccson 4 Wclsby's Reports, S3S.) 
 
 Geoiice Chask. llKvisKn nv T. W. Dwioht. 
 License [I-at. /k-.tc to " be permitted "]. Tho tech- 
 nical sense of this word in music is a liberty knowingly 
 taken in violation of some recognized rule of harmony. 
 Licenses are not unfrcquently found even in tho compo- 
 sitions of the best masters, and are therefore not to be con- 
 sidcred as results of ignorance or heedlessness. They 
 dilTcr also from the mistakes often made by inexperienced 
 composers, by being knowingly written and carefully con- 
 Ex. 2. 
 
 at « the treble aiid alto make consecutive fifths (as pointed 
 out by strokes) ; at h similar fifths are made by the lower 
 part with the alto ; an<l at c the treble crosses the alto, and 
 unlawfully duplicates the resolution of the seventh, making 
 also a hidden unison with the alto : 
 
 There are many arpeggio passages which, though pleasing 
 and satisfactory even to a cultivated ear, arc nevertheless 
 indefensible except when construed as licenses. When re- 
 duced to plain chords, and so played, their irregular and 
 unscientific structure becomes at once apparent, and their 
 elTcct is intolerable even to the ordinary car. An instance 
 of this kind, involving a double train of consecutive fifths, 
 may bo seen at « in Kx. 2. and tho same in unbroken 
 chords at 6 ; 
 
 By a judicious d!>lr!hiit;nn of the parts or voices the ill 
 effects more or less inherent in licenses may be softened or 
 concealed, but the use of thoui is always hazardous, except 
 in the hand of a master. William Staintox. 
 
 License (in legal pleading). When tho defendant to 
 an action relics upon a license given to him by the plain- 
 tiff, as justifying or excusirg either in whole or in part tho 
 act complained of, it is tho practice at common law for him 
 to answer the declaration of the plaintiff by a special forin 
 of plea or answer, which is technically termed a pica ot 
 " license" or of "leave and license." (See Dkilauation, 
 Pi.tlAniN-o.) This form of plea is most commonly em- 
 ploycil in actions for trespass upon land, but may bo also 
 resorted to in actions for trespass to personal property, or 
 in actions of covenant or of detinue, or in actions upon 
 tho case. (Sec Tkfspass, Covknast, DKrisiTK. Case, Ac- 
 Tioy.) Every variety of valid lioonso derived from tho 
 plaiiitifT, whether it 'be general or jiarticular, express or 
 implied, will support a plea of license on the part ol tho 
 defendant. Thus, the permission or authority obtained 
 from tho plaintiff may have related to tho entire act ooni- 
 initted, or only to some one or more of a scries of acts; it 
 may have biiu given in definite, specific terms, or it may 
 h;ive been rightfully presumed by reason of particular acts 
 of tho plaintiff, hi.s general conduct, or his management 
 and disposition of his property. (Illustrations of these 
 various kinds of licenses have already been given under 
 tho topio Lkf.nse.) Tho plea sh.nild justify only to tho 
 extent of the license claimcil, and so far as it is cnpiiKlc of 
 being establishcil by proof. It is a general rule that a 
 liconso must bo specially pleaded, and cannot bo given in 
 evidence under the general issue. (.Sec Uexeiial IssfE.) 
 This is invariably true of all forms of action except 
 actions upon the ease. In these, however, a license need 
 not bo pleaded, but it is tho practice to admit it ill evi- 
 dence. A plea of license in an action of covenant is not 
 sustainable if the license claimed is by parol, unless it bo 
 provided for by the terms of the deed. A parol discharge 
 IS in general inoperative against a ciced. In those States 
 whi're common-law pleading has been abolished a lieenso 
 may still be plciided in justification, but there is no pnrlic- 
 ulaV form of plea or answer designated by this spccifio 
 name. (Jeouiie TiiASE. Reviskh nv T. W. Dwiimit. 
 
 License Laws. These arc statutes passed in tho 
 various Stales regulating the pursuit of a particular call- 
 ing or business. It is common in this way to govern tho 
 sale of ardent spirits by innkeepers or retail dealers, or 
 the sale of goods at auction or by peddlers, etc. The laws 
 of tho respective States aro so varied upon this subject 
 lliat few general principles can bo extracted. Statutes of 
 lliis kind rest largely upon rules of public policy prevail- 
 ing in the State which adopts Ihein, ami lluctu.atc with tho 
 
 cban-'cs of feeling continually occurring in society as to 
 the best mode of regulating subjects having in them, when 
 unregulated, an element of danger to social interests. M- 
 forts have frequently been made in the courts to attack 
 these laws ou constitutional grounds, as depriving a person 
 who is required to obtain a license of his liberty or prop- 
 erty Such a doctrine is untenable. These laws must bo 
 regarded as an exercise of police power inherent in tho 
 States, and not withdrawn by the provisions of the U. S. 
 Constitution. They simply direct how a trade shall bo 
 conducted in articles intimately connected with the puljlio 
 morals or public safety. The business might be altogether 
 suiipresscd if the public good required it. It cannot bo 
 claimed that such a license is a e.uitract. but it is merely n. 
 temporary iicrmission to do what w.mld ollicrwiso be an 
 offence against the general law. Accordingly, if a legisla- 
 ture has granted a license to sell liquors for a particular 
 time it may before tho exi.iration ot that time modify or 
 revoke it if it see fit. This loiiie is well discussed in tho 
 case of tho Mr,r„,ml!lan H,mrd v. Uarne, .U .New 1 ork 
 Reports fi.iT ( l.'ilKi). Congress in tho course of its legisla- 
 tion concerning tho internal revenue has luirported to grant 
 a license to carry on a business coming williin tho polico 
 power of tho States. Though called a license, such a j.ro- 
 vision is in substance a tux, and the prohibition under 
 penalties against carrying on the business without liccnso 
 is only a mode of enloiving the payment of such a tax. 
 (r.!rn„r Tax (V.«c., .', Wallace Reports, -lliL', 17.^..) Sueli a 
 Congressional -license" does not prevent the State legisla- 
 ture, in the exercise of its "police power," fn.ni suppress- 
 I ing the traffic altogether, even though the " license under 
 the U S law was granted on the payment ol a fee. All 
 , that such a lieen.«o means is, that while the business is al- 
 lowed bv the State law to be carried ou a Ice in the nature 
 of a tax must be paid to the U. S. The legislation ol the 
 Stalo and of Congress is thus altogether c.msistent. (See 
 ' the ea«e of M.tlaiv v. ('m,um„V'«HU. :\ Walhico Reiiorls, 
 
 ■ .187 ) The license laws of the States may, however, come 
 in conllicl with the V . S. Constitution, as, for exaniple, 
 where a discrimination is made by a State in favor of tlio 
 sale of its own products or of one made by its own citizens, 
 fulverso to one made bv the cili/.ciis of another State or ol 
 
 '. its iiroducts. Such a law may conlliet with the jmwer ol 
 
 ■ Congress "to regulate commerce among the States,^ as well 
 as with tho constitutional provision that tho "citiiens of 
 each State shall !><■ entitled to all privileges and immuni- 
 ties of citizens in the several States." A corporation exist- 
 ing in another State cannot bo regarded as a "citizen 
 within this rule, and a State, so long as it does not mterlero 
 with till' iiower of Congress to regulate commerce, etc., may 
 discriminate against tho acts of a non-resident corporation. 
 
 (Sec I'KIVII.EUES AND IMMUNITIES.) T. W. DwifillT.
 
 1766 
 
 LICENSE TO TRADE— LICHENS. 
 
 License to Trade. la ioternatiouul law this licence 
 (lonotfs ft pt-rmistiion givt-u by a belligerent government 
 through its agent, euch as a comman<Icr of a squadron, to 
 Irailo with the enemy. It may be given to a neutral trader 
 or to a fellow-subject ; and it generally specities the kind 
 of article? to be conveyed to the enemy, tbe port, the time, 
 perhaps the amount. It may allow of importation, and not 
 of exportation. Being a permission to do something other- 
 wise forbidden, it is of strict interpretation, so that to go 
 beyond its i^pecifications would subject the vessel and cargo 
 to heavy penalties, unless the violation could be shown to 
 bo unavoidable. Of course, the enemy is not bound to re- 
 ceive such a licensed vessel into his ports. T. D. Woolsky. 
 
 Li'chen [Gr. Aeix^**]* ^ ^^^^ disease, characterized by an 
 inflammation producing groups of small elevated persistent 
 spots, containing no serum or pus, and terminating by de- 
 squamation. It is common among scrofulous persons, and 
 is rarely caused by external irritation. More often its 
 cause is quite unknown. It may be circumscribed or gen- 
 eral, chronic or short-lived. Acute cases are sometimes 
 accompanied by fever and intense itching. If general ond 
 long continued, the patient may die of the long and un- 
 ceasing irritation. Arsenic, alkaline, tarry, and sulphurous 
 washes are often useful. Arsenic has a favorable efleet upon 
 some cases. But many of the severer examples of lichen 
 will yield to no treatment. Happily, the disease is not 
 very common. The term lichen is vaguely used. Some 
 varieties have been described which appear to be allied to 
 purpura, there being bloody exudations beneath the skin. 
 Lichen rircitmscriptus is caused by a parasitic plant-growth 
 which can be readily destroyed, 
 
 Lichen'ine [Gr. Acix^*-. "lichen"], or Moss-Starch 
 
 [Gf-r. .\fiios>itarI:e], a substance contained in the cryptogams 
 calleil lichens, constituting in some eases, as in that of the 
 so-called Iceland moss, reindeer moss, tripe de roche, etc., 
 nearly the whole mass. Many other lichens contain similar 
 mucilaginous bodies. Lichcnine may be obtained pure 
 from Iceland moss by long soaking first in cold water, re- 
 newed until it remains tasteless, which removes a bitter 
 principle and saline substances. Addition of a little car- 
 bonate of soda to the first water is useful. Some chemists 
 treat also with ether and alohol. The washed mass may 
 then be dissolved in boiling water, strained and evaporated 
 to a hard, brittle, tasteless mass, which swells in cold water 
 without dissolving, but forms a jelly with boiling water fa- 
 miliar in all households. Like other starch-isomeres, it is 
 converted into a gummy or dcxtrinc-Iike body by long boil- 
 ing with water. LJlucosc is formed by dilute acids, as in the 
 case of common starch, and strong nitric acid forms with 
 it oxalic acid. Iodine does not blue lichenine when pure, 
 as it does common starch, but forms merely a yellow stain, 
 as with cellulose. Lichenine docs not occur in the plant in 
 tlie cellular or granular form, like common starch ; and 
 some investigators have advanced the idea that it is prop- 
 erly not to be classed with starch, but is ceKufosc in a sol- 
 uble modification. It is stated of late years that strung 
 alcoholic liquors are prepared on a large scale in extreme 
 Northern regions from these lichens — an art not dillicultto 
 comprehend or to carry out. H. Wurtz. 
 
 Lich'ens [Gr. Aeiyi?*'] are cellular cryptogamous plants, 
 bearing fruit {apitthvdu) containing free spores in closed 
 sacs {thekfi), upon a thallus containing green cells («/o- 
 uidin), and often abounding in crystals of oxalate of lime. 
 They rank between Alga? and Fungi, differing fr<tni the for- 
 mer in the fruit character, an<l from the thecasporous groups 
 of the latter f Ascomycetes), in the presence of gonidia, 
 and in a great degree in chemical reactions, the hymenium 
 of Lichens being usually colored blue or vinous-red by 
 iodine, but those of Fungi yellow, Ihough there are some 
 exceptions in both classes. The thallus is, however, some- 
 times obscure, and in certain parasitic Lichens wanting, 
 A theory, based partly on the alleged absence of connec- 
 tion between the medullary filaments of the thallus and 
 the gonidia. has recently been maintained by Schwendener 
 and others, that Lichens are compound plants, the ttuillus 
 being an Alga and the apotbccia Fungi, whose mycelium 
 draws nourishment from the gonidia. But it has not found 
 favor with lichcnists. 
 
 Lichens are f(tund in all climates and at all elcvationSi 
 mostly preferring exposure to light. They grow on rocks, by 
 their decay forming a soil for higher vegetation : on trees, 
 anti on the earth, the individuals being more numerous in 
 the colder, and the species in the warmer, regions of the 
 earth. Some are so small as hardly to be perceptible to \ 
 the eye, and others attain dimensions of several feet. ; 
 They remain inactive while dry, and vegetate when moist, 
 and sometimes roach a great age. In the northern regions '. 
 they furnish footl for rcinrleer, are stored as fodder for 
 cattle, and are said to increase the quantity of milk. Bread , 
 is also made of some species, and species of Umbilicaria \ 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 
 I'^^^^^^^' 
 
 (rock-tripe) have furnished an unpalatable food for Arctic 
 travellers in time of need. They yield bitter extracts, but 
 are not poisonous. Many species, especially the orchil 
 { JiorccNa), furnish coloring-matters, and have been exten- 
 sively used in dyeing; and recently alcohol has been man- 
 ufactured from them on an extensive scale in Sweden. 
 Some species have had considerable repute as remedies, 
 but their medicinal virtues are slight. The thallus is fru- 
 ticulous, foliaceous, squamaceou^. orcrustaceous. and diver- 
 sified in color. The gonidia often burst into mealy or pow- 
 dery excrescences (so- 
 rrdia), and by their 
 distribution, as well 
 as by the spores, the 
 plants are propagated. 
 The thallus consists, 
 in the best developed 
 forms, (1) of an exter- 
 nal cortical layer, sub- 
 ject often to modifica- 
 tions which render it 
 indistinct; (2) ofago- 
 nidial layer; {^) of a 
 medullary layer, com- 
 posed of more or less 
 Section of thallus: a, cortical layer; 6, compact filaments (>f a 
 gonidia; c, medullary Iayer;'rf, in- cottony or rarelv {Ve- 
 ferior layer ; e, hypothalline fibres. „,-„ j^f a woody texture. 
 In foliaceous species it is often beset beneath by fibrils, by 
 which it is attached to the substratum, and is there some- 
 times veined {Pcltit/cra) or pitted and cyphellate {Sticta) ; 
 and in crustaceous species often rests on a filamentary tissue 
 {hjjpothalius). The cortical layer is especially modified, 
 
 and the uieduMary fila- 
 ;(7T->t-~_ nients become lax or in- 
 /{VK distinrt in Colhum and 
 '^/j^l'l'lf-nj/'^ allied genera. The go- 
 yflljlj HI- '/ nidia lie near the upper 
 ■' v/,(j(y( 1,1 surface or encircle the 
 medulla, or are some- 
 times scattered through- 
 out the tissue, and are 
 either (I) true gonidia, 
 of ayellowish-green col- 
 or, or (2) collogonidia 
 ( Turkeruian, grauuln 
 ffouima, Auctt.), which 
 are bluish-green, im- 
 bedded in a colloid cn- 
 ■lope, and often dis- 
 posed in necklace-like 
 chains. Collogonidia occur chiefly in the Coliemei and 
 Pnnmtriri, but arc also found in other genera {Sticta, etc.). 
 The application of hydrate of potash and chloride of lime 
 to the thallus produces changes of color which have been 
 made the basis of specific distinctioui; but their value is 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Section of angiocarpous apotheoium : 
 II, thckes; b, paraphyses; c, hjpo- 
 thecium. 
 
 as yet a matter of dispute. 
 
 The apotbccia arc borneon 
 
 the upper, rarely {yephro- 
 
 mn) un ibe under side of 
 
 the thaliuy or it.> branches, 
 
 sometimes at the tins of its 
 
 prolongations ( podctio ), or 
 
 arc sometimes prolonged 
 
 downward into a stalk 
 
 l^tipe). The hymenium, 
 
 which contains the thekes. Spores: a, simple; 6, polar bi- 
 
 rests upon a tissue {ht/po- jwular; c fusiform ; d. aeieu- 
 
 ,, . ' .- •''. lar; r, colored spores ;/,rau n- 
 
 thecniw) representing the foj-n, 
 
 proper exciple, and is com- 
 posed of filaments ipnrophynea) imbedded in a colloid sub- 
 stance {.'ii/mrtifial ffffntiiie). The spores are expelled from 
 the thekes by the pressure caused by the swelling of the 
 hymen iai tissue when wetted. They vary from one to an
 
 LICHENS. 
 
 1767 
 
 indefinite number in the tliokef, but the usual number is 
 eight. In form they arc glubulur, ellipsoid, or elongated, 
 and nro either simple or divided by dissepiments (2 to plu- 
 rilocular), or when thc«o arc in both the transverse and per- 
 pendicular directions, are muriforni; and nro either colorlcsfl 
 or brown, the elongated spore tending to the colorlcf s, and 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 
 (I, section of spermogono; b, jointed and, c, simple eterigmas, 
 wilhspcruiatia. 
 
 the distended one to the colored type. But the typically col- 
 ored spore is sometimes dccolorate. In size the spores vary 
 from 11.001 to O.IS, or even 0.3 millimetre in length. In 
 germinating they give off extended filaments, forming a 
 confused tissue, but no attcm]>t at producing a perfect 
 lichen from the spores has been Fio. 6. 
 
 successful. Spermo!i;one8are8mnll, 
 usually black bodies, scattered 
 over the thallus, containing mi- 
 nute ellipsoid or elongated organs 
 {npcrmititn) on simple or branched 
 filaments intfritjmna). They have 
 been supposed to bo male repro- 
 ductive organs, but nothing is 
 certainly known on this point. 
 Pycnidos are similar to spermo- 
 gones, but of less frequent occur- 
 rence, containing organs {stt/lu»^iorcit) on simple filaments; 
 their function is unknown. 
 
 Lichens are divided according to the character^ of the 
 apothecia into two scries: (l)open (gymnoearpous), and 
 Ci) closed (angiocarpous) ; and five tribes — viz. 1, Pakmk- 
 LiACKi : apoth. open, margined by a Ihallinc exciple (acu- 
 lellirftirm); 2, Le( inKAiKi : apoth. open, margined by a. 
 proper e.'scipio i pntella/oim) ; 3, GuAfiliDACEi : apoth. 
 with a proper c.\ciple, elongated (Urcllie/orm) ; 4, Calici- 
 Aini: apoth. goblct-shapcd (cnKcyi/ori/i), with a proper 
 e.\oiplc margining a disk compacted of naked spores: 
 and 5, VEititicAniAi ei : apoth. closed, opening only by u 
 
 Kio. 6. 
 
 Porlioii 111 irviiiide, with 
 Hlylusporea. 
 
 pore at the summit, with 
 an external proper exciple 
 ( prriihrciiim) surround- 
 ing an interior envelope 
 {(tiiipfiifhrviiim), which en- 
 cIosM the nuoleiform hy- 
 meniuin. These tribes are 
 dividi'il in North Ameri- 
 can Lichens into IS fami- 
 lies and about 7.'> genera, 
 containing, according to 
 the present state of know- 
 ledge, about son species; 
 the whole nuTuber of known 
 liehens being from 1500 to IROO. The systematic ar 
 rangement above given is that of Fries (18.'11), as de 
 
 "ainilies of I, II ii II 
 
 liaeel ; A, I,ei'hl«'U(< . . . . 
 
 daeei; d, Caliciacci; e, Verruca- 
 riaeel. 
 
 • riijilii- 
 
 vclopcd by Prof. Tuckcrman in his Qenent LUhennm 
 (lS7o). The system of Koirbcr (1866) is based upon tho 
 characters of the thallus ll'rutiouloso, foliaccous, or crufi- 
 taccous). and that of Nylandor {.>>\/iiop»i«, ISiS) is eclectic, 
 taking all jiarts into consideration. Lichens were con- 
 founded liy tho ancients with other cryptogams, and tlio 
 name was originally a]iplied to certain llepatiea>. They 
 were first accurately distinguished by Tourncfort {1G91), 
 further dcscrilicd and figured by Michcli (1729), Dillenius 
 (1711), and Hoffman (1790). At the time of Linna'us 
 about 185 species wore known. Achnrius, "the father 
 of lichenogr:iphy," published his Mcllmrliis, based on thai- 
 line characters, in 1S0.^, and described all then known 
 lichens (about 900 species) in tho Lichenu'jriijilnn Uiiiver- 
 aalit (1810) and Si/iiopait (1S14). Other works down to 
 the modern period are Sohoeror, SjucHcijiiiiii Liih. Jlel- 
 vet. (1S2:!-10); Eschweiler, Si/alcma (1824); E. Fries's ex- 
 ecUeut Llchcnorjraphia Europica (\K,\); Fee, Ensui and 
 Siippl: figuring accurately tho spores (1.S24-.17); Tueker- 
 man, S'i/iii,j,>>ia of A'cxd England I.irhciia (1848), continued 
 in tho ^m.. /our. l?ci". (1858-59). Catalogues of North Amer- 
 ican Lichens have been published by JIuhlenberg (Cnta- 
 logiiH Plnntnnim, Lancaster, Pa.. 181.!), by llalscy (Sj/nnp- 
 licnl ]'inr nf the Lii-lnna of Scu- YorJ;, printed in the Aitiinia 
 iif the N. Y. I.i/ceum nf Natiiriil Ilistiirii. 1823), and by 
 Torrey and others. The spores had been noticed by Jli- 
 obcli, and genera were based upon them by Eschweiler, 
 Fee, and B'lolow ; but iu 1846 a new impulse was given 
 to tho study by the publication of the I'rummenli of Dc 
 Notaris, who was followed by many able investigators, the 
 expounders and representatives of modern lichcnology. 
 The most important works of this period me Massalongo, 
 liicerchc; Norman, Conatna; and Tulasne, Mcmoin', all 
 published in 1852; Kocrhct, Siiulcma nud J'urcnja (\&ai- 
 B5). But these microscopical studies tended to an extreme 
 — to the making the most of all differences whatever in 
 epore-history — and led to tho construction of very many 
 imperfectly distinguished genera. Anzi, Ciidil. Li'li. 
 Sotidr. (1800), and other works, indicated in a marked 
 way a reaction from this, influenced largely by the earlier 
 writings of Nylander, and the turn became still more 
 marked in Th. Fries, 6'( "era Ilctci-olli-hcnum 7?i(m;j/r(lS0l), 
 and Stitzenbergcr, Iliitrnije (1802). But the whole ques- 
 tion of the value of these spore-difl'erenees was first con- 
 sidered by Prof. Tuckernian (Inlrud. In Lithcna of Vulif., 
 etc., 1806): and tho reasoning of this paper is perhaps not 
 far from conclusive against the new genera of the Italian 
 and Cierman schools, and tends thus to restore tho system 
 to the place as indicated for it by Fries, and maiiilaiiicd 
 to a very great degree in all tho writings of Nylander. 
 According to Tuckernian, all the spore-differences are to 
 be regarded as gradal modifications of but two distinct 
 types, complemented in the highest tribe only by what ap- 
 pears an intermediate one (the ]iolar-liiloeularl ; and lie 
 disallows any but subonlinale value to the distinctions 
 based on Ibi/nunilier of spores in tho Ibekcs. much insisted 
 on by all other recent writers. Nor should it be omitted 
 that, according to this writer, there is much looking to show 
 that " tho nllimatc or highest condition of a type of spore 
 being assumed to include potentially nil the steps of tho 
 preceding process of evolution, such ultimate state may bo 
 expected to nflord, in its total history, an index to the 
 spore-modification possible within the whole circuit of the 
 natural grou]> or genus to which the species furnishing the 
 ultimate condition belongs." (^'.ii. li. 15.) Montagne, in 
 his descriptions of the lichens of Cuba, Ouiana, etc. 
 (lS:i8-5.>), was the first who conjoined spore-characters 
 with tho Friesian system. Th. Fries, Lii-lir-iict Arclui 
 (1880), l,!chrnnrjruphia Scandinuviea (vol. i., 1871); Ny- 
 lander, A'ourcllc Clnaaifiidlhnt (ISIM); Prodr. Lirh. tiulliiv. 
 (1857); Eniim. gdiCrn'h (I858; l.'i48 species); Si/nnpaia 
 Liclietiiim ( 1800, vol. i., all published); Llrheiica Scaiidi- 
 luirr/c (1861). Tho same writer has contributed more 
 largely than any other living botanist to the general know- 
 ledge of lichens in jmblieations too numerous to cite here. 
 
 Lindsay, S/irniintjoiira mid /'l/ni!d,a, in l.illll. Trnlia. (1859- 
 09); .Sehwcndeucr, I'lilnaiirli. iili. d. /•Vcc/iMi(A«//ic» ( ISCd- 
 03); Al'inili/pen dcr Flrclitcii;io>iidirn (1S6U); Bornot, 
 /Icdierclira aur Ira (Innidiea (1873); Hcpp, Ehclilai Eiirn- 
 paa (Fxs.) and .MihildiiHi/rn drr S/iorcii (1863-07) ; Huben- 
 horst, /.iVAfiiM A'i/re;>«i' Aj». (1855-71); Tuckernian. Oba. 
 liclirmloijinr in /Vor. Amcr. Arad. (1800-61) : l.i'lirna nf 
 Ciilifornm (1866); Uvnrrn IJrhfmim (1873), which last 
 may be recommended to the student as the most instruct- 
 ivc'oontriliution of recent times to a jihilosophie knowledge 
 of syslemalie lichcnology. (For a fuller account of Ameri- 
 can' lichenogiaphv to l"808, sco iia).er in I'rorrrd. Eaar.r: 
 Inal. (1809), and for tho history and lileraturc of the whole 
 subject, Krempelhuhcr, llrarhi'i-hlr und /.iltrialiir dcv l.ieh- 
 enoloqi--, from the earliest times to 1870 (3 vols., Munich, 
 
 1807-72).) 
 
 II. \Vll,I.EV.
 
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